'4'M 


) 


JOHNSON'S 
UNIVERSAL    CYCLOPEDIA 


VOL.  I 


JOHNSON'S 


UNIVEESAL  CTCLOEzEDIA 


A  NEW  EDITION 

PREPARED    BY   A   CORPS   OF   THIRTY-SIX   EDITORS,  ASSISTED   BY 
EMINENT  EUROPEAN  AND   AMERICAN  SPECIALISTS 


UNDER   THE   DIEECTION   OF 

CHARLES    KENDALL    ADAMS,    LL.D. 

PRESIDENT   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH  MAPS,   PLANS.   AND  EN0RAVJN08 


CX)MPLETE  IN    EIGHT  VOLUMES 

VOL.  I 


NEW   YORK 
D.   APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 


A.    J.    JOHNSON    COMPANY 

18i)8 


CopyKioHT,  1874, 
Br  A.  J.  JOHNSON. 

Copyright,  1S77, 
By  ALVIN  J.  JOHNSON. 

COPYKIGHT.  1885,  1889, 
Br   A.   J.   JOHNSON   AND   COMPANT. 

Copyright,  1893,  1896,  1897, 
By  a.  J.   JOHNSON   COMPANY. 


ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    STAFF. 


EDITOB-IK-CniEF. 
CHxVRLES   KENDALL   ADAMS,   LL.  D., 

PRESIDENT    OF"    THE    UNIVERSITY    OK    WISCONSIN. 

History,  Politics,  and  £dacatioii. 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS. 


Liberty  IT.  Bailey,  M.S., 

Pioffssor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell  University. 
Agriculture,  Horticulture,  Forestry,  etc. 

Wii.Lia  J.  Beeciier.  D.  D., 

Professor  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature,  Au- 
burn Theological  Seminary. 
Presbyterian  ChurcU  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

Henry  A.  Belrs,  A.  Jr., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Yale  University. 
English  IJterature,  etc. 

Charles  E.  Bessey,  Th.  I)., 

Professor  <pf  Botany.  State  University  of  Nebraska. 
Botany,  Vegetable  Physiologj-,  etc, 

Dudley  Buck. 

Composer  and  Organist,  Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 
Music,  Theory  of  Harmony,  Musical  Terms,  etc. 

George  P.  Fisher.  D.  D..  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Yale  Universitj'. 
Congregational  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

Grove  K.  Gilbert,  A.  M., 

Geologist  of  the  U.  S.  Oeological  Survey. 
Physical  Geography,  Geolog}',  and  Paleontology', 

Basil  L.  Gildersleeve,  IJj.  D.. 

Professor  of  Greek,  .Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Greek  and  Roman  laterature. 

Arthur  T.  IIadley,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy,  Yale  University. 
Political  Economy,  Finance,  and  Transportation. 

Mark  W.  IlARRiNinox,  A.M.,  LL.  I)..  F.  L.  S.. 

Presitlfnt  of  Washington  State  L'liiversity,  and  Ex- 
Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Wealhtr  Hurcnu. 
Geography,  Meteorology,  Cliuiatulogy,  etc. 

William  T.  Harris,  LL.  D., 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education. 
Philosophy,  Psychology,  Ethics,  etc. 

John  F.  Hurst.  D.I)..  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (M.  E.), 

Chancellor  ,\niericari  University,  Washington. 
Methodist  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

Samuel  Macauley  Jackson.  D.  D„  LL.  D.. 

Professor  of  Chuich  History.  New  York  University. 
General  Church  History  and  Hiblical  Literature. 

Eenry  E.  Jacobs.  I).  1).,  Lli.  I)., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology.  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Theological  Sem  nary.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lutheran  Church  History,  Doctrine,  ett;. 

David  S.  Jordan*,  LL.  D., 

President  Leiaiid  Stanford  Junior  University. 
Zoiilogy,  Comparative  Anatomy,  and   Animal  Physi- 
ology, 

John  J.  Keane,  D.  I).,  Bishop  (R.  C), 

E.\-Rector  of  tlit!  Catholic  University  of  America. 
Roman  Catholic  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

Charles  KiRrniniFE,  M.  E., 

Edil<ir  of  the  Irun  Atre.  New  York. 
Mining  Engineering,  Mineralogy,  and  Metallurgy-. 


Stephen  B.  Luce, 

Rear-Admiral,  U.  S.  Navy. 
Naval  Aflairs,  Naval  Construction,  Navigation,  etc 

Arthur  R.  Mahsh,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard  Univ. 
Foreign  Literature,  etc. 

James  Mercur, 

Professor  of  Mil.  Engineering,  "West  Point  I\IiI.  Acad. 
Military  Engineering,  Science,  and  Munitions  of  AVar^ 
etc. 

Mansfield  jVFerriman.  C.  E..  Ph.  I)., 

I'rofessor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University. 
Civil  Engineering,  etc. 

Simon  Newcomb,  Ph.D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S„ 

Prof,  of  Math,  and  Astronomy,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 
Astronomy  and  Mathematics. 

Edward  L.  Xichols,  Pli.  D., 

Prrtfessor  of  Physics.  Cornell  University. 
Physics,  Electricity,  and  its  AppUcations. 

William  Pepper,  M.  D..  LL.  D., 

Ex-Provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Collateral  Sciences* 

William  S.  Perry,  D.  D.,  Oxoii.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (P.  E.X 
Davenport.  Iowa. 
Episcopal  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

John  W.  Powell, 

Director  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 
American  Arcliaeolog}'  and  Ethnology. 

Ira  ItEMSEN,  i\I.D.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  (.'heniistry.  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Chemistry  and  its  Applications* 

IIenry  Wade  Rogers,  LL.  D., 

President  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  IIL 
Slunicipal,  Civil,  and  Constitutional  Law. 

AiNSWORTII    K.    Si'Ol'FORI).    LL.  D., 
Librarian  of  Congress, 
U.  S.  Geography,  Statistics,  etc. 

Russell  Sturgis,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  F.  A.  L  A., 

Ex  President  American  Architectural  League  of  N.  Y. 
Archaeology  and  Art. 

Robert  H.  Tiiukston,  Doc.  Eng.,  LL.  D., 

Director  of  f-^ibley  College,  Cornell  University. 
Mechanical  Science. 

Benja.min  Ide  Wheeler,  Ph.  D., 

}*rofessor  of  Greek  and  Com.  Philology,  ComellUniv. 
Comparative  rhiloli>gy,  Linguistics,  etc. 

William  II.  Wiiitsitt.  D.  D., 

lYofessor  of  Church    History,   Baptist  Theological 
Seminary.  Louisville,  Ky. 
Baptist  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc* 

Theodore  S.  Woolsey.  A.  M., 

Professor  of  International  Law,  Yale  University. 
Public  Law,  Intercourse  of  Nations. 


MANAGING  EDITOR. 
ROBERT  LTLLEV,  M.  R.  A,  S., 

ONE   OF   THE    KIHTUKS   oK   THE   CENTITRV    DICTIONARY 


ASSISTANT  TO    THE  EDITOR-IN-CniEF. 
CHARLES   H.  THURBEK,   A.  M., 

ASSOCIATE    PKOFESSOB    OK    PEDAOOOY,    OlilCAOO    UNIVER81TY,   AND    DEAN    OF    UOROAN    PABK    ACADEMY. 

536703 

LIBRARY 


JOHNSON'S  UNIVERSAL  CYCLOPEDIA. 

VOL.   I. 
CONTEIBUTOES  AND  EEVISERS. 


Abbott,  Alexander  C,  M.  D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Hygiene,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison, 
Wis. ;  author  of  Democrac)/  and  IJonarehy  in  France ; 
Manual  of  Ilisturical  Literature;  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus, his  Life  and  Work ;  etc. 

Alger,  Philip  R., 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Allen,  F.  Sturoes,  A.  B.,  LL.  B., 

Member  of  the  Bar  of  New  York,  New  York. 

Anderson,  Hon.  Rasmus  B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Scandinavian  Languages  and 
Literatures.  University  of  Wisconsin;  ex-U.  S.  min- 
ister to  Denmark;  author  oi  Norse  3Iijthology;  The 
Younger  Edda ;  Viking  Tales  of  the  North ;  etc. ; 
Madison,  Wis. 

Andrews,  E.  Benjamin,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  L 
Anthony,  Susan  B.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Bacon,  Edwin  M.,  A.  M., 

Journalist,  Boston,  Mass. 

Bailey,  Liberty  H.,  M.  S., 

Professor  of  General  and  Experimental  norticiilture, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Beecher,  Willis  .1.,  1).  D., 

Professor  of  Helirew  Language  and  Literature,  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

Beers,  Henry  A.,  A.M., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Yale  University.  New 
Haven,  Conn.;  author  of  An  Outline  Sketch  of  Eng- 
lish Literature;  A  Century  of  American  Literature; 
Tlie  Thankless  Muse ;  etc. 

Bessey,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln, 
Nob. ;  author  of  several  botanical  text-books  and  im- 
portant inonogi-aphs. 

BioELow,  Frank  H.,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Meteorology,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

BiLLiNds,  John  S.,  M.  I).,  lilj.  D., 

Director  of  New  York  Public  Ijibrary  (Aslor,  Lenox, 
and  Tilden  foundation) ;  formerly  Pepjier  Professor 
of  Hygiene.  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadel- 
phia, I'a. ;  and  superiulcndeut  of  the  Army  Medical 
Museum,  Washington,  I).  C. 


Bliss,  Rev.  Edwin  M., 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Independent,  New  York ;  author 
of  A  Cyelopcedia  of  Missions. 

Bloompield,  Maurice,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Philology,  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Buck,  Dudley, 

Composer  and  organist,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Bushnell,  Rev.  Ebenezer,  D.  D., 

Secretary  and  Treasurer  Board  of  Trustees,  Western 
Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  U. 

Chadwick,  Rev.  John  W.,  D.  D., 

Pastor  of  the  Second  Unitarian  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.; 
author  of  77/e  Faith  of  Reason;  The  Bible  of  To- 
day ;  Belief  and  Life  ;  etc. 

Chambers,  John  W., 

Ex-Secretary  American  Institute,  New  York. 
Chandler,  Charles  F.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Medical  Jurisprudence,  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York ;  Professor 
of  Analytical  Chemistry  and  Dean  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Chase,  George,  LL.  B., 

Dean  of  the  New  York  Law  School,  New  York. 
Child,  Francis  J.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  English,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

Clement,  Arthur  G.,  A.  M., 

Superintendent  New  York  State  Institution  for  the 
Blind,  Batavia,  N.  Y. 

Coffin,  William  A., 

Artist ;  secretary  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists, 
New  York. 

CoMEORT,  George  F.,  A.  M., 

President  of  the  Southern  College  of  Fine  Arts,  La 
Porte,  Tex. 

Cook,  Clarence  C, 

Journalist  and  Art  Critic,  New  York. 

Cope,  Edward  D.,  Ph.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

CoBsoN,  Hiram,  A.M.,  LL. D., 

Professor   of   English  Literature,  Cornell  University, 


It  ha 


N.  Y. 


Councilman,  W.  T.,  M.  D., 

Shattuck  Professor  of  Pathological  Anatomy,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

(Ti) 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISKRS 


vu 


Ceane,  Thomas  F.,  A.  51., 

Professor  of  the  Hoinanco  Lanp;unges  and  Literatures, 
Cornel!  University,  Illiaea,  N.  V.;  author  of  Italian 
Poiiular  Tales;  Ctian.mns  Populains  cle  la  Prance; 
Le  Homantisme  Franiais  ;  etc. 

Croes,  J.  .James  R.,  C.  E., 

Consulting  civil  and  hydraulic  Engineer,  New  York. 

Davis,  William  M.,  M.E., 

Professor  of  Pliysieal  Geography,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

DoDci:,  Rev.  L.  V.,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Berea  College,  Berea,  Ky. 

DoKSKV,  Rev.  J.  Owen, 

Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Drow:;,  Thomas  M.,  M.  D.,  UL.  D., 

President  of  Lehigh  University,  South  Betldehcni,  Pa. 

DiLLES,  Charles  W.,  M.  D., 

Surgeon.  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  anthor  of  VThat  to  do  in 
Accidents  nr  Poisoninij;  Accidents  and  Emergen- 
cies; etc. 

•DWIOHT,  TUEODORK  W.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Municipal  Law,  Columbia  College,  New 
York. 

Eaton-,  Edward  D.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Presiilent  and  Professor  of  Ilistory,  Beloit  College,  Be- 
loit.  Wis. 

Edsos,  CvRtTS,  M.  D., 

Commissioner  of  the  Board  of  lleallli,  New  York. 

Emerso.v,  Alfred,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Classical  Archaeology  and  cura- 
tor of  the  Museum  of  Casts,  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Fisher,  Rev.  George  P.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Titus  Street  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History.  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  author  of  Outlines 
of  Universal  Ilistori/;  Ilistnnj  of  the  Christian 
Church;  Colonial  Jlistory  of  the  United  States;  etc. 

Fletcher.  Robert,  51.  D., 

Army  Medical  5Iuscum,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  author  of 
The  New  School  of  Criminal  Anthropology ;  Human 
Proportion  in  Art  and  Anthropometry  ;  etc. 

Fox,  William  F., 

Superintendent  of  State  forests,.  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Garrison,  Rev.  .L  H.,  D.  D., 

Editor  Christian  Evangelist,  St.  Lonis,  5fo. ;  author  of 
Heavenward  Way;  Alone  with  God;  etc. 

Gilbert,  Grove  K.,  A.  M.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Geologist  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Gildbrsleeve,  Basil  L.,  Ph.  I).,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  I^., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, Md.:  author  of  Essays  and  Studies;  and 
founder  and  editor  of  The  American  Journal  of 
Ph  iluliigy. 

Gill,  Theodore,  51.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  Columbian  L^niversity,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Oilman,  Edward  W.,  D.  D., 

Secretary  American  Bible  Society,  New  York. 

Gilmore,  Joseph  II.,  A.  51., 

Deane  Professor  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  English,  Uni- 
vereity  of  Rochester,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Goeuel,  JiLius,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  German  Literature,  Leland  Stan- 
ford Junior  University,  Palo  .Mto,  Cal. ;  anthor  of 
Ufhi'r  die  Zulcunst  unseres  Volhes  in  Amerika;  Po- 
etry in  tlie  Limburger  Chronik;  etc. 


Growoll,  a.. 

Managing  editor  Publishers''  Weekly,  New  York. 
Gudeman,  Alfred,  A.  B..  Ph.  I)., 

Professor  of  Cliussical  Philology,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hadlev,  Arthur  T.,  A.  51., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Dean  of  Courses  of 
Graduate  Instruction.  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn.;  author  of  Railroad  Transportation,  its  His- 
tory and  its  Laws ;  etc. 

H.VMLIN,  A.  D.  F.,  A. 51., 

Adjunct  Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  College, 
New  York;  author  of  A  Text-Pook  of  Die  History  of 
Architecture;  etc. 

Harrington,  5[akk  W.,  A.  51.,  LL.  D.,  F.  L.  S., 

President  of  Washington  State  University,  Seattle, 
Wash.,  and  ex-chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau, 
Washington,  D.  ('. 

Harris.  William  T.,  LL.  D., 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Haii'T,  Lewis  51.,  A.  51..  C.  E., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

HicKVKY,  Daniel  E., 

Organist,  Newark,  N.  J. 
HiTBiiARD,  Hon.  Gardiner  G., 

President  of  the  National  Geographic  Society,  Washing- 
ton, I).  C. 

llUISBELL,  5IaRK  S., 

Journalist,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Ih.i.i,.  Charles  II.,  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Political  Economy,  Cornell  L'ni- 
versity,  Ithaca,  N.  V. 

IUmi'iirev,  JIortimer  T., 

Billiard  expert;  author  of  Modern  Billiards;  New 
York. 

HLR.ST,  Rev.  John  F..  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  5Iethodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  American  University,  Washington,  I).  C. 

Hutton,  William  Rich,  C.  E., 

Engineer  of  the  Hudson  River  Tunnel,  New  York. 
Jackson,  A.  Y.  Williams,  A.  51.,  L.  H.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Indo-Iranian  Languages,  Columbia 
College,  New  York. 

Jackson,  Samuel  Macauley,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  New  York  University; 
and  associate  editor  of  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclo- 
pccdia,  New  York. 

jAcons,  Henry  E.,  D.  D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary,  Philadeliihia,  Pa. 

Jenks.  Jeremiah  W.,  A.  51.,  Pli.  D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Civil  and  Social 
Institutions,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Jewett,  James  R.,  Ph.  D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  History, 
Brown  University.  Providence,  R.  1. 

Johnson,  Samuel  W.,  A.  51., 

Professor  Agricultural  and  Analytical  Chemistry,  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Jordan,  David  S.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University, 
Palo  Alto,  Cal. ;  author  of  Contributions  to  A'ort/t 
American  Ichthyology ;  Science  Sketches;  etc. 

Keane.  John  J..  D.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  ex-rector  of 
the  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington, 
D.  C. 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISERS 


Kellogg,  Robert  J.,  A.  B., 

Fellow  in  Comparative  Philology,  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Kennedy,  John  B., 

Editor  of  The  Alleghenian,  Allegheny,  Pa. 

Kent,  William,  A.  M.,  M.  E., 

Consulting  engineer,  New  York. 

KiNQSLEY,  J.  S.,  D.  So., 

Professor  of  Biology,  Tufts  College,  JIassachusetts ;  and 
editor  of  The  American  JS'afuralist. 

KiRCHHoFF,  Charles,  M.  E., 

Editor  of  The  Iron  Age,  New  York. 
KiTTREDOE,  George  L.,  A.  B., 

Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

KuNz,  George  F., 

Gem  expci't  with  iMessrs.  Tiffany  &  Co.,  New  York,  and 
of  the  U.  .S.  Geological  Survey ;  author  of  Gems  and 
Precious  Stones  of  North  America ;  etc. 

Lang,  Henry  R.,  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  the  Romance  Languages,  Yale  University, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Lan-man,  Charles  R..  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Sanskrit,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass. ;  author  of  A  Sanskrit  Reader ;  On  Noun  In- 
flection in  the  Vedas ;  etc. 

Lilley,  Robert,  M.  R.  A.S., 

One  of  the  editors  of  the  Century  Dictionary,  New 
York. 

Lucas,  Frederic  A., 

Curator  of  the  Department  of  Comparative  Anatomy, 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Luce,  Stephen  B., 

Rear-admiral  U.  S.  navy;  author  of  Seamanship ;  etc. 

LUDLAM,  J.  S., 

Manager  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell, 
Mass. 

Lyon,  David  G.,  Ph.  D., 

Hollis  Professor  of  Divinity  and  curator  of  the  Semitic 
Museum,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge.  Mass.;  au- 
tlior  of  An  Assyrian  3Ianual  for  the  Use  of  Beyiu- 
ners  in  the  Study  of  the  Assyrian  Language;  etc. 

Macdonald,  Neil,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

MacGillivray,  Alex.  Dyer, 

Assistant  in  Entomology,  Cornell  Universitv,  Ithaca. 
N.  Y. 

Mallery,  Col.  Garrick, 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  author 
of  An  IntrodnctUm  to  the  Study  of  Sign  Laiignage 
among  the  North  American  Indians;  Greetiiig  by 
Gesture;  etc. 

Manning,  James  II., 

Mayor  of  Albany,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
March,  Francis  A.,  LL.  D.,  L.  II.  D., 

Prol'essor  of  the  English  Language  and  Comparative 
Philology,  Lafayette  College^  Easton.  Pa.;  author  of 
A  Comparatire  Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Lan- 
guage; An  Anglo-Saxon  Reader;  etc. 

Marsh,  Arthur  R.,  A.  B., 

As.sistaut  Professor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Mather,  Col.  Fred, 

Superintendent  U.  S.  Fish-hatchery,  Cold  Sprins  Har- 
bor, N.  Y. 

Matthews,  Albert  F.,  A.  B., 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Sun,  New  York. 


Mercub,  James, 

Professor  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineering,  West 
Point  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

Merrill,  George  P.,  Ph.  D., 

One  of  the  curators  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  author  of  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration ;  etc. 

Merriman,  Mansfield,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University, 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa. :  author  of  Continuous  Bridges; 
A  Treatise  on  Ilydranlics;  Introduction  to  Geodetio 
Surveying;   Tlie' Figure  of  tlie  Earth;  etc. 

Mooney,  James, 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  author  of 
My  tits  of  the  Cherohees;  Indian  Tribes  of  tlie  Poto- 
mac; etc. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University.  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  su]ierintcndent 
of  llie  United  States  Nautical  Almanac,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Newell,  P.  H., 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Nichols,  Edward  L.,  B.  S.,  Ph.  D., 

Pi-ofessor  of  Pliysics.  Cornell  University.  Ithaca.  N.  Y. ; 
editor  of  The  Physical  Review:  and  authorot  Labora- 
tory 3Ianual  of  Physics  and  Applied  Jlechanics ;  etc. 

OsBORN,  Rev.  Albert,  B.  D., 

Registrar,  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Park,  Roswell,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery  and 
Clinical  Surgery,  University  of  Buffalo,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Peckham,  Stephen  P.,  A.  M., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Minnesota;  author  of  the  monograph  on  Petroleum, 
tenth  U.  S.  census :  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Pepper,  William,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Ex-Provost  of,  and  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine  in,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Plnludelphia,  Pa. 

Perry,  William  Stevens,  D.  D.  (Oxon.),  LL.  D..  D.  C.  L., 

Bishop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  tlie  U.  S., 
Davenport.  la.;  author  (with  Dr.  IlaAvks)  of  a  Docu- 
tnen/ary  History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  tlie  United  States  of  America;  etc. 

Piersol,  George  A.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy,  University  of  Pennsvlvania, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Pitcher,  James  R., 

Man.ager  of  U.  S.  Mutual  Accident  Insurance  Company, 
New  York. 

Porter,  Gen.  Fitz  John,  New  York. 
Powell,  John  W.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Major  U.  S.  army,  director  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology, Washington,  D.  C. 

Price,  Ira  M.,  B.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Associate  Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages  and  Lit- 
erature, University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Reed.  Wallace  P., 

Editorial  .staff  of  The  Constitution.  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Remsen,  Ira,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  director  of  the  chemical 
laboratory,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Rhoads,  James  E.,  LL.  D., 

President  Bryn  JIawr  College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 
Roberts.  Isaac  P.,  M.  Agr., 

Director  o[  the  Cnllese  of  Agriculture,  Professor  of  Ag- 
riculture, and  director  of  the  Agric\dtural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISERS 


IS 


Rogers,  IIexkt  Wade,  LL.  P., 

President  Nortliwestera  University,  Evanston,  111.:  for- 
merly Professor  of  Law  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 

Rood,  Ouden  N.,  LL.  D., 

Profe.-isor  of  Mechanics  and  Physics,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

Root,  A.  I., 

Publi-sher  of  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  Medina,  0. 

Ropes,  Rev.  W.  L., 

Litirarian   Andover    Theological    Seminary,  Andover, 
M  ass. 

SCHAFF,  Rev.  Philip.  D.  P.,  LL.  D., 

Lata  Washburn   Professor  of  Church  History,  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  Yorli. 

ScnwEixiTZ,  George  E.  de,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

SiiEDD,  William  G.  T.,  S.T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Late  Professor  of  Systematic  Divinity;   Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York. 

Sheldon,  Edward  S.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Romance  Philology,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  JIass. 

Smith,  Gerrit,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y'. 

Smith,  Herbert  II.,  A.M., 

Naturalist,  Carnegie  Museum,  Pittsburg,  Pa.;  formerly 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Brazil. 

Spofford,  Aixswortii  R.,  liL.  D., 

Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Stagg,  a.  Aloxzo,  a.  B., 

Associate  Professor  and  Director  of  the  Department  of 
Physical  Culture,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Stockbridgb,  Hon.  Henry,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Sturgis,  Russell,  A.  M..  Ph.  D.,  F.  A.  I.  A., 

Ex- President  American  Architectural  League  of  New 
York. 

Thurber,  Charles  H.,  .\.  M.. 

Associate  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Chicago, 
and  Dean  of  Jlorgan  Park  Academy,  Morgan  Park,  111. 

Thurneysen,  Rudolph,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Comparative  Philology,  L^niversity  of  Frei- 
burg, Baden,  Germany. 

Thurston,  Ro;iert  II.,  LTj.  D.,  Doc.  Eng., 

Director  of  Sibley  College  and  Professor  of  Mechanical 
Engineering,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


Tidball,  John  C, 

Brevet  major-general  U.  S.  army. 
Toy,  Crawford  H.,  LL.  D., 

Hancock  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  Ijan- 
guages.  and  Dexter  Lecturer  on  Biblical  Literature, 
Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Trumbull,  Rev.  Henry  Clay,  S.  T.  D., 

Editor  of  Sunday-school  7'imes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Tyler,  Rev.  William  S.,  LL.  D., 

AVilliston  Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Litera- 
ture, Amherst  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

Vallentine,  B.  B., 

Dramatic  critic.  New  York. 

Warren,  Minton,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Latin,  Johns  Hopkins  L^'niversity,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

*Whedon,  Daniel  D.,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Late  editor  3Ieihodist  Quarterly  Review. 

Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek  and  Comparative  Philology,  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Whitsitt,  William  H.,  D.  D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baptist  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Louisville,  Ky. 

Williams,  George  IL,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Inorganic  Geology,  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity, Baltimore,  Jld. 

Williams,  Henry  Shaler,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Geology,  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn. 

Wing,  Henry  H.,  M.S. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Industry  and  Dairy 
Husbandry,  and  deputy  director  and  secretary  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ithaca,  N.  V, 

WiNGATE,  Charles  P., 

Sanitary  engineer.  New  Y^ork. 
Wood,  Horatio  C,  51.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Materia  Mcdica,  Pharmacy,  and  General 
Therapeutics,  and  Clinical  i'rofessor  of  Nervous  Dis- 
eases, University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

WooLSEY,  Theodore  S.,  LL.  B.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  International  Law,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

Yovtcheff,  E.  S.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


*  Contributors  to  Vol.  I.  of  former  editions,  now  deceased,  whose  articles  have  been  revised  and  retained  in  the 
present  edition. 


PREFACE 


Johnson's  Universal  CYCLOPiEDiA  first  appeared  in  1874,  and  at  once  took  a  leading  place 
among  the  great  works  of  General  Reference.  In  1884-86  it  was  subjected  to  a  thorough  revision 
by  a  large  staff  of  distinguished  editors  and  contributors,  under  the  direction  of  the  original  editor- 
in-chief,  the  late  President  Barnard,  of  Columbia  College.  Many  important  articles  were  at  that 
time  rewritten,  many  new  ones  were  added,  and  every  new  impression  that  has  since  come  from 
the  press  lias  had  the  advantage  of  such  revision  as  could  be  made  vrithout  changing  the  identity 
of  the  plates,  thus  fulfilling  the  promise  made  by  the  editor-in-chief  in  his  preface  to  the  first  edi- 
tion, that  as  regarded  the  record  of  facts  the  work  ivould  he  kept  up  to  date.  It  may  safely  be 
said,  however,  that  no  such  changing  of  dates  or  modifying  of  statements  can,  for  any  considerable 
term  of  years,  keep  a  cyclopedia  abreast  of  advancing  and  widening  human  knowledge. 

In  view  of  this  fact  the  publishers  decided  early  in  1892  to  subject  the  work  to  another  care- 
ful revision  that  should  recognize  every  advance  made  in  consequence  of  the  new  conceptions, 
discoveries,  and  applications  of  science,  as  well  as  the  many  new  and  important  topics  and  develop- 
ments in  philosophy,  politics,  histor}',  education,  and  religious  thought  and  belief  that  have  become 
prominent  in  recent  years. 

As  death  had  taken  away  very  many  of  the  editors  who  had  charge  of  the  work,  including 
both  of  the  editors-in-chief,  it  became  necessary  to  form  a  new  editorial  staff.  Thirty-five  emi- 
nent scholars  were  secured,  including  four  members  of  the  original  staff  (viz.,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schaff, 
Dr.  Ainsworth  R.  Spofford,  Rear-Admiral  Luce,  and  Dr.  W.  T.  Ilarris),  and  to  these  the  various 
departments  were  assigned,  under  an  express  agreement  that  each  should  continue  to  supervise 
his  department  in  the  future,  and  make  such  corrections  and  additions  in  each  new  issue  as  the 
progress  of  time  and  of  science  and  learning  might  render  necessary. 

The  original  plan  of  the  work  comprised  five  main  features : 

I.  A   special   editor,    recognized   as   an   authority,    in   charge   of   each   department. 

II.  Original  work  by  distinguished  sijccialists,  chosen  by  the  different 

y  ,  .  ,       T  Original  Plan, 

departmental   editors   because   of   their   thorough  acquaintance  with   the 

subjects  on  which  they  wrote,  and   their  ability  to  present  these  subjects  in  a  way  that  would 

satisfy  both  the  scholar  and  the  general  reader. 

III.  An  analytical  method  of  treating  the  larger  and  more  complex  subjects  by  presenting 
"each  elementary  topic  under  its  own  heading,"  thus  avoiding  the  more  lengthy  treatises  fitted  only 
for  professional  experts,  and  facilitating  ready  reference  by  presenting  in  alphabetical  order  infor- 
mation adapted  to  the  wants  of  men  and  women  busily  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  life. 

IV.  The  authentication  of  each  article  of  importance  by  appending  to  it  the  author's  name. 

V.  The  inclusion  among  the  biographies  of  brief  sketches  of  noted  living  men  and  women 
in  every  department  of  learning,  science,  and  action. 


XJJ  PREFACE 

While  many  minor  changes  have  been  introduced,  the  editors  of  the  present  edition  have  seen 
no  reason  to  depart  from  this  very  admirable  plan.  It  lias  been  strengthened  and  developed  at  many 
points ;  the  spelling  of  proper  names  has  been  revised  and  made  uniform  throughout  the  work,  and 
more  in  keeping  with  modern  usage ;  a  new  but  simple  system  of  respelling  has  been  used  to  indi- 
cate the  pronunciation  of  difficult  names  ;  etymologies  have  been  added  by  the  editor  of  the  philo- 
logical department  whenever  they  seemed  to  be  necessary ;  a  more  complete  system  of  cross-refer- 
ences has  been  introduced  and  carefully  used  ;  and  a  more  compact  method  of  treatment  has  made 
it  possible  for  the  editors  to  introduce  some  thousands  of  new  articles. 


The  Cyclopaedia  has  always  been  peculiarly  strong  on  all  subjects  connected  with  science,  both 
pure  and  applied.  In  the  present  edition  many  of  the  more  technical  articles  have  been  made 
somewhat  less  elaborate  and  somewhat  more  perfectly  adapted  to  popular  comprehension;  but 
this,  it  is  believed,  instead  of  diminishing,  has  really  added  to  the  scientitic  value  of  the  work.  At 
the  same  time  the  editors  have  earnestly  striven  in  this  edition  to  make  the  Cyclopaedia  as  strong  on 
its  literary  as  on  its  scientific  side,  and  it  is  confidently  hoped  that  the  enlargement  and  improvement 
of  this  part  of  the  work  will  be  considered  as  advantageous  in  every  way. 

Having  said  so  much  in  regard  to  the  general  policy  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  it  is  now  necessary  to 
notice  the  several  departments  somewhat  more  in  detail,  and  to  explain  the  methods  that  have  been 
•pursued. 

In  General  Physics,  the  department  in  charge  of  Edward  L.  Nichols,  Professor  of  Physics 
in  Cornell  University,  many  of  the  articles — for  example,  that  on  Acoustics,  prepared  by  Pro- 
fessor  Ogden  N.  Rood — have   needed   but  little   change.      Others  have 
Phvsics. 

been  considerably  revised,  while  several  have  been  somewhat  abridged  in 

order  to  make  room  for  such  new  subjects  of  a  special  nature  as  have  recently  attracted  great 
attention.  The  editor  has  prepared  at  least  two  hundred  new  articles  on  electricity  and  its  ap- 
plications. Among  the  more  elaborate  articles  in  this  department  may  be  mentioned  Electricity, 
Electric  Lighting,  and  Electric  Discharge,  by  Professor  Nichols  himself ;  Electric  Eailways  and 
Electric  Motors,  by  Professor  Ilarris  J.  Ryan,  of  Cornell  University ;  Fluorescence,  by  Presi- 
dent Henry  Morton,  of  the  Stevens  Institute,  Hoboken,  N.  J. ;  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  by 
Professor  Frank  H.  Bigelow,  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

The  department  of  the  Higher  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  was  intrusted  to  Professor  Simon 
Newcoiiib,  LL.  D.,  the  editor  of  the  Nautical  Almanac  and  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  As- 
tronomy in  Johns  Hopkins  University.  He  has  sought  to  give  in  con- 
densed form  under  each  head  an  account  of  the  established  facts,  the  latest 
discoveries,  and  the  most  mature  opinions  on  the  various  topics  in  his  department.  Technical  de- 
tails have  for  the  most  part  been  avoided,  in  the  belief  that  the  few  who  need  them  will  ordi- 
narily resort  to  special  treatises  on  the  subject — and  these  are  named  in  the  bibliography  ap- 
pended to  each  of  the  more  important  articles,  as,  for  example,  those  on  Astronomy,  Solar 
Parallax,  Stars,  and  Time,  by  Professor  Newcomb  himself,  and  those  on  the  Sun  and  the  Sjpectro- 
Bcope,  by  Professor  C.  A.  Young,  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey. 

The  science  of  Chemistry  is  making  great  advances,  and  applications  of  the  results  of  recent 

discoveries  are  findintr  their  way  into  the  manufactures  in  many  directions. 
Chemistry.  ""  '  i    •  ^     j.     i 

Since  the  last  edition  of  the  Cyclopaedia  was  prepared  important  clianges 

then  in  progress  have  been  accomplished.     The  great  Periodic  Law  has  been  established,  and  is 


PREFACE  xiii 

manifesting  its  influence  in  every  department  of  tlie  science  of  Chemistry.  Professor  Remscn, 
tlie  editor  of  the  department,  has  sought  to  present  everything  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  the 
general  reader  as  well  as  of  value  to  the  practical  student.  Many  new  articles  have  been  pre- 
pared, notably  the  one  on  Chemistry,  and  all  articles  retained  from  the  former  edition  have 
been  so  revised  as  to  represent  fully  the  present  state  of  chemical  knowledge. 

The  treatment  of  Geology  has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  special  chapters  on  Structural 
Geology,  or  the  arrangement  and  interrelation  of  rock  masses;  on  Dynamic  Geology,  or  the  agen- 
cies bv  which  rocks  and  rock  structures  are  produced;   and  on  Geologic  „    , 

•'  .  Geology. 

Technology,  or  the  methods  employed  by  the  geologist  in  determining  the 

horizontal  and  vertical  distribution  of  rocks,  in  representing  this  distribution  by  means  of  maps 
and  sections,  and  in  discriminating  between  rocks  l)y  means  of  their  composition  and  minute 
structure.  In  the  article  on  Historic  Geology  the  pliysical  changes  and  life  changes  which  char- 
acterize the  various  periods  of  geological  chronology  receive  more  attention  than  in  previous 
editions.  Each  geological  period  is  described  in  a  special  article  devoted  to  the  subject,  and 
the  number  of  short  articles  on  American  formations  has  been  much  increased.  The  article  on 
Rocks,  rewritten  by  an  eminent  specialist.  Professor  George  H.  Williams,  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  is  greatly  enlarged,  and  the  articles  on  individual  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gneiss,  etc., 
have  been  rewritten  or  carefully  revised.  Among  the  more  prominent  articles  in  Applied  or  Eco- 
nomic Geology  may  be  mentioned  Geology  of  Petroleum  am,d  Natural  Gas,  by  Mr.  J.  C.  AVhite, 
the  mining  engineer  who  originated  the  "anticlinal  theory"  of  gas  occurrence;  the  articles 
Asphalt,  Bitumen,  and  Petroleum,  by  Professor  S.  F.  Peckliam,  formerly  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota;  Building-stone,  by  Dr.  G.  P.  Merrill,  curator  of  rock  collections  in  the  U.  S.  Na- 
tional Museum ;  and  Artesian  Wells  and  Well-drilling,  by  Mr.  F.  H.  Newell,  topographer  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  in  charge  of  the  investigation  of  water-supply  with  reference  to  irrigation. 
The  department  of  Mineralogy  has  been  in  charge  of  Mr.  Charles  Kirchhoflf,  editor  of  the  Iron 
Age,  New  York,  who  has  himself  revised  most  of  the  articles.  The  articles  on  Gems  and  Pre- 
cious Stones  have  been  revised  or  rewritten  by  the  eminent  specialist,  Mr. 

Mineralogy. 

George  F.  Kunz,  gem-expert  for  Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co.  and  of  the  U.  S. 

Geological  Survey.  In  the  department  of  Physical  Geography,  which  was  united  with  Geology, 
under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Grove  K.  Gilbert,  chief  geologist  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  the 
material  has  been  arranged  so  as  to  distribute  under  such  heads  as  Valleys,  Mountains,  Vol- 
canoes,  Continent,  Islands,  and   Ocean  much    that  was   pi-eviously  gath-       ^,     .    ,  ^ 

Pliysieal  Geogi-aphy. 

ered  into  an  extended  article  on  the  Earth.  In  process  of  reconstruc- 
tion a  genetic  classification  of  topographic  features  has  been  adopted,  and  in  other  ways  atten- 
tion has  been  directed  to  their  mode  of  origin.  Among  articles  in  this  department  that  may  be 
mentioned  are  those  on  Earth,  E<trthquakes,  Valleys,  Mountains,  and  Volcanoes,  by  the  associate 
editor;  Glaciers,  Ocean,  Lakes,  and  Pivers,hy  Froiessor  AVilliam  M.  Davis,  Professor  of  Phys- 
ical Geography  in  Harvard  University;  Gulf  Strea>n,  luirosi^vo,  and  Peep-sea  Explorations,  hy 
Dr.  William  II.  Dall,  furmcrly  in  charge  for  many  years  of  explorations  and  surveys  by  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey;  Thermal  Springs,  by  Mr.  Arnold  Hague,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey;  and 
Floods,  by  Mr.  Thomas  Knssell,  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  in  charge  of  river-flood  predictions. 
In  Meteorology  such  changes   have  been  introduced  as  to  represent  its  present  state   both 

as  a  science  and  an  art ;   and  new  articles  have  been  prepared  describing 

'      '  Sletcorolog)'. 

the  phenomena  named  by  such  new   but  now  familiar  words  as  are  used 

in  the  bulletins  of  the  National  and   State  Weather  Bureaus.     This,  with  Climatology,  has  been 


XJy  PREFACE 

in  charge  of  Professor  M.  W.  Harrington,  chief  of   the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  who  has  made 

a  special  study  of  these  subjects  for  many  years.     The  article  Climate,  embodying  the  most  recent 

conclusions  on  that  subject,  may  be  specially  mentioned  as  coming  from  the 
Climatology. 

pen  of  the  associate  editor  himself.     Attention  may  also  be  called  to  the 

article  Clouds,  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Eotch,  of  Bine  Hill  Observatory.     Political  or  Descriptive  Geography, 
one  of  tlie  largest  departments  in  the  Cyelop£edia,  has   also  been   cared  for  by  Professor  Har- 
rington.    In  this  great  work  he  has  had  as  collaborators  Mr.  Gardiner  G. 
Descriptive  Geography.  ^  t        ~kt     •        ■>    /-,  in  t-rr 

Hubbard,   president    of    the   jSational  Geographic   Society,    Washington, 

D.  C. ;  Mr.  Cyrus  C.  Adams,  president  of  the  department  of  Geography  in  the  Brooklyn  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Sciences,  who  has  written  articles  upon  many  African  topics  and  on  out-of-the- 
way  places  in  every  part  of  the  world ;  Mr.  Herbert  H.  Smith,  a  naturalist,  who  has  been  engaged 
for  over  twenty  years  in  special  geographic  and  scientific  explorations  in  tropical  America, 
and  has  traveled  extensively  in  South  America,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies ;  and  Mr.  Robert 
Lilley,  the  managing  editor,  who  resided  for  many  years  in  China  and  Japan,  and  has  traveled 
extensively  in  the  Far  East.  Dr.  Ainsworth  R.  Spoiford,  librarian  of  Congress,  has  revised  the 
articles  formerly  written  by  Iiimself  on  the  various  continents  and  on  the  States  of  the  Union. 
The  number  of  articles  in  the  geographical  department  has  been  very  considerably  increased,  and 
additional  space  has  been  given  to  those  regions  which  have  awakened  special  interest  in  conse- 
quence of  recent  explorations.  Attention  may  be  called  to  the  elaborate  article  on  Africa  by  the 
editor  of  the  department,  as  well  as  to  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America,  the  South  Sea  islands. 
Central  Asia,  and  British  India.  The  descriptions  of  the  large  cities  have  been  intrusted  to  per- 
sons selected  for  their  local  knowledge  as  well  as  for  their  personal  fitness :  Constantinople,  for 
example,  which  has  been  written  by  Professor  E.  A.  Grosvenor,  late  of  Robert  College,  Turkey ; 
London,  by  Mr.  Francis  Espinasse,  a  well-known  literary  worker  of  that  city ;  and  Paris,  by  Mr. 
Theodore  Stanton,  for  several  years  a  resident  of  the  French  capital. 

In  spelling  geographical  names  it  may  be  explained  that  where  there  is  a  well-recognized  Eng- 
lish form  of  the  word  it  is  always  employed — as  Leghorn  for  Livorno,  Germany  for  Deutschland, 
Flushing  for  VlissinyeJi.  In  such  cases  the  native  name  is  also  given  where  it  is  of  sufiicient 
interest  to  justify  it.  Where  there  is  no  recognized  English  form  in  countries  using  Roman  char- 
acters the  form  of  the  name  used  by  the  country  having  jurisdiction  is  the  one  adopted.  For 
countries  not  using  Roman  characters  and  where,  consequently,  the  words  have  to  be  transliterated, 
there  is  often  a  great  diversity  of  spelling — as  Foochow,  Fuhchau,  Fuchau,  Futehao ;  Abookir, 
Aboukir,  Abukir.  In  such  cases  the  form  of  the  word  adopted  has  been  that  which  would  be 
nearest  in  accord  with  the  sj'stem  of  the  U.  S.  Board  on  Geographical  Names. 

Johnson's  Cyclopredia  has  always  been  notably  full  in  its  treatment  of  U.  S.  towns  and  cities. 

In  the  present  edition  the  articles  dealing  with  these  have  been  revised  by  persons  on  the  spot 

„  .,  ,  „         „  and  familiar  with  the  localities   they  describe.      This  part  of    the  work. 

United  States  Towns.  .  -^  . 

which  has  required  an  immense  amount  of   correspondence,  has  been  in 

charge  of  ilr.  T.  AY.  Baker,  a  professional  mapmaker  and  geographer,  who  has  been  connected 

with   the   Cyclopaedia   from   the   beginning.      Canadian  towns   and  villages  have  been  included, 

most    of    them    now  for  the  first  time,  and    the    most    recent   census  re- 
Canadian  Towns. 

turns  of  population,  manufactures,  etc.,  have  been  fully  utilized.  It  has 
been  the  aim  of  those  in  charge  of  this  department  to  include  every  town  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  having  a  population  of  1.000  and  over,  as  well  as  every  place  of  historic  interest,  though 
its  population  falls  short  of  that  figure.  Thanks  are  due  to  the  many  local  journalists  and  others 
who  have  responded  to  the  call  for  information  in  regard  to  their  towns. 


PREFACE  XV 

Biology,  tbrougli  the  researches  of  such  men  as  Darwin,  Huxley,  and  Virchow,  has  attained  a 

position  of  great  prominence  among  the  sciences,  and  has  in  recent  years  laid  much  claim  to  public 

attention  and   thoughtful  stud  v.     This  subject  has  been  very  fully  cared 

.,,  ,       .  ,.  .  Biology, 

for  in  articles  which  will  be  found  to  enibody  the  most  recent  discoveries 

and  discussions.  Special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  articles  Biohxjy,  by  Professor  Theodore 
Gill;  JJacteriology,  by  Dr.  Eillings  and  Dr.  Abbott;  Uancinism  and  Evolution,  by  Professor 
J.  S.  Kingsley ;  as  well  as  of  an  able  anti-Darwinian  article,  by  Sir  J.  AY.  Dawson,  of  Mon- 
treal, probably  the  most  eminent  living  opponent  of  Darwinism. 

In  the  department  of  Zoology,  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Animal  Physiology,  which  has 
been    in    charge    of    President    David    S.    Jordan,   of   the    Leland    Stanford    Junior   University, 

California,  all  the  shorter  articles  have  been  carefully  i-evised,  and  nearly 

J  ^  ■■  Zoology. 

all   the   longer   ones   have  been  rewritten.      An  effort  has  been  made  to 

avoid  as  far  as  possible  all  strictly  technical  terms,  and  to  adapt  all  discussions  and  descriptions 
to  those  who  have  not  been  trained  in  zoological  science.  The  only  considerable  departure  from 
this  general  method  of  treatment  is  in  the  elaborate  article  of  Professor  E.  D.  Cope  on  Compara- 
tive Anatomy — a  departure  thought  necessary  on  account  of  the  importance  and  peculiar  nature 
(if  the  subject.  President  Jordan  has  had  the  a.ssistance  of  Professor  Charles  Henry  Gilbert, 
Ph.  D.,  in  general  zoology;  of  Professor  Oliver  P.  Jenkins,  Ph.D.,  in  several  physiological  and 
anatomical  subjects ;  of  Professor  J.  S.  Kingsley,  of  Tufts  College,  who  deals  chiefly  with  inverte- 
1  irate  zoiilogy,  and  has  written  most  of  the  articles  on  Insects,  Crustacea,  and  Worms ;  and  lastly, 
in  vertebrate  zoology,  of  i[r.  Frederic  A.  Lucas,  a  curator  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum  in  Wash- 
ington, who  has  written  the  article  on  Fisheries,  and  has'  revised  or  rewritten  a  large  number 
of  the  articles  on  birds  (such  as  those  on  the  Auk,  Capercailzie,  emA  Dodo),  and  on  many  other 
subjects,  e.  g.  those  on  the  Armadillo,  Crocodile,  and  Elephant.  The  article  Entomology,  finely 
illu.strated,  has  been  furnished  by  Professor  J.  Henry  Comstock,  of  Cornell  University;  that  on 
the  Bee,  by  his  assistant,  Mr.  McGillivray ;  and  that  on  Pisciculture  by  Dr.  Tarleton  H.  Bean, 
assistant  U.  S.  Fish  Commissioner,  and  curator  of  the  fishes  in  the  National  Museum. 

In  arranging  for  the  department  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Phj'siology,  Economic  Botany  was 
assigned  to  Professor  L.  II.  Bailey,  of  Cornell  University,  who  has  charge  of  Agriculture,  Horti- 
culture, and  kindred  subjects;   and  the  more  general  subject  of  Botany 

Botany. 
as  a  science  to  Dr.  Charles  E.  Bessey,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Univer- 

.>-ity  of  Nebraska.     In  order  to  adapt  this  whole  department  to  the  modern  state  of  the  science, 

many  of  the  old  articles  have  been  omitted,  and   many  new  ones  have  been  introduced.     The 

article   Botany  is  entirely  new,  and  is  in  accord  with  the  modern  idea  that  the  term  includes  the 

whole  vegetable  kingdom,  and  not  merely  flowering  plants  and  ferns.     Mention  may  also  be  made 

of  the  articles  Bacteria  and  Vegetahle  Histology.     One  of  tlie  features  of  the  present  revision  is 

the  attention  ])aid  to  the  orders  of  plants,  as  well  as  to  plant  diseases  and  ]ilant  histology. 

Palicontology,  in  the  dejiartment  of  ]\Ir.  G.  K.  Gilbert,  has  been  treated  in  four  principal 

articles  and  a  number  of  minor  ones.     The  history  of  ancient  life  is  given  in  three  articles  :  Eossil 

J 'hints,  by  Dr.   Lester   I".  Ward,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ;    Eossil 

I'alu'oiitology. 
/ nvertebrates  (both  in  a  separate  article  and  in  the  article  Palcpontology), 

by  Dr.  H.  S.  Williams,  Professor  of  Geology  in  Yale  L'^ni versify ;  and  Eossil  Vertebrates,  by 
Professor  O.  C.  Marsh,  palaeontologist  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  and  President  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences.  Professor  IVfarsh's  article  comprehends  not  only  the  subject-mat- 
ter treated  of  in  the  old  article  Eossil  Eishcs  {\\\\\<A\  is  omitted  in  the  present  edition),  but  also 
treat*  fully  of  fossil  mammals,  reptiles,  and  birds. 


xvi  PREFACE 


Anthropologic  science  covers  a  wide  and  varied  tield.     Attention  may  be  called  to  an  article 
on  Anthroj)oloyy,  by  Major  J.  "VV.  Powell,  director  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology  ;   one  on 

Criininal  Anthropoloyy,  by  Dr.  Robert  Fletcher,  of  the  Army  Medical 
Aiithropologv.  A       1  1        -r\       T     o    T>Mi- 

Museum  ;  another  on  Anthropometry,  by  Dr.  J .  b.  iiilnngs,  superintend- 
ent of  the  Army  Medical  Museum ;  and  the  article  on  Man,  by  Dr.  Daniel  G.  Brinton,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  who  has  long  been  engaged  in  anthropologic  researches. 
Major  J.  W.  Powell  has  had  charge  of  that  branch  of  the  subject  which  relates  to  American 
Archaeology  and  Ethnology.  The  editor  of  this  department  has  probably  devoted  more  time  and 
thought  than  any  other  person  to  the  ethnic  relations  of  the  aborigines  of  America,  and  his  in- 
vestigations enable  him  to  speak  with  a  confidence  which  perhaps  no  one  else  would  be  entitled  to. 
His  classification  of  the  Indians  of  North  America  will  be  found  of  great  interest  and  value  to 
those  who  as  yet  have  had  but  limited  facilities  for  the  study  of  the  subject.  The  materials  here 
brought  together  have  never  been  published  in  any  other  cyclopaedia,  and  to  an  important  extent 
they  are  new  to  science.  Among  Major  Powell's  collaborators,  besides  Dr.  Billings,  Dr.  Brinton, 
and  Dr.  Fletcher,  above  referred  to,  mention  may  be  made  of  Mr.  Frank  H.  Gushing,  formerly 
chief  of  the  Hemenway  exploring  expedition,  which  operated  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona ;  Rev. 
J.  Owen  Dorsey,  formerly  a  missionary  among  the  Ponca  Indians ;  Mr.  Albert  S.  Gatschet,  Mr. 
J.  N.  B.  Hewitt,  an  Iroquois  Indian,  Mr.  F.  Webb  Hodge,  Professor  William  H.  Holmes,  and 
Col.  Garrick  Mallery,  all  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  at  Washington. 


The  departments  of  Language  and  Literature  have  been  very  carefully  planned  and  arranged 
for,  with  a  view  to  making  the  Cyclopaedia,  as  already  intimated,  as  strong  on  its  literary  side  as  it 

has  ever  been  on  its  scientific  side.     It  is  confidently  believed  that  in  no 
Philology. 

other  general  cyclopaedia  can  such  a  complete,  comprehensive,  and  scholar- 
ly presentation  of  these  subjects  be  found.  It  lias  been  the  aim  of  Professor  Benjamin  Ide 
Wheeler,  the  editor  in  charge  of  Linguistics  and  Comparative  Philology,  to  present  the  phe- 
nomena of  language  in  the  light  of  their  historical  significance,  and  to  treat  these  in  accordance 
with  the  methods  of  the  modern  science  of  historical  grammar,  as  distinguished  from  the  merely 
descriptive  methods  of  earlier  linguistic  discussions.  This  and  the  great  advances  made  in  lin- 
guistic science  have  necessitated  an  almost  entire  abandonment  of  the  old  material  in  the  Cyclo- 
ptedia,  and  a  new  grouping  and  distribution  of  the  topics.  The  plan  of  his  work  includes  the 
following  divisions  of  the  new  matter : 

(a)  Articles  on  the  various  groups  or  families  of  languages,  such  as  the  Indo-European,  the 
Semitic,  and  the  Teutonic.  These  articles  undertake  to  characterize  each  group,  with  reference  to 
its  geographical  location  and  distribution,  its  division  into  separate  languages  and  dialects,  with  the 
determining  marks  or  other  characteristics  of  the  division,  its  historical  development,  and  its  main 
characteristics  of  sound,  form,  and  syntax,  considered  from  a  strictly  scientific  point  of  view. 

{!))  Articles  on  each  sejjarate  language  or  dialect  that  lias  attained  the  position  of  a  literary 
language,  with  discussion  of  its  main  characteristics,  geographical  extent,  division  into  dialects,  and 
with  references  to  the  most  important  lexicographical  and  grammatical  treatises,  as  well  as  to  con- 
venient handbooks  for  acquiring  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  language. 

(c)  Articles  explanatory  of  the  technical  terms  of  scientific  and  descriptive  grammar,  as  of 
prosody  or  meter. 

{d)  Articles  on  various  phases  of  general  grammar,  the  philosophy  of  language,  the  history  of 
scientific  grammar,  and  the  history  of  writing. 


PUEFACE  xvii 

(e)  A  brief  etyiiiolugical  t'X))lariatioii  of  m11  titli>  in  the  Cyclopffidia  whose  form  or  meaning 
could  be  made  clearer  by  the  addition  of  sncli  an  etymology.  In  selecting  the  material  to  be  used 
in  these  etymological  explanations,  the  etymology  is  not  viewed  as  an  end  unto  itself,  as  may  be  the 
case,  for  example,  in  an  etymological  dictionary,  hut  rather  as  a  practical  convenience  for  the 
purposes  mentioned.     All  these  etymologies  have  been  supplied  by  Professor  Wheeler  himself. 

In  carrying  out  this  widely  comprehensive  plan  the  associate  editor  has  called  to  his  aid  some 
of  the  most  eminent  specialists  to  be  found  in  Eurojie  anil  America.  Semitic  Languages  were 
assigned  to  Professor  C.  H.  Toy  and  Professor  D.  G.  Lyon,  of  Harvard  University,  and  to  Pro- 
fessor Jevvett,  of  Brown  University;  Iranian  Languages  to  Professor  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  of 
Columbia  College ;  Germanic  Languages  to  Professor  II.  C.  G.  Brandt,  of  Hamilton  College ; 
Scandinavian  Languages  to  Professor  George  L.  Kittredge,  of  Harvard  University,  and  later  to 
Professor  Carpenter,  of  Columbia  College,  New  York  ;  Slavic  Languages  to  Professor  Jagic,  of 
Vienna ;  Lithuanian  and  other  Baltic  Languages  to  Professor  Bezzenberger,  of  Konigsberg,  Prus- 
sia; Celtic  Languages  to  Professor  Thurneysen,  of  Freiburg.  Germany;  Low  German  Languages 
to  Professor  Collitz,  of  Bryu  Mawr,  Pennsylvania  ;  Romance  Languages  to  Professor  E.  S.  Shel- 
don, of  Harvard  University  ;  Prosody,  Metre,  etc.,  to  Professor  M.  W.  ITumphreys,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia.  Among  individual  articles,  attention  may  be  directed  to  Language,  by  Pro- 
fessor W.  D.  Whitney,  of  Yale  L^niversity  ;  Sanskrit,  by  Professor  Charles  R.  Lanman,  of  Harvard 
University ;  English,  by  Professor  Albert  S.  Cook,  of  Y''ale  University ;  Pali,  by  Professor  T.  W. 
Rhys  Davids,  of  London  ;  (Jreik,  by  Professor  Frederick  D.  Allen,  of  Harvard ;  Prakrit,  by  Pro- 
fessor Hermann  Jacobi,  of  Boim,  Germany ;  Chinese,  Korea/a,  and  Japanese,  by  Dr.  Addison  Van 
Name,  librarian  of  Yale  University ;  Egyptiam,,  by  Rev.  Charles  R.  Gillett,  librarian  of  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York ;  Syntax,  by  Professor  B.  Delbriick,  Jena,  Germany ;  Inscriptions, 
by  Dr.  Isaac  II.  Hall,  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  Y'ork  ;  Prmvunciation,  Punctuation,  and 
Lexicograpliy,  by  Professor  G.  F.  Emerson,  of  Cornell;  nwA  Ahlaut,  Unilaut,  Alphabet,  Gothic, 
Modern  Greek,  Folk-etymology,  etc.,  by  the  associate  editor. 

In  the  treatment  of   the  various  subjects  that  come  under  the  head  of   Greek  and  Roman 

Literature,  in  charge  of  Professor  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  an  effort  has 

been   made   to    bring  into    relief  the  important   facts   of   the   lives  and 

careers  of    the    different    authors,  to  present  their  leading  characteristics  r  ■  ' '  . 

1  °  Ijiterature. 

in   a   few   sharp,  clear  lines,  and    to   indicate   the  great   editions  of   the 

various  works;  and,  generally,  to  j)oint  out  the  best  and  most  accessible  sources  of  information. 
The  Latin  section  of  the  department  was  assigned  to  Professor  Minton  Warren,  of  Johns  Hopkins 
L^niversity,  and  Dr.  Alfred  Gudeman  has  prepared  biographical  sketches  of  the  great  classical 
scholars  of  modern  times.  The  article  Greek  Literature  is  by  Professor  F.  L).  Allen,  of  Harvard 
University,  and  that  on  JImaer  by  Professor  Thomas  D.  Seymour,  of  Yale  University.  Professor 
J.  R.  S.  Sterrett,  of  Amherst  College,  has  had  charge  of  Greek  Antiquities,  and  Professor  George 
L.  Hendrickson,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  of  Roman  Antiquities. 

English  Literature,  that  is.  Literature  in  English  wherever  produced,  has  been  in  charge  of 
Professor  Henry  A.  Beers,  of  Yale  University.  Several  hundred  new  articles  have  been  intro- 
duced, chief! V  notices  of  authors,  and  everything  brought  down  to  date. 

■  '  J  »  a  ^  English  Literature. 

Professor  Beers  has  carefully  revised  and  supplemented  the  excellent  arti- 
cle on  English  lAterature  which  Richard  Grant  White  contributed  to  the  former  edition.     The 
article  Anglo-Saxon  Literature  has  been  carefully  revised  by  its  author.  Professor  F.  A.  March, 
of  Lafayette  College.     There  is  a  new  article  on  the  Novel  by  Thomas  Sargent  Perry,  author  of 


XTlll 


PREFACE 


English   in  the  Eighteenth   Ceiitury,  and  auotlier,  by  Professor  Charles  Davidson,  on  Jfiraele- 

j)lays.      The   one   on  Browning  is   by   Professor  Hiram  Corson,  of   Cornell  University.      The 

biographies  of  Carlyle,  Pope,  etc.,  have  been  written  by  Professor  Beers  himself.     An  interesting 

article  on  Canadian  Literature,  by  Professor  Goldwin  Smith  and  G.  Mercer  Adam,  includes  an 

account  of  the  French-Canadian  as  well  as  of  the  English  Literature  of  Canada. 

The  important  department  of  Comparative  Literature,  at  the  head  of  which  Professor  A.  R. 

Marsh,  of  Harvard  University,  has  labored  so  assiduously  and  effectively,  is  practically  a  new  feature 

in  cyclopiedia-making.      His  aim  has  been  to  lirins;  foreign  literature  to 
Comparative  Literature.  .  .  »  o 

our  very  doors  in  a  series  of  sketches  prepared  hy  persons  so  familiar  with 

their  subjects  that  they  can  give  the  main  lines  of  each  foreign  literature  without  wasting  words 
upon  needless  or  vague  descriptions  and  characterizations.  His  plan  also  includes  a  brief  biography 
of  every  writer  of  real  importance  and  interest  in  all  these  foreign  literatures,  the  selection  of  these 
names,  and  the  writing  of  the  biographies  themselves,  being  left,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  authori- 
ties who  had  undertaken  the  preparation  of  the  main  articles.  The  biljliograjjhical  information 
which  follows  each  article  will  give  the  reader  an  indication  of  the  latest  discussions  of  the  sub- 
ject in  hand,  and  enable  him  to  supplement  the  information  given,  if  he  so  desires.  In  arranging 
for  this  department,  Sanskrit  and  allied  literatures  have  been  assigned  to  Professor  Charles  R.  Lan- 
man  ;  Indo-Iraniau  to  Professor  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson ;  Semitic  to  Professor  C.  H.  Toy ;  Assyr- 
ian and  Chaldee  to  Professor  D.  G.  Lyon ;  Egyptian  to  Rev.  Charles  P.  Gillett ;  Chinese,  Korean, 
and  Japanese  to  Dr.  Addison  A^an  IS'ame,  of  Yale ;  Arabic  to  Professor  J.  R,  Jewett ;  German  to 
Professor  Julius  Goebel,  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University ;  Scandinavian  to  Professor  G.  L. 
EJittredge,  of  Harvard,  and  Professor  D.  K.  Dodge,  of  the  University  of  Illinois ;  Catalan  to  Pro- 
fessor T.  F.  Crane,  of  Cornell ;  Italian,  Basque,  and  Roiimanian  to  Professor  E.  S.  Sheldon,  of  Har- 
vard ;  French  to  Professor  Caniield,  of  the  University  of  Kansas  ;  while  Provencal  Literature,  Hu- 
manism, etc.,  have  been  cared  for  by  the  associate  editor  himself.  Among  the  special  articles  may 
be  mentioned  Ballad  Poetry,  by  Professor  Francis  J.  Child,  of  Harvard  University  ;  Beast-fahles, 
by  Professor  Kittredge ;  and  Finnish  Language  and  Literature,  by  Professor  R.  B.  Anderson. 

Attention  may  here  be  very  properly  called  to  the  fact  that  this  edition  of  Johnson's  Cyclo- 
pgedia  is  the  first  cyclopaedia  ever  published  that  contains  an  account  of  the  already  extensive  and 
important  literature  of  South  America,  together  with  notices  of  the  most  eminent  South  American 
writers,  both  past  and  present.  Xow  that  South  America  is  attracting  so  much  attention,  both  in 
the  U.  S.  and  in  Europe,  this  feature  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  both  useful  and  interesting. 


All  the  articles  that  come  within  the  scope  of  the  departments  of  History,  Politics,  and  Educa- 
tion, reserved  for  the  special  care  of  the  editor-in-chief,  have  been  carefull}'  revised.     All  of  the 

historical  articles  have  been  critically  examined,  many  of  them  have  been 
History. 

rewritten,  and  a  considerable  number  of  new  subjects  have  now  for  the 

first  time  l)een  introduced  into  the  Cj'cloppedia. 

In  the  field  of  politics,  while  nimierous  articles  on  questions  involving  matters  of  a  partisan 

nature  have  been  intrusted  to  eminent  i-epresentatives  of  the  several  parties,  political  topics  of  a. 

non-partisan  nature  have  been  written  bv  scholars  thoroughly  versed  in 

what  may  l)e  called  the  science  of  comparative  politics.     In  accordance 

with  this  method  such  articles  as  those  on  Democratic  Party,  Pipuhlican  Party,  Free  Trade, 

Protection,  Reciprocity,  etc.,  have  been  written  by  persons  advocating  these  doctrines,  while  such 

articles  as  Lobby,  Law-making,   Caucus,  Ballot  Reform,  Civil-service  Reform,  Representative 


PREFACE  xix 

Government,  and  other  topics  of  a  kindred  nature  are  treated  by  scliolars  who  approach  the  sub- 
ject from  a  non-partisan  point  of  view.  An  effort  has  thus  been  made  to  give  to  this  particular 
department  of  tlie  Cyclopiedia  the  exceptional  strength  that  must  be  called  for  by  the  present 
state  of  political  science.  Prominent  among  these  articles  may  be  mentioned  Political  Parties, 
I)}'  the  editor-in-chief;  Ballot  Reform,  by  Professor  J.  W.  Jenks,  of  Cornell  Cnivei-sity;  Civil- 
service  Ref 07111,  by  Dorinan  B.  Eaton  and  Theodore  Roosevelt;  Prohibition  and  Prohibition 
Parti/,  by  Miss  Frances  E.  "Willard ;  and  Free  Trade,  by  the  Hon.  D.  xV.  "Wells. 

The  articles  on  educational  subjects  have  required  even  more  rigorous  treatment,  for  the  reason 
that  since  the  first  edition  of  the  Cyclopaedia  was  issued  the  methods,  if  not  the  systems,  of  educa- 
tion have  been  completely  revolutionized.     A  new  article  on  Education 

Education, 
has  been  prepared  by  Chancellor  W.  II.  Payne,  of  the  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity at  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  Common  Schools,  by  Professor  Earl  Barnes,  of  the  Leland  Stauforil 
Junior  University;  and  Manual  Training,  by  Professor  C.  M.Woodward,  of  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis.  The  descriptions  of  institutions  of  leai-ning  liave  almost  without  exception 
been  written  either  by  the  officers  at  the  head  of  such  institutions  or  by  persons  doing  the  work 
under  official  direction.  The  articles  on  Agricultural  College,  Agricidtural  Experiment  Station, 
College,  School,  University,  and  many  other  educational  subjects  of  a  kindred  nature,  are  writt(Mi 
by  the  editor-in-chief. 

The  department  under  tiie  general  charge  of  Professor  Arthur  T.  lladley,  of  Yale  University, 

has  been  extended  so  as  to  include  on  the  one  hand  the  whole  science  of  Sociology,  and  on  the 

other  the  great   domain  of   Finance,   public  and   private.      The  different 

Economics. 
subjects  that  have  not  been  treated  by  the  associate  editor  himself  have 

been  intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  most  eminent  specialists  that  could  be  found.  The  method 
pursued  in  former  editions  of  dealing  with  controverted  cptestions,  by  giving  both  sides  a  hearing, 
has  been  retained ;  while  there  are  systematic  articles  on  Finance,  Currency,  Taxation,  Tariff, 
Reciprocity,  etc.,  furnishing  an  impartial  presentation  of  facts  to  supplement  or  correct  the  argu- 
ments of  special  advocates.  There  is  a  much  fuller  treatment  of  social  problems  than  formerly. 
Carroll  D.  Wright  deals  with  the  Factory  System ;  Henry  George  with  the  Single  Tax ;  II. 
N.  Ilyndman,  of  London,  with  Socialism;  Stepniak  with  Nihilism;  Jacob  A.  Iliis  with  Tene- 
ment Houses ;  etc.  In  consequence  of  the  great  advances  that  have  l)een  made  in  recent  years 
in  the  treatment  of  social  and  economic  questions,  the  space  given  to  these  subjects  has  been 
more  than  doubled. 


First  in  order  among  the  Industrial  Arts  comes  Agriculture,  which,  with  Horticulture,  Forestry, 

and  Economic  Botany,  has  been  in  tiie  editorial  charge  of  Professor  Liberty  H.  Bailey,  of  Cornell 

University.      He  has  not  only  subjected   all  the  articles  that  have  been 

•'  .  .  .  Agncultuiv. 

retained  from  the  former  edition  to  a  most  thorough  revision,  but  has 

written  or  secured  many  new  articles  of  prime  importance.      Among  these  may  be  mentioned 

Butter,  by  Professor  11.  II.  Wing,  of  CJornell ;  Cheese,  by  Professor  James  P.  Robertson,  Dairy 

Commissioner  of  Canada ;    Ensilage,  by  Professor  J.  P.  Roberts,  of  Cornell ;  and  Forestry,  by 

Mr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  chief  of  the  Forestry  division  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     The 

article  on  Ilorticxdture,  by  the  associate  editor,  will  be  found  to  embody  briefly,  but  as  fully  as 

is  practicable,  the  results  of  the  latest  investigations  and   experience   in   the   production  of   the 

different  kinds  of  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables. 


XX  PREPACK 

Mining   and   Metallurgy  have  been  very  fully   treated   by  Mr.   Charles  Kirchhoff,   who   has 

endeavored  to  embody  in  the  several  articles  which  come  within  the  scope 
Mining  and  Jletallurgv. 

ot  his  department  the  results  of  the  most  recent  experience  in  both  of 

these  branches.     Such  articles  as  Coal,  Aluminium,  Blast  Furnace,  etc.,  clearly  show  his  methods 

and  the  value  of  what  he  has  done. 

The  editor  of  the  department  of  Mechanical  Science  has  endeavored  to  present  the  whole 

lield  of  Applied  Science,  as  exhibited  in  the  mechanical  arts,  in  the  simplest,  most  concise,  and  most 

complete  manner  possible,  and  the  history,  structure,  and  principles  of  con- 
Mechanical  Engineering.  .  .  .  j  i  • 

struction  of  all  important  inventions  and  machines,  accuracy  being  secured 

by  obtaining  contributions  from  acknowledged  authorities  in  each  class.  Every  department  of 
manufacturing  industry  receives  attention.  The  very  complete  article  on  the  Steain-enyine,  con- 
tributed to  the  former  edition  by  the  late  Professor  Trowbridge,  has  been  revised  by  his  successor, 
Professor  F.  R.  Hutton.     The  article  on  Aeronautics  is  by  the  associate  editor  himself. 

Dr.  Mansfield  Merriman,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  Lehigh  University,  well  known 
as  a  teacher  and  investigator  in  technical  science  and  as  the  author  of  standard  technical  books, 

has    had    charge    of   the    department   of    Civil    Engineering.      The   most 
Civil  Engineering. 

important  new  articles  prepared  by  Dr.  Merriman  for  this  edition  of  the 

Cyclopsedia  are  Arch,  Bridges,  Block  System,  Creeping  of  Bails,  Flexure,  Hydi-aulics,  Moun- 
tain Bailways,  Moment,  Roads,  Stresses,  and  Viaduct.  He  has  revised  and  brought  down  to 
date  a  number  of  articles  like  those  on  Briclc,  Cements,  Leveling,  and  Surveying,  and  has  intro- 
duced many  short  articles,  such  as  those  on  Adhesion,  Abutment,  and  Ballast.  A  still  larger 
number  of  articles  have  been  prepared  by  engineers  and  professors  of  distinction,  among  whom  it 
will  suffice  to  mention  Gen.  Henry  L.  Abbot,  whose  article  on  River  Hydraulics  has  been  retained 
and  revised;  Mr.  Elmer  L.  Corthell,  C.  E.,  who  has  rewritten  the  articles  Ship-canals,  Ship-rail- 
ways, Jetties,  and  Levees.  Mr.  J.  James  R.  Croes,  a  civil  and  hydraulic  engineer  of  wide  expe- 
rience, has  supplied  articles  on  Aqxieducts,  Canals,  and  Reservoir,  Street  and  Suburban  Railways, 
etc. ;  Mr.  Joseph  P.  Erizell  has  revised  the  articles  LLydrostatios,  Turbines,  Water-works,  and  a 
number  of  shorter  articles,  written  by  him  for  former  editions ;  Mr.  Lewis  M.  Haupt,  C.  E.,  has 
written  the  articles  Breakwater,  Bocks,  Dredging,  and  ILarbors ;  Mr.  William  Rich  Hutton,  chief 
engineer  of  the  Hudson  River  Tunnel,  has  revised  and  consolidated  all  the  articles  on  Tunnels  and 
Tunneling,  and  has  supplied  the  biographical  sketches  of  European  engineers  of  note  ;  Dr.  Menden- 
hall  has  rewritten  the  article  describing  the  JJ .  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey ;  Dr.  Cady  Staley, 
president  of  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland,  O.,  contributes  the  article  on  Seioer- 
age;  and  that  on  Plumbing  and  House-drainage  is  by  Mr.  George  S.  Pierson,  civil  and  sanitary 
engineer,  Kalamazoo,  Mich.  The  article  Liailways  has  been  revised  by  its  author.  Col.  Julius  W. 
Adams ;  and  Mr.  A.  M.  "Wellington,  editor,  and  Mr.  E.  E.  R.  Tratman,  associate  editor,  of  the  Engi- 
neering J^ews,  New  York,  have  written  new  articles  on  Railway  Equipment  and  Railway  Opera- 
tion. All  these  articles  have  been  freely  illustrated  whenever  the  nature  of  the  subject  required  it. 
The  historical  development  of  Civil  Engineering,  both  as  an  art  and  as  a  science,  has  been  noted. 


Everything  pertaining  to  Navigation  and  Naval  Science   generally  has  been   in   charge   of 

Admiral  Luce,  as  in  former  editions.     The  more  important  topics  have  been  submitted  to  experts, 

who  have  in  some  instances  revised  the  old  articles,  but  have  for  the  most 
Navigation.  -,,.,.. 

])art  supplied  entirely  new  articles,     bh/p-buildnig,  by  Commodore  Philip 

Hichborn,  U.  S.  Navy,  may  be  mentioned  ;  also  Armor,  by  Professor  Philip  R.  Alger,  U.  S.  Navy; 


PREFACE  xxi 

SMjJs  of  War,  by  F.  T.  Itowles,  Assistant  Xaval  Coiistrnctor,  U.  S.  Navj- ;  Torpedo-hoats,  bj  Lieut. 
George  F.  W.  Ilulman,  U.  S.  Navy ;  and  Nautical  Schools,  by  Lieut.-Conimander  Charles  Belknap. 
The  field  of  Military  Enfrinccriiig  and  the  Science  of  War  has  been  in  charge  of  Professor 
James  Mercur,  of  West  Point  ^lilitary  Academy.  The  articles  on  Tactics,  Orijanization,  Fortifi- 
cations, Arms,  Armor,  Gunnery,  etc.,  have  been  brought  up  to  the  pres- 

,    .     ,.       .  .,  ,         !•    1       T         ■  •         1  •   1     ■  Science  of  War. 

ent  time,  with  indications,  when  possible,  of  the  directions  lu  which  luture 

developments  may  be  expected.  Articles  of  this  nature  have  been  placed  in  tlie  liauds  of  special- 
ists. It  will  suftice  here  to  mention  such  names  as  Gen.  Henry  L.  Abbot,  on  Explosives,  Tor- 
peM;  Gen.  Brialmont,  of  Belgium,  on  Intrenched  Camps;  Lieut.  J.  C.  W.  Brooks,  Fourth 
Artiller}',  on  Projectiles;  Capt.  L.  L.  Bruif,  on  Machine  and  Rapid-fire  Guns;  Capt.  J.  W. 
Jiigalls,  on  Gunpowder;  Major  O.  IL  Ernst,  on  War,  Siege,  and  Fortification;  and  Gen.  John 
C.  Tidball,  on  Ordnance.  The  articles  on  Army,  Arsenals,  Brevet,  and  Discipline  are  by  Pro- 
fessor Mercur  himself,  wlio  has  also  written  or  revised  manv  of  the  articles  describing  battles. 


Medical  Science  has  made  most  remarkable  and  interesting  advances  during   recent   years. 

There  is  .scarcely  any  de])ai'tmeiit  of  medicine  or  surgery  that  has  not  been  profoundly  influenced 

or  (juite  revolutionized  by  the  germ  theory  of  disea.se.     The  results  of  the 

,  ,  .        .  ,  ,  ,,.,".  ,  .   ,         1     ,.  .  ,        Medicine  and  Suiwrv. 

latest  investigations  liave  been  emiiodied  in  several  articles  dealing  with 

this  theory  and  its  developments.     The  list  of  specialists  secured  by  Dr.  Pepper,  the  editor  of  this 

department,   includes  the  names  of  many  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  in  the  United  States. 

All   matters  jiertaining  to  Materia  Medica  have  been  attended  to  either  by   Dr.  II.  C  AV'^ood  or 

by  Dr.  11.  A.  Hare;    Veterinary  Medicine   and   diseases   of  animals,  by  Dr.    Leonard  Pearson; 

Anatmny,  Histology,  etc.,  by  Dr.  Piersol ;  Surgery,  Tracheotomy,  etc.,  by  Dr.  John  Ashhurst,  Jr.; 

Ohstetrics,  by  Dr.  P.  F.  Munde,  of  New  York  ;  Pathology,  etc.,  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Councilman  ;  Leprosy 

and  Skin  Diseases,  by  Dr.  George  IL  Fox ;  Anatomy  of  the  Ear,  by  Dr.  St.  John  Iloosa ;  Cholera, 

Cancer,  Bright" s  Disease,  etc.,  by  Dr.  Pepper ;  and  Medical  Jurispyrudence,  by  Dr.  Seneca  Egbert. 


Of  the  ^Esthetic  Arts,  Music  has  been  in  charge  of  Mr.  Dudley  Buck,  who  has  expunged 
much  that  was  purely  technical  in  the  former  edition  in  order  to  make  room  for  many  new  arti- 
cles on  various  musical  subjects.     Painting,  Sculpture,  Architecture,  and 

111  1  11  •  1  i-  Tir      Ti  11     .  .  '^^^'^  Fine  Arts. 

Arcliu'ology  have  been  tinder  tlie  superintendence  ot  Mr.  iuissell  Sturgis, 

who  has  remodeled  the  method  of  treatment,  with  the  view  of  establishing  a  better  proportion 
between  the  more  important  and  the  less  important  articles.  In  former  editions  of  the  Cyclopaedia 
tiie  Fine  Arts  were  for  the  most  part  treated  by  literary  men  and  scholars  who  approached  their 
subjects  from  without.  In  the  present  editicm  the  work  has  been  done  by  persons  who  have 
devoted  their  lives  principally  to  the  fine  arts,  and  this  has  resulted  in  a  more  intelligent  general 
treatment  of  the  .subjects  that  come  within  the  scope  of  the  department.  In  the  important  field 
of  Classical  Archasology  a  large  part  of  the  work  has  been  done  by  Professor  ^Vlfred  Emerson, 
of  Cornell  University.  The  very  able  article  in  the  former  edition  on  lioman  Archaeology,  by 
Professor  Ilelbig  and  Professor  Lanciani,  of  Pome,  has  been  revised  by  the  latter.  European  Art 
is  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  W.  J.  Stillman,  of  Rome  ;  ]\[odern  Painters  have  been  described  by  Mr. 
William  A.  (,'offin,  .secretary  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists.  Professor  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin,  of 
Columliia  College,  New  York,  writes  on  Architecture  and  architectural  subjects  generally.  Deco- 
rative Art  in  its  different  luiiiiches  has  been  treated  with  special  care  l)y  the  associate  editor  ;  and 
it  will  be  found  that  Fresco-painting,  Silverware,  Painted  Pottery,  Embossed  and  Chased  Armor, 


xxii  PREFACE 

Tapestries,  and  other  subjects  of   a   kindred  natui-e,  liave   been   treated  with   the  fullness   each 
topic  seems  to  deserve. 


As  in  former  editions,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  has  had  edi- 
torial care  of  Philosophy,  Psychology,  and  Ethics.     He  has  taken  great  pains  to  present  each 

topic  in  the  light  of  its  historical   development,  and  has  endeavored  to 
Philosophy  ami  Ethics.  ''  ,  .   i       ,  ,  .    , 

present  tlie  more  obvious  thoughts  which  the  great  thinkers  of  the  past 

have  left  us  on   the  problems  of  life.      He  has  also  indicated  under  various  titles  the  essential 

characteristics  of  the  Greek  and  German  philosophic  movements.     The  scholastic  philosophy  has 

received  additional  attention ;  and  the  New  Philosophy,  based  on  observation,  and  especially  on  the 

study  of  the  functions  of  the  brain  and  the  cerebral  ganglia,  has  been  treated  at  considerable  length. 


It  has  always  been  the  policy  of  the  editors  of  this  Cyclopaedia  to  hold  the  balance  fairly  in 

controverted  matters,  and  to  be  impartial  in  every  way.     In  no  department  has  this  policy  been 

more  rigorously  carried  out  than  in  that  which  relates  to  religious  belief 
Theolot'y. 

and  Church  polity.      In  the  present  edition  the  venerable  Dr.  Schaff,  of 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  has  had  charge  of  General  Church  History  and  Bibli' 
cal  Literature.  Seven  other  associate  editors  have  had  charge  of  the  History,  Polity,  and  Dog- 
matics of  as  many  sections  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  a  bare  list  of  their  names  is  a  sufficient 
indication  of  the  strength  of  the  Cyclopaedia  in  theological  and  ecclesiastical  matters.  For  the 
sake  of  completeness  they  are  here  given  in  alphabetical  order : 

Willis  J.  Beecher,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature  in  Auburn  Theologi- 
cal Seminary. 

George  P.  Fisher,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Church  History  in  Yale  University. 

John  F.  Hurst,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  bishop  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  Chancellor  of 
the  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Henry  E.  Jacobs,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminaiy,  Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia. 

Jolm  J.  Keane,  D.  D.,  bishop  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  Rector  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America. 

William  Stevens  Perry,  D.  D.  (Oxon.),  LL.  D.,  bishop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  U.  S.,  Davenport,  Iowa ;  and 

William  H.  Whitsitt,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 
Louisville,  Ky. 

To  these  names  should  be  added  those  of  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Chadwick,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  to 
whom  were  referred  all  matters  connected  with  Unitarianism,  Universalism,  etc. ;  the  Rev.  J.  H. 
Garrison,  D.  D.,  Editor  of  the  Christian.  Evangelist,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  who  has  prepared  the  articles 
which  relate  to  the  Disciples  of  Christ;  and  lastly  tlie  Rev.  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson,  LL.  D., 
whose  name  is  coupled  on  tlie  title-page  with  that  of  Dr.  Schaff,  and  with  whom  he  has  long 
been  honorably  associated  editorially  in  the  pre])aration  of  his  numerous  works  of  reference. 

Among  individual  articles  not  coming  within  the  scope  of  any  of  these  departments  may  be 
mentioned  one  on  the  Mor)no7i  Church,  by  Mr.  Byron  Groo,  of  the  Salt  Lahe  Herald;  another  on 
The  Friends,  by  Professor  Gummere,  of  Haverford  College ;  one  on  Christian  Endeavor,  by  the 
Rev.  F.  E.  Clark ;  and  one  on  The  Salvation  Army,  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ballington  Booth. 


PREFACE  xxiii 

Law  is  a  twofold  department :    (a)  Municipal,  Civil,  and  Constitutional  Law,  in  charge  of 
President  Henry  Wade  Rogers,  of  the  Xorthwestern  University,  and  (h)  International  Law,  edited 
by  Professor  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  of  Yale  L^niversity.     In  the  first  of 
these  divisions  most  of  the  articles  were  originally  prepared  by  Professor 

T.  W.  Dwight  and  Professor  George  Chase,  of  the  Colunil)ia  College  School  of  Law,  and  by  Pro- 
fessor John  Norton  Pomeroy,  of  California,  and  were  so  comprehensive  and  excellent  in  their 
nature  that  they  have  needed  scarcely  more  revision  than  was  necessary  to  bring  them  do\vn  to  the 
present  day.  In  this  work  of  revision  important  aid  has  been  rendered  by  Mr.  F.  Sturges  Allen, 
a  member  of  the  New  York  Bar.  Some  new  articles,  however,  have  been  inserted.  The  asso- 
ciate editor  in  charge  of  International  Law,  partly  through  the  introduction  of  a  number  of  new 
topics,  and  partly  through  the  enlargement  of  those  treated  in  the  former  edition  in  a  suboi'dinate 
way,  has  attempted  to  make  each  subject  complete  in  itself.  The  very  long  article  on  Interna- 
tional Laii\  prepared  for  the  former  edition  of  the  Cyclopcedia  by  President  Theodore  D.  Woolsey, 
has  been  thoroughly  revised  in  the  present  edition  in  such  a  way  that,  while  the  form  of  the 
article  is  retained  as  a  summary  of  principles,  much  of  the  matter  has  been  relegated  to  separate 
headings.  The  articles  under  each  heading  aim  to  give  a  complete  pi-actical  account  of  the  subject 
without  obliging  the  reader  to  search  for  it  in  the  main  article.  Among  individual  articles  of  this 
nature  may  be  mentioned  Asi/lum,  Balance  of  Po^ver,  International  Arbitration,  Belligerency, 
Blockade,  Exterritorial  it  y.  Extradition,  Naturalization,  Treason,  Treaties,  etc. 


Almost  every  elaborate  article  in  the  Cyclopaedia  is  accompanied  by  copious  bibliographical 

information,  so  that  the  student  who  desires  to  pursue  the  subject  further  may  know  where  to 

turn  for  the  information  he  seeks.     This  has  always  been  a  feature  of  the 

...  .  Bibliography. 

Cyclopaedia,  but  in  no  other  edition  has  it  been  so  thoroughly  carried  out. 

Wherever  possible,  reference  is  made  to  special  rather  than  to  general  treatises,  to  works  in  Eng- 
lish, either  original  or  translated,  in  preference  to  works  in  foreign  languages,  and  to  recent  and 
accessible  rather  than  to  out-of-the-way  books. 

In  organizing  the  editorial  staif  no  separate  provision  was  made  for  the  great  department  of 
Biography.     It  was  arranged  that  each  editor  should  have  charge  of  the  biographies  in  his  own 

department,  selecting  the  names  of  persons  considered  worthy  of  a  place 

1      /^     1  T  1  •  •PI  Biofjraphv. 

in  the  Cyclopedia,  and  preparing,  or  arranging  for  the  preparation  of,  the 

biographical  sketches.     The  department  of  Biography  may  thus  be  said  to  have  been  in  charge 

of  thirty-six  editors.     This  arrangement  has  greatly  increased  the  value  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  as  the 

sketches  have  the  authority  of  men  familiar  with  the  standing  and  achievements  of  the  persons 

described.     They  are  all  written  on  the  same  model,  as  far  as  possible,  and  an  effort  is  made  to 

have  each  indicate  instantly  just  who  the  jierson  was  or  is.  and  his  or  her  relative  importance. 


A  very  large  number  of  miscellaneous  articles  which  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  any  of  the 
editorial  departments  have  been  arranged  for  by  the  editor-in-chief,  with  the  assistance  of  Professor 
C.  11.  Thurber,  of  Colgate  University.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
such  subjects  as  games  and  sports  {Base-ball  and  Foot-ball,  by  Professor 

A.  Alonzo  Stagg,  formerly  of  Yale,  now  of  Chicago  University ;  Crichet,  by  Professor  F.  B.  Gum- 
mere,  of  Haverford  College ;  Physical  Education,  by  Professor  D.  A.  Sargent ;  Curling,  by  the 
Hon.  John  Johnston,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis. ;  diess,  by  AV.  Steinitz  ;  Whist,  by  R.  F.  Foster ;  and  La- 


Yviv  PRKrACE 

crosse,  Lawn  Tennis,  Croquet,  Golf,  etc.,  by  others  equally  well  qualified) ;  Cookery,  by  Miss  Parloa ; 
Dress,  by  Mrs.  Jenness  Miller ;  Preservation  of  Food,  by  Marion  Harland ;  Clubs,  by  Hobart  Chat- 
field  Chatfield-Taylor ;  College  Fraternities,  by  W.  II.  Baird,  of  New  York  ;  Charity  Organization, 
by  C.  D.  Kellogg ;  Women's  Eights,  by  Susan  B.  Anthony  and  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  etc. 

A  new  feature  of  this  Cyclopaedia  is  the  introduction  of  etymologies  (prepared  by  Professor 

Benj.  Ide  "Wheeler)  when  such  would  serve  to  fix  in  the  mind  either  (1)  the  signification  of  a  term 

by  the  indication  of  its  historical  relations,  or  (2)  the  form  of  the  term  itself 

Etymology.  ....,,,  -nr  r     ^  ^   ■    ■, 

by  associatmg  it  witli  other  known  terms.  Most  of  the  terms  which-require 
etymological  explanation  fall  under  one  of  the  three  following  heads :  {a)  Scientific  terms  con- 
structed out  of  Greek  or  Latin  elements :  It  has  generally  been  deemed  sufiicient  in  these  cases 
simply  to  indicate  the  Greek  or  Latin  words  entering  into  the  construction,  without  comment  as  to 
the  principle  of  structure,  etc.  (b)  Words  of  Komance  origin :  These  have  generally  been  traced 
back  along  the  route  by  which  they  entered  English  to  their  Latin  form,  or  to  their  source  in  other 
languages,  (c)  Teutonic  words :  These,  or  their  Old  English  forms,  have  been  brought  into  com- 
parison with  the  cognate  forms  in  other  Teutonic  languages,  especially  Modern  German,  and  finally 
reduced  through  their  fundamental  Teutonic  form  to  such  comparison  with  their  Indo-European 
cognates  as  seemed  practicable  and  serviceable. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  words  a  careful  discrimination  must  be  made  between  descent  and 
adoption.  In  the  case  of  descent,  as  from  Indo-European  to  Teutonic  to  Old  English  to  Middle 
English  to  Modern  English,  or  from  Indo-European  to  Latin  to  Old  French  to  Modern  French,  the 
sign  >  has  been  universally  employed,  the  movement  from  the  older  to  the  younger  being  viewed 
as  from  greater  to  less,  i.  e.  the  sign  is  interpreted  as  an  arrow-head.  The  opposite  sign  <  is  used 
in  tracing  back  the  line  of  descent,  as  from  Middle  English  to  Old  English,  etc.  The  colon  (:) 
has  been  used  to  connect  forms  which  represent  in  sister  languages  or  dialects  descent  from  one 
and  the  same  word  ;  e.  g.  French  mur:  Italian  9/iafuro:  Spanish  onachwo  <  Latin  maturus.  In 
the  case  of  adoption,  attention  has  been  first  of  all  directed  to  the  route  by  ■which  the  word  came, 
and  when  the  citation  of  the  form  in  an  intermediate  stage  seemed  uimecessary  this  route  has  been 
indicated  by  use  of  "  via,"  e.  g.  abmidance  via  Old  French  from  Latin  ahundantia.  To  indicate 
adoption  the  word  "  from  "  has  been  universally  employed,  e.  g./e«s(!  from  Old  Yrenchfeste,  hut 
when  no  essential  change  of  form  is  involved  the  sign  =  is  used;  e.  g.  _/(V<' =  French /("<e ; 
Latin  cmnohium  =  Greek  koivo^iov.  The  common  and  confusing  use  of  the  word  "  from  "  as  indi- 
cating derivation  is  displaced  by  the  expression  "  deriv.  of  "  (derivative  of) ;  thus  Latin  capita'lis, 
deriv.  of  caput.  The  word  "  from,"  while  always  implying  a  loan  from  another  language,  may, 
however,  also  cover  derivation  from  a  loan-word,  when  the  necessities  of  space  forbid  the  enumera- 
tion of  all  the  steps  in  the  history  of  the  form  ;  thus  "conduct,  from  Latin  con dii' cere.'''' 

As  the  pronunciation  of  foreign  names  is  often  a  source  of  much  difficulty,  even  to  many  well- 
educated  persons,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  remove  this  difficulty  by  introducing  a  simple  system 
of  phonetic  respelling,  a  key  to  which  is  given  on  another  page.  No 
refinements  have  been  attempted,  the  purpose  benig  smiply  to  represent  m 
a  fairly  accurate  manner  the  sounds  of  the  names  respelled.  The  pronunciation  adopted  in  cases 
of  doubt  is  that  of  the  most  approved  authorities.  As  a  rule,  English  names  need  no  such  re- 
spelling,  the  pronunciation  being  sufficiently  shown  l)y  indicating  the  primary  accent,  but  names 
that  are  irregularly  proncnniced,  e.  g.  Chohnondeley  (chuni'lee),  have  been  respelled.     No  attempt 


PREFACE  XXV 

Las  been  made  to  use  in  every  case  a  separate  symbol  for  each  distinct  sound,  as  such  a  scheme 
would  necessarily  be  intricate,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  confusing  to  those  for  whose  benefit  it  is 
intended.  Different  sounds  which  are  so  nearly  alike  as  not  to  be  distinguished  by  the  ordinary 
observer  have  been  represented  by  the  same  symbol.  Thus  Spanish  h  and  v,  and  German  w,  are 
represented  by  the  symbol  v ;  Spanish  /,  German  ch  and  g  (when  following  immediately  after  the 
vowels  a,  o,  u),  and  Kussian  kh  have  all  been  represented  by  the  symbol  kh. ;  while  Spanish  </, 
Danish  d  (at  the  end  of  a  syllable),  and  English  d  have  been  represented  by  the  letter  d.  It  has 
not  been  thought  best  to  indicate  the  peculiar  gutturals  of  the  Oriental  languages,  as  they  could 
not  be  pronounced  even  with  approximate  accuracy  except  by  persons  already  familiar  with  them. 


In  the  typographical  execution  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  as  well  as  in  the  editorial  work,  no  effort 
has  been  spared  to  achieve  the  highest  possible  excellence.  Those  familiar  with  the  former  edi- 
tions will  be  pleased  to  observe  that  the  size  of  the  page  has  been  increased,  in  order  that  a 
larger  and  plainer  type  may  be  used.  The  maps  have  all  been  carefully  revised  by  competent 
geographers,  and  their  number  nearly  doubled.  As  in  former  editions,  the  maps  have  l)een 
indexed,  in  order  to  facilitate  ready  reference  from  the  text  to  the  exact  location  of  the  place 
sought  for.  A  new  and  valuable  feature  is  the  introduction  of  colored  plans  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  world.  Illustrations  have  been  very  freely  used,  not  for  the  purpose  of  adorning  the 
page,  but  to  give  information  in  regard  to  the  matter  in  hand. 

Although  the  Cyclopiedia  is  the  work  of  a  very  large  number  of  different  writers,  each 
preserving  to  a  certain  extent  his  own  individuality  of  method,  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the 
editor-in-chief  to  bring  the  whole  into  such  reasonable  proportions  and  such  uniformity  of  style 
as  the  importance  of  the  various  subjects  has  seemed  to  require  and  the  individuality  of  the 
writers  would  permit.  In  this  impc)rtant  work  he  has  been  ably  seconded  by  the  managing 
editor,  Mr.  Robert  Lilley,  who  had  the  invaluable  experience  of  being  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Century  Dictionary  during  the  entire  progress  of  the  preparation  and  publication  of  that  great 
work.  j\rost  generous  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  Charles  H.  Thurber,  assistant  to  the  editor- 
in-chief,  for  the  valuable  aid  he  has  rendered  in  many  different  ways,  but  especially  in  the  work 
of  assigning  the  various  subjects,  and  in  the  revision  and  preparation  of  many  articles  that  did 
not  quite  come  within  the  .scope  of  any  of  the  regular  departments.  To  guard  in  every  ]>rac- 
ticable  way  against  typographical  errors,  the  proofs  have  been  read  not  only  by  the  proof-readers 
in  the  i)rinting-house  and  by  the  individual  writers,  but  also  by  the  managing  editor  and  his  edi- 
torial as.-<i.stants,  and  by  .several  experienced  proof-readers,  in  the  office  of  publication ;  and,  finally, 
they  have  all  been  subjected  to  the  scrutiny  of  the  editor-in-chief. 

The  result  of  all  these  efforts  is  given  to  the  public  in  the  confident  hope  that  something  has 
been  accomplished  for  the  wider  dissemination  of  accurate  knowledge. 

CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS. 


MAPS    IN   VOL.    I. 


AFRICA 

ALAHAMA      . 

ALASKA 

AMERICA,  XORTH  . 
CENTRAL 
SOUTH 

ARIZONA 

ARKANSAS    . 

ASIA     . 

AUSTRALIA  . 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


PAGE 

63 
90 
96 
148 
150 
153 
316 
318 
366 
416 
418 


CITIES. 


BALTIMORE 

474 

BERLIN 

593 

BOSTON 

710 

BROOKLYN    

796 

BUFFALO       

820 

PECULIAR   PHONETIC   SYMBOLS 

USED  IN  THE  WRITING  OR  TRANSLITERATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  LANGUAGES. 


ie: 

ai : 


bh: 
b: 


ch: 


dh: 
d: 

dh; 
d: 


gh; 

1.1: 
If: 


etc.:  lont;  vowels;  in  the  Scandinavian  languages  the 
accent  (a,  e,  etc.)  is  used  to  denote  length. 

a  nasalized  a;  so  used  in  the  transliteration  of  the  Ira- 
nian languages. 

labialized  guttural  a  in  Swedish. 

open  a  of  Eng.  hat,  used  chiefly  in  0.  Eng. 

used  in  Gothic  to  denote  e  (open),  in  distinction  from 
di,  the  true  diphthong. 

used  in  Gothic  to  denote  0  (open),  in  distinction  from 
du,  the  true  diphthong. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  labial  aspirate  (cf.  vh). 

voiced  bilabial  (or  labio-dental  ?)  spirant,  used  in  dis- 
cussions of  Teutonic  dialects. 

voiceless  palatal  sibilant,  similar  to  Eng.  .s/i,  used  espe- 
cially in  transliteration  of  Sanskrit. 

frequently  used.  e.  g.  in  Slavonic  languages,  to  denote 
the  sound  of  Eng.  eh  in  cheek. 

voiceless  palatal  explosive,  commonly  used  in  translit- 
eration of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

as  used  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit,  a  voiceless 
palatal  aspirate,  an  aspirate  being  an  explosive  with 
excess  of  breath ;  as  used  in  German  grammar,  the 
symbol  for  a  voiceless  palatal  or  guttural  spirant. 

voiced  dental  as|)irate  (ef.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

voiced  cerebral  explosive,  so  used  in  transliteration  of 
Sanskrit. 

voiced  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

voiced  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
tJt,  in  then ;  so  used  in  the  Teutonic  and  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  in  phonetic  writing. 

a  short  open  e,  used  in  Teutonic  grammar,  particularly 
in  wi-iting  O.  II.  G. 

the  short  indefinite  or  "obscure"  vowel  of  Eng.  gar- 
dener; used  in  the  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms, 
and  in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

voiced  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive,  used  most  fre- 
quently in  Indo-Eur.  reconstructions. 

voiced  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Jlod. 
Greek  7,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  0.  Eng. 

a  voiceless  breathing,  the  Sanski'it  visarya. 

a  labialized  /(,  similar  to  wh  in  Eng.  ichat ;  used  in 
transliteration  of  Gothic  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

voiceless  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Ger- 
man ch,  and  used  iji  transliteration  of  the  Iranian 
languages. 

the  semi-vowel  y.  or  consonant  form  of  1';  used  in  pho- 
netic writing  and  reconstructions  of  Indo-Eur.  forms. 


j :  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit  and  tlie  Iranian  lan- 
guages a  voiced  palatal  explosive ;  in  the  Teutonic 
languages  a  semi-vowel  (=  y),  for  wliieh  in  Indo-Eur. 
reconstructions  ;'  is  generally  used. 

jh:   in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  palatal  aspirate  (ef.  ch). 

kh :  in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

\ :  the  guttural  ("  thick  "  or  "  deep  ")  of  the  Slavonic  and 
some  of  the  Scandinavian  languages. 

1 :  vowel  / :  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruct- 
ing Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writing. 

n  :  nasal  vowel ;  used  in  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

II :     in  Sanskrit  the  cerebral  nasal. 

I'l :    in  Sanskrit  the  guttural  nasal  (see  following). 

D  :  the  guttural  nasal,  equivalent  to  Eng.  n  in  longer ;  used 
in  transliteration  of  Iranian  lauguages. 

n  :  palatal  nasal,  similar  to  gn  in  Fr.  regiier ;  used  in  trans- 
literating Sanskrit  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

ii:     palatalized  0:  used  in  German  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

q  :    short  open  o  in  Scandinavian. 

0 :     short  palatalized  0  (ii)  in  Scandinavian. 

ph:  in  Sanskrit,  voiceless  labial  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

4:  voiceless  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive  :  used  in  recon- 
structions of  Indo-Eur.  forms  and  in  other  phonetic 
writing. 

r  :  vowel  ;• :  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruc- 
tions of  Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writ- 
ing. 

s  :  voiceless  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  Eng.  ah  :  used 
in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages  and  in  pho- 
netic writing. 

s:  voiceless  cerebral  spirant:  used  in  transliterating  .San- 
skrit. 

th  :   in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  dental  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

th :  in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cereliral  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

f :     in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  explosive. 

^  :  a  form  of  dental  spirant  used  in  transliterating  the 
Iranian  languages  (represented  in  .histi"s  transliter- 
ation by  t). 

Y  :  voiceless  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  thin  ;  used  in  Teutonic  dialects  and  in  phonetic 
writing. 

u :    consonant  form  of  u:  used  in  phonetic  writing. 

?. :  voiced  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  x  in  Eng.  p??n«- 
ure.  and  toy  in  Fr.Jardin:  used  in  Iranian,  Slavonic, 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

7,:  a  symbol  frequently  used  in  the  writing  of  0.  II.  G.  to 
indicate  a  voiced  dental  sibilant  (Eng.  z),  in  distinc- 
tion from  z  as  sign  of  the  affricata  (/x). 


P]XPLANATION   OF   THE   SIGNS   AND   ABBREVIATIONS 
USED   IX   THE   ETYMOLOGIES. 


>,  yielding  by  descent,  i.  e.  under  tlio  (iiierutioii  of  iilionctic  law. 

<,  descended  from. 

=,  borrowed  without  change  from. 

:  ,  cognate  with. 

+  ,  a  sign  joining  the  constituent  elements  of  a  compound. 

* ,  a  sign  appended  to  a  word  the  existence  of  which  is  inferred. 


abhit. 

ablative 

accus. 

accusative 

adjec. 

adjective 

adv. 

adverb 

cf. 

compare 

conjunc. 

conjunction 

deriv.  of 

derivative  of 

diinin. 

diminutive 

fem. 

feminine 

geuit. 

genitive 

imper. 

imperative 

impf. 

imperfect 

indie. 

indicative 

infill. 

infinitive 

niasu. 

masculine 

noniin. 

nominative 

partic. 

participle 

porf. 

perfect 

l)hu-. 

plural 

prep. 

preposition 

pres. 

present 

pron. 

pronoun 

sc. 

scUioet.  supply 

sing. 

singidar 

subst. 

substantive 

vocat. 

vocative 

Anglo-Fr. 

Anglo-French 

Arab. 

Arabic 

Avest. 

Avestan 

Dan. 

Danish 

Kng. 

English 

Fr. 

French 

Germ. 

German 

Goth. 

Gothic 

Or. 

Greek 

11  el.. 

Hebrew 

Icel. 

Icelandic 

hal. 

Italian 

Lat. 

Latin 

hith. 

Lithuanian 

Media'V.  hat. 

IMediicval  Latin 

Mod.  Lat. 

Jlodern  Latin 

M.  Eng. 

Middle  English 

M.  11.  Germ. 

Middle  High  German 

0.  Hulg. 

Old  Bulgarian  (=  Church  .Slavonic) 

0.  Eng. 

Old  English  (=  Anglo-Saxon) 

().  Fr. 

Old  French 

().  Fris. 

Old  Frisian 

O.  11.  (ierm. 

Old  High  German 

U.  N. 

OUi  Xoree 

().  Sax. 

Old  Saxon 

I'ers. 

Pei-sian 

I'orlug. 

Portuguese 

I'rov. 

Provencal 

Sanskr. 

Sanskrit 

Se. 

Scotch 

.Span. 

Spanish 

Swed. 

Swedish 

Teuton. 

Teutonic 

KEY   TO   THE   PRONUNCIATION. 


an as  n   in  fallier,   and   in  the   second   syllable   of 

armada. 
a"a same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  the  initial  syllable 

of  armada,  Arditi,  etc. 

a as  final  o.  in  armada,  peninsula,  etc. 

a as  o  in  fat,  and  i  in  French  fi?i. 

ay  or  a. .  as  ay  in  nay,  or  as  a  in  fate. 
fiy  or  a.,  same,  but  less  prolonged. 

a as  ffl  in  welfare. 

aw as  a  in  fall,  all. 

ee as  in  meet,  or  as  i  in  machine. 

e~e same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  final  ;'  in  Arditi. 

e as  in  men,  pet. 

e obscure  e,  as  in  Bigelow,  and  final  e  in  Ileitie. 

e as  in  her,  and  eu  in  French  -etir. 

i as  in  if,  sin. 

i as  in  five,  swine. 

i same,  but  less  prolonged. 

o as  in  mole,  sober. 

0 same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  sohriety. 

o as  in  on,  not,  pot. 

00 as  in  fool,  or  as  «  in  rule. 

do as  in  hook,  or  as  u  in  put,  pull. 

oi as  in  noise,  and  oy  in  boy,  or  as  eu  in  German 

Bemt. 
ow as  in  now.  and  as  au  in  German  7iO!ts. 


o as  in  Oothe,  and  as  eu  in  French  mcm/,  Chintreuil. 

u as  in  J«<,  hub. 

» obscure  o,  as  final  o  in  Compfon. 

u as  in  German  sild,  and  as  u  in  French  Buzaii- 

cais,  ru. 
y  or  I.  .  .  .  see  I  or  y. 

yu as  M  in  mule. 

yu same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  singular. 

ch as  in  German  ich. 

g as  in  gel,  give  (never  as  in  gist,  congest). 

hw as  ivh  in  which. 

kh as  ch  in  German  nacht,  g  in  German  tag,  ch  in 

Scotch  loch,  andy  in  Spanish  Badajos,  etc. 
ri nasal  n,  as  in  French  fin,  Bourbon,  and  nasal  m, 

as  in  French  notn,  Portuguese  Sam. 
n  or  n-y..   Spanish   n,   as   in    canon,   piUon,    French    and 

Italian  gn,  etc.,  as  in  Boulogne. 
I  or  y. . . .  French  I,  liquid  or  mouille,  as  (-i)ll-  in  French 

Baudrillart,  and  (-i)l  in  Chintreuil. 

th as  in  thin. 

til as  in  though,  them,  mother. 

r as  w  in  German  zivei,  and  h  in  Spanish  Cordoba. 

sh as  in  shine. 

sh as  s  in  pleasure,  audy  in  French  JoMr. 

All  other  letters  are  used  with  tlieir  ordinai-y  English 
values. 


KOTE. 


The  values  of  most  of  the  signs  used  in  the  above  Key  are  plainly  shown  by  the  examples  given.  But  those  of 
6.  i'l,  ch,  kh.  n,  and  c,  which  have  no  etiuivalents  in  English,  can  not  be  sufficiently  indicated  without  a  brief  explanation, 
which  is  here  given. 

6.  The  sound  represented  by  this  symbol  is  approximately  that  of  -u-  in  hurt  or  -e-  in  her,  but  is  materially  different 
from  either.  It  is  properly  pronounced  with  the  tongue  in  tlie  position  it  has  wlien  a  is  uttered  and  with  tlie  lips  in 
the  position  assumed  in  uttering  6. 

u.  This  vowel  is  produced  with  the  lips  rounded  as  in  uttering  oo  and  witli  tlie  tongue  in  the  position  required  in  utter- 
ing ee,  into  which  sound  it  is  most  naturally  corrupted. 

ch  and  kh.  These  are  both  rough  breathings  or  spirants  made  with  considerable  force,  ch  being  made  between  the  flat 
of  the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate,  and  kh  between  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,  ch  approaches  in  sound  to  Eng- 
lish sh,  but  is  less  sibilant  and  is  made  further  back  in  the  mouth  ;  A:h  is  a  guttural  and  has  a  hawking  sound. 

I  or  y.  These  are  both  used  to  represent  the  sound  of  French  1  mouille.  in  (-i)ll-  and  (-i)l.  which  resembles  English  -y- 
in  lawyer.  Final  I,  that  i.s,  (-i)l,  may  be  approximated  by  starting  to  pronounce  lawyer  and  stopping  abruptly  with 
tlie-y-. 

n  or  n-y.  The  consonants  represented  by  n  (Spanish  n,  French  and  Italian  gn.  etc.)  are  practically  equivalent  to  English 
-ni-  or  -ny-  in  bimion,  bunyon,  onion,  etc.,  and  except  when  final  are  represented  by  n-y.  Final  il,  as  French  -gn(e), 
may  be  produced  by  omitting  the  sound  of  -on  in  the  pronunciation  of  onion. 

V.     This  may  be  i)ronounced  by  attempting  to  utter  English  v  with  the  use  of  the  lips  alone. 
See  Prkface  (p.  xxiv.)  ami  the  article  Pronunciation  of  Foiieion  Names. 


JOHNSON'S 
UNIVEESAL    CYCLOE^^DIA. 


A 


tlie  first  letter  of  the  alpliabet.  As  tlic 
leading  letter  of  the  alphabet,  A  inherits 
its  position  from  the  ancient  Pha^nieian 
alphabet,  anil  as  it  evidently  did  not  there 
indicate  the  vowel  a.  it  can  not  be  said  to 
owe  its  primacy  to  tlie  jiecnliai-  cliaracter 
of  this  vowel.  (See  Alpha  hex.)  Itsori;;- 
inal  name,  aleph,  was  pronounced  alpha 
by  the  Greeks.  An  old  English  name,  ^■l-/)e/--.se,  or  Aper- 
sic,  i.  e.  "  A  by  itself,"  like  E-per-se,  etc.,  probably  an  adap- 
tation of  the  Kyzantine  «  \fii\hv  ('"  e  simple  "  to  distinguish 
from  oi)  and  8  <pt\hv  (to  distiuKuish  from  oi).  is  now  nearly 
obsolete  (but  cf.  a;H/je;>'««(/ =  &  perse &).  ^t  with  a  stroke 
above  it  (i),  in  the  ancient  (Jreek,  denoted  the  first  nu- 
meral, but  (f  with  the  stroke  lieneath  stoofl  for  1,000.  In 
logic,  A  is  the  sign  employed  to  denote  a  universal  aflirm- 
atjve  proposition.  A'  (or  "  A  No.  1  ")  is  often  applied  in 
mercantile  affairs  to  denote  any  article  of  the  very  highest 
class.  In  registering  vessels.  A  designates  the  character  of 
the  hull  of  the  vessel,  while  the  figure  1  marks  the  efficient 
state  of  her  anchors,  cables,  stores,  etc.  In  Latin,  A  stands 
for  several  proper  names,  especially  for  the  pra-nomen  A  uliis. 
For  other  uses  of  A  as  an  abbreviation,  see  Ahbreviations. 

Kevised  by  B.  I.  Wheelkh. 
A  :  a  note  in  music,  the  major  sixth  of  the  scale  of  C  major. 
It  is  the  standard  tone  from  which  as  a  starting-point  most 
instruments  are  tuned.     See  Pitch. 

A,  ft:  Swedish  a  ;  sounded  as  English  long  o  (6). 

A,  Ab,  or  AI)S  :  a  Latin  particle  .signifying  "  from,"  "off," 
"away,"  and  forming  the  prefix  of  a  multitude  of  English 
words,  as  abduct,  to  "  lead  or  take  away " ;  abstract,  to 
"  draw  away  or  from";  art'i-t.ta  "turn  away."  This  must 
be  discriminated  in  modern  Ivnglish  from  other  a  prefi.xcs 
of  various  origin,  as  in  abed,  alive,  once  ci  year,  where  a 
represents  the  old  English  preposition  an,  or  in  amuse, 
avenge,  where  a  is  a  French  re|)resentative  of  Latin  ad. 

All :  the  name  of  several  rivers  or  streams  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  Russia,  and  France.  It  is  supposed 
to  signify  "  water,"  and  to  be  etymologiitally  related  to  the 
Latin  ayua.  The  kehindic  woiil  for  "river"  is  a.  In 
Swedish  this  i)rimitive  form  becomes  it,  and  in  Danish  na, 
and  these  syllaliles  become  very  often  the  termination  of 
names  of  rivers  in  the  three  countries  mentioned.  Aacll,  or 
Acll,  another  form  of  the  same,  constitutes  a  part  of  several 
geographical  names,  us  Aac/ien  (the  German  of  Ais-la-C'ha- 
pelle),  Biberach,  etc. 

Anciien :  See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

AncTPSoii,  SvExn  :  Danish  historian  ;  flourished  in  the  sec- 
ond halt  of  the  twelfth  centuiy.  He  wrote  Compendiona 
hintoria  rfi/uin  Dnniiv.  the  first  continuous  history  of  Den- 
mark. It  is  written  in  Ijatin.  and  describes  Denmark  from 
Skjohl  down  to  the  year  1185.  The  latest  Danish  transla- 
tion of  Aageson's  work  is  by  Fengcr  (1842). 

Aal'boi'gr :  a  seaport  of  Denmark,  in  .Jutland,  on  the 
south  shore  of  the  Lymfiord,  through  which  vessels  pass  into 
the  Cattegat,  and  68  miles  N.  W.  of  Aarhuus  (see  map  of 
Europe,  ref.  4-0).  The  number  of  vessels  arriving  here 
annually  amounts  to  about  000.  Pop.  (1890)  19,503. 
1 


Aii'H  Pash'a,  ^Ii'iiEJiEn  Emix:  Turkish  statesman;  b.  in 
1815  at  C'onstantinoj)le  ;  was  appointed  JMinisler  of  Foreign 
Affairs  Aug.  15,  184.5,  which  position  he  filled  three  times 
from  1846  to  1853.  In  Dec,  1845,  he  became  chancellor  of 
the  divan,  in  184(>  pasha,  and  in  1853  for  the  first  time  grand 
vizier,  which  position  he  afterward  held  several  times.  In 
1855  he  represented  Turkey  at  tlie  conferences  of  A'ienna 
and  Paris,  and  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  JVIar.  30,  1856. 
In  Jlay,  1864,  he  presided  at  the  conference  of  European 
powers  tor  settling  the  Roumanian  question.  In  1867,  while 
the  sultan  undertook  a  tour  over  the  Continent,  Aali  Pasha 
was  appointed  regent  of  the  empire.  In  the  same  year  he 
went  to  Candia  to  settle  the  difficulties  there.  D.  Sept.  6, 
1871. 

Aall.  .Iakob  :  b.  at  Porsgrund,  Southern  Norway,  .July  27, 
1773;  studied  theology  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen, 
afterward  natural  hisiijry  and  mineralogy  at  the  mining- 
school  of  Freiberg;  settled  in  17!)'.)  on  his  estate,  Niis  Iron- 
works, near  Arendal ;  and  tlivided  his  time  between  the  de- 
velopment of  his  extensive  possessions,  pviblic  business,  and 
literaiT  occupations.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
among  the  representatives  who  assembled  at  Eidsvold  in  1814 
and  f(u-med  the  present  free  Norwegian  constitution,  and  he 
satin  the  Storthing  from  1816-3().  D.  Aug.  4,  1844.  His 
Erindringer  ,wnt  llidrag  til  ^'orges  Bi.storie  fra  ISOO  til 
1815  (3  vols.,  1844-45)  is  one  of  the  principal  .sources  of  the 
history  of  Xorway  during  that  period,  lie  also  published 
a  translation  of  Snorrc  Sturlason"s  Ileiniskringla  (3  vols., 
1838-39). 

Aar :  a  river  of  Switzerland,  rising  in  the  Grimsel  and 
Schreckhorn  mountains  in  the  canton  of  Bern  ;  forms  the 
remarkalile  fall  of  Handeck  ;  traverses  the  lakes  of  Brienz 
and  Thun,and  enters  the  Rhine  ojiposite  Waldshut ;  length, 
175  miles.  It  is  navigable  from  Thun  to  its  mouth.  Aar 
is  also  the  name  of  several  rivers  of  Germany. 

Aa'rail  :  a  town  of  Switzerland  ;  capital  of  Aargau,  on 
the  river  Aar,  63  miles  by  railway  W.  of  Zurich  (see  map 
of  Switzerland,  ref.  3-F).  It  has  manufactures  of  silk  and 
cotton  stuffs,  mathematical  instruments,  etc.  In  1798  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  Helvetic  republic.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

.4anI-Vark  [Dutch  of  S.  Afr.  aarde.  earth  +  vark,  pig; 
Jjat.  porcus'] :  literally  "  earth-pig  " ;  a  mammal  (Orycfer'opus 
cape7i/tis)  of  the  order  Edetita- 

/ff,  found  in  South  Africa.     It  —», -.  .  .       ,_ 

is  a  plantigrade,  is  about  5 
feet  long,  including  the  tail, 
burrows  in  the  gro\ind  if  pur- 
sued, and  quickly  enters  so  far 
that  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  pursuer.  It  feeds  on  ants, 
seeking  its  prey  by  night;  it 
readily  breaks  down  the  walls 
of  the  ant-hills,  catching  the 
insects  wit  li  its  long  [jrehensile 
and  slimy  tongue.  Its  flesh 
is  often  used  as  food.  A  second  s|iecies  (Orycteropus  wthp. 
opicus)  inhabits  Northeastern  Africa. 

Aard-Wolf  [Dutch  of  S.  Afr.  earth-wolf]:  lit.  "earth- 
wolf  "  ;  a  carnivorous  digitigrade  luamnial  (Prot'eles  crista'- 


Aard-Vark. 


2 


AARGAU 


ABAD 


ius),  a  native  of  Soutli  Africa.  It  is  about  equal  in  size  to 
a  fox,  and  resembles  a  hya'na  in  most  details  of  structure  and 
in  general  appearance,  differing  conspicuously  in  the  greatly 
reduced  molar  teetli,  which  are  almost  rudimentary.  It 
burrows  in  tlie  ground,  has  nocturnal  habits,  and  feeds  on 
small  insects,  larva',  and  decomposing  animal  substances. 

Aar'gau  (Fr.  Aargovie) :  a  canton  in  the  north  of  Switzer- 
lanil,  l)()undud  on  the  N.  by  Germany,  on  the  E.  by  Zurich, 
on  the  S.  by  Lucerne,  and  on  the  W.  by  Basel  and  Solotluirn. 
Area,  542  sq.  miles  (see  map  of  Switzerland,  ref.  2-F).  The 
chief  rivers  are  tlie  Aar  and  the  Limmat.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  fertile  and  well-cidtivated  liills.  Its  minerals  are  unim- 
portant, but  it  has  reuiarkable  paUeontologioal  remains  in 
its  rocks.  Fruit  of  all  kinds  is  produced  in  large  quantities, 
and  many  cattle  are  raised  here.  It  has  important  cotton- 
factories.  Tliere  are  mineral  springs  at  Baden  and  Schinz- 
nach.  Pop.  (1880)  li)8,G4.5,  of  whom  108,029  were  Protes- 
tants, 88,8S)3  Koman  Catholics,  489  belonged  to  other  Chris- 
tian churches,  and  l,'3o4  were  Jews ;  (1894)  190,246.  Aargau 
formed  part  of  the  canton  of  Bern  until  1798,  biit  was 
erected  into  a  separate  canton  after  the  Helvetic  republic 
was  proclaimed,  and  was  organized  in  1803.  The  constitu- 
tion dates  from  1841,  and  was  revised  in  1852  and  1862. 
Capital,  Aarau.    See  Miillcr's  Der  Aargau. 

Aar'hiuis:  a  seaport  of  Denmark,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Jutland,  on  the  Cattegat,  37  miles  S.  E.  of  Viborg  (see  map 
of  Europe,  ref.  4-E).  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  museum,  a  li- 
brary, and  various  manufactories.  Pop.  (1880)  24,831 ;  (1890) 
33,308. 

Aar'on  (Ileb.  |nns):  the  first  high  priest  of  Israel ;  was 
a  great-grandson  of  Levi,  urUess  there  are  omissions  in  the 
genealogy,  lie  was  three  years  older  than  his  brother  Moses 
(Ex.  vii.  7).  They  had  a  sister,  Miriam,  and  perhaps  an 
older  sister  (Ex.  ii.  4).  An  impulsive  and  eloquent  man, 
he  was  appointed  siiokesnum  to  Moses,  whom  he  assisted  in 
the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  the  bondage  in  Egypt. 
He  died  on  Mount  Ilor,  which  is  still  called  the  "  Mountain 
of  Aaron,"  and  was  succeeded  in  the  priesthood  by  his  son 
Eleazar.  Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Aaron  ben-Aslier:  Jewish  scholar  of  Tiberias  of  the 
tenth  century.  The  variations  in  the  text  of  our  Hebrew 
Bibles  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  vowels.  One  of  the 
two  existing  recensions,  the  Occidental  or  Palestinian,  is 
the  work  of  Aaron  ben-Asher,  and  is  generally  preferred  to 
that  of  his  rival,  Moses  ben-Naphtali.  The  famous  codex, 
called  after  Ben-Asher,  was  preserved  at  Berea  (the  bibli- 
cal Helbon),  and  is  the  original  of  our  present  Masoretic 
text.  See  Strack,  Prulegomj^na ;  Graetz,  History  of  the 
Jews.  C.  H.  Toy. 

Aaron,  Samuel  :  Baptist  minister  and  educator ;  b.  in 
180U  at  New  Britam,  Pa.;  ordained  in  1829;  held  pastor- 
ates at  New  Britain  and  Norristown,  Pa.,  and  at  Burlington 
and  Mt.  Holly,  N.  J.  He  also  gained  great  reputation  as  a 
teacher  m  various  schools,  especially  at  Treemount  Seminary, 
near  Norristown,  and  the  Mt.  Holly  Institute.  He  was  the 
author  of  various  text-books.  D.  at  Mt.  HoUv,  N.  J.,  Apr. 
11,  1863. 

Aar'sens,  or  Aarssens,  Fraxciscus  van :  b.  at  The 
Hague  in  loT2;  son  of  the  Dutch  statesman  Cornells  van 
Aarsens  (1543-1624).  The  younger  Van  Aarsens  was  sent 
to  the  court  of  France  as  resident  in  1598,  and  as  ambassa- 
dor in  1609  and  m  1627;  to  Venice  from  1609  to  1615,  and 
again  in  1619;  to  Kugland  in  1626  and  in  1640,  when  he 
negotiateil  the  marriage  between  the  Prince  of  Orange  (Will- 
iam II.  of  Nassau)  and  the  Princess  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles 
I.  of  England.     I),  in  1611. 

Aa'sen,  Ivar  Andreas:  Norwegian  writer;  b.  at  Aascn 
in  Sondniore,  Aug.  5,  1813;  was  at  first  a  school-te.acher,  but 
subsequently  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the  study  of  the 
Norwegian  ilialeets.  He  was  supported  in  this  study  by  the 
Drontheini  Assoc-iation  of  Sciences,  which  furnished  him 
the  means  of  visiting  all  parts  of  the  country.  He  wrote 
Det  Norslte  folkcsprogs  grammnlik  (1848) ;  Ordbog  over  (Jet 
Norske  folkesprng  (1852  ;  new  and  much  improved  ed.  1873) ; 
and  Norske.  ordspnig  (1856). 

Aas'vajr,  or  Vapro,  Islands:  a  group  of  isl.ands  under 
tlio  Arctic  cinde,  about  10  miles  from  the  Norwegian  coast, 
formerly  lease  1  for  a  small  price  to  two  poor  tisheruien.  At 
present  they  are  one  of  the  most  important  fishing-places 
in  Europe.  .Vbout  Deo.  10,  when  the  herrings  arrive,  over 
10,000  tisheruuMi  come  here,  and  in  two  or  three  weeks  catch 
about  200,000  kegs  of  herrings.    From  Jan.  1  to  Dec.  1  the 


islands  are  inhabited  by  only  a  few  families.  (For  location, 
see  map  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  ref.  5-D.) 

Ab,  or  Abs:  See  A. 

Ab:  the  eleventh  month  of  the  Jewish  civil  year,  and 
the  fifth  of  the  ecclesiastical  year,  corresponding  to  part  of 
July  and  part  of  Augiast. 

Abab'de:  a  village  of  Middle  Egypt,  on  the  cast  bank  of 
the  Nile,  8  miles  .S.  of  Beni-Hassan.  Near  it  are  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  Antinoe  (or  Antiuoopolis),  a  city  built  by  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  (or  Adrian)  in  honor  of  his  favorite  An- 
tinolis. 

Ab'aca :  See  Maxilla  Hemp. 

Ab'aco,  or  Great  Abaco:  the  largest  of  the  Bahama 
islands,  80  miles  long;  its  N.  E.  point  is  in  lat.  25°  51'  N., 
Ion.  77°  5'  W.  Area  about  96  sq.  miles  (see  nutp  of  North 
America,  ref.  9-H).  Carleton  is  the  chief  town. — LrrTLE 
Abaco  lies  W.  of  the  northern  part  of  Abaco.  Population 
of  the  two  about  2,400. 

Ab'acHS  [Lat.,  from  Gr.  Sflol,  reckoning-board]:  a  cal- 
culating instrument  used  in  mercantile  transactions  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  is  still  used  by  the  Chinese, 
the  Japanese,  etc.,  and  to  a  certain  extent  is  used  in  a  very 
simple  form  in  the  schools  of  Europe  and  America  to  illus- 
trate addition  and  subtraction.  As  thus  used,  it  usually 
consists  of  several  parallel  wires  stretched  from  side  to  side 
of  a  rectangular  frame,  each  wire  carrying  ten  sliding  beads, 
or  counters.     The  wires  represent  successive  orders  of  units. 


Chinese  abacus. 

and  the  counters  stand  for  units  of  the  several  orders.  The 
Chinese  abacus,  or  swan-p'an  (literally  "  reckoning-board  "), 
called  in  Ja]ian  soro-han,  has  seven  (or  six)  beads  on  each 
wire,  divided  into  two  unequal  sections  by  a  crosspicce,  with 
five  beads  on  one  side  and  two  (in  Japan  generally  one)  on 
the  other.  Each  bead  in  the  larger  section  represents  one, 
and  in  the  smaller  section  five  (units,  lens,  hundreds,  etc., 
as  the  case  may  be).  Reckoning  on  the  swan-p"an  is  deci- 
mal. One  is  represented  by  pushing  up  to  the  crosspiece  a 
single  bead  on  the  larger  section  of  the  wire  chosen  to  repre- 
sent unity  ;  6  uuiy  be  added  to  that  by  pushing  up  another 
bead  on  "the  same  section  of  the  wire  and  bringing  down 
one  of  the  two  beads  on  the  shorter  section;  20  uuiy  be 
added  to  that  by  pushing  up  two  of  the  five  beads  on  the 
wire  next  on  the  left;  and  800  by  pushing  up  three  of  the 
five  beads  on  the  wire  to  the  left  of  t/iat,  and  bringing  down 
one  of  the  two  on  the  shorter  section  of  the  same  wire,  and 
so  on.  the  s\van-])'an  serving  merely  to  set  down  the  succes- 
sive steps  of  a  mental  calculation.  It  is  u.sed  for  the  most 
elaborate  calculations,  but  has  the  di'awback  that  in  case  of 
error  one  can  not  go  back  over  these  successive  steps  to  find 
out  where  the  error  is.  Ab'actis  Pgtiiagor  iciis  wasuncicntly 
a  name  for  the  multiplication  table.  The  word  has  also  an 
architectural  meaning,  and  signifies  the  level  tablet  placed 
between  the  entablature  and  the  capital  of  a  column. 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Abad  :  an  affix  of  Persian  origin,  signifying  "  abode," 
and  occurrini;  in  the  names  of  many  cities  in  the  East;  as 
IhjderCihad.  the  "abode  or  city  of  Hyder." 

Abiid:  the  name  of  several  kings  who  reigned  in  Jloor- 
ish  Spain.  Abad  I.  was  the  first  Moslem  kin^:  of  Seville. 
He  betfiin  to  reign  in  1023  and  died  in  1042.  Abad  III.,  the 
hust  of  this  dynasty,  died  in  1095. 

Abad.  DiKoo  Jose,  S.  J.:  Mexican  Latiuist  and  poet;  b. 
Julv  1.  1727,  in  the  state  of  Michoacan,  Mexico  ;  became  in 
1741  a  member  of  the  Jesuit  Society,  and  devoted  himself  tO' 


ABADDON 


ABATEMENT 


teaching.  In  1767.  wlien  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from 
Mexico,  Abail,  tlicn  rector  ol'  the  College  of  Qucretaro,  wsis 
obliged  to  fjo  into  exile  in  Italy,  where  he  lived  tor  some 
years  at  Ferrara.  Before  leavinjr  Jlcxico  lie  had  begun  to 
write  his  ffreatest  work,  a  Latin  [loem  entitled  i/e/osca  rf« 
Deo  Carmina.  The  first  twenty-nine  cantos  of  this  were 
published  in  Cadiz  in  17G'J:  and  this  edition  was  followed 
by  three  others  at  short  intervals,  each  containing  more 
matter  than  the  preceding  (Venice,  1773;  Ferrara,  1775; 
and  the  final,  complete  edition,  Cesena,  1780).  This  h^st 
edition  Abad  never  saw,  as  he  died  in  Barcelona,  Sept.  30, 
1779.  A.  R.  M.VKSU. 

Abad'doii :  a  Hebrew  name  (meaning  "  destruction  ")  ap- 
plied to  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit;  the  same  as  the 
Asmodeus  of  Tobit  iii.  8,  and  the  Aiwllyon  of  Kev.  ix.  11. 

Abaloiic:  See  Ear-Sukll. 

Ab'iiiiil :  the  name  of  one  of  the  rivers  of  Damasetis  men- 
tioned in  the  liible  (2  Kings  v.  12).  Its  identification  with 
the  modern  liarada  is  now  generally  accepted.  See  Porter's 
I'ive  Years  in  IJamaseus  (1855). 

.\bancay.  ab-an-ki' :  town  of  Peru,  in  the  department  of 
Cuzco  ;  situated  on  the  river  Abancay,  74  nules  \V.  S.  W.  of 
C'uzco  (see  nuip  of  .South  America,  ref.  5-H).  It  has  large 
sugar-refineries,  and  there  are  silver  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  estimated  at  about  1,2U0. 

Abau'doiimeiit  [from  the  Fr.  abandonner]:  in  law,  used 
in  sevLial  senses,  depending  upon  the  subject  to  which  it  is 
applied: 

1.  I/i  Insurance. — In  certain  cases  of  partial  loss  aban- 
donment is  the  transfer  by  the  insured  (at  his  election)  of 
the  entire  property  to  the  insurers,  in  order  to  claim  a  total 
loss.  The  insurers  would  thus  become  the  owners  of  the 
property  in  its  impaired  condition.  This  act  is  called  aban- 
donment, and  the  "total  loss"  thus  occasioned  is  termed 
conslruclive.  It  is  applicalde  particularly  to  marine  insur- 
ance. The  rules  by  which  the  subject  is  governed  in  Great 
Britain  ditfer  somewhat  from  those  in  force  in  the  United 
States.  The  general  principle  is  that  a  serious  injury  must 
have  happened  by  a  marine  peril  to  the  ship  or  cargo  (the 
value  must  have  usually  been  diminislied  more  than  one- 
half),  or  the  purposes  of  the  voyage  as  to  the  ship  must  have 
been  sid)stantially  defeated,  as  in  the  case  of  an  embargo  for 
an  indefinite  time.  The  act  of  abandonment  must  be  exer- 
cised by  the  insured  not  upon  mere  conjecture,  but  upon 
credible  information,  ami  without  delay.  No  particular  form 
is  necessary. 

2.  As  to  Personal  Property. — The  act  of  an  owner  who 
casts  away  or  otherwise  relinquishes  |)ersonal  property,  so 
as  to  cause  his  ownership  to  cease.  This  may  readily  occur 
in  the  case  of  property  at  sea.  The  intent  is  a  principal 
subject  of  impiiry.  Property  in  this  condition  is  otherwise 
called  "derelict." 

3.  Peal  Kstale. — Abandonment  in  this  branch  of  the  law 
applies  to  the  relinquishment  of  incorporeal  rights,  such  as 
easements.  There  can  be  no  abandonment  of  the  ownership 
of  the  land  itself.  This  must  be  parted  with  by  some  reco";- 
nized  mode  of  conveyance,  such  as  a  deed,  or  the  principle 
of  estoppel  must  be  invoked  or  the  rules  of  the  statute  of 
limitations. 

4.  By  Hushnnd  or  Wife. — In  the  legal  relation  of  hus- 
band and  wife  the  wonl  abandonment  is  frequently  ein- 
I)loyed  as  an  eijuivalent  to  desertion.  It  is  in  some  instances 
defined  by  statute. 

5.  In  the  Ciril  Law. — In  this  law  a  person  could  escape 
responsibility  for  a  tort  or  trespa.'^s  committed  by  his  slave 
or  animal  by  abandoning  the  slave  or  animal  to  the  person 
injured.  Hevised  by  IIexrv  Wade  Rooers. 

0.  In  old  ecclesiastical  law  ahanilimmmit  to  the  secular  arm 
meant  the  handing  over  of  offenders  by  the  chureh  authori- 
ties to  the  civil  power  for  such  punishment  as  could  not  be 
administered  by  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals.  In  the  case  of 
the  clergy,  deprivation  from  their  jirieslly  rank  preceded 
such  transfer  to  the  secular  authorities.  \V.  S.  Perrv. 

Aba'iio,  PiETRO  d'  (also  called  Petrus  de  Apono  or  de 
Piuliia):  b.  in  1240  at  Abano,  near  Padua;  studied  Greek  at 
Constantinople,  mathematics  at  Padua,  and  medicine  at 
Paris,  and  settled  at  Padua,  where  he  taught  alchemy  and 
as! rolo.ry  according  to  the  methods  of  Averroes,  and  prac- 
ticed medicine,  also  according  to  Arabic  methods,  with  such 
success  that  he  could  charge  Pope  llonorius  IV.,  who  called 
him  to  Rome  to  consult  him,  400  ducats  a  day.  Envious  of 
his  fame  and  riches,  the  clergy  denounced  him  as  a  sorcerer. 


as  possessor  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  etc.,  and  the  Inquisi- 
tion sentenced  him  to  lie  burncil.  He  died  a  natural  death, 
however,  in  the  dungeon  at  Padua,  in  1315  or  131(),  and  his 
corpse  was  rescued  by  a  friend,  lait  his  image  was  burned  in 
the  public  square.  His  principal  work.  Conciliator  differ- 
entiarum,  guce  inter  philosop/ws  et  medicos  versantar,  has 
often  been  reprinteil. 

Abar'ca,  Joaqi'In:  a  Spanish  bishop  and  leader  of  the 
absolutist  party;  b.  in  1780;  made  a  bishop  by  Ferdinand 
\'ll.,  on  account  of  his  zealous  advocacy  of  the  principles  of 
absolutism.  Subsequently  he  became  i)rime  minister  of 
Don  Carlos,  but  after  a  time  fell  into  disfavor  for  being  too 
moderate.     He  was  banished,  and  died  in  1844. 

Aba'i'illl  (meaning  '•  regions  beyond  ") :  a  mountain  range 
of  Jloab,  on  the  ea.st  side  of  Jordan,  opposite  Jericho,  mcn- 
liimed  in  Num.  xxvii.  12  and  elsewhere.  Pisgah  is  either 
the  same  as  Abarim  or  a  part  of  it.  This  line  of  mountains 
rises  to  the  height  of  nearly  3.()IM)  feet  above  the  Jlediler- 
ranean,  and  more  than  4,000  feel  above  the  Dead  Sea.  As 
seen  from  Jericho  or  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  summit  of  the 
range  is  apparently  almost  level.  But  recent  explorers  re- 
port consideraltle  inequalities  of  surface.  The  highest  of 
the  peaks,  still  called  Mount  Ncba  or  Nebbeh,  is  thought  to 
be  tile  Nebo  from  which  Moses  viewed  the  Land  of  Promise 
(Deut.  xxxiv.  1-4). 

Abascal',  Jose  Fernando:  Spanish  commander;  b.  at 
Oviedo  in  1743.  He  entered  the  army  in  1762;  served 
against  the  French  and  the  British:  became  intendant  of 
New  Galicia;  ami  in  l.S()4  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  Peru. 
He  was  an  able  and  popular  ruler,  and  accomplished  much 
for  the  ])eoi)le  of  Peru.  In  1812  he  was  made  a  marquis. 
He  was  recalled  in  1816.     D.  at  Madrid,  June  30,  1821. 

Aba'sia :  Sec  Abkasia. 

Altatcniont  [from  the  Pr.  abattre,  to  strike  away]  :  a  legal 
term  of  various  application  : 

1.  7'itle  to  Heal  Estate. — The  intrusion  or  wrongful  entry 
of  a  stranger  upon  land  after  its  owner's  death,  and  before 
the  entry  of  an  heir  or  devisee,  and  thus  kee))ing  him  out  of 
possession.    The  wi-ong-doer  is  termeil  an  abator. 

2.  Nuisances. — The  act  of  destroying  or  removing  a  nuis- 
ance, which  may  take  place  without  legal  process.  No  un- 
necessary damage  nnist  occur,  and  the  act  inust  be  done 
without  a  breach  of  the  peace. 

3.  Legacies  and  Debts. — In  respect  to  legacies  and  cred- 
itors' claims,  the  word  means  a  proportionate  reduction  of 
them  where  there  are  not  suiBcient  assets  to  make  full  pay- 
ment. 

4.  Pleadings. — The  effect  on  an  action  at  law  of  a  plea 
showing  that  the  writ  or  declaration  is  defective  and  incor- 
rect. A  defendant  may  assert  by  a  "  plea  in  abatement" 
that  the  plaintiff's  action  ought  to  cease  by  reason  of  some 
informality  or  irregularity.  It  is  called  a  dilatory  jilea,  be- 
cause it  does  not  meet  the  case  upon  the  merits.  Such  pleas 
are  not  favored  in  modern  law.  and  there  is  a  tendency  to 
confine  them  by  statute  within  narrow  limits.  If  the  cause 
is  abated  on  such  grounds,  a  new  action  may  lie  lirought. 

5.  Practice. — The  t<'rmination  of  a  litigation  by  the  oc- 
currence of  .some  event  during  its  progress,  such  as  the 
death  or  disability  of  a  party.  In  a  court  of  law  the  regular 
effect  of  the  death  of  a  party  was  to  cause  the  action  to 
abate  altogether.  In  a  suit  in  equity  proceedings  were  sus- 
pended, and  might  be  revived  by  established  methods. 
Similar  rules  were  ay)plied  to  disabilities,  such  as  the  cov- 
erture of  a  female  party  to  an  action.  The  effect  of  this 
doctrine  is  largely  modified  in  codes  of  proceilurc  in  the 
United  States,  anii  in  Great  Britain  by  the  "  Common  Law 
Procedtire  "  act.  Under  these  statutory  regulat  ions  an  action 
may.  after  the  death  of  a  party,  be  continued  l)y  or  against 
his  representatives,  on  motion  to  the  court  in  which  the 
action  is  pending.  The  application  is  subject  to  regulations 
to  prevent  unnecessary  delay.  There  are  certain  actions  in 
which  there  can  be  no  revival.  An  instaiue  is  that  of  a 
cause  of  action  for  a  personal  wrong  (tort).  This  is  said  to 
"die  with  the  person.  In  other  words,  it  can  not  be  prose- 
cuted by  or  against  the  executors  or  administrators  of  a, 
party  sustaining  or  inflicting  the  wrong. 

Revised  by  Hexby  Wade  Rogers. 

Abatement:  in  heraldry,  anything  added  to  a  coat-of- 
arms  to  denote  inferiority  or  disgrace.  This  is  an  absurdity, 
because  a  coat-of-arms  is  a  statement  of  tlie  honorable  posi- 
tion of  its  bearer  and  not  of  his  discredit.  The  only  abate- 
ment in  use  is  the  Bend  Sinister  {q.  v.). 


ABATTIS 


ABBBTT 


Abattis,  or  Abatis  [Fr.] :  in  fortification,  a  bulwark  or 
obstruction  formed  by  trees  felled  and  placed  side  by  side, 
so  that  their  tops  are  directed  toward  the  enemy.  Some- 
times the  smaller  branches  are  lopped  off  and  the  ends  of 
the  larger  branches  sharpened.    See  Fortification. 

Abattoir:  a  public  establishment  in  which  cattle,  slieep, 
etc.,  are  killed,  with  such  sanitary  arrangements  as  will  guard 
the  population  of  a  city  against  the  nuisances  of  private 
slaughter-houses.  This  improvement  originated  in  Paris  in 
1807,  and  has  been  adopted  in  New  Yoi-k  and  other  large 
cities. 

A  Battuta  [It.]  :  in  music,  in  strict  or  measured  time. 

Abat-voix  [from  Fr.  abatlre,  to  beat  down,  and  roi.r,  the 
voice] :  a  sounding-board,  generally  of  shell-shape,  placed 
behind,  and  projecting  over,  a  rostrum  or  pulpit,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  the  speaker's  voice  in  any  desired  direction. 
Notable  instances  are  found  in  Trinity  and  Grace  churches 
in  New  York  city  and  in  Trinity  church  in  Boston. 

Abaiizit,  a-bo'zee,  Firmin  :  French  Protestant  philoso- 
pher and  mathematician;  b.  at  Uzes,  Languedoc,  Nov.  11, 
1679;  educated  at  Geneva;  traveled  in  England  and  Hol- 
land, and  wrote  several  works  on  theology,  antiquities,  etc. 
He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who 
esteemed  him  highly,  and  he  was  pi-ofoundly  versed  in  many 
brandies  of  learning  and  science.  He  died  in  Geneva,  Mar. 
20.  1767. 

Abbadie,  Antoine  and  Arnould  Michel  d":  two  broth- 
ers and  French  travelers;  b.  in  Dublin  in  1810 and  1815;  ex- 
plored Aljyssinia  and  Upper  Egypt  between  1838  and  1848  ; 
traveled  up  the  White  Nile,  and  even  visited  Darfur.  Their 
more  im]iortant  works  are  Nouvellen  dii  haul  fleave  Blanc; 
Note  sur  hiroula  da  Diirfoiir;  Sur  les  nk/res  Yambo  : 
Geodesic  d'Elliiopie,  etc.  {I86U-60) ;  and  Dome  cms  duns  la 
Haute-Ethio2>tK  (2  vols.,  1868).  Their  collection  of  Ethiopic 
and  Amharic  manuscripts,  numbering  284,  was  until  recent- 
ly tlie  largest  in  Europe.    A  mould  died  Nov.  13,  1893. 

Abbadie,  Jacques:  eminent  scholar  and  divine  of  the 
Reformed  faitli ;  b.  at  Nay,  in  Bern,  about  1657.  So  dis- 
tinguished was  he  for  his  learning  that,  on  the  completion  of 
his  course  of  study  at  Sedan,  lie  received  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor in  tlieology,  altliougli  but  seventeen  years  of  age.  After 
ministering  in  a  French  cluircli  at  Berlin  for  some  years, 
he  accompanied  Marshal  Scliomlierg,  in  1688,  to  England, 
where  he  became  minister  of  the  French  cliurch  in  the  Sa- 
voy. London.  Having  received  ejiiscopal  ordination.  King 
William  made  hira  Dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland.  He  publislied 
a  defense  of  the  Kevolution  of  1688,  but  is  best  known  by 
his  religious  treatises,  tlie  most  important  of  which  were 
Traite  de  la  Verite  de  la  Religion  Chretienne,  and  its  con- 
tinuation, Traife  de  la  Divinite  de  Jesus-Christ,  and  L'Ai-t 
de  se  connaitre  soi-meme.     D.  in  London.  Nov.  7,  1727. 

W.  S.  Perry. 

Abliandonaiiien'te  [It.]  :  in  music,  "  with  self-abandon- 
ment " ;  despondingly. 

Abbas',  or,  more  fully,  Abbas-Ibii-Abd-il-Moot'talib  : 

a  paternal  uncle  of  Moliammed,  and  tlie  ancestor  of  tlie 
dynasty  of  Abbassides ;  b.  at  Mecca  about  566  A.  D.  He 
fought  against  Mohammed  at  the  battle  of  Bedr,  but  was 
afterward  ctui verted,  and  rendered  important  services  to  that 
prophet. 

Abbas  I.,  or  Sbiih  Abbas,  surnamed  The  Great  :  King 
of  Persia;  b.  in  1557;  son  of  Mohammed  Mirza.  He  began 
to  reign  about  15S4,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  ability 
and  energy.  In  1605  he  defeated  the  Turks  in  a  great  bat- 
tle, and  recovered  the  Persian  provinces  which  they  had 
occupied.     D.  at  Kaswin,  Jan.  27,  1628. 

Abbas-Mir'za:  son  of  Fatah  Ali  Sliah,  King  of  Persia; 
b.  in  1783.  He  commanded  the  Persian  army  which  was 
delealed  by  tlie  Russians  in  1811.  He  was  a  prince  of 
superior  talents,  and  promoted  the  introduction  of  European 
culture  and  militarv  tactics  into  Persia.  He  died  before  his 
father  at  Meslied,  Dec,  1833. 

Abbas  Pasha :  Viceroy  of  Egypt  (the  third  of  the  present 
dynasty) ;  a  grandson  of  Mcliemct  Ali ;  b.  at  Yedda,  in 
Arabia,  in  18l;{.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
Xov.  9-10,  1848,  and  d.  July  13,  1854.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Ills  uncle,  Said  Pasha. 

Abbassides,  or  Abbasides  (Lat.  Abhasidcr;  called  by 
the  Arabs  Beni  Akhas,  i.e.  sons  or  descendants  of  Abbas): 
a  celebrated  dynasty  of  caliphs  who  reigned  at  Damascus, 


and  afterward  at  Bagdad,  from  763  to  1258  A.  D.  They 
traced  tlieir  genealogy  to  Abbas,  tlie  uncle  of  Mohammed. 
To  this  dynasty  belonged  the  calijihs  Harun-al-Rashid  and 
Al-Maraun. 

Abbate,  NiccoLO  deir  :  historical  painter;  b.  in  Modena, 
1512;  d.  at  Fontainebleau,  1571.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
frescoes  in  the  castle  of  Pontaineljleau,  from  designs  by 
Primaticcio.     See  his  life  by  Beiset,  Paris,  1859. 

Abb§ :  an  ecclesiastic,  or  student  of  theology,  supported 
by  the  revenue  of  a  monastery,  tliough  he  did  not  always 
liecome  a  priest.  Abbes  often  devoted  themselves  to  litera- 
ture or  were  tutors  in  wealthy  families.  Before  the  French 
Revolution  the  king  could  nominate  225  abbes  commenda- 
taires,  whose  offices  were  sinecures.  The  term  is  still  ap- 
plied in  French-speaking  countries  to  all  who  ;'.ress  as  eccle- 
siastics.   See  Abbot. 

Abbe,  Cleveland,  M.A.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. :  meteorologist  and 
writer  on  meteorological  sulijects  ;  b.  in  New  York  city,  Dec. 
3,  1838 ;  graduated  in  1857  from  the  N.  Y.  City  Free  College ; 
studied  engineering  and  astronomy  at  Ann  Arljor  and  was 
instructor  there  1859-60;  was  aide  in  the  coast  survey  longi- 
tude work  under  Dr.  B.  A.  Gould  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1860-64  ;  resided  at  the  Poulkova  Observatory,  Russia, 
1864-66  ;  was  later  assistant  in  the  U".  S.  Naval  Observatory ; 
in  1868  became  director  of  the  Cincinnati  Observatory,  where 
lie  organized  a  system  of  daily  telegraphic  weather-reports 
and  jn'cdictions  for  the  benefit  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
of  that  city.  In  1871  lie  was  appointed  Professor  of  Meteor- 
ology and  assistant  in  tlie  newly  organized  national  meteor- 
ological service  under  Gen.  Myer,  and  he  has  since  contin- 
ued in  this  service.  He  devised  and  initiated  the  present 
system  of  standard  time.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Interna- 
tional Jleridian  Conference,  Washington,  1884,  and  the  In- 
ternational Meteorological  Conference  at  Munich,  1892.  He 
is  a  member  of  tlie  National  Academy  and  other  scientific 
societies.  His  scientific  publications  have  been  very  numer- 
ous, find  are  characterized  by  a  high  order  of  learning  and 
aljility  and  by  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  advances  of  sci- 
ence abroad.  Among  his  writings  may  be  mentioned  :  Dor- 
])at  and  Poidkova  (1868-70) ;  Weather  Bulletin  of  Cincin- 
nati Observatory  (1869-70) ;  Solar  Spots  and  Terrestrial 
Tempercitnre  (1869) :  Suggestions  on  the  Use  of  Weather  Re- 
ports (1871) :  Observations  of  Coggia's  Comet  (1874) ;  Report 
of  Committee  on  Standard  time  (1879) ;  Annual  Reports  of 
Progress  in  3Ieteorology  (1872-89);  Report  on  Jleleorolog- 
ical  Observations  during  the  E.rpedition  to  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa  (1891);  A  Plea  for  'Terrestrial  Physics  (1891); 
Atmospheric  Radiation  (1892);  A  Treatise  on.  Meteorolog- 
ical Apparatus  {\8S7):  Preparatory  Studies  for  Deductive 
31ethods  in  Meteorology  (1889).  M.  W.  Harri.ngton. 

Abbeokn'ta,  or  Abeokiita  (i.  e.  under  the  rock) :  a  large 
town  of  Western  Africa ;  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Egba,  in 
Yorulia;  built  on  granite  hills  around  a  rock  250  feet  high; 
on  the  left  liaiik  of  the  Ogun  river,  120  miles  N.  W.  of  Benin 
(see  iiia]i  of  Africa,  ref.  .5-C).  The  late  Negro  bishop  Crow- 
ther  established  a  newspaper  here  in  the  Egba  language; 
the  number  of  Christians  is  estimated  at  2,000.  The  city 
was  founded  in  1825,  has  rapidly  increased,  and  has  become 
an  im|iortaiit  missionary  station.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try, called  Egbaland,  comprises  an  area  of  nearly  3,000  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  of  the  town  estimated  at  150,000;  of  the  ad- 
jacent dependent  country,  50,000. 

Abbess  [0.  Fr.  abbesse  <  Late  Lat.  abbatis'sa] :  the  su- 
perior of  a  convent  of  women,  elected  for  life,  and  solemnly 
admitted  to  office  by  a  bishop,  corresponding  in  rank  and 
authority  to  an  abbot,  except  that,  not  being  capable  of  re- 
ceiving holy  orders,  she  can  not  execute  the  functions  of 
the  priesthood  nor  perform  any  act  implying  real  spiritual 
jurisdiction.  In  England  abbesses  were  permitted  to  attend 
ecclesiastical  councils.  At  the  council  of  Becanficld,  A.  D. 
694,  they  were  not  only  present  but  signed  the  decrees  before 
the  priests.  Among  the  Celts  they  presided  over  religious 
houses  occupied  jointly  by  monks  and  nuns,  and  this  custom 
prevailed  among  the  Celtic  monastic  missions  in  France  and 
Spain,  and  even  in  Rome  itself.  The  title  of  abbess  is  ap- 
plied in  Hanover,  Wiirtemberg,  Brunswick,  and  Sclileswig- 
Ilolstein  to  the  lady  superiors  of  Lutheran  seminaries  and 
sisterhoods  to  which  conventual  endowments  and  realty  were 
transferred  at  the  period  of  the  Reformation. 

W.  S.  Perry. 

Abbett,  Leon;  lawyer  and  politician;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia, Oct.  5, 1836 ;  studied  law  ;  removed  in  1862  to  Hoboken, 


ABBEVILLE 


ABBOT 


X.  J.:  olppted  porporat ion  attoniev  1R63.  aixl  mcMiilierof  tliw 
Assembly  in  1864  :  setllod  in  .Icrspy  Cily  1806  :  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1874:  elected  Governor  hy  the  Democratic 
parly  in  ISS."!,  and  airain  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  his 
snccessor:  associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
Jersey,  lS!);i.     1).  in  jersey  City,  Dee.  4,  18!)4. 

Ahbpville,  abveel'  :  fortificil  city  of  Franco  :  on  the  river 
Somnie  ;  in  the  dcjiartinent  of  Somme,  on  the  Northern  R.  R., 
36  miles  hy  rail  N.  W.  of  Amiens  (see  map  of  France,  ref. 
3-E).  It  contains  a  fine  cathedral  and  manufactories  of 
woolen  cloths,  etc.  Al)l)cville  has  in  late  years  been  made 
famous  by  the  discovery  of  many  interesting  relics  of  pre- 
liistoric  man  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme  at  that  place,  rop. 
(1891)  19,851. 

Abbeville  C.-H.,  ab'be-vil:  capital  of  .Uil)evillc  co.,  S.  C. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref,  o-C); 
on  main  line  Geor:;ia,  Carolina  and  Xortliern  K.  K.,  and  ter- 
minal of  Abbeville  branch  of  Culuuibia  and  (irecnvillc  U.  If. ; 
97  miles  from  Columl)ia,  .S,  C.,  and  131!  miles  from  Atlanta, 
Ga. ;  has  a  20-ton  cottonsccd-oil  mill,  3  ginneries,  1  shoe-fac- 
torv,  2  banks,  2  weekly  newspapei's,  a  i;ood  hotid,  6  churches, 
and  a  public-school  system.  Pop.  (1880)  1,543;  (1890)  1,()9«. 
Editor  of  "PRiiss  and  Uaxnkk." 

.Vbbeville  Treaties:  two  treaties;  one  between  Henry 
Til.  ot  Kn-land  and  Louis  IX.  of  France,  May  20,  12.59;  the 
other  between  Henry  Vlll.  of  Knyiand  ami  Fiancis  I.  of 
Franc-e.  Aujr.  18,  1.527.  By  the  former  Henry  III.  j,'ave  up 
all  claim  to  Nonnaiuly,  Anjon,  Tmiraiiu',  JIaine,  and  I'oitou  ; 
but  he  was  iruai'anteed  posscssi(Ui  of  some  other  provinces 
of  France,  wbu-h  ho  was  to  hold  as  fiefs,  and  was  to  sit  with 
the  peers  of  France  as  Duke  of  Guienne,  and  was  to  drop 
the  titles  of  Duke  of  Xormandy  and  Count  of  An.)ou. 

Abbey.  Ki)Wi>f  Austin:  genre  painter  and  illustrator; 
b.  in  I'hiladelphia,  Pa.,  in  18.52.  Best  known  as  an  illus- 
trator of  j)eriodicals  and  books.  His  subjects  are  mostly 
found  in  English  soiiffs  and  tales.  He  works  equally  well 
with  |ien  and  ink  and  with  the  brush,  but  asa  pen-draughts- 
man lie  enjoys  a  world-wide  reputation,  .^moiifr  his  iirin- 
cipal  works  in  illustration  are  drawiuf^s  for  Sih'clions  fnim 
thf  I'tii'lnj  <jf  Jinbert  Jhrrick ;  Old  Soiws ;  Goldsmit  h's 
comedy  She  Stuojis  lu  Cunqiter;  and  As  i'ou  Lihe  It,  The 
TimpesI,  All'n  We/I  that  Ends  ll'cW,  and  7'lie  3Ieir/i<uit  u/ 
\'eiiiee.  He  is  notably  successtul  as  a  story-teller  in  illus- 
t  ration,  and  possesses  a  fine  talent  for  composition,  ilendier 
of  the  Society  of  American  Artists  (1881);  .\nierican  Water- 
Color  .Society  ;  and  Uoyal  Institute  of  Water-Color  Painters, 
London.  lie<'eivcd  a  second-class  medal,  Jlunich  Inter- 
national Exhil>ition,  1885  ;  first-class  meilal,  Cniversal  Kx- 
]iosilion,  Paris,  1889,  Principal  pictures  :  Stage  Office  (1876); 
Tlie  Ei'il  Ei/e  (1X17);  Ladij  in  a  Garden  (lS7H) ;  Jiose  in 
October  (1879);  T/ie  Wiinileriiii/  Minstret;  'I'/ie  Sisters: 
The  »'/(A>(ccr (1883);  Rending  tlie  Biljle  (\i^A):  um\  Visitors 
(1S90).  liciran  his  art  studies  at  the  Pennsylvania  .\ca<leiny 
of  Fine  .Arts.  Philadelphia.  Has  resideil  in  Eiifjland  since 
1883;  studio  in  London.  William  A.  Cori-ix. 

Abbey.  Henry  E. :  theatrical  manager:  b.  in  Akron,  0., 
1848;  began  his  career  as  manager  for  Edwin  Adams  in 
1^70;  acteil  as  manager  for  Lawrence  Barrett,  Lott.-i,  Sara 
Hernliardt,  Patti,  Xeilson,  Mrs.  Langtry,  Henry  Irving  and 
others  with  great  suecess.     D.  in  Xew  York,  Oct.  17,  1896. 

Abbey,  Riciiaud:  Methodist  clergyman  and  author;  b.  in 
Genesee  co.,  X.  Y.,  Xov.  16,  1805;  removed  to  Illinois  in 
1816,  and  to  Xatchez,  Mi.ss.,  in  182.5.  In  1844  he  entered  the 
ministry  in  the  Methodist  Church,  and  was  afterward  a 
member  of  the  Mississippi  Conferiince  of  the  Jlethodist 
Episco]ial  Church  .South.  He  published  Letterx  to  Bishop 
(rreen  on  Ajiostotic  Siieression  (1853) ;  End  of  tlie  Apostotic 
Succession  ;  Creed  of  All  Men  (185.5);  Erclesidsticiil  Con- 
stitution (1856);  Church  rind  Ministn/  (18.59):  Diuturniti) 
(1866);  Ecce  Ecclesia  (1868) ;  The  C'itij  of  (lod  and  tlie 
('liurch-makers{\>iTi);  Jinplismril  Demonstrations;  Divine 
Assessment;  Strictures  im  Church  Ooventnient ;  and  7'he 
Divine  C/ill  to  the  Ministnj. 

Abbilib'bie.  or  .\bbi<ib'be;  a  lake  and  a  tiading-slalion 
in  British  North  America.  200  miles  S.  of  .Tame.s's  bay,  with 
which  they  are  connei-ted  by  the  Abbilibbio  river.'  (For 
location,  see  iu;ip  of  North  Anu'riea,  ref.  5-G.) 

.\libi)n  of  FIenry(in  ^.i\[\T\,  Ab'ho FIoriacen'»is):  French 
iiKuik  ;  b.  near  Orleans  in  945;  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  age  :  wroti^  an  Epitome  of  the  Lives  of  Ninety- 
one  Popes.     D.  ill  1004. 


Abboii  the  Crooked  (Ab'bo  Cer'mius):  X^orthman  by 
birth:  became  a  monk  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres ;  d.  about 
923;  descrilicd  the  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Xorthraon  (88.5-887) 
in  a  Latin  poem,  a  French  translation  of  which  is  found  in 
Guizofs  Collection  des  documents  relatifa  a  I'Instoire  de 
France. 

Ab'bot  [Late  Lat.  Abljas,  -lis.  Gr.  a0$ds.  from  Syriac  abba, 
father]:  the  superior  of  a  convent  or  monastery,  and  an 
ecclesiastic  of  high  rank  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Abbots  are  ranked,  as  jirelates  of  the  Church,  next  to  bishops; 
and  have  the  right  to  vote  or  speak  in  the  general  councils, 
if  the  territory  to  which  their  jurisdiction  extends  be  not  in- 
cluded in  a  diocese,  or  it  they  be  heads  of  several  associated 
monasteries.  In  England  there  were  formerly  a  luimber  of 
mitred  abbots,  who  .sat  and  voted  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Abbot  of  Misrule,  or  Abbot  of  Fools  :  called  in  Scot- 
land the  ••  Abbot  of  Unrea.son  "  ;  a  title  given  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  master  of  revels,  and  especially  to  the  person 
ajipointed  to  preside  over  Christmas  festivities. 

Abbot. Bknjamix.  LL.D.:  teacher;  b.  at  Andover.  5Ia.ss., 
Sept.  17,  1762;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1788.  He 
was  princii>al  of  Phillips  Academy  at  Exelci',  X^.  II.,  for 
fifty  years  (till  1838).  Among  his  pupils  were  Daniel  Web- 
ster, Alexander  H.  Everett,  Edward  Everett,  Lewis  Cass, 
Jared  Sparks,  and  George  Bancroft.  Of  fine  character  and 
courtly  manners,  he  had  great  power  over  his  pujiils.  D.  at 
Exeter,  N.  II.,  Oct.  25,  1849. 

Abbot.  Ezra.  I).  I>.,  LL.  D. :  b.  in  .Jackson,  Me..  .\pr.  29. 
1819;  grailuated  at  Bowdoin  College  1840;  became  in  1850 
assistant  lilirai'iaii  in  Harvard  College;  in  1872  professor  of 
New  Testament  criticism  and  interiiretation  in  the  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School ;  published  Literature  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  a  Future  Life  (1864-71).  He  akso  served  as  assist- 
ant anil  editor  of  such  works  as  Xorton's  Gospels.  Ilackett's 
revision  of  Smith's  Bible  Dictionari/,  Xoyes"s  A>«'  Testa- 
ment, itml  Hudson's  Concordance.  Wrote  The  Authorship 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel  (1880);  iirepared  The  Literature  of 
the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  an  exhaustive  bibliography 
originally  appended  to  W.  R.  Alger's  History  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a  Future  Life  (published  in  1871 ;  new  ed.  1878) ;  was 
member  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee;  and  shortly  be- 
fore his  death  was  tendered  tlie  Doctorate  in  Divinity,  though 
a  layman,  by  the  University  of  Edinburgli.  In  18N8  a  large 
octavo  volume  of  his  critical  essays  was  pulilished,  including 
The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  in  an  expanded  form. 
D.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  .Mar.  21,  1884. 

Abbot.  Francis  Ellinowood,  Ph.D.:  writer  on  philo- 
sopliieal  and  religious  subjects ;  1).  in  Boston,  Ma,s.s..  Nov.  6, 
1836;  graduated  at  Harvard  University;  had  charge  of  Uni- 
tarian congregations  at  Dover,  N.  11.,  and  Toledo,  (). ;  editor 
of  .r/(i?/«rfc.r,"  1870-73;  author  of  Scientific  Theism  (IHm); 
The  ir«//  out  of  Agnosticism,  or  the  Fltilosophy  of  Free 
Bel ig ion  (IHdO);  and  numerous  essays  and  articles  "in  the 
yorth  American  Review  and  other  periodicals. 

Allbot.  Gkoroi:.  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Guildford,  Surrey.  England. 
Oct.  19,  1.5(;2,  ami  educated  at  Ballinl  College,  O.x'ford,  where 
he  became  Master  of  University  (.'(illege  in  1.597.  and  was 
thrice  appointed  Vice-Chancellor.  His  name  appears  second 
on  the  list  of  the  eij;Iit  Oxford  divines  chosen  to  prepare  the 
translation  of  the  N.  T.  (except  the  Epistles)  ot  King  .James's 
version.  His  pret'erment  was  rajiid.  Ap|i(]iiited  Bishop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry  in  1009,  he  was  translated  to  Lon- 
don within  a  month,  and  became  .\rchbisliop  of  Canterbury 
in  .Ian..  Kill.  He  was  noted  for  his  liberal  principles,  and 
was  a  rival  or  opponent  of  Laud.  He  refused  to  allow  the 
reading  of  the  king's  declaration,  iiermitting  sports  and  pas- 
times on  the  Loril's  day,  at  CroycUm,  where  he  happened  to 
be  at  the  time.  D.  at  Croydon,  Aug.  5.  10:'.3.  Among  his 
numerous  works  his  Geography,  or  Brief  Description  of  the 
Whole  World,  is  remembereil  im  account  of  its  reference  to 
the  earliest  American  colonization.  His  E.rposition  of  the 
Prophet  Jonah,  published  in  1000,  was  reprinted  in  1845. 

.\bbot,  Hkxrv  Larcom  :  U.  S.  army  ofiiccr:  b.  Aug.  13, 
1831,  at  Beverly,  Ma.s.s. ;  graduated  at  West  Point  18.54;  be- 
came colonel  of  engineers  Oct.  12,  1886;  served  as  a.ssistant 
on  Pacific  B.  H.  surveys,  1854-57:  and  was  associated  with 
Gen.  Humphreys  on  the  hydrographic  survey  of  the  delta 
of  the  Mis.sissippi,  1857-61, "the  result  being  set  fortli  in  an 
elaborate  report,  J'hysics  and  Bydrauliesof  the  3/ississippi. 
Fiver.  Gen.  Abbot  .served  in  the  JMana.ssas  cam]iaign  in 
1861 :  engaged  at  Blacklmrn's  Ford  and  Bull  Run  (wounded 
and  breveted  captain);  in  the  construction  of  the  defenses  of 


« 


ABBOT 


ABBOTT 


Washington.  1861-62 ;  in  the  Virginia  Peninsula.  1862 : 
engaged  at  Yorktowii  (l)i'evet  major)  and  in  the  Seven  Days' 
■operations  before  Kichniond ;  as  chief  topographical  engi- 
neer of  Banks's  expedition  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  1862-63  ; 
as  colonel  of  the  First  Connecticut  Artillery  Volunteers,  in 
command  of  siege  artillery  before  Kichmond  in  1864-65 
(brevet  lioutenaut-colonel  U.  S.  A.,  and  brevet  brigadier- 
general  U.  S.  V.) ;  engaged  in  various  actions ;  as  chief  of 
artillery  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher.  1865;  and  in  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  in  the  defenses  of  Washington  in  1863. 
Brevet  colonel  and  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.  Mar.  13.  1865, 
and  brevet  nuijor-general  U.  S.  V.  Since  the  war  he  has 
superintended  defenses,  commanded  the  engineer  battalion, 
devised  the  adopted  system  of  defending  the  coasts  with 
submarine  mines,  and  inaugurated  the  Engineer  School  of 
Application  at  Willcts  Point.  He  was  an  observer  in  the 
solar  eclipse  expedition  to  Sicily,  1870;  a  member  of  com- 
mission to  devise  plan  for  protecting  alluvial  basin  of  the 
Mississippi  against  overflow,  of  board  to  reorganize  ponton 
equipage  of  the  army,  of  the  Gun-Foundry  Board,  of  the 
Fortification  Board  of  1885,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and 
Fortification,  and  of  many  others;  president  of  -  the  perma- 
nent Board  of  Engineers,  and  Engineer  of  the  Northeast 
Division,  since  1888 ;  member  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society ;  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  of  other  so- 
cieties. Author  of  various  works  on  professional  subjects. 
Degree  of  LL.  D.  conferred  by  Harvard  University  in  1886. 
Ketired  for  age  Aug.  13,  1805.     Revised  by  Jas.  JIbrcur. 

Abbot,  Joseph  Hale  :  b.  at  Wilton.  N.  H..  Sept.  26, 1802 ; 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1822;  was  tutor  there  1825-27; 
Professor  of  Matliematics  and  of  Jlodern  Languages  at  Phil- 
lips Academy,  Exeter.  X.  II..  1827-33;  principal  for  several 
years  of  a  ladies"  seminary  at  Boston,  and  subsequently  of 
the  Beverly  High  School ;  was  long  the  recording  secretary 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  to  whose 
Transactions  he  contributed  papers  on  pneumatics  and 
hydraulics;  wrote  in  favor  of  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  in 
the  "ether  controversy  ";  and  was  an  assistant  of  Dr.  J.  E. 
Worcester  in  the  preparation  of  his  Dictionanj.  D.  at  Cam- 
bridge. Apr.  7,  1873. 

Abbot,  Samuel:  a  merchant  of  Boston;  b.  at  Andover, 
Mass..  Feb.  25.  1732.  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  theo- 
logical seininarv  at  Andover,  toward  the  building  of  which 
he  gave  !i;20.000  during  his  lifetime  and  |100,000  at  his 
death.  He  also  contributed  large  sums  for  various  other  char- 
itable purposes.     D.  at  Andover,  Apr.  30,  1812,  aged  eighty. 

Abbotsford :  the  seat  of  Sir  Walter  Scott;  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tweeil.  about  three  miles  from  Melrose  Aljbey. 
It  is  surroun<led  by  lieautiful  scenery.  This  estate  was  pur- 
chased in  1811  by  Sir  Walter,  who  expended  a  large  sum  of 
money  in  the  erection  of  a  picturesque  and  irregular  pile  of 
buildings.  It  has  remained  in  the  family  to  the  fourth  gen- 
eration.   See  Scott,  Sir  Walter. 

Ab'bott.  Austin-.  LL.  D. ;  son  of  Jacob ;  b.  at  Boston, 
Mass..  Dec.  18,  1881 ;  educated  in  New  York  city  ;  admitted 
to  the  bar  about  1852 ;  practiced  his  profession  in  partner- 
ship with  his  brother.  Benjamin  Vaughan ;  was  dean  of  New 
York  University  Law  School ;  published  two  novels.  Cone- 
cut  Corners  and  ihitttiew  Carabfj ;  and  aided  Benjamin  in 
the  preparation  of  his  legal  publications.  D.  in  New  York, 
Apr.  19,  1806. 

Abbott.  Benjamin'  :  Methodist  preacher:  b.  in  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1732.  He  traveled  and  preached  extensively  in 
his  native  State,  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland, 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  fouiuJers  of  his  denomination  in 
those  States.  His  native  eloquence  was  extraordinary.  His 
autobiographical  records,  embodied  in  Firth's  ij'/e  of  Abbott, 
are  among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  early  writings  of 
Methodism.     D.  at  Salem,  N.  J.,  Aug.  14,  1796. 

Abbott.  Ben.iamin  VAUfiETAN:  law  writer;  b.  in  Boston. 
Mass..  Jiiue  4.  1830;  graduated  from  the  L^niversity  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1850.  after  which  he  studied  law.  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  a|)plied  himself  to  law  writ- 
ing, lus  works  and  compilations  amounting  to  nearly  100 
volumes  of  digests,  reports,  and  treatises.  In  1870  he  was 
appointed  by  President  (irant  one  of  the  three  commission- 
ers to  revise  the  statutes  of  the  United  .Slates.  As  secrebai-y 
of  the  New  York  Code  Commissioners,  he  prepared  in  1S65 
the  draft,  of  a  penal  code  for  New  York,  the  same  being  (hme 
uniler  the  direction  of  the  commissioners.  D.  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  y.,  Feb.  17,  1800.  Henry  Wade  Rouers". 


Abbott,  Edward,  D.  D.  ;  son  of  Jacob  ;  b.  in  Farmington, 
Me.,  July  15,  1841;  educated  in  New  York  city;  studied 
theology  at  Andover;  was  a  pastor  in  Boston,  1S65-69;  as- 
sociate editor  of  Tlie  Conyreyafionalist  from  1869  to  1878, 
when  he  entered  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  wrote  several 
religious  books  for  children,  a  Paragraph  History  of  the 
I'liited  States  (1876),  and  other  historical  treatises,  and 
edited  The  Young  Cliristian,\i\  Jacob  Abbott,  with  a  life 
of  the  author.  Revised  by  George  P.  Fisher. 

Abbott,  Edwin,  D.  D.  :  teacher  and  author;  b.  in  Loudon, 
1838;  educated  in  the  City  of  London  School  and  at  Cam- 
bridge University  (B.  A.  1861,  M.  A.  1864);  engaged  in 
teaching.  1862  ;  head  ma-ster  of  the  City  of  London  School, 
186.5-1889 ;  Hulsean  lecturer  in  Cambridge,  1876 ;  select 
preacher  at  Oxford,  1877;  author  of  Bible  Lessons  (\^'~i2); 
Tlirouyli  Xainre  to  Christ  ;1877);  How  to  Write  Clearly 
(1872);  Francis  Bacon  (1885);  and  numerous  theological 
publications. 

Abbott,  Emma  A.;  popular  soprano  singer;  daughter  of 
a  music  teacher ;  b.  in  Chicago,  Dee.  9, 1849  ;  early  attracted 
the  attention  of  Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  through  whose  influ- 
ence she  became  soprano  in  the  Church  of  the  Divine  Pater- 
nity, New  Y'ork.  This  congregation  having  raised  a  fund 
for  her  musical  education,  she  went  to  Paris,  where  she 
studied  singing  under  Madame  Marchesi,  and  acting  under 
Charles  Feehter.  In  Paris  she  married  E.  J.  Wetherell,  of 
Massachusetts,  Feb.  26.  1874.  She  began  her  professional 
career  with  Gye  in  London,  but  soon  returned  to  the  U.  S., 
where  she  organized  the  "  Emma  Abbott  Opera  Company," 
traveling  extensively,  and  presenting  large  works  on  a 
small  scale  at  popular  prices.  She  amassed  a  large  fortune. 
D.  Jan.  5,  1891,  in  Salt  Lake  City.  Utah,  where  she  was  on  a 
professional  tour.  Her  husband  had  died  two  years  earlier. 
Personally  Miss  Abbott  was  much  beloved. 

Abbott.  GoRHAsi  DuMMER.  LL.  D. ;  a  vounger  brother  of 
Jacol)  Abbott ;  b.  at  Hollowcll,  Me.,  Sept.  3.  1808  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  College  in  1826;  and  took  a  part  of  the 
theological  course  at  Andover  in  tlie  class  which  graduated 
in  1831.  He  was  pastor  for  three  years  at  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.,  and  for  thirteen  years  principal  of  the  Spingler  In- 
stitute in  New  York  city.  He  published  21ie  Family  at 
Home;  Nathan  Diclierman;  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
(1869) ;  and  other  works.  D.  at  South  Natick,  Mass.,  July 
31,  1874. 

Abbott,  Jacob  :  a  prolific  and  popular  writer ;  b.  at  Hal- 
lowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14. 1803  ;  gradu.ated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1820 ;  studied  theology  at  Andover.  Mass..  from  1822  to  1824 ; 
was  tutor  in  Amherst  College  from  1824-25,  and  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  same  institution  from  1825  to  1829;  was 
principal  of  the  JMount  Vernon  School  (for  young  ladies)  in 
Boston  from  1829  to  1834.  when  he  was  ordained  and  took 
charge  of  the  Eliot  church  in  Roxbury  (till  1836).  For  sev- 
eral years  he  made  his  home  in  New  York  city,  though  fre- 
quently absent  in  foreign  countries.  Ilis  reputation  as  an 
author  was  established  by  the  Yoiiny  Clinstiitn  Series.  But 
he  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  Ttie  liollo  Books  (28  vols.) ; 
The.  Franconia  Stories  (10  vols.);  Harper's  Story-Books  (36 
vols.);  and  other  juvenile  works.  D.  at  Farmington,  Me., 
Oct.  31,  1879. 

Abbott.  John  C.  :  b.  in  Concord.  N.  II..  July  15, 1825  ;  be- 
came a  lawyer  and  journalist ;  commanded  a  regiment  during 
the  civil  war.  and  was  breveted  brigadier-general.  He  re- 
moved to  North  Carolina  in  186.5.  and  was  U.  S.  Senator  from 
North  Carolina.  186.5-71.    D.  Oct.  9,  1881. 

Abbott,  Sir  John  Joseph  Caldwell,  D.  C.  L.  :  Canadian 
statesman;  b.  at  St.  Andrew's,  P.  Q..  :\Iar.  12,  1821;  edu- 
cated there  and  at  McGill  College;  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1847;  represented  Argenteuil  in  tlie  Canadian  Assembly 
1857-67.  and  the  same  constituency  in  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment almost  continuously  from  18(57  till  called  to  the  Senate 
in  1887.  He  was  a  member  of  the  executive  council  of 
Lower  Canada,  1862-63  ;  Conservative  leader  of  the  (iovcrn- 
ineul  in  the  .Senate  ;  and  upon  the  death  of  Sir  John  A.  Mae- 
donalil  in  the  spring  of  1891  .succeeded  him  as  Premier,  but 
resigned  on  account  of  ill  health,  Nov.  25, 1892.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Caliinet  formed  by  his  successor.  Sir  John 
Thomson,  but  without  portfolio.  He  was  associated  with 
Sir  Hector  Langevin  in  the  Letellier  mission  to  England  in 
1879;  was  apiiointed  a  member  of  the  Queen's  privy  council 
in  1887;  was  for  some  vears  solicitor  for  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific. R.  R.  Co.;  was  dean  of  the  faculty  of  law  in  McGill 
College  for  ten  years ;  and  a  director  of  the  Bank  of  Mon- 


ABBOTT 


ABBREVIATIONS 


treal.  lie  was  author  of  the  Insolvent  Act  of  IS64,  with 
Notes,  etc.  (Quebec,  1864).  lie  was  knighted  in  1892.  D.  in 
Montreal,  Oct.  30,  1803.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot:  brotlier  of  Jatrob;  b.  at 
Brunswick,  Me.,  Sept.  18,  lyUo;  irraduaUH!  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege in  1825;  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1829; 
and  was  settled  as  uunister  in  Worcester,  Koxbury,  Nan- 
tucket, and  New  Haven.  Among  his  works  are  The  Mother 
at  Home  ;  Ilisfori/  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;  History  of  the 
Civil  War;  his  American  histories,  and  his  Hifitory  of 
Napoleon  III.     D.  at  Fair  Haven,  Conn.,  .June  17,  1877. 

Abbott,  JosiAH  Gardneu  :  jurist;  b.  in  Chelmsford,  Mass., 
Nov.  1,  1815;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1832;  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1835.  Ho  was  a  mend)er  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  ^lassaehusctts  in  1853,  and  of  the 
Klectoral  Commission  of  1877  to  which  was  referred  the 
disputed  presidential  elccti(»n.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  Su- 
perior Court  of  Massachusetts,  for  Suffolk  County,  from  1855 
to  1859.  In  1S78  he  was  nominated  by  tlie  Demoeratie  party 
for  (iovernor  of  Massachusetts,  but  was  defeated.  In  1874 
he  was  elected  a  mend»er  of  Congress,  having  previously 
served  in  the  l^egislature  of  his  State  as  a  Hcpresentativc  and 
jis  Senator.     D.  at  Wellesley  Hills,  Mass.,  .lune  2,  1891. 

Henkv  Waue  Koueks. 

Abbott.  Lym.\x,  I).  D. :  Congregationalist  minister,  editor, 
anil  author;  b.  at  Koxbury.  Mass.,  Dec.  18.  1835;  graduated 
at  New  York  University,  1853.  After  having  studied  law, 
he  studied  theology;  was  [>astor  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  18G()- 
65;  pastor  of  the  New  Kngland  church  in  New  York,  1806-69; 
editor  of  The  Illustrated  Christian  lleeAV^,  1871-76 ;  and, 
from  1876,  of  TTie  Christian  Union  {now  The  Outlook).  He 
succeeded  H.  W,  Bt-echcr  as  pastor  of  Plvmouth  church, 
Brooklyn  (1888).  He  edited  Beecher's  sermons  (2  vols.,  1868). 
Among  his  numerous  writings  are  Commenfarits  upon  Mat- 
thew and  Mark  (1875),  Luke  (1877),  Jotin  (1879).  Acts  (1876). 
and  Romans  (1888),  aiul  a  sketch  of  the  Life  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  (1883).  In  association  with  T,  J.  Conant,  he  pre- 
pared -I  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledyc.  A  course  of 
Lowell  lectures  by  him  on  the  Evoltition  of  Christianity 
was  published  in  1892.  George  P.  Fisijer. 

Abbreviu'tio  Placito'nim  (abbreviation  of  pleadings): 
in  legal  history,  an  abstract  of  ancient  pleadings  made  prior 
to  the  Year-Books.    See  Yeak-Books. 

Abbreviations  [Lat.  abbreviationes^  from  ahhre'vio,  ah- 
brevia'fum,  to  shorten,  from  bre'vis,  shortj :  customary 
shortenings  of  words  and  phrases  used  in  writing,  in  order 
to  save  time  and  space.  They  arc  formed  l)y  the  omission 
of  some  letters  or  words,  or  by  the  substitution  of  arbitrary 
signs.  In  medi:eval  manuscripts  abbreviations  are  so  numer- 
ous that  special  study  and  training  are  required  to  decipher 
them.  For  denoting  moneys,  weights,  aiul  measures,  cluir- 
aeters  which  are  not  properly  abbreviations  are  used  as  such  : 
for  instance,  *  '  "  for  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds;  .§  for 
dollar;  £,  pound  (money),  etc. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  abbreviations  in 
common  use : 


ml,  ana,  of  each. 

(gl,  <id.  at. 

A.  A.  A.  G.,  Acting  Assistant  Adju- 
tant General. 

A.  A.  G.,  Assistant  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral. 

A.  B..  Avtium  Hacralaureus.Buch- 
elor  of  ArU  ;  also  Able-bodied 
Snanian. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Koix'ign  3Iis- 
sions. 

Abp..  Archbishop. 

A.  C,  Ante  Chri-ftitm^  before 
Christ. 

Acct.,  account. 

A.  D..  Anno  Domini,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord. 

Ad.  or  Adv..  atlverb. 

A,'d,  afUT  dnlf. 

Adj-.  adieclive. 

Adjt.,  adjut.-iiit. 

Ad  lib.,  ad  lihitum.  at  pleasure. 

A<iinr.,  administrator. 

A^lmx..  adniiiii.stratrix. 

JEt.  or  a'tac.  =  trtntifi  [anno]  ;  i.  e. 
in  the  year  of  his  (or  her)  age. 

A.  O..  Adjutant-(ri>ni'ral. 

A.  H..  ^Tirio  Hpqircp.  in  the  year 
of  the  Hegira  (flight  of  ^loliam- 
med). 

Ala.,  Alabama. 

A.  M  ,  .-1j??jo  Mxindi,  in  the  year  of 
the  world. 


A.  iVr.,^n^eJiendeem, before  noon. 
A.  M..  Artiuin  Magister,  Master  of 

Arts. 
Anon.,  anonymous. 
Ans.,  answer. 
A/o.  account  of. 
vVpr..  April. 

A.  Q.  M.,  Assistant  Quart*Tmastcr. 
A.  K.  A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal 

Aca<leniy  (London). 
Ari.,  Arizona. 
Ark.,  Arkansas. 
.•V/s.  account  sales. 
Atty.,  attorney. 
A.  V.  C,  Ah  Urbe  Condttn.  from 

the  Founding  of  the  City  (i.  e. 

Rome). 
Aug.,  August. 
A.  v..  Authorized  Version. 

A.  Y.  M.,  Ancient  York  Masonry, 
b.,  born. 

B.  A.  or  A.  B..  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bart,  or  Bt.,  Baronet. 

Bbl.,  barrel. 

B.  C.  before  Christ;  British  Co- 

himbia. 
B.  C.  L..  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.  D..  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
BE,  Bill  of  Kxcbauge. 
B.  I.,  British  India. 
B.  L..  Bachelor  of  Laws,  legum 

hficcdlniireitfi. 
Bl..,  Bill  of  Lading. 
Bp.,  Bishop. 


Brig. -Gen.,  Brigadier- General. 
Bro.,  brother. 

B.  S..  or  B.  Sc,  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence. 
BS.  Bill  of  Sale. 
Bush.,  bushel. 

B.  v..  Blessed  Virgin,  Lat.  Beuta 
Virf/o. 

C,  ci'utum,  a  hundred  ;  also  centi- 
grade uud  ceuiral. 

C-,  Consul  ;  also  chapter. 

Ca.,  etna,  about. 

C.  A..  Cluirtercd  Accountant. 

Cal.,  California. 

Cal.  or  Kal..  Calends  or  Kalends, 

Cantab.,  Cantubrigiensis^of  Cam- 
bridge. 

Cap.,  va/ntnlum^  cliapter. 

Capt..  Captain. 

C.  B..  Companion  of  the  Bath  ;  also 
Cape  Breton. 

C-  C,  Caius  College. 

c.  c,  cubic  centimeter. 

C.  C.  P..  Court  of  Couimon  Pleas. 

C.  E.,  Civil  Engineer. 

Cent  or  c,  centum,  hundred. 

Cf..  confer,  compare. 

C.  F.  L,  Cost,  freight  and  insiu*- 
ance. 

C.  G.  H.,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

C.  G.  S.,  centimeter  -gramme  -sec- 
ond. 

C.-IL,  court-house. 

Chap,  or  ch.,  chapter. 

Chron.,  Clironicles. 

C.  J.,  Chief  Justice. 

C.  M..  common  meter. 

c.  m.,  centimeter. 

Co..  couipany  ;  also  county. 

C.  O.  IX,  cash  on  delivery. 

Col..  Colonel ;  also  Colorado. 

Coll..  cotlej^e. 

Colo..  Colorado. 

Com.,  Commodore,  Commissioner. 

con.,  ct)uira,  against. 

Conn,  or  Ct,.  Connecticut. 

Cor.,  Corinthians. 

Cor.  Sec,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary. 

Cos.,  cosine. 

Cos?..  Constdes  or  Considibits,  con- 
suls (of  Rome). 

Cr.,  creditor. 

Crim.  Con.,  criminal  connection  or 
conversation. 

C.  S.  A.,  Confederate  States  of 
America. 

Ct..  Connecticut- 

Cum  Div.,  with  dividend. 

Cwt..  a  hundredweight. 

Cyc.  cyclopirdia. 

d.,  denarius,  penny,  pence  ;   also 

died. 
D.,  (ive  hundred;  also  Denarius, 

Dutch. 

D.  A.G..  Deputy  Adjutant-General. 
Dak.,  Dakota. 

Dan.,  Daniel,  Danish. 

D.  C,  District  of  C't>lumbia;  also 

da  capo,  from  the  t>eginning. 
D.  C.  L..  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.  D..  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
D.  D.S  .  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 
Doa.,  Deacon. 
Dec,  December. 
Deg.,  degree. 
Del..   Delaware;    also  delineavit, 

he  desiencrl  ton  engravings). 
Dept.,  department. 
Deut.,  Deuteronomy. 
D.  F..  Fidei  defensor.  Defender  of 

the  faith. 
Dft.,  defendant ;  draft. 
D.  G..  Dei  fjratiA,  by  the  grace  (or 

favor)  of  God. 
Dis.,  discount. 
Dist.,  district. 
Div.,  dividend. 
Do.,  ditto,  the  same. 
Doz..  dozen. 

Dr.,  Doctor  ;  also  debtor. 
D/s.  davs'  sight. 
D.  Sc.  Doctor  of  Science. 
Dub.,  Dublin. 

D.  v.,  Deo  volente.  God  willing. 
Dwt..  pennyweight. 

E.,  east. 

E.  &.  O.  E.,  errors  and  omissions 
excepted. 

Ebor.,  Eboracum,  York. 

Eccl..  Eccleaiastes. 

Eccles.,  ecclesiastical. 

Ecehis..  Ecclesiasticus. 

E.  C.  East  Central  (postal  district 

of  London). 
Ed.,  editor,  edition. 
Edin.,  Edinburgh. 
E.  E.,  Errors  excepted  ;  Electrical 

Engineer, 
e.  g.,  exempli  gratid,  for  example. 


E.  L,  Ea-st  Indies. 

E.  I.  C  .  East  India  Company. 

M.  F.,  Electro-motive  Force. 
Encyc,  encyelopaKiia. 
E.  N.  E.,  east-uurlheast. 
Eng.,  English  ;  Engineers. 
Eph.,  Ephes.,  Kiihesiuns. 

E.  S.  E.,  east-souiheabt. 
Esth..  Esther. 
Esq.,  Esquii'e. 
et  uL,  vt  alii,  and  others. 
etc.,  et  ca'tcra,  and  the  rest ;  I.  e, 

other  such  things  ;  and  so  forth. 

Et  seq.,  et  sequens,  and  the  follow- 
ing. 

Ex  d.  or  ex  div.,  ex  dividendo^ 
without  the  dividend. 

Exr..  executor. 

Exod.  or  Ex.,  Exodus. 

Exon..  Exonia,  Exeter. 

Exx.,  executrix. 

Ez.,  Ezra. 

Ezek..  Ezekiel. 

F.  or/.,  franc,  florin,  farthing,  foot. 
F.  and  A.  M.,  Free  and  Accepted 

Masons. 

F.  or  Fahr.,  Fahrenheit. 

F.  A.  A.,  Free  of  all  Average. 

F.  A.  I.  A..  Fellow  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Architect*;. 

F.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society  ;  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Arts. 

F,  B.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Botanical 
Society. 

F.  D..  Fidei  defensor.  Defender  of 
the  faith. 

Feb.,  February. 

F.  F  v.,  first  families  of  Virginia. 

F.  G.  S..  Fellow  of  the  Geological 
Society. 

fl.,  florin. 

Fla.,  Florida. 

F.  L.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  litmsean  So- 
ciety. 

F.  O.  B.,  Free  on  board. 

F.  P.  A.,  Free  of  Particular  Aver- 
age. 

F.  R.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society. 

F.  R.  C.  P.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians. 

F.  R.  C.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

Fri..  Friday. 

F.  R.  G.  S"..  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society. 

F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

F.  R.  S.  E..  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  S.  L..  FeUow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  London  ;  also  Fellow  of 
the  Roval  Society  of  Literature. 

F.  S.  A.'  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries. 

F.  S.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Statistical 
Society. 

ft.,  foot. 

fur.,  furlong. 

F.  Z.  S..  Fellow  of  the  Zoological 
Society. 

g..  gramme. 
Ga.,  Georgia. 
Gal..  Galatians. 
gal.,  gallon. 

G.  B..  Great  Britain. 
G.  C.  B.,  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 
G.  C.  M.  G..  Kni^'ht  Grand  Cross  of 

St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

G.  C.  S.  I..  Knight  Grand  Com- 
mander of  the  Star  of  India. 

G.  M.,  Grand  Master. 

Gen.,  General  ;  Genesis. 

fier,  Cerman. 

f;ov..  Governor. 

Gr.,  Greek. 

gr.,  grain. 

G.  T.,  Good  Templars;  Grand  Tiler. 

(!tt..  t/ji(i(L.  drops. 

Hab.;  Habakkuk. 

Hag.,  Hatrtrai. 

H.  B.  C.  Hudson's  Bnv  Company. 

H.  B.  M.,  Ilis  (or  Her)  Britannic 
Majesty. 

Hdkf..  Handkerchief. 

/(.  e.,  hoc  est.  this  is. 

H.  E.,  His  Eminence ;  His  Excel- 
lency. 

Heb.,  Hebrews. 

hhd.,  hogshead. 

Hist.,  history. 

H.  I.  H..  His  (or  Her)  Imperial 
Highness. 

H.  M.  S.,  His  (or  Her)  Majesty's 
Ship. 

Hon..  Honorable. 

Hos..  Hosea. 

H.  P.,  Horse  power. 

H.  R.,  House  of  Representatives. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


ABBREVIATOR 


H.  R.  H.,  His  (or  Her)  Royal  High- 
ness. 
H.  S.  H.,  His  (or  Her)  Serene  High- 
ness. 
H.  S.  'A.,Histori(eSocietatisSocius, 

Fellow  of  the  Historical  Society 
I.,  Is.,  or  Isl.,  island. 
la.,  Iowa. 
Ibid,  or  lb.,  ibidem,  in  the  same 

place. 
Id.,  uiem,  the  same. 
Id.,  Idaho. 
i.  e.,  id  est^  that  is. 
I.  H.  S.,  lesus  Hoininum  Salvator^ 

Jesus  Saviour  of  men. 
111.,  Ulinois. 
in.,  inch. 

incog.,  incognito,  unknown. 
Ind.,  Indiana. 

Ind.  Ter.,  Indian  Territory. 
Inf.  or  inf.,  infra,  below. 
In  lim.,  in  limine,  at  the  outset. 
In  ioc,  in  loco,  in  the  place. 
I.  N.  R.  I.,  lesus  Naziircnu:}  Rex 

Judceorttni,  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 

King  of  the  Jews. 
Inst.,  institute. 

inst.,  instante  [niense),  in  the  pres- 
ent month. 
Int.,  interest. 
Inv.,  invoice. 
I.  O.  O.  F.,  Independent  Order  of 

Odd  Fellows. 
I.  O.  S.  M..  Independent  Order  of 

the  Sons  of  Malta. 
I.  O.  U.,  I  owe  you. 
i.  q.,  idem  quod,  the  same  as. 
Is.  or  Isa.,  Isaiah. 
It.,  Italian. 
J.,  Judge  or  Justice. 
J.  A.,  Judge  Advocate. 
Jam.,  Jamaica. 
Jan.,  January. 
Jas.,  James. 
J.  C,  Jurisconsult. 
J.  C.  D.,  Juris  Civilis  Doctor,  Doc- 
tor of  Civil  Law. 
J.  I).,  Juris  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Law. 
Jer.,  Jeremiah. 
Jno.,  John. 
Jona.,  Jonathan. 
J.  P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Jr.  or  Jun.,  Junior. 
Jud.,  Judith. 
J,  U.  D.  or  J.  V.  D.,  Juris  utrixisque 

Doctor,   Doctor  of  both   Canon 

and  Civil  Law. 
Judg.,  Judges. 
K.,  King. 

Kal.  or  Cal..  Calends. 
Kan.,  Kansas. 
K.  B..  Knight  of  the  Bath. 
K.  C.,  King's  Counsel. 
K.  C.  B..  Kuight  Commander  of 

the  Bath. 
K.  C.  S.  I..  Knight  Commander  of 

the  Star  of  India. 
K.  G.  O.  B.,  Kuight  Grand  Cross  of 

the  Bath. 
K.  G.,  Knight  of  the  Garter. 
Kilo.,  km.,  kilometer, 
Kilog.,  kilogramme. 
K.  P.,  Kuight  of  St.  Patrick. 
K.  T.,  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 
Kt.,  Knight. 
Ky.,  Kentucky. 
La.,  Louisiana. 
Lam.,  Lamentations. 
Lat.,  latitude. 
Lat.  or  L.,  Latin, 
lb.,  libra,  pound. 
1.  c,  loco  citato,  in  the  place  cited; 

also   (in   piMnting)    lower    case, 

that  is.  small  letters. 
L.  D.,  Lady  Day. 
Lev.,  Leviticus. 
L.  H.  D.,  Literarutn  Ilumaniorum 

Doctor,  Dni'tor  of  Literature. 
L.  I.,  Long  T^iland. 
Lib.,  liher,  book. 
Lib.,  lb..  I.,  libra,  a  pound. 
Lieut.,  IJeutenant. 
Lit.  D.,  Doctor  of  [Jterature. 
LL.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Law.s. 
LL.  D.,  Le<jut)i  Doctor,  Doctor  of 

Laws. 
Lon.,  lonpifude. 
L.  R.  C.  P..  Licentiate  of  the  Royal 

College  <jf  rhysifian-;. 
L.  R.  C.  S..  Licentiate  of  the  Koyal 

College  of  SurKonns. 
L.  S.,  Locus  si'jilli,  the  place  of  the 

seal. 
L.  S.  D..   Libri,   Solidi,   Denarii, 

pounds,  shillings,  (and]  pence. 
LXX..  The  Septuagiut  (version  of 

the  Old  Testament). 
M-,  Monsieur,  miltc  (a  thousand), a 

mile  :  noun. 
in.,  meter  :  mile. 


M.  A.,  Master  of  Arts. 

Mace,  Maccabees. 

Mad.  or  Mme.,  Madame. 

Mag.,  magazine. 

Maj.-Gen.,  Major-General. 

Mai.,  Malachi. 

Mar.,  March. 

Masc,  Masculine. 

Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

Matt..  Matthew. 

M.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  C,  Member  of  Congress. 

3[d..  Maryland. 

M.  D..  Medici  nee  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Medicine. 

Me.,  Maine. 

M.  E.,  Methodist  Episcopal,  or  Me- 
chanical Eneiueer. 

Mex.,  Blexico  or  Mexican. 

M.  H.  S.,  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society. 

Messrs.  or  MM.,  Messieurs,  gentle- 
men. 

Mic,  Mieah. 

Mich.,  Michigan. 

Minn.,  IMinnesota. 

l\Iiss..  ^lississipiji. 

Mile.,  Madfinoiselle. 

mm.,  uiillinieter. 

Mme.,  Madame. 

M.  N.  A.  S.,  IVIember  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

mo.,  month. 

Mons.,  monsieur,  Mr. 

Mont.,  Montana. 

M.  P,,  Member  of  Parliament. 

M.  P.  P.,  Member  of  Provincial 
Parliament. 

Mr.,  Master  or  Mister. 

3Irs..  Mistress  or  Missis. 

M.  R.  A.  S.,  fliember  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences;  Member  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

M.  R.  C.  S.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.  R,  I.  A.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy. 

MS.,  manuscript;  pi.,  MSS. 

M.  S..  Master  of  Science. 

Mt ,  mount. 

Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

N.,  north,  or  noon  ;  also,  new. 

N.  A.,  North  America. 

N.  A  S.,  National  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence. 

N.  B.,  i^ota  Bene,  mark  well;  also 
New  Brunswick. 

N.  C.  North  Carolina. 

N.  Dak.  or  N.  D.,  North  Dakota, 

N.  E.,  northeast;  New  England. 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

Neh.,  Nehemiaii. 

Nem.  Con.,  Nemine  contradicente, 
or  Nem.  Diss..  Nemine  d/s.fidcu  te, 
no  one  contradicting  or  opposing. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.  F.,  Newfoundland. 

N.  G..  New  Granada  ;  North  Ger 
man. 

N.  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 

N,  M.,  New  Mexico. 

N.  N.  E.,  north- northeast. 

N.  N.  W.,  north-northwest. 

No.,  Numero,  Number. 

N.  O.,  NevF  Orleans. 

Nov.,  November. 

N.  P.,  Notary  Public:  also  New 
Providence  Island. 

N.  S..  Nova  Scotia;  New  Style. 

N.  T.,  New  Testament. 

Num.,  Numbers. 

N.  W.,  northwest. 

N.  W.  P.,  Northwest  Province. 

N.  W.  T.,  Northwest  Terr. 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

N.  Z  .  New  Zealand. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Ob.,  obiit,  died. 

Obad..  Obadiah. 

Obdt..  obedient. 

Obs.,  obsolete. 

Oct..  October. 

Okla..  Oklahoma. 

Ol..  oleum,  oil. 

Ol.  or  Olym.,  Olympiad. 

%,  per  cent. 

"  'ooi  P*^i'  thousand. 

Or.,  Oreffon. 

O.  S.,  Old  Style  ;  also  Ordinary 
Seaman. 

O.  T.,  Old  Testament. 

Oxon.,  Oxoniensis,  Oxonian  or  of 
Oxford. 

Oz..  ounce. 

p.,  page. 

P.,  Pi-rf,  father. 

Pa.  or  Penn.,  Pennsylvania. 

p  a.,  Participial  adjective. 


Pari.,  Parliament. 

P.  C,  Piivy  Councilor. 

P.  E.  I.,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

P.  E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Per  Ann.,  Pr.  An.,  Per  Annum,  by 
the  year. 

Per  Cent,  Per  Centum,  by  the 
hundred. 

Per  pro..  Per  procurationem,  by 
procuration;  on  behalf  of . 

Pet..  Peter. 

Ph.  D.,  Philosophice  Doctor,  Doc- 
tor of  Philosophy. 

Phil..  Philippians,  Philip. 

Phila..  Philadelphia. 

Philem.,  Philemon. 

Philom..  Philomathes,  a  lover  of 
learning. 

Pinxt.  or  pxt.,  pinxit,  he  painted. 

Pk.,  peck. 

pi.,  plu..  or  plur.,  plural. 

plff..  plaiutitf. 

plupf.,  pluperfect. 

P.  M.,  Post  Meridiem,  after  noon. 

P.  M.,  Postmaster. 

P.  O.,  Post-office. 

P.  O.  O.,  Post-office  order. 

P.  of  H.,  Pat.  of  Husbandry. 

Pop.,  population. 

Port.,  Portiigutse. 

PP.,  Fxtrrs,  falliers. 

P.  P..  Parish  Pi'iest. 

pp.,  pages. 

P.  P.  C,  pour  ^jrenrf?'e  conge,  to 
take  leave. 

p.  p.,  yier  2^i'o,  on  behalf  of. 

P.  Q.,  Province  of  Quebec. 

P.  R.,  Porto  Rico. 

Pros..  President. 

Priv.,  private. 

Prob.,  problem. 

Prof.,  Professor. 

Pro  tem..  Pro  tempore,  for  the 
time,  temporary. 

Prov,,  Proverbs. 

Prox..  Proximo  or  Proximo  mense, 
in  the  next  month. 

Ps.,  Psalm. 

P,  S.,  postscript ;  privy  seal. 

Pt.,  part ;  pint. 

P.  T.  O.,  please  turn  over. 

Pub.  Doc,  public  document. 

Pxt.,  jiinxit,  painted  it. 

q.,  (jitadrans,  farthing. 

O-,  (Juecn  ;  question  :  Quintus. 

Q.  C,  Queen's  Counsel. 

Q.  d.,  i^uasi  dieat,  As  if  he  should 
say. 

Q  E.  D.,  Quod  Erat  Demonstran- 
dum, which  was  to  be  demon- 
strated. 

Q.  E.  F..  Quod  Erat  Faciendum, 
which  was  to  be  done. 

Q.  M.,  Quartermaster. 

Qr..  quarter;  farthing. 

C^.  8..  Quantum  Sujjicit,  a  sufficient 
quant  itj'. 

qt,,  quart. 

Qu.,  query  ;  question. 

Q.  V.  or  (/.  v.,  quod  vide,  which  see 
(in  the  plural  qq.  v.),  or  quantum 
vis,  as  much  as  you  please. 

R.,  Rex,  King,  or  Regina,  Queen. 

I^..  Recipe,  take. 

R.  A..  Royal  Academician,  or  Royal 
Artillei-y. 

R.  C,  Roinan  Catholic. 

R.  E,,  Royal  EntritiHcrs. 

Rcc.  Sec..  He rdinj::  Secretary. 

Ref,  Ch.,  Kcl'oruied  Church. 

Reg.  Prof.,  Regius  Professor. 

Rev.,  reverend.  Revelation. 

R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 

R.  M.,  Royal  Marines. 

R.  M.  S,.  Royal  Mail  Steamer. 

R.  N.,  Rovai  Navy. 

R,  N.  R,.  Roj^al  Naval  Reserve. 

Ro.  or  Rolit..  Robert. 

Rom..  Romans. 

R.  R.,  Railroad. 

Rs,.  rupees. 

R.  S.  D,,  Royal  Society  of  Dublin. 

R.  S.  E.,  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

R.  S.  V.  P..  Vi'-pondfz.  s^il  vous 
plait.  Reply,  if  you  please. 

Rt.  Hon..  RiLdit  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev..  liight  Reverend. 

Ry.,  Railway, 

S  ,  south  :  saint ;  shilling. 

S.  A..  South  America ;  South 
Africa. 

Sam..  Samuel. 

Sans.,  Saiiskr'it. 


Sc.  or  Ss.,  scilicet,  to  wit ;  also 
scidpsit,  he  engraved  it  (.on  en- 
gravings). 

S.  Dak.  or  S.  D.,  South  Dakota. 

S.  E..  southeast. 

Sec,  Secretary  ;  also  second. 

Sept.,  September. 

sin.,  sine. 

S.  J.,  Society  of  Je.sus. 

S.  J.  C,  Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

Skr.,  Sanskrit. 

S.  M.,  .S'«  Majeste,  His  (or  Her) 
Majesty. 

Sp.  or  Span.,  Spanish. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.,  Senatus  Populusque 
Ronianus,  the  Roman  senate  and 
people. 

Sq.  or  iieq.,seqitens,  the  following  ; 
pi.,  Sqq.,  stquentes. 

Sq.,  square. 

SS..  saints ;  also  e.sses,  a  collar 
worn  by  knights  and  others  in 
heraldry. 

Ss.  or  Sc.  scilicet,  to  wit ;  namely. 

Ss.,  semis,  half. 

S.  S.  C,  Solicitor  before  the  Su- 
preme c<.uils  (of  Scotland). 

S.  S.,  Sunday  school. 

S.  S.  E.,  soulhsuutheast. 

S.  S  W..  south-soutiiwest. 

St.,  saint ;  street. 

S.  T.  D.,  Saci-osanctm  Theologies 
Doctor,  Doctor  of  Theology. 

S.  of  T.,  Sons  of  Temperance. 

S.  T.  P.,  Sacrosanctoi  TheologicB 
Professor,  Professorof  Theology. 

s.  v.,  sub  voce,  under  the  woi'd  (or 
heading). 

5.  W.,  southwest. 
Syr.,  Syriac. 

T.  E.,  Topographical  Engineers. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee. 

Tex.,  Texas. 

Text.  Rec,  Textus  Receptus. 

Thess..  Thessalonians. 

Tit.,  Titus. 

U.  K..  United  Kingdom. 

Ult.,  Vltinui,  ultimo  meuse,  in  the 
last  month. 

U.  P.,  United  Presbyterian. 

U.  S..  United  Stales, 

U.  S.  A.,  Uiiiied  Slates  of  America; 
United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy. 

U.  S.  P.,  United  States  Pharmaco- 
pceia. 

U.  S.  S..  United  States  Ship  or 
Steamer. 

U.  T.,  Utah  Territory. 

V.  or  vs.,  versus,  against. 

v.,  volt  or  volts. 

Va..  Virginia. 

V.  C.  Vice-Chancellor;  Victoria 
Cross. 

V.  D.  M.,  Verbi  Dei  Minister,  min- 
ister of  the  word  of  God. 

Yen.,  Venerable. 

V.-G..  Vicar-General. 

Viz..  Videlicet,  namely. 

V.-P.,  Vice-President. 

V.  R.,  Victoria  Regina,  Victoria 
the  Queen. 

V.  S..  Veterinary  Surgeon. 

vs.,  ver.-<us.  against. 

Vt,,  Vermont. 

W'..  west. 

W.,  "Watt  or  Watts  (in  electricity). 

Wash..  Wasliiniitcui. 

W.  I.,  West  Indies. 

Wis..  Wisconsin. 

W.  N.  W..  west-northwest. 

W.  s..  Writer  to  the  Signet  (Scot- 
land). 

W.  S.  W.,  west-southwest. 

W.  Va..  West  Virgiiua. 

Wy.  or  Wyo..  Wyoming. 

X.  Gr.,  Xp'taToy.  Clirist. 

Xmas.,  Christmas;  Xtiun.,  Chris- 
tian, etc. 

yd.,  yard. 

Yr..  year  ;  your. 

Zech.,  Zechariah. 

Zeph,,  Zephaniah. 

6.  and. 

Ac.  ft  co'fern,  and  so  forth. 

Ys  Yt.  The.  That,  (This  use  of  Y 
originate<l  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
character  |>,  which  was  etpiiva- 
lent  to  the  modern  Ih.  In  manu- 
scrifits  this  character  degener- 
ates into  a  form  like  a  black- 
letter  !/  (Ji.  which  was  retained 
after  its  origin  and  real  sound 
had  been  lost  sight  of.) 


S.  C.  StMiIh  Carolina. 

Ab))re'viiilor  :  ;i  notary  of  the  papal  court^  and  of  tlie 
church  cDuncils.  whoso  business  is  to  ])reparc  brirt's  and  per- 
form varittus  iniporlant  service.'^  as  socretary.  The  nnnibcr 
of  these  notaries  \vas  formerly  about  scveuly-lwo. 


ABBT 


ABDOJIIXALES 


Abbt,  Thomas:  Gennnn  author;  b.  at  Ulra  in  1738.  He 
became  Professor  of  Malhcinalics  at  Hiiitoln  in  1761,  ami 
cmitribuUHl  to  the  improvement  ot  tlie  (Jcrnnin  laniriiiii.'e. 
His  cliifl'  works  are  \  nm  Veniienxle  (On  Merit.  1705)  and 
\'<)m  'foil  furs  Viitn-ldiid  (On  ilying  for  the  Fatherland, 
ITIil),     D.  ill  Biickeburtf,  Xov.  U,  i76(;. 

Abd  :  an  Arabic  word  which  sisrnifies  servant  or  slave, 
and  forms  the  prefix  ot  many  Oriental  names,  as  Abd- 
Allah.  •'  servant  of  Allali,"  Abd-er-Kahniun,  "  servant  of  tlie 
Merciful"  (i.e.  of  (iod). 

Abd-ol-Hiiniid  :  the  adopted  Aral)ic  name  ot  one  Dn 
CouRET.  a  Kreucli  traveler  (b.  in  1812),  who  set  out  in  1884 
for  the  Kast ;  visited  Kgypt,  traveled  up  the  Xile;  through 
Abyssinia;  to  the  siiores  of  the  Mi^A  Sea;  and  returned  alonj' 
the  Red  Sea  to  Cairo.  He  eiuliraced  Mohainmeilaiiisin,  and 
assumed  the  name  ot  Abd-el-Ilamid.  After  havinj;  been 
imprisoned  in  Persia  for  political  reasons,  he  was  released 
through  the  intervention  of  France,  and  returned  to  his  na- 
tive country  in  1847.  In  184b  he  was  dispatched  by  the 
(iovernment  to  Timbuctoo.  lie  published  the  result  of  this 
exploration  in  Mniioire  H  Na/mleun  III.  (IH.")"));  he  also 
published  Mfiline  et  la  Mekke  (3  vols.,  1855).  D.  at  Cairo, 
Egypt,  Apr.  1,  1867. 

Abd-el-KaMer  (.\rabic,  servant  of  the  Powerful,  i.  e. 
of  (liid):  a  distinguished  Arab  chieftain;  b.  near  Mascara, 
in  Algeria,  in  1807.  His  father,  Melii-ud-Din,  was  a  mara- 
boot,  or  religious  noble,  ot  no  little  influence.  Algeria  hav- 
ing been  invaded  l)y  the  French  in  1830,  Abd-el-Kader  was 
chosen  emir  (prince)  by  the  .\rabs  of  that  country.  He  de- 
featetl  the  French  at  ^iacta  in  is;i5.  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  in  18:!7.  In  183!)  hostilities  were  again  renewctd. 
and  in  the  war  which  followeil.  against  a  power  so  much 
superior  to  his  own,  .\bd-el-Kader  displayed  extraordinary 
energy,  combined  with  a  marvelous  fertility  of  resources, 
but  he  was  at  length,  in  1847, obliged  to  yield  to  overwhelm- 
ing odils :  he  laid  down  his  arms  on  condit  ion  that  he  should 
be  sent  to  Alexandria  or  SI.  .John  d'.Vcre.  But,  in  direct 
violation  of  the  terms  of  capitulation,  he  was  taken  to  France, 
where  he  was  detained  as  a  prisoner  until  18ri3.  In  18(>(). 
when  the  Christians  of  Syria  were  threatened  with  massacre 
by  the  fanatical  Jloliaininedans  of  that  country,  Abd-el-Ka- 
dcr,  with  extraordinary  diligence  and  at  the  risk  of  his  own 
life,  i)rotcctcd  many  thousands  of  those  defenseless  people 
so  long  as  the  danger  la.sted.  In  1864  he  paid  a  visit  to 
Egypt,  where  he  was  well  received  by  the  viceroy,  and  re- 
ceiveil  from  M.  de  Lesseps  a  piece  of  land.  He  also  joined 
the  order  of  Freemasons.  In  186.5  he  visited  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  honors.  In  1867  he  at- 
tended the  Universal  Exhibition  at  Paris.  Abd-el-Ka<ler 
wrote  in  the  Arabic  language  a  work  which  he  sent  to  the 
French  Academy,  and  whicii  was  translated  into  French 
by  Dugat  under  the  title  Riippil  a  l' Inlcllignit,  acta  d  rin- 
different  {IHSti).  He  also  contributed  important  notes  and 
commentaries  to  Daumas's  Lets  Chevaux  du  Sahara.  See 
Life  bv  Churchill  (l^on.  1867).  D.  at  Danniscus,  .Alav  26, 
1883. 

Abd-pl-LatiP  :  an  Arabian  historian  and  physician  ;  b. 
at  Bagdad  in  1162.  He  wrote  a  valuable  woiK  on  the  his- 
tory, antiiiuities,  and  geography  of  Egypt,  of  which  De 
Sacy  published  a  French  version.     I),  in  1231. 

Abd-cl-Wiibab' :  founder  of  the  sect  of  Wahabites  or 
Wahiibres  ;  b.  in  Nejed,  Arabia,  16!)1.  He  recognized  the 
Koran,  and  endeavored  to  reform  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
whiili  he  atlirmoil  bad  become  corrupte<l.     I),  in  1787.     See 

\V  All. 'mucks. 

Abde'rii  (fir. 'A/SSijpo) :  an  ancient  city  of  Thrace,  noted 
as  the  birthplace  of  the  philoso|)her  Deinocritns.  Thestn- 
jiidity  and  ignorance  ot  the  people  of  Abdera  was  pro- 
verbial. 

.4bd-('r-l{nbmnii  III.:  surnained  An-Nasir-Lidix-Ii,- 
i.AH,  or  Ai.-XAssi:K-I,iDixii,LAii ;  a  celebrated  caliph;  b. 
about  H88  A.  D.  He  began  to  reign  at  Cordova  in  ill2.  lie 
was  distinguished  as  a  patron  of  learning  and  the  arts. 
During  his  long  ivign  the  Moslem  empire  in  Spain  was 
raiseil  to  the  higliest  pitch  of  prosperity.     D.  in  961. 

Abdication:  the  renunciation  of  an  office,  generally  an 
office  of  supreme  importance.  The  legal  right  of  abdication 
has  been  disputed  on  several  grounds,  and  it  is  at  least 
ciuestionable.  It  is  asserteil  by  the  opponents  of  kingly 
[lower  that  a  king  has  not  a  right  to  abdicate,  because  he  has 
not  a  right  to  reign.  A<lvocatesof  constitutional  monarchy 
often  take  the  ground  that  inasmuch  as  kings  can  reign  only 


with  the  fiu'inal  consent  ot  the  nation,  therefore  the  right  to 
reign  is  a  compact  which  can  be  dissolved  only  with  the  eon- 
sent  of  bot  h  parties.  From  the  point  of  view  of  divine  right, 
abdication  is  generally  regarded  as  unlawful,  for  the  reason 
that  the  monarch  is  invested  with  power  not  by  his  own  will, 
and  therefore  can  not  of  his  own  choice  divest  hinisclf  of 
this  power.  In  answer  to  this  position  it  has  been  argued 
that  if  monarchy  is  a  divine  institution,  it  follows  that  it  is 
the  monarch's  duty  to  leave  nothing  undone  to  accomplish 
his  mission,  even  to  withdrawing  from  the  throne,  whenever 
it  seems  to  him  lliat  the  public  interest  demands  that  sacri- 
fice from  him.  According  to  ICnglish  law,  the  king  may  not 
abdicate  exce|)t  with  the  consent  ot  Parliament.  Subtle 
legal  distinctions,  however,  are  seldom  of  great  importance, 
inasmuch  as  it  will  not  often  occur  that  a  nation  will  de- 
sire to  keep  a  monarch  ii])on  the  throne  after  he  wishes  to 
renounce  it.  There  is  probably  no  example  in  history  of  a 
successful  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  resist  a  de- 
tcrmiiu'd  jnirposc  t<i  abdicate  on  the  part  of  a  monarch. 
The  following  are  the  most  noteworthy  instances  of  the  ab- 
dication of  monarchical  power.  In  a.  d.  305  the  imperial 
authority  was  abdicated  by  the  Emperors  Diocletian  and 
-Maxiniian.  In  Savoy,  Amadeus  abdicated  the  throne  in 
1494;  Victor  Amadeus  in  1730;  Charles  Emmanuel  in  1802; 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  1820;  and  Charles  Albert  in  1849.  In 
Poland.  Henry  111.  abdicate<l  in  l.)74 ;  Augustus  in  1707; 
Augustus  .Stanislas  in  1735;  and  Poniatowski  in  1795. 
Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  (ieriuany  gave  up  the  royal  and 
imperial  crowns  in  15.55.  Philip  V.  in  Spain  abdicated  in 
1724.  and  Charles  IV.  in  1808.  l^ueen  Christina  of  Sweden 
abdicated  in  16.54;  Louis  of  Hollan<l  in  1810;  and  Louis  of 
Bavaria  in  1848.  In  France.  Xaiioleon  I.  renounced  the 
throne  in  1814  and  in  1815;  Charles  .\.  in  1830;  and  Louis 
Philippe  in  1848.  In  every  instance  in  France,  however, 
abdication  has  followed  revolution  or  forcible  expnloion 
from  the  seat  of  authority.  In  English  history  there  have 
been  two  cases  only,  and  these  have  not  been  very  clearly 
defined.  Richard  11.  abdicated  in  1399;  and  James  II.,  in 
1685,  though  he  did  not  formally  abdicate,  was  declared  by 
Parliament  to  "have  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  king- 
dom," and  to  have  "  abdicated  the  government."     C.  K.  A. 

Abdo'incn  [Lat.  abdo'min  (sren.  ahdom'inis).  from  abdere, 
to  liide):  the  part  of  the  human  body  which  lies  below  the 
diaphnigui.  The  important  secretory  and  excretory  or- 
gans— the  liver,  pancreas,  stomach  and  intestines,  spleen 
and  kidneys — occupy  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  abdomen 
is  closed  in  by  a  muscular  anterior  wall  (the  belly  muscles) ; 
by  a  posterior  bony  wall  (the  spinal  column);  by  the  dia- 
phragm above,  and  by  tlie  pelvic  bones  and  organs  below. 
The  interior  is  lined  with  a  smooth  serous  membrane,  which 
covers  the  walls  and  is  reflected  over  the  organs,  which  are 
thus  completely  inclosed  in  folds  of  the  membrane,  w-hich  is 
called  the  peritoneum.  The  reflections  of  the  peritoneum 
serve  also  as  ligaments  to  hold  the  organs  in  [ilace  without 
allowing  them  considerable  freedom  of  motion.  The  usual 
position  of  the  organs  is  as  follows;  The  stomach  lies  to  the 
left  and  immediately  beneath  the  lower  ribs,  and  not  rarely 
it  is  completely  hidden  beneath  the  ribs.  The  spleen  is 
situated  laterally  at  the  left  extremity  of  the  stomach;  the 
liver  occupies  a  position  on  the  right  side  similar  to  that 
occupied  by  the  stomach  and  spleen  on  the  left.  The  kid- 
neys lie  to  either  side  of  the  spinal  column  on  the  posterior 
wall  of  the  abdomen  and  about  the  level  of  the  lowest  ribs. 
The  small  intestim^s  take  up  the  central  part  of  the  ab- 
dominal wall ;  the  large  bowel  passes  from  the  right  groin 
upwartl  toward  the  liver,  then  transversely  across  the  ab- 
domen, and  finally  descends  along  the  left  side  into  the 
pelvis.     See  also  PivKITOXKum.  W.  P. 

.\bdonipn:  in  entomology,  the  hindmost  of  the  three  re- 
gions into  which  the  body  of  an  insect  is  divided.  It  is 
composed,  typically,  of  eleven  rings  or  segments,  more  or 
less  distinct  from  each  other,  but  the  numlier  is  often  less. 
It  contains  a  portion  of  the  intestines  and  the  sexual  organs. 
In  the  perfect  insect  its  segments  have  attached  to  thcni  no 
well-developed  legs  or  wings.  In  many  insects  its  last  seg- 
ments bear  appendages  of  various  uses  and  forms,  as  pin- 
cers, stings,  ovipositors,  etc.  In  some  insects  the  abdomen 
is  not  well  differentiated  from  the  thorax.  D.  S.  J. 

Abdoniinales  [fyal.  ahdnmitialis.  |iertaining  to  the  ah- 
do'm!'n\:  a  term  formerly  used  for  a  large  group  of  fishes 
containing  numerous  families,  such  as  the  Ksocidw.  pikes, 
Cyprinidiv,  carp,  C/upeid(p.  herrings,  Sdlmonidd',  trout,  etc., 
now  placed  in  several  orders.     The  order  Abdoniinales  of 


10 


ABDUCTION 


ABERCEOMBIE 


Linn^us  coTitained  all  the  true  or  bony  iishes  in  which  the 
Tentral  fins  are  plaoed  beneath  the  abdomen,  well  back  of 
the  pectorals.  Cuvier  nsed  it  for  a  sub-order  of  soft-rayed 
fishes  with  abdominal  ventrals,  not  connected  with  the  shoul- 
der girdle.  Johannes  JIuller  restrieteil  this  sub-order  by 
removing  those  species  in  which  there  is  no  communication 
between  the  air-bladder  and  intestine.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Abdne'tioil  [Lat.  n6,  away -(- </i*'cere,  lead] :  m  law,  the 
forcible  or  fraudulent  carrying  away  of  a  person.  It  is  usu- 
ally confined  to  the  removal  of  females  with  a  view  to  their 
marriage  or  seduction.  It  is  allied  to  the  word  kidnapping, 
which  would  include  the  case  of  males.  Abduction  is  an 
offense  severely  punished  by  statute  law  both  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  in  the  iJ.  .S. 

Abd-iil-Aziz'  (written  in  French  Ahdoul-Aziz,  and  in 
German  Ahd-ul-Asis):  a  son  of  Mahmud  II. ;  b.  Feb. 9,1830: 
succeeded  his  brother,  Abd-ul-JIedjid,  as  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
June  2.5,  1861.  He  reduced  the  imperial  civil  list  from  75,- 
000,000  piasters  to  12,000,000:  abolished  among  other  bar- 
barous practices  that  of  assassinating  the  sons  of  the  prin- 
cesses, favored  the  introduction  of  Western  manners  and 
customs,  and  did  much  to  destroy  the  old  and  cherished 
traditions  of  the  Turks,  Deposed  jlay  29.  1876,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  assassinated  June  4,  1876.     See  Turkey. 

Abd-ill-Hainid  II.:  Padishah  or  Sultan  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  ;  thirty-fourth  of  the  dynasty  of  Othman :  b.  in  Con- 
stantinople. Sept.  5,  1842 :  second  son  and  fourth  child  of 
Abd-ul-5ledjid  (q.  i\) ;  adopted  by  his  father's  second  wife, 
•who  was  childless.  lie  was  brought  up  with  his  brother 
Murad  in  the  harem,  and  received  but  little  education.  In 
1867  his  uncle,  Abd-ul-Aziz,  then  Sultan,  took  him  with  him 
to  Paris  to  the  exposition  of  that  year,  and  what  he  saw 
there  developed  in  him  a  love  of  study,  which  greatly  im- 
proved his  imtid.  On  the  deposition  of  Abd-ul-Aziz  (ilay 
29,  1876),  Jlurad,  eldest  son  of  Abd-ul-JIedjid,  succeeded, 
but  pi'oving  incompetent  from  insanity  he  was  deposed 
Aug,  31,  and  Al)d-ul-IIamid  was  invested  with  the  sword  of 
Othman  Sept.  7,  1876,  as  Alid-ul-Ilamid  II,  He  is  said  to 
belong  to  the  "  Old  Turkish  ""  party,  and  has  thus  far  carried 
on  the  government  with  doubtful  success. 

Abd-ul-Mt'djid'  (written  in  French  Abdoul-Medjid,  and 
in  German  Ahd-ul-Mtdschid):  Sultan  of  Turkey;  eldest  son 
of  Mahmud  II.:  b,  in  1823.  He  succeeded  his  father  July 
1,  1839,  when  his  capital  was  menaced  by  the  victorious 
array  of  JNIehemet  AH,  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  This  danger  was 
averted  by  the  intervention  of  England  and  other  great 
powers  in  July,  1840.  He  favored  religious  liberty  and  the 
reforms  which  his  father  had  initiated,  but  his  good  will 
was  partially  frustrated  by  the  resistance  of  his  fanatical 
subjects.  He  died  June  25,  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother.  Abd-ul-Aziz.     See  Turkey. 

Abeceda'riaiis :  a  sect  founded  in  the  sixteenth  century 
by  a  person  named  Storck,  who  professed  that  learning  was 
not  necessary,  not  even  the  knowledge  of  the  alphabet  (A  B 
C,  hence  their  name),  for  the  proper  understanding  of  the 
Scriptures, 

A'Becket,  Thomas  :  See  Becket. 

A'Beck'ett,  Gilhert  Abbott  :  a  humorous  English  writer 
and  lawyer;  b,  iu  London,  Jan,  9,  1811.  He  contributed  to 
the  London  Times  and  Punch.  Among  his  works  is  The 
Comic  Blackulune  (1844-46),  D.  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  Aug. 
SO,  1856. 

Abeel',  David,  I).  D.  :  missionary  to  the  Chinese;  b.  at 
New  Brunswick.  N,  J.,  June  12,  1804,  He  published  A 
Journal  of  a  liexidfuce  in  China  (1829-33);  A  Missionary 
Convention  in  Jerusalem  (1838);  and  The  Claims  of  the 
World  to  the  Gospel.  I),  at  Albany,  Sept,  4,  1846,  See 
memoir  by  Williamson  (X,  Y,,  1848). 

A'bel :  the  second  son  of  Adam  and  Eve;  killed  by  his 
brother  Cain.  He  is  regarded  as  a  type  of  faith  and  as  the 
first  martyr.     See  Genesis  iv.  and  Hebrews  xi.  4. 

Abel,  Oari,,  Ph,  D, :  philologist ;  b.  at  Berlin.  Nov.  25. 
1837:  educated  in  the  univei-silies  of  Berlin,  !\Iiinich.  and 
Tubingen;  has  traveled  extensively  in  Europe  an<l  .\merica 
in  the  interests  of  lingui.stic  research;  has  acted  as  Ilches- 
tcr    lecturer  at    Oxford    University ;    has   lectured    before 

Ehilological  societies  in  England  and  Berlin:  Professor  of 
linguistics  in  the  Berlin  Humboldt  Academy  of  Science. 
Author  of  numerous  contributions  to  philological  and  other 
periodicals:  and  of  Linr/iii.i/ir  h'ssai/s  (18S0):  Knptixche 
Untcrsuchungen  (1878);  and  liussland  und  die  Lage  (1888). 


Abel,  Niels  Hexkik  :  mathematician ;  b.  at  Findo,  Nor- 
way. Aug.  5,  1802.  He  gained  distinction  by  his  discoveries 
in  the  theory  of  elliptic  functions,  and  was  highly  eulogized 
by  Legcndre.     D.  at  Christiania,  Apr.  6,  1829. 

Abflard,  or  Abailard,  Pierre:  French  philosopher  and 
dialectician:  b.  near  Nantes,  in  Bretagne,  in  1079.  He 
studied  dialectics  under  the  Nominalist  Koscellinus  and  the 
Realist  William  de  Chanipeaux,  and  afterward  theology  un- 
der Anselin,  of  Laon,  He  taught  in  various  places,  largely 
in  Paris,  drawing  around  him  great  numbers  of  pupils  from 
different  parts  of  Europe.  He  sought  to  avoid  the  extremes 
of  Nominalism  and  Realism,  though  his  doctrine  is  not  far 
removed  from  strict  Nominalism.  He  had  marvelous  sub- 
tlety :  he  was  able  to  foil  the  first  masters  of  his  age  in  logic, 
and  was  as  audacious  in  propounding  his  notions  as  he  was 
ingenious  in  defending  them.  But  he  lacked  moral  courage; 
he  loved  truth  less  than  he  thirsted  tor  fame :  his  vanity 
and  selfishness  had  no  bounds;  and  his  treatment  of  one  of 
his  pupils,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished  Eloise,  whom  he 
first  seduced,  afterward  married,  and  then  deserted,  leaves 
upon  his  memory  an  indelible  stain.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  founders  of  Scholasticism,  and  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  intellectual  activity  of  his  time. 
D.  in  the  Abbey  of  vSt.  JIarcel,  near  Chalon,  of  which  he  was 
abbot,  Apr,  21,  1142.  The  most  complete  work  on  Abelard 
is  Charles  de  Remusat's  Abelard  (Paris,  1845).  See  also 
Cousin's  Introduction  tu  the  Works  of  Abelard ;  Berington's 
Uistorij  of  Abelard  and  Ileloise  ;  and  Wight's  Abelard  and 
Eloise  (N,  Y„  1853). 

A'belites,  or  Abe'lians:  a  sect  of  Christians  who  lived 
in  Northern  Africa  in  the  fourth  century.  They  enjoined 
marriage  witliout  carnal  intercourse  in  order  not  to  propa- 
gate original  sin.  claiming  in  support  of  their  practice  the 
example  of  the  patriarch  Abel.  They  adopted  children,  who 
were  brought  up  to  the  same  kind  of  marriage.  They  were 
extinct  before  the  time  of  Augustine  (fifth  century). 

Abeii.  Ebii,  or  Ibn:  a  prefix  to  many  Arabic  proper 
names,  denoting  "son  of." 

Abenaijuis :  same  as  .•^bxakis.     See  Algoxquian  Ixd- 

lAXS. 

A'ben  Ez'ra:  b.  .at  Toledo  about  1100;  d.  on  the  island 
of  Rhodes  about  1175;  wrote  commentaries  which  sliow 
great  progress  in  tlie  department  of  biblical  exegesis.  Those 
on  Isaiali  (1873-77,  4  vols.).  Canticles  (1874),  and  Proverbs 
(1880)  have  been  translated  into  English.  See  The  Isaiah 
for  Priedliinder's  essay  on  him, 

A'beiisberg :  a  town  of  Bavaria;  18  miles  S,W.  of  Batis- 
lion ;  has  a  castle  and  a  mineral  spring  (see  map  of  the 
German  Empire,  ref.  7-F).  Here  Napoleon  defeated  the 
Austriaiis  Apr.  20,  1809.     Pop.  2.300. 

A'ber:  a  Cymric  term  signifying  "meeting-place  of 
waters,"  occurs  as  a  prefix  to  names  of  places  in  Great 
Britain — e.g.  Aberdeen.  It  is  probably  etymologically  re- 
lated to  the  Persian  ab,  water.  The  corresponding  Gaelic 
term  is  Inrer — e.g.  Inverness. 

Aberbrothwick :  See  Arbroath. 

Ab'ercorii,  Dikes  of  :  Marquesses  of  Abercorn  (in  the 
Irish  peerage,  1790).  Viscounts  Hanulton  (in  the  peerage  of 
Great  Britain.  1786),  Earls  of  Abercorn  (16(16).  Barons  of  Pais- 
ley (1587),  of  Abercorn  (1603),  of  Hamilton,  Jlountcaslle, 
aiid  Kilpatrick  (in  the  peerage  of  Scotland,  1606),  Viscounts 
Strabane  (1701),  Barons  Strabane  (1616),  Mountcastle  (in 
the  Irish  peerage,  1701),  Marquesses  of  Hamilton  (in  the 
Irish  peerage,  1868).  and  Dukes  of  Chatelherault  (in  France, 
1548),  one  of  the  most  prominent  noble  families  of  Great 
Britain. 

Abercorn.  James  Hamiltox.  First  Duke  of:  b,  Jan.  21, 
1811  ;  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  Marquis  of  Hamilton  in 
1818:  and  became  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  iu  18()6,  which 
position  he  held  until  1868,  when  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Abercorn,  and  when  the  Derby  Ministry  returned  to  power 
he  was  restored  in  1874  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  ;  helil  the 
ollice  till  1876.     D.  at  Baronscourt,  Tyrone,  Oct.  31,  1885. 

Ab'eroroiiibie,  James:  British  general;  b,  in  1706;  iu 
1758  took  command  of  .50,000  men  in  New  York,  in  order  to 
recover  the  fort  which  the  French  had  taken.  On  the  8th 
of  July  he  attacked  Ticondcroga,  but  was  repulsed  by  the 
French  witli  great  loss,  and  was  soon  removed  from  the 
command,     D.  Ajir.  28,  1781, 

Aborerombie.  J  vmls.  D.  D.  :  Episcopalian  clergyman  and 
scholar;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan,  26,  1758;  preached  there. 


ABERCROMBIE 


ABERGAVENNY 


11 


and  there  died  June  26,  1841.  Ills  sermon  preached  on  the 
death  of  Alexamlor  Hamilton  produecil  no  httle  excitement 
in  coiisciiiu-noe  of  Ins  condemnation  of  the  praotice  of  duel- 
ing. Dr.  Alii'iiromliie's  Lectures  on  the  Ciitechism  wiis  for 
years  u  standard  authority. 

AbPrcronibie,  .John,  JI.  D.  :  Scottish  phvsician ;  li.  at 
Aberdeen,  ()i4.  10.  ITf^O.  lie  ^rradualed  as  JI.  1).  in  180;i, 
practiced  in  Kdinl)urgh,and  attained  the  reputation  of  lieing 
the  first  consultins  physician  in  Scotland.  He  published 
Inquiries  Concerning  the  Intellectudl  I'oin-rsof  Man  (18ii0) 
and  7'lie  Pliilosophi/  of  the  Moral  Feelings  (18o3),  which 
were  highly  esteemed.     D.  at  Edinburgh,  Nov.  14,  1844. 

Abercronibio. .ToHX  Josiii'n  :  soldier:  b.  in  17!)8  in  Ten- 
nessee; graduatiMl  at  West  Point  in  1822;  colonel  .Seventh 
Infantry  Feb.  25,  IS61 ;  and  .\ug.  ;!1,  11^61.  brigadier-general 
U.  S.  volunteers,  lie  served  chieflv  on  the  Western  frontier 
(1822-GI);  as  adjutant  First  Infantiy  (182.j-:i:i);  in  the  Black 
Hawk  war  in  1832;  in  the  Florida  war  1837-40:  engaged 
at  Okee-clio-ljee  (brevet  major);  in  the  war  with  Mexico 
1846-48 ;  engaged  at  Monterey  (wounded  and  breveted 
lieutenant-colonel).  Vera  Cruz,  C'erro  Gordo,  and  aide-de- 
camp to  Maj.-Gen.  Patterson  1846-47;  as  superintendent 
of  recruiting  service  ls,'5;4-o.5.  In  the  civil  war  served  in 
the  Shenandoah  campaign  1801-02;  engaged  at  Falling 
Waters;  in  the  Virginia  Peninsula  1802;  engaged  at  Fair 
Oaks  (wounded)  and  .Malvern  Hill;  and  till  1864  in  com- 
mand of  troops  before  Washington,  I).  ('.  Breveted  briga- 
dier-general U.  S.  A.  for  long  and  faithful  services,  and  re- 
tired from  active  service  June  12,  1865.  1).  at  Koslyn.  X.  Y., 
Jan.  3,  1877. 

AbertToniby,  Sir  Ralph  :  British  general:  b.  at  Menstry, 
near  'rulliiiody,  ('lackmannansliire,  Oct.,  1734;  entered  the 
army  in  1750.  .\fler  the  peace  of  1783  he  passed  ten  years 
at  home  in  retirement,  lie  distinguisheil  hijuscLf  in  the 
disiustrous  camijaigns  in  Holland  in  171)4  and  179.5.  In  1795 
he  took  command  of  an  expedition  sent  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  captured  several  islands  from  the  French.  He 
was  the  second  in  command  of  the  army  which  the  Duke  of 
York  led  to  Holland  in  1799.  and  wa.s  appointed  in  1800 
eommander-in-cliicf  of  the  expcrlition  to  Egyijt.  which  was 
then  occupied  by  I  he  French  under  Honapartc.  The  British 
army,  which  landed  early  in  Mar.,  1801,  was  attacked  l)y 
Menou,  near  Ah'xandria.  on  the  21st  of  that  month.  In 
this  action  the  French  were  defeated,  but  Sir  Hal|)h  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  Mar.  28,  1801.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  sujierior  talents,  bravery,  and  humanity.  Sec 
his  life  by  his  son  James  (1801). 

.\berdarc:  a  town  in  Glainorganshire,  Wales,  which 
has  rapidly  increased  frcun  a  small  village  to  a  place  of 
importance  (see  map  of  F.ngland,  ref.  1 1-K).  It  ha.s  extensive 
collieries,  iron  and  tin  works.     Pop.  (1891)  35,533. 

Aberdeen'  (i.  e.  mouth  of  the  Dee):  a  city  and  seaport 
of  Scotland  :  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Aberdeen  ;  on  the 
North  Sea.  93  miles  X.  X.  K.  of  Fdinburgh  (see  map  of  Scot- 
land, ref.  8-.J).  It  is  a  handsome  city,  with  .S|]acious  streets 
and  granite  houses,  ami  is  celebrated  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are  the  town-house, 
several  churches,  and  Marischal  (pronounced  imir  shal)  Col- 
lege, founded  in  1593.  -Vbeideen  has  a  good  harbor  and  an 
extensive  trade,  the  chief  articles  of  export  being  fine  cot- 
ton and  woolen  faljrics,  granite,  grain,  cattle,  and  fish.  Here 
are  flourishing  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
combs,  machinery,  etc.  Old  Aberdeen,  aliout  a  mile  X'.  of  the 
new  city,  is  the  seat  of  King's  College  and  rnivcrsitv,  found- 
ed in  1494,  united  with  Marischal  College  in  1860  as  the 
Universitv  of  Aberdeen.  The  Free  Church  Divinitv  College 
was  built  "in  18.50.  Pop.  (1891)  121.!t05.  The  parliamentary 
borough  sends  two  mendjers  to  Parliament. 

Aberdeen',  or  ,\berdeen'shire:  nuiritime  countv  in 
N.  K.  of  Scotland:  iMiumleil  N.  and  K.  by  the  Xorth'Sea, 
S.  by  Kincardine,  Forfar,  and  Perth,  and  W.  by  Inverness 
and  Banff;  area,  1.970  scp  nnles.  The  Granijiian  range 
of  mountains  extends  along  the  southern  boundary  of  this 
Jounly.  which  contains  several  high  |)eaks.  .\niong  these 
arc  I5en-.Macdluii.  4.296  feet,  and  Cairngorm,  4.090  feet  high. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Dee  and  the  Don.  The  principal 
rocks  are  granite  and  ndca-slate.  More  cattle  are  raised 
in  Alierdeen  than  in  any  other  countv  in  Scotlan<l.  Pop. 
(1871)  244.007;  (IWl)  207.99():  (1S91)  2SI.:«I.  The  Tnited 
Diocese  (in  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church)  of  .\berdeen  and 
Orkney  is  composed  of  the  county  of  .Vbc^rdeen  (less  Hunt- 
ley), parts  of  Banff  and  Kincardine,  ami  the  Orkney  and 


Shetland  islands.  Tlie  see  of  Aberdeen  was  founded  a.  d. 
1100,  th.at  of  Orkney  A.  D.  1120  ;  the  two  were  united  in  1857. 

Al)erdeen,  Eari.s,  Viscounts  Forniiintine.  Barons  Haddo, 
Methlie,  Tarve.s,  ami  Kellie  (in  the  Scottish  peerage  since 
1682),  Viscounts  Gordon  (in  the  peerage  of  t  he  United  King- 
dom since  1814),  and  baronets  (in  the  Scottish  peerage  since 
1642),  one  of  the  most  prominent  noble  families  of  Great 
Hritain,  an  offshoot  of  the  ancient  Scotch  family  of  the 
Gordons. — Sir  John  Gordon  of  Haddo  was  in  1042  created  a 
baronet  by  Charles  I.  for  services  rendered  to  that  monarch  in 
the  battle  of  Turriff. — Sir  George  Gordon  of  Haddo  was  Lord 
High  Chancellor  of  Scotland  when  in  1042  he  was  created 
an  earl.  He  was  an  uncompromising  opponent  of  William 
of  Orange.     D.  in  1720. 

Aberdeen:  capital  of  Monroe  co..  Miss,  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Mississipi)i,  ref.  5-H) ;  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Tombigbee  river.  It  buys  and  ships  about  20,000  bales 
of  cotton  yearly,  and  has  fine  Federal  and  State  court-houses; 
the  finest  public-school  buildings  in  tlie  State;  one  of  the 
best  river  bridges  in  the  .South  ;  and  considerable  traile.  It 
has  5  grist-mills,  saw  and  )ilaning  mill,  steam  brick-fac- 
tory, ice-factory,  large  steam  s])oke-ractory,  fouiulry  and 
machitu^-shop.  and  4  steam  cotton-gins.  It  is  the  jimciion  of 
branches  of  the  Mobile  aiul  Ohio,  Illinois  Central,  and  Kan- 
sasCitv,  Jlemphisand  liirmingham  l{.  Ks.  Pop.  (1870) 2.022  ; 
(1880)  2,.'J39 ;  (1890)3,449.        ^    EuiToiis  ok  '•  E.xajiiner." 

Aberdeen :  railroad  center  and  capital  of  Brown  co., 
S.  Dak.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  S.  Dakota,  ref. 
.5-F) :  on  Chicago.  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  Great  X''orthern  and  Northern  Pacific  K.  Es. 
Po)).  (1890)  3,182  ;  (1895)  3,335.  Editor  ok  "  News." 

Aberdeen,  Gkorgk  Hamilton  Gordox,  Fouilli  Earl  of: 
British  statesman  :  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Jan.  28. 1784;  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1804.  He  began  his  public  life  as  ."  Tory, 
was  sent  as  and)assador  to  Menna  in  1813,  and  was  raised  to 
the  British  peerage  as  Viscount  Gordon  in  1814.  In  1828  he 
became  Secretaiy  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Cabinet 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  with  whom  he  resigned  in  Nov., 
1830.  He  was  reappointed  to  that  office  by  Sir  Robert  Peel 
in  lS4i.  gradually  ab.andoncd  the  high  Tory  principles,  and 
favored  a  pacific  foreign  policy.  In  1840  he  resigned  office 
with  Sir  liobert  Peel,  after  whose  death  (1850)  he  was  re- 
garded as  the  chief  of  the  Peelite  party.  He  became,  in  Jan., 
1853,  Prime  Minister  in  a  Cabinet  formed  by  a  coalition  of 
parties.  In  1854  England  was  involved  in  a  war  against 
Russia,  to  which  measure  Lord  .\berdeen  gave  a  reluctant 
support.  Either  from  this  cause  or  because  the  war  wjis 
coiulucted  with  ill  success  the  ministers  became  veiy  unpop- 
ular. Loril  Aberdeen  resigned  Jan.  30,  18.55.  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Palinerslon.     D.  in  London,  Dec.  14.  1860. 

Aberdeen.  George  Johx  James,  Fifth  Earl  of :  oldest  son 
of  the  preceding;  b.  Sept.  28, 1S16;  was  for  a  number  of  years, 
as  Lord  Haddo.  a  nu'mber  of  the  House  of  Commons,  where 
he  voted  with  the  Liberals:  succeeded  his  father  in  the  peer- 
age! in  I860.     D.  Mar.  22,  1804. 

Aberdeen.  Johx  Campbell  Hamilton  Gordon,  .Seventh 
Earl  of:  a  British  statesman;  b.  ,\us.  3,  1847:  succeeded  to 
his  t  it  le  Jan.  27.  1870 ;  graduated  at  Oxford  as  M.  A.  in  1871. 
He  began  political  life  as  a  Conservative:  was  in  1875  a 
nuMuber  aiul  later  the  chairman  of  a  royal  comnussion  to 
investigate  the  subject  of  railway  accidents:  and  in  1877-78 
a  member  of  the  Committee  id'  the  House  of  Lords  on  Intem- 
perance. In  1880,  having  become  a  Liberal,  lie  was  appointed 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  .\berdeensliire  ;  and  for  the  years  1881-85 
he  was  High  Commissioner  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  .Appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land by  Mr.  Glailstone  in  18S0.  he  became  extremely  popular 
with  the  Irish  people  in  his  mission  of  carrying  out  the 
Home-Rule  policy  of  that  time,  and  his  departure  on  the 
fall  of  the  Gladstone  Cabinet  was  the  occasion  for  much 
popular  demonstration. 

Abenravenny  (commonly  pronounced  ab-er-ga'ne) :  mar- 
ket-town of  England  :  in  Moninoutlisliire.  on  the  Usk,  which 
is  here  joined  bv  the  (iavenny,  and  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge, 
13  miles  W.  of  Monmouth.     Pop.  about  8,000. 

.\bergiivenny.  Eahls  ok.  and  Viscounts  Nevill  (in  the 
peerage  of  Great  Britain,  17H4).  Barons  of  Abergavenny  since 
the  lime  of  Heiirv  III.:  a  prominent  noble  family  in  the 
peerage  of  Great  Britain. — William  X'kvii.l.  Fifth  Earl  of, 
was  born  Sept.  16.  182t).  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1868. 
His  oldest  son  and  heir  is  Reoinald  William  Bransby,  Vis- 
count Ncvill,  b.  Mar.  4,  1853. 


12 


ABERXETHY 


ABERT 


Ab'eriietliy,  James,  P.  R.S.E.,  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  Leopold :  civil  engineer;  iiast  pres.  Inst.  C.  E. ;  b.  at  Aber- 
deen, Scotland,  in  1815 ;  educated  at  various  schools.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  became  assistant  to  his  father  on  the  ex- 
tension of  the  London  docks,  and  later  served  under  Tel- 
ford. In  1841  he  was  resident  engineer  of  Aljerdeen  harbor 
works,  and  later,  as  engineer-in-ehief,  designed  and  built 
the  lock  and  dock  there,  which  were  opened  in  1848.  From 
1842  to  1852,  as  surveying  officer  to  the  Admiralty,  he  exam- 
ined and  reported  upon  many  important  works,  harbors, 
docks,  and  river  irnprovcinents.  designed  or  under  constnic- 
tion.  Hydraulic  power  for  working  lock-gates  wa.s  first  aji- 
plied  by  lura  to  tlie  gates  of  a  lock  and  dock  whicli  he  built 
at  Swansea.  In  1850.  as  chief  engineer,  he  completed  the 
Birkenhead  docks,  and  at  the  same  time  designed  and  built 
LairdV  ship-building  yards,  with  various  graving-docks 
and  other  appliances.  In  1860-66  Mr.  Abernethy  built  the 
Turin-Savoua  1!.  H.  and  the  favour  Canal,  in  Italy.  His 
design  for  the  improvement  of  tlie  Danube  through  Vienna, 
subujittcd  in  competition  with  several  eminent  engineci's. 
was  selected  by  the  Government  Commission.  In  1868-70 
he  designed  anil  constructed  the  dock  at  Newport,  with  ex- 
tensive coal-slii])ping  machinery,  and  in  1879  the  Prince  of 
"Wales  dock  at  Swansea.  As  consulting  engineer  to  the 
Slarfjiiis  of  Bute,  he  supervised  the  modern  docks  at  Cardiff. 
The  liull  docks,  46  acres  of  water,  2  miles  of  quay  walls, 
were  built  in  the  bed  of  the  Ilumlier.  reclaiming  200  acres  of 
land.  In  1877  works  for  the  reclamation  of  Lake  Aboukir, 
Egypt,  were  directed  by  him,  reclaiming  20,000  acres.  In 
1882  he  advised  the  construction  of  the  Manchester  ship- 
canal,  and  became  its  consulting  engineer ;  became  associate 
of  the  Inst.  Civil  Engineers  in  1844,  member  in  1856,  and 
president  in  1881.     D.  Mar.  8,  18U6. 

Abernetli)'.  Joiix:  an  eminent  English  surgeon;  b.  in 
London.  Apr. :!,  1764 :  grandson  of  John  Abernethy  (a  noted 
Dissenting  minister,  b.  at  Coleraine,  Ireland,  in  1680),  and  a 
pupil  of  John  Hunter.  He  was  chosen  assistant  surgeon  of 
St.  Bartholojnew's  Hospital,  London,  in  1787,  and  in  1S15 
chief  surgeon  of  tlie  same.  As  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  and 
surgery  he  gained  immense  popularity.  He  pul)Iished  in 
180"J  an  important  work  On  the  Constitufional  Orif/in  and 
Ti-eafmeiil  of  Local  Diseanes,  the  doc'trines  of  which  have 
great  ly  contributed  to  improve  the  science  of  surgery.  JIany 
anecdotes  are  related  of  Ids  eccentric  manners  ami  of  his 
wittv  or  petulant  speeches  to  his  patients.  D.  at  Enfield, 
Apn  28,  18;31. 

Aherra'tioii  [Lat.  ab.  aw-.xy  +  errn'ri'.  wander]:  a  term 
variously  employed;  in  optics  it  denotes  a  failure  in  the 
rays  of  liglit  to  come  to  the  same  focus  when  refracted  by  a 
lens  or  refleeti'd  from  a  concave  mirror.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  optical  aberration — viz.,  chromatic  (from  the  Greek 
Xfmfa.  coloi)  aljcrration.  or  alierration  of  refrangibility,  and 
spherical  aberration,  or  aberration  of  sphericity.  In  astron- 
omy also  there  is  the  aberration  of  the  celestial  bodies,  some- 
times (but  less  correctly)  termed  the  aberration  of  Light  (q.  >:). 

1.  Chromatic  Aherraiion,  or  Aberration  of  Refranffihiliti/. 
— A  convex  lens  brings  rays  of  light  which  fall  u|ion  it  to 
a  focus  by  virtue  of  its  refracting  power.  But  since  the 
variously  colonel  rays  which  form  white  light  are  differently 
refracted,  it  follows  that  when  light  is  converged  by  a  con- 
vex lens  it  is  refracted  to  different  foci.  The  violet  rays, 
being  the  most  refrangible,  form  a  focus  nearest  to  tlie  leiis ; 
while  the  red  rays,  being  the  least  refrangible,  form  a  focus 
farthest,  from  the  lens.  Thus  in  place  of  one  focus  there 
are.  in  reality,  an  almost  infinite  number — viz..  one  for  each 
of  the  differently  refracted  rays  (the  rays  even  of  the  same 
general  color  being  not  all  refracted  equally),  and  in  the 
order  of  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red. 
Hence  the  rays  do  not  meet  at  the  same  focus  of  the  lens  ; 
and  this  deviation  of  the  foci  is  called  the  chromatic  aberra- 
tion of  a  lens. 

3.  iSpheriral  Aberration,  or  Aberration  of  Sphericiti/. — 
Lenses  and  mirrors  are  usually  ground  with  spherical  sur- 
faces, and  so  long  as  the  aperturi?  does  not  exceed  eight  or 
ten  degrees  the  rays  of  homogeneous  light  refracted  or  re- 
flected by  different  parts  of  them  meet  very  nearly  at  the 
same  foous  of  the  lens  or  mirror.  But  as  the  aperture  of  a 
spherical  mirror  increases,  the  rays  reflected  from  the  edges 
cross  each  other  at  a  point  on  tlie  axis  nearer  to  the  mirror 
than  those  which  are  reflected  from  portions  of  the  mirror 
near  its  eent(-r.  Thus  the  rays  are  deviated  from  tlie  true 
focus  of  the  mirror.  Again,  with  regard  to  spherical  lenses 
of  large  aperture,  the  rays  which  pass  through  the  lens  near 


its  circumference  are  refracted  to  a  point  nearer  to  the  lens 
than  those  which  pass  througli  its  central  portion.  In  the 
case  of  mirrors  this  deviation  of  light  from  the  focus  is  called 
spherical  aberrationby  reflection,  while  in  the  case  of  lenses 
it  is  called  .spherical  aberration  by  refraction.  It  may  be 
remedied  by  giving  lenses  and  mirrors  paiabolic  surfaces,  a 
plan  which  is  almost  invariably  followed  in  the  constniction 
of  specula  for  astronomical  pur|)oses. 

3.  Aberration  of  the  Celestial  Bodies,  often  (but  less  cor- 
rectly) termed  the  aberration  of  light,  in  astronomy,  an 
apparent  displacement  of  a  celestial  object,  due  to  the  pro- 
gressive motion  of  light.  This  alierration  is  cau.sed — 1,  by 
the  motion  of  the  eartli  in  its  orbit :  and.  2.  liy  the  motion  of 
the  observed  celestial  olijects.  It  was  discovered  by  Bradley 
in  1727.  This  astronomer  reasoned  that,  if  the  earth's  motion 
bears  only  an  apprecialile  relation  to  the  velocity  of  light,  we 
ought  to  expect  that  the  rays  fi'om  a  star  would  seem  to 
come  from  a  point  nearer  than  is  actually  the  case  to  that 
point  in  the  heavens  toward  which  the  earth's  course  is 
directed.  The  phenomenon  lie  had  observed  correspondetl 
exactly  with  this  explanation.  The  change  of  place  due  to 
the  velocity  of  light,  estimated  from  the  eclipses  of  Ju[iiter's 
satellites,  corresponded  (within  the  limits  of  observational 
error)  with  the  observed  changes  in  the  appai-ent  positions 
of  the  fixed  stars.  It  follows,  from  a  consideration  of  the 
earth's  path,  that  each  star  appears  to  describe  a  small  ellipse 
about  its  true  place.  This  fact  is  of  great  importance  in  its 
direct  bearing  on  oliservational  astronomy,  liut  it  is  perhaps 
no  less  important  on  account  of  the  evidence  it  supplies  as 
to  file  motion  of  the  earth. 

The  correction  of  the  observed  position  of  a  celestial  object 
for  aberration  gives  the  tnie  position  for  the  moment  when 
the  light  which  makes  it  visible  left  it;  but  this  is  not  the 
true  position  for  the  moment  of  observation,  except  on  sup- 
|i()sition  tliat  tlie  observed  object  is  at  rest.  If  the  body 
itself  is  in  motion,  then,  in  addition  to  the  correction  of 
position  for  aberration,  tliere  must  be  a  correction  for  the 
amount  of  proper  motion  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
interval  since  the  light  which  makes  it  visible  left  it.  In 
order  to  make  this  correction  we  must  know  the  rate  of 
proper  motion  and  the  distance  of  the  body.  If  the  ab.so- 
lute  proper  motion  of  the  body  is  given  in  miles,  or  length 
measure,  ami  not  the  apparent  in  angular  measure,  and  is 
parallel  to  the  motion  of  the  earth,  then  the  whole  correc- 
tion may  be  treated  as  aberration,  by  taking  the  sum  or  the 
difference  of  the  velocities  per  second  of  the  two  bodies, 
according  as  they  are  in  the  opposite  or  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  comparing  this  with  the  velocity  of  light.  If  the 
velocities  of  the  two  bodies  are  in  the  same  direction  and 
equal,  their  difference  is  zero,  and  the  correction  is  nil. 
Hence  a  body  moving  in  the  .same  direction  as  the  earth, 
and  with  the  same  velocity,  is  unaffected  in  apparent  po- 
sition by  aberration.  The  same  will  be  true  of  a  Viody  not 
moving  in  the  same  direction  as  the  earth,  provided  tliat 
when  its  velocity  is  decomposed  into  rectangular  comjio- 
neiits.  one  of  which  is  parallel  to  the  earth's  motion,  this 
latter  component  velocity  is  equal  to  the  earth's  velocity  and 
in  the  same  direction. 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  that  the  bodies  of  a  group 
or  system,  as  observed  the  one  from  the  other,  are  unatteeted 
by  aberration  in  consequence  of  any  common  motion  in 
which  all  participate  alike,  but  that  they  suffer  displace- 
ment from  this  cause  only  in  consequence  of  their  relative 
motions.  The  moon  partakes  of  the  annual  motion  of  the 
earth  round  the  sun.  l)Ut  suffers  no  aberration  on  that  ac- 
count;  and  so  the  sun.  though  it  may  have  a  proper  motion 
in  space,  is  unaffected  by  this  cause  in  its  apparent  position, 
as  viewed  from  the  earth  or  from  any  other  member  of  the 
solar  system,  since  tliis  motion  is  one  in  which  all  the  bodies 
of  the  system  equally  partieiiiate. 

Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

A'bert.  Jonx  James:  soldier;  b.  at  Shepherdstown,  Va., 
Sept.  17.  Hf^S;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
in  1811;  immediately  resigning,  he  became  a  lawyer  in  the 
District  of  Columbia :  and  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain, 
]8r2-15,  served  as  private  in  the  militia  at  the  battle  of 
Bladensburg,  Aug.,  1814.  Appointed  brevet  major  of  V.  S. 
Topographical  Engineers  Nov.  22,  1814.  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  bureau  Mar.  19, 1829.  and  on  the  organization 
of  an  inde|ieudeiit  corps  of  that  title  was  made,  witli  rank 
of  colonel,  its  chief.  Julv  7.  1888.  Retired  from  active  serv- 
ice Sept.  9.  1861.  1).  at  Washington.  I).  ('..  Sept.  27.  186:^. 
As  an  officer,  and  as  chief  of  Topographical  Engineers,  Col. 


AliKVAN'CE 


ABIPONES 


13 


Abert  exercised  an  important  agency  in  the  development  of 
the  earlier  national  works  of  civil  enjriiuerinf;  in  the  U.  S. 
— e.  g.  the  canal  around  llie  falls  of  the  Ohio  at  Louisville, 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  the  I'otoniae  aqueduct,  etc. 
His  exhaustive  report  on  water-supply,  in  connection  with 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  (1838),  is  a  standard  of  refer- 
ence. He  was  a  nicniher  of  the  Geographical  Society  of 
France  and  of  other  learned  societies. 

Abcy'ance  [O.  Fr.  abeance;  a.  at  +  beer  <  Late  Lat. 
bada're,  gape] :  a  legal  term  signifying  expectation  or  sus- 
pense. It  is  used  to  iiulicate  the  condition  of  property 
where  there  is  no  person  in  whom  its  ownership  is  vested. 
In  the  law  of  real  estate  it  is  generally  applied  to  a  fee, 
which  is  said  to  l)e  in  abeyance,  when  there  is  no  particular 
owner  of  the  inheritance.  It  has  been  laid  (kiwn  that  a  fee 
can  be  in  abeyance  only  while  there  is  a  freehold  estate  (or 
life-interest)  in  tlie  land  vested  in  some  person.  It  is  denied 
by  writei-s  of  high  authority  that  a  fee  can  be  in  alieyanee. 
The  tendency  of  modern  law  certainly  is  to  discountenance 
this  theory,  and  to  reduce  the  cases  of  abeyance  to  the  nar- 
rowest possible  limits.  The  term  has  been  applied  in  some 
instances  to  pei'sonal  pro]ierty,  as  in  ca.se  of  captures  at  sea 
in  time  of  war,  as  to  the  title  after  capture  and  before  con- 
demnation in  the  |irize  court. 

Ali'gar.  oi-  Ah'ganis  (Ov.'kfiyapos).  written  also  Aba- 
^ariis,  Agbarns,  and  Aiiganis:  a  name  common  to  ■sev- 
eral kings  of  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia.  The  fourteenth  of 
these  kings,  Aljgar  I'chomo,  is  said  to  have  been  in  corre- 
spondence with  Christ.  The  genuineness  of  t  his  correspond- 
ence has  found  defenders  even  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Abaririiis,  Joun:  son  of  the  King  of  the  Frisii :  became 
a  Christian,  and  accompanied  Charleuuigne  in  several  of  his 
expeditions.  He  received  the  title  of  jirestcr.  or  priest,  on 
account  of  the  excessive  severity  of  his  life.  He  is  not  to  be 
confounded  witli  the  Jlongolian  Preslur  John  of  the  eleventh 
century. 

Abliorrprs:  name  given  to  the  court  party  or  sujiporters 
of  Charles  II.  in  his  disapproval  of  jietitions  for  the  reas- 
senibling_of  Parliament  (1G80),  because  in  their  addresses 
they  expressed  abhorrence  of  the  petitions  of  the  Whigs,  who 
were  termed  jue/iVfOMecs  or  addressers. 

A'bib  (after  the  Babylonian  captivity  called  Nisan:  see 
Xeh.  ii.  1) :  the  first  month  of  the  Hebrew  sacred  year  and 
the  seventh  of  the  civil  year,  beginning  with  the  new  moon 
of  JIarch. 

Ab'icll,  WiLUELM  Hermaxs:  b.  in  Berlin,  Dec.  11,  1806; 
studied  natural  science  at  the  university  of  his  native  city; 
traveled  in  Italy  and  Sicily;  and  published  Erlaitlernde 
Abbildiiiu/en  von  yeoloyisc/ien  J^rsclieiniiiii/eii,  beubac/i/et  am 
^'esuv  mid  Aetna  1S3S  itnd  1S34  (18;J7),  and  L'eber  die  Na- 
fur  tind  den  Zusammenhang  der  vnlkdnischen  Bildungen 
(1841);  was  anpointed  Professor  of  Jlineralogy  at  Dorpat  in 
1S42  ;  and  uu<lerlook  extensive  explorations  in  the  Caucasus, 
-Vrmenia.  and  Xorthern  Persia,  the  results  of  which  he  com- 
muiiirateil  jiartly  in  the  annals  of  the  Academy  of  St. 
Petersburg,  partly  in  independent  works,  the  principal  of 
wliich  are — Leber  die  (ji'olnijische  Natur  des  armeMischen 
Ifocliliindes (IS4S) :Vergleicltende  geolngische  Grundziige  der 
l;ankns.-armenischen  and  nord-perfsisclien  (iebirge  (1858); 
Sur  la  Structure  et  la  Geologie  du  Daghestan  (18(53).  1).  at 
Oraz,  .luly  2,  1880. 

.■V'bies  (Lat.  fir-tree):  a  genus  of  coniferous  trees  which 
have  leaves  growing  singly  on  the  stem,  an<l  the  scales  of 
whose  erect  cones  are  deciduous.  Formerly  the  genus  in- 
eluded  the  firs,  spruces,  and  hemlocks,  but  it  is  now  re- 
stricted to  the  lirs  alone,  of  which  there  are  eighteen  species, 
all  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Nine  are  North  American. 
A.  brtlxamea  is  the  balsam-fir  of  the  Eastern  U.  S. ;  A.  sub- 
alnina  &w\  A.  concutor  cirKWT  in  the  Rocky  Mountains;  -1. 
alba  is  the  silver  fir  of  Europe.  All  afford  valuable  timber, 
and  the  balsam-fir  yields  Canada  balsam.  See  Picea,  Tsuoa, 
and  Pseudotscga.  Ciiari.es  E.  Bessey. 

Ab'ila:  eajiital  of  the  tetrarehy  of  Abilene;  identified 
with  Suk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Barada,  near  the  point 
where  it  breaks  through  the  .\ntilibanus  rangeof  mountains 
toward  the  plain  of  Damascus.  It  was  on  the  great  road  be- 
tween Ileliopolis  and  Dama.seus,  32  miles  from  the  former 
city  anil  IS  miles  from  the  latter.  There  was  another  Abila 
E.  of  tlie  .birdan.  a  few  miles  S.  of  the  Yarmuk  (or  Iliero- 
max),  the  northern  boundary  of  Gilead. 


Ab'ild^aard.  Nikolai  Ahraiiam  :  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Danish  school  of  painting;  b.  in  Copenhagen  in  1743: 
d.  at  Frederiksdal.  June  4.  ISOU.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in 
the  education  of  Thorwaldsen,  and  Eckersberg  was  one  of 
his  pupils.     His  inlluenee  on  Danish  art  was  very  great. 

R.  B.  Anderson. 

Abilene,  ab-i-lee'nee:  an  ancient  tetrarehy,  whose  capital 
was  .\iiiLA  (q.  v.).  It  is  impossible  to  fix  its  limits.  Luke 
(iii.  1)  speaks  of  it  as  the  tetrarehy  of  Lysanias,  who  was  ap- 
parently a  son  of  the  Lysanias  mentioned  by  Josephus.  See 
KratTl's  Topograpltie  Jerusalems  (1847). 

Abilene,  ab  i-leen :  city;  capital  of  Dickinson  co.,  Kan. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  5-G);  on  the 
Smoky  Hill  river,  and  the  Atcli..  Top.  and  S.  Fe,  the  Chi., 
Rock  Is.  and  Pac,,  and  the  I'nion  Pac.  railways;  96  miles 
W.  of  Topeka.  1G2  miles  W.  of  Kansas  City,  Alo.  It  con- 
tains 12  churches,  4  school  buildings,  a  Roman  Catholic 
academy,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  .$120,000.  2  private 
banks,  and  a  daily  and  3  weekly  periodicals;  an<l  luis  several 
elevators, flour-mills. electric-light  plant, and  excellent  water. 
Pop.  (1890)  3,047;  (180."))  3,400.    EunoR  ok  " Reklector." 

A  bilene :  ca|)ital  of  Taylor  co.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Texas,  rcf.  3-F) ;  on  Texas  and  Pacific  R.  R. ;  1(>1 
miles  \V.  by  S.  of  Fort  Worth;  is  connected  by  stage  with 
Anson,  Haskell,  and  Ballinger;  has  7  churches,  3  public 
schools,  1  roller  (lour-mill,  2  roller  corn-mills.  2  cotton-gins, 
electric  lights,  etc.  Pop.  (1890)  3.194  ;  (1892)  about  f^OOO, 
including  suburbs.  Eoitor  of  "  Reporter." 

Abiin'elech  (the  royal  father):  1.  ,\  king  of  Gerar,  a 
city  of  the  Philistines,  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xx.  1, 
M].).  II.  Another  king  of  Gerar  in  Isaac's  time  (Gen.  xxvi.), 
perhaps  a  son  of  the  foregoing.  111.  Another  Philistine 
king  (Ps.  xxxiv.  title).  IV.  A  son  of  Gideon  (Judges  is.), 
who  was  during  three  years  a  self-const itule<l  king  over  a 
great  part  of  Israel.  Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher. 

.Vb'ingrdon:  a  market-town  of  Berkshiri'.  Kngland;  on 
the  Ock,  where  it  joins  the  Isis;  'yl  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Lon- 
don (see  map  of  Englaml,  rcf.  Il-il).  It  contains  a  fine  me- 
morial of  Prince  All.iert, erecteci  in  1800,  and  surinounted  by 
his  statue.    It  has  a  free  grammar-school.    Pop.  about  7,700. 

Abiiigtion  :  city  of  Knox  co..  III.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  4-C);  at  the  crossing  of  the  C,  B., 
and  y.  and  Iowa  Central  R.  l{s.,  10  miles  S.  of  Galesburg  and 
8-")  miles  X.  E.  of  yuincy.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  agri- 
cultural district,  and  is  the  seat  of  Hedding  College  (con- 
trolled by  the  jMethodist  Episcopal  Church),  and  of  the 
Abingdon  Xormal  College  ;  hjis  3  churches  and  several  flour- 
ishing maiuifacturing  establishments.  Pop.  (1890)  1,321 ; 
(1892)  estimated  at  abotit  2,400. 

PlBLISUEKS  OK  "  ENTERPRISE." 

.Vhingdon  :  capital  of  Washington  co.,  Va.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  nuip  of  Virginia,  ref.  7-B) ;  in  a  township  of  same 
name,  on  two  railroads.  315  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Richmond. 
It  has  thi-ee  female  colleges  of  high  grade,  excellent  public 
free  schools  for  white  and  colored  children,  post-ofiice  and 
court-house,  an  extensive  iron-foundry,  cigar  and  pipe  fac- 
tories, brickworks,  woolen  factory,  canning  and  other  fac- 
tories. The  county  was  organized  in  1770.  and  is  the  fii-st 
spot  of  earth  named  in  honor  of  George  Washington.  Emory 
and  Henry  College  is  in  this  county,  and  a  large  male  acad- 
emy, bath  flourishing  institutions.  Immense  deposits  of  salt, 
gyfisum,  and  iron  ore  are  found  here,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
salt  used  in  the  Southern  States  during  the  civil  war  was 
obtained  from  salt-wells  bored  in  this  vicinity.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,004;  (1890)  1.074.  Man'agino  Eu.  of  •'  Virginian." 

Abiosren'esis  [Gr.  &$ios,  lifeless -i- 7&6irir,  origin]:  a 
name  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  spontaneous  or  equivocal 
WHPrn/(0«.  i.e.  the  doctrine  that  certain  animals  or  plants 
have  spontaneously  originated,  and  without  birth  from  jire- 
vious  living  beings.  As  yet,  there  is  no  direct  evidence  that 
sueli  generation  ever  talies  place.  See  Generation,  Spon- 
taneous. Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Abipo'ncs:  a  tribe  of  Indians  living  in  the  Gran  Chaco, 
in  the  Argentine  Cimfederation.  They  lived  formerly  W.  of 
the  Parana,  between  lat.  28°  and  30°  S.,  between  Santa  Fe 
and  Santiago  del  Eslero,  but  at  present  have  removed  to- 
ward Corrientes.  The  .\bipones  are  of  high  stature,  good 
swimmers,  and  tattoo  themselves.  Long  lances  and  arrows 
with  iron  points  are  their  weapons.  In  1783  their  number 
was  estimated  at  5,000,  but  they  have  been  re<lueed  to  100 
at  the  present  day.     They  are  related  to  the  Tobas. 


14 


ABKASIA 


ABORTION 


Abka'sia,  or  Aba'sia  :  a  naiTow  territory  in  Western  Asia, 
belonjjins  to  Russia;  between  the  Caucasus  Mountains  and 
the  Blaeli  Sea,  which  bounds  it  on  the  S.  W.  It  is  now 
under  the  j;overnnient  of  Kutais.  Tlie  inhabitants,  under 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  became  Christians,  but  subsequently 
embraced  JMohammedanism.  Tliey  are  Ivindred  to  the  Cir- 
cassians, and,  lilce  the  latter,  have  emigrated  in  large  num- 
bers. 

Ablaut:  a  German  term  which  has  fairly  established 
itself  internationally  in  the  technical  langiiage  of  scientific 
grammar.  Its  liest  English  equivalent  is  vowel-f/radrifion. 
It  applies  to  that  variation  of  vowel  among  words  of  the 
same  Indo-European  root,  as  in  English  sing,  naiig,  sung, 
and  Greek  \elira,  \c\otwa.  tKtirop.  which  depends  u|jon  causes 
no  longer  active  or  discerniljle  in  the  separate  languages  of 
tlie  family.  Ablaut  is  an  Indo-European  ])henoiiu'non  pro- 
duced under  conditions  existing  in  tlie  parent  Indo-Euro- 
pean speech.  Umlaut,  or  mutation,  is  a  distinctively  Teu- 
tonic phenomenon  produced  under  conditions  existing  in 
tlie  separate  lite  of  the  Teutonic  languages,  thus:  in  foot, 
feet;  cow,kine\  luuse,lice\  Ffiink,  Fre7ich,  where  tha  ctiuae 
of  the  vowel  change  is  the  inHuence  of  a  following  i  sound 
upon  the  pronunciation  of  the  root  vowel.  The  Indo-Euro- 
pean mTis  (nom.  sing.),  muses  (nom.  plur.),  appeared  in  Greek 
iis  fivs,  ij.i(s:  in  Latin  as  mus,  mures;  and  in  primitive  Teu- 
tonic— i.e.  before  the  division  into  dialects — as  *mus,*musiz. 
The  Teutonic  vowel  i  in  the  second  syllable  of  *miisiz,  which 
represented  thus  the  original  vowel  e  of  the  Indo-Europe.an 
nom.  plur.  ending  -es  (cf.  iriiS-es).  was  the  cause  of  the  change 
of  u  to  I  in  the  plural  of  our  mouse,  mice  ^  Old  English 
■mus.  mf/s.    See  U.mlaut. 

Sharjily  distinguished  from  these  vowel  changes  are  the 
phenomena  of  ablaut.  The  latter,  as  they  appear  in  the 
Teutonic  or  other  Indo-European  languages,  are  simply  in- 
heritances from  the  parent  speech.  They  may  be  utilized, 
as  they  are  notably  in  the  Germanic  family,  owing  to  the 
decay  of  the  endings,  for  the  distinguishing  of  meanings, 
but  they  no  longer  exist  in  any  relation  to  the  conditions 
that  produced  them.  These  can  lie  discerned  only  by  refer- 
ence llirough  the  methods  of  comparative  philology  to  the 
parent  Indo-European  speech.  The  relation,  for  instance,  of 
(1)  zielien,  zog.  gezogen,  to 
(3)  binden,  band,  gebunden, 
is  clearer  in  the  Gothic 

(1)  tiulian,  tault.  tohans, 

(2)  binilan,  baud,  bundans, 

but  not  evident,  until  the  systems  are  reduced  to  the  Indo- 
European  form  : 

(1)  detik,  douk,  duk, 

(2)  bhendh,  hlinudh,  bhndh. 
These  two  systems  are  illustrated  in  Greek  by 

(1)  4-K^v  d)-(rofj.al.  et\r]-\oijO-a,  ij-\v^-oi/, 

(2)  e-7eV-6T0.  yd-yot^-a.  yi-yv  ofxai. 

The  alilaut  of  German  giessen,  guss.  gei/nssen,  corresponds 
to  Gothic  giutan,  gaut,  gutum,  and  Greek  x*'^'"^  X"^^.  "^X"- 

TOl. 

The  original  cause  for  the  phenomena  of  ablaut  is  to  be 
found  in  the  peculiar  conditions  of  word  and  sentence  ac- 
cent in  the  Indo-Europe.-m  parent  speech.  Thus  by  the 
withdrawal  of  tlie  accent  the  original  root-elements  ei,  en, 
el,  er,  en.  e.t,  etc.,  wei-e  reduced  to  /,  »,  /,  r.  n.  s,  etc.  Thus 
Greek,  el/jn.  tnev  (orig.  *i/i«i').  cf.  Skr.  ew/.  imds.  l''0  -xevna, 
Xvt6^  ;  (pt'jyca,  tpuyiiv  ;  wei^ui.  tri^^ff^at  ;  FeiBofiai,  FiS€7v;  SfpKe- 
rat.  SpaKuif  (r  >  pa) ;  di6u,  tdapis,  etc.  Tlu^  cause  of  dilferentia- 
tion  lietween  the  e  grade  and  the  n  grade  is  not  so  definitely 
determined  (Ae'-yw,  K6yos;  vifita,  v6/jlos;  \fiirti).  \f\otTra;  Sfpico- 
fioi.  SeSopKa ;  Gothic,  xlcigan,  fitiiig  ;  English.  si»g.  srijtg,  etc.), 
but  it  most  probably  had  its  origin  in  a  variety  of  musicMl 
pitch — i.e.  the  e  grade  occurs  with  stress  and  high  pitch,  the 
0  grade  with  stress  and  lowered  pitch.  The  chief  sy.stenis  of 
Indo-European  ablaut  may  be  grouped  as  follows:" 

1.  fi  :  6  :  zero,  as  TreVojuai.  Tror-f).  nTiaOai ;  ira-Ttp-fs,  iinrd-Top- 
«J,  )ro-T^p,  eiitra  ruip.  Tra  rp-d  cri. 

3.  S  :  (o  .')  :  zero.  ay6s.  aTpaT-ay-6s.  Skr.  j-muii  (path). 

3.  o  :  zero.  oSjU^i.  oS-a>S  o;  npaii.  irp6.  irp-lif. 

4.  0  :  o  :  a  ("  obsi-ure  ''  vowel) :  rlArifxi.  eiiin6s,  fleriis. 

5.  il :  o  :  0 :  tj>dfj.i,  (pan^ii,  ipofifv. 

6.  0:0:3:  5/5o)^i.  S(i(ris.  I'knj.  Ide  Wueeler. 

Ablu'tion  [Lat.  /ib.  »w:iy  +  lu'ere,  w;ish] :  a  religious 
cereiiionv  of  the  UouKin  Cathol'c  Church,  signifies  tlie  wash- 
ing of  tlie  SMcrMmciit.'d  cup  and  of  the  hands  of  the  priest. 
The  various  eilitions  of  the  nirrrtiirium  Anglirnnuui  give 
minute  directions  as  to  the  ablutions  recommended  for  use 


in  the  ritual  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  ceremonial  ablutions  are  disallowed,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  House  of  Bishops,  in  the  public 
worship. 

Abiiakis:  See  Algonqii.\n  Indians. 

.\b'iier  (the  enliglitener) :  uncle  of  Saul,  the  first  King 
of  Israel.  Abner  became  commander-in-chief  of  Saul's 
army,  and  for  some  time  after  the  death  of  the  king  he  was 
the  chief  support  of  Ishbosheth,  his  successor;  but  subse- 
quently went  over  to  the  side  of  David,  then  Iving  of  Judah. 
With  l>avid  he  found  such  favor  that  Joab  was  jealous  and 
slew  Abner,  cir.  104S  B.  c,  according  to  Usslier. 

Revised  by  \V.  J.  BEEcnER. 

Abo  (Sw.  pronunciation,  o'boo):  Russian  city  and  sea- 
port, on  the  Aurajoki  near  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia;  lat.  60'  26'  58'  K.,  Ion.  22'  IT'  E.  (see  map  of 
Russia,  ref.  5-B).  It  was  built  by  Eric  IX.  of  .Sweden  in 
1157,  was  subsequently  taken  by  the  Russians,  and  in  1809 
was,  with  the  whole  of  Finland,  ceded  to  Russia.  It  was  the 
cafiital  of  Finland  until  1819,  and  is  now  the  see  of  a  Lu- 
theran archbishop.  It  has  a  cathedral,,  a  town-hall,  and 
a  custom-house.  The  University  of  Abo,  having  been 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1827,  was  rebuilt  at  Ilelsingfors.     Pop. 

(1888)  "27.906. 

Abo-Bjbrneborg :  a  government  of  Finland;  bounded 
by  the  governments  of  Vasa  and  Tavastehus,  and  by  the 
Gulfsof  Finland  and  of  Bothnia.  Area,  9,;3:i2  sq.  miles.  The 
chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  commerce  and  ship- 
building.    The  government  has  also  some  factories.  „  Pop. 

(1889)  386,350,  nearly  all  Lutherans.     Chief  town,  Abo. 

Abo,  Peace  of:  a  peace  concluded  Aug.  17, 1743,  between 
Sweden  and  Russia.  It  put  an  end  to  the  war  begun  by 
Sweden  at  the  instigation  of  France  in  1741.  During  this 
contest,  and  through  the  misconduct  of  the  Swedish  generals, 
the  Russians  gained  entire  possession  of  Finland.  The 
greater  part  of  this  territory  they  offered  to  restore  on 
condition  that  Sweden  should  elect  the  Prince  of  Ilolstein- 
Gottorp  successor  to  the  throne.  This  condition  the  Swedes 
complied  .with,  and  the  treaty  of  peace  was  accordingly 
signed  at  Abo. 

Abolition  of  Slavery:  See  Slavery. 

Aboli'tioiiists :  a  name  applied  to  those  persons — more 
particularly  in  the  U.  S. — who  were  distinguished  for  their 
zeal  against  the  institution  of  slavery. 

Aboiuey,  ab-o-ma'  :  an  African  town ;  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Dahomey ;  lat.  7°  30'  N.,  Ion.  2°  E.  (see  map  of 
Africa,  ref.  5-C).  It  contains  several  royal  palaces.  Cap- 
tured by  the  French  under  Gen.  Dodds,  Nov.  21,  1892. 
Pop.  estimated  at  from  50,000  to  60,000. 

Aboriir'i-iies  [Lat.  derivative  from  phrase  ab  ori'gine, 
from  the  beginning]:  the  earliest  original  inhabitants  of  a 
country — that  is,  those  who  occupied  it  at  the  perinil  when 
it  began  to  be  known,  and  who  either  were  (according  to  a 
once  prevalent  opinion)  indigenous  to  the  soil  or  had  emi- 
grated thither  before  the  dawn  of  history.  Some  of  the 
ancients  supposed  they  had  always  inhabited  tlie  same  soil, 
and  sprang  from  it,  as  the  Athenians,  who  thence  called 
themselves  nutocli'tltoues  (from  aiiT6s.  itself  +  x^'^"'  earth, 
soil,  land) :  i.  e.  sprung  from  the  land  or  soil  itself.  But  the 
Romans  and  modern  nations  use  the  word  aborigines  to 
designate  those  inhabitants  of  a  country  of  whose  origin 
nothing  certain  is  known.  Thus  the  Indians  of  America  are 
properly  called  aliorigines  because  they  were  found  there  at 
its  discovery,  and  as  to  their  origin  we  have  only  their  own 
tradition  (which  is  not  uniform),  that  their  ancestors  came 
from  a  distant  region  in  the  northwest. 

Abortion  [Lat.  nbortio,  from  abnri'ri,  mi-scarry ;  ab  + 
ori'ri,  appear] :  the  |)reiiiaturc  delivery  of  tlie  human  fa?tus, 
or  its  expulsion  before  it  is  capable  of  sustaining  life.  The 
term  is  popularly  understood  as  applying  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  fo'tus  lielore  Ihe  sixth  month  of  gestation.  A  child 
born  as  early  as  the  seventh  month  of  |iiegnancy  not  in- 
frequently lives,  the  case  being  referred  to  as  simply  one  of 
premature  birth.  And  achild  born  after  the  seventh  month, 
but  liefore  the  natural  period  of  parturition,  wlich  dies  at 
once  and  in  consequence  of  the  premature  delivery,  is  a  case 
of  abortion.  A  iiremature  delivery  may  be  either  natural 
or  nrlificlal.  A  iialural  abortion  may  be  caused  by  vai'i<nis 
nceidenlal  or  pathological  conditions.  Artificial  abortion  is 
usually  (•:. used  by  drugs,  which  ex<'ile  uterine  contractions, 
and  thereby  cause  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  although  not 


ABOUKIR 


ABSCESS 


15 


infrequently  produced  by  mcchanic^al  means.  A  resort  to 
eitlier  niuMioit  is  extremely  danf^erous  to  I  lie  wonuurs  lite. 
Artificial  aliortion  may  or  may  not  lie  criminal,  aceordini; 
to  eireumslaiiees.  Premature  labor  prodweed  lor  the  pur- 
pose of  savini;  the  life  of  eitlier  the  mother  or  the  child  is 
justifiable.  Hut  premature  labor  produced  with  the  mali- 
cious intent  of  iiremalurely  gettinj;  rid  of  the  product  of 
conception,  and  thus  preventing  the  birth  of  a  living  child, 
is  criminal.  The  Roman  law  did  not  regard  an  unboi  n  cliild 
as  a  human  bein.u.  aiul  a  woman  procuring;  her  own  miscar- 
riage was  not  liable  under  the  Lex  .Julia  aj;ainst  homicides, 
but  slie  was  I  iable  as  for  an  fjtraurdinarium  crinum.  A  inonjc 
the  Anirlo-Saxons  abortion  is  said  to  have  been  reirarded  as 
an  ecclesiastical  offense  only.  In  Kni;land  and  in  the  U.  S. 
the  law  governini;  abortion  is  at  the  iiresenl  time  statutory. 
These  statutes  vary  greatly  from  each  other  both  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  crime  and  a.s'to  the  penally  imposed.  In  some 
it  is  ncit  an  indictable  oflVnse  to  [iroduce  an  abortion  unless 
the  woman  was  "iiiiiek"  with  child,  while  in  others  the  act 
of  criminal  homicide  is  possible  from  the  earliest  stage  of 
gestation.    See  Obstetrics.  Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Abonkir:  See  .VnvKiR. 

Aboiiliil :  See  Wii.L. 

About,  all  boo',  EoMOXD :  French  novelist  and  political 
writer;  b.  at  Dieuze  (Meurlhe).  Feb.  14,  1828.  In  18G8  he 
wrote,  as  one  of  the  contributors  to  the  Gauhis,  a  series  of 
witty  and  satirical  lettei's,  in  conseiiuence  of  which  that 
paper  was  suppressed  by  the  authorities;  but  he  was  never- 
theless a.-isisled  by  the  imperial  Government,  which  in  1870 
appointed  him  councilor  of  state.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  he  was  for  a  short  time  war  correspondent  for  the  Soir. 
Sept.  14,  ISTi.  he  was  .-iiresled  by  the  (iermans,  but  was  re- 
leased Sept.  21.  He  published  in  18o.5  a  work  on  modern 
(iivcce.  La  drece  confemporaine,  which  was  much  admired. 
He  had  been  sent  to  the  French  school  of  art  in  Athens  by 
his  (lovernment.  Am.  ng  his  works  are  novels  entitled  Tul/a 
(18.W);  (ri'i-maine  {\>i't7);  a  political  treatise  on  The  Ronuin 
Qiienlion  {186fJ);  Made/on  (186:!);  Le  Progris  (1S64);  La 
vii-il/e  roc/te  (-J  vols.,  18()r)-6G) :  L'utfamc  (18(i7) ;  Li>n 
niririaffes  de  prorince  (ISiiS).  His  J^e  lioi  doa  Montaijnes 
(ISoO)  is  one  of  his  best  works.     I).  Jan.  17,  1885. 

Aboville,  Fuan(;ois  Maria,  fount:  French  general;  b. 
at  Brest,  Jan.  2:!,  17;!0.  He  directed  the  artillery  at  Vork- 
town,  Va.,  in  1781,  and  was  inspector-general  of  artillery 
under  Napoleon  I.     I).  Nov.  1,  1819. 

Abrabiiiiel',  or  Abarbniu>r:  b.  in  Lisbon,  14;!7:  d.  in 
Venice,  1508;  traced  his  pedigree  back  to  King  David;  was 
a  minister  of  state  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  .Spain,  but 
was  in  141)2  exiled  as  a  Jew ;  lived  mostly  in  Italy,  whence 
he  made  short  journeys  to  other  count  ries.  and  wrote,  besides 
some  commi-ntarics,  his  Herald  of  Salvalion,  an  elaborate 
exposition  of  the  Jewish  doctrine  of  the  Messiah,  first 
printed  at  Saloiiiki  in  l.")2C. 

Abraoildab'rii :  a  cabalistic  word,  probably  of  Persian 
origin  (and  connected  with 

abraxctH),  occurring  fii'st  in  -'^  '5  R  A  C  A  D  A  B  R  A 
writings    of    Qu.    Severus        A  B  R  A  C  A  D  A  B  R 

Sammonicus  (c.  200  a.  u.),  A  B   R  A  C  A  D  A  B 

and  highly  prized  in  former  A  B   R  A  C  A  D  A 

times  as  a  magical  formula.  A  B  R  A  C  A  D 

Written  in  the  form  shown  A  B  R  A  C  A 

in  the  annexed  iigure,  and  A  B  R  A  C 

worn  as  an  amulet,  it  was  A  B  R  A 

siniposed   to    be   ellicacious  A  B   R 

in  the  cure  of  fevers  and  A  B 

other  ailments.  A 

Abrabain,  originally  Abrani :  the  founder  of  the  Isracl- 
itisli  race;  b.  at  Ur  in  Clialda'a.  The  date  is  unknown. 
Bunsen  makes  it  about  2850  n.  c.  Hales  215:!  B.  c,  ami 
I'ssher  Il)!iO  B.  c,  and  others  later  still.  He  migrated  to 
Canaan  with  a  numerous  tribe  (Gen.  xii.  5;  xiv.  14,  etc.).  anil 
livi'dlhere  in  tents.  His  faith  was  tried  by  long  waiting, 
and  he  is  known  as  the  "father  of  the  faithful"  and  the 
"  friend  of  God."  But  the  thing  mainly  emphasized  in  the 
Bible  accounts  is  the  promi.se  that  God  made  to  him.  Sub- 
ordinatcly,  the  promise  is  that  he  shall  have  a  numerous 
posterity,  including  "kings,"  and  "a  nation"  made  up  of 
"an  assembly  of  nations'"  or  "  of  peoples,"  which  shall  in- 
herit the  land  of  Canaan  forever  (Gen.  xii.  2;  xvii.  (1-1!);  cf. 
xxviii.  ;i:  XXXV.  11:  xlviii.  4,  etc.).  Chiefly,  the  promise  is 
that  in  him  and  his  posterity  all  mankind  shall  be  lilissed 
(Gen.  xii.  3,  etc.) ;  and  in  view  of  tliis  his  name  was  changed 


to  Abraham,  "father  of  multitude " (Gen.  xvii.  4-5;  Rom. 
iv.  17).  Here  "multitude  of  nations"  is  a  different  phrase 
from  "  a.ssembly  of  nations"  in  the  texts  cited  above.  See 
Gen.  xi.-xxv. ;  Acts  vii. ;  Gal.  ill.;  Heb.  xi.  8-19. 

W.  J.  Beeciier. 

A'brahaiii-a-Saiic'ta-Cla'ra :  a  pojiular  German  pnach- 
cr  and  Augustine  friar,  whose  name  was  L'lrru  .Meuekle; 
b.  in  .Suabia,  June  4,  Ui42.  He  was  appointed  preacher  to 
the  imperial  court  at  Vienn;i  in  1G69,  and  published  many 
religious  works.  His  sermons  were  seasoned  with  witty,  hu- 
morous, or  whimsical  expressions.     I).  Dec.  1,  1709. 

A'braliamites  :  a  sect  of  Bohemian  deists,  who  are  said 
to  have  rejected  all  parts  of  the  Bible  except  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They  were  suppressed 
in  178:3. 

Abrautes,  Duke  of:  See  Juxot. 

Abraxas:  a  kind  of  gem  found  in  Syria,  Egv'pt,  and 
Spain,  and  used  by  the  Gnostics  as  an  amulet.  These 
abraxas  stones  were  of  various  forms,  but  all  had  the  word 
abraxas,  or  abrasax,  engraved  on  them  in  connection  with 
certain  inyslical  symbols,  mostly  consisting  of  fantastical 
figures,  composed  of  the  body  of  a  serpent,  the  head  of  a 
bird,  and  otiier  incongruous  parts.  The  word  abraxas  wa.s 
first  used  by  the  Egy])tian  (inostic  Basilidcs  (<^.  v.),  and  de- 
noted not  the  su])renie  being,  but  the  assemblage  of  the  1165 
world-spirits;  the  letters  composing  the  word  ex|iressing, 
according  to  the  Greek  numeration,  the  numbcrof  'cG'i.  His 
disciples,  who  used  gems  of  this  kind  as  .•imulcts  or  talismans, 
and  after  whom  they  are  often  called  Basilidian  stones,  sjircad 
t  hem  all  over  Figypt  and  Syria,  and  in  the  fourth  century  the 
disciples  of  Priscillianus  carried  them  to  Spain. 

Abridg'iiieiit  (  Fr.  ahriijcr  <  Lat.  rtiijcc/aVc,  shorten]:  a 
condensation  or  compendium  of  a  book  or  literary  work.  In 
the  law  of  copyright  an  abridgment,  when  fairly  made,  is 
regarded  as  a  new  work,  and  accordingly  its  publication  is 
not  an  infringement  of  the  cupyright.  A  distinction  islakcn 
ill  the  legal  decisions  between  an  abridgment  and  a  compila- 
tion. The  latter  is  more  readily  regarded  as  an  infringe- 
menl,  as  the  words  of  an  author  are  reproduced,  while  in  a 
true  abridgment  the  thoughts  arc  expressed  in  other  words 
and  in  a  condensed  form. 

Abro'lhos  (i.  e.  open  your  eyes):  a  group  of  small  rocky 
islands  which  belong  to  the  State  of  Haliia,  Brazil.  The 
largest  of  these,  Santa  Barbara,  40  miles  from  the  coast, 
has  a  lighthouse  in  lat.  17°  58'  S.,  Ion.  ;i8°  42'  W. 

Abriiz'zi  and  IHolisc  :  a  political  division  of  Italy,  com- 
prising the  provinces  of  Abruzzo  ulteriore  1.,  Abruzzo  ul- 
teriore  II.,  Abruzzo  cileriore,  and  Molise.  or  Campobasso. 
It  extends  from  the  Apennines  to  the  Ailii.itic.  between  the 
parallels  of  42°  and  4;i°  (see  map  of  Italy,  ret.  G-K).  Though 
it  has  a  coast  line  of  about  100  miles,  it  has  no  good  harbor. 
It  is  very  mountainous,  and  was  formerly  much  infested  by 
brigands.  Laki;  I'^icino  is  within  it.  The  principal  towns 
are  Teranio,  Aquila,  Cliieti,  Solniona,  Isernia,  and  Cainpo- 
ba.sso.     Area,  6.487  .sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1891)  I,:iG0,:i78. 

Ab'salom  :  third  son  of  King  David,  by  Maacah,  a  Syrian 
princess,  was  reniarkiible  for  his  personal  beauty.  Having, 
by  his  ]iopiilar  arts  and  fair  speeches,  gained  the  favor  of 
the  ])Cople,  he  rebelled  against  his  father  and  raised  a  large 
army,  which  was  defeated  by  the  army  of  the  king.  Re- 
treaiing  from  this  battle,  Absalom  was  killed  by  Joab.  al- 
though David  had  given  orders  that  his  life  should  be  spared. 
See  2  Samuel  xiii.-xix. 

Ab'salon,  called  also  .\xpl:  an  eminent  prelate  and  gen- 
eral; b.  in  Iceland  in  1128;  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  wisdom  in  council.  He  was 
one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Danish' King  Waldemar  I.,  and 
became  Archbishop  of  Lund  in  1178.     D.  in  1201. 

Ab'scpss  [Lat.  absces'sus,  from  abs.  away  +  ce'dere.  go, 

because  the  pus  separates  itself  from  the  rest  of  the  body]: 
in  surgery,  a  circumscribed  colleeti<ui  of  pus  in  any  part  of 
the  animal  organism,  as  distinguished  from  "  purulent  infil- 
tration," which  designates  such  a  colleition  not  circum- 
scribed. The  term  "difTusc  abscess"  is,  however,  applied, 
though  improperly,  to  purulent  infiltration.  An  "acute  ab- 
scess" is  one  which  is  the  result  of  active  inflammation. 
"Cold  abscess"  is  the  result  of  chronic  inflammation,  and  is 
commonly  of  tubercular  origin.  The  tendency  of  an  acute 
abscess  is  to  "  point  "  or  "  come  to  a  head  "  ;  that  is.  from  the 
outward  pressure  of  the  aeeiimiilating  pus,  the  walls  yield 
niechanically  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance.     In  favor- 


16 


ABSCISSA 


ABSTINENCE 


able  cases  the  evacuation  of  the  pus,  natural  or  artificial,  is 
the  initiation  of  recovery;  but  if  tlie  abscess  be  of  the 
"  colli "  variety,  or  he  ileop-seatcd  and  extensive,  or  be  asso- 
ciated witli  dissemination  or  sei>tie;einia,  the  question  of  re- 
covery becomes  a  miicli  more  complicated  one.  In  general, 
abscess  is  detected  by  observation  of  tlie  general  and  local 
symptoms.  The  general  symptoms  are  fever  and  subsequent 
rigors;  the  local  are  "pain,  heat,  redness,  and  swelling," 
followed  by  softness  and  fluctuation  of  tlie  fluid  contents. 
See  Pus.  lievised  by  William  Pepper. 

Abscis'sa  [Lat.  ahsci'ndere.  p.  partic.  abscissiis,  cut  off, 
se.  lined,  line] :  in  geometry,  tliat  one  of  a  pair  of  cartesian 
co-ordinates  wliich  is  measured  on  the  fundamental  axis. 
See  Co-ordinates. 

Absenteeism:  haliifu.'d  absence  from  one's  post  of  duty 
orthelil;e;  specifically  habitual  absence  from  the  country 
or  district  froui  whii-h  one's  revenues  are  received,  as  owners 
of  large  estates  who  spend  their  incomes  in  other  coun- 
tries. This  practice  is  very  prevalent  among  the  Irish  no- 
bility and  genti-)'.  and  to  it  some  political  economists  ascribe 
the  poverty  of  Ireland  in  part.  "  A  petition  on  Irish  ab- 
senteeism was  presented  to  Parliament  as  early  as  1380,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Kichai'd  II..  .  .  .  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  the  estates  of  several  non-resident  landlords  w-ere 
seized."  Feb.  17,  1634,  the  Irish  Parliament  passed  a  law 
fining  the  nobility  of  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  dwelling  with- 
in England  or  elsewhere  out  of  the  realm,  and  from  1715  to 
1753  a  tax  of  four  shillings  on  the  pound  was  levied  on  all 
profits,  fees,  pensions,  etc.,  derived  from  Ireland  in  cases 
where  the  recipients  did  not  reside  in  Ireland  at  least  six 
months  of  the  year.     See  Townsend's  Manual  of  Dates. 

Absinthe  [Fr..  wormwood,  from  Lat.  aisin'fliiiim]:  a 
liqueur  much  used  in  France,  pre[iared  from  alcohol  mixed 
with  volatile  oil  of  wormwood,  oil  of  anise,  and  other  in- 
gredients. It  has  peculiarly  intoxicating  effects,  which  are 
due  to  the  oil  of  wormwood,  the  state  resulting  from  its  use 
being  very  different  from  the  result  of  alcohol  poisoning. 
Trembling,  vertigo,  fearful  dreams,  and  epileptiform  con- 
vulsions are  anumg  its  severer  consequences.  Absinthe 
drinking  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  forms  of  stimulation 
yet  invented — the  more  so  because  its  immediate  conse- 
quences are  usually  more  agreeable  than  those  of  alcohol. 
The  best  absinthe  is  made  in  Switzerland. 

Ab'solute  [Lat.  ab,  from  +  .'iolu'tti,'!.  loosed] :  oi-iginally, 
loosed  or  freed  from  all  conditions;  entirely  independent ; 
lience  positive,  unconditional,  unlimited.  As  a  scientific 
term  it  is  the  reverse  of  relative,  as  absnhite  velncHy.  In 
metaphysics  it  represents  the  unconditioned  infinite  and 
self-existent.  Alisolute  monarchy  is  that  which  is  not  lim- 
ited or  restricted  by  constitutional  checks. 

Absolute  Alcohol :  See  Alcohol. 

Absolu'tion.  Canonical:  the  act  of  freeing  from  censure. 

Absolution.  Sacramental:  tlie  remission  of  sin  which  a 
duly  authorized  priest  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  grants 
to  a  penitent  rigidly  disposed.  The  Lutheran  Church  (Augs- 
burg Confession,  arts,  xi.,  xxv.;  Luther's  Small  Catechism) 
retained  absolution  as  the  individualization  of  the  general 
promise  of  the  Gospel  declared  to  the  penitent  and  believing. 

Absorokas :  See  Siouan  Indians. 

Absorp'tion  [Lat.  «A,  from  +  sorbe're.  suck]:  the  func- 
tion by  which  nutritive  matter  is  absorbed  into  an  ani- 
mal or  plant.  The  active  agent  in  absorption  is  the  living 
jirotopl.'ism  of  the  cells.  Koot-cells  absorb  water  and  solu- 
tions; leaf-eel  Is,  gases.  Cells  absorb  from  one  another,  and 
thus  cause  a  movement  of  the  water  and  other  matters  in 
the  plant.  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Absorption,  Electric:  a  phenomenon  oceun'ing  when  a 
dielectric,  not  perfectly  homogeneous,  is  charged  and  dis- 
charged. When,  for  example,  a  plate  of  glass  serves  as  the 
illelectric  of  a  condenser,  it  is  found  that  the  coatings  of  the 
latter  after  discharge  soon  begin  to  show  difference  of  po- 
tential again,  1  he  charge  continning  to  rise  for  an  appreci- 
able interval  of  time,  and  reaching  a  value  which  is  a  con- 
sideralile  fraction  of  the  original  charge.  This  "residual" 
charge,  as  it  is  calh^d.  is  due  to  electric  absorption.  Clau- 
sius,  and  independently  Maxwell,  early  attributed  this 
phenonmnon  to  non-homogeneity  of  the  insulating  medium. 
It  ha-s  since  bci-n  shown  (Howland  and  Nichols.  Phil.  Mag., 
series  5,  vol.  xi.  p.  414)  that  a  homogeneous  substance,  such 
as  (a'ystalliz(!d  calcite,  when  used  as  a  dielectric,  develops  no 
residual  charge.  E.  L.  Nichols. 


Abs'tinence  [Lat.  ai.s,  from  -i-  /ewe're,  keep] :  the  actor 
state  of  abstaining,  as  from  food,  drink,  etc.  The  days  of 
abstinence  or  fasting  noted  in  the  Prayer-Book  of  the  Church 
of  Eiigliind  and  in  that  of  the  disestablished  Cliurch  of 
Ireland  under  this  head  are:  (1)  The  forty  days  of  Lent; 
(■J)  the  Ember  days  at  the  four  seasons,  being  the  Wednes- 
day, Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sundav  in  Lent, 
the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  Sept.  14,  Dec.  13;  (3)  the  three  Ro- 
gation days,  being  the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday 
liefore  Holy  Thursday,  or  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord;  (4) 
all  the  Fridays  in  the  year,  except  Christmas  day.  In  the 
American  Prayer-Book.  Ash-Wednesday  and  Good  Friday 
are  specifically  noted  as  "fasts,"  and  the  occasions  above 
given  are  spoken  of  as  "  other  days  of  fasting,  on  which 
the  Church  requires  such  a  measure  of  abstinence  its  is 
more  especially  suited  to  extraordinary  acts  and  exercises 
of  devotion."  W.  S.  Perry. 

Abstinence,  Total:  abstention  from  the  use  of  intoxicat- 
ing beverages.  Total  abstinence  was  practiced  in  early  ages 
by  the  Nazarites  and  Rechabites,  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
Some  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  vigorously  inveigh  against  the 
prevalence  of  drunkenness,  yet  hardly  indicate  total  absti- 
nence as  the  proper  remedy.  The  Essenes  (q.  v.) — a  Jewish 
sect  contemporary  with  the  Messiah — were  distinguished  for 
temperance  in  eating  and  drinking,  eschewing  generally  the 
use  of  flesh  and  wine.  Mohammed  peremptorily  forbade 
the  use  of  wine  as  a  beverage  by  his  followers.  In  the  feudal 
ages,  societies  designed  to  shiekl  their  members  and  others 
from  the  evils  of  drunkenness  were  often  formed,  but  not 
on  the  basis  of  absolute  disuse  of  stimulants.  The  discovery 
of  alc'ohol  by  an  Arabian  chemist  about  1000  a.d.  hiid, 
through  the  art  of  distillation,  greatly  expanded  and  inten- 
sified the  evils  of  intemperance,  especially  in  Northern 
Europe,  where  beer  had  generally  been  the  most  potent 
stimulant  attainable  by  the  masses.  The  discovery  and 
settlement  of  America,  largely  increasing  the  average  re- 
wards of  manual  labor,  especially  on  this  continent,  ren- 
dered intemperance  more  common,  by  increasing  the  ability 
of  the  common  people  to  purchase  alcoholic  stimulants ; 
and  the  U.  S.,  especially  throughout  the  half  century  suc- 
ceeding its  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  hardly  equaled 
in  file  prevalence  of  intoxication  even  by  the  British  and 
Scauilitiiivian  kingdoms,  and  was  unapproached  by  any 
other  naficm. 

The  earliest  known  organization  of  a  total  abstinence  so- 
ciety in  the  U.  S.  wa.s  "The  Temperate  Society  of  Milton 
and  Northumberland"  (Saratoga  co._,  N.  Y.),  founded  by  Dr. 
Billy  .1.  Clarke  in  1808,  wliich  at  its  commencement  had 
forty-tliree  members.  Distilled  liquors  and  wines  were  ali- 
solutely  prohibited  by  its  rules,  but  not  the  moderate  use 
of  beer.  In  1813  was  formed  the  "  Massachusetts  Society  " 
for  the  suppression  of  intemperance.  In  1826  the  American 
Temperance  Society  was  organized.  The  evils  resulting 
from  the  free  use  of  ardent  spirits  were  so  general  and 
glaring  tliat  kindred  societies  were  soon  formed  in  many 
cities,  villages,  and  rural  townships,  the  movement  being 
strongly  aided,  especially  among  zealous  Chi'istians.  by  Dr. 
Lyman  Beecher's  Six  Sermons  on  Jnteniperance.  Dr.  Eli- 
plialet  Nott,  president  of  Union  College,  was  akso  early  and 
honorably  distinguished  as  a  pioneer  in  the  temperance 
cause.  It  was  not  till  1883  that,  at  a  national  meeting  of 
the  friends  of  temperance,  held  in  Philadelphia,  the  [irin- 
ciple  of  "total  abstinence  from  all  that  may  intoxicate" 
was  propounded,  only  to  be  voted  down ;  but  it  was  again 
proposed,  and  adopted,  at  a  national  convention  field  at 
Saratoga  Sjirings  in  Aug.,  18:36.  and  became  henceforth  the 
basis  of  the  temperance  movement,  to  which  a  great  impulse 
wa.s  given  by  the  "  Washingtonians"  (in  good  part  reformed 
drunkards),  who  began  their  work  in  1841,  and  for  a  time 
seemed  destined  to  sweep  all  before  them.  The  Washing- 
tonian  effort  gradually  spent  its  strength  and  faded  out, 
being  succeeded  by  new  organizations,  whereof  the  "Sons 
of  Temperance."  "  Good  Templars."  "  Rechaliitcs."  "  Good 
Samaritans,"  and  "  Cadets  of  Temperance  "  are  still  active 
anil  flourishing. 

Tlie  total  abstinence  movement  in  Great  Britain  first  at- 
tracted public  attention  in  1831.  The  "  |)ledge  "  to  drink  no 
intoxicating  liquors  was  first  adopted  by  a  national  gather- 
ing at^Ianchesler  in  1834.  It  lias  never  yet  liecome  so  in- 
fluential in  that  as  in  this  country,  and  its  u]iholders  have 
only  ventured  to  ask  of  Parliament  a.  "  iiermissive"  act — that 
is,  one  allowing  any  locality  to  forbid  and  outlaw  the  liquor 
traflie  by  a  majority  vote — and  this  has  never  been  conceded. 


ABSTINENTS 


ABYSSINIA 


lY 


In  Ireland  totiil  abstinence  was  first  effectively  com- 
mended by  Fatlier  i\Iatliew,  wlio,  liy  his  simple  expositions 
and  exhortations.  juTsuaded  K'''^'it  nuraljers  of  his  count ly- 
men  to  take  the  pledge.    See  PROiiimrioN. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Abstineiits  :  a  Christian  sect  of  Gaul  and  Spain  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  third  century  A.  I).,  wlio  cundiMuni'd  nuir- 
riage  and  the  use  of  ilesh-meats  and  wine,  declaring  that 
they  were  made  by  the  devil  and  not  by  God. 

Abstraction  [Ijat.  abs/racfio.  from  ab.i.  from,  and  tra- 
here.  draw]:  tlie  process  wliereby  the  mind  reaches  the 
abstract  notion  or  conception,  that  is.  one  wliich  has  refer- 
ence to  a  quality  or  property  of  an  object  without  furtlier 
definition  of  the  object  itself.  For  example,  color,  virtue, 
government  are  abstract  ideas.  They  apply  eciually  to  a 
number  of  cases,  and  so  are  opposed  to  concrete  ideas,  which 
denote  particular  oljjects  only.     Si'e  Thouoiit. 

Any  abstract  or  theoretical  consideration,  which  seems  to 
have  no  iiunuMliate  application  to  facts  is  also  an  abstracticm. 

The  sciences  which  deal  mainly  with  symbolic  (juantities 
and  general  foruudas,  rather  than  with  particular  concrete 
facts,  are  called  abstntct  sciences — notably  mathematics, 
logic,  and  metaphysics.  They  use  the  deductive  method, 
and  are  often  called  "  deductive  "  as  opposed  to  the  "  induc- 
tive "  or  "  natural "  sciences.    See  Induction. 

Abt,  Franz:  musician;  the  most  popuhir  song  composer 
Germanv  ever  produced  :  b.  in  Eilenburg,  Prussian  Saxonv, 
Dec.  22,'lSl'J.  He  was  at  first  intended  for  the  Church,  but 
his  father  dying  while  Franz  was  at  the  I'uivcrsity  of  Leip- 
zig, the  support  of  himself  and  his  widowed  mot  lu'r  devolved 
on  him.  and  he  became  a  teacher,  but  continued  to  study 
music.  His  first  compositions — a  set  of  dances  and  some 
songs — were  published  in  Leipzig,  in  April.  1S58,  and  soon 
after  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Leipzig  Philhar- 
monic Society,  and  he  subsequently  held  similar  |)osilions 
elsewhere.  He  married  in  Sept..  IS-tl.  His  famous  song 
Wlien  tlie  Siciilloics  Ildineii'urd  Flij  was  first  i>ublished  in 
Stuttgart,  and  made  his  fame.  He  wi'ote  many  songs,  and 
was  especially  successful  in  writing  for  nude  voices.  In  1872 
he  visited  tlie  U.S.,  and  conducted  numy  concerts  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Newark,  and  other  cities.  lie  also  con<lucted  a 
performance  of  \Vagner"s  Tiiniiliiluser  in  New  York.  He 
died  on  JIar.  111.  1885.  His  published  works  run  uj)  into  the 
thousands.  He  had  a  remark.abic  gift  of  melody,  anil  almost 
every  singing  society  in  Germany  and  in  the  U.  S.  has  sung 
some  of  his  songs.  D.  F.  Hkrvkv. 

Abu  :  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  father,  occurs  as  a  pre- 
fix to  many  Oriental  names,  as  Abu-Bekr,  "father  of  the 
virgin."  It  corresponds  to  Hebr.  ,1/;,  as  in  Abraham,  "fa- 
ther of  a  multitude,"  Absalom,  "  father  of  i)eace." 

Abu:  a  mounlidn  of  India,  in  liajputana,  connected  with 
the  Aravali  range;  about  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  It  is  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  Jains. 
who  have  four  temples  at  Dilwara,  near  the  middle  of  the 
mountain.  One  of  these  is  said  to  be  the  most  supi'rb  of  all 
the  temples  of  India. 

Abubfikr',  or  Aboo-TJckr:  a  calijih,  the  first  of  Moham- 
med's successors;  b.  in  Araliia  aliout  570  A.  u.  His  original 
name  was  Abd-el-l\aaba.  which  was  exchanged  for  Abu- 
Bekr  (i.  e.  father  of  the  virgin),  because  his  virgin  daughter 
Ayesha  was  marricil  to  the  prophet.  He  began  to  reign  in 
633  A.  D.,  and  died  in  6li4,  leaving  a  high  reputation  as  a 
man  and  a  niler. 

Abukir',  or  Aboukir:  a  fort  and  village  of  Kgypt,  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Canopus,  and  on  the  seaeoast  at  the 
west  side  of  Abukir  bay,  15  miles  N.  E.  of  Alexandria.  In 
Abukir  bav  Admiral  Nelson  irained  a  decisive  vietorv  over 
the  French  fleet,  Aug.  1.  1708.  Here  the  Turks  were  de- 
feated by  the  French  under  Napoleon  1.,  July  35,  17!)!),  and 
the  French  by  the  British,  .Alar.  31,  180L 

Abnlca'sis.  or  .Abiilka'sis  (written  also  Abul-Kasom). 
KuALAi''  EliN  AuiiAs:  .\ral)  plivsician  and  surgical  writer; 
b.  near  Ci'irdova.  in  Spain.  His  principal  work  was  pub- 
lished in  1778  under  the  title  of  Ahulriisin  de  Cliirurgid 
(Arab,  "  Al-tassrif ").  The  part  devoted  to  surgery  is  re- 
garded as  the  most  valuable  treatise  of  the  kind  that  has 
come  d(pwii  to  us  from  early  times.     1).  about  1117. 

Abuira'ra.j.  (irkgorh-s;  learned  historical  writer;  b.  in 
Armenia  in  1330;  became  maphriau  or  primate  of  the  east- 
ern division  of  the  Jacobite  Christians  ni  1306.  He  wrote 
in  Syriac  and  Arabic  several  valuable  works,  among  which 


is  a  History   of  the  Dynasties.    D.  in   1286. — There  was 

also  a  famous  Oriental  poet,  AH  Abulfaraj  (807-997). 

Ab'ul-Fazl :  eiinnent  Oriental  historian,  who  in  1574  be- 
came vizier  or  prime  minister  of  the  great  Mogul  Emperor 
Akbar.  He  was  a  wise  and  liberal  statesman.  He  was  as- 
sassinated in  1608.  Among  his  important  works  arc  a  his- 
tory of  Akbar.  called  Akbar  JS'ameh,  and  Institutes  of 
Alibar  (Aveeii  Akbari). 

Abul'l'cda  ;  a  Moslem  iirinee  and  author;  b.  at  Damas- 
cus about  137-'!.  He  fought  with  distinction  for  the  Sultan 
of  Syria  against  the  Tartars  or  Jlongols,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Priiu'c  of  Ilamah.  He  wrote  an  important 
work  entitled  An  Abridgment  of  the  History  of  Mankind, 
and  another,  Ttie  Description  of  the  Countries,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  best  Arabic  work  on  geography  that  is  ex- 
tant.    D.  in  1331. 

Abu'na  (our  father) :  a  title  given  to  the  head  or  patriarch 
of  the  Abyssinian  Christians. 

Abu  Siuibcl :  a  place  in  Nubia,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Nile.  1,014  miles  above  Cairo  and  8  miles  above  the  Second 
Cataract.  It  contains  two  of  the  best-preserved  specimens 
of  the  great  rock-hewn  temph-s  of  ancient  Egypt;  one  of 
which  has  four  sitting  colossal  statues,  whi(-ii  are  almost 
the  largest  stone  figures  existing.  The  sculptures  of  both 
temples  are  of  very  great  value.    See  Ipsambul. 

AI)u'tilon  :  a  genus  of  mostly  shrubby  plants  of  the 
mallow  family,  including  about  seventy  species,  which  are 
widely  distributed  in  warm  climates.  Many  are  cultivated 
in  grceii-honscs — e.  g.  A.  insigne,  A.  striatum,  A.  vitifolium, 
etc.  A.  ai'ice?inw,  from  India,  is  a  common  roadsiile  weed 
in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  where  it  is  called  velyct-le.'if. 

C.  E.  B. 

Abutment:  the  stone  structure  which  receives  the  hori- 
zontal thrust  of  an  arch,  or  the  pier  of  a  bridge  built  on  the 
shore  and  connecting  it  with  the  street.  The  mass  of  ma- 
sonry to  whicli  the  cables  of  a  suspension-bridge  are  anchored 
is  also  sometimes  called  an  abutment.  See  Arch,  Brioges, 
Foundation,  and  Masonry.  M.  M. 

Aby'dos:  an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Egypt;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile;  5  or  6  miles  from  the  river,  and  about  100 
miles  below  Thebes.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Osiris 
and  a  temple  of  Memnon.  in  which  Mr.  Bankes  discovered 
in  1818  the  celebrated  tablet  of  Abydos,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  A  second  tablet  of  Aby<los.  coiilaiuing  seventy- 
six  shields,  was  discovered  by  Mariette  in  1805.  Baiikes's 
tablet  contained  only  twenty-six  shields. 

Aby'dus,  or  Aby'dos  (Gr.''A;8uSos) :  an  ancient  city  on  the 
ndlespont  opposite  Sestos,  w'here  Xerxes  crossed  over  to 
Europe  on  a  bridge  of  boats,  480  B.  c.  It  was  also  celebrated 
for  its  connection  with  the  story  of  Hero  ami  Leander. 

Ab'via  and  Cal'pe  :  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  standing  on 
both  sulcs  of  the  Straits  of  (iibraltar,  Abyla  in  Africa. 

Abyssin'ia  (-Vr.  llabasit,  mixed):  an  African  empire, 
formerly  Ethiopia,  now  vliy.v.siHin  anil  Slwa.hy  the  addition 
of  the  large  kingdom  of  Shoa  on  the  S.  E.  It  lies  E.  of  the 
Nile  and  nearly  o]iposite  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Jlaiideb,  with 
Nubia  on  the  N.,10rilrea  between  it  and  the  Red  Sea,  the 
Somali  and  Galla  lands  on  the  S.,  and  Nubia  on  the  W. 
On  the  S.  W.  the  bnundary  is  ill  defined.  It  is  of  a  long, 
elli]itical  form,  with  its  greatest  length  N.  and  S.,  and  ex- 
tends from  7°  N.  to  17°  N.,  and  from  Ion.  36"  to  43°  E. 
It  is  entirely  cut  off  from  the  Red  Sea  by  Eritrea,  but  ap- 
|iroaches  it  within  a  few  miles  near  Massowah.  The  area  is 
about  lilO.OOO  sq.  miles,  and  the  latest  estimates  of  the  popu- 
lation ])lace  it  at  4.500.000.  The  principal  subdivisions  are 
Tigre  on  the  N.  and  N.  F..  Amhara  and  (iojam  iu  the  center, 
Shoa  in  the  S.  E.  and  the  smaller  dependencies  of  the  Slian- 
kallaiu  the  W.,  and  Galla  and  KatTa  lands  in  the  S.  and  S.  \V. 
The  Afar  or  Danakil  and  the  Adal  countries  on  the  lowlands 
adjoining  the  Red  Sea  are  now  parts  of  Eritrea, 

Topograpliy. — In  its  present  form  Aliyssinia  occupies  the 
highlands  of  Ethiopia  which  rise  abruptly  from  the  low- 
lands to  the  E.,  and  consist  of  extensive  table-lands  from 
6.000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  divi^rsified  by  mountains 
and  river  gorges.  The  chief  range  of  mountains  forms  a 
crescent  about  the  largo  central  Lake  Tana,  concave  toward 
the  E.  They  are  highest  in  the  N.,  where  they  reach 
15,000  feet,  and  the  higher  peaks  are  always  covered  with 
snow.  The  principal  rivers  are  tributary  to  the  Nile.  The 
Abai  or  Bhn;  Nile  leaves  Lake  Tana  at  its  S.  E.  angle,  and, 
first  taking  a  southeasterly  course,  sweeps  around  the  moun- 


18 


ABYSSIXIA 


ACACIANS 


tainous  province  of  Gojam,  falling  into  the  Nile  proper  at 
Khartum.  The  Atbarii,  also  a  branch  of  tlie  Nile,  drains 
the  most  of  the  country  to  the  N.  of  Tana,  while  the  waters 
of  the  S.  flow  southward  into  Lake  Rudolf,  about  lat.  5'  N. 
There  is  little  drainage  into  the  Red  Sea.  Lake  Tana  (Tzana 
or  Denibea)  is  divided  into  nearly  equal  portions  by  the  par- 
allel l'i°  X.  and  the  meridian  37°  3'  E.  It  is  5,658  feet  above 
the  sea ;  is  nearly  circular,  and  about  40  miles  in  diameter ; 
has  an  area  of  about  3,000  sq.  miles,  and  is  in  places  very 
deep.  The  rocks  are  usually  granite,  gneiss,  or  schists,  but 
trap  and  basalt  are  common,  and  fossiliferous  rocks  of  the 
Jurassic  age  have  been  observed.  Denudation  has  gone  on 
extensively,  leaving  narrow  valleys  and  caiions,  which  are 
sometimes  3.000  or  -1,000  feet  deep.  The  country  is  very 
picturesque,  and  seems  as  if  broken  up  and  tossed  about ; 
the  mountains  are  abrupt  and  precipitous,  the  passes  few 
and  difficult,  and  the  scenery  wild  and  fantastic. 

Climate. — This  is  generally  temperate  and  salubrious,  both 
because  of  the  great  elevation  and  because  the  hot  season  is 
terminated  early  by  the  midsummer  rains.  The  rainfall  is 
light  in  the  N.,  but  increases  southward. 

Product  ions. — The  vegetation  of  the  table-lands  and  moun- 
tains is  that  of  the  temperate  zone,  with  little  forest  growth  ; 
that  of  the  ravines  is  more  tropical.  Tlie  large  tropical  ani- 
mals are  not  rare  at  the  lower  elevations  in  the  S.  The 
spotted  hyaena  is  everywhere  so  common  as  to  be  a  pest. 
Honey  forms  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  people. 
The  ravages  of  locusts  are  often  very  serious. 

The  people  are  essentially  pastoral,  and  tillage  is  compara- 
tively little  practiced.  The  cattle  are  small ;  the  sheep  are 
of  the  fat-tailed  kind.  Goats  are  raised  in  large  herds. 
Horses  are  common  and  excellent.  Abundant  crops  of 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  pease,  beans,  and  tobacco  can  be  raised  ; 
coffee,  cotton,  the  sugar-cane,  and  the  date-palm  will  thrive 
in  many  places,  as  also  will  the  orange,  lemon,  pomegranate, 
and  banana  in  lower  altitudes.  A  fine-grained  millet  called 
teff  is  used  for  making  bread.  Myrrh,  balsam,  and  several 
valuable  medicinal  plants  are  found  here. 

Inhabitant.'^. — The  population  is  made  up  of  a  heterogene- 
ous collection  of  races — Coptic,  Arabian,  Jewish,  and  Xegro. 
The  political  ascendency  has  long  belonged  to  a  race  which 
calls  itself  t^thiopian,  and  is  of  Araljian  descent.  This 
people  speaks  a  dialect  of  the  old  Ethiopie  language  which 
is  of  the  Semitic  linguistic  family.  (See  Amharic.)  The 
Abyssinians  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  foui-th 
century  by  Frumentius,  who  was  consecrated  bishop  by  St. 
Athanasius.  They  are  still  members  of  the  Alexandrian 
Church,  and  consequently  Monophysites.  The  head  of  the 
Church,  or  almna.  is  always  a  Copt,  appointed  by  the  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  but  his  power  is  shared  by  a  native  dig- 
nitary who  controls  the  monastic  ordere.  Jews  are  common, 
and  date  from  very  early  times.  They  are  called  Falashas. 
There  are  also  many  Jlohammedans  and  heathens. 

The  raannei's  of  the  Abyssinians  are  rude  and  warlike, 
and  their  civilization  is  of  the  early  feudal  type.  The  litera- 
ture is  entirely  religious.  Teaching  is  restricted  to  the 
clergy,  and  consists  in  instruction  in  grammar,  choral  sing- 
ing, and  the  recitation  of  sacred  texts.  It  is  gratuitous,  but 
given  to  a  selected  few  only,  and  these  form  a  somewhat  in- 
fluential class  of  literati. 

History. — There  have  been  many  changes  of  family  in 
the  rulers  during  the  historic  period,  but  until  recently  they 
have  all  belonged  to  a  royal  line  said  to  have  descended 
from  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  During  the  captivity  many  Jews 
settled  here,  and  brought  with  them  a  knowledge  of  tlie 
Jewish  religion.  Uniler  the  Ptolemies  the  Greeks  established 
colonies  in  Ethiopia,  and  brought  their  arts  with  them.  The 
ancient  kingdom  of  Auxume.of  the  first  and  second  centuries, 
was  at  one  time  nearly  coextensive  with  modern  Abyssinia. 
At  .Vxum.the  site  of  the  ancient  capital,  many  vestiges  exist 
which  show  its  former  greatness.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced Ijetween  330  and  360  a.  d..  and  about  470  a  great  com- 
Fany  of  monks  seems  to  have  established  itsel  f  in  the  country. 
n  the  sixth  century  Abyssinia  conriuered  Yemen  in  Arabia, 
and  held  it  sixty-seven  years.  This  was  the  greatest  period  in 
their  history,  but  it  was  soon  ended  by  the  (lestructivc  zeal  of 
the  early  followers  of  Mohammed.  In  060  the  Jewish  Prin- 
cess Judith  gained  the  throne. and  it  remained  in  the  hands  of 
her  descendants  until  1308.  when  it  passed  again  to  the  old 
royal  line.  The  I'ortuguesi'  missions  began  about  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  were  due  to  the  old  search  for 
Prester  John.  Between  1538  and  1540  the  country  was 
overrun  by  Mohaunnedan  armies,  and  the  Portuguese  were 
called  on  for  succor.     There  followed  a  period  of  Jesuit 


ascendency,  until  1633,  when  they  were  expelled.  The  best- 
known  figure  in  the  history  of  Abyssinia  in  recent  times  is 
King  Theodore.  He  was  b.  in  1818,  and  crowned  King  of 
Ethiopia  in  1855.  He  was  an  able  and  energetic  man,  and 
extended  greatly  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom.  lie  took 
the  English  into  his  favor,  until  the  disrespect  shown  a  letter 
which  he  addressed  to  the  Queen  of  England  caused  his 
feelings  to  change.  This  finally  resulted  m  sending  a  large 
English  force  into  Abyssinia,  the  storming  and  capture  of 
Magdala,  and  the  suicide  of  Theodore  on  the  13th  April,  1868. 
His  death  was  followed  by  a  period  of  anarchy,  until  Prince 
Kassai  was  crowned  as  Johannes  11.  in  18t3.  After  his 
death  in  1889,  Menelek  II.,  King  of  Shoa,  succeeded  in  gaining 
the  crown. 

In  return  for  the  assistance  which  he  had  received  from 
Italy,  whose  colony  of  Eritrea  liounds  Abyssinia  on  the 
north.  Menelek  surrendered  to  Italy  the  province  of  Hama- 
sen  and  concluded  a  treaty  (May  3.  188!))  and  a  convention 
for  "mutual  protection,"  which  Italy  construed  as  giving 
her  a  protectorate  over  the  country.  Jlenelek  having  de- 
nounced this  interpretation  friction  resulted,  and  hostilities 
were  begun  in  the  course  of  which  the  Italians  captured 
Adowa  (q.  v.)  and  several  important  points  in  the  interior, 
from  which,  however,  they  were  driven  one  by  one,  and  on 
Mar.  1.  1896.  met  with  a  crushing  defeat  near  Adowa,  in 
which  they  lost  10.000  men  in  killed  ami  wounded  (includ- 
ing 5.600  Italians),  and  1.550  who  were  carried  off  as  pris- 
oners. Italy  now  sued  for  peace,  and  on  Oct.  26,  1896,  a 
treaty  was  signed  in  which  the  independence  of  Abyssinia 
was  recognized,  and  a  new  boundary  between  Eritrea  and 
Abyssinia  was  fixed. 

The  chief  exports  are  skins,  ivory,  butter,  gums,  and 
mules,  forwarded  mainlv  through  Massowah.  British  im- 
ports amounted  in  1887  to  §70,000:  in  1888  to  $16,000;  in 
1889  to  .$6,000.  The  falling  off  is  due  to  internal  wars  and 
the  replacement  of  British  goods  by  Italian.  The  Maria  The- 
resa silver  dollar  piece,  an  Austrian  coin  still  struck  off  by 
the  Au.strian  mint  for  the  African  trade  exactly  as  it  was  in 
1780.  is  the  favorite  money,  but  bales  of  cloth  and  bags  of  salt 
are  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Towns  are  numerous,  but 
small.  The  most  important.  ])olitically  and  commercially, 
are:  Gondar.  capital  of  Amhara,  5,000;  Adua  or  Adowa, 
capital  of  Tigre,  3,000;  Aksum  or  Axum,  ancient  capital, 
5.000;  Antalo,  former  capita!  of  Tigre,  1,000;  Ankober, 
former  capital  of  Shoa.  7.000 :  Licheh.  present  capital  of 
Shoa.  3,000;  Amba-Mariam,  4.000;  Mahdera-Mariam,  4,000; 
Besso  and  Sokoto,  important  trading-centers,  each  1,500. 

The  literature  on  Abyssinia  is  extensive.  The  travels  of 
Bruce,  Rohlfs,  Wilkins,  Heuglin,  Riippell,  Lefebrc,  Har- 
ris, Antinori.  Stern  (about  the  Jews),  and  Lejean  may  be 
consulted.  D'Alibadie's  Memoirs;  Blanford's  Geoloyy  and 
Zoology  of  Aliys.sinia;  Raffray's  Abyssitiie:  Hartmann's 
Abyssinien  und  die  tiebrigen  Oebiete  der  Ostkueste  Afrikas ; 
Eeclus's  Universal  Geography,  vol.  x. ;  Massaja's  Mission 
in  Ethiopia  (Italian);  d'Abbadie's  Gengrnphie  de  VEthiope 
(1890) ;  and  Miinzenberger"s  Abe.isinien  unci  seine  Bedeutung 
fur  -unsere  Zeit  (1893)  may  be  mentioned.  Levasseur  has  pub- 
lished a  study  of  the  area  and  population  of  Ethiopia  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  International  Statistical  Institute.  Modern 
Italian  geographical  literature  has  much  information  about 
this  country.  Cora  has  published  special  maps  of  Eritrea, 
etc.  (Turin,'  1881  to  1890).  Mark  W.  Harrinuton. 

.4ca'cia  [Gr.  aKaxla.  fii-st  mentioned  by  Dioscorides  (e.  100 
A.D.):  of  doulitful  origin,  possibly  con- 
nected with  did),  point] :  a  genus  of  Le- 
(/h»)('ho.vyp,  found  in  Asia,  Africa.  Amer- 
ica, and  Australia,  comprising  many 
beautiful  trees,  among  which  is  A.  ara- 
bica.  which  produces  some  of  the  gum- 
arabic  of  commerce,  but  the  most  and 
best  is  yielded  by  A.  verek.  (See  Gums.) 
Catechu  is  an  extract  from  the  wood  of 
A.  catechu  of  India  and  Burnui;  this 
and  other  species  are  much  valued  for 
timber,  etc.  The  species  with  willow- 
like foliage,  cultivated  in  conservatories, 
are  nearly  all  Australian. 

Aca'cians :  followers  of  Acacius.  Bishop  of  Ca^sarea, 
340-:l65.  The  Acacians  are  generally  classed  as  moderate 
Arians  {q.  v.).  but  differed  from  them'  in  not  holding  to  the 
doctrine  that  Christ  was  a  created  being,  and  from  the  Semi- 
Arians  in  not  holiling  (as  they  did)  that  Christ  was  of  a  like 
sub.stance  or  essence  with  the" Father.     The  Acacians  simply 


Acacia  arabica. 


ACADKMY 


19 


held  that  Christ  was  liku  llie  Father.  The  doctrines  of 
Acacius  were  coiuleinried  at  the  Council  of  Sardica,  347,  and 
at  the  Council  of  Si'leiicia,  ;i59. 

Acad'emy  [(Jr. 'AKoSrjuia;  properly  "AKoStj^fia ;  Lat. ooarfe'- 
mia;  Fr.  aciuUiiiiif]:  orij;inally  a  j;arden  or  jtrove  in  a 
suburb  of  Athens,  or  the  scliool  of  philosophy  which  Plato 
founiied  in  that  place.  The  name  is  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  from  Academus  or  llecademus,  a  mytliical  person 
who,  according?  to  Greel<  tradition,  presented  the  garden  to 
the  pi'ople  of  Athens.  Tlio  modified  systems  or  schools  of 
philosophv  which  the  successors  of  I'lato  adopted  were  desig- 
nated by  Ilie  titles  of  the  Middle  and  tiie  New  Aca<lemy. 
Academy  in  tlie  IT.  S.,  as  in  tlie  United  Kingdom,  is  used 
to  designate  a  superior  school,  or  insi  itution  of  learning,  in- 
termediate in  grade  between  a  college  or  university  ami 
a  common  scliool.  An  "  academy  "  and  a  "  high  school  " 
have  substantially  equivalent  courses,  but  in  use  "  academy  " 
more  frequently  refers  to  a  private  school  and  "  high  scliool  " 
to  a  puljlic  school.  An  academy  is  also  a  school  for  instruc- 
tion in  a  special  art  or  science,  !is  the  West  Point  Military 
Academy.  Tlie  word  academy  is  also  applied  to  a  society 
of  authors,  savants,  or  artists,  founded  for  tiu;  improvement 
of  literature,  science,  or  art.  The  fii'st  institution  of  which 
we  reatl  at  all  corresponding  to  this  idea  was  the  JIuseum, 
a  society  of  scholare  established  at  Alexandria  by  Ptolemy 
Sot«r  iri  the  third  century  u.  c,  wliich  concentrated  in  thjit 
city  all  that  was  most  eminent  in  science,  philosopliy,  poetry, 
or  criticism.  The  .Jews  in  dilferent  cities,  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  emperoi-s,  and  the  Arabian  caliphs  founded  socie- 
ties of  the  same  description.  Charli^magne,  among  his  vari- 
ous efforts  for  the  propagation  of  literature,  collected  an 
association  of  learniMl  men,  who  read  and  compared  the 
works  of  antiquity,  and  gave  themselves  in  their  academic 
intercourse  the  assumi'd  names  of  different  ancient  authors. 
But  this  institution  was  dissolved  at  the  death  of  Alcuin  ; 
nor  do  we  find  any  memorial  of  a  similar  .society,  except  a 
few  among  artists',  chiefly  in  France,  until  after  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  when  the  Greek  scholars 
driven  into  Italy  held  literary  meetings,  which  gnulually  as- 
sumed a  more  regular  form.  In  loKO  a  society  called  tlie 
Acadcmia  Secretoruin  Nalune  was  founded  at  Naples  in  the 
house  of  Baptista  Porta,  but  was  aljolished  by  a  papal  inter- 
dict. It  was,  however,  succeeded  by  the  Academia  Lyncei 
at  Rome,  of  which  Galileo  was  a  membi'i-,  the  objects  of 
which,  like  those  of  tlie  former,  were  chiefly  connected  with 
the  pursuit  of  natural  history.  F"roni  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeentli  century  aca<leraies  multiplied  in  Italy.  Among 
the  most  eminent  of  those  bearing  a  pliilosophical  characrter 
was  the  Academy  del  Cimento  at  Florence  in  that  century  ; 
and  in  more  recent  times  the  .\cademy  of  Sciences  at  Bologna 
deserves  to  be  mentioned  with  honor.  But  Italy  has  been 
most  prolific  in  academies  of  literature  and  philology,  which 
form  by  far  the  greatest  number  in  the  catalogue  of  550 
such  institutions  which  have  been  enumerated  as  existing  or 
having  existed  in  tiiat  country.  A  general  and  somewhat 
ridiculous  fashion  prevailed  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  among  literary  men  of  that  country  of  forming 
themsv'lves  into  societii-s  for  the  promotion  of  literary  ob- 
jects, to  which  they  gave  fanciful  symbolic  names,  every 
member  assuming  in  his  own  person  some  analogous  appella- 
tion. Among  tilt'  most  celebrated  was  the  Academy  (It. 
Accademia)  degli  Arcadi  at  Rome,  of  which  the  meetings 
were  held  in  a  meadow,  and  the  members  enacted  shepherds 
and  shepherdesses.  It  was  founded  about  1690,  and  still 
subsists,  having  various  alTiliated  societies  in  other  places. 
The  Accademia  degli  I'midi,  one  of  the  oldest  of  these  asso- 
ciations, becami'  afterward  the  Florentine  .\cademy.  The 
Accademia  degli  Intronati  ("of  the  deafened '").  degli  Umor- 
isti  ("of  the  humorists"),  ami  others  with  similar  quaint 
appellations,  have  acquired  celebrity  in  Italy.  Of  hor  phil- 
ologicil  academies  the  most  illustrious  is  the  Accademia 
della  Crusca  (i.  e.  "aca*lciny  of  the  bran"*),  founded  at 
Florence  in  lo83,  which  by  i{s  famous  dictionary  established 
the  Tuscan  dialect  as  the  standard  of  the  national  lan- 
guage. It  is  now  incorporated  with  the  Accademia  Fior- 
cntina. 

The  first  institution  of  this  kind  in  France,  the  Academic 
Fran<;aise,  was  founded  in  16'!")  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  It 
wjis  formed  for  the  purpose  of  refining  the  French  language 
and  style,  and,  although  in  its  fii-st  period  it  was  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  adulation  which  it  bestowed  on  its  vain 

•  In  allusion  to  its  office  of  winnowing  or  purifying  the  national 
lant^uage. 


though  aide  founder,  it  became  in  process  of  time  by  far  the 
most  celebrated  and  influential  of  all  European  literary  so- 
cieties. It  consisted  of  forty  memlurs,  and  a  place  among 
them  was  eagerly  sought  after  for  a  long  ])eriod  as  one  of  the 
highest  honors  which  could  be  attained  by  an  author.  Like 
that  of  I,a  Crusca,  it  pulilished  a  dictionary  of  the  national 
language  in  10'.»4.  The  Koyal  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.  in  ItJGti,  and  |iubiished  KiO  volumes 
of  memoirs  up  to  the  year  ITitiJ,  when  it  was  abolished  by  the 
Convention.  The  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  and 
that  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres  were  the  other  two 
principal  academies  of  Paris.  The  latter  was  founded  by 
CoUiert  in  166;i.  and  remodeled  in  ITOI.  At  the  Revolution 
all  four  were  abolislie<l,  iind  in  17U5,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Condorcet,  the  National  Institute  of  France  was  established 
in  their  .stead.  It  consisted  of  four  classes,  arising  out  of  the 
four  academies  of  which  it  was  composed.  According  to  its 
reorganization  by  Napoleon  in  1W)6,  these  classes  were  re- 
mo(ieled,  and  each  of  them  consisted  of  a  certain  number  of 
sections,  each  furnished  with  a  specified  number  of  acting 
and  corresponding  members.  Thi?  first  class,  or  that  of  sci- 
ences, had  6:!  members  and  100  cori'es|)ondeiits ;  that  of  Kan- 
guages,  40,  and  60  correspondents;  that  of  histoiy  and 
antiquities,  40,  and  60  corres|ion<lfnts ;  that  of  the  art.s,  28, 
and  (56  correspondents.  The  first,  third,  and  fourth  eat^h 
named  8  fiu-eign  a.ssociates.  In  1816  the  Institute  was  again 
remodeled  by  Louis  .Will.  The  four  classes  again  took 
the  name  of  academies,  and  became  more  independent  of 
one  another,  their  joint  property  being  managed  by  a 
commission  of  8  members,  2  from  each,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  The  first  acade- 
my (that  of  sciences)  ictained  the  same  number  of  mem- 
bers;  the  second  and  third  were  reduced  to  38  and  37,  re- 
spectively; the  fourth  was  increased  to  40.  To  the  Acade- 
my of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres  and  that  of  Sciences 
was  added  a  class  of  free  academicians,  of  the  number  of  10. 
with  no  privilege  except  that  of  attendance.  The  Academy 
of  Arts  had  the  right  to  choose  its  own  number  of  free 
membei-s. 

Of  similar  institutions  in  Germany,  the  oldest  was  the 
Academia  Naturae  Curiosas  a  scientific  association,  founded 
in  1662  in  Franconia,  afterward  taken  under  imperial  pro- 
tection, when  it  received  the  name  of  the  Academia Ca>sareo- 
Leopoldina.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  was 
founded  in  1700  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia;  Leibnitz  was  its 
first  dii'ector.  Other  German  acadiMuies  of  sciences  are  those 
of  Giiltingen,  established  in  KoO:  the  Bavarian  Academy  at 
Munich,  established  in  1759.  chiefly  for  history,  and  in  1829 
divided  into  three  sections;  and  the  Saxon  Association  of 
Science,  founded  in  1846,  and  divided  into  two  classes.  The 
Imperial  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Vienna  originated 
in  1846.  Turkey  established  a  similar  institution  in  1851, 
and  Kgypt  in  1859.  The  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
St.  Petersburg  was  founded  by  Catherine  I.,"and  endowed  by 
Catherine  II.  with  great  munificence,  but  established  on 
the  French  model.  She  separated  from  it  the  Academy  of 
Arts. 

In  Great  Britain  the  name  academy  has  been  chiefly  con- 
fined to  associations  for  promoting  the  arts.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  was  founded  in  1768,  and  consists  of  forty 
members.  It  has  se|)arale  professors  of  painting,  architec- 
ture, anatomv,  and  jierspective,  and  a  council  of  nine  is 
elected  annually.  Tlie  Academy  of  Ancient  Music  was 
founded  bv  private  a.ssociation  in  1710;  the  Koyal  Academy 
of  Music,  iinder  the  patronage  of  George  III.,  but  dissolved 
shortly  after.  The  present  Academy  of  Music  was  founded 
in  1822.  The  principal  literary  and  philosophical  societies, 
answering  in  character  to  the  branches  of  the  French  Insti- 
tute, are:  1.  The  Royal  .Society  of  London,  which  is  con- 
fined to  objects  of  a  scientific  character.  It  had  its  origin 
as  early  a.s  1643.  but  was  established  by  royal  charter  in 
16(>2.  "Its  acts  have  been  published  under  the  name  of 
Philosophiral  Tranftartion-'i  from  1665  to  the  |iresent  day. 
2.  The  Antiquarian  Society,  which  was  established  in  1751, 
and  whose  acts  are  published  under  the  title  of  Archmolo- 
gia.  'A.  The  Society  of  Arts,  which  originated  in  1718.  4. 
That  of  Literature',  which  Wius  founded  in  1823.  Besides 
these,  thi'i-e  are  numerous  societies  which  bear  the  name 
of  the  peculiar  branch  of  science  to  which  their  exertions 
are  confined.  The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  obtained  a 
charter  in  1783,  and  another  witli  more  liberal  provisions  in 
1811. 

Among  the  most  valuable  published  transactions  of  acade- 
mies and  similar  societies,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 


2U 


ACADIA 


ACANTHURID^ 


are  those  of  Colberfs  Academie  dc>:  Inscriptions  el  Belles- 
Lettres  (50  vols.  4to,  from  1701  to  1798);  those  of  the  Insti- 
tute being  continuations  of  the  memoirs  of  the  former  acade- 
mies of  which  it  was  coniijoscd  ;  tliose  of  tlie  Royal  Academy 
of  the  Sciences  and  Belles-Lettres  at  Berlin — iit  first  in 
Latin,  then  in  French  (from  its  remodeling  in  1744  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great),  now  in  German  ;  tlie  Ada  of  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  St.  Petersburg;  the  Commcntarii  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Bologna;  and  the  Antichila  d'j5.Vco/a7to,  published 
by  the  Horculanean  Aciitlemy  of  Naples.  The  Vetenska- 
parnes  Sallskap  at  Stockholm  lias  published  over  100  vols,  of 
its  valuable  Transactions. 

The  American  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Arts  was  founded 
in  1780  by  the  Council  and  House  of  Representatives  of 
JIassachusetts.  The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the 
U.S.  ((/.  V.)  was  incorporated  by  the  Thirty-seventh  Congress 
in  18(5:J.  The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia 
was  founded  in  1812.  Besides  a  valuable  scientific  library 
it  contains  one  of  the  best  natural  history  collections  in  the 
world,  especially  rich  in  birds.  The  American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in 
188!).  It  has  a  membership  of  several  thousand,  holds  regular 
meetings  in  Philadelphia,  and  publishes  the  Annals  of  tlie 
A.  A.  P.  S.  S.,  which  contain  papers  of  scientific  value  in 
the  field  covered  by  the  organization. 

Revised  by  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Acil'dia  (Pr.  Acadie):  the  French  settlements  S.  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  dating  from  1603,  called  Nova  Scotia. 
Acadia  originally  included  New  Brunswick  and  a  part  of 
Maine.  It  was  the  subject  of  frequent  quarrels  between  the 
French  and  English  on  account  of  the  valualde  fisheries  near 
its  coast,  and  was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1713. 
The  inhabitants  having  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance to  the  British  king  and  to  bear  arms  against  the  French, 
the  governor.and  liis  council  resolved  to  remove  them  to  the 
other  British  provinces.  The  French  settlers,  8,000  in  num- 
ber, were  forced  to  give  up  their  property,  and  were  sent  off 
in  such  haste  that  many  families  were  separated.  This  event 
has  furnished  the  subject  of  Evangeline,  one  of  Longfellow's 
most  admired  poems. 

Aoajiit'la :  a  town  and  seaport  in  the  Central  American 
republic  of  Salvador;  situated  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  13  miles 
S.  of  Sonsonate  (see  map  of  Central  America,  ref.  5-E).  It 
consists,  besides  the  custom-house  and  the  dwelling  of  the 
captain  of  the  port,  of  a  large  warehouse,  almost  entirely  in 
ruins  at  present,  and  a  lew  huts  and  sheds.  Under  the 
Spanish  rule  it  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  port  on  the 
west  coast  between  Acapulco  and  Realejo ;  at  present  it  is 
second  in  im|iortance  in  Salvador,  and  has  over  one-third 
of  the  foreign  trade  of  this  republic.  The  chief  article  of 
exyjort  here  is  Peruvian  balsam,  of  which  20,000  lb.  are  an- 
nually exported. 

Afalepir*,  or  Acaleplis  [Gr.  a.Ka\T,<prt,  a  nettle]  :  a 
group  (if  tile  r«'/('H/('/v//f(,  equivalent  to  the  sub-class  Scy- 
phomedusce  ;  containing  the  marine  animals  commonly 
known  as  jelLyfishes  or  sea-nettles.  They  are  umbrella- 
shaped  animals  with  radiate  structure,  and  are  composed 
of  soft,  transparent,  gelatinous  material,  containing  only  a 
very  small  proportion  of  solid  matter.  On  bright  days  they 
are  found  in  great  numbers  floating  near  the  surface  along 
nearly  all  shores,  propelling  themselves  slowly  through  the 
water  by  contractions  of  their  umbrellas.  Suspended  from 
the  center  of  the  disk  is  the  peduncle  or  manubrium,  the 
lower  margin  of  which  is  commonly  produced  into  four 
large  arms,  which  serve  pre-eminently  for  the  capture  of 
food.  These  are  often  lobed  and  fringed,  and  produced  into 
long,  trailing  streamers.  The  mouth  is  typically  at  the  end 
of  the  manubrium,  and  communicates  by  an  oesophagus  with 
the  stomach,  placed  centrally  near  the  lower  surface  of  the 
disk.  Prolongations  of  the  stomach,  often  forming  a  fine 
network  of  tubes,  extend  outward  to  the  margin  of  the  um- 
brella, to  which  they  carry  nourishment.  The  gastric  cavity 
contains  contractile  tentacles,  which  secrete  a  digestive  fluid. 
In  common  with  the  oral  arms  and  other  tentacles  of  the 
body,  these  arc  richly  proviiled  with  stinging  or  nettle  cells, 
which  emible  the.se  animals,  in  spite  of  their  soft,  delicate 
texture,  to  capture  living  prey.  A  nettle-eell  consists  of  a 
small  capsnl(!  filled  with  a  poisonous  or  irritating  fluid,  and 
contains  a  S[iirally  coiled  filament  ju-ovided  with  retrorse 
barbs.  On  touching  a  foreign  body  the  filaments  are  for- 
oiVjly  ejected,  and  pierce  the  outer  t  issues  of  the  prey,  carrying 
with  Uiem  some  of  the  fluid  contents  of  the  cap.sule.  The 
margin  of  the  disk  is  divided  into  a  number  of  lobes,  in  the 


recesses  between  which  are  the  marginal  sense  bodies,  the 
rhopalia.  Each  of  these  consists  of  a  shortened  modified 
tentacle,  covered  over  by  a  lobe  of  the  disk,  and  has  devel- 
oped in  connection  with  it  the  organs  of  special  sense.  Eye 
specks,  auditory  sacs,  and  olfactory  grooves  have  been  de- 
scribed. At  the  base  of  the  marginal  bodies  arc  nerve-gan- 
glia, representing  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system.  These 
are  connected,  on  the  one 
hand,  with  the  sense  organs  ; 
on  the  other,  with  a  network 
of  nerve-fibers  which  ramify 
over  the  sheet  of  muscular 
tissue  covering  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  umbrella.  The 
four  genital  glands  occujiy 
special  cavities  in  the  um- 
brella near  the  base  of  the 
manubrium.  Their  contents 
can  usually  be  detected  by 
their  brighter  coloration. 
The  sexes  are  usually  sepa- 
rate. The  development  is 
complicated  through  the  al- 
ternation of  sexual  with  asex- 
ual forms.  (.See  Alterna- 
tion OF  Generations.)  The 
egg  develops  into  a  small 
ciliated  larva,  which,  after 
swimming  about  freely  for  a 
time,  attaches  itself  by  one 
end  and  assumes  a  polyji- 
like  form.  It  is  then  known 
as  the  Scyphistoma.  This 
reproduces  asexually  by  a 
process  of  repeated  trans- 
verse division,  giving  rise  to 
a  series  of  saucer-shaped  in- 
dividuals, which  remain  con- 
nected to  form  a  cone  at- 
tached by  its  smaller  end, 
and  called  the  SIrobila.  Tlie 
individuals  thus  formed  sep- 
arate later,  become  free 
swimming,  and  assume  grad- 
ually the  characters  of  the 
sexually  mature  jellyfish.  In  exceptional  cases  only  is  the 
development  direct  from  the  egg  to  the  mature  jellyfish. 
The  acalephs  are  all  more  or  less  |)liospliorescent.  The  term 
acaleph  has  been  variously  used  by  different  zoologists, 
sometimes  in  a  wider  or  narrower  sense,  and  has  now  been 
generally  abandoned  as  the  scientific  name  of  any  group  of 
animals.    See  Scyphozoa.  Chas.  H.  GIilbert. 

A('aiitha'ce» :  the  Ac\xthus  Family  (g.i:). 

Acailthas'pis  [Gr.  Srai-eo.  thorn  +  aairls,  shield]:  a  genus 
of  buckler-headed  fishes  found  fossil  in  the  corniferous 
limestone  of  Ohio.  It  somewhat  resembles  Cephalaspis,  the 
buckler  or  carapace  bearing  similar  denticulated  spines,  but 
the  plates  on  the  head  are  covered  with  a  peculiar  vermicular 
ornamentation,  and  are  not  soldered  together. 

Aean'thoplils  [Gr.  ixavBa,  thorn  +  o<fis,  a  serpent] :  a 
genus  of  venomous  serpents  allied  to  the  viper,  found  in 
Australia.  They  have  a  horny  spine  at  the  cud  of  the  tail. 
The  genus  includi'S  the  dreaded  dcath-ailder,  Arnntlwphis 
anlarctica,  one  of  the  most  venomous  of  known  reptiles. 

Acaiitliopteryg'ians.  or  Acaiithopterygii  [Gr.  StKauea, 
thorn  +  TTTepov,  wing]:  the  order  of  spiny-rayed  bony  fishes 
in  the  system  of  Cuvier.  This  order  includes  those  fishes  in 
which  the  anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  nor- 
mally formed  by  boiiy  spines.  There  is  usually  a  spine  in 
each  ventral  fin.  The  perch,  bass,  mackerel,  etc.,  are  ex- 
amples. This  is  the  largest  order  of  fishes,  comprising  in 
general  the  most  specialized  forms. 

Acaiitlnir'idaj  [literally  the  thorn-tailed  family:  from 
Gr.  ttracea,  thorn  +  oupi.  tail]:  the  lancet-fishes  or  sur- 
geon-fishes; a  family  of  spiny-rayed  fishes  abounding  in 
the  tropical  seas,  anil  especially  noted  for  the  presence  of  a 
spine  on  each  side  of  the  tail  at  the  base  of  the  fin.  In  the 
typical  species  this  spine  is  veiy  sliaqi,  movable,  and  shuts 
forward  into  a  groove  when  not  in  use.  It  is  sharp  as  a 
knife,  and  has  suggested  for  these  fishes  various  names,  re- 
calling a  surgeon's  lancet.     See  Tevthidid.e. 


m 


An  acaleph. 


ACANTHUS 


ACCELERATOR 


21 


Acan'thns  (rir.  SKovflos):  a  Rt-nus  of  horbanpous  plants, 
natives  of  Southern  Europe,  belonging  to  the  family  >4ca7i- 
thaceo'.  The  most  reTnaikal)lc 
species  of  this  genus  are  the 
Acanllius  mollii  and  the  Acrtii- 
Ihiis  spiHOtits,  wliich  have  lai^e 
white  tloweis  anil  shininu:  leaves 
of  a  beautiful  form.  The  leaf- 
age of  the  Corinthian  and  Corn- 


Natural  form  of  tlie  leaf. 


Leaves  artistically  modified. 


posite  Orders  (q.  v.),  and  of  a  great  deal  of  Byzantine  and 

other  modian-al  architecture,  is  generally  considered  a  study 
of  the  aeantluis. 

Acanthus  Family  (Acanthnceo') :  mostly  herbaceous  flow- 
ering plants,  with  gamopetalous  corollas  and  superior  com- 
pound ovaries.  They  are  related  to  the  bignonias,  liladder- 
worts,  figworts,  etc.  There  arc  1,350  species,  mostly  in  warm 
climates. 

A  Cappel'la,  in  music,  in  chapel  (or  church)  style.  This 
isfre(juently  undiTstood  by  moilern  musicians  as  signifying  a 
vocal  composition  witlioiit  acco»i/>ani»ii')it.nAtheenv\y  c\niri;h 
compositions  were  unaccompanied.  When  accompaniment 
is  em[)loyed  with  a  riip/iella  pieces,  the  word  denotes  that 
the  instruments  are  simply  to  play  in  unison  with  the  voices, 
not  a  separate  part  of  their  own.  The  phrase  is  Italian,  and 
is  sometimes  written  alia  cappella.  Dudley  Buck. 

Acapul'fo :  a  seaport-town  of  Mexico ;  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  in  the  state  of  Guerrero,  190  miles  S.  S.  \V.  of 
Mexico;  lat.  16'  .10'  N.,  Ion.  09°  .W  W.  (see  map  of  Mexico, 
ref.  !)-U).  The  harbor  is  nearly  landlocked,  and  is  one  of 
the  best  in  the  worhl.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthful. 
It  formerly  couiuianded  the  whole  trade  between  the  Span- 
ish douiinious  in  America  and  those  in  the  East  Indies. 
Since  the  discovery  of  the  California  gold  mines  it  has  again 
become  one  of  the  most  important  ports  of  Mexico.  The 
harbor  is  so  deep  tliat  large  ships  can  anchor  close  to  the 
granite  rocks.  The  steamers  which  ply  between  Panama 
and  San  Francisco  touch  here  regularly.  The  greater  part 
of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  an  cartlupiake  in  1853.  Pop. 
about  3.001). 

Acari'na  :  the  mites,  an  order  of  small  insects  belonging 
to  the  class  Arachnida.  and  containing  the  mites,  ticks,  etc. 
Some  of  them  feed  on  animal,  others  on  vegetable  sub- 
stances, and  many  of  the  l.itter  are  very  injurious  to  vegeta- 
tion. Some  of  t'hem  are  free  and  lead  a  wandering  life, 
while  others  are  pariusitic,  living  on  other  animals.  Those 
of  the  former  cla-ss  have  their  mouths  furnislied  with  distinct 
mandibles,  and  are  often  found  in  great  numbers  in  old 
cheese,  brown  sugar,  and  dried  fruit,  and  in  the  cabinets  of 
entomologists.  One  of  \\w  most  destructive  of  tlu'se  is  the 
Acarus  defifniclur.  Those  of  the  lat  I  er  class  possess  a  sucker, 
by  which  they  adhere  to  the  skins  of  animals,  where  they 
are  supplied  with  nourishment.  A  few  species  of  the  ylcn- 
ridm  are  aipiatic,  and  have  their  legs  furnished  with  hairs, 
by  means  of  which  they  swim  with  facility.  The  Acaridtc 
are  propagated  by  eggs,  and  are  extremely  prolific.  When 
mature  they  have  eight  legs,  the  young  or  imperfectly  de- 
veloped animals  having  only  six. 

"  Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

Acariia'nia :  a  district  of  ancient  Greece ;  bounded  N.  by 
the  Ambracian  Gulf,  E.  by  the  river  Achelous,  and  S.  and 
W.  by  tlie  Ionian  Sea.  .\ceording  to  tradition,  it  was  named 
from'.Vcarnan.  the  son  of  Alcnueon.  It  is  riioslly  occupied 
by  well-wooded  hills  or  mountains.  Acarnania  and  ^Etolia 
constitute  a  nomarchv  or  province  of  modern  Greece,  with 
an  area  of  li.Oi:!  .sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1889)  !r>2,0'.iO. 

Ac'arns  [a  modern  latinization  of  Gr.  Suapi,  mitc;o-,  not 
+  Kffpeii',  cutl:  a  geinisof  minute  animals,  including  the  com- 
mon mite  found  in  figs  and  other  dry  provisions  (the  Acarua 
domesticun),  and  many  other  species.  (See  Acaki.na.)  The 
itch  is  caused  by  a  sriiall  mite  which  burrows  into  the  skin 
(the  Snrroptes  .scnbiei). 


Accad  (or  Alikad) :  according  to  the  Old  Testament,  the 
name  of  one  of  the  four  cities  which  formed  the  beginning 
of  the  kingdom  of'Nimrod.  in  the  land  of  Shinar((ien.  x.  10). 
The  cuneiform  literature  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley  is  the 
source  of  all  further  information  regarding  it.  From  this 
source  we  learn  that  .\cead  was  the  royal  residence  of  Sargon 
1.,  the  oldest  King  of  liabylonia  yet  known  to  history.  Ac- 
conling  to  Xabonidus,  tlie  last  Semitic  King  of  Babylon 
(555-5;i7  B.  c),  Sargon  ruled  3,250  years  before  his  time — 
i.e.  about  3800  ii.  r.  Tlie  literary  characler  of  this  ancient 
king  gave  to  the  city  its  gre.at  lame.  Its  chief  deity  wa.s  the 
goddess  Anunit  or  I'shtar,  to  whom  an  old  Babylonian  king, 
Sagaraklijash,  built  the  principal  temple  within  its  walls. 
It  is  mentioned  all  the  way  down  through  Babylonian  his- 
tory, even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Cyrus,  uniler  the  name 
Ag'ade.  Its  present  site  has  been  a  matter  of  much  con- 
jecture, but  was  apparently  identified  by  the  Wolfe  expedi- 
tion to  Babvlonia  in  ls,S4-85  (Ri-porl',  pp.  24,  25)  in  the 
mound  Anh'itr.i.i\\  the  Euphrates,  almost  due  W.  of  Bagdad 
and  X.  W.  of  the  ruins  of  Babylon. 

Accad  also  designated  a  particular  section  of  the  country 
of  Babylonia.  The  oldest  kings  of  Babylonia,  and  the  kings 
of  Assyria  who  con(|uered  and  ruled  this  territory,  almost 
uniforinly  attached  to  their  names  "King  of  Suiner  and 
Accad"  or  "King  of  the  land  of  Sumer  and  of  Accad." 
These  two  names  were  the  venerated  ancestral  <lesignations 
of  the  territory  which  was  later  termed  "  Babylonia." 

Sumer  indii'ated  lower  Haliyloni;i.  stretching  from  its  ex- 
treme southern  limits  as  far  N.  at  least  as  Mugheir,  the 
ancient  Ur  of  tlie  Chaldees.  Accad  wiis  the  name  of  upper 
Babylonia,  reaching  from  its  northern  boundary  near  the 
lower  Zab  river  southwanl  as  f,ar  as  an<l  including  at  least 
Erech  (Warka).  It  probably  derived  its  name  from  its  chief 
city,  Accad,  and  included  within  its  territory  the  four  great 
cities  of  Gen.  x.  10.  At  present  there  are  no  data  for  deter- 
mining its  cxac't  southern  boundary,  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Accad  and  Sumer.  Upon  these  two  names  an;  built 
the  designations  Accadian  and  Sumerian.  which  are  applied 
by  some  scholars  to  hypothetical  dialects  discovered  in  the 
original  (Semitic)  language  of  Babylonia.      Ika  M.  Prick. 

Ac'oa  Laiircn'tia :  a  woman  to  whose  grave  the  ancient 
Romans  lirought  .sacrifices  on  the  occasion  of  a  festival,  on 
the  tenth  day  before  the  calends  of  January.  According  to 
a  Roman  legend,  she  married  the  rich  Tarrutius,  and  upon 
her  death  left  her  whole  property  to  the  Roman  people; 
while,  according  to  another  legend,  she  was  the  nurse  and 
foster-mother  of  Romulus  and  Heinu.s. 

Aeeelerando :  in  nuisic,  with  gradually  increasing  veloc- 
ity of  movement. 

Accplera'tion  [Lat.  accelera'iio;  arf,  to,  more  -I-  eehra're, 
hasten] :  the  rate  of  change  of  the  velocity  of  a  moving 
body,  such  as  takes  place  when  the  body  is  falling  under  the 
influence  of  gravity.  It  is  measured  by  the  increment  of 
the  velocity  in  a  unit  of  time. 

Acceleration  nf  (/rnvity  is  the  amount  of  acceleration 
which  is  produced  liv  the  action  of  gravity  on  a  body  falling 
in  a  vacuum.  It  is 'independent  of  the  nature  or  chemical 
constitution  of  the  body.  It  is  approxinuitely  32  feet  per 
second ;  that  is  to  sav,  if  a  body  be  allowed  to  droi)  from  a 
state  of  rest  in  a  vacuum  for  the  period  of  exactly  one  sec- 
ond, it  will,  at  the  end  of  the  second,  be  falling  with  a  veloc- 
ity of  32  feet  per  second.  The  acceleration,  however,  in- 
creases from  the  ecjuator  toward  the  poles.  At  the  sea- 
level  it  is  expressed  in  nu'ters  by  the  formula 
q  =  9-80(;(IO  —  0-02503  cos  •i(p, 
tp  being  the  latitude  of  the  place.     See  Pallino  Bodiks. 

AcceUralion  of  the  Moon  s  Mean  Motion.— U  is  found,  by 
the  comparison  of  ancient  eclipses  with  modern  observa- 
tions, that  the  moon  now  moves  around  the  earth  somewhat 
faster  than  it  did  two  thousand  years  ago.  This  acceleration 
was  found  by  Laplace  to  arise  from  the  secular  diminution 
of  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit.  Its  amount  is  such 
that  at  the  end  of  a  century  the  moon  is  about  eight  seconds 
farther  ailvaneed  in  her  orbit  than  she  would  have  been  ha<l 
she  continued  with  the  uniform  motion  wfiich  she  had  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century.  S.  N. 

Accel'erator ;  (1)  in  anatomy,  a  certain  mu.scle  that  ex- 
pedites the  discharge  of  urine.  (3)  In  photography,  any- 
thing, as  a  chemical  substance,  used  to  shorten  the  necessary 
time'" of  exposure  of  a  sensitized  plate  or  paper;  also,  any 
chemical  ad<led  to  the  developing  fluid  to  hasten  its  action. 
(3)  A  cannon,  often  called  accelerating-gun,  having  supple- 
mentary powder-chambers  the  charges  of  which  are  intended 


22 


ACCENT 


ACCESSION 


to  explode  in  succession  after  the  firing  of  tlie  main  cliargo, 
to  accelerate  the  velocity  of  the  projectile. 

Ac'cent :  The  Latin  accen'tus  (ad,  to  +  can' ere,  sing)  from 
■which  this  is  derived  is  merely  a  translation,  like  most  otlier 
Latin  grammatical  terms,  of  the  Greek  term  xpoo-ifiSia  (irp/is. 
afiSw),  which  was  used  by  the  Greek  grammarians  to  in- 
clude all  the  written  signs  added  to  the  letters  to  guide  pro- 
nunciation— thus  the  marks  of  long  and  short  quantity, 
the  rougli  and  smooth  breathings,  the  apostrophe,  hyplien, 
and  hypodiastole,  as  well  as  the  three  accents  proper.  The 
modern  use  of  the  term  includes  a  variety  of  distinct  mean- 
ings :  (ff)  The  accent  marks  for  acute  (  '  ),  grave  (  v  ).  circum- 
flex (/v),  as  used,  e.g.,  in  Greek  and  French.  In  the  former 
they  denoted  a  variety  of  musical  pitch  accompanied,  as 
can  now  be  proved,  by  a  distinction  also  of  stress ;  in  the 
latter  they  indicate  only  a  variety  of  vowel  quality,  and 
tliat  now  often  only  of  liistorical  value.  Sometimes  these 
niiirks  have  a  merely  diacritical  value,  as  in  English  learned, 
(b)  A  peculiar  coloring  of  the  pronunciation  in  the  dialect 
of  an  individual  or  locality;  brogue,  (c)  The  increased 
stress  of  voice  upon  certain  "syllables  either  of  woi-ds  in  or- 
dinary pronunciation,  or  of  a  verse  in  metrical  rendering,  or 
of  the  measures  in  music. 

The  word-accent  is  that  element  of  enunciation  which 
gives  individuality  to  the  separate  word.  Wlien  a  word 
loses  its  individuality  and  merges  itself  under  the  accent  of 
another  word  we  call  it  an  enclitic  or  proclitic;  thus  in 
English  dont,  Greek  K6yoi  tis.  The  Greek  word-accent  re- 
flects in  its  general  outlines  the  "  free  "  accent  of  the  jiarent 
Indo-European  speech,  and  though  it  is  restricted  to  tlie 
last  three  syllables  of  tlie  word,  as  in  Latin,  it  may  in  differ- 
ent words  fall  upon  any  one  of  these,  as  in  the  nouns  nivSvms. 
ixii/os,  irapBhos.  eKvp6s.  Tlie  essential  antiquity  of  tliese  \a- 
riatious  is  guaranteed,  liowever,  by  the  many  striking  cor- 
respondences with  t!ie  Sanskrit  accent:  thus. irous. iroSdj.  WSa : 
pAd.  padds,  piiddin  :  jrtVTf.  pdrira  ;  oktm.  0.5/(1;  e'-ytoj',  ahum  ; 
ytvos.  jditds ;  $aT6s,  r/a/d-s :  8w5€ko.  ilrddaya,  etc.  This  word- 
accent  persists  in  modern  Greek  as  a  peculiarly  strong  stress 
accent  in  general  upon  tlie  samc^  syllable  where  it  was  writ- 
ten in  ancient  Greek.  In  the  Romanee  languages  the  stress 
is  generally  upon  the  syllable  which  had  it  in  the  parent 
Ijatin.  thougli  in  French  the  distribution  of  the  stress 
throughout  whole  breath-groups  of  words  and  complica- 
tion with  the  musical  or  pitch  accent  often  make  it  very 
ilitUcult  to  locate  the  stress.  The  pro-ethnic  Germanic 
speech  developed  the  special  law  of  accenting  the  initial 
syllable,  except  in  compound  verbs,  where  the  prefix  was 
unaccented.  Traces  of  this  exception  survive  in  the  vocal- 
ism  as  well  as  accent  in  modern  German  :  cf.  ur'theil,  t.rtltei'- 
len,  ant' wort,  entspreeh' en.  Loan-words  often  show  a  for- 
eign accent;  thus,  Offizier'.  Sai.wn',  Concert'.  Qualitdf  ;  so 
loan-elements,  studier'en,  Druckerei'.  The  English  accent, 
while  tending  to  confirm  the  Germanic  rule,  still  shows  in  its 
variety,  and  sometimes  also  in  its  uncertainty,  how  imper- 
fectly the  language  has  as  yet  assimilated  the  diverse  mate- 
rials it  has  employed.  Thus  French  accents  survive  in  cava- 
lier', engineer' ,  dei^o/ee'.  haUoon  ,  viiil in' .gazette' ,  pi cturescpii'' , 
difitresn' ,  affair',  complete',  e.iress'.  etc.  Early  English  writers 
used  also  prison',  forest',  labour',  battaile.  langage'.  etc. 
Other  Romance  accentuations  survive  in  .sonata,  miila'tto, 
tobacco,  volca'no.  etc.  Latin  accentuation  persists  in  di- 
plo'ma,  diagno'.iif,  dictator,  spectator,  lyce'um,  Septeni'her, 
etc.  The  ac'cent  orteii  serves  to  distinguish  words  :  torment 
(noun),  torme'nt  (virb);  cf.  miiiiile.  frequent,  compact,  r.c- 
pert.  Derivatives  are  often  influenced  by  their  )iriiiiitives; 
as,  agree'able  (agree'),  diri'ner  (divine,'),  withdraw' al  {witli- 
draw'),  reli'able  (rely'),  etc.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Accent:  in  music,  a  stress  or  emphasis  given  to  certain 
notes  or  parts  of  a  bar  in  a  composition.  It  is  analogous  to 
the  accent  upon  certain  syllables  of  words  in  pronuiuiation 
or  the  reading  of  verse.  It  is  dividiid  into  two  kinds — 
grammatical,  and  a'slhetic  or  oratorical.  'I'he  first  kind  of 
accent  is  nearly  always  regular  in  its  occurrence,  falling 
upon  the  first  n.ote  of  the  bar.  When  this  is  not  the  case,  it 
should  lie  clearly  indicated.  Long  measures  of  time  have 
in  addition  a  secondary  accent,  just  as  in  the  case  of  a  long 
word.  As  a  general  rule,  the  grammatical  accent  should 
not  be  unduly  emphasized,  but  marked  only  so  as  to  har- 
monize with  the  rhythm.  The  a'.sthetic  accent  is  irregular, 
and,  a-s  the  name  implies,  depends  upon  taste  and  feeling, 
just  as  do  the  accent  and  einpha.sis  made  use  of  by  the  ora- 
tor. In  vocal  iiiusic.  it  should  correspond  with  the  accented 
syllables  of  words. 


I      Acceii'tor  [Lat.  the  warbler] :   a  genus  of  warblers,  in- 
cluding the  hedge-warbler  (Accentor  modularis),  a  familiar 


and  abundant  European  bird,  brown  above,  steel  colored  be- 
neath. Its  song  is  fine,  but  short.  The  Accentor  alpinus 
of  the  Alps  is  a  larger  bird. 

Accentiiiv'tion  :  in  ecclesiastical  music,  the  pitch  and 
modulation  of  the  voice.  A  threefold  division  is  usual — (1) 
simple,  (2)  moderate,  or  (3)  strong.  Some  writers  in  applying 
the  term  to  chanting  reckon  seven  forms  of  modulation  in 
the  portions  of  the  service  sung  by  the  officiating  priest  and 
his  assistants,  viz. :  the  immutable,  medium,  grave,  acute, 
moderate,  interrogative,  final. 

Accep'taiioe :  an  engagement  to  pay  a  bill  of  exchange 
at  maturity,  or  the  bill  itself  after  it  has  been  "  accepted," 
by  writing  the  word  "accepted"  across  its  face,  with  the 
date  on  which  it  is  payable  and  the  name  of  the  acceptor. 
See  Bill  of  Exchanoe. 

Accpp'taiits,  or  Constitii'tiouist.'s:  a  nmne  given  in 
1713  to  the  Jesuits  in  France  who  accepted  the  constitution 
or  bull  Unigenitus  issued  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  The  Jan- 
senists,  who  rejected  the  (lope's  bull,  were  called  Appellants 
or  Recusants,  and  appealed  to  a  general  council.  They  were 
imprisoned  and  persecuted,  but  after  the  death  of  Louis 
XIV..  the  Regent,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  prevailed  on  the 
greater  part  of  the  recusant  bishops  to  accept  the  bull,  with 
certain  modifications.  The  Appellants  continued  their  re- 
sistance after  the  Unigenitus  became  national  law  (17B0). 

Ac'cessary  or  Ac'cessory  [Late  Lat.  accesso'rius,  adj. 
The  form  in'-(«7/  is  properly  adjce.,  that  in  -ary  subst.,  the 
latter  being  formed  after  the  type  of  nouns  like  adversary, 
emissary,  liat.  -ariiis]:  in  criminal  law  u  participant  in  a 
felony  who  is  not  the  chief  actor,  and  is  not  present  at  its 
cominission.  but,  yet  in  some  way  is  connected  with  it.  either 
before  or  after  the  fact  (or  act  committed).  An  accessary 
before  the  fact  is  one  wlio.  though  not  present,  procures, 
counsels,  or  commands  another  to  commit  it.  An  accessary 
after  the  fact  is  one  who.  knowing  a  felony  to  have  been 
committed,  receives,  relieves,  comforts,  or  assists  the  felon. 

In  offenses  bi'low  the  grade  of  felony  there  are  no  acces- 
saries. All  iiiiplicnti  il  are  regarded  as  principals.  By  the 
common  law  of  England  the  same  rule  is  applied  to  the  case 
of  treason.  In  manslaughter,  as  defined  by  common  law, 
there  can  be  no  accessary  before  the  fact. 

Acces'sion  [Ijatacces'sio.  a  going  to:  ad.  to  +  ce'dere, go]: 
in  law.  a  species  of  title  to  property  borrowed  from  the  civil 
(or  Roman)  law.  and  defined  to  be  the  right  to  all  which 
one's  own  propi'rty  produces,  whether  that  projierty  be  mov- 
able or  innnovable.  and  the  right  to  that  which  is  united  to 
it  by  accession,  cither  naturally  or  artificially.  By  this  prin- 
ciple the  increase  of  an  animal  belongs  to  its  owner,  or  a 
building  becomes  the  property  of  the  man  on  whose  soil  it  is 
erected.  An  important  instiince  of  the  application  of  this 
doctrine  is  founil  in  the  manufacture  by  one  person  of  ma- 
terials belonging  to  another.  The  property  in  its  manufac- 
tured state  belongs,  in  general,  to  the  owner  of  the  materials. 
A  leading  exception  to  the  principle  is  that  it  the  manufac- 
turer, acting  in   good   faith,  without   the  consent   of  the 


ACCESSORY 


ACCIDENT-INSURANCE 


23 


owner,  changes  the  identity  of  the  materials,  as  if  he  con- 
verts grapes  into  wine,  or  grain  into  whisky,  he  will  become 
the  owner  of  the  maimfaeliireii  article.  This  rule  would  not 
be  applied  in  favor  of  a  willfxd  wrongiloer.  The  word  "  ac- 
cession "  is  also  used  to  indicate  the  tact  of  succession  in 
government,  such  as  the  "  accession  "  of  a  new  dynasty  in 
monarchies,  as  in  the  case  of  the  House  of  Hanover  in  Eng- 
hmd.  T.  W.  DwiuiiT. 

Accessory,  or  Accessary  :  in  painting,  anrthing  intro- 
duced into  a  picture  that  is  not  an  essential  part.  In  an  his- 
torical painting  the  human  or  animated  figures  are  the  prin- 
cipal objects,  and  all  the  others  are  accessories. 

Ac'ciilons, or  Pit  Aceideiis  (i.e.  by  accident):  a  Latin 
[ihrase  used  by  the  older  philosophers  to  denote  an  eftect  not 
following  from  the  nature  or  essence  of  the  thing,  but  from 
some  accidental  quality.  It  is  opposed  to  per  «e :  thus,  tire 
burns  ptr  se ;  heated  iron  burns  per  accideiis. 

Ac'cidcnt  [Lat.  acctdenx,  happening ;  ad,  to  +  ca'dere, 
f.ill|:  in  logic,  one  of  tlie  predicablcs;  in  its  strictest  logical 
sense  it  is  that  which  may  be  absent  from  or  present  in  the 
sul)ject,  the  essence  of  the  species  to  which  the  subject  be- 
longs renuiiniug  the  same.  Thus  if  it  be  pre<licated  of  a 
mati  that  he  is  "  walking.'"  or  that  he  is  "  a  luitive  of  Paris," 
the  first  expresses  what  is  termed  a  separable  accident,  the 
latter  an  inseparable;  i.  e.  the  individual  may  cease  to  walk, 
but  can  not  cease  to  be  a  native  of  Paris,  but  neither  of 
these  alters  the  species,  man.  to  which  the  individual  be- 
longs. It  is  to  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  accident,  as 
well  as  the  other  predicablcs,  that  they  exist  only  relatively 
to  each  other,  .so  that  the  same  quality  may  be  accidental 
when  predicated  of  the  species  which  is  a  property  when 
predicated  of  the  individual.  Thus  "  malleability"  is  an  ac- 
cident of  the  subject  "  metal,"  because  nuiny  metals  are  not 
nudleable.  But  it  is  one  of  the  properties  of  gold  and  iron, 
etc.,  iis  distinguishing  these  from  the  non-malleable  metids. 

Accident:  in  equity  jurisprudence,  such  an  unforeseen 
event,  misfortune,  loss.  act.  or  omission  a.s  is  not  the  result 
of  any  negligence  or  misconduct  in  a  party.  It  is,  however, 
difficult  to  bring  all  the  cases  in  which  the  court  assumes 
jurisdiction  within  the  bounds  of  a  definition.  Some  of  the 
leading  cases  of  interference  by  the  court  are — 1.  Where  ne- 
gotiable or  other  instruments  have  been  lost,  and  there  is  no 
adequate  remedy  in  a  court  of  law.  2.  Where  a  clause  has 
been  ina<lvcrtently  omitted  from  or  inserted  in  an  instru- 
ment. The  (-ourt  in  such  a  case  nuikes  the  instrument  con- 
form to  the  intent  of  the  parties.  3.  Penalties  and  for- 
feitures. In  this  class  of  cases  the  court  relieves  against  the 
peiuilty  or  forfeiture  wlieie  the  injury  occasioned  by  the 
iireach  of  duty  is  susceptible  of  complete  compensation,  as 
in  the  case  of  an  omission  to  pay  rent  on  an  appointed  day. 
There  woidd  be  no  relief  in  case  of  a  willful  wrong,  nor 
where  the  forfeiture  is  in  the  nature  of  a  statutory  remedy 
for  a  breach  of  duty.  4.  Cases  of  omission,  through  inad- 
vertence or  want  of  knowledge  of  facts,  to  defend  an  action. 
The  court  has  power  to  allow  the  necessary  steps  still  to  be 
taken.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  the  court  will  not  interfere 
in  favor  of  a  mere  volunteer,  such  as  a  donee  or  devisee  in  a 
will.  Thus  if  a  .seal  were  accidentally  omitted  from  a  con- 
veyance made  without  consideration,  or  a  clau.se  were 
omitted  from  a  will,  there  would  be  no  relief.  It  is  a  further 
rule  that  relief  will  not  be  granted  as  against  a  purchaser 
who  has  acquired  legal  rights  in  good  faith  and  for  a  valu- 
able consideration.  Revised  by  Hknry  Wade  Kooeks. 

Accidental  Cnliirs:  See  Colors,  Accidental. 

Aecideiit-lnsiiniiice:  that  form  of  insurance  which  pro- 
vides indi'mnity  foi-  loss  of  life,  liudi,  sight,  or  timi%  as  a  re- 
sult of  accidental  injury  to  the  body  of  the  insured. 

Earlv  History. — Contracts  to  indemnify  for  loss  of  life 
at  sea  or  of  limb  or  sight  in  war  ajipear  to  have  been  nuide 
•x-casionally  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  but  the  jiresent 
form  of  accident-insurance  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
iiineleenlh  century.  The  first  company  to  furnish  it  was 
projected  in  Great  Britain  in  1845.  Up  to  1851  no  fewer 
than  thirteen  companies  were  projected  in  that  country,  but 
only  two  actually  completed  orgaiuzation  aufl  took  the  neces- 
sary legal  steps  to  begin  busines-s.  viz. :  T/ic  /ifiilirai/  Ptis- 
sengers  AKsiirniire  Compani/,  organized  in  1848.  and  The 
Accidental  Death  Iiixtiranre  Cmnpnni/,  which  began  business 
in  January,  1850.  The  former  issued  a  policy  which  for  £1 
annually  provided  indemnity  of  £1,000  for  "fatal  injury  re- 
ceived on  a  railway  train  in  motion  while  traveling  as  pas- 
senger thereon,  with   pro])ortionate  amount   for  similarly 


received  non-fatal  injuries.  The  original  intention  of  the 
founders  of  the  latter  was  to  offer  a  general  policy  of  insur- 
ance against  fatal  accidents  only,  but  during  the  first  year 
of  its  existence  the  scope  of  its  insurance  was  enlarged  to 
include  indemnity  for  non-fatal  accidents. 

During  the  next  six  years  several  new  companies  were 
organized,  some  to  afford  general  accident  insurance  on  the 
same  lines  as  the  Accidental  Death  Insurance  Company, 
others  to  insure  only  special  classes,  or  against  special  haz- 
ards. Among  these  corapaidcs  wide  variations  existed  as  to 
classification  of  risks  and  rates;  for  though  the  fact  that 
individuals  of  various  occupations  are  exposed  to  varying 
hazards  had  tiecn  recognized  by  all.  and  an  attempt  ha<l  been 
made  to  fix  the  rates  for  each  class,  yet  the  statistics  neces-- 
sary  for  classifying  risks  and  determining  rates  were  not  in 
existence,  aiul  it  was  only  in  1857  that  a  careful  classification 
was  made,  ba-sed  ujxiii  a  large  number  of  risks  and  several 
years'  experience,  and  such  restrictions  and  safeguards  as  ex- 
perience had  shown  to  be  necessary  were  added  to  the  |)olicy. 

Ix  TUE  UxiTEi)  SiATES. — The  first  accident  conqiany  in 
the  IT.  S..  the  Trarelei;s  Insurance  Compani/,  was  organized 
in  18G3.  witli  .James  (i.  liatterscju  as  president,  who  had  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  business  as  conducted  in  Great  Britain, 
and  who  followed  in  general  the  rates,  classification,  and 
form  of  ijolicy  of  the  Brit  ish  companies.  The  success  of  the 
company  was  marked,  and  the  profits  very  satisfactory  from 
the  first.  The  policy  provided  ^5,000  in  case  of  accidental 
death  and  $25  a  week  uji  to  twenty-six  weeks  during  dis- 
ability resulting  from  accident.  Many  competitors  entered 
the  field,  but  all  were  either  absorbed  by  it  in  a  short  time 
or  retired  from  business.  In  1877  The  United  Sta fen  Mutual 
Accident  Anfujcialion,  the  first  mutual  or  assessment  acci- 
dent comiiany,  was  forme<l  by  James  K.  Pitcher,  the  origi- 
nator of  this  form  of  insurance.  This  company  writes  a 
policy  for  the  same  amount  as  that  given  by  the  stock  com- 
panies, and  collects  from  its  policy-holders  an  assessment  of 
$2  as  often  as  is  found  necessary  io  p.-iy  claims  and  the  ex- 
penses of  conducting  its  business.  The  growth  of  mutual 
accident-insurance  was  very  rapid,  the  fact  that  the  cost  of 
insurance  is  less  than  in  the  stock  companies  influencing 
many  in  its  favor.  With  a  sufficient  experience  to  determine 
the  amount  required  to  keep  a  policy  in  force,  and  with  the 
gradual  accumulation  of  a  reserve?  or  emergency  fund,  the 
mutual  companies  have  made  the  jieriods  at.  which  their 
payments  fall  due  more  and  more'  regular,  until  with  nearly 
all  of  them  the  amount  to  be  paid  each  year  and  the  time  of 
each  payment  is  as  definitely  understood  by  the  insured  as 
in  the  stock  companies. 

The  Present  Form  of  Accident  Policy. — The  most  coni- 
mou  form  of  accident  policy,  both  in  the  U.  S.  and  in  Great 
Britain,  gives  §5.000  for  death,  loss  of  hand  and  foot,  of  both 
hands  or  both  feet,  or  of  both  eyes;  $2,500  for  permanent 
disabilitv,  loss  of  cither  leg  aljove  the  knt'C.  or  of  right  hand; 
$1,000  i^or  loss  of  left  hand  or  left  leg,  or  either" foot  (but 
varying  slightly  in  dilfiTcnt  com]ianies);  $0.50  for  loss  of  an 
eye;  and  $25  for  weekly  indemnity  in  other  cases  of  iiijin-y 
during  a  disability  of  a  year  or  less. 

The  cost  of  such  a  policy  in  non-hazardous  occupation  is, 
in  the  stock  companies,  about  $25  a  year,  in  the  mutual 
companies  about  $16  a  year.  A  large  number  of  variations 
are  in  use,  such  as  ]iolicics  insuring  only  against  accidents 
occurring  while  traveling,  against  death  only,  providing 
weekly  indemnity  only,  providing  for  a  weekly  payment  to 
the  beneficiary  during  his  life,  and  policies  combining  the 
advantages  of  one  or  more  of  these  forms  with  those  offered 
by  the  ordinary  policy. 

Classes  of  Risks. — Professional  and  business  men  whose 
occupations  expose  them  to  no  unusual  liazard  are  classed  as 
••  preferred  risks,"  and  are  insured  at  the  lowest  rates.  Of 
this  class  each  year  one  out  of  every  twelve  or  thirteen  in- 
sure<l  meets  with  such  injury  as  to  entitle  him  to  indemnity. 
Men  having  ovei'sight  of  mechanical  o])erations  are  charged 
for  their  insurance  50  i)er  cent,  or  100  per  cent,  more  than 
the  preferred  classes.  Men  engaged  in  manual  labor  are 
classified  in  two  or  more  divisions  known  as  hazardous,  pay- 
ing still  higher  rates.  Besides  these,  there  are  a  numbi>r  of 
occupations  so  liazarilous  that  no  accident  company  will 
insure  those  engaged  in  them.  In  determining  the  class  to 
which  those  engaged  in  a  given  o<'cui)ation  should  be  a.s- 
signed,  it  is  nccessjiry  to  ccmsider  not  only  liability  to  acci- 
dent, but  also  how  far  a  trifling  accident  is  likely  to  disable ; 
e.  g.  a  slight  bruise  or  cut  of  the  forefinger  would  in  no  way 
disable  a  salesman,  but  might  prevent  a  working  jeweler  or 
watchmaker  from  pursuing  his  ordinary  occupation. 


24: 


ACCIDENTS 


ACCLIMATIZATION 


What  as  Accident  Policy  Covers. — The  ordinary  acci- 
dent policy  provides  indemnity,  not  for  any  pain,  annoyance, 
or  grief  occasioned  by  an  accident,  but  for  loss  of  time  or 
productive  power  resulting  wholly  and  solely  from  the  acci- 
dent. Bodily  injuries,  falls,  bruises,  broken  bones,  etc.,  pro- 
duced by  violent,  external,  accidental  means,  are  insured 
against,  provided  they  cause  entire  disability  to  carry  on  the 
usual  business  of  the  insured,  or  occasion  loss  of  limb,  sight, 
or  life.  But  such  insurance  does  not  apply  where  disability 
or  death  results  from  disease,  or  from  intentional  injury  in- 
flUcted  by  one's  self  or  by  another  under  provocation  from 
the  insured,  or  from  rash  and  unnecessary  exposure,  or  from 
intoxication. 

Present  Condition  of  Accident-Insurance. — Reports  for 
1891  from  fifty-eight  insurance  companies  show  more  than 
$2,000,000,000  of  insurance  in  force  in  the  U.  S.,  protecting 
more  than  500,000  inilividuals,and  that  more  than  ^4.;ii  10.000 
was  paid  out  in  claims.  In  Great  Britain  the  business  is 
carried  on  by  thirty-four  companies,  several  of  them  doing 
a  large  business ;  but  as  they  are  not  obliged  to  make  reports, 
it  is  impossible  to  give  accurate  figures  as  to  insurance  in 
force  or  claims  paid. 

Accident-insurance  in  Prance  is  represented  by  12  com- 
panies, which  paid  9,;j50,.'J44  francs  in  claims  during  1891 ;  in 
Germany  by  13  companies,  10  of  which  report  claims  paid 
during  the  year  to  the  amount  of  2,634,798  marks.  Of  the 
other  European  countries  Austria  has  3  accident-insurance 
companies;  Belgium,  2;  Italy,  2;  Russia,  2;  Norway,  5; 
Switzerland,  5.  James  R.  Pitcher. 

Accidents  (that  is,  casualties) :  See  Block  System,  for  ac- 
cidents to  railway  trains;  Bridges,  for  failures  of  bridge 
structures;  and  Reservoirs,  for  disasters  caused  by  the 
breaking  of  embankments. 

Accipitres,  ak-sipi-treez  [plur.  of  Lat.  acci'pifer,  a  hawk; 
of  doubtful  etymology,  but  jirolialily  compounded  of  *aci-, 
swift  (cf.  Gr.  axis)  +  pet-,  fly  (cf.  praejies,  -pptis.  of  swift 
flight,  Or.  TreTo/ioi,  fly)] :  the  name  given  by  Linnanis  to  .an 
order  of  carnivorims   birds,   including   the  eagle,  vulture. 


Head  and  foot  of 
the  ospiv^'. 


Head  and  foof,  of  pere- 
grine falcou. 


Head  and  foot  of 
American  spar- 
row-hawk. 


hawk,  and  owl.  Jlore  recent  ornithologists  have  named  this 
order  Rapiores.  This  order  C()ni))rises  all  the  true  birds  of 
prey.  As  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  illustrations, 
the  beaks  and  claws  of  the  Accipitres  are  marvelously  adapt- 
ed, by  their  sharpness  and  curvature,  to  the  predatory  habits 
of  tliese  birds.    See  Raptores. 

Ac'cilis,  Lu'cius  (sometimes  called  Attius):  the  most 
distinguislicd  Latin  tragic  poet ;  son  of  a  freedman ;  b. 
at  Pisauruiu  170,  and  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  perhaps 
as  late  as  86  b.  c.  Cicero,  his  great  admirer,  alone  refers  to 
seventeen  plays,  and  aliout  fifty  titles  of  tragedies  and  700 
verses  are  known  to  us.  Most  famous  were  the  Atreiis, 
Epigoni,  Epinausimache,  and  Philocteta.  He  wrote  also 
two  Pra^texta? — i.  e.  tragedies  based  upon  Roman  histoiy. 
His  Didascalica  treated  in  verse  of  Greek  and  Roman 
poetry,  and  especially  of  tlie  drama.  He  wrote  on  agricul- 
ture a  work  entitled  Praxidica,  and  Annates  in  epic  incas- 
nre.  Aecins  was  also  a  grammarian,  and  proposed  several 
orthographical  reforms.  See  0.  Ribbeck,  Trai/iroruin  lio- 
manorum  Fragmenta  (Leipzig,  1871),  pp.  136-227  and  281- 
28.5.  j\[.  Warren. 

Aceliiniiiiioii  [Lat.  acclamntio,  a  shouting  at ;  ad,  to  or  at 
+  clama'rc.  shciul  1 :  a  shout  or  some  similar  demonstration  of 
approval,  or  the  like;  especially  a  spontaneous  outburst  of 
approbation  or  applause  in  a  public  or  deliberative  assemlily. 
A  motion  or  projiosition  is  adopted  by  acclamation  when 
the  assent  is  so  nearly  unanimous  that  the  counting  of  votes 


is  omitted.    The  different  modes  of  electing  a  pope  are  called 
scrutiny,  acclamation,  and  inspiration. 

AccHma'tion  [from  Fr.  accliinatei-]:  habituation  or  adap- 
tation to  a  climate  different  from  that  to  which  one  is  ac- 
customed. Such  adaptation  is  accompanied  by  a  change  in 
the  organism,  assimilating  it  to  those  of  natives  of  the 
country  which  tlie  acclimatized  person  has  adopted.  Cer- 
tain tropical  climates,  it  wouli.1  appear,  can  never  be  safely 
endured  by  any  native  of  cold  or  temperate  regions.  The 
British  troops  in  Bengal  never  become  truly  acclimated,  but 
the  ill  health  and  mortality  increase  with  the  length  of  stay 
in  that  climate.  The  same  experience  has  been  met  with  in 
West  Africa  and  elsewhere.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French 
island  of  Reunion,  which  is  very  unhealtliy  even  for  planters 
and  merchants  and  most  others,  has  a  healthy  and  hardy 
peasantry  of  French  descent,  whose  immunity  from  disease 
is  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  their  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
stimulants  and  from  all  excesses — an  abstinence  which  is 
enforced  by  their  utter  poverty.  This  important  subject  has 
only  of  late  received  careful  attention. 

Acclimatiza'tion :  the  process  of  becoming  inured  to  a 
climate  at  first  injurious.  In  general,  the  term  is  synony- 
mous with  acclimation,  but  some  writers  restrict  the  appli- 
cation of  the  latter  term  to  man,  and  others  use  it  to  dis- 
tinguish the  spontaneous  process  of  adaptation  to  climate, 
and  use  acclimatization  to  denote  the  act  of  man  in  aiding 
the  process  by  transferring  and  selecting  the  species  and 
varieties.  In  scientific  discussions  the  word  acclimatization 
is  now  preferred.  The  most  diverse  opinions  are  held  in 
regard  to  acclimatization,  some  even  denying  its  existence. 
This  confusion  arises  from  a  misconception  of  the  meaning 
of  the  term.  A  plant  or  animal  becomes  acclimatized  only 
when  it  has  overcome  some  injurious  feature  of  climate. 
Jlany  organisms  possess  a  sufficient  elasticity  of  constitution 
to  allow  them  to  become  quickly  cosmopolitan  as  soon  as 
competition  with  other  species  is  removed  and  they  find 
means  of  becoming  disseminated.  Such  plants  or  animals 
simply  become  naturalized  when  transferred  to  a  foreign 
country,  as  is  the  case  with  most  if  not  all  of  the  weeds 
wliich  have  invaded  our  fields  fr(iin  Europe.  Some  plants 
and  animals  have  been  disseminated  in  many  diverse 
climates  because  of  the  protection  afforded  by  man,  who, 
by  skillful  planting  and  cultivating,  or  by  slielter,  overcomes 
in  great  measure  the  adverse  influences  of  climate.  Such 
beings  are  simply  domesticated.  From  these  remarks  it  wiU 
be  seen  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  in  any  case  whether 
an  organism  has  actually  overcome  any  influence  of  climate ; 
and  the  difficulty  is  particularly  great  in  the  case  of  ani- 
mals— especially  of  man — because  they  possess  to  some  ex- 
tent the  power  of  protecting  themselves  from  inclemencies, 
or  of  migrating  to  avoid  them.  In  tlie  case  of  man,  the 
commonest  instances  cited  of  acclim.atization  are  those  in 
which  immunity  from  fevers  or  other  diseases  comes  to  be 
enjoyed  ;  but  disease  is  not  an  attribute  of  climate.  Another 
misconception  which  has  confused  the  discussion  of  acclima- 
tization is  the  common  notion  that  the  adaptation  relates 
simply  to  relative  temperature  ;  but  adaptation  to  humidity, 
progression  of  seasons,  cloudiness,  and  other  phenomena  are 
equally  the  subjects  of  our  inquiry. 

The  definition  is  equally  satisfied  whetlicr  the  adaptation 
takes  place  in  the  modification  of  tlie  constitution  of  an  in- 
dividual animal  or  plant,  or  whether  it  is  expressed  in  a 
variation  of  habit  in  the  offspring.  The  discussion  is  clari- 
fied if  it  is  divided  as  follows : 

I.  Acclimatization  through  a  change  in  I  lie  imlividual  plant 
or  animal. 

A.  Through  modification  of  constitution. 

B.  Tlirough  modification  of  haliit. 

II.  Acclimatization  through  variation  in  offspring. 

C.  Tlirough  variation  in  constitution. 
I).  Through  variation  in  liabit. 

It  is  difficult  in  any  case  to  determine  if  acclimatization 
occurs  in  an  individual  plant  or  animal  which  is  transferred 
to  a  new  climate,  especially  through  a  modification  of  con- 
stitution (.\).  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  modification 
of  habit  (B).  by  which  the  individual  evades  some  injurious 
feature  of  climate,  sometimes  occurs.  This  is  best  seen  in 
plants,  in  wliich  leafing  and  flowering  occur  relatively  earlier 
in  the  season  as  the  individual  is  moved  northward.  By 
this  means  the  plant  accomplishes  its  growth  before  over- 
t.'iken  by  frost.  But  it  is  through  variation  in  offspring 
that  acclimatization  is  unequivocal.  Most  of  the  tender 
fruit-trees  illustrate  acclimafal  variation  in  constitution  (C). 


ACCOLADE 


ACCUMULATED  FORCE 


25 


Tlius  it  is  wfU  known  that  the  peach-tree  endures  lower 
temperature  in  New  York  than  in  Dchiware  and  Maryhmd  ; 
and  this  illustration  can  bt^  applied  to  many  plants.  Most 
plants  and  animals  exhibit,  under  neuessit  v,  an  acelimatal 
variation  in  hal)it  (D)  in  the  offspring.  Indian  corn  may  be 
taken  !us  an  e.xample,  althouf;h  this  plant  is  often  cited  in 
proof  of  the  assertion  that  acclimatization  does  not  exist.  In 
certain  tropical  or  sub-tropical  re;,'ions  the  season  of  growth 
of  Indian  corn  extends  through  six  months.  As  it  is  taken 
toward  the  poles,  its  season  shortens  in  accommodation  to 
the  climate,  until  in  some  parts  of  Canada  it  matures  in  less 
than  three  monllis.  This  shortening  of  season — or  carliness 
— is  associated  with  other  variations,  as  smallness  of  stature, 
a  tendency  to  sucker,  and  the  change  from  dent  corn  to  flint. 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  acclimatization  is  only  one 
of  the  expressions  of  variation  induced  in  all  animals  and 
plants  by  the  change  of  environnu'nt,  and  that  there  is  every 
rea-son  to  expec^t  its  occurrence  in  any  organism  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  when  occasion  demands  it.        L.  II.  1{.\ilkv. 

Accolade  [via  Fr.  from  Ital.  ncrolUirp,  to  embrace  about 
the  neck]:  tin' embrace  by  which  a  sovereign  formerly  con- 
ferred knighthood.  Later  a  gentle  blow  or  "dub  "on  the 
shoulder  of  the  candidate  with  the  flat  of  a  sword  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  enibraix'. 

Accol'ti.  Bexedetto:  Italian  writer  and  lawyer;  b.  at 
Arezzo  in  1415;  became  chancellor  of  the  republic  of  Flor- 
ence in  1459.  He  wrote  a  Latin  history  of  the  cru.sade 
which  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  conducted  to  Palestine.  This 
was  the  basis  of  Tasso's  great  poem.     D.  in  1466. 

Accommodation  Paper:  See  Bill  ok  Exchange. 

Accoiii'plice  [extension  of  older  eom/)/i>c :  hat.  complex, 
interwoven]:  one  of  several  persons  associated  in  a  crime. 
In  its  broadest  use  it  includes  all  connected  with  the  offense, 
whether  as  princijials  or  accessaries;  but  it  is  generally 
applied  to  those  who  give  evidence  against  their  fellow 
criminals. 

Accord:  in  music,  concord;  the  relation  of  two  sounds 
which  are  agreeable  to  the  ear. 

Accord' and  Satisfac'tion  :  in  law,  the  word  "  accord  " 
by  itself  denotes  an  agreement,  but  as  used  m  this  com- 
mon pliras(>  it  denotes  an  agreement  between  the  parties  to 
a  legal  claim  or  demand  that  something  different  from  a 
complete  payment  or  discharge,  according  to  the  terms  of 
the  claims,  shall  be  received  in  satisfaction  thereof;  and 
such  accord,  if  it  have  the  proper  legid  requisites  and  result 
in  the  satisfaction  agreed  upon,  is  a  complete  defense  to  a 
suit  upon  the  original  demand.  This  defense  is  available  in 
actions  both  of  contract  and  of  tort.  The  subject  is  gov- 
erned by  well-settled  rules,  such  as  that  the  thing  to  be  done 
must  not  be  uncertain,  that  it  must  be  advantageous  to  the 
injured  party,  and  that  the  agreement  must  be  ftUly  carrieii 
into  effect.  Thus  it  would  not  be  a  valid  accord  to  give  the 
injured  party  .something  to  which  he  was  already  entitled : 
as  e.g.  to  pay  a  portion  of  the  debt  when  the  whole  became 
due.  Sometimes  a  new  agreement,  though,  unperfornnid, 
amounts  to  a  satisfaction  of  a  prior  claim,  but  this  happens 
only  when  there  is  a  positive  agreement  to  this  effect. 

George  Chase. 

Accor'dion :  a  musical  instrument  in  which  the  tones  are 
produced  l)y  the  vibration  of  metallic  springs  moved  by 
wind,  which  is  apjilied  by  a  bellows.  It  was  invented  by 
Damian,  a  Viennese,  about  1829. 

Accoucheur,  a-koo-sher' :  a  physician  who  assists  women 
in  chilil-liirlh.     See  Obstetrics. 

Account'  [remotely  from  the  Lat.  ad,  to  +  compula'rc. 
calculate):  a  computation  or  calculation;  a.  statement  of 
the  receipts  and  payments  of  one  who  acts  in  a  fiduciary  re- 
lation, as  an  executor  or  a  trustee,  or  a  statement  showing 
in  detail  the  transacti<ms  between  merchants  or  others  who 
have  dealt  together.  An  account  current  is  one  that  iso|)en. 
running.and  unsetth^d.  An  account  stated  is  one  which  has 
been  adjusted  between  the  parties,  and  a  bal.nnce  struck.  An 
account  may  also  become  stated  without  any  express  agree- 
ment, and  by  implication,  as  where  one  of  two  merchants 
who  have  dealt  together  draws  up  a  formal  statement  of 
llieir  dealings  and  sends  it  to  the  other,  and  the  latter  re- 
ceives it  and  retains  it  withcmt  objection  for  a  reasoiuible 
lime.     He  is  thus  presumeil  to  assent  to  its  correctness. 

Account,  or  acco\int  render,  is  the  name  of  a  common-law 
action  wliich  lay  against  one  who  by  virtue  of  his  position  or 
office  ought  to  have  rendered  an  account  and  refused  to  do 


so.  This  action  is  now  almost  obsolete.  A  court  of  equity 
has  much  more  complete  power  to  grant  relief  in  all  cases  of 
mutual  accounts,  and  in  cases  where  the  taking  of  an  account 
is  incidental  to  other  matters  over  which  that  court  has 
jurisdiction.  Some  of  the  instances  in  which  an  account 
may  be  taken  on  the  otie  ground  or  the  other  are  agency,  gen- 
eral average,  apportionment,  contribution  between  sureties, 
waste,  trusts,  express  or  implied,  iiicluding  mlministration, 
guardianship,  and  partnership.  In  suits  for  an  account; 
both  parties  are  deemed  to  be  substantially  plaintiffs  for 
many  puri)oses,  and  an  affirmative  decree  may  be  made  for 
the  defendant,  if  a  balance  be  found  in  his  favor,  as  well  as 
for  the  plaintiff".  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Accountant :  t  he  officer  of  a  company  who  has  the  care  of 
its  books  and  accounts,  and  who  makes  up  for  it  periodical 
statements  and  balance-sheets.  In  Great  Britain  the  busi- 
ness is  recognized  as  a  distinct  profession,  and  includes  also 
the  management  and  realization  of  liankrupt  and  other 
estates,  institutes  of  accountants,  incorporated  by  royal 
charter,  exist  in  London  (founded  1881)),  Edinburgh  (1854), 
Gla.sgow  (1855),  and  Aberdeen  (1867).  A  member  of  one  of 
them  is  termed  a  chartered  accountant  (C.  A.). 

Accra :  See  Akkra. 

Accre'tion  [Lat.  accre'tio,  ad,  to  +  cres'cere,  grow]  :  a 
gradual  accumulation  ;  specifically  in  law,  the  gradual  accu- 
nmlation  of  soil  along  the  banks  oi'  a  river  or  the  sea,  formed 
by  the  washing  of  the  water.  In  the  case  supposed  the  in- 
crease belongs  to  the  owner  of  the  adjacent  land.  If  the  in- 
crease be  sudden,  the  alluvion  formed  upon  the  seashore  or 
navigable  river  belongs  to  the  state. 

Ac'crington :  a  manufacturing  town  of  England;  in 
Lancashire,  in  a  deep  valley,  and  at  the  junction  of  two 
railways,  13  miles  E.  of  Preston  and  19  miles  N.  by  \V.  of 
Manchester  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-G).  It  has  increased 
rapidly  in  population  and  importance,  and  is  considered  the 
center  of  the  cotton-printing  business.  It  has  also  extensive 
inaiuifactures  of  cotton  cloth,  and  coal  mines  in  which  many 
of  the  inhabitants  are  emploved.  Among  the  public  build- 
ings is  a  fine  Got  hie  church  biiilt  in  1838.  "Pop.  (1881)  31,435 ; 
(1891)  about  40.000. 

Accuba'tion  [Lat.  accuha'fio ;  ad,  to,  beside  +  cwJa'r^ 
lie] :  the  reclining  posture  in  which  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  took  their  meals.  Two  or  three  couches  were  spread 
around  the  dining-table.  each  of  which  w.is  capable  of  con- 
taining three  persons.  The  guests  lay  on  their  left  sides, 
their  heads  or  elbows  being  supported  by  pillows,  the  feet 
of  the  first  being  behind  the  shoulders  of  the  second,  and 
those  of  the  second  behind  the  third.  The  middle  place  was 
generally  deemed  the  most  honorable. 

Ac'cnm.  Friedrich:  German  chemist:  b.  at  Biickeburg 
in  1769.  llaving  removed  to  London  in  1793,  he  became 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  that  city  about  1802.  lie  pro- 
moted the  use  of  gas  for  illumination  by  a  valuable  work 
entitled  a  Pracfical  Tri'dtise  on  Oiisliyltt'(lS15).  He  wrote 
other  works.     1).  in  Berlin  in  1838. 

Accn'niulatcd  Force  [accumulated,  from  Lat.  aceumula'- 
re;  ad.  to  +  niiiiii/ii.f.  heap]  :  the  power  of  a  moving  body 
to  overcome  resistance.  \\  lien  a  force  acts  on  a  body  so 
as  to  produce  its  motion,  the  force  nuist  be  in  excess  of  the 
resistance  to  the  motion,  and,  as  power  is  imparted  to 
the  body  at  each  instant,  this  is  termed  accumulated  force. 
Thus  if  a  strong  man  should  piiU  on  a  rope  attached  to  a 
ship  at  rest,  but  floating  free  in  still  water,  his  efforts  at  first 
woulil  seem  unavailing,  because  his  strength  would  be  so 
slight  coniiian'd  with  the  fix  ineiiiir  (which  is  jiroportioned 
to  the  weight)  of  the  ship.  If,  however,  he  contiiuie  to  pull 
steadily,  the  force  applied  will  gradually  impart  a  slow 
motion  to  the  vessel.  This  is  an  example  of  the  accumula- 
tion of  force,  wliich,  however,  is  less  manifest  in  this  instance, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  not  merely  the  vis  inrrliie  of  the  ves- 
sel but  also  the  weight  and  friction  of  the  opposing  water 
are  to  be  overcome.  But  let  us  suppose  a  mass  of  iron  or 
leiul  of  many  th<nisand  tons  to  be  suspended  by  a  huge  chain 
or  cable  extending  to  an  immense  height.*  In  this  case, 
as  there  would  be  no  appreciable  resistance  from  the  air,  the 
constant  application  of  a  very  small  force  would  at  length, 
by  accumulation,  communicate  a  rapid   motion  and  pro- 

•  It  is  obvinus  that  if  the  chain  or  cable  were  not  very  long,  the 
weieht  soon  after  it  betran  to  move  (aotinK  like  a  pendulum  J  would 
necessarily  rise  considiTfthlv  higher  than  the  point  at  which  it  was 
tlrst  suspended ;  henee  a  erent  part  of  ttie  force  applied  would  be 
lost  in  overcoming  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 


26 


ACCUMULATOR 


ACETATE 


digious  momentum  to  the  huge  mass  in  question — a  momen- 
tum which  a  force  applied  in  an  opposite  direction  and  a 
thousand  times  as  great  could  not  suddenly  overcome,  and 
indeed  could  only  overcome  at  all  by  aeontinual  application 
in  an  opposite  direction. 

Accninulator  {storage  battery  or  secondary  battery):  a 
form  of  voltaic  battery  in  which  the  electro-motive  force  after 
using  can  be  restored  to  its  initial  value  by  passing  an  elec- 
tric current  through  the  cell  in  the  reverse  du'ection.  In 
practice  the  electrodes  of  accumulators  are  almost  invari- 
ably lead  plates,  which  have  been  coated  with  a  preparation 
of  the  oxides  of  that  metal.  The  liquid  is  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  sp.  gr.  1'15,  or  an  acidulated  solution  of  some  sulphate. 
In  the  original  process  of  producing  a  secondary  cell,  as  de- 
scribed by  Plante,  the  coatings  were  formed  upon  the  surface 
of  the  lead  by  long-continued  action  of  the  current.  The 
result  of  passing  the  electric  current  through  an  electrolytic 
cell,  the  terminals  of  which  consist  of  lead  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  is  gradually  to  deposit  spongy  lead  upon  the 
electrode  through  which  the  current  leaves  the  cell,  and  an 
oxide  of  lead,  PbOj,  at  the  other  terminal.  When  the  two 
lead  terminals  have  thus  become  coated,  the  electrolytic  cell 
has  been  converted  into  a  voltaic  battery,  and  is  capable,  in 
turn,  of  generating  electric  current  in  any  circuit  with  which 
it  may  be  connected.  Such  a  cell  is  called  an  accumulator. 
After  being  exhausted,  it  may  be  replenished  over  and  over 
again  by  the  electrolytic  process  just  described.  The  present 
practice  in  the  construction  of  storage  batteries  is  founded 
upon  the  Paure  process,  which  consists  in  applying  prepara- 
tions of  the  higher  and  lower  oxides  of  lead  to  the  surface 
of  the  plates  before  "forming"  them  by  the  action  of  the 
current.  In  this  way  the  "  forming  process."  which  is  both 
tedious  and  expensive,  is  much  shortened,  and  the  amount 
of  active  material  on  the  plates  is  greatly  increased. 

The  electro-motive  force  of  stor.age  batteries,  when  newly 
charged,  is  '2"i  volts,  which  rapidly  falls  when  the  cell  is 
used  to  about  2  volts,  then  slowly  to  I'S  volts,  at  which 
point  the  battery  is  ready  for  recharging.  The  percentage 
of  electrical  energy  recovered  from  a  secondary  battery 
during  discliarge  is  from  75  to  85  per  cent,  the  latter  pro- 
portion being  rarely  attained  under  the  conditions  of  opera- 
tion met  with  in  commercial  practice. 

Accumulators  possess  several  advantages  over  primary 
batteries :  (1)  Their  internal  resistance  is  very  small,  so  that 
in  any  outer  circuit  of  good  conductivity  very  large  currents 
can  be  obtained  from  a  single  cell.  (2)  The  source  of  energy 
in  the  primary  battery  is  the  oxidation  of  some  metal,  as 
zinc.  In  the  accumulator  it  may  be  derived  from  the  con- 
sumption of  some  cheaper  fuel,  as  coal,  or  from  falling 
water,  or  even  from  the  action  of  the  wind. 

The  disadvantages  are  the  considerable  first  cost  of  the 
cells,  the  great  weiijht  per  unit  of  storage  capacity,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  plates  to  rapid  deterioration  after  having 
been  in  service  for  a  certain  time. 

At  the  present  time  (1892)  the  development  of  the  accu- 
mulator has  reached  its  highest  point  in  Germany,  where 
this  form  of  battery  bids  fair  to  take  an  important  place  in 
the  industrial  application  of  electricity.  In  that  country 
single  cells  are  manufactured  which  will  furnish  a  current 
of  600  amperes  for  three  hours,  or  375  amperes  for  ten  hours, 
the  weight  of  the  cell  being  560  kilog. 

In  the  latest  form  of  accumulator  the  leaden  plates  are 
reduced  to  a  very  slight  grating  or  grid,  which  is  completely 
filled  with  the  active  material.  Tlie  weight  of  the  cell  is  thus 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  life  of  the  plate  is  increa.sed. 

One  of  the  earliest  uses  of  the  storage  battery  was  in 
street-railway  work,  but  the  great  weight  of  t  he  battery  has 
proved  a  serious  objection  to  this  method  of  propulsion. 
Upon  the  water,  where  tlie  battery  can  be  used  in  place  of 
other  ballast,  no  such  difficulties  arise;  and  wherever  there 
is  considerable  traffic  over  short  distances,  electric  propulsion 
by  means  of  accumulators  has  been  found  a  very  satisfac- 
tory sub.stitule  for  steam. 

Upon  the  Thames,  above  London,  the  number  of  electric 
launches  is  alrcaily  so  l.-irge  anfl  is  incre.asing  so  rapidly  as 
to  make  it  seem  pmbable  that  steam  navigation  in  such 
localities  will  lie  entirely  superseded. 

Many  substitutes  for  lead  and  oxides  of  lead  in  accumu- 
lator cells  have  been  proposed,  but  no  other  materials  have 
as  vet  stood  the  test  of  long-continued  a]jplication. 

In  static  electricity  the  word  accumulator  is  applied  to  an 
apparatus  l)y  means  of  which  a  coiisiilerabli'  cliarge  of  I'lec- 
tricity  is  gathered  in  a  condenser  by  automatic  repetition  of 


what  is  known  as  "  electrophorus  action."  See  Electro- 
PHORUs,  Electrical  MAcnixES,  and  Replenisher.  The  term 
replenisher  is  more  frequently  used  for  such  machines. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 

AccnsatiTC :  See  Declension. 

Aceldama,  a-sel  da-ma  [Aramaic,  field  of  blood]:  a  pot- 
ter's field,  said  to  have  been  situated  .S.  of  Jerusalem,  and 
purchased  by  the  Jewish  priests  with  the  money  received  by 
Judas  for  betraying  Christ.  It  was  set  apart  for  a  burial- 
place  for  strangers  dving  in  Jerusalem,  and  is  still  shown  on 
the  hills  S.  of  Mt.  Zion. 

Aceph'ala  [Gr.  mcecpaKa.  adj.  neut.  plur.,  headless;  4-. not 
+  Ke<t>a\ri,  head] :  a  class  of  moUusks,  usually  called  the  La- 
mellibranchiata,  and  including  the  oyster,  clam,  mussel,  etc. 
See  Mollusc  A. 

Aceph'ali :  in  the  early  Christian  Church,  bishops  ex- 
empt from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  patriarchs  ;  also  the  Eu- 
tychians  who,  when  Pope  Felix  rejected  (452)  the  Emperor 
Zeno's  Henoticon,  broke  away  from  Peter  Jlongus,  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria. 

Acer'ra  (ane.  Acer'r(f) :  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Campagna, 
7  miles  by  railway  N.  E.  of  Naples  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F). 
It  has  a  cathedral  and  a  seminary.  The  sluggish  channels 
of  the  Agno  render  the  place  unhealthful.     Pop.  15,768. 

Acelab'iihim  [Lat.  vinegar  cup  or  cruet] :  one  of  the 
suckers  on  the  arras  of  the  cuttlefish  and  other  dibi-anch- 
iate  cephalopods.  which  are  hence  termed  Acetabulifera.  la 
anatomy,  acetabulum  signifies  the  cavity  of  the  hip  joint.  In 
entomology,  it  is  the  socket  on  the  trunk  of  an  insect  in 
which  the  leg  is  planted. 

Ac'etate :  one  of  a  class  of  salts  derived  from  acetic  acid 
{q.  v.).  The  acetates  are  all  soluble  in  water,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  crystallize  readily.  Many  of  these  are  extensively 
used  either  in  dyeing  or  for  medical  purposes.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  most  important:  Atiimininm  Acetate. — 
This  salt  exists  only  in  solution,  being  decomposed  by  evap- 
oration. It  is  largely  used  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing  as 
a  mordant,  and  is  prepared  by  precipitating  alum  with  lead 
acetate,  lead  sulphate  being  thrown  down,  and  a  mixture  of 
aluminium  acetate  and  potassium  sulphate  remaining  in 
solution.  Ammonium  Acetate. — The  neutral  acetate  is  a 
white  crystalline  salt,  readily  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol, 
and  evolving  ammonia  on  evaporation,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  obtain  it  in  its  crystalline  form.  Its  solution  is  known  in 
pharmacy  as  .Spir'itus  Mindere'ri.  Copper  Acetate. — Copper 
forms  several  acetates :  the  normal  salt  is  known  as  crystal- 
lized verdigris.  It  forms  dark,  bluish-gi-een  prismatic  crystals, 
which  are  efflorescent  and  very  poisonous.  There  are  three 
basic  acetates  of  copper,  all  contained  in  common  verdigris, 
which  is  largely  used  both  as  a  pigment  and  as  a  mordant  in 
dyeing.  It  is  obtained  by  submitting  metallic  copper  to  the 
joint  action  of  air  and  acetic  acid.  Copper  Acetn-arsenite. — 
A  beautiful  but  very  poisonous  green  pigment,  known  in 
commerce  as  arsenic  green,  imperial  gi'een,  Paris  greer>,  and 
Schweinfurt  green.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  is  prepared 
by  boiling  verdigris  and  arsenious  acid  together.  Iron  Ace- 
tate.— Iron  forms  two  acetates:  the  only  one  of  iinportanee, 
however,  is  the  ferric  acetate,  which  is  generally  imqiiireii  by 
mixing  ferric  sulphate  with  lead  acetate.  It  has  nut  been 
obtained  in  the  crystalline  state,  but  forms  a  red-brown  solu- 
tion, which  decomposes  on  ebullition.  A  very  crude  mixture 
of  the  ferrous  and  the  ferric  acetate,  known  a.s  pyrolignite  of 
iron,  is  largely  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  black.  Lead 
Acetate. — Lead  forms  a  normal  and  several  basic  acetates. 
Normal  lead  acetate  (known  as  sugar  of  lead)  is  a  white 
crystalline  salt,  having  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  When  oxide 
of  lead  is  digested  with  a  solution  of  normal  acetate,  the 
tribasic  acetate  is  formed  in  long,  silky  needles.  A  solution 
of  this  salt  is  frequently  used  on  account  of  its  power  of  pre- 
cipitating many  vegetable  substances,  such  as  gum  and  col- 
oring-matters. It  is  used  in  medicine  under  the  name  of 
Goulard  water  or  Goulard  extract  (liquor  ptumbi  xubacetatis). 
Pota-'Oiium  Acetate  is  a  very  deliquescent  salt,  and  is  obtained 
with  dillicidty  in  a  crystallized  state:  it  melts  to  a  limpid 
li(|ui<I  below  redness.  It  exists  in  the  juices  of  many  plants, 
anil  is  prepared  artificially  for  medicinal  purposes  by  neu- 
tralizing acetic  acid  with  potassium  carb(mate.  Sodium 
Acetate. — .\n  efflorescent  crystalline  salt,  prepared  by  sat- 
urating acetic  acid  with  sodium  carbonate.  On  evaporation 
it  .separates  in  large  transparent  jirisms.  It  is  similar  in  its 
medical  properties  to  potassium  acetate. 

Revised  bv  Ira  Remsen. 


ACETIC  ACID 


ACIIERONTIA 


27 


Acet'ic  Ac'id  [Lat.  aee'ium,  vine<;ar]:  the  most  common 
of  the  vegetable  aeids,  and  tlie  essential  constituent  of  vine- 
gar. It  is  coniposeii  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  It 
occurs  in  the  juices  of  many  phmts,  and  in  some  aninnil  se- 
cretions. It  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  and  oxida- 
tion of  many  organic  bodies.  It  is  prepared  from  weak 
alcoholic  liquids,  as  wine,  cider,  and  beer,  by  oxidation, 
*•  acetous  fermeutat ion,"  and  by  the  desi  ructive  distillation  of 
wood, "  pyroligneous  acid." 

The  diemical  forumla  of  acetic  acid  is  CjIT,^.  Alcohol 
can  be  converted  into  acetic  acid  by  bringing  it  into  contact 
with  spongy  platinum,  from  which  it  aljsorbs  oxygen.  (See 
Fkrmextatid.v.)  Crystallizable  or  glacial  acetic  acid,  tlie 
most  concentrated  form  of  acetic  acid,  is  olitaitied  by  distill- 
ing dry  acetates  with  concentrated  suljihuric  acid. 

Acetic  Ethers:  acetates  of  the  alcohol  radicals,  such  as 
ethyl  acetate  (t'j  II  si 'ills' 'a);  metliyl  acetate,  "  iether  ligno- 
sus"  (CllsCalljOj),  found  in  crude  wood  vinegar;  arayl  ace- 
tate (C'sIImCjHjO]),  made  by  distilling  potassium  acetate, 
fuse!  nil,  and  sulphuric  acid. 

.4c'etone,  or  Pyro-acetic  Spirit :  a  limpid,  mobile  liquid 
of  agreeable  odor  and  biting  ta.stc,  like  that  of  pepper- 
mint. It  is  made  by  heating  acetates.  It  is  manufactured 
on  the  large  scale  from  calcium  acetate  or  acetate  of  liuu-, 
and  is  used  largely  in  the  preparation  of  chloroform.  It 
mixes  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and  dissolves  many 
camphors,  fats,  and  resins.  Acetone  is  the  representative  of 
a  class  of  organic  bodies  called  ketones. 

Achcp'aii  League:  a  confederation  of  Grecian  cities 
formed  aliout  2S0  B.  c.  Previous  to  the  invjision  of  Mace- 
donia by  the  (iauls.  the  Achjcans  had  performed  an  insig- 
nilicanl  part  in  the  history  of  Greece,  but  soon  after  that 
event  four  .Vcha'an  towns  formed  a  league  for  nmtual  pro- 
tection. Aral  IIS  of  Sicyon  induced  his  native  town  to  join 
the  league  (251  B.  c),  and  was  himself  made  strategos  (gen- 
eral-in-chief)  of  the  confederacy.  Corinth  joined  the  league 
in  24;J  B.  c,  and  was  soon  followed  by  ICpidaurus,  Itegara, 
and  several  other  cities.  Philoi)aMnen,  called  the  "  last  of 
the  Greeks,"  became  strategos  of  the  league  in  208  B.  c.  In 
ini  B.  c.  the  confederacy  included  Sparta,  .Vthens,  and  nearly 
all  the  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  for  tifty  years  main- 
tained the  cause  of  Grecian  independence  against  the  JPAo- 
liaris  and  against  the  encroachments  of  Koine.  The  confed- 
erates, under  Dianis,  were  defeated  at  Corinth  by  the  Roman 
General  Mummins.  and  Southern  Greece  was  made  a  Roman 
province  under  the  name  of  Achaia  (146  B.  c).  The  Acha'aii 
confederacy  may  be  said  to  furnish  the  most  perfect  example 
of  the  feilerative  system  which  ancient  Greece  affords,  and 
its  history  forms  one  of  the  most  glorious  chapters  in  the 
annals  of  ancient  times.  Revised  by  R.  Lili.ey. 

.\clia!'ans  (tir.  'Axaiof):  one  of  the  four  races  of  inhabit- 
ants uf  ancient  (iivece.  The  name  is  often  extended  in  the 
Homeric  poems  to  the  whole  Greek  jieople.  The  Acha-ans 
proper  inhabited  parts  of  Thessaly,  and  in  the  Peloponnesus 
they  anciently  occupied  Argos,  Laconia,  and  the  neighboring 
regions,  whence  they  were,  for  the  most  part,  expelled  by 
the  Dorians,  the  exiles  settling  along  the  northern  shore  of 
the  Pelo]ionncsus,  and  founding  there  a  new  community. 
They  remained  an  obscure  people  till  the  founding  of  the 

ACU.EAX   I.KACIE  (q.  V.). 

Acha'ia  (Gr.  "Axota) :  state  of  ancient  Greece ;  in  the  north 
part  of  the  Pelnpnimesus:  bounded  E.  by  Sicyonia,  N.  l)y 
the  bay  of  Corinth,  and  S.  by  .\rcadia  and  Elis  (see  map  of 
Greece,  ref.  1(>-.1).  It  was  about  65  miles  long  from  E.  to  W. 
The  surface  was  hilly  or  mountainous.  Achaia  and  Elis 
constitute  a  province  of  modern  Greece.  Area,  1,901  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  (18IS!»)  2IO,7i:5.  In  the  days  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers,  .\cliaia  signified  the  whole  Peloponnesus. 

Aeha'o:  a  town  of  Chili;  on  the  northeastern  end  of 
Quinchao  island.  Gulf  of  .\ncnd  ;  on  the  east  side  of  the 
northern  end  of  the  island  of  Chiloe;  approximate  lat.  42' 
20  .S..  Ion.  74   20'  \V.     Pop.  of  commune,  i:i.87;i. 

.\char(l.  aa-shaar',  Franz  Karl;  b.  in  Berlin,  .\nr.  28, 
1753 :  studied  physics  and  chemistry,  and  published  Vor- 
lesuniji'ti  uher  E.rpi'rimi'iitn//>lii/.tiK(i\o\s.,l~'M-^'i):  ina<le 
extensive  resimrches  and  experiments  with  reference  to  the 
production  of  sugar  from  the  beetroot,  the  results  of  which 
he  published  in  17!>!)-1800.  and  received  from  the  Prussian 
king  the  estate  of  Cunern  in  Silesia  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing there  a  beetroot-sugar  manufactory;  succeeded  in 
1806  in  develoi)ing  the  tnie  practical  process  of  manufactur- 
ing, and  brought  the  establishineiit   into  splendid  condition. 


especially  during  the  enforcement  of  the  continental  system ; 
wrote  Vie  ituropdische  Zuckerfahrikation  aus  Jiu/ikelruben 
(3  vols.,  1809).     D.  Apr.  20,  1821. 

Acbard,  Louis  A>"iuEE  Eug^xe;  French  novelist;  b.  in 
1814;  was  contributor  to  the  Courrier  de  Paria  in  1845,  and 
after  the  revolution  of  1848  became  a  political  writer  in  the 
camp  of  the  rovalists.  lie  wrote,  among  other  works,  Belle- 
/I'ose  (1847) ;  J/i.itoire  d'un  homme  (1803);  Hoiiveiurs  per- 
sonnels d'vmeutes  et  de  revolution  (1872);  Histoire  de  me» 
amis  (1874).     D.  Mar.  25,  1875. 

Acha'tes:  a  friend  and  companion  of  ..55ncas  (5.  f.),  noted 
for  his  fidelity.  The  pi'overljial  phrase  ftdun  Achates  is  often 
applied  to  a  man  who  is  a  devoted  follower  of  his  chief. 

Achelo'us  (Gr.  'Axe\yoj),  now  As'pnt-l'ot'anio :  the  larg- 
est river  of  Greece,  rises  in  JNIt.  Pindus,  flows  nearly  south- 
ward, forms  the  boundary  between  Acarnania  and  .^tolia, 
and  enters  the  Ionian  Sea  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles. 

Acheubaeh.aa'A-hen-baak,  AxUREAS:  landscape  and  ma- 
rine painter;  b.  in  Cassel,  Germany,  Sei)t.  2lt.  1815.  Pupil 
of  the  Diissehlorf  .Vcademy ;  ineml)er  of  the  P.erlin,  Amster- 
dam, anil  Antweri)  academies.  Works  by  him  are  in  the 
principal  German  galleries  and  in  private  collections  in  the 
r.  S.  Receiveil,  among  other  honors,  a  first-class  medal  at 
the  Paris  Exposition,  1855;  Legion  of  Honor  in  1864. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Aclieiibarh,  llKixRicn  ;  a  German  jurist  and  statesman ; 
b.  Nov.  23.  1820;  became,  in  1860.  Professor  of  (ierman  Law 
at  the  L^niversity  of  Uonn  ;  entered  t  he  Prussian  Diet  in  1806 ; 
fought  (though  a  Conservative)  on  Falk's  side  in  the  Kultur- 
kampf ;  and  became,  in  1873.  Minister  of  Commerce.  Agricul- 
ture, and  I'ulilii'  Works.  lie  founded  and  edited  for  many 
years  Zeitsclirift  fur  liinyreclit,  and  his  J)ns  franzosiche 
Bergrecht  (1869),  Das  deulsche  Bergrecht  (1871),  etc.,  have  ex- 
ercised a  decisive  influence  on  raining  legislation  in  Europe. 

.•Vclicnbach,  Oswald:  landscape  painter;  brother  and 
pupil  lit  Andreas:  b.  in  Diisseldorf,  Feb.  2,  1827.  Painted 
many  pictures  of  subjects  in  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Works 
in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin,  and  many  are  owned  by 
collectors  in  the  U.  S.  Second-class  medal,  Paris  Salon, 
1861 ;  Legion  of  Honor,  1863.  William  A.  Coffix. 

Arheniiiiil.  a-kee'ni-nm,  or  Acbene,  a-keen'  [for  achcp- 
nium.  Gr.  d-  not  +  xo'>'f"'.  fJape|  :  a  dry.  hard,  one-seeded, 
indehiscent  fruit  or  pericarp,  such  as  that  of  the  buttercup 
and  the  thistle. 

A'cheinvall,  Gottfried:  German  writer  on  statistics;  b. 
at  Elbing  in  1719;  reiiuted  to  have  originated  statistical 
tables.  He  became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Gottingen 
about  1750.  He  introduced  the  term  Slaatswissenschaft 
([lolities).  by  which  he  proposed  to  include  all  the  knowledge 
essential  to  statesmanship.     D.  in  1772. 

Acheron,  ilk'cr-on  (Gr.  'Axtpwi/):  the  ancient  name  of 
a  river  of  Klis;  also  a  river  of  Epirus.  It  was  also  applied 
in  mythology  to  a  river  of  the  infernal  regions;  the  bitter 
stream  o\er  which  the  souls  of  the  dead  were  ferried  by 
Charon. 

.Vcberoii'tia.  or  Death's-head  Moths  [from  Aeheron, 
in  the  Greek  mythology  a  river  of  the  deadl :  a  genus  of^ 
!  moths,  belonging  to  the  family  S)jlii)tgid(e.  There  is  found 
in  Great  Britain  and  other  Eiiroiiean  countries  a  species  of 
this  genus  (the  Arheron'lia  at'ropus).  having  on  the  back 
of  the  thorax  a  remarkable 
representation  of  a  human 
skull,  and  it  has  hence  re- 
ceived the  name  of  death's- 
head  moth.  This  is  a  very 
handsome  insect,  and  is 
from  4i  to  5i  inches  in  ex- 
panse of  wing.  It  is  much 
dreaded  by  the  ignorant  and 
superstitions,  who  consider 
its  apiiearance  to  be  omin- 
ous of  evil.  It  does  not 
hesitate  to  attack  beehives, 
devouring  the  honey  and  putting  the  bees  to  flight.  Though 
possessing  no  weapons  of  defense  that  have  yet  been  discov- 
ered, it  appears  to  suffer  no  harm  from  its  armed  enemies. 
Its  larva  is  a  large  caterpillar  about  5  inches  in  length,  with 
beautiful  markings:  the  color  is  a  kind  of  greenish  yellow, 
and  the  back  is  traversed  liy  lines  partly  blue  and  partly 
white,  speckled  with  black  spots.  The  cater|iillar  feeds 
mostly  on  the  leaves  of  the  potato  plant  ;  and  it  retires  deep 


Dealli'sliead  mot 


28 


ACHERUSIA 


into  the  earth,  and  changes  into  a  chrysalis  in  the  month  of 
September.  It  emerges  the  following  June  or  July,  trans- 
formed into  a  perfect  insect.  This  moth  is  seen  most  fre- 
quently in  the  mornings  and  evenings  of  autumn. 

Achern'sia :  I.  A  lake  in  Epirus.  into  which  the  river 
Acheron  flows.  II.  A  cavern  in  Bitliynia.  near  the  city  of 
Heraclea ;  through  it  Hercules  is  said  to  have  dragged  Cer- 
berus up  to  the  light  of  day. 

Achill.  aAh'il,  or  Easle  Island :  an  island  oft  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland,  forming  part  of  the  county  of  Mayo  (see 
map  of  Ireland,  ref.  i-B).  It  is  about  15  miles  long  by  1^ 
miles  broad.  Pop.  about  5,000.  On  the  coast  is  a  sheer 
precipice  2.200  feet  high. 

Achil'les  (Gr.  'AxiXAeiis) :  a  famous  Grecian  warrior,  the 
hero  of  Homer's  Iliad ;  son  of  Peleus,  King  of  Tliessaly,  and 
the  sea-nvmph  Thetis.  From  the  name  of  his  father,  he  was 
often  called  Peli'des.  At  the  siege  of  Troy  he  was  pre-emi- 
nent for  courage,  strength,  and  swiftness,  but,  having  been 
offended  by  Agamemnon,  he  refused  to  fight.  When,  how- 
ever his  friend  Patroclus  had  been  killed,  he  returned  to  the 
war 'to  avenge  his  death.  He  slew  Hector  and  many  otlier 
Trojans.  According  to  a  poetic  legend,  his  motlier,  by  dip- 
ping him  in  the  river  Stvx.  liad  rendered  him  invulnerable 
in  every  part  except  his"  heel,  by  which  she  held  him.  He 
was  killed  with  an  arrow  by  Paris,  who  shot  him  in  the  heel. 

Achilles  Tatins:  autlior  (about  450  a.  d.)  of  a  popular 
Greek  romance.  The  Story  of  Leucippe  and  CUtophmi,  large- 
ly borrowed  from  the  still  more  popular  romance  of  Helio- 
dorus.  He  is  said  to  have  become  a  Christian  and  a  bisliop. 
but  the  immorality  of  his  work  is  peculiarly  heathen.  Achil- 
les is  distinctly  inferior  to  Heliodorus;  there  are  too  many 
speeches,  letters,  and  descriptions  of  works  of  art.  Edited, 
with  commentarv,  by  Fr.  Jacobs  (1821);  revised  text,  by 
Hercher,  1858 ;  translated  into  English  by  R.  Smith  (Bohn  s 
Classical  Library).    See  Rohde,  Qriechischer  Roman,  p.  472. 

B.  L.  GlLDERSLEEVE. 

Achil'les'  Ten'don,  or  Tendon  of  Achilles  (in  Lat. 
ten  do  Achil'Us):  the  tendon  which  connects  the  muscles  of 
the  calf  of  the  leg  with  the  bone  of  the  heel.  It  is  the 
strong  band  which  is  felt  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot 
behind  the  ankle.  The  name  is  given  in  allusion  to  the 
mythological  tale  of  the  famous  Grecian  warrior  Achilles, 
who  was  said  to  have  been  held  by  the  heels  by  his  mother 
Thetis  as  she  bathed  him  in  the  river  Styx  .-ihortly  after  his 
birth.  This  is  said  to  have  rendered  him  invulnerable  in 
all  parts  save  that  which  was  held  above  water,  and  his 
death  was  finally  caused  by  an  injury  to  tlie  heel.  Tliis 
tendon  plays  an  important  part  in  one  of  the  forms  of  club- 
foot in  which  it  becomes  contracted,  so  that  the  toe  is  kept 
permanently  drawn  downward.  W.  P. 

Achil'li,  Giovanni  Giacin'to.  Dr.:  Italian  Protestant; 
formerlv  a  Dominican  friar;  b.  at  Viterbo  in  1803.  He 
left  tlie'Roman  Catholic  communion  about  1839,  and  issued 
an  Italian  version  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  regarded 
by  some  as  the  best  in  that  language.  In  1850  he  went  to 
G'reat  Britain,  where,  as  "  Fatlier  Achilli."  lie  lectured  ex- 
tensivelv.  and  where  he  became  involved  in  a  lawsuit  (in 
1852)  which  he  brought  against  Dr.  John  Henry  Xewman 
for  slander.  The  case  was  tried  before  Lord  Campbell,  and 
a  verdict  given  for  the  phiintitl.  Dr.  Achilli  has  also  been 
Professor  of  tlie  Italian  Language  and  Literature  in  the 
English  College  at  Malta. 

Achin',  or  Aehecn' :  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  island 
of  Sumatra,  formerly  an  independent  state,  now  nominally 
a  Dutch  political  district  (see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  5-A). 
The  Dutch  declared  war  against  the  Sultan  of  Acliin  in  1873. 
ami  in  1878  they  formally  extended  their  aiiministration 
over  his  dominions.  As  an  administrative  district,  Achin 
consists  of  the  western  extremity  of  the  island  for  aliout  250 
miles,  and  includes  the  large  island  of  Labuan  on  the  S. 
and  manv  small  ones.  Area,  about  20,000  sq.  miles.  Pop., 
44.").0()0  niitives  (mostly  !Malav  in  origin),  2,000  Chinese,  and 
242  Europeans  (1891).  About  one-half  of  the  territory,  in 
the  interior  and  occupied  by  more  tlian  half  of  tlie  popula- 
tion, is  still  unconquered.    See  Sumatra.  M.  W.  H. 

AchroinaticrGr.  4-, without  +  x/>«M<».  color] :  transmitting 
light  without  decomposing  it  into  its  constituent  colors; 
applied  to  telescopes  and  microscopes,  the  objectives  of  which 
are  constructed  of  such  a  combination  of  glasses  as  will  re- 
fr,^ct  rays  of  all  colors  to  nearly  the  same  focus.  See 
Telescopb. 


ACID 

Achromatin  :  in  biology,  that  constituent  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  nucleus  of  a  cell  which  does  not  stain,  or  only 
slightly  so,  with  the  coloring  reagents.    See  Cell. 

Achro'niatism  [see  Achromatic]  :  absence  of  coloration. 
(See  Chromatic  Aberration  under  Aberration.)  A  prism 
of  flint  glass  will  cause  a  certain  amount  of  i-efraction  and 
of  dispersion,  and  if  a  similarlv  shaped  prism  of  the  same 
glass  be  placed  beliind  it,  in  the  reverse  position,  the  refrac- 
tion and  dispersion  in  one  direction  by  the  first  prism  will 
be  exactly  neutralized  by  the  refraction  and  dispersion  in 
the  opposite  direction  bvthe  second  prism,  and  as  a  result 
there  will  be  no  refraction  and  no  color.  But  suppose  a 
prism  of  crown  glass,  having  the  same  dispersion  as  the  one 
of  flint  glass,  be  placed  behind  the  latter  in  the  reverse  po- 
sition, the  two  dispersions,  being  opposite  and  equal,  will 
neutralize  each  other,  and  tlie  result  will  be  white  light ; 
but  the  mean  refractions  being  different,  they  will  not  neu- 
tralize each  other,  and  the  beam  of  light  will  pass  through 
achromatic,  or  almost  free  from  color,  but  refracted  more 
or  less.  As  a  lens  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  combination 
of  prisms  with  curved  surfaces,  achromatic  lenses  may  be 
produced  in  the  same  way  as  achromatic  prisms.  Abso- 
lute achromatism  is  perhaps  unattainable  by  art.  owing  to 
the  spectra  from  different  dispersive  media  not  having  an 
exact  proportionality  to  one  another.  Tliis  is  called  irra- 
tionality of  dispersion.  It  may  be  remedied  in  some  de- 
gree by'introducing  a  third  lens  of  plate  glass  in  addition 
to  the  flint  and  crown  glass  lenses.  An  under-corrected 
lens  is  one  in  which  the  correcting  lens  of  flint  does  not 
quite  accomplish  the  purpose,  and  the  violet  ray  will  come 
to  a  focus  a  little  within  the  red.  In  an  over-corrected 
lens  the  error  is  of  the  opposite  kind,  and  the  order  of 
colors  inverted. 

Acid  [Lat.  a'cidus,  sour] :  one  of  an  important  class  of 
chemical  compounds,  of  which  acetic  acid,  sulphuric  acid, 
hydrocliloric  acid,  nitric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  and  oxalic 
acid  are  well-known  examples.  In  general  terms,  all  acids 
have  an  acid  taste  ;  thev  have  the  power  to  change  certain 
vegetable  colors,  as  blue  litmus,  which  they  cliange  to  red  ; 
and.  further,  and  this  is  the  most  characteristic  property  of 
acids,  thev  form  compounds  known  as  salts  when  brought 
toi^ethcr  with  the  so-called  bases.  Some  compounds  have 
the  power  to  neutralize  acids,  and  are  themselves  neutralized 
at  the  same  time.  The  meaning  of  this  can  be  illustrated 
bv  taking  a  simple  case.  Hydrochloric  acid  acts  energeti- 
cally iiiion  many  things:  it  has  in  a  marked  degree  the 
properties  of  acids.  Sodium  hydroxide,  or,  as  it  is  also 
called,  sodium  hydrate  or  caustic  soda,  also  acts  energetically 
upon  many  things.  The  name  caustic  suggests  the  charac- 
ter of  the" substance.  Sodium  liyilrnxide  is  a  marked  ex- 
ample of  the  class  of  compounds  called  bases.  Now,  when 
hydrocliloric  acid  and  sodium  liydroxide  are  brought  to- 
getlier.  the  two  act  upon  each  other  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cause  the  formation  of  sodium  cliloride  and  water,  the 
marked  properties  of  both  the  acid  and  the  base  being  de- 
stroyed, both  being,  as  we  say,  neutralized. 

Iii  chemical  hinguage  the  diange  is  represented  thus  : 

HCl  -I-         NaOH  =         XaCl  +         H3O. 

Hydrocliloric         Sodium  Sodium  Water, 

acid.  hydroxide.  chloride. 

The  sodium  chloride  formed  is  the  substance  familiar  to  all 
as  salt.  It  has  none  of  tlie  striking  properties  of  the  acid 
and  base  from  wliich  it  is  derived. 

Whenever  an  acid  and  base  act  upon  each  other,  they  are 
neutralized,  and  a  salt  and  water  are  formed.  Tlie  salts 
thus  formed  differ  widely  from  one  another  in  their  proper- 
ties. Examples  are  pota.ssiuin  nitrate.  KNO3.  derived  from 
nitric  acid  and  potassium  hydroxide,  or  caustic  i)ota.sh  ; 
sodium  sulphate.  NajSO..  dcri'ved  from^  sulphuric  acid  and 
sodium  hydroxide:  sodium  carbonate.  NajCOs.  derived  from 
carbonic  "acid  and  sodium  hydroxide ;  copper  suljihate.  or 
"blue  vitriol."  CuSO«,  derived  from  sulphuric  acid  and 
copper  hydroxide. 

Acids  contain  hvdrogen  as  the  essential  constituent,  and 
most  of  them  contain  oxygen.  So  commonly  is  the  latter 
element  contained  in  thein  that  it  was  for  a  long  time  re- 
garded as  the  essential  constituent,  and  the  name  oxygen, 
from  the  Greek  6{us,  acid,  and  yiyeiy,  to  form,  is  a  reminder 
of  this  view. 

A  base  contains  a  metallic  element,  as  potassium,  sodium, 
calcium,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  together  with  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen.    Thus  the  substances  named  below  are  bases  : 


ACIDIMETER 


ACOUSTICS 


29 


Potassium  hyilroxiiio KOR. 

Sotlium  hydroxide NaOFT. 

Calcium  hydroxide Ca(OU)j. 

Ferric  hydroxide Fe(UlI)j. 

Copper  hydroxide ('u(OII)s. 

Zinc  hydroxide Zn(01i)j. 

When  a  salt  is  formed  from  an  acid  and  a  base,  the  metal 
•f  the  base  enters  into  the  acid  in  place  of  the  hydrogen,  and 
the  hydrogen  combines  with  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the 
base  to  form  water,  thus: 

nxo,  +        Koii  =        Kxo,  +         n,o. 

Nitric  aeid.  Potassium  Putassiurn  Water, 

hydroxide.  nitrate. 

ITjSO,  +  SXaOri  =         Xa,SO.  +  2TI,0. 

Sutpliuric  Sodium  Sodium  Water, 

acid.  hydroxide.  sulphate. 

Chemists  distinguish  lietween  strong  and  weak  acids. 
Among  the  strongest  are  the  three  well-known  ones,  hydro- 
chloric, nitric,  and  sulphuric  acid.s.  Horic  acid,  from  which 
borax  is  derived,  silicic  acid,  from  which  are  found  the  sili- 
cates, and  most  vegetable  acids,  such  as  citric,  tartaric,  oxalic, 
and  malic  acids,  are  weak.  These  ex|)ressions  are  not  gener- 
ally used  in  a  very  definite  sense,  but  their  meaning  is  clear 
enough  for  most  purposes.  Again,  acids  are  said  to  be 
monobasic,  dibasic,  tribasic,  etc.  Exam[)les  i>f  monobasic 
acids  are  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids;  of  ilibasic  acids, 
sulphuric  and  oxalic  acids;  and  of  tribasic  acids,  phosphoric 
acid : 

ITvdrochloric  acid 1  ICl. 

Xilric  acid IIXO3. 

Sulphuric  acid lI-j.SOj. 

Oxalic  acid 1  |.j( ',0,. 

Phos^ihoric  acid lljPOi. 

The  basicity  depends  upon  the  number  of  hydrogen  atoms 
in  the  nu)lecule.  If  there  is  but  one,  the  acid  is  monobasic  ; 
if  two  tluit  can  be  replaced  by  metallic  atoms,  the  acid  is  di- 
basic ;  it  three  that  can  be  replaced  by  metallic  . atoms,  the 
acid  is  tribasic.  Ik.\  Kemskn. 

Aeidini'i'tor  [from  Lat.  ac'idiim,  acid  +  Or.  /i^rpov,  meas- 
ure] :  an  instrument  for  determining  the  strength  of  an  acid 
by  its  saturating  power.  It  usually  consists  of  a  glass  tube 
graduateil  into  1(K)  ecjual  parts,  and  containing  an  al- 
kaline liquor  of  known  strength,  the  proportion  of  which 
requisite  to  saturate  a  given  <|uantity  of  any  acid  is  the 
equivalent  of  that  acid.  See  Chk.mic.\L  A.nalvsis  and  Vol- 
umetric Analysis  under  Analysis. 

Acipeiispr'idic:  See  Sturgeon. 

Acirci'llc.  aa-chee-ra-aa  lay :  a  town  and  .seaport  of  Sicily  ; 
in  the  province  of  Catania;  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Aci, 
near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Etna,  and  T  miles  by  rail  X.  E.  of  Ca- 
tania. (See  maf)  of  Italy,  rcf.  10-K).  It  is  built  mostly  of 
lava,  has  many  tnie  edifices,  and  is  an  important  health  re- 
sort. Here  are  mineral  springs  and  the  Cave  of  Polyphe- 
mus.    Pop.  35,000. 

Aek'Ipy:  railroad  j\inction,  Hardin  co..  In.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  4-11);  182  n\iles  \V.  of  Du- 
buque ;  has  five  churches,  a  convent  in  charge  of  the  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  and  a  soap-factory.  Poo.  (ISSO)  I..M7:  (1885)  1.47:}: 
(1890)1.286;  (18!)5)  1.458.  '        Euitor  of  "  Entkkprise." 

AckiKMvPodgnient:  in  law,  the  act  by  which  one  who 
has  executed  all  instrument  declares  or  acknowledges,  before 
some  aiith(M-ized  ollicer.  tliat  it  is  his  act  or  deed.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  ollicer's  certificate  of  this  fact  indorsed 
on  the  instrument.  The  general  object  of  an  acknowledg- 
ment is  twofold :  first,  to  comply  with  the  recording  acts,  so 
that  the  instrument  may  lie  iawfully  recorded  ;  secondly,  to 
give  the  instrument  such  authenticity  that  it  may  be  put  in 
evidence  in  courts  of  justice,  without  further  proof  of  its 
execution.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not  necessary  lo  the 
validity  of  the  iiislrumeni,  thougli  the  laws  of  some  of  the 
States  provide  that  a  wife's  conveyance  of  real  estate  or 
release  of  dower  is  invalid  unless  on  a  private  examination 
apart  from  her  liusl)aiid  she  acknowledges  that  she  executed 
it  freely  and  without  fear  or  compulsion  of  her  husliand. 
This  rul(!  is  borrowed  in  its  sul)stance  from  an  English 
practice  under  a  so-called  slalute  of  fines.  The  ofViccrs  gen- 
erally authorized  to  take  acknowledgments  are  judges  and 
clerks  of  courts,  mayors,  ju.stices  of  the  peace,  coininission- 
ers  of  deeds,  and  notaries  public. 

Acknowledgments  of  conveyances  of  real  estate  should 
correspond  in  form  with  the  requirements  of  the  law  of  the 


State  where  the  land  is  situated,  though  that  law  sometimes 
permits  them  to  be  valid  if  they  conform  to  the  law  of  the 
|>lace  where  they  are  executed.  T.  W.  Dwigiit. 

Ac'laiid,  He.nry  We.ntwobth,  M.  D.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S.: 
b.  in  1815;  educated  at  Christ  Church,  O.xford,  where  he 
took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  in  1848.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  University  Museum,  and  became  in  1858  Regius 
Professor  of  Medicine.  He  accompanied  the  Prince  of 
Wales  to  .Vmerica  in  181)0;  and  has  published  Tlie  Plains  of 
Tioij  (18li!))  and  a  valualile  Mniii/ir  on  the  Visitation  of 
Cliolera  in  Oxford  in  l^;j//,  besides  numerous  scientific  and 
medical  papers. 

Acoeme'ta)  [literally  the  sleepless,  from  Or.  aKof^rjTos, 
sleepless ;  a-,  ncjt  -f-  KotnaaBat,  fall  asleep] :  an  order  of 
monks,  .sometimes  called  Watchers,  which  was  founded  at 
Constantinople  early  in  the  fifth  century.  They  performed 
divine  service  day  and  night,  and  were  divided  into  three 
clas.ses,  each  of  which  had  its  share  of  duty.  They  estab- 
lished many  monasteries,  and  were  held  in  high  estimation. 
Studius.  a  l{oiniiii  nolile  ami  a  nuMubcr  of  this  order,  built  a 
monastery  called  Studium,  and  the  moiilis  were  stvled  Stu- 
dita>.  Having  afterward  favored  the  doctrines  of  Xestorius, 
their  credit  declined. 

Af'olyte  [Lat.  nrolytlmx  ncolitiifs  for  more  correct  acolu- 
thi(s  =  (.ir.  aK6\ovBos.  attendant  |:  the  liighest  of  the  four 
minor  orders  in  llie  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  acolyte 
assists  at  nia.ss  liy  i)reseiitiiig  the  wine  and  water  and  by 
carrying  the  lights.  The  order  is  nienfioned  by  Pope  Cor- 
nelius in  the  third  century,  and  must  still  be  received  by 
candidates  for  the  priesthood,  though  its  functions  are  often 
performed  by  laymen. 

Acoiiia  :  See  Keresan  Indians. 

Acoiu'a'glia :  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Andes ;  in 
Chili,  lat.  :«  8!l'  40"  S..  Ion.  70°  1'  43'  W.,  on  the  frontier 
between  Chili  and  the  Argentine  Repulilic.  Its  height  is 
22,422  feet  above  sea-level. 

Aconca'iTiia :  a  province  of  Chili;  bounded  N.  by  Co- 
quinibo.  E.  by  the  Argentine  Republic,  S.  by  Santiago  and 
Valparaiso,  \V.  by  the  Pacific.  Area,  5,840  sq.  miles.  This 
province  is  the  most  mountainous  part  of  Chili,  and  con- 
tains the  highest  peak  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  Aconcagua. 
The  climate  is  very  dry,  and  owing  to  the  high  mountain 
ranges  there  is  very  little  vegetation  in  this  province.  Pop. 
in  1878,135,190;  (1885)144,125;  (1891)156,636.  Chief  town, 
San  Felipe. 

Ac'onite:  a  plant  of  the  genus  .4com7Mm  and  the  fam- 
ily JiatKinculacpn^.  The  Old  World  contains  many  species 
of  this  genus,  some  of  them,  particularly  Aconilum  ferox 
of  India,  very  poisonous.  Aconitum  napellus,  or  monks- 
hood, a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  is  the  [ilant  which  yields 
most  of  the  aconite  used  in  medicine.  Several  species  oc- 
cur iutlie  U.S.  'J'lie  ■■  winferaconite"  (^™h//(/.v)  of  Europe 
is  of  the  same  family,  but  is  more  nearly  related  to  hellebore. 

Aconilia:  See  JIonksiiood. 

Ac'oriis  CaPainiis  (sweet  flag):  a  medicinal  plant  of  the 
family  Arareo-.  Its  aromatic  stem  (rlii/.ouia)  is  used  as  a 
stomachic  and  tonic.     It  is  a  native  of  both  continents. 

Acos'fa.  (tabrikl:  Jewish  reformer;  b.  in  1587  in  Oporto, 
Portugal :  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  but 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  embraced  the  faith  of  his  fa- 
thers, and  changed  his  name  to  Uriel.  He  was  condemned 
and  persecuted  as  a  heretic  by  the  rabbis,  and  died  by  sui- 
cide in  1047.  His  autobiograjihy  was  publisheil  in  Latin 
and  Geniiaii  in  1847. 

.Vfolylcdonoiis  PlaiitiS  [Gr.i-, without  +  K<yrvKiiiiiv,cnx>- 
shapcd  cavity,  from  kotuAt),  cup] :  an  old  term  applied  to  the 
fiowerless  (and  therefore  seedless)  plants,  as  ferns,  mosses, 
fungi,  etc.     It  is  now  rarely  used.       Charles  E.  Bessey. 

.Vcoiistics.  a-koos  tiks  [Or.  oMovaTiKSs.  pertaining  to  hear- 
ing; oKoifiv.  hear]:  the  study  of  the  nature,  the  production, 
and  the  [lerception  of  sound. 

.Strictly  speaking,  sound  is  a  sensation  which  is  produced 
when  vibrations  of  a  certain  character  are  excited  in  the  ati- 
ditory  apparatus  of  the  car.  These  vil)rations  are  generated 
by  progressive  tremors  in  the  atmosphere,  called  sound- 
waves, the  nature  of  which  we  shall  briefly  consider.  Let  it 
be  premised  that  the  particles  of  the  air,  and  of  all  elastic 
media,  are  ordinarily  maintained  in  a  state  of  equilibrium 
and  rest  by  mutually  repellent  forces.  If  any  jiarticle  bo 
disturbed  from  its  position  of  equilibrium,  it  must  be  by  an 
impulse  received  from  some  body  foreign  to  the  medium ; 


30 


ACOUSTICS 


and  when  so  disturbed  it  is  solicited  to  return  by  a  force  di- 
rectly proportioned  to  the  distance,  or  amplitude,  of  its  dis- 
placement from  tliiit  point.  Also,  the  velocity  witli  which 
it  will  be  animated  on  reacliing  in  its  return  the  point  of 
original  rest  will  be  directly  projjortioned  to  the  extreme 
amplitude  of  its  displacement :  so  that,  in  virtue  of  its  in- 
ertia, it  will  make  an  equal  and  similar  excursion  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  When  in  its  return  from  this  it  readies 
once  more  the  point  of  equilibrium,  it  will  have  passed  over 
the  entire  range  of  its  movement  in  botli  directions;  and 
this  is  said  to  constitute  one  complete  oscillation  or  double 
vibration. 

From  the  law  of  force  above  stated  the  following  deduc- 
tions are  made  by  the  lielp  of  the  calculus:  Put  a  to  repre- 
sent the  extreme  amplitude  of  displacement ;  V.  the  maxi- 
mum velocity  of  the  vibrating  particle  (the  velocity  with 
■which  tlie  particle  passes  the  point  of  equilibrium,  expressed 
by  the  distaiice  such  velocity,  continued  uniformly,  would 
carry  a  body  in  one  second  of  time) :  T,  the  time  of  a  com- 
plete double  vibration  ;  and  ir.  the  ratio  of  the  circumference 

to  the  diameter  of  the  circle.    Then  V  =  27r;=,  andT  =  27r:r; ; 

from  which  last  expression  it  appears  that  the  time  of  vibra- 
tion is  constant,  wliatever  be  the  amplitude  of  displacement, 
since  a  varies  directly  as  V. 

But  in  an  elastic  medium  one  particle  can  not  be  displaced 
from  the  position  of  equilibrium  witiiout  disturbing  the 
equilibrium  of  its  nearest  neighbors.  The  neighboring  par- 
ticle toward  which  it  is  driven  will  begin,  almost  but  not 
cjuite  in  the  same  instant,  to  move  in  the  same  direction : 
and  this  will  disturb  the  next,  and  through  it  the  third,  and 
so  on,  the  tremor  being  rapidly  propagated  throughout  the 
medium.  The  distance  to  which  this  tremor  will  have 
reached  when  the  particle  first  disturbed  has  completed  one 
entire  double  vibration  is  the  length  of  the  sound-wave,  or 
of  one  complete  undulation. 

The  relation  between  vibration  and  undulation  may  be 
made  more  clear  by  the  following  illustration.  Since  VT  is 
,  the  distance  accomplished  in  time,  T,  with  velocity,  V,  and 
since  VT  =  '2ira,  it  follows  that  it,  with  radius.  n  =  CA  or 
CB,  we  describe  a  circle,  ADBE,  a  particle,  p  ,  will  describe 
the  circumference,  ADBE.  with  ve- 
locity. V,  continued  uniform,  in  the 
siine  time.  T,  in  which  the  vibrat- 
ing particle  p  performs  a  complete 
doiilile  vibration  on  the  diameter 
AH.  If  p'  leaves  D  in  the  same  in- 
stant in  which  p  passes  C,  the  two 
will  be  together  at  B,  and  again  at 
A  ;  and  it  is  further  provable  that, 
at  any  intermediate  instant,  the  line 
jiiining  p  and  p'.  as  FG  or  IlK,  will 
ahvavs  be  parallel  to  CD.  and  ]:icr- 
pendieular  to  AB.  Also,  that  it  tiie 
arcs  of  revolution  be  reckoned  from  D,  and  the  time  from 
D  to  F,  or  from  D  to  H.  be  called  t,  the  distance  y  =  CG  or 
CK,  of  p  from  the  point  of  equilibrium,  C,  will  always  be 

representable  bv  the  formula  !/  =  o  sin  2  ir  = ;  and  the  veloc- 

■l  t 

ity,  V,  of  the  same  particle  will  always  be  w  =  V  cos  2  jrTp. 

Now  the  rapidity  of  the  propagation  of  the  tremor  through 
the  elastic  medium  is,  for  all  tremors  producing  the  sensa- 
tion of  sound,  vastly  greater  than  the  velocity  v  or  V;  and 
this  velocity  of  propagation  is  uniform,  although  the  several 
velocities  of  the  particles  of  the  medium  which  successively 
take  up  the  tremor,  diminish  with  the  increase  of  distance 
from  the  origin,  because  of  the  diffusion  of  the  exciting  force 
through  a  constantly  increasing  number  of  particles.  This 
diminution  for  iiuxlerate  distances  may  be  disregarded.  If 
the  foreign  body  which  disturl)s  p  he,  for  instance,  the  limb 
of  a  tuning-fork  making  .lOO  double  vibrations  per  second, 
the  time  of  dcscriliing  CB  will  be  but  the  2.00flth  part  of  a 
second.  During  this  time  the  tremor  in  the  air  will  advance 
more  than  G  inches,  wliile  C.\  will  hardly  exceed  ^'ath  of  an 
inch.  The  velocity  of  propagation  in  this  case  therefore 
exceeds  the  mean  velocity  of  vibration  more  than  240  times. 
But  if  weconsiiU'r  the  movement  of  p  through  CB  to  be  made 
up  of  an  indefinite  numtier  of  exceedingly  minute  elementary 
motions,  these  elementary  motions  will  have  all  the  different 
velocities  corresponding  to  the  possible  values  of  FG  be- 
tween C  and  B ;  and  each  one  of  these  velocities  will  be  suc- 
cessively transmitted  along  the  line  of  propagation,  one  be- 
hind the  other ;  so  that,  wlien  p  reaches  B  and  comes  to  rest, 


all  these  velocities  will  still  be  living  in  a  row  of  particles 
extending  over  a  distance  of  6  inches,  the  largest  being  fore- 
most, and  the  least,  which  is  zero,  being  that  of  the  particle 
p  itself.  As  p  returns  toward  C.  it  leaves  its  next  neighbor 
toward  the  right  partially  unsujjported,  and  that  neighbor- 
ing particle  follows  it.  There  occurs  then  a  second  series  of 
propagated  movements,  all  the  molecules  moving  in  the  re- 
turning direction,  though  the  tremor  advances,  forming  the 
wave  of  dilatation,  as  the  former  was  the  wave  of  compres- 
sion. Sound-waves  may  accordingly  be  represented  graph- 
ically by  a  curved  Une,  as  in  Fig.  2,  where  the  portion  of  the 


Fig.  2. 

curve  above  the  horizontal  straight  line  represents  the  wave 
of  compression,  and  the  part  below  the  wave  of  dilatation. 
The  ordinates  to  the  different  parts  of  this  curve  represent 
the  velocities  animating 

C  X  A 


the  particles  in  the  dif- 
ferent ]iarts  of  the  wave,    '                                        '             ' 
those  above  being  ad- 

vancing  velocities,  and        J 

those    below   receding. . • 

The  distance   between  x 

M  and  \  is  the  length  Fig.  3. 

of  a  complete  undula- 
tion, commonly  represented  by  \.  Then  if  r  (Fig.  3)  be 
taken  to  represent  any  distance  from  the  point  of  rest,  C, 
of  the  disturbing  or  sounding  body,  the  distance,  y,  of  the 
particle  at  x  from  its  place  of  equilibrium  will  be  expressed 
bv  the  formula 


y  =  a  sin 


and  the  velocity  animating  that  particle 
the  formula 


•  =  V 


iting  that  par 


at  the  instant  bv 


before,  and  put  x  - 


,  — ,  successively. 
4 


For  examples  under  the  first  formula,  let  f  =  )i  T  ;  i.  e.  let 
p  have  made  an  exact  number  of  complete  oscillations :  then 
by  giving  different  values  to  x  we  ascertain  the  condition  of 
corresponding  points  along  the  line.  Thus  if  x  =  0.  we  have 
y  =  0;  or  jj  is  at  this  moment  in  its  position  of  equilibrium. 

Making  .T  successivelv  =  ^,  -r,  ^,  -— ,A,2^A,andsubstitut- 
8  4  2  4 
iiig  these  values,  we  have  the  corresponding  values  of  y  equal 
to  —  a  -ffi.  —a.O.  +  a.O  ^  ;  positive  signs  indicating  displace- 
ment to  the  right,  and  negative  signs  the  reverse. 
For  examples  under  the  second  formula,  let  t=zn1,  as 
A    \  2\   7k  5\    \  7\ 

6'  3' Y'T'IT 
We  shall  then  have  v=  +  iV,  —  iV.  -  iV.  +  ^\Y,  —  iV, 
V,  0,  for  the  corresponding  velocities:  positive  signs  indi- 
cating movement  toward  the  right,  and  negative  signs  the 
reverse.  The  signs  of  displacement  and  movement  for  the 
same  particle  are  half  the  time  alike  and  half  the  time  un- 
like. 

Velocity  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Sound -Waves  in  the 
Air. — This  h.-is  been  the  subject  of  a  considerable  number 
of  experiments,  of  which  we  give  below  the  most  important. 
In  1822  a  determination  of  this  kind  was  undertaken  by 
some  members  of  the  French  Academy  ;  the  stations  selected 
were  at  Montlhery  and  Villejuif.  the  distance  l)eing  18.622'27 
meters.  Cannon'  were  alternately  discharged  at  the  two 
stations  at  night,  and  the  time  which  elapsed  between  the 
flash  and  the  perception  of  the  sound  noted.  On  the  first 
night  twelve  and  seven  shots  were  heard — on  the  second 
only  one.  The  result  was.  that  at  a  temperature  of  0°  C. 
sound  travels  with  a  velocity  of  331'2  meters  per  second.  It 
is  somewhat  strange  th.it  to  this  important  experiment  only 
two  nights  were  devoted.*  We  have  besides  this  the  more 
careful  experiments  of  Moll  and  Van  Beek  f  in  the  following 
year,  who  olitaincrl  for  their  result  at  0°  C.  332-0.5  meters  per 
second  :  and  finally  we  must  afid  the  experiments  of  Bra- 
vais  and  Martins.  {  who  measured  the  velocity  of  sound  in 
a  slanting  upward  direction  from  the  Lake  of  Brienz  to  a 
station  on  the  Faulhorn,  obtaining  as  result  at  0°  C.  a 

*  Jnn.  df  Chim.  et  de  Phyn..  t.  XX.  p.  SIO. 
+  Poge.  Ann.,  bti.  V.  ..f.  3.11  41)1). 
{  Pogg.  .411)1.,  b(I.  Ixvi.  s.  S51, 


ACOUSTICS 


31 


velocity  of  332"37.  This  last  experiment  is  interesting  as 
showini;  that  somul  travels  with  the  same  velocity  in  an  nn- 
ward  direction  as  on  a  level,  as  is  reijuircd  Ijy  the  formula 
of  Laplace. 

Kecciitly  several  pieces  of  apparatus  have  been  devised 
by  which  the  velocity  of  sound  can  be  measured  when  tlu- 
distance  traveleil  over  is  only  a  few  feet ;  so  that  it  is  now 
possible  to  make  this  experiment  in  a  small  apartment. 
Suppose  that  we  generate  a  sharp,  short  sound  at  the  open 
extremity  of  a  tube,  the  other  end  being  closed  by  a  mem- 
brane ;  tlic  sound-impulse,  reaching  the  closed  end  of  the 
tube,  would  announce  its  arrival  by  giving  the  membrane 
a  little  push  outward  ;  and  if  we  had  fastened  on  it  a  pen- 
cil, this  might  be  caused  to  make  a  nuirk  on  a  sheet  of 
{laper  at  the  same  instant.  Let  us  now  iuiagine  that  we 
lad,  near  each  other,  two  such  tubes,  the  second  one  l)eing 
longer  than  the  first,  but  bent  so  that  both  still  terminated 
side  by  side,  each  with  its  membrane  and  pencil,  and  that 
finally  our  sheet  of  paper,  instead  of  being  stationary,  were 
in  motion.  Then,  under  these  circinnstances,  the  sound- 
wave traveling  through  tlu'  shorter  tube  would  make  its 
mark  first,  and  the  paper  would  have  a  chance  to  move  a 
few  inches  before  receiving  the  pencil  mark  due  to  the 
companion  wave ;  and  if  we  knew  the  rate  of  the  paper's 
motion,  it  is  evident  that  we  could  easily  calculate  the 
velocity  with  which  the  sound  had  traveled  through  our 
apparatus.  This  general  explanation  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  principle  involved  in  a  number  of  new  contrivances, 
with  SOUK!  of  which  it  is  even  possible  to  experiment  at 
various  temperatures  and  on  other  gases  than  our  atmos- 
phere. A  simple  and  cheap  apparatus  of  this  kind  was, 
in  1S6G,  ilevised  by  Dr.  F)inst  Neumann,*  a  school-teacher 
in  Dresden  :  the  difference  in  the  j)alhs  of  the  sound-waves 
was  about  20  feet,  although  the  length  of  the  apparatus 
was  only  3  feet;  the  souiul  w.hs  generated  by  the  discharge 
of  a  child's  brass  cannon.  The  paper  w:is  attacthed  to  a 
circular  disk  arranged  with  a  handle,  which  enabled  the 
experimenter  to  revolve  it  with  a  velocity  of  oidy  one 
turn  per  second,  which  was  roughly  accomplished  by  wat<'h- 
ing  a  seconds  pendulum,  cousi.sting  of  a  liall  attached  to  a 
string  having  a  length  such  as  to  cause  it  to  vibrate  sec- 
onds. The  mean  of  a  number  of  experiments  gave  a  result 
far  more  accurate  than  would  have  been  expected.  L'sing 
the  same  general  idi-.-i,  but  causing  the  souiui-wavcs  to  act 
on  little  ga.s-lau'ners  connected  with  the  two  meuibranes,  in 
the  same  year  Ivan  Zoeh.f  in  Erlangen,  contrived  a  far 
more  delicate  instrument,  with  which  he  obtained  results 
rivaling  those  of  the  French  Academy  in  1822,  although 
in  his  ciuse  the  dilTerence  of  the  paths  was  only  8  or  4 
feet.  With  it  he  measured  the  veloctity  in  various  gases, 
and  by  driving  a  ciu'rent  of  air  through  during  the  experi- 
ment was  actually  able  to  ascertain  the  change  due  to  this 
cause.  A  somewhat  similar  idea  was  used  in  this  fruitful 
year  by  Prut",  t^uineke, |  of  Berlin,  in  a  very  beautiful  con- 
trivance, where,  unlike  tlie  two  preceding,  the  signal  was 
given  not  to  the  eye  but  to  the  ear,  the  two  sounds  being 
raiide  to  destroy  each  other,  producing  silence  in  a  nnmner 
presently  to  be  explained.  With  this  instrument  Dr.  See- 
Decks'  has  proved  that  in  xmall  tubes  sound  travels  slower 
than  in  the  opi'u  air.  i)artly.  as  it  would  .-ieem.  owing  to 
friction,  and  jiartly  to  loss  of  heat  developed  by  the  sound- 
wave itself  through  con<luction  by  the  walls  of  the  tube. 
He  has  also  shown  that  in  amnll  tubes  the  velocity  is  less 
in  the  case  of  deep  notes  than  with  those  which  are  iiigher. 
Laplace's  formula  for  the  velocity  of  sound  in  gases  and 
vapors  is  /(lk77 

t>=the  number  of  meters  traversed  by  the  sound-wave  in 
a  second  of  time;  ^  =  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity  = 
9'8U88  meters ;  h  =  the  height  of  the  mercury  in  the  ba- 
rometer reduced  to  the  height  it  would  have  at  0°  C. ;  d  = 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas,  mercury  at  0°  being  taken  as 
unity;  K  =  tlie  ijuotient  of  the  .specific  heat  of  the  gas  at 
a  constant  pressure,  divided  by  its  specific  heat  at  a  con- 
stant volume  =  1'42.  It  is  seen  from  this  formula  that  the 
velocity  is  directly  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the 
pressure  the  gas  is  under,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 

•  Poff^.  .'tail.,  cxxviii.  s.  ."^or. 

t  Po^ff.  Ann.,  cxxviii.  s.  407. 

t  Pog^.  Ann.,  cxxviii.  s.  177. 

§  Pncrer.  Ann.,  cxxxix.  s.  104.  Compare  also  the  experiments  nf 
Repnanlt  on  this  subject  (Comp.  Rend.,  t.  Ixvi.  p.  209);  also  thnsp 
of  Kundt  (Poee.  Ann.,  cxxx.  s.  S-'iV) ;  and  Anally  those  of  Schneebeli 
(Pogg.  Ann.,  cxxxvi.  s.  iS6). 


square  root  of  its  specific  gravity.  It  is  evident  also  that 
the  velocity  is  independent  of  the  height  of  the  barometer, 
for  a  change  in  the  barometer  affects  not  only  h  in  the  nu- 
merator, but  also  (/  in  the  denominator,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  value  of  the  fraction  remains  constant.  Xo  term  re- 
lating to  the  distance  of  the  sounding  body  entci-s  the  for- 
mula; hence  the  velocity  is  independent  of  the  distance — 
that  is,  of  the  amplitude  of  the  sound-wave.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  convenient  formula  for  calculating  tlie  velocity  of 
sound  in  air  at  various  temperatures : 

V  =  333.  JI  y  1  +  «  ' ; 
o  =  coefficient  of  expansion  of  air  for  1°  ('.  =  ()'00o66.5;  t  = 
the  temperature  in  degrees  of  the  centigrade  scale;  M 
standing  for  meters.  It  was  also  found  experimentally 
that  sound  moves  quicker  with  the  wind  and  slower  against 
it;  the  final  velocity  being  in  the  one  case  equal  to  the 
sum.  in  the  other  equal  to  the  difference,  of  the  velocity  of 
wind  and  that  of  the  sound-wave  it.self.  In  gases,  the  ve- 
locity of  sound,  of  course,  as  indicated  by  the  formula, 
increa.ses  with  the  temperature  :  in  air  this  increase  is  about 
2  feet  per  second  for  each  degree  eentigradi'.  The  velocity 
of  sound  in  oxygen  gas  at  0°  ('.  is  1,040  feet;  in  carbonic 
acid,  858  feet ;  in  hydrog<'n..4,164  feet. 

In  1827  Colladoii  and  Sturm  determined  experimentally 
the  velocity  of  sound  in  fresh  water.  The  ex])eriinenl.  was 
made  on  Lake  Geneva,  and  it  was  found  to  be  4,714  feet  per 
second  at  a  temperature  of  15°  C.  Laplace  has  also  given 
a  formula  for  the  velocity  of  sound  in  liquids  : 

g  as  before  =  9'8088  meters,  and  \  is  the  amount  which  a 
column  of  the  liquid  one  meter  long  shortens  under  a  pres- 
sure equal  to  its  own  weight ;  it  hence  is  necessary  to  deter- 
mine the  compressibility  of  the  liquid  in  order  to  employ 
this  formula,  as  the  velocity  is  inversely  proportioiud  to 
the  square  root  of  the  compressibilitv.  The  velocity  of 
sound  in  alcohol  at  20°  C.  is  4,218  feet ;  "in  ether,  at  0°,  3,801 ; 
in  sea-water,  at  20°  C.  4.768. 

The  velocity  of  sound  in  solids  can  be  calculated  by  this 
last  formula,  and  can  also  be  experimentally  deterinmed; 
that  in 

At  20  C°.  At  100°. 

Oohl      is    5,717 5,640. 

Lead     is    4.030 3,951. 

Copper  is  11,666 10,S02. 

Iron       is  16,822 17.386. 

The  Inten.iifi/  nf  jSouvd  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance  of  the  sounding  body  from  the  ear;  it  is  also 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  amjilitude  of  the  sound- 
wave. Thus  far  we  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  a  pho- 
nometer or  instrument  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  llie 
relative  intensities  of  two  sounds  or  sets  of  .sound-waves; 
hence  we  must  regard  with  interest  the  step  taken  in  this 
direction  by  Prof.  A.  M.  Mayer,  of  Iloboken.  who,  by  em- 
ploying small  vibrating  flames  and  the  [irinciple  of  inter- 
ference, succeeded  in  solving  this  problem  in  cei  tain  cases. 
For  details  we  nnist  refer  the  reader  lo  the  original  article 
published  in  the  January  number  of  the  Americcui  Journal 
of  Scieitcf  and  Arf.^,  1873. 

liefieclum  of  Sound. — The  waves  of  sound  can  be  reflected 
like  the  waves  of  light,  and  obey  the  same  law,  the  angle  of 
incidence  l)eing  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection;  this  can  be 
proved  indirectly  with  the  aid  of  spherical  <ir  |)arab(ilic  nur- 
rors,  th(aigli,  from  the  circumstance  that  the  sound-waves 
are  large  relatively  to  such  reflecting  surfaces  as  can  be 
used,  till' exieriuu'Uls  arc  far  more  dillicult  than  with  the 
almost  iulinilely  shorter  waves  of  light  The  author  has  re- 
cently contrived  a  new  method  by  wnich  the  reflection  of 
sound  can  be  studied,  and  the  relative  reflecting  p<iwers  of 
different  substances  examined.  A  circular  disk  with  cpen 
and  closed  sectors,  or  with  sectors  of  different  materials,  is 
made  to  revolve  rather  slowly  near  a  sounding  reed,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  sound  is  from  time  to  time  re-enforced  byre- 
flection.  The  result  is  that  a  sound  resembling  "the  beats" 
is  produced,  these  alternations  of  souml  and  comparative 
silence  disappearing  when  the  disk  is  made  complete,  or 
when  its  alternate  sectors  are  composed  of  substances  having 
the  same  power  of  reflectitm.  The  same  ar)paratus  can  be 
used  to  determine  the  relative  powers  of  different  bodies  for 
the  transmi.-ision  of  sound.  Echoes  are  ca.«es  of  the  reflec- 
ti(m  of  sound,  and  the  wonderful  power  of  very  long  tubes 
in  conveying  sounds  to  a  great  distance  is  due  to  the  same 
property. 


32 


ACOUSTICS 


Refraction  of  Sound. — Sound-waves  can  be  refracted  or 
bent  out  of  their  course  by  denser  or  rarer  bodies  in  a  man- 
ner corresponding  to  light ;  tliis  can  be  demonstrated  by  the 
use  of  a  large  lens  of  carbonic  acid  inclosed  in  a  thin  mem- 
brane, when  it  will  be  found  that  the  sound-waves  from  a 
watch  will  be  concentrated  just  as  a  glass  lens  concentrates 
the  rays  of  light.  Recently  the  refraction  of  sound  has  been 
directly  studied  with  a  prism,  according  to  the  method 
which  "has  long  been  used  in  light.  Prof.  C.  Ilajech  gener- 
ated sound-waves  in  the  interior  of  a  box,  b,  by  the  aid  of  a 
bell  which  was  struck  by  clockwork ;  traveling  along  a  tube, 
/,  they  reached  the  prism,  P,  and  were  refracted  by  it  as  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  4.    The  amount  by  which  they  were  bent  out 


Fio.  4. 

of  their  path  was  ascertained  by  moving  the  ear  over  the 
graduated  circle,  cc,  which  was  in  an  adjoining  room  till  the 
position  of  maximum  intensity  had  been  ascertained.  The 
sides  of  the  prism  were  made  of  thin  membrane,  of  paper,  or 
finally  of  sheets  of  mica.  Experiments  were  performed  on 
hydrogen,  ammonia,  illuminating  gas,  carbonic  acid,  and  on 
sulphurous  acid  gas.  Besides  these  gases,  two  liquids  were 
also  employed — ordinary  water  and  water  saturated  with 
common  salt.  Among  other  results  it  was  found  that  the 
same  prism  refracted  waves  of  different  lengths  (or  different 
tones)  alike.  The  results  of  these  measurements  corre- 
sponded with  those  indicated  by  the  known  velocities  of 
sound  in  the  substances  employed,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  explanation  of  refraction  as  given  in  the  undulatory 
theory  of  sound. 

Sound -Waves  rendered  Visible. — Quite  recently  this  feat 
has  been  accomplished  by  the  German  physicist  Topler,  who 
employed  the  snap  of  an  electric  spark  for  the  generation  of 
the  sound-wave,  and  then  illuminated  it  by  the  instantane- 
ous light  of  a  second  spark.  He  was  thus  not  only  able  to 
see  with  distinctness  a  simple  sound-wave,  but  also  to  ob- 
serve its  reflection,  refraction,  and  the  interference  of  two 
sound-waves.     (Pogg.  Ann.,  cxxxi.  s.  ISO.  1867.) 

Inflection  of  Sound -Waves. — Prom  the  circumstance  that 
the  sound-waves  are  not  minute  relatively  to  the  obstacles 
they  encounter,  it  happens  that  they  manifest  this  property 
of  traveling  arovuid  corners  in  a  high  degree.  The  corre- 
sponding experiments  with  light  require  some  care,  but  the 
inflection  of  sound-waves  is  something  that  we  with  diffi- 
culty escape  from,  obstacles  placed  in  their  path  casting  but 
little  acoustic  shadow. 

Interference  of  Sound  -Waves. — Thus  far  we  have  occu- 
pied ourselves  with  single  sets  of  w.aves,  and  have  suppo.sed 
the  particles  of  air  to  be  acted  on  by  only  one  wave  at  a 
time.  It  will,  however,  more  commonly  happen  that  it  is 
necessary  to  deal  with  particles  which  are  at  the  same  in- 
stant being  acted  on  by  more  than  a  single  wave.  Let  us 
take  the  simplest  case,  and  suppose  oar  particles  acted  on 
by  two  equal  and  similar  sound-waves;  now,  it  may  happen 
under  these  circumstances  that  the  two  waves  agree  in  their 
action,  any  particular  layer  of  air  being  at  the  same  moment 
subjected  to  a  condensation  or  rarefaction  from  both  these 
sources.  When  this  happens  the  motion  of  its  particles  will 
be  twice  as  great,  and  we  shall  hear  a  louder  sound.  But 
something  else  is  equally  likely  to  occur:  it  may  happen 
that  just  at  the  moment  when  the  layer  ought  to  be  con- 
densed by  one  wave,  its  ciiiTii>anion  attempts  to  rarefy  orex- 
pand  it  ;  thi'se  two  motions  will  then  neutralize  eacli  other, 
and  instead  of  so\ind  we  shall  have  silence.  This  can  be 
illustrated  with  two  similar  organ-pipes  which  give  exactly 
the  same  note;  soiuiding  them  both  together  may  give  a 
louder  tone,  or  oik?  which  is  quite  faint.  If  dosed  organ- 
pipes  are  usc^d.  the  silence,  as  far  as  the  musical  note  is  con- 
cerned, is  quite  ciiruplete.  nothing  Init  the  hoarse  noise  which 
is  always  mingled  with  it  being  perceptible.     We  can  com- 


bine both  these  experiments  into  a  single  one  by  employing 
organ-pipes  which  give  slightly  different  tones;  it  now  both 
sets  of  waves  start  fairly  together,  the  condensations  and 
rarefactions  being  in  harmony,  this  state  of  things  can  not 
long  remain,  owing  to  the  inequality  in  their  length,  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.   5,  where  condensation  is  marked  heavily, 


I  I  I  I  M  I 

I  nil  nil 


Fig.  5. 

rarefaction  lightly.  Already  at  1  the  condensation  coincides 
with  the  rarefaction ;  farther  on,  at  2,  the  old  state  of  things 
has  returned ;  and  the  condition  at  iJ  is  the  same  with  that 
at  1.  Hence  in  this  experiment  we  must  expect  to  have 
alternations  of  sound  and  silence,  the  tone  rising  and  swell- 
ing to  a  maximum,  tlien  dying  away  again  to  repeat  itself, 
etc.  These  alternations  are  called  beats,  and  furnish  even 
to  the  unmusical  ear  a  very  accurate  means  of  judging  of 
the  identity  of  musical  tones.  Having  considered  briefly 
these  general  properties  of  sound-waves,  we  pass  on  to  some 
of  their  distinguishing  characteristics.  Among  the  most 
important  of  tliese  is — 

Length  of  Sound -Waves. — The  pitch  of  the  note,  other 
tilings  being  equal,  depends  on  the  length  of  the  wave ; 
long  waves  give  low  notes — short  waves,  those  that  are 
higli.  The  longest  waves,  in  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  0°  C, 
wliich  are  capalale  of  producing  the  sensation  of  sound,  have 
a  length  of  about  66  feet.  The  tone,  from  a  musical  point  of 
view,  is  imperfect,  and  in  order  to  remove  tliis  defect  en- 
tirely it  is  necessary  to  sliorten  the  wave  to  about  27J  feet. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  waves  are  reduced  to  a  length 
of  three  or  four  tenths  of  an  inch,  they  again  become  inaudi- 
ble ;  to  have  a  useful  musical  effect  their  length  must  be 
increased  to  about  3'3  inches.  Instead  of  speaking  of  the 
length  of  the  sound-waves,  which  e^■idently  must  vary  with 
temperature,  it  is  more  customary  to  use  the  number  of  vi- 
brations producing  a  given  sound  ;  thus,  as  sound  travels  at 
the  rate  of  1,090  feet  per  second  in  the  air  at  0°  C,  it  fol- 
lows that  a  wave  66  feet  long  will  execute  in  a  second  16^ 
vibrations,  and  one  which  is  27J  feet  long.  40  vibrations,  etc. 
We  give  below  a  table,  ai'ranged  in  octaves,  of  the  number 
of  vibrations  of  the  notes  iised  in  music  : 


16i      33      66       132 


264      528      1056     3112      4234 


c 

C 

C 

c 

c 

c 

c 

c 

c 

CT, 

C 

C 

c 

o' 

c" 

c'" 

c"" 

c" 

C" 

C 

C 

0 

c' 

c" 

c'" 

c"" 

c" 

c. 

c, 

C 

c 

c, 

Cj 

Ca 

Cl 

C6 

c-3 

c-2 

e-1 

c» 

c' 

c2 

(.3 

C4 

c' 

Ut-j 

Ut-i 

ut-, 

Utj 

Ut3 

Ut, 

uts 

Ute 

ut 

As  will  be  seen,  several  modes  of  notation  are  employed, 
the  last  being  the  French — that  preceding,  the  method  pro- 
]iosed  by  Sondhaus  for  scientific  )iur])Oses.  In  large  organs 
C  with  16i vibrations  is  reached,  the  effect  being  imperfect; 

the  piano  reaches  a  with  8,520  vibrations,  and  sometimes  c 
with  4.224.  The  highest  note  employed  in  the  orchestra  is 
ds,  with  4,752  vibrations  (piccolo  flute).  The  practical  range 
in  music  is  from  40  to  4.000  \ibrat ions,  embracing  seven 
octaves.  The  human  car  is,  however,  alile  to  reach  eleven 
octaves:  that  is,  the  sensation  of  sound  is  produced  by  vi- 
brations varying  from  16+  up  to  38,000  in  a  second. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  measure  the  length  of  tlie  .sound-waves 
or  the  number  of  vibrations  producing  them;  a  very  simple 
means  is  with  the  sirene  of  t'agniard  (le  Latour.  This  instru- 
ment consists  of  a  circular  revolving  disk,  C  F  (Fig.  6),  which 
is  provided  with  fifteen  small  ajiertures  cut  in  its  substance 
in  a  slanting  direction;  belnw  this  disk  is  a  second  one, 
which  is  stationary,  and  also  provided  with  a  similar  set  of 
holes.  When  air  is  driven  through  the  ap]iaratus  by  a  wind- 
bellows  the  upper  disk  is  set  in  rotation  after  the  manner  of 
a  reaction  mill,  which  has  the  effect  of  rapidly  opening  and 
closing  the  set  of  apertures,  so  that  when  a  sufficient  velocity 
of  rotation  has  been  attained,  tlie  i>ulses  of  air  rushing 
througli  ]iroducc  a  low  musical  note,  the  pitch  rising  with 
the  velocity  or  niimlier  of  vibrations  coniniiinicated  to  the 
air  in   a  second.     Upon  the  axis  is  an  endless  screw,  E  H, 


ACOUSTICS 


33 


which,  actinfj;  on  n  toothed  wheel,  S,  registers  the  number 
of  turns  made  by  it  in  a  given  time — suy,  in  fifteen  seconds. 
In  using  I  his  apparatus  it  is  only  noecssai-y  to  raise  the  pitch 
of  the  note  furnished  by  it  till  it  is  in  unison  with  the  note 


Fio.  8. 

whose  nuiiilii'r  nf  vibrations  we  wisli  to  deternu'ne.  If,  then, 
tliis  unison  is  iiiaintaiiu'd  for  fifteen  seconds,  we  can,  with- 
out calrulat  ion.  read  the  rei|uiro<l  nuMil)cr  of  vil)rations  di- 
rectly on  llie  dial-plate  of  the  sirene  ;  then,  by  dividing  tlie 
velocity  of  sound  in  tlie  air  by  this  luiiiiber,  we  have  tlie 
length  of  t tie  wave.  In  the  case  of  a  tuning-fork  tlie  num- 
ber of  vibrations  can  be -Still  more  directly  ascertained  by 
attaching  to  one  of  its  arms  a  small  ]>ieee  of  fine  wire  or 
a  minute  portion  of  a  fe;ither,  and  causing  this  to  act  as  a 
lien  on  a  revolving  cylinder.  'I'his  latter  is  covered  by  a 
sheet  of  paper  whicli  has  been  smoked  l)y  burning  camphor, 
and  when  set  in  revcilulion  regist<'rs  tlie  vibrations  made  by 
the  tuning-fork  on  the  lampblack  surface.  .Seconds  mark's 
are  simultaneously  impressed  on  the  smoked  paper  by  an 
electro-magnetic  attachment;  so  that  afterward  it  is  not 
difiicult  to  obtain  the  desired  result  with  a  high  degree  of 
accuracy.  There  are  also  other  methods  of  measuring  the 
length  of  soiiiid-w.'ivi's,  based  on  I  lie  principle  of  interfer- 
ence, and  I'rof.  Mayer,  of  Iloboken,  lias  succeeded  in  mea.s- 
iiring  wave-lengths  in  the  air.  (Aiiivrican  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence and  Arts,  for  Nov.,  \STi.  p.  387.) 

Tlie  Form  of  a  Sound -Wdve. — In  all  that  ha.s  preceded, 
and  also  in  the  formulas  for  the  sound-wave,  we  have  as- 
sumed that  the  particles  of  air  swing  liackward  and  forward, 
obeying  the  law  of  the  i>endiiliiiii ;  .-iiid  this  is  true  for  pure, 
simple  tones,  such  as  1  hose  I'uriiislied  by  I  uiiing-l'orks.  Tlie  ear 
is  so  constructed  as  to  be  able  to  take  up  lliese]iendulum-like 
vibrations,  wliicli  then  produce  appropriate  sensations  in  tlie 
brain,  but  it  is  not  capable  of  directly  taking  up  vilirations 
which  are  executed  accorditig  to  laws  dill'erent.  from  that 
of  the  peiiihilum.  Let  us  take  a  simple  case,  and  suppose 
the  air  acted  on  by  two  pendulum-like  .sets  of  impulses,  due 
to  the  joint  action  of  two  tuniiig-rorks,  one  of  which  in  a 
second  executes  twice  as  many  vibrations  as  the  other.  The 
particles  of  air  will  tliiMi  obey  a  lU'W  law,  and  will  assume 
positions  and  velocities  which  are  the  rcauUants  due  to  the 
action  of  the  two  original  forces,  and  the  form  of  the  wave 
will  be  entirely  altered.  When  this  new  kind  of  wave 
strikes  uiion  the  ear  it  is  instantly  analyzed  into  its  two 
constituents,  which  independently  affect  their  corresponding 
nerve-fibrils,  and  a  peculiar  sensation  is  nrodiK'cd,  due  to 
the  |ireseiice  of  two  distinct  sensations;  indeed,  as  llelm- 
lioltz.  to  whom  we  owe  these  interesting  facts,  has  shown,  it 
is  ]iossible  after  some  practice  to  actually  recognize  the  two 
original  constituents.  If  we  add  a  third,  a  fourth,  or  any 
number  of  new  sets  of  impulses,  the  law  changes  with  each, 
an<l  also  the  resulting  form  of  the  wave,  and  conseipiently 
the  final  .sensation,  t'onversely,  if  by  any  other  means  we 
generate  waves  having  forms  not  norninl,  and  present  them 
to  the  ear.  they  will  instantly  lie  analyzed  into  a  sufficient 
number  of  normal  furms  to  meet  the  requirement,  and  a 
corres[ioniliiig  number  of  .sensations  will  be  produced.  For 
example,  reed-pipes,  or  a  reed  alone,  furnish  waves  with  an 
abiKjrmal  fcu'm,  and  the  sound  from  them  is  analyzed,  as 
llelmhollz  lias  shown,  by  the  ear  into  sixteen  to  twenty  sets 
of  normal  waves  or  pure  simple  tones.  We  may  add  here 
that,  as  in  this  example.it  is  not  necessary  that  these  dis- 
tinct sets  of  waves  or  noli's  should  be  indi'pendently  gener- 
ated, l)ut  merely  that  the  original  wave  should  have  a  form 
capable  of  being  aiiidyzi'd  into  these  simple  constituents. 
Even  the  form  of  the  wave  furnished  by  the  sirene  is  not 


normal;  along  with  its  proper  or  fundamental  note  the 
octavo  is  inrtualli/  present  m  an  amount  which  is  often 
somewhat  emliari'a.ssing  These  higher  notes,  which  accom- 
pany the  proper  or  fundamental  tone,  are  called  overtones, 
or  harmonicals.  and  it  is  their  presence  which  determines 
the  quality  of  the  siumd,  or  its  timbre  or  clang-tint.  In  the 
ease  of  tuning-forks  the  overtones  are  absent,  lience  the 
hollow  and  somewhat  poor  character  of  the  sounds  they 
emit;  with  closed  organ-]>ipes  they  are  scarcely  present  to 
any  extent,  though  more  so  with  open  pipe.s,  where  the  first 
and  second  overtones  can  be  distinctly  recognized — i.e.  the" 
octave  and  the  twelfth.  In  reed-jiipes  they  are  present  in 
great  abundance  and  strength,  so  as  quite  to  ciiange  the 
character  of  the  fundanuMital  note ;  the  same  is  true  of 
stringed  itistruments.  It  is  the  presence  of  these  overtones 
whieh  enables  us  to  distinguish  between  different  instruments, 
even  when  sounding  the  same  fundamental  note,  and  finally 
which,  as  we  shall  .see,  enables  us  to  recognize  the  voices  of 
dilfereiit  persons  under  similar  conditions.  Our  in.'ibility  to 
distinguish  at  once  the  presence  of  particular  overtones  is 
simply  the  result  of  want  of  practice,  and  is  shared  alike 
by  the  musical  and  unmusical.  This  can  be  corrected  by 
practice,  or  by  the  use  of  the  resonators  contrived  by  llelm- 
holtz.  These  instruments  have  usually  the  form  of  a  hol- 
low sphere,  open  at  both  ends  <if  its  diameter;  one  of  these 
openings  has  a  shape  adapting  it  for  insertion  into  the  ear; 
the  other  aperture  is  larger,  its  siz(t  being  determined  by  ex- 
periment. The  size  of  this  o]ieiiing  and  tlu^  capacity  of  the 
sphere  are  so  related  that  when  the  sphere  is  placed  in  con- 
nection with  the  ear  the  experimenter  is  rendered  compara- 
tively deaf  to  all  notes  but  one,  I  he  strength  of  this  latter  being 
greatly  exalted  by  the  instrument.  The  analysis  of  which 
we  have  just  spoken  was  to  a  great  extent  effected  liy  the  aid 
of  these  contrivances,  a  large  number  of  these  s])heres  being 
of  course  necessary  for  purjioses  of  investigatiim.  We  may 
adil  here  that  Mr.  H.  Koenig,  so  celebrated  for  his  beautiful 
acoustic  apjiaratus,  has  pusluMl  this  matter  one  step  further, 
and  by  connecting  these  resonators  with  manometric  cap- 
sules and  small  gas-fiames  has  succeeded  in  rendering  visi- 
ble the  phenomena  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  thus 
enabling  a  jicrscm  who  is  deaf  still  to  pursue  these  investi- 
gations. 

Cause  of  Dissonance  or  Discord. — This  jieeuliar  eflect, 
which  sometimes  attends  the  reception  of  two  or  more  sets 
of  sound-waves,  has  also  recently  been  explained  by  the  in- 
vestigations of  Ilelmholtz,  which  have  thrown  a  flooil  of 
light  on  this  obscure  subject.  It  has  for  a  long  time  been 
known  that  when  two  sets  of  sound-waves  arc  simultaneous- 
ly presented  to  the  car,  the  relation  between  their  length 
being  in  some  simple  ]iro]iortion.  such  as  1  :  2,'i:  ii,  3  :  4,  or 
4:  5.  an  agreeable  etfect  is  produced,  the  sounds  seeming  to 
melt  into  each  oilier,  ]iroduciiig  what  is  known  as  conso- 
nance; while,  on  the  other  hand,  more  complicated  relations 
often  generate  discord.  To  account  for  this,  many  fanciful 
theories  have  been  proposed,  of  which  we  will  merely  allude 
to  that  of  Leibnitz,  who  imagined  that  the  mind  delighted 
in  the  perception  of  simple  matlieinatieal  relations,  and  was 
disph'.-isi-d  by  the  reverse  I  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  sav 
that  this  is 'not  the  true  explanation,  which  we  must  seek 
in  certain  relations  of  the  nerves  of  sensation  to  external 
stimulating  causes.  The  nerves  of  vision,  touch,  ami  hear- 
ing are  endowed  with  the  following  property  :  when  stimu- 
lated, the  sensation  produced  is  at  the  first  instant  at  a 
maximum,  and  ra]iidly  becomes  less  intense;  if,  however, 
the  nerves  are  allowed  to  rest  for  small  intervals  of  time, 
they  quickly  regain  their  former  seniiitiveness,  and  this 
process  may  be  rc|iealed  indefinitely.  If.  now.  we  e.xpo.se 
the  eye,  for Cxample.  to  light,  we  obtain  the  maximum  .sen- 
sation; then  the  periodic  withdrawal  and  retiuMi  of  the 
light  may  readily  be  so  arranged  as  to  produce  in  succes- 
sion a  long  series  of  these  maxima  of  sensation,  which 
quicklv  become  disagreeabli',  and  even  maybe  dangerous; 
it  is  the  case  of  a  fiickcring  light,  whose  bad  effects  are  so  well 
known.  The  sensation  of  tickling  is  strictly  analogous  to 
the  above,  and  is  produced  by  corresponding  causes.  The 
nerves  have,  however,  another  well-known  |iroperty;  after 
stimulation  the  sensation  jiroduced  is  found  to  remain,  or 
"pcrsi.st,"  for  a  minute  interval  of  time  with  undiminislied 
strength  ;  so  that  in  the  case  of  lightand  sound,  if  the  succes- 
sive .stimulations  follow  each  other  at  sutllciently  rapid  inter- 
vals, t  liese  evil  effect s  are  nat urally  abolished,  and  only  cont  in- 
uous  sensations  are  ])ereeive<l.  Discord  is, then, as  llelmhollz 
has  a.seertained.  due  to  the  presence  of  the  beats,  or  to  Tii]M 
alternations  of  sound  and  comparative  silence,  they  corre- 


3-i 


ACOUSTICS 


sponding:  to  tlie  flickcrings  of  a  flame.  When  from  any 
cause  these  beats  foUow  each  other  at  the  rate  of  about  33 
in  a  second,  the  discord  is  at  its  maximum,  becoming  more 
tolerable  witli  twice  this  number,  and  finally  disappearing 
altogether  as  tlicir  number  is  increased  to  about  120  in  a 
Becond.  On  the  other  hand,  if  tlie  beats  follow  quite  slowly 
' — for  example,  at  the  rate  of  three  to  five  in  a  second — the 
effect  is  not  unpleasant,  and  can  even  be  employed  inrnusic, 
suggesting  as  it  does  the  idea  of  trilling.  Discord  is  then 
due  to  the  jjroduction  of  beats  by  the  interference  of  the 
overtones,  which  almost  always  accompany  the  fundamental 
notes,  ami,  as  lias  been  shown  by  calculation,  this  can  be  en- 
tirely or  partially  avoided  only  by  the  use  of  such  .simple 
ratios  as  those  above  indicated.  For  further  details  we  nmst 
refer  the  curious  reader  to  the  original  work  of  Ilelmholtz 
(Die  Lehre  run  den  Tonempfindinigen,  1863). 

Effect  of  cummuniaitingMotion  to  the  Source  of  Sound 
or  to  the  Ear.— In  all  the  foregoing  it  has  been  tacitly  as- 
sumed that  during  experiment  the  position  of  the  source  of 
sound  and  of  the  "recipient  ear  remained  invariable;  when 
this  ceases  to  be  true,  certain  curious  changes  are  produced, 
which  recently  have  grown  into  importance,  owing  to  their 
correspondence  witli  certain  optical  phenomena  by  which  it 
is  possible  to  study  the  motion  of  the  fixed  stars  toward  or 
away  from  our  planet.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  sounding 
body  is  stationary,  and  that  the  ear  of  the  observer  is  moved 
with  some  rapidity  toward  it;  then  it  will  result  that  in  a 
given  time  the  ob.server  will  receive  a  larger  number  of  im- 
pulses than  at  first,  and  that  the  pitch  of  the  sound  will  be 
correspondingly  elevated.  Tlie  same  effect  will  be  produced 
by  moving  the  soiniding  body  toward  a  stationary  ear. 
And  from  the  same  cause  it  is  evident  that  motion  of  the 
ear  away  from  tlie  source  of  sound  will  lower  the  pitch  of 
the  note.  etc.  These  ideas  were  first  brought  forward  Ijy 
Christian  Uojipler  in  1842,  and  since  then  have  been  repeat- 
edly subjected  to  tlie  test  of  experiment.  Dr.  Ballat,  in 
Belgium,  with  tlie  aid  of  a  locomotive  and  a  party  of  musi- 
cians, proved  their  correctness  in  a  quantitative  manner, 
and  Dr.  Mach  has  contrived  an  apparatus  with  a  moving 
reed-pipe  liy  which  they  can  be  studied  in  an  ordinary  room  ; 
and  finally  by  the  use  of  tuning-forks  Prof.  Mayer,  of  II o- 
boken,  has  succeeded  in  illustrating  them  before  large  audi- 
ences. (Americati  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  April,  1872, 
p.  267.) 

The  Voire. — As  the  human  vocal  organs  are  built  essen- 
tially on  the  plan  of  a  reed-pipe,  it  is  desirable  at  the  start 
to  understand  the  construction  and  action  of  one  of  these 
instruments.  A  reed-organ  pipe  consists,  then,  of  two  parts, 
a  vilirating  tongue  or  reed,  and  a  variously  shaped  pipe. 
When  connected  with  a  wind  bellows  the  reed  is  thrown 
into  vibrations,  and,  after  the  manner  of  a  sirene,  permits 
the  air  to  pass  through  in  a  series  of  puffs,  which,  linking 
themselves  together,  generate  a  musical  tone.  The  waves 
furnished  by  the  reed  are  not,  liowever,  normal  in  form,  but, 
as  previously  explained,  have  a  form  such  as  would  be  gen- 
erated by  the  joint  action  of  a  fundamental  normal  tone  or 
wave,  combined  with  a  set  of  shorter  waves  or  overtones: 
in  other  worils.  practically  it  furnishes  a  fundamental  note 
with  a  series  of  strong  oxertones,  the  particular  fundamen- 
tal note  and  corresponding  set  of  overtones  depending  on 
the  construction  of  the  reed  itself  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  tuned.  The  function  of  the  pipe  is  to  strengthen  any 
or  all  of  tliese  notes ;  thus  conical  pipes  strengthen  all  the 
overtones  up  to  a  certain  height,  exeluiling  those  that  are 
not  much  Imiger  than  the  ajierture  of  the  pipe  itself,  while 
cylindrical  pipes  strengthen  the  odd  overtones,  or  those 
whose  rates  of  vibration  are  related  to  each  other,  as  1,  3.  5, 
etc.  Hence  the  pitch  of  the  note  is  determined  by  tlie 
rate  of  the  reed's  vibrations — the  quality,  or  clang-tint,  of 
the  sound  by  the  shape  and  size  of  the  pipe.  In  the  human 
vocal  organs  the  reed  is  su]iplied  by  two  vibrating  mem- 
branes at  M  (Kig.  7),  called  the  vocal  cords.  For  the  pro- 
duction of  sound  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be 
stretched,  and  that  at  the  start  the  opening  between  them 
should  be  closed.  Air  is  then  forced  through  them  from 
the  hings;  they  are  set  in  vibration,  and  allow  it  an  inter- 
rupt(^d  passage,  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  a  reed,  as  has  been 
shown  by  experiments  on  the  living  and  dissected  larynx,  or 
with  the  ai<l  of  artifu'ial  vocal  cords  made  of  sheet  india- 
rubber.  TIk^  pilch  of  Ihe  voice  depends  on  the  extent  to 
which  tlie  meiubranes  ai'c  stretched.  Miiller,  by  increasing 
the  tensive  force  ^  oz.  up  to  18  oz.,  raised  the  tone  with  one 
of  his  dissected  jireparations  more  than  two  octaves.  The 
pitch  depends  also  to  some  extent  on  the  strength  of  the  cur- 


rent of  air  employed,  rising  as  the  latter  is  increased.  The 
human  voice  includes  not  quite  four  octaves,  though  no  one 
single  voice  would  be  able  to  compass  a  scale  of  this  extent. 
The  pitch  also,  other  things  being  equal,  depends  on  the 


Fig.  7. 

length  ol  tlie  vocal  cords;  that  of  men  is  about  18 mm.. with 
Women  it  is  only  12.  The  clearness  of  the  voice  de|)ends  on 
the  accurate  closure  of  the  slit  between  the  cords,  from  time 
to  time,  while  they  are  in  operation.  Theory  and  experiment 
alike  point  to  the  fact  that  when  the  vocal  cords  are  set  in 
action  waves  having  an  abnormal  form  are  generated,  corre- 
sponding to  a  fundamental  note  with  a  set  of  overtones. 
The  function  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  nose  6'C"(Fig. 
7)  is  to  strengthen  or  weaken  the  fundamental  tone  and  vari- 
ous sets  of  the  overtones;  and  in  this  action  the  size  of  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  also  plays  an  important  part  ;  thus  the 
quality  of  the  sound  uttered,  or  its  clang-tint,  depends  finally 
on  the  shape  and  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  nose. 
This  cavity,  then,  corresponds  to  the  pipe  of  a  reed-organ 
pipe.  The  vocal  cords  retaining  all  the  time  the  same  ten- 
sion, by  altering  the  shape  and  sizeof  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 
and  its  opening  we  can  generate  sounds  having  a  different 
clang-tint,  as,  for  example.  Ah.  0,  etc.  It  is  not  even  neces- 
sary to  set  the  vocal  cords  into  action  if  a  complex  sound 
consisting  of  many  tones  is  supplied  from  some  outward 
source;  thus  we  were  informed  by  President  Barnard,  of 
Columbia  College,  that  by  taking  advantage  of  the  complex 
sounds  or  noise  of  a  railroad-car,  and  by  varying  suitably 
the  cavities  just  referred  to,  he  succeeded  in  producing 
musical  notes  in  rapid  succession,  such  as  the  notes  of  any 
familiar  melody,  at  jjleasure. 

The  ^'(llrel  SotiiiiJs  are  the  sinqilest  which  can  be  uttered 
by  the  human  voice,  and  have  frequently  been  made  the 
object  of  investigation.  In  1831  Willis  in  England  found 
that  by  mingling  certain  tones  produced  by  reed-pipes  he 
could  to  .some  extent  imitate  the  vowel  sounds.  (I'ogg.  .rlnri., 
bd.  xxiv.  s.  397.)  In  this  mode  of  working  there  is  the 
obvious  difficulty  that  reed-pipes  furnish  larne  sets  of  notes, 
so  that  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  very  accurate  knowledge 
by  such  experiiuenls.  Jlore  recently  Ilelmholtz,  with  the 
aid  of  his  resonators,  above  described,  succeeded  in  analyz- 
ing the  vowel  sounds,  although  they  present  greater  difficul- 
ties than  most  other  sounds  of  equal  complexity.  This 
results  from  the  circumstance  that,  from  childhood  upward, 
we  all  have  lieen  accustomed  to  regard  the  tones  of  the 
vowel  sounds  as  independent  wholes,  making  no  attempt 
to  ascertain  their  musical  components,  since  in  the  case  of 
a  v<iwel  sound  the  clang-tint  is  all  important,  and  is  indeed 
the  only  means  by  which  we  judge  of  its  identity.  Ilelm- 
holtz ascertained"  tliat  vowel  sounds  are  iiroduced  by  the 
presence  of  a  fundamental  note  mingled  with  its  higher 


ACOUSTICS 


35 


overtoiK^s  in  various  proportions ;  he  even  was  able  to  prove 
that  the  intensity  of  the  highest  of  these  overtones  varies 
somewhat  in  ditferent  individuals,  being  greater  in  voices 
that  are  shrill  than  in  those  whose  sound  is  softer.  Having 
finished  this  labor,  he  undertook  the  artificial  reeonstruetion 
of  the  vowel  sounils  from  pure  constituents.  Tliese  areliest 
furnished  by  vibrating  tuning-forks.  One  of  these  instru- 
ments, alone  by  itself,  furnishes  a  tone  which  at  a  little  dis- 
tance is  quite  inaudible,  but  by  causing  it  to  vibrate  directly 
in  front  of  a  hollow  iiifla/lic  cylinder  of  exactly  the  right 
capacity  its  sound  is  greatly  strengthened,  and  can  lie  dis- 
tinctly heard  in  a  room  of  large  dimensions.  The  cylinder 
is  of  course  entirely  closed,  with  the  exception  of  a  circular 
opening  at  the  end  near  the  fork.  When  the  fork  is  thus 
caused  to  vil)i'ate  in  connection  with  a  resonator,  tlu^  sound 
is  instantly  extinguished  if  the  aperture  in  tile  cylinder  be 
closed,  but  as  it  is  gradually  opened  the  sound  correspond- 
ingly gains  in  intensity;  so  that  it  is  evidently  in  the  power 
of  trie  exiierimenter  to  regulate  the  loudness  of  the  tone 
pro<liiced.  .\  tuniug-tVirk,  however,  soon  ceases  to  vibrate, 
and  accordingly  must  be  provided  with  a  contrivance  to 
obviate  this  ditliculty.  By  placing  it  lietween  the  arms  of 
an  elect ^c^-lnagIlet  having  the  form  of  a  horseshoe,  it  can 
be  caused  to  vibrate  for  any  jieriod  of  time,  provided  the 
magnetic  attraction  is  intermittent,  and  ahvays  exercised  at 
exactly  the  right  moment.  This  is  accomplished  by  break- 
ing and  re-establishing  the  electric  current  with  the  aid  of 
another  tuning-fork,  which  vibrates  at  exactly  the  same 
rate;  and  the  second  fork,  being  also  provided  with  a  simi- 
lar electix>magnet,  is  able  independently  to  maintain  itself 
in  vibration  for  any  length  of  time,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
vibrating  attachment  so  often  found  on  electrical  apparatus 
for  medical  purposes.  It  would  not  be  possible  with  this 
arrangement  to  sustain  in  vibration  a  third  fork  whose  rate 
was  a  liltle  slower  or  faster  than  that  of  its  two  companions : 
but  if  its  rate  should  be  exactly  twice,  three,  or  four  times 
as  great,  this  end  could  easily  be  accomplished;  for  then, 
though  the  attractive  impulses  might  l)e  fewer  than  desira- 
ble, al  least  they  would  always  be  rightly  timed.  Hence  it 
is  evident  that  a  series  of  forks  whose  rates  of  vibration  are 
as  1,2.  :i,  etc.,  can  be  kept  simultaneously  in  vibration  by 
a  contrivance  of  this  nature.  This  was,  then,  the  jilan 
actually  employed  by  HelmhoKz:  keys  being  connected  by 
strings  with  the  valves  of  the  resonators,  and  being  opened 
by  the  pressure  of  tlie  tigures,  tht^  proper  notes  were  obtained 
with  the  desired  strength.  Helinlioltz's  vowel  sound  appa- 
n'.iiis.  as  made  by  Mr.  Koenig.  of  Paris,  consists  of  eight 
luniug-forks  with  their  resonanc<^  cylinders,  tlie  fork  which 
tstabiishes  and  regulates  the  current  being  on  a  .separate 
stand.  These  forks  give  the  following  notes :  Utj,  Ufa,  S0I3, 
Ut,,  Mi,.  Sol,,  Utj,  Sis.  When  all  these  forks  are  set  in  vi- 
bration, their  resonance  cylinders  remaining  closed,  only  a 
low  hnmming  sound  is  heard,  but  by  pressing  one  <u-  more 
keys  the  corresponding  notes  are  called  forth  with  any  desir- 
able degree  of  strength.  The  (ierman  vowel  sound  "  can  be 
approximately  imitated  by  sounding  the  Utj  fork  alone,  or 
better  by  adding  the  two  first  overtones — i.  e.  the  octavo 
and  twelfth.  I'ta  andSoU.  O  is  obtained  with  a  w^eak  VU 
and  strong  L't,;  Uta.  Sols,  and  Mi,  mingling  to  a  small  ex- 
tent. The  German  «.  with  Uts  a.id  Mi,  strong;  Uts,  Ut,, 
Sol,  having  a  moderate  strength.  Ill  the  same  language 
the  w  is  given  by  .Mii,  and  Sols  strong,  with  the  notes  l't,. 
Uts,  Sol,  weaker;  and  finally  the  e  by  the  aid  of  Sols,  Sis, 
and  I'ts  strong;  I'ta  and  Ut,  being  w-eaker. 

Of  course,  since  only  pure  musical  notes  are  employed, 
they  can  only  reproduce  the  musical  constituents  of  the 
vowel  sounds;  hence  the  effect  resembles  the  sound  of  tlie 
vowels  as  sung  rather  than  pronounced.  Corresponding 
with  these  remarkable  experimenis,  llelmholtz  also  foiiiid 
it  possible  to  imitate  with  the  same  apparatus  certain  varie- 
ties of  orgau-pipes  ;  at  least  to  reproduce  the  musical  con- 
stituents of  their  tones,  though  of  course  the  noise  with 
which  they  are  often  aecomj)anied  was  absent;  he  in  addi- 
tion imitated  the  na.sal  tones  of  the  clarionet  by  the  use  of 
a  portion  of  the  forks,  while  the  ioint  action  of  the  whole 
set  gave  the  softer  tones  of  the  bugle-horn.  For  exciting 
the  apparatus  into  action  he  used  only  two  of  Grove's  cups, 
though  ol her  experimenters  have  since  then  found  it  some- 
what dilVicult  of  mani[inlation.  and  an  attempt  has  been 
miule  by  .\ppun  to  replace  it  by  a  series  of  reeds  provideil 
with  resonators,  with  which  it  lias  been  found  possible  lo 
reproduce  some  of  the  sounds  in  question  ("  and  n).*     We 

•  Sprarhr  mid  Ohr.  by  Dr.  Os1»ar  Wolf.  p.  11. 


must  here  mention  the  remarkable  results  attained  in  the 
la.st  century  by  Prof.  v.  Kempelen  in  Vienna  with  his  s[)eak- 
ing-niachine.  which  more  recently  has  been  greatly  |)erfected 
by  the  two  Fabers,.  uncle  and  nephew.*  Some  time  ago 
the  latter  exhibited  in  Columbia  College,  New  York,  this 
wonderful  apparatus,  which  is  capable  of  uttering  not  only 
syllables,  bill  words  and  sentences  with  a  certain  mechan- 
ical precision.  In  it  the  human  vocal  organs  are  directly 
imitated  by  vibrating  plates  of  ivory,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  it  is  operated  on  by  only  fourteen  keys  or  stops,  which 
give  the  five  vowels  ami  the  nine  consonants,  /,  r,  w,  f,  s,  b, 
d.  ij,  .sell.  The  other  consonants  are  )iroduced  partly  by 
combiualiims  uf  the  above,  and  partly  by  increasing  the 
strcngtii  of  the  current  of  air  from  the  bellows.  For  the 
purpose  of  causing  the  inachine  to  speak  Freiii-h,  an  extra 
attachment  is  provided,  whereby  more  nasal  tones  can  be 
generated.  Mr.  Faber  has  also  connected  with  it  a  singing 
attachment,  in  which,  by  means  of  quick  changes  in  the 
form  of  the  vocal  cords,  the  musical  scale  can  be  executed. 

('(inxnnanta. — These  sounds  are  generally  regarded  not  as 
constituted  of  notes  having  any  particular  musical  relation 
to  each  other,  as  in  the  case  of  the  vowel  sounds,  but  rather 
as  consisting  of  ditferent  varieties  of  noi.se.  Thus  as  ex- 
amples of  explosive  noise  we  have  p  and  l>,  I  and  U,  /c,  g.  q  ; 
of  frictional  noise,  n,  2,  xr.h,  l,f,  1;  iii,  n,  and  h  ;  of  intermit- 
tent noise,  r.-j-  Tlie  mechanical  mode  by  which  the  conso- 
nants are  [iroduceii  is  to  a  considerable  extent  understood, 
but  their  actual  acoustic  eleuu'iits  resist  all  attempts  at  com- 
plete analysi.s.  That  they  have  an  acoustic  character  can 
not.  however,  be  doiibteil.  and  some  progress  has  been  made 
toward  ascertaining  the  natural  pitch  of  their  predominant 
notes.  Thus  upon  repeating  (in  (ierman)  the  consonants 
b,  k;  t,  f,  x.  it  will  be  foiinil  that  b  is  tlie  deepest  in  tone,  s 
the  highest:  and  that,  taken  together  in  the  above  order, 
they  constitute  a  series  of  perceptible  musical  gradations. 
For  further  information  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the 
original  investigations  of  Dr.  Oskar  Wolf,  who  seems  to 
have  succeeded  in  actually  determining  the  pitch  of  the 
predominating  constituent  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  con- 
.soiiants.l 

'J'he  Ear. — The  sensation  of  sound  is  produced  liy  the 
.stimulation  of  certain  nerve-fibrils  in  the  interior  of  the 
ear,  aiul  this  result  is  brought  about  by  the  xound-inirns  in 
the  following  manner:  Tliese  waves  fii-st  .strike  upon  the 
external  ear.  and  possibly  are.  to  some  slight,  extent,  con- 
centrated by  it;  afterward  they  travel  along  the  tube 
1)  (Fig.  S),  and  reach  the  tympanum   or  drum  of  the  ear  at 


Fio.  8. 


C.  This  consists  of  a  thin  membrane  which  closes  the  ex- 
ternal passage,  and  which  is  capable  of  being  set  in  vibra- 
tion or  of  responding  to  an  immense  variety  of  waves  or 
iiu]iulse.s.  It  mav  here  be  remarked  that  a  catholicity  of 
this  kind  has  uorihus  far  been  observed  in  expi'rimenis  on 
uuMiibraiies  arlilicially  stri'tclied,  whose  range  is  found  to 
be  far  more  limited.  There  is  also  some  rea.son  to  lielieve 
that  (he  tympanum  is  capable  of  a  certain  degree  of  "ac- 
commodation" to  the  sounds  that  are  jiresented  to  it,  fol- 
lowing the  well-known  analogy  of  the  eye  in  this  respect. 
.\ttachcd  to  the  inner  side  of  the  tympanum  is  a  series  of 
three  small  bones,  called  ri'spectively  the  malleus,  r.  the 
incus,  ami  the  slajies.  n  (the  liaiiimer.  the  anvil,  and  the 
stirrup.  See  Fig.  f<).  These  bones  are  rather  closely  bound 
toirether.  and  transinit  the  vibrations  of  the  tympanum 
finally  to  the  stirrup,  which    is  di'stined  to  communicate      , 

•  Der  Mechanismus  der  mennclUiclien  Sprnclie  nehat  Beschreibttng 
riner  Sprechenden  itachine  nm    Wol/gniig   r.  Kempelen,   Vienna, 

iroi. 

tSi'e  tlie  work  nf  O  Oattfied  Weiss,  Brunswick.  1868. 
i  .S';)r(ir;i<-  loirf  Olir.  I>r.  Oskiir  Wolf.  Brunswick.  1871. 


36 


ACOUSTICS 


them  to  the  inner  ear.  The  portion  we  are  now  engaged 
with  has  a  .communication  with  the  mouth  by  means  of 
the  Eustachian  tube.  E,  which  'is  closed  except  in  the  act 
of  swallowing;  its  function  is  to  preserve  an  equilibrium 
between  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  middle  ear  and  that 
on  the  other  side  of  the  drum.  While  the  middle  car  is 
filled  with  air,  the  inner  is  filled  with  a  liquid,  and  is  com- 
pletely inclosed  for  protection  in  solid  bone.     In  Fig.  i)  a 


section  of  the  iimer  ear  is  given.  SSS  are  the  semicircular 
canals  cut  open ;  V  is  the  vestibule ;  o  and  r  are  the  foramen 
ovale  and  the  foramen  rotundum ;  C  is  a  section  of  the 
cochlea.  We  give  in  addition  apian  of  the  ear,  after Helm- 
holtz  (Fig.  10),  the  cochlea,  for  tlie  sake  of  clearness,  l)eing 
supposed  to  be  unrolled.  A  is  the  vestibule :  C  the  cochlea  : 
a  the  foramen  ovale ;  b  the  foramen  rotundum  :  /  the  nerves 
of  hearing.  The  sacs  at  d  contain  attached  to  their  walls 
small  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  cimtact  witli  the 
nerves,  and  their  function,  as  it  appears,  is  to  render  us 
sensible  of  simple  short  sounds  or  shociis,  which  probably 
would  not  afifect  the  vibratory  apparatus  presently  to  be 
described.  They  act  as  drags  on  the  nerves  when  the  latter 
vibrate  with  the  water  in  which  they  are  bathed,  and  thus 
produce  sensation.  This  is  tlie  simplest  portion  of  the  ap- 
paratus for  hearing,  and  is  found  in  many  of  the  lower 
animals,  where  the  more  complicated  arrangements  are  en- 
tirely absent.  These  sacs  contain  also,  in  connection  with 
the  nerve-s,  certain  microscopic  hairs,  that  are  quite  elastic 
and  brittle,  and  prnliably  capal)lc  of  being  set  into  vibration 
when  the  particular  notes  to  which  they  are  tuned  are  pre- 
sented to  them,  just  exactly  as  a  tuning-fork  can  be  set  in 
vibration  bv  the  waves  proceeding  from  a  second  fork  of 
tlie  same  pitch.  (See  Fig.  11.)  In  the  cochlea  we  also  find 
a  meiubrane  (the  organ  'of  Corti)  with  a  great  number  of 
fine  microscopic  cords  stretched  in  it,  which  probably  liave 
the  same  function.  The  reader  will  find,  by  opening  a 
jiiano  and  pressing  the  foot  upon  the  right-hand  pedal,  that 
if  then  the  vowel  sounds,  for  example,  are  pronounced  in 
a  loud,  clear  voice  over  the  .strings,  it  will  result  that  the 
strings  which  are  capable  of  giving  the  notes  of  which  they 
are  built  up  will  be  set  in  vibration,  and  will  echo  back 
somewhat  faintly  the  original  sounds.  And  so  it  is  y)rob- 
ably  in  this  ]iorl"ion  of  the  ear ;  these  microscopic  strings, 
being  thus  set  in  vibration,  stimulate  the  nerves  connected 
with  them  and  produce  corres|ionding  sensations.     If  the 


sound  is  compound  or  the  form  of  the  wave  abnormal,  this 
sound  is  analyzed  into  its  constituents,  since  the  cords  (and 
rods)  can  only  execute  normal  vibrations;  which  circiiin- 
.stancc  (explains  much  that  was  said  under  the  head  "  Form 
of  the  Wave  ":  and  wi>  see  finally  that  the  clang-tiut  is  the 


sensation  produced  by  the  simultaneous  action  of  two  or 
more  of  these  strings  upon  their  appropriate  nerves.  The 
cochlea  contains  about  3,000 
of  these  strings,  and  if,  with 
Helmholtz,  we  suppose  that 
300  of  them  are  useful  for 
rendering  us  sensible  of  tones 
not  used  in  music,  there  will 
remain  for  the  musical  tones 
proper  2,800  for  the  seven 
octaves,  or  400  for  each  oc- 
tave, 33J  for  each  half  tone. 
Now,  according  to  the  ex- 
periments of  E.  H.  Weber, 
skillful  musicians  can  dis- 
tinguish ^  of  a  half  tone, 
which  is  a  smaller  quantity 
than  corresponds  to  the  num- 
ber of  these  strings.  It  would 
appear,  then,  that  in  this 
case  two  of  these  strings  are 
at  the  same  time  excited 
into  action,  and  the  musi- 
cian by  practiced  attention 
is  able  to  notice  which  of 
them  vibrates  the  more 
strongly. 

As  rendering  the  above 
Views  more  probable,  we  may 
mention  the  experiments  of 
Von  Hensen  on  the  ears  of 
certain  minute  forms  of 
crabs,  which  he  inclosed  in  i 

an  artificial  ear  corresjiond- 

ingto  the  labyrinth.  The  ears  nf  these  crustaceans  are  par- 
tially external,  and  consist  of  sets  of  hairs  capable  of  vibra- 
tion," connected  with  the  nerves,  as  in  the  case  we  have  just 
been  considering.  When  different  notes  were  sounded. 
Von  Hensen  was  able  with  the  microscope  to  notice  that  cer- 
tain hairs  responded,  etc.*  The  functions  of  certain  portions 
of  the  ear  are  still  involved  m  much  obscurity  ;  this  is  the 
case,  for  example,  with  the  three  semicircular  canals,  con- 
cerning whose  object  and  use  we  possess  as  yet  no  certain 
information.  Among  the  fishes  the  myxine  has  one  of  these 
canals,  the  lamprey  has  two.  the  higher  forms  three;  and  it 
appears  that  in  liirds  (if  ]iiey  they  become  highly  developed. 
In  closing  this  article  it  may  be  proper  briefly  to  mention 
the  results  obtained  with  the  pho?iautograph  ot  Scott  and 
Koenig.  This  may  be  regarded  as  a  gigantic  ear.  endowed 
with  the  power  of  permanently  registering  the  vibrations  of 
its  own  tympanum.  It  consists  of  a  jiarabolic  mirror,  M 
(see  Fig.  12).  of  zinc,  which  concentrates  the  si>iiMd-waves, 
and  causes  them  to  set  in 
vibration  a  thin  membrane, 
t.  which  is  provided  with  a 
"pen"  attached  to  its  cen- 
ter. Tlie  vibrations  are  in 
this  way  finally  inscribed  on 
the  surface  of  a  revolving 
cylinder.  C,  which  is  covered 
with  paper  smoked  by  Imrn- 
ing  camphor.  The  figure 
gives  a  view  of  this  ajipara- 
tus  seen  from  above.  With 
this  instrument  Koenig  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  au- 
togi'aphic  curves  to  single 
notes,  or  to  the  joint  action  of  .several  within  the  compass  of 
an  octave.  Doiiilers.  however,  was  able  after  much  tmubleto 
obtain  the  complex  curves  due  to  the  vowel  sounds.  For  u 
(German)  it  was  a  common  sine  curve,  as  it  should  be;  this 
was  also  true  for  ii  and  /.  the  instrument  being  able  to  re- 
produce neither  the  weak  overtimes  of  the  first  nor  the  high 
(ivertones  of  the  second.  The  form  of  the  curve  altered  witli 
the  pitch  of  the  voice  uttering  tlie  vowel,  but  changes  in 
dialect  produced  onlv  slight  modifications.  With  diphthongs 
the  duration  of  the  sound  and  modifications  due  to  change 
from  one  diphthong  to  another  were  rendered  visible.  Con- 
sonants siioken  just  before  a  vowel  altered  only  the  begin- 
ning of  the  curve,  and  produced  only  a  corresponding  modi- 
fication when  uttered  immediately  after  the  vowel.  The 
duration   of  a  in   the   word  rf«n^'=  42,  in  dagm  —  ST,  in 

*  Von  Hensen.   fUmlirn   iibpr  (Ins  GeUneroriinn   der  Deknimden ; 
VonSiebold  u   Ki'illilier.  Ziitai-hrift  fiir  wins.  Zonlmjir.  Ixl.  xiii. 


■MA^MrfiA^A^ft-' 


Fio 


ACOUSTIC  TELEGRAPH 


ACT 


37 


dag—  16  vibrations,  each  single  vibration  consuming 7+^  of 
a  second,  so  tliat  the  actual  durations  were  O'ltS,  0'l42,  0-061 
of  a  second  of  time.  O.  N.  Uoou. 

Acoustic  Tt'U's:rai)h :  any  telegraphic  system  in  which 
messages  are  received  by  ear.  The  Jlorse  system  of  tcleg- 
ra|ihy  as  practiced  in  the  U.  S.,  where  the  "sounder"  takes 
the  place  of  the  "  recorder,"  is  an  example.    See  Telegraph. 

Acoustic  Tcloplioiie :  a  telephone  in  which  the  voice  is 
transferred  between  the  transmitter  and  receiver  by  means 
of  sound-waves  traveling  along  the  wire  or  other  conductor 
connecting  them.  No  electric  current,  as  in  other  telephones, 
is  used.  Acoustic  telephones  are  of  comparatively  limited 
applicatiiin,  their  range  of  effective  use  rarely  exceeding  a 
mile.  Over  sliurt  distances,  however,  they  may  be  made  to 
give  excellent  service.    See  Telephone. 

Ac'(|ai,  ak  kwee :  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria, on  the  Uormida;  21  miles  by  rail  S.  .S.  W.  of  Ales- 
sandria (see  mai)  of  Italy,  ref.  3-B).  Here  arc  iodide  and 
sulphate-ot-lime  waters,  which  are  much  frecpiented,  atul 
ruins  of  an  old  Roman  .iqucduct.  Acqui  is  of  great  antiq- 
uity, and  its  hot  sulpliur  baths  were  known  to  tlie  Romans, 
who  called  the  place  Aqum  Statiellm.  Good  wine  is  nuide 
in  the  vineyards  of  the  district,  and  the  rearing  of  silkworms 
is  followed  with  much  care.  It  has  a  cathedral,  several  fine 
buildings  ami  silk  factories,  a  royal  college,  and  is  a  bishop's 
sec.     Pop.  Il,a0(l. 

Acqnit'tal:  [0.  Fr.  aquiltr;  Lat.  ad  -k-  quiela're,  settle]: 
in  law,  a  release  from  a  contract  or  other  obligation;  more 
usually  employed  in  criminal  practice,  where  it  denotes  a 
judicial  deliverance  from  a  charge  of  guilt,  either  by  a  ver- 
dict of  not  guilty  by  a  jury  upon  a  trial,  termed  ''acquittal 
in  fact,"  or  by  mere  operatioti  of  law,  as  where  one  has  been 
charged  simply  as  accessary,  and  the  principal  is  acquitted. 
An  acquittal  is  a  bar  to  any  future  prosecution  for  the  same 
offense.  In  the  U.  S.  tliis  is  secured  by  a  constitutional  pro- 
vision that  "  no  person  shall  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  for 
the  same  offense."  The  judicial  construction  of  this  clause 
prevents  a  second  trial  for  the  same  offense  after  an  ac- 
quittal. 

A'cre  [from  the  Ang.-Sax.  acer  or  cecer,  a  field,  etymolog- 
ically  allied  to  the  Lat.  ager  and  Ger.  Ackery.  a  superficial 
measure  of  land;  equal  to  4,840  sq.  yards.  The  "English" 
or  statute  acre  of  Great  Britain  is  the  same  as  the  acre  of  the 
U.  S.  Forty-eight  Scotch  acres  (now  seldom  used)  are  equal 
to  61  statute  acres.  The  Irish  acre  (now  seldom  used)  con- 
tains 7,840  sq.  yards.  The  Welsh  acre,  or  eriv,  contains  4,:!'20 
sq.  yards.  A  French  acre  contains  about  one  arpent  and  a 
half. 

Acre,  ak  er,  Ak'kn,  or  St.  Jean  d'.Vcre  [Phcenician  Ac- 
cAo,  and  called  by  the  Greeks  Ptnhma  in]:  a  city  and  sea- 
port of  Svria;  on  the  Mediterranean;  80  miles  S.  of  Tyre 
and  8  miles  X.  of  Mt.  Carmel ;  lat.  3'2'  54'  N.,  Ion.  35'  6  E. 
(see  ma|)  of  Palestine,  rcf.  5-D).  The  "  key  of  Palestine,"  it 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  famous  sieges  and  battles.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Crusaders  in  1104,  and  retaken  by  the 
Saracens  in  1187.  In  ll!tl  it  was  recovered  by  the  Crusaders 
(under  Guido  of  Jerusalem,  Philip  of  France,  and  Richard 
the  Lion-hearted  of  England),  and  held  by  them  till  they 
were  finally  driven  out  of  Palestine  in  1291.  Bonaparte  be- 
.sieged  it  for  sixty  days  in  1799,  but  failed  to  take  it.  In 
1840  it  was  bombarded  and  captured  by  the  English  fleet. 
Pop.  about  8,000.  of  whom  5,600  are  Moslems. 

Acre'lius,  Iskael:  a  clergyman;  b.  at  Ostaker,  Sweden, 
Dec.  2"),  1714;  was  educated  at  Unsal,  and  wa.s  appointed  in 
1749  a  provost  to  take  cluirge  of  the  Swedish  congregations 
on  the  Delaware.  After  a  sojourn  of  seven  years  in  the 
U.  S.,  he  returned  to  Sweden  in  1750.  He  wrote  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  Swedish  colonies  in  America  (1759).  D.  Apr.  25, 
1800. 

Ac'robat  [via  Fr.  acrobale,  from  Gr.  oxpii/SoTos,  walking 
on  tiptoe,  climliing  ah)ft;  from  S/cpoj,  highest  -i-  ^ivuv.  go]: 
a  rope-«lancer,  or  person  who  entertains  the  public  by  per- 
formances on  the  tight  rope  or  slack  rope,  and  by  gymnastic 
feats  of  agility,  such  as  vaulting  and  tumbling. 

Acrob'ates  (i.  e.  the  acrobat):  a  genus  of  Australian 
marsupials,  which  contains  only  the  "opossum  mouse" 
(Acrobaies  piigmtrux),  which  has  a  fold  of  skin  running  along 
the  sides  of  its  body,  as  in  the  flying  squirrel.  It  is  about 
4  inches  long,  an<l  shows  remarkable  powers  of  leaping.  It 
feeds  on  insects,  and  on  honey  which  it  obtains  from  flowers. 


Acroceran'nia  [from  &Kfov.  a  peak  or  j)romontory, 
K(pmv6s,  thunder] :  the  ancient  name  of  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains on  the  western  coast  of  Greece,  and  extending  into  the 
sea  by  a  bold  promontory;  so  called  because  violent  thunder- 
storms are  said  to  be  frecjucnt  in  that  region.  The  modern 
name  is  Chimara.  The  Acroceraunian  promontory  is  Capo 
Linguetta ;  lat.  40°  27'  N.,  Ion.  19°  18'  E.  (see  map  of  Greece, 
ref.  14-U). 

Ac'ro-Corin'thns:  a  steep,  rocky  hill  near  the  city  of 
Corinth,  in  Greece;  about  2,000  feet  high.  On  this  hill 
stood  the  Acropolis  or  citailel  of  Corinth.  The  view  from 
the  top  is  very  extensive  and  beautiful. 

Acrog'onoiis  [(Jr.  ixpoi/,  tip  -i-  v  yev,  come  into  being] : 
having  terminal  growl  ii;  thus  conferva,  molds,  etc.,  are 
plainly  acrogenous.  Formerly  the  epithet  was  applied  to 
mosses  and  ferns  exclusively  (class  Acrogeii-i),  but  it  is  now- 
known  that  all  the  larger  plants  are  as  truly  acrogenous  as 
these.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Acro'lein,  AcryPic-.Vl'deliyde,  CsHjO:  an  intolerably 
nuiisent  body  procliiced  liy  tlie  dehydration  of  glycerin.  It 
IS  always  produced  when  neutral  fats  containing  glycerin 
are  subjected  to  destructive  distillation,  and  is  tlie  chief 
cause  of  the  oiTensiveness  of  that  operation.  It  is  the  sub- 
stance that  acts  so  strongly  upon  the  eyes  when  in  cooking 
meats  the  fats  are  heated  too  high. 

Acroii'ycal,  or  (more  correctly)  Acronyclial  [Gr.  iutp6m- 
Xos,  at  evening,  frnm  &Kpov.  extremity  +  yv\,  night  | :  in  oppo- 
sition, diametrically  opposite.  A  star  or  planet  is  said  to  bo 
acronycal  when  it  is  opposite  to  the  sun,  or  passes  the  me- 
ridian at  midnight.  It  rises  acronycally  when  it  rises  as 
the  sun  sets,  and  sets  acronycally  when  it  sets  as  the  sun 
rises. 

Acrop'olis  [(ir.  cucpiiiroAis,  citadel;  from  fi/tpos,  highest -I- 
iriiAis.  eityl :  the  citadel  of  an  ancient  Grecian  city,  usually 
built  on  the  peak  or  toj)  of  a  hill.  The  Acropolis  of  Athens 
was  especially  celebrated,  and  wa.s  adorned  with  the  Temple 
of  Minerva  or  .Vtliena,  called  the  Parthenon,  the  Erechtlie- 
um,  the  Propyhea  or  gate-house,  and  a  number  of  smaller 
buildings,  monuments,  and  statues,  among  which  was  a 
colossal  statue  of  Athena  which  must  have  been  visible  many 
miles  at  sea. 

AtTOs'tic  [etymologically  spelled  arroxUch;  cf.  distich; 
Gr.  oKpoarixls.  from  liKpos.,  extreme  -|-  a-rtxo!,  line]:  a  poem  so 
contrived  lliat  the  first,  last,  or  other  series  of  letters  of  the 
lines  shall  form  some  name  or  phrase.  Sir  John  Davies 
wrote  twenty-four  hymns  to  Astnea,  each  of  which  is  an 
acrostic  on  Elizabetiia  Regina  (Queen  Elizabeth).  On  a 
somewhat  similar  principle,  in  the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews 
the  initial  lettei-s  of  I  lie  verses  were  made  to  correspond  to 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  proiier  order.  The  119th 
Psalm  affords  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  of  this. 
Every  line  in  the  first  division  of  the  psalm  begins  with  X 
(alepii).  and  in  the  second  division  with  3  (beth),  and  so  on. 

Act :  (1)  in  dramatic  literature,  a  division  of  a  drama ;  it  is 
again  subdivided  into  scenes.  The  Greek  dramas  of  the  old 
model  were  naturally  divided  into  separate  portions  by  the 
clioric  odes  (or  stasima),  which  occur  at  intervals,  during 
which  the  stage  wsis  left  to  the  sole  occupation  of  the  chorus. 
Nevertheless,  the  Greek  writers  do  not  notice  this  division  in 
express  terms;  nor  do  we  know  the  origin  of  the  famous 
rule  of  Horace,  that  every  dramatic  piece  should  be  restrained 
within  the  limits  of  five  acts,  neither  more  nor  less.  The 
division  into  acts  must  be  in  great  measure  arbitrary,  al- 
though rules  have  been  laid  down  by  various  writers  to 
define  the  story  or  [ilot  which  should  be  contained  in  each 
of  them.  Thus  Vossius  gives  it  as  a  rule  that  the  first  act 
should  present  the  intrigue,  the  second  develop  it,  the  third 
be  filled  with  incidents  forming  its  knot  or  complication,  the 
fourth  prepare  the  means  of  unraveling  it,  which  is  finally 
accomplished  in  the  fifth. 

(2)  in  legal  and  political  language,  an  act  is  a  law  or  stat- 
ute which  is  approved  and  ordained  by  the  legislature,  as  an 
act  of  Parliament,  an  act  of  Congress.  The  proposed  law  is 
called  a  bill  until  it  has  passed  through  the  first,  second,  and 
thiril  readings,  and  has  been  approved  by  both  Houses  of 
Parliament  (or  Congress)  and  signed  by  the  executive.  An 
act  which  binds  the  community  at  large  is  a  public  one, 
while  one  that  operates  merely  upon  particular  persons  is 
said  to  be  a  private  or  special  act. 

(3)  III  the  English  universities,  an  act  is  an  exercise  per- 
formed by  Students  before  they  receive  a  degree.  The  student 
who  is  said  "  to  keep  the  act,"  and  is  called  the  respondent. 


38 


ACTA  DIURNA 


ACTINOMETER 


chooses  certain  propositions,  whicli  he  defends  by  syllogisms. 
Several  other  students,  called  "  opponents,"  who  "are  nomi- 
nated by  tlie  proctor,  try  to  refute  his  arguments. 

Act  of  Settlement, 'in  Great  Britain,  is  the  title  of  the 
statute  12  and  13  of  William  111.  c.  2.  by  which  the  crown 
was  limited  to  the  House  of  Hanover,  and  all  Koman  Catho- 
lics wore  excluded  from  tlie  throne. 

Act  of  Supremacy,  the  statute  by  which  the  supremacy 
fif  the  British  crown  in  ecclesiastical  matters  within  the 
realm  was  established  (1  Bliz.  c.  1). 

.\c'ta  Diur'iia  (daily  acts) :  also  called  Ac' fa  Populi;  an 
official  gazette  or  journal  publislied  by  autliority  in  ancient 
Rome.  It  contained  brief  notices  of  the  transactions  of 
pul)lic  assemblies,  legal  ti'ibunals,  etc.,  as  well  as  of  private 
events — births, marriages, divorces, deaths,  etc.  Julius  Ca'sar 
was  tlie  first  to  order  that  tlie  Acta  Diurna  should  be  drawn 
U])  in  regular  form  and  exposed  on  a  tablet  in  a  public  place, 
where  they  could  be  read  and  copied.  They  were  afterwai'd 
deposited  with  the  state  archives. 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Ac'ta  Erudito'rum  (acts  of  the  learned) :  the  first  liter- 
ary journal  founded  in  Germany  ;  was  established  at  Leipzig 
in  1682  by  Otto  Mencke  and  others.  It  liad  a  high  reputation, 
and  was  continued  until  1783. 

Ac'ta  Mar'tyrum  (acts  of  the  martyrs) :  a  collection  of 
the  lives  ot  Cliristian  martyrs.  The  most  noted  is  that  of 
Ruinart  (Paris,  1689),  commemorating  the  martyrs  of  the 
first  four  centuries. 

Ac'ta  Sancto'rHiii  (acts  of  the  saints) :  a  collection  of 
tlie  lives  of  t'liristian  saints  of  all  ages.  The  most  extensive 
collection  is  that  of  the  Jesuit  Bollandists,  which  begins 
witli  January  and  follows  the  calendar.  The  first  volume 
appeared  in  1643;  the  flftv-fourth,  which  comes  down  to 
Oct.  14,  in  1793  :  the  fifty-fifth  in  1845  ;  the  sixtieth,  whicli 
comes  down  to  Oct.  29,  in, 1867  ;  the  sixty-first  in  1875;  the 
sixty-fifth  in  1892.  .See  Efudes  sur  les  Bulhiiidisfex,  bv 
Pitra  (Paris,  1850). 

At'tai'on  ('A-KToimi/) :  in  Greek  mythology,  a  famous  hunter, 
grandson  of  Cadmus.  It  is  said  that  he  was  changed  into  a 
stag  and  killed  by  his  own  hounds  because  he  had  seen 
Diana  bathing. 

Ac'tiaii  Games :  games  celebrated  at  Actium,  in  Greece, 
in  honor  of  Apollo.  They  were  restored  by  Augustus  to  com- 
memorate his  victory  over  Antony  at  Actium  (31  B.  c). 

Actiniidse  [from  Gr.  okt(s,  -rvot.  ray  +  -idee,  family  name] ; 
a  family  of  radiated  marine  animals,  the  sea-anemones,  closely 
allied  to  the  coral  polyps,  but  growing  singly  instead  of  in 
colonies,  and  possessing  no  hard  skeleton.  They  are  cylin- 
drical in  form,  with  very  contractile  muscular  walls,"  and 
attach  themselves  very  firmly  by  one  end,  the  pedal  disk. 

The  upper  end  of  the 
cylinder  is  closed  by 
the  oral  disk,  which 
bears  around  its  mar- 
gin several  rows  of 
hollow  tentacles.  The 
mouth  is  an  oval  slit 
in  the  center  of  the 
disk,  and  from  its 
edge  an  ajsophageal 
tube,  often  called  the 
•■  stomach."  hangs 
downwai-d,  and  opens 
ireely  below  into  the 
general  body  cavity. 
The  latter  is  a  sac  in 
which  digestion  is  car- 
ried on,  and  represents  lioth  body  cavity  and  stomach.  Its 
peripheral  portion  is  divided  into  a  number  of  compart- 
ments by  means  of  thin  partitions  or  mesenteries,  which 
extend  inward  from  the  body  wall,  many  of  them  joining 
the  CEsophagus.  Below  the  latter  their  inner  edges  are 
free,  and  bear  the  gastric  filaments  together  with  other 
long,  slender  threads,  richly  provided  with  batteries  of  sting- 
ing cells.  (.See  Acalepit^.)  The  genital  glands  lie  embedded 
in  the  mesenteries.  A  nervous  system  is  developed,  but 
special  sense  organs  seem  to  be  wanting.  Some  of  the  sea- 
anemones  are  among  the  most  beautiful  of  marine  animals, 
their  radiating  tentacles  and  brilliant  coloration  suggesting 
the  names  by  which  they  are  known,  sea-anemones,  See-Rosen, 
anthozoa,  etc.  They  occur  in  vast  numbei's  along  the  shores. 
and  often  fairly  carpet  the  rocks  exposed  at  low  tide.    When 


One  of  the  actiniidte. 


disturbed,  or  when  tlius  exposed,  they  contract  themselves 
into  an  unsightly  ball,  withdrawing  from  view  the  sensitive 
oral  disk  and  its  tentacles,  leaving  exposed  only  the  tougher 
body  wall.  The  latter  is  often  covered  with  sand  and  broken 
shells,  and  the  contracted  animals  thus  simulate  in  color  the 
rocks  to  which  they  are  attached.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Ac'tlnism  [from  the  Gr.  oicrfs.  -7vos,  ray] :  the  chemical 

action  of  light.  The  rays  of  the  sun  produce  three  im- 
portant effects :  thermal,  chemical,  and  optical.  All  rays, 
without  exception,  produce  heat  when  intercepted,  in  direct 
proportion  to  their  kinetic  energ}'.  All,  so  far  as  known, 
have  chemical  action  ;  a  single  group  only,  lying  between 
narrow  limits  as  to  wave-length,  affects  the  eye.  Actinism 
is  the  term  commonly  applied  to  the  chemical  action  of 
light,  an  action  scarcely  less  important  than  the  thermal 
and  optical  elfects,  since  in  all  probability  many  essential 
processes  in  nature,  such  as  the  formation  of  chlorophyll 
and  the  accompanying  reactions  so  necessary  to  plant  life, 
are  dependent  upon  it.  Those  rays  which  "lie  beyond  the 
violet  of  the  visible  spectrum  are  generally  known  as  the 
actinic  rays,  for  the  reason  that  the  reactions  by  means  of 
which  actinism  was  first  investigated,  such  as  the  combina- 
tion of  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  and  the  modification  of  cer- 
tain salts  of  silver  and  of  other  metals,  chiefly  employed  in 
photography,  are  most  marked  in  the  violet  "and  the  ultra 
violet. 

When  a  beam  of  compound  light  is  dispersed  by  the  prism, 
the  most  energetic  action  upon  the  chloride  of  silver  is  found 
in  the  violet  rays  of  the  spectrum  ;  but  tliis  effect,  as  shown 
by  Stokes,  extends  very  far  into  the  darkness  beyond  the 
violet.  Stokes  made  the  additional  remarkable  discovery 
that  these  non-luminous  rays  become  luminons  when  certain 
substances  are  presented  to  them.  Such  substances,  among 
others,  are  solution  of  cjuinine  sulphate,  infusion  of  horse- 
chestnut  bark,  glass  tinted  yellow  by  oxide  of  uranium,  and 
fluor-spar.  This  phenomenon  was  named,  by  its  discoverer, 
fluorescence.  (See  Fluorescence.)  The  heating  effect  of 
the  prismatic  spectrum,  on  the  contrary,  is  found  to  be  more 
remarkable  in  the  red  than  anj"where  else  among  the  lumi- 
nous rays ;  while  the  maximum  heating  effect  is  entirely 
outside  the  spectrum,  and  in  the  dark.  This  discovery,  made 
long  ago  by  Sir  William  llerschel.  is  a  counterpart  to  the 
more  recent  one  of  Stokes  just  mentioned  ;  and  both  taken 
together  show  that  the  sunlight,  as  dispersed  by  the  prism, 
spreads  through  a  wide  space,  in  which  the  rays  exciting 
vision  occupy  only  the  middle  part. 

The  luminous,  heating,  and  chemical  effects  of  light  being 
so  broadly  dift'erent,  it  was  natural,  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
this  investigation,  to  ascribe  them  to  agencies  or  forces 
essentially  differing  from  each  other  in  ]ihysical  character. 
It  was  common,  therefore,  to  say  that  the  sunlight  is  made 
up  of  three  independent  species  of  rays;  the  colorific,  the 
calorific,  and  the  chemical. 

Instead  of  the  word  chemical.  Dr.  Draper,  of  New  York, 
proposed,  in  1842,  to  substitute  the  term  tithonic  to  dis- 
tinguish the  rays  of  the  class  last  mentioned  ;  this  term 
being  derived,  by  a  fancied  analogy,  from  the  beautiful  mvth 
of  Tithonus  and  Aurora.  Sir  John  llerschel,  a  little  later, 
suggested  the  term  actinic,  which  ultimately  prevailed.  To 
the  three  kinds  of  rays  above  mentioned.  Dr.  Draper,  in 
1844,  pro]iosed  to  add  a  fourth,  under  the  name  phosphoro- 
genic  rays ;  that  is  to  say,  rays  which  cause  certain  sub- 
stances, which  have  been  acted  upon  by  them,  to  continue 
for  some  time  afterward  to  pliosphoresce,  or  to  give  light 
in  the  dark.  Dr.  Draper  believed  it  to  have  been  established 
by  his  experiments  that  these  rays,  though  imparting  to 
material  liodies  the  light-producing  power,  are  themselves 
totally  distinct  from  light.  It  is  now  perfectly  well  estab- 
lished, however,  that,  jihysically  considered,  the  sunlight  is 
homogeneous,  the  variety  of  effects  produced  by  it  being 
consecpiences  of  the  different  degi'ees  of  rapidity  with  which 
the  vibrations  of  the  luminiferons  ether  are  iierforined,  and 
being  especially  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  surface  and 
of  the  substance  upon  which  the  rays  are  received. 

The  actinic  properties  of  light  have  formed  the  basis  of 
an  art  having  an  almo.'^t  endless  variety  of  useful  applica- 
tions. Fi>r  particulars  in  regard  to  this,  see  Photography. 
.See  also  .\bney.  A  Treafixe  on  PliofograpJii/  ;  Sleldola,  The 
Chemist nj  of  Pliotonriipliy.        Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Actiiiom'eter  [from  Gr.  anris.  ray  -i-  tiirpov,  measure] :  an 
instrument  for  measuring  the  sun's  radiation.  The  earliest 
form  was  dcscrilied  by  llerschel  in  1H25  ;  other  forms  are 
due  to  Pouillet,  \'iolle,  Crova,  and  Langley.     The  principle 


ACTINOMETRY 


ACUPUNCTURE 


39 


made  use  of  consists  in  ileterraining  the  initial  rate  of  heat- 
ing of  a  thermometer  bulb  when  ex|)ose(l  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun,  the  water  e(niivalent  of  tlie  liullj  beiiiij  known. 
The  loss  liy  radiation,  etc.,  is  controlled  by  surrounding  the 
bulb  by  a  spherical  shell,  which  is  maintained  at  a  constant 
teniiiiTaturo. 

Tne  name  has  also  been  applied  to  instruments  for  meas- 
nring  the  briglilness  of  daylight  or  suidight  by  means  of 
its  chemical  aetinn.  To  tliis  class  belong  tlu'  hydrogen- 
chlorine  aclinometer  suggested  by  Dnipir.  and  later  elalj- 
orated  by  IJunsen  and  Koscoe — an  instrument  tor  determin- 
ing the  intensity  of  illumination  from  tlie  rapidity  with 
which  a  mixture  of  the  two  gases  combines  under  exposure 
to  form  hydrochloric  acid.  To  the  same  class  belongs  Dr. 
Henry  Draper's  apparatus  for  the  reduction  of  ferric  to 
ferrous  oxalate,  under  light  exposure,  by  the  reaction, 

Fe,(C,0,)  =  2FeC,04  +  2C0,. 
^luch  better  than  these  was  the  recording  actiiiometer  of 
l!uiisen  and  Koscoe,  afterward  perfected  by  Koscoe,  and  iti- 
depeiideully  modified  and  elabnnited  by  Abiiey,  in  which 
carefully  pri'pared  chlonde-ot'-silvcr  jiaper  of  standard  sen- 
sitiveness was  exposed  for  a  delinite  interval  of  time,  and 
uncU'r  uniform  conditions,  to  the  action  of  the  light  to  be 
measured. 

It  must  be  said  of  all  chemical  actinometers  that  they  are 
ill  adapted  to  atfoiil  exact  indications  of  the  intensity  of 
sunlight.  ()u  tlie  one  hand,  whatever  reaction  may  be  se- 
lected, the  elTect  will  depend  upon  the  [iresfuce  of  some  par- 
ticular group  of  rays,  and  will  not  be  directly  proportional 
to  the  intensity  of  that  group  ;  on  the  other  haiul,  daylight. 
owing  to  the  selective  absorption  of  the  earth's  atmosphere, 
varies  widi'ly  in  composition,  so  that  tlu^  ratio  of  intensity 
of  the  particular  wave-lengths  n|)on  which  we  depend  for 
the  chemical  reaction  to  the  total  intensity  fluctuates.  The 
indication  of  the  chemical  actiiiometer  is  therefore  not  a 
direct  mea.siire  of  the  solar  radiation.  As  a  means  of  show- 
ing the  chemical  activity  of  sunlight  for  a  given  class  of 
.sensitive  salts  such  instruments  serve  a  useful  purpo.se.  See 
llerschel.  Jidinhiin/h  Journal  of  Science  (1825),  and  Pou- 
illet,  Comptes  Jii-iulns  (183H);  Violle.  Annales  de  Chemie  ct 
ilu  Plii/^i(/iie  (1877-79) ;  Ijangley,  liexert relies  on  Solar  Ileal, 
p.  4.5  (professional  papers  of  the  Signal  Service,  Xo.  1-5); 
Kuusen  and  Koscoe,  Pogg.  Anniilm.  c.  ci.  eviii.;  Abney, 
TreittiKK  on  P/ioloyraplii/,  p.  247.  E.  I;.  Xli'iiOLS. 

Ac'tinom'elry  :  the  measurement  of  solar  radiation.  The 
instruments  childly  employed  for  this  |iiirpose  are  various 
fcirms  of  actinometcr  (</.  e.)  and  the  pyrlieliometer  of  Pou- 
illet;  all  of  which  are  ilesigned  for  the  determination  of  the 
total  energy  derived  from  the  sun's  rays  in  a  unit  of  time, 
per  square  centimeter  of  surface  exposed  to  radiation,  with- 
out reference  to  the  composition  of  the  ray.  The  researches 
of  Langley,  Crova,  Vogel,  and  others  on  solar  ra<liation 
have  sliown  the  innde([iuicy  of  the  usual  methods.  The 
com[)lete  solution  of  Ihc!  great  prolilem  with  wliich  actinom- 
etry  has  to  deal  will  involve  the  study  of  the  action  of  each 
wave-length  separately,  and  of  the  ever-varying  constituticm 
of  .sunlight,  as  modified  by  the  absorption  ilue  to  the  earth's 
atmosphere.  See  Bolometer.  K.\diatiox  (in  the  article 
Heat),  and  Specthoi'uotomf.ter.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Ac'tion:  in  law,  a  proceeding  before  a  court  of  justice 
by  one  person  agiiinst  another  to  obtain  redress  for  the  in- 
fringement of  a  right,  ill  t  he  manner  jirescribed  by  law.  This 
deliiiitiou  would  exclude  such  proceedings  as  mandamus 
and  prohibition.  The  word  is  not  pro])crly  applied  to  courts 
of  erinity.  but  the  corresponding  proceeding  is  there  termed 
a  suit.  A  civil  action  is  instituted  for  tlii^  enforcement  of  a 
private  right  or  the  redress  of  a  similar  wrong.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  place  in  which  they  are  to  be  brought,  they  are 
cither  local  or  transitory.  Civil  actions  are  either  real,  jier- 
sonal,  or  mixed.  Criminal  actions  are  prosecuted  in  the 
name  of  the  state  against  some  |)erson  charged  with  the 
commission  of  a  crime.  The  ilistinclion  between  real  and 
personal  actions  refers  to  the  point  whether  the  recovery  of 
laial  is  sought,  or  <lamages  by  way  of  compensation,  or  spe- 
cific personal  property.  An  action  is  local  when  by  a  rule 
of  law  it  must  be  brought  in  a  particular  locality,  such  as 
a  county.  Actions  not  so  lixalized  are  termed  transitory. 
Penal  actions  are  brought  to  cut'urce  a  |ienally  iin|iosed  by 
law  for  the  commission  of  a  prohibited  act.  Common  law 
actions  are  those  whi<'li  can  be  maintained  without  the  aid 
of  a  statute,  while  those  which  are  biised  on  statutes  are 
called  statutory  actions. 

The  number  of  actions  under  these  rules  is  quite  consider- 


able. The  distinctions  between  them  are  sometimes  sub- 
tle and  perplexing.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  this 
country  to  modify  or  to  do  away  with  them,  and  to  es- 
tablish a  single  form  of  civil  action,  embracing  proceed- 
ings both  in  law  and  in  equity. 

Revised  by  It.  \\'.  Kooers. 

Action  (local):  in  voltaic  cells,  see  Battery. 

Ac'tiiini  (now  called  A'zio):  a  jiromontory  and  town  of 
ancient  (ireece,  in  Acarnania,  near  the  entrance  of  the  Am- 
bracian  (iulf  (see  map  of  tireece,  ref.  16-1).  Here  occurred 
the  great  naval  battle  of  Actiiim  (SI  B.C.),  between  Octa- 
viiis  Ca>sar  and  Mark  Antony;  the  former  gained  a  decisive 
victory. 

Acton,  .loiix  Emerr'U  Edwaru  Dalbero,  Lord :  b.  in 
18;J4:  elected  to  Parliament  for  Carlow  in  Ireland  in  1859. 
He  belonged  to  the  liberal  Catholic  jiarty,  in  whose  interest 
he  founded  the  Home  and  Fnreiijn  lievirir,  which  was  pub- 
lished 18(12  to  I8()4.  when  it  was  condemned  by  the  English 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy.  In  1865  he  was  relnrncd  to 
Parliament  from  ISridgnorth  by  a  majority  of  one,  but  on  a 
scrutiny  he  was  un.seated,  and  in  18()i)  created  a  |ieer  of  the 
United  Kingdom  by  the  title  of  liaron  Ai'ton  of  Aldeiiham. 
In  the  same  year  he  repaired  to  Kome  on  the  assembling  of 
the  (Kcumenical  Council,  where  he  rendered  himself  con- 
siiicuous  by  his  o])positioii  to  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility.  In  1887  Lord  Acton  was  madeD.t^.  L. 
at  Oxford,  and  in  1890  was  elected  to  an  honorary  fellow- 
ship at  All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  a  distinction  shared  only 
by  Mr.  (iladstone.  Kclucated  in  early  life  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Ignatius  von  lliillinger.ot  Miinich, 
Lord  Acton's  intimacy  with  this  distinguished  theologian 
ended  only  with  the  death  of  Von  DoUinger. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perky. 

Act  of  Parliament :  See  Act. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles  :  See  Apostles,  Acts  ok. 

Ads  of  Iniforniity :  acts  passed  by  the  Parliament  of 
England  in  1.549,  1559,  and  16()2,  the  oliject  of  which  was  to 
secure  in  every  congregation  of  the  Church  of  England  the 
same  form  of  public  jiraycr,  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, and  other  rites.  The  act  passed  in  1662  is  still  in 
force,  though  an  amendment,  or  an  amended  act,  was 
adopted,  'i~>  and  36  Victoria,  cap.  85.  providing  for  a  short- 
ened form  of  service  for  morning  and  evening  prayer  on 
any  day  ol  her  than  Sunday,  Christ  mas  day.  Asli-W edne.sday, 
(iood  Friday,  and  Ascension  day,  and  also  supplying  services 
for  other  special  occasions. 

Actnary :  primarily  a  clerk ;  one  who  keeps  records. 
The  term  is  used  more  especially  to  designate  those  otlicers 
of  business  corporations  whose  duty  it  is  to  a]iply  the  doc- 
trine of  chances  to  hnaucial  matters.  The  work  of  the  ac- 
tuary is  tlu^  basis  fm-  the  business  of  life-insurance. 

Actus :  a  term  used  in  scholastic  jihilosophy  to  mean 
actuality  as  opposed  to  potentiality.  Two  kinds  are  distin- 
guished": First  act  is  the  being  or  existence  of  a  thing — that 
determination  whereby  pure  being  is  particularized  or  dif- 
ferentiated so  as  to  constitute  this  being  in  contrast  to  that 
being.  Second  act,  called  also  immanent  or  transient  act,  is 
the  o|ieration  or  activity  of  the  thing  which  passes  over  to 
another  thing  in  the  shape  of  influence  or  causality.  Aclio 
immanenK,  or  immanent  act,  is  an  action  that  does  not  pro- 
ceed beyond  the  being — contemplation,  iox  example — while 
actio  transient,  or  transient  act,  proceeds  out  to  another. 
Actus  prints  is  an  important  distinction  in  theology,  mean- 
ing a  being  which  has  all  its  possibilities  realized,  so  that  it 
is  a  perfei't  lieiiig.  (iipd  is  actus  inirii.t.  and  not  a  mixed 
being  containing  potentiality.  These  distinctions  are  de- 
rived from  .\ristotle.  actus  being  eipiivalent  to  Ivipyda.  and 
actus  purus  being  equivalent  to  4mf\(xeia.  See  Thomas 
Ilar|ier,  Tlie  JJetaplii/sics  of  the  School,  ani  Pierre  Nova's 
Dict.de  Terminolof/ie  scolastique.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Ac'npunctnre  [as  if  from  Ijai.  ncupunctu'ra:  o™,  with 
a  needle  -t-  pun'gere,  prick]:  the  surgical  operation  of  ]nine- 
tnring  a  diseased  part  with  needles.  The  operation  of  in- 
troducing needles  for  curative  effects  has  been  practiced  in 
the  Orient  from  prehistoric  times:  the  same  mode  of  treal- 
meiit  was  in  vogue  among  Western  nations,  and  was  largely 
used  in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  .\ciipiinctnre  con- 
sists in  the  introduction  of  long  needles  directly  into  a  dis- 
eased part,  snch  as  the  muscles  of  the  back  in  lumbago  or 
those  of  the  thigh  in  sciatica.  Practically  no  pain  is  given, 
and  if  the  needles  are  sharp  and  clean  no  injury  results.  Six 


40 


ADA 


ADAMAWA 


or  more  needles  are  inserted  deeply  into  the  affected  part 
and  allowed  to  remain  for  ten  or  more  minutes.  The  improve- 
ment is  sometimes  marvelous  and  imniediate.  W.  P. 

Ada :  on  railroad.  Ilardin  co..  0.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-1)) ;  .57  miles  W.  of  Crestline,  1.5 
miles  E.  of  Linui,  in  tlie  miilst  of  a  rich  agricultural  region ; 
has  but  few  factories,  but  is  an  educational  center,  the  Oliio 
Normal  University,  with  over  3,000  students,  being  located 
liere.     Pop.  (18S0)  1,7(50;  (1890)  2,079. 

Editor  of  "  Record." 

Adagio,  a-daa'jo  [Ital.  mi  agio,  at  ease] :  Italian  musical 
term,  denoting  a  slow  movement  of  measure  of  time. 

Adai :  See  Caddoajj  Indians. 

Adair,  a-dar',  John:  general;  b.  in  South  Carolina  in 
1759.  He  commanded  a  body  of  Kentuckians  at  the  bat- 
tle of  New  Orleans  in  1S1.5,  and  was  Governor  of  Kentuckv 
from  1830  to  1824.  lie  was  U.  S.  Senatt)r  (1805-OG)  anil 
member  of  Congress  (1831-33).     D.  May  19,  1840. 

Adal,  a'a-daal' :  a  narrow  tract  of  Eastern  Africa,  border- 
ing on  tlie  Red  Sea,  ami  extending  from  JIassowali  to  the 
Strait  of  Balj-el-Manileb,  now  a  part  of  tlie  Italian  colony 
of  Eritrea  (q.  v.). 

Ad'albert:  a  descendant  of  tlie  famous  Saxon  family, 
the  Counts  of  Wettin ;  was  apjjointed  Archbishop  of  Ham- 
burg and  Bremen — to  whicli  diocese  the  whole  of  Scandi- 
navia belonged — in  1043  liy  the  emperor,  Henry  III.,  and  in 
1050  Leo  IX.  made  him  legate  to  the  North.  Endowed  witli 
a  powerful  intellect  and  an  irresistible  eloquence,  and  jius- 
sessed  of  a  vast  ambition,  lie  formed  a  plan  for  combining 
Germany  and  Scandinavia  into  a  northern  patriarchate — a 
plan  wliich,  if  realized,  would  have  changed  not  only  the 
history  of  Germany,  but  probably  that  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  But  all  his  exertions  were  frustrated  by  the 
resistance  of  the  Norwegian  King  Harald,  by  the  intrigues 
of  Cardinal  Ilikleljrand,  and  by  the  death  of  his  givat  pa- 
tron, Henry  III.  He  now  confined  himself  to  German  poli- 
tics, and  gained  such  an  ascendency  over  the  young  Henry 
IV.  that  for  years  he  was  the  actual  ruler  of  the  empire.  In 
1066  his  enemies,  the  Archbishops  of  JMayence  and  Cologne, 
succeeded  in  expelling  him  from  the  court;  the  Billmeyers, 
a  rival  Sixxon  family,  invaded  his  territory;  and  the  Sl>avs 
burnt  down  Hamburg.  But  Adalliert  came  victorious  out 
of  all  his  trials.  In  1009  he  returned  to  the  imperial  court, 
and  vindicated  himself  in  his  position  till  his  death.  Mar. 
16,  1072.  See  Grilnhagen's  Adalbert,  Erzbischof  von  Ham- 
burg (1854). 

Ada'lia,  or  Satalicli  (anc.  AdalUi):  a  seaport  of  Turkey 
in  Asia;  in  Anatolia,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name;  17b 
miles  S.  B.  of  Smyrna,  in  lat.  36'  52'  2'  N.,  Ion.  30°  45'  E. 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  built  on  the  slope  of  a 
hill,  has  narrow,  dirty  streets,  and  a  small  but  good  harbor. 
Tropical  fruits  are  exported  hence.  Pop.  estimated  at  13,000, 
of  whom  about  3.000  are  Greeks. 

Ad'aiii  [Hell.  D1X,  i.  e.  man] :  the  first  man  (see  Gen.  i., 
ii.  and  iii.) ;  supposed  to  have  been  created,  according  to 
the  Hebrew  chronology,  4004  B.  c,  and  according  to  the 
Septuagint  chronology  ,5411  B.  c,  though  some  writers  con- 
tend that  no  chronology  of  the  creation  of  man  was  intended- 
to  be  given  in  the  Bible.     See  Pre-Adamites. 

Adam,  Adolphe  Charles:  French  composer  ;  b.. July  24, 
1803 ;  published  numerous  popular  operas  and  ballets,  of 
which  the  most  celebrated  are  Le,  postilion  de  Longjumeau, 
wiiich  was  played  for  the  tir-st  time  in  1'836,  and  gained  great 
applause ;  Lk  roi d'  Yi-elot  (1842) ;  Richard  in Pakiitine(\^i'd) ; 
and  La  jolie  fill'--  de  (land  (1S39).  D.  May  3.  1856.  Best 
known  in  the  U.  S.  by  his  Caalique.  de  Noi'l  {\vAy  night). 

Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Aduni,  Mme.  Ed.mond  (nee  Juliette  Lamber):  .author;  b. 
at  Verberie,  1836;  married  first  M.  la  Messine,  and  after- 
ward M.  Edmond  Adam,  wlio  was  prefect  of  police  in  Paris 
during  thi'.  Kraiico-ticrnian  war.  i\[me.  Adam  remained  in 
Paris  during  the  sieg(^  and  published  her  experiences  in  Le 
siiye  de  Parix:  Journal  d'line  Parim'enne  (1873).  which  has 
been  followed  by  numerous  works,  mainly  on  political  and 
social  subjects,  especially  the  condition  of  women.  Slie 
founded  the  Nourelle  Renie,  and  conducted  it  with  great 
ability  from  1879-80. 

Adam,  Graeme  .Mekcer:  Canadian  author;  b.  at  Loan- 
head,  Midlothian,  Scotland,  in  1839.  He  was  educated  at 
Edinburgh ;  went  to  (janada  in  1858,  ,and  engaged  in  liter- 
ary work  and  inibli.shing  in  Toronto;  removed  to  New  York 


in  1876,  and  helped  to  found  the  publishing-house  since  de- 
veloped into  the  John  W.  Lovell  Publisliing  Co.  He  re- 
turned to  Toronto  in  1878 ;  established  Canada  Educational 
Monthly  in  1879,  and  was  its  editor  for  five  years.  In  1880 
he  became  editor  of  Canadian  J/o«//t/^.  established  by  Prof. 
Goldwin  Smith  and  himself  some  time  before.  Among  his 
works  are :  The  Northwest,  its  History  and  its  7'roubles 
(Toronto,  1885) ;  Outline  History  of  Canadian  Literature 
(1886);  and,  in  conjunction  with  Ethelwyn  Wethcrald,  J.?t 
Algonquin  Maiden  (1887).  Neil  Macdonald. 

Adam,  Robert:  British  architect;  b.  at  Kirkcaldy,  Scot- 
land, in  1728;  d.  in  Loudon  in  1792.  He  designed  several 
important  buildings,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
University,  St.  George's  church,  and  the  Register  House, 
Edinburgh.  He  is  best  known  by  his  work  on  the  ruins  of 
the  jialace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro,  published  in  1764. 
This  is,  except  the  work  of  Stuart  and  Revett,  the  most  im- 
portant arc-ha'ological  book  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Russell  Sturois. 

Adam  of  Bremen  {Adam  Bremensis):  the  author  of  a 
history  (in  four  Imnks)  of  The  Propagation  of  the  Christian 
Religion  in  Xortli  Germany  and  Scandinavia  from  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  down  to  Henry  W..  to  which  work  is 
added  A  Geographical  Description  of  Denmark  and  the 
Countries  beyond  Denmark  (Sweden,  Norway,  Iceland, 
Greenland,  the  Faroes,  etc.).  The  year  of  his  liirth  is  not 
known,  but  he  was  invited  from  Magdeburg  to  superintend 
the  high  school  of  Bremen,  and  all  the  schools  of  the  Bremen 
church,  in  the  year  1007.  He  was  one  of  the  best  educated 
men  of  liis  time.  He  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
Cliureh  fathers,  sucli  as  llicronymus,  Ambrosius,  Orosius, 
Cassiodorus,  Gregory  of  Tours,  Gregory  the  Great,  and  Bcda. 
He  had  diligently  studied  tlie  lieathen  poets,  Vergil,  Horace, 
.Juvenal,  Perseus,  and  Lucan,  who  were  his  favorites.  Among 
the  prose-writers  he  gave  special  attention  to  .Sallust.  Cicero, 
Jlacrobius,  Solinus,  and  Martianus  Capella.  With  such 
preparation  he  went  to  work  toward  the  close  of  his  life  tO' 
write  the  liistory  of  the  Church  of  the  North.  In  order  to 
get  the  facts  he  went  jiersonally  to  Denmark,  where  lie  vis- 
ited Svend  Estridson,  "  who  knew  the  history  of  the  barba- 
rians by  heart,  as  if  it  had  been  written."  Adam  succeeded 
in  getting  at  all  the  facts,  and  produced,  writing  in  Ijatin^ 
the  most  complete  and  the  most  relialile  work  on  the  propa- 
gation of  Christianity  in  the  North  that  we  have.  The  ap- 
jienilix  to  his  w^ork,  which  gives  a  pretty  complete  geogra.|)li- 
ieal  description  of  the  North,  is  especially  valuabli'.  for  it 
contains  a  distinct  mention  of  America,  which  liaii  been 
discovered  by  the  Norsemen.  After  Adam  has  described 
Iceland  and  Greenland,  he  says  :  "  Besides,  he  (Svend  Estrid- 
son, King  of  Denmark  and  nepliew  of  Canute  the  Great) 
mentioned  another  land  which  had  been  discovered  in 
this  ocean  (the  Atlantic),  which  is  called  Vinland,  because 
the  vine,  producing  excellent  wine,  grows  there  spontane- 
ously ;  and  corn  grows  there  abundantly  without  being 
sown.  This  we  know,  not  from  fabulous  conjecture,  but 
from  positive  statements  of  the  Danes."  Adalbert,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bremen,  died  in  1072,  and  Svend  Estridson  in 
1076.  Adam  of  Bremen's  book  being  written  after  Adal- 
bert's death,  and  before  the  death  of  Svend  Estridson,  it 
must  have  been  coiii|iosed  some  time  between  1072  and  1076. 
Whether  Adam  himself  died  immediately  alter  the  comple- 
tion of  his  celebrated  work  is  not  known.  According  to  the 
Church  Book  of  Bremen  he  died  on  Oct.  12,  but  the  year  is 
not  given.  He  was  buried  in  a  grove  that  was  once  his 
property,  but  which  he  had  donated  to  the  cloister  of  Ro- 
meslo.  The  oldest  translation  of  his  work  is  into  French 
by  De  Chastelus  of  Saumur  in  the  year  1796.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Miesegaes  (1825),  and  by  Laurent  (1850). 
The  geograpliical  ap|iendix  was  translnted  into  .Swedish  by 
Peringskjold  in  1817,  and  into  Danish  by  Suhni  in  1790. 
The  whole  work  appeared  in  a  Danish  translation  in  Copen- 
hagen by  P.  W.  Chrisleiiseii  in  1862.         R.  B.  Anderson. 

Adamant  [Gr.  dSa^uoj,  ->/tos,  a  hard  metal,  invinciVde; 
from  d-,  not  +  Sa/iav,  laiucj :  the  ancient  name  of  the  dia- 
mond, is  also  a  word  used  to  denote  a  substance  of  extraor- 
dinary hardness  and  strength  or  durability. 

Adama'wa:  a  semi-independent  territory  in  Central  Af- 
rica; between  the  jiaralli'ls  5°  and  10°  N.  lat.,  and  Ion.  10° 
and  15°  E. :  formerly  considered  a  province  in  the  great 
native  kingdom  of  Sokotci,  now  williiu  Ihe  "sjihere  of  inter- 
est'' of  the  German  Cameroon  district,  while  Sokoto  ]iroper 
is  in  the  British  "sphere"  of  influence.  It  is  in  part  on  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Benue  river,  the  principal  tributary  of 


ADAMITES 


ADAMS 


41 


the  Niger,  in  part  in  the  Congo  basin,  anil  in  part  is  drained 
directly  into  the  Jliglit  of  Heniii.  The  Heniie  valley  is  fer- 
tile and  highly  cultivated ;  the  remainder  is  little  known. 
The  country  is  occupied  by  various  African  tribe^^,  but  the 
political  ascendency  is  in  the  hands  ot  a  race  called  the 
Fulbe.  The  capital  is  Yola,  on  the  Henuc,  in  hit.  8°  50'  N., 
Ion.  13°  30'  E.  Pop.  about  12,000.  Mt.  Atlantika,  2.5  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Yola,  is  the  highest  mountain  (!),B00  feet). 

il.  W.  11. 

Ad'ainites :  a  heretical  sect  said  to  have  sprung  up  in  the 
north  of  Africa  in  the  second  century.  They  rejecteil  mar- 
riage and  aiipeared  naked  in  their  assemblies,  which  were 
called  paradises.  This  name  was  also  assumed  by  a  sect  of 
fanatics  who  arose  in  Hohcmia  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 
advocated  a  community  ot  wives.  They  still  exist  in  Bo- 
hemia, and  are  said  to  be  guilty  of  great  excesses,  though  out- 
wardly discreet. 

Adaninan.  Saint:  abbot  of  the  early  Irish  Church;  b. 
about  &i'i  in  Donegal;  elected  Abbot  of  lona  679;  d.  Sept. 
23,  704;  author  of  Vi/n  ISaiicli  Ciilumbip,  which  is  the  chief 
source  of  inlormatioii  about  the  early  Scoto-Irish  Church. 
The  work  forms  vol.  vi.  of  /:iro!!txk  IliMorians  series  (1857), 
edited  by  Dr.  Reeves  for  the  Baniuityne  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

Adiinis:  town  of  Berkshire  cc,  Mass.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  -Massachusetts,  ref.  2-C);  on  a  branch  of  the  Boston 
and  Albany  K.  K. ;  contains  5It.  Greylock,  3,505  feet  high, 
tlie  highest  point  in  Massachusetts.  The  town  formerly  in- 
cluded what  is  now  known  as  Korth  Adams,  which  was  set 
off  in  1878  as  a  separate  town.  Adams  is  a  typical  New 
England  manufacturing  town ;  has  7  cluuches  and  a  fine 
scliodl  system.  It  is  coiniccted  witli  North  Adams,  5  miles 
distant,  liy  an  electric  railway,  and  is  also  within  easy  access 
of  the  Fi'chburg  R.  11.  Tlie  S.  branch  of  tlie  Iloosac  river 
flows  north  through  tlie  town.  The  principal  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  textile  fabriits.  Pop.  (1880)  5.5!»1 ;"  (1885) 
8,282;  (1800)  9,213;  (1895)  7,837.     Euitok  ok  "Frkema-n." 

Adams:  on  radroad,  .lefferson  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  ot  New  York,  ref.  2-0) ;  156  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Albany;  seat  of  Adams  Collegiate  Institute;  has  4 
churches,  electric  lights,  water-works,  2  malt-houses,  a  ma- 
chine-shop, and  carriage,  furniture,  canning,  and  sash  and 
bUnd  factories.     Pop.  (1880)  1,250;  (18;)0)  1,360. 

Editor  of  "Joukxal." 

Adams,  ('iiARLES  Bakkr:  naturalist;  b.  at  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  .Ian.  11,1814.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in 
1834;  served  as  tutor  there  183()-37;  was  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry and  Natural  History  in  Middlebury  College,  1838-47, 
when  he  became  Professor  of  Zoologvand  Astronomy  in  .\m- 
herst  College,  which  post  he  held  till"  his  death,  .lan.'lO,  1853. 
He  wrote  reports  upon  the  geological  survey  of  Vermont ; 
also  Cuitlrihiilions  fo  VonrliuliKjij. 

Adams.  Charles  Francis,  LL.  D..  1).  C.  L. :  diplomatist ; 
son  of  .lnhn  t^uiiiey  .Vdaiiis;  b.  in  Boston,  Aug.  18,  ISO". 
He  graduateil  at  Harvard  in  1825,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1828.  In  1848  he  was  nominated  for  Vice-President 
by  the  Pree.soilers,  who  supported  Mr.  Van  Buren  for  the 
presidency.  He  publislied  Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams. 
Having  joined  the  Kepulilican  party,  he  was  elected  a  mi'm- 
bcr  of  Congress  in  1858  and  in  I860.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Great  Britain,  the  duties  of  which  [losi- 
tion  were  during  the  civil  war  very  arduous  and  critical.  We 
performeil  these  duties  with  much  ability  and  prudence,  and 
returned  in  1868.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  arbi- 
trators on  the  Alabama  claims.     D.  Nov.  21,  1886. 

Adams,  Charles  Franx-is,  .Jr. :  b.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  May 
27,  18:35;  graduated  at  Harvard  1855;  was  iwlmitted  to  the 
bar  1858;  served  as  an  otlicer  of  cavalry  in  the  civil  war, 
rising  to  the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier-general;  has  since 
taken  a  ]irominent  part  in  the  discussion  of  social,  economi- 
cal, and  political  questions;  has  written  in  the  A^or/A  Ameri- 
can Review  on  railroad  management,  and  was  a]i|>ointed 
railroad  commissioner  for  Massachusetts  in  1869;  author  of 
Chapters  of  Krie  (1871);  Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts 
History  (1892).  For  several  years  he  was  president  of  the 
Union  Pacilic  Railway,  from  which  ofTice  he  resigned  in 
1890. 

Adams.  Charles  Kendall,  A.  B.,  .\.  Jf..  TjL.  D.  :  educator 
and  liistiiriun  ;  b.  at  Derby,  Vt.,.Ian.24, 1835  ;  educated  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  and  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy; 
Assistant  Professor  of  History  and  Latin,  University  of 
Michigan,    1863-67;    Professor  of  History,   University  of 


Michigan,  1867-85  ;  non-resident  Professor  of  History,  Cor- 
nell l/niversity,  1881-85;  became  President  of  the  (jornell 
University,  1885;  resigned  in  May,  1892,  and  two  months 
later  accepted  the  j)rcsidency  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin. Prof.  Adams  founded  the  Historical  Seminary  in 
the  University  of  jSlichigan  in  1869,  and  was  thus  the  first 
to  introduce  the  seminary  method  of  instruction  in  his- 
tory into  the  U.  S.  On  the  establishment  of  the  School 
of  Political  Science  in  the  University  of  Michigan  he  be- 
came its  dean.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization 
of  the  American  Historical  Association,  of  which  he  was 
president  in  1890.  Author  of  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in 
France  (New  York,  1872  ;  German  version,  Stuttgart,  1873) ; 
Manual  of  Historical  Literature  (New  York,  1882);  Brit- 
ish Orations  (New  York,  1884) ;  Christopher  Columbus,  his 
Life  and  Work  (New  York,  1892) ;  and  of  a  large  number  of 
papers  on  historical  and  educational  topics  in  the  Aorth 
American  Jievieu;  Tlie  Forum,  New  Euijtander,  The  Con- 
temporary Review, a.m\  other  periodicals.  Editor-in-chief  of 
Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopcedia  (1892).    C.  H.  Tuurber. 

Adams,  Edwi.v  :  actor;  b.  in  Medford,  Mass.,  Feb.  3, 1834 ; 
first  appeared  in  Boston.  Aug.  29.  1853,  at  the  National 
theater  as  Stephen  in  Tlie  JIunchback :  played  Charles 
Woodlcy  in  The  Soldier's  Dauyhter  in  Philadelphia  in  Se|)t., 
1854;  uppeai'ed  in  Baltimore  with  success;  enacted  Hamlet 
at  the  Winter  Garden,  New  York,  with  Kate  Bateman  and 
J.  W.  Wallack ;  made  a  tour  of  the  principal  cit  ies  of  the 
U.  S.  as  a  star,  and  returned  to  New  York  in  1866.  When 
Booth's  theater  wjls  opened  in  Feb.,  1867,  Adams  played 
Jlerculio  and  other  prominent  characters.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  pei-sonation  of  Enoch  Arden.  which  made  him  a 
great  favorite.  After  appearing  with  Edwin  Booth  in  a 
number  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  he  visited  Australia,  where 
his  health  failed.  He  received  a  number  of  complimentary 
benefits  when  he  returned  to  the  U.  S.  D.  in  Philadel[)hia, 
Oct .  25, 1877.  Adams  was  a  versatile  actor,  wit  h  a  powerful, 
winning,  and  melodious  voice.  B.  B.  Vallentine. 

Adams,  Hannah  :  one  of  the  first  women  in  the  U.  S. 
to  engage  in  literary  pursuits;  b.  at  Medlield,  Mass.,  in 
1755.  She  wrote  a  View  of  Jieliyions  (1784);  History  of 
New  Enyland  (1799);  Evidences  of  Christianity  {1H0\); 
History  of  the  Jews  (1812) ;  Letters  on  the  Gospels ;  an  Auto- 
biography ;  and  other  works.  I),  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  Nov. 
15,  1832. 

Adams,  Henry  :  historian ;  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams  ; 
b.  in  Boston,  Feb.  16,  183H  ;  graduated  at  Harvard  College, 
1858 ;  was  private  secretary  to  his  father  while  the  latter 
was  minister  to  England,  1861-68 ;  became  Professor  of 
History  in  Harvard  College  in  1870;  editor  of  the  North 
AmeriniH  lieview,  1870  to  Oct.,  1876  :  author  of -£'i«>ny«  in 
Anqlo-Saxon  Law  (1876) ;  Historical  Essai/s  (1871) ;  Eife  of 
Albert  (iallatin  (1879);  John  Kandoliih  (1882);  Documents 
Relatinq  to  New  England  Federalism,  1S00-1S15  (1877); 
History  of  the  United  States,  lSOl-1817  (1889-91,  9  vols.). 

C.  H.  T. 

Adams,  Kev.  IIkxry  Cadwallader  :  philologist  and 
novelist ;  educated  at  O.xford,  where  he  graduated  B.  A. 
in  1840.  Author  of  The  Cherrystones  (1851);  Creek  Delec- 
tus (1851);  Lalni  Delectus  (1852);  Greek  I'ejrt  of  the  Gos- 
/W'7.s  (1855);  Twelve  Foundations,  and  other  J'oems  (1858); 
Svhoolbdii  Honor  (1861) ;  Balderscnurt.  or  Holiday  Tales 
(1865);  Tales  upon  Texts  (1869);  The  Winborough  Hoys 
(1870);  Frank  Lawrence,  3  vols.  (1873),  etc.,  etc.;  Wyke- 
hamica,  a  JHslory  of  Winchester  College  (1878) ;  Perils  in 
the  Transvaal  (1887)!  "  W.  S.  P. 

Adams,  Henry  Carter,  Ph.  D. :  economist ;  b.  at  Daven- 
port. Iowa,  Dec.  31,  1852;  educated  at  Iowa  College  and 
.lolins  Hopkins  University ;  wjus  first  a  fellow,  then  a  lec- 
turer in  the  latter  institution  ;  lecturer  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity ;  professor  in  the  University  of  Michigan  ;  statistician  to 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission;  and  had  charge  of 
the  transportation  department  of  the  eleventh  census.  He 
has  written  :  Public  Debts  (1887  ;  2d  cd.  1890) ;  Outlines  of 
Lectures  upon  Political  Economy  (1881  ;  2d  ed.  1886) ;  I'ax- 
ation  in  the  United  Stales,  JTSft-JSlO,  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University  Studies  (1884) ;  lielations  of  the  State  to  Indus- 
trial Action,  published  by  the  American  Economic  Asso- 
ciation (1887);  Relation  of  American  Municipalities  to 
Quasi-Public  Works,  published  by  the  same  association; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Statistics  of  Railways  in  the  United 
.S'/n/c.s-.  published  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
(1889-91).  C.  H.  T. 


42 


ADAMS 


Adams,  Herbert  Baxter,  Ph.  D. :  Professor  of  History; 
b.  April  16, 1850,  near  Amherst,  Mass. ;  educated  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  Amlierst,  at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  Am- 
herst College,  and  Heidelberg  University;  appointed  Fellow 
of  Hi.story  at  the  .Johns  Hoplvins  University  1876;  Associate 
in  History  in  1878 ;  associate  professor  in  188;S,  and  univer- 
sity professor  in  1891  ;  historical  lecturer  at  Smith  C'liUege, 
Northampton,  Mass.,  1878-81,  and  at  Chautauqua,  1888-91 ; 
was  awarded  the  Kegents'  prize  by  Chancellor  George  Will- 
iam Curtis  for  the  best  published  account  of  university 
extension ;  toolc  an  active  part  in  1884,  with  Prof.  C.  K. 
Adams,  Justin  Winsor,  and  Andrew  D.  White,  in  organiz- 
ing the  American  Historical  Association,  and  has  b<'en  sec- 
retary of  the  society  since  its  foundation.  Editor  of  The 
Jo/ins  Hopkins  University  Studies  hi  Historical  and  Po- 
litical Science,  and  of  Contributions  to  American  Educa- 
tional History.  Author  of  Maryland's  Influence  in  Found- 
ing a  National  Commonwealth;  The  Study  of  History  in 
American  Colleges  and  Unit'ersities;  The  College  of  William 
and  Mary;  and  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of 
Virginia.  '  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Adams,  Rev.  Jasper,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  East  Medway,  Mass., 
Aug.  27,  1798  ;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1815  ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  there  (1819-34) ;  president  of  Cliarles- 
ton  College,  S.  C.,  in  1824  and  again  in  1827-36,  of  Geneva 
(now  Hobart)  College  in  1825-27.  He  was  (1838-40)  cluxp- 
lain  and  Professor  of  Moi-al  Philosopliy  at  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy.  His  principal  literary  work  was  'The  Elements 
of  Moral  Philosophy,  which  won  the  high  commendation 
of  Mr.  Justice  Story.     I).  Oct.  25,  1841. 

Revised  liy  W.  S.  P. 

Adams,  John  :  second  President  of  the  U.  S. ;  b.  at 
Braintree,  Mass..  Oct.  19,  1735,  0.  S. ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  1755;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  tlie  bar 
in  1758.  For  this  iirofe-ssion  he  was  well  fitted  by  a  clear, 
sonorous  voice,  a.  ready  fluency  of  speech,  and  a  quick  con- 
ception. In  1764  he  married  Abigail  Smith,  a  woman  of 
superior  intelligence.  His  attention  was  drawn  to  political 
affairs  by  the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1765,  and  'he 
offered  on  that  subject  a  series  of  resolutions  whicli  were 
very  popular.  He  removed  to  Boston  in  1768,  became  one 
of  the  most  courageous  and  prominent  advocates  of  the 
popular  cause,  and  was  clinsen  a  member  of  the  General 
Court  (the  Legislature)  in  1770. 

He  was  one  of  tlie  delegates  that  re]iresented  Massachusetts 
in  the  fii'st  Continental  Congress,  which  met  in  Sept.,  1774. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  Congress  by  his  capacity  for  busi- 
ness and  for  debate,  and  advocated  the  movement  for  inde- 
pendence when  the  majority  of  the  members  were  inclined 
to  temporize  and  to  petition  the  king.  In  May,  1776,  he 
moved  and  carried  a  resolution  in  Congress  that  tlie  colonies 
should  assume  the  duty  of  self-gnvi'rnuient.  In  .June  a  reso- 
lution that  tlie  U.  S.  "  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  tree  and 
independent  "  was  moved  by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  seconded  by 
Mr.  Adams,  and  adopted  by  a  small  majority.  Mr.  Adams 
was  a  member  on  the  committee  of  five  appointed  June  11 
to  prepare  a  declaration  of  independence,  in  su|i[iort  of  which 
he  made  an  eloquent  speech,  about  July  2.  He  was  tlie 
chairman  of  tlie  board  of  war  appointed  in  June,  1776,  and 
was  sent  as  commissioner  to  France  in  1778,  but  returned  in 
Jidy,  1779.  Having  been  appointed  as  minister  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  he  went 
to  Europe  early  in  1780.  Conjointly  with  Franklin  and 
Jay  he  negotiated  a  treaty,  the  preliminary  articles  of  which 
were  signed  Kov.  30,  1782.  He  was  employed  as  minister  to 
the  court  of  St.  James  from  1785-88,  and  during  that  service 
wrote  his  Defense  of  the  American  ConstilutiiinsCili^l).  In 
1780  lie  hecame  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.,  and  aliout  that 
time  identified  liimself  with  the  Federal  party,  by  which  he 
was  re-elected  to  the  office  of  Vice-President  in  1792. 

In  1796  Mr.  Adams  was  chosen  President  of  the  U.  S., 
receiving  71  electoral  votes,  while  his  competitoi-,  'I'homas 
Jefferson,  received  68  votes.  He  sympathized  with  the  auti- 
Gallican  party,  and  pursui'd  the  policy  of  neutrality  be- 
tween France  and  Great  P.rilain.  Involved  in  a  quarrel  with 
the  French  Directory,  wliicli  interfered  with  tlie  maritime 
interests  of  the  citizens  of  the  U.  S.,  he  sent  i\Ir.  Murray  as 
minister  to  France  early  in  1799,  in  order  to  avert  a  war. 
This  act  gavc^  much  offense  to  the  Federalists,  and  broke  the 
unity  of  that  jiarty.  Among  the  unpopuhir  measures  for 
which  Mr,  .\dams  was  held  res|ionsiblc  were  the  Alien  law 
and  the  Sedilion  law.  In  1800  he  was  the  FediT;il  candi- 
date for  the  ollicc  of  Pi'esident,  lint  he  was  not  cordially  sup- 


ported by  Gen.  Hamilton,  the  favorite  leader  of  his  party. 
Receiving  65  electoral  votes,  he  was  defeated  by  Thomas 
Jefferson,  who  received  73  votes. 

Mr.  Adams  then  retired  from  public  life  to  his  large  estate 
at  Quincy,  Mass.,  and  gave  his  attention  partly  to  agriculture. 
The  general  neglect  and  odium  wliich  he  experienced  were 
at  last  compensated  by  tlie  election  of  his  son  John  Quiney 
to  the  presidency  of  the  U.  S.  He  died  on  Jnly  4,  1826.  It 
is  a  curious  coincidence  that  of  the  three  Presidents  of  the 
U.  S.  wlio  have  died  on  that  anniversary  (Adams.  Jefferson, 
and  Monroe),  two  had  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Adams.  John  Couch:  astronomer;  b.  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, June  5.  1819 :  educated  at  Cartibridge.  where  he  ob- 
tained the  position  of  Senior  Wrangler,  1843.  In  1841  he 
began  to  search  for  the  causes  of  the  irregularities  in  the  mo- 
tion of  L^ranus.  He  ascertained  that  they  were  caused  by  the 
attraction  of  a  planet  then  unknown,  and  thus  shares  with 
Leverrier  the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  Nejitune,  for  which 
he  received  the  Copley  medal  in  1848.  In  1851  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society ;  and 
in  1858  became  Professor  of  Jlathematics  in  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  (where  he  taught  until  May,  1859),  and  about  the 
same  time  was  apjiointcd  Lowndean  Professor  of  Astronomy 
and  Geometrv  at  Cambridge,  an  ollice  which  he  held  until 
his  death,  Jan.  21,  1892.  In  1861  he  succeeded  Prof.  Challis 
as  director  of  Cambridge  Observatory,  and  in  1866  re- 
ceived the  Royal  Astronomical  Society's  gold  medal  for  his 
investigations  regarding  the  lunar  parallax  and  the  secu- 
lar acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean  motion.  He  was  one  of 
the  British  delegates  to  the  International  Prime  Meridian 
Conference  held  at  Washington  in  1884. 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  :  sixth  President  of  the  U.  S. ;  b. 

in  Braintree,  Mass.,  July  11,1767.  He  was  eldest  son  of 
President  John  Adams  and  his  wife,  Abigail  Smith,  who 
was  descended  from  the  family  of  Quincy.  In  1778  he  was 
placed  at  a  school  in  Paris,  and  in  1780  passed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden.  He  returned  home  in  1785,  and  finished 
his  education  at  Harvard  College,  where  he  graduated  in 
1788,  alter  which  lie  studied  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791.  Having  gained  dis- 
tinction by  some  |iolitical  essays,  he  was  apjiointed  minister 
t(.>  The  Hague  in  1794.  In  1797  he  married  Loui-sa  Catherine 
Johnson  of  Maryland,  and  in  the  same  year  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Berlin,  from  which  he  was  recalled  in  1801,  when 
tlie  Republicans  obtained  [lower. 

He  was  elected  a  .Senator  of  the  V.  S.  by  the  Federalists 
in  1803,  but  voted  for  Jefferson's  embargo  in  1807,  and  thus 
separated  himself  from  the  Federal  (larty  and  lost  his  seat 
in  the  Senate  in  1808.  Before  this  date  he  had  distinguished 
himself  as  a  public  speaker,  and  had  lieen  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  Rhetoric  at  Harvard  College  (1805).  In  1809  he  was 
sent  as  minister  to  Russia.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
that  negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  signed 
Dec.  24,  1814,  and  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the  court 
of  St.  James  in  1815.  In  1817  he  became  Secretaiy  of 
State  in  the  Cabinet  of  ]\lonroe,  in  which  position  he  re- 
mained eight  years.  In  1824  four  candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency were  presented — John  tj.  Adams,  Andrew  Jackson, 
Henry  Clay,  and  William  H.  Crawford — all  of  whom  pro- 
fessed to  be  Democrats.  Mr.  Adams  received  84  electoral 
votes,  Jackson  99.  Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  As  neither 
had  the  requisite  majority,  the  election  devolved  on  the 
House  of  Representatives,  which  chose  Jlr.  Adams.  This 
result  was  due  to  the  inllucnce  of  Henry  Clay,  and  when 
Mr.  Adams  nominated  him  as  Secri'fary  of  State,  the  friends 
of  Jackson  accused  Adams  anil  Clay  of  "  bargain  and  corrup- 
tion," but  the  charge  is  not  generally  credited.  His  admin- 
istration was  opiiosed  by  a  powerful  party,  formed  by  a  co- 
alition of  the  .lacksonians  with  the  friends  of  Crawford. 
This  party  had  a  majority  of  the  members  of  Congi'ess,  and, 
uniting  on  Gen.  Jackson  as  their  candidate.  trium]ihed  in  the 
election  of  1828.  when  Jlr.  Adams  received  only  83  electoral 
votes  nut  of  261.  which  was  the  whole  number. 

In  1830  he  was  chosiMi  by  the  voters  of  his  native  district 
to  rejiresent  them  in  Congress,  in  which  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  a])plication  to  business,  his  assertion  of  the 
right  of  petition,  and  his  resolute  opposition  to  what  he 
considered  to  be  the  encroachments  of  the  slave  power.  He 
continued  to  represent  the  same  district  in  Congri-ss  for 
seventeen  yi'ars,  during  which  he  maintained  a  position 
indeiiendent  of  a  Jiarty.     He  was  seized  with  paralysis  in 


ADAMS 


ADANSON 


43 


the  Capitol  on  Feb.  21,  1848,  and  died  on  the  23d  of  that 
month.  In  relijjion  he  wa.s  a  Unitarian.  He  left  many 
writings  in  prose  ami  verse,  which  have  been  published;  also 
a  voluminous  diary  of  his  public  life. 

Adams,  .loHN'  Quixcy:  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and 
son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams,  noticed  above;  b.  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  Sept.  'ii,  18:i:i ;  gruduuted  at  Harvard  in  1S.53.  lie 
was  tlie  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1867  and  1868,  but  was  both  times  defeated,  lie 
was  also  a  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency  in  1872,  on  the 
ticket  with  Charles  O'Conor.     D.  Aug.  14,  1894. 

Adams,  Julius  Walker:  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  18. 
1812;  entered  the  V.  S.  Military  Academy,  .June,  1830;  as- 
sistant engineer  of  Stonington  and  Providence  \i.  K.  1832, 
Norwich  and  Worcester  1{.  K.  1836,  Western  K.  I{.  of  3Iassa- 
chusetts  183!),  Albany  and  Schenectady  K.  K.  1842,  U.  S.  dry- 
dock,  Brooklyn  navy-yard,  1844,  Codiituatc  water-works, 
Boston,  1846:  supcriiitcmling  engineer  New  York  and  Erie 
R.  H.  1846;  chief  engineer  Central  R.  R.  of  Kentucky  18J2, 
Memphis  and  Ohio  K.  R.  1855;  engineer  for  establishment 
of  a  system  of  sewei-s  in  Brooklyn,  N.  V.,  1856;  engineer  of 
New  Haven  water-works  I860.  Served  with  cre<lit  as  colonel 
of  the  67th  New  York  Yols.,  and  was  wounded  at  Fair  Oaks. 
Since  then  has  lieen  engaged  m  many  important  hydraulic 
works;  chief  engineer  city  of  Brooklyn;  p>i-^t  prcsiiicut 
American  .Society  of  Civil  Engineers;  meml)er  of  New- 
York  Academy  of  Science;  author  of  various  scientific 
papers;  and  consulting  engineer  to  department  of  public 
works,  New  York. 

Adams.  NiiHEMiAii,  D.  D. :  theologian  :  1). at  .Salem,  Mass.. 
Feb.  19,  1806 :  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826,  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1829.  He  first  settled  at  Cam- 
bridge in  182'J,  and  in  1834  became  pastor  of  the  Essex  Street 
church  in  Boston.  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1870.  He 
published  several  theological  and  other  works,  and  a  Switli 
Side  View  of  Since ry  (1854),  which  was  severely  condemned 
by  the  o|iponents  of  slavery.  He  had  a  high  reputation  for 
scholarship  and  pulpit  eloquence.     D.  Oct.  6,  1878. 

Adams.  Samikl  :  patriot  and  orator;  a  second  cousin  of 
President  .John  .\dams;  b.  in  Boston.  Sept.  27,  1722:  grad- 
nated  at  Harvard  College  in  1740;  and  became  a  merchant, 
but  was  not  successful  in  business,  and  soon  abandoned  it. 
In  1765  he  was  chosen  to  represent  Boston  in  the  General 
Court  of  Jliissachusetts,  in  which  he  distinguislied  himself 
by  his  courage,  energy,  and  oratorical  talents,  and  acquired 
great  infiuence.  Before  the  Revolution  he  was  an  untlincli- 
ing  advocate  of  the  popular  cause,  and  took  such  an  active 
part  in  political  meetings  that  he  was  one  of  the  two  lead- 
nig  patriots  who  were  excepted  from  a  general  pardon  of- 
fered in  1775.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress,  which  met  in  Sept.,  1774.  and  lie  signed  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  in  1776.  He  reniaineil  in  Con- 
gress about  eight  years,  was  afterward  elected  to  the  Senate 
<if  Miussachusetts.  and  was  a  member  of  the  State  conven- 
tion which  ratified  the  Federal  Ctmstitution  in  1788.  His 
■  political  allinities  connected  him  with  the  Republican  (or 
.le(Tersonian)  party.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Jlassachu- 
setts  in  1794,  was  re-ele<-ted  twice,  and  retired  to  private  life 
in  1797.  He  ilied  Oct.  2.  1803.  In  religion  he  was  a  decided 
Calvinist.  In  the  letters  and  other  writings  of  .lohn  Adams 
occur  several  passages  which  express  a  high  opinion  of  the 
talents  and  merits  of  Samuel  Adams,  in  whose  productions 
he  says  nuvy  be  found  "specimens  of  a  nervous  simplicity 
of  reasoning  and  eloquence  that  have  never  been  rivaled  in 
America."  See  W.  V.  Wells's  Life  and  Public  Services  of 
JSamuel  Adams  (3  vols.  8vo,  1865). 

Adams.  Sauaii  (Flower) :  poet :  b.  at  Great  Harlow.  Essex, 
England,  Feb.  22,  1805.  She  marrieil  Mr.  W.  B.  Adams  in 
1S34.  Her  |>rincipal  Work  is  Viria  Per/tefua  (\Sil),  a  dra- 
matic ]iocm  dealing  willi  the  life  of  the  early  Christians. 
Shi^  was  the  author  of  many  hymns,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  Nearer  iiii/  God  to  Thee.     D.  .Vugust,  1848. 

Adams.  Rev.  William,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Jlonaghan.  Ireland, 
in  1813;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Didilin.  and  at  the 
<ieneral  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  city:  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Nashotah  Theological  Seminary  in  Wi.s- 
<'Onsin.  where,  after  a  half-century's  service,  he  is  still  Pro- 
fessor of  Systematic  Divinity.  Besides  mnnerous  contribu- 
tions to  religious  papers  and  reviews,  he  has  written  Mercy 
to  linl/ex  CSl'w  York.  1847);  Elements  of  C/irisliau  Science 
(I'hiladilpliia.  IS.")!));  and  A  New  Treatise  on  Baptismal  He- 
generation  (New  York,  1871).  W.  S.  P. 


Adams,  Rt.  Rev.  WiLLiiM  Forbes,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  first 
missionary  bishop  of  the  American  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona;  b.  in  Ireland,  Jan. 
2,  1833.  Removing  in  his  boyhood  to  Tennessee,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Mississippi,  but  was  ordained  deacon 
Dec.  27,  1859,  and  priest  July  29,  1860.  At  the  time  of  his 
election  to  the  episcopate  he  was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  in  New 
Orleans.  Consecrated  Jan.  17, 1875 ;  resignation,  on  account 
of  physical  disability,  accepted  by  House  of  Bishops,  Oct., 
1877.    Translated  to  the  see  of  Easton,  Md.,  1887. 

W.  S.  P. 

Adams,  William  Henry  Davenport:  author  and  jour- 
nalist; b.in  1828;  editor  of  The  Scottish  Guardian, 1870-77; 
has  published  an  annotated  edition  of  Shakspeare ;  Tlie  Jiird 
World;  The  Arctic  World;  Mrnmraile  Jiallles  in  English 
History ;  Heroes  of  the  Cross ;  England  at  Sea  ;  Woman's 
Work  and  Worth  ;  The  Merry  Monarch  ;  Good  Queen  Anne ; 
The  White  King;  Witch,  Warloclc.  and  Magician,  etc. — 
His  son,  W.  Davenport,  wlio  is  also  a  journalist,  has  pro- 
duced a  Dictionary  of  English  Literature;  a  work  on  J'a- 
mous  Books;  and  three  collections  of  annotated  poetry. 

Adams.  William  T.  :  a  popular  writer,  known  under  the 
p.seudonyin  of  Oliver  (Iplic;  b.in  JNIeihvay,  Mass..  July  30, 
1822-  published  about  a  hundred  works  for  children — viz.. 
The  h'i>'erdide  Series  (1860) ;  Yonnq  America  Abroad  Series 
(1866-69  and  1871-77) :  Great  Wetiiern  .Series (1875-81), etc.; 
edited  Student  and  Schoolmate  (1858-66);  Our  Boys  and 
Girls  (1867-75);  Our  Little  Ones  (1886);  and  Oliver  Optic's 
Magazine.     D.  Mar.  27,  1807. 

Adam's  Bridge  :  a  chain  of  sand-banks  and  coral  reefs 
exteiuling  from  the  N.  W.  point  of  Ceyhm  to  the  coast  of 
India.  Like  Adam's  Peak,  it  is  n.ssociated  with  the  legend 
of  a  visit  by  Adam  to  Ceyhm.  It  is  more  than  30  miles  long. 
Some  of  the  banks  and  reefs  are  dry,  and  none  are  covered 
to  a  depth  of  more  than  3  or  4  feet  at  high  water.  There 
are  two  or  three  tortuous  channels  through  them,  but  these 
are  practicable  only  for  small  craft, and  for  them  only  in 
calm  weather.  M.  W.  II. 

Adam's  Needle:  See  Yucca. 

Adam's  Peak :  a  mountain  in  Ceylon  in  hit.  6'  52'  X., 
Ion.  SO  :i2  K. :  height,  7,230  feet.  It  is  considered  by  the 
Buddhists  as  the  holy  center  of  the  world.  A  temple  is  sit- 
uated on  the  highest  porti(m  of  the  peak,  under  which  the 
footprints  of  Buddha  and  Srijiadam  (i.  e.  luck)  are  said 
to  be  seen.  Buddha  is  said  to  have  left  those  traces  ujion 
his  last  visit  to  the  earth.  The  Brahmans  and  Jlohamme- 
dans  also  consider  it  a  holy  mountain — the  former,  because 
they  c<insider  Buddha  as  an  avatar  (incarnation)  of  Vishnu ; 
the  latter,  because  they  ascribe  the  footprints  U<  Adam,  who 
is  said  to  have  here  mourned  for  1,000  years  his  expulsion 
from  Paradise,  standing  on  one  foot.  The  shadow  of  the 
peak  at  suiu'ise  shows  some  unique  peculiarities.  See  Aber- 
crond)y.  Seas  and  Skie-t  in  many  Latitudes  (1888). 

Adamsoii,  Patrick:  b.  at  Perth.  Scotland,  in  1543;  was 
licensed  as  a  preacher;  studied  law.  and  went  to  France  as 
tutor  to  a  young  gentlenum  ;  returiu'd  in  1573,  took  orders, 
and  became  minister  of  Paisley:  was  nuide  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1576  liy  his  patron,  the  Earl  of  Morton, 
Regent  of  Scotland.  He  Imd  many  contests  with  the  Pres- 
bxierians  resijecting  episeo|)acy.     D.  Feb.  19,  1592. 

Adaii.  IjOUIS  Emile  :  painter  of  figure  subjects;  b.  in 
Paris,  Mar.  26,  1839.  Pupil  of  Picot  and  Cabanel.  First- 
class  "medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889;  Legion  of  Honor,  1892. 
One  of  the  best  of  his  works  is  A  ulumn  Evening  (1882).  TJte 
Fern/man's  Daughter  (1883)  is  in  the  Luxembourg^  Gallery, 
Paris.     Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Ada'na  :  a  city  of  Asia  Minor ;  on  the  river  Sihoon ;  about 
30  miles  from  the  sea  and  18  miles  E.  of  Tarsus  (see  map 
of  Turkey,  ref.  6-G).  It  has  some  traile  in  grain,  wine,  cot- 
ton, etc.  "  Here  are  interesting  ancient  remains.  Pop.  (1885) 
45.0110. 

.Vdniison.  Mk  iikl:  French  naturalist;  b.  at  Aix.  Apr.  7, 
1727 :  educated  at  the  college  of  Plessis.  He  went  to  Senegal 
in  1748  to  explore  the  natural  history  of  that  region,  in 
wliich  he  |)assed  five  years  in  his  arduous  and  dangerous 
enterprise,  and  collected  an  immense  number  of  animals 
and  plants.  lie  published,  after  his  return,  a  Natural  Jlis- 
tori)  of  Senegal  ( 1 757).  and  The  Fam Hies  of  Plants  (1 763),  in 
which  he  opposed  the  artificial  system  of  Linnams.  In  1759 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  D 
Aug.  3, 1806. 


44 


ADANSONIA 


ADELBEKT  COLLEGE 


Adansonia. 


Addax. 


Adanso'uia :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Sterculia- 
eecB;  named  in  honor  of  the  great  naturalist,  M.  Adanson. 

The  Adansonia    digita  ta, 
^j„^  .  or  baobab,  is  found  in  tropi- 

cal Africa,  and  is  one  of  the 
largest  trees  in  the  world. 
It  does  not  grow  very  high, 
but  its  trunk  is  often  more 
than  20  feet  in  diameter. 
The  fruit  of  the  baobab  is 
called  monkey-bread.  By  a 
loose  and  vague  overestimate 
some  of  these  trees  have  been 
said  to  be  5,000  years  old. 

A'dar:  the  sixth  month 
of  the  civil  and  the  twelfth 
of  the  ecclesiastical  year  of  the  Jews,  beginning  with  the  new 
moon  of  February. 

Ad'da  (anc.  Ad'dua):  a  river  of  Northern  Italy;  rises  in 
the  ValtoUina,  among  the  Rhaitian  Alps,  and  enters  Lake 
Corao,  which  is  an  expansion  of  this  river.  After  issuing 
from  that  lake  it  flows  nearly  southward  througli  Lombardy, 
and  empties  itself  into  the  Po  7  miles  above  Cremona. 
Length  of  river  and  lake,  about  130  miles. 

Ad'dax  :  the  O'ryx  (or  Ad'daj-)  nasomacula'fics  of  the 
naturalists;  a  large  antelo]>e  found  in  North  Africa  and 
.Vrabia.  Its  broad  -  spreading 
hoofs  enable  the  animal  to  ob- 
tain a  firm  foothold  upon  the 
dry  and  yielding  sand.  Its 
liorns,  which  are  from  3  to  4  feet 
long,  are  beautifully  twisted  into 
a  spiral,  having  two  and  a  half 
turns.  The  general  color  of  the 
addax  is  a  milk-white,  but  there 
is  a  black  patch  of  hair  on  the 
forehead,  and  it  has  a  dark- 
lirown  mane,  with  more  or  less 
of  reddisli  brown  mixed  witli 
gray  on  the  head,  shoulders,  and 
part  of  the  back. 
Ad'der:  a  common  name  of  the  viper  or  of  any  venom- 
ous serjient  belonging  to  the  family  Viperid(e.  The  name 
is  popularly  applied  in  the  U.  S.  to  several  non-venomous 
snakes,  as  the  "  spreading-adder "'  {Heferodon  platyrhinus). 
Addiii§:toii,  Henry:  See  Sidmouth. 

Addiligtoii,  IsA.\c:  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  23,  164.T; 
member  of  House  of  Representatives  and  Speaker  in  168.) ; 
opposed  the  administration  of  Sir  Edmund  .\ndros,  and  on 
its  overthrow  in  168'J  became  clerk  of  the  Council  of  Safety, 
to  whom  the  people  committed  the  government;  secretary 
from  his  appointment  in  1690  till  his  death  ;  judge  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas,  1693-1702;  chief  justice  of  the  Su- 
perior Court,  1703-03.  He  was  many  years  chosen  to  the 
council,  and  was  judge  of  probate  court,  1702-15.  D.  Mar. 
19,  1715. 

Ad'disconibe  House :  situated  about  a  mile  from  Croy- 
don, England ;  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Karl  of 
Liverpool,  and  was  jMirehased  in  1809  by  the  East  India 
Company,  and  o|iened  by  them  in  1825  as  a  collegiate  insti- 
tution for  tlie  education  of  cadets  for  the  whole  of  their  mili- 
tary service  except  the  cavalry.  It  is  now  called  the  Royal 
India  Military  College. 

Addison  :  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  New  York,  ref.  6-E);  on  Canisteo  river,  and  main 
line  of  New  Voi'k,  Lake  Erie  and  Western  R.  R.,  30  miles 
\V.  of  Eliiiira;  has  2  largo  union  school-houses,  4  churches,  2 
sash,  door,  and  liliiid  factories,  plow-handle  and  step-ladder 
factories,  2  boot  and  shoo  factories,  and  the  foundry  and 
machine-shops  of  the  Aildison  and  Pennsylvania  R.  JR.  Co. 
Tobacco  is  largelv  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,596;  (1890)  2,166.  Editor  of  "Advertiser." 

Ad'dison,  Joseph:  an  English  humorist,  moralist,  and 
autliur  of  great  merit  and  celebrity;  b.  at  Milston,  near 
Amesbiiry,  in  Wiltshire,  on  May  1,  1672.  He  was  a  son 
of  Lancelot  .\ddison.  In  1687  tie  entered  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  from  which  he  ji.assed  to  Magdalen  College  in 
1689.  lie  liecame  a  good  chissical  scholar,  and  as  a  writer 
of  Latin  verse  iirol)al)ly  exci'lled  all  his  contemporaries.  At 
an  early  age  lie  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Dryden,  Lord  Somers,'and  Montagu  (Lord  Halifax),  the  last 


of  whom  persuaded  him  to  enlist  as  a  Wliig  in  the  civil 
service  of  the  state.  Having  in  1699  received  a  pension  of 
.£300,  he  visited  France  and  Italy,  and  wrote  a  charming 
Letter  from  Italy,  in  verse,  addressed  to  Lord  Halifax 
(1701).  'He  lost  his  iiension  on  the  death  of  William  III. 
(1702).  and  I'eturned  home  in  1703.  His  next  work  was  The 
Ciim/jiiign.  a  poem  on  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (1704),  which 
Was  greatly  admired,  and  he  was  rewarded  witli  the  office 
of  commissioner  of  appeals.  He  afterward  produee<l  his  in- 
teresting Trarels  iti  Italy,  and  Rosamond,  an  opera.  He 
was  apijointed  Under-.Secretary  of  State  in  1706,  and  was 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1708.  His  diffidence  disqualified 
him  for  public  speaking,  hut  this  defect  was  comiiensated  by 
his  success  as  a  political  writer.  He  became  in  1709  secre- 
tary to  Lord  Wharton,  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  Taller,  of  which  his  friend  Richard  Steele 
was  the  editor.  On  Mar.  1,  1711,  Addison  and  Steele  began 
to  issue  daily  The  Spectator,  the  most  elegant  and  famous 
periodical  and  miscellany  that  ever  appeared  in  England. 
Addison  wiote  the  best  of  the  essays,  which  form  an  epoch 
in  literary  history. 

The  Spectator  ceased  to  appear  daily  in  Dec,  1712,  but 
was  revived  as  a  tri-weekly  paper  in  1714.  Among  his  other 
works  are  the  tragedy  of  Calo  (1713).  wliich  was  received 
with  great  applause,  an  ingenious  Dialogue  on  Medals,  and 
a  series  of  able  political  papers  called  The  Freeholder  (1715). 
In  1716  he  married  the  proud  and  uncongenial  Dowager 
Countess  of  Warwick,  and  early  in  1717  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary of  State.  He  resigned  this  office  in  1718.  and  died 
in  London.  June  17, 1719,  leaving  only  one  child,  a  daughter. 
His  marriage  appears  not  to  have  been  happy.  Addison  was 
greatly  distinguished  for  his  wit  and  colloquial  powers.  See 
■Johnsion's  Lires  of  the  Poets;  Macaulay,  Crilical  and  His- 
torical Essays;  Aiken.  The  Life  of  Addison  (1843);  and 
Courthope's  Addison  (1884). 

Addison,  Lancelot,  D.  D..  father  of  Joseph  Addison; 
b.  at  Meal>urn  Town  Head.  Westmoreland,  England,  in 
1632  ;  educated  at  Queen's  College.  Oxford  ;  was  seven  years 
chaplain  at  Tangiers;  became  a  royal  chaplain  about  1670, 
Dean  of  Lichfield  1683,  and  Archdeacon  of  Coventry  in 
1684.     D.  1703. 

Addison's  Disease,  or  Snprarenal  Slelasina:  a  rather 
rare  disease,  tlie  most  obvious  symptom  of  which  is  a  gray- 
bi.-ick  or  bronze  color  of  the  skin,  gradually  coming  on. 
The  chief  lesion  discovered  after  death  is  a  cheesy  degen- 
eration of  the  suprarenal  capsules,  the  result  of  a  peculiar 
chronic  inflammation.  Patients  usually  suft'er  from  extreme 
debility,  depression  of  spirits,  pain  in  the  epigastrium  and 
Ijack,  often  accompanied  by  dyspepsia,  vomiting,  diai'rhwa, 
and  grave  nervous  symptoms.  No  remedy  is  known,  and 
the  disease,  tliough  careful  nursing  is  extremely  useful,  is 
probably  never  cured.  It  receives  its  common  name  from 
the  late  Dr.  Addison,  of  Guy's  Hospital,  London,  England. 

Address,  Forms  of  :  See  Forjis  of  Address. 

A'delaer,  Cort  Sivertsen:  naval  commander;  b.  at 
Brcvig,  Norway,  Dec.  16,1622;  served  in  the  Dutch  navy 
under  Tromp.  1637^5;  entered  the  Venetian  service,  and 
distinguished  himself  greatly  in  numy  actions;  broke  (May 
13,  1654)  with  a  single  sliip  through  a  Turkish  fleet  consist- 
ing of  67  galleys  stationed  in  the  Dardanelles,  and  sank  or 
burned  15  of  the  enemy's  vessels;  left  Venice  in  1661,  and 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Danish  navy  in  1663.  which 
he  reMU)il('lc<l  after  tlio  Dutch  fashion.     D.  Nov.  5,  1675. 

Ad'elaide  (named  after  Queen  Adelaide,  the  consort  of 
William  IV.):  city;  capital  of  South  Australia;  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Torrens,  8  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  7-G). 
It  was  foimded  in  1836,  is  the  seat  of  an  -Vnglican  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  contains  a  government-house, 
an  assav-olllce.  a  theater,  and  extensive  manufa<'tures.  Pop. 
(1887)  111.3110;  (1895)  144,352.  Port  Adelaide,  7  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  the  city,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway, 
is  the  cc^nter  of  the  commerce  of  the  colony.  It  has  a  heavy 
trade  in  copper  and  lead  ores,  grain,  and  wool. 

.\delbert  CoUeare  of  Western  Reserve  rnirersity: 

founded  in  1826  under  the  name  of  Western  Reserve  Col- 
lege, and  located  at  Hudson,  0.  A  theological  depart- 
ment was  opened  in  1828  and  continued  till  18.59.  A  medi- 
cal department  was  established  in  Cleveland  in  1843,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  Western  Reserve  University  in  1884. 
In  1882  the  college  was  transferred  to  the  city  of  Cleveland, 
changing   its  name  and  receiving  from  Mr.  Ainasa  Stone 


ADELSBERG 


ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS 


45 


$450,000  of  endowment  and  $150,000  in  buildings,  and 
also  about  20  acii-s  of  land  from  citizens  of  Cleveland.  It 
has  excellent  biiil(lini,'s  and  a  library  of  about  25,000  vol- 
umes. There  are  three  courses  of  study,  viz.,  classical,  mod- 
ern lani;uaf;cs  and  Latin-Knj,'lish,  and  much  attention  is 
given,  tliroii^li  elei-tives,  to  [jractical  training?  in  chemistry, 
physics,  and  biology.  For  the  purposes  of  this  training 
there  are  three  laboratories.  The  invested  funds  amount  to 
$700,000.  the  real  estate  and  apparatus  to  _$:i(M).O00.  The 
president  is  Uev.  Charles  F.  Thwing.  1).  1).  There  are  eleven 
professors  and  live  instructors  and  lecturers.  .\  gymnasium 
wasadiled  to  the  cciuipmcnt  in  ISSS.  The  college  is  distinc- 
tively a  Christian  institutinn,  though  not  denominational. 
See  Wes ti:rx  Reserve  U.vivkrsitv.  E.  15lsii.nell. 

A'delsl)crg:  a  small  nnirket-town  of  Carniola,  Austria 
(see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-D).  A  short  distance 
from  the  town  is  the  .Vilelslierg  (irotto,  which  is  one  of  the 
best  known  caverns  of  the  world.  It  consists  of  five  differ- 
ent part.s,  and  is  full  of  beautiful  formations,  stalactites, 
incrustations,  and  stalagmites.  The  length  is  2A  miles: 
temperature  in  the  cave,  4K'  F.  The  cave  was  well  known 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  rediscovered  in  1818. 

AMolnng.  Frieukkii.  von:  (Jerman  philologist;  b.  at 
Stettin,  Fcl).  2-"),  lTt)8;  became  a  resident  of  St.  Petersburg, 
and  precentor  to  the  grand  duke  who  was  afterward  the 
Emperor  Nicholas.  He  wrote  on  the  Sanskrit  language  and 
literature,  but  his  greatest  services  to  scholarship  were  due 
to  his  investigations  into  the  foreign  sources  of  information 
for  Russian  history.  1 1  is  Krifisrh-lifi'rdn'.ic/ie  Uebersicht 
der  Reisende.n  in  liusshtiid  his  nuu  (1846)  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  in  this  direction.  D.  in  St.  Petersburg, 
Jan.  :iO,  1S48. 

Addling.  .loiiAN.N  CuRisToiMi:  philologist,  au  uncle  of 
Friedrich  vou  .\dclung:  b.  at  Spartekow,  iu  I'omerauia, 
Aug.  8.  17;i2.  His  reputation  is  founded  cliielly  on  his  At- 
tempt at  a  Completp,  Grammatirn-Critica!  Dictionary  of  t lie 
ffennan  Lanijuage  (Versuch  eines  vollstiindigen  gramma- 
tisch-kritischen  Wortcrbuches  der  Hochdeutschen  Mundart, 
1774-86).  .\!nong  his  other  works  is  one  on  language,  enti- 
tled Mithridates  oder  allyemeini-  Sprnchen-KundH,  one  of 
the  most  important  of  the  earlv  works  on  comparative  phil- 
ology.    1).  at  Dresden,  Sei)t.  10,  1806. 

Aden,  a  (len  (i.  e.  Eden) :  Aden  proper  is  a  small  volcanic 
peninsula  on  the  south  coa.st  of  Arabia,  about  100  miles  E. 
of  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  (see  map  of  Persia  and  Ara- 
bia, ref.  10- E).  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  Oreat  Britain  in 
1839.  hater  a  small  peninsula  to  the  eastward  and  the  coast 
between  wei'e  )Mirchaseil — making  a  total  sirai  of  70  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (18'J1)  41.!)10,  cxcliidiiig  the  troops,  mostly  .Aloliam- 
medans.  Aden  has  an  adniiralile  position,  and  is  strongly 
fortified.  Ilsclimate, though  hot,  is  dry  and  salubrious.  It 
was  early  an  important  port  in  the  trade  between  Europe 
and  India,  but  with  the  discovery  of  the  route;  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  it  fell  into  decadetice.  With  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  it  again  rose  into  importance,  becoming  a  coal- 
ing and  watering  station.  It  is  a  free  port,  and  its  trade  is 
almost  cnlirely  a  transshipment  one.  X  sort  of  protectorate 
has  been  extended  by  Great  Britain  over  the  neighboring 
inland  region,  having  an  .-irea  of  about  S.OOO  scj.  miles,  and 
a  po[)ulalion  of  about  liJO.OW  (estimated).  See  also  Perim, 
Somali  Coast,  Soootba,  and  Kubia  Muria  Islands. 

M.  W.  H. 

Aden  and  Perim':  a  pos.se.ssion  of  Great  Britain  on  the 
Gidf  of  .\dcii.  and  includes,  besides  the  above  named,  the 
Somali  Coast  proteitorate.  .Socotra,  and  the  Kuria  JIuria 
islands.  The  goverinnent  is  subordinate  to  the  Bombay 
ami  is  administered  by  a  pii 
[imander  of  the  troops.  T 
revemie  is  from  the  duty  on  liquor,  arms,  opium,  and  salt. 

Aden,  Gllf  of  :  that  |)art  of  the  .sea  lying  between  Arabia 
an<l  Aden,  aiul  exiending  from  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb 
to  tin-  Indian  Ocean  or  .\rabian  Sea.  On  sonu?  maps  this  is 
nuirked  as  the  .\iabian  Gulf.     Length  about  500  miles. 

Adept':  a  [>ers(m  who  is  skillful  or  well  versed  in  any  art 
or  science;  formerly  applied  especially  to  an  alchemist  who 
was  supposed  to  have  discovered  the  secret  of  turning  base 
metal  into  gold,  or  to  have  found  the  philosopher's  stone. 

Adenio.  a-dcrno  (anc.  Adranum):  a  town  of  Sicily;  at 
the  foot  of  .Ml.  Ftna;  17  miles  N.  \V.  of  Catania;  remark- 
able for  the  number  of  its  convents  and  nunneries  (see  map 
of  Italv.  ref.  !I-F).  Portions  of  the  ancient  eitv  still  renniin. 
Pop.  (is8I)  2ii.ir>;i. 


Presidency,  and  is  administered  by  a  niilitical  resident,  who 
is   also   commander  of   the   troops.     The  only  government 


A'dersbach  Rooks :  a  remarkable  group  of  high  and  de- 
tached sandstone  rocks,  near  the  village  of  Adersbach,  in  the 
northeast  part  of  Bohemia.  They  present  fantastic  forms, 
and  occupy  an  area  of  several  miles  iu  extent.  One  of  the 
pinnacles  is  ovi'r  2()0  feet  high. 

Adet,  Pierre  Auuuste  :  a  French  chemist  and  politician ; 
b.  at  Nevers  in  176:1.  He  was  sent  by  the  French  Directory 
ius  ambassador  to  the  U.  S.  in  1705,  but  he  suspended  his 
functions  in  17!I7,  for  the  alleged  reason  that  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment had  violated  its  neutrality.     D.  iu  1832. 

Adfoo:  See  EuFU. 

Adhesion  [Lat.  adline'sio;  ad,  \o  +  linere're,  stick]:  in 
lK)tany,  the  union  of  contiguous  parts,  as  when  the  petals 
adhere  and  form  a  monopetalous  corolla;  the  calyx  often 
adheres  to  the  ovary,  and  then  seems  as  if  it  grew  from  the 
apex  of  it.  This  tendency  causes  great  diversity  of  appear- 
ance in  the  organs  of  plants. 

Adhesion,  Force  of  :  the  resistance  of  friction  -which 
exists  between  two  surfaces  at  the  moment  when  one  begins 
to  slide  on  the  other.  The  force  of  adhesion  is  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  normal  pressure  between  the  two 
surfaces.  The  adhesion  of  the  driving-wheels  of  a  locomo- 
tive upon  the  rails  of  a  track  is  about  one-fourth  or  one-lifth 
of  the  weight  that  rests  upon  them.  If  the  frietional  re.sist- 
ances  are  greater  than  the  adhesion,  the  wheels  will  revolve 
and  the  locomotive  nu)ve  forward;  if  the  frietional  resist- 
ances are  less  than  the  adhesion,  the  wheels  will  slip  on  the 
rails,  and  no  forward  motion  will  result.  The  force  of  trac- 
tion is  measured  in  any  particular  ciuse  by  the  horizontal 
pull  required  to  start  a  locomotive  with  its  train,  and  the 
greatest  load  which  a  locomotive  can  draw  is  that  which  hits 
a  frietional  resistance  equal  to  the  adhesion. 

Mansfield  Mehrimav. 

Adiaii'tuin:  a  genus  of  ferns,  whose  spores  are  produced 
on  the  margin  of  the  leaves  in  short  fruit-dots.  There  are 
many  s])ecies,  of  which  the  maidenhair  fern,  A.  caj>ilhi.i- 
rencrix,  and  .1.  peildtnm  are  common  in  the  U.  S. 

Adiaph'orites :  [from  the  Gr.  dSaii^opos,  indifferent]:  a 
name  given  to  Melanclithon  and  his  adherents,  who  were 
charged  with  making  serious  concessions  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics in  the  Jjeipzig  Interim  of  1548.  Under  adiophora  or 
non-essentials,  such  as  the  use  of  altars,  pictures,  lights,  etc., 
it  was  alleged,  matters  involving  fundamental  articles  of 
faith  had  been  included.  The  chief  opponents  of  Melanch- 
tliou  were  Flacius  and  .\msdorf.  A  decision  was  reached 
in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  art.  x. 

Adiatherinaney:  See  Diathermancy. 

Adige.  aa  dc^'-jil  (Lat.  Atliesin):  a  river  of  Italy:  rises 
among  the  .\lps  iu  the  Tyrol,  where  it  is  called  the  Elsch. 
Flowing  southward,  it  passes  by  Trent,  and  enters  Lomliardy. 
-Vfter  passing  i)y  Verona,  it  flows  nearly  southeastward,  and 
falls  into  the  tJulf  of  \'enice  about  l:i  "miles  N.  K.  of  Adria. 
It  is  a  rapid  stream,  about  220  miles  long.  It  is  navigable 
from  its  mouth  to  Trent,  but  the  velocity  of  the  current  im- 
pedes navigation. 

Ad'ipoeere  [via  Fr.  adipocire,  from  Lat.  adepfs,  fat  -i-  ce'rn, 
wax]:  a  substance  which  results  from  the  decomposition  of 
animal  liodies,  and  resembles  spermaceti,  or  a  mixture  of 
wax  and  fat.  Hunum  bodies  buried  in  wet  grouml  are  often 
reduci'd  to  this  coiuiition,  and  are  often  supposed  to  be  pet- 
rified. 

Ad'ipose:  of  the  nature  of  fat :  fatty.  Adiiiose  ILssue  is 
an  animal  tissue  which  contains  the  fatty  matter.  It  pre- 
sents an  aggregation  of  very  small  spherical  pouches  or 
vesicles  filled  with  fat  or  oil.  This  tissue  is  organized  and 
vital.  \m\  \\n-  fal  is  not. 

.Vdiron'dack  Mountains:  an  oval  mountain  tract  in 
Nortlie.'istern  New  York,  including  parts  of  Hamilton.  Kssex, 
Franklin,  and  Clinton  counties,  and  having  an  area  of  5,000 
sq.  miles.  Among  its  peaks  are  Mt.  Marcv.  5.:i7!l  feet  :  >It. 
>lclntyre.  5.18;{  ieet  ;  and  Mt.  Dix.  4.016  feet,  the  highest 
summits  in  the  State.  The  mountains  consist  of  crystalline 
rocks,  and  about  their  flanks  these  are  overlap]ied  by  Cam- 
brian ami  Silurian  sediments.  Their  surface  characters 
were  greatly  modified  by  the  Pleisto(fene  ice-sheet,  which 
traversed  them  from  N.  to  S.,  scouring  the  soil  from  their 
summits  and  hi:rher  slopes,  and  depositing  the  material  in 
an  irregular  way  in  the  mountain  valleys,  so  as  to  ol)slruct 
the  drainage  and  produce  a  great  number  of  lakes.  Though 
densely  foresled,  the  tract  is  nnsuiled  for  agriculture,  alike 
in  soil  and  climate,  and   it   is  thus  mil urallv  reserved  as  an 


46 


ADIRONDACK  PARK 


ADLER 


immense  park  for  purposes  of  rest  and  recreation.  Through 
the  game  hiws  and  timber  laws  of  tlie  State,  it  has  been  still 
further  protected  in  the  interest  of  the  sportsman  and 
tourist,  so  that  its  broad  forests  still  abound  in  deer  and 
other  game  and  its  waters  in  trout.  G.  K.  G. 

Adirondack  Park:  a  public  jiark,  established  in  1892, 
situated  within  and  occupying  the  larger  part  of  the  great 
forest  of  Northern  New  York.  It  includes  Hamilton  County, 
the  large  town  of  Wilmurt  in  Herkimer  County,  the  west- 
ern half  of  Essex,  the  western  part  of  Warren,  the  southern 
part  of  Franklin,  and  the  southeastern  part  of  St.  Lawrence 
County.  It  contains  2,807,760  acres,  an  area  equal  to  that 
of  the  State  of  Connecticut.     In  character  the  lands  are: 

Primeval  forest 1,575,483  acres. 

Lumbered  forest* 1,027.955      " 

Denuded 50,050      " 

Burned 13.4:j0      " 

Waste 18,526      " 

Water 57,104      '• 

Wild  meadows 495      " 

Improved 64,717 

Of  the  virgin  forest  about  50  per  cent  only  of  the  trees 
are  conifers;  the  rest  are  hardwoods,  the  maple,  birch,  and 
beech  predominating  largely.  Within  the  park  boundaries 
the  forest  is  in  good  condition,  and  the  small  areas  of  burned 
land  are  rapidly  reforesting  themselves.  The  park  is  situ- 
ated on  an  immense  plateau,  which  extends  throughout  its 
entire  area,  with  an  average  elevation  of  1,800  feet  above 
tide.  It  contains  extensive  mountain  ranges,  the  liighest 
peak,  Mt.  Marcy,  attaining  a  height  of  5,379  feet.  Th«ie  are 
eighteen  other  mountains  within  tlie  park  whose  altitudes 
exceed  4,000  feet,  while  peaks  of  lesser  height  appear  in 
every  direction.  There  are  over  1.200  bodies  of  water,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  lakes  15  miles  long  to  little  mountain  ponds. 
Twenty  large  rivers  drain  the  region,  part  of  them  liowing 
to  tlie  Hudson,  the  others  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  park 
abounds  in  grand  and  beautiful  scenery,  its  combination  of 
mountains,  lakes,  rivers,  and  forests  having  no  equal  in  this 
respect.  Its  waters  are  so  connected  that  the  tourist  and 
his  guide  can  make  various  journeys  of  over  100  miles  each 
without  retracing  the  route,  the  entire  distance  being  trav- 
eled in  a  light  "guide-boat,"  except  occasional  "carries"  or 
portages  varying  in  lengtli  from  a  few  rods  to  three  miles. 
or  thereabouts.  The  hotels  are  numerous  and  excellent,  and 
of  classes  to  suit  all.  In  each  locality  there  are  good,  trusty 
guides,  whose  services  can  be  secured  at  a  moderate  price. 
The  region  affords  also  an  opportunity  for  coaching  and 
driving,  a  good  road  leading  through  the  beautiful  and  im- 
pressive scenery  lying  along  the  route  from  Westport  and 
Elizabethtown  through  the  Keene  valley,  by  the  Cascade 
lakes  and  Lake  Placid,  through  the  Wilmington  Notch,  to 
the  Au  Saljle  Chasm,  a  drive  of  98  miles.  The  region  abounds 
in  fish  and  game.  The  lakes,  in  addition  to  their  natural 
supply,  have  been  fully  stocked  with  lish  from  the  State 
hatcheries.  The  smaller  streams  contain  a  plentiful  supply 
of  speckled  trout. 

But  the  Adirondacks  have  a  priceless  value  as  a  sanitary 
resort,  tlie  beneficial  effect  being  particularly  noticeable  in 
pulmonary  diseases.  The  Adirondack  Sanitarium,  at  Sar- 
anac  Lake,  in  which  consumptive  patients  only  are  treated, 
reports  a  percentage  of  permanent  cures,  together  with  a 
separate  percentage  showing  permanent  relief,  which  is  un- 
surpassed iu  any  other  climatic  resort. 

The  law  estal'ilishing  the  park  was  passed  in  1892.  But 
the  State  lands  al  this  time  comprised  only  one-third  of  its 
area,  leaving  the  remainder  to  be  acquired  liy  sul)sc(iuent 
appropriations.  The  otfieers  of  the  park  consist  of  a  super- 
intendent, assistant  superintendent,  two  inspectors,  and  a 
small  number  of  foresters.  They  are  appointed  by  the 
State  Forest  Commission,  an  honorary  board  of  three  mem- 
bers, who  have  the  control  and  management  of  the  park 
and  other  Slate  forests.  The  ]irincipal  olijeet  in  establish- 
ing and  maintaiiiiiig  the  |iark  is  the  preservation  of  its 
forests,  the  protection  of  the  watersheds  that  supply  the 
State  rivers  and  canals,  and  the  inauguration  of  a  forest 
management  that  will  insiu'e  a  future  and  perpetual  supply 
of  timber.  Its  maintenance  as  a  pleasure  and  health  resort 
is  iiK^idental  and  suljordinate  to  the  main  object.  See  Re- 
port N.  Y.  Stalf.  Forest  CommissUm,  for  181(1:  also  Ouide- 
oook  to  the  Adirondackn,  liy  S.  R.  Stoddanl.  Glens  Falls, 
N.  Y.  William  F.  Fox,  Supt.  of  Slate  Forests. 

*  Lands  from  which  spruce,  pine,  or  lienilock  trees  hav(^  bi'cn  taken, 
leaving  a  good  hardwood  forest,  interspt-rsed  with  j'oung  conifers. 


Ad'it  [Lat.  ad'itus.  approach;  «rf.  to  -I-  ire,  go]:  a  hori- 
zontal passage  and  entrance  into  a  mine,  designed  partly  to 
drain  water  from  it.  Adits  occur  chiefly  in  mountainous 
regions,  and  are  sometimes  several  miles  long. 

Adja'ceiit  Angle :  an  angle  contiguous  to  another,  so 

tliat  one  side  is  common  to  both  angles. 

Ad',jective  [Lat.  ad/ecd'vus,  annexed ;  ad.  to  -t-  ja'cere, 
lay] :  in  grammar,  a  word  joined  to  a  noun,  in  order  to 
qualify  the  general  idea  expressed  by  it. 

Adjective  Law :  rules  of  procedure  or  practice,  as  dis- 
tinguisliccl  from  the  substantive  law,  or  the  law  whicli  courts 
are  established  to  administer. 

Adjoiirn'ment:  the  postponement  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  L.  S.  Congress,  or  of  either  House  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, or  of  any  public  or  private  deliberative  body,  from 
one  time  to  another  time,  either  fixed  or  indefinite.  In  par- 
liamentary usage  it  differs  from  prorogation,  which  is  an 
act  of  royal  autliority,  whereas  the  power  of  adjournment  is 
vested  in  each  House  respectively. 

Ad'jiitant,  or  Adjutant-bird  :  an  East  Indian  bird  (Lep- 
top'tUiis  ar'galu)  allied  to  the  stork.  It  is  about  5  feet  high, 
has  long  legs  and  an  enormous  bill,  and  can  swallow  a  cat 
or  a  small  leg  of  mutton  with  the  greatest  facility.  It  is 
very  useful  as  a  scavenger,  cleansing  tlie  streets  and  public 
squares  of  various  offal  and  dead  animals.  The  famous 
marabou  feathers  are  obtained  from  the  adjutant  and  a 
kindred  species,  the  marabou  of  Africa. 

Adjutant-General:  the  principal  organ  of  the  command- 
er ot  an  army  in  puVJishiug  orders.  The  same  organ  of 
the  commander  of  a  division,  brigade,  geographical  division, 
or  department  is  styled  assistant  adjutant-general.  The 
laws  of  the  U.  S..  however,  provide  for  l)ut  one  adjutant- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  lirigadier-general.  made  by  regu- 
lations chief  of  a  bureau  of  the  war  department,  and  charged, 
under  the  general,  with  details  affecting  army  discijiline,  with 
the  recruiting  service,  records,  returns, etc.:  two  assistant  ad- 
jutants-general, with  the  rank  of  colonel ;  four  with  tlie  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel ;  and  ten  w'ith  the  rank  of  major.  The 
bureau  duties  of  adjutants-general  and  assistants  are  :  pub- 
lishing orders  ill  writing:  making  up  written  instructions, 
and  transmitting  them;  reception  of  reports  and  returns; 
dis]30sing  of  them ;  forming  tables  showing  the  state  and 
|)Ositioii  of  corps ;  regulating  details  of  service ;  correspond- 
ing with  the  administrative  departments  relative  to  the 
wants  of  troops;  corresponding  with  the  corps,  detach- 
ments, or  individual  officers  serving  under  the  orders  of 
the  same  commander:  and  tlie  methodical  arrangement  and 
care  of  the  records  and  papers  of  his  office.  The  active 
duties  of  adjutants-general  consist  in  establishing  camps ; 
visiting  guards  and  outi)Osts;  mustering  and  inspecting 
troops;  inspecting  giiards  and  detachments;  forming  pa- 
rades and  lines  of  battle;  the  conduct  and  control  of  de.sert- 
crs  and  prisoners ;  making  reconnoissances ;  and  in  general 
discharging  such  other  active  duties  as  may  be  assigned 
them. 

Adler,  Felix:  b.  at  Alzey,  Germanv,  Aug.  13,  1851;  son 
of  Samuel  Adler;  graduated  at  Cohnnl)ia  College,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  at  Berlin  and  at  the  Cniversity  of  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  obtained  tlie  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
Returning  to  tlie  L^.  S.,  he  was  Professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Oriental  Literature  at  Cornell  Universitv  from  1874  to  May, 
1876.  On  Jlay  15. 1876.  he  inaugurated  the  Society  for  Eth- 
ical Culture,  a  religious  movement  the  principal  tenets  of 
which  he  briefly  describes  as  follows:  "There  is  a  principle  of 
unity  in  iialure.  all  the  laws  of  which  are  adumbrations  of 
an  underlying  unity.  The  same  principle  of  unity  is  obliga- 
tory in  the  sphere  of  action,  and  imposes  its  imperative 
mandate  on  the  will."  The  society  has  founded  a  system 
of  district  nursing  among  the  poor,  a  free  kindergarten,  a 
workingman's  school,  where  technical  and  art  education  are 
made  integral  parts  of  the  course  of  instruction,  and  a  fam- 
ily home  for  neglected  children.  He  published  in  1877  a 
series  of  discourses,  Crefd  and  Deed,  in  addition  to  which 
he  lectures  weekly  in  Chickering  Hall  during  the  winter. 
The  society  has  its  center  in  New  Y'ork,  and  has  a  branch 
at  Chicago.  Revised  by  C.  II.  Thurber. 

Ad'Ier,  Georo  J.,  Ph.  D. :  German  philologist ;  b.  at 
Leipzig  in  1821 :  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  in  1833.  He  was 
for  some  lime  Professor  of  German  in  the  University  of  New 
York.  He  wrote  several  German-and-Latin  s'diool  manuals 
anil  an  excellent  (ierman-and-Knglish  dictionary.  1).  in 
New  York.  Aug.  2-1.  isiis. 


ADLER 


ADMIRALTY 


47 


Adler,  Kev.  Hermann.  Ph.  D. :  Jewisli  ralibi  and  au- 
thor: 1).  Jlay  29.  1h:!!),  in  Hanover;  (■(lucatoil  at  Univer- 
sity Colk'^'e.  London,  and  at  the  universities  of  Prague  and 
LeiiJZijf;  appointed  prineipal  of  the  Jews"  TolU'Lje  in  Lon- 
don, IStiii ;  liiew  publie  attention  to  the  persecutions  of  tlie 
Jews  in  Russia  liy  liis  artiele  on  litcent  Plut-iis  iif  Judieo- 
phobia,  puldished  in  ISMl ;  eleeti'd  clminuan  of  tlie  Couneil 
of  Jews'  Collejies  in  18^7.  Author  of  sermons  on  Tlie  Jews 
in  England;  Is  Judaism  a  Missionary  Faith  i,  ete. 

c.  n.  T. 

Adler,  Samikl:  Jewisli  rablii ;  b.  at  Worms.  Dec.  3, 
1800;  studied  philologv  and  philosophy  at  the  luiiversities 
of  Bonn  ami  (iiesseii,' ls:il-:!() :  Kabbi  of  Alzey,  lS42-r)7; 
(■ailed  to  Krnanu-El  Temple.  New  Vi>rk,  18.">T.  of  whieh  he 
became  iMueritus  rabbi  in  1874;  an  aeknowledj,!ed  authority 
on  nuitlers  of  Jewish  erudition,  and  an  ardent  friend  of  re- 
lijrious  and  political  profjiess.    D.  in  Xew  York,  June  9, 1891. 

C.  ILT. 

Ad'lercrentz.  Carf.  Johan,  Count :  Swedish  general ;  b. 
in  Fiidaiul,  Apr.  27.  1757:  served  against  Kns>ia  in  1788, 
and  in  the  Fiinnsh  war  of  1808.  On  ilar.  l;i.  1HU9,  in  con- 
sequence of  several  inipopular  actions  of  the  king,  (iustavus 
I\  .,  he  arrested  the  king  in  the  name  of  the  jicople,  which 
act  gained  him  great  popularity.     D.  Aug.  21,  18b5. 

Ad'ler  Sal'viiis,  Johax  :  Swedish  andiassa<!or  and  diplo- 
imitist :  1).  in  Strengnas,  Sweden,  in  1.590:  and  d.  at  Stock- 
holm in  lt)52.  He  was  sent  by  (Justavus  Adol]'hus  on  vari- 
ous missions  of  iinixirtance.  and  during  the  Thirty  Years 
War  he  enjoyed  the  fullest  confidence  of  that  monarch. 
After  the  conclusion  of  peace  he  was  created  a  councilor 
and  barou. 

Ad'lt'rsparre.  George,  Count :  Swedish  officer  and  states- 
man :  b.  in  Jeinllaud,  Mar.  28.  17G0;  took  part  in  the  wars 
of  1788  and  1808  against  Ivussia,  and  in  the  deposition  of 
Gustavus  IV.  He  received  many  indications  of  favor  from 
the  new  king,  lint  was  <lissatisfied  witli  the  result,  of  tlu' 
revolution,  because  he  ha'l  not  gained  as  niucli  iiilluence  as 
he  desired.  He  published,  from  1830-;i8,  a  number  of  secret 
documents,  as  well  as  his  correspondence  with  Charles  XIH. 
and  others,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  sentenced  to  pay 
a  tine.  He  nevertheless  continued  to  publish  these  docu- 
ments.    1).  in  Werniland.  .Sept.  2-!,  1835. 

Adino'tns  ((ir.  'AS^tjtos):  son  of  Phcres.  who  was  the 
mythical  fnnnder  and  first  King  of  Plierie  in  Thessaly.  He 
was  one  of  the  -Vrgonauts.  and  took  a  jiart  in  the  Calydonian 
Hunt,  lie  won  the  hand  of  Alcestis  by  coming  to  the  suit 
in  a  chariot  <lrawn  by  boars  and  lions,  that  being  a  condi- 
tion imposed  liy  the  bride's  father,  Pelias.  The  god  Apollo 
procured  from  the  Fates  a  grant  that  Adnietus  might  be 
exenijit  from  death  if  his  father,  mother,  or  wife  should  die 
for  him.  The  touching  story  of  Alcestis  and  her  devotion, 
death,  and  restoration  to  liie  form  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  most  celelirated  tragedies  of  Furipides. 

Adiiiinistra'tion  :  literally  "management"  or  the  con- 
duct of  liiisiness.  The  weird  is  often  used  to  indii-ate  the 
acti<in  of  the  executive  depaitnieiit  of  goveruinent.  as  distin- 
guished fioni  the  legislative  and  judicial.  It  sometimes  is 
employed  with  reference  to  trust  funds,  but  its  technical 
meaning  is  the  management  or  disposition,  according  to 
law.  of  the  personal  eslute  of  an  intestate  or  of  a  testator 
having  no  executor.  The  common-law  distinction  between 
heirs  on  the  one  hand  and  executors  and  administrators  on 
the  other  should  be  uoteil.  When  an  owner  of  real  estate 
died,  his  otate  devolved  upon  his  heirs,  who  were  persons 
related  to  him  by  blood;  when  an  owner  of  personal  prop- 
erty dieil.  leaving  a  testament  or  will,  that  branch  of  his 
estate  devolved  ujion  his  executors,  if  such  were  named;  if 
there  were  none,  then  upon  administrators  appointe<l  tiy  a 
court  of  justice.  A<lniinistration  in  this  sense  was  in  Fug- 
land  under  the  control  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  until 
1857.  when  it  devolved  upon  a  newly  created  court  of  |iro- 
liate.  In  I  lie  V.  .S.  il  is  generally  vested  in  special  trilnuials 
termed  probate  or  or]jlians'  or  surrogates'  courts.  l>y  such 
a  court  administration  is  conferred  on  fhe  person  or  persons 
entitled  to  it  by  the  local  rules  of  law.  It  is  in  general 
committed  lii-st  to  the  widow  or  husband,  then  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  tlien  to  the  other  next  of  kin,  in  a  prescribed 
order.  The  court  has  power  of  selection  among  the  next 
ot  kin  ill  equal  degree.  These  provisions  are  su'istantially 
copied  from  early  English  statutes.  The  person  thus  in- 
trusted with  the  adniinistiation  is  called  all  administrator, 
i'he  court  giants  him   "letters  of  lulmiiiistralion  "  as  evi- 


dence of  his  authority.  He  represents  the  deceased.  lie 
must  make  an  inventory  ot  the  pei"sonal  estate,  collect  the 
as.sets,  and  convert  the  property  into  cash,  pay  the  debt.s, 
render  an  account,  and  distribute  the  balance  in  his  hands 
among  the  persons  entitled  to  it.  He  is  a  trustee,  and  under 
the  control  of  a  court  of  equity  as  well  as  of  the  probate 
court. 

When  the  deceased  leaves  a  will,  but  there  is  no  executor, 
the  person  to  whom  administration  is  granted  is  termed  an 
administrator  "with  the  will  annexed"  (cum  testamenio  un- 
>ie.r(i).  In  this  case  the  will  is  to  guide  the  ailministrator  in 
his  duties.  Should  an  administrator  die  before  his  duties 
are  fultilled.  another  is  appointed  to  iierforin  the  resiilue  of 
his  functions,  calleil  "administrator  rte  bonis  non." 

While  an  administrator  exercises  full  control  over  the 
nersonal  estate  of  the  deceased,  his  authority  is  confined  to 
it  unless  it  is  insnllicient  to  pay  <lebts;  in  which  case  the 
probate  court  generally  has  by  statute  the  right  to  direct 
liim  to  sell  enough  of  the  real  estate  to  satisfy  them. 

Letters  of  adminisliation  confer  no  power  to  bring  actions 
in  foreign  states.  Where  there  are  assets  in  another  state 
or  countiT.  a  subordinate  or  ancillary  administrator  is  ap- 
poinleii;  nTiO  acts  under  the  direction  of  the  foreign  court, 
ami  remits  according  to  its  order  any  funds  which  he  may 
receive  to  the  principal  administrator.         T.  W.  Dwight. 

Administrative  Law:  that  branch  of  publie  law  which 
deals  with  the  various  organs  of  the  sovereign  power  consid- 
ered as  in  motion.  It  includes  such  subjects  as  the  collec- 
tion of  the  revenue,  the  collection  of  statistics,  sanitary 
measures,  the  regulation  of  military  and  naval  forces,  the 
organization  of  schools,  the  supervision  of  places  of  amuse- 
ment, the  protection  of  the  coinage,  the  poor  laws.  etc. 

Hexky  Wadi-;  Uogers. 

Adiniiiistrator :  See  Ahministratiox. 

.Admirable  (.'riclitoii.  The:  See  C'Ricinox,  James. 

Ad'iiiiral  [Fr.  aniiral,  from  Arab,  umlr,  commander;  cf. 

aiiiicr,  I'liiii-]:  the  title  of  a  naval  otiicer  of  the  highest 
rank.  The  English  word  was  formerly  amiral,  as  in  IVIilton's 
Fdi-aJisi'  Lout.  Vice-admiral  is  the  title  of  the  officer  next 
in  rank  to  the  admiral  ;  and  a  rear-admiral  is  the  third  in 
the  scale.  Admirals  are  frequently  called  flay-officers,  from 
the  fact  that  the  symbol  of  their  rank  is  a.  flag. 

The  grades  of  rear-admiral  and  coniinodore  in  the  U.  S. 
navy  were  first  established  by  act  of  July  16.  1862.  which 
provided  that  the  number  of  each  grade  sjiall  not  exceed  9 
rear-admirals,  18  coniniodorcs,  30  captains,  etc.  My  act  of 
Congress  of  Dec.  21,  1864,  the  President  was  authorized  to 
appoint  from  the  rear-admirals  one  vice-admiral,  who  should 
be  the  ranking  officer  in  the  navy  of  the  U.  S.,  and  whoso 
relative  rank  with  officers  of  the  army  shall  be  that  of 
lieulcMiant-general  in  the  army.  This  grade  was  created  tor 
and  bestowed  upon  Hear-Admiral  Fariagul.  By  act  of  July 
25.  1866,  it  was  proviiled  that  the  number  of  officers  of  each 
grade  on  the  active  list  should  be  one  admiral,  one  vice- 
admiral.  10  rear-admirals.  25  commodores,  etc.  The  rank  of 
admiral  thuscreated  was  bestowed  upon  Vice-Admiral  Havid 
Farragiit.  succeeded  by  David  I).  Porter.  A  law  was  passed 
aliolishiiig  grades  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral  wlii'ii  said 
grades  became  vacant.  These  grades  liave  now  (1S92)  be- 
come vacant  by  the  deaths  of  the  distingiiislud  officers  who 
lield  them.  Congress  in  1882  provided  for  a  reduction  of 
the  active  list  to  six  rear-admirals.  10  commodores,  etc. 

S.  15.  IjIce. 

,\d'llliralty  [from  mbniral]  :  llie  tribunal  whidi  has  cog- 
nizance of  maiilime  causes.  This  court  was  established  in 
England  about  \\w  time  of  Edward  III.,  and  was  at  first 
held  before  the  Ford  High  Admiral  or  his  deputy.  At 
present,  admiralty  jurisdiction  is  there  exercised  by  the 
judge  of  the  admiralty,  who  holds  an  instance  or  a  prize 
court  by  means  of  separate  commissions;  the  former  being 
the  ordinary  admiralty  court,  and  the  latter  being  a  s]iecial 
tribunal  instituted  in  time  of  war  to  take  cognizance  of 
matters  pertaining  to  prizes.  In  the  U.S.  exclusive  ad- 
miralty and  maritime  .lurisdiction  is  by  the  Constitution 
ilelegated  ;o  the  Feileral  courts. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  an  unsettled  question  whether  the 
word  as  there  used  had  the  limited  sense  anployed  in  the 
early  English  statutes  of  11!  and  15  Hich.  11..  restricting 
adniiraltv  jurisdiction,  or  whether  il  had  a  wider  significa- 
tion. The  latter  view  has  finally  prevailed,  principally 
owing  to  the  arguments  of  Mr.  Justice  Story;  and  the  word 
embraces  not  only  ca-ses  occurring  on  tide-waters,  liut  on 


48 


ADMIRALTY 


ADKASTUS 


navigable  strfiinn  above  tide-water,  including  the  Great 
Lakes.  It  rests  with  Congress  to  determine  upon  what  court 
the  jurisdiction  shall  be  conferred.  It  has  accordingly  vested 
it  in  the  tirst  instance  in  the  district  court.  No  distinction 
is  taken  here  between  tlie  instance  and  the  prize  court. 

Admiralty  jurisdiction  is  either  civil  or  criminal.  Its 
civil  jurisdiction  eudjraces  cases  of  maritime  contracts 
(such  as  all'reightmcnt,  repairs  of  ships,  bottomry  bonds, 
pilotage,  seamen's  wages,  and  salvage),  general  average,  col- 
lisions, and  maritime  trespasses  in  general.  The  principles 
and  course  of  practice  of  the  court  in  civil  cases  are  in  the 
main  derived  from  the  Roman  or  civil  law. 

Revised  by  IIexby  Wade  Rogers. 

Admiralty :  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral  of  Eng- 
land, or  tlie  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  Lord 
High  Admiral,  commonly  known  as  the  Board  of  Ad- 
miralty. The  head  of  the  board,  or  minister  of  marine,  is 
styled  "First  Lord  of  tlie  Admiralty. 

Admiralty  Islands:  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the  Pacific, 
N.  E.  of  New"  Guinea,  forming  part  of  the  Bismakck  Archt- 
PELAGO  iq.  v.).  The  largest  is  nearly  60  miles  long,  and  is  in 
lat.  2°  S..  Ion.  147°  E. 

Admission  of  New  States  :  See  Territory. 

Admis'sions  :  in  the  law  of  evidence,  acknowledgments 
or  concessions  by  a  person  of  the  existence  of  certain  facts. 
When  they  relate  to  the  matter  in  dispute,  they  are  admis- 
sible in  evidence  against  the  party  making  them.  They  may 
be  made  either  by  a  i)arty  to  an  action  or  by  some  one  iden- 
tified with  him.  as  by  a.  partner.  The  admissions  of  an 
agent  will  atfi'ct  his  princi[ial.  Those  made  by  a  predecessor 
in  interest  will  atlVct  his  successor.  Thus  the  admissions  of 
an  ancestor  will  cliarge  an  heir.  In  form,  an  admission  may 
be  either  direct  or  implied  from  conduct,  or  in  some  in- 
stances even  from  silence.  The  effect  of  an  admission  is 
usually  only  to  raise  a  presumption  against  the  party,  which 
he  may  relnit ;  tint  some  admissions  are  regarded  as  of  so  liigli 
a  character  tiiat  the  law  will  not  allow  them  to  be  contra- 
dieted.     See  Estoppel. 

Adol'plius  (or  A'dolpli)  OF  Nassau  :  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  12!)2,  as  successor  to  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  In 
1298  the  Gernuin  princes  transferred  the  imperial  crown  to 
Albert,  liut  Adolphus  refused  to  abdicate.  A  war  ensued 
between  tliese  rivals,  and  Adolphus  was  killed  in  battle  near 
Worms,  July  3,  12!ks. 

Adol'|)lins  Fred'ericli  :  Duke  of  Holste.in-Gottorp  and 
King  of  Sweden  ;  b.  Jlay  14,  1710.  He  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Liibeck  in  1727,  frown  Prince  of  Sweden  July  3,  1743, 
and  became  king  on  April  .5,  1751.  The  Swedish  nobles 
continued  their  arrogance  under  him  to  the  utmost,  so  that 
at  last  he  threatened  to  resign.  In  consequence  of  this  the 
Parliament  revoked  the  restrictions  of  the  roval  prerogatives. 
D.  Feb.  12,  1771. 

Adol'itluis,  Joiix :  an  English  historian  and  lawyer ;  b. 
Aug.  7,  1768.  He  was  noted  for  eloquence,  and  practiced 
with  great  success  in  criminal  causes.  His  defense  of  This- 
tlewood.  accused  of  treason  in  1820,  was  highly  commended. 
His  principal  work  is  a  Iliatory  of  England  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  George  III.  (7  vols.,  1802-45).  D.  in  London, 
July  16,  i845. 

Ad'onai  [an  ancient  plural  of  Ileb.  ]nx.  Lord,  with  suffix 

denoting  a  pronoun  of  the  first  jierson  ;  cf.  Fr.  monniein-]  :  a 
term  applied  in  the  I lelirew  Scriptures  to  (ioil.  Owing  to 
tlie  veneraliiin  of  the  lleljrews  for  the  most  sacred  name  of 
the  Deity,  Jeliovah  (or  Yahveh)  was  not  pronounced  in  read- 
ing the  Scriptures;  but  Adonai  was  read  instead  of  it 
wherever  it  occurreil.  When  the  Hebrew  text  came  to  be 
vocalized,  the  proper  iioinfing  of  Adonai,  'JTS,  was  given  to 

ninv  so  that  to  the  eye  it  reads  Ychovah  instead  of  Yahveh. 
■See  Jehovah. 

Adon'ic  (in  Lat.  rer.ins  Adonius) :  a  measure  consisting  of 
a  dactyl  and  a  s|)ondee,  or  rather  of  an  irrational  dactyl  (see 
Dactvi.)  and  a  trochee.  In  classic  poetry  it  is  used  only  as 
a  clausula.  As  an  indejiendent  verse  it  is  employed  in  the 
familiar  Latin  hymn  : 

Plaudite  caeli, 

Rideat  ,i?ther.  ^ 

Ado'nis  ((ir.'ASaii'is) :  a  youth  celebrated  in  ancient  poetic 
legends  as  a  model  of  youthful  beauty  and  a  favorite  of 
Venus.  Addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  tlie  chase,  he  was 
killed  by  a  wild  boar.    An  annual  festival  in  honor  of  Ailonis, 


called  Adonia,  was  celebrated  in  Asia  Minor  and  other 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  He  was  called 
Thammuz  by  the  Hebrew  writers. — Adonis  was  also  the  name 
of  a  river  which  rose  in  Mt.  Lebanon,  and  flowed  through 
Phoenicia  into  the  .sea. 

Adonis:  a  genus  of  herbaceous  ]ilants,  of  the  family 
Baniiiicuhicete.  natives  of  Europe.  Several  species  of  this 
genus  are  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

Ad'onists:  those  biblical  critics  who  maintain  that  the 
Hebrew  vowel  points  usually  written  under  the  consonants  of 
the  word  Jehovah  are  not  the  |)oints  which  properly  belong 
to  that  word,  but  those  which  belong  to  the  words  Adonai 
and  Eloliini. 

Adojj'tlan  Con'troversy :  a  controversy  which  origi- 
nated in  Siiain  near  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  Felix, 
Bishop  of  Urgel,  and  Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo, 
advanced  the  doctrine  that  Christ  was  by  nature  and  gener- 
ation the  Sun  of  God  only  as  regards  his  ilivine  nature,  but 
as  to  his  human  nature  he  was  merely  the  Son  of  God  by 
adoption.  Those  who  espoused  these  views  were  called 
Adojitionists  (in  Lat.  Adopfiani).  They  have  been  called 
the  Nestorians  of  the  West.  No  particular  notice  was  taken 
of  them  so  long  as  they  confined  the  propagation  of  their 
o]iiniiins  to  Mohammedan  territory,  but  when  they  under- 
took to  spread  the  new  doctrine  in  the  Prankish  empire 
Charlemagne  jiromptly  put  a  stop  to  it  by  convening  two 
synods,  one  at  Ratisbon  (792),  another  at  Frankfort  (794), 
both  of  which  condemned  Adoptianism  as  heresy.  Eli- 
[landus,  who  still  adhered  to  his  views,  d.  in  799.  Felix  re- 
canted at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  799.     D.  in  816. 

Adoji'tion  [from  the  Lat.  ad.  to,  for  +  optto,  a  choice]: 
in  law.  is  the  taking  a  child  of  other  parents  as  one's  own. 
The  practice,  wliicli  was  common  in  ancient  Rome,  was 
recognized  by  tlie  civil  law,  and  is  found  in  countries  and 
states  where  that  law  and  its  modifications  still  ]>revail.  In 
some  other  states  the  matter  is  regulated  by  statute.  The 
parents,  guardians,  next  of  kin,  or  other  legal  rejiresentative 
of  the  child,  must  in  general  give  consent  after  notification 
of  the  intent  to  adopt.  Adopted  children  do  not,  in  most 
countries,  inherit  property  coming  from  eullateral  relatives 
of  the  adoptive  parents.  Adoption  is  usually  authorized  by 
a  ]irobale  court  or  other  established  authority  after  due 
notice.  The  ado|)tion  of  an  adult  person  is  known  in  the 
civil  law  as  adrogation.  ■. 

Ador'no,  Antonio  :  a  doge  of  Genoa,  who  was  driven 
out  and  re-established  three  times  in  succession.  By  his 
]iersuasion  the  Genoese  agreed  to  the  treaty,  signed  Oct. 
26,  1396,  which  rendered  them  subjects  of  Charles  VI.  of 
France. 

Adoiir,  a  river  of  Southwestern  France,  rises  in  the  Pyre- 
nees and  enters  the  bay  of  Biscay  a  few  miles  below  liayonne, 
which  is  on  its  bank.  Length,  about  200  miles.  It  is  naviga- 
ble to  Dax. 

.•Vdowa  :  tlie  capital  of  the  Abyssinian  province  of  Tigre; 
in  hit.  14'  12'  N..  Ion.  39°  3'  E. ;  in  a  well-cultivated  and 
populous  [ilain  6.500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  near  the 
ruins  of  .\ksinn,  the  former  capital  of  Abyssinia  (see  map 
of  Africa,  ref.  4-G).  It  is  the  most  important  commercial 
town  of  Abyssinia.     Po)i.  3,000. 

A'dra  (anc.  Abde'ra):  a  seaport  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia, 
46  miles  S.  E.  of  (iranada  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  20-P). 
Here  are  extensive  lead  mines.     Pop.  11,330. 

.\di'ain,  Robert,  LL.  D.  :  b.  at  CarricktVrgus,  Ireland, 
Sept.  30.  1775;  served  as  an  officer  in  the  rebellion  of  1798; 
was  liadly  wounded;  escaped  to  the  U.  S. ;  was  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  Rutgers  College  (1810-13),  Columbia  College 
(1813-25).  and  tlie  Universitv  of  Pennsvlvania  (1837-34).  D 
at  New  liruriswick,  N.  J.,  Aug.  10,  1843. 

Adrar:  See  Uio  de  Oro. 

Adraste'a  [Gr.  'ASpao-Tem,  deriv.  of  fiSpoo-ros,  not  to  be  es- 
caped;  a-,  not  +  Si^piaxfiv.  escape]:  a  Greek  surname  or 
epithet  for  the  goddess  Nemesis,  who  administered  retribu- 
tion for  iniijuity. — Also  a  nymph  of  Crete,  to  whom,  with 
Ida  and  the  Curetes,  Rhea  intrusted  the  infant  Zeus  in  the 
Dictiean  grotto. 

.'Vdras'f  ns  (Gr.  "ASpoirTos) :  King  of  Argos.  and  a  contem- 
porary of  Theseus;  father-in-law  of  Polyniees.  He  com- 
manded tlie  famous  expedition  c-dled  the  war  of  the  "Seven 
atiainsl  Tlielies."  to  restore  Polyniees  to  the  tin-one  of 
Theliis.  This  enterprise,  whicdi  was  not  successful,  was  a 
favorite  theme  of  ancient  epic  and  tragic  poets. 


ADRIA 


ADCLTPIRATIOX 


49 


A'dria.  or  Ha'di'ia :  an  ancient  town  of  Italy,  situuted 
between  the  Po  ami  tlie  Adifjc,  in  the  province  of  Kovifjo, 
13  miles  K.  of  Kuvigo  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  :J-D).  It  was  in 
ancient  times  a  seaport  on  the  Adriatic,  but  it  is  now  14 
miles  from  that  sea.     Pop.  (18«I)  15,«(J<j. 

A'drian  :  city  and  railroad  center  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  5licliij;an,  ref.  8-J);  capital  of  Lenawee  co., 
Jlich.,  40  miles  W.  of  Toledo  and  74  miles  \V.  S.  W.  of  De- 
troit, is  intersected  l)y  the  river  Raisin,  which  furnishes 
water-power.  The  eitV  has  fine  schools,  the  Central  public- 
school  buildinfr  costing  $100,000.  It  has  also  a  mineral 
spring,  a  JIasonie  temple,  costing  $100,(X)0,  and  an  opera- 
house.  Adrian  College,  a  Methodist  institution,  is  finely 
located  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  city.  Adrian  has  a 
variety  of  manufactures,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
railroad  cai-s.  furniture,  electric  appliances,  canning-works, 
straw  and  felt  goods,  and  brick  ami  tile  machines.  Pop. 
(1880)  7.849;  (IS'JO)  8,75G;  (1804)  9.511. 

EDrroR  OF  "  Times  and  Expositor." 

Adriiin,  Kmpcror  ot  Rome :  Sec  Hadrian. 

Adrian  I. :  a  native  of  Rome ;  elected  pope  in  773.  His 
dominions  were  iuva<led  by  the  King  of  the  Longobards, 
against  whom  Ailrian  was  defended  by  Charlemagne.  Un- 
der this  pontiff  Rome  enjoyed  more  than  usual  prosperity. 
D.  in  Rome,  Dec,  25,  795. 

Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Ureakspear)  :  the  only  English- 
man w  ho  ever  attained  the  dignity  of  pope ;  b.  near  .St. 
Albans.  He  became  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Albano  in  1146.  and 
was  chosen  pope  in  1154.  He  was  a  strenuous  asserter  of 
papal  supremacy.     D.  at  Anagni,  Sept.  1,  1159. 

.\driaii  VI. :  b.  at  Utrecht,  Mar.  2, 1459 ;  was  a  preceptor 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. ;  succeeded  Leo  X.  in  1523.  He 
favored  reform,  and  was  honest  and  virtuous.  D.  in  Rome, 
Sept.  14.  1533. 

.\dria'iii,  -Tonx  Baptist,  or  Giovanxi  Battista:  b.  at 
Florence,  Italy,  in  1513.  He  became  in  1549  Professor  of 
Eloquence  in  the  University  of  Florence,  and  held  that  office 
till  his  death ;  wrote  a  historv  of  liis  own  times  (i.  e.  an. 
1536-1574).     D.  in  1579. 

A'driaiiists:  disciples  of  Simon  Magus,  w'ho  flourished 
about  A.  D.  34.  They  wore  probably  a  branch  of  the  Si- 
monians,  and  named  from  some  prominent  disciple. 

Adriano'ple  (anciently  Adrianopo/i't.  or  Hadrian's  pity  ; 
Turk.  Edrnifli) :  a  large  city  of  Europenn  Turkey,  on  the 
river  Tundja  near  its  conlluence  with  the  Maritza  (the  an- 
cient Hebrus) ;  137  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  Constantinople  (see 
map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-1)).  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Roman  EmpeR)r  Hadrian,  who  founded  a  city  here.  It  was 
the  capital  ot  the  Ottoman  empire  from  13G1  until  1453. 
Here  is  the  famous  mosque  of  the  Sultan  Selim.  wliieh  is 
said  to  be  the  finest  Jloslem  temple  extant,  and  has  four 
lofty  minarets.  Among  the  other  public  structures  are  a 
palace,  the  bazaar  of  Ali  Pasha,  and  an  aqueduct  by  which 
the  city  is  supplied  with  water.  Here  are  extensive  manu- 
factures of  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  stuffs.  Among  the  ex- 
ports are  opium,  leather,  wool,  and  attar  of  roses.  Adri- 
anople  is  the  residence  of  the  governor-general  of  the  vilayet 
Edrcneh,  and  of  a  Greek  bishop.     Pop.  about  100.000. 

jr.  W.  II. 

Adrian's  Wall :  See  Hadriax's  Wall. 

.\driat'ic  Sea  (Lat.  3fare  Adriaficum):  a  portion  of  the 
Mi'dilcrrane.ni,  lying  between  Italy  on  the  one  hand  and 
lUyria  and  Albania  on  the  other.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  town  of  Adria.  It  is  about  .500  miles  long  from  X.  W. 
to  S.  V..,  and  has  a  mean  width  of  about  100  miles.  The 
N.  W.  part  of  it  is  called  the  Gidf  of  Venice,  and  at  the 
S.  E.  end  it  is  connected  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto  with  the 
Ionian  Sea.  The  X.  E.  coast  is  rocky  and  begirt  with  a 
great  number  of  islands.  The  depth  and  extent  of  the 
Adriatic  have  been  greatly  diminished  by  deposits  of  sand 
and  mud  and  by  the  formation  of  alluvial  tracts  along  the 
•^hore.  The  encroachment  of  the  land  is  most  remarkable 
II  the  W.  and  X.  W.  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice. 

.\dul'lani :  a  city  of  Judah ;  the  seat  of  a  Canaanite 
king,  and  evidently  a  very  ancient  place.  Its  site  has  been 
identified  by  Ganneau  with  'Aid-el-Ma  (the  Arabic  equiv- 
alent of  Adullam),  about  8  miles  X.  E.  ot  Eleutheropolis 
(modern  li('il-.Tibrin).  which  is  traditionally  located  6  miles 
S.  E.  of  Bethlehem.  The  famous  cave  of  King  David  is  in 
a  hill  about  50O  feet  high.  The  sides  of  the  valley  are  full 
of  caves. 

4 


Adulteration  :  defined  by  Hassell  as  the  intentional 
addition  to  an  article  of  any  substance  or  substances  the 
presence  of  which  is  not  acknowledged  in  the  name  under 
which  the  article  is  sold,  for  the  purposes  of  gain,  decep- 
tion, or  concealment.  Every  civilized  country  has  enacted 
laws  to  prevent  and  punisli  adulteration,  and  throughout 
Europe  these  laws  are  stringent  and.  for  the  most  part, 
rigidly  enforced.  Although  Germany  protects  her  own  citi- 
zens against  adulteration,' many  articles  manufactured  there 
"for  export"  are  specially  exempt  from  the  provisions  of 
her  adulteration  laws.  Nearlv  every  article  made  by  man 
for  man's  use  is  or  has  been  debased  by  man  for  purposes 
ot  gain.  Xumerous  excuses  have  been  urged  in  defense  of 
adulteration.  Several  of  these  bear  so  directly  on  the  subject 
that  they  are  worthy  of  mention.  Own  is  that  popular  taste 
and  desire  demand  certain  adulterations;  lor  example, 
pickles  and  pease  colored  green  with  copi^er  salts  often  find 
a  readier  sale  than  those  micolored.  Another  excuse  is  that 
the  public  demand  cheapness,  and  to  meet  this  demand 
competition  forces  on  the  market  articles  that  arc  more  or 
less  spurious.  A  third  excuse  is  that  certain  additions  must 
be  made  to  perishable  foods  to  make  them  keep.  These  e.x- 
cuses  are  all  plausible,  but  the  answer  to  each  is  obvious. 
The  substances  employed  for  the  different  purposes  of 
adulteration  are  numerous,  and  depend  upon  the  oljject 
aimed  at.  Thus  for  increase  of  bulk  or  weight  of  a  given 
article  a  cheaper  inert  substance  is  added.  To  increase 
attractiveness,  coloring-matter  is  \ised.  To  add  flavor,  a 
cheap  compound,  usually  made  from  essential  oils  or  ethers, 
is  utilized.  Very  cominoidy  all  three  of  these  forms  of 
adulteration  are  seen  in  one  adidterated  article.  The  adul- 
teration for  bulk  so  reduces  the  natural  color  and  flavor 
that  artificial  coloring  and  the  jiddition  of  some  ilavoring- 
essence  are  necessary  to  conceal  the  fraud. 

The  sanitarv  aspect  of  adidteration  is  its  most  important 
one.  The  adidteration  of  articles  of  food,  drink,  or  drugs 
with  substances  that  are  in  themselves  harmless  but  inert 
effects  haiiii  by  reducing  the  natural  strength  and  prop- 
erties of  the  adulterated  article.  TIk;  nourisliing  properties 
of  the  food  or  beverage  are  impaired,  or  the  d.'ug  does  not  do 
the  work  intended  by  its  jirescriber.  Poisonous  or  harmful 
adulterants  arc  freq'ueiitly  used.  The  writer  in  numerous 
instances  has  detected  manufacturers  of  food-articles  add- 
ing to  their  products,  for  the  j)urposes  of  adulteration,  such 
substances  as  Paris  green,  chromate  of  lead,  mercurial  pig- 
ments, borax,  salicylic  acid,  copper  salts,  poisonous  aniline 
pigments,  cocculus  iudicus,  mineral  earths,  etc. 

The  most  important  and  serious  adulteration,  however,  is 
that  practiced  in  connection  with  the  milk  sui)ply.  Milk  is 
often  the  exclusive  food  of  babes  and  invalids.  Consequently 
its  i-eduction  means  the  robbing  of  these  of  their  proper 
nourishnuMit.  Any  deleterious  substance  jtdded  to  it  affects 
a  class  of  individuids  who  are  most  suscejitible  to  deleterious 
influences.  It  is  very  easy  to  jululterate  milk,  and  the  profits 
derived  from  the  practice  are  (Miticing.  The  adulteration  of 
milk  at  the  jiresent  time  is  usually  effected  by  the  addition 
of  water,  coloring-matter  such  as  amiatto,  turmeric,  and 
antiseptics  or  antifermcnts,  such  as  carbonate  of  soda, 
borax,  etc.,  or  by  the  removal  of  the  cream,  either  wholly 
or  in  part.  Such  substances  as  calves'  brains,  gelatin, 
starch,  or  chalk  nw  never  used  at  the  i>resent  time.  The  ad- 
dition of  water  and,  in  some  cases,  the  removal  of  the  cream 
mav  be  detected  by  means  of  the  lactoiaeler.  The  lactometer 
is  a  delicate  hvdrometer  which  indicates  the  specific  gravity 
at  a  temperature  of  60°  F..  betw^cen  I'OOOOO  (the  specific 
gravity  of  pure  water)  and  1-034H0.  On  the  scale  the  s|iecific 
gravitV  ot  wjiter  is  indicated  by  0°,  the  specific  gravity  of 
1-03480  bv  120',  the  space  between  0°  and  120°  being  divided 
into  120  "equal  parts.  The  100°  mark  indicates  a  specific 
gravitv  of  1  02900.  'J'he  results  of  many  thousand  tests  with 
the  lactometer  have  conclusively  shown  that  milk  from  a 
healthv  cow  in  normal  eonditioii  will  never  show  a  specific 
gravity  of  less  than  100°,  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.  If, 
then,  a  sample  of  milk  stands  below  100°  on  the  lactometer, 
at  60°  F.,  the  sample  has  been  adulterated  by  the  addition 
of  water.  The  space  between  0°  and  100°  Ijeing  divided  into 
100  equal  part.s.  each  part  indicates  1  percent.  If.  there- 
fore, the  milk  tested  has  a  specific  gravity  indicated  by90° — 
that  is,  if  the  lactometer  floats  at  90°— i't  is  safe  to  assmne 
that  at  least  10  ^er  cent  of  water  has  been  aildeil.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  in  average  milk  the  lactometer  will 
stand  at  points  between  105°  aixl  115°,  at  60°  F.  From 
5  to  15  per  cent  of  water  may  therefore  be  jwlded  to  average 
milk  without  bringing  it  below  100°  on  the  lactometer.    The 


50 


ADULTERATION 


proper  raothod  of  using  the  lactometer  is  as  follows:  The 
milk  to  be  tested  is  thorougldy  mixed  by  stirring,  a  sample 
taken,  and  the  latter  warmed  or  cooled,  as  the  case  may  be, 
to  60°  F.  The  lactometer  is  carefully  placed  in  it,  and 
the  mark  at  which  it  floats  noted.  Now  remove  the  lactome- 
ter, and  observe  the  character  of  the  film  adhering  to  it.  If 
this  runs  ofl"  readily,  and  is  thin  and  bluish,  and  if  the  sam- 
ple has  a  watery  taste,  the  lactometer  standing  below  100°, 
it  is  certain  that  water  has  been  added.  If  the  appearance 
and  taste  are  as  above  stated,  the  lactometer  standing  at 
some  point  higher  than  100°,  the  milk  has  been  skimmed, 
or  skimmed  and  watered.  As  skimmed  milk  has  a  specifie 
gravity  much  greater  than  whole  milk,  the  cream,  its  light- 
est constituent,  having  been  removed,  it  will  stand  high 
when  tested  by  the  lactometer,  and  will,  of  course,  have  a 
thin  appearance  anil  a  flat  taste.  On  the  other  hand,  cream 
will  stand  at  points  much  below  100°  on  the  lactometer,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  confound  cream  with  milk,  and  much  less 
with  milk  that  has  been  watered.  If  the  lactometer  floats 
at  some  point  greater  than  100°,  the  appearance  being  whitish 
and  the  taste  of  the  milk  creamy,  we  may  assume  that  the 
milk  has  not  been  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  water  or 
l>y  the  removal  of  cream.  The  removal  of  cream  may  be 
detected  by  means  of  the  cream-gauge,  which  consists  of  a 
hollow  glass  cylinder  divided  into  100  equal  parCs,  The 
milk  is  placed  iti  it,  the  cream  allowed  to  rise,  and  the 
amount  noted.  Each  division,  of  course,  represents  the  per- 
centage of  cream  present.  The  removal  of  cream  may  also 
be  detected  by  means  of  the  lactoscope.  that  devised  by  Prof. 
Feser  being  a  convenient  form  for  use.  This  instrument  is 
constructed  on  the  principle  that  the  transparency  of  a  layer 
of  milk  is  inversely  as  the  quantity  of  fat  in  tlie  milk.  It 
consists  of  a  hollow  glass  cylinder  doubly  graduated,  one 
scale  giving  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  water  used 
for  the  dilution,  the  other  indicating  the  percentage  of  fat. 
In  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  a  small  cylindrical  ])iece 
of  opaque  white  glass  is  fixed,  which  is  marked  with  black 
lines.  In  testing  a  sample  of  milk  4  cubic  cm.  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  ap|iaratus  by  means  of  a  pipette.  Water  is 
then  gradually  added,  the  mixture  being  thoroughly  shaken 
after  each  addition,  until  all  the  black  lines  on  the  cylinder 
can  be  I'ead,  when  the  scale  indicates  the  percentage  of  fat 
in  the  milk.  Adulteration  of  milk  by  water  from  an  infect- 
ed source  has  frequently  caused  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever. 
The  adulterator  is  not  fastidious  as  to  the  purity  of  the  wa- 
ter he  adds.  The  writer  has  found  frogs  and  small  water- 
snakes  in  milk  adulterated  with  water  in  New  York  city. 

31alt  beverages,  ale  and  beer,  are  very  coniraonly  adulter- 
ated. The  color  of  these  drinks  should  be  due  solely  to  the 
degi'ee  of  heat  to  wliich  the  malt  has  been  subjected  in  the 
kiln,  or  to  the  ripeness  and  color  of  the  hops  used.  To  attain 
a  perfect  color  great  care  must  be  exercised.  Careless 
brewers,  when  they  fail  to  attain  it  in  the  proper  way,  use 
burnt  sugar.  Beer  is  also  flavored  artificially  by  the  addi- 
tion of  sucli  bitters  as  picric  acid,  cocculus  indicus,  and 
strychnia ;  also  quassia,  wormwood,  and  gentian.  Drugs  in 
great  variety  are  used  in  the  adulteration  of  ale  and  beer. 
In  nearly  every  large  city  several  so-called  brewers'  drug- 
gists may  be  found.  Some  of  these  drugs  are  used  to  give 
the  beer  an  apiiearance  of  strength,  and  to  make  it  froth  or 
"  head  "  well.  For  this  purpose  alkalies,  iron  and  salt  are 
employed.  Occasionally  cream  of  tartar  is  added  to  give 
the  beer  a  hardness  characteristic  of  age. 

Wines. — The  adulteration  of  wines  is  practiced  in  a  vari- 
ety of  ways.  Coloring-matter  is  added ;  commonly  some 
coal-tar  ]ir<jduct,sueh  as  fuchsine;  occasionally  Brazil-wood 
or  logwooil.  Wines  are  frequently  fortified  by  the  addition 
of  alcohol,  and  flavored  by  means  of  various  flavoring  agents. 
The  writer  once  detected  a  manufacturer  of  wine  (so  called) 
in  the  city  of  New  Vork,  who  managed  to  [jroduee  a  rather 
attractive-looking  wine  without  the  use  of  a  single  grape. 
His  method  was  as  follows:  A  decoction  was  made  from 
dried  peaches,  which  was  carefully  strained  and  fermented. 
After  fermentation  had  reacln-d  a  certain  point  it  was  stopped 
by  heat  and  the  addition  of  salicylic  acid:  a  certain  amount 
of  alcohol  and  artificial  flavor  were  then  added,  and  a  red 
color  imparted  to  it  by  means  of  fuchsine.  Salicylic  acid  is 
a  common  adulterant  of  wine,  Ijcing  .added  to  insin-e  against 
loss  by  souring.  Very  large  amounts  of  this  sul)stance  are 
frequently  found  in  specimens  of  wine.  This  is  in  conse- 
(|uencc  of  each  person  through  whose  liands  the  wine  has 
passed,  being  afrai<l  of  its  spoiling  while  in  his  ])osscssion, 
tiavins  aiided  a  little  of  the  acid  and  being  ignorant  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  previouslv  adulterated. 


WJn'sI,!/,  gin,  hranrly,  rum.  and  the  like  are  made  by  the 
following  means:  Proof  spirits  are  reduced  by  tlie  addition 
of  water  to  a  proper  degree,  and  flavored  with  a  flavoring- 
essence  made  of  an  etheric  compound.  Vinegar  is  adulter- 
ated by  being  reduced  with  water,  and  subsequently  fortified 
by  means  of  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The  coloring- 
matter  used  is  burnt  sugar.  Cider  is  usually  adulterated 
with  salicylic  acid  in  order  to  make  it  keep. 

Olire  Uil. — Cotton-seed  oil  has  become  the  almost  exclu- 
sive adulterant  used  to  debase  olive  oil,  although  mustard- 
seed  oil  is  still  used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose. 

Confectionery  has  been  one  of  the  most  commonly  adul- 
terated articles.  At  the  present  time  the  manufacturers  of 
candy  are  so  closely  watched  that  the  practice  is  rare.  Sub- 
stances used  to  adulterate  confectionery  for  bulk  are  terra 
alba,  starch,  finely  powdered  asbestos,  sawdust.  Indian 
meal,  glue.  etc.  For  color,  nearly  every  poisonous  pigment 
known  to  man  has  been  employed. 

Sugar. — The  adulterants  of  cane-sugar  are  mainly  terra 
alba  and  glucose.  The  latter  substance,  being  hygroscopic, 
must  be  mixed  with  the  cane-sugar  very  soon  before  sale, 
otherwise  the  admixture  of  the  two  will  result  in  a  solid 
mass.  Ground  quartz  and  sand  have  also  been  detected  as 
sugar  adulterants. 

Honey. — Cane  and  grape  sugar  are  very  frequently  add- 
ed to  strained  or  extracted  honey  and  bee-bread  used  to 
strengthen  the  diluted  flavor. 

Ten  and  coffee  are  both  subjects  of  the  adulterator's  art. 
Green  teas  are  "  faced  "  and  "  painted."  This  is  done  by 
shaking  the  leaves  in  pans  and  dusting  over  them  powdered 
soapstone  and  Prussian  blue.  "Lie  tea"  is  an  example  of 
Chinese  dexterity.  "Spent"  tea  leaves  are  rolled  up  by  the 
nimble-fingered  Celestials,  who  deposit  in  the  center  of  each 
leaf  a  few  grains  of  sand  to  add  to  its  weight.  The  Chinese 
also  sometimes  add  sulphate  of  iron  to '•  spent "  tea  leaves 
to  color  the  resulting  infusion,  and  make  it  appear  stronger 
than  ordinary.  Many  kinds  of  leaves  other  than  those  of 
the  tea-plant  are  added  to  tea :  rhododendron,  chrysanthe- 
mum, and  willow  leaves  are  examples. 

Coffee. — The  commonest  adulterants  of  ground  coffee  are 
chickory  and  dried  blackstrap  molasses.  Koasted  wheat, 
acorns,  sawdust,  Venetian  red,  pease  groimd  and  roasted,  and 
beans  are  also  used.  The  unground  coffee  bean  is  frequently 
treated  in  a  curious  way:  Mexican  and  South  American 
cott'ces  are  made  to  resemble  Java  by  putting  the  beans  of 
the  former  into  large  boxes  and  causing  them  to  swell 
through  the  medium  of  steam  heat.  After  the  berries  have 
attained  the  size  of  those  from  Java,  they  are  colored  brown 
with  burnt  umber  oi'  some  other  brown  iiigment.  Damaged 
coffee  is  painted  by  revolving  it  in  large  boiler-iron  cylin- 
ders, while  it  is  sprinkled  with  a  mixture  of  chromate  of 
lead  or  turmeric  and  Pi'ussian  blue,  which  restores  its  bright 
green  color. 

Bread. — The  adulterants  of  bread  are  principally  alum 
and  sulphate  ot  co[)per.  added  to  effect  white«ess. 

Flour. — Damaged  wheat  flour  is  easily  repaired  liy  the 
addition  of  alum  and  carbonate  of  soda.  This  is  done  to 
harden  the  partially  decomposed  gluten  and  to  correct  acid- 
ity due  to  decomposition.  Occasionally  the  hydrated  sul- 
phate of  lime  is  added  to  flour.  To  increase  the  bulk  terra 
alba  has  lieen  used. 

Mu!<tard  and  .s:pices  are  very  difficult  to  obtain  pure. 
Adulterants  of  the  former  are  turmeric  and  naphthaline- 
yellow,  an<l.  for  bulk,  wheat  floui'.  The  spice  adulterants 
may  be  purchased  by  the  liarrel  of  many  wholesale  spice 
firms,  and  are  called  by  the  slang  term  "P,  D,"  As  the 
adulteration  of  spices  has  little,  if  any,  sanitary  significance, 
the  ]iractice  is  practically  unrestricted.  "P.  D."  is  made 
from  sawdust,  gi'ound  nutshells,  and  ground  olive  pits,  col- 
ored with  mineral  earths,  when  color  is  necessary. 

Butler. — Annatto.  the  only  coloring-matter  that  can  be 
used  in  i-oiinoction  with  this  substance,  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  an  adulterant,  nor  can  the  use  of  oleomargarine 
in  its  place  when  the  latter  is  sold  under  its  own  name. 
Starch  is  said  by  some  authorities  to  be  an  adulterant  of 
butter.  The  writer  has  never  been  aljle  to  verify  this  state- 
ment. Foreign  fats  (i.  e.  fats  other  than  milk  fats),  how- 
ever, are  frer|uently  added  to  butter  to  increase  its  bulk. 

Jellies  and  jam-s:  are  adulterated  in  a  very  ingenious  man- 
ner. To  enatile  the  jelly  to  "  jell  "  with  a  minimum  amount 
of  sugar,  gelatin  or  glue  is  added.  The  use  of  these  sub- 
stances also  permits  the  manufacturer  to  iitilize  glucose  in 
the  mamifacture  of  his  wares.  The  compound  of  glucose 
and  glue  is  colored  with  an  aniline  dye.  usually  fuchsine,  and 


ADULTERY 


AD^'E1{TISEME^'TS 


51 


a  body  is  iiiiparteil  to  the  mass  by  addinu:  dried  apples  that 
have  been  stewed  in  water  almost  to  solidity,  and  strained 
under  ]jressiire.  Cider  jelly  is  also  used  as  a  basis  for  the 
various  fruit  jellies.  To  convert  the  basis  into  any  desired 
jelly,  the  nianufaclurer  adds  one  of  the  Havoring-ethers  and 
a  red  color,  usually  fuchsine,  and  the  result  is  attained, 

Fluvorn. — The  various  natural  fruit  flavors  aie  all  imi- 
tated and  adulterateil  by  means  of  tlie  artificial  fiavoring- 
cthei's.  Tliese  are  compounds  of  wine,  wood,  and  |)otato 
ethei's.  Thus,  for  example,  pineapple  oil  is  uuide  by  com- 
bininfT  wine  etlier  witli  butyric  acid  and  then  dissolving  the 
resulting  product  in  alioliol, 

Dniyx. — The  commonest  adidteration  of  drugs  is  by 
means  of  damaged  or  "spent "' ilrugs  of  the  same  kind  as 
those  adulterated.  The  essential  oils  are  often  reduced,  the 
more  expensive  ones  by  admixture  with  es.sential  oils  of  less 
cost.  Thus,  forexam|>le,  the  oil  of  peppermint  is  frequently 
diluted  with  the  oil  of  pennyroyal.  The  fixed  oils  are  also 
used  to  adulterate  the  essentials.  Tliis  practice  is  easily 
detected  by  the  fact  that  the  boiling-point  is  reduced  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  the  adulteration. 

Tubarco  is  freiiuently  adulterated  by  the  a(UHtion  of  some 
flavoring  agent.  It  is  also  colored  by  means  of  various  pig- 
ments. For  the  former  purpose  hipimric  acid  and  various 
fruit  flavors  anil  flavcn'ing-ethers  are  used;  for  the  latter, 
aniline  pigments  and  lea<l  chromate  are  utilized.  Snuff, 
especially,  is  adulterated  with  this  latter  substance.  Lirac 
is  also  used  very  commonly  to  adulterate  snuff. 

2'he.  Detection  of  Adultenitiim. — Before  proceeding  to  the 
examination  of  any  article  for  the  purpose  of  discovering 
whether  it  is  adulterated  or  not,  it  is  necessary  to  become 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  appearance  and  structure  of 
the  article  itself.  If  the  sid)stance  be  in  a  state  of  powder, 
nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  place  a  very  minute  por- 
tion of  it  upon  a  glass  slide,  add  a  drop  or  two  of  water, 
cover  it  with  a  microscope  cover-glass,  and  place  it  under 
the  microscope  for  observation.  A  sample  of  known  purity 
of  the  same  Kin<l  as  the  article  to  be  examined  can  lie  ob- 
served side  by  side  with  that  suspected.  The  difference  will 
be  obvious.  If  the  substance  be  a  solid  one,  it  is  necessary 
to  nnike  .some  thin  slices  of  it.  aud  proceeil  as  in  the  first 
case.  The  microscope  is  specially  fitted  for  the  detection 
of  organized  structures  and  substances,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable.  The  best  method  of  detecting  chemical  adulter- 
ants and  salts  is  by  the  use  of  chemical  reactions  and  analy- 
sis. Cyrus  Edsox. 

Adiil'tery  :  criminal  sexual  intercourse  between  a  mar- 
ried pel-son  and  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  whether  nuirried  or 
single.  This  act  has  been  punished  by  the  laws  of  some 
nations  with  great  rigor — among  the  ancients  often  with 
death.  In  English  law  the  act  is  not  treated  as  a  temporal 
crime,  but  left  to  the  cognizance  of  the  spiritual  courts.  A 
civil  action  for  dauuiges  may  by  common  law  be  brought 
by  a  husband  against  one  who  has  committed  adultery  with 
his  wife.  This  is  called  an  action  "  for  criminal  conver- 
sation." It  is  also  a  ground  of  divorce — at  first  partial, 
but  now,  \>y  statute,  total.  In  some  of  the  States  of  this 
country  adultery  has  been  made  a  crime,  while  in  others 
the  English  law  in  its  substance  still  prevails,  and  only  the 
civil  proceedings  are  allowed. 

AdrancciiiPiit :  in  law,  is  a  provision  of  money  or  other 
property,  uuule  by  a  parent  for  a  child  in  advance  or  an- 
ticipation of  the  estate  or  distributive  share  to  which  such 
child  would  be  entitled  on  the  parent's  death.  An  ex- 
penditure for  the  education  and  maintenance  of  a  child  is 
not  regarded  as  an  advancement.  It  nmst  be  made  with 
a  view  to  a  portion  or  settlement  in  life.  The  parent's  in- 
tent is  tlie  main  subject  of  inquiry.  In  the  English  law  of 
real  estate  it  only  applies  in  case  of  several  female  heirs. 
who  take  the  hiterest  called  coparcenary.  In  the  American 
law  of  (h'scint  the  subject  is  of  general  application.  The 
effect  of  an  advancement  is  to  reduce  the  chilli's  share  to 
(hat  extent,  estinniting  the  value  as  of  the  time  of  the 
receipt.  An  advancement  differs  from  a  debt  in  that  the 
latter  can  be  recovered  by  action,  while  the  former  can  only 
be  deducted  from  a  distributive  share.  It  is  at  the  option 
of  the  person  advanced  to  bring  in  to  the  general  distribu- 
tion the  amount  received  or  not.  In  the  English  law  the 
act  of  bringing  it  in  is  termed  hotchpot.  The  doctrine 
strictly  apjdies  only  to  cases  of  intestacy.  There  is  a  cog- 
nate doctrnie  termed  "  ademption,"  applicable  to  the  ca.se  of 
property  left  by  will.  In  this  country  the  subject  is  often 
governed  by  statute,  sometimes  establishing  distinct  rules 


for  real  and  personal  estate.  The  word  "  advancement  "  is 
also  used  in  the  law  of  trusts  to  indicate  that  a  purchase  of 
land  made  in  the  name  of  a  wife  or  child  or  other  peKon  as 
to  whom  the  purchiuscr  stands  in  the  place  of  a  parent  shall 
actually  belong  to  such  person,  and  shall  not,  by  the  iiction 
of  a  resulting  trust,  revert  beneficiallv  to  the  purchaser. 

T.  W.  DwiGUT. 
Advancement  of  Science :  See  American  Assochtiox 
KoK  Adv.vxikmkxt  or  Si  ikxce,  and  BKnisH  Association  for 

AUVANCE.MKNT  OK  SclENCU. 

Ad' vent  [Lat.  adfenlus.  from  ad,  to  +  venire,  come,  re- 
ferring to  the  coming  of  Christ] :  the  period  of  four  weeks 
preceding  Cliristnuis.  with  which  the  ecclesiastical  year  be- 
gins. Uoiiian  Catholics  and  many  members  of  the  Anglican 
communion  observe  Advent  by  abstainingfrom  public  amuse- 
ments and  nuptial  festivities.  The  Greek  Church  lengthens 
the  period  to  six  weeks.  Hevised  by  W.  S.  Perkv. 

Ad'ventists :  a  liody  of  Christians  whose  distinctive  char- 
acteristic is  a  belief  in  the  speedy  advent  or  second  coming 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  In  ly:{:J  William  Miller  (q.  v.)  was 
led  l>y  the  stiuly  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Bible  to  the  belief 
that  the  second  advent  and  the  tiiud  judgment  would  occur 
in  184;i.  He  had  at  one  tiuu!  about  .50,000  followers:  and 
iiotwithstaiuling  the  failure  of  this  and  other  predictions 
fixing  a  definite  date,  there  are,  it  is  believed,  about  70,000 
members  of  the  Adventist  churches,  who  at  present  do  not 
presume  to  foretell  the  period  of  the  second  advent,  but  Uve 
in  expectation  of  that  event.  They  are  congregational  in 
church  government,  practice  immersion,  and  in  general  hold 
the  orthodox  views.  With  the  excei)tion  of  the  Evangelical 
Adventists.  they  believe  in  I  lie  ultimate  anuiliilation  of  the 
wicked,  and  in  the  sleep  of  the  dead  until  the  final  judg- 
ment. They  are  divided  among  six  denominations  (the 
numbers  are  from  the  census  of  1890),  viz. :  1.  Evangelical 
Advknti.sts  :  this  is  the  origiiuil  body,  formed  1845;  dif- 
fers from  all  the  other  bodies  in  allirming  conscious  suffer- 
ing of  the  lost  in  the  middle  stale  and  the  eternity  of  future 
punishment;  they  lunuber  1,147  nu'mbers;  their  organ  is 
Jlesaia/i'.s  Jlendd  (Bo.ston).  '-J.  Seventh-Day  Adventists: 
formed  184.5;  consider  observance  of  Saturday  as  the  Sab- 
bath and  foot-washing  obligatory  ;  numlier  28,!>!)1  members; 
their  organ  is  The  Advent  Beriew  (Battle  Creek,  Mich.).  3. 
The  CiirRrii  of  God:  a  seceding  branch  of  the  preceding, 
formed  1866;  denies  the  ai)]>licaiion  of  Kev.  xiii.  11-17  to 
the  U.S.;  numbers  647  members;  organ.  The  Ad  rent  and 
Sabha/h  Adroctile  (Stanberry,  Mo.).  4.  Life  and  Advent 
Union:  originated  1848;.  orgainzed  1864;  numbers  1.018 
members;  has  members  in  (ireat  Britain;  organ.  The  Her- 
ald of  Life  (Springfield,  JIass.).  .5.  Age  to  Co.me  Advent- 
ists :  originated  1851 ;  organized  1881 :  numbei-s  in  L'.  S. 
and  Canada  4.000:  organ.  H'o/yAi  of  Cheer  (Brooklyn.  N.  T.). 
6.  Advent  Curlstians  :  formed  1861 :  is  found  in  all  the 
States  (2.5.816  members).  Canada.  England.  Ireland,  and 
India ;  organ.  The  World's  Vrisis  (Boston.  Jlass.). 

Kevised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ad'verl)  [Lat .  ndrerbium  ;  ad.  to  +  verbum,  verb,  a  formal 
translation  of  (ir.  iitipprtna,  iirt,  to  +  ^^/uo,  verb]:  one  of  the 
parts  of  speech  in  grammar.  The  adverb  in  all  languages 
is  indeclinable  (though  sometimes  subject  to  the  change  of 
form  know'ii  as  comparison),  and  is  used  to  express  some 
modification  of  a  verb,  adjeclive,  or  other  adverb,  as  to 
place,  time,  cause,  manner,  intensity,  certainty,  conditional- 
ity.  quality,  quantity,  etc.  The  function  of  an  adverb  is 
often  performed  by  a  sentence  or  jiart  of  a  sentence.  Most 
English  adverbs  are  formed  liy  adding  the  suffix  ly  to  an 
adjective  or  its  root,  though  many  are  not  thus  formed. 

.\d  verse  Possession  :  See  Disseizin. 

Advertisements  (eccles.):  certain  statements  of  prin- 
ciples, rules,  suggestions,  and  directions  drawn  up  by  the 
Elizabethan  bishops,  and  issued  for  the  guidance  and  direc- 
tion of  the  Church.  In  the  Folkestone  ritual  case  (Kidsdale 
r.s.  Clifton  et  at..  Sir  James  Stephen.  Q.  C,  contended  that 
the  "advertisements  had  not  the  force  of  law,  but  were  a 
mere  administrative  act,  done  by  the  bishops  of  that  time, 
not  merely  without  the  authority  of  the  queen,  but  the 
queen  expressly  withholding  her  authority,  for  reasons  still 
on  record,"  The  judgmenl  of  the  Lords  of  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  on  the  a]>peal  of  Ridsdale, 
clerk,  c.v.  Clifton,  was  that  the  advertisements  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  issued  in  1.566  were  a  "taking  of  order'' within 
the  act  of  Parliament,  by  the  queen,  with  the  advice  of  the 
metropolitan.  '  W.  S.  Perky. 


52 


ADVOCATE 


iEGIS 


Ad'vocate  [Lat.  aduoca'lus,  one  summoned  to  aid ;  ad, 
to  +  rocd  It.  c-allj:  in  ecclesiastical  and  eivillaw  courts,  same 
as  counselor  or  counsel  in  common  law  courts.  The  term 
by  which  the  members  of  the  bar  in  Scotland  (following;  the 
civil  law)  are  known  is  the  Faculty  of  Advocates.  In  a 
popular  sense,  the  word  denotes  a  defender  or  protector  gen- 
erally, especially  one  who  pleads  for  his  client  in  open 
court. 

Advocate,  Lord :  the  public  prosecutor  of  criminals  and 
the  senior  counsel  for  the  Crown  in  civil  causes  in  Scotland. 
He  is  sometimes  styled  kind's  (or  queen's)  advocate,  and  is 
the  tirst  law-ofTicer  of  the  ("rowii  for  Scotland. 

Advocate  of  the  Church  (Lat.  advocalus  ecclesice) :  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  a  c;mon  or  a  layman,  often  a  prince  or 
baron,  who  assumed  the  protection"of  a  bishop's  see,  a  mon- 
astery, or  a  particular  cluu'ch.  Sometimes  the  office  was 
hereditary,  wlien  it  appears  to  have  implied  the  duty  of  de- 
fending ihe  Church's  rights  by  force  of  arms.  Oftener, 
perhaps,  it  was  held  by  an  advocalus  causarum,  a  person 
appointed  by  a  prince  to  defend  the  Church  temporalities  in 
secular  courts  of  law.  Thev  often  administered  justice  in 
the  name  of  the  Church.  They  collected  tithes  and  other 
revenues,  and  were  frecjuently  priests  who  enjoyed  lucrative 
benefices.  The  people  suffered  so  severely  from  their  op- 
pressions that  Pope  Urban  III.,  in  1186,  undertook  to  reform 
the  abuse  ;  but  so  great  was  the  opposition  of  the  Church 
and  nobles  that  it  was  not  for  many  years  that  the  evil  was 
modified. 

Advocates,  Faculty  of:  the  associated  members  of  the 
legal  profession  in  Scotland.  This  society  was  formed  in 
1.532. 

Advocates'  Lihrary :  the  largest  library  in  Scotland, 
belongs  to  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  and  is  located  in  Edin- 
burgh. It  was  founded  in  1683  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie, 
andcontains  about  2()0,(J()0  volumes.  It  ranks  as  the  fourth 
library  in  the  numlier  of  volumes  in  Great  Britan. 

.^dvoca'tus  Uiab'oli  [i.  e.  the  devil's  advocate] :  in  the 
Ii<:iman  Catholic  Church,  a  person  whose  business  is  to 
magnify  the  faults  or  detract  from  the  merit  of  those  who 
are  proposed  to  be  canonized  as  saints.  He  is  opposed  by 
an  adi-ocalus  Dei,  or  God's  advocate. 

AdvoYv'son  [from  O.  Fr.  avoeson  <  Lat.  admcatio,  orig. 
the  duty  and  right  of  an  advoc'ate  or  defender] :  in  Eng- 
lish law,  the  right  of  [iresentation  to  an  ecclesiastical  Ijene- 
fice  or  a  vacant  living  in  the  Church.  The  right  of  ad- 
vowson  is  given  by  Blackstone  in  his  commentaries  as  an 
instance  of  an  incorporeal  hereditament,  of  which  no  bodily 
possession  can  be  liad,  but  which  exists  solely  in  contem- 
plation of  law.  Advowsons  are  of  two  sorts,  appendant 
and  in  grnas.  The  lord  of  a  manor  by  building  a  church 
acquired  the  right  of  nominating  the  minister,  and  as  long 
as  this  right  continues  annexed  to  a  manor  it  is  called 
an  advowson  appendant.  When  the  advowson  exists  as 
a  personal  right,  independent  of  any  manor  or  land,  it  is 
said  to  be  in  gross.  Most  of  the  benefices  of  the  English 
Church  are  presentative  advowsons.  Of  nearly  12,000 
cliurch  benefices,  about  one-half  belong  to  the  Crown,  the 
bishops  and  other  higher  clergy,  the  universities,  etc. ;  the 
remainder  are  in  the  gift  of  private  persons.  In  most  cases, 
however,  the  bishop  has  a  right  to  reject  the  appointee  if  he 
chooses.  They  may  also  be  either  preseniaiive,  where  the 
patron  presents  the  jiarson  to  the  ordinary ;  or  collalive,  where 
the  bishop  is  both  patron  and  ordinary :  or  donative,  where 
the  patron  puts  t  he  clerk  in  possession  without  presentation 
to  the  ordiiniry  ;  or  elective,  as  in  the  case  of  advowsons  held 
by  cathedral  chapters  or  trustees  and  others. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Adyar:  an  ai'istocratic  sidjurb  of  Madras  {q.  i:). 

.lA'hinaPi)larch  [(Jr.  ofxiuoAwTapx'Js.  from  aix/'ii^wos,  cap- 
tive +  Spx""-  rule]:  the  title  of  the  governor  of  the  captive 
Jews  residing  in  Chalda'a.  Assyria,  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries, lie  was  called  by  the  Jews  themselves  roschgahtth, 
chief  of  llie  captivity. 

.lydile  [Lat.  a'di'lin,  pertaining  to  buildings  ((P(7f.s)]:  a 
Kiiiiian  magistrate  who  superintended  the  temples  and  other 
pulilic  buildings,  the  pulilic  games  and  spectacles,  and  per- 
formed various  other  duties.  Two  ourulc  a>diles  were  annu- 
ally elected.  There  were  also  '"plebeian  abides."  Colonies 
and  other  towns  had  a^diles.  This  oflice  was  one  of  dignity 
and  honor,  thougli  re(;koned  a.s  a  minor  magistracy.  See 
Schubert,  l)e  Romunorum  yKdilil/HS  (1828). 


Ae'doii  (Greek  'AijSiii') :  in  Greek  mj-thology,  a  daughter 
of  Paiulareus  of  Ephesus.  According'  to  the  Odyssey,  she 
was  the  wife  of  Zethus,  King  of  Thebes.  Envious  of  Niobe, 
her  brother  Amphion's  wife,  she  attemiited  to  slay  the  eldest 
son  of  the  latter,  but  by  mistake  killed  her  own  child,  Itylus. 
Zeus  changed  her  into  a  nightingale,  whose  sad  notes  are 
the  expressions  of  Aedon's  woe.  There  arc  other  and  differ- 
ent traditions  as  to  Aedon's  crime  and  suilering.  but  in  all 
she  is  transformed  into  the  nightingale. 

JJge'an  Sea  [Lat.  ^^gw'xini  Ma  re ;  Gr.  A.lyaloi'  X6\o7os, 
perhaps  from  017(5.  a  squall,  thougli  other  etymologies  have 
been  given],  or  (Jreclaii  Archipelago :  the  name  given  by 
the  ancients  to  that  part  of  the  jlediteri-anean  which  lies  be- 
tween Asia  JMinor  and  Greece.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S.  is 
alioiit  400  miles,  and  its  breadth  about  200.  It  is  very  deep, 
and  incloses  numerous  islands,  several  of  which  are  of  vol- 
canic origin,  while  others  are  composed  of  white  marble. 
Many  of  them  rise  to  the  height  of  1,600  feet. 

jEg^ld'ius  Colon'na:  an  eminent  schoohnan  ;  born  at 
Rome  in  1247  of  an  illustrious  stock.  He  joined  the  order 
of  Augustinian  Hermits,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Aquinas  and 
Bonaventuni.  In  1292  he  became  prior-general  of  his  order. 
He  went  to  France,  where  Philip  the  Bold  made  him  tutor 
for  his  son,  afterward  Philip  the  Fair.  In  12t)6  he  became 
Archbishop  of  Bourges.  For  many  years  he  tauglit  with 
ajiplause  in  the  LTniversity  of  Paris,  and  was  called  Doctor 
Beatiis  et  Fundatissimus  and  princeps  theologorum.  D.  Dec. 
22,  1816.  He  left  a  great  number  of  writings,  most  of  which 
are  now  in  MS. 

J5'gilops :  a  genus  of  grasses,  now  united  witli  Tiiticiim 
(wheat),  notable  for  containing  JE.  ovata,  of  Southern  Europe, 
which  some  botanists  consider  to  be  the  wild  state  of  wheat. 

Jlgri'na  (Gr.  Mytva),  Egrina,  or  Ensria :  an  island  of 
Greece;  in  the  Gulf  of  .JEgina  (Saron  iciis  Sinus),  20  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  A  thens  (see  map 

of  Greece,  ref.  IT-K).     It  is  - -.   ; ; .  !«;;  yJifcSSif-^ - 

8  miles  long  and  nearly  the 
same  in  width.  It  is  of  _- 
an  irregularly  triangular 
shape.  Area,  33  sq.  miles. 
The  western  half  is  a  fertile- 
plain  ;  the  remainder  is  di- 
versified by  mountains, 
hills,  and  valleys,  which 
jiroduce  almonds,  wine, 
olive  oil,  etc.  This  island 
is  celebrated  for  its  archi- 
tectural remains.  See  ^Egi- 
NKTAX  Sculptures.  Pop. 
6.000.  At  the  N.  W.  end  of 
the  island  is  the  modern 
town  of  Egina.  Mt.  St. 
Elias,  the  highest  point  of  the  island,  is  in  lat.  37°  42'  N., 
Ion.  23°  30'  E.     The  island  is  difficult  to  approach. 

JE^iua,  Gulf  of  (the  ancient  Savon  icus  Si'niis) :  a  por- 
tion of  the  ^Egean  Sea  lying  between  Attica  and  the  Morea. 
It  contains  the  islands  of  ifigina  and  Salamis. 

>E^iiietan  Sculptures,  ee-jin-ee'tan  :  a  collection  of  an- 
cient sculptures  discovered  on  two  pediments  of  a  ruined 
temple  of  the  Doric  order  in  the  island  of  ^Egina  about 
1811.  Thev  were  removed  in  the  same  year  and  sold  to  the 
Crown  Priiice  of  Bavaria  (afterward  King  Ludwig  I.).  By 
him  thev  were  placed  in  the  Glvptothek  at  Munich.  They 
have  been  much  restored  by  Thorwaldscn,  but  are  still  of 
the  greatest  value  as  specimens  of  Greek  scidiiture  of  a 
period  shortly  before  its  culmination.     Kussell  Stuhois. 

iEirir,  ee'-ger:  in  Scandinavian  mythology  the  god  that 
presides  over  the  storm v  sea.  Ho  entertains  the  gods  splen- 
didly every  harvest  and"  brews  ale  for  them.  The  name  still 
survives  in  provincial  English  for  the  sea-wave  in  rivers. 

JEgi'ra  (Gr.  Afycipa):  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  an- 
cient Achiran  confederation  in  Greece.  It  probably  stood 
near  the  sea  and  on  the  river  Crius,  though  its  site  is  not 
well  known  at  present.  It  was  famous  chiefly  for  its  tem- 
ples of  Zeus.  Apollo,  Artemis,  and  Aphrodite  Urania  (the 
"lieavenly  Venus,"  a  goildess  who  was  especially  worshiped 
here),  as  well  as  of  other  divinities.  This  town  iscallcd  Hy- 
peremia by  Homer. 


Huins  in  ^gina. 


jE'gis:    the  .shield   of  Zeus,  from  a!|,  a  "  she-j 
called  because,  in  Ins  contest  with  the  Titans,  Zeus 


she-goat,"  so 
wore  the 


^GISTHUS 


AlillATED  WATERS 


53 


hide  of  the  goat  Araaltheia,  which  had  suckled  him  in  his 
infancy,  together  with  tlie  head  of  the  Ciorgon. 

Jilgis'thus  {(ir.  fityiaBoi) :  in  classic  mythology,  a  son  of 
Thyestes.  anil  an  acloiiloil  son  of  Atreus.  He  seduced  Cly- 
temnestra  while  Againeninon  was  absent,  and  was  her  ac- 
complice in  the  nuinler  of  that  king.  He  was  killed  by 
Orestes. 

^'gium  ((if.  Aiytoi/;  now  Vostilzu):  a  city  of  ancient 
Greece.  It  Ijelonged  to  the  Aeluean  League,  and  after  ^73 
was  the  chief  city  in  that  confederation,  of  wliich  it  was  long 
the  capital.  It  had  a  good  harbur.  Keinuins  of  its  ancient 
buildings  are  yet  to  be  seen.  The  raotlern  town  is  a  place  of 
some  importance  (see  map  of  Greece,  ref.  lO-J).  It  is  sur- 
roundcil  by  gall  lens.  On  Aug.  28,  1817,  it  was  visited  bv  an 
eartlK|uake  whicli  destroyed  two-tliirds  of  the  houses,  top. 
(187!))  •",.:;!  1. 

Jvgospot'ami  (Gr.  Ai>it  iroTo^ioi) :  a  small  rivi'r  and  a 
town  in  the  'rhracian  t'liei'soncsc,  wliere  the  Spartan  Ly- 
saiiiler  defeated  tl\e  .Athenian  tied  in  40.")  B.C.  This  victory 
ended  the  I'elopnnnesiaii  war.  .V  huge  juirolite  fell  near 
this  place  about  4G.>  B.  c. 

JEgyp'tus  (dr.  A'yuTTos) :  a  son  of  Belus  and  a  brother  of 
Danaus,  liccaun'  King  of  .\rabia,and  coniiuered  the  country 
which  derived  from  him  the  name  of  Egypt.  According  to 
a  legend  he  had  fifty  sons,  who  were  murdered  (except  one) 
by  the  daughters  of  Danaus.    See  1)an'.\ii>i:s. 

-Elian  (Claudius  ^lianns)  of  Pra-iieste:  flourished 
about  :iOOA.  I). :  an  entertaining  writer  in  spite  of  his  pie- 
bald Greek  style  and  his  untrustworlhiness.  In  the  seven- 
teen books  of  his  Nrifurc  of  A  nimals  he  gossips  and  moralizes 
about  the  ways  of  beasts.  In  the  fourteen  books  of  his  Mis- 
celhineoHX  Information  {VoikIkti  iaropla)  the  anecdotes  deal 
chiefly  with  mankind.  The  lluMic  Letters  preserved  under 
his  name  are  not  genuine.  Kd.  by  Hercher  (1864) ;  the  Varia 
llistoria  bv  Perizonius  (1701);  the  De  Animaliiim  Xiitura 
by  Jacobs  (1832),  in  3  vols.    See  VV.  Sehmid,  Alian  (1893). 

^'lilis  Sti'lo,  Lu'ciL'S  (surnamed  k\so  ProBConinus):  a 
Bonuiu  kuigbl  from  Lanuviuiu,  regarded  as  the  most 
learned  man  of  his  time  (about  100  B.  c),  and  the  first 
Komaii  philologist;  was  the  teacher  of  Cicero  and  Varro ; 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  criticism  and  interpretation  of 
the  early  Latin  poets,  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  and 
the  Salian  hvmn.  See  P.  Jlentz,  Dc  L.  JPJIio  Stilone 
(Leipzig,  1888).  M.  Warke.v. 

^ne'as  (Gr.  Aiveto):  the  hero  of  VergiPs  JEneid,  was, 
according  to  tradititii,  the  son  of  Anchises  and  the  goddess 
Venus,  lie  was  one  of  the  most  valiant  defenders  of  Troy 
against  the  Greeks,  .\ccording  to  Vergil,  he,  after  many 
adventures  and  disasters,  settled  in  Italy,  and  marrietl 
Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  King  Latinus.  The  origin  of  the 
Roman  state  is  traditionally  ascribed  to  him  and  his  heirs. 

;Ene'id  (Lat.  ^ne'is):  the  title  of  Vergil's  great  epic. 
See  Vergil. 

.Eo'liil  (Gr.  Aio\(a),  or  .Eo'lis  (Gr.  Kio\is):  a  region  of 
Asia  Minor,  so  ealled  fnuu  the  .Kolians,  wlio  settled  there 
and  founded  several  cities  on  dilfcrent  parts  of  the  coast. 
It  was  more  especially  in  Lesbos,  and  along  the  neighboring 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Elea.  that  they  finally  concentratecl 
their  principal  colonies  and  formed  a  federal  union,  called 
the  ..Eolian  League,  consisting  of  twelve  states  and  several 
inferior  town-;. 

-Eo'lian  Hiirp:  a  simple  mnsieal  instniment,  the  sounds 
of  which  are  produced  by  the  vibration  of  strings  moved  by 
wind.  It  is  formed  by  stretching  eight  or  more  strings  of 
catgut,  tuned  in  unison,  across  a  wooden  box,  which  is 
placeil  in  an  open  window.  Athanasius  Kircher  (1602-80) 
was  the  inventor. 

.Eo'lians  [so  named  from  jlSolus,  a  son  of  Ilellen] :  one 
of  the  |irimitive  tribes  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  They  were 
the  domimmt  race  of  Thessaly  and  Bccotia.  They  founded 
on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Elinor  many  states  or  cities, 
among  which  were  Smyrna  and  Mitylene.  The  ^Eolie  dia- 
lect was  harsh,  and  a]>proached  the  chai-iicter  of  the  Doric. 
It  preserved  the  digamma  for  a  longtime.  The  fragnumts 
of  .Vlcanis  and  Sappho  present  the  typical  iEolic  language. 
See  vl'oi.iA. 

iEoripilo.  or  .Ivol'ipylo  [Lat.  ^olits  +  Gr.  in!\ai,  door- 
way]: an  instrument  which  illustrates  the  expansive  force 
of  steam  when  generated  in  a  closed  vessel.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Hero  of  Alexandria  (second  century 


B.  c),  and  consisted  of  a  hollow  metallic  ball,  having  two 
hollow  arms  bent  in  opposite  directions.  When  tilled  with 
water  and  heated,  steam  issued  so  violently  from  the  narrow 
orilice  of  the  arms  that  the  air  reacting  on  it  caused  the 
ball  to  revolve.  It  was  thought  by  the  ancients  to  illustrate 
the  origin  of  the  winds;  hence  the  name. 

JilolllS,  eeo-lfis:  son  of  Ilellen,  brother  of  Donis,  father 
of  Sisyphus;  ruled  over  Thessaly;  reputed  to  be  the  founder 
of  the  jl^olic  branch  of  the  Greek  race.  Often  confoimded 
with  yEuliis,  the  "god  of  the  winds,"  who  was  the  son  of 
Ilippotas  and  reigned  over  the  JEolian  islands,  lie  was  an 
astronomer,  and  the  rei)uted  inventor  of  sails. 

.E'on  (Gr.  aim-):  an  age.  a  period  of  time:  also  eternity. 
The  (inostics  used  the  word  a'ons  in  a  peculiar  sense,  as  dis- 
tinct entities  or  virtues  that  emanated  from  God  before  time 
began. 

.Epi'iiiiS,  Fraxz  JIaiha  Ulrich  Theodou  :  b.  at  Rostock, 
Dec.  13,  1724;  studied  medicine,  physics,  and  mathematics; 
became  Professor  of  Physics  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1757;  was 
appointed  teacher  of  physics  to  the  Czarowitz  Paul,  and 
superintendent  of  the  normal  schools  in  Prussia.  I),  at  Dor- 
pat  in  Aug.,  1802.  He  improved  the  microscope,  invented 
the  elcctrophorus,  discovered  the  electrii'al  polarity  of  tom- 
maline,  and  wrote  Teiilamen  T/n-oriw  Electricitalis  ct  Mag- 
nfliami  (175^);  J{efle.rioiis  sur  la  Distribution  de  la  Vhalewr 
siir  la  Surface  de  la  Terre  (17G2) ;  Description  des  nouveaux 
Microscopes  (178!)),  etc. 

J^ra'l'ians  (Lat.  cerarii) :  a  class  ot  inhabitants  of  ancient 
Rome  who  did  not  belong  to  any  of  the  tribes  or  centuries, 
and  W'ho  had  no  civic  rights  except  I  he  proti'ction  of  the  state. 
Any  citizen,  no  matter  how  higli  his  rank,  for  bad  conduct 
might  be  degraiUid  to  the  rank  of  an  a'rarian  by  the  censors, 
liut  the  punishment  was  not  in  all  cases  a  lifelong  one.  The 
Ca-rites  .seem  to  have  been  agrarians;  at  any  rate,  the  dis- 
franchisement of  a  citizen  was  sometimes  called  "  in  Ccerittim 
tabulas  re/e/v;',"  or  "  being  placed  in  the  list  of  Cajrites." 
Persons  declared  infamous  became  a'rarians.  This  class  is 
also  believed  to  liave  included  a  large  luimber  of  small  retail 
merchants,  who  came  to  Kouu'  from  the  provinces  without 
authority,  and  were  received  into  no  tribe.  ^Jllrarians  paid 
a  heavy  tax,  but  were  exempt  from  military  duty. 

^Era'rium  :  the  public  treasuiy  in  the  temple  of  Saturn 
at  Koine,  in  which  money  and  the  iiulilie  accounts  and 
ar<-hives  were  ki'pt.  Besides  the  regular  treasure,  there  was 
an  (vrarinm  sacrum,  or  reserve,  and  hitcr  a  military  treasury. 
The  fund  belonging  to  the  pnpulus.  or  patricians,  was  called 
publicum,  and  kejit  in  a  separate  treasury,  though  in  the 
same  buihliug. 

.'V'i'ratcd  Bread  [from  the  Lat.  m'-V,  air]  :  an  unfermented 
lireail,  tlie  ingreilicnts  of  which  are  wheat  flour,  salt,  car- 
bonic acid,  ami  water.  The  carbonic  acid  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  flour  and  water  in  air-tight  vessels  by  means 
of  luachinery  especially  adajited  to  this  purpose,  so  that  it  is 
as  light  as  tiie  best  fermented  bread. 

A'i'rated  Waters:  acidulous  or  alkaline  waters  impreg- 
nated willi  carl  ionic  acid  gas;  they  are  extensively  used  to 
allay  thirst  in  feverish  conditions.  The  most  common  is 
carbonic  acid  water,  incorrectly  called  soda-water,  for  it  sel- 
dom contains  soda.  It  is  made  by  jilacing  chalk  or  marble 
in  a  vessel  with  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  when  the  carbonic 
acid  is  evolved  in  the  form  of  gas.  The  latter  is  afterward 
forced  into  water  under  pressure,  so  that  the  water  dissolves 
about  five  times  its  own  volume  of  the  gas.  It  forms  a  brisk, 
sparkling  liquid,  with  a  pungent  but  ple<i.sant  taste.  Leaden 
reservoirs  for  aerated  water  are  dangerous.  When  copper 
lined  with  silver  or  tin  is  used,  safety  requires  the  lining  re- 
newed at  least  once  in  two  yeais.  Carbonic  acid  water  is, 
when  iced,  a  most  refreshing  drink  in  seasickness  and  in 
many  cases  of  <lisease.  The  elTcrvescing  draughts  called 
.loda  powders  and  seidlitz  powders  are  other  forms  of  ai'rated 
beverages.  In  the  former,  bicarbonate  of  so<la  and  tartaric 
acid  are  added  to  water  in  a  tumbler,  and  a  refreshing 
draught  instantaneously  prepared.  Seidlilz  powders  con- 
tain tartrate  of  soda  and  potassa  and  bicarbonate  ot  soda  in 
one  paper,  and  tartaric  acid  in  the  other;  and  when  both 
are  added  to  water,  elTervescence  ensues,  and  the  liquid  is 
then  taken.  A  more  agreeable  and  useful  purgatice  aiiiated 
water  is  the  eifervescing  solution  of  cilrale  of  magnesia  in 
carbonic  acid  water,  the  invention  of  an  .VmerieiUi  pharma- 
cist. Aiirateil  waters  are  also  produced  natuiiilly.  Water, 
as  it  comes  from  a  spring,  tastes  dilferently  from  the  same 
water  after  being  boiled ;  and  this  is  due  to  the  unboiled 


a£kial  perspective 


AEROXArXICS 


water  containing  the  gases  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid — especiiiily  the  latter — dissolved  in  it.  Kain-water  has 
a  mawkish  taste,  chiefly  because  of  tlie  impurities  dissolved 
in  it :  Imt  when  that  rain  water  trickles  down  through  the 
earth  it  is  filtered  and  purified,  and  absorbs  more  or  less  air 
and  gas.  When  it  is  dashed  from  ledge  to  ledge  of  rock,  it 
becomes  stiU  more  thoroughly  aerated.  A  method  is  now 
in  use  for  aerating  the  water-suiiply  of  a  city,  and  the  water 
is  said  to  be  much  improved  by  the  treatment.  JIany  spring- 
waters  are  aerated  in  a  |jeculiar  way  which  confers  upt)n 
t  hem  important-medicinal  pro])erties.   See  Mineral  Waters. 

C.  F.  C'ha^'dlek. 
Ae'rial  Per-spec'tive :  in  painting,  the  ai-t  of  giving  due 
gradation  to  the  strength  of  light  and  shade  and  the  colors 
of  objects,  according  to  their  distances;  or  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  apparent  distances  of  bodies,  as  modified  by 
the  variations  in  the  transparency  of  the  air  or  in  the 
brightness  of  the  light. 

Jv'rians:  a  heretical  sect  founded  in  the  fourth  century 
I)y  J^rius.  a  native  of  Pontus.  They  were  Hoinoiousiaus 
(i.  e.  they  maintained  that  the  Son  was  similar  to  the  Father 
in  essence,  but  not  identical  with  him). 

Aerodynaiii'ics  [from  Gr.  a-iip.  air.  and  Swa/us.  power] : 
the  dynamics  of  the  air.  and  of  gaseous  bodies  generally: 
the  phenomena  exhitiited  by  gaseous  bodies,  whether  at  rest 
or  in  motion  under  the  action  of  forces.  The  problems  of 
aerodynamics  are  seldom  treated  independently:  but  are  in 
part  common  to  all  fluids,  gaseous  or  liquid.  They  present 
themselves  in  the  consideration  of  innumerable  questions  in 
physics:  e.  g.  the  transmission  of  sound:  the  movements  of 
projectiles:  of  the  pendulum:  of  railway  trains:  also  in 
pneumatics:  in  aenmautics:  in  the  application  of  the  force 
of  the  wind  as  a  mechanical  jiower :  and  to  navigation,  etc. 

Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Aeriie.  a  rii-p.  or  .A.rroe :  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic. 
10  miles  S.  of  Funcn :  14  miles  long  and  about  5  miles  wide. 
It  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated.     Pop.  about  12.400. 

Aerolite.s:  See  Meteorite. 

Aerom'eter  [from  Gr.  afip.  air.  and  /ufVpoc.  measure] :  an 
instrument  formerly  used  to  make  the  necessary  corrections 
in  pneumatic  experiments  to  ascertain  the  mean  bulk  of  gases. 

Aoronaii'tics  [from  Gr.  a^p,  air-t- 
vavTris.  sailor]  :   the  science  or  the 
art  of  floating  in  or  of  navigating 
the  air.     It  involves  the  two  prin- 
cipal departments,  aerostatics  and 
aerod\^umic>•     of   the  branch    of 
nachanics   known    as 
jiiRumatics,   and   also 
tin    subjects  of   fluid- 
frii  tion  ami  the  resist- 
ant e  of  a  fluid  to  the 
motion  of  a  solid  body 
]ii-~sing    through     its 
ma-s.     It  includes  all 
forms  of  aerial  navi- 
gation, whether  by  bal- 
loons,   by    flying-ma- 
chines, or  by  any  related  forms  of  a)i|iaratus. 

The  machine  or  apparatus  used  in  aeronautic  |iractiee  is 
technically  called  an  m"ra.«/n/,  and  the  science  and  the  art 
of  its  a])plicalion  aeroxlatics.  In  recent  times  the  subject 
has  been  distinguished  definitely  into  two  parts:  aeronau- 
tics or  ai'rostatics  proper  and  (irialion  (from  I;at.  rnvs,  a 
bird):  the  biniier  comprehending  the  art  and  science  of 
ballooning,  the  latter  those  of  aviation,  or  flving  like  birds. 
Aeronauts  jiui-suc  the  fii'st.  avirifors  the  second,  of  these 
methods  in  their  attempts  to  navigate  the  air. 

In  the  history  of  air  navigation,  aviation  comes  first  in  point 
of  time.  The  art  of  ballooning  is  now  about  one  centurv 
old:  that  of  Hying  dates  from  a  prehistoric  geological  age, 
when  the  birds  succeeded  the  reptiles  as  the  highest  tvijcs  of 
animal  life.  Prof.  R.  II.  Thurston,  writing  in  the  'Forum 
(Jan..  1890),  thus  speaks  of  the  ai'ri.-d  motions  of  birds: 

"This  great  problem  was  first  solved  during  that  act  of 
creation  the  seven  periods  of  which,  according  to  the  geol- 
ogists, occupied  unnumbered  centuries;  and  the  fish  of  the 
sea  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  came  into  existence  before  their 
appointed  rider  or  any  of  his  four-footed  subjects.  The 
ptcrodactyle.  the  great' flying  lizard,  a  giant  even  for  that 
time,  preceded  the  birds,  and,  like  the  flying  aninuds  iicconi- 
panying  it  in   the  old  tria-^sii-  .•nicj  liassi'c  formations  and  in 


the  later  deposits  of  geological  histoiT,  illustrates  the  fact  that 
every  essential  datum  and  principle  of  aeronautics  must  have 
been  brought  into  a  system  of  successful  atlrial  navigation 
in  times  far  antedating  even  the  epoch  of  num's  appearance 
on  the  globe.  That  the  intervening  periods  have  been 
periods  of  progress  can  hardly  be  doubted  when  the  wonder- 
ful performance  of  contemporaiy  birds  is  considered.  The 
vulture  is  said  to  fly.  at  times,  at  the  rate  of  above  100  miles 
an  hour;  the  wild  goose  and  swallow  in  their  migrations 
make  90  miles  an  hour,  according  to  Haswell :  and  the  car- 
rier pigeon  has  certainly  flown  long  tlistances  at  rates  of 
speed  ranging  from  60  up  to  80  nnles  an  hour,  and  for  many 
hours  together.  The  common  crow  ordinarily  lounges  across 
country  at  the  rate  of  25  or  30  miles  an  hour,  the  speed  of  a 
railwav  train." 


Pilatre  de  Kozier's  first  ascension  in  a  flreballoon,  1783. 

The  art  of  ballooning  originated  in  the  year  1TS3.  with  the 
experiments  of  Messrs.  Charles  and  Robert,  who  improved 
upon  those  of  Jlontgolfier,  of  a  few  weeks  earlier,  by  the 
substitution  of  hydrogen  for  heated  air  in  the  filling  of  bal- 
loons. Stephen  Montgolfler  sent  up  his  first  balloons  in 
June.  1783.  after  unsuccessful  attemjits  in  the  autumn  of  the 
preceding  year.     In  August   of  1783    Charles  and  Robert 


Charles'  balloon,  1T«3. 

sent  up  a  balloon  inflated  with  hydrogen,  and  in  Xoveraber 
Pilatre  de  llozier  successfully  ascended  in  a  Montgolfier 
■' fire-balloon."  All  these  first  attempts  at  aerial  navigation 
were  made  at  or  near  Paris.  Tlie  interest  then  awak- 
ened in  all  deiiariments  of  aeronautics  has  contiiuicd  un- 
abated down  to  the  present.  It  still  remains  uncertain, 
however,  what  may  lie  considered  the  most  |)romising  direc- 
tion of  improvement,  looking  to  ultimate  success  in  the 
rajiid,  safe,  and  commercially  practicable  navigatitm  of  the 
atmosjihere.     'J'hus  far  man  has  succeeded  only  in  sustain- 


AfiRONAUTICS 


55 


ing  himself  in  the  air  by  buoyant  floats,  balloons :  but  the 
inilicalions  are  that  the  weight  and  volume  of  iiiaohinery 

iieetleil  to  impel,  nt  any  ivasonatile  s]icoil.  llie  fniirile  anil 
bulky  mass  iv(|iiireil  lor  its  support  in  llie  air  render  it 
absi>iutely  iiuprubahle  that  sueecss  will  idtinuitely  crown 
that  system.  On  tlie  oilier  hand,  the  claims  on  the  part  of 
tlie  aviators  that,  since  birds  and  other  much  larger  and 
heavier  animals  have  been  flyina:  at  enormous  speeds  and 
over  thousands  of  miles  in  a  suiirle  voyajre  since  tlie  days  of 
the  pterodactyle.  the  science  and  the  arl  of  aviation  are  estab- 
lished, and  that  therefore  man  has  but  to  follow  nature  and 
imitate  her  forms  of  construction  and  adopt  her  proportions 
on  a  larjjer  scale,  are  met  by  the  statement  that  no  form  of 
motor  has  been,  or  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  be,  pro- 
duced by  man,  Imvinjr  the  small  size  aiui  weight  needed  for 
the  successful  propulsion  and  support  of  a  real  flying- 
machine:  while  the  problem  of  apiilicalion  of  such  power, 
even  if  i>nce  secured,  is  one  of  such  delicacy,  intricacy,  and 
danger  tliat  its  final  solution  must  be  taken  as  entirely  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  vaguest  probability.  The  facts  are 
that  the  balloon  has  been  made  successful  in  raising  and 
supjiorting  aeronauts  and  their  impedimenta,  and  that 
it  has  been  found  practicable  to  obtain  a  moderate  speed, 
and  to  secure  fair  directing  power,  by  the  use  of  familiar 
systems  of  proimlsion :  but  nothing  that  can  be  considered 
a"  success  has  yet  been  reached  by  man  in  the  construction  of 
«viatory  machines. 

Halloons  have  sometimes  been  of  great  size.  This  is 
lu-i-essary  for  elevation  of  any  considerable  weight,  as  the 
intlation'  of  the  balloon  with  common  illuminating  gas  is 
t  lie  only  commercially  practicable  system,  and  this  gives  a 
lilting  "power  of  but  i  lb.  for  each  30  cubic  feet.  Hydrogen 
gives  a  buoyancy  of  twice  this  amount.  The  earlier  bal- 
loons were  small,  and  useless  for  any  practical  purpose. 
Their  uiagnitudc  grew  with  success,  ami  tiilfard  built  one  at 
Paris,  in  18Tf<.  11«  feet  in  diameter,  containing  882,925  cubic 
feet,  anil  capable  of  lilting  a  total  of  .WjlSO  lb.,  or,  deduct- 
ing weights  of  balloon  and  accessories  (30,536  lb.),  a  net 
weight  of  24.584  lb.* 

iilancliard.  who  was  the  first  to  take  up  ballooning  as 
a.  vocation,  died  in  his  bed  in  1801).  after  having  made  sixty- 
six  ascents  without  Jiccideiit.  His  widow,  however,  who  had 
.served  an  apprenticeship  with  him  in  the  new  art,  was  killed 
in  I'aris  in  181!)  by  a  fall  from  a  great  height.  Many  ascents 
have  been  made  in  the  cause  of  science;  and  the  names  of 
the  brothers  (ioilard;  of  (ireen.who  made  over  1 ,400  ascents ; 
of  .John  Wise,  who  made  the  ilistance  from  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
to  Jelferson  co.,  X.  Y.,  1,200  miles,  in  twenty  hours;  of 
<5ay-Lussae  and  I'iot,  who,  in  1804,  made  a  most  valuable 
series  of  meteorological  and  jihysical  observations  at  the 
height  of  19,000  feet,  and  thus  made  the  first  determination 
of  the  method  oC  variation  of  tem|)erature  of  atmosphere 
with  altitude;  of  Glaisher,  who  rose  to  37,000  feet  with  the 
jieronaut  f'oxwell,  gaining  still  more  accurate  figures,  at  the 
risk  of  death  from  cold,  as  well  as  from  the  usual  dangers 
of  ballooning;  of  Flammarion ;  of  De  Pouville;  and  es- 
liecially,  recently,  of  the  brothers  Tissandier — these  are 
familiar  to  all. 

A  remarkable  letter  containing  anticipations  of  later  in- 
ventions was  written  as  early  as  Jlay  24,  1784,  by  Francis 
Hopkinson,  and  addressed  to  Benjamin  Franklin.  In  this 
letter  it  is  suggested  that  the  balloon  be  made,  not  s]iher- 
ical.  but  oblong  or  spindle  shaped,  and  driven  by  a  wheel  at 
its  slern.  "This  wheel,"  said  the  writer,  "should  consist  of 
many  vanes  or  fans  of  canvas,  whose  planes  should  be  con- 
siderably inclined  with  respect  to  the  plane  of  its  motion, 
exactly  like  the  wheel  of  a  smoke-jack."'  Nearly  three-quar- 
ters of  a  century  later  this  idea  came  into  actual  application. 

Halloons  impelled  liy  the  power  of  men,  or  of  machinery, 
I  xerled  usually  through  a  screw  at  their  extremities,  have 
been  often  made,  and  in  some  cases,  even  at  an  early  date, 
with  some  degree  of  success.  Many  patents  have  been  is- 
sued to  inventors  for  such  contrivances,  but  none  Iiave  as 
yet  been  found  api>licable  to  commercial  juirposes.  One  of 
the  most  promising  of  the  earlier  inventions  of  this  charac- 
ter was  tiiat  of  Kufus  Porter  (of  the  U.  S.),  devised  about 
1820,  and  built  as  a  model  about  1833.  One  of  these  ma- 
chines was  on  exhibition  at  Xew  York  about  1835-40.  and 
another  at  Washington.  This  was  a  cigar-shaped  balloon, 
sustaining  a  car  for  passengers  and  machinery,  and  driven 
by  a  screw.  This  machine  is  reported  by  the  newsiiajicrs  at 
the  time  as  (lying  rapidly, and  sustaining  ibself  for  consider- 

•  With  hydrogen  the  weight  raised  is  W  =  00392  D';  where  D  is  in 
leet. 


able  periods  of  time.  Later  the  same  inventor  built  a  much 
larger  apparatus,  its  balloon  being  160  feet  long  and  16  in 
diameter ;  but  it  proved  a  failure. 


Rufiis  Porter's  at^roport. 

Balloons,  self-iniixdling  and  dirigible,  thus  represent  the 
latest  ami  most  effective  devices  of  the  aerostats,  as  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  aviators.  These  are  all  spindle- 
shaped  balloons,  driven  by  a  screw,  actuated  by  either  man 
or  steam  ])ower,  or  other  form  of  energy,  as  electricity.  In 
1852  the  inventor  and  engineer,  Henri  Giffard — especially 
famous  as  the  discoverer  of  the  curious  instrument  now 


Giffard's  ari  ial  steamer,  1852. 

familiar  to  all.  the  "GilTard  injector'' — constructed  a 
balloon  which  he  propelled  by  a  steam-engine  actuating  a 
screw,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  so  much  sliced  as  was 
necessary  to  give  steerage  way,  thus  producing  the  first 
dirigible  balloon  and  air-steamship.  He  employed  a  balloon 
of  ellipsoidal  form,  3-60  diameters  in  length,  a  high-pressure 
engine,  a  small  boiler,  a  screw  having  (ilane  blades,  and  a 
very  light  system  of  construction.  This  experiment  will 
always  be  famous  as  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  annals  of 
aeronautics.  Just  twenty  years  later  M.  Dupuy  de  Lome, 
the  distinguished  naval  architect  and  engineer,  employed 
man-power  in  the  impulsion  of  a  balloon  of  such  size  that 
he  could  carr)-  ten  or  fifteen  men,  and  actually  applied  the 
power  of  seven  men  to  the  work.  He  probably  considered  it 
imprudent  to  use  a  steam-engine  in  close  proximity  to  a 
large  mass  of  hydrogen  gas;  while  the  constantly  varying 
weight,  as  fuel  is  consumed,  is  also  an  objection.  The  ideal 
motxir  is  one  which  has  constant  weight,  is  free  from  danger 
from  lire,  and  which  concentrates  large  power  within  small 
compass  and  weight.  The  first  two  lUllieulties  were  over- 
come in  the  now  celebrated  experiments  of  the  brothers 
Tissandier,  and  of  Messrs.  Keiiard  and  Krebs.  Long  anterior 
to  this  date  (in  1833)  Kufus  Porter,  already  mentioned,  had 
constructed  a  model  22  feet  long  and  4  i'eet  in  diameter, 
which,  impelled  by  a  steam-engine  of  com]jact  design,  had 
actually  been  driven  at  a  somewhat  ra[iid  rate- in  exhibitions 
both  at  Washington  and  at  New  York. 

M.  Gaston  Tissandier,  the  aeronaut.  adoi)ted  the  electric 
storage-battery,  coupled  with  a  dynamo-electric  machine,  a.s 
a  source  of  power.  He  constructed  for  the  exhibition  of 
1881  a  model.  11  feet  long  and  4  feet  in  diameter,  filled  with 
hydrogen,  and  drove  it  at  the  rate  of  about  10  feet  jier  sec- 
ond (about  7  miles  an  hour),  as  a  nuixiiuum.  Mith  his 
brother.  'M.  Albert  Tissandier.  he  built  another,  over  90  feet 
long  and  30  feet  in  diameter,  fitted  witli  a  Siemens  dynaiiio, 
driving  a  screw  nearly  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  supplied 
with  a  current  from  an  accumulator  of  their  own  invention 
weighing  about  400  lb.  This  machine,  carrying  the  two  in- 
ventors, made  at  various  times  fi-om  7  to  9  miles  an  hour  for 
an  hour  or  two  together.  IMessrs.  Kenard  and  Krebs.  ex- 
perimenting, like  their  rivals,  at  Paris,  also  constructed  a 
somewhat  similar  machine,  165  feet  long  and  27^  feet  in 
diameter,  impelled  by  a  batterv  invented  by  J[.  Kenard.  a 
dynamo,  and  a  screw'7  feet  in  tliameter.    This  apparatus  at 


56 


AJERONAUTICS 


various  times  in  18S4  went  from  12  to  15  miles  per  hour. 
The  motor  gave  out  about  5  horse-power,  and  the  maeliiiie 
■was  al)le  to  take  any  course  desired  in  a  oabn,  and  even  to 
contend  aj;ainst  a  light  breeze.  Tins  balloon  made  a  num- 
ber of  voyages,  occasionally  to  distant  points,  sometimes 
returning  to  its  point  of  departure.  Its  car  and  impelling 
machinery  constituted  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the 
exliibits  of  the  French  Government  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1889. 


Reuani  and  KrcVis'  bailnon,  16>U. 

These  travels  in  the  air  of  the  bold  French  aeronauts  have 
furnished  data  relating  to  the  supporting-power,  the  resist- 
ance, and  the  force  required  for  propulsion  of  siich  struc- 
tures, which  have  been  made  by  Sir.  Wilbara  Pole,  the  vet- 
eran English  engineer,  the  basis  of  comimtations  showing 
that  it  is  apparently  possdjle  to-day  to  builil  an  air-ship,  400 
feet  in  length,  which  will  attam  a  speed  of  25  miles  an  hour. 
But  it  is  usually  considered  t)y  engineers  familiar  with  the 
subject  that  at  least  double  this  speed  must  be  reached  be- 
fore a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem  will  be  olitained. 

It  is  obvious  that  to  attain  high  speeds  we  must  have  low 
resistances  and  light  weights,  small  loads,  great  power  con- 
centrated within  the  smallest  possible  compass,  and  the 
lea-st  ])ossible  weight  i>er  horse-power.  The  structure  uuist 
be  small,  light,  and  well  formed  to  pass  rapidly  through  the 
air.  The  s])indle  shape  adopted  by  the  later  aeronauts  is 
the  best  of  all  known  forms  for  this  purpose. 

Capt.  Renard,  in  reporting  on  his  experiments  in  the  de- 
velopment of  his  balloon  tor  pnrposes  of  war,  states  that  he 
obtains  the  following  formulas  for  resistance,  R,  and  power, 
U,  at  varying  speeds,  the  diameter,  D,  and  speed,  V,  being 
given,  all  in  metric  measures : 

J?  =  0-01685  D^r^ 
r=  0-01685  BT': 
6"  =r  0-0326  Z*n"3: 

where  U'  is  the  work  on  the  screw-shaft.  He  computes  that 
a  speed  of  22  nnles  an  hour  would  demand  for  his  balloon,  if 
of  33  feet  diameter,  about  45  horse-power.  It  is  supposed 
that  speeds  of  25  miles  an  hour  or  more  have  Ijeen  attained ; 
but  tlie  work  is  done  liy  and  for  the  Government,  and  no 
recent  data  are  allowed  to  be  jiublished.  JIi-.  Clianute  gives 
the  following  table  of  those  obtained  and  published  to  date, 
with  liis  own  computation  of  the  power  which  each  would 
require  at  25  miles  an  hour  in  calms : 

SCHEDULE   OF  NAVIGABLE   BALLOONS. 


Length,  out  to  out ft. 

Diameter.  largest  section *' 

Length  to  diameter. ..proportion 

Cubic  (-oulcnis , ft. 

Ascending  power lb. 

Weight— Balloon  and  valves. .  Ih. 
'•  Netting  .ind  l)nnds. .  " 
"  Spars  and  adjuncts.  " 
"  Itiulder  an<l  screw  . .  " 
*'  Anchor  and  guide- 
rope  " 

"  Car  complete ■' 

"  Jlotor     HI    working 

order " 

"  Aeronauts " 

"  Ballast  and  supplies.   " 

•'         Total  apparatus lb. 

H.-P.  of  motor 

Weight  of  m.itor  per  H.-P lb. 

Speed  obtjiincd. .  .miles  per  hour 
H.-P.  rcfpiircd  :?.'>  miles  per  hour. 
Motor  pounds  per  H.-P 


Giffard, 

Dupuy 

Tiirandlcr, 

R«nard 

ISli   ' 

1S94-S5. 

144-3 

118-47 

91-84 

165 'il 

39-3 

48-67 

.30- 17 

2;-55 

3-67  to  1 

•i-43 

304 

6 

88.300 

130.08.S 

.87.4;w 

65.830 

.3.!t78 

8.458 

2.738 

4.403 

704 

1,255-5 

374 

813 

330 

396 

154 

279 

lifiO 

1.316  5 

75 

170 

105 

193 

176 

308 

110 

924 

1.2.87 

220 

9il5 

46-2 

2.000 

01 B 

1,174 

l.W 

310 

3.-i0 

308 

507-0 

1,320 

t>49 

471 

3.977-6 

8..3.T8 

2.7-28 

4.402 

3 

08 

1-5 

9 

1!J4 

2,S00 

410 

1.30 

0-71 

0-^6 

6-71 

14 

IKJ 

r)2(?) 

77 

.11 

3 

38(?) 

8 

23 

By  improvements  in  varnishing  and  rendering  the  tissue 
of  t  he  balloon  impermeable  to  gas ;  giving  the  spindle-shaped 
vessel  a  form  of  minimum  resistance;  improving  the  con- 
struction and  proportions  of  the  screw,  and  of  the  steering- 
gear  :  securing  stability  and  stiffness  sufficient  to  |:iermit  the 
carrying  of  machinery;  to  permit  driving  at  high  sjieeds 
against  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  to  turn  and  to  land 
safely :  and  especially  by  securing  some  light  and  enor- 
motisly  powerful  motor  unimpeded  by  the  embarrassments 
now  met  witli  in  the  storage  of  energy,  the  use  of  fire,  or  the 
dangers  of  high  pressures,  very  considerable  advances  seem 
to  be  possible  in  this  direction ;  but  the  general  impression 
among  engineers,  as  well  as  aeronauts,  is  tliat  the  practical 
limit  will  still  be  found  within  that  which  would  constitute 
this  apparatus  a  commercially  valuable  means  of  trsmsporta- 
tion  of  even  passengers  alone.  Scientific  investigations  and 
the  military  art  may  find  place  and  purpose  for  the  dirig- 
ible balloon ;  but  as  yet  there  seems  no  jirobability  of  its 
coming  into  permanent  employment  for  other  purpo.ses.  If 
speeds  of  25  or  30  miles  an  hour  are  to  be  attained  and  main- 
tained for  any  appreciable  time,  balloons  must  be  built  of 
great  size  and  at  considerable  cost.  So  much,  however,  it 
does  seem  safe  to  expect.  Mr.  Chanute  gives  the  following 
estimate  of  the  size  and  proportions  of  such  a  balloon,  tak- 
ing it  a.s  similar  to  La  France,  one  of  the  best  of  the  French 
constructions : 


PRI.VCIPAL  DIMENSIONS. 


Length,  out  to  out ft. 

Diameter,  largest  section " 

Contents  of  gas cubic  ft. 

Lifting-power lb. 

Weight  of  apparatus " 

cargo  and  aeronauts " 

*-  machinery " 


La  France. 

Double  size. 

165 

330 

27-5 

S5 

65.K10 

520,688 

4.403 

a5.2]fl 

2,451 

9.804 

779 

1,500 

1,174 

23,912 

'J'his  air-ship  would  need  a  motor  of  about  180  horse-power, 
and  the  speed  might  be  made,  assuming  a  weight  of  the 
same  as  that  of  Renard,  130  lb.  per  hor.se-power,  about  11 
meters  (36  feet)  per  second,  or  25  miles  an  hour.  The  con- 
struction of  a  light  motor  is  the  great  desideratum.  It  is 
stated  that  electric  motors  have  been  made  of  a.s  little  as  20 
lb.  weight  per  horse-|ifiwer.  and  steam-engines  have  been 
built  of  less  than  10  lb.  weight  per  horse-power,  iiu-luding 
boiler. 

It  seems  not  at  all  impossible  to  construct  balloons  1.000 
feet  (410  meters)  long,  100  to  150  feet  (31  to  46  meters)  in 
diameter,  wluch  shall  carry  two  or  three  tons  weight  at  35 
to  40  miles  an  hour — in  otlier  words,  aerial  vessels  as  large 
as  an  ocean  steamer  of  our  day,  but  carrying  two  tliousand 
times  less  weight  of  p.assengers  and  cargo.  jMaximum  speeils 
must  be  high  for  success,  since  minimum  speeds  of  25  to  30 
miles  must  be  given  to  meet  even  ordinary  winds.  Naviga- 
ble balloons,  having  speeds  of  50  and  possibly  To  miles  an 
hour,  seem  desirable  from  this  point  of  view,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  .say  that  they  may  not  lie  ultimately  ol)tained  by 
continued  development  in  the  directions  in  which  so  much 
has  already  been  accomplished. 

Aviation  is  a  branch  of  aeronautics  which,  as  has  been  seen, 
dates  btTck  in  nature  to  an  early  geological  period,  but  one 
which  is  only  ncAv,  after  centuries  of  thought  and  many  years 
of  endeavor,  taking  such  form  a-s  to  lead  authorities  in  science 
anil  in  engineering  to  recognize  the  fact  that  an  actual  be- 
ginning has  been  made  in  the  solution  of  some  of  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  the  problem,  as  in  the  determination  of  the 
laws  involved  in  tlie  support  and  impulsion  of  properly 
shaped  bodies  in  the  air,  the  measurement  of  resistances, 
and  the  production  of  light  and  powerful  motors.  Within 
a  comparatively  few  years  societies  have  been  formed  in 
nearly  every  civilized  country,  composed  of  those  who  con- 
sider aviation  n  more  promising  line  of  invention  and  re- 
search than  ballooning,  and  these  .societies,  and  individuals 
of  similar  views,  have  done  much  to  determine  the  facts  and 
laws  prerc(iuisite  to  intelligimt  design,  const i-uelion,  and 
operation  of  tlie  flying-machine. 

The  flight  of  birds,  and  of  animals  of  other  Idnds,  is 
always  presumed  to  involve  the  same  principles  as  must  any 
artificial  flight  by  means  of  machinei-y.  Early  legends  indi- 
cate that  artificial  flight  wii.s  regarded'  as  a  possibility  by  the 
ancients,  and  previous  to  1660  claims  were  advanced,  as  by 
Roger  liacon  and  by  Robert  Jlooke.  that  flight  could  be  and 
had  been  elTected."  Borclli,  about  16K0,  however,  proved 
that  the  .skeleton  of  man  is  not  suited  for  flight  like  that  of 
the  birds,  and  that  his  muscular  system  was  unerpial  to  the 
task  of  aviation   bv  its   own  energy.     Dr.   Wilkins,    the 


AERONAUTICS 


57 


ingenious  Bishop  of  Chester,  of  the  time  of  Cromwell,  said  : 
"  I  do  seriously  and  upon  good  grounds  iilliriii  it  possible 
to  raaUe  a  Hying  cliariut,  in  which  a  man  may  sit  and  give 
suth  a  motion  to  it  as  shall  convey  him  Ihruugh  the  air." 
Again :  "  It  is  not  impossible,  perhaps,  that  a  man  may  be 
able  to  tly  by  the  application  of  wings  to  his  own  body  ;  as 
angels  are  pictured,  and  as  Mercury  and  Daedalus  are  fained, 
ancl  as  halli  been  attempted  by  divers." 

Klmcrus,  a  moidc  of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  said  to  have 
succeeded  in  imitating  the  flying  s(|uirrel.  in  partial  -self- 
support,  liesnier,  a  locksmith  of  the  seventeenth  centtn-y, 
is  also  said  to  have  passed  over  consideralile  distances,  and 
over  houses  and  rivers,  gi-adually  descending  from  a  high 
starting-point ;  and  the  story  is  told,  perhaps  apocryphal,  of 
the  flight  of  a  prisoner  at  Vienna,  in  tlie  jail-yard,  to  a  height 
of  50  feet  or  more.  Many  simihir  attempts  are  known  to 
have  been  made  in  later  times :  liut  no  one  case  of  even  ap- 
proximate success  is  as  yet  recorded. 

The  earliest  pri)(ilal>le  studies  in  this  fiehl  have  been  those 
relating  to  the  methods  of  bird-llight,  and  their  powei's  of 
lifting  and  of  impulsion.  Pettigrew,  ^Marey.  and  De  Lucy 
have  studied  the  motions  of  the  wings  of  birils  and  insects, 
have  learned  the  laws  of  fluid-resistance,  and  have  paveil 
the  way  to  a  real  advaiue.  The  thecu'y  of  propulsion  has 
been  long  sludie<l.  and  in  some  ilirect ions  well  established. 
It  has  been  shown  that  weight  is  probably  not  objectionable 
in  aijrial  navigation,  b\it  actually  a  necessity;  not  weight 
but  volume  constitutes  the  impediment.  A  bird  is  a  lieavy 
but  compact  structure,  of  which  the  essential  characteristic 
is  that  it  incloses  great  power  within  small  volume.  De 
Lucy's  measurements  of  various  flying  creatures  show  an 
irregular,  but  still  unmistakable,  general  direction  of  vari- 
ation of  wing-surface  with  size  of  animal.  Comparing  the 
ladybird  and  the  stag-beetle,  the  pigeon  and  the  stork, 
the  sparrow  ami  the  <-rane,  we  liiui  the  area  of  wing  per 
unit  of  weight  carried  to  be  nearly  as  the  cube  root  of  their 
weights.  Taking  as  a  fair  figure  tluit  obtained  from  the 
larger  bird.  I  timl  that  a  man  of  the  ordinary  weight  should 
be  able  to  fly  with  wings  having  an  area  of  only  about  40  sq. 
feet  (nearly  4  st|.  nu'ters).  De  Villeneuve  states  that  a  bat 
having  the  weight  of  a  man  would  need  wings  oidy  10  feet 
(:i  meters  nearly)  long.  Hastings  makes  the  surface  of  each 
wing  from  5  to  10  times  %  \/\V  where  the  area  is  measured 
in  s(]uare  centimeters  and  weight  in  grammes. 

From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  the  required  areas  of  wing- 
surface  jier  \init  of  weight  decrease  rapidly  with  increasing 
size.  As  the  writer  has  elsewhere  remarked:  "Thus  the 
insects  flutter  wings  of  enormous  area  in  |iroportion  to 
their  weight,  at  the  rate  of  200  or  300  vibrations  i)er  second  ; 
while  the  pelican  makes  but  one  per  second,  the  area  of  sur- 
face employed  being  a  minute  fraction  of  that  needed  by  the 
smaller  creature,  per  unit  of  its  own  weight.  The  vulture 
is  100  tinuis  as  heavy  as  the  swallow,  liut  its  wings  are 
only  fifteen  times  as  large.  The  Australian  crane  weighs 
3,000,000  times  as  much  as  the  gnat,  while  the  latter 
has  1.50  times  as  much  wing-svirface  [)cr  unit  of  weight. 
But  the  power  deuuuuled  is  very  exactly  proportional  to  the 
weight  carried,  and  the  muscles  of  the  birds'  wings  weigh 
more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  muscles  of  their  bodies  together. 
M.  Ilannel.  from  these  facts,  computes  the  spread  of  wing 
required  by  a  flying  man  at  aliont  20  feet,  or  about  l-JO  s([. 
feet  area.  For  a  machine  weighing  iS'5  tons  he  makes  the 
spre,id  of  wing  demanded  about  80  feet ;  and  the  writer  has 
computed  a  still  smaller  figure." 

The  few  experiments  recorded  on  the  lifting-power  of 
birds  and  flying  animals,  as  far  as  they  go,  indicate  a  limit 
at  about  one-half  more  than  their  own  weight.  The  con- 
temporary soaring  birds  have  a  maximum  at  about  JiO  lb. 
(14  Kilog.).  and  the  prehistoric  cretaceous  pterodactyles.  gi- 
gantic reptiles,  in  some  cases  had  weights  approximating 
that  of  a  man.  and  wings  spreading  15  and  20  feet  (7  to  !) 
meters).     Xo  natural  limit  is  as  yet  known  in  this  direction. 

As  an  essentially  important  lineof  research,  many  experi- 
ments have  been  made  to  determine  the  lifting-power  of 
planes  sliiling  through  the  air  al  angles  slightly  inclined  to 
the  horizontal.  The  inost  extensive  and  fruitful  have  been 
those  of  Langley,  at  the  Allegheny  Observatory,  and  at  the 
Smithsonian  In'stit\ition  at  Washington.  These  researches 
were  nndert.aken  with  a  very  elaborate  and  ingenious  ap- 
paratus, including  a  whirling  mast,  turned  by  a  powerful 
steam-engine,  capable  of  driving  the  suspended  plane  in  a 
circle  of  «0  feet  diameter  up  to  lu'arly  100  miles  an  hour  pe- 
ripheral speed,  and  a  set  of  autogra|ihlc  mciusuring  instru- 
ments for  time,  speed,  lift,  and  resistance.     It  was  promptly 


shown  that  the  time  of  fall  of  a  horizontal  plane  is  less  when 
moving  horizontally  than  when  falling  vertically,  and  that 
the  rale  increa-ses  as  the  lateral  motion  increases — a  result 
of  the  inertia  of  the  increasing  weiglits of  airalfectcd  by  it — 
and  leading  at  once  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rate  of  fall 
may  lie  made  in.sensiblc  by  suUicienlly  high  speeds.  This 
involves  the  projiosition  that  at  some  very  high  velocity  its 
behavior  would  be  that  of  a  body  i-esting  on  a  solid  surface. 
Another  singular  but  indisputable  fact  thus  revealed  is 
that  such  a  plane  may  require  actually  less  expenditure  of 
energy  to  nuive  it  at  high  speeds  than  at  low.  where  sup- 
jiorting  itself  by  inclin.-Uion  to  tiie  liorizon.  the  power  de- 
manded for  its  support  diminishing  faster  tlian  the  resistance 
to  forward  motion  increases.  The  "soaring  sjieed,"  as  that 
velocity  is  called  at  which  the  body  is  just  sustaineil  at  its 
initial  height,  was  determitied  lor  a  variety  of  size  and 
proportion  of  planes;  and  the  forms  as  well  as  the  speeds 
of  the  plane  were  founil  to  have  important  influence.  The 
final  aiul  most  striking  conclusion  of  the  investigator  is 
that,  so  far  as  power  simply  is  concerned,  mechanical  flight 
is  possible  with  such  engines  as  we  already  possess,  since 
one  hoise-power  can  sustain  200  lb.  at  45  miles  per  hour  (20 
meters  per  secoiul),  and  more  at  higher  speeds,  friction  of 
the  machine  neglected — and  this  constitutes  a  large  mar- 
gin :  engines  now  bei.ig  in  existence  of  but  a  fraction  the 
specified  weight.  The  best  angle  of  the  plane  is  always  a 
very  small  one.  usually  between  one  and  two  degrees  from 
the  plane  of  its  path,  aiul  is  the  less  as  the  speed  is  greater. 
M.  Drzewieki.  at  the  Congress  of  Aiironauts  and  Aviators 
held  at  the  Paris  Exfiosition  of  188!).  presented  formulas 
and  com])utations  indicating  that  an  aeroplane,  at  an  angle 
of  1°  50'  45',  nu'cts  sensibly  the  same  resistanc('  (simply  as  a 
plaiu^)  at  all  speeds,  and  that  the  work  done  is  thus  propor- 
tional to  weight  aiul  speed:  that  ai'roplaues  projiortioned 
for  small  velocities  need  <'omparatively  large  surfaces  and 
small  weights;  that  areas  may  lie  reduceil  as  speeds  in- 
crease; and  that  the  less  the  area  the  greater  the  required 
speed  and  jiower.  These  conclusions,  which  had  been 
anticipated  in  part  by  Mr.  Octave  t'haimtc,  were  shown  to 
be  corroborated  by  the  known  proportions  of  birds'  wings, 
and  hence  it  is  to  be  expec-ted  that,  where  large  bodies  and 
heavy  weights  are  to  be  dealt  with,  as  in  air-ships,  very 
small  areas  per  unit  of  weight  will  be  necessary,  lie  com- 
putes the  power  at  about  5'87  horse-power  ]ier  ton.  Jlr. 
(,'hanute  figures  the  actual  power  exerted  by  a  flying  pigeon 
at  about  10  hoi-se-power  per  ton,  at  the  same  assinned  speed, 
25  miles  an  hour.  These  ex[ienilitures  are  less  than  are  re- 
quired at  the  same  speeds  in  the  projiulsion  of  the  dirigible 
balloon,  and  are.  nevertheless,  greater  than  are  iiulicated  as 
probable  by  Langley,  who  has  shown  the  powiu- demanded 
for  flight  io  be  Imt  about  2  per  cent  of  that  computed 
on  the  earlier  theories  liy  Xavier  and  others,  and  that  air- 
friclion  may  be  neglecteil  as  comparatively  small,  while  the 
weight  of  the  supporting  planes  may  be  but  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  total  weight  they  are  capaiile  of  sustaining. 

As  a  final  conclusion,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  asserted  with 
some  degree  of  confidence  that  at  low  speeds  balloons  prom- 
ise the  best  results,  an<l  at  high  speeds,  aviatory  machiiu^s. 

As  was  first  shown  by  Mr.  Curtis,  the  fact  that  conditions 
may  be  found  under  which  high  speeds  are  more  economical 
of  power  in  the  support  aiKf  propulsion  of  aiji-oplanes  by 
the  action  of  the  air,  a.s  they  pass  through  it,  may  be  proved 
mathematically  in  the  following  manner  : 

Let  the  relations  of  power  expended,  resistance,  and  veloc- 
itv  be  represented  bv  tiie  equation 
T=  R  V; 
=  V  ir  tan  a  ; 
where  W  is  the  weight  of  the  plane.    Then  we  have,  differ- 
entiating, 

_  =  (irtan«  +  Tscc'a^^,.); 

in  which  tan  a  is  very  small  and  the  sign  of  dT /  dV  is 
therefore  controlled  by  that  of  da  /  dV.  But  exiieriment 
shows  that  Y  increases  for  best  efl'ect  as  a  diminishes,  and 
the  sign  of  da  /  dV  being  negative,  the  term  m  which  it  is 
found  is  negative,  and  7'  thus  decreases  with  increasing 
velocities  of  the  plane.  This  deduction  obviou.sly  is  ap- 
plicable not  to  a  bidky  mass  moving  at  high  velocity 
through  the  air,  but  only  to  the  aeroplane,  a  thin,  sharp- 
edged  or  wing-shaped  plane.  Wliere  the  aeroplane  carries 
a  load,  a  speed  of  nuiximum  effect  must  be  found  at  .some 
comparatively  low  speed,  since  the  resistance  of  the  sustaiiu'd 
bodv.  h.iwever  well  shaped  for  such  purpose,  must  vary 


58 


AERONAUTICS 


neai'ly  as  the  squiire  of  its  velocity.  Air-resistaiice  is  very 
small,  however,  anil  it  seems  proljable  that  this  speed  of  best 
effect  may  be  very  high  as  compared  with  those  attainable 
on  land  or  on  water.  Speeds  of  50  miles  an  liour  and  np- 
ward  are  ap]iarently  anticipated  by  tlie  best  antliorities  on 
this  snbject,  assuming  the  meclianical  difficulties  completely 
overcome. 

Flyiiiy-Mdcliines.  as  already  remarked,  antedate  balloons 
by  geolo^ncal  periods,  the  first  Hying-inachines  having  been 
the  animated  mechanisms  of  tlie  reptile  aviators  of  tlie  cre- 
taceous or  earlier  jieriods  and  of  tlie  birds.  The  flying-ma- 
chine differs  from  tlie  balloon  in  the  fact  that  it  is  not  only 
propelled  but  is  also  supported  by  its  own  actively  exerted 
energy.  Tlie  attempts  of  inventors  to  imitate  this  method  of 
self-support  and  of  flight  by  human  ]jower  have  Ix'cn  numer- 
ous but  unsuccessful,  and,  as  indicated  by  Borelli  long  ago, 
are  not  likely  to  prove  successful.  The  skeleton  and  muscu- 
lar system  of  man  are  not  adapted  to  use  in  flight;  nor  has 
he  the  endnrauce  needed  for  prolonged  exertion  of  such  in- 
tensity. The  inventor  is  now  seeking  ways  of  making  heat- 
engines  or  ot  her  motor  machines  serve  his  purjiose  in  tliis 
direction.  As  the  writer  has  elsewhere  remarked,  "  The  re- 
searclie.s  of  Langley  have  sliowu  the  power  demanded  for 
flight  to  be  about  2  per  cent  of  the  amount  once  supposed  a 
minimum ;  we  know  t  hat  nature's  energy  can  be  directly  con- 
verted into  useful  power  through  the  production  ot  electric- 
ity, as  in  the  gymnotiis,  and  [lossibly  in  all  animal  mechan- 
isms; we  know  that  tlie  mndern  storage  batteries  are  of  ten 
times  the  weight  that  science  indicates  to  be  the  limit  of  per- 
fect efficiency ;  both  steam-engines  and  electric  accumulators 
have  been  made  light  enough  and  powerful  enough  to  raise 
their  own  weight,  with  something  to  spare;  the  flying  lemur, 
the  flying  squirrel,  the  rude  sustaining-membranes  that  in- 
ventors have  constructed,  liave  sustained  their  heavy  weights 
in  drifting  many  yards."  (Forum.)  Slan  lias  I  lius  every  rea- 
son to  assume  at  least  the  possibility  of  solving  this  prob- 
lem, the  last  and  most  tantalizing  of  all  ]iresented  to  the 
inventor  in  the  field  of  transportation.  In  this  study  the 
researches  of  Langley  lend  gi-eat  encouragement.  It  is  also 
true  that  encouragement  may  be  found  in  other  directions. 

The  operation  of  the  animal  machine  teaches  many  les- 
sons, some  of  which  should  prove  profitable  to  the  engineer 
in  his  endeavor  to  solve  this  problem.  It  illustrates  a  com- 
bustion without  liigli  teni|)crature,  anil  yet  with  very  high 
efficiency — (juite  in  opijosilion  to  the  accepted  ideas  of  ther- 
modynamic transformations.  Tliis  may  nican  some  as  yet 
unknown  system  of  modification  of  heat  energy ;  or  it  may 
indicate  a  production  of  electricity,  rather  than  heat,  from 
the  chemical  union  of  foods  with  oxygen ;  or  it  may  lead  to 
discoveries  of  nicthorls  of  transformation  of  energy  and  of 
their  useful  a|)pli<'ation  as  yet  undreamed  of  by  our  philoso- 
phei'S.  This  animal  energy,  however  devclojied,  is  applied 
with  great  effectiveness  to  these  as  yet  unsolved  problems  of 
the  engineer.  The  great  secret  which  our  own  most  original 
inventors  and  physicists  are  endeavoring  to  penetrate  lies 
there  for  study  and  test.  It  is  to-day  easy  to  predict  the 
power  required  to  give  to  any  well-shaped  body  any  stated 
velocity  in  the  air;  it  remains  to  ascertain  how  that  power 
may  lie  producei!  as  economically,  and  as  concentrated  in 
volume  anil  weiglit  of  mcchauisui,  as  nature  produces  it. 

The  fact  that  man  has  surpassed  nature  in  transporta- 
tion on  land  and  on  the  sea  may  be  fairly  taken  as  giving 
reason  to  assume  the  jiossibility  of  his  similarly  succeeding, 
once  he  has  entered  upon  this  new  path,  in  aerial  navigation. 
Although  the  animal  machine  is,  as  shown  by  Ilirn  and  by 
Ruhlman,  more  cllicient  as  a  dynamic  motor  than  any  heat- 
engine,  rising  Id  ()-;3!).  it,  is  not  to  be  expected  that  artificial 
flight,  by  use  of  wings  and  man's  own  muscular  power,  will 
ever  prove  successful.  In  seeking  to  construct  flying-ma- 
chines, capable  of  transportation  of  merchandise  and  passen- 
gers on  some  comparatively  large  and  effective  commercial 
scale,  the  machine  consi.sts  of  some  equivalent  for  the  w'ing 
of  the  bird,  as  the  aeroplane  tesleil  by  Langley  and  others, 
and  a  car  or  vessel,  carrying  machinery  and  load,  the  resist- 
ance of  whieh  must  be  allowed  for  at  a  rale  ajiproximating, 
if  well  formed,  by  Pole's  formula:  K  =  ()'(l0019.5(/-'c^  in 
pounds,  feet  and  seconds  being  the  units.  This  corresponds 
to  the  comparatively  slight  density  of  air:  -Jj  that  of  water. 
The  size  of  wing,  ,/•,  reipiired  for  a  given  load,  i/,  will  bear 
some  close  relation  to  that  observed  in  the  birds,  in  which, 
by  llannel's  formula,  it  =  ;/  log.  ,501).  nearly,  in  which  x  is  in 
kilogrammes  and  //  is  the  width  of  wing  in  nieter.s. 

Langley 's  cxpiTiiiients  confirm  for  normal  pressures  the 
formula  of  I>uihemin  or  Bossut,  making  tlie  magnitiuh;  of 


that  ]iressure  a  simple  function  of  the  normal  pressure  when 
moving  transversely  to  its  own  plane;  but  he  shows  that, 
although  the  form  and  asjiect  of  the  plane  have  little  effect 
when  moving  normally,  they  become  important  when  the 
plane  is  inclined  to  its  path.  Chanute's  investigations  con- 
firm the  conclusions  of  Langley.  and  numerous  experiments 
with  an  immense  variety  ot  flying-machines  have  thrown 
some  light  upon  the  subject,  but  have  thus  far  revealed  but 
little  real  progress  in  ajijilication. 

These  machines  are  variously  constructed  to  secure  sup- 
port and  propulsion  by  means  of  wings,  by  screws,  and  by 
screws  combined  with  aeroplanes.  The  most  successful 
have  recently  been  impelled  by  the  energy  stored  in  twisted 
threads  of  rubber.  Pichancourt  has  made  such  "birds" 
capable  of  flying  50  to  100  feet ;  and  many  experimenters 
have  employed  the  last-named  combination.  Of  these,  the 
most  successful  has  been  M.  Peuaud,  or  possibly  M,  Dan- 
drieux,  who  makes  a  remarkably  jierfect  imitation  of  the 
butterfly.  None  of  these  are  more  than  toys,  however,  and 
usually  support  themselves  but  a  few  seconds.  Mr.  Law- 
rence Ilargreaves  has  presented  to  the  Koyal  Society  of 
Xew  South  Wales  accounts  of  more  than  a  dozen  self-pro- 
pelling machines  of  his  own  construction,  some  of  which 
have  flown  considerable  distances,  the  driving-power  being, 
in  the  best  of  them,  compressed  air  operating  a  Brother- 
hood engine.  His  Nos.  13  and  14  flew  at  the  rate  of  10  to 
13  miles  an  hour,  and  covered  distances  of  125  to  313  feet 
in  8  to  20  seconds.  The  inventor  estimates  that  "400  lb.  of 
tin  tubing,  silk,  and  steel  wire  would  serve  to  carry  one 
man  500  yards  at  17  miles  an  hour,"  The  motor  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems. 

Marine  steam-engines,  with  their  boilers,  weigh  several 
hinidred  pounils  per  horse-power,  while  it  is  estimated  that 
a  successful  aerial  motor  must  weigh  less  than  50,  and  that 
it  is  desirable  that  it  should  even  be  much  lighter  than 
that.  The  lightest  machinery  yet  built  for  continuous  op- 
eration is  that  of  the  moilern  torpedo-lioats,  weighing  some- 
times less  than  60  lb.  ]ier  horse-power,  and  in  occasional 
instances  below  50.  Stringfellow  built  an  engine  for  aero- 
nautic experiments  weighing  13  lb.  ]ier  horse-power,  ami  Mr. 
H.  S.  Maxim  has  described  one  weighing  less  than  5,000  lb. 
to  develop  300  horse-power. 

Gas  and  inflammable  vapor  engines  have  been  proposed 
for  use  in  at'rouautics;  but  they  are  as  yet  even  heavier 
than  the  lightest  steam-engines,  and  offer  no  promise  of 
value.  The  best  work  tlius  tar  has  given,  as  its  product,  gas- 
engines  employing  the  vapor  of  petroleum  and  weighing  be- 
tween 80  and  iOO  lb,  per  horse-power.  Electric  power  gives 
better  results,  and  JI.  Trouve  has  constructed  such  of  mod- 
erate size,  weighing  about  20  lb.  per  horse-power,  and  in  one 
case,  in  which  aluminium  was  freely  used  in  construction, 
about  8  lb.  Commandant  Renard  employed  a  dynamo  in 
his  balloon  which  weighed  2(i'4  II  i.  jier  horse-]  lower.  The 
primary  battery  used  with  it  weighed  00  Hi.  per  liorse-power, 
and  the  whole  thus  weighed  130  lb.,  a  weight  still  much  too 
great  to  be  suitable  for  any  self-supporting  and  self-impel- 
ling machine. 

The  most  elaborate  and  instructive  experiments  with 
solid  bodies  driven  through  tlie  .air  at  high  speeds  ■were 
made  by  Mr.  Jlaxiiu.  whose  work  on  aeroplanes  corrolioratcs 
that  of  Langley  completely.  He  found  the  resistance  duo 
to  friction  of  the  surfaces  of  the  body  thus  driven  Wiis  im- 
perceptible, and  might  be  neglected  as  unimportant.  lie 
concludes  that  a  motor  weighing  less,  as  a  total,  tlian  100  lb. 
per  horse-jiower  would,  so  far  as  that  goes,  make  aerial  navi- 
gation possible.  His  own  steam-engine  with  a  pressure  of 
350  Hi.,  weighing  with  its  accessories  about  4,500  lb.,  is  rated 
at  300  hiirse-power,  or  15  lb.  jicr  horse-power.  The  machine 
is  mainly  of  steel,  this  metal  being  found,  as  used,  much 
lighter  and  stronger  than  similar  parts  made  of  aluminium. 

Present  indications  seem  to  be,  in  the  opinion  of  many 
aeronauts,  that  the  use  of  the  dirigilile  balloon  will  lead  to 
the  perfecting  of  the  motor,  and  that  ultimately  the  flying- 
macliine,  without  supporting  gas-bag,  may  come  into  use 
for  speeds  which  can  not  be  a|i|iroached  bythe  former.  The 
dirigible  balloon  is  so  far  perfected  as  to-day  to  constitute 
an  important  jiart  of  the  equipment  of  every  great  army 
organization.  French  inventors  have,  as  has  lieen  seen, 
constructed  such  machines  capable  of  attaining  about  15 
miles  an  hour  in  calm  weather,  and  it  is  supposed  that  they 
have,  in  later  and  un]iublished  plans,  secured  a,  much  higher 
degree  of  efliciency.  The  German  in'uiy  is  said  to  have  sim- 
ilar machines  in  use  in  recounoissance :  and  other  nations 
now,  and  all  must  in  lime  a]iparenlly,  make  use  ot  this  new 


AEROSTATIC   PRESS 


iESCULIN 


59 


mrthuil  of  transportation  for  such  purposes.  "Captive" 
balloons  are  in  use  also  in  the  French  navy  for  purposes  of 
reconnoissance.  ami  it  is  found  that  they  can  be  towed,  by 
the  ship  of  which  thoy  form  a  part  of  the  equipment,  at 

nioihralclv  liii;h  speeds. 

L'/iffiil  'Jii.'<iill.-<  in  Ai'roKlation  have,  up  to  the  present 
time,  been  liardly  coniniciisurate  with  the  time,  talent,  risk, 
iiiid  actual  lossoi'  life  and  money,  siven  to  this  development 
of  the  attractive,  thon^rh  still  unproinisinjr.  scheme.  Biot 
and  Gav-ljussac,  as  early  as  1804,  ascended  to  the  height  of 
2;i,000  feet  in  one  case,  and  JIcssi-s.  (ilaisher  and  Coxwcll,  in 
\shi.  as  alreaily  stated,  attained  a  heijrhl  of  above  :J5,0(J0  feet, 
and  the  former,  in  various  ascents,  secured  much  interesting 
«nd  some  imporlant  meteorological  information  and  data. 
Mr.  Glaisher  sees  no  reason  to  anticipate  any  great  improve- 
ment in  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  balloon,  and 
lldnks  it  can  only  be  expected  to  be  of  ser\-ice  where  it  can 
be  emploved  in  calms.  Armies  using  the  balloon  for  their 
special  purposes  have  sometimes,  as  is  said,  found  it  valu- 
able. '1  he  battle  of  Flenrys  is  said  to  have  been  decided 
largelv  bv  this  advantageous  use  of  the  balloon  (17U4).  In 
sieges!  as"  at  Mayence  and  Khrenbreitstein  (179!)),  they  arc 
said  to  have  been  ust'd  to  advantage.  The  Austrians  used 
them  in  184!)  before  Venice,  and  the  French  in  185!)  in  the 
Italian  campaign.  In  the  L'.  S.  the  balloon  was  used  by  a 
balloon-corps  attached  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  with 
ri'sults  accounts  of  the  value  of  which  are  contradictory. 
Ill  the  siege  of  Paris  more  than  fifty  balloons  were  used  in 
1  ransporlinir  mails  and  other  light  malerial  from  the  be- 
leaguered city— a  total  of  about  a,.")00,000  letters,  weighing 
about  lit  tons.  Return  mails  wen^  usually  brought  in  by 
■carrier  pigeons  taken  out  by  the  balloons. 

The  ilying-machine,  in  the  restricted  sense  of  the  term, 
has  not  as  yet  reached  even  the  experimental  stage  of  afipli- 
cation.  The  dilliciilties  which  have  seemed  hitlierto  so  for- 
mi<lable.  not  to  say  uncoii(|Uerable,  are  now  apparently  dis- 
appeanng  in  the  light  of  exact  investigation,  and  the  man 
<if  science  is  taking  the  place  of  the  ignorant  inventor  and 
schemer  in  the  promotion  of  this  work.  A  larger  number 
■of  engineers  and  men  of  science  now  think  it  possible 
tlial  the  limits  of  human  skill  and  inventive  talent  are  set 
outside  this  latest  and  greatest  of  the  problems  of  trans- 
porlalioii  and  of  aerial  navigation.  Many  minds  are  con- 
slaiitlv  at  work  on  the  problem,  and  it  seems  not,  at  all  iiii- 
likelythat  real  advances  may  be  elfected  in  the  immediate 
future.  This  proldem  cimstitutes  one  of  the  greatest  cou- 
fronting  the  nn'chanic  and  the  scientist.  An  immense 
aiiKainl  of  information,  much  exact  data,  and  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  involved  in  its  solution,  have  already  been 
aci|nired.  As  remarked  by  Pettigrew,  "  The  land  and  the 
water  have  already  been"  successfully  subjugated.  The 
realms  of  the  air  are  alone  unvanquished.  These,  however, 
art'  so  vast  and  so  important  its  a  highway  for  the  nations 
that  science  and  civilization  equally  demand  their  occupa- 
tion. ...  If  the  dilliciilties  to  be  surmounted  are  manifold, 
the  triumph  and  I lii>  reward  will  be  corresjiondingly  great. 
It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  boon  which  would  accrue 
to  iiiankirid  from  such  a  creation.  ...  If  this  day  should 
ever  come,  it  will  not  be  too  much  to  afTinn  that  it  will  inau- 
gurate ji  new  era  ill  the  history  ol'  mankind. and  tliat.great  as 
the  di'sliny  of  our  race  has  been  hitherto,  it  will  be  quite  out- 
luslered  by  the  grandeur  and  niagnitudo  of  coining  events." 
Ai'TiioiiVriEs. — Glaisher,  Tmci'la  in  //(b^I*)(1871);  Vnitail 
Slali'x  and  Brilish  I'alcnt  Office  liipni/s :  l)e  Lucy,  Flight  tif 
liirtlx.  etc.  (Paris,   186."));    Pettigrew,  Animal  Locomotion 

Iiilernatioiial    Series,    1874);    Marey,  Animal  Meclianiitm 

International  Series,  1874);  Astra "Castra,  Adcenliiies  in 
I  tie  Atmo.yi/icic  {l\.  Turner,  1865);  Chanute.  >if  ii«?  Kavi- 
yalion.  a  Sibley  College  lecture  (Rititiond  and  Engineering 
'./oiirnal,  18!tll):  J/Anonaiite,  a  journal  devoted  to  this  sub- 
ject (Paris);  Langley,  On  j-lm);i«»/(c.s (Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 18!)1):  Chanute",  articles  on  .\erial  Navigation  (/ini/ronrf 
mid  Engineering  Juurnal.  18!)l-!)2).  R.  II.  Thursto.n. 

.Xerostat'ic  Press:  a  machine  for  extracting  by  atmos- 
iiheric  jiressury  the  coloring  principle  from  the  raw  ma- 
lerial—wood,  leaves,  insects,  etc.— used  for  the  purpose  of 
dyeing.  The  material  is  placed  in  a  ve.ssel  between  two 
h"orizontal  partitions,  both  perforated  with  small  holes. 
Liquid  is  poured  on  over  the  upper  partition,  and  the  air  is 
drawn  oil  from  the  bottom  by  means  of  a  sucti(jn-pum|i.  By 
this  means  the  licpiid  is  compelled  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  at  the  top  to  force  its  way  thnuigh  the  material, 
<,arrying  with  it  in  solution  the  required  dye. 


Aerostatics:  that  department  of  the  science  ol  mechan- 
ics which  treats  of  the  weight,  pressure,  and  equilibrium  of 
aeriform  fluids,  and  of  the  equilibrium  of  bodies  sustained 
in  them.  It  dilVers  from  Ai'iodynamics.  another  branch  of 
the  science,  in  being  confined  to  the  relations  of  forces  act- 
ing in  or  upon  such  lluids  when  no  motion  results,  while 
(he  latter  refers  to  the  phenomena  observed  \yhen  forces 
acting  within  or  upon  such  fluids  produce  motion.  Pneu- 
matics ((/.  r.)  covers  both  these  departments.  Aeronautics 
belongs  properly  to  the  first  of  these  divisions.    See  AEro- 

NAITH'S. 

jEs'cllilies  (Ala-xlyvs)  ■  Greek  orator,  and  rival  of  Demos- 
thenes ((/.  I'.).  K.  at  Athens  in  389  B.  c,  he  had  a  varied  ex- 
perience as  a  magistrate's  clerk,  as  a  soldier,  and  a  brave  one, 
and  as  a  not  oversiiccessful  actor.  By  his  knowledge  of  the 
law,  liis  native  gift  of  elo<iitence,  his  distinguished  appear- 
ance, he  rose  to  prominence  in  public  life.  Sent  to  Philip 
of  Maeedon  as  a  member  of  an  embassy  in  ;^42  B.C.  he  went 
over  to  the  peace-at-any-price  |iaity  and  to  Philip,  and  after 
his  return  to  Athens  wiis  accus<'d  of  high  treason  by  Tiiuar- 
chus  and  bv  Demosthenes.  Both  his  adversaries  were  foiled. 
In  ;:i;iO,  however.  JCschiiies,  who  hatl  been  an  active  paitisan 
of  the  Macedonians,  brought  a  charge  of  illegality  agiunst 
Ctesiphon  for  proposing  to  reward  Demosthenes  with  a 
golden  crown,  and  the  contest  ended  in  a  crushing  defeat 
for  yEschines.  lie  was  compelled  to  withdraw  from  Athens, 
and  betook  hiiiiself  to  Rhodes,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
ojiened  a  schoid  of  oratory.  He  died  in  exile,  :^!4.  We  have 
three  speeches  of  his,  called  in  antiquity  The  Tliree  Graces, 
which  enable  us  to  undei-stand  his  high  rank  as  an  orator. 
Two  of  llieiu  may  owe  their  special  interest  to  the  compari- 
son with  Demosthenes,  but  even  if  "  they  have  more  ilesh, 
le.ss  muscle,"  thev  are  full  of  life  and  grace.  Edited  by 
Brenii  (182:!),  Benseler,  with  German  translation  (1858), 
Franke  (1800),  .Schultz  (18().")),  Weidner  (1872). 

B.  L.  GlLDERSlKEVE. 

iKs'cliylllS  (Aio-xilAos) :  ill  a  certain  sense  creator  of  Greek 
tragedy:  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Elensis,  in  Attica,  in  535 
B.C.  The  eldest  of  the  t  liree"  great  tragic  poets  of  Greece, 
he  was  at  once  the  most  sublime  genius  and  the  severest 
artist  of  the  three,  lie  fought  bravely  at  Marathon  (490 
B.C.),  Sahuiiis,  and  Plata^a,  anil  seems  to  have  been  prouder 
of  his  prowess  than  of  his  art.  It  was  not  until  485  that  he 
gained  the  first  prize  in  tragedy.  He  composed  over  seventy 
pieces  and  gained  thirteen  pri"zes.  In  468,  however,  he  was 
defeated  by  Sophocles,  and  soon  afterward  went  to  Sicily, 
when'  he  was  honored  by  Hieio  of  Syracuse.  He  died  at 
Gela  in  456,  two  years  after  his  brilliant  success  with  the 
(^resteia.  According  to  tradition,  he  was  killed  by  a  tor- 
toise, which  an  eagle  let  fall  on  his  bahl  head,  a  story  that 
is  variously  interpreted.  Of  his  1  ragedies,  which  were  brought 
out  in  sets  of  tliree — "trilogies" — only  seven  are  extant: 
Prometlieiia  Bound  ;  'J'/ie  JSenn  againk  Thebes:  The  Per- 
sians: The  Suppliant  Women:  Agamemnon:  llie  Choephori 
(Libali<iii-bearei's);  and  JJiimeni'des.  The  last  three  form 
the  onlv  complete  trilogy  tlisit  we  have;  the  Oresteia,  or 
Storv  of  Orestes,  one  of  th'e  most  tiowerfnl  and  consummate 
works  of  art  in  all  literature.  Each  jilay  is  an  act :  The 
Murder  of  Agamemnon,  The  Vengeance  of  Orestes,  The  Re- 
demption from  Bloodguiltincss.  It  is  a  plea  for  the  Are- 
opagus (<;.  c),  but  it  is  nuu-h  more.  Critical  editions  by 
Din.lnrf.  Hermann  (18.52).  Kiichholf  (18^0).  Weil  (1884), 
Wecklein  (188.")) ;  with  English  notes  by  Paley  (1870).  Elab- 
orate edition  by  Verrall  has  been  begun  {Seven,  1887,  Aga- 
memnon, \SS^.'Choej>hori,  189:5).  English  translations  by 
Blackie.  Browning  (Ai/amemnon),  Campbell,  Fitzgerald 
(Agamemnon),  Jlorshead  (Ifonse  of  Alreiis),  Potter,  Plump- 
tre.  Swanwick.  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

.KsiMllil'pius  (in  (ir.  'haK\-nTtt6s) :  in  classic  mythology,  the 
god  o{  medicine;  a  s(Ui  of  Apollo.  The  poets  feigned  that 
he  raised  the  dead  to  life— that  he  tlius  offended  Pluto,  who 
complained  to  Jupiter,  who  killed  .Esculapius  with  a  tliun- 
ilerbolt.  He  was  afterward  worshiiu'd  as  a  god.  and  a 
temple  was  erected  to  him  at  Epidaurus.  According  to 
Homer,  he  had  two  sons.  :Maehaoii  and  Podalirius.  His 
descendants  were  called  Asclepiinbe. 

.Ks'eiiliii.  or  Esciilin  (CiiH,.0.):  a  crystalline  fluores- 
cent glucoside  obtained  from  the  liark  of  the  horse-chestnut 
and  other  trees  of  the  genera  ACsruliis  and  Paria.  It  pos- 
sesses a  bitter  taste,  and  is  converted  by  boiling  a  hydro- 
chloric or  dilute  sulphuric  acid  into  glucose  and  a  bitter 
crvslalline  sulistaiice  called  lesculetili,  C.HjOj,  CuHibOj  -f 
lliO  =  C.ll,j<».  +  C.H.O.. 


60 


iESIR 


AFFINITY 


ilsir,  a'fir  [the  plural  of  Xorse  ^.5.  god,  being] :  the  gen- 
eral name  of  tiie  l)cnefifent  deities  of  the  Norsemen.  The 
principal  ^sir  are  Balder.  Frey,  Freyia,  Fiigga.  Heimdall, 
Odin,  Thor,  Tyr,  Vali.  and  Vidar,  wliieh  will  be  noticed 
under  their  respective  heads. 

jE'sop  (Lat.  ^^so'pus ;  Gr.  A^aawos) :  a  celebrated  fabu- 
list ;  1).  about  020  B.  r. ;  siipposetl  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Phrygia.  He  was  a  slave  in  his  youth  at  Athens,  but  after- 
ward obtained  his  freedom  in  consideration  of  his  wit.  A 
statue  CNecuted  by  Lysippus  was  erected  to  ^Esop  by  the 
Atlienians.  In  the  course  of  time  ^Esop  became  a  generic 
name,  and  it  is  impossible  to  discern  the  original  stock  of 
JEsopie  fables.  The  current  Greek  ..Esopic  tables,  edited 
by  C.  Halm,  Fabulm  JEsopicm,  Leipzig,  1852.  are,  in  the 
main,  prose  paraphrases  of  Babrius  (17.  v.).  For  bibliography 
and  further  details,  see  Beast-fables. 

.Eso'pns,  C'lodius:  a  famous  Roman  tragic  actor;  a 
friend  of  Cicero ;  flourished  about  75  b.  c.  His  action  was 
grave,  dignified,  and  impassioned.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  55  B.  c. 

J5sthet'ics  [Gr.  aiV9r)TiK<!s.  jiertaining  to  the  perception 
by  the  senses;  oiVrfeVflai,  [lerceive  by  the  senses]  :  etymologi- 
cally,  the  philosophy  of  perception.  In  modern  philosophy 
tlie  term  is  used  to  denote  the  scientific  classification  of  the 
faculties  through  which  we  apprelientl  the  beautiful  and  the 
sublime,  and  which  give  us  the  experience  of  the  resulting 
emotions.  It  invohes  also  the  statement  and  discussion  of 
the  laws  which  should  preside  over  and  condition  all  forms 
of  artistic  production,  tlie  application  of  these  general  laws 
to  the  special  liranches  of  the  fine  arts  in  respect  to  criticism, 
and  the  history  of  the  development  of  these  laws  in  prac- 
tice. The  principles  of  [esthetics  were  in  ancient  times 
discussed  by  Plato,  Plotinus,  and  St.  Augustine ;  and  in 
their  application  to  poetry  by  Aristotle  and  Horace  ;  and 
in  relation  to  eloquence  by  Quintilian.  and  to  style  liy  Lc_>n- 
giuus.  The  term  was  first  used  in  its  modern  sense  in  the 
eigliteentli  century  by  Alexander  Gottlieb  Baumgarten,  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  He  taught 
that  there  is  in  the  nnud  a  power  or  faculty  for  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  beautiful — a  power  whose  existence  is  not  de- 
pendent on  that  of  the  intellect,  though  the  latter  may  be 
necessary  in  order  properly  to  direct  and  develop  the  a>sthetic 
faculty.  Psychologists  have  classed  the  operations  of  the 
mind  under  three  genei'al  heads — namely,  the  intellect,  the 
sensibilities,  and  the  will.  Tlie  proper  oljject  of  the  first  is 
truth  ;  of  the  second,  beauty  in  its  various  forms,  including 
harmony ;  and  of  the  third,  good  or  virtue.  JEsthetics 
would  consequently  come  under  the  second  division,  relating 
as  it  does  to  objects  or  qualities  which  appeal  at  once  to  the 
sensibilities,  without  any  direct  reference  to  the  intellectual 
power. 

There  may  be  said  to  be  two  distinct  schools,  which  differ 
radically  respecting  the  true  principles  of  aesthetic  develop- 
ment and  cidture.  The  one,  starting  with  the  standard 
works  of  art.  or  with  the  most  jierfect  models  which  nature 
offers  us,  and  selecting  from  each  what  appears  most  pleas- 
ing or  graceful,  seeks,  b_,  means  of  these,  either  by  direct 
imitation  or  indirect  suggestion,  to  create  a  new  work,  which 
shall  combine  as  many  as  possible  of  the  elements  of  the 
original  models.  It  is  obnous  that  the  merits  of  such  a 
work  can  not  in  any  case  rise  above  the  aggregate  of  the 
merits  of  the  productions  after  which  it  has  been  copied. 
The  other  school,  recognizing  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  for 
transcendent  genius  to  ci-eate  forms  of  beauty  which  shall 
not  only  excel  in  their  combined  effect,  but  in  their  indi- 
vidual elements,  everything  that  has  ^ver  been  seen  in  nature 
or  in  art,  seeks  to  e\iltivate  the  faculty  of  ideal  conception, 
using  the  works  of  nature  or  the  models  of  the  great  masters 
siniidy  to  improve  the  art  of  expression  ;  or,  ii;  other  words, 
the  jiower  to  translate,  as  it  were,  our  ideal  conceptions  into 
forms  which  can  be  understood  and  appreciated  by  the  com- 
mon mind.  Those  of  this  school  woulil  say  that  such  works 
as  the  Apolh)  Belvedere,  or  Danneeker's  celebrated  statue  of 
Christ,  coulil  never,  in  the  first  instance,  be  formed  from 
actual  nature— that,  in  fact,  the  very  power  of  selecting  tlie 
most  beautiful  forms,  or  the  most  beautiful  elements  of  any 
particular  form,  imi)lies  the  existence  of  an  ideal  faculty"; 
lor  if  the  mind  has  not  some  standard  in  itself,  but  is  wholly 
dependent  on  what  it  sees  for  its  conception  of  beauty,  why 
should  it  not,  copy  the  faulty  as  well  as  the  beautiful  ?  It  is, 
in  fa<'f,  by  trying  what  it  sees  by  the  ideal  standard  in  itself 
that  it  knows  how  to  select  the  one  and  reject  tlie  other. 

^Esthetics  can  not  yet  be  consiilered  a  complete  and  sys- 


tematically developed  science,  though  several  of  the  best 
minds  of  the  last  and  present  century  have  done  much  to 
investigate  and  explain  its  principles.  Among  the  most 
important  works  on  tliis  subject  are  the  following:  Fried- 
rich  Theodor  Vischer's  Aeslhvlik.  oder  die  Wissenschaft  des 
Schi'men:  Hegel's  Aesihetik — Benard's  French  translation 
of  this  work  was  crowned  by  tiie  French  Academy;  a  second 
part  of  this  work,  devoted  to  the  history  of  art  in  its  three 
phases  of  symbolic,  classic,  and  I'omantic  (or  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Christian  art),  has  been  translated  into  English,  and 
published  in  the  Journnl  of  Speculative  P/kVoso/j//^,  while 
Hegel's  introduction,  containing  a  discussion  of  the  nature 
of  art.  has  been  translated  Ijy  Bernard  Bosauquet ;  Cousin's 
Le  Vrai.  le  Beau  et  le  Bon  (The  True,  the  Beautiful,  and 
the  Good) ;  Weisse's  iSijsteiii  der  Aestlie/ik  (2  a'oIs.,  Leipzig, 
1830);  Jouffroy's  Cours  d'Exthi'lique  (Paris.  1842);  Ruge's 
Neiie  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik  (1837);  Zimmermann,  Ge- 
schichte  der  Aesthetik  (Vienna.  1858);  Dipi>el,  Handhitch 
der  Aesthetik  (1873);  Alison.  On  Taste  (\~,iii):  Burke.  The 
SiihJime  ana  Beautiful  (175G) :  .J.  Bascom.  Esthetics  (1862) ; 
II.  X.  Day.  The  Science  of  ^-Esthetics  ;  J.  S.  Kedney.  Hegel's 
Esthetics;  ami  especially  Kant.  Kritik  der  Vrtheilskraft. 

Revised  liy  \V.  T.  Harris. 

JEstiva'tioii  [from  the  Lat.  o'sti'vo.  a'sfira'fum,  to  spend 
the  summer,  to  retire  for  the  summer  season]:  in  botany, 
the  manner  in  which  the  parts  of  a  flower  are  folded  in  the 
bud  before  it  has  opened.  The  various  forms  of  aestivation 
are  called  valcate,  imbricated,  contorted,  induplicate,  re- 
duplicate, etc. 

£thel$taii :  See  Athelstax. 

Ae'tians  :  the  followers  of  Aetins,  who  was  in  the  fourth 
century  a  deacon,  and  afterward  a  bishop.  He  was  an 
Arian.  but  was  considered  a  heretic  by  both  orthodox  and 
Arians.  His  doctrine,  which  briefly  was  that  Father  and  the 
Son  were  entirely  unlike  in  all  respects,  and  followers  were 
condemned  in  359  a.  i>. 

Ae'tius  (sometimes  incoiTcctly  written  JEtius):  Roman 
general ;  b.  in  Jlcesia  before  400  a.  d.  As  commander  of  the 
Roman  army  in  Gaul  he  gained  important  victories  over  the 
Visigoths.  Huns,  and  other  barbarians  about  425-430  a.  d. 
Aetins  and  Theodoric  commanded  the  army  which  in  451 
cheeked  the  victorious  hordes  of  Attila  the  Hun.  and  de- 
feated him  in  a  great  battle  at  Clullons.  He  was  sus]iected 
of  treachery  by  the  Emperor  Valeiitinian  III.,  who  killed 
him  with  his  own  hand  in  454  A.  D. 

^l!;to'lia(Gr.  AfTw^fo):  a  state  or  country  of  ancient  Greece ; 
bounded  X.  liy  Thessaly,  E.  by  Locris  and  DorLs,  S.  by  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth,  and  W.  by  the  river  Achelous.  It  was  in- 
tersected by  the  river  Evenns,  the  modern  Phidaris  or 
Fidaris.  The  surface  is  partly  mountainous,  the  scenery 
magnificent,  and  the  climate  delightful.  The  range  of  Mt. 
Pindus  extends  along  the  northern  part.  The  ancient  ^-Eto- 
lians  were  a  warlike,  barbarous,  and  ru<le  people  in  the  age 
of  Pericles.  ^^Ftolia  now  forms,  conjointly  with  Acaniania, 
a  nouiiirchy  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.    .See  Acarn'AN'IA. 

Afana'sieff.  Alexander  Xikolaievitch  :  b.  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Voronezh,  .luly  23  (11),  1826;  studied  at  the 
university  of  JIoscow ;  was  secretary  to  the  council  of  magis- 
trates there.  In  1863  he  published  a  collection  of  Russian 
po]iular  tales  in  4  vols.  (2d  cd.  1873),  and  in  1869  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  views  of  nature  entertained  bv  the  ancient 
Slavs  (3  vols.).     D.  Oct.  5  (Sept.  23),  1871. 

Afflda'vit  [literally  he  made  o.ath.  or  stated  on  oath ;  perf. 
thiril  person  sing,  of  Late  Lat.  affidare,  to  slate  or  give  on 
oath]:  an  oath  iu  writing  made  lieforc  some  person  who  has 
authority  to  administer  an  oath;  a  statement  in  witting 
signed  by  the  party  making  it,  and  sworn  to  Wfore  some 
authorized  officer,  who  appends  and  signs  an  official  state- 
ment to  that  effect,  termed  a  "jurat."  By  an  extension  of 
its  original  meaning  it  is  made  to  include  also  cases  where 
an  allirmatioii.  authorized  by  law,  is  taken  instead  of  an 
oath.  Au  aflidavit  is  made  e.r  parte  and  without  cross- 
examination.  It  is  much  used  in  making  various  motions 
in  court,  and  in  proving  conveyances  executed  before  sub- 
scribing witnesses,  so  as  to  lia\e  tlieni  recorded.  An  aflida- 
vit is  called  extra-judicial  when,  though  taken  before  an 
officer  authorized  ti)  administer  oaths,  it  is  not  itself  required 
or  authorized  by  law. 

Aifiii'ity  :  in  law.  the  relat  ionship  contracted  by  marriage 
between  a  man  and  his  wile's  kindred,  and  between  a  wife 
and  her  husliand's  kindre<l.  In  (ireat  Brit.-iiu  marriage  is 
forbidden  between  persons  who  are  within  the  third  degree 


AFFINITY 


AFGHANIS'^'AN 


Gl 


or  lelatioiisliip  hy  affinity,  ami  this  prohibition  is  consitlcred 
Ui  lie  based  on  the  law  ol'  God. 

Altinily.  C'hkmical  :  a  name  given  to  that  whit-li  holds  the 
consiitueuts  together  in  a  chemical  compound.  Thus  water 
consists  of  hydroscn  and  oxygen  hold  together  in  chenuoal 
comi)ination.  What  holds  them  together  we  do  not  know,  nor 
do  we  know  in  what  con<lition  they  are ;  but  it  is  convenient 
to  give  a  name  to  the  unknown  cause,  just  as  it  is  convenient 
to  give  a  name  to  that  which  causes  a  body  thrown  into  the 
iiir  to  return  to  the  earth.  As  is  well  known,  we  call  this 
unknown  cause  the  attraction  oi  gravitation,  without 
tliereliy  explaining  what  it  is.  The  expression  chemical 
allitnty  is  condng  to  be  used  in  a  somewhat  dilTerent  sense 
from  the  above,  but  this  more  refined  use  can  not  be  explained 
here.  Ira  Kemsex. 

.\flllriiia'tion  :  in  law,  a  declaration  made  by  a  witness  as 
a  substitute  for  an  oath  in  a  court  of  justice.  This  formula 
is  used  by  Quakers  and  others  who  have  conscientious 
scruples  against  oaths.  In  the  U.  S.  the  use  of  alliruuitions 
instead  of  oaths  has  become  very  common,  experience  seem- 
ing to  hav('  sjiiiwn  that  the  value  of  evidence  and  the  force 
I  obligations  are  not  diminished  therel)y. 

.Vffre,  r)i:xis  Ai'GUSTK:  Arclibishop  of  Paris;  b.  at  St. 
IJonie-de-Taru,  Sept.  27,  lT9;i.  He  became  vicar-general  at 
I'aris  in  ls;i4,  and  archl)ishop  in  1840.  During  the  insur- 
rection of  June,  1848,  he  made  a  generous  effort  to  end  the 
carnage  by  a  personal  appeal  to  the  insurgents,  but  wliile  he 
was  speaking  to  them  hostilities  were  renewed  between  the 
insurgents  and  the  military,  and  he  was  mortally  wouiHled 
by  a  l)all,  and  died  June  27,  1848.  He  left  an  Bssay  on  the 
J-Ai!ipli<in  Hitrnyhjphics  (1834),  and  other  works. 

.Afghanistan,  alif-gin-is-taan'  [a  name  of  Persian  origin. 
'J'he  people  call  their  country  Ca'-hul  (the  valley  of  the 
Calnil  river)  and  h'/toranan,  t  he  rest  of  the  country  vaguely]  : 
a  country  of  Asia:  lying  between  80' and  38' 30' N.,  and 
the  meridians  (H)'  30'  and  74'  30'  K.  Its  boundaries  are 
largely  iiolitical.  and  were  settled  on  by  Kussia  and  Great 
Britain.  On  the  X.  lie  the  Turkoman  desert,  Bokhara  (with 
the  Oxus  as  boundary  line).  an<l  the  Pamirs.  On  the  E.  the 
boundary  is  in  general  that  of  British  India.  On  theS.it 
is  Ijouncied  by  Baluchistan,  and  on  the  W.  by  Persia.  Its 
form  is  roughly  rect.-mgular,  but  it  has  a  long  projection  to 
the  X.  K.,  X.  of  tlie  HiniUi  Kush  mountains,  and  includ- 
ing  Badakshan.  The  total  area  is  about  257,000  sq.  miles 
iliout  that  of  Texas),  and  the  population  is  estimated  at 
.1,1100,000. 

Topograph;!. — It  is  for  the  inost  part  a  seiics  of  elevated 
table-lands,  diversified  liy  mountains.  Only  the  valley  of 
the  Cabul  river  and  a  )iart  of  the  southwest  angle  are  below 
4,(K)0  feet  above  the  sea,  while  a  not  inconsiderable  part  is 
above  7,000  feet.  The  Ilindn  Kush  mountains  enter  in 
the  X'.  E.,  and  extend,  under  various  names  and  jd  lower 
altitudes,  along  and  near  the  northern  boundary.  The  east- 
ern border  along  tlie  Indus  valley  is  formed  liy  the  Sidiman 
range,  and  from  the  head-waters  of  the  Cabul  river  broken 
ranges  extend  linger-like  S.  and  southwestward.  The  alti- 
tudes of  the  mountain  peaks  here  are  not  so  great  as  in 
Tliibct  and  the  Himalayas.  The  highest  mountain  is  prob- 
ably that  north  of  Cabul,  to  which  tlii^  name  Ilinilu  Kush 
is  especially  applied.  It  is  probably  20,000  feet  high,  and 
the  Kushan  Pass  near  it  rises  to  1.5,000  feet.  Westward 
the  elevations  do  not  surpass  17,000,  awl  the  Suliman  peaks 
13.000. 

The  most  imiiortant  aiul  best  known  river  is  the  Cabul 
(anc.  Kophen).  It  rises  in  the  Hindu  Kush  and  its  west- 
ward extension,  and  after  a  course  of  250  miles  for  the  Calnd 
proper,  or  370  it  its  principal  tributary,  Kashkar — really  the 
iirinc-i|)al  stream — is  taken,  it  falls  into  the  Indus  at  Attok. 
The  Helmaiul  (anc.  EtijiiiiiKihr)  is  but  little  known.  It  rises 
not  far  from  the  souri'cs  of  the  Cabid,  and  after  a  south- 
westerly course  of  615  miles,  300  of  which  are  unknown,  it 
empties  into  the  great  Persian  marsh  or  lake  called  Leistan. 
The  Harut  (2-15  miles  long)  also  empties  into  this  marsh, 
'i'he  Lora  (200  miles  long)  is  the  most  southern  of  the  Afghan 
1  ivers.  Its  waters  are  usually  exhausted  in  iri'igation.  The 
Ilari-rud  rises  to  the  W.  of  Cabul,  and  flowing  iirst  W.,  then 
N.,  is  lost  iu  the  Turkoman  desert  after  a  course  of  about 
500  miles. 

Climnlc. — The  variety  of  climates  is  great,  varying  from 
the  tropical  climate  of  the  Indus  valley  to  the  Alpine  ones 
of  the  higher  pl.iteaus.  At  Cabul  the  traveler  can  pass  in 
a  ilay's  journey  from  where  the  snow  never  falls  to  where  it 
never  melts.     The  summers  are  generally  hot  and  the  skies 


clear.  The  rainfall  is  small,  averaging  less  than  10  inches 
annually,  except  about  the  mountains.  The  melting  of  the 
heavy  snows  on  the  latter  furidshes  the  streams  with  sup- 
plies which  are  extensively  used  for  irrigaticm.  The  sum- 
mer monsoons  of  India  do  not  pass  westward  of  the  Sulinian 
monutains,  and  what  rain  falls  is  generally  confined  to  win- 
ter. Dust  and  sand  storms  are  common,  and  sometimes 
assume  the  charac'ter  of  the  Saharan  simoon.  Intermittent 
and  rennttent  fevers,  bowel  com])laints,  rheumatism,  stone, 
laemorrhoids,  and  syphilitic  diseases  ai'e  connnon,  the  latter 
in  their  most  repulsive  forms. 

Productions. — Northern  Afghanistan  is  said  to  be  rich  in 
minerals.  An  excellent  quality  of  iron  is  manufactured. 
Copper,  lead,  and  gold  are  found  in  many  places,  the  latter 
so  far  in  small  quantities.  Badakshan  has  been  famous  tor 
its  precious  stones.  The  native  fauna  and  itora  are  jioor. 
Agriculture  is  generally  practici;il  with  the  aid  of  irrigation. 
There  are  two  crops  yearly.  The  one  .sown  inautunni  and 
reaped  in  summer  consists  of  wheat  and  barley;  the  other, 
sown  in  spring  and  reaped  in  autumn,  of  rice,  millet,  and  . 
maize.  The  castor-oil  plant,  madder,  and  asafu'tida  abound. 
Vast  (plant it ies  of  the  latter  find  their  way  to  the  Indian 
market.  Among  the  fruits  are  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  apri- 
cot, ))omegranate,  grape,  and  fig.  These  form  a  large  part 
of  the  food  of  nmch  of  t lie  pojiulation,  and  t  hey  are  exported 
in  large  quantities.  The  manufact  ure  of  silks,  felts,  carpets, 
dressed  skins,  and  rosaries  forms  iuqiortant  industries. 

Jiihabitcnil.'i. — The  Ghilzais  are  the  most  numerous  and 
the  bravest  of  the  Afghan  clans.  The  political  ascendency 
is  in  their  hands,  and  they  at  one  time  possessed  the  throne 
of  Ispahan.  They  occupy  the  country  lietween  Herat  and 
Kandahar.  Certain  large  tribes  speaking  the  same  language 
and  having  the  same  customs,  but  living  along  tlu^  Sulinian 
range,  are  rejected  by  the  Ghilzais  and  called  Pathans.  The 
Hazaras  are  of  the  .\iongol  type,  and  occupy  the  mountains 
of  the  N.  W.  The  Tafiks  are  jirobably  the  aborigines. 
They  are  a  subject  race,  quiet,  industrious,  and  frugal; 
speak  a  dialect  of  Persian,  and  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
country.  There  are  also  many  modern  Persians  called  Kizil- 
basli(!s,  who  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  towns  as  mer- 
chants, doctors,  and  scribes,  and  are  justly  looked  up  to  as 
a  more  educated  and  superior  class.  Their  emigration  began 
with  the  time  of  Xadir  Shah  (1737).  There  are  also  repre- 
sentatives in  smaller  numbers  of  other  races.  'The  Kizil- 
baslies  and  the  Ilazaras  are  Suni  Jlolianiniedans;  the  others 
are  Shialis. 

Oovernmenf. — The  government  is  monarchical  and  heredi- 
tary, but  feudal  in  character,  and  the  power  of  the  prince  de- 
pends much  on  his  personality  and  fortunes.  'The  countiy 
is  divided  into  four  provinces — Csdiul,  Turkestan,  Herat, 
and  Kandahar,  and  the  districts  of  Badakshan  and  Wakhan 
in  the  extreme  N.  E.  E.ach  province  is  under  a  governor, 
under  whom  the  nobles  dispense  justice  in  a  feudal  fashion. 
Tilt'  laws  in  force  are  those  usual  in  Mohammedan  counlrie.s, 
and  are  fairly  e(|uitable.  but  exaction,  spoliation,  and  em- 
bezzlement are  all  but  universal. 

The  ameer  is  said  to  have  had  at  the  beginning  of  1890  a 
regular  army  nund)ering  .50,000  men.  He  has  regularly  em- 
liodied  his  foot  levies,  and  he  can  call  on  his  nobles  and 
other  important  vassals  for  their  mounted  retainers.  The 
artillery  branch  of  the  army  is  weak,  and  there  are  no  trained 
engineers.  Tlie  peo]jlo  are  very  turbulent  and  .seem  more 
fond  of  discord,  alarms,  and  bloodshed  than  of  quiet  umler 
a  settled  government.  'The  hold  of  the  ameer  on  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  is  always  weak,  and  over  the 
more  distant  [larts  it  is  rarely  more  than  nominal.  The 
revenues  are  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  In  1871-76  they 
were  estimated  i)y  one  of  Shere  All's  ministers  to  average 
,i;5l)0,0()0  per  year! 

HUtorij. — \Vliat  is  now  called  Afghanistan  is  a  mass  of 
heterogeneous  elements  which  have  rarely  been  held  together 
in  one  government.  The  Afghans  themselves  claim  descent 
from  King  .Saul.  The  name  is  first  found  in  the  history  of 
Sultan  Mahniud,  of  the  eleventh  century.  Alexander  the 
Great  reached  liulia  by  the  Cabul  river.  The  Ariaiia  of 
Straho  corresponds  roughly  with  the  Cabul  province,  over- 
passing it  .ui  the  \V.  and  S.  The  ancient  Greek  kingdom  of 
liaetria  included  the  Cabul  basin,  and  probably  extended  at 
times  over  the  most  of  modern  Afghanistan.  'The  Indo- 
Scythian  dominion  occupied  the  country  at  about  the  liegin- 
ning  of  our  era.  Various  barbaric  dyna.stics  succeeded  each 
other,  among  which  appears  a  notable  monarch,  Kanishka, 
whose  traditiions  can  be  traced  fiU'  a  thousand  years  after- 
ward.   About  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  country  fell 


62    AFGHAN   LAXGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


AFRICA 


into  the  hands  of  a  powerful  Mohammedan  dynasty,  cer- 
tainly of  Turkish  and  i.irol>al:)ly  of  Afghan  raee  proper.  To 
this  family  belonged  the  celebrated  Sultan  Mahmud  of  the 
eleventh  century.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury Afghanistan  fell  under  the  rule  of  Timur  or  Tamerlane, 
and  remained  with  sovereigns  of  Mongol  descent  until  its 
conquest  by  Persia  (1642).  Early  in  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
control  was  wrested  from  the  Persians  by  the  native  Ghilzais, 
who  eventually  con(|uered  Persia  itself,  and  held  it  for  a  few- 
veal's.  Nadir  Shah  recovered  both  Persia  and  Afghanistan, 
tut  he  was  assassinated  in  1747,  and  succeeded  by  a  noble 
Afghan,  Ahmed  Khan,  who  was  the  first  to  create  Afghan- 
istan as  it  is  now  known.  He  extended  the  boundaries  of 
the  country  by  extensive  conquests,  but  anarchy  soon  fol- 
lowed his  death.  The  next  prominent  figure  in  Afghan 
historv  is  Dost  Mohammed,  who  permitted  a  British  resident 
at  his  court,  with  the  result  of  losing  his  throne  by  a  British 
invasion  in  18:i8-3!»,  but  he  regained  it  two  or  three  years 
after,  and  retained  it  until  1863.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son.  Shere  AH  Khan.  In  1878  war  was  declared  against 
him  by  Great  Britain,  and  resulted  in  his  deposition  and  the 
acknowledgment  of  his  son,  Yakub  Khan.  Riot  and  turbu- 
lence followed,  until  1880  found  Abdul  Rahman  Klian.  a 
granilson  of  Dost  .Mohammed,  in  possession  of  the  supreme 
Ijower.  He  has  been  occupied  since  that  time  in  snliduing 
the  territories  ceiled  to  him  by  Great  Britain  and  Russia, 
and  in  controlling  his  hereditary  vassals. 

Large  cities  are  not  numerous  in  this  country,  and  their 
po|)ulaticin  is  fliietuating.  The  principal  cities  are  Cabul 
(rjO.tlllU  to  611.(1(1(1  iulialiitants):  Kandahar  (30.000):  Herat 
(20.000  to  30.000):  Istalip  (18.000).  The  traiie  between  Af- 
ghanistan and  Bokhara  is  large:  that  between  it  and  India 
in  1880  was  valued  at:  imports.  ^1,.500.000:  exports,  $2,440,- 
000.  Tlie  rupee  is  the  common  silver  currency:  the  gold  is 
Russian  or  Bokharan.  Shere  Ali  struck  off  a  limited  numlier 
of  6-ru|)ee  pieces.  The  roads  are  good,  and  trade  is  con- 
ducted on  the  backs  of  camels  and  horses.  The  rivers  are 
not  navigable. 

Referkxces. — Elphinstone's  Canhool:  Burnes's  Cahnol : 
Kaye's  Ilistorij  of  tlie  War  in  Affflianislan  (1878):  Mal- 
\eson's  Hislory  of  Afghanistan  (187^3);  Hensman,  The  Af- 
ghan H'rt/'  of  JS79-S0  (1881);  Bellew's  Afghanis/fin  and  the 
Afghans  (1879).  and  The  Itaces  of  Afghanistan  (1880): 
Y-Ate.  yorthern  Afghanistan  (1888):  Oliver,  Across  the  Bor- 
der (1890).  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Afghan  Laiigriiage  and  Literature  :  (1)  The  Language : 
Afghan  {.Pushtu.  Pashtd,  or  Pu.rtu)  is  the  language  of  the 
mountainous  region  of  Eastern  and  Southeastern  Afghanis- 
tan and  of  the  X.  W.  borderland  of  British  India.  The 
name  Afghan  is  the  Persian  designation  of  the  speech,  and 
is  a  word  of  uncertain  origin  ;  the  people  call  themselves 
Pushtrni  or  Pukhttin  :  they  designate  their  language  as  Push- 
tu (Pashtu),  or  Pukhlii.  There  are  two  dialects  recognized 
in  the  speech  :  the  X'.  dialect,  or  Pukhtu;  the  S.  dialect,  or 
Pushtu.  These  two  are  distinguished,  as  in  their  respective 
names,  Pukhtu,  Pushtu,  by  the  use  of  kh  in  the  X.  for  sh  in 
the  S.  dialect.  The  northern  or  PukhtQ  dialect  also  has  g 
where  the  southern,  or  Pushtu,  has  zh. 

The  Afghan  language  has  Ijeen  shown  by  its  phonology  to 
be  a  genuine  Iranian  tongue,  and  is  now  so  accepted.  It 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  language  of  the  Avesta 
(g.  v.)  that  the  modern  Persian  does  to  the  speech  of  the 
ancient  Persian  inscriptions.  The  geographical  position  of 
the  Afglian  ha.s  led  to  its  receinng  borrowed  elements, 
(1)  from  Persia,  (2)  from  the  Hindustani  of  India,  (3)  from 
the  Aralii(\  In  phonology  the  Afghan  presents  many  anal- 
ogies to  Avestau,  but  the  Afghan  has  no  /:  it  substitutes 
p  for  this  letter.  It  lias  no  aspirates,  but  has  spirants. 
I'hc  Afghan  has  lK)rrowed  cerebrals  from  India.  The 
Arabi(:  alpliabet  is  used  in  writing  the  language.  In  its 
indections  the  Afghan  shows  greater  signs  of  antiquity  than 
the  modern  Persian.  The  noun  declension  has  ]ireserved  the 
notion  of  grammatical  gender  and  of  an  inflectional  stem  ; 
the  verb  system  distinguishes  voice,  nioile.  tense.  There  is 
little  evidence  of  grammatical  influence  exercised  from 
India.     Sec  Iranian  LANOUAdEs. 

(2)  The  Literature. — The  literature  of  the  Afghans  is  part- 
ly written, dating  from  the  fifteenth  ceiitury.and  partly  oral. 
It  all  liclongs  to  the  eastern  region  near  India,  and  it  is  not 
inconsiderable  in  extent.  According  to  tradition,  the  oldest 
written  work  is  a  history  of  the  conijuest  of  Swiit  (a.  d.  1413- 
24)  by  Shaikh  Mali,  a  chief  of  the  Yusufzais.  and  himself 
a  leader  in  the  campaign.     Tradition  also  tells  of  a  similar 


history  by  Khan  Khajo  (1404).  a  successor  of  .Shaikh  Mall. 
There  are  some  fragments  of  an  Afghan  writer,  Biiyazld 
Ansilri  (A.  D.  1550).  called  Pir  Pushan.  "  the  master  of  light," 
the  founder  of  a  heretical  sect.  These  fragments  are 
chiefly  preserved  liy  being  cited  in  the  works  of  his  ortho- 
dox o]:iponent.  Akhun  Darveza.  The  latter  wrote  more  than 
fifty  works:  most  of  them  are  still  unedited. 

Besides  the  historical  and  theological  writings  the  Afghan 
literature  is  rich  in  poetry.  The  oldest  poetical  works 
preserved  are  those  of  the  Sufi.  Mirza  AnsarJ  (first  half  of 
the  seventeenth  centuiy).  who  is  imbued  with  the  mystic  and 
religious  element.  The  warrior  poet  Khushal  Khiin  (1613- 
91).  a  prince  of  the  Khataks,  was  a  favorite  secular  writer: 
while  his  contemporary  Abdul  Rahman,  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Peshawar,  was  the  most  popular  of  the  mystic 
poets.  The  elements  of  prince,  warrior,  and  poet  were  also 
united  in  Ahmad  Shah  (1724-73),  the  founder  of  the  Dur- 
rani empire.  The  real  poetry  of  the  Afghans,  however, 
is  the  ballad  poetry,  on  legendary,  romantic,  amatory,  poli- 
tical, or  religious  themes,  sung  by  the  dum,  or  wandering 
minstrel.  A  valuable  collection  of  these  has  lately  been 
made  by  the  French  scholar  Darmesteter. 

The  liest  book  for  reference  is  J.  Darmesteter's  Chants 
populaires  des  Afghans  (Paris,  1888-90),  containing  histor- 
ical sketch,  grammar,  texts,  and  translation.  Other  useful 
works  are  Trunipp's  Graminar  of  the  Pashfo  (London.  1873) ; 
P.  Miiller's  Ahhandluugen  (1863,  ff.) :  the  anthology  of 
Raverty,  Gulshan-i-Roh.  or  Selections  of  Afghan  Poetry 
and  Pro-ie  (London.  1861):  'Do'rn.  Afghan  Grammar  (1840); 
Afghan  Chrestomathy  (1847).     A.  X.  Williams  Jackson. 

Afluni'.  or  Aflnm-Kara-Hissar  (black  castle  of  opium) : 
a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Anatolia.  53  miles  S.  E.  of  Kutaieh 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  5-E).  It  is  on  a  mountain  side,  is 
the  residence  of  a  pasha,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  opium, 
whence  its  name.  Here  are  numerous  mosques,  a  citadel, 
and  manufactures  of  carpets,  arms,  saddlerv,  etc.  Pop. 
estimated  at  50,000. 

Afrago'la  :  an  Italian  town,  in  the  province  of  Xaples, 
noted  for  its  manufactures  of  straw  bonnets  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  7-F).     Pop.  19,000. 

Afrancesa'dos,  a-fran'-thi5-saa'dr>:  a  name  given  to  those 
Spaniards  who  supported  the  French  cause,  or  recognized 
Josi'jih  Bonaparte  as  king,  in  1808-13.  They  were  pro- 
scribed or  treateil  with  severity  by  Ferdinand  VII.  after  he 
was  restored  to  the  throne 

Afra'nins.  Lucifs:  Latin  poet:  b.  about  150  B.C.:  re- 
garded by  (juintilian  as  the  leading  representative  of  the 
luihu'd  Togata — i.  e.  comedy  with  subjects  drawn  from  Ro- 
man life.  His  style  shows  the  influence  of  Terence,  and  he 
admittc<l  having  borrowed  much  from  Menander.  More 
than  forty  titles  and  over  400  verses  of  his  comedies  have 
licen  preserved.  See  O.  Ribbeck,  Comicorum  Romanorum 
Fragmenta.  pp.  164-222.  M.  Warren. 

Africa  [probably  from  the  Carthaginian  Afrygah,  a  col- 
onv,  referring  to  Carthage,  but  gradually  exti'uded  over  the 
entire  continent] :  the  most  tropical  and  least  known  of  the 
continents:  extending  from  the  northern  point  of  Tunis,  in 
lat.  37°  25'  N.,  to  the  southernmost  point  of  Cape  Colony, 
lat.  34'  .50'  S.,  and  from  the  vicinitv  of  Cape  Guardafui,  Ion. 
51'  21'  E..  to  Cape  Verde.  17'  33'"  W.  The  true  African 
islands  extend  still  farther  W. — to  28'  W.  in  the  Cape 
Verde  islands.  The  length  of  the  continent  is  about  5,000 
miles,  the  breadth  somewhat  less. 

Physical  Features. — Africa  was  formerly  connected  with 
Asia  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Suez,  but  since  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Suez  Canal  (1869)  it  is  entinOy  surroinided  by 
water.  It  is  separated  from  Southern  Arabia  by  the  narrow 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  and  from  Spain  by  those  of  Gi- 
braltar. The  enormous  coa,st-line  is  uiuform  and  monoto- 
nous, seldom  presenting  mountains  on  the  coast,  and  marked 
by  few  indentations.  Good  harbors  are  rare.  The  great 
Gulf  of  Guinea  is  merely  an  angle  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  be- 
tween the  western  and  southern  extensions  of  the  continent. 
At  its  bottom  lies  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  and  on  its  northern 
margin  the  Right  of  Benin,  both  only  shallow  liepressiims  in 
the  coast-line.  The  Greater  and  Lesser  .Syrtes  form  a  broad 
extension  southward  of  the  Mediterranean  .S-a.  (See  Svrtis 
JIajor  anil  Svrtis  Minor.)  The  Gtdf  of  Aden  lies  between 
the  eastern  angle  of  Africa  and  the  south  coast  of  Arabia. 
Delagoa.  Algoa,  False.  St.  Helena.  Walvisch.  Great  Fisli.  and 
other  bays  are  relatively  small  inilcntatinns  of  the  coast. 

The  surface  of  the  continent  falls  into  two  fairly  well- 


r^ 


C 


AFRICA 


63 


marked  divisions,  the  nortliern  tal)lc-lands  and  tlie  central 
and  southern  plateaus.  The  lirst  comprises  the  desert  of  Sa- 
hara, and  consists  of  table-lands  separated  by  "  wadys,"  or 
dry  water-courses,  and  niarsined  by  |)lains  and  depressed 
areas.  The  culminating  point,  as  inilicated  by  the  wadys 
which  radiate  from  it,  is  to  the  S.  of  Algeria  and  W.  of 
Pezzan,  in  about  lat.>2o°  N.,  Ion.  5  K..  and  is  called  Imo- 
shagh.  There  is  on  the  X.  a  large  table-land,  fringing  the 
desert  and  bordering  the  Jfcditerranean,  extending  from 
Morocco  to  Tunis.  In  South  Algeria  and  Tunis  are  shallow 
salt-marshes  (.sliultx),  100  feet  or  li!ss  below  sea-level.  In  the 
Libyan  waste  are  three  small  areas,  Siwa,  Sittra,  and  Bir- 
ket  el-Qarum,  80  to  141  feet  below  sea-level.  No  other 
areas  in  Africa,  except  Lake  Assal,  are  known  to  lie  below 
sea-level.  South  of  Imoshagh,  and  extending  to  the  Senegal 
and  the  Atlantic,  is  the  desert  proper,  an  irregular  l)elt  of 
shifting  sands  about  2,000  miles  long,  and  from  100  to  200 
miles  broad.  The  wadys  usually  come  to  an  end  in  this 
belt.  The  Sahara  is  diversified  with  hills  and  mountains, 
and  contains  many  small  oases  or  relatively  fertile  regions. 
Larger  fertile  areas  ai'c  usually  grou|)S  of  oases  along  the 
wadys.  as  Air  or  Asbun  in  the  center  of  the  Sahara;  Adrar, 
near  the  Atlantic  :  and  Fezzan,  S.  of  Tripoli. 

ThK  yrent  pUileau  which  occupies  the  most  of  Central 
and  Southern  Africa  begins  to  the  N.  of  Abyssinia.  The 
eastern  edge  is  the  higher,  and  extends  in  a  line  which  is 
but  little  broken  to  ,Mts.  Kcnia  an<l  Kilimanjaro,  Lake 
Nyassa.  and  southward  into  Cape  Colony,  where  it  conies 
near  to  the  coast.  Turning  northwani  from  Cape  Colony,  it 
runs  at  lower  elevations,  but  on  the  whole  nearer  the  coast, 
to  the  Benue  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Niger,  where  it  turns 
eastward  and  joins  the  wedge  which  extends  northward  over 
Abyssinia.  The  Western  Sudan  appears  to  be  a  lower  ex- 
tension of  this  f)latean,  culminating  in  the  region  of  the  up- 
per Niger  and  Senegambia.  The  average  height  of  the  great 
plateau  is  prubably  about  3..^00  feet.  It  averages  highest  in 
Abyssinia  and  lowest  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  great 
rivers  generally  take  their  rise  within  it,  and  show  a  series 
of  falls  or  gorges  where  they  leave  it,  as  the  cataracts  of  the 
Nile  and  the  falls  and  gorges  of  the  lower  Congo.  A  large 
part  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  plateau  is  occupied  by  an 
arid  region,  having  about  the  same  S.  latitude  as  the  Sahara 
has  in  the  N.  This  is  the  so-called  Kalahari  desert,  which 
is,  however,  not  incapable  of  a  successful  grazing  industry. 

liivers. — These  present  many  features  of  interest.  Some 
of  them  are  among  the  greatest  in  the  world,  but  these  are 
all  dilficult  of  navigation  in  their  lower  course,  because  of 
bars  at  the  mouths,  cataracts,  and  gorges  at  no  great  dis- 
tance inland,  and  there  are  other  impediments,  such  as  the 
enormous  development  of  vegetation  which  bars  the  White 
Nile.  The  Nile  is  the  first  in  historical  interest,  and  also 
the  longest.  It  was  the  nurse  of  Egyptian  civiliz.ation,  and 
yet  its  source  was  not  known  to  moderns  until  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  rises  in  the  feeilers  of 
the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and,  flowing  northward,  empties  into 
the  Mediterranean  after  a  course  of  about  4,000  mih^s.  Its 
basin  includes  upward  of  1.000.000  sq.  miles.  On  its  course 
lie  the  Albert,  Albert  Kdward,  and  some  smaller  lakes,  and 
on  its  eastern  branch  Lake  Tana  in  Abyssinia.  It  has  few 
great  tributaries,  the  chief  one  on  the  W.  being  the  Bahr- 
el-Cihazal,  and  on  the  E.  the  Hahr-el-.\srak,  or  Blue  Nile, 
and  the  Albara.  From  the  latter  to  the  mouth,  a  distance 
of  about  1.000  miles,  there  is  no  trilmtary  with  continuous 
flow.  The  lower  Nile  decreases  in  volume  of  water,  because 
of  excessive  evaporation  in  the  dry  region  through  which  it 
flows.  The  inundations,  on  which  the  pros|)erily  of  Egypt 
depend.*,  come  from  the  heavy  equatorial  rainfalls  on  the 
upper  river. 

The  Congo  is  the  second  river  in  point  of  length  (2.!)00 
miles),  but  first  in  area  drained  (1,(300,000  sq.  miles)  and  in 
volume  of  water  at  its  mouth.  Its  course  strikes  an  enor- 
mous curve  through  the  center  of  the  continent,  and  its 
sources  are  less  than  400  miles  from  the  hidian  Ocean.  Next 
comes  the  Niger,  which  is  also  remarkable  for  the  curve  in 
its  course  :  then  the  Zambesi,  with  its  remarkable  falls  :  the 
Shari.  which  waters  the  inclosed  basin  of  Ijake  Chad  ;  the 
Orange,  and  the  Limpopo. 

La/cej<. — The  great  lakes  in  the  interior  of  Africa  were  ap- 
parently known  to  the  ancients,  but  to  the  moderns  they 
were  known  only  from  the  references  in  the  classics  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  their  explo- 
ration was  not  com|ilete  in  general  oulline  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  last  decaile  of  that  century.  The  lakes  lie.  for 
the  most  part,  along  the  eiustern  rim  of  the  great  African 


plateau  already  mentioned.  The  most  remarkable  series  is 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Nile.  The  uppermost  of  this  sys- 
tem and  the  largest -\fricau  lake  is  the  Ukerewe,  or  Victoria 
Nyanza  (yi/uma  is  a  native  word  meaning  "lake  "  or  "  wa- 
ter"), lying  jnst  S.  of  the  equator  in  Ion.  32  to  'SH  K.  It  is 
roughly  circular,  about  180  miles  in  diameter,  with  an  area 
of  aliout  27,000  sq.  miles,  with  many  islands  and  fertile  and 
populous  shores.  It  is  3.800  feet  above  sea-level.  Numer- 
ous lakes  also  belong  to  the  Congo  basin.  The  most  remark- 
able and  largest  is  lake  Tanganyika,  in  Ion.  30  E..  and  be- 
tween lats.  3  S.  and  8  S.  It  occupies  a  deep  longitudinal 
basin  running  N.  and  S.,  and  surrounded  i)y  mountains.  It 
is  about  400  miles  long,  but  not  more  than  50  miles  broad  at 
its  broadest  part,  averaging  about  20  miles.  Its  elevation 
above  the  sea  is  2,(iC5  feet.  Tanganyika  has  a  small  drain- 
age basin  and  is  seini-indepcndent,  the  drainage  into  the 
Congo  through  the  Lukuga  being  only  occasional  and  ap- 
parently new  in  a  geological  sense.  Belonging  to  the  drain- 
age system  of  the  Zambesi  is  Lake  Nya.ssa.  which  lies  S.  E. 
of  Tanganyika  and  is  parallel  and  similar  to  it.  It  is  1..5T0 
feet  above  Ih"  sea,  about  3.")0  miles  long  and  40  broad,  with 
an  area  of  about  14,200  sq.  miles.  Lake  Chad  is  the  drain- 
age center  of  an  independent  basin  in  the  Central  Sudan. 
It  is  a  shallow  lagoon,  very  variable  in  extent,  thickly 
studded  with  islands,  and  is  about  820  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  waters  are  sweet  and  clear,  and  the  overflow  is  carried 
olf  into  the  desert.  .Salt  lakes  are  not  uncommon.  The 
mo.st  renuirkable  is  Lake  Assal.  E.  of  Aliyssinia.  lying  in  a 
depression  ,571  feel  below  the  Red  Sea,  and  comparable  to 
the  Dead  Sea. 

3Iou7itaiiis. — The  mountains  of  Africa  do  not  form  con- 
tinuous chains  except  as  they  make  a  i)art  of  the  ramparts 
of  the  great  plateau,  with  the  single  exceptiim  of  the  Atlas 
mountains  on  the  Barbary  coast,  and  these  form  a  rampart 
for  the  Saharan  table-lands.  The  chief  group  of  mountains 
disconnected  with  these  systems  is  the  Cameroon  mountain 
with  lower  outliers,  all  volcanic,  on  the  E.,  extending  to  the 
Bight  of  Biafra  and  thence,  as  a  submarine  range,  rising 
above  the  surface  in  the  islands  of  Fernando  Po,  Principe, 
St.  Thomas,  and  Annolion.  Few  very  lofty  mountains  are 
known  in  Africa.  The  main  mountain  mass  occupies  Abys- 
sinia, but  the  highest  point  there  is  Buahit,  estimated  at 
only  16.000  feet ;  Jit.  Kenia,  E.  of  Victoria  Nyanza.  is  about 
18.3.j0  feet  high;  and  Jit.  Kilimanjaro.  S.  of  Kenia  and  the 
highest  known  point,  is  10,750  feet  high.  The  Barbary 
mountains  are  6,000  to  14,500  feet.  The  Cameroon  moun- 
tain has  a  height  of  12,080  feet.  The  elevations  are  usually 
less  than  10,000  feet  in  Africa.  No  lofty  mimntains  exist 
S.  of  the  Central  Sudan,  where  earlier  geographers  placed 
the  mountains  of  the  Moon  ;  but  this  name  is  now  thought 
to  belong  to  the  little  known  Ruwenzori  mountains,  which 
lie  near  the  equator  and  just  N.  of  the  Albert  Edward  Ny- 
anza. They  are  said  to  reach  an  elevation  of  16,500  feet. 
The  well-known  Table  mountain  is  ordy  3,5.50  feet  high. 

Islands. — Africa  is  poor  in  islands  as  compaied  with  the 
other  continents,  except  Australia.  The  great  island  of 
jMadaga.scar  lies  off  its  S.  E.  coa.st,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Mozambique  channel,  230  miles  wide  in  its 
narrowest  part.  It  is  980  miles  long  and  350  nules  across  in 
its  broadest  part.  The  other  islands  are  small,  and  arranged 
along  the  coast  or  in  groups.  Of  the  former,  Fernando  Po 
and  Zanzibar  are  the  most  important :  of  the  latter,  the  Co- 
moros (in  the  Mozambique  channel),  the  Cape  Verde  islands, 
the  Canaries,  and  the  Madeira  islands.  The  Azores  are 
sometimes  classed  as  African,  but  are  more  properly  Atlan- 
tic islands.  The  Seychelles  and  Mascarenes,  though  far  out 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  properly  African,  as  they  are  con- 
nected with  the  Comoros  by  relatively  shallow  waters.  Sev- 
eral of  the  great  interior  lakes  are  studded  with  islaiuls. 

Ci.i.M.vTK. — The  climate  of  Africa  is  essentially  tropical,  but 
is  much  modified  by  the  extensive  arid  tracts  to  the  N.  and  S. 
and  by  the  elevation  of  the  interior.  The  hottest  region  for 
the  year  is  over  the  Sudan,  where  over  an  area  3,000  miles 
long  by  1,000  broad  the  nu'an  annual  temperature  is  86  or 
more.  The  hottest  region  in  summer  is  just  N.  of  this,  over 
the  .Sahara,  where  the  mean  .Inly  temperature  is  97°.  This  is 
the  largest  hot  region  on  the  earth,  and  is  only  aj^iproximatcd 
by  much  smaller  regions  in  Central  India  and  \\  estern  Mex- 
ico. At  the  same  time  the  daily  temperature  changes  are 
here  very  great,  and  heat  which  in  the  afternoon  makes  the 
soil  like  fire  and  the  wind  like  a  flame  may  sink  toward 
morning  perilously  near  to  frost.  The  mean  temperature 
of  the  rest  of  the  continent  is  from  75°  to  80' — about  that 
of  Brazil — while  for  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  extending  from 


64: 


AFRICA 


Angola  around  to  Natal  the  mean  temperature  is  that  of 
the  Southern  States.  The  aridity  is  severe  over  the  nortliern 
thiril,  and  less  so  over  the  southern  third,  of  the  continent. 
Over  tlie  Saliara  the  prueiintation  varies  from  5  inches  an- 
nually to  uotiiing.  UvcT  tlie  Kalahari  desert  it  is  generally 
greater,  ranging  from  5  to  2.5  inches,  or  about  that  of  the 
Missouri  valley.  In  the  central  regions  the  rainfall  is  greater, 
and  it  is  greatest  over  a  large  region  between  Kordofnu  and 
the  Nile  lakes,  along  the  coast  about  the  Bight  of  liiaira,  and 
over  the  Sierra  Leone  coast.  Here  the  annual  rainfall  is 
from  7.5  inches  upward,  and  at  Monrovia  it  reaches  130.  In 
the  tropical  regions  there  are  two  rainy  seasons.  The  first 
is  in  early  summer.  It  is  followed  by  a  short  relatively  dry 
season,  after  which  comes  a  rainy  autumn.  The  winter  and 
spring  are  dry.  On  each  side  of  this  area,  and  adjacent  to 
the  arid  regions,  there  is  but  one  rainy  season,  which  occurs 
in  middle  and  late  sunnner.  Near  the  Cape  the  rams  occur 
in  spring  and  autumn,  with  a  diy  season  in  late  sunnner. 
Thunder-storms  are  connnon.  Dangerous  desert  winds  fre- 
quently occur,  but  Africa  is  free  from  hurricanes,  except 
over  the  eastern  island  groups  and  about  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 

Geology. — This  is  known  only  in  fragmentary  form,  and 
the  work  of  individual  explorers  at  |)oints  wiilely  separated 
is  pieced  together  here  with  the  greater  difficulty  because 
of  an  apparently  independent  order  of  geological  events 
in  tliis  continent.  In  general,  the  massive  crystalline  or 
oldest  rocks  appear  only  along  the  rim  of  the  great  plateau 
already  described.  The  tropical  lakes  lie  in  or  near  the 
eastern  line  of  these  rocks,  and  the  Nile  runs  over  or  pa- 
rallel to  the  long  axis  of  their  exposure.  In  the  W.  they  are 
found  close  to  the  coast,  and  they  extend  along  the  X.  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  Paleozoic  rocks  are  relatively 
scanty,  while  the  Mesozoic  are  abundant.  The  Tertiary 
occurs  over  a  large  area  in  Egyjjt  and  Barca,  and  the  Quater- 
nary over  the  deserts,  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  and 
along  the  Gaboon  and  Sierra  Leone  coasts.  The  general 
outlines  of  the  formations  and  the  topography  of  the  con- 
tinent indicate  that  it  has  been  relatively  little  disturbed  in 
geologic  times.  In  Aljyssinia  and  Shoa.  and  K.  of  the 
Ukerewe,  are  lartie  areas  of  recent  eruptive  rocks.  Else- 
where they  are  few  and  tlieir  areas  are  small.  The  only 
active  volcano  known  is  Kiranga  Gongo  in  the  great  lake 
region  N.  of  Tanganyika.  Earthquakes  occur  aloug  the 
western  Mediterranean  coast. 

Fauna  and  Flora. — Botli  the  plants  and  ainmals  of  .\friea 
have  characteristic  features.  The  date-palm  forms  this  fea- 
ture for  the  north.  In  the  south  are  miniature  woods  of 
heaths,  some  reaching  the  height  of  13  or  15  feet.  The  cac- 
tuses of  America  are  replaced  by  leafless,  fleshy,  and  thorny 
euphorbias  and  siuular  plants.  In  the  central  regions  there 
is  a  varied  and  rich  flora,  above  the  lower  forms  of  which 
often  rise  the  baobab,  the  oil  and  sago  palms,  the  cotton- 
trees,  and  many  other  giants.  The  swamps  are  often  cov- 
ered with  the  papyrus,  a  tall  aquatic  plant,  from  the  stem 
of  which  was  formed  the  material  %vhich  anciently  took  the 
(ilace  now  occupied  liy  paper.  It  is  very  abundant,  espe- 
cially on  the  upper  Nile,  where  in  some  places  it  bars  the 
navigation  of  the  streams.  JJecent  discovery  has  shown  that 
Africa,  like  South  America,  possesses  an  enormous  interior 
forest.  It  lies  just  to  tlie  W.  of  the  northern  [lart  of  the 
lake  district,  and  runs  apparently  from  lat.  5"  S.  to  '6'  N., 
witli  an  average  breadth  of  between  400  and  500  nules.  This 
would  give  it  an  area  of  about  2.50,000  sq.  in.  This  forest  is 
ahiiost  unbroken  ;  the  trees  rise  to  all  heights  up  to  200  feet, 
and  stand  so  close  together  that  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
are  shut  out  from  the  traveler  below.  Traveling  through 
the  forest  is  very  difBcult.  and  .Stanley's  party  were  160  days 
in  crossing  it.  The  poiiulalion  within  the  forest  is  very 
sparse,  and  consists  in  part  of  triljes  of  the  dwartish  races. 

In  larger  animal  life  the  continent  is  especially  rich. 
Among  (piadrumana  are  the  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  Imboons, 
and  mandrils.  It  is  the  chief  home  of  the  lion,  and  has 
many  other  representatives  of  the  cat  tribe.  The  bear,  how- 
ever, and  the  wolf  and  fox  are  almost  entirely  lacking.  The 
elephant,  iliinoceros,  and  hippopotamus  are  abundant.  The 
antelo[)e  family  here  receives  a  remarkable  development 
both  in  number  of  species  and  individuals.  The  qiiagga  and 
zebra  are  characteristically  African  :  while  the  horse  appar- 
ently can  not  be  acclinuitized  over  the  eastern  tropical  part 
of  the  continent.  The  giraffe  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  existing  animals,  and  is  characteristically  African,  rang- 
ing from  Cape  Colony  to  Nubia  and  the  Sahara.  The  birds 
are  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage  and  the 
singularity  of  their  habits.     The  largest  living  bird  is  the 


African  ostrich.  Venomous  reptiles  are  relatively  few. 
The  most  important  of  the  reptiles  is  the  crocodile.  The 
Hy  is  extremely  abundant  and  a  great  plague.  One  species, 
the  '■  tsetse,"  is  very  destructive  to  cattle  and  sheep,  but; 
harmless  to  man  and  wild  animals.  The  white  ants  form  a 
scourge  to  the  country,  in  that  they  occur  in  large  numbers, 
and  in  their  migrations  devour  everything  that  falls  in 
their  way. 

Ethnolooy. — The  most  notable  feature  of  the  ethnology  of 
Africa  is  that  it  is  occupied  by  the  Negro,  Ethiopian,  or 
black  race.  The  original  Negro  domain  seems  to  have  oc- 
cupied all  Africa  S.  of  the  Sahara,  and  an  extension  east- 
ward covering  a  large  part  of  India  and  the  most  of  Malay- 
sia and  Australasia.  Whether  the  race  was  originally  con- 
tinuous or  not,  it  is  now  divided  into  two  distinct  parts — the 
eastern  or  Papuan  of  the  eastern  arehiiielagoes  from  the 
Philippine  islands  to  Australia,  and  the  western  or  Negro 
proper  occupying  Central  and  Southern  Africa  and  some  of 
the  African  islands.  The  typical  features  of  this  race  are  the 
blackish  velvety  skin  ;  the  distinctly  woolly  hair,  the  indi- 
vidual hairs  being  not  round  but  elliptical  or  flat  in  section; 
the  bright,  expressive,  and  lively  black  eye;  the  thick  lips 
and  flat  no.se;  the  projecting  ja\vs,  and  the  thick  cranium, 
the  sutures  of  which  are  said  to  close  earlv  in  life.  These 
features  are  most  marked  in  the  Guinea  X'egrfies,  and  vary 
through  many  gradations  in  various  tribes.  The  true  Afri- 
can race  is  not  so  simple  and  uniform  as  might  be  expected, 
but,  like  the  otlier  great  races,  shows  infinite  complexity  on 
closer  study.  Wave  after  wave  of  immigration  and  con- 
C£uest  seems  to  have  swept  over  one  portion  or  another  of  the 
continent,  leaving  sometimes  patches  of  distinct  tribes  side 
by  side  or  one  inclosed  in  the  otlier,  ruling  and  subject  peo- 
ples sometimes  in  the  same  territory,  sometimes  an  intermix- 
ture of  tribes,  whicli,  with  the  lack  of  liistorical  data,  make 
a  problem  the  details  of  which  still  await  resolution.  And 
not  only  have  the  Negro  sub-races  and  tribes  undergone 
this  intermixture,  but  branches  of  otlier  races  have  taken 
part  in  it  from  the  dawn  of  history,  as  the  Carthaginians, 
Vandals.  Arabs.  Jews,  and  Turks.  Through  this  maze  of 
races  and  tribes  the  principal  guide  has  been  found  to  be 
the  languages,  and  physical  characters  play  a  less  important 
part.  Guided  by  these,  the  following  ethnological  outline 
may  be  given  as  approximately  correct. 

1.  Th/i  Bantu  famUy,  occupying  the  most  of  South  Africa 
and  extending  to  the  equator  and  beyond.  It  includes  the 
Zulus  and  Kallirs.  the  Bechuanas  and  Basutos,  the  Swahili 
and  Macbinga,  the  Waganda.  Ovanibo,  Basongo,  Aduma, 
and  numerous  other  tribes  falling  into  several  groups.  On 
the  west  coast  they  extend  as  far  N.  as  the  Cameroons.  They 
are  dark,  but  not  always  black.  In  many  of  them,  as  in  the 
Kaffirs,  the  Negro  characteiistics  are  so  altered  that  they 
arc  sometimes  called  Negroid  rather  than  Negro.  Their  com- 
mon characteristic  is  to  be  found  in  the  similarity  of  their 
languages,  which  all  belong  to  one  clearly  distinct  and  re- 
markably homogeneous  linguistic  family.  These  languages 
are  cliaracterizecl  by  the  simplicity  and  harmony  of  the  syl- 
lables, each  of  which  begins  with  a  consonant  and  ends  w'ith 
a  vowel,  while  consonantal  juxtajiositions  are  rejected ;  by 
alliterative  concord  in  the  words;  and  by  a  wonderful  devel- 
opment of  verbal  inflexion,  both  initial  and  final.  These 
featni-es  make  the  languages  both  very  eiijihonious  and  very 
rich  in  capacity  for  expression.  There  are  indications  that 
the  diffusion  of  this  family  of  languages  over  South  Africa 
is  comparatively  recent,  and  is  due  to  the  intrusion  of  a 
foreign  element  from  the  north. 

2.  Dwarjisli  tribes  have  been  attributed  to  Africa  from 
the  earliest  times,  but  the  accounts  of  the  classical  writers 
were  considered  apocryphal  until  rediscovery  vindicated 
their  substantial  accuracy.  Tlu!  earliest  settlers  in  South 
Africa  found  among  the  larger  and  stalw.-irt  representatives 
of  the  I'.aufu  family  two  groups  of  small  men.  whom  they 
called  llottfiitols  ami  Bushmen.  Itecent  exjilorat ion  brings 
to  light,  s|)arsely  scattered  in  Central  Africa,  other  tribes  of 
still  smaller  men,  who  are  undoubtedly  the  modern  repre- 
sentatives of  the  pygmies  of  the  ancient  geograjjliers.  These 
trilies  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  aborigines;  and  while 
they  undoubtedly 'find  the  warfare  between  them  and  their 
larger  neighbnrsan  unsuccessful  one  for  them,  on  the  whole, 
yet  their  smaller  physical  jiowcrs  are  in  part  compensated  for 
iiy  unusual  activity  and  cunning  and  an  especial  skill  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  poisons  witli  whicli  they  ti|i  their  .arrows 
and  s])ears.  'I'lie  Hottentots  dwell  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Africa.  Tradition  points  to  their  having  formerly  occupied 
a  much  larger  territory  than  at  present.    Thi'y  are  small,  but 


AFRICA 


0.5 


not  properly  dwarfish.  Their  color  is  ratlier  leathery  brown 
than  black.  They  are  mild,  social,  and  ingenious,  and  under 
British  rule  some  are  prosperous  and  civilized.  A  strikinj; 
peculiarity  of  their  language  is  the  number  of  clicks  and 
guttural  sounds  which  it  contains.  The  Bushmen  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  preceding,  but  are  of  smaller  stature, 
and  lower  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  They  are  found  over 
the  arid  region  of  South  Africa,  from  Northern  Cape  Colony 
to  Lake  Xgaini  and  the  Ovambo  river.  The  dwarf  races  of 
the  nortli  are  still  smaller,  and  more  sparsclyseattered.  Dr. 
Sehweinfnrth  discovered  the  Akkas  in  the  X.  K.Congo  basin  ; 
I)u  Chaillu,  the  Obongo  in  the  \V.  equatorial  region  :  De 
C'ompiegne,  a  dwarfish  people  on  the  Ogowe  river  (1874). 
They  have  since  been  found  by  many  travelers,  but  it  was 
Stanley,  in  the  account  of  his  journey  (18H7-89),  who  made 
the  world  best  acquainted  with  them.  He  found  them  in 
the  great  equatorial  forest,  llegives  their  height  as  between 
a  feet  and  4  ft.  6  in.,  and  found  one  girl  of  seventeen  ycai-s 
of  age  who  was  only  lj.5  inches  high.  Wissmann  measured 
forty  Batua  and  got  an  average  height  of  4  ft.  7  in.  Dr.  A. 
Donaldson  Smith  (1S!)5)  found  the  Dume,  or  Doko,  X.  of 
Jjake  Stephanie.     See  Pycmv. 

3.  The  Central  African  (/ruiipx,  extending  from  the  Bantu 
family  on  the  .S.  to  the  .Sahara  on  the  X.,  present  a  confu- 
sion of  tribes  not  yet  unraveled.  There  is  abundant  evi- 
dence of  commingling  with  the  non-Xegro  tribes  to  the  N. 
Several  distinct  stock  languages  have  already  been  deter- 
mined, and  numy  more  are  believed  to  exist.  The  Abyssin- 
ians  are  a  mixed  race,  with  distinct  Arab  characters.  To 
the  S.  of  Abyssinia,  in  Kaffa,  Galla,  and  Somali  lands,  the 
race  is  clearly  Negroid,  the  language  non-Negroid.  The 
Tubus  of  the  Eastern  .Sahara  have  apparently  impressed  their 
speech  on  many  Xegroi<l  tribes  to  the  S.  and  .S.  W.  Tlie 
y  ulahs  of  West  Sudan  and  Fans  of  Lower  Guinea  are  dis- 
tinctly non-Negro. 

4.  i'/ie  Berber  race  occupies  the  Western  Sahara  and 
almost  the  entire  ^lediterranean  coast.  The  name  Berber 
is  applied  to  the  inhaliitants  of  Northern  Atlas.  El.sewhere 
they  are  called  by  other  names,  as  Shulu.  Kabyle,  and 
Tuareg.  They  are  athletic,  well  formed,  strong  featured, 
brave,  industrious,  and  are  distinctly  non-Negro,  though 
their  racial  relations  otherwise  are  still  in  dispute.  Their 
language  is  peculiar,  and  is  perhaps  Hamitic.  Many  tribes 
have  lost  their  original  language,  and  now  use  Araljic.  The 
Berber  is  an  ancient  race.  The  ancient  JIauritanian  and 
X'umidian  names  by  classical  authors  can  be  interpreted  in 
llerber.  The  Moors  are  of  mixed  Berber  and  Arab  descent. 
The  Berbei"s  seem  to  have  been  the  aboriginal  family  of 
Northern  Africa. 

5.  The  Copts  are  believed  to  be  the  modern  representatives 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  They  are  found  in  Egypt,  where 
they  make  5  or  6  per  cent  of  the  population.  They  are  of 
medium  size,  dark  complexion,  with  soft,  woolly  hair,  oblique 
eyes,  high  cheek-bones,  and  thin  beards.  They  are  Chris- 
tians of  antiquated  sects,  and  are  extremely  bigoted,  sullen, 
avaricious,  and  untrustworl  hy.  Tlie  Coptic  language  is  now 
ilead,  being  understood  by  few  and  replaced  by  Arabic. 
Other  Hamitic  languages  are  found  along  the  Red  Sea  E. 
of  Abyssinia,  and  in  the  inland  Galla  region.  Several  of  the 
Sudan  tribes  are  suspected  of  being  more  or  less  purely 
Hamitic. 

6.  The  Arabs  have  imdonbtedly  exercised  influence  in 
Northeastern  Africa  from  the  earliest  times,  but  the  first 
historical  wave  of  invasion  occurred  in  llie  first  century  after 
the  Hegira.  In  04(J  .\mru.  a  Mahommedan  general,  invaded 
Egypt,  ami  by  706  tlie  whole  of  North  Africa,  from  Egypt  to 
the  Atlantic,  had  been  conquered.  This  has  been  followed 
by  wave  after  wave  of  Arab  invasion,  or  Jlohammedan  re- 
ligious revival,  until  Africa  N.  of  10  N.  lat.  is  now  Mo- 
hammedan. At  the  same  time  the  rest  of  Africa  has  offered 
a  favorable  field  of  trade  for  the  Arabs,  who  have  extended 
their  intluence  in  the  eastern  half  of  Africa  as  far  S.  as  the 
Zambesi  river. 

7.  Of  the  many  other  races  which  are  found  on  African 
soil  little  need  be  said.  The  Carthaginians  have  left  hardly 
a  trace,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Gothic  tribes  who  once 
controlled  parts  of  the  northern  coast.  The  Dutch  arc  now 
numerous  in  inland  .South  Africa,  where  they  are  known  as 
Boers.  The  British  oc'cupy  Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  and 
control  some  neighboring  states.  The  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards have  occupied  sonui  of  the  islands  and  the  Portuguese 
large  areas  on  the  mainlan<l.  The  P'rench  have  passed  in 
great  numljcrs  over  to  Algeria,  especially  since  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  and  the  recent  colonial  revival  has  brought 


many  of  these  and  other  Europeans  sparsely  into  other 
parts  of  the  continent.  The  Jews  have  also  spread  in  Af- 
rica, and  at  one  time  a  Jewish  dynasty  ruled  Abyssinia.  On 
the  east  and  south  coasts  are  many  Hindus. 

All  forms  of  government  and  all  stages  of  civilization 
may  be  found  on  this  continent.  The  feudal  type  still  ex- 
ists here  in  entire  purity  in  many  places.  Cannibalism  is 
practiced  by  many  tribes — some  of  relatively  high  develop- 
ment, as  the  Fans — often  as  a  ceremonial  observance,  but 
very  often  too  as  a  means  of  obtaining  food. 

Political  Divisions. — As  tlie  native  political  divisions  of 
Africa  were  for  the  most  part  unknown,  the  earlier  divisions 
used  by  writers  were  geographical.  These  are  .still  quite 
generally  employed,  but  are  gradually  being  replaced  by  the 
colonial  designations  which  have  followed  the  partition  of 
Africa  among  the  European  nations.  Amongthe  geograph- 
ical divisions  such  names  as  the  Sahara,  the  Cape  (of  Good 
Hope)  region,  the  Niger.  Congo,  and  Mozambique  regions, 
the  Delagoa  and  other  bay  districts,  and  Guinea  coast  need 
no  explanation.  The  Sudan  is  the  district  S.  of  the  Sahara 
and  X.  of  lat.  5°  N.,  extending  from  the  upper  Niger  to  the 
middle  Nile;  the  Lake  district  is  that  <'ontaining  the  prin- 
cipal great  lakes  of  inner  Africa;  the  Grain,  Ivory,  Gold, 
and  Slave  coasts  are  the  divisions  of  the  coast  in  order  from 
Sierra  Leone  to  the  Niger  delta  ;  the  Gaboon  is  the  region 
about  and  to  the  S.  of  the  Gaboon  river;  tlie  Horn  of 
Africa  is  the  eastern  .Somali  extension,  terminating  in  Cape 
Guardafui.  The  names  given  by  travelers  for  interior  dis- 
tricts are  often  the  names  of  chiefs  or  tribes,  and  are  so 
often  changed  that  the  next  traveler  is  likely  to  give  quite  a 
different  set. 

The  following  are  the  divisions  recognized  on  the  authori- 
tative maps  (18!I7):  In  the  districts  assigned  to  different 
colonies,  as  British  East  Africa,  Portuguese  Angola  and 
others,  the  ten'itory  covered  is  that  recognized  in  treaties 
between  European  nations,  but  not  necessarily  by  the  na- 
tives actually  included.  The  foreign  influence  is  only  in 
"small  part  that  of  an  effective  government,  but  mostly  that 
of  a  protectorate  or  "sphere  of  influence."'  It  is  probably 
true  that  in  many  cases  the  natives  are  yet  unaware  that 
they  are  in  such  protectorates  or  spheres  of  influence. 

JCgy})t  is  on  the  lower  Nile,  and  extends  up  to  Old  Don- 
gola.  Before  the  Mahdist  rebellion  F^gypt  had  been  ex- 
tended over  Nubia  and  much  of  the  upper  Nile,  the  latter 
fiuniing  the  "  Equatorial  Province  "  of  which  Emin  Pasha 
had  charge.  Nubia  is  in  large  part  under  Egyptian  control, 
while  the  Equatorial  Province  is  a  part  of  British  East 
Africa. 

Abyssinia  occupies  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  great 
plateau,  and  is  separated  from  the  Bed  Sea  by  the  Italian 
colony  of  Eritrea,  which  is  in  part  a  colonial  government, 
in  part  a  protectorate.  Aby.ssinia  is  an  independent  gov- 
ernment. Inland  from  Abyssinia  to  Lake  Chad  are,  in  or- 
der, i>o //«;•,  W'adai,  aivX  Jiagirmi,vi\\K\i  are  independent 
sultanates. 

The  Kustern  Horn  is  under  French  and  British  protection 
along  the  most  of  its  north  coast,  and  Italian  elsewhere. 
The  protection  is  only  nominal  even  along  most  of  the  coast. 
S.  of  this,  along  the  coast  from  the  river  Juba  to  near  lat. 
,5  N.,  and  extending  inland  jiast  Victoria  X'yanza  nearly  to 
Kordofan  and  Darfur,  is  British  East  Africa  :  S.  of  it.  to 
the  Kovuma  river  on  the  S.  and  Lake  Tanganyika  on  the 
W.,  is  German  East  Africa  ;  S.  of  this  and  extending  along 
the  coast  to  about  lat.  26'  30  S.  (just  beyond  Delagoa  bay) 
is  Portuguese  territory,  the  part  X'.  of  the  Zambesi  being 
called  Jlozambiqiie,  that  S.,  Cazaland  or  Loiiren^o  Jtar- 
qne.z.  Mozambique  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  a  somewhat 
irregular  line,  of  which  Lakes  Nyassa  and  .Sliirwa  form 
part.  Gazaland  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  an  irregular  line, 
which  begins  on  ihe  Zambesi  near  where  the  meridian  of 
yo  E.  crosses  it.  and  ends  near  the  coast  in  about  lat.  26° 
30'  S.  To  the  S.  and  along  the  coast  come  Amatitnyaland 
and  Ziiluliind.  under  British  protection ;  then  the  larger 
Xalal.  a  British  colony,  just  N.  of  Cajie  Colony.  VV.  of 
X'atal  is  the  native  Basutolaud,  in  the  mountains,  a  British 
crown  colony.  Inland  from  the  coast  states,  from  Gaza- 
land to  Natal,  are  the  two  Boer  republics  called  the  Trans- 
vaal, or  South  African  Mepiiblic,  and  the  Orange  Free  State. 
S.  of  Xatal,  Basutolaud,  and  the  Orange  ri\er  is  Cape  Col- 
ony, which  has  a  large  British  populatiim.  Inland,  from 
the  Orange  river  northeastward  to  I^ake  Tanganyika,  is  an 
enormous  territory  claimed  by  Great  Hritain,  and  known  as 
British  Bechtianaland.  It  extends  from  the  X.  boundary 
of  Cape  Colony  to  the  Zambesi,  and  from  the  Transvaal  and 


66 


AFRICA 


Matabeleland  on  the  E,  to  the  confines  of  German  S.  W. 
Africa  on  the  W.,  and  is  administered  by  the  British  South 
Africa  Company.  X.  of  the  Zambesi,  but  S.  and  W.  of 
Lake  Xya-ssa,  lies  the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast,  passing  northward,  the  first  district 
is  Damaraland,  claimed  by  the  Germans,  beginning  on  the 
coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orange  I'iver.  and  extending  north- 
ward to  the  mouth  of  the  Kunene  river.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  Bechuanaland  and  the  Chartered  Company,  the 
latter  boundary  being  for  the  most  part  on  meridian  '21  E. : 
the  northern  boundary  is  near  the  parallel  of  17°  30  S.  Next 
comes  Vonu^aesQ  Angola,  which  extends  on  the  coast  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Congo,  and  eastward  nearly  to  the  meridian 
of  25°  E.  The  Congo  Free  State  occupies  an  enormous  ter- 
ritory in  the  interior  of  equatorial  Africa,  and  reaches  the 
Atlantic  coast  by  a  narrow  strip  about  100  miles  wide  and 
200  miles  long,  near  the  parallel  of  .5"  S.  It  includes  most 
of  the  biisin  of  the  Congo  to  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  Ubaiigi.  The  northwestern  boundary  is  formed  by  the 
Ubangi  and  Congo  rivers.  It  was  formed  by  a  European 
agreement  and  placed  under  the  patronage  of  the  King  of 
the  Belgians,  who  willed  his  rights  to  Belgium.  X.  and  \V. 
of  the  Congo  Free  Slate  is  Frencli  Congo.  It  extends  from 
the  coast  to  the  Ubangi  and  behind  the  Cameroons,  along 
the  Shari  to  Lake  Chad.  X.  of  this  is  the  German  Cdinerouns. 
Its  coast-line  extends  along  the  Bight  of  Biafra  to  the  point 
where  the  coast  turns  westward.  From  here  the  boundary 
runs  northeastward,  and  a  narrow  neck  of  it  extends  to 
Lake  Chad. 

The  British  Niger  Territory  extends  along  the  coast  from 
the  Cameroons  to  the  colony  of  Lagos.  Inland  it  occupies 
the  lower  Xiger  basin  nearly  to  the  Sahara,  and  northeast- 
ward to  the  large  independent  kingdom  of  Bornu.  which 
lies  S.  W.  of  Lake  Chad.  Then  westward  comes  Dahomei/, 
under  French  protectorate,  a  X.  and  .S.  strip  about  200  miles 
wide ;  then  German  Togoland,  with  a  narrow  strip  of  coast ; 
then  the  Oold  Coast,  a  British  crown  colony,  and  the  Ivory 
Coast  which  forms  the  French  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast. 
Liberia  occupies  the  southwestern  angle  of  the  western  ex- 
tension of  Africa.  It  extends  along  the  "Grain"  or  "  Pep- 
per" coast,  and  inland  for  about  200  miles.  X.  W.  and 
adjacent  is  the  British  Sierra  Lenne,  extending  along  the 
coast  about  200  miles,  and  inland  about  as  far.  The  Bis- 
sagos  islands,  with  the  adjacent  coast  and  interior,  are 
claimed  by  Portugal.  The  territory  along  the  Gambia  river 
for  about  200  miles  forms  Britisli  (rainbia.  The  remainder 
of  this  coast  to  Cape  Blanco,  and  inland  over  the  basins  of 
the  Senegambia  and  Senegal  rivers  and  that  of  the  upper 
Xiger,  is  claimed  by  France.  She  also  claims  a  protecto- 
rate over  the  Western  Sahara  from  Ion.  13°  E.  to  8'  W.,  ex- 
cept in  the  X.  W.,  where  it  is  claimed  by  Morocco.  By  this 
area  of  desert  territory  her  enormous  possessions  in  South- 
west Africa  are  connected  with  Algeria,  and  French  Africa 
surpasses  British  Africa  in  size. 

From  Cape  Blanco  to  Cape  .luby,  Spain  claims  the  Saha- 
ran  coast,  and  inland  to  the  French  line.  For  some  years 
Great  Britain  claimed  the  territory  around  Cape  -Juby  where 
some  of  her  subjects  settled,  but  they  were  harassed,  by  the 
desert  nomads,  gave  up  the  experiment,  and  the  British  now 
assert  no  interests  there. 

The  kingdom  of  Morocco  occupies  the  northwestern  angle 
of  Africa.  Her  coast-line  extends  from  about  lat.  29°  X^.  to 
Tangier,  and  hence  eastwai'd  on  the  Jlediterranean  to  abotit 
Ion.  2°  W.  Her  eastei'n  boundary  runs  irregularly  S.  S.  B. 
from  this  point,  while  the  southern  is  in  the  Sahara  and  in- 
definite. Xext  E.  is  French  Algeria,  extending  on  the  coast 
to  about  Ion.  8°  K.,  then  Tunis,  under  Frencli  protection, 
occupying  the  angle  of  which  Cape  Bon  is  the  apex,  and 
extending  southward  nearly  to  lat.  30'  N.  Between  Tunis 
and  Flgypt.  on  the  coast,  are  the  Turkish  provinces  of 
Tripoli  and  Barca.  and  S.  of  the  former  is  Turkish  Fezzan. 
South  of  Barca  is  the  Libyan  desert,  the  very  sparse  popu- 
lation of  which  is  nominally  under  Turkish  rule,  but  actu- 
ally independent. 

Of  the  islands,  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Socotra.  and  Mauritius 
are  British  ;  ^Madagascar,  the  Comoro  islands,  and  Reunion 
are  French ;  Madeira,  Cape  Verde  islands,  St.  Thomas,  and 
Prince's  island  arc  Portuguese  ;  and  the  Canaries,  Fernando 
Po,  and  Annobon  are  Spanish. 

Area  axl>  Population. — The  table  in  the  next  column 
gives  the  estimate  of  area  and  population  by  Ravenstein,  an 
acknowledged  authority  on  this  subject.  The  figures  should 
be  viewed  simjily  as  the  nearest  approximations  possible  with 
our  present  knowledge. 


ESTIMATE   OF   AREA   AND    POPULATION. 


COUNTRIES. 

Area 
ID  sq.  milet. 

PopnlatioQ. 

Inhabitants  to 
a  sq.  mile. 

British  Africa 

2,570.926 

2,902,624 

841,025 

203.767 

822.000 

602,000 

865,400 

162,640 

6.370 

37,000 

836.000 

1,584,398 

80,350 

40,764.100 

16 

Portuguese  Africa 

5  416  000               R 

Spanish  Africa 

437.000 

5.950.000 

6.300.000 

15,600.000 

888,000 

2 

Italian  Africa 

10 

Congo  St  ate  l  Belgium) 

Boer  republics 

18 
5 

Turliish  (Eg.vpt  and  Tripoli) 

7.9H0.0IX) 
♦22,000,900 

10 

Great  lakes 

Total 

11,514,500 

130.185.000 

]j 

*  Unappropriated  Africa  includes  Morocco  (219.000  sq.  miles.  5.000,- 
000  inhaliitants),  Bornu,  witli  Kanem  (80,000  sq.  miles,  6.100.000  inhab- 
itants!. Wadai  (172,000  sq.  miles.  2.600,000  inhabitants),  Bagirmi  (71,000 
sq.  miles,  l,.'i()O,O0O  inhabitants),  etc. 

The  opening  of  trade  and  preparation  for  supremacy  by 
the  aid  of  great  corporations,  as  was  done  by  the  East  India 
Company  for  India,  is  also  practiced  in  Africa.  The  British 
East  Africa  Protectorate  was  controlled  by  the  Imperial 
British  East  Africa  Company,  which  gave  to  it  the  name 
"Ibea,"from  its  initials,  until  .luly  1,  1895,  The  most  of 
the  Xiger  territory  is  under  the  Royal  Xiger  Company. 
The  immense  territory  of  Xyassaland.  now  othcially  known 
as  the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate,  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  South  Africa  Company,  with  the  exception  of 
the  eastern  jiortion  immediately  about  Lake  Xyassa,  which 
is  administered  directly  by  the  imperial  Government.  Da- 
maraland is  under  the  German  .Southwest  Africa  Colonial 
Company,  and  German  East  Africa  under  an  imperial  com- 
pany of  the  same  name.  There  are  also  some  great  com- 
panies which  are  auxiliary,  but  not  trusted  with  govern- 
mental powers.  Such  is  the  Deutsche  Plantagengesellschaft 
in  the  Cameroons. 

Commerce. — Agriculture  is  imperfectly  carried  on  in 
Africa,  except  in  the  extreme  X.  and  .S.,  so  that  the  export 
products  of  the  continent  are  largely  natural  ones.  Slaves 
have  from  time  immemorial  been  the  chief  product,  but  the 
slave  trade  is  now  nearly  suppressed.  The  next  Ijcst  known 
and  most  characteristic  product  is  ivory,  and  this  still 
reaches  the  coast  in  the  equatorial  regions  in  great  quan- 
tities. Among  the  natural  products  are  also  palm-oil  and 
palm-kernels,  ostrich  feathers  (from  the  south),  caoutchouc, 
rubber,  gums,  sesame  seeds,  cloves,  orchilla,  skins,  and  ebony 
and  other  woods.  The  agricultural  products  from  South 
Africa  are  cattle,  hides,  wool,  cereals,  including  maize,  while 
sugar  is  exported  from  both  Xorth  and  South  Africa,  from 
the  Mascarene  islands  and  from  Liberia.  Coffee  is  a  very 
promising  production  of  Ijiberia  and  the  adjacent  regions. 
This  republic  also  produces  cocoa,  attempts  at  the  produc- 
tion of  which,  as  well  as  of  bananas,  are  being  tried  in  the 
Cameroons  and  elsewhere,  in  plantations  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Wines  are  furnished  by  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Cape 
Colony.  Olive  oil  is  produced  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 
Algeria  produces  large  quantitiesof  cereals  and  wool.  Tunis 
has  a  considerable  production  of  sponges.  Egypt  is  a  lead- 
ing producer  of  cotton  and  cottonseed. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  products  are  relatively  small. 
The  best  known  is  the  diamond  in  the  Kiraberley  district  in 
Xorthern  Cape  Colony,  close  to  the  boundary  of  the  Orange 
Free  State,  which  is  one  of  extraordinary  richness.  In  1895 
over  .^23,000,000  worth  of  diamonds  were  exported  from 
Cape  Colony.  The  total  of  the  otEciallv  known  exports  from 
the  discovery  of  the  field  in  1867,  to  1890  amounted  to  $262,- 
000,000,  Cape  Colony  mines  much  copper,  and  exported 
$3,500,000  worth  of  the  ore  in  1890.  Gold  is  found  in  many 
places,  and  is  extensively  mined  in  the  gold-fields  of  the 
South  African  Republic,  which  are  fully  described  in  the 
article  Witwatersraxd  in  the  Appendix  to  the  eighth  vol- 
ume of  this  cyclopttdia.  Tlie  product  of  these  fields  natu- 
rally makes  its  way  to  the  coast  through  Xatal  and  Cape 
Colony,  from  which  $45,335,760  worth  was  exported  in  1894. 
Coal  is  extensively  mined  in  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  South  African  Republic,  and  has  been 
found  in  many  other  places. 

The  imports  into  Africo  are  almost  entirely  manufactured 
products,  and  include  textile  fabrics,  hardware,  machinery, 
iron  and  copper  wire,  beads  and  trinkets ;  also  large  amounts 
of  sjiirits  and  other  drinks. 

There  is  considerable  interior  trade,  considering  the  means 


AFRICA 


of  communication.  Ivory  makes  its  way  from  the  depths 
of  the  interior  to  the  coast,  usually  on  men's  backs.  The 
trade  along  the  southern  edge  of  the  Saliara  is  purticularly 
brisk,  and  some  of  the  races  of  Western  Sudan  adjacent  to 
the  desert  have  developed  considerable  manufacturing  ca- 
pacity, especially  in  cotton  and  other  fal)rics,  and  leather 
and  saddlery.  Salt  is  an  active  object  of  interior  trade, 
being  al)undant  in  a  few  places,  but  generally  wanting.  It 
is  in  some  parts  so  highly  prized  that  it  is  used  for  money. 
Ivory  tusks  and  cowry  shells  also  serve  for  large  and  small 
change.  European  coins  are  not  valued  generally  except 
on  the  coast,  but  the  Maria  Theresa  dollar,  an  Austrian  coin, 
has  gained  general  confidence  throughout  Central  and  North- 
ern Africa.  It  was  first  struck  in  ITi^O,  and,  to  retain  the 
African  faith  in  it,  its  coinage  is  continued  without  change. 

('oMMixicATio.v. — Modern  means  of  communication  are 
rapiillv  developing.  In  1S!)4  t'ape  Colony  had  2,".2.').'i  miles 
of  railway;  Algeria,  l.Dtil  :  Egy|it.  1,170;  Natal,  340 ;  and 
shorter  lines  were  in  existence  elsewhere,  while  many  long 
ones  were  projected.  The  British  East  Africa  Company  is 
surveying  one  from  the  coast  to  tlie  former  Ei|uatorial  Prov- 
ince of  Egypt,  and  the  coastal  part  is  now  (1897)  constructed. 
Another  is  under  construction,  270  miles  in  length,  from 
Matadi,  on  the  Congo,  to  Stanley  Pool.  Cape  Colony  had 
5.978  miles  of  telegraph  in  1894;  Algeria,  4.44:J ;  and  ftgypt, 
3,168.  Regular  communication  is  kept  up  by  steam  an<i 
sailing  vessels  on  the  lower  Nile,  the  lower  Niger,  and  the 
lower  and  upper  Congo.  The  African  Lak(^s  Company  of 
Scotland  keeps  a  regular  line  of  steamers  on  the  Zambesi 
and  the  Shire,  and  auotlier  on  Lake  Nyassa.  Exploring  and 
mission  steamers  occasionally  navigate  Tanganyika  and 
Victoria  Nyassa. 

History  and  Exploratiox. — Egypt  was  ancient  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  and  even  in  that  of  the  (ireek  classical 
authors.  The  beginning  of  its  historical  era  is  uncertain,  but 
probably  dates  at  about  5000  B.  c,  or  earlier.  In  Egyptian 
pictures  the  Negro  face  and  figure  can  be  found,  and  are  not 
essentially  different  from  those  known  to-day.  About  1000 
B.  c.  the  Phicnicians  establisheil  colonies  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast  of  Africa,  and  Carthage  had  time  to  rise,  flourish, 
and  fall  before  Rome  reached  her  zenith.  Necho  or  Xeku 
11.(611-595  B.C.)  is  .said  by  Herodotus  to  have  sent  his 
Phoenician  sailors  to  circumnavigate  Africa,  a  task  of  which 
they  asserted,  on  their  return,  the  accomplishment.  If  true, 
it  has  left  no  other  traces  to  modern  times.  Perhaps  fifty 
years  later,  Ilanno,  a  Carthaginian,  is  said  to  have  fitted  out 
a  large  expedition,  which  coast I'd  the  western  coast  of  xVfrica 
from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  a  point  southward,  variously 
assigned  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Bight  of  Benin.  The 
Carthaginians  have  left  us  no  knowledge  of  the  interior  of 
Africa.  In  .525  n.  c.  Cambyses  comiuercd  Egypt.  The  allu- 
sions and  second-hand  tales  of  the  classical  authors  give 
occasion  to  believe  that  the  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with 
the  upper  Nile,  but  they  have  themselves  left  nothing  be- 
hind them  on  this  subject.  Egypt  was  con([uered  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  321  B.C.,  but  though  his  successors  in 
Egypt — the  Macedonian  dynasty — wen-  intelligent  patrons  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  they  have  left  no  indications  of  addi- 
tions to  the  knowledge  of  Africa.  When,  however,  the 
Romans  came  into  possession  of  this  country,  explorations 
were  extended  to  Pezzau  on  the  W.,  and  to  Abyssinia  and 
the  upper  Nde  on  the  S. :  and  before  tlie  time  of  the  geog- 
ra|iher  Ptolemy  they  had  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  ca.st  coast 
of  Africa  as  far  S.  as  Zanzibar. 

Ethiopia,  now  Abyssinia,  at  least  in  part,  was  also  a  very 
ancient  country,  perhaps  as  ancient  as  Egypt.  The  Queen 
of  Sheba,  who  visited  .Solomon  about  1000  B.C.,  is  claimed 
by  the  Abyssinians  as  one  of  their  sovereigns.  About  the 
time  of  the  Captivity  many  Jews  took  refuge  in  this  country, 
where  they  acquired  great  power  at  one  time,  and  their  de- 
scendants remain  to  the  present  day.  About  the  bcginningof 
the  Christian  era  this  kingdom,  then  known  as  Auxunu-.  be- 
came one  of  great  power,  culndnating  a  century  or  two  later. 

The  modern  knowledge  of  Africa  begins  with  tlie  irrup- 
tion of  the  Aralis  in  the  first  century  after  the  Ilegira. 
They  conquered  the  entire  Jlediterranean  coast  and  Abys- 
sinia, and  they  explored  the  west  coast  as  far  as  the  mouth  of 
the  Gambia, and  the  (^ast  to  Sofala  in  aln>ut  lal.  20  S.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  the  Portuguese,  under  the  enlightened  pa- 
tronage of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  explored  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  puslung  farther  and  farther  S.,  until  in  1486 
(and  after  Prince  Henry's  death)  Diaz  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  in  1497-98  Vasco  da  Gama  completed  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa.    Accounts  of  a  Christian  ruler 


named  Prcster  John  stimulated  discovery  in  the  direction  of 
Abyssinia,  and  C'ovilham  entered  it  in  1490.  The  discovery 
of  America  created  the  slave-trade  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  gave  rise  to  a  familiar  acquaintance  of,  and  some  settle- 
ments on,  the  coast  from  the  Gambia  to  the  Gal)oon. 

Here  African  exploration  practically  rested  until  the  for- 
nnUion  of  an  association  for  the  exploration  of  inner  Africa, 
which  was  founded  in  London  in  1788.  The  coast  was  then 
known  throughout  its  whole  extent,  but  of  the  interior  only 
Egypt,  Abyssiina,  Tunis,  Morocco,  Senegambia,  the  Gold 
Coast,  and  the  Cape  were  known  ;  and  here  acquaintance 
extended  over  only  a  strip  on  the  coast  less  than  1.50  miles 
wide,  except  in  the  case  of  the  first  two.  The  first  scientific 
journey,  properly  speidving.  had  been  that  of  James  Bruce 
(1768-73).  who  had  travelled  from  JIassowah  to  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Blue  Nile,  thence  to  Sennar,  thence  back  to 
Egypt.  The  African  Association  uiidcrlook  the  work  of 
systematic  observation.  In  1831  it  broadened  its  field  by 
becoming  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

The  first  problem  of  which  the  .solution  was  undertaken 
was  that  of  the  Niger,  and  connected  with  that  was  the  dis- 
covery of  a  famous  but  mysterious  Timbuctoo.  In  179.5-97 
JIungo  Park  entered  the  Niger  district  by  way  of  the  Gam- 
bia, reached  the  upper  course  of  the  Niger,  descended  it 
some  distance,  and  returned.  In  1805  he  again  entered  this 
country,  and  embarked  on  the  Niger  to  descend  it  to  its 
mouth,  but  was  killeil  by  the  natives  at  Bussa,  below  Tim- 
buctoo. Several  travelers  afterward  reached  the  Niger, 
Timbuctoo,  or  Lake  Chad,  some  of  whom  lost  their  lives, 
and  it  was  not  until  1830  that  the  two  brothers  Lander 
added  to  the  knowledge  of  the  river  by  tracing  it  to  its 
mouth.  It  was  not  until  Lieut.  Hourst  floated  down  the 
Niger  from  Tinibiictoo  to  its  month  (1896)  that  the  whole 
course  of  the  river  was  revealed  and  surveyed. 

In  1830  France  began  the  conquest  of  Algei'ia,  ami  she 
hascontimied  to  push  to  lower  latitudes  until  its  southern 
boundary  has  reached  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  In  1845-46 
Richardson  journeyed  through  the  Libyan  desert  and  Trip- 
oli, with  the  view  of  opening  a  trade  route  over  the  desert 
to  the  mid-Sudan.  Barth  followed  (lS.50-55)  with  extensive 
journeys  through  the  Sudan  itself,  exploring  the  regions  E., 
S..  and  W.  of  Lake  Chad,  and  extending  his  journey  to 
Timbuctoo,  ri'turning  safely  to  carefully  edit  his  collection 
of  facts  concerning  this  uidvnown  center  of  Africa.  He  was 
followed  by  Vogef  (1853-56),  Rohlfs  (186.5-67).  and  Nachti- 
gal,  who  was  sent  in  1869  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Bornu. 

The  Egyiitian  expedition  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (1798- 
1801)  was  a  noteworthy  beginning  of  the  modern  investiga- 
tion of  the  Nile  basin.  The  French  savants  were  especially 
tlevotcd  to  arch.a'ological  research,  but  geography  was  not 
overlooked.  The  eyes  of  the  world  were  once  more  turned 
to  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  impulse  continued  under 
the  intelligent  Mehemct  Ali  (180.5-48).  Khedive  of  Egypt. 
He  not  oidy  invited  the  learned  men  of  Europe  to  continue 
their  Egyptian  work,  but  also  pushed  his  conquests  through 
Nubia  anil  Sennar.  opening  the  road  for  the  merchant  and 
missionary,  and  taking  with  him  Kuroiiean  scientists.  Ca- 
illiaud  and  Letorzek,  who  accompanied  his  army  in  the  con- 
quest of  Sennar.  were  the  first  Eiirojieans  to  see  the  junction 
of  the  Blue  and  White  Nile  (1821-22). 

The  development  of  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  Abyssin- 
ian branches  of  the  Nile  (the  Atliara  ami  Blue  Nile)  is  due 
to  many  dill'erent  explorers,  among  whom  stand  pre-enunent 
.Salt,  who  accomiianied  the  British  Abvssinian  exiiedition  of 
181(1,  Biirckhiirdt  (1S14).  Lefelire  (1S39-42),  Beke  (1840-43), 
Raffray  (1873-74,  1881),  and  RohU's  (18(^8,  1880-81).  It  is, 
however,  the  exploration  of  the  White  Nile,  or  main  river, 
which  has  attracted  the  most  interest  and  given  its  results 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Linant  de  Bellefonds  was  sent 
out  in  1827  by  the  African  As,sociation  to  explore  the  upper 
Nile,  but  dill  not  get  farther  S.  than  lat.  13°  N.  After 
other  failures.  Mehemct  Ali  conceived  the  idea  of  increasing 
the  glory  of  his  reign  by  rediscovering  the  sources  of  the 
Nile.  lie  si>nt  out  two  exiJcditions;  the  one  in  1840  reached 
6"  30'  N.  hit.:  that  of  1841,  4'  43'  N.  Petherick  discovered 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  the  chief  western  branch  of  the  Nile,  in 
1858,  and  in  1860  Jliani  followed  the  nniin  river  up  to  3°  34' 
N.  lat.  This  ended  the  advance  from  the  N.  until  after  the 
discovery  was  made  from  the  S. 

The  lakes  of  Central  Africa  seem  to  hare  been  known  to 
the  ancients.  In  1518  the  report  was  brought  from  Mozam- 
bique that  a  great  lake  existed  to  the  westward  of  that 
place.  Cooley  collected  these  reports  carefully  from  1835, 
in  order  to  fix  the  lake  with  all  possible  exactitude  on  his 


68 


AFRICA 


charts  (1843,  1833),  and  to  him  is  due  the  introduction  of 
the  name  Nynssa.  On  succeeding  maps  this  lake  was  in- 
creased somewhat  in  size,  when  the.  discovery  in  1849  of 
Mt.  Kilimanjaro,  by  Kebmann,  and  Mt.  Keuia,  by  Krapf, 
led  to  renewed  attention  to  that  region,  and  brought  news 
of  a  Lake  Ukerewe  (now  called  Victoria  Nyanza).  Spurred 
by  these  reports.  Burton  and  8peke  in  1858  struck  westward 
from  the  Zanzibar  coast.  Both  reached  Tanganyika,  Speke 
alone  the  Ukerewe.  In  1863  Speke  perfected  his  work  of 
the  previous  expedition,  and  was  able  to  announce  that  the 
outflow  of  the  Ukerewe  was  through  the  Nile.  In  1864 
Baker  added  the  Albert  Nyanza  to  the  group.  Later  Stan- 
ley discovered  the  Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  and  this  is  now 
known  to  belong  to  the  same  group.  The  Tanganyika  has 
been  found  to  be  independent  of  the  Nile,  with  occasional 
overflow  into  the  Congo.  In  1859  Livingstone  discovered 
the  Nyassa  and  Shirwa  lakes  of  the  Zambesi  basin.  In  1867 
he  foiind  the  Moero.  and  in  1868  the  Bangweolo,  lakes  of 
the  Congo  system.  With  these  discoveries  the  Central  Af- 
rican system  of  lakes  was  fully  laid  open. 

In  South  Africa  the  Portuguese  made  no  permanent  set- 
tlement after  the  discoveries  of  Diaz  and  \  asco  da  Gama. 
The  Dutch  followed  the  Portuguese  in  the  E.,  and  in  1652 
the  Dutcli  East  India  Company  formed  a  colony  at  the 
Cape.  The  colony  was  weak,  but  it  had  some  additions  to 
its  numbers  from  other  European  nations  from  time  to 
time,  notably,  in  1686,  French  Protestant  refugees  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  From  1795  the  colonists 
attempted  to  gain  their  independence,  but  their  insurrections 
were  suppresseil  Ijy  the  aid  of  Great  Britain,  to  whom  the 
territory  was  formally  ceded  in  1815.  In  1835-36  the  love 
of  independence  among  the  Boers  had  become  so  great  that 
they  migrated  in  a  body  beyond  the  limits  of  the  colony,  to 
the'N.  of  the  Orange  river,  and  later  spread  eastward  to  the 
coast,  in  what  is  now  Natal.  In  1842  the  latter  were  reduced 
under  British  rule,  which  in  1848  was  extended  over  the 
Orange  Free  State.  Again  the  more  iiidependent  of  the 
Boers  journeyed  to  the  wilderness  to  find  independence,  and 
crossing  the  Vaal  to  the  northward  they  founded  the  Trans- 
vaal Republic.  In  1852-54  Great  Britain  yielded  her  claims 
to  sovereignty  over  the  sturdy  republicans  of  both  the 
Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal.  In  1877,  however, 
she  took  the  occasion  of  disastrous  wars  between  the  Boers 
and  natives  to  announce  the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal. 
This  was  followed  by  a  revolt  of  the  Boers  so  serious  and 
well  sustained  that  in  1884  the  Transvaal  was  again  recog- 
nized as  independent.  British  and  Portuguese  protectorates 
have  since  been  extended  on  all  sides  of  the  Boer  republics, 
so  that  their  territorial  expansion  is  apparently  completed. 

The  greatest  name  in  the  exploration  of  South  Africa  is 
that  of  the  Scottish  missionary  David  Livingstone.  His 
leading  motives  were  rather  the  expansion  of  the  mission 
fields  and  the  suppression  of  tlie  slave-trade  than  geograph- 
ical exploration.  He  made  three  great  journeys  of  discov- 
ery. The  first  was  in  1849-56,  when  he  discovered  Lake 
Ngami,  the  center  of  an  independent  basin,  crossed  the 
Kalahari  desert,  discovered  the  Zambesi  river,  and  crossed 
and  recrossed  Africa  between  Loanda  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Zambesi.  He  was  the  first  European  to  cross  the  continent. 
In  1855  he  discovered  tlie  great,  or  Victoria,  falls  of  the 
Zambesi.  The  second  series  of  discoveries  fall  between  1858 
and  1S64,  when  he  investigated  the  Zambesi  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  third  and  last  continued  from  1868  to  the  time 
of  his  death  in  1873,  and  was  devoted  to  Lake  Tanganyika 
and  the  head-waters  of  the  Congo,  which  he  believed  be- 
longed to  the  Nile.  During  this  journey  he  was  lost  from 
sight  until  the  civilized  world  became  alarmed  for  his  safety. 
Under  the  ]iatronage  of  James  Gordon  Bennett,  of  New 
York,  II.  JI.  .Stanley  inaile  a  daring  dash  from  Zanibar  into 
the  interior,  and  found  him  in  1871. 

The  development  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Congo  liasin  is 
the  most  recent  of  the  great  events  in  the  history  of  African 
exploration.  Cameron  (1873-75),  in  his  journey  across  the 
continent  from  K.  to  W.,  was  able  to  show  the  outflow  of 
Tanganyika  to  the  westwai'd,  but  he  left  uncertain  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Congo  to  the  numerous  northward-trending 
streams  he  crossed  on  his  new  path  to  Benguela.  Numerous 
explorations  followed,  but  the  threail  with  which  to  unravel 
the  Congo  system  was  not  found  until  Stanley's  journey  of 
1874-77,  when  he  succeeded  in  delining  the  sources  of  the 
Nile,  and  in  showing  that  the  n|)iier  Congo  was  to  be  found 
in  the  Luapula,  which  connects  the  lakes  Bangweolo  and 
Moero.  With  the  discovery,  by  Grenfell  (1.HS4-S5),  of  the 
identity  of  the  previously  known  tropical  and  interior  river. 


the  Welle  Makua,  with  the  Ubangi,  the  principal  northern 
tributary  of  the  Congo,  the  delimitation  of  the  Congo  basin 
was  complete  in  general  outlines. 

The  exjiloration  of  the  Congo  system  was  accompanied  by 
a  remarkable  series  ot  political  events.  In  1876  the  Inter- 
national African  Association  was  founded  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  Lcopolil  II.,  and  the  In- 
ternational Association  of  the  Congo  in  1878.  The  latter, 
in  1879,  founded  two  stations  on  the  Congo,  and  in  1881  a 
third.  In  1884  the  association  was  recognized  as  an  inde- 
pendent territorial  govei'uraent,  and  in  1885  an  international 
conference  gave  limits  to  the  Independent  State  of  the  Con- 
go, and  alTirmed  its  permanent  neutrality,  the  freedom  of 
its  commerce,  and  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  within  its 
borders.  Tlie  new  state  covers  the  most  of  the  Congo  basin 
and  embraces  the  heart  of  Africa. 

Another  political  ejiisode,  originating  in  a  different  quar- 
ter, has  given  occasion  for  further  exploration  of  the  Congo 
basin.  A  Mohammedan  revival  in  upper  Egypt,  called  the 
Mahdist  rebellion,  culminating  in  the  fall  of  Khartum  in 
1884,  disorganized  the  government  of  this  region,  and  left 
the  more  southern  Equatorial  Province  cut  otf  from  the 
civilized  world.  Its  governor  was  a  German  scientist,  there 
called  Emin  Pasha.  The  attention  of  Europe  was  event- 
ually directed  toward  his  relief,  and  an  expedition  for  this 
purpose  was  headed  by  Stanley  in  1887.  After  an  adven- 
turous journey  from  the  west  coast  and  through  the  Congo 
basin,  Stanley  succeeded  in  finding  Emin,  returning  in  1889. 

With  the  international  conference  in  1885,  the  partition 
of  interior  Africa  was  begun.  The  various  possessions  on 
the  coast  had  been  already  delimited,  at  least  approxi- 
mately, and  the  limitations  to  be  decided  on  were  the  inte- 
rior ones.  This  has  steadily  proceeded,  until  in  1897  it  is 
complete  for  Southern  Africa  to  the  equator,  and  for  much 
of  Western  Africa.  Elsewhere  the  interior  lines  are  still 
indefinite.  In  general,  it  may  lie  said  th.it  in  1H97  heathen 
Africa  had  been  partitioned,  while  Arab  Africa  was  almost 
completely  assigned.  The  divisions  have  been  made  by  in- 
ternational agreement-  and  are  usually  luidisputed,  but 
in  unassigned  districts  an  occasional  clash  occia-s,  as,  in  1893, 
in  Uganda  to  the  N.  of  the  Ukerewe.  A  result  of  the  par- 
tition is  to  be  found  in  the  remarkably  increased  activity 
in  exploration  since  1885.  This,  however,  is  now  generally 
political  rather  than  geographical. 

Tropical  Africa  has  been  crossed  (1897)  nineteen  times,  as 
follows : 

Livingstone,  I.oanda  (Sept.  20, 18.i4)  to  Quilimane  (May  12, 18.'i6) 

Cameron,  Bagamoyo  (Mar.  1.5,1873)  "  Catunil)eUa(Nov.  6,1875) 

Stanley,                  "  (Nov.  17,  1874)  "  Banana        (Aug.  11, 1877) 

Serpa  Pinto,  Benguela  (Nov.  12, 1877 j  "  Durban        (Mar,  19,  1879) 

Wissmann,  Loanda  (.Ian.,       1881)  "  Sadani          (Nov.  15,  1882) 

Arnot,  Durban  (Aug.,      1881)  "  Bei'-iiela      (Nov.  11, 18tH) 

^'"P^5J°^°''[  Mossamedes(Mar.  14,1884)  "  Qnilimane  (June  26, 1886) 

Glefiup,  Banana  (Dee.  27, 1883)  "  Baganioyo  (June25, 1886) 

Lenz,                    "  (Sept.,      1885)  "  Quilimane  (Jan.,      1887) 

Wissmann,           "  (Jan.,       1886)  "          ■■  (Aug.  8, 1887) 

Trivier,  Loango  (Dec.  in,  1888)  "          "            (Dee.    1, 1889) 

Stanlev,  Banana  (Mar.  18, 1887)  "  Bagamoyo  (Dec.    5,1889) 

Dr,  Johnston,  Benguela  (May  29,  1891)  "  Cliinde         (Oct.  10,1892) 

Von  Gotzen,  Pangani  (Oct.   19, 1893)  "  Banana       (Dec.,      1894) 

Moray,  Bagamoyo  (June  16, 1892)  "        "              (Feb.,      1895) 

Glave,  Chiude  (1893)  "  Matadi         (1896 ; d. there) 

Miot,                     "  (May  26,  1893)  "  Banana       (Apr.,       1896) 

Versepiiy,  Zanzibar  (July    7,  1895)  "  Cabinda       (Aug.  2, 1896) 

"^Chargois?  [  Ch'nde  (May  20,  189.3)  "        "  (Sept.,     1896) 

Bibliography. — Explorations. — Baker,  Ismailia  (1874), 
Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia  (1867),  Albert  Nyama  (1866) ; 
Barth,  Trarels  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa  (3  vols., 
1857-58) ;  Beke,  Sources  of  the  Nile  (1860) ;  Bruce,  Travels 
to  Discover  the  Sources  of  the  Nile  (179(1);  Burton.  Lake 
Rer/ions  of  Central  Africa.  (2  vols.,  1860);  Abrolaita  and 
the  Cameroon  Alotinfains  (3  vols.,  1863) ;  Wanderings  in 
West  Africa  (2  vols.,  1863) ;  Cameron,  Across  Africa  (1877) ; 
Churchill,  Jlen.  Mines,  and  Animals  in  South  Africa  (1892) ; 
Du  V\\a\\\\i.  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa  (liiin);  French- 
Sheldon,  Sultan  to  Sultan  (1892);  Giraud,  Les  lacs  de 
VAfriipie  ei/uatoriale  (1890);  Gordon,  Journals  at  Khartum 
(2  vols.,  1SS5);  Gi-ant,  yl  Walk  across  Africa.  (ISM) ;  James, 
Wild  Trilns  of  the  Sudan  (1883) ;  Ji>hnston,  The  River 
6W90  (18M4) ;  .iohn.ston,  Livingstone  and.  the  E.rploration 
of  Central  Africa  (1891) ;  Junker,  Travels  in  Africa  (1891) ; 
Kingston  and  Low,  Great  African  Travelers  (1890);  Liv- 
ingstone, ..1/j.s.s('o»!ari/  Travelsand  Researches  in  South  Africa 
(1857),  Narrative  of  an  E.rpetlition  to  Zambezi  (1865),  Last 
Journal  (3  vols.,  1874);  Parke,  Jfli/  J'ersonal  Ex}>erienc.es 
in  Equatorial  Africa  (1891) ;  Peters,  New  Liglit  on  Dark 


AFRICAN  LANGUAGES 


69 


Africa  (1891):  Pinto.Ifow  I  Crossed  Africa  (1881);  Rohlfs, 
Jiorocco,  and  Journeys  Ihrouyh  Oases  of  Drasia,  etc.  (1874); 
Schweiiifurtli,  Jleart  of  Africa  (1878) ;  Stanley,  Jiow  I 
Found  Licinystont  (1873),  Thronqh  the  Dark  Continent  (3 
vols.,  1881),  fite  Conqo  (3  vols.,  1^8.")),  /;(  Darke.^l  Africa  (2 
vols..  1891) ;  Spekc,  Journal  of  tlie  Disrovenj  of  the  Source 
of  the  J\'ile  (18G;i);  Tliomson,  'J'hrout/li  Mii.^ai/and  (1SS5), 
ilungo  Park  and  the  Niger  (18'J0);  W'issiuann,  Cuter 
Di-utsrhe  Flayye  (juer  durch  Afrika  (188!)),  My  Second 
Journey  to  Fijiiatorial  Africa  (IH'il);  Xonufx.  Lirinystoni- 
aHfl(1878).  Gbxkral. — Mitth.der Afrik. (resellsch. Deutsch- 
lands  (several  vols.);  article  "Africa."  in  .Johnson's  and 
Reclus's  freojra|)liit!il  coniponiliunis:  Taraiuelli,  Geoyrafia 
e  Geoloyia  dell'  Africa  (181(0)  :  tireswcll.  Geography  of 
Africa  South  of  ilte  Xambesi  (W.>~)\  HxUav.  Handbook  to 
South  Africa  ;  White,  The  Derelopnient  of  Africa  (3(1  ed. 
18!)3) ;  lianning,  I'artage  polilir/ue  de  rAfriejue  (1888); 
Philebert,  Leconquete paci(i(juedel'interieurAfncainil88i)); 
Cost,  Africa  Hedicira,  or  the  Occupation  of  Africa  by 
Christian  Missionaries;  Priien,  Tiie  Arab  and  the  African 
(1891);  Rowley.  lieligionii of  t/ie  Africans{\S");  South  Afri- 
can Folk-Lore  Journal  {Uvjiun  in  1877):  Post,  Afrikanische 
Jurisprudent  (1887):  Harris,  Portraits  of  Game,  etc.,  in 
South  Africa  (1843):  Oliver,  Flora  of  Tropical  Africa  (3 
vols.,  1868-77) ;  Hooker  and  Bintluiin,  Xigritiana  (1849). 
Maps. — Uralauft,  Afrika  in  A'arloyraphi.trher  Darstellung 
von  Ilerodot  bis  Ueule.  one  main  chart,  seventeen  auxiliarv 
(1887);  Andreeand  'AmhA.  Karte  von  Afrika  (1893):  Liid"- 
decke,  Karte  von  A  frika  (1890) ;  Rarl  hnlome  w.  Political  Map 
of  Africa  (1890);  liissey,  Carte  de  I'Afriqne  (1890). 

Makk  W.  Hauuinutox. 

Afrifan  Laii:;iiag^es:  The  languajies  spoken  in  Africa 
may  be  arranged  in  six  families  or  groups,*  viz.:  the  Sem- 
itic\  the  Hamitic.  the  Xiilia-Fnlah.  the  Xejrro.  the  Bantu 
and  the  IIottentot-Bushman.  The  Semitic  family  occupies 
the  western  third  of  the  Sahara  and  a  strip  of  about  500 
miles  wide  alonj;  the  north  coast  and  up  the  west  bank  of 
the  Xile  to  the  NVi;ro  field  3(H)  miles  al)ove  Khartum.  The 
Ilamitie  occupies  the  Somali  peninsula,  most  of  the  region 
E.  of  the  Nile,  more  than  a  third  of  the  .Sahara  (in  the  cen- 
tral part),  and  overlaps  the  Semitic  family  in  Xorthwest 
Africa.  For  a  descrijition  of  Semitic  and  Hamitic  lan- 
guages, see  EoviTiAX.  Hkrhkk,  Etiuoi>ic,  Coptic,  etc. 

The  Xul)a-Fulah  grou|)  is  foun<l  in  the  territories  of  the 
Kwafi  and  Jlasai,  K.  of  Lake  N'yanza,  each  larger  than 
Ohio;  several  extended  areas  in  the  upper  Xile  basin,  espe- 
cially in  Kordolan  and  Darfur:  S'lO.OOO  sy.  miles  in  the 
northern  ]iart  of  the  Congo  basin  (X'yam-Xyam.  Krej,  and 
Monbutto  languages) :  an<l  several  smaller  isolated  areas  in 
the  Lake  Chad.  Xiger,  and  Senegal  ba«iiis.  M;iiidy  for  eth- 
nological reasons,  the  Nuba-Fulah  is  reckoned  apart  from 
the  Negro  group,  the  people  being  lighter,  better  formed, 
and  usually  more  enter|>rising  than  the  Negroes.  In  their 
even  distribution  of  vowels  and  consonants  these  languages 
are  far  more  like  to  Uantu  than  to  Negro.  From  the  char- 
acter of  the  Nuba-Fulah  peoph-s,  widely  extended  and  often 
conquering  races  (Mohammc^dans),  their  languages  are  of 
importance  to  commerce  and  Christian  missions. 

The  Xegro  group  occupies  (1)  the  Sudan  (Senegal,  Niger, 
aiul  Lake  Chad  basins),  an  area  extending  3,500  miles  E.  and 
W.,  and  700  miles  N.  and  S. ;  (3)  most  of  the  upper  Nile  basin 
(.5(K)  miles  square) :  (3)  the  eastern  third  of  the  Sahara  (800 
miles  square).  There  seems  to  be  considerable  phonetic  unity, 
such  consonantal  combinations  as  kp  and  yh.  for  instance, 
oc'cm-ring  in  languages  scatt<'red  through  all  parts  of  the 
Negro  fielil.  Hut  in  vocabulary  there  appears  thus  far  to  be 
utter  diversity.  The  words  for  "one  "and  '■!"  appear  in 
Dinka  (upper  X'ilc).  Kanuri  (Lake  Chad),  Ktik  (lower  Niger), 
Grebo  (on  coast  W.  of  X'iger),  and  Hullom  (extreme  west 
coast),  respectively,  as  follows:  tok,  yhi'n  :  la.'tge,  u'u  ;  kiet, 
ami;  do,  mo;  bull.yany.  Nor  do  oh// of  the  other  numerals 
or  pronouns  show  resemblance.  The  X'egro  languages  arc 
mostly  "agglutinative"  but  no  structural  imity  can  be 
atlirmeil.  nor  can  families  be  decided  u|)oii  till  the  grammars 
alreaily  appeared  and  fast  appearing  are  careftdly  compared. 
Relation  to  Bantu,  however  remote,  seems  already  com- 
j)letely  disproved.  The  viust,  fertile,  and  ])opulous  basins  of 
the  Xile,  Lake  Chad,  aiul  Niger  promise  to  make  these  lan- 
guages of  great  importance  to  traile  and  missions  (though 
the  Negroes  have  now  liecome  .Mohammedans),  and  heiu'c 
give  the  many   linguistic   problems  olTcred    a  more  than 

*  The  word  prroup  is  iisett  wliere  the  lanpuapes  classed  together  are 
not  known  to  be  senerall.v  related  to  each  other. 


theoretical  interest.  Koclle  describes  the  Kaniiri,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  great  I'ornu  empire,  around  Lake  Chad,  as 
very  rich,  especially  in  verbal  forms,  and  possessed  of  a  fidly 
developed  and  far-reaching  system  of  euphonic  laws.  Ab- 
stract noinis  are  formed  from  all  concrete  ones,  and  from  all 
adjectives  and  verbs.  There  are  5  cases,  3  numbers,  no 
grammatical  gender,  0  personal  jironouns,  3  demonstratives, 
4  interrogatives,  0  pos.sessives,  and  18  indelinite  pronouns. 
Various  aggluliiuitive  suffixes  applied  to  both  nouns  and 
verbs  give  rise  to  (1)  posses.sive  and  (3)  participial  adjectives; 
to  adjectives  of  (3)  nationality,  (4)  occupation  and  produc- 
tivity, (5)  agent,  and  ((>)  rank  anil  office:  to  (7)  patronymics, 
(8)  personal  adjectives,  and  (9)  adjectives  meaning  "  pertain- 
ing to,"  "  applied  to."  etc.  Xumerals  are  (1)  cardinal,  (3) 
ordinal,  (3)  multi|)licative,  (4)  adverbial,  (5)  indefinite. 
Counting  is  carrieil  beyond  1,000,000,000,000.  Verbs  can 
be  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  or  other  verbs,  and 
include  (1)  denominatives,  (3)  causatives,  and  (3)  frequcnta- 
tives  or  intensives.  Voices  are  (1)  radical  (or  simple),  (3)  rela- 
tive (or  applied),  (3)  reflective  (or  middle).  (4)  causative,  (5) 
relativc-reliective.  "Tenses  "are.  first,  indefinite  (or  time- 
less), including  (1)  the  durative  or  frequentative.  (3)  the  mo- 
mentary or  solitive  ;  secoiul,  time  tenses,  including  (1)  aorist, 
(3)  perfect,  (3)  future,  Moods  are  (1)  indicative,  (3)  impera- 
tive, (3)  negative,  (4)  conjunctional,  (5)  participial,  (6)  infini- 
tive. Transitive  verbs  superpose  an  objective  pronominal 
inflection  upon  all  the  above  inllections,  showing  by  the  form 
of  the  verb  the  person  of  the  object.  Adverbs,  besides  fifty 
that  are  origiiud.  are  formed  from  the  nominative,  instru- 
mental, liK'at  ive,  and  <lat  ive  cases  of  substantive's,  from  jtdjec- 
tive  pronouns,  from  the  dative  of  numerals,  by  composition, 
and  sparingly  from  the  verbs  and  the  four  postpositions. 
There  are  many  conj mictions,  both  original  (which  may  be 
simple,  compound,  or  correlative)  and  derived,  but  only  finir 
interjections.  Different  varieties  of  clauses,  etc.,  are  u.sed, 
as  in  English.  As  to  syntax,  the  uses  of  the  various  cases, 
moods,  lenses,  suffixes,  etc..  are  very  fully  developed. 

The  Bantu  family  of  languages  is  tor  trade  and  missions 
the  most  important  in  Africa,  because  the  area  in  which 
these  languages  are  spoken  is,  on  the  whole,  greatest  in  nat- 
ural resources,  and  the  people  speaking  them  are  superior  in 
natural  endowment.  Cusl  divides  the  family  into  three 
branches  and  eight  sub-branches,  hut  this  classification, 
while  very  u.sefid  as  a  point  of  departure,  is  purely  geo- 
grapliical ;  e.g.  Kongo  in  the  western  branch,  Zulu  in  the 
southern,  and  Swaliili  in  the  eastern,  resemble  one  another 
more  than  Zidu  resembles  Chuana  in  the  same  branch. 
The  Bantu  field  occupies  all  of  Africa  S.  of  the  X'egro  and 
Xuba-Fulah  fields  (excluding,  of  course,  the  Hottentot  field), 
an  area  of  some  3..i00  miles  square.  Its  remarkalile  lin- 
guistic unity  was  first  ainiounced  by  Lichtenstcin  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  has  since  been  estab- 
lished by  numberless  jinjofs.  For  instance,  the  words  for 
"  one,"  "  five,"  "  I,"  "son,"  and  "  jnan,"  are  in  Kongo,  -mosi, 
-tanu,  -ami,  mw-ana,  mu-ntu;  Jlpongwc,  -mdri,  -tyanu, 
-am,  onw-ana,  ono-nii;  Mbinidu, -»«>«(',  -tanu,  -atni.  mona, 
mu-iu ;  Hcrero,  -mue,  -tano,  -ami,  omu-na,  omu-7idu ;  Ki- 
lolo,  -onto,  -tanu,  -emi,  bo-ana,  bo-ntu  ;  Gamla,  e-mu,  -tano, 
-anyp,  mic-ana,  mu-7itu;  Swaliili,  -moja, -tano,  -aiiyu,  mw- 
ana,  m-tu  ;  Vao,  -»h«,  m-sauu,  -anyu,  mw-ana-che,  ?nu-ndu  ; 
Chinyanja,  -modzi,  -sanu,  -anga,  uiw-ana,  mu-ntu  ;  Chuana, 
iiucfaer,  -jne,  fiu-ana,  7no-thu  ;  Suto,  -mong  (ngue),  llano, 
-na,  ngu-ana,mo-tho ;  Zulu,  nye,  -hlanu.  -na  (-ami),  ndml-ana, 
umu-^itu  ;  Xosa,  -nye,  -hlanu.  -am.  vny-ana.  um-ntu. 

These  languages  are  remarkable  for  their  far-reaching 
euphony,  pei-fect  regularity,  compass,  fiexibility,  and  jiower. 
Their  dialectic  divergencies  clearly  conform  to  the  "  wave 
theory"  which  has  lieen  applied  to  Indo-European.  Since 
they  are  in  grammatical  structure  even  more  homogeneous 
than  in  vocabulary,  an  account  of  the  Kongo  may  serve  for 
all.  Benth^y's  Kongo  Dictionary  and  Grammar  (irom  which 
the  following  abstract  is  mainly  taken)  defines  10.000  words, 
excludiny  most  derivatives.  Every  syllal)le  consists  either  of 
a  vowel  alone,  or  of  one  consonant  (which  may  be  preceded 
by  a  nasal)  followed  by  one  vowel.  The  result  is  absolute 
freedom  in  composition,  and  regularity  in  infiection.  The 
language  is  agglutinative — i.  e.  every  inflectional  element 
retains  everywhere  its  own  distinct  form  find  meaning.  The 
case  system  of  Indo-European  languages  is  more  than  re- 
])laced  by  the  alliterative  concord,  which  prefixes  to  nouns 
nineteen  cla.sses  of  singular  ami  plural  jirefi-xes,  and  attaches 
the  noun  prefix  to  all  the  adjectives,  nouns,  verbs,  prepo- 
sitions, and  phrases  that  bi'long  to  it,  so  that  the  reference 
of  every  word  is  perfectly  unambiguous.     There  are  twenty 


70 


AFinCAN  LANGUAGES 


AFRICAN   METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


classes  of  derivative  nouns  representing  actor  (active  and 
middle),  a};eMt,  instrmuent.  means,  recipient,  place,  action 
(active,  middle,  and  ])assive),  manner  or  accessary  circnm- 
stanec.  cause  or  occasion,  process,  essential  quality,  acciden- 
tal quality,  diniinutives,  collectives,  "  anti-collectives,"  and 
accompauiatives.  Both  prefixes  and  suilixes  are  used  in 
foriniiis;  these  derivatives,  l.nit  the  prefixes  alone  concern 
sentence  structure.  Adjective  forms  are  (1)  primary  (attrib- 
utive and  pi-edicate),  (2)  secondary  (absolute),  (iS)  verbal  ex- 
cessives,  (4)  participial.  Adjective  jdirases  and  clauses  and 
possessive  nouns  are  treated  witli  the  noun  prefix,  like  the 
ordinary  adjective.  The  native  numerals  go  to  1,000,000, 
and  are"(l)  cardinal,  (2)  ordinal,  (8)  partitive  or  distributive, 
(4)  alternative,  (.5)  multiplicative.  Pronouns  are  (1)  personal, 
(3)  emphatic  personal,  (3)  possessive,  (4)  interrogative,  (5) 
demonstrative.  (6)  emphatic  demonstrative,  (7)  relative,  (8) 
indefinite,  (9)  a<lverbial,  prepositional,  and  conjunctive,  (10) 
locative.  Adverbs  are  (1)  original,  and  also  formed  from 
(3)  locatives.  (3)  pronoims,  (4)  nouns  (a  large  ninnber),  (5) 
verbs.  (6)  adjectives.  Prepositions  are  simple  and  com- 
pound, but  tew  in  numljer,  since  the  prepositional  idea  is 
usually  included  in  tlie  meaning  of  verbs.  Conjunctions 
are  some  fifty  in  ninnber.  besides  compounds  of  these.  A 
large  proportion  of  these  are  particles  like  the  Greek  S/ias, 
S^irou,  etc. 

Verbs. — Suffixes  indicate  voice,  "form,"  and  "aspect." 
Voices  are  (1)  active.  (3)  passive,  (8)  miildle,  (4)  pa.ssive 
middle.  Forms  (superposed  on  eacli  of  tlie  voices)  are  (1) 
simple,  (3)  applied  (e.g.  Eng.  strike  for,  with,  at,  etc.,  are 
ajiplied  l^orins  of  strike),  wliich  may  be  single,  double,  triple, 
quadruple,  etc.,  (3)  causative,  (4)  indirect  causative,  (5)  re- 
ciprocal, (6)  repetitive,  (7)  persistent  repetitive,  (8)  reversive, 
(9)  potential,  and  about  thirty-five  comljinations  of  these. 
As)iects  (su|irrposed  lioth  upon  voices  and  forms)  are  (1)  in- 
detinite,  (3)  eontinuative.  (3)  perfect,  (4)  perfect  continuative. 
(These  aspects  are  the  timeless  distinctions  found  in  Greek 
participles.)  There  still  remain  a  considerable  number  of 
verbs  having  apparent  suffixes  with  no  definite  shaile  of 
nu'aning.  Doubtless  others  like  these  formerly  furnished 
tlie  raw  materials  for  the  magnificent  voice  and  form  sys- 
tem of  tlie  Kongo  verb. 

Prefixes  indicate  moods,  tenses,  person  of  tlie  subject  and 
person  of  the  object.  The  infinitive  mood  is  in  aspect  either 
simple  or  continuative,  liut  has  no  tense.  The  indicative  has 
ten  tenses  (counting  aspect  modifications  of  tenses  as  sepa- 
rate ten.ses),  the  subjunctive  four  (all  ditferent  from  those 
found  in  the  indicative),  the  imperative  two.  and  the  parti- 
ciple three,  liolli  Uir  subject  and  ol)ject  prefixes  there  are 
four  "  persons" — first,  second,  third  and  neuter. 

In  addition  to  the  above  verli  system,  there  are  twenty- 
four  auxiliary  verbs.  These  include  such  words  as  ipBiya 
and  Tvyxdvai  in  Greek ;  venir  cle  aiul  .«■  met! re  a  in  Freneli ; 
can,  let,  and  lieep  on  in  English. 

The  subject  must  always  be  the  most  im])ortant  topic  in 
the  sentence,  which  requires  as  free  a  use  of  the  [lassive  and 
middle  voices  as  of  the  active.  The  sentence  has  a  regular 
order — subject,  its  attriliutes,  verb,  and  its  attributes — but 
this  is  without  ambiguity  freely  dejiarted  from  for  purposes 
of  emphasis.  By  the  use  of  the  prefixes  appropriate,  any 
])art  of  speech  may  become  any  other  part  of  speech  where 
thought  admits  of  the  change  —  adjectives,  verbs,  and 
clauses  may  become  nouns,  norms  and  adjectives  may  be- 
come verl)s,  etc. 

The  nottcntot-Bushman  family  extends  from  Cape  Town 
and  Port  Elizabeth  in  a  strip  500  miles  wide  for  1.000  miles 
along  the  west,  coast,  and  mingles  at  30°  S.  lat.  with  Ilerero 
(Bantu).  Walhuann  speaks  of  Hottentot  and  Coptic  as  closely 
allied.  Bleek  gives  a  comparative  view  of  the  pronouns  iii 
the  two  languages,  wliicli  shows  a  remarkable  similarity 
throughout.  This  family  includes  Khoi-Khoi,  Bushman, 
Nainaqiia,  Koranna,  Gricpia.  (!ust  also  reckons  in  various 
subjugated  or  fugitive  remnants  of  trilies  occupying  small, 
isolated  areas  to  5  X.  lat..  and  speiiking  languages  totally 
distinct  from  those  of  their  conquerors.  Chief  among  these 
tribes  are  the  pygmies  of  the  upper  Congo,  spoken  of  by 
Stanley.  Hottentot  has  grammatical  gender,  uses  suffixes 
and  postpositions,  and  four  clicks  and  tliree  tones.  The 
clicks  are  used  mostly  as  consonants,  and  resemble  smack- 
ing, {-lucking,  chirruping,  and  audible  swallowing.  These 
languages  arc  being  replaced, at  least  in  the  south,  by  Dutch. 

Besides  tlic  languages  above  described,  some  non-African 
languages  have  been  brought  into  Africa,  and  have  in  many 
quarters  infiiienced  native  dialects.  They  are:  Arabic 
(though  this  has  now  practically  become  African),  iu  the 


Sudan,  on  the  Nile,  and  along  the  east  coast :  Portuguese, 
in  Jlozambique  and  Angola;  Dutch  (corrupted),  in  South 
Africa:  Hindustani  and  Gujarati,  on  the  east  coast:  Mala- 
gasi  ( Jlalayo-Polynesian),  spoken  in  Madagascar:  English, 
spoken  in  Liberia,  and  used  for  trade  on  and  near  the  Niger 
and  in  South  Africa;  French,  in  Algeria,  Timisia,  Egypt, 
and  Senegambia. 

Bibliography. — (1)  General :  Koelle.  Polyylotta  Africana 
(Lond.  1854);  Bleek,  Compiinitive  Grammar  of  South  Afri- 
can Languaycs  (Loud.  1863-69);  Cust.  MoJeni  Langnages 
of  Africa,  (Loud.  18H3) ;  Last,  I'oliigliiltd  Africana  Orien- 
tal is' {Loud.  1885);  Biittner  (editor),  Ze/Asc/i;-//'/'  fi'ir  Afri- 
kanische  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1887-89).  (3)  Nulia-Fulah : 
Krapf ,  VocabuJary  of  the,  Fiigutiik  Eloikob  (Kwafi)  (Tubin- 
gen, 1854) ;  Erhardt,  Vocabulanj  of  tlte  Enyuduk  Itoigdb 
(Jlasai)  (Ijudwigsburg,  1857);  Keichardt,  Grammar  of  the 
Fulde  Language  (Loml.  1876);  Lepsius,  I'i'ubische  Gram- 
/;(f////i' (Berliu.  1880) ;  Faidhcrbe,  Grammaire  et  Vocabulaire 
de  la,  laiigiie  I'oul  (Paris,  1883).  (8)  Negro:  Koelle,  Gram- 
mar of  the  Borim  or  Kaniiri  Laiignage  (Lond.  18.54) ;  Koelle, 
Grammar  of  tlie  Vei  Language  (Loud.  1854);  Bowen,  Gram- 
mar and  Dictionary  of  tlie  Yoruba  (Yariba)  IjCinguage 
(Washington,  1858);  Schon,  Grammar  of  the  Ilausa  Lan- 
guage (Lond.  1863) ;  Crowther  (S.),  Grammar  and  Vocabu- 
lary of  the  Nupe  Ljonguage  (Lond.  1864) ;  Schlenker,  Gram- 
mar uf  the  Tenrne  Lavguaye  (Lond.  1864);  Mitterrutzner, 
Die  Dinka  S/irache  (Brixen,  1866) :  Mitterrutzner.  Die 
Sprache  der  Bari  (Brixen.  1867):  Christaller,  Grammar  of 
the  Asante  and  Fante  Languages  (Basel,  1875);  Schon, 
Dictionary  of  the  Ilaiisa  Language  (Lond.  1876  and  1888); 
Schlenker,  English-Temne  TJictiimary  (Lond.  1880);  Chris- 
taller,  Dictionary  of  the  Asante  or  Fante  Tjanguage  (Basel, 
1881);  Schon  (V).  Grammar  of  the  3Iende  Language  (Ijond. 
1883);  Schcin,  Vocabulary  of  the  Jlende  Language  (Lond. 
1884);  Schon,  Macjana  Ilausa,,  Natire  Literahire,  etc. 
(Loud.  1885);  MiiUcr,  i>(e  Musuk  Sprache  (Vienna,  1886); 
Johnson  and  Christaller,  Vocabularies  of  the  Niger  and 
Gold  Coa.^t  (Lond.  1886) ;  llenrici.  Lehrbuch  der  Fwhe(¥^v/e) 
Sprache  (Berlin,  1891).  (4)  Bantu:  Bleek.  Languages  of 
Mozambik  (Lond.  1856);  Torrend,  Comparative  Grammar 
of  the  South  African  Bantu  Languages  (Lond.  1891); 
Schleicher,  .1/)'i'A-oh(«7h'  I^etrefaclen  (Berlin,  1891):  Grout, 
Grammar  of  the  Zulu  Language  (Natal,  1859  ;  a  revision  by 
the  author  is  now  ready  for  pres.s) ;  Dohue.  Zulu-Kajir  (i.  e. 
Zulu)  Dictionary  (Cajie  Town,  1857):  Eudemann,  Versuch 
einer  Graninuitik  des  Sotho  (Suto)  (Berlin.  1876);  Crisp, 
Notes  toward  a  Secuana  (Chuaua)  Grammar  (Loud.  1886) ; 
Steere,  Collections  for  a  Handbook  of  the  Yao  Lanc/nage 
(Lond.  1871);  Biittiier.  Iliiltshuehlein  'der  Suaheli  (Swahili) 
Sprache  (Leipzig.  1887);  BUItiier.  Wiirterbuch  der  Suaheli 
Sprache  (Berlin,  1890);  Steere,  Jlandbook  of  the  Swahili 
Language  (Lond.  1884);  Wilson  (C.  T.),  Grammar  of  the 
Luganda  (Ganda)  Language  (Lond.  188:i) ;  Halm  ( H.),  Gram- 
mat  ik  des  Herero  (Berlin,  1857) ;  Kollie,  English-IIerero  Dic- 
tionary (Lond.  1888) :  Cliatclain.  Grammatica,  Elementar 
do  Kimlnindii,  (Mbundu)  (Geneva,  1888-89);  Bentley,  Dic- 
tionary and  Grammar  of  the  Juingo  Language  (Lond.  1887) ; 
Eddie.  Kilolo  ]'ocabulary  (Lond.  1887):  Gachon,  Diction- 
naire  Pongoue  (Mpoiigwe)-/'>rt;/;7()'.s  (Paris.  1881).  (5)  Hot- 
tentot-Bushman :  W;illmann,  Die  Formenlehre  der Namaqua 
t}rache  (Berlin,  1857) ;  Kronlein.  New  Testament  in  the 
ama  language  (Berlin,  18(56) :  llahn  (T.),  Die  Sprache  der 
i\7«n« (Leipzig,  1870);  KWiuleiu.  Wort.srhatz  der  Khoi-Khoin 
(Berlin,  1889) ;  Seidel.  Grammatik  der  Nama  Sprarlie  (Vien- 
na, 1893).  For  a  coniidete  bililiography  of  African  languages 
up  to  1883.  see  Gust's  Modern  Languages  of  Africa  (Lond. 
1883),  which  gives  the  best  general  account  of  these  lan- 
guages, and  to  which  the  writi-r  is  much  indebted.  For 
works  a])pearing  between  1883  and  1891,  see  De  Guirandon's 
African  Lingui-itics  since  1SS3  in  the  Asiatic  Quarterly 
Revieu'  for  July,  1891.  Bibles  and  portions  are  published 
in  many  of  the  African  languages  by  the  various  Bible  socie- 
ties. Robert  J.  Kellogg. 

African  Methodist  Episroinxl  Church:  organized  in 
1816  by  colored  :\Ielhodists  who  down  to  that' date  had 
been  under  the  care  of  the  Metliodist  Episcopal  Church. 
They  elected  Rev.  Richard  Allen  their  first  bishop  in  1816. 
Their  doctrines  ai'e  substantially  the  same  as  those  of  the 
parent  Church.  They  i'e|i4irt  (1891)  4,1.50  ministers  and 
475.565  memliers.  They  have  four  high  academies,  one  uni- 
versity, and  two  weekly  journals.  Steps  for  the  union  of 
this  body  with  the  A  friean  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church 
have  been  taken.     See  Metiiooism. 


APKICAX  MKTHODIST  EPISCOPAL  ZIOX  CHrRCH 


AGASSIZ 


71 


African  Motliodist  Episcopal  Zion  Chnrcli:  formed 
in  1820  !))•  a  si<K'Ssioii  ot  Afrit-an  Mctliixiists  from  a  coiigre- 

fatioii  of  tlie  Methodist  Kpiscopal  t'liurcli  in  New  York  city, 
'hey  hi'ld  their  first  annual  conferenee  in  1S21 :  it  consisted 
of  twenty-two  preachei's,  and  re|)orled  1,42()  clinreli  mem- 
bers. In  18:i>S  the  conference  elected  Kev.  Cliristopher  Rush 
its  fii'st  bishop,  with  the  title  of  superintendent.  Its  super- 
intendents are  elected  quadrennially  l>y  the  general  confer- 
ence. They  report  (1891)  ;S,650  ministei's  and  425,000  church 
members.  Their  doctrines  and  ecclesiastical  system  are 
mostly  copied  from  those  of  the  Jlcthoilist  Kpiscopal  Church. 
Measures  have  bei>n  taken  for  \iMion  with  the  African 
Methodist  Kpis(o|ial  Church.     See  .Mhthodism. 

Africa'niis,  Sk.xtus  .Jui.iis:  a  Christian  writer  eminent 
for  his  learning;  d.  about  2:!2  a.  n.  He  wrote  a  jjeneral 
chronology  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  221  A.  D.,  in 
which  he  fixes  the  date  of  the  creation  at  .■J4!t!)  B.  c.  Sec  II. 
Gelzer,  .V.  J.  A.  und  die  byzantiscke  Clironographie  (Leipzig, 
1880-8.5,  2  parts). 

Aflerfflows:  unusual  and  brilliant  twilight  coloi-s  after 
sunset;  those  belore  sunrise  are  called  foreglows;  the  red 
colors  are  predoiuitumt,  but  others  are  seen.  Afterglows 
usually  occur  after  great  volcanic  eru|)tions.  aiul  spread 
from  the  volcano  with  great  speed  and  to  great  distani'cs. 
After  the  eruption  in  ISSJ  of  Krakatoa  in  the  Straits  of 
Sunda  (the  greatest  known  to  history),  the  reuuirkable  fore 
and  after  glows  spread  around  the  earth  within  six  months 
(from  August  to  .Jainuiry),  and  recurred  for  several  succeed- 
ing autumns  with  decrea-sing  splendor.  They  are  supposed 
to  be  due  to  an  innnense  mnnber  of  very  ii'.iinite  solid  |iarti- 
des  reuniining  suspended  in  the  air.  See  lit-purt  of  the  Kra- 
katua  Ciimmitlee  nf  the  Hinjitl  Sofietij  (1888).      M.  W.  II. 

Aftoil :  a  town  of  Union  co.,  la.  (for  location  of  county. 
see  nuip  of  Iowa.  ref.  7-K):  on  railroad  junction.  180  miles  \V. 
of  Burlington  and  .50  miles  S.  \V.  of  l)es  Moines.  It  has  a 
fine  normal  and  liusiness  colli'ge.  splendid  cil  v  schools,  opera- 
house,  and  electric  lights.  Pop.  (1S80)  l,2;/l  ;  (1890)  1,045; 
(1895)  1,144.  KwToK  ok  "Enterprise." 

Afze'lius.  Adam:  Swedish  naturalist;  b.  at  Larf.  West 
Gothland.  Oct.  7,  1750;  became  tutor  in  the  University  of 
Upsala,  1799;  Professor  Extraordiiuiry  of  Materia  Medica, 
1812;  d.  in  Upsala,  .Ian,  20,  1837.  Ile'edited  the  autobiog- 
rauhy  of  Linna'us  (Upsala,  1823),  Several  species  of  plants 
called  Afzelia  are  named  after  him, 

Afzeliiis,  Arviu  Augi-.st:  Swedish  scholar  and  man  of 
letters;  b.  at  Kjelliiker,  Alav  0,  1785;  pastor  at  Enkoping, 
1821  ;  d,  there  .Se|)t.  2.5,  1871.  His  translation  of  the  Poetic 
Edda  (1818),  hiscollection  of  popular  ballads.  Srenska  Folk- 
visor  f  rem  Fornlidm,  edited  by  Geijer  and  Afzelius  (4  vols., 
1814-16;  new  ed.  1880),  and  liis  Swedish  history,  Swenska 
FolkctK  .SV/y»-//((/ir/t;- (1839),  etc,  did  much  to  promote  the 
romantic  and  national  feeling  in  Swedish  literature, 

G,  L.  KrrTKED(iE. 

Ag'ades,  At''adez,or  Ag'doz:  a  city  of  Central  Africa; 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Asben  ;  in  an  oasis  of  the  Sahara; 
lat.  16  30  X.,  Ion,  8  12'  E,  (see  ma|)  of  Africa,  ref.  3-D), 
It  formerly  had  a  population  of  about  .50,000,  which  is  now 
greatly  reduced.  It  is  visited  by  merchants  from  the  Sudan, 
and  others  from  Northern  Africa.     Pop.  about  7,000. 

AganuMii'iiou  (Gr.  'Ayofiffivuv):  the  son  of  Atreus,  King 
of  Myeena';  a  brother  of  Menelau.s.  He  had  the  chief 
connnand  of  the  Greeks  at  the  siege  of  Trov,  where  he 
quarreled  with  Achilles.  He,  as  well  as  his  brother,  was 
often  called  At  rides  (i.e.  son  or  descendant  of  Atreus). 
After  his  return  from  Troy  to  his  own  kingdom  he  \vas 
murdered  by  his  wife  Cly'tcmnc-stra  and  ^I'^gisthus.  He 
was  the  father  of  Iphigenia,  Elecli-a,  and  Orestes, 

Afir'aini :  a  South  Auu>rican  bird,  the  P.so phia  crepitans, 
called  the  trumpeter,  from  a  peculiar  sound  which  it  \itters. 
It  is  as  large  as  a  large  pheasant,  but  has  longer  legs  and 
neck.     It  can  lie  perfectly  domesticated, 

A^amu'liiiilli :  the  asexual  generation  of  those  animals  or 
plants  which  exhibit  altermition  of  generations.  See  Alter- 
nation OF  Ge.S'KRATIONS. 

.Aganiogeii'esis  [from   Gr.  iyatioi.  unmarried  -f-  yeftiris. 

birt  h  I ;  any  form  of  reproduction  that  occurs  without  conju- 
gatio.i  I  t  the  opposite  sexes,  as  by  division  or  budding,  the 
coinu'.un  method  with  the  Protozoa  and  not  rare  with  many 
higher  forms.  In  many  forms  the  ova  even  may  thus  de- 
velop asexually,  or  they  may  develoji  liy  being  fertilized 
(sexually),  and  the  form  thus  pnxhiced  may  reproduce  itself 


organically  for  a  certain  mnnber  of  generations,  when  the 
bust  of  the  series  will  produce  o\a  to  be  fertilized.  See  Al- 
ternation OK  Generations  and  Parthenogenesis  for  ex- 
amples. David  S.  Jordan, 

Agr'apa^  [Gr.  oyoiroi.  love-fea.st.s,  from  iydm).  brotherly 
love]:  love-feasts,  or  feasts  of  charily,  in  use  among  the 
early  Christians,  After  the  celebration  of  the  communion, 
the  oblations  \yhich  had  been  made  in  the  church,  consisting 
of  meat  and  bread,  which  the  rich  had  brought  from  their 
houses,  were  consumed  at  a  connnon  feast.  Abuses  having 
crept  in,  the  two  services  were  .separated,  and  the  love-feasts 
disappeared  in  the  eighth  century,  A  modification  of  them 
exists  among  the  Jloravians  and  Methodists,  but  they  are 
not  meals,  only  religious  services  at  which  bread  and  water 
are  distributed,  Revised  by  S,  M,  Jackson. 

As'apem'oue  [from  Gr.  d^ain),  brot herly  love,  and  twnri, 
abode];  a  community  of  fanatics  and  free-lovers  formed 
in  1849  at  Charlynch,  in  Somei-setshire,  Eugl;md.  by  Henry 
James  Prince,  who  was  previously  a  clergyman  of  the  An- 
glican Church,  His  disciples,  known  as  •' Lampeter  Breth- 
ren," or  "  Family  of  Love,  hold  their  pro[)erty  in  common, 
live  in  splendid  style,  and  pass  their  time  in  voluptuous  case, 
Mr.  Prince  makes  extravagant  pretensions  as  an  apostle  or 
reformer  in  religion,  and  it  is  said  that  he  is  styled  "(iod  in- 
cariuite  "  by  his  followers,  who  are  .souu'times  called  Prince- 
ites.    See  77ic  SW'wIjfri/  IIoiLif  .Maffmiiii'  {Loiul.),  Nov..  1S!)1, 

Agapc'ta!  (Gr.  ayainiTai.  beloved  women):  those  virgins 
and  widows  among  the  primitive  Christians  who  lived  in  a 
state  of  ••  spiritual  love"  with  monks  and  other  celibates. 
This  practice  was  condemned  by  the  Lateran  Council  in 
1139. 

Agapetiis:  name  of  two  ])opes.  I.  Became  pojie  in  .5:^5, 
when  already  an  old  man;  was  sent  as  legate  to  Constanti- 
nople by  Theodahad.  the  Gothic  king;  there  d.  April  21,536. 
II.  Became  pope  946;  died  Xov.,  955. 

.\'gurdll.  Karl  Adolpu  :  .Swedish  botanist;  b.  in  Scania, 
Jan.  23.  1785  :  ordained  a  priest  in  1816.  lie  wrote,  besides 
other  works.  iS'/wf/ra  of  Sfa weeds  (>^])cr\i'f^  Alg;n-um,  1820-28) 
aiul  Systematic  Arrani/eme/if  of  Seaweeds  (Systema  Alga- 
rum.  1824).  D.  Jan.  18.  18.59,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
T.  G.  Agardh,  an  equally  distiuguished  algologist. 

Ag'aric  [Lat.  Agar'icum,  from  Gr.  ayapiK6v]  :  a  fungus 
belonging  to  the  genus  Ayaricus.  the  species  of  which  are 
very  numerous.  True  agarics  have  radiant  gills,  while 
Boleti  have  tubes  beneath  the  cap  or  pileus.  The  Ayaricus 
campestris  or  common  mushroom  and  some  othei-s  are  deli- 
cate articles  of  food;  the  Ayaricus  niuscarius  and  other 
species  are  dangerous  ]ioisous  ;  many  of  the  species  are  [lop- 
nlarly  called  load-stools  ;  lunnerous  small  ephemeral  species 
ap]iear  to  lie  harndess.  The  Ayaricus  otearius  is  remarkable 
for  being  phosphorescent.  The  common  mushroom  is  fre- 
quently cultivated,  both  in  the  open  garden  and  in  sheds. 
See  FuNoi. 

Ag'a'sias  of  Eph'esiis:  a  (ireek  sculptor;  sunnosed  to 
have  lived  about  400  n.  c.  The  fine  statue  called  "  Tlie  Glad- 
iator "  or  '■  Borghese  Fighter,"  or,  by  modern  arclueologists, 
the  '•  Runner  in  the  lloplitodromos,''ono  of  the  finest  pieces 
of  ancient  sculpture  and  one  of  the  great  ornaments  of  the 
Louvre  Museum,  is  by  him.     See  Hoplitoiiromos. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Asrassiz,  mig'a-see,  or  a5i-ga1ise"e,  Alexander,  LL,  D, ;  sci- 
entist: son  of  Louis  Agassiz;  b.  at  X^eiuliatcl.  Switzerland, 
Dec.  17,  1835;  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  1855;  received 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  from  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School.  1857;  went  to  California,  18.5!),  iis  an  assistant  on 
the  Coast  Survey;  was  an  assistant  in  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zocilogy,  1860-65.  In  1S65  he  made  a  venture  in 
coal-miinng  in  Peimsylvania.  and  this  led  to  the  great  ven- 
ture of  his  life — the  developing  of  the  two  richest  copper 
mines  in  the  world,  the  Calumet  and  the  Hccla  mines  of 
milivc  co|ij>er  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  He  spent 
the  years  of  1869-70  in  Enro])e,  visiting  different  museums, 
and  upon  his  return  resumed  the  duties  of  assistant  curator 
of  the  Jluseum  of  Comp.'U'ative  Zoology.  After  the  death  of 
his  father  (1873)  he  was  appointed  curator,  a  position  which 
he  held  until  1885.  when  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health, 
in  the  meantime  doing  much  to  develop  the  museum  both 
by  his  wealth  and  by  his  experience.  His  winters  have  been 
spent  in  deep-sea  dredging  in  connection  with  the  Coa.st; 
Survey.  He  has  written  many  papers  upon  scientific  sub- 
jects; among  the  niure  important  are  Murine  Animals  of 
Massachusttts  Bay,  by  A.  Agassiz  and  Elizabeth  Aga.ssiz 


72 


AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION 


AGAVE 


(1871);  yorth  American  Acalephm  (1865);  Revision  of  the 
Echini  (1872);  Korlh  American  Sfartishes  (1877);  Report 
on  the  iSchini  of  the  Challenger  E.rpe(lition ;  and  several 
extensive  monographs  on  tlie  tlecp-sea  animals  collected  by 
tlic  Coast  Survey  steamers. 

Asrassiz  Association :  a  society  fii-st  organized  in  1879 
liy  llarlan  II.  Ballard,  principal  of  Lenox  (JIass.)  Academy, 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  scientific  interest  among  his 
own  students,  and  named  in  honor  of  the  great  scientist, 
Louis  Agassiz.  In  1880  a  general  association  was  organized, 
which  has  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the  world,  and  in- 
cludes among  its  numbers  not  only  young  persons,  Ijut  also 
many  distinguished  scientists  who  recognize  the  educational 
value  of  the  movement.  The  local  divisions  are  called 
chapters,  and  must  consist  of  not  less  than  four  members. 
Persons  not  connected  with  a  chapter  may,  on  payment  of 
a  small  fee,  become  corresponding  membe:-s,  and  enjoy  all 
the  advantages  of  the  association,  which  include  free  instruc- 
tion by  correspondence  on  scientific  questions,  exchange  of 
specimens,  etc.  The  badge  worn  by  members  is  a  Swiss 
cross,  bearing  the  lettei-s  "  A.  A."  and  the  innnber  of  the 
chapter.  The  association  offei's  prizes  for  original  researches. 
The  number  of  chapters  is  about  1,000  and  of  members 
about  10,000.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Agassiz,  L.iKE:  the  name  given  by  Upham  to  an  extinct 
Pleistocene  lake  of  the  last  glacial  epoch,  occupying  the 
plain  of  the  Red  River  of  tlie  North,  in  Minnesota  and 
North  Dakota,  and  thence  N.  into  Canada,  where  its  bound- 
ary has  not  lieen  yet  fully  determined.  Its  area,  as  indi- 
cated by  well-marked  shore-lines  and  deltas,  measured  from 
;^0  to  100  miles  E.  and  \Y.,  and  400  or  more  miles  N.  and  S. 
Its  depth  was  from  300  to  400  feet.  According  to  the  studies 
of  L'pham  and  othei'S,  Lake  Agassiz  was  held  up  on  the  N.  by 
the  retreating  ice-sheet  of  the  last  glacial  invasion.  Its  level 
was  delernuned  by  the  height  of  the  lowest  pass  in  the  in- 
closing slopes  of  land  to  the  S.,  where  a  channel  .50  or  more 
feet  deep,  50  miles  long,  and  a  mile  or  more  wide  may  Ije 
plainly  seen,  through  which  the  overflow  of  the  lake  reached 
the  Minnesota  river,  whose  valley  it  enlarged  on  the  way  to 
the  ^lississippi.  A  nmnber  of  shore-lines  may  be  traced  from 
100  to  400  miles  N.  from  the  outlet,  all  rising  at  gentle  but 
unequal  slopes  of  half  a  foot  to  a  foot  or  more  in  a  mile; 
hence  it  is  inferred  that  while  the  waters  of  the  lake  beat  on 
the  shore  and  received  the  deltas  of  inflowing  rivers,  the  land 
was  gradually  rising  from  a  depressed  condition  below  its 
present  altitude  in  the  N.  The  deltas  formed  by  the  Biifl'alo, 
Pembina,  AssiniV)oine,  and  other  rivers  now  form  sandy 
plains  many  square  miles  in  extent,  trenched  by  the  rivers  that 
l>uilt  them.  The  plain  of  the  lake  bed  is  remarkably  level, 
descending  northward  about  a  foot  to  a  mile.  The  Red  river 
and  its  branches  have  only  cut  narrow  and  shallow  channels 
in  the  plain,  few  and  far  between.  Other  similar  expanses 
of  fresh  water,  marginal  to  the  retreating  ice-sheet,  occurred 
in  Michigan,  Ohio,  and  Western  New  York,    W.  M.  Davis. 

Agassiz.  Loris  John  Rudolph.  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. : 

Swiss  naturalist  and  geologist :  b.  in  the  parish  of  Motier, 
near  Lake  Neuchatel,  May  28,  1807;  son  of  a  Protestant 
minister.  lie  studieil  the  medical  sciences  at  Zurich,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Munich,  where  he  gradu.'ited.  His  first  work  was 
a  Latin  description  of  the  fishes  which  Martins  and  .Spix 
brought  from  Brazil,  pulilished  in  1829-31.  He  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  fossil  fishes,  and  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Neuchatel  in  1833.  l)uring 
a  visit  to  Paris  he  formed  friendships  with  Cuvierand  Hum- 
boldt. His  reputation  was  increased  by  a  great  work  in 
French,  entitled  Researches  on  Fossil  Fishes  (5  vols..  1832- 
42.  with  more  than  300  plates),  in  which  he  made  impor- 
tant improvements  in  the  cla.ssification  of  fishes.  Having 
l)assed  many  summers  among  the  Alps  in  researches  on 
glaciers,  he  propounded  some  new  and  interesting  ideas  on 
geology  anil  the  agency  of  glaciers  in  his  Etudes  sur  les 
Glaciers  (1840)  and  his  Si/slime  Glaciaire  (1847),  which  are 
among  his  principal  works. 

In  1846  lie  crossed  the  .\tlantie  on  a  scientific  excursion 
to  the  U.  S.,  in  which  lie  took  up  his  permanent  residence. 
He  accepted,  aliout  the  beginning  of  1848,  a  chair  of  zoology 
and  geology  at  Ilarvanl ;  he  explored  the  natural  history  of 
the  L'.  .S.  at  difTerent  limes,  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the 
study  of  nature  in  tlie  U.  S.  He  rejected  the  Darwinian 
theory  of  organic  development.  In  1865  he  conducted  an 
expedition  to  Urazil.  ami  explored  the  lower  Amazon  and  its 
tributaries,  in  which  it  Isstated  that  he  discovered  more  than 
1,800  new  species  of  fishes.    He  became  in  1868  a  non-resident 


Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  V.  Early  in  Dec,  1871,  he  accompanied  the  Hassler 
expedition,  under  Prof.  Pierce,  to  the  South  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans  and  the  western  coast  of  America.  Among 
his  important  works  are  Outlines  of  Comparative  Phi/si- 
oloyy  (1848);  a  Journey  to  Brazil  (chiefly  written  by  his 
wife,  1868) ;  anil  Contributions  to  the  2\'atural  History  of 
the  United  Stales,  an  expensive  work  which  was  to  extend  to 
ten  vols.  4to.  of  which  the  first  four  volumes  appeared  1857- 
62.  Probably  no  one  except  Hugh  Jliller  did  more  to  popu- 
larize science  in  our  time  than  Agassiz,  and  no  other  teacher 
trained  so  many  young  and  rising  naturalists.  Yet  it  may 
be  observed  that  .some  of  his  favorite  opinions  (e.  g.  of  the 
absolute  immutability  of  siiecies)  are  not  now  helil  Ijy  many 
living  naturalists.  More,  however,  than  almost  any  other 
leader  in  modern  science,  Agassiz  insisted  upon  a  theistic 
view  of  creation,  as  opposed  to  the  idea  of  the  self-evolution 
of  uncreated  nature.  "  He  is  not  merely  a  scientific  thinker," 
says  Whipple,  "  he  is  a  scientific  force  ;  and  no  small  por- 
tion of  the  immense  influence  he  exerts  is  due  to  the  energy, 
intensity,  and  geniality  which  distinguish  the  nature  of  the 
man.  In  personal  intercourse  he  inspires  as  well  as  per- 
forms, cpmmunicates  not  onlv  knowledge,  but  the  love  of 
knowledge."     D.  at  Cambridge.  Jlass.,  Dec.  14,  1873. 

RevLsed  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Ag'ate  [Fr.  ngathe.  Ital.  agatha.  from  Lat.  achates  = 
Gr.  axoTjjs.  the  agate,  whence  directly  Eng.  achate'\  :  a  min- 
eral much  used  for  ornamental  purjioses;  a  variety  of  quartz 
marked  with  veins  or  layers,  which  are  difTerent  in  color 
and  often  concentric.  This  structure  is  due  to  the  mode 
of  formation,  in  successive  layei's  on  the  walls  of  cavities, 
usually  in  volcanic  rocks.  Agates  are  found  in  all  countries, 
and  are  much  used  for  ornaments  and  utensils,  such  as  seals, 
ring  and  pin  stones,  vases,  cups,  mortars,  etc.  Jlany  of  the 
])olished  agates  are  very  beautiful,  and  their  preparation  has 
created  an  important  industry  at  Oberstein.  in  Germany. 
Here  great  skill  is  displayed  in  cutting  and  polishing  agates, 
and  still  more  in  coloring  them.  A  large  part  of  the  Ober- 
stein agates  come  originally  from  South  America.  See  Chal- 
cedony. 

.4g'atlia,  Saixt:  a  Sicilian  virgin  and  martyi'.  who  was 
put  to  death  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  liy  torture  administered 
by  Quintianus,  a  Roman  judge,  in  revenge  for  her  resistance 
to  his  attacks  upon  her  virtue,  Feb.  5,  251  A.  D.  She  is  the 
patron  saint  of  Malta,  and  her  veil  carried  in  procession,  it 
is  .said,  |ias  frequently  averted  eruptions  of  Mt.  Etna.  See 
Butler's  Lives  of  tlie  Saints. 

.\ga'tllias  (surnamed  Asiaxus)  :  Greek  historian  and  poet ; 
b.  about  .536  A.  D.  at  Jlyrina.  in  Asia  Jlinor;  became  an  ad- 
vocate in  Constantinople,  and  d.  there  .582.  A  history  of. 
contemporary  events  is  extant,  and  some  100  poems  of  his 
are  preserved  in  the  Greek  anthology.  See  edition  by  L. 
Dindorf  (vol.  ii.  Ili-'st.  Grtfc.  minor).  Leipzig.  1871. 

Agatll'ot'les  (Gr.  'AyaSoKXys):  tyrant  of  Svi'acuse :  b.  in 
Sicily,  361  B.  r. ;  originally  a  potter,  he  raised  himself  by  liis 
talents  to  a  high  military  rank,  and  also  distinguished  him- 
self as  an  orator.  Ha\ing  massacred  a  large  number  of  the 
prominent  and  respectable  men  of  Syracuse,  he  obtained  tlie 
supreme  power  in  317  B.  c.  He  afterward  waged  war  against 
the  Carthaginians,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories  in 
Africa,  Init  was  subsequently  defeated  by  them.  In  306  B.  c. 
a  peace  was  made,  which  secured  to  both  parties  their  former 
possessions.  D.  in  2S9  B.  r.  His  death  is  ascribed  to  a  poi- 
soned toothpick  given  to  him  at  the  instigation  of  his  grand- 
son Archagathus.  See  his  life  bv  Rud.  .Schubert,  Breslau, 
1887. 

Ag'atlion.  or  A'aratlio  ('\yaea)v) :  tragic  poet :  b.  at  Athens 
about  450  A.  D. :  a  friend  of  Eurijiides  and  a  butt  of  Aris- 
tophanes in  the  Thesimipliiiriazu.'iw.  He  gained  the  prize 
in  416,  and  the  banquet  which  he  gave  on  that  occasion 
furnished  the  setting  for  Vhito's  Symposium.  Dainty  and 
dandified  in  his  art  as  in  his  person,  he  did  not  fall  far  short 
of  genius,  and  the  scant  fragments  of  his  tragedies  still  bear 
witness  to  his  antithetic  style  and  his  e|)igrammatic  wit. 
Ed.  bv  Nauck.  Frac/menta  Trtn/icorum  Gnvcorum,  2  ed. 
pp.  763-69.     D.  at  Pella,  about  400  a.  d. 

B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Agatized  Wood :  Sec  Chalcedony. 

Aga've  [Lat.  form  of  Gr.  'A^au^,  prop,  name  mean- 
ing noble]:  a  genus  of  138  species  of  jilants  of  the  family 
Amari/llidacere:  mostly  natives  of  tropical  America.  The 
most  remarkable  species  is  the  Agave  (mu  rli-ana.  the  maguey 


AGDE 


AGENT 


73 


of  the  Mexicans,  etc..  commonly  called  American  aloe  or 
eenturv  Jilaiit.  The  latter  name  oriifinaled  in  an  incorrect 
opinion  tliat  it  bears  no  flowei's  until  it  lias  attained  the  ajre 
of  100  years.  Tliis  ajre.  or  near  it,  is  sometimes  attained  in 
temperate  climates,  hut  in  hotter  regions  it  often  blossoms 
when  less  than  ten  years  old.  When  this  takes  place  a  bnd 
rises  from  the  crown  of  thick  and  fleshy  spiny-toothed  leaves, 
which  lengthens  at  first  at  the  rale  of  a  foot  or  two  a  day 
into  a  scajie  from  20  to  30  feet  high,  bearing  a  panicle  of 
greenish-yellow  dowel's,  sometimes  as  many  as  4,000  in  num- 
ber. After  flowering  and  maturing  seed,  the  plant  dies, 
.lust  when  the  (low<>r  stalk  is  ready  to  appear,  the  Mexicans 
cut  away  the  bud  and  scoop  out  the  center ;  into  this  a  sweet 
sap,  wliieh  would  have  supported  the  rapid  growth,  is  abun- 
dantly poured.  This  is  evaporated  into  sirup  or  sugar,  or 
fermented  into  a  kind  of  beer  or  cider  called  pulque,  the 
favorite  beverage  in  Mexico.  From  the  pukjuc  a  strong 
ardent  spirit  (mescal)  is  obtained  by  distillation.  The  leaves 
yield  strong  aii<l  useful  fibei-s  (pita  thread,  sisal  hemi)),  the 
latter  from  Ayave  riyidd.  Other  species  are  cultivated 
among  tender  succulent  plants.  A  small  one  is  a  native  of 
Virginia,  Illiiioi.s,  etc.        Revised  by  Cuarles  E.  Be.ssey. 

.\g(le  (mw.  Ag'atlia):  town  of  France;  department  of 
Heiiiult;  on  the  river  lleranlt  and  Canal  du  Midi,  or  Lan- 
giiedoc  Canal ;  2  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  18  by 
rail  E.  of  Hezieres  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  9-G).  In  the 
vicinity  is  an  extinct  volcano.  The  town  is  mostly  built  of 
bhfck  basalt,  and  is  po|}iilaily  called  the  Black  Town.  Here 
are  a  tine  old  Gothic  cathedral  and  a  college,  and  a  school  of 
navigation.  Soap  and  verdigris  are  manufactured,  and  the 
town  has  an  active  trade  in  wine,  oil,  silk,  grain,  etc.  Its 
liarlior  is  in  lat.  4;J'  17'  N..  Ion.  3'  28'  E.,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
lleranlt  river,  is  accessible  to  ships  of  200  tons,  and  is  de- 
fended by  a  fort.     It  is  on  the  Canal  du  Jlidi.     Pop.  about 

8,yoo. 

A^C  :  (1)  the  whole  duration  of  the  life  of  a  man  or  other 
creature:  (2)  a  certain  portion  or  period  of  human  life, 
which,  according  to  Sliakspeare,  is  divided  into  seven  ages: 
(3)  the  time  when  a  person  is  authorized  by  law  to  act  for 
him.self,  and  is  released  from  the  control  of  his  parents  or 

fuardians.  According  to  the  laws  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
'.  S.,  a  person  beeonies  of  age  when  he  or  she  is  21  years 
old.  Before  this  age  one  can  not  vote  or  make  a  valid  will. 
A  citizen  of  the  U.  S.  can  not  be  a  Senator  before  the  age  of 
30,  nor  President  before  the  age  of  35.  In  Great  Britain 
men  are  eligible  to  Parliament  at  21.  The  natural  divisions 
of  human  life  are  infancy,  childhood,  boyhood  (or  girlhood), 
adolescence,  manhood  (or  womanhood),  and  old  age.  The 
age  of  puberty  is  14  or  15.  The  63(1  year  is  called  the  grand 
climacteric.  Some  trees  are  believed  to  live  to  an  age  of 
4,000  years  or  more.  The  average  life  of  a  horse  is  from  25 
to:jOyeai-s:  of  an  elephant,  probably  about  200;  of  a  dog, 
from  12  to  15.  Fislies  are  remarkable  for  longevity,  and  a 
carp,  it  is  said,  has  been  known  to  live  200  years. 

Age.  in  chronology  and  history,  is  sometimes  used  as 
synonymous  with  century,  and  sometimes  also  with  a  gener- 
ation. Writers  differ  in  respect  to  the  period  included  under 
what  is  calleil  the  Middln  Agen.  but  they  are  commonly  iin- 
dei-stood  to  begin  al)out  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  to  ex- 
tend to  the  fifteenth  century. 

Age,  in  literature,  is  a  period  nsually  bearing  the  name  of 
some  powerful  person  who  flourished  during  that  time. 
Among  the  most  memorable  of  these  are  the  age  of  Peri- 
cles, the  Augustan  age,  the  age  of  Leo  X.,  and  the  age  of 
Elizabeth  (or  Elizabethan  age). 

AoE  is  also  used  to  ilesignate  one  of  the  successive  epochs 
r  stages  of  civilization  in  universal  history  or  mrthology. 
The  Greek  anil  Roman  poets  imagined  a  series  of  four  ago.s — 
the  Golden. the  Silver.the  Brazen, and  the  Iron.  Anancient 
and  widespread  tradition  commemorates  the  pristine  inno- 
cence, peace,  and  happiness  of  the  primeval  (iolilen  Age  un- 
iler  the  reign  of  Saturn.  The  other  three  were  regarded  as 
successive  degrees  of  declension  from  that  primitive  state. 
The  pre/iisforic  ages  in  modern  anthropology  are  usually 
called  the  older  and  newer  stone  ages  (Paleolithic  and 
Keolithic  ages)  and  the  age  of  bronze. 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Aaron,  aa-zh5iV  (anc.  At/in' num):  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Lol-ct-tiaronne.  l'"rancc;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
(iaronne,  S5  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Bordeau.x  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  8-E).  It  is  jileasantly  situated  in  a  fertile  coun- 
try, and  has  an  active  trade  in  brandy,  prunes,  leather,  wine, 
mailder,  and  other  articles.     Here  are  a  college  and  a  public 


lilirary ;  also  manufactures  of  serge,  cotton  prints,  and  linen 
goods!  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  a  high  court  of  justice. 
Joseph  Scaliger  was  born  in  tlie  vicinity  of  Ageii.  Pop. 
(1886)22,055. 

Agren'da  [neuter  plural  of  agendus.  gerundive  of  a'gere, 
do]:  things  to  be  done;  apidied  by  theologians  to  practical 
duties  as  distinguished  from  the  credeiida  (things  to  be 
believed),  or  doctrines  that  must  be  accepted  as  articles  of 
faith.  In  the  ancient  church  it  signified,  first,  divine  service 
in  general;  and,  second,  the  nia.ss  in  particular.  It  is  also 
applied  to  churcli  books  giving  the  order  of  church  services. 
The  service-books  of  the  Lutheran  Church  arc  called  agenda. 

Agr^nois,  a"ii'.2ha'nwa"!i' :  a  former  district  of  France,  in 
GciEXNE  (o.  v.);  area  about  1.080  sq.  miles.  It  is  now  com- 
prised in  the  dejiartment  of  Lot-et-Garoune. 

Ago'lior  (Gr.  'Ayiyap):  in  classic  mythology,  a  king  of 
Phoenicia  and  a  son  of  Neptune  ;  was  the  father  of  Cadmus, 
Pliu'iii-x,  and  Europa. 

A'geut  [Lat.  ageng.-tis;  pres.  partie.  of  a'gere,  act]:  in 
law,  one  who  acts  for  another.  This  is  an  extensive  topic, 
and  must  be  treated  with  a  brevity  scarcely  admitting  even 
a  sketch  of  its  rules.  Many  of  its  princi|)les  closely  resemble 
the  corresponding  topic  in  the  Roman  law  {mandal).  so  that 
they  are  of  quite  general  application  in  tlie  jurisprudence 
of  civilized  countries.  Agency  may  be  created  by  exjiress 
words  or  by  implication.  There  arc  cases  in  which  an  ex- 
press authority  in  writing  is  necessary  by  statutory  law.  It 
is  a  general  rule  that  when  an  act  is  to  be  done  un<ler  seal 
the  agent's  authority  must  be  of  the  same  grade.  Should  a 
person  act  as  agent  without  authority,  the  subsequent  ratifi- 
cation of  the  act  will  make  it  valid  aiid  binding  on  the  per- 
son for  whom  it  was  done,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  he  liad 
originally  directed  it.  An  agency  is  often  implied  from  the 
course  of  business.  A  wife  who  sells  goods  in  her  husband's 
shop,  or  receives  payment  of  a  debt  due  him  with  his  knowl- 
edge and  without  objection,  may  be  deemed  to  be  his  agent, 
and  may  bind  him  in  subsequent  transactions  of  a  similar 
kind.  An  agiaicy  is  in  general  revocable  either  by  the  prin- 
cipal's own  act,  executed  with  suflicienl  notoriety,  or  by 
some  event  which  renders  the  ])erfonnancc  of  the  act  im- 
practicable. Thus  the  death  of  the  ]iiiiieipal.  in  general, 
causes  an  instantaneous  revocation.  There  is  a  class  of 
powers,  termed  "  powers  coupled  with  an  interest,"  which  in 
their  nature  are  irrevocable.  'J'here  must  be  in  this  case  an 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  agent  in  the  property  over  which 
the  power  is  to  be  exercised.  An  illustration  is  the  pledge 
of  goods  for  a  debt,  with  a  jwwer  to  sell  in  default  of  pay- 
ment. The  leading  points  in  agency  are  the  relations  of 
principals  to  third  pei-sons.  those  "of  the  agent  to  thir<l  per- 
sons, and  the  luutual  relations  between  the  principal  and 
agent. 

I.  The  Relolioii.'i  of  the  Prinripol  to  Third  Fer/ioMS. — It 
is  a  rule  that  when  an  agent  acts  within  the  scope  of  his  ein- 
ployment  he  may  bind  his  principal.  This  is  on  the  jn-inci- 
jile  of  idintity.  There  is  another  class  of  cases  where  the 
agent  is  not  acting  within  the  scope  of  his  employment,  but 
the  principal  has  given  him  the  «/>/«'«ra»(T  of  autliority.  and 
the  third  person  with  whom  he  deals  has  no  adequate  means 
of  distinguishing  between  his  apparent  and  actual  authority. 
In  this  case  the  principal  is  liable  under  a  rule  that  where 
one  of  two  innocent  persons  must  suffer,  that  one  should 
sustain  the  loss  who  has  jiut  it  in  the  power  of  the  wrong- 
doer to  commit  the  wrong.  It  is  in  substance  the  <loitrine 
of  EsToi'i'EL  i.N  Pais  (7.  i:).  Under  this  doctrine  usage 
has  great  effect  upon  the  power  of  agents  to  bind  their 
jirincipals.  There  is  a  large  number  of  agents  who  have 
known  and  recognized  functions,  such  as  factoi-s.  brokers, 
and  cashiers  of  banks.  It  is  the  well-settled  rule  that  these 
persons,  acting  within  the  usage  of  their  business,  may  bind 
their  ])rincipals.  notwithstanding  instructions  to  the  con- 
trary, unless  these  restrictions  are  brought  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  persons  with  whom  they  deal.  It  is  a  general  rule 
that  when  a  power  is  conl'erreil  upon  an  agent,  he  has  by 
implication  such  incidental  authority  as  is  necessary  to 
carry  his  power  into  effect.  An  authority  created  by  writ- 
ing inust  be  followed,  and  an  act  in  excess  of  it  is  unauthor- 
ized and  not  binding  on  the  lu-iiicipal.  The  mode  of  exccvi- 
tion  deserves  notice.  The  agent  should  |iiirport  to  biiul  his 
principal.  This  rule  is  particularly  apiilical>le  to  sealed  in- 
struments. Should  an  agent  have  a  so-called  power  of 
attorney  to  execute  a  conveyance  of  land,  the  deed  should 
purjiort  to  be  the  act  of  the  principal  by  the  agent,  and 
should  be  subscribed  in  that  manner:  otherwise  it  would  be 


AGESILAUS  II. 


AGXES  SOREL 


at  most  the  agenfs  deed,  and  not  that  of  tlie  prineipai. 
Where  there  is  no  technical  rule  in  the  way.  a  princijial 
may  be  liable  even  thoii<rli  undiscovered,  a.s  he  must  be 
deemed  to  be  i<lentiiied  with  the  ajient.  On  the  general 
principles  of  the  law  of  contracts,  the  principal  can  take  ad- 
vantage of  a  contract  made  in  his  behalf  with  a  third  per- 
son, and  enforce  it  by  action  in  his  own  name,  even  though 
he  were  not  at  tlic  time  disclosed,  subject  to  tlie  qualifica- 
tion that  the  rights  of  the  other  party  to  the  contract  are 
not  prejudiced.  A  principal  is  liable  for  the  fraudulent  or 
wrongful  acts  of  his  agent  acting  within  his  employment. 
He  can  not  take  the  benefit  of  the  agent's  acts  and  avoid 
their  burdens.  So  complete  is  the  identification  of  these 
parties  that  notice  to  an  agent  on  the  subject  of  his  employ- 
ment is  legally  notice  to  the  jirincipal.  although  it  be  not  in 
fact  communicated.  This  rule  often  operates  with  great 
severity  upon  innocent  principals,  imputing  legal  fraud 
when  none  has  been  in  fact  committed. 

II.  T/ie  Selafions  of  the  Agent  to  Third  Persons. — If 
the  agent  having  jiower  to  bind  his  principal  does  so  ex- 
pressly, he  is  not  liable.  But  if  he  exceeds  his  authority,  or, 
acting  within  it,  fails  to  dis(dose  his  principal,  he  becomes 
personally  responsible.  In  the  case  first  supposed  he  is 
deemed  to  have  entered  into  an  implied  contract  that  he  has 
the  necessary  authority,  and  is  liable  accordingly.  In  the 
other  case,  the  tliird  person,  on  discovering  the  principal, 
has  an  election  either  to  charge  the  agent  or  the  principal. 
This  doctrine  may  perhaps  be  qualified  if  the  agent  con- 
tracts in  writing,  on  account  of  the  rule  that  parol  evidence 
is  inadmissible  to  alter  a  written  instrument.  The  agent,  in 
turn.^nay  have  a  right  of  action  upon  a  conti-act  made  in 
his  ovn\  name  with  a  thinl  person,  though  in  fact  made  for 
the  benefit  of  his  principal.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  an  ac- 
tion does  not  lie  against  an  agent  to  test  the  right  of  the 
Jirincipal  to  a  fund,  but  the  action  should  be  brought  against 
the  principal  himself.  But  in  the  case  of  din-ess  of  goods 
(see  Dl'RESs),  if  payment  is  made  to  an  agent  under  protest, 
an  action  may  be  brought  against  him  to  recover  back  the 
money.  Tliis  doctrine  assumes  much  imjiortance  in  its  ap- 
plication to  duties  collected  upon  imports:  so  tliat  a  law  of 
Congress  regulates  the  mode  in  which  the  protest  should  be 
made. 

III.  The  Reliition  of  Principal  and  Agent  as  hetween 
Themselves. — Tlie  rules  governing  tliis  relation  are  quite 
different.  The  agent  is  bound  to  oliey  the  instructions  of 
the  principal.  If  in  violating  them  he  binds  the  principal 
to  third  persons,  he  is  personally  liable  to  make  compensa- 
tion for  his  breach  of  duty.  His  relation  is  a  fiduciary  one. 
He  is  subject  to  the  rule  that  he  can  not  deal  in  liis  princi- 
pal's  affairs  for  his  own  Vienefit.  When  directed  to  sell,  he 
can  not  become  a  purchaser ;  when  ordered  to  liuy.  he  can  not 
become  a  seller.  Tliis  rule  springs  from  the  relation,  and  is 
applied  with  as  much  rigor  to  agents  who  act  gratuitously 
as  to  those  who  receive  compensation.  An  agent  having 
discretion  to  exercise  can  not  delegate  his  authority :  he  can 
not  substitute  another  in  his  place.  Where  the  business 
requires  it,  he  may  employ  subordinates  in  the  execution  of 
his  duties.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  insert  a  clause  in  a  writ- 
ten delegation  of  agency  (power  of  attorney)  allowing  sub- 
stitution: this  is  valid.  An  agent  should  keep  separate 
accounts,  and  distinguish  his  principal's  money  from  his 
own  :  otherwise  he  might  lieconie  pi'rsonally  responsilile  for 
its  loss.  The  measure  of  his  lialiility  ordinardy  is  reason- 
able care,  wliich  is  determined  liy  tliat  diligence  wliich  pru- 
dent men  usiudly  exercise  in  the  conduct  of  their  own  affairs. 
For  his  services  he  is  in  general  entitled  to  a  reasonable  com- 
jicnsation.  He  is  sometimes  paid  by  commissions:  this  is 
usual  in  the  case  of  a  liroker.  He  has  earned  his  commis- 
sions wlien  he  has  brought  the  inirchaser  and  seller  together. 
He  can  not  be  deprived  of  them  by  a  failure  on  the  ])art  of 
his  employer,  through  wantonness  or  caprice,  to  enter  into 
the  contract  which  he  has  succeeded  in  negotiating  for  him. 

The  haw  of  agency  underlies,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the 
law'  of  partnership.  The  rules  whereby  one  partner  can 
hind  his  iLssociates  by  contracts  within  the  scope  of  their 
business  are  but  applications  of  tlie  doctrines  of  agency  to 
this  special  branch  of  the  law.  See  Attorxkv,  Broker, 
Factor,  Part.nership,  etc.  T.  W.  Dwight. 

.\gpsila'iis  II.:  Spartan  general  and  king:  son  of  King 
Archidainiis  11.  He  began  to  reign  at  the  deatli  of  his 
brother  Agis  in  IWH  B.C.,  two  years  after  wliich  war  was 
renewed  between  the  Siiartans  and  the  King  of  Persia. 
Agesilaus  commanded  tlie  army  which  invaded  .Asia  Minor, 


and  gained  several  victories,  Init  in  the  meantime  the  Athe- 
nians, Thebans,  and  other  Greek  peoples  had  formed  a  coa- 
lition against  Sparta,  to  defend  which  the  king  was  recalled 
by  the  ephori  in  394  or  395  B.  c.  He  maintained  his  reputa- 
tion in  tliis  war,  which  was  ended  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in 
378.  Sparta  was  again  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Thebans, 
who.  under  Kpaminondas.  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  the 
great  battle  of  Leuctra.  371  B.  c.  at  which,  however,  Agesi- 
laus was  not  present.  He  afterward  defended  the  city  of 
Sparta  with  success  when  it  was  besieged  by  Epaminondas. 

D.  aliout  301)  B.  c.  aged  eighty-four  years. 

Agarln'tiiiate  Laii^nag:es  [Lat.  agghdina're,  fasten  with 
glue  ;  ad,  to  -I-  ghitina  re,  glue] :  in  comparative  philology, 
those  languages  which  are  in  a  certain  state  of  development 
intermediate  between  those  which  are  strictly  monosyllabic, 
like  the  Chinese,  and  those  which  are  inflectional,  like  the 
Greek  or  Latin.  Examples  of  Languages  in  the  agglutinated 
state  are  found  among  the  Indian  languages  of  America 
and  the  Turanian  languages  of  Asia.  In  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages conjugation  and  declension  are  doubtless  to  a  certain 
extent  the  result  of  gtu  ing  on  pronouns  to  verbs  and  nouns ; 
but  in  them  these  terminations  have  coalesced,  so  as  to  form 
practically  a  single  word,  and  the  prunitive  parts  have  there- 
fore, in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  lost  their  original  and  in- 
dependent force.  In  the  Turanian  languages,  however,  the 
declension  and  conjugation  can  still  lie  taken  to  pieces,  and 
the  affixes  are  seen  to  lie  distinct  from  the  roots  to  which 
they  are  appended,  sis  in  Turkish,  etc.  See  Max  Mailer's 
Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language  (first  series,  lect.  viii.); 
Von  der  Gabelentz,  Lie  Sjjrachwissenschaff,  pp.  330  fi. 
(1891). 

Affh'mat :  a  fortified  town  of  Morocco,  on  the  W.  decliv- 
ity 6i  Mt.  Atlas.  24  miles  S.  of  Jlorocco.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

Aglirini.  or  Angliriin.  aw  gTim,  or  awdirim:  a  parish 
of  Galway,  Ireland;  15  miles  N.  E.  of  Loughrea  (see  map  of 
Ireland,  ref.  9-E).  Here  the  army  of  William  III.  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  that  of  James  II..  July  12,  1691. 

Aginconrt.  aa'zhaii'koor',  or  Aziiiconrt,  a'a'^han'koor' : 
a  village  of  France  ;  department  of  Pas  de  Calais  :  18  miles 

E.  of  Montreuil.  and  10  X.  W.  of  St.-Pol  (see  map  of  France, 
ref.  2-F).  Near  this  place  the  English  king,  Henry  V..  who 
had  about  15.000  men,  gained  a  complete  victorv  over  the 
French  army  of  about  60,000  on  Oct.  25.  1415. 

A'grio  [Ital.  agio,  aggio,  ease]  :  the  difference  between  the 
real  and  nominal  values  of  money,  or  the  percentage  differ- 
ence between  the  values  of  the  current  and  standard  money 
of  a  place.  The  premium  or  discount  on  foreign  bUls  of 
exchange  is  sometimes  called  agio. 

Agis  I\. :  King  of  Sparta  :  b.  about  264  B.  c. :  a  wise  and 
meritorious  ruler.  He  liegan  to  reign  conjointly  with  Leoni- 
<las  in  244  B.  c..  when  Sparta  was  in  a  degenerate  condition. 
He  attempted  to  restore  the  old  Spartan  institutions  and  to 
refonn  the  corrupted  morals  of  the  people.  He  also  pro- 
posed to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poorer  citizens  by  an 
agrarian  law.  Condemned  by  the  epliori  on  a  charge  of 
subverting  the  laws,  he  was  strangled  in  240  B.C. 

Agnadfllo.  a'^m-ya'a-del  lo:  a  village  of  Northern  Italy; 
10  miles  E.  of  Lodi  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-C).  Here  the 
French  Duke  of  Vendoine  defeated  Prince  Eugene.  Aug.  16, 
1705,  and  Louis  XII.  of  France  the  Venetians,  Mav  14, 1509. 
Pop.  about  1.600. 

AgnaJio.  a1in-ya"!i'no  :  a  lake  of  Italy,  3  miles  W,  of  Xaples; 
is  about  half  a  mile  in  diameter.  It  occupies  the  crater  of 
an  extinct  volcano.  It  is  a  bathing  resort.  The  Grotta  del 
Cane  is  near  by. 

Ag'nale  [Lat.  agna'tus.  relative  by  father's  side ;  ad.  to  + 
gna  .•iti.  be  born] :  In  Roman  law,  agnates  are  those  who  de- 
scend through  males  from  a  common  ancestor,  in  opposition 
to  cognates — i.e.  all  the  descendants  of  a  common  ancestor, 
whether  through  males  or  females. 

Agr'nes.  Saixt  :  a  Roman  virgin ;  said  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom  under  Diocletian,  Jan.  21.  303  a.  d.  See  Butler's 
Tjires  of  the  .Saint.'i. 

Agnes  Sorpl :  mistress  of  King  Charles  VII.  of  France; 
li.  1409:  became  in  1431  lady  of  iioiior  to  the  Duchess  of 
Anjou.  and  so  fascinated  the  king  liy  her  beauty  that  he  ap- 
pointed her  lady  of  honor  to  the  queen.  She  exercised  in 
some  respects  a  most  beneficial  influence  over  the  king, 
whom  she  stimulated  to  action  against  the  English,  who 
then  invaded  France.  She  died  Fell.  9, 1450 — it  is  supposed 
by  poison  ailministered  by  the  dauphin. 


AGXEW 


AGOUTI 


75 


Ag'iKMV,  Cornelius  Rka,  M.  P. :  eye  anil  ear  specialist ;  b. 
in  New  York  city,  Aiif,'.  8,  IH'-iU;  finuliiated  at  Columliia  C'ol- 
li'Sc,  1849;  received  his  diploiiia  in  1852  from  the  C'ollese  of 
I'hysicians  and  Siirjreons;  became  liouse  surgeon  to  >^ew 
York  Hospital  and  its  curator,  and  afterward  surgeon  to  the 
Kye  and  Kar  Inlirniary;  studied  in  Dublin,  London,  and 
I'aris;  inemlier  of  many  medical  and  seientilic  societies,  and 
made  valuable  contributions  to  medical  literature,  lie  was 
noted  for  his  public  spirit,  and  was  eijuallv  prominent  iu 
t'hristian  work.     D.  iu  New  York  city,  Apr."l8,  1888. 

Asrnow.  n.\Nii;L  Haves.M.D.  :  physician;  b.  in  Lancaster 
<'o.,  I'a.,  Nov.  24,  1818;  practiced  medicine  there  for  several 
yeai-s:  filled  the  chai'-  of  surjfcry  in  the.  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania; attained  a  great  reputation  by  his  surgical  inven- 
tions and  medical  writings;  author  of  Principlen  and  Prac- 
lii-e  of  Siiiyrri/.  Ifi/ilroeele.  Handbook  of  Practical  Anuiomy, 
etc.   'D.  in  I'hilad'elphia,  JIar.  22,  1892. 

Ag'lii.  or  Ag'iiis  [Sanskr.  agni  -s,  fire,  god  of  fire ;  Lat. 
ianits;  O.  I5ulg.  in/ni ;  Lith.  iiynix]:  m  Hindu  mythology, 
tile  god  of  fire.  He  was  a  deity  of  great  importance  among 
the  early  Aryans,  but  after  the  rise  of  the  goils  of  the  Hin- 
du triad  he  sank  into  a  very  subordimite  jiosition.  He  is 
sometimes  represented  with  two  faces,  three  legs,  and  seven 
arms,  with  his  head  surrounded  by  flames,  and  is  generally 
paiuti'd  of  a  ilccp-red  i-olor.  I5y  sonu'  he  has  been  made  to 
corresponil  to  the  Vulcan  of  classic  nnlhology.  but  he  does 
not  anywhere  appear  as  an  artificer,  like  that  deity.  His 
principal  characlei's  are  those  of  a  purifier  and  bearer  of 
incense  to  heaven,  thus  being  made  a  mediator  between  man 
and  the  gods.  His  two  faces  are  supposed  to  Ik!  a  type  of 
fire  in  its  two  charactei-s — bencfic'ent  (or  creative)  arid  de- 
structive— and  his  seven  arms  to  indicate  the  seven  |irismat- 
ic  colors.  Uevised  by  R.  LiLLEV. 

Aglioc'f IC  [Gr.  ayvorirai.  from  ayvoelv,  to  be  ignorant] : 
in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  sect  in  the  sixth  century  who 
maintained  that  Christ  iu  his  human  nature  was  ignorant 
of  many  things,  particularly  of  the  day  of  judgment.  An 
earlier  sect  of  this  name  denied  (iod's  omniscience,  main- 
taining that  God  knows  the  pa.st  only  by  memory,  and  the 
future  only  by  inference  from  the  present. 

Revised  liy  U.  Lilley. 

Agno'lllCll  [from  the  Tjat.  ad.  to  +  no'men.  a  name] :  a 
fourth  name,  derived  from  some  illustrious  action  or  remark- 
alile  event,  given  by  the  Komaiisto  a  person  in  addition  to  his 
iiraTiomeii,  nonieii,  and  cogmimen  {(jq.  v.).  Thus  IwoScipios 
liad  the  name  Africanus  given  them  on  account  of  their  victo- 
ries over  the  Carthaginians  in  Africa.  The  younger  of  these 
celebrated  generals  had  a  second  agnomen — viz.  ..•Kmilianus 
— because  he  was  the  son  of  L.  Pauliis  ..■Emilius.aiid  adopted 
into  the  family  of  the  Sci|)ios.  Fabius  Ciincfafor  (i.e.  Fa- 
bins  the  delayer)  was  so  called  because  by  his  ]irudent  de- 
lays he  alone,  of  all  the  Roman  generals,  could  oppose  Han- 
nibal successfully  at  the  height  of  the  hitter's  career. 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

.\grnOS'ficism  [inaccurately  formed  from  (ir.  iyvaaros, 
unknown,  unknowing;  o-,  not  +yvwviu.  know]:  the  doctrine 
that  human  knowledge  is  limited  to  experience,  and  that 
therefore  we  can  neither  allirrii  nor  deny  the  existence  of 
God,  or  know  anything  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  things. 
I'hilnmphifitU)!,  it  is  an  exposition  of  the  bounds  of  human 
thought  and  knowledge,  and  upholds  the  imiiossibility  of 
knowledge  nf  the  Infinite,  in  opposition  to  llie  theory  of 
restricted  but  true  knowledge  of  the  First  Cause  as  infinite 
and  absolute.  Tliiidoyicalhj.  it  IS  by  inference  an  exposition 
of  limits  of  the  Infinite  and  restrictions  on  the  Absolute.ini- 
jilyingthat  (iod  can  not  reveal  himself  tocrealed  intelligence. 
The  term  agnostic,  taken  from  Paul's  mention  of  I  he  altar 
to  the  "  Unknown  God,"  was  first  suggested  by  Prof.  Hux- 
ley in  1809.  Agnosticism  is  of  recent  growth,  and  is  trace- 
able to  Kant's  theory  of  knowledge. 

Aar'ims  De'i :  the  fifth  and  liusi  section  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  mass,  bc'ginniiig  with  the  words  "Agnus  Dei.  qui 
tollis  [leceata  niunili"(i.e.  Lamb  ot  God.  who  takest  away 
the  sins  of  the  world).  The  singing  of  the  Agnus  Dei  at 
the  cominunion  was  retained  by  Luther  in  his  reformation 
of  the  Church  service,  and  is  extensively  |>racticed  in  the 
Lutheran  Church.  The  name  Agnua  Dei  is  also  applied  to 
the  figun^  of  a  lamb  bearing  a  cross,  which  is  often  worn  by 
Homan  Catholics. 

.Vgobard':  b.  in  779.  of  Gallic  parents  settled  in  Spain  ; 
ordained  a  [iriest  in  81)4  by  Archbishop  Leidrad  ot  Lyons; 
became  his  coadjutor  iu   8i:{,  his  successor  in  810.     li.  at 


Lyons,  June  6,  840.  He  may  be  characterized  as  one  ot  the 
men  of  Charlemagne,  as  representative  of  his  ideas  politi- 
cally anil  theologically.  His  writings,  wdiich  were  collected 
and  published  in  Paris  by  Massoii.  in  1B0.5,  and  by  IJaluze 
in  1060,  were  directed  against  the  idea  ot  the  verlial  inspira- 
tion of  the  Bible,  against  the  woi-ship  of  images,  against  the 
belief  that  hail  and  thunder  storms  were  raised  by  sorcerers, 
against  ordeals,  and  against  adoptianism,  etc.  A  treati.se 
by  him  against  the  Jews  was  translated  into  German,  1853. 
See  Hnnileshagen's  monograph  on  the  Life  and  Wrilings 
of  Aqnhard  (ISISl).  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that 
of  Riiluze  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1066). 

Ag'oii'if  Line  [from  Gr.  &yavos.  without  angle;  o-.  not  + 
7»i'/a. angle] :  the  line  which  jnins  all  the  places  at  which  the 
niagnetie  needle  points  due  X.  and  S.  The  plane  of  the  mag- 
uelic  mriidian  of  a  jilace.  which  is  the  vertical  |'laiie  pa.ssing 
through  tlu^  two  iiolesof  a  magnetic  needle  freely  suspended 
at  that  place,  does  not.  generally  speaking,  coincide  with 
that  of  the  geographical  ineridian,  a  vertical  plane  pa.ssing 
through  the  place  and  the  N.  and  S.  terrestrial  poles.  The 
angle  formed  by  these  planes  is  termed  the  magnetic  decli- 
nation. At  certain  i>laces  these  planes  coincide,  and  such 
places  are  called  places  of  no  dfclinalion.  The  line  which 
Joins  all  these  places  is  termed  the  line  of  no  didindtion, 
or  \Uc  agonic  line.  A  line  of  this  kind  pa.sses  through  the 
eiustern  part  of  South  America  to  Hudson's  liay,  thence  toward 
the  North  Pole  to  the  White  Sea;  passing  southward,  it  cuts 
Arabia,  and.  after  traversing  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  eiust- 
ern portion  of  Australia,  goes  through  or  near  the  South  Pole 
to  join  itself  again.  Jt  is  not  fixed  in  position,  but  is  at  pres- 
ent moving  slowly  westward  on  the  American  continent. 
There  is  a  second  agonic  line  which  has  been  observed  near 
China  and  Japan. 

Agonis'tici :  an  a.seetic  sect  ot  Christians  who  lived  in 
Northern  Africa  in  the  fourth  century.  They  renounced 
lalior  and  inatriinony.  Their  name,  derived  from  the  Greek 
iyaviar-i)!  (agoni.s'te.s),  a  "wrestler."  appears  to  have  been 
given  in  allusion  to  their  wrestling  with  "the  world,  the 
flesh,  and  the  devil." 

Agos'til,  or  .\ii!rns'ta;  a  seaport  of  Sicily;  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Siracusa ;  on  the  Mediterranean;  14  miles  N.  of 
Svracuse  (see  map  of  Italy,  ret.  10-G).  It  is  built  on  the 
peninsula  of  San  Croce,  and  is  connected  with  the  main- 
land bv  a  narrow  causeway;  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Jlegara  fli/bkea.  The  harbor  is  difficult  of 
access,  but  wdieu  entered  is  commodious,  and  is  fortified. 
In  109:i  the  town  and  one-third  of  its  people  were  destroyed 
by  an  eartluiuake.     Pop.  13.867. 

Agoillt'.  aa-goo',  JIarie  Catiieuini:  Sophie,  Countess  d': 
b.  Dec.  31,  1805,  at  Frankfort,  whither  her  father.  Count  de 
Flavignv.  had  emigrated  during  the  Revolution ;  was  edu- 
cated in  Paris,  and  married  in  1827  Count  d'Agoult,  who 
died  in  1856.  Under  the  pseudonym  ot  "  Daniel  Stern  "  she 
wrote  a  number  ot  novels  and  literary  reviews,  a  A-olume  of 
moral  and  political  a|)horisms,  Ji'si/M (*«.■>•  morales  (1849),  and 
Ilixloire  de  la  Hecolution  de  IS4S  (2  vols.,  1851).  U.  in 
Paris,  .Mar.  5.  1876. 

Agouti,  aa-gootee  [Fr.  form  ot  native  Indian  name  aguti] : 
a  rodent  maniiiial  of  the  genus  Da.fyprucla,  related  to  the 
porcupines.  The  common  iv^oni'x  (Dusijprocta  agouti)  is  a, 
native  of  Brazil  and  neighboring  countries.  Formerly  in 
these  districts  it  existed  in  great  numbei-s.  but  from  its  fre- 
quent ravages  on  the  sugar-cane,  jiotatoes,  and  yams,  it  has 
in  many  jiarts  been  hunted  out  and  almost  exlerininatcd. 
It  is  al'iout  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  has  long  hind  legs,  round 

eai-s,  bright  black  eyes,  and  

a  short,  stumpy  tail,  whiih, 
as  well  as  the  rump  and 
thighs,  is  covered  with  long, 
coarse,  bristly  hair,  whence 
the  name  Jhixg/trorta  (from 
the  Gr.  Siurvs,  rough,  and 
TrpwKrSs.  hinder  jiarts).  The 
agouti  is  an  omnivorous  ani- 
mal, eating  almost  all  kinds 
ot  vegetables,  fruits,  roots, 
meats,  etc.  Its  habits  are  all  quick 
while  eating  it  continually  turns  its  head  from  side  to  side, 
in  order  to  guard  against  danger.  The  animal  is  easily 
domesticated,  but.  as  it  is  specially  fund  of  using  its  teeth 
on  all  kinds  of  furniture,  it  is  but  little  valued  as  a  pet.  It 
gnaws  with  great  rapidity,  taking  but  a  few  minutes  to  cut 


Blacli  agouti. 

and  active,  and  even 


76 


AGRA 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


its  wav  thrtnigh  an  ordinary  door.     In  some  countries  its 
flesh  is  eaten,  but  a  prejudice  generally  prevails  against  it. 

There  are  several  other  species,  inhabiting  Central  and 
South  America,  one  of  which,  the  black  agouti  [Dasyproda 
crislata).  extentls  into  the  West  Indies.  This  siiecies  is  said 
to  luive  been  the  largest  mammal  inhabiting  the  West  India 
islands  at  the  time  of  their  discovery. 

Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

A'gra.  or  Akbarabad':  a  city  of  the  Xorthwest  Prov- 
inces, Britisli  India,  and  capital  of  the  division  of  the  same 
name,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Jumna.  184  miles 
by  rail  S.  S.  E.  of  Delhi,  and  754  miles  by  rail  X.  X.  E.  of 
Bombay;  Lit.  27'  11'  N..  Ion.  78'  E.  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref. 
6-E).  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Mogul  and  Mohammedan 
Emperors  of  India  from  1504  to  1647,  and  was  once  a  large 
and  splendid  city,  but  a  gi'eat  part  of  it  is  now  in  a  ruinous 
state.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  red  sandstone.  Here 
arc  several  magnificent  edifices,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
is  the  Taj  Jlahal,  a  mausolemn  erected  by  the  Emperor 
Shah  .lehan  (16'27-66)  in  honor  of  his  favorite  queen.  This 
edifice,  the  finest  in  India,  and  perhaps  in  the  world,  is  built 
of  white  marble,  surmounteil  witli  a  dome  70  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  adorned  internally  with  exquisite  mosaics  of  cor- 
nelian, lapis  lazuli,  and  jasper.  It  cost  above  ^15.000.000. 
Among  the  articles  exported  from  Agra  are  cotton,  sugar, 
salt,  and  indigo.  ]\Ianv  houses  in  Agra  were  destroved  bv 
the  Sepoys  during  the  mutiny  of  1857.    Pop.  (1891)  168,710'. 

Aar'ram,  or  Zag^'rab :  a  royal  free  city  of  Croatia,  and  the 
capital  of  that  country,  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Save,  172 
miles  S.  of  Vienna  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-E). 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  and  has  3 
gymnasia,  2  Realschulen,  2  normal  schools,  2  theological 
seminaries,  besides  manv  otlier  institutions  of  learning.  Six 
annual  faii-s  are  held  here.     Pop.  (18S)0)  37,400. 

Agra'rian  Law  [Lat.  ngrarius,  pertaining  to  the  field 
(n/7c;-)] :  in  tlie  ancient  republic  of  Rome,  a  law  enacteil  to 
distribute  or  regulate  the  iiublic  land,  ager  publicus.  Such 
laws  were  opposed  liy  the  patricians,  who  had  appropriated 
to  tlieir  own  use  the  lands  acquired  Viy  conquest,  and  who 
had  long  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  occupying  them  as  tenants, 
on  the  condition  of  paying  to  the  state  a  tithe  of  tlie  produce. 
The  consul  Spurius  Cassius  first  proposed  to  divide  a  por- 
tion of  public  land  among  the  poor  citizens,  but  the  measure 
was  defeated  by  the  aristocrats.  In  367  B.  c.  an  agrarian  law 
was  originated  by  Licinius  Stolo,  ordaining  that  no  man 
should  possess  more  than  500  Jti gam  (330  acres)  of  the  public 
domain,  and  tliat  such  public  land  as  any  man  occupied  in 
excess  of  5(10  jugera  should  be  distributed  among  tiie  poor 
citizens.  Tiberius  Gracchus  was  the  author  of  an  important 
agrarian  law.  These  and  later  agrarian  laws  were  never 
executed.  In  Sparta  the  attempt  of  King  Agis  IV.  to  en- 
force an  agrarian  law  led  to  his  murder  by  the  ephori 
(240  B.  c). 

Agreement :  See  Contract. 

Agrie'ola.  Cxeius  Ji-lius  :  Roman  general  and  states- 
man: b.  at  Forum  Jidii  (Frejus),  in  Gaul,  June  13,  37  A.  D. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Aquitania  by  Vespasian  in 
73,  and  became  consul  in  77.  About  a  year  later  he  was 
sent  as  governor  to  Britain,  wliich  he  concjuered.  and  gov- 
erned witli  much  al)ility  and  moderation.  By  a  wise  and 
humane  policy  he  promoted  the  civilization  and  prosperitv 
of  the  natives.  He  erected  a  chain  of  forts  from  the  Clyde 
to  the  Frith  of  Forth.  He  was  recalled  about  85  a.  d.  bv 
Domitian,  who  was  jealous  of  him.  D.  in  Rome.  Aug.  23. 
93  a.  d.  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  the  historian  Tacitus, 
who  wrote  a  Life,  of  Agricola. 

Agricola,  Johanx  (origin.ally  Schneider  or  Schni/fer): 
Gerinan  llieologian;  b.  at  Eislebcn,  Apr.  10.1492:  studied 
at  VVitti'ulierg,  and  became  a  friend  of  Luther,  with  whom 
he  was  afterward  involved  in  a  doctrinal  controversy.  He 
became  a  lecturer  at  Wittenberg  in  1536.  and  court  preacher 
at  Berlin,  1540.  Agricola  and  liis  followers  were  calh'd  Anti- 
nomians.  (See  Axtixomiaxs.)  He  was  one  of  the  autliors  of 
the  Interim  (1548),  wrote  some  practical  works,  and  publislieil 
a  valuable  collection  of  German  proverbs.  D.  in  Berlin.  Sept. 
22,  1566.  Revised  by  Henry  E.  Jacobs. 

Agricola.  Ri'doi.phi's  :  humani.st :  b.  144;!,  at  Baflo.  Fries- 
land,  his  name  projierly  being  Rolef  Huysmann  :  studied  in 
the  chief  universilies  of  Europe;  was  a  teacher  in  Italv,  but 
returned  in  14)^3  to  Heidell)erg  and  Worms.  I),  at  Heidel- 
berg, Oct.  28,  1485.     He  was  instrumental  in  introducing 


into  Germany  the  taste  for  literature,  just  reviving  in  Italy. 
His  writings  were  published  by  Alard  (2  vols.,  Cologne,  1539). 
He  was  a  painter  and  musician.  C.  H.  T. 

Agriciiltnral  Chemistry ;  the  study  of  the  chemical  re- 
lations of  those  substances  which  compose  the  products  of 
the  farm.  Since  the  chemistry  of  these  substances  is  most 
intimately  connected  witli  their  pliysical.  geological,  and 
physiological  aspects,  the  term  agricultural  chemistry,  as 
commonly  understood,  embraces  a  wide  range  of  natural 
science  in  its  applications  to  vegetable  and  animal  produc- 
tion. The  object  of  agriculture  is  to  develop  from  seed  and 
soil  the  largest  possible  value  of  useful  plants  and  useful 
animals  at  the  smallest  cost.  Xothing  is  plainer  than  that 
the  farmer  should  accurately  understand  the  nature  of  those 
materials  and  agencies  which  build  up  his  crops  and  increase 
his  herds.  He  should  know  whence  the  materials  of  his 
crops  may  be  drawn,  what  ones  are  placed  at  his  disposal 
naturally  in  surplus,  and  what  must  he  provided  by  his  own 
care.  He  should  know  how  to  control  or  work  in  harmony 
with  the  energies  whose  action  is  essential  to  his  success. 
Agricultural  chemistry  inquires,  first  of  all.  what  the  plant 
and  animal  are  made  of.  It  finds  tliat  both,  when  living, 
consist  largely  of  water,  to  the  extent  of  40  to  90  per  cent., 
wliich  is  indispensable  to  their  existence  as  a  vehicle  for  the 
process  of  circulation  or  transfer  of  nutriment.  The  dry 
I)lant  or  animal  may  be  divided  into  matter  volatile  by  heat, 
90  to  99  per  cent.,  and  1  to  10  per  cent,  of  ash.  The  volatile 
or  combustible  matter  is  either  organized — i.  e.  possesses  a 
structure,  or  is  a  tissue  of  organs,  inimitable  by  the  art  of 
man,  through  whose  mechanism  the  principle  of  vitality 
operates — or  else  it  consists  of  substances  which  are  the 
direct  results  of  chemical  changes  in  the  organized  matter, 
iluscle-fiber  and  wood-fiber  are  of  tlie  former,  sngar  and 
urea  are  of  the  latter  kind.  The  volatile  matters  are  thence 
termed  organic  ;  they  consist  of  carbon  compounds,  most  of 
which  are  highly  complex  in  their  atomic  constitution. 

The  most  important  organic  matters  of  our  staple  iield 
crops  are  few  in  number — being.  1.  The  amyloids,  compounds 
of  eai'bon  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  last  two  being  in 
the  proportions  in  which  they  exist  in  water — viz.  cellulose 
or  wood-fiber,  starch,  the  sugai's,  and  the  gums:  2.  The 
pcctoids,  also  com)iounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
comprising  pectose — the  hard  pulp  of  fruits  and  roots — and 
pectine,  pectosic,  and  pectic  acids — the  gummy  or  gelatinous 
matters  of  ripe  and  cooked  fruits ;  3.  The  fats  and  fixed 
oils;  4.  The  organic  acids,  oxalic,  maUc,  citric,  and  tartaric; 
5.  The  albuminoids,  albumen,  casein,  fibrin,  and  their  ana- 
logues, which.  besi<les  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  contain 
15  to  18  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  with  ^  to  1  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 
The  ash  of  the  plant  consists  of  phosphates,  .sulphates,  chlo- 
rides, silicates,  and  carbonates  of  potassium,  sodium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  and  iron. 

The  growth  of  a  plant  is  the  development  of  a  germ  or 
seed  when  acted  ujion  by  the  solar  ray.  with  access  of  water, 
air,  and  soil.  The  organic  matters  above  enumerated  as  con-  ' 
stituents  of  crops  are  exclusively  generated  and  organized 
by  the  plant.  Carbonic  acid  gas  supplies  carbon,  water  fur- 
nishes hydrogen  and  oxygen,  while  nitrogen  is  derived  par- 
tially from  minute  quantities  of  ammonia  mingled  with  the 
air.  Nitrogen  is.  however,  chiefly  obtained  from  the  nitrates 
of  the  soil.  All  the  ash  elements  come  exclusively  from 
the  soil.  The  agriculturist  can  not  aid  the  nourishment 
of  his  crops  except  througli  the  soil,  and  there  he  can  only 
influence  the  supplies  of  water,  of  nitrogen,  and  of  ash  ele- 
ments. Carbon,  the  most  abundant  ingredient  of  all  crops, 
making  up  44  to  48  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter,  is  furni.shed 
so  fully  by  the  atmospheric  carbonic  acid  that  additional 
supplies  from  the  soil  ai'c  not  directly  advantageous.  The 
atmosphere  contains,  it  is  true,  but  a  very  small  proportion 
of  this  gas — jj^rj;  of  its  bulk — but  this  is  considerably  in  ex- 
cess of  the  wants  of  the  most  luxuriant  growth. 

The  fertility  of  the  soil  depends,  chemically — 1.  upon  the 
presence  in  it  of  all  the  ash  elements  and  of  nitrates  in  proper 
quantity:  and,  2.  on  their  occurrence  there  in  such  states  of 
combination  as  give  a  constant  and  regulated  supply.  Nu- 
merous experiments  have  demonstrated  that  a  soil  destitute 
of  any  one  of  the  following  substances — viz.  phosphoric 
acid,  sulphuric  aciil.  |iotash,  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron — 
is  absolutely  barren  by  virtue  of  such  deficiency.  It  is  also 
certain  that  a  soil  which  contains  the  usual  amount  of  potash, 
but  only  in  the  form  of  feldsiiar.  or  of  phosphoric  acid,  but 
only  as  apatite,  or  of  magnesia,  but  only  as  serpentine,  is  in- 
fertile, because  these  substances  do  not  vield  their  elements 


AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY 


to  the  solvent  agencies  of  the  soil  or  plant  rapidly  enough  to 
serve  as  [ilant-food.  Alumina  is  an  nlaniilant  element  of 
soils,  but  it  is  mostly  absent  from  affneultiiral  plants;  and 
recent  investigations  also  appear  to  sliow  that  silica,  which 
is  present  in  many  iilanls,  is  an  accidental  ingredient,  and 
in  no  maimer  essential  to  tlieir  growth  or  perfection.  Soda 
likewise  appears  to  be  unessential  to  most  of  the  vegetative 
processes;  for,  alt  hough  it  is  perhaps  never  entirely  absent 
from  cultivated  ]ilants,  it  often  occurs  in  them  in  extremely 
minute  rniantity,  sti  that  the  soda  which  is  indispensable  to 
the  bloo(l  and  milk  of  animals  must  be  obtained,  in  part  at 
least,  directly  frimi  miiu'ral  sources. 

Xilrates  and  ainmouia  salts — which  are  the  natural  sup- 
plies of  nitrogen  to  crops — rarely  are,  and  never  need  be, 
present  in  the  soil  in  more  than  the  minutest  proportion.  It 
IS  only  reipiisite  that  they  be  generated  or  gathered  there  as 
rapidly  as  crops  remove  them.  The  process  of  nitrification, 
whereby  inert  or  imussimilable  nitrogen  existing  in  the  soil 
or  in  the  air  is  converted  into  nitric  aciil,  is  one  of  the  ut- 
most agricultural  importance,  though  still  largely  involved 
in  mystery. 

Tlie  great  bulk  of  any  soil  is  chemically  indifferent  in  the 
nourishment  of  the  present  crop.  The  weight  of  an  average 
loamy  soil  is  about  4.000,000  lb.  per  acre  for  each  foot  of 
depth.  A  crop  of  grain  of  S'-i  bush,  removes  but  140  lb. 
of  ash  elements — viz.  40  lb.  in  the  seed  and  100  lb.  in  the 
straw.  A  hay  crop  of  2  tons  carries  off  but  2()0  lb.  of  ash  in- 
gredients. These  r|uantities.  it  assumed  to  <>()me  from  2  feet 
of  depth,  are  respectively  but  ^Tyhwa  >'i'"l  Trioiro  ot  the  entire 
mass  of  soil.  Hellricgel's  experiments  give  results  which 
warrant  us  in  concluding  that  55  lb.  of  j)ota.sh,  17  of  soda, 
IT  of  magnesia,  '2'4  of  lime,  55  of  phosphoric  acid,  11  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  8  of  chlorine,  and  54  of  nitrogen  (in  the  form  of 
nitrates),  are  all  that  need  be  present,  in  soluble  condition, 
in  1,000.000  lb.  of  soil,  in  ordir  to  establish  there  a  tempo- 
rary fertility  equal  to  the  production  of  IB  bush,  of  barley 
grain  and  2.000  lb.  of  straw  per  acre.  In  other  words,  the 
140  lb.  of  ash  elements  may  be  taken  from  1.000.000  lb.  of 
a  soil  in  which  but  ISH  lb.  exist  in  soluble  condition,  and  in 
which,  therefi>re.  the  proportion  of  real  plant-food — nitrogen, 
but  not  water,  included — is  but  xnVn-  (^ood  soil,  in  the  prac- 
tical sense,  however,  yields,  and  may  contain,  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  immediately  available  plant  food  than  one  fiart  in 
4.000,  l)ut  rarely  more  perhaps  than  ten  limes  that  amount. 

As  cio|i|>ing  removes  these  substances  from  the  soil,  they 
are  replaced  more  or  less  rapidly  and  completely  by  weath- 
ering, whereby,  under  the  influence  of  moisture,  carbonic 
acid,  and  oxygen,  aided  by  heat  and  by  the  alternations  of 
heat  and  cold,  the  rock  cliist  of  the  soil  is  gradually  fluxed 
intosoliible  pabulum,  and  charged  with  nitrates. 

The  soil  is  endowed  with  absor|>tive  qualities  which  enable 
it  to  retain  in  a  state  of  comparative  insolubility  certain  ash 
elements,  especially  those  which  are  in..general  the  least 
aliundant — viz.  phosphoric  acid  and  potash — even  when  ap- 
plied to  it  from  external  sources  in  the  most  soluble  form 
and  in  large  quantity.  This  absorption  of  plant-food  by  the 
soil  is  accompanied  by  a  corres|)onding  liljeration  of  other 
substances,  especially  of  lime  ami  snl|)huric  acid.  The  im- 
palpable matter  of  the  soil,  consisting  largely  of  aluminous 
anil  ferrnginons  silicates,  is  mainly  the  seat  of  these  .absorp- 
tions; sand,  silica,  carlKaiate  of  lime,  humus,  and  even  pure 
clay  (kaolinite),  iK'iiig  destitute  of  the  power  in  question. 

Soils  may  be  fully  supplied  with  all  the  nutritive  elements 
in  proper  quantity  and  form,  and  yet  be  infertile.  This 
may  happen  on  account  of  faults  in  phvsical  condition, 
whereljy  they  are  remh'red  uncongenial  If)  plants.  A  certain 
medium  ]ioiosity.  admitting  of  access  and  elTlux  of  water, 
and  a  quality  of  being  suitably  warmed  by  the  sun,  and  of 
carrying  heat  through  the  cool  of  the  night,  are  no  less  in- 
dispensable to  high  productive  jKjwer  than  an  appropriate 
chemical  condition. 

Jlaniires  improve  tlic  soil  by  supplying  one  or  several  of 
those  ingredients  rcipiired  by  plants  which  are  deficient 
cither  by  reason  of  yearly  removal  of  ero[>s  or  from  original 
poverty  of  composition.  Practice  has  taught  that  phos- 
phates and  nitrogen  in  assimilable  form  are  most  commonly 
the  substances  which  strikingly  benefit  land,  and  chemical 
analysis  shows  that  of  these  the  former  is  ordinarily  the 
least  abundant  ingredient  of  soils,  and  the  latter  is  one  which 
is  not  only  not  abundant,  but  one  which  rapidly  wastes  by 
solution  in  rain-water,  being  daily  carried  oil  in  immense 
quantities,  through  s|irings  and  rivers,  into  the  sea. 

The  action  iif  fertilizers  is  not,  however,  fully  explained 
by  their  affording  a  direct  supply  of  lacking  nutritive  ele- 


ments ;  manures  operate  indirectlv  to  feed  crops,  by  their 
chemical  effects  upon  the  soil,  'it  has  been  almndantly 
demonstrated  that  common  .salt,  gypsum,  and  other  saline 
matters  may  react  on  the  soil  to  convi'rt  potash  and  magnesia, 
for  instance,  into  solulile  forms,  and  thus  to  give  the  same 
result  as  would  follow  an  immediate  application  of  the  last- 
named  substances. 

Certain  manures  which  are  used  in  large  doses,  such  as 
stable  dung,  peat,  marl,  and  lime,  also  influence  the  fertility 
of  the  soil,  by  amending  its  texture  or  otherwise  modifying 
its  physical  characters. 

It  is  theoretically  |)Ossible  to  produce  a  maximum  crop 
of  any  given  kind,  continuously  and  perpetually,  upon  the 
same  plat  of  land.  In  ])ractice,  however,  it  is  far  easier,  and 
therefore  far  cheaper,  to  alternate  or  rotate  crops.  A  hoed 
crop  implies  surface  tillage,  several  times  rcpeateci  during  the 
growing  season,  thus  etVectnally  exjiosing  the  upper  soil  to 
the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  air.  A  field  put  into  grass  or 
clover  is  to  some  extent  under  opposite  conditions.  In  the 
one  case,  oi-ganic  matters  waste  rapidly;  in  the  other,  they 
accumulate  in  the  soil.  In  the  first  instance,  the  surface 
soU  tends  to  lose  that  j)orositv  and  attractiveness  for  mois- 
ture due  to  the  presence  of  humus,  which  is  a  quality  of 
the  utmost  significance  in  climates  subject  to  drouth.  In 
the  second  instance,  the  soil  gains  in  these  respects.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  lower  soil,  which  umler  hoed  crops  is 
vearly  broken  uj)  by  repeated  plowing,  may  settle  down  to 
Injurious  compactness  in  a  jiasture  or  meadow.  Deep- 
rooted  crops  affect  the  soil  very  differently  from  those  whose 
radication  is  confined  to  near  the  surface.  The  reasons  for 
rotation  thus  become,  to  some  extent,  apiiarent.  Agricul- 
tural chemistry  is  competent  to  show,  further,  that  some 
plants  while  occn|iying  the  soil  enrich  it,  and,  though  yield- 
ing the  farmer  a  large  and  valuable  harvest,  yet  actually 
manure  the  land  for  a  subsequent  crop.  Clover  has  long 
been  known  as  a  i>lant  of  this  kind.  A  good  clover  crop, 
when  made  into  hay.  removes  from  the  soil  twice  or  thrice 
the  ash  elements  and  nitrogen  that  are  contained  in  a  good 
wheat  crop,  and  yet  the  good  clover  cro])  will  develop  in  a 
.soil  where  the  good  wheat  crop  can  only  be  raised  by  help  of 
manure.  More  than  this,  the  good  clover  crop  not  only 
grows  on  the  unaided  soil,  but  likewise  fertilizes  that  soil,  so 
fhat  it  can  subsequently  make  the  good  wheat  crop.  The 
enriching  effects  of  clover  are  absolute  in  respect  of  nitrogen. 
The  clover  plant  is  able,  in  a  given  time  ancl  on  a  given  sur- 
face, to  assimilate  nitrogen  much  more  rapidly,  or  to  a  much 
greater  amount,  than  the  wheat  plant  can.  It  therefore 
flourishes  better  on  a  limited  supply,  or  gives  a  full  crop 
where  wheat  would  make  ijcrhaps  but  half  a  crop;  and,  be- 
sides, leaves  in  the  soil  where  it  lias  grown  more  nitrogen  in 
its  roots  and  stulilile  than  an  entire  wheat  crop  contains.  In 
respect  of  ash  elements,  the  clover  ]i!ant  can  add  nothing  to 
the  soil  in  the  way  of  quantity,  but  it  strongly  influences 
their  (luality.  It  transmutes  the  insoluble  matters  into  solu- 
ble, and  collects  largely,  by  its  deep-penetrating  roots,  from 
stores  of  food  which  the  wheat  iilant  can  scarcely  reach. 
When  its  roots  decay,  these  substances  remain  where  a  suc- 
ceeding wheat  crop  can  at  (mce  utilize  them.  This  enrich- 
ing process  has  again  its  narrow  limits.  II  we  keep  land  in 
clover.it  Ijeeomes  "clover  sick,"  probably  from  exhaustion 
of  the  deep-lying  plant-food,  and  this  disease  is  hard  to  cure, 
because  of  the  inaccessibility  of  the  subsoil  to  fertilizing 
applications. 

By  judicious  rotation  of  crops  a  soil  of  moderate  quality 
may  be  made  to  vielil  fair  harvests  without  the  loss  of  pro- 
ductive power.  In  order  thus  to  economize  in  the  fullest  de- 
gree the  resources  of  sciil  and  crop,  the  farmer  needs  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  their  nature,  such  as  can  only  be 
obtained  by  encouraging  the  study  of  agricultural  chem- 
istry. 

In  studying  the  utilization  of  vegetiible  products  for  ob- 
taining the  various  animal  mattei-s  which  are  employed  as 
food,  etc.,  agricultural  chemistry  enters  into  a  higher  and 
more  <liflicult  field.  Here  it  hius  been  obliged,  by  numerous 
experiini'Uts.  to  test  much  of  the  empirical  knowledge  which 
agricultural  practice  had  too  vaguely  supplied,  and  also  finds 
itself  under  the  necessity  of  investigating  the  most  purely 
scientific  questions  of  pliysiology.  Althimgh  many  useful 
practical  results  have  la-en  obtained,  this  department  of  our 
Knowledge  is  extremely  inconiiilete,  and,  save  in  technical 
details,  is  too  closely  allied  to  the  general  subject  of  animal 
nutrition  to  require  notice  in  these  pages. 

Of  useful  Ixiciks  on  agricultural  chemistr)'.  those  of  Liebig 
and  Boussinganlt  take  pre-eminence;  the  former  by  their 


AGRICULTURAIi  COLLEGES 


brilliant  suggest iveness.  the  latter  by  their  accurate  experi- 
mental study  of  many  points  of  the  higliest  practical  interest. 
See  J^iehig,Ai/n'cii!/iinil  Chemisf ry  (IS-il);  Mudern  Agricul- 
ture (1S50);  Xaiiira/  Laws  of  Husbandry  (lt<68).  etc.; 
Boussingault,  Ecotioiiiie  Rurale  (1851);  Jletiuiires  de  Chimie 
A(/n'coh  (IK'ti);  At/roiioiiiii',  Oiimie  A(/;7'co/c,  etc.  (1860-68) ; 
^^^llff,  Xdliinji'setzlii-he  (iriindliigen  lies  Ackerbaues  (1856); 
Ldiulifirtlisi-hafttiche  Fiillernncjslehre  (1861);  Heiden.  Diin- 
gerhhre  (1868);  Kuop,  Lehrbuch  der  Agricultur  Chemie 
"(1868) ;  Jleyer,  Agricultnr  CItem  ie  (1 886) ;  Johnston,  Lectures 
mi  Agricultural  C/ieiiiisIn/  and  Geology  (1847);  Johnson, 
Jfow'Crops  Grow  (ISiW):  How  Crops  Feed  (iSlO) ;  Armsby, 
3fanual  of  Cattle  Feeding  (1880);  .Sachssc,  Lehrbuch  der  Ag- 
rikiiltur  Chemie  (1888);  F,  H.  .Storer,  Agriculture  in  Some 
of  its  liilations  to  Chemistry  (3  vols.,  1888) ;  K.  Warington, 
Chemistry  of  the  Farm  (1891).  S.  \V.  Jouxson. 

AgTicultiiral  Collegres :  institutions  of  learning,  estab- 
lished anil  carried  on  for  the  promotion  and  dissemination 
of  knowledge  in  the  various  arts  and  sciences  connected  with 
agriculture.  Agricultural  colleges  are  a  product  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  fii'st  and  still  the  most  prominent  in- 
stitution of  this  kind  established  in  England  was  the  Royal 
Agricultural  College,  near  Cirencester,  where  a  company  of 
noblemen  headed  by  Prince  Albert  in  1845  erected  a  stately 
Gothic  structure  to  be  used  as  a  college,  and  procured  a 
charter  authorizing  them  to  give  appropriate  instruction. 
Provision  Wiis  made  for  six  resident  professors  besides  the 
principal.  In  1880  the  institution  received  an  additional 
impulse  with  the  name  The  Royal  Agricultural  College  of 
England.  There  is  no  endowment  fund,  the  support  of  the 
institution  depending  wholly  on  the  patronage  of  friends 
and  the  fees  of  students.  The  purpose  of  the  school,  as  set 
forth  in  the  charter,  is  to  train  scientific  and  practical  agri- 
culturists. It  is  adapted  especially  to  meet  the  needs  of 
three  classes:  future  land-owners,  future  land-agents,  sur- 
ve.vors  and  managers  of  estates,  and  future  colonists  and 
employees  in  Indian  agi'iculture.  Besides  tlie  technical  and 
special  opportunities  afforded  for  these  purposes,  the  college 
supplies  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  course  of  intellectual 
and  moral  training  for  the  duties  of  a  country  gentleman. 
The  entire  government  and  control,  both  of  faculty  and 
students,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  principal,  who  appoints  and 
removes  professors,  determines  tlie  time  ami  numbers  of  the 
lectures,  and  settles  all  questions  respecting  the  work  of  the 
faculty.  Students  who  live  in  the  college  building  pay  an 
annual  fee  of  1675.  The  fee  for  instruction  alone  is  $375. 
Instruction  is  by  lecture  and  by  personal  assistance  in  the 
laboratory  and  the  field.  The  subjects  taught  are  chemistry, 
jihysies.  bookkeeping,  zoology,  agricultural  law,  and  all  trie 
jihases  of  practical  and  theoretical  agriculture,  including 
animal  industry  and  veterinary  science.  The  laboratories 
and  nniseums  are  ailmirably  equipped.  In  1880  the  Agri- 
cultural College  at  Downton.  near  Salisbury,  was  established 
on  a  similar  plan.  It  has  five  professors,  occupying  chairs 
of  dairy  farming,  chemistry,  natural  history,  e-state  manage- 
ment, and  vetcrinai-y  medicines.  The  principal  has  charge 
of  the  agricultural  department.  The  fees  are  a  trifle  smaller 
than  those  at  Cirencester,  and  the  work  is  designed  to  lie  of 
a  somewhat  more  practical  nature.  The  aim  of  the  school 
is  to  fit  young  men  for  being  superintendents,  surveyors, 
and  farmei-s.  Of  similar  character  is  the  Aspatria  Agricul- 
tural College,  near  Carlisle,  which  was  estalilished  for  the 
better  accommodation  of  those  living  in  Northern  England. 
What  is  known  as  Minto  House,  at  Edinburgh,  has  also 
a  similar  object.  At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  noagilcultural 
colleges  have  been  founded,  though  lectures  on  agi'iculture 
are  given  at  lioth  of  those  seats  of  learning. 

Agi'icultural  schools  were  established  on  the  continent  of 
Euroiie  eaily  in  the  nineteenth  century.  But  it  was  not 
imtil  the  chemist  Liebig,  in  1840,  published  his  celebrated 
work,  Die  Chemie  in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf  Agricultur 
nnd  Physiologic,  that  any  considerable  impulse  was  given 
to  agricultural  schools.  This  eminent  chemist  showed  that, 
however  great  the  draft  upon  the  soil,  fertility  may  be  fully 
maintained,  and  even  increased,  by  restoring  tlie  mineral 
and  organic  matter  taken  from  it  by  the  harvest.  He  fur- 
ther demonstrated  that  tlie  proportions  and  quantities  of  the 
ingredients  taken  up  by  the  crop  are  so  varialile  that  nothing 
less  tlian  a  careful  and  scientific  study  of  soils  will  enable 
the  farmer  to  restore  tliose  ingredients"  in  the  most  efficient 
and  economical  proportions.  These  truths  naturally  nuide 
the  dcepi'>l  impression  on  the  people  of  Genuaiiy.  It  w;is 
accordingly  held  by  the  governmental  authorities  that,  for 


the  encouragement  of  such  studies,  schools  of  agriculture 
should  be  multiplied.  Under  the  impulse  thus  begun,  the 
number,  as  well  as  the  efficiency,  of  the  agricultural  schools 
among  the  Germans  has  steadily  increased  down  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  In  1893  Prussia  alone  had  4  agricultural  colleges 
of  the  first  grade,  with  some  80  prolessoi'ships,  besides  as 
many  as  40  lesser  schools,  all  having  model  farms.  In  the 
same  kingdom  there  are  also  5  special  schools  for  the  culti- 
vation of  meadows  and  the  scientific  study  of  methods  of 
irrigation,  1  special  school  for  the  teaching  of  those  who  de- 
sire to  reclaim  swamp-lands,  3  special  schools  for  teaching 
the  growing  of  fruit-trees  in  industrial  nui-series,  a  school 
for  teaching  horseshoeing,  1  for  teaching  silk  raising,  1  for 
the  raising  of  bees,  and  1  for  the  cultivation  of  fish.  There 
are  also  20  schools  for  the  education  of  gardeners,  and  15 
for  the  training  of  grape-gi'owers.  Agricultural  schools  have 
met  with  similar  encouragement  in  the  other  German  states. 
Bavaria  has  26  agricultural  colleges,  besides  more  than  two 
hundred  agricultural  a.ssociations.  Wiirtembei'g  has  16  col- 
leges of  diflerent  grades,  and  76  associations.  Baden  has 
14  colleges  and  4  schools  for  gardening  and  forestry.  Sax- 
ony has  4  colleges  of  the  highest  grade,  and  20  agricultural 
schools  of  secondary  rank,  besides  a  veterinary  college,  and 
a  department  of  agriculture  with  20  professors  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leipzig,  Saxe-Weimar  has  3  agricultural  col- 
leges, and  an  agricultural  department  with  15  professorships 
at  the  University  of  Jena.  Similar  schools  have  also  been 
established  in  large  numbers  in  France  and  in  most  of  the 
other  countries  of  Europe.  The  benefits  that  have  been 
derived  from  these  schools  and  colleges  are  universally  con- 
ceded to  be  very  great.  While  in  the  U.  S,  the  crops  per 
acre  under  the  American  system  of  tillage  are  almost  every- 
where growing  annually  less,  in  those  European  countries 
where  scientific  agriculture  has  been  most  thoroughly  taught 
the  yield  per  acre  has  been  steadily  increasing.  In  many 
]iarts  of  England  and  Germany,  Belgium  and  Prance,  the 
yield  per  acre  is  fully  twice  what  it  was  one  hundred 
years  ago. 

The  first  agricultural  colleges  in  the  V.  S.  were  founded  be- 
fore the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  development 
of  these  institutions  was  slow,  however,  until  the  jiassage  of 
what  is  know'n  as  the  Land  Grant  Act  of  1863.  By  this  act 
every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union  received  a  gift  from 
Congi'ess  of  land  scrip  representing  30,000  acres  for  each 
Senator  and  Representative.  The  purpose  of  the  act  was  to 
provide  for  the  estalilishment  of  one  or  more  institutions  in 
each  State,  "  the  leading  object  of  which  should  be,  without 
excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  includ- 
ing military  tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as 
are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  sneh 
manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  States  may  resjiectively 
prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  edu- 
cation of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and 
professions  of  lite."  In  those  States  which  no  longer  liad 
any  land  subject  to  purchase  under  U.  S.  law,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  sell  the  scrip  at  the  market  price,  and  the  fund  re- 
ceived by  such  sale  was  devoted  to  the  establishment  and 
endowment  of  colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
In  States  still  having  lands  subject  to  entry  under  U.  S.  law, 
purchases  could  be  made  with  the  scrip,  and  the  increase  in 
the  value  of  lands  so  purclnised  could  be  applied  to  the  edu- 
cational purposes  intended.  The  freedom  granted  to  the 
several  States  in  the  management  of  these  lands  has  led  to 
a  gi'eat  variety  of  results.  The  following  table,  compiled 
in  1890  by  S.  D.  Halliday,  for  the  most  part  from  oflicial 
soxu'ces,  and  ]niblished  in  his  History  of  the  Agricultural 
Land  Grant  of  July  J,  ISGS,  shows  the  mimlier  of  acres  re- 
ceived by  each  State,  the  rate  at  which  the  land  has  been 
disposed  of,  and  the  amount  of  the  endowment  realized. 
Prora  the  States  not  represented,  no  response  to  inciuiiles 
could  be  procured : 


STATE, 

Number  of 
acres. 

Amount  real- 
ited  p«r  ncre. 

Total  amount 
realized. 

Alabama 

240.000 
150,0l¥l 
l.W.O<X) 

90,000 
IHO.OdO 

90.000 

90.000 
270,000 
450,000 
390,000 
240,000 

90,000 

$1  06  + 

90 
5  14  + 
1  25 

75 

92+ 
1  73  + 

90 

1  00 
87  + 

2  70  + 
5  57  + 

82.53,!i0n  00 

l.SS.OOO  00 

771.t!8l!  Sf) 

Colorado 

113.500  OO 

135.000  00 

83.000  00 

Florida 

l,'j5,800  00 

243.000  00 

4.50.000  00 

310,000  00 

549.396  IG 

Kansas 

501,426  33 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMEXT  STATION  79 


Kentucky  

LouLsiaua 

Maine 

Marylaiui 

Massachusetts 

Sliclii^an 

Miniit'suia  

^lississi^tpi 

MbiSDuri 

Nebraska 

Neva' la 

New  ilainpsUire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carohna 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhodf  Islaml 

Simth  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont 

Vh'^inia 

West  Virginia ....  — 
Wisconsin 

Totals 


Namb«r  of 

Amount  real* 

Tutal  ftinouDt 

acm. 

teed  |)«t  icre. 

naliwl. 

330,000 

$0  6()-f 

§200,000  00 

210,000 

1  00 

210,000  00 

810,000 

50  + 

11S.»X>  00 

210,000 

53  + 

115,91.1  00 

390,000 

5(i  + 

219,l«W  00 

»I0.000 

350 

OlHl.OOO  00 

120,000 

4  39 

.V,'B.S)7  !W 

207,920 

90+ 

IKS.OJS  00 

300,000 

52- 

170,000  00 

90,000 

700 

39..T04  52 

UU.OIIO 

1  05} 

93.0IKI  IKI 

150,0<» 

5:j+ 

m.MO  110 

210,(»10 

55 

ini,Lioo  oi) 

9s;i.u-,>o 

6Ti~ 

6.601.473  W 

sro.ixx) 

4(i  + 

rii.ooo  00 

63O,0lK) 

51  + 

312,450  m 

go,0(io 

1  W  + 

9.-i.'.l85  00 

7S0.OM 

52  + 

4110.000  00 

lao.ixx) 

41  + 

50,000  00 

180,000 

1  07- 

19I,S00  00 

300,000 

1  31V 

4(W..'ilK)  00 

180,000 

1  10+ 

209.000  00 

150,000 

90+ 

i:B..".oo  tX) 

300,000 

93 

285,000  m 

150,000 

60 

90,000  00 

»10,000 

1  51  + 

363,738  00 

9.597,M0 

SI  65+ 

$15,866,371  00 

In  1890  the  act  of  1863  was  supplementpti  by  a  Congres- 
sional law  givinf;  to  o.-icli  .State  for  the  further  endowment  of 
the  eoUe-jes  estal>lislieil  uniler  the  act  of  1863  the  sum  of 
|ir),00()  for  the  fh-st  year,  if!l(),000  for  the  seeond,  and  there- 
after an  amount  incivasinjr  hy  $1,000  a  year  until  at  the  end 
of  nine  years  the  sum  shall  annually  amount  to  iS3.5,00O.  This 
sum  is  thereafter  to  be  the  annual  appropriation.  The  lib- 
eral provisions  thus  made  in  the  aets  t;)t'  1803  and  1890  by 
the  Federal  (iovernment  for  education  in  agriculture  have 
been  su|)plemented  by  numerous  >jrants  in  several  of  the 
States.  The  number  of  asrieullural  colleges  in  the  U.  S.  in 
1893  was  48.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  1888-89,  the  income  of  the  .33  colleges  from 
which  reports  had  Ijeen  received  was  $1,407,243.  of  which 
3704  i)er  cent.  W)i*  derived  from  State  and  municipal  appro- 
|iriatiiins,  40'9.5  per  cent,  from  productive  funds,  and  1.5-98 
per  cent,  from  tuition  fees,  leaving  a  small  portion  unac- 
counted for.  In  the  :!3  colleges  repoi-ted,  the  number  of 
profpssoi-s  and  instructors  was  670.  The  colleges  of  agri- 
culture are  generally,  though  not  invariably,  associated  with 
similar  institutions  for  giving  instruction  in  the  mechanic 
arts.  In  Ma.-^sachusetts,  for  example,  the  Institute  of  Tech- 
nologv,  at  lioston,  receives  a  part  of  the  income  from  the 
land  grant  of  1863,  while  a  part  goes  to  the  Agricultural 
College  at  Amherst.  In  the  agricultural  colleges  tuition  is 
usually  free,  while  in  the  technological  schools  the  charges 
for  instruction  vary,  according  to  location,  from  $50  to  $300 
a  year. 

The  instruction  given  in  the  agricultural  colleges  in  the 
r.  S.  is  both  theoretical  and  practical.  Kmbnw'inga  period 
of  four  vears,  the  curriculum  aims  to  give  a  general  jus  well 
as  a  technical  education.  In  many  of  the  .States  the  train- 
ing provided  for  seems  to  \n:  intended  for  the  sons  of  farm- 
ei-s,  irrespective  of  the  consideration  whether  the  pupils  in- 
tend to  pursue  agriculture  or  some  other  vocation.  Hence 
studies  in  language  ami  literature,  as  well  as  in  history  and 
in  general  science,  make  up  no  small  part  of  the  curriculum. 
In  all  of  this  class  of  .schools,  however,  particular  attention 
is  paid  to  those  studies  which  relate  directly  or  indirectly  to 
the  interests  of  the  farming  community.  Foremost  amcmg 
these  branches  may  be  mentioned  chemistry,  geology,  botany, 
zoology,  entomology,  horticulture,  veterinary  scienee,  and 
the  various  interests  more  directly  a-ssociated  with  theoret- 
ical and  applied  agriculture.  The.se  colleges  are  all  connect- 
ed with  cxijerimental  farms,  on  which  students  have  the  op- 
portunity of  oljserving  carefully  conducted  experiments  ni 
the  rotation  of  crops,  the  I'tfect  on  ilifferent  crops  of  the 
several  kimls  of  fcrtilizei-s  and  manures,  the  breeding  anil 
pare  of  domestic  animals,  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese, 
and.  indeed,  in  all  ttie  interests  associated  with  the  succes-s- 
ful  pui-suit  of  agriculture.  Each  of  the  agricultural  colleges 
issues  an  annuiil  catalogue  or  register  which  contains  care- 
fully prejiared  information  concerning  the  courses  of  study, 
and  which  will  be  sent  gratuitously  to  any  applicant. 

C.  K.  Adams. 

Aijrionltiiral  Experiment  Station  :  an  establishment 
founded  and  cirried  on  for  the  j.urpose  of  obtaining  and 
disseminating  information  that  will  be  useful  to  the  fai-ming 


population.  Farming  must  necessarily  be  an  experunental 
science,  because  it  is  not  ordinarily  practicable  to  know- 
either  the  exact  constituents  of  Ihe  soils,  or  the  way  in  wliich 
growing  crops  will  be  affected  by  climatic  and  other  inde- 
terminable peculiarities.  The  best  farming  therefore  is  a 
constant  process  of  carrying  on  experiments,  and  observing 
carefullv  their  results.  "The  application  of  different  fertiliz- 
ers to  dilfereut  soils  and  for  dilTeniit  crops;  the  determina- 
tion of  the  most  profitable  rotation  of  crops;  the  uses  to 
which  different  soils  may  most  advantageously  be  put:  the 
qiiantitv  and  tpudity  of  the  rations  that  under  differing  cir- 
cumstances should  be  fed  to  animals;  the  conditions  under 
which  milk,  butter,  and  cheese  are  most  advantageously 
produced;  the  way  in  which  different  plants  and  fruits  can 
best  be  protected  from  the  ravages  of  pests — these  are  ques- 
tions upon  the  answei-s  to  wliich  ilepend  the  results  of  the 
farmers  efforts.  It  was  for  the  purjwse  of  assisting  in 
reaching  the  in'oiier  ciaiclusions  on  questions  like  these 
that  agricultural  exiierimcnt  stations  were  established.  The 
work  of  such  stations  is  carried  on  in  the  laboratory,  the 
field,  the  stalile,  the  dairy,  the  garden,  the  orchard,  the 
nurserv.  and  the  greenhouse.  15y  systematic  experiments, 
under  "ailvantageous  circumstance's,  many  questions  too  ab- 
struse and  difficult  for  the  practical  agriculturist  may  be 
definitely  settled  in  the  experiment  station.  For  example, 
what  are  the  effects  of  the  diffi'i-ent  kinds  of  foilder,  as  hay, 
bran,  corn  meal,  and  roots,  on  the  quantity  and  ([uality  of 
milk,  butler,  and  cheese;  What  is  the  result  of  giving 
milch  cows  warm  water  instead  of  cold  I  What  is  the  most 
economical  food  for  fattening  steere,  for  fattening  hogs,  and 
for  working  hoi-sesf  How  are  the  quantity  and  the  qu^dily 
of  manure  affected  by  the  nature  of  the  foodV  It  is  to  ob- 
tain answei-s  to  such  "questions  as  these  that  experiments  are 
carried  on  in  the  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

The  work  of  .scientific  ex|)erimentation  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  with  the  establishment  in  1843  of  Ihe  experiment 
station  of  Mr.  John  Lawes,  known  as  Rothamsted,  on  his 
estate  at  Ilarpenden,  Kngland,  about  40  miles  N.  of  Lon- 
don. Mr.  Lawes,  afterward  Sir  .lohn  Lawes,  associated  with 
him  a  very  eminent  scholar.  Prof.  Joseph  II.  Gilbert;  and 
the  special  object  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  was  to  carry  on 
.sy.sleimitic  experiments  for  the  purix)se  of  a.scertaining  the 
p"eculiarities  and  capabilities  of  the  soils  of  Rothamsted.  and 
the  effect  upon  these  soils  of  different  manures  and  fertiliz- 
ers. The- most  important  of  the  experiments  were  devoted 
to  testing  the  capacity  of  different  soils  for  bearing  the 
same  crops  year  after  year.  From  18.i3  down  to  the  present 
time  the  policy  upon' a  considerable  portion  of  the  estate 
lias  been  to  raise  the  same  crons  without  interruption,  some 
without  fcrtili/.ei-s  of  any  kind,  some  treated  systematically 
with  the  same  kind  of  manure,  and  some  treated  with 
commercial  fertilizei-s.  An  interesting  peculiarity  of  this 
method  of  experimentation  is  the  fad  that  each  parcel  of 
ground  has  been  treated  in  precisely  the  same  way  year 
after  year,  and  lias  borne  precisely  the  same  species  of  crops 
every'  year  for  nearly  forty  yeare.  Very  striking  results 
have  been  secured,  'l''he  plots"of  ground  receiving  no  ma- 
nure have  uninterruptedly  declined  in  fertility,  until  the 
average  product  of  wtieat  is  reported  to  be  less  than  10  bush, 
per  acre;  while  the  plots  treated  with  artificial  manures 
nave  come  to  yield  during  the  past  ten  yeai-s  about  35  bush, 
per  acre;  and  the  |)lots  treated  with"  farm-yard  manure 
have  come  to  yield  about  40  bush,  per  acre,  'fhc  compara- 
tive values  of  "the  different  commercial  fertilizers  were  also 
subjected  to  the  same  systematic  tests.  The  results  of  these 
and  kindred  experiments,  as  published  from  year  to  year, 
have  been  received  with  great  interest  by  all  the  more  intel- 
ligent farmei-s  of  Great  Britain.  The  influence  of  the  sta- 
tion has  been  fruitful  in  securing  most  important  results 
throughout  the  kingdom.  While  in  1840  the  normal  yield 
of  wheat  in  England  was  not  more  than  about  13  bush, 
jjcr  acre,  the  average  yield  between  1870  and  1880  was  29,^„- 
bu.sh.  per  acre.  In  18.><5  it  was  31,V<j  bush,  per  acre.  In  a 
similarway  fields  which,  without  systematic  fertilizing,  could 
be  made  to  produce  only  about  3,300  lb.  of  hay  jier  acre,  were 
brought  up  to  an  average  of  6,400  lb.  per  acre.  These  results 
were  reached  upon  fields  that  have  borne  grass  continuously 
since  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  By  tlie  experiments  of 
Lawes  and  (jilbert  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that 
lands  under  pro|>er  treatment  may  bear  Ihe  same  crops  for 
at  lea.st  forty  years,  and  steadily  increa.se  in  fertility. 

But  il  is  in  Germany  that  the  results  of  scientific  experi- 
mentation have  been  most  completely  shown.  The  first 
agricultural  experiment  station  proper  was  established  at 


80 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERDIEXT  STATION 


Moeekern.  a  small  villag-e  near  the  city  of  Leipzig,  in  1851. 
A  little  later  tliis  humble  beginning  received  governmental 
assistance,  ami  became  a  permanent  branch  of  agricultural 
instruction.  The  seed  thus  sown  brought  forth  abundant 
fruit,  and  now  there  are  in  Eurojje  more  than  100  sta- 
tions, in  each  of  which  from  2  to  15  investigators  are  at 

work.  .       ,      TT   c. 

The  fii-st  agricultural  experiment  station  m  the  L.  b. 
was  established  at  Middletown.  Conn.,  in  1875.  The  suc- 
cess of  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater  in  conducting  this  station  soon 
led  to  the  establishment  of  other  stations  in  different  parts 
of  thecountrv.  In  1880  there  were  4  in  operation,  and  in 
1887.  17.  In  "that  year  the  Congress  of  the  U.  S.  made  an 
appropriation  of  $15,000  per  annum  to  each  of  the  States 
and  Territories  that  had  established  agricultural  colleges,  lor 
tlie  purpose  of  founding  new  experiment  stations  or  improv- 
ing those  alrea<lv  in  existence.  Under  the  encouraging  in- 
fluence of  this  hiw  everv  State  has  at  least  one  station,  while 
several  have  more  than  one.  In  1892  there  were  53  fully 
equipped  agricultural  experiment  stations,  employing  in 
all  aljout  40b  trained  specialist.s  for  conducting  scientific  in- 
vestigations. Tlic  af)proi)riation  for  these  stations  by  the 
General  Guvernuu-nt  is  about  $715,000  a  year,  and  this  is 
supplemented  bv  about  S135.000  from  the  legislatures  of 
the  different  States.  In  the  U.  S.,  as  in  Europe,  the  work  of 
the  different  stations  varies  according  to  the  special  needs 
of  the  localities  in  which  the  stations  are  placed.  In  Ger- 
manv.  27  stations  exercise  control  over  commercial  fertiliz- 
ers by  analvzing  and  publishing  the  constituents  of  each, 
while"  29  perform  a  similar  service  Ijy  the  examination  of 
feeding-stuffs.  Fifteen  are  devoted  mainly  to  investigations 
in  vegetaljle  physiology  and  7  to  animal  physiology,  including 
the  most  economical  nutrition  of  plants  and  animals;  3  to 
dairy  induslrv  ;  4  to  sugar-beet  culture  :  and  3  to  the  culti- 
vation of  frui"ts  an<l  vines.  In  the  U.  S.  the  division  of  work 
hiis  been  somewhat  less  symmetrically  carried  on ;  but  the 
tendency  is  everywhere  in  the  direction  of  specialization. 
Some  stations  are  endeavoring  to  show  how  worn-out  lands 
can  Ijest  be  restored  :  some  are  making  a  specialty  of  deter- 
mining the  value  of  llie  numerous  commercial  fertilizers; 
some  are  dealing  witli  the  vegetable  and  animal  pests  that 
afflict  our  fields  and  orchards;  some  are  studying  the  influ- 
ence of  various  foods  on  the  fattening  of  cattle  and  on  the 
production  of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese;  some  are  devoting 
tlicmselves  to  the  problem  of  sugar-making,  and  others  to 
tile  problem  of  irrigation.  All  the  stations  in  the  U.  S.  are 
reipiired  by  law  to  publish  the  results  of  their  experiments; 
and.  accordingly,  bulletins  are  issued  at  least  lour  times  a 
year,  and  are  distributed  gratuitously  to  aU  such  members  of 
the  farming  community  as  may  apply  for  them. 

The  following  table  gives  the  name,  location,  and  certain 
other  data  of  the  several  stations  in  the  U.  S. : 


STATE. 


Xiune  .'uid  location  of  sUtioD. 


Alabama 

Alabama 

Arizona  (Ter.) 
Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut . . 

Connecticut . 

Delaware 

Florida 


Agricultural  Expeiiment  Sta- 
tion of  the  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College  of  Ala- 
bama. .\uburn.  Branch  sta- 
tions at  Athens  and  Abbe- 
ville. 

Canebrake  .\gricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  Cniontown. 

Arizona  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Tucson. 

Arkansas  .\gricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Fayetteville. 
Sub-stations  at  I'ine  Bluff. 
NewptH-t,  and  Texarkana. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion of  University  of  Califor- 
nia. Berkeley.  Outlying  sta- 
tions at  Paso  Robles,  Tulare, 
Jackson.  Cupertino.  Fl-esno, 
and  ^lission  San  Jos^. 

Agricultural  Kxperiment  Sta- 
tion of  Colorado.  Fort  Ctdlins, 
Sub-stations  at  I»el  Xorte  and 
Rocky  Fonl. 

Connecticut  .\pricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  First  es- 
t^iblished  in  Middletown  ;  re- 
organized in  New  Haven  Id 
1«7. 

Storrs  School  .\gricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  Stori's. 

I)elaware  College  .\gricidtural 
Experiment  Station.  Newark. 

Agricultural   R.xiierinient  Sta- 

i    lion  of  Florida,  Lake  City. 


1883 


1885 
1890 


1888 


10 


1888 


18T5 


1888 


1888 


12 


Georgia. . 


Illinois. 


Indiana. 


Iowa. 


Kansas 

Kentucky. . 
Louisiana.. 


Naiue  and  locat  on  of  statioD. 


Maine. . 


Maryland 

Massachusetts.. 

Massachusetts. . 


Michigan . 


Mississippi... 


Jlissouri . 


Nebraska. 


S23,000 


4,500 
15,000 
15,000 

28,000 


15,000 
18,600 

7,500 
15,000 
15,000 


Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 
New  Jersey 

New  Jersey 


New  Mexico(Ter.  > 

New  York 

New  York 


North  Carolina. 
North  Dakota  . . 


Ohio. 


Oklahoma  (Ter.). 

Oregon  

Pennsj'lvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina . . 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 


Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia . . 
Wisconsin 


Wyoming. . 
Totals. 


Georgia    Agricultural    Experi- 1  1888 
ment    Station.      Experiment 
near  Griffin. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta-     1887 
tion  of  Uiuversity  of  Dlinois, 
Champaign. 
Agricultural   Experiment  Sta-     1887 

tion  of  Indiana.  La  Fayette. 
Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment     1888 

Station,  Ames. 
Kansas    Agricultural    Exi>eri-     1888 

meut  Station.  Manhattan. 
Kentucky  Agricultural  Experi-     1886 

ment  Station.  Lexington. 
Sugar  Experiment  Station.  Au-    1885 

ditbou  Park,  New  Orleans. 
State  Experiment  Station,  Ba-    1886 

ton  Rouge. 
North    Louisiana   Experiment    1888 

Station.  Callioun. 
Maine  State  College  Agricul-    1885 
tural     Experiment     Station, 
Orouo. 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experi-    1888 

ment  .Station,  College  Park. 
Massachusetts    State  Agricul-    1882 
tural     Experiment     Station, 
Amherst. 
Hatch  Experiment  Station  of    1888 
Massachusetts     Agricultural 
College.  Amherst. 
Experiment  Station  of  Miehi-    1888 
gan  Agricultural  College,  Ag- 
ricultural College  P.  O. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta-    1888 
tion  of  University  of  Minne- 
sota, St.  Anthony' Park. 
Mississippi    Agricultural    Ex-    1888 
periment     Station,     Agricul- 
tural College  P.  O. 
Missouri  Agriculttu*al  College 
Experiment  Station,  Colum- 
bia. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta-    1887 

lion  of  Nebra-ska.  Lincoln. 
Nevada  State  AgriciUtural  Sta- 
tion. Reno. 
New   Hampshire   Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. Hanover. 
New  Jersey  State  Agricultural     1880 
Experiment     Station,     New 
Brunswick. 
New  Jersey  State  Agricultural    1888 
College  Experiment  Station, 
New  Brimswick. 
New  Mexico  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  Las  Cruces. 
New  y  i;>rk  Agricidtural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Cieneva. 
Cornell  University  .Agricultural 

Experiment  Sta'tion,  Ithaca. 
North     Carolina    Agricultural 
Exi>eriment  Station.  Raleigh. 
North  Dakota  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  Fargo. 
Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station.  Columbus. 
Oklahoma  .Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Stillwater. 
Oregon    Experiment    Station, 

Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania     State     College 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. State  College  P.  O. 
Rhode    Island    State   Agricul- 
tural    Experiment     Station, 
Kingston. 
South     Carolina    Agricidtural 
Experiment  Station.  Fort  Hill. 
South  Dakota  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  Brookings. 
Tennessee  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Knoxville. 
Texas     Agricultural     Experi- 
ment Station.  College  Station. 
Utah  -Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  Logan. 
Vermont     State    Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Burling- 
ton. 
Virginia  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Blacksljurg. 
Wnsbinpton   AgriculturaT  Ex- 
periment Station,  Pullman. 
West     Virginia      Experiment 

Station,  Morgantowu. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion of  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin, Madison. 
Wyoming  Agricultural  Experi- 
liient  Station.  Laramie. 


10 


1888 
1887 
1882 
1888 
1890 
1886 

1888 
1891 
1888 
1883 

1891 


$15,000 

15,000 

17,000 
15,000 
15,000 
16,600 
18,400 
8,400 
12,000 
15,000 

15,000 
10,000 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 

15,000 
15,000 
16,000 
11,000 

15,000 


1889 

15,000 

1882 

7 

20,000 

1879 

13 

15,000 

1877 

9 

17,200 

1890 

15,000 

1882 

7 

15,000 

1891 

15,000 

1888 

3 

15,000 

1887 

10 

18,000 

15,000 

20,000 
15,000 
15,800 
15,000 
15,000 
19,500 

15,000 
15,000 
15,000 
20,000 

15,000 
$800,400 


C.  K.  Adams. 


AGHlrn.TLlJ.VL   GEOLOGY 


AGRICULTUltl': 


81 


Agricultural  Gi-oloary :  Sfo'^sy  applied  to  agriculture 
cml)races  wliatever  can  \>v  learned  in  regard  to  the  nature  of 
the  sul)-stnicture  of  any  ilistrict  with  reference  to  drainage 
and  water-sui)|jly,  the  origin,  pliysieal  structure,  and  min- 
eral constituent;*  of  soils,  the  distribution  and  properties  of 
mineral  fertilizei-s,  etc.  Willi  present  imperfect  knowledge 
of  the  essential  propcrtiesof  soils,  geology  is  cliiedy  valuable 
in  showing  their  distribution.  The  sub-soil  is  in  general  de- 
rived from  the  underlying  rock,  and  the  soil  is  derived  from 
the  svib-soil;  so  that  for  the  most  [jart  the  rock  irulicates  the 
soil.  The  relations  of  the  vaiious  tvpe  soils  of  a  region  to 
the  geological  formations  of  the  region  having  been  ascer- 
tauied,  their  distribution  is  shown  bv  a  geological  map :  and 
the  results  of  experimentation  or  otlier  experience  as  to  the 
soil  of  any  hx;ality  are  thus  intelligently  applied  to  the  re- 
mainder of  the  tract  underlain  by  the  same  roiination. 

Kevised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Agricultural  System  :  a  theory  of  political  economy  in- 
vented by  F.  Quesiiay  (physician  to  Ijouis  XV.),  who  taught 
that  those  only  increase  the  wealth  of  a  country  who  develop 
the  resources  of  the  earth,  such  as  the  products  of  the  vege- 
table and  mineral  kingdoms. 

Agriculture  [Lat.  ayriculiura;  from  ager.  riqri.  iiAiX  + 
colere.  ciiltum,  till] :  primarily  the  tillage  of  ^and ;  now 
understood  to  comprise  all  those  special  industries  which 
are  connected  with  the  rearing  of  plants  and  animals  for 
economic  purposes.  It  deals,  therefore,  with  all  those 
branches  of  science  which  have  to  do  with  the  ini[)rovement 
of  soils,  with  the  breeding  and  development  of  domesticated 
animals,  and  the  amelioration  of  tin;  vegetable  kingdom,  as 
well  as  with  the  various  enemies  and  diseases  of  animals 
and  plants  ;  and  it  is  also  an  art  which  rests  upon  the  com- 
bined experience  of  all  previous  generations.  The  field  in 
which  agricidture  operates  is  the  farm,  and  farming  in  its 
broadest  sense  is  therefore  syuonyiuous  with  agricidture. 
Because  of  the  rapid  development  of  special  industries  in 
recent  years,  however,  there  is  now  a,  tendency  to  restrict  the 
term  agriculture  to  those  operations  which  are  concerned 
with  the  raising  of  stock  and  grains,  with  the  ci-ops  incident 
thereto:  while  all  that  jiortion  which  has  to  (h)  with  fruits, 
garden  vegetaliles.  and  flowers  is  ileiiomiiialed  horticulture. 
In  this  classification  there  «.n'  still  some  industries  which 
fall  outside  cither  division,  as  apiculture,  jiiscicult  ure  or  fish- 
breeding,  ami  forestry.  This  classification  is  only  one  of 
convenience,  however,  for,  speaking  exactly,  agriculture  must 
be  held  to  include  all  rural  iuduslries. 

The  energy  expended  in  the  operations  of  the  farm  to  be 
at  all  effective  must  lie  carried  on  agre<>jibly  with  the  laws 
which  govern  tiUage  and  the  growth  of  ()lants  and  animals. 
Many  of  these  laws  are  now  known  ;  some  are  concisely  and 
systematically  arranged,  forming  a  true  science;  and  some 
of  them  are  capable  of  such  definite  ai)plicalion  that  they 
may  be  chussed  among  the  exact  sciences.  The  proiluction 
of  butter  from  milk  ha-s  been  reduced  to  a  science  almost 
iis  exact  a>  has  the  detei'iniuation  of  the  solids  in  milk  by 
chemical  analysis.  Within  the  bust  quarter  of  a  century 
the  wall  whicn  divided  science  from  practice  ha-s  been 
broken  down,  though  not  entirely  ol)literated.  So  long  a.s 
agriculture  was  consiilcred  anil  practiced  its  an  art  little 

^lermanent  pnigress  was  niaile.  but  wherever  or  whenever  it 
la-s  been  stmlied  as  both  a  science  ami  an  art  advancement 
ha-s  been  rapid  and  permanent.  Nearly  all  of  the  improve- 
ments in  agricidlurc  which  have  been  made  in  the  la.st  cen- 
tury have  been  due  to  the  discovery  and  application  of 
laws  before  unknown  or  una|iplied.  rather  than  to  im- 
provements in  the  mere  art  of  farming.  Bakewcll  in  1785 
discovered  and  applied  the  primary  laws  which  govern  the 
art  of  improving  domestic  annuals,  .\ncieutly  the  breeding 
of  animals  wa.s  jiracticed  as  an  art  alone;  hence  little  im- 
provement wa.s  made,  and  what  advancement  accnied  was 
often  lost  in  a  single  generation.  For  three-fiuartei-s  of  a 
century  after  Bakeweirs  time  rural  science  suffered  in  repu- 
tation, because  the  scientists  wer(>  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
agriculture,  and  those  who  knew  the  art  would  have  none 
of  the  science.  It  is  only  within  a  score  of  yeai-s  that  sci- 
ence and  art  have  consented  to  act  together  us  a  unit  for 
the  common  good. 

The  ju-imary  or  fnmlamental  science  and  art  of  ajrri- 
eulture  are  those  connected  with  maintaining  or  incrojising 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  There  has  always  existed  much 
anxiety  in  the  minds  of  the  most  thoughtful  agriculturists 
le^t  cultivated  si>ils  shouhl  some  day  beionie  depleted  or 
exhausted,  and  in-ofitable  tillage  of  the  land  become  im- 
B 


|>ossible.  But  the  experiences  of  the  oldest  civilized  coun- 
tries emphatically  contradict  this  apprehension;  and  the 
researches  of  Sir  Ilumi>hry  Davy  and  Von  Liebig,  early  in 
the  nineteenth  centurv,  into  the"  chemistry  of  the  soil  gave 
a.ssurance  that  careful  unuiagement  of  the  land  and  the 
judicious  application  of  manures  can  not  only  maintain  but 
even  augment  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Thorough  and  fre- 
quent light  tillage,  when  the  laud  is  neither  very  wet  nor 
very  drv,  is  of  itself  a  lon.servnior  of  fertility,  from  the  fact 
that  it  aids  in  unlocking  certain  fertilizing  elements  which 
exist  in  an  unavailable  condition  in  all  good  soils.  The 
application  of  concentrated  fertilizers  and  farm  manures  is 
now  governed  by  definite  ])rece]its.  for  which  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  on  Fertilizers  and  MiXiKES.  Defi- 
nite successions  or  rotations  of  crops  were  urged  liy  Lieliig 
and  othei-s  for  the  purpose  of  conscr\'ing  fertility,  largely 
Ufion  the  supiHTsition  that  plants  excrete  certain  suVistances 
which  are  injuriotis  to  themselves,  but  which  are  innocuous 
or  even  beneficial  to  other  species  of  plants.  Although  the 
original  conceptions  as  to  the  rea.sons  for  maintaining  rota- 
tions are  largely  given  up,  it  nevertheless  remains  a  fact 
that  such  rotations  are  exceedingly  unportant  in  any  well- 
considered  scheme  of  farming. 

Kotation  of  crops  may  be  ilefined  to  be  the  arrangement 
of  a  certain  regular  succession  of  plants  of  different  species 
with  a  view  to  economize  llu;  fertility  of  the  land,  prevent 
the  gi'owth  of  certain  species  of  weeds,  economize  labor,  and 
to  distribute  it,  so  far  as  possiljle,  through  the  entire  year. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  sf)mc  crops  require  that  their 
food  shall  be  abuiiilant  and  readily  soluble,  while  others  are 
able  to  thrive  well  on  nourishments  drawn  from  less  tractable 
substances.  This  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  greater  power 
of  the  roots  in  .some  si)ccies  to  excrete  the  solvents  which 
assist  in  setting  plant-food  free.  The  difference  in  amounts 
of  inorganic  matter  abstracted  from  the  soil  by  ditferent 
species  of  cultivated  i>lants  is  so  small  that  no  account  is 
taken  of  them  in  fixing  a  rotation.  There  are  four  condi- 
tions— climate,  soil,  local  position,  and  economy  of  labor — 
which  should  be  ol)served  in  fixing  upon  any  given  rotation. 
A  common  rotation  is  two  ycai-s  of  grass  or  clover,  one  of 
corn,  one  of  oats  or  barley,  and  one  of  wheat.  Where  wheat 
and  potatoes  both  thrive,  a  three-yeai-s  rotation — clover,  po- 
tatoes, and  wheat — is  often  adopted.  The  exudations  of  the 
roots  of  plants  do  not.  as  was  formerly  supposed,  iioisfin  the 
soil;  botli  wheat  and  corn  have  l)e(n  raised  confiniioiisly  on 
the  same  land  for  more  than  twenty  years  without  diminu- 
tion of  yield,  though,  from  obvious  reasons,  continuous  crop- 
ping with  one  species  of  plants  does  not  give  the  lM>st  re- 
sults. Save  in  exceiitional  cases,  a  rotation  should  be 
planned  s<j  lus  to  secure  the  largest  net  returns,  while  main- 
taining, or  even  increasing,  the  productive  power  of  the 
land. 

The  fears  that  soils  neees-sarily  become  more  or  less  ex- 
hausted after  many  yeai-s  of  cropping  have  been  the  exciting 
cause  of  much  of  ihe  instability  in  agriculture  in  the  U.  S. 
The  fertile  and  cheap  lanils  of  the  interior  country,  offered 
bv  the  Government  and  by  railroads,  have  attracted  much  of 
the  |)Opulation  from  the  older  soils  of  New  England,  and 
have  been  Ihe  means  of  creating  a  most  unwholesome  feeling 
of  unrest  in  the  agri<-ultiin' of  all  the  E.i.stern  States.  The 
exodus  from  the  East  has  been  so  great  that  many  of  the  hill- 
farms  of  New  England  have  licen  abandoned,  and  this  cir- 
cunislance  is  often  cited  as  evideiue  that  agriculture  can  not 
thrive  in  these  Slates.  But  much  or  even  most  of  the  land 
which  is  thus  abaniloncd  is  really  unfit  for  farming  pur- 
poses, and  ought  never  to  have  Ijcen  cleared.  Its  uses  for 
forestry  are  greater  than  its  value  for  tillage;  and  much  of 
it  is  adapted  to  grazing,  for  which  it  is  now  largely  em- 
ployed. The  remaining  and  really  valuable  lands  in  New 
England  are  now  biing  devoted  more  and  more  to  special 
stvles  of  farming,  and,  being  relieved  from  some  of  the 
neighboring  competition,  are  perhaps  as  profitable  as  they 
ever  were,  while  the  best  of  them  are  very  prosperous.  As  a 
nile.  therefore,  the  so-called  aliandoniuent  of  Eastern  farms 
does  not  call  for  apprehension  ;  and  the  fact  that  Ihe  avail- 
able Western  lamls  are  largely  taken  up  is  conducing  to  a 
more  settled  and  hoiieful  feeling  among  our  Eastern  farmers. 

Livk-Stoik  Interests. — The  fundamental  problems  re- 
garding the  fertility  of  the  soil  are  now  giving  place  in  a 
meiusure  to  the  scientific  principles  which  underlie  the  iiD- 

firovement  of  animals  and  plants.  This  is  well  shown  in  the 
ivc-stock  interests.  While  Spain  was  overrun  with  valuable 
sheep,  anil  Great  Britain  had  great  numbers  of  improved 
horses  and  cattle,  no  advantage  was  taken  of  the.se  facts 


82 


AGRICULTURE 


until  about  the  bcgiuning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  few 
English  slicep  had  been  imported  into  tlie  U.  S..  but  they 
were  used  only  for  tlie  purpose  of  making  a  little  homespun 
cloth,  and  it  wiis  not  luitil  1800-11  that  William  Jarvis 
and  others  imjjorted  alioul  8.000  Spanisli  merinos.  The 
commercial  difficulties  with  Great  Britain  and  France  in 
1807  caused  imwaslied  wool  to  rejicli  the  fabvdous  price  in 
1810  of  .f2  a  pounil,  an<l  during  the  war  of  1812  it  reached 
$3.50.  Many  merino  lambs  sold  lor  |1,000  apiece,  and  from 
that  day  to  the  present  the  merinos  liave  been  bred  in  large 
numbers  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

Sheep. — These  early  prices  exerted  a  powerful  inthience 
upon  the  sheep  industry  in  improving  the  different  breeds; 
for,  while  the  former  prices  are  now  seldom  olitained,  the 
total  value  of  the  slieep  products  has  wonderfully  increased. 
The  low  price  of  wool  within  the  decade  1880-90,  and  the 
high  price  of  early  lambs,  has  tended  to  bring  about  a  change 
from  sheep  of  intensely  fine  wool  to  those  of  mixed  blood, 
or  to  the  medium-wooled  mutton  sheep  of  the  British  isl- 
ands. The  total  number  of  sheep  of  all  kinds  in  the  U.  S. 
in  1892  was  44.938,365,  valued  at  $116,121,270.  and  the  total 
product  of  wool  for  1891  was  285,000,000  lb.  Tlie  combined 
effect  of  all  the  iufhiences  wliich  are  now  sha|)ing  tlie  sheep 
industry  is  to  make  it  more  apparent  that  the  ideal  sheep  for 
the  farmer  of  the  U.  S.  is  one  of  medium  size,  compact  build, 
quick  growth,  and  rotund  form. 

Cattle.— It  was  not  until  1830  to  1840  that  serious  at- 
tempts were  made  to  improve  the  cattle  of  the  U.  8.  These 
attempts  were  inspired  by  the  remarkable  success  of  Robert 
Bakewell.  Charles  Colling.  Thomas  Bates.  Booth  Brothers, 
and  others  in  England  in  improving  the  shorthorns  by  care- 
ful selection  and  judicious  crossing.  Large  importations 
were  made  from  the  Bates  iind  Booth  herds,  and  one  family 
of  shorthorns — known  as  tlie  Duchess — early  attracted  un- 
usual attention  in  this  countrv.  In  1867  J.  0.  Sheldon,  of 
Geneva,  N.  V..  sold  forty  head'of  this  faniilv  for  !S!42.300  to 
Wolcott  and  Canipbell.'of  Utica.  N.  Y.  In'  1873  this  herd 
was  dispersed  at  pulilic  auction  hy  Samuel  Campbell.  At 
the  sale  the  eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva  was  sold  to  R. 
Pavin  Davies  for  .|40.600,  t  lie  tenth  Duchess  of  Geneva  to 
Earl  Bective  for  !jc35,000,  and  the  first  Duchess  of  Oneida 
sold  for  .$30,600.  The  tenth  Duchess  of  Oneida,  an  eight- 
months  calf,  sold  for  $27,000.  The  effect  of  these  almost 
fabulous  prices  was  at  once  to  draw  the  attention  of  larmei-s 
everywhere  to  the  breeding  and  selection  of  cattle.  So  far 
as  possible  within  his  means  nearly  every  herd-owner  ob- 
tained the  services  of  an  improved  bull.  Grade  shorthorn 
stock  became  common,  and  its  effect  upon  the  stock  of  the 
country  was  marked.  It  was  but  a  step  from  this  ini]iroved 
breeding  to  a  careful  study  of  every  animal  in  the  flock, 
with  the  result  that  the  poor  or  unprofitable  individuals 
were  not  allowed  to  breed,.or  are  not  now  even  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  herd.  Attention  was  tlieii  attracted  to  the 
breedingof  animals  for  particular  purposes.  The  shorthorns 
are  essentially  a  beef  breed,  and  the  result  of  American 
breeding  was  such  that  many  judges  contend  that  the  herds 
in  the  U.  S.  exceed  those  of  Great  Britain  in  average  value 
of  individual  animals.  In  1850  John  A.  Taintor  imported 
the  Jersey,  one  of  the  best  of  the  dairy  breeds.  Although 
this  breed  had  lieen  produced  in  a  comparatively  warm 
climate,  and  did  not  always  adapt  itself  at  first  to  the  severi- 
ties of  theXortliern  States.it  has  been  improved  so  much 
in  hardiness,  (puility,  and  size  that  it  now  stands  second  to 
no  other  bn^ed  of  dairy  cattle  in  the  U.  S.  In  1857  W.  W. 
Chenery,  of  Belmont,  Mass.,  imported  some  cattle  from 
North  llolhind.  This  importation  was  soon  followed  by 
others,  and  the  animals  became  known  as  the  Holstein-Frie- 
sian  bri'iMl.  This  large  breed  has  been  handled  with  such 
skill  in  this  cnuntry  that  its  records  for  milk  and  butter 
astonish  the  world.  Several  cows  have  a  record  of  20,000 
lb.  .<in<l  upward  of  milk  ])er  vear,  and  one  has  a  record  of 
31.000  lb. ;  while  another  ha.s  proiluced  1,153  II).  of  butter 
in  365  days.  From  these  small  and  recent  beginnings,  with 
comparatively  little  clover  ami  almost  no  turnips,  the  stock 
interest  of  the  U.  S.  has  grown,  until  in  1.S91  there  were 
16,000,000  milch  cows,  valued  ;it  $346,397,900.  The  total 
annual  milk  production  is  estimated  at  20.000.000  tons, 
and  the  average  annual  ])rO(luctiou  of  milk  per  cow  in  the 
Eastern  Stales  is  3,000  lb.  While,  therefore,  the  prices  for 
individual  fancy  animals  have  fallen  off,  the  average  value 
of  the  stock  and  dairy  inlerest  to  the  farmers  of  the  coun- 
try has  greatly  increjised.  See  Cattle,  Butter,  Cheese, 
and  Mii.K. 

Hones. — Probably  no  animal   has  shown  such  cpiick  re- 


sponse to  the  ideals  of  the  breeder  as  the  horse,  especially 
in  the  trotting  horse.  Horses  from  a  very  early  period  at- 
tracted wide  attention,  and  the  thoroughbred  or  running 
horse  was  imported  into  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  at  a 
very  early  date.  As  early  as  1834  West  Australia  ran  2 
miles  and  4  furlongs  in  4:27.  or  a  mile  in  1:47.  Little 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  speed  of  this  class  of  horses, 
as  in  1890  the  lowest  running  record  was  Ijy  Salvator,  a 
mile  in  1:3.5-^.  From  the  mixed  blood  horse  of  the  coun- 
try on  one  side  and  the  hot-blooded  Oriental,  or  thorough- 
bred, on  the  other,  has  been  developed  a  flistinct  type  of 
animal  which  for  speed  and  endurance  is  unexcelled."  The 
first  trotting  record  lielow  2:30  was  made  less  tlian  fifty 
years  ago  by  Lady  Sufl'olk.  in  2:26j.  wliile  at  the  present 
time  there  are  in  the  U.  S.  several  thousand  horses  which 
have  trotted  a  mile  in  that  time,  or  less.  The  fii-st  horse 
to  make  2:10  was  Jay  F]ye  See.  in  1884:  now  at  least  eight 
horses  have  equaled  or  lowered  that  time.  The  best  stallion 
record  is  liy  Palo  Alto,  2:08J ;  the  best  team  record  by  Belle 
Hamlin  and  Justina,  2:13;  the  best  three-abreast  record  by 
Belle  llandin,  Justina,  and  Glolie,  2:14:  the  fastest  pacing 
record  is  held  by  Direct.  2:06 :  while  the  queen  of  the  trot- 
ters is  Xancy  Hanks,  2:04.  The  best  records  for  different 
ages  are  :  for  yearlings.  Frou-Frou,  2:25i ;  for  two-year-ol<)s, 
Arion,  2:10J;  for  three  and  four  year  olds,  Sun'ol,  2:10^. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  some  of  the  best  bred  trotting 
animals  to  bring  from  $50,000  to  $120,000  each.  The  trot- 
ting horse  is  a  remarkalile  development.  The  Puritans  be- 
lieved that  a  race-course  was  demoralizing  and  horse-racing 
wicked,  and  so  the  breeders  of  fast  horses  in  New  England, 
in  deference  to  this  idea,  trained  to  secure  trotters.  The  trot- 
ter, in  turn,  had  a  marked  and  positive  influence  on  the  charac- 
ter of  all  light  wagons,  and  soon  there  appeared  nuiny  styles 
of  pleasure-carriages  and  road-wagons  unrivaled  for  light- 
ness and  beauty;  and  they  in  turn  produced  lightness,  dura- 
bility, and  lines  of  beauty  in  every  class  of  farm  implements 
and  machinery,  team  wagons  being  lighter,  and  painted  and 
decorated  more  elaborately  than  the  carriages  of  the  aristoc- 
racy of  Europe.  The  Sout  h  had  no  such  scruples  about  horse- 
racing,  and  so,  from  the  earliest  history  of  the  country,  run- 
ning horses  have  been  fashionable  there.    See  Horse-racino. 

According  to  the  census  of  1890  there  were  in  the  U.  S. 
on  June  1,  1890,  14,976.017  horses  and  2,246.936  mules,  the 
average  value  of  the  horses  being  $67  each,  and  of  the  mules 
$77.88  each.     See  Horse. 

Siriiic. — Among  swine  there  has  also  appeared  a  peculiar 
American  breed,  the  Poland-China,  produced  in  the  corn- 
growing  regions  of  Ohio  from  the  crosses  of  several  of  the 
improved  English  breeils.  Tliree-fourths  of  all  the  swine 
which  arrive  at  the  great  pork-markets  of  the  country  are 
of  this  breed.  Tlie  enormous  corn  crops  of  the  country  have 
stimulated  the  swine  industry,  until  in  1891  there  were  in 
the  U.  S.  201,193.923  aninials.'at  an  average  value  of  $4.15 
each,  and  there  were  slaughtered  8.200,000.000  Hi.,  as  against 
8,800,000.000  111.  of  beef  and  1,000,000,000  lb.  of  mutton. 
See  SwixE. 

Poiiltn/  have  also  responded  in  a  wonderful  manner  to 
good  care  and  selection.  In  1880  there  were  102,000,000 
fowls.  In  the  miildle  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  were 
not  above  half  a  dozen  breeds:  now  there  are  over  one  hun- 
dred. Fine  birds  sell  from  .'t;25  Id  $225  each.  The  annual 
egg  proiluct  is  worth  upward  of  s2nii.nii(i.o()0.  and  the  entire 
poultry  product  is  estiiiiated  at  $7011,00(1.011(1.  Formerly  75 
eggs  per  hen  every  year  was  consiilered  a  large  yield ;  now 
many  large  flocks'  produce  an  average  of  175  eggs  per  hen. 
This  improvenieiit,  like  many  others  of  domestic  animals, 
has  been  secured  by  original  methods,  discovered  ami  put  in 
practice  in  the  U.  S.     See  Poultry. 

Beef!. — Marked  jirogress  has  been  made  in  the  manage- 
ment of  bees.  Extractors,  foundation  comb,  and  adjustable 
hives  have  enormously  increased  the  total  ]iroiluct.  The  an- 
nual honey  produced  Is  estimated  at  20,000,(tOO  lb.;  the  num- 
ber of  colonies  at  3.000.000.     See  Apiculturk  and  Bee. 

Crops. — In  most  of  the  older  grain-growing  sections  of 
the  U.  S.  the  yield  per  acre  has  decreased  .since  the  first  crops 
were  taken  from  the  hiud.  and  this  circumstance  lias  occa- 
sioned some  alarm  among  farmers.  But  such  a  result  is  to 
lie  ex]iected  when  we  consider  the  careless  methods  juirsued 
in  pioneer  farming.  Crop  after  crop  is  taken  from  the  vir- 
gin soil,  rich  in  plant-foods  accumulated  during  ages,  and 
tliere  is  not  only  little  or  no  attempt  to  siipjily  the  materials 
consumed,  but  the  management  of  the  1,'ind  is  hasty  and  often 
reckless.  But  it  is  an  encouraging  fact  that  the  so-called 
dejileted  soils  of  some  sect  ions  of  the  Eastern  States  are  now 


AGKICLLTCRE 


83 


givinj;,  under  careful  managempnt,  {jroatcr  returns  than  they 
diJ  in  till' early  days.  This  is  well  shown  in  thewhejit  cro|). 
ol  which  the  yield  [ler  acre  averages,  for  the  U.  S.,  l~>  bush., 
while  many  of  the  old  farms  in  the  Kiustern  States  give 
an  aiunial  crop  of  35  to  40  liush.;  and  it  is  significant  that 
in  England,  where  the  hind  has  been  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies, the  yield  per  acre  is  3'Z  bush.  This  proiluetivcncss 
of  old  lands  is  not  due  to  excessive  fertilizing,  but  to  the 
moderate  use  of  fertilizers  in  connection  with  thorougli  and 
careful  tillage  and  underdraining.  The  fertility  of  virgin 
soil  is  really  in  a  measure  fictitious;  that  is,  it  is  not  an  ac- 
curate measure  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  land,  but  is 
rather  an  index  of  how  much  extraneous  food  material  has 
been  (h^posited  upon  it.  The  true  science  of  agi'iculture 
finds  its  best  and  most  permanent  usefulness  when  it  con- 
siders the  management  of  old  soils.  A  system  of  agriculture 
is  successful  only  when  it  augments  the  |)roducti\en<'ss  of 
the  land  at  the  same  time  that  it  nniinlains  or  increases 
the  product.  Ihe  cereals  now  produced  in  the  V.  S.  are 
enonuous  in  quantitv.  In  ISill  there  were  78,000.000  acres 
of  corn,  which  vielded  2.0(iO.OO(),()0()  bush.,  worth  ^8:i6.4:i!).- 
228,  with  an  additional  valuation  of  stalks  of  »;  1.56,000.000. 
Large  areas  were  also  grown  for  ensilage.  Sec  Ensi[,.\(!i:. 
The  wheat  occupied  8!).!)1().S07  acres,  giving  611,780,000 
bush.,  worth  ^.")i:i.472,711.  There  were  consumed  in  this 
country  ;iO  1,000,000  bush.;  206,000,000  were  exported;  56,- 
0<W,O00  bush,  were  used  for  seed ;  the  balance  was  in  orig- 
inal hands  and  not  accounted  for.  Oats  covered  25,581,861 
acres;  produced  71i8.;i94,30O  busli. ;  and  had  an  estin\ated 
value  of  $232,312,267,  having  increitsed  in  total  amount  over 
.50  per  cent,  during  the  decade.  Ilav  production  increased 
240  per  crnl.  from  1840  to  lS8t).  At  the  present  tim.-  more 
than  40.000,000  tons  are  cut  annuallv.  From  1791  to  1801 
cotton  production  inci-eased  from  2,000,000  to  4J:il.000,000  lb.; 
in  1891  it  wsis  4,000,000,000  lb.  If  two  [lounds  of  si'cd  are 
produced  for  every  pound  of  clean  lint,  this  would  give 
4,000,000  tons  of  seed.  A  ton  of  seed  reginned  produces  10 
lb.  of  cotton,  35  gal.  of  oil,  750  lb.  of  meal,  and  500  lb.  of 
hulls.  Less  than  one-third  of  the  seed  is  maniifactured ; 
two-thirds  is  wasted  or  applied  direct  to  the  land  as  a  fer- 
tilizer. See  special  articles  on  the  various  crops  for  more 
particular  infornuition.  For  fiHiit  and  kindred  interests,  see 
IIoRTiruLTiKK,  Fr.oRicuLTURi:,  I'oMoi.oiiv,  Olericulti-rk, 
and  FoRESTRV. 

Lands. — The  extent  of  public  lands  in  the  L'.  S.  and  Ter- 
ritories in  1880  wius  1,814.504,147  acres.  Up  to  1890  88,000,- 
000  acres  had  been  settled  under  the  Timber  and  flonu'stead 
acts,  896,000,000  acres  remained  unoccupied,  and  the  amount 
taken  up  by  farms  was  536,081,835  acres.  During  the  decade 
from  1870  to  1880  the  nuudier  of  farms  containing  from  50 
to  100  acres  incrcjised  37  jier  cent. ;  those  from  100  to  500 
acres  trebled;  those  from  500  to  1,000  quintupled;  while 
those  containing  1,000  acres  and  above  were  eight  times  as 
many.  In  1883  18.000.000  acres  were  owned  by  eight  pro- 
prietors, and  the  railroad  companies  held  200.000,000  ai'res. 

In  1892  1,000,000  sq.  nules  were  unsettled,  80,000.000  acres 
were  tiudjcr,  70,000.000  coal  and  other  mineral  lands,  and 
500,000,000  wild  grazing  and  desert  lands;  not  more  thini 
25,000,000  acres  of  good  arable  lands,  capable  of  profitable 
cultivation  without  irrigation  or  other  artificial  means,  re- 
mained. The  reckless  devastation  of  forests  during  the  pio- 
neer days  in  the  U.  S.  is  without  ])arallel  in  the  liislory  of 
nations.  The  axe  and  the  firebrand  ])receded  the  marcli  of 
population  westward,  stripping  the  rich  valleys  and  the  hill- 
sides of  their  nalund  covering,  leaving  vast  areas  to  scorch 
in  the  burning  sun  and  to  quickly  conduct  away  the  melting 
snows,  fhioding  valleys  and  imindating  enormous  tracts  of 
country  along  the  great  rivei-s.  Wise  timber  laws  for  tlie 
protection  and  extension  of  forest  areas,  such  as  are  in  ex- 
istence in  Germany  and  France,  arc  not  fotind  in  the  U.  S. 
Tweuty-live  billion  cul)ic  feet  of  wood  are  consumed  annu- 
allv in  the  V.  .S.,  which  is  equal  to  the  ainmal  wood-growth 
of  '50(),(H)0,000  acres  of  forest,  or  more  than  the  forests  of  the 
V.  8.  produce.     See  Forkstrv. 

UoAUs. — The  wars  of  the  V.  S.  liave  not  made  great  mili- 
tary highways  ne(H'Ssary,  and  the  rapid  settlement  of  new 
territory  and  the  extension  of  railroails  have  tended  to  dis- 
courage a  .systematic  knowledge  and  jiractice  of  road-con- 
struction. The  number  of  ndles  of  radroad  in  operation  in 
the  IT.  S.  in  1S91  was  170,601.  The  number  of  miles  con- 
st ructeil  during  t  hat  year  was  3,898,  Early  in  railroad  build- 
ing in  t  he  U.  S.  a  simple  invention  made  it  possible  for  trains 
to  round  short  curves  safely;  this  cheapened  the  cost  of  con- 
structing them  in  the  U.  S.  over  that  of  the  L'nited  Kingdom 


by  more  than  20  per  cent.  Frcight-cai-s  carrying  from  20  to 
40  tons  each  have  been  substituted  for  the  small  5-ton  cars 
which  were  fli-st  used,  aiul  locomotives  have  doubled  in  size 
and  weight.  These  are  the  three  great  factoi's  which  have 
nuKle  it  po.ssible  to  transport  a  busliel  of  wheat  2,000  miles 
by  rail  to  the  .seaboard  nuirket  for  less  than  it  can  be  trans- 
jiorteil  20  nules  by  wagon  carriage.  As  the  population  of  the 
covnitry  increjises,  Iiowever,  there  is  an  increased  denunid  for 
wagon  roads,  and  this  suljject  is  now  undergoing  great  agi- 
tation, especially  in  the  East.  Undoubtedly  the  first  requi- 
site to  a  good  road  system  is  some  sort  of  State  control,  by 
which  competent  engineei-s  and  superintendents  can  be  em- 
ployed; and  it  will  then  1"^  found  that  proper  engineering 
wili  make  it  ])ossible  to  dispense  with  many  or  nuist  of  the 
expensive  road-beds  which  are  now  advocated.  See  High- 
way, Roads,  and  Pavkmkxts, 

MAcnixERy. — The  rapid  settlement  of  Goveniment  land 
brought  into  cultivation  va.st  areas  of  productive  virgin  soU, 
ami  the  rich  rewards  for  agricultural  products  and  the  high 
price  for  human  labor  stimidated  the  invention  of  labor- 
saving  machinery;  while  the  univci-sal  use  of  steam-power, 
the  general  popidarity  of  tlie  printing-press,  together  with 
the  discovery  of  the  electric  telegraph  and  telephoiu',  added 
new  impetus  to  maimf'acturing.  Increaseil  manufactures 
calU'cl  for  additionid  agricultural  production  to  supply  raw 
materials;  this  in  tuni  stimulated  invention  of  labor-.saving 
devices,  so  that  to-day  the  U.  S.  is  remarkable  for  the  value 
and  number  of  its  farm  implements.  Nearly  every  opera- 
tion of  the  farm  has  been  nuule  less  burilensome,  and  many 
methods  of  agriculture  have  been  completely  overturned. 
The  Babcock  tester  for  fat  in  milk  and  the  milk-separator 
have  revolutionize<l  the  dairy  interests;  seed-sowers  and  com- 
harvestere,  sclf-bindei's  and  steam-threshers,  liave  made  it 
possible  for  one  man  to  accomplish  the  work  w  Inch  it  would 
have  required  twenty  men  to  pei-form  a  generation  ago.  In 
fact,  it  would  be  impossible  to  grow  the  ainnial  agricultural 
product  of  the  U.  S.  with  our  present  jropulation  were  it 
not  for  the  farm  machinerv.  There  are  sold  annually  about 
125.000  self-biudei-s  in  the  U.  S..  valued  at  1^15,000,000,  and 
175,0(J0  mowers,  valued  at  $8,000,000. 

EnrcATioN. — Agricidtural  education  received  its  first  great 
impulse  when  Congress  pa.ssed  the  Morrill  Lanil  Grant  Act 
in  1862.  giving  to  every  State  public  lands  for  the  purpose 
of  founding  institutions  where  "such  branches  of  learning 
as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts"  should 
be  taught.  In  1890  additional  aid  was  given  to  the  colleges 
establislu'd  under  the  supplementary  Morrill  gi-ant  of  §15,000 
per  annum,  to  be  increased  each  year  by  §1,000  until  the 
total  annual  appropriation  shall  have  reached  ^25,000.  There 
were  46  agricultural  colleges  in  operation  in  1892,  with  an 
aggregate  attendance  of  from  5.000  to  6.000  students.  (See 
Agricultlral  Colleges.)  The  national  De]iartment  of  Ag- 
riculture at  Washington  is  thorougldy  and  systeuuitically 
organized,  having  for  its  head  a  Secretary  of  Agricidture,  who 
is  a  member  of  the  President's  Cabinet.  There  are  fifteen 
sub-de|>artments.  viz.,  the  dei)artnients  of  statistics,  botany, 
animal  industry,  plant  iiathology.  gardens  and  grounds,  rec- 
orils  and  editing,  seeds,  weather  bureau,  cheudstry,  forestry, 
entomology,  nuinnnalogy,  microscojiy,  pomology,  aiul  experi- 
ment stations.  JIueh  vahmble  scientific  work  luis  been  done, 
which  is  publisheil  in  the  form  of  bulletins  and  an  annual 
report  for  free  distribution.  The  department  seeks  to  intro- 
iluce  new  varieties  of  i)laiits  and  animals,  to  foster  new  in- 
dustries, to  combat  pests  and  diseases,  to  inspect  agricultund 
exports  and  imports,  to  report  upon  the  condition  and  pros- 
pect of  crops  in  this  and  other  countries,  to  preserve  tlie 
forest  areas,  to  prevent  tlie  adulteration  of  food  products,  to 
report  upon  llie  freight  rates  of  transportation  companies, 
and  in  general  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  and 
to  aid  him  in  every  way  possible. 

Previous  to  the  year  1887  scientific  agricultural  research 
had  been  carried  on  in  the  U.  S.  to  a  Hunted  extent  by 
special  State  appro|)riat ions  or  by  individual  enterprise.  At 
tiiis  time  Congress  pas.sed  the  llatch  Act,  giving  to  every 
State  *15,(XX)  annually  for  the  establishment  of  an  agricul- 
tural experiment  station.  During  1891  the  .stations  pub- 
lished 49  aiuiual  reports,  255  bulU'tius.  with  a  total  number 
of  40.000.(MK)  distributeil  pages,  and  an  aggregate  nuniling 
list  of  350,000.  The  number  of  stations  in  ojieration  in  1893 
was  49  (see  AGRicrLTiRAL  Experiment  Station),  employ- 
ing 473  pereons.  Not  a  little  of  the  progress  in  agriculture 
is  <lne  to  the  information  placed  before  the  farmer  in  the 
station  bulletins.  Great  demand  for  agricultural  knowledge 
has  led  not  less  than  30  States,  including  Canada,  to  make 


84: 


AGRICULTURE,   DEPARTMENT   OF 


AGUE 


an  aggregate  appropriation  of  .f;85,000  for  the  holding  of 
farmers'  institutes.  Tliese  institutes  assumed  definite  shape 
nearly  twenty  yeai^s  ago.  In  1842  the  New  York  State 
Agricnltural  Society  jirovided  by  resolution  for  addresses  at 
suitable  times  at  the  county  agricidtural  societies.  Massa- 
chusetts ]>rovided  for  holding  farmers'  institutes  a.s  early  as 
18.59  ;  Michigan  in  18G1 ;  in  1869-70  farmei-s"  institutes  were 
held  in  Iowa.  From  this  time  on  they  increased  in  number 
and  usefulness.  (See  Farmers'  Institutes.)  These  farm- 
ers' meetings  have  marked  a  new  era  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion. Of  various  organizations,  many  of  which  receive  State 
aid,  there  are  between  3.000  and  4,000,  such  as  agricultm-al 
societies,  dairymen's  associations,  horticultural  .societies, 
poultry  societies,  and  miscellaneous  organizations.  Sh'  John 
Lawes  hiis  provideil  by  an  ample  endowment  for  an  Ameri- 
can biennial  coni-se  of  lectures  on  tlie  agricultural  investiga- 
tions conducted  at  Rothamsted,  to  be  delivered  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Society  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations.  Upward  of  sixty  villages  in  Kent,  England, 
have  coui-ses  of  six  lectures  on  botany,  entomology,  and  other 
subjects  relating  to  agriculture. 

Literature. — Tlie  literature  of  agriculture  Ls  very  volumi- 
nous, though  to  a  large  extent  out  of  date  and  unreliaUe. 
because  of  the  constant  discovery  of  new  laws,  methods,  and 
principles.  The  best  works  which  give  us  an  idea  of  the 
agriculture  of  ancient  times  are  those  of  Columella,  who 
wrote  De  Re  Rustica,  and  of  Vergil,  who  wrote  The  Georgics. 
Cato,  Varro,  Pliny,  and  Palladius  also  contributed  exten- 
sively to  contemporaneous  literature.  The  principal  writer 
in  Italy  for  the  same  period  was  Creseentius ;  in  Spain, 
Herrera  ;  in  Prance.  Oliver  de  Serres  ;  in  Germany,  Hei'sch- 
bacliius.  Of  later  times,  Tlie  liooke  of  Hiisbandrie.  by  Sir 
Anthony  Fitzherbert ;  Five  Iliinrlreil  Poiiifs  of  Good  Hiis- 
bandrie, by  Thomas  Tusser ;  The  Whole  Art  of  Hushand- 
rie.hy  Barnaby  Googe;  The  Jewel  House  of  Art  and  Xa- 
ture,  by  Sir  Hugh  Piatt;  The  English  Improrer,  by  Walter 
Blithe  ;  Hiisbandry  of  Brabant  in  Flanders,  l)y  Richard 
Weston,  are  the  best  books  of  reference.  The  most  reliable 
writei-s  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteentli  century  were 
Fallipo  Re,  in  Italy ;  Mayer,  in  Germany ;  and  JIarshall,  in 
Great  Britain.  Still  later  works  covering  tlie  general  field 
of  agriculture  are  Loudon's  Encyclopmdia  of  Agriculture; 
Stephens's  Book  of  the  Farm  ;  Morton's  Cyclopcedia  of  Agri- 
culture; and  Wilson's  British  Farming.  Later  liooks  are 
Elements  of  Agriculture,  by  Waring;  Talks  on  Manures. 
by  Harris;  Feeding  Animals, hj  i'ltewsa-t;  Farm  Drainage. 
by  French  ;  American  Dairying,  by  Arnold  :  Practical  Ship- 
herd.  by  Randall ;  Swine  Husbandry,  by  Coburn ;  Cattle 
Breeding,  Ijy  Warfleld  ;  How  Crops  Grow  and  How  Crops 
Feed,  by  Johnson;  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book,  by  Bailey; 
Manual  of  tlie  Apiary,  by  Cook ;  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestical  ion,  hy  l^arwin  ;  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation, 
by  Harris:  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser,  by  Law;  Agri- 
culture, by  Storer ;  The  Poultry  Bonk,  by  Wright ;  Hor.'ies. 
Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Sioine,  l)y  Curtis;  Horse  Breeding,  by 
Sandei-s  ;  Gardening  for  Profit,  hy  llenders^on;  Fruit  Cul- 
ture, by  Thomas;  and  Fruits  and  Fniit-Trees  of  America, 
by  Downing.  In  1884  there  were  305  agricultural  periodi- 
cals published  in  North  America,  as  against  546  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  world.  Among  tlie  most  valuable  are  the  Rural 
Xew  Yorker,  Country  Gentleman,  American  Agriculturist, 
JVew  England  Homestead,  and  Pavitic  Rural  Pre.fs.  Those 
covering  special  branches  of  agricuiture  are  The  Breeder's 
Gazette,  Hoard's  J)airyman,  The  Dairy  World,  The  Poultry 
Keeper,  The  Poultry  World,  American  Gardening,  Garden 
and  Forest,  Swine  Breeder's  Journal,  American  Horse 
Breeder,  American  Sheep  Breeder,  and  Gleanings  in  Bee 
Culture.  I.  P.  lioBERTs. 

Agricnltiire.  nciinrtment  of :  acommissionei-shipof  the 
U.  S.  Government  established  by  Congress  in  1862  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  (;.,  cliaiiged  in  1889  to  a  department  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, with  a  cabinet  officer  or  "secretary"  at  its  head. 
By  means  of  annual  and  nionthlv  rei)orts  it  diffuses  infor- 
mation deemed  advantageous  to  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  country.  It  |)iirchases  and  jiropagates  seeds  and  plants, 
which  are  distributed  to  tlie  peo|ile  of  the  U.  S.  It  has  a 
fine  buililinir,  wliich  stands  W.  of  the  grounds  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  Among  its  constituent  parts  are  two 
bureaus  (.\nimal  Industry  and  Weather  Bureau),  many  ili- 
■?isions,  an  office  of  experiment  stations,  a  herbarium,  a  mu- 
seum, chemical  lalioralory,  propagaling-gardens,  and  a  li- 
brary. Its  monthly  rejiorts  of  the  prospects  of  the  staple 
crops  are  especially  valuable.      -\t  the  proiiagatiiig-gardens 


plants  received  by  exchange  fi'om  foreign  governments  and 
botanic  gardens  are  tested,  with  a  view  to  introducing  new 
and  useful  plants  in  the  U.  S. 

Agrigentum  :  an  ancient  city  of  Sicily,  now  called  Gir- 
genti  (</.  !■.). 

Ag'riniony  :  any  herbaceous  plant  of  the  genus  Agri- 
monia  and  family  Rosacea'.  The  Agrimonia  eupatoria,  a, 
native  of  Europe  and  the  U.  S..  has  been  used  in  medicine. 
Several  species  grow  in  the  Southern  U.  S. 

Agrip'pa,  King  ;  See  Herod  Ageippa. 

Agrippa,  Hexry  Corxelrs,  of  Nettesheim:  German 
physician,  philosopher,  and  astrologer :  b.  at  Cologne,  Sept. 
14,  1486.  lie  cultivated  many  dejiartments  of  knowledge, 
and  engaged  in  various  pursuits  in  many  countries  of  Eu- 
rope. He  acquired  fame  by  his  talents  and  his  supposed 
skill  in  occult  science,  lint  he  was  regarded  as  an  imjiostor 
and  heretic  by  some  of  his  coiitem])oriiries.  He  lectured  on 
theology  at  Cologne  and  other  places,  and  practiced  medi- 
cine in  France.  Among  his  works  is  a  satire  On  the  Vanity 
of  the  Sciences  (in  Latin.  1530).  D.  at  Grenoble,  France.  Feb. 
18,  1535.     See  his  life  by  II.  Morley  (2  vols.,  Lond.  1856). 

Agrippa,  Makcis  Vipsaxius  ;  Roman  statesman  and 
general ;  b.  in  63  b.  c.  He  became  in  his  youth  a  friend  of 
Octavius  (afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus),  to  whom  he 
rendered  important  military  services,  especially  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Actiuni.  where  he  commanded  the  fleet,  in  31  B.  c. 
Agrip])a  and  Msecenas  were  the  principal  ministers  and  ad- 
visci-s  of  Augustus  after  he  had  obtained  the  supreme 
power.  He  married  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus,  about 
21  B.  c,  and  had  several  sons,  two  of  whom  were  adopted  by 
the  emperor.  Agrippa  wrote  a  memoir  of  his  life,  now  lost, 
and  projected  a  detailed  map  of  the  world,  for  which  he 
had  collected  much  material,  which  was  deposited  in  the 
public  archives  and  afterward  used  by  Strabo,  Pomponius 
Mela,  and  Pliny  the  Elder.  After  his  death.  Augustus  ex- 
ecuted the  inai),  copies  of  which  were  sent  to  the  provinces. 
D.  in  JIar.,  12  B.  c.  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Agripjti'iia  I. ;  a  Roman  lady  ;  daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrip]ia  and  his  wile  Julia  ;  married  to  the  famous  German- 
icus.  Her  virtue  is  highly  commended,  and  was  the  cause 
of  her  banishment  in  29  a.  d.  to  the  island  of  Pandateria, 
near  Naples,  bv  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  who  hated  her. 
There  she  died.  Oct.  18,33. 

Agrippina  II.:  a  daughter  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Co- 
logne. 16  A.  D.  She  was  the  mother  of  the  Eni]ieror  Nero,  by 
Domitius  Alienobarbus.  and  was  notorious  for  her  profligacy 
and  her  crimes.  Her  second  husband  was  Passienus  Crispus ; 
her  third  was  the  Emperor  Claudius,  wlioni  slie  killed  liy 
poison.  She  was  put  to  death  bv  her  son  Nero  in  GO  A.  v. 
See  her  life  by  A.  Stahr  (Berlin,  1867;  2d  ed.  1880). 

Agi'OStis  :  a  genus  of  gra.sses  containing  about  100  species, 
which  are  widely  distributed,  especially  in  the  north  tem- 
perate zone.  ^-1.  vulgam  (reiltoj))  and  other  species  are  valu- 
able for  pasture  and  hay.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Ag'telek  :  a  village  near  which  is  Bar'adla.  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  remarkalilc  stalactitic  caverns  of  Europe; 
is  in  the  county  of  (Tcimiir.  in  Hungary.  Here  is  a  labyrinth 
of  caverns,  one  of  which  is  96  feet  iiigh,  90  feet  wide,  and 
extends  about  900  feet  in  a  direct  line. 

A'giia.  VoLCAN  DE  (i.  e.  volcano  of  water) :  a  mountain 
of  Central  America,  in  the  state  of  Guatemala,  situated 
about  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Guatemala  ;  so  called  from  the  ftict 
that  it  sometimes  jiours  forth  torrents  of  water.  The  old 
town  of  Guatemala  has  been  twice  destroyed  by  it.  Its 
crater  is  15,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

A'glias  Calieii'tes  (i.  e.  warm  springs) ;  a  state  of  Mex- 
ico ;  bounded  N.  E.  and  W.  by  Zacatecas,  and  S.  by  Jalisca. 
Area.  2.950  scp  m.  The  soil  is  verv  fertile,  but  poor  in 
minerals.     Pop.  (1890)  140,180.     Capital,  Aguas  Calientes. 

Affiias  CaUeiites  ;  a  town  of  Mexico;  the  capital  of  state 
of  same  name;  on  a  jjlain  or  table-land  6.000  feet  above  the 
sea.  and  250  miles  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Mexico  (see  map  of 
Mexico,  ref.  6-F).  It  has  numerous  churches  and  t  liree  con- 
vents, and  is  surrounded  by  gardens  an<l  orchards  of  olives, 
pears,  figs,  etc.  lint  sjirings  occur  in  the  vicinitv.  Pop. 
35,000. 

Ague  [0.  Fr.  ague,  sharp  <  Lat.  acuta,  (sc.  febris,  fever), 
fern,  of  adj.  acutus,  sharp] :  the  common  name  for  the  inter- 
mittent fever  {g.  v.).    See  also  Chili.. 


AGUESSEAr 


AnWAZ 


Agiipsseiiii',  Henri  Francois,  A':  b.  at  Limoges,  depart- 
ment of  limit e-Vicnno,  France,  Nov.  27,  16()8:  studied  law, 
and  was  appointed  ailvorate-fieneral  in  Iti'M.  and  procuivur- 
peneral  in  17U0,  to  tlio  I'arlianiont  of  I'ui-i.s.  In  1717  lie  iic- 
eaine  clianeellor,  but  resi;;ned  in  1718  on  aeeount  of  his 
opposition  to  Law.  In  17^0  lie  was  reciUled,  liiit  resijcned 
again  in  1722  on  aeeount  of  his  o|)positioii  to  Cardinal  Du- 
bois. Once  more,  17;i7-oO,  lie  was  elianeellor.  1).  in  Paris, 
Feb.  9,  1750.  His  works  were  iiublislied  (18111-20).  See  his 
life  by  F.  .Monnier  (I'aris,  1860;  2d  ed.  186:3). 

Aguilar' de  la  Froiite'ra:  a  town  of  Spain:  on  tlie 
Cabra,  22  ni.  S.  S.  K.  of  Cordova:  noted  for  tlie  whiteness  of 
its  houses  and  llie  eleauness  of  its  streets  (.see  map  of  .Spain, 
ref.  10-K).  It  has  several  fine  pulilie  squares,  a  town-hall, 
and  a  dismantled  Moorish  castle.     I'op.  12,300. 

Agriiiliir.  aa-ge-laar'.  Grace:  a. Jewish  authoress  of  Span- 
isli  extraetion ;  b.  at  Hackney,  near  London,  June  2,  1816. 
Among  her  numerous  works  are  Wnyneji  of  Israel;  Home 
Scenes  and  Heart  Studies:  and  Home  Influence,  a  Tale. 
I),  at  Frankfort,  Sept.  16,  1847. 

Aguirro.  Lope  de:  See  Lope  de  Aguikre. 

Ag'til'lias,  Cape  (the  Needles):  the  most  southern  point  of 
Africa:  about  100  miles  F.  of  the  Cape  of  (iood  Hojie.  A 
lighthouse  was  erected  on  it  in  1849 ;  hit.  of  lighthouse,  34° 
49  46   S..  Ion.  20"  0'  37'  E. 

Agnsti'na :  tlie  "  Maid  of  Saragossa  " :  d.  at  Ceuta,  Spain, 
in  1857.  She  greatly  distinguislicMl  hei-self  during  tlie  siege 
of  Saragossii  by  tlie  Freiicii  in  180!),  and  as  a  reward  for  her 
services  was  luadc^  a  lieutenant  in  tlie  Spanisli  army  and  re- 
ceived numerous  decorations.  Hyrou  extols  her  in  Chitde 
Harold,  canto  i.,  stanzas  54,  55,  56. 

Ag:.Vii'iaiiS  [from  Gr.  4-,  not  +  yuirlt.  woman]:  a  Gnostic 
sect  of  the  seventh  century  who  condemned  marriage  and 
the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  meat. 

A'liab  (Ileb.  Ahab):  seventh  King  of  Israel,  n.  c.  918-896 
(ITssher).  His  wife  wa.s  Jezebel,  <laughter  of  Ethbaal,  the 
usurping  King  of  Tyre.  He  tlwelt  at  Jezreel,  which  ho 
atlorned  with  splendid  liuildings.  Tlie  story  of  his  weak- 
ness, his  idolatry,  and  the  stern  opposition  of  the  projihet 
Elijah  is  related  iu  the  first  book  of  Kings.  Aliab  was  killed 
in  battle  with  Benhadad,  King  of  Dama.scus. 

Ahan'ta :  a  Negro  race  of  the  Guinea  coa-st,  West  Afi'ica. 
now  included  in  tlie  British  Gold  Coast  colony. 

Ahasuer'iis:  the  name  of  one  Jfedian  and  of  two  Persian 
kings  meutiotied  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Ahasuerus  of 
Esther  was  probably  Xerxes,  the  invader  of  Greece,  who 
reigned  from  486  to  465  B.  c.  He  invaded  Greece  in  4S0, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  married  Esther  the  year  after. 

A'linz  (lleb.  Aliaz,  possessor) :  eleventh  King  of  Judah 
after  its  secession  from  Israel;  reigned  B.C.  741-725.  His 
reign  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  attacks  of  Rezin,  King 
of  DamiLScus.  and  Pekah.  King  of  Israel,  as  well  its  those  of 
the  Edomites  and  Philistines.  Ahaz  called  to  his  aid  the 
powerful  Tiglath-Pileser,  King  of  v\.ssyria,  wlio  overthrew 
the  enemies  of  Judah,  but  made  Ahaz  his  vas,sal,  and  carried 
off  rich  treiLsures  from  the  temple  and  palaces  of  Jerusalem. 
Ahaz  was  an  idolater.  His  history  is  given  in  2  Kings  xvi.; 
2  Cliron.  xxviii.  A  statement  in  2  Kings  xvi.  2  as  to  his 
accession  would  make  his  son  and  successor,  Hczekiah,  to 
have  been  born  when  he  was  eleven  years  old,  but  this  must 
be  a  transcribers  error  or  the  date  of  a  vieeroysliip. 

Ahazi'ali:  eighth  King  of  Israel;  succeeded  his  father 
Ahab,  and  ruled  under  the  direction  of  Jezebel,  his  mother, 
B.  C.897-W96. — Also  the  name  of  the  fifth  King  of  Judah, 
B.  c.  885-884.  \  famous  error  of  some  transcril)er  (2  Chron. 
xxii.  2 :  xxi.  5.  20)  makes  him  older  than  his  father. 

Allith'oplU'l  (llel).  Aliithophel,  foolish):  a  Hebrew  jmli- 
tician  ami  councilor  of  David.  He  took  the  side  of  Absalom 
in  his  rebellion,  but,  foreseeing  the  failure  of  the  enterprise, 
went  home  and  hanged  liimself.     See  2  Sam.  xvi.,  xvii. 

AhlfeUI,  Friedrich:  Gei-man  gvniEcologist ;  b.  Oct.  16, 
184;$,  at  Alslebeii;  M.  I).  University  of  Leipzig,  1868;  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Gyna'cology,  Irniversity  of  Marburg, 
1883;  author  of  I'lher  ICntstelmnri  der  Slim- und  Gesirlits- 
layen  :  Die  Ernu/iniii;/  dis  Sdiiylings  an  der  Mutterbrusl; 
Leiirbuch  der  Misi^bildungen,  etc. 

Ahl'fpld,  JoHAXx  Fkiedrici!  :  distinguished  German 
preacher;  b.  at  Mehringen,  Anhalt,  Nov.  1,  1810;  became 
in  1847  elergyimin  in  Halle,  and  in  1851  in  Leipzig,  and 
gained  in  both  places  high  reputation  as  a  i)ulpit  orator. 


He  published  numerous  sennons,  which  have  had  great  popu- 
larity, and  are  still  regarded  as  excellent  models  of  a  sinipl(? 
and  fervent  style  of  pulpit  oratory.    D.  at  Leipzig,  Mar.  4, 

1884. 

Alil'qiiist,  August  Exgelbert:  Finnish  philologist:  b. 
at  Knopio,  Finland,  Aug.  7,  1826 ;  not  only  made  the  Fin- 
nish language  his  especial  study,  Imt  also  made  it  his  object 
to  raise  it  to  tlie  rank  of  a  written  language,  and  to  create 
a  national  Finnish  literature.  For  this  purpose  he  traveled 
under  the  greatest  dilliciilties  through  Northern  Russia  and 
Siberia  to  ac(|uaint  himself  with  the  trilies  of  the  rral-Altaic 
race  living  there.  He  was  elected  Professor  of  Finnish  Lan- 
guage and  Literature  in  the  Univei-sily  of  llelsingtors  (1S62). 
Mis  chief  works  are  ,4/i  Attempt  at  a  Mokaliu-Murdivinian 
Grammar  (1862) :  a  Grammar  of  tlie  Wofisli  Language,  ami 
a  description  of  his  travels  in  Siberia  (1853-58) :  The  Struc- 
ture of  the  Finnish  Language  (in  Finnish),  1877.  He  has 
also  written  many  poems  in  the  Finnish  language,  and  made 
several  translations  from  the  German  of  Schiller.  I),  at 
Ilelsingfors.  Nov.  20,  188!).  A.  R.  M. 

Ahlwardt,  Theodor  WiLHEi.M  :  German  Arabic  scholar; 
b.  at  Greifswald.  July  4,  1828;  became  ordinary  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  there.  1861.  His  principal  works  are 
Ueber  I'oesie.  und  I'oetik  der  Araher  (1856),  and  Tlie  Di- 
wans  of  the  Six  Ancient  Arabic  I'oets,  ett:  (Lond.  1870).' 
He  is  the  most  eminent  living  authority  on  the  old  Arabic 
poetry.  "  C.  H.  Tov. 

Ali'mcd  IV.,  sometimes  called  .\l)d'ul-Hamid :  a  Tiu'k- 
ish  sultan  ;  b.  in  1725 ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1773.  His 
reign  is  chiefly  notable  on  account  of  the  two  disastrous 
wai-s  with  Uussia,  in  wliich  Turkey  lost  the  Crimea,  a  por- 
tion of  Circassia,  with  some  other  territories,  and  a  number 
of  important  fortresses.     D.  in  1789. 

Ah'niadabad'  (i.  e.  the  abode  of  Alimed) :  a  city  of  Brit- 
ish India:  in  the  presidency  of  Bomljav ;  on  the  river  Sa- 
bannati :  160  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  \V.  of  Surat ;  lat.  23"  1'  N., 
Ion.  72'  48'  E.  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  1-C).  It  was  for- 
merly a  large  and  magnificent  capital,  but  is  now  much 
decayed.  Here  are  several  beautiful  nios(|ues  and  other 
remains  of  its  ancient  splendor.  It  was  founded  by  Ahmed 
Shah  in  1412.     Pop.  (1891)  145,990. 

Alimadna'gar  (i.e.  the  fort  of  Ahmed):  a  city  and  for- 
tress of  liritish  India;  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay;  on  the 
Seena;  162  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Bombay  (see  map  of  S.  India, 
ref.  3-C).  It  was  founded  by  Ahmed  Nizam  Shah  in  1493, 
and  became  a  capital  of  the  K"ingdom  of  the  same  name.  It 
was  tid<eii  by  Gen.  Wellesley  in  Aug..  1803.  and  the  fortress 
is  now  held  by  a  British  garrison.     Pop.  37,500. 

Aim,  JonAXN  Fraxz:  German  writer:  author  of  a  new 
method  of  learning  foreign  languages;  b. at  Aix-la-Chapelle; 
Dec.  1.5.  1796;  published  a  Practical  Course  for  the  Quick 
a7id  Kasy  Accjuisition  of  the  French  Language  (t'ologne, 
1834:  167th  ed.  1K70),  and  other  similar  works,  which  have 
found  an  immense  circulation.  His  method  has  been  imi- 
tated by  many  other  writers  in  the  different  civilized  lands. 
From  1843  to  1863  lie  taught  at  Neuss,  retired  in  the  latter 
year,  and  died  there,  Aug.  21,  1865. 

Allliapee:  city,  Kewaunee  co.,  Wis.;  on  Lake  Michigan  ; 
32  miles  K.  of  Green  Bay  (see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  4-F); 
has  saw  and  grist  mills,  and  trade  in  grain,  bark,  and  tics. 
Pop.  (1880)  948;  (1890)  1,015;  (1895)  1,603. 

Ah'rciiS.  Heixricii  :  German  jurist ;  b.  at  Kniestedt,  near 
Salzgitter,  in  Hanover,  July  14,  1808;  .studied  at  Giittingen, 
but  committed  himself  by  his  participation  in  the  political 
upheavals  in  1830,  and  fled  to  Paris,  where  he  lectured  in 
1833  on  the  history  of  German  philosophy;  became  in  1834 
Professor  of  Philosojihy  in  Brussels:  in  1850,  Professor  of 
Law  and  Political  Economy  at  Graz;  in  18.59.  of  Practical 
Philosophy  ;ind  Political  Science  at  Leipzig.  His  principal 
works  are  Cour.i  de  droit  naturel  (Paris,  1838;  7tli  ed.  1875), 
in  (Tcrinan  under  the  title  Philosophic  des  lierhts  (2  vols., 
6t!i  ed.  1870);  Juristische  Encycl.  (185.5-57),  which  has  beeji 
translated  into  several  foreign  languages.  D.  at  Salzgitter, 
Aug.  4.  1874. 

Ah'riliiaii:  among  the  ancient  Persians  the  principle  of 
evil.     See  Ormazd. 

Ali-<eiia :  See  ArnAPASCAN  Ixdiax.s. 

Ah'waz:  a  small  town  of  Pei-sia;  100  miles  N.  E.  of  Ba^- 
sorah;  was  once  mi  important  city.  The  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient city  extend  12  Juilt'S  on  tjie  bank  of  the  Karun. 


86 


AT 


AIKINS 


Ai,  aa  i :  common  name  given  to  the  three-toed  sloths, 
edentate  mammals  of  South  America,  several  species  of 
which  have  been  confounded  under  the  Linnsean  name  of 
Sradi/pus  tridactijlus.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  loud  cry 
•which  it  makes  while  moving  in  the  forests. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordax. 

A'i  (i.  e.  a  ruin) :  a  city  of  Palestine  (Gen.  xii.  8 :  xiii.  3), 
which  was  destroyed  by"  Joshua  (Josh.  vii.  2-,5;  viii.  1-29). 
Its  site  is  not  positively  known ;  also  a  city  of  Ammon,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Babylonians. 

Aid'an,  Saint:  firet  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne;  b.  in  Ire- 
land, and  sent  as  a  missionary  bishop  to  Xorthumbria  by 
the  Bishop  of  lona  about  635  a.  d.  He  wa.s  successful  in 
establishing  Christianity,  being  aided  by  the  king  and 
nobles.  His  life  was  adorned  by  charity,  humility,  and  all 
the  Christian  virtues.  The  Venerable  Bede  (Ecc'l.  Sis/ori/ 
iii.  c.  c.  5,  17)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  his  excellent 
characteristics  and  his  apostolic  labors.  D.  at  Baraboi-ough, 
opposite  Lindisfarne,  Aug.  31,  651.  See  his  life  by  A.  C. 
Fryer  (Lond.  1884). 

Aidf ,  Hamilton  :  English  poet,  novelist,  and  army  officer ; 
b.  at  Paris  in  1830  of  Greek  parentage,  and  educated  at 
Bonn.  He  has  published  some  dozen  of  novels,  including 
Cair  of  Car/yon  (1862) ;  Poet  and  Peer  (1880) ;  and  Pcusuyes 
in  the  Life  ofaLadij  (1887).  Also  several  volumes  of  poems  : 
Eleanor'e.  (1856);  The  Romnnce  of  the  Scarlet  Leaf  (ISSo); 
Songs  Without  Manic  (1882),  etc.  Some  of  his  songs  have 
been  set  to  music.  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Aides-de-Cainp:  confidential  officers  selected  by  general 
officei-s  to  assist  them  in  their  military  duties,  are  ex-offie.io 
assistant  adjutants-general  (act  Mar.  2,  1821).  They  are  in 
the  U.  S.  service  attached  to  the  person  of  the  general,  and 
receive  orders  only  from  him.  Their  functions  are  difficult 
and  delicate.  Oi'ten  enjoying  the  full  confidence  of  the 
general,  they  are  employed  in  representing  him,  in  writing 
orders,  in  caiTying  them  in  pei-son  if  necessary,  in  communi- 
cating them  verbally  upon  battle  fields  and  other  fields  of 
manceuver.  It  is  important  that  aides-de-camp  should 
know  well  the  position  of  troops,  routes,  posts,  quarters  of 
generals,  composition  of  columns,  and  orders  of  corjis.  It  is 
necessary  that  tlieir  knowledge  should  l)e  sufficiently  com- 
prehensive to  understand  the  object  and  purpose  of  all 
orders,  and  also  to  judge  in  the  varying  circumstances  of  a 
battle-field  whether  it  is  not  necessary  to  modify  an  order 
when  carried  in  person,  or  if  there  be  time  to  retiu-n  for  new 
instructions.  (Scott's  3Ii/iiari/  Dictionary.)  The  existing 
law  of  the  U.  S.  allows  6  aides-de-camp  (colonels)  to  the  gen- 
eral ;  2  and  a  military  secretary  (lieutenant-colonels)  to  the 
lieutenant-generals ;  3  (captains  or  lieutenants)  to  a  major- 
general  ;  and  2  (lieutenants)  to  a  brigadier-general.  The 
singidar  is  aide-de-camp. 

Aidin',  or  (iuzel-Hissar  (anc  Tral'les):  a  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  in  Anatolia,  on  the  river  Mender  (Meander) ; 
about  68  m.  S.  E.  of  SnnTua,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railroad  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-D).  It  has  a  large  trade, 
being  next  to  Smyrna  in  commercial  importance,  and  is  the 
residence  of  a  |)aslui.  Here  are  several  fine  mosques  and  syna- 
gogues, anil  a  floin-ishing  Protestant  mission.  The  niins  of 
the  ancient  Tralles  arc  in  tlie  vicinity.  Aidin  is  noted  for 
its  figs,  great  quantities  of  which  are  produced  in  the  neigh- 
borhooil.  and  many  are  exported.     Pop.  30.000. 

Aiglicbelle.  ag  bel' :  a  small  town  of  France  in  Savoy; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arc  and  on  the  Mont  Cenis  R.  R. ; 
15  miles  E.  of  (.'haMd)ery  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  6-1).  Pop. 
about  1.100.  Here  tlie  combined  French  and  Spanish  ar- 
mies dcfealed  Didvc  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  of  Savoy,  in 
1742.  The  road  liuilt  by  Napoleon  over  Mont  Cenis  com- 
mences near  Aiguelielle. 

Aigiipbelle,  Pail  Alexandre  Neveue,  d' :  a  French 
naval  ollicor  in  the  service  of  China;  b.  Jan.  7,  1831.  He 
took  part  with  the  Franco-Chinese  corps  against  the  TaT- 
Plngs,  and  took  in  1864  the  important  city  of  Ilang-Chow- 
Foo.  He  entered  the  Chinese  service,  was  create<l  a  manda- 
rin of  the  first  rank,  organized  an  important  military  arsenal 
at  Fuh-Chow-Foo,  ami  in  June.  1869,  he  launched  the  first 
man-of-war  of  the  new  navy  Iniilt  on  the -European  plan. 
He  was  then  m.-ide  gran<l  ailmiral  of  the  Chinese  fleets, 
which  title  was  expressly  created  for  him. 

Aif^lies-Morles :  a  town  of  France ;  department  of  Gard ; 
19  miles  from  Ximes  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-G).  Pop. 
about  4,000.  The  large  saline  works  of  Peecais  are  in  the 
neighborhood.    An  interview  between  Francis  I.  of  France 


and  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  took  place  here  in  1538.  Louis 
IX.  embarked  from  this  place  on  the  seventh  crusade,  Aug. 
25. 1248.  and  on  July  4, 1270,  on  the  eighth  and  last  crasade. 

Ai^iiillon,  Armand  Vigxerot  Hi-plessis  Richeliel', 
Duke  of:  French  statesman;  b.  in  1720;  was  Governor  of 
Alsace,  and  afterward  of  Brittany.  He  gained  the  favor  of 
the  king's  mistress,  Madame  du  IJarry.  and  through  her  in- 
fluence was  made  prime  minister.  Upon  the  accession  of 
Louis  XVI.  he  was  removed  from  office  and  banished  from 
court,  and  d.  in  1782. 

Aigiiilloii.  Armand  de  Vigxerot  Duplessis  Richelieu, 
Due:  son  of  the  preceding:  earnestly  supjiorted  the  popular 
cause  in  the  .States-General  of  1789.  He  connuanded  one  of 
the  armies  in  1792,  but  was  proscribed  liy  the  ruling  pai'ty 
the  same  year,  and  escaped  by  flight.     D.  in  1800. 

Aijalon :  See  Ajalon. 

Aiken,  a'k«n  :  capital  of  Aiken  co.,  S.  C.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref.  6-D) ;  on  the  South 
Carolina  R.  R.,  120  miles  W.  by  X.  of  Charleston  ;  noted  as  a 
resort  for  invalids,  especially  those  sufllering  from  pulmonary 
complaints.  Being  situated  on  a  plateau  600  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  400  feet  higher  than  the  city  of  Augusta, 
which  is  17  miles  distant,  and  the  soil  being  sandy  and  por- 
ous, the  system  of  natural  drainage  is  almost  perfect,  render- 
ing the  atmosphere  peculiarly  dry  and  elastic.  The  dew-point 
is  invariably  low.  The  climate  is  a  mean  between  the  dry, 
cold  region  of  Minnesota  and  the  moist,  temperate  section  of 
Florida,  and  has  proved  efficacious  in  restoring  health  to 
thousands  of  invalids.  Here  are  Aiken  Institute,  a  classical 
school  for  white  students,  and  the  Schofield  Normal  .School 
and  the  Immanuel  Training  and  High  School  for  the  col- 
ored race.     Pop.  (1880)  1,817 ;  (1890)  2,362. 

Editors  of  '■  Jourxax  and  Review." 

Aiken.  Charles  Augustus,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  b.  at  Man- 
chester, Vt.,  Oct.  30.  1827:  gi-aduated  at  Dartmouth  College 
in  1846,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1853;  was 
pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in  Yarmouth.  Me.,  from 
1854  to  1859 ;  Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Literatm-e 
at  Dartmouth  from  1859  to  1866;  Professor  of  Latin  in  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  fi-om  1866  to  1869  ;  president  of  Union 
College  from  1869  to  1871  ;  and  became  rrofessor  of  Chris- 
tian Sithics  and  Apologetics  in  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  He  was  one  of  the  0.  T.  Company  of  Revisers  of 
the  A.  V.  of  the  Bible.  He  translated  and  edited  the  book 
of  Proverbs  in  the  American  edition  of  liange's  Commen- 
tary, and  publislied  several  articles  in  the  mijliotheca  Sacra 
and  Princeton  lievieu;  besides  numerous  critical  notices  of 
books.     D.  Jan.  14, 1892.      Revised  by  George  P.  Fisher. 

Aiken.  William  :  b.  in  Charleston.  S.  C,  in  1806.  grad- 
uated at  South  Carolina  College  in  1825.  He  was  prominent 
in  public  affaii's,  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  (1811  16), 
and  a  Democratic  member  of  Congress  (1851-57).  He  was  a 
man  of  gi-eat  wealth,  and  owned  Jehossee  island,  where  he 
formerly  employed  1,000  slaves  in  rice  culture.  He  was  noted 
while  in  public  life  for  his  wisdom  and  moderate  views,  and 
contributed  largely  to  the  cause  of  education  and  to  benevo- 
lent objects.  While  in  Congress  in  1857  he  lacked  but  one 
vote  of  becoming  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
D.  Sept.  7,  1887. 

Aikin.  John,  M.  D.  :  an  English  writer;  h.  in  Leicester- 
shire, Jan.  15,  1747.  He  produced,  conjointly  with  his  sis- 
ter, Mrs.  Barbaulil,  an  instructive  juvenile  book  called 
Eveninqs  at  JTome  (1792-95).  which  had  great  popularity. 
He  practiced  medicine  in  London  and  other  jilaces.  Among 
his  numerous  works  is  a  biographical  dictionary,  entitled 
General  Biiiqraphy  (10  vols.  4to,  1815).  He  edited  the 
Monthly  Magazine  (1796-1806).     D.  Dec.  7,  1822. 

Aikin.  Lucv  :  a  daughter  of  John  Aikin  :  b.  Nov.  6,  1781  ; 
wrote.  l]esides  other  works,  a  memoir  of  her  father  (1823), 
and  Life  of  Joseph  Addison  (1843).     D.  Jan.  29,  1864. 

Aikins,  James  Cox:  Canadian  statesman;  b.  in  township 
of  Toronto,  Ont.,  Mar.  30,  1823:  educated  at  Victoria  Col- 
lege, Col)Ourg.  Entering  public  life,  he  represented  the 
county  of  Peel  in  the  Canadian  Assembly,  18.54-61 ;  was  a 
member  of  tlie  Legislative  Council  of  "Canada,  1862-67; 
became  a  memlier  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1869;  and  was 
Secretarv  of  State  from  that  date  till  the  resignation  of  the 
Macdonald  Ministry,  Nov.  5,  1873.  He  was  reappointed  to 
the  same  office,  Oct.  19,1878;  became  Minister  of  Inland 
Keveniie,  Nov.  8,  1880,  which  portfolio  he  resigned  May  23, 
1882.     He  was  proclaimed  a  member  of  the  Dominion  Sen- 


AILANTUS 


AIR-BLADDER 


87 


Ailantiis  Silk>vorm: 


ate,  Ifay,  1867,  and  aiinointod  Liciitcnant-Govcmor  of  Mani- 
toba and  Koewalin,  L)co.  22,  lb83,  an  oflioe  he  held  until 
July  1,  1888.  Neil  Macuonald. 

Ailan'tlis  [Malay  name  said  to  mean  tree  of  heaven] :  a 
tree  of  same  name,  which  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has 
reraarkalily  lai-j;e  piiniatc  leaves.  It  grows  rapitUy,  and  is 
often  planted  as  an  ornamental  or  shade  Iree  in  the  cities  of 
Europe  and  the  LT.  S.  The  foliajje  is  handsome,  but  it  causes 
much  annoyance  by  the  rapid  spread  of  suckers  from  the 
parent  tree.  The  staniinate  liowei-s,  whicli  are  borne  on  dis- 
tinct trees,  have  an  offensive  odor  that  often  produces  head- 
ache and  nausea.  The  female  phmts  are  free  from  this  ob- 
jection, and  the  cluslei-sot  winged  fruit  which  they  bear  are 
quite  ornamental,  so  that  they  should  always  be  chosen  for 
sliatle  trees.  Hesides  the  above  {Aihuitns  alanduloxun),  there 
are  several  other  siwcies,  chiefly  tropical.  They  belong  to 
the  family  Simnrubaceie. 

the  At' locus  cyn'thia;  so  named 
from  its  feeding  on  the 
leaves  of  the  ailantus  tree. 
The  silk  obtained  from  this 
worm  is  extensively  used 
in  China.  The  eggs  are 
hatche<l  in  a  manner  similar 
In  that  in  which  the  eggs  of 
the  common  silkworm  are 
hatched,  and  the  larva',  after 
being  fed  through  their  first 
moult  with  picked  leaves, 
an:  transferred  to  the  trees 
and  then'  left. 

AilnMl,  or  .Kfhelrpd,  or 
Kill  red,  or  A  lured,  Saint: 
Cistercian  abbot  of  Kie- 
vaiils,  Yorkshire:  b.  at  Hexham,  in  England,  in  1109;  edu- 
cated in  Scotland.  lie  wrote  numerous  sermons,  histories, 
and  other  works.  ()art  of  which  were  edited  by  Twisden 
(1652),  bv  Camerarius  (1631),  and  bv  one  Gibbon  (Douai, 
1631).     I).  Jan.  12,  1166. 

Ail'sa  Craiij:  an  islet  in  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde,  10  miles 
from  till' coast  of  ,\yrshire,  Scotlaml  (see  niaj)  of  .Scotland, 
ref.  14-K).  It  is  a  crag  of  traji-rock  of  a  somewhat  colum- 
nar character.  It  is  1,139  feet  high,  and  is  not  inhabited 
except  by  a  rabbit  catcher  and  the  lighthouse  keeper.  It 
gives  title  to  the  Jlarquis  of  Ailsa.  its  proprietor. 

Ailli'riis  ["having  a  waving  tail."  like  that  of  a  eat;  from 
Gr.  oWaos,  (|uickly  moving  or  waving,  and  olipi.  a  tail]:  a 
genus  of  carnivorons  animals  of  the  family  Pmcijunidw. 
The  Ai/iinis  fiih/piis,  allied  to  the  raccoon,  is  found  in  the 
mountains  of  Nepal.     By  the  inhaliitants  of  that  country  it 


Ailantus  sill«worm. 


Ailurus  fulgens. 

is  termed  panda,  cliilira.  and  wnh,  the  last  name  having  been 
given  it  on  account  of  its  pecidiar  cry.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  large  cat,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  singularly  rich  and 
beautiful  fur,  which  is  mostly  of  a  bright  chestnut  brown, 
Imt  deepens  into  a  fine  rich  black  on  the  chest  and  outside 
of  the  legs.  It  has  a  short  heail  and  a  thick  muzzle.  The 
head  is  of  a  whitish  fawn  color,  with  a  ruddy  chestnut  spot 
under  ea<'h  eye.  The  tail  is  of  the  same  color  as  the  body, 
being  marked  with  a  series  of  dark  rings.  "The  coat  of  the 
panda  is  not  only  handsome  in  appearance,  but  is  very  thick, 
fine,  and  warm  in  text  ure,  being  comiiosed  of  a  double  set  of 
hairs — the  one  forming  a  thick,  woolly  covering  to  the  skin, 
and  the  other  composed  of  long,  glistening'  hairs  that  pierce 


through  the  wool  and  give  the  exquisitely  rich  coloring  to 
the  surface  of  the  fur.  Cuvier  regartled  the  panda  as  the 
most  beautiful  of  known  quadrupeds.  These  animals  live 
among  rocks  an<l  trees  at  a  considerable  elevation  in  the 
IlimaTaya  mountains.  Their  fooil  is  chiefly  fruit  and  other 
vegetable  substances.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Ainiard,  ay-maar',  Gustavf, :  French  novelist;  b.  Sept. 
13,  1818;  came  to  the  U.  S.  at  an  early  age,  and  after  a  stay 
of  ten  yeai-s  went  through  Southern  Kurojie  ami  Eastern 
Asia.  Among  his  works  are  Leu  Trappeum  de  V Arkansas; 
Lex  Aventuners;  L'Araucan,eti:.     D.  Apr.  30,  1883. 

Aimor^s,  or  Aynior^s:  See  Botooudos. 

Aili.  an:  a  department  of  Eastern  France;  bounded  X. 
by  the  departments  of  Saone-et-Loire  and  Jura.  E.  by  Haute 
Savoie,  on  the  S.  bv  Iscrc.  and  W.  by  Rhone  and  Saone-et- 
Loire.  Area,  2,239' sq.  miles.  The 'dejiartment  is  watered 
t)y  the  Khone  and  the  .Saone,  which  flow  along  its  bounda- 
ries, and  bv  the  Ain.  The  western  part  consists  of  a  large 
plateau,  which  is  very  fertile.  In  the  E.  large  nmuntain 
ranges  prevail,  which  'c(mtain  iron,  asphaltum.  and  the  best 
lithographic  stones  in  France.  Pop.  (1891)  3.j6,917.  Chief 
town,  Bourg-in-Hresse. 

Ain-miiller,  Maximiliax  Emanuel:  German  painter;  b. 
at  Jlunich,  Feb.  14,  1807;  noted  as  the  restorer  of  the  art  of 
painting  on  glass.  Among  his  works  are  the  windows  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Uatisbon  and  Cologne.     I).  Dec.  8,  1870. 

Aiuos.  i'noz:  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Japan,  now 
found  only  in  Yezo.  Saghalin,  and  the  Kurile  islands,  whither 
they  have  been  driven  by  the  advance  of  the  Japanese,  who 
seein  to  have  entered  the  country  from  the  S.  ^^^  Though 
mentioned  in  Jajianese  history  as  "barbarians,"  they  are  of 
a  nuld  and  amial)le  disposition.  Their  chief  occupations 
are  hunting  and  lishing.  They  have  Caucasian  features,  are 
low  of  stature  but  strongly  built,  and  are  in  general  very 
hairy.  They  are  fetishists. "and  are  in  a  low  state  of  civiliza- 
tion! In  Yezo,  however,  they  are  being  gradually  civilized 
by  Japanese  schools  and  arts ;  their  number  is  less  than 
1.1,000.  Very  complete  vocabularies  of  their  language 
(which  is  quite  distinct  from  Japanese)  have  been  compiled, 
but  the  alBnities  of  the  language  have  not  been  determined. 
See  Miss  Bird's  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan  (1880) ;  Cham- 
berlain's Aino  St  adieu;  Batchelor,  T/ie  Ainu  of  Japan; 
Religiun,  Super^titiiins,  and  General  Histury  of  the  Hairy 
Aborigines  of  Japan  (1892).  K.  LiLLEV. 

Ainswortll.  Robert:  an  English  classical  scholar;  b. 
iK^ar  JIanchester  in  1660 ;  taught  school  in  London.  He 
jiublished  a  well-known  Latin  dictionary  (1736).  D.  April 
4,  1743. 

Alnsworth,  \Villiam  Harrison:  English  novelist;  b- 
in  Manchester,  Felj.  4.  180.5.  He  published  ii'ooivdofjJ  (1834) 
and  Jack  Slieppard  (1839),  the  latter  of  which  had  an  ex- 
traordinary success;  The  Tower  of  London  (\S40),  etc.  In 
184.')  he  became  the  proprietor  of  tlie  Kew  Monthly  Maija- 
zine.  His  numerous  stories,  largely  historical  in  subject, 
have  had  great  popularity.     D.  Jan.  3,  1882. 

Ailital),  in-taab' :  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey ;  on  the  south 
slope  of  Jit.  Taurus  or  Alma-Dagh;  alxnit  60  miles  N.  of 
.\le[ipo  and  ir2  miles  X.  E.  of  .\ntioch  (sec  map  of  Turkey, 
ref.  6-H).  It  is  well  built,  and  has  manufactures  of  leather, 
woolen  cloths,  etc.  A  flourishing  mission  among  the  Ar- 
menians of  this  town  has  been  maintained  for  years  by  Prot- 
estant missionaries  from  the  U.  S.    Pop.  estimated  at  20,000. 

Air  [0.  Fr.  air  <  Lat.  aer,  -is,  from  Gr.  drip]  :  considered 
an  element  by  the  ancient  philosophers,  but  now  known  to 
be  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  with  sonu;  other  gsrses. 
See  AcoiiSTirs,  Atjiospiirre,  Baro.metkr,  Pnkvmatics,  Me- 

TKOROLOGY,  NlTROOEX,  ctc. 

Air  (in  painting):  See  AiJRiAL  Perspective. 

Air:  an  oasis  in  the  Sahara.    See  Asben. 

Air- Bladder,  or  Swim -Bladder :  an  organ  in  fishes 
consisting  of  a  large  sac  filled  with  air,  which  enables  them 
to  modify  their  specific  gravity  by  increasing  or  diminish- 
ing the  volume  of  air  in  the  bladder.  This  air  is  largely 
composed  of  nitrogen,  and  is  obtained  by  secretion  from  the 
walls  of  the  bladiler.  It  is  the  homologue  of  the  lungs  of 
air-breathing  animals.  Both  air-blad<ler  and  lungs  arc  sup- 
posed to  be  tlerived  from  the  cellular  air-bladder  found  in 
the  more  generalized  ganoid  fishes.  ^lany  fishes  are  desti- 
tute of  air-bladders.  In  othei-s  the  organ  has  a  highly  com- 
plex structure.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 


88 


AIR-CELLS 


ALX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Air-Cells :  in  birds,  are  closed  sac?  oonneeted  with  the 
lungs  and  distributed  over  the  inside  of  the  chest  and  abdo- 
men. The  bones  also  contain  air-spaces  communicating  \yitli 
the  air-sacs,  the  arrangement  serving  to  lessen  the  weight  of 
the  body  and  adapt  the  bird  for  fliglit.  Air-cells  in  plants 
are  spaces  in  the  cellular  tissue,  containing  air.  They  occur 
chiefly  in  aquatic  jilants.  Kevised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Airdrie,  ar'dri :  a  market-town  and  parliamentary  Ijor- 
ougli  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  11  miles  E.  by  N.  of"  Glas- 
gow, with  wliieh  it  is  connected  by  railway  (seemap  of  Scot- 
land, ref.  13-G).  It  is  well  built  and  lighted  with  gas.  Jlmes 
of  iron  ami  coal  are  worked  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  16,335. 

Air-Eng'iiie  :  See  IIot-Aib  Exgixe. 

Aire-Siir-rAdoiir,  ar-si'ir-la-door' :  an  old  French  town 
in  Landes,  on  the  river  Adour;  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Jlont  de 
Mai-san  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-D) ;  the  seat  of  a  I)ishop, 
hiis  a  cathedral  and  a  college.     It  was  once  the  capital  of 
the  Visigoth  kings.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

Air-(iuii:  an  instrument  for  projecting  bullets  or  other 
missiles  by  means  of  the  elastic  force  of  condensed  air.  A 
strong  reservoir  of  metal  is  constructed  into  which  air  is 
forced  by  a  condensing-syringe.  The  reservoir  may  be  of 
any  form,  but  it  is  most  conveniently  disposeil  of  by  placing 
it  within  the  stock.  The  bullet  should  lit  the  barrel  very 
exactly,  so  as  to  leave  no  windage.  On  pulling  the  trigger, 
the  condensed  air  escapes  through  the  valve  and  rushes  with 
violence  into  the  barrel,  propelling  the  bullet  before  it;  and 
the  instant  the  finger  is  withdrawn  from  the  trigger  the 
valve  is  closi-d  by  tlie  pressure  of  tlie  air  in  the  imigazine, 
which  remains  in  a  somewhat  less  condensed  state  for  the 
next  discliarge.  Thus  the  same  supply  of  air  in  the  maga- 
zine will  serve  for  several  successive  discharges,  but  the 
force  becomes  weaker  and  weaker  after  each.  The  force 
witli  wliich  a  projectile  is  propelled  from  an  air-gun  is  com- 
monly mucli  less  than  that  produced  by  an  ordinary  dis- 
charge of  gunpowder,  but  they  may  be  so  made  as  to  \)e  very 
formidable  weapons. 

Airlie,  ar'li.  Earls  of:  Barons  Ogilvr  of  Airlie  (1491), 
Barons  Ogilvy  of  Alyth  and  Lintratlien  (163!),  in  the  Scotcli 
peerage),  a  [jrorainent  family  of  Great  Britain.  The  first 
Earl  of  Airlie  was  created  in  163!). — David  Graham  Drum- 
MOND  Ogii.vy,  the  tenth  earl,  was  born  May  4,  1826,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1849. 

Air-Plants  :  certain  epiphj-tic  tropical  plants,  which  hang 
in  festoons  from  forest  trees,  and  are  able  to  Uve  suspended 
in  the  air.  The  family  of  Orchidacece  furnishes  many  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  air-plants.  Air-plants  must  be  distin- 
gruished  from  parasites,  like  the  mistletoe,  which  feed  on  and 
not  merely  grow  on  trees,  etc.       Revised  by  C.  E.  Bessey. 

Air-Pnilii) :  a  machine  for  the  production  of  a  vacuum,  or 
sometimes  for  thecomiircssicm  of  a  gas.  Tlie  vacuum-pump 
was  invented  by  Otto  von  (iuericke,  about  IHoO.  The  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  ordinary  air-pump  are  similar  to  tliose  of 
suction-pumps  for  water  "(see  Pump),  but  the  capacity  of  the 
cylinder  is  relatively  larger,  and  the  valves  are  constructed 
with  special  reference  to  delicacy  of  action.  All  air-pumps 
with  valves  cease  working  before  the  vacuum  is  complete. 
Even  where  leakage  is  successfully  eliminated,  a  point  is 
reached  at  which  the  valves  become  inactive.  The  vacuum 
attained  by  means  of  mechanical  pumps  is  probably  rarely 
as  good  as  ^jfai!  of  an  atmosphere.  By  means  of  'various 
forms  of  the  mercurial  aii--))ump,  however  (see  Vacuum),  it 
has  been  fouiul  possible  to  reduce  the  pressure  to  less  than 
■nreiciKr.  ind,  by  means  of  extraordinary  precautions,  to 
about  YTTBTiifTOffiT  o{  an  atmos|)liere.  (See  Pneumatics.)  For 
detailed  descriptions  of  various  types  of  the  mechanical  air- 
pump,  see  Deschanel's  Xalurcd  P/iiUinoplii/,  Part  I.,  pp.  179- 
203.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Air'y,  Sir  Georoe  Biddell,  K.  C.  B..  LL.D.,  D.  C.  L., 
F.  R.  S. :  astronomer  and  physicist;  b.  at  Alnwick,  Xorth- 
umbcrlaixl,  June  27.  1801  ;  educated  privately,  and  at  the 
Colchester  Grammar  School;  entered  Trinity  College,  1819  ; 
elected  a  fellow,  1832;  and  graduated  B.  A.  in  1824,  being 
senior  wrangler.  In  1826  he  became  Lucasian  Professor  of 
Philosoj)hy,  ami  in  1828  Plumian  Professor  of  Astronomy. 
In  1835  he  was  appointed  astronomer-royal,  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  (ii-ccmvicli  Observatory  niilil  Sept..  1881, 
when  he  retired  with  a  pensif)n  of  .i.'l,iOO  jier  annum.  Dr. 
Airy  attained  a  vi'ry  high  rank  as  an  astronomer  and  pliysi- 
cist,  and  wrote  much  upon  weights,  measures,  coinage,  rail- 
ways, and  ot  her  kindred  subjects,  lie  made  important  im- 
provements in  jistronomicai  and  philosophical  instruments. 


He  devised  the  system  now  in  common  use  for  the  correction, 
by  means  of  magnets,  of  the  disturbances  of  the  compass  in 
iron-built  ships.  He  wrote  the  article  Gracitatiun  in  the 
Fennij  Cyclupiedia.  and  Trigunoinetry,  Figure  of  the  Earth, 
and  Tides  and  Wares  in  the  Encyclopu'dia  Metrupulitana; 
also  Mathematical  Tracts;  Ipswich  Lectures  on  Astronomy; 
Errors  of  Observation ;  treatises  on  Sound,  3Iatjnetism,  etc.; 
besides  very  numerous  and  important  monographs  and 
papers  for  periodical^;.  He  conducted  the  astronomical  op- 
eration connected  with  the  definition  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  and  was  employed  in  tracing 
the  Oregon  boundary.  From  the  universities"of  Edinburgh, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford  he  received  the  honorary  degrees  of 
p.  C.  L.  an<l  LL.  D. ;  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
its  president  for  two  vears ;  and  was  made  a  Knight  Com- 
mander of  the  Bath,  July  30,  1S73.     D.  in  London  Jan.  4, 

1893.  R.  LiLLEY. 

Aisiie,  an  :  a  river  of  the  K.  part  of  France;  rises  in  the 
department  of  Jleuse  ;  flows  neai'ly  westward,  ]iasses  by  Sois- 
sous,  and  enters  the  Oise  near  Compiegne.  Length" about 
85  miles;  navigable  44  miles.  The  canal  of  Ardennes  con- 
nects it  with  the  Meuse. 

Aisiie ;  a  department  in  the  north  of  France  ;  hounded  X. 
by  the  Nord  department,  E.  Iiy  Ardennes  and  Jfarne,  S.  by 
Seine-et-Marne,  and  \V.  by  Oise  and  Somme.  Area,  2,839  sq. 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Oise.  the  Aisne,  and  tlie  Marne 
rivers.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  manufacturing  industrv 
in  this  department  is  very  large.  Wheat  ami  hay  are  among 
the  staiile  productions.  It  is  sulidivided  into  o"  arrondisse- 
ments.  37  cantons,  and  838  communes.  Chief  town,  Laon. 
Pop.  (1881)  556,891 ;  (1891)  545.493. 

Aist,  DiETMAR,  von :  one  of  the  earliest  German  minne- 
singers. An  Austrian  liy  birth,  whose  name  is  mentioned 
dm-ing  the  years  1143-70.  Few  of  his  beautiful  songs  were 
preserved.  See  Des  Minnesangs  Friililing,  Lachmann  u. 
Haupt.  Julius  Goebel. 

Aitkeii.  Sir  William.  M.D.,  LL.D.,  P. R.S.:  physician; 
b.  Apr.  23,  1825.  in  Dundee,  Scotland  ;  M.  D.,  University  of 
Edinburgh,  184^1 ;  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy,  University  of 
Glasgow,  1848-55:  volunteered  for  hospital  service  in  Turkey 
during  the  Crimean  war;  appointed  Professor  of  Pathology 
in  the  Army  Medical  School,  1860;  knighted  at  the  Queen's 
Jubilee,  1887.  Author  of  numerous  published  papers  on 
pathology  and  the  science  of  medicine.       C.  II.  Thurbeb. 

Aitkeii.  Rev.  William  Hay  Macdowall  Hunter  :  Church 
of  England  "  missioner '" ;  b.  in  Li^•erpool,  Sept.  21,  1841 ; 
educated  at  Oxford ;  ordained  in  1867.  After  a  brief  in- 
cumbency in  Liverpool,  Mr.  Aitkeii  has  devoted  himself  to 
the  superintendency  of  the  Church  of  England  Parochial 
Mission  Society,  which  he  founded  in  1877  to  su]j]ily  trained 
mission  preachers  for  evangelistic  work.  He  conducted  a 
successful  "  mission  "  in  New  York  city  in  the  winter  of 
1885.  He  has  published  3Iission  Sermoits  (3  vols.,  1875-76) ; 
Newness  of  Life  (1877);  What  is  your  Life?  (1878);  The 
School,  of  Grace  (1879);  The  Highway  of  Holiness  (1883); 
also.  Difficulties  of  the  So!<?(1879);  God's  Everlasting  "JVff " 
(1881);  The  Glor'i/  of  the  GospelilSS-l) ;  Around  the  Cross 
(1884);  The  Hevealer  Revealed  (1885);  The  Love  of  the 
Father  (1887) ;  Eastertide  (1889).  W.  S!  P. 

Alton,  William;  botanist;  b.  in  Scotland  in  1731;  di- 
rector of  botanical  garden  at  Kew,  England,  1759-93:  imli- 
lished  Hnrtus  Kewensis,  a  catalogue  ot  plants  in  the  Royal 
Botanical  Garden  at  Kew.     D.  in  1793. 

Aitze'raa,  LiEtrwE,  van:  Dutch  historian  ;  1).  at  Doccum 
in  1600;  served  for  many  years  in  the  Dutch  diplomatic 
service ;  WTote  a  History  of  the  jS'etherlands  from  l€~'l  to 
ItiGS.     D.  in  1669. 

Aix,  aks  (anc.  Aqun"  Sex'tiie):  a  city  in  the  S.  E.  part  of 
France:  department  of  Bouches-du-Rlione;  33  miles  by  rail 
N.  of  JIarseilles  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-H).  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  Provence,  and  was  a  celebrated  seat  of 
learning  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  city  hall  (hotel  dc  ville).  a 
museum,  a  royal  college,  and  a  piililic  library  containing 
about  100,000  volumes.  Here  are  manufactures  of  silk  and 
cotton,  and  warm  mineral  springs,  from  which  it  derived  its 
ancient  name.     Pop.  (1881)  29,257 ;  (1886)  29,057. 

Aix-la-CIia|iplle,  aks-la-sha-pel'  (in  Lat.  A'quis  Ora- 
nuni;  Gcr.  Aachen);  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia;  on  the 
frontier  of  Belgium:  and  on  the  railway  which  connects 
Liege  suid  Cologne,  44  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of  the  latter 


AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE 


AKHALTSIKH 


89 


(see  map  of  Rerman  Empire,  ref.  5-0).  It  wius  once  famous, 
anil  llie  capital  of  the  einiiiro  of  Charleiiiajjiie.  who  made 
it  his  favorite  residence,  ft  is  a  well-ljuilt,  handsome  city, 
with  a  cathedral  foiiniled  in  7'J6  A.  D.,  a  large  town-hall,  an 
elef;ant  theater,  a  piililie  lihrary,  and  several  hospitals.  Here 
are  celehrated  mineral  spring.s,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
about  112°  F.  They  are  considered  efficacious  for  the  (Mire 
of  the  gout,  rheumatism,  and  cutaneous  diseases.  This  city 
has  important  manufactures  of  fine  broadcloths,  needles,  and 
pins.  The  cathedral  contains  the  tomb  of  f'harlemagne  and 
a  collection  of  relics,  which  attract  a  multitude  of  visitors. 
The  successors  of  Charlemagne  and  the  lOmpcrors  of  (ier- 
numv  were  crowned  here  from  the  ninth  century  uutil  lo;Jl. 
roii.'(lS!IO)  K):!.4T0. 

Aix-Iii-Cliapelle,  Coxoress  of:  a  congress  held  in  1818 
for  settling  the  affairs  of  Europe  after  the  war  of  1815.  The 
King  of  Prussia  and  the  Kmperors  of  Russia  and  Austria 
were  present  in  person.  The  different  representatives  were 
Jletternieh,  Wellington, Cast lereagh,  Hardenberg,  IJernstorff, 
Xesselrode,  and  Capo  d'Istrias,  with  Itlehelieu  on  behalf  of 
France.  Their  delil)erations  resulted  in  the  withdrawal 
from  French  territory  of  the  army  of  occupation,  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  what  was  afterward  known  as  the  "  tloLT 
Allian-ce  "  [q.  v.). 

Aix-la-Cliapelle.  Treaties  of:  I.  Treaty  of  IGOS.  This 
treaty  was  concluded  -May  2,  1GG8,  between  Louis  XIV.  of 
France  on  the  one  side  and  the  "  Triple  Alliance,"  includ- 
ing England,  Sweilen,  and  Holland,  on  the  other.  At  the 
death  of  Philip  IV..  Louis  laid  claim,  in  the  name  of  his 
wife  and  under  the  laws  of  succession  of  Brabant  and  Xa- 
nuir,  to  a  large  portion  of  the  Spanish  Xetherlanils.  He 
had  already  seized  several  strongholds  and  fortresses,  when 
Holland,  becoming  alarmed  at  his  raf)id  progres.s,  concluded 
the  triple  alliance  with  England  anil  Sweden.  Loins,  rather 
than  resort  to  a  war  against  so  powerful  a  league,  determined 
to  accept  mediation  ;  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  which  France  retained  possession  of 
Charleroi,  Valenciennes,  and  other  strong  towns,  which  she 
had  alreadv  seized. 

H.  Treaty  of  174s.  This  treaty  ended,  in  1748,  the  Aus- 
trian war  of  succession,  in  which  all  the  great  powers  of 
Europe  were,  either  on  one  side  or  the  other,  engaged.  Sev- 
eral German  princes  had  disputed  the  claim  of  Maria  The- 
resa to  the  throne  of  Austria,  and  from  this  cause  the  war 
arose.  It  lastcil  with  various  success  for  eight  years  (from 
174()  to  1748),  at  the  end  of  which  time  a  peace  W!vs  con- 
cluded which  left  the  ditfereut  states  with  nearly  the  same 
possessions  as  before. 

Aix-les-Bains,  aks  la-bSn' :  an  attractive  and  fashion- 
able bathing-resort  in  .Savoy,  Prance.  It  is  in  the  moun- 
tains, about  a  mile  from  the  picturesque  Lake  Bourget,  90 
feet  aliove  the  lake  and  828  above  the  sea  (.see  map  of  France, 
ref.  ti-II).  It  is  easy  of  access,  and  the  accommodations  are 
eood.  The  sea.son  is  from  May  to  September.  The  climate 
IS  usually  mild,  but  it  is  sometimes  very  hot  in  summer. 
About  25.000  people  underwent  treatment  here  in  188:!.  The 
springs  are  sulphurous;  their  temperatures  range  from  llo' 
to  115' F.;  and  they  yield  1,320,000  or  more  gallons  daily. 
The  diseases  treateil  are  rheumatism,  gout,  eczema,  neural- 
gia, catarrh,  throat  diseases,  constitutional  syphilis,  and 
scrofula.  The  waters  are  administered  internally  and  ex- 
ternally. 

Aizani,  i-zaa'nee:  an  ancient  town  of  Asia  Minor,  now 
in  ruins.  Among  its  ruins,  the  theater,  with  accommoda- 
tions for  over  12,000  spectators,  is  in  a  tine  state  of  preserva- 
tion. 

A.jaccio.  a-yaafchi),  or  .\jnzzo,  a-yaatso :  a  sca])ort :  capi- 
tal of  Corsica;  on  the  west  co:ust ;  lat.  41^  54'  N.,  Ion.  8'  44 
E.  (see  nuip  of  France,  ref.  2—1).  It  has  a  good  port  de- 
fended by  a  citadel.  It  has  also  a  cathedral  and  a  library 
of  18,000  volumes.  Wine  aiul  olive  oil  are  exported  from 
this  towu.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  born  here  on  Aug.  15, 
17G9.  A  magnificent  monument,  representing  the  Em[)eror 
Naiioleon  I.,  surrounded  bv  his  four  brothers,  was  finished 
iu  1865.    Pop.  (1886)  17,576. 

.4.j'alon  :  a  town  of  Palestine  belonging  to  the  Levites.  in 
the  land  of  Dan.  It  was  proliably  on  the  spot  now  occupied 
by  the  village  of  Yiilo.  Over  the  valley  in  which  this  town 
was  situated  the  moon  stood  still  while  Joshua  pursued  the 
live  kings. 

-A'jax  (Or.  ntas):  surnamed  The  Greater;  the  son  of 
Telamon,  a  Grecian  hero ;  was  King  of  Salamis.    He  acted  a 


prominent  part  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  exceeded  the  other 
Greek  warriors  in  strength  and  stature.  Having  been  de- 
feated by  Ulysses  in  a  compet  ition  for  the  armor  of  Achilles, 
he  became  insane  and  killed  him.self. 

Ajax :  the  son  of  OTleus  ;  surnamed  The  Lesser,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  Ajax  the  son  of  Telamon;  was  King  of 
Locris.  He  was  oiu"  of  the  Greek  heroes  that  fought  at  the 
siege  of  Troy,  and  excelled  all  the  Greeks  in  swiftness,  ex- 
cept Achilles.  Foroffending  Minerva  by  his  impiety,  he  was 
drowned  on  his  homeward  voyage  from  Troy. 

.\jmir.  or  .Vjmcrc,  aj  incer',  or  Rajpiitana:  a  city  of 
British  India;  capital  of  a  division  ami  a  district  of  the 
same  name ;  220  miles  S.  W.  of  Delhi,  and  situated  in  a  pic- 
turesque valley  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  6-C).  It  contains 
several  ma.ssivc  temples  and  mosques;  also  an  English  and 
Oriental  school.     Pop.  (1801)  67.880. 

Ak'abah  :  a  fortified  village  of  Arabia,  near  the  north  ex- 
tremity of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.    See  Elatu. 

Akabah,  (iii.F  ok  (anc.  Sinus  Elanitex):  portion  of  the 
Red  Sea,  lying  in  the  northwest  part  of  Arabia:  boMiidcd  W. 
by  the  |)eiiinsula  of  Sinai.  It  is  about  100  miles  long,  from 
12  to  17  miles  wide,  has  high  and  steep  shores  and  numerous 
coral  reefs. 

Ak'har.  or  .\k'l:or  (written  also  Acbar  and  Ackrar), 
Mohaiuiiietl.  sm-named  Jal.\l-ed-Deex;  a  famous  and  ex- 
cellent Mogul  emperor:  b.  at  Amerkotc.  in  the  valley  of  the 
Indus,  in  1542.  lie  was  a  son  of  Iluiiulyun.  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1556.  He  displayed  great  military  talents  and 
political  wisdom,  and  extended  his  dominions  by  the  con- 
quest of  Bengal  and  part  of  the  Deccan.  Under  his  reign 
the  Christians  and  Jews  were  tolerated  and  protected.  He 
encouraged  literature  and  jjromoted  commerce.  He  ordered 
a  complete  survey  and  census  of  his  empire,  the  result  of 
which,  with  minutely  detailed  statistics,  was  recorded  in  a 
book  called  Ayin  Akhery  (institutes  of  Akbar),  which  is  very 
celebrated.  Akbar  was  greatly  distinguished  for  his  justice, 
humanity,  and  nuignanimity.  He  died  in  1005,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Selim,  surnamed  Jehangir. 

Aken,  aa  ken :  a  town  of  Prussia :  province  of  Saxony, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe;  24  miles  S.  E.  of  Magdeburg; 
has  factories  of  beet-sugar  and  chemicals  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  4-F).     Pop.  5.571. 

A'keiisidp,  Mark,  M.  D.  :  English  didactic  poet;  b.  at 
NewcastU'-on-Tyne.  Xov.  9.  1721:  studied  medical  sciences 
at  Edinburgh,  graduated  as  M.  D.  at  Leyden  in  1744,  and 
practiced  in  London,  where  he  settled  in  1748.  His  re|)uta- 
tion  is  founded  I'hiefly  rm  The  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination, 
in  blank  verse  (1744).  which  was  received  with  great  favor. 
He  wi-ote  several  shorter  poems  and  medical  treatises.  His 
Treatitte  on  Dysentery  (in  Latin.  1764)  jiroved  liim  to  be  an 
excellent  cla.ssical  scholar.  He  was  ajipointed  a  physician 
to  the  queen  in  1760.     D.  June  23,  1770. 

Akerhlad,  Johan,  David:  Swedish  antiquary  and  Orien- 
talist; b.  in  1760.  He  visited  .Terusalem  in  1702,  and  the 
Troadin  1797;  gained  distinction  by  deci])liering  the  demot- 
ic writing  of  ancient  Egypt ;  and  wrote  a  Letter  on  the 
Egyptian  Inscription  of  Rosetta  (1802).     D.  Feb.  8,  1819. 

Ak'ernuin,  .Amos  T.  :  attorney-general  of  the  IT.  S.  for  a 
short  time  under  Gen.  (Jrant;  b.  in  New  Hampshire  in  1823, 
but  for  fourteen  or  lifteen  veal's  previous  to  his  apfiointment 
had  been  a  citizen  and  ])racticing  lawyer  of  Georgia.  He 
sided  with  the  Confederates  in  the  civil  war,  but  after  the 
surrender  of  the  Southern  arms  he  advocated  the  sanction 
of  the  reconstruction  measures  of  Congress;  was  a  member 
of  the  State  convention  of  1867-68,  and  acted  a  prominent 
part  in  shaping  the  new  Constitution  formed  by  that  body, 
fa.  Dec.  22,  1880. 

Akcrs,  liEXJAMiN,  commonly  known  as  Paul  Akers: 
sculptor;  b.  at  Sacarappa.  Me..  July  10,  1825:  studied  in 
Boston  and  at  Florence  (1852),  and  spent  some  years  in  Italy, 
where  some  of  his  best  works  were  executed,  but  generally 
lived  and  practiced  his  art  in  the  U.  S.,  most  of  liis  work 
being  portrait  busts  and  medallions.     D.  May  21,  1861. 

Akiialtsikli.  Akalzik,  aa-kaal-tseek',  or  Akis'ka:  city 
of  Asiatic  Bussia:  in  (ieorgia;  on  an  atlluent  of  the  Koor, 
about  92  miles  W.  of  Tiflis  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  12-F). 
It  cont^iins  a  mosque  and  several  churches,  and  has  some 
trade  in  silk  and  honey.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  Ar- 
menians. The  Ru.ssians  defeated  the  Turks  near  this  place 
in  1828,  and  it  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1829.     Pop.  18,270. 


90 


AK-HISSAR 


ALABAMA 


Ak-Hissar.  !fak'his-saar(i.  e.  white  castle),  wi-itten  also 
Ek-Hlssar  (the  ancient  Thyati  ra)  :  a  town  of  Asia  Minor; 
in  Anatolia,  53  miles  N.  E.  of  Sniynia  (see  map  of  Turkey, 
ref .  5-D).  It  contains  no  ancient  buildings,  the  houses  being 
mostlvof  mud.  Pop.  about  10.000,  two-tliirds  of  whom  are 
Turks. 

Akhint':  a  town  of  Armenia,  in  Asiatic  Turkey;  on  the 
N.  \V.  shore  of  Lake  Van ;  203  mUes  S.  E.  of  Trebizond. 
It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Armenian  kings,  and  is  at 
present  the  seat  of  an  Armenian  bishoji  (see  map  of  Turkey, 
ref.  5-1).     Pop.  about  4,000. 

Ak'iba,  Bex  Joseph  :  Jewish  rabbi,  of  great  learning 
and  influence;  president  of  the  school  of  Bene  Barak  in  the 
second  centui-y  a.  d.  Having  joined  the  rebellion  of  Bar- 
chochebas,  he  was  flayed  and  burned  by  the  Romans  in  the 
year  135  a.  d. 

Ak'ka :  a  dwarf  race  of  Central  Africa.     See  Pygmy. 

Akkadians:  See  Sumerians. 

Ak'kerman :  fortified  town  of  Bessarabia;  on  the  right 
bank  of  tlie  Dniester;  about  4  miles  from  the  Black  Sea, 
and  28  miles  S.  W.  of  Odessa.  Lat.  46°  12'  JJ".,  Ion.  30°  22' 
E.  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-C).  It  has  a  port,  several 
mosques  and  Greek  and  Armenian  chiirches,  nmncrous  fac- 
tories, and  an  extensive  trade  in  salt.  etc.  A  treaty  concluded 
at  -Vkkerman  on  Sept.  4, 1826,  exempted  the  Danubiau  prov- 
inces from  all  but  a  nominal  dependence  on  Turkey.  Pop. 
(1887)  41,178. 

Ak'kra,  or  .4c'cra:  town  of  Africa;  capital  of  the  Brit- 
ish Gold  Coast  colony:  situated  in  about  lat.  5"  30  N.  and 
Ion.  0'  12'  \V.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  o-C).  It 
has  a  population  of  16,276,  and  is  one  of  the  most  healthful 
points  on  the  coast. 

Akmol'insk:  a  province  of  Rtissia;  in  Central  Asia ;  S. 
of  the  government  of  Tobolsk.  Area,  229,609  sq.  miles.  It 
consists  of  a  plateau,  in  the  X.  level,  and  in  tlie  S.  moun- 
tainous, having  very  little  rain.  It  is  frequently  visited  by 
heavy  snow-storms.  Pop.  (1889)  500,180.  Chief  town,  Ak- 
molinsk. 

Akragas:  the  Greek  name  of  the  city  called  liy  the  Ro- 
mans Agrigentum.    See  Girgexti. 

Akron  :  village  (incorporated  in  1850)  in  Erie  CO.,  K  T. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref.  4-C");  sit- 
uated on  the  West  Shore  R.  R.,  and  on  B.  and  T.  branch  of 
N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  R.  R. ;  25  miles  from  Buffalo.  It  lias  6 
churches,  a  public  school  with  an  academic  department,  2 
liydraulic  cement  works,  a  flouring-mill,  a  stave  and  head- 
ing mill,  and  a  saw  and  planing  mill.  Pop.  (1880)  1,036; 
(1890)  1,492;  (1892)  including  suburbs,  1,600. 

Editor  of  "  Breeze." 

Akron:  city;  railroad  center,  and  capital  of  Summit  co., 
0.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  ;3-II) ;  on  the 
Ohio  Canal,  36  miles  S.of  Cleveland,  on  the  highest  point 
of  land  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  river.  It  has  a 
variety  of  numufactures.  employing  6.500  hands;  annual 
value  of  products,  §15,000,000;  a  lieautiful  cemetery,  a  pulj- 
lic  library,  a  high  school,  water-works,  electric  light,  street- 
cars, etc..  and  is  the  scat  of  Buchtel  College.  Pop.  (1870) 
10,006;  (1880)  16,512;  (1890)  27,601. 

Editor  op  "  Daily  Beacox." 

Akshehr'  (i.  e.  white  city)  :  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey;  in 
the  vilayet  of  Konia.  It  is  on  the  route  from  Constantino- 
ple to  Syria,  and  lias  an  important  trade.  I'op.  15.000.  It 
is  the  ancient  Philomelion  of  Stralio. 

Ak'su :  a  town  of  East  Turkestan,  on  a  river  and  in  a 
province  of  its  own  name ;  250  miles  X.  E.  of  Yarkand  (see 
map  of  Asia,  ref.  5-E).  It  has  manufactures  of  woolen 
stuffs  and  jasjier,  and  is  visited  by  nianv  caravans  from  all 
jiarts  of  Central  Asia.     Pop.  60,000  or  more. 

Akyah' :  a  town  of  Burma,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aracan 
river :  550  miles  S.  E.  of  Calcutta.  Its  situation  is  healtliful 
and  very  advantageous  for  commerce,  with  a  commodious 
and  safe  liarbor.  It  has  a  large  trmle,  especiallv  in  rice, 
large  quantities  of  which  are  exported  hence  (see  map  of 
S.  India,  ref.  2-K).  Pop.  ;M.000.  mostly  Bengalese  and 
Chinese.     Here  is  a  Protestant  missionary  station. 

Al :  the  Arabic  definite  article,  forms  a  prefix  to  inanv 
Oriental  names,  as  AI-Mansur,  the  victorious;  Al-Amiii, 
the  faithful,  etc.,  and  found  iti  English  in  many  wordjs  of 
Arabic  origin :  e.  g.  algebra,  alcohol,  almanac,  etc. 


A'la,  wing:  a  Roman  military  term,  denoting  the  wing 
of  an  army.  At  first,  when  the  whole  legion  consisted  of 
Roman  citizens,  it  was  applied  to  the  body  of  horsemen 
who  served  with  the  foot-soldiers,  but  after  the  admission  of 
socii.  whether  Latini  or  Italici,  it  was  applied  to  the  troops 
of  the  aUies,  both  horse  and  foot,  which  were  stationed  on 
the  wings.  At  a  stUl  later  time  the  aUe  were  composed  of 
foreign  troops  serving  with  the  Roman  armies;  while  under 
the  empire  the  term  was  given  to  bodies  of  horsemen  raised 
generally  in  the  provinces,  and  serving  ajiart  from  the 
legion.     See  WixG. 

Alaba'nia :  a  river  of  the  U.  S. ;  formed  by  the  Coosa  and 
the  Tallapoosa,  which  unite  about  10  miles  above  Montgom- 
ery, in  Alabama.  It  flows  nearly  westward  to  Selma,  and 
afterward  in  a  general  S.  W.  direction,  and  unites  with  the 
Tombigbee  to  form  tlie  Moliile  river.  It  is  navigable  for 
large  steamboats  through  its  whole  extent,  which  is  about 
300  miles.  It  traverses  a  fertile  region,  of  which  cotton  and 
maize  are  the  staple  products. 

Alabama  (signifying,  in  the  Creek  language.  Here  we 
rest) :  one  of  the  S.  or  Gulf  States  of  the  U.  S.,  lying  be- 
tween the  paral- 
lels of  30°  15'  and 
35°  X.  lat.,  and  the 
meridians  of  84° 
56'  and  88°  4S'  W. 
Ion.  fi'om  Green- 
wich. Length 
from  X.  to  S., 
336  miles;  lireadth. 
from  148  to  200 
miles.  Bounded 
on  the  X.  by  Ten- 
nessee. E.  by  Geor- 
gia and  Florida, 
S.  by  Florida  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 
co, W.  by  Missis- 
sippi. Area,  52,250 
sq.  miles,  or  33,- 
440,000  acres. 

Alabama,  by  census  of  1890.  ranked  seventeentli  among 
the  States  in  population,  sixteenth  in  value  of  agricultural 
products,  and  tlie  value  of  manufactures  was  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Surface.  Rivers,  etc. — In  the  X.  broken  and  hilly,  from 
outlying  hills  of  the  Blue  Ridge  ;  S.  of  this  almost  level,  but 
gently  declining  to  the  Gulf.  Principal  rivers  are  Tennessee, 
near  X.  line  of  the  State,  Mobile.  Tombigbee,  Alabama, 
Coosa,  Black  \Varrior,  Tensaw,  Perdido,  and  Chattahoo- 
chee, and  their  affluents.  Of  these,  the  Tennessee,  Tombig- 
bee, Black  Warrior,  Alabama,  Tensaw.  Chattahoochee,  and 
Perdido  are  navigable.  Mobile  bay  is  the  principal  bay 
of  the  State,  Grand,  Bonsecours,  and  Perdido  bays  being 
shallow. 

<S'o(7.-»The  soil  is  divisible  into  three  belts  or  sections — 
viz.  1.  The  S.  section,  one-fifth  of  the  Slate,  a  light  but  pro- 
ductive alluvial  and  diluvial  soil,  yielding  moderate  crops  of 
corn,  cotton,  and  fruits,  with  considerable  forests  of  yellow 
pine.  2.  Tlie  cotton  belt,  limestone  and  chalk  lands,  mostly 
prairie,  producing  good  cotton  and  corn.  3.  The  X.  section, 
a  mineral  region,  yielding  gold,  coal,  iron,  etc..  some  of  it 
poor  and  hilly  land,  Init  healthy  and  with  good  water-power. 
In  this  region  also  is  the  great  Tennessee  valley,  with  fine 
fertile  side  valleys  yielding  cotton,  corn,  cereals,  and  fruits, 
while  the  hillsides  are  well  adapted  to  grazing. 

Jliiieralf!. — Of  gold  discovered  in  Randolph  County.  1836, 
there  had  been  deposited  in  the  Mint  to  June.  1891,  $235,335. 
There  are  also  mined  in  the  State  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron 
ores  of  various  kinds,  and  excellent  bituminous  coal ;  4,500,- 
000  tons  of  coal  were  mined  in  1891  ;  1,877,815  tons  of  iron 
ore  were  mined  in  1890,  -Vhibama  ranking  as  second  in 
amount  of  production  in  the  U.  S.  There  are  many  rarer 
minerals,  mineral  earths,  building-stones,  and  also  mineral 
springs. 

Vegetation. — The  forests  in  the  X.  belong  to  the  temper- 
ate, in  the  .S.  to  the  semi-tropical,  zone.  Five  species  of  oak, 
hickoi-y,  chestnut,  poplar,  cedar,  elm,  mulberry,  and  white 
pine  in  the  X.  are  replaced  in  the  S.  Viy  cypress,  live-oak, 
yellow  pine,  magnolia,  and  loblolly,  with  brake  or  American 
bamboo,  saw-pahnetto,  etc.  The  apple,  pear,  plum,  and 
hardy  pe;ich  give  ])lace  to  the  fig,  pomegranate,  olive,  apricot, 
scuppernong  grape,  and  orange. 


M  U 


Ic  ALABA 


sas?  =«?=>  1  'y^— —-^ — - — i,      „      7^ 


C' 


Wt'st  from 


10  IH)  30  -10  50  ' 

County  TowTis  3       Roilrojida    ' 

ThU  type  Indicate!  &  populfttlon 

of  1,000  or  over.  H 


£    Grx'inwich 


ALABAMA 


91 


Zoijlftgii. — The  wild  aiiiiiials  cominoii  to  the  W.  and  S.  W. 
arc  found  hure.  Tlie  alligator  iidiabits  the  rivers  and  bayous, 
and  there  are  lizards,  some  venomous  snakes,  terrapin,  turtles, 
and  excellent  fish,  and  iiiost  game-birds,  also  bii'ds  of  prey, 
songsters,  and  birds  of  exiiuisile  plumage. 

Clinidle. — Temperature  in  Xorthern  Alabama  delightful, 
frosts  rare,  and  no  intense  heat.  In  Central  Alabama,  greater 
heat, but  cool  nights;  occasional  frosts.  In  the  S.,  protracted 
heat,  but  good  Ijreezes,  cool  nights,  and  licavy  dew.  Rain- 
fall from  48  to  54  inches.  Water  in  the  N.  excellent;  in 
the  S.  poor. 

Agricultural  Productions. — Cotton  is  the  largest  crop,  the 
State  ranking,  in  1891,  fourth  in  cotton  production,  and  tliird 
in  nuiidier  of  acres  cultivated.  .Alabama  was  eighth  among 
Southern  States  in  production  of  c<irn,  but  other  cereal  crops 
were  small.  Some  cane-sugar  and  niohisses,  and  more  sor- 
ghum sirup,  arc  made.  Kainie  is  grown  in  the  S.  counties. 
Average  wages  of  farm  hilior,  ISIIO,  .*14,  or  with  board  ij^U.^.S 
per  month.  The  number  of  farms  has  doubled  in  the  last 
decade,  liut  nearly  lialf  are  rented.  Of  the  farms,  eiglit- 
tcnths  are  under  101)  acres.  Tlie  crop  returns  of  1801  exhibit 
a  prodm-t  of  l.UGO.OOU  liales  of  cot  ton ;  corn  (1891),  33,24,5.000 
bush.;  wheat  (1891).  2.2.J1,000  bush.;  oats  (1891),  5,188,000 
bush. ;  other  agricult  ural  products  were  of  minor  importance. 

Farm  Aniiual-f.'* — In  1.891  there  were  reported  1.33.457 
horses,  14:5.'258  mules,  449.501  cattle,  1,514,701  swine,  274,788 
sheep,  and  308,687  milch  cows. 

Maiinfacturesixvc  now  large,  and  increasing;  lumber,  iron, 
steel.  m.-K'liiiu^ry,  and  cotton  goods  are  the  principal  articles 
produced.  Tlie  jiroduetion  of  rolled  iron  reached  34,023  tons 
m  1891  :  of  pig-iron  in  1891,  .891, 1.54  tons.  The  census  of 
1880  re[)orted  2,070  manufacturing  establishments,  employ- 
ing 10,019  persons,  and  that  of  1890  reported  2,977  estab- 
lishments, with  ■'540,122,571  capital. 

Jiailroails. — In  18S6  there  were  2,105  miles  of  railroad  in 
the  State,  and  in  1.S91  3.(>11  miles.  The  recent  growth  of 
the  railway  system  has  been  rapid  and  important. 

FiHanreti. — .State  debt,  §9,349,900,  at  4  and  5  per  cent. 
Taxable  i)roperty  a.ssessed  for  the  year  1891,  .$271,9.53.321. 
Rate  of  .State  tax,  40  cents  on  $100.  Amount  raised  by  tax- 
ation for  State  purposes  in  1890,  .$1,042,618. 

Commerce. — Mobile  is  the  onlv  port  of  entrv.  Imports  in 
1891,  $.88,675;  exports,  mostly  "cotton,  |3,402,854;  foreign 
exports.  .*  1,479.  Total  imports  anil  exports,  $3,493,008.  The 
number  of  vessels  entering  the  port  in  1891  was  183 ;  tonnage, 
103,281  tons.  The  number  which  cleared  was  209 ;  tonnage, 
121,07.5. 

Bankx  and  Inauranre. — There  were.  Oct.  31,  1891,  29  na- 
tional banks  in  operation;  capital,  .$4,294,000;  deposits,  $.5.- 
539,387;  outstanding  circulation,  $1,229,.587.  In  1891  10 
State  banks ;  capital,  $814,400 ;  deposits,  $762,691.  Savings- 
banks.  4;  capital.  $150,000;  deposits.  $194,296.  Private 
biuiks.O;  capital. -$352,000;  deposits, $.502,779.  The  insurance, 
both  life  and  lire,  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  foreign  com- 
panies. 

Education. — In  1890  Alabama  had  a  population  of  522,- 
691  between  7  and  21  years,  of  whom  270,204  children  were 
enrolled  in  the  publico  schools.  The  schools  were  kept  nearly 
four  months  in  the  year;  $89f),000  W!us  expended  for  school 
purposes  in  1890;  total  numbrr  of  school-houses,  6,177;  6 
universities  and  colleges  with  1,441  students;  41  seminaries, 
academies,  and  schools  of  secondary  instruction,  with  .5.336 
students.  There  are  7  public  normal  schools,  with  77  instruc- 
tors and  975  students.  There  are  .3  schools  of  theology,  1  of 
law,  and  1  of  medicine,  and  a  State  agricultural  and  me- 
chanical college. 

Libraries  and  Newspapers. — There  are  41  public  libraries 
of  over  300  volumes,  aggregating  95,303  volumes  in  all,  nu- 
merous college  and  school  libraries,  juul  many  private  li- 
braries, having  in  all  lu'urly  6f)0,000  volumes.  In  1892  there 
were  in  Alabanui  187  newspapers  and  periodicals,  including 
16  dailies. 

Churches. — The  Haptists  are  the  leading  denomination, 
but  are  followed  by  the  others  in  the  following  order: 
Metho'lists,  Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  Disciples  or  Chris- 
tians, Roman  Catholics,  Congregationalists,  and  minor  de- 
nominations. 

Populnlinn  of  Alabama  in  1820  was  127,901 ;  (1830)  309,- 
527;  (1840)  .590,7.56;  (18.50)  771,623;  (1860)  964,201;  (1870) 
996,992;  (1880)  1,262..505;  and  (1890)  1.513.017:  of  which 
there  were  while,  830,796;  colored,  G81,4:}1 ;  besides  750 
Indians  and  40  Chinese. 

•  On  farms  only. 


POPULATIOX  I.V    1890. 


COUNTIES. 

*Rer. 

Pop. 

Pop. 

1890. 

COUNTY  TOWNS. 

Pop. 

1890. 

5-D 
8-B 
S-E 
4-C 
*-D 
5-E 
8-D 
3-E 
4-E 
2-E 
4-D 
6-A 
B-B 
4-E 
3-E 
7-E 
1-B 
6-C 
4-D 
7-D 
6-D 
2-C 
7-E 
5-C 
8-E 
5-D 
7-C 
8-D 
3-B 
2-.B 
7-E 
4-B 
4B 
7-F 
1-E 
•3-C 
3-B 
1-B 
2-C 
5-E 
1-C 
5-D 
5-E 
1-D 
5-B 
2-B 
3-D 
8-A 
6-C 
.5-D 
2-C 
5-C 
4-B 
6-E 
4-E 
5-F 
3-D 
4-D 
5-B 
4-D 
4-E 
4-B 
3-C 
7-A 
5-C 
2-C 

13.108 

8.IKK) 
33,il79 

9.4h7 
l.i,:MU 
2»,0«B 
19,U4U 
19,,'i91 
23,440 
19,I0S 
10,793 
15,731 
17,81K3 
12,9:i8 
10,978 

8,119 
16.1,'j3 
12,605 
15,113 

5.639 
11.726 

6,3,55 
12,677 
48.4.33 
12.675 
17,502 

5,719 
15,.398 
10,135 

9,155 

4.342 
21,931 
26.563 
18,761 
2.5.114 
23,272 
12,142 

2i.oa5 
2l,:^9^ 

27,202 
21,000 
31,176 
)7,:j71 
37,625 
30,890 

9,304 
]4,.585 
48.6.53 
17.091 
52.350 
16.428 
30,741 
21,479 
20,640 
16,575 
24.8.37 
14.462 
17,2.30 
28.728 
23,300 
23,401 
24.9,57 

9,479 

4.638 
31,828 

4,233 

13. 3:10 

8,941 
34,898 
13,,824 
21,927 
27,063 
21.641 
3:!,8:io 
20,319 
20,459 
I4„549 
17,526 
22,624 
16,706 
13.218 
12,170 
20,189 
14,594 
15,906 

7,5:j6 
15,425 
13,439 
17,225 
49,:i50 
21,100 

2l,7:i2 

8,006 
21,920 
12,823 
10,081 
10,090 
22,fl<17 
27,601 
24,847 
28.020 
88„50I 
14,187 
2:1,739 
20.725 
28,094 
21.201 
31.550 
18,4;i9 
38,119 
3;J,0<,I5 
ll,»t7 
18.935 
51,587 
18,990 
56,172 
24,089 
29.:i38 
22,470 
24,423 
17,219 
24,093 
I7,35;j 
20,886 
29„574 

29,:«o 

25,400 
30.332 
10,078 

7,9:j3 
30,810 

6,552 

Prattville 

724 

Baldwin             .   . 

649 

997 

Hil)h 

Ceulreville 

239 

Bullock 

Butler 

Union  Springs. . 

Greenville 

Jacksonville 

La  Fayette 

2,(M9 
2,806 

1,237 

Chambers 

1,369 
347 

023 

Choctaw 

Clarke 

Butler 

(irove  Hill 

225 
635 

Edwardsville 

Elba 

446 

285 

('ulbert 

Tuseumbia 

Evergreen 

Kockford 

.\ndalusia 

2,491 

Conecuh 

Cousa 

Covington 

1,783 
240 
270 
451 

Cullman 

Ozark 

1,017 

Dale 

1,195 

7.622 

DeKalb 

Fort  Payne 

Wetunipka 

Brewton 

Gadsden 

2,698 

Elmore 

Escambia 

619 
1,115 
2,901 

RusseUville 

920 

637 

Kutaw 

1,115 

1,759 

465 

Ilak- 

Greensboro 

Abbeville 

Scottsboro 

Birmingham 

Jackson  

Jefferson 

959 

26,173 
192 

Lauderdale 

Lawrence 

Lee . 

Florence 

Moulton 

Opelika 

6,012 
3.703 

\thens. . .   . 

940 

Lowndes 

Macon 

Madison 

Ha.vneville 

Tiiskegee 

HnutsvUle 

355 
1,803 
7,995 

Hamilton 

GnntersviUe 

Mobile 

Mar.sliall 

471 

Mobile    . . . 

31,076 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

IVIorgan 

Perry 

Pickens 

Pike . . 

Monroeville 

Montgomery 

Decatur 

21,883 

2,765 
1,982 

Carrollton 

Trov 

3,449 

Randolph*. 

Russell 

Wedowee 

Seale 

299 

St.  Clair 

Shelby 

Stimter 

Ashville 

Columbiana 

Livingston 

Talladega 

Iladeville 

Tuscaloosa 

Jasper .... 

654 
850 

Talladega 

Tallapoosa 

Tuscaloosa 

Walker 

2,063 
873 

4,215 
780 

Washington 

Wilco.\ 

St.  Stephens 

.387 
545 

Double  Springs. 

Total 

1,262,605 

1,513,017 

Principal  Towns  and  Population.  1890. — Montgomerv, 
the  capital.  21.883;  Mobile.  31,076;  Birmingham.  26,178; 
Anniston,  9.998;  lluntsville.  7.995  :  Sclma.  7.622  ;  Florence, 
6.013:  Bessemer.  4.544;  Kufala.  4.394;  Tuscaloosa,  4.215; 
Opelika.  3.703;  Phreuix.  3,700;  Xew  Decatur,  3,565 ;  Trov, 
3.4-19 ;  Gadsilen,  2,901  :  and  tireenville.  2,806. 

History. — Fii-st  settlement  in  1702.  by  Bienville;  Mobile 
planted  in  1711-13;  terrilory  X.  of  31' ceded  by  France  to 
Great  Hritain  in  1763,  and  in  1783  transferred  to  U.  S. ; 
first  attached  to  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  but  in  1803 
organized  as  Mississippi  Terriloiy:  region  S.  of  31^  be- 
longed to  .Spain,  but  in  Ihe  war  of  1813  seized  and  annexed 
to  Mississippi  Territory  ;  this  region  and  Florida  purchased 
from  Spain  in  1819  ;  Creek  war  in  1813-14 — 480  whites 
killed.  400  wounded,  and  1.617  Indians  killed;  Gen.  Jack- 
son defeats  the  Creeks,  who  make  [leace  and  give  up  thrce- 
i|uart<'rs  of  their  territory;  immigration  increiuies ;  Mis- 
sissippi set  off  as  a  State  in  1S17.  and  Alabama  admitted  to 
the  Union  in  1819.  Alabama  took  an  active  part  in  re- 
moval of  Indians  to  Indian  Territory;  as  one  of  the  largest 
slave-holding  states  in  the  I'nion  uniformly  acted  up  to 
what  were  considered  the  interests  of  its  section,  taking 
strong  ground  in  favor  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  resist- 
ing all  measures  for  the  restriction  of  slave  territory,  and 
opposing  with  great  vehemence  what  its  political  leaders 

•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Alabama. 


92 


ALABAMA 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


charactpi-ized  as  Xorthem  aggressions ;  in  1860-61  one  of 
the  fii-st  of  tlie  Southern  States  to  declai-e  for  secession  and 
a  Southern  confederacy ;  convention  of  aU  the  Southern 
States  lield  at  Montgomery,  Feb.  4,  1861.  to  organize  a 
Southern  confederacy  ;  provisional  government  organized  : 
Jefferson  Davis  elected  President,  and  Montgomery  made 
capital  of  Confederai-y ;  Gov.  Moore  seized  in  Jan.,  1861, 
U.  S.  arsenal,  arms,  forts,  and  revenue  cutter ;  July,  1861, 
capital  removed  to  Richmond,  Ya.  In  the  progress  of  the 
war  Alabama  took  an  active  part,  though  the  northern 
portion  of  the  State  contained  a  strong  Union  party.  Sev- 
eral severe  battles  were  fought  within  the  limits  of  the 
State — notably  the  naval  actions  and  the  capture  of  the 
forts  in  Jlobile  bay  in  Aug.,  1864,  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Mobile  in  Mar.  and  April,  1865,  and  the  capture  of  Selma 
and  other  towns  by  Gen.  Wilson  in  April,  1865.  There 
were  also  minor  conflicts  at  Athens,  Montevallo,  Scottsboro, 
Talladega,  and  Tusciuubia.  Beconstruction  Measures:  Pro- 
visional goverinnent  appointed  June  21, 1865,  and  State  tem- 
porarily under  military  control;  State  convention  met  Sept. 
25,  I860,  and  annulled  ordinance  of  secession  ;  military  gov- 
ernment very  lenient :  State  convention  called  by  Gen.  Pope 
to  meet  Xov.  5.  1867,  to  form  a  new  constitution  and  State 

fovcrnment ;  constitution  submitted  to  people  Feb.  4,  1868. 
'here  was  much  opposition  to  it,  and  many  of  those  opposed 
stayed  away  from  the  polls;  the  result  was  that,  though  the 
constitution  received  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast,  it  did  not 
receive  a  majority  of  those  registered,  and  hence  was  deemed 
to  have  been  rejected.  Most  of  its  provisions  have,  however, 
been  engrafted  on  the  present  Constitution  of  1875.  The 
State  was  admitted  to  a  reiiresentation  in  Congi-ess  by  an 
act  passed  over  the  President's  veto  June  25,  1868.  With 
the  return  of  financial  prosperity,  and  the  development  of 
the  mineral,  agricultural,  manufacturing,  and  commercial  re- 
sources of  the  State  by  the  aid  of  the  great  raili'oad  lines 
now  traversing  it,  Alabama  entered  on  a  new  era  of  rapid 
advancement.  The  material  wealth  of  the  State  has  been 
prodigiously  increased,  and  capital  has  developed  the  iron 
and  coal  indust  ries,  which  are  among  the  richest  in  the  Union. 

QOVERXORS   OF   THE   STATE. 


William  W.  Bibb 1819-20 

Thomas  Bibb 1830-31 

Israel  Pickens 1821-3.5 

John  Murphy 1835-39 

Gabriel  Moore 1829-.SI 

John  Gavle 1831-;K 

Clement'C.  Clay 1835-:W 

Arthur  P.  Bagby   1837-11 

Benjamin  Fitzpatrick 1S41-1.'5 

Joshua  L.  Martin 1845-4r 

Reuben  Chapman 1847-19 

Henry  W.  Collier 1849-53 

John  A.  Winston 1853-57 

Andrew  B.  Moore 1857-61 


John  Gill  Shorter 1861-63 

Thomas  H.  Watts 180:i-65 

Lewis  E.  Parsons,  Piov..  18(55-65 

Robert  M.  Patton 1865-68 

William  H.  Smith 1868-70 

Robert  B.  Lindsay 1870-72 

David  P.  Lewis 1873-74 

Georgje  S.  Houston 1874-78 

Rufus  W.  Cobb 1878-82 

Edward  A.  O'Neal 1882-86 

Thomas  Seay 1886-90 

Thomas  G.  Jones 1890-94 

William  C.  Dates 1894-96 

Joseph  F.  Johnston 1896- 

Revised  by  A.  R.  Spofford. 

Alabama  Claims:  The  claims  made  by  the  Government 
of  the  U.  S.  in  favor  of  certain  of  its  citizens  and  on  its  own 
behalf  upon  the  Government  of  Great  Britain,  on  account  of 
the  acts  of  certain  warlike  vessels,  thirteen  in  number  with 
their  tenders,  which  sailed  from  British  ports  in  the  interest 
or  employ  of  the  C<mfederate  States  during  the  war  of  the 
rebellion  in  the  U.  S.  The  treaty  of  Washington  describes 
them  as  " differences  [which]  have  arisen  between"  [the two 
governments],  "  and  still  exist,  growing  out  of  the  acts  com- 
mitted by  the  several  vessels  which  have  given  rise  to  the 
claims  generically  known  as  the  Alabama  claims."  The 
Confederate  cruisers  in  respect  of  which  the  U.  S.  made  any 
reclamations  liefore  the  tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva 
should  lie  separated  into  two  classes;  fii-st,  those  which  were 
substantially  fitted  out  and  adapted  to  warlike  use  in  Great 
Britain,  so  that  they  actually  commenced  their  hostile 
careei-s  by  sailing  from  a  British  port;  and,  secondly,  those 
whicli  commenced  their  hostile  careers  in  the  Confederate 
service  within  other  territorial  jurisdictions. 

Ji^irsl  C/nm. — The  Florida  was  an  iron  screw  gnnhoat. 
The  contra<'t  for  her  was  made  in  1861  by  Bullock,  the  Con- 
federate agent  in  KnsflaiKl.with  Laird  &  Son.  of  Birkenhead. 
Her  object  and  ilcslination  were  well  known  at  that  place. 
but  the  formal  pretense  was  kept  up  that  she  was  designed 
for  the  Italian  navy.  She  cleared  for  the  Mediterranean  on 
Mar.  22.  1862,  with  a  crew  of  fifty-two  men,  all  British 
except  three  or  four,  of  whom  only  one  was  a  citizen  of  the 
U.  S.  Her  actual  destination  proved  to  be  Nassau.  She 
was  in  every  respect  a  man-of-war.  except  that  no  guns  were 
on  board.  While  she  wils  preparing  to  sail.  shot,  shells,  etc., 
were  sent  by  river  from  Liverpool  to  Hartlepool,  and  there 


shipped  on  board  the  steamer  Bahama,  which  left  for  Nas- 
sau, and  there  joined  the  Florida,  AU  these  facts  were  fi-om 
time  to  time  diligently  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
British  authorities  by  Mr.  Adams,  the  U.  S.  minister,  and 
by  Mr.  Dudley,  the  tl.  S.  consul  at  Liverpool.  At  Nassau 
certain  abortive  proceedings  against  the  Florida  were  under- 
taken by  the  colonial  government.  She  sailed  from  Nassau 
on  the  8th  of  August,  having  cleared  for  St.  John,  New 
Bninswick.  At  the  same  time  a  schooner  laden  with  shot, 
shell,  and  other  munitions  of  war  sailed  from  Nassau,  and 
met  her  at  a  neighboring  island,  where  the  transfer  was 
made.  But  her  British  crew  had  refused  to  serve  longer, 
alleging  deviation  of  voyage,  and  the  Florida  after  shipping 
her  armament  found  herself  too  short  handed  to  ci'uise. 
Failing  to  enlist  a  crew  in  Cuba,  she  accordingly  ran  the 
blockade  into  Mobile  and  there  lay  some  months.  Escaping 
early  in  1863.  she  cruised  for  twenty  months.  Her  career 
ended  at  Bahia,  where  she  was  cut  out  by  the  U.  S.  steamer 
Wachusett  in  glaring  defiance  of  Brazilian  sovereignty. 
Three  of  her  captures,  the  Clarence,  the  Tacony.  and  the 
Archer,  were  fitted  out  and  armed  as  tenders,  and  aided  in 
the  work  of  destruction.  During  her  cruises  s!ie  was  re- 
peatedly received  into  British  ports,  and  permitted  to  repair 
and  to  take  in  full  supplies  of  provisions  and  coals.  She  and 
her  tendere  captured  and  destroyed  U.  S.  merchant  vessels 
and  cargoes  amounting  in  value  to  many  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Alabama  was  a  companion  ship  to  the  Florida,  and 
was  manned  by  British  subjects.  She  was  a  wooden  steam 
sloop  of  about  1,040  tons  register,  built  for  the  Confederate 
States  by  Laird  cS:  Son  at  Bh-kenhead.  in  England,  and  was 
called  "  No.  290,"  from  her  number  in  the  list  of  steamere 
constructed  by  that  firm.  She  was  barque  rigged,  was  fur- 
nished with  two  engines  of  350  horse-power  each,  and  was 
[(ierced  for  twelve  guns.  Strict  precautions  were  taken  to 
keep  her  destination  a  secret,  but  the  suspicions  of  the 
agents  of  the  U.  .S.  having  been  excited  before  she  was 
quite  finished,  the  minister  of  the  U.S.  requested  the  British 
Government  to  detain  her.  The  British  ministers  consulted 
the  Crown  lan'j'ers,  and  after  some  delay,  caused  by  the  ill- 
ness of  the  queen's  advocate,  an  opinion  was  given  in  favor  of 
detaining  her.  In  the  meantime  the  "  No.  290  "  had  escaped 
under  a  pretext  of  a  trial  trip,  near  the  end  of  July,  1862. 
She  was  not  equipped  with  guns  and  warlike  stores  when 
she  left  the  Mersey,  but  received  them  at  Terceira,  whither 
they  were  conveyed  by  two  other  vessels.  In  August,  1862, 
Capt.  Semmes  took  command  of  the  steamer,  which  he 
named  the  Alabama,  and  began  his  cruise  with  a  crew  of 
eighty.  He  burned  most  of  the  merchant  vessels  which  he 
captured,  being  unable  to  take  them  into  any  port  of  the 
Confederate  States  in  consequence  of  the  blockade.  The 
Alabama  never  entered  any  port  that  was  possessed  by  the 
Confederate  States. 

It  is  stated  that  she  captured  sixty-five  vessels,  and  de- 
stroyed property  valued  at  §6,000.000.  Much  greater  than 
this  amount  was  the  damage  inflicted  on  ship-owners  of  the 
U.  S.  by  the  heavy  insurance  for  war  risks  to  which  they 
were  subjected,  and  by  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  freight 
for  their  vessels. 

After  a  long  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  she  returned  to 
Europe,  and  entered  the  port  of  Cherbourg  to  refit  and  ob- 
tain a  supply  of  stores,  June  11.  1864.  There  the  Kear- 
sarge,  Ca|)t.  Winslow,  found  her  and  offered  battle.  Though 
hardly  in  fighting  trim,  the  Alabama  came  boldly  out  and 
was  speedily  sent  to  the  bottom  by  her  antagonist. 

The  Georgia  was  built  for  the  Confederates  on  the  Clyde. 
She  sailed  early  in  1863,  and  proceeded  to  a  point  off  the 
French  coast,  where  she  met  the  steamer  Alar,  which  had 
been  sent  from  Liverjiool  with  her  arms,  ammunition,  etc. 
Some  steps  were  taken  by  the  British  Government  to  prevent 
her  escape,  but  they  were  too  late.  After  a  warlike  career 
of  about  a  year  she  returned  to  Liveniool.  and  wjis  there 
sold  by  the  Confederate  agents,  Mr.  Adams  remonstrating 
in  vain  against  this  proceeding.  Shortly  after  the  sale  she 
left  the  port,  and  was  captured  bv  the  U.  S.  cruiser  Niagara. 

The  Senmd  Clam.— The  Suiiipter,  the  Nashville,  the 
Retribution,  the  Tallahassee,  the  Chickamauga.  The.si'  were 
all  armed  and  equijiped  in  and  saileil  from  Confederate 
ports.  The  claims  made  in  respect  of  them  were  bas?d  upon 
allegations  that  they  were  received  into  British  ports,  and 
permitted  to  ship  coal  and  supplies,  in  excess  of  the  maxi- 
mum amount  iiermitted  by  the  queen's  jiroclamation  of 
neutrality;  and  also  in  respect  of  the  Retribution,  that  she 
was  permitted  to  take  captured  cargo  into  one  of  the  Baha- 
mas, and  there  seU  or  dispose  of  it  without  any  judicial 


ALABAMA  CLADIS 


93 


Srooess.  The  case  of  the  Shenandoah  was  quite  different, 
lie  wjLS  orif;iiially  a  Hiitish  steamer,  called  the  Sea  King, 
and  had  been  eiigafjed  in  the  East  India  trade.  She  saile(l 
Oct.  8,  1SG4,  for  Bombay  in  liulla.st,  witli  a  erew  of  forty- 
seven.  .She  was  not  then  aniicd  and  equipped  or  fitted  out 
as  a  man-of-war.  On  the  same  day  another  steamer,  the 
Laurel,  sailed  from  Liverpool,  ostensibly  for  Nassau,  having 
on  lioard  a  number  of  Confeilerales  ami  a  quantity  of  guns, 
gun-eurriajjcs,  and  other  munitions  of  war.  These  steamers 
met  at  Funclial,  in  th>'  island  of  Madeira,  where  the  trans- 
fer was  made.  Here  she  was  taken  eomniand  of  by  Capt. 
Waildell,  of  the  Confederate  service,  and  numned.  A  small 
part  oidy  of  the  original  crew  consented  to  remain  with  her. 
and  she  sailed  with  less  tlnin  one-half  of  her  regidar  force  of 
men.  On  the  2.5(11  of  .Jan.,  18(55,  she  arrived  at  Melbourne, 
where  she  was  permitted  to  repair  and  to  coal.  She  also  at  the 
same  place  enlisted  a  large  number  of  men,  augmenting  her 
crew  by  forty-five  new  enlistments.  This  was  done  so  openly 
that  it'  was  the  common  talk  of  the  town,  and  wa.s  freely 
commented  upon  by  the  local  papei's.  The  U.  S.  consul  at 
Melbourne  appealed  to  no  fewer  tlian  five  dilTerent  officials  to 
stop  the  enlistment  and  detain  the  ship,  but  without  avail. 
The  tribunal  of  arbilration  ilecidcd  that  tlie  colonial  authori- 
ties ilid  not  exorcise  due  diligence  in  preventing  these  en- 
listments. Leaving  Mellioiirne,  she  proceeded  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  there,  beyond  the  reach  of  any  U.  S.  cruisers, 
she  maile  great  havoc  among  the  U.  S.  whaling  ships.  This 
was  continued  for  .several  months  after  the  complete  over- 
throw of  the  Confederacy.  Slie  finally  arrived  at  Ijiverpool 
on  (he  tith  of  Nov.,  186."),  and  was  surrendered  to  the  British 
GovernmenI,  and  by  it  delivered  over  to  the  L^.  S. 

A  diplomatic  correspondence  arose  at  once  from  the  fore- 
going events.  AVe  can  only  state  in  the  briefest  manner  the 
points  which  were  urged  by  either  side.  It  should  be  care- 
fully borne  in  mind  that  the  protracted  negotiations  grow- 
ing ou(  of  the  recognition  of  the  Southern  States  as  belliger- 
ents by  thetpicen's  proclamation  of  neutrality  on  the  13th  of 
May,  i8til,  had  no  necess.iry  connection  with  the  Alabama 
claims.  .\ll  hough  tlic  two  alleged  causes  of  complaint  were 
often  mingled,  and  perhaps  deemed  inseparable,  in  popular 
opinion  in  the  U.  S.,  yet  they  were  entirely  distinct,  and 
were  finally  and  definitively  held  to  be  so  by  the  treaty  of 
WiLshingtoii.  During  the  war  the  immediate  object  of  all 
communications  made  on  the  part  of  the  U.  S.  was  to  induce 
the  British  Government  to  interfere  and  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  Confederate  enii.'iers:  the  remote  object  of  the  same 
communications,  and  the  sole  purpose  of  those  made  after 
the  war,  was  to  present  and  urge  a  demand  for  compensa- 
tion. 

Mr.  Secretary  Seward  and  ^fr.  Adams  placed  themselves 
upon  the  fundamental  position  that  a  neutral  nation  is 
bound  by  (he  principles  and  doclrines  of  the  international 
law.  indejiendent  of  any  mere  municipal  regulations,  to  use 
all  the  means  in  its  ]>owcr  to  ]irevent  its  territory  from  being 
madi^  the  base  of  military  operations  by  one  belligerent 
against  the  other.  "If  your  neutrality  laws  are  sufficient," 
(hey  said,  "  enforce  them  ;  if  insufficient,  amend  them."  The 
British  tiovernment  look  issue  with  this  position;  they  de- 
nied all  international  <liity  antecedent  to  or  beyond  the  ex- 
isting statute;  (his  statute,  (hey  claimed,  was  the  limit  of 
their  ]iower  and  responsil>ility.  The  statute  refernrd  to, 
known  as  the  Foreign  Enlistment  Act,  was  passed  in  1819. 
In  substance  il  provides  "that  if  any  jierson  within  any  part 
of  the  L'nKed  Kingdom  shall  .  .  .  equip,  furnish,  fit  out, 
or  arm  "  any  vessel,  or  attempt  to  equip,  etc.,  any  vessel,  or 
procure  any  vessel  to  be  eijuipped,  etc.,  or  knowingly  aid  in 
equipping,  etc.,  any  vessel,  wi(h  intent  that  it  may  be  em- 
ployed in  (he  service  of  one  belligerenl,  he  shall  be  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  fined  and  iiniirLsoned,  and  tlu^ 
vessel,  with  its  arms,  etc.,  shall  be  forfeited.  Lord  Ivussell 
refused  to  go  beyond  this  staliile.  and  declared  that  the  ex- 
ecutive as  such  could  not  act,  and  that  all  proceedings  un<ler 
it  must  be  judicial.  To  this  end  he  demanded  from  Mr. 
Adams  such  preliminary  technical  proofs  as  would  warrant 
a  conviction  by  the  courts.  There  was  thus  thrown  noon 
Mr.  Adams  and  Mr.  Dudley  the  duty  of  acting  as  police 
agents  .md  detectives  for  the  British  (iovernment  in  obtain- 
ing the  evidence  which  the  local  officials  ilid  not  busy  them- 
selves with  di.scovering.  At  la,st  a  construction  was  given 
to  this  statute  by  the  English  courts  in  the  case  of  the  Alex- 
andra which  made  the  Foreign  Enlistment  Act  adead  letter. 
Like  (he  Florida  and  (he  Alabama,  she  was  cons(ructcd  for 
the  Confederates,  in  every  respect  a  man-of-war  ready  for 
action,  except  (hat  her  guns  and  ammunition  were  not  on 


board.  .She  was  proceeded  against  under  the  statute,  which 
makes  it  an  olfense  "to  equip,  furnish,  fit  out,  or  arm  any 
vessel."  The  judge  at  (he  trial  held  (hat  these  acts  must 
all  be  proved  coincident Iv,  and,  as  tiie  Alexandra  was  not 
actually  armed  in  a  British  ])orl,  the  law  was  not  violated. 
This  ruling  was  sustained  on  appeal  by  the  higher  court. 
As  the  (iovernment  luul  denie<l  all  international  obligation, 
so  this  decision  removed  all  municipal  duty  to  interfere  with 
the  operations  of  the  Confedcrati!  agents.  Suck  was  the 
course  of  the  negotiations  during  the  war. 

In  the  year  18G8  a  change  in  the  sentiments  of  British 
statesmen  was  apparent.  They  .saw  what  a  dangi^rous  pre- 
cedent they  were  laying  down.  Accordingly,  a  convention 
was  signed  on  the  14th  of  Jan..  18(59.  It  provided  for  a  set- 
tlement through  commissioners  or  by  arbitration  oi  all 
claims  of  citizens  of  either  country  against  the  other.  The 
national  claims  of  this  country  were  not  taken  up.  This 
convention  the  Senate  rejected. 

Then  negotiations  were-  resumed  by  Mr.  Secretary  Fish 
which  ended  in  tin;  (rea(y  of  \Va.>^hing(on  of  1871.  This 
treaty  referred  the  fishery  dispute  to  arbitration  as  well  as 
the  xUabama  claims.  It  w;is  the  work  ot  a  joint  high  com- 
mission, consisling  of  five  men  fi'om  each  country  and  sitting 
in  Washington.  In  the  deliberations  leading  up  to  it  the 
U.  S.  commissioners  claimed  compensation  for  direct  losses 
in  the  destruction  of  vessels  and  cargoes,  and  in  national 
exf)i;nditiire  in  (he  |)ursuit  of  the  Confederate  cruisers,  and 
for  nidirecf  iiijiiri/  in  the  transfer  of  U.  S.  shipping  to 
the  British  flag,  in  the  enhanced  rates  of  insurance,  in  the 
prolongation  of  the  war,  and  in  the  addition  to  the  cost  of 
the  war;  they  proposed  that  (ireat  Britain  should  pay  a 
lump  sum,  to  be  agreed  upon,  f<u"  all  (he.se  claims.  The 
British  commissioners  in  answer  proposed  arbitration.  The 
U.  S.  commissioners  would  not  agree  to  arbitration  "unless 
the  principles  which  should  govern  the  arbitrators  were  first 
agreed  u]ion."  Finally  the  latter  suggestion  was  accepted; 
arbitration  was  adopted,  and  the  rules  which  should  govern 
the  arbitratoi's  were  agreed  upon.  Articles  I.  to  XL  of  the 
treaty  relate  to  the  Alabama  cl.-iims.  The  first  describes,  as 
has  been  shown,  the  matters  submitted  for  decision;  (he 
others  describe  the  constitution  of  the  tribunal,  its  proce- 
dure, and  the  form  of  its  decision.  The  seventh  contains  the 
important  three  rules,  as  follows: 

First.  That  a  neutral  government  is  bound,  first,  to  use 
due  diligence  to  prevent  the  fitting  out,  arming,  or  equip- 
ping, within  its  jurisdiction,  of  any  vessel  which  it  has  reason 
to  bi'lieve  is  intendefl  to  cruise  or  carry  on  war  against  a 
power  with  which  it  is  at  peace;  and  also  (o  use  like  dili- 
gence to  i)revent  the  dci)arlure  from  its  jurisdiction  of  any 
vessel  intended  to  cniise  or  carry  on  war  jus  above,  such  ves- 
sel having  been  specially  adai)t<:d  in  whole  or  in  part  within 
such  jurisdiction  to  warlike  use.  tiecoiid/y.  Not  to  permit 
or  suffer  cither  belligerent  to  make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters 
as  the  ba.se  of  naval  operations  against  the  otiiei',  or  for  the 
purpose  of  the  renewal  or  augmentation  of  military  supplies 
or  arms,  or  (he  recruitment  of  men.  Tltirdti/.  To  exercise 
due  diligence  in  its  own  ports  or  watei'S,  and,  as  to  all  per- 
sons within  its  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the 
foregoing  obligations  and  duties;  it  being  a  condition  of 
this  undertaking  that  these  obligations  should  in  future 
be  held  to  be  binding  uiternatiomdly  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. 

These  rules  Great  Britain  denies  to  have  been  parts  of  the 
infernational  law  when  the  acts  complained  of  were  done, 
Init  ff)r  rca.sons  of  comity  only  consents  (hat  they  retroact 
and  a|)ply  (o  (hose  acts,  and  be  made  the  basis  of  decision. 
The  article  concludes  as  follows:  "The  high  contracting 
parties  agree  to  observe  these  rules  as  between  themselves  in 
future,  and  to  bring  them  to  the  knowledge  of  other  mari- 
time powers,  and  to  invite  them  to  accede  to  them."  It  may 
be  here  reinarkcd  that  an  acceptance  of  these  rules  by  other 
powers  has  never  been  secured,  nor  is  there  any  general 
agreement  as  to  their  interiiretation.  In  pui-suance  of  the 
treaty  the  following  pei-sons  constituted  (he  tribunal  of  arbi- 
tration: Count  Eclward  Sclopis,  named  by  the  King  of 
Italy;  Mr.  .Jacob  Staempfli,  named  by  (he  President  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation  ;  Viscount  ilTtajuba.  named  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Brazil ;  Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  named  by  the 
President  of  the  U.  S. ;  and  Sir  Alexander  E.  Cockburn, 
named  by  the  QiK^en  of  (treat  Britain.  The  cjuse  for  the 
U.  .S.  was  se|)arated  into  six  parts;  it  gave  a  minute  history 
of  (ho  ac(s  of  the  British  (iovernment  toward  the  C  S.  dur- 
ing the  rebellion,  and  of  the  fitting  out  and  subsequent  op- 
erations of  each   Confederate  cruiser;   and   discussed  the 


Di 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


A  LAIS 


questions  of  international  law  involved  in  tlie  controversy, 
and  concluded  with  a  demand  of  the  compensation  to  be 
awarded.  The  British  case  was  separated  into  ten  parts, 
and  covers  a  similar  ground  to  that  of  the  U.  S.,  tliou^h 
from  a  different  point  of  view.  Both  were  supplemented  by 
many  volumes  of  evidence.  Two  very  distinct  questions 
arose  upon  these  papers :  (1)  What  matters  were  submitted 
by  the  treaty  to  tlie  arlntratorsf  and  (2)  By  what  rules  and 
principles  of  law  were  the  arbitrators  to  be  guided  in  decid- 
ing the  matters  submitted  to  them  f  The  consideration  of 
the  fii-st  and  preliminary  one  of  these  questions  gave  rise  to 
a  controvei-sy  which  for  a  while  threatened  to  interrupt  the 
whole  scheme  of  arbitration.  In  Part  VI.  of  the  U.  S.  ca.se 
the  U.  S.  presented  the  items  of  damage  to  which  it  claimed 
to  be  entitled.  (Quoting  the  language  used  by  the  U.  S.  high 
commissioners,  the  case  described  claims  for  "direct"  losses 
or  damages,  and  other  claims  for  "  indirect  "  losses.  The 
'■  (Urect "  were  said  to  include  "  losses  growing  out  of  the 
destruction  of  vessels  and  their  cargoes  by  the  insurgent 
cnusers.  and  the  national  expenditures  in  pureuit  of  those 
cruisers."  The  "  indirect  "  were  said  to  embrace  "  the  loss 
in  the  transfer  of  the  U.  S.  commercial  marine  to  the  British 
flag."  '•  the  enhanced  payments  of  insurance,"  "  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  war."  and  the  "  addition  to  the  cost  of  the  war." 
The  presentation  of  these  so-called  indirect  claims  caused  a 
great  opposition  in  Great  Britain.  The  Government  denied 
that  they  were  included,  or  intended  to  be  included,  in  the 
terras  of  the  treaty.  Fresh  negotiations  were  opened ;  a 
supplemental  treaty  was  proposed  ;  the  controverey  was  con- 
tinued after  the  meeting  of  the  tribunal :  and  for  a  while  it 
seemed  possilile  that  the  whole  proceeding  would  be  a  fail- 
ure. The  British  .-igent  asked  for  an  adjournment  of  the 
tribunal  for  eight  months,  to  allow  formal  negotiations. 
FiiuiUy.  June  1!>.  Count  Sclopis.  president  of  the  tribunal, 
announced  that  the  arbitrators,  without  deciding  the  ques- 
tion whether  these  claims  were  included  in  the  treaty,  "had 
arrived,  collectively  and  individually,  at  the  conclusion  that 
these  claims  do  not  constitute,  upon  the  principles  of  inter- 
national law  applicable  to  such  cases,  good  foundation  for 
an  award  of  compensation  or  computation  of  damages  be- 
tween nations."  The  dilficidty  was  then  ended,  and  the 
arbitration  went  on. 

The  argument  upon  the  merits  which  was  presented  by 
the  litigant  nations  to  this  liigh  trilnmal  was  most  able  and 
exhaustive.  There  is  not  space  to  present  it  even  in  the 
briefest  outline.  It  turned  mainly  upon  the  true  meaning 
of  the  phrase  "  due  diligence  "  used  in  the  three  rules.  The 
coimsel  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  was  Sir  Roundell 
Palmer,  then  the  acknowledged  leader  of  tlie  English  bar. 
and  afterward  made  Lord  High  Chancellor,  with  the  title  of 
Lord  Selborne.  The  counsel  on  the  part  of  the  \J.  S.  were 
William  M.  Evarts,  Caleb  Cushing,  and  Morrison  R.  Waite. 
The  final  decision  of  the  tribunal  was  announced  Sept.  14. 
The  arbitratoi-s  decided  unanimously  in  favor  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  respect  of  the  Georgia,  Sump'ter,  Nashville,  Tallahas- 
see, and  Chickamauga,  and  similarly  in  respect  of  the  Retri- 
bution, by  a  vote  of  three  to  two".  They  all  decided  (Sir 
Alexander  Cockliurn  for  reasons  peculiar  to  himself)  that 
Great  Britain  was  lial)le  for  the  original  fitting  out  and  es- 
cape of  the  Ahiliauia.  and  for  her  subsequent  free  admission 
into  British  jmrts.  The  same  conclusion  was  reached  in  re- 
spect to  the  Florida.  Sir  .Vlexander  Cockburn  alone  dissent- 
ing. The  ruling  as  to  these  vessels  applied  also  to  their 
tendei's.  The  tribunal  was  \maniraous  that  no  liability  arose 
in  respect  of  the  Shenandoah  prior  to  her  arrival  at  j\Iel- 
boume:  hut  three  of  the  arbitrators.  Count  Sclopis,  Mr. 
Staemplli.  and  Mr.  Adams,  held  that  the  colonial  authorities 
failed  to  exercise  due  diligence  to  prevent  the  enlistment  of 
men  at  that  jxii-t.  aiul  that  Great  Britain  was  liable  for  cap- 
tures maile  after  her  departure  thence.  The  tribunal,  in 
making  (heir  award,  formulated  and  announced  the  follow- 
ing general  principles,  a  portion  of  which  lie  at  the  basis  of 
the  whole  decision,  while  a  portion  apply  only  to  the  esti- 
nnite  of  t  he  quantum  of  damages :  "  Due  diligence  should  be 
exerciseil  by  neutral  governments  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
risks  to  which  either  one  of  the  belligerents  may  be  exjiosed 
by  failure  to  fulfill  the  obligations  of  neutrality  on  their 
part,"  'i'lie  elTects  of  a  violation  of  neutrality,  as  committed 
by  the  .Vlalmma  r.nd  other  such  cruisers,  were  not  done  away 
with  by  a  commissiim  subsecpienlly  issued  by  the  Confederate 
Government.  "The  Government  of  Great  Britain  can  not 
justify  itself  for  its  failure  in  duo  diligence  on  the  plea  of 
the  insulliciency  of  the  legal  means  of  action  which  it  pos- 
sessed."    The  claim  of  the   l'.  S.  for   the  national  cost  of 


pursuing  the  Confederate  cruisers  can  not  be  distinguished 
from  the  general  expenses  of  the  war,  and  is  therefore  an 
indirect  loss  which  can  not  be  allowed.  Prospective  injuries 
to  shipjiers  and  ship-owners,  such  as  loss  of  future  profits, 
are  equally  uncertain  and  indirect.  All  double  clainls  for 
the  same  losses  are  rejected,  but  interest  is  allowed.  Upon 
these  principles  the  tribunal  awarded,  for  actual  losses  of 
sliips  and  cargoes  and  interest,  the  sum  of  $15..i00.000.  It 
is  tfuis  seen  that  the  tribunal  wholly  oveiTuled  the  position 
maintained  liy  Great  Britain  from  the  beginning,  that  its 
statute  was  the  sole  criterion  of  its  power  and  duty.  In  like 
manner  the  tribunal  brushed  away  all  claims  by"the  U.  S. 
for  indirect  and  national  losses,  and  strictly  confined  its 
judgment  to  the  compensation  of  private  citizens  of  the 
U.  S.  for  losses  of  ships,  cargoes,  freight,  and  wages. 

Revised  liy  T.  S.  Woolset. 

Alabama  Indians:  See  MvsKnoGEAX  Iniuaxs. 

Al'abaster  [Lat.  alabaster,  from  Gr.  oAaiSaa-Tpos] :  one  of 
two  kinds  of  white  mineral  substances,  similar  in  appearance, 
but  different  in  composition.  Alabaster  proper  is  a  fine- 
grained variety  of  gypsum  or  suljihate  of  lime;  the  finest 
quality  of  this  is  found  near  Volterra,  in  Tuscany.  It  is 
manufactured  into  various  ornamental  forms  in  Florence, 
Italy,  which  is  the  center  of  the  alabaster  trade.  The  other 
is  a  translucent  carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  harder  than  the 
fii-st.     Both  are  manufactured  into  ornanu'nts. 

Consideralile  deposits  of  alabaster  of  the  gyjisinn  variety 
are  found  in  England,  chiefly  in  Derliyshire  and  .Staffordshire. 
It  is  used  there  to  form  the  plaster  molds  of  the  pottei-s,  and 
is  hence  called  "  potter's  stone."  The  fine  blocks  are  used 
by  the  turners.  A  yellow  variety  found  at  Sienna  is  called 
aiabastra  agatato. 

Alabaster.  William.  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Hadleigh,  Suffolk.  Eng- 
land, about  1.567:  educated  at  Westminster  School  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge:  was  incorporateil  at  Oxford 
in  1.592;  became  fellow  of  Trinity;  was  cha|ilain  to  Robert, 
Earl  of  Essex;  was  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism  in 
France  in  his  twenty-fourth  year,  but  di<l  not  long  remain  a 
Roman  Catholic.  He  was  enticed  to  Rome  ami  imprisoned, 
but  escaped  at  the  peril  of  his  life.  On  his  retiu'u  to  England 
he  became  prebendary  of  .St.  Paul's  and  rector  of  Hatfield, 
and  was  a  famous  Hebraist.     D.  aliout  1640. 

Alabaster  Cave  :  a  remarkalile  cavern  in  Placer  co..  Cali- 
fornia: 8  miles  S.  E.  of  Auburn,  and  a  mile  from  the  North 
Fork  of  the  American  River.  This  cave  contains  beautiful 
chandlers  incrusted  with  alabaster  of  various  tints.  It  also 
contains  a  lake  of  midetermined  extent. 

Alabas'trnm  (in  Gr.  a\d0currpoy) :  a  small  jar.  vase,  or  bot- 
tle, used  for  holding  unguents  ami  liquids.  The  vessel  men- 
tioned in  Matt.  xxvi.  7.  calleil  "alabaster  box"  in  the  Author- 
ized \'ersion,  and  "alabaster  cruse  "  in  the  Revised  ^'ersion, 
is  an  alabastrum. 

Alacran'es  (i.  e.  the  scorpions):  a  gioup  of  small  islands 
and  coral  reefs  (cavs);  80  miles  N.  of  the  coast  of  Yucatan  in 
the  (iulf  of  Mexico.  Cay  Perez  is  in  lat.  22°  24'  N..  Ion.  89° 
42'  W.  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-K).  They  are  dangerous  to 
navigation,  but  have  a  secure  harbor  on  the  south  side. 

Alag'o'as:  a  maritime  state  of  Brazil;  between  9°  and 
10°  S.  lat. ;  Iioumled  N.  and  W.  by  Pernambuco,  E.  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  S.  by  iSergipe  and  the  river  San  Francisco. 
Area,  22,.588  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  i>artly  mountainous; 
and  the  soil  of  the  valleys  and  lowlands  is  fertile,  and  pro- 
duces cotton,  sugar,  maize,  etc.  Capital,  Maceio.  Pop. 
(1888)  4r)<).:i71. 

Ala;;oas  (Port.,  the  lakes):  a  town  of  Brazil ;  state  of  the 
same  name;  on  the  Lake  Maysuaba ;  until  1839  the  capital 
of  the  [irovince.  It  was  formerly  a  large  and  important  city, 
but  since  the  change  of  the  seat  of  goveinment  it  has  de- 
clined very  much  (see  map  of  South  America.  I'ef.  3-H).  It 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  tobacco.     Pop.  1,5.000. 

Alag'On' :  a  river  of  .Spain ;  enters  the  Tagus  about  2  nules 
N.  E.  of  Alcantara.  Length,  about  120  nules.  It  is  noted 
for  its  fine  trout  and  other  fish. 

.\lnin  lie  Lille  (Lat. -■!/«'«»■«  ah  Iii'suh'/<):  the  Docfor 
I'tiifcrKalix;  flourished  in  the  twelfth  century  ;  was  a  Cister- 
cian monk,  and  wrote  a  great  number  of  books,  theological, 
philosoiihical.  and  poeti<'al.  See  Dupuv's  Alain,  th  Lille 
(1859). 

Alais.  all  lay' (.anc.  Alexia):  a  town  of  Southern  France; 
in  Gard.  on  the  tiardon.  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Cevennes;  31 
miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Nimes.  with  which  it  is  connected  by 


ALAJUELA 


ALASKA 


95 


a  railway  (see  iiiaji  of  Franec.  ref.  8-G).  It  is  in  a  produc- 
tive coar-ficld,  mill  has  several  mamifaotorios.  a  college,  and 
a  sthool  of  iiiincs.  Alais  was  a  stronghold  of  the  Krench 
Protestants  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  was  cajiturcil  in 
1629  by  Louis  XIII.  It  has  a  citadel  built  by  Louis  XIV., 
and  a  fine  (Jotliic  eh\irch.  The  cold  mineral  springs  in  its 
vieinitv  are  visited  by  great  numbers  in  the  sununer  seiLson. 
Pop.  (1886)  22,511. 

Alajiiela,  aa-la-hwiila :  a  city  of  Costa  IJica,  Central 
America,  capital  of  a  province  of  same  name;  23  miles 
W.N.  \V.  of  C'artago  (see  map  of  Centi-al  America,  ref.  8-.I), 
has  consideral)le  trade  through  the  port  of  Puntas  Arenas  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean.     I'op.  of  city.  9.000;  of  province,  .5:1,087. 

Alilkil^a'a-la-kool  :  alakeiuXortheast  Turkestan,  Uussian 
Asia;  lat.  46'  X.,  Ion.  81'  30'  E.;  50  miles  long,  20  broad; 
area.  790  sq.  miles;  2,559  feet  above  sea-level.  It  receives 
the  drainage  of  a  large  basin,  and  is  connected  by  a  chain 
of  small  lakes  with  llie  smaller  Sissikul  lying  a  short  distance 
N.  W. 

Alaineda:  city.  Alameda  co.,  Cal.  (for  location  of  count y> 
see  mai)  of  California,  ret.  7-C) ;  on  the  Southern  and  Central 
Paciiic  U.  It.  Pop.  of  township  (1870)  1,557;  (1880)5,708; 
(1890)  11.165. 

Alaingir:  See  Aurungzebe. 

Al'illllt>.  The  [A/amo  is  the  Sp.  for  poiilar-trce] :  a  cele- 
brated fort  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.  A  small  boily  of  Texans 
here  bravely  resisted  a  Jlexican  force  of  ten  times  their  num- 
ber from  Peb.  11  to  March  5,  1836.  and  lusirly  all  perished 
rather  than  surrender.  The  six  who  finally  surrendered 
were  murdered  by  the  Mexicans.  In  consequence  of  this 
heroic  defense.  Alamo  is  styled  the  "Theruuipylie  of  Ameri- 
ca." •'Remember  the  .Mamo!"  became  the  war-cry  of  the 
Texans  in  their  struggle  for  iudejiendcnce. 

A'laiiios.  Los :  a  city  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  110  miles  X.  W. 
of  Sinahia;  has  rich  silver  mines  in  the  vieinitv  (see  map  of 
Mexico,  ref.  3-1)).     Pop.  fluctuating,  aliout  10.000. 

A'lantl  Islands,  or  .Valand  :  a  numerous  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  S.  pan  of  the  (ndf  of  Bothnia,  near  the  Baltic, 
belong  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland,  government  of  Abo 
(see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  .5-B).  About  eighty  are  inhabited. 
Pop.  18,500;  total  area,  .550  sq.  miles.  They  were  ceded  to 
Russia  by  Sweden  in  1809.  The  Russian  fortifications  here 
were  destroyed  by  the  British  and  French  troops  in  1854; 
and  by  a  separate  convention  amu'Xed  to  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(April.'  1.8.56).  the  Euq>eror  of  Russia  agreed  "that  the  Aland 
isles  should  not  be  fortified,"  etc. 

Ala'lii  :  an  ancient  warlike  tribe  of  unkno\\-n  origin,  who 
made  inciu'sions  into  the  Roman  empire  as  allies  of  the 
Goths  and  Vandals.  They  invaded  Asia  Minor  in  the  reign 
of  Aurelian.  and  co-operated  with  the  Vandals  in  the  in- 
vasion of  Gaid  in  406  A.  D. 

Alarcoii.  Pkdro  Axtoxio, de:  Spanish  noveli.st  and  poet; 
b.  in  b833 ;  began  his  literary  career  as  a  journalist  and  sa- 
tiric writer.  He  took  part  in  the  war  of  1859  against  Moroc- 
co, in  the  capacity  of  historiographer,  and  wrote  his  Diario 
de  un  ifatiyii  ih  hi  (/iii-i-ra  rfe  Afiica  (1860).  In  subseciuent 
yeai"s  he  wrote,  first,  a  nuiulier  of  successful  short  sketches, 
then  noveks  of  a  more  serious  character,  anumg  tliem  L'/ 
sombrero  de  ires  picas  (1868);  La  A/puJnrra  (18T0);  A7  AV 
cdndnlo  (1875).  The  last  of  these,  strongly  Catholic  in  tone, 
and  sharply  opposed  to  the  scientific  and  realistic  tendencies 
,  in  conteniporarv  Spanish  literature,  was  espe<-iallv  successful. 
D.  .luly  20,  1891.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

.Vlarcon  y  Mrndn'za.  Do.\  Juan  Ruiz,  de:  Spanish  poet 
and  dramatist  ;  b.  in  Mexii-o  about  1590.  lie  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Spain  in  1622.  after  which  he  obtaiiie<l  the  oflice  of 
reporter  of  the  royal  council  of  the  Indies.  A  volume  of  his 
dramas  was  published  in  1628.  Among  his  works,  which 
present  a  faithful  delineation  of  Spaiiisli  manners,  and  are 
commended  for  elevation  of  sentiment,  are  Las  Parcdfs 
Oijen  (Walls  have  Em's),  and  La  Verdad  Sospechosa.  (Sus- 
picious Truth),  which  Corneille  imitated  in  his  Mi'iifeiir. 
i).  Aug.  4,  1639.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  by  Ilart- 
zenbiisch  (Madrid.  1857).  A.  R.  Marsu. 

Al'aric:  a  celebrated  conqueror;  a  Visigoth;  b.  about 
350  A.  D.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Arcadius  as  Emperor 
of  the  East,  Alaric  invaded  Thrace.  Macedonia,  and  other 
provinces,  in  395  A.  D.  He  took  Athens  and  entered  the 
Peloponnesus,  from  which  he  was  driven  out  by  Stilicho. 
Hostilities  were  then  suspended  by  a  treaty,  and  Arcadius 
appointed  Alaric  governor  of  Illyria  in  396.     He  invaded 


Xorthern  Italy  in  402.  l)ut  was  defeated  by  Stilicho  at  Pol- 
lentia  and  Verona.  SI  ilicho  having  been  killed  in  40s.  Alaric 
renewed  the  invasion  of  Italy,  which  the  Emperor  Honorius 
was  unable  to  defend.  The  army  of  the  Visigoths  invested 
lioine,  but  tliev  were  induced  to  retire  by  the  payment 
of  5.000  III.  of  gold  .'ind  30,000  lb.  of  silver."  After  unsuc- 
cessful efforts  to  negotiate.  Honorius  rejected  the  terms  of 
Alaric,  who  in  410  took  Rome,  and  pcirmitted  his  soldiers  to 
pillage  it  for  six  days.  He  was  marching  to  Sicily  when  he 
died  at  Cosenza,  in  410  A.  v.  See  Siraonis.  Kritisc/ie  Unter- 
suchungen  liber  die  Ueschichte  Alarich's  (1858). 

Alaric  II. :  King  of  the  Visigoths;  began  to  reign  in  484 
A.D.,  ontlie  death  of  his  father,  Eiirie.  His  dominions  in- 
cluded parts  of  Spain  and  of  Gaul.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
by  the  hand  of  Clovis.  King  of  the  Franks,  in  507. 

A  Las'co.  .VlasVo.  or  Alas'ko.  Jonx  (in  Polish,  Lascki) : 
a  Polish  nobleman  ;  b.  in  1499  ;  a  great  traveli-r  in  his  early 
life,  who,  while  at  Zurich,  iiuliibed  the  doctrines  of  Zwingli. 
At  Basel,  in  1.525,  he  liccame  the  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  be- 
cpieathed  to  him  his  library.  On  the  invitation  of  Cranmer 
he  removed  from  Einbden,  in  P^ast  Priesland,  to  Loniion  in 
1.551,  where  he  became  superintendent  of  the  congregations 
of  foreign  exiles  who  had  embraced  the  reformed  faith.  The 
Church  of  the  Austin  Friai-s.  in  Broad  Street,  was  assigned 
to  him,  and  here  he  established  a  Presbylerian  form  of 
church  government  with  a  si'rv ice-book  from  which  all  the 
sacerdotal  and  sacramental  |)rinciplesof  the  English  Praver- 
Hook  of  1.549  were  carefully  eliminated,  and  sitting  at  the 
communion  and  the  disuse  of  ecclesiastical  vestments  were 
enjoined.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  in  1553,  A  Las- 
co  and  his  congregation  were  banished.  In  1556  he  returned 
to  PolaiKl.  wliere  he  dieil  .Ian.  13.  1.560.  A  Lasco  wrote  a 
number  of  theological  treatises,  chiefly  in  defense  of  the 
sacramental  views  of  the  .Swiss  Reformers,  and  was  one  of 
the  eighteen  divines  who  prepared  the  Polish  version  of  the 
Bible  which  was  published  in  1563.  W.  S.  Pekrv. 

Ala  Slielir  (the  ancient  Philadelphia,  founded  about  200 
B.C.  bv  Attains  Philadelphus) :  a  walled  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
at  the  X.  E.  base  of  Jit.  Tmolus,  93  miles  K.  of  Smyrna 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  5-E).  Here  are  five  Christian 
churches  ami  numerous  ancient  ruins.     Pop.  about  15.000. 

Alas'ka  :  formerly  Russian  America  ;  a  Ten-itory  of  the 
U.  S..  comprising  the  northwestern  jiart  of  America,  pur- 
chased from  Russia  in  1867  for  §7.200.000.  Its  eastern 
boundary  starts  at  lat.  54'  40'  X..  in  the  Portland  channel, 
and  ascends  this  channel  to  where  the  fifty-sixth  meriilian 
crosses  the  coast  of  the  mainland.  From  here  it  passes  in- 
land to  the  summits  of  the  mountains  pai-allel  to  the  coast, 
or  lacking  mountains  to  ten  marine  leagues  from  the  coast, 
northward  to  the  meridian  of  141°  W.  From  this  point, 
which  proves  to  lie  very  near  the  ajiex  of  Mt.  St.  Elias,  it 
passes  northward  to  tlie  "  Frozen  Ocean."  The  western 
limit  comes  southward  from  the  "Frozen  Ocean"  to  the 
middle  of  Bering  Straits,  thence  southwesterly  in  such  a 
wav  as  to  pass  between  Attn  (the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleu- 
tian islands)  and  the  Commander  islands  oft  Kamchatka. 
It  thus  includes  not  only  an  enormous  tract  of  mainland, 
but  Prince  of  Wales  island,  the  King  (TCorge  or  Alexander 
archipelago  to  the  northward,  the  Kadiak  islands,  the 
Aleutians,  Pribvloff,  and  St.  Lawrence  island  in  Bering 
Straits. 

Topograph  I/.— The  coast-line  of  Ahiska  is  greater  than 
that  of  tlie  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  U.  S.  The  chief  inlets 
are  Prince  William  Sound  and  Cook  Inlet,  on  the  norlliern 
extension  of  the  Pacific  called  the  Bay  of  Alaska;  Bristol 
bavand  Xorton  Sound  on  Bering  Sea;  and  Kot/.ebue  Sound 
on' the  Arctic  Ocean.  Point  Barrow  (lat.  71"  23'  X.)  is  the 
northernmost  point  of  Alaska.  The  jirinciiml  river  is  the 
Yukon,  which  rises  in  British  Columbia  less  than  200  miles 
X.  X.  E.  of  Sitka,  strikes  a  broad  arc  of  a  circle  more  tiian 
2,000  miles  long,  and  enters  Bering  Sea  on  the  S.  side  of  Xor- 
ton Sound  through  an  extensive  delta.  At  600  miles  from  the 
coast  it  is  over  a  mile  wide,  and  the  volume  of  its  water  is 
so  great  as  to  freshen  the  water  10  miles  off  shore  from  its 
principal  mouth.  The  next  largest  river  is  the  Kuskokwim, 
which  rises  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alaskan  range  of 
mountains  to  tlie  eastward  of  the  meridian  of  150"  W..  and 
empties  into  Kuskokwim  liav.  Bering  Sea,  in  about  lat.  60' 
X.  Like  the  following,  it  is" but  little  known.  Next  in  or- 
der of  size  are  the  Colville,  flowing  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  E. 
of  Point  Barrow ;  the  tlop.per,  flowing  southward  from  the 
Alaska  Mountains,  and  emptying  into  the  Bay  of  Alaska  in 
about  long.  145'  W. ;   the  Suschitno,  and  several   Arctic 


96 


ALASKA 


ALAUDID^ 


streams.  The  Rocky  jrountaiiis  turn  westward  in  about 
lat.  63'  N.  and  pass  into  the  Alaska  Mountains,  a  range 
which  runs  first  W.,  then  S.  W.,  and  is  finally  prolonged 
into  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  islands,  the 
peaks  in  tlie  t\V(j  latter  lieins;  often  Tolcanic.  This  ranjje 
apparently  culminates  in  Mt.  \Vransel.  in  about  Ion.  145"  W., 
lat.  6-i  8(i  X.;  height,  17.500  feet."  Xear  the  coast  is  a  less 
continuous  range,  which  culminates  in  Jit.  Logan  (lat.  60° 
30'  N.).  altitude  19,500  feet,  thus  overtopping  Mt.  Elias  (18,100 
feet),  which  is  situated  at  the  point  where  the  U.  S.  boundary 
makes  a  turn  from  westward  to  northward,  and  which  was 
long  regarded  as  the  highest  peak  N.  of  Jlexico.  Among 
these  coast  mountains  is  Mt.  Cook  (in  British  territory).  15,- 
750  feet,  and  Mt.  Fairweather  (U.  S.),  15,500  feet.  Glaciers 
are  frequent  among  these  mountains,  and  one  from  Mt. 
Elias  dips  its  nose  into  salt  water  at  Icy  Bay. 

Natural  Birixioii-i.—The  Territory  falls  naturally  into  six 
divisions:  (1)  The  Arctic  division,  including  the  entire  area 
that  drains  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  a  treeless  district, 
diversified  by  ranges  of  hills,  almost  entirely  within  tlie 
Arctic  circle,  with  no  population  except  the  Esquimaux 
along  the  coast.  The  area  is  125,:J45  sq.  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation barely  surjiasses  o,000.  (3)  The  Yukon  basin.  1  his 
district  has  iin  area  of  176,715  sq.  miles.  It  has  extensive  for- 
ests, except  near  the  coast.  The  population  is  Esquimaux 
on  the  coast  (innnbering  about  4.500)  and  Indians  in  the  in- 
terior (about  2.500).  Fishing  is  the  chief  means  of  subsist- 
ence, (y)  The  Ivuskokwim  district.  This  includes  the  Kus- 
kokwim  basin  ami  the  remainder  of  the  area  between  the 
Alaska  range  and  the  Yukon  basin.  Its  character  is  much 
like  that  of  the  Yukon  district,  but  it  is  more  mountainous. 
Area.  114,975  sq.  miles.  Pop.  8,000  Esquimaux,  less  than  1,000 
Indians,  and  a  few  whites.  (4)  The  Aleutian  district,  com- 
prising the  Aleutian  islands  from  the  peninsula  of  Alaska 
westward.  The  islands  are  without  trees,  but  the  climate  is 
relatively  mild,  the  rainfall  considerable,  and  the  herbace- 
ous growths  are  luxuriant.  Fishing  and  sealing  are  tlie 
chief  means  of  support.  Area.  14.610  sq.  miles.  Pop.  about 
2,500 ;  mostly  Aleuts,  but  now  much  mixed  with  Russian 
blood.  (5)  The  Kadiak  district,  including  the  mainland 
anil  islands  S.  of  the  Alaskan  range,  \V.  of  meridian  141" 
W.,  and  E.  of  the  central  ridge  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska. 
This  region  is  but  little  known,  except  near  the  coast.  It  is 
believed  to  have  considerable  mineral  wealth.  Area,  70,884 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  about  2,000  Esquimaux,  1,200  Indians,  and 
1,000  whites  and  half-breeds,  (6)  The  Sitka  district,  which 
includes  the  archijielago  and  strip  of  coast  extending  south- 
ward, W.  of  British  Columbia.  It  has  abundant  forests 
containing  magnificent  tree  trunks  for  masts  and  spai-s. 
The  climate  Ls  relatively  mild  and  the  rainfall  heavy. 
There  is  considerable  mineral  wealth,  especiallv  to  the  X. 
Area,  38,980  .sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1880)  523  whites  and  half- 
breeds.  7,235  Iniliaus:  (1890)  1.880  whites.  5.4;«  Indians,  324 
Chinese.  Total  ari'a,  531.409  sq.  miles.  The  most  valuable 
of  the  export  products  of  the  industries  of  Alaska  consists 
of  the  fui-s  of  seals,  bears,  foxes,  otters,  martens,  beavers, 
minks,  and  some  other  animals.  Next  in  importance  is  that 
of  the  fishing  industry.  The  center  of  the  salmon-canning 
industry  is  at  the  islands  of  the  Kadiak  district,  the  output 
for  1890  (over  200,000  eases)  being  almost  two-thirds  of  the 
total  output  of  Alaska.  Gold  is  mined  in  several  places, 
bullion  to  the  value  of  about  $700,000  being  shipped  in  1890. 
There  are  unwoi'ked  <U'posits  of  lignite  and  copper. 

Population. — The  jiopulation  for  the  whole  Teiritory  in 
1880  Wiis  33,426,  of  whom  17.617  were  Esquimaux,  11,478 
Indians,  2,145  Aleuts,  1,756  half-breeds,  and  430  whites.  In 
1890  tlie  census  enumeralion  (necessarily  largely  an  esti- 
mate), gave  4.416  whites,  82  blacks.  1.568  lialf-breeds,  13,735 
natives  not  Esciuim.-uix.  2.125  Chinese.  8,400  Esquimaux; 
totid,  30,326.  The  Esquimaux,  or  Inuit,  are  confined  to  the 
coiust  and  are  found  along  almost  the  entire  coast  of  the 
mainland.  They  are  less  gentle  than  those  of  the  Atlantic 
side.  The  Aleuts  are  a  gentle,  genial,  and  fairly  industrious 
people,  formerly  celebrated  as  whale-hunters,  now  coutenti'd 
to  live  without  such  dang<'rous  pursuits.  They  are  now 
gradually  dying  out.  They  apjjear  to  be  nujre  nearly  re- 
lated to  I  he  Ks(|uimaux  than  to  the  Indians.  Among  the 
Indians  the  Thlinkets  are  the  most  numerous  (about  half). 

Jlixtonj. — The  cojlsI  of  this  part  of  America  was  dis- 
covered by  a  Russian  ex|)edition  under  Bering,  in  1741. 
Settlements  were  grailually  made,  and  the  coast  was  at  one 
time  clairueil  as  far  S.  as  .Sau  Francisco.  In  1799  the  Terri- 
tory wius  granted  to  a  Russo- American  fur  company  by  the 
Emperor  Paul  VI 11.,  and  the  charter  was  renewed  in  1839. 


X'ew  Archangel,  now  Sitka,  was  the  principal  settlement. 
The  privileges  of  the  company  expired  in  1863.  and  the  Ter- 
ritory was  purchased  by  the  tj.  S.  in  1867.  Portions  of  the 
Territory  were  soon  after  explored  by  employees  of  the  Rus- 
so-Anieriean  Telegraph  Comi)aiiy  in  surveying  a  route  for 
an  overland  telegraph  line  to  Europe.  Explorations  of  the 
coast  have  since  been  continued  by  the  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey.  The  Yukon  has  been  explored  by  Dall  and  Schwatka, 
and  Mt.  Eliiis  by  several  parties,  the  most  successful  of  wiiicli 
was  that  of  Ru.ssell  in  1891.  From  Sept.  8. 1881,  to  Aug.  29, 
1883,  a  well-equipped  meteorological  station  of  the  U.  S. 
Signal  Service  was  kept  at  Point  Barrow.  In  1884  a  dis- 
trict government  was  created  by  Congress,  with  a  governor 
and  a  district  court.  The  latter  sits  alternately  at  Sitka  and 
Wrangel.  The  laws  are  those  of  Oregon.  Sitka  is  the  capi- 
tal and  has  a  land-office.  The  farming  of  the  Pribylof  or  Pur 
Seal  islands  in  Bering  Sea  was  at  first  granted  to  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company  at  a  rental  amounting  to  about  f  300,- 
000  annually.  On  the  expiration  of  their  lease  in  1890,  the 
right  was  acquired  by  the  Xorth  American  Commercial  Com- 
pany. In  1886  three  Canadian  sealers  were  seized  by  a  U.  S. 
revenue  cutter  while  sealing  in  Bering  Sea,  their  captains 
and  crews  tried  for  illegal  sealing,  fined,  and  imprisoned. 
In  1887  five  were  similarly  seized  and  tried.  In  1888  a  Rus- 
sian steamer  seized  a  Canadian  schooner  sealing  in  Russian 
waters.  In  1889  four  schooners  were  seized  by  tlie  U.  S. 
revenue  cutter  and  a  fifth  warned  to  leave.  In  1890  and 
1891  there  were  no  seizures,  but  negotiations  in  the  latter 
year  were  going  on  to  settle  the  status  of  the  question  of 
foreign  sealing  in  Bering  Sea. 

References. — Ball's  Alaslca  and  its  Resources  (1870) ; 
Whvmper"s  Travels  in  Alaska  and  on  the  i'ukon  (1868) ; 
Elliott's  Our  Arctic  Province  (1886);  Schwatka's  books,  and 
many  U.  S.  Government  jjublications. 

Mark  W.  IIarrixgtcx. 

Alas'sio:  a  charming  health  resort  in  the  Riviera,  Liguria, 
Italy :  56  miles  ^V.  of  Genoa.  It  is  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  i)rotected  toward  the  X.  by  jiicturesque  and  wooded 
mountains  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-B).  It  has  been  fre- 
quently visited  by  the  Italian  royal  family  and  by  Gari- 
baldi, iind  is  becoming  a  favorite  English  resort  in  winter. 
Po]).  6.000. 

Ala'tri :  a  to%yn  of  Italy;  province  of  Rome;  45  miles 
E.  S.  E.  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-E).  The  ancient 
city  which  occujiied  tlie  site  of  Alatri  was  called  Ahitrium, 
or  Aletrium,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Iler- 
nician  League.  Here  are  some  of  the  finest  and  best-pre- 
served cyclopean  or  polygonal  walls  in  Italy.  They  were 
part  of  the  defenses  of  the  ancient  city,  and  were  built  of 
immense  polygonal  blocks  of  stone,  without  cement.  Pop. 
13,596. 

Alatyr':  a  town  of  Simbirsk,  Russia;  .at  junction  of 
Alatyr"and  Sura  rivers  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  7-G).  The 
princi[ial  industries  are  glass-making  and  dveing.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Alau'didsp ;  the  harks;  a  family  of  pa.sserine  birds,  the 
best  known  of  which  is  the  skylark  (Alau'da  arven'sis).  after 


A  lamia  cristata :  the  crested  lark. 

the  nightingale  the  most  celebrated  song-bird  of  Europe. 
It  mounts  to  a  great  height  in  the  air,  singing  vigorously  as 
it  rises,  and  at  the  cud  of  its  song  it  drojis  suddenly  to  the 
ground,  where  it  skulks  among  grass  and  weeds.     The  beau- 


Sp?' 


o 


c 


ALAUX 


ALBANO 


97 


titiil  Alaiida  cristata,  or  crested  lark,  is  another  coiiiraon 
hiiil  of  Kiir(i|pc.  The  shore-lark  (Otocoris  alppstris)  is  widely 
ililTuwd  ill  I  lie  ciioler  purls  of  Kurope,  Asia,  and  Norlli 
Aiiierieii,  mid  is  tlie  only  one  of  the  family  common  on  this 
ooiitiniiit.  The  hirks  are  lar^rely  terrestrial  in  lialiit,  feeding 
on  insects  and  the  like.  Among  related  birds,  they  are  dis- 
tinguished liy  the  long  straight  elaw  of  the  hind  toe,  and  by 
the  aliseiiee  of  a  sharp  riilge  on  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
tarsus.  Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan". 

Aliliix.  .Ieax:  historical  and  decorative  painter:  b.  at 
Bordeaux.  .Ian.  15.  ITHO.  I'lipil  of  Vincent  and  (fui'rin.  Di- 
rector of  the  French  Academy  in  Rome,  1  .s-ie-o.'i :  member 
of  the  Institute.  1H.")1 ;  Legion  of  Honor,  1S41.  Notable  pic- 
tures and  decorat  ions  at  the  Museum  of  Versailles.  D.  in 
I'aris,  .Mar.  2.  1.S04.  W.  A.  C. 

Al'ilVii:  one  of  the  Basque  provinces  in  Spain:  liouiided 
N.  Iiy  Biscay  and  tiuipuzcoa,  h.  by  Navarre,  S.  by  Logrofio, 
and  \V.  by  Burgos.  Area,  l.'.JO.'j  sq.  miles.  The  country  is 
mountainous,  but  fertile,  especially  along  the  shores  of  the 
Kbro.  The  <-liief  products  are  fruit,  wine,  grain,  and  hemp. 
Here  are  also  several  mineral  springs.  Chief  town,  Vitoria. 
Pop.  (1S.ST)  a->,S'Xi. 

Alb  (Lat.  (ilbd  (.sc.  vestis),  fein.  of  adj.  albu.%  white]:  a 
long  while  linen  vestment  worn  Viy  those  in  sacred  orilers  in 
the  lioman  t'atholic  Church  at  the  more  solemn  functions. 
It  symbolizes  the  purity  which  the  wearer  should  bring  to 
the  discharge  of  liis  ollice. 

Al'ba.  Duke  of:  See  Alva. 

Alba  (anc.  Al'lm  I'ompe'ia)  :  a  town  of  Italy,  province 
of  Cuiieo,  on  the  Tanaro,  30  miles  S.  K.  of  Turin  (see  map 
of  Italy,  rcf.  :i-B).  Wine,  silk,  gi'ain,  cheese,  and  oil  are  the 
staple  productions  of  the  district,  in  which  are  also  quarries 
of  marble  and  rock  salt.  It  has  a  cathedral  founded  in  1486, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.     Pop.  of  the  commune,  12,i59. 

Albai'P'te:  province  of  Spain;  comprises  the  N.  part  of 
the  kingiloni  of  Murcia  and  a  portion  of  New  Castile; 
boundeil  X.  by  Cueiica,  K.  by  Valencia,  S.  by  Murcia,  and  W. 
by  Ciudad  Real.  Area,  o.!)T3  sq.  miles.  It  has  on  the  N.  W. 
the  Sierr'i  de  Alcaraz,  and  the  surface  is  diversified  by 
mountains,  hills,  and  fertile  valleys.  It  is  drained  by  the 
river  Segura,  which  rises  within  its  limits.  Among  its  staple 
products  are  grain,  wine,  tobacco,  oil,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
Capital,  Albaeete.     Pop.  (18S7)  229,493. 

Albacete  :  a  town  of  Spain ;  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
•lame  name;  172  miles  by  rail  S.  K.  of  Madrid  (see  map  of 
Spain,  ref.  IT-(i).  It  stands  on  a  fertile  iilain.  has  manu- 
factures of  knives  and  other  steel  goods,  and  considerable 
trade.  Large  cattle  fairs  are  held  here  in  September.  Pop. 
(^87)  2ll.."):i:i. 

Alba  Lon'ga :  a  very  ancient  city  of  Latium,  in  Italy; 
founded,  acenrding  to  tradition,  by  Ascanius.  son  of  ^-Em^as, 
several  centuries  before  the  founilalion  of  Koine.  It  was 
situated  near  the  Alban  lake,  about  16  miles  S.  E.  from 
IJome.     Its  remains  have  been  discovered. 

Al'ban,  Saint:  one  of  three  Christian  martjTs  who  are 
said  to  have  suffered  in  lOngland  about  286  A.  D.,  during  the 
Diocletian  pei-secution.  St.  Alban  was  the  protomartyr  of 
Britain.    Jiede  gives  his  story  in  his  Eccles.  Ilistori/,  bk.  i.  c.  7. 

Albanen'sps  [from  A/bn.  a  town  of  Piedmont]:  that 
division  of  llic  Calharists  who  believed  in  absolute  dualism. 
They  taught  that  the  world  was  created  by  the  evil  spirit. 
See  Cathari. 

Albn'ni.  Alkssaxdro  :  Italian  cardinal,  a  nephew  of  Pope 
Clement  XL:  li.  at  ribiim  in  1692.  He  luaile  a  rich  and 
celebrated  colU-ction  uf  statues  and  other  works  of  art  at 
llonie.     I),  in  1779. 

Albani,  Marik  Emma  {LajeAinexxe):  singer:  b.  at  Cham- 
bly,  near  Montreal.  Canada,  in  1851.  In  1864  she  sang  in 
the  cathedral  in  .\lbany,  N.  Y. ;  studied  two  years  in  Paris, 
and  made  her  di'biti  as  an  opera  singer  in  Messina  in  1870; 
called  herself  Albani,  out  of  compliment  to  the  city  of 
Albany.  X'.  V.  Sang  in  Florenee  in  the  winter  of  1871-72. 
She  made  a  great  success  in  Andiroise  Thomas's  J/w/how. 
She  sang  in  St.  Petersburg,  in  London,  in  Paris,  and  in  the 
U.  S.  In  187Xslie  marrieil  Krnest  CJye,  the  operatic  manager, 
and  made  a  tour  of  the  U.  S.  in  1883.     B.  B.  Vallexti.vk. 

Alba'llia  :  the  ancient  name  of  a  country  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  the('as[iian  Sea.  and  comprising  the  modern  Daghestan 
and  Shirvan.  lis  inhabitants  were  often  defeated,  biit  never 
conquered,  by  Home. 

7 


Albania  [called  Shkiperi  by  the  natives,  and  Arnaouilik 
by  the  Turks] :  the  southwestern  part  of  European  Turkey; 
lies  between  lat.  ;W  and  4;5  X'..  and  is  bouncfed  on  the  W. 
by  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas.  Its  length  N.  and  S.  is 
about  290  miles,  and  its  width  varies  from  40  to  90.  It  nearly 
coincides  with  the  ancient  Epirus.  The  surface  is  mountain- 
ous, being  occupied  with  nine  ridges  that  are  nearly  parallel. 
The  highest  peaks  rise  about  8.000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Among  the  remarkable  features  of  Albania  are  itssuli- 
tcrranean  rivers  and  its  beautiful  lakes.  The  chief  articles' 
of  export  are  wool,  horses,  timber,  and  maize.  The  Alba- 
nians are  rude  and  warlike  mountaineers,  more  addicted  to 
robbery  than  industry.  They  are  prol)ably  descended  from 
the  ancient  lllyriaus  and  l']pirotes.  Their  language  belongs 
to  the  Indo-Kiiropean  lam  iiy.  and  hasseveral  strongly  marked 
dialects.  The  inhabitants  are  often  called  Arn(to(it,-i  ov  Ar- 
iiiiu/.s,  and  ,S/ii/)i'/(ir.  Their  dress  resembles  that  of  the 
Highlanders  of  Scotland.  Pop.  estimated  at  1.400.000.  be- 
sides these,  a  large  number  of  Albanians  live  in  Greece  and 
other  parts  of  the  Levant. 

Albanian  Langnag'e:  the  language  of  the  Albanians, 
spoken  in  a  variety  of  dialects  in  Albania  proper,  in  various 
parts  of  tireece.  in  Southeastern  Italy,  and  Sicily.  The  dia-' 
leets  of  Albania  divide  themselves  into  two  main  groups:- 
the  northern  or  Gegan  (north  of  river  Scumb);  and  the- 
southern  or  Tosean.  The  old  idea  that  Albanian  is  a  debased 
offshoot  of  the  Greek  h.-is  now  lieen  thoroughly  disproved; 
it  is  an  indepeiideiil  branch  of  t  Ik:  Indo-hhiropean  stock,  and' 
ha.ns  in  its  characteristics  rather  toward  the  Slavic  family 
of  languages  than  the  Greek.  (See  Meyer,  G.,  in  Bezzenber-. 
gar's  Bfilriiyr.  vol.  viii.  185.)  Thus  it  resembles  the  SlaviC/ 
languages  in  developing  medials  out  of  the  Indo-European' 
medial  asiiirates  :  ef.  birr,  carry,  Lat./c/'o,  Sanskrit  bhdrami;^ 
der§,  door.  Ut.  Mpa,  Lat. /ores;  also  in  its  treatment  of  the. 
two  A'  series;  the  velar  k  is  represented  in  Albanian  by  Av. 
the  iialatal  by  ,s-.  Contrast  kiittr,  four,  Lat.  ijiKil/iiur,  Skr. 
calriiras,  etc.,  with  vim',  places,  Lat.  r'iriis,  Gr.  oIkos,  etc. 
The  investigation  of  the  language  and  the  determination  of 
its  position  have  been  rendered  peculiarly  dillicult  by  the 
great  masses  of  loan-material  from  Latin.  Slavic,  Turkish, 
and  modern  Greek  sourct'S  which  lia\-e  almost  buried  the 
original  elements  out  of  sight.  Of  the  5.140  caption-words 
in  Mevcr's  etymological  dictionarv  of  the  language.  1.420' 
prove  "to  be  i>f  Latin  origin.  l,lM(i  Turkish,  84(')  Greek.  540 
Slavic,  and  only  about  400  inherited  from  Indo-European. 
During  the  Koman  occupation  of  IlhTia,  in  the  days  of  the 
empire,  the  Albanian  barely  escaped  the  fate  of  the  lan- 
guages of  Spain  and  Gaul.  Not  only  words  but  formative 
and  inflexional  elements  were  ailoi)ted  from  the  Latin  to' 
such  an  extent  that  the  language  became  half  Romance  in 
character.  For  instance,  Latin  suflixes  like -rtri'»s  (Alban. 
-nr),  -hnc/i  (.\lban.  -U/i).  -/o/- (Alban.  -/o/f)  become  a  vital 
possession  of  the  language,  and  are  applied  to  otlier  than 
Latin  words.  The  Latin  endings  of  the  imperfect  -dbani; 
-ebam ,  -tbam ,  ix\<\wi\r  i\>i -nra, -era. -ira.  The  form  of  th6( 
optative  is  derived  exclusively  from  the  Latin  pluperfect' 
subjunctive  in  -vixsem.  Even  pnmouns,  conjunctions,  prep-' 
ositions,  and  adverbs  are  among  the  borroweil  material;' 
tliu.s,  e  =  ef.  a  =  Kilt,  kuA  =  (fiii--^.  etc.  The  influence  of 
Greek,  the  Slavic  languages,  and  Turkish  is  later  and  muchi 
less  far-rea<'liing.  being  limited  to  the  vocabulary.  ■' 

For  practical  introduction  to  the  language,  the  best  book; 
is  Gustav  >Ieyer"s  A'urzffi-faxxle  Albaneiincbe  Grammalik^ 
(l''<88),  which  contains  also  reading  exercises  and  a  vocabu- 
lary. For  the  s('icntific  study  of  the  language  the  following 
works  by  the  same  author  are  important:  ICti/moloffinrhcS 
WnrfirburJi  di-r  Alban.  Sprarhc  (1891);  Albane.nxche  Sftidien 
(2  pts.,  188:!-84) ;  J)ii',  /ati'ini.'^iben  Eli'mcnle  im  Albane- 
.si.'ir/ifn.  Grober"s  (rriinr/rifs.  i.  Hi)4  1^.:  Vfber  Sprache  und 
Lileraiur  der  Alban. ;  L'-smyx  und  Sludien.  49  it. ;  Einfluisn 
des  Lat.  auf  die  Alban.  Fonnenlelire;  Miscelt.  di  filulogia 
e.  linxjwiRticn  (Flor.  1886).  Also.  Miklosich,  Albanesische 
Forschutu/en  (3  vols.,  1870-71):  Schuchhardt.  Al/mnesit^c/ieit 
und  RnmaniKrhes,  Kuhn's  Zeitxrhr.,  xx.  241;  Von  Hahn, 
Alban.  Stitdien  (1854);  and  Reinhold,  Norton  pelaxgicc6' 
(18.55).  Bknj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Alba'no:  a  lake  and  mountain  in  Italy;  about  14  miles 
S.  E.  of  Rome.  The  lake,  which  is  6  miles  in  circumference, 
occupies  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is  1.000  feet 
deep  or  more.  The  lake  has  no  natural  out  let.  but  discharges 
its  waters  through  an  artificial  tunnel  cut  throtigh  tufaceou^ 
rock.  This  tunnel  or  "emissary"  was  undertaken  by  the 
Romans  in  397  H.  c.     It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  re- 


98 


ALBANO 


mains  of  ancient  Koman  engineering.  It  is  6,000  leet  long. 
Alba  Longa  stood  on  the  X  E.  margin.  From  the  east  shore 
of  this  lake  rises  ^Mt.  Albano  or  ilonte  Cavo,  which  is  over 
3,000  feet  high,  and  commands  an  extensive  and  magnificent 
prospect.  On  its  summit  ai'e  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Latialis. 

Albano  (anc.  Alhn'num) :  a  city  of  Italy,  on  or  near  Lake 
Albano,  and  on  the  \'ia  Appia.  18  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Rome 
(see  map  of  Italv,  ref.  6-E).  It  occupies  the  site  of  Pompey's 
villa,  is  celebrated  for  beauty  of  scenery,  and  is  a  favorite 
summer  residence  of  the  wealthy  citizens  of  Koine.  Here  is 
a  museum  of  antiquities  and  a  large  c:nvcnt.    Pop.  7,o64. 

Al'bany,  or  Al'baliin :  an  ancient  name  of  the  Highlands 
of  .Scotland.  It  is  sniijjosed  that  Albany  or  Albion  (<).  r.) 
was  the  original  name  given  to  the  whole  island  by  its  Celtic 
inhabitants,  and  that  "it  was  afterward  restricted  to  tlie 
northwestern  part  of  Scotland,  when  the  Celts  had  retired 
from  tlie  other  parts  of  Britain.  The  title  of  Duke  of 
Albany  was  given  to  the  second  sons  of  several  kings  of 
Scotland  and  England. 

Albany :  a  small  maritime  division  of  the  southeastern 
province  of  Cape  Colon v.  South  Afi'ica ;  about  450  miles  E. 
of  Cape  Town  ;  iu-ea.  1,685  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  by 
Great  Pish  river.  The  soil  produces  maize,  barley,  cotton, 
and  otlier  commodities.  Capital,  Grahamstown.  Albany 
sends  two  representatives  to  the  House  of  Assembly.  Pop. 
(1891)  9,359  whites,  13,976  blacks. 

Albany :  town,  railroad  junction  and  capital  of  Dough- 
erty CO.,  Ga.  (for  location  of  countv,  see  ma[)  of  Georgia,  ref. 
6-G) ;  on  tlie  riglit  bank  of  Flint  river,  106  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
JIacon.  It  is  in  tlie  center  of  a  district  raising  sugar-cane, 
rice,  com,  and  cotton.  Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  here 
shipped  bv  rail.  The  Flint  river  is  navigable  to  this  point 
onlv  at  high  water.  Pop.  (1870)  2,101;  (1880)  3,316;  (1890) 
4,01)8. 

Albany:  town,  railroad  junction  and  capital  of  Gentry  co., 
Mo.  (for  location  of  countv,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  1-D) ; 
on  Grand  river.  52  miles  N.  E.  of  St.  Joseph.  It  has  maiiu- 
faotures  of  furniture,  brooms,  wagons,  harnesses,  lumber, 
etc.,  graded  schools,  a  grist-mill,  a  foundrv,  and  a  machine- 
sliop.     Pop.  (1870)  607;  (1880)  979;  (1890)"l,334. 

Albany:  city,  important  railroad  and  commercial  center; 
ca|)ital  of  New'i'ork  and  of  Albany  County  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref."5-J) ;  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson,  145  miles  N.  of  Xew  York  city,  and  164 
miles  (or  201  bv  railroad)  W.  of  Boston,  in  lat.  42  39'  49'  X., 
Ion.  73' 44  33  "W. 

Original  Site. — The  place  was  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch 
in  1614  as  a  trading-post,  but  an  .■ictual  settlement  was  not 
effected  till  May,  1624,  on  the  arrival  of  eigliteeii  Walloon 
families.  During  the  same  year  a  small  fort  (called  Fort 
Orange,  or  Aurania)  of  logs  and  eartli  was  built.  In  1626  a 
war  between  tlie  Jlohawks  on  the  west  and  the  Mohcgans 
on  the  east  liroke  up  tlie  settlement,  and  the  families  were 
transferred  to  Xew  Amsterdam,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  river. 
Settlement  was  resumed  in  1630  liy  Dutch  families  under 
the  patroon  system,  the  settlei-s  renting  their  lands  of  the 
patroon  or  lord  of  the  manor.  The  village  was  called  Bever- 
wyck,  then  Williamstadt,  and  in  1664  it  was  called  Albany, 
after  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterward  James  II. 
Till  the  Revolution  it  was  the  center  of  a  large  Indian  trade. 
The  colony  continued  to  be  inhabited  by  the  Dutch,  brought 
over  largely  liy  the  Van  Rensselaer  family,  who  secured,  in 
1620,  24  miles  s((nare  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  leased 
the  lands  to  settlers.  Feudal  tenure  was  abolished  in  1787. 
After  the  Anti-rent  war  in  1846  the  State  prohibited  leases 
of  agricultural  land  for  a  longer  period  than  twelve  years. 
It  was  incoriioi-ated  as  t!ie  city  of  AUiany  in  1686,  and  be- 
came the  capital  of  Xew  York  in  1797. 

Modern  CliniKji's.—'Vhc  city,  which  has  a  river-frontage 
of  4  miles,  extends  back  over'an  alluvial  plain  up  the  sides 
of  the  hills  to  and  ui>on  the  table-land  150  feet  high,  about 
5  miles  \V.  The  view  of  the  city  from  the  cast  bank  of  the 
river  is  pieturescpie  and  imposing,  from  the  full  exposure  of 
tlie  public  edifices,  with  their  domes  and  steeples,  the  Ilel- 
derbei-g  and  Catskill  Mountains  being  visible  in  the  S.  \y. 
Until  lately  the  corporate  limits  reached  to  Schenectady  in 
a  strip  of  land  13  miles  long  and  a  mile  wide. 

Streets,  Piililic  Ifiiildini/'i.  and  Institutions.— The  princi- 
pal streets  arc  Broadway  and  Pearl  Street,  whii  h  run  par- 
allel with  the  river,  and  State  Street,  which  ascends  the  hill 
to  llio  Capitol,  and  thence  to  the  limits  of  the  city  proper 


ALBANY 

westward.  Washington  Avenue  runs  parallel  to  it,  W.  on 
the  X.  side  of  the  Capitol,  beginning  at  the  City  Hall,  and 
joins  Central  Avenue,  which  continues  to  ^V.  boundary  of 
the  city.  Slany  miles  of  tine  granite  and  asphalt  pavements 
have  been  laid  throughout  the  city. 

The  cliicl  public  edifices  and  institutions  are  the  Capitol, 
of  which  the  cornerstone  was  laid  in  1871,  built  of  drilled 
granite.  4  stories  high,  290  feet  wide  and  390  long,  contain- 
ing halls  for  the  Assembly,  the  Senate,  the  Court  of  Appeals, 
the  State  Librarv,  and  rooms  for  the  State  ollicers  (cost  over 
^18,000,000);  the  State  Museam,  in  the  marble  Slate-hall; 
the  new  City  Hall,  of  re<l  sandstone,  with  a  tower  of  rough 
granite  (1882) ;  U.  S.  Custoni-IIouse  and  Post-Office  (1882) ; 
3  hospitals,  Dudley  Astronomical  Observatory,  State  Agri- 
cultural i\Iuseum,' State  arsenal,  theaters,  and  public  halls. 
There  are  about  60  churches,  t  he  largest  and  most  imposing 
being  the  cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (U.  C), 
and  the  cathedral  of  All  Saints  (P.  E.). 

The  penitentiary,  opened  in  1848.  receives  annually,  most- 
ly for  short  terms,  over  1,000  prisonci's,  and  has  usually 


State  Capitol,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

been  self-supporting.  Washington  Park,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  citv,  contains  81  acres,  with  a  lake  1.700  feet  long,  and 
carriage-drives  of  several  miles.  In  1891  laws  were  passed 
for  Beaver  Park,  on  the  south  side,  to  occupy  the  extensive 
and  picturesque  ravines  about  Martinville.  The  charitable 
institutions  are  numerous.  The  beautiful  Rural  Cemetery, 
about  4  miles  from  the  city  northward,  contains  281  acres. 

Education.— Alhatn  has  a  high  school  for  both  sexes ;  1 
bovs'  acadeniv  and  3  lor  girls  ;  a  medical  school,  law  school, 
anil  a  State  normal  college.  There  are  14.389  pupils  in  the 
public  schools.  The  AUiany  Institute  is  a  society  formed 
in  1791  for  the  advancement  of  science.  The  State  Library 
has.  with  the  law  department,  over  122.000  vols. 

Manufactures,  etc. — The  census  of  1890  showed  1.294 
manufactories ;  capital.  S16.441.365 ;  average  number  of 
hands  emploved,  14.760;  wages  paid  during  the  year, 
§7.817.564  ;  v.-ilue  of  products.  .$24,430,396.  The  most  prom- 
inent manufacture  is  that  of  stoves,  the  product  for  1882 
amounting  to  $3,500,000.  In  late  years  9  large  shoe-fac- 
tories have  been  cstablislie<l.  There  are  20  breweries,  2 
blast-furnaces,  a  cracker  bakery,  12  iron-foundries,  and 
various  other  manufaitures.  The  lumber  trade  of  1883 
amounted  to  flO.OOO.OOO.  It  is  the  central  market  for  the 
cattle  trade  from  the  West  for  X'ew  York  and  Xew  Encland. 

The  citv  is  supplied  with  water  from  an  artificial  lake  in 
the  sand  plains  W.  of  the  city,  and  also  by  pumping  water 
from  the  river  into  clevateil  reservoirs.  The  fire  depart- 
ment has  ten  steam-engines  and  a  fire-alarm  telegraph  sys- 
tem. Pop.  (1790)  3.506';  (1870  with  extended  limits)  76,216 ; 
(1880)  90,758  ;  (1890)  94,923  :  (1892)  97.120. 

Revised  by  James  H.  M.4nxisg. 

Albany  :  citv  ;  at  junction  of  three  railroads  ;  capital  of 
Linn  co.,  Or.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Oregon, 
ref.  3-C);  on  the  Willamette  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Calapooia.  Steamboats  can  ascend  to  this  point  for  eight 
months  in  the  vcar.  Albany  has  a  collegiate  institute,  Ro- 
man Catholic  acadeniv,  woolen  mills,  electric  lights,  and  is 
a  manufacturing  center.     Pi.p.  (1880)  1.807  ;  (1890)  6,826. 

EorroR  of  "  Herald.' 

Albany.  LonsA  ]\Iaria  Carolink,  Countess  of:  b.  at 
Moiis,  Sept.  27,   1753;   daughter   of   Gustavus  Adolphus, 


ALBATROSS 


ALBERT  I. 


99 


a:ii 


Prince  of  Stolijcrfr  Ooilcrn.  On  Jtar.  28,  1773,  in  Paris,  she 
manifd  by  proxy,  ami  im  Apr.  17  (Good  Fri<lay),  177".2,  at  An- 
cona  in  pJrson,  (lie  Youn;;  Pretender,  Charles  Kdward  Stuart, 
a  grandson  of  James  11.  of  Enjiland,  then  53  years  old  and 
a  haliitiial  sot.  The  Youn^  Pretender  was  ealled  in  Italy 
the  Count  of  Allmny,  hence  her  title.  After  keepinf;  up  the 
wretched  relationship  for  ei,i;ht  years  she  eloiied  with  the 
poet  Vittorio  AUieri,  and  lived  with  him  openly  as  his  mis- 
tress till  his  death  in  1«03.  The  Pretender  had  died  in  1788, 
but  she  and  AUieri  did  not  marry.  She  was  received  into 
the  hiu'hest  society,  nevertheless,  even  in  Kuf^land.  After 
Alfieri's  death  she  lived  with  a  young  French  artist  named 
Fabre,  ami  to  him  she  becpieatlied  the  curiosities  ^^iven  her 
by  the  Younjj;  Pn^lender  and  by  AUieri,  together  with  other 
treasures,  and  these  form  the  foundation  of  the  notable 
Wusee  Fai>re  at  Montpelier.  D.  at  Florence,  .Ian.  2'.),  1834. 
Sec  Alkii;ki.     See  her  life  by  Von  Reumont  (Berlin,  18()l)). 

APbatross:  a  web-footed  bird  of  the  sub-family  Dio- 
CTP(}('/«(r,  allied  to  tlie  petrels;  remarkable  for  their  great 
size  and  powers  of  flight.  The  wandering  albatross  (/>/»- 
medea  e.ru/(iii.i)  is  the  largest  of  all  oceanic  birds,  having 
wings  which  measure  12  feet  or  more  from  tip  to  ti|),  but 

are  narrow  in  projiortiou  to 
their  length.  They  wander 
over  the  open  oceans,  and 
often  follow  ships  for  days 
without  resting.  "  Sometimes 
for  a  whole  hour  together," 
says  the  Duke  of  Argyll, 
'•  this  splendid  bird  will  sail 
or  wheel  round  a  ship  in 
every  possible  variety  of  di- 
'  rection,  without  iiMpiiring  to 
give  a  single  stroke  to  its 
pinions."  The  wanderingal- 
iiatross  is  mostly  confined  to 
southern  seas,  rarely  occur- 
ring as  far  north  as  the  Troj)- 
ic  of  Capricorn,  although  stragglers  have  reached  Europe. 
Besides  the  above,  there  are  the  sooty  albatross,  Diomnica 
fuliginoxa,  of  Faslern  Asia,  and  the  Diomcdea  chloro- 
rhiinchns;  and  still  other  species  are  described,  several  of 
wiiich  are  found  in  the  North  Pacific,  but  none  on  the  At- 
lantic of  the  U.  S.  Revised  by  Daviu  S.  Jouuan. 

Albay  :  a  town  in  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands, 
258  miles  S.  E.  of  Manila ;  the  capital  of  a  province  (see 
map  of  East  Iiulies,  ref.  3-II).  Pop.  19,540.  Pop.  of  the 
province,  257,5:J3. 

Al'boinarle  :  a  town  of  France.     See  Ai'.male. 

Albemarle,  GKOKcii;  Monk,  Duke  of:  a  famous  English 
general,  chiefly  known  to  history  !is  the  principal  agent  in 
the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  KiOO,  generally  known  in 
his  own  tinu'  as  "  Old  Monk,"  and  descriljed  by  (juizot  as  a 
"person  capable  of  doing  great  things,  though  himself  not  a 
great  man."  lie  was  born  of  an  ancient  Devonshire  family, 
at  Potheridgc,  the  residence  of  his  father.  Sir  Thomas 
Monk,  near  Torrington,  Dec.  6.  1608.  lie  joined  the  army 
in  order  to  esc;i|)e  punisliment  for  mishandling  a  sheriff  who 
was  about  to  arrest  liis  father  for  debt.  In  1(125  he  en- 
gagcil  in  the  expedition  against  Spain,  the  unsuccessful 
utlem|it  to  capture  Cadiz,  made  by  a  relative  of  his,  Sir 
Richaril  (ireenville,  took  part  in  the  following  year  in  the  at- 
tack upon  the  isle  of  Rhe,  and  served  ten  years  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  afterward  in  England,  first  on  the  king's,  then 
on  CroinwcU's  side.  .After  the  defeat  of  the  royalist  cause 
Cromwell  appointed  Monk  a  lieulenant-general  and  chief  of 
artilh'ry,  in  wliich  ca|)acity  he  did  sucli  servici^  at  the  battle 
of  Duniiar  that  Cromwell  made  him  gcneral-in-chief  of  the 
army  in  Scotland.  In  l(i52  he  took  part  in  the  commission 
which  drew  up  a  [)a<'t  of  union  between  England  and  Scot- 
land, and  went  to  .Scotland  as  governor  in  l(j54:  in  which 
position  he  hail  great  dilliculties  in  maintaining  his  rule 
against  the  Presbyterians.  The  royalists  luul  already  some 
liopes  of  his  support,  and  Charles  sent  him  secret  overtures 
in  lUoo.  Monk  delivereil  this  letter  up  to  Cromwell,  .\ftcr 
the  death  of  the  dictator.  Monk  declared  in  favor  of  Rich- 
ard Cromwell,  and  ass\nned  the  authority  of  a  defender  of 
pulilic  oriler  only  when  Lambert  threatened  to  establish  a 
military  despotism.  On  the  1st  of  Jan.,  KifiO,  he  nuu'ched 
over  the  border  with  6,000  nu'n,  joining  Fairfax  at  York, 
and  marched  into  London  on  \\\c.  3d  of  Feb.,  without 
drawing  sword  from  ^.cabljard.     At  first  he  kept  everyone  in 


the  dark  as  to  his  intentions.  On  Feb.  21  he  recalled  the 
Presbyterian  membei-s  expelled  from  Parliament  in  1648, 
thus  creating  a  majority  for  the  king.  He  lield  negotiations 
with  Charles,  and  Parliament  declart'd  the  latter  king  on 
the  8th  of  Mkv.  Charles  gave  Monk  the  ollices  of  privy 
coinicilor,  chamberlain,  and  Lord-Lieutenant  ot  Devon  and 
i  -Middlesex,  besides  creating  him  Dukeof  .\lbemarlc.  In  l(i6S 
the  Duke  of  Albemarle  commanded  the  naval  exj>eililion 
against  Holland,  was  beaten  by  De  Rnyter  in  the  three 
days'  conflict  at  Dunkirk,  but  defeated  the  Dutch  admiral 
at  the  North  Foreland.  D.  in  England,  of  the  dropsy.  Dec. 
3,  1669.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Albemarle  Sound  :  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  North  Carolina, 
extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Roanoke  river  60  miles  ea.st- 
ward  to  a  narrow  island  which  separates  it  from  the  Atlan- 
tic. Its  average  width  N.  and  S.  is  about  12  miles.  It  com- 
municates by  narrow  inlets  with  Pandico  and  Currituck 
sounds.  The  water  in  it  is  nearly  fresh.  Its  greatest  depth 
is  24  feet ;  average  depth,  20  feet. 

Alberic  I.:  a  ruler  of  Rome;  b.  in  the  lieginning  of  the 
tenth  century;  son  of  a  Lombarilian  noble.  He  became 
margrave  of  Camerino,  and,  through  his  nuirriage  with  the 
celebrated  Marozia,  I'uler  of  Rome.  He  was  l)anished  by 
John  X.  from  Rome,  and  was  mui-dered  at  Orta  in  925.  His 
son,  Alberic  II.,  was  a  powerful  and  wise  ruler,  and  died  in 
954,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-three  years.  He  was  succeeded 
bv  his  son,  Ottaviano,  who  was  elected  pope  under  the  name 
of  John  XII.  in  956. 

Albero'nl,  Gulio.  Cardinal:  an  ambitious  Italian;  b.  at 
Fiorenzuola,  near  Piacenza,  May  31,  16G4.  He  began  his 
public  career  as  envoy  of  the  Duke  of  Parma  to  the  court 
of  Jladrid,  and,  haviiig  gained  the  favor  of  Phili])  V.,  be- 
came prime  minister  of  Si)ain  in  1715,  and  a  cardinal  in 
1717.  His  foreign  policy  was  so  audacious  and  violent  that 
nearly  all  (he  powers  of  Europe  combined  against  Spain. 
Among  his  offensive  acts  was  the  invasion  of  Sardinia  in 
time  of  peace.  He  was  removed  from  ollice  in  1719,  and 
banished  from  Spain.  D.  at  Piacenza,  June  26.1752.  See 
Bersani,  Sfon'a  del  Cardinale  Giiilio  Alhuroni  (1862). 

Al'bers,  Johann  Friedricii  IIkrmann;  German  phy- 
sician ;  b.  at  Dorsten,  Prussia.  Nov.  14,  1805 ;  became  in  1S31 
Professor  of  Pathology  in  Bonn,  estaljlished  a  celebrated 
asylum  for  insane  and  nervously  affected  persons  in  lioin;, 
and  in  1856  became  director  of  the  ])harmaeological  cabinet 
of  the  university.  D.  at  Bonn.  May  12.  1S07.  He  i)ublished, 
among  oilier  works, //oH(/i»f/)  der  (i//r/rmeine?i  j'a/lioliu/ia 
(2  vols.,  1842-44) ;  Leiirbuch  di-r  aUyemcinen  Arzneimilld- 
/e/ire  (1853);  and  Die  SpennatorrhOe  (1862). 

Albert :  a  French  revolutionist  and  mechanic,  whose 
original  name  was  Alexandre  Martin  ;  b.  id  Bury  (Oise), 
Apr.  27.  1815.  He  founded  in  Paris  in  1840  a  jounud 
called  L'Atdier  (The  Workshop),  and  was  a  member  of  the 
provisional  government  formed  in  Feb.,  1848,  but  has  not 
been  much  heard  of  since. 

Albert;  Archbishop  of  Magdelairg  and  Elector  of  Mentz; 
b.  at  Prandenburg,  June  28,  1490:  created  cardinal,  1518; 
and  d.  at  .Vschaffc^nburg,  Sept.  24,  1545.  Being  granted  by 
the  poj)C  tlie  privilege  of  selling  indulgences  in  his  diocese, 
he  employed  the  Dominican  Tetzel  in  that  service,  and  the 
sliameless  manner  in  whicli  the  la(t<jr  conducted  it  called 
forth  Luther's  famous  ninety-five  theses.  See  his  life  by 
J.  May  (Munich,  1868-75,  3  vols.).    See  Ll'theb,  Martin. 

Albert  I.:  King  of  Saxony;  b.  April  23,  1828;  eldest 
son  of  King  Johann  I.  and  of  Queen  A  malic,  daughter  of 
King  JIaxinulian  1.  of  Bavaria.  As  crown  jirince  he  took 
|iart  in  tlie  campaign  in  Sclileswig-Ilolstein  in  1849,  was 
made  lieulenant-general  in  1853,  and  general  in  1857,  com- 
manded the  Saxon  army  in  the  war  against  Prussia  in  1866, 
received  the  command" of  the  twelftli  army  corns  after  the 
admission  of  Saxony  into  the  North  German  Union,  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  Rezonville,  Gravelotte.  and  Sedan  in 
the  Franco-German  war  of  1870,  and  received  the  command 
of  the  fourth  army  (of  the  Meuse).  In  July,  1871,  he  was 
created  field-marshal  of  the  empire,  ami  soon  after  field- 
marshal  of  Russia.  King  Albert  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
at  the  death  of  his  father,  Oct.  29,  1S73.  He  nuirried,  June 
18.  1853,  Queen  Caroline,  b.  Aug.  5,  183".,  daughter  of  Prince 
Gustav  of  Vasa.  He  has  a  civil  list  of  2.940.000  marks  per 
annum,  or  about  $700.000 ;  but  the  royal  domains,  consist- 
ing chiefly  in  extensive  forests  and  some  rich  mines,  be- 
came the  property  of  the  state  in  1830. 


100 


ALBERT   I. 


ALBERTITE 


Albert  I.:  Archduke  of  Austria:  b.  in  1248;  son  of  the 
Emperor  Rudolph  of  Ilabsburg.  He  was  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany  in  1298,  but  his  title  was  contested  by  Adolphus 
of  Xassau,  who  had  occupied  the  throne.  These  rivals  fought 
a  battle,  in  which  Adolphus  was  killed.  Albert,  who  was 
noted  for  his  cruelty  and  avarice,  was  assassinated  at  Wind- 
isch.  3Jav  1.  iy08,  bv  his  nejihew,  John  the  Parricide.  See 
his  life  by  Miicke  (Gotha,  1866). 

Albert  1.:  JIai'grave  of  Brandenburg;  surnamed  the 
Bear;  b.  at  Ballenstiidt  about  1106.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  House  of  Brandenburg.  D.  at  Ballenstadt,  Nov.  18, 
1170. 

Albert  V. :  a  son  of  Albert  IV. ;  b.  Aug.  10. 1397 ;  became 
Buke  of  Austria  in  1-104.  He  was  chosen  King  of  Hungary 
in  1437,  ami  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1438.  His  title  as 
emperor  was  Albert  II.  D.  at  Langendorf,  near  Vienna, 
Oct.  27,  1439. 

Albert  VII.:  Archduke  of  Austria;  son  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II.:  b.  Xov.  13,1559.  He  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Netherlands  in  1596  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
whose  daughter  Isaljella  he  married  April  18, 1599.  In  1600 
lie  was  defeated  by  Maurice  of  Nassau,  who  fought  for  the 
Dutch  republic.  The  war  was  suspended  in  1609  by  a  long 
truce.    D.  in  July,  1621. 

Albert  (op  Brandexburo)  :  first  Duke  of  Prussia,  a 
grandson  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Ansbach,  May  16,  1490. 
He  was  elected  grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  1511, 
and  wiis  the  last  who  held  that  oliice.  In  1525  he  became  a 
Protestant  ami  Duke  of  Prussia,  which  he  held  as  a  fief  of 
the  King  of  Poland.  D.  of  the  plague,  at  Konigsberg,  Mar. 
20,  1568. 

Albert  EtlHartl;  Prince  of  Wales:  eldest  son  of  Queen 
Victoria;  b.  in  Buckingham  Palace,  London,  Nov.  9.  1841. 
He  is  the  lieir-apparcnt  to  the  British  throne.  In  1860  he 
visited  the  U.  S.  He  married.  Mar.  10,  1863,  the  Princess 
Alexandra  of  Denmark.  His  children  by  this  nnirriage  are 
Prince  Albert  Victor  Christian  Edward,  Duke  of  Clarence 
and  Avondale,  b.  Jan.  8,  1864.  d.  Jan.  14,  1892:  Prince 
George  Frederick  Ernest  Albert,  b.  June  3,  1865 ;  Princess 
Louise  Victoria  Dagmar,  b.  Feb.  20,  1867  (married  to  the 
Duke  of  File,  Jul v  27,  1889);  Princess  Victoria  Alexandra 
Olga  Mary,  b.  July  6,  1868;  Princess  JIaud  Charlotte  Jlary 
Victoria,  b.  Nov.  26,  1869;  and  Prince  Alexander  Jolm 
Charles  Albert,  b.  .\pril  6,  d.  Ajiril  7,  1871. 

Albert  Edward  Nvanza:  an  African  lake:  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile;  discovered  by  Stanley;  hit.  1^  S.,  Ion. 
30"  E.  It  is  about  40  miles  across  and  lies  in  a  crescent,  open 
northward,  and  about  50  miles  from  point  to  point.  It  is 
100  miles  N.  W.  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  on  the  line  between  the 
Congo  Free  State  and  British  East  Africa.  It  drains  by 
the  Semliki  river  into  the  Albert  Nyanza,  and  between  these 
two  lakes  lie  the  Kuwenzori  Mountains,  which  reach  an  alti- 
tude of  18,000  feet,  and  which  Stanley  believes  to  be  tlie 
ancient  ••  Mountains  of  the  Moon."  The  lake  was  named 
after  Albert  Edward.  Prince  of  Wales,  in  recognition  of  his 
interest  in  African  geography.  M.  W.  H. 

Albert,  EiT.EX,  d" :  pianist ;  b.  in  Glasgow,  April  10.  1864 : 
pupil  of  E.  Pauer  in  London,  and  later  of  Liszt ;  author  of 
overtures,  concert  jiieces  for  the  piano,  an  opera,  T/ie  Ruby, 
etc. ;  is  chissed  iis  a  jierformer  with  Rubinstein  and  Liszt. 

Albert  Francis  Auariistus  Charles  Emuiamiel,  better 
known  as  Prince  Albi-rl :  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  and 
consort  of  (Jueen  Victoria;  b.  at  Rosenau,  near  Coburg,  Aug. 
26,  1819.  He  was  a  son  of  Duke  Ernest  I.  His  marriage 
with  Victoria  was  celebrated  Feb.  10,  1840,  soon  after  which 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  the  British  army. 
He  patronized  science  and  art,  was  a  liberal  promoter  of  be- 
nevolent institutions,  ami  acquired  great  influence  in  public 
affairs  as  the  prudent  and  trusted  adviser  of  the  queen.  In 
1857  he  received  the  title  of  prince  consort.  D.  in  London, 
Dec.  14,  1861.  His  death  wiis  lamented  as  a  national  loss. 
Compare  Morton,  The  Prince  Co7isort'.s  Fanna  {iSm) :  Grev, 
Tfie  Rarhj  Yearn  nf  the  Prince  Conmrt  (1867);  Leaves  from 
the  Journal  nf  Our  Life  in  the  Highhinds  from  ISiS-Cl; 
'I'heodorc  JIartin,  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort  (Lond.  1875- 
80,  5  vols.). 

Albert,  Fredekick  RrnoLPn :  Archduke  of  Austria;  eld- 
est son  of  Archduke  Charles;  b.  in  Vienna.  Aug.  3,  1817; 
military  and  civil  governor  of  Hungary  1851-60;  was  sent 
to  Berlin  in  1859  to  bring  about  an  understanding  between 
Austria  and  Germany  in  the  event  of  a  war  with  France; 


was  niiide  commander-in-chief  in  1866,  and  inspector-gen- 
eral of  the  Austrian  armv  in  1869.  D.  at  Areo,  Austria, 
Feb.  18,  1895. 

Albert  Nyauza:  a  lake  of  Central  Africa;  head-waters 
of  the  White  Nile:  hit.  2  N.,  Ion.  31'  E. ;  about  100  miles 
long  by  25  miles  broad :  2.400  feet  above  sea-level.  It  re- 
ceives the  Semliki  river  from  the  Albert  Edward  Nyanza  at 
the  southern  end  and  the  Somerset  river  from  Victoria  Ny- 
anza at  the  northern:  a  short  distance  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Soinei-set  the  waters  of  the  lake  empty  into  the  White 
Nile.  This  lake  was  discovered  in  1864  by  Baker,  who  par- 
tially explored  it,  but  erred  in  confounding  its  southwestern 
extremity  with  Albert  Edward  Nyanza  and  making  it  aljout 
300  miles  long,  an  error  perpetuated  on  the  maps  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  centiu'y.  Later  discoveries  have  shown  that  a  group 
of  lofty  mountains,  the  Ruwenzori,  lie  between  tiie  two  lakes. 

M.  W.  H, 

Albert,  Paul;  French  critic  and  literary  historian;  b. 
at  TliionviUc,  Dec.  14,  1827 ;  made  Professor  of  Literature 
in  the  College  de  France  in  Oct.,  1878.  His  thesis  for  the 
doctor's  degree  in  1858  (Saint  Jean  Chrysostome  considere 
com  me  oraleur  popiilaire)  was  crowned  by  the  French  Acad- 
emy. He  has  published  I'llistoire  ile  la  li/h'raliire  romaine 
(1871);  La  lilft'raftire  franr;aise  dejJiiis  ses  oritjinesjusqu  a 
la  fin  du  IS^  siccle  (3  t.,  1872-79).  Since  his  death  two  vol- 
umes, entitled  La  litterature  framjaise  au  10°  siecle.  have 
been  brought  out  by  his  son.     1).  in  Paris,  June  21,  1880. 

A.  R.  JIarsh. 

Alber'ta  [named  after  the  Princess  Louise  (more  fully, 
Louise  Caroline  Alberta),  Marchioness  of  Lome]  :  a  district 
of  the  Northwest  Territories,  and  a  future  province  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada.  It  lies  E.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
N.  of  the  U.  S.  boundary,  with  Assinilioia  and  Saskatchewan 
on  the  E.,  Athabasca  on  the  N.,  and  British  Columbia  on 
the  W.  Area,  106,500  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1885)  15,533,  of 
whom  2,855  were  English.  Scotch,  and  \\  elsh  ;  924  Irish,  831 
French.  109  German,  9,418  Indian,  and  1.237  half-breeds. 
The  Athabasca  and  Saskatchewan  rise  in  this  district,  while 
the  extreme  N.  drains  into  the  Peace  river,  and  the  extreme 
S.  into  the  JMissouri.  The  country  consists  of  great  jilains 
gradually  rising  toward  the  W.  from  2.000  to  4.000  feet,  in- 
terrupted by  occasional  hills,  and  culminating  in  the  back- 
bone of  the  Rocky  Mountains — here  not  very  high.  It  is  a 
great  grazing  country,  except  that  severe  cold  occurs  in 
winter,  and  stock  must  be  protected  and  fed.  The  blizzard 
and  Chinook  {(jg.  v.)  are  characteristic  features  of  the  winter 
climate. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  R.  R.  crosses  Alberta  from  E.  to 
W.  near  the  southern  border,  and  surmounts  the  Rocky 
Mountains  at  Kicking  Hoi-se  Pass  (5,323  feet).  Capital.  Cal- 
gary; chief  towns,  Edmonton,  Lethbridge,  Banff,  the  latter  a 
health  resort  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  production  J 
in  pelts  is  large,  but  decreasing.  It  includes  musk  rat,  deer,  a 
beaver,  martin,  mink,  Irax,  and  wolf.  Very  little  timber  is 
produceil.  The  fishing  and  muieral  prodticfs  are  small.  In 
1885  the  district  contained  13,500  horses.  61.000  cattle,  17,000 
sheep,  and  4,000  swine.     Pop.  (1891)  25,277.  M.  W.  H, 

Alber'ti,  Jeax;  b.  at  Assen,  Holland,  Mar.  6.  1698;  be- 
came minister  at  Harlem,  and  afterward  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  Ijcyden  ;  wrote  theological  works,  and  edited  first  vol- 
ume of  llusychius's  it'.r('co«.     D.  <at  Leyden,  Aug.  13,  1762. 

Alberti,  LeoxB.4TTISTA:  Italian  architect,  poet,  and  writer 
on  art:  b.  at  Venice  (or,  as  some  say,  at  Florence),  Feb.  18, 
1404.  He  was  emploved  as  an  architect  by  Pope  Nicholas  V. ; 
completed  the  Pitti  Wlace  at  Florence,  and  Iniilt  the  church 
of  St.  Francis  at  Rimini,  and  the  larger  church  of  St.  Andrea 
in  Jlantua.  He  was  one  of  the  two  men  (see  Bruni-:lleschi) 
who  introduced  the  classical  style  of  design  into  Italy.  He 
was  a  famous  organist.  His  Treatise  on  Architecture  (De 
Re  ^'Edificatoria,  1485)  is  highly  commended.  D.  in  Rome, 
April,  1484  (others  say  1472).  See  his  life  bv  Mancini  (Flor- 
ence, 1882.) 

Albertinel'li,  Mariotto:  Italian  painter;  b.  in  Florence, 
Oct.  13,  1474;  was  a  pupil  of  Roselli,  and  a  friend  and  imi- 
tator of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  with  whom  he  painted  several 
pictures.  Among  his  most  celebrated  paintings  are  the  Vis- 
itation of  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  in  I  lorence ;  T}te  Virijin 
Mary  with  Saint  Domenico.  in  the  Academy  at  Florence; 
Saint  Catherine  and  the  Virgin  Mary  with  the  Child,  in 
the  Louvre.     D.  in  Florence,  Nov.  15,  1515. 

Al'berlite;  .an  asphaltic  mineral  found  in  Albert  co., 
New  Brunswick.     The  veins  now  i-cmaining  are  small  and 


ALBERT   LKA 


ALBISTAN 


101 


of  littlo  valuo.  Fnr  a  niimbor  of  yoai-s  [)rior  to  1S65  it  was 
imported  into  Portland  and  Boston,  and  used  in  the  preimra- 
tion  of  illiiniinatinir  oils — a  use  from  which  it  was  finally 
displaced  bv  the  discovery  of  petiDleinn.  It  occurs  in  veins 
ncarlv  vertical  that  intersect  the  Alliert  shales,  which  are 
very  rich  iii  fossil  remains  of  fish.  It  is  n  brilliant  black 
mineral  rcsemblingr  jet,  but  softer,  bein;;  easily  cut  with  a 
knife.  Subjected  "to  distillation  it  yields  a  distillate  com- 
posed mainly  of  the  marsh  <ras  or  paratlinc  scries  of  liydro- 
oarljons.  It  is  not  at  present  of  commercial  importance. 
See  .\si'iiAi.T  and  Bitvmex.  S.  F.  Peckham. 

Albert  Lea :  city  and  railroad  junction ;  cajntal  of  Free- 
iKirn  CO..  Jlinn.  (for  locution  of  county,  see  nuip  of  Minnesota, 
ref.  11-K);  128  miles  W.  of  the  Mis.sissippi  river,  108  miles 
S.  of  llinneapolis.  It  is  beautifully  situated  between  two 
lakes,  one  of  which  beai-s  its  nanu-,  and  the  surrounding 
countrv  of  undulating  pniirie  and  lind)er  is  charmingly  pic- 
turescjui'.  An  abundance  of  game  has  nutde  it  a  popular  re- 
sort. It  has  a  public  park,  liHrary  association,  16  churches,  a 
young  wom.'in's  college,  a  Lutheran  academy,  a  high  school, 
and  15  manufactories;  numerous  artesian  wells  yielding 
chalvbeate  waters,  water-works,  and  electric  lights.  Pup. 
(1880)  1,0G6;  (1885)3,365;  (1890)3,305;  (1805)4,158. 

Kuiroii  OF  '■  Standard." 

Albert  Memorial :  a  large  and  costly  monument  erected 
in  Hvile  Park.  LiHulon.  in  memory  of  Prince  Albert,  shortly 
after' his  dejith,  from  the  designs  of  Sii-  George  (jilbert  Scott. 

Alber'tiis  Mag'nns  (i.  e.  Albert  the  Great),  sometimes 
called  Alhirf  v«n  Bollxt'iill :  b.  at  Lauingcn,  Suabia,  1193; 
became  a  Dominican  1','23 ;  lectured  for  many  yeai-s  at  Co- 
logne anil  at  Paris,  and  WTote  numerous  works  on  theology, 
logic.  i)liilosophy.  and  other  subjects.  In  1254  he  was  chosen 
provincial  of  the  Dominican  Order,  and  in  1260  became 
Bishop  of  Katisbon.  The  episcopal  office,  however,  was  vei-y 
uncongenial  to  him.  and  after  the  lapse  of  two  yeai-s  he  was 
alloweil  to  resign  and  retire  to  Cologne.  He  was  reputed 
one  of  the  most  learneil  men  of  the  Middle  Ages,  heiue 
called  by  his  contemporaries  "Doctor  Univei-salis,"  and  was 
regarded  as  a  magician  by  some  of  his  contemporaries,  for 
in  the  estimation  of  that  supei-stitious  period  extraordinary 
ability  implied  a  league  with  the  devil.  The  great  scientific 
exploit  which  made  his  name  celebrateil  was  the  introiluc- 
tion  of  the  comjilete  system  of  .Aristotle  to  the  understand- 
ing of  his  age,  which  he  t'tfected  by  a  kind  of  jjaraphrasing 
or  loose  reproduction,  not  of  the  Greek  originals,  but  of  the 
Arabit'  vei-sions  and  commentaries,  De  Prwdirninfitfis,  Su- 
per Or/ii  Libros  Fh<js.koram,  etc.  D.  at  Cologne,  Nov.  25. 
1280.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  one  of  his  discij)Ies.  (See  Phi- 
losophy.) Cf.  his  life,  by  J.  Sighart  (Regensburg,  1857; 
Eng.  trans.,  Lond.  1876).  Ills  works,  edited  by  Jammy,  ap- 
peare<l  at  Lyons,  1651,21  vols.;  n.  e.  more  complete,  in  36 
vols.,  by  Borgnet  (Paris,  1890,  sqq.). 

Al'bi.  or  .41'by  (Lat.  Albi'f/a):  an  old  city  of  France; 
capital  of  the  department  of  Tarn;  seat  of  an  an-hbishop; 
on  the  river  Tarn,  and  on  a  hill  42  miles  N.  E.  of  Toulouse 
(see  nutp  of  France,  ref.  8-F).  It  Inis  a  museum  of  natu- 
ral history,  a  college,  a  normal  school,  a  cathedral,  a  iiublic 
library,  and  a  theater;  al.so  manufactures  of  coaree  Uiiens, 
tablecloths,  and  cotton  goods.  The  -Mbigenses  derived  their 
name  from  this  town,  which  sutTered  much  in  the  religious 
wai-s  of  France.     Pop.  (1881)  20,379  ;  (1886)  21,224. 

Albia:  city;  capital  of  Monroe  co.,  la.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref,  7-11);  100  miles  by  rail  N.  W. 
of  IJnrlington,  and  about  65  miles  S.  K.  of  Des  Moines.  The 
county  is  mostly  underlaid  with  coal  of  a  good  quality,  and 
ndnes  have  been  opened  in  numerous  places.  Pop.  (1880) 
■-'.135;  (1885)2,142;  (1890)2,359;  (1895)2,588. 

.\Ibigeii'.ses  [from  Alhi'ga.  the  Latin  name  of  Albi.  a 
town  of  France,  which  was  their  starting-place]:  an  anti- 
sacerdotal  sect  in  the  south  of  France,  allied  to  the  Catha- 
rists.  They  derived  their  creed  from  the  Pauuciaxs  (q.  !•.), 
but  exactly  what  it  was  is  now  impossible  of  statement,  as 
we  have  only  the  exaggerated  and  perverted  statements  of 
their  foes  to  go  upon.  The  one  fact  which  led  to  their  ex- 
tinction was  tlieir  opi)ositioTi  to  the  t^hurcli  of  Rome.  They 
were  apparently  mond  and  orderly,  and  their  oppositioii 
sprang  from  their  belief  in  that  Church's  spiritual  degen- 
eracy. In  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  they  took  pos- 
session of  the  church  buildings,  drove  the'  Roman  Catholic 
priests  aw:iy.  elected  prii^sls  and  liislmps  of  their  own.  and 
finally  held  a  great  synod  at  Londjcrs.  iu>ar  Allii.  Il(i5,  in 
order  to  perfect  their  organization.    Tlie  Ronum  cuvia  was 


startled  at  these  proceedings.  They  were  condemned  by 
Councils  held  in  1163.  1176,  1178.  1179,  but  more  vigorous 
measures  were  then  taken.  In  1208  Pope  Innocent  III.  pro- 
claimed a  crusade  against  these  rcfornu'rs  and  against  Ray- 
mond \'I..  Count  of  Toulouse,  one  of  their  prim-ipal  leadeis. 
A  large  army  was  led  against  them  by  Count  Simon  de 
Montfort.  The  war  was  carried  on  with  great  bitterness  of 
feeling  oti  both  sides,  and  with  little  internnssion,  till  1229, 
when  a  treaty  between  the  contenditig  parties  Wiis  concluded 
at  I'aris.  Many  of  the  Albigenses  endgrated  to  other  coun- 
tries, while  othci-s  perished  in  the  hKiuisition,  which  wsjs 
established  aliout  the  same  time  that  tlie  i)ope  proclaimed 
his  crusade.  The  name  gradually  disappears  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  See  Faber's  Iitquiry  into 
flie  Iliatorij  and  Theoloi/;j  of  I  he  Ancient  VaUenaes  and  Al- 
higenaes  (honA.  1838);  llefele's  Conciliengeschichfe,Y.;  and 
N.  Peyrat,  Jlistoiie  des  Albiyois  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1880-82). 

Albi'na :  a  former  city  of  JIultnomah  co.,  Or.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ret.  1-C) ;  on  Union  Pa- 
cific R.  R.  and  Willamette  river,  opposite  Portland  (q.  v.), 
with  which  it  was  consolidated  in  1891. 

Albi'iio  [Port.,  from  the  Lat.  al'his,  white] :  a  pei-son 
who  has  congcnitally  a  great  deficiency  or  an  aljsence  of 
pigment  in  the  hair,  skin,  and  eyes.  The  complexion  is  very 
light,  the  hair  often  snowy  white,  the  eyes  red.  Albinism  in 
the  Inuuan  species  may  be  observed  in  white  and  black  races, 
and  in  the  >.egro  is  sometimes  partial,  patches  of  the  skin 
having  the  nonual  color.  Such  patches  of  white  skin  may 
occur  as  an  acijuired  disease,  in  which  case  the  term  vitiligo 
is  applied.  Interesting  examples  of  albinism  were  those 
knowii  as  the  Cape  May  albinos,  where  Negro  parents  had 
six  children — three  albinos,  anil  the  other  three  black.  Al- 
binism is  frequent  among  Zufii  Indians  and  other  tribes  in 
Arizona.  A  degree  of  nyctalopia  (day-blindness)  is  common 
among  albinos.  Elephants.  Iiirds.  mice,  and  other  animals 
sometimes  exhibit  the  phenonu'ua  of  albinism,  which  is  often 
hereditary.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Al'bion  :  the  ancient  Celtic  name  of  Great  Britain.  The 
name,  said  to  signify  "  white  island,"  is  supposed  by  some, 
though  without  good  reason,  to  have  been  given  on  account 
of  the  chalky  cliffs  of  Kent. 

Albion  ;  on  railroad ;  capital  of  Xoble  co..  Ind.  (see  map 
of  Indiana,  ref.  2-F,  for  location  of  county);  about  26  miles 
X.  W.  of  Fort  Wavne:  is  situated  in  a  farming  countrv. 
Pop.  (1870)  476 ;  (1880)  926 ;  (1890)  1,229. 

Albion :  city  and  railroad  center  of  Calhoun  co.,  Mich. 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  K-I) ;  on  the  Kalama- 
zoo river ;  37  miles  S.  of  Lansing.  96  miles  W.  of  Detroit,  and 
20  miles  W.  of  Jackson :  on  the  Michigan  Central,  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern  K.  R.  It  is  the  seat  of  Albion 
College,  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  The  city  has  fine  prinuiry-school  buildings,  besides 
an  excellent  central  school,  large  flouring  and  other  ndlls, 
door,  sash,  aiul  blind  factories,  a  tannery,  aiul  extensive  agri- 
cultural  tool  manufactory,  malleable-iron  works,  carriage- 
factorv,  harness-factorv,  machine  shoj)  and  furnace,  and  a 
librarv.     Pop.  (1880)  2;716 ;  (1890)  3.763 ;  (1894)  4,844. 

Editor  OF  "Recorder." 

Albion  :  capital  of  Orleans  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  ^'ork,  ref.  4-D) :  on  the  New  York 
Centrid  R.  R.  and  Erie  Canal ;  30  miles  W.  of  Rochester ;  has 
a  brick  court-house,  a  jail,  pulilic  parks,  a  free  Hbrary,  7 
schools,  8  churches,  5  newspajicrs,  fine  opera-house,  electric 
lights,  grain  and  fruit  warehouses,  and  several  important 
manufactories  of  mowing-nuichincs,  plows,  carriages,  shoes, 
soap,  etc.     Pop.  (1870)  3,322 ;  (1880)  5.147 ;  (1890)  5,773. 

Editor  ok  ''  IIerald." 

.\lbion,  T)ane  co.,  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Wisconsin,  ref.  7-D);  is  situated  in  an  important  tobacco- 
growing  region.  Albion  Centre  is  the  scat  of  Albion  Acad- 
emv.  under  the  patronage  of  the  Seventh-Day  Baptist  de- 
noniimition.  Pop.  of  township  in  1870,  1,142;  (1880)  1,351 ; 
(1885)  1,518;  (1890)  1,516;  (1895)  1,588. 

Albistan',  or  El  Bostnn'  (i.  e.  the  garden):  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  pashalic  of  Marash ;  in  a  plain;  on  the 
river  Sihun.  near  the  northei-n  base  of  Mt.  Taurus;  32  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  .Marash  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  5-11).  It  has 
several  mosques,  and  a  trade  in  wheat.  Pop.  9.000.  Here 
the  Egyptian  Sultan  Bibars  defeated  the  united  Turks  and 
Mongolians  in  a  great  battle  on  April  16,  1277. 


1U2 


ALBITB 


ALBUMINOIDS 


Al'bite  [from  tlio  Lat.  a7'fri/«,  wliite] :  a  silicate  of  alu- 
mina and  soda,  sometimes  called  soda  felspar.  It  is  a  constit- 
uent of  granite,  Vicing  associated  with  true  fi'lspar,  from 
which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  greater  whiteness  and 
translucency.     It  also  occurs  in  syenite  and  greenstone. 

Albo,  Joseph  :  Jewish  scholar  of  Spain ;  d.  1428.  lie 
took  part  in  the  public  discussion  between  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians held  before  Benedict  XIII.  in  1412.  lie  continued  the 
work  of  Maimonides  ((/.  !'.).  According  to  him.  the  funda- 
mental dogmas  of  Judaism  are  the  existence  of  God,  the  law 
of  Moses,  and  the  future  life.  C.  H.  Toy. 

Al'boin:  the  founder  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  in  Italy; 
was  a  son  of  Alduin,  whom  he  succeeded  in  .543  a.  d.  lie 
conducted  an  army  of  Longobards  into  Italy  in  568,  and 
conquered  the  nortliern  ])rovi<ices.  He  married  Rosamund, 
a  daugliter  of  King  L'unimund,  King  of  the  Gepidie,  whom 
lie  liad  killed,  anci  whose  skull  vviis  made  into  a  drinking- 
cup  from  which  Alboin  forced  Rosamund  to  drink,  June  8, 
573  A.  D.  Rosamund  in  revenge  had  him  assassinated 
that  day. 

Albo'ni,  Marietta  :  opera  singer;  the  most  celebrated 
contralto  of  the  nineteenth  century ;  b.  at  C'esena,  Roinagna, 
Italy,  Mar.  10, 1823  ;  studied  under  Mme.  Bertoletti  in  Bologna, 
and  later  under  Rossini ;  made  Iier  first  appearance  at  La 
Scala,  Milan,  1843,  and  sang  with  great  success  in  Europe  and 
in  the  U.  S.  She  married  Count  Pepoli,  after  whose  death,  in 
1863,  she  retired  from  the  stage.  She  afterward  married  Capt. 
Charles  Zieger.  She  sang  in  Rossini's  mass  in  1871.  and  also 
on  the  celebration  of  Rossini's  centenary,  Feb.  29. 1892.  when 
she  declared  that  she  would  never  sing  again,  even  in  her 
own  home.     D.  in  Paris,  June  23,  1894.        D.  E.  Hervey. 

Al  Borak'  (i.  e.  the  lightning,  so  called  on  account  of 
its  fleetness) :  the  name  of  the  taljulous  milk-white  creature 
on  which  ]NIohammed  is  said  to  have  made  journeys  to  the 
celestial  regions. 

Albornoz',  Gil  Alvarez  Carillo,  or  iEgid'ius  <le  Al- 

boriioz':  a  Spanish  cardinal;  b.  at  Cuenca,  1310.  He  was 
appointed  (1339)  Archbishop  of  Toledo  by  Alfonzo  XL  of 
Castile,  whose  life  he  saved  in  a  battle  against  the  Moors,  and 
made  cardinal  13.50.  In  1353  Pope  Innocent  VI.  sent  him 
as  legate  to  Italy,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  mili- 
tary and  political  talents,  and  restored  the  authority  of  the 
pope  over  many  cities.     D.  at  Viterbo,  Aug.  24,  1367! 

Al'brf'cht :  the  name  of  many  German  princes  and  others. 
See  Alhert. 

Al'brefhtsberger.  Johaxn'  Georg  :  a  learned  contra- 
puntist: b.  at  Kldstemenlairg,  near  Vienna,  Feb.  3.1736; 
became  director  of  tlie  choir  of  the  Carmelites  in  Vienna; 
organist  to  the  court  in  1772;  musical  director  at  St.  Ste- 
phen's cathedral  in  Vienna  in  1792,  and  died  Mar.  7,  1809. 
He]niblislied  GrHndliche  Anivfinung  zur  Composi/ ion  {17i)0: 
3d  ed.  1821).  He  was  the  instructor  of  Beethoven  and  other 
oininent  musicians. 

Albret,  Jeanne,  d',  zhaan  dallira  :  Queen  of  Xavarre  ;  b. 
at  Pau,  Jan.  7,  1528;  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  Navarre,  and 
Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I. ;  married  Antoine  de  Bourbon 
(1548);  was  celebrated  for  personal  lieauty  and  strength  of 
character;  embraced  Calvinism  and  succccdi'd  iu  retaining 
her  kingdom;  declared  Protestantism  established  in  her  do- 
miTii(.)ns,  1567;  with  her  children,  Henry  and  Cathai'ine,  and 
a  small  band  of  Huguenots,  joined  Coligny  at  La  Roehelle, 
1569 ;  was  regarded  after  the  assassination  of  Conde  as  the 
only  remaining  sujitiort  of  the  Huguenots;  wrote  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  some  of  her  sonnets  having  been  published. 
I),  in  Paris,  June  9,  1573.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Al'brigllt.  Jacob  :  divine  of  the  Lutheran  Church  ;  b.  near 
Poltstowii,  Montgomery  CO.,  Pa.,  ^lay  1.  1759.  He  founded, 
in  180S,  the  Evangelical  Association  (q.  r.).  I),  at  Miild- 
bacli,  Leljanon  Co.,  Pa.,  in  May,  1808. 

Albiiera,  La,  laa-a'al-bwara:  a  village  of  Spain;  in  Es- 
tremadura;  on  a  small  river  of  its  own  name;  13  miles 
S.  E.  of  Hadajos  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  17-(').  Here  on  May 
10,  1811,  the  British  under  General  Beresford  defeated  the 
French  under  Marshal  Soult.  wlio  lost  nearly  9,000  men. 
The  allies  lost  about  7,000.     Pop.  about  600. 

Albufera,  al -bo~b-fay'ra :  a  coast  lagoon  near  Valencia, 
Spain;  aliounding  with  fish  and  fowl,  its  banks  studded 
with  rice  plantations;  owes  its  fame  to  the  defeat  (1811)  of 
the  Sijanish  by  Marshal  Sucuet  (q.  v.).  The  lake  and 
domain  were  conferred  on  him  by  Napoleon,  with  title  of 
Due  d'AUiufera. 


Albn'men,  or  AH)uiiiin  [Lat.  albu'men,  the  white  of  an 
egg,  from  aUiiif:.  white] :  in  chemistry,  an  organic  compound 
of  great  imiiortance,  which,  besides  being  the  characteristic 
ingredient  in  the  white  of  an  egg,  abounds  in  the  serum  of 
the  blood,  in  chyle,  lymph,  the  juice  of  flesh,  and  forms  an 
important  part  of  the  skin,  muscles,  and  brain.  In  Bright's 
disease  it  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  urine. 
" It  is  obvious,"  says  Liebig,  "that  albumen  is  the  founda- 
tion, the  starting-point,  of  the  whole  series  of  peculiar  tissues 
which  constitute  those  organs  which  are  the  seat  of  all  vital 
actions."  Albumen  is  also  found  in  smaU  quantities  in  iiost 
vegetal  lie  juices. 

When  heated  to  a  temperature  from  140°  to  160°,  albumen 
coagulates  and  becomes  insoluble  in  water.  It  is  also  coag- 
ulated by  alcohol  and  most  of  the  acids.  It  contains  the 
elements  earlxin,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur, 
and  hiis  a  very  com]jlex  conqiosition.  The  fibrine  of  the 
muscles  and  the  albumen  of  blood  contain  the  same  ele- 
ments in  aliout  the  same  proportion. 

Egg  alljumcn  differs  from  serum  albumen  by  being  pre- 
cipitated by  ether. 

Coagidated  albumen  is  white,  opaque,  and  elastic.  It 
dries  to  a  brittle,  translucent,  horny  mass,  which  when 
placed  in  cold  water  swells  up  to  its  original  form. 

The  white  of  an  egg  is  recommended  as  an  antidote  to 
corrosive  sublimate,  mercuric  chloride,  as  it  forms  mercuric 
albuminate,  which  is  insoluble  in  water.  As  it  is,  however, 
slightly  soluble  in  saline  solutions,  the  physician  should  also 
secure  vomiting,  to  remove  the  mercury  from  the  stomach. 
Albumen  is  much  used  for  clarifying  sirups  and  other 
liquids.  When  boiled  with  them,  it  coagulates  to  flocks,  en- 
tangling the  suspended  impurities,  and  carrying  them  either 
to  the  surface  as  a  scum  or  to  the  bottom  as  a  sediment.  In 
cooking,  the  white  of  egg  is  employed ;  in  sugar-refining, 
bullock's  blood.  Albumen  is  also  used  for  preparing  the 
surface  of  paper  for  photographic  printing,  and  for  making 
a  cement  with  lune. 

Egg  and  senim  albumen  are  now  manufactured  in  large 
quantities  by  simply  drying  the  natural  fluids  in  thin  layers 
in  warm  air,  taking  care  that  the  temperature  shall  not  be 
so  high  as  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  and  thus  render  it  in- 
soluljle.  The  chief  application  of  this  albumen  in  the  arts  is 
in  calico-printing.  It  is  ein|iloyed  in  fastening  certain  colors 
upon  the  fibers  of  cotton  cloth,  especially  pigments  such  as 
ultramarine,  chrome  yellows  and  oranges,  Guignet's  green, 
etc.,  and  also  the  aniline  colors.  The  pigments  cr  colors  are 
simply  mixed  with  a  solution  of  albumen,  printed  on  the 
cloth,  and  fixed  by  steaming,  which  coagulates  the  albumen 
and  renders  it  insoluble.  A  dark-colored,  inferior  quality  of 
serum  albumen,  sold  under  the  name  of  "dried  blood,"  is 
used  by  sugar-refiners  to  clear  the  solutions  of  raw  sugar. 

All  albuminoids  found  in  animals  owe  their  origin  to  proc- 
esses that  take  place  in  plants.     See  Albuminoids. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Albumen  :  the  old  name  for  the  food  stored  ujj  in  the 
seed  for  the  young  plant.     See  Endosperji. 

AHiuiiiin  :  See  Albumen. 

Albii'miiioids.  or  Proteids :  an  extensive  class  of  organic 
bodies  found  in  animals  and  plants.  They  form  the  chief  J 
constituents  of  blood,  muscles,  nerves,  glands,  and  other 
organs  of  animals;  and  though  present  in  plants  in  much 
smaller  proportions  than  cellulose,  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  they 
still  play  a  mo.st  important  part  in  plant-life.  Their  exact 
constitution  has  not  been  determined.  Analysis  shows  them 
to  contain — 

Carbon,        50-55  per  cent. 
Hydrogen,  6-9-7'5 
Nitrogen,     15-18 
Oxygen,        20-24 
Sulphur,      0-:3-2-0 

They  are  amorphous,  more  or  less  soluble  in  water,  insolu- 
ble or  nearly  so  in  alcohol,  insoluble  in  ether,  soluble  in 
excess  of  .strong  acetic  acid,  soluble  in  alkalies,  and  soluble 
in  strong  mineral  acids.  From  their  solutions  they  .are  pre- 
cipitated by  excess  of  mineral  acids,  by  potassic  ferrocyanide 
with  acetic  or  hydrochloric  acid,  by  acetic  acid  in  presence 
of  a  considerable  (piantity  of  alkaline  or  alk.aline  earthy  salt, 
gum-arabic  or  dextrine,  by  mercuric  nitrate,  Millon's  re-agent. 

They  have  lieen  clas.sitied  as  follows: 

I.  Albumens,  .soluble  in  water:  1.  Senim  albumen  ;  2.  Egg 
alliumen. 

II.  Glolnilins.  insoluble  in  water,  solulde  in  very  dilute 
acids  and  alkalies,  soluble  in  dilute  solutions  of  sodie  chlo- 


ALBUMINURIA 


ALCAIC  METER 


103 


ride  ami  othor  neutral  salts:   1.  Myosin;   2.  Globulin;  3. 
Fibriiiojren ;  4.  Vitelliu. 

III.  Derived  alliuiuens,  insoluble  in  water  and  in  solu- 
tions of  sodie  clilorido;  soluble  in  dilute  aeids  and  alkalies: 
1.  Acid  alliiiMicii ;  '■!.  Alkali  all)Uin('n,  or  albuiiiinate  casein. 

IV.  Fibrin,  inscihible  iu  water,  spariusly  soluble  iu  dilute 
acids  and  alkalies,  and  in  neutral  saline  solutions. 

V.  Coagulated  albuuiinuids. 

VI.  Amyloid  substance,  or  lardaeein. 

^'1I.  Peptones,  produced  by  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  on  all  albuminoids. 

For  further  iuroriuation  on  this  important  class  of  bodies 
see  IIo[)pe-Seyler,  Ildndbuch  der  plii/siologisch-chemixclieu 
Analyse:  \\\c  llnndwoiterbuch  der  C/iemie,  2t.  Auf.  II.,  p. 
124;  and  ^1  Victiouary  of  AiipUtd  Chemistry,'?.  E.  Thorpe. 

Revised  by  Ika  Remsen. 

Albuiainuria,  Sl-byu-mi-nyuri-a  [from  alhumin-  and 
the  Ijit.  iirina  (from  Gr.  oupoi/)  uiiiie]:  the  condition  in 
which  albumin  occurs  in  the  urine,  and  a  most  important 
symptom  of  disease.  This  conilition  was  fli-st  recognized  by 
one  Xiehohis  Cotunius  in  1770,  and  by  him  described  as 
"coagulabki  urine."  Later  the  relation  to  forms  of  dropsy 
and  then  to  Uright's  disease  wits  del<'rtiiined.  The  connec- 
tion between  Brighfs  disea.se  and  albuminuria  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  but  it  is  to  lie  remembered  that  this 
symptom  may  occur  in  a  variety  of  other  conditions  and  in 
health.  Of  particular  interest  are  those  ciises  of  "  cyclic  al- 
buminuria" in  which  albumin  appears  in  the  urine  at  defi- 
nite periods  of  the  day  or  at  longer  intervals.  These  cases 
occur  in  tx>ys  at  the  age  of  a<lolcscetice,  more  rarely  in  girls, 
and  their  nature  is  obscure.  After  persisting  for  some 
length  of  time  the  all)umiri  disappear  from  the  urine  and 
no  further  symptoms  are  noted.  Again  in  certain  pei'sons 
there  may  be  perio  lical  albununuria  coincident  with  attJU'ks 
of  indigestion.  In  othei-s  exercise,  colil  bathing  or  a  variety 
of  causes  bring  aliout  the  temporary  appearan<'e  of  this 
symptom.  It  has  been  foiaid  by  experiment  that  tying  the 
emulgent  veins  of  I  ho  kidneys  in  lower  aninuils  causes  albu- 
minuria by  obstructing  the  flow  of  blood  ;  and  a  similar  ex- 
planation may  be  offered  for  the  0(;currence  of  the  symptom 
in  man  in  heart  iliseiuse,  tumors  in  the  abdomen,  or  some 
cases  of  pregnancy,  in  all  of  which  the  outflow  of  blood  from 
the  kidneys  is  impelled.  Besides  the  above  a  great  variety 
of  conditions  may  be  aecomi)anied  by  albuminuria,  inde- 
pendent of  kj<lney  disease.  The  explanation  of  the  occur- 
rence in  Brighfs  disease  itself  is  not  entirely  settled.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  due  to  disease  changes  which  cause  ob- 
struction of  the  blood-vessels  within  the  kidney;  in  other 
cases  it  may  be  disesise  of  the  vessels  themselves  which 
permits  a  ready  escape  of  albumin  from  the  blood  ;  in  still 
other  cases  degeneration  of  the  epithelium  lining  the  rcMial 
tubules  :nay  be  the  cause  of  the  transudation.  The  loss  of 
the  albumin,  however  it  occur,  is  doubtless  of  itself  partly 
the  cause  of  some  of  tlie  other  symptoms  of  Bright's  disease, 
such  Its  progressive  weakness  and  aiuemia.  In  certain  rare 
cases  of  the  disease  albumiiniria  nuty  be  so  slight  as  to 
escape  dete<tion  by  our  ordinary  tests.  In  others  the 
amount  of  albumin  is  so  great  that  on  boiling  the  urine  in  a 
test-tube  a  solid  eoagulum  results  whicli  remains  in  the  tube 
on  inverting  it. 

Besides  the  onlinary  form  of  albuminuria,  in  which  sertim 
albumin  an<l  globulin,  tlu^  alliumins  of  the  blood,  appear  in 
the  urine,  there  are  various  moditied  forms,  in  which  otlii^r 
albumins  occur.  In  the  cases  due  to  indigestion  egg  albu- 
min is  sometimes  found  in  the  urine.  Again  peptones,  licmi- 
albumose,  and  various  other  forms  oc'cur,  but  are  as  yet  little 
understood  and  require  s|)ecial  tests  for  their  <letection. 

Albuminuria  is  recognized  by  various  tests,  of  whi<'h  the  two 
following  are  most  useful:  (I)  On  boiling  the  urine,  mildly 
acidified  with  nitric  or  acetic  acid  if  not  already  acid  in  re- 
action, a  coagulation  of  greater  or  less  distinctness  is  mani- 
fest. The  test  is  made  more  delicate  if  the  upper  portion  of 
the  fluid  in  the  test-tube  is  heated.  The  contrast  of  tlie 
coagulated  with  the  non-coagulated  portion  is  ciisily  de- 
tected. (3)  If  strong  nitric  acid  Ix^  poured  into  a  test-tube, 
and  on  the  surface  of  this  from  a  pipette  held  in  an  almost 
horizontal  <lirection  a  little  of  the  uriiu',  a  ringof  coagulated 
albuuun  will  appear  al  the  junction  of  the  two  li(piids. 

The  treatment  of  albuminuria  depends  entirely  upon  the 
condition  which  causes  it.  In  all  cases  hygienic  measures 
are  of  prime  im])ortanee.  William  Pei'I'EH. 

Albnqnerc|iio.  al-boo-ker'kay :  a  town  of  Spain ;  province 
of  Badajos,  2(i  miles  N.  of  Badajos  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref. 


17-C').  It  is  0  miles  from  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  is  built 
on  high  ground,  and  is  defen<led  by  a  very  strong  fortress 
situated  on  a  mountain.  The  town  was  taken  in  1705  by 
the  allies  of  Charles,  who  was  a  claiiiuint  of  the  Spanish 
throne:  Init  it  was  restored  to  Spain  in  171o.  It  hiis  a  castle 
and  manufactures  of  cotton  and  wool.     Poj).  7,214. 

Albii<|U(>r(|iie:  town;  capital  of  Bernalillo  co.,N.M. (for 
Ideation  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Mexico,  ref.  10-R);  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  Fe  and  the  At- 
lantic and  I'ac.  railways;  75  miles  S.  W.  of  Santa  Fe,  the 
capital  of  the  Territory:  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  is  in  a  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  coal  mining  region ; 
has  an  extensive  trade  in  wool,  hides,  grain,  and  wine;  is 
substantially  built;  and  has  improved  water-works,  gas  and 
electric  liglit  plants,  street-railway,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  $100,000,  a  territcn-ial  baidv  with  cai)it,al  of  .$75,- 
000,  and  8  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,315  ; 
(1800)  3,785.    '  EuiTOB  "  Morning  Democrat." 

Albiujiierqne.  or  Alboqiieniiio.  Affonso,  de  (sumaraed 
The  Great  and  The  Portugikse  Mars):  a  celelirated  gen- 
eral :  b.  at  Alhandra,  near  Lisbon,  in  1452,  w.as  rehited  to  the 
royal  family.  After  he  had  distinguished  himself  in  several 
expeditions  to  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  he  was  appointed 
viceroy  of  tlie  Indies  in  1500.  He  took  the  cifyofGoain 
1510.  and  conquered  Malacca,  in  which  he  obtained  booty  of 
great  value,  in  1511.  In  1513  his  fleet  entered  the  Red  Sea, 
which  had  never  before  been  navigated  by  Europeans.  He 
captured  the  rich  emporium  of  Ormuz  in  1515.  Having 
been  removed  from  command,  he  died  at  Goa  Dec.  16  of  that 
year.  He  is  said  to  have  been  emiiuMit  for  justice  and  other 
virtues,  which,  combined  with  his  militr.ry  skill,  greatly  in- 
creased the  power  of  Portugal  in  India. — Bras  Akkonso  Al- 
BOQUERQtTE.  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Alhan- 
dra in  1500.  He  was  a  naval  officer,  noted  for  his  integrity 
and  public  spirit.  He  wrote  a  luirrative  of  his  father's  cam- 
paigns, Commeniarios  do  grande  Affonso  d'Alboquergue.  T>. 
in  1580.  English  translation  by  the  Hakluyt  Society  (Lond. 
187.5-83),  and  letters  which  were  pul)lished  iu  Lisbon,  1884. 

Albnqnerqne.  .Jeroxtmo,  de :  Portuguese  soldier ;  b.  about 
1514;  emigrated  to  Pcrnambuco  about  1535,  aiul  took  part 
in  various  wars  between  the  colonists  and  the  Indians.  On 
Jan.  2,  1548,  he  was  captured  by  the  Cahates,  but  succeeded 
in  gaining  their  friendship,  married  the  daughter  of  their 
chief,  and  finally  brought  about  the  pacification  of  this  pow- 
erfid  tribe.     D.'at  Olinda,  near  Pernambuco,  Feb.  26,  1594. 

H.  II.  Smith. 

Albnqiierqnp  Maranliao,  -Ierontmo,  de :  Brazilian  sol- 
dier; sou  of  .Jcronymo  de  Albuquerque  and  the  Indian 
IMaria  do  Kspirito  Santo,  daugliier  of  the  Cahate  chief  Arco 
Verd<- :  b.  in  Pernambuco  in  1548.  He  early  accompanied 
his  wdiite  father  or  Indian  grandfather  in  war  expeditions, 
and  became  an  adept  in  predatory  warfare  ;  as  leader  of  an 
incursion  from  Pernambuco  he  conquered  Kio  Grande  do 
Norte  in  1598-99:  passed  to  Ceani  in  1613:  recovered  Ma- 
ranliao from  the  French  (.lune  17,  1014),  and  was  soon  after 
made  captain-general  of  that  province.  D.  at  I\laranhao, 
Feb.  11,  1618.  See  Jlacedo,  Anno  liioi/raphico  Brazileiro, 
tome  i,  p.  177;  Porto  Seguro,  Ilistoria  Ueral  do  Brazil; 
Denis,  Inlrodiirt.  to  his  edition  of  Yves  d'Evreux,  etc. 

II.  II.  Smith. 

Albnr'nnni  [from  Lat.  (dims,  white],  or  Sapwood  :  that 
part  of  the  wood  of  exogenous  trees  which  is  most  recently 
formed  and  is  contiguous  to  the  bark.  It  is  of  a  white  or 
pale  color,  whence  its  name  is  derived.  It  gradually  hardens 
with  age,  and  is  converted  into  duramen  or  heart-wood, 
which  is  more  valuable  than  alburnum. 

Alca'iis  t^WKoios) :  one  of  the  nine  lyric  jioets  of  the  Alex- 
anclrian  canon;  b.  at  M\'tilene  about  600  ii.  c.  A  man  of 
war,  a  bitter  partisan,  a  hearty  hater,  a  thorough  aristocrat, 
he  was  a  sworn  foe  of  the  t>rant  Myrsilus  and  of  the  wise 
and  moderate  stadtholder  Pittaeus.'  He  composed  in  the 
fierv  ^Eolic  dialect,  and  tlic  alcaic  meter,  which  bears  his 
name,  is  full  of  movement.  Even  the  scant  fragments,  one 
of  wliich  is  addressed  to  Sappho,  breathe  passion  and  energy. 
To  Horace  he  Wiis  a  paragon,  and  in  some  of  Horace's  best 
known  odes  we  have  reflexes  of  Alca-us.  Fragments  in  Bergk's 
I'oetu'  Lyrici  Graici.  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Alca'ic  Mo'ter :  in  Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  a  logaoedic 
(see  liOGAtEDic)  measure,  named  after  Alcanis.  The  greater 
alcaic  consists  of  a  preliminary  syllable,  a  troehaic  dipody, 
an  irrational  dactyl  (see  Dactyl),  and  a  catah'ctic  tnx-haie 


104 


ALCAIDE 


ALCIBIADES 


dipody;  the  lesser  aleaic  of  two  irrational  dactyls  followed 
by  a  trochaic  ilipody. 

1.  For  I  te's  ere  |  a'ntur  !  fo'rtibus  !  e't  bo  j  ni's. 

2.  I)e'deco  1  ra'nt  beue  1  na'ta  |  cu'lpte. 

Alcaide  :  See  Alcavde. 

Alcilla'  de  Heua'res  :  a  city  of  Spain  :  in  the  province  of 
Madrid  ;  on  the  river  llenare.s  ;  il  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Madrid 
(see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  lo-F) ;  linilt  in  10y3  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  (.'omplutum.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
university  founded  by  Ximenes,  which  has  been  removed 
to  Madrid.  After  this  removal  Aleala  (wliieh  had  22.000  in- 
habitants in  1768)  rapi<lly  ileelined.  Cervantes  was  born 
here  in  1.547.  Tlie  celebrated  Corapluteusian  Bible  was 
printed  at  Aleala  in  1.514.     Pop.  12,317. 

Aleala' la  Real':  acity  of  Spain:  in  the  province  of  Jaen  : 
stands  in  an  elevated  ijlen  about  2.700  feet  aljove  the  sea,  and 
24  miles  S.  W.  of  >Jaen  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-E).  It  has 
a  court-house,  several  convents,  a  hospital,  etc.     Pop.  15,901. 

Alcal'de  [Span,  adaptation  of  Arab,  al-gd-d'i,  the  judge]  : 
the  title  given  liy  the  floors,  Spaniards,  and  Spanish-Ameri- 
can nations  to  a  judiciid  or  administrative  officer;  is  some- 
times erroneously  confounded  with  alcai/de.  Alcalde  pedaneo 
signifies  justice  of  the  peace. 

Aleaiuenes,  al-kam'e-neez:  sculptor  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  Ancient  writers  have  great  praise  for  his  work,  and  it 
has  been  assumed  tluit  he  was  a  pupil  of  Phidias.  Since  the 
discovery  of  the  sculptures  at  Olympia,  which  are  stated  by 
Pausanias  to  be  liis  worli.  it  is  thouglit  rather  tliat  lie  was  ii 
contemporary  an<i  rival  of  Phidias.  The  Olympia  scul]>tures, 
indeed,  are  earlier  in  style  and  more  nearly  archaic  in  char- 
acter tiian  those  of  the  Parthenon.  These  sculptures,  which 
were  a  part  of  the  temple  of  Zeus,  are  extremely  powerful 
and  vigorous ;  the  western  pediment  contained  the  battle  of 
the  Centaurs  and  Lapitha\  and  the  metopes  are  of  varied 
subject  connected  with  the  laljors  of  Hercules. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Arcailio :  a  town  on  the  island  of  Sicilv,  in  the  province 
of  Tra]iaiii.  24  miles  S.  W.  of  Palermo :  fias  a  college  and 
picturesque  rnins  of  an  old  castle  (see  map  of  Italv,  ref. 
li-E).     Pop.  3i».01G. 

Alcilntara  (i.  e.  the  bridge) :  a  town  of  .Spain:  province 
of  Caoeres;  on  the  left  liank  of  the  Tagus.  near  the  Portu- 
guese boundary  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  16-C).  Here  are 
ruins  of  a  grand  liridge  Ijuilt  by  the  Emperor  Trajan  in  lOiJ 
A.  D.,  of  which  a  triumphal  arch  40  feet  high  still  remains. 
The  Duke  of  Alva  here  defeated  llie  Portuguese  in  a  great 
battle  on  Aug.  25,  1580.     Pop.  8,;300. 

Alciiiitara.  Order  of.  also  called  the  Order  of  Saint 
Julian:  a  religious  order  of  Spanish  knighthood,  founded 
in  1156  at  Alcantara  lor  the  defense  of  the  Christians 
against  the  Moors.  In  1405  the  office  of  grand  master  of 
this  oriler  was  united  to  the  Spanish  crown  :  in  1883  it  was 
changed  from  an  ecclesiastical  to  a  court  order.  Their  crest 
was  a  pear-tree. 

Alcatraz'  (or  Aletra'cfis)  Island,  sometimes  called 
Pelican  Island:  in  the  bav,  2i-  miles  X.  of  .San  Francisco, 
Cal.  Length.  1,650  feet;  height,  130  feet.  It  is  fortified, 
and  commands  the  entrance  of  the  Golden  Gate.  On  its 
summit  is  a  lighthouse  36  feet  high,  in  hit.  37' 49' 27"  N.. 
Ion.  123'  24'  19  '  W. 

.\lcava'la,  or  Alcal)a'la  [Span,  adaptation  of  Arab,  ril- 
(/nlm/iih,  \\te  tax;  ef.  Vv.  i/iilii'l/f\  :  a  tax  formerly  imposeil 
in  Spain  ami  hei'  colonies  on  all  projierty  sold,  and  payable 
as  often  as  it  clianged  hands.  Tlds  tax,  which  was  at  first 
10  and  afterward  14  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  was  very  injurious 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

Alcayde  [Sjian.  adaptation  of  Arab.  <d-ga"id,  the  cap- 
tain]:  a  jailer  or  inferior  magistrate  among  the  Spaniards, 
Portuguese,  and  Moors. 

Alca'zar  Koliir'  jthe^  great  oa.stle) :  a  decayed  city  of 
Morocco;  83  miles  X.  W.  of  Fez  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref. 
2-B).  Pop.  in  1864  about  25,000;  now  only  al)out  6.()0t). 
Near  it  is  a  bridge  (Alcdiitarn)  where  Sebastian,  King  of 
Portugal,  was  defeated  and  killed,  Aug.  4.  1578. 

Alces'tis :  in  classic  mythology,  a  daugliter  of  Pelias  and 
the  wife  of  Admelus,  King  of  Thessaly.  The  poets  feigned 
that  slie  prolonged  tlie  life  of  her  hnsijand  liy  sulTering  vol- 
untary ileatli  as  his  sul)slitnte,  and  was  rescued  from  llades 
by  Hercules.  Tin;  story  of  her  devotion  is  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  tragedies  of  Euripides. 


Al'cliemy  [from  Arab.  a/-/.-7»iJ(f :  al.  the  +  I'im'id,  loan- 
word from  (xr.  xw".  '"'t  of  transmuting  metals,  jirobably 
so  called  from  native  name  of  Kgypt,  yr/iow,;'] :  the  occult 
science  or  art  of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold. 
Some  writers  suppose  that  alehemy  originated  in  Egypt, 
the  ancient  name  of  which  was  Ctieni  (ilark,  mysteri- 
ous), and  that  it  was  introduced  into  Europe  bv  tne  Arabs. 
The  origin  of  alchemy  seems  to  be  connected  with  the  wide- 
spread notion  that  the  manifold  forms  of  matter  have  a  com- 
mon basis,  and  that  the  individual  properties  of  material 
bodies  are  due  to  formative  force  sejiarable  in  thought,  if 
not  in  fact,  from  this  common  substratum.  Hence  it  fol- 
lowed that  if  this  first  matter  could  be  dissolved  or  sepa- 
rated from  all  special  formative  forces,  and  the  special 
'■  form  "  of  gold  or  other  precious  substance  iliscovered  and 
got  under  control,  these  or  any  material  body  could  be  pro- 
duced at  will.  From  this  point  of  view  we  may  understand 
the  reason  of  the  alchemists' .search  for  the  "universal  sol- 
vent "  and  for  the  special  •'  forms  "  of  things.  The  ^lnion 
of  the  materia  prima  and  the  "form"  of  gold  would  produce 
the  actual  metal.  In  like  manner,  if  the  vital  principle  or 
form  of  the  bodily  organization  could  be  found  and  eon- 
trolled,  the  tendencies  to  disease  and  decay  in  the  bodily 
organization  could  be  resisted.  Hence  the  search  after  the 
elixir  of  life  and  the  philosopher's  stone.  It  was  this  search 
after  "  forms  "  anfl  the  materia  prima  which  so  vitiated  the 
method  of  the  Middle  Age  investigators.  It  was  a  reaction 
against  this  false  analysis  of  Aristotle  which  led  to  the  bitter 
op])osition  to  his  name  and  doctrines  whicli  nuirked  the  rise 
of  modern  science  in  Europe.  When  belief  in  the  reality  of 
the  Aristotelian  analysis  passed  away,  alehemy  ceased. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  alchemists  expended  immense 
labor  and  time  in  experiments,  the  cibject  of  which  was  to 
discover  the  philosopher's  stone  and  an  elixir  vita^  (the  elixir 
of  life)  which  could  cure  all  diseases  and  restore  old  pecjple 
to  youth.  Jlany  useful  discoveries  were  the  results  of  these 
visionary  pur.suits,  in  which  the  nifist  eminent  men  of  those 
times  took  part.  Roger  Bacon  (1214-92)  was  a  believer  in 
the  doctrine  that  base  metals  can  be  transmuted  into  gold. 
The  works  which  he  w-rote  on  alchemy  are  the  oldest  extant 
European  writings  on  that  sulijcct.  Among  the  other  famous 
alchemists  were  Basil  ^'alentine,  R.  Ijidly,  and  Paracelsus. 
As  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  many  men  of  superior  intel- 
lect devoted  their  time  and  money  to  alchemy,  and  hoped 
to  discover  the  grand  arcanum.  Accoi'diug  to  Liebig,  "  The 
great  (Francis)  Bacon,  Luther,  Benedict  Spinosa,  and  Leib- 
nitz believed  in  the  philosopher's  stone,  and  in  the  possibility 
of  the  transmutation  of  metals."  (Familiar  Letters  on  Chern- 
i'itry.)  The  same  writer  affirms  that  "alchemy  was  never 
at  any  time  anything  ditferent  from  chemistry.  It  is  utterly 
unjust  to  confound  it.  as  is  gencr.-dly  done,  with  the  gold- 
making  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Among 
the  alchemists  there  was  always  to  be  found  a  nucleus  of 
genuine  philosophers,  who  were  often  deceived  in  their  the- 
oretical views  ;  whereas,  the  gold-makers,  properly  so  called, 
knowingly  deceived   both    themselves    and    others."     See 

CuiiMlsTIlV. 

Aleia'ti.  Andrea  :  Italian  lawyer :  b.  at  Alzato  near  Milan. 
May  8,  1492.  He  lectured  on  law  at  Bourges  from  1528  to 
1532.  after  which  he  was  Professor  of  Law  at  Bologna,  Pavia, 
and  Ferrara.  He  wrote,  Ijcsides  other  works,  Commentariefi 
nn  the  Digtf.t.  and  a  book  of  cndih'm.s.  I),  in  I'avia.  .Ian.  12. 
1550.  Erasmus  said  of  him.  as  Cicero  saiil  of  Scanola,  "He 
was  the  most  jurisprudent  of  orators,  and  the  most  eloqiuant 
of  lawyers.''  His  complete  works  iippeared.  Basel,  1546-49, 
6  vols.,  and  were  several  times  reprinted. 

Aleihiadcs.  al-si-bi'a-deez.  or  al-si-bee'a-deez :  famous 
-Athenian  general  and  politician;  b.  of  a  noble  family 
about  450  n.  r. ;  son  of  Cleinias.  He  was  educated  at  the 
house  of  his  mother's  second  cousin,  the  illustrious  Pericles, 
and  inherited  a  large  estate.  From  nature  he  received 
great  personal  beauty  and  transcenilent  abilities,  with  strong 
passions  and  proclivities  to  licentious  habits.  As  a  favorite 
pupil  and  comi)anion  of  Socrates,  he  enjoyed  in  his  youth 
great  advantages  for  the  cultivation  of  his  mind.  (See  Soc- 
rates.) In  421  B.  c.  he  began  his  political  career  as  the 
leader  of  the  ilemocratic  party  and  an  ojijionent  of  Nicias, 
who  advocated  peace  with  Sparta.  Having  induced  the  Athe- 
nians to  send  a  great  cx|ie{li1ion  (in  415  B.  c.)  against  Syra- 
cuse, the  ally  of  Sparta,  he  was  chosen  to  command  it,  in 
conjunction  with  Nicias  and  Lamachus.  Soon  after  the 
fleet  hail  reached  Sicily,  Alcibia<les  was  recalled  to  defend 
himself  against  a  charge  of  sacrilege,  but  he  escaped   to 


Ah(  IDA.MAS 


ALCOHOLS 


105 


Spartii,  mill  in  his  absence  wns  condoinneil  (o  dealli  by  llie 
people  of  Athens.  He  iieiiuired  nuieh  infhieiiee  with  the 
Spartans,  whom  he  aided  in  liieir  operations  atcainst  his  na- 
tive country,  lint  several  jealous  Spartan  leaders  liavin}^  con- 
.spired  at;aiiist  him.  lie  fled  to  the  Persian  sal  ran  Tissaphenies. 
and  af;ain  changed  sides.  'J'he  next  scene  ni  tlie  drama  of  his 
eventful  and  wayward  career  jiresents  him  as  the  command- 
er of  tlie  Athenian  fleet  in  412  B.  c.  He  defeated  the  Spar- 
tans at  Abydos  in  411,  and  at  C'yzicus  in  410  n.  r.  Having 
by  these  aiid  other  victories  restored  the  naval  supremacy  of 
Athens,  he  returned  in  triuinpli  to  the  canital  in  407.  and 
regained  his  popularity.  He  was  removed  from  the  com- 
mand ill  40(!.  in  consequence  of  a  reverse  which  his  fleet  suf- 
fered in  his  absence,  ami  he  again  went  into  exile.  He 
sought  refuge  in  Phrygia.  where  he  was  assassinated  by 
night  in  404  n.  c.  See  Phitarcirs  Life  of  Alrililadi's ;  (Jrote's 
Ilixliini  of  Oirccf,  vol.  viii.;  ThirhvaH's  IIi.i/or>/  of  Oreece. 

Alfid'ailliis  CAA/ciSa.aas) :  pupil  of  Gorgias  and  rival  of 
Isocrates.  Of  the  two  declamations  attributed  to  him.  the 
one  Affainsl  the  Sn/t/ii.il.'<  is  clever  and  interesting.  Text  in 
Blas-s's  second  edition  of  Anilphon,  p.  193.  See  F.  Blass, 
Allixche  Bi-rcihiiinkiit,  ii.  34o-0:!. 

Arciphroii  ('A\Ki<t>pwi'):  a  Greek  epistolary  writer,  about 
180-200  A.  I).,  of  wliom  we  have  118  fictitious  letters  repre- 
senting the  niannei's  and  opinions  of  various  classes  of  soci- 
ety. The  material  is  drawn  largely  from  the  New  Comedy; 
the  style  is  pure  for  the  period.  Valuable  edition  by  Berg- 
ler,  reproduced  with  additions  by  Seller  (IHoti). 

Keviseii  by  B.  L.  Gildebsleeve. 

Alfira.  a'al-tliee'ra:  an  ancient  walled  town  of  Spain; 
on  an  island  in  the  river  Jucar;  in  the  jirovince  of  Valencia: 
25  miles  S.ot  Valencia  (see  map  of  Spam,  ref.  17-1),  has  two 
fine  stone  bridges,  besides  an  iron  railway-bridge.  Xear  it 
is  a  curious  cavern.     Pop.  16,146. 

AlciiiiPOii'ida>,  The:  one  of  the  most  prominent  families 
of  ancient  Athens:  expelled  from  the  city  in  VM]  n.  c,  their 
chief,  ^legacies,  having  committed  sacrilege  by  allowing 
Cylon  and  his  partisans  to  be  massacred,  though  they  hail 
sought  refuge  in  the  temple  of  the  Eumeuides.  The  family 
went  to  Pliocis.  but  its  immense  wealth  and  connections  with 
some  of  the  most  powerful  families  in  (ireeco  enabled  it  to 
return  to  Athens  after  an  exile  of  about  thirty  years.  Then 
followed  the  long  and  turliulent  coldest  with  Pisistratus,  in 
which  the  Alciniconiihc  were  once  more  driven  from  .\tliens. 
During  this  their  second  exile  they  spent  a  great  deal  of 
their  wealth  in  rebuilding  the  temple  of  .\pollo  in  Delphi, 
which  w.HS  burnt  down  in  548  n.  c,  and  the  maguidcence 
with  wliieh  they  accomplished  this  great  undertaking  made 
them  so  popular  tliroughout  all  Greece  tlial  the  Spartans 
finally  restored  them  by  armed  force.  .Vunmg  the  famous 
members  of  the  family  were  Clisthenes,  Pericles,  and  Alcibi- 
udes. 

Alr'llian  (■A\K,uttj') :  Spartan  lyrii'  poet  :  b.  at  Sardis:  was 
originally  a  slave.  He  nourished  about  G50  n.  c.  and  becaino 
a  free  citizen  of  Sparta.  He  wrote  songs  called  I'dii/ienid, 
also  Ijridal  hvmns  and  other  erotic  [loems  which  were  greatly 
admired.  Tlic  small  fragments  of  his  works  increased  by 
recent  discoveries  are  contained  in  liergk's  Poi'/m  Jyi/n'rL 

Alcme'lie  (Gr.  'A\Kfn)yr)) :  a  daughter  of  ]ijlectryon  and  An- 
axo,  the  daughter  of  Alcieus.  She  is  .said  to  have  been  the 
mother  of  Heracles  by  Zeus.  Hera,  jealous  of  Alcmene,  de- 
layed the  birth  of  Heracles  for  seven  days,  that  Knryst hens 
might  be  born  first,  and  Ihus  lie  entitled  to  greater  rights,  ac- 
cording to  a  vow  which  Zeus  had  made.  There  are  dillcrent 
accounts  of  her  death.  According  to  Plutarch,  Agesilaus 
opened  her  tomb  at  Haliartus  in  Micolia,  and  carried  her 
remains  to  Sparta. 

Al'oock.  Sir  KLTHERFORn.  K.  C.  R..  D.  C.  L.,  F.R.C.S.: 
British  consul  and  minister;  I),  in  l^ondon  in  180U;  was  a 
surgeon  in  the  navy  in  Portugal.  1833-34;  inspector  of  hos- 
pitals under  .Sir  de  Lacy  Kvans  in  Spain.  1835-37;  auditor 
of  accounts  of  the  English-Spanish  legion,  1S3!)— 14:  liecaine 
British  consul  at  Foo-(.'how.  1844:  at  Shanghai.  1848:  and  at 
Canton.  1858.  In  1859  he  wa.s  transferred  to  the  diplomatic 
service  and  became  minister  to  Japan,  whence  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  China,  1865,  where  he  remained  until  1871.  He  is 
the  author  of  Ao/i*  on  the  Medical  lliaforii  of  the  Bn'fin/i 
Legion  in  Spnin  (1838);  Cnpi/nlof/lie  Ti/cooii  (2  vols.,  Lond. 
1863);  Arl  and  Art  liidiisfries  in  Japan  (1878),  eU:.  He 
was  erented  a  K.  C.  B.  in  1862.  K.  L. 

.\lcoliol  [from  Arab.  a/-lcoh'l;  nZ,  the  +K-oh'l,  fine  powder 
for  coloring  the  eyelid.s,  etc.     Term  extended  in  early  Euro- 


])ean  chemistry  to  any  very  fine  powder,  and  later  applied  to 
fluids  as  tlie  quintessence,  spirit] :  a  limpid,  colorless  liquid 
which  has  a  hot,  pungent  taste,  and  is  the  es.sential  prineijile 
of  all  spirituous  liquors  and  intoxicating  drink.s.  It  is  the 
jiroduct  of  the  fermentation  of  sugar  or  sai-ehariuo  sub- 
stances, and  is  extracted  by  distillation  from  spirituous 
liquors,  such  as  whisky  and  brandy,  wliich  contain  nearly 
50  per  cent,  of  water.  Pure  alcohol  is  very  inflammable, 
has  a  .strong  allinity  for  water,  is  a  powerful  solvent,  boils  at 
173°  P..  ami  has  been  congealed  at  an  extremely  low  tem- 
jierature  (aliout  200°  F.  tielow  zero).  It  is  composed  of  car- 
lion,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  its  comiiosition  being  expressed 
by  the  "formula  CjIIcO.  In  medicine,  alcohol  is  used  a.s  a 
stimulant  or  excitant,  mostly  in  the  form  of  wine,  brandy,  or 
wliisky.  In  iiliarmacy,  alcohol  is  extensively  used  as  a  sol- 
vent: "its  solutions  are  called  tinctures.  The  strongest  alco- 
hol that  can  be  procured  is  termed  absolute  ak»hol  or  anhy- 
drous alcohol :  it  is  prepared  by  removing  the  last  few  per 
cent,  of  water  by  quicklime. 

Alcohol  can  be  liuilt  up  from  its  elements  in  the  laliora- 
tory  by  starting  with  acetylene,  which  can  be  made  by  pass- 
ing' a  powerful  electric  current  between  carbon  poles  sur- 
rounded liy  hydrogen.  Acetylene,  which  has  the  composition 
CjHj,  takes  up  hydrogen  and  forms  ethylene,  C,U,.  This 
unites  with  sulphuric  acid  to  form  ethyl-sulpliurie  acid, 
which,  when  distilled  with  water,  yields  alcohol  ami  sul- 
phuric acid. 

The  alcohol  of  commerce  varies  in  strength  from  proof 
spirifs,  which  contain  50  per  cent,  by  volume,  to  cologne 
:ipiri/s,  which  contain  from  93  to  95  per  cent.  It  is  nianu- 
faitured  from  a  variety  of  materials  which  contain  either 
sugar  or  starch,  such  as  molasses,  beets,  ))Otatoes,  Indian 
corn,  etc.     See  Whisky. 

Intdxicating  beverages  owe  their  peculiar  effects  on  the 
system  chiefly  to  the  alcohol  they  contain.  They  are  divided 
into  fermented  liquors  and  distilled  liquors  or  s|iirits.  Fer- 
mented liquors  include  (1)  wine  made  from  saccharine  fruits, 
such  as  the  grape,  apple,  and  )icar;  and  (2)  lieer  made  from 
materials  which  contain  starch,  usually  barley.  Distilled 
liquors  are  made  from  the  refuse  of  the  grape — hrandy:  or 
from  molasses — rum  :  or  from  cereals  or  potatoes — ivhisliy. 
Gin  is  alcohol  flavored  with  Juniper  berries.  See  Pekmen- 
TATio.N,  Wi.NE,  Cider,  Beer,  Hum,  Bkanuy,  Wdiskt,  and 
Gin.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

AlcohoH.sni :  See  Intoxication. 

Alcolioloin'ctry  [from  alniliul.  and  the  Gr.  iii-rpov.  a 
ineasure|:  the  mi'thod  of  estimating  or  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  absolute  alcohol  in  a  given  quantity  of  spirits. 
'I'liis  may  be  done — (1)  by  determining  tile  specific  gravity  of 
the  spirits,  provided  they  contain  nothing  tiesides  water  and 
alcohol.  The  specific  gravity  of  water  being  1.  that  of  pure 
or  absolute  alcohol  is  0-7938  at  60'  F.  Tables  have  been 
carefully  prepared  showing  the  percentage  of  alcohol  corre- 
sponding to  different  gravities  between  these  extremes.  (See 
Gravity,  Specific.)  If  the  spirits  contain  sugar,  etc.,  they 
must  be  purified  by  distillation  before  determining  the  grav- 
ity. (2)  The  percentage  of  alcohol  may  be  determined  by 
observing  the  boiling-point.  Water  lioils  at,  212°  F..  abso- 
lute alcohol  at  173°  P.  (3)  By  observing  the  tension  of  the 
vapor.     The  first  method  is  always  employed  in  practice. 

Alcoliols :  compounds  that  have  thi^  same  general  proper- 
fies  as  ordinary  alcohol  or  ■'  spirits  of  wine."  The  most  famil- 
iar exaiiqile  is  a  compound  obtained  by  liealing  wood,  and 
hence  known  as  "wood  spirit."  Its  chemical  name  is 
methyl  alcohol.  Ordinary  glycerin  also  belongs  to  this 
class,  and  fusel  oil  is  a  mixtureof  alcohols,  all  of  which  are 
more  complex  than  onlinary  alcoliol.  The  alcohols  ilifTer 
very  much  from  one  another  in  their  propertiiw.  Thus 
soiiie  are  liquid,  othci-s  are  solids;  some  act  upon  the  system 
in  the  same  general  way  as  ordinary  alcohol,  others  do  not  ; 
some  are  good  solvents  for  organic  compounds,  others  are 
not.  But  in  their  chemical  behavior  they  are  much  alike. 
Their  reactions  are  sucli  as  to  sliow  that  they  are  closely  re- 
lated to  water,  in  the  same  way  that  ordinary  alcohol  is. 
Water  consists  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  )iroportion 
represented  in  the  formnja  II3O.  If  half  the  hydrogen  is  re- 
placed by  a  group  consisting  of  carlion  anil  hydrogen,  the 
product  is  an  alcohol :  thus  ordinarv  or  etiivi  alcohol  is  rep- 
resented by  the  formula  C^lIs.OlI.  niithyl  al'cohol  by  Clh.OH, 
etc.  The  group  represented  by  the  formula  OH  is  the  same 
as  that  contained  in  water.  Tliere  are  much  more  com- 
plex alcohols  than  those  represented  above,  but  the  general 
statenu'iits  hold  good  for  all.  Ira  Re.iisen. 


106 


ALCORAN 


ALDEN 


Alcoran :  See  Koran. 

Al'cott.  Amos  Broxsox:  transcendental  pliilosopher ;  for- 
mci'lv  one  of  the  |)rincipal  contributors  to  The  Vial ;  b.  at 
W'olcott,  Conn..  Nov.  29,  1799;  removed  to  Boston  in  1828, 
and  finally  settled  at  Concord.  Mass.  He  acquired  some 
reputation  as  an  educational  reformer,  but  became  chiefly 
distinguished  for  his  conversational  powers.  He  held  formal 
"conversations"  on  a  wide  range  of  speculative  and  practical 
themes  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  U.  S.  Published  Con- 
versations with  Children  on  the  Gospels (2  vols..  1836);  Tablets 
(1868):  Concord  Days  (IST2);  Tahle  Talk  (liiTi):  Kew  Con- 
necticut (1881):  Sonnets  and  Canzonets(im-2)\  Raljih  Waldo 
Emerson,  his  Character  and  Genius  (1882).  D.  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  Mar.  4,  1888.  Revised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May:  daughter  of  the  preceding:  'i.  at 
Germantown,  Pa.,  Nov.  29,  1832.  In  early  life  she  was  a 
teacher:  dui-ing  the  civil  war  a  hospital  nurse.  She  pub- 
lislied  her  first  liook.  Flower  Fables,  in  1855.  but  it  was  not 
till  1868.  when  her  Little  Women  appeared,  that  she  at- 
tracted much  al lent  ion.  She  continued  it  in  Little  Men 
(1871)  and  Joe's  Buijs  (1S86).  As  a  delineator  of  American 
child-life  slie  lias  liad  no  superior.  D.  at  Boston,  Ma.ss., 
Mar.  6,  1888.     See  her  Life  (1889).  S.  M.  J. 

Al'cove  [Fr.  alcove,  via  Span.,  from  Arab,  al-gnbbah;  al, 
the  -I-  giibhah,  vaulted  space] :  in  architecture,  a  recess  in  an 
apartment,  separated  by  an  estrade  or  partition  of  columns, 
and  occupied  by  a  lied  of  state ;  a  recess  in  a  library  or  a 
lateral  apartment  for  books. 

Alco'y :  a  city  of  Spain ;  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  30 
miles  N.  of  Alicante  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  17-1).  It  is 
built  on  uneven  ground  among  the  hills,  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  pai>er  and  woolen  goods.  About  200,000  reams  of 
paper  are  maik'  here  annu.ally.  A  large  part  of  this  paper 
is  consumed  in  the  form  of  cigars  (papelitos).  Pop.  about 
35,000. 

Alcnin,  alkwin  [called  by  himself  Albinus.  and  by 
his  friends  i^/r((ri(.s] :  b.  at  York.  England,  about  735.  He 
studied  in  the  famous  Catliedral  School  of  York  under 
Archbishop  Egbert,  and  particularly  Aelbert,  Egbert's  rela- 
tive, and  the  real  head  of  the  school.  He  thus  acquired  the 
best  culture  of  his  time,  becoming  familiar  both  with  the 
Latin  cla.ssics  and  with  the  Christian  Fathere.  In  766,  when 
Egbert  died  and  Aelbert  became  archbisliop.  Alcuin  became 
virtual  head  of  tlie  school ;  in  778,  on  Aelbert's  resignation, 
he  was  made  tituhir  liead.  In  781,  being  on  his  way  home 
from  Rome,  he  met  Cliarlemagne,  and  was  invited  by  him  to 
become  the  liead  of  the  famous  Schola  Palatina  (School  of 
the  Palace),  the  peripatetic  school,  made  up  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily and  the  courtiers — and  frequently  attended  by  Charle- 
magne himself,  wlio  asked  very  keen  questions.  He  accept- 
ed, and  was  tlienceforth  the  intimate  friend  and  adviser  of 
Cliarlemagne,  teaching  in  his  school,  attending  closely  to 
the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  empire,  and  having  a  large 
inlluenee  u|ion  the  grandiose  plans  which  make  memorable 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  In  790  he  visited  England,  re- 
maining two  veal's;  in  801  he  retired  to  the  abbey  of  St. 
JIartIn,  at  Tours,  where  he  lived  and  taught  until  his  death, 
Jlay  19,80-1.  He  was  a  constant  writer,  producing  various 
theological  treatises,  school-books,  poems,  and  letters  (of 
great  importance  for  the  history  of  Charlemagne's  reign). 
Though  not  a  man  of  striking  originality,  his  influence  upon 
the  intellectual  development  of  Europe  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. From  him  and  his  school  may  almost  be  dated 
the  educational  development  of  the  modern  world.  See  B. 
Flacci  Alhiiii  sen  Alcitini  opera  curaet  stud.  Frobenii  (2 
torn,  in  4  vols.,  1777);  Lorentz,  Alcnin's  Leben  (1829,  Eng. 
trans,  by  Slee,  1837);  Monnicr,  Alcuin  et  Charlemagne 
(1863);  Werner.  Alcuin  und  sein  Jahrhundert  (1876);  A. 
Ebert,  Gescliichte  dec  Literatnr  des  Mittelalters  (vol.  ii. 
1880);  J.  B.  Mnllinger,  The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great 
and  the  liestoration  of  Education  in  the  Ninth  Century 
(Cambridge,  1877);  A.  P.  West,  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of 
Christian  Schools  (N.  Y.,  1892).  A.  R.  Maksh. 

Alcyona'riii :  an  order  of  eoral-polyps,  including  the  fan- 
corals,  the  red  coral  of  commerce,  tne  sea-pens,  organ  corals, 
etc.,  characterized  by  the  possession  of  eight  branched  ten- 
tacles around  the  mouth,  and  the  same  number  of  uncalci- 
fied  mesenteries  or  partitions  of  the  Ijody  cavity.  The 
skeletons  formed  by  tliis  group  of  corals  vary  greatly.  They 
usually  consist  of  an  axial  stem  either  horny  or  calcareous 
and  simple  or  much  branched,  surrounded  by  a  thinner 


crust  which  is  fleshy  or  friable.  In  tlie  organ-pipe  coral, 
the  skeleton  consists  of  parallel  hollow  tubes  jomed  by  tlun 
horizontal  jilates.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Aloy'oiie,  or  Halcy'oiie  (Gr.  'AKxvirn) :  in  classic  mythol- 
ogy, a  daughter  of  ^Eohis  and  the  wite  of  Ceyx.  She  was 
so  inconsolable  for  the  death  of  her  husband  that  she  threw 
hei'self  into  the  sea.  Tradition  adds  that  Ceyx  and  Alcyone 
were  changed  into  kingfishere  to  reward  their  mutual  de- 
votion. 

Alcyo'niniii  [Gr.  a\Kv6fftov.  from  i.\Kviiv,  kingfisher,  so 
called  from  sup])Osed  resemblance  to  nest  of  kiiigti.--lier]  : 
a  genus  of  zoophytes  belonging  to  the  order  Alci/oiiaria.  jire- 
sents  a  curious  polyp  mass  and  star-like  pores,  through 
which  polyps  protrude  themselves.  The  Alcyonium  digi- 
tafum  abounds  on  the  shores  of  Great  Britain.  The  Alci/o- 
nium  carneum  is  found  along  the  American  coast  from  Cape 
Cod  northward. 

Aldan':  a  river  of  Siberia;  the  largest  tributary  of  the 
Lena;  rises  in  the  Yablonoi  mountains,  near  the  fron- 
tier of  the  Chinese  empire.  Flowing  northeastward  and 
afterward  in  a  N.  W.  direction,  it  enters  the  Lena  about 
lat.  63  N.,  and  nearly  60  miles  below  Yakutsk.  Length  about 
400  miles,  in  considerable  part  navigable. 

Ald'borongll :  a  town  of  England:  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire ;  about  16  miles  N.  W.  of  York  (see  maj)  of 
England,  ref.  6-H).  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  town  of 
Isurium  of  the  Romans,  and  is  noted  for  its  ancient  re- 
mains, consisting  of  interesting  ruins  of  aqueduct.s,  extensive 
buildings,  tessellated  pavements,  etc.     Pop.  2.265. 

Aldeb'aran  [from  the  AraXnc  al.the.  ar\A  dabardn.  fol- 
lowing, i.  e.  the  Pleiades] :  a  star  of  the  fii'st  magnitude 
in  the  constellation  of  Taurus,  otherwise  called  a  Tanii.  It 
is  the  brightest  star  of  a  group  called  the  Hyades. 

Al'degronde.  Saint  :  See  Marnix. 

Al'degre'ver,  or  Aldegraef.  Heinrich:  German  painter 
and  engraver;  b.  probably  at  Paderborn  in  1502;  became  a 
citizen  of  Soest  and  decided  adherent  of  the  Reformation; 
was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of  Albert  Diirer.  Among  his 
numerous  engravings  are  The  Labors  of  Hercules  and  a 
portrait  of  Luther.  Specimens  of  his  painting  are  very  rare, 
the  only  uiidoulited  one  being  a  portrait  in  the  gallery  at 
Berlin.     I),  at  Soest  after  1555. 

Al'deliyde  [from  al.  fii'st  syllable  of  alcohol,  and  dehyd, 
first  two  syllaljlcs  of  de-hydrogendtus.  deprived  of  hydro- 
gen] :  a  compound  formed  by  abstracting  hydrogen  from 
alcohol.  The  change  is  effected  by  the  action  of  oxygen, 
this  element  uniting  with  a  part  of  the  hydrogen  of  the 
alcoliol  to  form  water,  and  leaving  aldehyde.  In  purifying 
alcohol  it  is  passed  through  filters  of  bone-black.  Tlie  air 
contained  in  the  pores  of  these  filtei-s  oxidizes  a  part  of  the 
alcohol  that  first  passes  through,  and  therefore  the  "first 
runnings"  contain  aldehyde.  Large  quantities  of  aldehyde 
were  at  one  time  obtained  in  this  way.  It  is  a  volatile 
liquid  of  a  marked  and  characteristic  odor.  It  is  easily 
changed  to  a  substance  of  the  .same  composition,  known  as 
paraldehyde,  which  finds  application  in  medicine. 

Ira  Remsen. 

Al'den.  Edmtnd  Kimrall,  D.  D.  :  Congregationalist ;  b. 
at  Randolph.  Jlass..  Apr.  11,  1825:  graduated  at  Amherst 
College.  1844.  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  1848; 
He  was  pastor  at  Yarmouth.  Me..  1850,  at  Lenox,  Mas.s., 
1854,  at  South  Boston,  1859,  and  secretary  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign  Missions  from  1876. 
1).  Apr.  30.  1896.  Georue  P.  Fisher. 

Alden.  James:  rear-admiral.  U.  S.  N.  :  b.  at  Portland,  Me., 
JIar.  31.  1810;  entered  the  navy  as  a  miilshi|)man.  Apr.  1, 
1828.  In  command  of  the  steamer  .South  Carolina,  he  en- 
gaged the  batteries  off  Galvestim.  Tex..  Aug.  3,  1861.  and 
commanded  the  steamer  Richmond  in  the  engagement  with 
Forts  St.  Philip  and  Jackson,  and  at  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans.  .\]ir.  24,  186'2,  and  during  the  [itLssage  up  and  down 
the  Mississippi  river  by  Vicksburg,  June  28  and  July  15, 
1862:  in  the  engagement  at  Port"  Hudson,  Mar.  14,  1863; 
commanded  the  Brookh^l  at  the  great  victory  over  torts, 
rams,  and  gunboats  in  >iobile  liav,  Aug.  .5, 1864.  and  in  both 
the  Fori  Fisher  fights.  Dec,  1864,  and  Jan.,  1865.  In  1869 
he  was  appointed  chief  >>(  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  and  in 
1S71  to  the  command  of  the  European  station.  He  retired 
from  active  service  in  1873.  D.  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Feb. 
G,  1877. 


ALDEX 


ALECTORIDES 


107 


Aldon.  .TosEi'ii.  I).  I).,  T;L.  1). :  b.  at  Cairo.  X.  T.,  Jan.  4, 
1807,  anil  ffraduated  at  Uiown  Univci-sity,  1828;  studied 
tlieolo^'y  at  PrincL'tim,  and  was  ordainod  pastor  oC  a  Coiifirt- 
^atioiia'l  cluirch  at  Williaiiislowii,  Mass.  (1S:J4) ;  was  a  pro- 
fessor ill  Williams  t'ollej;e  (18:5o-r)2).  in  Lafayette  C'olk'Ke. 
Pa.  (IS.^i-oT).  president  of  .lellerson  t'olli'p  (1857-67).  and 
iiriiicipal  of  the  Xew  York  Stale  Xornial  Seliool  at  AUmny 
(18ti7-82).  lie  wius  a  voluminous  writer,  especially  on  edu- 
cational topiits.     D.  in  Xew  York,  Au^-  HO,  1SS5. 

Alden.  William  Livingston:  author:  b.  Oet.  9.  1837: 
educated  at  Lafavetto  and  .lefl'erson  colleges:  founder  of 
New  York  Canoe  Club;  introduced  canoeing  into  the  U.  S. ; 
author  of  Canoe  and  Fli/hii/  Prua  (IHSO) ;  The  Moral  Pi- 
rates {\>^X\):  Life  of  Columbus  {ISS2);  The  Cruise  of  the 
Canoe  Club  (1883),  etc. 

AlMciilloveii :  market-town  of  Prussia;  in  the  Rhine 
province  (see  map  of  (ierinaii  Empire,  ref.  3-C).  Here  the 
Auslrians  defeated  the  French  on  Jlar.  1.  17!)3.  and  the 
French  delVated  the  Austrians  on  Oct.  2,  1794.     Pop.  1,100. 

Al'dpr  [<>.  Eng.  alor.  Germ,  erle,  0.  Nor.  iilr,  related 
Lat.  ahius.  ().  ]iu[g.  jellcba]:  a  tree  or  shrub  of  the  genus 
Aluus  and  family  liftuhieem  or  Cnpulifene.  The  alders 
are  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and  North 
America.  The  wood  of  the  common  ahlerof  Europe  (Ahtus 
glutino.sa)  is  used  hy  turners  and  joiners.  alTords  good  char- 
coal for  till'  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  is  valuable  for 
mill-wherls  and  the  jiiles  of  liridges.  The  alder  is  prized 
as  an  ornamental  tree  in  laiulscajies.  Tlic  Ahius  cord i folia, 
a  native  of  Italy,  is  a  large  and  beautiful  tree.  The  alders 
ot  the  Eastern  V.  S.  are  shrubs  or  small  trees,  but  Alnus 
oregonii  of  the  west  cojist  grows  to  the  height  of  60  to  70 
feet.     For  the  black  alder,  see  WiNTintDKRRV.        C.  E.  B. 

Aldormaii  [<).  Eng.  aldormann.  aldor.  parent,  patriarch, 
chief  (suhst.  from  aid,  old)  +  tnann,  i.  e.  the  man  holding  a 
patriarch's  position]:  the  title  of  a  municipal  ollicer  or 
magistrate  in  the  corporations  of  Kugland  and  the  U.  S. 
Alciermen  were  first  appoiuleil  in  124'3.  The  London  court 
of  aldermen  exercises  judii-ial  and  legislative  authority  in 
the  corporation.  In  Xew  York  city  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  members  of  the  city  council,  who  are  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple.   In  some  cities  they  are  magistrates,  in  others  councilors. 

Alderiiey,  awlder-ni,  or  Aiiriffliy  :  an  island  in  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  7  or  8  miles  from  Cape  la  Ilogue,  France  (see 
nnip  of  France,  ret.  2-C).  It  belongs  to  (Treat  Britain,  and 
is  about  4  miles  long;  area.  3  sq.  miles.  Guernsey,  another 
of  the  Channel  islands,  is  about  1.1  miles  from  this  place. 
The  pi'oplc  of  Alderney  are  mostly  of  French  extraction. 
This  island  produces  a  celebrated  breed  of  small  cows.  It  is 
separated  from  France  by  the  Race  of  Alderney.  a  dangerous 
strait  about  8  miles  wide.  It  is  politically  a  dependencv  of 
.lersev.  Pop.  (1861)  4,933 ;  (1871)  2,738 ;  (1881)  2,048 ;  (1891) 
1,84;5.' 

Al'dcrsliot  Cnill)) :  a  permanent  camp  formed  in  IS.w 
for  th<'  improvement  of  the  Uritish  army  in  tactics  and  in 
evolutions  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  situated  on  Aldershol 
Heath,  on  the  confines  of  Surrey,  llanipshin'.  and  Berk- 
shire. The  area  ot  ground  ajipropriated  to  this  purpose  is 
7.063  acres.  A  thriving  town  has  naturally  sprung  up  near 
the  camp.     Pop.  20.000  (7.UU0  military). 

.A  I'd  I  lie  Kdi'lions:  See  Maxutius  Aldus. 

Al'dricli.  Xklsox  W'ilmartii  :  b.  at  Foster.  K.  T..  Nov. 
6,1841;  received  an  academic  education;  ]iresident  Provi- 
dence (K.  I.)  common  council  1872;  member  Rhode  Island 
General  Assembly  187r)-76.  and  was  S])eaker  oi  its  House  of 
Representatives  in  1876;  was  memlier  of  the  Forty-sixth 
Congress,  and  re-elected;  wa-s  elected,  Oct.  5,1881,  U.S. 
Senator;  re-elected  in  1887  and  again  in  1893. 

Aldricll.  Thomas  Bailicv:  poet  and  story  writer;  b.  af 
Portsmouth.  X.  II..  Xov.  11.  1S30.  Lived  in  his  youth  in 
Louisiana,  then  in  Xew  York,  where  he  was  for  a  time  a 
clerk,  then  a  proof-rcMder.  and  allc'rward  attained  eminence 
lus  a  writer  and  editor.  Wrote  tor  Uic  Jlome  Journal,  Al- 
lanfic  Mnntlilij,  and  other  periodicals,  and  has  published 
The  liallad  of  Babie  Bell  (1856);  Cloth  of  Gold  (1874), 
and  several  other  volumes  ot  vei'se  ;  besides  The  Story  of  a 
Bad  Boy  (1870);  Marjorie  Daw  (1873),  etc..  in  prose.  'lie 
was  editor  ot  the  Atlantic  Monthl;/  from  1881  till  1892. 
Revised  by  IIenkv  A.  Bekrs. 

Al'dridge,  Tra  :  a  Xegro  tragedian  ;  b.  in  Maryland  about 
1810;  was  in  liis  youth  a  personal  attenilant  of  l''.iliminil 
Kean.     lie  perforiued  with  success  in  Great  Britain  ami 


other  countries  of  Europe.  He  i-eceived  medals  or  tokens 
of  iionor  from  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  Eni])eror  of  Aus- 
tria. 1).  at  Lodez,  Poland,  Aug.  7, 1867.  lie  was  called  the 
"African  lioscius." 

Aldroviiii'diis,  Ulyssics:  Italian  naturalist;  b.  at  Bo- 
logna. Sept.  11.  1522.  He  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine 
in  15.53,  and  became  Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Bo- 
logna in  1560.  Having  expended  much  time  and  money  in 
collecting  specimens  and  in  the  study  of  nature,  he  began 
in  1399  tlie  publication  of  his  Natural  llistov;/  (13  vols.),  of 
vvhicli  three  volumes  on  birds  and  one  on  insects  appeared 
during  liis  life.  The  other  volumes  were  edited  by  several 
persons  after  his  death.  His  Katural  History  is  a  laborious 
and  ill-digested  compilation.     I),  at  Bologna,  Nov.  10,  1607. 

Ale;  a  sort  of  beer;  a  fermented  liijuor  produced  from 
malt.  Ale  contains  more  alcohol  than  common  beer,  and  is 
a  favorite  beverage  of  the  British.  Scotch  ale  and  Burton 
ale  have  a  high  reputation.  There  are  three  varieties  of 
malt  licpior  in  general  use  in  this  country — ale,  porter,  and 
lager  beer.  All  are  prepared  from  malt,  which  is  barley 
that  has  been  allowed  to  germinate  (sprout),  and  has  then 
been  dried  by  artificial  heat.  Hops  are  added  to  give  the 
aromatic  bitter  flavor.  The  lower  tlie  temperature  at  whi<-h 
the  malt  is  dried  the  lighter  will  be  the  color  of  the  nmlt 
and  the  bcvi'iage.  Ale  and  lager  beer  are  made  from  light, 
porter  from  dai'k-colored  malt.  Ale  and  porter  are  fer- 
mented at  temperatures  of  from  65"  to  90'  F.,  while  lager 
beer  is  fermented  at  from  46    to  50    F. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ale  the  fii-st  fermentation  is  checked 
at  such  a  [loint  as  to  leave  a  considerable  (piantity  of  sac- 
charine matter  in  the  liquor.  By  the  subsequent  fermenta- 
tion in  the  barri'ls  or  bottles  this  is  changed  to  alcohol  and 
carb(jiiic  acid,  the  latter  substance  causing  the  characteristic 
effervescence.     See  Beer. 

Aleandcr.  IIteronymus.  or,  in  Italian  form,  Oirolamo 
Alcandro:  a  learned  Italian  cardinal:  b.  at  Motta,  Feb.  13, 
1480.  He  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1517, 
and  was  sent  by  Leo  X.  as  papal  nuncio  to  Germany  in  1520, 
to  counteract  tiie  influence  of  Luther,  and  to  him  is  iiuainly 
due  the  condemnation  of  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  ^Vorras. 
His  own  report  of  the  Diet  is  an  important  source.  See 
Brieger.  Alrander  und  Luther  (tlotha,  1884).  In  1538  he 
was  made  a  cardinal  bv  Paul  111.,  when  he  took  the  title  of 
St.  Chrysostoin.     D.  at' Rome.  Jan.  31,  1042.  S.  jM.  J. 

Alecsiindrcspu.  Grioorie:  Roumanian  poet;  b.  at  Tir- 
govesti.  Wallaehia,  in  1812;  was  sent  in  consequence  of  po- 
litical agitations  to  a  convent,  where  he  wrote  his  most  ccle- 
liratcd  work,  The  Year  IS.jO.  in  which  he  gives  expression 
to  the  lio|)es  of  his  party.  In  1839  he  was  for  a  few  months 
Jlinisterof  Finance,  afterward  acting  with  the  Liberal  oppo- 
sition, which  he  effectively  aided  with  his  poems  and  fables. 
A  second  e<iition  ot  his  collected  works  ap[ieared  in  1803, 
about  which  time  his  mind  became  affected  and  nothing 
more  apjieared  from  his  pen.     !>.  at  Bucharest.  l.SSO. 

Revised  by  E.  S.  Sueluon. 

Alccsaiidri.  Vasile:  Roumanian  poet;  b.  in  Northern 
Moldavia  in  1821:  took  part  in  the  Liberal  movement  of 
1848;  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  for  a  few  months  in 
1859-60;  and  laler  resided  partly  in  Jassy  and  partly  in 
Paris.  Among  his  writings  are />o('Hfi  fi  liierimioare  {E\c- 
gies  and  Laments,  1853).  tlramatie  works,  and,  most  impor- 
tant of  all.  his  collections  of  the  |iopular  songs  of  Roumania, 
of  which  a  first  series  a]ipe;ired  iu  18.52.  a  second  in  1853, 
the  whole  being  published  under  the  titli;  Poi'sil  pojitilare 
ale  Romunilor  (ISucharest,  186()).  Three  volumes  of  his 
Poesil  were  published  at  Bucharest  in  1876,  and  a  short 
poem,  Cantul  (jiutei  laline  (The  Song  of  the  Latin  Race), 
ap])eared  in  1878,  with  translations  into  French  and  Italian. 
Several  of  his  poems  have  becMi  translated  into  English, 
French,  and  (ierman.  He  was  Roumanian  minister  at  Paris 
from   1S.S5  to  1890.     I).  atJI  freest  i.  Jloldavia.  Sept.  4,  1890. 

K.  S.  Sheldon. 

AlcctoridPS,  al-ek-tor'i-dcez  [Gr.  a\eKTaip.  a  cock] ;  an 
order  of  birds  containing  the  cranes,  rails,  and  their  allies, 
the  trumiieters,  sun-bitterns,  kagii,  cari.ania.  and  bustards 
(see  these  headings  for  details).  The  ia.st  four  are  often 
omitted,  being  transferred  to  other  orders.  The  group  cor- 
res|ionds  very  nearly  to  the  Geramtmorplup  of  Huxley.  Its 
members  are  characterized  by  a  sehizognathous  palate,  trun- 
cate posterior  end  of  m.-indibie.  tuf'teil  oil-gland,  and  absence 
of  powder-down  patches.  The  nai'ial  openings  are  schizo- 
rhinal  in  the  cranes,  holorhiual  in  the  rails.     The  sternum 


lOS 


ALEDO 


ALEUTIAN   ISLANDS 


is  typicallv  long  and  narrow,  posteriorly  ontire  or  two- 
notclieil.  "riie  yonng  are  born  ilowny  and  arc  soon  able  to 
run.  T!ie  name  is  unfortunate,  both  trora  its  et\nnolo|iy 
and  from  the  fact  that  the  birds  considered  as  typical  by 
Nitzsch  are,  as  stated,  usually  placed  elsewhere.  Paludicuhn 
is  a  better  term  tor  the  group.  F.  A.  Luca.s. 

Ale'do:  on  railroad;  capital  of  ilercer  co..  111.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  4-B).  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  college.  Coal  is  found  in  the  vicinity ;  stock  and  grain 
are  the  principal  shipments.    Pop.  (1880)  1,492 ;  (1890)  1,601. 

Aleiuaii'ui  (i.e.  all  men):  certain  Gern.an  tribes  who 
formed  a  confederacy  against  the  Konxaus  about  200  a.d., 
ftud  at  that  time  lived  on  the  JIain.  They  invaded  Gaul  in 
the  reign  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  who  gained  a  victory  over 
them  in  357  a.d.  Having  been  defeated  by  I'lovis  in  490, 
their  confederacy  was  dissolved.  From  this  word  is  derived 
the  French  AUemaiid,  signifying  German. 

Alembert.  Jean  le  Rond.  d',  daa'laan'bar' :  French  geoin- 
eter  and  philosopher;  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  16.  1717;  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  M.  l)estouchcs-C'anon  and  JIadame  de  Tencin. 
Having  been  abandoned  by  his  mother  in  the  street,  he  was 
nursed  by  tlie  wife  of  a  glazier,  and  continued  to  live  with 
her  for  about  forty  years.  He  received  from  his  father  an 
annual  pension  of  1.200  livres,  and  was  educated  in  the 
Jlazarin  College,  which  he  entered  in  1730.  His  favorite 
study  W!is  mathematics.  In  1741  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1743  produced  his  celebrated 
Treatise  on  Dynamics,  which  o[)ened  a  new  epoch  in  me- 
chanical philosophy,  by  the  demonstration  of  the  principle 
"that  there  is  an  absolute  equality  at  all  times  between  the 
entii'e  amount  of  force  applied  and  tlie  sum  total  of  the  ef- 
fects |iroduced."  His  treatise  On  the  Tlienrij  of  the  Winds 
gaineil  the  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1746.  In  17o2 
Frederick  the  Great  offereil  him  the  ]iresidency  of  the  Hoyal 
Academy  of  Berlin,  which  he  declined.  U'Alembert  was 
associated  with  Diderot  sis  joint  editor  of  the  famous  Enci/- 
clopedie,  for  which  lie  wrote  an  admirable  "  Preliminary 
Discourse."  and  many  mathematical  articles.  He  w;us  ad- 
mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1754.  He  formed  a 
liaison  with  tlie  accomplished  Jlademoiselle  TEspinasse, 
who  livcil  with  him  twelve  years.  He  showed  his  hidepend- 
ence  and  iiidiCEcrence  to  riches  by  refusing,  in  1762,  the 
invitation  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  who  offered  him  a  sal- 
ary of  100.000  francs  to  direct  the  education  of  her  son.  In 
1772  he  was  elected  secretary  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Voltaire,  and  assumed  toward 
Christianity  the  attitude  of  a  skeptic — i.  e.  a  doubter  and 
candid  incpiirer — while  he  openly  avowed  his  hostility  to 
the  Church  of  Rome.  His  moral  character  is  generally 
represented  as  noble  and  benevolent.  .\.inong  his  works 
are  Researches  on  some  Important  Points  of  the  System  of 
the  Universe  (3  vols..  1754-56);  Jli'lanc/es  of  Literature  and 
Philosophy;  Elements  of  Philosophy  (1759);  and  eulogies  on 
the  ineiiiljcrs  of  the  French  Academv  who  died  between  1700 
and  1772.  He  died  in  Paris  on  tlie"  29th  of  Oct.,  1783.  An 
edition  of  his  works  was  pulilished  by  Bossange  in  5  vols., 
8vo,  1821.  "His  literary  works,"  says  Lacroix,  "  constantly 
directed  to  the  perfection  of  reason  and  the  propagation  of 
correct  ideas,  were  highly  appreciated  by  all  good  judges. 
They  are  all  remarkable  for  a  pure  diction,  a  neat  style,  and 
strong  or  pithy  thought."' 

Alemte'jo  (i.e.  beyond  tlie  Tagus):  ancient  administra- 
tive province  of  Portugal;  bounded  N.  by  Beira.  E.  by 
Spain,  S.  by  Algarve,  and  \V.  by  Estreinadura  and  the  At- 
lantic. Area,  9,431  sq.  miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Gau- 
diana  river,  and  is  washed  by  the  Tagus,  wliicli  i'orms  ]iart 
of  the  northern  boundary.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry.  the 
surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  of  the  northern  and  eastern 
valleys  is  fertile.  Tlie  chief  prodiictii^ns  are  wlieat.  maize, 
barlcv,  grapes,  rice,  and  figs.  Capital.  Evora.  Pop.  (1881) 
367,1(59. 

Alencar',  Jose  JIartiniaxo.  de :  Brazilian  jurist  and 
novelist;  b.  in  Ceani.  Jlay  1.  1829;  d.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Dee.  12,  1877.  He  is  best  known  by  his  numerous  romances 
of  Imlians  and  colonial  life,  which  have  given  him,  rather 
undeservedly,  the  title  of  the  "Brazilian  Cooper";  among 
the  best  of  these  are  0  Cfiiarany.  Iracema,  O  Sertnnejo,  and 
As  Jllinas  de  Prntn.  Under  the  cognomen  G.  M.  he  pub- 
lished Dim,  Lucioln.  and  Senhora,  romances  of  society  life 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  are  much  the  best  of  his  works. 

H.  II.  Smith. 


Alen^on,  a~a'la"aii'soiV  :  city  of  France  ;  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Orne;  situated  on  the  Sarthe  and  in  a  plain, 
65  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of  Paris  (see  map  of  France,  ref. 
4— D).  It  is  well  built  and  handsome,  has  a  cathedral,  a 
pul>lic  liliran'.  and  a  cliurch  about  1.000  years  old.  Here  are 
manufactures  of  various  articles,  including  muslin,  leatlier, 
and  a  celebrated  lace  called  point  d'Alengon.  Pop.  (1881) 
17,237;  (1886)17.550. 

Alep'po.  called  by  the  Arabs  Ha'leb  [anc.  Chal'yhon  and 
Bera?  ii] :  an  important  city  of  Syria,  and  one  of  tlie  chief 
emporiums  ot  the  Ottoman  cminre;  on  tlie  Kowek,  about  55 
miles  E.  of  Antioch ;  lat.  36  11'  N..  Ion.  37"  10  E. ;  1.300 
feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-11).  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  limestone  hills,  and  presents  a  picturesque  aji- 
pearance.  The  houses  are  well  built  of  stone,  mostly  in  the 
Saracenic  style,  with  richly  ornamented  w-alls  and  ceilings. 
In  the  environs  are  celebrated  gardens  about  12  miles  in 
extent.  Aleppo  has  a  castle,  a  Mohammedan  college,  and 
many  Christian  churches.  It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  cot- 
ton and  silk  stuffs,  tobacco,  wine,  oil,  indigo,  etc.,  and  is  vis- 
ited by  large  caravans  from  Bagdad,  Diarbekir,  llosul,  and 
Armenia.  It  was  a  great  emporium  of  trade  during  or  before 
the  Jliddle  Ages.  Its  prosperity  was  greatly  injured  by  the 
earthquake  of  1822,  which  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  city 
and  about  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants.  The  population, 
which  before  that  event  was  more  than  200,000,  was  about 
70.000  in  1880:  in  1892,  estimated  at  120,000. 

Alesandrlan  Codex:  See  Codes  Alesaxdrixus. 

Ale'.sia  (Cxr.  'AXeala) :  the  fortified  capital  of  the  Gallic 
trilie  JIandubii;  built,  according  to  a  legend,  by  Hercules. 
Here  the  last  <lesperate  battle  for  freedom  was  fought  by 
the  Gauls,  under  Vercingetorix,  against  tlie  Romans,  under 
Julius  Ca'sar.  in  52  B.  c.  The  Gauls  were  completely  de- 
feated and  the  city  destroyed.  Alcsia  was  rebuilt,  ami 
again  destroyed  by  the  Northmen  in  864.  It  was  on  the 
present  Mont  Auxois,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  modern  town 
of  Alise  is  situated. 

Ale'siiis  [Gr.  &\ri.  roaming] :  the  name  given,  probably 
by  Melanchtlion.  to  Alexander  Alane  ;  b.  in  Edinlnirgh.  Scot- 
land, Apr.  23.  1500;  was  Canon  of  St.  Andrews,  became 
Protestant,  went  to  Germany  in  1532.  and  again  in  1540; 
was  made  professor  at  Leipzig,  and  died  there  Mar.  17, 
1565.  He  was  active  in  the  negotiations  between  the  Luth- 
erans and  Anglican  theologians  in  1536,  and  translated  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  into  Latin. 

Alessan'dria  :  a  jirovince  of  Northern  Italy ;  bounded  N. 
by  Novara.  E.  by  Pavia.  S.  by  Genoa,  and  W.  by  Cuneo  and 
Torino.  Area,  1.976  sq.  miles.  The  country  consists  partly 
of  large  fertile  plains  and  partly  mountains,  and  is  travei-sed 
bv  the  Tanaio.  the  S<-rivia.  and  the  Bormida.  Chief  town, 
Alessandria.     Pop.  (1890)  778,137. 

Alessandria  (sometimes  called  del  la  Pa  ylin,  from  its 
first  houses  having  been  roofed  with  straw):  a  fortified  city 
of  Italy;  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  iianie;  on 
a  plain  on  the  river  Tanaio.  and  on  the  railway  from  Turin 
to  Genoa  ;  46  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Turin  (see  map  ot  Italy,  ref. 
3-B).  It  wiis  built  by  the  Lombard  league  in  1168  to  serve 
as  a  bulwark  against  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Its  present 
name  was  given  to  it  in  honor  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  It 
was  called  Cesarea  for  a  time,  and  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged in  1174  by  Frederick  Barbarossa.  By  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  it  was  ceded  to  Savoy,  having  belonged  at  different 
times  to  the  houses  of  Monti'errat  and  Milan.  Bonajiarte 
greatly  enlarged  and  strengthened  its  fortifications  during 
the  French  occupation  (1800-14).  The  citadel  of  Alessan- 
dria was  taken  in  1849  by  the  Austrians  after  the  battle  of 
Novara.  The  towni  is  well  built,  has  a  cathedral,  a  royal 
college,  several  hosjjitals,  and  about  fourteen  churches.  Here 
are  manufactures  of  silk,  linen,  and  woolen  goods,  and  otiii'r 
articles.  Two  miles  S.  E.  of  this  place  is  the  village  and 
battle-lielil  of  Marengo,  where  Napoleon  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians in  1800.  The  citadel  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  largest 
and  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.     Pop.  31.000. 

Aleiiroiie.  a-lyn'ron:  a  nitrogenous  substance  found  in 
the  cells  of  many  seeds.  In  the  pea  and  bean  it  is  mingled 
with  starch,  while  in  the  wheat  grain  it  fills  a  layer  of  cells 
constituting  the  inner  bean.  It  is  often  called  "gluten," 
and  is  highly  nutritious.  C.  E.  B. 

.\len'tian  (or  .Vlen'taii)  Islands :  a  group  of  150  or  more 
isl-mils.  sometimes  called  the  Catharine  Archipelago;  in 
the  North  Pacific,  extending  in  a  row  from  tlie  jieninsula  of 
Alaska  towaril  the  S.  point  of  Kamchatka  (see  map  of  Alaska, 


ALEWIFE 


ALEXANDER 


109 


rt'f.  r)-B).  They  were  discovered  in  1728  by  Bering,  and  were 
earufully  explored  by  Capt.  Krunitziu  in  17C0.  In  1878  Capt. 
Cook  surveyed  the  E.  pait  of  tlie  {jroup.  Tlioy  are  roc-ky 
and  volcanic,  having  some  active  voK'anocs,  and  are  inhabited 
bv  rude  natives,  who  snl)sist  by  fishini,'  and  luinling.  Tlie 
rock  is  covered  only  with  a  tliin  layer  of  argillaceous  spil. 
The  vegetation  is  very  insignificant,  and  agrieiiltnre  is  almost 
completely  unknown.  The  climate  is  harsh,  subject  to  sudden 
changes,  and  very  unfavorable  to  cultivation.  Few  trees  are 
found  on  tiic  islands;  only  sonic  stunted  shrubs  of  birch, 
willow,  and  alder.  The  iidiabilants  are  of  a  race  cssenlially 
Es<(uiniaux.  They  are  small,  but  well  shaped,  with  swarthy 
faces,  black  eyes,  and  straight  black  hair.  By  Kussian  mis- 
sionaries they  have  been  converted  to  Christianity,  but  their 
religious  and  moral  ideas  are  very  little  developed.  'J'hey  are 
described  as  unchaste,  unreliable,  and  entirely  destitute  of 
self-eontrol.  These  ishuids  are  part  of  Alaska,  and  belong 
to  the  I'.  S.  They  are  divided  into  three  groups— the  Aleu- 
tian, nearest  to  Kamchatka,  the  Andreauof  or  .Indrcanolian, 
the  niiildle  group,  and  the  Fox  islands,  nearest  to  Ahiska. 
Unimak,  the  largest  of  the  Fox  islands,  is  about  50  miles 
long.  The  seal,  the  sea-otter,  and  the  Arctic  fox  are  the 
chief  prizes  of  the  chase.     l*op.  about  ^i.'iOO. 

Ale'wife  [Folk  etym.  corruption  of  aloofe,  ])ossibly  the 
native  American  name] :  the  Vliipfa  psfuduharenyufi.  a 
species  of  A  luerican  fish  belonging  to  the  family  of  Cliipeidm, 
and  nearly  allied  to  the  herring  and  the  shad.  It  abounds  in 
the  Chesapeake  bay,  and  is  found  along  the  .\tlantie  cojust 
of  the  F.  S.  from  North  Carolina  to  Cape  Cod.  In  the  spring 
the  alewives  ascend  the  rivers  to  deposit  their  eggs.  They 
are  often  wrongly  confounded  with  the  true  herring  (Cliipca 
hareii{/us),  which  they  much  resemble. 

Alexaii'der,  surnamed  The  Great:  third  ^Macedonian 
king  of  the  name,  the  most  famous  of  all  mililary  heroes; 
son  of  Philip,  the  celebrated   King  of  Macedon,  aii<l  Olym- 

Sins,  the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Epirus,  who  claimed 
csccnt  from  Achilles.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  jUc'xandi'r  was 
placed  under  the  instruction  of  Aristotle,  and  soon  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  rare  intellectual  powers,  and  by  his 
rapid  advaiieemeiit  in  every  kind  of  knowledge.  His  de- 
scent from  Achilles,  for  whose  character  and  achievements 
he  cherished  an  enthusiastic  and  mis]ilace<l  admiration,  ap- 
pears to  have  given  his  mind  an  early  direction  toward  mili- 
tary glory.  Among  all  books  the  J/iml  was  his  favorite,  and 
we  are  told  that  every  night  a  copy  of  that  poem  was  placed, 
along  with  liis  sword,  under  his  pillow.  King  I'hilip  had 
such  eoiilidenee  in  his  son"s  courage  and  capacity  that  he 
left  him.  alt  hough  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  the  regent  of  his 
kingdom  during  his  expedition  against  Byzantium.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  veal's  Alexander  greatly  dislinguished  him- 
self in  the  battle  of  Clueronea,  and  the  victory  won  by  the 
Macedonians  on  that  occasion  was  due  in  no  small  measure 
to  the  valor  of  the  young  prince.  On  the  death  of  Philip, 
in  3;J6  n.  c,  Alexander,  not  yet  twenty  years  of  age,  succi'cded 
to  the  throne.  Several  of  the  states  which  his  father  had 
subjugateil  deemed  this  a  fa\'orabl(!  opportunity  for  recover- 
ing their  liberty,  but  the  courage  and  celerity  of  Alexander 
defeated  all  their  schemes.  While,  however,  the  young  king 
was  engaged  in  reducing  the  Trilialli,  the  Thebans  raised 
the  slaiuhird  of  revolt,  lie  inslantly  directed  his  march 
toward  Bceotia ;  Thebes  was  taken  by  storm,  the  houses 
were  leveled  to  the  ground,  and  the  (citizens  who  had  es- 
caped slaughter  in  the  iLs.sault  sold  as  slaves,  excepting  only 
the  [losterily  of  Pindar,  the  celebrated  Theban  poet,  and 
those  who  had  opposed  the  rebellion.  Xot  long  alter,  at  an 
assembly  of  the  (Irecian  stales  held  at  Corinth,  Alexander 
was  chosen  generalissimo  of  the  Creek  and  Macedonian 
troops  destined  for  the  invasion  of  Persia.  Early  in  the 
spring  of  3:i4  n.  r.  he  entered  .Asia  with  an  army  of  alxiut 
;55,00()  men.  including  4,500  cavalry.  At  the  river  Urani'eus 
the  Persians  sought  to  prevent  his  passage.  The  Mace- 
donians, ! hough  lighting  at  a  great  disadvantage,  gained  a 
signal  victory.  At  (curdium  he  attempted  to  untii^  the 
famous  knot,  for  he  had  been  told  that  the  empire  of  the 
world  had  been  prophesied  to  him  who  should  succeed  in 
this  attempt.  But  having  for  some  time  tried  in  vain,  he  at 
last  drew  his  sword  and  cut  it,  saying  that  this  was  the  only 
way  to  untie  it.  It  is  saiil  that  tliose  whose  ollice  it  was  to 
decide  upon  the  interpretation  of  the  prophecy,  eil  her  sin- 
cerely or  from  motives  ot  jmlicy,  declared  that  the  Mace- 
donian king  had  fuHilled  it.  Having  received  reinforce- 
ments in  '4'.V.i  B.C.,  he  engaged  Darius,  the  Persian  king,  who 
commanded  at  the  river  Issus  an  army  of  600,000  men.    The 


Persians  were  defeated  with  immense  slaughter ;  the  mother, 
wife,  and  two  daughters  of  Darius  were  taken  captive,  but 
were  treated  with  the  greatest  respect  and  kindness  by  the 
conqueror.  After  this  great  success  scarcely  any  of  the 
cities  of  Asia  presumed  to  offer  resistance  to  his  victorious 
arms.  But  Tyre,  then  a  powerful  maritime  atid  commercial 
city,  had  the  courage  or  temerity  to  oppose  his  progress. 
The  city  was  taken  after  a  most  determined  resistance, 
which  lasted  seven  months,  but  the  conqueror  fixed  an  in- 
delible stain  u])on  his  rejiutation  V)y  his  merciless  cruelty 
toward  the  conquered  Tyrians,  thousands  of  whom  were 
cruelly  slaughti'ivd,  and  the  rest,  numbei-ing  nearly  of),000, 
were  sold  into  slavery.  Gaza  soon  after  met  with  a  similar 
fate.  Alexander  then  advanced  into  Egypt,  where  the  peo- 
])le,  weary  of  the  Persian  domination,  welcomed  him  as  a 
liberator.  In  Egypt,  on  one  of  the  [irincipal  mouths  of  the 
Nile,  he  founded  a  city  called  Alexandria. 

lie  next  visited  the  tem])le  of  .liqiiter  Amraon.  .<;ituatcd 
on  an  oasis  in  the  ilesert  of  Ijiliya,  with  the  lio|)e,  it  is  said, 
that  the  god  would  acknowledge  him  to  be  his  son.  This 
having  been  done  through  the  priest  of  the  temple,  he  again 
turned  his  thmights  to  the  invasion  of  Persia,  where  Darius 
had  succeeded  in  collecting  anot her  army  of  more  than  a 
million  men,  w'ith  not  less  than  40.000  cavalry.  Alexander 
had  scarcely  more  than  40.000  infantry  and  7,000  horse.  The 
opposing  armies  met  at  Gaugamela.  not  far  from  Arbela.  in 
iS31  n.  c.  The  Persians  were  defeated  with  ]irodigious 
slaughter.  Not  long  afterward  Darius  was  murdered  by 
Bessus,  one  of  his  satraps.  As  the  dying  king,  covered  with 
wounds,  lay  extended  in  his  chariot,  Alexan<ler  came  up; 
at  the  tragic  spc'ctacle  the  conqueror  could  not  restrain  his 
tears,  lie  caused  the  bo<ly  of  l)arius  to  Ite  taken  to  Perseii- 
olis,  where  it  Wiis  interred  in  the  tombs  of  the  Persian  kings. 
Bessus  having  been  taken  and  put  to  death.  Alexander  car- 
ried his  victorious  banners  beyond  the  Jaxartes  (now  called 
the  Sihon,  or  the  Sir  Daria).  subdued  Sogdiana,  and  nian-ied 
Koxana,  the  daughler  of  a  I'actnan  prince  whom  he  had 
conquered.  After  this  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  inva- 
sion of  India.  He  crossed  the  Indus  837  B.  c,  formed  an 
alliance  with  'J'axiles  (or  Taxilus,  as  the  name  is  sometimes 
written),  an  Indian  king,  and  advanced  to  the  banks  of  the 
Ilydaspes  (now  (he  Jhyhun),  where  he  encountered  Poms  at 
the  head  of  an  immense  army,  accompanied  l)y  a  multitude 
of  elephants.  After  a  sanguinary  battle  the  Indian  king 
was  totidly  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Alexander's  favor- 
ite horse,  Bucephalus,  having  been  mortally  wounded  in  this 
battle,  the  conipieror  bmnded  a  town  on  the  spot  where  he 
was  buried,  which  he  called  Bucephala.  Taking  one  city 
after  another,  he  h;id  advanced  as  far  as  the  Hypluisis  (now 
calleil  Gharra).  when  his  troops,  alike  uninfluenced  by  his 
menaces  and  his  entreaties,  positively  refused  to  go  any 
farther.  Being  thus  under  the  necessity  of  returning,  he 
committed  the  fleet  which  he  had  ordered  to  be  built  on  the 
Hyda.spes  to  Nearchus,  while  he  himself  proceeded  by  land 
through  what  is  now  Baluchistan  to  Susa.  His  army  en- 
coiintere<l  in  this  march  incredible  hardships  and  suffering, 
so  that  many  soldiers  perished  from  thirst  and  luinger. 
Having  arriveil  at  Susa,  he  marriecl  as  his  second  wife  a 
daughter  of  Darius.  As  he  was  forming  schemes  for  the  ex- 
tension and  improvement  of  his  empire,  he  died.  June,  323 
B.  r.,  at  Babylon,  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  age. 

It  woidd  be  unjust  to  Alexander  to  regard  him  merely  as 
a  great  and  successful  military  hero.  He  possessed  some 
moral  ipialities  of  a  high  onler,  especially  generosity  and 
magnanimity.  Many  of  his  views  of  state  policy  were  lib- 
eral and  enlightened.  But  all  that  was  most  excellent  and 
adniiralih-  in  his  character  was  impaired  and  vitiated  by 
mistaken  ideas  of  the  dignity  and  glory  which  belonged  to 
a  great  king.  As  his  pa.ssioiis  were  stronger  than  his  in- 
tellect, extraordinary  as  the  latter  undoubtedly  was,  they 
gradually  ac(|uired,  during  his  long  career  of  uninterrupted 
success,  an  almost  imlimited  ascendency  over  him.  His 
uniform  prosperity  may  be  said  to  have  been  his  greatest 
misfortune,  lieing  a  stranger  to  the  "sweet  uses  of  adver- 
sity," it  was  im|K>ssible  for  him  to  .see  his  own  character  and 
conduct  in  their  true  light.  After  his  unparalleled  suc- 
cesses had  turned  his  brain,  regarding  himself  its  little  less 
than  a  god,  he  could  not  brook  the  slightest  freedom  of 
speech,  even  fixmi  his  most  faithful  and  most  meritorious 
officers.  In  a  paroxysm  of  ungovernabh'  rage  lie  slew  his 
friend  and  foster-brother  Clitus,  who  had  once  saved  his 
bfe  ;  after  which  a  grief,  scarcely  less  violent  than  his  anger 
hiid  been,  took  possession  of  his  soul,  so  that  if  he  had  not 
been  restrained  lie  would  probably  have  taken  his  own  life. 


110 


ALEXANDER  I. 


ALEXANDER  IL 


Pope  (in  The  Temple  of  Fame)  sums  up  his  career  and  char- 
acter in  one  short  line  : 

Tbe  youth  who  all  things  but  himself  subdued. 
See  Arrian's  History  of  Alexander's  Expeditions;  Quintus 
Curtiuis  Life  of  Alexander ;  Williams's  Life  and  Actions 
of  Alexander  the  Great  {IS2Q);  Droysen's  Geschichte  Alex- 
anders des  Grossen  von  Macedonieii  (1833) ;  Geier's  Alexari- 
dri  Magni  historiarum  scripfores  (tiate  siippares.  contain- 
ina:  the  fragments  of  contemporaneous  historians  (1844) ; 
Holm's  Griechische  Geschichte,  vol.  iii.  (1891). 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Alexander  I.,  pope :  a  Roman  by  birtli,  became  Bishop 
of  Rome  in  109  A.  d.  D.  at  Rome  in  119. — Alexander 
IL  (A.NSELMO  Bad.\gio)  was  elected  pope  in  1061.  He  de- 
clared William  the  Conqueror  the  true  heir  to  the  Eng- 
lish crown.  D.  at  Rome  in  1073. — Alexander  IIL  (Rolan- 
do RANfCCio  Baxuinelli).  one  of  the  ablest  men  that  ever 
sat  on  a  ])apal  throne,  was  a  native  of  Sienna.  He  was 
elected  pope  in  1159.  He  was  involved  in  a  long  contest 
with  Freilerick  Barbarossa.  and  with  the  anti-popes  who 
were  supported  by  that  emperor.  Having  been  twice  com- 
pelled by  his  enemies  to  leave  Rome,  he  wiis  in  1163  ac- 
knowledged pope  by  a  council  at  Toure.  Tlie  emperor, 
whom  he  had  excommunicated  in  1167,  made  his  submis- 
sion soon  after  the  battle  of  Legnano,  and  was  absolved. 
Thomas  a  Becket,  who  had  been  encouraged  by  Alexander 
in  his  resistance  to  Henry  IL  of  England,  was,  after  his 
assassination,  canonized  by  the  pope.  According  to  Vol- 
taire, Alexander  proclaimed  that  no  Cliristian  should  be 
held  as  a  slave.  He  is  said  to  have  been  tlie  first  who  re- 
served to  the  Holy  See  the  right  of  canonization.  D.  at 
Civita  Castellano.  Aug.  30.  1181.  (.See  Reuter's  Geschichte 
Alexanders  III.  iind  der  Kirche  seiner  Zeit.  (1860,  2  vols.). 
— Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  di  Anagni)  became  pope  in 
1254.  D.  at  Viterbo,  May  12.  1261.— Alexander  V.  (Pie- 
TRO  FiLARGi)  was  choseu  pope  in  1409.  D.  at  Bnlogua,  May 
3,  1410. — Alexander  VI.  (Rodrioo  Lenzi-oli  Borgia),  b. 
at  Jativa.  in  Valencia,  in  S]min,  in  14:j1  ;  was  a  nephew  of 
Pope  Calixtus  111.  He  becauie  a  cardinal  in  1456,  and  was 
chosen  pope  in  1492.  Betore  his  election  to  the  papacy  he 
had  several  illegitimate  children,  among  whom  were  the 
infamous  Citsar  and  Lucretia  Borgia,  Among  the  events 
of  his  pontificate  were  the  introduction  of  the  index  of 
jirohibited  books  and  the  Ijurning  at  the  stake  of  Savona- 
rola. 1).  at  Rome,  Aug.  18.  1503.  His  character  was  an 
infamous  compound  of  cruelty,  treachery,  licentiousness,  and 
other  vices. — Alexander  VII.  (Fahio  Chigi)  was  b.  at 
Sienna,  Feb.  13,  1599,  and  became  jiope  in  1655.  He  em- 
bellished Rome  with  architeotni'al  works.  D.  at  Rome,  May 
22,  1667. — Alexander  VIII.  (Pietro  Ottoboni)  was  b.  in 
Venice,  April  19,  1610,  and  elected  pope  in  1689.  He  as- 
sisted the  Venetians  in  a  war  against  the  Turks.  D.  at 
Rome,  Feb.  1,  1691.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Alexander  I. :  King  of  Scotland  :  younger  son  of  Mal- 
colm Cainuore  ;  began  to  reign  in  1107.  He  was  an  alile 
ruler.  He  died  at  Stirling,  April  27,  1124;  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  David  I. — Alexander  IL.  b.  at  Haddington, 
Aug.  24,  1198,  succeeded  his  father,  William  tlie  Lion,  in 
1214.  He  married  a  sister  of  Henry  III.  of  England  in 
1221.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  wise  and  able  prince.  D. 
on  the  island  of  Kerrera,  opposite  Oban,  July  8,  1249. — 
Alexander  III.,  of  Scotland,  b.  in  1241,  was  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  became  king  in  1249.  He  married,  in  1251, 
Margaret,  a  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England.  His  reign 
was  peaceful  and  prosperous.  He  fell  with  his  horse  over 
a  precipii-e  between  Burntisland  and  Kingliorn,  and  was 
killed.  Mar.  16,  12S6. 

Alexander  I.  (or  Alexan'der  Pan'lovitcli) :  Emperor 
of  Russia  ;  son  of  Paul  I.  and  JNIaria,  a  princess  of  Wiirtem- 
berg;  b.  at  St.  Petersburg.  Dec.  23,  1777.  He  married,  in 
1793,  Elizabeth,  a  daughter  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Baden, 
and  succeeded  his  fatlier,  who  was  a,ssassinated  Mar.  24, 1801. 
He  promoted  civilization,  education,  industry,  and  trade. 
His  foreign  policy  was  pacific  until  he  joined  a  coalition 
against  Xapoleon  in  1805.  In  December  of  that  year  the 
Ru.ssian  and  Austrian  armies  were  defeated  at  Austerlitz. 
After  the  Russian  armies  had  sustained  several  other  de- 
feats, the  war  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  in  1807. 
Alexander  then  became  the  i'riend  and  ally  of  Xapolenn.  and 
declared  war  against  England.  But,  alarmed  by  the  in- 
satiable aml)ition  of  Napoleon,  he  resolved  upon  a  change 
of  policy,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  England  and  Sweden. 


Russia  was  invaded  in  1813  by  Napoleon,  who  took  Mos- 
cow, but  his  army  was  soon  compelled  to  retreat,  and  nearly 
all  perished  with  cold  and  hunger  or  were  taken  ju'isoners. 
After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  Alexander  entered  Paris 
with  the  victorious  armies  in  1814.  and  exliibited  more  gener- 
osity and  clemency  toward  the  French  than  the  otlier  allies 
showed.  He  agpin  entered  Paris  in  trimnph  in  July,  1815, 
and  in  the  same  year  formed,  with  the  Em])eior  of  Austria 
and  the  King  of  Prussia,  a  coalition  called  "  the  Holy  Al- 
liance," the  tendency  of  which  was  reactionary  and  hostile 
tothecau.se  of  liberty.  The  professed  object  of  this  alliance 
was  to  promote  religion  and  peace.  As  he  advanced  in  years 
he  became  more  contracted  and  less  liberal,  a  prey  to  hypo- 
chondria and  suspicion.  His  [irojects  of  reform  were  aban- 
doned, a  rigid  censorship  of  the  press  was  maintained,  and 
all  liberal  or  progressive  tendencies  were  repressed.  He 
died  without  issue  at  Taganrog,  Dec.  1,  1825,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  liis  brother  Nicholas.     See  Russia. 

Alexander  II.,  Alexander  Nikolaiewitcii  Romaxoff: 
Emperor  of  Russia  ;  the  fourteenth  sovereign  of  the  reign- 
ing dynasty,  the  eldest  of  the  Czar  Nicholas's  four  sons, 
was  b.  on  the  29th  of  April,  1818.  His  education  was 
intrusted,  under  the  czar's  own  close  inspection,  almost  ex- 
clusively to  native  Russians,  foremost  among  whom  stood 
the  poet  Joukovski,  the  generals  Kavelin  and  Fredericks, 
and,  before  traveling  abroad,  the  prince  was  sent  on  a  prog- 
ress through  European  Russia  in  order  to  acquaint  himself 
with  the  country.  He  subsequently  visited  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Great  Britain,  and  on  his  return,  bringing  back  with 
him  a  host  of  new  impressions,  he  was  admitted,  only  a  lad 
of  eighteen,  to  the  czar's  conferences  with  his  native  minis- 
ters and  foreign  envoys.  Five  years  later,  on  the  28th  of 
April,  1841,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  married  the  Grand 
Duchess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  called  by  the  Russians  Maria 
Alexandrowna  ("  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Alexander"). 

Alexander  II.  ascended  the  throne  on  the  2d  of  March, 
1855,  during  the  Crimean  war,  wliich  France,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  Turkey  had  waged  against  Russia.  He  ended 
the  war  as  soon  as  possible,  but  several  years  were  re- 
quired to  restore  the  empire  to  its  normal  condition.  In 
1861  followed  the  serf  emancipation,  which  prominently 
brought  the  new  czar  before  the  world  and  earned  him  his 
popular  title  of  "  the  Liberator";  in  1863  followed  the  Po- 
lish rebellion,  which  was  put  down  with  wanton  ci-uelty, 
the  czar  placing  the  destiny  of  the  Polish  people  in  the 
hands  of  men  equally  devoid  of  mercy  and  of  justice — the 
Count  de  Berg  and  Mouravieff.  the  latter  known  by  the 
nickname  of  "the  hangman."  But.  with  this  single  excep- 
tion of  the  Polish  war,  the  nine  years  whicli  clapseil  after  the 
abolition  of  serfdom  became  the  brightest  in  the  Russian 
history  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Military  colonics,  oppres- 
sive statutes,  all  kinds  of  cripjiling  restrictions,  were  abol- 
ished. The  press  began  to  make  itself  hejird.  Immigration 
was  encouraged,  agriculture  devclojied.  foreign  inventions 
were  adopted,  foreign  authors  and  institutions  studied. 
Female  education  received  a  sudden  impetus,  and  the  sense- 
less restrictions  on  travel  were  removed.  On  the  27th  of 
Sept..  1866.  Princess  Dagmar  of  Dennuirk.  the  bride-elect  of 
the  hereditary  grand  duke,  landed,  and  in  1867  the  czar 
himself  apjieared  at  the  Paris  Exhibition.  Meanwhile  the 
works  of  national  reform  followed  each  other — the  redis- 
tribution of  land,  the  development  of  the  railway  system, 
the  establisjiment  of  trial  by  jury,  the  abridgment  of  mili- 
tary service,  and  many  othei's. 

But  reaction  was  not  slow  to  appear.  The  revolutionary 
attitude  of  the  five  great  imiversities  of  St.  Peterstnirg,  Mos- 
cow, Kielf,  Dorpat,  and  Kazan,  and  the  ill-timed  petition  of 
Moscow  for  free  trade  and  the  liberty  of  the  press,  startled 
the  Govenunent  into  the  belief  that  it  had  gone  too  far.  At 
the  same  moment,  the  terror  of  victorious  Germany  from 
without,  ami  that  of  the  Nihilist  conspirators  from  within, 
appeared  to  necessitate  an  immediate  increa.se  of  strength, 
and  in  an  instant  all  was  changed. 

But  even  this  violent  change  could  not  deprive  Russia  of 
the  substantial  progress  which  she  had  already  made.  At  the 
Czar's  acci'ssion  in  1855  .she  possessed  only  419  miles  of  rail- 
way;  in  1870  she  coidd  count  7.123.  In  1855  tlie  total  num- 
ber of  factories  in  Kuropcan  Russia  was  17.536,  re|iresenting 
a  yearly  value  of  3.50.000.000  ruliles  (,1;262,500.000) ;  the  esti- 
mates for  1870  gave  33,721  factories,  producing  annually 
500.000.000  rubles.  In  1855  Russia's  export  trade  averaged 
|30,000.00f) :  in  1870  !{;256.500.000.  The  term  of  military 
service  extended  in  1855  over  the  enormous  space  of  twenty- 


I 


ALEXANDER  III. 


ALEXANDER  JANNiEUS 


111 


five  years,  while,  in  1870  it  was  limited  to  ten  years.  The 
press,  tlie  bar,  tlie  li)oal  adniiiiistration,  had  all  been  eoii- 
'  sidcralily  remodeled,  and  the  village  schools  began  to  raise  the 
49,0(H).()()0  linssian  |ieasants  from  mere  soulless  beasts  of  l)ur- 
den  inio  thinking  and  reasoning  men. 

Only  for  a  time  the  newly  awakened  spirit  of  the  country 
was  diverted  from  the  channel  of  home  relorin  into  that  of 
foreign  conquest.  On  (.)ct.  31,  1!^T0,  when  neilher  Great 
Britain.  France,  nor  Turkey  was  alile  to  i-esist,  Prince  Gort- 
schakolf  informed  the  various  cabinets  that  Russia  felt  com- 
pelled to  deviate  from  the  stipulations  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
and  keep  a  Meet  of  sulllcient  capacity  in  tlie  Ulack  Sea.  The 
Khiva  expedition  of  1.S73  completed  the  conquest  of  Central 
Asia,  and  the  .Montenegro  troubles  of  1874.  the  Uerzegoviuian 
insurrection  ot  187.J,  were  appeals  to  Russia  to  gird  herself 
for  a  fresh  crusude  against  the  Grescenl.  In  April.  1877.  the 
war  of  liberation  began.  The  czar  returned  to  St.  I'etei-s- 
burg  in  triuMq>h,  but  a  triumph  whicli  was  not  unalloyed. 
The  war  burdens  were  enormous.  Russia  was  compelled  to 
make  considerable  modifications  of  her  first  prograuune,  and 
Austria's  couqtlete  occupation  of  Bosnia  irritated  the  Pan- 
slavists.  Thus  all  things  combini'd  to  [iroduce  a  fresh  ex- 
plosion <if  the  spirit  of  Nihilism,  and  a  season  of  uprisings. 
assa.ssinalioMs.  and  terror  ensue<l.  Several  attempts  were 
made  by  Nihilists  on  the  emperor's  life.  The  fifth  one  was 
successful.  On  Mar.  l:i.  1881.  while  he  was  returning  from 
a  parade  at  about  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  two  bombs 
were  thrown  at  I  he  sleigh,  one  of  which  exploded  at  the  em- 
peror's feet,  inflicting  wounds  from  which  an  hour  and  a 
half  later  he  expired  in  the  imperial  palace.     See  Nihilism. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Ada.ms. 

Aloxandor  III.:  Emperor  of  Russia;  b.  Feb.  26  {Mar. 
10.  new  style)  1S4.'5:  second  son  of  Em)ieror  Alexander  IL 
After  the  death  of  his  elder  brother.  Nicholas,  in  186.5,  he 
became  the  heir-apjiarent  to  the  throne,  and  married,  on 
Nov.  U,  1866,  the  Princess  Maria  Dagmar  (on  her  rebaptism 
into  the  Eastern  Church  called  Maria  Feodorovna),  daughter 
of  Christian  I.K..  King  of  Denmark.  In  1877  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Biela.  but  in  that  capacity  he  did  noth- 
ing of  note,  and  was  finally  su))erseded.  Toward  the  end 
of  1879  he  canu^  to  an  open  rupture  with  his  father  on  ac- 
count of  his  opposition  to  the  reactionary  policy  of  the 
latter.  On  the  assa,ssination  of  Alexander  II.,  in  1881,  he 
shut  himself  up  in  Gatschina,  and  was  not  crowned  till  May 
27,  18H;i:  the  excesses  of  the  Nihilists  resulted  in  making  his 
rule  like  that  of  his  father.  His  reign  was  conservative,  and, 
although  vigorous  in  consolidating  and  extending  his  em- 
pire, his  policty  was  one  of  peace.  lie  sternly  repressed  Ni- 
hilism, and  many  attempts  were  made  on  his  life.  In  sup- 
port of  the  Greek  Church  he  was  all  but  fanatical ;  in  1890- 
91  thousands  of  .lews  were  expelled  from  .Southern  Russia. 
His  bravery,  sincerity,  and  uprightness  were  unquestioned. 
D.  at  his  estate,  Livadia.  in  the  Crimea.  Nov.  1  (new  style), 
1894,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Nicholas. 

Alexander,  AKcniDAi.n,  D.  D. :  divine ;  b.  near  Lexington, 
Rockbridge  eo.,  Va..  .\pr.  17,  1772.  He  became  president  of 
Ilampden-Sidnev  College  in  1796.  and  pastor  of  the  Pine 
Street  Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia  in  1807.  In  1812 
he  was  chosen  the  flist  Professor  of  I  he  Theological  Seminary 
of  Princeton,  N.  .1.,  then  just  founded.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  pulpit  orator  and  as  a  writer  on  theology.  Among  his 
works  are  Oullinos  of  the.  Evidences  of  Christ  inn  Hi/  (1824): 
a  I'lii-ki't  Diclionnr)/  of  the  BMe  (1829) ;  and  OutliueK  of 
Moral  Srieiici^  (18.52).  The  first  of  these  works  has  been 
translated  into  several  languages.  He  married,  in  1802.  Ja- 
netta  Waddell,  a  daughter  of  a  well-known  blind  preacher. 
1).  at  Princeton,  N.  .1.,  Oct.  22,  18.51. 

Alexander.  Geokoe.  D.  D.  :  Presbvterian  minister:  b.  at 
West  Charlton.  N.  Y.,  Oct.  12.  184:!:  was  educated  at  Charl- 
ton Academy.  Union  College,  and  Princeton  Seminary.  He 
wa-S  pastor  of  the  Eiist  .Vvenue  Presbyterian  church,  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y..  1870-8:i,  and  during  tlie  la.-;t  six  yeai's  of  that 
time  was  Professor  of  Logic  and  Rhetoric  in  Union  College. 
In  1884  he  became  pastor  of  the  University  Place  Presby- 
terian church.  New  York  city,  and  leadi'r  in  an  important 
missionary  work  in  the  tenement-house  ilistrict  further  S.  in 
the  city.  '  W.  J.  IJkecuf.r. 

Alexander.  .Tames  Waddell.  D.  D.  :  divine ;  eldest  son  of 
Aieliil)all  .Mexander;  b.  near  Gordonsville.  in  Louisa  co., 
Va.,  Mar.  l:i.  181)4:  grarluated  at  Princeton.  1820:  and  be- 
came in  18*!  Profes-ior  of  Hhetorie  at  the  College  ot  New 
Jersey  (Princeton).  From  1S44  to  1849  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Duane  Street  Presbyterian  church  in  New  York.    From  1849 


to  18.51  he  was  Professor  of  Church  Ilistorv  in  the  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1831  he  took  enlarge  of  the  Fifth 
Avenue  Presbyterian  church  in  New  York  city.  1).  at  Red 
Sweet  Springs,  Va..  July  ;il,  18.59.  lie  was  a  man  of  various 
mdture,  and  had  uncommon  unction  and  powei'  as  a  preacher, 
lie  wrote  the  life  of  his  father  (18.54),  published  numerous 
articles  in  the  Princeton  lievieii;  and  a  number  of  volumes, 
such  !is  Uiamurses  on  Christian  Faith  and  Fructice,  and 
Sacramental  Diacourses.  S.  j\l.  J. 

Alexander.  Joiix  Hexky:  b.  at  Annapolis.  Md.,  June  26, 
1812  :  pul)lislied  a  Treatise  of  Mathematical  Instruments 
(183.5) ;  Contrifjutions  to  the  Histori)  of  Iron  (1840) ;  Inlioits 
(1844):  Dictionary  of  Weiyhis  and  Measures  {\&());  Inter- 
national Coinage  (Oxford.  1857),  and  other  works.  I),  at 
Baltimore,  Mar.  2,  1867.     See  his  life  by  W.  Pinkney,  1867. 

Alexander,  .Joseph  Addisox,  D.  D.  :  son  of  Archibald 
Alexander;  b.  in  Philadelphia.  jVpr.  24,  1809;  graduated  at 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  1826,  in  which  he 
was  adjunct  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages  18y0-;i:i.  In 
1838  he  went  into  the  Theological  Seminary  in  the  s.inie 
town  as  associate  Profes.sor  of  (iriental  and  Bil)lical  Litera- 
ture, and  in  one  chair  and  another  continued  to  serve  the  in- 
stitution till  his  death  at  Princeton,  Jan.  28,  1860.  He  made 
extraordinary  attainments  in  the  Semitic  and  other  lan- 
guages. He  wrote  much  for  the  Princeton  Review.  His 
most  important  works  are  commentaries:  Isaiah  (2  vols., 
1846);  Psalms  Ci  vols..  18.50):  Acts  (1  vol.,  1857);  Mark 
(18.58),  Mattkeic  was  published  posthumously  in  1860.  See 
his  life  by  II.  C.  Alexander  (1869). 

Alexander.  Williasi.  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  ArchViishop  of 
Armagh  and  I-'rimate  of  All  Ireland  ;  b.  at  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  Apr.  13, 1824;  educated  at  Oxford  :  became  Bishop 
of  Derry  and  Raphoe  in  1867,  and  archbishop  in  1896.  Be- 
sides several  volumes  of  poems:  The  Waters  of  Babylon 
(1869);  St.  Augustine's  Holiday  {IHSii):  and  sermons:  The 
Great  Question  (1887).  lie  has  published:  The  Dirinity  of 
our  Lord  (18!I0):  Leading  Ideas  of  the  Gospels  (1871);  Wit- 
ness of  the  Psalms  to  Christ  and  Christianity  (1877);  com- 
mentaries on  Colo.ssians.  Thessalonians.  Philemon,  and  the 
Epistles  of  John  in  the  Speaker's  Commentanj;  and  on  the 
last  named  in  the  Expositor's  Bilile  series  (1889).  He  was 
Bampton  lecturer  in  1876,  and  in  18il2  delivered  a  series  of 
lectures  in  Columbia  College,  New  York.  The  .See  of  Derry 
was  jiermanently  endowed  by  him  with  .£2.000  a  year  and 
the  see  house. — His  wife  (born  Cecil  Frances  Humphreys)  is 
the  author  of  Moral  Songs,  Hymns  for  Children,  and  I'oeuis 
on  Old  Testament  Subjects,  among  which  is  the  celebrated 
poem  I'lie  Burial  of  Moses.     She  died  Oct.  12,  1895. 

Alexander.  William  Lindsay,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  Aug.  24,  1808;  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Edinburgh  and  St.  .\iidrews;  became  classical  tutor  in  Black- 
burn Theological  Seminary,  and  subsequently  (1.S35)  a  Con- 
gregational minister  at  Edinburgh;  Professor  of  Theology 
in  the  Congregational  Theological  Ccillege,  Edinburgh,  18.54. 
a:id  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision  Company.  1870. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  doctrinal  and  miscellaneous 
works,  including  The  Connection  and  Harmony  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  (2d  ed.  1853);  a  Life  of  Dr.  Wardlaio 
(18.5(i);  Christian  Thouqht  and  Work  (1862);  Zechariah 
(1885);  Bililical  Theologi/  (1891).  He  was  the  editor  of  the 
3d  ed.  of  Dr.  Kitto's  Biblical  Ci/clopwdia  (3  vols.,  1802-66). 
D.  ill  Edinburgh,  Dee.  22,  1884.  See  his  Life  by  Ross 
(1887).  Revised  by  Georoe  P.  Fisher. 

Alexander  .Eto'lns:  learned  scholar  and  poetic  experi- 
menter of  the  Alexandrian  i)eriod  ;  flourished  about  280  i;.  o. 
(see  Greek  Literaitre)  :  a  star  of  the  .\lexandrian  tragic 
Pleiad.  Of  his  elegiac  poems  we  have  not  inconsiderable 
fragments,  which  show  his  learning,  elegance,  and  false  in- 
genuity. The  fragments  are  in  Bergk's  Poelce  Lyrict.  See 
Couat's  La  Poesie  Alexandrine,  p.  105. 

Alexander  IJa'las:  usurjier  of  the  throne  of  Syria; 
was  a  |)erson  of  low  origin,  and  lived  in  the  second  century 
B.C.  lie  pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Antiocluis  Epiiihanes, 
and,  with  the  aid  of  Rome  and  several  Greek  pi  inces.  de- 
feated his  rival  Demetrius  Soler  in  150  n.  c.  ami  Demetrius 
was  killed  in  the  flight.  .After  a  short  reign  he  was  defeated 
by  his  father-in-law.  and  in  146  n.  c.  was  murdered  by  an 
Arabian  emir  with  wliom  he  had  taken  refuge. 

Alexander  .lanna>ns:  King  of  the  Jews  104-78  B.C.; 
was  the  third  son  of  John  Ilyreanu.s,  and  received  from  his 
subjects  the  surname  Thracicies  ("as  cruel  as  a  Thracian  "). 
His  reign  was  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of  revolts  and 


112 


ALEXANDER  JOHN  I. 


ALEXANDRIA 


massacres ;  and  wlien  once,  in  despair,  he  asked  the  people 
what  he  should  do  to  please  them,  he  was  answered,  "  Kill 
yourself."  Ills  wife,  Alexandra,  succeeded  hiin,  and  reigned, 
by  the  aid  of  the  I'harisees,  in  peace. 

Alexander  John  I.:  Prince  of  Rouraania;  b.  Mar.  20, 
1820 ;  elected  in  1858  to  the  assembly  of  Molilavia.  became 
in  the  same  year  Minister  of  War  of  the  united  prinoi|)al- 
ities,  was  elected  in  1859  first  Prince  of  Moldavia,  ami  tlien 
Prince  of  Wallaehia,  in  both  cases  by  a  unanimous  vote,  but 
had  to  pledge  himself  to  complete  the  union  of  the  two 
principalities,  and  then  resigu  in  favor  of  some  European 
prince.  But  lie  was  not  recognized  by  Turkey  until  Dec. 
23,  1861,  as  prince  of  both  principalities,  on  wliich  day  tlie 
union  of  the  two  j)rincipalities  under  the  name  of  Kouraania 
was  proclaimed.  But.  in  consequence  of  several  unpopular 
measures,  tlie  most  prominent  men  of  Roumania  planned  a 
revolution,  and  in  the  night  of  Feb.  23,  1866,  entered  his 
apartments  and  forced  him  to  sign  his  resignation.  After 
that  time  he  lived  in  Viemia  as  a  private  citizen.  He  died 
at  Heidelberg,  May  15,  1873. 

Alexander  Karaireorge  vitch,  ka"arfia-ior'je-vich' :  Prince 
of  Servia;  son  of  Czcrnv  Georsre  (q.  v.),  the  first  Prince  of 
Servia;  b.  at  Topola,  Oct.  11,  1806.  After  the  death  of  his 
father  he  lived  for  several  years  in  a  kind  of  exile  in  Wal- 
lachia,  but  finally  obtained  permission  from  Prince  Michael 
Obrenovitch  to  return  to  Servia^  and  was  even  appointed  liis 
aide-de-camp.  After  Prince  ^Michael's  deposition  he  was 
elected  Prince  of  Servia  in  1842.  Russia  protested  against 
his  election,  but  JIar.  27.  1843.  he  was  again  elected,  and  this 
time  by  a  unanimous  vote.  The  policy  he  pursued  was  one 
of  peace.  In  spite  of  Russian  and  Austrian  intrigues  he  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  clear  of  any  serious  embroilment ;  even 
in  1853  he  preserved  neutrality,  in  spite  of  the  internal  ex- 
citement prevailing  in  the  country.  Meanwhile,  a  complete 
system  of  primary  education  was  established :  the  finances 
of  the  state  were  lironght  in  order;  good  roads  were  bviilt, 
giving  access  to  new  markets:  and  in  ten  years  the  exporta- 
tion of  the  country  more  than  doubled.  In  consequence, 
however,  of  his  peace  policy  toward  the  foreign  powers,  he 
became  obnoxious  to  the  people,  and  was  deposed  Dec.  11, 
1858.  In  1868  he  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  Prince  Michael,  his  successor,  and  was  sentenced  in  1871 
by  the  authorities  of  Austria,  where  he  had  resided  since  his 
deposition,  to  eight  years'  imprisonment  and  the  costs.  D. 
at  Temesvar,  Hungary,  May  2,  1885. 

Alexander  Nev'.ski  (or  Nev'skoi):  Russian  prince  and 
hero;  b.  at  Vladimir  in  1219  ;  was  a  son  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Yaroslaf  II.  He  gained  in  1240  a  signal  victory  over  tlie 
Swedes  on  the  Neva;  hence  his  surname.  On  the  death  of 
his  father,  about  1246,  he  became  Grand  Duke  of  Vladimir. 
D.  at  Gorodetz.  Xov.  14.  1263.  By  the  Russians  he  is  re- 
garded as  a  saint.  In  his  honor  Peter  the  Great,  in  1712, 
liuilt  the  Alexander  X^evski  monastery  in  St.  Petersburg,  on 
the  spot  where  the  hero  and  saint  is  said  to  liave  gained  liis 
great  victory.  The  monastery  is  one  of  the  greatest  and 
richest  institutions  of  the  kind,  forming  a  whole  city  by 
itself,  and  having  nine  churches,  a  theological  S(>minary  for 
1,000  scholars,  tlie  residence  of  the  metropolite  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, etc. 

Alexander  of  Aplirodis'ias:  celebrated  Greek  com- 
tnentator  on  Aristotle ;  lived  at  about  the  close  of  the  second 
century  after  Christ.  Like  his  masters,  Herminus  and  Aris- 
toeles  the  Jlessenian,  he  tried  to  free  the  Peripatetic  philos- 
ophy from  the  syncretism  of  Ammonius  and  others,  and  to 
restore  the  true  interpretation  of  Aristotle's  works.  He  con- 
tended that  the  human  soul  does  not  sun-ive  the  death  of 
the  body,  but  is  absorbed  into  the  world-soul.  This  led  to 
newcoramentaries  on  the  part  of  the  great  Schoolmen  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

Alexander.  .TosF.pn,  ov  Batten-berg  :  ex-Prince  of  Bul- 
garia: son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg  (Hesse); 
brother  of  the  late  Empress  of  Russia;  1).  Apr.  5.  1857; 
served  with  the  Russian  army  during  the  war  with  Turkey; 
eleeteil  hereilitary  Prince  of  Bulgaria  by  the  Assembly  of 
Xotables  at  Tirnova,  Apr.  20,  18t9;  invested  with  extraor- 
dinary legislative  powers  by  a  vote  of  tlie  (irand  X'aticmal 
AsseiiiMy,  July  13.  I8S1.  Ih  1S85  war  was  declared  against 
Bulgaria  by  King  Jlilan  of  Servia,  and  although  the  Bul- 
garian .army  was  inexperienced  and  the  smaller.  Prince 
Alexander,  l)y  his  personal  bravery  and  strategic  skill,  won 
several  victories,  and  King  Milan  was  finally  forced  to  sign 
a  treaty  of  peace  at  Bucharest.     Aug.  20,  1886,  piu-t  of  his 


army,  induced  by  Russian  intrigue,  revolted  and  forced 
Prince  Alexander  to  sign  his  abdication.  He  was  caiTied 
as  a  prisoner  to  Russian  territory,  but  soon  returned,  and 
was  greeted  with  great  ]io])ular  enthusiasm.  The  prince 
decided,  fiowever,  that  he  could  not  make  way  against  liis 
Russian  enemies,  and  abdicated.  Jan.  11,  1889,  the  prince 
formally  took  the  name  of  t'onite  de  Hartenau,  and  in  the 
month  following  married  Friiulein  Amalia  Loisinger.  a  cele- 
brated actress,  and  retired  to  his  estate  at  Gratz,  in  Styiia. 
D.  at  Gratz,  Xov.  17,  1893.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Alexander  of  Hales  (surnamed  Doctor  IrrefragabiHs, 
Doctor  Doctorum,  and  Fonx  Vitct):  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  Schoolmen  (7.  v.),  and  the  first  of  them  to  study  Aristotle 
as  a  whole  in  the  light  of  Arabian  commentary  and  liring 
to  bear  on  each  passage  the  light  of  all  othei-s.  He  was  bom 
in  Gloucestershire,  England ;  studied  and  taught  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1245.  His  Snmma  I'lieologiie  is  based  on 
the  sentences  of  Peter  the  Lombard.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Alexander  Seve'rns:  Roman  emperor;  b.  aliout  205 
A.  D.  His  original  name  was  Alexianus  Bassianus.  Imt 
when,  upon  his  removal  to  Rome,  he  was  created  ca?sar, 
pontiff,  consul,  and priiicr-ps  fureiux  elect  by  his  cousin,  the 
Emperor  Elagabalus.  he  assumed  the  name  Marcus  Aurelius 
Alexander,  and  added  Sevems  aftemard.  In  222  a.  d.,  upon 
the  death  of  his  cousin,  Alexander  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  the  praetorians  and  confirmed  by  the  senate.  From  231 
to  233  he  waged  war  against  the  Persians ;  in  234  he  marched 
into  Gaul  against  the  Oernians.  liut  was  waylaid  and  mur- 
dered by  some  mutinous  soldiers  near  Mayenee,  235. 

Alexan'dra.  Caroline  Marie  Charlotte  Louise  Julie: 
Princess  of  Wales  :  daughter  of  Chtistian  IX.,  King  of  Den- 
mark ;  b.  Dec.  1.  1844.  She  was  married  Mar.  10,  1863,  to 
Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales. 

Alexan'drla  [classical  accentuation.  Alexandria ;  Gr. 
AAelai/Sptia :  Turk,  and  Arab.  Iskriii  fieri  eh]:  an  ancient  and 
celebrated  city  and  seaport  of  Lower  Egyjjt,  named  from 
Alexander  the  Great,  by  whom  it  was  founded  in  333  B.  c. 
(see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  2-E).  It  was  situated  on  a  low  and 
narrow  tract  which  separates  Lake  JIareotis  from  the  Jled- 
iterranean.  near  the  western  mouth  of  the  Xile.  and  117  miles 
X.  W.  of  Cairo.  Lat.  of  Pharos,  the  Alexandria  lighthouse, 
31°  12'  9"  X*.,  Ion.  29^  53'  E.  Soon  after  its  foundation  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Greeian  kings  who  reigned  in  Egypt, 
and  one  of  the  most  populous  and  magnificent  cities  in  the 
world.  It  was  a  great  emporium  of  commerce,  for  which  its 
position  between  Europe  and  India  was  very  advantageous. 
ISefore,  as  well  as  after,  tlie  Christian  era  this  city  was  a  cele- 
brated seat  of  learning  and  philosippliy.  Here  was  founded 
by  the  Ptolemies,  about  296  B.  c,  the  celebrated  museum,  to 
which  was  attached  the  greatest  library  of  antiquity,  known 
as  the  Alexandrinn  Lihranj  (see  Museum  and  Alexandrian' 
Library).  Among  the  principal  edifices  was  the  Serapeion, 
or  temple  of  Sera]iis.  In  front  of  the  city  stood  a  famous 
lighthouse  called  Pharos,  on  an  island  of  the  same  name. 
It  is  supposed  that  during  its  greatest  prosperity  Alexandria 
had  600.000  inhabitants,  a  majority  of  whom  were  Greeks 
and  Jews.  Even  after  Egypt  had  been  conquered  bv  the 
Romans  this  city  was  seconil  only  to  Rome  in  size  antl  im- 
portance. About  the  period  300-640  A.  D.  it  was  a  great 
focus  of  Christian  theology  and  sectarianism.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Saracen  cali]ih  Omar  about  640,  and  then  its 
prnsjierity  declined.     The  discovery  of  a  passage  to  India 


irnsjierit; 
>v  t  he  C;i 


by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hojie  (1497)  aided  in  its  ruin,  and  the 
population  in  1778  was  only  6.000.  The  chief  remains  of  its 
ancient  grandeur  are  :  a  granite  monolith  erroneously  called 
Pompey's  Pillar:  the  Catacombs:  and  two  obelisks  named 
Cleopatra's  X'eedles — one  of  these  obelisks  was  taken  to  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1877-78.  and  set  up  on  the  Thames  em- 
bankment :  the  other  was  presented  to  the  U.  S.  by  Ismail 
Pasha,  anil  was  taken  to  X'ew  York  city  in  1880. 

The  modern  city,  which  again  became  pojailous  and  im- 
portant, is  built  near  the  site  of  the  ancient,  and  on  a  mole 
or  isthmus  connecting  the  mainland  with  the  island  of 
Pharos.  It  is  connected  with  Cairo  by  a  canal  and  railway, 
and  with  Suez  by  a  railway,  which  is  continued  from  Cairo. 
In  consequence  of  steam  navigation,  Alexandria  again  be- 
came a  great  emporium  of  the  commerce  between  Europe 
and  India.  The  chief  articles  of  expcirt  are  grain,  sugar, 
drugs,  cotton,  gums,  rice,  dates,  ami  hides.  Steamers  ply 
regularly  between  this  port  and  Brindisi,  Malta,  and  Con- 
stantinople. Xewspapere  are  publushed  here  in  the  Italian, 
Greek,  and  French  languages.  Po|).  over  230.000.  of  whom 
some  50,000  are  Greeks,  Italians,  French,  Germans,  and  Swiss, 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALEXIS  MICHAELOM'RII 


IK 


jiiid  other  foreig-iu'i's.  Its  now  artififial  harlxn',  with  a  brcak- 
wat<?r  2  miles  loiijr,  lieffun  in  1W71,  is  one  of  the  most  imi)or- 
tant  works  of  the  kind  in  tlie  Mediterranean.  In  consequence 
of  the  K^yptian  revolution  heaih'd  by  Aralii  I'aslui,  whieli 
broke  out  diirins  the  summer  of  ]Sf<2.  culminatinj;^  in  the 
most  revohin^'  cruelties  airainst  tlie  I 'liristians,  Alexandria 
was  Iximliarded  bv  the  liritish,  under  Admiral  Seymour, 
July  11  and  \2.  1MS2.  The  forts  defendiuf;  the  liarbnr  were 
<lismantliMl.  and  on  July  13  the  liest  part  of  the  city  was 
practically  a  nuuss  of  ruins.  Kevised  by  C.  K.  Auams. 

AU'xantlria :  town,  01enf;arry  co.,  Ontario.  Canada  (for 
location,  see  nui|)  of  Ontario,  ref.  2-1);  on  Canada  Atlantic 
K.  K. :  ''as  fjrist-mills,  8  saw-mills,  2  sash  and  door  factories, 
furniture-factory,  2  carriage  factories,  cheese-bos  factory, 
2  newspapers,  .5  Konum  Catholic  churches  and  a  convent, 
4  Presbyterian  church.  Top.  (1881)  1.300:  (1891)  1,014; 
(1892)  estimated  1,850.  Editor  of  "  Glengarkia.n." 

Alexaixlria  :  town  and  railroad  center;  the  capital  of 
Rapides  parish.  La.  (for  location  of  parish,  see  map  of  Lou- 
isiana, ref.  !t-C):  on  railroad  and  south  bank  of  the  Red 
river,  19()  miles  by  railroad  and  HM  miles  by  water  N.  W. 
of  Xcw  Orleans.  It  has  a  convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
-and  four  jirosperous  institutions  of  learning,  also  a  large 
trade  in  cotton,  sugar,  molasses  and  hides,  etc.  Pop.  (1870) 
1,218;  (1880)  1.800;"  (1890)  2,861. 

Alexandria:  capital  of  Dougla.s  co., Minn,  (for  locaticm, see 
map  of  Jlinnesota,  ref.  7-B) ;  on  railroad,  142  miles  W.  X.  \V. 
of  St.  Paul.  It  has  a  U.  S.  land-otiice.  fine  high  school,  8 
■churches,  and  3  newspapers,  lias  furniture,  plow,  and  cut- 
lery mainifactories  :  and  steam,  grist,  and  saw  mills.  It 
is  pleasantly  situated  amid  beautiful  lakes,  and  is  sur- 
rounded l-iy  fine  wlieat-grcjwing  country,  the  wheat  of  this 
neighborhood  taking  first  premium  in  1891.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,355 :  (1890)  2,118 ;  (1895)  2,655.  Editor  of  •'  Post." 

Alexandria :  Jefferson  co.,  X.  Y.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref.  2-G) ;  in  a  township  of  its  own 
name,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river.  25  miles  X.  by  E.  of  Water- 
town.  Alexandria  Bay  (P.  0.  name)  is  a  port  which  is  vis- 
ited by  steamboats.  It  has  a  lighthouse.  The  township 
4'rabraces  a  ]iart  of  the  Thousand  isles,  and  is  a  great  sum- 
mer resort.  It  contains  a  glass-factorv.  Pop.  of  Alexandria 
Bay  (1880)  587;  (1890)  1.12:3. 

Alexandria:  city;  important  railroad  center;  port  of 
■entry,  and  capital  of  Alexandria  co.,  Va.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Yirginia,  ref.  4-1) :  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac,  6  miles  below  Washington. 
The  river  is  here  a  mile  wide,  and  forms  a  good  harbor, 
•<leep  enough  for  the  largest  shi]is.  An  extensive  shoe-fac- 
tory hits  been  in  operation  for  a  number  of  years,  with  flour- 
ing-mills.  machine-shops,  plaster-mills,  and  other  indu-stries. 
Thecitv  is  noted  for  the  number  and  excellence  of  its  institu- 
tions of  learning.     Pop.  (1880)  13,659 ;  (1890)  14,339. 

Alexan'drian  Li'brary :  the  largest  and  most  celebrated 
library  of  antiipiity;  fcmnded  liy  Ptolemy  Philadclphus. 
King  of  Kg\]it.  al>out  275  B.  c.  lie  jnirchased  many  books 
at  Athens,  Rome,  and  other  places.  This  library  is  said  to 
have  been  partially  destroyed  by  famitical  Christians  about 
^395  A.  D.  According  to  some  authorities,  it  was  burned  in 
642  A.  D.  by  orfler  of  the  caliph  Omar,  who  argued  that  if 
lxx)ks  agree  with  the  Koran  they  are  unnecessary ;  if  they 
ditfer  thev  should  be  destroved.  See  Ritschl, /)»e  A /cj;an- 
(Irinisehiii  Bi'li/iotlicLni  (1838). 

Alexandrian  Manuscript:  See  Codex  Alesandrints. 

Alexandrian  I'criod  :  See  Greek  Literature. 

Alexandrian  (or  Alexandrine)  Seliool :  a  certain  type 
■of  thought  and  culture  wliii'h  began  to  prevail  in  Eg^-pt  aboiit 
300  B.C.,  and  which  exercised  a  jialpable  influence  on  Chris- 
tianity, adili'd  a  new  chai)tcrto  the  history  of  (Jreek  philoso- 
phy, and  produced  even  a  hitherto  unknown  form  of  Judaism. 
In  Alexandria  the  East  and  West  met  for  the  first  time  peace- 
ably, anil  even  amicably,  with  each  other,  and  compromises, 
often  of  the  most  curious  description,  were  the  natural  re- 
sults. All  these  various  compromises — between  the  fantastic 
asceticism  of  India,  the  prophetic  inspirations  of  Judaism, 
the  imaginative  rea.soning  of  Greece,  the  jiositivism  of  the 
Romans,  not  to  speak  of  the  numerous  nnnor  peculiarities 
■of  spiritual  character — had  a  certain  character  in  common, 
which  justly  took  its  name  afterthe  |ilace  where  itoriginated. 
But  beyond  this — an  amalgamation  of  different  civilizations, 
■with  the  natural  stinndus  inherent  in  such  a  proces.s — the 
Alexandrian  school  can  hardly  bo  said  to  have  gone.  It 
8 


produced  no  new  ideas ;  its  ideas  it  always  boiTowed.  But 
it  tried  new  combinations,  and  the  results  were  often  very 
surprising :  and  the  style  in  which  it  presented  its  thoughts 
was  new  and  long-enduring.  The  intercourse  of  the  Jewish 
and  Greek  colonists  who  had  previously  settled  in  that  coun- 
try had  given  rise  to  a  blending  of  the  peculiar  religious 
ideas  of  each.  The  Gnostics,  whose  system  was  a  mingling 
of  Oriental  with  Christian  thought,  originated  chiefly  in 
Alexandria;  and  Philo-Judipus.  the  foremost  representative 
of  the  Jewish-Alexandrian  philosophy,  was  also  a  native  of 
that  city,  and  his  writings  powerfully  influ?nced  the  Chris- 
tian teachers,  like  Athanasius,  Gregory  of  Xazianzus,  and 
other  eminent  Christian  Fathei's.  This  school  was  likewise 
renowneil  for  the  cull  ure  of  mathematics  and  physical  science, 
and  numbered  among  its  disciples  Euclid.  Aristarchus  of 
Samos,  and,  according  to  some  writers,  Archimedes.  The 
celebrated  critic  Aristarchus  is  said  to  have  pa.ssed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Alexandria,  where  he  founded  a 
school.  With  regard  to  coiTectness  and  elegance  of  ex- 
pression the  Alexandrian  writers  were  highly  distinguished, 
but  they  were  deficient  in  life  and  spirit.  In  a  school  whore 
imitation  and  rule  took  the  place  of  inspiration,  each  genera- 
tion became  more  artificial  and  lifeless  than  its  predecessor, 
and  both  jirose  and  poetry  often  became  laliored  affectation. 
Special  works  on  the  historvof  the  Alexandrian  School  have 
l)een  written  bv  Matter  (2  vols.,  2d.  ed.  1840-44) ;  Barthe- 
h  MySt.-nilaire(1845):  Simon  (2  vols.,  1844-4-5) ;  and  Bigg's 
Christian  Ptafonists  of  Alexandria  (1887). 

Revised  by  .  JI.  Jackson. 
Alexan'drine :  a  poetical  meter  or  verse  formed  of  twelve 
syllables,  or  six  measures;  so  called  from  an  old  French 
poem  of  the  twelfth  century  on  Alexander  the  Great,  or, 
with  less  probability,  from  Alexander  de  Bernay,  one  of  the 
authoi's  of  the  poem.  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism,  part  ii.. 
line  156.  furnishes  an  excellent  example.  See  also  Yergil's 
Oforyics,  iii.  424.  Drayton's  Poli/olhiou  (1612-22)  is  the 
only  poem  in  English  written  -wholly  in  Alexandrines. 

Alexandrine  Age :  a  period  during  which  Alexandria 
was  the  principal  center  of  literature  and  science  in  the 
world.  It  extended  from  about  300  B.  c.  to  600  a.  d.,  and 
was  represented  by  many  eminent  grammarians  and  critics, 
who  excelled  in  correctness  and  elegance  of  style,  but  were 
deficient  in  genius  and  originality. 

Alexandrite  [named  by  Xordenskiold  after  Alexander  II. 
of  Russia]  :  a  variety  of  chrysoberyl.  of  a  chrome  or  grass- 
green  by  day,  but  changing  to  a  colundjine  or  raspberry 
color  by  artificial  light.  It  is  found  in  gems  up  to  65  carats 
in  weight,  and  valued  up  to  $2,000  each,  in  Kandy,  Ceylon, 
and  originally  in  large  crystals  at  Takowaja,  in  the  LTral 
mountains.    See  Chrysoberyl.  G.  F.  Kuxz. 

Alexan'drof :  town  of  Central  Russia ;  in  the  government 
of  Yladimir ;  70  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  the  city  of  Yladimir.  It 
contains  a  convent  founded  Viy  Ivan  lY.,  who  is  said  to  have 
also  established  here  the  fii^st  ])rinting-press  in  Russia.  Po]i. 
6.915. 

Alexandro'pol  (formerly  Giimri):  fortified  town  of  the 
Caucasus;  in  the  government  of  Erivan :  on  the  Arpa- 
Chai  river.  85  miles  S.  W.  of  Tiflis.  The  fort,  which  lies 
about  2,000  feet  from  the  city.  300  feet  al)ove  the  level  of  the 
river,  commands  the  entire  vicinity,  and  can  hold  10.000 
men.  Alexandropol  is  an  important  strategical  point,  as  it 
is  the  key  to  Armenia.     Pop.  (1886)  22.670.  " 

Alex'is.  or  Alex'iiis:  the  name  of  several  emperors  who 
reigned  at  Trebizond  (Trai)ezus)  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteeni  h. 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  They  belonged  to  the  Comnenus 
family.     See  Comxexus. 

.41exis.  or  Alexins  I. :  Emperor  of  Ccmstantinople ;  b.  in 
1048.  Having  distinguished  himself  by  his  military  talents 
he  was  proclaimccl  emperor  by  his  soldiers  about  1080.  in 
place  of  Xice|iliorus.  who  was  then  de]iosed.  He  showed 
himself  an  alile  and  a  crafty  ruler.  Some  writers  censure 
him  for  his  failure  to  support  the  operations  of  the  first  cru- 
sade, which  occurred  in  his  reign.  He  died  Aug.  5,  1118. 
and  was  succeeded  liy  his  son  John. 

Alexis  Alexandroviteh :  Grand  Duke  of  Russia:  younger 
son  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  II.;  1).  in  Jan..  1850.  He 
visited  the  I'.  S..  making  an  extensive  tour  in  1872,  and 
meeting  nearly  everywhere  a  warm  reception  among  the 
Americans. 

Alexis  Mieliaeldviteli:  Czar  of  Russia:  b.  Mar.  10. 1029; 
succeeded  liis  lallirr  Miduiel  in  1645.     He  promoteil  civili- 


Hi 


ALEXIS  PETROVITCH 


ALFONSO  XIL 


zation  and  improved  the  laws.  lie  was  tlie  I'atlier  of  Peter 
the  Great.     D.Jan.  29,  1676. 

Alexi.s  Pf'trovitcli,  or  Petrowitsch :  a  Russian  prince  : 
son  of  Peter  the  Great :  b.  at  Moscow,  Feb.  28.  1690.  He 
sliowed  such  a  hostility  to  the  reforms  of  his  father  tliat  tlie 
latter  resolved  to  exclude  him  from  the  throne.  While  Peter 
was  traveling  in  Western  Europe  in  1717,  Alexis  iled  to 
V'ienna  and  Naples,  lie  was  soon  brought  back,  and  con- 
demned to  death  on  the  charge  of  treason  or  rebellion.  He 
died  in  prison,  July  7,  1718.  His  sou  Peter  became  emperor 
in  1727. 

Alexis,  WiLLrBALD  :  See  Haring,  Wilhelm. 

Alex'isbad :  a  watering-place  of  Germany;  in  the  Ilarz 
Mountains,  i)  miles  from  Ballenstildt  (see  map  of  Gennan 
Empire,  ref.  4-F) ;  was  established  as  a  walcring-place  by 
the  Dul<e  of  Anhalt-Hernburg  in  1810.  It  lias  two  springs 
— the  Selke  spring,  wliich  contains  no  carbonates,  and  very 
little  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  large  ipiautities  of  chloride  and 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  is  only  used  for  batliing;  and  the 
Alexis  spring,  containing  carbonate  of  iron,  which  is  used  for 
drinking.     The  scenery  in  the  neighborhood  is  beautiful. 

Alexis  of  Thiirii:  Greek  comic  poet;  b.  b.  c.  392;  one  of 
tlie  most  imi>ortant  and  prolific  writers  of  the  Middle  Attic 
Comedy  (see  Greek  Literature),  though  living  as  lie  did 
to  the  age  of  106  he  reached  far  into  the  period  of  the  New 
Attic  Comedy.  The  part  of  tlie  parasite  was  considered  his 
special  invention.  Fragments  in  Meineke,  Friifimeiita  romic- 
uniin  Gnecurum,  iii.  382  If. ;  Kock,  iii.  297  ff.  (345  numbers). 

Alfalfa ;  See  Lucerne. 

Alfle'ri,  Vittorio,  Count :  Italian  poet ;  b.  at  Asti,  in 
Piedmont,  Jan.  17.  1749,  imd  inherited  a  large  fortune.  He 
was  sent  to  the  Academy  of  Turin,  in  which  he  learned 
little,  and  which  he  quitted  aliout  1764.  Recoiling  with 
disgust  and  resentment  from  the  stupid  pedantry  and  tyr- 
anny of  his  teachers,  he  plungdi  into  dissipation  and  neg- 
lected the  t'ultivation  of  his  mind.  He  passed  many  years 
in  travel,  for  whiclr  lie  had  a  strong  passion,  and  visited 
nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  impelled  by  morbid  un- 
rest and  love  of  excitement,  rather  than  a  rational  resolution 
to  complete  his  educal  ion.  He  began  his  literary  career  by 
the  drama  of  Cleopatra,  winch  was  performed  with  apjilause 
in  177.').  About  this  lime  he  entered  a  more  regular  course 
of  life,  and  devoted  himself  witli  passionate  ardor  to  study 
and  composition.  It  is  stated  that  he  commenced  the  study 
of  Greek  after  lie  was  forty  years  old.  His  literary  success 
was  promoted,  as  he-allirms,  by  tlie  influence  of  the  C'ountess 
of  Alliany,  tlie  wife  of  the  Young  Pretender,  Charles  Ed- 
ward Stuart.  (See  Albany,  Countess  op.)  He  passed  many 
years  in  luu'  society. at  Florence  and  Rome,  and  in  France. 
He  composeil  numerous  tragedies,  comedies,  satires,  and 
lyrical  poems.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  his 
tragedies,  among  which  we  notice  Virginia,  Filippo  II., 
Oresfe.s,  A/ieJ,  3Ianj  Stuart.  Mi/rrha,  Octavia,  and  i.S'f«»/. 
His  ilramas,  which  display  great  energy  of  language  and 
intensity  of  passion,  and  abound  in  noble  sentiments,  were 
well  adapted  to  reform  tlie  national  literature,  whieli  had 
liecome  elfete.  insipid,  and  destitute  of  manly  vigor.  "  The 
aim  of  liis  works,"  says  JMadame  de  Stael,  "  is  so  noble,  the 
sentiments  wliich  the  author  expresses  accord  so  well  with 
his  personal  conduct,  that  his  tragedies  ought  always  to  be 
praised  as  actions,  even  when  they  may  be  criticised  as  lit- 
erary works."  (Corinne.)  Alfieri  was  liberal  in  politics, 
and  ardently  desired  to  improve  the  jiolitical  and  social 
condition  of  It.-ily  by  his  writings.  Among  his  works  are  an 
IJxsai/  on  'J'l/ranni/.  live  odes  on  the  American  Revolution, 
and  his  iuleresting  autobiography.  He  died  at  Florence. 
Oct.  8,  1,S()3.  Ilis  complete  works  were  publisheil  at  Pisa  in 
22  vols.  4to,  1808.  A  new  edition  of  his  dramatic  works  was 
published  by  Milanesi  (18.5.1,  2  vols.).  His  life  wiis  written 
by  Teza  (1861).  See  also  Tedeschi,  Stndi  sulk  trafjedie  di 
Alfieri  (1869).  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Alfoii'sine  (or  AI|'>lioii'sine')  Tables:  the  a,stronoinical 
tabli'S  prepared  bv  llie  order  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  at  a  cost  of  400,000  gold  ducats— about  $800,000. 
They  weri!  published  in  12.52. 

Alfonso  I.  of  C'lstile  (or  Alfonso  TI.  of  Leon),  surnamed 
'I'liE  I'iIjave:  son  of  Fernando  1.:  became  King  of  Leon  in 
l(Mi.5,  and  of  Castile  in  1073.  Aided  by  the  1'aiiious  Ciil,  he 
defeatetl  the  Moors  in  several  battles.  He  died  in  1109. — 
Alfonso  VIII.  of  Ca.stile  (sometimes  called  Alkonso  111.). 
WHS  born  about  11.5.5,  and  became  king  in  11.58.  He  defeated 
the  Sultan  Mohammed  An-Nilsir  in  a  great  battle  in  1212. 


D.  in  1214. — Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile,  b.  in  1311 ;  succeeded 
his  father,  Fernando  IV.,  in  1312.  He  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  Sultan  Abool-Hassan  at  Tarifa  in  1340.  D.  at 
Gibraltar  in  1350. 

Alfonso  I.:  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily;  b.  about  1385; 
wa-s  a  son  of  Fernando  I.  of  Aragon,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1416.  On  the  death  of  Joanna  II..  ^ueen  of  Naples  (1435), 
that  kingdom  was  claimed  by  Alfonso  and  Rene  of  Anjou. 
After  a  long  war  between  these  rivals,  Alfonso  obtained  the 
throne  of  Naples  in  1442.  He  died  June  27,  1458,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Ferdinand  I. 

Alfonso  I.:  King  of  Navarre  and  Aragon;  came  to  the 
throne  in  1104;  married  tlie  daughter  of  Alfonso  I.  of  Cas- 
tile, and  proclaimed  himself  "Empercpr  of  all  Spain"  in 
1109  ;  won  many  battles  against  the  Jloors.  taking  Saragossa 
in  1118.  He  also  crossed  the  Pyi-enees  and  captured  Bor- 
deaux in  1130,  and  Bayonne  in  1131.  D.  in  the  cloister  of 
San  Juan  de  la  Pegna,  Valencia,  Sept.  1.5,  1134.     C.  H.  T. 

Alfonso  I. :  first  King  of  Portugal ;  b.  about  1100;  a  son 
of  Henry  of  Burgundy.  Having  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Moors  at  Ourique  in  1139.  he  assumed  the  title  of  king. 
He  afterward  took  Lisbon,  and  became  master  of  all  Portu- 
gal. He  died  at  Coimbra,  Dec.  6,  1185,  and  left  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Sancho  I. 

Alfon'so  III.  of  Asturi!i.s,  surnamed  The  Great;  began 
to  reign  in  866  a.  d.  He  enlargi-d  his  dominions  by  victories 
over  tlie  infidels  of  Spain.     D.  at  Zamora  in  901. 

Alfonso  v.:  King  of  Portugal;  b.  in  1432;  was  success- 
ful in  wars  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  and  surnameil  Afri- 
cano  on  that  account ;  but  failed  in  his  attempt  to  add  Cas- 
tile and  Leon  to  his  dominions.     D.  at  Cintra,  Aug.  28, 1481. 

.  Alfonso  VI. ;  King  of  Portugal ;  b.  1643 ;  succeeded  his 
father  in  1656 ;  on  account  of  his  vices  was  dethroned  by  his 
wife  and  brother  in  1667;  and  d.  in  imprisonment  at  Cintra, 
Sept.  12,  1683. 

Alfonso  X. :  called  El  Sahio.  "  The  Learned  " ;  b.  Nov. 
23,  1221  ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Castile  and  Leon  in 
1252.  He  abandoned  the  warlike  policy  of  his  fatlier,  Fer- 
dinand III.,  and  it  was  chiefly  owing  to  him  that  a  favorable 
opiiortunity  was  lost  for  driving  the  Arabs  from  Spain. 
Having  been  electeil  German  emperor  by  a  faction  of  the 
Gennan  princes  in  1257.  his  desire  to  maintain  a  splendid 
court  forced  him  to  I'esort  to  unjust  and  disastrous  financial 
measures,  which  estranged  his  subjects  from  him  and  helped 
to  iirepare  the  way  for  the  usurpation  of  his  throne  liy  his 
second  son,  Sancho,  in  1282.  He  died  as  a  fugitive  in  Seville, 
April  4,  1284.  It  is  not  to  his  capacity  as  a  ruler,  but  to  his 
extensive  learning  and  literary  activity,  that  Alfonso  X.  owes 
a  distinguished  posititm  in  Siianish  history.  His  great  in- 
terest in  astronomy  and  natural  science  is  attested  by  such 
compilations  as  the  Astronomical  Tallies;  his  Book  of  the 
Treasure;  in  law,  by  The  Mirror  of  all  Laws,  and  especially 
by  his  well-known  code  named  Las  Siete  Partidas  (The 
Seven  Divisions),  which  is,  however,  rather  a  series  of  essays 
on  legis!ati(m.  moral  and  religious,  than  a  legislative  monu- 
ment such  as  tlie  great  statutes  of  Edward  I.  While  in  the 
Cliroriirle.t.  which  he  caused  to  be  written  in  Castiliau,  he 
laid  the  cornerstone  of  a  national  hisforiograpliy,  and  in  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Castiliau.  made  under  his  direc- 
tion, he  greatly  contributed  toward  making  the  Castiliau 
dialect  the  language  of  the  whole  kingdom,  he  has  also  the 
great  merit  of  having  perfected  and  firmly  established  by 
the  above-mentioned  works  the  character  of  Ca.stilian  prose. 
Alfonso  X.  was  also  the  warm  friend  of  the  Proveui;al  trouba- 
dours, whose  poetic  forms  he  imitated  in  a  number  of  lyric 
comjiositions  still  extant.  In  this  lyi'ic  court-poetry,  as  well 
as  in  his  401  songs  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary  ([lublished  by 
the  Spanish  Academy  in  1889),  he  did  not  employ  the  Ca.s- 
tilian,  but  the  Galician  dialect,  then  in  common  use  among 
all  the  troubadours  of  Western  Spain.       Henry  R.  Lang. 

Alfonso  XII.:  King  of  Spain ;  b.  Nov.  28.  18.57;  son  of 
Queen  Isaliel  and  of  tin-  Infante  Francisco;  educated  at  the 
Military  Academy  of  Woolwich.  England;  on  Dec.  31, 1874, 
Gen.  Martinez  Campos  proelaimed  him  king;  on  Jan.  9, 
187.5,  he  landed  at  Barcelona  and  took  command  of  the 
army;  Jan.  23,  1878.  he  married  Princess  Maria  de  las  Mer- 
cedes, b.  June  24,  1860,  youngest  daughter  of  tlie  Duke  of 
Montpeusier;  became  a  widower  June  26,  1878,  and  mar- 
ried, in  second  nuptials.  Nov.  29,  1879,  Archduchess  iNIaria 
Christina  of  Austria,  b.  Julv  21,  1858.  King  Alfonso  XII. 
dieil  at  Madrid,  Nov.  25,  1885. 


ALFONSO  XIII. 


ALGEBRA 


115 


Alfonso  XIII. :  King  of  Spain  umler  the  ro<rcncy  of  his 
mollur,  Miuiu  t'liristina :  the  sun  of  Alfonso  XII.;  b.  May 
17,  18«G,  after  his  father's  death. 

Alford.CiiARLKs  KiciiARD,  I).  D.:  .\n<rliean  ilivine:  b.  1816, 
at  We.st  (juanto.\heail,  Somersetshire,  KnKland ;  edvK-ated 
at  Trinity  College,  Canil)ri(lge;  ordained  in  1840;  principal 
Metropolitan  Chureh  of  England  Training  College,  18.14-64; 
Bishop  of  \'ietoria.  Hongkong,  1867-72  ;  author  of  First 
Prineiplcx  (if  the  Oracles  of  God;  a  charge  on  China  and 
Japan;  and  numerous  sermons  and  pamphlets. 

Alford.  riKXKY,  P.P.:  poet,  preacher,  painter,  .scholar, 
critic,  philologist,  and  theologian;  b.  in  London.  England, 
Oct.  7,  18UI.  lie  l)eeame  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  18:U:  ininndicnt  of  (Jueliee  Street  cliapel,  London, 
in  llS.");i,  and  Dean  of  Canterbury  in  IS.jG.  His  most  popular 
poetical  work  is  The  Srhool  of  the.  Heart,  and  other  Poems 
(18y5),  whicli  was  highly  commended  by  the  Edinburgh 
Review  for  Jan..  18;!6.  He  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a 
biblical  critic  l)y  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Xew  Testament 
(1844-52),  in  whic  h  he  made  much  more  use  than  his  pre- 
decessors of  the  treasures  of  German  learning,  and  thereby 
created  an  epoch  in  New  Testament  study.  A  revised  edi- 
tion of  it  appeared  in  4  vols.  (1859  et  seq.).  The  Contem- 
porary Review  was  inaugurated  under  his  editorship,  and 
was  conducted  by  liim  from  Jan.,  1866,  to  Aug.,  1870.  Seven 
volumes  of  sermons  preached  in  Quebec  Street  chapel  were 
published  at  intervals  of  his  busy  life;  also  two  volumes  of 
Hnlsean  Lectare.%  delivered  befcjre  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. He  published  also  a  small  volume  entitled  Tlie 
Queen's  KiK/lisli.  which  attracted  no  little  attention.  P.  at 
Canterliury.'Jan.  12,  1871.  Kevised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

.\rfn'd,  surnanied  The  Gre.\t;  written  also  .Elfred, 
Aliirt'd,  or  .Vlvrcd  (in  Lat.  ^-Elfre'dus);  King  of  the  West 
.Saxons  m  England;  b.  in  Berkshire  in  848  or  849  A.  D. 
He  was  n  younger  son  of  Ethelwolf,  and  succeeded  his 
brother  Ethelred  in  871,  when  he  found  the  country  in  a 
miserable  condition.  In  the  preceiling  reign  the  kingdom 
had  been  invaded  and  ravaged  by  an  army  of  Panes,  whom 
the  Saxons  were  unable  to  resist.  After  the  accession  of 
.\lfred  these  piratical  incursions  were  continued  or  renewed, 
and  nearly  all  of  the  kingdom  was  coiKjuered  by  the  Panes. 
Alfred  w:us  forced  to  tlce  from  his  court  and  conceal  himself 
in  the  hut  of  a  cowherd.  Having  by  furtive  niea.sures  raised 
a  small  army,  he  attacked  and  routed  the  Panes  at  Edding- 
ton  in  878.  Soon  after  this  battle  the  Panish  King  Guth- 
nim  surrendered  himself,  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
remained  a  peaceable  subject  of  Alfred,  who  now  directed 
his  attention  to  civil  affaii-s.  He  founded  or  imjiroved  the 
British  navy,  rel)uilt  cities  and  forts,  established  schools, 
compiled  a  code  of  laws,  and  reformed  the  adniinistration 
of  justice.  In  that  age  of  ignorance  he  was  distinguished  as 
a  scholar,  as  well  as  a  patron  of  learning.  He  translated 
several  works  from  the  Latin  into  Anglo-Saxon.  About  89;^ 
he  was  recognized  as  the  sovereign  of  all  England.  His 
kingdom  was  again  invaded  in  894  by  an  army  of  Xorthmen 
under  Hastings,  who  is  said  to  have  had  a  fleet  of  ;^l)0  ships. 
Alfred  deti-ated  them  in  several  battles,  and  finallv  drove 
them  out  of  the  islanil.  He  died  at  Winchester.  Oct.  28,  901. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Edward  the  Elder.  Alfred  is  re- 
garded as  the  wisest  and  greatest  of  jdl  the  kings  of  England. 
lie  was,  says  Freeman,  "a  saint  without  superstition,  a 
scholar  without  ostentation,  a  conqueror  whose  hands  were 
never  staineil  with  iMUelly,  a  prince  never  ca.st  down  by  ad- 
versity, never  lifte(i  up  to  insolence  in  the  day  of  triumph." 
See  Sh.'tron  Turner's  History  of  llie  Anylo-Saxuns,  and 
Hughes's  Alfred  the  Great  (1878). 

Alfred.  Ernest  Albert:  Puke  of  Edinl)urgh  ;  second  son 
of  Queen  Victoria  of  England  ;  b.  in  Windsor  Ca.stle,  Aug.  0. 
1844;  entered  the  royal  navy  Aug.  :il,  1858;  was  married 
Jan.  23,  1874.  to  Grand  Puciiess  Marie  of  Russia,  the  only 
daughter  of  Emperor  Alexander  II. 

Alfred  (or  .\luredi  of  Beverley:  an  English  priest  and 
historian;  b.  alioiil  IKKl.  He  wmlc  a.  hi.story  of  Britain  in 
Latin,  an  aliridgmeiit  of  Geoffrey  of  Motnuouth. 

Alfred  Ceiifre.  .\llegany  co.,  X.  Y. ;  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref.  6-P) ;  3  miles  from  Alfred 
station  on  the  Erie  II.  K. ;  has  an  academy,  and  is  the  seat 
of  Alfred  Universitv,  a  Seventh-Pay  Baptist  institution. 
Pop.  (1880)  513;  (1890)  786. 

Al'frelon  :  a  market-town  and  parish  of  Per})yshire,  Eng- 
land; 12  miles  X.  X'.  E.  of  Perliy  (see  map  of  England,  ref. 


I^Ii).    It  issuppo.sed  to  have  been  named  in  honor  of  Alfred 
the  Great.     I'op.  4,492. 

Al'g"*  [plu.  of  Lat.  alga,  a  seaweed] :  the  general  name  of 
the  seaweeds,  etc.,  comprising  many  species  which  grow  in 
salt  or  fresh  w'aler,  and  are  greatly  diversified  in  form,  size, 
and  structure.  Some  are  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  while  the  stem  of  the  "giant  kelp"  of  the  west  coa.st  of 
America  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  from  l.OOOto  l,.500feet. 
Having  no  true  roots,  they  usually  adhere  to  rocks  or  the 
sea  bottom,  and  sometimes  they  float  on  the  surface.  Xavi- 
gators  frequently  meet  with  masses  of  gulfweed  (Sargassutn) 
many  miles  in  extent.  An  area  of  this  kind  in  the  Atlantic 
is  said  by  JIaury  to  be  as  large  as  the  Mississippi  valle)'. 
There  are  several  such  areas  in  the  ocean,  called  .Sargasso 
Seas  (g.  v.).  Alga;  are  cellular  in  structure,  are  useful  as 
iminure,  and  some  species,  like  Irish  moss,  are  used  as  food. 
Kelp  or  barilla,  nuide  by  b\n'ning  seaweeds  and  other  marine 
plants,  yiekls  soda  and  iodine.  See  Veuetaki.e  Kingdom. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Algrar'di,  Alessandro:  Italian  sculptor  and  architect;  b. 
at  Bologna  about  1600:  studied  design  under  the  Caracei. 
His  masterpiece  in  sculpture  is  a  colossal  work  in  relief  in 
St.  Peter's  church,  Rome,  the  subject  of  which  is  Pope  Leo 
forbidding  Attila  to  enter  Rome.  Among  his  works  are 
statues  of  S.  Philippo  Xeri  and  Imiocent  X.  P.  in  Bologna, 
June  10.  1654. 

Alararovil'la :  an  astringent  substance  procured  from  a 
tree  called  Jiiga  niarlha'.  found  in  X'ew  Carthagena,  South 
America.     It  is  a  jiowerful  agent  for  tanning  leather. 

Alg'ar've  (i.  e.  the  western  land),  or  Faro :  the  southern- 
most province  of  Portugal;  bomided  X.  by  Alemtejo,  E.  by 
Spain,  and  S.  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  1,872 
sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  mountainous.  The  main  ex- 
ports are  wine,  salt,  dates,  and  other  fruits.  The  chief  towns 
are  Faro  and  Lagos.    Pop.  (1878)  205.901 ;  (1881)  204,031. 

Al-Gazza'li.  or  Al-Ghazza'li,  Abu  Hamed  MonAMMEn: 
b.  at  Tus.  Persia,  in  1058;  taught  both  in  Xishapoor  and  in 
Bagdad;  lived  a  while  in  Syria;  visited  Egypt;  spent  the 
latter  part  of  his  lite  in  Tus,  where  lie  died  in  1111.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  Moslem  theologians  aiul 
philosophers,  and  a  very  prolific  writer.  See  Lewes's  Bio- 
gniphical  History  of  Philosophy.  J.  R.  J. 

Al'gebra  [mediev.  Lat.  (or  Ital.)  form  of  Arab,  aljehr; 
al.  the  +  jehr.  reimiting,  to  Jaliara,  restore]:  an  important 
branch  of  mathematics,  sometimes  called  universal  arith- 
metic, but  it  may  be  nuii-e  properly  described  as  a  calculus 
of  symbols.  The  symbols  it  enqiloys  are  of  three  kinds:  (1) 
those  of  quantity,  known  or  unknown,  which  consist  of  ordi- 
nary numliers  anil  letters  of  the  alphabet;  (2)  those  of  oper- 
ation, among  which  are  -I-,—,  x,-*-,  \/,  etc;  and  (3)  mere 
abbreviations  for  ordinaiy  words.  (See  Sign.)  The  comlji- 
nation  of  these  symbols  according  to  fixed  laws  leads  to  al- 
gebraical expressions  or  formuto,  in  which  actual  computa- 
tions are  indicated  rathei-  than  jierformed.  The  univei-sality 
of  algebra  as  compared  with  arithmetic  consists  in  the  fact 
that  in  the  latter,  computations  being  effected  as  they  arise, 
all  traces  of  the  intermediate  steps  are  obliterated,  and  the 
result  is  a|i|)licable  to  a  single  case  only ;  whereas  in  algelira 
the  formuhe  contain  implicitly  the  answers  to  an  unlimited 
number  of  questions.  Again,  to  the  equivalence  of  two  al- 
geliraical  formula  always  corresponds  a  general  theorem, 
which  arithmetic  can  only  verify  in  particular  cases.  Thus 
from  the  algebraical  identity 

(n  +  ft)  (a—h)  =  <i"—V 
we  learn  that  the  "product  which  results  from  multiplying 
the  sum  by  the  difference  of  atiy  two  nundjcrs  is  equal  to 
the  difference  of  their  squares.'' 

The  systematic  notation,  to  which  algebra  owes  its  chief 
power  as  an  instrument  of  research,  has  been  of  very  grad- 
lud  growth,  and  is  still  being  extended.  In  the  first  known 
treatises  on  the  sul)ject.  liy  Piophantns,  who  probably  lived 
in  about  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  the  few  symbols  em- 
ployed Mi;  mere  abbreviations  for  ordinary  words.  The 
Arabians,  who  obtairu'<l  their  algebra,  from  the  Uindu.s,  did 
little  or  nothing  tow.-iixl  its  extension,  though  their  treatises, 
alter  being  carrieil  into  Italy  by  a  nu'rchant  of  Pisa,  Leo- 
nardo Bonacci  (1202  a.  n.),  gave  rise  to  important  improve- 
ments. Scipio  Ferreus,  of  Bononia,  is  said  to  have  first 
solved  the  equation  of  the  third  degree  (150.5);  but  it  was 
Tartaglia,  or  rather  Cardan,  who  fii-st  gave  the  general  solu- 
tion of  a  c\ibic  ecpiation,  and  emi)loyed  letters  to  denote  the 
unknown  quantities,  the  known  ones  being  still  mere  num- 


lit; 


ALGECIRAS 


ALGERIA 


bers.  Without  extending  algebraic  notation,  Ferrari,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Cardan,  discovered  the  general  solution  of  a  biquad- 
ratic equation,  and  thus,  imkuown  to  himself,  readied  tl\e 
barrier  which,  as  has  since  been  proved,  will  ever  remain 
impassable  to  tlie  searcher  for  general  solutions  of  equations 
of  the  fifth  and  higher  degrees.  (See  Equations.)  Toward 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  algebra  was  introduced 
into  Germany,  France,  and  England,  by  Stifelius,  Peletarius, 
and  Robert  Recorde,  respectively.  In  doing  so.  the  latter 
also  invented  the  very  con\enient  symbol  of  abbreviation  =. 
and  Stifelius  the  far  more  important  symbols  of  operation 
-t-,  — ,  V.  In  the  same  century,  through  her  far-famed  son 
Vieta,  Prance  contributed  still  more  to  the  progress  of  the 
science.  Vieta  introduced  letters  as  symbols  for  known  as 
well  as  for  vuiknown  quantities,  and  by  the  increased  power 
thus  acquired  he  laid  tlie  foundation  of  the  general  theory 
of  equations.  In  this  ilirection  he  was  followed  by  Girard, 
Harriot,  Descartes,  and  otliers ;  in  short,  the  science  now 
a<lvanced  rapidly  toward  its  present  state  of  perfection.  It 
would  be  fruitless  here  to  attempt  to  trace  its  progress.  The 
reader  may  consult  with  advantage  Hutton's  3Iathematical 
Tracts,  vol.  ii. ;  Bonnycastle's  translation  o£  Bossut's  Histoire 
lies  Mathematlques ;  or  tlie  works  of  Jlontucla.  See  De- 
terminants. Revised  by  S.  Xewcomb. 

Alsreciras,  ald'^luiy-thee'riis  (i.  e.  the  Peninsula):  a  sea- 
port of  S|iaiu  ;  in  the  province  of  Cadiz ;  6  miles  W.  of  Gi- 
braltar, from  wliich  it  is  separated  bv  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar; 
hit.  m  8'  X..  Ion.  .")  36'  y  W.  (see  niap  of  Spain,  ref.  20-D). 
Pop.  about  14,000.  Leatlier  and  charcoal  are  exported  from 
tins  port.  Here  occurred  a  naval  battle  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  in  July,  1801. 

Al'g'er,  Horatio,  .Ir. :  Unitarian  minister:  b.  at  N.  Chel- 
sea (now  Revere),  Mass.,  Jan.  13,  1834:  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1852;  studied  divinity  at  Cambridge:  was  ordained 
over  the  Unitarian  church  at  Brewster,  Mass..  in  18(i4:  and 
settleu  in  New  York  in  1866.  He  has  publislied  Bertha's 
Cliristmas  Vision  (18.5.5);  Paul  Preston's  Charye  (1865);  Do 
anil  Dare  (1884),  etc. 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander  :  politician;  b.  at  Lafayette. 
O..  Feb.  27.  1836;  admitted  to  the  bar  18.511;  entered  the 
Union  army  as  a  jirivate ;  %vas  breveted  inaj\)r-general  of 
volunteers  June,  1865;  Governor  of  Jlichigaii  1884;  candi- 
date for  President  in  Republican  National  Convention  1888; 
electedcouimaiuler-in-chief  of  tlieG.  A.  R.  1889;  and  became 
Secretary  of  War  in  JMcKinley's  administration  1897. 

Alger.  William  Rounseville;  clergyman  and  author:  b. 
at  Freetown,  Mass.,  Dec.  30,  1832;  graduated  at  Harvard 
Theological  School  in  1847.  Besides  his  most  important 
work,  A  Critical  Ilislorij  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life. 
with  the  remarkable  liiiillography  by  Ezra  Alibot,  Litera- 
ture of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Future  Life  (1863).  his  Genius 
of  Solitude  (1865)  and  Friendships  of  Women  (1867)  liave 
been  admired.  He  has  also  translated  Oriental  poetry  from 
the  German.  He  has  been  since  1875  pastor  of  Unitarian 
churches  in  New  York,  Denver,  and  Boston. 

Algre'ria  (Fr.  L'Algerie):  a  French  colony  in  Xortliern 
Africa;  between  the  Mediterranean  and  about  lat.  37  N.. 
and  the  meridians  of  2'  W.  and  10  E.  Area,  184,474  .so. 
miles.  Boundaries :  Mediterranean  on  the  N.,  Tunis  and 
Tripoli  on  tlie  E.,  Sahara  S..  Jloroeco  W.  A  protectorate  is 
claimed  over  au  eiioruKius  desert  area  to  the  .S..  extending 
to  about  lat.  15    N..  anil  from  meridian  8'  W.  to  13'  E. 

Topographi/. — Coast  higli  and  steep,  with  few  good  har- 
bors; near  th(^  coast.  Little  Atlas  Mountains;  monntainoiis 
region,  witli  coast  streams  and  deep,  fertile  valleys.  Back  of 
these  mountains  an  extensive  arid  plateau  2.000  to  3.000  feet 
high,  declining  toward  the  .Sahara.  Between  this  plateau 
and  the  desert,  main  Atlas  diain.  with  wooded  slopes.  No 
large  rivers. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  dry;  the  rainy  season  lasts  from 
September  to  A|)ril.  but  the  rains  are  not  constant.  The 
summer  is  almost  rainless.  The  heat  is  not  as  intense  as  in 
some  countries,  but  is  protracted.  The  winters  are  pleas- 
antly cold,  making  the  colony  an  agreeable  winter  resort. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  the 
Mi'tidjah,  or  northern  plain,  is  very  fertile.  Near  the  coast 
market  vegetaliles  are  grown  largely  and  exported  to  Europe. 
The  valleys  and  plain  produce  wheat,  barley,  and  tropical 
fruits.  The  grasses  and  reeds  of  the  .'^hott  or  great  plateau 
afford  rich  pasture  to  the  Arab  or  Berber  horses,  cattle, 
asses  and  mules,  and  sheep.  The  esparto  grass,  extensively 
used  in  paper-making  in  France  and  Great  Britain,  gj-ow's 


all  over  this  plateau.  The  forests  are  of  different  species  of 
palm,  cedar,  and  cork-oak.  The  date-palm  ripens  its  fruit 
in  the  S.  The  wild  beasts,  except  the  hya'iia  ami  jackal,  are 
mostly  exterminated.  The  minerals  are  iron,  lead,  copper, 
marble,  sulphur,  and  salt. 

Commerce.— In  1890  the  imports  were  $47,000,000,  and 
the  exports  about  |52.000.000.  The  exports  from  and  im- 
ports to  France  were  nearly  equal — viz.,  $43,000,000.  In  1891 
there  were  1.910  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  including  the 
Tunisian  extension  of  140  miles.  In  1890  the  telegraph  lines, 
inclutling  branches  into  Tunis,  were  4.310  miles  in  length, 
with  10.000  miles  of  wire. 

Weights  and  Measures. — (1)  Length  ;  The  metric  sys- 
tem is  established  by  law.  The  former  unit  of  length  was 
the  (so-called)  Turkish  pik  =  25-197  inches  =  640  mm.,  which 
is  not,  however,  that  of  Constantinople,  nor  equivalent  to 
any  of  the  various  piks  in  use  in  the  Levant.  The  so-called 
Moorisli  or  Arabian  pik  =  }  of  the  foregoing  =  18'898  inches 
=  480  mm.,  was  also  used;  but  this  is  not  the  pik  used  in 
Morocco  or  in  Arabia.     Sub-multiple,  the  robi  =  ^  pik. 

(2)  Volume  ;  For  liquid  capacity  the  khoulle  =  4'4027  gal. 
=  16'67o  liters.  For  dry  measure,  the  tarrie  =  0'56295  U.  S. 
bush.  =  19-84  liters.  Multiple,  16  tarries  =  1  eafflso.  The  saa 
is  a  little  less  than  3  tarries  ;  it  is  =  1-646  bush.  =  58-0  litei-s. 

(3)  Weights;  The  rotlorrottolo  is  the  unit,  and  has  differ- 
ent values  for  different  commodities.  The  rotl-keliir  (large 
roll),  for  honey,  butter,  oil,  dates,  and  soap  =  1-806  lb.  avoir- 
dupois =0-81912  kUog. ;  the  rotl-ghredouri,  for  fruits  and 
leguminous  vegetables  =  1-34543  11).  av.  =  0-614:?4  kilog. ;  the 
rotl-feudi.  for  precious  metals  and  gems  =  1-0968  lb.  ay.= 
0-49743  kilog. :  and  the  rotl-attari.  for  drugs  am!  commodities 
genei-idly  =  1-20403  lb.  ay.  =  0-.54608  kilog.  The  rotl-feudi 
and  the  rotl-attari  are  subdivided  into  16  onccs  each,  the  rotl- 
ghredouri  into  18  onces,  and  the  rotl-kebir  into  34  onces. 
The  rotl-attari  has  a  multiple  by  100.  called  the  kantar- 
attari.  for  commodities  generally;  a  multiple  by  110  for 
cheese,  almonds,  cotton,  and  some  other  things,  called  the 
kantar-fromage ;  a  multiple  by  166  for  honey,  butter,  oil, 
soap,  etc.,  called  the  kantar-benrre ;  and  a  multiple,  called 
the  kantar  de  lin.  of  200  rotl-attari.  There  are  a  kantar- 
gliredoiiri  and  a  kantar-kebir.  each  of  100  times  the  cor- 
responding rotl.  The  kharoul.ia  or  karob  is  a  small  weight 
for  pearls  and  jewels  ^3  grains  =  0-1944  gramme  ;  multiple, 
34  karobs  =  l  metical. 

ITistori/. — The  Numidians  and  ]Moors.  who  inhabited  this 
region,  soon  came  under  the  control  of  Carthage.  On  the 
tall  of  Carthage.  146  B.  c,  Algeria  became  a  Roman  colony, 
aii<l  enj<iyed  a  great  degree  of  prosperity  till  its  conquest  by 
the  Vaniials.  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  Two  cen- 
turies later  the  Saracens  became  masters  of  the  country,  and 
the  ]ieople  gradually  sank  into  a  state  of  barbarism.  In 
1516  the  ameer  called  in  the  pirates  of  Barbarossa  to  his  help 
against  the  Spaniards,  and  they  became  mastei-s  of  the  coun- 
try and  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey.  F(U-  three 
centuries  the  Algerine  pirates  were  the  terror  of  Southern 
Europe  and  the  Mediterranean.  In  1705  they  renounced 
allegiance  to  Turkey,  and  their  piracies  grew  more  audacious 
for  the  next  hundred  years.  Partially  checked  by  Nai)oleon 
I.,  they  returned  to  their  bloody  deeds  after  the  peace,  but  in 
1815  were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace  by  a  U.  S.  s(|uadron. 
After  a  time  they  became  bolder  than  ever,  and  France  re- 
solved to  chastise  them.  After  a  three-yeare  blockade  of  the 
ports  of  Algeria,  the  French  bombarded  and  cajitured  Al- 
giers, July  5.  1830.  The  country  was  under  Frencli  military 
control  for  forty  years,  and  there  was  constant  fighting  with 
tlie  Arabs  and  Kabyles.  It  was  generally  believed  that  the 
French  rule  had  been  a  failure,  and  that  the  colony  had  cost 
much  more  than  France  would  ever  receive  for  it ;  but  in 
1871,  after  the  suppression  of  a  serious  rebellion,  Algeria  was 
put  under  a  civil  administration.  There  has  been  since  that 
time  some  trouble  with  the  native  tribes,  but  as  a  whole  the 
civil  administr.-ition  has  proved  a  success.  A  standing  army 
is  still  maintained  there  of  60.000  men.  but  halt  of  them  are 
native  troops.  In  1881  a  war  commenced  with  the  native 
tribes  of  Tunis,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  pro- 
tectorate over  that  country  by  France.  After  the  Franco- 
Pnissian  war  homes  were  offered  to  Alsatians  who  preferred 
to  remain  with  France.  Many  took  advantage  of  the  offer, 
and  the  colony  h.-is  since  been  prosperous. 

Administration. — A  civil  governor-general  now  adminis- 
ters affairs,  and  Algeria  is  looked  on  rather  as  a  part  of 
France  than  as  a  colony.  Military  administration  is  now 
limited  to  the  outlying  parts  in  the  Sahara.  The  laws  are 
made  by  the  Frencli  ( 'handlers,  and  each  Algerian  depart- 


ALGHERO 


ALGOMA 


117 


imiit  sonds  1  sonatnr  and  2  (loputies  to  the  Xalioiial  Assem- 
lily.  Till'  ilc|iai-tiiiiMits  are  i:!  ill  number — Algiers  in  the 
miiiille,  Constantiiie  on  tlie  E.,  and  Oran  in  the  W.  Educa- 
tion is  well  cared  for.  There  is  an  academy  at  the  city  of 
Algiers  with  'iiS  students  (1888),  and  there  are  8  communal 
colleges  anil  1  college  for  girls.  Order  is  well  iiiaintained, 
and  crime  is  not  more  common  than  in  France.  The  popula- 
tion is  largely  agricultural.  Wheat,  barley,  grapes,  tobacco, 
and  alfa  are  the  common  crops. 

Popul(ilioii.~T\w  total  [jopulation  in  1891  was— in  the 
civil  districts.  a.(i;i(i,!)67;  in  tlie  military  districts,  487.765; 
total,  4.124.732.  or  22  to  the  sij.  mile.  The  civil  territory  is 
lieing  coiislantlv  increased  by  taking  in  parts  of  the  military 
territory.  Of  the  aliove  iiopulatiim,  272,663  were  of  French 
extraction.  47.667  wi>re  naturalizeil  Jews,  and  ii,.567,223  were 
French  iniligeiioiis  subjects,  besides  foreigners,  properly  so 
called.  In  1876  tlie  population  of  Algiers  (capital  of  the 
colony  anil  of  till' deiiartment  of  Algiers)  was  74,792;  Oran 
(capital  of  Oran  (lepartment),  67.681 ;  Con.stantine  (capital  of 
Constant ine  de|iartnieiit).  44.960;  Bona,  29,640;  Tlemi;en, 
28.204;  Philippeville,  22.177;  Blidab,  24,304 ;  SidibOl-Ablies, 
21,59.5. 

Besides  the  Europeans  there  are  eight  different  races 
found  in  Algeria.  (1)  The  Kabyles,  a  nice  representing  the 
ancient  Berbers,  probably  the  aliorigines  and  possibly  Ar- 
yan. They  form  a  large  part  of  the  population,  especially  in 
the  mountains.  (2)  The  Arabs,  common  especially  in  the 
S.  They  are  Bedouins  or  nomadic  Arabs  and  are  turbulent. 
(3)  The  Moors,  a  mixed  race,  common  in  towns  near  the 
seacoast.  (4)  The  .Tews,  generally  engaged  in  commerce 
in  the  towns.  (5)  The  Turks ;  long  dominant  but  never 
numerous,  they  have  now  about  disappeared.  (6)  Kolougis, 
half-breed  Turks  by  native  women,  not  uncommon  in  the 
cities.  (7)  Negroes  who  were  brought  originally  as  slaves. 
(8)  The  Mozabites,  an  African  race  furnisiiing  laborers  for 
the  coiist  towns. 

Works  of  Reference. — Faidherbe,  L'Avenir  du  Sahara 
et  du  Soudan  (1866) ;  Maltzan,  Brei  Jahre  im  JVordwesfen 
von  Afrika  (1869) ;  Fillias,  L'Alyerie  ancienne  H  moderne 
(1875);  (ia^>\v^A,  LWfii'rie,  hisloire.  conqiiMe,  colunisiitiun 
(1883);  Playtair's  Jluriay"s  Handbook  of  Algaria  and  Tunis 
(1887) ;  Phiyfair's  liihli'ixjraphy  of  Alyeria,  published  by 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (1888) ;  and  numerous  official 
publications  by  the  French  Government. 

Revised  by  Mark  W.  riARKiNfiTo.v. 

Alglie'ro.  or  Alghe'ri :  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of 
Sardinia  ;  15  miles  S.  W.  of  Sassari  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
7-B).  It  has  a  cathedral  and  several  convents.  Wine,  grain, 
tobacco,  coral,  etc.,  are  exported  from  it.  Pop.  of  commune, 
10,532. 

Alariors'  (Ai-ab.  Al-Tczair'.  Fr.  Alger) :  a  seaport  and  city 
of  Xortb  Africa;  on  the  Mediterranean;  lat.  36°  47'  3"  N., 
Ion.  3°  4'  5"  Vj.  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-C).  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  but  since  1830  has 
been  the  capital  of  the  French  colony  of  Algeria.  Built  (m 
the  slope  of  a  steep  hill,  which  rises  to  the  height  of  .500  feet, 
it  presents  from  the  sea  an  imposing  appearance,  which  is 
partly  owing  to  the  whiteness  of  the  houses.  The  old  streets 
are  mostly  narrow  and  crooked,  but  several  straight  and 
elegant  streets  have  been  made  since  the  French  became 
masters  of  the  city.  The  houses  are  built  of  stone  and  brick, 
have  flat  roofs,  and  are  annually  whitewashed.  Among  the 
public  Imildiiigs  are  numerous  mosques,  several  Roman 
Catholic  <'liurcli('S.  a  fine  cathedral  and  exchange,  and  a 
public  library.  The  beauty  and  prosperity  of  the  city  have 
been  much  improved  by  the  French,  and  its  commerce  has 
Ix'en  greatly  increased.  Among  the  articles  of  export  are 
wheat,  coral,  animal  skins,  and  olive  oil.  Steam-vessels  ply 
frequently  between  Algiers  and  Toulon  and  Marseilles.  This 
city  was  for  three  centuries  the  rendezvous  of  the  Algerine 
pirates,  whi>.  though  few  in  number,  clefied  the  power  of  the 
greatest  nations  of  Europe.  It  was  bombarded  by  the  Eng- 
lish admiral  Lord  Exmoutli  in  July,  1816.  when  a  large  part 
of  the  citv  was  reduced  to  ruins,  and  was  taken  bv  the  French 
in  Julv,  1830.  Pop.  (1881)  64,714.  exclusive  of  the  military  ; 
(1886) '74,792. 

Algro'a  Bay  :  on  the  south  coa.st  of  Africa;  in  Cape  Col- 
ony, about  425  miles  E.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Ilojie.  Here 
are  a  good  harbor  and  a  flourishing  seaport  called  Port. 
Elizabeth,  situated  at  tlie  month  of  the  Zwartkops  river.  It 
wiLs  at  Algoa  Bay  that  the  first  immigrants  landed  in  South 
Africa. 


Algol:  tlie  star  which  in  the  ordinary  nomenclature  is 
known  as  j8  Persei  (R.  A.,  3  h.  1  in. ;  Deck,  40'  33).  In  recent 
times  it  has  become  the  subject  of  some  mo.st  remarkable 
discoveries.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  it  has  figured  as 
a  variable  star,  because  at  certain  regular  intervals,  a  little 
less  than  three  days,  its  light  gradually  faded  out  during 
about  four  hours,  until  it  was  recluced  from  the  second  to  the 
fourth  magnitude.  During  the  following  four  hours  its  light 
would  be  recovered,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  star  would 
then  remain  imchanged  for  about  two  and  a  half  days.  It 
was  long  ago  suggested  that  these  variations  might  be  due  to 
the  partial  eclipse  of  the  star  by  a  dark  body  revolving 
around  it,  and  passing  between  the  earth  and  the  star  at 
everv  revolution.  But  the  testing  of  this  hypothesis  .seemed 
hopeless  until  the  system  of  measuring  the  motion  of  stars 
in  the  line  of  sight,  originally  introduced  by  Dr.  Iluggins, 
of  London,  was  brought  to  extreme  perfection  by  Dr.  Vogel, 
of  Potsdam.  The  latter  found  liy  repeated  measurement 
that  before  each  eclipse  the  star  was  moving  away  from  the 
earth,  and  after  the  eclipse  toward  the  earth.  Such  an 
alternation  of  motion  pointed  directly  to  the  action  of  a 
dark  body  revolving  around  it,  the  eclijise  occurring  as  the 
body  passes  between  the  earth  and  the  star.  The  time  and 
amount  of  the  eclipse,  the  time  of  revolution,  and  the  ve- 
locity of  the  star  as  it  receded  and  approached,  led  to  the 
following  approximate  elements  of  motion  : 

Diameter  of  Algol 1.060.000  miles. 

Diameter  of  satellite 830,000  miles. 

Distance  of  the  bodies...  3.200.000  miles. 

Orbital  velocity 55  miles  ]ier  second. 

Masses f  and  5  of  the  sun's  mass. 

It  thus  appears  that  Algol  is  about  as  large  as  our  sun, 
and.  what  is  yet  more  remarkable,  the  eclipsing  planet  is 
nearlv  as  large  as  the  star  itself ;  it  may  be  regarded  as  cer- 
tain that  the  volume  of  this  invisible  planet  is  thousands  of 
times  that  of  our  earth,  and,  indeed,  hundreds  of  times  that 
of  Jupiter. 

Dr.  Vogel's  discovery  has  been  supplemented  by  another, 
made  by  Mr.  S.  C.  Chandler,  of  Cambridge.  For  some  time 
it  has  been  known  that  the  period  between  two  eclipses  of 
the  star  is  not  uniform.  It  occurred  to  Mr.  Chandler  that 
this  variation  of  the  jieriod  might  be  explained  by  supposing 
that  both  Algol  and  its  invisible  satellite  were  revolving 
around  a  third  dark  body.  When  by  moving  in  this  orbit  Al- 
gol was  coming  toward  us.  the  period  between  two  eclipses 
would  be  shortened,  because  the  star  would  partly  overtake 
the  light  by  which  we  see  it.  When  moving  away  from  us, 
the  tieriod"  between  the  eclipses  would  be  longer,  because 
the  light  would  have  farther  to  travel  after  each  eclipse. 
Ho  therefore  investigated  the  question  whether  observations 
on  the  position  of  the  star  showed  an  irregularity  of  proper 
motion  which  would  lie  caused  by  such  an  orbital  revolu- 
tion. By  discussing  all  the  observations  from  17.50  till  the 
present  time,  sndi  a  change  was  very  strongly  made  out ; 
yet  it  is  so  slight  that  the  quantity  of  it  can  not  be  regarded 
as  exactly  measured.  But  the  remarkable  agreement  be- 
tween the  parallax  found  by  Mr.  Chandler  and  the  parallax 
we  should  expect  a  star  of' the  second  magnitude  to  have, 
were  it  equal  to  our  sun  in  brilliancy,  seems  to  leave  no 
doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the  conclusion.  The  period  of 
the  revolution  of  Algol  around  the  third  body  was  fixed  by 
:\Ir.  Chandler  at  130  years,  but  this  is  probably  too  short ; 
indeed,  until  the  star  "is  observed  through  more  than  a  com- 
plete revolution,  it  will  be  impossible  to  fix  the  length  of  the 
[leriod  with  certainty. 

We  have  thus  acquired  a  knowledge  of  two  immense  dark 
bodies,  not  only  forever  invisible  to  human  eyes,  but  incapa- 
ble of  producing  any  motion  that  can  be  detected  by  the 
ordinary  telescopic  measurement;  yet  the  effect  of  whose  at- 
traction is  shown  by  the  spectroscope  and  by  the  laws  of 
the  motion  of  light.  See  AsfronomturJie  Nachn'c/tfen,To\. 
cxxiii.;  and  the  Astronomical  Journal,  vols.  vii.  and  xi. 

S.  Nkwcomb. 

Al|;o'ma:  a  district  of  Ontario.  Canaila;  formerly  occu- 
pying the  entire  northwestern  extremity  from  about  Ion.  81° 
westward,  now  extending  only  to  85  W.,  and  from  the  North 
Channel.  Lake  Huron,  to  the  Albany  river  on  the  N.  It.  is 
well  wooded  and  watered  and  is  rich  in  minerals,  but  contains 
few  inhabitants,  except  a  sparse  Indian  population,  and  in 
the  ea.stern  part  a  considerable  sprinkling  of  farnvcrs.  The 
Canadian  I^ticific  Railway  sends  two  branches  across  the  dis- 
trict, one  from  Sudbury  along  Xorth  Channel  to  Sault  Ste.- 
Jlarie,  the  other  from  Sudbury  to  Port  Arthur.     M.  W.  11. 


lis 


ALGOXA 


AI/iOXQUIAX   IXDIAXS 


Algo'na  :  cajiital  of  Kossuth  co.,  la.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  '2-¥) ;  on  the  East  Fork  of  the  Des 
Sloines  river,  about  120  miles  X.  by  W.  of  Des  Moines ;  has 
Northern  Iowa  Xormal  school  and  is  a  wagon-manufacturing 
point  and  dairying  center :  it  has  two  steam  flouring-mills,  a 
steam  butter-tub  factory,  and  a  lirick  and  tile  factory.  Pop. 
(18T0)  860;  (1880)  1.359;  (188.5)  1,826;  (1800)  2.068';  (1895) 
2,487.  Editor  OF  ••Courier." 

Algon'kiaii  Period  :  a  division  of  geologic  time  preced- 
ing the  Cambrian  and  preceded  by  the  Archean.  The  name 
refers  to  a  district  iu  and  about  Canada,  originally  inhabited 
by  Algonkiiis  (q.  i:).  The  Algonkiaii  differs  from  all  later 
periods  in  that  it  is  not  characterized  by  a  fossil  fauna.  In 
its  rocks  have  been  found  a  few  obscure  fossils,  besides 
tracks  resembling  those  of  marine  worms;  and  presumptive 
evidence  of  abundant  life  exists  in  the  presence  of  carbona- 
ceous and  calcareous  deposits ;  but  these  indications  do  not 
sufiice  for  the  discrimination  and  classification  of  its  rocks. 
The  differentiation  of  life  forms  had  progressed  so  far  in  the 
Cambrian  period,  immediately  following,  and  some  Cam- 
brian species  were  so  higldy  organized,  that  the  evolutionist 
is  unwilling  to  believe  the  history  of  life  before  that  date 
shorter  than  its  subsequent  history.  So,  while  there  can  be 
no  hope  of  completely  tracing  the  early  development  of  life 
by  means  of  vestiges  preserved  in  the  rocks,  it  is  yet  possi- 
ble, or  even  probable,  that  fauiuus  belonging  to  the  Algon- 
kian  will  be  discovered.  The  Algonkian  rocks  have  a  thick- 
ness of  many  thousands  of  feet  and  are  locally  divided  by 
unconformities  into  several  distinct  series.  Consideration  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  deposits  and  of  the  extent  of  interven- 
ing epochs  of  erosion,  demonstrated  by  the  unconformities 
between  the  series,  leatls  to  the  belief  that  the  Algonkian 
period  may  have  equaled  in  iluration  the  sum  of  several 
later  periods,  or  even  the  whole  time  that  has  since  elapsed. 
Certain  of  the  series  consist  of  sedimentary  rocks  in  their 
ordinary  condition,  as  sandstone,  shale,  limestone,  etc. ;  othere 
exhibit  metamorphism  in  various  degrees,  and  the  same 
series  may  be  unaltered  in  one  region  and  metamorphic  in 
another.  Volcanic  rocks  are  extensively  iuterbedded  in 
some  districts,  showing  that  igneous  agencies  were  no  less 
active  then  than  now. 

The  type  locality  for  Algonkian  rocks  is  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior region,  where  their  title  to  a  category  separate  from 
Archean  was  first  demonstrated  by  R.  D.  Irving.  (See 
Archeax.)  They  comprise  there  three  series — the  Lower 
Huronian,  5,000  feet ;  the  Upper  Iluronian,  12,000  feet ;  and 
the  Keweenawan,  25,000  feet,  each  limited  above  and  below 
by  a  great  unconformity.  Rocks  of  this  period  occupy  great 
areas  in  Canada  and  the  Hudson  Bay  country;  they  occur  at 
many  localities  in  our  western  mountains,  in  Texas,  in  the 
Black  Hills,  in  the  Adirondacks,  and  they  probably  occur  in 
X^ew  England  and  in  the  Appalachian  region.  To  this 
period  are  to  be  referred  also  rocks  described  in  Great 
Britain,  Scandinavia.  France,  Bavaria,  etc.  Tlie  literature 
of  the  subject  is  epitomized  for  America  by  C.  R.  Van  Ilise 
in  Archean  and  Algonkian,  Bulletin  86,  V.  S.  Geological 
Survey  (1892).     See  Geoloov,  Historic.      G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Algron'kiliS:  one  of  the  two  great  families  of  Indians 
that  formerly  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  the 
regions  east  of  it.  The  Indians  of  New  England  belonged 
to  the  same  linguistic  stock.  .See  Parkman's  The  Jesuits  in 
North  America;  Baldwin's  Ancient  America  (1872).  See 
the  articles  on  the  Algonquian  Indians  and  Indians  of 
North  America. 

Alsroiuiiiiuii  Iiidiaii^i:  the  most  widely  extended  of  all 
the  Xorth  American  linguistic  stocks,  its  ten-itory  stretching 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Labrador  to  Pamlico  Sound, 
and  westward  from  Newfoundland  to  the  Hocky  Mountains, 
with  one  or  two  tribes  in  the  prairies  farther  to  the  S. 
In  a  general  way  the  people  of  this  stock  had  the  Esqui- 
mauan  and  Athapascan  tribes  on  their  X^,  the  Siouan  tribes 
on  their  W.,  the  Muskhogean  and  eastern  Siouan  tribes  on 
their  S.,  with  the  Iroquoian  tribes  forming  a  linguistic  island 
in  their  center.  (See  iiuq)  under  Indians  of  Xoirrii  America.) 
They  were  divided  into  a  large  number  of  tribes  and  bands, 
speaking  about  forty  distinct  languages  and  innumerable  dia- 
lects. 

The  name  Algonquin  ')r  Algoumequin  is  derived,  accord- 
ing to  Trumbull,  from  A'goiimek;  '•on  the  other  side  "  (of 
the  river),  a  term  originally  used  to  designate  the  Indians  of 
the  Ottawa  river  by  ilicir  iieighboi's  lower  down  on  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Aimlher  fnriii  of  the  word  occurs  in  Accomack, 
Virginia. 


Dii'isions. — The  principal  Algonquian  tribes  and  confed- 
eracies may  be  grouped  as  follows:  North  Atlantic — 
JMicnuic,  Malecite,  Abnaki  (including  Penobscot,  Xorridge- 
wock  and  Arosaguntacook),  Pennacook,  Massachuset,  W'am- 
panoa",  Narraganset,  N'iprauc,  Pequot,  Mohegan,  Mahican 
(including  Stockbridge),  Metoac  (including  Montauk  and 
Shinnecock),  Wappinger.  South  Atlantic — Munsi,  Leni- 
Lenape  or  Delaware.  Sliawano.  Xanticoke.  Conoy.  Powhatan 
(including  Mattajiony  and  Pamunkey).  Mattamuskeet.  In- 
terior— Xascajii,  jlontagnais,  Algonquin  and  Ottawa.  Mas- 
kegon,  Cree,  Ojibwa,  Misisaga,  Jliami,  Piankishaw,  Illinois 
(including  Peoria  and  Kaskaskia),  Sac,  Fox,  Kickapoo.  Pot- 
tawatomi.  ^lenomini.  ^yestern — Siksika  or  Blackfoot,  At- 
sina.  Arapaho.  Cheyenne. 

Early  Jligralionx. — It  is  impossible  to  decide  upon  the 
original  home  and  the  early  migrations  of  the  Algonquian 
family,  but  the  consensus  of  tradition  shows  that  they  re- 
garded the  X'orth  Atlantic  coast  region,  from  about  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware,  as 
their  most  ancient  territory. 

The  westward  movement  of  the  Ojibwas,  Crees,  Ottawas, 
and  Pottawatomis  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ottawa 
river  to  the  upper  lakes,  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Saskatchewan,  has  been  chiefly  within  the  historic  peiiod, 
and  was  due  largely  to  the  inroads  of  the  Iroquois  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Within  the  same  period 
they  have  driven  the  Eskimo  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  N.  along 
the  shores  of  Labrador  and  Hudson  Bay,  and  seem  also  to 
have  pressed  the  Cherokees  farther  to  the  S.  The  advance  of 
the  Blackfeet,  Cheyennes.  and  Arapahos  into  the  ]>rairies  is 
comparatively  recent,  as  they  still  retain  distinct  traditions 
of  a  time  when  they  lived  in  a  timber  country  and  cultivated 
the  soil. 

History. — From  their  position  along  the  eastern  seaboard 
the  Algonquian  tribes  were  among  the  earliest  to  encounter 
the  white  immigrat  ion.  Settlements  were  made  almost  simul- 
taneously at  widely  separated  points  within  their  territory 
by  Fi'ench.  Dutch,  and  English  colonists.  The  result  may 
be  briefly  stated.  The  contact  with  the  whites,  whether  as 
allies  or  enemies,  always  brought  about  destruction  or  expa- 
triation to  the  free  warrioi-s,  and  degradation  to  the  few  who 
remained  behind.  The  early  wars — the  Pequot  and  King 
Philip's  war  in  X'ew  England,  tlio  war  between  the  Dutch 
and  the  tribes  about  Jlanhattan.  and  tlie  long  and  merciless 
stniggle  between  the  Virginia  colonists  and  the  Powhatans — 
were  carried  on  by  the  native  proprietors  of  the  soil,  without 
aid  or  instigation  from  the  outside,  in  the  hope  and  expecta- 
tion of  driving  the  white  intruder  from  the  land.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  coast  tribes  were  dismembered  and  almost 
annihilated,  and  the  remnants  compelled  toseek  safety  beyond 
the  mountains.  Then  began  another  series  of  Indian  wars, 
but  under  ditferent  auspices.  France  and  Great  Britain  con- 
tended for  the  mastery  in  the  X>w  World,  and  the  Indians, 
no  longer  able  to  stand  alone,  became  the  allies  and  tools 
of  one  or  the  other,  according  as  interest  or  vengeance 
prompted.  The  Algonquian  tribes,  which  had  been  driven 
from  the  seacoast  into  the  western  wilderness,  ranged  them- 
selves almost  to  a  man  under  the  French  lianner. 

Before  the  close  of  the  Frencli  and  Iiulian  war  the  Algon- 
quians  had  liecn  driven  from  the  seaboard  across  the  AUe- 
ghanies.  Their  joining  the  British  side  in  the  Revolution 
resulted  in  their  being  driven  across  the  Ohio,  and  Wayne's 
treaty  in  1795  forced  them  still  farther  to  the  W,  The  war 
of  1812.  in  which  again  they  joined  the  British  against  the 
V.  S.,  left  the  broken  and  dispirited  tribes  unable  to  with- 
stand the  continued  pressure.  Under  a  systematic  "plan  of 
removal "  the  Government  inaugurated  a  series  of  treaties, 
by  which,  before  the  year  1840,  most  of  the  native  tribes 
were  transported  beyond  the  jNIississippi.  Among  these  were 
the  Shawanos,  Delawares,  Miainis,  Weas,  Piankishaws,  Kiek- 
apoos.  Sacs,  Foxes,  Pottawatomis,  the  remnants  of  the 
Illinois,  and  otliei-s,  leaving  of  the  Algonquian  tribes  of  the 
V.  S,  only  the  Ojibwas,  Ottawas.  Menominis.  and  portions  of 
the  Abnakis  and  Miamis  in  their  old  homes.  The  Algon- 
quians  of  Canada  liave  never  been  removed  in  such  syslem- 
atic  style,  but  were  simply  a.ssigned  to  limited  reservations 
within  their  ancient  temtories.  and  have  diminished  l)ut  little, 
if  any,  in  numbers  since  the  advent  of  Europeans.  Those  in 
the  U.  S.,  however,  have  been  reduced  by  war,  disease,  and 
successive  removals,  and  whole  tiit)es  and  confederacies  have 
"oeen  swept  out  of  existence.  Tlie  present  number  of  the 
Algoncjuians  is  aliout  100.000,  of  whom  .37,(M)0  are  in  the 
U,  S.  and  63.000  in  Canada.  The  largest  tribes  are  the 
Ojibwa  and  the  Cree. 


ALGOXQUIAN  IXDLVXS 


119 


Trilidl  Histories. — Thn  Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia,  with 
tlio  Malecitcs  or  Ecliomins  of  New  Bninswick  and  tho  Ab- 
iiakis  of  Maine,  aeteil  always  in  the  coUinial  jii'i-iod  as  tlie 
tinn  allies  of  the  French  ajjainsi  tlic  Enjjrlisli,  wilh  whom  it 
may  he  said  they  were  constantly  at  war  until  tlic  fall  of 
tjiii'bec.  liOn;^  before  that  time,  Kowcver,  the  southern  Ab- 
nakis,  with  the  remnants  of  the  Pennacooks  and  others, 
abandoneil  the  vi<-inity  of  the  English  settlements  and 
removed  in  a  biily  to  the  St.  Francis  river  below  Montreal. 
The  others  maile  treaties  by  which  they  were  permitted  to 
remain  in  tlieir  ohl  homes,  where  they  have  since  main- 
tained themselves  with  a  fair  degree  of  prosperity.  Those 
in  Maine  now  number  about  600. 

The  Southern  XcfW  Knijland  tribes — JIassaclnisels,  Wam- 

Sanoajcs.  Nipmucs,  Xarragansets,  Pequots,  Mohcijans  and 
[ahicans — are  practi(f!illy  extinct,  and  will  be  remembered 
in  history  chieliy  in  connection  with  the  Pequot  and  Kins; 
Philip's  wars.  It  was  ainoni;  these  tribes  that  the  first 
English  settlements  were  made.  Fliot  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  Massachuset  dialect,  and  gathered  a  few  huntlred 
into  ■■  praving-towns.  "  until  the  outbreak  of  King  Philip's 
war  in  Uil'i  once  more  scattered  them.  War,  emigration. 
Mild  deportation  !is  slaves  to  Beruiuda  and  the  West 
Indies  rapidly  depleted  their  numbers.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  another  eff(.irt  was  mside  to  convert  the  remnant, 
and  a  new  mission  was  estal)lished  at  Stoekl:)ridge  in  West- 
ern Massachusetts.  As  a  result  of  missionary  work  con- 
tinued through  two  centuries  the  aborigines  of  Massachu- 
setts have  been  reduced  to  a  handtid  of  mixed  Ijloods  along 
the  coast  and  about  200  souls  near  Green  Bay.  Wis.,  1,000 
juiles  to  the  W.  The  Mohegans  still  have  a  suiall  organiza- 
tion near  Groton.  Conn.,  wliile  the  Motoacs  and  Wappingers 
are  extinct.  A  few  mixed  bloods,  however,  live  along  the 
east  end  of  Long  Islanil,  at  Gay  Head  on  Nantucket,  and 
about  Xarragausett  bay. 

The  Miuisis  and  Delawares,  who  formerly  owned  all  Kew 
.Jersey  and  the  Delaware  basin,  began  to  settle  on  the  Ohio 
before  the  opening  of  the  French  and  Indian  war.  Here 
they  were  joined  by  the  remnants  of  the  Nanticokes  and 
■Conoys  from  Maryland,  the  Mahicans  from  the  Hudson,  and 
the  Shawanos.  who  had  originally  lived  in  Tennessee  and 
on  the  Savanmih  river,  but  moved  north  to  be  near  their 
kindred.  At  the  close  of  the  lievolution  the  combined 
tribes  were  in  possession  of  a  large  portion  of  Oliio  and 
Indi  ina,  which  by  suece,ssive  treaties  rapidly  passed  out  of 
their  hands.  The  main  body  of  the  Delawares  and  .Shaw- 
anos, nmnbering  together  about  l..o()().  is  now  incorporated 
with  the  Cherokees  in  the  Indian  Territory.  There  are  also 
a  consideralile  number  of  Delawares  and  Munsis  in  Ontario, 
Canada.     The  Nanticokes  and  Conoys  have  disappeared. 

The  Powhatans  of  Virginia  carried  on  unceasing  war 
against  the  English  colonists  for  forty  years,  until  they 
w.^re  completely  broken,  and  the  final  blow  came  in  repelling 
the  inroad  of  a  mountain  tribe,  probably  the  Cherokees, 
about  16.54,  in  which  their  chief  and  nearly  all  their  remain- 
ing warriors  were  slain.  A  few  niLxed  bloods,  with  more  of 
the  Negro  than  of  the  Imiian  element,  still  keep  u])  organiza- 
tions under  tlie  name  of  Pauiuukeys  and  Matta])onies  about 
20  miles  from  Richmond,  Va.  The  tribes  about  Albe- 
nuirle  Souml,  among  whom  Raleigh  made  his  first  attempts 
at  colonization,  seem  to  have  possessed  but  little  stamina, 
and  disapi)eared  almost  unnoticed.  The  Mattamnskeets 
were  about  the  last  to  keep  up  a  tribal  form,  but  the  Tus- 
carora  war  of  1712  com|)leted  their  destruction. 

The  Mianiis.  Weas.  Piankishaws  and  Illinois  are  nearly 
extinct.  A  few  mixed  bloods  retain  the  names  in  the 
Indian  Territory,  anil  aliout  ;iOI)  Miamis,  more  or  less  mixed, 
yet  live  in  Imliaiui.  'I'he  extinction  of  the  Illinois  is  due 
largely  to  the  war  waged  upon  them  by  the  lake  tribes  in 
revenge  for  the  murder  of  Pontiac. 

The  Pottawatomis,  Kickapoos,  Sacs,  and  Poxes,  formerly 
in  Jlichigan,  Illinois,  and  Southern  Wisconsin,  are  now 
chieliy  in  Okl.ahoma.  and  still  have  a  consideralile  |iopula- 
tion.  .V  portion  of  the  Kiekajioos  at  one  time  dril'ted  down 
into  Mexico,  but  were  brought  back  about  twenty  years  ago. 

The  Menominis,  Ottawa.s,  and  Ojibwa-s  or  Chippewas  of 
the  ni)per  lakes  have  never  been  removed,  but  still  retain 
aliout  their  original  numbers  on  numerous  reservations  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Jlinnesota.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Canadian  Ojibwas.  Crees,  and  Maskegons  north 
and  northwest  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Montagnais  and 
Nascapis  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence.  As  the  country  is  still 
but  thirdy  settled,  they  have  remained  almost  undisturbed 
and  undiminished  within  their  original  limits. 


The  prairie  tribes  of  the  Algonquian  race — the  Blackfcer, 
or  Siksika  (including  the  Piegans),  Atsina.  Arapahos,  and 
Cheyernies — have  suffered  from  wars  and  snndlpo.x,  but 
still  retain  strong  organizations.  The  most  numerous  are 
the  Blackfeet.  who  with  the  Atsina  number  about  8,000, 
of  whom  2.000  are  in  Jlontana  and  the  rest  on  the  Canadian 
side  of  the  iKiinidary.  A  portion  of  the  Cheyennes  also  live 
in  Montana,  but  the  main  body  is  in  Oklahoma.  The 
Ara]iahos  also  are  in  two  liodies.  part  living  in  Wyoming 
and  the  rest  with  their  old  allies,  the  Cheyennes,  in  Okla- 
homa. The  two  tril)es.  north  and  south,  numiier  together 
alioiit  .5,000.  Those  in  Oklahoma  sold  their  rcservaliim  in 
1891,  and  have  now  taken  lands  in  severalty.  See  Lvdians 
OF  North  America. 

Food  Supplier. — The  Algonquian  Iribas  were  mainly 
sedentary  and  to  some  extent  tillers  of  the  soil,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Ojibwas,  Crees,  and  others  in  the  extreme 
north,  and  the  Blackfeet,  Cheyennes,  and  Arapahos  on  the 
prairies.  These  latter  also,  however,  according  to  their 
own  traditions,  at  one  time  cultivated  the  ground,  although 
from  the  first  European  acquaintance  with  them  they  have 
subsisted  entirely  by  the  chase.  The  coast  tribes  planted 
their  fields  in  the  spring,  and  then  retired  into  the  interior 
to  hunt  the  deer  and  other  animals — including  the  buffalo, 
which  once  abounded  in  the  prairies  north  of  the  Ohio — 
until  their  crops  were  ripe  in  the  fall.  The  winter  was 
usually  spent  in  their  villages,  with  occasional  short  hunt- 
ing excursions  into  the  neighboring  forest.  In  the  Ohio 
valley  and  the  lake  region  the  early  spring  was  employed 
in  collecting  the  sweet  sap  of  the  maple  to  make  sugar. 
The  tribes  along  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Albe- 
marle Sound  depended  largely  upon  fish,  which  they  took  in 
weirs  of  elaborate  construction.  Fish  also  formed  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  food  supply  along  the  lakes. 

Corn  was  the  main  agricultural  staple,  and  the  Powhatan 
tribes  raised  enough  to  supply  not  only  their  own  wants  but 
also  those  of  the  Virginia  colonists  for  several  years  after 
the  founding  of  Jamestown,  while  in  1794  WajTie's  army 
found  one  continuous  plantation  extending  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  Mamnee.  From  the  Algonquian  tribes  the 
whiti-s  learned  to  nutkc  hominy  and  johnny-cake,  as  well  as 
mayile-sugar.  They  also  raised  beans,  pumpkins,  etc.,  and 
used  nuuuu'e,  it  being  the  common  practice  along  the  coast 
to  rnit  a  dead  fish  info  each  corn  hill  when  planting, 

Ilouse-hiiilding. — In  their  iiermanent  villages  the  houses 
were  oblong,  and  built  to  accommodate  several  families.  In 
the  North  they  were  frequently  made  of  logs,  while  in  the 
South  and  West  they  were  generally  constructed  of  saplings 
bent  over  at  the  top  to  form  an  arched  roof,  a:id  covered- 
with  !)ark  or  mats  of  rushes.  Abont  the  upper  lakes  and 
farther  to  the  Nortli  and  West  the  lodge  was  of  the  style 
of  the  prairie  tipi  and  covered  with  bark  or  skins.  Along 
the  Atlantic  coast  the  villages  were  more  compactly  built, 
and  sometimes  strongly  fortified  with  palisades,  from  which 
construction  they  were  often  called  torts  or  castles.  The 
tenipoiary  summer  encampments  were  light  coverings  of 
bark  on  a  framework  of  poles. 

Characfer. — The  Algonquian  tribes  were,  perhaps,  equal 
to  the  Iroquoian  in  bravery,  intelligence,  and  physical  pow- 
ers, but  seem  to  have  lacked  their  constancy  of  purpose  and 
solidity  of  character.  Their  failure  in  concerted  action,  how- 
ever, was  doubtless  due  in  part  to  the  great  diversity  of  lan- 
gnages  and  the  wide  extent  of  their  territory,  as  compared 
with  the  Iroquois,  who.  by  reason  of  their  narrower  limits 
and  mutually  intelligible  dialects,  were  better  able  to  keep 
up  a  compact  organization.  JIany  individual  Algonquian  ' 
tribes,  as  the  Pequots  and  Powhatans.  dis])layed  indomitable 
resolution  in  defending  their  homes,  stubbornly  contesting 
every  foot  of  ground  until  they  were  practically  exter- 
minated. 

AuTnoRiTiEs. — Amfrldin  S/ale  Papers,  class  ii.,  Indian  Af- 
fairs {18;:S2) :  Barber  (.J.  W.\  Ilislorical  Co/leeiioiisot' Jfassa- 
chiisi'/fs  (1839) :  Boznuin  (J.  L.),  Iltstnry  of  Man//ati</  (1837) ; 
Canrii/inii Depiirtrnfiif  of  Indian  Affmrs  (anniuti  reports); 
Carver  (.Jonathan),  Travels  through  the  Interior  of  Nortli 
America  (1778);  Catlin  (Gcovge),  Xortk  American  Indians 
(2  vols.,  1844) ;  Charh-voix  (P.  P.  X.  de),  Hislori/  of  New 
France  (Shea's  trans.,  6  vols.,  1866-72);  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs  (annual  reports);  Coxe  (Daniel).  Carolana 
(1741);  De  Forest  (.John  W.).  Ifiston/  of  the  Indians  of 
Connecticut  (1851);  Dobbs  (Arthur).  Ifndson's  Bag  (1744); 
Drake  (Benjamin),  Life  of  Terunixrh  (1841):  Life  of  lilnrk- 
hau-k  (1844);  Drake  (S.  G.),  Biogrnphg  and  History  of  the 
Indians  of  North  America  (10th  ed.,  1848) ;  tiriiuiell  (G.  W), 


120 


ALGONQUIN 


ALIEN 


Early  Blackfoot  History  (in  American  Anthropologist, 
April,  1892) :  Hall  (J.),  Memoirs  of  General  Harrison  (1836) ; 
Havden  (F.  V.).  Ethnography  and  Pliiloloqii  of  the  Indian 
Tribes  of  the  Missouri  Valley  (1862) ;  Ileckewolder  (John), 
Jndian  Nations  of  Pennsylvania  (1819):  Hind  (H.  Y.), 
Labrador  Peninsula  (2  vols.,  1863);  Howe  (Henry),  Eis- 
torical  Collections  of  Ohio  (1852);  Jefferson  (Thomas), 
Notes  on  Virginia  (1825);  Jcflerys  (Thomas).  French  Do- 
minions in  North  and  South  America  (1761);  Jesuit  Pe- 
lations  (40  vols.,  1632-72) :  Lewis  ami  Clarke,  Expedition  to 
Sources  of  the  Missouri,  eto,  (2  vols.,  1814);  Maine  His- 
torical Society  ('ollections  (7  vols.,  1831-76);  Margry 
(Pierre),  Decouvertes  el  Efahlisseinents  des  Frant;ais  (5  vols., 
1876-83) ;  Massac Itusetts  Histonccd  Society  Collections  (three 
series,  1792-1879);  Parkman  (Francis),  scries  of  works  on 
Tlie  French  and  English  Colonies  in  America  ;  Pike  (Z.  M.), 
Expedition  to  Sources  of  the  Mississippi,  ete.  (1810) ;  Rut- 
tenbcr  (B.  M.),  Indian  Tribes  of  Hudson's  River  (1872) ; 
Saunders  (W.  L.),  Colonial  Records  of  Nortli  Carolina  (10 
vols.,  1886-90) ;  Scdiooleralt  (H.  H.),  'Indian  Tribes  of  the 
United  States  (6  vols.,  18.51-.57) ;  Shea  (J.  G.),  Early  Voyages 
up  and  down  the  Mississij/pi  (1861);  Vetromile  (Eugene), 
The  Almakis  (1866);  Warren  (W,  W.),  History  of  the  Ojib- 
ways  (in  Minnesota  Historical  Society  Collections,  v.,  1885). 

James  IIooney. 
Alg:oii<luili.  al-gon'kwin :  a  ]iost-township  of  McHenry 
P0„  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  1-F). 
It  contains  the  villages  of  Algonquin,  Cary,  and  Crystal 
liake.  The  first  is  noted  as  a  milk-shipping  station,  also 
for  its  fine  water-power  and  ilouring-mills  and  its  mineral 
spring.  Crystal  Lake  is  a  railroad  Junction  and  a  fine 
summer  resort;  the  lake  of  the  same  name  is  a  beautiful 
sheet  of  water,  from  which  ice  is  harvested  for  the  Chicago 
market.    Pop.  (1870)  2,157;  (1880)  2,331 ;  (1890)  3.513. 

Algorism,  or  Algrorithm  [via  mediaeval  Lat.  from  Arab. 
al-Klioivdrazmi,,  name  of  the  Arabic  mathematician  through 
whose  works  the  Arabic  notation  became  known  in  Europe. 
The  form  algorithm  is  due  to  a  false  association  with  the  Gr. 
Spiflmot.  nunilier] :  the  art  of  computing  in  reference  to  some 
jiarticular  subject,  or  in  some  particular  way,  as  the  al- 
goritliin  of  numbers,  of  surds,  etc.;  generally  any  system 
of  notation  by  means  of  algebraic  symbols. 

Algiiazir,  or  Alguacil'  [Span,  from  Arab,  al-wazlr ;  al, 
the  -I-  iraz'ir,  vizier,  mini.ster ;  from  wazara,  carry  on] ;  the 
name  given  in  Spain  to  an  inferior  officer  appointed  to  exe- 
cute the  law,  corresponding  to  a  constable,  bailiff,  or  jiolice- 
man. 

Al-Hak'em-Ibii-At'ta  (cdled  Al-Moken'iia,  -Mokanna, 
or  -Miikaiina,  i.  e.  the  veiled  one) :  an  impostor  who  in  774 
A.  D.  announced  himself  as  a  prophet  and  lawgiver  in  Kho- 
ras.san.  Having  been  attacked  by  the  troops  of  the  Caliph 
Mahdi  in  780,  he  set  fire  to  his  castle  and  consumed  himself 
to  ashes.  His  story  is  the  sutjject  of  Moore's  Veiled  Prophet 
of  Khorassan. 

Allia'nia  de  Graiia'da  (i.e.  the  liath  of  Granada);  bath- 
ing-resort of  great  popularity ;  near  Granada  and  JIalaga, 
Spain  (see  map  of  .Spain,  ref.  19-E),  The  sjiring  is  about  8 
inches  in  diameter,  and  furnishes  warm  (110  F.)  magnesian 
waters,  abounding  in  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  season  is 
from  April  to  October;  the  climate  healtliy  .-md  mild;  the 
diseases  benefited  are  those  of  the  mucous  meiuliranes  and 
skin,  nervous  debility,  rheumatism,  and  sluggish  sores.  The 
baths  were  much  frequented  by  the  Saracens,  and  the  Caliph 
of  Granada  is  said  to  have  received  in  some  years  as  much 
U.S  500,(100  ilucals  of  revenue  from  these  baths.     Pop.  8,000. 

.\lliaiii'i>ra  [from  Arab,  al,  the  +  hamrd,  red,  sc.  house]  : 
famous  palace  and  citadel  of  the  Moorish  Kings  of  Granada ; 
built,  1348-1314  in  a  suburb  of  the  city  of  Granada,  It  is 
surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens  and  groves  of  aromatic 
trees.  The  interior  o[  tlie  palace  is  exceedingly  gorgeous, 
and  richly  decorated  with  painted  and  glazed  tiles,  and 
plaster  ornaments  in  relief,  richly  painted  and  gilded. 
Among  the  iiortioiis  now  standing  are  the  Court  of  the  l;ions 
and  the  Court  of  the  Fish-pond,  The  former  is  named  from 
a  fountain  in  its  center  supported  by  twelve  lions,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  gallery  resting  on  columns  and  arches  which 
are  admirably  light  and  elegant.  This  place  capitulated  to 
the  Spaniards  in  1491,  and  was  entered  in  triumph  by  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  in  1493.  See  Irving,  I'lie  Alliambra 
(1832). 

A'li,  or  A'li-II>n-.\'bi-Tii'HI»  (surnained  The  Lion  of 
Sod)  :   Arabian   calijili ;   a   cousin-german   of   the  prophet 


Mohammed  ;  b.  at  Mecca  about  603  a.  d.  He  married  Fa- 
timah,  a  daughter  of  Mohammed,  whose  doctrines  he  adopted 
and  enforced  with  great  ardor  and  courage.  Mohammed 
died  in  632,  but  it  wa.s  not  till  656  that  All  liecame  caliph,  he 
having  been  preceded  in  this  office  by  Abu  Bekr,  OmtSr, 
and  Othman.  His  troubled  rale  of  less  than  five  years  was 
ended  at  Kufe,  by  the  dagger  of  the  assassin  in  661.  Ali  was 
a  brave  and  high-minded  man,  but  lacked  many  of  the  quali- 
ties essential  for  the  successful  government  of  a  large  empire. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  many  maxims  and  pro- 
verbs. A  collection  of  sentences  bearing  his  name  was  iiub- 
lished  in  an  English  translation  (Lond.  1832),  and  the  origi- 
nal by  H.  L.  Fleischer  (Leipzig,  1837);  a  new  edition  of  his 
Divan  (lyrical  poems)  was  published  at  Boulak,  near  Cairo, 
in  1840.     See  Shiites.  Revised  by  J.  R.  Jewett. 

Alibamii  ludiaus;  See  Muskhogean  Indians. 

AH-Bey,  al'i-ba  ;  chief  of  the  Mamelukes ;  b.  in  Abkhasia 
in  1728.  He  was  taken  to  Egypt  at  an  early  age,  and  raised 
himseU  from  a  servile  condition  by  his  ability ;  became  Bey 
of  the  Mamelukes;  and  in  1757  Bey  of  Egypt;  and  suc- 
ceeded in  becoming  inde]iendent  of  Turkey.  He  attempted 
to  restore  the  ancient  Egyptian  empire,  and  had  almost  con- 
quered Syria,  when  his  chief  general,  his  adopted  son,  was 
bribed  by  the  Turks,  and  drove  him  from  Egypt.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  up  another  army,  but  after  a  tew  victories 
was  again  defeated  and  captured,  and  ilied  a  few  days  after, 
Apr.,  1773. 

AHbert,  Jean  IjOuis  ;  French  medical  writer;  b,  in  Avey- 
ron.  May  12,  1775.  He  became  fir.st  ])hysieian-in-ordinary 
to  Ijouis  XV'III.,  1818.  He  wrote,  besides  other  able  works, 
a  Description  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Skin  (1806-37),  which 
is  commended  for  its  style  and  other  inerit;s.  D.  in  Paris, 
Feb.  6,  1837. 

Al'ibi  [Lat.,  elsewhere] :  in  law,  the  absence  of  a  pereon 
accused  of  crime  from  the  place  where  the  offense  is  charged 
to  have  been  committed.  If  established,  it  is  a  defense  to 
the  accusation. 

AHcaiite,  al-i-kan'ta;  province  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  Spain  ;  bounded  N.  by  Valencia.  E.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
S.  and  W.  by  Murcia.  Area,  3,098  scj.  miles.  The  country 
consists  partly  of  fertile  plains  and  jjartly  sterile  mountains. 
Pop.  (1887)  433,335. 

Alicante  (anc.  Duceritum) :  fortified  city  and  seaport  of 
Spain,  the  capital  of  the  above  province  ;  is  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea ;  lat.  38°  30'  N.,  Ion.  0"  26'  W.  (see  map  of  Spain, 
ref.  18-1).  It  is  well  built,  with  high  and  substantial  stone 
houses,  and  contains  several  hospitals,  one  college,  and  a 
theater.  Wine,  grain,  soda,  oil,  oranges,  etc.,  are  exported 
from  this  place,  which  is  the  chief  seaport  of  Valencia.  Pop. 
(1877)34,926;  (1887)39,638. 

Alica'ta ;  See  Licata. 

A'lien  [from  Lat.  alie'mis,  belonging  to  another  (place  or 
person)] ;  by  English  law  a  person  born  out  of  the  allegiance 
of  the  king.  In  the  U.  S.  one  bom  out  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  U.  S.,  who  has  not  been  naturalized  or  made  a  citizen 
under  their  laws.  By  the  common  law  the  children  of  pub- 
lic ministei-s  born  abroad  are  citizens,  for  their  fathei-s  owe 
allegiance  to  no  foreign  power.  By  the  laws  of  Congress, 
children  born  abroad  arc  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  if  their  fa- 
thers were  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  and  had  resided  in  the  U.  S. 
(See  Citizen.)  It  has  been  claimed  that,  independent  of 
this  statute,  such  children  are  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  (The 
arguments  against  this  view  are  stated  with  great  cogency 
and  learning  by  Horace  Biuiiey  in  an  article  upon  The 
Alieniqemv  of  the  United  States.)  Aliens  are  subject  to  cer- 
tain disabilities  affecting  their  exercise  of  political  rights. 
After  naturalization  they  are  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
ilent  and  A'ice-President'of  the  U.  S.  The  principal  disability 
affecting  aliens  concerns  the  acquisition  of  the  title  to  real 
estate.  There  are  two  general  modes  of  acquisitifin — by 
purchase  and  by  descent.  An  alien  may  acquire  title  by 
purchase  (including  conv<'yance  and  devise)  in  the  absence 
of  statutes  to  the  contrary,"  and  can  hold  it  subject  to  a  pro- 
ceeding l)y  the  State  ternied  "olfiee  found."  This  is  in  sub- 
stance an  inquiry  through  an  authorized  officer  into  the  fact 
of  alienage;  and  if  that  be  found,  the  Land  is  adjudged  to 
lielong  to  the  State.  An  alien  can  convey  no  better  title  to 
a  citizen  tlian  he  himself  possesses.  This  defect  in  the  title 
can  l)c  cured  by  a  private  act  of  the  State  Legislature.  In 
the  ca.se  of  descent  no  title  at  all  pa.sses  to  the  alien,  and  no 
inquest  of  office  is  necessary.  A. citizen  brother  can  inherit 
from  a  brother,  though  their  father  be  an  alien,  owing  to  the 


ALIGARH 


ALIZARIN 


121 


common-law  nile  tliat,  inheritances  never  ascend,  and  it  is 
accordingly  not  necessary  to  trace  title  through  the  alien 
father.  This  disability  is  wholly  removed  in  a  number  of 
the  U.  S..  and  modified  in  others.  Where  the  disability  is 
not  removed,  legislalioti  is  almost  universal  in  favor  of  resi- 
dent aliens,  allowing  them,  if  they  intend  to  become  citizens. 
to  acquire  land  for  a  limited  period,  and  to  dispose  of  it  and 
to  transmit  it  to  heirs.  Aliens  are  capable  of  acquiring, 
holding,  and  transmitting  personal  property  in  the  same 
maimer  as  eitiz<Mis,  and  may  freely  resort  to  courts  of  justice 
to  maintain  and  [irotect  their  rights.  Under  the  laws  of 
Congress  they  are  not,  however,  entitled  to  take  out  a  copy- 
right. Aliens  liave  been  <listingiiished  in  time  of  war  into 
friends  and  enemies.  An  alien  enemy  can  not  make  a  e(iM- 
tract  with  a  citizen.  It  is  illegal  in  its  inception,  and  can 
not  be  enforced  even  after  peace.  Nor  can  such  an  alien 
prosecute  actions  of  any  kind  while  the  war  lasts,  though,  if 
there  be  no  illegality  in  the  claim,  the  right  to  sue  revives  in 
time  of  peace.  An  "alien  becomes  a  citizen  through  natural- 
ization. The  difficulties  growing  out  of  this  subject  have  led 
to  the  negotiation  of  various  treaties  between  the  U.  S.  and 
foreigu  ])owers.     See  Xatikai.ization'.        T.  W.  Dwicht. 

Aligrarll,  al'-i-gtir:  district,  fort,  and  city  of  the  Jleerut 
division.  Northwestern  Provinces,  British  India;  lying  be- 
tween the  Ganges  and  Jumna  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  o-E). 
It  has  an  area  of  1,9.55  s(j.  miles,  with  a  population  of  over 
1,000,000.  The  fort  is  in  lat.  27"  56'  N.,  Ion.  78"  8'  E.,  on 
the  railway  from  Calcutta  to  Delhi.  It  was  captured  from 
the  Mahnittas  in  1806,  and  has  since  been  much  strength- 
ened and  improved.  A  short  distance  S.  of  the  fort  is  the 
citv,  called  Aligarh  bv  foreigners,  Koel  bv  natives.  Pop. 
(1801)  60.560. 

Alimentary  Canal :  the  cavity  in  the  body  of  an  animal 
in  which  food  entei-s  to  be  digested  before  it  is  conveyed  by 
the  nutritive  vessels  into  the  system.  In  some  animals  it  is 
a  simple  cavity,  with  only  otie  opening;  in  othere  it  is  a 
proper  canal,  with  an  outlet  or  anus  distinct  from  the  itdet 
or  mouth,  and  is  a  continuous  passage  of  varialile  dimensicms 
from  the  mouth  to  the  anus.  The  principal  portions  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  mammalia  are  the  oesophagus,  a  duct  or 
tube  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach;  the  more  ex- 
panded cavity  of  the  stomach:  the  small  intestines,  which 
are  long  and  convoluted ;  and  the  large  intestines.  The 
canal  is  lined  throughout  its  whole  length  with  mucous 
membrane.     Its  entire  length  iu  man  is  aliout  30  feet. 

Al'illiniiy  [Lat.  aUmonin,  nutriment,  from  dlerp,  nonr- 
isli]:  in  law,  an  allowance  granted  ijy  a  court  to  a  wife  from 
the  husband's  estate,  either  during  a  "litigation  between  them 
or  at  its  termination.  Originally  it  was  only  granted  in  suits 
for  .separation,  but  now  by  statute  it  is  usual  to  make  the 
allowance  in  proceedings  for  divorce  dissolving  the  Ijomls  of 
matrimony.  In  f^ngland  the  ecclesiastical  court  had  juris- 
diction of  this  subject  until  1857,  when  it  was  vested  in  a 
court  of  divorce.  In  this  country  the  jurisdiction  is  con- 
ferred in  general  on  courts  of  ei|uity.  Alimony  is  of  two 
sorts — panilente  lite  and  permanent.  (1)  The  object  of  the 
first  is  to  enable  thi'  wife  to  carry  on  a  litigation  with  her 
husband,  or  to  sustain  herself  during  its  pendency.  It  is  im- 
material whether  the  proceedings  be  instituted  by  or  against 
her.  Should  the  wite  have  sufficient  means  of  her  own, 
no  allowance  of  this  kind  will  be  made.  The  amount  rests 
in  the  sound  discretion  of  tlu?  court,  and  is  subject  to  in- 
crease or  diminution.  (2)  Permnnmt  AUmon)j. — This  is  a 
periodical  allowance  given  from  the  husband's  estate  as  tlie 
result  of  the  litigation  in  the  wife's  favor.  No  allowance  is 
made  when  the  proceedings  terminate  unfavorably  to  her. 
The  amount  varies  with  the  husband's  wealth  and  position, 
and  is  commonly  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  his  income. 
It  is  subject  from  time  to  time  to  variation  by  the  action  of 
the  court,  depending  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
The  court  has  ample  power  to  make  its  decree  effectual,  and 
may  have  recourse  to  tlie  writ  of  iw  exeat  to  prevent  the 
husband's  withdrawal  from  the  Slate  without  proper  secur- 
ity for  its  payment.  Should  the  husband  depart  to  another 
State,  the  parties  might  become  "citizens  of  different  States," 
within  the  view  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution ;  so  that  she  could 
enforce  her  claim  to  alimony  in  the  Federal  courts.  The 
ordinary  rule  that  the  domicile  of  the  wife  follows  that  of 
the  husband  would  not  be  a|)i)licable  to  this  case,  even 
though  the  case  were  one  of  judicial  separation  rather  than 
of  total  divorce.  T.  W.  Dwioiix. 

Alisma'ceae  [from  the  fir.  oAio-fto,  name  of  a  water-plant]: 
a  natural  order  of  endogenous  plants,  natives  of  temperate 


climates.  They  are  herbaceous,  and  usually  grow  in  swamps 
or  sliallow  waters.  Among  the  genera  of  this  order  are  Alls' - 
ma  and  Siiyittaria  (arrowhead). 

Al'isoii.  Archibald:  Scottish  writer:  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Nov.  V.i.  1757,  and  educated  at  Uxfurd.  He  took  orders  in 
the  ('hurch  of  England  in  1778,  and  became  curate  of  Ken- 
ley,  in  Shroiishire,  in  17t)0.  In  1800  he  removed  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  preached  for  many  years.  His  chief  works 
are  Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  2'aste  (1784), 
and  two  volumes  of  sermons  (1814).  D.  in  Edinburgh,  May 
17,  1839. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  Bart.,  D.  C.  L. :  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; 1).  at  Kenley,  in  Shropshire,  England,  Dec.  29, 1792. 
He  graduated  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  studied  law, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1814.  In  1832  he  published  his 
Prinnptex  of  Criminal  Law,  a  work  of  standard  authority. 
His  chief  work  is  a  History  of  Europe  during  the  French 
A'erolutioii  (10  vols.  8vo.,  1833-42),  which  comes  down  to 
1815,  and  has  had  a  great  popularity.  '■  Its  merits,"  says  the 
Edinburgh  Review  for  Oct.,  1842,  "are  minuteness  and  hon- 
esty— (luiilities  which  may  well  excuse  a  faulty  style,  gross 
political  jirejudices.  and  a  fondness  for  exaggerated  and 
frothy  declamation."  He  wrote  a  cniitiii\iaticin  of  this  his- 
tory to  the  year  1852,  and  a  Life  of  Jolin,  Duke  of  3Iarl- 
Ixrrouyh  (1847).  In  politics  he  was  ultra-Conservative.  D. 
in  Glasgow,  May  23,  1867. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  Jr.,  Bart. :  son  of  Sir  Archibald, 
the  eminent  historian:  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Jan.  21.  1826;  edu- 
cated' in  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  en- 
tered the  army ;  served  in  the  Crimea  and  in  India,  where  he 
was  military  secretary  to  Lord  Clyde ;  lost  an  arm  at  Luck- 
now  ;  and  distinguished  himself  as  lirigadier-general,  second 
in  command  of  the  Ashantee  expedition  of  1873-74.  He 
succeeded  to  the  baronetcy  1867.  and  became  deputy  adju- 
tant-general in  Ireland,  Oct.,  1874.  He  distinguished  him-, 
self  in  the  war  of  1882  in  Egypt,  and  became  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  November  of  that  year.  After  Arabi's  surrender. 
General  Alison  commanded  the  British  army  of  occupation 
in  Egypt. 

Aliz'arin  [from  Arab  al,  the  +  ai;urah.  juice,  extract : 
aliza'ri  is  the  commercial  name  of  madder  in  the  LeViUit] : 
the  coloring-matter  of 'madder  (Ruttia  tinctorum).  Aliz- 
arin was  discovered  in  1824  by  Robi(|uet  and  Colin,  by  treat- 
ing madder  with  strong  sul|ihuric  acid,  producing  a  black 
mass,  which  they  called  charbon  de  garaiwe.  On  heating 
this,  it  yielded  a  sublimate  of  alizarin  crystals. 

Alizarin  is  largely  sold  to  the  calico-printers  in  the  form 
of  a  yellowish  brown  paste,  under  the  name  of  "  madder  ex- 
tract"; also  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder.  It  may  be  crys- 
tallized from  solution  in  red  prisms  or  by  sublimation  in 
yellow  needles. 

It  is  soluble  in  caustic  alkalies  and  alkaline  carbonates, 
forming  a  violet  solution,  from  which  it  is  jirecipitated  by 
acids.  Alkaline  solutions  of  alizarin  form,  with  soluble  lime 
and  baryta  salts,  precipitates  of  a  beautiful  purple  color; 
with  alumina  salts,  a  red;  with  iron  salts,  a  purple  precipi- 
tate. If  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  which  has  been  printed 
with  the  common  alumina  and  iron  mordants  is  placed  in 
water  holding  a  little  alizarin  in  suspension,  it  will  be  found 
on  heating  the  whole  that  the  cotton  will  become  perma- 
nently dyed  in  shades  of  red  and  imrple.  Alizarin  is  a 
feeble  acid,  forming,  as  above  shown,  soluble  salts  with  the 
alkaline  metals,  and  insoluble  colored  salts  with  most  other 
metals.  Turkev-red,  madder-pink,  and  the  various  shades 
of  purple  jind  chocolate  on  calico,  are  compounds  of  alizarin 
with  metallic  bases. 

Artificial  Alizarin. — One  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of 
moderii  chemistry  was  the  iiroduction  by  Graebe  and  Lieb- 
ermann  in  1869  of  artificial  alizarin. 

By  passing  the  vapor  of  alizarin  from  madder  over  heated 
zinc" dust  they  olttained  the  comjiound  anthracene,  CmIIio. 
Further  investigation  showed  that  alizarin  is  more  directly 
related  to  anthraquinone,  a  compound  of  the  composition 
CulleOj.  wliich  is  formed  by  oxidizing  anthracene.  When 
anthraquinone  is  tri-ated  with  bromine  it  is.  converted  into 
dibrom -anthraquinone.  CnlleBrjOj.  and  this  when  melted 
with  caustic  [lotash.  KOII,  is  converted  into  the  potassium 
salt  of  alizarin,  from  which  the  acid  was  precipitated  by 
hydrochloric  acid  as  a  yellow  powiler  identical  with  the 
alizarin  derived  from  madder.  The  practical  importance 
of  this  discovery  attracted  to  it  the  attention  of  numerous 
chemists,  and  simpler  processes,  avoiding  the  use  of  the  ex- 
peiLsive  bromine,  were  soon  devised.     An  abundant  supply 


122 


ALKALI 


ALLAHABAD 


of  anthracene  is  obtained  from  the  refuse  coal-tar  of  gas- 
works, and  in  a  few  months  anthracene,  wliich  had  never 
been  seen  except  as  a  chemical  curiosity,  became  a  regular 
article  o£  commerce.     See  Anthracene. 

The  process  now  employed  for  making  alizarin  consists 
in  converting  the  anthraquinoiie  into  a  mono-sulpho  acid 
and  fusing  the  soda  salt  of  this  with  caustic  soda,  with  a 
small  addition  of  potassic  chlorate.  In  executing  this  proc- 
ess it  is  found  that  two  di-sulpho  acids  are  formed  in  large 
quantities,  which  yield  with  soda  two  new  isomeric  color- 
ing-matters of  great  importance,  C'uHsOb  :  flavo-purpurine 
from  tlie  a  acid,  which  produces  yellowish  reds,  and  anthra 
or  i.so  purpurine  from  the  b  acid,  which  produces  pure  fiery 
reds.  Alizarin  proiluees  bluish  reds.  By  separating  the 
mono  and  the  two  di  sidpho  acids,  each  may  be  made  to 
yield  its  own  coloring-matter  on  fusion  with  soda,  or  by  op- 
erating upon  various  mixtures  of  them  dyestufls  producmg 
the  greatest  variety  of  shades  may  be  obtained. 

The  following  new  dyesluft's  'have  been  preixared  from 
alizarin : 

Alizarin  carmine,  which  is  the  sodium  salt  of  niono- 
sulpho  alizarin  and  the  two  purpurines.  It  is  used  on  wool 
as  a  substitute  for  cochineal. 

Alizarin  orange  is  nitro-alizarin. 

Alizarin  Hue  is  produceil  \>\  heating  nitro-alizarin  with 
glycerin  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Alizarin  blue  S.  is  a  compound  of  the  blue  with  acid 
sulphite  of  sodium. 

The  annual  consuniiition  of  madder  in  dyeing  and  calico- 
printing  exceeded  .f  lO.OOU.OOO.  Large  tracts  in  Holland, 
Alsace,  Italy,  and  the  Levant  were  devoted  to  its  culture. 
It  not  only  supplied  dyestufls,  but  in  Alsace  it  yielded  a 
large  proportion  of  the  alcoliol  of  commerce ;  the  root  con- 
taining sugar,  which  was  extracted  and  subjected  to  fer- 
mentation. 

The  brilliant  discovery  of  Graebe  and  Liebermann  has 
effected  a  very  serious  change  in  the  agricultural  system  of 
people  as  remote  from  each  other  as  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea  and  Asia  Minor.  Theoretically,  1  lb.  of  alizarin  would 
require  0-60  lb.  anthracene,  which  would  be  obtained  from 
30  lb.  of  coal-tar,  requiring  660  lb.  of  coal.  In  practice, 
the  yield  is  less  than  half  this  amount.  For  further  de- 
tails, consult  Die  Farbstofe,  von  P.  Schutzenberger,  uelior- 
jetzt  von  Dr.  II.  Schroeder  (Berlin,  1873);  The  Historij  of 
Alizarin,  by  W.  II.  Perkin  (I.  Soc.  Arts,  1879);  Die  C/u-mie 
des  Steinkdlih'ntheers,  von  G.  Schultz  (Braunschweig,  3 
Auf.,  1886) ;  Dirtionary  uf  Applied  Chemistry,  T.  E.  Thorpe 
(Lond.,  vol.  i.,  1890). 

C.  P.  Chandler.    Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Al'kali  [from  Arab,  al,  the  -t-  qal'i,  calcined  ashes  of  the 
plant  glass-wort  (Sal icurnia),  from  galay,  fry]:  one  of  an 
impoi'tant  class  of  bases  which  combine  with  acids  to  form 
salts,  turn  vegetable  yellows  to  brown,  and  vegetable  bines 
to  green,  and  act  upon  oil  or  fat  to  form  soap.  The  ])roj)er 
alkalies  are  potash,  soda,  lithia,  cajsia,  rubidia,  and  am- 
monia, which  are  extremely  caustic.  Potash  is  called  vege- 
table alkali,  soda  is  called  mineral  alkali,  and  ammonia, 
volatile  alkali.  Lime,  magnesia,  barrta,  and  strontia,  hav- 
ing some  properties  of  alkalies,  are  called  alkaline  earths. 
The  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  are  metallic  oxides,  except 
Amjionia  ((/.  )■.).  When  an  alkali  and  an  acid  combine,  they 
are  said  to  neutralize  each  other ;  they  really  produce  metallic 

KOII  +  IICl  =  KCl  -I-  11,0. 
NaOH  +  IINOa  =  NaNOa  +  n,0. 
See  Ann. 

Alkali  Flat:  See  Pi^aya. 

Alkalim'eti'r  [from  alkali  +  Gr.  fifrpov.  a  measure]:  an 
instrument  used  to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  pure  potassium 
or  sodium  carbonate  in  a  commercial  sample  of  those  arti- 
cles, and  to  test  the  strength  and  purity  of  soda-asli,  potash, 
etc.  It  consists  of  a  gradnateil  glass  tube  divided  into  100 
degrees  (numl)ering  trom  tlie  top),  and  filled  with  dilute(l 
sulphuric  aciil,  ]ioure(l  into  a  given  quantity  of  the  solution 
of  the  alkali  until  it  is  neutralized.  If  this  process  empties 
the  tube  to  the  eiglilietli  degree,  it  shows  that  the  article 
contains  80  per  ceni.  of  ])ure  alkali.  This  process  is  called 
alkalimetry.  The  same  instrument  is  also  used  to  test  the 
strength  oi'  acids,  by  filling  the  tube  with  a  solution  of  alkali 
and  reversing  the  process.  See  the  article  Analysis,  Volu- 
metric. 

Alkalimetry:  See  Alkalimeteu  and  Analysis,  Volu- 
metric. 


Al'kaloids  [from  alkali  +  ending  -oid,  from  Gr.  eiSoj, 
form,  shape]:  compounds  of  vegetable  origin,  generally  of 
com|ilex  composition  and  capable  of  producing  markeil  ef- 
fects upon  animals.  Tliey  all  contain  nitrogen,  and  all  have 
certain  properties  in  common  with  ammonia,  more  especially 
the  power  of  combining  directly  with  acids  to  form  salts. 
They  belong  to  the  general  class  of  organic  bases.  On  ac- 
count of  their  poisonous  and  medicinal  properties,  they  have 
long  attracted  tlie  attention  of  chemists.  They  are  extracted 
from  the  plants  by  treating  with  dilute  acids,  and,  from  the 
solutions  thus  obtained,  they  are  precipitated  by  ammonia. 
Among  the  most  important  alkaloids  are  :  Aconitine,  from 
Aconihnn  napellus:  atropine,  hyoseine,  and  belladonine, 
from  atropa:  quinine  and  cinchonine.  from  cinchona;  co- 
caine, from  coca-lea  res;  caffeine,  from  coffee-berries ;  coniine, 
from  conintn;  nicotine,  from  Nicotiana  iabacum;  mor- 
phine and  narcotine,  from  opium;  strychnine  and  brucine, 
from  Strychnos;  and  veratrine,  from  veratrnm.  It  some- 
times becomes  a  matter  of  importance  to  determine  whether 
alkaloids  are  present  or  not,  as,  for  example,  in  cases  of 
suspected  poisoning.  Chemists  can  now  determine  this  with 
absolute  certainty.  I.  K. 

Al'kanet  [from  Span,  alcana,  from  Arab,  ul-henna,  the 
shrulj  henna] :  a  herbaceous  plant  found  in  Europe  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Anehusa  and  family  Boraginarew.  They 
have  five  stamens.  Some  of  the  species  are  cidtivatcd  for 
the  beauty  of  the  flowers.  The  root  of  the  Anchu.m  tincto'ria 
affords  a  resinous  red  coloring-matter,  and  is  used  to  color 
pomadi'S,  liii-salves,  hair-oils,  etc. 

Al-Kin(ii.  or  Alcllilidns:  a  very  prolific  Arabian  writer 
on  medicine  and  philosophy;  b.  at  Bassorah ;  flourished  in 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  Several  of  his  works,  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  were  much  read  during  the  Middle  Ages; 
the  most  celebrated  was  De  Theoria  Magicarum  Artium. 

Alkmaar':  an  old  and  important  town  of  Holland;  prov- 
ince of  \orth  Holland;  20  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Amsterdam, 
and  5  miles  from  the  ocean  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium, ref.  4-E).  It  is  well  built,  and  is  traversed  by  sev- 
eral canals,  by  which  it  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  but- 
ter and  cheese.  It  is  said  to  be  the  greatest  mart  for  cheese 
in  the  world.  Here  are  manufactures  of  soap,  leather,  sail- 
clot  li.  etc.  This  town  was  defended  with  success  against  the 
Spanianls  in  a  long  siege  which  began  in  1573.  Pop.  (1879) 
13.304 ;  (1890)  15,833. 

Alkmaar,  Hendrik,  van  :  a  Low  German  poet  who  wrote 
about  1475-1491.  He  was  the  translator  of  a  very  poinilar 
satiric  poem  entitled  Reinke  de  Vos  (Reynard  the  Fox),  which 
he  published  in  Low  German  at  Liibeck  in  1498.  See  Rey- 
nard the  Fox. 

Alkoran :  See  Koran. 

Al'lali :  the  Arabic  name  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the  only 

true  God,  as  distinguished  from  the  deities  worshiped   by 
idolaters. 

Al'laliahad'  (i.  e.  the  city  of  God) :  a  division  (district 
ami  city)  of  the  Northwestern  Provinces,  British  India;  on 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  between  Benares  and  Oudh  (see 
map  of  N.  India,  ref.  7-F).  The  division  contains  13,746  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  (1891)  5,942,900.  Allahabad  district  is  the  ter- 
ritory around  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and 
contains  2.833  sq.  miles.  The  city  is  at  the  junction  of 
these  rivers,  and  is  the  capital  of  the  Northwestern  Prov- 
inces. Lat.  25°  26'  N.,  Ion.  81°  55'  E.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
noted  resoi-ts  of  Hindu  pilgrimage,  and  owes  its  sanctity 
to  its  being  at,  the  confluence  of  three  sacred  rivers— the 
two  aliovc  mentioned  and  the  Saraswati.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, does  not  now  reach  the  city,  Vieing  lost  in  tlie  sands 
400  miles  to  the  N.  W. ;  but  the  Hindus  assert  tliat  the 
junction  occurs  underground.  A  great  annual  fair  is  held 
at  Allahabad.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  city 
is  a  fort,  wliieh  rises  directly  from  tlie  lianks  of  the  con- 
fluent rivers,  and  completely"  commands  the  navigation  of 
lioth  streams.  Witliin  it  are' the  remains  of  a  sjilcndid  pal- 
ace erected  by  the  Emperor  Akbar.  and  his  favorite  resi- 
(h'lice.  Next  in  interest  is  a  great  mos(|\ie,  once  occupied 
bythe  English,  but  afterward  returned  to  the  Mohammedans, 
w'lio  have  since  refused  to  use  it  as  a  place  of  worship  be- 
cause of  its  desecration. 

The  city  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1765  from  the  Vczir 
of  Oudh.  and  assigneil  to  tlie  titular  Emperor  of  Delhi. 
When  he  joined  the  iMahrattas  it  was  transferred  to  the 
Nawab  of  Oudh,  but  was  finally  ceded  to  the  British  in  1801. 


AIjLAX 


ALLEGHENY 


123 


It  is  jirowiiiij  nipiilly  in  coininciY-o  iiml  in  |"i|nil!ition.  ami  is 
now  11  rnilwiiv  center.  Tlie  population  was  7"2,098  in  1853, 
144,404  in  1873,  and  170.870  in  1801. 

Maiiiv  W.  Hakri.ngton. 

Al'IiVn.  D.wid:  a  Seottisli  |iaintoi'of  doinestieand  linnior- 
ous  svdijeets;  called  tlie '•  Scoltish  llosrarth":  b.  at  Alloa. 
Feb.  |:!.  1744.  lie  studied  and  worked  for  many  years  in 
Komi',  whither  he  went  in  1704.  Among  his  works  are  Tlie 
Origin  of  I'liiiitini/,  wlu<-h  represents  a  Corinthian  maiden 
drawing  her  lover's  profile  on  the  wall,  and  illustrations  of 
Allan  Kanisay's  O'cntle  Shcji/icrd.  I),  in  Kdiidiurgh,  Aug. 
6,  17!J0. 

Allan.  Gkorre  William.  I).  C.  L..  F.  K.G.S.  :  Canadian 
Senator;  b.  in  Toronto,  Jan.  9.  1822;  educated  at  Upper 
Canada  College;  ailmitted  to  the  bar  in  1840;  rejiresented 
York  county  in  the  Conservative  interest  in  the  Legislative 
Council  of  Canaila,  18.58-07;  became  a  member  of  the  Sen- 
ate in  May  of  the  latter  year,  and  appointed  Speaker  of  that, 
borly  March  17,  18S,s.  lie  is  (.'hancellor  of  the  University  of 
Trinity  College  ;  president  of  the  Ontario  Society  of  Artists, 
and  ot  the  Historical  .Society  of  Ontario;  chief  commissioner 
of  the  Ciinada  Company  ;  presiilent  of  the  Western  Canada 
Loan  and  Savings  Company;  and  is  prominently  eonneeted 
with  other  institutions — learned,  industrial,  etc.  He  is  a 
lientenant-eolonel  of  militia,  and  was  at  one  time  mayor  ot 
Toronto.  Nkil  MArnoNALD. 

Allan.  Sir  IIhgh  :  Canadian  ship-owner ;  b.  at  Saltcoats, 
Scotland,  Sept.  29,  1810.  After  completing  his  school  edu- 
cation he  was  for  some  time  employed  as  a  I'lerk,  and  in  1824 
removed  to  Canada.  lie  served  in  the  rebellion  of  1837,  and 
attained  the  rank  of  ca])tain.  Li  1838  he  became  a  partner 
in  thc^  firm  of  Edmonston  &  Allan,  who  in  18.53  began  the 
construction  of  iron  screw  steamships.  From  this  the  Allan 
line  of  steamshiiis  has  developed,  lie  was  knighted  in 
1871.  Sir  Hugh  attained  some  jirominenee  in  Canadian 
polities  in  consequence  of  his  connection  with  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railwav  scandal.  He  died  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  8, 
1883.  "  Xkil  Macuo.nald. 

Allan,  Sir  William  :  a  .Scotch  portrait  and  figure  painter ; 
h.  in  Eilinburgh  in  1782  ;  elected  a  Royal  Academician,  1835 ; 
and  was  president  of  the  Koyal  Scottish  Academy,  1838-50. 
D.  in  Edinliurgh,  Feb.  23,  1850.  William  A."  Coffin. 

.\^llan-Kardec',  Hippolyte  Leox  Denizard  :  b.  at  Lyons, 
Oct.  3.  1803;  was  the  rejiresentative  of  the  spiritualistic 
movement  in  Prance,  and  wrote  Li'  Lirre  dps  Expri/f  (\>i')7) : 
Le  Lirri'  ili'S  JI('diii»ix;  and  L' Imitation  dt  I'Emnyili;  stloii 
le  Spiriliiiitisiiii'  (1804).  He  also  founded  the  Revue  spirite 
(18.581.     I».  in  l^uis  Apr.  1,  1869. 

AllanfAis.  a-lan'to-is  [false  sing,  of  fjuasi-plnr.  (dlaii- 
(o'l'dfix  =  (}r.  aKKcwToetS-fis,  sing,  sausage-shaped,  a\\as.  sau- 
sage +  eTSos,  shape] :  a  thin  membranous  sac  develo[ied 
<luring  inculjation  in  the  eggs  of  birds  and  reptiles,  ami  in 
the  emiiryo  of  viviparous  animals  during  gestation.  For  its 
develo[anent  and  uses,  see  Embryology. 

Alla'lins.  Leo  [Latinized  form  of  Leone  Allacci] ;  b.  of 
<rreek  parents  in  the  island  of  Chios  in  1.586.  He  was  taken 
when  lune  years  old  to  Calabria  in  Italy,  and  thence  in  1000 
to  Home  to  complete  his  studies;  was  emjiloyed  in  1()22  by 
Pope  (iregory  XV.  to  superintend  the  transfer  to  Rome  and 
the  incorporation  in  the  Vatican  of  the  Heidelberg  library, 
which  had  been  given  to  the  pontiff  by  the  Elector  of  Bava- 
ria; was  appointed  by  Pope  Alexander  VII.  in  1601  librarian 
of  the  Vatican,  whicli  oRice  he  held  till  his  death  in  1669. 
Leo  was  a  pmlific  writer;  his  works  were  partly  editions  and 
elucidations  of  the  classic  and  ceelesi.a.stic  writers  and  notices 
of  authors,  and  ]i,-irtly  treatises  on  the  history  and  doctrines 
ot  the  Koman  Church  and  on  the  differences  between  the 
Eastern  and  Westi'rn  cluirch<>s.  Though  the  son  of  Greek 
parents,  he  was  an  extreme  partisan  of  the  Roman  Church. 
A  (complete  list  of  his  productions  (fifty  enumerated  by  Fa- 
liricius)  is  added  to  his  Kxprcitatio  de  Mi'n.vtra  Ti-mpornm 
AntiiiHorum  (Cologne,  104!l),  and  is  also  given  by  Fabricins 
in  his  Bildinthcca  Grit'ca.  vol.  xi.  437,  .sv/i/.,  ed.  TIarles.  See 
Creuzer,  Ziir  Gesr/i.  der  Class.  Philulor/ic.       II.  Drisler. 

Allatoo'na  :  on  railroad,  Bartow  co..  Ga.  (for  location  of 
conni  y.  see  m,-i]i  of  (ieorgia,  ref.  2-F) :  40  miles  X  W.  of  At- 
lanta. Gen.  .1.  E.  .lohnston.  when  pursued  by  (Jen.  Sherman, 
nuidc  a  stand  in  the  strong  ])Osition  of  .\llatoona  Pass,  in  May. 
1804,  until  his  fiank  Wiis  turned.  General  Corse  defended 
this  place  with  su<'cess  against  the  assault  of  a  superior  force 
in  Oct..  1864.  while  (ien.  Sherman,  from  the  top  ot  Kenesaw 
Mountain,  signaled  that  he  should  hold  out  to  the  last. 


Al'legran:  railroad  junction;  capital  of  Allegan  co.,  Mich, 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Jliehigan,  ref.  7-H);  on 
the  Kalamazoo  river:  has  electric  lights,  the  Holly  water- 
works, foundries,  car-works,  and  other  manufactories  using 
water  ami  sleam-power;  an  academy;  and  the  library  of 
the  Allegan  Ijiterarv  and  Lilirarv  Association.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,305;  (i890)  2,069;"(1894)  2.673.'   Editor  of  -'Journal." 

Allearlia'ny ;  a  river  which  rises  in  Potter  co..  Pa.,  makes 
a  short  circuit  in  New  York,  and  returns  into  the  former 
.State.  Flowing  afterward  in  a  S.  S.  W.  direction  through 
the  hilly  oil-regions,  it  unites  with  the  Monongahela  at 
Pittsbui-g.  forming  the  Ohio.  It  is  navigable  for  small 
steamboats  150  miles  or  more  above  Pittsburg,  is  over  400 
miles  long,  and  its  waters  are  remarkably  clear  and  pure. 
^Vmong  the  princiiial  towns  on  its  banks  are  Warren,  Frank- 
lin, and  Kittanning. 

Alleg'Iiany  Mountains,  or  .\llpglianios:  the  A|ipala- 
chian  system  of  mountains.  (See  Appalachian  Mountains.) 
In  a  more  limited  sense  the  name  is  applied  to  parallel  ranges 
which  traverse  Pennsylvania.  Mainland,  and  Virginia  W.  of 
the  great  valley.  The  general  direction  of  these:  ridges  is 
nearly  N.  E.  and  S.  W.,  and  their  mean  height  about  3,500  feet. 
These  ridges  are  remarkable  for  the  parallelism  of  their  di- 
rection and  the  uniformity  of  their  outline  .and  altitude,  and 
inclose  several  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys.  The  rocks  of 
the  AUeghanies  are  shales,  sandstones,  and  limestones  of  Si- 
lurian, Devonian,  and  carboniferous  age,  and  include  in  the 
upper  series  the  most  imjiortant  store  of  coal  in  the  Eastern 
States. 

Alleghany  Springs.  Montgomery  co.,  Va.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  ^'irginia,  ref.  7-D) ;  3  miles  from  Shaws- 
ville,  on  the  Norfolk  ami  Western  R.  R..  and  77  miles  S.  W. 
of  LTOchburg- ;  a  popular  resort  for  invalids  and  others.  The 
springs  are  highly  saline,  and  produce  laxative,  tonic,  or  al- 
terative effects,  according  to  the  method  of  use.  They  are 
especially  recommended  for  dyspeptics.  Eight  miles  distant 
are  the  sublime  Puncheon  Run  Falls. 

Allearlipny :  city ;  Allegheny  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  .5-A) ;  separated  from  Pitts- 
burg by  the  Allegheny  river,  here  crossed  by  nine  fine 
bridges.     For  map,  see  Pittsburg. 

Allegheny  is  the  terminus  of  the  West  Pennsylvania  R.  R., 
the  Pittsburg  and  Western  R.  R.,  and  is  on  the  Pittsburg, 
Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  R.  R.  The  city  covers  an  area 
of  4.900  acres;  the  ground  is  hilly,  the  elevation  above  low- 
water  mark  ranging  from  20  to  Of  1  feet;  it  has  a  river-front 
on  the  Ohio  river  of  19,000  feet  and  on  the  Allegheny  rive; 
of  14.500  feet ;  76  miles  of  paved  streets,  40  miles  of  sewers, 
80  miles  of  water-pipes,  and  many  miles  of  gas-pipe  for  con- 
veying natural  gas,  which  is  used  as  fuel. 

The  town  of  Allegheny  was  laid  out  in  1788,  created  a 
liorough  in  1828,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1840. 

The  municipal  government  is  similar  to  that  of  Pittsburg, 
both  cities  being  in  the  second  class.  It  is  composed  of  a 
mayor,  auditor,  controller,  treasurer  (the  last  three  chosen 
liy  "councils),  with  city  councils  in  two  branches,  styled  re- 
spectively select  and  common.  These  are  elected  by  the 
lieojile.  and  appoint  other  administrative  officials  to  take 
charge  of  the  police,  health,  and  fire  <lepartinents,  assess- 
ments and  pulilic  works.  The  total  assessed  vahuition  of 
the  city  of  xVUegheny  for  iiurposes  of  taxation  is  |69,659,775, 
on  which  a  revenue  is  collected,  for  all  purjjoses,  of  .f  1,114,- 
775:  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  city  is  $2,184,5(10,  with 
a  sinking  fund  of  .|;397,740.4.5. 

The  city  has  24  ward  schools  with  301  teachers,  and  15,823 
pupils  in  attendance.  The  high  school,  13  teachers  and  336 
pupils.  Besides  the  pnbUc  schools  there  is  a  large  number 
of  others,  including  the  parochial  schools  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  in  which  there  are  17,377  pupils  enrolled. 

The  Western  University  and  Allegheny  Observatory  are 
located  on  a  high  hill  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city. 
There  are  two  fri-e  public  libraries — one  founded  by  Col. 
James  Anderson  and  maintained  by  the  Board  of  School 
Controllers,  for  use  of  teachers,  pupils  of  the  ]>ublic  schools, 
and  citizens  of  Allegheny;  the  other  founded  by  Andrew 
Carnegie. 

Allegheny  holds  the  sanu^  relation  commercially  and  so- 
cially to  Pittsliurg  as  Brooklyn  does  to  New  York,  and  may 
justly  be  termed  a  city  of  churches,  including,  as  it  does, 
eighty  churches  of  all  religious  denominations,  as  well  as 
many  V)enevol<'nt  and  eleemosynary  institutions,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Allegheny  Orphan  Asylum 
Home  of  the  Friendless,  etc. 


124 


ALLEGHENY   COLLEGE 


ALLEN 


Manufactures. — Tlie  city  contains  extensive  iron  and  steel 
rolling-mills,  locomotive- works,  cotton  and  woolen  mLlls, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  tanneries,  flour-mills,  salt-works, 
white-lead  works,  etc.  Accoi'dingr  to  the  census  of  1890  the 
number  of  manufactories  was  616  (as  compared  with  424 
in  1880).  flitli  a  capital  of  $14,441,916,  employing  on  the  av- 
erage 9,210  persons,  who  receive  during  the  year  $.5,020,188, 
the  total  value  of  the  product  for  the  year  being  |19,297,003. 
There  are  in  Allegheny  the  Western  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, 3  theological  seminaries,  numerous  benevolent  and  re- 
formatory institutions,  the  Western  penitentiary ;  a  soldiers' 
monument  costing  over  $40,000 ;  a  beautiful  park  (covering 
about  100  acres),  embellished  with  costly  fountains,  statues, 
etc. :  2  beautiful  cemeteries — Union  Dale  and  St.  Mary"s  :  a 
fine  market-house,  and  verv  extensive  water-works.  Pop. 
(1870)  53,180;  (1880)  78,683;"  (1890)  10.5,287. 

Jonx  B.  Kesnedy. 

Allegheny  College :  organized  at  Jleadville,  Pa.,  by  citi- 
zens of  the  village,  in  1815.  Its  first  president  was  Rev. 
Timotliy  Alden.  1).  D.,  a  Presbj-terian.  Incorporated  in 
1817,  it  came  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Church  in 
1833.  The  three  buildings  of  the  coUege  are  jileii-santly  lo- 
cated and  well  equipped;  the  library  numbers  12,500  vol- 
umes ;  and  the  productive  endowment  is  $160,000.  Three 
courses  lead  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  and  one  to  that  of  C.  E. 
In  1890  there  were  fifteen  professors  and  tutors.  175  students 
in  the  college,  and  116  in  the  preparatory  school.  Nearly  a 
fifth  of  the  students  are  ladies.  The  president  is  (1892)  Da- 
vid H.  Wheeler,  LL.  D..  and  the  college  is  under  the  joint 
control  of  the  Pittsburg,  Erie,  East  Ohio,  and  West  Virginia 
conferences  of  the  M.  E.  Church.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

AUe'giaiice  [Eng.  prefix  a-  +  M.  Eng.  ligeance,  a  de- 
rivative of  /life  —  Mod.  Eng.  Ueije.  faithful ;  Fr.  allege- 
aiwe  is  adopted  from  Eng.] :  in  law,  the  tie  or  obligation 
which  binds  a  citizen  or  subject  to  a  state.  The  common 
law  distinguishes  between  natural  and  local  allegiance. 
The  former  is  that  which  a  citizen  owes  to  the  state  of 
which  he  is  a  member ;  the  latter  is  due  from  a  person  who 
is  not  bound  by  the  rules  of  natural  allegiance,  but  who  is 
temporarily  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  state  by  which  the 
allegiance  is  claimed.  Under  this  theory  a  foreigner  tem- 
porarily residing  in  a  country  is  subject  to  its  laws.  Under 
such  circumstances,  should  he  conspire  to  overturn  the  gov- 
ernment he  nuiy  be  guilty  of  treason.  When  he  departs 
his  allegiance  is  at  an  end.  Natural  allegiance,  on  the  other 
hand,  can  only  be  shaken  off  by  a  formal  act  on  the  part  of 
the  citizen ;  this  is  called  naturalization,  following  emigi-a- 
tion.  Should  he  abandon  the  country  to  which  he  belongs, 
and  engage  in  war  on  the  part  of  a  foreign  state  against  it, 
he  might  in  strictness,  if  taken  prisoner  before  naturaliza- 
tion, be  treated  as  a  traitor.  Such  a  treatment  would,  under 
some  circumstances,  Ije  extremely  harsh,  as  where  the  state 
had  encouraged  emigration,  and  the  consequent  assumption 
by  an  emigrant  of  relations  naturally  leading  to  a  duty  to 
take  sides  in  a  controversy  with  an  adopted  country.  The 
doctrines  of  allegiance  are  of  feudal  origin,  and  it  has  been 
found  difficult  to  reconcile  them  with  the  requirements  of 
modern  times.  The  U.  S.  in  their  legislation  upon  natural- 
ization have  proceeded  u|>on  the  theory  tliat  a  citizen  of  a 
foreign  country  miglit,  at  his  will,  shake  off  his  allegiance 
and  become  a  citizen  here.  The  European  nations  formerly 
denied  that  there  was  any  such  rule  of  public  law,  Great 
Britain  until  1870  even  maintaining  a  right  to  the  indelible 
allegiance  of  her  subjects.  But  now,  through  a  series  of 
treaties  negotiated  aliout  twenty  years  ago  with  Great  Britain 
and  many  of  the  continental  states,  a  complete  transfer  of 
allegiance  in  favor  of  the  U.  S.  on  the  part  of  these  subjects 
is  permitted.  Allegiance  to  one  state  remains  until  super- 
seded by  the  acquisition  of  a  new  allegiance  to  another.  See 
Natirai.izatiox.  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsev. 

Allegret'to  [Ital.;  a  diminutive  of  allegro,  brisk]:  in 
music  u  movement  or  time  (luicker  than  andante,  but  not  so 
quick  as  allegro. 

Alle'gri,  A.vtoxio:  Sec  Correggio. 

Allegri,  Grkoorio:  Italian  composer  of  sacred  music; 
b.  in  Home  aliout  1.580.  He  was  a  singer  in  the  pope's 
chapel,  and  a  jiupil  of  Nanini.  His  masterpiece  is  the 
Miserere,  which  is  annually  pi'rformed  in  the  pontifical 
chapel  during  Passion  Week!     I),  in  Rome,  Feb.  18,  1653. 

Alle'gro  [Ital.  brisk  <  Lat.  a'laeer] :  in  music,  one  of  the 
principal  degrees  of  movement ;  a  term  which  signifies  that 


the  jnece  to  which  it  is  prefixed  is  to  be  performed  in  a  brisk 
and  lively  manner.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive, and  a  name  of  an  entire  musical  composition. 

Al'Iein,  or  Al'leiiie,  Joseph  :  an  English  Nonconformist 
minister  and  writer;  b.  at  Devizes  in  1634;  educated  at  Ox- 
ford. He  was  ejected  from  a  curacy  at  'Taunton  in  1662, 
after  which  he  was  persecuted  by  imprisonment  in  Ilchester 
jail,  and  was  fined  for  preaching.  His  death  was  hastened 
by  ill  treatment,  and  he  died  Nov.  17. 1668.  Among  liis  works 
is  an  Alarm  to  the  Unconverted  (1672),  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed.    See  his  life  by  Stanford  (1861). 

Allen.  Alexander  Viets  Griswold.  D.  D.  :  professor  in 
the  Episco|ial  Theological  School.  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  b.  at 
Otis,  Berkshire  co.,  JIass..  May  4, 1841 ;  graduated  at  Kenyou 
College,  Gambler,  0..  1863.'  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  1865  ;  was  rector  of  St.  .John's.  Lawrence,  1865-67, 
when  he  was  a|ipointed  to  the  cliair  of  ecclesiastical  history 
at  the  Cambridge  school.  Besides  review  articles  and  other 
minor  publications  he  has  issued  The  Continuity  of  Chris- 
tian Tlioiight,  a  Study  of  Modern  Theology  in  the  Light  of 
its  History,  the  Bohlen  lectures  for  1883,  and  a  life  of 
Jonathan  Edwards  (1889).  W.  S.  P. 

Allen.  Charles,  LL.  D. :  jurist ;  h.  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
Aug.  9,  1797  ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1818 ;  a  Judge  of  vari- 
ous State  courts  of  Massachusetts  between  1843  and  1859, 
and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Massachusetts  Superior  Court 
(1859-67).  From  1849  to  1853  he  was  a  Free-Soil  member 
of  Congress.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Congress  of 
1861.    D.  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  Aug.  6,  1869. 

Allen.  Elisha  Hixt  :  b.  at  New  Salem,  Jla-ss.,  Jan.  28, 
1804;  graduated  at  Williams  College;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar;  removed  to  Brattleboro.  Vt..  aii<l  in  1830  to  Bangor, 
Me.;  member  of  Maine  Legislature,  1836-41  and  1846;  in 
1838  was  Speaker ;  member  of  Congress  from  Maine,  1841-43  ; 
removed  to  Boston  in  1847,  and  was  elected  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Ijcgislature  in  1849;  U.  S.  consul  at  Honolulu, 
1852-56.  then  became  Hawaiian  JMinister  of  Finance,  and 
from  1857  was  Chief  Justice  and  Chancellor  of  Sandwich 
isUinils,  holding  that  office  twenty  years,  during  which  period 
he  was  several  times  minister  plenipotentiary  of  Sandwich 
islands  to  the  U.  S.  He  was  resident  minister  of  Sandwich 
islands  at  Washington  from  1876  till  his  death,  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  Jan.  1.  1883. 

Allen,  Elizabeth  (Ahers):  poet:  known  as  "Florence 
Percy  " :  b.  at  Strong,  ile.,  Oct.  9.  1833.  Her  maiden  name 
was  Elizabeth  Chase;  her  first  husband  was  the  sculptor 
xVkei's.  and  she  afterward  became  the  wife  of  E.  M.  Allen,  of 
New  Yoi-k.  She  published  in  1866  a  volume  of  poems,  and 
in  1886  The  Silver  Bridge  and  other  Poem.s,  and  has  con- 
tributed much  to  periodical  literature.  Her  most  pojnilar 
poem  is  the  song  Rock  Me  to  Sleep,  Mother. 

Allen.  Ethax  :  general ;  b.  at  Litchfield.  Conn.,  Jan.  10, 
1 737.  He  became  an  owner  of  iron-works  at  Salisbui-y,  Conn., 
and  in  1766  removed  to  Vermont,  where  he  liecame  a  leader 
in  the  pojnilar  resistance  to  the  claims  of  New  York.  The 
province  of  New  York  declared  Allen  an  outlaw,  and  offered 
i'1.50  for  his  arrest.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
Allen  heartily  joined  the  movement,  and  on  the  10th  of  May, 
1775.  he  surprised  and  captured  the  fort  at  Ticonderoga, 
summoning  its  astonished  commander  to  surrender  •' in  the 
name  of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress."' 
This  capture  gave  the  army  a  valuable  su|i]ily  of  artillery 
and  stores.  He  had  but  eighty-three  men  under  him,  among 
whom  was  Benedict  Arnold.  On  Sept.  2.5,  1775,  he  at- 
tacked Montreal  with  a  small  force,  but  was  captured  and 
sent  to  England  a.s  a  prisoner.  He  was  treated  witli  great 
cruelty,  and  wa.s  not  exchanged  till  1778.  The  British  au- 
thorities fried  in  vain  to  bribe  him  to  induce  the  Vermonters 
to  join  their  cause,  but  he  skillfully  contrived  by  his  nego- 
tiations to  keep  the  British  troops  out  of  Vermont.  He  pub- 
lislied  pamphlets  against  the  New  York  domination,  a  nar- 
rative of  ills  captivity  (1799);  a  Vindication  of  Vermont 
(1779);  and  Allen's  Theology,  or  the  Oracles  of  Reason 
(1784),  an  attack  upon  the  Christian  religion.  He  professed 
to  believe  in  the  transmigration  of  souls.  D.  near  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  Feb.  12,  1789.  See  his  life  bv  Hugh  Moore  (1834), 
by  II.  W.  de  Puy  (1853),  and  by  H.  Hall  (1892). 

Allen,  Frederick  De  Forest,  Ph.  D.:  classical  scholar; 
b.  at  Oljerlin,  O.,  1844;  graduated  at  Oberlin  College,  1863; 
studied  at  University  of  Leipzig;  professor  in  University  of 
Tennessee,  KnoxviUe,  Tenn.,  1866-68  and  1870-73;  tutor  at 
Harvard,  1873-74;   professor  in  University  of  Cincinnati, 


ALLEN 


125 


1874-79:  piofissor  at  Yale,  1879-80;  Professor  of  Classical 
Philology,  Ilarvanl  riiivcrsity,  1880;  author  of  an  edition 
of  the  IffcJiK  lit  Kuri|iiiles,  1870 :  Hrmniinlx  iif  J'Jiirln  Liiliii. 
1880;  revision  of  Jladlfy's  Grecl;  (rniiiimtir,  1884;  Greek 
Versificatiun  in  Inmrlplions,  1888 ;  and  nuinerous contribu- 
tions to  classical  journals.  C.  H.  T. 

Allen,  Harrison-.  .M.  [). :  surgeon;  li.  in  Philadelphia.  Pa.. 
Apr.  17,  1841;  .M.  1)..  University  of  Pennsylvania.  18<)1  ; 
assistant  surgeon  U.  S.  army,  1862-6.') ;  Professor  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1865-78,  and 
of  Physiology  since  then.  In  the  same  year  he  was  electeil 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  Philadelphia  Den- 
tal College,  and  in  1870  Surgeon  to  the  Phihulelphia  Hos- 
pital, Author  of  (Jii/li>ie.i  of  Ciinii>iiv(ilire  Aiialoniij  (1867) ; 
Si/sfem  fif  Iliimaii  Atia/umi/  {IHVi)};  and  numerous  papers 
on  the  anatomy  of  mammalia. 

Allen.  Hkmax.  LL.  I).:  I),  at  Poult  ney,  Vt..  Feb.  23,  1779; 
graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1795;  became  a  lawyer;  was  chief 
justice  of  a  Vermont  State  court  (1811-14) ;  member  of  Con- 
gress (1817-18);  U.  S.  minister  to  Chili  (1823-28);  and  held 
various  other  important  positions.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
Ethan  Allen.     D.  at  Highgate,  Vt.,  April  9,  1852. 

Allen,  IIexry  ;  an  enthusiast;  b.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  June 
14,  1748;  founder  of  the  "  Allenites."  He  maintained  that 
Adam  and  P]ve  before  the  fall  had  no  corporeal  bodies,  and 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  He  preached  in  Nova 
Scotia,  and  pidilished  some  hvmiis  and  religious  treatises. 
D.  at  Northampton,  N.  H.,  Feb.  2,  1784. 

Allen,  Horatio  :  civil  engineer ;  b.  at  Schenectady,  N.  V.. 
ill  1802 ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1823,  and  at 
once  engaged  in  civil  engineering.  In  1828  he  went  to 
(ireat  Britain  to  purchase  locomotives  for  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  Co.,  and  on  Aug.  9,  1829,  he  operated 
at  Ilonesdale,  Pa.,  "the  Stourliridge  Lion,"  the  first  locomo- 
tive ever  run  in  America.  Soon  after  he  was  appointed 
chief  engineer  of  the  South  Carolina  R.  R.,  on  which  the 
first  continuous  100  miles  of  track  ever  built  was  opened. 
Later  lie  became  connected  with  the  Croton  aqueduct  as 
princiiial  assistant  engineer,  and  had  particular  charge  of 
the  P'orty-second  Street  reservoir  in  New  York  city,  and  of 
High  Bridge  over  the  Harlem  river.  He  was  president  of 
the  New  York  and  Erie  K.  R.  on  its  first  formation,  and 
during  1872  and  1873  was  president  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers.    lie  died  Dec.  31.  1889.    See  Railways. 

Allen,  Ira  ;  general ;  a  younger  brother  of  Ethan  Allen  ; 
b.  in  Cornwall,  Conn.,  May  1,  1751.  P^migrating  in  1772  to 
Vermont,  he  became  a  prominent  and  public-spirited  citi- 
zen. While  he  was  colonel  of  militia,  his  regiment  did  good 
service  at  the  battle  of  P.ennington.  He  bore  a  prominent 
part  in  settling  the  early  diflienllies  of  Vermont  with  the 
neighboring  States.  In  1795  he  went  to  France  to  purchase 
arms  for  his  State,  but  was  taken  on  the  voyage  home,  car- 
ried to  England,  and  there  sustained  with  success  an  eight- 
years"  lawsuit  on  the  charge  of  attempting  to  supply  the 
Irish  with  arms.  For  a  time  he  was  imprisoned  in  France. 
He  wrote  a  yattiral  and  I'dliticnl  History  of  Vermont  (1798), 
and  other  works.     D.  in  Pliiladeliihia,  Jan.  4,  1814. 

Allen,  Jercme,  Ph.  D. ;  b.  at  Westminster  West,  Vt.,  July 
17,  1830;  educated  in  Amherst  College;  principal  of  Ma- 
qiioketa  (la.)  Academy.  18.5;{-55 ;  Professor  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences in  Alexander  College,  Dubuque,  185.5-.59:  principal  of 
Bowen  Collegiate  Institute.  Hopkintnn.  1859-67;  superin- 
tendent of  schools.  Jlonticello.  1867-71;  Professor  of 
Natural  Sciences  in  the  State  Normal  School.  Gcneseo,  N.  Y.. 
1874;  president  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  St.  Cloud, 
la.,  1885;  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Universitv  of  New  York; 
dean  of  the  School  of  Pedagogy,  1889;  aut'hi>r  of  ^4  Hiind- 
book  of  Experimental  Chemi.itri/  for  Laliomton/  Use ;  Metli- 
odK  for  Teorhers  in  (j riunnitir  :  MoniKil  of  J/rip-drairinr/: 
Mind  Stiulien  for  Younq  Tenrliern;  Temperitnient  in  Eilii- 
cation.     D.  in  Brooklyn, 'N.  V..  May  26,  1894.         C.  II.  T. 

Allen.  Joel  Asaph  :  b.  at  Siiringfield,  Ma.ss.,  July  19, 1838  ; 
entered  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  (.'amliridge,  Mass., 
as  a  special  student  in  zoology  (1862);  from  1865-69  was  a 
member  of  various  scientific  expeditions  to  Brazil,  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  Florida,  the  scientific  results  being  given  in 
n  series  of  papers  on  the  birds  and  mammals  of  the  different 
regions.  In  1873  he  was  apjiointedchief  of  a  scientific  jiarty  to 
accom]i.-my  the  Nc.rlhrrn  Pacific  R.  R. surveying  expedition, 
and  a  lieporl  of  the  Xntiiriit  Histonj  of  the  region  traversed 
was  published  in  the  Proc.  Host.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.;  elected 
(ltt70)  ajisistaii'  in  ornithology  at  the  Museum  of  Compara- 


tive Zoology  in  Cambridge;  awthor  ot  Monographs  of  North 
American  Jiodentia  (with  Elliott  Coues,  1877);  History  of 
\ortli  American  Pinnijieds  (1880).  He  has  edited  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Xnttal  Ornitholoi/iral  Club  (  876-80),  and 
became  editor  of  The  Auk.  Ralph  S.  Tarr. 

Allen,  Joseph  Henry,  D.  D.  :  L'nitarian  scholar  and 
preacher;  li.  at  Northboro.  Mass.,  Aug.  21,1821;  educated 
at  home  and  a*  Harvard  University;  settled  as  minister 
at  Jamaica  Plain  (Roxbury),  Mass.,  1843-47,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1847-50,  Bangor,  "Me.,  1850-57;  taught  a  boys' 
school  and  preached  in  his  native  town,  1857-67 ;  removed 
to  Cambridge,  taught,  and  edited  the  Allen  and  Greenough 
series  of  Latin  classics  (16  vols.).  1867-77;  lectured  on  eccle- 
aa.stical  history  in  Harvard  University,  1875-82 ;  editor  of 
the  Unitarian  Review,  1887-91 ;  author  of  7V;i.  Discourses 
on  Orthodoxy  (1849;  2d  ed.  1889);  Memorial  of  II.  Wifh- 
ington  (1849);  Manual  of  Devotions  (1852);  lletirew  3Ien 
and  Times  (1861;  2d  ed.'l879);  Christian  History  in  its 
Three  Great  Periods  (1883.  3  vols.) ;  Outline  of  Christian 
History  {)S8i):  Our  Liberal  3forement  in  Theology  {1889) ; 
Positive  Beligion  :  Essays,  Pragments,  and  Hints  (1891); 
senior  editor  of  the  History  of  Unitarianism. 

John  W.  Chadwick. 

Allen,  Pail  :  journalist ;  b.  at  Providence.  R.  I.,  Feb.  15, 
1775;  graihiated  at  Brown  University  in  1796;  studied  law 
and  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  engaged  in  journal- 
ism, serving  as  editor  and  as  correspondent  to  various 
journals.  He  published  a  volume  of  poems  (1801) :  Lewis 
and  Clark's  Travels  (1814) ;  Life  of  Alexander  I.  (1818).  etc. 
His  History  of  the  Revolution  (1819)  was  written  by  John 
Neal  and  others.  He  was  for  a  time  insane.  D.  at  Baltimore 
(where  he  was  an  editor  of  the  Morning  Chronicle),  Aug.  18, 
1826. 

Allen,  Philip:  b.  in  Providence,  R,  I.,  Sept.  1.  1785; 
graduated  at  Rhode  Island  College  (now  Brown  University) 
in  1803.  He  was  an  extensive  cotton-manufacturer,  and 
built  the  first  Watt  steam-engine  ever  made  in  Providence  ; 
was  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  (1851-53).  and  U.  S.  Senator 
(1853-59).     D.  in  Providence,  Dec.  16,  1865. 

Allen.  RicnARD:  first  bishop  of  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  He  was  originally  a  preacher 
in  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  ordained  deacon 
by  Bisliop  Asliury  in  1799.  He  was  elected  bishop  of  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1816.  D.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Mar.  26,  1831. 

Allen.  Richard  L.  :  b.  in  Hampden  co.,  Mass.,  Oct.,  1803. 
Was  .-I  merchant  in  Buffalo.  N.  Y..  in  1834,  residing  later  at 
AUcinvood,  his  fanii,  on  the  Niagara  river.  With  his  brother, 
A.  B.  Allen,  he  established  the  American  Agriculturist  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  1842.  which  became  a  very  success- 
ful paper.  He  was  the  author  of  the  American  Parm-book 
and  the  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals  (1845).  D.  at  Stock- 
holm, Sweden,  Sept.  22,  1869. 

Allen,  Stephen,  D.  D.  :  divine  and  educator  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church:  b.  in  ]\laine  in  1810;  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1835 ;  entered  the  ministry  in  the  Maine 
Conference  in  1839;  and  devoted  much  of  his  life  to  educa- 
tion in  his  native  State,  particularly  as  principal  of  Maine 
Wcsleyan  Seininaiy.     D.  July  3.  1888. 

Allen.  Thomas  :  animal  and  landsea|ie  painter;  b.  in  St. 
Louis,  i[o.,  1849 ;  pupil  of  the  Dilsseldorf  Academy;  asso- 
ciate member  National  Academy  of  Design  ;  member  of  the 
Society  of  American  Artists  (1880).  Two  of  his  best  works 
are  3Ianlehurst  at  Noon,  a  herd  of  Jersey  cattle  at  rest 
under  the  trees,  and  a  landscape  of  an  effect  at  earlv  evening 
called  O'er  all  the  Hilltops  is  Rest.     Studio  in  Boston. 

W.  A.  C. 

.Allen.  William.  F.  R.  S.  :  English  chemist  and  philan- 
lliropist  :  b.  in  London.  Aug.  29.  1770;  was  a  friend  of  Sir 
11.  Davy.  In  conjunction  with  W.  II.  Pepys  he  made  re- 
searches on  respiration,  etc.  He  devoted  much  time  to 
benevolent  enterprises,  and  as  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  traveled  in  Prance,  Germany,  and 
Russia.  He  had  interviews  with  the  Emjieror  Alexander  in 
1814  and  1822,  first  in  England,  next  in  Vienna.  In  1S25  he 
founded  two  manual-labor  schools  at  Lindfield  in  Sussex, 
where  he  died  Dec.  30,  1843. 

Allen.  William,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Pittsfleld,  Mass..  Jan.  2, 1784 ; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1802 :  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1804:  in  1810  succeeded  his  father  as  pjistor  in  Pittsfleld; 
was  chosen  |)resident  of  Dartmouth  Univei-sity  in  1817,  and 


120 


ALLEX 


ALLIANCE   OF  THE   REFOR.MED   CHURCHES 


was  president  of  Bowdoin  College  from  1820  to  1839.  His 
last  Jays  were  spent  at  Xorthampton,  Mass.,  where  he  died 
July  16,  1868.  He  published  numerous  volumes,  both  of 
prose  and  of  poetry.  Ills  liest  known  work  is  an  American 
Biographical  and  Historical  Dictionary  (1809;  3d  ed.  1857). 

Allen,  William  :  cardinal ;  b.  in  Lancashire,  England, 
1.532  ;  a  zealous  defender  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century;  founded  tlie  English 
College  at  Douav,  in  France,  1568;  was  made  cardinal  in 
.1587.  U.  at  Rnnie,  Oct.  16,  15!»4.  Author  of  a  number  of 
polemical  and  apologetic  works.  See  Gillow's  Bibliograph- 
ical Dictionary  of  English  Catholics  (Lond.  1885). 

JoHX  J.  Keane. 

Alloii,  AViLLiAM  Francis  :  historian  and  essayist ;  b.  at 
Northljorough,  Mass.,  Sept.  5,  1830;  graduated  at  Harvard 
1851 ;  studied  at  Berlin.  Gottingen,  and  Rome  185-1-56 ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  Languages  at  Antioch  College,  0.,  1866-67 ; 
Professor  of  Latin  and  History  in  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin 1867-89.  He  publislied  numerous  works  on  classical 
and  historical  subjects,  evincing  varied,  broad,  and  exact 
scholarship.  The  list  of  his  publications  given  in  his  col- 
lected Monographs  and  Essai/s  covers  thirtv  ]2uio  pp.  D. 
Dec.  9,  1889.  "  C.  K.  Adams. 

Allen,  William  IIe.vry,  M.  D..  LL.D.  :  b.  at  Readfield, 
Me.,  Mar.  27.  1808 ;  educated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Me.,  1833  ; 
was  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  Cazenovia  Methodist 
Seminary,  X.  V..  from  1833  to  1835  ;  Professor  of  Chemistry 
and  Xatural  Philosophv  in  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa., 
fi-om  1836  to  1846;  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  English 
Literature  at  the  same  institution  from  1846  to  the  close  of 
1849;  president  of  Girard  College,  Pliiladelphia,  from  18.50 
to  1863 ;  president  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Pennsyl- 
vania during  1865  and  1866,  and  was  reappointed  president 
of  Girard  College  in  1867.  In  1872  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  American  Bible  Society.  He  was  author  of  ^1  Man- 
ual of  Devotion  for  Girard  College  Orphans,  and  of  numer- 
ous and  able  addresses,  reviews,  etc.     1).  Aug.  29,  1882. 

Allen,  William  Sullivaxt  Vaxderbilt  :  a  figure  painter 
who  was  one  of  the  first  of  ^Vmerican  artists  to  ado])t  the 
methods  of  the  "  impressionists  "  in  painting ;  b.  in  X^ew  York, 
Oct.  8,  1860.  He  is  well  known,  also,  as  an  illustrator,  and 
is  a  talented  draughtsman  in  pen  and  ink.  Pupil  of  Gerome 
and  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  Paris,  and  of  Claude  Monet  at 
Givernav,  France.  Member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  (li^87);  third-class  medal,  Paris  Exposition  (1889). 
Studio  in  Xew  York.  W.  A.  C. 

Allen'de:  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Jlexico.  (1)  San 
MiGi'EL  DE  Allend?:.  or  simply  Allende.  is  in  the  state  of 
Guaiiajuato.  a  few  miles  E.  of  the  city  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Mexican  Xational  11.  R.,  34  miles  X.  of  Celaya  (see 
map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  a  pretty  town,  situated  on 
the  declivity  of  a  high  hill,  and  has  well-paved  streets  and  a 
college.  Pop.  15.000.  (2)  El  Valle  de  Allende.  in  .South- 
ern Chihuahua,  S.  E.  of  Parral  and  W.  of  the  Mexican  Cen- 
tral R.  R.     It  is  said  to  contain  12.(MJ0  inhabitants. 

Allende,  .Ttan  Rafael:  Chilian  poet  .and  dramatist ;  b. 
in  .Santiago  in  1850;  began  writing  for  the  press  in  1869. 
In  1875  he  publisheil  studies  in  local  customs  in  the  journal 
called  El  Padre  Bobos.  In  1884  he  founded  the  paper  El 
Padre  Padillo,  which  has  made  him  famous.  In  1872  his 
first  piece  was  given  in  a  theater,  being  entitled  El  Qui 
Dirdn.  lie  has  since  written  several  successful  comedies. 
During  the  war  between  Chili  and  Peru  he  published  sis 
volumes  of  vei-se,  entitled  Poes'ias  del  Pequen.  The  Chilian 
Minister  of  War  had  10.000  copies  of  these  popular  and  in- 
tensely patriotic  poems  printed  for  the  use  of  tl]<'  armv. 

A.  R.  .M.^RSH. 

Allentown:  city;  an  important  railroad  center :  capital 
of  Lehigh  co..  Pa.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
5-1);  on  the  light  bank  of  the  Lehigh  river,  60  miles  X'.  by 
W.  of  Philadelphia.  The  town  was  fii'st  incor|)orated  as 
X^'orthainpton  in  1811.  In  1836  the  name  was  changed  to 
Allentown  by  act  of  the  Legislature.  There  are  many  blast 
furnaces  at  this  pla<-e.  large  rolling-tnills,  foundries,  and 
mai-liine-sliiips,  tanneries,  shoe-manuf;ictories.  tiilie-works. 
wocilen-mills,  lire-brick  work.s.  etc.  According  to  the  census 
of  IHitO  there  were  376  manufiuturingestalilishment.s,  repre- 
senting 74  dilTerent  imlustries.  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$6,479,860,  and  employing  5,805  persons.  The  wages  paid 
during  the  year  auu)unte(i  to  $2,303.638 ;  and  the  total  value 
of  the  products  to  .$8,826,273.  There  is  a  fine  court-house, 
and  a  prison  costing  $250,000.     It  is  the  seat  of  Muhlenljerg 


College,  and  other  institutions  of  learning.  Pop.  (1870)  13,- 
884;  (1880)  18,063;  (ly90)  25,228;  (1892)  34,000,  including- 
suburbs.   Frank  J.  Sherer,  city  editor  of  "  Chronicle." 

AUeppi',  or  Aleppi':  the  chief  port  of  the  native  state  of 
Travancore  ;  on  the  west  coast  of  tlie  southern  extremity  of 
Hindustan  ;  lat.  9  20  X.,  Ion.  76^  35'  E.  (see  mfip  of  S.  India, 
ref.  7-D).  A  canal  connects  it  with  a  large  coast  lake  called 
the  Backwater.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  teak,  cardamoms,, 
and  pe]iper.  The  name  of  this  town  is  very  variously  spelled, 
including  such  forms  as  Alipee,  Aulapolay,  and  AlipallL 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

Al'ler:  a  river  of  Germany,  an  affluent  of  the  Weser. 
rises  near  JIagdeburg  and  flows  northwestward.  It  is  about 
150  miles  long. 

All  Fools'  Day :  See  April  Fool's  Day. 

All-Hal'lows  \liallows,  plural  of  halloa' \  0.  Eng.  halga, 
saint] :  the  old  English  name  for  All  Saints'  Day  (the  1st  of 
Xovember). 

Alli'ance  :  city  and  railroad  junction  ;  Stark  co.,  0.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  4—1) ;  has  many  ex- 
tensive manufactories  of  liorserakes,  reapers,  pumps,  terra- 
cotta ware,  steam-hammers.  tin-])resses,  besides  rolling-mOls, 
white-lead  works,  etc.  It  has  excellent  public  schools,  a  col- 
lege, and  good  libraries.     Pop.  (1880)  4,636 ;  (1890)  7,607. 

Editor  of  "  Review." 

Alliance,  Evangrelieal :  See  Evangelical  Alliance. 

Alliance,  Holy  :  See  Holy  Alliance. 

Alliance  Israelite  Universelle:  a  league  established 
in  Paris  in  1860  liy  a  number  of  distinguished  Israelites  for 
the  protection  of  their  co-religionists  against  the  oppressions 
which  crushed  them,  and  for  their  social  elevation.  It  has 
spread  all  over  the  world  wherever  Jews  are  found,  and  has 
been  of  great  service.  Ijocal  committees  are  formed  which 
keep  up  communication  with  the  central  committee  in  Paris. 
By  the  munificence  of  Baron  Hirsch,  who  in  1873  put  one 
million  francs  at  its  disiiosal.  and  by  other  donations  and 
contributions,  the  Alliance  supports  trade  schools  in  Turkey, 
in  Palestine  (one  for  agriculture  at  JatTa),  and  in  Africa. 
The  girls  are  taught  in  self-supporting  arts  and  vocations. 

S.  M.  J. 

Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Chnrclies  throighout  the 
World  holding  the  Presbyterian  System  (popularly  called 
the  Presbyterian  Alliance):  a  voluntary  organization  for 
the  promotion  of  lirotherly  feeling  and  co-operat ion  among 
the  members  of  the  widely  scattered  religious  bodies  bear- 
ing different  names  but  agreeing  in  Reformed  theology  and 
Presbjierian  form  of  government.  The  alliance  owes  its  ori- 
gin to  the  advocacy  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  James  JlcCosh.  ex-presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Xew  Jei-sey,  who  in  1862  first  called  at- 
tention to  the  need  for  one.  Other  |iei'sons  made  suggestions 
on  the  sultject.  prominent  among  whom  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  W. 
G.  Blaikie,  professor  in  Xew  (Free  Church)  College,  Edin- 
burgh, whose  articles  on  the  sul.iject  powerfully  influenced 
the  Scotch  Presbyterians.  But  in  reality  the  [irfiject  was  a 
revival  of  a  scheme  as  old  as  Preslirterianism  itself,  for  we 
find  that  Calvin  in  his  letter  toCranmer  in  1552,  replying  to 
an  invitation  to  attend  a  conference  at  London  for  the  pro- 
motion of  unity  in  doctrine,  suggests  that  the  Reformed 
churches  should  be  bnjught  into  one.  So,  later,  the  authors 
of  the  Second  Book  of  Discipline,  in  Scotland,  and  also 
Theodore  Bcza  in  1.561.  But  the  times  were  not  favorable 
for  this,  any  more  than  for  the  wider  union  ]iroposed  by 
Henry  of  Xavarre  in  1.583.  The  union  in  1820  between  the 
Burgher  and  Anti-Burgher  churches,  making  the  United  Se- 
cessi(m  Cluirch,  and  other  events  of  similar  nature,  set  Pres- 
l)yteriaus  thinking  on  the  desirability  of  more  intimate  rela- 
tions with  tliiis(>  who  agreed  with  them  in  theology  and  polity. 
Tlie  General  Assembly  of  the  Irisli  Presbyterian  Church  and 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  U.  S.  (Xorth)  resolved 
in  1873  to  ojion  up  correspondence  "with  other  churches 
holding  by  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  with  a  view 
of  bringing  about  an  u'cumenical  council  of  such  churches, 
to  consider  snlijects  of  comiiion  interest  to  all.  and  especially 
to  promote  harmony  of  action  in  the  mission  fields  at  home 
and  abroad."  Advantage  was  t.aken  of  the  meetings  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  in  Xew  York  city  that  autumn  to  con- 
vene a  gathering  of  Presbrterian  (including  Reformed)  min- 
isters and  ehicrs.  Other  conferences  were  held  in  different 
countries,  and  finally  the  movement  took  shape  in  the  con- 
ference held  in  London,  July  21  and  22,  1875,  which  settled 
on  a  constitution  and  arranged  for  the  first  General  Council, 


ALLIBOXE 


ALLODIUM 


127 


which  convened  in  Kdinlnirgh.  July  3-10, 1877.  The  invita- 
tion given  by  the  London  conference  was  accepted  by  ahnost 
every  Presbrterian  organization  through  its  highest  court, 
and  dek'giiti'S  were  appointed.  The  roll  of  the  first  council 
showed  tliat  there  were  actually  present  24!t  delegates,  repre- 
senting 40  ditferent  coniniuiiions.  The  |)latforni  on  which 
they  met  was  thus  expressed  in  their  constitution:  "Any 
church  organizetl  on  Presbrterian  principles,  which  hokis 
the  sujjrenie  authority  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  Xew 
Testanu'iits  in  nuitters  of  faith  and  morals,  and  whose  creed 
is  in  harmony  witli  tlie  consensus  of  the  Keformed  cluirclK'.s, 
shall  be  eligible  for  admission  into  the  alliance."  The  coun- 
cil is  made  up  of  delegates,  both  ministerial  and  lay  in  equal 
number,  regularly  commissioned  by  their  respective  com- 
munions; considei-s  question-sof  general  interest  to  the  Pres- 
byterian community,  but  is  expressly  forliiddeu  to  "  inter- 
fere with  the  existing  creed  or  constitution  of  any  t'lniri-li  in 
the  alliance,  or  with  its  internal  order  or  external  relations." 

The  second  (ieneral  t'ouncil  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
23-Oct.  2,  im),  aud  wiis  attended  by  220  delegjites,  repre- 
senting 28  different  communions;  tiie  third  in  Helfast,  June 
24-Juiy  3, 18S4.  with  238  delegates  from  35  communions;  the 
fourth  in  London,  Julv  3-12,  1888,  with  2T."i  delegates  from 
44  communions:  the  fifth  in  Toronto,  Sept.  21-30,  1802.  with 
270  delegates  from  25  communions.  On  the  roll  of  the 
council  there  are  altogether  01  different  bodies,  but  iis  nuitiy 
of  them  are  in  the  mission  field  they  can  not  be  regularly 
represented.  The  papers  and  proceedings  of  these  diilerent 
councils  have  been  published,  and  are  on  sale  in  London  at 
the  office  of  the  general  secretary  of  the  alliance.  Rev.  Dr. 
G.  D.  Matthews.  They  contain  much  valuable  nnitter.  The 
alliance  has  t)een  of  great  service  in  cementing  union  among 
the  Reformed  Churches.  The  next  meeting  will  lie  held  in 
Gla.sgo\v.  in  180ti.  Samuel  Macailev  Jacksox. 

Al'lihone,  Samuel  Austin,  LL.  D.  :  author  and  librarian ; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  Apr.  17,  1816.  Ills  principial  work  is 
a  Critical.  Dictiuiidry  of  English  Literature  and  Authors 
(1859-70) ;  also  a  Dictionary  of  Poetical  Quotations  (1872), 
etc.  Became  librarian  of  Lenox  Library,  New  York,  in  1880 ; 
resigned  in  1888.  D.  at  Lucerne,  Switzerland,  Sept.  2,  1889. 
A  continuation  of  his  Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and 
Authors,  prepared  by  J.  Foster  Kirke,  was  publislied  in  1891. 

Allier.  a'al'liH^-a' :  a  river  of  Prance  ;  the  most  important 
affluent  of  the  Loire.  It  rises  in  the  south  of  France,  nearthe 
source  of  the  Loire,  flows  nearly  X..  and  enters  that  river  at 
Nevers.     Its  entire  length  is  about  260  miles. 

Allier :  a  department  of  France  ;  bounded  X  by  Clier  and 
Nievre.  E.  Ijy  Saone-et-Loire,  S.  by  Puy-de-Dome,  and  W.  by 
Creuse  and  Cher.  Area,  2,822  sq.  miles.  It  is  intei'sected  l)y 
the  Allier,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Loire.  Tlie  soil 
is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  are  wine,  grain,  tindier. 
cattle,  hoi-ses,  and  sheeij.  Iron,  coal,  and  marble  are  found 
here.  It  comprises  lour  arrondissements.  Chief  town,  Mou- 
lins.     Pop.  (1881)416,579;  (1891)424,382. 

Al'ligiitor  [corruption  of  .Span,  ff/  l(igrirt(i.\\w  lizard  < 
Lai.  /"■     '  •    '  ■    ■      .  I  ■    ;  ji-iiiH  .ri  Amei-ii  an  saurian  reptiles 


Alligator, 


(nearly  allied  to  the  crocodile)  which  abouncl  in  the  rivers 
and  s\vam|)S  of  the  Simthern  V.  S.  They  have  liroader  head.s, 
more  numerous  teeth,  and  more  obtuse  smaits  than  crocodiles. 
Similar  reptiles  are  called  caymans  in  .South  America.  They 
all  hibernate  in  the  winter  or  dry  .season,  when  they  bury 
themselves  in  the  mud.  The  alligator  is  about  12  feet  long, 
including  the  tail,  which  is  a  powerful  weapon  for  defense. 
It  is  a  fierce  and  vciracious  animal,  and  sometinu'S  attacks 
and  kills  men  in  the  water,  but  it  can  not  turn  tpiickly  on 
land.  During  the  heat  of  the  day  it  is  often  seen  ba.sking  in 
the  sun  on  the  drv  ground.    Its  back  and  sides  are  defended 


by  hard  mailed  plates.  The  alligator  is  an  oviparous  animal, 
its  eggs  being  small,  but  numerous.  The  parent  deposits 
them  in  the  sand  of  the  river-side,  scratching  a  hole  with 
her  paws,  and  placing  the  eggs  in  a  regular  layer  therein. 
She  then  covers  these  with  sand,  grass,  mud,  etc.,  and  de- 
posits another  layer  on  top  of  them,  and  so  on  until  she  ha& 
laid  from  fifty  to  sixty  eggs.  These  are  hatched  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun  and  the  decaying  vegetable  matter.  The  name 
alligator  is  also  frequently  applied  to  the  nniggur  of  India. 
The  common  alligator  of  the  Southern  States  is  the  Alligator 
inississippiensis.  Among  the  so-called  alligators  of  Florida, 
a  true  crocodile  {Crocodilus  americanus)  also  occurs.  See 
Crocodile.  Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

Alligator  Pear:  See  Avocado  Pear. 

Allingham,  William:  Anglo-Irish  poet,  journali.st,  and 
playwright ;  b.  at  BaUyshannon  in  1828.  He  was  at  one  time 
eiliior  of  Eraser's  Ilagazine.  and  was  intimately  associated 
with  the  Pre-Raphaelites.  He  has  published  many  volumes 
of  poetry,  original  and  selected,  including  Day  and  Night 
Son(/s  (1854) ;  The  Music-Master  (ISiiii) :  Laurence  Bloom  field 
in  Ireland  (1864):  Eril  May-Day:  a  Play  (1882);  Irish 
Songs  and  Poems  (1887).  Some  of  liis  poems  were  illustrated 
by  1).  G.  Rossetti,  Kate  Greenaway,  and  other  eminent 
designers.  His  most  popular  pieces  are  J/o;-y  Donnelly  and 
The  Eairies  (1883).  Henry  A.  Beees. 

Allio'li,  Joseph  Franz:  Gei-man  Catholic  theologian ; 
b.  at  Sidzbach,  Aug.  10,  1793.  He  became  Professor  of 
Theology  at  Munich  in  1826,  resigned  in  1835,  and  became 
canon  soon  after  at  Ratisbon.  His  German  translation  of 
the  Bible  (6th  ed.  1839^5)  was  approved  liy  the  pope,  and 
ha<l  a  very  wide  circulation.  He  also  published  a  Manual 
of  Biblical  Antiquities  (1841).   D.  at  Augsburg,  May  22, 1873. 

Allison,  John:  b.  Aug.  5,  1812,  at  Beaver,  Beaver  co.. 
Pa.,  where  he  was  a  hatter ;  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Whig 
party;  was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in  1846,  1847, 
and  1849;  served  in  Congress  1852-54  and  1855-57;  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  of  Pittsburg  which  instituted  the 
RepubUcan  party  (1856),  and  in  1860  he  headed  the  State 
delegation  in  the  convention  at  Chicago  wdiich  nominated 
Lincoln  ;  served  as  major  and  paynuister  in  the  army  dui'ing 
the  civil  war,  and  register  of  the  U.  S.  treasury  from  Apr. 
1,  1869,  till  his  death,  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Jl'ar.  23,  1878. 

Allison.  William  B.  :  b.  at  Perry,  0.,  Mar.  2,  1829  ;  edu- 
cated at  Western  Reserve  College,  O.,  studied  law  and 
practiced  in  Ohio  until  his  removal  to  Iowa  in  1857,  where 
he  served  on  the  Governor's  staff  and  aided  in  organizing 
volunteers  at  the  eommencenient  of  the  civil  war  of  1861-65 ; 
was  representative  in  Thirty-eighth,  Thii-ty-ninth.  Fortieth, 
and  Forty-first  Congresses ;  was  elected  to  U.  S.  Senate  as  a 
Republican,  and  has  held  that  offi<e  since  ;\Iar.  4.  1873.  He 
was  a  delegate  from  the  U.  S.  to  the  International  Monetary 
Congress  at  Brussels,  Dec,  1892. 

Al'lilliu  [Lat.,  etymology  unknown] :  a  genus  of  herbace- 
ous plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacea\  mdives  of  the 
temperate  and  cold  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  in- 
cluding the  garlic,  onion,  leek,  and  chive.  They  have  mostly 
Iralbous  roots,  umbellate  flowers,  narrow  and  fistulose  leaves, 
and  a  peculiar  smell  and  taste  called  alliaceous. 

All-mouth  :  See  Angler. 

Al'loa :  a  seaport  and  market-town  of  Scotliind,  in  the 
county  of  Clackmannan,  on  the  left  (X.)  bank  of  the  Forth, 
and  a't  the  head  of  its  frith ;  28  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  Edin- 
burgh (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  11-G).  It  has  a  good  har- 
bor and  an  active  trade.  Glass,  ale.  whisky,  woolen  goods, 
and  leather  are  manufactured  here,  and  coal  is  an  important; 
articli- iif  export.  Steamboats  ]]lv  daily  between  Alloa  and 
Kdinliurgh.    Pop.  11.638. 

.\lloeii'tion  [Lat.  allocu'tio.  from  ad.  to  -i-  loqui.  speak]: 
a  formal  address,  as  by  a  general-in-chief  to  his  soldiers ;  in 
ecclesiiistical  usage,  a  speech  which  the  pope  addresses  to 
the  college  of  cardinals  on  some  political  or  ecclesiastical 
subject.  The  pope  often  resorts  to  this  method  to  define  his 
piisition  or  explain  his  policy.  At  the  o])ening  of  the  Lam- 
beth Conference  of  1888  the' Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Dr. 
Ben.son,  delivered  an  "allocution"  to  the  Anglican  bishops 
a.ssendjled  from  all  parts  of  the  ^vorld,  from  the  patriarchal 
chair  of  St.  Augustine,  C.anterliury's  first  archbishop. 

.VUo'diiini.  or  Allo'dial  Ten'ure  [med.  Lat,  allo'dium, 
from  (icr.  *al(id.  entire  ownership,  all.  entire  -)-  od,  property, 
O.  II.  (i.  ot,  O.  E.  ei'idy.  in  feudal  law,  freehold  estate,  land 
held  by  an  individual  in  his  own  absolute  right,  and  free 


128 


ALLOX 


ALLSTON 


from  feudal  tenure  or  obligation.  There  is  no  allodial  land 
or  property  in  Enjrland,  the  laws  of  which  declare  that  the 
king  is  the  original  proprietor  and  lord  paramount  of  all  the 
land  in  the  kingdom. 

AUou,  Henry,  D.  B.  :  Congregationalist ;  b.  at  Welton. 
near  Hull.  England.  Oct.  13.  1818 :  graduated  at  Cheshunt 
College,  1843  ;  minister  of  Union  chapel.  Islington,  London, 
from  1844  to  his  death,  Apr.  16. 1893.  He  was  editor  of  the 
British  Quarterly  Beview  lor  twentv-two  years,  from  1865. 
He  compiled  a  popular  hymn-book,  T/ie  CuiigrfyationaHxt 
Psalmist.  He  published  The  Life  of  James  Shermnn  (1863) 
and  a  volume  of  sennons  (1876) ;  and  edited  Binneifs  Ser- 
mons (1875).  with  a  preliminary  memoir.  Dr.  Allon  Wiis 
one  of  the  alilcst  and  most  influential  leaders  of  the  C'ongre- 
gationalists  in  England,  and  was  highly  respected  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  religious  body.  George  P.  Fisher. 

Allo'pathy  [from  Gr.  &\Kos,  other  +  Traflos.  suffering]  :  a 
supposed  theory  of  medicine,  according  to  which  remedies 
are  used  whose  effects  are  opposite  to  the  sraiptoms  of  the 
diseases  treated.  The  term  allopathy  was  formed  after  that 
of  homceopathy.  and  both  terms  were  introduced  by  Hahne- 
mann. The  two  terms  are  contrasted,  the  one  teaching  that 
medicines  nuist  produce  a  .su»(Vn;-fY/'fp/('oH  to  the  disease  itself, 
the  other  a  different  afertion.  The  idea  of  this  method  of 
medication  is  at  least  as  olil  a>  Hi[ipoerates,  who  used  the  ex- 
pression, "  TO  ivavria  Tuiv  ivavrlwv  iffriv  Irifxara  " — "  opposites 
are  remedies  of  opposites."  It  has  been  contrasted  in  modern 
times  especially  with  the  maxim  of  Hahnemann,  "  ,s/Hu7(ffl 
similibus  ctirantiir."  or  "like  cures  like."  which  is  the  fun- 
damental principle  of  homoeopathy — an  idea  which  is  also  ad- 
vanced by  Hippocrates.  It  is  altogetlier  an  error  to  designate 
the  prevalent  and  ancient  science  and  practice  of  medicine 
as  allopathy.  The  teachers  and  adherents  of  tliis  science 
insist  that  its  scope  legitimately  embraces  all  positive  truth 
concerning  disease  and  its  treatment:  no  more  to  be  nar- 
rowed down  to  an  exclusive  principle  such  as  that  of  allo- 
pathy, than  astronomy  can  be  made  smonjnnous  with  the 
nebular  theory,  or  zoology  with  the  theory  of  develojiment. 

Allo'ri.  Alessandro:  Italian  painter;  b.  in  Florence.  May 
31,  1535:  d.  tliere  Sept.  22.  1607;  excelled  in  the  science  of 
anatomy.  Among  his  masterpieces  are  The  Last  Judgment 
and  Christ  Disputing  icitli  the  Doctors.  His  son  Christo- 
fano  (b.  1577.  d.  1621)  is  celebrated  for  his  portraits. 

AH'otta'Ta.  or  ablirev.  8'»:  in  music,  a  direction  to  play 
an  octave  higher  or  lower,  according  as  the  phrase  may  be 
placed  above  or  below  the  notes  in  (|uestion. 

Allot'ropy.  or  Allot'ropisin  [Gr.  aWorpoTria.  diversity; 
iWos.  iitlier  +  rp6iTos.  turn,  guise]:  in  elieniistry.  the  diver- 
sity of  form  and  properties  winch  some  elements  exhibit 
in  certain  circumstances,  as  when  exposed  to  a  great  heat 
or  to  an  electric  discharge.  (See  Isomerism.)  Many  chemists 
believe  that  every  element  is  capable  of  existing  under  sev- 
eral allotropic  modifications,  .\mong  the  substances  which 
afford  examples  of  allotropy  are  sulphur,  jihosphonis.  oxy- 
gen, and  carlxm.  If  the  solid  and  brittle  sulphur  be  heated 
to  480"  F.,  and  then  poured  into  water,  it  ceases  to  be  brittle 
and  becomes  very  elastic.  Sulphur  in  its  ordinary  state  is 
slightly  soluble  in  turpentine  and  some  fixed  oils,  but  in  its 
elastic  condition  it  becomes  insnluble  in  those  oils.  Phos- 
phorus affords  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  same  princi- 
ple. In  ordinary  circumstances,  when  freshly  prepared,  it  is 
a  pale  yellow  soliil,  resembling  wax.  In  this  form  it  is  ex- 
tremely combustible,  requiring  to  be  kept  under  water  to 
avoid  taking  fire  spontaneously.  But  if  this  same  sulistance  be 
excluded  from  air  and  kept  several  days  at  a  temperature 
of  about  450  F..  it  becomes  re<l,  and  ceases  to  lie  readily 
combust ilili'.  so  that  it  need  not  lie  kept  under  wafer  to  pre- 
vent its  taiiiiig  fire.  Oxygen,  wliich  in  its  eomuuin  slate  has 
no  odor,  imiy  by  an  electric  diseliarge  through  a  glass  tube 
or  bottle  containing  air  be  transformed  into  ozone,  which 
has  a  peculiar  odor  and  other  new  properties.  (See  Ozoxe.) 
The  diamond  and  graphite  arc  allotropic  forms  of  carbon. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remse.n. 

AI'loTvay  Kirk :  an  old  ruined  church  in  the  pari.sh  of 
Ayr,  near  the  mii\ith  of  tlie  river  Doon,  Scotland ;  the  scene  of 
Burns's  poem  Turn  o'  Slianter.  A  monument  has  been  erect- 
ed here  to  the  memory  of  Burns,  who  was  born  near  the  kirk. 

Alloy'  [rnodif.  under  influence  of  Fr.  atoi  of  older  al- 
lay<,(>.  Fr.  uln)/,  from  L:d.  altiga're.  combine]:  a  mix- 
ture or  compound  of  two  or  more  metals  fused  together; 
sometimes  a  compound  of  precious  metal  with  a  metal  of 
less  value;  thus,  in  coinage,  the  tenn  alloy  is  applied  to  a 


baser  metal  mixed  with  gold  or  silver  in  order  to  make  it 
harder.  Chemists  apply  this  term  to  all  combinations  ob- 
tained by  fusing  metals  together  ;  thus,  brass  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  and  zinc  ;  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  ;  pew- 
ter is  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead.  In  many  cases  the  metals  do 
not  unite  in  definite  or  invariable  proportions.  The  density 
— or,  in  other  words,  the  specific  gravity — of  an  alloy  is 
sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less  than  the  mean  of  its 
components.  Slost  alloys  have  greater  cohesion  than  either 
of  the  metals  of  which  they  are  composed,  so  that  a  bar  of 
an  alloy  will  bear  a  greater  longitudinal  strain  than  a  bar  of 
either  metal.  British  gold  coin  contains  11  parts  of  ])ure 
gold  and  1  of  copper;  the  law  of  the  U.  S.  requires  that  in 
1.000  parts  of  coin  there  must  be  000  parts  of  gold  ;  and  the 
intent  of  the  law  is  that  the  alloy  shall  be  of  copper  only: 
but,  as  in  parting  silver  from  native  gold  it  has  lieen  hereto- 
fore impossible  to  separate  the  whole,  except  at  an  expense 
too  great  to  be  econoraical.it  has  been  permitted  to  allow 
the  residual  silver  to  be  counted  as  part  of  tlie  alloy,  pro- 
vided the  proportion  of  silver  be  not  greater  than  one-half. 
The  more  effectual  processes  introduced  of  late  years  into 
the  U.  S.  assay  offices  have  made  it  possilile  to  make  the 
parting  nearly  complete ;  and  it  is  now  provided  that  the 
silver  shall  not  exceed  one-tenth  part  of  the  whole  alloy.  A 
compound  of  mercury  with  another  metal  is  an  amalgam. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsex. 

All  Saints"  Day.  or  All-Hallows:  a  festival  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic.  Anglican.  Lutheran,  and  the  various  C)riental 
churches,  observeil  on  the  1st  of  November,  in  honor  of  the 
saints  in  general.  The  Greeks  keep  their  feast  of  All  Saints 
on  the  Sunday  after  Whit  Sunday. 

All  Sonls'  Day  :  a  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
observed  on  the  2d  of  November,  when  the  prayers  of  the 
living,  offered  at  the  Eucharist,  are  publicly  offered  for  the 
faithful  departed. 

All'spice :  pimento,  or  Jamaica  pepper,  the  dried  berry 
of  the  Eugenia  pimento,  which  is  a  native  of  the  West 
Indies.  It  is  called  allspice  because  it  is  supposed  to  com- 
bine the  flavor  of  several  spices. 

Allston.  Robert  Francis  Withers  :  soldier  and  Gov- 
ernor; 1).  in  All  Saints"  parish,  S.  C,  Apr.  21,  1801  ;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1821 ;  served  as  lieutenant  of  artillery 
on  topographical  duty  till  he  resigned,  Feb.  1,  1822,  to  he- 
come  a  rice-planter  on  the  Great  Pedee  river:  surveyor- 
general  of  South  Carolina  1823-27,  memljer  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  South  Carolina  1828-32,  of  the  Senate 
1832-56,  presiding  1847-56,  deputy  adjutant-general  of 
South  Carolina  1831-38,  and  Governor  of  Soutli  Carolina 
185(5-58.  He  was  much  interested  in  agriculture  and  public 
education,  and  wrote  valuable  memoirs  upon  both  subjects. 
D.  April  7.  1864.  on  his  plantation  near  Georgetown,  S.  C. 

George  W.  Cullum. 

Allston.  Washington  :  painter  of  historical  and  religious 
compositions  and  of  portraits;  1).  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C. 
where  his  father  was  a  jilanter.  Nov.  5.  1770.  and  d.  at 
Cambridgeport.  ]Mass.,  July  9.  1843.  He  became  acquainted 
with  Eilward  JIalbone,  a  miniature  painter,  while  at.  school 
in  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  after  graduating  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  the  class  of  1800  he  went  to  Charleston.  S.  C. 
and  began  to  paint,  making  use  of  such  small  ojiportunities 
for  study  as  the  place  afforded.  In  1801  he  went  td  London 
with  JIalboiie  and  entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1H04  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  in  the  Louvre  and 
soon  afterward  to  Rome,  wliere  he  spent  about  foin-  years. 
He  ret lU'iieil  to  the  U.  S.  in  1809.  lint  shortly  retiUMied  to  Lon- 
don, where  in  1812  he  won  a  prize  of  200  guineas  from  the 
British  Institution  with  a  picture  entitled  The  Dead  Man 
Restored  to  Life  by  the  Toiirh  of  Etisha's  Bones.  It  was 
afterward  purchased  liy  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  .\rts.  and  is  now  in  its  permanent  collection  at  Phila- 
deli>hia.  AUston's  fame  grew  rapidly  in  succeeding  years, 
and  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Lon- 
ilon,  in  1818.  He  took  a  studio  in  Boston  the  same  year,  and 
began  work  on  his  Elijah  and  a  large  composition.  Bel- 
shaziar's  Fea.ft,  which,  however,  he  never  finished.  A  sketch 
of  the  )iieture  is  in  the  Boston  Athenanim.  A  jiortrait  of 
Benjamin  West  is  also  in  Die  AtheiiiPum  Gallery,  and  a 
portrait  of  Coleridge  is  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  in 
Ldtidon.  In  the  gallery  of  the  Fine  x\rts  School  of  Yale 
University  one  of  his  important  pictures  may  be  seen, 
painted  in  Boston  during  the  time  he  jiassed  there  from 
1818  to  1830.    He  went  to  Cambridge])ort  to  live  in  1.''30  and 


ALLUVION 


ALMALI 


129 


spent  tlie  rest  of  his  lifi'  there,  devoting  himself  to  literature 
and  painting,  liut  working  irregularly  and  j)rodni-ing  little. 
Allston  wasaniaii  of  refined  sensiliility  and  poelic  tempera- 
ment, and  was  loved  and  esteemed  liy  his  friends  and  fellow- 
artists.  His  reputation  as  an  artist  isgreaterthan  hisaehieve- 
ment  in  painting  warrants  on  the  whole,  and  in  his  work  there 
is  not  much  to  entitle  him  to  a  high  rank.  J  lis  best  (piality 
was  a  good  sense  of  color.  His  portraits,  in  spite  of  only 
moderate  ti'ehnieal  skill,  are  refined,  and  inijiress  with  a 
sense  of  [lersonality  that  is  often  lacking  in  better  work. 
Being  one  of  the  first  in  the  U.  S.  to  take  up  the  study  of 
the  fine  arts  seriously  and  devote  his  life  to  the  ]irol'ession  of 
))ainting,  lie  will  always  remain  an  interesting  and  important 
figure  in  tlie  history  of  our  art.  William  A.  Cofkix. 

Allii'vioii  [viii  Fr.  from  Lat.  (illK'viu,  n  washing  against; 
«(/,  to  +  Iti  ere,  wash] :  the  soil  im()erceptil)ly  formed  liy  the 
constant  wa-shing  of  the  waters  along  the  banks  of  a  river  or 
the  sea.  (See  Accrktiox.)  It  differs  from  "avulsion,"  as 
the  latter  is  not  gratlual,  but  sudtlen  and  jierceptible. 

Allli'vinm  [Lat.  neut.  of  adjec.  alhivius,  washed  against ; 
(id.  to  +  lii'ere.  wa-sh] :  gravel,  sand,  and  other  matter 
wa.shed  down  by  rivers  and  floods,  and  spread  over  land 
that  is  not  permanently  submerged.  Such  de|iosits  often 
accumulate  at  the  mouths  of  large  rivers  and  form  deltas. 
(See  Dklta.)  Streams  which  issue  from  mountain  gorges 
npon  an  adjacent  plain  usually  accumulate  alluvium  about 
the  mouths  of  the  gorges  in  sloping  plains  known  as  allu- 
vial fans  or  alluvial  cones. 

Al'lyn.  KoisERT,  I).  P. :  clergyman  ;  educator  in  the 
.Methodist  Eiiiscopal  Church;  b.  at  Ledyanl.  Conn.,  Jan.  25, 
1S17;  graduated  in  1841  at  the  Wesleyan  University,  Conn.; 
nnithematical  teacher  in  Wilbrahain  Academy,  Mass.,  in 
1841-43;  Joined  the  New  England  Conference  1843;  was 
elected  principal  at  Wilbraham  184.5  :  principal  of  the  Provi- 
dence Conference  Academy  1848;  Commissioner  of  Public 
Instruction  for  Rhode  Island  1854 ;  served  three  terms  in  the 
Hliode  Island  Legislature;  a|ipointed  Professor  of  Ancient 
Languages  in  Ohio  University  at  Athens  1857;  president  of 
theWeslevan  Female  College,  Cincinnati,  0.,  1859,  and  presi- 
dent of  McKendree  College,  111.,  1863-73.     D.  Jan.  7,  1894. 

Al'ma :  a  small  river  of  Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  flows  W. 
and  enters  the  sea  about  20  miles  N.  of  Sevastopol.  On  its 
banks  the  allied  armies  of  England,  Prance,  and  Turkey 
<lefeatetl  the  Ru.ssi;,ns  on  Sept.  20,  1854.  The  British  forces 
consisti'd  of  25.000  men  and  60  guns,  commanded  by  Lord 
Kaglan.  The  French  had  30.000  men  and  68  guns,  and 
also  7,000  Turkish  infantry,  the  I'''rench  and  Turkish  forces 
lieing  all  inider  the  connnand  of  Marshal  St.  Arnauil.  Tlie 
Russians  had  36.000  men  and  122  guns  under  Prince 
Meiischikoff,  and  were  .strongly  posted  on  the  left  liank  of 
the  river,  on  the  heights. 

.41ina:  city  (founded  in  1865);  capital  of  Wabaunsee  eo., 
Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  .5-1); 
35  miles  W.  of  Topeka,  the  State  capital;  on  two  railroads; 
has  good  water-power  and  fine  stone  quarries,  a  flouring- 
mill,  a  creamery,  graded  public  schools,  a  Lutheran  school, 
5  churches,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  300; 
(1890)  1,125;  (189.5)  964.  Editor  of  "News." 

Alma :  town  in  northeastern  part  of  Gratiot  co.,  Mich, 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  6-1) ;  on 
Pine  river,  .32  nules  W.  of  Saginaw,  and  on  the  Detroit, 
Lansing  and  Northi'rn  and  Toledo,  Ann  Arbor  and  North 
Michigan  R.  lis.  A  branch  of  I).,  L.  and  N.  connects  Alma 
with  Ithaca,  the  county  scat.  9  nules  south.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Alma  College  (Presbyterian),  and  has  an  excellent  public 
.school  of  twelve  departments.  There  are  six  churches.  The 
leading  manufactures  are  lumber  and  shingles,  hoops,  sashes, 
doors,  and  blinds,  furnishings  for  buildings,  tables,  flour,  ex- 
celsior, barrels,  machinerv,  and  woolen  goods.  Pop.  (1880) 
456;  (1890)  1,655;  (1894) "1,497.         Editor  of  "Record." 

Alma:  city;  county  seat  of  KufTalo  co.,  Wi.s.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  maj)  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  5-R) ;  on  the 
Mississippi  river,  60  miles  N.  of  La  Crosse,  and  within  4 
miles  of  the  celebrated  I'eef  Slough  I'.ooms.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  lumber,  bricks,  wagons,  flour,  etc..  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  good  farming  country.  It  has  a  high  .school 
with  seven  departments,  and  four  churches.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,344;  (1885)  1,.521  ;  (1890)  1,438;  (1895)  1,529. 

Editor  op  "  Jourxal." 

Al'mack'S:  a  suite  of  assembly-rooms  in  King  .Street,  St. 
James,  Londtm,  was  formerly  celebrated  as  a  fashionable 
place  of  resort  for  the  aristocracy.    Annual  balls  were  given 
9 


in  these  rooms,  the  managers  of  which  were  ladies  of  high 
rank,  who  conducted  them  with  great  exclusiveness.  These 
rooms  were  built  in  1765  by  a  person  named  Almack,  an 
anagram  of  McCall,  his  original  name.  The  desire  for  ad- 
mission to  balls  anil  parties  at  Almack's  was  so  eager  tliat 
it  is  said  that  votes  in  Parliameid  were  bought  by  tickets 
offered  to  wives  an<l  daughters  of  members. 

.\liiiad('ii',  or  Almadeii'del  Azo'gue  (i.e.  the  minesof 
(|uieksilver);  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  i)rovince  of  Ciudad 
Real,  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Ciudad  Real  (see  map  of  Spain, 
ref.  17-E).  Here  are  mines  of  quicksilver  (cinnabar),  which 
are  said  to  be  the  richest  and  most  ancient  in  the  world, 
[iroducing  annually  about  2,000,000  lb.  They  were  worked 
i)y  the  ancient  Spaniards,  and  afterward  liy  the  Romans. 
jVlmaden  has  a  practical  school  of  mines  and  three  hospitals. 
The  mines  were  rented  in  the  sixteenth  i-entury  by  the  Pug- 
gcrs.  the  famous  liankers  of  Antwerp,  and  in  1843  the  Roth- 
schilds iibtidne<l  the  contract  from  tlie  Spanish  Government. 
Pop.  8.645. 

Almaden' :  township  of  Santa  Clara  co..  Cal.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  8-C) ;  has  mines 
of  mercurv  and  mineral  springs.  Pop.  (1870)  1,647;  (1880) 
2,418;  (1890)  1,932. 

Almadeii  Quicksilver  Mines  (Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal.): 
named  after  those  of  Almaden  in  Spain,  the  latter  being  the 
most  important  in  the  known  world.  The  Santa  Clara 
mines  are  the  New  Almaden,  Providence,  Enriquita,  and 
Guadalupe.  The  first  mentioned  is  14  miles  from  San  Jose 
and  65  miles  S.  of  San  Francisco,  in  a  region  remarkable  for 
its  picturesque  scenery.  Tlie  ore  (cinnabar)  has  from  time 
immemorial  been  known  to  the  Indians,  who  used  it  for 
making  vermilion  jiaint.  Some  Mexicans  having  bribed 
them  to  disclose  the  profound  secret  of  its  place,  a  company 
was  formed  in  1846,  which  began  to  work  the  mine.  The 
]iresence  of  this  deposit  has  been  of  incalculable  benefit  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  since  enormous  quantities  are  employed 
in  gold  and  silver  mining.  The  metallic  mercury  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  ore  by  a  simple  process  of  distillation.  The 
total  |)roduction  of  the  California  mines  from  July,  1850,  to 
Jan.  1.  1891,  was  924,659  flasks  of  76J  lb.  each.  The  maxi- 
mum was  reached  in  1865  with  47,194  flasks,  the  product  in 
1891  being  8,300  flasks.  Revised  by  C.  Kikchhoff. 

Al'magest  [via  O.  Fr.  from  Aral),  (d-mrijis/l ;  al.  the  -t- 
Gr.  (leyiaTii.  fem.  greatest  (sc.  (rvvra^is)] :  a  name  given  by 
the  Arabs  to  Ptolemy's  celebrated  work  on  astronomy,  in 
which  the  laws  of  the  celestial  motions  were  developed  on 
the  .supposition  that  the  earth  was  the  center  of  the  universe. 
It  was  the  standard  work  from  the  time  it  was  written, 
about  A.  D.  150.  until  Copernicus  showed  that  the  earth 
revolves  around  the  sun. 

AlmagTO.  al'maagro  :  city  of  Spain  :  province  of  Ciudad 
Real ;  14  miles  S.  E.  of  Ciudad  Real  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref. 
17-F).  It  is  well  built,  has  a  town-hall,  two  hospitals,  and 
one  Latin  school.  Large  quantities  of  fine  black  and  coarse 
wliite  lace  are  made  liere ;  also  brandy,  .soap,  and  earthen- 
ware.    Pop.  14,000. 

Almagro.  Diego,  de:  a  Spanish  soldier  of  fortune;  one 
of  the  con(|uerors  of  Peru ;  a  ftjundling  named  after  the 
city  in  which  he  was  found  in  1475.  At  an  early  age  he 
went  to  America,  where  he  is  said  to  have  enriched  himself 
by  plunder.  Pizarro,  Almagro,  and  Luque  in  1525  united 
in  an  enterpi'ise  to  conquer  Peru,  in  which  they  were  suc- 
cessful. (See  Pizarro,  Fraxcisco.)  In  1535  Almagro  in- 
vaded (^hili  and  gained  some  victories  over  the  natives,  but 
his  progress  was  hindered  by  the  enmity  and  perfidy  of 
Pizarro.  lie  returned  from  Cliili  in  1.536.  and  took  Cuzco, 
which  Pizarro  claimed  as  part  of  his  possessions.  In  April, 
1538,  .Vlmagro  was  defeated  in  battle  and  taken  prisoner 
by  Pizarro,  who  put  him  to  death. 

.Miiiagro,  DiEco,  de:  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  about 
1520.  He  liecame  the  leader  of  a  party  which  was  hostile 
to  Pizarro,  whom  they  a.ssassinated  in  1.541.  He  then  took 
the  title  of  captain-general  of  Peru,  but  he  was  defeated  in 
battle  by  the  royal  army  under  Vaca  de  Castro,  and  was 
executed  in  1.543. 

Alma'li:  a  large  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey;  in  the  S.  part 
of  Anatolia;  on  tlu'  river  Myra;  25  miles  from  the  ;\lediter- 
ranean  (.see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated in  a  valley,  contains  several  factories  ami  mills,  and 
has  a  prosperous  trade.  The  ajipearanee  of  the  town  is  un- 
commonly picturesque.  Pop.  \ariouslv  eslimated  from  8,000 
to  35,000." 


130 


ALMA  MATER 


ALMOND 


Al'ma  Ma'ter  (Lat.,  fostering  or  propitious  mother):  a 
name  iiseJ  to  express  the  relationship  of  a  university  to  its 
"  foster-ciiildren  "  (alumni)  wlio  luive  been  educated  in  it. 

Alniiiiiac  [from  a  Spanish -Arab,  al-manukh  of  uncertain 
origin] :  an  annual  publication  designed  to  give  information 
resp'^cting  limes,  seasons,  the  motions  and  positions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  other  celestial  phenomena.  Frequently, 
also,  the  times  of  high  and  low  tides  are  added,  especially  in 
the  case  of  almanacs  intended  for  use  in  seaports  or  on  ship- 
board. 

The  familiar  household  almanac  is  calculated  and  com- 
pOed  from  a  large  Governmont  publication,  issued  in  differ- 
ent countries  under  different  names.  In  the  U.  S.  this 
publication  is  known  as  the  American  Ephemeris  and  JVau- 
tical  Almanac:  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  the  Nautical 
Almanac  and  Aslronomiral  Ephemeris,  the  familiar  name 
of  the  publication  in  both  countries  being  simply  the  Nauti- 
cal Almanac.     See  Ephemeris. 

Among  the  most  wiilcly  known  almanacs  of  the  present 
time  is  tlie  Almanach  de  Gotha,  which  was  first  published 
in  German  in  1763.  It  is  also  puljlished  in  French.  It  con- 
tains the  official  lists  of  statistics  of  all  nations,  with  much 
political  information. 

The  first  American  almanac  was  that  of  WOliam  Pierce, 
published  at  C'aml)ridge,  Jlass.,  in  16S9.  In  1733  Franklin 
first  published  his  celebrated  Poor  Richard's  Almanac.  The 
American  Almanac  appeared  from  1830  to  1861,  and  a  new 
publication  under  the  same  title,  edited  by  A.  R.  Spofford, 
from  1878  to  1889.  Over  100  almanacs  are  published  in  the 
U.  S.,  embracing  very  many  subjects — religious,  political, 
agricultural,  etc.  S.  Newcomb. 

Almanach  do  Gotlin :  See  Gotha  Almanac. 

Almantlinc :  Si>e  Garnet. 

Almaii'$<a,  or  Almaii'za :  a  town  of  Spain ;  province  of 
Albacete ;  53  miles  by  rail  PI  of  Albacete  (see  map  of  Siiain, 
ref.  17-H).  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics, 
brandy,  leather,  and  soap.  Near  this  town  the  F'rench, 
under  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  defeated  the  British  and  Span- 
ish armies,  April  2.5,  1707.     Pop.  7,900. 

Al-Mansoor',  Anoo  Jaafar  :  the  second  caliph  of  the 
family  of  the  Abl)assides :  1>.  in  712.  He  ruled  from  754-775; 
persecuted  the  Christians  in  Syria  and  Egypt ;  founded  Bag- 
dad ;  and  promoted  arts  and  sciences. 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurexz.  .al-ma-tad'e-ma:  figure  painter, 
principally  of  Greek  and  Roman  subjects;  b.  at  Dronryp, 
Friesland,  .Jan.  8,  1836.  Pupil  of  the  Antwerp  Academy  and 
of  Baron  Leys.  Has  resided  for  many  years  in  London,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1879.  Has 
received  many  honors  at  tlie  principal  exhibitions  on  the 
Continent  and  in  (ireat  Britain,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
academies  of  Amsterdam,  JIunich,  Berlin,  Madrid,  Stock- 
holm, and  Vieinia.  Ollicer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  1878; 
first-class  medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1878;  medal  of  honor, 
Paris  Exposition,  1889.  His  work  is  remarkable  for  archaeo- 
logical correctness  and  for  technical  qualities  of  a  high  or- 
der. Some  of  his  iirineipal  iiictures  are ;  Roman  Dance 
(1866);  Vinlai/e  Fcstiral  (1870);  Sculpture  Gallery  (mm); 
Picture  Galtc'ri/  {\Sl-l):  The  Four  Sea.ions(lS';7);  Bacchante 
(1877);  In  till'  7'i/iiilariiini  {IHi^l):  Anthony  and  Cleopatra. 
(1883);  and  The  Women  of  Ani/jhissa,  (1888).  Some  excel- 
lent examples  of  his  work  are  owned  in  the  U.  S.  Studio  in 
London.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Al'nicli,  or  Al'niali,  written  also  Alin6  (plu.  Analini):  a 
professional  female  singer  of  Egypt.  The  singers  are  hired 
to  perform  in  the  harems  of  the  rich.  The  common  dancing- 
girls  are  a  different  and  less  respectable  class,  and  are  called 
Ghawazis  (q.  v.). 

Alnici'da;  a  fortified  town  of  Portugal ;  inBeira;  on  the 
Coa,  95  miles  N.  E.  of  Coimbra  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  14-C). 
It  is  an  important  stronghold.  Here  Lord  Wellington  de- 
feated the  French  General  Massena,  Auir.  5,  1811.  Pop. 
10,125. 

Almeida  :  a  town  of  Brazil :  province  of  Espivito  Santo; 
is  on  the  ocean,  about  20  miles  X.  of  Victoria,  (see  map  of 
South  .\inerica,  ref.  6-11).  It  was  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in 
1580.     I 'op.  about  4,000. 

Almoida,  Don  Fraxcisco,  de:  a  fatuous  Portuguese com- 
mundcT  and  Viceroy  of  India;  b.  in  Lislion  about  1450.  He 
was  a  son  of  the  Connt  of  Abrantes.  Having  gained  distinc- 
tion in  wars  against  the  Jloors,  he  was  appointed  Viceroy  of 
India  in  1505.     lie  built  several  forts  on  the  Indian  coast. 


and  extended  the  dominion  of  Portugal  by  his  conquests. 
In  1507  Albuquerque  was  sent  to  India  with  a  commission 
to  supersede  Almeida,  Viut  the  latter  refused  to  resign.  He 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Egyptian  fleet  near  Diu 
in  1508,  and  resigTied  his  office  about  the  end  of  that  year. 
As  he  was  returning  to  Portugal,  he  was  killed  by  some 
Kaffirs  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Mar.  1,  1510. 

Alineila-Ciiarfett.  .Joao  Baptista,  de :  a  Portuguese  poet 
and  politician  ;  b.  at  Oporto,  Feb.  4. 1799  :  Jlinister  of  Public 
Instruction,  1820-23;  was  compelled  to  leave  the  country  in 
1823,  and  again  in  1828.  In  1832  he  landed  in  Portugal 
with  Dom  Pedro,  was  minister  to  Belgium  in  1834.  and  niem- 
lier  of  the  Cortes  after  the  revolution  of  September,  1836.  He 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1852,  and  died  at  Lisbon,  Dec. 
9,  1854.  Inspired  by  the  romantic  movement  with  which  he 
became  acquainted  during  his  exile  in  France  since  1823,  he 
was  the  first  to  collect  the  ballads  and  other  forms  of  the 
national  poetry  of  the  Portuguese  peojile.  recognizing  in 
thcni  and  in  the  national  traditions  the  oidy  organic  basis 
upon  which  to  build  up  a  truly  national  literature,  free  from 
the  influences  of  French  classicism.  Though  his  efforts  to 
create  a  modern  Portuguese  drama  were  not  successful,  it  is 
on  them  that  his  claim  to  a  place  beside  Gil  Vicente  and 
Camoi'iis,  the  two  other  great  poets  of  Portugal,  chiefly  rests. 
The  most  important  of  his  works  are  the  Romanceiro  (3 
vols.),  a  collection  of  Portuguese  ballads ;  the  historical  novel, 
O  Arco  lie  Sant'  Anna;  the  satirical  poem,  Z'oj/is  Branca; 
the  epic-lyrical  compositions,  Camoens  and  Adozinha,  and 
especially  the  dramas  Auto  de  Oil  Vicente,  Filippa  de  Vil- 
hena,  O  Alfageme  de  Santarem,  and  Frei  Luiz  de  Sousa. 
Valuable  information  in  regard  to  Garrett's  life  is  contained 
in  Francisco  Gomes  de  Amoriiu's  work,  Almeida-Garrett, 
Memorias  biographicas  (1881).  Henry  A.  Lang. 

Alnieri'a:  a  province  of  Spain  ;  forms  the  E.  part  of  the 
former  kingdom  of  Granada.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  iMurcia, 
E.  and  S.  by  the  Jlediterranean,  and  W.  by  Grana<la.  Area, 
3.302  sq.  miles.  It  contains  rich  mines  of  silver  and  lead. 
Grain,  silk,  and  wine  are  the  chief  productions.  Poj).  (1887) 
339.383. 

AHiioria:  city  and  port  of  Spain;  on  the  Mediterranean; 
104  miles  E.  of  Malaga ;  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-G).  Under  the  reign  of  the 
Moorish  kings  it  was  one  of  the  richest  and  most  inqiortant 
towns  in  the  kingilom  of  Granada.  It  has  a  safe  harbor, 
defended  by  two  forts,  and  a  fine  cathedral.  Wine,  silk, 
cochineal,  ami  other  articles  are  exported  from  this  port. 
It  is  ]iretty  well  built,  the  architecture  of  many  of  the  houses 
still  showing  its  JNIoorish  origin,  and  has  some  fine  sciuares. 
Pop.  (1877)  40,323;  (1887)  37,241. 

Aliiiodo'var,  Ildefonso  Diaz  de  Rirera,  Count;  b.  in 
1777  at  Granada;  educated  at  the  jMilitary  Academy  of  Se- 
govia, and  fought  with  distinction  in  the  war  against  the 
French.  By  the  reactionary  Govennnent  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
he  was  suspected  of  liberalism  ami  confineil  in  tiie  dungeons 
of  the  Inquisition,  lint  was  lilicratcd  by  the  revolution  of 
1820.  In  1823,  however,  he  was  compelle<l  to  flee  to  France, 
and  did  not  return  until  after  the  death  of  Ferdimmd.  when 
he  at  once  took  rank  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal 
party.  In  the  cabinets  of  Jlendizabal,  Calatrava.  and  Es- 
partero  he  was  Minister  of  War,  but  retired  in  1843  from 
public  life.     D.  at  Valencia,  Jan.  26,  1846. 

AInioliades.  al'mo-hadz  [Arabic  Al-Mou'ahidoon,  i.  e.  the 
unitarians,  or  advocates  of  the  unity  of  God.  as  taught  in  its 
original  purity  by  Mohammed]:  a  Mohammedan  dymisty 
that  reigned  in  Spain  and  Northern  Africa  from  1129  to 
1269.  It  was  foundeil  liy  Abu-Abdillah  Jlohammed,  sur- 
namcd  Al-Maiidi,  '•  the  director."  The  Almohadcs  were  the 
conquerors  and  successors  of  the  Almoravides.  The  first 
Almohade  who  took  the  title  of  sultan  was  Abd-el-JIumen. 

Almoiiacid':  a  town  of  Spain;  province  of  Toledo;  on 
the  Tagus  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  16-F).  Here  the  French 
under  King  Joseph  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Vanegas 
on  Aug.  11',  1809. 

Alinnnd  (Pru'nu.icnmmv'ni.'i):  a  fruit  closely  allied  to  the 
peach,  and  supposed  by  some  to  have  given  rise  to  the  peach 
throuirh  <'ullivation  and  selection.  It  liasl)een  in  cultivation 
rriim  time  immemorial,  and  is  thought  to  be  native  to  the 
Jledilerr.MUi'an  basin  and  Western  .'\sia.  The  fruit  is  cliar- 
acterized  by  a  more  or  less  hard  and  inedil)lc  flesh,  the  mar- 
ketable product  being  the  pit  or  stone,  the  me»t  or  kernel  of 
which  is  the  edible  portion.  There  are  a  score  of  varieties, 
most  of  which  fall  readily  into  one  of  two  groujis— the  sweet 


ALMOXDBURY 


ALOK,  AMERICAN 


131 


kernels  and  the  bitter  kernels.  The  thickness  and  consist- 
ence of  the  shell  vary  in  oiich  Rro"P.  so  that  the  common 
terms  "  soft  shiU  "'  and  "  lianl  shell  "  express  no  definite  dis- 
tinctions. Tlie  almonds  of  the  shops  belong  to  the  sweet 
kernel  K''<>"P.  'i^J  the  best  of  them  are  thin-shelled  varieties. 
Hitter  varieties  yield  the  "oil  of  bitter  almonds,"  and  they 
are  used  for  meilieinal  and  confectionery  purposes.  Almond 
leaves  are  rich  in  prussie  acid.  'I'he  almond  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Southern  Europe,  and  lately  it  is  being  grown 
largely  in  (.'alifornia,  where  sevi'ral  varieties  have  originated 
pecidi'arly  well  adapted  to  certain  localities.  Several  varie- 
ties are  hardy  as  far  N.  as  New  York  and  Detroit,  l)ut  the 
popular  marliet  sorts  rarely  succeed  N.  of  :!8'  or  40  .  Al- 
monds are  <-ultivated  in  the  same  maimer  a.s  peaches.  They 
are  budded  upon  ahiu)nd,  [leach,  |)lum,  or  apricot,  these 
stocks  being  nauuHl  in  the  order  of  |ireference.  The  fruits 
are  shaken  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  the  outer  flesh  is  burst 
open.  The  hulling  is  dopi-  in  this  country  by  simple  hand 
or  power  uiaehiTU's.  When  thoniughly  dry  the  stones  are 
bleachecl  with  sulphur  fumes  to  improve  their  appearance. 

Flowering  or  dwarf  almonds  are  bushy  plants  belonging  to 
the  species  Primus  tribihd  and  P.  mum.  They  are  pi-o|.)a- 
gateil  l)y  building  upon  plum  or  (icach  ;  also  by  root-cuttings, 
division,  ami  rarely  by  cuttings  of  the  branches. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

Alnioiid'liiiry :  a  large  village,  township,  and  parish  of 
England,  in  the  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  T-H).  The  village  is  on  the  ( 'alder,  06  miles  S.  W.  of 
York,  and  has  cotton  and  woolen  mills.     Pop.  about  16,000. 

Almoii'de  (sometimes  Alemonda),  Philippus,  van:  a 
Dutch  admiral ;  b.  at  Briel,  Dec.  2!),  1646.  He  was  the  sec- 
ond in  command  under  De  Ruyfer  when  the  latter  was  killed 
in  1 676,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  which  Van  Tromp 
gained  over  the  Swedes  in  1677.  lie  accompanied  W'illiam 
of  Orange  to  England  in  1688,  and  commanded  the  Dutch 
fleet,  which,  aided  by  the  English,  defeated  the  French  at 
La  Ilogue  in  16!)3.     D.  near  Leyden,  Jan.  11,  1711. 

Almonds,  Oil  of:  a  fixed  oil,  of  a  light-yellow  color  an<l 
odorless,  obtained  by  pressure  from  almonds,  both  sweet  and 
l)itter.  It  consists  chiefly  of  olein  ;  is  soluble  in  23  parts  of 
aU-ohol.  It  is  used  in  medicine,  liaving  a  mild  laxative 
pi-operly.  It  is  sometimes  given  to  new-born  infants, mixed 
with  sirup  of  roses.  One  hundred  ]iounds  of  almonds  yield 
about  TM  lb.  of  oil.  Bitter  almimds,  macerated  with  cold 
water  and  distilled,  yield  a  volatile  oil  known  as  the  "oil  of 
bitter  almonils,"  or  benzoic  aldehyde.  This  does  not  pre- 
exist in  the  almonds,  but  is  produced,  together  with  hydro- 
cyanic or  prussie  acid,  from  the  glucoside  amygdalin  under 
the  influence  of  the  ferment  emulsin : 

RtMizoic        Prussie 
Amvgilalin.  AVater.        alilelivde.         acid.  Glucose. 

CoI'UtNO,,   +  2II2O  =  C,1I"„0   +   IICN  +   2C8lI„0,. 

It  is  a  colorless,  limpid  oil,  smelling  of  Ijitter  almonds.  When 
freed  from  prussie  acid  it  is  not  poisonous.  It  oxidizes  to 
benzoic  acid,  CvHeOj.  It  is  regarded  as  the  aldehyde  of 
benzoic  acid.  It  is  also  produced  liy  the  action  of  man- 
ganese dioxide  and  sulphuric  acid  on  alljumen,  fibrin,  ea.sein,' 
ami  gelatin.  It  has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
flavdriug  emdeetidiuM-y  and  for  scenting  soap.  For  the 
fcirmer  pm'pose  the  prussie  acid  which  it  usually  contains 
makes  it  dangerous.  For  the  hatter  purpose  it  has  been  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  much  cheaper  nitrobenzene  or  es- 
sence of  mirbane  (CbIIsNOj),  al.so  called  artificial  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  which  jjossesse.s  the  same  odor. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsev. 

Al'inoncr  [0.  Fr.  (limoxnicr.  from  Lat.  ehemost/nn'riiin, 
adjee.  from  Gr.  iKf-nixoamn).  pity] :  an  officer  whose  duty  is  to 
distril)ute  alms  for  a  king  or  oilier  pi^rson  of  rank,  or  for  a 
iiHiuastcry.  The  grand  almoner  of  France  was  a  functionary 
of  high  rank,  and  usually  a  cardinal.  This  office  Wiis  a.hi)\- 
ished  during  the  revolution.  In  Knglaud  there  is  a  lord 
high  almoner,  who  distributes  the  bounty  of  the  queen  twice 
a  year,  and  whose  duties  are  defined  in  the  constitutions  of 
the  royal  chapels.  .Ml  monasteries  by  the  ancient  canons 
were  to  spend  not  less  than  a  tenth  part  of  their  income  in 
giving  alms  to  the  poor.  All  bisliops  were  required  to  keep 
almoners. 

Alnioiito:  town  in  T-anark  co..  Ontario.  Canada  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  2-11);  situated  in  an  agricul- 
tural region,  on  Canadian  I'acilic  Railway,  :io  miles  S.  W.  of 
Ottawa;  lias  good  water-power,  and  manufactures  woolen 
and  knit  goods.     Pop.  (1881)  2,084  ;  (18'J1J  3,071. 


Aliiion'te,  Don  Juan  Nepomuceno:  a  ^lexican  general 
and  statesman  of  Indian  descent;  b.  at  Valladolid,  Mexico, 
in  1804;  was  attached  to  the  embassy  in  London  in  1824 
and  18;i2,  Jlinister  of  War  under  Bustamente,  and  in  1841 
minister  plenipotentiary  at  Washington.  lie  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  against  the  U.  S.,  was  sent  to  Washington; 
in  185;J,  and  in  18.57  to  Paris.  He  went  to  Mexico  with  the 
Frencli  expedition  in  1862,  and  was  declared  President  in 
Juiirez's  place,  but  was  not  alile  to  gain  recognition.  He  en- 
tered the  capital  with  the  French  army  June  10,  1863,  and 
was  made  President  of  the  tiovernmeiit  Junta;  was  sent  to 
Paris  as  minister  extraordinarv  1806,  and  remained  there 
after  the  fall  of  Maximilian  tilfhis  death.  Mar.  33,  1869. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Almoravides.  al-mo'ra-vids  [a  corruption  of  the  Arabic 
Alinorabitiin,  signifying  those  bound  or  devoted  to  the 
service  of  God];  the  name  of  a  JMoslem  or  Arabian  dy- 
nasty that  reigned  in  Northern  Africa  and  Spain.  It  was 
founded  by  AiidalliUi-lbn-Yaseen  about  KloO,  and  continued 
until  1I45,  when  it  was  succeeded  by  tlie  Almohades. 

AliiMniist.  alm'kvist,  Carl  Jonas  Ludvig:  Swedish  writer 
of  the  Romantic  school;  b.  at  Stockholm,  Nov.  28,  1793. 
After  an  eccentric  attempt  to  establish  a  community  of  the 
old  Scandinavian  jiattern,  he  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
producing  books  of  all  sorts — poems,  jilays,  scliool-books, 
tales,  and  romances.  In  1851  he  fled  from  Sweden  to  Amer- 
ica, under  suspicion  of  an  attempt  at  murder.  He  afterward 
retui-ned  to  Europe  and  lived  some  years  under  a  false  name 
(C.  Westermann)  in  Bremen,  where  he  died  Sept.  26,  1866. 
His  most  im|iortaut  work  is  Ti'irnroitcns  Boh  (Book  of  the 
Thorn-Rose.  17  parts  in  two  series,  1832-51),  a  collection  of 
miscellanies  in  prose  and  verse,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  short  stories  Araminta  May  and  Skallnora 
Quarn  (The  Mill  at  Skiillnora);  the  semi-dramatic  sketch 
Colomhine. ;  the  dramas  Marjam,  and  Isidoros  af  Tadinor ; 
and  the  e\nid  Arturs  Jagt.  Of  his  long  romances,  ^;««/trt 
Hilliwr  and  Gabriele  Mimanso  are  jierhaps  the  best. 

G.  L.  KiTTREDGE. 

Aliiishonses;  See  Pauperism. 

Aim  Ilea II 'tar  [from  the  Arabic  iil-muqnntarah,  a  hoi'i- 
zontal  circle  on  the  celestial  sphere ;  from  al,  the  +  muqcin- 
iarah,  a  sun-dial ;  from  qantarali,  an  arch] :  a  small  circle, 
immediately  around  the  zenith,  or  a  larger  one  at  any  alti- 
tude, tli(.'  largest  of  all  being  the  great  circle  of  the  horizon. 

The  term  has  also  been  applied  by  Mr.  S.  C.  Chandler  to  an 
instrument  of  his  invention,  for  the  very  accurate  measure- 
ment of  equal  altitudes.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  telescope 
mounted  upon  a  stand  which  floats  in  quicksilver.  The  eye- 
piece of  the  telescope  is  supplied  with  one  or  more  horizontal 
spider-lines.  If  the  stand  of  the  telescope  be  made  to  turn  as 
it  floats,  the  axis  on  which  it  turns  will  be  truly  vertical ;  and 
the  line  of  sight  of  the  telesco]ie  will  therefore  describe  an 
alraucantar.  Thus  the  equal  altitudes  of  two  or  more  heav- 
enly tiodies  at  given  moments  can  be  determined  with  this 
insirument  with,  perhaps,  greater  precision  than  any  other. 
But  its  use  requires  great  care  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
observer.  An  elaborate  series  of  observations  and  investiga- 
tions witii  it  wiU  be  found  in  one  of  the  volumes  of  Annals 
of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory.  S.  Newcomb. 

Alnwick,  an'nik:  a  market-town  of  England;  county  of 
Northumberland;  on  the  river  Alne;  32  miles  N.  of  New- 
castle (see  map  of  England,  ref.  3-II).  It  is  well  built  of 
stone,  and  has  a  town-hall,  a  theater,  a  mechanics'  institute, 
etc.  There  are  remains  of  the  old  wall  which  formerly  sur- 
rounded the  town.     Pop.  about  8,000. 

Alinvick  Castle:  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, adjoining  the  above  town;  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
baroniai  castles  in  England.  II  is  supposed  to  be  twelve 
hundred  years  old  or  more,  and  has  belonged  to  the  Percy 
family  since  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  In  1830  it  was  re- 
paired at  a  cost  of  i:20(),0()0.  JIalcolm  III.,  King  of  Scot- 
land, while  besieging  this  castle  in  1093,  was  killed,  with  his 
eldest  son,  by  the  Earl  of  Northumberland.  W^illiam  the 
Lion  of  Scotland,  having  laid  siege  to  it  in  1174,  was  de- 
feated and  made  prisoner. 

Al'ot' :  a  genus  of  enilogenous  plants  of  I  he  order  TMiacew, 
natives  of  .Vfrica  and  other  warm  regions,  and  chiefly  vain- 
able  Un-  their  medic'inal  proiierties.  The  drug  called  aloes 
is  obtained  from  several  species,  aiiiong  which  the  Aloe  so- 
eo/riiin,  found  in  the  island  of  Socotra,  affords  the  best  qual- 
ity.    Se(^  Aloes. 

Aloe,  American :  See  Agave. 


132 


ALOES 


ALPHABET 


Al'oes :  a  stimulating,  purgative  drug  having  a  bitter 
taste,  is  the  inspissated  juice  or  extract  obtained  from  the 
leaves  of  several  species  of  the  aloe.  It  is  imported  from 
Bombay,  Socotra,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  West  Indies, 
etc.  "Cape  aloes"  is  obtained  from  the  Aloe  spicu'tn; 
" Socotrine  aloes,"  from  the  Aloe  socotri'na;  and  "  Barba- 
does  aloes,"  from  the  AToe  vidga'ris.  Aloes  is  much  used 
combined  witli  other  cathartics;  from  its  stimulating  cifect 
upon  the  lower  bowel  it  is  unsuitable  for  tliose  suftering 
from  piles.  Heated  with  nitric  acid,  aloes  yields  chrysam- 
mic  acid.     See  Wood  and  Baclie's  Uiapensaluri]. 

Aloes  Wood,  or  Agila.  or  Eagle  Wood  :  the  inner  part 
of  tlie  trunk  of  the  Aqiiila'riii  ova'ta  and  the  Agnihi  ria 
agaVlochum.  trees  which  are  natives  of  tropical  Asia.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  the  lign-aloes  of  the  Bible.  Aloes  wood  con- 
tains a  fragrant  resinous  substance,  which  emits  a  pleasant 
odor  when  burned,  and  is  highly  prized  as  a  medicine  by 
the  Orientals. 

Al'ogi :  a  sect  of  i-eligionists  opposed  to  the  Montanists  ; 
formed  about  160  A.  n.  They  were  styled  Alogi,  a  name  of 
double  meaning,  signifying  their  rejection  of  writings  in 
which  the  Logos  is  mentioned,  and  also  tluit  they  were  with- 
out reason. 

Aloi'adaB  (i.e.  sons  of  Aloeus):  in  Greek  mythology,  Otus 
and  Epiiialtes,  two  giants  of  extraordinary  strength  who  at- 
tempted to  storm  Olympus,  and  were  condemned  to  sufEer 
in  Tartarus. 

Aloiii'pra:  the  founder  of  tlie  last  dynasty  of  Burma, 
which  eanie  to  an  end  early  in  1886,  when  Upper  Burma 
becanu'  a  province  of  British  India.  Alompra  was  liorn 
about  1700.  He  revolted  against  the  King  of  Pegu  in  1758, 
was  victorious  in  several  battles,  and  liecame  master  of  Bur- 
ma, in  wliich  he  founded  Kangoon.     D.  May  15,  1760. 

Alopecia :  See  Baldness. 

Alo'ra :  a  city  of  Spain ;  in  the  province  of  Malaga;  17 
miles  N.  W.  of  JIalaga  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  20-E).  Soap 
and  oil  are  nuiiuifactured  here.  A  winter  resort  with  nun- 
eral  waters.     Pop.  10,014. 

Alosa:  See  Suad. 

A'lost,  or  Aalst :  an  ancient  town  of  Belgium,  in  East 
Flanders,  on  tlu'  navi},'able  river  Dcnder,  midway  between 
Ghent  and  Brussels  {see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref. 
9-1)).  It  contains  the  church  of  St.-Martin,  one  of  the  largest 
and  finest  in  Belgium,  a  town-hall,  a  college,  and  an  academy 
of  design.  Here  are  cotton-mills,  copper-foundries,  distil- 
leries, and  manufactures  of  lace,  leather,  etc.  Alost  has  an 
active  trade,  Jind  exports  ho))S,  corn,  and  oil.  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  Austrian  or  imperial  Flanders.  Pop. 
(1891)  34,479. 

Aloysiiis,  Saixt,  of  Goxzaga  :  See  Goxzaoa. 

Alpa'ca:  the  Auchenia  pa  cox;  supposed  by  many  zool- 
ogists to  be  only  a  domesticated  variety  of  the  guana'co,  a 


Alpaca. 

Tuminaid,  animal  nearly  allied  to  the  llama,  and  belonging 
to  the  family  Camelidm  ;  occurs  in  large  flocks  in  a  domesti- 


cated or  semi-domesticated  state  on  the  high  Andes  of  Peru 
and  Bolivia.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the  llanui,  and  is  not 
used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  being  valueil  only  for  its  wool. 
The  latter  varies  in  color,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  length, 
fineness,  silken  texture,  and  a  luster  almost  metallic.  It  is 
longer  and  straighter  tlian  that  of  sheeii.  Tlie  most  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  aljjaea  cloth  arc  in  Great  Britain, 
which  imports  annually  about  8,000.000  11>.  of  this  wool.  A 
great  jiart,  however,  of  the  so-called  alpaca  goods  of  com- 
merce are  made  of  the  w'ool  of  the  Cotswold,  Leicester,  and 
other  long-wooled  breeds  of  sheep. 

Alp-Arslaii'  (i.e.  strong  lion),  -written  also  Alp-Arselan: 
a  famous  Persian  sultan  of  the  Seljukian  dynasty;  b.  in 
Turkestan  in  1029.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  1063,  em- 
braced Islaniism,  and  became  sole  monarch  of  Persia  from 
the  river  Tigris  to  the  Oxus.  Under  the  direction  of  his 
wise  vizier,  Nizam-ul-JSIulk.  who  was  one  of  the  most  noted 
statesmen  in  early  Mohammedan  history,  and  ably  assisted 
him  in  consolidating  his  empire  and  subduing  contending 
factions,  Persia  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  many  colleges 
were  founded,  justice  was  well  adnunistered,  and  learning 
was  promoted.  In  1071  Alp-Arslau  defeated  and  took  pris- 
oner Romanus  Diogenes,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  whom 
he  treated  with  great  generosity  and  kindness.  Alp-Ai-slan 
was  assassinated  Dec.  15,  1073. 

Alpe'na:  city;  capitalof  Alpena  co.,  Mich,  (for  location  of 
countv,  see  map'  of  Michigan,  ref.  4-J) :  at  the  head  of  Thun- 
der Bay.  It  manufactures  about  300,000,000  feet  of  lumber 
yearlv,  and  large  quantities  of  shingles  and  lath.  Contains 
large  hemlock-extract  factory,  a  sulphite  fibre  works,  and 
spool  factory,  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is  situated  about 
210  miles  N.  bv  W.  from  Detroit  on  Lake  Huron.  It  has  a 
high  school  costing  .f  40.000 :  another  school  costing  |12,000; 
7  miles  paved  streets,  electric  lights,  water-works,  telephone 
exchange,  etc.  Pop.  in  1880,  6,153;  in  1890,  11,283;  (1894) 
12,139.  H.  C.  Hamill,  publisher  of  "  Pioneer." 

Alpes,  Basses :  See  Basses- Alpes. 

Alpes,  Hautes :  See  Hautes-Alpes. 

Alpes-Maritimes,  alp-ina-ree-teem'  [i.  e.  the  Maritime 
Al))s] :  a  dejiartment  forming  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  France, 
bordering  on  Italy.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Italy,  S. 
by  the  Mediterranean,  W.  by  Var  and  Basses-AIpes.  Area, 
1,482  sq.  miles.  It  is  drained  by  the  river  Var.  The  sur- 
face is  divereified  by  mountains  and  fertile  valleys.  The  mild 
clmiate  along  the  coast  makes  it  a  favorite  winter  resort  for 
invalids.  This  department  includes  the  county  of  Nice, 
which  was  ceded  by  Italy  to  France  in  1860;  also  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Grasse,  detached  from  the  department  o[  Var. 
It  is  partly  covered  with  forests  of  valuable  timber.  Among 
its  staple  products  are  grapes,  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  figs, 
silk,  and  flowers  for  perfumes.  The  chief  towns  are  Grasse, 
Aiitibes,  Cannes,  ancl  Nice,  which  is  the  capital.  It  is  di- 
vided into  three  arrondissements.  Pop.  (1881)  226,621 ;  (1891) 
258,571. 

Al'|>ha  and  O'lnega ;  the  names  of  the  first  and  last  let- 
ters of  the  Greek  alphabet.  A.  a.  Tliese  words  occur  in  the 
book  of  Revelation  as  a  title  of  the  Ijord  Jesus  Christ.  The 
two  letters  were  used  by  the  early  Christians  as  symbols  of 
faith,  and  were  sometmies  marked  on  coins,  tombs,  orna- 
ments, etc. 

Alphaltet ;  this  term,  formed  from  the  names  of  the  first 
two  Greek  letters,  alpha,  beta,  after  the  manner  of  our 
a-bee-cee',  and  originally  applicable  to  the  series  of  letters 
by  which  the  Greek  language  is  written,  has  been  extended 
ill  aii])licalion  lo  any  such  complete  set  of  symbols  for  the 
sounds  of  a  language.  The  modern  European  aljihabets 
are  all  ultimately  derived  from  the  Greek.  The  Kussian 
and  those  ot  other  Slavic  countries  where  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox Church  is  dominant  are  modifications  of  the  Cyrillic 
alphabi't,  which  is  based  upon  the  Cri-ek  writing  ot  the 
ninlh  cenlury  a.  D.  Our  own  alphabet  is  essentially  the 
Roman  form 'of  the  Greek.  The  letter,!  is  a  late  diiferen- 
tiation  of  I,  luid  W  rejiresents  the  attemiit.  in  the  earlier 
use  ot  the  Latin  alphabet  aiiumg  Germanic  ])e(i]iles,  to  indi- 
cate the  Gerinaiiic<'Oiisonautal  »(=  »')by  douliliiigihe  Roman 
symbol  V,  which  had  tissuiMed.  since  the  Ihinl  <'entury  A.  D., 
the  value  of  a  spiivint.  The  symbol  &,  oflen  appended  to 
our  alphaliet,  is,  as  well  as  -1-  (pliifi),  a  e(invenliciiialized  deg- 
i-ailalion  of  Latin  (■/  {if),  "  and." 

The  form  of  tlu!  (ireek  alphabet  from  which  the  Roman 
is  derived  is  that  form  of  the  Eiiba-an  which  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy  by  the  colonists  from  Chalets.     The  alpha- 


ALFllAHI'.T 


ALPIIAXD 


133 


Ijft  wliich  we  commonly  know  !is  Greek  is  essentially  the 
Ionic.  It  had  its  home  in  the  Ionic  cities  of  the  Asiatic 
coa,st,  anil  from  there  frraclually  sjireacl  over  all  Greece,  be- 
eominxthe  slitndanl  at  Athi-ns  in  403  B.  c.  and  in  Greece 
P'nerally  dnrinjr  the  followinj;  centnry.  It  differed  from 
the  Chalcidiaii  in  the  following  points  (see  table) :  1.  Clamnia 
(8)  was  an.sidar.  not  rounded.  2.  So  rff/Zo,  which  was  round- 
ed in  the  Konian  source.     I!.  Etii  (8)  had  assumed  the  value 


Order.  Hebrew  name.      Moal). 


('haloid. 


Ionic. 


1. 

Aleph 

< 

A 

A 

2. 

Beth 

f 

6 

B 

3. 

Gimcl 

1 

C 

r 

4. 

Daleth 

^ 

AO 

A 

5. 

lie 

^ 

^ 

E 

6. 

Vau 

y 

L 

trt<;/fe««^ 

1. 

Zayin 

:r: 

I 

X 

8. 

Cheth 

H 

B  h 

H(e) 

0. 

Teth 

^ 

e 

® 

10. 

Yod 

t 

1 

1 

11. 

Kaph 

7 

K 

K 

12. 

Lamed 

L 

^ 

A 

i:i. 

Jlcm 

^ 

AA 

M 

14. 

Xun 

"i 

N 

N 

l."). 

.Samckh 

-t 

(57) 

I 

l(i. 

.\yin 

o 

0 

O 

17. 

I'c 

7 

r 

r 

18. 

Tsade 

^ 

(M) 

(r) 

19. 

(^oph 

<p 

9 

tacAAiij 

20. 

Rcsh 

") 

PR 

P 

21. 

Shin 

w 

$S 

i 

o.> 

Ta-u 

r 

X 

T 
V 

T 
Y 

03 

-f 

X 

i  ■ 

4> 

4> 

Y 

Y 

SI 

of  open   «  in   Tonic,  where   in   the   dialect  the  sound  h  wa.s 
lackintr.  but  fhalciilian,  and  consequently  the   Roman,  re- 


taino<l  it  in  its  older  value.  4.  /•"'was  not  in  use.  .5.  Lamb- 
(1(1  had  its  angle  at  the  toj).  (i.  Koppa  (10)  was  lost,  though 
preserved  in  Chalcidian  (cf.  our  (^).  7.  /("/lo  lackeil  its  (pieue. 
8.  Siyma  was  angidar.  and  generally  com])osi>d  of  tour  lines, 
il.  The  letter  X  had  the  value  r/i,  not  A-.s-,  a.s  in  Chalcidian. 
10.  A  special  symbol  for  open  o  had  been  developed  (o/«p^«). 

In  Woman  usage  thealphabcl  sulfereil  the  following  modi- 
iicatious :  (1)  (',  the  Greek  (/<?»//««,  was  connnonly  used  for 
both  sounds  k  ami  a  until  liy  the  addition  of  a  diacritical 
mark  (i  was  invented,  and  pull  in  jilace  of  the  disused  zela  (f). 
(2)  K  was  little  used.  (3)  P  iissumed  the  value/ instead  of 
!'.  (4)  In  the  Augustan  age  i/jOsiVon  (pronoTUiced  il)  and zeta 
were  introduced  from  the  Greek  alphabet,  primarily  to 
a.ssist  in  writing  Greek  words,  and  were  phiced  at  the  end 
of  the  alphabet.  Hence  our  y  (did  z.  (.5)  The  three  a.spi- 
rates  ffl  (D -!■  disappear  except  as  nvnnerals;  thus  ®  "1000" 
survives  as  CIO,  which  through  influence  of  mllh  becomes 
M,  and  D  as  one-half  of  it  denotes  ".500."' 

All  the  Greek  alphabets  arc  based  upon  the  Phu'uician 
alphabet  of  twenty-two  letters,  to  whii'li  a  twenty-third  (Y) 
was  directly  added.  From  this  sei-ics  ot  twenty-three  letters 
all  the  various  systems  may  be  derived.  The  form  of  the 
parent  alphabet  "may  be  regarded  as  almost  identical  with 
the  writing  of  the  Moabite  stone  (c.  890  B.  c),  which  is  rc- 
produceil  in  the  table  above.    See  Greek  Lanuuage. 

Tiie  adoption  of  the  Phamician  alphabet  by  the  Greeks 
occasioned  the  following  changes:  (1)  As  the  Phttnician 
alphalu'l  lacked  vowel  signs,  Nos.  1,  T^,  10,  and  16,  which  were 
otherwise  useless,  were  given  the  values  of  ",  c,  (',  o,  and  a 
variety  of  Xo.  6  supplied  a  symbol  for  v.  (2)  The  four 
sibilants,  Xos.  7,  15,  18,  21,  were  reduced  to  two,  z(tta  and 
either  san  (M)  or  si(j)iia(s).  (H)  All  the  alphabets  except 
those  of  Thera,  Melos,  and  Crete  add  the  symbols  if>  {pk)  and 
X  (in  some  J,h,  in  others  ks). 

The  order  of  the  letters,  as  may  be  inferred  from  various 
iudication.s,  notably  the  acrostic' Psalms  (119,  145),  etc.,  the 
ancient  "((becedaria"  or  written  lists  of  letters,  as  that  of 
Formello  (see  Kirchhoff,  Sti(dicii  ziir  griech.  Alphab.  *  134), 
and  the  use  of  the  letters  as  nunici-als,  is  old,  and  is  most 
rigidly  preserved.  The  original  grounds  for  this  arrange- 
ment are  not  entirely  clear  ;  it  was  jiartly  due  to  likeness  of 
.sounds,  thus  the  three  sonants  i,  f/,  rf,  aiul  the  liquids/,™, 
»,  and  Jiartly,  doubtless,  to  the  nanu'S  of  the  letters;  thus 
Nos.  16,  17,  lit,  20  refer  to  the  head  or  its  parts,  ay  in,  "  eye  " ; 
P(-,  ••  mouth  "  :  Q'oph,  "  back  of  lu'ad  "  ;  I{('sh.  "  head." 

The  Greek  names  ot  the  letters  are  meaningless  echoes  of 
their  Semitic  originals,  which  were  themselves,  however, 
suggestive  of  some  resemblance  in  the  shape  ot  the  letters. 
Thus  alpha  from  aleph.  "ox  "  (cf.  our  elephant),  because  of 
the  resemblance  ot  the  letter  (v)  to  the  head  of  an  ox;  so 
gamr»t(  =  (/iniel.  "camel"  (English  come/ is  of  Semitic  origin), 
proliably  from  the  suggestion  of  ji,  earners  lunup  (A).  Kirch- 
hotf,  Sliiilicii  ziir  dcxcliichte  dcx  (iricch.  Alphabets  (4th 
edit.,  1887):  Taylor,  The  Alphabet  (2' vols..  1883);  Ilinrichs, 
Jliiller'K  JIandhitrh  d.  Altai umsv.,  i.331  tf. ;  Roberts, 7h/»-o- 
diirt/iiii  to  (ri-cek  Epi(jraphy  (1887);  Schlottman, /i'/eAw's 
liihdiri'irterb..  ii.  1416  tf.  s.  v.  Sehrift.     Sec  also  Writing. 

Benjamim  Iue  Wheeler. 

AlphniKl.  al-fon.  Jeax  Charles  Adot.phe:  civil  engi- 
neer; director  of  the  improvements  of  Paris,  the  Exposi- 
tions of  1867,  1878,  and  188!l :  b.  at  Grenoble,  Oct.  26.  1817; 
entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1835  and  the  School  of 
Ponts  et  Chaussees  in  1837.  Gi'aduating  in  1843  with  the 
ap])ointment  of  engineer,  he  wa,s  posted  at  Bordeaux, 
where  in  addition  to  his  duties  as  engineer  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  municipal  council,  and  of  the  general  council  of 
the  canton.  In  1854  Baron  llaussuuMui.  prefect  of  the 
Seine,  who  had  known  Alphand  when  he  himself  was  pre- 
fect ot  Bordeaux,  called  him  lo  Paris,  appointing  him  chief 
engineer  ot  the  improvements  of  the  city.  In  1871  Presi- 
dent Thiers  appointed  him  Director  of  Works  of  Paris, 
which  included  the  supervision  ot  all  architectural  matters. 
In  1878  ho  became  Director  of  Water-supply  and  Drainage, 
thereupon  centralizing  in  his  own  person  all  the  technical 
services  of  Paris.  In  the  Exposition  of  1867  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  works  of  the  Champ  de  JIars.  a  member  ot  the 
executive  committee  ot  tlu^  Kxposilion  of  1878.  and  di- 
rector of  the  works  of  that  of  1889.  He  was  appointed 
chief  engineer  of  Pouts  et  Chaussees  in  1857.  and  inspector- 
general  ot  the  first  cla.ss  in  1875.  During  the  war  of  1870-71 
he  was  colonel  of  a  corps  of  engineers,  in  charge  of  the  con- 
tinuous line  ot  defense^  surrounding  the  city.  Chevalier  of 
the  Legion  ot  Honor  since   I8.")2.  and  officer  since  1862,  the 


134: 


ALPIIEUS 


ALPS 


insi.enia  of  jrraiid  officer  were  sent  to  him  at  tlic  new  Hotel 
de  Ville  liy  tlie  I'resident  of  the  republic  on  the  18th  of 
July,  1882.  Modern  Paris  is  said  to  owe  its  existence  to 
Barou  Haussniann,  hut  it  was  Alphaiid  who  orjjanized  the 
means  by  which  they  were  carried  out.  A\'hen  the  official 
life  of  the  great  jircfect  terminated  with  the  fall  of  the  em- 
i)ire  the  work  begun  by  him  was  continued,  and  Aljihand. 
having  hehl  aloof  from  politics,  maintained  his  position,  and 
became  himself  its  controlling  s|)irit,  not  only  in  the  design 
and  execution  of  tiie  works,  but  in  provicling  means  tor 
carrying  them  on.  He  died  in  harness  of  an  attack  of  pa- 
ralysis on  the  6th  of  Dec,  1891,  in  the  seventy-fourth  year 
of  ills  age.  William  R.  Huttox. 

Alphe'us,  or  Alphei'us :  the  modern  Kouphia,  a  cele- 
brated river  of  Greece,  in  the  Slorea.  It  rises  in  the  S.  E. 
|iart  of  Ai-cadia,  on  I  lie  fi'onticr  of  Ijaconia,  flows  westward 
through  Arcadia  and  Elis  by  Olympia,  and  empties  into 
the  Ionian  Sea  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles.  The  Al- 
pheus,  like  some  other  rivers  in  Arcadia,  disappears  more 
than  once  in  the  cavernous  limestone  mountains,  and  ap- 
peal's again  after  flowing  some  distance  underground.  In 
the  commencement  of  its  course  it  is  now  called  the  Sar- 
amla.  Below  Pega\  the  Alphcus  receives  the  Ilelisson,  and 
below  Hera;a  the  Ladon,  after  which  it  is  called  the  Rou- 
phia.  In  the  upjier  part  of  its  course  the  Alpheus  is  gen- 
erally called  the  iJ/cc/- o/K^w(7p;ife.  Below  the  Ladon  the 
Alpheus  receives  the  Erymanthus.     A  temple  and  grove  of 


Artemis  Alpheionia  were  at  the  mouth  of  the  Alphcus, 
which  river  is  wide  and  shallow  from  the  Pass  of  Lavdha  to 
the  sea. 

Alpliens  :  in  classic  mythology,  a  river-god  and  a  son  of 
Oceanus.  jVccording  to  the  poetical  legend,  he  loved  the 
nymph  Arethusa,  who  fled  from  him  to  the  island  of  Orty- 
gia.  and  was  transformed  into  a  fountain.  Alphcus  pur- 
sued her  under  the  sea  and  was  united  to  the  fountain. 

Alphouso :  See  Alfonso. 

Alpine  Club:  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  Alpine  dis- 
covery; formed  in  (ireat  Britain  in  1858.  Three  members 
of  this  club,  Mr.  Hudson,  Lord  Francis  Douglas,  and  Mr. 
lladdo,  perished  with  their  guide  in  the  descent  of  the 
JIatterhorn  in  July,  186.5.  Other  Aljiine  clubs  were  formed 
in  Austria,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany.  In  1873  an 
Alpine  Club  was  formed  in  the  U.  S. 

Alpine  Plants:  those  plants  which  grow  at  considerable 
elevations  (a  mile  or  so)  upon  mountains.  Primarily,  the 
term  was  applied  to  the  plants  on  the  Alps,  but,  inasmuch 
as  the  vegetation  of  all  high  mountains  resembles  that  of  the 
Alps,  the  term  has  come  to  have  a  broader  significance.  It 
lias  been  observed,  also,  that  as  we  go  N.  (in  the  northern 
hemisphere)  and  S.  (in  the  southern  hemisphere)  the  vege- 
tation is  Alpine  in  character  at  lower  and  lower  levels,  so 
that  finally  it  occurs  upon  the  surface  but  little  above  sea- 
level.  The  botanist  finds  many  plants  in  Labrador  and 
other  far  northerly  parts  of  Canada  which  occur  on  the 
mountains  of  the  U.  S.  A  notable  example  of  this  is  the 
])iiiptnsia  lajrponicn.  which  is  abundant  in  Labrador,  oc- 
<-urriiig  also  on  the  White  Mountains  of  New  England. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  Alpine  plants  is  the  Edel- 
weiss {q.  V.)  of  the  higher  regions  of  the  Alps.  Little  less 
interesting  are  the  gentians,  of  which  many  species  occur  in 
the  Alps  ((I'l'ii/iana  nivalin,  ii.  bnir/ii/pln/lla,  (f.  bavnrica, 
(f.  e.rcisa.  (I.  arrDilin)  and  in  the  liocky  Jluunttiins  {(f.  bnr- 
l/i'lldla,  (t.  prusfra/ii,  (i.  frii/ii/<i,  (1.  jjcirnji).  while  some  are 
common  to  biilli  regions  {d.  (iiikiitI/ii.  G.  leiii'l/ri).  The  low 
catchfly  {Sileiie  iicanlis)  occurs  on  the  Alps  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  tiie  same  is  true  of  species  of  forget-me-not 
(MyOMDfin  itlpentris).  saxifrage  (Stixifrnyd  oppositi folia,  S. 
ailoideii).  knot-grass  (I'ohiyoniim  liixlor/a),  etc. 

The  woody  plants  growing  at  high  altitudes  are  greatly  re- 
duced in  size — e.g.  the  Alpine  species  of  willows  (,SV/7i>  i>rala, 
,S.  rfliisa,  »S'.  rcfieii/iilri,  etc.).  which  trail  uiion  the  gripund, 
and  bear  small  or  even  minute  leaves.  At  great  elevations 
trees  of  various  kinds  are  somct  imes  reduced  to  mere  shrubs. 
The  flowers  of  Alpine  plants  are  remarkable  for  the  bright- 
ness of  their  colors.  Chakles  E.'Bessev. 

Alpi'niis.  or  Alpini,  Pkosi'EK,  M.  D.  :  a  celebrated  Italian 
botanist;  b.  at  Marostica,  in  the  Venetian  slate,  Nov.  23, 
11553.  Having  passed  several  years  in  Egypt,  he  published 
in  Latin  a  work  on  The  I'/riiits  of  Ejiyid  (l.">!ll).  and  ob- 
tained a  chair  of  liotany  at  Padua  in  l.')!t3.  He  made  im- 
])ortant  contributions  to  the  st'ience  of  botany.  Aniniig  his 
works  is  one  on  Krolii-  Plants.     1).  at  Padii.i.  Ki  b.  ."),  1617. 


Alps  [Lat.  Al'pex.  Pr.  Alpes,  Ger.  AVjieii,  etymology  un- 
certain] :  the  most  remarkable  system  of  mountains  in 
Europe  as  regards  both  extent  and  elevation.  They  may  be 
said  to  extend  from  the  jMediterranean  between  Slarseilles 
and  Nice  irregularly  eastward  to  near  18'  E.  Ion.  and  45° 
30  N.  lat.  They  form  a  crescent-shajied  chain,  and  stretch- 
ing across  the  country  cover  a  part  of  France,  the  greater 
part  of  Switzerland,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Northern 
Italy  and  Austria.  They  culminate  in  Mont  Blanc,  and 
form  the  watershed  or  dividing  line  between  the  rivers  that 
Bow  into  the  Mediterranean  and  those  which  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  German  Ocean  and  Black  Sea.  Several  im- 
portant rivers  of  Europe  take  their  rise  in  Alpine  valleys; 
the  largest  are  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone.  This  system"  of 
mountains  is  included  between  the  parallels  of  44'  and  48° 
X.  lat.  and  6°  40  and  18'  E.  Ion.,  and  covers  an  area  of 
about  95,700  sq.  miles.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Alps,  with 
their  various  windings,  have  an  extent  from  W.  to  E.  of 
about  700  miles,  and  a  breadth  varying  from  50  to  200 
miles.  The  bases  of  the  northern  and  the  .southern  sides  are 
encircled  by  an  extensive  series  of  lakes,  those  on  tlie  former 
side  being  from  1.200  to  1,.jOO  and  tliose  on  the  latter  from 
600  to  700  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  while  in  the  interior 
some  are  found  at  an  elevation  of  6.000  feet.  The  average 
height  of  the  central  chain  is  10,000  feet,  licing  in  the  region 
of  perpetual  snow,  while  several  hundred  jieaks  rise  above  it 
to  12,000  and  15.000  feet.  From  these  snowy  heights  descend 
the  destructive  avahinches.  In  tlie  numerous  valleys  of 
these  lofty  regions  are  collected  the  immense  quantities  of 
snow  which  form  the  long  streams  of  ice  called  glaciers. 
(See  Glaciers.)  The  Alps  are  generally  divided  into  three 
parts  which  are  distinguished  as  the  East,  the  West,  and  the 
Jliddle  Alps  :  I.  West  Alps. — The  principal  ranges  included 
within  these  are :  1.  The  Maritime  Alps,  commencing  not  far 
from  Genoa,  extend  westerly  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  near  Barcelonctte  in  France,  and  attain  in  their  high- 
est part  an  elevation  of  nearlv  10.000  feet.  2.  The  Cottian 
Alps,  culminating  in  .Alonte  V'iso.  12,600  feet  high.  8.  The 
Graian  AI])S,  forming  the  boundary  between  Savoy  and  Pied- 
mont, and  rising  in  Mont  Iseran  to  an  elevation  of  13,272  feet, 
and  in  Mont  Cenis  to  11.785  feet.  II.  Middle  Alps,  Central 
Chain. — 1.  The  Pennine  Alps  between  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardv  and  the  vallcv  of  the  Rhone.  Their  most  lofty  peaks 
arc  :  Mont  Blanc.  15.781  feet  high,  and  Jlonte  Rosa,  15,217  feet 
high.  2.  The  Helvetian  Alps,  extending  from  the  Pass  of  the 
Siinplon  along  St.  Gothard  (10.000  feet)  to  the  Pass  of  Splu- 
gen.  8.  The  Rlaetian  Alps,  between  the  Inn,  the  Adda,  and 
the  Upper  Adige.  Kortheni  Chain. — 1.  Bernese  Alps,  be- 
tween the  Rhone  and  tlie  Aar.  The  highest  summits  arc  Fin- 
steraarhorn.  14.026  feet ;  .Jungfrau.  18.672  feet :  and  Schreck- 
liorn.  13,8!i:!  feet  high.  Sdiilliern  Chain. — 1.  Oertler  Alps, 
lietween  the  Adda  and  the  Adige,  the  highest  peak  being 
Ocrtlers|iitze.  12.828  feet  high.  2.  The  Tridentine  Alps,  be- 
tween the  Adige  and  the  Piave.  III.  East  Alps. — The 
principal  chains  of  these  are:  1.  The  Noric  Alps,  highest- 
summit  Gross-Glockner,  12,957  feet  high.  2.  The  Camic 
Aljis.  3.  The  Julian  Alps.  4.  The  Dinaric  Alps.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  the  Alps  are  lowest  where  the  system  is 
broadest,  and  highest  where  the  system  is  narrowest. 

The  passes  ovi'r  the  Al|is  are  called  in  Frencli.  ro/.v.  They 
are  about  sixteen  in  number,  and  now  most  of  them  can 
safely  be  traveled  over  by  carriages.  One  of  the  most  note- 
worthy is  the  (ireat  St.  Bernard,  connecting  the  valley  of 
the  Hlione  with  I'iedmont.  It  was  crossed  bv  Napoleon  in 
1800.  Its  highest  summit  is  about  8.170  feet.  "  The  Little  St. 
Bernanl  connects  Geneva,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont.  This  is 
the  pass  by  which  some  su|ipose  Ilauuibal  to  have  crossed 
into  Italy.  Its  liighesl  iioint  is  about  7.1110  feet  above  the 
levi'l  of  the  sea,  and  is  now  but  little  used.  The  Spliigen 
Pass,  connecting  the  sources  of  the  Rhine  with  the  Adda, 
was  used  by  the  Romans  in  their  intercourse  with  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  by  the  Ger- 
mans ill  the  Middle  Ages,  as  well  as  by  modern  tourists.  In 
some  ]il,'ices  bridges,  terraces,  ,and  hmg  galleries  are  con- 
si  ructeil  of  stone  to  afford  protection  against  the  avalanche 
and  whirlwinds.  The  hitter  are  not  only  destructive  in 
themselves,  but  frequently  set  the  former  in  motion.  The 
Alps,  with  the  exce]>ti(m  of  Switzerland,  are  rich  in  miner- 
als, and  olfer  one  of  the  finest  fields  in  the  world  for  the 
gcMogist.  It  has  been  .shown  that  I  lie  highest  central  mass, 
the  |)rimary  Alps,  consists  chiefly  of  the  crystalline  rocks, 
gneiss  ami  mica-slate,  with  a  small  jiroporlion  of  granite. 
Wepreseiitatives  of  the  carlioniferous  and  Jurassic  formation 
apjiear  among  the  Central  Alps.     In  the  Pennine,  Graian, 


ALPUJAIUIAS 


ALTAMAIIA 


135 


and  Rhajtian  Alps  are  found  large  masses  of  serpentine. 
Quartz-porphyry  is  found  in  the  N.  of  Pii'ilniont  ami  in  the 
iij)pt'r  viiUoy  of  "the  Adige  ;  and  in  the  K.  of  Piedmont  on  the 
N.  and  S.  sides  of  tiie  eliief  range  extensive  de[)Osits  of  clay- 
slate  and  grauwaeke,  mixed  with  transition  limestone,  occur. 
Precious  stones  are  found  in  consideralile  uund)ers.  Among 
these  is  the  well-known  rock  crystal  of  St.  Got  hard.  Most 
of  the  mining  and  smelting  is  done  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Alps;  gold  and  silver  are  found  in  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  and 
Carinlhia;  copper  exists  in  the  Krciieh  Alps,  in  'I'yrol,  ami 
in  Styria.  The  amount  of  iron  and  lead  extracted  from  tlie 
miue-s  of  ('arintliia  and  Styria  is  about  745,000  cwt.  jier  an- 
num. Large  quantities  of  ((uieksilver  an;  extractcnl  from 
the  mines  in  Carniola.  Salt  exists  in  almost  every  part. 
Coal  is  found  in  abundance  in  Switzerlanil  and  Savoy,  and 
hot  springs  are  numerous.  Many  animals  itdiabit  the  Alps. 
Among  them  are  the  chamois,  the  ibex,  manuols,  wolves, 
bears,  lynxes,  wild  cats,  and  various  s|>ecies  of  binls.  Uf 
the  doiuestic  animals  goats  and  oxen  al)ouud,  but  horses, 
sheep,  dogs,  etc.,  are  found  in  small  nmuljers.  Fish  are 
found  in  some  of  the  lakes  at  an  elevation  of  (i.OOO  feet.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Alps  are  industrious  and  simple  hearted, 
but  the  spirit  anil  manners  of  the  neighboring  plains  have 
penetrated  the  larger  valleys;  the  true  Alpine  lite  luvs  piissed 
uway,  and  the  simplicity  and  characteristic  industry  of  the 
Alpine  farms  are  now  preserved  only  in  the  higher  valleys. 

A.  Gl'Vot. 

Alpiijurras.  al-[ioo-(-har'as:  a  mountain  region  or  range 
of  Spain :  in  (franada  between  the  Sierra  Xevada  and  the 
Jlediterranean.  The  direction  of  the  range  is  nearly  [laral- 
lel  to  the  seacoast.  The  highest  peaks  rise  to  the  altitude 
of  about  7,000  feet.  Rich  pastures  aliound  on  tlie  slopes  and 
in  the  valleys  of  the  northern  side  of  the  range. 

Alriiu'iuMi,  or  Alrii'nae:  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Germans  to  certain  proplietic  wo.nen  who  were  employed  in 
sac'rificing  victims,  and  were  supposed  to  have  magical  or 
supernatural  skill.  Also  applied  to  small  images  carved  out 
«f  mandrake  roots,  anil  exhibiting  a  rude  imitation  of  the 
Innnan  form.  These  were  venerated  or  superstitiously 
prized  by  the  Germans  and  other  northern  nations. 

Alsace,  al-saas'  [Ger.  Elsass,  i.  e.  the  country  of  the  "Sas- 
sen  "  (settlers)  on  the  111 ;  Lat.  Alsafia] :  a  part  of  the  German 
empire,  but  for  centuries  a  bone  of  contention  lietween 
France  and  Germany,  the  French  always  trying  to  push 
their  eastern  frontier  to  the  Rhine  as  the  natural  l)oundary 
line,  and  the  (iermans  to  prevent  them  ;  bounded  E.  by  the 
Rhine,  S.  I)y  Switzerland,  and  \V.  by  the  Vosges  Mountains, 
which  separate  it  from  France.  Area,  3.'3ofi  scj.  miles.  It 
was  ceded  to  Prance  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1G4S,  and 
became  a  provinci;  of  that  country.  After  the  division  of 
Prance  into  departments,  about  1790,  it  formed  the  de- 
partments of  Ilaut  Rhin  and  Biis  Rhin  (n])per  and  lower 
Rhine),  which  in  186G  contained  a  population  of  l,110,i")."). 
Chief  towns,  Strassburg,  Colmar,  and  Miilhausen.  ^\fter 
the  Gi'rmau  armies  had  defeated  and  captured  Xapoleon 
III.  in  IMTO,  Bismarck  and  his  king  insisted  on  the  an- 
nexation of  Alsace  to  Germany  as  one  ol  the  conditions  n( 
7)eace.  Till!  French  therefore  continued  to  light  for  it,  Init 
at  last  they  were  compelled  to  cede  it  (with  the  exception  of 
the  fortress  Belfort  and  its  raijon)  by  the  treaty  of  May  10, 
1871.     Pop.  (18!I0)  1,093,114.        Revised  by  G.  K.  Adams. 

Alsace-Lnrrilinc,  al-sa'is'  lor-ran'  (Ger.  ElmJ^n-Lnlhrin- 
ge.n):  a  new  division  of  Germany  formed  of  those  portions 
<jf  Alsace  anil  Lorraine  which  in  1871  were  ceded  by  France 
to  G<'rmauy.  It  has  not  been  annexed  to  any  particidar 
German  state,  but  it  is  a  Reichsland  (imperial  land),  imniedi- 
jdely  sul-ijeet  to  the  emperor.  Area,  o.6(i8  sq.  miles.  It  is 
<livided  into  three  <listricts  (Hezirke) — Olier-Elsass,  ITnter- 
Elsa.ss,  and  Ijothringen.  The  first  corresponds  to  the  fornu'r 
French  department  of  ITaut  Khin,  the  second  to  the  former 
French  depart uient  of  Bas  Khin.  while  the  third  contjuns 
all  the  territory  which  has  l)een  ceded  of  the  French  de- 
partments of  Moselle.  ^leurthe.  and  Vosges.  The  districts 
iiave  been  subdivided  into  circles  (Kreise),  which  in  extent 
do  not  correspond  with  the  former  French  arrondi.ssements. 
Ober-Elsiiss  contains  six,  Unter-Elsass  eight,  and  Lothringen 
eight  circles.     Pop.  (1890)  1.003,506. 

It  is  estimated  that  of  the  population  1,393,000  are  of 
German  origin  and  310.000  of  French  origin.  Of  the  latter, 
18:),01)l)  lieioiig  to  Lothringen,  and  15,000  to  Oher-l':isass 
and  Unter-Elsass  each.  Over  77  per  cent,  of  the  po]iula- 
tion  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  in  lOlsass- 
Lothringen  is  more  predominant  than  in  any  other  Gernnm 


state;  Bavaria,  the  next  in  order,  numbering  less  than 
71  per  cent,  of  Catholics.  The  legislative  functions  are 
exercised  by  the  German  Reichstag,  in  which  Elsass-Loth- 
ringen  is  represented  by  iilteen  niemijcrs.  At  the  head  of 
the  adnunistration  is  the  Statthalter,  Prince  Hohenlohe- 
Schillingsfiirst,  a|ipointed  by  the  enqjeror.  The  revenue 
and  expenditure  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1892,  were 
each  estimated  at  49,990,732  marks.  The  public  debt  is 
equivalent  to  25,799,400  marks.  At  the  time  when  the 
c'ountry  was  ceded  to  Germany  770  km.  (1  km.  =  0-02  Eng- 
lish miles)  of  railroads  were  in  operation,  which,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  belonged  to  the  Societe  des  Chenuns  dc  Fcr  de 
I'Est,  fnmi  which  the  German  empire  bought  Ihcm  for 
325,000,000  francs.  In  1891  there  were  824  ndlcs  ot  rail- 
way, of  which  all  bat  eleven  bclongi'd  to  the  slate.  The 
navigable  rivers  arc  the  Rhine.  Ill,  l\lo(ler,  Saar,  and  Jloselle. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  ri(fi  in  mines  of  in.ai,  copper,  and 
coal.  The  chief  productions  of  the  .soil  are  grain,  wine, 
beet-root,  tobacco,  madder,  and  linseed.  Miilhausen  (Mid- 
house)  is  the  seat  of  inqiortant  manufactiu'es  of  cotton 
prints,  muslins,  flowered  silk  stufi's,  linen  damasks,  etc. 
Capital,  Strassburg.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Alsa'tia  :  a  name  formerly  given  to  Whitefriars,  London, 
which  was  used  as  a  sanctuary  by  criminals  in  the  early 
jiart  ot  the  seventeenth  century.  This  privilege,  owing  to 
ilisgraceful  abuses  of  it,  was  abolished  by  an  act  passed  in 
1697.    See  Whitefriars. 

Al  Se'gno  (Ital.  to  the  sign) :  in  music,  a  notice  to  a  per- 
forjuer  that  he  must  retiu'n  and  commence  again  that  part 
of  the  movement  to  which  the  sign  .-.SV  is  prefixed. 

Al'sen :  an  island  belonging  to  the  Prussian  province  of 
.Schleswig-Ilolstein,  in  the  Baltic,  nein-  the  coast  ot  Schles- 
wig ;  IS  miles  long,  and  has  an  area  of  124  sq.  nules  (see  map 
of  German  Empire.  1-E).  It  is  remarkable  for  its  pic- 
turesque and  beautiful  scenery,  is  very  fertile,  and  produces 
excellent  apples.  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  who  was  de- 
posed in  1523,  was  inqirisoned  here  for  nearly  seventeen 
years.     Pop.  24,000. 

Al  Siral'  (literally  the  road  or  jiassage) :  a  bridge  as  nar- 
row iis  the  edge  of  a  razor,  siqiposed  by  the  Mohammedans 
to  extend  from  this  world  over  hell  to  i)aradise. 

Alsop.  Richard:  poet  and  sclKilar:  h.  at  Middletown, 
Conn..  Jan.  23,  1761 ;  was  versed  m  Greek,  Latin,  French, 
and  other  languages.  In  conjunction  with  Theodore  Dwiglit 
and  others,  he  edited  the  iVZ/o.  a  satirical  ]iulilication,  the 
lirst  number  of  which  was  issued  at  Ilartiord  in  1791.  He 
published  a  Monody  on  tlie.  Death  of  Washinglon  (1800), 
and  translated  from  the  Spanish  Molina's  Js'ittiiral  and 
Ch-il  Ristonj  of  Chili.  D.  at  Flatlaish,  L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
20,  1815. 

AlstrflPiiip'ria :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  iamily  Amaryl- 
//(/(/(•('(p,  natives  of  Peru  and  Chili.  Several  species  of  this 
genus  have  beautiful  flowers,  and  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 
The  tubers  of  the  Alstrcemena  sahilla  are  cultivated  for 
food  in  the  West  Indies. 

Al'striinipr,  or  Alslroeiiier,  Klaudius  or  Klas  :  Swedish 
naturalist;  b.  at  Alingsiis,  xVug.  9,  1736.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Ijinnttus,  who  named  in  his  honor  a  genus  of  plants, 
Alxtrwmeria.  He  traveled  in  Spain  and  other  countries, 
and  publishi'd  a  Discourse  on  the  llieeding  of  F:"^e-^wooled 
.S7(«'/)  (1770).     IX  ;\lar.  .5,  1796. 

Altai,  aal-tl' :  a  group  ot  mountains  m  Centnd  Asia:  be- 
tween .luugaria  (Northwest  Mongolia)  anil  West  Siberia, 
extending  from  the  T'ien  Shan  to  the  Yenisei  river,  consisting 
of  a  series  of  parallel  ranges  running  nearly  E.  and  W. 
The  principal  individual  ranges,  beginning  at  the  S.,  are 
the  Alalan,  the  Tarhagatai.  the  little  Altai,  and  the  Altai 
proper,  the  latter  continued  eastward  into  Mongolia  under 
tlie  name  of  the  Tannu-ola  Mountains.  The  great  Siberian 
rivers,  the  Obi,  Irtish,  and  Yenisei,  rise  on  the  northern 
side  of  these  mountains,  and.  although  not  very  lofty,  they 
are  said  to  be  very  pictures((ue.  They  are  rich  in  mineral 
products,  esjiecially  gold,  sdver,  copper,  and  iron.  The 
area  covered  by  ])er[ielual  snow  is  considerable,  and  there 
are  nnuiy  glaciers,  winch,  however,  rarely  extend  beyond  the 
snow-line.  M.  W.  H. 

Altainalia' :  a  river  of  Georgi.a,  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  Oconee  and  Ocmulgee  in  the  central  part  of  the  State. 
Flowing  southeastward  through  .«andy  plains,  it  enters  the 
Atlantic  12  miles  below  Darien,  after  a  course  of  about  140 
miles.     It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  30  tons. 


136 


ALTAMONT 


ALTERNATE  CURRENTS 


Altaniont :  Effingham  co..  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  rof.  8-F);  at  foot  of  the  Mound  (old  Gov- 
ernment bigiial  station) ;  the  highest  point  between  Terre 
Haute  and  St.  Louis;  88  miles  from  either  place;  at  the 
crossing  of  O.  and  M.  and  Van  lines,  and  terminus  of  Wa- 
bash and  C.  and  N.  0.  K.  Ks. ;  was  laid  out  in  1870 ;  is  a 
grain  and  fruit  shipping  point ;  has  5  schools,  7  churches, 
10  different  factories,  2  flouring-mills.  2  elevators,  4  hotels, 
creamery,  etc.     Pop.  (1880)  650;  (1890)  1.044. 

Editor  of  "  News."' 

Altailin'ra :  a  handsome  cathedral  town  of  Southern 
Italy:  jirovince  of  Bari;  at  the  foot  of  tlie  Ajiennines;  33 
miles  S.  \V.  of  Bari  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  de- 
fended by  a  castle,  and  has  a  fine  cathedral.  It  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  a  university.  Here  is  tue  site  of  the  ancient 
Liipa/ia.    Pop.  20.841." 

Al'tar:  an  elevated  place  or  table  on  which  sacrifice  is 
offered.  The  first  altar  mentioned  in  history  wsis  built  by 
Noah  immediately  after  the  Flood.  Altars  were  sometimes 
erected  as  memorials  of  some  great  event  by  the  religious 
personages  of  sacred  history.  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  used  a  great  number  of  altars,  each  of  which  was 
dedicated  to  some  particular  deity.  They  were  constructed 
of  different  matenals  and  in  various  forms.  In  the  Chris- 
tian Church  the  term  "altar"  is  applied  to  the  table-like 
construction,  whether  of  wood,  stone,  or  marble,  upon  which 
the  Eucharist  is  offered.  There  are  wooden  altars  existing 
in  the  churches  of  St.  John  Lateran,  "the  mother  of 
churches,"  and  St.  Prasedes  at  Rome.  Pope  St.  Sixtus  II. 
is  said  to  have  erected  the  first  stone  altar,  a.  d.  257.  St. 
Wolstan  is  believed  to  have  introduced  stone  altai-s  into 
England,  where  before,  as  in  the  Eastern  Church,  they  were 
generally  of  wood.  Of  old,  as  in  the  Greek  Church  now. 
there  wa.s  but  one  altar  in  a  church ;  the  addition  of  others 
being  comparatively  of  late  introduction.  In  the  first 
Prayer-Book  of  King  Edward  VI.  the  altar  was  called 
"  God's  board."  The  words  "  holy  table  "  appear  in  the 
place  of  "altar"  in  the  Prayer- Books  of  the  English  and 
American  cliurches.  In  fact,  in  these  Prayer-Books  the 
word  "  altar  "  is  not  found  .at  all.  It  occurs,  indeed,  in  the 
American  "  Office  of  Institution  of  Jlinisters  into  Parishes 
or  Churches,"  where  it  includes  the  whole  sanctuary.  The 
Lutheran  Church  retains  the  altar.  An  altar  was  a  sanctu- 
ary both  among  the  Jews  anil  the  heathen  for  those  who 
fled  to  it  for  refuge.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Altaz'ilimth  :  the  name  given  by  Prof.  Airy,  late  astron- 
omer-royal of  England,  to  an  instrument  formerly  known 
as  the  "  altitude  and  azimuth  instrument."  Its  purpose  is  to 
determine  both  the  altitude  and  the  azimuth  (q.  v.)  of  a  heav- 
enly body,  and  therefore  the  exact  position  of  the  body  rela- 
tive to  the  horizon,  and  to  a  N.  and  S.  line,  at  any  reqviired 
moment.  It  consists  essenti.ally  of  a  telescope  turning  upon  a 
horizontal  axis,  like  a  meridian  circle,  having  attached  to  it 
a  vertical,  graiiuated  circle.  But  the  base  of  the  instrument, 
instead  of  being  fixed,  turns  upon  a  vertical  axis.  There  is 
also  a  horizontal  circle,  by  which  the  azimuth  of  the  instru- 
ment, as  it  turns  on  this  vertical  axis,  can  be  determined. 
Both  circles  lieing  read,  the  horizontal  circle  shows  the  azi- 
muth of  the  body  on  which  the  telescope  is  pointed,  and  the 
vertical  circle  shows  its  altitude,  or  zenith  distance.  It  was 
constriu;ted  by  Sir  tieorge  Airy  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
the  position  of  the  moon  when  it  could  not  be  seen  on  the 
meridian.  The  instrument  is  not,  however,  of  extensive  use 
it!  jistronomy,  since  the  work  of  both  making  and  reducing 
the  ol)servatioiis  is  extremely  laborious,  and  the  results  not 
so  accurate  a.s  those  nuide  with  an  instrument  fixed  in  the 
meriilian.  S.  Newcomb. 

Alt'dorf  (i.  e.  old  village),  or  Al'torf :  a  town  of  Bava- 
ria: on  the  river  Schwarzbach  :  13  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Nurem- 
berg: had  a  university  from  1623  to  1800  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Kmpire,  ref.  6-E).     Pop.  3,106. 

Altdurf  (Switzerland):  See  Ai.torf. 

All'iiorfiT,  Ai-iiRErnr:  German  painter  and  engraver; 
a  pupil  of  Albert  Diirer;  b.  at  Altdorf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1480. 
A  painting  of  the  victory  of  Alexander  over  Darius,  now  in 
the  Pinakothek  at  Munich,  is  called  Ins  masterpiece.  He 
left  many  engravings  on  copper  and  on  wood.  Died  at  Re- 
gcnsburg,  1538. 

Al'teiiburg,  Saxe,  German  Duchv  of  :  See  Saxe-Altex- 

BURd. 

Altonbiirsr  (i.  e.  old  castle):  a  city  of  Germany;  capi- 
tal of  Saxe-Altenburg;  24  miles  by  rail  .S.  S.  E.  of  Leip- 


zig (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-P).  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  higher  courts,  and  contains  seven  churches,  one  theater, 
and  several  hospitals.  Linen  goods,  brandy,  porcelain,  and 
optical  instruments  are  made  here.  Pop.  (1880)  26,241 ; 
(1890)  31,4::J9. 

Altenes'sen  (i.  e.  old  Essen) :  a  suburb  of  Essen.  Rhen- 
ish Prussia,  2  miles  distant  (see  nuip  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
4-C).  It  has  large  iron-works,  with  coal  mines  near  bv. 
Pop.  17,351). 

Altoilgaard  :  a  seaport-town  of  Norway;  capital  of  the 
province  of  Finmark :  on  the  Alien,  at  the  head  of  a  fiord; 
53  miles  S.  of  Ilammerfest  (see  map  of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
ref.  2-H). 

Alten  Oet'ting  (i.  e.  old  Getting),  or  Alt'iittiiig :  a  small 
town  of  Bavaria ;  near  the  river  Inn  ;  42  miles  S.  W.  of  Pas- 
sau  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  visited  by 
great  numbers  of  Roman  Catholic  pilgrims,  who  are  attracted 
thither  by  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  called  the  "  Black 
Virgin."  Several  German  emperors  held  their  coiu't  here 
in  the  Middle  Ages.     Pop.  3,202. 

Alt'eiistein :  a  castle  in  Saxe-Meiningen,  Germany,  near 
the  watering-place  Liebenstein  (see  map  of  Geruuin  Empire, 
ref.  5-E).  Near  this  castle  is  the  beech-tree  where  Luther 
was  captured  and  taken  to  the  Wartburg  on  Jlay  4,  1521. 

Alteiistein,  Karl,  Baron  von :  a  Pnissian  minister  of 
state:  b.  at  Anspach,  Oct.  7,  1770.  In  1815  he  renderei'  im- 
portant services  to  Germany  by  the  recovery  of  works  of  art 
and  literature  which  the  French  had  removed  to  Paris.  He 
was  apjiointed  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Woi-ship  in 
1817,  and  held  that  office  till  Dec,  1838,  D.  in  Berlin. 
May  14,  1840. 

Al'teratives  [from  the  Lat.  altera  re,  change] :  drugs 
which  so  act  upon  the  system  as  to  induce  healthy  action. 
The  same  drugs  in  large  doses  may  act  as  decided  irritant-s 
or  poisons,  as  mercury,  iodine,  and  ai-senic. 

Al'ter  E'go  (i.  e.  my  other  self) :  a  term  used  in  the  for- 
mer kingdom  of  Naples  to  signify  the  king's  deputy,  who 
was  authorized  to  perform  the  functions  of  royalty  during 
the  comjiulsory  alisence  of  the  king. 

Alternate  Currents  (in  electricity):  When  the  electro- 
motive force  in  any  electric  circuit  imdergoes  jieriodic 
changes  of  direction  and  intensity,  the  current  generated  by 
this  fluctuating  electro-motive  force  is  an  "alternate  cur- 
rent." The  simplest  and  most  important  case  is  that  of  thc^ 
current  generated  by  the  uniform  revolution  of  a  ring  or 
coil  in  a  uniform  magnetic  field.  Here  the  fluctuations  of 
electro-motive  force  are  given  by  the  equation, 

e  =  E  sm  "Y  , 

where  e  is  the  electro-motive  force  at  any  time  t;  E  is  a  con- 
stant depending  upon  the  size  of  the  coil,  the  strength  of  the 
field,  and  the  rate  of  revolution  ;  while  T  is  the  time  of  one 
com[)lete  revolution  of  the  coil.  These  are  the  ccmditions 
existing,  with  a  more  or  less  close  apjjroxinuition,  in  every 
properly  constnicted  alternating  current  dynamo.  Under 
these  conditions  the  electro-motive  force  follows  the  law  of 
sines,  disappearing  every  half-revolution  of  the  coil,  and 
reacliing  maximum  values,  opposite  as  to  direction,  at  in- 
stants midway  between  the  times  of  disappearance.  The 
character  of  the  fluctuation  is  shown  grai>hically  in  Fig.  1. 


Fig.  1.— Cur\"e  of  sines,  showing  the  usual  law  of  fluctuation  in  an 
alternate  current  circuit. 

Now.  in  any  circuit  (see  Electricitt)  the  current  and  elec- 
tro-motive fiirce  tend  to  rise  and  fall  together,  Jind  where 
there  is  an  alternating  electro-motive  force  the  current  will 
undergo  the  same  number  of  reversals  per  set^ond,  although 
not  always  following  precisely  the  same  law  of  change  as 
does  the  electro-motive  force.  Owing,  moreover,  to  the  pres- 
ence of  induced  currents  in  the  circuit,  which  always  im- 
pede the  rise  and  retard  the  fall   of  current  streiigtii,  the 


ALTERNATOR 


ALTON 


137 


curve  of  furrfiil  fliictuntion  (except  in  certain  cases  wliere 
inductance  is  absent)  will  lag  behind  the  cm-ve  of  electro- 
motive force,  as  to  time. 
Fig.  2  shows  curves  of  electro-motive  force  and  current 


Fio.  2.— Curves  of  alternating  E.  M.  F.  and  current,  from  measure- 
uieuts  by  Messrs.  Humphrey  and  I'uwell. 


from  actual  measm-ements,  by  Messrs.  Humphrey  and 
Powell.     See  Trims.  Am.  Inst,  of  Ju/i-c.  Ei)(ii>ti'ers.  vol.  vi. 

The  curve  of  current  in  this  illustration  lai;s  through  a  very 
considerable  angle,  and  it  ditfers  in  a  striking  nutnner  from 
the  curve  of  electro-motive  force. 

The  great  importance  which  alternating  currents  have 
attaineil  is  due  to  their  remarkable  inductive  action.  In 
every  piece  of  metal  near  an  alternating  current  circuit,  al- 
ternating currents  of  similar  type  are  induced.  By  means 
of  modifications  of  the  ordinary  induction  coil  (see  Trans- 
formkk),  actuated  by  alternate  currents,  it  has  Vieen  found 
possible  to  transfer  electrical  energy  from  one  closed  circuit 
to  another  without  serious  loss.  The  electro-motive  force 
can  at  the  same  time  be  raised  or  lowered  through  almost 
infinite  range,  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  ap- 
plication of  electricitv.  By  raising  the  eleetro-uioti\c  force, 
for  instance,  to  20,0U()  volts,  or  even  to  30.000  volts,  it  be- 
comes possible  to  transfer  hundreds  of  horse-power  hundreds 
of  miles,  over  conductors  no  larger  than  an  ordinary  telegraph 
wire.  By  reducing  the  electro-motive  force,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  small  values,  enormous  currents  are  obtained  and 
such  processes  as  welding  and  smelting  by  electricity  be- 
come jiracticable.  See  BjLEotric  Welwnh.  See  also  Dy- 
namo Ki.kctrk;  JIachine  and  Electro-Magnetic  Induc- 
tion, uiuler  Induction.  For  a  complete  analysis  of  alter- 
nate-current phenomena,  see  Fleming,  Alternate.  Ciirreyit 
Transformers  (2  vols..  Lond.).  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Alteriiiltor  (in  applied  electricity) :  a  machine  for  the 
generatiiiu  of  alternate  currents.     See  Dynamo. 

Alternation  of  Generations:  a  term  used  in  biology  to 
ilesignate  the  coui'se  of  development  peculiar  to  certain 
grouiis  of  aidmals  and  plants,  in  which  at  least  two  genera- 
tions of  individuals  are  necessary  to  complete  the  life  of  the 
sp(!cies,  one  reproducing  sexually,  the  other  asexually.  In 
such  a  case  one  animal  produces  an  egg — the  sexual  product. 
This  develops  into  an  individual  unlike  the  parent.  inca])a- 
ble  of  prorlucing  eggs,  and  reproducing  only  l)y  divisidu  or 
budding — the  asexual  method.  The  progeny  thus  formed 
develop  again  into  the  se.xual  generation,  winch  produces 
eggs.  These  alternating  generations  frei|uently  dilfer  from 
each  other  greatly  in  appearance  and  structuT-e,  and  have 
often  been  classed  in  different  groups  before  their  relation 
to  each  other  luus  been  recognized.  Sometimes  the  sexual, 
sometimes  the  asexual,  generation  is  the  longer-lived  and 
more  conspicuous. 

Among  the  hydroids  the  egg  develops  into  a  polyp — a  cup- 
sha|jed  animal  attached  by  the  closed  end.  A  much-ri'- 
peated  process  of  budiling  now  occurs,  the  individuals  thus 
produced  cohei'ing  to  form  a  finely  branched  colony,  moss- 
like or  tree-like  in  appearance,  and  freciuently  mistaken  for 
a  seaweed.  Most  of  the  |)olyps  thus  asexually  formed  I'e- 
main  sti'rile,  but  certain  ones  detach  themselves,  develoj) 
into  small,  free-swimming  medusa^  which  greatly  resemble 
the  l.'irger  jellyfishes,  finally  form  and  distribute  the  eggs, 
and  thus  com])lete  the  cycle.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Alternution  of  Generations  (in  i)lanf s) :  In  the  moss- 
worts  {Iiri/i)/)lii/tes)  the  thallus.  or  leafy  plant,  bears  sexual 
organs;  afler  fertilization  of  the  egg-cell,  a  new  plant-body 
is  produced,  in  which  are  eventually  developed  llie  spores; 
from  the  latter  may  l)e  produced  the  thallus.  or  leafy  ]ilant, 
again,  and  so  on.  We  have  here  two  generations  which  al- 
ternate with  one  another,  viz.  (1)  the  sexual  general  ion  (i/d- 
nieto/j/ii/lc),  and  (2)  the  asexual  generation  (s/jor(//)/ii//e).  In 
the  lernworts  (Pferiil(ij>lii/les).  the  thallus  (prolhallium)  liears 
sexual  organs;  after  fertilization  of  the  egg-cell  a  new  jilant- 


body  is  produced,  consisting  of  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  the 
latter  eventually  producing  spores.  The  two  generations  are 
here  very  shar[)ly  defined;  (1)  the  prothallium  (sexual  gen- 
eration, "or  gameto|ihyte),  and  (2)  the  leafy  plant  (asexual 
generation,  or  sporophyte).  In  flowering  plants  (Anthophytes) 
the  gametophj-tes  are  much  reduced,  and  are  developed  within 
the  ovule  and"  stamen  of  the  sijorophyte.  In  Oymnosperms 
an  actual  prothallium  develops,  and  this  in  turn  produces 
sexual  cells.  In  Aiic/iusj/erms  the  ]irotlialliu!n  is  more  re- 
duced, being  represented  by  the  endos|)erm  in  the  ovule  and 
the  vegetative  nucleus  in  the  pollen  cell.  The  leafy  plant  in 
Anthophytes  is  the  sporophyte  or  asexual  generation,  while 
the  gametoph}'te  is  almost  suppressed. 

Charles  E.  Bessey'. 

Althw'a  [from  Gr.  al^ala.  marshmallow] :  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  Jlalmcew,  natives  of  Europe  and  natu- 
ralized in  the  U.  S.  It  includes  the  hollyhock  (Alllue'a  ro- 
sea) and  marshmallow  (.'l///i(r'(/  iifliciiia'lis).  which  is  used  in 
medicine  as  a  demulcent  or  emollient.  Altha'a,  or  shrubby 
althjea,  is  also  a  common  name  of  the  llibiseus  syri'acus. 

Altlieu,  Ehan  or  Jean  ;  a  Persian  who  gained  distinction 
Ijy  introducing  Turkey  madder  into  France  ;  b.  in  1711 ;  taken 
captive  liy  the  Arabs  in  his  youth,  and  sold  as  a  slave  in 
Smyrna,  whence  he  escaped  to  France  with  seeds  of  madder, 
1761.  He  made  successful  experiments  in  the  cultivation  of 
that  plant,  which  was  afterward  extensively  cultivated  and 
became  very  profitable.     D.  in  1774. 

Altliurp,  Lord  ;  See  Spencer. 

Altlu'  Nor.  or  Altyn'  Nor  (i.e.  sea  of  gold),  or  Telet- 
skoi ;  a  lake  of  Silieria.  in  the  S.  part,  is  about  320  miles  S. 
of  Tomsk,  and  is  traversed  by  one  of  tl;e  head-streams  of 
the  Obi.  It  is  about  48  miles"  long  and  8  miles  in  average 
width,  but  its  size  fluctuates  much  with  the  season. 

Al'titnde  [Lat.  attitu'ilo.  from  al'tns,  high];  a  synonym 
for  height.  In  astronomy,  it  signifies  the  apparent  height  of 
a  star  or  other  body  aljove  the  horizon — that  is,  the  angle 
which  a  line  from  an  observer  to  the  star  makes  with  the 
plane  of  the  horizon.  This  altitude  is  expressed  in  degrees, 
the  greatest  possible  altitude  being  ninety  degrees.  It  is 
measured  in  observatories  by  means  of  a  telescope  attached 
to  a  graduated  circle,  which  is  fixed  vertically.  The  altitude 
of  a  triangle  is  measured  by  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the 
vertex  perpendicular  to  the  base;  that  of  a  cone  or  )iyramid 
l)y  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  base. 

Alf'miihl ;  a  river  of  Bavaria  ;  risi's  near  the  village  of 
Ilornau,  flows  .S.  E.  and  E.  ami  enters  the  Danube  at  Kelheim, 
after  a  course  of  100  miles.  The  Ludwigs  Canal  connects  this 
river  with  tlie  Regnitz.  and  opens  communication  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Rhine. 

Al'to  [Ital.  high,  i.e.  the  highest  male  voice];  in  music, 
the  ])art  immediately  below  the  treble,  and  the  deepest  and 
lowest  kind  of  musical  voice  in  females  and  boys.  As  the 
word  alto  signifies  higli.  the  apparent  discreiiancy  of  this 
musical  usage  may  be  explained  as  follows;  1  he  voice-part 
referred  to  was  originally  sung  by  a  species  of  high  tenor, 
now  apparently  becoming  extinct  in  t  he  whole  world.  There- 
foi'e  this  male  voice  iras  siiigiiiij  liiyli.  The  word  "alto  "  has 
lieen  retained,  but  the  fact  remains  that  the  fenude  or  boy 
altos  sing  in  their  lower  range  to  produce  sounds  of  the  pitch 
required'.  Dudley  Buck. 

Al'ton,  Richard,  Count  of:  b.  in  Ireland  in  1732;  became 
a  general  in  the  Austrian  service,  and  commanded  in  the 
Low  ('(aintries  at  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion  in  1789. 
He  was  obliged  to  evacuate  Brussels,  and  died  in  1700  during 
his  reti'cat  toward  Vienna. 

Alton:  city  and  important  railroail  center  and  port  of 
entry  in  Madison  co..  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Illinois,  ref.  8-D) ;  on  Jlississippi  river;  21  miles  above 
St.  Louis  and  3  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It 
stands  on  a  high  limestone  bluff,  and  is  magnificently  pic- 
tures(iue.  It  has  important  maimfactures.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  grain,  hay,  fruit,  stone,  lime,  and  flour  are  exported. 
It  has  a  female  seminary  and  a  large  Roman  Catholic  ca- 
thedral; an  excellent  system  of  public  schools,  a  large  num- 
ber of  factories,  foundries,  glass-works,  public  library,  opera- 
house,  ell-el ric  lights,  etc.  The  Burlington  R.  R.  is  bridging 
the  Missi>si|ipi  at  Alton,  and  the  city  is  eiuiiieeted  by  electric 
railroad  with  Ujiper  Alton,  2  miles  distant.  Upper  Alton  is 
the  seat  of  ShurtlefC  College.  Pop.  (1880)  8,!)7r. ;  (1890)  10,- 
294.  Editor  ok  "  Skntixei.  Democrat." 


138 


ALTO  AMAZO^^AS 


ALUMINIUM 


Alto  Ainsizoiias :  See  Amazoxas. 

Al'toiia:  the  most  populous  and  important  city  of  the 
Prussian  |)rovinee  of  Schleswig-IIolstfin :  on  the  rigiit  banli 
of  the  Elbe;  immediately  adjoining  Hamburg  (see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  3-E).  It  is  connected  by  railroad  witli 
Kiel,  and  has  an  extensive  trade  by  the  Elbe.  IMany  of  the 
merchants  of  Hamliurg  reside  in  Altona,  which  contains  an 
observatory,  a  gymnasium,  and  a  lil)rary  of  12,000  volumes 
or  more.  Here  are  important  nmnufacturcs  of  tobacco, 
soap,  chemicals,  leather,  ropes,  etc.  Altona  is  a  free  ]>ort, 
accessible  to  large  vessels.  Pop.  (1885)  104,719  ;  (1890)  143,249. 

Altoo'iia:  city,  1,180  feet  above  sca-Ievel;  on  Pennsyl- 
vania U.  R.,  in  Blair  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Pennsvlvania,  ref.  .5-D) ;  237  miles  \V.  of  Pliiladelpliia,  and 
117  E.  of  Pittsburg,  at  the  E.  base  of  the  Alleghany  Jloun- 
tains,  which  the  railroad  here  crosses.  It  contains  the  ex- 
tensive macliine-shops  of  tlie  Pennsylvania  R.  K.,  in  which 
locomotives  and  cars  are  manufactured,  and  in  whidi  over 
5,000  men  are  employed;  large  individual  cai-works, several 
extensive  planing-mills,  one  large  rolling-mill,  jiartly  in  the 
city,  extensive  water-works,  costing  over  ^300.000.  an  electric 
street  railwav.  and  a  mechanics'  librarv.  containing  about  14,- 
000  volumes.     Pop.  (1880)  19,710;  (1890)  30,337. 

Editor  of  "  Tkibuxe." 

Alto  Oriiio'co  (i.e.  tlie  Upper  Orinoco):  a  territory  of 
Venezuela :  covering  a  very  large  area  in  the  southwestern 

Eart  of  that  country,  and  claimed  in  part  by  Brazil.  It  is 
ounded  on  tlie  N.  and  N".  E.  by  the  state  of  Bolivar,  on  the 
S.  E.  by  Brazilian  Guiana,  on  the  S.  by  the  territory  of  Ama- 
zonas,  and  on  tlie  W.  Iiy  Colombia.  Area,  119.780  sq.  miles. 
It  is  crossed  by  the  Orinoco  in  a  nearly  N.  and  S.  direction, 
and  is  well  watered  by  it  and  its  branches.  Its  surface  con- 
sists in  part,  of  savannas,  in  part  of  heavily  wooded  tracts. 
Its  population  is  very  sparse,  averaging  about  one  to  every 
5  sq.  niile.s.  M.  W.  H. 

Alt'orf.  or  Alt'dorf  (i.  e.  old  village) :  a  town  of  Switzer- 
land ;  capital  of  the  cantcm  of  Uri ;  near  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  and  at  tlu^  foot  of  tlie  Grunlierg  (see 
map  of  Switzerland,  ref.  4-G).  Here  is  an  old  tower  saiil  to 
mark  the  place  where  William  Tell  shot  the  apple  ofi  his 
son's  head.     Pop.  2,901. 

Alto-rilievo,  al-to-reel-ya'vo :  in  sculpture,  high  relief; 
that  is,  such  sculpture  as  consists  of  figures  projecting  boldly 
from  the  background,  having  half  or  more  than  half,  their 
full  roundness.  In  some  cases  the  figures  are  almost  entirely 
detached  from  the  background.  An  excellent  instance  of 
this  kind  of  work  is  found  in  the  metopes  of  Doric  temples, 
as  of  the  Parthenon  of  Athens.  Compare  Bas-relief  and 
Belief.  Kussell  Sturgis. 

Altran'stJidt :  a  town  of  Saxony,  at  which  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  concluded  a  treaty  with  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
in  1706.  A  treaty  was  also  signed  liere  in  1714  between  the 
Emperor  Charles  "VI.  of  Germany  and  Louis  XIV.  of  Prance. 

Altrices.  al-triseez :  those  birds  in  which  the  young  are 
halclied  in  an  immature  condition,  and  are  reared  in  the 
nest  and  fed  Ijy  the  jiarents.  Tlie  higher  birds,  as  sparrows 
and  thrushes,  belong  to  this  group,  which  is,  however,  no 
longer  used  in  classitication. 

Al'triiigliam  :  a  market-town  of  England;  in  Cheshire; 
on  thc>  Cheshire  Midland  I!.  K.  and  on  Bowdeii  Down.s,  8 
miles  by  rail  S.  W.  ol  Maiichi-sler  (see  map  of  England,  ret. 
7-G).  It  has  some  coltori-factories  and  is  a  resort  for  in- 
valids, because  of  t  he  salubrity  of  the  air.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Al'tniism:  a  term  applied  by  the  French  positivist 
Comte  to  denot(>  the  benevolent  instincts  of  man  as  distin- 
guished from  ei/oiam,  or  the  selfish  instincts.  In  the  philoso- 
phy of  Herbert  S))encer,  as  set  forth  in  the  Dafii  af  Etliirs, 
altruism  is  recognized  as  an  essential  element  of  all  lirganizcd 
society.  In  modern  political  economy  also  the  same  in- 
stinct is  sometimes  presented  and  urged  as  an  element  Ihat 
necessarily  under  certain  conditions  modifies  the  force  of  the 
strict  utilitarian  doctrines  that  were  formerly  considered 
!is  the  sole  basis  of  that  sc'ience.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Al'iulol  [from  Arabic  nl-iifhal;  from  n?-,  the  +  v thai  or 
ithiV,  |il.  of  athlii.  a  utensil] :  one  of  several  ])ear-sliaped 
glass  or  eart  hen  vessels  nscrl  as  receivers  in  the  distillation 
of  certain  substances,  especially  mercury  and  hydrocliloric 
acid.  They  are  generally  arranged  in  the  form  of" a  chain  on 
an  inclined  surface. 

Al'llin  [0.  Pr.  (ihim,  Tjat.  alii'men,]  :  a  double  salt  of  great 
importance,  the  chemical  name  of  which  is  aluiiiiiHiini-i>otas- 


sium  sulphate.  It  occure  in  colorless  octahedral  crystals, 
having  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  It  is  a  powerful  styptic, 
and  is  applied  sometimes  as  a  mild  caustic.  Its  formula  is 
AIK(SU4)2  -i-  I2II2O.  Alum  is  largely  manufactured,  and 
is  much  used  in  jireparing  skins,  as  a  mordant  in  calico- 
printing,  and  in  glazing  paper,  and  occasionally  for  the 
adulteration  of  bread. 

Ammonia  alum,  AlfNHjXSOi)^  -I-  12HjO,  containing  am- 
monium in  place  of  potassium,  has  of  late  largely  replaced 
potash  alum  in  the  arts,  owing  to  the  low  cost  of  the  am- 
nionic sulphate  prepared  from  gas-liquor.  The  term  alum 
is  now  applied  to  a  class  of  isomorphous  double  suljihates  re- 
sembling ordinary  alum  very  closely.  In  these,  in  place  of 
the  clement  aluminium  contained  in  ordinary  alum,  there 
may  be  iron,  chromium,  manganese,  etc.,  and  in  jilace  of  the 
potassium  there  may  be  sodium,  ammonium,  lithium,  cae- 
sium, rubidium,  etc.  Xext  to  the  alums  above  mentioned, 
the  most  common  is  chrome  alum.  CrK(S0))2  +  I2H2O. 
Ammonio-ferric  alum  is  used  in  medicine  and  the  arts. 

Revised  by  Ira  IIemsen. 

Al'uniba^li :  a  fort  in  Oude ;  about  4  miles  from  Luck- 
now  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  6-P) ;  was  originally  a  palace 
surrounded  by  a  fine  garden  and  a  |iark.  During  the  mutiny 
of  1857  it  was  used  as  a  fort  by  the  Sepoys,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  the  British  under  Outrara  and  Havelock.  It 
was  afterward  defended  with  success  by  Sir  James  Outram 
and  a  garrison  of  3,000  men  against  the  Sepoys. 

Aliimgir,  or  Alaing-ir :  See  Aurungzebe. 

Alirmiiia:  the  oxide  of  aluminium,  the  most  abundant 
of  all  the  earths,  and  the  principal  constituent  of  clay.  In 
100  lb.  of  alumina  there  are  •52'94  of  aluminium  and  47'06  of 
oxygen.  Its  symbol  is  AI2O3.  In  its  common  state  this 
earth  is  a  soft  white  powder,  without  taste,  and  in  the  crys- 
talline form  it  occurs  as  sapphire  and  niby,  two  of  the  hard- 
est and  most  valuable  of  the  precious  stones.  An  impure 
alumina,  which  is  found  in  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, Asia  Minor,  and  Chester,  Jlass.,  is  the  emery  used  as 
a  polishing-powder  for  glass  and  metals,  on  aci'ount  of  its 
hardness.  The  clay  of  arable  land  is  mostly  luoduced  by 
the  disintegration  of  felspar,  which  is  a  compound  of  idumina, 
potash,  and  silica.  Alumina  has  two  properties  which  ren- 
der it  of  great  importance  in  the  useful  arts :  one  is  that  its 
silicate  forms  with  water  a  plastic  material  adapted  for  pot- 
tery ;  the  other  is  its  strong  affinity  for  coloring  and  extrac- 
tive matter,  by  which  it  is  useful  as  a  mordant  in  printing 
calico  and  in  dyeing. 

Aliimiu'iiim,  fir  Aln'iniiuiiii  (chemical  symbol  Al ; 
atomic  weight  27'04) :  an  element ;  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  constituents  of  the  earth,  occurring  in  a  number 
of  forms  of  combination.  Among  the  best  known  minerals 
which  contain  it  arc  the  frhptirs,  silicates  of  aluminium 
and  potassium  or  sodium  ;  n-jitilitc,  &  fluoride  of  aliiiiiiiiium 
and  sodium;  bauxite,  the  oxide  together  with  ferric  oxide; 
coniiitliim,  enuTjj,  sapphire,  and  riih)/,  which  are  forms  of 
the  oxide,  AI2O3 ;  ttipaz.a  silicate  containing  silicon  fluoride; 
(/anii'tx,  silicates  containing  iron,  magnesia,  lime,  etc.  It  is, 
liowever,  most  abundant  in  the  different  varieties  of  clay  in 
which  it  is  present  as  silicate. 

History. — Wiihler  first  isolated  aluminium  in  1827  by  de- 
composing aluminium  chloride  liy  ]iotassium.  obtaining  it  in 
the  form  of  a  gray  powder.  Later,  in  184.').  he  olitained 
small  mallealile  globules.  Imt  it  was  not  until  IS.jl  that  II. 
St.  Claire  Deville  isolated  aluminium  in  a  state  of  almost 
perfect  purity,  and  determined  its  properties.  Using  first 
potassium  as  the  reducing  agent,  he  produced  it  in  the  same 
year  by  electric  di'composition,  employing  the  galvanic  bat- 
tery, Bunsen  having  made  the  latter  discovery  simultane- 
ously. Toward  the  middle  of  18.~)4  Deville  turned  to  sodium 
as  the  reducing  agent,  and  developed  the  method  to  such 
Iierfectioii  th;it  it  changed  but  little  until  the  jierfection  of 
modern  dynamos  gave  the  electrolytic  process  cconoinic 
pre-eminence.  Deville's experiments  attracted  the  attention 
of  Xapoleon  III.,  at  whose  e.xjiense  industrial  work  began  at 
.Javel.  Jleanwhile,  in  1855,  C.  and  A.  Tissier  started  works 
at  Amfrevilh'-la-mi-Voie,  near  Rouen.  Deville  installed  a 
plant  at  Xanterre,  which  was  subsequently  removed  to  Sal- 
indres,  finally  getting  into  tlu'  htinds  of  Pechiney  &  Co., 
who  until  nceut  years  enjoyc-d  the  re]iutation  imt  only  of 
makitig  the  best,  but  also  the  largest  amount  of  aluminium 
liroduced  in  the  world.  In  lS5(i  Alfred  Monnier  made 
some  aluminium  at  (!ainden,  X'.  .1.,  exhibiting  the  produet 
at  the  Franklin  Institute.  Philadel|)hia.  In  England  the 
fii'st  aluminium  works  were  started  at  iiatlersea.  near  Lon- 


ALUMINIUM 


139 


<lon,  mill  in  ISOO  Bi'll  linis.  I>ef;aii  its  maniifiictMn'  at 
Newfa.stlc-nii-'rviio.  continuiiis^  oponitioiis  until  1)S74.  Until 
1883  tlio  Fn'Mcii  company  at  Salindi-cs  was  the  only  con- 
cern makini;  aluniiniiini,  progress  until  tliat  time  being 
fonfineil  to  the  ehoapening  of  the  cost  of  production  liy  im- 
provement in  iletails  of  process  and  apparatus.  The  price, 
whicli  was  !f2S  to  .faS  per  II).  in  1857,  had  declined  to  $17 
per  lb.  in  18(il),  and  ranged  from  .^13  j)er  lb.  and  upward, 
according  to  purity,  from  18(>3-87.  James  Webster  in  1882 
developecl  a  process  for  the  clicaper  production  of  alnmina 
and  its  conversion  into  cliloride,  with  which  was  coui)lcd 
a  luethoil,  invented  in  ISSti  by  II.  Y.  Castner,  of  New  \  ork. 
for  the  manufacture  of  soilium,  which  lowered  the  cost  of 
sodium  from  .*1  per  lb.  to  about  20  or  25  cents,  lie  re- 
duces sodium  compounds  by  means  of  a  carbide  of  iron.  In 
1888  a  plant  was  started  under  the  name  of  the  -Aluminium 
Co.,  Limiteil,  at  Oldbury,  near  Birmingham,  England,  with 
a,  capa<'ity  of  100,000  lb.  of  aluminium  annually.  Another 
innovation  upon  the  Ucville  sodium  process  was  that  of  the 
Alliance  Aluminium  t'o.,  whose  works  at  Wallsend-on-Tyne. 
England,  were  al.so  started  in  1888,  The  methods  are  those 
of  Dr.  Netto,  who  procbiced  metallic  sodium  cheaply  liy  allow- 
ing fused  caustic  soda  to  trickle  over  incandescent  charcoal 
in  a  vertical  retort.  He  employed  the  thioride  or  the  double 
fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium  as  the  compound  to  be 
reduced  instead  of  the  chloride  or  the  double  cldoridc  of  alu- 
minium. Proniisingasthey  were,  the  modern  improvementsot 
the  Devillc  sodium  process  have  given  way  to  the  electrolytic 
methods  develojied  during  the  past  few  years  iis  the  result 
of  the  great  advances  made  in  dynamo-electric  machinery. 
Since  the  experimental  work  done  simultaneously  in  1854  by 
Devillc  and  Bunsen,  a  series  of  proposals  to  produce  alu- 
minium by  eleetrolrtic  methods  were  made  by  Le  t'hatelier 
in  1801,  Monckton  in  1862,  (Jaudin  in  180!).  Kagenbusch  in 
1872,  Uerthaut  in  1879.  and  (Jriitzel  in  188:i.  Only  the  last 
named  ajipears  to  have  been  tried  on  an  industrial  scale  at 
the  Aluminium  und  Magnesium  Fabrik,  at  Hemelingen,  near 
Bremen,  (jcrrnauy,  where  it  has  since  been  superseded  by 
secret  nu'thods  devised  by  Saarburger,  the  manager  of  the 
works,  which  in  1888  were  reputed  to  lie  producing  at  the 
rate  of  12,000  kgr.  of  the  nu-tal  annually.  In  1886  Dr.  Ed. 
Kleiner  brought  forward  a  pmcess  for  idectrolyzing  molten 
cryolite  by  passing  a  current  between  two  cai'lion  poles,  whicli 
was  put  in  operation  in  an  experimental  jilantallhc  llojie 
Mills,  Tyldesley,  Lancashire.  It  was  experimented  with  by 
the  Societe  Jlctallurgique  Suisse,  at  Neuhausen,  near  Schaff- 
luuisen  on  the  Hliine,  but  was  abandoned  in  favor  of  the 
Heroult  process.  In  the  U.  S.  the  first  claimant  for  the  honor 
of  having  manufactured  ainmiuium  on  a  commercial  scale 
was  William  h'rishmuth,  of  I'hiladelphia,  who,  in  1884,  pro- 
fessed to  h.-ive  produced  the  metal  uscil  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  aluminium  caj)  of  the  Washington  monument.  An 
epoch  in  the  aluminium  industry  was  created  by  the  inven- 
tion in  1885,  by  E.  14.  and  A.  II,  Cowles,  of  Cleveland,  of 
the  electric  furnace  and  the  process  for  manufacturing  alu- 
minium alloys.  A  plant  was  established  at  Lockport,  X.  Y., 
anil  subsei|ueutly  at  Stoke-on-Trent,  England,  while  the 
subsiMpient  rolling  of  the  alloys  into  sheets,  wire,  and  rods  is 
carried  out  at  the  Aluminium  Brass  and  Bronze  Co.,  Bridge- 
port, Conn.,  organized  in  1887.  The  most  notalile  advance  in 
the  production  of  the  pure  metal  was,  however,  made  by  the 
invention  of  Charles  M.  Hall,  whose  process  was  established 
on  a  manufai-turing  scale  in  1888  by  the  Pittsburg  Keduction 
Co.  In  18!ll  tile  same  concern  built  a  larger  works  at  Ken- 
sington, near  Pittsburg,  and  a  liranch  establishment  at  Patri- 
croft,  Lancashire,  England,  in  1800.  The  American  Alu- 
minium Co..  of  Milwaukee,  Wi.s.,  was  formed  in  1887  to  ni.'Uiu- 
facture  by  the  process  of  A.  J.  Kogers,  a  small  exiierimental 
plant  having  been  fjut  up  in  1888.  In  a  tentative  way  then! 
has  been  work  also  in  this  country  at  liridgeport.  Conn.,  and 
lateral  Boonton,  N.  .1.,  with  the  llerimlt  process,  wliii-h  is 
being  used  for  the  manufactun!  of  aluminium  alloys  on  a 
large  sc-ale  at  Neuhausen,  and  at  l<'roges,  Isere,  France. 
Bernanl  Bros.,  at  Creil,  Oise,  France,  use  the  Minet  process, 
which  consists  in  electrolyzing  a  mixture  of  sodium  chlorides 
with  aluminium  fluoride, or  with  the  double flu(^ride  of  sodium 
and  alumiuiniu.  They  arc  putting  on  the  market  metal  of 
good  (piality, 

7Vi('  Manufacfure  of  Aluminium. — Beanxite  and  cryoHle 
are  the  minerals  most  used  as  raw  materials,  corundum  be- 
ing so  valu.'dile  for  other  pur|ioscs  that  it  is  not  used  as  an 
aluminium  oiv.  Clay  or  kaolin  is  not  available,  because  the 
large  amount  of  silica  it  contains  is  much  nuire  easily  re- 
duced than  its  alumina.     Beauxite,   ll'APO*,  is  a  mineral 


first  found  near  Beaux,  large  deposits  occurring  in  the  de- 
partments of  Var  and  Bonclics-dii-Rhone,  I'raiice.  Im- 
portant beds  have  also  been  discovered  at  Wochcin.  Styria; 
at  Kreisstritz,  Austria;  at  a  number  of  jioints  in  Ireland, 
and  in  abundance  in  the  South,  in  Tennessee,  Virginia,  North 
and  Soutli  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Arkansas.  Cry- 
olite (Ar'Fl*,6NaFl)  is  mined  in  large  quantities  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Salt  Co,  at  Ivigtnk,  on  the  west  coast  of 
(rreenland.  The  beauxite  must  be  purified,  to  get  rid  of 
silica  and  iron.  It  is  calcined  at  a  low  tcmpcralure  with 
sntlicient  soilium  carbonate  to  form  sodium  aluminate.  The 
incinerated  mass  is  ground  and  lixiviated  in  liot  water,  dis- 
solving the  sodium  aluminate,  and  leaving  the  silica  and 
iron  compounds  as  a  residue.  From  the  sodium  aluminate 
solution  the  alumina  is  precipitated  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 
From  cryolite  alumina  is  obtained  by  incinerating  a  finely 
ground  mixture  of  cryolite  with  chalk  and  coke.  From  the 
soluble  aluminate  of  soda  formed  the  alumina  is  precipitated 
in  the  same  manner.  U])on  the  ])urity  of  the  alumina  thus 
obtained  depends  the  quality  of  metal  produced  by  the  elec- 
trolytic methods  now  almost  exclusively  employed. 

As  described  by  A.  E.  Hunt,  president  of  the  Pittsburg 
Keduction  Co,,  the  Hall  process  consists  in  electrolyz- 
ing alumina  dissolved  in  a  fused  mixture  of  fluorides  of 
aluminium  and  sodium,  or  of  fluorides  of  aluminium  and 
potassium.  The  mixture  of  fluoride  salts  is  placed  in  a  row 
of  carbon-lined  iron  tanks  placed  in  series.  The  pots,  to- 
gether with  their  carbon  linings  and  the  reduced  metal  in 
the  bottom  of  the  jiots,  become  the  negative  electrodes,  or 
cathodes.  The  positive  electrodes,  or  anodes,  are  a  series  of 
3-inch  diameter  carbon  cylindci-s  attached  to  the  copper  con- 
ductoi-s.  The  current  of  5,000  amperes  and  50  volts  in  one 
series,  and  of  2,000  amperes  and  20  volts  in  the  other  series, 
is  turned  on,  and  the  mixture  is  melted  by  the  heat  caused 
by  the  resistance  offere<l  to  the  current  by  the  fluoride  mix- 
ture. In  less  than  two  hours'  time  the  mixture  becomes 
fluid,  and  alumina  is  added.  The  electrolyte  then  becomes 
a  iiiueh  better  conductor,  the  resistance  goes  down  to  a 
normal  one  of  about  8  volts,  and  the  operation  of  electroly- 
sis commences.  The  heat  is  retained  in  the  molten  bath 
liy  a  covering  of  finely  powdered  carbon,  on  top  of  which 
the  alumina  is  placed.  When  the  voltmeter  attached  to 
each  pot  shows  a  rising  resistance,  more  heated  ore  from  the 
surface  of  the  pot  is  stirred  in.  The  light  metal  accumulates 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  and  may  be  tapped  off  while  the 
feeding  is  made  continuous.  Thus  the  pots  are  run  for 
months  at  a  time,  the  wasting  carbons  being  replaced  by 
fresh  ones  from  time  to  time. 

Properties. — Commercial  aluminium  is  never  chemically 
pure,  and  displays  properties  varying  more  or  less  from  those 
of  the  pure  metal.  The  impurities  most  fi'ccpicntly  met  with 
are  combined  and  gra))liitoidal  silicon,  iron,  copper,  sodium, 
and  lead.  The  following  table,  conqiiled  by  A.  E.  Hunt, 
gives  a  scries  of  analyses : 

COMPOSITION    OF    VAHIOIS   COMMKRCIAL   ALUMINIUMS. 


ALUMINIUM  METAL  MADE 
BY  THE 

_3 

•s  1 
1 

g    . 
8  g 

■si 

ii 

1' 

& 

i 

s 

o 

.J 

i 

1 
1 

Pittsburp  Rc-.liicti(in  Co  

Si'iv  Ant'iivinc  (rAliuniuium.. 
Alliance  Alum  iiiiii  III  C'o.,Lim''d 

Aluminiuiii  Cc..  Uimited 

Ahimiii.-IminslHc-Aktit'ii-      1 
GesellsL-halt.uf  NVuliausen  ) 

PittsVnirj;  RtMluction  Co 

Soc.  Anonym*'  dWIuminintri. . 
Alliance  AUuniniimi  Co-.Lim'd 

Aliiminiuni  Co..  I^iniited 

rittsburg  KtHluoliim  ('o 

Soe.  Anonvnie  (rAluininium  . . 
AlliaueeAlnmininniCo..Unrd 

Aluniiniiini  Co..  Liniiled 

rUtsburg  Redurlion  Co 

Soo.  Anonyme  d'Ahnninium. . 
Alliance  Akuniniuni  Co.. Liin'd 

Alnniiniuni  ('<>..  Liniiled 

riirshuif:  Keduction  Co 

AlliaiK-e  Alinniniinn  Co.,Lim'd 
Pitlsbviry  Reduction  Co 

%00 
9500 
9500 
95-00 
95-00 
94-15 
97-00 
97-00 
97-00 
97-M 
98-00 
9800 
9,S-00 
98-00 
98-5-i 
09  00 
99-00 
99-00 
99-00 
99-SO 
99-14 
99  34 

1-50 
0-90 
0-90 
0-85 
1-75 

loa 

]  -.55 

owl 

0-!l5 
0-75 
1-30 
0-71 

o-oo 

0-90 

0-ta 

0-80 
0-.% 
0-31 
0-27 
0-41 

0-40 

1-35 
1-00 

0  75 
0-75 
1-15 
0-54 

1  as 

0-82 
0-53 
0.52 
0(10 
035 
0-29 
0-23 
0-72 
0-15 
0-13 
0-20 
0-15 
034 
017 
0-21 

200 
3-00 
3-25 
3-00 
2-00 
2-80 

0  13 
1-20 

1  45 
1.55 
0-07 
0-90 
075 
080 
0  05 
0-03 
0.^)0 
0-45 
0.55 
0-05 
0  40 
0  05 

007 
0-05 
0-02 
0-10 
001 
1-49 
0-03 
004 
001 
0-03 
0-01 
0-01 
0-Oi 
002 

0-oc 

0-01 
nil. 
nil. 
002 
nil. 
nil. 
nil. 

0-04 

0-01 
0-07 
0-30 

oor 

0'02 
001 
0-05 
015 

o-oi 

0  01 
0-O4 
005 
uit 
nil. 
0-01 
0-03 
0-01 
nil. 
nit. 
nil. 

0-03 
0  04 
001 
nil. 
nil. 

o-oi 

0-03 

0-ot 

nil. 
0-01 
0-02 
0-01 

nil. 
0-04 
0-01 
0(U 
001 

nil. 

nil. 

nil. 

nil. 

That  even  greater  purity  is  attainable  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  metal  with  99-92'  per  cent,  aluminium  has  been 
commereiallv  made. 


140 


ALUMINIUM 


The  most  striking  property  of  aluminium  is  its  lightness, 
DevQle  having  determined  the  specific  gravity  of  the  chem- 
ically pure  metal  as  'Z-iiU,  while  JJallet  makes  it  2'o83.  John 
W.  Langley  ascertained  that  au  aluminium  casting  J  inch 
thick,  tiie  metal  carrying  98'o3  per  cent,  of  aluminium,  had  a 
density  of  •2-587,  while  the  same  material,  a  f-ineh  round  rod, 
had  a  specific  gravity  of  2'T03.  Taking  the  specific  gravity 
of  aluminium  as  one,  soft  steel  is  nearly  2'95  times,  copper 
3-6  times,  ordinary  high  brass  3-4o  times,  silver  4  times,  lead 
4'8  times,  and  gold  7-7  times  as  heavy.  JIany  extravagant 
and  erroneous  claims  have  been  based  on  the  lightness  of 
aluminium  for  its  use  as  a  structural  material,  coupled  often 
with  assertions  relating  to  very  low  cost  of  production. 
Aluminium  is  not,  section  for  section,  comparatively  a  very 
strong  metal.  It  is  only  about  as  strong  under  tensile  strain, 
section  for  section,  as  cast  iron,  and  has  less  than  one-half 
the  strength  of  wrought  iron  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Under  compression  the  metal  has  a  very  low  ehustic  limit, 
although  its  extreme  ductility  allows  the  metal  to  flow  on 
itself  so  freely  as  to  make  it  for  special  purposes  a  very  safe 
metal  to  use  in  compression.  Alfred  E.  Hunt,  John  W. 
Langley,  and  Charles  M.  Hall,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Jlining  Engineers,  vol.  xiii..  summarize 
its  mechanical  properties  as  follows : 

AVERAGE   TENSILE   A.VU   COMPRESSION   TESTS   OF   roMMERCIAI. 
AI.U.MIXIU.M, 

Pounds. 

Elastic  limit  per  square  inch  in  tension.  Castings 6.500 

Sheet 12,000 

Wire lU,000-.30,tKX) 

Bars 14.000 

Ultimate  strength  per  scjnare  inch  in  tension,  Castings 15.000 

Sheet 24,000 

VTire 30.000-05.000 

Bars 28,000 

Per  cent. 

Percentage  of  reduction  of  area  in  tension.      Casting 15 

•■  <■  ••  Sheet 3o 

"  ••  Wire 60 

Bars 40 

Pounds. 

Ela,stic  limit  per  square  inch  under  compression  in  cylinders, 

^vith  length  twice  the  diameter 3..50O 

Ultimate  strength  per  .square  inch  under  compression  in  cyhn- 

ders,  with  length  twice  the  diaiueter 12,000 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  cast  aluminium  is  about  11.000.000. 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  cold-drawn  aluniiuium  wire  is  about 

19.000.000. 
The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  aluminium  sheets  and  bars  is  about 

13,000,000. 

Under  transvei-se  stress  aluminium  is  not  a  very  rigid 
metal. 

Pure  aluminium  is  white  with  a  decided  bluish  tint,  which 
becomes  much  more  nuirked  upon  exposure,  when  a  thin 
film  of  white  oxide  on  its  surface  prevents  further  tarnish- 
ing from  the  air,  but  seems  to  give  by  contrast  to  the  metal 
as  a  background  an  enhanced  liluish  tint.  The  metal  fuses 
at  about  1.300'  P..  but  becomes  pa.stv  at  a  temperature  of 
al)out  1.000'  F.  The  specific  heat  "is  0-214;i  and  its  co- 
efficient of  linear  expansion  is  0'0000206  per  degree  centi- 
gi-ade.  Placing  the  electrical  conductivity  of  silver  at  100, 
commercial  .-iliMuinium  has  a  conductivity  of  about  50.  It 
exhibits  no  appreciable  polarity.  Annealed  .aluminium  has 
a  thermal  conductivity  of  3S-.s~.  an<l  unanncaled  of  3T'06.  re- 
ferred to  silver  at  100.  It  can  lie  welded  readily  electrically. 
It  has  been  successfully  soldered  l)y  the  use  of  pure  zinc  and 
Venetian  tur|ientine.  Pure  ahnuiuinm.  when  properly 
treated,  is  a  verv  niallealile  and  ductile  metal,  lieing  most 
malleable  at  bciweeii  200  and  300  F.  Both  malleability 
and  ductility  are  greatly  impaired  by  the  presence  of  the 
two  common  impurities,  silicon  and  iron.  Aluminium  can 
readily  be  rolleil  into  sheets  TB^ms  '^^  '*"  i'lc'i  thick,  can  be 
beaten  into  leaf  nearly  as  thin  a.-;  gold-leaf,  ami  can  be  drawn 
into  the  finest  wire.  In  working  it  must  be  fretjuently  an- 
nealed, wliich  is  liest  accomplished  at  a  temperature  of  about 
800'  F.  By  hardening  the  metal  l)y  rolling,  forging,  stamp- 
ing, or  drawing,  it  may  be  tin-ncd  out  very  rigid,  and  is  then 
suitable  for  many  purposes  for  which  the  annealed  metal 
would  be  too  soft  or  too  weak. 

Aluminium  can  be  readily  cast  in  dry  san<l  molds  without 
fluxes.  It  shoidd  not  be  heated  much  above  the  melting- 
point.  It  flows  readily,  bui  shrinks  more  than  brass,  the 
shrinkage  being  about  2"26  per  cent,  of  the  length  of  the 
mold. 

The  metal  is  not  acted  upon  by  carbonic  acid,  carbonic 
oxide,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  It  withstands  better  than 
silver  the  action  of  organic  secretions,  and  is  therefore  widelv 


used  for  surgical  instnunents  and  apparatus.  It  is  less  acted 
upon  than  tin,  copper,  or  silver,  by  salt  water,  and  by  such 
solutions  in  vinegar  as  the  metal  is  likely  to  be  subjected  to 
in  culinary  vessels.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  the  natural  sol- 
vent, and  it  is  corroded  rapidly  by  the  caustic  alkalies, 
chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine. 

Aluminium  Allui/s. — Tissier  claims  that  silver  is  the  metal 
most  useful  to  improve  aluminium.  5  per  cent,  of  silver  giv- 
ing to  it  increased  elasticity  and  hardness  without  injuring 
the  malleability  of  the  metal.  The  alloy  is  suscejitible  of  a 
fine  jiolish.  While  it  is  predicted  that  the  alloys  of  sUver 
ami  aluminium  will  have  a  large  use  in  the  arts  in  the 
future,  the  most  valuable  thus  far  manufactured  on  a  large 
scale  are  those  of  aluminium  and  cop]ier,  the  so-caUed 
aluminium-hronzes.  They  are  alloys  of  copper  containing 
from  3  to  12  per  cent,  of  aluminium,  which  possess  great 
strength  and  ductility,  and  resist  corrosion  well.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  is  about  7'7  for  10  ]ier  cent,  brfinze.  8'25  for  5 
per  cent,  bronze,  copper  liein.g  8'!I0.  The  hardness  lessens 
with  the  percentage  of  aluminium,  wiiile  the  color  changes 
from  a  yellowish  gold  at  10  per  cent,  to  a  deeji  red  gold  at 
2i  per  cent,  of  contained  aluminium.  The  following  tests  of 
cast  aluminium  bronze  and  bra.«s  were  made  for  the  L^.  S. 
Xavy  Department  by  W.  H.  Harris,  chief  engineer  U.  S.  N., 
on  specimens  1-87  inches  in  diameter  and  I.t  inches  in  length 
between  reference  marks : 


APPROXIMATE 

COUPOSITION. 

a 

1 
< 

s 

8 

i 

P. 
If 

S  t. 
1  ^ 

Ed  5 

6i  per  cent,  cast  alumin- 

91-50 
91 -.50 
91-50 
93-00 
92-00 

88-50 
90-00 
88-50 

63-00 

63 -ai 

6-50 
6-50 
6-50 
6-60 

1-75 

1-75 
1-75 
O-'iO 

0-25 
0  25 
0-25 

0-50 

o'so 

Zinc. 

:«-:« 
33-33 

60.700 
67,600 
.59.1  IX) 
53.000 
46,560 

66.000 
72,8:» 
69,930 

82,200 
70,400 

18.000 
24.000 
19.0110 
19.000 
17,000 

27,000 
33.000 
33,000 

60,000- 
70.000 
53,000 

23-2 

Do 

21-62 

Do 

2;V59 

Do        

62 

Do 

6-50  O-.W 

7-8 

9  per  cent,  cast  alumin- 
ium-bronze   

Do 

9-33 
9-00 
9-33 

3-33 
3-33 

1-66 
1-00 
1-66 

0-33 
0-33 

3-8 
2-40 

Do        .                    ..     .. 

133 

Ahuniiiiimi-brass,  cast.. 
Do 

2  33 
0-4 

In  forged  bars  a  10  per  cent,  aluminium  bronze  can  readily 
and  uniformly  Vie  made  with  lOO.ddO  Hi.  tensile  strength  per 
square  inch,  an  elastic  luuit  of  (iO.OOO  lb.,  and  with  at  least  10 
per  cent,  elongation  in  8  inches.  The  5  per  ceiit .  to  7  per  cent, 
aluminium-bronzes  give  70.000  to  80.000  lb.  tensile  sti-ength, 
with  an  elastic  limit  of  over  40.(H)0  lb.  per  square  inch  and 
an  elongation  of  over  30  per  cent,  in  8  inches.  The  5  to  7  per 
cent,  bronzes  can  be  rolled  or  hammered  at  a  led  heat,  and 
can  be  worked  in  almost  every  way  that  steel  can.  having 
the  advantage  over  it  of  greater  combined  strength  and 
ductility,  and  much  greater  power  to  withstand  corrosion. 
It  is  a  rcnuirkalily  rigid  metal  under  transverse  strain,  and 
possesses  excellent  anti-friction  qiuilities.  Sound,  i-lean  cast- 
ings of  aluminium-bronze  can  be  safely  and  i-egularly  nuule. 
either  in  sand  molds  or  against  chills,  if  projier  precautions 
are  taken. 

As  a  substitute  for  Gennan  silver  the  Cowles  Co.  pro- 
duce what  they  call  "silver-bronze,"  containing  18  man- 
ganese, 1-20  ahiminium.  .5  silicon,  13  zinc,  and  67-5  copper. 
On  small  bars  it  has  a  tensile  strength  of  about  .57.000  lb. 
and  20  per  cent,  elongation.  Its  electrical  resistance  is  about 
48  times  that  of  copper  and  about  37  time's  that  of  German 
silver,  consideralily  greater  than  that  of  any  other  material 
known  which  is  capable  of  being  drawn  into  strong,  tough 
w-ii-e  for  i-esistance  coils. 

Aluminium  in  Iron  find  Steel. — In  cast  iron,  additions  of 
metallic  alumiuimn  or  of  aluminium-iron  alloys  are  occa.sion- 
ally  made,  the  ciuanlity  used  being  from  2  to  5  lb.  per  ton. 
It  has  a  similar  influence  to  that  of  silicon,  w-hich  is,  how- 
ever, cheaper  in  the  ferro-silicon  and  high  silicon  irons 
used.  Aildilions  of  aluminium  may  |irove  of  service  where 
very  dillicull  castings  are  to  be  made.  The  jieculiar  [o-op- 
erty  of  aluminium  in  reducing  the  long  range  of  tempera- 
ture liet  ween  tliat  at  whicli  wrought  iron  first  softens  and 
tluit  at  which  it  becomes  fluid  has  been  taken  advantage  of 
in  the  .Mil is  process  of  making  castings.  The  widest  use  of 
aluminium  in  the  metallurgy  of  iron  is,  however,  its  employ- 


ALUMIs^'S 


ALVORD 


141 


ment  to  improve  steel  and  steel  castings,  the  principal  effect 
licinfi  the  (luicting  of  the  steel  in  pouring.  1' or  open  lii>ai'tli 
metal  the  quantity  used  is  5  to  10  oz.  per  ton  ot  steel,  wliile 
for  Hessenier  metal  it  should  he  increased  to  T  to  IG  oz.  It 
has  been  found  also  that  aluminium  may  be  made  to  ri'place 
manganese.  The  addition  of  i  of  a  lb.  of  aluminium  to 
10  tons  of  spelter  in  galvanizing  has  also  been  found  to  ini- 
jn-ove  the  surface  finish  of  galvanized  iron  or  steel  sheets. 

lilTEKATiKF. — .loscph  \V.  Richards'  A/iDiiiiiiinii,  (7.s  Prop- 
erties, MctaUiiryy.oitd  Alloys  {Phila.  1800):  papers  by  A. 
E.  Hunt.  .1.  W.  Langley,  T.  Steny  Hunt,  A.  II.  Cowles,  P. 
P.  Dewey.  H.  .\.  Uadfield,  and  W.  .T.  Keep,  in  the  Tmnsac- 
iioiis  of  l/ie  Aiiierinin  Instituti-  of  Miiiitni  Kiifiini'i'rs. 

ClIARLKS   klHrUMOFK. 

Alliiu'iiiis.  pin.  Alumni  (fern.  sing.  Aiiiin'iia.  phi.  .Vliiin- 
I18B) :  a  Latin  word  signifying  a  '-foster-child,"  applied  in 
modern  tinu's  to  tlie  graduates  of  a  university  or  college,  in 
order  to  express  the  relation  Ijctween  them  and  their  Ai.jia 
Mater  {</.  v.).  In  Germany  tliere  were  at  one  time  institu- 
tions calle<l  iditniitat,  founded  for  the  gratuitous  education 
of  poor  boys,  termed  alumni. 

Aliiin-Root :  either  of  two  species  of  plants,  natives  of 
the  I'.  S..  the  (irrii  nium  macula  turn  and  the  Ihiiche.'ra 
omerica  na.  Their  roots  are  astringent,  and  are  vised  in 
medicine.  The  latter  is  found  in  rocky  woodlands  from 
<'onnecticut  to  Wisconsin  and  southward. 

Aluiii-Sliale.  Alum-Slate,  or  Alum-Schist:  a  rock  con- 
sisting of  day,  coml>ined  with  much  iron  pyrites  and  some 
bituminous  or  carbonaceous  matter.  From  it  the  alum  of 
t-ommerce  is  obtained  by  a  double  decomposition,  induced  by 
burning  the  ahun-schist  slowly  until  its  condition  is  sufli- 
<'iently  clianged,  leaching,  and  then  adding  sulphate  of 
potash  or  ammonia  to  the  solution. 

Al'uiiitp.  or  Alum-stone  :  a  mineral  found  in  various 
localities,  wliich  was  formerly  largely  used  for  tlie  prepara- 
tion of  Roman  alum.  It  is  a  basic  sulphate  of  aluminiiun 
«nd  potassium. 

Alll'ta,  called  also  Alt :  a  rapid  river  of  Transylvania, 
rises  in  tlie  Carpatliian  Jlountains,  flows  southward  ihrcnigh 
Wallachia,  and  enters  the  Danube  at  Nicopolis.  Length, 
;i41  miles. 

Al'va,  or  Al'ba,  Fernando  Alvarez  de  Toledo,  Duke 
■of  :  Spaiusli  general :  b.  of  a  noble  C'astilian  family  in  lo08. 
lie  entered  tlie  army  in  his  youth,  and  accompanied  Charles 
V.  in  his  campaign  against  the  Turks  in  1.530.  In  l.")4T  he 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  German  Protestants  at 
Miihllierg.  In  1.5.5.5-.56.  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
<it  I'liilip  IL,  he  defeated  the  French  and  pa]ial  forces  in 
Italy.  As  a  general  he  was  inclined  to  pursue  a  Faljian  jiolicy. 
He  was  distinguished  for  cool  determination  and  remorseless 
cruelty.  In  1567  he  was  sent  by  Philip  IL  to  the  Netherlands 
with  an  army  of  about  10,000  veterans,  to  suppress  the  revolt 
<if  the  Protestants.  He  established  the  "Council  of  Blood." 
belieiided  Count  Egmont  after  a  mockery  of  a  trial,  and  com- 
menced a  reign  of  terror  and  sanguinary  persecutions  of  per- 
sons suspected  of  heresy.  To  defend  the  country  against 
this  bloody  despotism,  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  raised  an 
army  in  lofiS,  Init  the  Duke  of  Alva  avoided  a  battle,  and  by 
<lelay  compi'lU-d  William  to  retire  from  the  contest,  because 
he  could  not  ]iay  his  troops.  Although  Alva  defeated  or  out- 
g<'iu'raled  the  Dutch  patriots  in  war,  he  utterly  failed  to 
.■^ubdue  or  pac-ify  tliem,  and  he  was  reealleil  in  157;i.  He 
boasted  that  he  had  put  to  death  18.000  persons  in  the 
Xetherlands,  besides  those  killed  in  battle.  In  1380  he  in- 
vaded and  coiKiuen'd  Portugal.  D.  at  Thoinar,  Jan.  13. 
1.58:1  See  Prescott.  PA(7(>  II.  (vol.  ii.) ;  Motley,  llisfonj 
of  /III-  Ihitcli  licpublic. 

Alvarado;  city:  .Tohnson  co.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  3-11):  on  Missouri.  Kansas  and  Texas 
and  (iulf.  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe  H.  lis..  2(1  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Fort  Worth  and  40  miles  S.  W.  of  Dallas:  it  has  good 
schools  and  churches,  cotton-gins  and  mills.  It  is  surround- 
ed bv  a  fine  agricidtural  district :  chief  staples,  corn  and 
cotton.     Po)).  (1880)  377;  (1890)  1,543. 

Editor  oe  "  Bulletin." 

Alvara<lo.  alva-raa'tho,  Alonzo:  a  Spanish  officer  who 
served  luidiM-  Cortez  in  Mexico.  After  its  conquest  Ik;  went 
to  Peru,  held  high  command  under  Pizarro,  and  was  <le- 
feated  an<l  taken  prisoner  by  Almagro  in  1537.  Alvarado 
w.'is  lieutenant-general  in  the  army  which  subdued  (jonzalo 
Pizarro's  rebellion  in  1.548,  and  was  made  captain-general  of 
Peru,  but  was  overcome  in  1553  and  shortly  thereafter  died. 


Alvara'do,  Pedbo,  de:  a  Spanish  general  and  adventurer, 
li.  at  Badajos,  who  removed  to  America  in  1518.  He  served 
with  distinction  under  Cortez  in  the  conipicst  of  Mexico,  and 
in  1520  was  selected  by  Cortez  to  comnumd  in  the  city  of 
Mexico  during  the  absence  of  his  chief,  who  marched  against 
Xarvaez.  He  conducted  a  successful  expedition  against  Te- 
huantepec  and  Guatemala  in  1523,  and  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Guatemala.  After  a  voyage  to  Spain,  he  led  an  army 
across  the  Andes  into  the  province  of  Quito,  which  he  found 
already  occupied  by  Pizarro.  This  chief  induceci  Alvarado 
to  retire  liy  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money.  Alvarado 
was  killed  in  a  fight  with  some  natives  in  New  Galicia  in  1541. 

Alvareng:a  Peixoto,  Ignacio  Jose:  Brazilian  poet.  See 
Peixoto,  Ignacio  Jose  Alvarenga. 

Alvares  de  Azevedo,  Mangel  Antonio  :  Brazilian  poet. 
See  Azevedo,  Mangel  Antonio  Alvares  de. 

Alvares,  or  Alvares  Coellio,  Diooo:  See  Carasiuru. 

Alvarez,  al'va-rez.  Francisco:  Portuguese  priest;  b.  at 
Coimbra;  went  to  Abys.sinia  in  1515  in  company  with  the 
Portuguese  ambassador,  Duarte  Galvam.  He  |iassed  about 
six  years  in  that  country,  w  hich  \w,  explored,  and  returned  to 
Portugal  in  1.527.  An  interesting  account  of  his  travels  was 
pul)lislied  in  1.540.  entitled  a  Trut  Accouiil  of  the  Cotuitri/  of 
I'rexter  John.     D.  about  1540. 

Alvarez,  al'va-reth.  Don  Jose:  Spanish  sculptor;  b.  .at 
Priego,  in  the  province  of  Cordova,  A|)r.  23,  1768.  He 
gained  a  prize  in  1799,  after  which  he  pursued  his  studies  in 
Paris.  He  removed  to  Komc.  where  \w  passed  many  years, 
and  was  intimate  with  Canova.  Among  his  woi-ks  are  Or- 
ji/ieiis  Sleeping ;  Antiloclnis  and  Jleninon;  and  Grupo  Co- 
losal  de  Zarugoza,  wliich  represents  a  scene  in  the  defense 
of  Saragossa.  He  was  apjiointed  court  sculptor  to  Ferdi- 
nand Vll.     D.  at  Madrid,  Nov.  26,  1827. 

Alvarez,  Juan  :  ]\Iexican  general ;  b.  in  1790.  He  was 
a  leader  of  the  insurgents  who  took  arms  against  Santa 
Anna  in  the  spring  of  1854,  and  drove  him  from  power  in 
Aug.,  1855.  Alvarez  became  President  of  Mexico  in  October, 
but  he  resigned  in  Deceiiilier  of  the  same  year.  During  the 
French  invasion  of  1863-66  he  was  one  of  the  most  deter- 
mined opponents  of  Maximilian  and  his  party.     D.  in  1863. 

Alvarez.  Don  Luis:  a  contemporary  genre  painter;  b. 
in  Spain ;  iiujiil  of  Feilerico  de  Madrazo.  First-class  medal, 
Paris  Exiiosition,  1889,  for  his  picture  The  Chair  of  Philip 
II.,  The  Eseurial,  1597.    Studios  in  Paris  and  Rome. 

Al'vinczy.  or  Al'vinzy,  Joseph,  Baron  von  :  an  Austrian 
general:  b."in  Transylvania.  Feb.  1,  173.5.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Seven  Years  War,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-field-marshal  in  1789.  In  the  summer  of  1796 
he  took  command  of  an  army  of  about  55,000  men  sent  to 
oppose  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  He  entered  Italy  from  Carin- 
thia.  fought  an  indecisive  action  at  Bassano.  and  was  de- 
feated at  Areola  Nov.  17,  1796,  and  at  Rivoli  Jan.  14.  1797, 
soon  after  which  he  was  superseded  in  the  command.  D. 
at  Ofen,  Sept.  25,  1810. 

Al'vord.  Benjamin.  A.  JI.  :  soldier;  b.  at  Rutland.  Vt., 
Aug.  18.  1813;  graduated  at  West  Point  1833:  paymaster- 
general  U.  S.  A.  Jan.  1,  1873,  and  biagadier-general  U.  S. 
Vols.,  April  15,  1862.  He  served  chiefly  at  frontier  posts 
1833_:34,  in  the  Florida  war  183.5-;!7and  1841-42.  engaged  at 
Camp  Izard,  Olaklikaha,  Thlouotosassa,  and  Big  Cypress 
Swamp,  as  assistant  professor  at  the  Military  Academy  1837- 
39,  in  Cherokee  nation  1S39^0.  juljutant  Fourth  Infantry 
1840.  in  militarv  occupation  of  Texas  1845^6.  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  1846-47.  engaged  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de 
la  Palma  (brevet  captain),"  Paso  ()\-ejas.  National  Bridge, 
Cerro  Gordo  (Aug.  15),  Las  Animas  (brevet  major),  and 
Iluamantla,  and,  upon  being  transferred  from  the  infantry 
to  the  pay  department,  as  chief  paymaster  of  the  depart- 
ment of  (iregon  1854-62.  In  the  civil  war  was  in  command, 
as  lirigaiiier-gencral  of  volunteers,  of  the  district  of  Oregon. 
Brevet  lieiitenaiit-<'olonel,  colonel,  and  brigadier-general 
U.  S.  A.  Aug  9,  1865,  for  faithful  and  meritorimis  services; 
then  became  paymaster  in  New  York  city  1865-67.  and 
cliii'f  jiayma-ster  "of  the  district  of  Omaha  and  Nebraska 
1867-73  :'  paymaster-general  U.  S.  A.,  headquartei-s  at  Wfi-sh- 
ington,  I).  C5.,  1876-80.  Author  of  a  memoir  on  the  Tan- 
gencieH  of  Cirrles  and  of  Sphere.s  (1855);  The  Inierpreia- 
tion  of  Imaginarji  Hoots  in  (Questions  of  JIaxima  and 
Minima  (1860):  and  of  numerous  essays  and  reviews,  1833- 
73.  Betired  June  8,  1880.  1).  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Oct. 
17,  1884. 


U2 


ALWAR 


AMALFI 


Al'war,  or  Al'var :  a  semi-independent  state  of  India ;  at 
the  eastern  end  of  Rajpiitaiia;  S.  of  Delhi;  in  lat.  27'  and 
28'  N.,  and  Ion.  70  ami  77'  K.  It  is  of  irregular  form,  and 
contains  about  3,000  sq.  miles,  with  a  population  of  about 
800,000.  The  eastern  portion  is  open  and  highly  cultivated, 
the  western  is  diversified  by  hills  and  peaks"  which  form  a 
continuation  of  the  Aravalli  range.  These  hOls  are  rich  in 
minerals,  and  aliundant  iron  ore  is  found  close  to  the  sur- 
face. Numerous  smclting-furnaces  give  occupation  to  a 
large  number  of  people.  Copper  is  also  mined,  and  silver. 
lead,  and  sulphur  have  been  found.  Capital  and  pruicipal 
town,  Alwar.     Pop.  (1891)  52,490.  M.  W.  H. 

Al.vat'tes :  King  of  Lydia.  who  ascended  the  throne  about 
618  B.  c. ;  the  father  of  Crirsus.  During  a  battle  between 
him  and  Cyaxares  of  Jledia  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  occurred, 
and  made  such  an  impression  that  they  ceased  fighting  and 
made  a  treaty  of  peace.  Some  astronomers  identify  this 
eclipse  with  that  of  610  B.  c.     D.  about  560  b.  c. 

Al'zei,  or  Alzey :  an  old  city  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Hesse,  on  the  Selz :  19  miles  S.  of  Jlentz  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  6-D).  It  has  a  Realschule.  Alzei 
and  the  vicinity  form  the  scene  of  the  events  of  the  JS^ibehin- 
genlied.    Pop.  5,922. 

Al'zog',  JoinxxES  B.4PTIST :  German  Catholic  theologian  : 
h.  at  OhTau,  in  Silesia,  in  1808;  became  in  185:^  Professor  of 
Ecclesiastical  History  at  Freiburg,  in  Germany.  Ilis^l/fot- 
ual  of  i'niversnl  Church  i?'js/o)'y( Handbuch  der  Universtd- 
kirchengeschichte,  Mainz,  1840 :  9tli  ed.  1872,  3  vols.)  has 
been  translated  into  the  principal  European  languages  (Eng. 
trans.,  Cincinnati,  0.,  1874-76,  3  vols.).  Another  important 
work  is  his  Patrologle  (Freiburg,  1866,  4th  ed.  1888).  I),  at 
Freiburg,  Feb.  28,  1878. 

Amade'ns  (Ital.  Amede'o  or  AmacJe'o) :  the  name  of  nine 
counts  and  dukes  of  Savoy,  the  first  of  whom  was  a  son  of 
Count  Huubert,  and  lived  in  the  eleventh  century. — Ama- 
DEi:s  v.,  the  Great.  Coiuit  of  Savoy,  a  son  of  Count  Thomas 
II.,  was  b.  at  Le  Bourget,  Sept.  4,  1249.  He  succeeded  his 
uncle  Philip  in  1285,  increased  his  dominions  by  marriage, 
and  was  the  first  Prince  of  Savoy  that  made  any  consider- 
able figure  in  history.  D.  at  Avignon,  Oct.  16,  1323.^Ama- 
DEUs  VI.,  of  Savoy,  grandson  of  the  former ;  b.  at  Chambery, 
Jan.  4,  1334,  and  became  count  in  1343.  He  was  an  able 
and  successful  ruler,  defeated  the  French  in  battle  in  1354, 
and  added  a  part  of  Piedmont  to  his  dominions.  I),  of  the 
plague  in  Apuleia,  Mar.  2,  1383. — Amadeus  VIII.,  Duke  of 
bavoy;  a  grandson  of  the  preceding;  was  b.  at  Chambery. 
Sept.  4, 1383,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1391.  He  received 
the  title  of  duke  from  the  Emperor  Sigismund  in  1419.  In 
1433  he  resigned  his  power  to  his  son  Louis,  and  retired  to 
the  mouiistery  of  Ripaille.  Having  a  high  reputation  for 
wisdom,  he  w;ts  chosen  po)ie  b)-  the  Council  of  Basel  in  1439, 
and  took  the  name  of  tclix  V.  As  Eugenius  IV.,  who  had 
been  deposed  by  that  council,  was  still  recognized  as  pope  by 
a  strong  party,  a  schism  ensued  in  the  Church.  Felix  V.  re- 
signed the  papacy  in  1449,  and  died  at  Geneva,  Jan.  7,  1451. 

Amadous:  King  of  Spain;  a  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel, 
Kin','  of  Italy;  was  b.  May  30,  1845.  He  received  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Aosta.  and  married.  May  30,  1867,  Marie  Vict«ire 
Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  the  Prince  dal  Pozzo  dclla  Cisterna. 
On  the  16th  of  Nov.,  1870,  I  he  Spanish  Cortes,  by  a  vote  of 
191  against  98,  elected  him  King  of  Spain,  tne  throne  of 
which  hiid  been  vacant  for  two  vears,  .Vnuideus  accepted 
it,  and  arrived  at  Madrid  Jan.  2.  1871.  On  Feb.  11,  1873,  he 
abdicated  the  throne,  being  unable  to  maintain  onier,  and 
the  reiiulilic  was  proclaiined.    D.  at  Turin,  Jan.  18,  1890. 

Ani'adis  <>f  (Jaill  (Amndis  de  Gaula) :  the  hero  of  a  cele- 
brated prose  romance  of  chivalry  known  by  the  same  name. 
The  oldest  version  extant  is  the  Spanish  redaction  made  by 
Garci-Ordoiiez  de  Montalvo  about  1470.  but  some  form  o"f 
the  romance  wjis  poj)ular  in  Spain  as  early  as  l.'ioO.  A  Por- 
tuguese version  by  \  asco  Lobeira  (died  about  1400)  is  lost,  and 
some  scholars  even  deny  that  it  ever  existed.  Inanyca.se, 
there  is  no  evidence  tliat  Montalvo's  book  is  a  translation 
from  Lolieira.  A  French  version  of  Moutalvo's  redaction, 
begun  bv  Nicholas  de  llerberay  (died  about  1552),  greatly 
exten  led  the  popularity  of  the  story.  Southey"s  English 
translation  of  Montalvo  is  jinliciotisly  retrenched.  The  ro- 
mance had  several  continiuitions,  and  its  direct  influence  on 
the  literature  of  Europe  did  not  die  out  till  the  beginnii'.g  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  See  E.  Binet's  De  VAniadix  de  Gaule 
(Paris,  1873) ;  L.  Braunfels's  Kritischer  Versuch  itber  Amadis 
(Leipzig,  1876).    Sec  Koma>xes.  G.  L.  Kittreuge. 


Amador  de  los  Rios,  Jose  :  Spanish  historian  and  critic ; 
b.  1818,  at  Baena;  began  his  serious  work  with  a  translation 
into  Spanish  of  Sismondi's  Lilteratiires  du  Midi  de  I'Eu- 
r<>l>e  (1841-42).  Established  in  Madrid,  he  published  his 
Estudius  jJoViticos  y  lilenin'os  .?nbre  los  Jiidius  de  Eiipafia 
(1848).  Then,  after  several  critical  editions  of  Spanish 
authors,  he  undertook  the  work  for  which  he  is  most  cele- 
brated, his  Ilistoria  criiica  de  la  Uteratura  espaiiola,  of 
which  but  seven  volumes  were  completed  before  his  death 
(JIadrid.  1861-65).  His  intention  was  to  give  Spain  a  work 
like  the  famous  Histinre  litieroire  de  la  France  by  the  Bene- 
dictines. Hence  he  undertook  to  trace  the  literary  devel- 
opment of  Spain  from  the  earliest  times,  through  the  Latin, 
Gothic,  and  Saracenic,  as  well  as  the  Spanish  period  proper. 
The  task,  however,  was  beyond  his  strength,  or  indeed  the 
strength  of  any  single  man.  Hence  the  work  is,  even  for  the 
poition  completed,  too  often  diffuse  and  inaccurate.  It  is, 
liowever,  still  indisin-usable  to  students  of  Spanish  literature. 
He  wrote  also  an  Jlmfuria  de  la  villa  y  corte  de  Madrid, 
and  works  on  the  momnnents  of  Seville  and  Toledo.  D. 
Mar.,  1878.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Am'adon,  or  Germau  Tinder :  any  one  of  several  species 
of  fungi  growing  on  oak  and  ash  trees  in  Europe.  The  hard 
amadou  (Polyp  oriis  igniarius)  and  the  soft  amadou  (Polyp' - 
oriis  fomenfa  rins)  are  used  for  tinder,  and  applied  to 
wounds  as  styptics.  Some  varieties  are  prejiared  for  tinder 
by  charging  them  with  saltpeter. 

A'ma^er :  a  small  island  of  Denmark  ;  adjoining  the  h.ar- 
bor  of  Copenhagen;  partly  occupied  by  a  sulmrb  of  that 
city.  Area,  22  sq.  miles.  Here  are  gardens  which  supply 
that  ca]iital  with  vegetables,  and  a  large  chemical  factory. 
Pop.  9.UO0  (besides  sulmrb  Christiansluifen).  consisting  of 
the  descendants  of  a  Dutch  colony  brought  here  in  1516,  and 
stiU  retaining  many  peculiar  customs. 

Allial'aric ;  b.  in  501 ;  the  son  of  Alaric  IT.,  King  of  the 
Visigoths;  succeeded  his  father  in  507  by  the  aid  of  his 
grandfather  Theodoric.  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  mairied 
in  527  Clotilde,  a  daughter  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks, 
but  in  order  to  compel  her  to  embrace  Arianism  he  treated 
her  so  ciiielly  that  her  brother  Childebert  came  to  her  res- 
cue with  a  great  army  in  531.  Amalarie  was  defeated  and 
slain,  and  Theudis  succeeded  him  as  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
while  Clotilde  returned  with  her  brother  to  the  land  of  the 
Franks,  where  slie  died  shortly  after. 

Ainala'i'iiis  Fortnnatns;  Archbishop  of  Treves;  sent  by 
Charlemagne  in  811  A.  D.  to  diffuse  Christianity  among  the 
Saxons,  and  established  the  first  church  at  Hamburg.  D.  in 
814  a.  D. 

Ainalason'tlia :  b.  in  498;  a  daughter  of  Theodoric  the 
Great.  King  of  the  Ostrogoths;  married  in  515  Eutliaric  and 
bore  him  a  son,  Athalaric.  who,  in  526.  when  only  ten  years 
old,  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  King  of  Italy  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  mother,  his  father  having  died  in  522. 
The  government  of  Amala.sontha  was  very  snccessful,  but 
her  son  grew  up  a  deliauched  and  dissipated  drunkard,  ut- 
terly unfit  to  reign.  He  died  in  534.  Anuilasontha  then 
married  her  cousin  Theodatus,  in  order  to  strengthen  her 
power,  and  maile  him  co-regent ;  but,  stung  by  the  contempt 
with  which  his  wife  treated  him,  and  desiring  to  rule  alone, 
Theodatus  imprisoned  her  and  had  her  strangled  in  535. 
This  arbitrary  action  was  the  pretext  for  Justinian's  inva- 
sion of  the  East  Gothic  kingdom,  which  led  to  its  over- 
throw. 

Ain'alok  :  a  grandson  of  Esau,  and  one  of  the  chieftains 
of  Edom  {(ien.  xxxvi.  12,  16).  A  remtuuit  of  his  posterity 
existed  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  43). 

Aiiial'ckiles ;  a  nomadic  and  warlike  people,  occupying,  at 
the  tiuu'  of  the  Exodus,  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  and  the  wil- 
derness between  Egypt  and  Palestine.  Op|iosing  the  uuirch 
of  the  Isra<dites,  tliey  were  signally  defeated  at  Rephidim 
(Ex.  xvii.  16).  Centiu'ies  later  they  were  severely  punished 
by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xv.),  and  finally  destroyed  by  David  (1  Sam. 

XXX.). 

Amarfl  ;  an  ancient  and  decayed  city  and  seaport  of 
Southern  Italy;  on  the  Gidf  of  Salerno;  25  miles  S.  E.  of 
Nai)les  (see  n'lap  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F)-  During  the  several 
cenluriis  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  great  commercial  em- 
porium and  the  capital  of  a  republic.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
nrchbisho]).  Its  situation  is  rocky  and  verv  picturesque. 
Anialfi  was  the  birthplace  of  JIa.saniello  and  of  Flavio  (ii'-ja, 
called  the  inventor  of  the  mariner's  compass.     Pop.  4,186. 


AMALGAM 


AMATI 


143 


Amal'grtllll  [possibly  from  (li'.  fii\ayna  (fiaXdaaeiv),  iiii 
cmollienti:  a  (■imil)itiJiti(in  or  jilloy  of  iiicrciiry  with  aiiotlicr 
metal.  Soiiin  iiinalfjams  aro  definite  clinnioal  foiMiioniids. 
Gliuss  |)latcs  are  eouverteil  into  mirrors  or  lookin^'-gla.sses  by 
coveriiii;  one  surface  with  an  amalpirii  <j1'  tin.  (iold  and 
silver  are  dissolved  in  mercury,  and  form  amalj;ams  which 
an!  used  in  tlie  processes  of  gilding  and  plating  various 
olijects. 

Anialiraiiiirtioii:  the  act  or  process  of  combining  mer- 
cury wit  li  .uiother  metal;  especially  the  process  of  .separat- 
ing gold  and  silver  from  the  quartz-rock  in  which  they  are 
found  imbeclded.  This  is  etl'ected  by  shaking  the  cruslied 
quartz-rock  ,a  a  barrel  in  contact  witli  mercury  which  read- 
ily unites  with  the  particles  of  gold  and  silver.  See  Gold 
and  SiLVKit. 

Aiiialip,  JfARiE:  wife  of  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  Prance; 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  I..  King  of  the  1  wo  Sicilies ;  Vi.  A|)r. 
2t>,  1782;  married  tlie  Duke  of  Orleaii-S,  then  a  ]iolitical 
refugee  witli  no  prospect  of  reaching  the  throne,  Nov.  2.5, 
1«()!»,  at  Palermo;  (Jueen  of  France,  1830-48;  d.  j\Iar.  24, 
18H(i,  at  Clareinont;  di.stinguisheJ  for  piety  and  exemplary 
domestic  life. 

Amal'rlell  of  Bc'lia  :  a  Scholastic  philosopher  who  taught 
ilialectics  and  the  liberal  arts  at  Paris  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries;  was  b.  at  Jieiia  (Bene)  near  Chartres, 
and  attempted  to  reconcile  theology  with  the  Averroistic 
and  materialistic  interpretation  of  Ari.stotle's  metajihysics. 
He  and  his  book  (P/n/siun)  were  condemned  liy  tlie  univei'sity 
and  the  pope  in  1207 ;  and  Amalrich,  after  an  enforced  re- 
cantation, died  of  grief  in  Paris  in  120!).  In  1210  liis  bones 
and  his  books  were  Ijurued  t(.)gether.  His  followers  (Alineri- 
cians)  appear  to  have  been  a  pantheistic  and  mystical  sect, 
finally  develojied  into  that  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit.  Their  doctrines,  briefly,  were  (1)  God  is  all ;  (2)  every 
Christian  is  a  memljer  of  Christ's  body;  (8)  those  who  abide 
in  the  love  of  God  can  not  sin.  The  last  proposition  natu- 
rally was  the  occasion  and  the  juslitication  of  their  excesses. 
They  rejected  the  Church  and  the  sacraments.  They  were 
subjected  to  severe  persecutions. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Aiiialtlic'a.  or  .\iiialt licia :  in  cla-ssic  mythology,  the  nurse 
of  Jupiter;  supposed  to  have  been  a  goat,  the  horn  of  which, 
broken  off  l>y  .Tupiter,  was  endowed  by  him  with  magical 
power,  and  became  famous  as  the  cornncojiia^,  or  the  "  horn 
of  j)lenty." 

Ama'ina,  Sixti'xus  :  b.  at  Praneker,  Netherlands,  in  1.503  ; 
was  a  Protestant  biblical  philologist,  and  Prnfessor  of  Orien- 
tal Langiuiges  at  Praneker  1618-29,  and  was  author  of  a 
critical  work  on  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  some  Latin  treatises.     D.  in  1629. 

Aiiinni'ta:  a  genus  of  fungi  nearly  allied  to  Agar' icus, 
from  which  is  derived  a  poisonous  principK'  called  timani- 
liiip,.  The  Amanita  muscarin,  a  native  of  Europe,  is  very 
poisonous,  and  is  used  to  kill  flies. 

Aiiiai>a'la:  a  city  and  seaport  of  Honduras;  situated 
on  Tigre,  the  most  important  island  of  the  bay. of  Ponseca. 
which  contains  a  number  of  excellent  harliors  (see  map  of 
Central  Auu'rica,  ref.  o-G).  The  chief  articles  of  export  arc- 
tobacco,  hid<'s,  precious  woods,  and  indigo.    Pop.  about  1,000. 

Amar, .1.  P.:  a  French  Jacobin,  notorious  for  his  cruelty: 
h.  at  (h'enolile  in  1750.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention in  17!I2.  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  in  Oct., 
1793,  presented  to  the  Convention  a  report  which  condemned 
to  death  twenty-two  (iirondists.  He  eontribute<l  to  the  ruin 
of  liobespierre  on  \\u',  9th  Thermidor,  1794.     I),  in  Paris  in 

isk;, 

Aiu'araiilli  [from  Gr.  a^apovTcj,  unfading;  d-.  not  -i-  fxa- 
paivtLv,  to  wither.  'I'he  final  k  due  to  false  association  with 
ai'flot.  llower] :  a  plant  of  the  genus  Amaranfus  and  family 
Amaran/acew,  bearing  small  Imt  aggregated  flowers  that 
are  scarious,  persistent,  and  not  liable  to  wither,  and  which, 
in  some  species,  are  highly  colored.  Thp  Amani/tfiis  Cau- 
da fiis  ('•  prince'.s-feather  ").  "  love-lies-bleeciing."  and  other 
exotic  species,  are  cultivated  in  the  garilens  of  the  U.  S. 
Several  other  unsightly  species  are  naturalized  as  weeds. 

Ainaranlliarca':  tlie  Amaranth  Family  (q.v.). 

Amaranth  Family  (Amarantacem):  mostly  herbaceous, 
aiietalous  lloweriug  plants,  related  to  the  chenopods,  buck- 
wheats, piukworts,  etc.  About  480  widely  distributed  species 
are  known. 


Amaraiithiis,  or  Amarantiis:  a  genus  of  plants.  See 
Amauaxtii. 

.\in'arapii'ra  (i.e.  city  of  the  gods);  a  decayed  city  of 
Hurnia,  on  the  Irrawadi  river,  about  8  miles  N.  E.  of  Ava 
(see  map  of  X.  India,  rc'f.  8-L).  It  was  formerly  the  <-apital  of 
Hurnia.  and  had  at  one  period  a  population  of  about  170.000, 
but  after  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  in  1819  it 
rapidiv  declined.  The  houses  are  mostlv  of  bamboo.  Pojj. 
50,000; 

Aiii'ara-Siiig'ha,  or  -Siu'lia;  an  eminent  Hindu  poet 
and  grammarian  of  unknown  period,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  lived  about  50  B.  c.  He  was  a  Biiddnist,  whose  works 
were  all  destroyed  by  the  Brahmans,  except  his  Amara 
KosJia,  which  is  a  vocabulary  of  about  10,000  Sanscrit 
words. 

Aniargosa  Desert:  See  Great  Basin. 

Ama'ri,  Michele:  an  Italian  statesman  and  Orientalist; 
b.  at  Palermo,  July  7,  1806.  His  political  life  calls  for  no 
comment  beyond  the  statement  that  he  was  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  policy  and  plans  of  Garibaldi,  and  subse- 
quently of  Cavour.  He  is  known  to  scholars  by  his  Gnerra 
del  Vespro  siciliann  (1842  ;  9th  ed.  1886  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Lord 
PUesmere) ;  his  Slon'n  dei  Munulniani  di  Sicilia  (1854-68) ; 
and  his  Diplonii  Arahi  del  Archivio  fiorentmo  (1863).  He 
translated  from  the  Arabic  the  Solwan  of  Ibn  Djafer  (Eng- 
lish translation.  Loud.  1852).     D.  in  Rome,  July  16,  1889. 

Aniarna,  or  el-.4iiiariia ;  ruins  of  a  city  on  the  Nile, 
midway  between  Thebes  and  jMemphis,  built  by  Amenophis 
IV.,  the  great  siin-worshiping  Pliaraoh  of  the  eighteenth 
Egyptian  dynasty.  Here  were  discovered  several  hundred 
cuneiform  tablets  in  1887.    See  Assyrian  Exploration. 

D.  G.  L. 

AmaryHida'cea;:  the  Amaryllis  Family  (q.v.). 

AinaryPUs:  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants  of  the  fam- 
ily A>iiii!-i/l/i(!acefe,  including  liut  one  .South  African  species, 
A.  bi'/l(ul<i)iiia.  The  name  amaryllis  is  commonly  applied 
to  species  of  several  other  genera — e.g.  Crinum,  A'ei-ine, 
Ze]}lt)/ranthes,  etc.  C.  E.  B. 

AmaryHis  Family  (AmaryllidaceiF):  herbaceous,  mono- 
cotyledoiious  plants,  mostly  bulbous,  and  related  to  the  yams, 
irises,  cannas,  bananas,  etc.  About  650  species  are  known, 
mostly  in  warm  climates.  Karcissus,  Amaryllis,  Polyanthus, 
and  Agave  are  important  genera.  C.  E.  B. 

Ama'sia.  Aiiiasieli.  or  Amasiyah:  a  city  of  Asia  Minor; 
on  the  Yeshil-Irniak.  355  miles  E.  of  Constantinople  (see 
map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-G).  It  contains  nearly  4,000  houses, 
many  of  which  are  of  stone,  a  strong  citadel,  and  a  fine 
mosque.  Silk  is  produced  here  and  is  exported.  Strabo  was 
a  native  of  Amasia,  which  was  formerlv  the  capital  of  the 
Kings  of  PoxTiis  (g.  v.).     Pop.  between  20,000  and  25,000. 

Ama'sis;  a  famous  King  of  Egypt,  who  succeeded  Apries 
about  570  b.  c.  ;  was  more  "friendly  to  the  Greeks  and  other 
foreigners  than  his  predecessors.  Under  his  reign  Egypt 
enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity.  He  built  magnificent  monu- 
ments at  Memphis,  his  capital.  D.  about  525  B.  c,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Psammeticus  III. 

Amat',  Felix  de  Torres:  Aragonese  ecclesiastic  and 
literary  historian;  b.  at  Salient,  Aug.  6,  1772;  became 
Bishoii  of  Astorga,  and  a  senator  under  the  reformed  con- 
stitution of  1837.  In  1808  he  was  charged  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  Spain  to  jirepare  and  annotate  a  new  Castiliaii 
translation  of  the  Bible.  Of  this  work  the  first  edition  ap- 
peared in  1H23.  in  eight  volumes,  besides  a  volume  of  notes 
and  appendices.  In  the  edition  of  1832  the  notes  are  chiefly 
printed  at  the  foot  of  the  pages.  D.  at  Madrid  on  Dec.  29, 
1840.  Amat  is  best  known  abroad  by  his  Jlemorias  para 
(lyudar  a  formar  tin  Dicriimario  e.ritico  de  liis  escritores 
('atalanes  (Barcelona,  1  vol.  8vo,  1836).  A  supplement  to 
the  Z>(Vf('o;i'f/vV).  liy  Juan  (Jorminas,  afipeared  at  Burgos  in 
1  vol.  8vo.  in  1849.  These  works  are  valuable  contributions 
to  the  history  of  Catalan  literature,  and  indispensable  to  all 
who  wish  to  become  acquainted  with  that  literature  and  its 
bibliography.  George  P.  Marsh. 

Am'atlliis;  an  ancient  city  of  Cyprus,  especially  addicted 
to  the  worship  of  Venus,  who  was  hence  called  Amathusia. 
Adonis  also  was  worshiped  here. 

Aiiia'ti,  Andrea  :  an  Italian  who  lived  at  Cremona  about 
1550;  made  excellent  violins,  which  are  equal  or  superior  to 
any  maile  in  the  present  time. — Axton'IO,  a  son  of  the  [H-e- 
ceiiing,  was  born  about  1565.    Ue  was  a  celebrated  maker  of 


144 


AMATITLAX 


AMAZONS 


violins.  D.  1635.— NicoLo,  Antoxio  (15.50-1635),  and  Ge- 
RONiMO,  all  excelli'd  in  the  art.  but  Nicolo,  jr.  (b.  Dee.  3, 
1596;  a.  Aug.  12,  1084).  excelled  the  rest  of  'the  family  in 
the  number  and  quality  of  his  violins. 

Aiiiatitlan',  or  AmaUlau':  a  town  of  Central  America, 
in  Guatemala,  1!)  miles  8.  W.  of  the  city  of  Guatemala. 
near  the  lake  of  the  same  name;  lat.  14'  28'  39"  N., 
Ion.  90°  37'  50"  W.  (see  nuip  of  t'eiitral  America,  ref.  4-1)). 
The  houses  are  made  of  mud,  and  arc  only  one  story  high. 
Wells  of  boiling  hot  water  occur  in  this  vicinity.  The  chief 
business  is  the  production  of  cochineal.     Pop.  about  4.000. 

Amatoil'galaiid :  an  independent  native  state  of  South 
Africa,  extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean  from 
Delagoa  Bav  to  St.  Lueia  Lake,  and  inland  to  the  Trans- 
vaal. Area," 5.300  sq.  nules.  Pop.  estimated  at  37.000.  The 
Anuitonga  peo])le  are  of  Zulu  extraction,  but  are  much 
mixed  with  Swazi  blood.  They  are  governed  by  a  queen, 
imdcr  whom  are  seventeen  feudal  chiefs.  M.  W.  II. 

Amaurosis:  See  Blindness. 

Aiiiaii'ry  (or  Aiiial'ric)  I. :  King  of  Jerusalem  ;  a  son  of 
Baldwin  II. :  1>.  in  1135.  lie  began  to  reign  at  the  death  of 
his  brother,  Baldwin  III.,  in  1162  or  1163.  In  1168  he  in- 
vaded Egypt,  from  which  he  was  soon  forced  to  retreat  by 
Saladin,  who  in  turn  invaded  Amaurv's  dominions  in  1170. 
1).  July  11,  1173. 

Amanry  II..  sometimes  called  .\inaiiry  de  Liisiariiaii : 
lieeame  King  of  Cypms  as  heir  of  his  brother  Guy,  and  on 
his  marriage  witli  Isabella  took  the  title  of  King  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  1198.  His  dominions  were  occupied  by  the  victorious 
Saracens,  so  that  his  reign  was  only  nominal.     D.  in  1205. 

Aiiiaxichi,  ara-aks-ee'kee,  or  Santa  Maura:  the  capital 
of  the  Ionian  island  of  Santa  Maura  (or  Leucadia),  is  on  its 
east  coast.  It  ha-s  a  lighthouse,  and  a  harbor  ada|>ted  for 
small  vessels.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  Greek  archbishcj]). 
Pop.  7,000.  Earthquakes  often  occur  here.  The  renuiins  of 
Cyclopean  walls  are  found  in  the  vicinity. 

Amazi'all:  King  cif  Judah  (2  Kings,  xiv.  1-20),  succeeded 
his  father  Joasli  aliout  837  H.  c.  lie  waged  war  with  success 
against  the  Edouiites,  and  reigned  twenty-eight  or  twenty- 
nine  vears.  lie  was  killed  by  conspirators  at  Laehish,  in 
809  B.'c. 

Ani'azon,  or  Auiazous  [so  called  from  the  fabled  tribe 
of  female  warriors  said  by  the  Indians  to  exist  on  its  banks, 
and  which  Orellana  imagined  he  had  encountered] :  a  South 
American  river,  and  the  largest  river  on  the  globe,  rises 
among  the  Andes  in  Peru.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
several  large  h.ead-streams  called  the  Beni,  Apurimac,  Ucay- 
ale,  and  Tunguragua,  which  last  is  the  most  western  branch, 
and  is  sometimes  called  tlie  ujiper  Mariiuon.  Geographers 
liave  not  unanimously  decided  which  of  these  is  the  main 
stream.  The  Apurimac,  the  most  southern  of  all  the 
branches,  rises  about  lat.  15°  S. 

By  South  Americans  this  river  is  known  under  three  dif- 
ferent names  in  different  pai'ts  of  its  course  :  from  its  moulli 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro  it  is  called  the  Amazonas  or 
Amazon  :  from  th(>  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro  to  Tal)atinga, 
on  the  borders  of  Ecuador,  it  is  known  as  the  Solimoens : 
and  from  Tabatinga  to  its  source  in  the  Andes  it  is  called 
the  Maranon  (corruption  of  the  Tupi-Indian  word  parand, 
a  great  body  of  water :  the  name  given  by  them  to  the  whole 
river).  The  Amazon,  from  its  junction  with  the  Napo  in 
Ecuador,  has  a  nearly  due  ea.stern  course,  varying  therefrom 
not  moi'e  than  two  or  three  degrees  throughout  its  whole 
length;  it  is  therefore  almost  wlioUy  in  the  same  latitude, 
which  is  not  the  case  with  any  other  river  of  large  size  on 
the  globe,  it  is  also  entirely  within  the  tropics,  and  only 
about  three  or  four  degrees  from  the  e(puitoi',  but  the  climate 
is  not  so  hot  and  sickly  a.s  might,  from  this,  be  su|)posed,  the 
average  teinj)ei-ature  being  84°,  and  the  extremes  73°  and 
94°.  The  waters  of  the  main  river,  owing  to  the  clay  which 
they  contain,  jire  somewhat  turbid,  but  those  tributaries 
which  rise  in  the  woody  plains  have  their  waters  black  or 
of  a  dark  and)er  color,  and  in  sonn^  cases  of  a  deep  green, 
being  dyed  by  the  vegetable  matter  found  so  abundantly 
along  their  banks.  This  nnghty  stream,  llowing  througii 
Ecuador  and  the  boundless  forests  of  Brazil,  an<l  increased 
to  an  innnense  volume  by  the  great  tributaries  that  enter  it 
from  tile  right  and  from  the  left,  empties  itself  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  under  the  e(|Uator.  Itswhol(>  length.  Includ- 
ing windings,  is  rather  more  than  3.000  miles,  and  the  area 
of  the  countries  which  it  drains  is  estimated  at  2.500.(100  sq. 
miles.     It  is  said  to  be  4  miles  witle  at  the  mouth  (jf  the 


Japura,  more  than  1,000  miles  from  the  sea.  The  navigation 
of  the  upper  Maranon  is  obstructed  by  rapids.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  facts  connected  with  the  Amazon  is  the 
smallncss  of  its  fall ;  at  a  distance  of  2,.5O0  miles  from  its 
mouth  the  elevation  is  only  210  feet ;  the  descent  is  therefore 
about  an  inch  to  the  mile.  According  to  Lieut.  Herndon, 
the  river  and  its  Ucayale  branch  are  navigable  for  a  distance 
of  about  3,300  miles  from  the  ocean,  but  this  is  overesti- 
mated. The  Tung-uragua  is  likewise  navigable  for  many 
miles  al)ove  the  mouth  of  the  Ucayale.  Boats  can  also  be 
navigated  from  the  Amazon,  through  the  Rio  Negro  and  the 
('assii|uiari.  into  the  Orinoco,  but  they  are  obliged  to  pass 
rapiils  on  the  Negro,  and  again  on  the  Orinoco,  before  they 
can  reach  the  sea.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Amazon  and  its 
affluents  open  to  the  ocean  15,000  niUes  of  interior  naviga- 
tion for  large  vessels.  The  tide  ascends  it  over  400  miles, 
and  al)out  the  time  of  full  moon  a  great  tidal  wave  rushes 
into  the  mouth  of  the  river  with  such  violence  that  it  raises 
the  water  nearly  30  feet  high.  This  wave,  which  is  very 
dangerous  to  small  vessels,  is  called  hare  in  Englisli  and 
jjon/ruca  by  the  natives.  The  river  aboinids,  in  some  parts, 
in  turtles,  whose  eggs  yield  a  valuable  oil.  The  principal 
alBuents  from  the  right  are  the  Ucayale.  the  Yunia,  the 
Purus,  the  Madeira,  and  the  Tapajos.  Those  that  enter  it 
from  the  left  are  the  Najio.  the  Putumayo,  the  Japura,  and 
the  Rio  Negro.  The  Tocantins  is  not  properly  a  branch  of 
the  Amazon.  Diu'lng  the  rainy  season  the  Amazon  over- 
flows its  banks  ;uid  submerges  a  large  extent  of  country. 
It  is  well  supplii'd  with  tish,  and  flows  through  a  region  of 
great  fertility,  which  is  densely  covered  with  primeval  and 
almost  impassable  forests,  in  which  jaguars,  pumas,  mon- 
keys, tapirs,  and  other  wild  animals  abound.  The  river  in- 
closes numerous  large  islands,  besides  that  named  Marajo  or 
.Joannes,  which  is  150  miles  in  diameter.  This  island  sep- 
arates the  mouth  of  the  Anuizon  from  that  of  the  Tocantins, 
liut  the  two  rivers  are  connected  W.  and  S.  of  Marajo  by 
channels,  through  which  a  small  portion  of  Amazonian 
water  reaches  the  Tocantins  and  its  mouth,  the  Para.  The 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  was  discovered  by  Yanez  Pinzon  in 
1500,  but  the  tirst  Euro]iean  who  explored  the  river  was 
Orellana,  in  1539.  Early  maps  sometimes  name  the  river 
Rio  de  Orellana,  after  this  explorer.  Since  18ti7  the  river 
has  been  opened  ft)r  trade  to  all  nations.  The  dense  forest 
that  covers  the  valley  of  the  upper  Anuizon  is  a  remarkable 
featiu'e.  See  II.  W.  Bi^tes,  The  Naturalist  on  t/ie  Amazon 
(1st  ed.  Lond.  1863 ;  the  subsequent  ones  are  somewhat 
abridged);  Orton,  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon;  Keller,  7'he 
Amazon  and  Madeira  Hirers:  Edwards,  A  Voyage  np  the 
River  Amazon;  Spix  an<l  'Mnrtm?.,  Reise  in  Brazilien,yo\. 
iii. ;  0.  R.  INlarkham.  Valleij  of  the  Amazon;  and  the  works 
of  Ilartt,  Wallace.  Von  den  Steinen,  Penna,  II.  11.  Smith, 
Myers,  Ilassaurek,  Maw.  Smythe,  Herndon,  Gibbon,  Acufla, 
Poeppig,  Barboza,  Rodriguez,  and  Chandlers. 

Revised  by  H.  H.  Smith. 

Auiazo'nas,  or  Al'to  Amazo'nas  (i.  e.  upper  Amazon):  a 
state  in  Northern  Brazil  :  bounded  N.  by  Dutch  and  British 
Guiana  and  Venezuela.  E.  by  the  province  of  Para,  S.  by 
Bolivia,  and  Matto  Grosso.  and  W.  by  the  United  States  of 
('olond)ia.  Ecuador,  and  Peru.  Area.  732,460  sq.  miles.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  forests,  iidiabitt>d  by  small  independent 
tribes  of  Indians.  The  most  important  rivers  in  this  prov- 
ince are  the  Amazon,  which  is  called  the  Solimoens  above 
Manaos,  the  Negro,  Putumayo,  Purus,  and  Madeira.  The 
entire  civilized  population  amounts  to  (1888)  80,654.  Capital, 
Manaos  (formerly  Barra  do  Rio  Negro). 

Aniazoiias:  a  territory  of  Venezuela,  forming  the  ex- 
treuu' south  of  that  ciaintrv,  with  Brazil  on  the  S.  andS.  E.and 
Colomliiaon  the  W.  It  is  chdmeil  by  Brazil.  Area,  90.928 
s(|.  miles.  Pop.  about  19.0(10,  mostly  Indians.  It  is  drained 
in  part  by  the  Orinoco,  in  jiart  by  the  Anuizon.  and  within 
it  is  the  celebrated  riv<'r  Cassiipiiari,  which  connects  the 
(»rinoco  with  the  Rio  Negro,  a  bi'anch  of  the  Amazon.  See 
C.issivriAHi.  M.  W.  H. 

Amazonas:  a  department  of  Peru;  bounded  N.  by 
Ecuador,  E.  by  Loreto,  S.  by  Junin,  and  W.  by  ('ajamarca 
and  Libertad."  The  .soil  is  fertile,  liul.  owing  to  thinness  of 
pojiulat ion.  very  little  is  done  to  cultivate  it.  Straw  hats 
of  a  superior  (|ualilv  are  made  here  ami  exporteil.  Chief 
town.   CliacliM|ioyas.  "  Area,   14,129  sq.  miles.     Pop.  34,245. 

Am'azoiis  |from  Gi-.a/xaiuv.  The Gr.  explanation  from  d-, 
not  -I-  iia(6s.  breast,  is  no  uuire  than  a  folk-etymology]:  female 
w:irriors;  a  semi-fabulous  nation  of  martial  women  wliic^h  was 
celcbratetl    by   the  ancient  Greek  poets.     They  are  said  to 


AMBALEMA 


AMBLYOPSIS 


145 


liiive  eiit  off  tlieir  right  hreasts,  so  as  not  1o  inlerfcfc  with 
thi'ir  aim  in  shooting.  Actonling  to  tnulition,  tlicy  lived  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  fought  against  f lie  Greeks  at  tlio  siege  of 
Troy,  wliere  tliey  were  eoniinande<l  by  tlieir  (jiu'en.  Pen- 
thesilea.  Another  Queen  of  the  Amazons,  nauicil  Tlialestris, 
is  said  to  have  made  amorous  overtures  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  The  liattles  of  the  Amazons  were  favorite  sulijeets 
with  ancient  (ireek  paintei-s  andscMdptoi-s.  In  modern  times 
thi!  Afriean  kingdom  of  Dahomey  lias  been  noted  for  its 
army  of  Amazons,  distinguished  tor  tlieir  bravery. 

Aiiiliale'niii:  a  town  in  the  republie  of  Colomliia:  in  the 
.stall'  of  Ciindinainarca ;  on  the  -Magdalena,  about  50  mih'S 
\V.  of  Uogolii  (see  map  of  South  America,  ret.  2-15).  Kxeel- 
li-nt  tobacco  is  iirodiu'Cil  in  the  neighborhood.     Pop.  about 

D.rnn. 

Aiiiltal'ii.  or  I'nibiilla  :  a  city  of  India;  in  the  Nortli- 
western  Provinces;  capital  of  a  ilistriet  and  division  of  llie 
same  name  (see  map  of  Northern  India,  ret,  4-K).  Pop. 
(ISDl)  T!),270.  Here  a  treaty  wa.s  concluded  between  the 
(iovenior-(icni-ral  of  India.  Lord  Mayo,  and  the  Emir  Shere 
Ali  of  Afghanistan  in  186!). 

Aiiiharva'lin  [Lat.  amb-,  around  +  arva,  fields] :  a  religious 
festival  oliserved  by  the  ancient  Komans  in  the  month  of 
May,  in  order  to  jiropiti.-de  Ceres  and  invoke  her  lilessing  on 
tlic  coming  harvest.  It  was  so  called  from  the  victims  being 
carried  round  the  fielils  by  the  priests. 

Aiiibas'sador,  or  Embassador  [via  Fr.  nmhfisxmJriir: 
l\n\.  (iiiibiixfiafon'.  from  niedia^v.  Lat.  *(UHli<irtia  tor,  deriv. 
of  \m\.  iinih(u;'tun,  retainer.  Tlie  spelling  with  em-  was  the 
commoner  two  centuries  ago,  and  remains  now  in  emha/tfiy] : 
a  tliplomutie  minister  of  thc^  liighest  order,  sent  by  a  prince 
or  nation  to  the  <^ourt  of  another  power  to  manage  special 
alTairs  of  state.  He  is  expected  not  only  to  be  the  agent  of 
his  gox-ernnient,  l)ut  to  I'epresent  the  power  and  dignity  of 
his  sovereign  or  his  country.  (See  DirLOM.vTio  Agents.) 
The  word  amliassador  is  recognized  as  an  oIKeial  title  of  the 
higliest  rank  of  tlie  di|)lomatic  service  of  the  U.  S.  See  1n- 
TiiK.N'ATio.VAl.  L.iw,  Summary  of  its  Principles. 

T.   S.   WOOLSEY. 

Amba'to:  a  town  of  Ecuador.  65  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Quito 
(see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  3-B);  has  an  active  trade 
in  grain,  sugar,  and  cochineal.  It  was  destroyed  in  1698  by 
an  eruption  of  L'ot0|)axi,  but  was  soon  rebuilt.     Pop.  13,00(3. 

Am'her  [Fr.  cimbre,  from  .\rah.  anhar,  ambergris,  by 
confusion  extended  to  the  resinous  amber  (Gr.  fjKtKrpov).  The 
French  distinguish  ambre  gris,  gi'ay  anibcT,  ambergris,  and 
anibiv  j'liiiie,  yellow  amber] :  Ji  fossil  resin,  usually  of  a 
pale  yelli^w  color.  opa({Ue  to  perfectly  transparent.  It  is 
touiid  in  many  jiarts  of  the  world  in  deposits  of  cretaceous 
or  tertiary  age.  and  is  now  known  to  be  a  resinous  exiula- 
tion  from  several  species  of  extinct  coniferous  trees,  of  whieli 
one,  called  I'inites  siicrinifrr,  is  sni)[)osed  to  have  produced 
the  greater  part.  Over  800  species  of  insects  liave  been 
found  pr(werved  in  amber,  and  leaves  or  other  fragments 
of  10:1  species  o£  plants,  .\mber  is  extensively  used  for  or- 
naments, and  especially  for  the  mouthpieces  of  pipes,  the 
consumption  lieing  greatest  in  Ejustern  Euro|)e,  Turkey. 
Peisia,  etc.  The  largest  mass  known  is  in  the  Cal)inet  at 
Berlin  ;  it  weighs  18  lb.  and  is  valued  at  .f  30,000.  Most  of 
the  amber  of  commerce  was  formerly  obtained  from  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  between  Konigslierg  and  Memel ;  but 
now  the  greater  part  is  systematically  dug  or  mined  for, 
near  the  latter  place,  at  some  distance  from  the  sea.  Small 
jiieees  are  frecjuently  found  in  the  green  sand  of  Gay  Head 
and  New  .lersey,  and  in  tlie  tertiary  coals  of  tlie  fjii-  West. 
,\mtier  was  highly  prized  and  much  used  by  the  ancients, 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  eoniraerce  among  the  early 
Britons.  Celts.  Komans,  etc.  It  was  formerly  employed  as  a 
charm  against  witchcraft,  etc. ;  many  supei-stitions  "as  to  its 
fancied  virtues  are  still  believed  by  the  credulous.  It  was 
an  object  in  many  of  the  voyages  of  the  Pha'nicians,  and 
was  an  article  of  exchange  long  anterior  to  the  dawn  of 
history,  as  wt-  know  by  its  fn'quent  occurrence  in  the  re- 
mains of  the  lake-dwi'ilings  of  Switzerland. 

Amber  exhales  a  fragrant  odor  when  burned,  and  was 
formerly  in  high  repute  as  a  medicine.  An  acid  obtained 
trom  it  (succinic)  is  a  useful  agent  in  chemical  operat  ions. 
When  rublied,  amber  becomes  strongly  electro-negative,  and 
the  first  exhiliition  of  electric  force  "which  received  intelli- 
gent attcutiou  was  the  attraction  exerted  on  light  bodies  by 
amlier.  This  force,  at  first  supposed  to  be  possessed  by 
ID 


amber  alone,   took   the  name  of  that  substance,  ijKeKTpov, 
from  which  "electricity"  is  derived. 

Revised  by  Geo.  F.  Kuxz. 

Anibpr-flsli.  or  Ainber-jack ;  a  large  fish  of  the  genus 
Sen'ii/ii  and  family  ('iiniiii/iiln-.  The  amljer-fishes  are  allied 
to  the  cavalhis  and  mackerels,  and  reach  a  length  of  from  3 
to  5  feet  in  tlie  tropical  seas.    They  are  of  fair  quality  as  food. 

Am'borsf:  a  walled  town  of  Bavaria;  on  the  river  Vils; 
3!)  miles  E.  of  Nuremberg  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
()-F) ;  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  I'pper  Palatinate.  It 
is  well  built,  and  lias  a  gymnasium,  a  normal  school,  and  a 
large  public  library ;  also  a  royal  manufactory  of  muskets, 
and  several  breweries  and  jiotteries.  The  Frencli  Kepubli- 
can  army  under  Jourdan  was  defeated  near  this  town  by  the 
Archduke  Charles,  commanding  the  Anstrians,  in  17i)6.  Pop. 
(1880)  14,583  ;  (1890)  19,098. 

Aiu'bcrg'ris  [from  Fr.  oiiihi-i'  (/rlK.  i.  e.  gray  amber]:  a 
concretion  formed  in  tlie  intestines  of  the  sperm  whale 
(J'/iytii'/i-r  niticrorcp/i'dhin),  mid  found  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  seas  where  this  animal  occurs.  In  it  are  often 
found  embedded  the  horny  beaks  of  the  squids,  on  which  the 
whale  feeds.  It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine,  but  is  now 
dissolved  in  alcohol  and  used  as  a  base  in  jierfumes,  render- 
ing them  more  lasting.  The  price  of  it  is  aliout  $5  an  ounce. 
It  affords  about  85  ]ier  cent,  of  a  peculiar  fatty  and  crystal- 
line subject  called  ambrein.  The  specific  gravity  of  amber- 
gris is  aijout  0'8. 

Aiii)»('l'g:ris  (so  called  from  the  ambergris  found  on  its 
shores):  a  barren  islaml  at  the  S.  W.  angle  of  Yucatan :  is 
30  miles  long  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  3  miles  wide;  said 
to  bc'  uninhabited. 

Amhi'orix :  a  famous  Gallic  cliief  who  niled  over  the 
Belgic  tribe  of  Eburones,  and  waged  war  against  Julius 
Ciesar.  By  insidious  measures  and  stratagem  he  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Komaii  Generals  Sabinus  and  Cotta, 
whose  army  he  annihilated  in  54  B.  c,  during  the  absence  of 
their  commander.  lie  was  afterward  signally  defeated  by 
C'scsar. 

Alli'bitus  [Ijat.,  a  going  round,  i.  e.  to  canvass  for  votes  ; 
from  (imhi'ri'.  (iiiib-.  round  -I-  'ire.  to  go] :  a  term  used  by  the 
ancient  Komans  to  designaie  the  going  about  and  soliciting 
votes  by  candidates  for  office.  The  practice  of  offering  one's 
self  as  a  candidate  in  an  open  and  honorable  way  was  called 
n iii'bitiis  jxtpuln  ris.  Another  kind,  which  was  common,  but 
disreputable,  consisted  in  cajolery,  bribery,  etc. 

.\iiiblcr:  borough  (organized  in  1888  from  parts  of  Upper 
Dublin  and  Gwynedd  townshiiis).  i\[iintgoiiiery  co.,  Pa.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-J);  16 
miles  N.  of  Philadelphia;  on  tlie  Philadelphia  and  Keading 
1{.  R. :  is  a  growing  manufacturing  place,  situated  in  an 
agricultural  district.     Pop.  (1880)  251 ;  (1890)  1,073. 

Aliibletensp:  a  decayed  seaport  of  France,  on  the  Eng- 
lisli  Channel.  0  miles  N.  of  Boulogne,  and  about  25  miles 
Iroiii  the  English  coast  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  1-E).  Here 
.lames  II.  of  England  landed  after  his  abdication  in  1689, 
and  here  Xa]ioleon  I.  erected  a  granite  column  in  honor  of 
the  Grand  Army  in  1805. 

Amblyop's^is  [from  Gr.  aii$\v!,  dull  +  i  wir-.  see  in  &\f).  eye. 
uwarwa.  have  seen,  onrd^oiJiat,  look,  etc.;  an0\vamla  suggests  the 
correcter  (//Hi^yo/j/H] :  a  genus  of  liliiid  fishes.  This  genus 
contains  a  single  species  {Anibli/iip'sis  K/u'/(e'u><).  wliich  is 
found  in  the  caves  of  Kenlucky  and  Indiana.  The  eyes  of 
this  fish,  though  seemingly  absent,  exist  in  a  rudimentary 


Aiublyopsis  speltuus. 

state,  hidden  beneath  the  skin.  The  body  is  tran.slucent,. 
and  jiartly  covered  with  scales,  and  reaches  a  lengtli  of  about 
5  inches.  Prof.  Cope,  descriiiing  the  habits  of  these  fish, 
says:  "They  are  easily  taken  by  the  hand  or  net  if  perfect 
silence  be  preserved,  for  tliey  are  unconscious  of  the  pres- 
ence of  an  enemy  except  through  the  sense  of  hearing.  This 
sense  is,  however,  evidently  very  acute,  for  at  any  noise  they 
turn  suddenly  downward  ami  hide  beneath  stones,  etc.,  on 
the  bottom."  Their  food  consists  in  a  great  part  of  the 
crayfish  found  in  the  (^tve,  but  they  sometimes  feed  on  other 


liO 


AMBLYSTOMA 


AMBULANCE 


fish,  in  the  pursuit  of  which  they  show  remarkable  activity, 
thus  proving  that  tlie  tactile  sense  is  well  developed.  The 
genus  bi'lDiigs  to  the  order  Ilaplomi,  its  nearest  kindred  Vic- 
ing mud-minnows,  pickerels,  and  killifishes.  The  family  of 
Amhhjnpshtce  contains  three  genera,  Amhlyopsis  and  Typh- 
lichthys,  which  are  IjUnd  and  are  confined  to  the  caves,  and 
Choloffaxter,  which  has  well-developed  eyes,  and  is  found 
throughout  the  swamp  region  from  Virginia  southward. 
From  C/iolnffdxfer  or  some  similar  type  the  others  are  evi- 
dently di'sccndcd.  See  an  accoimt  (l>y  F.  AV.  Putnam)  of  tlie 
Blind  Fishes  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  in  the  American  yat- 
uralist  for  Jan.,  1872.  Kcvised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

AlllblTS'tOllia  [from  Gr.  aft.$\is.  bhmt  -I-  trriJ^a.  mouth] :  a 
genus  of  American  salamanders  containing  many  species, 
the  commonest  and  mcjst  widely  distributed  of  whicli  is  the 
tiger  salamander,  ^-1.  figrinnm.  This  large  salamander  is 
comfun  over  all  of  Xorth  America,  and  in  the  West  and 
South  its  larva  is  conspicuous  in  ponds  and  streams.  Its 
metamor]ihosis  may  easily  be  retarded,  and  in  Mexico  seems 
to  take  place  rarely,  the  animal  propagating  in  the  larval 
state  while  retaining  its  external  gills.    See  Axolotl. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Alli'bo  [Lat.  nmJjo.  -n'liis,  from  Gr.  ifiPaiv,  ridge,  reading- 
desk]  :  a  reading-desk  or  pulpit  which  was  common  in 
ancient  Christian  churches,  and  is  still  found  in  Oriental 
churches.  The  Gospels  and  Epistles  were  read  fi'oin  tlie 
ambo. 

Ainboina :  See  Ambovxa. 

Aliiboise,  am -bwaws'  (anc.  Aiiibacia):  an  old  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  Iiidre-et-Loire,  on  the  railway 
from  Orleans  to  Tours,  14  miles  by  rail  E.  X.  E.  of  Tours 
(see  map  of  France,  ref.  5-E).  Here  is  a  splendid  chateau 
of  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place 
of  imprisonment  of  Abd-el-Kader  from  1848^3.  Here  the 
"Conjuration  d"Amboise,"  a  conspiracy  of  the  Huguenots 
against  the  Guises,  was  formed  in  1560.  It  has  been  the 
residence  of  several  of  the  Kings  of  France.  Pop.  (1881) 
4.167. 

Aiuboise,  (jKorges,  Cardinal  d' :  French  statesman  ;  b. 
at  Chaunjont-snr-Loire  in  1460.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Rouen  in  1493.  and  a  faithful  adherent  of  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans, who,  on  ascending  the  throne  as  Louis  XII.  in  1498, 
chose  him  for  his  prime  minister,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
became  a  cardinal.  He  was  an  able  administrator  and  a 
prudent  counselor.  He  retained  power  until  his  death  at 
Lyons.  :May  35,  1510. 

Alii'boy:  city;  Lee  co..  III.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-E):  94  miles  AY.  of  Chicago;  at  the 
junction  of  the  C,  B.  and  Q.  and  III.  Cent.  R.  Rs.  It  has  a 
fine  publi(r  hall.  4  free-school  buildings,  6  churches,  3  news- 
papers, grain-elevators,  and  the  Illinois  Central  shops,  em- 
ploying over  400  hands.  It  was  laid  out  in  1854.  Pop. 
(1870)3,835;  (1880)3,448;  (1890)3.357. 

Publisher  of  "  Xews." 

Aiiiboy'na  (Malay,  Aiiihnn):  the  most  important,  though 
not  the  largest,  iif  tlie  Moluccas  or  Spice  islands,  situated 
E.  of  Booro.  in  lat.  3  46'  S..  Ion.  aljout  138"  E.  (see  ma])  of 
East  Indies,  ref.  8-1).  It  is  about  30  miles  long,  and  has 
an  area  of  364  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and 
granite  rock  occurs  on  the  summits  of  some  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  staple  jiroductiou  is  cloves,  the  trade  in  which 
W!us  once  m()no|i()lized  by  the  Dutch.  About  .500.000  lb.  of 
cloves  is  the  avci-age  quantity  annually  produced  here.  The 
aborigines  of  the  island  are  cabed  Iloraforas.  but  the  most 
of  the  population  are  Malays,  and  the  inhaliitanls  ai'e  mostly 
Christians  or  .Mohammedans.  The  Portuguese  were  the  first 
Europeans  that  visited  Amboina  (1513).  and  they  obtained 
Iieaceable  possession  in  1.580;  it  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in 
1605.  A  Hritish  settlement  was  made  here  about  1615,  which 
was  destroyed  Ijy  the  Dutch  in  1633.  The  island  was  taken 
by  the  Hritish  in  1796,  and  re.stored  in  1803;  retaken  by  the 
Biilish  ill  1810,  and  restored  again  in  1814.  Pop.  estimated 
at  30.000. 

Aniboyiin  :  the  capital  of  tlie  Dutch  Government  of  Am- 
boina. on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  and  defended  by 
Fort  Victoria  (see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  8-1).  It  is  regu- 
larly built,  ha.s  a  public  garden,  and  a  good  harbor.     Pop. 

aboiit  13.(10(1. 

Anibra'oia  :  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  on  the  site  of  the 
modern  .\rta  ;  was  the  ca])ital  of  Epirus  during  the  reign  of 
King  Pyriluis,  who  was  killed  272  B. c. 


Ain'briz :  formerly  a  small  native  kingdom  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  about  the  lower  part  of  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  now  a  part  of  the  Portuguese  colony  of  Angola.  The 
name  is  applied  now  to  a  race  of  natives  in  this  part  of  Af- 
rica, and  the  river  is  called  Brisho  or  Loge. 

Ain'bros,  Augist  W'ilhelm:  German  composer:  b.  at 
Mauth.  Bohemia,  Xov.  17,  1816:  became  in  1869  Professor 
of  Music  in  the  University  of  Prague.  Among  his  works 
are  overtures  to  Goiofem  and  Othello,  and  a  T/iMory  of 
JJti-tie  (Geschichte  der  Musik.  1863-68).  D.  in  Vienna,  June 
28,  1876. 

Ain'brose,  Si^xr:  one  of  the  Latin  Pathei-s  of  the 
Church ;  b.  in  Gaul  about  340  a.  d.  He  was  a  son  of  the 
Roman  prelect  of  Gaul,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lieen  born 
at  Treves.  Having  studied  law,  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Liguria  and  ^Emilia,  with  his  residence  at  ]Milan.  about 
370.  and  distinguished  himself  in  that  position  by  liis  wis- 
dom and  moderation.  On  the  death  of  the  Bishop  of  Milan 
in  374  A.  D..  a  violent  contest  ensued  between  the  Catholics 
and  Arians  about  the  choice  of  his  successor.  By  general 
consent  Ambrose,  who  was  not  obnoxious  to  either  party, 
was  elected  bishop,  although  he  had  never  been  a  priest.  He 
accepted  the  office  with  reluctance,  but  performed  its  duties 
with  great  ability  and  zeal.  Under  his  jireachiiig  Augustine 
was  converted.  He  favored  the  Catholics  and  earnestly  op- 
posed Arianism,  but  he  does  not  appear  to  have  Ijeen  a  vio- 
lent persecutor.  On  several  occasions  he  manifested  moral 
courage  by  denouncing  the  sins  and  cliecking  the  arrogance 
of  temporal  rulers  and  potentates.  The  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great  having  ordered  a  massacre  of  the  Thessalo- 
nians  in  390.  Amlirose  forbade  him  to  enter  the  church,  and 
extorted  from  him  the  performance  of  a  public  jienance  of 
eight  months,  and  the  iiromise  that  thereafter  no  sentence 
of  death  should  be  executed  until  thirty  days  after  it  was 
passed.  D.  at  Milan.  April  4,  397  a.  d.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  metliod  of  singing  called  the  "•Ambrosian  Cliant."  and 
left  numerous  religious  works  and  letters.  He  is  commended 
by  Villeniain  as  "a  man  who.  amid,  the  turbulence  and  in- 
stability of  the  empire,  never  had  a  foible  or  a  stain  on  his 
character,  and  whose  magnanimity  was  adequate  to  all 
trials."  Revised  by  S.  Jl.  Jacksox. 

Ainbro'sia  [from  Gr.  a/jLPpoa-la.  to  i/xfiporos.  immortal: 
0-.  not  -I-  Ppot6s  (<  *iJ.poT6s].  mortal] :  in  classic  tnrthology, 
••  the  food  of  the  goils."  which  was  supposed  to  confer  im- 
mortal youth.  According  to  a  poetical  legend,  it  was  some- 
times given  to  mortals  who  were  favorites  of  the  gods,  and 
was  used  by  Jupiter  and  Venus  to  anoint  their  hair.  Am- 
brosia is  also  the  name  of  a  genus  of  weeds,  one  sjiccies  of 
which,  common  in  the  U.  S..  is  known  by  the  name  of  hog- 
weed  or  Roman  wormwood. 

Anibrnsian  Cbanf:  the  choral  music  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church  ;  derived  its  name  from  St.  Ambrose.  Bishop 
of  Jlilan,  who  introduced  it  into  the  Western  Church  about 
386  A.  D.  The  style  of  singing  was  anti]ihonal :  the  musical 
notation  was,  no  doubt,  borrowed  from  the  Gret-k,  and 
adajited  to  the  church  services.  The  .\iiibiosian  chant  is 
the  hjuudation  ot  ancient  church  music. 

Ani'brotype:  See  Photography. 

Anibiila'cra  [])lur.  of  Lat.  ambula'crum,  walk,  avenue, 

from  (iiiiliii/a  re.  walk}:  the  series  of  tube-feet  or  locomotor 
organs  of  the  starfishes,  sea-urchins,  and  other  i-chiiiodcrms. 
In  those  with  hard  exoskeleton  the  feet  protrude  through 
|ierforalions  in  the  shell,  and  are  grouped  in  definite  areas, 
occupying  in  the  starfish  gi-ooves  along  the  under  side  of 
the  arms,  and  in  the  sea-urchin  forming  usually  five  merid- 
ional Viands.  Each  tuVie-foot  consists  of  a  thin  extensible 
lube  with  muscular  walls,  provided  with  a  terminal  sucker 
for  attachment  to  foreign  bodies.  Attaclnneiit  being  made, 
the  tube  contracts  and  draws  the  animal  forward.  The  tube- 
feet  form  a  part  of  the  water-vascular  system,  and  are  filled 
with  fluid.  They  are  sensory  as  well  as  locomotor  in  func- 
tion, those  nearest  the  tips  of  the  arms  in  the  starfish  being 
largely  used  for  this  purpose.  The  term  amiailacra  is  also 
used  for  the  perforated  areas  of  the  shell. 

David  S.  Jordan. 
Ani'hiilaiico  [Fr.  for  earlier  lidpHnl  nmbiihnt,  niovaVile 
hos]'ital:  Lat.  iinilitihtre.  to  walk]:  in  France,  a  movable 
hospital  attached  to  each  division  of  an  army,  and  furnished 
with  apparatus  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  It 
was  invented  or  improved  by  Baron  Larrey.  an<l  is  only  in- 
tended to  afford  help  of  a  more  or  less  tem]iorary  kind.  The 
name  is  now  coinniouly  given  to  a  covered  vehicle  liy  means 


AMBULANCE  CORPS 


AMERICA 


147 


of  which  wounded  men  are  removed  from  the  field  of  battle. 
Improvements  wore  made  in  the  construr-tion  of  ambulances 
during  the  civil  war  in  tlie  U.  S.,  1861-fio.  tlie  excellence  of 
Bliicli  was  recognized  by  their  nse  during  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war  of  1870.  Ambulances  are  now  attached  to  the 
hos[iitals  of  many  American  and  Kuro[)ean  cities. 

.\iiibiiliui('0  Corps:  a  body  of  men  employed  in  the  Brit- 
isli  army  in  the  Crimean  war  to  drive  ambulances  and  at- 
tend the  sick  and  wounded.  The  experiment  was  not  suc- 
cessful, and  the  ambulance  corps  was  superseded  by  the 
land  transport  corps.  In  the  civil  war  of  the  U.  S.  (1801-65) 
the  ofTieers  and  men  of  the  ambuhmce  corps  were  detailed 
from  the  line. 
AiiH'lairfliier:  .See  Jcxe-mkrrv. 
Aine'liii:  Sc<'  Ami:iua. 

.Vnielia  Island  :  in  t  lie  Atlantic :  a  part  of  Nassau  County, 
wliicli  forms  the  X.  E.  extremity  of  Florida  (for  location,  sec 
map  of  Florida,  ret".  2-.1).  It  is  16  miles  long  and  4  miles 
wide.  Amelia  island  light,  in  hit.  Hi)  40'  23"  X..  Ion.  81" 
28'  20"  W.,  is  at  the  N.  end  of  the  i-sland.  The  lighthouse 
is  Inult  of  brick,  .58  feet  high,  and  shows  a  flashing  white  light 
112  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Am61ie-Ies-Baiiis,  aVmay-lee'la-biih'  (i.  e.  the  baths  Ame- 
lia) :  a  celebrated  bathing-resort  in  the  Eastern  P)Tenees. 
France ;  700  feet  above  sea-level  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  9-P). 
The  watei-s  are  sulphurous  saline,  with  temperatures  ranging 
from  71  to  172  F.  Tliey  are  useful  in  diseases  of  the  liver 
and  respii-atorv  organs,  rheumatism,  scrofula,  and  s^-philis. 
Poll,  abnut  2.000.    "  M.  W.  H. 

Amclot  de  la  Houssaye.  a1im  Id'  de-la-oo'-sa',  Abraham 
Nicolas  :  b.  at  Orleans,  France,  in  1634 ;  served  for  some 
time  as  secretary  to  the  French  embassy  at  Venice,  but  de- 
voted himself  afterwai-il  exclusively  to  the  study  of  history 
and  liter.'ilure.  I),  in  Paris,  Dec.  8,  1706.  He  \\Tote  ITistoire 
ilii  (loiivvnii'mcnl  de.  Vnnisc  (}\  vols.,  1676);  also  translated 
I'.-ioli  Sarpi's  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  Prince 
by  Macchiavelli. 

Amen  [Gr.  ajirtv.  from  Ileb.  amen,  certainty;  as  an  adv., 
surely]:  in  the  .service  of  the  Christian  Church,  a  response 
!ind  expression  of  assent  at  the  end  of  a  prayer.  In  some 
pa.ssages  of  the  X'^ew  Testament,  at  the  beginning  of  an  em- 
phatic declaration,  it  is  translated  "verily." 

.4nipiide  Hoiiorahlc :  in  French  law.  a  form  of  infamous 
[lenalty  to  which  criminals  who  offended  against  public  de- 
cency or  morality  were  condemned.  The  simple  ameiuh 
iKiiKirahte  consisted  of  a  confi'ssion  in  open  court  made  by  a 
bareheaded  ami  kneeling  criminal.  The  amende  honorable 
in  tif/urix  was  iua<le  by  ji,  cul|irit  kneeling  in  his  shirt,  with 
a  torch  in  his  hand  and  a  rope  round  his  neck.  In  iiioderii 
.speech  the  term  is  applied  to  a  public  recantation  or  apology. 

Anu'nd'ment:  in  law,  is  the  correction  of  an  error  com- 
mitted in  any  jirocess,  or  the  alteration  of  the  record  or  of 
any  pleadings  in  a  civil  or  criminal  cause.  The  deficiency 
of  means  of  amendment  iu  pleading  at  common  law  led  to 
th(>  statutes  of  amenduumts  and  jeofails. 

Amknomkn't,  in  legislation,  is  an  alteration  in  the  words  of 
any  liill,  motion,  or  resolution.  Any  member  may  move  an 
amendment  to  a  bill  or  resolution  after  it  has  been  read  twice, 
and  it  is  usual  to  take  a  vote  on  the  amendment  first,  and 
next  on  the  main  ipiest  ion.  An  opponent  of  a  liill  has  a  right 
to  move  an  amendment  to  it  by  a  motion  to  strike  out  all 
after  the  enacting  clause,  and  to  substitute  a  contrary  prin- 
ciple. Either  Mouse  of  Parliament  (or  Congress)  ha.s  a  right 
to  amend  ji  bill  which  has  been  approved  by  the  other,  but 
such  anwnilmenis  must  receive  the  a.ssont  "of  both  Eouses 
before  the  bill  can  become  a  law. 

The  term  amendment  is  also  applied  to  an  alteration  of  the 
CoMstitution  of  the  V.  S.  To  render  an  amendment  valid  it 
must  be  first  proposed  by  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress, and  unist  be  ratified  liy  the  Legislatiu'es  of  three-fourths 
of  the  sever.'d  States.  The  most  recent  of  these  changes  in 
the  organic  law  is  the  Fifteenth  .Amendment,  which  ordains 
tliat  no  man  shall  be  disfranchised  on  account  of  color  or 
race.     See  Constitution. 

.\inoiio'|iliifs(or  .Vlir(>iiO))ll)  I. :  a  powerful  Kingof  Egypt ; 
the  sccand  of  tlir  Icu  kings  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  began 
to  reign  abcml   l.")(H)  ii.  r. 

.\m<'iii)|>his  (or  .\iiU'iio|ili)  II. :  the  sixth  king  of  the 
eighteentli  Kgyptian  dynasty  ;  reg.arded  by  some  authors  as 
identical  with  Meunion.  who  fought  against  the  Greeks  at 
the  ,siege  of  Troy.     See  .Mkmxon. 


Ainoii<>])liis  III.:  a  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  tlu' 
eighth  king  of  the  eighleenlh  Egyjitian  dynasty.  He  as- 
ceniled  the  throne  aliout  1400  n.c.  His  reign  was  long,  and 
greatly  iiromoti'd  the  prosperity  of  Egypt,  which  he  adorned 
with  many  noble  nu.iimment.s.  He  is  supposed  to  have  built 
the  palace  of  Luxor  (El-Ukser)  at  Thebe.s.  which  was  his 
capital.  His  military  exploits  are  recorded  on  the  obelisk 
now  .standing  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris.  Accord- 
ing to  IJunscii.  .\menopIi  111.  was  the  king  whom  the  Greeks 
called  Mi'iuiiiin. 

AlllCll'ta.  Xiri-oi.o:  b.  at  X'ajiles,  Italy,  in  16.59;  was  ftpoet, 
lawyer,  and  philologist,  and  composed  po|ndar  comedies. 
Among  tlieui  are  CoiiKfaiiza,  JI  i'tirra,  and  La  Carlotfa. 
He  wrote  also  Delia  Lingua  imhile  d'Jtalia,    D.  in  1719. 

AiiU'llta'ceiB  [from  Lat.  amenta' ceus.  having  an  amentum 
or  thong] :  a  name  given  by  Jussieu  to  a  luitural  order  of  di- 
cotyledonous trees  or  shrubs  liaving  tlieir  flowers  arranged  in 
aments  or  catkins.  It  included  the  birch,  willow,  alder,  and 
other  common  trees.  By  many  botanists  this  order  has  been 
broken  U])  into  the  Betulacea',  Salicacew,  and  others.  The 
order  (or  cohoi-t)  Anientales  of  recent  botanists  includes  the 
families  CupuUferm,  Jiiglandacew.  J/i/ricacew.  Casuarina- 
eea;  Salicaceai,  Piperacea',  Chloranlhaceu'.  and  Lacin/ema- 
eew.  CiiAULKS  E.  Bessey. 

Anicntiim  :  same  as  A»«e»)/.    See  Catkin. 

A'liicrhach.  Boniface,  son  of  Joiiann  Amerbach  ;  b.  at 
Basel,  .Switzerland,  in  1495;  taught  civil  law  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Basel  for  twenty  years,  and  was  intimate  with  Eras- 
mus, who  appointed  him  his  resi<lu;n-y  legatee.  With  his 
broth<>rs  he  corrected  an  edition  of  .St.  .Jerome  (1516-26).  D. 
at  Basel  in  1.562. 

Amcrbacll,  .JonANx:  b.  at  Reutlingen.  Swabia.  in  1443; 
was  a  famous  printer  of  Basel.  Switzerland,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  He  was  the  first  to  use  the  Roman  type  instead  of 
Gothic  and  Italian,  and  published  the  first  edition  of  the 
complete  works  of  St.  Augustine,  on  which  he  spared  no 
labor  oi-  expense.  He  was  rich,  learned,  and  pious,  and  had 
previously  published  the  works  of  St.  Ambrose,  and  after- 
ward undertook  to  prepare  those  of  St.  Jerome,  which  were 
published  after  his  death  under  the  direction  of  his  sons. 
1).  at  Basel,  Dec.  25,  1513. 

Aiiieree'meiit.  or  Amerciaiiicnl  [Anglo-Pr.  ame.rciment, 
fi'om  vl).  amerrier,  dei'iv.  n{  a  tiirrci,  e.g.  in  phrase  estre  a 
merci,  to  be  at  mercy  of  ;  esire  ainerrie.  to  be  fined  at  discre- 
tion ;  merci  <  Lat.  nier'cen.  -e  dix.  wages,  gift,  favor,  mercy]  : 
a  pecuniary  )Hmishment  whic'li  is  imjiosed  at  the  discretion 
of  the  judge  or  court.  Fines  differ  IVom  amercements  by 
growing  expres.sly  from  some  statute,  while  amercements  ai'e 
sucli  as  lu'c  arbitrarily  imposed. 

Allio'ria  :  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Umbria,  and 
one  of  the  most  important ;  about  15  miles  S.  of  Tuder 
and  7  W.  of  Xarni,  Ijetween  the  Tiber  and  (he  Xar  and  a 
few  miles  above  their  junction  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  .5-E). 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  11:55  n.  c.  but  this  date 
is  not,  historical.  Its  territory  extended  to  the  Tiber  and 
abounded  in  osiers  and  fruit-trees.  Its  lands  were  divided 
by  Augustus  among  his  veterans.  The  modern  town  of 
Amelia  retains  the  ancient  site  and  [larts  of  the  ancient  wall. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  population  of  9.000. 

Amcr'ica  [so  named  from  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  dis- 
covered a  |icirtion  of  the  continent  in  1499]:  one  of  the  four 
great  recognized  divisions  of  the  globe;  first  Jiractically 
mjide  known  to  Europeans  by  Cohnulius  in  1492,  although 
parts  of  it  were  visited  by  the  Northmen  in  the  eleventh 
century,  but  they  made  no  pernuuient  .settli'iuents. 

SihialiuH'  (Old  ,4/rf(.— .\mei'ica  appears  to  be  separated 
into  two  cfjutinents,  X'orth  and  South  America,  coiniected 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  or  Darien.  It  stretches  from 
Boothia  Felix,  lat.  71"  55'  N".,  to  Cajje  Horn,  56°  S.  In  its 
widest  jiarts  it  measures  over  3.000  miles,  the  extreme  E. 
)ioin1  being  Cape  St.  Charles,  in  lat.  .55  N.,  and  the  farthest 
\V..  Point  Parina.  Ion.  81'  W.  from  tTreenw'ich.  The  nar- 
rowest part  at  the  istlnnus  is  28  miles.  The  N.  boundary  is 
the  Arctic  Ocean;  the  E.,  through  its  whole  extent,  the  At- 
lantic; the  Southern  Ocean  washes  its  coa.st  on  the  S.,  and 
its  W.  shores  an;  bounded  by  the  Pacific.  America  is  about 
four  times  as  large  as  Europe,  and  one-third  larger  than 
Africa.  While  rather  less  than  Asia  in  area,  it  embraces 
about  three-teutlis  of  the  land  on  the  earth.  In  physical 
features  it  surpa.sses  all  other  regions  of  the  globe  in  the 
length  anil  volume  of  its  rivers,  the  area  of  its  lakes,  the  ex- 
tent of  its  valleys,  and  the  luimlier  of  its  mountain-ranges 


us 


AMERICA  (NORTH) 


(inferior  in  height  to  the  niraalayas  alone),  while  its  active 
volcanoes  embrace  more  than  two-thirds  of  those  known  to 
exist.  The  continent  stretclies  over  about  126'  of  latitude— 
8,280  miles— being  much  longer  tlian  any  other. 

The  following  table,  based"  on  the  best  authorities,  gives 
the  principal  political  divisions  of  the  continent,  with  their 
areas  and  populations : 


NAMES   OF   COUNTRIES. 


Sq.  miles. 


PopulatiOD. 


NortU  America 

Bermuda  islands 

Canada.  Dominion  of 

Greenland 

Mexico 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 

St.  Pien-e  and  Miquelon 

United  States 


Central  America 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras,  British 

Honduras.  Independent.. 

Nicaragua 

Salvador 


"West  Indies 

Spanish  possessions 

British  possessions , 

Haiti 

Santo  Domingo 

French  possessions 

Danish  possessions , 

Dutch  possessions 

Venezuelan  possessions. , 


South  America 

Ar;;entiue  Republic 

Bolivia. 

Brazil 

Chile  or  Chili 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Guiana,  British 

Guiana,  French 

Guiana.  Dutch 

Paraguay 

Patagonia  (in  Argentina  and  Chile). 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Falkland  islands 

Galapagos  islands 


Total  America . 


8,629,790 

80,036,538 

30 

15,8»4 

3.315,647 

4,829,411 

600,1X10 

10,221 

75l),ai2 

11,9S4,4K3 

462,200 

210,556 

91 

5,983 

3,593,600 

63,000,000* 

169,388 

3,896,488 

20.«73 

243,205 

4B.800 

1,452,000 

8,000 

31,471 

46,400 

431.917 

40.000 

360.000 

7,255 

777,893 

90,403 

6,461,980 

4l).934 

2.439,395 

13,241 

1,379,74(5 

10,204 

572.000 

1S,045 

610,000 

999 

342,889 

127 

32,786 

403 

45,162 

450 

40,000 

7,186,811 

38,367,855 

1,125,086 

3,973.626 

567,240 

2,019,549 

3,209,378 

16,.300,0<W 

293.970 

3.414,1X10 

514,000 

4,200,000 

120.000 

1,270.000 

109.000 

888,328 

46.S40 

25,796 

46.060 

82,000 

97,707 

490,000 

378,000 

3,250,000 

72,170 

728,447 

597,960 

2,323,520 

G,.'i(K) 

1,789 

2,400 

200 

16,076,338 

187,188,861 

•  Including  Alaska  and  Indians. 
JfoRTH  America. 

North  America  extenils  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf 
of  ^[exico  and  Central  America  on  the  S.  With  the  general 
outline  of  a  triangle,  it  is  deeply  indented  by  inlets,  bays, 
and  gulf.-;,  and  has  a  length  of  about  13,700  miles  on  the  At- 
lantic, 10,500  on  the  Pacific,  and  3,500  on  the  Arctic;  total, 
27,700  miles  of  coast-line.  The  continent  approaches  close- 
ly to  Asia  on  the  N',  W.  at  Bering  Strait,  48  miles  wide. 
In  the  N.  E.,  Greenland  is  separated  from  the  continent  by 
Ballin  Hiiy  ami  Davis  Strait. 

I'hi/giciil  Feaf lores. — North  America  may  be  roughly 
stated  as  presenting — 1.  In  the  N,  a  vast  series  of  plains, 
bleak  and  barren  and  crowded  with  lakes,  extending  from 
about  lat,  50'  N.  to  the  Frozen  Ocean ;  2,  The  region  E.  of 
the  Appalachian  range,  consisting  of  lands  mostly  of  low 
elevation  and  <liversiiled  soil:  3,  The  central  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  reaching  from  the  Alloghanies  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  embracing  in  its  E,  region  the  richest  agri- 
cultural portion  of  North  America,  in  its  W.  the  arid  and 
sandy  plains  of  the  Great  American  Desert;  4.  The  W. 
plateau,  stretching  from  the  llocky  Mountain  range  to  the 
Pacific,  a  region  rich  in  minerals,  with  a  varied  soil  and  a 

fenerally  ecpiaiile  climate;  5,  The  elevated  table-lands  of 
_Iexico,  with  thiir  extensive  mountain-ranges,  and  narrow 
coits|-line  of  lowlands  on  the  K.  and  W, 

Moiinliiiiis. — The  great  characteristic  ranges  of  mountains 
in  North  America,  creating  marked  divisions  of  its  water- 
sheds, and  with  broad  valleys  between,  are  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain range  in  the  \V,  and  the  Appalachian  (sometimes  called 
the  Alleghanies)  in  the  K.  The  Rocky  Mountains  (</,  v.)  may 
be  said  to  begin  in  British  American  territory,  aljove  lat, 
60"'  N.,  stretching  in  a  soutliern  ilirection  through  Montana, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado,  until  they  meet  the  Sierra 
JIadre  range,  which  runs  from  New  Mexico  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  Mexican  republic.  The  highest  Rocky 
Mountain   pcaka  are  the  Holy  Cross,  Pike's,  Long's,  and 


Torrcy's  peaks,  rising  to  a  height  of  between  14,000  and 
14,400  feet.  They  are.  however,  overtopped  by  Mt.  Whit- 
ney, in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  California,  14,898  feet  high. 
Numerous  collateral  ranges,  frequently  classed  as  part  of 
the  Kocky  Mountain  system,  run  in  directions  generally 
parallel.  These  comprise  the  Cascade  Mountains,  stretch- 
ing far  northward  from  S.  Oregon  into  British  America,  the 
Coast  Range  and  Sierra  Nevaila  in  California,  the  Wasatch 
Jlountains  in  Utah,  the  Wind  River  Mountains  and  the  Black 
Hills  in  Wyoming  and  Dakota.  The  Cascade  range  extends 
along  the  coast  as  far  N.  as  Alaska,  its  loftiest  i}eak,  Mt. 
Logan,  about  60"  30  N,.  being  19,500  feet  high.  Southward 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Mexico  have  the  volcanic  peaks  of 
Orizaba.  18,314  feet,  and  Popocatapetl,  17,887  feet.  The 
Appalachian  system  stretches  from  Western  North  Carolina 
northward  in  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  terminating  in 
isolated  mountains  of  lesser  elevation  and  the  White  Moun- 
tain range  in  the  New  England  States.  The  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  White  Mountains  is  Mt.  Washington,  6,293  feet. 
The  highest  Appalachian  peak  is  Mt.  Mitchell  in  the  Black 
Mountains  of  North  Carolina,  6,688  feet.  See  Appalachian 
Mountains. 

Bicers. — A  marked  feature  of  North  America  is  its  navi- 
gable rivers,  affording  means  of  interior  communication  to 
an  extent  unequaled  on  the  other  continents.  The  Missis- 
sippi alone,  with  its  liranches.  supplies  more  miles  of  inland 
navigation  than  all  Europe  possesses.  The  distance  from 
the  inoutli  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  farthest  point  navigable 
on  the  head-waters  of  the  Missouri  is  3,900  miles,  and  this 
great  river,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  twenty  Slates  and 
three  Territories.  The  St.  Lawrence  affords  a  water  transit 
(including  the  lakes  with  which  it  communicates)  of  2,200 
miles.  The  Mackenzie  river  in  the  N.  flows  through  British 
territory  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  (about  2,300  miles),  and  the 
Saskatchewan  (1,200  miles)  into  Lake  \Vinni]ieg,  while  the 
Frazer  river  runs  through  British  Colinnbia  to  the  Pacific. 
The  Yukon,  of  Alaska,  is  about  2,000  miles  long.  The  Co- 
lumbia rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  flows  through  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon,  and  reaches  the  Pacific.  The  IIud.son, 
navigable  for  150  miles  above  New  York,  is  always  crowded 
with  commerce.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  flows  into  the 
Gulf  of  Jlexico,  and  the  Colorado  into  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

Lakes  and  Bays. — The  inland  seas  of  North  America  com- 
prise Lakes  Superior,  with  an  area  of  30,829  sq.  miles;  Erie, 
9,900  sq.  miles;  Ontario,  7,104  sq.  miles;  Huron,  22.322  sq. 
miles ;  and  Michigan,  21,729  sq.  miles.  Lake  Champlain  lies 
between  New  York  and  Vermont.  All  these  are  great  ave- 
nues of  commerce,  while  Lakes  Winnipeg,  Athabasca,  Great 
Slave,  and  Great  Bear,  lying  in  the  bleak  regions  of  the  N., 
are  less  navigated.  Many  lesser  lakes  are  scattered  through 
the  Northerii  U.  S.  The'Gulf  of  Jiexico  washes  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  U.  S. ;  the  Gulf  of  California  is  on  the 
W.  coast.  Ballin  Bay  and  Hudson  P.ay  are  large  and  al- 
most land-locked  bodies  of  water  to  the  N.  of  Canada;  and 
these,  with  the  Gulf  of  St.  Ijawrence,  form  the  most  notable 
of  the  bays  which  indent  the  coast,  but  the  smaller  ones  are 
almost  innumerable. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — It  is  impossible  to  analyze  the 
diversified  geological  structure  of  the  continent  in  a  brief 
space.  The  pala'ozoic  rocks  cover  the  greater  portion,  con- 
sisting of  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  carboniferous  strata,  the 
latter  furdishing  great  coal-fields  in  Pennsylvania  and  other 
border-lands  of  the  Apjialachian  chain,  in  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, and  in  British  America.  Glacial  drift  and  bowlders 
are  scattered  profusely  over  many  regions  N.  of  about  40°. 
The  Atlantic  coast  develops  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary 
strata,  with  gneiss  beneath  it,  the  latter  covered  partially 
by  new  red  sandstone  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Alleghanies. 
Large  areas  of  cretaceous,  triassic,  and  oolitic  rocks  are 
found  in  the  W.,  and  in  California  the  secondary  strata  and 
tertiary  beds  are  most  prominent,  British  America  abounds 
in  the  "Laurent  ian  and  lluronian  rocks,  being  the  most  an- 
cient vet  found,  and  these  extend  S.  to  the  Adirondack  re- 
gion ii'i  New  York.  The  Rocky  ,AIountains  exhibit  volcanic 
rocks  and  the  upheaved  strata  of  granite,  slates,  and  car- 
boniferous rocks.  The  great  plateau  running  from  Mexico 
to  British  America,  W,  of  the  Rocky  Jlountains,  and  bi- 
sected hy  the  cafions  of  the  Colorado  to  the  depth  of  several 
thousand  feel,  exhibits  specimens  of  almost  all  the  geologi- 
cal structures.  North  America,  since  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  has  been  one  of  the  richest  parts  of  the 
globe  in  the  prodilction  of  gold  and  silver.  As  regards  gold, 
it  is  now  surpassed  in  richness  and  production  by  both  South 


d.  -,  m     9 


,L 


AMERICA  (CENTRAL) 


149 


Africa  anil  Australia  (see  Witwatersrand),  but  still  holds 
first  place  as  regards  silver.  Copper  is  largely  mined  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior  in  Michigan,  and  in  Mexico.  Tlie 
ujjper  Mississippi  affords  lead-ore  in  abundance,  and  the 
Sudbury  district  of  Ontario  is  rich  in  ni<d<el.  (Quicksilver 
is  found  in  California  and  Mexico.  Iron  aliounds.  salt  is 
distributed  widely,  and  the  immense  coal-beds,  both  bitu- 
minous and  anthracite,  atl'urd  a  practically  inexhaustible 
supply  of  fuel. 

C/ima/r. — All  the  climates  of  the  globe  may  be  found  in 
Nortli  America.  The  Xew  England  regions  are  colder  than 
the  W.  in  the  same  panilU'ls  of  latitude,  and  10  or  12 
lower  than  the  same  latitude  in  Western  Europe.  Vast 
regions  X.  of  the  lakes  are  almost  uninhabitable  from  the 
intense  cold,  while  in  the  Southern  States  and  ])arts  of 
Jlexico  the  climate  of  the  torrid  zone  prevails  during  a  part 
of  the  year.  The  mean  range  of  temperature  for  the  year 
is  as  follows  in  the  regions  named:  Alaska,  42'  F. ;  Ala- 
bama, 6(V  ;  ^lassaehusetts,  46";  AVashiugton  (city),  .'36': 
Greenland,  1:^ :  Mexico  (city),  61':  Nova  Scotia,  4-1'; 
(Quebec,  40':  California,  3.5 ' ;  Minjiesota,  43';  Florida,  TO'. 
Extrenu'S  of  temperature  and  sudden  changes  occur  in 
most  regions  remote  from  the  seaboard.  The  rainfall  is 
variable.  Parts  of  Mexico  and  California  are  dry  almost 
throughout  the  year.  The  trade-winds  lilowing  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  carry  the  moisture  of  the  torrid  zone  up 
the  Mississippi  valley,  while  the  great  plains  directly  E.  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  present  an  almost  raiidess  region. 

Soil  and  Prod  net  ions. — With  the  exception  of  the  arid 
region  near  the  Rocky  Moimtains,  the  stony  or  sandy  or  ex- 
hausted lands  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  vast  bleak 
regions  lying  beliiw  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  soil  of  North 
America  is  singularly  fertile.  The  rich  alluvium  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio,  Jlississippi,  and  other  rivers,  is  almost 
inexhaustilile.  The  Western  prairies  and  t)ie  wooded  re- 
gions of  the  Nortliern  and  Southern  States  have  a  [iroduc- 
tive  soil.  The  t,able-land  of  Mexico,  with  parts  of  Califor- 
nia and  the  Great  American  Desert,  are  witliout  forests. 
Canada  is  rich  in  tindjer;  so  are  some  parts  of  the  North- 
western and  Southern  States.  The  most  valuable  forest 
trees  are  the  oak,  maple,  hickory,  chestnut,  pine,  ash,  beech, 
poplar,  black  walnut,  tulip,  and  white  cedar.  Indian  corn, 
or  maize,  is  the  most  important  grain  crop:  wheat,  oats, 
rye,  ami  liarley  come  next.  The  hay  crop  is  of  great  value : 
so  are  potatoes.  Cotton  ranks  among  the  most  important 
products.  Large  quantities  of  tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar-cane 
are  produced,  although  their  area  of  production  is  limited. 
Fruit-trees,  including  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  orange,  etc., 
are  widely  raised.  The  grape  has  of  lato  years  become  a 
very  important  crop. 

Ziiij/oi/i/. — The  animals  of  North  America  include  every 
impoi-tant  species  known  in  Europe,  and  there  are  remains 
of  several  extinct  mammals  and  birds.  The  bisons,  or  buf- 
faloes, are  fast  disappearing.  The  deer  family  endiraces 
several  varieties — reindeer  in  the  Arctic  region,  the  moose 
in  Maine  and  liritish  America,  and  the  Cervus  americanux 
among  the  forests  and  mountains  of  several  States.  Other 
wild  animals  are  tlie  bear,  panther,  lynx,  wildcat,  wolf, 
dog,  fox,  beaver,  otter,  raccoon,  badger,  opossum,  antelope, 
squirrel,  muskrat,  hedgehog,  hare,  weasel,  and  gopher. 
Among  domcstlcateil  animals,  horses,  sheep,  cattle,  and 
swine  are  abundant.  The  birds  of  North  America,  else- 
wliere  descriljcd,  numlier  about  700  species,  embracing  the 
turkey,  pheasant,  buzzard,  hawk,  pigeon,  eagle,  vulture, 
owl,  grouse,  ipuiil,  wild  goose,  swan,  duck,  pelican,  lark, 
thrush,  mocking-bird,  robin,  woodpecker,  parrot,  humming- 
bird, groslicak,  whip-poor-will,  Idngfislier,  bluebird.  j,-iy, 
oriole,  cedar-bird,  etc.  Serpents  are  numerous,  tlie  rat'tli'- 
snake  being  the  most  venomous.  Alligators  aliound  in  the 
Southern  rivers,  and  turtles,  toads,  and  frogs  everywhere. 
Fish  are  abundant  and  valuable,  including  salmon,  .shad, 
cod,  mackerel,  sturgeon,  trout,  whitetish,  herring,  sheeps- 
hcad,  bass,  perch,  bliiefish,  etc. 

/'if/iii/iifioit  and  Langitai/a. — What  may  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  aborigines  of  North  America  "is  a  problem  still 
unsolved.  There  yet  remain  of  the  indigenous  races  be- 
tween four  and  five  millions,  mostly  in  Mexico.  The  Es- 
(piimaux  appear  to  be  a  distinct  race.  All  Ihe  native  races 
ai-e  copper  colored,  though  of  a  different  tinge,  with  black 
strai'ght  hail-.  They  are  in  general  a  stationary,  unjjro- 
gressive  race.  The  numlier  of  languages  spoken  nearly 
equals  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  globe,  and  all  attempts  to 
trace  these  confused  dialects  to  Eastern  originals  are  more 
fanciful  than  scientific.     The  natives  of  Alaska  arc  sup- 


Fosed  to  be  of  different  origin  from  the  other  American 
ndians.  (See  Indians  ok  North  America.)  The  African 
race,  originally  introduced  as  slaves,  now  number  over 
7.000,000.  mostly  in  the  Soutliern  U.  S.  The  white  popula- 
tion numbers  about  T.'i.OOO.OOO,  of  whom  more  than  three- 
fourths  inhabit  the  U.,S.  They  arc  mostly  of  the  Germanic 
branch  of  the  Caucasian  race,  those  of  Ijatin  descent  being 
chiefly  in  Mexico.  The  Anglo-Saxon  element  peoples  over 
two-thirds  of  the  settled  regions,  and  the  English  language 
is  that  of  nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  population,  the  one  con- 
siderable exception  being  the  Mexican  use  of  the  Spanish 
tongue. 

lielii/ion.  Education,  etc. — Protestant  Christianity  is  the 
more  jirevalent  religious  belief  in  North  America.  Method- 
ism outnumbers  any  other,  tlie  Baptist  coming  next,  and 
the  Presbyterian  third,  followed  by  the  Congregational  and 
the  Episcopal.  The  Roman  Catholic  worship  is  widely 
]irevalent  in  the  U.  S..  and  in  Canada  embraces  more  than 
one-third  of  the  poijulation.  In  Mexico  the  gi'eat  majority 
are  Roman  Catholics.  Mormi>iiism"s  main  foothold  is  in 
Utah.  Education  is  widely  diffused  in  the  U.  S.  and  Can- 
ada. The  percentage  of  illiteracy,  however,  embraces  one- 
fifth  of  the  population  of  fen  years  and  upward.  In  Mexico 
and  New  Jlexico  there  is  a  large  ignorant  native  population. 

Di.scoreri/  and  Scft/cment. — As  has  already  been  said, 
Northmen  landed  in  Greenland  early  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, and  undoubtedly  went  as  far  S.  as  what  is  now  Rhode 
Island.  Columlius  reached  the  West  India  islands  in  1492, 
and  sulisequently  discovered  the  mainland  of  South  Amer- 
ica. The  mainland  of  North  America  was  probably  first 
touched  by  John  Cabot  in  1497.  In  1.500  the  Portuguese 
Cortereal  touched  at  Labrador;  in  151.3  Balboa  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  and  found  the  South  Sea;  in  1.519 
Cortez  invaded  Mexico,  and  finished  its  con()uest  in  1.521; 
in  1.5;i5  Cartier  sailed  through  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence; 
in  1.5:57  Cortez  discovered  California,  and  took  possession 
of  it  in  the  name  of  Spain ;  in  1.578  New  Albion  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  Francis  Drake ;  in  1587  John  Davis  found 
the  Cumberland  islands  and  Davis  Strait;  in  1604  I)e 
Monts  made  the  first  settlement  in  Acadie  (Nova  Scotia). 
The  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  North  America 
was  made  in  1607  at  Jamestown,  Va.  In  1608  the  French 
founded  Quebec;  in  1611  Newfoundland  was  colonized  by 
the  English,  and  the  Dutch  settled  on  the  Hudson;  in  1614 
New  York  was  founded;  in  1618  Baffin  sailed  N.  to  lat.  78', 
and  named  Baffin  Bay.  In  1020  took  place  the  settlement; 
at  Plymouth  of  the  first  English  colony  in  New  England. 
In  1682  William  Penn  founded  a  colony  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  the  same  year  La  Salle  took  possession  of  Louisiana 
in  the  name  of  Prance ;  in  1683  Georgia  was  colonized  by 
the  English. 

Ilislori/. — The  most  marked  historical  events  in  the  his- 
tory of  North  America  have  been — 1.  The  transfer  of  most 
of  the  French  colonies  to  Grciit  Britain  after  the  French 
war  of  1756-63,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  the  latter  year; 
3.  The  American  Revolution,  ending  in  the  independence 
of  British  rule  of  the  U.  S..  1775-83:  3.  The  indeiiendence 
of  Mexico  of  Spanish  rule,  accomplished  in  1821.  The  sub- 
setiucnt  history  of  the  various  countries,  the  United  States, 
Mexico,  and  the  British  colonies  will  be  found  under  their 
resjjcctivc  headings. 

Literature. — Humboldt,  E.ramen  critiqtie  de  I'li  istoire  de 
la  neographie  du  Koiivcau  Continent  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1837); 
Fiske,  Tlie  Discovery  of  America  {2  vols.,  Boston,  1802); 
Narratice  and  Critical  Uistoni  of  America,  ed.  by  Winsor 
(8  vols.,  Boston,  1886-89) ;  Payiie,  'Ilistonjof  the  New  World 
called  America  (London,  1892).  A.  R.  Spofford. 

Revised  by  R.  Lillev. 

Central  America. 

Central  Amf.rica  is  an  isthmal  prolongation  of  the  south- 
ern end  of  North  America,  .ioining  it  to  South  America, 
and  lying  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  E.  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  the  W.  The  name  is  variously  used  to 
include  widely  different  extents  of  territory.  Physically, 
Central  America  begins  southeastward  where  the  Lsthmus 
of  Pan.'ima  joins  South  America,  and  it  may  be  said  to  ex- 
tend norlhward  to  the  Isthnnis  of  Honduras  or  to  that  of 
Tehuauteiiec,  thus  including  ■Yucatan  and  Southern  Mex- 
ico. Willi  zoologists  and  botanists  llu!  term  now  includes 
Ihe  region  from  Panama  through  Mexico  into  Southern 
Texas,  but  only  part  of  Northern  Mexico.  In  its  early  his- 
tory Panama  must  be  included,  while  (luatemala  and  Yuca- 
tan are  linked  ratlier  to  Mexico.     In  its  later  history  Paua- 


150 


AMERICA  (CENTRAL) 


raa  is  excluded,  and  Yucatan,  Guatemala,  and  the  Jlexican 
state  of  Chiapas  are  taken  in.  Politically,  at  the  present 
day  (1893)  the  name  Central  America  is  used  collectively 
for  the  five  independent  states  of  Guatemala,  Salvador, 
Honduras,  Xicarasua,  and  Costa  Rica  ;  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama is  ruled  by  Colombia,  and  is  thus  included  in  South 
America  ;  Chiapas  and  Yucatan  are  joined  to  Mexico ;  and 
Belize  is  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  For  convenience,  we 
shall  include  Belize  and  the  Panama  isthmus  with  the  five 
independent  states  in  our  general  description. 

In  this  sense,  then,  Central  America  is  a  ^reat  isthmus 
extending  from  tlie  southern  boundary  of  Mexico,  at  first 
southeastward  and  then  in  a  doul)le  curve  E,  X,  E,  aud 
E.  S.  E.,  until  it  joins  the  extreme  northwestern  angle  of 
South  America  in  aliout  7°  30'  N.  lat.  and  77°  W,  long. 
The  whole  length,  including  the  curves,  is  about  1,280  miles. 
The  extreme  breadth  at  the  northern  end  is  about  315  miles ; 
the  eastern  indentation  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  narrows 
it  to  160  miles ;  it  widens  again  to  265  miles  across  Hon- 
duras and  Nicaragua,  thence  narrows  rajiidly  to  70  miles  in 
Costa  Rica  :  ami  tlie  curved  portion  is  a  slender  neck  nearly 
400  miles  long  and,  in  parts,  less  than  30  miles  wide.  This 
neck  is  generally  known  as  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  but 
that  name  is  used  in  a  more  limited  sense  for  the  eastern 
portion.     See  Panama. 

From  N,  W.  to  S,  E,,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua. 
Costa  Rica,  and  Panama  (Colombia)  form  a  line,  all  of  them 
extending  from  tlie  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific,  Salvador 
is  a  strip  cut  out  from  the  southwestern  side  of  Honduras, 
and  leaving  only  a  snniU  extent  of  Pacific  coast  to  the 
latter ;  Belize,  on  th(^  opposite  side,  is  physically  a  part  of 
Yucatan,  and  it  nearly  cuts  off  Guatemala  from  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  The  whole  area,  including  Panama,  is  about 
207,474  sq,  miles,  and  the  jiopulation  about  3,.500.000,  of 
whom  jirobably  less  than  200,000  are  whites.  See  table 
given  on  page  148. 

Phi/sical  Chiiracter'i. — From  the  Mexican  frontiers  to  the 
eastern  curve,  Central  America  may  be  described  as  moun- 
tainous, witli  suuiU  inland  plateaus  which  are  little  more 
than  wide  valleys  and  strips  of  low  land  along  the  coasts, 
principally  on  the  Caribbean  side.  The  highest  mountains 
are  near  the  Pacific  coast,  and  they  form  a  broken  chain, 
either  close  to  the  ocean  or  separated  by  lower  but  often 
very  hilly  lands  which  may  be  50  or  60  miles  wide;  the 
descent  on  the  Pacific  side  is  steep.  To  the  E,  the  slope 
is  gentler,  and  there  is  a  network  of  branches  spreading  over 
the  country  and  inclosing  numerous  valleys  and  plateaus  ; 
the  latter,  by  their  snccession,  sometimes  forming  a  series 
of  terraces  to  the  Caribbean  coast.  The  main  chain  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Mexican  Sierra  Madre  del  Bur,  but  it  has 
no  collective  name;  northward,  in  Guatemala,  its  average 
height  is  nearly  7,000  feet,  and  tliere  are  peaks  rising  to 
nearly  14.(100  feet  ;  soutlieastward  it  is  generally  lower  and 
more  central,  with  many  low  passes,  until  it  dies  into  the 
hills  of  Panama.  In  (Tuali'inala  some  of  the  plateaus  are 
4.000  feet  above  the  sea.  with  mountains  about  them  nnieh 
higher,  Tlie  Panama  isthmus  is  hilly  rather  than  moun- 
tainous, and  in  some  parts  of  it  the  highest  elevations  hardly 
exceed  300  feet.  Structurally  it  seems  to  be  rather  a.  spur 
of  the  Central  American  mountains  than  a  part  of  the  main 
chain,  and  there  is  no  proof  that  it  forms  a  connecting  link 
between  them  and  the  Amies.  So  far  as  our  present  knowl- 
edge goes,  the  old  theory  that  the  Andes  and  the  Rocky 
Jlountains  formed  a  continuous  chain  through  Mexico  and 
Central  America  must  be  abandoned. 

Di-preHiiionii.  Lukes,  and  Rivers. — East  of  the  main  chain 
in  Nicaragua.  Central  America  is  traversed  diagonally  by  a 
great  depression.  The  bottom  of  this  depression  is  ri'ally 
below  the  sea-level,  but  the  waters  of  the  two  lakes,  Nicara- 
gua and  Managua,  which  fill  its  deeper  portions,  are  some- 
what more  than  1(H)  feet  above  mean  tide.  Tliere  are  three 
low  piusses  from  the  lakes  westward  to  the  Pacific,  and  to 
the  S,  E,  Lake  Nicaiagna  discharges  its  waters  by  the  San 
Juan  river  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  The  rivers,  lakes,  and 
one  of  these  piusses  form  the  proposed  route  for  the  Nieara- 
guii  ship-canal.  (See  Nicahaoua,  Panama,  Istiimcs  of,  an<l 
Siiii'-cAN'ALs,)  There  are  numerous  other  lakes  in  Central 
America,  but  most  of  tliem  are  small  and  some  are  nothing 
more  than  the  flooded  craters  of  volcanoes.  The  whole  eoiiii- 
try  is  well  watered,  nearly  all  the  rivei's  flowing  into  the 
CariV)l)ean  Sea,  From  the  narrow  extent  of  conntiy  drained, 
none  is  very  long,  and  only  a  lew  are  available  for  naviga- 
tion. 

Volcanoes  uml  Kurflii/iniles. — Central  America  is  intensely 


volcanic  ;  forty  active  or  hardly  quiescent  peaks  are  known, 
and  the  number  of  extinct  volcanoes  is  very  great.  The  prin- 
cipal centers  of  active  force  are  at  present  (1893)  in  Nica- 
ragua and  Salvador.  Belize  lies  beyond  the  volcanic  belt. 
Among  the  great  eruptions  we  may  mention  that  of  the  Vol- 
can  de  Agua  (1541).  which  overwhelmed  the  city  of  old 
Guatemala  by  a  deluge  of  water  from  its  crater;  and  that  of 
Coseguina  in  Nicaragua  (1835).  which,  during  four  days, 
threw  out  such  a  tremendous  cloud  of  ashes  and  sand  that 
the  country  for  a  hundred  miles  around  was  in  midnight 
darkness.  Earthquakes  are  very  frequent,  hardly  a  month 
passing  without  at  least  a  slight  tremor. 

(.Tiologi/  and  Jlinerals. — Too  little  is  known  of  the  geol- 
ogy to  attempt  any  general  description  at  present.  What  is 
known  of  the  structure  leads  us  to  suppose  that  Central 
America  was  formed  by  upheavals  of  very  ancient  rocks 
which  now  appear  as  highly  altered  and  inclined  strata. 
Along  the  eastern  side  there  are  beds  of  limestone,  some  of 
them  said  to  be  of  Jurassic  age,  and  the  coast  alluviums  are 
tertiary  or  newer.  From  the  general  resemblance  of  marine 
life  on  the  Caribbean  and  Pacific  side,  it  has  been  surmised 
that  there  was  an  opening  througli  the  isthmus,  probably 
not  longer  ago  than  the  middle  tertiary. 

Gold  and  silver  are  about  the  only  minerals  which  are 
regularly  mined.  This  was  the  first  part  of  America  in 
which  the  Spaniards  obtained  considerable  quantities  of 
these  metals  from  the  Inrlians;  but  the  miiu's  thus  far  have 
not  proved  very  rich.  Copper  has  been  niineil  and  iS  said 
to  be  abimdant.  and  promising  dejiosits  of  lead,  zinc,  and 
nickel  have  been  reported;  but  these  are  little  more  than 
vague  rumors,  such  as  are  heard  in  most  thinly  settled  re- 
gions. There  are  rich  iron-ores,  but  they  cannot  be  profit- 
ably worked,  owing  to  the  lack  of  coal.  Opals  are  mined  to 
a  small  extent  in  Honduras;  large  beds  of  lignite  are  found 
in  that  state,  and  marble  is  quarried  in  Ctuatemala. 

Climate  and  Distribution  of  Plant-Life. — Central  Ameri- 
ca receives  the  trade-winds  on  its  eastern  side  ;  these  strike 
the  mountains  and  their  moisture  is  precipitated  in  heavy 
rains  near  the  coast.  In  the  interior  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  rains  is  due  mainly  to 
local  causes,  the  vicinity  of  high  mountains,  or  the  extent  of 
plateaus.  The  trade-winds  also  appear  to  cross  the  low 
passes  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  diagonally,  and  strike 
portions  of  the  Pacific  coast.  Generally.  Iiowever.  it  may 
be  said  that  the  western  side  is  considerably  drier  than  the 
eastern,  though  never  devoid  of  rain  or  subject  to  long 
droughts.  The  so-called  diT  seasons  are  only  marked  by 
less  frequent  and  less  abundant  showers.  Their  period 
varies  in  different  regions;  along  most  of  t lie  eastern  side 
the  driest  and  coolest  months  are  February.  JIarch,  and 
April.  On  the  Caribbean  coasts  the  climate  is  unpleasantly 
warm  .and  in  many  places  insalubrious.  The  interior  pla- 
teaus and  valleys  are  temperate  and  healthful. 

The  forests  follow  the  rainy  belts.  They  cover  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  and  most  of  Costa  Rica  in  one  luxuriant 
mass,  hardly  broken  Ijy  the  scattered  towns  and  plantations. 
This  forest  "is  continued  on  the  eastern  side  to  Yucatan,  in 
a  belt  varying  in  width  ami  including  tlie  low  coast  lands 
,and  the  eastern  mountain  sides.  In  the  interior  the  steeper 
slopes  are  generally  wooded,  but  the  plateaus  and  valleys 
embrace  large  tracts  of  grass-lanil  or  open  tracts  with  scat- 
tered bushes  and  trees.  (_)n  the  higher  mountains  there  are 
often  forests  of  oak  and  pine. 

Fauna  and  Flora. — Central  America  has  a  rich  fauna  and 
flora,  closely  related  to  those  of  tropical  South  America. 
The  largest  mammalia  found  are  the  jaguar  and  a  kind  of 
tapir;  among  pec-uliar  birds  may  be  mentioned  the  quetzal 
(Trojion  resplendens).  whose  feathers  were  formerly  used  as 
insignia  of  rank  by  the  Aztec  princes.  The  rivers  and  coasts 
aboiind  in  fish.  Along  the  eastern  coast,  especially  in  Be- 
lize. Guatemala,  and  Honduras,  mahogany-cutting  is  a  regu- 
lar branch  of  industry,  employing  many  thousands  of  the 
poorer  classes;  logwood  and  rosewood  are  cut  and  exported 
in  smaller  quantities.  There  are  many  other  valuable  tim- 
bers, but  they  are  imknown  to  conim.  rce.  The  Caslilloa 
rubl)cr-tree  {('aslilloa  clastica)  grows  wild  near  the  eastern 
coasts,  and  of  late  years  considerable  quantities  of  rubber 
have  been  exported.  Sarsaparilla  and  vanilla  are  at  present 
the  only  other  f(n-est  jiroduets  of  commercial  importan«e. 

Soil  'and  Ar/ricntliire. — The  soil  of  ( 'ent ral  America  seems 
to  be  natiiraily  fertile,  and  especially  over  volcanic  rocks 
which  h.nve  had  time  to  disintegrate.  Only  small  liortions 
are  cultivated  and  that  generally  in  a  very  slovenly  man- 
ner.    The   most  inijiortant  products  for  export  are  sugar 


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AMERICA  (WEST  INDIES) 


151 


ami  coffee,  but  cacao  has  latterly  come  into  iiromineuce. 
luilijTo.  fiirniei'ly  iinuh  cultivated  on  the  Pacific  side,  has 
liiM-ii  aliandducd.  the  ]iroduct  beinij;  supei-seded  by  other 
dyes.  All  the  tropical  fruits  grow  almost  without  care,  and 
considerable  i|uantities  of  oranges,  bananas,  and  cocoanuts 
are  sent  to  the  New  Orh-ans  markets.  B(uins  atul  maize, 
with  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  and  the  other  common  tropical 
vegetables,  are  grown  for  home  consumption.  JIauioc  is 
cultivated  principally  in  Belize,  Costa  Kiea,  and  I'anania. 
The  gra:?ing  industry  is  unimportant,  though  large  districts 
are  well  adapted  to  it. 

J-'t/(ii(i/(i(/i/  anil  Airha'oloffy. — At  the  time  of  the  conrpiest 
the  dominant  race  in  Guatemala,  Yucatan,  and  soutlicrn 
Mexico  was  what  is  now  known  as  the  Maya  stock.  Some 
of  them — notably  the  Quiches  and  Cakchiquels  in  Guate- 
mala— had  attained  a  degree  of  civilization  superior,  in  some 
respects,  to  tluit  of  the  Aztecs.  They  are  among  the  few 
American  aborigines  who  have  left  us  written  chronicles,  le- 
gemlary  in  great  jiart.  but  extending  back  at  least  throngli 
several  hundred  years,  and  perhaps  to  the  eighth  century. 
Their  cities  were  large  and  well  built,  and  remains  of  tlieui 
imiy  .still  l)e  seen.  (See  I.ndiaxs  ok  Central  America.)  But 
deep  in  the  forests  of  this  region  and  southward  remains  of 
nuich  older  cities  have  been  found,  and  of  tliese  we  have  no 
historical  record.  The  ruins  are  of  great  extent  and  covered 
with  (daliorately  carved  figures  and  symbols.  The  latter 
a|)pear  to  be  hieroglyphic,  but  thus  far  they  have  baffled 
every  effort  to  ilecipher  them.  That  the  builders  of  tlu'se 
cities  were  powerful  appears  certain,  and  their  work  indi- 
cates stability  and  some  degree,  at  least,  of  civilization. 
Some  of  tlie  scul|)tures  seem  closely  allied  to  tliose  of  the 
Aztecs,  and  possibly  they  were  related  to  that  race.  See 
Ce.n'tbal  American  Antiquities. 

South  of  Guatemala,  Central  America  was  occupied  by 
snudl  trilies.  some  of  whom  were  agricultural  and  others 
wandering  hunters  and  robbers;  none  appear  to  have  been 
raised  ab<jve  the  savage  state.  The  Spaniards  called  some  of 
these  Indians  Caribs,  but  it  does  not  apjiear  that  any  true 
Caribs  were  found  in  Central  America.  The  present  Caribs 
of  Kastern  Honduras,  Guatemala,  and  BeUze  are  descendants 
(if  those  lirouglit  from  the  West  Indies  in  1798.     See  Carih. 

J/ixfori/. — ( 'oluudius  on  his  fourth  voyage  discovered  llon- 
(.luras(Aug.  14.  l~M2).  and  followed  the  coast  to  South  Ameri- 
ca. Before  that,  Bastidas,  exploring  the  nortlicrn  sliore  of 
South  .Vmerica,  h.ad  reached  the  site  of  Darien  (1501).  It  is 
liossible.but  not  probable,  that  Central  America  was  visited 
still  earlier  by  an  expedition  in  which  Vespucius  was  a 
suborilinate.  (See  Vespucius.)  Pinzon  and  Solis  explored 
the  eastern  coast  in  1506.  In  1509  the  Spanish  court  com- 
nussioneil  Alonzo  de  Ojeda  and  Diego  de  Nicuesa  to  col- 
onize tliese  countries.  Both  failed  in  their  atleni|)is,  but 
I  heir  exiieditions  resulted  in  the  founiling  of  Darien  by 
Martin  Fernamlez  do  Enciso  (1510).  Vasco  Nunez  de  Bai- 
lioa,  left  in  charge  of  this  colony,  explored  the  surrounding 
country,  won  the  good  will  of  the  Indians,  and  heard  of  the 
Pacific,  winch  he  at  length  succeeded  in  reaching  (Sept.  28, 

151:i).      Si'e  P.ALBOA. 

Pi'dro  Arias  ile  Avila,  better  known  as  Pednirias,  was  ap- 
pointeil  governcu' of  Darien  in  1518 ;  he  brought  with  him 
large  accessions  to  the  colony,  and  during  his  adnuiiistr.i- 
tion  the  whole  Panama  isthmus  and  portions  of  Costa  Kiea 
were  conquered.  In  1519  the  scat  of  government  was 
cininged  from  Darien  to  Panama,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
istliunis,  the  former  town  being  for  the  time  abandoned. 
I'ednirias.  on  account  of  his  severity,  was  much  disliked, 
lie  (|uarreled  wit  h  Balboa,  and  put  him  to  death  <in  a  real  or 
fancied  charge  of  treason.  When  (1.522)  Gil  (tonzali's  (!<■ 
.\vila  explored  the  western  coast  and  attempted  to  colonize 
Nicaragua,  Pedrarias  claimed  the  territory  and  sent  Fran- 
cisco Hernandez  de  Cordoba  to  drive  him  out  (1524).  Mean- 
while Coiiez  had  conquered  Mexico,  and  sent  expeditions 
into  Central  America.  .Mvarado  had  compiered  Guate- 
mala for  him  (152:5  and  1.524).  and  Cristobal  de  Olid  h.-id  ad- 
vanced  into  lloniluras.  (iil  (iouzalez.  retreating  from  Cor- 
doba, was  driven  nnrth  into  Honduras;  and  here  the  thri'c 
rival  factions  met:  Olid,  sent  by  Coi'tcz  from  thcX. :  Cor- 
iloba,  acting  as  lieutenant  of  Pedrarias  and  coming  from  Da- 
rien :  (iil  Gonzalez,  who  owned  allegiance  to  neither.  A 
desultory  Init  bloody  warfare  ensued,  by  wdiich  Gil  Gonzalez 
was  driven  out.  The  other  tw-o  coveted  the  country  for 
tliemselves.  Olid  threw  off  allegiance  to  Cortez,  but  was 
killed  by  Casas ;  Cordoba  rebelled  against  Pcdrsii-ias,  but 
was  (raptured  and  executed.  In  these  and  subsequent  quar- 
rels among  rival  bodies  of  Spaniards,  not  only  were  the  ter- 


ritorial rights  of  the  Indians  ignored,  but  they  were  treated 
JUS  beings  wdio  had  no  rights  at  all ;  great  nundjers  were  en- 
slaved, and  several  hundred  thousand  perished  during  a  few 
years. 

The  struggle  for  supremacy  contiinied  in  Ilondnras.  Cor- 
tez himself  marched  overland  into  that  country  (1524-25), 
in  one  of  the  most  terrible  journeys  ever  recorded.  Obliged 
to  return,  he  left  a  governor  there.  Soon  after,  the  Spanish 
court,  probably  hoping  to  end  the  quarrel,  formed  the  cap- 
tain-generalcy  of  Guatemala.  This  cudn'aced  the  whole  of 
Central  America  exce])t  Pamiina.  and  included  a  large  tract 
in  Southern  Mexico,  the  capital  being  at  Grenada,  and  was 
divided  into  provinces,  generally  ruled  by  governors.  This 
arrangement,  with  some  changes,  continued  until  the  revo- 
lution.   See  Guatemala. 

In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  coasts  of 
Central  America  were  repeatedly  attiu-ked  by  the  buecaneevs 
and  by  English  freeliooters.  In  lt!()5  England  assumed  a 
nominal  protectorate  over  a  portion  of  the  eastern  coast,  in 
Nicaragua  and  Homluras,  inhabited  by  Jlosquito  Indians. 
See  MosQUiTos. 

Revolutionai'7  movements  began  in  1811.  supporting  those 
of  Mexico,  but  it  was  only  in  1823  that  the  five  states  finally 
threw  off  their  allegiance  to  Sjiain  and  formed  a  federal 
union,  embracing  all  the  region  we  have  described  except 
Panama.  But  the  disorders  which  had  lasted  through  the 
coloinal  times  continued  in  the  republics,  and  the  union  was 
dissolved  in  1833.  Since  then  tlu'  five  states  have  continued 
independent.  There  have  been  freiinent  political  revolutions 
in  all  of  them,  and  none  can  be  said  to  have  a  stable  govern- 
ment. The  most  pro.siierous  are  Salvador,  Guatemala,  and 
Nicaragua. 

In  1850  Great  Britain  resigned  her  claim  to  the  Mosquito 
coast  of  Honduras ;  but  she  retained  Belize,  which  had  been 
colonized  by  British  log-cutters  in  the  eigliteenth  century. 

Bibliography. — (1)  (.TCography :  Gonzalez,  Compendio  de 
Geografia  de  Cenfro-AmericaiViiSX);  Wappaus,  J/t7feZ- mw(Z 
Sua-Amerika  (1871) ;  Grimm,  Die  Staaten  Central-Ainerikas 
(1871);  and  an  excellent  sketch  in  Brighara's  Guatemala; 
but  this,  like  Bates"s  Central  anil  Siintit  America,  is  mainly 
descriptive.  (2)  Travels  ;  Squier,  Notes  on  (.'eittral  A?nerica ; 
Stephens,  Incidents  of  Tra eel  in  Central  America,  Chiapas, 
and  Yucatan:  Wells,  Explorations  in  Ilondnras;  Bard, 
Waikna:  Brigham,  Guatemala ;  'Sinn;  Reise  nach  Central- 
amerika  (1863):  Bodhain  Wetham,^IeTO.s-.s>  Central  America; 
Scherzer,  Wanderungen  durch  die  mittelamerikanischen 
Freistaaten  (1857);  Morelet,  Voi/age  dans  I'Amerique  Cen- 
trale  (1859) ;  Belly.  A  tracers  I'Ameriijue  Centrale  (1872). 
(3)  Zoology  and  Botany;  Bioloi/ia  Centrali  -  Americana, 
edifeil  liy  Messrs.  Godman  and  Salvin.  The  Mission  Scien- 
titii/iie  III!  ile.rique  et  iliins  t'Ami'rii/ue  (V/i/nf/p  (pub.  by  the 
French  Government)  is  also  very  inqiortant.  For  liofany, 
Griesbjich's  Flora  of  the  British  West  Indies  is  useful  in 
Central  America.  Popular  works  are  Belt's  Aaturalisf  in 
jVicarayua  and  Wagner's  Naturwissenschaftlichen  Reisen 
in  tropischen  Amerika.  (4)  Ethnology  and  Archaeology: 
Brinton.  The  American  Race  (1891) :  il.  H.  Bancroft,  The 
Natire  Races  of  the  Pacific  States;  Bastian,  Die  Culler- 
lander  des  Allen  Amerika;  StuU,  Ziir  Kthnographie  der 
Rcpuhlik  Guatemala;  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America  (vol.  i.);  and  the  writings  of  Stephens,  Sqider, 
Valentini.  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Catherwood,  Chamay, 
Kingsborough,  Charles  Ran,  Leon  de  Rosny,  Scherzer, 
Thomas,  Forstemann,  Schellhas.  and  Seler,  (5)  History: 
The  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  edited  by 
Winsor  (vols.  ii.  and  viii.);  Bancroft.  History  of  the  Pacific 
States:  Central  America  (1882-87);  and  Milla  y  Vidaurre, 
Jli.ttoria  de  la  America  <  'entral.    GARDINER  G.  Hubbard. 

The  West  Indies. 

The  West  Indies  are  so  called  from  the  belief  of  the 
earlv  discoverers  that  the  countries  found  in  the  fifteenth 
century  were  tlie  western  regions  of  India.  They  embrace 
about  900  islamis,  lying  E.  of  the  coast  of  North  and  Cen- 
tral .America.  The  name  of  Antilh's  is  made  to  endjrace 
all  the  West  Indies  except  the  Bahamas.  Another  desig- 
nation divides  the  West  Indies  info  the  Leeward  islands, 
comprising  Iho.se  N.  of  lat.  15",  and  the  Windward  islands, 
embracing  t  hose  S.  of  that  parallel.  The  Windward  Islands, 
or  a  part  of  them,  were  also  nauu'd  the  Caribliees,  and  the 
sea  which  they  separate  from  thi'  i\llanti<'  is  called  the  Car- 
ibbean. The  geological  slrucf\ire  of  Ihese  islands  indi- 
cates both  coral-fonuatioii  and  volcanic  origin.  The  whole 
submerged  region  is  subject  to  earthquakes.     The  rocky 


152 


AMERICA  (SOUTH) 


coast  of  most  of  tlie  islands  iibounds  in  reefs,  although 
there  are  some  good  harbors.  The  Bahama  islands  ombraoc 
the  northernmost  chain,  stretching  S.  E.  from  a  point  near 
the  coast  of  Florida.  On  one  of  this  group  Columbus  made 
his  first  landing.  The  entire  West  Indies  embrace  about 
90,400  sq.  miles,  with  about  o,.500,000  inhabitants.  About 
half  the  area  and  popidatiou  belong  to  Spain.  Great  Britain 
holds  the  dominant  share  in  the  reuuunder,  while  France, 
Denmark,  and  the  Xetherlands  have  possessions  in  this  archi- 
pelago. Revised  by  A.  R.  Spoifokd. 

South  America. 

So0TH  America,  the  southern  division  of  the  American 
continent,  constitutes  an  immense  peninsula  between  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  is  joined  to  the  north- 
ern division  only  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is 
somewhat  triangular  in  form,  rather  more  than  4..500  miles 
long  on  a  meridian,  ami  about  8.200  in  its  greatest  breadth ; 
the  total  area  is  calculated  at  from  6.500.000  to  7.500,000  sq. 
miles,  divided  among  ten  republics  and  three  colonies.  Of 
this  immense  area  nearly  half  is  included  in  Brazil,  and  al- 
most a  sixth  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  For  the  areas  of 
the  various  countries,  see  the  talile  given  on  page  148.  It 
must  be  mentioned,  however,  that  nearly  all  have  disputed 
boundaries,  often  involving  territories  of  vast  extent.  As 
these  tracts  are  very  thinly  settled,  they  do  not  greatly  af- 
fect the  statistics  of  population  given  in  the  table  already 
mentioned.  It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Guiana  colonies,  no  South  American  country 
has  ever  had  a  census  that  can  be  relied  upon,  and  most  of 
the  official  estimates  of  population  are  based  on  old  lists. 
Of  the  entire  iio|iulation  of  South  America,  probably  not 
more  than  500,000  belong  to  independent  Indian  tribes. 

General  Toputirapht/. — South  America  has  the  longest 
range  of  mountains,  and.  next  to  the  Himalayas,  the  highest 
peaks  in  the  world,  as  well  as  the  largest  rivers.  It  may  be 
described  as  a  plateau  with  a  raised  edge  of  mountains; 
three  wide  valleys  or  depressions,  meeting  above,  divide  the 
plateau  into  three  main  parts ;  the  rivers  flowing  from  these 
vaDeys  find  an  exit  through  three  great  gaps  in  the  moun- 
tain wall,  two  to  the  northeast  and  the  other  to  the  south- 
east; hence  nearly  all  the  drainage  is  to  the  Atlantic. 

Mountains. — On  the  W.  the  Andes  follow  the  coast  from 
Cape  Horn  almost  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama ;  sometimes 
close  to  the  Pacific,  sometimes  separated  from  it  by  a  strip 
of  low  land  from  50  to  more  than  100  miles  wide.  The 
mountains  themselves  vary  in  width  from  about  20  miles  at 
the  southern  end  to  2.50  miles  in  Bolivia,  and  300  or  400 
miles  in  Peru  and  Ecuador.  Generallv  the  main  mass  is 
from  8.000  to  12.000  feet  high,  rising  abruptly  from  the  low 
lands;  this  is  capped  by  two.  three,  or  more  parallel  ranges, 
called  Cordilleni-s,  and  the  latter  are  often  connected  by 
transverse  ridges  or  knots.  In  these  Cordilleras  are  many 
peaks  rising  above  20.000  feet.  (See  Andes.)  Between  the 
Cordilleras  thei-e  are  plains  and  vallevs  varving  in  elevation 
from  6.000  to  10.000  feet,  quito,  in  Ecuador,  lies  in  one  of 
these,  and  is  f)..")20  feet  above  the  level  of  the  .sea.  In  Bo- 
livia a  very  extensive  inclosed  valley  is  occupied  by  Lake 
Titicaca  and  the  Uesaguadero  river.  (See  Bolivia  and  TiTi- 
CACA.)  In  Colombia  the  Andes  divide  into  three  branches. 
The  eastern  one  crosses  Colombia  and  Venezuela  in  a  near- 
ly northeasterly  direction,  ]iasses  to  the  S.  and  E.  of  Lake 
Maracaybo,  then  curves  along  the  whole  northern  coa.st  of 
\'enezuela  to  the  Boca  del  Drago,  opposite  Trinidad.  The.se 
northern  mountains  are  the  Maritime  Andes  of  Venezuela, 
having  an  avi:rage  height  of  4.000  to  5.000  feet,  but  with 
peaks  much  higher.  tJn  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent 
we  find  another,  but  much  lower,  mountain  system,  that  of 
Brazil,  also  bdnlering  the  coast,  but  entirely  unconnected 
with  the  first.  It  really  stretches  from  the  Plata  to  ('jqie 
Siio  Hiiqiie,  but  has  a  mountainous  form  only  from  S.  lat. 
31"  to  the  river  Silo  Francisco.  (See  Brazil.)  The  highest 
point  is  Itatiaia,  near  Rio  de  Janeiro,  aljout  9.000  feet.  A 
branch  runs  N.  and  divides  into  two,  separating  the  val- 
leys of  the  Siio  Francisco,  Tocantins,  and  Araguaia.  and  all 
three  of  these  from  the  Parana.  None  of  the  Brazilian 
mountains  are  active  or  recent  volcanoes,  and  none  attain 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Guiana  and  the  adjacent  parts 
of  Brazil  form  a  table-land,  but  iu  tlie  interidi-  there  seems 
to  be  an  E.  and  \V.  line  of  true  mountains,  with  peaks  over 
6.0(K)  feet  high.  Humboldt  and  others  supposed  that  the 
(iuiana  highlands  were  a  branch  of  the  Andes,  parting  from 
the  nuiin  range  in  about  N.  lat.  3'  or  4',  and  crossing  the 
Orinoco  at  the  falls  of  that  river;  but  this  has  not  been  proved. 


South  America  is  thus  surrounded  in  great  part  by  moun- 
tain-ranges, highest  on  the  W.  On  the  eastern  side  the 
southern  end  of  the  frame  is  broken  between  L'ruguay  and 
Cape  Horn.  This  gives  an  outlet  to  the  Parana  river-system. 
The  northeastern  side  of  the  continent  presents  two  other 
great  breaks  between  Cape  Sao  Roque  and  Guiana,  and  be- 
tween Guiana  and  Venezuela;  through  these  breaks  flow 
the  Amazon  and  the  Oriunco. 

Plateaus. — Within  this  mountain  frame  the  continent  is 
a  great  plateau,  more  or  less  cut  up  by  river-valleys  and 
divided  into  three  pai-ts  by  the  broad  lowlands  of  the  Ori- 
noco, Amazon,  JIadeira.  Paraguay,  and  lower  Parana.  These 
parts  are  (1)  a  strip  bordering  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes, 
broadest  in  Bolivia ;  it  is  much  broken  by  spurs  of  the  Andes, 
and  Its  limits  can  not  be  easily  defined.  (2)  The  great  plateau 
of  Brazil,  including  most  of  that  country  and  Paraguay  and 
limited  liy  the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon.  Madeira,  and  Para- 
guay rivers.  (3)  The  Guiana  plateau,  with  its  central  core 
of  mountains,  extending  westward  to  the  Rio  Negro  and 
Cassiquiari  and  southward  nearly  to  the  Amazon.  The 
average  heiglit  of  all  these  jJateaus  is  probably  about  2.700 
feet,  but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  they  are  either  level 
or  flat.  Commonly  they  present  long  slopes  or  undulating 
lands:  in  parts  ot  Bolivia,  Brazil,  and  Guiana  they  appear 
to  attain  nearlv  4,000  feet  altitude,  and  in  others  thev  sink 
to  only  800  or  1.000  feet.  Indeed,  the  Brazilian  plateau 
where  it  approaches  the  Amazon  is  only  500  feet  above  the 
sea.  Everywhere  they  are  cut  through  by  the  valleys  of 
rivers,  and'  these  valleys  nearly  always  have  steep  or  even 
precipitous  sides.  The  numerous  mountain-chains  repre- 
sented on  our  maps  are  simply  the  edges  of  the  plateaus 
where  tliey  abut  on  the  river-valleys.  The  Brazilian  pla- 
teau is  partly  divided  by  the  branch  of  the  coast  range 
akeady  mentioned. 

Mivcr-pUiins.  —  The  great  river-plains  of  the  Amazon, 
Parana,  and  Orinoco  are  a  distinctive  feature  ot  the  conti- 
nent, being  vast,  level  depressions,  widest  above,  where  they 
run  into  each  other;  the  Amazonian  depression  is  actually 
joined  to  the  Orinoco  by  the  Rio  Negro  and  Cassiquiari ; 
tlie  JIadeira.  a  bi'anch  of  the  Amazon,  is  separated  from  tlie 
Paraguay  only  by  a  low  and  narrow  ridge.  (See  CASSiyriARi. 
Madeira,  anil  Paraguay.)  The  flood-plains,  especially  of 
the  Amazon  and  Paraguay,  are  of  vast  extent. 

The  Argentine  territory  consists  mainly  of  low,  flat 
plains,  the  pampas,  which  are  physically  a  part  of  the  Pa- 
rana dejiression.  Southward  they  are  o)ien  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  extend  into  Patagonia.'  The  llanos  of  the  north 
are  included  in  the  Orinoco  depression. 

Jiirers. — The  Amazon,  though  not  the  longest  river  in 
the  world,  is  by  far  the  largest,  the  outflow  from  it  being 
more  than  doulile  that  of  the  Mississippi ;  it  is  navigable 
for  almost  its  whole  length,  and  with  its  great  tributaries 
forms  an  inland  waterway  of  unequaled  value.  (See  .\mazox.) 
The  Parana  with  the  Paraguay — its  real  continuation — is 
navigable  for  2.500  miles;  the  Orinoco  to  about  700.  where 
it  is  obstructed  by  falls.  The  other  large  South  American 
rivers  arc  pmiierly  highland  streams,  without  extensive 
flood-plains  or  expanded  upper  valleys.  We  may  mention 
here  the  Uruguay,  which  meets  the  Pai'ana  at  its  mouth, 
the  Sao  Francisco  and  Paranaliylia  in  Brazil;  the  Tocan- 
tins. generally  considered  an  atllueiit  of  tlu"  Amazon,  but 
really  receiving  water  from  that  river  and  discharging  into 
the  sea  by  a  broad  estuary,  the  Para:  and  the  Magdalena  in 
Colombia.  The  uiiiier  Parana  is  properly  a  branch  of  the 
Iqwer  Parana  and  Paraguay,  and  is  almost  entirely  a  high- 
land river.  These,  as  well  as  the  great  aHlueiits  of  the 
Amazon,  will  lie  described  under  their  resiiective  names. 

Lake-s. — The  largest  of  these  in  South  America  is  I^ake 
Titicaca  in  Bolivia,  with  an  area  of  about  3.200  sq.  miles; 
it  is  proliablv  the  highest  large  lake  in  the  world,  being  12.- 
600  feet  alw'ive  the  sea.  The  lowlands  (it  the  great  rivers 
are  dotted  with  numerous  lakes,  many  of  them  quite  large, 
but  generally  shallow.  Lake  Parimii  in  Guiana,  formerly 
supposed  to' be  very  large,  is  really  of  insignificant  size. 
Old  luajis  place  a  lake  called  Xaraes  or  Cliaraes  at  the  head 
of  the  Paraguay:  this  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than  the 
great  ]ilains  bordering  that  river,  which  are  Hooded  every 
vear.  The  so-called  Lake  of  Maracaybo  in  Venezuela  is  a 
deep  aii<l  aliiuisl  land-locked  gulf  ot  t'lie  Caribbean  Sea. 

i.s/oHf/s.— The  Straits  of  Jlagellan  cut  olf  from  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  continent  the  large  island  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  and  there  arc  numerous  smaller  islands  aliont  Cajie 
Horn.  The  i.-iland  of  Marajo,  at  the  imnith  of  the  Amazon, 
is  separated  from  the  southern  mainland  only  by  a  system 


^ 


AMERICA   (SOUTH) 


153 


of  narrow  channels.  Of  the  outlying  islands,  Juan  Fernan- 
dez and  Mas  a  Fuera  behnif;  to  Chili,  the  Galapagos  islands 
are  olaiiiied  by  Ecuador,  and  on  the  east  Fernando  de  No- 
ronha  is  a  penal  colony  of  Hrazil ;  all  of  these  are  small.  The 
Falkland  islands,  east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  belong  to 
Great  Hritain. 

Oeoloji!!. — Our  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  South  Amer- 
ica is  still  too  fragnientary  to  permit  a  clear  general  view. 
It  seems  certain  that  the  oldest  mountains  are  those  of  the 
Brazilian  coast  range:  tlie  forces  wliicli  raised  tliese  have 
long  ceased  to  bi'  feh.  but  traces  of  ancient  volcanoes  have 
lately  been  discovered  in  tliein,  and  these  probably  had  a 
part  in  their  formation.  Tliey  date  from  the  Silurian  at 
least,  and  jirobably  from  the  Eozoic  age.  The  Andes,  in 
great  part,  have  been  raised  since  tlie  palaeozoic  and  prob- 
ably since  the  cretaceous  period ;  it  nuiy  be  surmised  that  the 
newest  portions  are  about  the  volcanic  grou|)  of  Kcuador. 

The  plateaus  are  com]>i)sed  mairdy  of  horizontal  or  little 
incUned  strata  with  local  disturliances.  Devonian  and  car- 
boniferous rocks  seem  to  be  wiilely  spread,  as  tliey  are  re- 
ported from  the  Amazon,  Central  and  Southern  Brazil,  Bo- 
livia, Colombia.  Venezuela,  and  Guiana.  Cretaceous  depos- 
its also  seem  \o  be  extensive.  The  pampas  are  grear  stretches 
of  clay  and  sand-rocks,  largely  fresh-water  tkposits  brought 
down  from  the  Paraguay  and  the  Parana;  buried  in  them 
arc  remains  of  tlie  i|uarternary  and  tertiary  animals  of 
South  America,  and  numerous  species  have  been  described 
from  these  as  well  as  from  the  caves  of  Brazil. 

Probably  the  great  valleys  of  the  Orinoco.  .Vmazon,  and 
Parana  were  all  originally  arms  of  the  sea.  which  have 
been  gradually  tilled  in  with  detritus.  This  was  certainly 
the  case  witli  the  Amazon  valley,  tor  deposits  of  shells  of 
later  tertiary  age  have  been  found  on  the  river-banks  as 
far  up  as  Peru.  Helics  of  these  inland  seas  are  found  in  the 
marine  character  of  the  river-faunas;  porpoises,  for  exam- 
ple, are  common  in  botli  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon,  and 
crabs  of  nuirine  forms  live  far  above  their  mouths. 

Minerah. — South  America  is  rich  in  metals,  including 
gold,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  platinum,  lead,  and  iron ;  the 
first  two  are  the  oidy  ones  that  have  been  extensively  mined. 
Gold  occurs  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  .Andes  and  on  the 
northern  coast ;  in  the  interior  of  Brazil  rich  mines  have 
been  worked,  but  are  now  mostly  abandoned;  that  country, 
in  fact,  has  given  to  the  world  more  gold  than  California 
lias,  though  the  mining  period  was  much  longer.  It  is 
probable  that  further  explorations  will  result  in  the  open- 
ing of  new  and  perhaps  richer  mines.  The  gold  obtained 
from  tlu!  Andi'S  wiu-;  mainly  the  spoil  ot  the  Incas,  which 
they  had  accumulated  during  several  centuries.  Since  1880 
rich  gold  workings  have  been  developed  in  (Juiana,  and  the 
metal  is  mined  to  some  extent  in  nearly  all  the  other  coun- 
tries. The  Andean  region  has  been  most  productive  in 
silver;  the  richest  mines  being  those  of  Polosi  in  Bolivia, 
now  worked  only  on  a  small  scale.  Copper  and  mercury  have 
been  mined  to  some  extent  along  the  Andes  and  northern 
coast.  The  rich  deposits  of  iron  in  South  America  have 
been  almost  unused,  owing  to  the  lack  of  coal;  a  low  grade 
of  bituminous  coal  is  mined  in  Southern  Brazil  and  Uru- 
guay, and  beds  are  reported  from  the  Argentine,  Chili,  Bo- 
livia, Colombia,  and  Venezuela.  The  diamonel  mines  of 
Brazil  were  formerly  the  principal  source  of  the  workVs 
supply,  but  have  lii'en  nearly  aliandimed  since  the  discovery 
of  the  South  African  fields ;  emeralds  are  mined  in  Colom- 
bia, Rich  guano  ih']josits  are  workeil  on  islands  near  the 
Peruvian  and  Chilian  coasts,  and  beds  of  phosphate  are 
among  the  chief  riches  of  those  countries. 

('Itinale. — The  gri'ater  part  of  South  America  lies  within 
the  tropics,  and  almost  tfie  widest  part  of  it  is  under  tlie 
equator,  but  the  heal  is  much  tempered  by  various  causes. 
The  Andes,  owing  to  their  great  elevation,  include  almost 
every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  hot,  dry  region  of  the 
Pacific  coast  and  the  steaming  plains  of  the  Amazon  to  the 
cold  valleys  and  table-lauds;  and  over  these  a  great  num- 
ber of  peaks  rise  far  above  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow. 
The  Brazilian  and  ^'enezuelan  mountains  rise  to  a  temperate 
climate,  but,  except  at  a  few  isolated  points,  they  are  never 
very  cold.  The  gaps  in  the  mountain-wall,  which  afford  an 
outlet  to  the  great  rivers,  also  give  ingress  to  the  Atlantic 
winds,  and  these  cool  the  whole  continent.  On  the  lower 
Amazon  the  trade-winds  blow  regularly  during  a  great  part 
of  the  year;  abovc>  the  junction  of  the  Xegro  they  form  an 
upper  current,  which  is  felt  even  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes,  as  was  observed  by  Orton.  These  traiie-winds  are 
surcharged  with  moisture  from  the  warm  South  Atlantic ; 


rising  gradually  as  they  advance  over  the  continent,  they 
are  cooled,  and  dischai'ge  the  vapor  in  abundant  rains ;  to 
the  W.  they  mix  with  cold  currents  from  the  Andes,  and 
there  the  rains  are  almost  constant ;  110  inches  have  been 
measured  in  a  single  year  on  the  upiier  Amazon,  and  the 
climate  is  so  damp  that  sugar  and  salt  deliquesce  in  a  few 
hours,  gnnpowtler  becomes  useless  unless  kept  in  sealed  cans, 
and  watches  are  stopped  by  the  nist.  Even  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  the  .-io-called  dry  season  is  varied  by  heai-y 
showers.  Something  similar  to  this  is  found  on  the  Orinoco, 
but  the  temperature  and  humidity  are  less  influenced  there 
by  the  trade-winds,  because  they  blow  less  directly  in  the 
course  of  the  valley.  Southward  the  winds  which  most 
influence  the  continent  are  those  which,  passing  over  the 
plains  of  Patagonia  and  the  Kio  de  la  Plata,  are  known  as 
painperos.  Tliese  blow  only  at  inti'i-vals,  from  May  to  Sep- 
tember, and  they  are  very  cold.  Ihitering  the  great  trough 
of  the  Parana  valley,  they  ascend  that  river  and  the  Para- 
guay, cross  the  low  divide,  and  descend  the  Madeii-a  to  the 
Amazon.  Their  prevalence  is  always  marked  by  a  sud<len 
lowering  of  temiicrature :  on  the  upper  Paraguay,  in  lat.  15', 
water  sometimes  freezes;  and  even  on  the  Madeira  and 
-Vmazon  fish  in  the  rivers  have  been  known  to  die  of  cold. 
1'hese  cold  spells  generally  last  two  or  three  days ;  the  Bra- 
zilians call  them  friagens. 

The  great  plateaus,  besides  being  influenced  by  the  trade- 
winds  and  pamperos,  are  cooled  by  their  elevation,  an<l, 
westward,  by  descending  currents  from  the  Andes.  Their 
climate  is  perha])s  theinost  deliglitful  in  the  world,  free 
alike  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  watered  by 
abundant  rains,  at  least  during  a  part  of  the  year.  Near 
Cuyabii.  in  the  middle  of  the  continent,  the  average  tem- 
perature of  the  Brazilian  plateau  is  about  70'  F..  and  the 
extremes  observed  during  two  years  (excluding  the  friagens) 
were  90'  and  54°  F.  During  the  friagens  there  was  a  fall 
to  37°  or  38°,  and  rarely,  according  to  reports,  the  tempera- 
ture is  lowered  to  the  fi-eezing-point. 

South  ot  the  Amazon  valley  the  period  of  friagens  is  also 
the  time  when  other  winds  blow  most  regularly,  and  this  is 
the  dry  season  (May  to  October),  when,  over  most  of  the 
plateau,  no  rain  falls.  The  rest  of  the  year  is  characterized 
by  greater,  but  never  excessive,  heat,  csdms  and  ascending 
currents  and  rains,  most  abundant  in  December,  January, 
and  Febniary.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Brazil  the  rains  are 
sometimes  almost  lacking  during  one,  two,  or  even  three  or 
four  years :  these  are  the  droughts  or  seccas  which  have  deso- 
lated that  region  at  intervals. 

In  and  north  of  the  Amazon  region  the  seasons  are  re- 
versed, but  there  the  dry  period  (Sept<'niber  to  February)  is 
much  less  marked,  and  is  never  free  from  rain.  The  heat, 
in  most  places,  is  not  at  all  excessive ;  in  the  Amazon  valley 
it  rarely  reaches  98°  F.,  and  that  only  for  an  hour  or  two; 
the  nights  are  always  cool  and  pleasant. 

The  southern  part  of  the  continent,  beyond  the  tropics, 
has  a  true  winter  from  Jlay  to  October:  .snowfalls  abun- 
dantly oil  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  and  even  as  far  north  as 
Southern  Brazil. 

The  eastern  winds,  passing  over  the  continent,  discharge 
their  last  rains  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes.  West  of  that 
mountain  wall  the  narrow  strip  of  low  land  is  dry,  and  in 
parts  almost  rainless.  In  Northern  Chili  and  Southern  Peru 
this  region  is  so  arid  as  to  be  nearly  devoid  of  vegetation  ; 
this  is  the  desert  of  Atacama.  of  limited  extent,  and  the  only 
true  desert  land  in  South  America,  except  some  inclosed 
valleys  of  the  Andes.  In  Southern  Chili  the  Pacific  slope  is 
fairly  well  w-atered,  and  ^■el■y  fertile;  under  and  north  of 
the  equator  the  climate  is  moist,  being  influenced  by  Pacific 
winds. 

The  pamperos  arc  only  felt  as  severe  storms  in  Patagonia, 
about  the  Plata,  and  noilliward  along  the  eastern  coast, 
sometimes  as  far  as  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Aside  from  these.  South 
America  is  singularly  free  from  violent  winds;  tornadoes 
and  hurric'iines  are  unknown,  and  thunder-storms  seldom  do 
any  damage,  (ienerally  speaking,  the  whole  of  South 
Aiiierica  is  healthy;  the  exceplions  are  portions  of  the  great 
river-valleys  and  their  branches,  where  intermittent  fevers 
sometimes"  (irevail.  and  a  few  of  the  tropical  coast  cities, 
where  yellow  fever  has  become  endemic ;  this  is  generally 
confined  to  the  warmer  months,  and  is  rather  the  result  of 
poor  sanitation  than  of  the  climate. 

Dialril/uliiiii  of  Plant-Life :  Forexf.i.  Pa/npas.  TJanos.and 
Crinipos. — With  its  generally  moist  climate  and  abundant 
rains.  South  America  is  well  fitted  to  support  a  growth  of 
trees;  but  the  extent  of  its  forests  has  been  much  overesti- 


15i 


AMERICA  (SOUTH) 


mated.  Tlie  largest  c-ontiiiuous  mass  and  the  largest  forest 
in  the  world  is  in  the  Amazon  basin.  In  the  western  part 
<jf  that  region  it  appears  to  be  not  less  than  1.100  miles  wide, 
and  inchules  the  flood-plains.  Below  the  mouths  of  the 
Negro  and  Madeira  it  narrows  rapidly  to  100  or  200  miles, 
principally  on  the  southern  side,  and  the  flood-iilains  of  the 
river  itself,  with  the  island  of  Jlarajo.  are  mainly  covered 
here  with  grajss.  Strips  of  forest  follow  all  the  branches, 
and  there  is  a  prolongation  on  the  coast  to  JIaranhao.  From 
the  Amazonian  forest  there  is  a  connection  along  the  Kio 
Kegro  to  that  of  the  Orinoco,  where  it  surrounds  the  head- 
waters and  extends  on  the  southern  side  into  Guiana,  and 
along  the  coast  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Over  all  this 
ground  the  trees  form  a  thick  nuiss.  laced  together  witli  im- 
mense vines,  and  in  parts  nearly  impassable. 

The  Brazilian  coast  range  was  originally  covered  with 
forest  nearly  everywhere,  and  much  of  this  remains  ;  it  be- 
gins in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  is  widest  about  Rio,  and  narrows 
rapidly  to  Bahia.  Jlost  of  tliis  is  true  tropical  forest,  but 
southward  in  Parana.  Santa  C'atharina,  and  Rio  Granile  do 
Sul,  the  higlier  mountains  are  covered  with  arauearia  pines. 

The  upper  Parana  basin,  including  most  of  Paraguay  and 
portions  of  Brazil,  has  a  large  ti-act  of  forest,  wliich  ap- 
pears to  be  separated  from  tliat  of  the  coast  range.  East- 
ern Bolivia  has  another,  skirting  the  plateaus  and  Cordilleras, 
and  extending  in  some  places  to  the  Paraguay.  Soutlu'rn 
Patagonia,  al)out  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  has  consideraljle 
forests,  principally  of  pine.  Finally,  there  is  a  long  strip 
on  the  northern  coast  mountains  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ori- 
noco to  tlie  Isthmus  of  Panama :  it  is  continuous  with  the 
forests  of  Central  America,  and  on  the  western  coast  of 
South  America  there  is  a  naiTow  and  broken  prolongation 
at  the  base  of  the  Andes,  extending  to  the  equator.  All 
other  forests  in  South  America  are  of  very  limited  extent. 

The  general  surface  of  the  plateaus  is  more  or  less  open 
and  has  been  erroneously  called  prairie-land ;  it  seems  rather 
to  be  a  kind  of  degi-aded  forest.  Trees  are  abundant  nearly 
everywhere,  but  they  are  generally  scattered,  small  and 
stunted,  with  a  growth  of  grass  between  them ;  sometimes 
they  are  more  crowded  and  higher,  forming  a  kind  of  dry 
wood ;  or  they  may  be  almost  wanting  over  considerable 
tracts.  But  evervwhere  the  aspect  is  the  same,  and  as  dif- 
ferent as  possible  from  the  true  forest :  there  are  no  large 
vines ;  palms  and  other  broad-leaved  plants  are  almost 
wanting ;  the  foliage  is  of  a  light  green,  and  the  trees  shed 
their  leaves  daring  the  dry  season ;  cacti  are  often  abun- 
dant. The  grass  is  thick  enough  evervwhere  to  afford  pas- 
turage during  tlie  rains.  In  Brazil  anil  Guiana  these  lands 
are  called  campos  and,  where  the  trees  are  closer,  cerrados. 

Tlie  northern  part  of  the  Orinoco  depression  is  occupied 
by  the  llanos.  In  some  parts  these  are  true  prairies,  a  level 
stretch  of  tall  grass  without  trees;  in  other  places  they  are 
broken  by  bushes  and  even  clumps  of  woodland.  The  laud- 
sca])e  is  described  as  very  monotonous. 

The  Argentine  Republic,  except  its  northern  part,  is  occu- 
pied by  low,  flat  prairie-hinds,  known  as  pampas;  except 
near  the  streams  and  toward  the  base  of  the  Andes,  these 
are  hariUy  broken,  even  by  bushes.  They  atford  excellent 
pasturage  an<l  are  well  adapted  for  cultivation,  but  many 
parts  are  subject  to  floods  and  droughts.  Southward,  in 
Patagonia,  the  pampas  are  arid,  but  with  proper  iri-igatiou 
can  be  used  for  agriculture  and  pasturage.  The  name 
pampas  has  been  extended  to  the  grass-lands  which  cover 
most  of  Uruguay  and  the  southern  point  of  Brazil.  Tliese 
are  hilly  or  rolling,  except  near  the  Uruguay;  they  form 
excellent  pastures.  Northward,  tlie  flat  pampas  west  of  the 
lower  Paraguay  merge  into  the  Chaco  country,  which  occu- 
pies the  nortliern  part  of  tlie  Argentine.  Western  Paraguay, 
and  Siiuthcastern  Bolivia  ;  it  is  a  great  plain  with  a  cnnfusecl 
mingling  of  grass-land,  Ijushes,  strips  of  wood,  lakes,  and 
swamps.  JIany  parts  are  alternately  flooded  during  tlie 
rains  and  baked  by  the  sun  during  the  dry  season;  large 
portiDUs  of  it  have  a  thin  but  very  regular  growth  of  tall 
palms,  presenting  a  most  curious  appearance.  This  is  one  of 
the  least  known  parts  of  South  America,  and  is  still  occujiied 
by  roving  Indians.  To  the  N.,  again,  the  Chaco  is  continu- 
ous with  the  immense  flood-plain  of  the  upper  Paraguay,  a 
region  of  grass-latuls  which  every  year  are  transformed  into 
a  great  lake. 

West  of  the  Andes  the  lowlands  of  Chili  are  devoid  of 

trees,  but  well  watered  by  streams  and  very  fertile;  farther 

N..  in  the  deserts  of  Atacama  and  Peru,  they  bectime  ariil 

and  sterile. 

Bolany. — The  flora  of  tropical  South  America  must  be  in- 


cluded, with  that  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West 
Indies,  in  the  Neotropical  region.  The  species  are  generally 
jieculiar.  and  they  are  very  numerous,  lioth  in  the  forests 
and  on  the  open  lands.  Travelei-s  have  always  been  struck 
by  the  immense  variety  of  trees  in  these  tropical  forests : 
nearly  two  hundred  kinds  have  been  counted  on  a  square 
mile  in  the  Amazon  valley,  and  the  list  was  probably  in- 
complete. Immense  vines  trail  over  these  trees,  and  the 
branches  are  loaded  with  air-plants;  palms  in  great  vari- 
ety are  most  abundant  near  the  rivers.  Some  of  the  trees 
are  of  immense  size,  the  trunks  40  or  50  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  the  tops  200  feet  or  more  from  the  ground; 
probably  the  average  level  of  forest  on  the  Amazon  or  in 
the  coast  range  is  110  feet.  Among  the  important  forest 
trees  we  may  mention  the  Para  rubber-tree,  found  on  the 
Amazon  and  its  branches  and  the  Orinoco  ;  from  it  the  best 
rubber  is  obtained,  and  the  markets  of  the  world  are  mainly 
supplied  from  it.  In  the  same  region  is  the  magnificent 
Brazil-nut  ti'ee.  200  feet  high,  and  the  allied  sapueaia  nut- 
tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is  much  superior  to  the  Brazil-nut, 
hut  seldom  enters  into  commerce.  Cinchona  trees  of  sev- 
eral species  occur  along  the  eastern  flanks  of  the  Andes,  in 
the  upper  Amazonian  forest ;  they  supply  the  world  with 
Peruvian  bark  and  ipiinine.  Cabinet  woods  of  rich  quality 
and  immense  variety  are  found,  but  the  only  one  extensively 
exported  is  rosewood:  this  occurs  in  nearly  all  the  forests. 
Sarsaparilla,  the  tonka  bean,  vanilla,  ipecacuanha,  the  Pe- 
ruvian coca,  and  various  medicinal  plants  are  derived  f-oni 
the  forest;  of  the  campo-trees  perluqis  the  most  important 
is  that  yielding  the  Ceara  rubber,  in  Eastern  Brazil. 

Animalf:. — All  of  South  America,  exceiit  the  southern  end. 
is  included  with  tlie  West  Indies.  Central  America,  and  the 
greater  part  of  ^lexico  in  one  great  zoological  region — the 
Neotropical.  In  other  words,  tlie  Neotropical  region  occu- 
pies all  of  troi)ical  America.  Thrtiughout  this  vast  extent 
the  animals  closely  resemble  each  other.  Many  species  are 
found  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  most  of  the  larger  genera 
have  representatives  in  all  parts,  and  with  rare  exceptions 
the  families  are  the  same  everywhere.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  assemblage  of  animals  is  very  peculiar.  It  has  relati(uis, 
generally  distant,  with  Africa,  the  Jlalay  Archipelago,  India, 
and  Australia;  hardly  any  with  North  America,  except 
where  it  has  lent  a  few  forms  to  the  latter,  such  as  the 
puma  and  the  Carolina  parrot.  Nine  families  of  mammalia, 
23  of  birds,  o  of  reptiles,  4  of  liatrachia,  and  3  of  fishes  are 
jieculiar  to  the  Neotropical  region,  and  others  hardly  extend 
beyond  it.  South  America  is  the  true  home  of  the  eden- 
tates; in  the  quaternary  period  it  ])(jsscsscd  such  immense 
representatives  of  them  as  the  Jlrf/dflirniini.  the  Clihimyclo- 
/Iifriiim.  and  the  Mi/ludon  ;  three  of  the  five  living  families 
— the  sloths,  ant-eaters,  and  arnuulillos — are  confined  to  it, 
the  other  two  lieing  in  tropical  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  Neotropical  region  has  the  richest  fauna  in  the  world, 
but  huge  quadrupeds,  like  those  of  Africa,  are  wanting. 
The  largest  indigenous  mammalian  is  the  taiiir,  with  four  or 
five  closely  related  species,  occurring  from  .Mexico  to  South- 
ern Brazil.  Tlie  only  very  formidable  (iuadru|ieds  are  the 
jaguar  and  the  closely  related  species  or  variety  called  the 
black  tiger;  the  puma,  much  more  common,  is  very  little 
feared.  Other  spotted  and  gray  cats  are  numerous  in 
species,  but  generally  small.  Indeed,  the  idea  that  South 
America  swarms  with  savage  animals  is  entirely  erroneous. 
The  traveler  is  rather  impressed  with  the  fact  that  so  few 
animals  of  any  kind  are  seen ;  largi'  herds  of  ruminants, 
such  as  tlie  bisons  that  used  to  roam  over  North  America, 
are  quite  unknown  ;  of  terrestrial  animals  only  the  peccaries, 
or  wild  hogs,  go  in  bands,  and  on  this  account  are  sometimes 
formidable  to  hunters.  In  the  great  forests  what  strikes  one 
most  is  that  nearly  all  the  animals  seem  to  be  arboreal ;  mon- 
keys, sloths,  the  various  small  tiger-cats,  the  coatis  or  South 
-VmericaM  raccoons,  all  but  one  species  of  ant-eater,  and  the 
o|iossumslive  in  trees:  birds  and  insects,  .snakes,  lizards,  and 
frogs,  all  kee[)  to  the  tree-tops.  On  the  open  lands  the  com- 
monest {[uadrupeds  are  armadillos  and  deer;  birds  are  most 
conspicuous  about  the  river-plains,  where  the  white  herons 
and  other  waders  gather  in  vast  flocks ;  alligators  also  abound 
about  the  rivei-s  and  lakes.  Of  other  animals  the  llamas  of 
the  Amies  are  remarkable,  not  only  for  their  relationship 
to  the  camels,  but  liecause  they  have  been  domesticated 
from  the  earliest  times.  (Sec  L"r,.\MA.)  The  chinchillas  of 
the  south  temperate  region  are  prized  for  their  skins  ;  and 
we  may  mention  the  Brazilian  wolf  and  a  kind  of  bear  (Cr- 
siix  xpniahilis)  found  in  the  Andes.  Among  these  moun- 
tains also  is  seen  the  condor,  the  largest  bird  that  is  able  to 


AMERICA   (SOUTH) 


155 


fly,  ami  exceedeil  in  size  only  by  the  tcrrostrial  ostriches. 
Three  species  of  ostriches  roam  in  small  hands  on  the 
plateaus  and  painjias.  The  water-ljoas  (Eiinedes)  are  the 
largest  South  American  serpents;  these  are  by  no  means 
common,  but  they  are  formidable,  attaininj;  a  len<jth  of  80 
feel  or  more,  ami  able  to  swallow  a  iiorse.  The  boa-con- 
strictor and  its  allies,  far  from  beiiij;  dangerous,  are  often 
kept  about  houses  to  kill  rats  and  other  vermin.  There  are 
numerous  other  serjients,  some  of  them  (joisonous.  The 
shores  and  rivers  swarm  with  fish,  amon-r  which  we  may 
mention  the  pirarueu  (Sik/i's)  of  the  Amazon,  attaininf;  a 
len<;th  of  7  feet,  and  forminj;  the  staple  animal  food  of  that 
reffion :  the  cannibal  fishes  (.SV/-/«  aiiliiii)).  which  often  attack 
and  kill  batliers:  and  the  straneje  electric  eels.  Insects  are 
enormously  rich  in  species ;  "iO.OOO  have  been  collected  at 
one  place  in  a  few  years ;  7(tO  kinds  of  diurnal  butterflies 
are  known  from  Pani,  ISrazil,  Among  noxious  species  are 
the  termites,  ants,  and  dilTerent  species  of  mosquitoes  and 
sand-flies ;  these  latter  sometimes  swarm  in  immense  num- 
bers, especially  alonjj  the  Paraguay  and  Orinoco. 

Industries  and  I'roductx. — The  chief  agricultural  pro<l- 
ucts  are  wheat  in  Chili  and  the  Argentine,  coffee  in  Brazil, 
sugar  in  Brazil  and  Guiana,  cacao  or  chocolate  on  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco,  and  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela  ;  the 
tropical  regions  produce  corn,  fruits,  and  vegetables  abun- 
dantly, but  they  are  little  exported,  and  generally  agricul- 
ture is  at  a  low  ebb.  The  [irineipal  center  of  the  grazing 
industry  is  about  the  Plata,  in  the  Argentine,  Uruguay,  and 
Southern  Brazil ;  cattle  are  also  bred  largely  on  the  llanos 
of  Colomljia  and  Venezuela,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Eastern 
Brazil,  on  the  lower  Amazon,  and  through  the  interior. 
Ktdjber  is  the  [iriucipal  export  of  the  Amazon,  parts  of  the 
product  coming  from  Bolivia,  Colombia,  and  Peru.  South 
vVmerica  has  as  yet  hardly  any  importiint  manufactures : 
the  most  advanced  regions  in  this  respect  are  the  Argen- 
tine, Cliili,  and  Southern  Brazil. 

Mean's  of  Communication. — Several  thousand  miles  of 
railroad  have  been  made  in  South  America,  principally  in 
the  Argentine  Kepublic,  Brazil,  and  Peru.  Hardly  any  of 
these  have  yet  paid  interest  on  the  capital  invested,  and, 
as  they  are  supported  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  states 
through  which  they  run,  the  financial  bur<len  has  been  very 
great.  The  cause  of  these  trmdjles  is  evident.  The  South 
American  countries  do  not  furnish  the  hea\'y  freights — coal, 
bnnber,  and  grain — which  largely  support  North  American 
roads:  the  countries  are  thinly  inhabited,  and  only  a  small 
[lortion  of  the  popidation  travel  at  all;  and  there  is  little 
demand  for  foreign  goods,  except  at  the  coast  cities.  The 
Jiatural  means  of  communication  is  by  the  great  rivers. 
With  these  and  a  better  system  of  common  roads  there  will 
1)6  a  natural  and  healthy  growth.  Much  of  the  interior 
commerce  is  carried  on  by  means  of  mule-trains,  and  these 
are  in  use  even  where  railroads  have  been  built,  because 
they  can  successfully  compete  with  the  high  freight  tariffs. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  miite  Xorth  and  South  America  by 
a  grand  intercontinental  railway. 

Ethnology. — Before  the  arrival  of  Europeans,  South  Amer- 
ica was  peopled  by  a  vast  imraber  of  Indian  tribes,  some 
of  them  powerful  nations,  others  small  agri<:ultural  commu- 
nities, others  again  mere  wandering  hordes.  The  chief  of 
these  were  the  Kecliuas,  the  Araucanians,  the  Abipones,  the 
Aymaras,  the  Tujjis,  etc.  See  these  titles  and  the  articles 
Araucaria  and  Indians  of  South  Ajierica. 

Ui/ilory:  (1)  Discovery  and  Early  Krijlorat ions. — Colum- 
bus in  his  third  voyage  reached  the  coast  of  Paria,  north  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco,  Aug.  2.  1498.  This  was  probablv 
(he  first  discovery  of  the  continent.  Ojeda  ami  Alonzo 
Xifio  visited  the  same  shore  soon  after,  and  in  b")00  Pinzon 
and  Diego  de  Lepe  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Shortly 
after.  South  America  was  discovered  (juite  indeijendently  iii 
a  voyage  which  would  probably  liave  been  made  had  Colum- 
bus never  existed.  The  Portuguese  navigator.  Pedro  Al- 
varez Cabral,  was  on  his  way  to  India  by  the  route  around 
.Vfrica  which  Vasco  da  (iama  ha<l  just dpened.  For  some 
reason,  probably  to  avoid  the  calms  olT  the  .\frican  coast,  he 
chose  to  keep  far  out  in  the  Atlantic.  This  brought  him 
into  the  longitude  of  the  eastern  part  of  South  America, 
and  he  struck  the  coast  S.  of  Bahia,  following  it  for  some  ilis- 
lance.  Within  a  few  years  the  northern  and  most  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  South  America  was  known  ;  but  it  was  sup- 
posed to  form  a  part  of  Asia  until  Balboa  crossed  tlic  istli- 
mus  (l.-)!:?)  and  discovered  the  Pacific.  (See  Balboa.)  Solis 
and  Pinzon  discovered  the  Plata,  probably  in  l.jtW;  and  in 
1520  Magellan  passed  the  southern  jioint  of  the  continent. 


Explorations  of  the  western  side  began  at  Panama,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  conquest  of  Peru  (l.o3T-33)  and  Northern 
Chili  (b"):r)-4(i),  (See  Almagro,  Chili.  Peru,  and  Pizarro.) 
Thus  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  entire 
coast-line  of  Soutli  America  had  been  explored.  The  con- 
quest of  Peru  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  Amazon  by  Gon- 
zalo  Pizai'i'o  and  its  descent  (1.540-41)  by  Orellana.  (See 
Amazon  and  Orellana.)  Cabot  and  Irala  exiilored  the 
Parana  and  Paraguay  (bl28-48).  and  the  latter  succeeded 
in  establishing  overland  connuuuications  with  Peru. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  many  ex- 
peditions were  made  in  search  of  El  Dorado,  the  fabled 
king  of  an  equally  fabulous  city,  supposed  to  exist  some- 
where in  the  northern  part  of  South  America.  (See  El  Do- 
rado.) These  led  incidentally  to  tlie  exploration  of  large 
tracts  in  the  interior  of  New  Grenada  and  Venezuela,  and 
to  discoveries  on  the  lower  Orinoco,  The  upjier  part  of  that 
river  was  knowni  only  by  vague  reports  until  the  voyage  of 
Ilundioldt  (1800),  who  i)assed  the  falls  and  proved  the  con- 
nection of  tlie  Orinoco  with  the  Eio  Negro  by  the  Cassiquiari, 
(See  Orinoco.)  Jluch  of  our  earlier  knowledge  of  the  in- 
terior of  .South  America  is  due  to  the  Jesuit  and  other  mis- 
sionaries, and  to  the  slave-hunting  expeditions  of  the  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards. 

(2)  Settlement,  Conquest,  and  Colonial  Period. — The  part  of 
Brazil  discovered  by  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral  in  1.500  was  well 
to  the  east  of  the  Tordcsillas  line  (see  Tordesillas),  and 
it  was  at  once  claimed  by  tlie  Portuguese;  their, right  was 
never  opposed  by  Spain.  All  the  re.st  of  the  coast,  eastern, 
iiortlierii,  and  western,  was  claimed  by  the  Spanish  as  lying 
W.  of  the  Une  of  demarkation.  liater.  both  nations  claimed 
whatever  lands  they  had  conquered  in  advancing  inland 
from  the  coasts. 

Francisco  Pizarro  landed  at  Tumbez,  Peru,  in  1532,  and 
his  conquest  of  that  country  may  be  said  to  have  been  com- 
pleted when  he  entei'ed  Cuzco,  the  Inca  capital  (Nov.  1.5, 
loSii).  Cuzco  was  turned  into  a  Spanish  town ;  Pizarro 
founded  Lima  (15-i5).  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  new 
viceroyalty,  which  included  what  are  now  Ecuador  and 
Northern  Bolivia,  as  well  as  the  modern  Pera.  Lima  soon 
became  the  nio.st  important  city  in  South  America.  From 
Peru  Diego  de  Almagro  had  marched  into  Chili  (1536),  and 
been  appointed  governor  of  that  country.  Disputes  about 
the  limits  of  their  respective  territories  led  to  wars  and  the 
death  of  both  Almagro  and  Pizarro.  (See  Peru.)  The  con- 
quest of  Chili  was  continued  Ijy  Pedro  de  Vahlivia  until 
1547.  and  it  ended  in  the  permanent  establishment  of  Span- 
ish rule  in  that  country  as  far  S.  as  lat.  37". 

Jleanwhile  the  Plata  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards, 
Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  (Feb.  2.  1535),  and  Asuncion, 
Paraguay  (1536),  At  first  the  Platine  colonies  were  weak, 
but  they  gained  more  strength  with  the  government  of 
Cabpza  de  Vaca  (1.540-44).  and  Martinez  de  Irala  (1.544- 
57),  who  made  their  capital  at  Asuncion  and  established 
inland  communications  with  Bolivia,  or  Upper  Peni  as  it 
was  then  called. 

By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  whole  of  South 
America,  except  Brazil,  was  nominally  under  the  rule  of 
S]iain;  but  the  settlements  on  the  northern  coast  were  still 
weak,  and  Guiana  and  Patagonia  were  untouched.  The 
whole  of  this  immense  territory  was  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  tlie  viceroys  of  Peru  at  Lima ;  subordinate  to  these  were 
various  divisions  or  audiencias,  ruled  by  presidents  who 
were  sometimes  called  captains-general  or  governors.  Upper 
Peru  or  Bolivia  had  its  audiencia  at  Charcas  (the  modern 
Chuquisaea).  established  in  1.5.59  and  including  Paraguay. 
The  audiencia  of  Chili  (estaljlished  1568)  was  at  Santiago, 
with  a  captain-general  at  its  head.  New  Grenada  had  its 
audiencia  after  1564.  and  Quito,  the  modern  Ecuador,  from 
1542:  that  of  New  Andalusia  (A'enezuela)  was  created  later. 
The  governors  of  Buenos  Ayres.  after  1580.  were  almost 
indejiendent,  and  after  1777  that  district,  with  Paraguay 
and  liolivia,  was  a  viceroyalty. 

From  first  to  last  the  Spanish  rule  in  South  America  was 
marked  by  contempt  for  the  rights  of  the  Indians,  who 
were  enslaved  .'UhI  op]iressed  in  every  possible  way,  notwith- 
standing llie  etVorts  of  the  Sijanish  Government  to  protect 
them.  The  only  exception  was  in  the  Jesuit  missions,  where 
the  priests  of  that  order  sought  to  establish  a  mild,  paternal 
rule,  protecting  their  charges  from  the  rapacity  of  the  civil- 
ians and  establishing  plantations  and  simple  industries.  In 
Paraguay  the  Jesuits  became  so  powerful  that  they  virtually 
ruled  the  country  until  the  expulsion  of  their  order  from 
America  in  1767.     The  system  of  paternal  rule  tended  to 


156 


AMERICA  (SOUTH) 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


keep  both  Indians  and  whites  in  a  childish  condition,  and 
in  that  respect  its  evils  are  still  apparent ;  but  it  was  the 
means  of  preventing  the  still  greater  evil  of  the  entire  de- 
struction of  the  aborigines. 

Brazil  (<y.  v.)  was  tii-st  settled  near  Santos  (1531).  Incur- 
sions to  the  westward  led  to  the  discovery  of  rich  mines  at 
Cuyabii  and  Matto  (irosso.  and  colonies  were  established 
there  far  \V.  of  the  Tordesillas  line.  Portugal  and  Bi-azil 
were  subject  to  Spain  from  1.582  to  1640. 

The  only  other  Euroi)ean  nations  who  attempted  settle- 
ments in  South  .\merica  were  the  French,  Dutch,  and  Eng- 
lish. The  French  liad  short-lived  establishments  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Maraidiao  on  the  Brazilian  coast,  and  a  part 
of  that  country  was  held  by  the  Dutch  from  1630  to  Uio4. 
(.See  Brazil.)  All  three  nations  formed  establishments  in 
Guiana  during  the  seventeenth  century :  that  of  the  Eng- 
•  lish  was  soon  abandoned,  but  they  took  the  western  part  of 
the  country  from  the  Dutch  in  1796.  The  colonies  of  the 
three  nations  still  exist. 

(3)  Period  of  Hemliitinn  and  nf  Modern  States. — As  early 
as  1780  the  op[ircssions  of  the  Spaniards  led  to  the  Indian 
rebellion  of  Tupac  Amani,  near  Cuzco.  (See  Tupao  Amabi';.) 
The  Spanish  Government,  through  jealousy  of  other  nations, 
had  restricteil  the  commerce  of  its  colonies,  and  their  dis- 
tance caused  much  inconvenience  and  mismanagement. 
The  Inquisition  also  was  a  constant  source  of  grievance. 
The  success  of  tlie  North  American  anil  French  revolutions 
led  the  Spanish-.Vincricans  to  believe  that  they  also  miglit 
become  indejiendent.  There  were  local  rebellions  in  Peru 
in  1811  and  1812.  and  in  1813  the  people  of  Lima  rose 
against  the  Inquisition  and  drove  its  ofRcei's  from  the  city. 
tiy  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Spain  and  the  peninsular  wars 
the  government  of  the  American  colonies  wa.s  thrown  into 
confusion ;  at  length  a  decided  revolution  broke  out  in 
Venezuela  (Apr.,  1810),  From  the  first  Simon  Bolivar  was 
its  leatler,  Tlie  viceroy  was  deposed  and  a  republic  estab- 
lished, Vjut  fresh  troops  arrived  from  Spain  and  the  rebel- 
lion was  quelled  (1812),  Bolivar  escaping  to  Jamaica,  About 
the  same  time  there  were  equally  unsuccessful  rebellions 
in  ChiU  and  Bolivia;  but  in  Buenos  Ayres  the  Spanish  offi- 
cials were  driven  out  and  a  national  government  formed 
(1810-13),  This  was  tlie  first  permanently  successful  revo- 
lution in  South  America.  But  meanwhile  the  excitement 
had  spread  to  all  the  colonies,  and  local  rebellions  were 
constantly  taking  place.  Bolivar  returned  to  Venezuela 
(1817),  collected  a  small  army  on  the  Orinoco,  and  was  de- 
clared president  of  the  country  at  Angostura  (1819).  By 
the  battles  of  Boyaca  (Aug.  7,  1819)  and  Carabobo  (June  24, 
1821)  he  freed  Venezuela  and  Colombia  from  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  two  countries  were  united  as  a  common  republic. 
In  1823  he  freed  Qiiilo  (now  Ecuador),  and  the  country  was 
incorporated  with  the  others  under  the  general  name  of 
Colombia.  His  lieutenant.  Gen.  Sucre,  advanced  into  Peni. 
was  joined  there  by  Santa  Cruz,  and  the  Spaniards  were 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Pichincha. 

Meanwhile  fresh  revolts  had  Ijroken  out  in  Chili  and  Bo- 
livia, and  were  supported  from  Buenos  Ayres.  San  Martin 
inarched  from  the  Argentine  across  the  Chilian  Andes  (Jan., 
1817),  took  Santiago,  and  declined  the  office  of  suiireme 
dictator  of  Chili  to  which  he  was  nominated.  By  the  battle 
of  Maypu  (Apr.  5,  1818)  the  Spaniards  were  finallv  driven 
from  Chili.  The  revolutionists  now  organized  a  fleet  and 
advanced  nortliward  to  aid  their  party  in  Peru,  the  ships 
being  commanded  by  Lord  Cochrane  and  the  army  by  San 
Martin.  Callao  was  besieged  and  its  castle  taken  (Sept., 
1821).  San  .Martin  drove  the  Spaniards  before  him  and 
entered  Lima,  and  Peru  w^us  declared  independent  (July  28, 
1821),  San  Martin  being  named  protector  of  that  country. 
San  .Martin  and  Holivar  met  at  Guayaquil:  soon  after  the 
former  resignetl  liis  office  and  retired  to  private  life  in  Eu- 
rope, honored  by  every  Spanish  American. 

From  Peru  an  expedition  was  sent  under  Gen.  Santa  Cruz 
to  aid  the  revolutiimisis  in  Bolivia.  It  suffered  two  severe 
reverses,  but  by  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  not  far  from  Cuzco, 
the  ])Owcr  of  the  Spaniards  in  South  America  was  finally 
overthrown  (Dee.  9,  1824).  The  only  point  which  they  still 
held  was  Callao  Castle,  which  they  had  retaken  by  a  mu- 
tiny of  the  garrison;  but  this  was  surrendered  on  Jaiu  19, 
1826. 

Bolivar  had  been  declared  dictator  of  I^ower  and  Upper 
Peru.  In  182.5  he  decreed  lliat  Upper  Peru  slundd  be  an 
independent  republic,  and  it  received  the  name  of  Bolivia, 
Peru  began  its  iii<iependent  existence  in  1826.  In  1830  the 
republic  of    Colombia  separated  into  the  tliree  states  of 


Ecuador.  Venezuela,  and  New  Grenada  :  the  latter  changed 
its  constitution  in  1857.  and  was  thereafter  known  as  the 
United  States  of  Colombia.  Uruguay  liegan  its  separate 
existence  in  1828,  and  Paraguay  was  declared  independent 
from  1811.  Tlie  subsequent  histories  of  these  countries  will 
be  treateil  of  under  their  respective  names. 

In  1807  the  Portuguese  court  was  driven  from  Lisbon  by 
the  armies  of  Napoleon  and  took  refuge  in  Brazil,  only  re- 
turning in  1821,  The  king's  son,  I)om  Pedro,  was  left  as 
regent,  but  tlie  revolutionary  movement  which  had  long 
existed  ended  in  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal, 
and  the  establisliment  of  an  empire  with  the  prince  at  its 
head  as  Pedro  I.  (1822),  His  successor,  Pedro  II,,  was  forced 
to  abdicate  in  1889,  and  the  country  became  a  federal  repub- 
lic under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil, 

i\>f/ro  x/areri/  was  early  established  in  Sjiaiiish  .\meriea, 
but  the  number  of  slaves  was  not  large,  anil  1  hey  were  freed 
either  during  the  revolution  or  soon  after.  The  system  was 
niueli  more  jirominent  in  Brazil,  where  slavery  was  finallv 
abolished  in  1888. 

BiBLioGRAPHV. — (1)  Geography:  Wappaus.  Mlttel-  mid 
Siid-Ainerika  (1871).  and  the  works  of  Humbohlt,  Schom- 
burgk.  Markham.  etc.  (2)  Descriptive  works  and  travels : 
H.  W.  Bates,  Central  and  South  America  (1878);  T.  R, 
Childs.  T/ie  Spaiii>fli-American  Hepiihlic^  (1892):  R.  G. 
Watson.  Spaiii6-li  and  Portiif/iiese  Soiitli  America  (1884). 
(3)  Animals  and  plants:  BioJorjia  Centrah'-Ameriraim,  ed- 
ited  by  Messrs.  Godman  and  Salvin:  A.  R.  Wallace,  "Tie 
Geograpliiral  Distribution  of  Animals  (1876):  Grisebach's 
Flora  of  the  British  West  Indies  (ISHi):  Darwin's  Voyage 
of  a  Naturalist ;  II.  W.  Bates,  The  yaturalist  on  the  Ama- 
zon (1st  ed.  1863) :  C.  Waterton.  Wanderings  in  South 
America  (ed.  of  1879,  with  notes  by  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood) :  John 
Ball,  Notes  of  a  Naturalist  in  South  America  (1892); 
Cunningham,  Natural  Ilistori/  of  tlie  Straits  of  Magel- 
len.  (4f  Ethnology :  Alcide  d'Orbigny.  I'llomnie  Americain 
(1839):  Von  Martius,  Znr  Etiinographie  Amerikas  zumal 
Brasiliens  (1867);  vol.  i.  of  the  Narrative  and  Critical 
Histnrij  of  America;  D.  G.  Brinton,  The  American  liace 
(1891).  See  also  Von  den  Steinen  in  his  Uureh  Central- 
Brazilien,  and  the  naiTatives  and  papers  of  Schomburgk 
and  other  travelers.  (5)  History:  Narrative  and  Critical 
I/istor;/  of  America,  edited  by  Justin  Winsor  (vols.  ii.  and 
viii.):  Humboldt,  i'.iowfrt  Critique  de  I'histoire  de  la  geo- 
graphie  du  iiouveau  Continent;  J.  G.  Kohl,  Geschichte  der 
Entdeckungsreisen,  etc.,  znr  Magellens  Strasse  (1877). 
Help's  Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  Irving's  Compan- 
ions of  Columbus,  and  Prescotfs  Conquest  of  Peru  are  ex- 
cellent popular  works  for  the  early  Spanish  conquests. 

Gardiner  G.  Hubbard. 

America,  British :  See  British  America. 
Amerieaii  Antiquities:  See  Indians  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. Indians  or  North  America,  and  Indians  of  South 

A.MERKA. 

American  .Vssociation  for  tlie  .Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence: the  most  important  American  scientiric  society.  On 
A]iril  2.  1840,  the  Association  of  American  Geologists  was 
organized  in  Philadelphia.  Two  years  later,  at  a  session  held 
in  Boston,  its  scope  was  enlarged,  and  it  became  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Geologists  and  Naturalists.  In  1847,  like- 
wise at  a  Boston  session,  a  new  organization  was  effected, 
embracing  all  sciences,  and  the  present  name  was  assumed. 
Any  person  mav  become  a  member,  but  membership  prac- 
tically includes  only  citizens  of  the  IT.  S.  ami  Canada.  Prom 
the  niembership  are  chosen  fellows,  and  the  Ixidy  of  fellows 
choose  the  officers.  There  are  now  about  800  fellows  and 
1.200  other  niemliers.  The  society  is  migratory,  meeting 
each  summer  in  some  North  American  city.  Tlu^  meeting 
occupies  a  week,  the  attendance  ranging  from  300  to  l.OOt). 
For  the  purposes  of  its  scientific  sessions,  the  association  is 
organized  in  nine  sections  as  follows:  Section  A.  Mathe- 
matics and  Astronomy;  B.  Physics:  C.  Chemistry;  D,  Me- 
chanical Science;  E.  tTeology  and  Geograpliy  ;  F.  Zoology  ; 
G.  Botany;  II.  .Vntiiroiiology  ;  I.  Economic  Science  and  Sta- 
tistics. I'hese  meet  separately  for  the  hearing  and  discus- 
sion of  papers.  .\n  annual  volume  of  proceedings  is  printed 
at  Salem,  Mass.  0-  K.  G. 

American  Eclectic  School  of  Medicine:  See  Eclectic, 
TuK  American. 

American  Indians:  See  Indians  of  Central  America, 
Indians  op  North  America,  and  Indians  of  South  Amer- 
ica. 


AMERICAX  INDIANS,  LANGUAGES  OF 


AMERICANISMS 


157 


American  Indians.  Lan&rnages  of:  S^e  Indians  of  Cen- 
tral America,  Indians  of  Nokth  America,  ami  Ixdiajs'S  of 
SovTU  America. 

American  Institute:  a  New  York  iiislitution.  tlie  ob- 
ject of  wliicli  is  to  oneoura.sc  and  promote  domestie  indus- 
try in  New  Vork  Slate  and  the  U.  S.,  in  agriculture,  ecjiu- 
in'erce.  manufactures,  aiul  the  arts,  hy  beslowinj;  rewards 
and  oilier  benefits  on  those  who  shall  make  improvements 
therein  or  excel  in  any  of  the  said  liranches.  It  was  organ- 
ized in  1838  by  a  few  enterprising  citizens  wlio  met  in  a 
small  room  in  Tammany  Hall.  A  charter  was  granted  in 
182!l  by  tlie  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York,  under  the 
title  of  The  American  Listitute  of  the  City  of  N'ew  \'ork. 

One  of  the  principal  means  to  accomplish  its  ol)jects  was 
the  holding  of  exhibitions — or,  as  they  were  then  called, 
animal  fairs — in  whii'h  inventors,  maimfacturers.  and  others 
could  exhibit  their  various  product  ions,  and  uuiny  modest 
men  who  wouhl  have  remained  in  obscurity  have  made  for- 
tunes by  having  their  skill  and  ingeimity  brought  pi'omi- 
nently  before  the  public  bythe  great  facilities  alTorded  them 
by  the -Vmerican  Institute.  Among  the  things  first  shown 
at  these  exhilutions  may  be  named  Morse's  telegra|ili.  Coh's 
firearms,  the  sewing-machine,  McCormick's  reaper,  Francis's 
metallic  life-boats  and  car,  lloe's  printing-jiress,  and  the 
telephone. 

The  fii-st  fair  was  held  in  1«8  in  :Masnnic  Ilall,  tlien 
standing  on  Mroadwjiy.  nearly  opposite  the  New  Vork  llos- 
]iital.  at  the  head  of  Pearl  Street.  This  was  very  successful, 
and  after  holding  six  fairs  there  it  was  found  necessary  to 
secure  more  ample  accomiuodiitions.  After  examining  vari- 
ous locations.  Niblo's  G.arden  was  selected,  notwithstanding 
that  great  doubts  were  expressed  as  to  its  accessibility,  it  be- 
ing deemed  by  many  too  far  out  of  town.  The  fair  was,  how- 
ever, well  patronized  that  year,  and  the  exhibitions  became 
very  popular  until  the  place  was  eonsmued  by  fire  in  1846. 

Castle  (iarden.  on  the  Battery — then  a  fashionable  resort 
for  the  citizens  of  New  York — was  next  selected,  and  the 
fairs  were  held  there  every  fall  until  18.5:5. 

The  exhibition  of  the  industry  of  all  nations  was  opened 
in  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1854.  on  Reservoir  Stpiare.  in  Sixth 
Avenue,  between  Fortieth  and  Forty-second  Streets.  After 
its  close,  the  American  Institute  procured  it  for  holding  its 
exhibitions,  which  were  held  there  in  1855.  1856,  1857,  and 
1S5S.  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  afternoon  of  Oct. 
5. 1858.  with  all  its  contents.  Notwithstanding  this  disaster, 
the  managers  held  an  exhibition  the  nest  year  in  Palace  Gar- 
den, in  Fourteenth  Street,  on  the  site  of  the  present  armory 
of  the  Twenty-second  Regiment.  The  institute,  at  great  ex- 
liense.  made  many  imi)rovements  in  that  building,  and  held 
fairs  in  it  for  several  years. 

In  lad'-i  the  exhibition  was  held  in  the  Academy  of  Alusic, 
Fourteenth  Street  and  Irving  Place. 

In  186!)  the  institute  secured  the  large  stnicture  on  Third 
Avenue  between  Sixty-third  and  Sixty-fourth  Streets.  This 
liuilding  had  been  erected  for  a  skating-rink;  to  this  the 
institute  has  added  three  large  buildings,  the  whole  cover- 
ing forty  city  lots,  extending  from  Third  to  Second  Avenue. 

The  exhibitions  are  held  under  the  direction  of  a  boai'd  of 
nwmagei's.  electeil  annually  by  the  members.  The  articles 
on  exhibition  are  cl.-issified  under  seven  departments,  wliii-h 
are  again  divided  into  seven  groups.  The  classifications  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Department  of  Fine  Arts  and  Education. 

2.  De]iartmcnt  of  the  Dwelling. 

:i.  Dc'partment  of  Dress  and  Handicraft. 

4.  Depart uu'ul  of  Chemistry  and  Jlineralogy. 

5.  Department  of  Engines  and  Machinery. 
C.  Department  of  Intertximmunication. 

7.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Horticulture. 

In  connection  with  the  fairs,  the  American  Institute  has 
held  eighteen  exhibitions  of  live  stock  from  18:i8  to  1859  ; 
the  exhibitions  of  1857  and  18.58  were  confined  to  fat  cattle. 

The  exhibitions  were  ludd  for  some  years  on  the  ground 
on  which  the  Fifth  Avenue  Hotel  now  stands;  it  was  then 
out  of  town.  On  this  ground  stood  a  fmued  hostelry  known 
as  JIadison  Cottage,  kept  by  (.'orpoi'al  Thompson;  this  was 
the  stopping-jilace  for  the  Broadway  stages. 

The  cattle-shows  were  also  held  on  Ilamilton  Square  and 
on  Hamilton  Park,  in  Thii-d  Avenue. 

In  addition  to  its  valuable  scientific  library,  consisting  of 
about  14,000  volumes,  there  are  four  sections,  viz. : 

1.  The  Farmers'  Club,  under  the  direction  of  the  commit- 
tee on  agriculture,  which  meets  the  first  Tuesday  of  each 
month,  at  2  p.  m.,  at  its  rooms. 


2.  The  Polytechnic,  under  the  direction  of  the  committee 
on  manufactures  and  nnichinery,  which  discusses  scientific 
subjects,  the  examination  of  new  inventions,  etc. ;  it  meets 
at  tlie  same  jjlace  on  the  thiril  Thursday  of  each  month,  at 
8  p.  M.  ♦ 

'S.  The  Photographic  Section,  under  the  direction  of  the 
committee  on  chemistry  and  optics,  which  discusses  all  mat- 
ters in  relation  to  pholograjihy  anil  the  action  of  light.  This 
section  meets  at  the  same  place  on  the  first  Tuesday  of  each 
month,  at  8  p.m. 

4.  The  Electrical  vSection,  under  the  direction  of  the  elec- 
tric committee ;  its  objects  are  advancement  of  electrical 
knowledge  among  its  members.  The  section  meets  on  the 
second  Wednesday  of  each  month,  at  8  p.m. 

All  these  meetings  are  oi)en  to  the  public. 

The  number  of  members  is  about  1,500.  The  institute 
is  governed  by  a  board  of  trustees  consisting  of  thirteen 
members,  of  which  the  jiresident,  two  vice-presidents,  and 
two  members  arc  retired  and  elected  annually.  Prominent 
among  its  early  friends  were  William  Few,  its  iirst  presi- 
dent in  1828-29;  John  Mason,  in  18:jO-:51 ;  Gen.  James 
Tallmadge,  until  1846,  when  Mahlon  Dickinson  became 
presideni,  holding  office  for  two  years,  when  Gen.  Tall- 
nuidge,  who  had  just  returned  from  Europe,  was  again 
elected,  and  served  in  that  cajiacity  initil  his  death  in  1853. 

The  presidents  of  the  institute  since  that  date  have  been 
Robert  L.  Pell,  James  Renwick.  William  Ilall,  Horace 
Greeley.  William  B.  Ogden.  F.  A.  P.  Barnard.  Orestes  Cleve- 
land. Nathan  C.  Ely.  Cyrus  II.  Loutrel,  Thomas  Ruttcr, 
and  J.  Trumbull  Smith,  who  was  elected  in  188it. 

John  W.  Chambers. 

America nisnis:  a  great  and  incongruous  variety  of  pe- 
culiarities of  sjieech  in  inflection,  syntax,  vocabulary,  and 
pronunciation  which  are  found  fo  occur  either  locally  or 
generally,  in  either  the  spoken  or  wi-itten  English  of  the 
IT.  S.,  and  which  appear  to  de]ia.rt  fi-om  the  usage  of  the 
standard  Englisli  of  Great  I?i-itaiu.  The  great  mass  of  these 
are,  however,  either  survivals  from  older  English,  or  dia- 
lectal peculiarities  inherited  from  the  English  dialects  and 
still  existing  in  these  dialects,  though  not  I'ccognized  by  the 
standartl  language  ;  or,  finally,  they  are  so  entirely  local  or 
individual  in  their  American  iise  as  not  to  be  properly  styled 
Americanisms  at  all.  but  simply  rejiresent  caprices  of  expres- 
sion, which  have  never  established  themselves  as  elements 
of  a  language.  It  is  a  recognized  weakness  of  Bartlett's 
well-known  Diciionary  of  Auwricaniums  that  it  makes  no 
attempt  to  discriminate  between  these  classes,  or  to  apply 
any  rigid  tests  in  determining  what  are  really  "American- 
i.sms." 

The  term  may  be  limited  in  one  of  two  ways.  It  may  be 
nuide  to  a]  jply  solely  to  those  peculiarities  which  are  the  special 
product  of  American  usage,  as  caucus.  The  question  may, 
liowever.  on  tlie  other  hand,  be  reganled  as  one  purely  of 
.standard,  and  the  term  be  used  to  cover  all  those  features 
of  common  standard  usage  in  U.  S.  English  which  depart 
from  the  standard  English  of  the  British  islands.  This 
Latter  limitation  of  the  term  offers  the  most  practical  solu- 
tion, for  the  question  is  re.ally  one  of  usage  and  standard 
rather  than  of  origins.  In  determining  the  existence  of  a 
st.indard  ami  what  may  belong  to  that  standard,  we  are  in 
nowise  concerned  with  th.e  on'i/iii  of  words  or  expressions. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  origin,  but  one  of  "good  foi-m."  The 
observation  that  /«  giie.'is  in  the  sense  of  "  opinari  "  is  found 
in  CliaiUi(-r  and  Gower  does  not  prevent  its  being  regarded 
as  an  Americanism,  if  it  shall  be  determined  tluit,  while 
excluded  from  the  English  standard,  it  is  in  universal  and 
accc]ited  use  in  the  I'.  S.  The  word  f<il/  for  iiuluiiiii  may, 
in  isolated  instances,  be  found  in  English  writers,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly, with  some  meaning  or  other,  a  good  old  English 
word,  bui  the  fact  is  that  as  a  substitute  for  ff»//"W«  it  is 
not  "good  form"  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  in  the  U.  S.  Spry, 
"nimble,"  "active,"'  is  an  Americanism,  because,  though 
found  in  the  English  dialects,  it  is  a  standard  word  only  in 
the  IT.  S. 

The  (juestion  of  standard,  it  must  again  be  remembered, 
concerns  not  what  ought  to  be.  but  what  is  the  fact.  The  as- 
sertion of  certain  ])uriststhat  the  usage  of  the  educated  classes 
in  London  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  absolute  standard 
for  the  English  of  the  U.  S.  also  does  not  alter  the  fact  that 
usage  in  the  U.  S.,  while  following  in  the  main  the  general 
standards  of  Great  Britain,  feels  itself  independent  within 
certain  limits,  and  maintains  a  secondary  standard  of  its 
own.  This  is  based  not  upon  the  usage  of  any  class  or  any 
district,  but  upon  the  common   and   universally  recognized 


158 


AMERICANISMS 


AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS 


usage  in  the  chief  centers  and  along  the  chief  avenues  of 
commercial  activity  and  national  life,  and  corresponds  to 
the  rapidly  developing  consciousness  of  nationality. 

Cases  of  true  Americanisms — i.e.  of  expressions  wliich 
are  quite  universally  acceptable  in  the  U.  S..  at  K^ast  among 
speakers  whose  usage  is  not  recently  and  consciously  affected 
by  contact  or  instruction,  liut  which  are  foreign  to  the  stand- 
ard usage  in  Great  Britain — are  tlie  following:  Different 
words  for  the  same  idea  :  Amer.  bureau,  Eng.  dresxiiig-fable; 
Amer.  tlccator.  Eng.  //// :  Amer.  sJeigh.  Eng.  sledge :  Araer. 
store,  Eng.  s/i(jp;  Amer.  /((//,  Eng.  autumn  (also  Amer.); 
Amer.  candi/.  Eng.  sweets;  Amer.  cracl-er,  Eng.  biseuit; 
Amer.  rare  (of  meal).  Eng.  under  dune  ;  Amer.  straiy/it  (of 
drinks),  Eng.  neat;  Amer.  pants  (regarded  as  vulgar  by  cul- 
tivated classes  in  cities),  Eng.  trousers :  Amer.  sack-coat. 
Jing.  jacket :  Anu'i-.  »v(/.sV,  Eng.  bod>/.  bodice,  etc.  Especially 
instructive  is  it  to  nole  limv  spi'cial  activities,  particularly 
tliose  of  move  modern  development,  have  found  themselves 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  separate  vocabularies;  for 
instance,  tlie  language  of  railroad  travel :  Amer.  engineer, 
Eng.  engine-driver;  Amer.  fireman,  Eng.  stoker;  Amer. 
conductor.  Eng.  guard  (only  in  general  comparable,  as  func- 
tions differ) :  Amer.  baggage-car,  Eng.  tvggage-van  ;  Amer. 
railroad,  Eng.  railway  ;  Amer.  car,  Eng.  carriage  ;  Amer. 
road,  Eng.  line;  Amer.  switcli,  Eng.  points;  Amer.  to  switcli, 
Eng.  to  sliunt;  Amvv.  freiglit-train,  Kng.  good-i-train;  Amer. 
baggage,  Eng.  luggage;  Amer.  horse-car,  Eng.  tram-ccvr.  etc. 

Political  life  ill  the  U.  S.  also  has  developed  a  vocabulary  of 
its  own,  thus :  caucus,  stump,  to  stump,  filibuster,  federalist, 
senatoricd, gubernatorial,  copperheads,  kaoivnothings,  carpet- 
baggers, to  gerrgniander.  to  tubby,  mileage,  trire-puller,  etc. 

Differences  in  the  vise  of  words  common  to  both :  Tiresome, 
Eng.  ■•dull"  ••annciying,"  Amer.  "fatiguing."  Lumber,  in 
Great  Britain  means  "  cumbersome  materiar';  in  the  U.  S. 
it  has  the  additional  meaning  of  timber.  To  fix,  in  Great 
Britain  means  "to  fasten":  in  the  U.  S.  it  also  means  "to 
repair."  Corn,  in  Great  Britain  denotes  "  grain " ;  in  the 
U.  S.  it  is  used  to  designate  "  maize."  To  transpire,  in 
Great  Britain  is  to  "exhale,"  "become  public,"  etc.,  as  in 
the  U.  S..  where  it  also  means  to  "  occur." 

The  subtler  differences  in  turns  of  expression  are  even 
more  significant  than  single  words:  Amer.  quarter  of  five, 
Eng.  cjuarter  to  five;  Anusr.  sich  abed,  Eng.  ill  in  bed;  Amer. 
bacli  and  forth.  Eng.  to  and  fro;  Amer.  it  doesn't  amount 
to  anytliiwj,  Eng.  come  to  ;  Amer.  fill  teeth,  Eng.  stop  teeth  ; 
Amer.  have  a  good  time,  Eng.  enjoy  one's  self  (also  Amer.) ; 
Amer.  are  yuu  throug/i  ?  Eng.  tiace  you  finished  f,  etc. 

The  study  of  the  Amei-ican  dialects  of  English  is  beset  with 
peculiar  diilicully.  owing  to  the  freedom  of  movement  and 
intercourse,  and  tlie  mixture  of  population  in  even  the  orig- 
inal settlements;  but  systematic  work  in  this  field  has  been 
i)egun  under  the  auspices  of  the  recently  (1889)  established 
American  Dialect  Society  (secretary.  Prof.  E.  S.  Sheldon, 
Cambri<lge.  Mass.).  which  puV)lishes  its  collections  of  material 
in  the  Dialect  Notes.  A  specimen  investigation  of  a  local 
dialect  is  afforded  in  0.  F.  Emerson"s  Dicdect  of  Ithaca 
(N.  Y..  18!)1);  Bartlett,  .J.  R.,  Dictionary  of  Americanisms 
(4th  cd.  1877);  White,  R.  G.,  Words  and  their  U.fes,  chap. 
iii.  (1870);  (iala.cy,  xxi.  521;  xxiv.  376.  681;  Atlantic 
Monthly,  xli.  40.5,  656 ;  xlii.  97,  843,  619,  64S,  atul  in  suc- 
ceeding volumes;  Scheie  de  Vere,  M.,  Americanisms  (1872); 
Southern.  Ji'evieic,  ix.  290,  529,  (U.  S.)  Amerii-anisnis.  a 
Study  of  Words  and  Manners;  Primer,  S..  The  Huguenot 
Element  in  ('harlest(in"s  Provincialisms,  Phorwtisc/ie  ,Stu- 
dien,  iii.  l:!9  ;  The  Pronunciation  near  Fredericksburg,  Va., 
Proceedings  Am.  Phil.  Assoc.  (1889):  Dialectical  Studies  in 
West  Virginia,  Colorado  College  Studies,  vol.  i. ;  Norton,  L., 
Pulitical  Amei'icanisms  (1891);  Lowell,  J.  R..  Bii/low 
Papers  (1848,  lS(i4);  Ijounsl)ury,  T.  R.,  The  English  Lan- 
guage in  America.  International  Peview,  viii.  472,  596; 
Smith,  C.  v..  (»n  .Siaithernisms,  Transac.  Am.  Phil.  Assnc, 
1883;  t'arruth.  W.  II..  Dialed  Word-list,  Kansas  Univ. 
Quarterly,  i.  95  IT.;  Farmer,  J.  S.,  An>ericanisnis,  Old  and 
Meui;  a  Dictionary  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Colloquialisms 
peculiar  to  the  United  States,  Iiriti.Hh  America,  and  the 
West  Indies  (Loud.   ISS!I).  BkX,T.  IdE  WuEELEB. 

Aiiicriciiii  Laiigiiiiigcs:  Sec  Inoiax  Languages  ok  Amer- 
ica. 
Anu'rican  Party  :  See  Knownotuixus. 

Aiiiorican  Plants;  this  term  is  applied  in  Great  Britain 
to  lihoduilendrons.  Azaleas,  and  other  related  erieaeeous 
plants.  It  also  nuiudes  hardy  ilowcring  shrubs  gi'owing  in 
peaty  soil.  C.  E.  B. 


Aineriean  River ;  in  the  north  central  part  of  California, 
formed  by  the  union  of  its  North  and  South  Forks  in  the 
western  part  of  El  Dorado  County  :  it  flows  in  a  S.  W.  direc- 
tion, and  empties  into  the  Sacramento  river  a  short  distance 
al)Ove  Sacramento  city.  Gold  is  found  along  the  lianks  of 
this  river  and  its  forks. 

.\nierioaii  Suiulay-scliool  riiiou  :  organized  at  Phila- 
delphia. j\lay  25.  1824.  It  \va.s.  however,  the  immediate  suc- 
cessor of  the  Philadelphia  Sunday  and  Adult  School  Union, 
wliich  was  organized  in  1817.  and  had  auxiliary  "  unions," 
or  braiu'hes,  in  eleven  of  the  States,  when,  in  1824,  it  trans- 
ferred its  capital  and  schools  to  the  new  national  organiza- 
tion. A  still  earlier  organization,  to  the  work  of  wliicli  the 
new  national  society  practically  succeeded,  was  the  First 
Day  or  Smiday-school  Society  of  Philadeljihia,  started  in 
1790.  The  American  Sinidiiy-school  Union  is  imder  the 
direction  of  tliirty-six  managers,  of  whom  at  least  twent>\ 
four  must  reside  in  Philadelphia  and  its  vicinity.  All 
these  managers  are  laymen,  and  they  are  selected  from 
various  Christian  denominations.  The  union  is  not  a  union 
of  deiKiminations.  but  of  individual  Christians  of  different 
denominations.  The  object  of  the  union  was,  at  its  for- 
mation, "to  concentrate  the  efforts  of  Sabbath-school  socie- 
ties in  the  different  jiarts  of  our  country,  to  strengthen  the 
hands  of  the  friends  of  pious  instniction  on  the  Lord's  Day, 
to  disseminate  useful  information,  circulate  moral  and  re- 
ligious publications  in  every  part  of  the  land,  and  to  en- 
deavor to  plant  a  Sunday-school  wherever  there  is  a  popu- 
lation." Various  denominational  Sunday-school  societies 
have  resulteil  from  the  work  of  the  union,  but  it  lias  con- 
tinued its  operations  without  interniption,  and  its  aim  still 
is  to  im|jrove  existing  Sunday-schools,  and  to  organize  new 
ones.  Its  plan  is  to  publish  books  and  papers  suited  to  the 
wants  of  Sunday-schools,  and  to  send  out  missionaries,  lay 
and  clerical,  of  various  denominations,  to  organize  new 
Sunday-schools  wherever  tliere  is  a  needy  population.  No 
Sunday-schools  are  under  the  control  of  the  union,  but  its 
missionaries  watch  and  help  as  they  have  opiiortunity  the 
pioneer  schools  they  have  organized.  Many  of  these  schools 
have  proved  the  foundation  of  Christian  churches.  Indeed, 
a  large  share  of  all  the  Protestant  churches  organized  in  the 
newer  States  within  the  past  fifty  years  have  had  their 
beginning  in  Union  Smiday-schools.  '  The  union  lias  been 
the  parent  of  most  of  the  distinctive  agencies  and  methods 
of  the  American  Sunday-school  system.  Sunday-school  li- 
braries. f|uestion-books,  periotlicals,  teachers'  helps,  conven- 
tions. ])lans  for  teacher-training,  schemes  of  limited  lessons 
uniform  throughout  the  country,  were  originated  by  or  first 
gaineil  prominence  through  the  agency  of  tlie  union  or  of 
its  officers  and  managers.  Jloreover,  its  work  created  or 
stimulated  »  demand  in  these  departments  which  has  greatly 
increased  the  sujiply  in  them  all.  Its  list  of  sejiarate  pub- 
lications exceeds  2.000.  The  value  of  these,  circulated  by 
sale  and  donation,  up  to  JIar.  1,  1892,  amounts  to  more  than 
i^lO.000.000.  Up  to  t  he  same  date  its  missionaries  had  organ- 
ized 89,380  Sunday-schools,  including,  at  the  time  of  their 
organization.  534,704  teachers  and  3.677.709  scholars.  In 
addition  to  tliis.  its  missionaries  have  visited  and  helped 
nianv  tlioiisandsof  existing  schools,  ineluiling  several  mill- 
ions 'of  schdhiis.  Henry  Clay  Trumhull. 

American  University.  The  :  a  post-graduate  institution 
at  Washington,  I).  C,  under  the  direction  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  ;  was  chartered  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, May  28,  1891.  A  site  of  90  acres,  at  the  N.  W.  terminus 
of  IMassachn.setts  Avenue  extended,  is  the  gift  of  the  citizens 
of  Washington.  Its  board  of  trustees,  numbering  fifty,  in- 
cludes as  ex-utliciti  menibers  the  President,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.. 
ami  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  by  the  action  of  the  General 
Conference.  Mav  25.  1892.  accepted  the  palronaire  of  this 
institution.  Kn'dowment  will  be  made  and  faculty  organ- 
ized with  distinct  jiurpose  to  open  professional  and  post- 
graduate departments  for  advanced  studies  and  original 
research.  Only  those  who  have  taken  a  degree  will  be  re- 
ceived as  students.  Bishop  John  F.  Hurst,  D.  I)..  \Ai.  D.,  is 
chancellor.  A.  OsnoRN. 

Amer'icns:  city;  cajiita)  of  Sumter  co.,  Ga.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  5-G) ;  on  railroad ;  70 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Macon ;  has  a  female  college  and  a  high 
school  for  bovs,  and  is  situated  in  a  cotton  and  sugar-cane 
raising  ilistrict.     Pop.  (1870)  3,259  :  (1880)  3,635  ;  (1890)  6,398. 

Anieriens  Ves|incins:  See  Vespucci. 


AMERIOLA 


AMHERST 


159 


Anieri'ola :  a  city  of  ancient  Latium  ;  one  of  those  which 
were  cimquereil  bvthe  elder  Tarquin.  It  was  among  the 
"  Prisei  Latini,"  and  was  doubtless  one  of  the  thirty  cities 
of  the  League.     Its  site  is  not  dcHnitely  known. 

A'mersfort,  or  A'mersfoort :  a  town  and  port  of  the 
Netherlands ;  province  of  Utrecht :  on  the  river  Kein,  12 
miles  X.  E.  of  Utrecht  (sec  map  of  Holland  and  Belgiuni. 
ref.  .5-G).  It  has  a  Janseni-st  seminary,  a  Latin  school,  and 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  wooh^n  stuffs.  Tobacco,  grain, 
and  dried  lierrings  are  exported  from  this  town.  It  received 
municipal  privileges  in  l"24!t.  and  was  taken  by  the  Arch- 
duke JIaxiiniliau  in  148o  and  bv  flic  French  in  1672  and 
1695,     Pop.  (lyiJ)  i;i,T04;  (1890)  1.5,694, 

Ames :  city ;  Story  eo,.  la. ;  on  Chi.  and  N.  W.  Ry,  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  5-G) :  the  seat  of  the  Stiite 
Agricultural  College.  Pop,  (1880)  1,1, 5:j ;  (1890)1,276;  (1895) 
l,a93.  Editor  ok  "  Lntelligkxcer," 

Ames,  AnF.nnKRT  :  soldier;  1),  at  Rockland,  Me.,  Oct.  31, 
18:35 ;  graduated  at  West  Point  1861  ;  lieutenant-colonel 
Tweiitv-fourth  lufantrv  Julv  28, 1866,  and  brigadier-general 
U,  S,  Vols,  May  20,  1863,  Breveted  major-general  Mar,  13, 
1865,  for  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  the  field.  Since 
the  war  was  made  provisional  governor  of  Mississippi  June 
15,  1868.  in  command  of  fourth  mUitarv  district,  department 
of  .Mississippi,  1869,  Resigned  Feb.  23.  1870  ;  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Mississippi  1870-73  :" Governor  of  State  of  Mississippi 
1874-76. 

Ames,  Charles  Gordox  :  Unitarian  preacher  and  edi- 
tor ;  b,  at  Dorchester,  JIass.,  Oct.  3, 1828  ;  studied  and  taught 
for  three  years  in  Grange  Seminary,  Ohio ;  was  for  ten 
years  a  Free  Baptist  preacher  at  Minneapolis ;  organized 
Unitarian  churches  in  Illinois,  California,  and  Pennsylvania; 
held  pastorates  at  Albany.  X,  Y„  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  Bos- 
ton, JIass.,  and  became  in  1889  pastor  of  the  Clnirch  of  the 
Disciples,  Boston,  Was  editor  of  the  ilinneapolis  Repub- 
lican, the  first  Reputilican  paper  in  the  Northwest,  in  1854, 
and  the  C/iristian  Register,  1877-80 ;  has  preached  and 
lectured  in  twenty  States,  and  published  numerous  tracts, 
essays,  and  articles.  His  George  Eliot's  Two  Marriages  ran 
through  four  editions.  He  also  edited  T/ie  Ethics  of  George 
Eliot,  and  wrote  the  introduction  to  that  book.  Has  been 
deeply  interested  in  all  social  and  philanthropic  questions, 

JoBX  W.  Chadwick, 

.\mes,  Edward  Raymoxd,  D.  D,,  LL,  D,  :  Bishop  of  the 
Meihodist  Episcopal  Church  :  b.  at  Athens,  0.,  May  20,  1806. 
He  was  eilucatcd  at  Ohio  University;  was  tutor  at  McKen- 
dree  College  1823-29 ;  began  to  preacli  in  1830.  and  was 
appointed  a  bishop  in  1852.  From  1861  he  resided  in  Bal- 
timore.    D.  at  Baltimore,  Md„  April  25,  1879, 

Ames,  Fisher,  LL,  D.  :  orator  and  statesman  ;  b.  at  Ded- 
hain.  Mass,,  Apr,  9,  1758,  He  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1774,  after  which  he  .studied  law  in  the  office  of 
William  Tudor,  of  Boston,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1781.  In  several  political  essays  which  he  wrote  for  the 
newspapeis;  of  IJoston  about  1785  be  distilayed  practical  wis- 
dom and  literary  ability  of  a  high  order.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  convention  of  Jta.ssachusetts  which  in  1788  ratified 
the  Federal  Constitution,  and  he  advocated  its  jidoption  in 
an  eloquent  s]jeech.  Having  identified  himself  with  the 
Fc^leral  party,  he  was  elect(Ml  to  Congress  in  1789  by  the 
void's  of  the  district  which  included  Boston.  He  supported 
the  administration  of  Washington,  S[)oke  frequently  in  Con- 
gress, and  soon  ac(|uircd  a  national  reputation  as  an  orator 
of  the  foremost  rank.  Among  the  most  memorable  of  his 
parliamentary  efforts  was  a  powerful  speech  in  support  of 
.lay's  treaty  with  Great  Britain,  April,  1796,  which  has  been 
preserved.  At  the  close  of  this  speech  an  opponent  of  tlie 
treaty  moved  to  postpone  the  vote  on  the  question,  giving 
as  a  rea.s(in  that  the  memljci's  were  too  much  excited  to 
make  a  just  ami  rational  decision.  After  he  hail  serveil 
four  terms  in  Congress  he  retired  to  private  life  in  1797,  on 
account  of  his  delicate  health.  He  married  Frances  Worth- 
ington,  of  Springfield,  in  1792,  In  1709  he  pronounced  a 
eulogy  on  Washington  before  the  Legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts, He  was  elected  president  of  Harvard  College  in  1804, 
but  he  declined  that  position.  He  died  at  Dedham,  Mass.. 
.luly  4,  1808,  leaving  several  sons.  His  character  was  emi- 
nently jiure  and  lionorable.  He  w.as  distinguished  for  liis 
wit,  his  collo(|ui.il  ]iowi'rs,  and  his  brilliant  iniaginatinn. 
His  orations  al>ound  in  happy  metaphors  and  illustrations. 
His  works,  consisting  of  orations,  essays,  and  letters,  were 
published  by  his  son,  Seth  Ames,  in  2  vols,,  1854, 


Amesbury ;  on  railroad ;  Essex  eo,,  Mass,  (for  location  of 
county,  see  maji  of  JIassachusetts,  ret,  l-I) ;  40  miles  by  rail 
N.  of  Boston.  There  are  two  elective  railroads,  one  via  East 
Salisbury  to  Newburyport,  5  miles  distant,  and  another,  5 
miles  long,  to  Merrinutc,  There  is  also  a  branch  railroad 
connecting  with  'lie  Eastern  U,  1!,  Here  are  extensive  manu- 
factures of  flannels,  carriages,  boots  and  shoes,  cassimeres, 
broaf^cloths,  etc,  Amesbury  was  the  residence  of  the  poet 
Whittier,  The  township  lias  been  united  since  the  1870 
census.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  3,3.55;  (1890)  9,798;  (1895) 
9,986,  Editor  of  "Amesbury  Dailv," 

Am'etliyst  [Or.  a|U€',it/o-Toj,  remedy  against  drunkenness; 
0-,  not  -I-  fiedva-Kftv,  intcjxicate] ;  a  purple  variety  of  rock- 
crystal  or  quartz,  colored  by  manganese,  so  named  from  its 
reputed  virtue  of  preventing  intoxication.  It  is  found  in 
Brazil.  Ceylon,  India,  and  many  other  places,  and  is  worn  in 
the  form  of  seals  and  ornamental  articles.  The  Oriental 
imethyst  is  a  variety  of  sj)inel.  and  is  a  more  valuable  gem 
than  the  common  amethyst. 

Amha'ra;  the  central  division  of  Abyssinia;  capital. 
Gondar.     See  Abvssixia. 

Aiiiliar'ic  Lan'g'uage  [from  the  province  of  Amhara]: 
the  chief  language  of  Abyssinia,  since  the  extinction  of  the 
Ethioi'ic  Laxguage  (q.  v.).  It  is  spoken  by  the  majority  of 
the  population  in  the  countries  between  the  rivers  Tacazze  and 
Abai,  and  in  Shoa  and  Argaibba,  while  in  the  countries  in  the 
N.  E.  of  Abyssinia,  N.  of  the  Tacazze,  the  Tigre  language  pre- 
dominates. Among  the  Semitic  languages,  the  Amharic  is 
nearest  related,  both  grammatically  and  lexicographically,  to 
the  Ethiopic,  but  is  by  no  means  a  new  form  of  the  Ethiopic, 
but  rather  a  descendant  of  the  Old  Amharic,  which  is  closely 
allied  to  the  Ethiopic.  Although  the  Amharic  has  retained 
many  peculiarities  of  the  Old  Semitic,  it  still  represents  a 
later  stage  of  development  of  the  southern  Semitic  than 
does  the  Ethiopic,  In  all  its  phonetic  relations  the  Amharic 
has  degenerated  very  much,  while  many  of  its  grammatical 
forms  have  been  abolished,  and  have  been  only  in  part  replaced 
by  new  forms.  .After  tlie  Andiaric  language  had  been  used 
for  many  centuries  by  the  people,  and  after  the  extinction 
of  the  Ethiopic,  it  became  a  written  language,  the  Ethiopic 
alphal)et  being  employed,  wliile  for  the  sounds  peculiar  to 
the  Amharic  new  characters  were  introduced  by  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  Ethiopic  characters.  Although  the  Amharic 
can  not  be  called  a  literary  language  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word,  still  many  works  have  been  written  in  it  within 
the  last  three  centuries,  partly  translations  and  exiilanations 
of  biblical  and  other  Ethiopic  books  and  vocabularies,  partly 
short  historical  works,  dog^naticaI  and  ethical  comjiendia, 
formulas  for  confession,  etc,  for  the  people,  partly  medical 
and  magical  treatises,  and,  recently,  translations  of  European 
books.  In  the  Ethiopic-Amharic  books  of  the  history  of  the 
native  kings  some  of  the  older  Amharic  poems  are  given. 
But  of  these  works  very  little  is  known  in  Europe,  Up  to 
the  present  time  only  missionary  works  have  been  printed. 
The  Amharic  has  been  treated  grammatically  and  lexico- 
graphically by  Ludolf  (1698) ;  more  completely  by  Isenberg 
(Lexicon.  1841  ;  Grammar.  1842);  and  very  fully,  from  the 
modern  lingtiistic  point  of  view,  by  Franz  Praetorius  (6'?Y/>n- 
niar.  1879),  and  Antoine  d'Abbadie  {Dictionary.  1881),  For 
fuller  information,  see  the  works  of  Praetoiius  and  d'Abbadie. 
See  Semitk-  Languages.  Revised  by  C.  H.  Toy. 

Am'lierst ;  a  tomi  and  seaport  of  Burma,  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  sanu"  name,  30  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Maulmain  (see 
map  of  S.  ln<lia.,  ref,  4-M).  It  was  founded  by  the  British  in 
1826.  and  named  in  honor  o[  the  (xovernor-General  of  India, 
will)  prcijected  it.  Large  teak  forests  abound  in  its  neigh- 
borhood, and  the  timber  is  exported  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. The  harbor,  though  large  and  deep,  is  difficult  of  access, 
and  is  exposed  to  the  S.  W.  monsoon.     Pop.  about  30.000. 

Amherst:  capital  of  Cumberland  co..  Nova  Scotia.  Can- 
ada (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  2-B).  on  Intercolonial  R.  R.,- 
near  the  N.  E,  end  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy ;  is  about  midway 
between  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  and  St."  .lohn.  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  is  in  an  agricultural,  lumber,  coal-mining,  manu- 
facturing, and  ship-building  district.  Pop.  (1881)  2.274; 
(1S91)  3,781, 

Amiierst :  on  Central  JIa.ss.  and  New  Lond.  and  N.  R.  Rs.: 
in  Hampshire  co.,  Mass.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Massachusetts,  ref.  3-K) ;  85  miles  N.  of  New' London,  and 
82  miles  \V.  of  Boston.  It  is  the  seat  of  Amherst  College 
and  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  (See  Am- 
herst College.)     The  town  lias  excellent  schools,  including 


160 


a:mherst 


AMICIS 


a  high  school.  It  has  also  paper  and  planing  mills,  manu- 
factures of  leather,  children's  wagons,  palm-leaf  hats,  and 
planes.  Amlierst  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  towns  in 
Massachusetts.  The  village  is  situated  upon  an  elevation 
which  affords  a  beautiful  view  of  the  fertile  and  picturesque 
vallev  of  tlie  Connecticut  antl  of  the  surrounding  mountains 
—the  llolyoke  range  to  the  S.  W.,  and  on  the  X.  Jlett;.- 
wampe,  Sui;ar  Loaf,  and  others.  Pop.  of  township  (1!^80) 
4,298  ;  (1890)  4,513:  (1895)  4.785.       Editor  of  "  Record."' 

Amherst.  .Ieffery  (called  Lord  Amherst) :  British  gen- 
eral :  b.  at  Kiverh<'ad.  in  K<'nt,  .Tan.  29.  1717.  lie  entered  the 
army  in  1781,  and  liecame  aide-de-camp  to  Gen,  Ligonier  in 
1741  :  served  with  him  in  the  battles  of  Dettingen,  Fontenoy, 
and  Rocoux.  In  1756  he  became  a  colonel  of  infantry  ;  went 
to  America  in  17.58,  and  served  against  France  in  the  inter- 
colonial war;  commanded  the  troops  at  the  siege  of  Louis- 
burg,  a  famous  fortress  Ijuilt  by  the  French  upon  the  eastern 
coast  of  Cape  Breton  island  ;  the  town  was  destroyed  by  tlie 
borabarduu-nt.  and.  willi  the  garrison  and  the  French  fleet, 
surrendered  July  26,  17.58:  lieeame  commander-in-chief  of 
all  the  forces  in  America,  Sept.  30. 1758  ;  completed  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  from  tlie  French  by  tlie  capture  of  Montreal 
Sept.  8.  1760  ;  was  made  Knight  of  the  Bath  in  1761 ;  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  in  1763;  was  dismissed  from  the  army, 
but  restored  in  1768;  became  governor  of  Guernsey  177(3; 
lieutenant-general  of  ordnance  in  1772 ;  Baron  Amherst  of 
Holmesdale  1776;  commander-in-chief  in  England  1778-82; 
Baron  Amherst  of  Montreal  1788 ;  again  commander-in- 
chief  in  England  in  1793-95;  became  field  mar.shal  1796. 
D.  at  Montreal,  his  seat  in  Kent,  England,  Aug.  3,  1797. 

Ainlierst,  William  Pitt,  First  Earl  of :  nephew  of  tlie 
preceding;  b.  in  England,  Jan.  14.  1773.  He  was  sent  as  an 
ambassador  extraordinary  to  China  in  1816,  and  reached 
Peking,  but  he  failed  to  effect  the  object  of  his  mission 
(which  was  to  imin-ove  the  commercial  relations  between 
th.at  empire  and  Great  Britain),  as  he  refused  to  comply 
with  the  degrading  ceremonies  which  Chinese  etiquette  pre- 
scribed, ami  was  not  admitted  into  the  presence  of  the  em- 
peror. He  was  shipwrecked  in  Gaspar  Strait  on  his  return 
to  England,  but  escaped  by  boat  to  Batavia,  and  continued 
liis  voyage,  stopping  at  the  island  of  St.  Helena  on  his  way, 
where"  he  had  a  number  of  interviews  with  the  Emperor 
Xapoleon.  He  was  Governor-General  of  India  in  1823-26, 
and  became  an  earl  in  1826.  D.  at  Knole  Park,  Kent,  Mar. 
13, 1857.— His  son,  William  Pitt  (b.  1805,  d.  1886),  succeeded 
him  as  second  earl. 

Amherstbnrg: :  Essex  co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  railroad 
and  the  Detroit"  river,  2  miles  from  its  entrance  into  Lake 
Erie  ;  18  miles  S.  of  Detroit,  :\Iich.,  and  225  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Tnronto  (see  map  of  Ontai-io.  ref.  6-A).  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  tomis  in  Ontario,  and  during  the  war  of  1812  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  it  was  dismantled  liy  Gen.  Proc- 
tor, of  the  British  army,  Sept.  26.  1813,  and  destroyed  liy 
Gen.  Harrison  of  the  U.  S.  forces,  Oct.  2,  1813.  It  was  named 
in  honor  of  Lord  Amherst,  and  has  a  large  city-hall,  4 
schools,  6  churclies,  water-works,  and  electric  lights  (both 
owned  by  the  municipality),  and  some  manufactures,  and  is 
the  principal  coaling-station  on  the  Detroit  river.  Pop. 
(1881) '2,672;  (1891)2,279.  Editor  of  "Echo." 

Amherst  College:  one  of  tlie  leading  colleges  in  (he 
F.  S. ;  ill  Amherst.  Hampshire  co.,  Mass.  It  was  founded 
in  1821,  and  in  its  general  catalogue,  in  1890.  it  liad  3.:!19 
.■dumni.  of  whom  2.339  were  supposed  to  be  living.  Of  the 
wliDJe  numlier  of  its  graduates,  1,123  were  ministers  and  111 
missionaries  in  tiireign  lands;  208  served  in  the  civil  war 
and  28  died  in  the  service.  The  college  edifices,  12  in  num- 
ber, have  been  erected  at  a  cost  of  .$400,000.  The  pecun- 
iary value  f)f  the  scientific  and  arclaeological  collections 
call  not  be  estimated  at  less  than  f  12.5.000.  and  the  whole 
property  of  the  institution,  including  permanent  funds,  pro- 
.fessoi-ships,  scliolarsliips.  prizes,  etc.,  is  nearly  *;2.0(IO.OOO. 
All  this  IS  the  gift  of  private  charity  and  munifieence,  with 
the  exception  of  about  ^.50.000  granted  by  the  State.  The 
donors  have  been  chiefly  the  Christian  men  and  women  of 
Massachusetts.  The  Hitchcock  Ichnological  Cabinet,  the 
Adams  Collection  in  Conchology,  the  Shepard  jMeteoric  Col- 
lection, anil  the  JIather  Art  Collection,  are  widely  known  as 
of  unsurpassed  value  and  exi'elleuce.  The  Pratt  Gyninasiuui, 
■with  its  accompanying  system  of  exercise  and  instruction, 
constitutes  a  feature  peculiar  to  this  institution;  all  the  stu- 
<lents,  unless  excused  for  .special  reasons,  are  required  to 
exercise  half  an  hour  daily,  chiefly  in  the  light  gynina.stics, 
under  the  direction  of  a  professor  wlio  is  an  educated  physi- 


cian, and  who  has  charge  of  their  health  and  physical  cul- 
ture. The  Pratt  Field  for  ball-playing  and  other  athletic 
exercises  gives  Amherst  an  equipment  for  modern  outdoor 
athletics  in  advance  of  any  other  college.  The  faculty  of 
Amherst  College  consists  of  30  persons,  including  the  presi- 
dent, 22  professors,  1  lecturer,  3  instnietors,  and  a  librarian 
with  his  assistant.  The  number  of  students  in  1890.  all  in 
four  classes  of  the  regular  college  course,  was  352.  The  an- 
nual income  is  about  .'s;70,000.  Tlie  presidents  have  been 
Rev.  Z.  Swift  Jloore.  D.  D.  (1821-23):  Rev.  Ili-iiian  Hum- 
phrev,  D.  D.  (1823-45);  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock,  I>.  I)., 
LL.IX  (1845-54):  Rev.  William  A.  Stearns,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
(1854-76):  Rev.  -Julius  H.  Seclve,  D.D.,  LL.  D.  (1876-90): 
and  Merrill  E.  Gates.  LL.D..  L.'II.  D. 

The  Jlassachusetts  Agricultural  College,  although  the  off- 
spring of  Amherst  College,  and  situated  in  the  same  place 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  advantage  of  its  scientitic 
treasures,  has  no  organic  connection  with  it,  having  a  sepa- 
rate faculty  and  a  distinct  board  of  trustees,  elected  by  tlie 
State  Legislature,  It  was  opened  for  students  in  the  fall  of 
1867,  and  held  its  first  commencement,  with  the  graduation 
of  its  first  cla-ss,  in  the  summer  of  1871.  It  has  three  college 
halls,  a  fine  stone  chapel  and  library  building,  two  boarding- 
houses,  the  Durfee  Plant-house,  a  lari;e  military  Imilding, 
and  a  botanic  museum,  besides  the  Iniildings  jiertaining  to 
the  farm,  which  consists  of  over  300  acres.  The  students 
work  on  tlie  fanii  a  certain  number  of  houi-s  each  week, 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent  and  the  professor 
of  agriculture.  They  also  receive  regular  military  exercise 
and  drill  under  the  professor  of  military  science  and  tactics. 
The  real  estate  of  the  college  cost  over  .$200,000.  Its  fier- 
manent  funds,  derived  from  the  sale  of  lands  given  by  Con- 
gress, from  grants  by  the  State,  and  from  private  donations, 
amount  to  half  a  million.  The  faculty,  as  exhibited  in  the 
catalogue  of  1890,  consists  of  14  persons,  including  the  presi- 
dent, Henry  H.  Goodell,  LL.D.,  11  professors,  1  lecturer  on 
farm  law,  and  a  farm  superintendent.  Tliere  were  then  160 
students — 16  resident  graduates.  20  seniors,  27  Juniors,  35 
sophomores,  and  62  freshmen.  See  ITistori/  of  Amherst  Cul- 
hye,  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Tyler,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  (1872). 

W.  S.  Tyler. 

Amherst,  or  Toiitl  Island  :  an  island  in  the  eastern  end 
of  Liike  Ontario,  near  the  Canadian  side,  at  tlie  mouth  of 
the  Bay  of  (juinte.  Pop.  about  1.200.  Amherst  is  also  the 
name  of  one  of  the  Magdalen  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence ;  of  a  group  of  islands  lying  W.  of  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  Korea;  and  of  some  islands  oft'  the  coast  of  Arakan,  a  di- 
vision of  Burma.  JI.  AV.  H. 

A'niisi:  a  genus  of  fishes  fmind  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
Xortli  Aiiurica:  interesting  from  their  relatioiifhip  to  the 
ancient  fossil  lishes,  and  remarkable  for  the  eiflular  structure 
of  the  air-bladder,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  lung  of  a 
reptile.  One  species  is  known  {Amia  calva)  as  the  "dog- 
fish "  cjr  "  bow-fin."  and  is  worthless  as  food. 

Allliilll'tlllis  [Gi-.  anlai^Tos.  free  from  defilement ;  d-.  not-H 
iUio(«ii'.  defile.  The  li  is  due  to  false  association  with  Si/flus. 
flower] :  a  delicate  and  fibrous  form  of  serpentine,  so  called 
because  cloth  made  of  it  can  be  purified  by  fire.  It  is  some- 
times called  mountain-flax.  The  cloths  in  which  the  ancients 
wrapjied  the  bodies  that  were  burned  on  the  funeral  [lyre 
were  sometimes  made  of  amianthus. 

Am'ice,  or  Aiiiic'tilS:  an  upper  garment  worn  by  the 
Romans  over  the  tunic  :  also  a  linen  vestment  worn  over  the 
shoulders  of  Roman  CathoUc  priests  during  the  celebration 
of  the  mass.  By  the  Sarum  use  (English),  not  unly  the  higher 
clergy  but  those  in  minor  orders  were  required  at  special 
seasoiis  to  be  vested  in  both  alb  and  amice.  Formerly  placed 
on  the  monarch's  head  at  the  coronaticjii.  King  Edward  VI. 
was  the  la.st  to  use  it  on  this  occasion. 

Aniic'i.  a1i-meeche"e,  Giovaxxi  Battista  :  an  Italian  opti- 
cian and  savant  ;  b.  at  ^Modena.  JIar.  25,  1784.  He  was 
skillful  in  (he  fabrication  of  mirrors  and  lenses  for  telescopes 
and  iniirosco]ies.  He  was  for  many  years  director  of  the 
Oliservatory  of  Florence,  where  he  gained  distinelion  as  an 
observer,  lie  wrote  on  doulile  stars  and  oilier  to|iics  of  as- 
tronomy. The  acliromalie  microscope  whieli  lie  constructed 
\vas  considered  a  valuable  improvement.  D.  at  Florence, 
Ajir.  10,  1863. 

Ainicis.  ali-mee'che'es,  EoMONDO,  de:  Italian  writer;  b.  at 
Oneglia,  Oct.  21.  1848;  educated  in  tin'  military  college  at 
Modena.  He  took  part,  in  expeditions  against  the  .Sicilian 
brigands,  and  then  in  the  war  of  1866  against  Austria.     His 


AMIEL 


AMMEN 


161 


first  literary  successes  were  some  militarv  sketches  publishctl 
in  1868  andthereaftcr.Za  Vifa  Mihlare  (1869).  A  little  later 
he  traveled  extensively,  and  sliowcd  himself  a  master  in  the 
art  of  deseribingthe  life  and  nalmal  aspects  of  foreign  coun- 
tries and  cities.  His  works  in  this  manner  liave  been  much 
admired,  and  translated  into  many  niudcrn  languages.  They 
are:  La  Speiffna  (187:i);  liicordi  di  Lmidra  (1874);  Olandu 
(1874) ;  Maroccii  ( 1876) :  Hicurdi  di  I'lti-itfi  (1S78) :  Costanli- 
7wpoU  (1878).  In  his  work  11  lioiiiatao  d'liii  Maestro  (1889), 
he  lias  given  a  striking  account  of  the  contlition  of  popular 
education  in  Italy.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Amiel.  aamre-el',  IIexki  Frkderic:  Gencve.se  poet  and 
thinker:  b.  at  Geneva,  Sept.  27,  1821.  Educaled  in  Geneva, 
lie  sid)sequently  spent  several  yeai's  in  study  at  ll('i<lelberg 
and  Berlin,  and  in  travel  in  Italy,  tiermany.  Scandinavia, 
and  Holland.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  jEs- 
thetics  and  French  Literal ure  in  the  Aca(k'my  of  Geneva; 
in  18.")4.  Professor  of  Moral  Philosopliy.  A  brilliant  career 
was  now  expected  of  liim,  but  lo  llie  surpri.se  and  regret  of 
his  friends  his  life  gradually  slipped  away  with  tlie  produc- 
tion of  no  more  tlian  a  few  es.says  and  slight  volumes  of 
poems:  Gmins  di;  Mi!  {XS'^i):  II  PensuvsoilHoS);  La  Part 
dii  i?e'i-e  (1863) ;  and  Jour  a  Jour  (1880).  When  he  died, 
however,  it  was  found  that  he  had  left  a  privjite  journal  of 
enormous  extent  (17.000  folio  pages  of  manuscript),  in  which 
lie  liad  written  down  for  years  his  meditations  and  experi- 
ences. In  1882  the  first  volume  of  extracts  from  this  Journal 
Lit i me  was  publislicd,  and  was  at  once  recognized  by  all 
Europe  as  a  very  reinarkal)le  book.  Thus  after  his  death 
Ainiel  attained  to  fame — the  fame  of  one  of  the  best  inter- 
pretei-s  of  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  doubts  and  anxieties 
which  vex  the  noblest  minds  in  our  time.  In  1884  a  second 
volume  of  extracts  appeared,  and  deepened  tliis  impression. 
See  the  Jouinid  lutiiiie,  translated  by  Mrs.  llumphrv  \\'ard 
(London.  18,S!)):  Jlmri  Fn'ili'rlc  Aiuicl.  rtiide  hloqraphique, 
par  Berthe  Vadier  (Paris,  1886),    D.  at  Geneva,  May  11, 1881. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Amiens  (anc.  Samarohri'va  and  Amhia'ni):  an  ancient 
and  important  town  of  Northern  France ;  capital  of  the  de- 
jiartment  of  Somme,  on  the  river  Somme,  and  on  the  Paris 
and  Boulogne  R,  R.,  81  miles  by  rail  X.  of  Paris  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  2-F),  It  was  once  very  strongly  fortified,  and 
still  has  a  citadel.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,' and  contains  a 
magnilicent  Gothic  catjiedral,  415  feet  long,  183  feet  wide, 
which  was  founded  in  1220,  This  is  one  of  the  six  or  seven 
most  important  Gothic  cathedrals  of  France,  ranking  with 
both  of  Ghartres,  Paris,  Bourges,  Rouen,  and  Reims,  It  con- 
tains the  most  remarkable  set  of  choir-stalls,  in  carved  oak, 
existing.  Among  its  other  fine  edifices  are  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  Chateau  d'Eau,  and  tlie  library,  containing  60,000  vol- 
umes. Here  are  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton  velvet, 
serges,  plush,  and  otiier  cotton  and  wo<,len  stulTs.  The  river, 
which  i-<  here  diviiled  into  many  canals,  affords  water-power 
for  mills  and  manufactories.  Amiens  was  the  native  place 
of  Peter  the  Hermit  and  of  Dolambre.  An  important  treaty, 
called  "the  Peace  of  Amiens,"  was  signed  here  hv  the  French 
and  British  in  March,  ls(l2.  On  Xov.  27,  1870," the  German 
General  Mantcuffel  oljtained  here  a  great  victory  over  the 
French  army  of  the  Loire,  and  soon  after  the  Germans  took 
possession  of  the  town.     Pop.  (1891)  80.604. 

Itevised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 
Amite,  am-eet' :  a  river  rising  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  ^lis- 
sissijppi;   enters  Louisiana,  flows  southward   to  Ascension 
parish,  where  it  turns  toward  the  E.  and  faUs  into  Lake 
^Iaul■epa.s.     Lenglli  about  100  miles. 

Amite  City  :  capital  of  Tangipahoa  parish,  La.  (for  loca- 
tion of  parish,  see  map  of  Louisiana,  ref,  9-F):  on  the  Illinois 
Central  R,  R.  and  tlic  Tangipalioa  river.  68  miles  X.  X.  AV. 
of  Xew  Orleans;  has  a  ccnirt-house.  o  churches.  2  scliools, 
and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Extensive  truck-farming  is  carriecl 
on  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  (1870)  i)10;  (1880)  1.120; 
(189I1)  L.-ilO.  EuiToK  OF  '-Tuiv  Floriija  Parishes." 

Aiilityville:  summer  resort  near  Babylon,  Suffolk  co., 
X.  Y,  (tor  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref. 
8-C);  on  Long  Island  R.  R..  31  miles  E.  of  Xew  York  city, 
and  lialf  a  mile  from  the  south  shore  of  Long  Island ;  hasa 
brush  mamifaclory.     Pop.  (1880)  1,063;  (1890)  2.293. 

Am'letll,  or  Ham'Ieth :  an  ancient  Prince  of  Jutland,  who 
is  considered  a  faliiilous  piM-sonage  by  some  writers.  He  is 
said  to  liave  lived  aliout  l.-iOn.  c.  His  story  is  reljited  by 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  whose  narrative  was  formerly  considered 
the  foundation  of  Shakspeare"s  Bamlet.  But  Saxo  Gram- 
11 


maticus  was  not  translated  into  English  when  Shakspeare 
wrote  his  play,  and  the  differences  between  the  historical 
narrative  and  "the  tragedy  give  irrefragable  evidence  that  the 
writer  of  the  latter  has  known  the  former  onlv  at  second 
hand — proliably  through  the  novel  of  Belleforest."  which  just 
at  that  time  was  translated  from  French  into  English. 

Ani'Miig.  Karl  Gustav:  designer  and  engraver;  b.  at 
Xurcmberg,  Bavaria,  about  1650;  worked  at  Munich.  Bava- 
ria; was  patronized  by  JIaximilian  II.,  and  very  successful 
in  portraits.  He  was  considered  the  best  German  engraver 
of  his  time.     I),  in  1701. 

Amliiigr,  Wolfga.m; :  b,  at  Minnerstadt,  Franconia,  in 
1542  :  educated  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Wittenljerg, 
and  Jena:  became  rector  of  the  school  of  Zerbst  in  1566, 
minister  at  Koswig  in  1573,  and  soon  after  minister  at  St. 
Xicolai  ill  Zerb.st.  He  strongly  opposed  the  Formula  Con- 
coritiw,  and  wrote  the  Coiit'e'ssio  Anhaldina.  I).  May  18. 
1606. 

Ainlwcll.  amiook:  a  seaport  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Xortli  Wales;  is  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island  of  An- 
glesey, 15  miles  X".  W.  of  Beaumaris  (see  map  of  England, 
ref.  7-D).  It  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  Parvs  and  Mona 
copjier  mines.     Pop.  about  5.000." 

Am'mnil.  or  Aiii'mon  (the  ancient  Bahhah.  the  capital  of 
the  Ammonites) :  a  ruined  city  of  Sn-ia,  in  the  pashalic  of 
Damascus ;  picturesquely  sitiia'ted  oii  the  Zurka,  an  affluent 
of  the  Jordan,  55  miles  E,  X.  E,  of  Jerusalem.  Here  was  an 
important  city  in  ancient  times,  originally  named  Rabbah, 
which  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  army  of  King  David, 
(See  2  .Sam.  xi.  and  xii.)  After  it  had  been  once  ruined  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  and  called  Philadel- 
phia. It  has  extensive  ancient  remains.  As  late  as  300  a.d. 
it  was  a  remarkalile  city,  having  a  magnificent  theater  and 
temples.     It  was  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis. 

Amiiinii.  JoHAXx  Coxrad,  JI,  D.  :  Swiss  physician:  b.  at 
Schaflhauscn  in  1669;  practiced  at  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam 
in  Holland.  He  actpiired  dist  inction  by  his  successful  efforts 
to  teach  the  deaf  and  dumb  to  speak,  and  wrote  on  that  sub- 
ject an  essay  called  Surdus  Locjuens  (the  Deaf  Speaking, 
Amstei'dam,  1692;  Eng.  trans.  1694).    D.  near  Leyden,  1724. 

Ammuii.  JosT  or  Justus:  Swiss  engraver  and  designer; 
b.  at  Ziiricli  in  1.5:M.  He  removed  about  1560  to  Xuremberg, 
where  he  worked  for  many  years  and  illustrated  numerous 
books  with  his  designs.  'lie  engraved  on  copper  and  on 
wood.  Among  his  works  are  Portraits  of  fJw  Kings  of 
France  from  Pharnmond  to  Ifmn/  IIL  (1576).  and  wood- 
cuts of  "  Reinecke  Fuchs."  D.  at  N'uremlierg  in  1.591.  See 
his  biography,  by  C.  Becker  (Leipzig,  1854). 

Ammniia'ti.  Ammaiia'te.  or  .Vmmana'to.  P.artolommeo: 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect :  b.  at  Settignano,  near  Flor- 
ence, June  18,  1511;  was  a  pnjjil  of  Sansovino.  He  was  pa- 
tronized by  Pope  Julius  III.,  who  employed  him  to  adorn 
the  Capitol  (in  Rome)  with  sculiitures.  He  completed  the 
Pitti  palace  of  Florence.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  bridge 
called  Ponte  della  Trinitii  at  Florence,  and  three  statues 
which  adorn  the  tomb  of  Saiinazar  at  Xaples.  D.  in  Flor- 
ence, Apr.  22,1592. 

Am'meil.  Daxiel:  rear-admiral,  U.  S.  N. ;  b.  in  Brown 
CO.,  O.,  May  15,  1820;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
July  7,  1836.  During  the  latter  part  of  "I86I  and  all  of  1862 
he  commanded  the  gunboat  Seneca  in  the  South  Atlantic 
.blockading  squadron  ;  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Port  Royal,  Xov.  7,  1861,  He  engaged  afterward  in 
all  the  operations  of  Dupoiifs  command  on  the  coasts  of 
Georgia  and  Florida;  was  commanding  officer  of  the  moni- 
tor Patapsco  in  the  engagement  w^ith  Fort  McAllister,  Mar. 
3,  186.'! ;  in  the  ironclad  attack  on  Fort  Sumter.  A|)r.  7,  1863; 
in  both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  Dec,  1864,  and  Jan.,  1865  ;  in 
1866  and  1S67  a  memlier  of  the  board  a.ssembled  to  examine 
volunteer  ofheers  for  admission  into  the  regular  navy;  in 
1869  ai>pointed  chief  of  the  bureau  of  yards  and  docks",  ami 
on  Oct.  1, 1871,  chief  of  bureau  and  navigation  ;  retired  June 
4, 1878,  Author  of  Country  Homes  and  their  Improvement ; 
TIte  Old  Knry  and  the  New,  etc.  He  designed  the  Animcn 
life-raft.  Congress,  by  the  act  of  Mar,  2,  1889.  authorized 
the  construction  of  a  twin  screw,  armor-plated,  harbor-de- 
fense ram  (the  Katahdin)  upon  the  design  of  Admiral  Am- 
meii.  She  is  251  feet  long,  43-5  feet  beam,  mean  draft  15 
feet  displacement,  2,183  tons, 

Ammeii,  Jacob:  soldier  and  teacher;  b.  in  Botetourt  co., 
Va.,  Jan.  7,  1808;  graduated  at  West  Point  1831 ;  and  be- 


162 


AMMERGAU  MYSTERY 


AMMONIUJI 


eame,  July  16,  1863,  brigadier-general  U.  S.  Vols.  During 
the  eivil  war  he  was  captain  and  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
Twelfth  Ohio  Vols.,  colonel  of  the  Twentv-fourth,  and  briga- 
dier-general U.  S.  Vols.     D.  at  Lockport",  O.,  Feb.  6,  1894. 

Aiu'iuergaii  Mys'tery  (Ger.  Ammergauer  Passionsspiel): 
the  representation  of  our  Saviour's  Passion  which  since  1634 
has  taken  place  every  ten  years  at  the  village  of  Ober-Ain- 
mergau  (q.  i:),  in  Bavaria.  The  custom  originated  in  a  vow 
made  by  tlie  inhaliitants  on  their  deliverance  from  the  plague 
to  celebrate  the  Passion  tragedy  every  tenth  year.  The  last 
representation  took  jilace  in  1890.  The  text  of  the  Passion- 
play  is  given  Ijy  \V.  T.  Stead  (Loiulon,  iS90). 

Am'meter  or  Ampere'iiieter:  an  instrument  for  the 
measurement  of  heavy  electric  currents.  The  ammeter  is 
distinguished  from  the  current-meter  (see  Electric-metkr) 
in  that  it  serves  to  indicate  the  amount  of  current  at  any 
given  instant,  wherea.s  the  other  smns  up  total  electric  quan- 
tity for  an  interval  of  time.  Tlie  ammeter  indicates  the  rate 
of  flow  in  am|ieres.  the  current-meter  records  in  ampere- 
hours,  or  in  otiier  convenient  miits  of  electrical  quantity. 
The  ammeter  is  usually  a  (i.\LVAN0METER  (g.  v.),  or  electro- 
dynamometer,  in  the  construction  of  which  particular  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  questions  of  portability,  rapidity  of  ac- 
tion, legibility,  and  freedom  from  outside  influences,  both 
magnetic  and  mechanical.  For  detads  concerning  the  con- 
struction of  ammeters,  of  which  there  are  many  forms,  see 
Kittler.  Handbiu-h  der  Ehktrofecluuk  (Bd.  i.  p.  254);  La 
Lumiere  e/ecfrkjiie,  vols,  ii.,  iii.,  vi..  ix.,  xi.,  xiv.,  etc.;  T/ie 
Electrician,  vols,  xii.,  xiii. ;  and  various  other  articles  in  the 
electrical  journals.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Aiuinia'iiiis  Marcelli'nns :  an  eminent  Roman  historian ; 
b.  at  Antioch ;  was  of  Greek  extraction.  He  served  in  the 
army  in  his  youtli  (about  350  A.  n.).  and  in  the  expedition 
which  the  Emperor  .Julian  conducted  against  Persia.  Flav- 
ing  abandoned  the  nulitary  profession,  he  settled  at  Rome, 
and  there  composed  in  Latin  his  History  of  the  Roman 
Empire  \n  thirty-ora^  books,  of  which  the  first  thirteen  are 
lost.  The  entire  work  comprised  the  period  from  96  A.  D.  to 
378  A.  D.,  the  extant  portion  only  the  years  353-378.  His 
history  is  highly  prized  for  its  impartiality  and  other  merits. 
Best  edition  by  V.  Gardtliausen  (Leipzig,  1874-75) ;  English 
translation  of  Wagner  and  Erfnrdt  ed.  by  Phil.  Holland 
(London,  1609);  also  by  C.  D.  Yonge  in  Bohn's  Classical 
Library  (1862).     D.  about  395  A.  D. 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Aminira'to,  Scipione:  Italian  historian ;  b.  at  Lecee,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Sept.  27,  1.531.  He  became  a  resi- 
dent of  Florence  in  \M'.),  ;ind  wjis  patronized  by  the  Grand 
Duke  C'osimo.  In  1596  he  oljtained  a  prebend  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Florence.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  Dis- 
course on  Cornelius  Tacitus  (1594),  and  a  History  of  Florence 
(Istorie  Florentine, 2  vols.,  1600-41),  which  is  regarded  by  some 
critics  as  the  most  accurate  work  on  that  subject.  He  has 
been  styled  the  modern  Livy.     D.  in  Florence.  Jan.  30, 1601. 

Amiiiody'tps  [Gr.  om/uoSuttjs.  sand-lmrrower;  ii/nfioj,  sand -I- 
SuTrjs.  diver,  from  hifiv.  gel  into] :  a  Linna'an  genus  of  apo- 
ihd  Hshrs,  characti'i'izi'il  liy  ;i  compressed  liead  narrower 
than  llie  liody,  and  both  elongated.  The  sand-ccl  is  an  ex- 
ample of  tliis  genus. 

Ain'moii  (or  more  correctly  Amon.Xhi^  concealed):  the 
Egj^ptian  name  of  the  deity  whose  principal  place  of  wor- 
ship was  Thebes.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  called  him  Zeus 
or  Jupiter  Amnion  (Gr.'A^.mui/).  He  was  sometimes  repre- 
sent e<l  in  tlie  form  of  a  ram.  There  was  a  great  temjile  of 
Amnion  in  the  oasis  of  Siwah  or  Ammonium  in  the  Libyan 
desert,  wlicrcin  was  a  I'amons  oracle,  and  another  at  Thebes. 
which  city  was  called  No  (Jcr.  xlvi.  25;  Ezek.  xxx.  14-16)  by 
the  ancient  Hebrews.  Alexander  the  Great  visited  the  tem- 
ple of  Amnion  in  the  oasis  (b.  c.  331).  and  assumed  the  title 
of  the  son  of  Aninuin.     Remains  of  this  temple  still  exist. 

Revised  by  S.  JI.  .Jackson. 

.Vmnioil.  ('iiRlsTopii  Fkieurich,  von  :  German  Protestant 
Ihculiigiaii  and  piil|iit  orator;  li.  at  Baireuth,  Jan.  16.  1766. 
lie  became  I'l'ofcssor  of  Theology  at  Giittingen  in  1794,  ob- 
tained a  chair  al  JOrl.-ingen  in  1.S04.  and  removed  in  1813  to 
Dresden,  where  lie  was  appointed  conrt-preacher  to  the  King 
of  Saxony.  He  wjis  a  man  of  great  and  varied  erudition. 
and  lielonged  to  the  Rationalist  school  in  theology.  His 
most  important  work  is  Forttiildnnq  dcs  ClirislentlriDns  zur 
Ve/tre!i;/ion  (4  vols.,  1833-35 ;  2d  ed.  1836-40).  D.  at  Dres- 
den, May  21.  18.50.     See  his  biography  (Ijeipzig,  1850). 

Revised  bv  S.  M.  Jackson. 


Aiiiino'nia.  or  Volatile  Alkali :  an  important  chemical 
conipouiul  in  the  form  of  a  transparent,  colorless,  and  pun- 
gent gas,  consisting  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  Its  symbol 
is  Nils.  Priestley,  who  first  obtained  it  in  a  st'iiarate  state, 
called  it  allcaline  air.  The  name  ammonia  is  derived  from 
sal-ammoniac.  This  name  was  first  applied  to  common  salt 
found  in  tlie  Libyan  desert  in  tiie  neighborhood  of  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Amnion.  A  confusion  of  terms  afterward  led  to 
the  application  of  the  name  to  amnionium  chloride.  It  is  now 
obtained  as  a  by-product  by  the  distillation  of  bituminous 
coal  in  making  gas,  and  from  refuse  animal  matter  in  pre- 
paring bone-black,  etc.  It  combines  with  acids  to  form 
salts.  As  it  supplies  to  plants  the  nitrogen  they  require,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  important  ingredients  in  manures.  (See 
(jUANO.)  a  solution  of  this  gas  in  water  is  used  in  medi- 
cine, and  is  called  spirits  of  hartshorn  or  liquor  ammonia'. 
t)iie  volume  of  water  will  dissolve  or  absorb  500  volumes  of 
ammonia.  Liquid  ammonia  has  been  employed  as  a  motive- 
power  by  Tellier,  and  for  the  production  of  artificial  cold  by 
Carre.  (See  Ice.)  This  gas  can  also  be  liquefied  by  pressure 
and  cold,  and  then  becomes  a  colorless  liquid,  with  the  prop- 
erties of  ammonia  much  intensified.  The  smelling-salt,  or 
volatile  salt  of  hartshorn,  used  as  a  restorative  in  taintiiess 
is  a  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Ammoiiic  sulphate,  (NIDaSO,. 
is  manufactured  in  large  quantities  by  boiling  "gas-liquor" 
with  lime,  and  conducting  the  ammoniaeal  gas  which  is  lib- 
er.ated  into  sulphuric  acid.  On  evaporating  the  solution,  the 
sulphate  is  obtained  as  a  white  salt.  It  is  extensi\'ely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  alum  in  place  of  potassic  sulphate,  as 
a  constituent  of  artificial  fertilizers,  and  for  tlie  pre]iaration 
of  other  ammoniaeal  salts.  Amnionic  nitrate  is  used  for  the 
|ireparation  of  nitrogen  monoxide  (NaO).  laughing-gas.  Am- 
nionic chloride,  NHjCl,  has  long  been  known  as  sal-ammo- 
niac. Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

AiniiHi'iiiac :  a  gum-resin  used  in  medicine.  It  is  im- 
ported from  Africa  and  India,  and  is  obtained  from  the 
Dore'ina  amnioni'acum,  an  umbelliferous  plant  containing  a 
milky  juice,  which  by  drying  is  converted  into  this  gum.  It 
is  used  as  an  expectorant,  and  sometimes  applied  externally 
as  a  plaster. 

Aiiillioni'tes  [from  Amnion  +  suffix  -ite  (Gv. -hris).  as  in 
nietcori/es.  aiii/ite.  etc.  The  fossil  was  called  cornu  Ammonis, 
from  a  siqiposed  resemblance  to  the  horns  of  Jupiter  Am- 
nion] ;  a  genus  of  extinct  moUusks  belonging  to  the  order 
Cephalopoda,  and  one  of  the  most  striking  features  in  the 
fauna  of  the  Mesozoic  era.  The  ammonites  were  discoid, 
chambered,  spiral  shells,  sometimes  4  feet  in  diameter, 
and  often  beautifully  ornamented  exteriorly.  The  internal 
structure  was  similar  to  that  of  the  jyantilus,  except  that 
the  si])hon  was  external,  and  the  septa  (partitions  between 
the  chambers)  were  arched  outward,  and  were  convoluted  at 
their  margins,  so  that  their  intersection  witli  the  walls  of  the 
shell  produced  beautiful  foliated  figures.  The  ammonites 
began  in  the  carboniferous  period,  were  immensely  niulti- 
]ilied  in  the  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous  ages,  and  lu- 
came'entirely  extinct  at  the  close  of  the  last.  More  tlian  .500 
species  have  been  descrilied.  and  they  are  founil  in  the  Meso- 
zoic str;ita  of  all  jiarts  of  the  world.  Beauliful  ammonites 
occur  in  the  cretaceous  rocks  of  the  country  bordering  the 
iip]ier  Missouri,  in  the  Indian  Territory,  and  in  Texas.  The 
old  genus  A'uimoni'fes  has  been  lately  nmeh  subdivided  by 
Prof.  Al]ih.  Hyatt.  Prof,  von  Ilauer.  and  othei's.  See  Proc. 
Host.  Sor.  A7(/.  Hist.  (1883).  and  Ammonoidea. 

Revised  by  H.  S.  Williams. 

Ain'inoiiilps :  an  ancient  Semitic  tribe  or  nation,  de- 
scendants of  Ben-Ammi.  a  son  of  Lot  (Gen.  xix.  38).  They 
inhabited  tlie  east  side  of  the  Jorilan,  between  the  rivers  Ar- 
non  and  Jabbok,  and  adjoining  the  northern  part  of  Moab. 
Theirchief  city  was  Rabliah.  (See  Amman.)  They  fre(|uently 
waged  war  against  the  Israelites,  and  were  con(|Uered  by 
Jephthah  (Judges  si.  33),  and  afterward  by  Saul.  David,  and 
other  later  kings  (1  Sam.  xi..  2  Sam.  xii..  2  Cliron.  xx., 
2  Cliron.  xxvii.).  They  opposed  the  nlinilding  of  the  walls 
of  Jernsalem  (Neh.  ii.  10).  They  gradually  became  absorbed 
wit  h  the  general  Arab  population,  .\boiil  164  u.  c.  they  were 
defeated  by  Judas  JlaccaliaMis.  They  are  called  "the  chil- 
dren of  Amnion  "  in  the  OKI  Teslameut. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Allimo'llilllll  :  a  hypothetical  melaJ,  (NIL),  which  is  siqi- 
posed  to  exist  in  the  salts  of  ammonia,  and  to  be  composed 
of  one  volume  of  nitrogen  and  four  of  hydrogen.  It  is  the 
analogue  of  potassium  and  sodium,  but  has  never  been  ob- 
tained in  a  separate  state  ;  a  supposed  amalgam  of  ammoni' 


AMMONIUM 


AMCEBA 


163 


mil.  IioweviT,  tiuiy  he  formed  by  the  action  of  the  galvanic 
battery  on  a  gloljiile  of  ineieury  surrounded  by  a  solution  of 
ammonia,  and  liy  the  action  of  sodium  amalgam  on  a  sohi- 
tion  of  ammoiiiuin  chloride. 

Amiiio'liiiiiii.  or  Ani'niDii :  the  ancient  name  of  an  onsis 
in  the  Liljyan  desert,  about  ^00  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Cairo.  It 
is  now  called  ICl  .Siwah.  Here  were  a  cclelirated  oracle  and 
temple  of  .lujiiter  Amnion,  in  a  grove  of  palms;  also  royal 
palaces,  and  the  "Fountain  of  the  Sun."  the  water  of  which 
was  cold  at  noon  and  warm  at  midnight.  The  mins  of  the 
temple  may  si  ill  be  seen. 

Ainiiio'iiiiis.  surnaraed  Saccas  :  a  Greek  philosopher :  b.  in 
Alexandria;  was  the  founder  of  the  scliool  called  Neo-Pla- 
tonic  about  103  a.  D.  lie  held  that  the  philosophy  of  Aris- 
totle is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  Plato,  a  view  that 
came  to  be  indorsed  later  liy  the  Schoolmen  and  more  re- 
cently by  the  German  philosophers.  Though  born  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  he  went  over  to  paganism.  Among  his  j)U|iils 
were  Longinus,  Origen,  and  Plotinus.  lie  left  no  writings, 
and  died  about  'HI  A.  D.  Revised  by  \V.  T.  Harris. 

Amiiioiioi'dea :  a  sid)-orderof  extinct  ceidialopodous  mol- 
lusca.  represented  in  the  latter  periods  of  tlie  PaliPozoie  and 
throughout  the  Mesozoic  agi'S  by  numerous  genera  and  fami- 
lies of  fossil  shells.  The  neiirest  living  relative  of  this  extinct 
group  is  the  Xautilus.  and  it  is  a  comparison  of  the  ammonoid 
shell  with  tliat  of  the  Nautilus  which  has  led  naturalists  to  sep- 
arate the  aminonoids  as  a  distinct  sub-order  from  the  Nautiloi- 
dea.  of  which  the  living  Nautilus  is  the  type.  In  both  sub- 
orders there  is  develo])ed  an  external  chambered  shell,  the 
animal  at  any  particular  stage  of  its  grovrth  inhabiting  the 
outer  chamber.  Behind  this,  which  is  called  the  living  or 
liody  chamber,  is  a  series  of  gradually  decrea-sing  chamliers, 
the  whole  series  forming  an  elongated  cone,  which  is  either 
straight  or  curved,  or  is  spirally  coiled  to  form  a  helicoidal 
or  discoid  shell.  The  chambers  are  filled  with  air  or  a  sim- 
ilar gas.  and  are  connected  from  the  initial  to  the  onter  body 
chamber  by  a  hollow  tube  called  a  siphon  ovsiphuncle.  The 
air-space  formed  by  the  chambers  is  supposed  to  serve  as  a 
float  to  buoy  up  the  animal  in  the  water.  In  the  Ammonoi- 
dea  the  siphunele  is  situated  near  the  outer  or  inner  wall  of 
the  shell.  In  the  Nautiloidea  the  siphunele  is  generally  cen- 
tral, or  nearly  so.  The  partitions  forming  the  chambers  are 
called  nfpfci;  the  margins  of  the  septa,  wliere  they  are  at- 
tached to  the  fiuter  wall  of  the  shell,  are  called  sii/ures. 
These  sutures  are  straight  or  simply  arched  in  the  Nautiloi- 
dea; in  the  Animonoidea  the  sutures  are  variously  con- 
voluted. The  form  of  the  shell,  and  of  the  living-chamber 
in  its  various  aspects:  the  surface  markings,  which  are  often 
very  complicated  and  beautiful;  the  relative  size  and  rela- 
tions to  each  other  of  the  sejiarate  whorls  of  the  spiral  shells ; 
the  number  and  size  of  the  chambers;  and  ijarticidarly  the 
nature  and  degree  of  com[>lication  of  the  convolutions  of  the 
suture,  have  furnished  paheontologists  with  the  means  of  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  successive  modification  of  the  Animon- 
oidea in  geological  time.  Upon  the  above  characters  the 
representatives  of  the  sub-order  have  been  classified  into 
4.()(U)  >pecies:  according  to  the  statistics  of  Von  .Sutner  (Zit- 
tel.  I'itleon/ol(/t/ii'.  vol.  i.  jit.  ii.  p.  483).  distributeil  in  fifteen 
families  and  ninety-four  genera,  or  (if  we  n-eognize  the  genera 
into  which  Hyatt  subdivides  the  families  fli)n!(iliti(la>  and 
r///meH(V/(p)  the  total  number  of  genera  would  exceed  KiO. 
The  shell  of  most  of  the  .Vmmonoidea  is  in  the  form  of 
a  more  or  less  closely  coiled  discoid  spiral :  this  wa,s  char- 
acteristic of  the  earlier  forms,  and  of  the  genera  np  to  the 
cretaceous.  In  the  cretaceous,  which  was  tlie  last  period  of 
tile  existence  of  these  organisms,  there  were  several  genera 
which  may  be  descrilied  as  diltering  from  the  typical  forms 
by  being  unrolled  to  various  degrees.  In  Macro.icap/iite.% 
I  he  last  whorl  is  straightene<l  out.  In  Crioceras.  the  whole 
shell  is  coiled  so  that  the  separate  whorls  do  not  touch.  In 
Ancylorenis.  the  whorls  are  separate,  but  the  last  half  is 
straightened  out  and  recurved  near  the  end.  In  /frimi/cs. 
the  tube  is  reciirveil  two  or  three  times.  In  Tiirri/ifcs,  the 
coils  ari^  laterally  drawn  out,  forming  a  long  spiral  helicoidal 
shell.  In  BariiiitrK.  the  shell  is  quite  straight.  This  unroll- 
ing of  the  ammonite  coil  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  ri'tro- 
grade  development;  the  earlier  Paheozoic  Nautiloids  are 
either  straight,  curved,  or  loosely  coiled  forms  (Ortliuccrax, 
Ci/rfocerri.s,  (Ij/mrirax.  and  yautilus).  The  dc^tails  of  the 
sutural  convolutions  have  been  rainutely  studied  and  chu-isi- 
fied  by  paheontologists.  Classifications  with  definite  nomen- 
clature have  been  proposed  by  several  authors.  Those  of 
Von  Buch  and  .Sandlierger  are  the  best  known.     It  has  been 


observed  that  the  complexity  of  the  convolutions  increases 
with  the  development  of  the  individual;  that  in  series  of 
closely  related  species  those  occurring  later  geologically  are 
more  com|iletely  convoluted;  and,  in  general,  the  species  with 
simpler  sutures  were  earlier  to  appear,  and  their  dominance, 
both  in  number  of  individuals  and  in  variety  of  form,  took 
place  at  an  earlier  geological  period  than  that  of  the  forms 
with  more  differentiated  sutures.  On  account  of  the  close 
relationship  existing  between  these  progressive  modifications 
of  the  Animonoidea  and  the  chronological  order  of  their 
appearance,  this  suli-tirder  has  been  used  as  a  beautiful  illus- 
tration of  the  law  of  evolution.  Several  definite  stages  of 
elaboration  of  the  suture  lines  maybe  recognized:  (1)  The 
Nautilian  type,  in  which  the  suture  is  straight  or  simply 
arched  (Xautihis,  Orf/mcenis):  (3)  the  Goniatite  type,  in 
which  the  suture  is  simply  lobed  or  notched  by  the  oscilla- 
tion of  the  line  forward  and  backward — the  forward  bends 
are  called  saddles,  the  backward  liends  lobes ;  (3)  secondarily 
lobed  type,  as  in  Ceratifrx.  in  which  the  secondary  lobation 
is  confined  to  the  "  lobes  "  in  JIdictilfS  where  the  secondary 
lobation  affects  only  the  "  saddles,"  or  in  JJendlicoffia  where 
the  whole  extent  of  the  primary  lobes  and  saddles  is  more 
or  less  affected  by  the  secondary  lobation  :  (4)  the  tertiarily 
lobed  tj-pe,  or  Ammonite  tj-pe,  in  which  the  secondary  lobes 
are  again  lobed,  forming  an  elaborate  foliation  of  the  suture 
— this  is  the  characteristic  suture  of  the  Ammonites;  (5)  the 
Pinaeoceran  tj-]je,  in  which  tertiary  lobes  are  again  indented, 
forming  a  cjuaternary  lobation  of  the  suture  line.  The 
PinacooTas  has  the  most  elaljorately  convoluted  suture  of 
all  the  Ammonites.  It  is  observed  that  the  first  appearance 
of  each  of  these  types  of  suture  lines  is  chronologically  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  named  above.  When  the  suture 
line  is  physically  considered,  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  the  fluted 
edge  of  the  septum  forming  the  separating  partition  between 
the  chambers  of  the  shell;  and  the  law  exjiressed  in  all  this 
elaborate  variety  of  sutures  may  be  sim^jly  defined  in  the 
following  terms  :  In  the  successive  geological  stages  the  cir- 
cumferential dimension  of  the  septum  is  gradually  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  diameter,  and  thus  it  becomes  evident 
that  the  observed  order  of  sequence  is  the  only  order  of  se- 
quence which  could  naturally  take  place. 

H.  S.  Williams. 
Aniinonoo'snc.  Lo«pr :  a  river  of  New  Hampshire,  rises 
in  Coos  Coiinly.  near  >It.  \\'ashington.  and  flowing  south- 
westward,  through  Grafton  County,  enters  the  Connecticut 
river.    It  is  about  100  miles  long. 

Ammonoosiic  Upper :  a  river  of  Coos  co.,  N.  H..  which 
em])ties  into  the  Connecticut  at  Northumberland.  It  is 
about  75  miles  long. 

Amiunni'tion  :  cannon-balls,  shells,  bullets,  fuses,  cart- 
ridges, gi'enades,  gunpowder,  and  all  the  projectiles  and 
explosive  substances  used  in  war.  The  ammunition  of  field- 
artillery  consists  of  shot,  loaded  shells,  case-shot,  shi'apnel, 
cartridges,  priming-tubes,  matches,  and  rockets.  An  in- 
fantry soldier  generally  carries  sixty  rounds  in  his  cartridge- 
box. 

Am'nesty  [from  Gr.  o/ivrja-Tfo.  oblivion  :  a-,  not  +  ixvaaSat. 
remember]  :  an  act  of  olilivion  of  past  misconduct  granted 
by  a  government  to  those  who  have  been  guilty  of  some 
offense.  If  is  usually  granted  to  whole  communities  or 
classes  of  individuals  who  have  taken  part,  or  are  su]iposed 
to  have  [larticipated,  in  some  movement  against  lawful 
authority  :  it  may  be  granted  either  tiefore  or  after  convic- 
tion, and  its  effect  is  entirely  to  efface  the  crime  and  cause 
it  to  be  forgotten  by  the  law.  An  instance  is  an  act  of  am- 
nesty in  England  in  20  Geo.  II.  c.  52,  called  "an  act  for 
the  king's  most  gracious  general  and  free  pardon."  This 
subject  has  excited  mucli  interest  in  the  U.  S.,  owing  to  a 
provision  in  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
creating  certain  discpialificalions  as  to  holding  office  by 
persons  who  have  partici|]ated  in  rebellion,  and  at  the  same 
time  allowing  their  removal  by  a  special  vote  of  the  Con- 
gress. Such  a  removal  is  in  the  nature  of  an  act  of  am- 
nesty. 

Amwba.  a-meeba:  a  genus  of  one-celled  organisms  of 
the  liranch /"m/o^wf.  Tlie  term  is  also  used  as  a  common 
name  ajiplied  to  members  of  the  genus  Amffirt  and  allied 
forms.  An  ainu'ba  consists  of  naked  proto]ihism.  and  has 
the  power  of  locomotion  by  means  of  a  sfre.'iming  motion  of 
the  protopla.sm  which  often  forms  projections  over  its  sur- 
face, called  iiseudojiodia.  It  can  ingest  food  by  means  of 
the  same  motion,  possesses  a  nucleus,  and  usually  a  con- 


16i 


AMOL 


AMPHIBIA 


tractile  vacuoU'.  Sovcral  species  have  been  described.  It 
is  of  especial  interest  froin  the  tact  that  it  is  often  selected  in 
treatises  on  biological  snbjects  tor  illustration  of  the  jiroc- 
esscs  of  nutrition,  motion,  sensation,  reproduction,  etc.,  in 
a  very  sini|ile  I'drm,  all  jierfonned  by  a  single  cell,  which  is 
not  greatly  dili'crcntiated  and  specialized.  Tlie  organism 
is  found  in  moist  places,  jionds,  ditch-water,  and  swamps. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Ainol'.  or  Ainnl :  a  city  of  Persia  :  province  of  Masande- 
ran:  on  the  river  Ileniz";  aljout  12  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Caspian  Sea.  and  85  miles  X.  E.  of  Teheran  (see  map 
of  Persia  and  Arabia,  ref.  3-G).  A  bridge  of  twelve  arches 
crosses  the  river  here.   Pop.  estimated  at  from  35,000  to  40,000. 

Aiiioor :  same  as  Amur. 

Amoret'tl,  Cabi-o  :  Italian  naturalist  and  wi-iter ;  b.  at 
Oneglia,  near  Genoa,  jMar.  13.  1741.  He  produced  a  good 
biography  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1784),  and  a  work  on  the 
natural  history  and  geography  of  Lakes  Como,  Maggiore, 
and  Lugano,  called  A  Journey  from  Illlan  to  the  Three 
Lakes  (1794).  In  17!)7  he  became  'librarian  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library  of  Milan.     I),  at  Milan,  Mar.  24,  1816. 

Amor'gos.  oi-  Amor'g-o :  a  fertile  island  in  the  Archi- 
pelago, 18  iniles  S.  K.  of  Naxos:  belongs  to  the  kingdom  of 
Greece  (for  location,  see  map  of  Greece,  ref.  17-M).  It  is  13 
miles  long  ami  6  miles  wide,  and  contains  a  small  town 
called  Amorgos.  The  surface  is  mountainous.  The  poet 
Simonides  was  born  here.  It  has  a  good  harbor ;  lat.  of  B. 
end,  36'  .54'  N.,  Ion.  2G"  6'  E.     Pop.  about  3,700. 

Aiu'orites  (i.  c.  mountaineers) :  a  powerful  nation  of  Ca- 
naan that  occupied  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  -lordan  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  and  resisted  the  Israelites  in  their  march 
toward  the  Promised  Land.  Moses  defeated  their  two  kings, 
Sihon  and  Og,  who  reigned  at  Heshbon  and  Bashan  re.specv 
lively.  Og  is  said  to  have  been  the  last  "  remnant  of  giants  " 
(Deuteronomy  iii.  11).  The  Anuirites  were  afterward  sub- 
dued by  Jos'iuia,  and  their  territory  divided  between  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  but  he  was  not  able  to  externu- 
nate  them.  1'hey  ajijiear  to  have  been  long  hostile  to  the 
Israelites,  but  in  i^olomou's  time  were  reduced  to  a  tributary 
condition. 

A'mos :  one  of  the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  who  was  a 
contemporary  of  Isaiah;  about  785  B.C.  He  was  originally 
a  herdsman  and  a  gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit  in  Tekoa,  a 
town  12  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Jerusalem.  He  denounces  in  vig- 
orous and  eloquent  terms  the  prevalent  corruption  and  op- 
pression, using  nuiny  images  taken  from  rural  and  pa-storal 
life.  His  prophecies  sei-in  to  have  all  been  given  in  one 
year,  and  his  plain  spi'aking  caused  the  charge  of  conspiracy 
against  the  government  because  he  alienated  the  people. 

Aino'tioii  [Lat.  amo'tio.  from  o,  s^s!ly  + move  re.  nio'funi. 
move]  :  in  law,  tlie  removal  of  an  officer  of  a  corporation 
from  his  olTice.  It  differs  from  disfranchisement,  which  re- 
fers to  the  removal  of  a  member.  Amotion  may  accordingly 
take  place  without  tlisfranchisement. 

Aiuoy,  a-moi'  [a  local  pronunciation  of  Hia-mun.  the  Chi- 
nese ua'me] :  a  seaport-town  of  China,  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  province  of  Fuh-Kien,  and  on  the  strait 
of  Formosa ;  lat.  24°  28'  N.,  Ion.  118'  4  E.  (see  map  of  Cliina, 
ref.  8-K).  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  on  which 
stands  the  large  city  of  Chang-Cliow-Foo.  Amoy  is  an  open 
or  treaty  port  and'  one  of  the  chief  commercial  towns  of 
China.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1841,  and  has  been 
open  to  the  trade  of  all  nations  since  1843.  Among  the 
articles  of  import  are  cotton,  cotton  goods,  iron,  sugar, 
camphor,  and  pepper.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  tea, 
sugar,  jKircelain,  silks,  and  paper.     Pop.  96,000. 

Ampul'ida; :  See  Vi.ne  Family. 

Anipc'liiis,  Lu'nus:  a  Roman  writer  of  imcertain  date, 
]mil)alily  of  the  second  or  third  century,  whose  brief  work, 
entitled  Liher  McmoriaJis.  is  a  curious  miscellany  of  as- 
tronomy, geography,  mvthology,  and  historical  events,  classi- 
fied under  ditfereiit  heads,  often  based  upon  good  sources. 
Best  edition  by  Woelfflin  (Lei|)/.ig.  1879).         M.  Warken. 

Am|)clo|)'sis  [from  the  Gr.  S,uir6\os.  a  vine  -|-  Ki^is,  ap- 
l)earancel:  a  gi-nus  of  creeping,  vine-like,  woody  )ilanls  (of 
the  family  Vilncen').  to  winch  the  Virginia  creeper  or  Amer- 
ican woodbine  (Ampelopxis  (jiihujiiefoliri)  belongs.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  hardy  creejiing  orna- 
mental plants.  It  is  better  adapted  to  the  clinuite  of 
America  than  the  ivy,  and  is  also  more  rapid  in  its  growth 


and  has  handsomer  foliage.     The  leaves  are  deciduoxis,  Vmt 
they  die  in  a  blaze  of  crimson  glory  when  touched  by  frost. 

Ainiiere.  a'ln'par',  Andre  Marie  :  French  philosopher  and 
mathematician;  b.  at  Lyons.  Jan.  22,  1775.  He  produced  in 
1802  an  interesting  essay  On  the  Matheitintictd  Theory  of 
(rtiiiie.s  of  Chance.  He  became  inspector-general  of  the 
University  (1808).  Professor  of  Analysis  in  the  Polytechnic 
School  in  Paris  (1809),  chevalier  of  the  Ijegion  oi'  Honor 
(1809),  a  member  of  the  Institute  (1814),  ami  Professor 
of  Physics  in  the  College  of  France  (1824).  Having  made 
important  discoveries  in  electro-nuignctisni,  he  pulilislu'd  in 
1822  a  Collertiun  of  Ohserrations  on  Eleetro-DyiKiniir.t.  n 
work  wliich  displays  remarkable  sagacity.  "  The  vast  field 
of  iihysical  science,"  says  Arago,  "  perluqis  never  [iresented 
so  brilliant  a  discovery,  conceived,  verified,  and  completed 
with  such  rapidity."  He  further  explained  his  discoveries 
in  this  de])artment  of  science,  to  which  he  gave  the  munc  of 
electro-dynamics,  in  his  Theory  of  Electro-Dynamic  Phe- 
nomena Deduced  from  E.rperiments  (1826).  Among  his 
other  works  are  treatises  on  optics  and  an  Essay  on  the 
I'/ii/osojiJiy  of  the  Sciences,  etc.  (1834).  He  was  a  man  of 
genial  disposition,  and  noted  for  simplicity  of  character, 
b.  in  Marseilles,  June  10,  1836. 

.\lliltcre,  Jean  Jacques  Aktoine:  an  accomplished  scholar 
and  /itlerateur,  son  of  Andi'e  Marie  Ampere ;  b.  at  Lyons, 
Aug.  12,  1800.  He  enjoyed  in  his  youth  the  society  of 
I\Lndame  Recamier,  and  devoted  much  attention  (o  English 
and  German  literature.  In  1833  he  succeeded  Aiidrieux  as 
Professor  of  French  Literature  at  the  College  of  France.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1842, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1847.  He  trav- 
eled extensively  in  Egypt,  the  Levant,  Scandinavia,  and 
America.  On  tlie  establishment  of  the  empire  he  removed 
to  Italy.  His  chief  works  are  Litterature,  Voyiiyes  et  Poe- 
sies (l'833);  (frece.  Rome  et  Dante  (1848);  Promenades  en 
Anicriqiie  (1855);  and  especially  I'Histoire  litteraire  de  ta 
France  acant  le  XII'.  SiSrle  (1839);  l' In  I  mi!  net  ion  a  I'his- 
toire  de  la  litterature  franfaise  an  nioyen  aye  (IMl);  and 
rili.stoire  romaine  d  Home  (4  t.,  1856-64).  D.  in  Pau,  Mar. 
27,  1864.  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

AiiiiX'lT  (in  electricity):  the  practical  unit  of  current- 
strength  ;  named  after  Andre  Marie  Ampere,  the  French 
physicist.  It  is  an  exact  tenth  of  the  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  ab- 
solute current-strength.  The  ampere  is  the  amount  of 
current  which  will  be  generated  in  a  conductor,  the  resist- 
ance of  which  is  one  ohm.  when  the  difference  of  potential 
iK'tween  the  ends  of  tlu'  conductor  is  one  volt.  Previous  to 
1881  a.  jiractical  unit,  similarly  defined,  was  in  use  among 
electricians,  under  various  names.  It  was  frequently  called 
the  "  webcr."  The  International  Electrical  Congress  wliich 
met  at  Paris  in  that  year  systematized  the  practical  units  in 
electi-icity.  and  gave  to  the  unit  of  current  the  official  name 
of  the  anijiere.  E.  L.  Nk'IIOLS. 

Aniiicrcinc'tpr:  See  Ammeter. 

AiiilK'lv-tnriiS  (in  electricity) :  the  product  of  the  amount 
of  current  flowing  in  a  coil  or  helix,  measured  in  amperes, 
into  the  number  of  turns  of  wire  of  which  the  coil  is  com- 
posed. As  this  ]iroduct  is  a  factor  in  the  nuasurement  ol' 
the  magnetic  field  produced  by  the  coil  in  (pieslion.  it  is  an 
importiint  and  much-used  quantity  in  apiilied  electricity. 

AiM)iliil)'in  [Gr.  aiiipl^ta.  neut.  plur.  of  aij.(j)i$ios.  living  in 
liolli;  aii.ipl.  on  biilh  sides  -(-  j3(oj.  life]:  a  term  originally  an- 
jilied  to  all  animals  that  live  both  on  the  land  and  in  the 
water,  and  variously  used  by  the  earlier  systematists.  It  is 
now  limited  to  a  class  of  vertebrates  intermediate  between 
fishes  and  reptiles,  and  including  the  salamanders,  frogs, 
toads,  anil  their  allies.  They  are  cold-blooded  animals,  hav- 
ing the  skin  usually  without  jilates  or  scales,  and  the  young 
provided  with  gills  during  jiart  or  all  of  their  lives.  In 
common  with  fishes,  they  fail  to  form  during  their  develop- 
ment the  MUinion  and  allantois,  the  cndiryonic  nieudiranes 
characteristic'  ol'  the  reptiles,  birds,  and  manunals. 

Most  amphiliiaus  (lass  through  a  metamorphosis  like  that 
of  the  frog,  whicli  emerges  from  the  egg  as  a  tadpole,  when 
it  is  fishlike  in  form  and  breathes  by  gills,  being  truly 
aipiatic;  snbsequi'ntly  the  tail  anil  gills  disapiiear,  legs  and 
lungs  are  developed,  iiud  the  mature  animal,  though  iierliajis 
inhabiting  the  water,  is  an  air-lireather.  In  some  amjihib- 
ians  the  first  or  eml)ryonic  condition  continues  unchanged 
through  life,  as  in  jye'cfiirus.  etc.,  the  wafer-i)uppy  or  water- 
dog  of  the  Western  rivei's.  The  largest  of  these  aquatic  car- 
nivorous mdmmmdvrti  in  Jleyalobatrachus,  which  inhabits  the 


AMPHIBOLE 


AMPULLA 


165 


lakes  of  Japan,  and  attains  a  leiigtii  of  3  feet.  Thoui;h  now 
refciinU'd  as  ihill  and  diso^usting  tieatures.  this  latter  Ki-oup 
of  aniiiliibians  once  stood  at  tlie  head  of  all  then  existing 
niembei-s  of  the  zoiilogifal  scries.  The  ainpliibians  first  ap- 
peared in  the  earlHiniferons  age.  and  the  lagoons  in  the  coal- 
inai'shes  swarmed  with  aquatic  salamanders,  some  of  which 
were  6  feet  in  length,  very  active  iind  pretlaceous.  and  the 
niouarchs  of  the  animal  world  of  that  age.  More  than 
twenty  species  of  amphibians  have  been  obtained  by  Dr. 
Newberry  from  the  cannel  coal  of  one  nune  in  Ohio.  The 
amphil>ians  had  their  golden  age  in  the  Trias,  when  Laby- 
rinthodun.  witli  a  Ijody  as  large  as  that  of  an  ox  and  teeth 
4  inches  long,  ruled  the  animal  kingdom.  In  the  succeed- 
ing age  (.)nr:Lssie)  the  scepter  passed  from  the  amphiljians  to 
the  true  reptiles.  Revised  by  David  8.  Jordan. 

Am'pliibole  [from  Or.  ati<piPoKos.  hitting  on  both  sides, 
ambiguous  ;  a/Kpl.  on  both  si<les  +  $d\\fiv,  tlu'ow] :  a  name 
given  by  Haiiy  to  hornblende,  on  accoimt  of  its  resemblance 
to  augite.    See  IIoRxiiLEXDE. 

Ainpliie'fyon  (Or. 'Au</>i/ctu»v)  :  an  ancient  and  perhaps 
faliulous  lirro  and  King  of  Attica,  supjxised  to  have  been  a 
son  of  Deucalion. 

Ampliietyoii'icConn'cilracelebratedcongre.ssorpolitico- 
religious  court  of  the  confederated  tribes  of  ancient  Greece, 
which  met  twice  every  year  at  Thermopyhe.  It  was  com- 
posed of  the  deputies  of  twelve  tribes,  viz. :  Thessalians, 
Boeotians.  Dorians  (or  Spartans),  lonians  (or  Athenians), 
Loerians.  Dolopians.  Magnetes,  Malians.  Acha^ans.  Pliocians, 
./Enianians,  and  Perrhiebians,  who  each  sent  one  or  two  mem- 
bers. The  predominance  of  northern  and  Pelasgic  tribes 
proves  the  great  antiquity  of  this  institution,  which  in  course 
of  time  decliiu'il,  and  in  the  age  of  Demosthenes  had  lost  its 
authority.  The  members  of  this  council  bound  themselves 
by  an  oath  that  "they  would  not  destroy  any  Amphictyonic 
city  iK)r  cut  oil  its  streams  in  war  or  peace."  One  great  object 
of  the  council  was  the  protection  of  the  tenipU'  at  Delphi. 
See  Tittmann's  Ueber  den  Bund  der  Amphiklijoiwn  (185;J). 

Am|>lii'on  :  in  Greek  ra^-fhology,  the  son  of  Zens  and  .An- 
tiope  and  twin  brother  of  Zethus.  The  brothers  were  found 
and  reared  by  a  shepherd,  and  Amphion  became  skilled  in 
music  by  the  gift  of  the  gods,  and  Zethus  became  a  shep- 
herd. Meanwhile  Antiope  was  cruelly  treated  Vjy  their  uncle 
Lycus,  King  of  Thebes,  and  his  wife  Dirce.  and  when  the 
brothers  tliscov(!red  their  parentage  they  marched  against 
the  city,  put  Lycus  to  death,  and  bound  Dirce  to  a  wild  bull. 
This  punishment  of  Dirce  is  represented  in  the  group  of 
statuary  called  the  Parsese  Bull  {q.  v.),  discovered  in  the 
baths  of  Caracalla,  and  now  in  the  museum  at  Xaples.  Ac- 
cording to  the  poetic  legend,  he  availed  himself  of  his  skill 
in  music  to  build  the  walls  of  Thebes,  and  the  stones,  at- 
tracted by  the  sound  of  his  l\Te,  moved  and  arranged  them- 
selves in  the  proper  position.  Amphion  married  Xiobe  {q.  v.). 
and  according  to  tradition  Idlled  himself  in  grief  at  the  slay- 
ing of  his  children  by  Apollo  and  Artemis.     P.  S.  Allen." 

Aiiiphioxiis:  See  Leptocardii. 

Allipllip'oda  [from  Gr.  i.jiupi.  both  +  ttovs  (gen.  iroSiJj). 
fool  J :  an  order  of  small  crusfacea,  for  the  niost  part  marine, 
the  most  familiar  raerabei's  of  which  are  the  "sand-fleas" 
and  "  beach-fleiLS  "  found  so  aljundantly  among  decaying  sea- 
weed, or  liurrowing  in  the  sand  of  our  beaches.  Otlier  i'oi'ms 
live  attaclicd  to  the  skin  of  whale-s,  and  still  others  are  found 
in  the  genital  jiouches  of  the  Jelhiishes  with  which  tliey  are 
ennimensal.  Some  European  species  are  very  destructive, 
burrowing  in  the  hulls  of  shi|)S  and  in  the  pili's  of  wlmrves, 
in  the  manner  of  the  teredo.  In  all.  the  body  is  laterally 
comju-essed,  the  abdominal  region  is  elongated,  and  the  ante- 
rior and  ijosterior  feet  are  dissimilar,  the  fornu-r  being  fre- 
<iuently  Milapted  for  seizing  or  swimming,  while  the  latter  are 
(tirected  backward  and  used  in  leaping.  The  gills  are  attached 
to  the  bases  of  the  thoracic  legs.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Ani])lli|)'olis  :  an  ancient  and  important  city  of  Thrace  or 
l\hicedonia.  was  founded  by  an  Athenian  colony  about  437 
If.  c.  It  was  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Strvmon. 
wliicfh  here  entei's  the  Slrymonicus  Sln'us,  the  modern  Gulf 
of  Contessa.  'I'he  w'atei-s  of  the  river  ai'e  said  to  have  once 
surrounded  the  town  (whence  the  name).  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  called  Popolia.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
simdl  Turkish  (own  called  Yenikeui. 

Alll|>]lishu;'iii(l,-e  [Gr.  d/iiJ>(<rj3oiva.  from  i.n<pU.  at  lioth 
enils  -I-  $alyeiv.  goj :  a  family  of  lizards  with  an  elongated 
serpentil'orm  body  and  a  blunt  tail.  Limbs  are  generally 
absent,  a  pair  of  small  front  legs  being  found  in  the  genus 


Chiroles  only.  The  head  and  tail  are  sufficiently  similar  in 
appeai'ance  to  have  suggested  tlie  name.  About  two  dozen 
species   inhabit  the   warm    portions  of   both  hemispheres. 


Amphisbsena  fuliginosa. 

They  burrow  in  the  earth  in  .search  of  larva-,  and  have  rudi- 
mentary eyes.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

.\nipllis'sa  :  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  in  Loeris.  was  sit- 
uated 7  miles  from  Delphi,  on  the  site  of  the  modern  town 
of  S(il<ni<t.  The  town  was  destroyed  B.  c.  338  by  Philip  of 
Macedon,  but  was  rebuilt.  Here  was  a  temple  of  Athena, 
containing  an  image  of  the  goddess. 

Ampliithe'ater  [Lat.  amphitln-alriim.ivom  Gr.  a/upieed- 
rpov;  ifxipi,  on  both  sides  -I-  Biaipov,  theater]:  a  spacious  and 
uncovered  edifice  of  an  elliptical  or  circular  form,  in  which 
the  ancient  Romans  witnessed  the  exhibition  of  public 
games  and  the  combats  of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts.  It 
was  constnicted  so  that  all  the  spectators  could  behold 
the  i:)crformance.  which  was  given  in  an  open  level  space 
called  the  arena.  suiTounded  on  all  sides  h\  tiers  of  seats, 
which  rose  higher  as  they  receded  from  the  arena.  The 
most  famous  of  these  edifices  was  the  Flavian  Amphitheater, 
or  Colosseum  of  Rome,  which  was  built  by  the  Emperors 
Vespasian  and  Titus,  finished  about  80  a.  d.,  and  is  stUl 
standing.  It  is  about  620  feet  long,  ol3  feet  wide,  and  157 
feet  high.  The  longest  diameter  of  the  arena  was  287  feet. 
It  is  said  to  have  had  seats  for  80,000  spectatoi's,  and  stand- 
ing-room for  20.000  more.  The  exterior  was  adorned  by 
three  rows  of  columns — Doric.  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  The 
Colosseum  is  regarded  by  many  as  the  most  august  and  im- 
posing ruin  in  the  world. 

Aiiipliitlie'riiiiu  [from  aix(pi,  on  both  sides  -i-  Bripiov.  wild 
beast]:  a  genus  of  fossil  insectivorous  mammalia  foun<l  in 
the  oolitic  strata  in  Oxfordshire.  England.  It  presents  many 
l)oints  of  analogy  with  the  living  marsupial  genus  Jlyrme- 
cobhts. 

Alll|)hitri'te  :  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  Xercid.  a  goddess 
of  the  sea,  the  wife  of  Xe|itune  and  I  In-  mother  of  Triton. 
She  is  represented  sittuig  in  a  car  of  shells  drawn  by  tritons, 
or  on  a  tlolphin. 

Aiupllit'ryoii :  in  classic  mxlhology,  a  son  of  Ahwus. 
Having  accidentally  killed  his  uncle  Klectryon.  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Mycena?.  He  married  Alcmeiia,  who  was  the 
mother  of  Hercules. 

Ain'pliora  [Lat..  from  Gr.  iiJ.<popevs  for  *i.fiipi-(popei^ :  diupi, 
on  both  sides  -I-  <pepeiv.  cari-y.  with  reft^rence  to  its  two  han- 
dles]: a  vase  with  two  hamUes  which  was  used  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  hold  wine  and  oil.  It  was  also  a 
liquid  measure,  containing  about  8i  gal.  among  the  Greeks 
and  (i  among  tlie  Romans. 

Aiii'plitiide  :  in  astronomy,  is  the  angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body,  when  it  rises  or  sets,  from  the  E.  or  W. 
points  of  the  horizon.  The  amplitude  of  a  fixed  star  re- 
mains the  same  all  the  year,  but  that  of  the  sun  changes 
daily,  and  on  a  given  day  varies  according  to  the  latitude  of 
the  observer. 

Aliipn'dia.  Pedro,  de :  a  Mexican  olficer  who  obtained 
tlie  rank  of  general  in  1840.  He  fought  against  the  Texans 
in  1842.  and  coniinanded  the  Mexican  troops  which  defended 
Monterey  in  184(!  against  Gen.  Taylor,  lo  whom  he  surren- 
dered in  September  of  tluit  year. 

.Vinpnl'ln  :  a  Roman  vessel  of  glass  or  earthenware,  used 
for  holding  oil.  wine.  etc. ;  was  nearly  globular  in  form. 
JIany  of  these  are  tireserved  in  the  collections  of  antiquaries. 
In  tlie  CatlK)lic  Cluirch  an  ampidia  is  a  vessel  which  con- 
tains wine  for  the  sacrament.  AmpiiUa  liemensis  (in  Fr. 
la  Sninte  Ampoule)  was  a  famous  vessel  of  holy  oil  which, 
according  to  trailition,  was  brought  from  heaven  by  a  dove, 
and  was  used  to  anoint  Clovis  when  he  was  crowned  at 
Rheims  in  49G  a.  d. 


166 


AMPULLARIA 


AMSTERDAM 


Ampnlla'ria  [Lat.  iniqudlarius.  from  ompnlla,  a  flask]  : 
a  genus  of  gasteroijotl   moUu.sks,  culled  apple-shells,  idol- 


Ampullaria  dubia. 

shells,  pond-snails,  etc.  Fifty  or  more  species  are  known, 
mostly  tropical,  and  all  inliabiting  fresh  water  and  mud, 
though  some  are  occasionally  found  in  salt  and  brackish 
watere.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  tenacious  hold  on 
life,  many  being  able  to  live  away  from  the  water  for  years. 
One  species  is  occasionally  fVmnd  alive  in  hollow  logs  ol  ma- 
hogany and  logwood  from'  Honduras.  The  Ampullaria  duhia 
is  brought  from  the  Nile. 

Ampnta'tioii  [Lat.  amputatio;  am-  (awi-),  about -t- ;;»- 
ia're,  prune]  :  in  ^urgery,  the  removal,  by  operation,  of  any 
part  of  the  body  or  liuibs  on  account  of  disease  or  injury, 
such  as  would  endanger  life  if  the  part  were  allowed  to 
remain.  The  term  of  late  denotes  more  especially  such  re- 
moval of  a  liuib,  but  is  still  sometimes  used  for  the  exci- 
sion of  a  tumor  or  gland. 

Amputations  are  properly  resorted  to  not  only  after  severe 
and  very  dangerous  injuries,  but  in  such  diseases  as  gan- 
grene, cancer,  etc.,  which  are  without  rational  prospect  of 
cure  by  other  means.  In  general,  cases  where  the  chances 
of  cure  will  probably  be  much  increased  by  this  operation 
afford  legitimate  suljjects  for  its  exercise.  This  ride  would 
include  some  cases  of  intractable  ulcers  of  the  leg,  of  aneu- 
rism, and  of  diseased  bones  and  joints.  Incurable  and  un- 
sightly deformities,  wliei-e  they  put  the  patient  to  great  in- 
conveiiience,  may  in  some  circumstances  lie  removed  by  the 
knife.  An  amputation  in  which  a  bone  is  cut  off  is  said  to 
be  "in  the  continuity."  An  amputation  at  a  joint,  when  no 
bones  are  divided,  is  in  "  the  contiguity  "  ;  the  latter  opera- 
tion is  not  often  performed,  though  it  has  had  recent  advo- 
cates. Amputations  are  chiefly  either  "flap"'  or  "circular" 
operations.  The  "  flap "  operation,  in  some  of  its  many 
modifications,  is  probanly  the  most  frequently  employed. 
One,  two,  or  even  three  flaps  have  been  employed,  the  size, 
shape,  and  thickness  of  these  flaps  of  skin  and  flesh  varying 
witii  circumstances.  In  general,  they  ought  to  be  large 
enough  to  cover  amply  the  end  of  the  stump,  and  not  so  large 
as  to  Ije  redundant  after  the  wound  shall  have  healed.  The 
flap  amputalii)n.  practiced  by  certain  niedian-al  surgeons,  and 
revived  by  Lowdham,  of  Kngland,  nearly  200  years  ago,  was 
made  general  liv  List  on,  and  has  since  his  time  been  variously 
improved  and  modified. 

"Circular  amputation"  is  performed  by  first  dividing  the 
skin  and  s\ipi'rncial  fascia  by  a  sweep  of  the  knife  around 
tlie  limb,  dissecting  up  tlie  skin  for  2  or  3  inches,  and  at  that 
part  dividing  the  muscles  down  to  the  bone.  The  flesh  is 
removed  from  the  bone  to  allow  the  saw  to  be  applied. 

The  danger  attending  amputation  is  generally  in  propor- 
tion to  the  nearness  of  the  operation  to  the  trunk,  (is  well  as 


to  the  size  of  the  limb.  Thus  amputation  at  the  hip  joint  is 
the  most  doulitfid  of  all  in  its  results  ;  but  even  this,  in  some 
cases,  especially  in  military  surgery,  may  imiirove  the  chances 
of  life  under  severe  injury.  Amputations  at  the  joints  are  by 
most  surgeons  considered  as  more  serious  than  in  the  conti- 
nuity of  the  limbs.  Of  the  foot  alone  several  different  modes 
of  amputation  are  in  use,  as  Lisfranc's,  Chopart's,  Syme's,  and 
Pirogoff's  amputations.  Re^^sed  by  William  Pepper. 

Ainri'ta.  sometimes  incorrectly  written  Ainreeta  [Sansk. 
ainrtu-s.  immortal;  «-,  Jiot  +  mrta-s.  dead:  Or.  fiM/Sporos. 
The  vowel  -/-  represents  an  earlier  method  of  English  trans- 
literation] :  in  Hindu  mrthology.  the  water  of  immortality, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  by  the  churning  of  the 
ocean.  The  term  amrita  or  amrit  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
food  as  well  as  the  drink  of  the  gods,  and  likewise  to  any 
delicious  drink. 

Aiiirltsar,  um-rifsur  (i.  e.  Amrita  Saras,  fount  of  immor- 
tality) :  a  city  of  Northern  India;  capital  of  a  division  and 
district  of  the  same  name  ;  and  commercial  center  of  the 
Punjaub.  It  is  on  the  railroad,  40  miles  E.  of  Lahore,  and 
330  miles  N.  W.  of  Delhi  (see  map  of  N.  India,  rcf.  3-D). 
This  city  is  the  center  of  the  Sikh  religion  and  learning.  It 
owes  its  importance  to  a  reservoir  for  religious  jiurposes 
which  Ram  Das.  one  of  the  gi-eat  spiiituul  guides  of  the 
Sikhs,  caused  to  be  made  here  in  1581.  and  which  has  be- 
come an  object  of  pilgrimage  and  veneration.  This  reser- 
voir still  remains,  and  on  an  island  in  its  center  there  is  a 
celebrated  temple,  supporting  a  large  body  of  [iriests.  The 
city  also  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  with  Central  Asia,  and 
manufactm'es  imitations  of  Kashmir  shawls  and  silks.  Pop. 
(1891)  136.500.  The  district  has  an  area  of  1.574  sq.  miles, 
and  a  population  of  900,000.  Tlie  division,  including  this 
district,  Sialkot,  and  Gurdaspur,  extends  northward  to  the 
Himalayas,  and  lies  between  the  Chenab  and  Bias  rivers. 
Area,  5,354  sq.  miles.  Pop.  2,750.000.  It  is  not  well  watered, 
and  extensive  irrigation  is  necessary.  The  population  is 
about  one-half  Mohammedans,  one-fourth  Hindu,  and  only 
one-eighth  Sikhs.  M.  W.  H. 

Am'rou  Ben  el  As  (more  correctly  Amr  ibn-al  'Assi) :  a 
famous  Arabian  warrior  ;  b.  about  600'  a.  d.  ;  at  first  opposed 
IMohanimed,  but  became  a  zealous  proselyte ;  aided  in  the 
conquest  of  Syria ;  conquered  Egypt,  of  which  he  became 
emir,  taking  Alexandria  in  640  a.  d..  and  Tripoli  three  years 
later.  He  became  an  opponent  of  Ali.  He  was  a  man  of 
energy  and  prudence.     D.,  as  Governor  of  Egypt,  664. 

Ams'dorf.  Nikolaus,  von :  a  Reformer ;  b.  in  Saxony, 
probably  at  Torgau,  Dec.  3, 1483.  He  accompanied  Luther  to 
the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1521,  assisted  in  the  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  introduced  the  Reformation  into  Magde- 
burg, wliere  he  was  pastor,  1524-42  ;  became  Bishop  of  Naum- 
berg.  1542,  and  Sujierintendent  of  Eisenach,  1548.  After 
Luther's  death,  lie  was  prominent  in  opposing  certain  ten- 
dencies of  Melanehthon.  (See  Adiaphorites.)  An  extrava- 
gant expression  of  Amsdorf,  that  "  good  works  are  injurious 
to  salvation,"  was  the  occasion  of  the  discussion  in  the  For- 
mula of  Concord,  Art.  iv.  D.  at  Eisenach.  Slay  14,  1565. 
Revised  by  Hexry  E.  Jacobs. 

Anis'ler,  Samuel  :  skillful  engraver ;  b.  at  Schinznach, 
Switzerland.  Dec.  17. 1791.  He  became  Professor  of  Engrav- 
ing in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Munich.  He  engi-aved 
many  of  the  works  of  Raphael  and  Thorwaldsen.  and  rejjro- 
duee'd  the  former  with  peculiar  fidelity.  Among  liis  l)est 
works  are  the  Triumph  of  Alexatider  the  Great,  after  Thor- 
waldsen :  a  Ilohj  Ffiwili/'smd  a  Burial  of  Chrisf.  both  after 
Raphael;  also  a  Christ,  after  Dannecker.  D.  at  .Munich, 
May  18,  1849. 

Ani'sterdam,  formerly  A  mst  el  red  a  mine,  or  Anistel- 
daninie  (tlie  dike  or  dam'of  the  Amstel ;  in  Ijatiii.  Atiisti'lo- 
dainiim):  an  important  commercial  city  and  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Holland ;  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Amstel 
with  tlie  Y.  and  near  the  Zuyder  Zee.  through  which  it  lias 
access  to  the  ocean  ;  lat.  52  22  X..  Ion.  4'  53'  E.  (see  map 
of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  .5-F).  It  is  the  largest  city 
of  Hollanil  and  its  constitution.al  capital,  but  the  royal  court 
is  at  Tlie  Hague.  Amsterdam  stands  on  flat,  marshy  ground, 
into  wliich  jiiles,  50  feet  long,  are  driven  to  form  a  founda- 
tion for  the  houses,  which  are  mostly  built  of  brick.  The 
citv  is  divided  into  ninety  islands  by  a  number  of  canaks, 
which  are  crossed  liv  280  bridges.  A  jiart  of  the  old  ram- 
parts have  been  |nilled  down,  and  twenty-eight  windmills  for 
grinding  grain  have  been  erected  on  the  bastion.s.  The  prin- 
cijial  streets  are  the  Ileerengracht,  Keizergracht,  and  Prin- 


AMSTERDAM 


AMUSSAT 


167 


zens^racht,  each  of  which  is  about  2  miles  long,  and  describes 
a  seinlciieic.  Canals  occupy  the  middle  of  these  streets, 
which  are  scarcely  surpassed  in  elegance  by  those  of  any 
capital  in  Europe.  Among  the  grand  puljlic  buildings  of 
this  metropolis  is  the  palace  or  town-hall,  a  stouc  (■diticc  2H2 
feet  loug  and  2:i.")  feet  wide,  resting  on  13,059  piles,  driven 
into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  70  feet.  This  palace  con- 
tains a  remarkable  hall  120  feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  100 
feet  high,  lined  with  white  Italian  marlile.  The  city  has  a 
beautiful  justiciary  hall,  a  modern  building  of  Grecian  archi- 
tecture. The  most  heautifid  clmrch  of  Amsterdam  is  the 
Xieuwe  Kerk  (founded  in  1408),  350  feet  long  and  210  wide. 
This  Xieuwe  Kerk  and  the  Oude  Kerk,  which  has  a  remark- 
able organ,  belong  to  the  Reformed  Church.  Much  of  the 
water-supply  of  Amsterdam  now  comes  fi'om  the  sand  dunes 
of  the  coast.  Amsterdam  is  liberally  supplied  witli  hospitals 
and  otlier  charitable  institutions.  Among  the  important 
educational  and  literary  institutions  are  the  Athenannu  II- 
lustre,  which  h:is  a  botanic  garden,  a  school  of  anatomy,  and 
chairs  of  art,  law,  medicine,  and  theology ;  the  city  Latin 
school ;  the  Royal  Academy  of  J'ine  Arts,  founded  in  1820; 
the  Arti  et  Amicitia'  society  of  painters :  the  naval  school; 
the  Royal  Dutch  Institution  for  science,  literature,  anil  art; 
the  antiquarian  society;  and  the  society  of  literature  and 
fine  arts,  called  Eelix  Meritis.  The  museum  at  the  Tripjien- 
huis  contains  the  finest  collection  in  Europe  of  [jictures  of 
the  Dutch  school,  among  which  are  the  Banquet  of  f/if  Ar- 
guebussiers.  by  Van  der  Heist,  and  lite  yii/hf  M'afeh,  and 
the  so-called  "  S>nKlics,"  by  Rembrandt.  There  is  also  an 
admirable  collection  of  engravinop.  There  are  also  in  the 
city  several  smaller  collections,  public  and  private,  so  that 
this  city  must  be  visited  by  all  who  wish  to  study  Dutch 
painting. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  tobacco,  soap,  canva.s,  glass, 
jewelry,  cordage,  machinery,  steam-engines,  etc.  Its  com- 
merce is  more  important  than  its  manufactures.  That  great 
trade  which  in  the  sixteenth  century  placed  Amsterdam  at 
the'  head  of  the  commercial  cities  of  Europe  gradiuiUy  de- 
clined, jiartly  from  the  rise  of  other  ports,  but  principally 
from  the  difficulties  of  navigation  caused  by  the  silting  up 
of  tli(?  Zuyder  Zee,  and,  above  all,  the  Pampus  Bar.  Large 
vessels  were  oblijjed  to  discharge  their  cargoes  outside,  and 
weri^  tlien  floated  over  the  hm  by  means  of  cam.e!f<,  which, 
when  the  water  was  pumped  out  of  them,  raised  the  vessel 
with  them.  To  remedy  this,  the  Xorth  Holland  Canal  was 
cut  to  the  Helder,  a  distance  of  51  miles.  It  is  124  feet 
broad  at  the  surface  and  31  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  is 
available  for  vessels  drawing  18  feet  of  water.  But  even 
this  great  highway  is  now  inadequate,  and  moreover  is 
obstructed  in  winter  by  ice.  To  maintain  the  rank  of 
Amsterdam  as  one  of  the  great  commercial  enlrcpCtts  of 
Em-ope,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  engineering  works  of 
mod<'rn  times  was  commenced  in  1863,  and  is  now  com- 
pleted— the  (Unci  connection  of  the  port  of  Amsterdam  with 
the  X'orth  Sea,  15  miles  distant,  by  a  canal  terminating 
in  an  artificial  harbor  on  that  sea.  This  has  made  Amster- 
dam practically  a  seaport.  Diamond-cutting  is  almost  ex- 
ilusively  caiTied  on  here.     See  Canals. 

Amstei-dam  is  the  terminus  of  numerous  raOways.  The 
chief  articli's  of  export  are  butter,  cheese,  sugar,  coffee,  oil, 
spices,  coloi-s,  etc. 

Amsterdam  was  founded  about  1250,  before  which  it  was  a 
mere  fishing-village,  with  a  castle,  the  residence  of  the  lords 
of  Amstel.  It  was  fortifie<l  in  1482,  ati<l  became  a  part  of 
the  United  Provinces  in  1578,  after  which  its  commerce  and 
population  ra|iidly  increased.  Between  1630  and  1750  it  was 
the  foremost  commercial  citv  of  Europe.  Pop.  (1867)  267.627 ; 
(1885)  372,325  ;  (1891)  417.539. 

Revised  by  Mark  W.  Harrlkgtox. 

Ainsfonlnin :  city,  on  ^lohawk  river,  ^fontgomery  co., 
N.  V.  (for  location  of  count v,  see  map  of  Xew  York.  ref.  4-1); 
on  X.  Y.  Central  R.  R. ;  33  miles  X.  \V.  of  Albany.  It  has 
about  40  manufactories  (carpets,  knit  goods,  brooms,  steel 
s|)rings,  j)aper,  etc.),  3  daily  newspapei-s.  numerous  churches, 
and  an  electric  raih'oad.  Its  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity, 
and  it  has  an  acadc^niy,  private  schools,  Roman  Catholic  in- 
stitute, etc.  Excellent  water-supplv,  fine  svstem  of  drain- 
age, and  well-paved  streets.  Pop.  (1870)  5.426  ;  (1880)  9.460 ; 
(1890)  17.336.  Editor  op  "Democrat." 

Aiiistordain  Troaty :  a  treaty  concluded  by  France,  Rus- 
sia, and  Prussia,  Aug.  4,  1717.  The  meiliation  of  France  was 
accepted  b(>t ween  the  Czar  and  the  King  of  Prussia  on  one 
side,  and  Sweden  on  the  other.    Russia  also  abandoned  the 


invasion  of  Mecklenburg,  and  France  agreed  not  to  renew  a 
treaty  of  subsidies  with  .Sweden. 

Amu',  or  Amu  Dar'ya :  See  Oxus. 

Aiu'ulet :  an  object  worn  on  the  person  as  a  charm,  and 
supposed  to  have  power  to  ])rotect  the  wearer  against  evil 
spirits,  sickness,  and  other  real  or  imaginary  evils.  Amulets 
were  worn  by  the  ancient  Egyjitians,  (j  reeks,  and  Jews.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  wore  a  variety  of  gems  and  smaU  figures 
of  heroes,  deities,  and  animals.  Amulets  were  also  u.sed  by 
the  early  Christians,  but  that  form  of  superstition  wiis  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Laodicea  about  A.  D.  360.  They 
are  connnon  among  the  Turks  at  the  present  day.  An  as- 
trological amulet  called  a  talisnum  was  highly  prized  by  the 
Arabs. 

Amuuategui,  aa-moo-naa'tay-geX\  IMiguel  Luis;  Chilian 
pulilicist  and  litterateur ;  b.  Jan.  11,  1828;  educated  in  the 
Univei-sity  at  Santiago,  where  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  eminent  Andi-es  Bello.  In  1848  he  hcljied  liello  in  his 
Ilisforia  de  Greeid  y  Rama,  and  was  thenceforth  his  close 
friend.  Much  of  his  life  was  passed  in  wi-iting  for  Chilian 
periodicals,  but  several  of  his  books  remain  among  the  most 
serious  productions  of  his  country.  Such  are  Biografias  de 
Americanos  (1854) ;  Los  Preciirxores  de  la  Independencia 
(1870-72);  Vida  de  Don  Andres  Bel/o  (1876).     D.  in  1888. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Amur' ;  a  province  of  Russia ;  in  Eastern  Siberia  ;  X'^.  of  the 
Amur  river.  S.  of  the  Yablonoi  and  Stanovoi  Mountains, 
and  \V.  of  the  Coast  Province  ;  the  boundary  between  it  and 
the  last  being  about  the  meridian  of  135'  E.  ArVestward  it 
extends  to  the  mouth  of  the  Shilka  river.  It  comprises  the 
basin  of  the  Seya  and  Bureya  rivers,  with  some  smaller  trib- 
utaries of  the  Amur.  Area,  172,848  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1886) 
63.221.  In  a  broader  sense,  the  Amur  country  includes  all 
the  Russian  territory  from  Lake  Baikal  to  the  Okhotsk  Sea, 
S.  of  the  Stanovoi  Mountains.  As  thus  defined  it  takes  in  the 
Russian  provinces  of  Transbaikal.  Amur,  the  Coast  Province, 
and  Saghaben.  an  area  of  1,150,000  sq.  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  700.000.  In  climate  and  character  this  country  is 
not  unlike  Xew  England  and  Quebec,  while  the  southern 
end  of  the  Coast  Province  has  about  the  climate  of  X^ew 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  Agriculture  is  generally  possible 
an<l  in  places  would  be  very  successful.  Minerals  abound, 
and  a  few  Americans  have  found  their  w'ay  tliere  in  search 
of  gold.     The  settlements  at  present  are  mostlv  penal  ones. 

"M.  \V.  H. 

Amur  River;  a  river  of  Eastern  Asia:  for  most  of  its 
coui-se  the  boundary  between  the  Russian  and  Chinese  pos- 
sessions, formed  in  about  Ion.  122'  E.  by  the  union  of  the 
Shilka  and  Argun.  It  soon  breaks  through  the  Chingan 
Mountains  and  takes  a  general  southeasterly  course  until 
Ion.  135'  is  reached,  when  it  turns  northward  and  empties 
into  the  Okhotsk  Sea  opposite  the  northern  end  of  Saghalien 
at  the  town  of  X'icolayevsk.  at  which  point  it  forms  a  con- 
siderable delta.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Seya.  Bureya, 
and  Amgun.  Length,  2,800  miles  ;  area  of  basin.  520,000  sq. 
miles.  M.  W.  H. 

Am'uratll,  or  Mn'rad  I. :  Sultan  of  the  Turks ;  b.  in 
1319;  succeeded  Orkhan,  his  father,  in  1359  ;  took  Adrian- 
o|)le  in  1361  ;  and  waged  with  success  long  and  bloody  wars, 
chiefly  with  the  Christians,  in  what  is  now  European  Tur- 
key.    He  was  assassinated  June  15,  1389. 

Amuratll  II. ;  succeeded  hLs  father,  Jlohammed  I.,  in 
1421:  attacked  Constantinople  in  1423;  contended  with 
varying  success  for  many  years  against  the  Hungarians 
under  Ilunyady.  and  against  Scanderbeg.  He  gained  a 
great  victory  at  Kosovo  in  1448.     D.  Feb.  9,  1451. 

Amuratll  III. ;  one  of  the  most  cruel  of  the  sultans  ;b. 
in  1545;  came  to  the  sultanate  in  1574.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  long  wars  witli  .\ustria  and  Persia,  and  with  the 
janizaries  at  home.     I).  Jan.  17,  159,5. 

.4murath  (Murad)  IV.;  Sultan  of  Turkey;  b.  about 
1610;  succeeded  his  uncle  Mustafa  in  1623.  He  had  a  pas- 
sionate temper,  which  was  rendered  more  violent  and  dan- 
gerous by  naliitual  drunkenness.  He  amused  himself  by 
shooting  from  his  palace  windows  at  jiassers-by  in  the  st  reels. 
The  most  important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  capture  of 
Bagdad  by  his  army  in  1638.     D.  Feb.  9,  1640. 

Amussat,  a'l' moos' saa',  Jean  Zixema  :  French  surgeon 
and  writer;  b.  at  St.  Maixent.  in  Deux-Sevres,  Xov. 21,1796. 
He  invented  and  improved  st'veral  surgical  instruments,  and 
published  some  able  professional  treatises,  among  which  are 


IGS 


AMYCL^ 


ANABAPTISTS 


Researches  into  the  Nervous  System  (1825),  and  a  Memoir 
on  the  Torsion  of  Arteries  (1820),  which  obtained  a  prize  of 
tlie  Institute.     D.  in  Paris,  May  13.  1856. 

Amy'clie  :  an  ancient  town  of  Laconia,  on  tlic  Eurntas, 
20  statlia  S.  E.  of  Sparta,  in  a  district  noted  for  the  abun- 
dance of  its  trees  ami  its  fertility  ;  famous  in  the  heroic  or 
legendary  age  as  the  abode  of  Tradanis  and  Leda  and  Castor 
and  Pollux,  who  were  called  Amyctcei  i^;-f//;'fs  (Araychvan 
Brothers).  This  town  was  conquered  by  the  Spartans  about 
775  B.  r. 

Alliyg:'daloi(l  [from  Gr.  a/xvySiXri.  almond  +  tJSos,  form]  : 
having  the  form  of  an  almond:  applied  in  geology  to  cer- 
tain volcanic  rocks  in  which  once  existed  oval  cavities  or 
cells  now  tilled  with  nodules  of  some  crj-stalline  mineral 
deposited  from  an  infiltered  solution.  The  nodules  are 
composed  of  agate,  chalcedony,  calcareous  spar,  etc.  The 
cavities  they  occupy  were  formed  as  bubbles  by  steam  or 
other  gas  wliile  the  rock  was  in  a  molten  condition. 

Amyg'dalllS  [from  Gr.  afivySaXos.  afivySaXv.  almond-tree]: 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  lioxKeeie,  consists  of  trees 
whose  fruit  is  a  drupe.  It  comjirises  the  almond  {Amyy'da- 
liis  comnia'nis)  and  the  peach  (Antyy  dalus  Per'siea). 

Aiu'yl  (CsHji):  a  compound  radical  belonging  to  the  al- 
cohol series,  exists  in  amylic  alcohol,  C'sHu-O.H,  or  fusel 
oil.  It  forms  a  series  of  compound  ethers  (see  Ethers), 
some  of  which  ai'e  used  as  substitutes  for  the  essences  of 
natural  fruits.  The  nitrite  of  amyl  is  an  ethereal  liquid  of 
agreeable  odor,  which  lia.s  been  recently  brought  to  the 
attention  of  medical  practitioners  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
action  on  the  circulation.  A  few  drops  inhaled  causes  a 
sudden  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  flushing  of  the  face. 

Aiiiyot'.  Jacques  :  b.  at  IMeluii.  France,  Oct.  30,  1513 ; 
taught  Latin  and  Greek  at  the  University  of  Paris:  visited 
Italy  :  l)ecanie  tutor  to  the  two  youngest  sons  of  Henry  11. : 
was"  made  grand  almoner  under  Charles  IX.,  and  linally 
Bishop  of  Auxerre,  where  he  died  Feb.  6,  1593.  He  pulj- 
lished  a  number  of  translations  of  Greek  authors,  which  are 
highly  esteemed  for  the  excellent  French  in  which  they 
are  written.  These  are  the  Theagenes  and  Chariclea  of 
Ileliodorus  (1547) :  seven  books  of  Diodonis  Siculits  (1554) ; 
the  iJnphiiis  and  Chloe  of  Longus  (1559) ;  Plutarch's  Lives 
(1559):  Plutarch's  Murals  (1574).  Of  these,  incomparably 
the  most  famous  is  the  translation  of  Plutarch's  Lives, 
which  made  Amyot  one  of  the  most  noted  writers  of  France. 
The  English  version  of  Amyot's  French,  by  Sii-  Thomas 
North  (1575),  wa.s  extraordinarily  popular  among  the  Eliza- 
1  let  bans,  and  was  used  by  Shakspeare  as  a  som-ce  for  several 
of  his  |ilays.  A.  R.  Maksu. 

Amyot,  Joseph  :  French  Jesuit  missionary  ;  b.  at  Toulon  in 
1718.  '  He  sailed  tci  China  in  1750.  was  invited  to  Peking  by 
the  enqieror.  and  jiassed  the  rest  of  his  life  tliere.  He 
learned  the  Chinese  language,  from  which  he  translated 
several  works  into  French,  and  compiled  a  iY«;(/c/ioo-7V(r- 
tar-French  Dictionary  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1789-90).  Few  Euro- 
pean authors  have  done  so  much  to  illustrate  the  history 
and  cu.stoms  of  China.  He  wrote  a  large  portion  of  the 
Memoirs  Conceniiny  the  History.  Sciences,  Arts,  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  Chinese  (l(j  vols..  177(i-1814).  B.  in  Peking  in 
1794. 

Anabailt'ida'  [fmui  Gr.avajSas.  -iSacTos,  purtic.  of  avaPalveiv. 
go  up.  clindi]  :  a  family  cif  s|iiuy-rayed  fishes,  with  I  he  su- 
perior brancliihyals  of  the  gill-arches  laminated  and  de- 
veloped into  a  "superbrauehial  organ  which  retains  water 
_  sutBcient  to  moisten  the  gills 

for  a  considerable  time,  and 
with  more  or  less  spines  in  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins.  Species 
are  found  in  Southeastern  Asia 
and  A  frica.  One.  the  A n'abas 
scan  dens,  found  in  India,  etc., 
is  especially  renuvrkal  lie  for  a 
limited  power  of  climbing. 
Unlike  the  eel,  which  pa.sses 
over  oidy  moist  ground,  the 
analias  takes  its  Journey  over 
hard,  dr-y,  and  dusty  roatls,  and 
frequently  up  steep  a-scents  lieated  with  the  burning  beams 
of  the  niionday  sun,  and  does  not  seem  to  feel  any  serious 
inconvenience  from  these.  It  is  even  asserted  by  some  writ- 
ers that  this  fish  is  able  to  climb  a  tree. 

Aiiahap'tists:  a  widely  disseminated  religious  community 
tlial  arose  in  the  period  of  the  Protestant  Keformation,  and 


Anabas  scand^ns ;  climbing 
perch. 


still  exists  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  North  America 
under  the  designation  of  ]\Iennonites  (q.  v.). 

The  name,  derived  from  ava^ami^eiv,  signifies  rebaptizers. 
It  was  bestowed  by  their  ojiponents,  and  was  never  ac- 
knowledged by  the  brethren  of  the  party.  The  injustice 
of  the  name  is  now  generally  conceded.  The  brotherhood 
denied  that  they  were  chargeable  with  reliaptizing.  on  the 
ground  that  persons  who  had  received  the  rite  in  uncon- 
scious infancy  had  never  been  baptized  at  all.  Influenced 
perhaps  liy  the  powerful  example  of  Prof.  Cornelius.  German 
authorities  have  now  adopted  a  custom  which  allows  the 
correctness  of  the  Anabaptist  contention.  Instead  of  writ- 
ing them  down  as  "'  Wiedertiiufer  '"  it  has  become  common 
to  designate  them  simply  tis  "  Tiiufer,"  and  their  church  as 
"  die  tiiuferische  Kirclic."  That  custom  has  introduc'cd  an 
amount  of  confusion  among  English  authorities.  The  word 
"Taiifer"  is  frequemly  lr:inslated  Baptists,  and  "tiiuferische 
Kirche"  as  Baptist  Church.  The  two  things  are  distinct  and 
should  be  held  apart.  The  Mennonites,  who  are  the  Ana- 
baptists of  modern  times,  have  never  failed  to  insist  upon 
the  distinction,  and  to  keep  themselves  separated  from  the 
Baptists.     See  Baptists. 

The  Eeformation  ]>criod  is  allowed  by  all  authorities  to 
have  been  exceedingly  inisettled  and  perilous.  Deep  and 
widespread  dissatisfaction  prevailed  in  more  than  one  rank 
of  society  in  Germany.  The  peasants  were  in  a  particidarly 
restless  frame  of  mind.  One  of  several  oidbreaks  that  had 
occurred  during  the  earlier  years  of  the  sixteenth  century 
was  enacted  by  them  in  the  year  1525,  under  the  leadership 
of  Thomas  Mlinzer.  Almost  as  a  matter  of  course  it  cn<led 
disastrously.  The  jieasant  movement  was  of  a  social  and 
political  sort.  There  were  no  Anabaptists  engaged  in  this 
movement.  Miinzer,  it  is  conceded,  wrote  against  infant 
bajjtism.  but  neitlier  himself  nor  his  followers  went  to  the 
extent  of  reliajitizing.  The  Anabaptist  movement  originated 
at  Zurich.  Switzerland,  between  Jan.  18  and  25,  1525.  For 
more  than  a  year  dissatisfaction  had  been  growing  against 
some  of  the  methods  and  measures  of  Zwingli,  the  Keformer 
of  Switzerland.  In  particular  the  Anabaptist  leaders  ob- 
jected to  the  use  he  made  of  the  civil  government  in  carry- 
ing forward  his  work,  and  to  the  relations  of  Ids  Church  to 
the  government.  Besides,  though  Zwingli  was  decidedly 
more  literalistic  than  Luther  in  the  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
tm-e,  he  retained  infant  baptism,  for  which  in  their  estinui- 
tion  there  appeared  to  be  no  biblical  authority.  The  mat- 
ters at  issue  were  brought  to  trial  in  a  formal  discussion 
held  in  the  presence  of  the  city  council  on  Jan.  18,  1525. 
Zwingli  was  successful ;  the  city  council  oi-dered  the  Ana- 
baptists to  retract  or  to  leave  the  canton  within  seven  days. 
During  this  period,  just  before  their  deiiarture.  the  lirethren 
took  the  step  which  gave  them  the  name  t  hey  have  borne  for 
almost  the  entire  period  since  the  Keformation  :  at  an  assem- 
bly in  tlie  house  of  Felix  Manz  they  instituted  adult  bap- 
tism, and  most  of  the  leaders  submitted  to  it. 

The  significance  of  that  step  can  hardly  be  correctly  esti- 
mated at  this  distance  of  time.  In  the  estinuition  of  their 
opponents,  and  possilily  of  a  portion  of  tlu'  brethren,  it  un- 
churched and  unchristianized  both  Zwingli  and  his  fol- 
lowers. The  Church  in  Zinieh,  however,  was  so  closely 
intertwined  whh  the  state  that  a  blow  at  the  Church  was  at 
the  same  moment  a  blow  at  the  state,  and  an  act  of  rebellion 
against  all  constitided  authority.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  leaders  intended  to  assume  any  such  ex- 
treme position.  Their  aims  were  chiefly  I'eligious,  not  jiolit- 
ical  or  social ;  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude  they  were 
estimable  and  sober  men.  But  they  were  the  victims  of 
circumstances  whi(di  it  was  out  of  their  power,  and  per- 
haps of  any  hunuin  power,  to  control.  On  the  heels  of  this 
daring  act  ciiuie  the  [jcasants'  rebellion  and  th<'  enormities 
cuacled  liy  Miinzer.  Suspicion  was  already  active  against 
the  lirethren  as  being  on  the  side  of  anarchy.  Even  under 
the  most  favoralile  conditions  it  would  have  been  ditlieult 
for  them  to  allay  the  apprehensions  of  their  oppoTieuts  and 
to  ([uiet  the  pulilic  nnud.  The  catastrophe  at  Fraidien- 
hausen  on  the  15th  of  May,  in  which  the  jieasants  were  de- 
feat eil  and  scattiMvd.  robbe<l  all  parties  of  reason.  Zwingli 
and  his  adherents  became  unalteralily  convinced  that  the 
brethren  were  in  league  with  disorder,  and  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  evei-y  friend  of  Church  and  state  to  use  every  re- 
source to  jiut  them  down. 

The  form  of  baptism  adopted  when  the  movement  was 
instituted  appears  to  have  been  by  sprinkling  or  iiouring, 
and  with  comparatively  few  exccijtions  that  form  was  ob- 
served wherever  the  party  was  established.     In  Switzerland, 


ANABAPTISTS 


169 


in  portions  of  Swabia,  and  in  Poland  there  were  some  wlio 
were  in  favor  of  ininieision ;  but  instances  wore  ooin[)ara- 
tively  infieinu'iit.  S|)rinklinj;  and  pouring  had  su])planl(.'d 
ininiursiun  in  i-very  section  of  Germany,  except  Poinerania, 
before  this  time,  and  the  brethren  fell  into  the  current  fasli- 
ion.  apparently  almost  without  reflection.  It  is  suggested 
tliat  what  little  innnersion  was  observed  among  them  may 
luive  been  due  to  the  influence  of  Johann  Denck.  Sprin- 
kling and  ]i.)uriiig  are  believed  to  have  prevailed  without 
exception  ammig  the  31elchiorites  in  llouand  and  Ijower 
(ierniany.  The  ilennouites  have  never  foUowed  any  other 
mode. 

The  coimcction  between  the  brethren  and  older  reforming 
parties  that  existed  before  the  Reformation  has  been  much 
discussed.  Tlie  leaders  of  the  movement  in  Switzerland 
were  aware  of  no  such  connection  ;  it  was  also  the  custom 
of  the  advocates  of  adult  baptism  to  speak  of  these  leaders 
as  tJK'  ••  founders  of  Baptism"  for  more  than  a  century  after 
their  decease.  Finally,  however,  in  a  work  puljlished  in 
11)47,  the  claim  was  first  advanced  that  the  Waldensians 
were  their  progenitors.  That  claim  has  been  often  rc|)eatetl, 
but  has  never  been  established.  The  faihire  to  establish  it 
does  not  prove  that  it  is  not  true:  it  is  possible  that  ad- 
ditional information  may  one  day  be  obtained.  It  is  a  sig- 
nificant circumstance,  luiwever,  that  modern  Mcnnonitc 
.scholars,  nolalily  de  Hoop  SchcfEer  of  Amsterdam,  appear  to 
liave  decided  against  the  notion  of  any  kind  of  succession. 
On  tlie  other  hand.  Dr.  Ludwig  Keller,  of  Miinster.  zealously 
defends  that  notion,  and  has  written  largely  to  exhibit  the 
correctness  of  his  position. 

The  jirincipal  leader  among  the  "  founders  of  Baptism  " 
in  Switzerland  was  Conrad  Grebel,  a  person  of  fine  learning, 
nolile  family,  and,  on  the  whole,  of  admirable  spirit.  Worthy 
to  stand  at  ins  side  was  his  fellow-townsman  of  Zurich,  Felix 
JIanz,  a  competent  Hebraist  anil  a  splendid  character. 
George  Blaurock,  formerly  a  monk,  gave  the  im])ulse  which 
led  to  tile  introduction  of  adult  baptism.  William  Kenlilin, 
a  man  of  good  fame  and  real  wortn,  was  another  fellow-la- 
borer. He  had  the  honor  of  procuring  the  adhesion  of  Bal- 
tliazar  Huliineier,  the  famous  pastor  of  Waldshut,  who 
shortly  became  one  of  the  leading  figures  in  the  movement. 

FirM  Stage,  of  the  Anahaj^tist  Movement. — Having  de- 
scribed the  Ix'ginnings  of  the  brotherhood  in  Switzerland, 
it  is  now  in  order  to  describe  the  earliest  fortunes  which  it 
encountered.  Zwingli  was  sensible — perhaps  too  sensilile — 
of  the  ])erils  of  the  situation.  He  was  a  man  of  superb  cour- 
age, but  tlie  example  of  the  peasants  under  Miinzer  had 
disturbi'd  Ids  jioise.  He  sounded  the  alarm.  The  anarchists 
had  just  showed  their  hand  in  Germany:  Switzerland  was 
nourishing  a  ]iarty  of  tlie  same  sort,  and  she  might  shortly 
suffer  a  sinuhir  fate.  Seriously,  there  was  no  real  cause  for 
alarm :  lie  was  seized  with  the  wild  panic  which  |)revailed 
in  so  many  quarters.  In  his  eyes  the  mark  of  adult  baptism 
was  notliing  better  than  the  red  flag.  The  men  who  showed 
that  mark  were  men  of  peace;  one  of  their  leading  articles 
provided  against  war  and  the  bearing  of  arms.  The  re- 
formi'r  could  not  trust  their  pretensions.  The  reflection 
that  tliey  luid  denied  to  iiim  antl  his  tlie  blessings  of  Chris- 
tianity and  of  the  Church  of  God  led  him  to  fear  that  they 
were  bent  upon  the  overthrow  of  every  social  barrier.  It  is 
diflicult  to  predict  what  might  have  been  the  issue  of  the 
matter  if  the  lirethren  had  not  resorted  to  adidt  baptism, 
deferring  the  baptism  of  their  adherents  until  they  had  at- 
tained to  adult  ago,  and  then  baptizing  tliom  for  the  first 
and  only  time.  Zwingli  himself  was  opjiosed  to  infaid  bap- 
tism, until  such  time  as  he  fancied  the  standard  of  revolu- 
tion was  being  reared  in  the  land  by  his  opponents.  Upon 
tlie  command  of  Melchior  Ilofmann,  adult  baptism  was  sus- 
|ieuded  for  a  period  of  almost  two  years  in  Holland,  iluring 
which  time  the  cause  advanced  greatly. 

In  the  mouth  that  succeeded  the  peasants'  overtlirow  at 
Frankenhauson.  Vadian.  of  St.  Gall,  began  the  attack  on  the 
brethren  of  that  city.  lie,  too,  did  not  favor  infant  ba]itisni : 
but  he  attacked  nOiapt ism  as  disorganizing  and  politically 
dangerous.  His  adversaries  were  forced  to  yield.  Before 
the  year  was  out  there  was  scarcely  a  corner  of  Switzerland 
wliere  their  presence  was  not  forliidden.  But  tlu-y  that 
Were  scattered  abroad  went  everywdiere  preaching  the  word. 
During  the  yeai-s  1.526  and  1.527  the  most  extraordinary 
triumphs  were  achiovi'd.  The  lirothorhood  was  established 
in  almost  every  quarter  of  Germany,  from  Hesse  to  Li- 
vonia. They  penetrated  into  Austria.  Moravia,  and  Bavaria, 
and  the  new  evangel  s|iread  like  wild-fire.  This  great  suc- 
»ess,  however,  brought  with  it  great  perils.     Many  revolu- 


tionary and  dangerous  elements  were  attracted  by  the  mark 
of  adult  baptism,  and  it  was  plain  the  leaders  would  find 
it  dillicult  to  control  them,  liut  besides  these  danger- 
ous classes  were  won  a  number  of  men  who  would  have 
adorned  any  cause  or  Cliurch — a.s  Sattler,  Kaiitz,  and  Kinck. 
The  unexampled  success  of  these  two  yeai-s  proved  a  sad 
niisforlnne.  Tlie  wildest  alarm  was  experienced,  lest  they 
sliould  swallow  up  all  forms  of  religion  and  of  social  order. 
The  sword  of  ]iersecution  was  unsheathed  and  claimed  thou- 
sands of  vii-tims.  In  a  surprisingly  short  time  all  of  the  lead- 
ers were  in  their  graves,  and  the  desolated  Cliurch  was  left  a 
prey  to  violent  and  unclean  men  who  had  crowded  into  it. 
The  voice  of  prophecy  began  to  be  heard,  and  there  was  none 
to  i|Ueiuli  the  evil  spirit.  False  doctrine  was  proclaimed 
almost  without  opposition.  Mystical  enthusiiism  rose  to  an 
unexampled  pitch  and  tm-ned  into  shocking  uncleanness. 
Speculative  heretics  claimed  the  highest  seats  in  the  sjTia- 
gogue.  By  the  beginning  of  1529  the  cause  of  the  bi-other- 
liood  was  lost — ground  to  powder  between  the  millstones. 

Second  Stage  of  the  Atiahaplisf  Movement. — In  this  hour 
of  their  exhaustion  Melchior  Ilofmann  ajipears  on  the  scene. 
He  came  to  Strassburg  as  a  conles.sor  of  Zwinglianism  from 
the  Low  Countries.  The  Zwinglian  Church  there  w.as  found 
to  be  in  a  critical  situation,  and  Ilofmann,  uniting  with 
the  party  of  the  brotherhood,  hopeil  to  capture  Strassburg 
for  the  AnaViaptists.  He  shortly  returned  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries to  acquaint  his  old  fi-iends  of  his  new  doctrine.  They 
received  him  and  it  with  open  arms.  From  the  middle  of 
1.530  the  brotherhood  had  gained  a  large  following  in  the 
Netherlands  and  the  regions  adjacent.  These  came  to  Strass- 
burg, which  Hofiiiann  had  declared  to  be  the  New  Jerusalem, 
in  the  hope  of  capturing  a  stronghold  for  their  faith.  In- 
stead of  capturing  Strassburg,  Ilofmann  was  caplui-ed  by  it ; 
the  city  council  put  him  in  prison  in  1533  and  kept  him 
there  ten  years. 

During  his  confinement  the  movement  he  had  instigated 
fell  into  the  hands  of  even  less  worthy  leadere  among  his 
adherents  in  Holland.  Hofmann's  weakest  point  had  been 
the  prophecies,  but  he  always  employed  his  ingenuity  in  the 
labor  of  interpreting  those  prophecies  he  found  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. Jan  Matthys,  of  Haarlem,  w!io  succeeded  him,  was 
also  a  prophet,  but  he  had  little  use  for  the  Scriptures:  his 
most  casual  conceits  were  understood  to  tie  inspired  of  God. 
The  evil  spirit  which  Luther  had  exorcised  from  Wittenburg 
returned  with  seven  spii'its  worse  than  itself.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  1534  possession  was  gained  of  Jliinster  in  Westphalia, 
which  thereupon  took  from  Strassburg  the  honor  of  being 
the  New  Jerasalem.  A  theocracy  was  cstalilished  and  JIatthys 
sent  forth  his  apostles  to  convert  the  world.  The  jilace  was 
shortly  besieged  by  the  Bishop  of  Miinster.  and  ^latthys  was 
slain  in  a  sally  to  which  he  invited  a  small  comjiany  of  his 
friends,  with  a  promise  that  one  should  put  a  thousand  and 
two  should  put  ten  thousand  to  flight.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Jan  Beukels.  of  Leyden,  who  introduced  polygamy  and 
had  daily  revelations.  The  enormities  which  he  perpetrated 
gave  a  shock  to  the  civilized  world.  The  city  was  earned 
by  storm  in  1535,  and  the  second  stage  of  the  movement 
came  to  an  end. 

Third  Stage  of  the  Anabaptist  Movement. — After  the 
overtlirow  of  the  theocracy  at  Miinster,  Jlenno  Simons 
came  to  the  helm.  His  brother  was  an  Anabaptist,  and  had 
been  killed  in  one  of  the  engagements  of  the  party  in  Hol- 
laiul :  but  Menno  kept  his  position  as  pa.stor  of  the  Catholic 
church  at  Witmarsum  until  Jan.,  1536.  Becoming  identi- 
fied with  the  now  scattered  and  jicrsecutod  brethren,  he 
s])ent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  devotion  to  their  interests. 
In  the  course  of  time  nearly  all  the  brotherhood  in  any  por- 
tion of  Europe  fell  under  his  influence,  and  most  of  tficni 
were  called  by  his  name.  Owing  to  the  persecution  which 
was  carried  on  against  them  from  1635  to  1710  by  the  Swiss 
Government,  they  were  almost  exterminated  in  the  country 
of  their  tiirth.  where  at  present  not  more  than  Ion  or  twelve 
of  their  churches  can  be  found.  They  are  still  somewhat 
numerous  in  Elsass.  the  Bavarian  Palatinate.  Baden.  Wiirt- 
eniberg,  Hesse,  Na.ssau,  and  on  the  lower  Bhine.  Several 
churches  exist  in  East  Frisia,  Hamburg,  and  seventeen  in 
Lithuania.  Poland  numbei-s  six.  Gallicia  and  Bavaria  one 
each.  In  France  they  still  liohl  forth  the  word  at  various 
points  in  the  Vosges  Mountains.  Liu'ge  numbers  are  met 
with  in  Uussia.  and  about  .50.000  in  Holland.  In  the  V.  S. 
there  are  twelve  dilforent  branches  of  the  brotherhood  rep- 
resented in  more  than  half  the  States,  and  nmnbering  41.541 
comnuinicants,  according  to  the  constis  of  lyOO.  The  num- 
ber in  Canada  is  estimated  at  about  10,000. 


170 


ANABAPTISTS 


ANACREON 


Doctrines. — No  liistory  of  doctrines,  as  held  by  the  brother- 
hood, has  yet  been  composed.  In  general,  it  appears  that 
their  tendency  was  not  toward  dogmatical  development ; 
their  main  exertions  were  given  to  affairs  of  practical  moral- 
ity in  the  departments  of  ecclesiastical,  civil,  and  social  life. 
The  tenet  by  wliich  tliey  became  most  widely  known  was 
the  rejection  of  infant  baptism  and  the  practice  of  adnlt 
baptism.  To  keep  the  Church  pnre  they  employed  strenu- 
ous discipline,  and  often  resorted  to  excommunication.  Tiie 
Lord's  Snpper  was  observed :  tlirough  the  influence  of  Carl- 
stadt  tlicy  were  induced  to  surrender  the  Roman  Catliolic  no- 
tion touching  the  bodily  presence  of  Christ  in  the  elements, 
and  to  adopt  tlie  conception  of  Zwingli,  which  in  the  begin- 
ning they  liad  opposed.  Tlieir  separation  from  the  world  was 
often  so  strict  as  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  their  contempo- 
raries. All  differences  Ijetween  communicants  with  regard 
to  property  were  to  be  settled  by  the  Church.  Tlie  notion 
that  this  was  an  invasion  of  the  rights  of  the  state  in  the 
interest  of  a  tlieocracy  was  encouraged  by  the  circumstance 
that  they  refused  to  bear  tlie  sword  and  to  hold  any  kind  of 
civil  office.  It  was  also  forbidden  to  take  an  oatli  in  courts 
of  Justice.  In  addition  to  these  matters  of  mainly  external 
concern,  it  nnty  be  said  tliat  tlieir  general  tyjie  of  doctrine 
is  understood  to  lie  Arminian.  So  far  as  is  known,  the 
lirethren  all  opposed  Luther's  doctrine  of  Justification  by 
faith,  insisted  upon  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  denounced 
predestination.  This  did  not  place  them  in  sympathy  with 
the  Roman  Catholics,  liowever ;  it  was  their  business  to  resist 
the  Roman  Catholics  as  strenuously  as  they  set  themselves 
against  the  reformers.  Melchior  Hofmann  added  as  much 
to  the  creed  of  the  brethren  as  he  received  from  them ;  it 
was  he  who  introduced  the  notion  that  our  Lord  took  not 
his  flesh  from  the  Virgin,  liut  that  the  word  became  flesh 
without  the  co-o|ieration  of  human  agency.  This  view  pre- 
vailed in  Holland,  and  as  the  English  Anabaptists  came 
from  that  country,  it  may  be  observed  among  them. 

The  Church  Cuii-ili/iilion  was  not  uniform.  In  IMoravia 
there  was  a  somewhat  claliorate  hierarchy ;  elsewhere  they 
seem  to  have  employed  only  elders,  often  called  bishops, 
and  deacons.  Community  of  goods,  which  did  not  prevail 
elsewhere,  was  established  in  Moravia. 

Literature. — Zwinf/Us  Werke  (Zurich,  1838-42);  H.  Bul- 
linger,  Der  Wiederfaufer  Crsprung,  Furgang,  Secten  (Zur- 
ich, 1560) ;  J.  H.  Ottius,  Annates  Anabaptistici  (Basle,  167"2) ; 
P.  Winter,  GeschicMe  der  Bayrischen  Wiedertaufer  (Munich, 
1809);  Krohn,  Die  Wiedert.  in  NiederdeutscMand  (Leipzig, 
1758);  K.  von  Hase.  Heilige  iind  Propheten  (das  Heich  der 
Wiedert.)  (Leipzig.  1893) :  K,  Bouterwek,  Ziir  Literatur  tind 
Geschicfite  der  Wiedert.  (Bonn,  18H5);  H.  W.  Erbkam,  (fe- 
schic/ile  der  prof.  Se/clen.  im  ZeitnUer  der  Ref.  (Hamburg, 
1848);  Hebcrle,  Anfange  des Aiiiilniplixmus  in  der  Schweiz; 
Jahrbueher  f.  D.  fheol..  iii.  s.  335-3S();  Egli,  Die  Zurctier 
Wiedertaufer  (Zurich.  1878);  H.  S.  Burrage,  History  of  tlte 
Anabaptists  in  Switzerland  (Philadelphia,  1882),  based  on 
the  two  jireceding  works,  with  some  assistance  from  the  fol- 
lowing; C.  A.  Corueliu.s,  (fescfiiclite  des  Miinsterisc.hen  Auf- 
rutirs.  in  drei  liitrhern  (Leijizig,  1855-60);  only  two  books 
appeared;  Ludwig  Keller,  Dus  lieirli  der  Wiedert.  zii  Mini- 
ster (1881 ),  apiiarciit  ly  an  effort  to  complete  the  work  of  Cor- 
nelius ;  Johann  Denc/c,  Ein  Apustel  der  Wiedert.  (1882); 
Die  Reformation  und  die  dlteren  Reformparteien  (1885) ; 
de  Hoo)i  Scheffer,  articles  on  Jlenno  Simons  and  the  Men- 
nonitcs  in  the  second  edition  of  Ilerzog's  Real-Eneycl..  vol, 
ix. ;  W.  liocliricli,  (reschiclite  der  Reformation  iin  E/sass 
(1830);  Kgli.  Alitensammtung  zur  Ziirrher  Reformafion.sge- 
schiciite  (Zurich,  1883).  William  11.  Wuitsitt. 

Aiiaha'ril:  a  river  of  Siberia,  on  the  boundary  between 
Yeniseisk  and  Irkutsk  :  rises  aliout  lat.  69"  N.,  and  Ion.  107  ' 
E.,  flows  northward  about  300  miles,  and  enters  the  Arc- 
tie  Ocean  in  lat.  73"  40  X.,  Ion.  112   :iO  E. 

Anab'asis  |(lr.  avdBaais,  ascent;  avi.  up  + /Safveiv.  go]: 
a  Circek  Word  >iguityiiig  an  "ascension."  a  march  from  a 
lower  into  a  higher  region.  In  medicine  it  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  increase  of  a  disease  or  paroxysm.  It  is  also  the 
title  of  two  (iivck  historical  works:  (1)  Xenophon's  account 
of  the  expediliim  of  Cvrus  the  Younger  against  his  brother 
Artaxcrxes  JInemoii,  king  of  Persia,  401  n.  r.,  and  of  the 
retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  (i reeks  who  had  served  in  the 
army  of  Cyrus.  (3)  Arrian's  Anabasis,  in  which  are  recorded 
the  cxpi'ditionsof  Alexander  the  (ireat  into  Persia  and  India. 

An'ablcps  |from  (ir.  i.i>afi\iiriiv,  look  up;  avi.  up  +  $\4- 
iretv.  look):  a  genus  of  haplomous  fishes,  characterized  by  a 
n.'markalile  iirojectionof  the  eyes  from  the  sides  of  the  head, 


and  by  the  pupil  being  incompletely  divided  into  two  by  a 
pair  of  lobes  projecting  from  each  side  of  the  iris,  which, 
together  with  the  division  of  the  eye  into  an  upjier  and 
lower  portion  by  a  band  of  integument,  gives  tiie  fish  the 
appearance  of  having  two  eyes  on  each  side.  Several  S|)ecies 
are  found  along  the  sandy  coasts  and  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
tropical  America.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Anacanthi'iii  [from  Gr.  avajcavdos.  without  spine :  iv-.  not  -i- 
axavBa.  t  horn] :  an  order  of  fishes  distinguished  by  an  ossified 
endoskeleton,  the  surface  covered  in  some  cases  with  cycloid, 
in  others  with  ctenoid,  scales;  fins  supported  by  flexible  or 
Jointed  rays ;  ventrals  beneath  the  pectorals,  or  wanting ; 
swimming-bladder  without  air-duct.  This  order  includes 
the  cod  and  many  other  edible  fishes. 

Aiiacardia'ceie:  See  Sumach  Family. 

Aiiacll'aris  fana(len'sis(now  called  Etodea  canadensis): 
a  herliaceous  jilant  of  the  family  JIydrocluiridacea>;  a  native 
of  North  America,  growing  in  ponds  and  slow  streams,  in 
which  it  is  entirely  submerged.  It  has  a  much-branched 
and  slender  stem,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its 
growth.  It  is  naturalized  in  Great  Britain,  where  it  sud- 
denly Mp]ieMred  in  such  abundance  as  to  obstruct  the  navi- 
gation of  tlie  Trent,  r>erwent,  and  other  rivers.  It  was  first 
observed  in  Great  Britain  about  1843,  It  causes  no  such 
trouble  in  the  V.  S. 

Aliaeliar'siS  (Gr.  'Ava,xap<ri!) :  Scii'thian  philosopher  who 
lived  about  600  B.  c.  and  was  a  friend  of  Solon.  He  was  the 
only  "  barbarian  ''  admitted  to  the  privilege  of  a  citizen  of 
Alliens,  and  was  by  some  reckoned  among  the  Seven  Wise  3Ien 
of  Greece.  On  his  return  to  Scythia  he  was  put  to  death,  be- 
cause he  practiced  some  Greek  religious  rites.  Some  of  his 
pithy  sayings  have  been  preserved  by  Diogenes  Laertius  and 
others.  The  name  of  Anacharsis  has  been  made  familiar  to 
modern  readere  by  the  popular  work  of  J.  J.  Barthelemy, 
whose  work  entitled  Voyage  dii  jetine  Anarliarsis  en  Orece 
(1788)  re]iresents  the  life  and  customs  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

Anai'h'ronisill  [Gr.  ayaxpon(rn65.  from  am,  U|i  -I-  xpi^'">s. 
tune]:  an  error  in  clu'onology;  an  inversion  or  ilisturbance 
of  the  order  of  time.  The  use  of  cannon  in  Sliakspeare's 
King  John  is  an  anachronism,  as  cannon  were  not  em- 
jiloyed  in  England  until  a  hundred  years  or  more  after  his 
reign.  Painters  who  represent  ancient  patriarchs  in  modern 
costumes  are  censured  for  anachronism. 

Anaele'tus:  an  anti-pope,  was  elected  by  a  party  of  car- 
dinals in  1130  as  a  rival  pojie  to  Innocent  11.,  who  was 
recognized  by  the  majority  of  European  powers.  Anaclctus 
w,Hs  sujiported  by  the  Romans.     D.  in  Rome,  Jan.  25, 1138. 

Aiiacon'da  (Eunec'tes  mnri'nus) :  a  large  serpent  allied  to 
the  Boa  roHsfrictor  ;  a  native  of  tropical  America,  especially 
of  Brazil  and  Guiana.  It  sometimes  grows  to  the  length  of 
30  feet,  and  is  the  largest  serpent  of  America.  It  passes 
much  of  the  time  in  the  water,  preferring  the  shallow  parts 
of  a  lake  or  stream.  Among  the  generic  characters  that 
distinguish  it  from  the  boa  are  the  small  size  and  ))ositioii  of 
its  nostrils,  wliich  open  at  the  upper  part  of  the  end  of  the 
muzzle,  and  are  directed  upward.  It  is  not  venomous.  Its 
food  consists  of  lizards  and  other  small  animals.  The  na- 
tives make  use  of  its  skin  for  shoes  and  its  flesh  for  food. 
See  Boa.  Revised  by  T>.  S.  Jordan. 

Aiiacoiula:  city.  Deer  Lodge  co.,  Montana  (for  location  of 
county,  see  ma|i  of  Montana,  ref.  6-E):  on  the  Jlontana 
l^nioii  R.  R.;  37  miles  from  Butte.  Has  5  schools,  with  31 
teachers:  4  churches — Methodist  Ejiiscopal,  Roman  Catho- 
lic, I'resbyterian,  and  Christian.  There  is  also  preaching 
in  Germaii,  Swedish,  and  Scandinavian,  The  |iriiiclpal  in- 
dustry is  co|iper  smelting,  the  smelters  of  the  Anacomla 
Mining  Co,  being  located  here,  employing  about  1,500  men 
and  treating  exclusively  the  ores  of  the  Anaconda  group  of 
mines  in  Butte,  The  to^vn  dates  from  1884,  when  the  smelt- 
ing-works  were  erected.  Pop.  (1890)  3,975;  of  Carroll,  its 
suburb,  549;  estimated  population  of  both  in  1892,  7,000. 

Editor  of  "  Standard." 

Aliat'or'les  :  town,  Skagit  eo..  Wash,  (for  location  of 
count  V,  see  map  of  Washington,  ref.  3-C);  on  Seattle  and 
Northern  li.  K.  and  Puget  Sound,  15  miles  N.  of  La  Conner 
and  95  miles  N.  of  Seattle ;  has  saw-mills,  sash  and  door 
factory,  and  is  a  shipping-point  for  coal  and  iron.  It  is  in 
an  agricultural,  lumbering,  and  fishing  district,  and  wheat, 
coal,  and  iron  market.     Pop.  (1890)  1,131. 

Aliac'iH'Oii  CAvaKpfuv):  Greek  lyric  poet;  b.  at  Teos,  in 
Ionia,  about  500  u.  c.     He  emigrated  from  Teos  when  that 


ANADIR 


ANAGRAM 


171 


town  was  taken  liy  the  Persians,  about  540,  and  passed  many 
yeare  at  the  court  of  Polyerates  of  Samos.  After  the  death 
of  Polyerates,  'I'i'i  b.  i-..  he  beeanie  a  resident  of  Athens,  to 
which  he  was  invited  liy  llipiiarcluis.  Love  and  wine  were 
his  favorite  themes;  liut  love  and  wine  do  not  exhaust  the 
significance  of  Anacreon,  who  was  ca|)able  of  vifjorous  and 
biting  satire.  I),  in  476  B.  c.  According  to  tradition  he  was 
choked  to  death  by  a  grape-stone.  Some  fragments  of  his 
poems  are  extant  (see  Bergk's  Poffie  Lyrici  Grwri).  but  the 
character  of  his  own  work  has  been  obscured,  an<l  his  high 
position  as  a  poet  lowere<l  by  the  Anacreontea,  light,  toying, 
gracefid  vei'sicles  of  a  late  period. 

Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleete. 

An'adir.  or  Anadyr  :  a  river  of  Siberia  ;  near  the  extreme 
N.  E.  part  of  .\sia :  rises  near  the  Arctic  C'inrle.  and  after  a 
very  winding  course  enters  the  Gull  of  Anadir.  Length 
about  450  miles.  The  Gulf  of  Aiuidir  is  in  Siljeria,  near  the 
N.  E.  extremity  of  Asia,  and  is  a  large  inlet  of  Bering  Sea. 
It  is  separateil  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  a  peninsida  about 
ISO  miles  wide. 

Anadyoni'oiie  [fir.  avoSuojueV?)  (sc.  'A4>po5iTn).  partic.  of 
apaSveaStu.  rise  up  from  ;  am.  up  +Sve<r8at.  enter] :  a  surname 
given  to  Venus;  also  the  name  of  a  masterpiece  of  Apelles 
representing  Venus  rising  from  the  sea  and  wringing  her 
flowing  hair  with  her  fingers.  This  picture  was  purcha.sed 
by  the  peoiile  of  Cos,  who  sold  it  to  the  Emperor  Augustus 
for  100  talents,  or  more  than  ^100.000  of  our  money. 

Ansemia.  sl-neemi-a  [Gr.  avaiula:  av-,  without  +  m]uo 
blood];  a  morbid  condition  in  which  the  blood  is  lessened 
in  quantity  or  impoverished  in  quality.  The  former  is  un- 
usual, but  may  occur,  as  after  profuse  bleeding.  Even  here, 
however,  the  quality  soon  becomes  impaired,  since  the  tissues 
pour  their  fluids  into  the  depleted  vessels  and  thus  dilute 
the  remaining  blood.  Imjioverishment  in  the  quality  of  the 
Mood  consists  of  decreasi>  in  the  number  of  the  red  corpus- 
cles, or  of  the  coloring-matter  or  hsemoglobin  contained  in 
them  (see  Blood).  Amemias  may  be  classed  as  of  two  kinds ; 
secondary  or  symptomatic,  and  primary.  Secondary  ana!- 
niiiis  are  such  as  arise  in  the  coui'se  of  consumption,  cancel', 
suppurations,  diseases  of  the  stomach,  and  the  like,  in  which 
there  is  systemic  weakening  from  constant  wasting  discharges 
or  fi-om  interference  with  the  action  of  important  organs. 
The  second  class,  or  primary  aiia;mias,  includes  such  cases 
as  are  not  dependent  upon  other  diseases,  but  in  which  the 
degradation  of  the  blood  seems  to  result  from  derangement 
of  the  blood-forming  organs.  Much  remains  to  be  learned 
in  regard  to  these  cases.  Among  these  primary  ana^nia-s 
may  be  named  pror/resxire  pernicious  anceinia,  a  serious  form 
in  which  the  aniemia  grows  more  and  more  severe  until  death 
closes  the  case,  cA/o/ym/.s-  (</.  v.),  and  lenkmmia. 

The  svmptoms  of  ana>mia  are  most  diverse,  but  among 
the  more  characteristic  may  be  named  pallor,  debility,  wast- 
ing of  the  tissues,  and  indigestion.  There  is  tendency  to 
depressing  perspiration,  urine  of  low  specific  gravity,  flutter- 
ing palpitations  of  tlu'  heart,  and  many  other  indications  of 
weakness.  In  the  late  stages  dropsical  swelling  of  the  feet 
may  be  noted. 

The  treatment  consists  of  nourishing  diet  with  treatment 
directed  to  the  stomach  to  secure  proper  assimilation  :  fresh 
air,  and  due  exercise.  Of  medicines,  two  deserve  mention, 
viz.,  iron  and  ai'senic.  Iron  is  in  many  cases  of  aiii-emia  al- 
most a  specific,  and  in  others  arsenic  is  extremely  useful. 

WrLLiAJi  Pepper. 

Ana>sthe'sia  [Gr.  avaia^aia.  insensibility;  So/-,  not  -I- 
alaBftrSai.  perceive] :  in  meilical  language,  when  used  to  des- 
igiuite  a  symptom,  denotes  a  diminution  or  a  complete  loss 
of  the  sens((  of  feeling,  either  general  or  much  more  fre- 
quently local.  In  this  sense  it  is  opposed  to  the  term  hyper- 
a'sthesia.  which  di'notes  an  exaltation  or  excess  of  sensibil- 
ity. Both  these  conditions  are  symptoms  of  disease  of  the 
nervous  system.  When  feeling  proper  is  abolished  while 
pain  exists,  it  is  called  "ana'sthesia  dolorosa";  when  Vioth 
pain  .and  the  sense  of  touch  are  absent,  it  is  "  analgesia." 
But  of  late  the  term  commonly  denotes  a  total  or  pailial, 
local  or  genera],  suspension  of  all  the  senses  as  the  result  of 
the  application  or  iidialation  of  some  chemical  agent.  Local 
anaesthesia  is  jjroduced  liy  the  rapid  evaporation  of  some 
highly  volatile  substance,  like  ether  or  rhigolene.  and  conse- 
quent chilling  of  the  part  to  be  afl'ected.  The  local  applica- 
tion of  cerl.ain  dnigs,  such  as  aconitine,  and  notably  cocaine, 
will  also  proiluee  a  degree  of  anirsthesi.a.  General  anaesthesia 
is,  however,  Ijy  far  the  most  common  result  of  this  kin<i  to 
which  the  physician  directs  his  efforts.    The  Chinese  have 


used  preparations  of  hemp  for  this  ])urpose  for  many  cen- 
turies. The  Arahian  yights  vimUiXW  numerous  allusions  to 
a  .similar  use  of  this  drug.  Mandragora,  opium,  and  many 
other  soporifics  were  used  by  the  ancients  as  ansesthetics, 
though  such  use  is  dangerous  from  the  profound  effects  pro- 
duced. .Surgical  operations  in  later  times  have  been  suc- 
cessfully performed  while  the  patient  was  in  the  mesmeric 
sleep  or  condition  of  "  hypnotism."  Such  a  condition  is, 
however,  usually  regarded  as  a  diseased  one,  and  its  produc- 
tion is  outside  the  jirovince  of  the  physician.  The  aiifes- 
theties  generally  in  use  are  common  or  ethylic  ether,  chloro- 
form, and  nitrous  oxide  gas,  each  of  whicli  is  administered 
by  inhalation.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the 
anaesthetic  property  of  ether  was  not  unknown  in  the  six- 
t(^enth  century,  soon  after  the  discovery  of  this  agent  by  the 
alchemists.  Several  physicians  in  the  eighteenth  century 
recommended  the  use  of  ether  by  inhalation  for  the  relief  of 
pain.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1800  observed  the  ana'sthetic 
effect  of  nitrous  oxide,  and  projiosed  its  use  in  surgery,  but 
it  was  not  till  1844  that  Horace  Wells,  a  dentist  of  Hartford, 
Conn.,  successfully  employed  this  gas  for  the  prevention  of 
pain  m  removing  teeth.  The  subject,  however,  fell  for  the 
t  inie  into  undeserved  neglect,  t  hough  at  present  this  gas  is  ex- 
tensively employed  in  dentistry  and  other  surgical  operations. 

Between  1816  and  1846  several  American  physicians  pro- 
posed the  use  of  ether  as  an  aniesthetic.  In  October  of  the 
latter  year  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Jlorton.  of  Boston  (who  had  suc- 
ees,sfully  used  ether  in  dentistry),  administered  it  to  a  patient 
in  the  JIassachnsetts  General  Hospital  during  a  surgical  op- 
eration by  the  late  Dr.  Warren.  In  Nov.,  1847,  Sir  J.  Y. 
Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  first  announced  chloroform  as  an 
anfpsthetic.  it  having  been  used  for  the  relief  of  diflicult 
breathing  by  Ives,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1832.  and  its 
ana'sthetie  effect  upon  the  lower  animals  having  been  shown 
by  Flourens  ten  months  before  Simpson's  esi>erimcnts.  The 
use  of  both  ether  and  chloroform  has  spread  rapidly  since 
the  above  discoveries.  Various  other  agents  (amylene,  amyl 
hydride,  carbon  bichloride,  Dutch  liquid,  methylene  bichlo- 
ride, ethyl  bromide,  etc.)  have  been  proposed,"  but  for  the 
most  [lart  they  have  turned  out  to  be  more  dangerous  than 
tlie  older  and  better  known  anaesthetics. 

With  regard  to  the  relative  supieriority  of  the  various 
agents  used,  opinions  differ.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that 
ether  is  much  safer  than  chloroform,  while  other  practition- 
ers of  eminence  assert  that  chloroform  is  pleasanter,  cheaper, 
and  more  speedy  in  its  effect,  and  equally  safe  if  the  requi- 
site skill  is  employed  in  administration.  The  principal  ob- 
jections to  nitrous  oxide  are  that  it  is  not  easily  portable, 
and  that  its  effects  are  very  transitory.  Experiments  tend 
to  show  that  ether  produces  ana'sthesia  by  causing  carbonic 
dioxide  poisoning,  \\hile  chloroform  appears  to  act  by  pro- 
ducing anaemia  of  the  brain.  Revised  by  R.  Park. 

Ana>sthet'ics:  cei-tain  preparations  having  the  property 
of  producing  An.«sthesia  (q.  v.). 

Aiia'g:ui  (auc.  Anag'nia):  an  episcopal  town  of  Italy, 
situateil  37  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
6-E).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  several  jiopes,  among  whom 
were  Innocent  III.,  Boniface  VIII..  and  Gregory  IX.  Anagnia 
was  nearly  as  old  as  Rome,  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Hernici, 
and  was  an  important  place  during  t  he  whole  period  of  the 
ancient  Roman  history.  Vei-gil  mentions  it  as  the  wealthy 
Anagnia.  Here  are  some  of  the  finest  cyclopean  walls  in  ex- 
istence.    Pop.  8,156. 

An'agrain  [as  if  from  a  Gr.  *a.viyjianna;  avd-,  again,  anew 
4- 7po^/ta.  writing;  l-L  avaypanfittTl^ftv.  transpose  letters];  a 
word  or  sentence  formed  liy  the  transposition  of  the  lettere 
of  some  word,  phrase,  or  sentence.  The  most  perfect  or 
proper  anagram,  called  palindrome,  is  formed  by  reading 
backward — i.  e.  reversing  the  order  of  the  letters — as  "  evil, ' 
livp.  The  iiiakmg  of  anagrams  was  a  fashionable  exercise 
of  ing(!nuity  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  as 
well  as  in  the  Dark  or  Jliddle  Ages.  A  very  curious  specimen 
of  anagi'am  is  the  transmutation  of  Pilate's  question.  Quid 
est  Veritds  (What  is  truth  <)  into  .£'.</  Vir  qui  adest  (It 
is  the  Man  who  is  present).  Dr.  Burney  made  the  felicit- 
ous discovery  that  the  Latin  sentence  Honor  est  a  Nilo 
(Honor  is  (or  comes)  from  the  Nile)  is  concealed  in  the 
name  of  Horatio  Nelson.  The  opponents  of  the  Dutch  theo- 
logian Jacobus  Arminius  transfonned  his  name  into  Va7ii 
Orbis  Amicus  (A  friend  of  the  vain  world).  Among  recent 
examples  of  the  anagram  are — Florence  Nightingale,  "Flit 
on,  cheering  angel";  Sir  Robert  Peel,  "Terrible  poser"; 
French  Revolution,  "  Violence,  run  forth." 


172 


AXAHEIM 


ANALOGY 


Au'aheiiii:  town;  in  Orange  co.,  Cal.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  California,  rcf.  12-F);  on  Southern  Pa- 
cific R.  K. :  in  tlie  center  of  the  hirgest  valley  in  California. 
It  is  28  miles  S.  of  Los  Angeles,  is  13  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  is  the  lieatlquarters  of  the  wine  interest  of  Soutliern 
California.  It  produces  over  1.000.000  gal.  of  wine  annu- 
aUy.     Pop.  (1870)  881 ;  (1880)  833  ;  (1890)  1,273. 

Anahnac':  a  Mexican  word  used  vaguely  or  in  various 
senses;  sometimes  applied  to  the  great  central  table-land  or 
plateau  of  Mexico,  which  comprises  more  than  lialf  of  the 
Mexican  republic,  and  lies  between  lat.  15°  and  30'  X..  ami 
Ion.  95'  and  110  W.  It  is  elevated  from  6.000  to  9.000  feet 
above  tlie  level  of  the  sea.  contains  several  lakes,  and  is 
bounded,  especially  on  the  W.,  by  chains  of  high  mountains. 
From  tliis  ]uateaii  rise  several  high  volcanoes,  one  of  which, 
Popocatepetl,  has  an  altitude  of  17,784  feet. 

An'akiiil :  the  ancient  race  of  giants  who  lived  in  the 
south  of  Palestine  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites. 
They  are  called  "the  children  of  Anak"in  Num.  xiii.  28. 
"Joshua  destroyed  them  utterly  with  their  cities,"'  but  a 
remnant  of  them  was  left  in  Gaza,  in  Gath,  and  in  Ashdod 
(Joshua  xi.  21,  22). 

Anal'ciine,   or  Aiial'cite  [from  Gr.  av-,  not  -i-  iKKi/ws. 

strong] :  a  hydrated  silicate  of  soda  and  alumina,  generally 
occurring  in  twenty-four-sided  crystals,  which  are  some- 
times transparent.  By  friction  it  becomes /tfi/^  electrified, 
whence  its  name.  It  is  found  in  the  trap-rocks  of  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Lake  Superior. 

Analem'uia  [Lat.  anahmma,  support  of  sun-dial,  sun- 
dial, from  tir.  avaK-rnifui.  prop,  to  avaKa^itv.  restore] :  in 
geometry,  the  projection  of  a  sphere  upon  the  plane  of  a 
meridian,  the  eye  being  supposed  to  be  placed  at  an  in- 
finitely distant  point  of  the  radius  perpendicular  to  that 
plane.  In  this  projection  (which  is  also  called  orthographic) 
all  small  circles  whose  planes  are  parallel  to  that  of  projec- 
tion are  represented  by  concentric  circles  of  the  same  mag- 
nitude as  tlie  originals ;  all  circles  in  planes  perpendicular 
to  that  of  projection  arc  seen  as  chords  or  diameters  of  the 
meridian  circle,  and  all  other  circles  of  the  sphere  are  pro- 
jected into  ellipses. 

A'nnl  (rlaiids:  in  comparative  anatomy,  organs  for 
secreting  substances  which,  though  not  always  so.  are  gener- 
ally repulsive  in  their  character,  and  are  commonly  employed 
for  puiposes  of  defense.  They  present  every  grade  of  glandu- 
lar structure,  nearly  always  opening  into  the  termination 
of  the  intestine  near  the  anus.  The  sweet  fluid  ejected  by 
the  aphides,  and  of  which  the  ants  are  so  fond,  is  the  prod- 
uct of  secreting  tubules  opening  on  the  posterior  part  of 
the  body:  and  the  singvilar  defensive  acrid  vapors  dis- 
charged explosively  by  the  insects  called  "bombardiers"  are 
likewise  the  products  of  anal  glands.  In  the  mollusks  the 
most  remarkable  example  of  these  glands  is  presented  by 
certain  cephalopods.  such  as  the  cuttle-fish,  in  which  there  is 
sometimes  a  single  and  sometimes  a  bilobed  or  trilobed  cyst, 
that  secretes  an  inky  fluid  which  these  animals  eject"  to 
blacken  the  water  aroimd  them,  for  the  pui-pose  of  conceal- 
ment in  time  of  danger.  In  rejitiles  the  anal  bags  are  either 
single,  double,  or  trijile.  and  in  many  species,  as  in  frogs  and 
tortoises,  are  developed  to  a  great  size,  and  serve  for  aquatic 
respiration.  In  birds  the  anal  follicles  consist  of  a  single 
cavity,  wliich  is  termed  the  (yitrm  Fahricii.  In  quadnipeds 
the  anal  follicles  generally  consist  of  two  sacciform  cavities, 
each  liaving  an  opening  near  the  verge  of  the  anus.  In  the 
skunk  (Mf/ihi  h'-i  mp}>hi/ic<i)  the  secretion  of  these  glands 
furnishes  to  the  animal  its  principal  means  of  defense.  In 
the  nyet  {Vitvrrn  cirefta)  and  the  heaver  (Castor  fiber)  the 
secretions  from  the  anal  glands  have  long  been  an  article  of 
commerce:  tlie  former  is  sometimes  employed,  when  com- 
bined with  other  substances,  as  a  perfume;  the  latter,  under 
the  name  of  castor,  is  used  in  medicine. 

Kevised  by  D.  S.  JoRDAX. 

Alial'oirj- :  hi  !anfj)im/e.  a  term  adopted  from  the  usage  of 
the  ancient  (Jreek  grammarians,  and  fiecly  used  in  the  recent 
literature  of  language-history,  to  cover  in  the  wi<lest  sense 
all  those  changes  in  the  outer  form  of  language  which  arise 
from  association.  All  changes  in  the  outer  form  of  language, 
apart  from  the  borrowing  of  material  from  other  languages, 
are  to  be  referred  either  to  the  operation  of  the  laws  of 
sound  or  to  the  principle  of  a.ssociation.  The  changes  by 
which  primitive  Germanic  i^tninrtz  appears  in  Gothic  as 
stains,  m  Old  English  as  fittln,  in  Knglish  as  sfoiip.  in  German 
as  stein,  are  due  to  the  regular  operation  of  phonetic  laws. 


Every  like-conditioned  Germanic  ai,  if  unhindered  or  unde- 
flected  in  its  development  by  the  influence  of  association, 
will  become  a  in  Olil  English,  and  o  in  Modern  English. 
Thus  Gotliic  haims.  Old  English  ]tdm.  Modern  English  home  ; 
ai\is — f7)) — oath  :  draib — drar — droveipret.):  tihii/K — hldf — 
loaf;  mail — mdl — mole;  snaiws — sndw — snoic;  gaits — gat 
— goat.  etc. 

•  In  striking  contrast  to  this  class  of  changes  in  word-form 
stand  those  which  represent  the  influence  of  other  words  of 
tile  same  idea-group.  Consciously  or  unconsciously  all  our 
ideas  exist  in  some  connection  with  other  ideas.  The  natu- 
ral instinct  of  speech  is  to  express  the  like  liy  the  like.  The 
action  of  the  laws  of  soimd  tends  to  produce  a  diversity 
which  the  unifying  tendency  of  association  continually  oper- 
ates to  correct.  The  laws  of  sound  beget  the  diversity  Lat. 
arbos-arboris,  which  analogy  corrects  to  arbor-arboris.  The 
office  of  analogy  therefore  in  the  de^'elopment  of  language 
is  the  maintenance  and  re-establishment  of  the  grouj)S  which 
the  phonetic  laws  tend  to  disrupt,  as  well  as  the  formation 
of  new  groups.  It  tends  to  eliminate  purposeless  variety. 
The  folk  hiis  no  use  for  the  wealth  of  form-material  wliich 
mixture  of  dialects  and  the  action  of  the  phonetic  laws  have 
produced,  and  with  which  tradition  offers  to  endow  it.  The 
plienomena  of  analogy  are  iu  the  last  analysis  due  to  tlie  un- 
conscious effort  of  the  mind  in  its  quest  for  unity  to  reduce 
the  apparently  incongnious  elements  of  speech  to  systems 
and  groups,  and  to  put  simplicity  in  the  place  of  complexity. 
It  seeks  continually  to  endow  the  dead  conventionalities  of 
speech-material  with  life  by  infusing  meaning  into  them. 
In  this  process,  however,  reflection  is  not  involved  ;  still  less 
the  historical  sense  of  the  philologist.  For  example,  the 
French  femelle  would  naturally  appear  in  English  as  *femtl, 
but  the  contrast  with  male  evidently  directed  the  folk-con- 
sciousness to  read  into  the  syllalile  fe-  the  value  of  a  distin- 
guishing element,  so  that  the  word-pair  male  :  fe-male  was 
created.  A  reference  to  our  common  language-sense  will 
probably  show  that  in  the  word  cutlet  we  connect  a  meaning 
"  little "'  with  the  syllable  -let.  and  have  falsely  read  into 
the  first  syllable  the  meaning  of  the  verb  to  cut,  though  the 
word  is  really  dei'ived  from  Latin  casta,  "  a  rib." 

The  results  of  the  operation  of  analogy  can  be  understood 
and  consistently  classified  only  on  the  basis  of  the  psycholog- 
ical activities  which  produce  them.  It  will  be  found  that 
the  groupings  of  words  which  give  rise  to  them  always  rejire- 
sent  some  real  or  supposed  affinities  of  meaning  or  vjilue, 
and  never  occur  on  the  basis  merely  of  outward  likeness  or 
resemblance  of  form. 

Thus  words  of  the  same  general  class  of  meanings  are 
often  so  grouped  that  the  common  idea  is  gained  a  represen- 
tation in  some  part  or  element  of  their  out  ward  form.  Thus 
the  ]>roniinciatioii  of  February  as  Febijutirg  betrays  a  group- 
ing with  Jaiiuari/.  which  has  seized  upon  a  characteristic 
ending,  -yuarg.  French  ete  was  originally  feminine  (cf.  Lat. 
o'sfatem).  lint  gi'ouping  with  hirer,  m.,  and  priiilemjis,  m., 
has  made  it  masculine.  In  Sanskrit  the  word  juiti-s.  "  lord." 
when  used  in  the  sense  "  husband,"  betrays  its  grouping  with 
the  common  words  of  relationship  like ^^(Vh/',  "father,"  malar, 
"mother."  Iilin'itar,  "brother."  when  in  some  of  its  case-end- 
ings it  follows  their  standard  ;  thus  genit.  patyitr.  Mke  pitiir, 
thougli  its  regular  genitive  would  lie  pates.  Latin  iV/e  for 
olle  follows  isle,  ipse,  is. 

In  the  same  way  a  grouping  according  to  likeness  of 
value  or  function  is  shown  in  the  leveling  Iwtwcen  like 
moods,  tenses,  cases,  etc.  Thus  the  older  sleep  :  slfp ;  weep : 
wep  has  been  replaced  by  the  commoner  type  sleep  :  slept, 
etc.  The  influence  of  the  type  Latin  trihui  :  tribiitus; 
miniii:  miiifilus  changed  in  vulgar  Latin  visus  to  *ridu- 
tus;  cf.  Italian  vediilo  and  French  rii :  so  retitus  to  *renu- 
tus.  French  i-eytii ;  habitus  to  habulus  >  French  eu.  The 
older  forms  survive  only  in  words  which  have  been  removed 
from  the  stress  of  the  system,  and  isolated  by  a  special  sub- 
stantive use.  as  French  delte  <  Latin  deb'itn,  whereas  dx'i  < 
*debutus:  so  French  rente  <  rend'ita.Xmt  i-eiulu  <  *re>idulus. 

Contrast  of  signification  often  forms  a  lie  between  worils. 
as  when  Latin  sinister  liecomes  sene.rter  under  influence  of 
de.rter.  and  meridinlis  becomes  nieridionnlis  under  influ- 
ence of  septentrionnlis.  English  mister  (Jlr.)  for  master  has 
its  ('  from  mistress. 

Likeness  of  signification  groups  together  different  cases, 
moods,  etc.,  of  the  same  word,  and  intei-poses  a  resistance  to 
the  disintegrating  work  of  the  phonetic  laws.  Thus  the 
older  diversity  avtpfs — avipiw  yields  to  the  leveling  &rSpfs — 
avSpiv.  While  shelres  is  the  usual  plural  of  shelf,  roofs  is 
the  plural  of  roof.    Both  trharfs  and  wharves  are  in  use. 


ANALOGY  AND  HOMOLOGY 


ANALYSIS.  CHEMICAL 


173 


The  preterite  «•«« — icaren  has  become  in  stamlanl  Gorman 
war — waren.  A  similar  extension  of  tlie  r  liom  tlie  phnal  is 
found  in  Engrlish  want  =  uor  not  for  u-as  not.  A  similar  in- 
fluence is  exerted  Ix'twcen  derivatives  and  their  primitives. 
Thus  the  vulj,'ar  tlirebh,  ha.s  its  //(  Irom  three, ;  fitjrefable  has  its 
accent  from  (i(/ri'i'.    The  vulgar  fur  for  far  is  tlue  to  further. 

It  is  entii'ely  |)ossible  for  a  likeness  of  form  deeeptireli/  to 
sugp;cst  a  likeness  of  s!jriii(icaiion,  and  a  grouping  made 
upon  the  basis  of  this  presumed  likeness  of  meaning  or  value 
may  Vjring  alnnit  a  change  in  the  form.  The  English  belfry 
should  lie  berfrij  (Old  French  berfrot).  but  the  tirst  syllable 
was  changed  in  deference  to  a  supposed  connection  with 
bell.  (lorman  bi'i.'^piel,  "example,"  has  originally  nothing  to 
do  with  .</)(>/,■' play."  11  should  be  beiapel  {sjiel,"  story,'"'  cf. 
English  f/o.ipi'l).  Such  changes  as  these  are  called  "  folk- 
etymologies."  See  I'almer,  Folk-Eti/moloffi/  (London,  1882); 
Andreseii,  L'ther  ileiilxrlie  Volhseti/inologie  (Ileill.iroim,  4th 
ed.  1883);  Keller,  Laleinlsche  Vol/cseti/nioloyie  und  Ver- 
wandte.'s  (Leipzig,  1891). 

Graphic  analogies,  or  the  merely  orthographical  effects  of 
analogy,  are  to  be  clearly  distinguished  from  the  foregoing. 
They  are  mostly  due  to  pedantry,  and  our  own  langvuige  af- 
fords an  unfortunately  large  list  of  examples.  Thus  the  kc 
of  scis.iors  (Jliildle  lOnglish  sisoures)  is  due  to  learneil  com- 
parison with  Latin  .sf/wf/'-rf  or  its  derivatives;  debt  (Middle 
English  ilette)  and  doubt  (Middle  English  dnute)  have  adopted 
their  b  as  a  mere  decoration  from  Latin  ilebere  and  dubitare ; 
victiiitln  has  borrowed  a  false  livery  from  Latin  rictiix,  but 
its  Middle  English  form,  i-ifriille.t.  has  been  duly  continued 
in  the  pninunciation  ritfles;  cf.  Middle  English  battaHles  > 
Jlodern  English  hattlex. 

See  Paul,  Princijilr.f  of  the  Iliatory  of  Langnage  (trans- 
lated from  German).  eha|i.  v. ;  Strong-Logeman-Wheeler, 
Introduction  to  the_  Stuily  of  the  Ilintory  of  Language  (\S9\), 
chap,  v.;  Henry,  Etude  aur  Vanalogie  (1883);  Wheeler-,  ^4«- 
alogy  and  the  Scope  of  its  Application  in  Langnage  (1887); 
Bloomfield,  On  Adaptation  of  Suffixes,  Amer.  Jonr.  of 
Philol.i  xii.  pp.  1  ff.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Amil'og'y  and  Honidl'osry :  in  the  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  phiiils,  anulogy  refers  to  simUarity  of  func- 
tion, and  luiniology  to  similarity  of  structure.  Thus  spores 
and  seeds  are  analogous,  liotli  lieing  functionally  repi-odue- 
tive  bodies;  w'hile  leaves  and  stamens  are  homologous,  both 
being  structurally  phyllomes.  C.  E.  B. 

Anal'ysis  fin  Gr.,  literally  a  loosing,  from  dcoAufic,  to  re- 
solve into  elements,  from  ira-. liack,  and  Kvfiv,  to  loose]:  the 
resolution  of  a  whole  into  its  parts. 

Alial.V.sis,  t'hoiiilcal :  the  identification  and  separation 
of  the  elements  of  chemical  compounds  or  mixtures  of  any 
sort.  When  conducted  simply  with  reference  to  determining 
what  elements  exist  in  any  substance  it  is  termed  qualitative 
anaJyuis.  When  the  alisolnte  or  relative  quantities  of  the 
elenu'iits  arc  ascertained  it  is  quantitative  analysis.  The 
theory  of  qualitative  chemical  analysis  is  to  put  the  sulistance 
to  be  analyzed  under  sucli  conditions  and  associations  as 
shall  cause  all  its  various  elements,  one  after  another,  to  pre- 
sent certain  characteristic  phenomena  or  to  enter  into  certain 
recognizable  condiinalions,  and  is  based  on  the  grand  truth 
that  each  chenucal  element  has  constant  and  alisolnte  ]>(•- 
culiaritics  which  it  carries  into  its  compounds.  Thus  the 
fact  that  silver  and  nu-rcury  are  the  oidy  elements  whose 
compounds  with  chlorine  are  insoluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid 
is  taken  advantage  of  to  separate  these  two  metals  from  all 
othci'S.  Any  nitric  .solution  of  metals  which  is  not  made 
milky  or  turbid  on  the  aildition  of  hydrochloric  acid  <locs 
not,  and  can  not.  contain  silver  or  sub-salts  of  mercury. 
Again,  any  nitric  solution  wherein  hydrochloric  acid  pro- 
duces a  white  nulkiness  or  a  white  curdy  sejiaration,  or  a 
fine,  dazzling  white  powder,  which  neither  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  dilute  nitric  acid,  uor  hot  water  will  clear  up, 
must  contain  either  silver  or  nuTcury,  or  lioth.  In  ca.se  such 
a  white  se|)aration — or  "  preciiiitate,"  as  the  chemist  techni- 
cally terms  it — is  formed  by  hydi'ochloric  acid  in  a  solution 
of  nu'tals,  the  liquid,  together  with  the  suspended  precipitate, 
is  poin'ed  >ipon  a  filter  (a  conical  cup  folded  from  a  circle  of 
pajier  specially  ]irepared  for  the  purpose)  sustained  in  agla.ss 
funiu'l.  Th<>  li(|nid.  which  retains  all  the  other  elements  in 
solution,  passes  the  pores  of  the  paper,  but  the  precipitate  of 
silver  chloride  and  mercurons  chloride  remains  ujion  it.  The 
filter  is  lu'xt  repeatedly  filled  with  water  until  the  acid  liquid 
has  been  washed  out  from  the  precipitate  and  the  pores  of 
the  paper,  and  we  have  t  hen  all  tiie  .silver  and  all  the  mercury 
that  existed  in  the  form  of  sub-salts  in  the  filter,  and  all  the 


other  elements  in  the  '-filtrate,"  as  the  liquid  which  has 
passed  through  is  designated. 

The  substances  which  are  employed  to  bring  about  those 
chemical  changes  whic-h  serve  t  he  purposes  of  chemical  analy- 
sis are  called  reagents,  and  the  chemical  processes  them- 
selves ai-e  termed  reactions,  for  the  reason  that  at  least  two 
substances  must  always  be  involved  in  chemical  transforma- 
tions, and  that  lioth'act  and  are  re.ieted  uiion.  Thus  the 
hydrochloric  acid  em]iloyed  in  our  separation  of  silver  and 
mVrcnry  from  all  other  inetals  is  a  reagent,  and  the  precipi- 
tation is  the  eviilence  of  a  reaction. 

Chemical  reactions  have  been  known  and  employed  to 
identify  certain  bodies  from  the  earliest  tinu'S.  Pliny  de- 
scribeifthe  \ise  of  jiaper  dyed  in  nutgalls  for  detecting  iron 
sulphate  wjien  nnxed  with  verdigris  as  an  adulteration.  The 
reaction  is  a  blackening  of  the  paper  (fornmticai  of  ink).  In 
many  ca.ses  it  is  easy  to  recognize  a  sulistance  by  simply  ap- 
plying in  this  numner  a  single  reagent,  which  is  then  called 
a  "test.  Thus  copper  in  its  solutions  is  tested  by  a  bit  of 
clean  iron  wire,  which  precipitates  it  as  a  red  powder.  A 
clean  piece  of  copper  is  a  test  for  mercury  in  solution,  the 
latter  metal  forming  a  silvery  coating  on  the  former.  Lime- 
water  is  a  test  for  carbonic  acid  gas.  making  with  it  a  white 
]irecipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Ilydroc-hloric  acid  is  a  test 
for  ammonia,  as  the  vapors  of  the'  two,  when  brought  to- 
gether. ])roduce  a  white  cloud.  But  there  are  circumstances 
under  which  such  simple  tests  fail  to  give  unequivocal  an- 
swers to  the  chemical  inquirer,  and  it  is  needful  to  frame  a 
system  of  operations  which  takes  account  of  all  possible  con- 
tingencies, and  which  cnaliles  the  analyst  not  only  to  prove 
with  certainty  that  such  and  sucli  <4enu-nts  exist  in  any  sub- 
stance he  analyzes,  but  also  gives  him  ei|ual  assurance  that 
nothing  else  is  present  in  it^a  system,  in  short,  which  can 
lead  him  to  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  any 
body.  Such  systems  of  procedure,  more  or  less  satisfactory, 
have  lieen  devised  out  of  the  collective  experience  of  chem- 
ists, ami  their  details  are  found  in  our  treatises  on  qualitative 
chemical  analysis.  In  respect  to  the  elements  and  compounds 
of  mineral  or  inorganic  chemistry,  a  very  perfect  plan  has 
been  elaliorated,  which  has  received  in  all  essential  points 
the  sanction  of  universal  usage. 

This  system  of  analysis  applies  to  all  the  metals  and 
their  oxides,  and  to  all  their  compounds  with  mineral  ele- 
ments or  acids.  It  supposes  that  the  elements,  etc.,  are  in  a 
state  of  solution  either  in  water  or  an  appropriate  acid,  and 
gives  directions  for  obtaining  such  solutions.  The  substance 
is  fii-st  .subjected  to  a  "  prelimin.-iry  examination."  which 
often  leads  to  the  detection  of  some  of  its  ingredients,  or 
demonstrates  the  absence  of  certain  elements,  and  furnishes 
useful  hints  as  to  the  mode  of  solution  and  subsequent  pro- 
cedure. The  actual  examination  begins  with  the  application 
of  four  "general  reagents,"  which  serve  to  dissect  the  sub- 
stance into  six  "groups,"  as  regards  its  bases  or  metallic 
oxides. 

The  solution  being  in  nitric  acid,  the  first  reagent  is  hydro- 
chloric acid,  whicirprecijiitates  the  first  group — viz.,  silver 
and  nu'i-cury  (the  latter  from  mercurons  salts).  The  acid 
filtrate  from"  these  chlorides  is  submitted  to  a  stream  of  sul- 
phuri'tted  hydrogen  gas,  which  lu-ecipitates  the  second  and 
third  groups,  consisting  of  twelve  metals  together,  as  sul- 
phides. These  are  collected  and  wa.shed  upon  a  filter,  and 
upon  them  is  poured  sulphide  of  ammonium.  This  dissolves 
and  carries  through  tlie  filter  the  sulphides  of  the  second 
group — viz.,  arsenic,  antimony,  tin.  golil.  platinum,  molyb- 
denum, and  tungsten,  while  the  sul])hides  of  mercury  (from 
mercm-ic  salts),  lead,  bismuth,  copper,  and  cadmium,  consti- 
tuting the  third  group,  remain  undis-solved. 

The  filtrate  from  the  precipitate  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
is  next  taken  in  hand,  made  alkidiiie  by  ammonia,  and  sul- 
phide of  ammonium  is  added  to  it.  This  throws  down,  as 
liv<lroxid<>s  or  phosjihali's.  alimiinium,  chromium,  glucinum, 
and  th<'  cerium  inetals;  as  phosphates,  calcium,  barium, 
strontium,  and  magnesium  ;  and  as  sul])hides,  nickel,  cobalt, 
manganese,  zinc,  iron,  uranium,  tliiillinm.  and  indium — mak- 
ing a  fourth  group. 

To  the  ammoniacal  liquid,  separated  by  a  filter  from  the 
la.st  precipitate,  is  added  carlionate  of  ammonium,  whereby 
the  fifth  gi-ou]) — viz..  barium,  calcium,  and  strontium — are 
preei|iitated  as  carlionates. 

Lastly,  the  liquid  filtered  from  the  above  carbonates  may 
contain  the  alkalies  and  magnesium. 

The  resolution  of  these  groups  is  accomplished  by  further 
application  of  aii]iro]ii-iate  reagents.  Each  group  is  treated 
after  a  certain  order  which  experience  has  taught.    To  illus- 


174 


ANALYSIS,  CHEMICAL 


ANALYSIS,  PROXIMATE  ORGANIC 


trate :  the  white  precipitate  obtained  by  hydrochloric  acid, 
already  described,  may  contain  silver  chloride  or  mercurous 
chloride,  or  both.  To  complete  its  examination  we  employ 
the  deportment  of  these  cmoi'ides  toward  ammonia-water, 
■which  easily  dissolves  silver  chloride  to  a  clear  licjuid,  but 
converts  white  mercurous  chloride  into  a  black  substance 
that  remains  undissolved.  It  is  only  neetlful  then  to  pour 
dilute  ammonia  uj)on  the  white  content  of  the  filter;  and 
if  it  l)lacken.  the  presence  of  mercury  is  demonstrated.  The 
ammonia-water  that  passes  the  filter  is  dropped  into  excess 
of  dilute  nitric  acid  :  the  separation  of  a  white,  curdy  sub- 
stance is  evidence  of  silver. 

After  thus  isolatinj;  the  two  metals  we  may  apply  further 
confirmatory  tests.  Thus  the  black  mercury  compound  re- 
miiininc;  in  the  filter  may  he  mixed  with  carbonate  of  sodium, 
di'ied.  introduced  into  a  snudl  glass  flask,  and  heated  to  red- 
ness, when  metallic  mercury  will  distil  off  and  gather  on  the 
cold  part  of  the  vessel  in  brilliant  globules.  So,  too,  the 
white  curds  of  silver  chloride  separated  by  nitric  acid  from 
the  ammoniaeal  solution  nuiy  be  gathered  and  washed  on 
a  filter,  the  latter  burned,  the  precipitate  and  ashes  mixed 
with  moist  carbonate  of  sodium  into  a  pellet,  and  heated 
strongly  on  charcoal  by  aid  of  a  jew'eler's  blowpipe.  The 
silver  is  thus  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  and  may  be  found, 
even  when  present  in  extremely  minute  quantity,  by  cutting 
out  the  charcoal  to  a  little  dejith  around  the  spot  where  the 
pellet  was  placed,  grinding  it  in  a  smooth  mortar  of  porcelain 
or  agate,  and  carefully  washing  aw-ay  the  eoal-powdcr  by  a 
gentle  flow  of  water.  The  flattened  silver  particles  will  re- 
veal themselves  by  their  luster. 

The  detection  of  acids  is  accomplished  in  another  portion 
of  the  substance  by  the  use  of  other  reagents,  after  the  same 
general  plan. 

In  quantitative  chemical  analysis  it  is  needful  to  convert 
each  element  of  a  substance  into  some  form  or  compound 
which  will  admit  of  complete  separation  from  all  the  othei-s. 
and  also  of  accurate  weigliing  or  measuring.  In  many  cases 
an  element  must  be  separated  in  one  form,  and  converted 
into  another  for  weigliing.  Silver  may  be  both  separated 
and  weighed  as  chloride  or  as  metal,  while  zinc  must  be 
separated  as  carlionate  or  sulphide,  but  can  only  be  weighed 
accurately  as  oxide.  Many  of  the  reactions  employed  in 
qualitative  analysis  also  serve  in  quantitative  estimations; 
the  latter  branch  of  analysis  has,  however,  a  multitude  of 
processes  peculiar  to  itself. 

In  many  cases  the  determination  of  the  quantity  of  an  ele- 
ment or  ingredient  consists  in  the  collection  of  a  precipitate 
on  a  fllter,  washing,  drying,  burning  away  the  paper  at  a  red 
heat,  and  weighing  t  he  ignited  residue.  This  requires  a  deli- 
cate balance,  accurate  weights,  vessels  of  glass,  porcelain. 
and  platinum,  which  are  unalterable  by  acids  and  by  heat, 
and  great  nicety  of  manipulation.  It  also  requires  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  de]iortmcnt  of  the  precipitate  toward  all 
the  reagents  and  solvents  with  which  it  must  have  contact, 
and  a  certainty  that  it  can  be  obtained  of  perfectly  definite 
and  known  chemical  composition.  Our  present  stock  of  this 
kind  of  knowledge  is  the  fruit  of  a  multitude  of  the  most 
painstaking  exiieriments,  and  every  day  the  labor  of  skilled 
investigators  is  adding  to  its  variety  and  extent. 

To  certain  brandies  or  general  modes  of  analysis  technical 
names  are  apjilied.  Thus  "blowpipe  analysis"  designates 
a  system  of  oiierations  carried  on  mainly  liy  aid  of  the  blow- 
pipe, wliicli  serves  for  identifying  a  large  share  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  even  for  quantitatively  estimating  the  precious 
metals,  as  well  as  lead,  copper,  nickel,  and  some  others. 
"  Spectral  analysis,"  which  furnishes  the  most  sensitive  tests 
for  the  presence  of  the  alkali  metals,  is  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  light  proceeding  from  a  flame  in  which  the  vapor 
of  any  substance  is  intensely  heated,  manifests,  when  viewed 
there  by  a  ])risni.  lines  or  bands  of  color  wliose  position  and 
number  are  characteristic.  "Volumetric  analysis"  is  a 
branch  of  cpiantitalive  analysis,  in  which  measured  volumes 
of  solnlions  of  determined  strength  are  employed  in  reactions 
whose  completion  is  indicated  by  some  change  of  color  or 
other  marked  jihenoineiion.  "Organic  analysis"  is  either 
ultimate  or  proximate.  The  former  signifies  the  estimation 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  the  other  elements  of  or- 
ganic compounds.  I'roxiniate  organic  analysis  is  the  sepa- 
ration of  organic  compounds  from  each  other,  as  is  done,  for 
example,  in  determining  the  proportions  of  water,  oil,  starch, 
etc.,  in  .seeds.  "Assaying"  is  the  term  usually  applied  to 
the  estimation  of  the  valualile  metals,  or  ingredients  of  an 
ore  or  other  commercial  article. 

Some  of  tlie  most  striking  discoveries  of  science  have  been 


steps  in  the  development  of  chemical  analysis.  The  recog- 
nition of  oxygen,  chlorine,  barium,  and  manganese  were  re- 
sults of  Seheeles  analysis  of  the  mineral  "wad  "  or  jiyrolu- 
site.  Among  the  first  fruits  of  quantitative  analysis  was 
the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  definite  and  multiple  combin- 
ing proportions.  Those  philosophers  who.  like  Bergmann 
and  Dalton,  wxre  the  fii'st  to  announce,  and  those  who,  like 
Berzelius,  Dumas,  and  Stas,  have  done  most  to  establish, 
these  laws  have  been  eminent  for  their  skUl  in  anal)-tical 
chemistry. 

The  utility  of  chemical  analysis  manifests  itself  in  a  mul- 
titude of  directions.  By  it  the  values  of  bullion,  coinage, 
and  jilate  are  established :  ores  of  all  the  metals  are  worked 
and  sold  on  the  chemist's  report  of  their  analysis.  The 
same  is  true  of  a  host  of  commercial  articles,  such  as  vari- 
ous alkalies,  acids,  salts,  medicines,  dyestuffs,  fertilizer's, 
etc.  Chemical  analysis  furnishes  the  consumei-s  of  these 
and  many  other  articles  a  protection  against  the  dishonesty 
or  ignorance  of  producers  or  dealers.  The  physician  often 
gathers  decisive  diagnostic  hints  from  the  analysis  of  urine ; 
the  advocate  relies  upon  chemical  analysis  for  the  detection 
of  poisons  which  can  be  employed  in  the  perpetration  of 
murder. 

There  are  indeed  limits  to  the  application  of  chemical 
analysis.  It  is  not  diflicult  to  make  mixtures  some  of  whose 
constituents  no  chemist  can  identify  with  the  knowledge 
now  at  his  disposal.  The  composition  of  a  large  number  of 
drugs,  such  as  vegetable  extracts,  is  nearly  or  quite  un- 
known ;  and  the  "  analysis "  of  a  "  compound  sirup."  or 
"  bitters  "  containing  the  virtues  of  a  dozen  vegetable  reme- 
dies is  impossible. 

The  successful  pursuit  of  analytical  chemistry  requires  a 
long  course  of  the  most  patient  and  conscientious  experi- 
mental work;  it  is  therefore  an  admirable  disciplinary 
study,  and  is  recognized  as  such  in  the  higher  schools  of 
Europe  and  this  country. 

Extended  treatises  on  chemical  analysis  are  Rose's  Hand- 
hiich  (Jer  Anah/fischen  Chcniie;  Fresenius's  Qualitative 
Anatysis,  and  the  same  author's  Quantitative  Analysis; 
Bunsen's  Oasometric  Methods;  Hoppe-Seyler's  Handbuch 
del'  Physiologisch-  intd  PatlioloyiscJi-Chemischen  Analyse; 
Mohr's  Titrirmetlinde;  Post's  CJiemisch-Technische  Ana- 
lyse. The  Zeiisehrift  fur  Analytische  Chemie.  edited  by 
Fresenius.  and  now  (1892)  in  its  thirty-first  volume,  is  a  nearly 
complete  repertory  of  all  that  is  currently  published  on  the 
subject.  S.  W.  Johnson. 

Anal'ysis:  in  elementary  geometry,  a  method  of  finding 
the  demonstration  of  propositions,  and  testing  their  truth, 
by  examining  what  consequences  flow  from  them  and  what 
propositions  may  lead  to  them.  In  the  case  of  a  problem,  it 
may  first  be  supposed  to  be  resolved,  and  then  liie  conse- 
quences resulting  from  that  solution  may  be  deduced  until 
we  aiTive  at  something  known,  which  may  serve  as  a  start- 
ing-point for  the  actual  solution.  In  modern  language,  the 
term  analysis  is  applied  to  that  branch  of  niatliematics 
which  treats  of  continuously  variable  quantities  liy  tlie  sym- 
boHc  notation  of  algebra.  It  includes,  in  a  general  way, 
both  the  higher  algebra  and  the  ditferential  and  integral 
calculus.  The  distinction  between  algebra  and  analysis  is, 
however,  not  sharply  defined.  Sometimes  the  former  term 
is  confined  to  quantities  growing  out  of  the  fundamental 
operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division, 
and  the  extraction  of  roots:  while  under  analysis  is  included 
the  relations  of  ijuantities  which  can  not  be  expres.sed  by  any 
finite  nunilierot  algebraic  operations,  and  in  which  infini- 
tesimals or  limits  have  to  be  used, 

Fi'om  this  apjilication  of  the  word  analysis  come  the  ex- 
pressions "anahlic  geometry,''  "analytic  mechanics,"  etc., 
which  mean  geometry,  mechanics,  etc.,  treated  by  alge- 
braic symbols  and  methods.  S.  Newcomb. 

Analysis.  Prox'iinate  Orgraiilc:  an  important  liranch 
of  chi-niical  analysis  wliieh  seeks  to  separate  and  determine 
the  pnijiinate  constituents  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter 
and  of  products  tlu'ivfrom:  that  is.  instead  of  separating 
vllimal(iy  the  elementary  constituents  from  each  other,  it  is 
the  f  unci  ion  of  proximate  analysis  to  set  ajiart  by  them- 
selves the  ilifferent  important  definite  cainpnunds  which 
make  uji  the  immense  variety  of  mixtures  occurring  in 
animal  and  vegetable  stnictures,  and  the  various  tissues  and 
juices  thereof.  Tliis  field  of  investigation,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
of  immense  magnitude  and  importance,  but  of  correspond- 
ing, indeed  unlimited,  complexity  and  difliculty.  Never- 
theless, certain  general  ju'lnciples  have  been  arrived  at ;  and 


ANALYSIS,    ri/riMATK  ORGANIC 


AN'Ar>YSI.S,   VOLUMETRIC 


1Y5 


a  U.  S.  diemist,  Allicrt  B.  Proseott,  of  the  University  of 
SriehiKiin,  lias  proilnecil  a  s_vst<'iiial  ic  treatise  iijhui  the  sub- 
jeet,  to  wiiieh  the  reader  may  be  referred  witli  eoiifidence  as 
well  wortliy  of  study.  Tlie  subjoet,  however,  is  one  which 
has  not  received  tlie  attentive  and  systematic  care  from  lalio- 
ratory  eheniists  that  its  importance  demands;  and  it  yet  re- 
mains true  tliat  in  pi'oximate  organic  analysis  siiceess  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  original  inventive  talent  and  indi- 
vidual research  of  the  chemist  occupied  therein,  in  too  great 
a  number  of  important  cases  that  are  constantly  liable  to 
turnup.  H.'WuRTZ. 

AnaI'vsis.  I'l'limato  Oraraiiic:  a  special  branch  of  chem- 
ical analysis,  whieli  may  also  li?  apjiropriately  designated 
the  elementary  analysis  of  hydrocarbon  compounds,  as  a 
viust  nnijority  of  the  bodies  to  which  it  is  applicable  contain 
both  carbon  and  hydrogen.  It  is  foundei!  on  the  general 
nietluxl  of  burning  in  a  close  apjjaratus  a  weighed  tpiantity 
of  the  organic  substance  to  be  analyzed,  which  has  been 
previously  mixed  with  some  nuui'ral  compound  of  oxygen 
capabh:  of  furnishing  the  latter  element  lo  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  the  organic  siibstance.  The  mineral  oxgyen 
compounds  mostly  used  are  black  oxide  of  eopjier  and  fused 
yellow  chromate  of  lead.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water 
(iis  steam)  formed  in  this  combustion  are  made  to  pass 
through  another  apparatus,  or  train  of  apparatus,  con- 
taining chloride  of  calcium,  to  absorb  all  the  water,  and 
potash-lye,  to  alisorb  the  carlumic  acid  gas.  The  tubes  con- 
taining these  latter  two  alisorbents  are  weighed  before  and 
after  the  process,  and  the  ditTerences  are  the  amounts  of 
water  and  carlionic  acid  formed,  from  which  the  amounts 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  original  substance  are  readily 
computeil.  If  oxygen  is  contained  in  the  snlistance,  it  ap- 
pears as  the  difl'eri'uce  between  the  whole  original  weight 
and  the  sum  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen.  If  nitrogen  be 
present,  it  has  to  be  dcterminecl  by  a  separate  process,  but  it 
also  necessitates  certain  iu'ecaiitious  in  the  above  process,  lo 

Erevent  the  formation  of  oxides  of  nitrogen,  which  would 
e  absorbed  by  the  potash  and  vitiate  the  carbon  deter- 
mination. The  products  of  comljustion  are  therefore  first 
pa-ssed  over  metallic  copper  heated  to  incandescence,  which 
decomposes  such  oxides  of  nitrogen. 

Dpteniiinidion  of  Oiyeuiic  jS'itrofim. — The  prevailing 
methods  arc  two  in  innuber.  By  the  Will-Varrentranp 
methixi  the  nitrogen  is  converted  into  gaseous  ammonia  oy 
ignition  in  admixture  with  a  caustic  alkali.  A  mixture 
of  the  hydrates  of  soda  and  linu',  called  "soda-lime,"  is 
used  for  the  purpose.  The  ammonia  is  alisorbed  by  an 
aciil,  and  its  amount  determineil  by  subsequent  operations. 
By  the  Dumas-Melsens  method  the  nitrogen  is  converted 
into  its  gaseous  eliMiieutary  form  and  mcasure<l  in  a  en<li- 
ometer.  ('oudiustion  with  oxide  of  copper  is  generally 
employed  in  this  method,  with  numerous  essential  precau- 
tious. Other  modifications  are  employed  when  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorine,  etc.,  are  to  be  determined  in  organic 
compounds.  To  explain  the  apjiaratus  required  in  these 
different  methods,  and  the  details,  manipulations,  and  pre- 
cautions necessary  to  practical  success,  would  rerpiire  a 
considerable  treatise  with  numerous  il  Inst  rat  ions.  For  these 
it  is  necessary  to  refer,  therefore,  to  the  elementary  text- 
books of  chemistry.  HeXRY  WlJKTZ. 

Analysis,  VoliililPt'ric :  a  branch  of  quantitative  chem- 
ical analysis  ill  which  the  snlistance  to  bi>  est  imatcd  is  sub- 
jected to  characteristic  reactions,  solutions  of  known  strength 
being  emjiloyed  for  this  ]iur]iose,  from  the  quantity  of  which 
required  the  substance  sought  can  be  determined  by  aid  of 
the  fixed  laws  of  etpiivalence.  Volumetric  processes  usually 
require  less  time  and  less  elaborate  apparatus  for  their  exe- 
culioii  than  the  ordinary  methods  by  weight  ;  and  as  they 
alTonl  ei|U,-illy,  if  imt  more,  accurate  results,  they  are  partic- 
ularly wcdl  adapted  for  technical  purposes,  such  as  the  valu- 
ation of  coiumcreial  products.  Gay-Lussac,  who  first  sug- 
gested this  method  ot  analysis,  was  impressed  with  the  ad- 
vantage of  estimating  silver  by  the  use  of  a  solution  of 
common  salt  (sodium  chloride);  and  this  process  will  serve 
to  illustrate  one  ot  the  more  simple  applications  of  volu- 
metric analysis.  In  the  ordinary  met  hod  of  analysis  a  known 
weight  of  the  substance  containing  silver  is  first  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid  ;  then  liyilrochlorie  acid  is  added,  whereby  iiisol- 
ubli'  argentic  chloride  is  )irecipitated,  which  is  separated  from 
the  fluid  by  filtration,  washed,  dried,  fu.sed,  and  weighed: 
and  as  the  composition  of  argentic  chloride  is  known,  the 
amount  of  silver  contained  in  the  precipitate,  and  therefore 
in  the  original  substance,  can  be  easily  calculated.     It  is 


evident  that  the  same  result  can  be  obtained  by  jtreparing  a 
solution  of  sodium  chloride  of  known  strength,  and  ascer- 
taining the  quant  ity  of  this  necessary  to  precipitate  the  silver 
completely  as  (diloridc  from  the  nitric  acid  solution.  This  is 
d<me  by  slowly  adding  the  salt  solution  to  the  silver  solution, 
until  a"  point  is  reached  at  which  the  precipitate  ceases  to 
form.  'I'he  process  is  now  stiipped,  and  the  exact  number 
of  divisions  {grains  or  cubic  cciiliiiietcrs)  of  the  salt  solution 
used  ascertained  by  observing  the  graduated  vessel  from 
which  it  was  taken  ;  and  as  we  know  that  58'5  parts  by  weight 
of  sodium  chloride  are  exactly  sufficient  to  convert  i08  parts 
bv  weight  of  silver  into  silver  chloride,  and  (he  strengt  h  of  t  he 
salt  solution  is  also  known,  the  weight  of  the  precipitated 
silver  can  be  readily  determiiu'd.  The  operation  just  de- 
scribed can  be  comiilcted  in  less  than  half  au  hour,  while  a 
silver  determination  by  the  method  tirst  referred  to  would 
reipiire  at  least  half  a  day;  while  in  regard  to  accuracy  of 
result  tlie  volumetric  process  is  also  more  advantageous. 
The  liquids  used  ui  methods  of  this  character  are  termed 
"standard  solutions."'  The  quantity  of  these  solutions  used 
in  a  determination  can  be  ascertained  either  by  weighing  or 
by  measuring,  but  the  latter  is  usually  resorted  to.  In  order 
that  a  reaction  may  lie  applicable  in  volumetric  determina- 
tions, il  must  take  place  <iuickly,  and  give  rise  to  some  change 
by  which  its  tcnuiiiation  can  be  readily  detected  by  the 
eye,  such  as  the  ajipearancc  or  disappearance  of  a  color,  a 
p'recijiitate  beginning  or  ceasing  \o  form,  etc.  For  this  rea- 
son the  number  of  processes  available  is  limited,  although 
many  reactions  that  are  useless  in  analysis  by  weight  furnish 
valuable  means  for  volumetric  estimaiions.  The  apparatus 
used  consists  of  a  good  chemical  balance  and  several  varieties 
of  graduated  glass  vessels  for  the  jireparation  and  measuring 
ot  the  .solutions,  in  the  use  of  which  the  French  or  metrical 
system  of  wi'ights  and  measures  is  most  advantageously  em- 
ployed. The  measuring  apj^iaratus  embraces  pipettes,  flasks, 
and  burettes.  The  pijiette  is  simjily  a  glass  tube,  having  an 
cnlargeil  body  and  a  narrow  stem,  on  which  a  mark  is  placed 
indicating  it's  cajiacity.  It  is  used  by  filling  to  the  mark, 
and  allowing  tlie  li(|uid  to  escape  by  a  displacement  of  the 
finger  from  the  upper  eml.  The  flasks  used  are  graduated 
for  the  cajiacit  y  of  from  iV  liter  to  5  liters,  T  he  burette,  which 
is  employed  for  the  measurement  of  standard  solutions,  and 
usually  has  a  capacity  of  .10  or  100  cubic  cm.,  consists  of  a 
long  glass  tube  of  uniform  caliber,  having  ttiroughout  its 
length  equal  divisions  (cubic  centimeters  and  fractional  parts 
thereof).  Tlic  Inirette  of  Moiir  has  at  its  lower  end  a  caout- 
eliouc  tube,  which  can  lie  opened  or  closed  by  means  of  a 
spring  clamp:  but  as  the  rubber  is  not  entirely  without  in- 
fluence on  some  of  the  solutions  used,  it  is  in  many  instances 
advantageously  replaced  liy  a  glass  stopcock.  The  standard 
solution  is  generally  prepared  of  such  strength  that  it  con- 
tains in  each  liter  (1,000  cubic  cm.)  the  whole  or  a  fractional 
part  of  the  molecular  weight  of  the  reagent  employed,  ex- 
pressed in  grammes.  For  instance,  the  molecular  weight  of 
oxalic  acid,  CoHjO,,  is  !K).  It  is  dibiisic  (see  Acids),  and  one 
molecule  is  therefore  (Miuivalent  to  two  molecules  of  a  mono- 
basic acid,  such  as  hydrochloric  acid.  Its  standard  solution 
is  ]ircpared  liy  dissolving  in  a  liter  of  water  a  number  of 
grammes  equiil  to  half  its  molecular  weight,  that  is  45 
grammes;  each  cubic  cm.  of  this  solution  will  contain  jiiVj 
of  the  molecular  weight  of  oxalic  acid,  and  will  exactly 
neutralize  -^^^  of  tlu^  molecular  weight  of  an  alkaline 
mono-carboiiate,  or  -n/uj  of  tlie  molecular  weight  of  a  eau.stic 
alkali.  In  the  case  of  a  substance  like  silver,  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  take  iiff  of  the  atomic  weight ;  t  hat  is,  lO'S  grammes 
of  silver  are  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  solution  is  di- 
luted to  1  liter;  each  cubic  cm.  of  this  li(iuid  will  then  con- 
tain ifijiiiii  of  the  atomic  weight  of  silver  (0-0108  gramme), 
and  will  precipitate -jdW  "f  l'"'  atomic  weight  of  chlorine 
(O-OtXi.").")  gramme)  in  tlie  form  of  silver  chloride.  In  the 
same  way,  normal  solutions  of  the  following  acids  and  alka- 
lies contain  in  a  liter  one-half  or  the  whole  of  their  atomic 
weight  in  grammes: 

Sulphuric  acid gr.  per  liter,  49. 

Hydrochloric  acid •'      "      '"      36i5. 

Sodie  carlionate "      "      "      53. 

Sodic  hydrate "     "     "     40. 

A  great  advantage  of  the  above  system  is  tliat  the  solutions 
agree  with  each  other,  volume  for  volume:  thus  100  cubic 
em.  of  any  of  the  above  acid  solutions  will  exactly  neutralize 
100  cubic  em.  of  any  one  of  the  alkaline  solutions.  Its  con- 
venience will  be  readily  perceived  from  the  following  illus- 
tration: Suppose  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  purity  of 


176 


ANALYSIS,  VOLUMETRIC 


a  sarni^le  of  soda-ash  (impure  sodic  carbonate) :  if  it  were 
perfectly  pure,  5-3  graniines  would  require  100  cubic  cm.  of 
one  of  the  aljove  normal  acids  for  neutralization;  and  if 
this  quantity  is  weij;hed  out,  dissolved  in  water,  and  the 
normal  acid  gradually  added  from  a  100  cubic  cm.  burette 
until  complete  saturation  takes  place,  the  number  of  cubic 
em.  required  will  directly  indicate  the  percentage  of  pure 
sodic  carbonate  present  in  the  sample  :  thus  if  85  cubic  cm. 
of  the  acid  solution  were  neces.sary,  the  sample  contained  8.5 
per  cent,  of  sodic  carbonate.  It  is.  however,  not  always  prac- 
ticable to  weigh  out  the  substance  composing  the  standard 
solution  ;  in  this  case  an  approximately  correct  quantity  is 
taken,  and  the  exact  strength  of  the  solution  determined  by 
actual  experiment.  Processes  in  which  the  substance  is 
brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  standardized  solution 
of  a  reagent  which  combines  with  or  decomposes  it,  as  in  the 
estimations  of  alkalies  lay  acids,  silver  by  sodium  chloride, 
iron  by  potassic  permanganate,  etc.,  and  also  those  deter- 
minations in  which  the  standard  solution  reacts  upon  the 
substance,  causing  the  liberation  of  an  equivalent  quantity 
of  a  representative  body,  which  is  estimated  instead  of  the 
substance  itself — such  as  the  valuation  of  manganese  ores, 
in  which,  upon  boiling  tlie  substance  in  hydi'ochloric  acid. 
an  amount  of  chlorine  equivalent  to  the  oxygen  present  is 
evolved  and  its  quantity  determined — are  called  direct  meth- 
ods of  volumetric  analysis.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  /«- 
direct  or  residual  processes,  in  which  the  amount  of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  analyzed  is  not  directly  estimated,  but  is  calcu- 
lated by  using  an  excess  of  some  agent  of  fixed  strength, 
which  decomposes  or  combines  with  it  in  a  known  proi>or- 
tion,  and  subsequently  determining  the  excess  used.  Thus 
if  a  weighed  amount  of  an  impure  sample  of  calcic  carbon- 
ate be  dissolved  in  a  known  excess  of  nitric  acid,  it  is  pos- 
sible, by  determining  the  amount  of  pure  acid  remaining  by 
titrating  backward  with  a  standanl  alkaline  solution,  to  as- 
certain the  proportion  of  pure  calcic  carbonate  contained  in 
the  sample  examined. 

Having  i-eferred  to  the  apparatus  employed  in,  and  some 
of  the  features  of,  volumetric  analysis,  it  remains  to  mention 
more  particularly  a  fi'w  of  the  processes  most  commonly  used. 
These  may  be  conveniently  classified  into  analyses  by  satura- 
tion, by  precipitation,  and  by  oxidation  or  reduction,  although 
this  division  fails  to  embrace  all  of  the  volumetric  methods 
resorted  to.  AnaJi/sis  hy  saturation  includes  the  processes 
of  alkalimetry  and  acidimetry. 

Atfialimetri/.  or  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  alkali 
contained  in  alkaline  mixtiu'es.  such  as  the  commercial  prod- 
ucts potash  and  soda.  etc..  by  volumetric  methods,  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  alkalies  and  their  carbonates  readily 
form  neutral  salts  with  the  strong  acids  which  do  not  affect 
the  color  of  litmus :  whereas  the  smallest  excess  of  either 
the  alkali  or  the  acid  imparts  to  it  a  blue  or  red  coloration. 
Sulphuric,  oxalic,  or  hydrochloric  acid  is  usually  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  the  standard  acid  solutions,  which  are 
best  made  of  the  striMigth  ])reviously  prescribed.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  remarks  already  made  concerning  the  determina- 
tion of  an  alkali  by  means  of  a  normal  acid  solution  a  few 
details  of  the  process  sliould  be  added.  A  weighed  quantity 
of  the  sample  of  alkali  having  been  dissolved,  the  solution 
is  distinctly  colored  blue  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of 
solution  of  litmus.  A  Imrette  is  then  filled  to  tlie  zero  point 
with  the  standard  acid,  and  this  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the 
solution  until  a  red  coloration  begins  to  appear.  Owing  to 
the  carbonic  acid  lilierated.  this  will  occur  tiefore  all  of  the 
alkali  is  saturated,  and  it  is  necessary  to  boil  the  solution  in 
order  to  remove  this  source  of  error,  when  the  blue  color  will 
reappear.  The  acid  is  then  cautiously  added  by  drops,  heat 
again  applieil,  and  a  little  more  acid  added,  until  a  distinct 
pink-red  color,  which  does  not  disappear  on  boiling,  is  pro- 
duced. We  now  know  that  complete  neutralization  has  taken 
place,  and,  as  tlie  strength  of  the  aei<l  solution  is  also  known, 
the  amount  of  real  idkali  contained  in  the  sample  is  readily 
calculated  from  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  used.  The 
inconvenience  occasioned  by  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid 
in  the  aliove  process  can  lie  avoided  Viy  adding  more  acid 
than  is  really  required  to  neutralize  the  alkali,  and  then  as- 
certaining the  excess  taken  by  means  of  a  normal  solution  of 
caustic  alkali,  and  deducting  it  from  the  amount  of  acid  used. 
Caustic  limr,  baryta,  and  stroiitia.  and  their  carbonates,  can 
be  estimated  in  t  he  same  manner,  the  standard  acid  employed 
being  the  hydrochloric. 

Acidimetry  can  be  accomplished  by  a  method  precisely 
the  reverse  of  that  used  in  alkalimetry,  a  normal  alkaline 
liquid  being  added  to  the  solution  under  examination  until 


a  blue  color  is  imparted  to  the  litmus.  Caustic  soda,  either 
obtained  directly  in  the  pure  state  or  prepared  by  the  de- 
composition of  sodic  carbonate  by  means  of  lime,  is  usually 
employed  as  the  normal  alkaline  solution  ;  but  a  solution  of 
.53  gi'ammes  of  pure  sodic  carbonate  in  a  liter  of  water  is  also 
often  used.  In  special  cases,  as  in  the  estimation  of  acetic 
acid  (see  Vixegar).  the  salt  fi)rmed  does  not  possess  a  neutral 
reaction,  and  it  is  advisable  first  to  prepare  a  solution  of  the 
acid  of  known  strength,  and  then  determine  the  quantity  of 
the  alkaline  solution  required  tt)  produce  the  change  of  color. 
The  quantity  of  acid  contained  in  numerous  neutral  salts,  if 
the  base  is  precipitated  by  an  excess  of  caustic  alkali  or  car- 
bonate, can  be  estimated  by  first  adding  an  excess  of  the 
standard  alkaline  solution,  and  then  determining  the  excess 
used  by  titration  with  a  normal  acid:  the  amount  of  acid 
contained  in  many  salts,  the  base  of  which  is  precipitated  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  can  also  be  determined  by  titrating 
the  filtrate  from  the  precipitate  with  normal  alkali. 

Volumetric  analysis  by  precipitation  includes  such  deter- 
minations as  that  of  silver,  referred  to  in  the  lieginning  of 
this  article.  The  end  of  reactions  of  this  nature  is  frequently 
shown  by  the  precipitate  ceasing  to  form,  but  indications  of 
greater  ]irecision  and  delicacy  are  often  oVitaiiied  by  aid  of  a 
third  body,  with  wliich  a  characteristic  color  is  prudiu  ed ; 
thus,  if,  ill  the  estimation  of  chlorine  or  chlorides  by  a  normal 
silver  solution,  a  little  potassic  chromate  be  added,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  process  is  indicated  by  the  formation  of  an 
orange-yellow  color,  proceeding  from  argentic  chromate  pro- 
duced by  the  first  drop  in  excess  of  the  silver  solution,  and  in 
the  precipitation  of  phosphoric  acid  by  uranic  nitrate  or  ace- 
tate the  end  of  the  precipitation  is  indicated  by  a  drop  of  the 
mixed  solutions  producing  a  brown  color  with  yellow  prus- 
siate  of  potash.  A  method  that  has  come  into  extensive  use 
of  late  years  is  that  devised  by  Volhard.  This  consists  in 
dissolving  in  nitric  acid,  boiling  to  remove  all  the  oxides  of 
nitrogen,  adding  iron-alum,  and  then  dropjiiiig  in  potassium 
(or  ammonium)  sulphocyanide,  until  the  red  color  of  ferric 
sulphocyanide  remains.  This  method  is  capable  of  applica- 
tion to  many  different  determinations. 

Analysis  "by  oxidation  or  reduction  comprises  numerous 
volumetric  methods,  which  give  very  accurate  results,  and 
have  to  a  great  extent  replaced  the  older  process  by  weight. 
In  these,  substances  which  readily  take  up  oxygen  are  ti- 
trated with  oxidizing  agents  of  known  power :  or  substances 
which  give  up  oxygen  are  deoxidized  by  an  excess  of  a  re- 
ducing agent,  the  excess  of  which  is  afterward  determined 
by  residual  titration  with  a  standard  oxidizing  solution. 
Tlie  oxidizing  bodies  most  employed  are  potassic  iierman- 
ganate  and  dichromate.  and  iodine :  the  reducing  agents  Vic- 
ing sulphurous  acid,  sodic  hy|30sulphite.  arsenious  anlyi'dride, 
and  oxalic  acid.  One  of  the  most  imjiortaiit  estimations 
coming  under  this  head  is  the  volumetric  determination  of 
iron,  which  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  when  a  solution  of 
pota.ssic  permanganate  is  added  to  an  acid  solution  of  a  fer- 
rous ([irotoxide)  salt,  the  latter  is  oxidized  to  a  ferric  salt, 
the  purple-red  color  of  the  permanganate  solution  being 
destroyed  so  long  as  any  of  the  ferrous  salt  is  present :  but 
as  .soon  as  the  oxidation  is  comjjleted  the  next  additional 
dro]i  of  the  solution  imparts  a  distinct  red  coloration  to  the 
liquid.  It  is  necessary  first  to  reduce  all  iron  contained  in 
the  substance  examined  to  the  ferrous  state,  which  can  lie 
done  by  means  of  zinc  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  strength  or 
standard  of  the  permanganate  solution  is  also  to  be  pre- 
viously deteriuiiied  by  reducing  a  known  weight  of  pure 
iron  to  the  ferrous  state,  and  a.scertaining  the  numlier  of 
cubic  cm.  of  the  solution  required  to  oxidize  it,  the  value  of 
1  cubic  cm.  being  noted  on  the  bottle  in  which  the  solution  is 
preseiwed.  It  is  then  only  neces.sary  to  niulti]ily  the  num- 
lier of  cubic  em.  employed  in  an  analysis  by  the  value,  or  oxi- 
dizing powder,  of  1  cubic  cm.,  in  order  to  a.scertain  the  quan- 
tity of  iron  jiresent  in  the  substance  taken.  Potassic  dichro- 
mate can  also  be  employed  as;  the  oxidant,  but  in  this  ca.se  the 
termination  of  the  process  is  not  indicated  inthe  liquid  itself, 
but  is  shown  liy  a  drop  of  the  mixture  no  longer  producing  a 
blue  color  when  added  to  a  solution  of  ferricyanide  of  potas- 
sium. Iodine  often  serves  as  an  oxidizing  agt'Ut  by  combin- 
ing with  tlie  hydrogen  of  water  to  fomi  liydrioilii' acid,  while 
the  oxygen  liberated  acts  upcm  the  oxidizablc  subst ances  pres- 
ent, aiid,  as  the  slightest  excess  of  iodine  imparts  a  blue  color 
to  .starch,  the  reaction  can  be  applied  to  the  volumetric  esti- 
mation of  many  bodies  that  readily  take  up  oxygen,  such  as 
arsenious  and  sul|)hurous  acids,  etc.  It  is  evident  that  these 
latter  compounds  can  likewise  be  employed  for  the  determi- 
nation of  free  iodine.     On  the  above  reaction  very  accurate 


AXALYTICAL  GE05IETRY 


AKASTASIUS 


177 


and  important  volumetric  processes  are  based,  such  as  the 
estimation  of  oxygen  in  peroxides,  in  wliicii,  iiowever,  an 
indirect  method  is  employed.  Many  suVjstances  containinj; 
oxygen,  when  boiled  witli  hydrochloric  acid,  lilierate  a  quan- 
tity of  chlorine  corresponding  to  a  part  or  all  of  the  oxygen 
present.  Upon  conducting  the  chlorine  so  evolved  into  a 
solution  of  potassic  io<lide,  an  equivalent  amount  of  iodine 
is  set  tiv-e,  which  can  then  be  estimated  by  adding  a  solution 
of  starcli-paste  and  titrating  with  a  solution  of  sodic  hypo- 
sidpliile  of  known  strength.  The  .standard  of  the  hyjiosul- 
phile  solution  used  is  readily  ascertained  in  the  same  man- 
ner by  heating  a  Jcnown  quantHy  of  pota.ssic  dichromate 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  conducting  the  evolved  chlorine^  into 
a  solution  of  potassic  iodide,  and  estimating  (in  jireseiice  of 
starch)  the  number  of  cubic  em.  of  the  hyp()suli)hite  solution 
required  lo  reduce  the  iodine  set  free;  the  termination  of 
the  reaction  lieing  indicated  by  the  disappearance  of  the 
blue  color  of  the  iodide  of  starch.  Proces.ses  similar  to  that 
just  descrilied  receive  frequent  practical  application  in  the 
valuation  of  numerous  articles  of  commerce,  such  as  manga- 
nese, bleaching-powder,  etc. 

A  method  more  curious  than  valuable,  by  which  analyti- 
cal determinations  can  be  accomplished  without  the  use  of 
weights  or  standardized  solutions,  consists  in  taking  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  impure  substance  to  be  tested,  balancing 
it  with  an  equal  weight  of  the  pure  substanc-e,  and  subnut- 
ting  both  to  titration  with  a  solution  of  unknown  strength. 
It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  impure  substance  will  require 
lor  its  decomposition  a  smaller  quantity  of  the  solution  than 
the  pure  substance,  and  that  the  quantity  required  will  be 
in  proportion  to  its  purity.  The  pure  substance  can,  in 
some  instances,  be  replaced  by  another  of  sinular  chenucal 
activity  (e.  g.  sodic  carbonate  by  calcic  carbonate,  manga- 
nese dioxiile  by  potassic  dichromate,  etc.).  In  addition  to 
the  examples  cited  above,  volumetric  processes,  usually 
based  U])on  the  principles  already  mentioned,  receive  exten- 
sive application  in  the  estimation  of  several  metals  (such  >is 
copper,  /.inc.  tin,  lead,  and  mercury)  and  numerous  organic 
compounds  (including  sugar,  tannic  acid,  alkaloids,  the  con- 
stituents of  lu'ine,  water,  wine,  etc.). 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Anal jt'ical  Geometry :  See  Geometey. 

Anamo'sa:  city  and  railroad  junction:  capital  of  .Tones 
•  ■II.,  la.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Iowa.  ref.  4-K); 
oil  till'  Wapsipinicon  and  Buffalo  rivers:  50  miles  S.  W.  of 
Dubuque.  It  has  excellent  quarries  of  building-stone  and  a 
Statc^  penitcntiarv.  Pop.  (1880)  2,083;  (1885)1,874;  (1890) 
2,078;  (1805)  2.006. 

Aiianas'sa  Satl'va:  See  Pineapple. 

A  napa' :  a  seaport  and  fortified  town  of  Russian  Circas- 
sia:  1)11  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  Sea;  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Kuban  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  11-D).  The  harbor  is  not 
safe  in  stormy  weather.  The  town  has  been  by  tm-ns  the 
jiroperty  of  Turks  and  Russians,  ami  now  belongs  to  the  lat- 
ter.    Poj).  5.:i)7. 

Aiiapivs'tic  Meter  (Gr.  avaTraunos):  originally  a  march- 
ing measure.  Tlie  anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables 
foiloweil  by  a  long  syllable,  and  is  largelv  used  in  systems  of 
pairs  for  entrance  aricl  exit  songs  of  the  Greek  drarna,  and  in 
tetrameters  in  Aristophanic  comedy.     See  Metres. 

Anapli'ora  [(ir.  avaipopi.  a  carrying  back,  recourse:  hia-, 
back  +  ipfpeiv,  carry]:  in  rhetoric,  a  repetition  of  a  word  or 
phrase  at  the  beginning  of  two  or  more  consecutive  sentences 
or  clauses,  as,  "  It  is  sown  in  corruption,  it  is  raised  in  incor- 
rupt ion.  It  is  sown  in  dishonor;  it  is  raised  in  glory.  It 
is  sown  in  weakness ;  it  is  raised  in  power." 

An'archist:  one  who  believes  that  political  evil  is  to  be 
remedied  by  the  .abolition  of  government.  Proudhon  (</.  r.) 
is,  on  the  whole,  the  writer  who  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  mo(l<'rn  anarchism:  but  it  was  taken  up  most 
actively  by  the  Russian  Nihilists  (see  Xiuilism),  and  made 
the  basis  of  the  most  vigorous  practical  agitation.  Next  to 
Russia,  Spain  is  the  country  where  the  anarchists  have 
made  most  lieadway ;  Portugal,  Italy,  and  France  have  also 
been  somewhat  involved  in  the  movement.  The  Inter- 
mitional  Workingmen's  Association,  founded  in  1804.  was  a 
combination  of  anarchists  and  socialists,  who  worked  to- 
gether in  agitation,  though  their  theories  were  diametrically 
opposed ;  the  socialists  wishing  to  avoid  inequality  by  in- 
creasing slate  interf(>rence,  the  anarchi.sts  by  abolishing  it. 
But  in  1873  the  coml)inalion  was  broken  up;  the  .socialists 
proper  ("  Centralist  Democratic  Socialists  "),  headed  by  Marx, 

12 


holding  that  you  can  not  have  equality  or  co-operative  pro- 
duction without  a  state  to  enforce  it :  while  the  anarchists, 
f)r  anarcliic  socialists,  headed  by  the  Russian  Bakunin,  be- 
lieving that  this  would  involve  tyranny,  wished  to  have  prop- 
erty held  by  communistic  a.-^sociations  of  workmen,  foi'med 
freely  without  political  compulsion.  As  to  the  means  by 
which  this  residt  is  to  be  secured,  different  groups  of  an- 
arcliists  are  not  agreed.  Some  disclaim  violence,  and  believe 
in  the  jiower  of  moral  jjrinciples,  like  those  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church.  Others,  unfortunately  more  numerous  and 
inlluential,  seek  revolution  for  its  own  sake,  and  hold  that 
after  this  is  accomplished  it  will  be  time  enough  to  consider 
what  to  do  next.  On  this  account  anarchism,  in  its  more 
imjiortant  practical  aspects,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  body 
of  doctrines,  but  as  a  dangerous  means  of  agitation,  many  of 
whose  partisans  do  not  hesitate  to  counteuance  the  use  of 
dynamite.  The  best  known  leader  of  tlie  American  anarch- 
ists is  Johann  Most ;  the  paper  in  which  he  advocated  his 
doctrines  was  the  Freiheit  (Freedom).  The  anarchists  of 
the  IT.  S.  are  almost  entirely  foreign  born ;  their  greatest 
strength  seems  to  be  in  Chicago.  The  most  serious  conflict 
with  the  law  was  in  the  Chicago  riot  of  May  4,  1886.  Sev- 
eral of  the  leaders  were  sentenced  to  death  Aug.  20,  1886, 
and  executed  Nov.  11, 1887 ;  but  the  popular  reaction  against 
lawlessness  did  even  more  than  the  execution  of  tlie  leaders 
to  check  the  growth  of  anarchism  in  \\u;  U.  S.  In  Spain 
and  France  the  anarchists  have  shown  considerable  strength 
of  late  years,  and  the  use  of  dynamite  seems  to  be  a  most 
serious  danger  to  the  police  authority  in  each  of  these  coun- 
tries.   See  Communism,  Nihilism,  and  Socialism. 

Arthur  T.  Hadley. 

Aiiar'rliiehas  [from  Gr.  avappixaaBai,  to  clamber  up;  avi, 
up  -I-  apptxi-aeai,  climli] :  a  genus  ipf  fishes  allied  to  the  Blen- 
nies,  characterized  by  having  their  mandibular,  palatine, 
and  vomerine  bones  armed  with  large  osseous  tubercles 
bearing  on  their  summits  enameled  teeth.  It  includes  the 
wolf -fish,  which  is  common  to  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
other  related  species.    See  Wolf-fish. 

A'nas  [Lat.  A'nas.  a  duck] :  a  genus  of  ducks  including 
wliat  may  be  called  the  true  or  typical  species,  such  as  the 
mallard  (Anas  bnschas).  the  black  duck  (Anas  ofecHra). and 
related  forms.  The  bill  is  about  as  long  as  the  head,  rather 
huiger  than  the  tarsus,  with  the  sides  parallel  and  the  nos- 
trils high  up.  The  species  of  the  genus  are  par  excellence 
fresh-water  birds  and  well  flavored.  The  various  limitations 
of  this  genus  afford  a  good  epitome  of  the  progress  of  or- 
nithology. With  Linmeus  the  name  Anas  was  almost  equal 
to  the  family  Anatidm,  for  it  included  swans,  geese,  and  all 
ducks  save  the  fish-eating  mergansers.  A  little  later  the 
genus  was  so  restricted  as  to  comprise  only  the  fresh-water 
or  river  ducks  of  the  sub-family  Anatinw,  as  contrasted 
with  the  sea-ducks,  Fulignlin(e.  It  was  then  limited  to  a 
very  few  species,  closely  allied  to  the  mallard,  and,  finally, 
was  so  extended  as  to  include  the  teal  and  others. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Anasarca:  See  Dropsy. 

Anasta'sia:  the  name  of  several  female  saints  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches.  (1)  Anasiasia  the  Elder,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  time  of  Nero.  Her  day  is  Apr.  15.  (2) 
Anasfasia  the  Younger,  whose  martyrdom  by  burning  at 
A<|uileia  in  303  brought  to  an  end  the  persistent  persecutions 
of  her  heathen  husband  Publius.  Her  day  is  Dec.  25  in  the 
Latin  Church,  and  Dec.  22  in  the  Greek.  (3)  AnasiaMU,  a 
Greek  Christian  maiden  of  good  family  and  great  beauty, 
who  had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Emperor  Justinian. 
The  better  to  resist  his  dishonoralile  proposals  she  retired 
to  Alexandria,  where  for  twenty-eight  years,  until  her  death 
in  the  year  507,  she  lived  as  a  iuonk,  no  one  ever  suspecting 
her  sex.     Iler  day  is  Mar.  10. 

.\nasf  a'slus  I. :  Emperor  of  Constantinople ;  b.  at  Durazzo 
about  430  A.  V.  He  succeeded  the  Emperor  Zeno  in  491. 
The  orthoilox.  who  considered  him  a  heretic,  revolted  and 
defeated  his  army  in  514.     D.  in  518  A.  D. 

Anasfasiiis  II. :  became  Emperor  of  the  East  in  713  A.  D. 
Theodosius  was  chosen  emperor  by  his  army,  which  took 
Constantinople  and  deposed  Anastasius  in  710.    1).  in  720 

A.  D. 

Anastasins  I..  Saint:  a  native  of  Rome;  became  pope 
about  3!)8  A.  D.  He  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Origen.  I), 
in  402  A.  D. — Anastasius  II..  Saint  (pope),  a  native  of  Rome, 
succeeded  Gelasius  I.  in  496  a.  d.    I),  in  498. — Anastasius 


178 


ANASTASIUS 


ANATOMY 


III.  was  chosen  pope  in  place  of  Sergius  III.  in  911.  P.  in 
yi3. — AxASTASius  IV.  succeeded  Eugenius  III.  as  pope  in 
1153.     He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  Dec.  2,  1154. 

Anasta'slus,  surnamed  The  Librarian:  a  Roman  priest 
who  was  liljrarian  of  the  Vatican.  He  compiled  an  Ecchsi- 
asfical  History  in  Latin  from  Greek  sources,  and  wrote  other 
works.     I),  about  S90. 

Anasfasius  (iriin  :  See  Auersverg. 

Anastat'ica  [from  Gr.  ava.  up  +  o-T^foi,  stand]:  a  genus 
of  cruciferous  plants  containing  the  rose  of  Jericho  (Anas- 
/atica  liierorhiir.'ina),  ■which  gTov;s  in  Palestine  and  North 
Africa,  and  has  singular  hygroscopic  properties.  Under  the 
influence  of  di-ought  it  rolls  up  into  a  ball,  becomes  detached 
from  the  ground,  and  is  carried  away  by  the  wind  after  the 
manner  of  the  "  tumble  weeds "  of  our  American  plains. 
When  it  comes  into  contact  with  moisture  it  expands  into 
its  natural  form,  and  is  hence  called  "  i-esurrection  plant." 
It  retains  for  many  years  this  property  of  expanding  when 
moistened. 

Aiiassfiitif  Printing':  See  Zincography. 

Anas'troplie  [Gr.  a.va<TTpo(pri,  a  turning  back  :  iva-.  back  + 
<rTp4<pfit'.  turn]:  in  rhetoric,  a  species  of  inversion  or  de- 
parture from  the  usual  order  of  succession  in  words,  as  when 
Scott,  in  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  says,  "Clattered  a  hundred 
steeds  along,"  for  "  A  hundred  steeds  clattered  along  " ;  so 
Vergil  in  the  ^-Eneid,  lib.  i.  1.  32,  has  •'Maria  omnia  cir- 
eum"  for  '•circum  omnia  maria"  (around  all  the  seas). 

An'atase  [from  Gr.  avaTturis.  extension :  dvo.  up  +  relvew, 
stretch]  :  a  name  of  titanic  acid  or  oxide  of  titanium,  which 
occurs  in  octahedral  crystals,  having  a  splendent  and  ada- 
mantine luster.  Some  specimens  found  in  Brazil  resemble 
tliamonds  so  much  as  to  be  mistaken  for  them.  Called  also 
octahedrite.     See  Titanic  Dioxide. 

Anath'enia  [Gr.  dTOfle^o,  a  thing  devoted  (to  evil)  or  ac- 
cursed ;  dra,  up  +  Bfii/ai.  place] :  a  Greek  word,  the  primary 
meaning  of  which  was  something  "  placed  "  or  "  hung  up  " 
in  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and  hence  "  consecrated  "  or  "  de- 
voted." Among  the  Jews  and  Christians  it  is  a  cui-se  or 
denunciation  uttered  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  a  form 
of  excommunication  of  heretics  and  other  offenders. 

An'atliotll.  or  A'liata :  an  ancient  Jewish  city  of  refuge, 
about  4  miles  N.  K.  i)f  Jerusalem  :  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  native  place  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 

Anat'idie:   a  family  of  web-footed  birds,  of  which  the 

genus  A?ias  is  the  type.  It  includes  the  duck,  goose,  swan, 
and  othei-s.     Cuvier  gave  them  the  name  of  Ijainellirostres. 

Anato'lia,  Anado'li,  or  Nato'lia  [from  Gr.  'Ai>aTo\fi.  the 
rising  or  orient] :  the  modern  name  of  Asia  Jlinor.  wliich  is 
a  large  peninsula,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Sea  of  Mcirmora.  on  the  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
the  W.  by  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  The  Euphrates  forms 
part  of  its  ill-detined  eastern  bonndarv.  It  lies  between  lat. 
36'  and  42°  N.,  and  laetwecn  Ion.  26'  and  41°  E.  The  length 
from  E.  to  W.  is  about  TOO  miles,  and  the  area  is  estimated 
at  204,4;M  sq.  miles.  The  western  coast  is  indented  with 
numerous  gulfs,  and  presents  many  high  and  precipitous 
cliffs.  The  interior  is  an  elevated  plateau,  inclosed  by  two 
mountain-ranges — namely.  Mount  Tam-us,  which  extends 
through  the  southern  part  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  archi- 
pelago, and  Anti-Taurus,  which  traverses  the  northern  part. 
The  general  direction  of  these  ranges  is  nearlv  E.  and  W. 
Some  peaks  of  Mt.  Taurus  attain  a  height  of  10".000  feet  or 
more.  Between  these  two  long  ranges  are  several  others 
which  ri.se  to  a  great  height.  The  highest  summit  in  Ana- 
tolia is  the  volcanic  Arjish-Dagh,  or  Alt.  .^rga'us,  which  is 
situated  13  miles  S.  of  Kaisareeyeh,  and  is  13.000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Mt.  Olvmp'us,  about  8  miles  S.  of  Brusa, 
ha-s  an  altitude  of  8,800  feet.' 

The  largest  river  of  Anatolia  is  the  Kizil-Irmak  (anc. 
Ilalys),  which  rises  in  the  east  part  and  enters  the  Black  Sea. 
The  western  part  of  the  peninsula  is  drained  l)y  tlie  Jleander 
and  the  Ilermus  (Sarabat),  which  flow  westward  into  the 
.(Egean  Sea.  In  the  central  part  are  a  number  of  salt  lakes 
and  barren  stepjies  of  large  extent.  The  Katakekaumene, 
or  -'burnt  country,"  a  volcanic  waste,  is  the  best  known  of 
th(*e  regions. 

The  nicks  which  underlie  the  upper  regions  of  .\natolia 
are  mostly  granite,  serpentine,  and  schist.  Along  the  south- 
ern and  western  coasts  calcareous  rocks  predomiiuite,  and 
marblc!  is  abundant.  Numerous  extinct  volcanoes  and  rocks 
of  volcanic  origin  occur  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


The  climate  presents  a  great  diversity  in  consequence  of  the 
inequality  of  the  surface.  The  western  shores  have  been 
celebrated  in  all  ages  for  their  mUd  and  genial  climate,  and 
the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  is  favored  in  that  respect.  The 
central  plateau  is  very  hot  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter, 
partly  because  it  is  not  well  watered  and  is  generally  desti- 
tute of  forest  trees.  The  northern  region  and  the  other  sea- 
coasts  are  covered  with  extensive  forests  of  oak.  ash,  beech, 
plane,  and  other  trees  good  for  timber.  The  coasts  of  the 
.lEgean  and  Black  Seas  have  a  very  luxuriant  vegetation  and 
a  fertile  soil.  Among  the  chief  products  are  sugar,  wine, 
opium,  tobacco,  olives,  figs,  wheat,  barley,  and  silk.  The 
flora  of  Southern  and  Western  Anatolia  is  extremely  beauti- 
ful. The  mountains  are  infested  by  panthers,  bears,  and 
wolves. 

Anatolia,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Sul- 
tan of  Turkey,  comprises  the  pashalics  of  Anatolia,  Itchelee, 
Karamania,  Adana,  Marash,  Sivas  (or  Room).  Trebizond. 
The  population,  estimated  at  lO.ilTO.OOO.  not  including  Ar- 
menia, consists  of  Ottoman  Turks.  Turkouuins.  Greeks,  no- 
madic Koords,  and  Armenians.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil 
is  generally  neglected  here,  and  the  principal  branches  of 
industry  are  the  production  of  opium,  wine,  and  oil,  and 
weaving  shawls  and  carpets.  The  chief  cities  are  Smyrna, 
Brusa  (or  Burea),  Sinope,  Angora,  Konieh,  Kutaieh,  and 
Trebizond.  In  ancient  times  this  peninsula  was  occupied 
by  many  powerful  kingdoms  and  famous  cities.  See  Asia 
Minor,  "  Ioxia,  Lydia,  Pontus,  etc..  and  Hamilton's  He- 
searcJies  in  Asia  Minor  (1842);  Tchihatcheff's  .4.«/f  J/('Hf«re 
(18.53-60);  and  Earth's  Heise  von  Trapezunt  bis  Skulari 
(I860).  Revised  by  51.  W.  Harrington. 

Anatolia:  a  pashalic  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  forming  the  pe- 
ninsula of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  the  largest  and  richest  province 
in  tlie  Turkish  empire,  and  the  most  populous  in  Western 
Asia,  comprising  a  large  part  of  the  Anatolia  described 
above.     Area.  208.327  sq.  miles.     Pop.  9,125,000. 

Anat'omy  [from  Ijat.  anatomia.  from  Gr.  dyaro^^,  a  cut- 
ting: dj-o.  \\\\  +  Tinvdv.  cut]:  literally  the  dissociation  of 
parts  by  cutting  u]i  or  dissection  ;  now  usually  that  division 
of  biology  having  for  its  object  the  study  of  the  structure 
of  oi'ganized  bodies.  Since  the  latter,  obviously,  may  belong 
either  to  the  vegetal  or  to  the  animal  kingdom,  anatomy 
may  x'elate  to  the  structure  of  plants — phytotomy — or  to  that 
of  animals — zootomy.  Vegetal  anatomy  will  be  treated  in 
connection  with  botany  [q.  v.).  the  anatomy  of  animals  alone 
being  here  considered. 

The  vast  iield  included  within  the  comprehensive  em- 
brace of  "  anatomy  "  and  the  various  points  from  which  it 
may  be  approached  render  the  recognition  of  certain  sub- 
divisions necessary.  The  study  of  form  and  construction  by 
comparison  of  the  structure  of  different  animals,  including 
man.  constitutes  comparatiiv  ajiatomy — the  importance  of 
which  for  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  structure  of  man 
can  not  be  overestimated.  Human  anatomy,  or  anthro- 
jmtomy.  on  the  contrary,  confines  investigation  to  the  human 
Viody.  Human  anatomy,  or  the  special  anatomy  of  man,  is 
further  treated  from  different  aspects:  the  description  of 
the  individual  constituents  of  the  entire  body  constitutes 
descriptive  or  systematic  anatomy :  the  discussion  of  the  posi- 
tion of  parts  and  their  mutual  relations  is  topoyraplrical  or 
reyional  anatomy :  when  considered  especially  !is  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  surgeon  and  physician  it  is  termed  surg- 
ical or  applied  anatomy:  the  actual  dis.section  and  separa- 
tion of  jiarts.  witli  a  view  to  their  study  and  exhibition, 
constitutes  practicid  anatomy.  The  investigation  of  the 
changes  of  form  anil  structure,  from  the  earliest  stages  to  the 
adult  condition,  belongs  to  developmental  anatomy;  while 
the  recognition  of  the  laws  determining  and  underlying 
the  formation  and  variation  of  organisms  is  the  province  of 
morphological,  anatomy.  The  description  of  organs  and 
bodies  changed  liy  disease  is  pathological  anatomy. 

Tlie  consideration  of  the  structural  elements  of  organisms 
constitutes  general  anatomy,  or  histology;  from  the  fact 
that  sucli  studies  necessitate  the  use  of  the  magnifying  gla.ss, 
the  term  microscopical  or  minute  anatomy  is  frequently  em- 
ployed a-s  synonymous.  Conversely,  gross  anatomy  denotes 
the  examination  of  such  details  of  arrangement  as  are  dis- 
played by  the  scalpel  to  the  unaided  eye.  Descriptive  anatomy 
is  subdivided  into  various  systems:  thus  o.s7eo/o<7»/ treats  of  the 
bones;  syndesmology  dcsci'ibes  the  joints;  myology  recounts 
the  muscles ;  angiology  refers  to  the  blood-vessels  and  cir- 
culatory svstein ;  nenrology  relates  to  the  nervous  system  ; 
splanchnology  pertains  to  the  description  of  the  viscera  or 


ANATOMY 


179 


organs.    For  accounts  of  the  various  organs  and  tissues,  see 
Eye,  Ear,  Heart,  Bone.  Mcscle,  etc. 

In  sketching  tlie  outlines  of  the  iiistory  of  anatomy  three 
epochs  are  recognizable.  The  first  era  begins  witli  the 
earliest  attempts  to  gain  anatomical  kiunvleilge,  embraces 
the  sum  of  all  tlio  observations  and  traditions  of  the  ancient 
classical  authors,  and  terminates  in  tlie  general  extinction  of 
learning  during  the  Dark  Ages.  The  second  period  dates 
from  the  revival  of  anatomy  in  the  Italian  schools  during 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  is  especially  marked  by  the 
notable  advances  and  la-stiug  impressions  made  by  the 
genius  of  Vesalius  and  his  followers  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  impetus  of  whose  labors  was  felt  throughout  the  medical 
world.  The  third  ejjoeh  commences  with  the  establishment 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  of  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple announced  by  Caspar  Friedrich  Wolff,  that  all  organized 
beings  originate  by  the  differentiation  of  simple  cells,  the 
descendants  of  the  ovum,  in  opposition  to  the  then  prevailing 
and  accepted  theory  of  preformation,  by  which  all  parts  of 
the  new  organism  were  considered  to  exist  from  the  tiegin- 
ning  perfectly  forme(I.  although  of  infinitesimal  dimensions. 
The  doctrine  that  both  plants  and  animals  are  composed  of 
elementary  sti-uctm-al  particles  (the  cells),  also  advanced  by 
Wolff,  shortly  afterward  received  additional  support  from 
the  researches  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann.  The  expansion 
and  future  apiilication  of  the  princii)les  advanced  by  Wolff 
and  his  immediate  successors,  together  with  the  fruitful 
labors  of  subsequent  anatomists  in  the  new  fields  of  embry- 
ology and  morphology,  alone  have  rendered  possible  the 
development  of  the  broad  and  comprehensive  science  which 
anatomy,  in  its  widest  sense,  to-day  represents. 

The  claims  of  human  anatomy  as  a  science  of  gi'cat  an- 
tiquity are  not  sup|)orted  by  trustworthy  evidence;  on  the 
contrary,  there  is  sufficient  reason  to  regard  human  anatomy, 
as  a  systematic  .study,  as  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
There  is  little  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  the  practice 
of  sacrificial  rites  and  of  embalming  yielded  more  than  the 
crudest  notions  regarding  the  anatomy  of  the  lower  animals 
among  the  ancients.  It  is  first  to  Hiiipocrates  (460-377  B.  c.) 
that  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  can  be  ascribed  with  propriety, 
and  even  then  it  is  only  regarding  human  osteology  that 
Hippocrates  possessed  ideas  approaching  accuracy.  On 
the  authority  of  Galen,  the  firet  anatomical  work  is  to  be 
credited  to  Alcmicon  of  Croton  (.500  B.  c).  It  is  very  doubt- 
fid  whether  Hippocrates  practiced  dissection  upon  the 
human  body.  Following  the  "  Father  of  Medicine."  stands 
the  name  of  that  great  student  of  nature,  Aristotle  (384-323 
B.  c),  whose  contributions  to  natural  history  were  enriched 
by  original  observations  of  such  detail  and  accuracy,  regard- 
ing the  structure  of  the  lower  animals,  that  he  may  justly  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  comparative  anatomy.  His  dis- 
sections having  been  entirely  confined  to  the  lower  animals, 
Aristotle  knew  little  of  human  anatomy,  as  shown  by  the 
many  erroneous  ideas  wliich  he  entertained.  On  the  other 
hand,  anatomy  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  recognition  that  the 
bk)od-vessels  are  derived  from  the  heart,  and  that  the  latter 
is  filled  with  blood  ;  to  the  main  stem  he  applied  the  name 
aorta.  Aristotle  had  likewise  relatively  clear  notions  regard- 
ing the  digestive  organs,  recognizing  varions  divisions  of  the 
intestinal  tract,  a.s  iejununi,  ciccum,  colon,  and  rectum. 

To  Herophilus  (310  B.  c.)  and  Erasistratus  (300  B.  c),  mem- 
bers of  the  illustrious  Alexanilrian  school,  belong  the  honor 
of  practicing  the  earliest  well  authenticated  dissection  upon 
human  bodies,  a  privilege  rendered  possible  by  the  support 
of  an  enlightened  ruler.  Herophilus  devoted  himself  assidu- 
ously to  hununi  anatomy,  as  well  as  to  zootomy  in  general, 
in  which  his  fame  soon  l)ecame  widespread.  The  choroid 
plexus,  the  fourth  ventricle,  and  its  calamus  .«criptorius,  the 
torcular  Herophili,  and  the  duodenum  are  among  the  dis- 
coveries associated  with  his  name.  Erasistratus  shares  with 
his  contemporary  the  distinction  of  human  dissections,  and 
discovere<l  the  valves  of  tlie  heart,  formed  a  correct  idea  of 
the  nerves  as  issuing  from  the  brain,  and  indeed  seems  to 
have  distinguished  between  nerves  of  sensation  and  motion  ; 
he  al.so  firmly  established  the  doctrine  that  the  arteries  were 
tilled  by  vital  air  (pneuma),  while  the  veins  contained  nutri- 
tive fluid  (the  blood). 

The  achievements  of  these  noted  men  were  followed  by 
a  period  of  decline,  in  which  but  few  additions  to  anatomical 
knowledge  w-ere  recorded,  .\fter  the  decadence  of  the  brill- 
iant Alexandrian  school,  the  exceptional  services  of  Mari- 
nus  and  his  pupil  (^uintus,  and  later  liuffus,  alone  rescued 
anatomy  for  a  time  from  the  neglect  into  which  it  had 
fallen. 


Early  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era  human 
anatomy  was  not  only  restored  to  its  former  condition,  but 
materially  advanced  iiy  the  gi'iiius  of  Claudius  Galenus  (130— 
200  A.  n.).  who,  for  nearly  half  a  century,  enthusiastically 
pursued  the  studies  and  investigations  which  justly  entitle 
him  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  accomplished  anatomist  of 
the  ancients.  The  correctness  of  his  comprehension  regard- 
ing the  structure  of  man,  no  less  than  the  acutene.ss  of  his 
observations  and  the  sagacity  and  judgment  of  his  conclu- 
sions, seems  the  more  remarkable  when  it  is  learned  that 
Galen's  dissections  were  limited  to  lower  animals — c-liiefly 
monkeys — and  that  his  scalpel  was  never  turned  tf)ward  a 
human  subject.  Indirectly  the  pupil  of  Quintus,  Galen  de- 
voted himself  to  the  anatomical  writings  of  Marinus,  as  repre- 
senting the  knowledge  still  preserved  from  the  ashes  of  the 
Alexandrian  school.  Among  other  important  facts,  Galen 
recognized  and  proved  that  the  arteries  contained  not  air, 
but  lilood.  His  understaniling  of  the  nervous  system — espe- 
cially the  brain — of  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera,  to- 
gcrlier  with  that  of  the  muscles  and  bones — his  knowledge 
of  osteology  being  especially  accurate — mark  him  as  fore- 
most of  the  anatomists  of  his  time;  his  writings  remained 
the  common  source  of  anatomical  lore  for  fourteen  centuries, 
and  the  influence  of  his  teaching  gave  way  only  before  the 
new  era  of  anatoniv  founded  by  Vesalius. '  With  the  death 
of  Galen  (200  a.  d.),  anatomy  entered  upon  a  period  of  decline 
and  almost  total  extinction. 

The  dawn  of  the  returning  light  of  intelligence  at  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages  found  anatomy  feebly  cidtivated 
in  the  Italian  schools,  the  teachings  of  Galen  still  affording 
the  principal  source  of  inspiration.  In  1316  Modino  (1275- 
132.5)  appeared  at  Bologna,  and  by  his  lectures  and  demon- 
strations instituted  the  instruction  which  soon  made  his 
.school  the  center  of  anatomical  activity.  Modino.  regarded 
as  the  father  of  modern  anatomy,  fonns  the  connecting  link 
between  the  anatomy  of  the  ancients,  as  represented  by  Galen 
and  the  new  science  appearing  with  the  advent  of  Vesalius 
and  his  followers.  The  names  of  Marzio,  Montagna,  Zerbi, 
Achillini,  Cai-pi,  Massa,  Benedetti,  Guintherus,  and  Sylvius 
represent  the  more  prominent  of  those  who  shared  the 
"restoration  period"  of  anatomy.  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
Michael  Angelo,  Tizian.  and  Rafael  are  credited  with  hav- 
ing deejily  interested  themselves  in  a  science  so  closely  re- 
lated to  their  art. 

The  advent  of  Vesalius  (1.514-64)  marks  a  new  epoch, 
characterized  by  the  breaking  down  of  the  traditions  of 
more  than  fourteen  centuries.  The  ancient  theories  and 
speculations,  which  still  appealed  with  an  authority  begot- 
ten by  age,  were  subjected  by  Vesalius  to  the  searching 
scrutiny  of  investigation,  and  when  found  wanting  were 
replaced  by  the  facts  revealed  by  his  scaljiel  and  observa- 
tion. The  fruits  of  his  dissections  and  study  ajipeared  in 
a  volume,  the  first  comprehensive  and  systematic  dcscri])- 
tion  of  the  human  body.  The  veneration  in  which  the 
teachings  of  Galen  were  still  held  is  instanced  by  the  ex- 
planations offered  by  .Sylvius  extenuating  the  inaccuracies 
of  Galen  pointed  out  by  Vesalius;  rather  than  admit  the 
fallibility  of  his  long-revered  master,  Sylvius  declared  that 
the  human  body  had  undergone  changes  during  the  time 
intervening  between  the  studies  of  Galen  and  the  dissections 
of  Vesalius.  After  a  brilliant  but  stormy  career,  by  his  suc- 
cess incurring  the  bitter  hatred  of  his  opponents,  Vesalius's 
life  drew  loan  ignominious  end.  During  the  hastened  return 
from  a  pilgrimage  to  Jenisalem.  undertaken  after  recovery 
from  severe  illness  (and  not.  as  often  alleged,  as  a  penance 
imposed  by  the  Church  for  indiscreet  dissection),  he  was 
slii|)wrccked  on  the  island  of  Zante,  and  died  in  abject  pov- 
erty. 

Contemporaneous  with  Vesalius  were  Fallopius  (1.523-62), 
f^ustachius  (1517(f) -74),  Columbus  (1497(0-1559).  Varolius 
(154:i-75).  Vidius  (1543-67),  Fabricius  (1537-1619),  and  Cas- 
serius  (1,561-1616). 

The  seventeenth  century,  rich  in  advances  in  anatomical 
knowledge,  has  a  conspi<-uous  figure  in  William  Harvey 
(1578-1657),  whose  clear  perception  led  him  to  the  satisfac- 
tory demonstration  of  the  circidation  of  the  blood  in  1619. 
This  great  physiological  and  anatomical  truth  had  already 
been  partially  gi-asped  by  Servetus,  Columbu.s,  and  Fabri- 
cius. .\mong  the  anatomists  of  this  eenturv  were  .A-selius 
(1.5S1-1626),  l'ec(|uet  (1672-74),  Rudbeck  (1630-1702),  Mal- 
jiighi  (162H-94).  who  first  demonstrated  the  capillary  blood- 
vessels and  the  blood-<'clls.  and  bv  the  use  of  the  microscope 
added  many  new  facts;  Glisson "(1597-1677).  Bellini  (164;^- 
1704),  Wharton  (1610-73),  Willis  (1622-75),  by  whose  labors 


ISO 


AJTATOMY 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


the  anatoinv  of  the  brain  was  greatly  advanced;  Lower 
(1631-91),  liishinore  (1613-84),  Cowper  (1666-170!)),  Nuek 
(1650-92),  Huysch  (1638-1731),  Leeuwenhoek  (1633-1733), 
who  cullivated  microscopical  anatoinv  with  great  success; 
Vieussens  (1641-1717).  Wirsiing  (16l:M3).  Peyer  (1653-1712), 
Branner  (1653-1727),  Bartholinus  (1655-1738),  and  Stenson 
(1638-86). 

During  the  eighteenth  century  anatomy  was  faithfully  cul- 
tivated by  men  earnestly  desirous  to  free  their  science  from 
traditions  unsupported  by  truth,  and  to  supplement  the  im- 
portant facts  established  by  their  predecessors  by  accurate 
details.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  these  men  were  ham- 
pered by  tlie  limitations  of  their  age,  feeble  in  the  develoji- 
ment  of  the  collateral  sciences,  as  physics  and  chemistry,  as 
well  as  by  the  imperfection  of  the  methods  and  instruments 
of  research.  Especially  conspicuous  stand  the  names  of  Hun- 
ter, Haller,  and  Bichat. 

Prominent  among  the  anatomists  of  this  period  were  Val- 
salva (1666-1723),  Santoriui  (1681-1737),  Jlorgaani  (1683- 
1771),  Albinus  (1697-1770),  Winslow  (1669-1760).  Douglas 
(1675-1742),  Monro  (1733-1817),  William  Hunter  (1718-83), 
John  Hunter  (1728-93),  whose  lasting  achievements  stand 
as  monuments  to  his  remarkable  energy  and  genius;  Lie- 
berkiihn  (1711-65);  Haller  (1708-77),  f amnions  as  a  profound 
and  philosophical  thinker;  Meckel  (1724-74);  'VVrisberg(1739- 
1808);  Stimmering  (1755-1830);  C.  ¥.  Wolff  (1735-94),  the 
founder  of  modern  embryology  and  the  earliest  promidga- 
tor  of  universal  cell-formation ;  Bichat  (1771-1802),  the  father 
of  histology. 

The  development  of  anatomy  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury contributes  a  remarkable  page  to  its  history.  The  early 
decades,  nuirked  by  the  continued  activity  of  many  of  the 
anatomists  already  mentioned,  were  succeeded,  toward  the 
middle  of  the  century,  by  the  growth  of  a  new  school,  fol- 
lowing the  establishment  of  the  modern  views  concerning 
the  structure  and  origin  of  organisms;  upon  the  foundations 
laid  by  Wolif  and  Schwann  arose  the  tloetrines  of  modern 
histology  and  embryology.  .Shortly  after,  improvements  in 
the  microscope  and  in  methods  of  investigation  gave  addi- 
tional impulse  to  these  studies,  which,  during  the  last  dec- 
ade, have  been  still  further  advanced  by  recent  similar  im- 
provements. 

The  increased  facilities  of  exact  investigation  into  the 
life-history  of  animals  have  yielded  l)rilliant  results  in  the 
broadening  and  increased  accuracy  of  our  conceptions  of 
the  relations  of  anatomical  data.  In  addition  to  the  ad- 
vances in  these  fields,  improvements  in  anatonncal  tech- 
nique, as  in  preservation,  injecting,  maceration,  etc.,  have 
rendered  the  demonstration  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body 
far  more  perfect  and  instructive ;  topographical  anatomy, 
likewise,  has  gained  by  the  introduction  of  frozen  sections, 
as  supplementing  the  usual  dissections. 

Without  attempting  even  an  incomplete  enumeration  of 
the  many  investigators  who  have  contributed  to  the  general 
advancement  of  anatomy  during  the  present  century,  refer- 
ence may  be  nuide  to  Mascagni  (1752-1815),  Scarpa  (1747- 
1832),  Magendi  (1783-185.5)." Cniveilhier  (1791-1874),  Bell 
(1774-1842),  Sharpey  (1802-80),  I.  P.  Jleckel  (1781-1833). 
Tiedemann  (1781-1856),  Langcnbeck  (1776-1851).  Kosen- 
muUer  (1771-1830),  .Stilling  (1810-79),  M.  Schultze  (1825-74). 
Bischofl  (1807-83),  Ileule  (1809-85),  Keichert  (1811-83),  Ar- 
nold (1803-90),  and  Leidy  (1823-91);  and  more  recently 
Owen,  Huxley,  Turner,  Flower,  Ktilliker,  Ilyrtl,  Waldeyer, 
His,  Sapjiey,  Schwalbe,  Leydig,  (jiegenbam',  Kudinger,  Wie- 
dershcim,  Flemming,  and  many  others. 

The  investigation  of  the  human  body  has  been  so  dili- 
gently |iursucd  in  the  past  that  our  knowledge  of  it  is  to  be 
extended  only  by  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  its 
structure,  and  by  a  broader  basis  of  comparison.  The  rec- 
ognition of  this  fact  has  led  anatomists  to  devote  themselves 
largely  to  histology,  embi-yology,  and  morphology  as  the 
most  fruitful  fields  for  research.  The  rich  harv<'s't  of  new 
facts,  recorded  since  about  1880  up  to  the  present  time 
(1892)  coiu-erning  the  structure  of  various  organs  (especial- 
ly of  the  nervous  system),  the  development  of  the  body,  and 
the  significance  and  relation  of  obscure  parts,  proves  such 
anticipations  to  be  well  founded.         George  A.  Piersol. 

Anatomy.  Comparativp:  the  science  of  the  structund 
constitution  of  animals;  so  called  liecausc  it  is  ilerived  from 
the  comparison  of  the  anatomy  of  dilferent  aninuds. 

Animal  bodies  consist  either  of  lunuogcneous  substance 
or  of  that  sulistance  disposed  in  tissues.  Tissues,  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases,  are  maile  up  into  organs,  the  sini- 


FiQ.  1. — Amoeba,  Rhizopods. 


plest  forms  of  which  are  the  sac,  the  tube,  and  the  segment 
By  multiplication  and  modification  of  these  elements,  organs 
become  complex.  The  simplest  expression  of  tissue  is,  on 
the  otlier  hand,  the  nucleated  cell,  and  all  tissues  are  made 
of  multii'lied  and  modified  cells,  with  the  addition  of  un- 
organized or  homogeneous  substance. 

This  substance,  whether  homogeneous  or  exliibiting  stnic- 
ture,  is  chemically  identical  throughout  the  animal  king- 
dom, and  constitutes  the  living  part  of  plants.  It  belongs 
to  the  class  of  protein  compounds,  and  is  called  gelatin, 
albumen,  fibrin,  etc.,  or,  regarded  structurally,  protoplasm 
or  sarcode.  Its  composition  is  C24Hi7Ns08,  with  very  small 
amounts  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  added  under  some  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  therefore  a  nitryl  of  cellidose — i.  e.  C24HJ0- 
Ojo  +  SNHa. 

According  to  the  latest  investigations,  the  cell  is  not 
a  hollow  body,  but  consists  of  protoplasm  (the  cytoplasm) 
which  may  or  may  not  possess  a  superficial  layer,  which 
represents  the  wall  (but  which  may  be  of  considerable  thick- 
ness), and  a  smaller  body  within  it,  which  is  calleil  the  nucleus. 
This  nucleus  may  contain  another  visibly  distinct  body,  or 
nucleolus.  It  is 
connected  with 
the  cell-wall  by 
a  system  of  ra- 
diating fibers, 
which,  like  the 
nucleus,  can  be 
stained  with  va- 
rious reagents, 
the  stainable 
substance  being 
called  chroma- 
tin. The  essen- 
tial difference 
between  the 
chromatin  and 
file  cytoplasm 
consists  in  the 
fact  that  all  growth  originates  in  the  nucleus ;  that  is.  all 
cell-division  has  its  origin  there.  Hence  it  has  been  called 
the  germinal  matter,  whUe  the  c}'toplasra  is  termed  foi'med 
matter.  Formed  matter  exhibits  the  active  functions  of  life 
other  than  growth.  Thus  it  contracts,  as  in  muscular  tissue, 
or  is  irritable  and  conductive  of  force,  as  in  nerves.  It  con- 
stitutes the  primary  substance  of  secretions,  by  its  breaking 
down  and  nungling  with  special  compounds  brought  by  the 
blood.  It  may  then  be  concluded  that  the  formed  proto- 
jjlasm  or  cytoplasm  converts  energy  into  motion,  chemism. 
etc..  wlule  the  germinal  or  nuclear  matter  converts  it  into 
growth-force. 

The  science  of  the  structure  of  tissues  is  termed  His- 
tology, and  is  treated  of  under  that  head.  The  present 
article  will  include  only  the  description  of  organs,  or  organ- 
ography. 

I.  Organs  and  Systems. 

Tissues  arranged  and  united  in  forms,  so  as  to  be  usable 
for  vital  processes,  form  organs.  All  organs  not  constructed 
of  cells  alone  are  composed  of  elementary  parts,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  repetitions  of  the  sac,  the  tube,  or  the  seg- 
nu'nt,  no  matter  how  complex  they  may  be.  The  organs  are 
classified  into  systems  by  their  structural  connection  with 
one  another,  which,  of  coiu'se,  signifies  functional  association 
for  some  common  vital  pi'ocess.    The  systems  are  as  follows: 

1.  Cflhilar  Systems. — The  nervous,  the  muscular,  the  mu- 
codernud. 

2.  Sac  and  Tuhe.  Systems.— The  digestive,  the  circulatory, 
the  res)iiratory,  the  urogenital. 

3.  Sei/ment  Sysfeyn. — The  skeletal  and  epidermic. 

The  nervous  system  consists  of  central  liodies  or  ganglia, 
and  nerves  which  extend  from  them  to  the  periphery  of  the 
body.  The  structure  presents  much  variation  among  the 
several  grouiis  of  animals.  The  muscular  is  conqiosed  of 
muscles  and  the  tendons  liy  which  they  are  attached  to  the 
part  of  the  skeleton  to  be  moved  by  them.  The  nniscles  are 
composed  of  innumeralile  filirilhe  inclosed  in  a  common 
sheath.  The  bundles  in  invertebrate  animals  are  smaller, 
till  in  some  of  the  lowest  they  are  composed  of  but  few 
fibrilla\  Unstriped  fibers  exhibit  less  energetic  contractions 
than  the  stri]ied.  They  prevail  in  invertebrate  animals,  ex- 
cepting the  Arthropoda,  where  the  muscles  are  striped.  The 
fillers  in  vertelirates  are  striped,  excepting  in  involuntary 
muscles,  where  they  are  unstriped,  save  only  in  the  heart. 


ANATOMY,   COMPARATH^ 


181 


In  invertebrates  they  may  have  tliick  slicallis,  ami  the  con- 
tents are  frequently  granular.  In  most  Artliruimdii  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  striped  fibrillar  retains  the  original  cell-nuclei 
in  one  or  more  columns.  The  mucodermal  system  covers 
the  body  externally,  and  a.s  mucous  nu'ndnane  enters  and 
lines  all  the  cavities  that  communicate  with  the  o|)en  air;  as 
serous  membrane  it  lines  the  closed  cavities.  In  animals  no 
system  presents  greater  varieties  of  exterior  structure.  In 
invertebrates  it  is  sometimes  hardened  in  segments  produced 
by  a  deposit  of  lime,  which  resemble  bone  (sea-urchin),  or 
form  a  more  elastic  substance — chitin  (Arthropoda).  In 
vertebrates  it  may  support  osseous  pieces  of  various  forms 
(scales),  or  haii-s,  or  feathers,  which  are  simply  enlarged  hairs 
finely  liranched.  Finally,  as  horn,  it  apiiears  as  nails,  claws, 
and  horn-sheaths;  these  are  simply  thicKened  epidermis. 

The  dige.stive  system  is  a  tube  usually  open  at  both  ex- 
tremities. Portions  of  its  course  are  enlarged  into  stomach, 
large  intestine,  etc.,  w'hile  glandular  liodies  ar<'  distributed 
along  it  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  pour  their  contents 
into  it.     These  glaiuls  are  formed  of  sacs,  in  a  few  cases 

simple  (Fig.  3:i) 
(gastric  glands  of 
stomach),  in  others 
simply  forked,  liut 
usually  many  times 
divided  and  sub- 
divided, forming 
masses  of  lobules. 
Some  of  these  bod- 
ies are  almost  uni- 
versal in  the  ani- 
nnil  kingdom.  Thus 
it  is  usual  to  find 
one  or  more  situ- 
ated near  the  cav- 
ity of  the  mouth 
(Fig.  24),  which  se- 
cretes a  fluid  to  aid 
in  deglutition ;  an- 
other, most  fre- 
quently met  with, 
discharges  its  secre- 
tion into  the  ali- 
mentary canal  just 
beyond  tlic  stom- 
ach. This  is  the  liver  and  its  representatives.  The  walls  of 
the  canal  are  supplied  with  several  layers  of  muscular  tissue 
in  the  vertebrates,  and  in  a  less  complex  form  in  lower  ani- 
mals. 

The  circulatory  system  consists  of  tubes  for  the  conduct 
of  the  results  of  digestion  throughout  the  body:  it  consists 
of  liranches  of  the  digestive  canal  in  the  lowest  ty])es 
(MkIuxiv).  lint  becomes  highly  specialized,  so  that  communi- 
cation witli  that  system  is  had  by  endosmosis  only.  It  early 
acquires  a  specially  muscular  eidargemcnt,  which  pulsates. 
This  organ  becomes  more  specialized,  isolated,  and  divided, 
and  is  known  as  ih  heart.  The  arteries  (which  take  blood 
from  it)  are  muscular  throughout  their  length.  The  veins 
are  not  so,  but  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  valves  in 
the  higher  animals. 

The  respiratory  system  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes  which 
carry  air  through  the  body;  in  some  animals  (snails,  spiders) 
these  are  blind.  IVirming  pulmonary  sacs,  on  which  capillary 
arteries  arc!  distributed.  In  animals  inhabiting  the  water 
this  system  is  little  or  not  at  all  develofied.  il  being  replaced 
by  branchiic  or  gills.  In  vertebrates  it  does  not  exist,  but 
large  sacs,  connected  by  tuljes  with  the  digestive  system, 
answer  the  same  functional  purpose,  except  among  fishes. 
where  it  is  used  as  a  float.  Gills  attached  to  the  head-skele- 
ton aerate  the  blood  in  this  class. 

The  urogi!nital  system  consists  of  tnlies,  sacs,  and  glandu- 
lar and  cellular  liodies.  which  are  connected  with  the  outer 
air  at  \\w  posterior  end  of  most  animals,  and  are  usually 
blind  at  their  lenniiii.  Their  exit  is  usually  common  lo  the 
aliuienlary  canal,  the  so-called  cloaca.  These  organs  exhibit 
usually  liilater.-U  syiiniietry,  the  opposite  sides  having  distinct 
exits,  except  among  females  of  some  of  tlie  higher  animals, 
where  the  discharge-tubes  unite  and  form  a  chamber  called 
the  uterus.  The  tubes  are  termed  ovidiicts(or  tub.T  Pallojiii), 
and  terminate  near  to  a  fibrous  and  cellular  body,  tlu'  ovary. 
In  its  circumference  appear  cells,  which  grow,  and  after  dis- 
charge are  modified  into  the  embryo.  Originally,  the  em- 
bryo-cells of  low  .■miiuiils  grow  into  adults  by  a  siuqile  process 
of  division,  but  in  higher  forms  a  stimulus  to  such  growth  is 


FiG.  2.— Epistylis  nutans. 


reipiired  from  the  other  or  male  sex.  In  this  sex  the  ovaries 
produce,  by  a  form  of  secretion,  independent  cells,  each  of 
which  bears  a  long  cilia  or  lash  (spermatozooids),  and  being 
modified  in  structure  are  pro]ierly  termed  testes.  The  effer- 
ent tube  is  calleil  the  vas  derereii.s.  These  only  unite  near 
their  (loint  of  exit.  The  urinary  system  is  present  in  the 
vertebrates  only.  Tubes  connect  it  with  the  reproductive 
canals  near  tlicir  termini.  These  are  derivcid  from  paired 
glandular  bodies,  the  kidneys,  and  usually  unite  into  a  com- 
mon reservoir  before  exit — i.e.  the  urinary  bladder.  The 
object  is  the  removal  of  uric  acid,  etc.,  from  the  blood. 

The  skeletal  system  exists  only  in  vertebrates.  It  consti- 
tutes the  solid  framework  of  the  body,  and  is  axial  or  in- 
ternal. It  is  composed  of  cartilaginous  and  osseous  tissue. 
It  is  composed  of  segments,  which  possess  a  solid  centerpiece 
and  two  opposite  arches  attached  to  it — one  superior,  the 
other  inferior.  It  thus  forms  two  tubes  connected  by  a  solid 
axis.  The  upper  protects  the  nervous — the  lower,  the  nutri- 
tive organs.  Each  segment  is  divisible  into  sub-segments, 
which  are  originally  separate.  These  are  much  modified  in 
form  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body — above,  to  contain 
the  brain ;  below,  to  aid  the  .sense  of  hearing,  to  accomplish 
mastication,  respiration  (in  fishes),  etc.  Appendages  to  in- 
ferior segments  are  seen  in  limbs,  which  are  the  siip].)orts  of 
the  boily  and  o\ercome  resistance  in  motion.  They  are  also 
composed  of  segments  arranged  in  lines  or  radii. 

II.  Classification  of  Animals. 

All  known  animals  are  referable  to  seven  "  branches  "  or 
primary  types.  Four  plans  of  structure  cover  these,  without 
expressing  their  intimate  or  essential  structure.  The  four 
are  the  radiated  (Coelentcrata  and  Ecliinodermata) ;  the 
longitudinally  jointed,  with  external  and  ring-shaped  skele- 
ton (Vermes  and  Artlirojioda);  the  bag-shaped  (Mollusca 
and  some  Protozoa);  anil  the  vertelirated,  whose  essential 
character  is  mentioned  above  under  the  skeleton  of  the 
Vertebrata.  The  characters  may  now  be  given  in  more  de- 
tail. 

Branch  I.,  Prnfnzoa. — Low  animals,  composed  of  single 
cells  or  protoplasmic  masses,  without  blood  or  nerves.  When 
svmmetrical,  bilateral  or  radiate. 


S^ 


Fio.  3.  — T'/oa  Freycri,  TTaiu'.;  a^  ciitirt'  animal  on  a  shell  of  Pla<nma 
placenta;  h,  v.  the  sporitr<*  rt-nioved,  the  branches  iu  different 
stages  of  growth;  d,  siucules. 

Brnndi  II..  C<eh'7iffraf(f. — ^rulticolluUir  iiniinals.  without 
body-CHvity  (cceloin),  and  consisting  of  two  layers  only  (ccto- 


182 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


Fig.  4.  — relagia. 


derm  and  entodenn)  inclosing  a  sac-like  stomach  or  common 
cavity.  The  circulatory  system  is  wanting  or  represented 
by  branches  from  the  digestive  cavity.  A  peripheral  nerv- 
ous system.  The  form 
is  radial  and  bilateral, 
or  radial  only. 

Branch  III..  Echi- 
nodermata.—D\gesi\\e 
system  independent  of 
the  body-walls,  not 
filling  the  cavity ;  the 
circulatory  system 
])resent,  largely  iso- 
lated ;  a  watei'-circu- 
hitory  system ;  nerv- 
ous system  an  oesopha- 
geal ring,  with  radii ; 
skin  with  hard  protec- 
tive bodies.  Form  bi- 
lateral and  radial. 

Branch  IV.,  Vermes. 
— Digestive  system 
isolated,  co^lom  pres- 
ent or  absent ;  circu- 
latory system  incom- 
]  ilete  or  wanting;  nerv- 
ous system  an  cesopha- 
geal  ring,  connected 
by  a  nervous  axis  with 
ganglia,  or  consisting  of  the  cliief  ganglia  only.  No  jointed 
limbs:  body  elongate. 

Branch  V.,  Mollnsm. — Alimentary  canal  complete,  iso- 
lated; circulatory  system  incomplete  at  the  distal  extremi- 
ties ;  nervous  system  with  ring  round  oesophagus,  which 
bears  a  ganglion  above  and  one  below ;  a  third  ganglion  in- 
feriorly  placed,  connected  by  a  ring  with  the  former.  Form 
sac-like. 

Branch  VI.,  Arthropoda. — Digestive  system  complete; 
circulatory  witli  complete  central  organ,  but  open  extremi- 
ties ;  nervous  system  with  oesophageal  ring  and  ganglia,  and 
generally  an  axis  on  the  inferior  surface  of  body,  with  gan- 
glia at  intervals.  Skiu  liardened  into  a  chitinous,  jointed 
skeleton,  whicli  is  furuisla'd  with  jointed  legs.  Form  bi- 
lateral. 

Branch  VII.,  Verlcbrafa. — Alimentary  system  complete  ; 
respiratory,  a  l)rancli  from  it ;  circulatory,  with  complete 
circuit :  nervous,  of  a  longitudinal  ganglionic  axis  on  the 
upper  side  (spinal  cord),  with  usually  ganglionic  bodies  at 
one  end  (brain).  An  intern;d  bony  or  cartilaginous  skele- 
ton, consisting  of  solid  axis,  a  superior  tube  for  nervous  and 
an  inferior  for  other  systems.     Form  bilateral. 

A  few  decades  ago  the  uumlier  of  species  of  animals  known 
was  stated  to  be  .500,001).  of  whicli  400.000  were  Arthropoda ; 
of  the  remaindi'r,  25.000  were  Vertebrata.  There  are  now 
estimated  to  be  at  least  1.000.000  sjiecies  of  Insecta  alone. 

The  classes  of  animals  number  thirty-six,  distributed  and 
defined  as  follows : 

Protozoa. — lihizopoda. — Bodies  of  unorganized  proto- 
plasm, which  throws  out  threads  or  arms  of  the  same  sub- 
stance, which  arc  clastically  retractile.  No  internal  organs. 
Often  a  siliceous  or  calcareous  covering,  which  is  pei'forated. 
(Pig.  1.) 

Infusoria. — Body  with  wall  distinguished  from  contents, 
with  mouth  and  often  aims  ;  often  a  contractile  vesicle  and 
ovarian  nucleus.     Surface  frcfiuently  ciliated.     (Fig.  2.) 

CcEi.KNTERAT.^.  —  S/joiii/iii'.  —  ( I''ig.  3.)  Body  cavity  sur- 
roundiMl  liy  fbigellatc  cells,  which  are  generally  sujiportcd 
by  axes  of  a  horny,  I'alcareous,  or  siliceous  nature,  forming 
liranched  nnusses.  Body-walls  perforated  by  canals.  No 
thread-cells. 

Mediixiv  (jellyfish). — Digestive  system  an  open  sac  with- 
out O'sophagus  or  septa,  from  wliich  canals  radiate  as  iso- 
lated grooves.  Passing  through  a  hydroid  metamorphosis. 
Form  discoidal.     (Fig.  4.) 

Cleiiii/jhnrn. — .\n  (esophagus  and  gastric  cavity  without 
septa  or  radiating  tubes.  Koriii  globnlar.  cylindric,  or  band 
shaped,  with  eigiil  meridional  rows  of  vibratile  plates. 

Aiitlii/zoii  {cAirnU.  i-{(\). — Digestive  system  an  (esophagus 
and  an  ai)pen(led  sac,  the  latter  divided  round  the  walls  by 
vertical  se[)la  into  grooves,  which  couliuue  into  tubular  ten- 
tacles. Septa  and  skin  often  tilled  with  deposit  of  carbonate 
of  lime.     (Kig.  .').)     No  hydroid  metamorphosis. 

EciiixoDKHMATA. — Cri iiiiiili'd . — Body  cup  shaped,  the  sur- 
face covered   with   mineralized    plates,   which   are   solidly 


united,  but  wanting  on  a  part  next  the  stomach  ;  arms  and 
stem  present,  formed  of  articulating  segments.     (Fig.  6.) 

Asferida. — Body  depressed,  star  shaped,  covered  with  cal- 
careous plates,  which  are  wanting  on  a  part  of  the  dorsal 
surface,  and  which  articulate  with  each  other  in  clusters 
(starfishes).     (Fig.  T.) 

Echinida. — Body  discoidal  or  globular,  surface  covered 
with  calcareous  plates,  which  are  immovably  united  to- 
gether ;  no  arms  (sea-urchins).     (Fig.  8.) 

Ilololhuridu. — Body  elongated,  cylindric,  covered  with 
soft  skin  :  a  calcareous  ring  round  oesophagus ;  mouth  sur- 
roiniiled  by  tentacles;  anus  terminal  (trepang-s).     (Fig.  9.) 

Vermes. — liutatorin. — Alimentary  canal  developed  in  the 
hollow  body  ;  ciliated  disks  or  wheel-organs  for  movement ; 
a  water-circulatory  system. 

lurbellaria. — Body  unjointed.  flat,  solid,  except  in  the 
developed  digestive  canals ;  nervous  system  of  two  supra- 
cesophageal  ganglia  ;  surface  covered  with  cilia.     No  anus. 

Cestuda. — Body  jointed,  nearly  solid,  without  digestive 
system  ;  head  with  suckers  and  hooks ;  a  water-circulatory 
system  (tapeworm). 

Treinafiida. — Body  not  jointed,  solid  except  in  the  de- 
veloped digestive  tubes,  and  water-circulatory  system  ;  head 
with  suckers  and  hooks  (flukes).     No  anus. 

Acnntliucephola. — Body  hollow,  not  jointed,  cylindric, 
without  digestive  canal ;  head  with  a  hook-bearing  pro- 
boscis. 

yrmntoda. — Body  lioUow,  unjointed:  digestive  canal  well 
developed. 

Gephyrea. — Body  cylindric,  not  jointed,  alimentary  canal 
complete  in  the  hollow  body  ;  a  nervous  system,  an  oesopha- 
geal ring  and  abdominal  axis. 

Annelida. — Body  hollow,  segmented,  with  well-developed 
digestive  canal  and  nervous  system  ;  the  latter  an  oesopna- 
geal  ring  and  ;ilidomiiial  ganglion  chain  ;  a  system  of  respi- 
ratory tubes  (eai-thworm,  etc.).     (Fig.  9.) 

MoLn;s('A. — Brfjozoa. — Head,  tongue,  and  foot  wanting  : 
a  shell-]>r()ducing  mantle  inclosing  the  hinder  portion  of 
the  body  ;  mouth  surrounded  by  a  crest  of  tentacles  as  res- 
piratory organs.     Nervous  system  rudiinental.     (Fig.  10.) 

Brack  iopoda. — Head,  foot,  and  tongue  absent ;  mantle 
large,  bearing  large  shells,  which  are  dorsal  and  ventral ; 
branchia-  supported  on  two  spiral  arms,  which  are  attached 
to  the  shell.     (Fig.  11.) 

Acepliahi. — Head  and  tongue  wanting,  foot  anterior; 
mantle  covering  the  body  on  each  side,  and  inclosing  laniini- 
form  branchia" ;  two  shells,  right  and  left  (mussel,  clam). 
(Fig.  12.) 

Gasteropoda. — Head,  tongue,  and  foot  present,  the  latter 
extending  posteriorly  ;  mantle  small,  posterior  :  gills  comb- 
like on  tiie  liack.  Shell,  when  present,  single,  spiral  (conch, 
snail).     (Fig.  18.) 

Pteropoda. — Head,  tongue,  and  foot,  the  latter  developed 
into  two  lateral  fins ;  mantle  covering  the  hinder  part  of 
bodv  :  gills  comb-like  on  the  back.     (Fig.  14.) 


yMmi 


Fig.  5. — Paractis  alha  : 


idiietive  organ  of 


Cephalopoda. — Head  and  tongue  present  ;  loot  divided 
into  arms,  which  radiate  from  the  mouth  as  a  center ;  pos- 
terior jiart  of  bodv  inclosed  in  a  mantle  :  gills  on  back ;  car- 
tilages behind  evi'.s,  and  i,'ani;lia  in  lu^ad  (cuttlefish).  (Pig. 
1.1) 

.VRriiRol'oDA. — (^nisfacea. — Two  pairs  of  antenna';  po.st- 
abdomen  developed  ;  limbs  on  all  .segments  of  the  body, 
those  of  the  thorax  converted  into  iiKHith-organs ;  respira- 
tory organs,  gills  or  wanting  (shrimp,  crab).     (Fig.  16.) 

Arachnidd. — No  antenna'  nor  anterior  cephalic  segments; 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE. 


183 


the  last  pair  of  cephalic  limbs  of  the  form  of  legs ;  three 
additional  paii-s  on  the  thorax ;  head  and  thorax  united 
into  a  f-eplialotliorax,  abdomen  and  developed  post-abdo- 
men witliout  legs;  respiration  by  trachea;  or  sacs  (spider, 
scorpion). 

Myriopodti. — One  pair  of  antennae  ;  a  part  of  the  thoracic 
limbs  used  as  mouth-organs ;  abdomen  not  distinguished, 
many  jointed,  furnished  witli  limbs  througliout:  post-abdo- 
men rudimentary ;  respiration  by  means  of  trachea;  (centi- 
pedes). 

Inxecta. — One  pair  of  antenna; ;  abdomen  without  limbs, 
post-al)clomen  rudimentary;  three  pairs  of  limbs  on  the 
tliorax  ;  res|)irati<)ii  by  means  of  tracheie  ;  usually  two  pairs 
of  wings  (insects),    (l^ig.  17.) 

Vertebrata. —  Tunicata. — Xotochord  in  the  tail  of  the 
larva  or  adult;  head,  tongue,  and  foot  wanting;  a  large  bag- 
like mantle,  which  incloses  a  fissured  branchial  sac.  Xerv- 
ous  system  with  one  central  ganglion.     (Fig.   lf<.) 

Enleropneuiita. — No  mantle  ;  branchial  fissures  external ; 
a  chorda  dorsalis,  but  no  other  skeleton.  Nervous  system 
consisting  of  dorsal  and  ventral  axes. 

Lepldcdrdii. — Notochord  below  the  nervous  axis.  No 
cranium;  no  brain;  heart  with  one  chamber;  five  aorta- 
roots.     Branchial  sac  and  fissures  internal  (lancelet). 

Afinntliii. — Cranium  and  skeleton  cartilaginous  ;  no  man- 
dibular arch;  heart  with  two  chambers;  five  aorta-roots; 
(lamprey). 

Pisces. — Cranium  and  skeleton  osseous  or  cartilaginous, 
or  both,  with  under  jaw  complex,  and  supported  by  hyo- 
mandil)ular  bone,  etc.  Limbs  with  many  segments  in  indefi- 
nite lunuber,  forming  fins;  pelvis  mostly  rejiresented  by 
I)ubis.  Brain  well  developed;  hemispheres  with  a  velum  ; 
optic  lobes  generally  larger;  cerebellum  distinct ;  two  cham- 
bers of  tlie  heart ;  five  aorta-roots  on  each  side.  Basicranial 
axis  not  ossified. 

Batrachia. — Skeleton  osseous ;  cranium  with  parasphe- 
noid,  no  biisisphenoid ;  under  jaw  complex,  and  supported 
by  a  .single  "quadrate"  bone;  two  occipital  condyles; 
limbs  with  humerus  and  two  propoilial  bones  and  few  radii 
forming  feet ;  pelvis  present ;  brain  with  cereliral  hemi- 
spheres lai'gest,  and  smaU  cerebellum.  Three  chambers  to 
the  heart ;  four  or  three  aorta-roots ;  a  coracoid  bone,  e.  g. 
the  salamander,  frog.     (Fig.  19.) 

MonocondyUa. — Skeleton  osseous,  with  coracoid  bone  and 
nnmdible,  latter  complex,  and  supported  by  quadrate;  no 


Fig.  6.—Plut!icriniis  triitconluilactiitus.  McCoy:  A,  side  view;  B, 
t»'ruiinus"of  arm;  C,  articular  surface  of  a  stem-segment;  D, 
structure  of  the  basin  or  body. 

parasphenoid.  but  sphenoids  and  a  basi-occipital  with  one 
occipital  condyle;  brain  with  large  cerebral  hemispheres; 
two  or  one  aorta-roots  and  aorta-bows;  heart  with  tliree  or 
four  chambers;  limbs  as  in  liitlrar.hia. 

Miimmah'd. — Skc^leton  osseous,  generally  without  coracoid 
bone;  with  the  simph;  mandible  sessile  on  the  squamosal 
bone;  biusicranial  axis  ossified,  and  with  two  occipital  con- 
dyles; limbs  with  distinct  tarsal  and  usually  metatai-sal 
bimes;  optic  lobes  small:  cerebral  hemispheres  very  large; 
one  aorta-root  and  bow,  turning  to  the  left;  heart  with  four 
chambere. 

The  preceding  descriptions  express  a  few  of  the  structural 


Fig. 


-Opbiura. 


peculiarities  of  the  animals  included  in  the  respective  di- 
visions— i.  e.  such  as  are  common  to  tho.se  of  each,  and  by 
which  they  may  be  distinguished  from  each  other.  But  the 
innumerable  characters  found  in  the  subordinate  or  C(m- 
tained  divisions  and  species  of  each  remain  to  be  considered. 

III.  The  Nervous  System. 

1.  In  Invertebrates. — In  Protozoa,  where  the  nervous 
system  has  not  been  certainly  discovered,  spontaneous  move- 
liients  in  the  taking  of 
food  and  moving  from 
place  to  place  are  read- 
ily observed.  It  is  there- 
fore evident  that  the 
contractiliility  of  their 
protoplasmic  walls  is  un- 
der the  direction  of  stim- 
uli which  do  not  require 
nerves  for  their  conduc- 
tion or  direction.  The 
nervous  system  of  higher 
animals  must  therefore 
be  looked  upon  as  de- 
signed for  the  specializa- 
tion or  location  of  movements — a  capacity  entirely  necessary 
to  the  activity  of  special  mental  pow'ei-s.  These  demand  par- 
ticular movements  for  special  objects;  hence  the  necessity 
of  concentrating  the  directors  of  movements  in  particular 
parts — i.  e.  neiTcs,  muscles,  etc. 

In  Coelenterata  one  or  two  nervous  threads  follow  the  bor- 
der of  the  disk,  except  in  Hydra,  etc.,  where  nervous  func- 
tions are  performed  by  neuromuscular  cells. 

In  the  Bryozoa.  the  lowest  moUusks,  there  is  not  certainly 
known  to  lie  an  oesophageal  ring,  but  there  is  a  considerable 
ganglion  above  the  gullet,  which  sends  nervous  threads 
around  the  horseshoe  respiratory  crest.  One  of  these  ex- 
tends on  each  side  at  the  base  of  the  processes ;  but,  though 
they  approach,  they  are  not  known  to  unite  on  the  inside  of 
the  arc.  In  Tunicata  in  like  manner  a  single  ganglion  ex- 
ists above  the  a'sophagus,  between  it  and  the  vent,  and  sends 
out  nerves  in  a  radiating  manner.  These  are  distributed  to 
the  orifices  of  the  body  and  to  the  muscles.  In  Brachiopoda 
the  system  is  more  highly  developed,  there  being  a  complete 
oesophageal  ring,  with  a  broad,  band-shaped  ganglion  on  the 
inferior  side.  The  latter  represents  two  united  ganglia,  and 
gives  ofl"  on  each  side  a  strong  nervous  trunk.  These  tninks 
tiu'n  forward  and  outward,  and  .soon  divide,  the  weaker 
branch  going  to  the  spiral  respiratory  arms,  representing 
that  above  described  in  the  Bryozoa.  The  stronger  branch 
goes  to  the  muscles  that  close  the  shells,  to  the  mantle,  etc. 
Each  one  forms  a  ring  in  the  former  locality,  which  gives 
off  small  threads.  In  Acephala  (called  also  lainellil>ranchs 
or  bivalves)  there  are  three  well-si'jiarated  jiairs  of  ganglia, 
the  ganglia  of  each  pair  connected  by  a  commissure.  The 
anterior  pair  is  near  the  mouth :  they  are  rarely  united 
(Jfcuodesma,  Ten-do);  they  give  off  on  each  side  a  nen'- 
ous  thread  w-hich  extends  to  the  foot,  and  is  connected 
with  the  foot-ganglion  pair.  These  are  wanting  in  the  oys- 
ter and  other  genera  which  want  the  foot.  This  forms  an 
open  cesophageal-ring.  The  nerves  of  the  foot  are  derived 
from  the  ganglion,  but  nf)ne  of  the  intestinal  nerves.  These 
are  derived  from  the  third  pair  of  ganglia,  which  are  the 
most  posterior,  and  which  are  connected  with  I  lie  front  pair 
bv  a  nervous  stem  on  each  side,  fonuing  a  second  ring  round 
the  digestive  axis.  It  sends  nerves  to  the  mantle,  gills,  etc., 
meeting  those  from  the  anterior  ganglia.  In  Ostna.  Pinna, 
Mytiliis,  etc.,  its  nerves  contribute  to  form  a  circuit  which 
extends  round  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  connecting  with  the 
anterior  pair. 

In  Gasteropoda  the  ganglia  and  commissures  are  homolo- 
gous with  those  of  the  Acephala.  but  the  former  are  concen- 
trated near  the  mouth,  forming  much  more  contracted  rings. 
The  two  supra-cesojiliageal  ganglia  (or  "brain  ganglia")  are 
connected  by  short  commissures.  They  send  down  com- 
missures to  the  foot-ganglia,  which  are  close  to  the  a'sojiha- 
gus;  the  visceral  ganglia  or  tliird  pair  are  behind  these,  and 
connected  with  the  su]5erior  ganglia  by  special  commissures; 
sometimes  they  are  on  the  upper  side  of  the  (esophagus,  and 
connected  by  commissure  below  it.  The  superior  sends 
nerves  to  the  lips,  mouth,  tentacles,  and  eyes;  the  foot- 
ganglia  to  the  un<ler  side  of  the  (esophagus,  to  the  ear,  and 
the  foot;  the  visceral  ganglia  to  the  mantle,  giUs,  heart, 
intestines,  and  certain  muscles.  In  the  naked  division 
(Opisthobranchia)  the  upper  ganglia  give  a  special  ganglion 


184 


ANATOMY,  COMPAEATH'E 


to  the  tentacles ;  the  foot-ganglia  in  like  manner  are  ad- 
joined by  a  pair  for  the  gills.  In  Chiton  all  three  pairs  of 
ganglia  are  found  on  the  inferior  side  of  the  oesophagus.  In 
Turbo,  Liflorina,  Jantkinn,  PhasianeUa,  and  Patella  the 
superior  pair  occupies  the  opposite  sides  of  the  gullet.  In 
Natica  aU  three  are  closely  massed  togetlier.  As  in  other 
higher  MoUusca.  a  sympathetic  nervous  system  exists  which 
supplies  the  involuntary  organs  of  the  body. 

Tiie  Ptnopoila  exhibit  the  three  paii-s  of  ganglia  con- 
nected by  commissure.  In  the  Gymnosomata  they  are  all 
separate,  but  in  the  Thefo.wmata  they  are  concentrated  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  oesophagus,  so  as  not  to  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished. 

In  Cephalopoda  this  system  displays  the  most  concen- 
trated type  known  among  moUusks.  In  Nautilus  the 
ganglia  in-e  almost  confluent,  and  form  thick  bands,  one 
above  and  two  hclnw  the  Cfsophagus.  The  cerebral  pair 
give  off  each  an  enormous  optic  nerve,  appropriate  to  the 
size  of  the  eyes  in  this  cla-ss.  The  pedal  pair  su]i])ly  the 
tentacles  and  organ  of  .hearing,  and  the  visceral  pair  the 
other  organs.  Tlie  inferior  arches  rest  on  the  cephalic 
cartilage  which  characterizes  the  Cephalopoda. 

Tlie  nervous  system  is  in  many  of  the  Vermes  very  imper- 
fectly develo])ed,  including  the  oesophageal  ganglia  with  a 
few  divergent  nerves.  In  the  Annelida  the  most  highly 
developed  condition  is  observed,  where  each  body  segment 
possesses  a  ganglion  connected  by  a  longitudinal  double 
commissure,  which  originates  from  tlie  ring.  In  the  Ar- 
thropoda  this  tyije  is  also  the  basis  of  the  various  arrange- 
ments observed,  and  is  constantly  discoverable  in  the  larva- 
of  the  various  forms.  As  a  general  rale,  it  may  be  under- 
stood that  where  a  special  organ  exists  the  ganglion  of  the 
segment  in  or  on  whicli  it  is  placed  is  enlarged  for  its  sup- 
ply, as  in  the  thoracic  ganglia  of  insects.  Here  several  seg- 
ments are  confluent ;  correspondingly,  nervous  ganglia  unite, 
forming  larger  masses,  thus  supplying  the  legs  and  wings. 
The  transition  from  the  simple  type  found  in  the  larvse  to 

the     modified     and 
concentrated     ty|:ies 
of    the    adults     has 
often  been  observed 
in  tracing  the  history 
of  the   growth   and 
metamorphosis  of  in- 
sects.    In  the  Criis- 
f'tcea  and  Arachii  ida 
I  he  concentration   is 
I  iirried  still  further 
than  in  insects.  Thus 
in  some  lower  Cnis- 
tacea  there   are   nu- 
merous ganglia,  and 
the   lateral  commis- 
sures of  the  abdominal  axis  are  only  united  in  front :  in  the 
highest  division,  the  Derupoda  (craiis.  lobsters,  etc.),  the  axis 
is  largely  undivided,  is  short,  and  the  ganglia  are  massed  to- 
gether.    In  the  scori)ions  (Pedipalpi)  there  are  but  few  dis- 
tinct ganglia,  l)ut  in  the  spiders  {Aranea)  there  are  no  gan- 
glia in  tlie  aliiloinen.  and  the  nervous  axis  is  short,  ma-ssed 
together,  anil  undivided.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  lowest 
Arachiiida,  the  Araridd',  there  is  no  abdominal  axis  by  de- 
fect, and  the  ci'sopliageal  ring  is  incomplete  above,  remind- 
ing one  of  t]u'  condition  i>{  llie  lowest  MoUusca. 

2.  I.\  V'ehtkisrates. — In  this  branch  the  nervous  system 
reaches  its  highest  development,  though  in  the  lowest  form, 
the  Leplorardii.  it  can  hardly  be  considered  to  be  more  per- 
fect functionally  than  in  many  J/o//».'.rrt.  Here  there  is  a 
spinal  cord  or  niedulla,  but  no  brain,  l)iit  in  its  place  a  slight 
enlargement  of  the  diameter  of  the  medulla. 

The  spinal  cord  of  vertebrates,  like  the  lirain,  is  composed 
of  gray  and  wliite  nerve-tissue,  the  gray  lieing  the  ganglionic 
or  cellular  tissue,  and  the  wliite  the  fibrous  or  conducting. 
Unlike  the  brain,  the  spinal  medulla  possesses  the  white 
substance  externally,  and  the  gi-ay  internally.  The  cord  is 
divided  longitudinally  by  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  fissure 
of  some  depth,  and  by  two  less  profound  lateral  ones.  The 
gray  substance  exhibits  in  section  a  crescentic  outline,  the 
horns  of  t  lie  crescent  being  turned  externally  and  reaching 
the  lateral  grooves.  Here  each  horn  gives  origin  to  a  nerv- 
ous stem,  and  the  two  soon  unite  and  pass  out  through  a 
foramen  In'tween  the  vertebra'.     The  posterior  bears  a  gan- 

flion,  and  is  devoted  to  the  function  of  sensibility  or  feeling ; 
ence  it  is  termed  "  sensory."     The  anterior  is  the  smaller, 
and  is  termed  "  motor,"  as  its  oflice  is  to  convey  the  stimulus 


^> 


which  gives  origin  to  muscular  movements  or  contractions. 
After  leaving  the  spinal  column  the  single  stem  divides 
again,  each  branch  containing  fibers  from  both  roots.  The 
extremity  of  the  cord  is  divided  into  a  number  of  radiating 
tlireails.  together  constituting  the  cauda  equina.  In  all  the 
Vertebrata.  from  the  Dermopferi  to  (and  including)  the 
Ares,  there  is  an  axial  tube  of  small  diameter;  in  Mammalia 
this  is  wanting,  except  a  short  anterior  trace  of  it.  Birds 
add  the  peculiarity  of  a  sinus  rhomboidalis,  which  is  a 
long  rhomlioidal  expansion  of  the  tube  in  the  sacral  region 
(rump),  wirich  is  open  superiorly.  The  spinal  nerves  in 
many  of  the  branches  form  networks  by  unions  and  separa- 
tions opposite  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  which  are  called  the 
brachial  and  sacral  plexus.  The  ganglia  of  the  sensory  root 
are  in  the  Batrachia  accompanied  each  by  a  deposit  of  white 
phosphate  of  lime,  forming  a  rounded  mass.  In  some  fishes 
with  a  short  spinal  cord,  the  division  of  the  cauda  equina 
takes  place  far  anteriorly,  as  in  Diodon  and  most  other 
Plectognathi.  thus  leaving  a  very  short  axis. 

The  anterior  part  of  the  column  enlarges,  and  is  called 
the  medulla  oblongata :  as  this  is  within  the  cranium,  it  is 
reckoned  as  part  of  the  brain.  The  six  cohinins  are  here 
better  defined,  and  there  are  added  two  well-defined  oval 
|:iroininences  termed  the  corpora  oliva'foriiiia  between  the 
lateral  columns  of  J/ammalifi.  This  contains  a  corpus 
dentatum  of  gray  matter.  The  fibers  of  the  posterior 
columns  cross  or  decussate  ;  they  are.  liowever.  only  those  of 
the  anterior  or  motor  root  of  the  spinal  nerves  that  do  so, 
having  passed  upw  ard  through  the  column :  the  fibere  of 
the  posterior  roots  decussate  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord 
near  their  exit,  and  pass  thence  into  tlie  Virain  wit  liout  furtlier 
exchange.  The  divergence  of  the  |;iosterior  columns  leaves 
a  rhomboidal  cavity  or  basin  in  the  sujierior  face  of  the 
medulla,  w'hich  is  the  fourth  ventricle.  The  roots  of  the 
auditory  (seventh)  nerve  originate  below  its  fundus.  This 
chamber  is  variously  exposed  in  different  vertebrates.  The 
postero-lateral  columns  (corpora  restiformia)  diverge  upward 
and  backward,  and  support  the  first  great  brain  ganglion, 
the  cerebellum.  In  the  Flasmohraiichi  (sharks,  etc.)  the 
fourth  ventricle  is  greatly  extended  laterally,  having  a  lobate 
outline,  with  sinuous  walls;  in  other  Vertebi-ata  this  pecul- 
iarity does  not  exist.  In  Marsipobranrhii  one  division  (//'/- 
perotrefi)  exhibits  prominent  lateral  lobes,  which  do  not  open 
externally;  they  are  wanting  in  the  remainder  of  tlie  class 
(Hiiperoarti).  In  many  bony  fishes  there  are  ganglionic  en- 
largements of  the  medulla,  corresponding  to  the  origin  of 
the  iiervus  vagus:  hence  vagal  lobes.  Tlieie  are  numerous 
lobes  on  the  medulla  of  the  "pike.  The  medulla  is  straight 
in  most  vertebrates,  but  in  Peptilia  and  birds  it  is  bent 
lather  abraptly  downward  and  forward  after  entering  the 
cranium. 

The  cerebellum  is  a  simple  oval  or  flat  body  in  the  fishes, 
Batrachia,  and  rejitiles.  excepting  in  the  crocodiles.  In  these 
it  develops  two  small  lateral  lobes,  while  the  middle  jiortion, 
now  called  the  vermis,  becomes  transversely  grooved.  In 
the  birds  the  lateral  lobes  are  a  little  larger  and  the  plicas 
deeper,  and  on  section  it  yields  a  digitate  and  serrate  outline 
of  gray  matter  with  a  white  center,  called  the  arbor  vita". 
In  Mammalia  the  size  is  increased,  especially  as  regards  the 
lateral  lobes.  In  Marsipobraiichii  it  is  small — in  the  division 
Iljiperoarti  ajiiiarently  composed  of  two  lateral  ganglia.  In 
sharks  it  is  much  enlarged  longitudinally,  and  on  section 
displays  a  weak  arbor  vita- :  in  Pristis  (sawfish)  it  even 
reaches  the  cerebrum,  covering  the  optic  lobes.  In  other 
fishes  it  is  smaller,  in  the  usual  osseous  orders  a  flat  trans- 
verse commissure  bridgingthe  fourth  ventricle,  in  I'olypterus 
it  is  similar,  but  in  Lepidosteus  and  Amia  it  is  larger  and 
oval.  In  Batrarhia  and  in  Dipnoi  it  is  more  insignificant 
than  in  any  oiher  division,  lieing  a  very  small  transverse 
coniiuissui-e.  not  nearly  covering  the  fourth  ventricle.  In 
Batrarhia  tins  cavity  contains  a  triangular  network  of  lilood- 
vessels.  which  fits  it.  called  the  plexus  chorioidens;  this  is 
only  seen  elsewhere  in  the  tortoises  ( Testiidituitii).  In  re])tiles 
the' cerebellum  is  still  small  and  transvei-se.  liul  exceeds  that 
of  the  Batrarhia:  it  is  convex  and  scntiform:  the  fourth 
ventricle  is  nearly  do.sed.  In  the  crocodiles  it  is  first  a])- 
proxiiiiately  <'losed. 

Anterioi'to  the  cerebellum,  the  brain  is  best  understood 
as  a  double  body,  bilaterally  s^^nlnetrical.  and  composed  of 
a  series  of  ganglia  on  each  half  of  the  divided  axis  or  pro- 
hmgalion  of  the  medulla  oblongata.  These  ganglia  are, 
priiiiarily.  the  optic  lobe,  the  cerebral  lobe  or  lieiiiisphere, 
and  the  olfactory  lobe.  The  middle  columns  of  the  medulla 
support  the  ojitic  lobes,  while  the  cerebral  lobes  are  supported 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIA'E 


185 


by  tho  midille  and  anterior  columns.  Tlie  optic  lobes  are 
tlie  hirfjcst  of  the  .ganglia  from  the  Dcrniopti'.ri  to  the  Ba- 
trachia  (Ki<;.  19),  with  the  following  cxooiitions :  the  cerebral 
hemispheres  are  larger  in  elasinobraiiciis  and  Poliiplerux. 
Tlie  lobi  are  sub-glo))ular.  and  exhibit  no  marked  external 
peenliaritytill  we  reach  the  Bafrac/iia, Vihuvc  they  are  smaller 
llian  the  hemispheres,  as  in  all  the  sueeeeding  classes.  In 
the  tailless  liiitnicliia  (Stilioifia)  they  are  diviiletl  trans- 
versely, forming  four  sub-round  bodies;  it  is  possible  that 
the  anterior  one  should  be  considered  the  lobus  ventriculi 
tertii,  or  optic  thalannis,  of  the  next  ganglion  or  cerebrum  ; 
but  as  it  is  united  with  the  posterior  in  the  tailed  Ba/rachia 
(salamanders)  and  Proteida  (yccfunm)  (Fig.  20),  they  are 
more  pmlialily  the  aniei-ior  bodies  of  the  corpora  ipiaclri- 
gemina  of  maiiunals.  The  posterior,  and  half  or  all  of  the 
anterior,  are  covei-ed  by  a  fold  or  lamina,  which  rises  from 
the  j5ost-erior  part  of  the  posterior  bodi(!S  in  the  Salienti.a. 
In  tlie  Urodela  the  posterior  is  reduced,  like  the  cerebellum, 
to  a  rnirrow  transverse  commissure,  while  in  Nedurus  botli 
it  and  the  cerebellum  are  wanting. 


Fig.  9. — Cladodactj'lus  dolioluai. 

In  Ri'ptilia  the  optic  lobes  are  more  simple,  l.nit  they  are 
partially  divided  into  superior  and  inferior  bodies.  In  liz- 
ards tlie  superior  is  laminar,  and  separated  by  a  vacuity  from 
tlie  inferior;  but  in  serpents  the  latter  is  a  mere  fissure.  In 
harmless  snakes  (Fig.  22)  the  lateral  bodies  are  corniected  by 
a  commissure,  but  in  the  venomous  Trigrmocephalus  and 
Bungarus  they  are  united  behin<l ;  in  Vipe.ra  tne  superior 
and  inferior  bodies  ajipcar  to  be  quite  separated  from  each 
other.  In  birds  the  optic  lobes  are  simple,  and  situalcil  in- 
fero-laterally.  since  the  cerebellum  and  hemispheres  are  in 
contact.  In  Mammalia  they  are  superior,  and  continuous 
with  each  otlier,  and  consist  of  four  protulieranees,  the  cor- 
pora quadrigemina.  They  are  much  reduced  in  size,  and 
cover  a  narrow  vacuity  or  tube,  the  aquirduetus  Sylvii.  In 
front  of  the  .auterior  pair  is  situated  a  sac-like  body,  the  pin- 
eal gland,  which  is  the  rudiment  of  an  im])ortant  organ  of 
the  brain  of  lower  onlers,  the  epiphysis.  This  is  a  highly  vas- 
cular nu'iubraiious  body,  which  rises  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  cranium  in  Marxipohranchii.  fishes.  Batrnchia,  and  licp- 
tilia.  It  is  very  variable  in  structure  in  fishes;  in  reptiles 
(lizards)  it  often  communicales  with  the  outer  surface  by  the 
foramen  parietale  of  the  table  of  the  skull.  It  is  supjioseil 
by  some  anatomists  to  be  a  sensory  organ.  Directly  oppo- 
site to  it,  another  sac  deseeniis  from  the  cavity  below  the 
optic  lobes  (the  aqmeductus  Sylvii),  whic-h  is  termed  the  hy- 
pophysis, it  exists  in  the  classes  which  possess  the  e]iiphy- 
sis,  and  is  represented  among  Mammalia  by  the  pituitary 
body  and  infinidibulum. 

The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  small  in  the  classes  below  the 
Bafnirliia,  except  in  sharks  and  a  few  fishes,  as  the  JJipmii. 
Po/i/pli'ni'i.  and  (riiif/li/modi  (gar).  In  the  Arfi)io/i/i'ri/(/iii 
they  are  oveniri-lii'd  by  a  membranous  roof  (velum)  lined 
with  epithelial  cells.  In  Dipnoi,  Crossopferi/gia,  C/iri/idriis- 
tei  (sturgeons),  Ginc/li/mocli,  and  ITalreomorp/ii  {Amin)  the 
hemispheres  are  at  a  distance  from  tlu!  optic  lobes,  being  su[)- 
ported  by  the  elongate  crura  of  the  medulla  oblongata;  in 
other  classes  and  orders  the  hemispheres  are  sessile.  In  the 
inarnmals  alone  we  find  the  ]ions  varolii,  a  body  of  trans- 
verse libi-rs  whii-li  cross  and  liind  together  these  crura  cerebri 
on  the  inferior  side.  The  hemispheres  in  the  niammals  pre- 
sent many  peculiarities;  their  size  is  increased,  and  in  many 
the  surface  is  thrown  into  vermiform  ridges  or  "convolu- 
tions." In  the  fishes  and  higher  types  they  are  hollow,  in- 
closing the  "lateral  ventricles."  The  floor  of  these  is  occu- 
|iied  by  various  bodies  in  the  different  ty])es.  Thus  in  /iii- 
tracliiii  there  is  a  lioily  on  llie  inner  side  of  each.  In  reptiles 
tliis  is  represenletl  l.>y  a  narrow  body,  while  another  mass 


occupies  the  outer  part  of  the  floor  of  the  ventricle.  In 
Mammalia  two  bodies,  little  separated,  occupy  this  position 
— viz.,  the  "lobus  ventriculi  tc^rtii  "  (or  thalamus  opticus) and 
the  corpus  .striatum.  The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  not 
directly  united  till  in  certain  birds  we  find  a  narrow  bridge 
connecting  them,  the  fornix.  In  the  lowest  Mammalia  (Mar- 
sii/iialia,  etc.)  we  observe  another  connecting  body  in  a  rudi- 
meiital  state  above  the  fornix.  This  is  the  corpus  callosuiii, 
which  in  higher  mammals  is  a  massive  bridge,  and  much 
larger  than  the  fornix.  There  is  another  bond  of  connection 
called  the  anterior  commissure,  which  is  short  and  sub-cylin- 
tlric ;  its  size  in  mammals  is  nearly  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  de- 
velo]inient  of  the  corpus  callosum.  The  ventricles  are  sepa- 
rated by  the  septum  lucidum  in  I  his  class  only,  but  are  much 
reduced  in  the  monolreines  (duck-bill).  The  cluaracters  of 
the  brain  in  the  orders  of  Mammalia  may  be  best  expressed 
in  tabular  form,  thus; 

I.  No  calcarine  sulcus  nor  hippocampus  minor ;  corpus 
callosum  rudimental;  hemispheres  smooth,  leaving  cerebel- 
lum and  olfactory  lobe  ex]iosed  ;  Monofremata,  Marmi/iialia. 

II.  Corpus  callosum  well  d(!vi'loped,  short,  wit  hoiit  roslnim ; 
no  calcarine  sulcus  nor  hippocampus  minor;  hemispheres 
smooth,  short ;  olfactory  lobes  and  cerebcUuin  not  covered  ; 
Edentata,  Glires,  Insecfivora,  C'liiroptera. 

III.  Corpus  callosimi  longer,  with  a  recurved  rostnim  in 
front ;  no  calcarine  sulcus  nor  hippocampus  minor ;  the 
hemispheres  convoluted,  and  partially  covering  the  olfactory 
lobes  and  cerebellum  ;  Proboscidia,  llyracoidea,  iJiplarthra, 
Carniviirn:  (hoofed  and  carnivorous  animals). 

IV.  Corpus  callosum  long,  with  roslrum;  a  calcarine  sul- 
cus and  hippocampus  minor ;  hemis]jliercs  mostly  convoluted, 
partly  or  wholly  covering  the  olfactory  lobes  and  cerebellum ; 
Primates  (monkeys,  man). 

Exceptions  to  the  definition  of  the  Primates  are  seen  in 
.s(ane  of  the  Lemiiroidea,  in  which  the  hemispheres  are 
smooth.  In  man  they  have  nearly  twice  the  size  seen  in  the 
allied  forms  of  apes  (chimi>anzee,  etc.).  The  calcarine  sul- 
cus is  on  the  lower  side  of  the  postcu-ior  part  of  the  hemi- 
sphere, and  the  hippocampus  minor  is  the  convex  body 
within  the  ventricle,  which  its  presence  causes ;  it  forms  the 
inner  wall  of  the  posterior  horn  of  that  chamber. 

The  olfactory  lobes  are  very  large  in  ela.sniobranchs,  and 
are  connected  with  the  hemispheres  liy  a  narrow-  commis- 
sure. In  fishes  they  are  less  developed,  and  in  batrachians 
are  sub-cylindrie  and  separated  by  a  groove.  In  reptiles 
they  are  continuous  with  the  hemispheres,  obpyriform  in 
shape,  and  often  .slender;  they  are  frei|ueiitly  hollow.  In 
birds  and  mammals  they  bear  a  smaller  proportion  to  the 
whole  brain,  and  are  entirely  concealed  in  Primates. 

The  optic  nerve  originates  liy  fibers  derived  from  the  optic 
lobes.  Its  fibers  decussate  or  cross  from  the  right  side  to 
the  left  and  rice  rerm.  shortly  after  leaving  the  brain  in  all 
\'ertebrata.  excepting  the  lower  Actiiio]itcri  (llalecomorphi, 
Ginglymodi),  and  Chondrostei.  the  Elasniobrancliii.  and  the 


Flo.  10.    PlumaUlla:   «.  natural  size;  /^,  uiaKiiified;  f,  the  vent. 

Mamipohranclni.  In  all  of  these  the  nerves  are  connected 
by  a  commissure,  which  is  in  part  {Amia)  conqKised  of  fibers 
which  leave  the  brain  and  return  again,  forming  a  short 
circuit.  In  the  Jlarxipabrancliii  this  "ehiasma"  takes  place 
near  the  roots  of  the  nerves  ;  in  the  others,  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  brain. 


18(! 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


The  remaining  cranial  nerves  are  in  fishes  only  fonr  pairs, 
the  vagus,  glossopharyngeiis,  trigeminus,  and  facialis.  The 
first  two  and  the  last  two  are  each  approximated.  The 
vagus  exhibits  in  the  fishes  aliove  tlie  Marsipolirnnchii  two 


Fig.  11. — Spiri(]era  roncentrica:  ab,  insertion  of  adductor  muscles: 
c,  of  divaricator  muscles;  e,  of  adjustator  ventralis;  r/,  branchial 
arms;  h,  hinge  sockets;  i,  gill-bridge;  fc,  hinge  teeth;  r,  tubular 
body. 

distinct  roots.  Tlie  first  is  the  nervus  (ramus)  lateralis,  which 
extends  posteriorly  beneath  the  scapular  arcli,  and  runs 
along  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  body  to  the  tail ;  it  is  abor- 
tive in  3I(trsipobranchii.  The  second  or  larger  nerve  sup- 
{)lies  the  gills  and  viscera.  The  nervi  trigeminus  ct  facialis 
lave  four  distinct  origins,  wliieh  sometimes  unite  and  form 
one  or  two  plexuses  outside  tlie  cranium.  The  branches  are 
distributed  to  different  parts  of  the  head ;  but  one.  which 
especially  characterizes  many  bony  fishes,  but  is  wanting  in 
CtupeidiP,  Plecfospondyli,  Amia  (gar),  Chondrostei,  and  elas- 
mobranchs,  tlft  ramus  lateralis,  runs  upward  witliin  tlie 
cranium,  issues  above,  and  extends  along  tlie  back  to  the 
caudal  fin,  supplying  tlie  dorsal  fin.  In  IMarsipabranfliii 
and  Dipnoi  the  glossopharyngeal  is  a  brancli  of  the  vagus; 
in  other  vertebrates  it  is  distinct. 

In  Batrachia  the  rami  laterales  of  the  vagus  are  present ; 
and  the  glossopharyngeus  unites  with  the  vagus,  forming  a 
ganglion,  from  which  nerves  issue.  The  origins  of  the  nervi 
trigeminus  and  facialis  are  wholly  or  in  part  common,  and 
they  support  a  ganglion  Gasserii.  Tlie  hyoid  and  scapular 
muscles  arc  supplied  from  tlie  first  pair  of  spinal  nerves,  and 
the  vagus  supplies  branches  to  the  scapula.  These  charac- 
ters are  in  part  those  of  reptiles,  but  more  prominently 
those  of  fishes.  In  tlie  Bepfilia  tliere  are  nervi  accessorii, 
as  •wcU  as  hypoglossi.  Tiie  latter  supply  the  hyoid  and 
scapular  regions,  and  the  former  certain  muscles  inserted 
in  the  scapula  in  front.  Tlie  rami  laterales  of  both  vagus 
and  trigeminus  are  not  present,  and  the  facialis  has  a  dis- 
tinct origin.  In  mammals  all  these  nerves  are  present,  ex- 
cept laterales,  liut  the  facialis  frequently  is  identical  with 
the  trigeminus  in  origin. 

IV.  The  Muscular  System. 

Muscles  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  Protozoa  and  in  the 
Cceli'tifurofii.  excepting  the  Medus;e.  In  the  latter,  delicate 
bundles  of  uiislripcd  fibers  exist,  exteniling  vertically  from 
both  the  inner  anil  outer  surfaces  of  the  umbrella,  while  be- 
tween them  concciitrically  curved  liundlcs  run  between  the 
eight  circulatory  <-anals.  .Vmong  ecliiuodcrms  the  innumer- 
able segments  ot'  which  they  are  composed  give  origin  and  in- 
sertion to  many  muscles.  In  addition  there  are  muscles 
devoted  to  the  mast  icatory  apparatus.  This  consists  in  Erlii- 
noiiJca  ot  five  tooth-like  bodies,  which  form  a  ]>yrami(lal  mass 
when  closed.  For  the  opening  and  shutting  of  these,  twice 
ten  [laired  and  twice  five  single  nmsclcs  are  arranged,  as 
well  as  several  others.  In  Ilulotlnirida  five  longitudinal 
niu.scles  extenil  from  thi'  hard  cesoiihageal  ring  to  the  vent. 
A  sphincter  closes  the  mouth,  and  the  superior  part  of  the 
gullet  is  thickened  with  muscular  walls.  The  tentacles 
possess  muscles. 

In  .Volhtsm  muscles  are  universally  |iresent,  though  fewer 
in  number  Ilian  in  the  grou|is  just  described,  hi  linjo:i>a 
(or  J'olijzixi)  a  system  of  muscles  is  arrangi-d  for  the  with- 
drawal of  the  crown  into  the  sheath-like  body:  these  are 
median,  longitudinal,  slender  muscles.     Those  designed  for 


projecting  it  again  are  horizontal,  curved,  and  situated  on 
the  inner  wall  of  the  body :  the  successive  contractions  of 
these  from  below  upward  will  produce  the  result.  Avicu- 
laria  are  peculiar  bird-head-like  bodies,  situated  near  the 
mouth  in  the  marine  Bryozoa ;  they  are  furnished  with  a 
bird-like  beak,  with  an  under  jaw  which  frequently  closes 
with  a  snap,  and  slowly  opens.  These  movements  are  con- 
ducted by  muscles  whose  movements  are  automatic.  The 
large  mantle  inclosing  the  body  of  the  Tunicafa  is  composed 
of  two  muscular  layers — the  one  of  transvei-se  (hence  annular) 
fitjcrs,  the  other  of  longitudinal  or  oblique.  Muscles  for 
producing  progressive  movement  or  swimming  are  found  in 
many  genera.  These  are  annular,  and  at  intervals  around 
the  body.  Appendicularia  possesses  a  long  and  deep  rud- 
der-like tail,  which  contains  muscular  layers.  The  Brachio- 
poda  are  attached  to  a  fixed  body  by  a  muscular  arm  or 
anclior,  which  enters  the  shell  through  a  foramen.  This  is 
coiuiected  with  the  dorsal  and  ventral  valves  of  the  shell  by 
corresponding  opposite  muscles,  which  determine  the  direc- 
tion of  its  ojjen  borders.  There  are  two  pairs  of  adductor 
muscles  arranged  longitudinally,  and  two  paii"s  of  abductors 
(divaricatores),  one  of  the  pairs  smaller,  antl  sometimes  want- 
ing. There  are  muscles  also  in  the  mantle  and  branchial 
arms.  In  lamellibranchs  or  Acephala  there  are  jiowerful  - 
musculi  adductores.  There  is  but  one  in  the  Oatreidce.  Avic- 
vlidiv.  and  3Iuel/eriidrp.  They  are  of  very  unequal  size  in 
the  MytiJidif,  but  sub-equal  in  the  remaining  Acephala.  In 
Anomia  there  are  three. 

There  are  also  retractor  muscles  of  the  siphons,  and  a 
band  around  the  edge  of  the  mantle.  The  muscles  of  the 
foot  are  often  large.  The  principal  one  divides  next  the 
body,  and  each  half  is  inserted  near  the  hinge  of  the  shell 
between  the  adductor  muscles.  In  Oasferopoda  the  muscular 
structures  have  a  different  arrangement.  The  foot  is  largely 
muscular,  and  its  upper  and  jiosterior  region  gives  insertion 
to  the  columellar  muscle,  which  attaches  the  animal  to  the 
shell.  It  arises  from  the  columella  at  the  beginning  of  the 
last  whorl.  Its  size  depends  on  the  size  of  the  wliorl  and 
length  of  foot.  Other  muscles  are  devoted  to  the  elongation 
or  retraction  of  the  proboscis  and  the  penis.  In  Cephalopoda 
the  columellar  muscle  is  represented  by  a  large  svmimetrically 
divided  mass,  which  arises  from  the  cephalic  cartilages,  and 
is  inserted  into  opposite  sides  of  the  shell.  An  annular  mus- 
cle surrounds  the  neck,  and  another  the  funnel.  From  the 
latter  diverge  the  longitudinal  muscles  of  the  tentacles, 
which  are  pcrfoi'ated  by  radial  muscular  fibers.  The  man- 
tle is  occupied  by  a  flat  muscle.  The  usually  muscular  foot 
is  here  represented  by  a  flat  body,  which  jirojects  forward 
from  beneath  the  mantle.  It  is  rolled  up.  forming  a  tube. 
By  the  energetic  expulsion  of  water  from  the  mantle-cham- 
lier  tlirough  this  tube  the  animal  is  driven  through  the  water, 
the  mantle  end  first. 

The  interior  surface  of  the  outer  chitinous  skeleton  of  the 
Arthropoda  is  lined  with  a  muscular  layer.  Longitudinal 
and  oblique  muscles  connect  the  annuli.  which  repeat  each 
other  in  those  forms  (Myriopoda,  and  larva')  in  which  the 
segments  are  similar.  Wher(>  (as  in  all  the  higher  types)  the 
segments  are  much  specialized,  the  muscles  are  modified  ac- 
cordingly, cither  by  increase  ot  size  or  number.  Muscles  of 
the  dorsal  and  ventral  regions  are  usually  more  enlarged 
than  those  of  the  lateral,  while  in  the  types  where  the  sides 
are  soft,  to  allow  of  the  movements  of  the  liack  and  belly 
plates,  the  latter  are  connected  by  straight  muscles  which 
pass  through  the  viscera.  All  the  limb  muscles  are  within 
them,  or  are  inserted  into  internal  processes  of  the  chitinous 
walls.  Sometimes  they  are  inserted  into  fibrous  bodies 
w'hich  have  been  hardened 
by  calcareous  or  cliitiianis 
deposit,  which  alsosubscrvr 
the  ]iurpose  of  levers. 

Arlliropoda  jiossess  nius- 
cleswhich  pert'orm  the  tuiu- 
tions  well  known  among 
vertebrates  as  rotators,  ele- 
vators,  depressors,  retract- 


ors,  protrusoi-s,   etc.      But 
fle> 


Fio.  12.— Pai 


jsiralis. 


the   flexors  and    extt^nsors 

exceed   the  others  greatly 

in  importance  and  sfze.     Their  relative  size  is  the  reverse  of 

what   is  seen  in  vertebrates;  in  the  latter  the  extensors  are 

the  more  im)ioilant  ;  in  the  Arthropoda  the  flexors  exceed 

the  extensors  several  fold. 

3.  In    Vertebrati-s. — The  muscles  of  the  animals  of  this 
type  are  divided  into  two  classes  by  their  position  and  the 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATI\TC 


187 


relation  they  boar  to  the  skeleton,  ami  are  termed  episkele- 
tal  ami  hyi)0skeletal.  The  former  are  situated  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  vertebra^ — i.  e.  of  the  body  and  arehes,  ineluil- 
iiig  ribs — and  arc  developed  in  the  fcEtus  coincidently  with 
the  vertebnB.  Hence  they  are  in  segments  which  corres]iond 
to  these,  and  are  se[iarated  liy  intervals  tei-med  inter-niuscu- 
lar  septa.  The  hyiioskeletal  are  developed  later,  and  below 
the  vertebra-:  Ihcy  are  in  part  attached  to  the  latter,  or  to 
the  abilominal  walls,  or  the  limbs. 

In  vcrtetjrates  below  the  Batrachia  the  h}-poskeletal  mus- 
cles ai'e  develo|>ed  to  a  very  slight  degree.  'J"he  segments 
of  tlie  episkeletal  scries  (or  myocommata)  cover  the  sides  of 
the  body  posterior  to  the  head,  and  meet  on  the  median  line 
below.  They  present  an  angle  forward,  near  theii'  middles, 
having  thus  an  open  chevron  shape.  In  Batracliia  the 
tails  and  sides  retain  tlie  largely  developed  myoeomnuxta, 
while  the  abdominal  nniscles  have  the  character  of  those  of 
the  lieptilin.  In  these  aiul  higher  Vertebral  a  the  hypo- 
.skeletal  muscles  are  well  developed.  In  the  latter  numer- 
ous muscles  (spinalis,  semispinalis,  longissinius  dorsi,  sacro- 
hiiubalis,  intertransversales,  levatores  costarum,  complexus, 
spleniiis,  recti  postici,  and  recti  laterales)  an:  derived,  by 
subdivision,  from  the  up]ier  portion  of  the  myocommata.  In 
the  same  way  the  iid'erior  half  gives  rise  to  the  recti  abdomi- 
nis, which  extend  from  the  pelvis  to  the  sterimm ;  the  sterno- 
liyoidei  from  the  sternum  to  the  hyoid  apparatus;  the  genio- 
hyoidei  from  the  latter  to  the  lower  jaw.  On  the  sides  the 
derivative  muscles  are  olilicpiely  directed — viz.,  the  external 
intercostales ;  the  oblii|ui  externi  of  the  abdomen;  the  sul)- 

clavius  from  the  first  rib 
to  the  clavicle,  and  the 
scaleni  from  the  anterior 
dorsal  ribs  to  the  cervi- 
cal ribs  and  processes; 
lastly,  the  sterno-eleido- 
ma-stoid  extends  from 
the  stenunu  and  clavicle 
to  the  skull.  The  fasci- 
culi of  these  muscles  are 
all  directed,  as  is  the 
lower  part  of  the  myo- 
eonima  of  the  fish,  from 
above,  or  doi-sally,  down- 
ward and  posteriorly. 
The  hyposkelctal  mus- 
cles occupy  the  innerside 
of  the  body-walls,  and 
include,  besides  many 
others,  the  diaphragm  of 
Mammalia  and  birds. 
This  scptary  muscle  is 
wanting  or  rndimental 
in  verteljrates  below  the 

The  muscles  of  the 
limbs  are  of  two  kinds; 
(1)  those  that  originate 
from  the  body,  and  (2) 
those  that  take  origin 
on  some  bone  of  the 
limb.  The  former  move 
the  whole  limb,  the  latter  its  parts.  They  are  extensors, 
llexors,  and  rotators;  among  the  most  notable  of  the  last  is 
that  which,  in  the  Mammalia,  rotates  the  radius  of  the  fore 
arm  on  the  ulna.  Of  flexors,  the  pectorales  major  aiul  mi- 
iicir  pertain  to  the  fore  limb;  they  are  enormously  devel- 
oped in  birds,  subserving  the  function  of  flight.  The  ex- 
tensor of  the  hind  limb,  the  gluta-us  maxinuis,  is  greatly 
di'velopeil  in  man.  as  essential  to  the  i-rect  attitude.  The 
longitudinal  dorsal  nmscidar  tendons  are  generally  ossified 
ill  birds. 

A  remarkal)le  modification  of  the  muscular  system  is  seen 
in  the  electrical  organs  of  certain  fishes,  the  torpedo,  electric 
eel  (Gi/mnotiis),  and  catfish  {Jlala/itcninix).  liere  a  system 
of  eiinrino\is  cells,  packed  in  parallel  columns,  discharges 
electricity  instead  of  develojiing  niovemeiit  or  contraction. 
The  lontents  are  gelatinous,  and  are  divided  by  connective 
tissue  into  transverse  disks,  imitating  striped  muscular 
fiber. 

The  columns  are  vertical  in  the  torpedo  and  longitudinal 
in  the  other  genera.  They  are  richly  supplied  with  nerves 
which  are  distributed  on  oue  face  only.  The  rays  pos- 
sess rndimental  organs  of  the  same  kind  at  the  base  of 
the  tail. 


Voliita  uiululata. 


V.  The  Mrio-Di;RjiAL  System. 

1.  Ill  Cceli-nlfrafa,  Efhinoclermata,  and  MnUusca. — The 
superficial  or  cellular  layer  of  the  skin  or  epidermis  is  uni- 
versally ])resent  in  animals.  The  inferior  layer  in  verte- 
brates is  fibrous,  and  belongs  strictly  to  the  system  of  areolar 
or  connective  tissues;  it  is  not  found  in  the  tVelenterata,  but 
is  represented  by  a  non-cellular,  granular,  and  sometimes 
slightly  striate  "true  skin."  In  the  Cnidaria  and  in  polyps 
(Anthozoa)  there  are  two  or  three  layers  of  cellular  skin,  of 
which  the  lower  contains  the  "  nettle-cells."  These  are  mi- 
nute bladders  '02  to'OT  mm.  long,  and  one-third  to  two-thirds 
as  thick,  which  contain  a  hair-like  body  coiled  within  them. 
These  are  suddenly  i>rojectetl  ujion  external  irritation,  and 
act  as  irritants  or  offensive  weapons  upon  the  object  thoy 
strike,  producing  sometimes  severe  smarting  and  paralysis. 
These  cells  occur  also  as  an  external  lining  of  the  mesente- 
rial threads  of  polyps.  The  true  skin  is  the  layer  in  which  is 
deposited  the  carbonate  of  lime,  which,  penetrating  or  not 
the  folds  of  the  internal  cavity  of  the  body,  produces  the 
radiating  and  tubular  solid  structures  characteristic  of  corals. 
In  the  Oonioriiida'  the  deposit  of  the  basis  of  the  first  sim- 
ple, and  therefore  of  the  axis  of  the  compound,  animal,  is 
horny ;  this  is  afterward  covered  with  a  thin  calcareous 
,ayer. 

In  the  Echinodermata  the  dermal  system  fulfills  an  im- 
portant function,  as  the  basis  of  dejiosit  of  mineral  matter 
in  the  form  of  innumerable  symmetrical  segments.  In  the 
lldlofhiirida  these  deposits  are  frequently  isolated  and  in- 
ternal, and  sometimes  entirely  wanting:  the  tentacles  al- 
ways contain  them.  Among  Molhisca  the  superficial  layer 
consists  of  ciliated  epithelium  (except  on  the  eye-peduncles). 
The  true  skin  is  fibrous,  and  contains  many  cells ;  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  sac.  and  often  reaches  considei-able  thickness.  An 
extensive  fold  derived  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  body 
in  Cejihaliipoda  and  Gastiropuda.  or  the  superior  in  Ace- 
p/mla,  envelops  the  body  more  or  less  completely.  In  mol- 
lusks  which  possess  a  shell  the  latter  is  produced  by  the 
margin  of  the  mantle.  This  margin  is  supplied  with  glands 
which  secrete  or  separate  carbonate  of  lime,  which  they  de- 
posit on  the  general  border.  Thus  the  shell  takes  the  form 
of  the  ijody,  which  the  mantle  closely  enfolds.  In  Gastero- 
poda it  is  subcylindric ;  the  shell  has  the  same  character, 
being  sometimes  partially  or  wholly  straight  ( Vermetus, 
Teredo),  or  generally  spirally  twisted.  In  the  bivalves  the 
mantle  has  the  form  of  two  lateral  oval  lamina',  thus  pro- 
ducing the  well-known  form  of  the  shells.  The  periodical 
deposits  of  lime  by  the  mantle  are  seen  in  the  lines  of 
growth  of  all  shells.  The  form  of  the  mantle  border  is 
faithfully  repeated  in  the  shell;  thus  the  projections  caused 
by  the  protrusion  of  the  jiroboscis  in  Mure.r,  Slrombu.%  etc., 
is  seen  in  the  convexities  and  canals  of  their  margin.  In 
Acepliala  the  mantle  exteiuls  lievond  the  body,  inclosing  a 
space  known  as  the  niantle-chamber.  The  margins  of  the 
mantle  in  a  large  number  of  families  are  extensively  united, 
thus  forming  a  nearly  closed  chamber.  They  are  entirely 
separated  in  the  oyster,  the  Area,  Myoj^hona.  etc.  They 
are  sometimes  only  united  by  a  bridge ;  when  more  exten- 
sively, there  usually  remains  an  opening  through  which  the 
foot  is  protruded.  Of  these  some  leave  a  single  opening  at 
the  posterior  end  of  the  body  (Mi/tilidti'.  Unionidw),  or  the 
latter  is  divided  into  two  (Tridaciw,  Jsocardia,  Vyprina). 
Of  these  the  upper  is  the  point  of  exit  for  excrement  and 
water,  while  the  lower  admits  water  to  the  gills  and  food  to 
the  mouth.  The  lips  of  these  openings  are  in  many  families 
prolonged  into  tubes,  sometimes  very  extensively.  These 
may  be  united  or  seimrate.  They  are  either  fixed  or  retrac- 
tile; when  the  latter,  the  space  they  occupy  in  the  shell  re- 
quires that  the  line  of  attacOimeiit  of  the  mantle  to  the  shell 
should  lie  indented,  sometimes  to  a  great  degree.  The  open- 
ing for  the  foot  also  admits  water.  It  is  much  reduced  in 
size  in  genera  with  a  rudimental  foot  (as  Gastrorha'iia,  Ax- 
pere/ilhim,  etc.).  and  is  finally  closed  in  Pholadidea.  In 
this  series  of  ^lrc/)/i«/f«  the  siphonal  tube  is  not  retractile, 
and  is  strengthened  by  a  calcareous  deposit,  to  which  the 
true  valves  become  mere  appendages,  and  with  which  they 
are  finally  conqiletely  fused  (A.-i/iert/illiim). 

Besides  the  mineral  substance,  the  coloi's  of  the  shell  are 
secreted  by  special  piginent-glan<ls  on  the  margins  of  the 
mantle. 

The  shell  is  not  always  (ioinposed  of  carbonate  of  lime ; 
in  Liiiffuhi,  Pinna,  etc..  the  material  is  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  resembles  bone.  The  pearl  layers  of  many  shells  are 
aragonite.     The  shell  may  be  composed  of  lamina"  or  prisms. 


188 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


or  both.  Annmia  exhibits  the  first,  Inoceramus  the  second, 
and  Sti-ombus  the  tliird  type.  In  Brachiopoda  the  sliell- 
valvcs  are  dorsal  and  ventral :  in  ^Iccju/io/o,  right  and  loft; 
in  Oasteropoda  ami  ('ej)litil(i/»iihi  tiic  shell  is  central  and 
single.  In  Acephala  ti,i;iitly  (■lii>ed  valves  indicate  retractile 
siphons ;  posteriorly  gaping  shells,  projected  ones. 

The  valves  are  united  by  a  marginal  hinge,  composed  of 
teeth,  pits,  and  cartilage  ligament,  in  most  families. 

In  Gasteropoda  the  coil  may  be  flat  (Planorhis)  or  much 
prolonged  (31itra).  The  "  body-whorl  "  is  that  last  made ; 
it  may  be  either  contracted  (certain  snails),  or  greatly  en- 
larged, as  in  Cyprma,  where  it  almost  or  quite  conceals  all 
the  other  turns  in  its  fold. 

In  the  fossil  Endocardines  (or  Rudistes)  the  valves  are 
fastened  by  hinge  processes  on  the  inner  face  of  the  free  and 
smaller  valve. 

Tlie  shell  of  Cephalopoda  is  distinguished  by  its  septa. 
These  inclose  chambers,  the  animal  only  occupying  the  last 
one  constructed.  This  structure  is  not  without  pai'allel 
among  6Vr.s-('(';'o/>Of/r(  (where  tile  unused  portion  is  generally 
broken  olT).  but  the  (.'c]ihiiUt]iitiUi  are  peculiar  in  tliat  the 
body  is  not  entirely  withdrawn  from  the  first  chamber,  but 
leaves  a  long  tube,  which  passes  through  all  the  chambers, 
and  secretes  a  pearly  sheath,  which  is  known  as  the  siphon 
of  the  shell.  In  life  this  contains  nothing  but  air,  which  is 
wanting  in  carbonic  acid.  The  margins  of  the  septa  are 
simple  in  Nniifihis.  Oiiliorcras.  etc.,  but  fold  in  a  most  com- 
plicated and  symmetrieal  manner  in  Aminonifi-fi.  Baciilites, 
etc.  In  Goaiatilus,  Aturiu,  etc.,  tlie  folds  arc  fewer  and 
more  simple. 

The  Argonauta  (paper-nautilus)  is  peculiar  in  the  charac- 
ter of  its  shell,  which  only  belongs  to  the  female.  It  pos- 
sesses indeed  no  true  shell  secreted  by  the  mantle,  in  common 
with  other  octopod  genera,  lint  that  which  bears  the  name  is 
secreted  by  the  margin  of  tlie  large  expansions  of  tlie  two 
posterior  arms.  Tliese  inclose  the  shell,  which  is  thus  evi- 
dently a  product  of  their  inner  face. 

The  byssiis  is  a  fibrous  rope  or  thread-like  body  which  is 
secreted  by  a  gland  in  the  foot  of  certain  Acephala.  By 
means  of  it  the  animal  is  attached  to  fixed  bodies.  It  is  well 
developed  in  Mytitiis,  rudimental  in  some  Uniones. 

2.  Ill  Arthropoda. — Tlie  external  covering  of  the  body 
and  limbs  of  animals  of  this  class  has  been  already  stated  to 
be  chitin.  This  sulistanee  is  composed  chemically  of  ('uIIm- 
NOii — tliat  is.  a  jirotein  liody,  C'sIIeNOs.  plus  a  hydrated 
carbon,  CbHbOs.  In  higher  Crustacea  and  in  various  Jlyr- 
iopoda  {lulus,  Pohjdesmus,  etc.)  it  is  accompanied  by  an 
equal  or  even  greater  amount  of  carbonate  and  phosphate 
of  lime;  of  these  the  former  exceeds  the  latter  in  quantity. 
The  chitin  layer  proper  is  a  secretion  from  a  layer  of  cells, 
which  in  turn  lies  above  a  stratum  of  connective  tissue. 
The  cells  resemble  the  epithelial,  and  have  distinct  nuclei. 
The  chitin  originates  from  these  as  a  transparent  layer,  but 
frequently  becomes  streaked  or  fibrous. 

The  pattern  on  which  each  segment  of  the  arthropod  liody 
is  constructed  is  that  of  an  annulus  composed  of  several  pieces. 
These  are  a  median  dorsal  and  ventral,  and  a  pair  of  lateral 
shields  on  each  side.  The  number  of  these  rings  in  tlie  dif- 
ferent orders  averages  twenty  and  less,  but  in  some  Mi/rio- 
poda  it  rises  as  high  as  140  ((rmp/iilus).  They  are  greatly 
modified  in  forming  the  head,  to  which  five  segments  are 
ri'ckoncd  by  some  (seven  by  others).  In  Mi/riopoda  those 
remaining  are  very  similar  to  each  other,  while  in  the  other 
orders  they  an;  much  modified,  and  generally  arranged  in 
groups.  These  are  distinguished  in  insects  as  head,  tliorax, 
and  abdomen  :  in  Crustiicrd  the  first  two  and  part  of  the 
third  scries  arc  united  into  a  cephalothorax.  while  the  nu- 
nieriius  remaining  segments  are  the  post -abdomen.  In 
Arai-liaida  only,  however,  we  have  the  true  ceplialolliorax, 
including  head  and  thorax  only,  the  abdomen  reuiaiuing 
entirely  distinct.  'I'he  number  oi'  segments  in  the  Crustacea, 
Decapoda,  Amphipoda,  and  Isnpuda  is  20;  in  the  Cnpepoda 
and  insects,  12;  in  Ariie/i/iii/ii  it  varies  from  12  lo  1!). 

The  lirnlis  of  Arthropoihi  are  composed  ol'  hollow,  variously 
altered  cylinders,  articulated  together  where  composed  of 
more  than  one  segment.  In  Cruslarea  and  Mi/rio/Kida  they 
are  present  on  all  the  segments  of  the  body;  in  Ararliiiida 
and  Jnsecia  on  head  and  thorax  only.  Iii  the  last-named 
class  only  those  of  the  head  are  modified  to  aid  in  .seizing 
and  devoui'iug  food;  in  the  Crustarea,  ihose  of  the  thorax 
arc  partly  ((Idiiiiimrus)  or  wholly  (Astaeus)  devob'd  to  this 
.service.  As  organs  of  progression  only  those  of  the  thorax 
are  employed  in  Iiiscctu;  in  Aracliniiln  the  last  head-limb 
is  included  ;  they  thus  possess  four  pairs  ot  limiis,  while  the 


Tnsecta  have  but  three.  The  larvEE  of  lepidopterous  and 
some  (tentlire<lenid)  hymenopterous  insects  possess  false  feet 
or  pro-legs  on  the  abdominal  segments.  In  the  former  they 
are  beset  by  an  arched  series  of  minute  claws,  which  are  ab- 
sent in  the  latter.  The  abilominal  legs  of  Jli/n'opoda  are, 
like  the  thoracic,  simple.  In  Crustacea  they  are  in  part 
swimming  organs,  and  many  of  them  bear  plates  and  fringes 
in  which  the  blood  is  exposed  and  oxygenated. 

The  organs  of  the  head,  or  altered  feet,  are  in  jawed 
insects  as  follows:  1,  wanting;  2,  antenna;  3,  mandible;  4, 
maxilla;  5,  labium.  In  insects  with  a  tubular  mouth  it  is 
similar,  except  that  the  third  pair  are  bristles  for  punctur- 
ing, the  fourth  similar,  and  the  fifth  a  tubular  body  or  ros- 
trum, inclosing  them.  The  hemipterous  rostrum  is  of  this 
type.  In  Lepidoptera,  where  there  is  a  tubular  or  suctorial 
tongue-like  rostrum,  the  tliird  segment  is  rudimentary,  the 
fourth  is  the  rostrum,  and  the  fifth  is  the  labium.  Of  the 
jawed  type  of  the  Coleoptera  are  the  orders  Orthoptera  and 
Neuroptera.  In  the  Tl ymenopt era  (bees,  etc.)  the  mandibles 
are  developed  as  jaws,  but  the  maxilhe  are  elongate,  and 
form  the  opposed  halves  of  a  tulie  which  incloses  a  projec- 
tile tongue.  The  suctorial  orders,  Jlemiptera  and  Lepidop- 
tera, have  been  mentioned ;  the  structure  in  the  Diptera 
(flies)  is  similar  to  that  of  Ilemiptera. 

The  antenna?  of  insects  are  organs  of  special  sense,  but 
whether  of  hearing,  smell,  or  taste  is  not  well  known.  In 
the  basal  segment  of  certain  Crustacea,  {Sergestes,  etc.)  a 
chamber  containing  grains  of  sand  has  lieen  suspected  to 
be  an  organ  of  hearing  ;  ^liile  a  microscopical  nervous stnic- 
ture  in  the  posterior  wings  of  Coleoptera  has  been  regarded 
as  of  similar  Significance.  The  antenna*  are  set  with  bristles, 
which  evidently  subserve  the  ordinary  but  here  highly  deli- 
cate sense  of  touch.  The  Crustacea  are  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  two  ]iairs  of  antenna' ;  the  sei'ond  pair  only 
of  these  is  present  in  other  Artliropnda,  excepting  the  larva' 
of  insects,  where  the  first  pair  exists  in  a  rudimental  state, 
the  seconil  being  absent.  In  31  i/rinpiidit  they  are  as  in  In- 
secta,  but  in  Araclniida  both  appear  to  be  wanting;  the 
second  pair  is,  however,  present  as  jaw-antenna",  taking  the 
place  of  the  absent  mandibles. 

In  Insccta  the  forms  of  the  antennte  are  very  numerous. 
The  typical  structure  is  that  of  a  succession  of  (nine  to 
twelve)  suli-simihir  cylinilric  segments.  Thus  they  appear 
in  carnivorous  and  olher  ('(ileopterii.  in  phryganeid  Keurop- 
tera,  acridiid  Oitliuptera,  nematocerous  iJiptera.  etc.  In 
most  Diptera  they  are  excessively  shortened  and  of  few 
joints;  the  last  is  enlarged,  and  supports  at  its  base  a  large 
bristle,  which  is  frequently  plumed.  In  Lepidoptera  Diur- 
na  they  are  club-shaped;  in  ,Sph iiig ida',  triiingular  in  sec- 
tion ;  and  in  Lejiidoptera  yiictunia.  fusiform  and  often 
jjlumed.  In  many  Orthoptera  they  are  very  short  ;  in  Hy- 
meiioptera  short  (bees),  elbowed  (ants),  or  much  prolonged 
{Iclineunioiiidte).  The  Coleoptera  exhibit  the  greatest  varie- 
ties. In  some  (Flater.  iJieti/optenis)  they  are  serrated;  in 
Silpliida>,  sliort  and  clubbed  ;  in  Loiigiconiia  their  length  is 
often  excessive;  in  Curculiouida'  some  of  the  basal  segments 
are  elongate,  forming  an  elbow  with  the  ri'inaiuder.  In 
Lamellicoriiia  the  terminal  segments  are  exiianded,  leaf- 
like, on  one  side  of  the  axis,  and  open  and  shut  like  the 
leaves  of  a  book. 

In  3Iyri(ipoda  the  maxilla  and  labium  of  insects  are  rep- 
resente<l  by  a  large  labium.  In  the  Stroitr/ylia  there  are  a. 
second  and  third  labia ;  but  in  CliiUijiiida  the  last  is  repre- 
sented by  a  [)air  of  powerful  foot-jaws,  which  are  perforated 
foi-  the  conduct  of  poison.  The  first  leg  corresponds  to  the 
third  of  the  insect.  In  Arachrtida  the  insect  maxilla  is 
reiiresented  by  jaws,  which  are  simple  in  spiders,  acute,  and 
jierforated  by  a  |ioison  <hict,  but  in  I'halaugia.  scor|iions, 
etc.  (Pedipatpi),  are  furnished  with  an  opposable  joint,  or 
are  clieles. 

In  Crustacea  the  second  jiair  of  maxilla'  ar<'  not  united 
into  a  labium,  as  in  Jnserta.  The  cejihalotliorax  in  some 
of  the  higher  order  of  Pecapoda  (cnibs,  lobsters,  etc.)  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  abilomeii  by  a  groove,  as  ill  the  cray- 
fish (,l.v/«c»s) ;  in  all  of  them  the  ambulalory  limbs  ari.se 
from  the  abdomen.  One  or  more  ot  these  are  chelate  (fur- 
nislieil  with  nip)iers)  in  the  Decapoda  and  other  oriiers,  but 
in  the  Stoniapoda  the  first  pair  has  instead  the  last  joint 
opposed  to  the  whole  length  of  the  penultimate,  forming  a 
reversed  scissor-like  organ.  The  limbs  of  the  pust-abdomen 
usually  bear  branchial  organs,  whili'  those  of  the  last  seg- 
ment are  in  the  form  of  jilates,  which,  when  extended,  form 
a  swimmjug  shield  (lubster),  (ir  are  hook-like  bodies  for 
maintaining  the  hold  in  the  shell  {I'agurus). 


ANATOJIY,  COMPARATIVE 


189 


Cleodora. 


The  liinlis  in  Tnsecfa  arc  alwavs  similar  in  construction, 
tlioii,i;li  till'  hinder  may  be  much  elongated  (grasshopper), 
anil  never  chelate.  They  consist  of  four  regions — the  coxa, 
IVmnr,  tiliia.  and  tarsus.  The  co.xa  attaches  the  limb  to  the 
body  by  a  ball-and-socket  or  hinge-like  joint,  and  may  be 
froni  globular  to  laminar  in  form.  The  femur  is  the  stout- 
est joint,  containing  the  muscles  which  flex  and  extend  the 
rest  of  the  leg.  The  tibia  is  slender  and  often  long;  the 
tarsus  usually  consists  of  several  joints.  In  some  Ilemip- 
tera  it  consists  of  but  one  or  two  :  in  most  Cohoptera  it  em- 
braces at  least  five.  In  the  latter  order  the,  number  is  an 
impiirtant  index  of  relationship.  The  lower  ;,roups  {Coc- 
riiit'/!i(l(e,  etc.)  possess  but  three  ;  the  curculios,  longicorns, 
etc..  [xissess  four,  and  the  Ti'ni-brii>ni(liv  and  others  five  in 
front  and  four  on  the  hind  limbs  only  ;  lastly,  the  scrricorn, 
clavicorn.  monilieorn.  and  Mwr  types,  with  five  joints  all 
round.  The  last  joint  usually  consists  of  a  pair  of  chitiruais 
hooks ;  others  inay  be  modified  by  expansion,  etc.,  for  adhe- 
sion to  vertical  surfaces,  etc. 

3.  In  Vertfhrates. — The  skin  in  the  Veriehrata  is  prima- 
rily smooth  and  soft.  Its  epithelial  glands  nuiy  secrete 
mucus,  as  in  many  iishes,  or  glands  seated  in  the  true  skin 
may  separate  sweat.  The  latter  are 
simple,  convoluted,  and  wil  h  a  long 
elferent  duct.  The  epitlielial  layer 
produces  the  horny  sheaths  of  claws 
and  bonis,  feathers  and  hairs. 
Miimmalia  arc  generally  covered 
with  hairs,  but  in  the  manis  it  is 
thrown  into  extensive  folds,  which 
arc  eornified.  and  become  the  scales 
of  those  renuirkable  animals.  In 
the  shell  of  the  armadillos  it  is  os- 
sified ;  and  on  the  head  of  various 
vertebrates  and  on  the  body  of  tor- 
toises it  is  penetrated  by  ossifica- 
tion, and  fused  with  the  skeleton 
below  them.  Hairs  are  an  epithe- 
lial growth  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
cylinder.  The  epidermis  is  sunk  into  a  pit  of  the  true  skin, 
And  then  returns  outward  as  the  hair.  It  increases  in  length 
by  addition  of  cells  and  pigment  from  below.  A  modifica- 
tion of  the  same  structiu'e  is  seen  in  feathers,  where  the  axis 
is  split  laterally,  and  thus  develops  the  barbs  and  fibrilhe  on 
eacli  side.  Birds  are  covered  with  feathers.  The  first  grow-tli 
appears  as  down,  in  which  the  fibrillar  are  softer  and  in  much 
smaller  lunniicr.  so  as  not  to  be  colicrent :  the  bases  of  the 
true  or  mature  feathers  are  furnished  with  the  same.  Those 
<if  the  body  are  generally  soft ;  in  acjuatic  birds  excessively 
dense  on  t  he  lower  surfaces.  They  arise  from  certain  patches 
only.  There  is  one  oil  each  scajmlar  region,  and  one  along 
the  middle  line  of  the  neck  above.  Another  is  on  the  rump, 
and  one  on  each  side  of  the  breast.  The  abdomen  presents 
-a  large  median  patch.  In  ostriches,  penguins,  and  a  few 
others  the  feathers  jire  evenly  distributed  over  th(^  whole 
body.  Besides  the  nuiin  shaft  of  the  feather,  a  second  one 
is  develo[)ed  behind  it  in  many  birds.  It  is  generally  much 
~maller  than  the  first,  but  it  is  equal  to  it  in  the  Cfixiiariida>. 
'I'hc  largest  feathers  are  developed  on  the  caudal  vertel)ra> 
and  on  the  fore  lindi.  In  the  latter  they  subserve  the  func- 
tion of  (light.  Those  attached  to  \\w  carpus  and  manus  are 
the  longest  and  most  imporlant,  their  length  bearing  a 
direct  relation  t<i  the  powers  of  flight  of  the  Vjiril.  These 
are  the  primary  quills;  they  are  enorinously  developed  in 
the  swallows  and  swifts,  in  the  humming-birds  and  frigate- 
)>elicans  {Tachtmi'tui),  etc.  They  consist  of  naked  shafts 
only  in  many  of  the  ostriches.  The  quills  attached  to  the 
fore  arm  ai'e  the  secondaries  ;  they  are  proportionately  large 
in  gallinaceous  l)irds.  Thoscv  inserted  into  the  skin  of  the 
humerus  .are  the  tertials.  aiul  are  most  highly  develoiied  in 
the  wading  families  {(fral/ii)  and  certain  song-birds — e.  g. 
the  MnturiUidip.  The  caudal  cpdlls  or  rectriees  arc  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  in  average  number;  they  are  greatly 
<'longated  in  tin;  tropic-l)ird  (Pliiir/im),  JlilriiluK,  etc.,  and 
are  almost  wanting  in  some  gallinaceous  birds,  in  some 
tinamous,  etc.  The  rump-feathers  or  tail-coverts  arc  some- 
times so  developed  as  to  conceal  them,  as  in  the  peacock, 
I'/i(iri>marnis,  Egretta,  etc. 

The  scales  of  reptiles  are  area?  of  true  derm,  boinided  by 
simple  folds,  which  are  covered  exactly  by  epidermis.  These 
area!  may  be  filled  wit  h  an  osseous  deposit,  as  in  Ilclodfrnia  ; 
in  snakes  they  are  soft.  In  tortoises  the  intervening  folds 
are  very  shallow,  and  remotely  correspond  to  the  skeleton 
below.     The  epithelial  layer  is  horny  (tortoise-shell),  while 


the  derm  is  ossified  and  united  with  the  osseous  skeleton 
below.  In  Crovodilia  the  distinct  ossifications  occupy  the 
dermal  area^  of  the  l)ack,  or  on  both  surfaces  of  the  body  in 
the  caimans,  etc.  The  area;  are  s}TnmetricaIly  distril)utcd 
on  the  head  in  ser])ents,  most  Lacertilia  and  some  tortoises. 
In  the  first  they  are  fewest  and  niost  regular,  numbering 
usually  nine  on  the  upjier  sm'face.  They  correspond  re- 
motely with  the  cranial  bones,  and  hence  arc  called  pari- 
etal, frontal,  superciliai'y,  prel'ontal,  internasal.  rostral,  etc. 
In  venomous  snakes  and  boas  the  vertex  is  frequently 
covered  with  scales. 

Fishes  frequently  disjilay  ossifications  of  the  epidermis 
as  well  as  of  the  true  skin,  as  on  the  cranium  of  sturgeons, 
their  dorsal  and  lateral  shields,  etc.  The  scales  which  cover 
the  liodies  of  most  iislics  are  developed  in  pouches  of  the 
tnic  skin  by  deposit  of  mineral  matter.  Their  exposed  sur- 
faces are  covered  by  epidermis,  wfiich  enters  between  them, 
and  reaches  there  the  true  skin.  In  eels  they  are  small 
and  separated.  In  fishes  with  closed  swim-bladder  (Phys- 
odjjsti)  the  scales  develop  spinous  projections  whicli  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  a  comb  on  the  margin,  and  are  hence 
called  cteiu)id.  Most  of  those  in  fishes  with  the  duct  of  the 
swim-bladder  {P/iysostotiti)  have  smooth  surfaces  and  edges, 
aiul  are  termed  cycloid.  In  many  fishes  of  early  periods, 
and  some  now  living  (Lcpiclosfeiis,  Polyptervs),  the  scales 
are  pavement-like  and  glossy,  with  a  layer  of  ganoin.  These 
occur  in  all  super  orders  of  Tthostomi,  but  are  rare  in  the 
Actinopterygii.  Sharks  have  separated  mineralized  bodies, 
with  flat  bases  and  produced  points,  granules,  etc.,  whence 
tfiey  have  been  termed  placoids.  In  Murmpohranchii  and 
Lepfncnrdii  the  skin  is  smootli. 

The  internal  pans  of  the  mucodermal  system  are  the  mu- 
cous menilirancs.  The  former  are  continuous  with  the  epi- 
dermis, and  line  the  cavities  of  the  digestive,  respiratory, 
and  reproductive  systems.  The  serous  membranes  line  the 
closed  chambers,  being  continuous  with  the  mucous  mem- 
brane only  at  the  fontanelles  of  tlie  oviducts  (tuba»  Fallopii). 
In  the  thoracic  cavity  they  form  a  sac,  with  one  side  thrust 
in  upon  the  other,  the  thoracic  viscera  being  on  the  outside 
of  the  entering  portion.  The  abdominal  viscera  occupy  in 
the  same  way  the  outside  of  the  mendirane  lining  the  cavity, 
which  is  termed  the  peritonanun.  In  the  thorax  it  is  the 
pleura. 

4.  The,  Tfetli. — These  bodies  are  generally  developed  in 
an  internal  or  external  epithelial  layer,  like  some  of  the 
dermal  bony,  or  dentinal  plates  or  pieces.  In  Protozoa 
and  Cwhiiti'i-fi/ii  they  are  wanting.  In  Echiiioilermnfa 
they  are  present  as  five  hard  sub-triangidar  plates,  which 
close  the  mouth  by  their  close  contact,  like  radii  from  its 
center.  In  IloUusca  they  are  described  under  tiie  diges- 
tive system,  so  that  it  only  remains  to  consider  them  in 
Vermes  and  Vertebrafa.  In  the  former  they  consist  exclu- 
sively of  hooks,  mostly  arranged  round  the  uu)uth.  In  the 
Trematodes  they  occur,  weakly  developed  in  a  few  genera, 
in  one  of  which  they  are  attached  to  an  organ  at  the  poste- 
rior extremity  of  the  body.  In  JS'ematoda.  C/iiracanthus 
has  hooks  oii  the  head  aiul  body,  ami  S/n/nyylus  horny 
teeth  round  the  pharynx.  In  Actinflitire/ihaUi  all  the  genera 
possess  a  retractile  |)rof)oscis,  which  is  studded  with  re- 
curved hooks  in  various  circles.  In  Cestoda.  the  tape- 
worms have  hooks  as  well  as  suckers  on  the  head,  which 
are  especially  well  dcvelojied  in  the  cysticercus  larval  stage. 
The  Tetriir'hynchida;  possess  four  projectile  proboscides, 
each  of  which  is  set  with  several  rows  of  recurved  hooks. 

The  teeth  of  vertebrates  are  developed  on  jiapilUe  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  which  is  usually  sunk  into  a  groove  or 
successive  cavities  or  alveola?  of  the  jaw  and  palate  bones. 
True  teeth  are  usually  composed  of  a  very  dense  substance 
allied  to  bone,  called 'dentine.  Exterior  to  this  they  have  a 
deposit  of  a  still  denser  and  harder  sniistaiu-e.  the  enamel, 
which  covers  the  crown.  The  root  is  sheathed  in  a  layer,  of 
tnie  bone,  the  cement.  Deutine  is  distinguished  from  bone 
{osteine)  by  the  presence  of  great  numbers  of  parallel  tubuli, 
which  radiate  from  the  central  cavity  to  the  circumference 
of  the  tooth.  Knaiuel  is.  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  nature  of 
a  secretion,  filling  vertical  hexagonal  cells  which  stand  upon 
the  dentine.  Hence  it  is  composed  of  prisms.  It  contains, 
like  dentine,  a  trace  of  fluoride  of  calcium,  besides  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  of  which  both  are  composed.  It  is  deposited 
in  a  layer  of  the  ectoderm,  while  the  dentinal  membrane  is 
entodermal. 

In  Lf/j/ocoff//;"  there  are  no  teeth,  and  in  Marsipohranehii 
they  are  horny  proct^sses  in  concentric  series  round  the  in- 
side of  the  funnel-shaped  mouth.     The  two  largest  are  situ- 


190 


ANATOMY.  COMPARATIVE 


Fig.  15. 


-Octopus  vulgaris. 


ated  at  the  month  of  the  CESophagus.  In  fishes  generally, 
bony  teeth  are  present,  but  are  not  usually  developed  in  al- 
veolar cavities,  but  on  the  surface  of  the  bones. 

In  fishes  the  teeth  are  usually  covered  with  dentine  in- 
stead of  enamel,  and  may  be  composed  internally  of  true 
dentine,  or  of  its  variety,  vasodentine.  This  substance  re- 
tains the  numerous  blood-ves.seIs  which  characterize  the 
early  stage  of  deposit  of  dentine,  which  are  easily  seen  in 
a  section  of  the  teeth.     Of  such  character  are  the  teeth  of 

Elasmohranch  it,  which 
are  moreover  of  very  va- 
rious form.  Thus  they 
are  pavement-like,  with 
\ertical  lamellar  roots,  in 
skates  and  rays,  or  they 
are  rootless  and  with 
swollen  crowns  of  differ- 
ing sizes,  etc.,  arranged 
in  symmetrical  band-like 
pavements,  as  in  cestra- 
cionts.  The  crowns  may 
be  more  elevated  as  in 
hybodonts,  or  finally  iso- 
lated and  with  sharji  ajiices  and  cutting  edges  in  the  existing 
squalodonts.  In  Uolocephali  the  teeth  are  few  and  large,  and 
are  traversed  by  columns  or  bands  of  vessels  with  calcified 
waUs.  In  Dipnoi  the  teeth  form  a  single  serrate  cap  for 
each  jaw.  In  Actinopterygia  the  teeth  are  generally  com- 
posed of  a  larger  proportion  of  dentine.  In  sturgeons  they 
are  only  present  during  immature  age.  In  the  Lepidosleiihv 
the  external  or  dentinal  surface  is  inflected  in  deep  folds. 
which  are  closed  so  as  to  resemble  grooves  externally.  Plnj- 
soslomi  generally  liave  large  teeth  on  the  jaws,  but  in  some 
Characinidte  and  all  other  Plecfospondyl i,  Coregonus  (gray- 
ling), some  Mormyri.  etc.,  there  are  none.  In  some  of  these 
fishes  there  are  numerous  teeth  on  the  lower  segment  of  the 
fifth  pair  of  hyoid  arches,  or  the  "  inferior  pharyngeal  bones." 
In  Ckaracinidm  these  are  of  very  varied  type ;  in  Catostn- 
viidcB  the  bones  are  much  prolonged,  and  the  teeth  are  comb- 
Uke  in  one  row,  and  work  against  a  projecting  inferior  table 
of  the  basioccipital  bone.  In  Gyprinidm  they  are  stout,  in 
one  or  more  snort  rows,  and  may  be  hooked,  sharp  edged, 
conic,  or  grinding  in  type,  according  to  the  food  of  the  fish. 
This  structure  does  not  exist  in  other  fishes.  In  Esox  the 
teeth  are  raptorial  and  very  numerous ;  in  Chipeidce,  rudi- 
mental  and  wanting.  Only  in  the  order  to  which  the  latter 
pertains,  the  Isoftptmdyll,  do  we  find  fishes  with  fangs  sunk 
in  deep  alveoli,  the  extinct  Saurodontidce  from  the  creta- 
ceous formations.  In  Xematognathi  they  are  more  or  less 
bristle-like,  and  i)acked  together  like  a  brush.  In  eels  they 
are  often  dagger-like.  In  physoclystous  (or  the  higher)  fishes 
they  are  generally  brush-like,  frequently  with  canines  inter- 
mixed; but  in  Pedini/rifi  they  are  large,  incurved,  on  flexi- 
ble ligament ovis  bases.  In  some  Phctognathi  they  are 
incisor-like,  and  in  Pharyngogmithi  those  on  the  hyoid 
apparatus  are  greatly  developed.  The  latter  are  sub-quad- 
rate, oval,  or  narrow  (Scarus),  and  arranged  pavement- 
fashion  for  the  crushing  of  hard  substances,  as  shells,  etc. 
In  Scarus  the  teeth  of  the  jaws  are  confluent  into  a 
shining,  parrot-like  beak,  useful  in  scraping  out  shells  and 
cutting  off  seaweed. 

In  Batrachia  the  teeth  are  usually  small,  often  wanting 
(bufoniform  Anura),  or  in  the  extinct  Lahyrinlhudontia 
with  deep  complicated  inflections  of  tlie  dentine  and  super- 
ficial cementum.  In  reptiles  we  find  teeth  with  fangs  and 
with  crowns,  generally  covered  with  enamel.  These  may 
be  sunk  in  deep  alveoli  {Rhy>ir/inn'/i]ia/in,  Acrodonta,  Croc- 
odilia,Ir/i/hyopf('rygiri.Sinimp/erygia,Or?iithosauria,Dino- 
saurin-(r'i>iii(i/judii),  or  may  be  attached  to  the  inner  side  of 
the  outer  alveolar  wall  (Liivi'rtiUit  in  general,  and  IJino- 
saurid-fjitliijpodii ;  may  stand  immediately  on  the  jaw- 
bones, without  fangs  (Ophidia),  or  on  a  thick  column  of 
ossified  l)ul|)  (osteo-dentine)  in  an  alveolus  (Pytlionomor- 
phn).  1  he  crowns  are  generally  compressed  conic  ;  in  some 
(Lcflap.t)  knife-shaped.  In  herbivorous  lizards  they  present 
an  oblique  face  inward.  In  Crocndih'a  the  young  teeth  rise 
within  the  pulp  cavity  of  the  old,  and  throw  them  off ;  in 
most  otlier  ordei's  the  successional  teeth  appear  at  the  side 
of  the  fang,  and  provoke  absorption,  which  cuts  off  the 
crown  of  the  old.  Tortoises  and  birds  are  toothless ;  Ano- 
modtjntia  are  so  likewise,  except  a  strong  maxillary  tusk. 

In  Mnmmulid  the  dental  armature  is  distinguished  into 
series — viz.,  the  incisors,  canines,  premolars,  and  molars. 
Their  normal  number  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  is  I.  3 ;  C. 


1 ;  Pm.  4  ;  M.  3  ;  total,  44.  The  incisors  are  normally  flat 
and  transverse  edged ;  the  canines  longer  and  conic ;  the 
premolars  compressed,  with  one  to  three  cusps;  and  the 
molars  oval  in  section,  with  a  double  series  of  cusjjs.  In 
Ornithorhynchns  there  is  but  one,  a  horny  tooth.  In  mar- 
supials the  number  of  incisors  is  excessive  (as  8  or  10),  or, 
as  in  kangaroos,  less  numerous  and  the  median  much  en- 
larged. In  these  and  their  gigantic  extinct  allies  two  in 
the  lower  jaw  are  much  enlarged  as  tusks.  In  Olires  there 
are  but  two  incisors  above  and  below,  which  have  enamel 
externally  only ;  hence  the  inner  face  weal's  more  rapidly, 
and  the  opposed  pairs  act  as  efficient  cutters  in  gnawing. 
The  other  teeth  are  molars  only,  and  these  of  the  compli- 
cated type  to  be  mentioned  later.  In  Insedivorn  the  in- 
cisors are  enlarged,  but  in  Edentata  they  are  always  want- 
ing. In  Cliiropfura  and  Cariiimra  they  are  similar  to  each 
other,  and  much  reduced.  In  Quadnitiiann  they  are  well 
developed,  broad,  opposed  cutters,  and  are  generally  4—4  in 
number.  The  proboscidians,  on  the  other  hand,  have  but 
one  (the  outer)  pair  of  incisors  in  each  jaw.  which  are 
developed  into  huge  tusks  above  (Elfpliiintidn')  or  below 
(Dinotherida').  In  these  cases  the  oppusing  jiair  is  reduced 
or  wanting.  The  Arfiodacfyla-Biiminaiifiu  arc  remarkable 
for  the  entire  absence  of  superior  incisors,  and  the  close 
resemblance  of  the  inferior  canine  to  the  lower  incisors, 
producing  the  appearance  of  eight  of  the  latter. 

The  canine  is  largely  developed  in  the  Carnivora,  hogs. 
Hippopotamus,  and  the  extinct  Amblypoda.  The  premolars 
are  wanting  in  rodents  and  many  proboscidians,  but  numer- 
ous in  marsupials,  insectivores,  etc.  In  CaniivoraWwj'  axe 
numerous,  and  the  last  is  peculiarly  formed,  being  the  sec- 
torial or  flesh-tooth  characteristic  of  the  order.  The  two 
outer  tubercles  and  connecting  ridge  are  developed  into  a 
longitudinal  notched  blade,  while  the  inner  remains  a  small 
tubercle  at  the  front  of  the  inner  side.  In  dogs  there  are 
two  tubercular  molars  behind  it ;  in  weasels  and  cats,  one; 
in  the  extinct  IIy(enodontidm  all  of  the  molars  are  of  the 
sectorial  form. 

Molar  teeth  are  simply  conic  (haplodont),  with  tubercular 
crowns  (bunodont),  or  the  tubercles  may  be  fused  into  crests 
(lophodont).  The  tubercles  may  be  three  in  number  (tritu- 
bercidar) ;  or  four  (quadritubercular) ;  or  immerous  (multi- 
tubercular)  ;  or  the  tubercles  may  have  crescentic  sections 
(selenodont).  In  the  first  case  they  may  be  one  or  two 
rooted.  Thus  in  cetaceans  generally  they  are  simple  cones, 
covered  with  cement  instead  of  enamel.  In  some  extinct 
groujjs  {Zeuglodon,  etc.)  the  crowns  are  compressed  and  the 
roots  two.  In  Edentata  they  are  sinqale  throughout,  and 
covered  with  cement.  This  forms  a  thick  layer  and  in- 
closes a  thin  one  of  dentine,  which  by  its  superior  hardness 
forms  the  ring-like  grinding  surface  of  the  crown  ;  it  is  fiUed 
within  by  osteo-dentine.  In  carnivorous  and  insectivorous 
animals  the  tubercles  are  usuaUv  three,  and  acute  and  ele- 


Fio.  16.-1.  BrachieUa.    2.  Dichelesthium.    3.  Cyclops. 


vated;  thus  they  appear  in  Chiropfera,  many  marsupials. 
Insect iirira,  etc.  In  carnivorous  forms  the  two  external  tu- 
bercles above,  and  an  external  and  internal  below,  are  modi- 
fied into  a  cutting  blade,  the  two  acting  together  Uke  shears. 
In  kangaroos,  sirenians,  tapirs,  and  Dinotherium  they  ap- 
jiear  as  two  transverse  crests  or  keels.  These  crests  are 
multiplied  in  Jro«/orfon,  reaching  six  or  seven.  In  Stegodon 
they  are  moi-o  numerous;  the  intervals  are  a  little  d<^cper,  and 
with  some  cementum  in  their  bottoms.  In  Elephas  they  are 
deepened  to  the  roots  of  the  tooth,  and  filled  to  the  top  with 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATI\'E 


191 


Flo.  17.— Dytiscus  and  larva. 


cement ;  are  narrowed  by  the  approach  of  the  much  elevated 
transverse  crests,  which  have  now  reached  a  great  number. 
Their  summits  readily  wear  in  use,  and  thus  present  bands 
of  alternating  dentine,  enamel,  and  cementum. 

The  external  tubercles  may  be  connected  by  an  external 
longitudinal  crest,  as  in  Bliiitocerus  and  Ilyrax.  They  may 
l)e  moditiiMl  so  as  to  form  two  Vs. as  in  many  PirisKoilarli/ln. 
The  internal  tubercles  may  renuiin  conic  (many  I'erissodiir- 
ti/la).  hi-  connected  with  the  external  by  cross-crests  (other 

Perissodactyla),  or 
become  like  the  ex- 
ternal Vs,  or  cres- 
cent ic  in  section 
(selenodont  Artio- 
dactf/la). 

From  this  point 
the  succession  of 
forms  seen  in  ap- 
proacliing  the  ele- 
pliant.s  is  repeated 
in  two  series,  end- 
ing in  the  ox  and 
horse.  The  inter- 
vals deepen,  the  crescents  become  elevated,  and  the  tops,  be- 
ing soon  worn  off  in  use,  present  a  figure  formed  by  the 
edges  of  enamel  plates,  which  inclose  islands  of  dentine. 
The  spaces  between  them  are  filled  with  cementum.  In  the 
hor.se  there  are  five  crescent-shaped  columns  in  the  upper 
molars  and  three  in  the  lower.  In  artiodactyls  there  are 
four  above  and  mostly  four  below.  In  deer  the  crown  and 
roots  are  sub-equal  in  length,  but  in  the  Cavicurnia  the 
crown  is  much  the  longer. 

The  same  transition  is  seen  in  the  rodents.  In  Mus  the 
molars  are  only  tubercular;  in  squirrels  there  are  crests. 
In  Ari'icola  and  beavers  there  are  deep  inflections  of  the 
enamel  of  the  sides  of  the  tooth,  producing  a  zigzag  section 
when  the  crown  is  worn,  while  in  Caviidip  the  tooth  is  en- 
tirely divided  into  several  columns  by  the  deep  descent  of 
the  enamel  coating  from  above.  In  porcuiiines  figures  are 
])r(MluciMl  by  both  lateral  and  coronal  folds. 

Simpler  teeth  are  seen  in  men  and  apes,  where  the  molars 
present  four  olituse  tubercles  (in  the  last  sometimes  five) ; 
and  in  the  hogs,  where  the  tubercles  are  more  numerous, 
and  sometimes  irregular.  In  HippopotHmns  each  of  the 
four  tubercles  is  trifoliate  in  section. 

VI.  The  Digestive  System. 

1.  /«  Tnrer/ebnifes. — The  prominent  features  of  the  diges- 
tive system  in  Cci'lrnfirafa  have  been  i>ointeil  out.  There 
is  none  in  the  Ilydrip.  the  inner  surface  of  the  urn-shaped 
body-cavity  [lerforming  that  function :  an  excretory  pore 
exists  in  the  foot-like  support.  In  Actinozoa  a  small  sac  is 
sometimes  formed  at  the  fundus  of  this  cavity  by  the  re- 
flection of  the  inner  skin ;  it  opens  into  the  cavity,  and  is 
entered  above  by  the  nujuth.  The  body-cavity  is  ridgeil 
on  the  sides  by  prominent  folds,  who.se  margins  bear  re- 
productive organs  and  nettle-cells.  In  the  Mcduaip  the 
txidy  is  turned  the  other  side  up  at  maturity,  though  its 
position  is  that  of  the  polyjjs  in  the  larval  state.  The  free 
stomach  hangs  lielow  the  "basal  cavity.  The  latter  is  some- 
times wanting,  and  is  ridged  occasionally,  as  in  poh'jis.  It 
is  produi-eil  downward  in  some  genera  by  its  walls  becoming 
a  peduncle  for  the  stomach.  The  latter  is  bell-like,  and 
often  widely  o|ien;  it  is  generally  closable  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  its  margin.  The  latter  l)ears  bunches  of  tentacles, 
etc.,  which  in  the  Rkizmtomu!  are  greatly  enlarged  and  pro- 
longed into  four  leaf-like  bodies,  which  bear  the  four  mout  lis 
at  their  extremities,  and  tubular  oesophagi  throughout  their 
length.  From  the  bjusal  chamber  rise  the  four  radiating 
tubular  canals,  which  extend  through  the  umbrella  to  a 
tube  which  passes  round  its  margin. 

In  Cn'/iniJua  there  is  a  central  column  to  the  basal  cavity; 
round  this  the  alimentary  camd  winds,  and,  returning,  issues 
near  the  mouth.  In  Asferioidea  the  .stomach  is  a  sac,  c(m- 
nectcd  with  the  mouth  by  a  short  gullet,  which  is  closable 
at  the  mouth.  The  stomach  is  divaricated  into  five  pairs 
of  bunches  of  ca>ca,  which  send  out  radial  tubes,  two  into 
each  arm  of  the  aninuxl.  The  vent  is  wanting  in  the 
Oplu'iiriilii;  but  present  in  most  AsferiidcF.;  in  the  latter 
case  there  is  an  enlarged  rectum,  which  gives  rise  to  five 
horny  radial  ca-ca  (often  bifurcate),  which  alternate  with 
thost!  of  the  stonuich.  In  the  llolutliurida  the  vent  is 
present,  and  tlu^  alimentary  canal  elongate,  and  divisible 
into  a-sophagus  (closed  behind  by  a  sphincter),  intestine,  and 


rectum.  The  last  receives  the  mouths  of  the  respiratory 
organs. 

In  the  Vermes  this  system  does  not  branch  radially ; 
otherwise  its  character  is  very  various.  That  it  is  a  blind 
.sac  in  many  orders  has  been  already  shown.  In  those  with- 
out arms  it  is  either  a  simi>lc  bliiul  tube  (TurbeUaria-Rhab- 
doccela,  Seplie/is,  AspidnyiisfiT,  liranrhifibdilla,  etc.),  or  is 
early  divided  into  two  parallel  tubes,  as  in  Trematodes.  In 
tapeworm  and  Monostomiim  these  tubes  unite  at  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  body.  In  the  Ne.mertina,  in  which  the 
canal  is  simple,  there  are  two  constrictions  at  the  end  of  the 
oesophagus,  to  the  anterior  of  which  is  attached  a  projectile 
stylet  furnished  with  venom-glands.  In  Folia  the  alimentary 
canal  becomes  a  solid  ligament,  which  is  turned  forward  and 
attached  to  the  wall  of  the  cavity.  In  PontohdeUa  the  blind 
camil  is  furnished  with  a  few  branches  or  ca-ca.  In  the 
Turhellaria-Dendrocaila  it  forms  a  large  number  of  branch- 
ing caM?a. 

In  the  families  with  vent,  it  is  wound  or  knotted  (Capiti- 
branchiata  and  some  Dnmibriinrhiata),  simple  (Ahranchi- 
ata,  Oordiacea,  Nematuda),  or  furnished  with  ciPca  on  the 
sides.  There  is  but  one  on  each  side  in  Jlwrnopis,  but  many 
in  the  leeches. 

In  Vermes  in  general  there  are  no  Cuvierian  glands,  and 
there  are  often  liver-cells  on  the  canal  walls. 

In  MoUusca  an  anus  and  liver  are  always  present,  except- 
ing that  the  former  is  wanting  inmost  Briieliiopoda.  An 
almost  univei-sal  peculiarity  of  mollusks  is  that  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  after  fewer  or  more  nunu'rous  convolutions  in  the 
body-cavity,  returns  and  issues  not  far  from  the  mouth  on 
the  doi-sal  "or  lateral  border  of  the  body;  this  prevails  from 
the  Bryozoa  to  the  Cfphalopada.  The  general  characters  of 
the  canal  can  be  expressed  schematically  as  follows: 

A.  A  more  or  less  projectile  a'sophageal  body  or  tongue, 
with  a  movable  membrane  armed  with  reverted  homy  teeth, 
and  more  or  less  retractile  into  a  sheath;  no  crystal  style 
in  the  stomach  (except  two  or  three  genera).  Stomach  large, 
unsymmetrical ;  canal  short,  with  a  large  pyloric  cscum ; 
liver  very  large,  lobular,  discharging  anterior  to  stomach; 
mouth  with  horny  beaks:  ('ephiiUipiidd. 

Course  of  canal  with  two  abrupt  turns:  1.  at  transverse 
stomach;  2,  of  intestine  double,  under  oesophagus;  rectum 
transverse,  opening  in  mantle  hole ;  liver  double,  of  many 
eieca,  entering  each  end  of  stomach :  OasUropoda-Scapho- 
poda. 

Coui-se  of  canal  little  enlarged  at  stomach,  and  with  an  in- 
testinal one;  altogether  a  loop  o])cning  forward  near  heart; 
liver  single,  lobulate  :  Gasteropoda-Ileli'riipoda. 

Intestine  short  (straight),  emptying  on  right  side,  never  in 
brcatliing  cavity  (rarely  on  back),  rarely  issuing  from  an- 
terior part,  of  stomach";  latter  elongate  (longitudinal),  re- 
ceiving straight  oesophagus  at  either  end  or  side,  often  di- 
vided in  two  or  three,  when  one  or  more  is  furnished  with 


Fio.  Xi.—Vnliolum  Ehrenhergii.  Kr. :  1.  frr)iTi  atiove:  2,  from  side;  3, 
from  below;  a.  mouth;  6.  vent;  f/,  annnlar  nuiscle-ljands;  <•,  en- 
dostyle;  /*.  fjesopha^is;  k,  intestine;  t,  tiraiiehial  niemliraue;  n, 
nervous  system. 

horn-armed  ridges  or  teeth  ;  horn\  jaws:  Gas/eropoda-Opis- 
fhobranrhifi. 

1.  Liver  lobulate,  compact. 

2.  •'  ■•  subdifTii.se,  with  connecting  canals. 
;!.        ■■     of  blind  canals. 

a.  I'ranching  from  large  stomach-opening  in  body. 
/3.  '■  in  lateral  body-wings. 

7.  "  in  gills. 

r.  Two  posterior  body-trunks  of  liver. 
;/.  One         "  "  (including  four  families). 

z.  Three       "  " 

Stomach  (with  very  few  exceptions)  elongate  into  a  caecum ; 
intestine  rising  from  middle  and  turning  forward  to  the  vent; 
ridges  armed  with  horny  plates  in  stomach  :  Pteropoda. 


192 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


Stomaoh  a  widening  of  canal,  rarely  with  one  or  two  con- 
strictions: intestine  not  eonvohited  (except  Chiton),  empty- 
ing into  breathing  cavity  on  right  side ;  small  flat  jaws, 
sometimes  horny;  a  pharjTigeal  lump,  with  internal  carti- 
lage supporting  tongue,  on  lower  side  of  end  of  oesophagus : 
Oasieropoda-Prosubranc.hia. 

AA.  Slovable  armed  tongue  wanting. 

a.  A  crystalline  style  in  ca'cal  appendage  to  stomach ; 
lips  at  entrance  of  oesophagus ;  canal  mostly  uniform,  much 
turned ;  end  of  rectum  free  in  cloaca ;  stomach  oval  or 
round :  Acephitla. 

ait.  No  crystal  style ;  mouth  opening  between  more  or  less 
cartilaginous  spiral  appendages ;  canal  liound  by  an  extra 
mesenteric  sheath;  stomach  little  distinct:  liver  double  with 
large  {sometimes  several)  discharge  canals:  JBrctc/iiojjuclci. 

1.  Canal  shorter,  ending  in  blind  enlargement. 

2.  Canal  longer,  ending  in  lateral  anus. 

Mouth  opening  at  base  (or  side)  of  a  gill-sac  :  cesophagus 
short ;  stomach  not  large,  simple,  both  with  intestine,  form- 
ing a  V;  latter  directed  forward,  opening  on  same  side  as 
mouth:  Tim  tea  fa. 

Mouth  surrounded  with  ciliated  tentaeula;  (in  one  genus 
vnth  a  conic  lid);  oesophagus  well  defined:  stomach  dis- 
tinct, oftener  double  than  single :  intestine  rising  from  end 
of  iirst  or  single  stomach,  swollen  in  part  of  a  straight  course 
to  anus  near  mouth :  Bryozoa. 

In  Gasteropoda  there  is  a  pair  of  salivary  glands ;  in  most 
Cephalopoda,  two  pairs  (in  Sepia  and  Lolic/o  but  one  pair, 
and  in  Nautilus  none). 

The  raduke,  or  tooth  series,  and  their  supporting  band, 
present  an  enormous  number  of  separate  teeth  in  some  of  the 


Fig.  19. — 1.  Rana  e.sculeiita.  2.  Dactylethra  capensis.  3.  Bufo  viridi.s. 
ft,  brain  from  above;  ^i,  choroid  ple.xus:  c.  horizontal  section  of 
the  lobes  and  hemispheres;  d,  of  hemisphere;  e.  longitudinal  ver- 
tical section. 

Gasteropoda.  In  the  Cephalopoda  and  Pteropoda  they  are 
less  numerous.  In  some  of  tlie  Piilinoiiata  they  numbei'  as 
many  as  26.800.  They  are  arranged  in  rows,  longitudinal  a~s 
well  as  transverse.  The  latter  are  more  or  less  irregular  in 
their  course,  but  are  strictly  bilateral.  There  is  a  series  of 
median  plates  or  tectli,  with  one  or  more  rows  of  lateral 
ones.  The  following  divisions  are  indicated  by  the  different 
tooth-striictm'es  in  (rusferopoda: 

a.  Rhaclii<ilossa:  oidy  median  plates,  which  are  often 
toothed  (0—1—0) :  Voliilidce. 

b.  To.voi/lo.ssa ;  no  median  plates:  on  each  side  a  single 
lateral  tooth  of  an  awl-like  form;  no  Iwsal  membrane  of 
radula;  lateral  teeth  moved  by  special  muscles  (1 — 0 — 1) : 
ConidtP,  PIriirolom id(r. 

c.  JJamif//os!ia.:  a  middle  plate  and  single  lateral  plate 
(1 — 1 — 1):  Murifidw,  Bucc.iniidis,  Ulividw,  Lamellaritdce, 
Fasciolariidtp,  Turhinellida;. 

d.  Tcenioi/lossa;  median  plates,  and  on  each  side  three 
lateral  plates;  fourteen  families;  among  them  JjitUjiinidce, 


CeritJiiidw,  Turritellidce,  Cassididce,  Tritoniidx,  etc.  (3 — 1 
-3). 

e.  Ptenofflossa;  no  middle  plates;  lateral  plates  similar, 
numerous  (X — 0 — oo):  Scalaria,  Janthina. 

f.  Phipido(/lossa ;  middle  plates;  laterals  4 — 6  or  more, 
of  various  forms;  outside  of  these  numerous  small  hook- 
like  teeth  (00—4—6—1—4—6^):  Aerilida,  Trochidce, 
llaliotidip.  Fissurellido'.  The  Piihiioiiata  (except  Testa- 
cella)  exhibit  a  close  similarity  to  this  division  in  their  den- 
tition. 

The  digestive  canal  in  Arthropoda  does  not  turn  on  itself 
as  in  mollusks,  but  issues  at  the  extremity  of  the  body  op- 
posite to  that  which  it  enters.  The  a'sophagus  is  usually 
straight,  and  is  expanded  in  the  thoracic  region  into  the 
usually  longitudinal  stomach.  Anterior  to  this  point  it  has 
sacciform  dilatations  (Orilioptera)  or  diverticula  in  some 
types,  as  the  bees,  Lepidoptera,  flies,  etc.  After  leaving  the 
stomach,  the  canal,  after  few  or  no  windings,  reaches  the 
anus. 

In  Crustacea  and  Jnsecta  there  is  an  extensive  fatty  mass 
on  each  side  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  canal,  known  as  the 
corpus  adiposum  ;  in  Arachmda  it  is  frequently  wanting. 
The  form  of  the  stomach  in  this  class  varies;  thus  in 
Pedipalpi  (scorpions,  etc.).  it  is  simple  or  nearly  so,  lint  in 
Aranea  (spiders)  and  Pycnoffonum  (whale-louse)  it  branches 
into  radiating  diverticula ;  in  the  latter  these  penetrate  even 
into  the  femora  and  tibi;p.  The  digestive  system  is  supplied 
with  various  glandular  organs.  Those  nearest  the  njouth 
are  the  "salivary  glands,"  which  are  present  in  all  the 
classes  except  the  Cru-stacea.  They  are  complex  glands,  and 
their  secretion  in  some  forms  (larva^  of  some  Lepiiloptera) 
hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air  into  silk-like  threads.  The 
so-called  liver-glands  or  tulies  are  situated  either  before  or 
behind  the  stomach.  As  their  function  is  unknown,  and 
their  position  is  inconstant,  the  al)ove  name  is  but  pro- 
visional. In  JiLsecta  they  are  slender  and  tubular,  some- 
times very  elongate  and  undivideil.  There  are  usually  but 
four  in  Coleoptera.  but  more  in  Orthoptera  and  Ibjmenop- 
tera.  forming  a  whorl.  In  Arachnida  {Scorpio,  Jilygale, 
etc.)  and  Limuliis  they  are  more  complex,  and  present  a 
series  of  more  numerous  openings  into  the  intestine.  In 
tlie  decapod  Crustacea  the  organ  exhibits  its  highest  devel- 
opment. It  is  there  a  complex  follicular  gland  of  large  size 
on  each  side  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  opening  posterior 
to  the  stomach.  t)ther  simple  glands  are  in  the  Jnsecta  dis- 
tributed over  the  sui-face  of  the  stomach,  and  are  inclosed 
by  its  muscular  layer. 

The  stonuich  walls  are  thin  or  muscular,  in  some  types 
ridged  within  and  furnished  with  horny  teeth :  Orthoptera, 
some  Coleoptera. 

2.  In  Vertebrata. — In  most  of  this  branch  of  animals  the 
stomach  is  present  as  a  distinct  enlargement  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  and  the  intestine  is  short  or  long  as  the  food  is 
flesh  or  vegetable  and  mixed  in  character.  The  liver  is 
present  in  all,  and  is  of  a  highly  complex  glandular  charac- 
ter, except  in  the  Lepfocardii,  where  it  is  a  simple  diver- 
ticulum of  the  alimentary  canal. 

In  the  Lejjtocardii  the  pharynx  is  very  capacious,  and  is 
abundantly  fringed  with  long  processes.  It  opens  into  a 
sac-like  stomach,  which  is  continued  as  the  slender  straight 
intestine  to  the  vent.  Thei-e  are  no  te<'th.  In  the  Dermop- 
leri  the  intestine  is  also  simple  and  straight.  In  (islics  it 
presents  a  good  many  variations.  In  some,  as  the  sharks 
and  siluroids,  the  stomach  is  large,  and  the  pylorus  is  re- 
mote from  the  cariliac  entrance.  In  most  Clupeidip,  II;jo- 
dontida',  Ctiaracinida',  Ainia.  and  Pohjpterus,  it  is  sac-like, 
witli  the  pyloi-ns  near  to  the  cardiac  entrance.  In  most 
fishes  tlie  stomach  is  bent  on  itself,  lint  in  Chinimra,  Sym- 
branchus.  Ampliipnous,  Fi.it idaria.  and  Belone.  it  is  straight. 
Tlie  stomacli  in  some  sturgeons  and  in  IJeterotis  and  Chn- 
toe-isiis  (clupcoids)  is  gizzard-like  (i.  e.  sub-round),  with  mus- 
cular walls  and  tendinous  lamina  on  the  sides.  It  is  closed 
at  the  i}yliirns  in  most  fishes  by  an  annular  muscle.  In  the 
higher  fishes  (Physorlyxli)  tlicre  are  generally  found  diver- 
ticula from  the  beginning  of  the  intestine  at  the  pylorus, 
whicli  are  termed  )>yl<irie  ca'ca.  They  are  also  aliinidantly 
found  in  the  lower  groups,  or  Physostorni.  but  their  entire 
absence  is  more  common.  They  are  wanting  in  j\'i')ii(ilof/- 
nuthi,  eels,  Fi.itiilaria,  Chirocentrnx,  Jlijndtni.  the  (h)biid(P, 
and  Bleniiiidip.  and  in  Aniin,  Polypfenis,  and  the  Elas- 
mubrnnchii.  They  exist  in  vast  numliers  in  some  Salmonidm 
and  IjppidosleidiP,  and  are  numerous  in  electric  eels  and 
sturgeons.  In  Plata.c  tlierc  arc  but  four,  iu  Chuloguster 
two,  and  in  Amblyopsis  one. 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


193 


Fig.  20.- Brain  of  Xeciurus   macn- 
lalus. 


The  .succeeding  part  nf  flie  canal  is  generally  to  he  ilistin- 
guishcd  into  small  intestine  and  rectum.  These  are  sep- 
arated by  a  strong  valve  in  Elasmobrancliii  (except  Chi- 
mcpra),  in  Lspidoninn,  Pulypterus,  Ziinrceii,  Acipiii.su;  3las- 
tacembelus,  and  it  is  not  strong  in  Oresfian  and  Clarolrs. 
The  rectum  is  distinguish(>d  in  the  lower  forms  liy  the  jjos- 
scssion  of  a  s])iral  itilcrnal  valve  or  partition.  In  Klaxmo- 
branchii,  Pulijpterus,  a.nd Lepidosirm.Uw  spiral  partition  is 

continuous  by  its  inner 
margin  with  a  median 
membranous  axis,  which  is 
sus|)pnde(l  from  the  ileo- 
ca'cal  valve ;  in  Rrijd  mira- 
lefii)!  tlierc  is  no  axis,  and 
the  partitions  are  trans- 
verse and  perforated  ;  in 
Squafina,  Po/i/i/doii,  and 
Aripeiisi^r  ruthenti.i,  it  has 
no  axis,  and  revolves  spi- 
rally on  the  wall  of  the  rec- 
tum. It  is  also  present  in 
Amia  and  lyaclii/pferux. 
In  Aripi-nser  riibiciindus 
there  is  no  spiral  valve,  but 
the  walls  of  the  rectum  are 
areolate,  somewhat  as  in 
tripe.  The  gall-bladder  is 
always  present,  and  dis- 
charges beyond  the  pylorus. 
In  Rej)tilia  the  divisions 
of  stomach,  intestine,  and  rectum  are  well  marked ;  in  Ba- 
Irachia  rather  less  so.  In  both  the  canal  is  elongate,  and 
held  in  a  folded  position  by  a  mesentery,  but  in  Ijatrachian 
larvae  it  is  much  more  extended,  and  is  horizontally  coiled. 
The  liver  is  large  in  Batrachia.  and  usually  in  tlu'ee  lobes, 
but  in  the  Brevicipitidm  and  Eiiffi/stuntidie  there  are  but; 
two.  There  is  a  sphincter  valve  at  the  pylorus,  and  some- 
times one  at  the  end  of  the  small  intestine.  The  gall-duct 
discharges  below  the  pylorus.  In  tortoises,  whether  carniv- 
orous or  not,  the  alimentary  canal  is  elongate. 

In  some  Einydidce  and  Trionychidm  there  is  a  cffcura  or 
sac  on  each  side  of  the  rectum,  the  bursa  analis.  In  many 
LacertUia  the  rectum  is  double  or  divided  by  a  muscidar 
valve;  in  Iguana  and  Basiliscus  there  is  a  septary  valve 
with  small  orifice.  In  serpents  the  (eso]ihagus  is  greatly 
elongate.  an<l  the  gall-bladder  peculiar  in  being  separated 
from,  and  sometimes  far  bcliind.  the  liver.  The  rectum  pre- 
sents many  pecidiarilii'.s.  In  ('iFlijjii-llix  and  Haiiia/ojisis  the 
internal  surface  is  longitudinally  folded;  in  IhjdrnpklH  wWh 
short  interrupted  folds;  in  Diyiopliis,  Dipsas.  Vipera,  and 
Crofalus.  transversely  foldeil ;  in  Boodnii  i/fonieh'icux,  Bun- 
ijnrKU,  E/upx.  and  Ancixtrodiin,  the  folds  ai'e  developed  into 
partitions,  which  are  pierced  l)y  a  single  hole  each.  A  pan- 
creas is  present  in  lizards  and  serpents. 

The  alimentary  canal  of  birds  is  distinguished  by  the  pe- 
culiarity of  the  stomach,  which  is  a  gizzard — that  is,  with 
walls  composed  on  the  convex  face  or  borders  of  contractor 
muscles,  which  have  a  median  and  common  tendon  extended 
sheet-like  on  the  plane  side  of  the  stomach.  This  is.  how- 
ever, not  found  in  certain  marine  birds,  as  penguins,  where 
the  stomach  is  a  sim|)lesac;  and  it  is  little  developed  in 
Sarcorhampliiix  and  Vulliir.  It  is  a  double  sac  in  Apffri/j: 
The  cro[>  is  a  bag-like  expansion  of  the  a'sophagus,  for  tlie 
temporary  stowage  of  food ;  it  is  found  in  gallinaceous  birds, 
vultures,  etc. 

Adjoitiing  the  stomach  is  frequently  found  another  more 
symmetrical  ex|)aiision,  the  y)roventriculus.  whose  walls  arc 
stuilded  with  simple  glands,  whose  secretion  softens  hard 
f'lod.  It  occurs  in  Gri/linrp  {Cnjp/uni.t),  Jyisesxon.i  {[bis, 
ilucks,  condor,  etc.).  The  rectum  is  not  strikingly  distin- 
guished from  the  ileum,  but  it  sends  oiT  at  its  origin  two 
huge  ca>ca,  which  extend  forward  toward  the  stomach  on 
each  side  of  the  intestine.  They  are  excessively  elongate  in 
Phaxiaiiiix.  Cri/pturits.  Dicholophux,  Apferi/x,  etc..  and  very 
short  in  Apcnndytes,  Ibis,  etc.  They  are  apparently  absent 
in  Sarrorlid  1)1  pints. 

In  Miimmaliii  the  stomach,  intestine,  and  rectum  are  well 
distinguished.  There  is  neitlier  crop,  proventriculus,  ])yloric 
nor  rectal  ca'ca,  nor  rectal  valves.  The  gall-I)ladder  is  not 
-i-parated  from  the  liver,  aiul  discharges  below  the  pylonis, 
I-;  does  also  the  excretory  duct  of  the  pancreas.  There  are 
glands  in  the  intestines  of  many  forms,  known  as  Peyer's, 
.md  the  salivary  glands  of  the  oesophagus  or  pharnix  are 
always  present.    The  intestine  (colon)  is  frequently  i)rolonged 

13 


beyond  the  origin  of  the  rectum,  forming  a  caecum;  the 
mouth  of  the  rectum  is  closed  by  a  strong  valve.  The  stom- 
ach is  transverse,  with  a  portion  ju-ojccting  beyond  the  car- 
diura — the  fundus.  This  is  I'xcessively  elongate  in  the  bat, 
Di'sinodus.  The  stomach  is  simple  or  undivided  in  Prinnites, 
Cariiimra,  Proboscidia,  I'crixxtidactyln,  Cliimptem,  and 
sipiirrels.  It  is  lobulate  and  subdivided  in  Monotremcs, 
marsupials  (generally),  many  rodents,  some  cetaceans,  and 
most  of  all  in  arliodactyles  (ruminant.s,  etc.).  In  Ornitho- 
rhynrlius  the  cardituu  and  jiylorus  issue  from  a  division  one- 
third  the  size  of  the  remainder  of  the  stomach  ;  in  kangaroos 
the  stomach  is  slender,  sacculated,  and  wound  in  one  and 
two-thirds  turns  on  itself ;  tlie  fundus  is  large.  In  the  hog 
the  fundus  is  profoundly  sacculatc.  In  Artitidartyla-Iimni- 
nniitia  there  are  four  chambers,  of  which  the  first  is  generally 
the  largest,  being  an  enormous  expansion  of  the  fundus.  In 
the  musk  it  is  not  in  direct  comiuunication  with  the  oesopha- 
gus, but  is  .so  in  the  ox.  In  the  former  there  are  five  sacs, 
the  last  the  best  defined,  with  reticulating  ridges  on  the 
inner  wall  (trijje).  and  entered  by  both  cardium  and  pylorus. 
The  first  stomach  of  the  ox  represents  the  first  four  of  J/o.s- 
clius:  it  is  followed  by  the  reticulate,  which  receives  the 
oesophagus ;  between  it  and  the  pylorus  are  two  chambers, 
whose  walls  are  thrown  into  elevated  folds.  The  first  di- 
vision has  strong  papillie  on  the  inner  walls,  which  are  very 
large  in  the  deer. 

In  many  of  the  Glircs  (e.  g.  Filer)  the  c^cum  is  ex- 
ceedingly large  and  long.  In  the  Primiites.  etc.,  it  termi- 
nates in  a  narrow,  curved  extremity,  the  processus  vermi- 
i'ormis. 

VII.    TUE    ClRCVLATORY   SYSTEM. 

1.  In  Invertebrata. — This  system,  as  is  well  know^l.  con- 
sists of  organs  for  the  propidsion  and  conveyance  of  the 
fluid  results  of  digestion  throughout  the  body  for  the  main- 
tenance of  all  its  functions.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  system 
of  tubes  radiating  from  the  central  muscidar  organ,  in  which 
resides  principally  the  contractile  or  projjulsive  activity. 
This  center  is  in  the  lowest  forms  simply  a  tube,  but  is  greatly 
specialized  in  the  highest  forms.  We  may  divide  the  system 
into  the  systemic,  the  water-vascular,  and  the  lymphatic 
systems.  The  second  is  found  in  the  aquatic  invertebrates, 
and  the  last  in  vertebrates  oidy. 

The  systemic  circulatory  tubes  first  appear  in  Ccelenterata. 
In  Protozoa  the  contents  of  the  body  are  in  motion,  and  in 
Amaba.  tlie  movement  is  that  of  an  elongate  voites  (Ryder). 
In  no  cadenterate  class  excepting  the  JUcdusce  do  the  tubes 
appear  as  isolated ;  they  have  been  already  described  as  ra- 
diating from  the  stomach  or  the  adjoining  body-cavity,  and 
continuing  round  the  margin  of  the  disk  as  a  single  tube. 
The  Ecliinodermafa  possess  a  true  circulatory  system,  with 
a  well-developed  water-vascular  system.  The  ves.sels  of  the 
former  are  not  derived  from  the  stomach,  but  form  an  iso- 
lated scries.     The  peculiarities  of  the  classes  are  as  follows: 

a.  Vessels  arising  from  a  basjd  sac.  which  coimects  by  a 
short  tube  with  stomach ;  vessels  radiating,  penetrating  the 
pieces  and  arms :  Crinoidea. 

oa.  From  an  oral  ring. 

b.  Superior  and  inferior  oral  and  anal  rings:  an  asym- 
metrical heart,  emptying  into  the  former;  no  respiratory 
artery  :  stomach  arteries  (five)  collected  into  two,  which  enter 
superior  ring  at  ]ioint  of  entrance  of  heart:  Astcroidea. 

Rings  and  heart  counecti'd  by  marginal  intestinal  artery: 
Erliinoidea. 

bh.  Only  oral  circulatory  ring:  no  heart;  di.sfincf  respira- 
tory artery  (where  lungs  exist);  intestinal  arteries  gradually 
disappearing  posteriorly:  Ilnlolliurida. 

In  ecliiiioids  and  asterioids  there  is  a  septary  column  ex- 
tending from  the  upper  to  the  lower  surface,  uns\nnmetri- 
cally  near  the  middle  line.  In  a  fold  of  it  are  placed  the 
shell-canal  of  the  water-circulatory  system,  and  the  heart. 
The  latter  has  a  narrow  opening  into  the  oral  ring,  which 
from  this  fact  is  termed  arterial.  The  opposite  end  of  the 
heart  commutncates  by  a  duct  with  the  sui)erior  anal  or 
venous  ring.  The  arterial  ring  is  the  smaller  and  more  mus- 
cular, and  lies  Iietween  the  more  superficial  nervous  ring  and 
the  deeper  water-canal  ring.  In  the  a.stcrioids  it  sends  an 
artery  along  the  median  line  of  each  arm  below.  The 
veiuius  ring  is  larger,  and  sends  two  vessels, one  on  each  side 
of  each  arm.  In  Ilolothurida  the  vesgels  are  delicate  and 
not  largely  developed.  In  all  classes  the  tubes  are  witliout 
cilia  internally,  and  have  a  wave-like  puls.ation  in  life. 

The  water-circulatory  system  is  greatly  developed  in  the 
Echinodermata,  and  forms  the  basis  of  their  nu'ans  of  move- 


ly-i 


ANATOMY,   C'O.AI  TAKATIVK 


iiii'ut  f'l-uin  place  to  place.  Its  central  organ  consists,  first, 
of  a  ring  canal,  which  surrounds  the  cesophagns  within  the 
arterial  ring ;  secondly,  of  a  calcareous  (or  shell)  canal  which 
rises  from  a  point  on  the  ring  canal  to  the  dorsal  (or  anal) 
side  of  the  liody,  and  terminates  in  a  ])cculiar  shield,  the 
madrepore  ]>late,  which  is  perforated  by  numerous  pores. 
In  the  Ilolofliitrida,  where  the  body  is  elongate,  the  shell 
canal  does  not  reach  the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  but  ter- 
minates freely  in  its  cavity,  sometimes  in  one.  often  in  many 
tubes,  each  of  which  terminates  in  a  madrepore  plate.  The 
peripheral  system  consists  of  five  vessels,  whiidi  arise  from 
the  ring  canal,  and  run  at  eipud  distances  along  the 
interior  face  of  the  body-walls  (on  the  medial  line  of  the 
arms  in  Asterioidea),  and  send  branches  right  and  left. 
These  terminate  in  a  large  hour-glass-shaped  sac  on  each  side 
in  Aitfi'i-ioidi-a.  the  "ampulhe,"  or  in  nmnerous  smaller  ones 
in  JIulitt/iiiriihi.  These  project  through  pores  (ambulacra) 
between  the  plates,  hollow  processes  which  frequently  are 
enlarged  as  a  wart  at  Ijase  or  end,  and  which  are  used  as 
feet.  They  are  regidarly  arranged  in  bands  in  A>iti'rikla 
and  Ecliiiiidii.  \mt  in  some  holothurians  are  distributed  in 
patches  {P.tolii-s)  or  all  over  the  body,  or  in  two  kinds — one 
dorsal,  the  other  \entnil  (I/uht/iiiria).  They  are  retractile 
and  protrusiblo  by  erection.  The  interior  of  the  water- 
vessel  system  is  coven'd  with  cilia.  In  all  the  classes  the 
ce.sophageal  ring  communicates  wMth  "I'oli's  vesicles,"  small 
bladders  situated  roimd  its  c-ircumferenee. 

In  Ifo/hifn-a  and  Arfiriihifa  tlie  arterial  and  venous  vessels 
are  not  universally  continuous  at  their  extremities  by  cajiil- 
laries,  as  in  Verfcbrafa,  but  the  circulating  fluid  is  emptied 
into  cavities  of  the  connective  tissues  or  lacuuiP,  whence  it 
is  taken  up  by  the  extremities  of  the  veins  liy  suction.  In 
some  of  the  highest  forms  of  both  {Cep/ialopoda,  Pedipalpi) 
the  capillary  vessels  are  nmnerous.  The  prominent  pecul- 
iarities of  tlie  classes  in  respect  to  circulation  may  be  indi- 
cateil  as  follows : 

A.  No  distinct  central  organ  or  vascular  system. 

n.  No  lacunary  canals :  liquid  moves  in  continuous  inner 
concavity  of  liody,  without  definite  direction  and  with 
doubtful  external  orifice :  Brijnzoih. 

nil.  Vessel-like  lacunary  system  :  five  large  sinuses ;  ]iost- 
alidominal  and  foot  largest ;  anal  (annul.-ir)  thi-oat  and  buc- 
cal smaller;  two  mantle-edging  vessels:  Scaplwpoda. 

AA.  A  distinct  heart. 

a.  Neither  arteries  nor  veins ;  no  chambers  to  heart ;  a 
system  of  canal-like  lacuna?  decussating  from  a  doi'sal  and 
ventral  princi])al ;  one  through  the  gill-sac,  and  with  fine 
>)ody  ramifications,  continuous  with  each  other;  two  (some- 
times more)  from  heart:  2\utk-ol(i. 

ltd.  A  venous  system. 

No  branchial  auricle  or  gill-hearts ;  one  ventricle,  and  a  false 
heart  on  eacli  nuintle  artery ;  a  venous  system :  Brucli  iupoda. 

One  branchial  auricle;  no  gill-hearts;  one  bi-anchial  ar- 
tery; ventricle  endiraeing  the  intestine:  Oasternpoda. 

Two  branchial  auricles;  no  gill-hearts;  two  branchial  ar- 
teries; ventricle  embracing  intestine:  Acephaht. 

Two  l>i-ancdiial  iiuricles,  and  two  hearts  or  expansions  on 
the  two  lii-anchial  arteries;  a  circulus  cephalicus;  ventricle 
not  embracing  intestine:  ('epluilupndn. 

aaa.  No  venous  system,  or  a  rudiment  ranly;  liranchial 
veins  and  arteries :  Crustacea. 

AAA.  No  distinct  heart;  a  longitudiiud  dorsal  sinus,  more 
or  less  subdivided. 

a.  No  i)ulnionary  arteries  or  veins;  no  venous  system: 
hisecta. 

(in.  No  venous  system ;  a  pulmonary  artery  and  vein : 
.1  riir/iii  idii-A  nnii'ii. 

A  venous  system:  AracJmida-Pi'dipalpi. 

In  Aci'pliiilii,  and  Oanfi'i-o/mda  the  ventricle  receives  the 
contents  of  certain  veins  direct,  without  aeration  in  the  gills  ; 
hence  t  lu^  blood  forced  iido  the  aorta  is,  as  in  most  reptiles, 
of  a  mixed  character.  In  Ci'pliiiliipiida  all  the  venous  blood 
passes  throiigb  tlie  gill-hearts  anil  gills,  and  is  oxygenated 
bel'ore  returning  tlirough  the  auricles  to  the  ventricle.  In  a 
few  GaxtiTDpinIn  there  are  two  auricles,  as  Jliilinlix,  Fix.tii- 
rella,  Chi/on.  In  a  few  Acephala  (as  Oslreti)  the  ventricle 
does  not  embrace  the  intestine. 

In  (Tiix/i'mpmln  the  vessels  of  this  system  form  extensive 
ramifications  in  the  foot.  They  have,  moreover, communica- 
tion externally  by  pores,  which  enaliles  them  to  alisorb  large 
(piantities  of  waier.  15y  means  of  this  water-vascular  sys- 
tem the  foot  is  infiate<l,  as  in  erectile  tissue,  to  a  size  which 
would  forbid  its  withdrawal  into  the  shell  were  it  not  for 
the  power  of  expulsion  of  the  water. 


Among  Arthmpodci,  the  decapod  Crustacea  and  the  pedi- 
palp  Ariirlinidii  only  possess  a  complete  circuit  with  veins 
ancl  capillaries.  In  the  former  the  heart  sends  two  aortas 
forward  and  two  backward  :  the  larger  (inferit>r)  of  the  for- 
mer is  the  aorta  cephalica.  and  supplies  the  head;  the  two 
posterior  are  the  aortic  abdominales  su]>erior  and  inferior. 
A  large  sinus  in  the  bottom  of  the  anterior  abdomen  gives 
origin  to  the  branchial  arteries.  In  J/i/riopuda  the  dorsal 
trunk  gives  off  a  jiair  of  laterid  trunks  to  each  segnuMit  of 
the  body.  From  the  anterior  section  of  the  dorsal  trunk  in 
Chilopoda  the  lateral  arteries  unite  beiu'ath  the  oesophagus, 
and  give  rise  to  a  longitudinal  vessel  which  accom]ianies  the 
abdominal  nervous  axis.  In  insects  the  lacunar  ciu'rcnts  of 
the  body  are  four  principal  ones — i.  e.  one  beneath  the  dor- 
sal trunk,  one  along  the  nervous  chain,  and  one  along  each 
side.  The  lilood  also  circulates  outward  in  the  tubular  ribs 
or  nervures  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  wings,  and  returns 
along  the  posterior. 

2.  Ill  Vertebruta. — In  the  fishes  generally  the  heart  is  the 
right  or  venous  heart  (except  in  Dipnoi),  but  always  there 
are  vessels  passing  directly  from  the  gill-veins  into  the  aorta, 
whether  the  gill-veins  return  arterial  blood  to  the  ventricle 
(making  mixed  blood)  or  not  (leaving  venous  blood).  The 
first  case  occurs  among  i*//;/(o/;  the  second  in  JSIonnpti'riix 
(apodal).  In  Ainpliinxits  the  usual  trunk-like  divisions  of 
the  heart  are  blended  into  one  diamber.  The  gill-arteiy  is 
rhythmical,  pidsating,  as  also  the  origin  of  the  special  gill- 
arteries;  so  also  is  the  portal  vein,  which  has  the  same  pe- 
culiarity in  3Iy.riiie. 

The  aorta  often  forms  no  distinct  isolated  circulatory 
trunk.  fSometimes  arterial  blood  ]iasses  through  a  carti- 
laginous canal,  which  inwardly  is  only  isolated  by  perichon- 
drium, as  in  Acipeiiser  and  Spatularia.  In  other  fishes  it  is 
also  not  isolated,  but  with  its  dorsal  face  (on  whicli  an  elas- 
tic longitudinal  baud  runs)  let  into  the  vertelu'al  column, 
(IJ.sii.r,  ISiilnio,  Situ  nix,  Aliixii.  etc.).  Many  arteries  subdivide 
minutely  into  retia  mirabilia,  then  continue  from  the  re- 
united vessels.  The  arterial  lilood  of  the  (.'horioidea  otmoat 
fishes  must  pass  through  such  structure  twice  before  passing 
into  its  branches. 

In  the  venous  system,  not  only  in  the  veins  that  pass  to 
the  liver,  do  the  stems  lose  themselves  in  capillaries,  in  order 
to  bo  again  collected  into  one  or  more  trunks  to  go  to  tlic 
heart,  but  in  many  fishes  this  structure  prevails  in  most  of 
the  veins  of  the  body.  The  vena  caudalis  and  the  inter- 
costales  very  often  subdivide  minutely  and  mix  with  (or 
surround)  the  I'enal,  suprarenal,  and  other  arterial  glaiulu- 
liform  bodies,  before  they  return  to  the  veins  for  the  heart. 
Many  veins  of  walls  of  the  tnink.  of  the  swim-bladder,  and 
of  the  generative  organ.s  appear  as  roots  of  the  jjortal  sys- 
tem. These  structures  delay  and  prolong  the  venous  circu- 
lation. 

Stagnation  of  venous  blood-currents  is  common,  also  blind 
closings  of  veins  and  obliteration  of  connecting  trunks ;  and 
at  certain  periods  the  so-called  "blood-cor]iuscle-holding" 
cells  and  membranes  are  met  with — e.  g.  in  the  kidneys. 

In  Lrptocardii  \\\c  port.-d  heart  is  liehind  (above)  the  colon  ; 
it  jralsates  from  behinil  forward.  It  lieuds  sliarply  torward, 
and  enters  into  the  gill-arlery  heart,  taking  up  the  vena? 
cava>  dui-ing  the  curve.  The  gill-artery  lieart  is  straight, 
equally  thick,  its  cavity  without  the  pericardium  longitudinal 
in  the  median  hue,  beneath  the  whole  length  of  the  gill 
numrbraiie.  From  it  emerge  n-gularly  (alti'i'nating  as  be- 
ginnings of  the  gill-arl cries)  small  contractile  bidblets  in  the 
intervals  between  tile  ]ioiiited  ai'clies  of  tlie  gills.  From  the 
latt<'r  the  blood  is  transferred  into  a  dorsal  contractile  aor- 
ta through  the  gill-veins.  Independently  of  what  passes 
through  the  gills,  a  part  of  the  blood  is  led  directly  into  the 
aorta  by  two  contractile  arterial  bows  (one  on  each  side  of 
the  posterior  end  of  the  oral  cavity),  which  issue  from  the 
gill-artery  heart.  These  aorta-bows  exist  also  in  AiiipJiip- 
iiotix.  where  each  gill-arch  that  does  not  bear  a  gill  contains 
an  artei'ial  liow.  In  Mnniijilcriix  one-fourth  the  blood  passes 
tlie  gills  and  traverses  an  arterial  liow  in  the  fourth  gill-less 
gill-arcli.  The  portal-veiu  heart  extends  the  whole  length  of 
the  intestine.  It  pulsates  from  behind  forward,  with  pauses 
(as  in  tlie  gill-heart ) of  aliout  a  minute.  The  vena-'-eavje  heart 
is  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  intestine,  from  the  anterior  ]ioint 
of  (he  colon,  increasing  posteriorly  to  the  end  of  the  colon, 
where  it  suddi-nly  turns  over  into  the  gill-artery  lieart.  Its 
contraction  alternates  with  that  of  the  inferior  or  portal- 
vein  heart.  This  colon  (which  is  green)  is  equivalent  to  the 
liver,  and  gives  blood  to  the  ven,T-cava'  or  portal  heart.  On 
each  side  of  the  aorta,  on  the  upper  arches  of  the  gills,  is  a 


ANATOMY,   COM I'A KATIVE 


195 


vena  cava  deseendens,  which  meets  a  posterior  vein  (vena 
cava  aseendciis).  and  toj;ctlier  tlicy  empty  tlu-mselves  into 
the  curve  of  tlic  vcnic-cava'  licavt  just  before  entering  the  gill- 
artery  heart.     The  blood  is  colorless. 

In  MarKipubranchii,  Elaxmobrancliil,  and  Artiimpfi'n'  the 
muscles  of  the  heart  arc  always  of  striped  tissue.  The  right 
or  venous  heart  has  the  following  divisions:  an  auricle  I'c- 
eoiving  the  united  veins  through  a  sinus  venosus.  a  ven- 
tricle, and  a  bulbus  arteriosus. 
There  are  valves  bet  ween  all  these. 
In  Mar-si ixihriiin-liii  the  auricle  is 
more  roomy  than  tlie  ventricle, 
and  is  separated  from  the  sinus 
by  a  membranous  double  valve; 
it  has  two  membranous  valves  in 
the  ostia  venosa  and  ostia  arteri- 
alia,  each.  From  the  latter  pro- 
ceeds the  truncus  comnunus 
branchialis,  which  is  somewhat 
"  bellied"'  at  its  origin,  but:  has  no 
evidence  of  muscular  structure. 

In    Elasimiihranchii,     CroK,io/)- 

teri/giii,    and    lowi'r  A(fiiii>p/ery- 

gia.  then;  is  a  bulljus  arteriosus, 

similar   in   possessing  a  ring-like 

layer    nf    striped    muscle- tissue, 

which     ceases    al>ruptly    at     the 

liounilaries  of  the  gill-arteries,  and 

in    numerous   valves   which    are 

Fio.  21.— Brain  of  Varanns  affixed  by  threads.     There  are  two 

niioUcus  :    1.  horiimital  cross-rows  of  these    in    C/iiiiuent, 

^S^^eZ:^.  '""'''•  -  rarrluu-iu.,  Sn,ni,nn.  mul  Gale- 

ux;  tinve  ni   ^Sp/ii/riKi,  j/»,s7p/h.s, 

Acantliias,  Afopinx.  L<imnn,Rhin(iiiiitiis.nm\  Torprchi;  four 

in  HexancliHg.  IIi-/)fttiir/iux,  Ci'iitrdphoriix,  and  Trtpion  ;  four 

to  five  in  Ii<tjii ;    five  in   !^cijmiiiii<,  J>fi/lii>b(i/i,i.  Pterup/atea, 

anil  Sqiiafinii.     There  are  nine  in  I'oh/pferux.  each  of  which 

contains  three  complete  and  some  abortive  valves;  there  are 

fifty-four  to  si.\ty  in  Lupidusteiis  osseun.     In  Aiiiia  there  are 

but  three  rows;  the  two  inferior,  in  the  bulbus,  with  two 

large  and  two  small  valves;  the  superior  with  only  two. 

Inmost  ArfiiKi/jfi'ri/i/in  there  is  no  stripi'd  uuisde-tissue 
on  the  outer  layer  (jf  the  bidljus,  but  an  elastic  material  of 
thread-bundles,  which  is  produced  into  pillars  on  the  inner 
side.  There  is  one  pair  of  valves  at  the  ostium  bulbo-ven- 
tricidare  ;  between  tliese  are  sometimes  one  or  two  smaller 
ailjoining  valves.  The  only  exceptions  are  .species  of  Biilij- 
riiiun,  where  tliere  are  four  valves  in  two  rows,  with  no  mus- 
cular bundles  round  the  liullius.  In  shiirlis,  fnisftu/iffri/f/iri, 
nnil  lower  Ac/iiiop/i'ri/i/in.  there  is  a  pair  of  valves  at  the 
ostium  sino-auriculare,  often  attached  by  strong  threads.  In 
Aripi'iisfv  thcve  is  a  ring-like  valve  in  two  parts — one  with 
four,  the  other  with  five  ]iockets,  each  one  attached  by  a 
strong  thread.  The  large,  expansible,  thin-walled  auricle 
has  usually  on  one  or  two  si<les  an  auricula.  Within  it  are 
numerous  traljccida'  carnea'.  The  ventricle  is  on  the  ab- 
donunal  side  of  the  auricle.  The  latter  in  passing  over  it 
is  narrowed  sometinu's(e.  g.  in  Pifroiiii/^d)!)  for  some  length. 
There  are  usually  two  valves  in  the  ostium  arterio-ventricu- 
lare.  sometimes  fovn-  in  (Ji-flnii/ori-inin  and  Aripenner. 

The  heart's  ])osition  is  usually  l)etween  the  clavieute,  but 
in  Apodea.  and  particulai'ly  in  Si/iiibriiiw/iii,  tin;  heart  is 
more  posterior.  In  sharks  it  lies  in  its  sac  immediately 
under  the  elongation  of  the  copuhe  of  the  gill-arches,  which 
pass  through  tlie  cartilago  sul)pharyngea  inipar.  In  Pe/ro- 
myzon,  with  the  pi'ricardium.  it  lies  in  a  sort  of  incomplete 
capsule,  which  is  scjiariLted  from  the  gill-cavity  by  muscles 
forming  a  kind  of  diaphragm. 

The  heart-capsule  (in  all  fishes  excei)t  Leptncardit)  is 
fibrous,  is  attached  to  the  bulbus  arteriosus.  an<l  often  sends 
thread-like  processes  to  the  lu^art  proper,  which  are  often 
tendinous,  sometimes  accomjianied  by  blood-vessels,  as  in 
Anguilhi,  or  are  blood-vessels  only,  as  in  Acipfnsi'r. 

In  Dipniii  the  auricle  is  externally  one,  internally  divided 
by  an  incomplete  seiituni.  Into  the  left  auricle  enters  the 
vena  pulmonalis,  at  whose  entrance  is  placed  a  semilunar 
valve.  There  is  no  valve  at  t  he  ostium  atrio-sinosum.  From 
both  auricles  the  ventricle  is  entered  by  a  common  ostium, 
which  has  a  valve.  The  ostium  i)os.sesses  a  jiapillar  muscle, 
which  is  bound  with  a  thread-cartilage  which  closes  the 
ostiinn  during  systole.  The  linlbus  arteriosus  (wit  hout  valves 
at  its  origin)  forms  a  curve.  It  contains  two  lateral,  longi- 
tudinal spirid  foldings  of  different  lengths,  which  fade  away 
at  their  extremities. 


In  Podopterygia,  on  tlie  upper  surface  of  the  heart,  are  nu- 
merous bottle  or  vesicle  shaped  elevations,  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  in  different  or  in  the  same  animal,  sometimes 
large,  sometimes  almost  wanting.  A  varied  luunber  of  ar- 
terial vessels  from  the  subclavian  and  manunaria?  iienetrate 
the  heart-sac  and  disti'ibute  themselves  to  these  elevations, 
which  liave  various  arrangements.  These  surroniul  bladders 
which  involve  their  entering  arteries  in  rosy,  .spongy  tissue 
comiiosed  of  granules  and  meshes  of  fiber  and  cells  contain- 
ing granules.  Vessels  enter  the  heart  from  the  bases  of 
these. 

In  general,  on  the  tnmks,  except  in  the  Leptocardii,  from 
the  anterior  extremity  of  the  bulbus  arteriosus  (which  is  ex- 
ternal to  the  heart -sac),  there  issues  an  incontractile  "gill- 
artery  trunk,"  from  which  on  each  side  issue  directly  or  in- 
ilirectly,  through  other  communicating  trunks,  the  branchial 
arterites. 

In  myxinoids  the  tnnicus  commimis  branchialis  is  variable, 
rniniing  in  a  mendu-anous  cavity  which  surromids  the  an- 
terior end  of  the  ventricle,  and  projects  into  the  membranous 
pouch  that  envelops  the  gill-sac.  Each  gill-.sac  contains  an 
artery  which  forms  a  eirch;  at  the  entrance  of  the  gill- 
branches,  and  sends  off  radiating  arteries.  In  Pctromyzon 
four  arterial  branches  on  each  side  leave  the  trvnicus  com- 
muids  branchialis,  which  divides  anteriorly  into  two  trunks, 
each  of  which  divides  into  three  arteries,  and  an  anterior 
twig  is  sent  to  fhe  anterior  row  of  gill-lamelhe.  The  special 
branc'hial  arteries  pass  (except  the  first  and  last)  between  the 
two  gill-iiouches,  and  give  their  branches  through  dia- 
phi'agms  to  the  gill-arches. 

In  E/iixmobi-aiicln'i.  from  the  tnmcus  branchialis commnnis 
there  issue  on  each  side  one  or  two  trunks,  each  of  which 
afterward  divides  into  two.  In  Pa/a  and  Prinfis,  where 
one  goes  off.  it  divides  into  three,  and  the  terminal  portion 
into  two.  In  Prixfi/s  the  first  of  tlie  three  runs  forward  to 
the  trunk  in  the  cartilage,  and  is  taken  up  by  it.  The  special 
branchial  arteries  issuing  from  the  primordial  trunks  pass 
between  the  two  rows  of  gill-lamina',  which  are  in  separate 
gill-sacs,  a  special  artery  supplying  the  anterior  hyoid  gill. 
In  many  fishes  {Li'pidosfi-ui<,AcipeH>»'r)t\ie  fir.st  gill  I'eceives 
the  first"  branch  from  the  arteria  branchialis,  anil  the  last 
gill  the  last  branch.  In  these  the  branchial  arteries  run  to- 
ward the  first  gill,  then  bend  posteriorly  and  give  off  branches 
successively.  In  Spatnlariti  the  fii'st  gill  receives  the  .second 
branch,  the  second  gill  the  first  branch,  the  others  regidarly. 
The  ari-angement  in  Aiiiia  is  as  in  the  other  Acfinopferygia. 

In  Artinopterygia  the  gill-artery  stem  runs  forward  in  a 
canal  liencafh  the  copuhv  of  the  gill-arches,  which  bound  it 
above;  laterally  it  is  bounded  by  processes  of  the  same;  be- 
neath liy  the  culiform  membrane  (which  latter  is  wanting  in 
A/mi/ix).  (.)ften(e. g. 
in  Salmo)  it  gives 
off  first  a  common 
stem,  which  divides 
to  the  fourth  and 
third  gill  -  arches  ; 
then  gives  one  to 
the  second  arcli.  and 
one  to  the  fir.st,  by 
the  forking  of  the 
trunk.  Hut  (e.  g.  in 
3bi nenopli in  pimc- 
la/a)  two  distinct 
branches  of  the  com- 
mon trunk  can  l>e 
given  to  the  two 
posterior  gill-arches. 
In  Dipnoi  t  wo 
trunks  leave  the 
lu'anchial  artery  on 

each  side;  (l)acom-  Fio.  22— Brain  of  DipBas  dendrophita:  1, 
mon    ve.s.sei    for    the  vertical  section  of  olfactory  lolie;  2,  ver- 

liiilf  trill  ,ii,<l  tlin  tvvii  ''™'  seetiou  of  right  hemisphere:  :i,  ver- 

luilt  gill  anil  tnc  tw  o  j^^^,  ^^^^^^  „f  „p^^^  lo^es;  4,  trausvei-se 

gill-less    "visceral  section  of  lobes. 

arches,     and     (2)    a 

stem  for  the  po.sterior  gill.  The  first  divides  in  two.  which 
as  aorta-bows  unite  under  the  skull  to  form  an  aorta-rool. 
The  first  aorta-bow  gives  off  a  liranch  for  the  half  gill,  which 
sends  off  the  carotid  before  entering  the  half  gill.  The 
aorta-liow  gives  off  also  a  posterior  carotid  before  union 
with  the  posterior  aorta-bow.  From  the  .second  goes  an  ar- 
tery for  file  fibers  of  the  external  gill.  The  second  trunk 
divides  into  two  gill-arteries  for  the  fourth  aorta-tiow.  1'he 
extremities  of  both  become  arteries  for  the  outer  gill-threads. 


196 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


Fio.  23. —  Tubu- 
lar follicle  of 
the  pig's  stom- 
ach. 


The  last  gill-artery  from  its  upper  extremity  gives  off  a 
branch  for  the  posterior  half  gill. 

The  gill-veins  unite  (in  the  itbsence  of  an  arterial  heart)  for 
the  construction  of  the  great  arterial  trunk.  But  often 
arterial  trunks  for  the  body  go  immediately  from  the  gill- 
veins.  The  carotid  arteries  leave  the  gill-veins.  In  myxi- 
noids  the  gill-veins,  after  leaving  the  gill-sacs,  form  a  median 
trunk,  wliich  is  prolonged  posteriorly  as  an  aOrta  and  ante- 
riorly as  an  arteria  vertebralis  inii)iir.  All  or  most  of  the 
gill-veins  are  connected  by  a  trunk  running  parallel  to  tlie 
aorta,  which  is  continued  anteriorly  as  the  arteria  carotis  com- 
munis. Both  carotids  accompany  the  oesophagus  forward, 
giving  brandies  to  it  and  to  tlie  hyoid  region.  Each  divides 
behind  tlie  head  into  the  arteria  carotis  externalis  (for  the 
tongue  and  the  muscles  of  the  head),  and  the  arteriiE  com- 
munes internales,  which  unite,  forming  a 
bow,  at  the  origin  of  the  vertebral  column, 
which  receives  the  vertebralis  impar ;  from 
the  latter  originates  a  median  head-artery, 
which,  extending  anteriorly,  gives  off 
branches  for  the  nose,  etc.  In  Petromi/zon, 
witli  the  exception  of  the  first  and  last, 
each  gill-vein  issues  from  the  interstitium 
between  two  adjacent  gill-sacs.  There  is 
no  arteria  verteliralis  impar.  The  carotis 
eomniuni.^  ri.ses  from  tlie  first  gill-vein, 
which  sends  anotlier  branch  to  the  fornia- 
ti(in  of  the  aorta.  Each  carotid  divides  into 
an  external  and  internal ;  tlie  two  internal 
carotids  do  not  unite  to  form  a  median  head- 
artery. 

In  other  fishes  each  gill-vein  originates 
from  tlie  two  connected  "gill-leaf  rows." 
except  those  from  the  two  half  gills.  In 
Elasmohrnnchii  all  or  most  of  the  gill-veins 
come  together  to  form  the  aorta,  either  im- 
mediately or  after  the  union  of  some  (thus 
forming  horaologues  of  the  aorta  roots). 
The  arrangement  of  the  carotids  is  various.  In  Chimrera 
the  first  gill-vein  from  tlie  half  gill  forms  the  posterior  carot- 
id ;  the  second,  which  like  the  rest  contributes  to  the  aorta, 
sends  off  the  carotis  anterior.  In  llaja  the  posterior  carotid 
originates  from  the  aorta-root  which  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  two  first  gill-veins.  It  runs  in  the  canalis  spinalis. 
The  carotis  anterior  originates  from  the  vessels  of  the  pseu- 
dobranchiiB  of  the  spiracle.  In  ('hinia>ra  and  Rajidie  the 
posterior  carotids  remain  imunited  ;  wherefore  no  anteriorly 
united  cireulus  cephalieus  exists.  In  the  sharks  they  run 
iiniler  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  unite  and  give  origin  to  the 
cereliral  artery. 

Ill  the  Teh'ustomi  there  arc  various  arrangements  of  the 
gill-veins  in  the  formation  of  the  aorta.  The  carotids  are  as 
in  Eh(xiiiiihninc/i  ii.  (See  Baja  above.)  In  Lepidosteus  there 
is  a  third  ccrcbralis  from  near  the  origin  of  the  aorta.  In 
it  the  union  of  the  anterior  gill-veins  is  the  origin  of  the 
aorta.  The  second  pair  unite  below  this,  and  foi'ming  a 
thicker  trunk  receive  the  first  aorta.  The  third  pair 
unite  below  the  union  of  the  second  pair  and  the  aorta  ori- 
gin, and  forming  a  still  thicker  trunk,  receive  tlie  second 
stem,  all  forming  three  steps  in  profile.  The  sections  would 
be — first  o  ,  .second  g,  third  |.  The  posterior  carotid  comes 
off  anteriorly  to  the  mouth  of  the  third  pair  of  gill-veins. 
The  subclaviaiis  are  vessels  disproportionately  large;  they 
comi^  off  on  each  side  a  little  behind  the  emboucliure  of  the 
po.slerior  gill-vein  tube,  take  the  ])lace  of  the  ccrliac  and 
superior  mesenteric  arteries,  and  send  a  branch  to  the  stom- 
aen,  which  doi's  not  give  a  strong  liranch  to  the  spleen,  but 
approaches  the  pylorus  as  a  bundle  of  little  ves.sels.  In  Ar/in- 
opterygia  a  complete  arterial  circle  (cireulus  cephalieus)  is 
formed  by  the  gill-veins  without  the  cavity  of  the  cranium. 
The  gill-veins  of  each  side  unite  to  form  the  conimciu'cnient 
of  the  aorta,  and  run  together  anteriorly  as  the  spheuoidruni, 
through  a  cross  anastomosis.  This  einnilus  can  lie  wider  or 
narrower.  It  is  the  former  when  all  the  gill-veins  of  each 
side  unite  into  the  aorta-l)ow,  and  where  both  bows  are  con- 
nected anteriorly  l)y  a  cross  trunk,  and  unite  posteriorly  to 
form  the  aorta,  as  In  (ladus  and  Lota.  It  is  narrower  when 
each  of  the  bows  forming  the  aorta  is  formed  from  the  an- 
terior gill-veins  only,  ami  where  the  hinder  gill-veins  enter 
the  aortii;  e.g.  Srimihcr.  Srilnio,  etc.  The  aorta  is  somo 
times  indi']ien<lent.  free,  entirely  surrounded  by  strong  tis- 
sue, as  in  most  Ar/iim/j/iri/f/in,  sometimes  in  a  canal  of  the 
processes  of  the  vertebi-ic,  without  the  usual  distinct  trunk- 
envelope  ;  sometimes  it  is  in  a  canal  inferior  to  the  vertebral 


column,  with  the  superior  surface  thin  walled.  The  com- 
mencement of  the  aorta,  in  which  the  gill-veins  empty,  is 
under  the  cranium,  first  inclosed  siqieriorly  by  the  basilar 
cartilage.  A  short  section  is  enveloped  below  by  a  fibrous 
membrane,  but  soon  it  is  inclosed  beneath  by  the  vertebral 
arch  elements,  which  are  arched  upward  and  supjilied  with 
intervertebral  cartilage.  Along  the  whole  length  of  the 
aorta-canal  there  runs  in  its  cavity,  from  the  base  of  the 
skull,  an  elastic  band  whicii  adheres  above  to  a  skin-fold 
whose  continuation  as  a  very  thin  ]iiriclioiiilrium  lines  the 
inner  side  of  the  canal,  to  wliich  it  closely  adheres. 

In  the  Elii!iiii(jbri(ncliii  and  many  Actniop/eryf/ia  the  aorta 
is  embedded  in  a  gutter  of  the  vertebral  bodies.  On  the 
side  of  this  there  are  (in  Esox)  fibrous  longitudinal  ridges. 
In  these  the  aorta  possesses  an  external  skin  on  the  inferior 
surface  only.  It  appears  from  point  to  point  swoUen  with 
sinuses.  Each  such  swelling  is  separateil  from  that  succeed- 
ing by  a  contraction.  There  is  a  small  cross  bridge  of 
thread  tissue  within  from  one  lateral  I'idge  to  another. 
Within  the  canal  is  found  (in  Eao.r.  Viitpfidcs,  Salmonidw, 
Silurus,  etc.)  a  fibrous  longitudinal  elastic  band,  as  in 
Acipenser.  It  commences  at  the  skull  beneath,  and  extends 
along  the  whole  vertebral  column.  As  an  immediate  con- 
tinuation of  the  basis  of  this  is  the  elastic  artery-envelope. 
Although  in  Plfcfofpondi/li  the  aorta  is  more  isolated  from 
the  vertebral  column,  and  the  filu-ous  longitudinal  band  is 
absent,  it  yet  exhibits  sinuses  in  regidjir  position.  When 
the  aorta  is  free  it  does  not  always  run  under  the  median 
line :  in  Be/one  it  is  on  the  left  side. 

In  Rcptilia  and  Batrachia  the  aorta  is  formed  of  two  roots 
(which  door  do  not  result  from  more  than  one  pair  of  aorta- 
bows)  from  the  bulbus  arteriosus,  and  which  embrace  the 
cesophagus.  A  ramus  communicaiis  anterior  exists  between 
the  carotids.  Branches  of  the  aorta  either  become  inter- 
costal arteries,  or  entei'  the  intervertebral  foramen  for  the 
spinal  canal. 

The  Batrnchin  have  a  carotid  from  each  anterior  aorta- 
bow,  and  a  pulmonalis  from  each  postei'ior  aorta-bow.  In 
all  I'rude/a.  aorta-bows,  either  united  or  directly  or  indirectly 
issuing  from  the  bulbus  arteriosus,  contribute  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  aorta-root  by  the  perennial  rami  communicantes 
on  each  side.  The  Trachystomata  agree  with  fishes  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  greater  vessels.  The  liulbus  arteriosus 
upon  issuing  from  the  ventricle  makes  a  bend  to  the  right 
side,  and  is  thereafter  in  its  longer  portion  straight.  At  its 
tore  end  tlii-ee  arches  on  each  side  issue,  which  are  function- 
ally gill-arteries.  Through  the  union  of  three  correspond- 
ing gill-veins  into  one  stem  an  aorta-root  arises,  two  of 
which  form  the  aorta.  The  anterior  gill-vein  sends  out  a 
carotid,  the  liindcr  a  pulmonic  artery.  The  Pioleida  have 
the  system  differently  arranged.  The  bulbus  is  divided  into 
two  diverging  branches,  each  of  which  results  in  two  aorta- 
bows.  The  anterior  follows  the  first  gill-vein ;  the  second 
divides  in  two.  of  which  the  aiiti^rior  follows  the  second  gill- 
vein  :  the  jiosterior  the  third.  Each  of  the  two  aorta-bows 
pro|ier  consists  of  an  uninterru]ited  continuation  and  a  res- 
piratory portion.  The  third  bow  wants  the  direct  continua- 
tion. Each  of  t  he  three  respiratory  portions  consists  of  a  gill- 
artery,  intermediate  respiratory  vessels,  and  a  gill-vein.  The 
two  anterior  gill-veins  of  each  side  empty  into  the  continua- 
tion of  the  original  aorta-bows.  The  third  gill-vein  passes 
over  into  the  continuation  of  the  second  aorta-bow.  The 
continual  ion  of  the  two  primitive  aorta-bows  and  the  second 
and  tliinl  gill-veins  forms  an  aorta-root.  The  point  of  con- 
fluence of  the  aorta-roots  lies  over  the  heart.  The  anteri- 
or vessel  which  results  from  the  union  of  the  continuation 
of  the  anterior  aorta-bow  and  anterior  gill-vein  has  two 
bi-aiiclies — an  arteria  hyoidea  inandibularis  and  a  carotis 
interna  anterior.  Each  aorta-root  formed  from  the  second 
aorta-bow  possesses  a  posteroci'phalic  elongation  forward, 
which  gives  off  a  carotis  posterior,  and  forms  the  commence- 
ment of  !iu  arteria  vertebralis.  The  aorta-root  gives  olf 
po.-iterioily  a  visceral  artery,  which,  after  branching  for  the 
O'sophagus,  is  flestined  to  become  a  sperinatiea  interna. 
Prom  tlie  single  aorta  proceed  subclavian  arteries,  whitdi  are 
continued  as  the  e]iiga.-itric.  gastric,  cadiac,  many  small  mes- 
enteric, renal,  and  symmetrical  iliac  vessels.  Besides,  there 
are  pairs  of  ilor.^al  arteries,  which  jiierce  the  transverse  proe- 
es.«es  on  each  side,  and  emerge  in  the  longitudinal  vertebral 
artery.  In  (Vv/^/o/^'oz/r/n/.s  four  vessids  on  each  side  go  di- 
rectly from  the  bulbus  arteriosus.  They  follow  the  gill- 
arches.  The  anterior  finally  becomes  the  carotid.  The  two 
middle  vessels  form  the  aorta-root,  and,  after  giving  ott 
branchlets  for  the  head,  unite  close  behind  the  cranium. 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE   ^ 


197 


The  fourth  vessel  bends  over  the  oesophagus,  fdves  it  branches, 
gives  a  branch  to  the  third  aorta-bow,  and  becomes  the  ]ind- 
inonic  artery,  in  Salamcmdra  the  bulliiis  arteriosus  gives 
origin  on  each  side  to  four  aorta-bows  with  throe  mouths. 
Tlie  three  jjosterior  bows  on  eacli  side  form  aorta-roots 
whidi  are  |)rolonged  anteriorly.  Tlie  union  of  Ijoth  bows 
into  an  aorta  occurs  behind  the  skull,  beneatli  tlie  first  ver- 
tebra and  above  aiul  before  the  heart.  The  carotis  divides 
into  the  cerebral  and  occipital.  An  obliterated  continua- 
tion of  the  anterior  aorta-bow,  binding  it  to  an  aorta-root, 
is  called  ductus  Motalli.  The  fourth  aorta-bow,  whose  mouth 
is  that  of  the  third,  sends  off  a  visceral  artery  which  gives 
branches  to  the  iiericardimn  and  lesophagus,  and  becomes 
the  pulmonalis.  The  aorta  is  under  the  vertelira;,  and  de- 
scending gives  off  tlic  subclavian  and  intercostal  (in  pairs), 
the  gastric,  cteliac,  mesenteric,  and  munerous  renals.  Be- 
tween the  kidiu'vs  go  off  the  iliacs  (which  give  otT  the  fcm- 
oralis  and  epigiistric-i),  and  a  cloac.al  branch  which  is  con- 
tinued as  a  caudal  artery. 

In  the  Salientia,  on  each  side  are  three  bows,  of  which  the 
foremost  and  hindmost  do  not  contribute  to  form  the  aorta- 
root,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  middle  bow.  It  unites 
with  that  of  the  other  side  far  posteriorly.  Two  pipes  issue 
from  the  btdbus.  There  is  one  semilunar  valve  at  the  base 
of  each.  Each  of  the.se  vessels  is  internally  divided  l)y  two 
partitions  into  three  canals,  and  each  iiaftition  is  jirolonged 
to  the  wall  of  each  issuing  vessel.  At  the  farther  end  of  the 
anterior  of  these  canals  is  an  enlargement  (carotid  tumor), 
from  which  issue  the  arteria  hyoidea  (lingualis)  and  the 
carotid.  The  middle  canals  formthe  aorta-roots.  The  right 
is  large,  but  the  left  small,  after  giving  off  the  coeliaco- 
mcscnteric  artery,  which  is  so  large  as  to  appear  like  its 
proper  continuation.  The  third  canal  gives  off  two  branches. 
The  first,  after  tiiving  bi-anches,  becomes  a  strong  cutaneous 
vessel,  which,  with  its  aceompanynig  vein,  running  between 
the  levator  and  anterior  adductor  muscles  of  tlie  humerus, 
gives  off  branches  to  the  integument  of  the  whole  back. 
The  second  liranch  is  the  pulmonic.  Each  aorta-root  be- 
fore their  union  gives  off  other  branches  to  the  larynx, 
oesophagus,  and  shoulder;  also  a  subclavian  and  a  supravcr- 
tebral  artery,  which  runs  longitudinally,  crossing  the  diapo- 
physes,  and  giving  a  branch  to  each  intervertebral  foramen. 
The  left  root  also  gives  off  a  cceliaco-mesenteric  artery. 
Tlu!  di'scending  aorta  gives  branches  for  tlie  kidneys  and 
generative  organs.  To  the  two  latter  go  five  and  six  vessels. 
Each  gives  a  branch  to  the  kidney  on  one  side  and  to  t  he 
genitals  on  the  other.  Division  into  common  iliac  arteries 
then  takes  place.  Ccecilia  has  a  long  muscular  bulbus,  at 
whose  narrow  origin  are  valves.  The  cavity  is  divided  by 
a  septum  at  its  anterior  extremity  into  dorsal  and  ventral 
chamliers.  The  doi-sal  terminates  in  the  arteria  ]>ulmonalis 
for  the  lung ;  from  the  ventral  proceed  two  aorta-roots,  each 
of  which  near  the  trachea  reaches  to  the  hyoid  api>aratus, 
and  forms  a  bow  behind  the  skull,  from  which  the  carotids 
proceed.  The  union  of  the  aorta-roots  is  hypaxonic,  above 
and  a  little  before  the  heart.  Each  root  gives  off  interver- 
tebral (mostly  obliquely  dii'ected  forward)  and  vertebral 
arteries. 

In  liiptiUa\h('VC  is  a  completed  form  of  heart.  The  di- 
vision of  the  auricles  is  externally  visible.  The  division  of 
the  ventricles  is  partial  or  complete.  In  embryonic  forms 
the  position  of  the  heart  is  near  the  gill-slits.  This  state  is 
characterized  by  the  |)resence  of  several  aorta-bows  which 
embrace  the  a?sophagus,  and  form  the  aorta-roots  by  suc- 
cessive obliterations  of  most  of  the  aorta-bows  and  their  con- 
necting anastomoses.  There  is  a  ductus  Botalli.so  that  e;i<'h 
aorta-root  is  ]ieriiianently  formed,  either  through  contluciice 
of  two  aorta-liows,  or  it  is  a  continuation  oC  a  single  trunk. 

In  LacertiUft,  Ophidia^  and  Texfiidinafa,  in  the  ventriide 
are  found  fleshy  columns  of  various  sizes,  which  inclose 
spaces  opening  into  a  common  cavity.  The  septum  ven- 
triculorum  (more  or  less  incomplete)  is  connected  to  the 
sides  of  the  ventricle  liy  tendinous  or  fleshy  cords.  The 
left  ventricle  is  uanower,  more  doi-sal,  thick  walled,  com- 
municating with  the  left  auricle :  the  right  is  broader, 
straight,  ventral.  That  into  which  arterial  blood  enters, 
and  which,  as  regards  its  positi<m,  is  homologous  with  the 
left  ventricle,  is  called  the  cavum  arteriosum :  the  right  is 
the  cavum  venosum.  No  trunks  arise  from  the  first.  From 
the  cavum  venosnin  (here  issue  by  three  oslia  the  arteria 
pulmonalis  and  two  trunci  arteriosi,  each  ostiinn  having 
three  semilunar  valves.  The  space  between  the  orifice  of 
the  arteria  pulmonalis  and  those  of  the  trunci  arteriosi  is 
the  originating  point  of  a  flap  or  muscular  valve  which  ex- 


ten<ls  toward  tlie  right  border  of  the  ventricle.  This  di- 
vides the  cavum  venosum  into  two  incomplete  cavities,  an 
anterior  and  postericjr,  which  ar(^  completely  separated  by 
the  systole,  during  the  latter  part  of  which  it  shuts  tlie  en- 
trance to  the  arteria  pulmonalis.  A  simple  bulbus  arterio- 
sus is  wanting,  but  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  confluence 
of  the  bases  of  the  three  great  vesscds,  which  are  then  sepa- 
rated by  simple  walls.  This  arterial  trunk,  containing  a 
cone,  is  covered  by  the  pericardium,  and  wants  (except  in 
some  Tcstudinata)  the  striped  muscular  walls. 

In  Lacerfilia  the  heart  is  not  far  removeil  from  the  hyoid 
region.  It  is  farthest  in  Aiiiphisba'na ;  next  farthest  in  the 
Vuranidiv.  Among  Varanidie  the  sei)tum  atriorum  is  nearly 
complete,  except  near  the  ostium  venosum  dextrum.  Among 
racJii/glossa.  Oecconidce,  ChalcidUlii',  ard  Scincido!,  the  sep- 
tum is  very  incomplete.  The  walls  of  tlu^  great  vessels  are 
united  near  their  origin,  A  jieculiarity  of  most  Lacerfiiia 
is  that  each  aorta-root  takes  uji  the  common  carotid  from  an 
arterial  trunk  which  originates  afterward,  so  t  hat  each  aorta- 
root  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  aorta-bows  as  follows: 
The  ti'unci  arteriosi  continue,  the  right  as  an  aorta-root,  the 
left  the  same  after  giving  off  the  truncus  impar,  which  di- 
vides into  the  carotids.  Each  of  the  latter  gives  off  near  its 
basis  an  outward  directed  arterial  bow,  which  empties  into 
the  aorta-root  of  its  side.  It  constitutes  thereafter  a  primi- 
tive aorta-bow,  whose  original  branches  arc  the  carotids. 
This  occurs  in  (1)  Scinrus,  Atiguis,  Pseudopiis,  Laeerfa, 
Ame.iva.  Plnti/daclylvs.  Vroniaatix.  Iguana,  etc.,  and  the 
aorta-bows  from  the  truncus  inijiar  are  obliterated,  while 
they  are  utterly  wanting  in  (2)  Varanida',  C hamoeleonidce, 
Amphisbana. 

The  heart  of  serpents  is  far  removed  from  the  hyoid  re- 
gion, and  the  form  is  elongate.  The  end  of  the  pericardial 
sac  appears  confluent  with  the  serous  lining  of  the  thorax. 
The  cavum  venosum  arteriosum  is  always  incomplete.  The 
walls  of  tlie  .hree  arterial  trunks  are  separate,  as  far  as  is 
known.  The  left  trunk  continues  as  the  aorta-root  without 
branches ;  the  right  gives  off  the  coronaries,  etc. ;  then,  where 
it  turns  itself  posteriorly,  a  subvertehral  anterior  branch ; 
then  numerous  intercostals. 

The  tnincus  caroticus  impar  divides  into  two  arteria'  car- 
otides  communes,  of  which  the  right  is  scarcely  visible  in 
some  species;  but  when  visible  it  may  be  smaller  than,  equal 
to,  or  larger  than,  the  left. 

The  Testudinafa  have  the  heart  broad,  abbreviated  pos- 
teriorly, and  widely  removed  from  the  hyoid  apparatus. 
The  outer  sac  of  the  pericardium  is  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  ventricle  by  a  band  which  incloses  the  jiortal  vein.  The 
valve,  stretching  to  the  right  wall  of  the  ventricle,  is  in  some 
furnished  with  an  ossified  cartilage.  The  walls  of  the  three 
trunks  are  slightly  nnited  near  their  origin,  forming  a  bul- 
bus. which  in  Emys  evropcea  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
striped  muscle-tissue.  The  tnin- 
cus dexter  soon  after  its  origin 
gives  off  a  short  anterior  arteria 
innominata,  which  gives  off  the 
carotids  and  subclavians.  The 
truncus  sinister  gives  off  (before 
union  with  the  dexter)  the  car- 
diac branch  for  the  heart  and 
oeso]ihagns;  also  the  gastro-epi- 
ploica  and  mesenterica.  After 
these  branchings  the  aorta-root  is 
narrow.  Prom  each  side  the  neck 
there  mns  to  the  rumji.  over  tlie 
diapophyses  in  the  canal  C(pveri'<l 
by  the  carapace,  a  trunk,  whiih, 
besides  the  intervertebralis,  gives 
off  arteries  analogous  to  the  inter- 
costals.    The  continuation  of  this 

is  a  caudalis.  superior  to  the  diapophyses.  The  intercostals 
of  each  side  open  into  a  lateral  longitudinal  trunk,  which 
Cfmimunieates  anteriorly  with  the  suliclavian,  posteriorly 
with  the  iliac  vessels,  i'rom  the  aorta  proceed  symmetrical 
spermatic,  suprarenal,  ilia<',  renal,  and  hypogastric  vessels. 
It  is  continued  as  the  caudalis  inferior. 

The  Crnrndilia  have  a  complete  septum  ventriculorum  ; 
the  right  ventricle  anterior;  each  ventricle  emitting  its 
respective  truncus  arteriosus.  There  is  an  opening  con- 
necting the  trunci  arteriosi  (which  corresponds  to  the  bul- 
bus arteriosus),  by  which  arterial  and  venous  blood  are 
mixed.  The  heart  is  over  the  sternum  :  the  left  ventricle 
is  thick  walled;  the  right  more  capacious,  reaching  to  the 
apex.    The  right  contains  a  muscular  fold  which  is  stretched 


Fig.  24.— Lobule  of  parotid 
gland  magnitied. 


198 


ANATOMY,   COMPAKATIVE 


from  a  septum  behind  the  orijsfin  of  the  puhuonary  artery 
to  tlie  oiiter  wall.  It  has  two  valves  at  each  ostium  veno- 
sum.  From  tlic  left  ventricle  issues  the  truneus  arteriosus 
<lexter;  from  the  rij;ht  ventricle  the  truncus  sinister  and 
pulmonalis.  These  two  trunks  are  separated  at  their  ori- 
gin by  a  common  septum ;  at  the  origin  of  each  are  two 
semilunar  valves.  The  walls  of  all  three  are  united  lie- 
tween  the  trunci  artei-iosi  near  tlie  semUunar  valves.  Be- 
fore uniting,  the  trunci  arteriosi  give  oil  the  dexter  truncus 
innominatus  and  subclavia  dextra.  From  the  truncus  ar- 
teriosus sinister,  near  its  union  with  the  dexter,  issues  the 
eceliac  artery :  it  tlien  becomes  much  narrower.  The  com- 
mon carotid  divides  near  the  head  into  two  branches.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  otlier  branches  to  the  lai'jnx,  neck, 
tongue,  and  other  parts. 

In  Avcs  (birds)  the  septum  ventriculorum  is  complete. 
The  heart's  position  is  in  the  middle  line  of  the  thorax,  its 
axis  parallel  with  that  of  the  body,  its  apex  between  the 
lobes  of  the  liver,  the  heart-sac  attaclied  to  the  membrane 
of  tile  lungs.  The  auricular  appendages  do  not  project,  l)ut 
are  tightly  drawn  down.  The  right  auricle  is  stronger  and 
with  larger  appendages  tlian  the  left.  They  have  comb- 
shaped  muscular  columns  or  ridges.  Into  the  right  auricle 
empty  the  ven*  cava'.  At  the  mouths  of  the  veins  are  weak 
muscular  flaps  which  are  attached  to  the  pectinate  muscles, 
whose  contraction  assists  the  passage  of  venous  blood  into 
the  right  ventricle  ;  tlie  fa?tal  foramen  ovale  is  closed.  The 
chambers  of  the  ventricles  are  not  very  different  in  size ; 
they  do  not  reach  the  apex.  Tlie  septum  is  very  convex 
into  the  right  chamber.  The  orifice  of  the  right  ventricle 
is  closed  by  a  very  strong  muscular  valve  as  thick  as  the 
outer  wall.  It  is  strongest  in  yatatores.  weakest  in  Ciir- 
sore-%  especially  in  Apteri/x,  where  it  is  almost  memljran- 
ous,  and  is  attached  by  its  free  borders  by  short  chorda^ 
tendineiB  to  the  wall  of  the  ventricle.  Its  free  border  in 
most  is  turned  toward  the  convex  septum,  to  which  it 
is  closely  pressed  in  systole,  thus  preventing  regurgita- 
tion. It  is  opposed  by  a  second  very  weak  muscular  valve. 
At  the  origin  of  tlie  pulmonalis  are  three  semilunar 
valves. 

From  two  low  ridges  at  the  orificium  atrio-ventricnlare 
sinistrum  proceed  usually  ninnerous  tendinous  threads. 
whicli  attacli  themselves  to  two  or  three  valves  which  cor- 
respond to  tlie  mitrals.  Three  semilunars  are  found  at  the 
origin  of  the  aorta.  The  boundaries  of  the  left  ventricle 
are  nearly  three  times  the  thickness  of  those  of  the  right. 
The  left  auricle  has  numerous  and  complicated  muscle- 
bundles  :  it  receives  two  pulmonic  veins  through  one  ostium. 
There  is  a  valve-like  muscular  process  whose  free  border  is 
turned  to  the  cavity,  and  apparently  directs  the  blood  to  the 
ventrical.  The  single  aorta,  giving  off  immediately  the 
eoronaries,  very  soon  divides  ;  the  truncus  arteriosus  has  a 
branch  which  is  either  the  innominata  or  subclavia.  In 
the  latter  case  there  is  a  common  carotid.  It  continues  as 
aorta  descendens  on  the  right  side  of  the  vertebral  column. 
The  left  arterial  trunk  is  an  iniioiiiiiiate  or  a  suliclavian. 
Either  each  innominate  furnishes  its  common  carotid,  which 
is  most  usual,  or  else  the  left  or  the  right  furnishes  a  trun- 
cus caroticus  iiiipar.  Examples  of  the  first  kind  are  fur- 
nished by  all  ya/afores  (excejit  Podiceps) ;  of  the  second 
by  many  Tiisessorfx.  and  some  of  the  Curnores;  of  the  third 
the  Ph(pnirijp/fnix  furnishes  the  only  example.  In  Botmi- 
rus  stHlaris  botli  aortas  unite  on  the  neck.  Sometimes  one 
of  the  two  carotiils  runs  laterally  and  superiorly  on  the  neck 
(e.  g.  PaiZ/nriis  r/ii-i/xii/i.1).  They  run  in  the  whole  length 
of  tlie  ('anal,  bciicalh  or  in  front  of  the  vertebral  processes. 
From  each  originates  a  vertebral  artery,  which  does  not  form 
the  basilar,  which  results  from  the  union  of  branches  of  the 
cerebral  carot  ids :  and  after  giving  off  branches  finally  results 
in  the  arteria  spinalis  anterior.  When  one  truncus  caroticus 
only  exisl.s,  the  vertebralis  of  the  imperfect  side  originates 
from  the  subclavian.  Sometimes  iin  Anas  hoschas  ;uv\  Ci- 
ronia  tiiyrii)  the  vertebralis  continues  itself  downward  in  the 
canal  of  the  rib  attachments  as  the  common  stem  of  the  in- 
fcrcostales.  From  the  aorta  descendens  arise  more  or  )es.s 
numerous  intercostales  and  lumbales.  a  strong  ca-liaca,  then 
a  niesenterica  suiierior  (lioth  |ienetrating  the  diaphragm  in 
Apteri).r).  >i[\fr'xnn\  renals;  from  which  branches  for  the 
generative  parts  proceed.  Xext  are  two  crurales.  each  giving 
off  an  epigastrica.  Each  results  in  the  ischiadica,  which 
descends  to  the  knee.  The  sacra  media  usually  gives  off  the 
renales  posteriores.  the  mesenterica  inferior,  two  lateral 
pudenda;  interiiir,  and  the  hy[>ogastrica'.  Finally,  it  pro- 
duces tlie  va.scular  iielw(;rk   on   the  breast  and  abdomen 


which  is  devoted  to  the  panniculus  adiposus  laid  bare  by  the 
shedding  of  feathers  during  incubation. 

In  Mainiiialiu  the  heart  is  unattached  by  cellular  tissue  to 
the  diaphragm,  except  in  man.  the  higher  apes,  and  Ce/acea. 
It  is  St raigiit  (except  in  man.  the  higher  apes,  and  Talpa). 
has  two  ventricles,  and  the  foramen  ovale  is  always  closed. 
The  ventricles  are  externally  separated  (in  part)  in  Sire7>>a. 
It  has  a  valvula  tricuspidalis ;  in  Orniihorh ijnchus,  a  trans- 
vei-se  muscular  valve  of  the  right  ventrical,  as  in  Inrds ;  the 
valve  in  l^i-liiJnu  is  membranous,  has  a  large  tuberculuni 
Loweri.*  and  no  Eustachian  valve  (in  Felis.  Cams,  I'rsus, 
Phiiat.  (full/,  Mustfhi,  Procyun,  7\ilpa,  Ilalmaturns,  Eqmis. 
Sits,  and  Riiminantia).  There  is  no  tuberculuni,  but  there 
are  two  semilunar  valves  to  the  vena  cava  ascendens  in  Di- 
ili'lpliis,  Ijasijpiis,  Jlysfryx,  Can'a,  Lepiis,  iSciitriis  (in  Sclii- 
nis  maxim  us  a  trace  of  the  tubercle).  No  Eustachian  valve, 
but  a  cross-band  below  the  fossa  ovalis.  with  filamentous 
niuscle-]U'ocesses  in  Mymifcopliayn  anil  BraiJypus.  It  has 
a  Eustachian  valve  and  weak  tuberculuni  Loweri  in  man. 
many  apes,  lemurs,  Lufra,  etc.  Both  valve  and  tuberculuni 
are  wanting  in  Omitlinrliyiichus  and  Delphinus. 

In  many  ruminants  and  ]ierissodactyls  in  advanced  age  there 
is  a  single  or  double  bone  in  the  septum  atrio-ventriculare, 
and  occasionally  in  Equidte  in  the  septum  oi>posite  the  os- 
tium vena>  cava>  ascendentis.  The  aorta-stem  at  its  root  is 
single  and  curved  to  the  left ;  it  soon  gives  off  coroiiales  (one 
only  in  J-S/fphas).  Its  branches  vary  ;  e.  g.  (1)  A  short  aorta 
divides  into  an  anterior  (superior)  and  posterior.  (2)  The 
aorta  superior  gives  off  a  subclavia  sinistra,  and  continues  as 
the  truncus  caroticus.  or  divides  into  a  truncus  caroticus 
and  both  subclavije;  in  Eyuidee  it  also  gives  off  the  verte- 
bralis dextra.  From  the  aorta-arch  originate  the  innomi- 
nata giving  off  carotides  subclavia  dextra  and  subclavia 
sinistra  in  most  JIarsupialia.  in  Itodiiitia,  Edentata,  Car- 
niL'ora,  Sorex,  Ilalicore,  Anchenia,  Sus:  in  which  last  the 
two  carotids  spring  from  a  trancus  inipar  vel  jirimus.  (3) 
In  otlier  ca.ses  two  tninci  innominati  alone  are  given  off, 
as  in  Chiruptera,  Talpa.  Pliociena.  (4)  The  aorta  gives  off 
a  truncus  anonvmus  dexter,  carotis  sinistra,  subclavia  sinis- 
tra (as  in  Ilonotremafa,  Pliasenlomys,  and  liradypvs,  IJusy- 
jjiis,  Cyclutiira  didadyla,  aU  Murida>,  Erinai-fiis,  Pliocida; 
many  Quadrumana,  man,  etc.).  (.5)  Two  suliclavia-  arise,  with 
a  truncus  caroticus  impar  between  (Elephas).  (6)  Besides 
the  above  subordinate  arteries  from  the  aorta  are  thoracl- 
ea  interna  sinistra  and  dextra  from  innominata  dextra  in 
Ptioca'na  and  Ilalicore.  In  some  plunging  animals' occur 
widenings  of  the  aorta  (Lutra,  Phnra,  the  young  of  Del- 
phinus, J/(in(/don,  etc.).  The  common  carotids  have  their 
length  proportioned  to  that  of  the  neck.  In  the  short-necked 
Drlphinidis  there  is  none,  lioth  carotids  sjiringing  from  the 
innominata.  It  is  often  divided  into  two  (facialis  and  cere- 
bralis).  The  cerebrales  enter  as  single  trunks  into  the  cra- 
nium in  Quadruniana.  Clnrnptera.  Insect ivura,  Podentia, 
Jlarsupialia,  Equidrf,  and  some  Carnivora,  as  I'rsus,  Lufra, 
Canis,  Miisteta,  or  ]iass  through  a  rete  mirabile  (Phoco'na) 
fi  irmed  of  branching  trnnklets.  or  s]  irings  from  a  rete  miral  lile 
formed  from  its  origins  (Bum  i  nanfia,  Siu'da'.  Fetidw).  Wlien 
without  retes  the  cerebrales  h.ave  various  points  of  origin. 
The  retia  mirabilia  of  the  Delj/liinidce  (with  artery  travei-s- 
ing)  are  iirincipally  formed  from  the  branches  of  the  carotis 
interna,  yet  are  closely  connected  with  retia  lying  outside 
the  craniuni.  formed  of  Ijranches  of  the  carotis  externa  and 
cervico-occi]iitalis.  Tlie  rete  of  each  side  always  communi- 
cates with  that  of  the  other.  The  always  present  circulus 
Willisii  is  formed  either  partly  in  the  cerebrales  and  part- 
ly by  division  of  the  basilaris.  or  through  the  cerebrales 
and  ilivided  basihiri-occipitales  or  only  by  the  cerebrales. 
There  are  still  other  modifications  of  the  circle  of  Willis. 
In  many  Edentata,  and  in  Stenops  and  Tarsius,  the  arm- 
arteries  possess  many  retia  mirabilia  (Dasy/ius  .•lexrinetus, 
etc.).  In  Hrtiilfipus  and  Stenops  the  trunk  of  the  brachi.-ilis 
passes  through  many  eniViracing  extended  arterial  vessels. 
In  Cyrlatura  didaetyta  and  Tarsius,  the  artery  emiities  itself 
into  these;  in  other  cases  they  are  confined  to  the  forearm. 

The  aorta  thoracica  of  most  Mammalia  is  peculiar  in  not 
giving  off  inimiMliately  the  intercostales.  In  3Iiistela  there 
springs  from  it  at  the  extremity  of  the  chest  a  trunk  (which 
divides  into  two  vertelirales).  from  which  the  arteria'  inter- 
costales issue.  In  the  Thlphinida'  there  are  two  descending 
arteria'  thoracica'  interna'  (or  niammaria;  interna^),  which 
arise,  the  left  from  the  arcus  aorta",  the  right  from  the 
innominata  dextra,  which  give  off  the  five  anterior  inter- 

*  A  process  separatiiifr  tlie  month  of  tlip  vena  cava  descendens 
from  the  veua  cava  aseeudens  in  the  riglit  auricle. 


ANATOMY,   COWI'ARATU'B 


199 


costales.  The  branches  of  the  aorta  abdominalisare  usually 
the  phreuiea?  inferioves,  supi-arcnales,  rcnalos,  spcrmatit-a' 
iiileriup,  luinbalos,  the  ccoliaoa.  the  mescul erica  .superior, 
ami  the  inesenteriea  inferior.  The  ereliaca  ami  nicseiiteriea 
superior  are  one  stem  in  Curia  cohaya,  or  originate  as  one 
and  soon  divide  {Talpa  and  Vespertilio  murinus).  or  origi- 
nate separately,  but  connect  by  strong  anastiiimises  [P/io- 
cama).  The  mesentcrica  inferior  often  is  trifling,  in  Mdi- 
siipialia  and  Jfoitoln-iiiata  wanting,  'I'he  arteria>  iliacie 
fonimuncs  (so  called)  seldom  are  homologous  with  those  of 
man.  In  Ccturea  they  correspond  generally  with  the  hypo- 
gastrica'.  They  give  off  the  epigastrica-.  which  otherwise 
come  from  the  crurales.  In  most  JlamiiiaHa  tliey  are  homolo- 
gous with  the  crurales,  since  not  from  them,  but  from  a 
contiiniatiou  of  the  aoi'ta,  are  given  off  the  hy|iogaslrica', 
or  at  least  vessels  which  rise  in  Ilomo  from  the  hypogas- 
trica\  So  in  J/unofrcmnfa  and  nuirsujiials  tlii'  ischiailica\ 
and  in  numy  others  the  sacra^  laterales,  spring  in  pairs  from 
the  aorta  l)eyond  the  iliacai  communes.  In  some,  with 
stroTig  skin-muscle  or  skin-system,  from  the  crurales  arise 
large  musculo-cutanea',  which  anastomose  with  similar  de- 
scending branches  of  t  he  axillares  (Erinaceufi).  The  division 
of  (he  cruralis  is  higher  or  deeper  than  in  IIhiiki.  In  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  Pltocirla;  in  many  Eilentala.  and 
Sl<'iifip.<<  are  retia  mirabilia,  which  are  weaker  than  those  of 
the  upper  extremity,  ami  the  sacra  media  is  a  continuation 
of  the  aorta  ;  larger  in  large-tailed  animals,  running  in  an 
inferior  vertebral  canal,  often  forming  ret  ia  (.S'/f  »(;/;.«,  linulij- 
pux,  Mjiniieeophdfia).  In  Phoccena  it  passes  through  retia: 
sometimes  weak  (in  Erinaceus.  Lepiia,  ruminants,  often  in 
Eqitidw).  There  is  none  in  JUniiiifns  (iiisfnilin.  where  the 
aorta  forms  two  hypogastriea^,  which  lose  themselves  in  two 
huge  retia  subvertebralia, 

VIII,  The  Respiratory  System. 
Apparatus  for  oxygenating  a  circulating  fluid  is  wanting 
in  Protozoa  and  CceJenterata.  In  the  other  branches  its 
type  varies  so  that  a  number  of  distinct  systems  must  be 
recognized,  which  are  adaptations  of  as  many  distinct  re- 
gions of  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  respiration.  These 
may  be  reckoned  as  follows  : 

1,  The  external  pore-system  of  the  Echinodi'rmrtta. 

2,  The  system  of  diverticula  from  the  aliuuMitary  canal 
of  the  Holothurida-Dendropneumones  and  of  most  Verte- 
brata. 

.'i.  The  gill-system  of  Molhixca  and  Cnififacfa. 

4,  The  tracheary  sy.stem  of  terrestrial  Arfhropoda. 

5,  The  pharyngeal  giU-system  of  Ascidia,  fishes,  and  Ba- 
Irachin. 

It  will,  however,  be  convenient  to  divide  the  subject  first 
between  the  Inrerfcbra/a  and  Vertebrafa. 

1,  In  Tnivrli-bmta. — The  wall  of  the  body  of  the  Echinida 
and  A/ifi'i-oidd  is  pierced  with  a  great  numlicr  of  pores, 
which  terminate  in  l)lind  sacs  and  are  filled  with  water.  In 
jdl  echinoderms  the  <'avity  of  the  body  is  filled  with  water, 
hv  which  blixid  is  oxygenized.  It  enters  thrnugh  perforated 
plates  (lamina'  cribrosa>)  situated  in  thi'  angles  of  the  arms 
ni  the  Axfiriii/d.  lint  the  orifices  which  ailmit  it  into  the 
body  of  the  IlnliiDnirida  are  not  certainly  known.  In  the 
•latter  class  singular  organs  called  the  "  slipper-shaped 
bodies"  depend  freely  from  the  viscera;  their  hollow  stems 
are  said  to  contain  a  blood-vessel ;  the  extremity  is  like  the 
open  end  of  a  short  slipp{'r. 

The  I/o/of/mrii/(t-/)f}i(/ropfieiti)wiirs  jxissess  an  extensive 
system  of  branching  blind  tubes,  which  form  a  mass  ex- 
tending throughout  the  body.  They  form  two  bodies,  one 
on  each  sidi^ofthe  rectum,  and  open  into  the  latter  near 
the  anus:  from  it  the v  are  filled  with  water.  In  .some  ^l.s- 
ttriida  (Pelradcr  militariri)  five  radiating  tnties,  the  fine  for 
each  arm,  issue  from  the  rectum,  and  are  filled  and  emptied 
of  water  from  it. 

In  Piih/zoa  ( Prijozoa)  a.nd  Prachi'opoda  vie  have  a  .some- 
what similar  arrangement  of  branchia\  In  the  former  they 
form  a  doulile  crest  of  tentacular  fringes  round  the  mouth: 
they  are  hollow,  and  the  circidatory  fluid  moves  through 
them,  as  el.sewhere  in  the  body-cavity,  by  ciliary  movements 
on  its  walls.  In  Bnichiopoda,  as  already  stated,  there  are 
well-developed  arteries.  The  gills  are  situated  as  fringes  on 
straighlcr  and  shorter  or  longer  and  .sjiirally  coiled  arms 
within  tlic  shell,  one  on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  Their 
position  issome\vh.-it  like  that  in  the /-Vi/i/jori  when  retracted. 
In  hingeless  limc/iiopoifa  the  calcareous  arms  are  wanting, 
but  here  the  gill  supports  are  cartilaginous.  In  Linijiila 
the  inner  surface  of  the  mantle  is  furnished  with  folds  and 


crests,  which  are  supposed  to  aid  respiration.  In  the 
Acfphnla  the  arrangement  is  totally  different.  The  gills 
are  curttdu  or  sheet  like  (whence  the  name  of  this  class, 
Laini'Uibranchiata)  and  hang  two  from  each  side  of  the 
body  witliin  the  mantle.  Sometimes  their  margins  are  free 
(many  Jloiiomi/arin.  Jfti/filida',  Airidn',  Lithodomiin,  Cydais, 
etc.);  in  others  immediately  united  (Veneridiv,  3Iacfra, 
Donax.  Unionidw.  l'/i<i/iidid(i:  etc.),  or  are  connected  by  an 
intervening  mcmlirane  [So/i'iiidw,  Cardium.  etc.).  The 
miion  of  tl-.e  pairs  of  margins  incloses  two  chambers,  one 
within  the  other.  Each  gill-lamella  consists  of  two  layers, 
which  inclose  tubes  and  other  cavities  between  ttem. 
Sometimes  the  outer  gill  lacks  one  layer,  or  sometimes  the 
whole  gill  is  wanting  (Lnciiia.  Corbis,  etc).  In  others  its 
outer  lamina  is  tnnicated  above,  so  as  to  expose  the  ends 
of  the  cavities  it  embraces.  The  lamella*  of  the  opposite 
sides  are  synnuetrical  or  iml.  in  accordance  with  the  rela- 
tions of  the  shell-valves. 

The  branchial  structure  in  Gattleropoda  presents  many 
varieties.  In  the  division  Opislliohrdnchia  the  branchia? 
and  auricles  lie  behind  the  ventricle  of  the  heart;  in  Proso- 
brancliia  the  relative  positions  are  reversed.  In  the  former 
the  branchia'  are  variously  extended  ]iroces.ses  of  the  dorsal 
integument  of  the  body,  each  of  wliich  is  supjilied  with  an 
artery.  In  the  lowest  grou)),  the  Dcrmatobranchia.  these 
branchiip  are  wanting,  ami  the  arteries  are  distributed  for 
blood  aeration  beneath  the  dorsal  integument.  In  the  Pla- 
robrnnchia  they  are  represented  by  lateral  wing-like  expan- 
sions of  the  integmnent,  which  may  fold  over  the  body.  In 
innnerous  types  the  processes  are  distributed  over  the  body 
in  tlu-ead,  prism,  leaf,  and  other  forms.  These  are  the  Cera- 
/obi-ancliia;  nuiny  of  the  processes  contain  livcr-ccUs.  In 
the  Poli/bra/ichtn  the  processes  are  arranged  along  tlie  back, 
and  are  branched  or  forked,  and  sometimes  of  diverse  forms 
on  the  .same  animal.  Other  families,  as  Dorididw,  have  a 
rosette  of  branchia?  round  the  arms  only.  All  the  preceding 
groups  form  the  "  naked-gilled "  primary  division,  Nudi- 
branchia.  In  the  remainder  of  the  sub-class  the  gills  are 
concealed  by  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  forming  the  Tecfi- 
branchia.  The  least  specialized  of  these  (Ili/pobranchia) 
have  symmetrically  arranged  fringes  round  the  edge  of  the 
body,  with  but  few  interruptions;  wliile  in  the  higher  di- 
vision, Pleiirobranchia.  the  fringe  exists  on  one  side  only. 
The  fringe  becomes  more  localize<l  and  drawn  under  the 
mantle  as  the  size  of  the  shell  increases  in  the  succession  of 
genera.  Especially  in  BtiUa.  where  the  shell  is  large,  the 
gill  is  drawn  beneath  the  mantle,  and  concealed  by  the  up- 
turned margin  of  the  foot. 

In  Piosdbraiicliia  the  gill  or  numfle-sac  is  generally  well 
defined.  It  consi.sts  of  a  chamber  bounded  within  liy  the 
body-wall  and  above  by  the  mantle,  wliich  also  clo.ses  it  lat- 
erally by  adhesion  to  the  body-wall.  The  gills  and  excretory 
orifices  of  the  digestive,  urinary,  and  genital  systems  are 
seen  on  its  walls.  There  is  generally  a  single  gill,  shajied 
like  a  half  feather,  and  with  two  ilepeiident  (in  Pdludina 
three)  lamiinc  of  transparent  membrane.  In  many  genera 
there  is  a  nidiment  of  a  second,  while  in  a  few  the  latter  is 
well  developed.  The  orifice  of  the  m:iiille-.sae  is  on  the  left 
side,  and  can  be  closed  by  a  sphincter  muscle.  The  nuiiitle 
is  originally  composed  of  lateral  halves,  which  are  not  always 
completely  united ;  their  separation  at  the  margin  produces 
the  deep  fissure  in  the  shell  of  Phiirotuind.  and  divisions 
higher  up  correspond  to  the  holes  in  the  shell  of  IldUotis. 
In  the  latter  geinis  there  are  two  gill-sacs  and  two  gills,  and 
in  others  two  gills.  In  some  a  thickened  rib  marks  the 
halves  of  the  mantle,  and  the  two  gills  are  ]ilaced  closed  to- 
gether on  it,  so  as  to  appear  as  one.  In  Palflliild'  and  Cliito- 
iiidd'  1  here  is  no  (list  inct  gill-sac,  the  branchia'  being  marginal 
fringes,  as  in  many  Opisthobranchia,  In  the  Puhnonata  the 
mantle-sac  does  not  contain  any  gills;  it  has  an  opening  on 
the  right,  side  of  the  body,  produced  by  a  fissure  in  the 
mantle  maigin,  whicli  is  closed  by  a  sphincter  muscle.  This 
orifice  opi>ns  an<l  slnits  regularly  for  the  aduussion  of  air. 
The  maiitle-.sac  becomes  a  lung  by  the  distribution  of  the 
venous  truidis  and  branches  over  its  surface.  An  extensive 
ring-like  trinik  (cireulus  puhnonalis)  surrounds  its  margin, 
from  which  vessels  converge  toward  the  center,  forming  a 
network  which  gathers  itself  again  into  a  few,  then  a  single 
tnHd<,  the  vena  puhnonalis,  which  empties  into  the  auricle 
of  tlie  heart. 

In  ('('jilidtdpddd  tlie  mantle  is  free,  and  incloses  a  cavity 
on  the  abdominal,  instead  of,  as  heretofore,  the  dorsal  face 
of  the  body,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  the  Pteropoda. 
The  cavity  contains  two  branchia'  in  t  he  greater  numlier  of 


200 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


genera  (Dibranchiata),  or  four  in  JS^ajifilus  and  probably  its 
extinct  allies,  the  Ammonitidcf,  etc.  These  constitute  the 
sub-class  Tefrabraiirhiiifn.  The  gills  are  elongate,  triangu- 
lar, feather-shaped  bodies,  whose  axis  bears  on  one  side  the 
artery,  on  the  other  the  vein.  In  Dibranch  lata  it  beai-s  a  row 
of  bows  on  each  side,  in  which  a  blood-vessel  passes  from 
arteiT'to  vein.  On  each  of  these  stand  bipinnate  processes, 
so  that  the  whole  becomes  tripinnate.  The  arch  bounds  a 
membrane  in  the  decapod  division,  but  in  the  Octopoda  the 
loop  is  not  closed.  In  Tetrabranchiata  the  first  branches  of 
the  gill  are  leaf-like,  with  pinnate,  leaf-like  subdivisions. 
They  are  free  in  the  mantle-sac ;  those  of  the  dibranchiates 
are  attached  to  the  mantle. 

In  aU  Crustacea  except  the  Decapoda  the  giUs  consist  of 
fringes  and  expansions  of  the  limbs.  In  the  latter  they  are 
regular  feather-shaped  bodies,  arranged  within  an  abdominal 
cavity  above  the  limbs;  the  bases  form  a  curved  line  and 
the  apices  are  directed  inward.  The  traeheary  system  pre- 
vails in  all  other  Arthropoda.  It  consists  of  a  great  number 
of  tubes,  which  communicate  with  the  air  by  means  of  small 
orifices  or  stigmata.  These  pierce  the  walls  of  the  segments, 
usually  one  on  each  side,  where  they  are  present.  They  sub- 
divide to  a  great  extent  internaUy,  and  penetrate  all  the 
organs  of  the  body.  There  are  marked  varieties  of  this 
structure.  Instead'  of  issuing  by  stigmata,  the  trachea  may 
be  produced  into  a  leaf-shaped  process  which  arises  from  the 
usual  position  of  the  stigma,  and  may  there  ramify  exten- 
sively within  the  lamella,  constituting  a  trachean  giU.  This 
occurs  in  the  larvie  of  many  Xeurcipfi-ra.  The  walls  of  the 
tracheie  are  elastic,  yet  firndy  bound  by  a  spiral  thread, 
whose  close  volutions  form  an  interior  layer  of  the  tube-wall. 
In  other  localities  it  is  wanting,  and  the  tube  expands  sac- 
Uke.  In  some  insects  these  exist  near  the  stigmata.  In  the 
Arachnida  (except  the  group  of  low  forms,  the  Trachearia) 
this  sac-like  structure  only  exists  as  a  large  pulmonary  cham- 
ber, with  single  stigma,  situated  on  the  anterior  part  of  the 
abdomen  on  each  side. 

In  insects  the  stigmata  rarely  exceed  nine  or  ten  pairs ;  in 
Myriopoda  they  are  far  more  numerous.  In  the  Acarina 
there  are  but  two.  In  insects  they  usually  have  a  valve, 
which  opens  externally  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  foreign 
bodies;  in  some  forms  they  project  in  lamin;B,  branched, 
pinnate,  or  botryoidal.  In  the  larvae  of  many  Phryganeida; 
and  some  Lepidoptn-a  the  trachea-giUs  are  arranged  in  six 
rows  along  the  back.  In  the  larv;E  of  Libellula  and  ^sclina 
they  are  attached  to  the  inner  wall  of  the  rectum. 

2.  In  Vertebrata. — In  Ascidia  there  are  no  free  or  pinni- 
lorm  gills.  There  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  large  pharyngeal 
cavity,  which  lies  between  the  mouth  and  the  digestive  sys- 
tem proper,  the  alimentary  canal  both  issuing  from  and  dis- 
charging into  its  cavity  in  many  cases.  In  others  it  dis- 
charges at  the  side.  The  pharynx  may  occupy  a  small  part 
of  the  whole  length  of  the  cavitv  of  the  body :  in  the  latter 
case  the  other  organs  are  pushed  to  one  side  of  it  (Boltenia, 
e.g.).  The  mouth  and  other  parts  are  frequently  furnished 
with  cilia.  The  gills  consist  of  a  s;ic  whose  walls  are  abun- 
dantly pierced  by  holes  of  different  forms  in  the  different 
groups,  or  it  is  reduced  to  a  band  of  such  structure  only. 

In  the  Li'pfocardii  there  is  a  large  pharyngeal  cavity, 
with  a  large  open  mouth  whose  border  is  sup])orted  by  a 
cartilage.  This  gives  out  branches  which  are  the  axes  of 
abundantlv  ciliated  tentacles  which  surroimd  the  mouth. 
On  the  sides  of  the  pharynx  are  numerous  fissures,  which 
communicate  with  the  outer  medium.  In  the  Marsipo- 
hranchii  the  respiratory  organs  consist  of  a  series  of  sacs 
on  each  side  (which  number  seven  to  ten),  on  whose  septary 
walls  the  arteries  and  veins  are  distributed.  In  some  genera 
these  communicate  internally  with  the  phaiynx  or  oesopha- 
gus; in  the  lamprey,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  blind  tube 
which  lies  beneath  the  oesophagus  and   empties  into  the 

{jharynx.  Each  sac  opens  externally  by  a  slit.  In  Elaxmo- 
>ranchii-Plagiosloini  (sharks,  rays)  the  arrangement  is  sim- 
ilar, the  slits  numbering  iive,  rarely  six  and  seven  and  com- 
municating with  tlie  oesophagus.  The  septary  walls  are 
double,  and  contain  a  cartilaginous  arch  with  radii,  which 
elevate  the  walls  into  transverse  ridges.  A  trace  of  the  first 
embryonic  external  fissure  remains  in  tliis  order  as  a  spiracle 
or  tube  from  the  pharynx  to  the  sides  of  the  top  of  the  head 
behind  the  eyes.  In  Holocepliali  (Chimirra)  the  external 
slits  are  concealed  by  an  opei-cular  flap,  which  produces  the 
appearance  of  a  single  slit.  In  Ti-leostomi  the  hyoid  resjjira- 
tory  system  is  fully  developed.  The  arches  support,  instead 
of  sac-septa,  radiating  fringe-like  laniinic,  which  receive  the 
branches  of  the  branchial  artery  and  vein.    The  fissures  are 


only  those  between  the  arches,  which  are  covered  externally 
by  an  osseous  "  operculum  "  or  lid.  The  number  of  branehiie 
is  usually  four  and  a  half,  but  in  some  Pediculati  there  are 
but  three,  in  some  eels  but  two.  In  Lepidosiren  there  is  but 
one.  While  the  processes  are  usually  narrow,  lamellar,  in 
Lophobranchii  they  are  subeylindric  and  branched,  each  one 
forming  thus  a  tuft;  their  number  is  also  reduced. 

Besides  these  fringes  there  are  in  some  Dipnoi  and  some 
Bairachia  (TracJiysfomata,  Pioteida),  and  in  the  Ian*  of 
many  salamanders,  cartilaginous  processes  of  the  arches 
which  bear  a  double  row  of  fringes,  forming  the  external 
gilLs. 

The  true  puhnonary  system  con.sists  of  ducts  and  cham- 
ber, which  originate  from  the  alimentary  canal,  and  are 
connected  with  it  or  the  pharynx.  It  is  not  found  in  any 
Vtrtebraia  below  the  Teleostomi  and  Dipnoi.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  hyoid  respiratory  organs  do  not  exist  above  the 
Batrachia.  In  Teleostomi  the  pulmonary  system  consists  of 
a  sac  with  walls  either  thin  and  semi-transparent,  or  rarely 
thicker  and  lined  with  muscular  meshes  or  a  few  cells  (Lepi- 
dosteus,  etc.).  In  Pliysostomi  it  is  connected  with  the  stom- 
ach or  oesophagus  by  a  tube,  the  ductus  pneumaticus;  in 
Lepidnsteus  the  latter  enters  the  oesophagus  on  the  upper 
side ;  in  Polypterus  on  the  under  side  of  the  same.  In 
Physoclysti  this  sac  is  entirely  isolated.  Its  function  is  that 
of  a  float,  and  it  is  hence  called  the  swim-bladder.  It  usu- 
ally forms  a  single  chamber,  but  in  Cyprinida,  Ctiaracinido', 
and  Sternopyyidw,  it  is  divided  by  narrow  constrictions  into 
two,  sometimes  into  three,  chambers.  In  Cobitidit  and  some 
Siluridce  (Clarias.  Gasterobranclius,  Ageniosus,  and  Sacco- 
branchus)  the  anterior  part,  or  the  whole  of  it,  is  inclosed  in 
an  osseous  case.  In  Oadidce  the  diapophyses  are  expanded 
and  adherent  to  it ;  in  Campostoma  it  is  suspended  in  the 
abdominal  cavity,  and  surrounded  by  the  spirally  coiled  in- 
testine. It  is  furcate,  and  sometimes  branclied  posteriorly, 
in  Scimnidcp,  In  Xemutognatlii  and  Plectospondyli  it  is 
immediately  connected  with  the  auditory  organs  by  a  chain 
of  small  bones,  which  are  supported  on  the  sides  of  the  an- 
terior vertebra^.  Besides  Lepidosttus  and  Amia,  the  genera 
Plafystmna  (Nematognathi)  and  Chirocentrus  {Isospondyti) 
possess  cellular  layers  on  the  inner  side  of  the  swim-ldadder. 
In  Saccobranclius  a  sac  extends  on  each  side  above  the  ril)s 
from  the  pharyngeal  cavity,  which  is  designed  to  contain 
water  to  supply  the  gills  during  drought.  In  Dipnoi,  Lepi- 
dosiren has  the  swim-bladder  deeply  divided  longitudinally, 
its  halves  being  homologous  with  lungs.  They  are  cellular 
within,  and  lie  above  the  alimentary  canal  next  the  verte- 
bral column.  They  unite,  and  passing  round  the  oesophagus 
enter  it  below  by  a  glottis  with  small  cartilage.  In  the  Dip- 
noan  Cerxitodus  there  is  but  one  lung. 

In  Batrachia  we  have  a  further  development  of  the  struc- 
ture seen  in  Lepidosiren.  Here  the  sacs  are  separate,  being 
connected  by  the  branches  of  the  tube  or  trachea  which 
leads  to  the  oesophagus.  The  sacs,  now  lungs,  are  occupied 
by  a  central  longitudinal  cavity  and  a  thick  layer  of  cells 
round  the  walls.  The  trachea  from  this  order  upward  con- 
sists of  cartilaginous  rings,  partly  or  completely  closed, 
which  are  modified  at  the  glottis  into  a  vocal  organ.  This 
consists  of  a  number  of  segments,  the  uppermost  of  which 
suppoi't  two  parallel  tendinous  plates  (chordie  vocales), 
w'hose  edges  are  separated  by  a  slit-like  openiiig,  which  is 
opened  or  contracted  by  their  relaxation  or  tension.  The 
trachea  is  longer  in  reptiles  and  other  vertebrates  than  in 
Batrachia,  and  its  inferior  branches  are  called  bronchia'. 
In  all,  the  oesophagus  passes  above  the  lungs,  and  the  stom- 
ach is  behind  them.  The  interior  of  the  lung  continues 
as  a  sac  in  rejitilcs.  being  especially  elongate  and  thin 
walled  jiosteriorly  in  serpents.  In  these  animals  one  of  the 
lung-sacs  is  nearly  always  wanting  or  nulimental.  In  birds 
and  JlanniKilia  the  central  cavity  is  only  represented  by  the 
bronchi  and  their  brandies,  the  cells  occupving  the  remain- 
ing s]iace.  In  Aves  the  bronchi  are  each  dilated  into  a 
chamber,  wliich  is  furnished  with  muscles  for  altering  its 
form.  These  are  most  fully  developed  in  singing  birds,  of 
whose  musical  faculties  they  are  the  organ. 

IX.  The  Urogenital  System. 
1.  Li  Invertebrate.''. —  Tlie  Beproductive  System. — In  the 
lowest  forms  of  life  reproductive  organs  are  only  periodical 
aiiiH-arances,  and  their  sexuality  can  l)e  determined  only  by 
microscopic  examination  of  their  products.  In  most  £cli  ino- 
dermata  the  organs  are  permanent,  but  it  is  not  till  we 
reach  Mollusca'\s\i\\  a  head  that  the  organs  of  the  sexes 
essentially  differ.    A  usual  mode  of  reproduction  in  Pro- 


ANATOMY,  COMPARATIVE 


201 


tozoa  and  Ccelenteraia  is  by  budding  and  by  fission.  The 
production  of  ova  is  a  higher  form  of  the  budding  process, 
the  result  being  a  gerni  (if  a  new  generation,  which  may  or 
may  not  require  the  olliees  of  opposite  sexual  cells  for  tlicir 
furtlier  development.  Examples  of  full  development  of  the 
feuuile  element  alone  (agamogenesis)  are  known  in  animals 
as  high  in  the  series  as  insects.  In  the  JUolluaca  tiie  two 
sexual  elements,  ova  and  spermatozoiiids,  are  constantly 
proiluce<l,  even  in  hermaphrodites,  although  they  nuiy  be 
the  products  of  tlie  same  Jjlandular  follicles,  as  in  Oasfe- 
ropiHla-Opiat/iij/jraiichia  and  I'ulmonata,  and  in  I'leropoda. 
The  fcjilowing  table  exhibits  the  relation  of  the  classes  as 
far  as  the  Verinns: 

I.  2^0  Urinary  Apparatus. 

S  ?  organs  identical. 

Radiata. 

*  No  permanent  generative  organs. 

Anfhozoa.  Either  androgynous  on  each  mesenterial  fold, 
or  the  fold  mono'cious,  or  rarely  tlie  animals  dio'cious; 
spermatozoa  or  eggs  in  sacs,  which  are  in  band-like  mass  on 
sides  of  mesenterial  folds, 

Ifydrw.  Androgynous ;  the  eggs  single  in  a  lower  sprout, 
spermatozoa  in  a  higher  sprout;  no  permanent  organs. 

Med  utile.  l)ia>cious;  eggs  and  spermatozoa  developed  in 
large  cells  or  bladders,  which  are  attached  to  stomach,  water- 
canals,  mouth,  feet,  border,  etc. 

Vfi')iop/iora.  Androgynous  and  moncecious;  capsules  of 
both  kinds  in  enudiiued  or  separate  bands  on  radial  wdter- 
canals ;  sometimes  on  central  caiuil  or  stomach,  emerging  by 
same  canals. 

Crinoidca.  ("omatula;  sacs  on  swollen  bases  of  pinnules 
monceciously  containing  eggs  or  spermatozoa  without  tails. 
(By  one  observation  sometimes  an(lrogynous.) 

**  Permanent  organs. 

Axteriida.  One  or  many  blind  sacs  each  side  of  septum 
(which  terminates  between  arms  near  or  far  off);  sometimes 
found  to  reach  the  end  of  the  arm  ;  much  subdivided  ;  ori- 
fice of  emission  through  lamina  cribrosa  in  some  Asteriadie; 
into  the  body-cavity  in  others  and  in  OphiuricUe ;  all  an- 
drogynous, with  very  few  dioecious  exceptions;  in  some  not 
kiKiwn. 

£chinida.  Pioecious;  five  (ever  less?)  sacs  or  masses  of 
saelets,  each  oi)ening  by  narrow  ducts  through  separate  open- 
ings (sometimes  four  or  three)  near  vent,  and  lying  near  to- 
gether, reaching  to  middle  of  shell ;  males  white  colored, 
yellow,  red,  etc. 

Ilolothiiriida.  Runch  of  few  or  many  tubes  embracing 
oesophagus,  and  opening  on  median  dorsal  line ;  ditccious, 
or  in  Synnpta  and  vlj!i;(e!«»io?!a  androgynous;  the  spermato- 
zoa in  projecting  masses  of  walls  of  ovary-tube. 

Mollusca. 
*  Generative  organs  not  always  permanent. 
BrynztM.  Andi'ogynous;  4  organs  round  body  below 
stomach  on  a  string,  with  many  cells,  containing  sperma- 
tozoa; $  with  very  few  ripe  ova  beliind  stomach,  also  on  a 
string;  spermatozoa  bursting  into  body-cavity,  and  reach- 
ing ovary;  ova  break  through  outer  wall  or  a  posterior 
orifice. 

**  Always  permanent. 
lirar.hlnpoda.  Androgynous;  a  thick  branching  glandu- 
lar body  following  pallia!  or  generative  artery  filled  with 
I  ovary-cells,  and  surrounded  and  penetrated  by  a  recldish  cell 
containing  male  element;  discharging  near  mouth  from  a 
large,  much-plicate,  t  mm  pet-mouthed  oviduct,  whi<-h  is  not 
continuous  with  genital  mass. 

11.  Urinary  Organs  Present  {Bnjanus's  Olanda). 

A.  ?  S  organs  identical,  iiermanent. 

Acephala.  ?  and  4  organs  not  dilTerent,  of  minute  cells 
g.'lthered  in  more  or  less  compressed  masses,  -whieh  form 
main  mass,  or  more  simple  along  central  tube  or  duct,  which 
passes  througli  Bojanus's  body  or  unites  with  duct  of  latter, 
iir  has  (ipeiiiiig  ncai'  latter;  spermatozoa  in  Diini/aria  long 
headed  and  round  headed;  in  Mo?iomya  round  oit^y  ;  diu'Ci- 
ous,  except  a  Peclen  or  Cardiinn,  etc.,  and  hermaphrodite 
individuals  of  Anodnnta.  In  Unionidce  sexes  externally  dif- 
ferent;  gills  serve  as  brood-sac.  Androgynous;  genera 
Oslrea,  Cyclas,  Pandora,  Peclen,  etc. 


AA.  i,  organs  distinguished  by  penis  or  stylet. 
a.  Animals  hermaphrodite. 
Gasteropodn^Opisfholirnnc/iia.    Spermatozooids  and   ova 
produced  by  the  same  glandular  body  (with  few  exceptions). 
(fiLsfcropDiln-PolDioiKi/d.      An     oviduct     with    abdomen 
gland  and  seminal  receptacle;   a  vas  deferens  terminating 
in  penis;  a  stylet-sac  with  stylet,  all  emptying  into  a  com- 
mon cloaca. 

I^fropoda.  Similar  to  the  last,  but  no  distinct  vas  def- 
erens, and  no  stylet ;  penis  usually  separate  from  and  in 
front  of  vagina. 

aa.  Sexes  distinct. 

Oiistfropoda  in  general.  Penis  behind  the  right  eye; 
ovary  and  t-estis  emljedtled  in  the  liver;  oviduct  frecpiently 
enlarged  into  a  uterus,  issuing  on  the  right  side;  rarely  an 
albumen  gl.-md  or  receptacuium  seniinis;  no  stylet. 

C'i'pli(i/ii/t(id(i.  $  with  ovary  inclosed  in  a  peritoneal  sac, 
and  with  two  (sometimes  one)  oviducts  continuous;  J  with- 
out stylet ;  with  a  vas  deferens  and  so-called  seminal  vesicle 
and  prostata  near  the  penis. 

The  preceding  stracturcs  present  in  their  details  the  great- 
est variety.  The  generative  organs  are  situated  on  the  right 
side  of  tlie  body,  but  the  exits  are  in  some  groups  on  the  op- 
posite side,  and  usually  (the  female  at  least)  in  the  mantle- 
sac.  Their  inner  walls  are  lined  with  ciliated  epithelium. 
The  stylet  is  a  slender,  acute  calcareous  body  of  various 
form,  which  is  inserted  into  the  vagina  or  body  of  the  other 
individual  in  coitus.  Its  function  is  supposed  to  be  that  of 
an  irritant  only. 

The  males  of  Cephalopoda  are  more  readily  distinguished 
from  the  females  than  in  Gasteropoda,  being  generally 
smaller.  In  Argomivta  only  the  female  bears  the  shell. 
But  the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  male  is  seen  in  the  modified 
structure  of  one  of  the  arms,  by  which  it  is  said  to  be  "  hec- 
tocotylized."  It  differs  from  other  arms  in  being  stouter 
and  entirely  hollow,  terminating  in  a  hollow  thread,  which 
is  open  at  the  extremity,  giving  exit  to  the  contents.  It  is 
developed  in  the  outer  wall  of  a  bladder,  and  is  first  closely 
rolled  together ;  the  thread  bears  a  bladder  whieh  is  later 
lost.  The  primary  bladder  finally  bursts,  its  remains  form- 
ing a  fringing  memlu-ane  on  the  sides.  At  the  period  of 
impregnation  its  cavity  becomes,  in  some  way  unknown, 
filled  with  spermatozooids.  During  an  embrace  it  is  torn 
off,  and  enters  the  mantle-sac  of  the  female.  It  swims  inde- 
pendently as  a  worm,  and  several  are  sometimes  found  in 
one  female.  The  spermatozooids  are  supposed  to  be  dis- 
charged into  the  vagina  liy  the  hoUow  thread. 

Many  opisthobranchs  ai'c  self-impregnating.  Pnlmnnata 
impregnate  one  another,  while  in  Lymniea  an  individual  im- 
pregnates a  second,  and  is  impregnated  by  a  third,  forming 
thus  a  chain  of  individuals. 

In  Arthropoda  the  sexes  are  always  in  separate  individ- 
uals (dia-cious),  excejiting  in  the  lowest  Criislnrea  (Virri- 
pedia)  and  the  lowest  Arachnida  (Tardigrada).  These 
orders  are  either  sessile  or  with  but  little  power  of  move- 
ment ;  hence  the  appropi'iateness  of  their  monoecious  con- 
dition. The  sexes  of  Arthropoda  are  generally  distinguish- 
able by  external  characters,  but  it  is  in  the  Insecta  and  En- 
loinostrac.a  (Lernivoida)  that  this  difference  becomes  most 
remarkable.  Thus  in  llymenojitera  (bees  and  ants)  and 
Neriroptera  (termites)  not  only  are  the  sexes  very  distinct, 
but  there  are  other  forms  (neuters,  workers,  soldiers,  etc.) 
produced  in  connection  with  imperfect  development  of  the 
reproductive  organs.  In  the  bees  and  wasps  the  additional 
forms  are  repressed  males ;  in  ants,  repressed  females.  In 
termites  it  is  asserted  that  both  sexes  contribute  to  produce 
them. 

The  external  orifices  of  the  reproductive  system  are  con- 
fined to  th(^  abdomen,  and  are  below  and  before  the  vent  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  In  most  orders  they  are  posterior, 
but  in  3Iyri.tipnda.  scorpions,  and  some  higher  Crustacea 
they  are  in  front  of  the  abdomen.  The  female  internal  or- 
gans consist  of  ovary  and  oviduct  on  each  side,  or  the  two 
oviducts  may  unite  into  one  on  the  middle  line,  or  there 
may  be  a  single  median  ovary.  On  the  oviduct  are  usually 
fouiul  diverticula,  the  receptacuium  seminis  (which  is  want- 
ing in  Cruslaci'a.  except  Ostracoda).  and  another  sac  of  mi- 
ccrtain  u.se.  'i'he  lower  part,  of  the  oviduct  is  cnlai'ged  and 
the  nniscular  walls  are  thick,  forming  a  vagina,  which  often 
continues  past  the  proxiniid  part  of  the  oviduct  as  bursa 
copulatrix.  The  ovaries  consist  of  ca'ca  of  varying  forms. 
In  Crustacea,  Arachnida,  and  Myriopoda  they  are  few  in 
number,  but  in  Insecta  they  are  very  numerous,  forming  a 


2U2 


AXAT05I Y.   COM  PA  HATIVE 


gland-like  btnly  whose  component  eaeca  are  bound  together 
by  connective  tissue.  In  Tennes  their  number  reaches  2,000 
to  3.000.  Otlier  ghmds  (ghmduhe  scl)a<e;t')  jiour  their  con- 
tents into  the  oviducts,  which  serve  nuiny  important  pur- 
poses— i.  e.  to  attach  tlie  eggs  to  a  soHd  base  (arihis)  or 
to  the  parent "s  body;  to  construct  a  sheW  {Bhdtu)  or  co- 
coon. In  certain  low  Crustacea  (Lfriiceoida.  Is/ipoda.  etc.) 
these  glands  open  outwardly  independently  of  the  oviducts, 
and  the  secretion  forms  a  sac  round  the  eggs,  l)y  which  they 
arc  suspended  externally.  The  last  abdominal  segments  in 
many  insects  are  moditied  into  organs  designed  for  the  con- 
duct of  eggs  to  a  [iroper  nidus;  tlius  in  Orthoptera  it  is 
composed  of  saber-shaped  plates  with  saws  within ;  in  Ily- 
meuoptera  it  is  partly  represented  by  an  offensive  weapon, 
the  sting.  In  Cliri/aidiaie,  Diptera.  and  Fhalangia.  and 
Acari  they  are  modified  into  a  tube  which  is  projected  tele- 
scope-fashion. 

Tlie  male  organs  of  Arthropoda  consist  of  testes,  va-sa 
deferentia.  glands,  vesicuU  seminales,  and  penis.  The  testes 
resemble  the  ovaries  of  the  female  in  structure  and  position, 
but  are  frequently  less  cora])lex.  They  are  more  commonly 
also  united  on  the  median  line,  as  in  low  Cnixfncea  (Ci/clop- 
idce,  Vijpridida'),  ^Iijriopodn,  and  among  Iiixi-cia  in  Lepi- 
doptera,  many  Ui/menopfera,  Ortlinptn-a.  etc.  Tlie  vasa 
deferentia,  on  the  other  hand,  remain  distinct  in  these 
cases,  except  in  Scolopeiulrn  and  various  Eiiloiimsfraca.  In 
many  Crustacea  and  chilognnth ^Iijn'upnda  the  vasa  defer- 
entia issue  externally  separately,  but  in  many  othei's  imite 
to  form  a  ductus  ejaculatorius,  which  is  enlarged  in  diame- 
ter. The  muscles  of  this  region  are  especially  developed 
where  a  penis  is  well  developed.  Glanduhv  mucosip  dis- 
charge into  these  ducts  in  insects  and  myrio]iods.  but  are 
wanting  or  rare  in  Crustacea  and  Arac/inida.  They  are 
sometimes  sac-like,  sometimes  filiform.  They  secrete  a  sub- 
stance which  hardens  round  a  Ijody  of  seminal  secretions, 
forming  a  caiisule  which  is  usually  taken  into  the  female 
vagina,  Init  may  be  attached  to  the  body  externally,  or  even 
{Cliilopoda)  to  external  objects. 

The  penis  is  present  inmost  Art/impuda. \mt  is  wanting 
in  Eniummtraca.  C/iilopodii,  and  scorpions.  In  Crustacea. 
Brachyura.  and  Isopoda.  etc.,  it  is  (loul)le.  In  all  cases  it  is 
composed  of  a  modified  pair  of  limbs  wliich  are  especially 
dear  in  crabs.  The  intromittent  organ  is  occasionally  far 
removed  from  the  orifice  of  the  vasa  defei-entia.  In  sjiiders 
l,Ara7iea)  the  extremity  of  the  palpus  beai-s  a  receptaculum 
seminis  and  penis,  which  the  animal  fills  vohmtarily  by  ap- 
plication to  the  external  orifice,  and  discharges  in  the  oviduct 
of  the  fenuile.  In  Arf/ulus  a  similar  mode  of  connection 
depends  on  the  structure  of  one  of  the  legs,  and  in  cliilog- 
nath  Mfjriopodn  a  pair  of  legs  is  altered  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose. In  certiiin  tailed  Decapoda  there  are  two  pairs  of 
such  organs,  those  on  the  last  segment  of  the  post-al>domen 
serving  as  conductors  from  receptacles  in  the  fifth  jiair  of 
legs.  In  dragon-flies  the  exceptional  case  occni-s  where  the 
accessory  organ  is  a  fissure  in  the  second  abdominal  seg- 
ment. 

In  Vermes  the  type  of  the  reproductive  system  pi-esents 
the  varieties  seen  in  Mottusca.  Thus  they  are  androgy- 
nous, monoecious,  and  dia'cious.  Many  of  them  ilevelop 
by  an  alternation  of  generations,  the  one  produced  by  true 
reproduction,  the  other  stages  liy  gemnuition.  In  furbel- 
larla  (or  planarians)  the  Dendroccela  are  bisexual,  but 
the  Rhafidorada  possess  a  common  outlet  for  the  two  or- 
gans, testis  and  ovarium.  Treinatodes  (flukes)  are  monoe- 
cious, C'a<-li  aninuil  possessing  distinct  sexual  organs  of  l)otli 
kind.s.  The  develoiiuu'utal  .stages  of  the  young  vary  from 
three  to  six,  and  all  but  the  fii-st  of  these  are  ilue  to  gem- 
mation in  the  cavity  of  preceding  stages,  or  metamorphosis 
while  encysted,  etc.  In  tapeworms  (Cestodes)  the  animal 
is  made  up  of  a  head  with  organs  of  attachment,  which, 
posterior  to  a  long  neck,  is  followed  by  a  great  numbi-r  of 
identical  segments.  These  contain  each  male  and  female 
organs,  and  a  water-va.seular  system.  The  ovary  and  testis 
are  at  opposite  ends  of  the  segment,  and  between  them  is 
the  branched  uterus.  This  terminates  in  a  vagina,  which 
is  approximated  by  a  sheath  containing  a  penis,  which  is 
perforated  by  the  vas  deferens,  Theie  are  glands  attached 
to  the  female  organs.  Each  segnu'nt  of  a  ceslode  is  then 
self-impregnating.  In  Araiithiicepliala  and  Xematuda  we 
have  the  higher  condition  of  an  entire  separation  of  the 
sexes.  In  the  former  there  is  a  penis  which  is  retracted  in 
a  bursa  which  is  i)rehensile  in  function.  In  this  order  there 
are  alternate  generations  produced  by  gemmation  in  the 
body  of  the   nurse  stage.    In    Nematodes    many    genera 


(Sfrongyliidm,Ascarid(e,  and  Filariidai)  are  furnished  with 
a  penis  and  bursa  at  its  base.  In  the  last  family  Tricho- 
ce//liafiis  has  a  bristle-like  jienis,  one-third  the  length  of 
the  l)ody,  which,  when  jirojected,  is  accomjianied  by  an 
extended  sheath.  In  ^sco;-(V/(p  the  penes  or  "spicula"  are 
two  in  number.  In  Sctero-itomum  (gapeworm)  the  male  is 
much  smaller  than  the  female,  and  becomes  attached  to  her 
permanently.  In  Ileterura  he  remains  attached  for  con- 
siderable jieriods.  Cucultanidw  are  without  liursa.  In 
Atif/uiltula  and  other  genera  there  are  two  oviducts,  which 
unite  to  form  a  singU-  vagina. 

aa.  Ttie  Urbiary  Oryans. — These  are  present  in  Mottusca 
from  the  Acepttala  u|iward.  In  the  latter  they  are  repre- 
sented by  a  ])air  of  kidneys  and  their  discharge  ducts  only. 
These  are  called  "  Kojanus's  organs  "  ;  they  are  relatively  of 
large  size,  and  lie  one  on  each  side  above  the  heart,  etc., 
extending  from  muscle  to  muscle.  They  are  frequently 
united  together  along  the  middle  line.  They  are  hollow 
and  spongy,  and  their  fibers  are  lined  with  secreting  cells. 
They  terminate  either  liy  a  single  duct  near  that  of  the 
reproductive  .system,  or  unite  with  the  latter,  or  the  genital 
duct  enters  that  of  Bojanus's  bodies.  These  twdies  have 
communication  with  the  external  water,  and  liy  a  cribri- 
form surface  with  the  heart-sac  ;  likewise  with  the  capillary 
veins.  The  function  of  the  mgans  is  not  oidy  that  of  a  kid- 
ney, but  as  a  mingler  of  water  with  the  blood. 

In  Gasteropoda  the  kidney  is  single  and  contains  cal- 
careous nodules;  its  secretion  is  jiurple  in  3Iurex:  it  is 
large  and  hollow,  and  contains  water.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  network  of  veins,  which  frequently  open  into  it,  so  that 
blood-corpuscles  are  found  in  it,  as  well  as  its  products  in 
the  lilood.  It  usually  opens  directly  into  the  mantle-sac, 
but  othei'wise  by  a  ureter,  and  always  independently  of  the 
rectum,  vagina,  or  vas  deferens. 

The  kidneys  of  Cephalopoda  difi'er  much  from  those  of 
other  classes,  and  for  a  long  time  their  nature  was  con- 
sidered doubtful.  They  form  a  large,  rather  loose  mass  on 
that  part  of  the  vena  cava  which  ajiproaches  the  gills,  and 
on  the  gill-veins  as  well,  consisting  of  a  great  number  of 
minute  sacs  with  bifurcations  and  internal  ]irocesses.  Each 
lu'incipal  one  opens  Ijy  a  fissure  in  the  walls  of  the  vein. 
They  are  constantly  in  motion. 

In  Arthropoda  the  existence  of  kidneys  is  a  matter  of 
question.  Tlie  vasa  jMalpighii  (described  under  the  Di- 
oKSTivE  System)  are  diverticula  of  the  alimentary  canal, 
and  their  function  was  formerly  lielieved  to  be  that  of  the 
liver.  Gall  ha.s,  however,  never  been  found  in  them,  but 
on  the  conti'ary  uric  acid.  This  has  also  been  foimd  in  the 
inli'stine  and  in  the  corpus  adiposum, 

'I.  In  \'ertehrata. — a.  The  Reproductive  Si/stem. — Verte- 
brates are  usually  dia?cious.  but  a  few  fishes — viz.,  the  eels 
and  certain  .Serrani — are  hermaphrodites.  The  organs  of 
the  female  are  ])rimarily  an  ovary:  an  oviduct  may  or 
may  not  be  present.  Thus  in  the  Leptoeardii  the  ^varies 
are  collections  of  cells  along  the  sides  of  the  abilominal 
cavity,  which  dr<ip  their  ova  into  it,  which  are  discharged 
liy  an  orifice  anterior  to  the  anus.  In  Marsipohrauchii  the 
stnicturo  is  similar,  except  that  the  ovarian  cells  are  col- 
lected into  plate-like  ma.sses.  In  fJlasuiolirauchii  the  ovaria 
are  included  in  a  peritoneal  sac:  occasionally,  as  in  S(jua!id(e. 
and  Scytliidie.  there  is  but  one,  medial  and  symmetrical. 
The  oviducts  are  here  present,  and  are  homologous  with 
the  tuba- Fallopii  of  nuimmals  :  each  dilates  into  a  utenis. 
and  ciu)itics  into  a  common  iiro-rectal  cloaca.  Their  proxi- 
mal <>ncls  are  open  and  expanded,  presenting  the  so-called 
fonlanelles.  In  true  fishes  we  have  various  structures:  in 
the  Saluiouid(P  an<l  some  Ctupeidw  there  are  no  oviducts, 
but  tlie  eggs  fall  into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  are  exiielled 
through  a  pore.  In  most  other  fishes  and  in  Lepidiisteni 
the  ovarian  membrane  is  |irolonged  as  an  nviduct,  and  usu- 
ally discharges  externally  without  \mion  with  other  canals: 
in  Lepidosteus  they  enter  the  ureters.  They  are  imited  in 
various  I'liysoclysli.  They  are.  as  in  Elasuiiiliraiichii.  open 
as  internal  fontanelles  in  Ainiii.  Choudrostei.  and  I'olyp- 
terus:  in  all  they  have  a  common  external  opening  with  the 
uretei-s. 

In  Batrachia  the  tuba>  Fallopii  arc  jiroximally  open,  and 
extend  in  many  coils  far  in  front  of  the  ovaries.  They  arc 
distally  united'  with  the  ureters.  In  Replitia.  Ares,  and 
J/aiiiiiiati(i.  I  he  oviducts  (or  tub:p  Fallojiii)  are  not  ordinarily 
connecteii  with  the  ovaries,  but  only  at  certain  seasons  by 
their  trumiiet-shajied  fcmtanelles.  In  birds  these  organs  are 
not  develo]ied  on  one  side  of  the  body.  In  reptiles,  liinls, 
and  monotrematous  mammals,  the  geiiital,  m-inan',  and  di- 


ANATOMY,   COMPAKATIVK 


ANAXIMANDER 


203 


jiestive  canals  have  a  common  exit  or  cloaca.  In  mareupials 
and  phifcntals  the  gcnito-urinal  escretorv  ducts  are  scpa- 
nitiMl  li'iiin  the  dij^cstivc,  licuiir  in  tlio  fcniali'  distinct  or 
opcnin;;  into  a  common  vulva,  hut  in  tlic  male  are  united 
for  some  Icn^tli.  In  Mammalia  the  females  are  viviparous, 
and  the  ovum  is  hatched  in  expansions  of  the  oviducts,  or 
uteri.  In  marsupials  these  are  separate,  and  the  distal  parts 
•of  the  oviducts  are  not  united  into  a  vafiina.  Jn  ])lacental 
nuuunnils,  on  the  contrary,  the  oviducts  unite,  forming 
ji  sinj^lc  undividc'd  vagina.  In  Edi-iitala  and  (rliri:s  this 
union  does  not  produce  an  expanded  ulerus.  as  the  young 
are  developed  in  the  separate  oviducts:  but  in  higher  mam- 
mals the  enlarged  oviducts  unite  into  a  muscular  chanihcr, 
the  uterus.  A  false  uterus  occurs  in  tlie  kangaroos  by  the 
union  of  the  cavities  of  the  oviducts  near  the  middle  of  their 
length  ;  1  wo  opjiosite  symmetrical  curvatures  arc  in  contact, 
and  their  adjacent  walls  disappear:  they  then  turn  shortly 
back  (forward  in  the  animal)  and  make  another  .short  bend 
before  they  tid<e  a  dire<-tinn  to  the  exti-rnal  orifice. 

In  placental  mammals  the  embryo  is  ;it1;iclic(l  to  the  wall 
of  the  uterus  by  a  body  called  the  placenta.  It  is  on  the 
■chorion,  and  presents  to  the  wall  great  nmnbers  of  villi,  which 
interdigitate  witli  corresponding  processes  from  the  mother. 
Both  are  furnished  with  aininilant  blood-vessels,  which 
maintain  intercommunication  with  each  other,  thus  nourish- 
ing the  eudiryo.  .\s  we  descend  the  si'ale  we  oidy  fhid  a 
trace  of  this  sirncture  in  some  of  the  sharks.  The  allantois 
is  an  endiryonie  structure  which  characterizes  exclusivity 
Tertebrates  above  and  including  lifptilia.  The  amnion  is 
another  sac,  formed  by  the  folding  of  the  germinal  layer  of 
the  end)ryo  over  its  back:  the  edges  of  the  folds  then  unit- 
ing, the  two  inner  inclose  the  amniotic  sac;  the  outer  be- 
comes the  chorion.  The  amnion  is  absent,  like  the  allantois, 
in  all  classes  below  lieptilla. 

The  jilaeenta  exhibits  sevei'al  distinct  typical  forms  in 
Jlaiiiinalia  ;  it  may  be  disciform  or  ring-like  (zonary),  or  may 
be  scattered  in  tufted  bodies  over  the  chorion  (cotyledonary), 
or  the  villi  may  be  scattered  all  over  the  same  (diffuse). 
The  orders  of  mammals  may  be  thus  arranged  in  tliis  re- 
spect : 


1.  With  decidua,  placenta  discoidal:   Primates.  Chirop- 
tera,  In-iecfirom,  otire 
idtp). 


res,  Edentata  {Uryderopidm,  Ea.iijp- 


3.  With  decidua,  zonary:  Cantimra,  Probo-sddia,  ITijra- 
coidea. 

;i.  Without  decidua,  cotyledonary :  Perissodacti/la,  Artio- 
darlyla-Hiim iiiaiitia.  Edentata  (Bradypid(p). 

4.  Diffuse  :  Arliodactyla-Omnivora,  Cetacea,  Edentata 
■(.Manilla'). 

The  nude  organs  are.  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  as  in 
the  lower  animals,  undistinguishable  in  structure  from  the 
female.  They  are  honn)logous  with  the  latter  in  details,  even 
when  most  distinct.     The  relation  may  be  thus  cxpre.ssed  : 

S  ? 

Testis.  Ovary. 

Vas  deferens,  }  (  Oviduct, 

Uterus  nuisculinus.  j  /  Uterus. 

Cowper's  glands.  C'owper's  glands. 

Penis.  Clitoris. 

Scrotum.  Laltia  majora. 

Preputium.  Labia  minora. 

The  vas  deferens  is,  however,  generally  a  persistent 
Wolffian  duct,  which  in  the  embryo  is  th<'  excretiir  of  the 
embryipnic  liodies  (Wolff's)  which  precede  the  kidneys.  The 
Fallopian  tube  of  higher  mammals,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
the  persistent  MiiUerian  duct,  which  passes  outside  of  the 
former.  In  tin?  batrachian  I'riidela  the  efferent  ducts  of  the 
testis  ])ass  through  the  kidney  and  empty  into  a  genito- 
urinary duet,  while  in  Satientia  (except  Di-scdjiloxnidd')  they 
•only  pa.ss  through  the  edge  of  the  kidney  and  discharge  into 
the  ureter. 

Among  re]itiles  the  penis  is  present  in  the  tortoises  and 
crocodiles  only,  and  In  no  lower  forms:  it  is  merely  grooved 
beneath.  In  the  ostrich  it  is  quite  similar.  In  the  lower 
groni)s  of  birds  it  is  present,  hut  wanting  in  the  more  spe- 
cialized ;  in  Mammalia  it  is  universal.  It  is  composed  of 
two  snpei'ior  bodies,  the  corpora  cavernosa,  original  nig  from 
the  pubis,  and  the  corpus  spongiosum,  whose  lower  face  cm- 
liraces  tlie  urethral  tube,  and  whose  extremity  forms  the 
glans  or  head.  The  testes  are  almost  universally  situated 
.near  the  kidneys,  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  but  in  the  higher 
mammals  they  descend  from  that  position,  and  carrying  a 
fold  of  the  serous  membrane  (tunica  vaginalis)  and  muscle 


(cremaster),  they  are  susiiended  externally,  generally  behind 
the  penis :  in  Jlarsupialia  in  front  of  it.  In  some  rodents 
and  others  this  descent  of  the  testes  is  periodical. 

aa.  Urinary  organs. 

Kidneys  are  present  in  the  higher  Vertehrata,  inclusive  of 
the  Eeptilia.  but  are  sujiposed  to  be  represented  in  Ba- 
Iracliia  and  fishes  by  structures  which  are  embryonic  in  the 
former^,  e.  the  Wolffian  bodies.  The  latter  consists  of  two 
bodies,  one  on  each  side  of  tlic  vertebral  cohmm,  and  are 
comiiosed  of  transverse  tubuli  terminating  in  exjiansions 
wliicli  eml)race  convoluted  capillaries,  the  "Malpighian 
tufts."  The  Wolffian  tubules  empty  into  the  Wolffian  duct, 
which  extends  along  their  outer  side,  and  empties  in  the 
embryo  into  the  allantois.  The  kidneys  ajipcar  later  in  em- 
bryonic life,  behind  the  Wolflian  bodies,  and  have  a  similar 
structure.  They  also  discharge  by  a  iluct  on  each  side, 
which  is  distinct  from  the  Wolffian,  and  constitutes  the 
ureter.  This  discharges  at  first  into  the  allantois,  but  with 
the  approach  of  the  lateral  walls  in  the  emln'yo,  and  the 
closing  of  the  ventral  fissure,  a  portion  of  the  allantois  is  in- 
cluded, and  becomes  the  urinary  liladiler. 

The  Leptocardii  are  not  known  to  possess  either  Wolffian 
bodies  or  kidneys.  In  the  Pisces  the  connection  of  the  ure- 
ters with  the  oviducts  is  various.  Thus  in  Po/i/pferiis  they 
unite  and  enter  a  single  tube,  the  united  ureters.  In 
Lepidonteus  each  ureter  receives  its  corresponding  oviduct; 
in  Ainia  the  oviducts  are  oi)en  proximally.  In  Batracliia 
the  ureters  are  always  connected  with  the  oviducts.  In  the 
tailed  order  the  ureter  becomes  a  genito-tirinary  duct,  be- 
cause it  receives  the  vasa  efferentia  of  the  testis,  which  pass 
through  the  kidney  to  reach  it;  it  empties  into  the  cloaca. 
In  the  Saliifulia  the  vasa  efferentia  enter  the  kidney, but  do 
not  reach  the  ureter,  but  are  collected  into  a  s]iecial  duct 
analogous  to  the  deferens,  which  enters  the  ureter  at  its 
lower  part.  This  tube  also  receives  the  secretion  of  the 
kidneys,  so  that  the  original  ureter  becomes  useless,  and  is 
atrophied  in  the  frogs,  or  persists  as  a  caecum  in  the  toads. 
In  the  discoglossid  frogs  the  arrangement  is  as  in  the  sala- 
manders. In  the  allantoidal  vertebrates  tlie  ureters  dis- 
charge into  the  urinary  bladder,  which  in  turn  empties  by 
a  single  urethra,  of  greater  or  less  length,  into  a  genito- 
urinary chamber  in  the  higher  Maniinatia,  or  the  cloaca  in 
the  other  classes.  It  is  continued  throughout  the  penis  in 
those  males  that  possess  that  organ.  The  kidneys  in  most 
Carnirora,  in  the  Cetacea,  and  some  Artindaeti/la.  are  lobu- 
late.  or  like  a  bunch  of  grapes  in  form,  as  is  .seen  in  the  em- 
bryos fif  man  and  other  mammals.  In  the  cats  [Felidie)  the 
divisions  are  not  visible  externally. 

The  osseous  system  will  be  discussed  in  an  article  espe- 
cially devoted  to  that  subject.  Edward  D.  Cope. 

Anaxag'oras  {' ei.va^ay6pas):  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Ionic 
.School;  b.  at  Clazomena'.  near  Smyrna,  al)out  .500  B.C.  He 
passed  nearly  thirty  years  at  Athens,  to  which  he  removed 
about  480,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Pericles.  He  wrote 
a.  Treatise  on  Nature,  of  which  small  fragments  are  extant. 
In  450  B.C.  he  was  accused  of  impiety, and,  though  defended 
by  Pericles,  was  condemned  to  death  or  lianishment,  and  re- 
tired to  Lanipsacus,  where  he  died  in  428  n.  c.  He  ajipears 
to  have  maintained  the  eternity  of  matter.  Comliining  great 
sagacity  and  close  reasoning  with  diligent  oUservation.  he 
rendered  important  services  to  physical  science.  He  ascribed 
the  origin  of  the  world  and  the  order  of  nalure  to  the  opera- 
tion of  an  eternal  self-existent  and  infinitely  jiowerful  prin- 
cipU'  which  he  teiined  Xous  (Miml).  He  taught  that  gener- 
ation and  destruction  are  only  the  union  and  .separation  of 
elements  which  can  neither  be  created  nor  annihilated, 
demonstrate<l  that  air  is  a  substjiuce.  explained  the  theory 
of  eclipses,  and  refuted  the  docli-ine  that  things  may  be  pro- 
duced l>y  chance.     Sec  Erdmann's  lUslanj  of  Philosopliy. 

.ViiaxarVliiis  ('Ani|opxos) :  a  Greek  |)hilosopher;  b.  at 
Abdei-a.  in  Thrace;  .•u-companied  Alexander  the  Great  in 
his  expedition  again.st  Persia  in  'i'ii  B.C.  He  gained  the 
favor  of  that  prince,  whom  he  survived  a  short  time. 

AnaximaiiMor  ('Aya{(/ia>'5pos) :  Greek  philosopher;  b.  at 
Jliletus  about  610  B.C.;  was  a  disciple  of  Thales.  He  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  oblicpiity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  to 
have  invented  the  sun-dial.  According  to  Iraditiim,  he 
taught  that  the  earth  is  a  I'vlinder, that  the  sun  is  a  globe  of 
fire  as  large  a.s,  or  larger  than,  the  earth,  and  that  infinity  is 
the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.  He  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  Greek  who  wrote  any  work  in  prose  on  geome- 
try or  philosophy.     B.  about  546  n.  c. 


204 


ANAXIMENES 


ANCHOVY 


Anaxim'eiies  ( 'Ava^iiitvns) :  a  Greek  philosopher  of  whom 
little  is  known  :  I),  at  l\lilctiis.  in  Asia  Minor;  date  nnoertain. 
He  taught  that  the  original  jiiinciple  or  primary  form  of 
things  was  air,  or  a  subtle  etlier  which  is  in  jierpctual 
motion. 

Aiiaximenes  of  Lampsaciis:  a  Greek  historian  and  pre- 
ceptor of  Alexander  the  Great,  about  340  B.  c.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Jlaeedon,  and  another  of 
the  exploits  of  Alexander,  neither  of  which  is  extant.  To 
this  Anaximenes  is  attributed,  by  Spengel,  the  Ars  rlicfonca 
ad  Alexandrum  found  among  the  writings  of  Aristotle. 

Aiicaclis' :  a  department  of  Peru  ;  bounded  N.  by  the  de- 
partment of  Libertad,  E.  by  Huanuco  and  Junin,  S.  by  the 
department  of  Lima,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific.  1'he  depart- 
ment extends  from  the  Andes  to  the  Pacifie,  and  contains 
all  climates  and  their  products.  The  chief  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  are  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle.  A 
railroad  extends  from  Chimbote  to  the  capital,  Iluaraz.  The 
rich  silver  mines  in  the  mountains,  as  well  as  the  rivers  con- 
taining gold,  are  but  very  little  worked  at  present.  Area, 
17,405  sq.  miles.     Pop.  284,091. 

Ancelot,  Jacques  Arsene  Francois  Polycarpe:  French 
dramatic  poet;  b.  at  Havre,  Feb.  9,  1794;  produced  in  1819 
a  tragedy  entitled  Louis  IX.,  which  was  warmly  applauded, 
and  procured  for  him  a  pension  n(  2,001)  francs.  Among  his 
other  w'orksare  an  epic  poem  callccl  Marie  de  Brahant  (1825); 
Fiesque,  a  tragedy  (1824);  and  Uli/ii.a,  drama  (1828).  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1841.  D.  at 
Paris,  Sept.  7,  1854. 

His  wife.  Marguerite  Virgisie  Chardon,  b.  at  Dijon, 
Mar.  15,  1792,  was  a  novelist  and  an  artist.  She  wrote  sev- 
eral dramas  and  tales.     D.  at  Paris,  Mar.  21,  1875. 

Ali'cestor  [0.  Fr.  ancesfre<  Jjnt.  antecessor,  predeces- 
sor; on/e,  before +  cedere,  go]:  one  who  has  preceded  an- 
other in  the  direct  line  of  descent.  In  law  it  signifies  one 
from  whom  an  estate  has  been  derived  by  inheritance ;  a  de- 
ceased person  from  whom,  on  account  of  his  decease,  an 
estate  has  passed  to  another,  called  an  heir,  by  operation  of 
law.  Ancestor  and  heir  are  correlative  terms.  A  brother 
may  be  the  ancestor  of  a  brother,  or  a  child  of  a  father, 
wherever  those  persons  can  take  land  from  such  relatives  by 
inheritance. 

Ancestor-worship:  See  Animism. 

Ancestry  of  Plants :  It  is  evident  that  the  present  vege- 
tation of  the  earth  is  descendeil  from  previous  vegetation. 
It  is,  moreover,  certain  that  as  we  go  liack  in  time  the  vege- 
tation is  less  and  less  like  that  of  the  present.  A  study  of 
the  preglacial  plants  shows  that  they  were  much  like  those 
of  the  present,  but  still  witli  marked  differences.  Eocene 
plants  were  less  like  present  plants,  and  cretaceous  plants 
still  less.  As  we  come  from  the  past  toward  the  present, 
there  is  such  a  relation  between  the  plants  of  successive 

Seriods  as  can  best  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the  later 
esccndc'd  from  the  earlier. 

On  structural  grounds  we  iiuiy  suppose  that  the  green 
algee  (Ghlorophi/cetp)  have  descended  trom  the  water  slimes 
(;Schizophijccii');  that  from  the  green  alga>  have  descended 
the  brown  algai  (Plueupliyre.tv)  and  red  algas  (Floridece) ; 
while  from  the  latter  have  come  the  stoneworts  {CharopJu/- 
ceoe)  and  mossworts  (liri/acKiv).  The  fernworts  (P/erido- 
phijte><)  are  closely  related  to  tlie  lower  mossworts,  and  may 
have  originated  from  them,  or  with  them.  Gymnosperms 
appear  to  be  slightly  modified  lycopods.  Whether  the  an- 
g)osi)erms  desceudiMl  froiTi  the  lycopods  or  the  gymnosperms 
is  questionable.  The  primitive  monocotyledons  and  dicotv- 
ledons  were  ]irobalily  much  alike.  Their  flowers  probably 
had  nuiuy  parts,  all  free,  as  in  water-plantains  (AUsma)  and 
buttercu])s  (liaiiinieulus).  From  these  simple  types  arose, 
among  nu)niiCotyledons,  the  lilies,  irises,  and  orchids;  and 
among  the  dicotyledons,  the  crucifers,  piid<worts,  mallows, 
geraniums,  msi'S,  beans,  passion-flowers,  heaths,  gentians, 
flgworls,  mints,  bell-flowers,  and  composites,  by  various  kinds 
and  degrees  of  union  of  ])arls.  On  the  other  hand,  by  a  re- 
duction and  simj)lification — in  short,  by  a  catagenesis  as  to 
floral  structure — there  appeared  among  monocotyledons  the 
aroids,  palms,  sedges,  and  grasses,  and  aMU)ng  the  dicoty- 
ledons, ehenopods,  amarantlis,  spurgeworts,  nett  leworts,  oaks, 
walnuts,  and  willows.  Charles  E.  PiEssev. 

Anclli'ses  (Gr.  'hyx^"'"^)'  Trojan  prince  related  to  Priam  : 
wa.s,  ai'corditig  to  ti'iidit ion,  a  favored  lover  of  Venus,  and 
the  father  of  yl'hieas,  with  whom  he  escaped  from  Troy.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  in  .Sicily. 


Ancllisaurns:  a  genus  of  small,  carnivorous  Dinosaurs 
from  the  Triassic.  These  extinct  reptiles  are  of  special  in- 
terest, because  they  are  now  supposed  to  be  the  animals  that 
made  many  of  the  so-called  "  bird-tracks  "  found  in  the  Con- 
necticut valley.  They  walked  mainly  on  their  hind  legs, 
and  the  structure  of  the  hind  feet  shows  that  the  impres- 
sions thus  made  would  be  very  similar  to  the  three-toed  foot- 
prints formerly  regarded  as  m.ade  by  birds.  Several  skeletons 
of  this  genusand  of  an  allied  form,  ^lr«.?«osa7tr«s,  are  preserved 
in  the  Yale  Museum.  Remains  somewhat  similar  have  been 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  0.  C.  Marsh. 

Anch'or :  an  iron  implement  used  to  hold  a  vessel  in  place 
in  comparatively  shallow  wafer.  It  consists  of  a  round, 
straight  bar  called  the  shank,  at  the  upper  end  of  which  is 
a  transverse  piece  called  the  stock,  and  of  two  cui-ved  arms 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  shank,  each  of  which  arms  terminates 
in  a  triangular  plate  called  a _^KA'e  or  palm.  The  junction 
of  the  two  arms  is  the  crown.  The  stock  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  of  the  flukes.  The  cable  is  fastened  to  a  ring 
in  the  upper  end  of  the  shank.  When  tlie  anchor  is  let  go, 
the  crown  first  strikes  the  ground.  The  anchor  then  falls 
over,  so  that  one  end  of  the  stock  rests  upon  the  ground,  and 
the  movement  of  the  ship  causes  the  anchor  to  cant  and  one 
of  the  flukes  to  enter  the  ground,  and  to  penetrate  deeper 
in  proportion  as  the  strain  or  traction  on  the  cable  increa.ses. 
In  one  form  of  anchor  the  arms  are  pivoted  to  the  shank, 
instead  of  being  rigidly  fixed.  Men-of-war  and  large  mer- 
chantmen carry  two  large  anchors  of  equal  size  at  the  bows, 
thence  called  bower  anchors,  and  two  of  smaller  size,  called 
the  sheet  anchor  and  spare  anchor.  For  ]iarticular  and 
special  services  they  have  also  the  "stream  "  and  the  "kedge" 
anchor.  Smaller  vessels  have  fewer  anchors  and  of  inferior 
size.  When  one  anchor  is  down,  the  ship  is  said  to  be  at 
single  anchor.  When  the  anchor  is  dragged  out  of  the 
ground  by  the  movement  of  the  vessel,  it  is  said  to  come 
home,  and  when  the  cable  becomes  twisted  around  the 
anchor  it  is  said  to  be  foul.  I'o  ifiii/h  aiulior  signifies  to 
keave  up  or  raise  the  anchor  out  of  the  groimd  to  the  bow. 

Revised  by  S.  B.  Luce. 

Anch'orage:  a  body  of  water  where  ships  may  anchor. 
The  water  should  not  be  too  deep,  as  in  tliat  case  the  calile, 
extending  nearly  vertically,  will  be  apt  to  pull  the  anchor 
out  of  the  ground.  The  bottom  that  holds  best  is  sand  or 
stiff  clay.  The  terra  is  also  ajiplii-d  to  the  toll  or  harbor 
dues  which  the  owner  or  captain  of  a  ship  pays  for  permis- 
sion to  cast  anchor. 

Aiiclior-ice.  also  called  r/rovnd-ice  and  gronnd-gru:  ice 
which  ft)rnis  at  the  bottom  of  streams  or  lakes,  but  also  often 
applied  to  ice  in  the  water  below  the  surface.  In  the  first 
case  it  sometimes  brings  up  anchors  when  it  rises,  in  the 
latter  it  clogs  up  water-wheels,  screens,  and  pipes.  It  is  of 
various  origin.  Sometimes  the  bottom  of  a  body  of  water 
is  below  the  freezing-point,  in  which  case  there  may  be  ice 
at  both  the  liottom  and  top  of  the  stream.  Sometimes  the 
whole  mass  of  water  is  below  freezing,  but  the  wind  or  the 
current  keeps  crystals  from  forming,  except  at  the  bottom 
or.  with  a  slow  current,  through  the  mass.  At  other  times 
eddies  break  up  the  ice  and  carry  it  into  the  w'ater,  or  hirge 
flakes  (or  small  masses)  of  snow  form  nuclei  for  ice  in  vei-y 
cold  water.  M.  W.  H. 

Ancli'orito,  or  Anch'oret  [from  Gr.  avax>^pTrr-hs,  deriv.  of 
avaxn'ptii'.  retire;  ava-.  back  +  xajpe'".  withdraw] :  a  hermit  or 
person  who  has  retired  from  tlie  w-orld  and  devoted  himself 
to  ascetic  religion  in  solitude.  The  term  was  first  applied 
to  Christians  of  the  third  century  who  retired  to  caves  and 
solitary  places  in  the  deserts  of  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Syria, 
to  which,  in  some  cases,  they  were  driven  by  jiersecution. 
They  often  subjected  themselves  to  ]iaiuful  [irivatioiis  and 
various  forms  of  penance.  The  first  of  these  anchorites  was 
Paul  of  Tliclies.  who  died  in  ;M(),  aged  104  years.  The  so- 
called  "father  of  monachism"  was  Antony  of  Coma,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  who  was  born  in  251  and  died  in  356,  aged  105 
years.  One  anchorite,  Simeon  Stylites,  is  said  to  have  lived 
many  years  on  the  top  of  a  pillar  in  Syria,  alaout  420-450 
A.  D.  The  chief  difference  between  an  anchorite  an<l  a 
monk  is  that  the  former  lived  alone,  and  the  latter  associated 
with  other  monks.  The  first  monastery  was  founded  by 
Pachomins.  on  the  island  of  Tabenna  in  the  Nile,  about  the 
year  340 ;  the  first  nunneiy,  some  eight  years  later. 

Andio'w  {Sto'leplioriis  encrasich'oliis):  a  small  fish,  from 
5  to  7  inciies  long,  which  abounds  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  tlie  Atlantic  shores  of  Eui-ope.     It  belongs  to  the 


ANCHOVY-PEAR 


ANDAMAN  ISF.ANUS 


205 


Slolephorida,  a  family  related  to  flip  herrings,  and  is  dis- 
linguislic'd  I>y  a  sliarp-iiointcd  liead,  the  upper  jaw  h)ngcr 


Anchovy. 

than  t  he  lower,  and  the  deeply  cleft  mouth  extendinir  behind 
the  eyes.  It  is  salted  and  packed  in  small  barrels  for  ex- 
portation, and  used  for  sauces,  pastes,  etc.  JIaiiy  other 
species  of  anchovy  are  found  in  U.  S.  waters,  some  of  them 
of  value  as  food.  Kevised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Anchovy-pear  (frri  as  cau/ijlo'm):  a  tree  of  the  family 
Myrtacca',  wliieh  grows  in  the  West  Indies  in  moist  ground 
or  shallow  water.  It  bears  a  fruit  (a  drupe)  which  is  pickled 
and  used  for  food. 

Anchylosis:  Sec  Ankylosis. 

Ancient  Order  of  I'nited  >Vorl{men :  a  secret  order, 
having  three  degrees,  composed  of  men  of  all  usefid  jirofcs- 
sious  and  occupations.  It  is  purely  fraternal  and  benevolent 
in  its  teachings  and  practice. and  has  no  connection  or  affilia- 
tion with  any  of  the  labor  organizations  of  the  day.  The 
principal  feature  of  the  order  is  its  beneficiary  fund,  by 
means  of  which,  in  case  of  death,  a  stipulated  sum  is  paid  to 
each  member's  family  or  such  person  or  j]crsons  as  he  has 
designated.  The  order  originated  in  Meadville,  Pa.,  Oct.  27, 
18(i8.  It  now  has  grand  lodges  in  California.  Iowa,  Indiana. 
Illinois,  Kentucky,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Jlichigan,  New 
York,  Tennessee,  and  Wisconsin,  and  subordinate  lodges  in 
other  States. 

Ancients,  Council  of:  in  French  history,  one  of  the  two 
assemhiies  composing  the  legislative  body  in  1795-99.  It 
consisted  of  250  members,  each  of  whom  had  to  be  at  least 
forty  years  old.  It  was  dissolved  by  the  revolution  of  the 
18tli  Hrumaire. 

Anci'le  (plu.  Ancil'ia) :  the  shield  of  Jlars,  which,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  fell  from  heaven  in  the  reign  of  Numa, 
when  an  oracle  declared  that  Rome  could  never  be  taken 
while  this  shield  remained  in  that  city.  Numa  committed 
it  to  the  custody  of  the  Salii  or  priests  of  Mars,  and  had 
eleven  other  shields  made  precisely  like  it  in  order  to  prevent 
the  genuine  shield  from  being  stolen. 

Ancillon,  an-se"e-yon',  Johanx  Peter  Friedrich  :  Ger- 
man historian  and  statesman,  of  French  extraction;  b.  in 
lierlin,  Apr.  30.  1767.  He  was  the  pastor  of  a  Protestant 
cliurch  in  that  city  in  the  former  part  of  his  mature  life. 
In  IMOl  he  published  Melanges  of  Literature  and  Philoso- 
lilitj.  His  principal  historical  work  is  a  View  of  the  lievohi- 
tions  of  l/ie  Poliliral  Si/sfem  of  Europe  since  tfie  Fifteenth 
Century  (in  French,  4  vols..  1803-05).  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful. He  was  soon  appointed  royal  historiographer  and 
councilor  of  state.  In  1831  he  became  Minister  of  Foreign 
A  (fairs.  Although  Ancillon  had  the  reputation  of  a  certain 
liberality,  he  managed  affairs  in  a  very  reactionary  spirit 
and  in  cl(.ise  svmpathv  with  the  policy  of  Austria.  L).  in 
lierlin,  Apr.  19',  1837. 

.\nco'na:  a  provim/e  of  Central  Ital)';  bounded  N.  by 
Pesaro  and  L'rbino,  E.  by  the  Adriatic.  S.  by  JMacerata.  and 
W.  by  Perugia.  Area,  736  sq.  miles.  The  country  is  chiefly 
mountainous,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Esino  and  Musone. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  are  grain,  oil,  wine,  and  hazel- 
nuts. The  chief  liranch  of  industrv  is  the  silk  manufacture. 
Chief  town,  Ancona.     Pop.  (1879)  273.351 ;  (1890)  271.910. 

Ancona  [<!r.  ayKdv.  angle,  alluding  to  its  position  on  the 
coast]:  an  important  city  and  .seaport  of  Central  Italv:  on 
the  Adriatic;  132  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Konu^:  capital  of 
the  proviiu'e  of  Ancona  (see  uuip  of  Italy,  ref.  4^E).  It  is 
liuilt  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  and  presents  a  picturesque  ap- 
jiearance  from  the  sea.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  f(aindcd 
about  400  n.  c.  Among  the  remarkable  public  buildin.gsare 
a  cathedr.-il,  the  government  palace,  the  town-house,  and  a 
triinujiluil  Corinthian  arch  which  was  built  by  Tra.jan  of 
white  marble.  It  has  a  college,  ten  churches,"and  several 
convents.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  Adriatic. 
In  1732  it  was  declared  a  free  port.  Ancona  is  coiuiecteil 
by  railways  with  Rome,  Bologna,  and  Brindisi.  It  has  con- 
siderable trade, carried  on  by  steamships  which  ply  between 


this  point  and  the  Levant.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
wool,  grain,  silk,  oil.  alum,  sulphur,  fruit,  and  soap.  Ancona 
was  taken  in  1832  bv  the  French,  who  occupied  it  untU  1838. 
Lat.  43   38'  N.,  Ion.  "13'  30'  E.     Pop.  48,572. 

Ancona,  Alessaxdro,  d':  Italian  critic  and  Romance 
philologist;  b.  in  Pi.sa,  1835:  studied  in  Florence  and  Turin. 
He  took  an  active  and  patriotic  part-  in  the  exciting  political 
events  which  ended  in  Italian  independence ;  but  immedi- 
ately after  the  peace  of  Villafranca  he  withdi-ew  from  pub- 
lic life  and  devoted  liiraseLf  to  studies.  In  1861  he  became 
Professor  of  Italian  Literature  in  the  University  of  Pisa, 
l.nkiug  the  place  left  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  l)e  Sanc- 
tis. Here  he  .soon  became  a  power  in  furlhering  the  new 
science  of  Italian,  and  Romance  philology  in  general.  His 
publications  have  been  numerous,  and  his  pupils  (among 
them  Rajna,  Vitelli,  U'Ovidio)  have  become  in  their  turn 
leaders.  Among  the  works  of  D'xVncona  are  especially  note- 
worthy:  I })rei"ursori  di  Duiite  (1874);  Orijjini  del  Teatro  in 
Italia  (W^T):  La  Poesia  popotare  ifaliaua  (1878);  Varietd 
stnriche  e  letterarie  (two  series,  1883-85);  Studj  sulla  let- 
teratura  italiana  de' primi  secoli  (1884).        A.  R.  Marsh. 

Ancre.  Le  Marechal.  d'  (originally  Coneinn  f'onrini); 
Italian  Courtier :  b.  at  Florence.  He  formed  part  of  the  reti- 
nue of  Maria  de  Medici  (queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France) 
when  she  went  to  Paris  in  1600.  and  he  mai-ried  Eleouora 
Galigai,  who  had  much  influence  with  that  queen.  His  tal- 
ents for  intrigue  and  the  favor  of  the  queen  (who  in  1610 
became  regent)  raised  him  suddenly  to  power.  In  1613  he 
was  appointed  a  nuirshal  of  France  and  Prime  Minister. 
Having  excited  general  odium  liy  his  rapacity,  he  was  as- 
siissinated  at  Vitry,  April  24.  1617,  by  De  Luynes  and  other 
conspirators. 

Au'cns  Mar'tins :  fourth  King  of  Rome ;  a  grandson  of 
Numa;  succeeded  TuUus  Ilo.stiUus  about  640  b.  o.  He  pro- 
moted the  religious  institutions  of  Numa.  and  is  considered 
the  founder  of  the  plebeian  order.  He  waged  war  against 
the  Latins,  whom  he  subdued,  founded  Ostia,  and  built  the 
Pons  Sublicius  (Bridge  of  Piles).     D.  about  616  B.  c. 

Ancy'ra  {(h:''AyKvpa):  an  ancient  city  of  Galatia,  in  Asia 
Jlinor;  said  to  have  been  built  by  Midas;  about  30  miles 
W.  of  the  river  Ilalys.  Under  the  Roman  empire  it  was  an 
important  city  and  the  capital  of  Galatia.  It  had  a  famous 
temple  of  Augustus  in  which  was  the  3Ionumentuin  Ancy- 
ranum.  Its  site  is  occupied  by  the  modern  city  of  Angora 
((/.  v.).  Two  coimcils  of  the  Church  were  held  there — one 
in  314  and  the  other  in  358  A.  D. 

Andaln'sia  (formerly  called  Vandalusia.  from  the  Van- 
ilals;  Sp.  Andaluci'a):  the  southern  portion  of  Spain; 
boimded  N.  by  Estremadura  and  Ija  Manclia,  E.  by  Murcia 
and  the  Mediterranean.  S.  by  the  Jlediterranean,  W.  by 
Portugal  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  su]  .posed  to  corre- 
spond to  the  Tarshish  (the  western)  of  thi;  Bible  and  the 
ISa-tica  of  the  Romans.  The  Siei-ra  Morena  extends  along 
tlie  nfirthern  border,  and  the  southern  \mrt  is  traversed  by 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  highest  summits  of  which  rise  about 
11.000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  largest  river  is  the  Guadal- 
(juivir.  which  flows  southwestward  and  enters  the  At- 
lantic. The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  plains  is  fertile.  Silver, 
copper,  ii'on,  lead,  and  mercury  are  found  here.  The  chief 
|U'oducts  are  gi-ain,  cotton,  wine,  wool,  sugar,  olives,  oranges, 
and  fig.s.  The  climate  is  delightful.  Thc^  An<lalnsian  breed 
of  horses  has  long  been  celebrated.  Andalusia  is  divided 
into  eight  provinces — viz.,  Ahnei'ia.  Granada,  Jaen,  Cadiz, 
(Ii'irilova.  Jliilaga,  Huelva,  and  Sevilla.  It  corresponds  to 
the  kingdoms  of  Seville,  .laen,  Cordova,  and  Granada,  into 
which  the  Moors  divided  the  southern  part  of  Spain.  Area, 
33,S02  s<|.  miles.     Po|).  (1887)  3,429,813. 

Andalii'site:  an  anhydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  which  is 

found  in  .\ndahisia  and  other  places,  and  occurs  in  four- 
sided  jirisms.  It  may  lie  distinguislied  from  fifspar  by  its 
greater  hardness  and  infusibility.  A  peculiar  variety  called 
chiastolite  or  made  is  very  ainindant  at  South  Lancaster, 
Jlass.  It  occurs  in  stout  crystals,  having  the  axis  angles  of 
a  dilferent  color  from  the  rest,,  exhibiting  a  te.ssellated  ap- 
liearance  on  the  cross  section.  See  Dana's  System  of  Miri^ 
eraloi/i/,  5t  h  cd. 

Andaman' Islands:  a  group  of  small,  densely  wooded 
islan<ls:  in  the  Hay  of  Bengal;  between  lat.  10"  and  13°  N., 
and  aboiit  93'  E.  Ion.  (see  uuip  of  S.  ludi;i,  ref.  6-K).  Area, 
1,700  sq.  miles.  They  are  180  miles  S.  W.  of  Cape  Negrais. 
The  inhabitants  are  in  the  lowest  stage  of  barbarism,  and 
are  said  to  resemble  none  of  the  races  of  the  adjacent  parts 


206 


ANDANTE 


ANDERSON 


of  Asia.  It  has  been  used  as  a  penal  colony  for  Hindus  by 
Great  IBritain.  The  Earl  of  Mayo,  the  Governor-General  of 
India,  was  nuirdered  here  by  a  convict  on  Feb.  8, 1872.  The 
population  numbers  22,000.  including  about  6,000  natives. 
The  chief  settlement  is  Port  Blair.  The  two  groups,  Anda- 
man and  Nicobar,  liave  been  united  under  a  commissioner 
at  Port  Blair.  Both  groups  are  in  communication  witli  Cal- 
cutta by  steamer. 

Andan'te  [Ital.  pres.  participle  of  anda're.  go] :  an  Ital- 
ian musical  term  indicating  the  time  in  which  a  piece  is  to 
be  performed.  It  denotes  a  movement  that  is  moderate, 
rather  slow  and  sedate,  but  distinct  and  flowing. 

AiidaquiosWax:  See  Wax. 

Aii(leiiii(>,  aau  den' :  town  of  Belgium ;  province  of  Na- 
mur:  on  or  near  the  Jleuse,  and  on  R.  R.  from  Namur  to 
Liege  ;  12  miles  by  rail  E.  of  the  former  (see  map  of  Holland 
and  Belgium,  ref.  11-F).  Porcelain  and  tobacco-pipes  are 
made  liere.     Pop.  7,114. 

An'derlecht :  a  market-town  of  Belgium :  jirovince  of 
Brabant ;  10  miles  S.  W.  of  Brussels  (see  map  of  lloUaiui  and 
Belgium,  ref.  lO-D).  It  has  breweries  and  large  dyeing  es- 
tablishments.    Pop.  17,729. 

All'derseii.  Carl:  Danish  lyric  poet;  b.  in  Copenhagen, 
Oct.  26,  1828.  At  the  age  of  nine  he  went  to  Iceland,  where 
he  resided  until  1848,  when  he  returned  to  Copenhagen. 
He  wrote  the  words  for  Gade's  famous  musical  composi- 
tions. The  Crusnders  and  Kolaniis.  Over  Slcjoer  oy  Breed- 
ing (Over  .Sherry  and  Beaker)  contains  a  series  of  sketches 
of  life  in  Iceland.     I),  in  Copenhagen,  Sept.  1,  1883. 

R.  B.  Andersox. 

Andprsen,  Hans  Christian:  Danish  poet  and  novelist; 
b.  at  Odense,  in  the  island  of  Pilnen,  Apr.  2,  1805 ;  son  of  a 

fioor  shoemaker,  who  died  when  Hans  was  nine  years  old. 
n  1819  he  went  to  C'openhagen  to  seek  employment  in  the 
theater,  but  was  rejected  because  he  was  too  lean.  Before 
this  period  he  had  wi'itten  several  tragedies  and  poems, 
among  which  was  the  Di/in;/  Child.  He  made  various  un- 
successful eiforts  to  olitaiu  em[il(iyment,  au<l  passed  several 
years  in  adversity  until  he  fciund  generous  friends,  who  in 
1838  placed  liim  in  the  university,  where  he  was  educated  at 
the  public  expense.  In  1880  he  published  a  volume  of  his 
collected  poems.  Having  received  a  gift  of  money  from  tiie 
king,  he  visited  Germany,  Prance,  and  Italy  in  1833,  and 
produced  in  1834  a  romance  called  The  Improvisafore.  in 
which  the  scenery  and  manners  of  Italy  are  described  with 
admirable  fidelity.  He  related  some  episodes  of  his  early 
life  in  a  bock  entitled  Only  a  Fiddler  (1837).  Among  his 
other  works  are  The  Poet's  Bazaar  (1842);  Ahasuerus,  a, 
drama ;  TVie  Two  Baronesses,  a  tale  in  English,  all  of  whicli 
display  original  genius  and  a  rich  imagination;  but  by  far 
the  most  popular  of  his  works  is  his  Tales  (first  collection, 
183.5),  of  world-wide  rejiutation,  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages, and  enioycd  by  all  classes  on  account  of  their  humor, 
imagination,  and  sim|ilicity.  The  7V(7es  gave  him  his  note 
as  the  Children's  Friend.  His  works  have  been  translated 
into  many  languages.  .See  Hans  Andersen,  True  Story  of 
My  Life  (in  German,  1847,  continued  to  his  death  by  Jonas, 
1879).     D.  in  Copenhagen,  Aug.  4,  1873. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 
An'derson :  city ;  five  railroads;  capital  of  Madison  co., 
ln<l.  (for  location  of  county,  see  nuip  of  Indiana,  ref.  6-F) ; 
on  the  West  Fork  of  White  river;  is  a  manufacturing  city, 
having  a  hydraulic  canal  with  44  U-vi  fall.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  natural-gas  wells.  I'oii.  (1880)  4.126;  (1890)  10,741; 
(1891)  14.7()H.  Editor  of  "  Intelligencer." 

Aiidrrsoii ;  on  railroad ;  capital  of  Anderson  co..  S.  C. 
(for  location  of  count v,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref.  4-C) ; 
has  five  churches,  and  is  the  .seat  of  Patrick  MilitaiT  Insti- 
tute, Anderson  Female  College,  and  a  high  school  for  boys 
and  girls.  Priiu'ipal  industries  include  a  cotton-mill  and  a 
shoe-factory.     Pop.  (1870)  1,432  ;  (1880)  1.8.50  ;  (1890)  3.018. 

EiinoR  OF  '■  Bulletin."' 

Andprsoii.  .Alexander.  M.  D.  :  b.  in  New  York  city,  Apr. 
21,  1775;  giaduatcd  in  1796  as  JI.  I),  at  Columbia  College, 
but  practici'il  only  two  years,  and  became  the  earliest  wood- 
engraver  in  the  C  .S.  He  made  the  cuts  for  Webster's 
Spettiiif/  Hook,  illustrations  for  an  edition  of  .Shakspeare, 
and  pulilished  an  illiusirated  General  History  of  Quadru- 
peds (1804).     J),  at  Jersey  City,  Jan.  17,  1870. 

Anderson.  George  B.  :  b.  at  Wilmington,  N.  ('.,  in  1831 ; 
graduated  at   West  Point  1852 ;  became  first  lieutenant  of 


the  Second  Dragoons  in  1855  ;  adjutant  1857  ;  resigned  Apr. 
25,  1861 ;  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army ;  commanded  the  defenses  of  the  coast  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  Nov.,  1861 ;  led  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Antietain, 
and  received  a  wound  which  caused  his  death  at  Raleigh, 
N.  C,  Oct.  16,  1862. 

Anderson.  James,  M.  D.  ;  was  physician-general  of  the 
army  of  the  East  India  Company  at  Madras  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  famous  for  the 
zeal  and  ability  he  manifested  in  his  persistent  efforts  to  in- 
troduce the  cochineal,  silkworm,  mulberry-tree,  etc.,  into 
Hindustan,  anil  he  published  letters  on  these  subjects  to  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  and  others.     D.  Aug.  5,  1809. 

Anderson,  James,  LL.  D.  :  Scottish  writer  on  political 
and  rural  economy ;  b.  at  Herraiston,  near  Edinburgh,  in 
1739.  He  was  a  practical  as  well  as  a  scientific  farmer,  and 
introduced  the  use  of  an  improved  form  of  jilow.  In  1777 
he  pulilished  Essays  Melatiny  to  Agricvlture  and  Rural 
Affairs  (3  vols.).  He  removed  to  Isleworth  in  1797,  an<l 
there  issued  a  monthlv  periodical  called  Berriatious  in  Ag- 
riculture, ^'atural  flisfory.  etc.  (1799-1802).  in  whicli  he 
anticijiated  the  famous  theoiT  of  rent  afterward  adopted  bv 
Malthus  and  Ricardo.     D.  there  Oct.  1.5,  1808. 

Anderson,  John,  F.  R.  S. :  Scottish  naturalist;  b.  at 
Roseneath,  Dumbartonshire,  in  1726;  educated  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  He  became  in  1760  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  that  institution.  In  1786  he  published  a  valu- 
able work  entitled  Institutes  of  Physics.  He  gave  gratui- 
tous scientific  lectures  to  the  working-classes  for  many 
years.  By  his  last  will  he  founded  a  useful  institution  (in 
Glasgow)  called  Andersonian  University,  or  Anderson's  Col- 
lege. Its  curriculum  corresponds  to  that  of  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, except  that  there  is  no  instniction  in  theology,  but 
the  ol')ject  is  to  attract  the  masses.  From  small  beginnings 
it  has  grown  to  its  present  proportions,  with  its  staff  of 
twenty  professors  and  lecturers  and  its  thousand  students. 
The  original  endowment  has  been  greatly  increased  by  re- 
cent gifts  from  Scotch  philanthiopists.  I),  at  Glasgow,  Jan. 
13,1796.  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Anderson,  John,  M.D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.S.,  etc. :  physician; 
b.  in  Edinburgh.  Oct.  4,  1833;  M.  D.,  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. 1862;  ap|iointed  superintendent  of  the  Indian  Mu- 
seum in  Calcutta  in  1865;  afterward  called  to  tlie  chair 
of  comparative  anatomy  in  the  Medical  College,  Calcutta ; 
scientific  officer  of  two  government  expeditions  to  Western 
China  in  1868  and  1874;  retired  from  the  Indian  service  in 
1887;  author  of  Mandelay  to  Momien;  Catalogue  of  the 
Maninialia  in  the  Indian  jiuseuni ;  Ihindbook  to  the  Arch- 
a-oluaical  Collections  of  the  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta,  etc. 

C.  H.  T. 

Anderson.  Josefh  :  b.  near  Pliiladel]ihia,  Nov.  5,  1757; 
was  an  officer  in  the  Revolutionary  war ;  liecame  a  lawyer, 
was  appointed  a  territorial  judge  by  Washington  (1791),  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee  (1797-1815),  and  first  comp- 
troller of  the  U.  S.  treasuiT  (1815-;B6).  D.  in  Washington, 
D.  ('..  Apnl  17,  1837. 

Anderson,  Lars:  See  Andre.e  (Laurentius). 

.\nderson.  IMartin  Brewer.  LL.  D.,  L.  II.D.  :  of  Scotch- 
Irish  ilc'si'ciit  on  his  father's  side  :  b.  at  Brunswick.  5Ie.. 
Feb.  12,  1H15:  graduated  at  Waterville  College  (now  Colby 
University),  Waterville.  Me.,  in  1840;  was  tutor  in  the  col- 
lege two  years,  and  then  Professor  of  Rhetoric  nearly  seven 
years.  In  1,S.50  he  removed  to  New  York  city  and  becanu» 
editor-in-chief,  and  in  part  proprietor,  of  the  JVew  York 
Recorder,  a  weekly  Baptist  newspajier.  In  1853  lie  was 
chosen  president  of  Rochester  (N.  \.)  Baptist  University, 
whii-h  position  he  resigned  in  1888.  He  published  many 
review  arliclcs.  addresses,  and  educational  papers.  I),  at 
Lake  Helen.  Fla.,  Feb.  20.  1890. 

Anderson,  Mary  ;  actress  ;  b.  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  July 
28,  18.59  ;  educated  at  the  Ursnline  convent  in  Louisville, 
Ky.,  and  determined,  when  only  thirteen  years  of  age,  to  de- 
V(ile  herself  to  the  art  of  acting.'  Having  met  with  Charlotte 
Cuslimau,  the  celebrated  tragedian,  in  Cincinnati  in  1874. 
she  went  to  New  York  to  take  lessons  in  elocution  and 
other  dranuitic  rer|Mirements.  and  about  a  year  after  her 
return  to  her  native  ]ilace  she  made  her  dcliut  there  as 
Juliet.  Nov.  27.  1875.  with  great  sueces.s.  After  visiting  all 
the  |irincipal  cities  of  the  U.  S..  she  in  1883  went  to  Kng- 
laiid.  where  she  also  played  with  success.  In  1890  she  was 
marrie<l  to  Antonio  F.  de  Navarro.  She  has  since  retired 
from  the  stage.  Revised  bv  B.  B.  Vallkntine. 


ANDERSON 


ANDES 


20^ 


Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjorx  :  author:  b.  at  Albion,  Wis., 
of  Norwi'ijian  parciitafro.  Jan.  12,  1846:  eilufatcil  at  r,iither 
('(illcjrc  anil  I'nivci-sity  of  Wisconsin  ;  Profcssoi-ol' Scandina- 
vian IjaMiTuafics  anil  LitiTaturc.  Universilv  of  Wisconsin, 
1ST3-84:  V.  S.  minister  to  Denmark,  1885-80:  author  of 
Xome  M>jllii)h>ijij  (.")th  ed.  1890):  America  Not  Dixcuvered  hy 
C(i/iwil)iin(\H7-l):  Xurx(^ Mythology {Wi'i);  Tlw  Yoiinyn-  Hd- 
rffcand  nnnieroHS  articles  and  translations  l)olli  in  Knjrlish 
and  Xorwcfiian.  the  most  important  being  the  translation  of 
the  works  of  Bjornson  in  7  vols.  ('.  11.  '1'. 

Anderson.  Ruhakd  Henry:  b.  inSoulh  Carolina  abont 
18L'2;  u'l-ailiialcd  at  West  Point  in  184',':  served  witli  Imnor 
in  the  Mexican  war:  was  bri<j;adier-j;eiieral  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  in  ls(n.  major-general  in  1802,  and  comniatide<l 
a  division  at  tiettysbnrg,  July,  1863.     D.  June  26,  18T!». 

Anderson,  Robert,  M.  D.  :  Scottish  biographer:  li.  in 
Lanarkshire.  Jan.  7. 17o0  :  became  a  resident  of  E<linburgli  in 
1784;  w roll!  IX  Li fy  of  Dr.  Jo/i iixoii.  und  pnl>lished  a  good 
edition  of  Tlie  Works  of  the  Jiritixh  I'oe/x.  with  J'refiirex 
Bioyraphiml  and  Critical  (14  vols.,  1792-1807).  D.  at  Heau- 
fort,  S.  C,  Feb.  30,  1880. 

Anderson,  RonKUT :  soldier:  b.  near  Louisville,  Kv., 
June  14.  180."):  graduated  at  West  Point.  182.5;  and  Way 
1.1,  1861.  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.  His  father  was  colonel 
in  the  lievohiticmary  army,  and  his  mother  a  cousin  of 
Chief  Justice  ilarshall.  He  was  private  secretary  1825-26 
to  a  relative  upon  his  mission  as  U.  S.  nunister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  the  repulilic  of  Colombia,  served  at  artillery  school 
for  practice  1826-28,  chiefly  cm  ordnance  duty  1828-;W,  as- 
.sistant  inspector-general  of  Illinois  volunteers  in  tlie  Black 
Hawk  war  1832,  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Bad  .\xe,  at  Mili- 
tary Academy  as  instiiictor  of  artillery  1835-37,  in  Florida 
war  1837-;58  (brevet  captain),  in  several  actions,  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  Maj.-Gen.  Scott  while  removing  Cherokees  to  the 
West  1838.  as  assistant  adjutant-general  eastern  department 
is:i8-41.  chiefly  in  garrison  I84.V53.  in  war  witii  Mexico 
1847.  engageil  at  \'era  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Amozoque,  and 
Woliuo  del  Key  (severely  wounded  and  brevet  major),  mem- 
ber of  artillery  boards  1841-60,  governor  of  Harroilsl)Ui-g 
Military  Asylum  1853-54,  inspector  of  ironwork  for  public 
buildings  1855-59  ;  in  command  of  defenses  of  Charleston 
liarlior.  S.  ('..  1860-61.  In  the  civil  war.  after  evacuating 
h'urt  Moultrie,  lie  moved  to  Fort  .Sumter,  wliicii  he  sur- 
rendered after  a  heavy  bombardment.  Apr.  12-13,  1861 
(l)rcvet  major-general);  in  command  of  department  of  Ken- 
tucky and  of  the  Cumberland  1861,  which  his  shattered 
liealth  compelled  him  to  relinquish.  Till  he  was  retired 
from  active  service.  Oct.  27.  1863.  he  performed  hut  little 
dutv.  He  translated  Instructions  for Fii'ld-Artilleri/.  Iltirsi' 
anil  Fool  (1840).  and  Erolutions  'of  Fii'td-H<ttteri('x  (\HW). 
In  vain  he  sought  restoration  for  health  abroad,  his  strength 
gradually  failing  till  he  died  Oct.  26.  1871,  at  Nice,  France, 
aged  sixiy-si.x. 

Anderson,  Ri'fus,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  :  b.  at  North  Yarmouth. 
Ml-..  Aug.  17.  1796;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1818; 
and  studied  theology  at  Andover  1819-22.  In  1824  he  l)e- 
canie  assistant  secretary,  and  in  1832  corresponding  .secre- 
tary of  the  .American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  wliich 
]iosition  he  filled  with  distinguished  ability  for  thirty-four 
years.  He  visited  officially  a  part,  of  tlie  Mediterranean 
nnssions  1828-29,  an<l  another  part  1843-44,  the  Indian 
missions  1854-55.  and  the  Sandwich  islands  in  IS63.  At 
the  age  of  sevi-nty  he  resigned  Ills  position  in  the  lioard  of 
.Missions  (1866),  jit  wliich  lime,  without  any  previous  knowl- 
edge on  his  part,  he  was  presented,  as  a  testimonial  to  his 
faitliful  and  meritorious  .services,  with  .$20,000  (contributed 
ehielly  by  the  merchants  of  New  York  and  Boston),  which 
suiu  he  nnide  over  to  the  board,  reserving  to  himself  the 
right  to  draw  from  it  whatever  might  be  necessary  for  his 
support,  .\iiioiig  Dr.  Anderson's  numerous  pulilicatioiis 
may  be  named  ;  Ohxerrationx  on  the  Petoponiiesfts  and 
(jreek  Ixtatid.t  (ISo.ston.  1830) ;  7''he  Ilfiiraiian  Ixlanilx,  tlieir 
J'royrexs  ami  ('ondition  under  Jlixsionirry  Laljorx  (Boston. 
1S64);  ,1  Heathen  Sat  ion  Evanyelized :  Ilixtory  of  the 
Jlission.  etc.,  to  the  ,Saniln-ich  Inlands  (1870);  History  of 
t/ie  Misxiotis  of  the  American  Board  of  ('ommis.sionerx  for 
Foreiyn  Missions  to  the  Oriental  Churches  (1872).  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Mt.  Ilolyoke  Female  Seminary, 
at  South  Ha.dley,  .Mass.,  several  years  president  of  trustees 
of  Bradford  Academy,  Mass.,  and  also  a  member  of  the 
board  of  trust  of  Andover  Seminary,  Mass.  D.  in  Boston, 
Jlay  30.  1880. 


Anderson,  William,  D.  C.  L.  :  civil  engineer ;  director- 
general  of  ordnance-factories  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  b.  in 
St.  Petersliurg.  Jan.  .5.  1835  ;  educated  at  the  Iligli  Commer- 
cial School  in  that  city,  and  when  he  left  in  1849  was  head 
of  the  school,  silver  medallist,  and,  although  a  British  sub- 
ject, the  freedom  of  the  city  was  conferred  on  him.  In 
1849  he  became  a  matriculated  student  in  the  department 
of  aiiplied  sciences  in  King's  College.  London,  leaving  in  1851 
with  the  degree  of  associate.  Hi'  was  then  for  three  years 
a  pupil  of  Sir  William  Fairbairii  i*^  Sous,  hi-iiig  employed 
chielly  on  important  outwork.  From  1S55  to  1864  he  was 
a  partner  of  Courtney  &  Stephens,  Dublin,  building  bridges, 
cranes,  and  railway  aiipliances.  In  1863  lie  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Kngineers  of  Ireland.  In 
1864  he  entered  the  firm  of  Easton  it  .\mos.  London,  and 
later  became  the  head  of  the  house  of  Kaslon  &  Anderson., 
He  is  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  vice-president  of  the  Institute  of  Jleclianical 
Engineers,  visitor  of  the  Royal  Institute,  and  vice-]iresident 
of  tlie  Society  of  Arts.  He  translated  the  remarkable  work 
of  Cliernoff  (hi  Steel;  the  researches  of  (Jen.  Kalakonstki  on 
Internal  Stresses  in  Cast  Iron,  and  Steel:  author  of  lec- 
tures on  the  Generation  of  Steam  :  on  I/yd raulic  Machinery  ; 
im  \\w  Moncrieff  Hydro-pneiimiitic  (iiin-rarriai/e  :  and  On, 
the  Conrersion  of  Ileal  into  Work.  In  .\ugust,  1889.  he  was 
made  director-general  of  the  Royal  Ordnance-factories.  In 
1889  he  was  president  of  Section  O  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion. The  University  of  Dublin  has  conferred  on  him  the 
honorary  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  William  R.  Hittox. 

An'dersonville:  near  Anderson  R.  R.  sta.,  Sumter  co., 
Oa. :  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  5-G):. 
11  miles  N.  E.  of  Americus.  During  the  civil  war  it  was- 
tlie  site  of  a  Confederate  military  prison  for  Federal  sol- 
diers. The  mortality  at  this  prison  was  very  great ;  12,926 
prisoners  of  war  died  here.  One  Henry  Wirtz.  a  Swiss  ad- 
venturer, was  the  su])erintendent  of  the  prison,  and  after 
the  close  of  the  war  he  was  tried  and  convicted  by  a  mili- 
tary commission  on  charges  of  excessive  cruelty  to  the  pris- 
oners, and  was  executed  Nov.  10,  1865.  The  Confederate- 
authorities,  in  at  least  two  official  reports,  attributed  the  ex- 
cessive mortality  to  the  bad  management  of  the  prison.  An- 
dersonville  is  now  the  site  of  a  national  cemetery,  in  which 
the  deceased  Union  soldiers  are  buried.  The  cemetery  is 
well  laid  out.  trees  liave  been  planted,  and  the  names,  rank, 
etc..  of  most  of  the  dead  have  been  ascertained  aiul  inscribed 
on  head-boards.     Pop.  (1880)  308 ;  (1890)  not  given. 

Andersson.  Nils  Johax:  Swedish  botanist;  b.  at  Gord- 
seruni.  Sweden.  Feb.  20,  1821.  He  traveled  extensively  in 
Lajilaud  and  other  parts  of  Scandinavia,  and  made  a  jour- 
ney around  the  world  1851-53.  His  works  are  En  Verld- 
.loinseyliiiy  (1853-54);  Salices  Lapponice  (lH4ri);  Cyperacece 
et  Gramiiieu'  Scand.  (1849-52);  Om  Clalapai/osi'mrnes  Vegeta- 
^/oM  (1854) ;  and  Monoyrapliia  Salicium  (1867).  D.  at  Lund.. 
JIar.  27.  1880.  R.  B.  Anderso.v. 

Anderfon.  Thomas:  an  English  amateur  musician  who 
has  gained  an  estimable  re]jntation  liy  his  choral  compo- 
sitions. Ilis  first  work  of  imiiortance  was  Tlie  Sony  of 
IMiorah  and  Barak  (1871).  His  cantata  The  ^Yreck  of  the 
I!es/ieiiis  (\HS2)  is  ii  fine  setting  of  Longfellow's  poem,  and 
this  same  poet  furnished  the  text  for  liis  next  cantata.  2'he 
Xornian.  Baron  (1884).  For  the  Birininghaiu  festival  of 
1H85  he  com]iosed  the  cantata  Ytile  Tide,  which  was  per- 
formed with  much  .success,  and  has  lieen  sung  .several  times 
in  the  U.  S.  Mr.  Anderfon  was  born  about  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  is  much  interested  in  the  pro- 
motion of  English  choral  music.  D.  E.  Hkrvev. 

An'des  [Sp.  Cordillera,  de  his  An'de.i;  [lossilily  from  Pe- 
ruvian ((/(//.  meaning  metal  or  gold,  or  Antis.  the  name  of  a 
trilie  resident  in  the  luouulains] :  a  South  .\merican  range 
of  luounlains.  one  of  the  most  jiromiuent  feat  ores  of  the  gloljc. 
It  extends  along  the  western  border  of  the  entire  continent, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  Pacific  coast,  from  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
gellan to  the  Isthmus  of  Darieii,  a  distance  of  about  4.500 
miles.  In  length  it  far  exceeds  every  other  mountaiii-cdiain 
on  the  eartli.  The  general  dir(H-tion  of  this  chain  is  nearly 
north  and  south.  The  southern  )iart  of  the  .\ndes.  for  a 
distance  of  aliout  1.000  miles,  consists  of  a  single  range  or 
ridge,  extending  through  Patagonia.  North  of  that  the  sys- 
li'iu  may  be  described  as  a  liasal  mass  with  capjiing  ridges 
called  Cordilleras.  The  Patagoiiian  Andes  rise  to  I  he  height 
of  8.000  feet.  The  ChiUau  Andes,  sotithward  from  27  S., 
have  an  average  width  of  about  130  miles,  and  in  some  places 


208 


ANDES 


ANDIRONS 


are  not  more  than  100  miles  from  the  Pacific.  The  highest 
summit  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  and  probably  of  the  whole 
chain,  is  the  porphyritic  Nevadu  of  Aconcagua,  which  rises 
22,900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  and  is  about  100  miles 
N.  E.  of  Valparaiso.  In  Chili  also  occur  the  volcanic  peaks 
of  Tupungato,  20,270,  and  31ayi)u,  17.764  feet  high.  The  line 
of  perpetual  snow  in  the  Andes  of  Northern  Chili  is  about 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

About  lat.  27°  S.  there  arc  two  Cordilleras,  which  continue 
with  some  regularity  northward  into  Colombia,  where  throe 
are  formed.  In  Bolivia  and  Peru  these  are  called  the  Cor- 
dillera of  the  Coast  and  tlie  Cordillera  Real.  The  former 
extends  northwestward  along  the  coast  of  Peru,  the  summits 
of  the  range  being  about  100  miles  from  the  ocean.  The 
Cordillera  Real,  which  traverses  Bolivia,  and  is  about  250 
miles  from  the  other  range,  is  nearly  equal  in  height  to  the 
Chilian  Andes.  The  peak  of  lUampu,  in  Bolivia,  has  an 
altitude  of  21,500  feet.  These  two  parallel  Cordilleras  are 
connected  at  several  points  by  transverse  ranges  or  groups 
called  knots,  and  inclose  the  table-land  of  Desaguadero  and 
Lake  Titicaca.  which  is  12.800  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  highest  summit  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  is  the  vol- 
cano of  Arequipa,  20,800  feet  high,  and  35  miles  from  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Proceeding  northward,  we  come  next  to  the  Andes  of 
Ecuador,  or  Andes  of  tiuito,  which  extend  from  lat.  5°  S.  to 
the  table-land  of  Quito,  inclosed  between  two  ranges  of  enor- 
mous volcanoes.  Among  these  the  highest  are  Chimborazo, 
20,345  feet,  and  Cotopasi.  1!»,4!)8  feet  (Humboldt  says  19.069). 
The  form  of  the  latter  is  that  of  an  almost  perfect  cone. 
"  Among  all  the  volcanoes  that  I  have  seen,"  says  Humboldt, 
"the  conical  form  of  Cotopaxi  is  the  most  beautifully  regu- 
lar."   See  Cotopaxi. 

There  are  a  number  of  passes  which  cross  the  Andes,  but 
all  at  a  great  elevation,  and  mostly  dangerous  as  well  as  ar- 
duous. Several  passes  among  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian 
Andes  are  about  15,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  lower 
passes  are  not  less  than  12,000  feet.  A  railway  is  nearly 
completed  (1893)  across  the  South  American  continent, 
crossing  the  Andes  S.  of  Accncagua. 

Minerals. — The  rocky  foundations  of  these  grand  bar- 
riers are  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  greenstone,  porphyry. 
quartz,  and  other  metamorphic  rocks.  Humboldt  saw  in 
Peru  vast  masses  of  quartz  7,000  or  8,000  feet  in  height. 
The  An<les  are  celebrated  for  their  mineral  riches,  consist- 
ing of  large  quantities  of  gold  and  silver.  Platinum.  m<'r- 
cury,  copper,  tin.  and  iron  are  also  found  among  them. 
The  most  productive  gold  mines  are  in  Peru  and  New  tJra- 
nada ;  the  silver  mines  of  Potosi  are  among  the  richest  in  I  he 
world.  Few  parts  of  the  globe  are  suliject  to  so  frequent  and 
destructive  earthquakes  as  the  count  ries  adjacent  to  the  ,\ndcs 
and  inclosed  between  its  different  ranges.  The  cities  of 
Quito,  Lima,  Callao,  and  Valj)araiso  have  been  nearly  ruined 
by  them  in  recent  times.  The  number  of  volcanoes  among 
the  Andes  is  about  fifty,  thirty-six  of  which  are  classified  as 
active,  and  tlie  others  are  doubtful,  not  having  been  seen  in 
a  state  of  eruption  l)y  any  Kuro|ieau.  "  It  is  but  rarely," 
says  Humboldt,  "that  the  elastic  forces  at  work  within  the 
interior  of  our  globe  have  succeeded  in  breaking  through  the 
spiral  domes  which,  resplendent  in  the  brightness  of  eternal 
snow,  crown  (he  summits  of  the  Cordilleras;  and  even  where 
these  forces  have  opened  a  permanent  communication  with 
the  atmosphere  through  cireuhir  craters  or  long  fissures,  they 
rarely  send  forth  currents  of  lava,  but  merely  eject  ignited 
seoriie,  steam,  sulphnri'tti'il  hydrogen  gas.  and  jets  of  car- 
bonic acid."  (t'(Asv» (/.<.)  This  illustrious  traveler  states  that 
he  fouiiil  pelagic  shells  on  a  ridge  of  the  Andes  more  than 
15,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  geological  structure  of  the  Andes  is  as  yet  but  im- 
perfectly known,  and  is  prolialily  not  the  same  in  all  parts  of 
the  cliain.  Ijike  all  great-  mountain  systems,  the  .•\n<les  have 
been  produced  l)y  elevatory  forces  acting  at  different  and 
in  some  instjuwes  widclv  separated  periods.  Carlioniferous. 
Triassic,  .Jurassic,  and  'J'ertiary  rocks  have  been  recognized 
on  their  flanks ;  and  t  he  older  Palaeozoic  will  undoubtedly  be 
found  to  nnike  up  a  part  of  their  mass. 

Climiile. — The  limit  of  iierjx'lual  snow  on  the  .Vndes  that 
are  near  the  equator  is  about  I.5.(HJ0  feet,  and  among  the  Bo- 
livian Aii'les.  aliout  lat.  20  S.,  it  is  said  to  be  17.(Mt(l  feet. 
Glaciers  rarely  if  ever  occur  in  the  central  or  tropical  por- 
tions of  the  Cordilleras.  Between  the  equator  and  lat.  ;iO  S. 
the  prevailing  wind  blows  from  E.  to  \V.,  and  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Cordillera  intercepts  nearly  all  the  moisture,  so 
that  little  or  no  rain  falls  in  Peru  and  Northern  Chili  on  the 


western  slope,  or  on  the  narrow  tract  between  the  Andes  and 
the  ocean.  The  changes  of  weather  among  these  mountains 
are  sudden  and  violent,  and  the  electric  storms  are  very  ter- 
rific. Here  are  exhibited  greater  variations  and  contrasts  of 
climate  than  in  any  other  region  of  the  globe.  The  elevated 
plains  within  the  trojncs  have  a  cool  and  salubrious  climate, 
and  the  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  here  flourish  under  the 
equator.  Although  the  Andes  are  inferior  to  the  Himalayas 
in  altitude,  they  present  a  more  remarkable  variety  of  phe- 
nomena. "This  jiortion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe,"  says 
Humboldt,  "affords  in  the  smallest  space  the  greatest  pos- 
sible variety  of  impressions  from  the  contemplation  of  nature. 
Among  the  colossal  mountains  of  Cundinamarca,  of  Quito, 
and  of  Peru,  furrowed  by  deep  ravines,  man  is  enabled  to 
contemplate  alike  all  the  families  of  plants  and  all  the  stars 
o(  the  firmament.  There  at  a  single  glance  the  eye  surveys 
majestic  palms,  humid  forests  of  Bamhusa,  and  "the  varied 
species  of  Musaceie.  while  above  these  forms  of  tropical  vege- 
tation appear  oaks,  medlars,  the  sweetbrier,  and  umbellif- 
erous plants,  as  in  our  European  homes.  .  .  .  There  the 
depths  of  the  earth  and  the  vaults  of  heaven  display  all  the 
richness  of  their  forms  and  the  variety  of  their  phenomena. 
There  the  different  climates  are  ranged  the  one  above  the 
other,  stage  by  stage,  like  the  vegetable  zones  whose  succes- 
sion they  limit:  and  there  the  observer  nuiy  readily  trace 
the  laws  that  regulate  the  diminution  of  heat  as  they  stand 
indelibly  inscril.ied  on  the  rocky  walls  and  abrupt  declivities 
of  the  CordiUeras." 

Referexces. — Humboldt,  Travels  and  Cosmos;  also  his 
papers  in  Journal  de  Pliy.sique  (1801).  and  in  Oilhert's  An- 
nalen  (1804):  Orton,  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  (1870); 
Jiic'k&YA.  A  Mining  Journey  across  the  Andes  (1863);  Dar- 
win, Voyage  of  the  Beagle-.  Whymper,  Travels  among  the 
Great  Andes  of  the  Equator  (1892). 

Revised  by  Mark  W.  Harrixgtox. 

Andesite :  a  volcanic  rock  of  which  there  are  many  va- 
rieties. The  name  was  first  used  by  ^'on  Buch  for  certain 
rocks  brought  by  Von  Humboldt  from  the  Andes  mountains. 
The  silica  percentage  of  the  Andesites  ranges  between  53 
and  63.  Chemically  and  mineralogicaily  they  are  the  surface 
or  lava  equivalents  of  the  Diorites  (q.  v.).  The  distinctive 
features  of  the  type  Andesite  are  mainly  structural,  indicat- 
ing the  conditions  under  which  they  solidified.  (See  Rocks.) 
All  andesites  contain  some  triclinic  feldspar,  usually  oligo- 
clase  or  andesine,  as  an  essential  constituent.  The  main 
basis  of  their  specific  subdivision  is  given  by  their  other 
components.  If  they  are  acid  enough  to  contain  free  silica, 
they  are  known  as  Dacite.  According  to  the  nature  of 
their  ferro-magnesian  constituents  they  are  classified  as 
m ica-andesite.  hornhlende-andesite.  m ica-hornhlende-andes- 
ite,  augite-andesite.  hyper.stliene-andesite.  etc.  The  terra 
andesite  shouhl  properly  be  applied  to  only  such  rocks  as 
have  a  fine-grained  or  glassy  base.  Equivalent  rocks  with 
a  more  coarsely  crystalline  ground-mass  are  called  ^o;-joA^- 
rites.  Andesites  are  exceedingly  wide-spread  in  volcanic 
regions.  They  were  fornierly  often  mistaken  for  trachytes, 
which  they  frequently  resemble.  Von  Richthofen  has  shown 
that  they  are  usually  the  oldest  lavas  of  a  given  district,  the 
subsequent  erui)tions  becoming  alternately  more  acid  and 
more  ba.sic.  Andesites  are  very  extensively "develo[)ed  in  the 
Western  U.  S.,  where  they  have  been  carefully  studied.  By 
partial  alteration  they  may  produce  the  so<'ailed  profiylites. 

G.  H.  Williams. 

Alldijan:  a  city  of  Ferghana,  Turkestan,  Asiatic  Russia; 
the  capital  of  the  region  in  Baber"s  time  (fifteenth  century); 
lat.  38"  50'  N.,  Ion.  72°  20'  E. ;  elevation.  1,170  feet  (see  map 
of  Asia,  ref.  4-1)).  It  is  in  the  valley  of  the  iqipcr  Syr  Darya, 
and  is  a  stat  ion  on  one  of  the  most  important  caravan  routes 
of  Central  Asia.     Pop.  (1886)  30,620. 

Andi'ra:  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  inmUy  Legnminosrp. 
The  Andira  inermis.  called  cabbage-tree  or  calibjige-bark 
tree,  is  a  native  of  t  lie  West  Indies.  The  bark  of  the  ^«(/i)-a, 
called  worm-bark,  is  a  powerful  anthelmintic. 

An'dirons  [O.  Fr.  andier,  Mod.  Fr.  landier.  for  randier. 
The  latter  part  of  the  Eng.  is  due  to  folk-etymol.  connec- 
tion with  iron.  Origin  of  andier  obscure] :"  the  metallic 
utensils  used  to  support  the  wood  which  is  burned  in  an 
open  fireplace.  They  are  called  firedogs  in  some  parts  of 
(ireat  Britain.  They  are  often  called  "dogirons"  m  many 
parts  of  the  V.  S.  The  andiron  consists  of  a  horizontal  liar, 
supported  by  three  feet,  and  having  an  upright  standard  at 
one  end.  This  was  sometimes  silver,  and  ornamented  with 
arabesques  or  a  human  figure. 


ANDOCIDES 


ANDREiE 


209 


Andoc'idos  {'AvSoxliris) :  accounted  tlio  least  of  the  ten 
Attic  orators,  is  not  tlu-  least  in  interest  (440-after  ;i01  b.  c). 
Involved  with  other  yonnj;  aristocrats  in  the  mutilation  of 
the  Hernia',  415  h.  c.  (see  History  of  Grkkce),  he  went  into 
exile,  from  wlueh  he  returned  only  to  be  banished  again. 
Four  speeches  arc  extant  under  his  name,  one  of  thcin 
spurious.  A  ■•  Kentlennin  orator,''  lie  has  a  certain  native 
grace  of  narrative,  and  his  speeches  are  of  inii>ortance  for 
Atlienian  historv  and  social  life.  See  Blass,  Af/isc/ii-  linriid- 
samlceil.  2d  ed.,"  i.  2S0:  3Qhh,  lUtic  Omtors,  i.  71;  text  ed. 
Blass  (1880),  with  English  notes  by  Marchant  (1889). 

B.  L.  Uilueksli:f.ve. 

Aiidor'ra:  a  small  republic  under  tlie  joint  suzerainty  of 
France  and  the  Spanisli  Bishop  of  L'rgel,  aiiuing  the  East- 
ern Pyrenees,  between  the  French  department  of  Ariege 
and  the  Spanish  province  of  Lerida.  Area,  175  sq.  miles. 
It  is  surrounded  by  high  nionntaiiis,  and  has  rich  mines  of 
iron  and  a  lead  nmie.  It  became  autonomous  in  790,  and 
is  governed  by  a  council  of  twenty-four,  elected  for  four 
years.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  farmers,  cattle-raisers, 
and  miners.     I'op.  about  (5,000.     Capital,  Andorra. 

Ali'dovcr:  a  market-town  and  parish  of  England;  in 
Hamiishire,  63  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  London.  The  town  is 
verv  ancient.  It  has  a  handsome  church,  wliich  co.st  about 
^loO.tlUO.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

Andover:  town  (incorporated  in  1646):  on  Boston  and 
IMaine  K.  It.,  Essex  co.,iMass.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  l-I);  on  ,the  south  bank  of  the 
Jlorrimaek  river.  The  village  of  Andover  is  pleasantly  sit- 
uated on  the  Shawsheen  river,  23  miles  N.  of  Boston.  It 
has  extensive  water-power  and  manufactures  of  shoe-thread, 
woolen  goods,  rubber  goods,  printer's  ink.  laiiip-lilack,  lamps, 
and  lironze  goods,  etc.  It  has  a  national  liank  and  a  sav- 
ings-baidc;  a  newspaper,  a  water-supply  from  a  local  lake, 
electric  lights,  a  street-railway  system,  a  free  putilie  library 
of  over  13,000  volumes,  and  a  good  system  of  free  public 
schools.  Ilere  are  also  Phillips  Academy  (a  school  for  boys 
founded  in  1778);  Andover  Theological' Seminary  (founded 
in  1807);  and  Abbot  Academy  for  voung  ladies  (founded  in 
1829).  Pop.  of  township  (18'70)  4,'873;  (1880)  5,169;  (1885) 
5,711;  (1890)6,142;  (1895)6,145.    Editor  of  •'Townsman." 

Andover  Tlieological  Setninary:  a  Protestant  charit- 
able foundation  for  the  training  of  Christian  ministers. 
Tliis  seminarv  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  U.  S.,  and  was  an 
outgrowth  from  the  provision  originally  made  for  theolog- 
ical instruction  in  PhilUps  Academy.  It  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  trustees  of  that  academy,  and  is  subject,  as 
respects  most  of  the  foundations,  to  tlie  visitation  of  an  in- 
deiiendent  lioard  of  visitors.  It  was  established  upon  en- 
dowments, given  by  Samuel  xVbbot,  Mrs.  Pliadje  (Foxcroft) 
Phillips,  .loliu  Phillips,  William  Bartlet,  iMoses  Brown,  and 
.tolin  Xorris.  It  was  opened  in  1808,  and  in  1892  numbered 
about  2,000  graduates  who  have  entered  the  ministry  chiefly 
of  the  Congregational  and  Presbyterian  churches.  It  has 
taken  a  leading  part  in  religions  movements  among  Congre- 
gationalists,  and  has  educated  many  writers  as  well  as 
preachers.  The  Bi/>liolliL-ca  Sacra  and  later  T/ie  Andover 
lieview  have  been  edited  by  its  professors.  Among  its  early 
])rofessors  were  Leonard  Woods,  Jloses  Stuart,  and  Ivhvard 
I).  Griffin.  The  successor  of  Woods  in  the  chair  of  doctrinal 
theology  was  Edwards  A.  Park,  who  was  followed  (1883)  by 
George  Harris.  The  faculty  consists  at  jiresent  of  nine  pro- 
fessors. No  charge  is  made  for  tuition.  The  seminary 
library  contains  49,000  volumes,  and  with  it  is  connected  a 
valuable  Palestinian  museum.  W.  L.  Hopes. 

Aiidra'da.  Diogo  Pavva  de  Andrade:  b.  in  1528 at  Coim- 
lira,  Portugal;  became  a  .lesn it  and  one  of  the  P(U-tuguese 
delegates  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  IX  in  Lisbon,  Portugal, 
in  ln75. — His  brother,  Thomas  de  Jesus,  was  an  August  iniaii 
monk;  taken  jirisoner  in  the  battle  of  Alcacer  in  1578,  and 
kept  in  a  dungeon  till  his  death,  Apr.  17,  1582.  He  wrote 
while  there  his  famous  book.  The  Labor.-i  of  Jesus. 

Andrada,  Antonio,  de:  b.  at  Villa  de  Oleiros,  Portugal, 
in  1580;  entered  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1596  at  Coiinbra, 
Portugal;  went  to  India  as  a  missionary  in  1601,  and  be- 
came siiperiiu'  of  the  nussions  of  Mongolia.  He  made  two 
journeys  from  there  to  Tliiliet, and  [mh\i^\wd  Keir  Discover;/ 
of  the  Grand  (.'athaij,  or  Kingdom  of  T/Met  (Kiil).  Cat 
Goa,  Aug.  20,  1633. 

Andrada,  FernIo  Perez,  de:  an  olTicer  in  the  Portu- 
guese navy.  He  commanded  a  vessel  in  the  lleet  of  Albu- 
ciuertiue,  who  made  hiiu  admiral  of  a  fleet  of  ten  ships  at 
14 


Ikfalacca  in  1511.  lie  defeated  the  Sultan  of  Java  in  a  naval 
enga'^ement  in  1513,  was  the  commander  of  the  first  Eu- 
ropean fleet  on  the  coast  of  China  (1518),  and  opened  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  that  country. 

Audrnda  e  Silva,  Josi5  Bonifacio,  de:  a  distinguished 
Brazilian;  b.  at  Santos,  June  13,1763.  He  acted  a  [iromi- 
nent  part  in  the  revolution  by  which  Brazil  became  inde- 
jiendent  in  1822,  and  was  prime  minister  in  1822-23.  He 
wrote  some  scientific  treatises  and  poems.  D.  near  Rio, 
Apr.  3,  1838.    See  Bonifacio,  Jose. 

Aiidral.  Gabriel,  M.  D.:  French  physician;  b.  in  Paris, 
Nov.  6,- 1797;  married  a  daughter  of  Royer-CoUard.  He 
IHiblished  an  able  work  calh'd  C/iniqiie  MMieale  (4  vols., 
1824-27).  In  1839  he  succeeded  Broussais  as  Professor  of 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics  in  Paris,  and  in  1842  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute.  Among  his  works  is  a  Summary 
of  Pathohxiical  Anatomy  (3  vols.,  1829).  D.  at Chateauvieux, 
Feb.  13.  1876.— His  father,  Guillaume  Andral,  was  a  cele- 
brated physician. 

Andrassy,  Julius.  Count:  Hungarian  statesman;  b.  at 
Zcmplin.  Jlar.  8,  1823,  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848  as  an  ad- 
herent of  the  popular  cause,  and  was  condennied  to  death 
in  1850,  but  he  escaped  and  went  into  exile.  When  the 
rii;ht  of  self-government  was  restored  to  Hungary,  in  Feb., 
1867.  Andrassy  was  ajipointed  premier  of  a  new  Hungarian 
ministry  by  tlie  emperoi-.  He  succeeded  Von  Benst  1871- 
79,  as  ininister  of  foreign  atfairs  in  the  common  ministry  of 
the  whole  emiiire.     I),  at  Volosca,  Feb.  18,  1890. 

An'drfi.  John;  British  ofllcer;  b.  in  London,  of  Swiss 
parents,  in  1751 ;  entered  the  army  in  1771.  Having  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant,  he  was  sent  to  America 
in  1774.  His  superior  talents  and  fine  personal  qualities 
procured  for  him  a  rajiid  jiromotion  to  the  important  posi- 
tion of  adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of  major  (1779).  He 
was  a  gooil  scholar,  an  artist,  a  versifier,  and  a  man  of 
varied  accomplishments.  Benedict  Arnold  having  offered 
to  betray  West  Point.  Major  Andre  w^as  selected  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  the  Britisli  commander,  to  make  the  neces- 
sary arrangements  for  carrying  out  the  plot.  Andre,  as- 
suming the  name  of  Anderson,  ascended  the  Hudson,  and, 
having  had  a  [irivate  interview  with  Arnold  (Sept.  21, 1780), 
by  wliom  he  was  furnished  with  maps  and  plans  of  West 
Point  and  a  pass  through  the  American  lines,  was,  while  re- 
turning to  New  York  city  by  land,  intei-cepted  near  Tarry- 
town  by  three  armed  Americans  (John  Paulding,  David 
Willianis,  and  Isaac  Van  Wart),  who,  discovering  by  incau- 
tious remarks  on  his  part  that  he  was  a  British  officer,  took 
liim  prisoner.  On  searching  his  person  they  found  the  iilans 
in  his  boots.  He  made  an  "unsuccessful  eifort  to  brilie  his 
captors,  who  conducted  him  to  Lieut.-Col.  Jameson,  who, 
with  singular  obtuseness.  resolved  to  send  him  to  Gen.  Ar- 
nold, but  was  dissuaded  liy  Major  Tallmadge.  INIajor  Andre 
was  tried  as  a  spy  and  condemned  to  be  hung  by  a  board  of 
six  major-generals  and  eight  brigadier-generals.  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  made  earnest  eft'orts  to  save  his  life,  Imt  they  were 
tinavailing.  and  he  was  executed  at  Tajipan,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2, 
1780.  He  lichaved  with  dignity  and  fortitude  on  this  occa- 
sion, and  his  fate  excited  deeji  and  general  sympathy.  The 
day  before  his  death  he  di'ew  witli  a  I'cn  and  ink  a  portrait 
of  himself,  which  is  now  in  the  Trumbull  Gallery  of  Yale 
College.  A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Another  monument  on  the  scene  of  his 
execution  at  Tappan,  erected  l)y  Cyrus  W.  Field,  was  de- 
stroyed bv  the  neighbors.  See  his  life  by  Winthrop  Sargent 
(Boston,  1861). 

Audroa  del  SaHo:  See  Sarto. 

Aiidrca  Pi.sano.  or  Andrea  da  Pisa:  .sculptor;  b.  at 
Pontedcra,  near  I'isa,  in  1217;  d.  about  1348.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Giovanni  Pisano,  and  continued  the  work  of  that 
master  in  its  semi-Gothic  character.  His  most  imjiortant 
remaining  works  are  the  bronze  doors  in  the  south  doorway 
of  the  baptistery  at  Florence;  these  arc  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  and  of  a  "delicacy  of  finish  never  surpassed  in  similar 
work.'  Shortly  before  his  death  he  became  architect  of  the 
cathedral  at  Orvieto,  succeeding  Lorenzo  Maitani. 

Russell  Sturris. 

Andre'*,  Jacob,  P.P. :  German  Protestant  theologian; 
b.  at  Waiblingen,  in  Wiirteniberg,  ]\Iar.  25.  1528.  He  be- 
came chancelior  of  the  University  of  Ti'ibingen  in  1562.  He 
was  incessantly  active  in  clTorts  'for  the  more  complete  or- 
ganization of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Germany,  participat- 


210 


AXDRE.E 


AXnUEWS 


ing  in  probably  more  theological  conferences  than  any  other 
Lutheran  theologian,  and  traveling  over  aU  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  into  other  European  countries  in  pursuance  of 
his  liiission.  In  April.  loGl,  he  went  to  Paris  to  confer  witli 
King  Antony  of  Navarre  concerning  the  Lutheran  faith. 
He  is  the  principal  author  of  the  Fiiniiuhi  of  Concord.  He 
left  over  150  writings.  D.  at  Tiiliingen.  Jan.  7.  1590.  Sec 
his  life  l)v  J.  A.  Mosapp  (Barmen.  1890). 

Hexry  E.  Jacobs. 

Amlrese.  JoHAXX  Valentix:  German  writer;  b.  at  Her- 
renberg,  in  W'iliteniberg.  Aug.  17.  1586:  became  pastor  at 
Calw  in  1630,  and  chaplain  or  court-preacliicr  at  Stuttgart 
in  16:^!).  He  wrote  numerous  pamphlets  attacking  with 
satire  the  corruptions  and  formalism  of  the  religious  life  of 
his  times.  He  has  been  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  or- 
der of  Rosicrucians.  but  without  sutficient  evidence.  D.  at 
Stuttgart.  June  24.  1654.  "Andrea-,"  says  Hallam,  "was  a 
man  above  his  age."'  H.  E.  J. 

Andre*,  Laurentius  (in  Swedish,  Lars  Anderson):  a 
Swedish  reformer;  b.  at  StrengTiiis,  1480.  He  was  converted 
to  Protestantism,  and  in  1524  was  appointed  Chancellor  (pf 
Sweden  by  Gustavus  Vasa.  He  produced  in  1526  a  Swedish 
translation  of  the  New  Testament.  D.  at  Strengniis,  Apr. 
29.  1552. 

Audreaui.  Andrea  :  engraver  on  wood ;  b.  at  JIantua 
about  1540 ;  d.  1623.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  in  chi- 
aro-souro,  in  which  Ijranch  of  the  art  he  is  one  of  the  great- 
est masters. 

An'dree.  Karl  Theodor:  German  writer;  b.  in  Bruns- 
wick. Oct.  20.  1808;  was  from  1888  to  1853  editor  of  several 
periodicals,  as  the  Bremer  Zeiiung  and  Deiiiarhe  Jieiehs- 
zeitung.  and  was.  1858,  appointed  consul  to  Chili.  Among 
liis  principal  works  are  Aordomerica  (2d  ed.  1854) ;  Buenos 
Ai/res  iiiid  die  Argiidin  Eepnblik  (1856);  Geographische 
Wanderiingen  (2  vols.,  1859);  and  Geograp/iie  des  Welt- 
handels  (Geographv  of  the  World's  Commerce,  2  \ols.. 
1863-69).     D.  at  Wildungen.  Aug.  10.  1875. 

Andr^ossy,  aiV-dray'o-se,  Antoixe  Francois.  Count  : 
French  military  engineer;  b.  at  Castelnaudary.  Mar.  6. 1761. 
He  served  in  Egj'pt  as  general  of  brigade  in  1798,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  Egypt.  He  was  the  chief  of 
Bonaparte's  staff  on  the  18th  Bnimaire.  1799,  obtained  the 
rank  of  general  of  division,  and  was  .sent  as  ambassador  to 
England  in  1802.  Between  1804  and  1814  he  represented 
France  at  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Constantinople.  In  1826 
he  was  chosen  a  memlier  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
wrote,  beside  other  works,  Constantinople  and  the  Thracian 
Bospliorus  during  tlie  Tears  lSl^-14  {1828).  D.  at  Jlontau- 
Ijau,  Sept,  10,  1828. 

Ali'dr^S,  Juan  :  Spanisli  Jesuit  distinguished  for  learn- 
ing; b.  at  Planes.  Fell.  15,  1740.  He  was  versed  in  Hebrew, 
(ireek.  Latin.  Italian,  and  French.  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  Spain  iu  1767  lie  removed  to  Italy.  He  pro- 
duced in  1776  an  alile  L'ssaij  on  f/ie  Bliito-soplig  of  Oalileo, 
in  Italian.  His  principal  work  is  On  f/ie  Origin.,  Progress, 
and  Present  State  of  all  Literature  (in  Italian,  7  vols,,  1782- 
99).  He  was  appoiiite<l  keeiier  of  the  roval  librarv  at  Naples 
iu  1806.     I).  Jan.  13,  1817. 

An'drew,  Saint  :  one  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  was,  like  his 
lirotlicr  Simon  Peter,  a  fisherman  of  Galilee.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  disciple  of  Christ.  The  latter 
part  of  liis  life  is  involved  in  obscurity.  According  to  tra- 
diticju,  lie  preached  the  gospel  in  Greece  and  Scylliia,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Patra>,  in  Aeliaia,  He  is  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland.  A  cross  formed  by  oblique  beams,  thus, 
X,  is  called  St.  Andrew's  cross,  because  he  is  said  to  have 
l)eeu  crucified  upon  one  so  shaped,  St.  Andrew's  dav  is 
Nov.  30. 

Andrew  (or  .\ndriis)  I.:  King  of  Hungary;  was  of  the 
family  of  Arpad.  He  l>egan  to  reign  in  1046.  and  waged 
war  against  the  Hmperor  Henry  III.     D.  in  1058. 

Andrew  II.  of  Hungary :  b.  about  1176.  and  became  king 
in  1205.  He  conducted  an  unsuccessful  cnisade  against  the 
Moliammedans  in  1217.  In  1222  he  convoked  a  diet,  to 
which  h(^  granted  the  (lolden  Bull,  called  the  Magna  Cliarta 
of  Hungary.  It  confirmed  tlie  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
Ihingariau  liishojis  and  nobility,  whose  revolts  had  disturbed 
his  reign.     1).  Mar.  7,  Vi'-Hi. 

Andrew  III.  of  Hungarv:  grandson  of  the  preceding;  b. 
in  Venice.  He  succeeded  fjadislas  III.  in  1290.  an<l  was  the 
laslking  of  the  dynasty  of  Arpad.     His  claim  to  the  throne 


was  opposed  by  the  nope,  who  supported  Charles  Martel 
(son  of  Charles  II.  of  Naples)  as  the  rival  of  Andrew.  The 
latter  defeated  Charles  Martel  in  battle  in  1291.  I).  Jan. 
14.  1301. 

Andrew.  James  Osgood,  D.B.  :  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South :  b.  in  Wilkes  co..  Ga..  May  3,  1794. 
He  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  South  Carolina 
Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  Dec.  12, 1812, 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  at  Philadelphia  in  Jlay,  1832. 
Having  become  connected  with  slaveiT  by  marriage,  the 
General  Conference  of  1844  took  such  action  in  his  case  as 
led  to  the  division  of  the  Jletliodist  Episcopal  Cliurch  and 
the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South, 
in  which  he  continued  to  exercise  his  episcopal  functions 
efficiently  tiU  the  session  of  the  General  Conference  in  New 
Orleans,  Ajir..  1866,  when  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list. 
He  died  at  Mobile.  Ala.,  Jlar.  2, 1871.  He  published  a  work 
on  Family  Government,  and  a  volume  of  Jlisrellanies. 

Andrew,  John  Albion.  LIj.  D.  :  .statesman ;  b.  at  Wind- 
ham, Me..  May  31, 1818;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1837.  studied  law.  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Boston  in 
1840.  Having  distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  slav- 
ery, he  was  elected  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by  the  Re- 
publicans in  1860.  In  answer  to  the  President's  call  for 
volunteers.  Apr.  15.  1861,  he  dispatched  five  regiments  in 
one  week  from  that  date.  He  was  again  elected  Governor 
in  1861,  and  was  afterward  thrice  annually  re-elected.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  he  rendered  important  services  to  the  cause 
of  the  Union  by  his  elocjuent  speeches  and  messages,  and 
gained  great  popularity  bv  his  assiduous  attention  to  the 
welfare  of  the  soldiers."  D.  in  Boston.  Mass..  Oct.  30,  1867, 
A  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  Legislature  of  Jlassachu- 
setts  adopted  a  resolution  "  that  in  his  decease  the  common- 
wealth and  the  nation  alike  have  suffered  an  irreparable 
loss:  that  his  rei«itation  had  become  national, and  we  might 
well  have  hoped  for  him  the  highest  national  offices  and 
honors." 

Andrew.  Order  of  Saint  :  a  Scottish  order  of  knight- 
hood (called  also  The  Order  of  the  Thistle),  named  in  honor 
of  St.  Andrew,  the  patron  saiiit  of  Scotland.  It  was  found- 
ed in  the  reign  of  James  V.,  was  revived  by  James  II.  of 
England  in  1687,  and  re-established  by  Queeii  Anne  in  1703. 
The  star  of  the  order  of  the  Thistle  consists  of  a  St.  Andrew's 
cross  of  silver  embroidery,  with  rays  emanating  between  the 
points  of  the  cross,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  thistle  of  gold 
and  green.  On  a  circle  which  surrounds  this  thistle  is  in- 
scribed the  motto  "Nemo  me  impune  lacessit"  (literally.  No 
one  provokes  me  with  impunity). 

Andrew.  Order  of  Saint:  a  Russian  order  founded  liy 
Peter  the  Great  in  1698:  the  highest  in  the  empire;  be- 
stowed only  on  the  imperial  family,  princes,  generals-in- 
chief,  and  persons  of  high  rank.  The  liadge  of  tliis  order 
Ijears  on  one  side  a  cross  enameled  in  blue,  and  in  the  four 
corners  of  the  cross  the  letters  S.  A.  P.  R.  (Sanetns  Andrea.'* 
Patronus  Russi(f).  On  the  reverse  is  a  spread-eagle,  with 
a  legend  signifying  "For  religion  and  loyalty.'' 

Andrews.  Charles.  LL.  D.:  b.  at  Whitestown.  Oneida 
CO.,  N.  Y..  Jlay  27.  1827:  studied  law  in  Syracuse.  N.  Y. : 
was  admitted"to  the  bar  in  1849.  He  was' in  jiartnership 
with  the  Hon.  Charles  R.  Sedgwick  from  1851  until  he  was 
elected.  ]\Iay  17,  1870,  associate  .iudge  of  New  York  Court 
of  Appeals."  Prior  to  this  he  had  held  various  official  posi- 
tions. He  was  district  attorney  of  Onondaga  co..  N.  Y., 
1853-56:  mayor  of  Syracuse  in  1861,  1862,  and  1868;  was  a 
delegate-at-large  to  the  constitutional  convention  of  1867- 
68.  and  was  appointed  cliief  judge  of  New  York  Court  of 
Apjieals  in  1881. 

Andrews.  Christopher  Colvmbus:  general  of  volunteer 
during  the  civil  war  (1861-66);  b.  at  Hillsborough,  N.  H., 
Oct.  27.  1829;  apjiointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
Jan.  5.  1864.  mustered  out  Jan.  15.  1866.  Was  U.  S.  minis- 
ter to  Sweden  1869-76.  and  became  U.S.  consul-general  for 
Brazil,  1882. 

Andrews.  Edward  Gayer.  D.  D..  Lli.  D.  :  jireaclier  and 
bishop  of  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  :  b.  in  New  Hartford, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  7.  1825;  graduated  at  the  Wesleyau  University. 
Connecticut,  in  1847;  entered  the  ministry  in  1848:  be- 
came teacher  iu  the  Oneida  Conference  Seminary.  Cazenovia, 
X.  Y..  in  18.54:  was  elected  its  president  in  1855;  resumed 
the  pastorate  in  New  York  East  Conference  in  1864;  and 
was  elected  bishop  in  1872.  Since  1888  he  has  resided  in 
New  York  city. 


ANDKEWS 


ANDROXICUS  I. 


211 


Andrews.  Elisha  Benjamin,  D.D..  LL.D.:  president  of 
Hiijvvii  University  :  b.  at  Hinsdale,  Chesliiri'  lo.,  X.  II.,  .Jan. 
10.  IS44  :  prepared  for  eollenre.  but  entered  tiie  army  in  IStil 
and  served  till  l!^ti4,  rising  from  jjrivate  lo  second  lieuten- 
ant;  was  wounded  at  Petersliurj;.  Aug.  24.  1864.  suffering 
the  loss  of  an  eye ;  graduated  at  Brown  Univursity.  Provi- 
ilenee,  I{.  I.,  1870 ;  at  Xewton  Theological  Institute,  Xewlon, 
-Mass..  1874;  principal  of  Connecticut  Literary  Institute, 
SulTield,  Conn.,  1870-72:  pastor  of  First  Baptist  church. 
Beverly.  Mass..  1874-7.5 ;  president  of  Denison  University, 
Granville,  ().,  187.')-7!l;  Professor  of  Ilomileties  in  Xew- 
ton Theological  Institute  I87!)-82:  Professor  of  Hi.story 
and  Political  Economy  in  Brown  University  1882-88,  spend- 
ing one  year  in  studying  at  Berlin  and  JIunich ;  Professor 
of  Political  Econoinv  ami  Finance  in  Cornell  University 
188.H-89;  president  of  Brown  University  1889;  one  of  the 
coninii.ssioners  sent  by  the  U.  S.  Govi'rnment  to  the  mone- 
tary conference  at  Brussels,  1802:  author  of  Jnxlifiifcs  of 
Our  Const  it  utiunril  History ,  English  and  American  (1887); 
Institutes  of  General  History  (1889);  Institutes  of  Eco- 
nomics (1889).  C.  H.  Thurber. 

.\iidrews.  Ethan  Allen,  LL.D.:  scholar;  b.  at  Xew 
Britain.  Conn..  Apr.  7.  17ijf7;  graduated  at  Vale  College  in 
ISIO.  and  taught  initil  1839,  when  he  retired  to  his  initive 
town  and  gave  himself  to  the  production  of  text-books  in 
Latin.  His  most  important  work  was  his  Latin-English 
lexicon  (18.')0),  based  on  Freund.  With  Stoddard  he  brought 
oul  a  well-known  Latin  grammar.  D.at  Xew  15ritain,Coun., 
.Mar.  2.5.  18.58. 

AndrPHS.  George L.:  general:  b.  at  Bridgewater.  JIass., 
Aug.  ol.  1828;  graduated  first  in  his  class  at  West  Point  in 
18.51.  lie  was  acting  assistant  Professor  of  Engineering 
at  West  Point  (18.54-.5o).  and  for  distinguished  sen-ices  in 
the  Array  of  tlie  Potomac  became  brigadier-general  and 
lirevet  major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1871  he  Wiis  a|)- 
pointed  brevet  major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1871  he  was 
ajipointed  Professor  of  French,  and  in  1882  Professor  of 
Jlndcni  Languages,  at  West  Point. 

.VndlTWS,  James  Petit:  historical  writer:  b.  near  X'cw- 
l)ury.  in  Berkshire,  England,  in  1737.  He  published  an 
amusing  Collection  of  Anecdotes,  etc.,  Ancient  and  Modern 
(1789).  His  most  im|iortant  work  is  a  Ilistory  of  Great 
ISritain  in  Connection  with  the  Clironologij  of  Europe  (1 
vol..  1794.  uiifinislied).     D.  Aug.  .5.  1797. 

.\iidr('«s.  .Joseph:  b.  at  Hiugham,  JIass..  Aug.  17.  1806; 
d.  there  May  9,  1873.  Me  was  apprenticed  to  an  I'Ugraver 
in  1821.  studied  his  art  in  London  (1836-37).  and  subse- 
quently became  a  line-engraver  in  Boston,  Mass. 

AudrPHS.  or  Audrpwps,  Lancelot:  a  learned  English 
Iheologjau:  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  English  prelates: 
li.  ill  I^ondou,  Sept.  2.5,  1  •5.5.5;  educated  at  Cambridge  and 
llxford.  He  was  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
who  appointed  him  Dean  of  Westminster,  lie  was  one  of 
I  he  divines  selected  to  translate  the  Bible  under  the  auspices 
of  .lames  I.,  and  became  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  160.5.  In 
1(!09  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Ely,  and  apjiointed  a 
privy  councilor;  was  considered  the  most  learned  Englisli 
llieologian  of  his  time,  except  Usshcr.  and  had  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  pulpit  orator.  His  wr)rks.  though  uiu-riticaily 
I'dilcil  and  but  fragmeulary,  place  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
English  theologians.  He  became  Bishop  of  Winchester  in 
1618;  he  was  the  author  of  religious  works,  among  which 
was  a  Manual  of  Private  Devotions  and  Meditations  for 
Every  Day  in  the  Week.  In  ]iolemics  he  assailed  Bellar- 
mine  in  his  Responsio  ad  Apoloyiani,  a  treatise  never  an- 
swered. On  X'ov.  23.  1600.  Andrews  preached  at  Whitehall 
his  memorable  sermon  on  justification,  maintaining  the 
evangelical  view  as  opposed  lo  Ihc  sacerdolal.  Andrews, 
in  Ihc  Landielh  .\rlicles,  which  mark  an  epoch  in  English 
Church  history,  adopted  the  doctrine  of  St.  August ine  as 
modified  by  Aquinas.     D.  in  London,  Sept.  2.5,  1626. 

W.  S.  Pehkv. 

.4ndrpws.  Lorrin:  b.  in  East  Windsor,  Conn..  .Vpr.  29. 
179.5:  educated  at  .Jeflerson  College.  Pa.,  and  at  Princeton; 
sailed  as  a  missionary  to  Hawaii  in  1827;  founded  in  1831 
the  Lahainaluna  Seminaiy,  which  became  the  Hawaii  L'ni- 
versily,  in  which  he  was  a  professor.  He  was  long  a  judge 
and  |)rivy  councilor  under  the  Government,  and  published 
|iartsof  the  Bible  in  the  native  tongue,  wrote  a  Hawaiian 
dictionary,  and  various  works  on  the  history,  etc.,  of  the 
Saudwicli  islands.     1).  at  Honolulu,  .Sept.  29,  1868. 


Andrews,  Xewton  Lloyd,  Ph. D..  LL.D. ;  Baptist  edu- 
cator: b.  at  Fabius.  X''.  Y..  Aug.  14. 1841 ;  graduated  at  Col- 
gate University.  1862,  and  Hamilton  Theological  .Seminary, 
1864;  principal  of  Preparatory  School,  Colgate  University, 
1864-69;  Professor  of  Greek  Language  and  Literature,  Col- 
gate Uniyersitv.  since  1868;  Dean  of  Faculty,  Colgate  L'^ni- 
versity,  from  1880  to  1892.  "      W.  H.  W. 

Andrews.  Thomas.  LL.D.:  chemist;  b.  in  1813,  and  d. 
at  Belfast.  Ireland,  X'ov.  26.  188.5.  From  1835  to  1844  he 
practiced  medicine,  and  from  184,5  to  1879  was  Professor  of 
(.'hemistiy  in  Queen's  CoUege,  Belfast,  His  princiijal  work 
was  on  ozone,  and  on  the  continuity  of  the  liquid  and  gas- 
eous conditions  of  matter.  He  was  an  honorary  LL.D.  of 
the  Universities  of  Dublin,  Glasgow',  and  Edinburgh,  a 
F.  R.  L.  and  F.  K.  S.  E.,  etc. 

Andrews,  Thomas,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  C.  S.  :  engineer ;  b.  in  Shef- 
field, 1847 :  educated  at  Broomhaiik  School  and  by  private 
tutors,  and  was  carefully  trained  liy  his  father  in  metal- 
lurgy, mining,  and  engineering.  In  1871  ho  succeeded  his 
fatlier  as  proprietor  of  the  Wort  ley  iron-works  and  Silk- 
stone  colliery.  He  has  devoted  much  research  to  questions 
involving  the  resistance  of  metals  in  railway  construction, 
electro-magnetism,  and  heat  dilalalion  of  metals,  and  is  the 
author  of  mimerous  scientific  papers. 

An'dria  :  a  town  of  Southern  Italy  :  in  Bari.  14  miles  by 
rail  E.  of  Canosa  (see  nnip  of  Italy,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  lias  a  fine  cathedral,  built  in  1046;  also  a 
college.  In  the  vicinity  are  numerous  caverns  (in  Latin, 
antra),  from  wliich  the  name  is  said  to  be  derived.  Pop. 
39,493. 

An'dro.  or  An'dros  :  an  island  of  Greece  ;  in  the  archi- 
pelago, about  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Euhtt»a;  is  the  most  north- 
ern of  the  Cyclades.  Length,  21  miles ;  width.  8  miles ;  area, 
1.56  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly,  the  soil  is  fertile.  An- 
dros  is  also  the  name  of  a  town  and  port  on  the  eastern 
coast.  Lat.  of  Cajic  Giiardia.  its  X.  W.  point,  37°  58'  N., 
Ion.  24'  43'  E.     Pop.  of  the  island,  22.2.56. 

An'drocles.  or  AuMroclns:  a  Roman  slave,  whose  ad- 
ventures and  friendship  with  a  lion  are  mentioned  by  Aulus 
Gellius.  He  ran  away  from  his  master  into  Africa,  and 
there  entered  a  cave  in  which  he  met  a  lion  that  was 
lame.  The  lion  presented  to  him  a  paw,  from  which  An- 
drocles  extracted  a  thorn.  To  recompense  him  for  this 
service  the  lion  afterward  sup]ilicd  the  man  with  food  as 
long  as  he  remained  in  that  region.  Androcles  finally  was 
captured  and  was  condemned  to  fight  with  a  lion  in  the 
amiihitheater  of  Rome.  This  lion  proved  to  be  the  same 
that  he  had  met  in  the  cave,  and,  though  purposely  kept 
from  food  to  increase  his  ferocity,  he  instantly  recognized 
his  benefactor  as  a  dog  would  his  masler.  The  man  was 
then  pardoned,  and  both  the  man  and  the  lion  were  lib- 
erated. 

Androni'aellP  ((ir.  'Ai/Spo^axi)  ■  "  celeluated  and  lieau- 
tiful  Trojan  :  wife  of  Hector,  and  one  of  the  most  ad- 
mired characters  of  the  Iliad.  After  the  di'struclion  of 
Troy  she  Ix'came  the  captive  of  Pyrrhus.  and  finally  the 
wife  of  Ilelenus.  a  son  of  Priam.  She  is  the  subject  of  a 
tragedy  of  Euri]iiiles  of  that  name. 

Androiu'eda  {Or.  'AvSpofi^Sri):  in  classic  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Cepheus,  King  of  Ethioiiia.  and  of  Cassiopeia. 
She  lioasted  (hat  she  was  more  beautiful  than  the  Xereids. 
Xeptune.  to  avenge  this  affront,  sent  a  sea-monster  to 
plague  the  Ethiopians.  The  oracle  of  Amnion  having  de- 
clarecl  that  the  sacrifice  of  Andromeda  would  ajipcase  Xep- 
tune. she  was  chained  lo  a  rock,  but  was  rescued  by  Per- 
seus, and  after  death  was  transformed  into  a  con.stellation. 
The  constellation  Andromeda  may  be  seen  during  the  au- 
tumn and  early  winter,  and  recognized  by  three  stars  of  the 
second  magnilude  extending  in  a  row  from  the  X.  E.  comer 
of  the  sijuare  of  Pegasus  toward  Perseus.  S.  N. 

.Viidronieda  :  a  genus  of  shnilxs  of  the  order  Ericaceae, 
found  ill  .\iiierica,  Euro])e.  and  Asia.  The  Andrrnneda  poli- 
folia.  common  to  both  hemispheres,  has  fine  rose-colored 
flowers.  The  Andromeda  ilorihunda  of  the  L'.  S.  also  has 
aliundant  and  very  fine  flowers,  ajipearing  in  April.  The 
Andronie<la  nitida  of  the  Southern  States  has  fragrant  blos- 
soms. The  V.  S.  has  at  least  eighl  species,  souu'  of  which 
ant  reputed  poisonous  to  cattle. 

Androni'cus  I.,  Comnenis  (Gr.  'AySptinms  Ko^yv^'is)'  "• 
Byzaliline  emperor;  grandson  of  .Mexis  I..  Comnenus.  He 
Inul  superior  talents,  luit  was  profligate  and  cruel.     In  his 


212 


ANDRONICUS  II. 


ANGEL 


youth  he  engaged  in  treasonable  intrigues  against  the  Em- 
peror Manuel,  who  confined  him  in  prison  many  years. 
Having  been  a])i)ointi'(l  regent  during  the  minority  oX 
Alexis  11.,  he  murdered  that  prince  and  usurped  the  throne 
in  1183.  He  abused  his  power  by  the  execution  of  many 
Greek  nobles,  victims  of  liis  revenge  or  jealousy,  and  carriecl 
his  ei-uelty  to  such  excess  tliat  his  subjects  revolted  and  tor- 
tured him  to  death  Sept.  13,  1185. 

Androiiiciis  II.,  Pal.eologus  :  a  son  of  the  Emperor 
Michael ;  b.  about  1260.  He  began  to  reign  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1283.  He  waged  war  against  the  Turks  without 
decisive  result.  His  reign  was  inglorious,  and  he  was  de- 
throned in  1328  bv  liis  grandson,  Audronicus  111.  D.  Feb, 
13,  1332. 

Audroulcns  III..  Pal.i:ologus :  a  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding; became  Emperor  of  Constantinople  in  1328,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Turks  in  1330.  His  reign  was  disas- 
trous, and  the  Turks  conquered  several  of  his  provinces. 
D.  June  15.  1341, 

Androiii'eiis  Rlio'dius  (i,  e.  of  Rhodes) :  a  Greek  Peri- 
patetic philosopher  who  lived  about  60  B.  c.  He  collected 
and  arranged  the  works  of  Aristotle, 

Andropo'gOll  [from  Gr,  ai/rip.  apSp6s,  man  +  iraiyo>v.  lieard, 
i,  e.  having  a  beard  like  a  man]  :  an  extensive  genus  of 
grasses  (according  to  Hackel,  193  species),  mostly  coarse  and 
many  of  them  tropical.  The  U.  S.  has  about  nineteen  spe- 
cies, some  of  which  are  known  as  blue-stem  grasses,  and  are 
valuable  for  hay  iipon  the  plains.  As  extended  by  Hackel, 
the  genus  includes  sorghum  cane,  and  broom  corn,  A. 
sorghum,  of  many  varieties,  A.  schfenanthus  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Ceylon  and  other  Oriental  regions  for  its  oil. 
It  is  called  oil  of  citronella.  and  is  chiefly  used  in  perfuming 
the  so-called  "  honey-soap."  Other  foreign  species  are  cul- 
tivated for  their  oils,  which  are  sold  as  "oil  of  verbena,'" 
"  lemon-grass,''  •'  geranium,"  etc. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

An'dros,  Sir  Edmund:  an  English  governor;  b,  in  Lon- 
don, Dec,  6, 1637,  lie  was  Governor  of  New  York  from  16T4 
to  1682,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  England  in 
1686.  His  arbitrary  and  oppressive  conduct,  which  ren- 
dered him  very  unpo]mlar,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  he  was  ciimpclled  to  cariT  out  the  orders  of  his 
royal  master,  the  Duke  of  York,  His  private  character  was 
excellent.  On  Apr,  18,  1689,  the  people  of  Boston  revolted 
and  deposed  him.  He  was  sent  to  England  for  trial  the 
next  vear.  but  was  never  tried.  He  governed  Virginia  from 
1693  to  1698.  From  1704  to  1706  he  was  governor  of  the 
island  of  Jersey;  afterward  he  lived  in  London  ;  died  there 
Feb.  24,  1714.  S.  M.  J. 

Aiidros.  Thomas:  b.  at  Norwich.  Conn.,  May  1,  1759; 
joined  the  American  army  at  Cambridge,  Mass,,  in  1775, 
and  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Long  Island,  White 
Plains,  a7id  also  in  other  engagements;  enlisted  in  a  New 
London  privateer  in  1781;  was  taken  prisoner  and  con- 
fined at  >.ew  York  in  the  Jersey  prison-ship,  but  soon  after 
escaped;  studied  theologv  at  Plainfield,  and  preached  at 
Berkley,  Mass,,  from  1788  to  1834,  and  there  died  Dec,  30, 
1845.   ■ 

AndroSCOgr'gin  :  a  river  which  rises  in  Umbagog  Lake, 
and  flows  soutli ward  through  Coos  co.,  N.  H.,  to  the  west- 
ern bounilary  of  Maine,  which  it  crosses.  Running  then 
in  a  general  S.  ¥..  dii-ection.  it  passes  through  Oxford  and 
Androscoggin  counties  in  Maine,  and  entei-s  the  Kennebec 
river  4  mih's  above  Bath,     Its  length  is  145  miles, 

Andujar'  (anc,  Illilur'r/is) :  a  town  of  Spain  ;  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Jaen,  on  the  Guadalquivir,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Jlorena,  27  miles  N.  W,  of  Jaen  (see  map  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  ref.  18-K).  It  has  a  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  and 
porous  jars  and  pitchers,  of  which  great  numbers  are  made 
here,  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  water.    Pop.  15,865. 

Anel,  poMiNi(ii,-E :  French  stirgeon  and  oculist ;  b.  at 
Toulcu.se  in  1678;  practiced  in  Paris.  He  invented  a  probe 
and  syringe,  and  was  skillful  in  the  treatment  of  aneurism 
aniX  JUluI a  lachrymalis.    D.  about  1728. 

Aneino'motcr  [from  Gr.  Si/c^uoj,  wind  -t-  fterpov.  measure]: 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  It 
has  taken  veiy  many  forms,  but  the  most  usual,  called 
Robinson's  anemometer,  froin  its  inventor,  consists  of  four 
hollow  cups,  on  equal  horizontal  arms,  turning  on  a  vertical 
axis.  The  rotation  of  the  cups  is  suppo.sed  to  bear  a  fixed 
relation  to  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  and  a  dial  indicates 


the  miles  of  wind  on  this  principle.  Unfortunately  this 
relation  is  not  so  simple,  but  varies  with  the  insti-uraent  and 
with  the  velocity  of  the  wind  itself,  and  in  practice  a  cor- 
responding reduction  is  used,  When  a  continuous  record 
of  the  velocity  is  made  automatically,  the  instrument  is 
called  an  anem'ograph.  A  novel  form  of  the  instrument  is 
one  which  measures  only  vertical  currents  and  these  have 
been  found  to  be  not  infrequent.  An  instrument  giving 
the  direction  of  the  wind  only  (that  is  a  wind-vane)  is  some- 
times called  an  anemoscope.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Alioiu'one  [Gr.  dve/ttonj.  the  wind-flower ;  from  iueuos, 
wind]:  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the  family  i^o/ij/n- 
ciiliicece,  natives  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and  South 
America,  The  species  of  anemone  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  have  beautiful  flowers,  the  size  of  wliieh  is  increased 
by  cultivation.  The  Anemune  horiensis,  or  garden  anem- 
one, is  highly  prized  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Hol- 
land, It  prefers  a  light  soil.  Among  the  other  beautifid 
species  are  tlie  Anemone  coroiiaria,  sometimes  called  pojipy 
anemone;  the  Anemone  japonica.  a,  native  of  Japan;  the 
Anemone pratensis,vi\i\c\i\yAs  blue  flowers;  the  Anemone 
Pulsatilla  (pasque  flower),  which  grows  wild  in  England, 
ami  has  purple  flowers:  and  the  Aiii'iiioiik  nemorosa  (wood 
anemone),  which  has  white  flowers.  In  North  America  are 
found  several  species  peculiar  lo  this  hemisphere,  besides 
some  which  are  common  also  in  the  Old  World,  Pulsatilla, 
a  favorite  remedy  with  homoeopathists,  is  produced  by  a 
jjlant  of  this  genus. 

Anemone,  properly  Sea-anemone:  a  marine  radiated 
animal  belonging  to  the  class  Aetinozoa.    See  Actiniid.e, 

Aiieni'oscope  [from  Gr.  fi«^s,  wind  -I-  a-KoirSs.  observer, 
used  as  final  element  of  compounds  in  .sense  "  obsei-ving  "]  : 
an  instrument  which  indicates  the  direction  of  the  wind,  as 
a  vane  or  weathercock,  .Sometimes  the  vane  turns  a  spindle 
which  descends  through  the  roof  of  the  house  into  the 
cliaiuber  of  the  observer.  An  index  fixed  to  the  spindle  in- 
dicates the  direction  of  the  wind  on  a  compass-card  fixed  to 
llie  ceiling. 

Aneroid  Barometer:  See  Barometer. 

Anet:  a  town  of  France;  department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  9 
miles  N.  E,  of  Dreux  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  3-E).  Near  it 
is  the  ]ilain  of  Ivry,  where  Henry  IV.  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  army  of  the  League  in  1590.    Pop.  about  1,500. 

An'eiirisui  [from  Gr.  affvpvtrnis,  a  widening:  ai/a-,  back -(- 
eipvs,  wide.  The  spelling  with  -ism  for  -i/sni  is  tlue  to  false 
association  with  suffix  -/.<;«]:  a  pulsating  tumor  filled  with 
blood,  and  communicating  more  or  less  directly  witli  an 
artery,  the  tunics  of  which  are  wholly  or  partially  destroyed. 
A  '■  true ''  aneurism  has  one  or  more  arterial  coats  in  its 
wall.  A  "  false  "  aneurism  has  a  wall  of  condensed  areolar 
tissue,  the  arterial  coat  having  disappeared.  A  "  traumatic" 
aneurism  originates  in  a  wound  or  other  accidental  injury. 
A  "  varicose  "  aneurism  comnumicates  with  both  an  aitery 
and  a  vein.  When  such  dilatations  occur  in  groups  or 
knots,  it  is  a  "  cirsoid  "  aneurism.  When  the  blood  gets  be- 
tween the  coats  of  an  artery,  and  thus  forms  a  tumor,  it  is  a 
"  dis.secting  "  aneurism.  The  heart  and  its  valves  are  liable 
to  aneurismal  dilatations. 

Aneurisms,  not  due  to  injury,  may  usually  be  traced  to  de- 
generation of  the  coats  of  the  artery.  They  are  most  frequent 
in  the  aorta  near  the  heart,  and  give  rise  to  a  variety  of  dis- 
tressing symptoms  due  to  pressure,  and  may  cause  sudden 
death  by  nipture.  Sometimes  clots  become  deposited  in  the 
s.ic,  and"  thus  temporarily  or  pennanently  arrest  the  disease, 
lint  this  is  rare.  The  iliti'erent  methods  of  treatmentall  have 
this  one  common  aim,  to  promote  clotting  in  the  sac.  This 
may  be  accomiilishod  by  hgation  of  the  vessels  above  or 
below  the  sac,  or  both  ;  it  may  lie  similarly  induced  by  digi- 
tal pressure;  or  it  in.ay  be  brought  about  by  introduction  of 
foreign  bodies,  or  in  various  other  way,s.  The  volume  of  the 
blood  may  be  lessened,  and  the  distension  of  the  sac  de- 
creased, by  prolonged  fasting. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Angara',  or  Upper  Tnngns'ka  :  a  river  of  Siberia;  di- 
vided into  the  Upper  and  Lower.  The  Upper  falls  into 
Lake  Baikal ;  the  Lower  flows  from  t  he  lake  about  30  miles  S. 
of  Irkiitsk.  Passing  by  that  town,  it  flows  first  northward, 
and  afterward  in  a  westerly  direction,  and  enters  the  Yeni- 
sei, of  which  it  is  the  principal  tributary.  Length,  about 
1,000  miles, 

An'gel  [from  Itai.  nngehis  =  Or.  6776^05,  messenger] :  a 
ministering  spirit;  a  spiritual,  intelligent  being  employed 


ANGELA  MERICI 


ANGHIERA 


213 


by  God  to  carry  coniinands,  to  announce  glad  tidings,  and 
administer  comfort  lo  men.  The  Scriptures  record  many 
instances  in  wliicli  angels  became  visilde  lo  men  (e.  g.  Gen. 
xviii. ;  x.Kxii.  1,  2).  Tlio  ancient  Hebrews  believed  in  the 
existence  of  several  orders  of  angels,  among  which  were  the 
seraphim  and  clierubim,  and  archangels.  The  only  angels 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Hiblc  are  Michael  and  Gabi'iel. 
Kaphael  is  mentioned  in  Toliit,  a  book  of  the  Apocrypha. 
The  popular  notion  that  angels  have  wings  is  rather  a  poet- 
ical invention  than  a  revealed  truth.  The  belief  in  guanlian 
angels  has  been  cherished  by  Jews  and  Christians  of  all  ages. 
Cf^  Matt,  xviii.  10. 

Anuel,  an  ancient  English  gold  coin,  so  called  from  the 
figure  of  the  andiangel  Michael  piercing  the  dragon,  which 
was  on  its  obverse.  The  value  of  the  angel  (which  con- 
tinued to  be  coined  until  1C.")0)  varied  from  6«.  8d.  to  10.s. 

Aii'^ela  Mcricl,  or  Angola  of  Brescia :  b.  at  Desenzano. 
on  Lake  Ganla,  Lombardy,  Italy,  Jlar.  31,  1470;  founder  of 
the  order  of  the  Ursulines  (an  order  of  celibate  women  in 
the  Koman  Calholic  Church):  entered  a  Franciscan  convent, 
but  returned  to  the  world  and  began  to  teach  young  children; 
was  called  for  that  oci'upation  to  Brescia,  where  she  spent  the 
rest  of  her  life.  With  eleven  otluu-  maidens  she  organized, 
Nov.  25, 1537,  at  Brescia,  an  association  under  the  patronage 
of  .St.  Ursula  for  teaching  small  chUdren,  nursing  the  sit-lc, 
and  hel|)ing  the  poor,  and  she  became  its  superior  in  1537. 
It  was  at  first  not  strictly  a  religious  order,  but  soon  be- 
came so.  D.  at  Brescia,  Jan.  27,  1540;  canonized  1807. 
The  order  was  confirmed  l)y  Paul  III.  in  1544. 

Angel-flsll  (StjUdti'na  aiigehis),  called  also  Monk-fish  : 
a  kind  of  shark  with  the  flattened  body  of  a  ray,  touml  on 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  on  both  shores  of  North  America. 


The  angel-fish. 


Its  expanded  pectorals  suggest  the  conventional  form  of 
the  wings  of  angels,  hence  the  name.  It  is  a  sluggish  and 
inoffensive  fish.  The  name  angel-fish  is  also  applied  to 
<'h(vtodiplcrnn  fabi'.r  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts 
of  North  America,  and  to  other  cha'todont  fishes  of  the  trop- 
ics distinguished  by  bi'ight  coloration.  D.  S.  J. 

Aligel'ica  [Media^v.  Lat.  Iierba  antji'Iiea,  angelic  herb, 
on  account  of  snppose<l  beneficent  properties]:  a  genus  of 
]ilants  of  the  family  L'mhellifirw,  natives  of  the  north  tem- 
(lerale  zone.  They  are  mostly  herliaceous  and  jierennial, 
liaving  bipiniiatc  or  trijiiiiiuite  leaves.  The  Angi-Ui-n  arrh- 
aiij/e/icri  (garden  angelica)  grows  to  the  height  of  6  feet,  has 
gri^enish  llowers,  is  aromatic,  and  contains  resin  and  essen- 
tial oil.  Its  root  is  us(!d  in  medicine  asan  aromatic  stimulant 
and  tonic.  This  plant  was  formerly  euhivated  for  the  table, 
being  blanched  and  used  as  celery.  The  U.  S.  has  several 
speeii^s  of  Aiif/c/ird^  and  Arc/inru/elica,  a  kindred  genus.  It 
yields  angelica  balsam  and  angelic  acid. 

Angolica-troo,  ov  HciTules's-pliil) :  a  small  tree  or  l;irge 
shrub,  found  fruiii  h'lorida  to  Pennsylvania-  and  westward. 
It  is  the  Arulia  .tpiiiu/ia  of  the  family  Arallacece.  It  has  a 
stout  trunk,  covered,  like  the  branches,  with  prickles,  and 
its  leaves  arc  very  large  and  decompound.  Its  llowers 
appear  in  July  and  .\ugust  in  great  clusters,  composed  of 
very  numerous  umbels.  This  tree  is  common  ni  culti- 
vation. 

Angelico,  Fka  :  See  Fiesole,  Pra  Giovanni  da. 

An'^oil,  James  Burrill,  LL.  D.  :  author  and  scholar: 
b.  at  Sciiuate,  K.  I.,  Jan.  7,  1!?29;  graduated  at  Brown 
I'liiversily  :  studied  two  years  in  Europe;  was  Professor  of 
^lodern  Languages  aiul  Literature  at  Brown  University 
(1S53-C0) ;  editor  of  the  Prucidcnce  Daily  ./owraa/  (1860-6G) ; 


presi<lent  of  the  University  of  Vermont  (1866-71) ;  and  be- 
came president  of  the  LTniversity  of  Michigan  in  1871.  He 
is  the  author  of  various  articles  in  the  North  American  Re- 
view and  other  (luarterlies,  as  well  as  of  a  Manual  of 
French  Lileraturii  (1857),  and  I'miircas  in  International 
Law  (1875).  U.  S.  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  China  1880-83.  He  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  U.  S.  Fishery  Commission  by  President  Cleveland, 
Sept.,  1887.  Kegent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  since  Sept., 
1887. 

Angcll,  Joseph  Kinxicut:  lawyer;  b.  at  Providence,  R. L 
Apr.  :iO,  17!t4;  graduated  !it  Brown  University  in  1813. 
Among  his  works  are  a  Tr^atim  on  the  I-iiyhf  of  Property  in 
Tide  Water.-i  (1826),  and  'The  Liiiiitatiiin  of  Action.i  at 
Law  and  in  Equity  and  Admiralty.  1).  in  Boston,  Mass., 
May  1,  1857. 

Angelo:  See  Mkhelaxoelo. 

Aii'gelliS  (or  Aiiyeliis  Domini,  i.  c.  angel  of  the  Lord): 
in  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  a  devotion  in  memory  of  the 
Annunciation,  consisting  of  three  descriptive  scriptural 
texts  alternating  with  the  salutation  "  Hail  Mary  "  (Ave 
Maria),  followed  by  a  versicle  and  response  with  prayer. 
Hence  the  bell  tolled  in  the  morning,  noon,  and  evening  to 
indicate  the  hour  for  the  devotion.  It  was  formerly  rung 
at  sunrise,  nor)n.  and  sunset,  but  now  more  generally  at  tlie 
appointed  time  of  six  o'clock  at  morning  and  evening,  and 
at  no(m.  The  sound  of  the  angelus  bell  reaching  the  ears 
of  a  man  and  woman  working  in  a  field  is  the  subject  of  the 
celebrated  painting  by  Millet.  C.  H.  T. 

Angelus  Sllesius  (properly  Johann.  Scheffler):  promi- 
nent German  poet;  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg ; 
b.  at  Breslau,  Silesia,  1624;  w-as  bi-ought  up  a  Protestant, 
but  in  16.53  joined  the  Ronuin  Catholic  Church,  being  led 
thereto  by  his  studies  in  mediaeval  mysticism.  He  took 
priest's  orders  and  changed  his  name  as  above.  He  pre- 
sents the  philosophic  views  of  Meister  Eckhart  and  Tauler 
in  his  mystical  devotional  works,  among  •which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Cherubic  Traveler  (1674),  iind  the  Sensuotis  De- 
scription of  the  Four  Last  Thinys  (1675).  But  it  is  as  a 
poet  that  lie  lives,  and  some  of  his  devotional  songs  still 
belong  to  the  treasures  of  (jJernuin  hymnology.  English 
translations  of  selections  from  his  famous  rhymed  proverbs 
will  be  found  in  the  JIassarhnsett.i  (Quarterly  (Sept.,  184!t), 
and  Journal  of  Speculative  Philosophy  (vols,  iv.,  xii.).  I). 
at  Breslau,  July  9,  1677.  Special  works  on  hira  have  been 
written  in  German  by  Kahlert  (1853),  Schrader  (1853),  and 
Trelilin  (1877).  Revised  by  Julius  Goebel. 

An'gprmann  :  a  navigable  river  of  Sweden  ;  rises  in  the 
mountains  between  Sweden  and  Norway,  collects  the  water 
of  several  lakes,  and  flowing  southeastward  enters  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  near  Hernosand.  Length,  about  350  miles.  Its 
banks  abound  with  beautifid  scenery. 

Angers,  formerly  Anglers  (aiic.  Jvliom'agus) :  a  city  of 
France;  ca)>ital  of  the  ilepartnient  of  Maine-et-Loire,  and 
once  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Anjou.  It  is  on  the 
Mayenne  river,  4  miles  N.  of  ihe  Loire,  and  on  the  railwa\' 
which  connects  Tours  and  Nantes,  60  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of 
Ijc  Mans  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  4— D).  The  okl^  walls  are 
converted  into  boulevards  lined  with  handsome  houses.  It. 
has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  a  library  of  about  35,000  volumes, 
a  nniseum.  and  a  school  of  arts  .'ind  ti-ades ;  also  manufactures 
of  linen  and  woolen  stuffs,  hosiery,  silk  twist,  leather,  etc. 
Here  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  of  the  Dukes  of 
Anjou,  and  the  Hospice  of  St.  Jean,  founded  by  Henry  II. 
of  Englaiul.  Lord  Challuun  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
attended  a  military  school  in  Angers.  Pop.  of  commune 
(1881)68,04!);  (1886)  73,044:  (1801)72,669. 

Angers.  Auguste  IIeai.':  Canadian  st.atesman;  b.  in  Que- 
bec, Oct.  4,  1838;  educated  there  and  at  Nicolet  College ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  1860;  appointed  queen's  counsel  1874; 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assend)ly  1874-79;  and 
solicitor-general  from  Se]it.  22.  1874,  until  March,  1876, 
when  the  ndnistry  was  dismissed  by  Lieut.-Gov.  Letellier  de 
St.  Just.  He  was  a|>pointed  judge  of  the  .Superior  Court  of 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  Nov.  13,  1880,  and  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor Oct.  20,  1887,  an  ollice  which  he  held  until  Dec,  1893, 
when  he  entered  the  Dominion  cabinet  as  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture. Neil  Macdonald. 

Aiigllie'ra,  Pietro  Martire,  de  :  Italian  scholar  and  his- 
torian ;  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Arona,  on  Lake  Maggiore,  in 
14.55.  He  emigrated  to  Spain  in  1487,  and  became  a  priest. 
In  1501  he  was  sent  by  King  Ferdinand  on  a  mission  to  the 


21i 


ANGILBERT 


ANGLICAN  CUURCH 


Sultan  of  Ejjypt.  ami  in  1505  he  was  apiiointed  in-ior  of  the 
ohuix-h  of  Granada.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Council 
iif  the  Indies.  Ilis  most  important  work  is  a  history  of  the 
New  World  and  American  discovery,  entitled  I)e  Rebus 
OretinictK  ft  Urhe  Xoro  Decades  (1530),  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed,    n.  in  1526. 

An'g'ilbert,  or  Eii'g-ilbert.  Saixt:  statesman  and  Latin 

Soet :  b.  in  Northwestern  (iaul.  He  married  Bertha,  a 
aughter  of  Charlemagne,  and  afterward  became  a  confi- 
dential minister  of  that  monarch.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  entered  a  monastery.  He  wrote  several  short 
poems,  and  was  called  the  Homer  of  his  time.  D.  Feb.  18, 
814  A.  II. 

Augri'lin  [Liit.  lit)  (/ina.  a  choking,  quinsy;  irom  an  (/ere, 
strangle] :  any  di.seasc  attended  by  a  sense  of  sirffoeation. 
See  nest  article. 

Angi'lia  Ppc'toris  (angina  of  the  breast) :  called  also 
Breast  Paiiir  and  Heart  Stroke :  an  intense  pain  occurring 
in  paroxysms,  and  usually  commencing  in  the  region  of  the 
heart  or  at  the  lower  end  of  the  breast-lione,  and  extending 
along  the  left  arm,  more  rarely  going  toward  the  right  side. 
It  is  characterized  by  a  sense  of  suffocation,  faintness.  and 
by  the  apprehension  of  approaching  death.  Tliis  symptom 
has  been  called  the  "spasm  of  a  weakened  heart,"  and  is 
very  seldom  ex]5erienced  by  any  but  persons  with  an  or- 
ganic disease  of  that  organ.  The  exciting  cause  is  not  un- 
frequently  a  strong  and  sudden  emotional  disturbance.  Men 
over  fifty  years  of  age  are  most  frequently  attacked.  Some- 
limes  death  occurs  in  a  paroxysm.  Jlorphia,  nitrite  of  sodi- 
um, nitrite  of  arayl,  and  other  sedatives  are  useful  in  the 
attack.  Glass  beads  containing  nitrite  of  amyl  may  be 
broken  on  a  handkerchief  and  inhaled.  Between  the  par- 
oxysms a  quiet,  tranc[uil  life  is  requisite. 

Revised  by  William  Pi:ppek. 

Aii'g:i(»S|>eriiis:  those  flowering  jilants  whose  seeds  are 
inclosed  in  a  pod  of  some  kind — always,  however,  composed 
of  one  or  more  carpels.  All  oi'dinary  llowering  plants  are 
angiosperms.  Pines,  spiiices.  cedars,  etc.,  having  naked 
seeds,  are  gymnosperras.     See  Veoetable  Kixuuom. 

Charles  K.  Bessey. 

An'gle  [from  Lat.  an'f/iilu.t,  a  corner]:  the  figure  formed 
liy  two  straight  lines  going  out  from  the  same  point.  The 
term,  however,  is  extended  to  the  case  when  the  lines  are 
curved,  and  to  distinguish  angles  formed  by  straight  from 
those  formed  by  curve  lines  the  former  are  .sometimes 
called  rectilinear,  and  the  latter  curvilinear.  The  lines 
which  form  an  angle  are  called  its  sides,  and  the  point  where 
they  meet  is  calleil  its  vertex.  When  a  straight  line,  stand- 
ing upon  another  straight  line,  forms  two  equal  angles,  each 
of  them  is  called  a  right  angle.  The  usual  unit  of  measure 
of  angles  is  the  degree,  whicli  is  defined  as  the  ninetieth  part, 
of  a  right  angle.  The  woi'd  angle  is  also  extended  to  the 
case  of  planes  meeting  either  in  a  line  or  a  point ;  when  two 
planes  meet  they  are  said  to  forma  dihedral  angle;  when 
three  or  more  meet,  the  angle  is  called   solid  or  polyhedral. 

S.  Newcomb. 

Angle.  .James  Laxsixo:  jurist;  li.  at  Henrietta.  Jlonroe 
CO..  \.  v.,  Dec.  1!).  1S18;  received  an  academic  erlucation. 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845.  In  1877  he  was  a]i- 
])ointed  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York  to  fill 
a  vacancy,  and  in  1883  he  was  elected  for  a  full  (erin.  retir- 
ing on  account  of  the  constitutional  limit  of  age.  .f,.u.  1 
1889.     I),  at  Gree('e,  N.  Y.,  May  4,  1801. 

IIemry  Wade  Uookks. 

-\li}rle-ir«ll :  a  wrought-iron  or  steel  liar  rolled  with  a 
section  sha|ied  like  an  L.  Tliey  are  extensively  used  in  the 
construction  of  buildings  and'  bridges,  being  riveted  to 
plates  so  as  to  form  liejims  and  columns.  The  largest  angle- 
irons  regularly  in  the  market  have  legs  about  (i  inches  long, 
and  are  nearly  an  inch  in  tliickness,  but  special  sizes  aiicl 
forms  are  made  f<u-  use  in  ship-hnilding.  When  in  the 
shape  of  double  angles,  angle-irons  are  called  channel-irons. 
See  GtRnER.  MANSFiELn  .Mkrrima.v. 

Allg'ler  (Lii  iihiiix  piscalnritix):  a  fish  found  on  the 
coa.sts  of  North  America  ami  Kurope,  and  called  the  all- 
mouth,  fishing-frog,  or  goose-fish.  It  belongs  to  a  familv  of 
the  spiny-rayed  fishes  called  L(ijihiiil<p.  It  is  from  3  to  5 
feet  long,  has  an  enormous  head  and  a  verv  large  mouth, 
furnished  with  a  fringe  of  barbels.  My  means  of  these,  and 
the  first  three  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin.  which  are  isolated. 
tentacle-like,  and  risi'  from  the  lop  of  its  head,  it  is  ,suj)- 


Angler,  ur  fishiuj^-frog. 


posed  to  attract  the  fi.shes  on  which  it  preys.  The  Lophiidm 
are  remarkaljle  for  the  elongation  of  the  carpal  bones,  the 
most  striking  character  of  the 
order  Peillvulati,  to  which 
they  belong. 

Kevised  by  D.  S.  Joruan. 

Angles  (Lat.  Angli):  an 
ancient  Low  German  trilie. 
from  which  England  derives 
its  name  (Aiiijle-hind,  Eng- 
land). They  occujiied  a  nar- 
row district  in  the  south  of 
Schleswig,  between  the  Schlei 
and  Flensburg,  whence  some 
of  them  passed  over  in  the 
fifth  century  in  conjunction 
with  other  Saxon  (or  Low 
German)  trilics  into  Britain, 
where  they  conquered  the  native  Britons  and  established  the 
Anglo-Saxon  lleptai-chy.  That  the  Anglian  settlers  of 
Britain  should  have  given  their  name  to  the  island  is  due, 
possibly,  to  the  fact  that  the  tribal  name  "Angles"  had 
conu-  to  be  used  as  a  generic  term  for  the  Saxon  or  (Low 
German)  tribes;  Just  as  the  w'ord  "Yankee"  has  come  to 
signify  to  a  European  any  citizen  of  the  U.  S. ;  but  more 
probal.ily  to  the  fact  that  the  Anglians  were  the  first  of  the 
Low  German  settlers  of  Britain  to  accept  t'hristianity,  and 
hence  to  be  recognized  in  the  Latin  literature  of  the  period. 
See  Axglo-Saxoxs. 

Aiig'lesey.  or  Aiig'lesea  (anc  Mo'na):  an  island  and 
county  of  North  Wales:  in  the  Irish  Sea;  about  a  mile  from 
Caernarvon,  from  which  it  is  se]iarated  by  the  Jlenai  Strait 
(see  ma])  of  England,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  about  20  miles  long 
and  17  miles  wide.  The  surface  is  nearly  level  and  the 
scenery  rather  tame;  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  producing 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes.  The  ]irinci]ial  rocks  are 
mica-schists  and  limestone.  Here  are  rich  mines  of  cop]ier 
and  lead.  The  island  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by 
the  Menai  suspension  bridge  and  the  great  Britannia  tubular 
bridge,  over  which  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  R.  R.  passes. 
The  ancient  3Iona  was  an  important  seat  of  Druidical  power. 
Area,  302  S(i.  miles.     Po]i.  (1891)  50,079. 

Anglesey,  Earls  of,  and  Barons  New]iort-Pagiiell.  in  the 
English  peei-agc  (16(il).  Viscounts  Valentia  and  Barons 
Mountnorris  in  the  Irish  peerage.  The  earldom  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Annesley  family  l)y  Charles  II.,  but  became  ex- 
tinct in  17(51  in  Richard  Annesley,  the  sixth  earl  of  this 
family.  The  title  had  been  borne  by  Christopher  Villiers, 
brother  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  his  son  Charles. 

Anglesey.  Hexrv  William  Paoet.  Marquis  of;  British 
general  and  statesman;  b.  Jlay  17.  1768;  eldest  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Uxbridge.  He  entered  the  army.gaincd  distinction 
as  a  cavalry  oflicei-.  and  became  a  major-general  in  18IJ8. 
He  inherited  the  title  of  Earl  of  Uxbridge  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1812,  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords.  At  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  181.5.  he  commanded  the  British  cavalry, 
and  lost  a  leg.  Soon  after  this  event  he  received  the  title 
of  ]\Iarquis  of  Anglesey.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Irelauil.  but.  having  become  an  advocate  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  was  removed  by  Wellington  in  1829. 
He  held  the  same  office  from  1831-33,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  field-marshal  in  1846.     I).  April  29,  1854. 

Anglesey,  JIarquesses  of  (1815,  in  the  United  Kingdom), 
Eai'ls  of  LTxbridge  (1784,  in  Great  Britain),  Barons  Paget 
(1.5.50.  in  England),  and  baronets  (1730.  in  Ireland). — Henry 
William  George  Paget,  the  third  earl,  was  born  Dec.  9, 
lS21.and  succeeded  his  father  in  1869.  He  was  M.  P.  for 
South  Staffordshire  from  1S,54  to  1857.     D.  Jan.  30,  1880. 

Ang'lesite:  a  sulphate  of  lead  produced  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  galena  ;  was  so  named  because  first  oliserved  in 
Anglesi'v.  It  occurs  in  rhomliic  prisms  with  dilu'dral  ter- 
minations, and  of  a  white,  gray,  or  yellowish  color. 

Anglia.  East:  kingdom  in  the  eastern  part  of  Central 
England,  comprising  the  present  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk.  Founded  by  the  Angles  in  the  sixth  century:  was 
successively  dependent  upon  Kent,  Mercisi,  and  Wessex 
until  fornu'd  into  a  Danish  kingdom  under  Guthrum  (878); 
was  forccfl  liy  l-^dward.  the  son  and  successor  of  Alfred,  to 
acknowli'dgv  his  authority  (!i21),  and  henceforth  fonned  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  England. 

Ang'lieiin  Cbnreh:  the  Established  Church  of  England  : 
sometimes  called  the  Anglo-Catliolic  Church:  and,  with  its 


ANGLING 


ANGLO-CATlKiLICS 


215 


colnnial  imil  niissiouary  churches,  and  tlic  Sc-ntlisli.  Irish, 
iuul  AiiK'riciiM  (Kpiscopal)  Churches,  often  spnken  of  as  tlie 
Ani;li<au  C'oniniunion.  Tlie  oroods  of  this  frrcat  <livision  of 
Cliristenihini  are  The  Apiisltes',  T/ie  JVicoif.  imd  Tin:  Atlia- 
imsian.  The  hist  mentioned  creed  is  not  incUiik'd  in  tlie 
liturjiy  of  the  Aniericim  Episcopal  Church,  altliougli  its 
(h)ctrinal  teaching  must  he  considered  as  comprised  in  the 
avowal  found  in  tlie  preface  to  tlie  American  l?ool<  of  Com- 
mon Praver:  "This  churcli  is  far  from  intendipi;  to  depart 
from  the  Church  of  Enjjlaiid  in  any  essential  ]>i>int,  of  iloc- 
Irinc,  discipline,  or  worship,  or  further  than  local  circum- 
stances rc(|uirc."  The  creed  of  the  Aiif^lican  Church  was 
lejrally  dctined  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  first  ad(Hit<'d  in 
1503.  Tliese  articles,  although  rctaimnl  in  the  Kuglish  and 
American  I'rayi'r-Books,  are  not  regai'ded  as  of  ecpial  ini- 
Hiority  witli  the  Catholic  creeds.    See  England,  Church  ok. 

W.  S.  Pkurv. 

All'^Iiu^  [deriv.  of  o«(//e,  a  fishing-hook  <  O.  Kng.  aiif/xl; 
O.  II.  Ger.  ii>ii/id  (>  Mod.  Ger.  angel);  related  with  Lat. 
micuA,  hook,  Gr.  SyKos.  harb.  Sanskr.  anka-s.  hook ;  to  he 
distinguished  from  Engl,  atiijle,  corner,  which  is  a  loan- 
word from  Fr.  ani/le  <  Lat.  aur/ulits] :  the  taking  of  tisli 
with  an  "angle,"  as  a  liook  was  called  in  old  Kngli.sh  (see 
Ilaliakknk  i.  lo),  was  practiced  by  jirehistoric  man,  as  can 
be  seen  by  the  hooks  of  bronze  found  among  the  remains 
of  lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland,  which,  in  many  respects, 
closely  resemble  some  of  the  hooks  made  to-day,  e.  g.  in 
having  the  point  of  the  barb  in  the  line  of  draft.  A  sim- 
])ler.  if  not  older,  form  of  taking  fish  with  a  line,  if  not  with 
an  angle,  was  practiced  by  this  jirehistoric  people,  and  also 
by  the  tribes  of  Greenland  and  Alaska;  a.  double-pointed 
piece  of  wood,  horn,  or  bone  was  used,  with  thi^  line  ticil  in 
the  middle,  so  that  when  baited  and  sw-allowed  by  the  fish 
it  would  set  crosswise  in  the  throat  (see  collection  in  V.  .S. 
Xational  JIuseiini,  Washington,  I).  C.). 

Angling  as  a  sport  originated  in  (ireat  Britain,  and  natn- 
i-ally  came  to  the  colonies  in  America,  and  it  is  in  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries  that  it  has  received  its  highest  dcvel- 
ojcment,  and  where  it  has  taken  rank  with  such  field-S|)orts 
as  shooting  anil  fox-hunting.  In  many  parts  of  the  Con- 
tinc'iitof  Europe  angling  has  a  few  devotees,  and  in  Japan 
there  are  also  a  tew  tly-tishers,  but  it  is  not  recognized  as  a 
sport  by  the  masses,  wlio  regard  it  merely  as  a  means  of 
catching  fish  for  food.  In  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  en- 
thusiastic anglers  travel  long  distances  to  kill  a  few  salmon 
which  they  ciuild  buy  at  home  for  one-hundredth  of  the 
cost  of  their  capture,  an  act  which  would  cause  Ihem  to  be 
thought  lunatics  by  many  people  in  continental  Europe, 
where  they  shoot  for  s]iort  but  fish  only  for  food.  Angling 
is  ]iracticed  by  our  iiiarket-fisliermcn  for  cod,  haliliut.  mack- 
erel, and  other  fishes  of  salt  water,  and  for  lake  trout,  pike, 
etc.,  in  fresh  water,  but  In'  them  it  is  called  line  or  "tniwl  " 
fishing,  to  distinguish  it  from  net-fishing. 

The  |)rincipal  fresh-water  fishes  which  are  angled  for  are,  in 
the  sportsman's  order  of  value,  the  salmon,  brook  and  brown 
trout,  black  bass  of  two  species,  mascalonge  ami  the  pikes, 
lake  trout,  wliite  and  yellow  perch,  and  then  tlie  smaller  and 
less  gamy  s|>ecies.  In  Great  Britain  t  hey  rank  in  uch  1  he  same, 
only  there  they  have  no  mascalonge  and  no  white  pi'rcli.  The 
fish  an;  taken  in  two  ways,  with  hand-lines  or  with  a  rod; 
and  there  are  several  variations  of  these  modes.  Xatnral 
baits,  such  as  angleworms,  minnows  (alive  and  dead).  fr<igs, 
grasshoppers,  maggots,  crickets,  crayfish,  and  pieces  of  meat 
or  fish  are  used.  The  artificial  lures  used  are  imitation  flies 
and  insects,  rubber  frogs  and  crickets,  spinning  metal 
plates  (c.alled  "spoons" ).  artificial  mice.  etc.  Angling  for 
sport  may  be  divided  into  classes,  as  fiy-fishing,  bait-fishing, 
trolling,  skittering,  and  still-fishing.  In  fly-fishing  a  pliant 
I'od  is  used,  its  length  for  salmon  being  from  l.i  to  20  feet 
and  for  trout  and  black  bass  from  8  to  11  feet;  a  reel  and 
line  of  water-proofed  silk,  terminating  in  a  leader  or  casting- 
line,  of  silkworm  gut.  which  is  from  (i  to  1.5  feet  long,  pro- 
portionate to  the  length  of  rod,  and  friaii  one  to  Ihri'e 
nooks,  which  are  variously  dressed  with  feathers,  tinsel,  and 
other  substances  (o  imitate  different  insects  on  which  trout 
and  salmon  feed,  or  are  fanciful  creations  which  resemble 
nothing.  These  are  cast  upon  the  surface  in  a  manner 
which  requires  skill,  and  the  fish  rise  to  take  them.  In 
l>ait-fishiiig  a  rod  maybe  used  or  the  line  cast  and  hauled  by 
hand.  Trolling  iinplie:^towing  either  a  live  or  dead  minnow 
or  a  spinning  metal  liait  liehind  a  boat,  which  is  ]iro]ielle<l 
by  sail,  steam,  or  oars,  and  may  be  done  with  either  rod  or 
hand-line.     In  skittering,  which  requires  a  long,  stilt  rod,  a 


minnow,  frog,  or  metid  spoon  is  cast  from  boat  or  shore,  and 
made  to  ricochet  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  as  the  rod  is 
.smartly  moveil  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  is  mainly 
used  to  decoy  the  pike  or  pickerel.  Still-fishing,  as  the  name 
implies,  is  dcme  from  boat  or  bank  with  bait,  and  the  fisher 
waits  for  a  fish  to  find  his  bait  and  take  it.  This  is  also 
called  "drop-line"  fishing  when  done  from  a  boat  in  salt 
water. 

Ki'cls  .'ire  first  mentiomvl  in  Baker's  Ail  of  Atifflhir/  (Lon- 
don, 1().")1).  lie  says:  "Within  two  foot  of  the  bottom  of 
the  rod  there  was  a'  hole  made  for  to  put  in  a  wind,  to  turn 
with  a  barrell,  to  gather  up  his  line  and  loose  it  at  his  pleas- 
ure." Walton,  in  the  .second  edition  of  his  Compleal  An- 
gler (1055),  says:  "Note  also  that  many  use  lo  fish  for  salmon 
with  a  ring  of  wire  on  the  top  of  their  rod,  through  which 
the  line  may  run  to  as  great  a  length  as  needful,  wlicn  he  is 
hooked.  And  to  that  end.  some  use  a  wheel  about  the  mid- 
dle of  their  rod,  or  near  their  hand,  which  is  better  observed 
by  seeing  one  of  them  than  by  a  large  demonstration  of 
words."  These  quotations  show  that  the  use  of  the  reel  is 
less  than  three  centuries  old.  and  it  is  bcdieved  that  Walton 
never  saw  one. 

In  salt  water  flies  are  not  used,  the  lures  being  natural 
baits  or  some  bright,  moving  object  equally  attractive.  An- 
gling for  stri]ied  lia.ss.  or  "  rockfish  "  as  it  is  called  south  of 
Philadelphia,  is  considered  the  highest  form  of  angling  in 
salt  water,  and  its  devotees  sonict  inies  rank  it  with  fly-fishing 
for  salmon.  Along  the  islands  which  form  Buzzard's  Bay,  off 
the  coast  of  5Iassacliusetts,  at  Newport,  and  on  the  eastern 
end  of  Long  Island,  there  are  clubs  composed  of  anglers 
wlio  fish  for  the  striped  bass  in  the  surf.  Some  of  the  clubs 
have  elegant  houses,  such  as  the  Squibnocket,  Cult  yhiink.  and 
Pasque  island  clubs,  and  have  seats  on  the  rcjcks  bolted  in 
and  secured  by  an  iron  rail  to  keep  the  angh'r  from  being 
swept  off  while  he,  clad  in  an  oilskin  suit,  casts  his  bait  of 
menhaden  or  lobster  tail  out  into  the  surf,  hoping  at  some 
time  to  beat  the  record  by  taking  a  bass  of  80  lb,  on  a 
rod  and  reel.  Of  late  years  angling  for  the  tarpon,  or  tar- 
puiu,  in  Florida  waters  has  attracted  much  attention,  and 
fish  of  100  lb.  weight  are  reported  to  have  been  caught ;  but, 
in  the  opinion  of  scientific  anglers  this  fish,  while  fighting 
gamelv,  has  not  the  surroundings  which  give  zi'st  to  the 
capture  of  a  striped  bass  of  less  weight.  The  bluefish,  or 
"fay lor"  of  the  Southern  coast,  is  another  gamy  fish  much 
sought  for  by  anglers.  It  is  taken  by  an  ivory  or  leaden 
"squid.''  witfi  a  large  hook  at  the  end",  by  trolling  it  liehind 
a  sailboat  going  about  6  miles  an  hour;  but  the  most  sports- 
manlike way  to  take  it  is  by  "chumming,"  which  is  done  by 
cutting  the  oily  menhaden  into  fine  ])ieces,  or  "chum,"  and 
casting  it  on  the  water  in  a  tide-way  where  the  boat  is  an- 
choreil,  to  attract  a  school  of  fish  which  are  taken  on  a  rod 
jind  line  baited  with  menhaden. 

The  literature  of  angling  is  voluminous,  volumes  some- 
times  lieing  devoted  to  tlie  capture  of  a  single  species  of 
fish.  The  oldest  English  book  on  the  subject  is  liy  Dame 
Jnlvano  or  .luliana  Barnes,  Bernes,  or  Berners,  for  in  the 
twe'nty  editions  from  1480  to  1S75  the  name  is  variously 
spelli'd.  It  originally  a)ipcared  as  a  portion  of  the  liiike  of 
SI.  .l/ir»(.v.  which  treated  of  "  hawkynge  and  huntynge,  etc." 
About  1500  an  edition  was  issued' with  the  title,  7/erf  he- 
!/i/iinelh  a  trealijsf  of  fysulilvue  wijlh  an  angle  ;  the  coloplion 
reading,  '■Here  endcth  the  boke  of  Fysshinge  with  other 
dyuers  matters.  Iinprynted  at  London,  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde.  dwellynge  in  I  lete-street,  at,  the  sygne  of  the  Sonne." 
Since  then  hundreds  of  books  on  angling  have  appearerl. 
See  Hlliliolhccd  J'ixrriloria.  T.  Westwood  and  T.  SatidieU 
(Lonilon,  lSS;i).  The  Cuni/ilccil  Angler,  or  Ihe  Conlempla- 
lire  Man's  lieerealion.  by  Izaak  Waltcpii.  is  a  cla.ssic,  and  has 
gone  through  over  100  editions  between  10.5:)  and  1880. 

The  modern  literature  of  ;ingling  is  volumininis.  Among 
the  best  works  iivd)lished  in  ilie  C  S.  are :  The  America)!, 
Angler's  Hook  (\'h\\n..W{\~)):  Fi.tliing  in.  American.  Waters, 
1875) :  /'Vs/i  ing  ii'ilh  llu'  Fig  (Troy,  1885) ;  American  Fishes, 
G.  I.rown  (iooile  (New  York.  1888);  and  American  Game 
i'Vis/ic.s,  by  twenty  writers  (Chicago,  18!)2).  Besides  these  there 
ai'e  works  on  special  subjects,  as  The  lilack  Jiass.  liy  Dr.  Hen- 
shall ;  trout,  salmon,  and  other  fishes  by  many  widl-known 
writi'i-s.  FRiiu  Matuer. 

Anglo-rntlrolicS:  those  mi'iubers  of  the  Anglican  com- 
munion who  are  Catholic,  but  luillier  Koman  nor  Oriental. 
They  are  soini'limes  called  "I'ust'yitcs,"  from  one  of  their 
leaders.  Dr.  Pusey,  and  are  otherwise  known  as  Triicta- 
riuilti,  from  the  series  of  iiinefv  tracts  issued  by  them  be- 


210 


ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE 


ANGLO-SAXON  LITERATURE 


tween  1833  aii<l  1.S41.  Tliey  emphasize  these  four  "  Catholic 
principles  " :  apostolic  succession,  baptismal  regeneration,  tlie 
real  j)resence  in  the  Eucharist,  and  the  authority  of  tradi- 
tion. 

Aii'ijlo-Sax'on  Laiia:uaa:c,  now  commonly  called  Old 
En^'lish :  See  English  Laxouage. 

Aiiarlo-Saxon  Literature:  The  pagan  Anglo-Saxons 
had  their  poets  and  orators,  and  after  tlieir  conversion  to 
Christianity  there  were  good  scholars  in  England.  Most  of 
their  writings  arc,  however,  in  Latin.  Tlie  story  of  their 
learning  and  literature  is  n. it  one  of  development.  There 
•were  schools  with  l)right  beginnings,  but  decay  followed 
soon,  or  quick  destiiiction  from  pagan  or  other  foes.  Most 
of  the  books  remaining  in  Anglo-Saxon  are  translations 
from  Christian  Latin.  The  Oldest  Engltsh  Texts  (H.  Sweet, 
1885)  contains  all  tlie  Anglo-Saxon  prior  to  900,  except  the 
Chronicle  and  Alfred's  works.  It  is  mostly  glossaries,  in- 
scriptions, and  lists  of  jiames,  but  has  some  charters,  a 
psalter,  and  two  or  three  pages  of  poetry. 

The  prose  writings  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  may  be 
classified  as  follows: 

1.  Theological. — The  Gospels  vere  read  in  the  native 
tongue  as  jiart  of  the  church  service,  and  several  nuinu- 
scripts  are  pres(U-ved.  Editions  have  been  printed  bv  Par- 
ker (1571).  Marsliall  (1665),  Thorpe  (1842),  reprinted  in  the 
TJ.  S.'  by  Klipstein,  Bouterwek  (185T),  Surtees  Society 
(1854-6:^).  ISosworth  (1865)  has  the  Gothic,  Anglo-Saxoii. 
Wycliffe,  and  Tyndale  in  parallel  columns.  The  standard 
edition  is  The  itoly  Oospels  in  Anglo-Saxon,  Northniiihritin. 
and  Old  Mercian  versions,  with  collations  of  all  the  ]MSS. 
and  the  Ijatin  versions.  VV.  W.  Skeat  (1891).  ^Ifric's  trans- 
lation of  the  Heptateuch  was  published  by  Thwaites  (l(ii)8). 
and  (irein.  Bihliothek  der  A.-S.  Prosa  (1872.)  We  have  also 
versions  of  the  Psalms :  Thorpe  ( 1885) :  Grein,  BiMiotliek  der 
A.-S.  Foesie  (1858) ;  Buelbring,  Early  English  Text  Society 
(1891).  There  are  many  Homilies.  ^Ifric,  an  eminent 
scholar,  compiled  or  translated  a  series  of  eighty  of  them 
about  A.  D.  990,  which  were  edited  by  Thorpe  for  the  ^Elfric 
Societv  (1844-46).  The  Early  English  Text  Society  has  pub- 
lished" T/ib  Blickinq  Jfomilies  (\C  Morris,  1874^-80),  and  the 
Rule  of  Sf.  Benedict  (Logcman,  1888). 

2.  Philosophical. — King  Alfred  translated  Boethius,  De 
Consolatione  Philosopli-ia:  It  is  freely  rendered,  with  large 
additions  and  omissions  bv  the  roval  author.  Editions  are 
bv  Rawlinson  (1698),  Carilale  (1829),  and  Fox,  in  Bohn's 
Library  (1864.) 

3.  Historical.— TVr  most  illustrious  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
scholars,  IJeda,  known  to  many  generations  as  "the  Ven- 
erable Bede,"  wrote  in  Latin  an  'Ecclesiastical  History  of  the 
Angles  and  Sa.rons.  which  was  translated  by  King  Alfred 
into  Anglo-Saxon.  It  abounds  in  picturesque  details  of  the 
heroic  adventures  and  characters  of  his  time,  and  has  been 
often  reprinted  and  its  best  scenes  repeatedly  rendered  into 
verso.  (See,  for  some  of  tliem,  Wordsworth's  Ecclesiastical 
Sonnets.)  The  Anglo-Saxon  translation  was  edited,  with  a 
Latin  translation,  Ijv  Abraham  Wheloc  (folio,  1644),  by  Dr. 
John  Smith  (1722),  and  for  tlu;  Early  English  Text  Societv 
by  Dr.  Thomas  Miller  (1890-91). 

The  An.glo-Sa.con  Chronicle  gives  an  outline  of  the  his- 
tory of  Britain  from  the  earliest  times  to  Henry  II.,  A.  D. 
1154.  Copies  wore  kept  at  the  monasteries  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Alfred.  As  far  as  Beda's  history  extends,  the 
Clironicle  has  been  drawn  from  it  or  a  common  source.  It 
is  in  general  a  meager  affair.  There  are  many  editions: 
Thorpe's  (1861)  lias  seven  parallel  texts,  a  translation,  and 
indexes.  Earle's  Two  of  the  Saxon  Chronicles  Parallel 
(1865)  has  been  revised  by  C.  Plummer  (1892). 

The  gcner.'U  History  of  the  World,  by  Orosius,  was  trans- 
lated liy  .Mfred,  with  additions  of  some  value.  It  has  often 
been  iirinted.  Thorpe's  <'dition  in  Bohn's  Library  has  a 
translation  and  glossjiry  (1857).  11.  Sweet's  for  tlie  Early 
I'higlish  Text,  Societv  (1883),  Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin,  re- 
prints the  Alfredian  ilS. 

Many  brief  liiographies  are  found  in  Beda  and  the  77ow- 
ilies,  and  some  senarate  lives.  That  of  St.  Guthlac  (sec 
Wright's  Jiiographia  Literarin)  has  been  several  times 
printed;  Goodwin,  London  (1848).  That  of  St.  Neot  con- 
tains the  story  of  Alfred's  letting  the  cakes  burn  ;  G<irliam 
(1820-24).  yElfric's  Lives  of  Saints  has  been  edited  by 
W.  W.  Skeat  for  the  Early  ICnglish  Text  Society  (1881-91). 

4.  Law. — A  considei'ablc  body  of  laws  lias  been  got  to- 
gether. Tliey  begin  with  those  of  yl'lthelbirht,  who  was  King 
of  Kent  at  its  conversion.     Those  of  Alfred  have  an  intro- 


duction on  the  history  of  law,  the  laws  of  Jloses,  and  their 
reliit  ions  to  Christ  and  Christian  nations.  The  laws  are  full 
of  valuable  knowledge.  The  ecclesiastical  rules  relating  to 
confession,  penance,  and  the  like  are  particularly  suggestive. 
The  best  editions  are  Thorpe's  and  that  of  Schmid  (Leipzig, 
1858).  The  latter  has  translations  into  Latin  and  German, 
and  valuable  notes  and  a  glossary. 

5.  Natnral  Science  and.  Medicine. — Such  are  in  Poptilar 
Treatises  of  Science,  Wright  (1841) ;  Leechdoms,  M'ortcuii- 
ning  and  Stare  raft  of  Early  England',  Cockayne  (1864-66). 
liyrhtferth's  Handbook,  Kluge  (1855),  contains  weights  and 
measures,  numbers,  etc.  Translations  of  Beda's  Latin  trea- 
tises on  science  are  in  Cockayne. 

6.  Grammar. — There  is  a  grammar  bv  jElfric  in  Somner's 
Dictionary  (1659).  J.  Zupitza  (1880).  A  Colloc]uv  and  glos- 
saries, Wright  (1857),  R.  P.  Wiilcker  (1884). 

Anglo-Saxon  Poetry  is  very  different  in  metrical  stnic- 
ture  from  the  English.  It  is  U'ke  the  Old  Icelandic,  the  Old 
Saxon,  and  the  Earliest  German.  It  is  marked  off  into 
ver.ses  by  alliteration,  the  recurrence  of  the  same  initial 
sound  in  the  first  accented  syllables  of  words.  A  pert'ect 
verse  of  the  common  narrative  kind  has  three  alliterating 
syllables — two  in  the  first  section  and  one  in  the  second; 
but  the  first  section  has  but  one  in  many  verses.  Each 
section  has  two  principal  beats  or  metrical  accents,  marking 
time  for  its  two  nearly  equal  divisions  or  feet.  The  beat; 
prevailingly  falls  on  the  first  syllable  of  its  foot,  making  a 
falling  (trochaic,  dactylic)  rhythm,  but  it  varies  freely  to 
rising  (iambic,  anapaestic),  the  number  and  position  of  the 
unaccented  .syllables  changing  more  freely  than  in  Modern 
English  verse. 

)):C'r|'«'S  /Kcl'eSa  /ileah'tor:  ''lyn'  spra'sode, 

?<'ord'  p.eron  Jt'yn'siune,  Eode  irealh'Beop  forS', 

(■pen'  Hro&'gares,  cyn'na  gemyn'dig, 

^ret'te  ^old'-hroden  (iTum'an  on  heal'le, 

and  )'a  /rco  lie  pif'  /ul'  geseal'de, 

(7'r'est  ^ast'-Dena  (?Sel-pear'de, 

ta-d'  hine  iliS'ne  aet  ])i§re  &eor'-]>eg'e. 

There  was  tordly  Zaughter ;  there  the  Zute  resounded, 

(cords  were  (cinsome.  Forth  yode  ITealhtheow. 

(/ueen  of  [Irothgar,  "  of  couifesies  mindful, 

(/reeled  f/old-arrayed  the  quests  in  the  hall, 

and  then  the  cup' of  ,9race  ^rave  the  gentle  wife 

first  to  the  sovereign  Zicge,  ?ord  of  the  East-Danes, 

ilithe  she  4ade  him  be  at  the  Jeer-drinking. 

Knowledge  of  the  popular  poetry  was  universal.  It  was 
disgraci'ful  not  to  be  able  to  chant  in  turn  at  the  feasts. 
Bella,  A Idlielm.  Alfred  learned  and  loved  the  old  ballads, 
and  made  verses.  Most  of  the  poeti-y  has  perished.  The 
early  Christians  condemned  whatever  was  mixed  with  the 
old  superstitions,  and  the  Normans  despised  or  neglected  all 
Anglo-Saxon  literature.  But  we  have  specimens  of  various 
kinds : 

1.  The  Ballad  Epic— The  old  ballads  are  brought  to- 
gether, beautified,  exalted,  and  fused  into  a  long  poem. 
Beowulf  is  the  Hiad  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  exploits 
celebrated  in  it  are  for  the  most  part  combats  with  mon- 
sters after  the  manner  of  Hercules,  but  it  has  the  usiuil  epic 
variety — the  wratli  of  the  monster,  the  rousing  of  the  hero, 
the  fitting  out  of  the  ship,  the  voyage,  the  banquet,  the 
wordy  war  of  rivals,  woman's  graceful  presence,  the  arming 
for  fight,  and  des]ieral(^  and  long-drawn  struggles.  Only 
one  nianuscript  of  it  remains.  Little  notice  of  it  was  taken 
till  tlie  late  revival  of  Anglo-Saxon  scholarship;  but  the  in- 
terest in  it  has  risen  to  a  great  height,  and  many  editions, 
translations,  and  essays  of  elucidation  and  inter|iretatioii 
have  ajipearcd  in  Germany,  England,  and  Denmark.  We 
may  mention  Kemble  (1833-37):  Etlniiiller  ( 1840) :  Thorpe 
(lH.j5);  Grciii.  two  editions  (1857-67):  (irunlvig  (1861); 
Heyne.  four  editions  (186:3-79):  and  Socin-llevne.  Text  by 
the  MS.,  Wiilcker  (1881);  Holder  (1882).  An  autotyjie  and 
transliteration  by  J.  Zupitza,  Early  English  Text  Society 
(1882);  an  American  edition  by  James  A.  Harrison  and 
Robert  Sharp  (I8S:i).  Translations  into  imitative  jirose,  by 
J.  jr.  (iarnett,  lioston  (1W2);  into  imitative  meter,  John 
Leslie  Hall,  I'.oston  (1892).  Translations  into  Latin,  Thor- 
kelin  (1815);  portions,  Conybearo  (1826) ;  G.  S.  Sandras 
(1859). 

There  are  a  few  fragments  to  bo  classed  with  Beowulf. 
Such  are  the  Traveler's  Song  and  the  Eight  at  Finnsburg, 


ANGLO-SAXON  LITERATURE 


ANGOSTURA 


217 


both  of  wliicli  arc  given  witli  Beowulf  in  many  editions; 
King  Waldere.  G.  Stephens  (1860) ;  R.  P.  Wulckers  A'^einere 
Anyc'lx.  Dichtungen  (1883). 

2.  2'lie  Bible  Epic  is  a  treatment  of  tlic  Bible  narrative 
similar  to  tliat  of  tlie  ballad  eiiie.  Tlu;  great  master  in  this 
sphere  is  Ca'dnion,  who  is  often  called  tlie  Anglo-Saxon 
Milton.  Beda,  who  lived  in  the  sfime  region,  and  may  liave 
seen  him,  tells  us  that  he  was  an  unlearned  man,  wlio  could 
not  sing  tlic  common  secular  ballads,  and  that  a  vision  ap- 
peared to  him  and  directed  liim  to  sing  the  Creation,  and 
that  his  success  was  esteemed  inspiration.  lie  had  many 
imitator.s,  and  wliether  the  poems  whicli  remain  are  liis  is 
not  known.  These  are  four  poems,  called,  by  Greiii,  Gene- 
sis, Exodus,  Daniel,  Christ  and  Safan.  Similar  are  a 
fragment,  of  Judith,  Cynewulf's  Christ,  The  ILirrowinij  of 
Hell,  and  some  fragments.  Of  all  these  we  have  a  critical 
edition  and  translation  by  Grein,  and  of  Ca^dmon  editions 
by  Thorpe  (18;!3) ;  Bouterwck  (1849-.~)4).  The  manuscript  is 
illuminated,  and  the  illuminations  were  copied  and  puli- 
lishcd  in  18:i:i.  There  are  American  editions  of  C'a>dmon's 
Exodus  and  JMnifl,  T.  W.  Hunt  (1883);  Judith,  A.  S.  Cook 
(1888);  translation  by  Garnett  (1889). 

8.  Ecclesiastical  Narratives. — These  are  versified  lives 
of  saints  and  chronicles.  We  have  Andreas  (1,724  lines), 
Juliana  (~oM  lines),  Guthlac{\,^a'i  lines),  Elene(\^.^'i\  lines). 
Ame'-ican  editions  are  Andreas,  W.  J[.  Baskerville  (1892); 
Elene,  C.  W.  Kent  (1889);  and  a  translation  of  Elene  by 
Garnett  (1889). 

4.  Psalms  and  /7'^otms.— ^Translations  of  a  large  part  of 
the  Hebrew  Psalms,  and  a  few  Cliristian  hymns  and  ])rayers. 

5.  Secular  Lyrics. — A  few  from  the  Chronicle,  celebrating 
the  kings  or  others. 

6.  Allegories,  Gnomic  Verses,  and  Riddles. — Tlie  Phcenix 
(677  lines').  The  Panther  (74  lines).  The  Whale  (89  lines). 
Gnomic  Verses  and  Riddles;  Dialogue  between  Solomon  and 
Saturn,  in  Grein,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  339^07 — -a  favorite  style  with 
tlie  Anglo-Saxons. 

7.  Didactic,  Ethical. — Alfred's  Metres  of  BoetMus  are 
versifications  of  parts  of  Boethius  referred  to  under  Prose 
Writings  above.  The  best  edition  is  Grein,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
295-339.  Grein's  Bibliothek  der  Angelsdclisischen  Poesie 
(Gottingeii,  1857),  with  his  translations  and  complete  glos- 
sary, gives  appiiratus  for  the  .study  of  aU  these  poems.  New 
edition  by  R.  P.  Wiilckcr  ( 1 88(>-.s:i). 

Outlines  of  tliis  literature  are  to  be  found  in  Morley's  Eng- 
lish Writers  (London,  1867);  Wright's  Biographia  Brit. 
Literaria  (London,  1842) ;  Ettraiiller's  Scopus  and  Boceras 
(Qued.  and  Lips.,  1850);  Early  English  Literature  (to 
Wiclif),  translation  from  Bcrnhard  ten  Brink  (1877),  l)y  IL 
M.  Keiuiedy  (1883);  Syllabus  of  Anglo-Saxon  Literature, 
J.  M.  Hart  (1881),  adapted  from  ten  Brink :  Grundriss  zur 
Geschichte  der  A.-S.  Literatur,  R.  P.  WUlcker  (1885) ;  B.  ten 
Brink,  in  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie.  ii.,  i.  5 
(1893).  F.  A.  March. 

Anglo-Saxons:  a  name  given  to  the  people  wliich  re- 
suiteil  from  the  consolidation  of  tlie  different  IjOW  German 
tribes  which  in  the  fiftii  century  overran  Southern  Britain. 
The  name  would  seem  to  point  to  a  blending  of  two  dis- 
tinct races,  the  A.nolks  (q.  v.)  and  the  Saxons;  but  accord- 
ing to  Ijathain  (Ethnology  of  the  British  Island.'i)  there  is 
no  distinct  ion  to  be  made  between  the  Angles  and  tlie  Saxons 
on  tlie  ground  of  the  difference  in  name.  "If,"  says  he, 
"tlie  Saxons  of  Anglo-Saxon  England  were  other  than  Angles 
under  a  difTerent  name,  they  were  North  Frisians."  Ac- 
curding  to  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  which  is,  with  reference  to 
these  events,  a  mere  paraphrase  of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Britain — the  latter  work  being  written  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  last  of  the  Saxon 
invasions,  which  the  Chronicle  records  as  if  it  were  con- 
temporaneous with  them^there  were  seven  distinct  Teutonic 
"invasions"  of  Britain,  beginning  a.  d.  449,  and  includ- 
ing jiarties  of  Jutes,  Fiisiaiis,  Saxons,  and  Angles.  That 
.lutes,  in  the  sense  of  people  from  Northern  Denmark  or 
jieople  of  Scandinavian  stock,  were  the  first  of  the  Germanic 
Hivadi'rs  to  land  in  Southern  Britain  is  highly  improbable; 
and  the  topographical  nomenclature  of  Kent,  where  lli^n- 
gist  and  Ilorsa,  with  their  party  of  .Jutes,  are  said  to  have 
settled,  bears  no  traces  of  Danish  infiuence.  By  "Jutes" 
we  are  probably  to  nnderst.ind,  generically,  "Goths."  In- 
deed, in  Alfred's  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  tlic!  passage 
in  Bcde  which  the  67/ roju'c^e  manifestly  follows,  the  Latin 
Jutis  is  rendered  by  Geatum  (Goths),  a  term  which  is  else- 
where applied  to  Alfred  himself.     The  Chronicle  itself,  by 


tlie  way,  exjilicitly  asserts  (Bohn's  ed.,  p.  341)  that  787  was 
the  first  year  when  ships  of  Danish  men  sought  the  land  of 
the  English  nation;  one  manuscript  of  the  Chronicle  says 
that  Hengist  landed  with  a  party  of  Angles,  while  tradition 
calls  him  a  Frisian,  which  he  jirobably  was. 

The  Saxon  settlement  of  Britain  was  probalily  partici- 
pated in  by  all  the  Low  German  tribes  hctween  the  Elbe  and 
the  Schlei,  although,  on  the  ground  of  linguistic  affinity, 
the  Frisians  would  seem  to  have  been  most  prominent. 
(See  Jjiitham's  Ethnology  of  the  British  Jslatids;  Marsh's 
Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language;  Nicholas's 
Pedigree  of  the  British  People;  Proceedings  of  the  London 
Philological  Society,  vol.  V.)  As  soon  as  the  Saxons  had 
subjugated  the  Kellic  iuliabitants  of  Britain  (who  resolutely 
ojiposed  the  invaders,  and  many  of  whom  were  driven  be- 
fore them  into  the  fastnesses  of  Wales,  and  across  the  sea 
into  Armorica,  though  most  of  them  were,  doubtless,  ainal- 
gjuuated  with  the  invading  race),  they  Ijcgan  to  contend 
with  each  other.  The  various  kingdoms  forming  the  famous 
"Ileptarchy  "  (or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  the  "Octarchy") 
were  at  length,  in  827,  reduced  by  Egbert,  King  of  Wessex, 
into  a  single  monarchy,  which  attained  its  higliest  point  of 
power  and  gloiy  under  Egbert's  grandson,  Alfred  the  Great 
(871-901).  The  Saxon  power  was  completely  overthrown 
by  William  the  Conqueror  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in  1066. 
F'or  a  full  account  of  tjie  Anglo-Saxons,  their  history,  their 
laws,  customs,  etc.,  see  Sharon  'Vwnwr.  History  of  the  Anglo- 
Sa.r.ons;  .1.  M.  Kemble,  The  Saxons  in  England;  also 
Jjappenberg's  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings;  and 
Freeman's  Old  English  History.  3.  H.  Gilmore. 

Ango'la:  the  name  now  given  to  the  Portuguese  territory 
on  the  west  coast  of  South  Africa,  a  part  of  wliich  used  to  be 
called  Lower  Guinea.  It  extends  on  the  coast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo  southward  to  about  lat.  17"  S.  and  inland  to 
a  distance  which  is  not  well  defined,  though  the  territory 
claimed  usually  extends  east  of  long.  20°  E.  It  has  the  Congo 
Free  State  on  the  N.  and  N.  E.,  and  German  Damaraland 
on  the  S.  The  eastern  boundary  is  nominally  the  southward 
course  of  the  Zambezi  and  the  northward  course  of  the 
Lubilash  or  the  Kassai,  both  streams  of  the  Congo  system. 
It  is  subdivided  into  four  disti-icts,  at  least  along  the  coast : 
the  Congo  district  in  the  N.,  with  the  port  Ambriz  as  capital, 
then  in  order  Loanda,  Bcnguela,  and  i\Ios.sanicdes,  each  with 
a  seaport-town  of  the  same  name  as  capital.  Loanda  is  the 
capital  of  the  colony,  and  is  on  the  calile  from  Europe  to 
the  Cape.  The  area  is  about  600.000  s(|.  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  variously  estimated  from  2.000,000  to  10,000.000. 

M.  W.  H. 

Angola:  capital  of  Steuben  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  1-G):  on  Eort  Wayne  and 
Jackson  branch  of  the  Lake  Shore  R.  R.,45  miles  N.  of  Fort 
Wayne;  seat  of  State  Normal  College  with  800  students  dur- 
ing 1892;  has  three  churches — Christian  or  Disciple,  Con- 
gregational, and  Methodist — and  a  high  school ;  woolen, 
model,  and  barrel  factories :  founded  in  1840.  Pop.  (1870) 
1.072;  (1880)  1.280;  (1S90)  1.840;  (1893)  estimated  at  2,100. 
Steuben  County  has  about  seventy-live  fresh-water  lakes, 
some  of  them  veiy  beautiful  and  well  stocked  with  fish. 

EnrroB  of  "Rki'ublican." 

Ango'ra,  or  Anglio'ra  (anc.  ^ncy'ra ;  Turk.  _E'«_(7oor'):  a 
town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  217  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Con- 
stantinojile  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  .5-F).  It  is  situated  on 
an  elevated  plain  adapted  to  pasturage,  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  breed  of  goats  having  long  silky  hair  which  is  manu- 
factured into  shawls  and  a  stuff  called  mohair.  Large 
quantities  of  this  hair  are  exported,  and  goats  of  this  breed 
have  been  successfully  introduced  into  the  L^.  S.  Here  arc 
remains  of  Greek  and  liyzanliiK^  architecture.  The  most 
remarkable  is  a  whit(!  marble  temple  which  was  built  by  the 
ancient  inhabitants  in  honor  of  Augustus;  it  lia.s  on  its 
wall  a  famous  inscription,  much  of  it  .still  legible,  stating 
the  most  imiiortant  events  in  the  emperor's  life.  On  July 
20,  1402,  a  decisive  victory  was  gained  near  Angora  by 
Tamerlane,  the  Tartar  con(|Ueror.  over  Bayazeed  (Bajazet), 
tlie  Turkish  sultan,  who  was  taken  iirisoner.  It  was  recov- 
ei'ed  by  the  Turks  under  ^lohaiumed  I.  in  1415,  and  from 
that  time  has  continued  to  be  a  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
Pop.  (1885)  30,000,  one-third  of  whom  are  Armenians.  See 
AxcvuA. 

Angor'nu:  See  Ngornu. 

Angostn'ra  (i.  e.  narrows),  or  Bol'ivar  City:  an  impor' 
taiit  city  of  Venezuela;  capital  of  the  state  oi  Bolivar;  on 


21S 


AXGOSTUKA   BARK 


AXIL 


the  i-ight  bank  of  the  Orinoco  river,  263  miles  S.  E.  of  Ca- 
racas (see  iiiap  of  South  America,  I'ef.  I-U).  It  is  advan- 
tao-eously  situated  for  trade,  and  exports  cotton,  indiijo, 
coffee,  tobacco,  c-attle,  etc.  It  contains  a  college,  a  hos|.iital, 
and  a  fine  hall  in  wliich  the  congress  of  Angostura  met  in 
1819.     Pop.  8,484. 

Angostura  Bark  :  a  bitter  bark  derived  from  Oalipea 
ensparia,  a  moderately  high  tree  growing  near  the  (Jrinoco 
river.  It  occurs  in  flat  or  curved  pieces  of  from  1  to  3  inches 
in  length,  half  as  wide,  and  about  Ath  inch  thick.  The 
color  is  reddish  Ijrown,  and  the  inner  surface  smoother  and 
lighter  than  the  outer  surface,  which  has  a  cork-like  appear- 
ance.    Angostura  bark  is  used  as  an  astringent  tonic. 

Aiigrouleiiie.  ah'-goo-liim'  (anc.  Inculis  ma  or  Iculis'rna) : 
a  citv  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Charente,  on 
the  river  Charente,  and  on  the  Paris  and  Bordeaux  K.  R., 
83  miles  liy  rail  N.  E.  of  Bordeaux  (see  maii  of  France,  ref. 
6-D).  It  IS  situated  on  a  liill,  and  has  a  cathedral,  college, 
theater,  public  liluviry,  and  several  paper-mills.  Linen  and 
woolen  stuffs  are  manufactured  here.  This  town  was  the 
birthplace  of  Jlarguerite  de  Valois  and  of  Balzac.  Pop. 
(1801)  36,!I60. 

Aiigoilleme,  Charles  dk  Valois,  Duke  d' :  a  njitural  son 
of  Charles  IX.  of  France  :  b.  Apr.  28,  1573.  Having  formed 
a  plot  against  King  Henry  IV.,  he  was  imprisoned  fi-om 
1604  to  1616.  He  had  the  chief  command  of  the  royal  army 
when  it  began  the  famous  siege  of  Rochelle  in  1628.  L). 
Sept.  14,  1650. 

Anarouleiiie.  Lons  Antoine  ue  Boirbox,  Duke  d':  b. 
at  Versailles.  Aug.  6, 1775  ;  eldest  son  of  the  Cointe  d'Artois  ; 
afterward  Charles  \.  of  France.  He  emigrated  with  liis 
father  in  178!(.  and  in  17!l!l  married  his  cousin,  Jlarie  Therese 
Charlotte,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.,  with  whom  he  lived  in 
exile  until  1814^  He  commanded  the  French  army  which 
intervened  against  theSpanisli  lil'crals  in  1823,  and  restored 
Ferdinand  VII.  to  alisolute  power.  His  abilities  were  medi- 
ocre.    I),  at  Giiritz,  .June  ■^,  1844. 

Augoiileine,  Marie  Therese  Charlotte,  Duchess  d" : 
wife  of  the  preceding;  1).  at  Versailles,  Dec.  19.  1778:  a 
daughter  of  Louis  XVI.  In  Aug.,  1792,  she  was  confined  in 
the  Temple  with  the  king  and  lier  mother,  Marie  Antoinette. 
She  was  released  in  1795.  and  exchanged  for  Camus  and 
others  who  liad  been  captured  by  the  Austrians,  after  which 
she  passed  many  years  in  exile.  She  appears  to  have  had 
more  energy  than  the  otlier  Bourbons.  She  became  again 
an  exile  iii  1830.     D.  in  Vienna,  Oct.  19.  1851. 

An'gra  (i.  e.  creek  or  bay) :  a  seaport-town,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Tcrceira,  one  of  the  Azores;  lat.  38°  39'  X.,  long.  27' 
12'  W.  It  has  a  beautiful  situation  and  a  good  harlior.  It 
contains  a  cathedral,  a  military  college,  and  an  arsenal. 
Wine,  grain,  honev,  etc.are  exported  from  this  town.  Pop. 
about  il.llOI). 

Aiiarra    Ppqiiciia.   an-gra-)ia-kan'ya :    a  bay  and  liarbor 
in  Great  Xaiiiai|ualand  on   the  wi-st   coast    of  .South  Afriea. 
between  Walviscli  Hay  aiirl  the  moutli  of  the  Orange  river. 
Angiiil'la :  Sec  Eel. 

Aligiiilla.  or  Snake  I.sland :  an  island  in  tlie  Leeward 
group,  in  tlie  West  Indies,  4  miles  X'.  of  St.  Martin  (.see  ma|) 
of  West  Indies,  ret.  .5-L).  Area,  34  sq.  miles.  The  island 
is  low  and  covered  with  forests;  it  belongs  to  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  slajile  products  are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  cotton. 
Pop.  (1891)  3.699. 

Ang:ilillula.  an-gwilyu-la  [i.  e.  little  eel;  from  Lat.  oh- 
gidl  /a.  an  eel  ] :  a  genus  of  niiimte  animals  belonging  to  tlie 
nematoiil  worms.  Best  known  are  those  called  "  vinegareels." 
Aiiyuilluld  iKili.  found  abundantly  in  cider  vinegar.  They 
are  remarkable  for  tenacity  of  life.  AnguiUula  jtuviaiiUx. 
utter  being  dried  until  it  becomes  Ijrittle,  will  recover  its  ac- 
tivity wlien  placed  in  water.  Anf/iiillula  tn/ici  is  found  on 
blighted  wheat.  The  dried  eml)ryos  fall  with  the  wheat, 
and  grow  in  the  damp  earth,  from  wliich  they  make  their 
way  to  the  growing  jilant.  remaining  in  it  till  the  ears  grow, 
when  they  take  their  place  in  the  grains  in  which  they  com- 
jilete  and  de|iOsit  their  eggs.  D.  S.  .Iokuax. 

An'gnis  [Lat.,  a  serpent]:  a  genus  of  serpent-like  lizards 
having  the  maxillary  teeth  eomjiressed  and  tiookeil,  and  the 
palate  not  aiuu'd  with  leetli  ;  body  covered  with  smooth, 
bony  scales,  lie.'id  with  larger  plates.     See  Blin'DWorm. 

Angnlar  Motion  of  a  point  or  a  body  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  liiu-  or  radius  vector  joining  the  moving  point 
to  some  fixed  j«iinl.     The  (luynjar  ve.locijij  of  the  body  in 


reference  to  the  fixed  point  is  the  ratio  of  the  angle  de- 
scribed by  the  r^ulius  vector  to  the  time  occupied  by  its 
description. 

Angus,  Earl  ok  :  See  Doi'ulas. 

Angus.  Rev.  Joseph,  D.  D.  :  Baptist  minister  and  edu- 
cator; b.  at  Bolam.  X'orthuraberland,  England,  Jan.  16. 1816; 
educiited  at  the  Universitv  of  Edinburgh  ;  became  president 
of  Regent's  Park  College  (Baptist),  London  (1849).  Author 
of  The  Bible  Handbook,  Uandbuok  of  English  Liferature, 
Iliindbook  of  the  English  Tongue,  and  other  works ;  and 
editor  of  the  best  edition  of  Butler's  Analogy  (1855,  12rao, 
pp.  .551).  He  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  English  Xew 
Testament  for  the  American  Bible  Union  ;  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  the  convocation  of  Canti'rbury  for  revising 
the  Xew  Testament,  and  is  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance,  as  a  delegate  of  which  he  visited  the 
U.  S.'in  1873. 

Angus,  Samuel  :  naval  officer  ;  li.  in  l'liiladel]ihia  in  1784. 
He  commanded  the  vessel  which  in  1814  conveyed  Adams 
and  Clay  to  Ghent  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  and  became  a 
captain  in  the  V.  S.  navy  (1816).  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  French  troubles  of  1800,  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was 
four  times  wounded.     D.  at  Geneva,  X.  Y.,  May  29,  1840. 

Au'lialt :  a  duchy  of  Germany,  almost  completely  sur- 
rounded by  the  Prussian  province  of  .Saxony ;  consists  of 
two  larger  parts  aud  four  enclaves,  having  together  an 
.-ircii  of  906  sq.  miles.  The  duchy  is  traversed  by  the  Saale, 
the  Elbe,  and  the  SeUic.  While  the  eastern  part  is  level, 
the  western  is  mountainous  and  wooded.  Tlie  soil  is  gener- 
ally fertile.  Cattle-raising  is  extensively  and  successfully 
carried  on.  Here  are  also  mines  of  silver,  copper,  iron,  and 
lead.  The  duchy  lias  five  g\-mnasia  and  three  seminaries. 
Pop.  (1895)  293.298.  Capital,  Dessau.  According  to  the 
budget  of  1891-92  the  receipts  and  the  expenses  were  both 
estimated  at  11.082.000  marks.  The  Dukes  of  Anhalt  claim 
to  have  descended  from  Albert  I.  (surnamed  The  Bear) 
(q.  v.).  the  first  Margrave  of  Brandenburg.  In  1212  Anhalt 
was  divided  into  three  jiarts  ;  it  was  united  in  1570  by  Joa- 
chim Ernst,  and  again  divided  into  four  branches — Dessau, 
Bernburg,  Kiitlien,  and  Zerbst — upon  his  death  in  1586.  In 
1793.  after  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Anlialt-Zerbst.  its 
dominions  were  divided  by  the  remaining  three.  In  1807 
the  three  Iiouses  joined  the  Confederation  <if  the  Rhine,  and 
in  1.S14  the  German  Confederation.  In  1847  the  house  of 
Anlialt-Kothen  became  extinct,  and  the  Duke  of  Anlialt- 
Dessau  took  the  adminstration  of  its  domiiiions  upon  him- 
.self;  and  when,  in  1863.  the  house  of  Anhalt-Bernburg  also 
became  extinct.  Anhalt  was  again  united  under  one  niler. 
See  the  works  of  Heine  (1865);  Kause  (5  vols.,  1861-66);  and 
Siebigk  (1867). 

Au'lialt-Bern'burg.  Christian.  Prince  of  ;  German  gen- 
eral :  b.  ill  1568;  a  man  of  siqierior  abilities.  He  was  the 
eliief  jiromoter  of  a  league  of  Protestant  princes  formed 
against  the  eiiqieror  in  1608.  He  commandid  the  army  of 
Frederick  Elector  Palatine  which  was  defeated  at  Prague 
in  1620.     D.  in  16:iO. 

An'lialt-Des'sau,  IjEoi'old.  Prince  of:  an  able  German 
general :  b.  in  1676  ;  commanded  the  Prussian  troops  under 
Prince  Eugene  in  Italy  and  Flanders  in  1706-12,  and  was 
second  in  command  of  the  Prussian  ariiiv  which  opposed 
Charles  Xll.  of  Sweden  in  1715.     D.  in  1747. 

Anhinga.  an-hiug  ga  :  the  .snake-bird,  darter,  or  water-tur- 
kev  (Anhinga  anhi)iga);  a  swift,  wary  water-bird,  allied  to 
the  cormorants;  found  in  tropical  rivers  and  ranging  north- 
ward to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio. 

An'liolt  :  an  island  of  Denmark  ;  in  tlie  Cattegat  ;  T  miles 
long  and  about  4  miles  wiile;  lat.  of  the  lighthouse.  56  44' 
N.,  Ion.  n  39  E.  It  is  surrounded  by  damrerous  shoals. 
Pop.  200. 

Anliy'drito  [from  Gr.  'tv-.  without  +  iSap.  water  (cf.  StoS- 
pos.  wiit(-rless)  +  suffix -//(-] :  a  mincrid  composed  of  an- 
hydrous sulpliate  of  lime.  It  is  hai'der  and  heavier  than 
common  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum),  into  which  it  is  slowly 
converted  by  the  absor])tion  of  w.aler.  It  occurs  in  several 
varieties — viz.,  granular,  fibrous,  radiated,  and  translucent, 
sjiarry  anhydrite  or  cube-spar,  and  compact  anhydrite. 

Au'il :  one  of  the  plants  from  which  indigo  is  obtained  : 
a  kind  of  indigo  saiil  to  be  a  native  of  America,  but  now 
cultivated  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is  very  similar  to  Inili- 
gof  era  tincto'ria. 


AXILIXE 


ANILINE  COLORS 


219 


Aii'iliiio  |l'i-oin  Portujj.  anil,  indijio  =  Ai'ali.  /iiin'i/:  iil. 
Ihe  +  /(i/  =  Saiislvr.  n'll'i.  indigo,  dei-ir.  of  iiila-.i,  dark  l)liic|: 
Pheui/l amiiii-.  or  Am  ifJo-benzfne  :  disfovorcd  in  1S2G  liy 
Unverdorhon  as  a  proiluct  of  the  distillation  of  indi]L;o,  and 
<'alled  by  liiin  hri/xtallin,  on  acconni  of  llie  ivady  cnstalli- 
/.ation  of  its  sails.  It  attracted  nineh  attention  from 
chemists,  and  was  made  the  suliject  of  many  researches, 
which  contrihnti'd  jjreatly  to  enlarije  the  facts  an<l  theories 
of  mo(U'rn  chemistry.  It  did  noi  accniire  any  commercial 
importance  till  1S56,  when  PerUin  |ire]iared"  from  it  the 
beantifnl  pnrple  dye  mauvi'.  The  lirilliaiicy  and  intensity 
of  this  color  attracted  the  attention  of  cliemisls  ami  dyers, 
and  in  a  short  time  an  entirely  new  series  of  colors  was 
<liscovered.  by  whiclilheart  of  dyeing  has  been  almost  revn- 
lutionizeil. 

Aniline  is  fonnd  among  the  prodncts  of  the  distillation 
of  bilnminons  coal  (in  "  coal-tar  ").  of  peat,  bones,  etc.  It  is 
))repared,  liowevei',  from  benzene  derived  fi-om  the  more 
volatile  |iortinns  of  coal-tar.  The  lienzene.  CoIU,  is  con- 
verted by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  into  nitrobenzene,  t'olls- 
NOj,  and  this  compound  is  clianged  to  aniline  by  the  action 
of  iron  and  water  together  with  some  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  relation  between  nitrobenzene  ami  aniline  is  indicated 
in  the  eijuat  ion  below : 

CsIIoNOs  -Hfill  =('.ILNIlj  +  -2Il.,0. 
Nitrobenzene.  Aniline. 

Aniline  is  a  colorless,  mobile,  oily  liquiil.  having  a  faint 
vinous  odor  and  aromatic  burning  taste.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity is  1'002 :  boiling-point,  182"  V.  It  is  very  ]ioisonims. 
It  dissolves  very  slightly  in  water:  in  all  proportions  in 
ether,  alcohol,  wood-naphtha,  bisul|)hide  of  carbon,  and  in 
oils,  fixed  and  volatile.  The  aqueous  solution  is  faintly 
alkaline,  and  preciiiitates  many  metallic  liases  from  solu- 
tions of  their  salts.  With  bleachiug-powder  it  pi'odnces  a 
violet-blue  color,  with  sulphuric  acid  and  potassic  bichro- 
mate a  bluish-black  pi'eciiiitate,  and  when  treated  with 
arsenic  acid,  stannic  chloride,  etc.,  it  is  converted  into 
rosaniline.  When  exposed  to  the  air,  aniline  acipiii-es  a 
yellow  or  red  color,  which  is  always  noticed  in  commercial 
"aniline  <iil."  It  forms  a  numerous  class  of  salts,  most  of 
which  ci'yslallize  readily. 

Aniline  belongs  to  the  class  of  compounds  known  as  sub- 
stituted ammonias,  its  chemical  behavior  showing  that  it 
is  closely  ndated  to  ammonia,  the  relation  being  .sliown  by 
the  formuUe : 

(H  (CelU. 

X-  II      and  N-  H. 
[U  /  H. 

Ammonia.  .'Vniline. 

.•\niline  is  ammonia,  one  hydrogen  atom  of  which  has  been 
replaceil  by  phenyl,  ('oils. 

Aniline  is  now  manufactured  in  enormous  quantities  for 
the  preparation  of  the  different  colors.  Aniline  for  red  is  a 
mixture  of  aniline  with  two  other  compounds  which  resem- 
ble it  closely.  These  bear  to  toluene,  CMIe,  the  same  relation 
that  aniline  bears  to  benzene.  They  are  called  Toluidines 
(q.  v.).     For  Aniline  Pink;  see  Sai'KRanixe. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remskx. 

AniliiiP  Colors:  In  183.5  Rnnge  noticed  the  violet- 
blue  color  ]iroduced  by  chloride  of  lime  with  aniline,  and 
Kritzsche  subsequently  showed  that  chromic  acid  formed 
with  aniline  a  blackish-bhie  precipitate.  In  IH.";;!  lieis- 
senhirtz  obtained  a  bliu'  by  acting  upon  aniline  with  |io- 
ta.ssic  dichromate  an<l  sulphuric  aciil.  It  remained  for 
W.  II.  Perkin  to  develop  this  reaction,  and  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations of  the  great  aniline  industry  which  is'  now  so  ex- 
tensive. In  ISofi  he  isolated  the  color  found  in  the  la.st- 
mentioned  reaction,  called  it  mauve,  and  showed  that  it 
coidd  be  used  as  a  dye,  ^lany  chcmi.sts  at  once  turned 
their  attention  to  the  subject,  and  a  great  number  of  new- 
colors  of  almost  every  tint  ami  shade  were  discovered, 
which  have  taken  the  place  in  dyeing,  and  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  calico-printing,  of  "the  animal  and  vegetable 
colors  in  previous  use.  The  chemical  composition  of  many 
of  these  colors  has  been  established,  and  many  chemical 
facts  of  great,  im])ortance  have  been  developed  by  tlieir 
stmly.     See  Coal-tar  Colors. 

.\xiLixE  REt>s. — Jintidniline  salts  arc  the  most  importjint 
of  all  the  aniline  colors.  They  ai'c  not  only  used  for  the 
production  of  l)rilliant  tints  on  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  but 
they  constitute  the  material  from  which  many  of  the  other 
colors  are  pi-ejjared,     Kosaniline  is  a  colorless  base  of  Ihe 

K 


formula  CjoHjiNjO.     It  is  produced  by  the  action  of  oxidiz- 
ing agents  on  a  mixture  of  aniline  and  toluidine. 

Mi-i/liic/i'.s pmri-s.'i  for  \\\v  prep.aral ion  of  aniline  red  is  as 
follows:  The  aniline  oil,  1  part,  is  heated  with  1+  parts  of 
a  7")  jier  cent,  solution  of  arsenic  acid  in  a  closed  iron  still 
provided  with  a  stirrer.  The  jiroduct  is  lioiled  with  water 
and  filtered,  and  on  adding  to  the  solution  common  salt  in 
excess,  the  crude  hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline  is  pre<-ipilated. 
This  is  dis.solved  in  boiling  water,  filtered,  and  allowed  to 
crystallize.  Tliis  salt  of  rosaniline.  C20II13N3.IICI,  is  known 
as  aniline  red,  ntat/i-nftf,  Jiirhain,  •so/frrino.  rosfine,  azaleine, 
etc.  It  apjicars  in  magnificent  green  crystals,  with  a  metal- 
lic luster  like  that  of  the  wing-covers  of  Rrazilian  beetles  or 
(■antharides.  It  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  with  a 
color  varying  from  a  beautiful  cherry  reil  to  a  crimson. 

Cuupter'ti process  for  the  pri'paration  of  fuchsin  consists 
in  treating  with  iron  anil  hydrochloric  acid  a  mixture  of 
nitrobenzene  with  aniline  and  toUiidine.  This  method  has 
the  advantage  of  avoiding  the  use  of  compounds  of  arsenic. 
It  is  now  extensively  enqiloyed. 

Acid  Puchsin.  or  Acid  Maoext.*. — When  fuchsin  is 
treated  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid  an  acid  product  is 
formed.  The  sodium  or  ammoninm  salt  of  this  is  known  as 
arid  fnrhsi7>  or  ari<l  naa/enta.  It  has  the  >Hd vantage  that 
it  dyes  wool  and  silk  in  acid  baths. 

.VxiLixE  Vioi.KTs  .vND  Hues. — I?y  introducing  alcoholic 
radicals  into  rosaniline  in  place  of  a  ]iart  of  the  hydrogen,  new 
dyes  are  formed.  In  1863  Ilofmann  patented  processes  for 
the  manufacture  of  dyes  which  have  come  into  the  market 
under  the  names  Hofmann's  violet,  dahlia,  iodine  violet, 
etc.  Since  that  time  many  other  .similar  dyes  have  been 
added  to  the  list.  Aniline  blue  is  prepared  by  treating 
aniline  in  the  presence  of  certain  organic  acids  at  a  teni- 
jierature  of  about  180°  C.  with  an  excess  of  aniline.  The 
final  Jiroduct  of  this  treatment  is  triphenylrosaniline,  which 
is  pure  aniline  Vilue,  bleu  de  Lyon,  the  only  blue  that  has 
come  into  extensive  use.  This  blue  is  iiisohible  in  water, 
which  rendered  its  application  somewhat  troublesome,  as 
an  alcoholic  solution  was  neces.sary.  Nicholson  found  that 
sulphuric  acid  produced  a  coni])o'und  analogous  to  sulph- 
indigotic  acid,  soluble  in  water:  this  is  now  extensively 
manufactured  under  the  name  of  "  Nicholson's  blue  "  or 
"  soluble  blue." 

Aniline  Greens. — Aldehyde  yreen,  called  also  aniline 
green,  viridiiie,  and  enieraldine. — In  1861  Lauth  obtained  a 
beautiful  Imt  fugitive  blue  by  the  action  of  aldehyde  on  a 
solution  of  a  rosaniline  salt  in  sulphuric  aciiL  A  young 
chemist,  Cherpin.  endeaviued  to  fix  the  color,  and  was  ad- 
vised by  a  photographer's  apiirentice  to  use  sodic  hypo-sul- 
phite, a  salt  used  for  fixing  photographs,  on  account  of  its 
property  of  dissolving  argentic  chloride,  bromide,  and  iodide. 
Cherpin  followed  the  unscientific  advice,  ami  olitained  the 
most  beautiful  green.  The  original  process  of  Ijautli  and 
Cherpin  is  still  pursued,  and  is  so  simple  that  many  dyers 
prepare  the  color  for  themselves.  Akleliyde  green  is  princi- 
pally employed  in  silk-dyeing. 

Jfalarhi/e  yreen  is  produced  by  tlii>  action  of  benzo-tri- 
chloride  on  dimelhylaiiiline.  It  appears  in  eommeree  as  a 
douljle  salt  with  zinc  chloride.  Salts  of  its  sulpho-acids  are 
known  as  Helvetia  yreen. 

Aniline  Browns  and  Maroons. — Several  browns  have 
been  jiroduced  directly  or  indirectly  from  aniline.  De  Laire 
obtaineil  a  maroon  by  adiling  rosaniline  hydrochlorate  to 
fu.sed  aniline  hydrochtorate.  Schultz  prc)iared  a  fine  garnet 
color  by  passing  nitrous  vapors  through  a  solution  of  soda 
holding  rosaniline  in  suspension,  .lacob.seii  prepares  a  rich 
brown  i>y  heating  picric  acid  and  aniline  together.  dis.solv- 
iiig  the  product  in  liydrochloric  acid,  and  ]irecipitating  with 
caustic  soda,  lie  obtains  another  by  heating  ammonium 
chromate  with  aniline  formate.  Koecliliii  produces  a  brown 
on  wool  by  printing  on  a  mixture  of  rosaniline  hydrochlo- 
rate (fuchsin),  oxalic  acid,  and  potassium  chlorate,  and  on 
cotton  by  ailding  to  this  mixture  some  cuprie  sul])hide, 
Urowiis  are  generally  made  from  the  residue  of  rosaniline. 

Axn.iXE  (ili.vv. — Castclhaz  has  jiatented  a  jirocess  by  which 
a  beautiful  gray  is  |U'odiiced.  which  has.  however,  found  little 
favor  among  dyers  on  account  of  its  high  cost.  He  subjects 
niauveine  (Perkin's  violet)  to  the  action  of  .sulphuric  acid  and 
aldehyde.  Carves  and  Thierault  prepare  a  rich  gray,  called 
by  I  hem  7nnreiii.  by  mixing  aniline,  hydrochloric  acid,  potas- 
sic dichroniate,  cojiperas,  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Aniline  Black. — No  one  has  yet  .succeeded  in  producing 
a  good  black  dye  from  aniline,  though  the  color  produced  on 
cotton,  silk,  or  wool  by  immersing  first  in  a  solution  of  an 


220 


ANIMAL 


ANIMA  MUNDI 


aniline  salt,  and  then  in  potassic  dichromate,  is  very  near  a 
black.  In  ealico-printing,  however,  blacks  of  great  intensity 
and  durability  have  been  discovered,  which  are  now  exten- 
sively used :  in  fact,  except  for  mourning  goods,  in  which 
the  black  predominates  over  tlie  white,  the  aniline  black  is 
now  used  almost  exclusively.  Liglitfoot  discovered  the  first 
aniline  black  in  1863.  He  "printed  on  the  cotton  a  mixture 
of  aniline  hydrochlorate,  potassic  clilorate,  cupric  chloride, 
sal-ammoniac,  acetic  acid,  and  starch  paste ;  exposed  the  cloth 
to  the  air  for  two  davs,  and  fixed  the  color  with  an  alkali. 
Lauth  improved  tlie  process  by  substituting  cupric  sulphide 
for  the  cupric  chloride.  Cordillot  substituted  potassium  fer- 
rieyanide  for  the  copper  salt.  Alfred  Paraf  in  1865  intro- 
duced a  mixture  of  aniUne  hydroclilorate,  potassic  chlorate, 
and  hydrolliiosilicie  acid,  properly  tliickened.  ()n  exposing 
the  goods  in  the  "  ageing-room  "  to  a  temperature  of  33'  to 
35°  C,  the  chloric  acid  fs  liberated,  and  oxidizes  the  auiliiie 
to  a  black. 

Appucation  op  Anilise  Colors  in  Dyeing  and  Calico- 
printing. — In  silk-dyeing  no  mordant  is  required;  to  pro- 
duce an  even  color,  however,  it  is  found  best  to  use  a  weak 
soap  solution  with  the  dye  ;  and  sometimes  a  little  acid  is 
added,  sulpliuric  or  tartaric.  For  printing  on  silk  the  colors 
are  thickened  with  gum-senegal,  printed  from  blocks,  and 
when  dry  the  goods  are  steamed  and  washed.  A  discharge 
style  may  be  produced  by  dyeing  silk  witli  a  rosaniline  salt, 
then  printing  on  zinc  dust  thickened  with  gum.  The  ros- 
aniline is  reduced  to  colorless  Icucaniline,  producing  white 
figures  on  a  colored  ground.  By  mixing  with  tlie  zinc  colors 
which  are  not  affected  by  it,  colored  figures  are  produced. 
PVr  dveing  wool  no  mordant  is  required ;  the  goods  are 
simply  handled  in  hot  sokitions;  except  in  the  case  of  Nichol- 
son's blue,  which  is  dissolved  in  an  alkali,  the  goods  after 
passing  through  the  solution  being  subjected  to  an  acid  bath. 
For  dyeing  cotton,  mordants  are  necessary.  By  subjecting 
the  goods  to  (1)  a  decoction  of  sumach,  (2)  to  sodic  stannate, 
and  finally  (3)  to  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  a  stannic  tannate  is 
produced  on  the  fiber  which  has  a  great  athnity  for  aniline 
colors.  For  printing,  tlie  colors  are  thickened  with  albumen, 
or  a  solution  of  aluminum  arsenate  in  aluminum  acetate, 
and  fixed  by  steaming. 

Aniline  colore  are  also  used  for  inks,  for  coloring  leather, 
soaps,  vinegar,  candies,  ivory,  horn,  etc. :  and  lakes  are  pre- 
pared from  them  for  paper-staining,  printer's  ink,  etc. 

The  high  cost  of  aniline  colors  is  counterbalanced  by  the 
brilliancy  of  their  tints  and  the  simpUcity  of  dyeing.  The 
aniline  color  industry  has  acquired  greater  proportions  in 
Germany  than  in  any  other  country. 

For  further  details,  see  Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry; 
Wurtz,  Dictionnaire  de  Chimie,  and  specially -D/f  Farbstoffe, 
von  jNI.  p.  Schutzenberger ;  Deutsche  Uebfrfraijiini/,  von  Dr. 
H.  Schroder  (Berlin,  1868-73J.  Special  works  on  the  subject 
are  Becker's  Anilin-Farhprei  (Berlin,  1871) ;  Reimann's  Ani- 
line and  its  Derivatives  (New  York,  1868);  Krieg's  Theorie 
iind  practische  Anwendilnf/  van  Anilin  in  der  FSrherci  und 
Druckerei  (Berlin,  1866):  Schultz's  Chemie  des  Steiiikohlen- 
thurs  (Brunswick,  1887-90).  Wagner's  Jahresberieht  der 
ehe.mischen  7'echnologie,  from  1858  to  date,  contains  the  rec- 
ord of  the  progress  of  this  important  branch  of  chemical 
industry.  C.  F.  Chandler. 

Revised  by  Ira  Kemsen. 

Au'ininl  [Lat.,  living  creature ;  from  a'nima,  breath,  life] : 
a  member  ot  that  division  of  organisms  which,  among  the 
higher  forms,  are  clearly  distinguished  from  plants.  The 
growth  of  our  knowlcilge  of  both  divisions,  however,  renders 
it  impossible  to  form  a  scientific  definition  which  shall  in- 
clude all  forms  agreed  upon  to  be  animals,  and  exclude  all 
known  to  be  plants.  Any  line  of  division  drawn  between 
the  two  kingdoms  is  an  artificial  one.  Any  one  character 
possessed  by  all  animals  belongs  also  to  some  plants,  and 
vice  versa.  Among  the  lower  forms  of  organisms,  some  ex- 
hibiting animal  characters  in  the  main  possess  also  those 
belonging  usually  to  plants.  Among  such  forms  some  jios- 
sess  such  difi'eient  degrees  of  coniliinal  ion  of  those  characters 
which  are  generally  taken  as  diagnostic  of  animals  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  plants  on  the  other  hand,  as  to  make  it 
impossible  to  .say  in  which  division  the  organism  should  be 
placed.  To  meet  this  difficulty  a  third  division  of  organisms 
has  been  proposed,  to  which  the  name  Protista  has  been 
given.  While  there  are  gronmls  for  estabUshing  such  a  di- 
vision, naturalists  liave  regarded  it  as  an  undesirable  one,  in 
that  it  pr;u;tically  increases  the  difiiculty,  in  liaving  three 
indistinct  groups  to  decide  among  instead  of  two.     In  gen- 


eral, it  may  be  said  that  animals  have  a  definite  form ;  do 
not  have  chlorophyll  in  their  cells,  or  cellulose  in  their  cell- 
walls;  have  the  power  of  voluntary  motion;  ingest  their 
food  (which  must  include  some  proteid  substances  in  a  solid 
form) ;  possess  a  digestive  cavity  or  canal,  and  organs  of  ex- 
cretion. "  David  S.  Jordan. 

Animal  Charcoal :  See  Bone-black. 

Animal'ciilp  [Lat.  o  «/»torcw/»m,  diminutive'of  a'HVwn/]: 
literally  a  "  minute  animal,"  commonly  one  whose  figure 
can  be  discerned  only  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  In  popu- 
lar language  it  is  mostly  applied  to  the  microscopic  animals 
which  zoologists  include  in  the  classes  of  the  Protozoa.  Many 
of  the  so-called  animalcules  are  now  known  to  belong  to  the 
lower  ranks  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Animal  Electricity :  See  Electricity,  Animal. 

Animal  Heat :  the  temperature  which  each  animal  jios- 
sesses  during  life.  In  reptiles,  batrachians.  and  fishes  among 
the  vertebrates,  and  in  all  the  invertebrates  as  far  as  has 
been  observed,  the  temperature  of  the  body  may  vary  through 
a  wide  range,  being  at  least  sliglitly  above  the  temperature 
of  the  medium  in  which  they  are  found.  These  have  been 
called  cold-blooded,  for  which  inaccurate  term  eurythermal 
or  jioikilothermal  has  been  proposed.  In  mammals  and  birds 
the  temperature  is  veiy  nearly  constant  for  each  sjiecies. 
Such  animals  are  known  as  warm-blooded,  stenothermal,  or 
humoiothermal. 

For  each  species  of  animals  there  is  a  degree  at  which  the 
tissues  of  the  animal  best  perform  their  activities,  its  optim  iim 
temperature.  Cold-Vilooded  animals  must  dejiend  mainly 
upon  their  surrounding  medium  for  this  temperature,  being 
able  to  produce  but  httle  heat  for  themselves.  They  possess 
the  power,  however,  of  withstanding  great  departures  from 
the  optimum,  becoming  in  the  mean  time  more  or  less  inac- 
tive, especially  in  the  lower  temperatures.  Warm-blooded 
animals,  on  the  contrary,  by  having  developed  means  for  the 
production  of  heat  in  considerable  quantities,  are  able  to  con- 
stantly maintain  within  their  bodies  the  optimum  tempera- 
ture. This  gives  them  the  advantage  of  being  capable  of 
activity  through  all  changes  of  temperature  of  their  media. 
Their  tissues  have  lost  the  power,  however,  of  being  able  to 
endure,  except  in  particular  cases,  any  but  slight  departures 
from  the  o/j/i'm»»»  tcmipcrature.  The  exceptional  cases  are 
those  ot  animals  which  have  the  power  to  pass  into  a  state, 
that  of  hibernation,  in  which  their  temperature  may  become 
greatly  reduced,  being  not  far  above  the  surrounding  medium 
in  the  few  cases  studied.  These  animals  become  in  this  state 
like  cold-blooded  animals,  in  that  their  temperature  may 
vary  through  wide  intervals.  The  temperature  of  warm-  , 
blooded  animals,  while  it  is  nearly  constant  in  the  species, 
varies  with  the  sjiecies ;  for  example :  it  is  in  man,  98'6°  P. ; 
the  horse,  98-6' ;  the  rat,  101-8° ;  the  dog,  103° ;  the  mouse,  106° ; 
the  goose,  107° ;  the  turkey,  108° ;  the  swallow,  111°.  In  man, 
in  whom  the  temiierature  has  been  most  carefully  sttidied,  it 
is  found  that  even  in  health  there  is  a  slight  variation  from 
the  mean  of  98'6  for  different  times  of  the  day.  for  differ- 
ent conditions  of  the  body,  and  in  different  periods  of  life. 
The  different  tissues  also  range  a  little  above  and  below  the 
mean. 

The  heat  which  is  produced  in  any  one  organ  during  its 
activity  is  distributed  to  other  parts  of  the  body  by  means 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  circulation  of  the  blood 
also  will  distribute  the  effect  of  the  cooling  of  any  part  of 
the  body.  The  problem  of  keeping  the  animal  body  at  a 
constant  temperature  is  a  very  complicated  one,  aud  includes 
a  me.'ins  of  nervous  control  of  the  production  of  heat  on  the 
one  hand  and  of  its  loss  on  the  other.  The  exact  mechanism 
for  the  nervous  control  of  the  production  of  heat  has  not 
yet  been  made  out.  Lo.ss  of  heat  takes  place  mainly  at  the 
skin  by  radiation  and  by  evaporation  of  the  persjiiration. 
The  greater  the  amount  ot  blood  passing  thi-ough  the  skin, 
the  greater  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation :  the  loss  by  this 
.source  being  greatly  increased  by  the  evaporation  of  persjii- 
ration.  Xervous  reflex  mechanisms  control  biilh  the  amount 
of  blood  flowing  through  the  skin  and  the  amount  of  perspi- 
ration secreted.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Animal  Magnetism:  See  Hypnotism. 

Animal  Mechanics:  Sec  Locomotion  of  Animals. 

.\n'ima  Mnn'ili:  a  Latin  phrase  signifying  "soul  of  the 
world."  It  was  used  by  ancient  philosophers,  who  supposed 
that  nature  or  all  matter  was  pervaded  by  an  ethereal  es- 
sence and  vital  force,  which  organizeil  anil  actuated  created 
beings,  but  was  inferior  to  the  Divine  Spirit.     The  Atmaii 


ANIMfi 


ANJER 


221 


(Atnm)  or  PitrSmatma  of  the  Hindus  was  also  regarded  as 
the  soul  of  the  world  in  a  somewhat  different  sense.  The 
Atmrui  WHS  supposed  to  be  the  original  life-principle  from 
which  tlie  universe  was  evolved. 

Au'illlfi :  a  resin  which  exudes  from  Ilyvtenaia  Courhiril. 
a  tree  of  tlie  natural  order  Legit m)nime,i\m\  a  native  of 
15razil.  It  has  lieen  used  as  a  medicine  and  as  incense.  In 
En<rland  the  name  anime  is  apjilied  lo  a  resin  known  in 
India  as  eopal,  and  obtained  from  the  Valeria  Indica. 

Aii'illli.Slll :  pvact  ical  belief  in  spirits,  good  or  bad,  having 
power  over  natural  occurrences  and  the  lives  of  men.  It 
seems  to  be  I  he  predominating  philosophy  and  religion  of 
all  savage  races  (e.g.  those  of  America,  the  Pacific  islands, 
Africa,  and  Asia),  and  of  many  nations  well  advanced  in 
civilization,  c.  g.  Greeks,  Romans,  Aztecs,  Hindus,  Chinese, 
Japanese.  The  subject  can  best  be  considered  under  several 
heads. 

I.  .Spiritism. — Such  phenomena  as  dreams,  sickness,  and 
death  lead  the  savage  to  distinguish  the  body  from  the 
ghost-soul  or  spirit,  which  is  material  but  impalpable,  and 
in  form  like  the  body.  Objects  and  animals  as  well  as  men 
have  spectral  forms.  The  souls  of  men  exist  after  the  body 
perishes — according  to  some  tribes  suffering  transmigration, 
according  to  others  going  on  their  long  and  perilous  journey 
to  the  land  of  sliades,  or  becouiing  malignant  clemons.  drea<l- 
ful  in  their  power  for  evil — though  some  spirits,  especially 
those  of  ancestors  and  little  children,  are  as  powerful  for 
good.  Thus  endowed,  the  spirits  of  the  dead  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  the  demons  with  which  also  savage  man 
peoples  the  world  around  him.  The  spirits  can  be  propiti- 
ated by  sacrifices,  gifts,  food,  prayers,  etc.,  or  controlled  Ijy 
magic.  But  as  fear  is  the  most  powerful  emotion,  the  tle- 
mons  of  darkness  and  destmction  receive  almost  e.KcIusive 
worship.  Animistic  religion  seldom  has  any  moral  value. 
In  fact,  most  of  the  sin  and  misery  of  heathenism — canni- 
balism, human  sacrifice,  the  revolting  licentiousness  of  the 
ancient  Aztec  feasts  and  of  the  present  Central  African 
secret  societii^s,  the  terror  of  demons  and  monsters,  and  the 
oppression  and  cruelty  of  sorcerers  and  priests — are  either 
closely  de])endent  upon  or  directly  traceable  to  animism. 
The  theory  of  moral  retribution,  witli  its  restraining  cU'i'ct, 
scarcely  has  a  place.  The  spirits  may  enter  into  human 
bodies,  producing  inspiration,  demoniacal  possession,  disease, 
or  death  ;  or  into  animals  and  objects. 

II.  PtTiSHiSM. — A  spirit  talcing  up  its  abode  in  an  animal 
or  object,  whether  of  its  own  accord  or  comp('lle<l  by  some 
spell  or  by  some  magic  property  of  the  object,  makes  tlie 
object  entered  a  fetish.  Or  the  oljjeet  itself  may  be  viewed 
as  possessed  of  occult  powers,  and  only  later  distinguished 
from  the  spirit  residing  in  it.  In  both  these  ways  has  arisen 
the  worship  of  fire,  water,  trees,  animals,  as  fetishes. 

HI.  JIagic. — As  fetishism  can  not  be  clearly  marked  oS 
from  spiritism  on  one  side,  neither  can  it  from  magic  on 
the  other,  which  is  occult  ]iower  not  only  over  men  and 
things,  but  especially  over  the  spirits  themselves,  exercised 
by  means  of  s;icrificcs,  mystic  rites,  charms,  fetishes,  incan- 
tations, etc.  Those  who  know  the  way  of  spirits  i  bus  Ijecome 
medicine-men  or  fetish  priests,  and  are  held  in  awe  both  for 
their  power  over  the  spirits  and  for  their  consequent  ])ower 
for  good  and  evil  over  men. 

IV.  ANCKSTOR-woRsnip. — Ancestor-worship  has  lieen  es- 
pecially developed  among  the  Japanese  (Shintoism),  Chinese, 
Hindus,  liomans  (manes-worship),  Greeks,  and  Bantu  trilics 
of  Africa.  While  most  spirits  are  malignant,,  tlu>se  of  an- 
cestors are  kindly  disposed;  but  even  on  this  basis  there  is 
no  sharp  distinction  from  spiritism,  for  as  the  father  con- 
tinues to  care  for  his  family,  so  does  the  chief  for  his  tril)e, 
or  the  Chinese  god  of  gambling  (himself  a  deified  gambler) 
for  the  art  he  practiced  on  earth.  The  ancestral  spirits  are 
not  more  powerful  than  others,  but  they  will  listen  to  ns 
and  help  us,  or  punish  ns  for  neglecting  them  and  doing 
wrong.  Among  the  t'hinese  ancestor-worship  pervades  and 
shapes  all  social,  political,  and  religious  life.  Kven  jiolilical 
honors  are  sought  largely  for  the  sake  of  one's  ancestors, 
and  all  change  from  their  customs  and  institutions  is  re- 
sisted. Among  many  peoples  the  spirit  of  the  first  ancestor 
is  pre-enunenlly  endowed  with  supernatural  powers,  eithcT 
as  lord  of  the  (hiad  or  as  supreme  deity  and  creator.  Often, 
however,  he  is  thought  of  as  too  far  away  and  little  homage 
is  paid  to  him. 

V.  PoLvu.KMONisji,  Nature  Religion,  Axn  PoLVTnEisM. — 
Polyda'inonism,  advancing  one  step  from  primitive  animism, 
assigns  to  each  river,  mountain,  waterfall,  and  fountain  its 


spirit  or  god.  Nature  religion  personifies  the  vasterpowers, 
such  as  Heaven,  Rain,  Sun,  Thundei-,  Sea,  and  Fire.  Whether 
it  develops  out  of  animism  and  polyda^monism,  or,  as  is  cer- 
taiidy  sometimes  the  <'ase,  arises  indeiicndently,  it  is  bvit 
animism  on  a  larger  scale.  Polytheism  differs  from  nature 
religion  onlv  in  regarding  its  deities  more  as  separate  per- 
sonalities. It  may  also  arise  in  jiart  out  of  ancestor  worship. 
Among  the  Hindus,  Greeks,  old  Norse,  and  modern  Africans 
we  find  animism,  fetishism,  ancestor-worship,  polyda^monism, 
polytheism,  and  monotheism  undeniably  existing  together. 

VI.  Modern  Survivals  of  Animism  are — (o)of  spiritism: 
belief  in  ghosts  and  haunted  houses,  feelings  aroused  in  the 
dark  after  a  ghost.story,  fear  of  darkness,  spiritualism  entire ; 
(6)  of  fetishism :  charms,  veneration  of  sacred  relics,  holy 
water,  lucky  coins;  (c)  of  magic:  signs  (such  as  dropping 
shears  and  spilling  s;ilt),  incantations  and  charms  against 
warts,  omens  on  All-Halloween,  the  notion  that  a  priest  or 
(U'dained  minister  has  peculiar  religious  ant  liorily  and  power, 
throwing  rice  at  wedding-s,  lucky  and  unlucky  days  and 
numbers,  spiritualistic  seances ;  (d)  of  ancestor  worship :  re- 
gard for  the  curse  or  blessing  of  parents  or  of  the  aged  as 
possessed  of  supernatural  jiotency,  the  thought  that  perhaps 
a  sainted  mother's  presence  is  still  with  one;  (e)  of  polyda;- 
monism  and  polytheism :  the  worship  of  saints,  haunted 
woods,  streams,  and  wells,  and  personihcation  in  poetry  and 
under  the  influence  of  .strong  emotion.  In  view  of  such 
survivals,  it  must  be  strenuously  insisted  that  our  own  civil- 
ized human  nature  does  not  altogether  differ  from  that  of 
the  savage,  that  his  so-called  superstitions  are  neither  wholly 
foreign  to  us  nor  altogether  to  be  despised,  and  that  there  is 
in  him  the  same  raw  material  of  manhood  and  the  same  pos- 
sibility of  spiritual  life  and  growth  as  in  us. 

Robert  J.  Kellogg. 

A'nio  (the  modern  Tevero've):  a  river  of  Latium  (Italy); 
flowed  nearly  westward,  passed  by  Tibnr,  and  entered  the 
Tiber  4  miles  N.  of  Rome.  Length,  about  55  miles.  An- 
cient Rome  was  in  part  supplied  with  water  from  the  Anio 
by  two  aqueducts,  respectively  43  and  (52  miles  long. 

An'inn  :  See  Anode  and  Electrolysis. 

Ail'ise,  Oil  of:  an  essential  oil  obtained  by  distilling 
anise-seeds  or  star-anise  with  water.  Oil  of  fennel,  from 
Anet/nim  fmniculum  and  Artemisia  dracuncuhis,  is  of  a 
similar  chemical  composition.  Oil  of  anise  and  of  fennel 
contain  a  hydrocarbon  oil,  said  to  lie  isomeric  with  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  an  oxidized  oil,  C'loHnO,  called  anethol  or 
anise  camphor,  which  solidifies  at  temperatures  below  W  C. 

Anise-seed:  the  fruit  of  the  Fimpinel'la  ani'sum,  an  an- 
nual herbaceous  plant  of  the  family  I'liibcllifene;  a  native 
of  Egypt.  It  is  cultivated  in  Syria.  Malta,  Sjiain.  and  Ger- 
many. Anise-seed  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and  a 
carminative,  and  is  also  used  to  flavor  liiiueurs  and  as  a 
condiment.  Anise-seed  contains  a  volatile  oil  which  is  cm- 
ployed  for  similar  purposes.  A  large  part  of  the  anise  oil  of 
commerce  is  from  star-anise,  the  fruit  of  Jllicium  airinafiini, 
a  small  tree  of  the  order  Maf/nn/iaci'te.  The  whole  plant  is 
carminative  and  is  used  by  the  (-'hinese  as  a  spice.  Its  prop- 
erties are  those  of  the  Pinipiiu'lla.  It  is  imported  from 
Annam  and  China.  This  latter  is  largely  used  for  flavoring 
the  Dutch  aniseed  and  the  anisette  de  Bordeaux. 

Ij.  H.  Bailey. 

AliiSP-tree  [so  named  from  the  smell,  which  resembles 
that  of  anise]  :  cillicr  of  two  small  trees  or  large  shrubs  of 
the  order  3lci(]nnUucew,  growing  in  the  Gulf  States — the 
Illicinni  floridanum  and  the  Illiciiim  parrijiortim.  Both 
are  evergreen,  the  former  with  dark  purple  and  the  latter 
with  small  yellow  flowers,  appearing  in  May  and  June.  The 
star-anise  oil  of  commerce  is  the  product  of  the  1  lliciiim 
aniKatmn  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  same 
oil  might  be  obtained  from  the  lUicivm  floridanmn.  The 
Illiciiini  parvifloriivi  has  a  taste  and  smell  resembling  those 
of  Siissiifras.  The  Jllicium  relii/iosum  of  China  yields  a  fra- 
grant incense  for  temple-worship. 

Anisol  Red:  See  Azo-coi.ors. 

Aniii'y,  Greater:  a  river  of  Northeast  Siberia;  rises 
about  lat.  67°  N.,  and,  after  a  course  of  270  miles,  enters 
the  Kolyma  near  lat.  68'  N.  The  Lesser  Aniuv  rises  in 
lat.  66°  30'  N..  and  falls  into  the  Kolyma  near  the  mouth  of 
tlu>  Greater  Aniuy.    Length,  alxnit  250  miles. 

Anjer:  seaport  of  Java;  on  the  Sunda  Straits ;  69  miles 
W.  of  Batavia  (see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  8-C);  formerly 
often  touched  at  by  vessels  bound  to  China  and  Japan,  or 
for  Batavia,  to  take  in  provisions,  and  to  land  the  mails  and 


222 


AXJOU 


ANNAM 


passengers  wliiiOi  go  to  Batavia  overland ;  was  destroyed  by 
the  Krakatoa  eruption  in  1883.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by 
a  high-peaked  liill,  and  the  port  has  been  removed  to  New 
Anjer,  10  miles  X.  E. 

Alijon :  a  former  ijrovince  and  diiehy  of  Fi'ance,  inter- 
sected by  tiie  river  Loire ;  was  inhabited  in  ancient;  times 
by  the  Andegavi,  who  were  conquered  by  Caesar.  It  now 
forms  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire  and  part  of  Saithe, 
i\Iayenne,  and  Indre-et-Loire.  Its  capital  was  Angers. 
Geoffroy,  Count  of  Anjou.  married  JIatilda.  a  daugliter  of 
Henry  I.  of  Kngland,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  royal 
house  of  Plant ageuet.  His  son  Henry  was  Count  of  Anjou 
and  King  of  England.  Anjou  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of 
France  about  1204,  and  was  bestowed  as  a  fief  on  Charles 
(a  brother  of  St.  Tjouis),  who  became  King  of  Naples.  Louis, 
a  son  of  King  .John,  was  tlie  first  Duke  of  Anjou.  which  was 
erected  into  a  ducliy  aliout  1360.  Anjou  was  finally  annexed 
to  the  French  crown  in  1480,  after  which  the  younger  sons 
of  several  kings  liore  the  honorai-y  title  of  Duke  of  Anjou. 
Pop.  about  .5.50,000. 

Aii'kiirsitroiii,  .Ion an  .LtKOB:  Swedish  regicide;  b.  May 
11, 1763  ;  was  a  (lartisan  of  the  aristocracy.  Having  formed 
a  conspiracy  with  Count  Horn  and  others,  he  assassinated 
Gustavus  III.  at  a  masked  ball  in  Stockholm.  Mar.  16,  17!)3. 
He  was  coiulemncd  to  death,  and,  after  he  had  been  publicly 
whipped  for  three  successive  days,  was  belieaded  on  Apr.  30 
of  that  year. 

Anker,  angker:  an  nld  European  liquid  measure  (now 
di.sused,  except  in  Deniiuirk  and  Norway),  having  different 
values  in  different  countries.  Tlie  anker  of  Copenhagen  is 
a  little  more  than  !)J  V.  S.  gal.,  or  a  little  less  than  8^  impe- 
rial gal.  Tl\e  anker  of  Hamburg  was  9-.54  gal.;  of  Bremen, 
i)-.)7';  of  Liibeck,  0-89;  of  Amsterdam,  lOf;  and  of  Beriin 
(old  measure),  13'45 ;  later  measure,  9-07. 

An'klaiii :  a  town  of  Prussia ;  in  Pomerania ;  on  the  Peene : 
109  miles  by  ]-ail  N.  of  Berlin  (see  map  of  Gernum  Empire, 
ref.  2-G).  It  has  numufactures  of  linen  and  woolen  goods.  It 
belonged  formerly  to  the  Ilanseatic  League.  Pop.  (1890)13,917. 

Aliko'biir:  a  town  of  Abyssinia;  capital  of  Shoa;  8,300 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  about  365  miles  S.  E.  of  Gondar 
(see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  4-G).  It  contains  a  royal  palace, 
and  is  a  favorite  residence  of  the  monarch.     Pop.  7,0()0. 

Ankylo'sis.  or  Aiioliylosis  [from  Gr.  ayKvXatrts.  stiffen- 
ing of  joints,  deriv.  of  ayKvKos.  crooked] :  in  surgery,  a  siilf- 
ened  and  uujre  or  less  fixed  and  innnovable  joint,  so  called 
from  the  crookedness  often  seen  in  !iud)s  with  such  joints. 
Ankylosis  may  result  from  siqipurativc  inflammation,  as  in 
■•  white  swelling "  of  the  knee,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
favorable  termination  of  such  disease.  These  cases  result 
often  in  neo-plastic  exudations — new  tissues — adhering  to 
the  cartilages  of  both  articulating  bones;  and  not  unfre- 
quently  these  new  growtlis  are  partly  or  completely  ossified, 
converting  tlic  two  bones  into  one.  The  cartilages  or  liga- 
ments of  a  joint  may  liccomc  shrunken  from  disease,  the 
opposing  syucjvial  uiembranes  may  adhere  to  each  other,  or 
other  important  structural  changes  may  prevent  motion. 
"Spurious  ankylosis"  is  a  case  in  which  a  spasm  or  cicatri- 
cial contraction  of  the  uniscles,  or  even  of  the  skin,  prevents 
motion,  while  the  joint  itself  is  not  the  seat  of  disease. 
Cases  of  so-cidled  hysteria  sometimes  arc  accompanied  by  a 
stiffness  of  one  or  more  joints;  but  such  cases  are  readily 
detected  after  the  adniiui.stratiou  of  an  ana'sthetic,  wlien 
the  joint  at  once  becomes  nioval)le. 

The  prospi'ft  of  recovery  of  motion  in  an  ankylosed  joint 
is  small  indeed,  .buids  stiffened  at  an  inconvenient  angle 
may  be  i)ut  into  better  shape  during  ana'sthcsia.  and  then 
be  allowed  to  becomi'  ankylosed  agsdn  in  the  desired  posi- 
tion. Excision  of  joints  lias  been  considerably  practiced, 
and  witli  some  suc'cess  as  a  means  of  cure. 

Aii'na:  on  Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  Union  co..  111.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  11-E);  situated  in 
the  miilst  of  a  fruil-irrowiiig  region,  H7  miles  N.  of  Cairo. 
Po|i.  (1870)  1.369;  (1880)  1,494;  (1800)  3.39.5. 

Anna.  Saint:  snpixised  to  have  been  the  mother  of  the 
Viru'iM  Mary,  but  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  Roman 
Calliolic  Church  celebrates  an  annual  festival  in  her  honor 
.luly  3();  the  Greek  Church  Dec.  9. 

An'nabcrji::  a  mining-town  of  Saxony;  in  the  Erzge- 
birge,  IM  miles  S.  of  Chemnitz  (see  map  of  German  Empire, 
ref.  .5-G).  It  has  mines  of  silver,  cobalt,  and  tin.  and  manu- 
factures of  lace  ami  silk  ribbons.     Pop.  (1890)  14,960. 


Anna  Carlov'na  :  Regent  of  Ru.ssia;  b.  at  Rostock,  Dec. 
18,  1718 ;  tlaughter  of  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  and  a  niece 
of  Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of  Russia  (g.v.).  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1739  to  Anton  Ulrich,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfeu- 
biittel,  and  had  a  son,  Ivan,  whom  Anna  Ivanovna  desig- 
nated as  her  successor.  Soon  after  the  deatli  of  that  empres.s, 
in  1740,  Anna  Carlovna  assumed  the  olfice  of  regent.  She 
was  deprived  of  power  by  a  conspiracy  which  raised  EUza- 
lieth  to  the  throne  in  Dec,  1741.  D.  in  exile  at  Cholmogory 
on  the  Dwiua,  Mar.  18,  1746.  See  Briickuer"s  Die  Familie 
Brauit/schu'L'iy  in  JJiisalaiid  (St.  Petersburg,  1876). 

Anna  Conine'na:  learned  Byzantine  princess  and  writer: 
b.  Det'.  1,  1083  :  daughter  of  Alexis  I.,  Empertu-  of  Constan- 
tinojile.  She  was  carefully  educated  in  jioetry,  science,  and 
Greek  philosophy,  was  famous  for  her  beauty  and  talents, 
ami  became  the  wife  of  Nicephorus  Bryennius.  On  the 
death  of  her  fatlier,  in  1118.  she  conspired  against  her  brother 
.John,  and  attemiiled  to  usurii  the  crown  or  to  place  it  on 
the  head  of  her  husband,  but  failed.  Slie  afterward  becauu' 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  and  wi-ote  in  Greek  a  life  of 
her  father,  entitled  the  A/e.riail.  which  is  an  important  his- 
torical document.  It  covers  the  period  1069-1118,  includ- 
ing that  of  the  first  crnsade.  The  style  is  rather  affected  : 
best  edition  by  Reifferscheid  (2  vols.,  Leipzig.  1884).  D.  in 
a  convent  after  1148. 

Anna  Ivanov'na:  Empress  of  Russia:  b.  at  Moscow, 
Jan.  3.5,  1693:  daughter  of  Ivan,  a  brtither  of  Peter  the 
Great.  She  was  nuirried  in  1710  to  the  Duke  of  Courland, 
who  (lied  in  1711.  She  succeeded  Peter  II.  on  the  throne 
in  1730,  and  permitted  her  favorite  Biren  to  control  the 
empire.  He  abused  his  power  with  great  cruelty,  and  exe- 
cuted and  banished  many  thousand  persons.  She  died  Oct. 
38,  1740,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ivan. 

An'nals;  in  Roman  history,  official  chronicles  of  events 
kept  by  the  Roman  ponfife.r,  ma.rimiis  down  to  131  B.  c. 
When  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  Gauls.  '3dO  n.  c.,  all  the  exist- 
ing annals  were  destroyed  except  a  few  fragments,  which  is 
one  cause  of  the  obscurity  of  early  Roman  history.  Ilistiuy 
in  the  form  of  annals  was  afterward  writtei\  by  private  citi- 
zens. The  Chinese  claim  similar  annals  of  the  history  of 
their  nation  back  as  far  as  3000  B.  v.  See  Nitzsch,  Die 
romische  AnnuHstik  (Berlin,  1873). 

Annani'  (literally,  peaceful  south) :  an  empire  in  South- 
eastern Asia,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Indo-Chinese  j)eniu- 
sula.  now  under  French  protectorate.  It  is  a  ]iart  of  what 
used  to  be  called  Cochiu-China.  and  is  a  stri|)  of  coast  about 
1.400  miles  long  by  sometimes  only  .50  broad,  though  the 
western  boundary  is  not  well  defined,  the  tribes  l}etween 
Aniuim  anil  Siam  being  fairly  iudei)endent.  Touking  lies 
to  the  N.  of  this  country,  and  Lower  Cochin-China  to  the  S. 
The  area  of  Annam  proper  is  about  27.000  sq.  miles,  and  of 
the  indijicndcnt  tribes  nominally  under  it  about  20.000  S(|. 
miles.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000.  The 
capital  is  Hue  (q.  v.). 

Iniiabitants. — The  Annamese  are  confined,  for  the  iiu)st 
]iart.  to  the  coast  region.  They  form  an  ancient  and  rather 
ill-favoreil  rave  of  Mongolian  relationship.  Tliey  are  short, 
tawnv.  with  low  forehead,  flat  face,  and  very  projecting  high 
cheek-bones.  The  nose  is  flat  and  snmll,  month  large,  teeth 
bhukened  by  the  use  of  the  betel-nut,  the  arcca-nut,  ami 
lime:  the  neck  is  short,  shoulders  slojiing.  body  thick-set 
and  clumsv.  But  they  are  especially  characterized  by  two 
features  well  known  to  their  neighbors.  Tlie  first  is  a  curi- 
ous swagger  in  the  gait,  described  as  theatrical,  and  due  to 
the  structure  of  the  pelvis  and  the  femur:  the  second,  a 
greater  separation  of  the  great  toe  from  the  ri^st  than  is 
found  in  any  other  people  walking  habitually  barefoot.  The 
Chinese  annals  refer  to  this  over  4.000  years  ago.  They  are 
generally  liuddliists,  but  there  is  a  sprinkling  of  Roman 
Catholic's.  The  language  is  allied  to  Chinese.  See  Frey, 
L'diuKiiiiiti-.  mii-c  ili'K  laiifiUfS  (1892). 

A  moiig  t  he  Aimanu'se  live  many  Chinese  and  Cambodians, 
and  in  their  hands  is  nearlv  all  the  commerce  of  the  country. 
In  the  hills  of  the  W.  and"  forests  of  the  S.  W.  live  several 
wild  tribes;  the  ^lois  in  the  S.,  a  wretched  race  in  the  scale 
of  civilization  ;  the  Chains,  a  peojile  of  Mohammedan  religion 
and  Arab  ch.'iracteristics.apparently  degraded  from  a  higher 
status;  the  Laos  in  the  X.  W.,  anil  niany  others.  The  in- 
land regions  are  but  little  known. 

Pkoolttions. — The  principal  productions  are  rice,  cotton, 
tobacco,  sugar,  silk,  iiejiper,  cardamoms,  ivory,  lac,  orna- 
mental woods,  bamboos,  cinnamon  bark,  tea,  and  coffee. 
The  chief  imports  are  rice,  cottons,  yarn,  paper,  and  ojiium. 


ANNA  XI)  A  LK 


AXXE 


223 


Golfl  is  washed  out  of  the  hills,  and  a  French  company  was 
formed  in  1891  for  working  the  eoal  mines  at  Turane.  Fish- 
ing is  an  important  industry.  The  trade  is  childly  with 
China  and  Franee.  a  little  with  Japan.  Siam.  anil  Burma. 

WKriiUTs  AND  ME.\srREs :  (1)  Weig/il. — The  eiin  or  eatti 
=  i:!77.5  11).  av.,  or  624-91;:!  grammes.  Multiples.  10  can  = 
1  yen;  5  yen  =  1  liinh  ;  3  binh  =:  1  ta:  5  ta  =  1  (luan.  Suli- 
nmltiples',  f  can  =  1  nen;  iV  nen  =  1  luoug:  t^  luong  or  Hang 
=  1  (long;  -iV  dung  =  1  i)han  :  Vtr  phan  =  1  li.  The  li  = 
0-602  grain  =  O-OoiHI.j  gramme,  and  is  fancifully  subdivided 
deeinuilly  to  the  millionth  part. 

(2)  Lfiii/l/i. — For  merchants'  measure  the  thuoc  =  25-.')8 
inches  =  (149-7  mm.,  is  tlie  unit  base.  Multiples.  10  thuoc  = 
1  truong:  :i  truong  =  1  that;  10  that  =  1  gon  =  213-17  yards 
=  194-92  meters.  Sub-muhiples,  -jV  thuoc  =  1  tae  ;  tV  tac  = 
1  phan  ;  A  P'lan  =  1  li  =  0-2ri8  inch.  For  Inulilers"  measure, 
the  thuoc  =  19-18  inches  =  487-16  mm.  Multiples,  5  tluioc 
=  1  ngn  ;  -i  ngu  =  1  sao;  10  sao  =  1  man  =  79-92  yards  = 
72-8775  meters.  Suli-multiples.  as  before,  the  H  l)eing  xTiVs 
tIniiK-,  or  0-01918  inch  =  0-487  nnn.  For  i-oad-measure.  the 
<lani  =  about  O'S.j  ndle  =  O-SS.")  km.,  is  the  unit  ;  sub-mul- 
tilile.  J  dam  =  1  li  =  0-27o  nnle  =  0-4476  km. 

llis-roRY. — The  people  claim  to  have  come  from  the  south 
i.f  China.  About  33o7  n.  r.  Chinese  annals  uu'iitiim  tliem  1 
under  a  name  meaning  "the  people  with  tlie  big  toe."  Tlie\ 
were  vassals  to  otiier  nations,  chiefly  the  Cliiiiese,  until  alioui 
the  tenth  century  of  our  era.  when  they  tlirew  off  this  yokr 
.'ind  remained  practically  independent  until  they  came  undc] 
tlu>  Frencli.  In  1787  the  King  of  Cochin-Ciiina  made  a 
treaty  of  alliance  with  France,  with  a  small  cession  of  terri- 
tory." This  gave  France  predominant  influence,  and  Chris- 
tianitv  made  rapid  progress  until  1820,  when  a  party  hostile 
to  foreigners  prevailed.  In  1858  the  execution  of  a  French 
subjei-t  gave  occasion  for  a  war  with  xVnnam,  which  resulted 
in  the  seizure  of  Saigon,  in  the  present  French  Cochin- 
Cliiua.  In  1862  the  Annamesc  Government  abandoned  three 
provinces  to  France;  in  1867  three  more;  in  1873  two  ports 
were  opened  to  foreign  commerce ;  and  in  1886  a  French 
protectorate  was  established  over  what  remained.  The 
present  king  is  Bun  Can.  proclaimed  in  1889.  French 
troops  occupy  the  citadel  of  the  capital;  Annaniite  oflicials 
administer  internal  affairs.  There  are  23,230  soldiers,  of 
whom  11.830  are  natives.  The  capital  is  Hue,  near  the 
coast,  in  about  lat.  16°  30'  N.     See  Indo-China. 

Mark  W.  riARRix(rrox. 

An'nniiilalo :  See  Dimfries. 

Aiiiiniidiile.  Thomas,  !M.  D.,  F.  R.  C.  S.  :  Englisli  surgeon : 
b.  at  Xewcastle-on-Tyne,  Feb.  2.  1838;  M.  D.,  University  of 
Kilinl>urgh,  1863:  acted  as  assistant  and  lecturer  In  Univer- 
sity of  Kdinhurgli  until  1877,  when  he  was  appointed  Uegius 
I'rofessor  of  ciinic-al  Surgery  in  the  sanu';  author  of  Ali- 
sfriiclii  of  Sunjic.nl  Prineiples  (1868-70) ;  On  the  Fatholiiiiy 
and  Operatiue  Treatment  of  III j)  Diaense  (1876),  etc. 

.Vii'iia  Pereii'iia:  a  goddess  of  the  Roman  mythology. 
.\c((irding  to  Vergil  and  Ovid  she  was  a  daughter  of  Belus 
aud  sister  of  Dido.  She  went  to  Italv,  and  was  received 
kiiidlv  liy  yKneas.  Her  favor  was  invoked  by  the  Romans 
to  obtain  health  and  long  life. 

Anna  Pctrov'na:  eldest  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  and  the  Kmpress  Catharine;  b.  in  1708:  was  married 
to  Frederick  Charles,  Duke  of  Holstciii.  in  1725.  Slie  was 
mother  of  IVter  III.  of  Russia.     I),  in  1728. 

Aiinap'dlis.  or  Annapolis  Royal:  a  seaport  of  Nova 
Scotia;  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Annapolis  (.see  map  of 
(|)uebcc,  ref.  2-A).  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in 
Xorth  America,  and  was  founded  in  1604  by  the  French, 
who  called  it  I'ort  Royal.  The  harbor  is  good,  but  ditlicult 
of  access.  This  town  was  the  capital  of  the  province  until 
1750.     P.. |i.  2.800. 

Annapolis:  city:  capital  of  Maryland,  and  county  seat 
of  .\nne  .\rundcl  County  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Marylaml.  ref.  3-F):  is  a  port  of  entry  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Severn  river.  2  miles  from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeake 
Hav.  -20  miles  S.  by  K.  of  Baltimore,  and  22  miles  K.  by  X. 
of  \Vashington,  and  40  miles  by  rail  to  the  latter  city  by  the 
.\.,  W.  and  B.  h.  R.,  and  26  miles  from  Baltimore  by  the  A. 
and  B.  Short  Line.  The  Eastern  Shore  H.  R.  also  passes 
through  this  city  to  Ocean  City  viii  Bay  Ridge,  across  the 
Chesapeake  Bay.  It  has  also  water  communication  with 
Baltimore  didly  by  steamboat.  Annapolis  contains  a  State- 
house.  Governor's"  mansion,  court-house,  land-olhce,  comp- 
troller and  treasurer's  buildings,  and  jail.     It  is  also  the 


seat  of  St.  John's  College  and  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy. 
(See  Naval  Academy.)  A  bronze  statue  of  JIaj.-Gen.  John 
de  Kalb  was  unveiled  here  Aug.  16,  1886.     There  is  also  a 


m-- 


HKS'^''*«.^ili*SlC£ 


it: 


^Mt 


titate  Capitol,  Amiapulis,  31d. 


Iironze  statue  in  front  of  the  State-house  of  the  late  Chief 
Justice  Roger  B.  Taney.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  the  Court 
of  Appeals."  The  harbor,  or  Annapolis  Roads,  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  counti-y,  there  being  a  depth  of  60  feet  in  the 
channel  up  to  Round  Bay  in  the  Severn  river,  7  miles  from 
the  citv.  The  citv  has  both  gas-works  and  water-works. 
Pop.  (1880)  6.642 ;  "(1890)  7,604.         Editor  of  "  Capitol." 

.\nn  Ar'hor:  city  and  important  railroad  center;  capital 
of  Washtenaw  co..  Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  nniii  of 
Michigan,  ref.  8-J);  on  the  Huron  river;  38  nnles  W.  of 
Detniit.  The  situation  is  elevated  ami  pleasant.  Here  is 
the  State  Universitv,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  institutions 
in  the  country,  founded  in  1837.  (See  Michigan  University.) 
Ann  Arbor  has  manufactures  of  furniture,  organs,  agricul- 
tural machines,  wagons  and  carts,  etc,  and  several  flouring- 
mills.  Pop.  (1870)  7,363;  (1880)  8,061;  (1884)  7,912;  (1890) 
9,431;  (1894)  11,069. 

An-XiVsir  (or  Al-Xassir)  Lcdinil'lali  (i.  c.  the  defender 
of  the  religion  of  God):  one  of  the  Abassid  caliphs;  began 
to  reign  at  Bagdad  in  1180.  He  was  a  liberal  i>atron  of 
learning,  and  successfully  defended  liis  dominions  against 
several  aggressive  enemies.     D.  in  1225. 

An'nates  [from  mcdiev.  liat.  aniia'tn.  a  year's  (amuis) 
work] :  the  tax  of  "  tirst-fruits  "  imposed  by  the  popes  on  all 
bishops  on  their  accession,  and  e(|ual  to  one  year's  revenue 
of  the  benefice.  The  Council  of  Pisa  (1409)  complained  of 
the  custom;  that  of  Bale  (1435)  called  it  simony;  that  of 
Trent  (Nov.  11.  1563)  prohibited  it,  but  it  was  recognized  by 
concordat  with  Naples  in  1818.  In  England,  annates  were 
first  levied  in  1213.  In  1.534  they  were  made  payable  to  the 
king  (Henrv  VII 1.)  instead  of  tlie  jiope.  (|lueen  Mary  gave 
them  u]i  on'  her  accession  to  the  throne,  but  in  the  first  year 
of  Eliz.-dieth's  reign  they  were  resumed  by  the  crown,  and 
continued  to  form  part  "of  the  royal  revenue  until  Queen 
Anne  restored  them  to  the  Church  "nnder  a  .scheme  for  their 
a|)|)ropriation  to  the  increase  of  poor  livings.  See  Queen 
Anne's  Bointv,  under  Bounty.  W.  S.  Perry. 

Annatto:  See  Annotto. 

Ann*':  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  the  lastssov- 
ereign  of  the  house  of  Stuart ;  b.  at  St.  James's  Palace,  Lon- 
don, on  Feb.  6,  1665.  She  was  tlu;  .second  daughter  of 
James  II.  and  Anne  Hyde,  who  was  a  daughter  of  the 
famous  Lord  Clarendon."  She  was  educated  in  the  Prot- 
estant religion,  to  which  she  afterward  manifested  a  con- 
stant devotion,  although  her  father,  after  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  attempted  to  convert  her  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.     On  July  38,  1683,  she  was  married  to  Prince  George 


224 


ANXE   OF  AUSTRIA 


ANNIUS  OP  VITERBO 


of  Denmark,  a  brother  of  Christian  V.  At  an  early  age  she 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Sarah  Jennings  (afterward  the 
Duchess  of  JIarlborougli),  who  exercised  an  almost  un- 
bounded influence  over  hor,  both  before  and  after  her  ac- 
cession to  the  throne.  Anne  was  the  mother  of  many 
(seventeen)  cluldren,  all  of  wliom  died  young  and  before  she 
became  queen.  In  the  revolution  of  1688  slie  supported  the 
cause  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  but  was  afterward  implicated 
in  intrigues  for  the  restoration  of  her  father.  Anne  suc- 
ceeded William  111.,  who  died  Mar.  8,  1702,  at  a  time  when 
the  strife  of  parties  was  extremely  violent.  Slie  pursued 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  late  king,  "which  involved  England 
in  the  long  war  of  tiie  .Spanish  succession  as  the  ally  of 
Austria  anil  the  enemy  of  France.  Among  the  important 
events  of  her  reign  were  a  mimber  of  signal  victories  gained 
by  the  Duke  of  Jlarlborough  over  the  armies  of  Louis  XIV., 
ainl  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland  in  1707.  Her  polit- 
ical principles,  if  she  had  any,  were  favorable  to  royal  pre- 
rogative rather  than  constitutional  liberty,  and  rendered 
her  partial  to  the  Tories.  Anne  became  graduallv  alienated 
from  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  who  was  a  Whig,  and 
transferred  her  favoritism  to  Mrs.  Masham,  whose  intrigues 
undermined  the  Whig  party  so  effectually  that  the  Toiy 
statesmen,  the  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord  Bolingbroke,  came 
into  power  in  1710.  The  queen  and  these  Tory  ministers 
concurred  in  designs  and  intrigues  to  secure  the  succession 
to  her  brother,  the  Pretender.  The  European  war  was  ended 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  April  11, 1713.  Lord  Bolingbroke 
became  prime  minister  in  place  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford  in 
July,  1714.  Anne  died  of  apoplexy  on  Aug.  1,  1714,  and 
was  succeeded  Ijy  George  I.  The  period  of  her  reign,  illus- 
trated by  the  genius  of  Newton,  Addison,  Pope,  Bolingbroke, 
Swift,  De  Foe,  and  Arbuthnot,  was  almost  as  celebrated  in 
literature  as  the  Augustan  age  of  Rome,  although  she  did 
little  to  make  it  so.  See  Oldmixon,  Life  of  Queen  Anne 
(1716);  Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England;  Ash- 
ton,  Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1883). 

Anne  of  Austria :  daughter  of  King  Philip  III.  of  Spain ; 
b.  Sept.  23,  1601 ;  married  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  Nov,  9, 
1615 :  mother  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Philip,  founder  of  the 
House  of  Orleans ;  made  regent  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band 1643 ;  put  the  government  in  the  hands  of  Mazarin  ; 
after  his  deatli  (1661)  retired  to  Convent  of  Val  de  Grace. 
D.  Jan.  20,  1666.  Weak  as  a  ruler,  her  regency  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  civil  war  of  tlie  Fronde.  See  Freere's  He- 
yenci/  of  Anne  of  Austria  (2  vols.,  London,  1866). 

Anne  of  Brittany :  Queen  of  France ;  b.  at  Nantes.  Jan. 
26,  1476 ;  daughter  and  heiress  of  Francis  II.,  Duke  of 
Brittany;  married  Charles  "\^II.  of  France,  Dec.  6,  1491, 
Brittany,  her  dowry,  then  becoming  united  to  France.  After 
her  husband's  death  (1499)  she  married  his  successor,  Louis 
XII.,  whom  she  ably  assisted.  She  was  left  a  widow  a  sec- 
ond time  in  1513,  and  died  Jan.  9,  1514. 

Anne  of  CleTes:  b.  Sent.  23,  1515:  daughter  of  John, 
Duke  of  Cleves;  became  the  fourth  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  who,  on  Thomas  Cromwell's  advice,  married 
her  to  |jlease  the  German  Protestants  Jan.  6,  1540.  She  was 
divorced  July  9  of  the  same  year,  and  retii-ed  to  private  life 
on  a  pension  of  £3,000  per  annum.  D.  at  Chelsea,  July  16, 
1557,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Anne  of  Donmarii :  wife  of  James  I.  of  England;  b.  at 
Skanderborg,  Jutland,  Dec.  13, 1574;  married  at  Upslo, Nor- 
way, Nov.  33,  1589 ;  died  at  Hampton  Court,  Jlar.  2.  1612. 
She  was  rather  frivolous,  very  fond  of  pageants  and  mas- 
querades, given  to  expensive  building,  and  leaned  toward 
Romanism,  but  was  prevented  from  public  avowal. 

Anneal'ina:  [from  Old  Eng.  on-mlan,  set  on  fire,  m.ake 
hoi,  l)urn|:  a  process  of  tempering  glass  and  certain  metals 
by  healing  them  and  then  cooling  them  slowly,  in  order  to 
render  them  less  brittle  and  more  tenacious.  The  extreme 
brittleness  of  glass  that  has  not  been  annealed  is  seen  in 
the  gla.ss  toys  called  "  Prince  Rupert's  drops."  which,  if 
scratched  with  a  file,  will  collapse  into  ])Owdcr  or  small 
fragments.  Glass  vessels  are  annealed  in  a  long  oven,  one 
end  of  which  is  hotter  than  the  other,  and  the  trays  in 
which  the  vessels  are  placed  are  slowly  drawn  into  cooler 
and  cooler  i)arts.  Tlie  operation  of  annealing  large  vessels 
requires  several  days,  iron,  steel,  brass,  and  other  metals 
which  are  lianiniered  into  plates  or  drawn  into  wire  become 
brittle  during  the  process,  and  require  to  be  annealed  by 
cooling  them  slowly  in  water  or  air.  Steel  is  tempered  and 
hardened  by  a  process  of  annealing,  being  jilaoed  in  an  oil- 


bath  or  surrounded  by  a  metallic  compound  whicli  has  a 
low  fusing-point.  The  soft  metals  are  annealed  by  immer- 
sion in  water,  which  is  boiled  and  then  cooled  slowly. 

Annecy:  a  town  of  Eastern  France;  in  Upper  Savoy; 
pleasantly  situated  at  the  N.  W.  extremity  of  Annecy  lalie, 
22  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Geneva  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  6-1). 
It  has  a  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  a  church  in  which  are 
preserved  the  relics  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  an  old  castle 
(formerly  the  residence  of  the  Counts  of  Geneva),  glass- 
works, cotton-miUs,  etc.  It  was  once  the  capital  of  the 
Counts  of  Geneva.  It  passed  from  them  to  the  Cotnits  of 
.Savoy,  afterward  Kings  of  Sardinia,  who  ceded  it  to  the 
French  in  1860.  It  shows  traces  of,  Roman  origin.  Pop. 
(1881)  11,334;  (1891)  11,947. 

Annecy.  Lalte  of:  in  Upper  Savoy,  22  miles  S.  of  Ge- 
neva, about  24  miles  W.  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  1,426  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  about  9  miles  long  and  from  1  to  2  wide.  Its 
waters  are  discharged  through  the  Fieran  into  the  Rhone. 

Anneke,  aan'ne-ke,  Jans:  See  Bogardus,  Everard. 

Anneke.  Mathilde  Franxeska  Giesler:  b.  on  the  estate 
of  her  grandfather,  near  Blankeustein,  Prussia,  Apr.  3, 1817. 
Early  in  life  she  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  and  took  a 
deep  interest  in  the  political  and  social  freedom  of  her 
country.  Wlien  her  husband,  a  Prussian  officer  and  power- 
fid  leader  in  the  revolution  of  1848.  was  imj)risoned  under 
sentence  of  death  at  Cologne,  Madame  Anneke  put  a  print- 
ing-press into  her  parlors,  and  herself  edited  a  paper  ni  the 
interests  of  the  revolution.  She  ser\-ed  on  the  battle-field 
as  one  of  her  husband's  staff.  When  the  revolutionists  were 
overpowered  she,  with  her  family,  sought  refuge  in  America, 
where  she  has  been  one  of  the  most  earnest  cliampions  of 
woman's  enfranchisement.  She  edited  the  Fraven  Zeitung 
at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1850,  where  she  became  principal  of 
an  academy  for  young  ladies.  Susan  B.  Anthony. 

Annei'ida  (from  Lat.  annellus,  a  little  ring):  a  class  of 
animals  in  which  the  long  cylindrical  body  is  divided  into 
a  series  of  rings  or  segments,  each  like  its  fellows.  These 
segments  each  contain  a  portion  of  the  internal  organs, 
but  they  lack  jointed  appendages.  (See  Arthropoda.) 
There  is  usually  a  well-developed  circulatory  system  con- 
sisting of  dorsal  and  ventral  vessels  and  communicating 
transverse  branches.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  an  an- 
terior brain  connected  with  a  series  of  ventral  ganglia  (a 
pair  in  each  segment)  by  two  nen-e-cords,  one  passing  on 
cither  side  of  the  throat.  The  month  is  ventral,  the  ali- 
mentary canal  usually  straight.  Respiration  takes  place 
either  by  the  general  body-surface  or  by  gills  which  may  be 
developed  upon  the  head  or  upon  the  segments  of  the  body. 
In  some  there  are  also  paired  outgrowths  from  the  body, 
strengthened  by  bristles,  which  serve  as  locomotor  organs. 
The  reproduction  is  usually  by  eggs,  a  few  forms  dividing 
spontaneously  into  two  new  individuals.  IMost  of  the  Anne- 
lids are  marine,  but  some  occur  in  fresh  water  and  a  few 
(see  Earthworms)  in  moist  earth.  The  Annelids  include 
(1)  the  Hirudineiisee  Leech);  (3)  the  Cha-topods  (q.  v.),  and 
(3)  the  Mi/zostomuta,  a  group  of  peculiar  forms  i^iarasitic  on 
the  crinoids.  J.  S.  Kinoslev. 

An'ni,  or  Ani  {unc.  Ab'nicum):  a  rained  city  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  ;  on  t  he  Arpa-Chai  river ;  28  miles  E.  by"  S.  of  Kars ; 
capital  of- the  Bagratian  Kings  of  Armenia  until  taken  by 
Alp-Arslan  (1064);  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1319. 
Here  are  ruins  of  an  ancient  palace  and  citadel :  also  .some 
Armenian  churches  nearly  entire.  These  ruins  plainly 
show  the  former  importance  of  the  city,  and  many  are  of 
great  arcliitcctural  beauty. 

Auniliila'tiouist:  one  who  denies  the  existence  of  the 
soul  after  death.  Anniliilationists  arc  of  two  classes :  those 
who  believe  that  anniliilation  is  the  final  doom  of  the  incor- 
rigibly wicked,  and  those  who  believe  that  immortality  is 
not  a  "natural  attribute  of  man.  but  is  specially  <-onferred  by 
God  on  those  wlio  through  faith  and  obedience  liecome  par- 
takers of  tlie  divine  natiire.    See  Future  State. 

C.  K.  Adams. 

Annislon:  city  and  railroad  junction,  Calhoun  co.,  Ala. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Alabama,  ref.  3-E);  has 
cotton-fact orv,  iron-works,  car-factory,  rollins-mills,  pipe- 
works,  six  fui-naces,  etc.     Pop.  (1880)  942;  (1890)  9,998. 

Editor  of  "  Watchman." 

An'ninsof  Viter'bo  (It.  An'nio  da  Yiter'ho):  a,  learned 
Italian  l)ominicaii  monk,  whose  proper  name  was  (>iovanni 
Nanni;  b.  at  Viterbo  about  1432.    lie  wrote  a  Latin  Trea- 


ANNIVERSARY 


ANOLIS 


225 


Use  on  the  Empire  of  the  Turks  (1471).  Ik'  [luHlished  at 
Koine,  ill  149H,  Seventeen  Volumes  of  Various  Antiquities 
with  (.'ommentaries,  containing  extracts  from  the  lost  works 
of  Herosus,  Manetlio,  and  other  ancient  historians,  which 
proved  to  be  forgeries.     D.  in  1502. 

Aliliiver'sary  [from  Lat.  anni versa  ria,  adj.,  sc.  dies;  an- 
nus, vi'ur  +  vertere,  versus,  turn]:  the  annual  return  of  a 
nienioral)lit  day;  the  day  on  which  some  remarkable  event 
is  annually  celebrated.  Among  the  Jews  the  Passover  was 
an  anniversary  in  commemoration  of  the  e.xodus  from 
Egypt.  The  principal  religious  anniversaries  of  Christians 
are  t'hristnuis,  Epiphany,  and  Easter.  Anniversaiy  days  in 
the  IJonum  Catholic  Church  are  days  on  wliich  an  office  is 
annually  performed  for  the  soids  of  the  deceased. 

Aiinobom'.  or  Aniiabon':  island;  4  miles  long  and  2 
wide:  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  ()-('); 
was  discovered  Jan.  1,  1473,  by  the  Portuguese,  and  has  a 
popidation  of  aliout  3,000.     Area,  6'6  sq.  miles. 

Aniiolied :  a  Gennan  poem  in  praise  of  Anno,  a  local 
saint  of  the  city  of  Cologne.  The  jHiem,  wliich  is  of  great 
literary  and  linguistic  value,  was  probably  written  in  1073. 
soon  ai'ter  the  death  of  Anno,  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  It  was 
■edited  for  the  first  time  by  Martin  0|iitz  (1639).  See  Wil- 
nianu's  L'lljer das  Annolied'{Borm,  1886).     Ji'Lius  Goebel. 

AniLOiiiiy  (Lat.  Annona'um,  or  Annoni'acum):  a  town 
rif  France:  department  of  Ardeche;  37  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
livoiis,  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Cance  and  Deauine  (see 
map  of  !•' ranee,  ref.  7-G).  It  has  a  suspension  bridge  and 
large  manufactories  of  glove-leather.  Paper  of  fine  c|iiality 
is  made  here.  The  Montgolfiers,  who  invented  balloons, 
were  natives  of  the  town.     Pop.  (1891)  17,636. 

Aiinot'to,  or  Alinat'to :  a  red  coloring-matter :  is  the  pulp 
•of  the  seeds  of  the  Bi.ia  orellana.  an  exogenous  shrub  which 
grows  in  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Plar.ourtiacem.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  in  potash  and  soda,  either  caustic  or  carbonated. 
It  contains  a  yellow  principle  called  bixin.  It  is  used  as  a 
dye,  but  its  colors  are  fugitive.  The  pulp  is  used  to  color 
cheese,  is  an  ingredient  in  some  varnishes,  and  is  employed 
in  medicine  to  color  ointments  and  plasters.  In  South 
America  annotto  is  mixed  with  chocolate  to  improve  the 

11.1  vnr. 

.Xii'iiual  (annua'lis,  deriv.  of  annus,  year):  a  plant  which 
lives  only  one  year;  a  plant  which  within  the  space  of  a 
year  jia.sses  from  a  seed  into  a  perfect  plant,  bears  its  fruit, 
iiiid  perishes.  The  duration  of  the  life  of  annuals  is  gen- 
erally much  less  than  a  year.  Some  plants  which  are  annu- 
als in  one  climate  are  perennials  in  another,  as  the  castor-oil 
plant. 

Annual  Layers  of  Wood  :  In  ordinary  trees  there  is  one 
period  of  growth  each  year,  and  this  produces  one  layer  of 
wood  on  the  stem  for  each  year's  growth.  When  there  are 
two  periods  of  growth  in  a  year,  there  are  two  wood  layers. 
In  cool  climates,  as  there  is  rarely  more  than  one  growth 
period,  the  rings  of  wood  are  as  many  or  aliout  as  many  as 
the  years  iluring  which  the  stem  has  lived,  but  as  we  go  to 
warmer  climates  there  is  greater  irregularity. 

ChabiIes  E.  Bessey. 

Annu'ity  [from  Fr.  oHnin'/c' <  Mediev.  Lat.  annu'ifas, 
deriv.  of  ini'uus,  year] :  a  rent  or  sum  of  money  which  a  per- 
son is  ent  it  leil  to  receive  every  year.  If  the  payment  is  to  be 
continued  through  a  period  of  uncertain  length,  it  is  called 
a  contin/ji-nt  annuity;  if  it  is  payable  tor  a  definite  number 
of  years,  it  is  an  annuity  certain.  A  person  wlio  has  unem- 
ployed capital  may  find  it  advantageous  to  convert  it  into 
an  annual  incomi",  which  he  is  entitled  to  receive  as  long  as 
he  lives,  and  which  is  called  a  life  annuity.  The  person 
who  receives  an  annuity  is  called  an  annuitant.  An  annual 
income  which  is  not  to  be  ])aid  until  a  number  of  years  have 
elapsed  is  a  deferred  annuity.  Those  who  invest  money  in 
the  ]iublie  funds  of  Great  Britain  are  entitled  to  an  income 
which  is  virtually  a  perpetual  annuity,  so  that  when  each 
annuitant  dies  he  may  leave  it  to  his  heir.  The  accurate 
determination  of  the  value  of  annuities  in  present  money  is 
a  comiilex  (piestion  of  great  importance  and  considerable 
dilliculty,  for  the  solution  of  wliich  correct  tables  of  vital 
statistics  are  requisite.  The  rate  of  interest  is  also  an  im- 
portant element  in  the,  calculation  of  annuities.  Great  labor 
has  lieen  expended  by  several  learned  men  in  the  fonnation 
of  tables  of  the  value  of  life  annuities  at  all  the  different 
ages  of  hiimaii  life. 

Annuity,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  a  sura  of  money  pay- 

15 


able  every  year,  and  charged  on  the  person  or  personal  estate 
of  the  individual  who  is  bound  to  pay  it;  thus  diifering 
from  a  rent-charge,  which  is  charged  on  real  estate.  Annui- 
ties are  often  paid  by  a  person  who  borrows  money  (who  is 
called  the  grantor)  to  the  person  who  lends  the  money  (who 
is  the  grantee).  An  annuity  is  cither  for  a  term  of  years, 
for  a  life  or  lives,  or  in  jierpetuity  ;  and  the  last,  although 
chargcii  on  personal  property,  may  descend  as  real  estate. 
Revised  by  Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

An'nulnS  [Lat.,  a  ring]:  a  botanical  term  used  in  several 
senses.  In  mosses  it  denotes  a  rim  external  with  respect  to 
the  peristome;  in  ferns  it  is  an  elastic  rib  which  girds  the 
tlieca  or  spore-ease,  and  by  its  contraction  disjierses  the 
spores:  the  coUar  which  surrounds  the  stiiics  of  some  fungi 
just  below  the  hymeuium  is  also  called  an  aiinulus. 

Anuuucia'da  (the  Order  of  Knights  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion): foundeil  bv  Aniadeus  VI.  of  Savov  in  1362;  an  order 
originally  called' the  Order  of  the  Collar.  The  reigning 
King  of  Italy  is  grand  master  of  the  order. 

Aiinnncia'tion,  Feast  of:  a  festival  of  the  Church,  ob- 
served at  least  as  early  as  the  tenth  Council  of  Toledo  (a.  d. 
6.56),  and  noticed  in  the  acts  of  tlie  Council  in  TruUo  held 
A.  I).  692,  in  commemoration  of  the  announcement  of  the 
conception  of  the  Saviour  to  the  Virgin  Wary  by  the  angel 
Gabriel.  It  is  celebrated  on  Marcli  2.5,  which  is  called  Lady 
Day.  A  synod  held  at  Worcester.  England,  A.  D.  1240,  for- 
bade all  servile  work  on  this  festival. 

Ann'ville:  village  on  Philadelphia  and  Reading  R.  R., 
Lelianon  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pcnn- 
svlvania.  ref.  .5-11);  is  a  manufacturing  town  in  a  farming 
district,  and  is  the  seat  of  Lebanon  Valley  College.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,431 ;  (1890)  1,283. 

Ano'a :  a  small  species  of  wild  buffalo  (arioa  depressi- 
cornis).  having  tlie  horns  erect;  it  was  originally  classed 
with  the  antelopes,  to  which  it  has  no  close  affinity.  It 
lives  in  Celebes. 

An'ode  [from  Gr.  firaSos,  way  up;  ovo,  up  +  A5(is, way]:  in 
electrolysis,  the  positive  pole,  or  that  surlace  by  which  the 
galvanic  current  enters  the  body  (electrolyte)  undergoing 
decomposition.  The  negative  pole,  or  the  surface  by  which 
the  current  goes  out,  is  called  cathode.  The  elements  of 
electrolvtos  are  called  ions,  and  those  which  go  to  tlie  anode 
are  nanied  anion-t.  Thus  in  the  decomposition  of  water  by 
a  galvanic  battery,  water  is  the  electrolyte,  the  [ilatinum 
plate  connected  with  the  positive  pole  is  the  anode,  and  the 
oxygen  is  the  anion. 

An'odyiit  [from  Gr.  avciSwos.  painless;  Sw-.  not  +  oSiyr), 
pain]:  a  medicine  which  diminishes  pain.  Opium,  mor- 
phine, the  ana'sthetics,  cannabis  Indica,  etc.,  are  the  chief 
anodynes — most  of  which  tend  actively  to  cause  sleep. 
Some  hypnotics,  or  sleep  producers,  however,  like  chloral, 
are  not  anodynes. 

Anoinfing  [from  0.  Fr.  enoinf  <  Lat.  in-iinc'tus,  partic. 
of  in-un' yere.  anoiM]:  an  Oriental  custom  of  pouring  aro- 
matic oil  on  the  head  as  a  mark  of  honor.  It  was  jiracticed 
at  the  coronation  of  kings  and  the  consecration  of  high 
priests  and  prophets,  as  iii  the  case  of  Saul,  David,  Aaron, 
and  his  sons.  Spikenard,  myrrh,  anil  olive  oil  were  some- 
times used  for  this  purpose.'  Anointing  forms  a  part  of 
the  ceremonial  of  various  sacraments  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  the  different  Oriental  churches.  In  the  form  used 
for  the  coronation  of  English  kings  and  (|iiceiis,  the  an- 
ointing is  done  bv  the  Archbishoji  of  Canterbury. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Anoka:  citv  on  railroad,  capital  of  Anoka  eo.,  Minn,  (for 
location  of  county,  see  ma])  <if  Minnesota,  ref.  9-F) ;  on  both 
sides  of  Rum  river  at  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  15 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Minneaiiolis;  has  good  water-power  on 
Hum  river.  Flour,  lumber,  sash,  doors,  blinds,  starch,  shoes, 
carriages,  machinery,  etc.,  are  manufactured.  The  city  is 
connected  with  Cliam|)lin.  on  the  other  side  of  the  ISIissis- 
sippi.  by  an  iron  bridge  900  feet  long,  and  has  a  business 
collegi-,' high  s<-hool,  etc.  Pop.  (18S0)  2.706;  (1885)  4,629; 
(1890)  4.252;  (1895)  3,813.  Editor  of  "Herald." 

.Ano'lis  (Lat.  form  of  anoU,  name  native  in  Antilles):  a 
genus  of  lizards  of  the  family  Jguanido'.  natives  of  the 
warm  (larts  of  America,  remarkable  for  their  power  of  in- 
flating the  skin  of  the  throat.  They  move  with  great  agility, 
and  exhibit  great  lirilliancy  of  color,  which  is  susceptible  of 
change,  and  has  consequeiitly  causeil  them  to  be  popularly 
called  chameleons,  from  which,  however,  they  are  very  dis- 


226 


ANOMALISTIC  TEAR 


ANSON 


tinct.  About  100  species  are  known:  one  of  them  (Anolis 
carolinensis)  is  common  in  tlie  forests  of  tlie  Soutliern 
States. 

Anomalis'tic  Yoar:  the  interval  of  lime  in  which  the 
earth  completes  a  revolution  with  respect  to  any  point  in  its 
orbit,  or  tlie  interval  which  elapses  between  tw'o  successive 
passages  of  the  earth  through  its  perihelion.  It  is  4  minutes 
and  39  seconds  lon?or  than  a  sidereal  year,  and  its  length  is 
365  days,  6  hours,  lo  minutes,  and  45  seconds. 

Anoiii'aly  [(ir.  uvuuaKia:  iv-,  not  +  S/iaKis,  even]:  in  as- 
tronomy, the  angular  tlistance  of  a  plani't  from  its  peri- 
helion. The  anoMutly  as  above  defined  is  the  true  anomulij. 
If  we  suppose  a  fictitious  planet  to  set  out  from  perihelion 
with  the  true  planet,  and  to  revolve  uniformly  about  tlie  sun 
at  such  a  rate  as  to  return  to  perihelion  at  the  same  time  as 
the  true  ]jlanet,  the  anomaly  of  the  fictitious  planet  is  called 
the  mean  aiiDiimly. 

Ano'rai.a  [from  Gr.  oco/nor,  irregular;  a-,  not  +  v6iws.  law]: 
a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mollusks  related  to  tlie  oyster. 
The  shell  consists  of  two  unequal,  irregular  thin  valves,  of 
which  the  fiatter  one  is  deeply  notched  at  the  cardinal  mar- 
gin. Numerous  species,  living  and  fossil,  are  found  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  world. 

Ano'iia  [S]i.,  the  custard-ap]:)le] :  a  genus  of  exogenous  trees 
of  the  family  Aniinni;e(p.  natives  of  hot  climates.  Anona 
reticulata  bears  an  edible  fruit  called  the  custard-apple, 
because  its  seeds  arc  surrounded  by  a  whitish,  sweet,  cream- 
like pulp.  The  clierimova,  an  excellent  fruit  of  Peru,  is 
produccil  by  the  Anona  cherimolia. 

Anoii'ymoiis  [from  Gr.  avwwiws,  nameless ;  ay-,  not  -i-  uvofia 
name]:  literally,  nameless;  a  term  applied  to  books  published 
without  the  name  of  the  author.  Those  w'hich  appear  under 
an  assumed  name  are  called  pseudonymous.  The  political 
articles  of  the  English  journals  are  generally  anonymous, 
and  so  are  the  critical  articles  in  the  great  "quarterly  re- 
views. Anonvmous  books  cause  much  difficulty  and  per- 
plexity to  bibliographers  and  the  compilers  of  catalogues. 
The  best  account  or  catalogue  of  such  works  is  Barbier's 
Dictionnaire  des  Ouvraf/cs  Anonijmes  et  Pseudonymes  (3 
vols.,  Paris,  1822-24);  ilalkett  and  Lang,  Dictionary  of 
Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Literature  (4  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1881-87). 

Aiioplothe'riiiin  [Lat.  form,  from  Gr.  SlvottKos,  unarmed: 
OK-,  not  +  onXon,  weaiion:  +  e-ripioy.  wild  beast]:  a  genus  of 
extinct  artiodactylc  ipiadnipeds,  found  in  the  strata  of  the 
Upper  Eocene  formation  near  Paris,  and  in  Lapland,  India, 
etc.  They  are  characterized  by  their  shortness  and  small 
size  of  tlie  canine  teeth,  have  the  teeth  arranged  in  a  con- 
tinuous series  without  vacant  interspaces,  and  of  uniform 
height — a  structure  which  occurs  in  no  existing  animal  ex- 
cept man.  The  Anoplotlierium  commune  was  about  the  size 
of  a  wild  boar. 

Anor'thite:  a  fclspathic  mineral  found  at  Vesuvius  and 
elsewhere;  essentially  an  anliydrous  silicate  of  lime  and 
alumina. 

Aiiotto :  See  Annotto. 

Antiiietil  dii  Perron,  alink'teel'dii-par'roii',  Abraham 
HYACiNTnE:  Oriental  ^cliolar;  b.  at  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1731.  He 
began  early  to  .study  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Persian,  and  in 
1754  lie  conceived  the  idea  of  visiting  India,  chiefly  in  order 
to  gain  from  the  priests  a  knowledge  of  the  Zoroastrian 
book.s.  Being  without  means,  he  enlisted  as  a  common  sol- 
dier in  a  regiiiieiil  bound  lor  India.  He  spent  seven  years 
in  ludiji,  collected  ]MSS.,  learned  the  language  of  the  rcli- 

fious  books  of  the  Parsees,  and  returned  to  France  in  1762. 
n  1763  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In.scrip- 
tions.  In  1771  he  published  his  Zend-Avesta,  ouvrage  de 
Zoroasire  (Paris,  3  vols.),  the  fir.st  translation  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Parsees  that  ever  appeared  in  any  European 
language.  (See  A  vesta.)  Anquctil  also  wrote  two  volumes 
on  rinde  en  Hnpporte  avec  V Europe  (Paris,  1798).  lie  pub- 
lisheil  a  Lat  in  rendering  of  a  Persian  version  of  the  Sanskrit 
Upanlsliads  under  the  title  Ouptiel,-'/iat  (2  vols.,  1804).  This 
work  is  interesting  on  account  of  its  influence  on  Schopen- 
hauer and  his  philosophic  sy.stem.  I),  at  Paris.  Jan.  17, 
180.5.  Revised  by  A.  \'.  Williams  Jackson. 

Ansarips:  See  Nu.sairieh. 

Ans'haeli  (Fr.  Anspach,  anc.  Onolzhacli):  a  foiijfied  city 
of  Uavaria;  on  the  iJezat,  27  miles  S.  W.  of  Nuremberg 
(see  map  of  German  Kmiiire,  ref.  G-E).  It  has  a  castle,  the 
former  residence  of  the  margraves  of  Ansbach-Baireuth,  a 


public  library,  and  manufactures  of  cotton  and  half-silken 
stuffs,  tobacco,  earthenware,  cutlery,  etc.     Pop.  14,234. 

Aiischa'rius,  or  Ans'gar,  Saint:  called  the  "Apostle  of 
the  North";  b.  in  Picardy,  Sept.  8,  801.  He  propagated 
Christianity  with  success  in  North  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden,  and  became  the  first  Archbishop  of  Hamburg  in 
832.     D.  at  Bremen,  Feb.  3,  865. 

Alisclliitz,  Carl:  musician;  b.  at  Coblentz,  Germany,  in 
Feb.,  1813 :  studied  first  under  his  father  and  then  under 
Friederich  .Schneider,  of  Dessau,  whose  daughter  he  married  ; 
was  appointed  successively  conductor  of  the  Royal  Musical 
Institution  at  Coblentz  and  the  orchestra  of  the  theater,  re- 
ceiving the  title  of  Royal  Musical  Director.  In  1848  he  re- 
signed and  went  to  Nuremberg;  in  1849  to  Amsterdam,  and 
in  the  same  year  to  London,  where  he  conducted  operas  and 
concerts.  In  1857  he  removed  to  New  York  and  conducted 
Italian  opera  for  three  years.  In  1862  he  introduced  Ger- 
man opera  in  that  city.  All  of  his  life  was  spent  in  con- 
ducting orchestras  and  singing  societies,  in  which  he  was 
very  successful.     D.  in  New  York,  Dec.  29,  1879. 

D.  E.  IIebvey. 

AnsMell,  Richard :  English  painter  of  animals;  b.  in 
Liverpool  in  1815:  obtained  gold  medal  in  Paris  (1855).  D. 
at  Farnborough,  Apr.  20,  1885. 

Anse  de  Paiiier  [Fr.,  handle  of  a  basket] :  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  an  elliptical  or  three-centered  or  five-centered  curve 
when  used  for  an  arch. 

Aii'selui :  Archbishop  of  Canterlniry  and  the  father  of 
Scholastic  theology;  b.  at,  or  near,  .Vosta  in  Piedmont  in 
1033;  d.  at  Canterbury,  Apr.  21.  1109.  He  studied  in  the 
monastery  of  Bee,  Normandy,  which  had  olitained  a  great 
reputation  under  the  priorship  of  his  countryman  Lanfranc. 
In  1078  he  was  himself  elected  Abbot  of  Bee,  and  added  new 
luster  to  the  institution  both  as  a  teacher  and  as  a  writer. 
In  1093  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  but,  though 
he  was  a  man  of  great  humility,  having  adopted  the  Grego- 
ria-n  views  of  the  relation  between  Church  and  state,  he  was 
willing  to  brave  exile  (1097)  rather  than  submit  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  king.  His  principal  works  are  the  tract  De 
Veritate  which  contains  the  ground-work  of  his  theory  of 
knowledge,  and  the  Monotogion  and  Proslogion,  all  written 
while  he  was  at  Bee.  The  JJofiotogion  demonstrates  the 
real  existence  of  God  on  the  ordinary  grounds  of  realism  ; 
while  the  Proslogion  sets  forth  the  ontologica!  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  God.  The  Monotogion  and  Prostogion  have 
been  translated  and  annotated  by  Bouchitte,  Le  Pational- 
isme  Crefien  (Paris,  1842).  It  is  the  celebrated  Cur  Deus 
Homo — the  greatest  of  Anselni's  writings  (Eng.  transla- 
tion by  Prout,  1887) — which  has  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  atonement.  The  second  vol- 
ume of  Hasse's  Anselmn  von  Canterbury.  Plu'losopfiie 
(18.52).  is  ilevoted  to  Anselm's  Scholastic  writings.  An- 
selm  had  originally  studied  law,  and  the  fundamental  con- 
ceptions on  which  he  based  his  doctrine  of  atonement  were 
derived  from,  or  at  least  influenced  by,  the  jus  lioniamim. 
He  also  wrote  a  number  of  devotional  books  distinguished 
by  the  ease  and  naturalness  of  his  Latin  style.  The  best  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  Gerberon  (Paris,  1675; 
2d  cd.  1721):  and  in  Migne,  Patrologia>  Cursiis  Coinpletn.% 
vol.  civ.  See  also  the  translations  in  the  Bibliutlieca  tSacra 
(viii.,  ix.  and  xii.).  His  Life,  by  Ilasse  (1843),  was  trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  W.  Turner  (Loud.  1850).  St. 
Ansetm,  by  R.  W.  Church  (Lond.  1870,  and  frequeully  re- 
issued), is  a  monograph  of  great  value.  Jliihler's  Anselm 
was  translated  into  English  in  1842.  Remusat's  Anselm  de 
Cantorhery  .appeared  in  1855,  and  a  second  edition  in  1868. 
See  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Anselm,  bv  JMartin  Rule  (3  vols., 
1883).  "  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Anseres  [Lat.  pi.  of  anser,  a  goose]:  an  order  of  birds 
comprising  the  geese  and  ducks;  tht!  equivalent  of  ia/neZ- 
lirostres  (q.  r.)  or  C/ienomorpJio!. 

Anson,  Georoe,  Lord:  b.  at  Colwich,  in  StafTordshire, 
A|ir.  23.  1697 :  became  a  post-captain  in  the  royal  navy  in 
1724,  after  which  he  passed  several  years  on  the  Carolina 
station.  In  1740  he  was  appointed  commander  of  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  South  Sea,  in  which  he  exhibited  great 
prudence  and  courage  amid  disasters  and  dangers  caused 
partly  by  the  unseaworthiness  of  his  vessels.  Having  cir- 
cumnavigiiled  the  glolie  and  made  some  important  discov- 
eries, he  reliirued  in  1744  with  several  Spanish  prizes  to  tho 
value  of  f.50(),0()0.  He  defeated  a  French  fleet  in  May.  1747, 
and  for  this  .service  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Baron 


ANSONIA 


ANT 


22| 


Anson  of  Soherton.  He  was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
from  1751  to  1756,  and  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1761.  D.  at 
Moor  Park,  llertfordsliire,  June  6,  1763.  A  narrative  of  his 
voyaije  round  tlie  world  was  published  (1748). 

Aii.so'iiia :  railroad  center,  formerly  in  the  town  of  Derby, 
New  ILiven  co.,  Conn.,  on  the  Naugatuck  river,  13  miles 
VV.  N.  W.  of  Now  Haven  {for  location  of  county,  see  nuip  of 
Connecticut,  ref.ll-F).  It  has  a  varictv  of  niaimfactures  of 
brass  and  iron,  etc.  Pop.  (1890)  10,342:  (1893)  11.000  (esti- 
mated). EnrroR  •'  Sentinel." 

An.sDiiiaus,  or  Ansyrcch :  See  Nusaihieh. 

Ansorire,  Charles:  h.  at  Spiller,  Silesia,  in  1817;  sradu- 
afcd  at  the  collegiate  institute  of  Breshiu  :  became  a  teacher 
and  editor,  and  was  banished  by  the  Prussian  Government 
on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions;  removed  to  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  184!) ;  was  organist  and  chorister  of  the  First 
church,  Dorchester,  Mass.,  thirteen  years;  alsotauglit  music 
for  several  years  in  the  asylum  for  the  lilind  in  South  Boston, 
Mass.;  removed  to  Chicago,  111.,  in  1863,  wliei'e  he  dieil  Oct. 
28,  1866. 

Aiisnrge,  Coxk.^u:  pianist;  b.  in  Bach  wald,  Siberia.  Rus- 
sia, Oct.  15, 1803;  .studied  there  and  at  t lie  Leipzig Conserva- 
torv.  In  the  season  of  1886-87  nuule  a  success  in  recitals 
at  Berlin  ;  made  his  first  appearance  in  New  York  in  .Janu- 
ary. 1888,  and  has  since  played  in  all  the  large  cities  of  the 
U.  S.     lie  has  composed  considerably  for  the  piano. 

1).  E.  IIervey. 

Anspacll,  Elizabeth  Berkeley,  Margr.avine  of:  daugh- 
ter of  Augustus,  Earl  of  Berkeley;  b.  in  1750.  She  was  ac- 
complished, and  remarkable  tor  versatility  of  genius.  In 
1767  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Craven,  who  became  Earl  of 
Craven,  and  died  September,  1791.  She  was  married  in  the 
following  month  to  the  Margrave  of  Anspaeh,  but  then  she 
had  lieen  sepai'ated  from  Lord  Craven  since  1780.  She 
wrote  and  performed  dramas,  and  published  entertaining 
autobiograpuic  meinoii-s.     D.  at  Naples,  Jan.  13,  1838. 

Aii'sted,  David  Thomas,  P.  R.  S.:  English  geologi.st;  b. 
in  London  in  1814;  educated  at  Cambridge,  lie  became  in 
1840  Professor  of  Geology  in  King's  College,  London,  trav- 
eled in  America  and  elsewhere,  and  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  works,  among  which  are  Oi'ologi/,  Introductory,  De- 
script  in-,  and  practical  (3  vols.,  1844);  The  Ancient  World, 
or  ricturexijue  SIcetc/ies  of  Great  Britain  ;  Tlie  Great  Stone 
Bon/c  of  ^'al lire  (\8G3);  and  Tlie  World  We  Live  In  {1S6Q). 
D.  near  Woodbridge,  Suffolk,  May  30,  1880. 

An'ster,  John,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Cork  co.,  Ireland,  1798 ;  was 
a  friend  of  Coleridge,  and  regius  Professor  of  Civil  Law  in 
the  University  of  Dublin.  lie  produced  Poems  and  Trans- 
lations f  mm  the  German  (1819),  and  a  translation  of  Faust 
(1835),  and  contributed  many  articles  to  iJZacA:tt'oo(r.s  Ilaija- 
zine.     1).  at  Dublin,  June  9,  1867. 

Au'stcy,  Chrlstopher:  English  humorist;  b.  Oct.  .'51, 
1734.  lie  was  educated  at  King's  College,  Cainbriilge, 
where  he  held  a  fellowship  from  1745  to  1754.  lie  trans- 
lated Qray's  liler/y  into  Latin;  but  his  principal  work  was 
the  Xew  Bath  Guide  (1766),  a  series  of  letters  in  verse  satir- 
izing society  at  that  fashionable  watering-place.  I),  at 
Batii  in  1805.  Henry  A.  Beers. 

AiLStey,  F. :  See  Guthrie,  Thomas  Anstey. 

An'siver  [().  Eng.  and-,  against  -I-  sivarjan,  swear,  af- 
firm] :  the  re])ly  given  to  a  question  or  recpiest;  specifically 
in  the  law  of  evidence  the  reply  of  a  witness  to  a  question 
put  to  him.  It  also  means  a  pleading  interposed  in  a  court 
of  equity  by  the  del'endant  to  the  l)ill  or  information  of  the 
plaiutilf.  In  New  York,  since  the  ado])l ion  of  the  code  of 
procedure,  and  in  a  number  of  the  other  States,  it  is  the 
name  given  to  the  defendant's  pleading  in  all  cases,  except 
where  he  resorls  to  a  demurrer.     See  Demitrrer. 

Ant.  or  Ellimet :  a  hymenopterous  insect,  closely  allied 
to  tlie  bees  and  wasps ;  remarkable  for  industry,  ingenuity, 
and  muscular  strength.  There  are  numerous  species,  widely 
distributed  in  temperate  and  tropical  countries.  Tliey  live 
in  societies  composed  of  males,  females,  and  neuters,  the 
last  of  which  are  sterile  females  and  are  destitute  of  wings. 
The  neuters  do  the  work  of  the  community,  building  anil 
repairing  the  nests,  nursing  the  young,  etc.  In  some  eases 
they  have  their  jaws  greatly  enlarge<l,  and  serve  the  com- 
munity as  soldiers.  The  males  and  females  have  wings,  and 
are  larger  than  the  neuters,  but  less  numerous.    After  the 


pairing  season  is  past  the  females  lose  their  wings,  and  ai;^ 
carefully  waited  on  by  the  workers  until  the  eggs  are  laid. 
In  winter  most  species  remain  dormant,  and  neither  woi'K 
iiore.il.  The  popular  notion  that  tlicy  collect  in  summer 
a  hoard  of  grain  for  their  subsistence  during  the  winter 
seems  to  have  been  largely  ba.sed  upon  erroneous  oVrserva- 
tion.  They  are  mostly  carnivorous,  and  will  attack  a  living 
animal  many  times  larger  than  themselves.  Another favorl 
ite  food  of  some  species  is  the  honey-dew,  the  sweet  excre- 
tion of  aphides,  or  plant-lice.  They  often  confine  thes^ 
aphides  as  man  does  his  milch  cows,  and  obtain  front 
them,  l)y  a  process  like  milking,  a  regul.ur  siip|ily  of  hone}"- 
dew.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  all  this  interesting 
group  of  insects  are  the  "honey-ants"  of  Mexico,  New 
Mexico,  and  Arizona.  They  live  in  colonics  resemblmg 
those  of  the  common  browm  ant  of  the  U.  S.  Certain  niem-i 
bers  of  the  community,  however,  during  the  summer  sea-( 
son  store  up  honey  in  their  abdomen,  and  soon  become 
incapable  of  locomotion.  They  are  then  placed  in  subter-: 
ranean  galleries  set  a]iart  for  that  inirpose,  and  are  system- 
atically ted  by  the  others.  In  time  the  distension  of  the 
abdomen  becames  so  great  that  the  victim  ants  resemble) 
small,  spherical,  pellucid  grapes.  Ijater  in  the  season,  when 
food  is  scarce,  these  fattened  ants  are  in  turn  devoured  byf 
the  other  members  of  the  colony.  Ants  appear  to  be  en- 
dowed with  greater  muscular  stn^ngth  than  almost  any 
other  insect  of  equal  size.  They  display  great  ingenuity  in, 
the  construction  of  their  habitations,  called  ant-hills  or  antr 
nests.  The  large  ants  of  South  America  raise  their  ant- 
hills to  the  height  of  15  feet  or  more.  Some  species,  called 
mason  ants,  perforate  galleries  in  the  clay,  and  support  by 
pillars  and  arches  the  roof  of  their  house.  Otliers,  called 
carpenter  ants,  excavate  cells  and  labyrinthine  galleries  in 
the  trunks  of  living  trees.  Ants  are  supposed  to  have  a 
faculty  of  conversing  or  communicating  with  each  other  by 
rubbing  their  antennie  together.  These  insects  arc  genefally 
vei-y  pugnacious,  and  often  fight  pitched  battles  with  otliei; 
ants.  The  Swiss  naturalist  Iluber  has  given  a  detailed, 
account  of  their  battles,  martial  exploits,  and  predatory 
expeditions.  Still  more  marvelous  and  paradoxical  is  the 
well-attested  fact  that  some  species,  as  the  Formica  rufcn 
and  the  Formica  rufescens  (or  anuizon  ant),  reduce  other, 
ants  to  slavery,  and  that  the  principal  motive  of  their  war^ 
and  piratical  excursions  is  to  capture  larva'  and  pupa;  or 
nymphs,  wdiich  they  carry  home  for  slaves.  "  At  the  head 
of  these  daring  slave-makers,"  says  Pouchet,  "  we  must  put 
the  red  ant  or  amazon,  the  military  expeditions  of  whicln 
have  been  most  carefully  observed  by  the  naturali.sis  of  our 
ejjoch.  They  are  so  frequent  tliat  one  may  enjoy  the  sight 
of  them  any  fine  day  during  the  summer  season."  After 
describing  the  siege  and  capture  of  a  nest  by  I  liese  amazons, 
he  adds:  "Then  the  whole  army  laden  with  booty, ,and| 
sometimes  stretching  out  in  a  line  40  meters  in  length  (130 
feet),  triumphantly  returns  to  its  city  in  the  same  orSera^ 
at  its  departure."  (The  Universe.)  These  slave-holding 
ants  have  often  a  great  aversion  to  labor,  an<l  when^lhey 
perform  a  journey  are  carried  by  their  slaves.  In  ".some 
cases  they  depend  upon  the  slaves  to  feed  thpm,  and  perish, 
surrounded  by  food  if  left  alone.  The  fact  that  ants  work; 
all  through  the  night,  and  seem  never  to  sleep,  was  ijiptiped, 
more  than  150  years  ago  in  the  Guardian  (vol.  ii..  No.  15(3), 
.\  battle  of  ants  has  been  described  by  Iluber  iii'ihesQ 
terms :  "I  .shall  not  say  what  lighted  up  discord  betiyceri 
these  two  republics,  the  one  as  populous  as  the  other.  Th^ 
two  armies  met  midway  between  their  respective  residencesi 
Their  serried  columns  reached  from  the  field  of  battle  to 
the  nest,  and  were  3  feet  in  width.  .  .  .  The  field  of  battle, 
whii'h  extended  over  a  sjiace  of  2  or  3  sq.  feet,  was  .strewn 
with  dead  bodies  and  wounded  ;  it  was  also  covered  with 
venom,  and  exhaled  a  penetrating  odor.  The  struggle  be- 
gan between  two  ants,  which  locked  themselves  together 
with  their  mandibles,  while  they  raised  themselves  upon 
their  legs.  They  quickly  grasped  each  other  so  lightly  that 
they  rolled  one  over  the  other  in  the  dust."  At  the  ap- 
proach of  night  the  two  armies  effected  a  retreat,  but  the 
next  (lav  the  carnage  was  renewed  with  equal  or,  gveater 
fury,  'riie  workers  and  females  are  provided  wilh.^tings 
which  owe  their  virulence  to  the  f)resence  q{  formic  a,cid, 
secreted  by  a  gland  in  connection  with  the  sting.  Tlii©'C4rr 
nivcu'ous  species  of  ants  [icrform  a  useful  service  by  devour- 
ing the  careas.ses  of  dead  animals.  Their  voracity  is  such 
that,  a  clean  skeleton  of  a  small  animal  may  be  ol)f.ained  by 
burying  it  for  a  short  time  in  an  ant-hill.  The  termites  of 
tropical  countries,  sometimes  called  white  ants,  are  not  propr 


228 


ANTACID 


ANTARCTIC 


erly  ants,  but  belong  to  a  different  order  of  insects,  the 
Neuroptera.  (See  Termites.)  See  P.  Huber's  Traite  des 
Mceurs  de^  Fuurinis  Iiidiyines. 

Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 
Antacid,  an-tisid  {anfi-  +  acid):  a  remedy  for  acid  in 
the  stomach  or  in  llie  blood.  The  allvalies,  lime-water,  mag- 
nesia, etc.,  are  mostly  used  for  this  purpose,  vegetable  acids, 
like  the  citric  (lemon  juice,  etc.),  being  often  administered 
witli  them.  These  acids  become  carbonic  acid  in  the  blood, 
forming  Ijicarbonatcs  with  the  alkalies.  This  antacid  treat- 
ment is  much  resorted  to  in  acute  rheumatism. 

Antae'lis  (in  Or.  'ActoIoj)  :  a  fabulous  Libyan  giant ;  son 
of  Neptune  and  Terra;  famous  as  a  wrestler.  He  was  in- 
vincible as  long  as  he  continued  in  contact  with  the  earth 
(Terra),  but  he  was  conquered  by  Hercules,  who  raised  him 
into  the  air  and  strangled  him  to  death. 

Antagonism  of  Drug's:  The  expression  "antagonism" 
is  useil  to  signify  that  relation  of  the  actions  of  different 
drugs  on  the  animal  economy  which  is  shown  when  the  usual 
effects  of  the  action  of  one  are  prevented  or  suppressed  by 
the  action  of  another.  This,  it  will  be  noted,  is  brought 
about  by  the  oppoiied  actions  of  the  different  drugs,  and  not 
by  any  change  in  the  chemical  composition  of  either.  The 
latter  process  is,  by  English-speaking  writers,  called  "  anti- 
dotal," while  French  authors  define  antagonism  as  a  form 
of  antidotal  action.  When  a  solution  of  chloride  of  sodium 
is  given  after  nitrate  of  sih-er  has  been  swallowed,  there  is  a 
chemical  reaction,  by  wliich  the  soluljle  and  caustic  silver 
nitrate  is  converted  into  an  insi)lul]le  and  harmless  silver 
chloride.  This  is  an  example  of  antidotal  action — a  chemical 
process.  Antagonism,  on  the  other  hand,  becomes  effective 
by  a  physiological  process.  An  example  of  this  may  be 
seen  when  strychnia  and  chloral  are  administered  together. 
Strychnia  increases  the  excitability  of  the  respiratory  cen- 
ter in  the  brain  and  of  the  S|)tnal  cord,  while  chloral  lessens 
their  excitability ;  and  the  effect  of  an  otherwise  fatal  dose 
of  stryclmia  may  be  counteracted  by  means  of  a  statable 
dose  of  chloral.  Conversely  the  administration  of  strych- 
nia may  prevent  death  from  chloral  poisoning.  Another 
illustration  of  antagonism  may  be  seen  in  opium  and  bella- 
donna, or  their  active  principles,  morphia  and  atropia. 
One  of  the  most  manifest  effects  of  opium  is  to  strongly  and 
persistently  contract  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  while  belladonna 
as  strongly  and  more  ]iersistently  dilates  the  pupil.  These 
effects  of  opium  and  bclladoniui  are  of  less  importance, 
however,  than  is  their  action  upon  the  respiration,  which  is 
depressed  by  opium  and  stimulated  by  belladonna.  To 
present  another  illustration  of  antagonism,  pilocarpine  and 
atropine  produce  diametrically  opposite  ett'ects  upon  the 
function  of  ])erspiration,  which  is  markeiUy  increased  by 
pilocarpine  and  diminished  by  atropine. 

The  pi'ocess  l)y  which  antagonism  is  made  effective  is  not 
clearly  understood.  Certain  writers  have  held  that  it  is, 
after  all,  like  that  of  chemical  antidotes.  Dr.  Lauder  Brun- 
ton,  a  distinguished  English  writer  on  drugs,  answers  the 
natural  objection,  that  the  minuteness  of  the  dose  which  is 
effective  is  an  argument  against  the  notion  of  a  chemical 
change,  by  stating  that  he  has,  by  the  addition  of  a  single 
drop  of  li(pior  potass*,  converted  a  milky-looking  fluid,  com- 
posed of  tlic  nuclei  of  blood-corpuscles  of  fowls  suspended 
in  water  and  measuring  90  cubic  cm.  (about  :3  fluid  ounces) 
into  a  solid  jelly-like  mass.  This  experiment  nuiy  not  appear 
to  others  to  furnish  a  true  parallel  to  the  case  when  but  a 
hundredth  of  a  grain  of  one  of  the  vegetable  alkaloids  is 
taken  into  a  hunuin  boily,  b\it  it  indicates  wliat  important 
physical  changes  may  take  ])lace  in  living  organisms  when 
out  a  slight  change  iselfecled  in  their  chemical  surruuiidings. 

The  great  majority  of  observers  and  experimenters  regard 
the  antagonism  of  drugs  as  dependent  upon  antagonistic 
jjhysiological  processes,  as  slated  above,  holding  that  it  is  an 
antagonism  of  their  effects;  so  thjit  the  same  part — nerve, 
gland,  muscle — being  by  one  drug  stimulated  and  by  an- 
other restrained,  exhibits  the  usual  effect  of  neither,  or  that 
of  one  or  the  ot her  only  b(*aUNe,  and  in  proportion  as,  tlie 
dose  of  one  or  the  other  is  relatively  larger.  Tlie  sim|)lest 
form  of  antagonism  would  be  presented  by  two  drugs,  one 
of  which  had  the  power  to  excite  contraction  of  a  nniscle, 
while  the  effect  of  the  second  was  limited  to  preventing  con- 
traction of  muscular  tissue  by  direct  action  upon  its  fibrils. 
Such  an  example  of  antagonism  is  unknown,  however. 
This  Is  due  to  two  facts:  One,  that  there  are  no  two  drugs 
the  modes  of  action  of  which  are  precisely  parallel ;  and  the 
other,  that  the  activity  ot  jihysiological  processes  nuiy  be 


increased  or  diminished  in  a  variety  of  ways,  both  direct 
and  indirect.  For  example,  opium  and  belladonna,  which 
antagonize  each  other,  aie  both  antagonistic  to  gelsemium ; 
while  the  action  of  the  heart  or  stomach  may  be  influenced 
by  immediate  stimulation  or  repression,  or  by  impulses  con- 
veyed from  a  nerve  center  as  the  result  of  a  complicated 
process  of  nerve  activity.  As  a  result  of  these  conditions, 
not  a  single  instance  of  complete  and  exact  antagonism  of 
di-ugs  has  yet  been  discovered.  With  this  statement  disap- 
pears a  certain  part  of  the  hope  that  rises  at  the  first  con- 
templation of  the  subject,  that  for  every  poison  there  may 
be  a  physiological  antidote  ;  nevertheless,  such  knowledge  of 
the  antagonism  of  drugs  as  is  at  hand  is  put  to  useful  serv- 
ice to  prevent  the  usual  result  of  poisoning  or  to  check 
the  excessive  action  of  diiigs  where  too  large  a  dose  has  been 
administered,  or  the  recipient  has  proved  to  be  exception- 
ally susceptible  to  their  action.  The  well-known  admin- 
istration of  strong  coffee  to  persons  poisoned  with  opium 
is  an  example  of  the  former  utilization  of  antagonism,  and 
giving  atropine  to  check  excessive  salivation  produced  by 
physostigma  or  bromal  is  an  example  of  the  latter. 

The  most  important  examples  of  antagonism  of  drugs,  in 
a  practical  sense,  are  those  of  aconite  and  digitalis,  of  bella- 
donna and  opium,  of  chloral  and  strychnia,  of  chloroform 
and  amyl  nitrite,  and  of  physostigma  and  atropine.  Experi- 
ments now  going  on  in  nmny  laboratories — especially  in 
Germany — have  led  to  the  belief  that  certain  products  of 
disease  germs  may  act  as  physiological  antidotes  or  an- 
tagonists in  a  sense  to  other  products  of  the  same  disease 
germs  or  to  the  products  ot  other  germs,  and  German  in- 
vestigators have  produced  in  animals,  by  injecting  into 
them  various  substances  obtained  from  disease  germs,  two 
states  (like  those  called  by  Pasteur  refractory),  which  they 
call — one  germ-proof,  and  the  other  virus-proof.  This 
study  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  the  results  obtained  encour- 
age the  hope  that  something  of  more  than  s]ieculative  in- 
terest may  be  discovered.  Charles  W.  Dulles. 

Antagonist  Muscles :  Every  muscle  or  set  of  muscles  in 
the  animal  body  is  opposed  in  its  action  either  by  some 
other  muscle  or  muscles,  or  by  elastic  ligaments.  Gener- 
ally it  is  the  former ;  thus  in  the  human  arm  we  have  the 
triceps  extensor  muscle  antagonized  by  the  biceps  flexor  and 
the  brachialis  anticus,  etc.  In  no  case  is  there  well-de- 
fined dilatation  of  a  muscle.  Flexor  muscles  predominate 
in  power  over  extensors. 

Antal'cltlas  [from  Gr.  'AvToXKi'Sas) :  a  Spartan  diplomatist 
who  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Persia  when  Sparta  was  in  a 
critical  position,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  called  the  Peace 
of  Antalcidas,  in  387  B.  c.  Tliis  treaty  excited  general 
indignation  among  the  Greeks,  w'hose  interests  the  Spar- 
tans sjicrified  to  gratify  their  enmity  to  Athens  and  Thebes. 
One  of  the  articles  of  this  treaty  stipulated  that  all  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  should  be  subject  to  the  King  of 
Persia. 

Antanac'lasis  [Gr.  avTavi.K\a(ns :  aprl.  against  (and  hence 
implying  contrast)  +  avaxKadv.  bend  back]  :  in  rhetoric,  a 
figure  in  which  a  word  is  rejieatcd,  V)ut  in  a  different  sense 
or  different  inflection  from  the  first,  which  gives  a  kind  of 
antithetical  force  to  the  expression;  as  "  Learn  some  era/< 
when  voung,  that  when  old  you  may  live  without  craft." 

Antanana'rivo',  or  Tananarive'  [literally,  at  the  city 
of  a  thousjind  (homesteads  or  compounds);  from  Malagasy 
an,  at  +  tana,  city  +  rivo,  thousand]  :  the  capital  and  chief 
city  of  Madagascar  {q.  v.);  situated  in  a  mountainous  re- 
gion in  the  middle  of  the  island ;  in  18  56  S.  lat. ;  166  miles 
S.  W.  of  Tamatave  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  8-1).  It  is  built 
on  a  series  ot  eminences  about  600  feet  above  the  neighbor- 
ing valley,  and  about  o.OOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  is  reported  to  be  a  large  city,  and  to  have  manufactures  of 
gold  chains  and  silk  stuffs.  The  private  houses  are  mostly 
of  wood.     Pop.  estimated  at  100,000. 

An'tar.  An'tara,  or  An'tarali-Ibn-Slieddad' :  a  cele- 
brated Arabian  prince,  poet,  and  warrior  who  lived  about 
.'i.lO  a.  n.  He  was  the  author  of  one  of  tlie  seven  poems 
which  are  called  Slo'allakat  (suspended),  because  they  were 
susjiended  in  the  Kaaba  or  leniple  at  Mecca.  His  martial 
ex|)loits  were  a  favorite  theme  of  Arabian  poetry  and  ro- 
mance, lie  is  the  hero  of  a  celebrated  romance,  translated 
into  English  bv  T.  Hamilton,  entitled  Antar,  a  Bedouin 
liomance  (1819). 

Anlarc'tif  [from  Gr.  dj/TapitTiKiJr,  opposite  the  north  ;  avrl, 
against  +  &pK7os,  bear,  the  constellation  of   the  Bear,  and 


ANTARCTIC  CURRENT 


ANTELOPE 


229 


hence  the  north] :  opposite  •to  Arctic.  The  Antarctic  Circle 
is  one  of  the  small  circles  of  the  sphere  parallel  to  the  equa- 
tor, anil  distant  23°  27^'  from  the  South  Pole. 

Antarctic  Current :  a  drift-current  which  commences  on 
the  shores  of  V'icloria  Land,  in  the  rci;ion  of  per|)ctual  frost. 
It  carries  vast  quantities  of  ice  and  cold  water  toward  the 
N.  K.  aiul  E.,  and  becomes  converted  into  a  coast-eurrent, 
washing  and  cooling  the  western  shores  of  South  America, 
thus  performing  a  work  nearly  the  converse  of  that  performed 
liv  till'  Gulf  Stream  on  the  shores  of  Eurojie.  It  conveys  drift- 
ice  to  the  latitude  of  about  .55'. 

Antarctic  Ocean,  or  Southern  Ocean  :  the  large  body  of 
water  around  the  South  Pole  included  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle  ;  and  also  a  general  term  designating  that  vast  sea  S. 
of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans.  It  has  not  been 
explorcul  so  thoroughly  as  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  was  Imig 
considered  impenetrable  for  ships,  on  account  of  the  ice, 
which  extends  much  farther  from  the  Polo  (about  10  )  than 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Area,  about  7,900,000  sq.  miles.  Sir 
James  Ross  explored  the  Antarctic  Ocean  as  far  as  79  S.  In 
Jan..  1841,  he  discovered  in  lat.  77°  32'  S.  and  Ion.  167"  E.  a 
volcano  12,400  feet  high,  which  he  called  Jit.  Erebus.  The 
portions  of  land  which  have  been  di.seovered  in  this  ocean 
are  as  follows:  Soulli  Georgia  (1.600  sq.  miles) ;  South  Ork- 
ney islands  (6.)l)  sq.  miles);  South  Shetland  islands  (S.50  sq. 
miles);  Grahaui  Land  (39,000  sq.  miles);  Alexander  Land 
(1,100  sq.  miles);  Victoria  Land  (127.000  sq.  miles);  Wilkes 
Land  (64.000  sq.  miles);  Kemp  island  and  Endcrby  Lantl 
(10,800  sq.  miles).     Total  land  area,  245,000  sq.  miles. 

51.  W.  IT. 

Antarctic  Researches :  The  first  navigator  who  explored 
Antarctic  regions  was  Capt.  Cook,  who  in  Jan..  1774,  reached 
hit.  71°  10  S.  in  Ion.  106'  o4'  W.  In  1823  Capt.  Wcddell 
penetrated  to  lat.  74'  15  S.  in  Ion.  34"  16  15"  W.,  and  found 
there  an  open  .sea.  In  1839  Capt.  Wilkes,  of  the  U.  .S.  navy, 
conducted  an  exploring  expedition  toward  the  South  Pole. 
lie  iliscovered  in  Jan.,  1840,  a  portion  of  a  large  continent 
in  lat.  61 "  30'  S.  and  Ion.  161°  E.  He  traced  the  coast  west- 
ward to  Ion.  lOr  E.,  but  was  prevented  from  landing  by  an 
inq)assable  barrier  of  ice.  Capt.  Sir  James  Ross,  who  com- 
manded a  British  expedition  in  1839-43,  penetrated  as  far 
as  78  or  79°  S.  He  computed  the  position  of  the  .southern 
magnetic  pole  to  be  in  Victoria  Land,  lat.  75°  5'  S.,  bin. 
154   8'  E.     See  Polar  Reseakch. 

Aiita'rps  [from  Gr.  dvri,  against,  similar  to  +'Ap7)j.  IMars. 
because  this  star  was  thought  to  resemble  Mars]:  a  ruddy 
double  star,  [he  most  conspicuous  in  the  constellation 
Scorpio. 

Alil-birds  (i^o/'nnVf/rjf'rffE):  a  large  family  of  South  Amer- 
ican passerine  birds;  of  very  retiring  habit.s,  living  in  thorny 
thickets,  and  feeding  chiefly  upon  ants.  They  are  remotely 
related  to  the  fly-catchers. 

Ant-catelier  and  Ant-thrush:  a  bird  of  tropical  and 
Bub-tropical  countries,  belonging  to  the  family  Piltidii'.  The 
ant-catchers  feed  upon  ants,  and  are  nearly  allied  to  the  fly- 
catchers. They  have  very  powerful  voices,  a  straight,  sub- 
cylindrical  bill,  hooked  at  the  tip,  slender  legs,  and  short 
tail.  The  tyjiical  genus  is  Pitta,  the  numerous  species  in- 
habiting the  Oriental  and  Australian  regions,  many  of  them 
being  peculiar  t  o  individual  islands  of  the  Malay  A  rchipelago. 
Tlie  gumt  ant-catcher  of  Sumatra  (Pitta  gigas)  is  of  a  tine 
grei^n  color.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jorda.v. 

Ante:  a  Latin  preposition,  meaning  before,  in  either  space 
or  time;  now  used  in  English  a-s  a  prefix  (ante-),  with  the 
same  signification.  It  is  used  to  form  nouns  (accented  on 
the  preii.x)  and  adjectives  (accented  on  the  radical);  as,  an- 
techamber, anteroom,  antenuptial,  antedilu  vian. 

Ant-eater :  a  South  American  manniial  of  t  he  order  Eihn- 
tatn.  Ant-eaters  have  no  teeth,  and  feed  on  ants  and  other 
insects,  which  they  catch  by  thrusting  among  them  the  long 
tongue  covered  with  a  viscid  saliva.  The  head  is  nuicli 
elongated,  and  the  tail,  which  is  covered  with  long  hair,  is 
about  as  long  as  the  body.  The  toes  are  united  as  far  as  tlie 
base  of  the  claws,  which  are  very  large  and  .strong,  adapted 
for  the  purpose  of  (earing  open  ant-hills.  The  great  ant- 
Cilter  {M >/rmeciip/iaga  Juljata),  sometimes  called  the  ant-bear. 
is  about  4J  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  about  2J 
feet.  It  lias  four  claws  on  the  fore  feet,  and  five  on  the  hind 
feet.  It  is  a  sluggish  animal,  and  frequents  sw'ampy  ground 
along  rivers,  feeding  mainly  on  the  termites  or  white  ants. 
The   little  ant-eater  (Cyclotu'rus  didac  Iglus)  is  not  more 


than  20  or  21  inches  in  entire  length.  It  is  remarkable  for 
a  peculiar  stnicture  of  the  skeleton.  On  a  side  view  the 
cavity  of  the  chest  is  completely  hiilden  by 
the  ribs,  which  are  greatly  flattened  and  over- 
ap  each  other.  The  species  is  arboreal  in 
ubits,  and  has  its  feet  specially  modified  for 
climbing.  It  has  two  claws  on  the  fore  feel, 
and  four  on  the  hind  feet;  these  claws  arc 
compressed,  curved,  and  very  sharp.  Tl 
name  ant-eater  is  sometimes given  to  the  aard- 
vark  {Oryderijpus  capeii.iis)  of  South  Africa, 


to  the  pangolins,  the  Schidna.iind  to  other  mammals  which 
subsist  on  ants  and  other  insects. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Anteee'dent  [Lat.  antece'dens;  ante.,  before  +  ce'dere,go]: 
that  which  goes  before  or  precedes  in  time  or  in  place.  In 
grammar,  the  noun  to  which  a  relative  pronoun  refers;  in 
logic,  the  first  of  two  propositions  in  an  enthymeme,  and  the 
first  member  of  a  hypothetical  proposition  ;  opposeti  to  the 
consequent :  in  mathematics,  the  first  of  two  terras  composing 
a  ratio.  Thus  in  the  ratio  A  :  B,  A  is  the  antecedent,  and  B 
is  the  consequent. 

The  word  in  the  plural  is  used  in  a  different  sense,  as  in 
speaking  of  a  person'^  antecednif-i — i.e.  his  jirevious  conduct 
and  character,  his  early  histoiy  or  primordial  relations. 

Antedlln'viau  [from  Lat.  on/c,  before. +  dilu'i'ium,  del- 
uge] :  a  term  applied  to  any  person  or  thing  that  existed  be- 
fore the  Flood — i.  e.  the  Noachian  Deluge.  According  to 
the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Bible,  this  flood 
occurred  1,656  years  after  the  creation  of  man.  The  date 
of  this  event,  according  to  the  Septuagint  version,  is  several 
centuries  later.  Chevalier  Bunsen  adopted  the  tlieory  tliat 
the  Flood  occurred  about  10,000  years  ago.  Geologists  do 
not  recognize  that  the  earth  was  ever  inundated  by  a  simul- 
taneous universal  deluge  since  it  was  inhabited  by  man. 

An'teloi)e  [0.  Fr.  antrlop,  via  Lat.  from  Gr.  av06\o^.  ety- 
mol.  unknown] :  any  member  of  an  extensive  group  of  hol- 
low-horned ruminants  distributed  among  several  sections 
or  sub-families  of  the  family  Bovidir.  The  group  comprises 
numerous  genera  and  species,  the  genus  Antilupe  being  the 
tyiiieal  one.  natives  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America, 
i-emarkalile  for  their  elegant  figure  and  extreme  agility. 
Tliev  are  mostly  gregarious,  inoffensive,  and  timid  animals, 
aiid'vary  greatly  in  size  and  form.  The  greater  numbers  of 
them  are  found  in  Southern  and  Central  Africa.  Asia  pro- 
duces numerous  species.  AuKiiig  the  various  species  are  the 
gazelle  (6V(j('Wrt  f/(<r™.s).  the  beauty  of  whose  eye  is  proverbial ; 
the  addax  or  Nubian  antidope;'  the  stein-bok,  eland,  and 
spring-bok  of  South  Africa;  and  the  chamois  of  Europe. 
The  antelopes  are  jirobably  the  fleetest  of  all  qnadnitieds. 
Their  flesh  is  a  favorite  article  of  food.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tain goat  is  another  antelope  (iVr^jrrwo,  Miin/dna).  "Born 
in  the  scorching  sun."  says  .Sir  S.  W.  liaki^r,  "nursed  on  the 
burning  sand  of  the  treeless  ami  shadowli'ss  wilderness,  the 
gazelle  is  among  the  antelope  tribe  as  the  Arab  horse  is 
among  its  bretliren — the  high-bn^d  and  superlative  beauty 
of  the  race.  Entirely  free  from  fat,  ami  nevertheless  a 
nia-ss  of  muscle  and  sinew,  the  gazelle  is  the  fastest  of  the 
antelo])e  tribi'." 

The  ciinimon  antelope  or  black  buck  (Anfilope  rervicapra) 
is  found  in  India  and  throughout  Southern  Asia.  It  is  a 
very  beautiful  animal,  and  is  ilistinguished  for  its  timidity 
anil  swiftness.  Its  flesh,  like  that  of  most  antelopes,  is  dry 
and  rather  unpalatable.  The  Oriental  bezoar,  a  |ihosphatii! 
concretion   prized   in  the  Eiust    for  its  sup|iosed  medicinal 


•230 


ANTE  NATI 


ANTHOLOGY 


virtues,  is  derived  from  the  intestines  of  this  animal.  The 
horns  of  the  antelope  difier  in  sti-ucture  from  those  of  tlie 
deer;  in  the  latter  tlie  horns  (which  are  more  properly  called 
antlers)  are  deciduous  but  in  the  antelopes  they  consist  of  a 


Antilope  cervicapray  the  common  antelope. 

hornv  sheath  surrounding  a  conical  support  of  bone.  Their 
growth  is  gradual,  and  they  are  not  yearly  shed  and  renewed, 
but  are  retained  during  the  life  of  the  animal.  In  some 
groups  of  antelopes  both  sexes  have  horns ;  in  others,  only 
the  male.  The  prong-buck  or  prong-horned  antelope  of 
America  (Antilocapra  americana)  is  not  a  true  antelope, 
having  deciduous  branched  horns.    See  Antilocapra. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

All'te  Na'ti  (Lat.,  born  before):  a  term  applied  to  such 
of  the  Scotcli  as  were  born  before  the  accession  of  James  I. 
to  the  throne  of  England,  and  who  were  considered  as  aliens 
by  tlie  Knglish. 

Anteu'nsB,  singular  Aiitcn'na  [from  Lat.,  sail-yards] : 
jointed  filaments  or  tubular  sensiferous  organs  attached  to 
the  heads  of  insects  and  crustaceans.  They  are  sometimes 
called  feelers,  and  are  supposed  to  be  organs  of  touch  (or, 
according  to  some  naturalists,  organs  of  hearing).  An  in- 
sect has  two  antenn;c,  which  are  very  flexible,  and  are  com- 
posed in  some  species  of  a  great  number  of  joints.  A  crus- 
tacean has  four  antennie. 

Anteniia'riiis  [from  Lat.  antenna,  feeler]:  a  genus  of 
pedicuhite  fislies  of  very  odd  fantastic  shapes  and  colorings. 
The  first  (h)rsal  spine  is  tentacle-like,  tlie  second  and  tliird 
dorsal  spines  are  covered  witli  skins,  and  appear  as  humps 
on  the  back ;  the  body  often  bears  numerous  waving  fila- 
ments. This,  with  the  strange  coloring,  causes  tliem  to  re- 
semble seaweeds,  mud,  sjind,  or  rocks.  The  pectoral  fins 
are  extended  into  a  limb  somewhat  free  from  the  body.  It 
is  used  as  a  leg  in  crawling  over  seaweeds  and  rocks.  The 
species  an^  luimei'ous,  and  found  in  warm  seas,  especially 
among  corals,  one  species,  ^l.  hislrio,  frequenting  floating 
masses  of  S<ir;/ii,iiium.  David  S.  Jorda.v. 

Anteqilp'ra  (anc.  Anliqimrin):  a  city  of  Spain;  province 
of  Malaga ;  22  miles  X.  N.  \V.  of  Malaga :  on  the  loft  bank  of 
the  (iuadalhorce  (sec  map  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  ref.  li)-E). 
It  has  many  monasteries  and  convents,  and  large  factories 
of  flannel,  jiaper,  silk,  and  soap.  The  population  of  Ante- 
cpiera  consists  largely  of  hidalgos,  with  whom  the  vendetta 
was  a  common  practice  as  late  as  184.'>.     Pop.  27,201. 

Ant'eros  ('AvT/pajs):  in  the  Greek  mythologv,  a  being  op- 
posed to  Kros  or  Cupid,  the  god  of  Love,  and  fighting  against 
tiim;  also  the  deity  who  punishes  those  who  do  not  return 
the  love  of  others. 

Antlie'liil  [from  Gr.  av64\Knis.  opposite  the  sun :  ami.  against 
+  liAioj,  sun]:  lumino^l^^<•olf>red  rings  observed  under  certain 
conditions  around  the  shadow  of  the  spectator's  own  head. 
The  conditions  of  the  phenomenon  are  two:  first,  that  the 
sun  be  near  the  horizon,  and  secondly,  that  the  shadow  be 
projeet<'d  on  a  surface  covered  with  dew-drops,  as  a  field  of 
grass,  or  on  a  dense;  fog-bank  distant  about  50  yards.  They 
occur  chiefly  in  the  polar  regions. 


Aiithelmin'ties  [from  Gr.  avrl.  against  +  iKiiivs.  -ivBat, 
worm] :  metlicines  wnich  either  destroy  or  drive  out  intesti- 
nal parasites ;  the  former  are  called  vermicides,  the  latter 
vermifuges.  The  last-named  are  most  commonly  employed. 
Against  the  ordinary  lumbricoid  worm  (Ascaris  lunihri- 
coi'des)  an  infusion  or  fluid  extract  of  senna  and  spigelia 
(pinkroot)  is  sate  and  eflieacious.  To  drive  out  the  worry- 
ing seatworms  or  threadworms  (Oxxju  rus  rcrmiciila  ris) 
nothing  is  better  than  quassia,  introduced  into  the  bowels  in 
enema.  For  the  more  formidable  tapeworm  (Tie  iiia)  oil  of 
turpentine,  oil  of  fern,  kousso,  pumpkin  seeds,  and  jjome- 
granate  seeds  are  used.  It  is  important  that  the  huad  of  the 
tapeworm  shall  pass  away,  as,  till  that  happens,  the  joints 
continue  to  be  reproduced.  In  all  cases  of  worms  atten- 
tion is  needed  to  the  general  condition  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans. 

An'tliem  [0.  Eng.  antefn.  via  Lat.  from  Gr.  ai/Tl<pava, 
sounding  in  response :  ami.  against  +  ipuvri.  voice] :  a  nuisical 
composition  in  free  form  ;  a  mixture  of  motett  and  cantata, 
with  instrumental  accompaniment,  ada|ited  to  scriptural 
words.  It  may  contain  solos,  ducts,  etc..  but  the  nutin  com- 
position is  generally  understood  to  be  for  chorus. 

Antlie'iniiis  (in  Gr.  'AveeVios) :  Greek  architect  and  mathe- 
matician; surnauied  TRALLtAsrs.  from  his  native  place, 
Tralles.  in  Lydia:  was  a  brother  of  Alexander  Trallianus. 
lie  was  patronized  by  Justinian  at  Constantinople,  and  de- 
signed the  celebrated  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  the  first  stone 
of  which  was  laid  in  .5:^2,  and  which  was  dedicated  Dec.  25, 
.537.     He  died  about  .534.     See  Const a.ntixople. 

Aiithemiiis,  or  Anthemius  Proco'jilns :  a  Roman  em- 
peror, who  began  to  reign  at  Rome  in  467  A.  D.,  before  which 
he  was  a  favorite  general  of  Leo,  the  Emperor  of  the  East, 
He  was  the  father-in-law  of  Rieimer,  who  became  his  enemy. 
Anthemius  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Rieimer,  and  put  to 
death  in  472  a.  d. 

Aii'tlier  [from  Gr.  aySrnpis,  belonging  to  the  flower  (ivBos)]: 
the  essential  part  of  the  stamen,  is  the  case  which  contains 
the  pollen.  Morphologically  considered,  the  anther  is  the 
lamina  of  a  transformed  leaf  divided  into  two  lobes  or  cells 
by  the  connective,  which  corresponds  to  the  midrib  of  the 
leaf.  When  the  anther  is  a  direct  continuation  of  the  filar 
ment.it  is  said  to  be  innate,  as,  in  the  barberry;  when  it 
grows  to  the  face  or  side  of  the  filament,  it  is  adnate,  as  in 
the  magnolia  ;  and  when  the  apex  of  the  filament  is  attached 
to  the  middle  of  the  anther,  the  latter  is  versatite.  as  in  the 
grasses.  The  anther  generally  opens,  for  discharging  pollen, 
a  longitudinal  slit  from  top  to  bottom  of  each  cell,  but  some- 
times only  at  the  apex  or  some  other  definite  point.  See 
Flower.  Ceiarlks  E.  Bessey. 

An'therid  (plu.  Aiitliorids),  or  Aiitherid'iuin  (plu.  An- 
theridia)  [nn/Aer -l- dimiimtive  suffix  -iilinm  (Gr.  -iSioi-)]: 
the  organ  of  cryptogamous  plants,  analogous  in  function  to 
the  aiither  of  the  phanerogamous  flowers.  Antlieridia  are 
variously  situated  on  the  surface  of  plants  or  within  their 
tissue,  and  usually  contain  small  bodies  called  antherozoids, 
which  exhibit  rapid  movements.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Aiitho'diiim  [from  the  Gr.  fi^flos.  flower  +  elSos.  likeness]: 
a  hind  of  flowers,  the  same  as  a  capitule,  a]iplied  to  the 
flower  of  the  thistle  and  other  Cnmptisitfr.  in  which  a  num- 
l)er  of  flowers  are  combined  in  a  head  and  surroiuKled  by  a 
comuion  involucre.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Aiitliorogy  [Gr.  hvBoXayia,  collection  of  flowers:  fii/flos, 
flower  +  AeVeiv,  collect] :  in  ancient  literature,  a  collection 
of  short  pieces  of  poetry  on  amatory,  convivial,  or  moral 
sulijects,  or  a  selection  of  beautiful  thoughts  and  sentences 
in  prc.se  or  verse,  mostly  epigrams.  The  first  collection  in 
Greek  entitled  an  anthology  Vas  made  by  Meleager.  a  Syrian 
poet  who  lived  about  80-60  B. c.  Another  collection,  com- 
piled by  Constant  ine  Cephalas  in  the  tenth  century,  was  dis- 
covered by  Salmasius,  and  is  now  extant.  This  anthology, 
augmented  bv  epigrams  found  on  ancient  monuments,  was 
edited  bv  lirunek,  under  the  title  of  Analirta  Velenim  Poi't- 
arinn  G'rwmrum  (1776).  A  revised  edition  of  the  same  was 
published  by  Jacobs,  entitled  Anthotagin  Gritca  sife  Poet- 
anim  (rrrrronim  Luxii.i  ex  Pecensiniw  Briinchii  (Leipzig, 
17!)4-1814).  Scaliger  published  a  Latin  anthoUigy  in  1573, 
Calnlirfn  Veti-riim  /'of/an/m. greatly  enlarged  in  I'urmann'a 
Anl/iolof/in  Lnlinn  (2  vols.  4to,  175!)).  Collections  of  poetry 
which  liiay  not  inappropriately  lie  termed  antliologir's  are 
also  found  in  the  literatures  of  Arabia,  Turkey.  Persia,  and 
China.  Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 


ANTHON 


ANTHRACITE 


231 


An'tlion,  Charles,  LL.D. :  classical  scholar;  b.  in  the 
city  ot  New  York,  Nov.  19,  1797 ;  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  181!).  He  .-itudied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  ill  ItiW.  but  never  praouced.  In  1820  he  became  adjunct 
Professor  of  .\iicient  Languages  in  Columbia  College, and  in 
18:!")  i)rinci|>al  professor  of  the  classics.  He  published  an 
edition  of  llurace  with  notes  (1830),  and  of  the  classical 
works  usually  read  in  scliools;  also  a  Classical  Dictionary 
(1841).     D.  in  New  York  chy,  July  29,  18G7. 

Antlioiiy :  city;  capital  of  Harper  co.,  Kan.;  in  a  farm- 
ing and  stock-raising  district :  on  M.  Pac,  St.  L.  and  San  F. 
and  Oin..  II.  and  Gulf  R.  Ks. :  69  miles  S.  W.  of  Wichita. 
Has  salt-works,  2  tlouring-mills,  ofjera-house,  water-works, 
electric  lights,  etc.     Pop.  UsOU)  1,80() ;  (1895)  1,3C7. 

Alltlioiiy,  Hkxrv  Bowex:  statesman;  b.  at  Coventry, 
R.  I.,  Apr.  1,1815;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  18;3:i; 
was  editor  of  the  Providence  Jo«™.o/ (1838-59);  "Governor 
of  Rhode  Island  (1849-51);  and  U.  S.  Senator  from  1859 
until  his  death  ;  was  a  delegate  to  the  Philadelphia  "  Loyal- 
ists'" Convention  in  1866.  Elected  president  ;»■»  tern,  of 
U.  S.  Senate.  1883,  but  declined  the  otiice  on  account  of  ill 
health.     1).  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept.  2,  1884. 

Anthony,  Susan  Browxell:  b.  at  South  Adams.  Mass., 
Feb.  15,  1^"20  ;  was  the  daughter  of  a  (Quaker.  She  was  fif- 
teen years  a  teacher  in  New  York.  Since  1852  she  has  been 
an  active  leader  of  the  woman's  right  movement ;  she  has 
also  been  long  distinguished  for  her  zeal  and  eloquence  in 
the  temperance  and  anti-shivery  causes.  Since  the  civil  war 
she  has  given  most  of  her  labors  to  the  cause  of  woman's 
suffrage. 

Anthony,  Saint:  See  Antony,  Saint. 

Anthony's  Nose :  a  mountain  in  the  Highlands,  E.  of  the 
Hudson  river;  partly  in  Philipstown  township,  Putnam  co., 
and  [lartly  in  Cortlandt  townshiji,  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y. 
It  rises  1.228  feet  above  the  river.  In  making  the  railroad- 
cutting  t  hi'ough  its  base  many  beautiful  minerals  were  found. 

An'tho|)hytes  (Aiithopliyta) :  the  highest  of  the  several 
briinches  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  characterized  by  the 
production  of  flowers  and  seed.  They  are  known  otherwise 
under  the  names  flowering  plants,  spermaplii/les,  and  jjhcme- 
royams.  They  are  very  naturally  separated  into  (1)  those 
with  naked  seed  (gymnosperms),  including  pines,  spruces, 
cedars,  etc.,  and  (2)  those  with  the  seed  inclosed  in  an  ovary 
(nnyiospennn).  including  ordinary  flowering  plants,  as  lilies, 
grasses,  orchids,  buttercups,  oaks,  roses,  bellflowers,  sunflow- 
ers, etc.    See  Vegktaule  KixGDCM.      Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Anthosid'erilp  [from  Gr.  &v8os.  flower  -4-  (nSripiTits.  iron- 
stone ;  friiiri  aiSr^poy,  iron]:  a  hydratcd  silicate  of  iron  occur- 
ring in  fine  Kljrous  tufts,  with  a  radiated  structure.  It  is 
found  at  .Vnlonia  Pereira,  in  Minas  Geraes,  in  Brazil. 

Anthoxan'tlinni  [from  Gr.  Si/flos.  flower  -I-  ^avSSs,  yellow]: 
a  genus  of  grasses,  natives  of  Europe.  The  flowers  are  a 
dull  yellow  when  ripe.  It  includes  the  sweet  vernal  grass 
(AntliiixdnlUum  odnrafum)  which  grows  in  meadows  and 
perftnnes  the  air  with  an  exquisite  fragrance.  It  is  natural- 
ized in  the  U.  .S. 

Antliozo'a:  tlie  class  of  coelenterates  which  contains  the 
coral  polyps.     See  Actiniid^-:. 

An'thracone.  or  Paranaph'thalene  (CiJIjo):  a  hydro- 
carbon existing  in  coal-tar,  and  extracted  from  the  last  jior- 
tions  of  the  distillate  from  this  substance.  The  products  of 
the  distillation  of  coal-tar  as  ordinarily  conducted  are:  (1) 
Crude  coal-tar  naphtha,  containing  benzene,  toluene,  etc., 
lighter  than  water;  (2)  heavy  oil  of  coal-tar,  or  "dead  oil," 
heavier  than  water,  and  containing  about  10  per  cent,  of 
PiiEXOL  (?.  i'.)  and  cresol,  and  nuich  naphthalene ;  (3)  green 
oil,  which  becomes  semi-solid  on  cooling,  owing  to  the  crys- 
tallization of  antliracene;  (4) pitch,  which  remains  in  the  still. 
Versemannand  Keiinerhavc  iiat<'nted  the  further  distillation 
of  pitch  till  oidy  coke  remains  in  the  still.  They  thtts  obtain 
a  much  larger  yield  of  green  oil,  and  increase  the  product  of 
anthracene  from  one-tialf  ot  1  per  cent,  to  2  per  cent,  of 
the  original  tar.  The  semi-solid  green  oil  lias  been  used  in 
Kngland  lo  some  extent  as  a  cheap  lubricator  or  wheel- 
grease,  under  the  name  of  "green  grease."  The  anthracene 
is  separated  from  the  green  oil  by  chilling  and  pressing.  In 
its  crude  state  it  contains  considerable  oil,  naphthalene, 
pyrene,  chrysene,  chrysogen,  retene,  anthraflavie  acid,  etc. 
To  purify  the  crude  anthraecne  cake,  it  may  be  subjected  to 
distillation,  the  first  and  last  portions  being  rejected,  the 
intermediate  portion  being  rccrystallized  from  benzene  or 


coal-tar  naphtha ;  or  the  crude  cake  may  be  washed  with 
petroleum  naphtha  to  remove  oils,  etc.,  and  then  rccrystal- 
lized from  benzene.  Thus  obtained,  ant  hracene  is  always 
colored  yellow  by  chrysogen,  which  may  lie  destroyeil  by 
exposing'  its  solution  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Graebe 
and  Liebermann  prepared  antliracene  by  the  action  of  zinc- 
dust  on  alizarin,  the  coloring-matter  of  madder,  and  were 
from  this  led  to  devise  a  method  for  preparing  alizarin  from 
anthracene — an  operation  which  is  now  the  basis  of  a  very 
important  industry.    See  Alizarin. 

Anthracene  is  obtained  in  beautiful  white,  crystalline 
laminse,  melting  at  213°  C,  and  distilling  at  360'  C.  An- 
thracene is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  benzene, 
and  bisulphide  of  carbon  to  the  extent  of  0-6,  0-9,  and  1-7 
per  cent,  respectively.  Heat  greatly  increases  its  solubility 
in  these  Uquids.  It  is  also  soluble  in  ether  and  the  essential 
oils,  especially  oil  of  turpentine.  Light  petroleum  naphtha, 
which  dissolves  naphthalene  readily,  has  little  eft'ect  on  an- 
thracene. Oxidizing  agents,  such  as  potassic  dichromate 
and  sulphuric  or  acetic  acid,  change  anthracene  into  anthra- 
quinone  (C'uHeOa),  which  is  easily  converted  into  alizarin 
(CmHsO,)  by  a  process  described  in  the  article  Alizarin 
ig.v.).  Oil  of  vitriol  dissolves  anthracene.  With  bromine 
and  chlorine,  anthracene  forms  several  substitution  products. 
On  mixing  alcoholic  solutions  of  picric  acid  and  anthracene, 
beautiful  ruby-red  needles  of  picrate  are  obtained. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

An'tliracite  [Lat.  anthraci'les,  from  the  6v.  Syflpol,  a 

coal] :  an  important  fossil  fuel,  the  hardest  variety  of  stone- 
coal,  consisting,  when  pure,  almost  exclusively  of  carbon. 
It  has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  a  black  color,  and  an  imper- 
fectly metallic  luster,  from  which  it  is  sometimes  called 
glance  coal.  It  burns  slowly,  with  intense  heat,  without 
smoke,  and  with  little  flame.  Anthracite  may  be  of  any  geo- 
logical age.  In  China  the  coals  are  mostly,  it  not  altogether, 
of  Mesozoic  age,  and  over  large  areas  they  are  anthracitic. 
Near  Richmond,  Va.,  trap  dikes  bursting  through  the  Triassic 
coal-beds  have  changed  some  of  them  locally  into  a  spongy 
anthracite,  a  "natural  coke."  Near  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  and 
Crested  Buttes,  Col.,  outbursts  of  volcanic  rock  have,  over 
many  square  miles,  converted  cretaceous  lignite  into  anthra- 
cite." The  'Triassic  coal  of  Los  Bronces,  Sonora,  has  been 
extensively  metamorphosed  by  the  action  of  igneous  rocks, 
and  on  Queen  Charlotte  island,  N.  of  Vancouver's  island, 
a  local  eruption  of  trap  lias  converted  a  cretaceous  lignite 
into  one  of  the  most  compact  and  briUianl  anthracites 
known. 

Although  anthracite  occurs,  and  is  mined  in  small  quan- 
tities, in  Wales,  it  is  of  great  industrial  importance  only  in 
the  U.  S.,  the  most  productive  beds  being  those  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, while  a  relatively  moderate  tonnage  is  mined  in  Colo- 
rado. The  anthracite  region  of  Pennsylvania  is  situated  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  State,  between  the  Washington 
meridian  and  that  of  1°  10"  E.,  and  the  N.  parallels  of  40° 
25'  and  41"  40 ".  The  area  of  the  whole  region  is  about  1,700 
sq.  miles,  of  which  about  470,  exclusive  of  the  Loyalsock, 
are  underlaid  by  workable  coal-beds.  It  is  divided  into  the 
following  prominent  divisions : 

1.  Southern  or  Pottsville  field,  with  an  area  of  about  140 
sq.  miles,  extends  from  the  Lehigh  river  at  I\laueh  Chunk 
S.  W.  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  di- 
rectly N.  of  Harrisburg.  The  eastern  end  of  this  field, 
known  as  the  Lower  Lehigh  or  Panther  creek  basin,  between 
Tamaqua  and  Mauch  Chunk,  has  generally  been  included 
by  the  coal-trade  in  the  Lehigh  field,  because  its  coals  re- 
semble more  closely  those  of  the  LTpper  Lehigh  field,  and 
because  the  shipments  from  it  lo  inai-ket  have  been  largely 
made  through  the  Lehigh  valley. 

2.  The  Western  Middle  or  Alahanoy  and  Shamokin  field 
has  an  area  of  90  sq.  miles, and  lies  between  the  easternmost 
iiead-waters  of  the  Little  Schuylkill  river  and  tlie  Susque- 
hanna. The  two  coal-fields,  the  Southern  and  the  Western 
Jliddle.  are  frequently  designated  in  a  general  way  as  the 
Schuvlkill  region. 

3.  The  Eastern  Middle  or  LTpper  Lehigh  field  has  an  area 
of  40  sq.  miles,  and  lies  between  the  Lehigh  river  and  Cata- 
wissji  creek. 

4.  The  Northern  or  Wyoming  and  Lackawanna  field, 
which  has  an  area  of  200  .sq.  miles,  lies  in  the  two  valleys 
from  which  it  derives  its  geographical  names. 

5.  The  Loyalsock  is  at  the  head-waters  of  Loyalsock  creek. 
The  greatest  length  of  the  anthracite  regions,  from  its 
northeastern  to  its  southwestern  end,  is  about    115  miles. 


232 


ANTHRACITE 


ANTHRAX 


while  tlie  greatest  widtli,  containing  the  first  four  fields,  is 
about  40  miles  between  JIauch  Chunk  and  Shickshinny. 

The  first  organized  effort  to  mine  anthracite  coal  was  in 
1793  on  the  Jlainmotli  bed  at  Summit  Hill,  but  regular  ship- 
ments did  not  begin  until  1820.  It  was  not  until  1825  that 
it  was  used  for  the  generation  of  steam,  and  not  until  1839 
that  it  was  employed  as  au  exclusive  fuel  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  pig  iron. 

The  tliickness  of  the  productive  coal  measures  overlying 
the  Pottsville  conglomerate,  and  of  tlieir  included  coal-beds, 
varies  so  much  tliat  it  is  impossible  to  select  any  one  section 
to  illustrate  the  tliickness,  character,  and  succession  of  the 
coal-beds  and  their  included  rocks  tlirougliout  tlie  region. 
At  Tamaqua,  in  tlie  southern  coal-field,  the  coal  measures 
are  2,300  feet  tliick,  and  contain  twenty-one  coal-beds  with 
an  aggregate  thickness  of  126  feet,  one  bed,  the  Mammoth, 
being"ll4  feet  thick  a  short  distance  E.  of  Tamaqua.  At 
Pottsville  there  are  about  3.300  feet  of  measures,  wliich  eon- 
tain  twenty-eight  individual  beds  with  an  aggregate  thick- 
ness of  coal  of"l54  feet.  In  tlie  Western  Middle  field  there 
are  in  the  eastern  half  thirteen  individual  beds  of  110  feet 
thickness  of  coal,  the  Mammoth  reaching  over  100  feet  in 
thickness  at  Shenandoah.  At  one  point  in  the  Black  creek 
basin  of  the  Up[ier  Leiiigh  field  the  Mammoth  bed  is  be- 
tween 60  and  90  feet  thick  over  a  large  area  where  the  coal 
is  quarried.  At  Scranton,  in  the  Southern  field,  there  are 
eleven  betls  with  an  aggregate  thickness  of  72  feet  of  coal, 
while  in  the  vicinity  of  Wilkesbarre  thirteen  coal-beds  have 
a  tutul  thickness  of  94  feet.  The.se  coal-bed  thicknesses  in- 
clude slate  and  bony  coal,  so  that  the  thickness  assigned  to 
the  beds  does  not  represent  the  actual  thickness  of  coal 
■which  can  lie  mined  and  sent  to  market. 

The  following  analyses  are  given  as  representing  the  av- 
erage composition  of  Pennsylvania  anthracite: 

AVERARE   ANALYSES  OF   PENNSYLVANIA  ANTHRACITES. 


NAME  OF 
COAL-BED. 


Wharton 

Mammoth 

Primrose 

Mammoth 

Primrose 

Bucic  Mountain. 

Seven  Foot 

Mammoth 

Mammoth 

B.  Bed 


Name  of  coal-fii-ld. 


Eastern  Middle. . 
Western  Middle. 


.Southern 

Western  Middle 


Southern.., 
Nortliern. . 
Lo.valsock. 


3-713 
4119 
3-541 
3- 163 
3-008 
3-042 
3-410' 
3-0,Hr 
3  421 
1-295 


3-080  81-404  0-585    6 
3  084  86.379  0  496    5 


3  71U  M 
3-717S1 

4  125  n;  : 
3-91'.l  ^<-,'  I 
S-Orssii  1 
4  2;:^sn  : 


I  10 

S'.l'.l  II 

:,in;  4 
li'ii  !) 
:.l.'  11 
1.11 ;  8 


4-381  83-268,0  727 
8-100  83  344  1-031 


1-6.57 


84 
667 
-651 
-631 
-575 


In  order  to  provide  for  its  combustion,  with  suitable 
draft,  anthracite  coal  must  be  broken  and  screened,  the  fol- 
lowing being  the  sizes  of  the  sieve  meshes: 


NAME  OF  SIZE. 

Broken  or  grate 

Egg 

Stove 

Chestnut 

Pea 

Buckwheat 


Through. 


4  inches. 

25  inches. 

2-5     " 

1-75      " 

1  75    " 

1-25      " 

1-25    " 

0-75      " 

0-75    " 

0-.50      " 

0-60    " 

0-25      " 

Even  smaller  sizes  are  now  made,  locally  known  as  "  rice," 
"  mustard-seed,"  etc.  Tlie  waste  in  mining  is  now  much 
smaller  than  formerly,  being  15  to  30  per  cent.,  anil  the 
waste  in  the  brciikcrs  has  been  reduced  to  6  to  20  per  cent. 
A  good  many  of  the  culm  piles  accumulated  in  former 
years  are  being  worked  over  again,  the  modern  improve- 
ments in  dressing  machinery  and  better  methods  of  burning 
fine  coal  having  made  it  i>rulitalile. 

Its  cleanliness  and  freeilom  from  smoke  have  made  an- 
thracite the  standard  household  fuel,  but  it  is  steadily  losing 
ground  for  the  generation  of  steam  in  competition  with  the 
better  bituminous  coals,  and  for  blast-furnace  use  in  compe- 
tition with  coke. 

The  census  report  liy  .Tolin  TI.  Jones,  of  Philadelphia,  shows 
that  in  ihi-  calrnil.-ir  ve.'ir  1SS9  the  total  ]n-odnction  of  anthra- 
cite was  4«l.(>6.").ir,2  tdiis,  of  2.240  lb.,  ol  which  35,816,876  tons 
was  loailed  at  mines  for  shipment,  1,329,580  tons  was  used  by 
employees  and  was  sold  to  the  local  trade  at  the  mines,  and 
3,51X.()96  tons  was  used  for  heat  and  steam  at  the  mines. 
The  average  number  of  days  worked  at  the  collieries  was 
194,  the  total  numbec  of  persons  employed  being  125.229, 
who  received  in  wagi's  $39,152,124.  The  value  oif  the  coal 
at  the  mines  was  $65,718,165,  or  $1.61'6  per  ton,  including 
all  sizes  sent  to  market.    The  total  shipments  of  anthracite 


coal  from  1820  to  1889  inclusive  were  702,166,148  tons.  253,- 
484,053  tons  coming  from  the  Schuylkill  region,  128,490.084 
tons  from  the  Lehigh  region,  and  320,192,011  from  the  Wy- 
oming region. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  anthracite 
coal  for  1889 : 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANTHRACITE   COAL   FOR   1889. 


SECTIONS. 

Long  tool. 

Per  csdU 

Pennsylvania.  New  York,  and  New  Jersey. . 

22.314..331 
5.407.3.57 
4,922.076 
l,6i:1120 

20.900 
1.094.7.36 

35.190 

6302 
15-27 

13-90 

4 -.55 

P.-icilir  enast 

OOS 
3  09 

0-10 

Totals            

35,407,710 

100  00 

See  lieporfs  of  the.  Second  Oeologieal  Sunn/  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; 3Iineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  (U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey).  Charles  Kircuhofk. 

Aiitlirai>iiri)uriiie:  See  Alizarin. 

Aiithi-nqiiinoiie:  a  hydrocarbon  olitained  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  anthracene  (q.  v.).  Alizarin  is  produced  from  it. 
See  Alizarin. 

Antlirax  [in  Fr.  chnrbon;  Ger.  ITihhrand):  a  name  for- 
merly applied  by  surgical  writers  to  ordinary  carbuncle,  but 
now  restricted  "to  an  acute  infections  disease  caused  by  a 
specific  micro-organism,  the  bacillus  anflinicis.  It  is  also 
known  as  splenic  fever,  in  its  external  manifestations  as 
malignant  pustule,  and  sometimes  incorrectly  as  malignant 
ocilema.  Wool-sorter's  disease  is  the  same.  It  is  especially 
interesting  as  being  the  first  disease  in  -which  the  causation 
by  bacteria  was  demonstrated. 

The  liaciUus  aiitliraeis  ajipears  as  rods  5  to  20  niicro- 
niillimcters  (/n)  long  and  1  to  1-25  broad,  square  at  its  ends. 
At  certain  stages  of  its  development  it  forms  egg-shaped 
spores,  and  when  gro-nung  in  artificial  cultures  is  commonly 
seen  as  long  threads,  often  twisted  or  plaited  together.  On 
agar-agar  (Japanese  gelatin)  it  forms  a  characteristic,  dry, 
cotton-like  growth ;  it  liquefies  gelatin  (ordinary  V)one  gcla- 
lin)  and  forms  flaky  masses  in  bouillon.  It  grows  rapidly 
on  ]iotato,  forming  dry,  whitish  colonics,  which  do  not  ex- 
tend mucli  beyond  the  points  of  inoculation.  It  is  aerobic, 
non-niotilc,  and  grows  best  at  about  98°  F.  It  stains  read- 
ily. The  spores  have  a  very  persistent  vitality,  w-liich  in 
some  instances  is  not  destroyed  by  boiling  for  five  minutes 
nor  by  freezing,  and  they  retain  the  power  of  germinating 
and  producing  the  characteristic  bacilli  for  many  years. 
When  the  bacilli  gain  admission  to  the  sub-epithelial  ti.ssues 
of  the  body,  they  pass  into  the  blood  and  niulti]ily  rapidly, 
producing  the  specific  disease.  Anthrax  affects  chieily  the 
Iierbivora,  and  especially  cattle  and  slieei) — being  most 
prevalent  among  cattle  in  Russia,  where  it  has  been  called 
the  Siberian  plague.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  comparatively  rare. 
It  occurs  in  man  as  the  result  of  accidental  inoculation 
through  the  .skin,  as  in  butchers  or  others  who  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  blood  of  infected  animals,  or  through  the 
alimentary  canal,  by  eating  infected  meat,  or  through  the 
air-passages,  by  inhalation  of  spores  in  the  dust  from  hides, 
wool,  etc.  In  "animals  it  is  conveyed  chiefly  through  infect- 
ed localities,  such  as  pastures  or  stables,  or  by  infected  food, 
such  as  hay.  External  anthrax,  or  malignant  |iustule.  in 
man  usually  occurs  on  the  hands,  arms,  or  face,  following 
the  inoculation  with  infected  blood  at  a  period  varying 
from  a  few  hours  to  ten  days.  Malignant  |)ustule  usually 
begins  with  a  small,  hard,  red  papule,  which  itches  and  soon 
forms  a  vesicle  containing  blood-stained  serum.  Around 
this  there  forms  a  raised  ring  of  purplish,  brawny,  indu- 
rated tissue,  on  which  successive  crops  of  vesicles  ajipear, 
while  the  central  i)oint  forms  a  brown  or  black  eschar,  which 
becomes  depresse<l.  There  is  no  suppuration,  and  coiiqiara- 
tivcly  little  [lain.  The  constitutional  .syniiitonis  are  chill, 
fever,  headacJH'.  and  in  fatal  cases  collapse.  Peatli  may  oc- 
cur in  from  three  to  five  days;  in  non-fatal  cases  the  disease 
lasts  from  six  to  ten  days. 

Another  form  of  the  clisease,  which  occurs  on  the  eyelids, 
and  occasionally  on  the  face  and  neck,  is  an  extensive 
oedema,  resulting  in  gangrene,  but  without  pa|iules  or 
vesicles.  In  the  intestinal  form  of  the  disease  the  symp- 
toms are  those  of  acute  poisoning,  with  vomiting,  diarrhu'a, 
and  fever.  Often  several  persons  are  attacked  at  once  from 
eating  infected  flesh — in  one  case,  out  of  twenty-five  persons 


ANTHRENUS  SCROPHULARIACEJS 


ANTEROPOLOGY 


233 


thns  affected,  six  died  in  from  two  to  seven  days.  In  the  form 
known  as  wool-sorter's  disease  the  symptoms  are  those  of 
acute  bronchitis,  witli  much  constitutional  ilisturliaiicc.  The 
iliasuosis  in  the  iiiternal  forms  is  often  dillicult,  and  can  be 
made  certain  only  by  bacteriological  study  and  inoculation 
of  susceptible  animals  with  the  blood  of  the  patient.  In  the 
external  forms  the  treatment  is  the  destruction  of  the  initial 
papule  or  vesicle  by  excision,  by  the  actual  cautery  or  by 
caustics,  tlie  free  use  of  Ijichloridc  of  mercury  on  the  fresh 
surfaces  thus  made,  and  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  .5 
per  cent,  carbolic  acid  into  the  surrounding  ccdema.  Tlie 
bnrillits  anthracis  appeal's  to  produce  its  peculiar  elTccts 
througli  the  formation  of  poisonous  albumoses,  which  are 
in  some  respects  analogous  to  serpent  venom,  and  prob- 
ably also  of  a  poisonous  alkaloid  belonging  to  the  pto- 
maine grouj).  By  the  injection  of  these  products  into  the 
blood  of  an  animal  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  certain  amount 
of  immunity  against  subsequent  inoculation  with  the  organ- 
isms l)y  which  they  were  produced.  When  cultivated  at  a 
temperature  a  little  higher  tlian  that  most  favorable  to  the 
normal  gxowth  of  this  organism,  llie  products  of  its  devel- 
opment, and  indeed  the  organism  itself,  undergo  a  modifi- 
cation that  robs  them  of  the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  viru- 
lence. When  thus  modified  it  is  employed  in  lower  animals 
as  a.  vaccine  to  protect  them  against  the  inroads  of  virulent 
organisms.  J.  S.  Billings  and  A.  C.  Abbott. 

Anthreiuis  Scroplnilarise :  See  Cari'et-bl'o. 

Aiitliro|»ol'ntry  [from  Gv.  avBpwiroKaTpda.  num-woi-ship ; 
io'Spaiiros.  man  +  Aarpcio,  woi'shijij:  tlie  worship  of  man. 

Aiitlinipol'ogy  [from  (ir.  a.vepuTro\6yos.  treating  of  man  ; 
fivepiuiros,  man  -I-  Kiyos.  discourse,  hiyeiv.  s|)eak] :  the  .science 
of  man  (see  Man).  It  may  be  divided  into  three  depart- 
ments.    (\)  Somatology ;  {2)  Psycholoff!/;  ('A)  Etiinolofiy. 

Soinatoloiiy,  or  the  biology  of  man.  includes  the  study  of 
man  as  an  animal,  and  the  classification  of  mankind  in  the 
zoological  system.  Somatology  deals  with  man  in  so  far  as 
he  is  considered  an  animal  in  the  origin  and  development  of 
the  human  race.  It  also  deals  w-ith  the  development  of  the 
individual  from  the  germ  to  the  adult  state.  It  includes 
anatomy  and  physiologj',  the  origin  and  nature  of  disease, 
and  tlie  methods  of  averting  permature  death. 

By  the  new  school  of  biology,  of  which  Darwin  is  the 
great  leaiier,  it  is  maintained  that  man  has  developed  from 
some  lower  form  or  forms  of  the  animal  kingdom ;  that,  in 
fact,  there  is  a  serial  development  from  the  lowest  form  of 
animal  life  to  man,  who  stands  on  the  highest  round  of  the 
hvdder  of  evolution.  This  theory  is  accepted  by  a  very  large 
number  of  scientific  men,  and  is  rapidly  spreading  among 
all  classes  of  authoi's.  Many  who  accept  the  Darwinian 
theory  of  development,  however,  maintain  that  it  apfilies  to 
man  only  as  an  animal;  that  there  has  been  a  development 
of  the  animal  man,  but  that  at  some  stage  in  this  development 
man  has  beeen  endowed  by  the  Creator  with  an  immortal 
spirit,  the  science  of  which  belongs  to  theology,  or,  as  many 
maintain,  to  philosophy. 

Paynhiilof/y,  as  an  integral  part  of  anthropology,  is  the 
6cienee  of  the  hum.ui  soul,  though  comparative  psychology 
includes  the  subject  of  the  minds  of  the  lower  animals. 
There  is  gi'cat  diversity  of  opinion  in  relation  to  this  science, 
but  authors  and  investigators  therein  may  in  a  broad  way  be 
grou[)edin  two  grand  classes :  those  who  believe  that  mental 
operations  are  functions  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system ; 
and  those  who  believe  that  mental  operations  an^  the  func- 
tions of  a  spiritual  soul,  and  that  the  nervous  system,  inclml- 
ing  the  brain,  is  the  organ  of  the  spirit,  the  agency  by  which 
spirit  is  connected  with  animate  matter. 

By  the  first  school  psychology  is  claimed  to  be  a  natural 
science.  Their  nu'thods  of  investigation  are  in  part  physi- 
cal and  physiological,  and  in  part  introspective  ;  for  as  or- 
ganic chemistry  is  the  basis  of  biology,  so  the  physiology 
of  the  nervous  system  is  the  basis  of  psychology.  Plants 
exhibit  sensitiveness  to  external  agencies.  Certain  parts  of 
the  germiniiting  jilant  seek  the  darkness,  others  the  light. 
Some  ilowei-s  open  or  close  to  conditions  of  moisture,  heat, 
and  liglit.  Many  plants  are  exceedingly  sensitive  even  to 
toucli.  'I'he  lower  animals  have  a  higher  degree  of  sensitive- 
ness, and  this  increases  in  the  scale  of  animal  life,  until 
man  seems  to  be  endowed  with  it  in  the  highest  degree. 
The  psychologists  of  this  school  see  in  these  facts  an  un- 
broken series  of  development  in  sensation,  and  in  like  man- 
ner an  unbroken  series  of  consciousness  from  a  rudimentary 
condition  to  that  highest  state  exhibite<i  in  man  and  repre- 
sented by  reason,  emotion,  and  ethical  volition. 


The  second  school,  which  is  the  earlier  in  history,  and 
still  the  larger,  claim  for  the  mind  a  spiritual  and  immortal 
existence;  that  it  is  self-active  and  uiicomlitioned  by  time 
and  space,  and  that  it  is  thus  a  causa  siii.  They  also  culti- 
vate physiological  psychology,  as  the  nervous  system  is  the 
mediator  between  mind  and  matter.  The  method  of  investi- 
gation and  exposition  is  metaphysical,  or,  as  it  is  .sometimes 
called,  philosophical.  In  so  far  as  the  science  is  physiologi- 
cal, it  belongs  to  natural  science ;  but  in  so  far  as  it  is  spir- 
itual— and  in  chief  part  it  is  spiritual — it  belongs  to  philos- 
ophy. 

jilhiiiilofiy  treats  of  man  as  he  engages  in  the  arts  of  life, 
amusement,  and  decoration ;  as  he  employs  the  arts  of  so- 
ciety, by  which  conduct  is  regulated  in  tlie  industries  or 
em)iloyTiients  of  man  in  tribes,  and  nations,  and  in  social  or 
family  life;  the  arts  of  language,  by  which  men  hold  com- 
munion with  one  another ;  the  arts  of  literature,  liy  which 
they  express  opinions ;  and  the  arts'  of  natui-al  religion  in 
which  human  conduct  is  regulated  in  its  relation  to  mj'thi- 
cal  beings. 

The  study  of  man  has  occupied  the  attention  of  many  of 
the  greatest  minds  since  the  dawn  of  civilization,  and  many 
and  diverse  theories  have  been  advocated  from  time  to  time. 
One  theory  rejircsents  man  in  a  state  of  nature  as  highly 
intellectual  and  moral,  and  atfirins  that  the  lower  tribes 
of  mankind  luive  become  such  by  degeneracy,  wandering 
away  from  truth  and  rectitude,  and  la[)siiig  fi-om  a  primeval 
stage  of  innocence  into  abliorrent  degradation.  The  advo- 
cates of  this  theory  are  numerous,  and  it  has  been  pro- 
pounded in  many  forms.  Another  school,  claiming  to  be 
scientific,  holds  that  man  has  been  profoundly  mider  the 
influence  of  physical  environment,  and  by  it  has  been  lifted 
or  degraded  ;  that  the  various  phases  of  human  culture  ex- 
hibited throughout  the  earth  are  the  effects  of  physical 
causes.  Buckle  is  a  noted  advocate  of  this  doctrine.  A 
still  more  modern  theory  takes  man  where  he  is  left  in  the 
philosophy  of  Darwin,  as  developed  from  lower  animal  life, 
and  accounts  for  the  evolution  of  mankind  t  hrough  the  lower 
phases  of  culture  to  the  highest  exhibited  in  modern  times 
by  the  laws  of  development — or  fjf  evolution,  as  they  are 
called  by  this  school — which  govern  in  the  animal  domain, 
the  chief  of  which  is  called  "  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest  in  the  struggle  for  existence."  The  leading  philoso- 
pher of  this  school  is  Herbert  Spencer,  whose  voluminous 
works  oh  synthetic  philosophy  are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  ex- 
position of  this  theory.  The  Spencerian  theory  has  obtained 
a  wide  popular  acceptance;  but  among  scientific  men  his 
doctrines  are  held  to  be  too  narrow.  It  is  claimed  tiiat  he 
has  failed  to  discover  the  more  imi:i(n-taiit  laws  of  human 
culture,  and  the  active  part,  whicli  man  himself  takes  in  his 
own  progress  toward  a  higher  Life.  Still  others  believe  that 
he  has  failed  properly  to  recognize  the  spiritual  element  in 
man.  and  that  his  doctrines  are  opposed  by  the  fundamental 
maxims  of  philosophy. 

On  the  subject  ofthe  distriVrtition  of  mankind  oyer  the 
earth  much  has  been  written,  and  mui-h  sjieculation  has 
been  developed.  The  migrations  of  mankind  have  proved 
a  prolific  theme,  but  no  real  progress  in  the  solutitm  of  the 
question  has  Vieen  made — at  least  no  conclusions  have  been 
reached  which  command  widespread  assent.  By  many  au- 
thors it  has  been  held  that  mankind  were  dispersed  by  waves 
of  migration  from  some  region  in  Central  Asia.  Again,  it 
has  been  held  that  this  is  true  of  the  Aryan  stoc-k.  to  which 
the  more  highly  cultured  nations  belong.  Still  again  it  has 
been  atTirmed  and  advocated  with  great  skill  that  the  Aryan 
stock  had  its  primeval  home  somewhere  in  Europe.  But 
the  most  general  conclusion  is  t  hat  nothing  can  yet  be  af- 
firmed with  certainty  on  this  subject.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  prove  that  aboriginal  America  was  peopled 
from  Asia  by  way  of  Bering  Straits,  and  a  vague  belief  of 
this  nature  has  spread  widely,  but  little  sci<'ntific  evidence 
exists  to  sustain  it.  On  the  other  hand,  investigations  in 
archa'ology  have  now  made  it  clear  t  hat  man  was  distributed 
throughout  the  habitable  earth  at  some  very  rciinote  time  or 
times  in  the  lowest  stage  of  human  culture,  when  men  em- 
ployed stone  tools  and  otiier  agencies  of  industry  of  a  like  low- 
ly character,  and  that  from  this  rude  condition  men  have 
progressed  in  culture  everywhere,  but  some  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  others.  'The  linguistic  evidence  comes 
in  to  sustain  the  concdusions  reached  by  archa'ology,  for  a 
study  of  the  languages  of  the  world  leads  to  tlie  conclusion 
that  they  were  developed  in  a  multiplicity  of  centers;  that 
languages  of  distinct  stocks  increase  in  nundiers  as  tribes  of 
lower  culture  are  found ;  and  that  probably  man  was  dis- 


234 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


tributed  throughout  the  world  anterior  to  the  development 
of  organized  or  prammatic  speech. 

27)6  Races  of  Jlankiml. — Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  classify  men  as  animals  are  classified,  by  their  biotic 
characteristics.  'Die  unity  of  tlie  human  race  as  one  species 
is  now  generally,  [jcrhaps  universally,  accej)ted  :  tliough  at- 
tempts are  still  made  from  time  to  time  to  classify  mankind 
in  varieties  or  races,  but  no  such  system  of  classification 
has  attained  to  universal  or  even  general  acceptance.  The 
facts  seem  to  be  these  :  that  man  in  his  primeval  condition 
as  an  animal,  but  little  lifted  above  the  highest  brute,  was 
still  subject  to  the  laws  of  specialization,  due  to  tlie  survival 
of  the  fittest  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  that  in  this 
condition  varieties  were  developed,  as  sliown  in  the  color  of 
the  skin,  the  structure  of  the  hair,  the  attitude  of  tlie  eyes, 
the  proportions  of  the  skeleton,  tlie  conformation  of  the 
cranium,  and  in  other  biotic  particulars  ;  but  that  with  ad- 
vancing culture,  tribes  coalesced  with  tribes  until  nations 
were  formed,  and  nations  with  nations;  and  by  migrations, 
and  the  general  intermixture  of  peoples  through  commerce 
and  war,  and  the  flux  of  national  dofninion  forever  expand- 
ing and  contracting,  such  an  admixture  of  streams  of  blood 
has  been  produced  as  in  [lart  to  obliterate  primeval  cliarac- 
teristios  and  in  part  to  blend  them,  so  that  no  well-marked 
planes  of  demarkation  can  now  be  discovered;  the  black 
grades  into  the  wliite.tlie  curly  liaired  into  thestraight  haired, 
the  black  eyed  into  the  blue  eyed,  the  oblique  eyed  into  the 
horizontal  eyed,  the  long  skull  into  tlie  short  skull ,  until 
in  the  same  burial-mound  skeletons  are  found  which  baffle 
the  science  of  anthropometry.  J.  W.  Powell. 

Alltliropology,  in  the  Theological  as  di<;tinguished  from 
the  pliysiolngical  sense,  is  that  part  of  the  Christian  system 
which  treats  of  man  in  distinction  from  God.  In  its  en- 
tire extent  it  includes  the  description  of  man  botli  as  cre- 
ated and  as  fallen,  and  therefore  properly  includes  both  the 
holiness  and  the  sin  of  the  human  race.  It  begins  with  the 
creation  of  man  as  composed  of  body  and  soul,  and  thus 
supposes  a  basis  in  physical  anthropology.  It  then  consid- 
ers the  soul  as  created  in  the  image  of  God,  and  tluis  dis- 
cusses the  nature  of  holiness  and  tlie  happiness  of  an  un- 
fallen  creature  in  the  paradisaical  state.  But  inasmuch  as 
man  continued  in  his  primitive  holy  condition  but  a  brief 
time,  his  history  is  made  up  mainly  of  his  apostasy  and  its 
consequences,  so  that  practically  the  subject  of  anthropology 
relates  to  such  topics  as  original  and  actual  sin,  the  free  and 
the  enslaved  will,  the  relation  of  the  human  to  the  divine 
efficiency  in  regeneration,  and  the  related  doctrines.  The 
great  controversies  wliich  liave  resulted  in  tlie  several  an- 
thropologies that  have  a  place  in  the  history  of  religious 
opinions  were  concerned  almost  exclusively  with  sin,  and  it 
is  in  this  reference  that  we  shall  examine  the  subject. 

In  the  primitive  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries  the 
fact  of  apostasy  was  universally  acknowledged,  but  only  in 
a  general  form.  The  doctrines  of  sin  and  grace  in  their 
more  dilficult  and  scientific  aspects  did  not  seriously  engage 
the  attention  of  the  Church.  The  theological  mind  was  oc- 
cupied with  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  great  con- 
troversy concerning  the  deity  of  Christ.  The  statements  of 
Scripture  concerning  the  fall  of  Adam  and  its  consequences 
were  taken  witiiout  much  discussion,  and  no  acute  and 
powerful  exegesis  was  expended  upon  them  for  the  purpose 
of  answering  the  more  dilficult  questions  respecting  the 
nature  and  depth  of  human  depravity.  When,  however, 
these  latter  points  were  preseiileil,  and  any  direct  response 
was  given,  sin  in  its  nature  was  referred,  "to  a  considerable 
degree,  to  a  sensuous  ground,  and  its  intensity  was  not  re- 
ghrded  as  so  great  as  to  deprive  the  human  will  of  all  power 
to  good.  The  origin  and  lievelopnient  of  human  corruption 
was  traced  to  the  body  full  as  much  as  to  the  activity  of  the 
spirit  itself,  ami  hence  a  remainder  of  energy  was  assumed 
to  exist  in  the  fallen  will,  by  which  it  could  co-operate  with 
the  Holy  Ghost  in  regeneration.  This  view  a|ipears  par- 
ticularly in  the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Origen,  and  colors  the  anthropology  of  that  Alexandrine 
school  which  acknowledged  those  theologians  as  its  great 
leadei-s. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  regard  Clement  and 
Origen  as  the  only  representatives  of  the  anthropology  of 
the  primitive  Clumh.  In  Terlnllian  and  Cyprian  a  tendency 
appears  toward  that  theory  which  was  afterward  ehiborated 
by  Augustine.  While  the  part  which  the  sensuous  nature 
has  in  determining  the  origin  ami  nature  of  sin  is  still  as- 
serted, yet  more  weight  is  attached  to  the  self-determination 


of  the  human  will  itself — to  the  purely  mental  ann  spiritual 

energy  that  originates  and  perpetuates  it.  This  naturally 
leads  to  more  assertion  of  the  bondage  of  the  w  ill,  and  a 
more  profound  conception  of  sin  as  enfeebling  and  ruining 
the  moral  power  of  the  soul.  This  tendency  was  strength- 
ened by  the  adoption  by  Tertullian  of  the  traducian  view  of 
the  origin  of  the  individual.  This  North  African  Father,  in 
a  somewhat  ci-ude  and  materializing  manner,  held  that  both 
the  body  and  soul  are  propagated.  Both  the  immaterial  es- 
sence of  the  soul  and  the  material  substance  of  the  body  ara 
individualized  portions  of  human  nature  as  created  in 
Adam.  There  is  no  creation  from  nothing  after  the  cre- 
ative act  on  the  sixth  day,  when  "God  created  man  male 
and  female,  and  blessed  them,  and  called  their  name 
Adam"  (Gen.  v.  1,  2).  There  is  only  procreation,  or  the 
deduction  of  individual  after  individual  from  this  original 
unity.  Such  a  theory  of  the  propagation  of  the  soul,  how- 
ever difficult  in  itself,  yet  made  the  i)ropagation  of  sin  more 
intelligible,  and  prepared  the  way  i«r  the  sidjsequcnt  doc- 
trine of  the  propagation  of  sin  itself,  and  not  of  mere  phys- 
ical evil. 

The  anthropology  indicated  in  this  brief  statement  of  the 
views  of  the  early  Church  received  a  subsequent  modifica- 
tion in  the  later  Alexandrine  and  Antiochian  schools.  The 
best  representatives  of  the  first  were  Atlianasius,  the  two 
Gregories,  and  the  two  Cyrils;  of  the  second,  Theodore  of 
JMopsuestia,  Theodoret,  and  Chrysostom.  The  influence  of 
Origen  upon  these  Greek  theologians  is  apparent,  but  they 
receded  from  his  extreme  positions  and  modified  his  anthro- 
pology, (1)  by  the  adoption  of  creationism  instead  of  pre- 
existence ;  (2)  by  recognizing  more  distinctly  the  effects  of 
the  Adamic  transgression  upon  the  soul  itself,  jnchiding  the 
will;  and  (3)  by  making  a  more  guarded  assertion  of  power 
to  good  in  the  fallen  man.  They  agreed,  however,  with  the 
earlier  anthropology  in  affirming  that  original  sin,  or  in- 
herited corruption,  is  not  culpable.  It  is  only  a  propagated 
disorder  of  the  sensuous  nature  seen  in  exorbitant  physical 
appetites,  from  which  temptation  issues,  and  to  which  every 
human  individual  yields  without  exception.  But  until  this 
act  of  the  individual  will  there  is  no  sin,  properly  so  called, 
no  sin  in  the  sense  of  guilt,  in  any  man.  The  mortal  Adam 
could  beget  mortal  descendants,  but  the  sinful  Adam  could 
not  beget  strictly  sinful  and  guilty  descendants.  "What, 
then,"  says  Chrysostom, "  is  the  meaning  of  the  phrase 'were 
made  sinners?'  (Rom.  v.  19).  It  seems  to  me  to  denote  lia- 
bility to  suffering  and  death."  In  this  exegesis  Chrysostom 
put  a  secondary  meaning  upon  the  verb  "to  sin,"  which  has 
come  down  to  the  present  time,  and  which  has  unquestion- 
ably exerted  an  influence  upon  many  theologians  who  would 
agree  with  the  golden-mouthed  in  most  of  his  positions,  and 
also  upon  many  who  would  be  unwilling  to  adopt  his  anthro- 
pology. 

The  question  as  to  the  guilt  of  original  sin,  and  the  justice 
of  imputing  that  "disobedience  of  one  man  whereby  many 
were  made  sinners"  (Rom.  v.  1!)),  is,  in  truth,  the  hinge 
upon  wliicli  the  whole  subject  of  anthropology  must  turn. 
And  the  way  in  which  it  is  answered  constitutes  the  divid- 
ing line  between  the  two  great  dogmatic  divisions  which 
from  Augustine  down  to  the  present  day  appear  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church.  Augustine,  in  his  controversy  with 
Pelagianism,  but  still  more  with  Semi-Pelagianism,  main- 
tained that  the  first  sin  of  Adam  is  imputable  to  the  poster- 
ity as  guilt,  and  is  a  just  ground  of  condemnation,  because 
the  posterity  existed  in  the  progenitor,  and  in  some  real  but 
inexplicable  manner  acted  in  him  in  the  first  transgressioiu 
"We  were  all,"  he  sjiys,  ••in  that  one  man,  since  we  all  were 
that  one  man.  The  particular  form  in  which  we  were  to 
live  as  individuals  had  not  been  created  and  assigned  to  us, 
man  liy  man,  but  that  scminnliiatiire  was  in  existence  from 
which  we  were  to  be  propagated  "  (De  Civitate  Dei,  xiii. 
14).  If  the  mystery  of  .'^uch  a  generic  existence  and  such  a 
natural  unicm  between  the  progenitor  and  the  ]iosterity 
could  be  l)elieved,  and  the  fact  conceded,  then  the  imputa- 
tion of  Adam's  sin  to  his  descendants  would  lie  made  ujion 
the  same  principle  that  il  is  imputed  to  Adam  himself — 
upon  the  principle,  namely,  of  attributing  to  every  real  and 
veritable  agent  every  real  and  verilalile  act  of  the  agent. 
The  consequence  of  this  primal  act  of  a^-ostasy  was  the  total 
depravation  of  the  entire  human  species,  then  existing  in 
the  progenitors,  and  consei|ueiilly  every  individual  |iro- 
duced  mil  of  this  species  is  born  entirely  depraved,  liegin- 
ning  in  the  higher  jiarts  of  the  soul,  the  reason  and  will,  sin 
penetrates  and  poisons  the  lower  powers,  and  vitiates  the 
bodily  appetites  and  propensities.     Sin  is  spiritual  evil  in 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


235 


its  very  outset,  and  becomes  sensuous  corniption  in  its  final 
issue.  The  soul  itself  falls  from  Goil,  and  t-arrics  the  body 
with  its  sensuous  nature  along  with  it.  Unlike  the  an- 
thnipology  of  Orifrcn,  that  of  Augustine  explains  the  disor- 
deri'il  ai)|)'etitus  of  llie  llosh  by  the  rehollion  in  the  spirit, 
and  not  tile  rebellion  in  the  spirit  by  the  disorder  of  the 
flesli. 

Another  point  of  difference  between  Augustine  and  his 
Sciin-I'elagiiin  opponents  relates  to  the  question  a.s  to  the 
amount  of  power  to  holiness  in  man  after  apostasy.  IVla- 
giaiiisin,  as  defined  and  defended  by  its  aljlcst  advocate, 
Julian  of  Eclanuui,  contended  for  plenary  power  in  every 
man  to  keep  tlie  moral  law.  The  ajjostasy  still  left  the  will 
free,  and  freedom  means  the  liberty  of  indifference,  or  tlie 
powiM-  of  choosing  either  good  or  evil  at  any  instant.  This 
view  was  deemed  to  be  extreme  by  those  wlio  wovdd  find  a 
middle  view  between  Pelagius  and  Augustine.  Cassian  and 
Kaustusof  Rhegiuui,  the  best  representatives  of  the  so-called 
Semi-Pelagianisni,  maintained  that  by  the  fall  of  Adam  his 
posterity  were  greatly  weakened,  but  not  made  atisolutely 
im|iotent  to  good.  There  still  remained  a  minimum  of 
gooilness,  which  is  capable  of  co-operating  with  God,  and 
therefore  regeneration  is  a  joint  product  of  grace  and  free 
will.  Neither  can  do  without  the  otiier.  In  opposition  to 
this,  Augustine  contended  that  there  is  no  power  to  good, 
not  even  a  minimum,  left  in  the  human  soul  since  apostasy^ 
The  heart  and  will  are  wholly  determined  to  evil,  and  there 
is  no  remaitider.  however  small,  of  either  inclination  or  af- 
fection that  is  friendly  to  God  and  holiness.  The  carnal 
mind  is  enmity  toward  God,  and  nothing  but,  enmity. 
ilence  man  can  not  co-operate  with  God  in  regeneration. 
Not  until  the  sinner  is  made  willing  (Ps.  ex.  3;  Phil.  ii.  12, 
I'-i)  can  lu^  will  (he  riglit. 

The  Pelagian  anthropology,  which  was  the  occasion  of 
forcing  out  the  systematic  statements  of  Augustine,  denied 
that  any  physical  or  moral  corruption  of  human  luiture  re- 
sulted iroin  the  Adauiic  transgression,  interpreted  the  state- 
ments of  the  fifth  chapter  of  Romans  as  teaching  the  infiu- 
ence  of  bad  example,  and  asserted  that  sin  is  not  strictly 
universJiI,  but  that  some  have  lived  without  transgression. 
Pelagianism  itself  never  exerted  mtich  influence  within  the 
Church.  It  contained  too  few  elements  of  truth,  and  was 
too  utterly  at  variance  with  the  Scripture  representations  of 
sin  and  grace  to  get  the  advocacy  of  any  who  possessed  an 
evangelical  experience.  It  was  rejected  as  heresy.  But  the 
middle  view  of  Semi-Pelagianism  held  its  grouial  by  reason 
of  its  recognition  of  the  injurious  effects  of  Adam's  apostasy 
upon  his  posterity,  and  its  acknowledgment  of  the  need  of 
grace  in  order  to  recovery  therefrom.  Moreover,  the  degree 
of  power  to  good  which  many  of  the  .Semi-Pelagians  asserted 
was  uuich  less  than  that  asserted  in  the  Alexandrine  anthro- 
pology, and  in  some  instances  it  was  reducei.l  to  so  low  a 
minimum  as  to  border  closely  upon  the  Augustinian  impo- 
tence. Wiggcrs  compares  the  three  systems  with  each  other 
as  fdllows:  Augustinianism  asserts  that  man  is  morally 
derid :  Semi-Pelagianism  maintains  that  he  is  morally  sick; 
Pelagianism  holds  that  he  is  morally  well. 

The  Augustinian  and  Semi-Pelagian  anthropologics  (that 
of  Pelagius  being  rejected  by  all  parties  within  the  Churcdi) 
coutiiuii'd  to  hold  tlieir  ground  with  varying  success.  The 
Augustinian  theory  of  sin  and  grace  was  adopted  by  the 
Western  Church  at  the  Councils  of  Orange  and  Valence,  in 
539,  as  the  catholic  orthodoxy,  not  merely  in  opposition  to 
Pelagianism,  but  also  to  Semi-Pelagianism  and  all  grades  of 
the  synergistic  theory  of  regeneration.  But  it  would  be  an 
error  to  su|)))Ose  that  the  Western  Church  as  a  body  contin- 
ued to  adhere  to  the  views  of  the  veucrateil  North  .\trican 
Father.  Theologians  like  Leo  and  Gregory  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries,  and  like  Bede,  Gottsclialk,  and  Alcuin  in 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  propagated  the  teachings  of 
Augustine  respecting  the  corruption  of  human  nature  and 
the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  regeneration,  but  the 
noddle  theory  found  increasing  currency  in  the  meditcval 
Church.  Its  less  rigorous  character,  together  with  its  com- 
parative silence  upon  the  more  difiicult  parts  of  the  doc- 
trines of  original  sin,  predestination,  and  the  enslaved  will, 
recommended  it  to  a  large  class  of  minds;  while  the  element 
of  human  elficiency  which  it  introduced  into  the  doctrine 
of  regeneration  was  thought  to  render  it  a  more  intelligible 
and  practical  doctrine.  It  was  not  strange,  conse(|Uenlly, 
that  in  course  of  time  the  Latin  Church,  though  holding 
the  name  of  .\ugustine  in  the  highest  veneration,  and  claim- 
ing not  to  depart  from  his  teachings,  should  have  lapsed 
very  generally  into  Semi-Pelagianism.     It  came  thus  upon 


the  same  doctrinal  position  with  the  Greek  Church,  which, 
during  all  the  controversy  at  the  West  respecting  sin  and 
grace,  continued  to  adopt  the  views  of  Chrysostom  and  the 
iirei'k  Fathers  generally.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  won- 
derful intellect  and  saintly  piety  of  Anselm  imiintained  the 
Augustinian  view  with  great  jjuwer  and  dejith  of  reasoning, 
but  was  not  able  to  turn  the  current  which  was  sweeping 
with  an  increasing  flood  in  the  other  direction.  Schoolmen 
like  Benuird  and  Aquinas  were  nearer  to  Augustine  than 
to  any  other  great  authority  of  the  past,,  but  the  main  in- 
fluence of  Scholasticism  as  a  whole  tended  to  undermine 
his  positions.  The  dawn  of  a  new  era  at  the  I\efornuition 
o))ened  the  old  questions.  Luther,  Calvin,  and  the  Protes- 
tant theologians  generally  not  only  adopted  the  Augustinian 
anthropology,  but  stated  the  doctrines  involved  in  it  with 
still  greater" clearness,  and  defended  them  with  still  closer 
reasoning.  The  papal  Clnu'ch  took  the  opposite  view.  The 
Council  of  Trent  enunciated  Semi-Pelagianism,  and  endeav- 
ored to  give  it  currency  under  the  great  authorit)  of  Augus- 
tine, whose  opinions  were  in  some  instances  honestly  mis- 
conceived, and  in  others  knowingly  misrepresented. 

Wherever  Protestantism  prevailed,  Augustinianism  pre- 
vailed also.  Augustine's  theory  of  sin  and  grace  pervaded 
and  molded  the  symbols  of  the  Reformation  almost  with- 
out an  exception,  and  from  them  passed  into  the  heart  and 
life  of  the  Protestant  Church.  But  in  process  of  time  the 
same  transition  occurs  in  Protestantism  which  we  have 
seen  taking  place  in  the  Latin  Church.  The  more  rigorous 
tvpe  gives"  way  to  the  milder  in  some  quarters.  The  Ar- 
minian  controversy  in  reality  turned  upon  the  Siime  points 
that  were  discussed  between  Augustine  and  the  monks  of 
Adrumctum.  between  Prosper  and  Cassian.  Calvinism  is 
the  revived  Augustinianism,  and  Arminianism  is  the  re- 
vived Setni-Pelagianism.  These  two  types  of  doctrine  in 
reality  exhaust  and  include  all  the  varieties  of  doctrinal 
opinion  that  prevail  in  modern  evangelical  Christendom, 
lliere  are  minor  dift'erenees,  but  churches  and  individuals 
are  either  Calvinistic  or  Arminian,  as  in  the  Patristic 
jieriod  they  were  either  Augustinian  or  Semi-Pelagian. 
There  is  no  real  mid-point  between  these  two,  although 
schools  and  theologians  have  frequently  attempted  to  find 
tme. 

The  difference  between  these  anthropologies  is  due  to 
logic  rather  than  to  practical  experience.  The  follower 
of  Arminius  agrees  with  the  adhen'ut  of  Calvin  in  holding 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  the  incarna- 
tion, of  apostasy  and  redemption,  and  the  religious  expe- 
rience of  both  alike  is  evangelical :  that  is,  it  springs  out 
of  faith  in  the  atonement  of  the  Son  of  God.  The  differ- 
ence between  them  relates  not  to  the  general  facts  and 
truths  of  the  New  Testament,  but  to  the  nuire  specific  and 
exact  definition  of  them.  The  modern  Arminian,  like  the 
ancient  Semi-Pelagian,  while  confessing  sin  and  trusting 
in  the  blood  of  Christ,  urges  what  he  Ijclieves  to  be  a  valid 
arginnent  against  the  doctrines  of  predestination  and  irre- 
sistible grace,  and  that  particular  form  of  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin  out  of  which  the  doctrines  of  predestination 
and  irresistible  grace  issue  as  necessary  corollaries.  And 
his  ojiponent  shows  his  respect  for  this  belief  by  entering 
into  the  debate,  and  defending  what  he  thinks  to  be  the 
more  exact  and  self-consistent  and  self-comprehending 
statement  of  that  same  evangelical  system.  The  issue  of 
a  controversy  that  originates  in  logic  must  therefore  be  left 
to  logic.  Tlie  closest  reasoner  from  the  scriptural  premises 
and  the  evangelical  experience  must  be  adjudged  to  be  the 
victor.  If  the  Arminian  anthropology  shall  in  the  course  of 
time  prove  itself  to  be  the  more  scientific  and  self-consist- 
ent, svstem  of  the  two,  it  will  be  recognized  and  a<-ceptcd 
as  such.  But  if  in  the  .same  calm  and  cool  atmosphere  the 
Augustinian  statements  shall  evince  their  supericnity,  they 
must  pass  for  Christian  science. 

For  the  sources  of  information  see,  among  others.  Augus- 
tine's Pelagian  and  Semi-Pelagian  treatises;  Vossins,  i/i's- 
larld  de  CoiitrorerKiis  quw  J'elof/hix  cJHsqne  ri'titiuif  move- 
runt :  Calvin's  Inatihilex.  book  ii. :  Csslier's  Works,  vol.  iii.; 
Chemnitziiis.  E.romeii  Coiirilii  Trident nii;  Wiggcrs's  Dar- 
.tteltunij:  (iangauf,  Iletnplii/xisrlie  I'sycliolof/ie  des  Angus- 
tines;  Neander's  C/nirrh  j/islori/.  ii.  .')?)7-(i27;  Guericke's 
Chnrrh  I/istor)/,^^'M-'.>'.\;  Mil  Her,  C/irislian  DorfrineofSin; 
Baur's  (fegensatz;  MoMcv.  Sijmt/olik;  Redepenning's  Orig- 
enes;  lla.sse,  Anselm;  Arniinius's  Works;  Episcopius,  Opera; 
Limborch's  Theologia  Ctiristiana;  Bcllarmine.  Disputa- 
tiones;  Jeremy  'I'aylor,  Vn  Original  Sin;  Whitby,  (M 
Original  tiin ;   Kdwards,  On   Original  ISin ;   Ilagenbach's 


236 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


History  of  Doctrine  ;  Shedd's  History  of  Doctrine  ;  Cun- 
ningham's Historical  Tlieology ;  Neander's  History  of 
Ctiristimi  Dogmas.  W.  G.  T.  Shedd. 

Antliropoloary,  Criminal  :  The  subject  of  the  eriminali 
his  offenses  and  their  consequences  to  society  has  been 
treated  of,  from  a  very  early  period,  from  the  standpoint 
of  jurisprudence.  Tlie  jurist  was  cliiefly  concerned  with 
the  crime  and  the  various  degrees  of  punishment  it  deserved. 
Elaborate  codes  defined  offenses  and  penalties,  and  torture 
was  legally  applicable  to  extort  a  confession.  In  modern 
times  governments  and  benevolent  associations  have  maile 
strenuous  efforts,  largely  unsuccessful,  to  reform  the  ill- 
doer,  to  lead  him  to  repentance  and  to  habits  of  honest 
industry.  Both  lawgiver  and  philanthropist  regard  crimi- 
nals as  varying  only  in  degree  of  depravity.  The  care  of 
the  one  was  to  provide  adequate  punishment  for  the  offense : 
the  other  believed  that  religious  teaching  was  the  sole  means 
of  reform. 

A  new  school,  known  as  the  School  of  Criminal  Anthro- 
pology, or,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  the  Neo-eriminalistic 
School,  may  be  said  to  have  come  into  existence  in  1876, 
when  Prof.  Cesare  Lombroso,  of  Turin,  published  a  work 
entitled  L'nomn  deUnquente. 

Three  schools  may  be  described  as  engaged  in  these  in- 
vestigations:  (1)  The  classic  or  spiritualistic  school,  which 
denies  that  congenital  development,  race,  or  climate  are  fac- 
tors in  the  production  of  crime ;  (2)  the  socialist  school, 
which  declares  the  physical  and  moral  surroundings,  the 
milieu,  to  be  the  sole  cause — hence  they  are  sometimes 
termed  mesologists;  and  (3)  the  positivist  criminal  school, 
the  school  of  Lombroso,  which  inc'iL3  that  crime  is  the 
result  of  three  orders  of  factors — namely,  anthropoli^gie, 
physical,  and  social.  It  social  causes  alone  produce  crime, 
why  is  it,  they  inquire,  that  of  100  persons  living  under  the 
same  conditions  of  abject  poverty,  only  five  will  become 
thieves i  The  social  factor  is  the  same  for  all,  but  the  im- 
pulse to  crime,  born  of  the  surroundings,  becomes  decisive 
only  when  the  anthropologic  and  physical  factors  are  found 
• — the  organic  constitution  and  the  abnormal  brain.  Crime, 
therefore,  they  emphatically  assert,  is  the  accumulated  re- 
sult of  the  individual  constitution,  bodily  and  mental,  and 
of  the  physical  and  social  surroundings. 

"  Criminal  anthropology,"  then,  is  the  study  of  the  being 
who,  in  consequence  of  physical  conformation,  hereditary 
taint,  or  surroundings  of  vice,  poverty,  and  iU  example, 
yields  to  temptation  and  begins  a  career  of  crime.  It  is  to 
study  the  anatomy,  the  physiology,  the  hygiene  of  the  crim- 
inal, his  productivity,  his  cai)abiUty  of  amendment,  to  ex- 
amine into  his  condition,  and  to  recognize  his  rights. 

At  the  outset  it  is  necessary  to  define  what  constitutes 
crime.  A  distinction  is  made  between  "  natural  crime " 
and  "statute  crime,"  the  latter  varying  with  the  codes  in 
which  it  is  found.  Natural  crime  is  that  which  is  at  vari- 
ance with  our  "  moral  sense."  Admitting  the  existence  of 
the  latter,  it  is  obvious  tliat,  like  other  psychical  sentiments, 
it  may  be  subject  to  change,  to  disease,  or,  in  extreme  cases, 
it  may  be  absent  from  birth,  as  in  analogous  cases  of  con- 
genital physical  monstrosity.  It  is  asserted  that  certain 
characteristics  of  this  "moral  sense"  are  common  to  all 
nations  and  all  ages,  and  that,  therefore,  violations  of  this 
universal  sense  constitute  "  natural  crime." 

Since  crime  is  a  violation  of  the  common  sentiments  of 
compassion  or  probity,  it  follows  that  in  the  criminal  there 
is  either  absence  or  temporary  relapse,  or  weakiu'ss  of  one 
or  other  of  these  sentiments;  but  these  sentiments  form  the 
substratum  of  the  average  morality  of  society,  and  tlie  man 
who  violates  them  is  in  a  condition  of  incompatibility  with 
that  society.  For  the  great  mass  of  mankind  the  sentiment 
of  compassion  or  tenderness  which  abhors  bloodshed,  and  of 
probity  which  condemns  theft,  suffices. 

It  is  assumed,  then,  that  there  are  two  varieties  of  our 
race  who  answer  physically  to  the  idea  of  these  two  crimes 
— men  who  are  destitute  of  all  feeling  of  pity,  or  of  all  senti- 
ment of  honesty.  The  adherents  of  the  positivist  school 
differ  among  themselves  as  to  whether  the  criminal  is  an 
instance  of  regressive  atavism  or  of  physical  and  mental 
degeneration.  They  differ  still  more  as  to  the  existence  of 
an  anatonucal  type  of  the  <'riniinal.  Lombroso  emphati- 
cally as.serts  its  reality.  The  supiiosed  peculiarities  are 
briefly  these:  In  the  brain  the  confluence  of  many  of  the 
primary  fissures,  the  existence  of  four  horizontal  gyri,  and 
a  relative  shortening  of  the  occipital  lobes  which  results  in 
the  cerebellum  not  being  entirely  covered.    This  last-named 


condition  is  a  characteristic  of  the  inferior  apes.     The  most 
common  abnormities  of  the  criminal  skull  are : 

1.  Persistence  of  the  metopic  or  median  frontal  suture. 

2.  Precocious  synostosis  or  bony  union  of  the  other  su- 
tures. 

3.  A  greater  simplicity  in  the  dentitions  of  the  sutures, 
the  edges  being  smoother. 

4.  The  frequency  of  wormian  bones  in  the  region  of  the 
posterior  fontanelle. 

5.  The  strong  development  of  the  superciliary  ridges,  the 
effacement,  or  even  deijression.  of  the  glabella  or  nasal  emi- 
nence between  the  eyebrows,  and  large  cavernous  orbits. 

6.  The  posterior  situation  of  the  foramen  magnum. 

The  head  and  face  of  the  criminal  present  an  iniusual 
number  of  asymmetries,  so  that  a  collection  of  portraits  of 
criminals  has  all  the  effect  of  a  series  of  caricatures.  The 
lemurean  jaw  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  Large  flat  ears 
standing  out  prominently  from  the  sides  of  the  head — what 
are  technically  termed  "winged  ears" — are  very  common. 
The  mean  height  of  the  criminal  and  his  girth  of  chest  are 
above  the  average,  but  the  muscular  force  is  below  it.  The 
length  from  finger-tip  to  finger-tip  when  the  arms  are  ex- 
tended horizontally  (Fr.  le  gra?ifl  enrergure)  is  greater  than 
in  the  non-criminal.  While  it  is  not  true  that  this  dimen- 
sion corresponds  exactly  to  the  licight  in  normal  man,  any 
decided  excess  is  regarded  as  a  reversion  to  the  simian  type. 
Other  peculiarities  of  less  imjiortance  have  been  noted. 
Lombroso,  in  a  recent  work,  stated  that  he  had  compared 
26.886  criminals  with  25.447  normal  persons. 

It  has  been  objected  that  the  peculiarities  named  are  also 
found  in  epileptics  and  insane  persons,  and,  indeed,  in  per- 
sons neither  criminal  nor  insane.  To  this  it  is  replied  that 
to  show  that  the  ]iroportion  of  alinormities  is  much  greater 
in  a  given  number  of  criminals  than  in  an  equal  immber  of 
non-criminals  is  the  vital  point. 

The  physiological,  pathological,  and  psychological  con- 
ditions of  the  criminal,  modified  as  they  must  be  by  his  ab- 
normal structure,  form  an  important  part  of  the  researches 
of  the  criminal  anthropologist.  The  sensibility  of  the  crimi- 
nal, tested  by  the  electric  a]i])aratus  of  Du  Bois-Iieyniond, 
averages  49'6.  and  in  the  honest  class  64'2.  In  acuteness  of 
the  senses  of  smell,  taste,  and  hearing,  he  is  also  inferior. 
The  observations  upon  whicli  these  conclusions  are  based 
were  made  both  upon  men  and  women. 

Diminished  sensibility  to  pain — dis\-ulnerability.  as  it  is 
termed — enables  the  malefactor  to  recover  rapidly  from 
wounds  which  would  be  long  in  healing  or  of  fatal  result 
in  normal  man.  Some  hypnotic  experiments  by  Delboeuf 
tend  to  confirm  the  belief  that  the  rapidity  of  cure  depends 
largely  upon  the  absence  of  jiain.  Tliis  comparative  insen- 
sibility to  physical  pain  in  tlx'  criminal  has  been  pointed 
out  by  numerous  observers,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  it 
should  be  accompanied  by  an  equal  indifference  to  the  suf- 
ferings of  others. 

A  French  physician.  Alphonse  Bertillon.  has  devised  an 
ingenious  anthropometric  system  of  identification  of  crimi- 
nals. It  has  been  formally  ailopted  in  Paris,  Lyons,  and 
other  large  cities  with  excellent  results. 

Ferri,  who  is  Professor  of  Criminal  Law  at  the  University 
of  Rome,  and  who  belongs  to  the  positivist  school,  proposed 
the  following- classification  of  criminals,  which  has  been 
generally  adopted : 

(1)  T/ie  criminal  Jy  ?'n.s/(;!e/— the  born  criminal.  He  is 
distinguished  by  an  entire  absence  of  the  moral  sense  and 
an  utter  heedlessness  of  the  consequences  of  his  acts.  The 
prominent  types  of  this  class  are  the  nuirderer  and  the  rob- 
ber. The  suggestion  of  crime  meets  with  ready  acceptance, 
and  the  consequences  to  the  victim — the  destruction  of  life, 
the  agony  of  the  family,  the  loss  of  property — are  regarded 
by  him  witli  imperturbalilc  indifference.  This  insensibility 
is  evinced  also  in  endurance  of  pain  in  surgical  operations 
anil  in  his  stolid  demeanor  at  the  place  of  execution. 

(2)  77/f  jKissional  criminal,  who  commits  crime  under  the 
influence  of  passion.  He  is,  in  most  respects,  the  ojiposite 
of  the  instinctive  criminal.  The  moral  sense,  which  is 
strongly  developed,  is  obscured  for  the  time  being  by  the 
overwlielmii}g  passion,  but  is  speedily  restored  to  ils  habit- 
ual jiredominance.  The  sense  of  guilt  and  the  re])entance 
that  follows  are  in  striking  contrast  to  the  sullen  indiffer- 
ence of  the  born  criminal  or  to  his  clumsy  affectation  of 
penitence. 

(3)  The  criminal  from  chance.  He  is  a  reduced  type  of 
the  instinctive  criminal.  In  him  the  absence  of  the  moral 
sense  assumes  the  form  of  weakness,  and  it  is  more  to  his 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


23Y 


surroundings  than  to  any  active  ilisposition  that  his  embark- 
ing in  a  career  of  crime  is  due. 

(4)  The.  criminal  from  huhit.  Tliis  is  an  intermediate 
type  without  marked  psyclioloific  cliiiractcrs.  From  con- 
tmued  relapses  lie  accpiires  more  and  more  tlie  chai'iu'ter  of 
the  iiistiiietive  criminal,  until,  from  rrei|ncnl  prison  experi- 
ence, there  is  but  little  distinction  observable  between  them. 

(5)  The  insane  rrimiiial.  The  ailherent.s  of  the  new 
school  are  generally  agreed  in  declaring  that  the  insane 
criminal's  condition  is  the  result  of  i)sycliological  degenera- 
tion, or  almormal  development,  and  is  I herel'ore  incurable. 
He  is,  anthropologically,  identical  with  tlie  instinctive 
crimimi!  in  a  great  many  cases  of  insanity,  and  in  a  large 
proportion  of  eases  of  c]>ile|)sy,  but  dilfers  from  him  in  the 
confusion  of  his  ideas  and  many  other  psychological  chap- 
act  ers. 

Jurists  say  that  without  a  crime  there  is  no  criminal ;  an- 
thropologists, that  the  crimiiial  is  here  with  the  intent  to 
commit  crime;  though  his  atteiiipt  may  fail,  he  is  as  much 
the  assassin  or  the  thief  as  if  the  act  had  been  completed, 
and  he  must  be  liangeil  or  secluded  accordingly.  They  re- 
gard any  graduateii  scale  of  penalties  as  only  a  temptation 
to  crime.  The  limitation  of  the  punishment  leads  to  a 
commercial  view  of  the  otl'ense.  They  insist  that  the  crimi- 
nal shall  merely  lie  .sent  to  prison.  His  coming  out  should 
depend,  not  upon  a  sliding  scale  in  supposed  proportion  to 
the  gravity  of  his  crime,  but  u])on  the  proof  of  his  amend- 
ment. We  do  not  send  a  sick  man  to  the  hospital  for  a 
definite  jierioil,  but  for  treatment  and  for  discharge  when 
cured,  as  pronounced  by  competent  authority.  The  criminal 
should  have  the  right  to  demand  from  this  competent  au- 
thority an  examination  into  his  case,  and  a  decision  based 
upon  regard  to  the  safety  of  society.  They  insist,  also,  that 
the  criminal  should,  by  his  lalior,  discharge  his  indebtedness 
to  his  victim  as  far  as  it  would  be  possible  to  ascertain  its 
extent.  At  present  the  State  locks  up  the  thief  and  appro- 
priates to  its  own  use  the  product  of  his  lalior  while  in 
prison.  At  the  end  of  his  imprisonment  the  offender  is  said 
to  have  "expiated"  his  crime — to  have  paid  his  debt  to  so- 
ciety— when,  in  truth,  it  is  society  who  has  paid  his  debt 
for  him  by  housing,  feeding,  and  clothing  him,  and  not 
always  even  demanding  the  poor  equivalent  of  his  labor. 

The  spiritualistic  view  of  punishment  is  that  there  must 
be  expiation  for  crime.  By  suffering,  the  expiation  of  those 
who  feel  remorse  is  completed,  and  Ijy  it  remorse  is  awak- 
ened in  those  who  are  as  yet  insensible.  To  this  it  is  re- 
plied that  long  experience  has  shown  that  the  ordinary 
criminal  is  incapable  of  remorse,  although  he  may  feign  it 
for  liis  own  purpose.  It  is  difRcult  to  separate  the  idea  of 
vengeance  from  that  of  expiation.  What  society  really  de- 
mands is  the  elimination  or  the  segregation  of  the  abnormal 
man,  unassimilable  with  his  social  surroundings. 

It  is  a  biologii'al  principle  that  a  being  disappears  who 
can  not  live  in  unison  with  his  surroundings.  The  difference 
between  the  biologic  and  moral  law  is  that  utuler  the  first 
the  selection  takes  place  spontaneously  by  the  death  of  the 
individiud  unsuited  to  his  surroundings;  in  the  second,  the 
selection  must  take  jilace  artificially — that  is  to  say,  by  the 
social  power  which  acts  in  its  own  defense  as  nature  oper- 
ates in  biologic  order. 

The  opinion  is  generally  entertained  by  those  who  have 
had  to  do  with  thi^  inmates  of  penal  institutions  that  rejient- 
anco  and  reform  are  very  rare  among  them.  Mi'.  Bruce 
Thompson  declares  that  among  all  the  murderers  he  had 
known,  amounting  to  nearly  five  hundred,  only  three  were 
known  to  have  expressed  any  feeling  of  remorse. 

The  positivist  school  is  at  variance;  with  the  psychiatrists 
as  to  the  existence  of  moral  insanity.  Exclusively  moral 
abnormity  characterized  by  the  perversion  or  absence  of  all 
moral  instincts  is  not,  Ihey  contend,  a  disease.  If  there  be 
no  disturbance  of  the  faculty  of  ideation,  the  absence  of 
the  moral  c|ualities  can  not  justify  the  denomination  of  in- 
sanity. If  the  latter  distinction  were  ]iermitted,  every  slight 
peculiarity  of  character  would  be,  on  the  same  ground,  jiro- 
nounced  to  be  pathological,  and  health  woidd  become  a 
mere  ide.-d  standard.  When  there  is  no  derangement  of  the 
psychical  functions  accompanying  the  perversity,  it  is  not 
a  case  of  disease.  In  the  born  criminal  the  mental  process 
is  in  accord  with  the  external  impressions.  If  the  motive 
was  vengeance,  the  injury  really  had  been  inflicted.  If  the 
crime  was  to  bring  profit,  the  profit  was  real.  If  to  obtain 
a  certain  pleasure,  the  pleasure  was  tangible.  The  hope  of 
obtaining  tlii'  ilesiri'd  end  is  logical,  but  the  jirocess  is  crimi- 
nal, and  reveals  the  absence  of  the  moral  sense. 


Two  intermit  ional  congresses  of  criminal  anthropology 
have  lieen  held  :  the  first  at  Rome  in  1885,  and  the  second 
at  Paris  in  188!).  Seven  journals  relating  exclusively  to 
this  subject,  are  iu)W  published.  Robert  Fletcher. 

Aiitliro|)Oiii'etry  [from  Gr.  Si'flpaiiros,  man  -i-  ncrpov,  meas- 
ure] :  the  measurement  of  the  human  body  and  of  its  dif- 
ferent parts.  The  term  is  also  often  used  to  include  the 
discussion  of  the  results  obtained  by  such  measurements. 
The  determination  of  the  physical  proportions  and  weight 
of  different  imlividuals,  and  of  the  force,  rapidity,  range 
and  completeness  of  the  performance  of  function  of  certain 
parts  of  their  bodies,  is  made  for  very  various  purposes,  and 
with  corresponding  differences  in  the  scope  of  the  methods 
employed.  It  may  be  used  to  ascertain  the  changes  due  to 
growtji  and  development  under  various  circumstances,  and 
thus  to  determine  the  effects  of  exercise  or  special  physical 
training,  of  occupation,  or  of  habits  of  various  kinds  upon 
the  organism  or  upon  special  parts  of  it,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  series  of  observations  of  the  same  persons  at  intervals 
of  time  is  especially  useful.  It  may  be  used  to  determine 
the  probable  fitness  of  an  individual  for  a  particular  occu- 
pation, as  in  tlie  measurement  of  recruits,  or  his  prospects 
for  health  and  long  life,  as  in  examinations  for  life-insur- 
ance. It  may  be  used  for  purposes  of  identification  of  an 
individual,  such  as  a  suspected  criminal  or  deserter,  or  of 
a  dead  body  in  certain  cases  of  jurisprudence.  Considered 
as  a  brancli  of  anthropology,  it  may  be  used  as  one  means 
of  classifying  men  into  different  race  groups,  or  of  investi- 
gating the  probable  affinities  of  one  group  to  another.  The 
measurements  made  by  physicians  and  surgeons  for  pur- 
poses of  diagnosis  or  for  answering  pathological  problems 
are  not  usually  considered  under  the  head  of  anthropome- 
try, nor  are  those  measurements  of  internal  organs  which 
can  only  be  made  after  death  included  in  this  subject. 

The  history  of  anthropometry  liegins  with  the  use  of  the 
dimensions  of  certain  parts  of  the  human  body  as  the  first 
standards  of  measure.  The  length  of  the  foot,  of  the  fore- 
arm or  cubit,  the  hand's  breadth,  the  width  of  the  thumb 
(Pr.  police),  or  inch,  are  examples  of  such  standards.  Neces- 
sarily, as  men  differ  in  size,  it  became  necessary  to  settle 
the  length  of  the  average  cubit  or  foot,  and  in  doing  this 
no  doubt  the  question  as  to  what  should  be  considered  a 
properly  proportioned  human  liody  may  have  arisen.  The 
mathematicians  and  artists  of  Egypt  and  India  seem  to 
have  agreed  at  a  very  early  period  that  there  must  be  some 
one  part  of  tlie  body'  whose  length  should  be  the  modulus  or 
standard  of  dimension  for  all  other  parts.  The  length  of 
the  face  from  the  chin  to  the  roots  of  the  hair  appears  to 
have  been  the  favorite  modulus  of  sculptors,  so  that  the 
height  of  the  ligure  would  be  from  nine  to  ten  faces,  the 
length  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder  to  the  jioiiit  of  the  middle 
finger  would  be  four  faces,  and  so  on.  For  an  account  of  the 
various  attemjits  to  establish  a  canon  of  ju'oiiortion  of  the 
human  body,  consult  the  paper  of  Dr.  Robert  I'^letcher  en- 
titled ITmnan  Projmriion  in  Art  and  Anthrojiometri/  (Cam- 
bridge, 1883). 

As  no  two  men  are  alike  in  all  dimensions,  and  as  the 
number  of  dimensions  which  might  be  taken  on  a  given 
body  is  almost  infinite,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  importance 
to  decide  as  to  jn-ecisely  what  measurements  shall  be  made 
in  a  given  case,  and  how  tliey  shall  be  stated.  For  anthro- 
]iological  purposes,  and  in  the  study  of  growth  and  devel- 
opment, it  is  important  to  have  the  data  of  as  many  indi- 
vidual measurements  as  possible,  so  stated  that  they  can  be 
compared  with  each  other;  and  hence  it  is  important  to 
make  the  same  measurements  that  have  been  made  and 
IHiblished  by  others,  and  then  to  make  such  additional 
measuremenis  as  may  seem  desirabli'  and  expedient,  bearing 
in  mind  that  the  more  numerous  and  complicated  the 
measurements  the  more  time,  labor,  and  skill  are  required 
to  obtain  them  with  such  accuracy  as  to  make  them  useful, 
and  therefore  the  less  probable  it  is  that  such  elaborate 
work  can  be  obtained  from  travelers,  school-teachers,  etc., 
or  that  such  measurements  can  be  made  by  experts  in  suffi- 
cient numbers  to  make  them  of  real  value. 

To  obtain  reliable  data  but  few  measures  should  be  asked 
for.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  <'ertaiii  dimensions 
have  little  or  no  interest  or  value  in  themselves,  but  may 
be  significant  when  compared  with  other  dimensions  ;  hence 
if  these  last  are  not  taken,  the  first  are  of  no  use.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  craniometrical  work,  which,  however, 
will  not  be  considered  in  detail  in  this  article. 

The  most  important  points  for  registration  for  each.indi- 


238 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


vidual  in  a  series  of  anthropometrical  observations  to  deter- 
mine race  chavacteristios  are  sex,  age,  birthplace,  supposed 
race,  variety  or  tribe,  lieight  of  body  standing  (taken  from 
sole  to  vertex),  weight,  girth  of  chest,  color  of  eyes  and  hair, 
breathing  capacity,  span  of  arms,  strength  of  arm,  and 
aeuteness  of  vision  and  of  color  perception.  To  these  it  is 
desirable  to  add  the  heiglit  wlien  sitting  and  when  kneel- 
ing, the  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  the  head,  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  face,  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  nose,  and  tlie  length  of  the  forearm  and  middle  finger. 
If  the  measurements  are  to  be  made  for  the  pui'pose  of 
determining  progress  in  growth  and  development,  as  in 
school  children,  or  in  those  taking  special  forms  of  exercise, 
many  other  measurements,  especially  of  girths  and  breadths, 
■will  be  of  interest ;  and  in  such  oases  there  is  usually  a 
much  better  opportunity  to  obtain  such  data  than  there  is 
in  anthropological  work. 

Uniformity  in  methods  and  instruments  is  in  all  cases 
very  desirable:  these  are  discussed  in  tlie  various  manuals 
on  the  suiiject,  and  in  the  reports  of  tlie  Anthropometric 
Committee  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  (1878  to  1883).  Often  a  slightly  inaccurate 
metho  1  is  tlie  only  one  available,  as,  for  example,  in  meas- 
uring the  heiglit  of  the  body,  which  should  be  taken  while 
the  person  is  barefooted,  but  must  often  be  taken  while  he 
is  wearing  shoes,  and  the  height  approximated  by  deduct- 
ing the  height  of  the  shoe-heels. 

Having  obtained  the  individual  data,  the  next  step  is  to 
tabulate  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  their  relations  to 
each  other  and  to  tlie  results  obtained  by  others ;  and  the 
selection  of  the  combinations  by  which  this  can  best  be 
effected,  and  the  best  methods  of  estimating  and  eliminating 
probable  errors,  and  of  presenting  the  results  in  a  clear, 
reliable,  and  usable  form,  requires  a  considerable  knowledge 
of  statistical  methods.  In  the  first  place,  the  difference  be- 
tween an  average  and  a  mean  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
using  these  words  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are  used  in 
the  results  obtained  by  the  Anthropometric  Committee  of 
the  British  Association.  As  defined  by  Mr.  Roberts,  a 
member  of  this  committee:  "An  average  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  sum  of  the  values  observed  by  the  number 
of  observations,  while  the  viean  is  the  value  at  which  the 
largest  number  of  observations  occur  ('the  value  of  greatest 
frequency  ').  An  average  is  influenced  by  exceptional  eases, 
but  a  mean  disregards  exceptional  cases,  and  is  entirely 
dependent  on  the  predominating  numbers ;  hence  the  mean 
is  employed  to  distinguish  the  racial  type,  and  the  average 
the  variations  to  which  the  race  is  subject  by  the  modifying 
influences  of  local  and  exceptional  causes.  To  determine 
the  radical  type  of  a  nation  by  means  of  an  average  it 
would  be  necessary  to  have  all  classes  of  the  community 
represented  in  their  due  proportions:  but  the  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  occupations  renders  this  impossil)le,  unless  a 
general  census  were  taken.  Even  within  narrow  limits  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  obtain  observations  of  all  the  indi- 
■  viduals  of  a  class,  as  the  taller  and  better-developed  mem- 
bers readily  submit  to  measurement,  while  the  shorter  and 
imperfectly  developed  evade  examination,  and  the  sick  and 
deformed  arc  passed  over  altogether.  On  the  othei-  hand, 
the  determination  of  the  racial  typo  by  the  mean  U  free 
from  these  sources  of  error,  as  we  disregard  both  the  ill- 
developed  and  the  over-developed  individuals,  and  depend 
entirely  on  those  which  represent  the  medium  development 
of  the  class  or  nation." 

As  the  reliability  of  both  the  mean  and  the  average  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  number  and  accuracy  of  the  obser- 
vations from  which  they  are  derived,  we  have  very  few  of 
them  relating  to  savage  and  barbarous  tribes  which  are  of 
much  value.  In  some  few  cases,  such  as  the  Andamans 
and  t\yo  or  three  African  tribes,  the  stature  and  weight  are 
so  decidedly  below  the  average  of  other  peoples  that  they 
may  be  accepted  as  race  characteristics  without  question; 
but  for  the  gr<>at  majority  of  tribes  the  data  which  we  have 
are  only  suHicient  to  form  a  basis  for  hypotheses  which 
must  be  a<u'epteil  or  rejected  on  other  grounds. 

Even  in  civilized  countries  the  results  thus  far  obtained, 
although  derived  from  large  numbers,  are  in  many  cases 
not  comparable,  owing  to  the  age  or  other  groupings  ac- 
cording to  which  tliey  are  presented,  'i'lie  data  derived 
from  measuremeuts  of  recruits  in  dilTerent  countries  are 
not  comparabli!  unless  the  minimum  limit  of  stature  is  the 
same  in  each,  nor  unless  they  are  given  by  uniform  age 
groupings.  As  the  height  continues  to  increase  to  different 
ages  in  different  races,  this  distinction  is  an  important  one. 


The  following  table  shows  the  average  height  by  years  of 
189,316  American-born  white  men  examined  at  draft  sta^ 
tions  between  1863  and  1863,  and  found  fit  for  military 
service : 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  MEAN  HEIGHT  BT  YEARS,  AND  BY  GROUPS 
OF  FIVE  YEARS,  FROM  THE  AGE  OF  SEVENTEEN  TO  FORTY- 
FIVE,  OF  180,216  AMERICAN-BORN  WHITE  MEN  FOUND  FIT  FOR 
MILITARY   SERVICE. 


BY  YEARS. 

AGE. 

BY  YEARS, 

AGE. 

Number 
measured. 

Mean  height. 

Number 
mea&ured. 

Mean  beighL 

IS 

19 

.30,456 
14.!)94 
11,526 
14,146 
10,479 
8,907 
7,335 
7.940 
6,986 
6,351 
6,033 
4,447 
6,250 

Inches. 
06  39 
67-07 
67-51 
67-78 
67-92 
68-01 
68-02 
68  05 
68-09 
68-11 
68-13 
6817 
68-18 

Meters. 
1-6803 
1-7036 
1-7148 
1-7216 
1-7252 
1-7275 
1-7277 
1-7285 
1 -7295 
1-7300 
1-7S05 
1-7315 
1-7318 

31 

32 

33 

34 

a5 

36 

37 

5.562 
4,635 
3,939 
2,782 
4.966 
4,138 
4,172 
4.014 
3.402 
15,750 

Indies, 
68-20 
68  20 
68-29 
6S-35 
68-47 
08-28 
68-20 
68  24 
08  2:! 
08-23 

Meters. 
1  -7323 
1-7323 
l-7:i46 
1-7361 
1-7391 
1-7343 
1-7338 
1-7333 
1-73:W 
1-7330 

SO 

SI 

S2 

s;i 

24  

25 

2« 

38 

39 

40  to  45  . . 

Total  . . 

S7 

2S 

Sli 

30 

189,216 

68-00 

1-7274 

THE  FOLLOWING  LS  A  PART  OF  A  TABLE  GIVEN  IN  THE  REPORT 
OF  THE  ANTHR0P05IETRIC  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BRITISH  ASSO- 
CIATION, MADE  IN  ISaS,  SHOWING  COMPARATIVE  STATURE  OF 
ADULT    MALES    OF    DIFFERENT    RACES. 


RACE  OR  NATIONALITY. 


Lapeyronse 

Garnot,  Beechey.. 
Porter,  Cook,  etc. 

Various I" 

Wilkes,  Novara.... 

Lesson,  Rollin J 

Anthropometric  Com. 

Musters |_ 

D'Orbigny J 

Topinard 

Sir  A.  Smith 

Gold 

Topinard 

Baxter 

Anthropometric  Com. 


Baxter 

Roberts 

Anthropometric  Com. 

Oliver 

Baxter 


Baxter . 


t    fSamoa l-a53 

.5   1  Tahiti  and  Pitcairn.l-7'82 

't  j  I^larquesas 1  '763 

r    I  New  Zealand r  755 

~    I  Polynesians 1*753 

Ph   [  (Sandwich r731 

English  professional  class. 

Patagonians ■}  j  .ion 

Negroes  of  the  Congo 

Amakosa  Kaffirs,  S.  Africa  . . 

Iroquois  Indians 

Negroes  of  Calabar 

North  American  Indians 

Irish,  all  classes  (recruits  5  ft, 
804  in.). 

U.  S.  (white,  all  classes) 

Zulus 

English  laboring  classes 

Chippeway  Indians 

American  Negroes,  of  all  de- 
grees of  color. 

Hungarians,  immigrants  to 
U.  S.  America. 

Swis.'i  of  Geneva 

Russians,  immigrants  to  U.S. 
Ameriea. 

Poles,  ditto 

French,  upper  classes 

Germans 

.Tavanese 

Italians,  immigrants  to  U.S. 
America. 

Spaniards,  ditto 

Ainos 

French,  working  classes 

('liinese 

Italians  (conscripts,  r6iI0) 

I'nlish  Jews 

Peruvians 

Malays 

Andamanese 

Mincopese 

Bnsjesmans  (Bushmen  and 
South  Africa). 


Difference  between  the  tallest  and  shortest  races. 
Average  stature  of  man  according  to  the  above. . 


Authority. 


Dimant. . 
Baxter . . 


Baxter 

De  Quatrefages . 

Novara  

Novara  

Baxter 


Baxter 

Rosky 

De  Quatrefages 

Novara  

An.  di  Statist.,  1879... 
Maierand  Kopernicki, 

D'Orbigny 

Raffles,  cVawfurd,  etc. 

Man 

De  Quatrefages 

Various 


Meters. 


1-7.57 
1-754 
1-7.52 
1-741 
1  735 
1-727 
1-726 
1-725 

1-719 
1-707 
1-705 
1-700 
1-693 

1-692 

1-688 
1-687 

1-682 
1-081 
1-680 
1-679 
1-677 

1-668 
1  660 
1-6.57 
1-630 
1-626 
1-623 
1-600 
1-683 
1-492 
1-436 
1-341 


0  421 


1-658 


Ft,      Id. 


9-14 

900 

8-95 
8-60 
8-28 
7-95 
7-9S 
7-90 

7-67 
719 
7  08 
6-90 
G-62 


6-43 
6-38 

6-20 
6-14 
610 
6-08 
600 

B-66 
5-.'« 
524 
4-17 
400 
3-88 
3-00 
2  31 
10-7 
8-5S 
4-78 


1    4-iJ5 


6    5  85 


Tables  similar  to  those  for  height  are  given  also  for 
wpight,  ami  for  various  dimensions  of  the  boily,  wilh  dis- 
tincl ion  of  sex,  age.  anil  race.  Among  the  most  imporlant 
anthroiHimelric  tables  are  those  which  show  the  relative 
proportions  of  dilTerent  parts  of  the  body  to  each  other  and 
to  the  weight,  with  distinctions  as  above.  There  arc  several 
dilTerent  ways  of  calculating  these  ratio.s,  which  may  be 
made  more  or  less  complex  according  as  the  individual 
items  are  grouped  by  twos,  by  threes,  etc.  For  example,  tlio 
ratio  obtained  by  dividing  the  length  by  the  breadth  of  tlio 
face  may  be  eomparcil  with  the  height,  or  witli  the  ralio  of 
height  to  weight,  and  I  lie  results  of  this  comjiarison  may  be 
in  turn  compai-eil  with  the  length  of  the  forearm  in  ditrer- 
ent  races  at  dillerent  ages.     Theoretically  the  variety  of 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM 


ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE 


239 


ratios  which  iiiisiit  thus  be  obtained,  and  which  might  be  of 
value,  is  very  jjreat ;  iiul  |)ruetically  the  pi()bat)le  error  in 
the  use  of  a  small  number  of  sets  of  individual  observations, 
and  tlie  impossibility  of  obtaining  more  than  a  few  details  in 
such  sets,  make  sue:!)  calculations  of  doubtful  utility.  Anthro- 
pometrical  data  in  anthropological  studies  furnish  very  im- 
portant aid  in  attempts  at  race  classification  ;  but  t  liev  are  iu)t 
the  oidy  things  to  be  considered  in  such  work,  and  should  nol 
be  relied  upon  to  the  exclusion  of  consideration  of  language, 
customs,  and  other  points  belonging  to  ethnological  studies. 

The  use  of  anihropometrical  data  for  the  identification  of 
criuiinals  was  commenced  in  Paris  in  188'i,  on  a  plan  sug- 
gested by  Alphonse  Bertillon,  and  is  employi^d  in  connec- 
tion witli  a  collection  of  photographs  of  known  criminals. 
These  pliotograjjlis  are  divided  and  subdivided  into  groups, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  head,  the  height,  the  length  of 
the  ndddle  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the  length  of  the  foot,  the 
length  of  the  forearm,  etc. ;  and  these,  in  connection  with 
the  sex  and  color  of  the  eyes,  form  groups  so  small  tliat  for 
any  suspected  individual  there  will  be  only  five  or  six  pho- 
togr.iphs  to  examine  to  determine  whether  he  is  among  the 
numlier.  In  the  U.  8.  army  the  identification  of  deserters 
is  elfeeted  liy  cards  grouped  according  to  tattoo  marks,  vac- 
cination marks,  and  other  scars,  pigiiienf<;d  na'vi.  etc.,  taken 
in  connection  with  color  of  eyes  and  hair  an<l  height. 

The  following  works  may  be  consulted  with  reference  to 
anthro|)omctrical  methoils  and  data: 

iSfdfiilioi.  Medical  and  Anthropological,  of  the  Provost- 
ilariiha'-deneraVs  Bureau,  compiled  by  ,1.  II.  Baxter  (2 
vols..  Washington,  1875);  A  Manual  of  Anthropometry,  by 
Charles  Roberts  (London,  1878);  Reports  of  the  Anthropo- 
metric Committee,  in  Reports  Brit.  Assoc,  for  Adv.  of 
Science  (Ijond.  1878-84);  A.  Weisbach.  Korpermexsiinfjen, 
verxchiedener  Menschenrassen  (8vo,  Berlin,  1878);  F.  .lagor 
and  (t.  Koerbin,  Meanunr/eH  an  lebenden  Indtern.  Ztschr. 
f  Ethn.  (Berl.  1879,  xi.  1-116.  2  Tab.);  P.  Topinard,  Be 
differenta  instruments  d'anthropometrie  (Bull.  Soc.  d'An- 
throp.  de  Paris,  1880,  3.  s.  iii.  269-277) ;  P.  Topinard,  Ob- 
nerrationa  upon  the  Methods  and  Processes  of  Anthropome- 
try (J.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  Lond.  1880-81,  x.  212-224);  P.  Peli, 
Sidle  niisure  del  c.orpo  net  Bolognesi:  ricerche  antropome- 
iriche ;  am  un'  cippendice  storica  suM'  antropometria  del 
Cesare  Taruffi  (Mem.  Accad.  d.  se.  d.  1st.  di  Bologna,  1881, 
4.  s.  ii.);  J.  liertillon  Taillc,  Diet.  Encycl.  d.  sc.  med.  (Paris, 
188.5,  3.  s.  XV.  5S1-649) ;  P.  Galton.  On  Recent  Designs  for  An- 
thropometric Instruments  (.1.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  Lond.  1886-87, 
xvi.  2-9);  D.  A.  Sargent,  Anthropometric  Apparatus,  ivith 
Directions  for  Measuring  and  Testing  the  Principal  Physi- 
cal ('haracteristics  of  the  Human  Body  (8vo,  Cambridge, 
18S7) ;  .\.  Lacassange,  De  la  mensuration  des  differentes 
parties  du  corps  dans  les  cas  de  depefage  criminel  (Arch,  de 
I'anthrop.  erim.,  Paris,  1888,  iii.  158-163) ;  W.  Stephenson, 
On  the  Relation  of  Weight  to  Height  and  the  Rate  of 
Growth  in  Man  {Lancet,  Lond.  1888,  ii.  560-564) ;  E.  Hitch- 
cock, An  Antliropometric  Manual  Giring  the  Average  and 
Mean  Physical  Measurements  and  Tests  of  Male  College- 
Students,  and  Methods  of  Securing  Them;  Prepared  from 
the  Records  of  the  Department  of  Physical  Education  and 
Hygiene  in  Amherst  College  During  the  Years  ISGl-OJ  and 
JSS7-,S,S;  inclusive  (2d  ed.  8vo,  Amherst,  Mass.,  1889) ;  P. 
Topinard,  Le  canon  des  proportions  du  corps  de  I'homme 
europee.n  (Rev.  d'anthrop.,  Paris,  1889,  3.  s.  Iv.  392-403);  E. 
RoUet.  La  mensuration  des  os  longs  des  inembres;  etude 
anthropologique  el  medico-legale  (Arch,  de  I'anthrop.  crim., 
Paris,  1881),  iv.  137-161);  Anthropome'trie  (L')  Judiciaire  a 
Paris  en  lS,s':i;  Installations  ei  plans  des  locau.r;  recents 
perfectionnements;  une  experience  de  sociologie  hureaucra- 
tique  (Lyons  and  Paris,  1890);  II.  P.  Bowditch,  The  Phy- 
sique of  Women  in  Massachusetts  (8vo,  Boston,  1890),  and 
The  Grou-th  of  Children,  studied  by  Gallon's  Method  of 
Percentile  Grades  (Rep.  Bd.  Health,  JIass.,  1889-90,  liost. 
1891,  xxii.  479-;522);  P.  Galton,  Retrospect  of  Worh  done  at 
my  Anthropometric  Lahoraton/  at  South  Kensinr/fon  {■] .  An- 
th'rop.  Inst..  Lon<l.  1S91-92,  x'xi.  32-:!5);  Si'ggci,  lirustlniu 
und  Kiirpergewicht  im  Verhaltniss  zur  Kiirperlanr/e  (\'er- 
handl.  d.  x.  internat.  med.  Cong.  1890,  Berl.  1891.  v.  18. 
Abth.,  162-174).  J.  S.  Bilungs. 

Aiithri)|)oinor'|>lii!^iii  [from  Gr.  af8pam6nopipos,  having 
the  I'onii  iixopipT])  of  a  man  (ivipwiro^)^:  the  representation  of 
the  Dcily  undera  human  form  or  with  human  affections:  the 
figurative  application  to  God  of  terms  which  properly  relate 
to  humati  beings.  Also  the  heresy  ol  the  Anthropomob- 
purri:s  (q.  v.). 


Aiitliropomor'pliites,  or  Aiithropomor'pliists:  persons 

who  believe  or  imagine  that  the  Deity  has  naturally  a  human 
form,  as  the  ancient  Greeks  and  other  jiagans.  This  error 
has  been  also  entertained  by  some  Christians,  especially  the 
Auda'ans  or  Audians,  a  Syrian  sect  formed  about  350  A.  D. 
The  tendency  to  anthropomorphism  arises  from  the  inability 
of  man  to  form  any  conception  of  a  divine  person  except 
by  imagining  that  there  is  some  similarity  between  the  hu- 
nian  and  the  divine  nature. 

Aiifllirriiim  [from  Gr.  Si-flos,  flower  -t-  obpi,  tail] :  a  genus 
of  aroids  including  160  sjiecies,  natives  of  troiiical  America. 
The  spathe  is  large  and  leaf-like,  and  the  spadix  is  usually 
cylindrical  and  sessile.  Many  species  are  grown  in  green- 
houses, and  are  remarkably  beautiful.  C.  E.  B. 

Aiitibes,  a~an'tceb'  (anc.  Antip'olis):  a  fortified  seaport- 
town  in  the  S.  E.  of  France ;  in  the  department  of  Alpes 
Maritimcs;  on  the  Mediterranean,  17  miles  bj^  rail  S.  W. 
of  Nice  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-1).  Its  port  is  small  but 
deep,  and  is  furnished  with  a  lighthouse,  lat.  43°  35'  N.,  and 
Ion.  7°  81'  E.  It  has  a  college,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
olives,  fruits,  oil,  salt  fish,  etc.  Here  are  some  remains  of 
great  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by  a  Greek  colony  about 
340  n.  r.  Its  Provencal  name,  Antiboul,  readily  recalls  the 
ancient  Greek  appellation.  Its  coins,  the  remains  of  its  the- 
ater and  of  certain  Roman  constructions,  liave  excited  the 
interest  of  antiquaries,  but  its  ancient  history  is  obscure. 
Pop.  (1891)  7,401. 

Auti-biirglier :  See  Burgher. 

Aii'tichlore :  a  name  given  by  paper-makers  to  substances 
which  are  employed  to  remove  from  the  pulp  the  chlorine 
which,  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  lime,  had  been  used  to 
bleach  it,  and  which,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  pulp,  would 
not  only  damage  the  machinery,  but  injure  the  strength  of 
the  paper.  Sulphite  and  bisulphite  of  soda  were  first  em- 
ployed, but  at  present  hyposulphite  of  soda  is  almost  invari- 
ably used.  Sulphide  of  calcium,  prot o-chloride  of  tin,  and 
coal-gas  have  been  used.     See  Bleaching. 

Aii'ticlirist  [Gr.  'Avrtxpiaros;  avri,  against -I- Xpio-Tiis, 
Christ] :  a  name  which  has  been  variously  applied  by  Chris- 
tian writers  to  a  supposed  power+'.d  individual  or  institution 
destined  to  arise  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  and  to  obtain 
a  partial  or  temporary  triumph  over  it.  This  idea  has  been 
traced  back  be}  ond  the  Christian  era  by  some  writers,  who 
cite  in  favor  of  this  view  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel  concerning 
Gog  and  Magog.  The  word  Antichrist  occurs  in  the  Scrip- 
tures only  in  the  First  and  Second  Epistles  of  John.  lie 
says  "that  everv  spirit  that  conlesseth  not  that  Jesus  Christ 
is  "come  in  the  t^esh  "  is  Antichrist.  The  "  Man  of  Sin  "  and 
"  Advcrsaiy  "  of  Paul's  Second  Ej)islle  to  the  Thessalonians 
are  commonly  identified  with  the  Antichrist  of  John.  Many 
writers,  both  before  and  since  the  Protestant  Kcformation, 
have  made  the  pope,  or  tlie  papacy.  Antichrist.  Many  writ- 
ers, both  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestjints,  have  suggested 
one  or  another  of  the  persecuting  emperors,  such  as  Nero  or 
Diocletian.     Others  say  a  succession  of  Roman  emperors. 

Aiitielei'a  (in  Gr. 'A>Ti'K\eia):  a  daughter  of  Autolycus; 
was  married  to  Laertes,  and  became  the  mother  of  Odys- 
seus. According  to  Homer,  she  dieil  of  grief  at  the  long 
absence  of  her  son,  but  on  his  visit  to  Hades  he  met  her  and 
spoke  with  her.  According  to  other  traditions,  she  put  an 
end  to  her  own  life  on  account  of  a  false  report  of  the  death 
of  her  son.  Euripides  calls  Odysseus  a  son  of  Sisyphus 
(Iphig.  AuL,  524),  referring  to  a  tradition,  comnuinicated  by 
Hygiiius.  that  Anticleia  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Sisy- 
plius  before  she  married  Laertes. 

Aiitidei'des  (in  Gr.  'AvTiK\ilSris):  a  Greek  historian ;  lived 
shortly  after  tlie  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  is  often  re- 
ferred to  by  later  writers,  but  of  his  works  only  fragments 
have  come  down  to  us.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  which  contained  an  elaliorate  sketch  of  the  pre- 
vious history  of  Egypt,  but  his  princijial  work  was  his  Ufp\ 
NiJo-To?!',  ((mtaining,  according  to  Strabo,  an  account  of  the 
return  of  the  Greeks  from  their  ancient  expeditions. 

Aiiticli'niax  [for  etvmology,  see  Climax];  in  rhetoric,  a 
sentence  which  (tescends  from  great  to  little,  and  is  the  re- 
verse of  a  (diinax,  as  in  tl.Ms  verse  of  Pope  :  "  Die  and  endow 
a  college  or  a  cat  "  ;  and  this  line  from  Horace  :  "  Parturiunt 
monies,  nascetur  ridieulus  mus." 

Aiiti-Corn-Law  League:  an  association  founded  in  1839 
by  a  number  of  manufacturers  in  JIanchester,  England,  who 
aimed  at  the  abolition  of  all  fiscal  imports  on  grain.     Sev- 


240 


ANTICOSTI 


ANTIETAM 


eral  local  associations  of  like  purpose  had  preceded  it ;  one 
in  London,  1836,  and  another  in  Manchester  in  1838.  Tlie 
manufacturers  of  the  latter  city  had  sought  a  hearing  through 
Parliament  in  vain,  and  when  the  House  of  Coinnions.  Blar. 
13,  1839,  rejected  a  motion  for  a  commission  to  inquire  into 
the  operations  of  the  corn-laws,  the  Manchester  men  in 
attendance  at  once  assembled  in  Herbert's  hotel,  London, 
and  under  Richard  Cobden's  (</.  v.)  leadership  organized  the 
League.  During  the  seven  years  that  its  triumph  was  de- 
layed he  was  its  presiding  genius.  His  great  coadjutor  was 
John  Brin;ht.  Its  secretary  was  W.  A.  Paulton  ;  among  its 
celebrated  adherents  were  Joseph  Hume,  Sir  William  Moles- 
worth,  George  Thompson,  C.  P.  Villiers,  Ebenezer  El- 
liott, who  wrote  political  verse  for  it,  Milner  Gibson,  and  W. 
J.  Fox.  Its  nietliods  were  those  of  a  propaganda,  and  its 
arguments  were  from  the  standpoint  of  the  moral  iniquity 
and  economic  folly  of  taxing  food.  Its  career  was  energetic, 
fiery,  and  expensive,  and  its  functions  ended  when  Sir  Rob- 
ert Peel  {//.  v.)  carried  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  in  1846, 
thus,  in  his  words,  "  giving  the  people  bread,  no  longer  leav- 
ened by  a  sense  of  injustice."     See  Corn-laws. 

Aiiticos'ti:  a  large  island  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  Do- 
minion of  Canada  ;  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  lat. 
49°  04'  and  49=  58'  N.,  and  Ion.  61°  45  and  64°  35'  W.  Area, 
more  than  2,600  sq.  miles;  length,  135  miles;  greatest  width, 
40.  It  was  exploited  by  the  "  Anticosti  Company,"  which  in 
1873  divided  into  twenty  counties,  and  eventually  attracted  a 
considerable  colony.  The  soil  proved  to  be  sterile  and  the  cli- 
mate cruel ;  the  colonists  suffered  from  starvation,  and  were  re- 
moved to  the  mainland.  In  1896  Menier,the  chocolate  manu- 
facturer of  Paris,  purchased  it  for  a  private  park  and  game 
preserve,  and  claims  sovereign  rights  over  it.  Ellis  Bay  (the 
chief  settlement)  and  Fox  Bay  are  the  only  tolerable  harbors. 

Anticyclone,  alm'-ti-sl-klon'  (i.  e.  the  opposite  of  a  cy- 
clone; also  called  a  lu'gh,  alluding  to  the  culmination  of 
pressure  on  the  weather-map):  an  atmospheric  or  weather 
condition  covering  a  large  territory,  and  characterized  by  a 
high  barometer,  gently  outflowing  winds,  clear  skies,  and 
dryness.  Such  areas  of  high  barometer  usually  appear,  in 
middle  latitudes,  in  the  W.,  and  move  eastward  slowly, 
though  with  varying  speed.  When  they  follow  close  on  a 
storm-area  (a  technical  cyclone  or  "low"),  they  usually  pro- 
duce cooler  weather,  and  in  winter  cold  waves  result  when 
they  follow  closely  behind  the  storm.  In  summer  the  clear 
skies  make  the  weather  hot  by  day  and  cold  at  night.  L^n- 
seosonable  frosts  usually  occur  during  the  prevalence  of  an 
anticyclone.  The  humidity  is  low,  making  the  weather  dry 
and  fair,  or  clear.  The  long  continuance  of  an  anticyclone 
is  one  of  the  accompaniments  of  drouths. 

Meteorologically,  an  anticyclone  is  an  area  over  which 
wind  is  gently  descending  at  the  center,  and  flowing  out  at 
the  sides.  As  the  upper  air  is  relatively  dry,  this  gives  the 
low  humidity  anil  cloudlessness  characteristic  of  the  phe- 
nomenon, while  the  coolness  of  the  upper  air  gives  the  lower 
temperatures,  and  the  clearness  of  the  sky  permits  uninter- 
rupted sunshine  in  the  dartimeand  uninterrupted  railiatiou 
to  the  sky  at  night,  thus  causing  the  great  daily  range  of 
temperature.  A  "  high  "  brings  calm,  pleasant  weather,  but 
also  danger  of  frost  and  drouth.  A  "  low  "  brings  cloud, 
w'ind,  and  storm,  but  also  a  moist  atmosphere,  and  rain  or 
snow.  Mark  W.  IIarrixgtox. 

Antieyra,  an-tisi-ra :  an  ancient  city  of  Thessaly,  on  the 
river  Sperchius.  Another  Antieyra  was  a  city  of"  Phocis, 
with  a  harbor  on  tlu^  Corinthian  gulf.  Still  another  was  in 
L(X'ris,  on  the  left  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Corinthian 
gulf.     All  were  noted  for  the  production  of  hellebore. 

An'tidote  IGr.  &i/tISotov,  remedy;  avTi.  against -I- SoT<is 
(SiSdi-oi),  given] :  a  me<iicine  given  to  overcome  or  prevent 
the  injurious  effects  of  poisons.  Antidotes  are  chemical  or 
physiological.  The  first  act  by  neutralizing  the  poison, 
converting  it  into  an  insoluble  or  harndess  substance. 
Physiological  antidotes  produce  action  within  the  body 
which  enables  it  to  resist  the  effect  of  the  poison.  Thus 
belladonna  and  opium,  both  poisonous,  are  jihysiological 
antidotes  or  counter-poisons  to  each  other.  Alcohol  or  am- 
monia is  the  i)hysiological  antidote  of  certain  snake-jioisons. 
The  more  important  antidotes  are  mentioned  in  this  work 
under  the  name  of  the  poison  for  which  they  are  adminis- 
tered.   See  To.xicoLOOY. 

Antle'tani,  Battle  of:  battle ;  fought  on  Sept.  16  and  IT, 
1862,  between  the  Union  troops,  under  Gen.  McClellan,  and 
the  Confederates,  under  Gen.  Lee;  taking  name  from  Antie- 


tam  creek,  which  enters  the  Potomac  about  6  miles  above 
Harper's  Perry.  It  was  called  by  the  Confederates  the  battle 
of  Sharpsburg. 

After  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  the  Confederates 
crossed  the  Potomac  above  Harper's  Ferry  and  pushed  on 
to  Frederick,  Md.,  with  a  view  to  invading  Pennsylvania. 
L'pon  IMcCleUan's  approach  from  Washington,  they  fell 
back  and  occupied  the  passes  of  the  South  Mountain  be- 
tween Frederick  and  the  Hagerstown  road.  Jackson,  with 
his  own  troops  and  those  of  McLaws  and  Walker,  mean- 
while marched  uijon  Harper's  Ferry,  invested  it,  and  cap- 
tured its  garrison  of  about  12,000  men,  the  surrender  being  . 
made  Sept.  15,  and  then  marched  to  join  Lee  at  Antietam, 
reaching  there  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  battle.  McClellan, 
marching  from  Washington,  forced  the  jiasses  of  South 
Mountain  Sept.  14,  and,  marching  on  toward  Sharpsburg, 
found  Lee's  army  occupying  a  position  behind  Antietam 
creek.  McClellan's  army  came  up  and  was  massed  in  front 
of  this  position  by  the  evening  of  the  15th,  except  Frank- 
lin's corps,  which  arrived  about  10  A.  M.  of  the  16th.  Burn- 
side  was  placed  on  the  left,  Sumner  in  the  center,  and 
Hooker  on  the  right,  with  Porter  in  reserve.  On  the  after- 
noon of  the  16th  Hooker's  corps  crossed  the  creek  with  a 
view  to  turning  the  enemy's  left.  Here  he  commenced  the 
action  which  lasted  until  dark,  and  recommenced  at  early 
dawn  on  the  17th.  During  the  night  Mansfield's  corps 
crossed  in  support  of  Hooker,  and  joined  in  the  battle  at 
about  7  A.  M..  and  Sumner  reached  the  front  an  hour  oi-  two 
later,  extending  the  Union  line  to  the  left.  Hood's  division 
on  the  Confederate  left  met  Hooker's  attack  of  the  16th,  and 
was  driven  back,  but  during  the  night  was  relieved  by  Jack- 
son, with  Ewell's  troops,  who  had  arrived  from  Harper's 
Ferry  in  time  to  meet  the  attacks  of  Hooker  and  Mansfield. 
McLaws  and  Walker  also  came  on  the  field  just  in  time  to 
strike  in  flank  the  right  division  (Sedgwick's)  of  Sumner's 
corps,  which  was  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  others.  Sum- 
ner's two  remaining  divisions  (French's  and  Richardson's), 
supported  by  part  of  Franklin's  corps,  however,  pushed  back 
the  Confederate  line  some  distance,  joined  with  the  troops 
on  their  right,  and  succeeded  in  holding  their  ground  for 
the  rest  of  the  day.  The  battle  in  this  part  of  the  field  was 
virtually  ended  at  1  p.m.  The  fighting  on  the  L'nion  right 
had  been  most  desjierate.  and  the  losses  on  both  sides  very 
great,  including  Gen.  Jlausfield  killed,  Richardson  mortally 
wounded,  and  Hooker,  Sedgwick,  and  Crawford  wounded. 
On  the  Confederate  side  Gens.  Branch  and  Starke  were 
killed,  and  R.  H.  Anderson,  Lawton,  Gregg,  and  Jones 
wounded.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  battle  on  the  right 
commenced  at  early  dawn,  and  that  the  different  corps  came 
into  action  in  succession  instead  of  simultaneously.  Jlean- 
while  Burnside,  who  commaiuled  the  left  wing,  did  not  cross 
the  creek  imtil  about  1  P.  M.  Consequently  the  Confederates 
were  able  to  strengthen  their  left,  to  meet  the  attack  made 
upon  it,  by  withdrawing  troojis  from  their  right  and  center. 

At  about  10  A.  M.  Burnside  commenced  to  move.  He  sent 
one  division  (Rodman's)  to  cross  the  creek  by  a  ford  well  to 
the  right  of  the  Confederate  line,  and  made  an  effort  to 
force  a  jiassage  at  the  stone  bridge  in  his  front,  subsequently 
known  as  "'Burnside's  bridge."  The  first  two  assaidting 
columns  were  repulsed,  but  the  third  was  successful,  and 
carried  tln^  bridge  and  the  wooded  bank  on  the  other  side 
at  about  1  P.  .M.,  just  before  Rodnum's  troops  came  up  and 
joined  them.  The  remainder  of  the  Ninth  Corps  crossed 
and  fornu'il  on  the  other  side. 

At  about  3  P.M.  Burnside's  troops,  under  urgent  orders 
from  McClellan.  made  a  vigorous  and  gallant  attack,  and 
drove  the  enemy  before  them  until  the  right  division  (Will- 
cox)  reached  and  entered  the  village  of  Sharpsburg.  As 
the  direction  of  the  advance  inclineil  to  the  right,  Rodman's 
division  necessarily  fell  to  the  rear  of  Willcox's,  and  was 
thus  exposed  to  a  vigorous  attack  upon  its  left  by  A.  P. 
Hill's  division  of  six  brigades,  which  had  just  arrived  from 
Harper's  Feriy.  Korlman  was  mortally  wounded,  and  one 
of  his  brigades  thrown  into  confusion.  The  left  of  the  corps 
being  thus  unprotected,  the  whole  line  was  retircil  some- 
what toward  the  creek,  and  a  good  position  taken  up.  which 
was  held  against  the  Confederate  assjiults  of  the  afternoon, 
anil  during  the  night  and  the  following  day  (the  18th). 
During  the  night  of  the  18th  the  Confeilerates  rccrossed 
the  Potomac  at  Sheiiherdstown. 

McClellan's  strength  bv  official  reports  was  about  87,000; 
his  losses  12,469,  including  2,010  killed.  The  most  reliable 
reports  place  Lee's  strength  at  about  40,000  men,  and  his 
losses  at  about  12,000. 


ANTIFEBRIN 


ANTILLES 


241 


The  discussion  of  the  tactical  features  of  tliis  liattle  is 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  article.  For  full  descriptions  from 
diuoront  standpoint s,  see  'Tlie  liatths  and  Leeidi'iv  of  tlie 
Civil  War  ('I'lic  Century  Co.);  The  Antii'tam  and  Fri'der- 
icksbitn/h,  Scribner's  War  Scries,  etc.     See  also  jMcClkllan 

and  CONFKDKRATE  STATES.  Jas.  JIkRCUR. 

A  ntifcb'riii  (Acctanilide,  Phctiylacf/amidi') :  a  while  crys- 
talline substance,  slifjhtly  soluble  in  cold,  much  more  so  in 
hot  water,  which  is  much  used  in  medicine  for  the  reduction 
of  temperature  and  the  relief  of  pain.  When  jjiven  to  persons 
suffering  from  fever,  in  doses  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains,  it 
usually  produces  in  about  an  hour  a  fall  of  temperature  which 
isortenbul  not  always  accoinpanieil  by  a,  profuse  sweating,  but 
which  is  not  depc^ndent  upon  that  sweating.  In  doses  of  ten 
to  fifteen  grains  in  health,  it  usually  causes  no  distinct  symp- 
toms; in  larger  doses,  or  when  the  <lose  is  repeated,  it  occa- 
sions headache,  malaise,  some  somnolence,  ringing  in  the  ears, 
dilatation  of  the  pupils,  cyanosis  of  the  face  and  extremities, 
and  sometimes  an  eruption  of  bright  red  spots.  In  poisonous 
doses,  it  causes  fall  of  temperature,  disturbance  of  respira- 
tion, wide-spread  paralysis  with  convidsions,  and  death  in 
collapse.  Its  general  action  is  very  similar  to  that  of  anti- 
pyrin.  but  there  is  a  wide-spread  belief  in  the  medical  pnj- 
tession  that  it  is  less  apt  to  cause  collapse  than  is  antipyrin. 
Tliat  it  has  a  very  great  effect  upon  the  general  nutrition  is 
shown  by  tlie  fact  that  it  decreases  the  production  of  animal 
heat ;  that  is,  lessens  the  activity  of  the  chemical  changes  in 
the  body.  It  is  not  elhcient  against  pain  which  is  the  result 
of  distinct  local  inflammations,  diseases,  or  injuries,  such  as 
a  boil  or  broken  leg;  but  it  often  affords  a  great  relief  in 
nervous  pains,  such  as  nervous  or  sick  headache,  the  light- 
ning-like pains  of  locomotor  ataxia,  or  other  spinal  disease. 
Uose,  ten  to  fifteen  grains.  II.  C.  Wood. 

Anti-Federalists:  party  in  tlie  IT.  S.  opposed  to  central- 
izing tendencies  in  the  administration  of  government  and 
interpretation  i>f  the  Federal  constitution;  its  first  great 
leader  was  Thomas  .lefferson.  It  first  opposed  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  but  when  defeated  on  that  (loint  favored 
the  strictest  construction.  The  name  went  out  of  use  soon 
after  1793,  and  the  party  it  rejiresented  has  been  succes- 
sively called  Republican,  Democratic  Re|)uliliean,  and  (at 
present)  Democratic.  See  Alexander  Hamilton,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Demockacv,  Republican  Party,  and  United 
States. 

All'tigo:  city  (founded  in  1880);  on  railroad;  capital  of 
Langlade  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wis- 
consin, ref.  3-E);  207  miles  from  Milwaukee;  has  electric 
lights;  6  churches:  6  public  schools,  I  Roman  Catholic  pa- 
rochi.al  school,  and  2  tTerman  Lutheran  schools.  Principal 
industries  are  lumbering  and  agriculture.  Has  1  flour  and 
a  saw  mills,  2  planing-mills,  machine-shop,  a  foundry,  and 
a  brewery;  and  chair,  hub,  broom-handle,  veneer,  excelsior, 
and  other  factories.  Pop.  (188.5)  1,<(79:  (18m))  4.424;  (1895) 
5,002.  Editor  of  '■  Republican." 

Anti!?'oil(>  ((ir.  'Ain-iy6yn) :  a  daughter  of  (Edipus.  King  of 
Thebes,  and  his  own  mother,  .locasta.  She  attended  her 
father  in  liis  exile  into  Colouus  in  Attica,  remaining  with 
him  t  ill  he  ilied.  wluMi  she  returned  to  Thebes,  and  afterward 
buried  her  brother  Polyniees  in  defiance  of  the  edict  of  the 
tyrant  Creon,  who,  for  her  disobedience,  immured  her  alive. 
Her  t  ragic  story  was  a  subject  of  the  Greek  poets,  particidarly 
Sojihocles,  whose  plays  of  Antifjanc  and  (Edipus  at  Colimiis 
are  still  extant,  and  Euripides,  whose  Antigone,  though  not 
extant,  is  known  from  extracts  by  later  writers,  and  in  his 
jilay  of  the  I^/iwnisKai. 

Antlg'onus  ((ir.  'Avrlyovos) :  King  of  .\sia,  surnained  Cy- 
clops (i.  e.  oue-eyed) ;  a  Macedonian  general ;  b.  about  382  n.  r. 
He  took  part  in  .\lexaniler"s  campaign  against  Persia,  anil  be- 
came satrap  of  Phrygia  in  3:13.  In  the  division  of  t  he  em|iire 
which  follow<Ml  the  di'ath  of  .Mexaiider.  Anligonus  reci'ived 
the  provinces  of  Lycia,  Paniphylia,  and  tlie  tireater  Phrygia. 
Having  become  an  enemy  of  Perdiecas,  he  foruu'd  an  alli- 
ance with  Ant  ipater  and  Ptolemy  in  321  n.  r.  After  the  (h^ath 
of  Perdiecas  (321  n.  <:.),  Antigonus  waged  war  in  Asia  Minor 
against  Eumenes,  wdioin  he  defeated  and  jiut  to  death  in  316. 
He  obtained  by  coni|nest  several  jirovinc'cs  in  Asia,  and  in- 
dulged an  immoderate  ambition,  to  restrain  which  Ptcjlemy, 
Cassander.Seleucus,  and  Lysiniachus  formed  a  league  against 
hiui  in  315  B.C.  In  the  long  war  that  ensued,  Demetrius 
Polioreete.s,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  defeated  Ptolemy  in  a 
naval  battle  in  306,  soon  after  which  Antigonus  took  the 
title  of  king.  He  encountered  the  united  armies  of  the  allies 
16 


at  Ipsus  in  Phrygia,  wliere  ho  was  defeated  and  kiUed  in 
battle  in  301  n.  c. 

Aiitigoiiiis :  King  of  the  .Tews  ;  son  of  Aristobulus  II. ;  b. 
about  80  B.  c.  After  the  death  of  his  father  he  was  expelled 
from  Judea  by  Antipater  and  Herod.  Ho  was  restored  to 
the  throne  by  the  Parthians  aI)out  39  B.  c,  but  the  Roman 
senate  refused  to  recognize  liim  as  king.  Mark  Antony  took 
Jerusalem  and  put  Antigoims  to  death  abcait  36  B.C. 

Autij^Oiiiis  Do'son  ((ir.  'Avrlyovos  i^tixrav) :  King  of  Mace- 
don  ;  was  a  descendant  of  Antigonus  surnained  CVcLOPS,  and 
a  nephew  of  Antigonus  Gonatas.  He  became  regent  or  king 
in  229  B.C.,  during  the  minority  of  Philip  V..  who  was  heir 
to  the  throne.  He  was  an  ally  of  the  Aclucan  League  in  a 
war  against  Sjiarta,  and  he  defeated  the  Spartan  Cleomenes 
in  221  B.  c.  Ho  died  in  tlie  same  year,  and  left  the  throne 
to  Philip  V. 

Anligonus  Gona'tas  (Gr.  'Am-lyoms  rovaras):  son  of  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes;  b.  about  320  B.  c.  at  Gona,  or  Gonni, 
in  The-ssaly,  whence  his  surname.  Having  defeated  an  army 
of  Gauls  who  under  Breniuis  had  invaded  Macedonia,  ho 
became  king  of  that  country  in  277  B.C.  He  was  expelled 
from  his  kingdom  by  the  famous  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus, 
in  273,  but  lie  recovered  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Pyr- 
rhus in  271.  He  died  about  240  B.  c,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Demetrius  II. 

Antig'orite :  a  species  of  serpentine  in  which  a  portion 
of  the  silica  is  replaced  by  alumina.  It  has  a  weak  luster, 
and  feels  smooth  but  not  greasy.-  It  is  found  in  the  Anti- 
gorio  valley  in  Piedmont. 

Antigua,  an-tee'-ga:  a  British  West  India  island;  the 
most  important  of  the  Leeward  group  (.see  map  of  West 
Indies,  ref.  fi-j\l) ;  first  .settled  in  1632.  It  is  22  miles  S.  of 
Barbuda.  The  capital,  St.  John's,  is  in  lat.  17°  8'  N.,  Ion. 
61'  52'  W.  The  surface  is  diversified,  the  climate  dry  and 
healthy,  and  the  soil  of  the  interior  is  fertile.  Sugar,  molas- 
ses, and  rum  are  the  chief  articles  of  export.  English  Har- 
bor can  receive  very  large  vessels.  Pop.  (1891)  36,700,  in- 
cluding the  small  islands  of  Bai'buda  and  Redonda.  Com- 
bined area,  108  sq.  miles. 

Antilegoni'pna  [Gr.  pros.  pass,  partic.  of  omXeVeii', 
speak  against]:  literally,  "spoken  against,"  a  theological 
term  applied  in  ancient  times  to  certain  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  authfirity  of  which  was  questioned  liy  some 
biljlical  critics — namely,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  those 
of  James  and  Jude,  the  Epistle  to  the  Helirews,  the  Second 
and  Third  of  St.  John,  and  the  Apocalyi]se.  They  were,  how- 
ever, ultimately  admitted  into  the  canon. 

Anti-Lib'anns.  or  Anti-Leb'anon :  a  mountain-range 
of  Palestine  anil  Syria,  extending  aliout  90  miles  in  a  N.  E. 
and  S.  W.  direction  nearly  parallel  with  Lebanon,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  valley  of  Cade-Syria.  It  is  of  Jura 
limestone  formation.  The  highest  summit  of  this  range  is 
Mt.  Hermon,  which  has  an  altitude  of  about  10.000  feet. 
The  valley  of  Ccele-Syria,  between  the  two  ranges,  now  called 
Buka'a,  is  from  4  to  6  miles  wide.  See  Robinson's  P/ii/sical 
Geograpliij  of  the  Ilohi  Land  (1865). 

Antilles  [supposed  by  some  to  be  corrupted  from  Lat.nn/e, 
before  -I-  iiiimUv,  islands,  because  they  seemed  placed  before 
the  continent,  which  was  only  reached  after  the  islands  had 
been  passed;  also  attributed  to  a  mythical  AntilUi  island]; 
all  the  West  India  islands  except  tjie  Bahamas.  They  lie 
lietwcen  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  ex- 
tend from  the  (iulf  of  Mexico  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria. 
They  are  divided  into  three  groups — the  Greater  Antilles, 
the  Virgin  islands,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles,  or  Caribbean 
ishands,  which  are  the  most  eastern.  The  Greater  Antilles 
comprise  the  four  largest  islands  of  the  archipelago — namely, 
Cuba.  Ilayt  i  (or  St.  Domingo).  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico,  with 
the  small  islands  along  tlieir  coasts.  They  are  silnateil  in 
the  torrid  zone,  and  are  subject  to  fre(|uent  hurricanes  and 
eartlniuakes.  In  the  central  parts  of  thc'se  islands  rise  high 
mountains  of  granitic  formation.  The  staple  proilucts  are 
sugar,  ruin,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  coffee. 

The  Lesser  Antilles  jire  small  in  size,  but  vei-y  numerous, 
and  are  arranged  in  a  long  curved  line  or  row  like  a  crescent, 
the  convex  side  of  which  is  toward  the  east.  They  are  divided 
into  two  grou]>s— viz.,  the  Windward,  or  South  C.aribbee  isl- 
and.s,  and  the  Leeward,  or  North  Caribbee  islands.  The 
W'indward  islands  are  Barbadoes,  Grenada,  the  Grenadines, 
Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  St.  ^'incent,  Trinidad,  and  Tobago. 
All  these  belong  to  Great  Britain,  except  M.'irtinique,  which 
is  a  French  cohmy.    The  Leeward  islands  are  Anguilla,  An* 


242 


ANTILOCAPEA 


ANTIMONY 


ti.Drua,  Barbuda,  Dcseada  (French),  Dominica,  Guadeloupe 
(French),  Marie  Galante  (French),  Montserrat,  Nevis,  Saba, 
St.  Bartholoiiiew  (Swedish),  St.  Christopher,  St.  Eustatius, 
St.  Martin  (Freneli  and  Dutch),  Santa  Cruz.  For  Virgin 
islands,  see  these  words.  The  Leeward  islands  are  Britisli, 
except  those  otherwise  designated,  and  three  of  the  Virgin 
islands.  Many  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  some  are  of  coral  formation.  The  staple  productions 
are  similar  to  tliose  of  the  Greater  Antilles.  A  large  portion 
of  the  pojiulation  of  the  Antilles  are  Negroes  and  mulattoes, 
who  are  tree.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  the  island  of  Cuba 
in  1886,  and  in  Porto  Rico  in  1873.  Area  of  Greater  Antilles, 
83,636  sq.  miles ;  pop.  4,343,000 :  Virgin  islands,  area  268  sq. 
miles;  jiop.  3!),000:  Lesser  Antilles,  area  4,3.59  sq.  miles; 
pop.  1.000,000.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Aiitiloca'pra  (i.  e.  antelope-goat) :  the  generic  name  of  tlie 
prong-liorned  antelope  (Antilocapra  americana),  which  in- 
habits the  drii'r  portions  of  tlie  North  American  continent 
W.  of  tlie  J\lississip|ii.  With  the  exception  of  the  so-called 
Rocky  Mnuntuiii  goal  (Mazania),  this  is  the  only  antelope 


h 


Prong-horned  antelope. 

found  in  America,  and  it  differs  widely  from  all  the  Old 
World  antelopes  in  this,  that  the  sheaths  of  its  horns  are 
shed  aniuially.  like  the  deciduous  horns  of  the  deer.  In  this 
respect  the  ju'ong-horned  antelope  stands  quite  alone,  and 
forms  the  type  of  a  distinct  family,  the  Antilncaprida'. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 
Aiitiin'aclliis  (in  (ir.  'Avrf^oxos) :  poet  and  scholar  of  Co- 
lophon :  livfd  alioul  400  IS.  c.  lie  was  a  forerunner  of  the 
Alexandrian  period,  and,  being  in  advance  of  his  times,  was 
not  popular.  Audience  fit  he  found  in  Plato,  who  admired 
his  poems.  More  successful  than  his  epic  Thelniis  was  his 
Lijdc.  a  cycle  of  elegies,  in  which  he  unilertook  to  console 
himself  for  the  loss  of  his  love  by  recounting  like  sorrows. 
Only  scant  fragments  remain.  See  (^tywA,^  La poesie,  Alex- 
andrine, p.  62  foil.  B.  L.  G. 

Aiiti-.Hasoiiry  :  opposition  to  secret  societies  (that  is,  so- 
cieties which  cciiiserve  .secrets)  in  general ;  but  more  particu- 
larly uppusitiou  to  the  order  known  as  Masons  or  Freemasons, 
for  which  a  high  aiitiipiity  and  wide  influence  are  claimed. 
This  oriler  eai-ly  excited  the  .suspicions  of  European  govern- 
ments, somi!  of  which  regarded  it  as  a  mask  for  conspiracies 
against  throne  and  altaf.  Some  of  them  protected  them- 
selves, so  far  as  they  might,  by  procuring  the  election  of 
princes  or  other  eminent  personages  to  the  chief  offices  of 
the  order. 

In  the  snnnner  of  1826  a  thriftless  tailor,  named  William 
Morgan,  living  in  the  village  of  Ratavia,  in  Western  New 
York,  it  was  whispered,  was  engaged  in  preparing  a  revela- 
tion of  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic  order,  whereof  he  was  a 
memVier.  Other  Masons,  including  the  editor  of  the  village 
gazette,  were  understood  to  be  engaged  with  him  in  the  en- 
terprise. Morgan  disatipeared  suddenly  one  evening,  and  it 
was  soon  proved  that  lie  had  been  forcibly  abducted.     Ex- 


citement naturally  arose,  committees  of  vigilance  and  safety 
were  organized,  and  he  was  traced  westwanl  to  Fort  Niagara, 
near  Lewiston,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  temporarily  imprisoned, 
and  whence,  it  was  ultimately  testified,  he  was  taken  out  into 
deep  water  in  Lake  Ontario  and  there  sunk,  though  this  was 
strenuously  denied,  and  various  stories  from  time  to  time 
affirmed  that  he  was  subsequently  seen  alive  at  Smyrna  in 
Asia  and  other  places.  Such  reports  did  not  allay  the  ex- 
citement, which  deepened  and  diffused  itself,  fimliiig  vent  in 
a  political  party,  which  cast  33.(100  votes  in  the  State  of  New 
York  in  1828,  about  70.000  in  1820.  and  128,000  in  1830;  but 
of  this  last  a  fraction  were  not  Anti-Masons,  but  only  Anti- 
Jackson.  The  party  spread  into  other  States,  and  nominated 
William  Wirt  for  President  and  Amos  Ellmaker  for  Vice- 
President  in  1832,  when  they  were  heartily  sujiported  in  sev- 
eral States,  but  carried  Vermont  only.  They  ])robaldy  di- 
verted votes  enough  from  Clay  to  gixe  the  States  of  Ohio  and 
New  Jersey  to  Jackson.  They  nearly  elected  Joseph  Ritner 
Cfovernor  of  Pennsylvania  in  1833,  and  did  elect  him  in  1835, 
through  a  split  in  the  Democratic  ranks.  The  excitement 
gradually  died  out.  and  absorbing  questions  of  finance  and 
political  economy  soon  dissolved  the  Anli-Masouio  party. 
See  the  article  United  States  {Ilislorij). 

Aiiti-Mlssion  Baptists,  called  by  themselves  Old-Scliool 

Baptists:  a  denomination  of  hyper-Calvinistic  Baptists  of 
the  U.  S.  who  have  no  Suuday-seiiools,  missions,  colleges,  or 
theological  schools,  holding  that  these  things  make  the  sal- 
vation of  men  to  depend  on  human  effort  and  not  upon 
divine  grace. 

Antimo'nial  Wine  :  a  solution  of  tartar  emetic  in  sherry 
or  other  wine. 

An'timony  [from  MedieY.  Jjat.  anfuno'nium ;  etymol.  ob- 
scure] :  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  silver-white  color  and  of  a  pecul- 
iar taste;  atomic  weight  120;  chemical  symbol  Sb  (from 
Lat.  stibium).  It  occurs  in  nature  native,  combined  with 
other  metals,  as  nickel,  silver,  etc..  with  oxygen  and  with 
sul])hur.  The  sulphide,  '-stibnite"  or  "gray  antimony," 
is  the  source  of  all  the  antimony  of  commerce.  The  most 
aliundant  supplies  of  this  ore  are  obtained  from  Borneo.  It 
also  occurs  in  considerable  quantities  in  Hungary,  Corn- 
wall. New  Brunswick,  California,  and  Nevada.  The  sulphide, 
being  very  fusible,  is  often  separated  from  the  accompany- 
ing gangiie-rock  by  heat,  and  cast  in  blocks  or  loaves.  The 
metal,  or  "  regulus'of  antimony  "  as  it  is  called  in  commerce, 
is  separated  from  the  suljihide  in  various  ways,  such  as  heat- 
ing with  metallic  iron,  sodic  carbonate,  and  charcoal,  or 
cream  of  tartar  and  niter.  The  extraction  of  antimony 
from  its  ores  is  mainly  carried  on  at  Linz,  in  Germany, 
where  the  sulphide  of  antimony  is  found  extensively,  and 
in  (ireat  Britain,  which  receives  its  supply  of  ore  from 
Singa]iore  and  Borneo,  commonly  as  ballast.  The  process 
consists  in  heating  the  crude  ore,  covcreil  with  charcoal,  on 
the  bed  of  a  furnace,  when  the  sulphide  of  antimony  fuses, 
leaving  unmelted  the  earthy  impurities:  and  thereafter  the 
liquid  is  drawn  off  into  iron  molds,  where  it  solidifies  into 
cal<es  or  loaves.  The  latter  are  reduced  to  coarse  ])Owder, 
placed  on  the  bed  of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  heated 
with  access  of  ordinary  air  containing  oxygen,  when  the 
sulphur  passes  away  as  gaseous  sulphurous  acid,  SOj,  leaving 
behind  the  antimony  as  the  trioxide,  SbjOs.  The  roasted 
mass  is  now  mixed  with  one-sixth  of  its  weight  of  powdered 
charcoal,  the  whole  moistened  with  a  .solutiim  of  sodium 
carbonate,  and  raised  to  bright  redness  in  crucibles,  wlien  ( he 
metal  antimony  trickles  to  the  bottom,  and  the  impurities 
are  left  above  in  tlie  spent  flux  or  scoria,  which  is  known 
in  the  arts  by  the  name  of  fj-ocH.s  of  antimony.  The  anti- 
mony thus  prepared  is  more  or  less  contaminated  by  sul]ihur, 
copper,  arsenic,  iron,  lead,  etc.  It  nuiy  be  freed  from  all 
these  metals  except  lead  by  reducing  it  to  a  coarse  powder 
and  fusing  with  one-sixteenth  of  gray  sulphide  and  one- 
eighth  of  dry  soilic  carbonate.  The  resulting  metal  must 
then  be  ]nilverized  and  fused  witli  oue-lcnth  of  dry  sodium 
carbonate,  and  the  process  repeated. 

Owing  to  the  extensive  use  of  antimony  ]irepa rat  ions  in 
medicine,  the  removal  of  arsenic  is  of  sjiecial  importance. 
This  can  be  effected  by  mixing  4  parts  of  powdei-ed  anti- 
mony with  r>  parts  niter  and  2  parts  dry  sodium  carbonate, 
project ing  the  mixture  into  a  red-hot  crucible.  The  semi- 
fused  mass  is  boiled  with  water,  and  the  insoluble  jiotassiura 
anfimoniate  is  reduced  to  metal  by  fusion  with  cream  of 
tartar.  Several  successive  fusions  of  pulverized  antimony 
with  one-eighth  of  niter  are  said  to  completely  remove  the 
arsenic. 


ANTIMONY 


ANTIOCII 


243 


Antimony  is  a  brilliant  motal  of  a  bluish-wliito  color  and 
highly  crystalline  or  laminated  stiiicture.  Its  density  is 
6-7  to  r>-.s6.  It  is  extremely  hi-ittle,  and  may  be  easily  pul- 
verizeil  in  a  mortar.  Heated  in  tlie  open  air,  it  bnrns  with 
a  bluish-wliite  tlame,  and  forms  copious  fumes  of  antimon- 
ous  oxid(^  (SIiqOs).  or  "flowers  of  antimony."  A  peculiar 
amorpfioii.s  antimony  was  prepared  by  G.  Gore  (Proc.  Roy. 
Sof..  ix.  70  and  ;!04)'l)y  elect  rolyzing  certain  solutions  of  the 
metal.  A  mass  having  the  appearance  of  polished  steel, 
witli  a  briijht,  metallic,  amorphous  fracture,  was  obtained  of 
a  density  of  5-78,  which,  on  beinj?  broken  or  heated,  suddenly 
passed  iiito  the  crystalline  foiin,  with  the  evolution  of  suffi- 
cient he.-it  to  make  it  take  fire.  Antimony  is  oxidized  by 
nitric  acid,  with  the  formation  of  antimonous  oxide  (SbjOa), 
antimonic  oxide  (Sh^c  ij),  or  antimonoso-antimonic  oxide 
(Sli^Oj.SljjOs).  Antimony  forms  witli  acids  or  clilorous  radi- 
cals two  classes  of  compounds:  (1)  antimonous  or  tri-com- 
pounds,  as  the  trichloride  Sl)('l3 ;  trioxide  or  antimonous 
oxide,  SbjOa;  trisulpliide,  81)083.  (2)  Antimonic  or  penta- 
compounds,  as  pentaihloride.  SliC'U ;  pentoxidc  or  antimonic 
oxide.  Sli-jOs:  pcnlasuliihide,  SlijSs. 

AnfimmiiJiis  e/ilui  idi'.  or  tricliliiride  (SbCU).  called  butter 
of  tinfimony,  is  obtained  by  dissolving  antimonic  sulphide  in 
hydrochloric  acid.  In  its  concentrated  form  it  appears  as 
a  vellow  oily  liquid  of  the  consistence  of  melted  butter. 
Poured  into  water,  it  produces  a  buttery  white  precipitate 
of  oxychloride  (powder  ofalf/iinil/i).  SbCls.  Sh^Oa,  or  SbO.Cl. 
Mixed  with  olive  oil,  Imtter  of  antimony  is  used  for  bronz- 
ing gun-liarrels.  powdered  antinu)ny  poured  into  a  jar  of 
chlorine  takes  fire,  forming-  SI1CI3  or  SliClj. 

Antimonic  chloride,  or  peiitachloride  (SbCU),  is  a  colorless 
volatile  licpiid,  prepared  by  heating  antimony  in  an  excess 
of  chlorine.  By  the  action  of  water  it  is  changed  to  anti- 
monic acid  and  hydrochloric  acid, 

AHtiiiionoiis  hydride,  or  antimonetted  hydrogen  (SbHs),  a 
colorless  gas  produced  by  the  action  of  zinc  and  sulphuric 
acid  on  a  solution  of  antimony.  It  burns  with  a  greenish 
flame,  evolving  fumes  of  Sb3(.>3.  Passed  through  a  red-hot 
tube,  it  is  decomposed,  with  the  formation  of  a  black  de- 
posit of  Sb,  A  similar  deposit  is  formed  on  cold  porcelain 
held  in  the  flame.  When  the  gas  is  passed  into  a  solution 
of  argentic  nitrate,  a  black  precipitate  of  antimonide  of 
silver  (SbAga)  is  formeil.  This  gas  (SbH3)  is  the  analogue 
of  ammonia,  XII3.  phosphine,  PII3,  and  arsine,  AsHs;  as  is 
also  the  silver  compound,  SbAga.  A  class  of  organic  bases, 
represented  by  triethyl  stibine,  Sb(Can6)3,  belongs  to  the  same 
group. 

Antimonous,  or  trioxide  (811303),  found  native  in  beauti- 
ful crystals,  as  valentinite  and  senarnmntite.  Boiled  with 
cream  of  tartar  (K.II.C^IIiOn),  antimonous  oxide  dissolves, 
with  the  formation  of  potiisnio-milimonyl  tartrate,  ov  tartar 
emetic  (K.8bO.C4n,()e).  An  impure  oxide  is  manufactured 
for  the  preparation  of  this  salt,  by  roasting  the  powdered 
Buljiliide,  and  fusing  tlie  product  at  the  end  of  the  process. 
It  IS  known  as  (/lags  of  antimony. 

Antimonic,  or  pento.ride  (SbjOo),  is  formed  by  heating 
pow<lereil  antimony  with  excess  of  strong  nitric  acid,  by 
decomposing  Sbt'U  with  water,  or  by  fusing  powdered  an- 
timony with  niter.  Potassium  antimoniate  is  the  only  re- 
agent for  the  pri-ci[iitation  of  soda.  There  are  two  modifi- 
cations of  this  acid,  known  as  antimonic  acid,  HSbOs,  and 
metanLimonic  acid,  lUSbjOr. 

Tetroxide,  or  ant i monoso-antimonic  acid  (SbjO,  or  SbaOs.- 
SbjOs),  occurs  native  as  ce.rvantite.  It  is  the  idtimate  prod- 
uct of  the  action  of  heat  and  air  on  the  metal. 

Trisulpliide,  or  antimonous  sulphide  (811383),  the  ore  stih- 
nite,  itv !/ ray  antimony,  prepared  artificially  by  fusing  anti- 
mony with  sulphur,  or  as  an  orange  precipitate  by  p.-issing 
gidphiiretteil  hydrogen  tlirough  a  solution  of  tartar  emetic. 
This  sulphide  is  a  sul|)hur-acid,  which  units  with  basic  sul- 
phides, forming  salts  in  every  way  analogous  to  the  oxygen 
ailts.  8iu'h  are  3K38.8b383 ;  zinkenite,  PbS.SbsS3 ;  miargy- 
rite,  AgS.SIijSj;  pyrargyi-ite,  ;iAg8.8b383. 

Penlasiilphide,  or  antimonic  sulpiride  (SbjSs),  is  also  a 
Bulplnir-acid,  forming  sulpho-antimoniatcs,  analogous  to  the 
ortlio-]iliosphates.  The  sodic  sulplio-antimoniate  is  Xas- 
Sb8,.  I'reiipilated  from  a  mixture  of  antimonic  penta- 
chloride  ancl  tartaric  acid,  it  appears  as  a  yellowish-red  pow- 
der, th(^  golden  sul])liuret. 

Kermes  is  an  oxysulphide  (811303.281)83)  which  occurs  na- 
tive as  the  beautifid  cherry-red  kermcsite. 

Alloys  of  Axtlmoxv. —  Type-metal  is  composed  of  anti- 
mony 1.  lead  4  parts,  and  when  used  for  stereotype  plates  re- 
ceives an   addition  of  one-eightieth  to  one-fiftieth   of  tin. 


This  alloy  is  not  only  hard.  Vint,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it 
exjiands  at  the  moment  of  solidification,  it  takes  a  very 
sharp  impression  of  the  mold,  liritannia  is  composed  of 
antimony  1,  tin  !)  parts.  I'ewter  is  another  alloy  of  anti- 
mony and  tin.  Antimony  also  enters  into  the  composition 
of  some  of  the  anti-friction  alloys.  Tartar  emetic  is  the 
most  important  preparation  of  antimony  used  in  medicine; 
in  large  doses  it  is  very  poisonous.  The  old-fashioned 
"family  pill"  was  a  small  bullet  of  metallic  antimony, 
which  was  swallowed  for  certain  difliculties,  and  carefully 
preserved  for  future  occasions. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rbmsen. 

.\ntill()'niiniis  [from  Or.  ivrl,  against  -t-  viiios,  law]:  those 
who  maintain  that  the  Law  is  of  no  use  or  obligation  under 
the  (iospel  dispensation.  They  took  their  rise  from  John 
AoKicoi.A  ((/.  )'.),  who  was  originally  a  disciple  and  friend  of 
Luther,  and  who  contended  that  liis  views  were  the  legiti- 
mate deductions  from  the  princi[)!es  taught  by  Luther  him- 
self. He  taught,  among  other  things,  that  good  works  do 
not  prcjinote  our  salvation,  nor  evil  ones  hinder  it.  Luther 
attacked  the  Antinomian  heresy  with  great  zeal,  and  at 
length,  in  l.")40,  xVgricola  recanteil  his  more  obnoxious  tenets. 
The  controversy,  however,  having  been  reopened  by  Poach, 
of  Erfurt,  in  1556,  led  to  the  full  statement  and  decision 
concerning  the  entire  subject  in  the  Formula  of  Concord, 
arts.  V.  and  vi.  Similar  views  were  afterward  charged 
against  Dr.  Tobias  Crisp  (1000-42)  and  others  in  England. 

Henry  E.  Jacobs. 

Anfiii<M>i)oIi$«:  See  Besa. 

Aiitiiiuns,  an-tin'o-us:  a  beautiful  youth,  a  native  of 
Bithynia,  became  a  favorite  and  attendant  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian.  Having  accompanied  that  emperor  to  P^gypt,  he 
was  drowned  in  the  Nile,  near  Besa,  in  122  A.  n.  As  a  mon- 
ument to  him,  Hadrian  built  the  city  of  Antinoopolis,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  and  established  an  annual  festival.  Statues 
almost  innumerable  were  also  erected  to  perpetuate  his 
memory  and  his  form,  by  artists  whose  enmlation  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  fine  arts.  8ome  of  these  statues  are  still 
extant.  He  is  the  subject  of  the  romances  of  George  Tay- 
lor (Hausrafh),  Antinous  (1880),  and  Georg  Ebers,  The 
Emperor  (1881). 

An'tiocli  [from  Lat.  Antioclii'a ;  Gr.  'AvTi<ix"a;  Turk. 
Aiitakia] :  an  ancient  city  and  the  former  capital  of  Syria, 
situated  on  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Orontes,  57  miles  W.  of  Aleppo;  lat.  36°  11'  N.,  Ion. 
36  !»  30'  E.  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-G).  It  was  founded 
in  301  B.C.,  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  named  in  honor  of  his 
father,  Antiochus.  It  was  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Se- 
Icucid  Kings  of  Syria,  was  called  "  Antioch  the  Beautiful," 
and  was  widely  celebrated  for  the  sjilendor  of  its  luxury  and 
the  magnificence  of  its  palaces  and  temples.  The  population 
in  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosjierity  is  supposed  to  have  been 
400.000  or  more.  The  Romans  gave  it  autonomy ;  it  was  the 
cajiil.-d  of  the  Roman  governor  of  Syri;i,.  the  center  of  West 
Asiatic  trade,  and  until  the  imperial  residence  was  removed 
to  Constant inople  it  ranked  after  Home  and  Alexandria 
among  tiic  cities  of  the  empire.  Antioch  has  been  several 
tinu's  ncarlv  ruineil  bv  eartli(|nakes.  Tlie  most  destructive 
of  them  occurred  in  526  a.  n..  and  is  said  to  have  caused  the 
death  of  250.000  people,  there  being  at  that  time  an  as.sem- 
bly  of  Christians  there.  On  Apr.  3  and  10,  1872,  the  city 
was  again  visited  by  severe  earthquakes,  which  destroyed 
many  houses  and  caused  the  death  of  a  considerable  portion 
of  tlie  population.  The  disciples  of  Christ  were  first  called 
Christians  in  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  26),  which  occupies  a  prom- 
inent position  in  the  history  of  the  primitive  Church  as  the 
scene  of  the  labors  of  the  apostle  Paul,  and  the  starting- 
jxiint  of  his  missionary  journeys.  In  the  fifth  century  the 
l)ishops  of  Antioch  received  the  title  of  patriarchs,  and 
ranki'd  equal  to  the  patriarchs  of  Rome,  Constantinople, 
and  Alexandria.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  patriarchs  still 
retain  this  rank.  In  the  Koinan  Catholic  Church  four  pre- 
lates (of  the  (ireek.  Syrian,  Maronite,  and  Latin  rites)  have 
the  title  of  patriarch 'of  Antioch,  hut  none  of  them  at  pres- 
ent resides  in  .Vntioch.  The  Jacobite  patriarch  of  Antioch 
is  the  head  of  that  Church.  Many  couiu'ils  of  the  Church 
were  also  held  here.  The  crusaders  took  Antioch  from  the 
Saracens  in  1008,  after  which  it  was  the  capital  of  a  Chris- 
tian principality  until  126!).  Among  the  remains  of  its 
former  grandeur  arc  tlu!  ruined  walls  and  aqueduct.  On 
the  south  bank  of  the  Orontes.  about  5  miles  S.  W.  of  An- 
tioch, is  the  site  of  the  fanmus  ancient  grove  of  Daphne 
and   temple   of  AijoUo.     The   modern   town,   Antakia,   is 


244 


ANTIOCH,   BAT  OP 


ANTIPATER 


meanly  built,  but  has  some  manufactures  of  pottery  and 
cotton  stuffs.  The  culture  of  silk  is  the  chief  branch  of 
industry.  It  has  become  a  center  of  Protestant  missionary 
labors.     Pop.  estimated  at  17,500. 

AsTiocn  was  also  the  name  of  an  ancient  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  Pisidia,  visited  by  the  apostle  Paul  (see  Acts  xiii. 
14,  and  xiv.  21),  who  planted  a  church  there.  Of  this  city 
extensive  ruins  exist.  Besides  the  above,  there  were  at  least 
six  other  Oriental  towns  of  this  name. 

Revised  by  S.  JI.  Jacksox. 

Antioch,  Bay  of:  is  a  part  of  the  ^Mediterranean,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Onmtes  river,  between  lat.  35'  50'  and  36  20 
N.,  and  in  Ion.  about  36  E..  and  lies  between  high  moun- 
tains on  the  N.  and  S.,  I)y  whieli  it  is  mostly  well  sheltered. 
The  waters  are  deep,  and  free  from  rocks.  Some  ruins  are 
situated  on  the  north  side,  which  are  described  as  those  of 
Seleucia  Pciria,  the  ancient  port  of  Antioch. 

Aiitiocli  CoIIpg'e  (Yellow  Springs,  Greene  CO.,  0.) :  found- 
ed in  1852,  and  opened  in  the  following  year.  This  college  is 
designed  to  be  free  from  sectarian  influences,  and  to  develop 
good  character  as  well  as  mental  excellence  in  its  pupils. 
The  sexes  are  educated  together  with  the  best  results.  The 
college  was  established  witli  a  view  of  diffusing  education 
at  the  lowest  ]iossil)le  cost.  It  has  a  music  school  and  a 
preparatorv  department.  Its  first  [iresident  was  Hon.  Hor- 
ace Mann,  LL.  D.  (1852-59).  Rev.  U.  A.  Long.  D.  D..  LL.  D., 
is  the  present  incumbent.  Its  principal  patrons  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  Church.  Tlie  number  of  instructors 
is  twelve,  and  of  studeuts  100.  There  are  5,000  volumes  in 
the  library. 

Antio'chian  School :  a  school  which  held  doctrinal 
views  in  opposition  to  the  Alexandrian  school:  flourished 
in  Antioch  during  tlie  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  It  re- 
jected allegorizing,  maintained  the  freedom  of  the  will,  the 
conjunction  ratlier  than  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in 
Christ,  and  in  general  practical  rather  than  speculative 
views.  The  great-  names  of  the  school  are  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  Chr>'sostom.  See  Her- 
genrother,  Die,  antinchi-nische  Schule  (Wiirzburg,  1866). 

S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Anti'ochiis  I.,  surnamed  SoTER  (i.e.  saviour):  a  King  of 
Syria,  of  tlie  dynast  y  Sel('Ui-ida> :  a  son  of  Seleucus  I.  Nicator : 
b.  about  324  B.C.  lie  coiniuanded  the  cavalry  which  fought 
against  Antigonus  at  Ipsus,  in  301.  Having  succeeded  his 
father  in  280  B.  c,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Gauls,  who 
had  invaded  his  dominions,  frotn  which  victory  he  derived 
the  surname  Soter.  He  was  kiUed  in  battle  by  the  Gauls 
in  261  B.C. 

Antioclms  II.,  Tiii;os  :  King  of  Syria  ;  son  of  the  preced- 
ing; began  to  reign  in  261  B.C.  The  people  of  Miletus,  who 
had  received  a  favor  from  him,  gave  him  the  title  of  T/ieos. 
"God."  In  his  reign  the  Parthians  revolted  with  success, 
and  Arsaces  becauu'  King  of  Parthia,  which  was  previously 
subiect  to  the  King  of  .Syi-ia.  A  war  which  he  waged  against 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  was  ended  in  252  B.C.  by  a  treaty,  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  lie  married  Berenice,  a  daughter  of 
Ptolemy,  and  repudiated  his  first  wife,  Laodiee.  After  the 
death  of  Ptolemy  he  rein.stated  Laodiee.  who  poisoned  him 
in  246  B.  (;. 

Antiooliiis  III.,  surnamed  The  Great:  a  grandson  of 
the  prececiing,  and  a  son  of  .Seleucus  Callinicus;  b.  about  238 
B.C.  lie  succeeded  his  lirotlier,  Seleucus  Ceraunus  in  223 
B.C.  His  capital  was  Antioch,  and  his  kingdom  comprised 
Svria  Proper,  Babylonia,  Me(lia.  and  a  i>art  of  Asia  Minor. 
I^or  the  possession  of  Palestine  he  waged  war  against 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Kaphia. 
near  Gaza,  in  217  B.C.  While  he  was  suppressing  a  revolt 
of  Aclucus  in  Asia  Minor  in  214,  the  Parthians  occupied 
Media,  but,  after  a  successful  campaign  against  Arsaces  of 
Parthia,  Antiochus  reconquered  Media  in  212.  He  after- 
ward condu(tled  a  victorious  expedition  across  the  moun- 
tains of  Hindu  Koosh  into  India,  and,  having  formed  an 
alliance  with  several  Inilian  princes,  returned  to  Antioch, 
from  which  he  had  l)een  absent  seven  years.  He  took  Pales- 
fine  from  the  Kingof  Egypt  in  198  B.  c  and  invaded  Thrace 
in  196.  By  this  movemeht  he  provoked  the  hostilitv  of  the 
J{oman  senate.  He  led  an  army  into  Greece,  was  defeated 
at  Thermopyhe  in  191  by  Acilius  Glabrio,  and  retreated  into 
Asia  Minor.  The  Koniaii  army,  commanded  by  L.  Corne- 
lius Seipio,  passed  over  into  Asia  in  190  B.C.,  and  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  Antiochus  at  Magnesia.  The  war  was 
then  ended  by  a  treaty  dictated  by  the  Romans,  who  re- 


quired him  to  cede  all  the  provinces  W.  of  Mt.  Taurus,  and 
to  pay  about  15,000  talents.  In  order  to  raise  this  sum  he 
plundered  a  temple  in  Elyniais,  for  which  act  the  populace 
killed  him  in  187  B.  c.  He  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Seleu- 
cus Philopator.  This  Antiochus,  and  the  secoml  and  fourth 
of  the  name,  are  supposed  to  be  referred  to  in  Dan.  xi.  See 
Polybius,  History.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Aiitioelins  IV.,  surnamed  Epiphanes  (the  illustrious):  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  passed  about  twelve  years  in  captivity 
in  Rome,  whither  he  was  sent  as  a  hostage  in  188  B.  c.  He 
became  king  on  the  death  of  his  brother.  Seleucus  Philo- 
[lator,  in  175  b.  c.  He  invaded  Egypt  in  170,  and  captured 
the  king,  Ptolemy  Philometor,  but  was  constrained  by  the 
Roman  senate  to  retire  from  that  country  in  168  B.  c.  About 
this  date  he  endeavored  to  supplant  Jewish  institutions  and 
usages  by  Hellenic  arts  and  culture;  he  plundered  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem  and  persecuted  the  Jews,  who  rose  in  arms 
and  were  led  by  Judas  Maccaba-us,  who  defeated  the  Syrian 
armies  in  several  battles.   (See  1  Maccabees  ii.)  ^).  in  164  B.C. 

Antiochus  VII..  surnamed  Sidetes:  a  son  of  Demetrius 
Soter:  li.  about  164  B.C.:  became  King  of  Syria  in  137.  He 
defeated  the  Parthians  in  several  battles,  but  was  killed  in 
battle  by  them  in  129  B.  c. 

Antiochus  VIII.:  second  son  of  Cleojiatra(the  wife, first 
of  Alexander  Balas,  then  of  Demetrius  II.,  and  then  of  An- 
tiochus VII.):  reigned  over  Syria  with  his  mother  from  126 
to  122  B.C.,  and  then  alone  till  114  B.C.,  when  his  authority 
was  disjiuted  by  his  half-brother.  Antiochus  Cyzicenus  (An- 
tiochus IX.).  He  was  assassinated  by  an  officer  of  his  court, 
96  B.  c. 

Antiochus  IX.,  surnamed  CYZicENa's:  son  of  Cleopatra 
by  Antiochus  VII..  survived  Antiochus  VIII. ,  and  commit- 
ted suicide  95  B.  c. 

Antiochus  X.,  surnamed  Eusebes  :  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  his  father  in  95  B.  c,  but  was  soon  after  expelled, 
and  died  in  obscurity. 

Antiochus  XIII.,  surnamed  Asiaticus:  the  twentieth 
and  last  king  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidu'.  He  began 
to  reign  about  69  B.  c,  and  was  deposed  by  Pompey  in  65 
B.  c,  when  Syria  became  a  Roman  province.  He  was  exe- 
cuted at  Koine,  29  B.  c. 

Anti'oco:  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  west 
coast  of  Sardinia.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Area,  42  sq.  milea 
Po[>.  aliout  2.200. 

Autioquia.  iin-tee-oke'e-a :  a  department  of  Colombia; 
centrally  located,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Magdalena  river, 
with  Bolivar  on  the  N.,  Santander  on  the  E.,  Tolinia  on  the 
S.,  and  Cauca  on  the  S.  'W'.  and  W.  It  abounds  in  forests 
and  in  the  ores  of  the  precious  metals.  A rea,  22,800  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  (1884)  464.887.  .The  chief  towns  are  :  Antio- 
(|uia  (pop.  8,640.  elevation  1.887  feet),  on  the  Cauca  river; 
:MedelIiii,  the  capital  (pop.  40,000,  elevation  6,140  feet).  A 
railroad  a  few  miles  in  length  extends  westward  from 
Puerto  Berrio  on  the  Magdalena.  More  than  half  of  this 
department  is  under  cultivation.  M.  W.  II. 

Antiji'aros.  Oli'aros,  or  Ole'aros:  a  Grecian  island  in 
the  .Esrean  Sea.  ali(mt  a  mile  W.  of  Paros;  is  one  of  the 
Cycla<les  (see  map  of  (ireecc.  ref.  17-M).  It  is  8  miles  long 
and  2  or  3  miles  wide,  and  consists  of  a  mass  of  marble, 
coveri'd  with  soil  which  produces  some  grain,  wine,  etc 
Here  is  a  celebrated  stalactitic  cavern  called  the  Grotto  ot 
Antiparos,  which  is  about  300  feet  long  and  80  feet  high. 
The  roof  and  sides  are  adorned  with  white  incrustations  of 
great  splendor  and  lieauty.  This  grotto  was  discovered  by 
JI.  <le  kointel  in  1673.  It  was  probably  not  known  to  the 
ancients.     Pop.  about  800. 

.\nti|>as:  See  Herod  Antipas. 

jVutip'ater  (in  Gr.  'AyriiraTpos) :  a  Macedonian  general ;  a 
jiupil  of  Aristotle  :  held  a  responsible  position  under  Philip 
of  Macedon.  He  was  appointed  regent  of  that  kingdom  by 
.Mexander  the  Great  in  334  B.  c,  when  he  departed  to  in- 
vade Persia.  He  defeated  Agis,  King  of  Sparta,  in  a  battle 
near  Megalopolis  in  330.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  his 
generals  or  successors  agreed  that  Antipater  should  govern 
5laeedonia  and  Greece.  The  Athenians,  in  alliance  with 
olher  Greek  .states,  made  an  effort  to  regain  their  indepen- 
dence in  322,  and  defeated  Antipater  near  Lamia,  but, 
having  been  reinforced  by  Craterus,  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory  in  the  same  year.  "The  Lamian  war  was  then  ended 
by  a  treaty  dictated' by  Antipater,  who  required  the  Athe- 
nians to  deliver  Demosthenes  to  him.     He  joine<l  Ant  igonus 


ANTIPATER 


ANTIQUITIES 


245 


in  a  league  against  Perdiccas.  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter, 
in  331,  succeeded  iiini  as  regent  of  tlie  empire.  He  died  in 
319  or  318  n.  c.  and  left  a  son,  Cassjinder.  Sec  Thirlwall, 
History  of  Greece ;  Diodorus  Sieulus,  Uistory. 

Antii)a1er:  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and  Doris;  notori- 
ous for  his  wickedness.  Havinj;  procured  the  death  of  his 
half-brothers  ArislDhuhis  and'  Alexander,  and  conspired 
against  his  fallier,  lie  was  put  to  death  in  1  B.  c  ^ 

Antipatcr  of  Tarsus:  a  Stoic  philosopher  who  lived 
about  141)  li.  v.;  wrote  several  works  on  philosophy  and 
morality.  !!(>  opposed  the  skepticism  of  Carneades.  Cicero 
represents  him  as  a  man  of  remarkable  subtlety. 

Aiitipatcr  the  Idiimoaii :  son  of  Antipas,  and  the  father 
of  Herod  tlie  (irral  :  became  governor  ot  Idumea.  Having 
assisted  Julius  (-'a;sar  in  his  war  against  the  Egyptians,  he 
was  rewarded  with  the  ollice  of  procurator  or  governor  of 
Judc.a,  about  40  n.  o.     I),  in  43  B.  c. 

Aiitipli'aiU'S  (in  Or.  '^vrvpiirni):  Greek  poet  of  the  Mid- 
dle Comeilv,  who  flourislied  about  368  B.  c,  was,  like  Alexis 
(q.  v.).  a  iirolific  playwright.  Indeed,  one  account  gives  him 
no  less  than  3(i.")  ciiiiicdies.  Of  these  we  have  specimens  ot 
some  130.  The  fragments  have  mainly  to  do  with  the  giv- 
ing of  dinners  and  the  uttering  of  "sentiments."  Meineke, 
iii.  5SI0  toll.;  Kock,  ii.  4.")1  loll. 

Antiph'iliis  CAvrlrpiXos):  Greek  jiaintcr;  b.  in  Egypt; 
supjiosed  to  have  llourished  about  330  B.  c.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished for  facility  of  execution.  Among  his  works 
were  Cadmus  and  Eiiropa,  and  a  portrait  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  He  was  perhaps  the  most  successful  and  celebrated 
painter  of  the  Alexaiulrian  epoch,  except  Apelles. 

Antiplilogis'tic  [from  Gr.  avTi,  against  +  (p\oytaT6s, 
burnt  up;  (pKo-ylCnv,  ^L'i  an  tire,  <^Af'76ii',  burn] :  adapted  to 
subdue  inflammation  or  excitement  of  the  system  in  inflam- 
matory diseases  ;  applied  to  such  remedies  are  purgatives 
and  blood-letting. 

Aii'tiphon  CKvTKpaiv):  one  of  the  ten  Attic  orators;  b.  at 
Rhainnus  in  Attica  about  480  B.  c. ;  gained  great  repute  as  a 
teacher  ot  rhetoric,  and  as  a  composer  of  orations  for  politi- 
cians and  for  those  who  were  accused  of  capital  olfenses. 
The  praise  bestowed  on  him  by  Thueydides  is  accountable 
for  the  notion  that  the  historian  was  the  pupil  of  the  orator. 
He  took  an  active  ("irt  in  the  oligarchical  reaction  ot  the 
Four  Hundred  (see  Grkek  History),  was  convicted  of  trea- 
son, and  executed  in  411.  Of  the  fifteen  speeches  extant, 
all  murder  cases,  twelve  are  mere  skeletons  for  fictitious 
trials,  three  liave  more  life,  and  one  of  these  three  (On  the. 
Murder  of  Ucrodes)  a  certain  historical  interest.  Antiplion 
is  important  as  an  exemplar  of  early  rhetorical  art,  the  stilf- 
ness  and  formality  of  wliii-h  do  not  disguise  acuteness  and 
force.  See  Blass,  Atlisctie  liiredsamkeit,  i.  91  foil.;  Jel)b, 
Attic  Orators,  i.  1  foil.  Ed.  with  elaborate  commentary  by 
Maetzner,  1838.     Text  ed.  by  Blass,  2d  (1881). 

15.  L.  GiLDERSLEEVE. 

Alltiphoii  [from  (ir.  a.vTi<pu>vos.  sounding  in  response; 
innl.  against  +  (ptiiin\,  voice] :  a  piece  of  music  performed  in 
cathedral  service  by  choristers,  who  sing  alternately ;  a  short 
verse  which  was  sung  in  the  ancient  Church  before  the 
psalms  and  other  portions  of  the  service. 

Aiitipli'oiiy :  a  species  of  musical  accompaniment  in  the 
octave  Ijy  instnunents  or  voices. 

ANTiriioNY  is  also  a  sacred  song  sung liy  two  parties,  each 
responding  to  the  otlu^r;  the  answer  of  one  choir  to  the 
other  when  an  anthem  is  sung  alternately.  This  practice 
prevailed  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  and  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church,  ingnatius,  Bishoi)  of  Antioch,  is  said  to  have 
introduced  it  into  the  Eastern  Cliiirch  in  the  second  century. 

Aiitip'odes  [from  Cir.  phir.  ot  iuniTrovs,  having  the  feet 
opposite;  avri,  against  -t-  irous,  fool]:  in  geography,  people 
who  live  on  op]iosite  sides  of  the  globe,  and  whose  feet  point 
against  each  ot  her.  The  antipodes  of  any  place  are  those 
who  live  at  the  other  end  of  a  straight  line"drawn  from  that 
phice  through  the  center  of  the  earth  to  its  opposite  surface. 
Thus  the  antipodes  ot  London,  which  is  in  lat.  .51°  30  N. 
and  Ion.  0%  must  be  in  lat.. 51°  30'  S.  and  Ion.  180°  E.  or  W. 
The  noon  of.  any  point  corresponds  with  the  midnight  of 
its  antipodes,  and  the  summer  of  one  coincides  with  tlie 
winter  ot  the  other. 

Antipodes:  a  small  island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
S.  E.  of  New  Zealand ;  lat.  49"  33'  S.,  Ion.  178°  42'  E.  It  is 
so  called  because  it  is  t  hi^  nearest  land  to  the  antipodes  of 
London.     See  map  of  World,  ref.  8-D. 


An'tipope :  one  who  assumes  or  usurps  the  office  of  pope, 
but  is  not  regularly  elected  or  generally  recognized  as  such. 
The  Emperors  of"  Germany  in  several  instances,  having 
fpiarrelcd  with  the  pope,  aiiiiointed  another  person  to  the 
oflice.  The  Emperor  Henry  1\'.  in  1080  appointed  the 
antipope  Clement  III.  in  (>pposition  to  l'o|)C  Gregory  VII. 
In  some  cases  two  rival  po])es  have  been  elected  by  different 
parties  of  cardinals.  The  great  Western  schism  began  in 
1378,  when  the  Italian  p,-irly  chose  Urban  VI.,  and  the 
French  canlinals  voted  for  Clement  VII.,  who  held  his 
court  at  Avignon,  and  was  recognized  by  France  and  Spain. 
This  schism  was  continued  after  their  death  by  another 
double  election,  but  in  141.5  the  Council  of  Constance  de- 
posed both  of  the  popes,  and  elected  Martin  V.  The  last 
antiiiope  was  Felix  V.  (originally  Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy), 
who  was  elected  in  1439,  and  abdicated  in  1449. 

Antipy'rlii  [from  Gr.  avrl.  against -I- Tn/p(eT({s),  fever]: 
chemically,  dimethyloxyquinizinc ;  a  compound  prepared  by 
a  patented  process,  and"  niucli  used  in  ineilicine,  in  the  dose 
of  ten  to  twentv  grain;-,  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  temper- 
ature in  fever  and  for  relief  of  jiain.  The  fall  of  tempera- 
ture in  fever  is  due  to  lessened  heat  production,  and  not  to 
the  excessive  sweating  which  accompanies  it.  Pains  de- 
pendent upon  inflammations  are  luit  I'elieved  by  antipyrin, 
but  nerve-pains,  such  as  many  headaches  and  neuralgias,  are 
greatly  affected  by  it.  Antipyrin  is  also  a  useful  remedy  in 
epilepsy,  especially  in  combination  with  bromides.  The 
symptxims  produced  by  an  overdose,  or  the  too  long-con- 
tinued use  of  the  remedy,  are  languor,  malaise,  a  peculiar 
livid  pallor  of  the  face,  failure  of  the  pulse  and  of  the  gen- 
eral strength.  An  eruption  upon  the  surface  resembling 
measles  is'iuit  uncommon.  Sometimes  the  erujjtion  is  ac- 
companied by  much  o-dematons  swelling,  and  it  may  resera- 
tile  urticaria"  or  be  replaced  by  a  furious  inflammation  of 
the  skin.  The  full  efl'ect  of  au'tiiiyrin  is  usually  reached  in 
from  one  to  two  hours,  and  continues  from  three  to  ten 
hours. 

Antipyrin  is  not,  unless  in  very  large  doses,  depressing  to 
the  heart,  and  the  collapse  which  has  occasionally  followed 
its  use  in  fever  has  probably  been  due  to  some  indirect  in- 
fluence rather  than  to  the  direct  action  of  the  drug.  The 
free  habitual  use  of  antipyrin  is  certainly  deleterious  to  the 
general  heahh,  and  the  livid  color  which  the  drug  produces 
(when  in  large  dose)  is  due  to  its  altering  the  haimoglobin 
of  the  red  blood  corpuscles  into  metlucmoglobin. 

H.  C.  Wood. 

Aii'tiquaries,  Society  of:  the  title  of  several  associa- 
tions of  learned  men,  formed  to  promote  the  study  of  an- 
tiquities. The  London  Society  of  Antiquaries  was  founded 
in  1.572,  and  reorganized  in  1707,  but  received  its  charter  in 
1751.  The  Scottish  Society  of  Antiquaries  was  founded 
in  1780.  The  American  Antiquarian  Society  was  organized 
in  Massachusetts  in  1812. 

Antiquary  [from  Lat.  antiqi(arius,  pertaining  to  an- 
ti(|uitv;  ant'i  quits.  smeu-n\'\:  oriirinally  a  iierson  who  cop- 
ied ol(l  books  in  convents  before  the  invention  of  printing. 
In  modern  language  an  antiquary  is  one  who  studies  and 
collects  ancient  monuments  and  remains,  such  as  medals, 
coins,  statues,  manuscripts,  and  inscriptions  ;  or  who  makes 
researches  into  the  history,  manners,  and  customs  of  former 
generations.  The  antiquary  renders  an  important  service 
to  society  by  collecting  materials  for  history  and  rescuing 
many  documents  from  the  ravages  of  time. 

Anliq'uities  [Lat.  nntiqnita'tes,  dcriv.  of  anti'quus,  an.- 
cieul]:  an  important  department  of  learning,  comprises  all 
memorable  facts,  ideas,  and  things  which  relate  to  or  illus- 
trate the  origin,  early  inslilulioiis,  and  development  of  na- 
tions. Thus  the  studv  of  antiquities,  in  the  largest  applica- 
tion of  the  term,  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  religion,  laws, 
language,  arts,  traditions,  matiners.  and  customs  ot  ancient 
pe()ples,  as  well  as  a  (tognizance  of  ancient  monuments  of 
archilecture.  sculpture,  and  other  arts.  In  a  more  rcstrict- 
i'd;ind  perliaps  more  poi>ular  sense  the  study  of  antiquities 
is  limited  to  the  discovery,  collection,  verification,  descrip- 
tion, and  explanation  of 'the  relies  of  antiquity,  such  as 
medals,  statues,  inscriptions,  manuscripts,  mined  buildings, 
bas-reliefs,  and  hieroglyphics.  About  the  time  of  the  re- 
vival of  learning  after  the  Dark  Ages  the  study  of  classical 
anticpiilics  became  a  distinct  branch  of  research,  which  was 
pursueil  liy  many  eminent  scholars.  Grandns  published  a, 
valuable  work  on"  Greek  antiipiities,  entitled  Thesaurus  An- 
tiquitattim  Grcecarum  (12  vols,  fob,  1697  et  seq.);  and  Ro- 
man antiquities  were  amply  illustrated  by  Grouovius  in  Ids 


216 


ANTI-RENTERS 


ANT-LION 


Thesaunis  Antiquitatum  Boniatianim  (13  vols,  .fol.,  1697). 
Champollion,  Young,  Bunsen,  Lepsius,  and  Brugsch  are  the 
highest  authorities  in  Egyplian  antiquities.  Among  tlie  best 
antiquarian  works  may  be  mentioned  Montfaucon,  Anti- 
guife  Expliquee  (15  vols.,  1719-24);  Heeren,  llistor;/  of 
Ancient  Commerce ;  Dr.  W.  Smith's  Dicfionnry  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities:  Jlontfaucon,  Monuments  de  la 
Monarc/iie  Frunfulse  (5  vols.,  1725).  For  tlie  ditfcrenee  be- 
tween archn'ology  and  antiquities,  see  AfiCHiEOLOGV. 

Anti-rent'ei'S :  tliose  inhabitants  of  several  counties  in 
Eastern  New  York  wlio  refused  to  pay  the  rents  and  feudal 
services  required  of  them  Ijy  the  so-called  lord-patroons,  the 
owners  of  the  land.  Tliis"  disturbance,  which  at  one  time 
nearly  amounted  to  insurrection,  was  at  length  ended  by  the 
triumph  of  tlie  Anti-rent  party  in  the  constitutional  con- 
vention of  184G,  in  which  a  clause  was  inserted  abolishing 
thenceforth  all  feudal  tenures  and  incidents. 

Antlscorbii'tics  [from  Gr.dvr/,  against  +  Late  Lat.  scor- 
bu'tiis,  scurvy,  from  Low  Gcr.  schorbock  or  scorbvt] :  reme- 
dies of  scni-biitiis,  or  scurvy  (q.  v.).  Onions,  lime-juice,  pota- 
toes, lemons,  liorseradish,  scurvy-grass,  etc.,  are  the  best 
antiscorbutics.  Diet,  and  not  medicine,  is  needed  to  effect 
the  cure. 

Anti-Semitic  MoTeinent:  a  movement  against  Jews  as 
Jews,  based  on  popular  jsrejudiee  and  helped  by  the  unde- 
niable success  of  the  Jews  in  those  branches  of  trade  and 
manufacture  in  which  they  compete  with  Christians.  The 
hatred  of  Jews  has  been  a  glaring  inconsistency  in  the 
Christian  world  for  many  centuries,  but  of  late  all  over 
Europe  there  has  been  a  more  or  less  organized-  eifort  to 
put  the  Jews  back  into  the  political  bondage  from  which 
they  have  lately  been  delivered.  In  this  disgraceful  move- 
ment Russia  has  played  the  chief  part  among  nations,  and 
among  individuals  the  ex-court-preacher  Stocker  in  Ger- 
many.   See  Jews,  Persecution  of.  S.  M.  J. 

Antisep'tic  [from  Gr.  avrl.  against  +  <rriTrrm6s.  putrefying ; 
from  cr-liireiv,  to  rot] :  opposed  to  or  preventing  putrefaction. 
Antiseptics  ai'C  substances  which  prevent  or  check  the  decay 
and  putrefaction  of  organic  matters.  As  air,  moisture,  anil 
heat  are  necessary  conditions  of  putrefaction,  the  exclusion 
of  one  of  these  from  the  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  an 
antiseptic  process.  The  common  practice  of  preserving 
fruit  in  air-tight  cans  of  tin  or  glass  is  an  illustration  of 
this  principle.  Generally  speaking,  so  long  as  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded no  decomposition  or  decay  can  take  place.  Cold  is 
a  powerful  antiseptic  ;  intense  cold  will  prevent  change  even 
in  those  substances  which  putrefy  most  readily.  To  render 
timber  more  durable  and  less  liatile  to  decay,  corrosive  sub- 
limate, chloride  of  zinc,  and  heavy  oil  of  tar  are  sometimes 
used.  For  this  purpose  the  wood  is  placed  in  a  steam-box, 
its  pores  are  filled  with  steam,  and  a  vacuum  is  formed  in 
the  pores  by  the  condensation  of  the  steam.  The  pores  are 
then  filled  with  the  antiseptic  substance. 

The  more  important  chemical  antiseptics  are — alcohol, 
wood-spirit  (or  pyroxylio  acid),  creosote,  carbolic  acid,  heavy 
oil  of  tar,  sugar,  glycerin,  many  aniline  derivatives,  sul- 
phurous acid,  common  salt,  charcoal,  niter,  alum,  chloride 
of  zinc,  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  cresylic  acid,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  aluminum  chloride  and  acetate,  other  alu- 
minum compounds,  corrosive  sublimate,  and  arsenic.  Sul- 
phurous acid  acts  by  deoxidizing  the  substance  ;  sugar  acts 
by  combining  with  the  water  of  the  substance  to  i)e  pre- 
served;  creosote,  tannic  acid,  alum,  chloride  of  zinc,  sul- 
phate of  co))per,  corrosive  sublimate,  and  arsenic  form  com- 
pounds with  the  organic  matter  which  are  not  liable  to  be- 
come putrescent;  alcohol,  salt,  and  niter  act  both  by  com- 
bining with  the  water  of  the  putrescible  substance,  and 
by  combining  with  the  substance  itself.  See  Disixi-kctiox, 
F'erme.ntation,  Preservation  of  Food,  and  Preservation 
ofTimukr.  Revised  by  R.  Park. 

Anlispasinod'ics:  medicines  which  cure  or  alleviate  spasm. 
Th(!  luiuic  is  frequently  limited  to  a  snudl  class  of  drugs 
which  have  usually  a  strong  and  often  an  unpleasant  odor, 
and  wliicli  ill  some  cases  act  as  diffusive  stimulants.  Such 
are  valerian,  assatcctida.  myrrh,  musk,  camphor,  ether,  etc. 
Others  arc  sedatives,  as  hydrocyanic  acid.  The  term  might 
well  include  the  other  nerve-sedatives  or  depressors  of  reflex 
action,  like  bromide  of  potassium,  belladonna,  Calabar  bean, 
eurari,  etc.  The  best  treatment  for  spasmodic  symptoms 
aims,  however,  at  the  restoration  of  health  by  [)roper  food, 
good  air,  and  correct  habits  of  life,  and  by  such  special  treat- 
ment as  may  bo  required  to  remove  the  cause. 


Aiitis'tlienes  [in  Gr.  'AvTttreiin)s]:  an  eminent  Greek 
Cynic  philosopher,  called  the  founder  of  the  Cynic  sect  or 
school ;  b.  at  Athens,  and  flourished  about  400  B.  c.  He 
was  a  young  man  when  he  served  at  the  battle  of  Tanagra, 
426  B.  c.  He  was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Socrates,  whose 
death  he  witnessed.  After  this  event  he  opened  a  school  at 
Athens  in  the  gj^mnasium  of  Cjniosarges,  where  the  famous 
and  witty  Diogenes  became  one  of  his  pu|:iils.  He  was  a 
m^of  temperate  habits  and  simple  mode  of  Life,  inculcating 
a  contempt  of  riches  and  sensual  pleasure.  He  maintained 
that  virtue  is  aU-suffleient  for  happiness  and  directed  his 
attention  chiefly  to  practical  morality.  His  works  on  vari- 
ous subjects  are  lost,  but  several  of  his  sententious  and  pithy 
sayings  have  been  presen-ed.  Socrates  reproved  the  pov- 
erty of  his  dress  and  his  neglect  of  the  conventional  by  say- 
ing:  "I  can  see  thy  pride  through  the  holes  in  thy  robe." 
Antisthenes  was  living  in  371  B.  c.  See  Zeller's  Socrates 
and  tlie  Socratic  Schools.  Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Antitox'lil :  a  substance  having  the  power  to  combat  the 
poison  of  micro-organisms.  It  has  been  found  that  infection 
of  the  animal  body  with  bacteria  gives  rise  to  the  ju'oduc- 
tion  of  certain  toxins  which  occasion  most  of  the  symptoms 
of  infectious  diseases,  and  which  differ  widely  in  their  ac- 
tion with  the  different  micro-organisms.  Sub.sequently  the 
organism  produces  other  substances  having  antagonistic 
powers,  and  these  have  been  called  the  antitoxins.  Both 
the  toxins  and  the  antitoxins  are  found  in  the  blood,  and 
the  preparations  now  used  in  medical  practice  are  obtained 
from  the  blood  of  animals  which  have  been  gradually  placed 
under  the  influence  of  increasing  doses  of  toxins  of  the  va- 
rious Imcteria.  In  this  way  an  increasing  quantity  of  anti- 
toxin is  produced  in  the  blood  of  the  animals,  and  is  Anally 
obtained  by  bleeding  the  animal  and  separating  the  serum 
from  the  solid  constituents  of  the  blood. 

Antitoxins  have  been  successfully  employed  only  for  diph- 
theria and  tetanus,  though  experimentation  with  other  mi- 
cro-organisms has  been  performed.  The  results  have  been 
partially  satisfactory.     See  Serum  Therapeutics. 

William  Pepper. 

Anti-Trinitarians:  See  Unitarianism. 

An'tiuni  (in  It.  Anzo):  an  ancient  city  of  Latium,  on 
the  seacoast,  34  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Rome  ;  was  a  favorite  resort 
of  opulent  citizens  of  Rome,  in  whose  villas  famous  works 
of  art  have  been  discovered.  Among  these  was  the  Apollo 
Belvedere,  and  the  Borghese  Gladiator,  mentioned  under 
AoASiAS  (q.  ^^).  The  Emperors  Caligula  and  Nero  were  na- 
tives of  Antium,  the  site  of  which  is  now  occupied  by  a  vil- 
lage called  Porto  d'Anzo  (i.  e.  the  port  of  Antium). 

Anliv'ari :  the  only  seaport  of  Montenegro,  on  the  Adri- 
atic ;  14  miles  N.  W.  "of  Scutari,  acquired  as  a  result  of  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78.  The  harbor  is  shallow,  and 
admits  only  small  vessels.  It  exports  oil,  etc.,  and  has,  with 
its  suburbs',  about  1,000  houses.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

Ant-Uon:  the  larva  of  several  species  of  3Iyrmeleon, 
and  other  cognate  genera,  insects  of  the  order  Keuroptera, 


found  in  sandy  tracts  in  different  parts  of  the  world.     The 
perfect  insect  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the  dragon-fly. 


ANTOFAGASTA 


ANTONIUS 


247 


The  larva  is  rem!irkaV)le  for  the  curious  and  insidious  mode 
in  whifli  it  catches  the  ants  and  other  insects  on  which  it 
feeds.  It  excavates  a  funnel-sliaped  cavity  in  tlie  sandy 
soil,  and  lies  in  wait  at  the  bottom  until  an  insect  comes  so 
near  to  the  edge  of  the  |)it  that  the  loose  sand  K'ves  way 
and  the  insect  falls  down  the  slope.  Several  siiecies  of  ant- 
lion  are  found  in  the  U.  S. 

AntDfaUTils'ta:  a  province  in  the  northern  part  of  ('hile; 
occui)yinj;  the  entire  width  of  the  state  from  Taraiiaca  on 
the  N..  from  which  it  is  separateil  by  the  Hio  Loa  (mouth 
in  lat  21'  30  S.),  to  Atacama  on  the  S..  boun<lary  the  parallel 
of  2(i\  The  area  is  60.908  S(|.  miles,  makius  it  the  largest 
province  in  the  state,  except  the  comparatively  uninhabita- 
l)le  Magellan  territory  in  the  extreme  S.  Pop.  (I8i)l)  ',i'>.- 
317.  This  province  comprises  the  territory  ceded  by  Holivia 
as  a  result  of  the  war  of  187H-83.  Bolivia  has  the  ri^ht  to 
free  transport  of  ijoods  over  the  state  to  her  own  custom- 
houses. Much  of  the  province  lies  in  the  <lcscrt  of  Atacanui, 
which  is  a  rocky,  not  a  sandy,  waste.  It  is  not  generally 
suitable  for  agriculture,  but  it  is  one  of  the  richest  regions 
in  the  world  in  the  ores  of  the  precious  metals.  Antofa- 
gasta,  the  capital  and  ju-incipal  port,  has  a  population  of 
8.000  or  10,000.  It  is  the  littoral  terminus  of  a  railroad 
which  reaches  the  rich  mining  districts  to  the  N.  E.  (see 
map  of  Soutli  America,  ref.  6-C).  It  has  silver-smelting 
works,  and  shi])s  much  bullion,  ore,  and  nitrate  of  soda. 
Toltal  is  the  littoral  terminus  of  a  railroad  extending  to 
Ca<'liinal.  while  the  Antofagasta  road  sends  a  branch  to  the 
thriving  port  of  Jlorro  Mejillones.  M.  W.  11. 

Aiitommar'clii,  Fraxcesco  :  Italian  anatomist ;  b.  in  1780 ; 
a  native  of  Corsica;  became  in  1813  anatomical  dissector 
to  a  hospital  of  Florence,  attached  to  the  University  of  Pisa. 
In  1819  lie  was  sent  for  to  attend  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena. 
The  ex-emperor  was  so  well  pleased  with  him  that  he  left 
him  a  legacy  of  100.000  francs.  He  publishe<l  T/w  Las/ 
Moments  i)f  Napoleon  (3  vols.,  1833).  In  1836  he  settled  in 
New  Orle.ans  as  a  honia>opathist.  He  died  at  St.  Antonio 
in  Cuba,  Ajir.  3,  1838. 

Aiitoiiel'li.  GiAcoMo:  Italian  cardinal  and  politician;  b. 
at  Sonnino,  .\pr.  2,  1806.  He  became  grand  treasurer  of 
the  two  apostolic  chambers  in  1845,  and  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  tiiiance  by  Pius  I.X.  .soon  after  his  election  (1846). 
In  1847  he  was  made  cardinal-deacon.  He  acquired  much 
influence  with  the  i>o))e,  and  opposed  the  liberal  movement 
of  184.S.  In  1849  lie  was  appointed  papal  secretary  of  foi'- 
eign  affaii-s  (i.  e.  prime  minister),  which  place  he  occupied 
wiieri  Rome,  in  1870,  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  cause  of  Italian  unity. 
He  left  property  to  the  amount  of  100  million  lire.  D.  in 
Rome,  Nov.  6,  1876. 

Alitoiiprio,  or  AiltoneHi,  Antonio  (surnamed  Da  Mes- 
sina, from  the  place  of  his  birth):  painter;  b.  at  Messina  in 
1414.  He  is  reputed  to  be  the  first  Italian  who  painted  in 
oil,  having  visited  Bruges  and  obtained  from  J.  van  Eyck 
the  secret  of  oil-painting.  He  returned  to  Italy  about  144.5, 
after  which  he  worked  at  Milan,  and  removed  to  Venice 
about  1470.  He  gained  distinction  by  the  brilliance  of  his 
coloring.     U.  in  Venice,  1493. 

Aiito'nin,  Major,  or  the  Eluer  :  a  Koman  lady;  daugh- 
ter of  Mark  Antony  the  Triumvir;  b.  in  39  B.  c.  Her 
mother  was  Octavia,  a  sister  of  Augustus  Cicsar.  She  w'as 
married  to  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and  was  the  grand- 
mother of  Nero. — Her  sist(U',  Antoxia  Minor  (the  younger), 
was  born  36  n.  c.  She  was  the  wife  of  Claudius  Driisus 
Nero,  and  mother  of  the  famous  Germanicns  and  of  the  i']m- 
iicror  Claudius.  .She  is  said  to  have  been  virtuous  and  fair. 
1).  in  37  or  38  A.  D. 

Aiito'nides  van  (lerGoes:  See  Goes,  Antonides  van  uer. 

Antoni'niis,  Marcus  Aurelius  (usually  called  Marcus 
Aun'lins,  and  sometimes  surnamed  'The  Pliilosopher):  a 
Koman  emperor  highly  distinguished  for  his  wisdom  and 
virtue:  b.  in  Rome,  Apr.  36.  131  a.  d.  He  was  a  son  of  An- 
nius  Verus  and  Domilia  Calvilla,  and  his  original  name 
was  Marcus  Auniiis  Verus.  He  became  a  disciple  of  the 
Stoic  philosophy,  with  the  principles  of  which  his  habitual 
conduct  was  coiisist(Uit.  Having  been  adoptcul  as  a  son  liy 
the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  in  138  a.  n.,  he  assumed  the 
naine  of  M.  ^Elius  Aurelius  Verus  Ciesar.  He  then  ad- 
mitted Lucius  Commodus  (or  Lucius  Verus)  to  a  .share  of 
the  imperial  power,  but  the  latter  died  in  the  year  169.  Be- 
fore this  tlate  the  Roman  army  gained  several  victories  over 


the  Parthians.  Although  the  temper  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
was  pacific,  he  was  involved  in  frequent  wars  by  the  aggres- 
sions of  northern  barbarians  and  the  revolts  of  his  subjects. 
He  conducted  in  jierson  an  expedition  against  the  Marco- 
manni,  which  was  successful,  in  168  a.  d.,  and  afterward 
drove  them  out  of  Pannonia.  In  174  a.  d.  he  gained  over 
the  Qu.-idi  a  famous  victory,  which  was  repuli'd  miraculous. 
According  to  Dion  Cassiiis  and  otlicr  writers,  the  Romans, 
who  were  sulfering  with  thirst,  were  refreshed  by  a  shower 
of  rain,  while  their  enemies  were  demoralized  by  a  violent 
storm  of  hail.  In  176  the  emperor  visited  Syria  and  Egypt, 
and  displayed  great  ckMuency  toward  those  who  had  been 
implicated'  in  the  rebellion  of  the  previous  year,  headed  by 
Avidius  Cassius,  one  of  his  generals,  who  had  obtained  pos- 
session of  Egypt  and  jiart  of  Syria,  but  who  had  been  killed 
by  his  own  oHicers.  On  his  homeward  journey  he  passed 
through  Athens,  where  he  founded  a  chair  of  philosophy  for 
each  of  tlie  four  sects,  Platonic,  Stoic,  Peripatetic,  and  E[)i- 
curean.  His  ardent  love  of  learning  continued  unaliated  in 
advanced  age,  and  he  cherished  constantly,  amid  the  turmoil 
of  war  and  the  distractions  of  public  life,  his  philoso|)hic  and 
philanthropic  aspirations.  No  monarch  was  ever  nioie  warm- 
ly and  geru-rally  beloved  by  his  subjects.  It  is  a  strange 
anomaly  in  his  character  and  conduct  that  he  persecuted  the 
Christians,  but  explicable  on  the  ground  that  he  considered 
them  atheists  and  fomenters  of  political  dissension.  Dur- 
ing a  canqiaign  against  his  inveterate  enemies,  the  Marco- 
manni,  ho  died  at  Sirmium  or  at  Vindebona  (Vienna),  Mar.  17, 
180  A.  D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Commodus.  He 
was  author  of  an  excellent  etliical  work  in  Greek,  called 
3fe(lifatio)is,  a  good  English  version  of  which,  by  George 
Long,  a|)pearcd  in  1803,  under  the  title  of  Thnucjlils  of  M. 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  Besides,  we  have  some  Latin  letters 
of  his,  edited  by  Naber  (Leipzig,  1867),  among  the  works  ol 
Fronto.  See  Farrar's  Seekers  after  God  (London  and  New 
Ym-k,  1869);  Renan's  Marc  Aurele  (Paris,  1881). 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Antoninus.  Column  of:  a  pillar  in  the  Piazza  C^olonna 
in  Rome.  It  is  a  combination  of  the  Corinthian  and  Doric 
orders,  and  is  adorned  with  bas-reliefs  of  the  victories 
which  Marcus  Aurelius  gained  over  the  Marcomanni,  in 
memory  of  which  it  was  erected  by  the  Roman  Senate. 

Antoninus.  Ithierary  of:  valuable  geographical  work, 
the  date  anil  author  of  which  are  unknown.  It  contained 
the  names  of  all  (ilaces  and  stations  on  the  roads  of  the 
Roman  emiilre,  with  their  distances  in  Koman  miles. 

Antoninus  Pl'us  (or,  more  fully,  Titus  Aure'Hus  Ful'- 
vus  Boio'nius  Ar'rins  Antoninus):  a  Roman  emperor; 
h.  at  Lanuvium,  Sept.  19,  86  A.  D.,  was  a  son  of  Aurelius 
Fulvus.  He  was  chosen  consul  in  130  A.  D.,  and  married 
Anna  Galeria  Faustina.  Having,  as  proconsul  in  Asia,  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  wisdom  and  equity,  he  was 
adopted  by  Hailrian  in  138  A.  D.,  and  he  ascended  the  throne 
on  the  dci'ah  of  Hadrian  in  July  of  that  year.  He  adopted 
as  his  successor  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  reign  was  so  peace- 
fid  and  prosjjerous  that  it  furnishes  but  scanty  materials  for 
history.  Antoninus  promoted  literature,  and  treated  the 
Christians  with  mildness.  As  a  man  he  was  temperate,  hu- 
mane, learned,  and  eloquent.  The  name  of  "  Pater  Patria; " 
(fatlier  of  his  country)  was  given  to  him  by  the  vote  of  the 
Roman  Senate.  Ile'had  two  sons,  whom  he  survived.  Ha 
died  in  Rome,  JFar.  7,  161  A.  D.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mar- 
cus Aurelius.  His  memory  was  greatly  venerated  by  the 
Romans  of  his  own  and  later  ages.  See  Bossert  und  Miil- 
ler,  Zur  Gesc/iiclite  des  Kaisers  Antoninus  (Leipzig,  1868); 
Lacour-Gayet,  Antonin  le  Fieux  eJ  .<so)t  temps  (Paris,  1888). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Antoninus.  AVall  of  (in  ljnt.Antoni'7ii  Vallum):  a  ram- 
part or  ialrenilimcnt  raised  in  Scotland  by  the  Romans 
under  Lolllus  Urbicus.  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Plus,  in 
139  A.  u.  It  extendcil  from  the  ciyde  to  the  Fritli  of  Forth, 
was  36  miles  Umg  and  30  feet  high,  and  was  built,  of  earth 
and  stone.     Its  remains  are  called  "Grain's  dyke." 

Anto'nio,  Nicolas  :  Spanish  critic  and  bibliographer;  b. 
at  Seville  in  1617.  lb'  published  BilAiotlieca  IJi.spaua  Kova 
(3  vols.,  1673),  and  Bilitiotlieca  Ilispana  Vctus  (3  vols.,  1696), 
which  contain  catalogues  of  all  the  Spanish  book.s,  with  blo- 
grajihical  notices,  and  are  highly  esteemiid.  He  was  Sjianish 
agent  at  Rome  16.59-^81.     D.^Apr.  13,  1684. 

Anto'nius,  Caius  Hvhrida:  Roman  consul;  son  of  M. 
Antonius  the  Orator,  and  an  uncle  of  Mark  Antony  the 
Triumvir.     He  was  chosen  consul  as  the  eolleac;ue  of  Cicero 


248 


ANTONIUS 


ANTWERP 


in  63  B.  c.  He  was  a  profligate  politician,  and  did  not 
earnestly  co-operate  with  Cicero  in  opposing  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline.     L).  in  44  B.  c. 

AntonillS.  SIarcus  (called  The  Orator):  an  eminent  Ro- 
man orator  and  lawyer;  b.  in  143  b.  c;  was  grandfather  of 
the  famous  Mark  Antony.  He  became  prsetor  in  104,  and 
consul  in  99  B.  c,  and  was  attached  to  the  aristocratic  party. 
Having  become  an  adherent  of  Sulla  in  the  civil  war,  he 
was  assassinated  by  the  order  of  JIarius  in  87  B.  c.  He  was 
perhaps  the  most  eloquent  Roman  orator  of  his  time.  His 
eloquence  is  highly  eulogized  by  Cicero  in  his  treatise  De 
Orafore,  and  in  liis  Bnitus.  The  orations  of  Antonius  are  not 
extant.  See  H.  Jleyer,  Oraforum  liomanorum  Fniymenta 
(ed.  ii..  1842.  p.  280). 

AntonillS,  Marcts  (surnamcd  The  Triumvir,  and  com- 
monly called  in  English  Mark  Antony):  a  celebrated 
Roman  general  and  politician,  b.  in  S3  B.C.;  was  a  son  of 
M.  Antonius  Creticus.  His  mother,  Julia,  was  a  daughter  of 
L.  Julius  Civsar,  who  was  consul  about  90  B.  c.  He  obtained 
about  57  B.C.  command  of  the  cavalry  of  Gabinius,  in  Syria 
and  EgA-pt.  Having  been  elected  qua-stor  in  .53  or  52,  lie 
served  in  Gaul  as  legate  of  C'a?sar,  and  displayed  superior 
talents  in  .several  campaigns.  Through  the  iniluence  of 
CiBsar  he  was  elected  augur  and  tribune  of  the  people  in  50 
B.  c.  As  tribune  he  promoted  the  interest  of  Ca>sar,  and 
vetoed  a  decree  of  the  Senate  which  ordered  Cipsar  to  dis- 
band liis  army.  Early  in  49  b.  c.  he  fled  from  Rome  to 
Ca'sai'"s  camp.  After  the  civil  war  began,  and  Caesar  passed 
into  Spain,  he  appointed  Antony  commander-in-chief  of  his 
forces  in  Italy.  The  latter  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the 
battle  of  Pliarsalia,  48  B.  c.  In  the  year  47  he  became  master 
of  the  horse  to  Ciesar,  who  was  now  invested  with  the  office  of 
dictator.  He  negotiated  with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and  tem- 
porized with  the  Senate,  whom  he  induced  to  ratify  the  acts 
of  the  late  dictator.  His  eloquent  funeral  oration  over  the 
body  of  C.TSjir  excited  such  popidar  indignation  against  the 
conspirators  that  they  were  compelled  to  retreat  from  Rome. 
In  43  B.  c.  Antony  was  defeated  in  battle  by  the  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa  at  Mutina  (now  Modena).  About  this 
time  he  was  denounced  by  Cicero  in  a  series  of  famous  ora- 
tions, called  "  Philippics."  Before  the  end  of  the  year  43, 
Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus  united  to  form  a  league  (tri- 
umvirate) against  the  Senate  and  the  republicans,  many  of 
whom  were  put  to  death  by  the  myrmidons  of  the  triumvirs. 
At  the  instigation  of  Antony,  Cicero  was  proscribed  and 
killed.  It  was  the  military  skill  of  Antony  which  defeated 
Brutus  and  Cassius  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Philippi  (42  B.  c), 
which  rendered  the  triumvii-s  masters  of  the  Roman  world. 
This  victoi-y  was  followed  by  another  bloody  proscription. 
Antony,  who  received  for  his  share  of  the  empire  the  Asiatic 
provinces  and  Egypt,  now  gave  himself  up  to  pleasure  and 
luxury.  He  was  so  capt  ivated  by  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt, 
that  he  neglected  public  affairs,  while  Octavius  was  marching 
with  stealthy  stejis  toward  supreme  and  undivided  power. 
Antony  and  Octavius  were  involved  in  a  quarrel  in  the  year 
41,  but  they  were  foriiutlly  reconciled  in  40  B.  c,  and  Antony 
then  married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  his  rival  or  colleague. 
He  soon  divorced  Octavia  and  returned  to  his  dalliance  with 
Cleopatra.  The  conflict  which  had  been  postponed  now  be- 
came inevitable,  and  Antony  was  defeated  at  the  naval  l)at- 
tle  of  Actium,  in  Se|)t.,  31  B.C.  He  then  retreated  to  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  and  was  deserted  by  his  fleet.  Reduced  to 
a  desperate  extremity,  he  killed  himself  in  .30  B.C.  He  left 
two  sons,  lulus  and  Antyllus.  .See  Plutarch,  Life  of  An- 
tony; Drumann,  GeHchic'hte  Jioms;  Appian,  Belhon  Civile. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

An'tony,  or  Anthony,  Saint  (surnamcd  Abhns) :  an  emi- 
nent anchorite,  called  the  founder  of  monachism ;  b.  at 
Coma,  in  I'ppur  Egypt,  in  2.")0  a.  n.  He  reduced  himself  to 
voluntary  poverty,  and  retired  to  a  desert,  where  he  passed 
many  years  in  ascetic  devotion  an<l  solitude.  About  305  he 
founded  a  monastery  near  Fayoum  (or  Phaium).  He  was 
an  opponent  of  Arianism,  and  was  veneratod  as  a  saint  and 
oracle  by  his  contemporaries.  During  the  persecution  of 
the  Christians  in  311  he  went  to  Alexandria  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  the  crown  of  nuirtyrdom,  but  he  was  disappointed, 
and  returned  to  the  desert.  He  had  an  interview  many 
years  later  with  Athanasius,  to  whom  i.s  attributed  the  well- 
known  account  of  his  life,  but  there  is  grave  doubt  whether 
he  really  did  write  it.  .Some  of  the  letters  of  St.  Antony  are 
extant.     D.  near  the  Red  Sea,  Jan.  17,  356  A.  D. 

Antony,  or  Anthony  (Saixt),  of  Pndna;  b.  at  I/islion, 
Aug.  1.5, 119.5.    He  became  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  preached 


at  Toulouse,  Bologna,  and  Padua,  where  he  died  June  13, 

1231.  According  to  a  legend,  he  once  preached  to  the  fish 
in  the  sea  an  eloquent  sermon,  because  men  would  not  listen 
to  him,  which  attracted  the  devoted  attention  of  his  finny 
auditors.  This  sermon  is  extant.  An  abstract  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  Addison's  Remarhs  on  Italy.     He  was  canonized  in 

1232.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of  the  animals. 

Antony  of  Bonrbon  (in  Fr.  Antoine  de  Bonrbnn):  Duke  of 
Vendoine  and  King  of  Xavarre  ;  b.  in  Picardy.  Ajir.  22. 1518. 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  married,  in 
1548,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  the  only  child  of  the  King  of  Xavarre. 
In  1560  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  France, 
Soon  after  that  date  he  formed  a  coalition  with  the  Duke  of 
Guise  and  Constable  Montmorency,  and  became  a  Roman 
Catholic.  He  commanded  the  royal  army  for  a  shoil  time 
in  the  civil  war,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Rouen,  and 
died  Nov.  17,  1562.  He  was  the'  father  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France. 

An'trim  :  the  extreme  N.  E.  county  of  Ireland ;  province 
of  Ulster ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Atlantic,  E.  by  the  Irish  Chan- 
nel. .S.  by  the  Lagan  river,  and  W.  by  the  river  Bann.  Area, 
1,237  sq.  miles  (.see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  4-1).  The  surface 
near  the  seacoast  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  is  mostly  light.  The 
rock  which  underlies  it  is  basaltic  trap,  with  some  new  red 
sandstone.  Lignite  of  good  quality  is  mined.  On  the  north 
coast  is  the  famous  Giants'  Causeway,  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect exanqilcs  of  columnar  basalt  in  the  world.  Oats  and 
flax  are  the  staple  products  of  the  soil.  The  county  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  linen  and  cotton.  The  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  this  county  were  of  Celtic  origin.  It 
was  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  Danes  and  the  Northern 
Scots,  who  finally  made  permanent  settlements  here.  It  has 
numerous  ancient  cairns,  mounts  or  forts,  cromlechs,  round- 
towers,  castles,  etc.  The  noble  castle  of  Carrickfergus  is  the 
only  one  perfectly  preserved.  Antrim  is  one  of  the  most 
decidedlv  Protestant  counties  in  Ireland.  Chief  town,  Bel- 
fast. Pop.  (1881)  423,171;  (1891)  427,968.  A  battle  was 
fought  near  the  town  of  Antrim  in  this  county  between  the 
English  and  Irish,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  and  on  June 
7,  1798,  a  severe  conflict  took  place  there  between  the  Brit- 
ish army  and  a  large  body  of  rebels  (United  Irishmen),  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Ant'werp  (Fr.  Anvers) :  a  province  of  Belgium  ;  l)Ounded 
X.  by  Holland,  E.  by  Limbourg.  S.  by  South  Brabant,  W. 
by  the  I'iver  Scheldt.  Area.  1,093  sq.  miles  (see  map  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  9-E).  The  river  Dyle  forms  part 
of  its  southern  boundary.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and 
produces  grain,  liemp,  madder,  hops,  and  pine  timlier.  Cap- 
ital, Antwerj).     Pop.  (1880)  577,232 ;  (1891)  699,571. 

Antwerp  (Dutch  Ant'ieerpen,  i.  e.  aent  werp.  on  the 
wharf;  \j&i.  Antuer  pia;  Fr.  A«t'frs,  aiV-var';  i^\>.  Amlteres): 
the  chief  commercial  city  of  Belgium  and  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  same  name  ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt ;  26i 
miles  by  rail  X'.  of  Brussels:  lat.  51°  13'  N..  Ion.  4'  24'  E.  (see 
map  of  HoUanil  and  Belgium,  ref.  9-E).  It  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  has  among  its  defenses  a  citadel  built  by  the  Duke 
of  Alva  in  1567.  The  magnificent  public  buildings,  the 
numerous  churches,  the  stately  and  antique  houses,  and  the 
profusion  of  ornamental  trees,  render  the  general  appearance 
of  the  city  very  picturesque.  The  streets  are  tortuous  and 
irregidar,  luit  one  of  them,  called  the  Place  de  Meir,  is 
sc-arcely  surpassed  in  beauty  by  any  street  in  Europe.  Fore- 
most among  the  public  buildings  is  the  cathedral,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  beautiful  specimens  of  late  and  florid 
Gothic  architecture  in  Europe,  and  has  a  tower  and  spire  of 
extraordinary  beauty.  It  is  500  feet  long  and  240  feet  wide 
(having  five  aisles),  and  contains  the  principal  masterpieces 
of  Rubens.  Among  the  other  public  edifices  are  the  ex- 
change and  the  marble  hotel  de  ville.  The  principal  institu- 
tifins  are  the  .\cadcmy  of  Sciences,  the  Academy  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture,  a  rich  gallery  Of  pictures,  a  public  library,  a 
zoological  garden,  and  a  botanic  garden.  Antwerp  has  a 
good  harbor,  which  will  admit  the  largest  vessels,  and  has 
excellent  railway  connections  with  all  parts  of  Europe.  It 
has  an  extensive  trade,  and  is  an  important  market  for 
hides.  Here  are  manufactures  of  black  silk  stuffs,  cotton, 
linen,  lace,  carpets,  sewing-silk,  and  printer's  ink.  Anlwerp 
was  a  city  as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  and  in  t  he  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  was  the  great  center  of  European  commerce. 
It  is  state<l  that  500  vessels  daily  entered  its  port.  It  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  liy  the  Prince  of  Parma  in  1385,  soon  after 
which  much  of  its  commerce  was  transferred  to  Amsterdam. 


ANTWERP 


APARTMENT-HOUSE 


249 


By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Antwerp,  with  the  rest  of  Belgium, 
was  annexed  to  the  kinjjdoin  of  Ilolhuid  in  1814.  In  the 
popular  rising  of  1S80  against  that  (iovcrniiK'nt  the  citadel 
was  lield  by  Dutch  troops  inider  coniinand  of  General  Chasse. 
Tlie  resulting  sief;e  of  Antwerp  by  the  French  was  a  fine 
practical  exaniiile  of  the  s(-iencc  of  sieges,  which  excited  the 
interest  of  military  amateurs  of  all  nations.  The  defense 
exhiliited  a  conspicuous  exanijde  of  fortitude  and  emlurance. 
The  capitulation  toolc  place  Dec.  24,  lH;i2,  the  trenches  hav- 
ing been  opened  Nov.  30.  During  recent  years  Antwerp, 
the  true  military  capital  of  Belgium,  has  been  fortified  under 
a  very  distinguished  engineer.  Colonel  Brialmont,  as  the 
central  point  of  a  great  intrenched  (amp  on  the  Scheldt,  by 
a  svstem  of  works  "  unrivaled  in  Euro])e  in  the  intelligent 
application  of  the  true  principles  of  art  to  a  great  practical 
example."  The  most  remarkable  feature,  however,  in  the 
recent  history  of  the  city  is  the  nuirvelous  development  of 
its  eommeree  during  the  last  few  years.  About  4,o(J0  vessels, 
of  some  4,()(MI,(llll(  tons  burden,  enter  the  harbor  annually, 
whicli  places  it  at  the  head  of  all  continental  ports  of  Europe, 
far  exceeding  15ill)ao,  Genoa,  Havre,  Hamburg,  etc.,  and 
ranking  immediately  after  London,  Liverpool,  and  New 
York.  The  causes  of  this  unexpected  development  were  the 
abolition  in  ISH'^  of  tlie  entrance-toll  on  the  Scheldt  and 
the  construction  in  1877  of  magnificent  (|uavs  and  docks,  at 
a  cost  of  some  $:iO,UUO,000.     Pop.  (18'J1)  2:>7,225. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

AiitMOrp:  village;  on  Rome,  Watortown  and  Ogdensburg 
R.  R..  Jelferson  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  iruip 
of  New  York,  ref.  i-G) ;  the  seat  of  the  Northern  New  York 
Conference  Seminary.  Two  hundred  thousand  tons  of  iron 
ore  are  raised  from  beds  in  this  vicinilv  per  year.  Pop. 
(1880)  731 ;  (1890)  912. 

Antwerp:  village;  Paulding  co.,  O.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  ma)5  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-C) ;  on  Wabash  R.  R.  and  on 
Maunu'e  river,  72  miles  S.  W.  of  Toledo ;  has  iron  and  clay 
Industries.     Pop-  (l^l^O)  1,275  ;  (1890)  1,:«1. 

Aiiil'bis,  or  Aiiepn :  a  god  of  the  Egyptians ;  repre- 
ecntcd  as  a  son  of  Osiris,  and  as  having  the  form  of  a  jac-kal, 
a  dog,  or  a  man  with  a  jackal's  head  (the  Greeks  took  this 
for  a  dog's  head).  His  worsliip  commenced  in  the  earliest 
times  of  10gy|)tian  liistory.  and  was  continnt.'d  in  some  form 
till  superseded  by  Christianity.  The  Greeks  confounded 
hiip  with  Hermes,  and  called  him  Hermanubis.  His  worship 
spread  t<i  Rome.  Among  the  Egyptians  he  was  the  god  of 
embalming  and  of  funeral  rites,  and  was  the  escort  of  the 
soul  to  tlie  under-world.  He  was  also  called  Ap-heru,  signi- 
fying "the  oi)ener  of  the  paths  supposed  to  lead  to  heaven." 

Anil'ra  [from  Or.  a-,  not  +  oipa..  tail]:  the  order  of  tail- 
less bati'achians,  typified  by  the  frog  and  toad.  Striking 
characters  are  the  loss  of  the  tail  and  gills  in  the  process  of 
development,  and  the  acquisition  of  strong  hinder  limbs. 
The  young  are  called  tadpoles.     See  SALiiiNTiA. 

An'Viirl,  or  An'wari,  Auhad  id-DIx:  Persian  poet:  b. 
at  Khorassim  in  the  twelfth  eentuiy.  He  is  classed  with 
Firdausi,  Hafiz,  and  Saadi  as  one  of  the  raasiers  of  the  Per- 
sian Parnassus.  He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  Seljukide 
Sultan  Saiijar,  at  whose  court  he  passed  many  years.  He 
wrote  numerous  lyrical  poems ;  also  some  longer  panegyrics. 
His  elegy  on  the  capture  of  Sanjar  by  the  (^ihaurians  has 
been  translated  into  English.  Having  turned  his  attention 
to  astrology,  and  having  predicted  that  a  great  hurricane 
would  occur  in  IIH.")  or  1186,  he  fell  into  disgrace  when  his 
prediction  was  not  fulfilled.     D.  about  1200. 

Revised  by  A.  V.  Williams  Jacksox. 

Aiiville,  .Jeax  Baptiste  Bourguignon,  d' :  a  French  geog- 
rapher; b.  in  i'aris,  July  11,  1697.  He  <levoted  his  whole 
life  to  the  study  and  improvement  of  geography,  and  is  rec- 
ognized as  the  first  who  raised  geography  to  the  rank  of  an 
exact  science.  He  was  appointed  geographer  to  the  king. 
and  became  a  memlier  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Among 
his  works  are  Orbis  ItomamiH  (Ronutn  World) ;  Oil/is  Ve/er- 
ihus  No/us  (The  World  known  to  the  Ancients);  and  a 
Compendium  of  Ancient  Ueoyraphy  (in  French,  3  vols., 
1768).  He  published  211  inajis  and  plans,  which  embrace 
nearly  every  count  ry  in  the  world.  Although  he  never  trav- 
eled, he  delineateil  various  foreign  countries  with  remark- 
able accuracy.  Tlie  correctness  of  his  map  of  Egypt  was 
confirmed  l)v  the  French  survev  of  1798-99.  D.  in  Paris, 
Jan.  2,s,  1782.     See  (-'ondorcel,  'i:ioge  de  M.  d'Anvilh  (1762). 

An'yte  ('Avuttj)  of  Tegea :  a  famo\is  poetess  of  her  day 
(290  IS. c);  "a  female  Homer."     We  have  twenty-two  epi- 


grams under  her  name  that  give  some  warrant  for  her  repu- 
tation. 

Alizin,  alin'zan' :  a  town  of  Prance  ;  department  of  Nord ; 
a  mile  N.  W.  of  Valenciennes  (see  m-ip  of  France,  ref.  2-G). 
It  has  ircm-foundries  and  glass-works,  and  is  the  center  of 
the  greatest  collieries  of  France.     Po|).  10,043. 

Ao'llia:  a  district  of  ancient  Greece;  in  Boeotia;  con- 
tained ]\It.  Helicon  (the  Aonian  mount)  and  the  fountain 
Aganippe.  These  were  celebrated  as  the  favorite  resorts  of 
th(!  JIuses,  who  were  called  Aon  ides. 

A'orist  [(xr.  a6piaTos.  unlimited  ;  4-,  not  +  iplCfiv,  define, 
limit;  lipos,  boundary] :  a  form  of  the  Greek  verb  which 
sim|ily  names  an  action  as  an  occurrence,  and  was  so  called 
by  the  Greek  grammarians  because  it  did  not  further  define 
the  action  of  the  verb,  e.  g.  with  reference  to  its  continua- 
tion, or  its  present  or  past  completion.  The  Greek  gram- 
nuirians  also  used  the  term  of  the  pronouns  which  we  call 
"  indefinite,"  as  Strrts.  iiroios,  6w6(tos,  "  whoever,"  etc. 

Bexj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Aor'la  [from  Gr.  oopr^,  something  suspended ;  aei'peiv, 
raise,  suspend ;  because  it  is  su[iported  or  suspended  from 
the  heart]:  the  large  arterial  trunk  arising  from  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  giving  origin  directly  or  indi- 
recily  to  all  arteries  exce)>t  the  pulmonary  and  its  ramifica- 
tions. The  curve  that  it  makes  in  th"  ujiper  part  of  its 
course,  during  which  it  sends  off  the  innominata  and  the 
left  carotid  and  subclavian  arleries,  is  called  the  arcli  of  the 
aorta.  The  t/ioraric  aorta  extends  from  the  third  dorsal 
vertebra  to  the  diaphragm,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  ab- 
dominal aorta,  which  in  the  lower  part,  of  the  abdomen, 
about  opposite  the  fourth  lumbar  vertebra,  divides  into  tlie 
two  iliac  arteries,  going  to  supply  the  lower  extremities. 
The  thoracic  aorta  gives  off  two  or  three  bronchial  arteries 
to  supply  the  tissue  of  the  lungs  and  intercostal  arteries  to 
the  chest-walls.  The  abdominal  aorta  gives  off  two  phrenic 
arteries  to  the  diaphragm  and  a  number  of  branches  to  the 
abdominal  organs.     See  Circulatiox  of  the  Blood. 

Aosasaguntaoooks,  or  St.  Francis  Indians:  See  Al- 

GOXyUIAN  IXUIAXS. 

Aos'ta  (anc.  in  Lat.  Augusta  Prreto'ria) :  a  town  of  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Turin ;  on  t  he  river  Dora,  in  a  valley  50 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Turin  (sec  map  of  Italy,  ref.  2-B).  It  has 
a  Gothic  cathedral,  the  remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheater, 
and  a  fine  triumphal  arch.  The  valley  of  Aosta  produces 
large  forests  of  ])ine.  and  has  mines  of  copper,  silver,  iron, 
and  lead.  Cheese,  leather,  wine,  and  hemp  are  exported. 
Pop.  (1881)  7,437. 

Apaches,  a-pach'e"es:  See  Atuapascax  Ixdiaxs  and  Yu- 
MAN  Indians. 

Ap'afl,  Michael  or  Mihaly:  Prince  of  Transylvania;  b. 
in  1632.  He  began  to  reign  in  1661,  and  was  for  many 
years  an  ally  of  the  Turkish  sultan.  In  1687  he  became 
tributary  to  the  Emperor  of  (iermany.  D.  April  15,  1690. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mihaly,  under  whom  Transyl- 
vania was  invaded  by  the  Turks,  who  took  several  towns. 
He  sold  his  principality  to  Austria  for  a  pension.  D.  Feb. 
11,  1713. 

Apalacliicola,  Fla. :  See  Appalachicola. 

A|)ainc'a  :  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  on  the  river  Orontes, 
which  here  expands  into  a  lake  named  Apamea,  about  75 
miles  S.  of  Antioeh.  It  was  probably  named  in  honor  of 
Apame,  the  wife  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  The  place  was  called 
Famieh  in  the  time  of  the  crusades.  Its  extensive  ruins 
still  exist.  There  were  several  other  ancient  cities  of  this 
name  in  Asia. 

Ap'anagc.  or  Ap'panage  [Fr.  from  oyOTJifr,  furnish  with 
food;  from  Lat.  «(/,  t(>  + /w/i/.s,  bread]:  in  feudal  law,  an 
allow;uice  to  the  younger  sons  of  a  sovereign  or  jirince  out 
of  the  revenues  of  the  country,  generally  joined  with  agrant 
of  the  jiulilic  domain.  In  England  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall 
is  an  apanage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  but  the  younger  sons 
of  the  sovereign  are  dependent  upon  the  liberahty  of  Par- 
liament. 

Apartnient-Iionso :  a  building  containing  more  than 
three  families  under  one  roof.  Tenement -houses  are  classed 
in  the  same  way,  but  usually  have  more  than  one  family  on 
a  fioor.  Such  buildings  have  been  common  in  Scotland,  and 
in  the  large  cities  of  the  Continent  of  Europe  for  a  century 
or  more,  but  are  of  recent  Mitroiluction  in  the  U.  S.  They 
are  mainly  the  result  of  the  increased  cost  of  living,  the  en- 
h.'uiced  value  of  building-lots,  the  greater  profit  to  be  ob- 


250 


APATIN 


APENNINES 


tained  from  high  rather  than  from  low  buildings,  and  the 
relative  economy  of  living  in  flats. 

By  the  introduction  of  numy  labor-saving  devices  in 
apartment-houses,  such  as  automatic  door-openers,  speak- 
ing-tubes, passenger  and  freight  elevators,  ash-shoots,  trunk- 
rooms,  combined  laundries,  and  restaurants  on  the  catering 
system,  it  is  now  possible  to  erect  buildings  ten,  and  even 
thirteen,  stories  high,  wliieh  will  comfortably  provide  for 
several  hundred  persons  under  one  roof,  and  at  less  rental 
than  in  a  proportionate  number  of  single  dwellings,  yet  with 
a  higher  profit  to  the  owner. 

Great  ingenuity  has  been  shown  in  planning  apartment- 
liouses  so  as  to  economize  space  to  the  greatest  advantage, 
and  to  obtain  light  and  ventilation  for  every  room.  Under 
file  amended  law  recently  passed  by  the  New  York  State 
Legislature  apartment-houses  and  tenements  are  prevented 
from  occupying  more  than  65  per  cent,  of  the  building-site, 
and  ample  space  is  required  to  be  left  between  them  and 
adjacent  liouscs  in  tlie  rear.  In  European  cities  modern 
ajiartmcMit-houses  are  usually  built  around  a  central  court, 
witli  a  driveway  entrance  for  carriages,  but  in  U.  S.  cities 
many  are  built  upon  a  single  or  double  city  lot,  25  by  100,  so 
tliat  the  suites  of  rooms  of  necessity  extend  from  end  to  end, 
and.  urdess  the  building  is  on  a  corner,  they  must  be  lighted 
by  narrow  courts  on  either  side  or  by  light-shafts  from 
above,  and  often  wholly  inadequate  for  the  purpose.  Few 
of  these  flats  are  fireproof,  and  several  conflagrations  have 
occurred  in  them. 

There  has  been  much  agitation  in  regard  to  the  necessity 
of  limiting  the  height  of  buildings  of  this  kind,  which  are 
found  to  be  destructive  to  the  value  of  adjoining  ]iroperty, 
■and  also  objectionable  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  One 
building  of  this  class  in  New  York  is  fourteen  stories  high, 
and  the  roof  is  170  feet  above  the  sidewalk.  The  Chicago 
Real  Estate  Excluxnge  has  recommended  restricting  apart- 
ment-houses to  100  feet  in  height,  and  a  similar  regulation 
is  favored  in  New  York.  In  Berlin  such  buildings  are  lim- 
ited to  five  stories. 

Some  of  the  most  notable  apartment-Iiouses  in  New  York 
-are  remarkable  for  their  size.  The  Dakota  is  estimated  to 
have  cost  nearly  $2,000,000,  and  is  said  to  be  fireproof.  It 
is  200  feet  square  and  9  stories  in  height.  Tliei-e  are  65 
suites,  containing  8  to  20  rooms  each,  or  623  rooms  in  all. 
The  siutes  rent  from  $1,000  to  .|5.600  per  annum.  There 
are  4,000  electric  lights,  300  electric  bells,  and  12  water-taidvs 
with  a  supply  of  2.000,000  gal.  per  month.  The  annual  ex- 
penses, including  taxes,  exceed  $50,000  per  year.  The  Cen- 
tral Park  flats  constitute  eight  buildings,  each  130  feet  liigh 
and  with  9  stories,  having  each  16  apartments.  The  whole 
cover  lialt  a  city  block  on  Fifty-ninth  Street ;  the  land  cost 
$1,000,000,  and  the  buildings  $4,000,000  additional.  The 
latter  are  considered  fireproof.  Tlie  Chelsea,  Berkshire, 
Florence,  and  Van  Coi'lear  are  other  notable  buildings  of 
this  class.  Recently  bachelor  flats,  to  accommodate  single 
gentlemen,  have  been  erected,  and  have  proved  very  popular. 

Some  apartment-houses  have  been  erected  on  the  co-oper- 
ative plan,  the  occupants  of  each  floor  being  indejiendent 
owners  of  the  same,  while  the  title  to  the  land  is  held  in 
common  by  the  associated  owners,  who  manage  the  building 
the  same  as  the  affairs  of  any  other  corporation.  Special 
laws  have  been  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York  reg- 
idating  the  control  of  such  associations  and  to  facilitate 
their  management,  but  the  experiment  has  not  proved  a 
financial  success. 

Flats  have  never  been  popular  in  England ;  a  few  have 
been  erecteil  in  Ijondon,  but  they  have  not  Viecome  fashion- 
able. They  are  common  in  Scotlaml,  and  Ivliuburgh  and 
Glasgow  have  long  been  famous  for  their  lofty  tenements, 
some  of  thcni  13  ami  14  stories  high,  with  tortuous  and  in- 
termimd)le  flights  of  stairs,  which  are  the  wimderment  of 
visitors. 

In  Parisian  apartment-houses  persons  of  quite  different 
social  position  may  reside  under  tlie  same  roof,  the  premier 
e7«9«  oi' i)riiu-ipal  story  being  tlie  home  of  wealthy  people, 
■while  the  stories  above  diminish  in  elegance  and  expcnsive- 
ness  as  they  are  placed  higher;  but  in  the  U.  S.  the  use  of 
elevators  does  away  with  s\ieh  distinctions,  so  that  there  is  a 
tendency  toward  a  gradual  and  marked  separation  of 
classes,  and  the  greater  exclusivcness  of  the  ajiartment- 
houses  is  one  reason  of  their  poi)ularity  wit,h  fashionable 
people.  Ci'iAS.  F.  Winoate. 

Apaliii':  a  town  of  Hungary;  county  of  Baes-Bod rog ; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube ;  CO  miles  S.  of  Baja  (see 


map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-H).     It  has  a  trade  in  siUc, 
madder,  and  hemp.     Pop.  12,821. 

Ap'atlte  [from  Gr.  airaT?),  deceit -t- suffix -?'<e  (Gr. -frrjj; 
as  in  Eng.  siderite,  Gr.  <ri8r)p(TTjs) ;  so  called  because  it  de- 
ceives the  observer  by  its  resemblance  to  other  minerals]: 
the  native  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  extensively  used  as  a 
manure  in  both  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  It  usually  oc- 
curs in  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  granite  and  greenstone, 
but  is  also  found  in  granular  limestone  and  serpentine.  The 
most  abundant  supplies,  however,  are  derived  from  beds  of 
animal  remains,  bones,  etc.  When  crystallized  it  appears 
in  six-sided  prisms,  sometimes  of  a  greenish  color,  and  con- 
taining calcic  phosphate,  with  a  certain  proportion  of  cal- 
cic chloride  and  fluoride,  Ca3(P04)2  +  Ca(ClF)2.  The  amor- 
phous apatite  which  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  artificial 
manure  is  imported  fi-om  Spain  and  Norway,  and  from 
Sombrero,  Navassa,  Swan,  and  some  other  small  islands  in 
the  West  Indies.  Before  it  is  applied  to  the  soil  it  is  ground 
to  powder  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  renders  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  ajiatite  soluble  in 
water.  The  efficacy  of  apatite  as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soil  de- 
pends on  the  presence  of  phosphoric  acid,  which  is  essential 
to  the  growth  of  such  plants  as  wheat,  barley,  and  oats.  It 
is  often  mixed  with  guano,  bones,  and  other  manures  to 
make  a  complex  fertilizer,  which  is  better  than  the  simple 
mineral  phosjjhate.  A  rich  deposit  of  apatite  in  the  form 
of  nodules  has  been  found  in  the  Postpliocene  marls  of 
South  Carolina,  neai'  the  Ashley,  Stono,  and  Edisto  rivers. 
Large  quantities  of  these  nodules,  which  contain  25  or  30 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  are  converted  into  "  superphos- 
phate of  lime  "  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  at  Camden,  N.  J. 
It  is  stated  that  about  13.000  tons  of  apatite  (othenvise 
called  phosphatic  guano)  were  imported  into  the  U.  S.  in  1868. 
Apatite  occurs  in  large  crystals,  associated  with  white  lime- 
stone, in  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.  Massive  apatite  is  found 
in  England,  Ireland,  Spain,  and  other  countries.  See  Agei- 
cuLTURAL  Chemistry,  Bone,  Fertilizer.s,  and  Guano. 

Revised  by  Ira  Eemsen. 

Apclieron:  See  Apsheron. 

Ape  (synonymous  with  monJxeij):  any  of  the  Primates,  ex- 
cepting the  leuuirs  and  man  ;  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  any 
of  the  Old  World  tailless  members  of  the  family  Simiidm, 
which  includes  the  chimpanzee,  orang-utan,  gorilla,  and 
gibbons.  These  apes  are  tlie  most  highly  organized  of  the 
Q\iadrumana,  and  approach  in  structure  nearest  to  man, 
from  whom  they  difler  principally  in  the  smaller  size  of 
brain  and  brain-case,  tlie  larger  canine  teeth,  the  relatively 
greater  length  of  the  arms,  and  the  shorter  great  toe,  which 
is  opposable  to  the  other  toes.  Their  structure  is  better 
adapted  for  climbing  trees  than  for  walking  on  tlie  ground, 
and  accordingly  in  tlie  forest  they  swing  from  ti'ce  to  tree 
with  great  agility  and  ease,  but  on  the  ground  they  are  slow, 
often  walking  on  the  knuckles  of  the  closed  hanil  and  on 
the  outer  side  or  the  knuckles  of  the  foot.  Their  food  con- 
sists mainly  of  frait  and  vegetables,  vai-ied  in  some  species 
with  insects.  Apes  are  natives  of  Africa,  India,  Borneo, 
etc.    See  Chuipakzee,  Gorilla,  and  Okang-utan. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Ap'eldoni,  or  Apeldoorn:  a  beautiful  village  of  Hol- 
land; in  Gelderland  ;  on  the  river  Grift;  16  miles  N.  N.  E. 
of  Arnhem  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  6-II). 
Here  are  an  agricultural  school  and  manufactures  of  paper, 
blankets,  and  coarse  woolen  fabrics.  Pop.  with  adjacent 
hamlets  (1879)  15,053 ;  (1890)  19,190. 

Apell'es :  a  Greek  painter  of  the  second  half  of  the  fourth 
century  n.  c. ;  probably  a  native  of  Colophon;  studied  his 
art  at  Ephesus,  but  at  Pella,  in  IMacedonia,  formed  that 
acquaintance  with  Alexander  the  Great  which  was  so 
profitable  to  him  in  fame  and  wealth.  He  is  noted  espe- 
cially as  the  painter  of  an  Aphrodite.  Anndyoniene  and 
an  Artemis  in  the  C'ha.se.  His  portrait  of  Alexander  was 
put  in  the  temple  at  Ephesus.  Of  it  Alexander  made  the 
ol'l-quoted  remark:  "There  are  only  two  Alexanders,  the 
invincible  and  the  inimitable."  See  A.  Houssayo,  J/istoire 
d'Apellis  (Paris,  1867).  S.  M.  J. 

Ap'eniilnes  (It.  Apenni'no ;  anc.  in  Lat.  3Ions  Apenni'- 
mis):  a  long  chain  of  mountains  extending  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  forming  the  wa- 
tershed between  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
This  chain  belongs  to  the  system  of  the  Alps,  from  which  it 
brandies  off  near  the  Col  de  Teiida.  The  northern  portion, 
called  the  Ligurian  Alps,  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  Gulf  of 


APENRADE 


APHASIA 


251 


Genoa,  and  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  coast.  The  entire 
length  of  the  chain  is  about  800  miles,  and  its  general  direc- 
tion nearly  southeastward.  None  of  its  summits  rises  to 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  The  highest  summit  in  the 
peninsula  is  Monte  Corno.  which  has  an  altitude  of  i),.546 
feet,  l)ut  Mt.  Etna,  regarded  by  some  as  a  part  of  the 
Apennine  system,  is  10.03.')  feet  high.  The  average  height 
of  tlie  chain  is  about  4.000  feet.  'I'lie  geological  formations 
of  the  A|)ennines  are  cither  metamorphic  or  secondary,  and 
limestone  is  the  predomiiuuit  rock.  They  are  remarkable  for 
their  rich  quarries  of  marble  of  various  colors,  but  are  poor 
in  metals.  Rocks  of  volcanic  origin  abound  in  the  former 
kingdom  of  Naples.  The  mineral  riches  of  these  mounlains 
consist  chiclly  in  the  celebrated  marbles  of  Carrara,  Sera- 
vezza.  and  Sienna.  The  Ajiennines  are  somewhat  deficient 
in  sulilime  and  magnificent  scenery,  and  their  general  as- 
]iect  is  that  of  a  wall,  with  few  projecting  peaks  to  break 
the  monotony  of  the  scene.  Tlie  higher  parts  of  these 
mountains  arc  mostly  dry,  rocky,  anil  destitute  of  trees,  but 
lielow  tb(^  altitude  of  3.000  feet'  they  are  covered  with  for- 
ests of  the  evergreen  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  and  other  trees. 
The  oIi\-e,  orange,  and  palm  also  ilourisli  near  their  liase, 
especially  wlien^  they  are  in  close  proximity  to  the  sea,  as 
near  the  Gulf  of  Xaples  and  at  the  Riviera  of  Genoa.  Some 
geogra[)hers  divide  this  chain  into  four  parts:  1.  The 
Northern  Apennines,  extending  from  the  Col  de  Tenda  to 
th<;  Pass  of  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  near  Arez/.o:  2.  The  Cen- 
tral ,\|)ennines,  from  Arezzo  to  the  valley  of  the  Pescara, 
which  sejiarates  the  provinces  of  Teramo  and  Chieti :  3.  The 
Southern  Apennines,  from  the  Pescara  to  Cape  Spailivento  ; 
4.  The  Insular  Apennines,  in  the  island  of  Sicily.  In  Cen- 
tral Italy  tlie  western  or  southwestern  side  presents  a  very 
gradual  "descent,  but  in  the  northern  part  of  the  range, 
which  api)roaches  the  coast,  thei'e  is  a  very  steep  declivity 
next  to  the  sea. 

Apeiira'de :  a  seaport-town  in  Schleswig,  on  a  fiord  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Little  Belt,  33  miles  N.  of  Schleswig  (see 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  1-E).  It  has  a  good  harbor 
and  beautiful  environs.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  here. 
>fear  this  town  is  the  castle  of  Brundlund,  built  by  Queen 
Margaret  about  1410.    Pop.  6,069. 

A  pp'rients :  remedies  employed  to  act  upon  the  bowels  in 
hal)il  iial  or  <'lii'onic  constipation.  They  may  be  divided  into 
two  sets:  salines;  vegetable  aperients.  The  most  used  of  the 
saline  aperients  are  the  various  mineral  waters,  such  as  Bed- 
ford water,  Saratoga  water,  Hunyadi  Arpad  and  Hunyadi 
Janos  water,  and  Fredrickshalle  water.  These  all  depend 
for  their  activity  upon  the  sulphates  of  sodium,  magnesium, 
or  lime,  either  alone  or  mixed  together.  The  difference  in 
tlie  action  of  waters  depends  chiefly  upon  their  strength. 
Sulphate  of  sodium,  or  Glauber's  salts,  sulphate  of  magne- 
sium, or  E[isom  salts,  taitrate  of  sodium  and  [lotassium,  or 
Roclielle  salts,  may  be  substituted  for  the  more  costly  natu- 
ral waters.  A  very  close  imitation  of  these  natural  waters 
may  be  made  by  mixing  an  ounce  each  of  the  sulphate  of 
sodium  and  magnesium,  and  half  a  drachm  of  the  bicarlio- 
natc  of  sodium,  and  dissolving  in  water  as  needed.  In  order 
to  act  kindly,  salines  should  be  taken  when  the  stomach  is 
empty,  and  are  therefore  usually  preferred  on  rising,  at  least 
half  an  hour  before  breakfast.  The  dose  of  the  salines 
varies  almost  indefinitely ;  the  amount  taken  should  be  in- 
creased until  the  desired"  effect  is  produced.  Of  the  mixture 
given  above,  from  a  heaped  teaspoonful  to  a  heaped  table- 
spoonful  may  be  taken  in  half  a  glass  of  water. 

The  vegetable  aperient  compounds  in  use  are  legion. 
Probably  the  best  of  flic  single  vegctabh'  a[icricnts  is  the 
cascara  sagrada,  given  in  the  form  of  the  fluid  or  solid  ex- 
tract, of  which  the  dose  is  respectively  5  to  30  minims  and  3 
to  5  grains.  A  most  excellent  combination,  and  one  which 
on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  dose  can  be  taken  in 
granules,  is  one-sixth  of  a  grain  of  aloin,  one-eighth  of  a 
grain  of  extract  of  belladonna,  with  one-sixtieth  of  a  grain 
of  strychnine.  Of  these  granules,  one  to  three  may  be  taken 
at  a  d(3se.  A  vegetable  laxative  acts  slowly,  and  should  al- 
ways be  taken  at  bed-time;  or  in  severe  eases  of  constipa- 
tion may  I)e  taken  in  minute  doses  after  the  mid-day  and 
evening  meals. 

When  h.abitually  used,  aperients  lose  their  power  over 
the  individual,  and  it  is  essential  that  they  should  be 
changed  from  time  to  time.  It  is  also  an  invariable  rule 
that  the  use  of  aperients  in  chronic  consti])ation  is  to  be 
avoiderl  as  long  as  possible,  the  const i])at ion  being  over- 
•come  by  the  use  of  proper  food  and  the  formation  of  proper 


habits  of  life.  All  foods  which  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  non-nutritious  material  act  as  laxatives,  by  their  bulk  dis- 
tending and  stimulating  the  intestines.  Thus  bran  bread, 
oatmeal  porridge,  whole-wheat  flour,  and  cracked  wheat  are 
all  distinctly  laxative,  while  milk  anil  meat  are  distinctly 
constipating'.  AVater,  by  its  softening  influence,  has  some 
laxative  power,  and  in  many  individuals  a  pint  of  hot  water, 
taken  on  going  to  bed  at  night  or  getting  up  in  the  morning, 
acts  most  happily.  General  exercise  is  of  great  service  in 
maintaining  the  normal  condiliim  of  the  alimentary  canal, 
and  all  persons  of  costive  habit  should  make  an  absolute  nde 
of  setting  aside  a  fixed  time  in  each  day  to  respond  to  the 
calls  of  nature.  Enemata  of  simple  water  may  often  be 
used  with  advantage  from  time  to  time  to  replace  medicines. 
The  habitual  use  of  glycerine  suppositories  or  of  enemata 
of  glycerine  is  not  proper.  H.  C.  Wood. 

Apet'aloilS  Plants  (Apeiala-):  one  of  the  divisions  of  di- 
cotyledons, according  to  the  usual  system  of  classification. 
It  includes  many  families,  often  with  little  if  any  relation- 
ship, agreeing  only  in  wanting  petals.  While  this  division 
is  recognized  bv  most  British,  French,  and  American  bota- 
nists, it  is  unquestionably  artificial.  In  all  or  nearly  all 
eases  the  petals  have  disappeared  by  a  reduction  from  the 
petal-bearing  type.  Many  apetalous"  plants  belong  to  fami- 
lies containing  choripetalous  or  gamopetalous  flowers,  and 
it  is  probablelhat  aU  apetak-c  should  be  considered  as  the 
reduced  or  degraded  relatives  of  the  plants  of  these  higher 
groups.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Apliaiiip'tera,  or  Aplianop'tera  [from  Gr.  acpavva.  invisi- 
lilc  +  TTtpdv.  wing;  i.e.  with  wings  not  ajiparcnt] :  a  sub-or- 
der of  wingless  insects  containing  a  single  family,  the  PuUci- 
<l(e,  or  fleas.  There  are  many  species,  of  which  the  common 
flea  {Pulex  irrifans)  may  lie  regarded  as  the  type.  The 
female  deposits  her  eggs,  generally  about  a  dozen  in  num- 
ber, in  any  favorable  situation ;  and  in  about  six  days  the 
larvie  are  "hatched,  attaining  their  full  size  in  ten  or  twelve 
days  more.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  larva  spins  itself  a 
little  silken  cocoon,  in  which  it  passes  into  the  pupa  state, 
and  in  about  twelve  days  afterward  emerges  a  perfect  flea. 
The  chigoe  (SnrcopnyVa  penetnins)  is  a  native  of  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  is  an  exceedingly  annoy- 
ing and  sometimes  even  a  dangerous  insect.  It  penetrates 
the  skin  of  the  foot  in  man  and  various  other  mammals,  and 
there  lavs  its  eggs.  The  larvse  often  form  troublesome  ul- 
cers which,  if  neglected  at  fii'st,  are  veiy  diflicult  to  heal. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  .Jordan. 

Aplia'sia  [from  Gr.  cupaa-la,  speechlessness ;  from  aiparos, 
speechless ;  a-,  not  +  ipavai.  speak] :  disorder  or  loss  of  the 
power  of  speech  due  to  brain  disease,  as  distinguished  from 
aphonia  {g.v.\  the  loss  of  |)honation  of  external  disease,  as 
of  the  vocal  cords  or  larynx.  There  is  a  portion  of  the  left 
side  of  the  brain  especially  devoted  to  the  function  of 
s):ieech,  and  whenever  this  becomes  in  any  way  diseased,  as 
most  frequently  by  apoplectic  ha-morrhage  in  the  brain, 
apliasia  results.  There  are  many  grades  of  the  condition, 
from  entire  speechlessness  to  the  slightest,  almost  impercep- 
tible, hesitation.  Moreover,  there  are  different  types  of 
ajihasia,  widely  different  in  nature.  In  one  there  may  be 
plain  speechlessness;  in  another  inability  to  speak  correctly, 
the  words  of  a  sentence  being  confusedly  misplaced ;  in  a 
third,  words  are  improjierly  applii^d  (a  talile  lieing  called  a 
knife  or  the  like),  not  from  "want  of  intelligent  appreciation, 
for  the  patient  is  at  times  painfully  aware  of  his  inability 
to  express  himself;  and  finally  there  may  be  a  curious  form 
in  which  any  attempt  to  spe'ak  thoughts  is  futile,  though 
the  patient  is  aide  to  reiieat  poems  or  declamations,  or  sing 
songs  without  the  least  hesitation.  The  last-mentioned 
phenomenon  is  due  to  the  existence  of  an  "automatic 
speech-center."  which  is  operative  when  words  once  com- 
mitted to  memory  are  re-spoken,  and  this  center  lies  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  brain  from  the  "volitional  speech-cen- 
ter." Disease  of  the  latter  may  therefore  be  jiresent  while 
the  automatic  center  remains  intact.  There  are  many  otlier 
varieties  of  ajihasia  which  can  only  be  understood  when  the 
physiology  of  the  brain  is  carefully  considered.  Aphasia 
must  not'  be  regarded  as  a  disease,  hut  as  a  symptom  of 
many  di.seases.  Therefore  the  question  of  its  cure  is  in- 
volved in  the  consideration  of  the  diseases  which  brought  it 
about.  In  cases  in  which  the  speec'h-center  has  become  ii-- 
reparably  damaged,  it  has  happened  that  by  a  process  of 
re-education,  other  parts  of  the  brain  assuming  the  func- 
tion, the  power  of  speech  has  been  partially  regained. 

William  Peppes. 


252 


APHELION 


APICULTURE 


Aplie'lion  [from  Gr.  aii6,  off  +  tjAios,  sun] :  that,  part  of 
a  planet's  orbit  wliieli  is  the  most  distant  from  the  sun,  and 
is  opposite  to  the  perihelion,  or  the  point  nearest  the  sun. 

Apli'ides  (sing,  a'phis,  a  plant-louse)  [etymology  uncer- 
tain] :  the  name  applied  to  numerous  hemipterous  insects 

of  the  family  Aphidido', 
and  commonly  known  as 
plant-lice.  They  inhabit 
trees  and  plants,  on  the 
juices  of  which  they  feed. 
The  aphides  are  remarkable 
for  their  saccharine  secre- 
tion, but  more  especially 
for  a  peculiarity  in  their 
generative  economy  which 
consists  in  the  first  fecun- 
dation of  the  female  influ- 
encing not  only  the  ova  de- 
veloped immediately  after- 
ward, but  those  of  the  fe- 
males resulting  from  that 
development,  even  to  the 
ninth  generation,  which  are 
successively  impregnated, 
and  continue  to  produce 
without  any  intercourse 
with  the  male.  In  autumn 
the  males  are  produced, 
when  the  last  set  of  females 
are  impregnated,  and  the 
fecundated  eggs  brought 
forth  for  the  ensuing  year. 
The  body  of  these  insects  is 
generally  flask-like,  being 
furnished  with  six  legs,  a 
pair  of  antenmc,  and  two 
small  tubes  not  far  from 
the  extremity  of  the  abdo- 
men, through  which  the  saccharine  fluid  is  exuded.  In 
Bome  of  the  aphides  wings  are  present,  but  in  others  they  are 
not.  Many  of  them  secrete  a  sweet  fluid  known  as  "  honey- 
dew,"  produced  by  a  pair  of  small  tubes  near  the  hinder  end 
of  the  body.  Ants  have  a  special  fondness  for  this  sub- 
stance, and  often  frequent  plants  on  whicli  it  is  deposited. 
They  may  sometimes  be  seen  milking  the  a|)hides,  as  it  is 
termed — that  is,  stroking  the  sugar-tubes  with  their  antcnme 
to  induce  tliem  to  furnish  them  the  saccharine  fluid  more 
abundantly.  Hence  the  aphides  have  been  termed  the  milch 
cows  of  the  ants.  Some  species  of  this  genus  are  very  de- 
structive to  vegetation,  as  the  hop-fly  (A'phis  liu'ma/i),  and 
the  aphis  of  the  turnip-cabbage  (Aphis  hras'sine),  wiiich 
have  sometimes  destroyed  whole  crops.  Here  also  belong 
the  Phylloxera  or  vine-louse.  The  aphides  are  often  in- 
fested by  certain  minute  parasites,  which,  by  laying  their 
eggs  in  the  bodies  of  those  insects,  cause  the  death  of  great 
numbers.  It  is  renuirkable  that  one  of  these  parasites 
(Aphid'ius)  has  itself  still  more  minute  ichneumon  parasites, 
whose  eggs  are  deposited  in  its  body. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 
Aphis:  See  Aphides. 

Aplio'llia  [from  Gr.  iupavia,  voicelessness ;  a-,  not  +  ^levi], 
voice]:  loss  of  s|ieech,  in  which  the  patient  more  or  less 
completely  loses  power  to  utter  sounds.  This  may  arise 
from  disease  of  the  larynx,  from  direct  paralysis  of  that 
organ,  or  from  some  functional  disease,  as  hysteria  or 
chorea.  The  treatment  varies  with  the  disease  of  which 
the  aphonia  is  a  symptom.  As  a  general  rule,  these  cases 
are  teui[)orary,  uiUess  there  is  a  destruction  or  serious  or- 
ganic change  in  the  tissues  of  the  lai-ynx. 

Aphrodite,  atro-di'tee:  See  Venus. 
Aph'tlias  (sing,  tiphtlm)  [from  Gr.  &<pSa.  ulcer,  thrush]: 
ulcers  of  the  mouth,  beginning  with  numerous  minute  ves- 
icles and  terminating  in  white  sloughs.  Aphthjc  are  usu- 
ally the  seat  of  microscopic  vegetation,  but  whether  the 
frowth  is  an  essential  or  only  an  accidental  clement  is  a 
isputcd  [loiiit.  Aphtha;  resemble  "thrush"  in  appearance, 
but  in  the  latter  disease  no  vesicles  are  formed. 

Aplithar'to-Docc'taB  [from  Gr.  &^eapTos,  incorruptible + 
SoKfTy.  think] :  literally,  "  believers  in  (that  which  is]  incor- 
ruptible," the;  iuuik;  of  till'  followers  of  .lulian  of  llalicar- 
nassus.  who  lived  about  KO  a.  n.,  and  taught  that  the  body 
of  Christ  was  divine  and  incorruptible. 


A'pia :  the  chief  town  of  the  Samoan  islands;  on  the  isl- 
and of  Upolu ;  lat.  14°  3'  S.,  Ion.  171°  31'  W.  There  is  a  small 
but  safe  liarbor.  Since  1870  it  has  been  a  municipality  gov- 
erned by  an  elected  council  of  six  members,  responsible  to  the 
consuls  of  Germany,  Great  fSritain,  and  the  U.  S.  Consider- 
able foreign  trade  is  carried  on  here,  but  it  is  for  the  most 
part  in  German  hands.  Copra  (i.  e.  dried  cocoanuts)  is  the 
most  important  article  of  trade,  but  cotton,  cocoanuts,  and 
breadfruit  are  also  exported.     Pop.  3,750.  M.  W.  H. 

A'pian.  or  Appian,  Pkter:  German  astronomer  and 
mathematician  ;  b.  at  Leisnig,  Saxony,  14i)o.  His  proper 
name  was  Bienewitz.  He  became  Professor  of  Mathemat- 
ics at  Ingolstadt  about  1537,  and  gained  distinction  by  liis 
writings,  among  which  is  a  work  on  cosmography  (1524). 
He  first  proposed  the  method  of  ascertaining  the  longitude 
liy  lunar  observations.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  (1540).  D.  at  Ingolstadt,  Apr. "21,  1552.  See 
Gilnther,  Peter  und  Philipp  Apian  (Prag,  1883). 

Apiary :  See  Bee. 

Apiciiis,  a-pis'i-ils,  Marcus  Gabius:  a  celebrated  epicure 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius. 
His  name  became  proverbial  for  gluttony  and  luxury  in  cat^ 
ing.  According  to  Seneca,  he  expended  more  than  $8,600,- 
000  in  the  indulgence  of  his  taste  for  rare  dishes,  and  then 
discovering  that  his  fortune  was  reduced  to  10.000,000 
sesterces  (about  ^360,000),  he  poisoned  himself,  because  he 
could  not  continue  his  expensive  style  of  living.  A]iicius 
composed  a  work  on  cookery,  but  tlie  extant  work  De  re 
coqii'iiuiria,  in  ten  books,  containing  a  large  number  of 
recipes,  can  not  in  its  present  form  be  attributed  to  Apic- 
ius,  being  compiled  in  part  as  late  as  the  third  century. 
See  edition  by  C.  T.  Schuch  (Heidelberg,  1874). 

M.  Warren. 

A'picultlire :  the  rearing  of  bees.  This  industry  is  now 
represented  by  something  over  300,000  beekeepers  in  the 
U.  ,S.  alone,  some  of  the  most  extensive  apiarists  owning  from 
300  to  3,000  colonies ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  honey  is  pro- 
duced by  tlie  ton  and  car-load  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the 
countiy.  While  the  majority  carry  on  apiculture  in  connec- 
tion with  some  other  rural  pursuit,  there  is  a  considerable 
number  who  make  beekeeping  their  sole  means  of  liveli- 
hood. 

Prior  to  1850  beekeeping  was  carried  on  in  the  old-fash- 
ioned way,  and  but  little  practical  results  were  obtained.  In 
1853  the  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth  made  the  great  invention 
which  revolutionized  aiiiculture  throughout  the  world.  This 
consisted  in  making  the  first  practical  movable-frame  hive, 
an  invention  that  made  it  possible  to  take  out  and  put  back 
with  facility  the  combs,  so 
that  the  exact  condition  of 
the  colony  could  be  easily 
ascertained.  Although  great 
improvements  have  been 
made  since  the  date  of  Mr. 
Langst  roth's  invention, 
nearly  all  hives  and  frames 
are  still  made  essentially  on 
the  Langstroth  principle, 
the  only  difference  being 
that  the  frames  are  self- 
spacing  ;  and  the  hives,  in- 
stead of  having  porticos, 
are  simpler,  stronger,  and 
lighter.  The  illustration  shows  an  eight-frame  Langstroth 
hive,  with  the  "super,"  as  it  is  called,  for  the  storage  of  the 
surplus  or  box  honey. 

Honey  is  put  upoii  the  market  both  in  the  comb  and  liquid 
form.  The  former  is  put  up  in  little  sqnare  boxes  whicli  hold 
about  a  pound.  These  boxes  are  put  in  the  hive,  contaiiiing 
a  little  piece  of  embossed  wax,  which  the  bees  draw  out  into 
comb,  fill  with  honey,  and  cap  over. 

Kxtractcd  honey  is  the  liquid  product  without  the  comb. 
It  is  sometimes  incorrectly  called  "strained"  honey.  To 
obtain  the  former  the  coiiibs  are  first  cleared  of  bees,  and 
then  uncjippcd  with  a  thin  knife— that  is,  the  film  of  wax 
that  covers  the  cells  is  sliced  off;  the  combs  are  next  put 
into  the  revolving  basket  of  an  extractor,  and  the  honey 
thrown  out  by  ccritril'ugal  force.  In  this  way  there  is  no 
mntilation  of  the  combs,  and  the  same  are  put  back  inio  the 
hive  to  be  filled  again  by  the  bees.  While  extracted  honey 
is  clear  and  wholesome,  strained  honey  is  the  product  from 
nuished-up  combs ;  and  the  result  is  it  is  often  befouled  by 


Improved  Lanpstroth  eiglit-frame 
hive. 


APION 


APOCYNACEiE 


253 


the  juices  from  mashed-up  bees,  larvas  (or  grubs),  and  bits 
of  wax,  jiropolis,  etc. 

Bets  usually  swaiin  during  the  honey  harvest ;  and  this 
SAVarniing  is  siniiily  nature's  method  of  iiiereasc.  It  is  not 
even  yet  decided  how  swarming  may  l)e  controlled  or  prc- 
venteil,  but  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  fiist  swarm 
should  be  allowed,  and  that  all  subsequent  swarming  should 
be  stopped.  The  first  one  should  be  hived  in  a  new  location, 
and  given  em|)ty  combs  or  section  honey-boxes,  so  that  the 
bees  may  commence  storing  honev  at  once,  liecausc  the  first 
swarm  is  usually  very  active,  and  will  do  better  work  than 
the  parent  colony — at  least  for  a  lime.  In  the  meantime, 
nil  second  or  1  liird  swarms  should  be  controlled  in  the  parent 
colony  as  far  as  possible  l)y  cutting  out  the  queen-cells  in 
t'ight'days  after  casting  the  first  swarm,  leaving,  of  course, 
one  cell  for  one  virgin  queen  to  hatch. 

Where  the  climate  is  cold  enough  bees  are  wintered  either 
in  t  Ik'  c'cllar  or  in  double-walled.  cliafT-packed  hives  outdoors, 
the  upperslory  filled  with  chaff  or  leaves.  In  llie  very  cold- 
est climate  the  cellar  plan  is  preferred;  but  in  localities 
where  the  winters  are  somewhat  open,  occasionally  inter- 
spersed with  warm  days,  so  the  bees  can  fly,  the  outdoor 
method  is  [ireferable.  Each  colony  should  have  from  1.5  to 
20  If),  of  sealed  stores  in  the  fall.  If,  upon  examination,  the 
bees  are  found  to  be  lacking,  they  should  be  fed  uj)  with 
sugar-sirup  made  in  the  proportion  of  one-third  water 
and  two-tliirds  sugar  by  weight,  the  same  to  be  made  into  a 
sirup  over  a  slow  fire,  being  very  careful  not  to  burn  it.  If 
the  i)ees  are  to  winter  in  the  cellar,  the  hives  should  have 
large  entrances,  or,  better,  the  bottom-board  should  be  re- 
moved. In  that  case  the  hives  should  be  set  in  a  row  upon 
a  ])air  of  scantling  in  such  a  way  that  the  bottoms  of  the 
liives  ar<^  left  entirely  open,  with  a  space  of  4  inches  between 
cacli  hive.  The  next  lot  of  hives  should  be  piled  on  top  of 
the  lower  row,  each  hive  right  over  the  space  between  the 
two  hives  below.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  give  the  bees 
plenty  of  bottom  ventilation,  and  allow  old  bees,  as  they  be- 
come su])erannuated,  and  die.  to  drop  out  of  the  way,  and 
not  to  befoul  tlu-  hive.  If  double-walled  hives  are  not  avail- 
able fcu-  outdoor  wintering,  the  single-walled  hives  may  be 
placed  in  covered  lioxes  large  enough  so  as  to  give  a  spaci;  of 
3  or  4  iiulii's  all  around  the  hive.  This  space  should  then 
be  filled  with  leaves,  chaff,  or  any  other  packing,  leaving, 
of  course,  a  passageway  from  the  hive  entrance  to  the  out- 
side. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  bees  in  the  U.  S.  The  first  are  the 
lilack  (or  German)  bees,  and  these  seem  to  Ije  more  widely 
dissemiualeil  than  any  other  race.  But  the  bees  that  are 
preferred  by  the  large  practical  beekeepers  are  the  yellow- 
banded,  or  Italians,  or,  at  least,  a  cross  between  them  and 
the  black  liees.  The  Italians  are  proof  against  mothworms, 
anil,  in  general,  are  better  honey-gatherers. 

Fortunately,  the  diseases  of  bees  are  hardly  worth  men- 
tioning. There  is  only  one  disease  that  beekeepers  are  at 
all  afraid  of,  and  that  is  what  is  called  foul  brood.  Colonics 
so  affected  become  morc^  or  less  demoralized,  the  brood  dies 
in  all  stages  of  growth  in  the  comb,  and  the  cappings  of  the 
sealed  brood  are  usually  perforated  and  sunken.  The  affected 
larva'  are  shriveled,  and  of  a  light  coffee  color,  and  the  odor 
is  very  much  like  that  of  an  ordinary  glue-pot.  To  treat, 
shake  tlu^  bees  into  a  clean  hive,  put  them  on  frames  of  foun- 
dation, and  cause  them  to  build  them  out  into  combs;  and 
then  flic  old  combs  should  be  burned,  and  the  old  hive  boiled 
in  water  for  some  minutes,  to  be  sure  that  all  germs  have 
lieen  killed. 

For  further  particulars  in  regard  to  bees,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Langstroth  on  The  Honey-bee,  revised  liy  Dailaiit; 
the  lifekcepers'  Guide,  by  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook;  Quinbij's  Xew 
Jiee/cei-jiiii!/,  by  Ij.  C.  Root ;  or  the  A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture, 
by  A.  I.  Root.  A.  I.  Root. 

A'pioii  CfiTriuv):  Greek  grammarian  and  rhetorician  of  the 
first  century  a.  u.  ;  foster-son  of  Didymus,  and  head  of  the 
philological  school  at  Alexandria,  lie  is  chiefly  known  l)y 
.lose|ihus's  tract  Annin.sf  Apion.  a  reply  to  the  charges  which 
he  lu-oughl  against  the  .Jews  in  an  address  to  Caligula. 

A'pius  Tiibcro'sa :  a  papilionaceous  plant  of  the  family 
LejiHutiiioKif.  It  is  a  native  of  the  U.  S.  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mouiilaius.  has  a  twining  slem.  pinnate  leaves,  and  tuberous 
roots,  which  are  used  as  food,  and  resemlde  the  potato.  The 
roots  are  commonly  called  ground-nuts. 

A'pis  (in  (Jr.  'Airis) :  the  name  of  the  bull  of  Memphis,  the 
favorite  olijecl of  worship  of  the  ancient  Kgypti;ins.  as  early 
as  the  second  dynasty.     According  to  some  authorities,  he 


was  sacred  to  Osiris,  or  was  a  symbol  of  Osiris,  and  was  not 
permitted  to  live  more  than  twenty-five  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  he  was  secretly  put  to  death  liy  the  priests.  Dur- 
ing his  life  he  was  kept  in  the  temple  of  I'tah  in  Memphis, 
and  served  by  a  retinue  of  priests.  His  death  was  followed 
by  a  general  "mourning  until  a  calf  with  the  requisite  color' 
and  marks  was  found  to  supjily  his  place.  The  principal  of 
these  required  marks  were — black  color  with  a  white  square 
on  the  brow,  the  figure  of  an  eagle  on  the  back,  and  a  pecul- 
iar knot  under  the  tongue. 

Aplanat'ic  Lens:  in  optics,  a  lens  which  causes  all  the 
ravs  of  light  that  fall  on  it  to  converge  to  a  single  point  or 
true  focus.  In  order  to  be  aplanatic,  the  lens  must  not  only 
have  the  true  geometrical  figure  necessaiy  to  destroy  aberi-a- 
tion,  but  nius-t  be  formed  of  different  media,  so  as  to  be 
achromatic.  These  conditions  can  not  be  accurately  fulfilled 
in  practice. 

Apoc'alypsc  [from  Gr.  ajtoKaKv^is,  revelation  ;  ottiJ,  off  +• 
KaKintTiiv,  cover]:  literally  revelation,  usually  the  last  book 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  contains  discoveries  or  pre- 
dictions respecting  the  future  of  Christianity.  See  Eev- 
ELATiox,  Book  or. 

Apocalyptic  Number:  the  mystical  number  666  spoken 
of  in  the  book  of  Revelation:  "Let  him  that  hath  under- 
standing count  the  number  of  the  beast :  for  it  is  the  num- 
Ijer  of  a  man"  (xiii.  18).  Some  critics  interpret  this  to  be 
an  enigmatical  expression  of  the  word  Lalinus,  the  Greek 
characters  of  which,  taken  as  numerals,  amount  to  666.  The 
connection  between  Lalinus  and  the  Roman  power  has  given 
Protestants  a  reason,  or  pretext,  to  apply  this  passage  to  the 
Roman  Church,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  retort  by  making 
the  same  number  stand  for  Luther,  Calvin,  and  other  Prot- 
estants. It  is  frequently  interpreted,  according  to  its  v.alue 
in  Hebrew  characters,  as  meaning  Nero. 

Apocren'ic  Aeid  [from  Gr.  aiT6.  from  +  Kpiiinj,  fountain, 
so  called  because  derived  from  some  fountains  or  spring.s]  : 
an  extractive  or  brown  matter  found  in  some  sjiriug  water, 
and  in  ordinary  vegetable  moulil.  It  is  a  product  of  the 
natural  decay  of  wood  and  other  vegetable  tissue. 

ApOf'l\VJ)Iia  [from  neut.  pi.  of  Gr.  adjec.  inriKpxKpos,  hid- 
den, s()urious  :  a.v6,  away  -I-  Kpinmiv.  hide]:  a  collection  of 
writings  which  have  been  regarded  as  an  apjiendage  to  the 
Old  Testament,  and  sometimes  as  a  part  of  if.  They  are 
valuable  chiefly  as  historical  records,  and  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  religious  condition  of  the  .lews  from  the  close 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Christian  era.  They  are  divided 
into  three  classes:  (1)  those  which  originated  in  Palestine, 
such  as  the  book  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  first  book  of  Mac- 
cabees, and  book  of  Judith  ;  (2)  those  of  Egypto-Alexandrian 
origin — the  book  of  Wisdom,  second  of  Maccabees,  and  the 
addition  to  Esther;  (3)  those  which  show  traces  of  Chaldaic 
or  Persian  influence,  as  Esdras,  Tobias.  Baruch,  and  the  ad- 
ditions to  Daniel.  The  Council  of  Laodicea  in  Phrygia, 
lietween  843  and  381  (commonly  referred  to  cir.  360),  con- 
demned the  use  of  "  uncanonical  books";  but  the  list  of 
canonical  books  which  follows  is  now  geiKually  thought  to 
be  an  interpolation.  The  third  Council  of  Carthage  (Aug., 
307),  in  the  forty-seventh  of  its  fifty  canons,  gives  a  list 
which  includes  Eeclesiasticus,  Wisdom,  Tobit,  Judith,  First 
and  Second  Maccabees.  There  are  in  all  fourteen  apociy- 
phal  books,  or  portions  of  books,  all  but  three  of  which  were 
pronounced  canonical  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  ir)46.  The 
IJoman  Catholic  Church  calls  these  books  dcutero-canonical 
or  antUegomena,  and  applies  the  name  "apocrynhal"  to 
f  hose  books  which  have  been  refused  a  place  iti  the  canon 
of  the  books  of  tlie  Old  Testament.  By  Protestants  these 
books  are  generally  called  PsEUDKPiORAPnA  (q.  v.).  The 
Church  of  England  in  her  Articles  mentions  the  Apoc- 
rvjiha  as  books  which  "  the  Church  doth  read  for  example 
of  life  ,-111(1  instruction  of  manners,  but  yet  doth  it  not  ap- 
plv  them  to  establish  any  doctrine."  "In  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  lessons  i'rom  the  Apocrypha  are  included 
in  the  latest  revision  of  the  Lectionary.  They  are  entirely 
rejected  from  public  worship  by  other  Protestants  in  the 
v.  S.,  and  by  the  disse'iiting  churches  in  Great  Britain.  Be- 
sides the  old  Teslament  there  are  many  Nev  Testament 
Apocrypha.    See  PsiiUDKi-iuRAi'MA. 

Revised  by  Wii.LlA.M  S.  Peret. 

Apo(^yiiac('fe,  or  Ai)ocynca%  a-pos-i-iia'see-ee,  or  Hp-o- 
sin  ee-ee  [from  Apoc'i/tmm,  the  name  of  one  of  its  genera]: 
an  order  of  exogenous  herbs,  trees,  and  shrubs.  The  calyx 
is  usually  five-partite,  persistent;  the  corolla  monopetalous 


25i 


APODAL  FISHES 


APOLLO 


and  hypogynous;  the  stamens  are  five,  inserted  on  the 
corolla.  Wany  of  the  species  have  a  poisonous  milky  juice, 
and  others  are  used  in  medicine.  The  wliole  number  of  the 
species  is  said  to  be  more  than  1.000.  This  order  comprises 
the  oleander;  the  hya-hya,  or  cow-tree,  the  milk  of  which  is 
■wholesome ;  the  Cerhera.  which  produces  the  Tan^hin  poison 
of  Madagascar ;  the  Carisna  edulis  of  Araliia ;  and  the  Ajioc- 
ynum  cannabinum,  or  Lidian  hemp,  which  grows  in  North 
America. 

Ap'odal  Fishes,  or  Ai)'odes  [apodes  is  from  Grr.  Sirous, 
pi.  SiroSes,  footless;  d-,  not  +  iroiis,  foot]:  fishes  destitute  of 
ventral  fins  or  homologues  of  the  posterior  extremities.  In 
the  Linna-an  system,  Apodes  was  the  name  of  an  order  of 
such  fishes,  jlodcrn  writers  have  restricted  the  group,  till 
it  now  contains  only  the  eels,  which  are  further  character- 
ized by  the  elongate"  liody  and  narrow  gill  openings,  and  the 
fact  tliat  the  shoulder-girdle  is  not  in  contact  with  the  skull. 

D.  S.  J. 

Ap'ogee  [Fr.  apogee,  fi'om  Tjat.  (ipogm'um,  from  6r.  a.it6- 
7010^,  away  from  the  earth;  d^ii.off  -I-  7010,  earth]:  the  point 
of  the  moon's  orbit  most  remote  from  the  earth ;  the  point 
which  is  opposite  to  the  perigee.  The  apogee  of  the  lunar 
orbit  advances  eastward  among  the  stars,  and  completes  a 
revolution  in  nine  years. 

Apol'da :  a  town  of  Central  Germany ;  near  the  river 
Ilm,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar ;  on  the  railway 
from  Berlin  to  Weimar,  11  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Weimar 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-F).  It  has  manufactures 
of  hosierv,  cloths,  etc.  Here  are  mineral  springs.  Pop. 
(1880)  1.5,'630;  (1890)  20,880. 

Apollina'ris.  or  ApoHina'rliis,  the  Younger  :  a  learned 
bishop  and  philosopiier ;  was  a  son  of  a  grammarian  of  the 
same  name.  lie  became  Bishop  of  Laodicea  in  362  a.  d., 
and  gained  distinction  as  an  orator  and  writer.  Among  his 
works  were  Thirty  Books  against  Porphyry,  and  commen- 
taries on  the  Bible.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Arianism,  and 
in  375  founded  the  sect  of  ApoUinarians,  who  were  regarded 
as  heretics.  The  heresy  of  which  he  was  accused  was  tlie 
denial  of  the  human  soul  in  Christ,  the  place  of  which,  he 
taught,  was  supplied  by  the  Logos.  His  heresy  was  con- 
demned at  Alexandria  in  362,  and  at  Rome  in  374.  At  the 
Council  of  ('oustanrinople,  in  381,  he  was  condemned  by 
name.  He  died  in  300,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  subsequent 
century  the  sect  he  founded  was  extinct.  Some  ot  his 
writings  have  been  recently  discovered  among  those  of 
other  Fathers.  See  Wernsdorff,  Dissertatio  de  Apollinare 
Laodiceno  (1694). 

Apollina'risSido'iiins.GAiusSoLLius,  Saint:  Latin  poet 
and  ecclesiastic ;  b.  at  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  in  Gaul,  about 
430  A.  D.  He  was  ason-in-law  of  Avitus,  who  was  Em[)cror 
of  Rome  for  a  few  months  in  4.'5.5-4.56  a.  d.  Anthemius,  who 
became  emjieror  in  407,  appointed  him  prefect  of  Rome  in 
468.  About  470  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Clermont  (Augus- 
tonemetum).  lie  wrote  Carmiiia  and  Epistolie,  which  are 
extant,  and  have  some  historical  value.  D.  about  480  a.  d. 
Best  ed.  by  C.  Luetjohann  (Berlin,  1887). 

ApolHiinris  Spring::  the  source  of  true  Apollinaris 
water;  in  the  valley  of  the  ."Vhr,  near  Rcmagen,  Rhenish 
Prussia.  The  water  is  drawn  from  a  deep  rocky  .source  at  a 
depth  of  TA)  feet,  and  tlie  carbonic  acid  it  contains  is  that 
contained  by  water  at  that  depth.  A  London  company 
undertook  the  ex|)ort  of  the  water  in  1874.  The  bottles 
filled  at  the;  spring  in  1888  numbered  12,720.000;  in  1889, 
1.5,822,0110.  In  1891  it  was  probably  between  l.S,000,(IOO  and 
20,000,000.     .See  .MiNEHAi-  Waters."  jM.  W.  H. 

ApoUina'ris  Siilpi'c'iiis,  (iAirs:  Latin  grammarian  of 
the  second  century  of  our  era;  b.  at  Carthage,  and  famous 
as  the  teacher  of  .\ulus  (ielliiis  and  the  Emperor  Pertiuax. 
He  wrote  nu'trical  arguments  (which  are  still  extant)  to  the 
plays  of  Terence,  ami  to  the  twelve  books  of  the  yEneid. 
The  non-acrostic  argmnents  preserved  for  five  plays  of 
Plant  us  (Am/ihitnio,  Auliilaria,  Miles,  Mercrttor,  and  Pseu- 
dulus)  are  cunnuonly  ascribed  to  him.  Jl.  Warrk.v. 

Apol'lo  (in  (ir. 'AiriiAAw;/  and  'AirfWcDv):  among  the  Ly- 
cians,  Greeks,  the  Italic  peofiles.  and  the  Etruscans,  a  god, 
prinuirily  of  light,  secondarily  the  deity  who  presided  over 
the  annual  stages  iif  the  sun.  Hence  he  was  regarded  as  an 
increaser  and  ]irescrver  of  vegetable.  aninuU,  and  human 
life,  lie  is  the  protector  of  crops  and  Hocks,  the  friend  of 
the  wild  creatures  of  field  and  flood,  and  the  maintainer  of 
physical  lieallh,  vigor,  manly  sjiirit,  and  masculine  beauty, 
which  he  ilUistrales  in  his  own  person.     The  as.sociation  of 


Apollo  with  athletics  and  war,  and  with  the  healing  of  dis- 
ease, comes  under  this  head;  the  god's  anger  naturally  has 
power  to  cause  the  disease  and  death  which  his  mercy  can 
ward  off  and  check.  The  ritual  prescribed  for  the  worship 
of  Apollo  laid  great  stress  on  physical  and  moral  purity. 
He  removed  the  stain  and  the  disabilities  ensuing  on  moral 
guilt,  such  as  bloodshed,  by  special  e.'qiiatory  riles.  An- 
other of  his  attributes  is  a  knowdedgc  of  hidden  things. 
Prophecy  was  dispensed  in  the  name  of  the  god  at  many 
of  his  sanctuaries.  In  this  regard  the  ancient  Pythian 
oracle  at  Delphi,  on  Jit.  Parnassus,  acquired  a  command- 
ing pre-eminence.  Finally  Apollo,  as  the  god  ot  whatever 
is  bright  and  fair,  was  considered  to  be  the  author  of  musi- 
cal inspiration.  As  such  he  is  the  inventor  of  the  lyre  and 
the  leader  of  the  nine  Muses.  His  largest  Greek  temple  was 
at  Miletus  in  Ionia.  The  lonians  made  him  the  progenitor 
of  Ion.  the  founder  of  their  race.  The  island  of  Delos  was 
represented  to  be  the  place  of  his  birth,  with  his  twin  sister 
Artemis  (Diana).  Their  parents  were  Zeus  (.Ju]iitcr)  and 
Leto  (Latona).  Delos  remained  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  was 
spared  by  the  Pei'sians,  who  must  have  identified  the  Dclian 
Apollo  with  tiieir  own  Ahuramazda  (Ornmzd).  The  oHicial 
recognition  of  the  worship  of  Apollo  in  Rome  dates  from 
429  B.  c. 

Apollo  in  Art. — Augustus,  who  ascribed  his  victory  at 
Actiura  to  Apollo's  favor,  erected  a  magnificent  temple  on 
the  Palatine  Hill.  It  contained  one  of  his  most  spirited 
and  widely  famed  statues,  the  work  of  the  celebrated  Sko- 
pas.  A  copy  of  it  in  the  Vatican  Museum  shows  the  god  in 
long  robes,  striking  the  strings  of  his  lyre  with  both  hands. 
The  delicacy  of  the  features  causes  many  visitors  to  take  the 
statue  for  a  female  figure.  It  is  possible  that  the  beautiful 
Pourtales  head,  in  the  British  Museum,  with  its  rich  topknot 
of  luxuriant  hair,  and  its  perfect  oval  face  suiiused  with  a 
tender  melancholy,  better  reproduces  the  exqinsite  original 
of  Skopas.  That  a  kindred  conception  of  Apollo  obtained 
from  the  earliest  times  is  shown  by  the  Homeric  hynm  to 
Pythian  Apollo,  and  by  a  relief  many  times  rejiroduced  with 
studied  quaintness,  on  which  Apollo  appears  in  the  garb  of 
the  Pythian  lute-player,  welcomed  by  the  goddess  of  victory. 
An  early  relief  from  Thasos,  now  in  the  Louvre,  exhibits 
Apollo  with  the  lyre,  and  clad  in  long  garments,  crowned 
victor  by  one  of  the  Graces.  The  date  is  about  475  B.C. 
Even  earlier  are  paintings  on  Greek  black-figured  ware,  on 
which  Apollo  appears  in  the  same  ornate  dress,  bearded, 
and  with  long  curls,  striking  a  huge  lyre.  Totally  different 
is  the  conception  of  the  early  statues,  in  which  the  god  is 
represented  as  the  patron  of  athletic  exercises.  A  consider- 
able number  of  these,  dating  from  the  sixth  century  B.C., 
has  been  unearthed  on  the  islands  and  mainland  of  Greece, 
as  at  Thera  and  Naxos  (Cyclades),  Tenea  (near  Corinth), 
and  Orchomenos  (Btt'otia);  also  elsewhere  in  Buiitia,  and  al; 
Actium.  These  nude  figures,  of  rigid  pose,  awkwanl  exe- 
cution, and  little  facial  expression,  mark  the  struggle  of 
the  Greek  chisel  with  the  great  ditficulties  of  the  nude 
male  form.  In  the  absence  of  any  attributes  they  have 
been  held  to  portray  human  athletes;  the  dedication  is, 
however,  commonly  to  Apollo.  Akin  to  these  was  the 
bronze  A])ollo  of  the  artist  Kanachos,  at  Miletus.  The 
nude  god  stood  with  a  bow  in  one  hand  and  a  stag  or  doe 
on  the  other.  The  Payne  Knight  statuette  in  the  British 
Museum  is  a  reproduction  of  this,  as  indicated  by  types  on 
the  coinage  of  Jlilctus.  The  Strangford  marbli'  in  I^ondon 
and  anollun'  iliscovercd  in  the  theater  at  Athens  show  the 
skillful  Iransronnation  of  this  type  by  Attic  artists  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  Pythagoras  of  lihegium  in 
Italy  modeled  an  Apollo  as  the  divine  archer  in  combat 
with  the  Pythian  serpent.  A  notable  extant  figure  of 
,\p<illo,  which  tradition  ascribes  to  Alkamenes.  occupied 
the  center  of  the  western  gable  of  the  temple  of  Ulympia. 
Here  Apollo  is  quelling  the  wild  and  ruthless  Centaurs  in 
beliaU'dr  \n^  pro/rgrs  IVirithoos  and  Theseus.  A  Neapoli- 
tan bronze  of  allVcted  primitive  quaintness  .shows  .\pollo 
as  the  "far  shooter"  of  prayers  and  hymn,  advancing  with 
bow  in  hand  and  arrow  strung.  His  only  garment  is  a  light 
hunter's  cloak.  The  taste  and  skill  of  tlie  fourth  century 
found  its  expression  in  the  above-mentinned  statue  by  Sko- 
pas and  ill  a  miinber  of  graceful  creatiims  by  Praxiteles. 
.Such  were  his  .Apollo  at  rest  and  Apollo  in  action,  of  which 
good  cdjiies  exist  ;  the  latter  shows  the  god  in  the  act  of 
piercing  a  lizard  which  is  crawling  up  the  tree  trunk  against 
which  111!  leans;  the  former,  known  as  the  Apollino,  repre- 
sents his  exceedingly  youthful  figure  in  a  pose  full  of  lan- 
guid grace,  also   leaning  against   a   laurel   tree.     Several 


APOLLO 


APOLOGETICS 


255 


temple  statues  by  Praxiteles  grouped  Apollo  with  Leto 
and  Artemis,  his  inolhor  and  sister.  The  third  century, 
while  no  douht  elaborating  and  reproducing  the  types  al- 
ready crystallized,  was  stimulated  to  a  more  heroic  concep- 
tion of  A|)ollo  by  the  stirring  event  of  an  invasion  of  Greece 
by  tlie  Gauls  under  IJrennus,  in  278  B.C.  The  original  of 
the  much  admired  Apollo  of  the  Belvedere  in  Rome  was 
fashioned  and  dedicated  at  this  time.  It  is  proved  by  two 
bronze  statuettes  that  Montorsoli's  restoration  of  the  god  as 
an  ardier  is  wrong.  He  really  held  an  a-gis  with  which  he 
terrifies  tiie  enemy  exactly  as  described  in  the  Iliad.  Of 
similar  character  is  the  splendid  figure  of  Apollo  among 
tlie  Pergamene  bas-reliefs  recently  set  up  in  the  Berlin 
Museum.  Attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  figures 
and  heads  of  Apollo  on  Greek  coins,  many  of  which  are  of 
great  bi'auty.  The  ordinary  attributes  of  Apollo  are  lyre, 
bow  and  (juiver,  laurel  branch  or  wreath,  and  among  ani- 
mals the  swan.  In  modern  art  Apollo  figiu'es  as  the  leader 
of  the  JIuses  (so  in  Raphael's  Vatican  fresco),  and  as  driver 
of  the  solar  chariot  (so  in  Guido  Reni"s  eciually  celebrated 
ceiling  fresco  of  the  Rospigliosi  Palace).  His  pursuit  of 
Daphne,  and  her  transformation  into  a  b.iy-tree,  is  also  a 
favorite  sul)j(!crt  of  Italian  art.  The  figure  of  Apollo  is 
nowadays  frecpiently  used  as  a  personification  of  art  or 
music,  and  sometimes  appeare  coupled  with  one  of  Minerva 
as  the  patroness  of  science.  ALFRb;D  E.merso.v. 

Apollo:  borough:  Armstrong  co.,  Pe.  (for  location  of 
county,  scc^  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-B);  on  Pa.  R.  R. 
and  Kiskiminetas  river;  in  coal-raining  district;  has  rolling- 
mills,  foundiy,  steel-works,  etc.  Pop.  (1880)  1,156;  (1890) 
2,136. 

Apollodo'riis  (Gr.  'AiroWciSajpor) :  a  celebrated  Greek 
painter,  surnamed  The  Shadower;  was  b.  at  Athens  about 
440  li.  0.  He  was  a  rival  of  Zeuxis,  the  founder  of  a  new 
school,  and  the  reputed  inventor  of  chiaroscuro.  His  works 
are  highly  praised  by  Pliny,  who  says  he  was  the  first  who 
painted  objects  as  they  really  appear. 

Apolloilorns  of  Alliens:  grammarian  and  historian  of 
the  second  century  n.  c. ;  was  a  jiupil  of  Aristarchus.  Only 
fragments  of  his  numerous  works  remain.  See  Milller, 
Frar/men/a  Ilintoricorum  Orcecorum,  i.  428^69.  To  Apol- 
lodorus  is  attributed  a  manual  of  inrthology  entitled  Biblw- 
ihcca,  a  large  part  of  which  is  extant,  and  which  has  its  value. 
Others  assign  it  to  a  compiler  of  the  second  century  a.  d. 
Edited  by  lleyne  (2  ed.  1803),  and  by  Westermami  in  his 
Mijllwijraphi  Grcuci.  H.  L.  G. 

Apollodonis  of  Damascns:  architect;  b.  at  Damascus; 
lived  aljoiit  101)  a.  i).  He  was  patronized  by  Trajan,  and 
erected  in  Kume  nunuu'ous  works,  among  which  were  the 
Basilica  Ul|iia,  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  and  the  Column  of 
Trajan,  which  is  still  extant.  His  capital  work  was  a  lujble 
bridge  over  the  Danube,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Aluta,  built 
in  105  A.  D.  He  was  put  to  death  about  128  a.  d.  liy  Hadrian, 
whom  he  had  offentled  by  criticising  a  temple  which  that 
emperor  hail  designed. 

Apollu'nia  (Gr.  'AwoWaivia) :  an  ancient  city  of  Illyricum, 
on  tlie  Adriatic  Sea,  about  40  miles  S.  of  Dyrrhachium.  It 
was  foundfd  by  colonists  from  Corinth  and  Corcyra,  and 
became  ati  important  city.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
village  called  Polina  or  PoUina,  and  some  ruins  of  tem- 
ples. 

ApoUo'iiills:  Athenian  scidptor;  son  of  Nestor.  His 
date  is  unknown,  and  nothing  is  known  about  him  but  that 
he  executed  the  marble  statue  of  Ilerctdes,  of  which  a  large 
fragment,  called  the  T'orso  of  the  Belvedere,  is  now  in  Rome. 
From  the  style  of  the  work,  and  the  form  of  the  letters  in- 
scribed upon  it,  this  statue  may  be  ascribed  to  the  first 
century  a.  d.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  pieces  of 
ancient  sculpture  existing. 

ApoUonius  (surnamed  Dyscolus  the  Cralibed) :  an  emi- 
nent Greek  grammarian  of  Alexandria  (120-160  A.  D.),  was 
the  father  of  yElius  Ilerodian.  Of  his  many  works  a 
Treatise  on  tlie  Syntax  of  the  Parts  of  Speer.li  and  three 
others  are  extant.  He  had  rare  insight  for  his  times,  and 
Priscian  calls  him  maximus  auctor  artis  grammaticir.  Re- 
cent edition  by  Schneider  and  Uhlig.  See  Egger,  Apollonius 
Dyseole  (1854). 

Apolloiiins  (surnamed  Perg.i;us):  Greek  geometer;  b.  at 
Perga,  in  l'am|ihylia,  about  250  n.  c.  LitlU^  is  known  of 
his  life,  except  that  he  resided  in  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philopatiu'  (222-205  B.  c).  His  most  important 
Work  is  a  Greek   Trmtise  on  Conic  Sections,  in  eight  books, 


which  is  extant  except  one  book.  He  wrote  other  works, 
which  are  lost.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  an  astrono- 
mer. 

ApoUoniilS  Mo'Ioii:  Greek  rhetorician;  b.  at  Alabanda, 
in  Caria.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Rhodes  and  Rome,  which 
he  visited  in  81  li.  c.  Cicero  and  Jidius  Ca'sar  were  his 
pupils  soon  after  that  date. 

ApoUouiiis  of  Rhodes  (280-203  b.  c.)  :  the  most  eminent 
of  the  Alexandrian  epic  poets.  B.  at  Alexandria  or  Nau- 
cratis,  lie  became  the  pujiil  and  afterward  the  enemy  of 
Calliinachus.  In  consequence  of  this  feud  he  betook  him- 
self to  Rhodes,  whence  his  surname.  Aftcu-  the  death  of  his 
rival  he  returned  to  Alexandria,  where  he  finally  became 
chief  librarian.  His  Aryoiuiutica,  or  Story  of  the  Argo- 
nauts, in  four  books  shows  great  learning,  great  ingenuity, 
and  a  remarkable  command  of  epic  diction.  Apollonius  is 
rich  in  new  expressions,  new  figures,  new  comparisons;  he 
describes  vividly,  and  his  portrayal  of  emotions  has  elicited 
great  applause,  so  that  he  was  not  unworthy  of  the  admira- 
tion anil  imitation  of  the  Romans,  in  s]iite  of  his  lack  of 
unity  and  his  lack  of  reality.  Va\.  by  Jlerkel  (1854).  See 
C'ouat,  La  Poesie  Alexandrine  (p.  293  foil.). 

B.  L.  GiLDERSLEEVE. 

Apolloiiins  the  Sophist:  a  grammarian  of  Alexandria; 
about  100  A.  V.  His  lexicon  of  Homeric  glosses,  based  on 
Aristarchus  and  Apion,  is  extant.     Ed.  by  Bekker  (183:3). 

Apolloiiins  of  Tralles:  Greek  sculptor;  lived  probably 
about  200  B.  c.  Aided  by  his  brother  Tauriscus,  he  executed 
a  group  of  Zethus  and  Amphion  tying  Dircc  to  the  horns 
of  a  bull.  Some  persons  identifv  this  with  the  group  called 
7oro  Fnrncse  which  is  now  at  Naples. 

Apollonins  of  Tyana  (Gr.  'AttoAAcuvios  Tuareus) :  a  Py- 
thagorean philosopher;  b.  at  Tyana,  in  Cajipadocia,  lived 
about  30-70  A.  D.  He  performed  a  journey  to  India  in 
order  to  learn  the  doctrines  of  the  Brahmans,  and  after  his 
return  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  sage,  an  oracle,  and  a 
worker  of  miracles.  He  is  considered  by  some  authors  as 
an  impostor,  and  by  others  as  a  prophet  or  magician  of  ex- 
traordinarv  powers.  He  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  Africa",  and  is  said  to  have  passed  his  latter  years  at 
Ephesus.  But  to  disengage  the  real  Apollonius  from  the 
romance  of  Philostratus  [q.  v.)  is  (juite  impossible.  In  ad- 
dition to  Baur  (1832)  and  J.  H.  Newman  (1853),  see  the  au- 
thors cited  in  Gildersleeve's  Essays  and  Studies,  p.  251. 
Also  L.  Dyer,  The  Gods  in  Greece  (1891),  p.  257.  The  100 
letters  under  his  name  in  Hercher's  Epistuloyraphi  Grceci, 
pp.  110-130,  are  doubtless  spurious. 

Apollonins  of  Tj  re :  See  Romances. 

Apol'los:  an  eloquent  preacher  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians ;  was  originally  a  Jew  and  a  native  of  Alexandria. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  onlained  Bishop  of  Corinth.  See 
Acts  xviii.  24;  1  Corinthians  i.  12;  iii.  4. 

Apol'lyon  [Gr.  'AiroAA.ua;>',  from  anoWia,  destroy]  :  the 
destroyer.  The  name  answers  to  the  Hebrew  Abaddon  (g.v.), 
and  to  tlie  Asynodetis  of  Tobit. 

.\polog'etics  [from  Gr.  d7ro\o7T7TiK(is.  fit  for  defense;  awi, 
off  -I-  A676iy,  speak] :  that  branch  of  learning  w-hich  treats 
of  Apolui/y.  In  this  use  the  term  apology  does  not,  as  in  its 
popular  use,  imply  an  acknowledgment  of  error,  but  sim- 
ply denotes  the  formal  defenses  of  a  person  or  a  doctrine 
that  has  been  attacked.  It  is  iirincipally  employed  as  the 
name  of  a  branch  of  Christian  theological  learning,  namely, 
the  literary  defense  of  Christianity  and  its  doctrines.  Some 
distinguish  between  apologetics"  as  concerned  with  the 
methods  of  this  defense  and  apology  the  defense  itself,  but 
it  is  more  in  accord  with  usage  to  speak  of  the  two  as  theo- 
retical and  practical  apologetics. 

Its  Place  amonrj  the  Departments  of  Theoloyical  Sfudjf. — 
There  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  that  apologetics  precedes 
dogmatics  and  practical  religion.  That  is,  there  is  a  sense 
in  which  Christianity  shouhrbe  proved  to  be  true,  in  order 
to  justify  its  being  systematically  studied  and  practiced. 
But  as  a' matter  of  ordinary  fact,  Christian  people  accept 
their  religicm  as  an  element  in  life  and  society,  on  the  tes- 
timony of  others  who  have  previously  accepted  it,  combined 
with  evidence  from  their  own  observation  and  experience, 
and  are  not  interested  either  to  define  the  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity, or  to  study  the  literary  defense  of  it,  until  after 
they  have  been  thus  convinced  of  its  truth.  In  other  words,, 
thev  treat  this  problem  as  men  of  good  sense  treat  other 
great  jiroblems  of  life,  accepting  evident  truth  as  tnie,  even 


256 


APOLOGETICS 


APOPLEXY 


when  they  have  to  postpone  the  logical  definition  and  dem- 
onstration of  it. 

ClnssiJicatio7is.— Treatises  in  general  apologetics  take  up 
the  defense  of  Christianity  as  a  whole ;  work  in  special 
apologetics  is  tiie  discussion  of  the  objections  to  each  par- 
ticular doctrine,  as  a  part  of  the  discussion  of  that  doctrine. 
With  all  advance  in  thorough  study,  special  apology  gains 
in  relative  importance. 

With  reference  to  the  materials  used,  apologetics  may  be 
classified  as  philosophical  and  historical  or  critical,  though, 
in  a  large  part  of  the  field,  the  two  kinds  of  material  are 
used  in  combination.  Purely  philosophical  are  the  argu- 
ments drawn  from  psychological  and  metaphysical  con- 
siderations in  ]iroof  that  man  is  cajiatile  of  knowing  God 
and  the  supernatural.  Partly  philosophical  and  partly 
historical  are  tlie  various  argumcnts^in  proof  that,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  (iod  actually  is  known  to  exist  and  to  reveal 
himself.  In  this  class  are  included,  notably,  argimicnts 
from  manifestations  of  design  in  nature,  arguments  from 
natural  analogies,  arguments  from  the  comparative  study 
of  religious.  More  strictly  historical  are  the  arguments 
drawn  from  the  history  of  the  Israelitish  and  Christian  re- 
ligions (or,  better,  religion),  as  compared  and  contrasted 
with  other  religions,  and  the  whole  body  of  argument  by 
which  the  character  of  the  Bible,  as  a  divine  revelation,  is 
vindicated. 

With  reference  to  its  practical  methods,  apologetics  may 
be  classified  as  polemic  or  scientific,  without  implying,  how- 
ever, that  one  of  these  classes  necessarily  excludes  the  other. 
The  principal  aim  of  the  polemic  apologist  is  to  defeat  ad- 
versaries whom  he  has  directly  in  mind.  He  attacks  that 
which  attacks  Christianity.  He  lays  out  his  strength  in  dis- 
proving accusatiiins,  or  in  sliowing  some  adverse  position  to 
be  untenable.  Tiie  scientific  apologist,  on  the  other  hand, 
undertakes  to  vindicate  positively  the  truth  of  Christianity, 
without  so  much  regard  to  particular  attacks  upon  that 
truth.  He  aims  to  establish  the  position  of  the  t'hristian 
religion  in  the  great  cycle  of  possibly  knowable  trutli,  aware 
that,  just  in  ]iro|iortion  as  this  is  recognized,  all  particular 
attacks  will  tail  of  tlicmselves.  In  proportion  as  an  apolo- 
gist is  merely  jiolemic,  he  avoids  definitions,  lest  an  adver- 
sary should  take  advantage  of  some  imperfect  definition. 
In  proportion  as  he  is  scientific,  he  defines  carefully,  know- 
ing that  tenable  positions  are  made  stronger  by  abandoning 
untenable  positions. 

The  History  of  Apologetics. — Thedefen.se  of  Christianity, 
particularly  its  polemic  defense,  changes  character  with  the 
changing  attacks  made.  Three  periods,  however,  may  be 
distiuguislu'd  in  the  history  of  Christian  apologetics,  apol- 
ogy beginning  in  each  period  in  polemic  form,  and  advanc- 
ing by  stages  to  a  more  scientific  form.  The  first  period 
is  that  of  the  Apologetic  Fatuers,  extending  through  the 
first  five  centuries.  First  come  such  men  as  Aristides  and 
Justin  Martyr,  refuting  the  charges  brought  against  Chris- 
tians by  Jews  and  pagans,  then  such  men  as  Tert.ullian, 
Origen,  and  Clement  of  Alexamlria,  adding  a  constructive 
element  to  the  mere  negative  apology,  and  then  men  like 
Eusebius  and  Augustine,  giving  the  apology  the  form  of  a 
full  theory  of  Christianity,  according  to  the  scientific  stand- 
ard of  those  times.  The  second  period  extends  from  the 
sixth  century  to  the  fifteenth.  As  the  church  is  established 
by  law,  and  its  authority  is  undisputed,  it  has  no  great  need 
of  literary  defense.  But  during  these  centuries  such  men 
as  Agobard  of  Lyons  and  liainuind  Martius  wrote  elabor- 
ate polemics  against  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  and  such 
men  as  Thomas  Aipiinas  develo[)ed  a  new  statement  of  the 
philosophy  of  Christianity.  In  these  two  periods  apolo- 
getics had  chiefiy  to  do  with  attacks  on  Christianity  from 
without.  Bui  during  the  third  period,  beginning  with  the 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  defense  has  been 
mainly  against  skepticism,  agnosticism,  or  other  forms  of 
adverse  criticism  from  within.  Apologetic  writings  have 
abounded,  and  group  themselves  according  to  the  various 
controversies  that  have  raged,  such  as  the  deistic  contro- 
versy in  Great  Bi-it.ain  aiul  others.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century  apology,  though  still  abundantly 
polemic,  is  yet  strongly  tending  toward  forms  moi'e  sti-ictly 
scientific  than  have  hitherto  prevailed. 

Litem  I II  IT. — A  library  of  Christian  apologetics  would  in- 
clude many  thousands  of  vuhimes  and  snuiller  works.  The 
great  works  on  theology  all  include  treatments  of  apolo- 
getics. In  these,  and  in  the  articles  in  special  encycli)|ia'- 
dias  (for  example,  the  SchafT-lIerzog  Enciiclopwdin  of  lieli- 
gioua  Kmndedye,  or  the  C tjctopw.dia  of  IMcClintoek   and 


Strong),  lists  of  works  are  given,  the  lists  in  some  instances 
covering  several  pages.  For  the  earliest  period  see  any  set 
of  the  Patristic  writings.  Perhaps  the  greatest  works  of 
the  middle  period  are  Agobard,  tie  Insolentia  Juda'orum 
(823) ;  Martius,  Pugio  Fidei  (1278,  accessible  in  Ugolino) ; 
Abelard,  Dialogue  betwecji  a  Philosopher,  a  Jew,  and  a 
Christian  (early  in  the  twelfth  century) ;  and  works  of 
Alexander  de  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus,  Duns  Scotus,  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  Among  the  multitude  of  apologetic 
works  of  the  eighteenth  century  few  have  been  more  widely 
•read  than  Bishop  Butler's  Analogy  and  Paley's  Natural 
Religion  ;  Evidenees  of  Christianity ;  and  Ilorm  Paulina. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  mention  a  few  more  recent  works 
without  seeming  invidious.  Dr.  Ilerrick  Johnson's  little 
book,  Christianih/s  Cliallenge  (1881  and  later  eds.),  is  a  par- 
ticularly good  popular  treatise.  In  philosophical  apolo- 
getics, Bushnell's  i\'a/«re  and  the  Snpeniatiirol  (18.')8) ;  G. 
P.  Fisher's  Supernatural  Origin  of  Christianity  (revised 
ed.  N.  Y.,  1870) ;  Flint's  llteism;  and  Antitheistic  Theories 
(Edinburgh,  1877-78),  deserve  mention,  along  with  works, 
perhaps  equally  ijnportant,  by  McCosh,  Schaff,  Christlieb, 
and  others.  Albert  Barnes,  Stanley  Leathes,  and  many 
others  have  newly  presented  the  historical  evidences. 
Kurtz,  Hugh  Miller,  Sir  William  Dawson,  Tayler  Lewis, 
and  nuuiy  others  have  treated  of  tlic  proofs  from  astronomy 
and  natural  science.  And  more  voluminous  than  all  the 
others  are  the  recent  works  of  critical  authors  of  different 
schools  touching  the  character  of  the  Bible,  and  tluis  touch- 
ing the  donuiin  of  historical  apologetics.  A  compendious 
and  comprehensive  treatise  is  A.  B.  Brace's  Apologetics 
(Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1893).        Willis  J.  Beechee. 

Ai»ology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession:  one  of  the  sym- 
bolical books  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  written  by  Melanch- 
thon  in  answer  to  the  Confutation  of  the  Aug.iburg  Con- 
fession by  the  Ronuin  Catholic  theologians  Eck,  Faber, 
Wimpina,  and  Cochlaeus.  It  was  written  in  Latin  and  first 
publishc<l  in  April,  1531.  A  German  translation  by  Justus 
Jonas  appeared  six  months  later.  It  is  a  more  elaborate 
treatment  of  the  topics  contained  in  the  Confession,  and 
comViines  clearness  of  definition  and  vigor  of  argument  with 
a  mild  and  conciliatory  spirit,  and  a  chaste  and  classical 
style.  A  translation  from  the  Latin  is  found  in  Jacobs's 
Book  nf  Concord  (Philadcljihia,  1882);  one  from  the  Ger- 
man translation  in  the  Ilenkel  edition  of  Book  of  Concord 
(New  Market.  1854).  The  best  commentary  is  Die  Apologia 
der  Angustana  gesohichtlich  erklart  von  Oustav  Pliit  (Er- 
langen,'  1873).  Henry  K.  Jacobs. 

Apopll'yllite  [from  Gr.  aTr6.  o^  +  ^i><Kov.  leaf]:  a  zeo- 
litic  mineral  with  a  lamellar  structure;  is  so  called  because  it 
exfoliates  before  the  blowpipe.  It  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of 
lime  and  potash  occurring  in  square  prisms,  the  soli<l  angles 
of  which  are  sometimes  replaced  by  triangular  or  rhombic 
planes.  It  is  brittle,  and  lias  a  white  or  grayish  color,  often 
tinged  with  green,  yellow,  blue,  or  red.  It  is  found  in  beau- 
tiful crystals  in  the  Hartz  Mountains,  in  Poonah,  and  in  the 
Bergen  tunnel  at  Jersey  City. 

Ap'oplexy  [from  Gr.  aT!oirK-ni,ia  :  diri,  off  (to  completiou)-!- 
irXriaanv,  strike;  cf.  Eng.  ■'■trolie  {itt  ajioplexy  or  of  i)araly- 
sis)] :  a  disease  marked  by  the  sudden  failure  of  volition,  sen- 
sation, motion,  and  mental  action,  the  symptoms  being 
caused  by  a  pressure  upon  tlie  brain,  or  disturbances  of  the 
circulation,  originating  witliiu  the  cranimn.  Apoplexy  is 
produced  in  various  ways. though  the  symptoms  are  sinular. 
The  typical  form  is  characterized  by  iKcmorrliagc  into  the 
sutistance  of  the  brain.  'I'lie  rupture  itself  may  be  caused 
(1)  by  a  non-inflammatory,  fatty  degeneration  of  the  blood- 
vessel, causeil  by  bad  nutrition,  etc. ;  (2)  by  a  brittle  con- 
dition (U-  aueurismal  dilatation  of  the  vessel,  resulting  from 
an  infiannuatory  process.  'I'hese  causes  may  lie  supplo- 
mented  by  a  full  habit  of  body  or  by  a  hyiiertrophied  heart, 
or  both;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  such  secondary  causes 
nught  assist  in  the  rupture  of  a  weakened  blood-vesseL 
Apo])lexy  may,  however,  be  produced  by  an  extravasation 
of  blood  between  the  meninges,  by  a  sudden  serous  effusion 
into  the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  by  stoppage  of  circulation, 
by  emboli  or  throndii  in  the  blood-vessels,  or  even  by  a  con- 
gestion (hy]iera'mia)  of  the  biain.  The  apoplectic  stroke 
may  end  in  partial  recovery  or  in  speedy  death.  Cases  not 
fatal  generally  result  in  ]icrmanent  or  temporary  paralysis 
of  one  side  of  the  body  (hennplegia),  often  on  tlie  side  op- 
posite that  in  which  the  mischief  has  occurred. 

The  .symptoms  of  a|)oplexy  are  often  unexpected.  The 
patient  falls  suildenly  (with  or  w'ithout  an  outcry),  his  respi- 


A  POSTERIORI 


APOSTOLIC  FATHERS 


)ioi 


rations  aro  long,  slow,  and  stertorous,  the  pnlse  is  slow,  one 
or  both  the  pupils  usually  small.  If  the  ]iatient  does  not 
die  during  the  attael<,  a  seeondarv  inflammation  follows 
wliicli  may  destroy  life.  Bleeding  niay  be  resort eil  to  if  the 
pulse  be  strong,  and  the  heart  and  lungs  in  good  eon- 
dition.  but  it  is  often  injurious.  Mustard  to  the  extremities 
and  frictions  of  the  skin  should  be  resorted  to.  ami  the  bow- 
els should  be  moveil  by  enema.  Persons  having  reason  to 
fear  apoplexy  shoulil  avoid  excesses  of  all  kinds,  yet  live 
upon  nutritious  food,  paying  special  attention  to  hygienic 
condilions.  "      Revised  by  Willi.vm  Pkpi'KR. 

A  Postorio'ri  and  A  Prio'ri :  Before  the  time  of  Kant 
the  former  of  these  terms  denoted  a  reasoning  from  elfect  to 
caus<'.  and  llie  latter  a  reasoning  from  cause  lo  elfccl.  Since 
Kant's  lime,  and  owing  to  his  influcuee  and  that  of  his 
school,  these  terms  are  generally  used  more  in  relation  to 
the  doctrine  of  knowledge;  a  posteriori  knowledge  being 
empirical  knowledge,  or  knowledge  thriaigh  experience,  ami 
a  priori  knowledge  being  rational  knowledge,  or  a  knowledge 
through  the  reason  of  that  which  is  prior  to  experience.  See 
OxTOLouv  and  Philosophv. 

Apos'tle  [from  Gr.  aw6<TTo\os,  one  .sent  forth:  iir6.  away 
+  <rT€'AA€i>',  send] :  literally,  "one  sent,"  especially  a  •"dele- 
gate"— e.  g.  in  care  of  a  collection:  so  Philo  calls  the  per- 
sons sent  to  carry  the  tithes  of  the  Dispersion  to  Jerusalem 
"apostles."  In  the  New  Testament  the  term  is  applied  (1) 
to  men  divinely  sent  before  Christ  (Luke  xi.  49) ;  (3)  to 
Christ  himself  (Ileb.  iii.  1) ;  and  (3)  to  church  delegates — 
very  much  in  the  Philonean  sense  (Rom.  xvi.  7;  2  Cor.  viii. 
23;  Phil.  ii.  2")).  The  commonest  application,  however,  is 
(4)  to  the  twelve  whom  Jesus  chose  and  sent  to  |>reach  Ins 
religion  (Luke  vi.  13),  viz. :  Simon  Peter.  Andrew.  James, 
John,  Philip,  Bartholomew  (Kathanael),  Thomas,  Matthew, 
James  the  son  of  Alph:eus,  Thaddeus,  Simon  the  Canaanite, 
and  Judas  Iseariot.  There  was  no  express  command  to  keep 
up  their  number,  yet  it  was  doubtless  approved  of  all  to 
elect  one  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  suicide  of  Judas 
Iseariot.  No  successors  of  the  twelve  were  in  the  nature  of 
the  case  possible.  When  Paul  had  demonstrated  his  capac- 
ity as  a  preacher  he  was  alIowe<l  to  call  himself  the  apostle 
to  the  Gentiles.  Paul  claimed  that  his  commission  was  as 
nnich  from  Jesus  as  that  of  any  of  the  other  apostles.  But 
this  is  really  to  use  the  term  in  a  sense  divergent  from  the 
primitive  one.  In  this  latter  sense  (3)  Paul  and  Barnabas 
(Acts  xiii.  1-3)  were  both  apostles,  sent  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
\  and  are  so  called  afterward.  The  terra  was  still  further  ex- 
tended (6)  to  include  the  seventy  disciples,  and  even  Clement 
of  .VIexandria  and  others.  Among  the  first  disciples  the 
chief  requisites  for  an  apostle  were  (1)  that  he  should  be 
the  personal  choice  of  Christ  and  (2)  be  a  witness  to  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus.  So  Matthias  was  an  apostle,  as  the 
use  of  the  divinely  directed  lot  rendered  him  the  choice  of 
the  Lord,  and  he  could  testify  to  the  empty  tondj  and  to  the 
appearance  of  the  risen  Lord. 

Apostles,  .Acts  of  the  (Gr.  npa^€is  rwv  'AiroaTiKaii') :  fifth 
bocpk  of  the  New  Testament,  written  by  Luke,  containing 
the  history  of  the  period  from  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  to 
the  first  captivity  of  Paul  in  Rome;  that  is,  in  all  probiUiil- 
ity,  from  30  to  63  a.  u.  It  is  proper  to  ob.serve  that  though 
this  ])ortion  of  the  Scriptures  is  .styled  the  Ads  of  the 
Apo.stles  it  treats  oidy  of  the  acts  of  Peter.  Paid,  and 
Janu's;  and  of  these,  only  Paul's  career  is  narrated  fully 
and  coiniectedly.  'I'he  book  is  avowedly  a  continuation  of 
the  third  Gospel,  and,  though  restricted  within  such  narrow 
limits,  may  be  said  to  give  those  great  events  in  the  history 
of  the  apostles  in  which  the  Christian  Church  would  natural- 
ly feel  the  greatest  interest.  It  is  a  history  of  the  founding  of 
tlie  Christian  Church  among  the  Jews  (the  work  chiefly  of 
PetiM-)  and  among  the  Gentiles  (the  work  chiefly  of  Paul), 
-Among  these  events  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  I'eu- 
ti'cost.  the  martyrdom  i^f  Stcjihen.  and  the  conversion  of  .St. 
Paul,  as  well  as  most  of  his  subsequent  Journeys  and  labors, 
are  fully  relateil.  The  best  commentaries  on  Acts  are  by 
Lechler  (in  Lange's  Bihlework),  Jleyer,  Haekett,  and  Gloag. 

Apostles'  Creed  (Lat.  .S'//m'io/?'m  Apostol'irum):  called 
also  the  Creed  or  Confession  of  Faith;  the  most  univer.S'd 
creed  of  llie  Christian  Church.  It  is  as  follows:  "  I  believe 
in  (iod  the  Father  Almighty.  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth  : 
And  in  Jesus  Christ  his  only  Son  our  Lord  :  Who  was 
conceived  liy  the  Holy  Ghost.  Born  of  the  Virgin  Mfiry: 
Suffered  under  Ponlius  Pilate.  Was  crucified,  dead,  and 
buried:  He  descended  inio  hell  lor  hades].  The  third  day 
ho  rose  again  from  the  deail :  He  ascended  into  lu-aven, 
17 


And  sitteth  on  the  right  hand  of  Go<l  the  Father  Almighty: 
From  thence  he  shall  come  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead. 
I  believe  in  t  he  Holy  (iliost  :  The  I'loly  ( 'al  liolic  Church  :  The 
Comnnnnon  of  Saints;  The  Forgiveness  of  sins;  the  Resur- 
rection of  the  body;  And  tlu^  Life  everlasling.  Amen." 
Acconling  to  a  tradition  prevailing  in  the  fourth  century, 
but  now  generally  discredited,  this  creed  was  composed  by 
the  apostles  theniselves,  eacli  contributing  <me  of  the  arti- 
cles. Some  churches  omit  the  clause,  "  lie  descended  into 
hell,"  asserting  t!u»t  it  was  not  a  ]iart  of  the  original  creed. 
In  the  American  Prayer-Book  (Standard  <d"  lcS!)2)  the  rubric 
is  as  follows:  ^'And  any  cliiirclins  maij  iiisfeiid  of  the  U'onl,% 
He  descended  into  hell,  tine  the  words.  He  went  into  the 
place  of  departed  spirits,  which  are  considered  as  words  of 
the  same,  meaning  in  the  Creed."    See  Creed. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Periiy. 

Apostles'  Islands,  or  the  Twelve  Apostles:  a  group  of 
twenty-seven  islands  in  Lake  Superior,  70  miles  W.  (if  Ou- 
onagon  (see  nuip  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  1-C).  The  principal 
islands  are  He  au  ChCuie,  Jladeiine,  Bear,  Stockton,  and 
Outer  island.  The  islands  belong  to  Wisconsin.  They  are 
covered  with  fine  timber,  and  their  eli9:'s  have  been  worn 
into  strange  forms  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  The  land 
area  is  estimated  at  200  sq.  miles.  Brown  sandstone  is 
([uarried  and  exported  from  the  islands.  La  Pointe,  on 
Madeline  island,  was  formerly  the  caiiital  of  Asldand  co.. 
Wis.  This  place  was  settled' by  the  French  in  1680.  The 
Jesuits  established  very  early  several  ndssions  on  these 
beautiful  islands. 

Apostol'io.  or  Apostol'ical :  a  general  epithet  applied 
to  everything  directly  derived  from,  or  bearing  the  charac- 
ter of,' the  apostles.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  styles 
itself  the  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  ))apal  chair  is  called  the 
Apostolic  cluiir,  because  the  pope  is  supposed  to  be  the 
legitimate  and  lineal  successor  of  Peter,  the  chief  apostle. 
The  Church  of  England  claims  to  be  ajjostoiie  in  virtue  of 
regular  episcopal  ordination  from  the  Church  before  the 
Reformation  ;  .so  also  do  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches 
in  Scotland  and  the  U.  S.  Several  (dmrehes  of  Jerusalem, 
Antioeh,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  and  Rome,  which  were  the 
special  scenes  of  the  labors  of  the  ai)ostles,  were  called  apos- 
tolic churches.  With  the  increasing  power  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Chtireh  the  woi'd  apostolic  was  more  exclusively 
ap])lied  to  whatever  belonged  to  that  Church,  as  Apostolic 
See.  Ajiostolic  Canons,  etc. 

Apostolic  Caii'ons  and  Constitu'tions :  notes  of  ec- 
clesiastical customs  regarded  as  aiiostolical.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  (Const itutiones  Apostolicw)  consist  of  eight 
books,  the  first  six  of  which  contain  a  comprehensive  rule 
for  a  Christian  life.  These  are  su])posed  to  iiave  been  writ- 
ten about  the  end  of  the  third  and  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  Apostolic  Cvmon^  (Canones  Apostolici)  were 
composed  at  a  later  period.  The  first  fifty,  translated  from 
Greek  into  Latin  by  Dionysius  Exiguus.  were  acknowledged 
by  the  Latin  Church  alone.  The  Greek  Cliureh  accepted 
file  thirty-five  canons  ]nd  forth  early  in  the  sixth  century; 
and  this  became  a  point  of  dis.sension  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches.  The  Ajiostolic  Constitutions  have 
been  ascribed  by  some  writers  to  Cleineid,  of  Rome.  In 
them,  as  Bishop'  laghtfoot  (Apostolic  Fathers,  pt.  i.  S. 
Clement  of  Rome.  i.  iot).  101)  states.  "  the  a|)oslles  are  repre- 
sented as  communicating  to  Clement  their  ordinances  and 
directions  for  the  future  administi-ation  of  the  (.'hureh." 
Tlie  A ] lost olic  Canons  "may  be  regarded  as  a  corollary  to 
the  Constitutions."  '         Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Ajtostolic  Fa'tliers:  tlie  disciples  and  fellow-laborers  of 

le  jiiioslles.  especially  tlio.so  who  have  left  writings.     They 


tl       .  .  . 

are  iiarnalias;  Clement  of  Rome;  Ignatius,  Bi.shop  of  An 

tioeh;  Polycarp.  Bishop  of  Smyrna:  Hennas;  and  Papi 

of  Hierapolis.     Some  also  include  the  author  of  the  epistl 


pias 
_istlo 
to  Hiognetus  among  these  Fathers.  Cotelerius  (Paris.  1672) 
issued  an  edition  of  the  works  of  the  Ajiostolic  Fathers, 
which  was  improved  by  Clericus  in  16!IH.  and  again  in  1724. 
Of  recent  editors,  the  best  are  Jacobson  (18:58;  41  h  ed.  1866), 
Hefele  (183!);  5tli  ed.  1878),  and  Dressel  (18,57:  reissued 
1863).  Anoth(>r  edition,  by  Gebhardt.  Harnack,  and  Zahn 
(1S7().  1877,  1878).  The  lal'e  Bishop  of  Durham,  Dr.  Light- 
fool,  published  (ISS'O)  The  Apostolic  Fathers,  a  revised  text, 
with  introdncfions,  notes,  dissertalions,  and  translations, 
in  five  octavo  volumes.  The  f ranslalioiis  were  reprinted 
in  one  volume  (1892).  Another  translation  is  found  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Christian  Library,  vol.  i. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 


258 


APOSTOLICI 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


Aj)OStol'ici,  or  Apostolic  Breth'reii :  a  scit  of  religious 
reformers  wh<^  orisjinated  in  Italy  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  had  for  their  leader  Gherardo  Se- 
garelli,  of  Paruia.  They  traveled  over  Italy,  France,  and 
Switzerland,  preaching  the  duty  of  renouncing  worldly  ties, 
property,  etc.  Having  denounced  popery,  they  were  con- 
demned by  Pope  Honorius  IT.,  and  Segarelli  was  Inirnt  at 
the  stake  (1300).  His  place  was  filled  by  Dolcino,  formerly 
a  priest  of  JMilan,  who.  after  a  bi'ave  resistance,  was,  with 
his  adlierents,  taken  by  the  forces  of  the  pope,  and  perished 
at  the  stake  in  1307. 

Apostolic  Maj'esty:  a  title  of  the  Kings  of  Hungary; 
first  conferred  on  tlie  Duke  of  Hungary  by  Pope  Sylvester 
II.  in  1000  A.  D.  The  title  was  renewed  in  1758  by  Pope 
Clement  XIII.  in  favor  of  Maria  Theresa. 

Apostolic  Par'ty :  a  party  of  fanatical  Spanish  Catho- 
lics, formed  aliout  1820  for  the  promotion  of  an  absolutist 
political  policy.  Their  leaders  were  priests.  In  1830  they 
merged  themselves  into  tlie  Carlist  party. 

Al)Ostolic  Succession :  the  uninternipted  succession  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  (the  apostolic  orders)  from  the 
first  apostles  down  to  tlie  present  day.  Tlie  Roman  Cath- 
olic, Greek,  Oriental,  and  Anglican  churches  consider  this 
historical  and  essential.  See  Kojian  Catholic  Church, 
England,  Church  of,  and  Greek  Church. 

Apostool',  Samuel  :  Dutch  Mennonite  theologian ;  b.  in 
1638.  He  became  in  1663  a  minister  of  a  Waterlandian 
congregation  in  Amsterdam.  He  and  Galenus  engaged  in 
a  doctrinal  dispute  which  divided  the  Church  into  two  sects, 
Apostoolians  and  Galenists.     D.  aljout  1700. 

Ajtos'troplie  [Gr.  diroirTpoi^T),  a  turning  away:  dirrf,  away 

-I-  (XTpi<p(iv.  turn] :  in  rhetoric, a  digressive  address;  a  figure 
of  speeeli  by  which  the  orator  suddenly  changes  the  course 
of  his  oration,  and  addresses  with  emotional  emphasis  a 
person  present  or  ahsent,  or  some  inanimate  object.  Fre- 
quent examples  of  it  occur  in  the  speeches  and  writings  of 
great  orators  and  poets. 

Apotli'ecary  [from  Lat.  apnthecariiis,  storekeeper,  from 
apothiica,  loan,  from  Gr.  ditoSiiKri.  storehouse] :  a  person 
who  compounds  and  sells  medicines,  and  makes  up  medical 
prescriptions.  The  profession  of  an  apothecary  in  Kngland 
may  be  not  incorrectly  described  as  an  inferior  branch  of 
the  medical  profession.  He  is  legally  entitled  to  attend  sick 
persons  and  prescribe  for  them,  as  well  as  to  make  up  and 
dispense  medicines.  It  is  not.  liowever.  usual  for  him  to 
prescribe  medicines  to  be  prejjared  and  supplied  liy  others. 
But,  although  he  may  attend  sick  persons  and  prescribe  for 
them,  he  can  not  charge  both  for  his  attendance  and  his 
medicines,  but  must  make  his  election  between  tlie  two. 
Although,  therefore,  the  apothecary  is  inferior  in  profes- 
sional rank  and  authority  to  the  ]>hysician  and  surgeon,  he 
is  considered  to  be  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  chemist  and 
druggist,  who  merely  vends  drugs  and  medicinal  compounds, 
liut  wliose  qualification,  lieyoiul  the  ]iayment  of  a  small  an- 
nual tax  Ijy  way  of  license,  does  not  necessarily  offer  any 
test  or  guarantee  of  skill.  The  rales  of  the  Pharmaceutical 
Society  of  Great  Britain,  incorporated  in  1843  by  royal 
charter,  and  the  powers  of  which  were  considerably  en- 
larged by  a  statute  passed  on  June  30,  18.52,  o])erate  as 
some  restraint  on  ignorance  and  want  of  skill.  Aiiothecaries 
and  grocers  (like  surgeons  and  luirbers)  were  in  England  and 
other  countries  formerly  members  of  the  same  guild,  and 
hardly  distinguishable  from  each  other.  They  were  chartered 
as  one  company  in  Limdon  in  1606,  Imt  in  1617  James  I. 
granted  the  apotliecaries  a  charter  as  a  separate  corjiorat  ion. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  vocation  of  the  apothecary  is  mostly  quite 
distinct  from  that  of  the  medical  practitioner.  Among 
physicians  it  is  generally  regarded  as  contrary  to  ]>rofessional 
ethics  for  a  practitioner,  in  large  cities  at  least,  to  be  directly 
interested  in  the  retailing  of  medicines.  The  education  of 
pharmacists  in  the  U.  S.  lias  greatly  advanced  of  late  years. 
Many  of  them  are  now  graduates  of  colleges  of  pharmacy 
(the  most  important  of  which  are  in  New  York  and  I'hiladel- 
phia),  wlierem  excellent  scientific  and  practical  training  is 
obtained.  There  is  also  a  well-organized  national  ]iharma- 
ceutical  association.  To  limit  the  danger  connected  with 
the  unskillful  dispensing  of  drugs.  Ji  law  has  been  put  in 
force  in  New  York  and  other  States  rei|iiiriiig  all  aiiothe- 
caries to  pass  a  rigid  examination. 

Apotlie'osis  [Gr.  aTToflfWij,  deification  :  dir6.  otf  (to  com- 
pletion)-)- fltijeii/.  make  into  a  god  (6e(ij)  ] :  a  Greek  word 
meaning  deification,  or  the  practice  of  raising  a  human  be- 


ing to  a  place  among  the  gods.  This  practice  was  common 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  who  deified  and  worshiped  he- 
roes and  benefactors  after  their  death.  Among  the  Komans, 
Romulus  was  the  first  who  received  such  an  honor,  and  Julius 
CiPsar  appears  to  have  been  the  second.  Alexander  the 
Great  sent,  to  all  the  states  of  Greece  an  order  that  they  must 
recognize  his  divinity,  and  received  from  Sparta  this  laconic 
answer:  "Since  Alexander  de.sires  to  be  a  god,  let  him  be 
(or  become)  a  god  1 "  Several  Roman  emperors  apotheosized 
themselves  and  their  favorites. 

Appalach'ee  Bay :  a.  large  open  bay  near  the  noi-thern 
jiart.  of  Florida;  is  a  ]iart  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is 
abiait  30  miles  S.  of  Tallahassee.  It  extends  inland  about 
50  miles. 

Appalacliees :  See  Muskhogeax  Ixdiaxs. 

Appalachian  Mountains:  the  chain  of  mountains  trav- 
ersing tlie  eastern  part  of  the  U.S.  from  Maine  to  Alabama. 
It  is  eoni])osed  for  the  most  part  of  a  large  number  of  ridges 
or  small  ranges,  parallel  with  one  another,  with  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  with  the  axis  of  the  cliain.  The  general  trend  is 
S.  Vf.  Prominent  members  of  the  chain  are  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  llam]ishire.  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Yermont.  the  Adirondack  and  Catskill  Mountains  and  the 
Highlands  of  New  York,  and  the  Alleghany  Mountains  of 
Pennsyhania  and  West  Yirginia.  In  part  of  Pennsylvania 
and  in  Yirginia  the  most  easterly  range  is  called  the  Blue 
Ridge,  and  in  North  Carolina  this  region  adjoins  a  broad 
mountain  mass,  the  Great  Smoky  range,  inchuling  the  high- 
est peaks  of  the  chain.  The  culminating  ]ioints  are  Mt. 
.Alitchell,  N.  C.  6,688  feet,  and  Mt.  Washington,  N.  H.,  6,293 
feet.  S.  of  New  York  the  subordinate  ridges  are  remark- 
ably uniform  in  outline  and  lieight,  and  in  general  long  and 
closely  ]>arallel :  and  they  are  separated  by  valleys  equally 
long,  jiandlel.  and  simple  in  configuration.  One  valley, 
broader  tlia,ii  the  others,  is  of  great  length,  extending  from 
Alabama  to  Pennsylvania.  It  is  locally  known  as  the  Coosa 
vallev.  the  Great  valley  of  Tennessee,  the  Great  vaUey  of 
Virginia,  and  the  Cumberland  valley,  and  is  sometimes  called 
collectively  the  Great  Appalachian  valley. 

The  constituent  geological  formations  range  in  age  from 
the  Archean  to  the  Coal-Mcasures,  including  representatives 
of  each  of  the  Paleozoic  periods.  In  a  general  way.  the  older 
,  rocks  lie  nearer  the  coast  and  the  younger  toward  the  N.  W., 
but  to  this  there  are  exceptions.  In  New  England  all  the 
Paleozoic  rocks  are  nietamorphic,  and  have  not  yet  been 
fully  discriminated  from  the  older  crystallines.  From  Penn- 
sylvania southward  the  great  valley  divides  the  chain  into 
two  bells,  of  which  the  nortliwestern  contains  Paleozoic 
strata  with  little  meta!iior]ihism,  but  greatly  folded  and 
faulted,  and  the  southeastern  contains  crystalline  rocks,  of 
which  a  iiortion  are  nietamorphic  Paleozoic,  and  other  por- 
tions are  of  greater  age.  The  principal  folding  of  the  strata 
took  place  during  and  at  the  close  of  the  Paleozoic  era.  when 
they  were  crowded  together  by  forces  acting  in  a  N.  W.  and 
S.  E.  direction.  The  amount  of  compression  in  that  direc- 
tion is  believed  to  have  been  from  5  to  15  miles,  and  the 
rocks  were  not  only  forced  into  a  jiarallel  system  of  huge 
wrinkles,  but  were  in  many  jilaces  fractured  and  made  to 
slide  over  one  another.  The  resulting  mountains  mav  have 
had  great  magnitude,  but  in  the  geologic  ages  that  followed 
they  were  almost  completely  worn  away  by  the  untiring  ac- 
tion of  rains  <ind  rivers,  the  country  being  reduced  to  an 
a|iproximate  plain,  aliove  which  projected  a  few  low  ridges, 
marking  the  outcro|is  of  the  most  enduring  rocks.  Sub.se- 
c|iiently  the  wliole  region  was  upraised  Viodily,  ajiparently 
without  renewal  of  the  folding  process,  and  from  tlie  [ilateau 
thus  formed  the  rains  and  rivers  of  the  last  geologic  periods 
have  carved  1  he  exist  ing  chain.  Wherever  a  soft  or  a  soluble 
rock  was  exposed  at  the  surface  a  valley  was  made,  and  the 
ontcrojis  of  hard  I'oeks  were  left  as  the  existing  ridges.  The 
great  Ap]ialachiaii  valley  marks  the  position  of  a  liroad  belt 
of  Cambrian  and  Silurian  limestones.  If  we  date  the  Appa- 
lachians from  tlie  folding  of  their  strata,  they  arc  among 
the  older  of  the  mountain  systems  of  the  earth  :  if  we  date 
them  from  the  time  of  their  reliftiiig  and  final  sculpture, 
they  are  comparable  in  age  with  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the 
Alps,  and  the  liocky  Mountains.' 

The  leading  minerals  derived  from  the  chain  are  coal,  iron, 
manganese,  copper,  zinc,  marble,  and  slate.  See  Physical 
S/riirtinr  iif  the  A/>/Mi/<ir/iiiin  Cliitin,  by  11.  D.  and  W.  B. 
Rogers  (Anier.  Jvin:  ScioKv.  1st  ser.,  vol.  xliv.) ;  and  Thn 
Appalor/iiiDi  Slonnfain  System,  by  Arnold  Guyot  {Amer. 
Jour.  Science,  2d  ser.,  vol.  xxxi.).  G.  K.  Gilbert. 


APPALACIHCOLA 


APPIAX   OF  ALEXANDI 


259 


Ap'palafllioo'la:  a  livor,  foniuMl  by  the  iaiii)n  of  the 
riialtaliouchi'o  iind  Flint,  at  tlic  S.  \V.  exlroiiiity  of  Gi'orgia. 
It  flows  soulliward  tlirougfi  Florida,  ami  afti.T  a  coiirsc  of 
100  miK-s  eiilt'r.s  Appalachicola  Bay.  a  part  of  llu'  Gulf  of 
Mexico.     It  is  navigable  for  steamboats. 

Apualarhicola :  city  and  port  of  entry:  H5  miles  S.  W. 
of  Tallahassfe ;  capital  of  Fiaiiklin  co.,  Fla.  (for  location 
of  county,  sec  niaj)  of  Florida,  ref.  3-E);  on  river  of  same 
name,  at  its  ])oint  of  entrance  into  St.  Geortre's  Sound,  a  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  a  large  ti'adc  in  timber  and 
fish.     Pop.  (1880)  l,3;i6;  (1890)  3,061. 

Editor  ok  "  Times." 

Appalacllieola  Bay:  in  the  State  of  Florida:  is  situated 
in  the  N.  K.  part  of  llir  (iulf  of  Mexico,  lietween  St.  (icorge's 
island  and  the  mainland,  at  the  mouth  of  Appalacllieola 
river. 

Appanage:  See  Apaxaoe. 

Appara'tiis  S('iill»t'oris  (the  Sculptor's  Workshop):  a 
constellation  situated  immediately  east  of  the  large  star 
Fomalhault.  It  hardly  rises  above  the  horizon  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere. 

Appa'reiil  [from  Lat.  (ippan-iis;  |iart.  pr.  from  rippa'ren. 
appear]:  that  appears  to  the  eye.  in  liistinction  from  true  or 
real.  This  word  is  used  in  astronomy  to  express  several 
im|)ortant  distinctions,  as  "apparent  time."  which  is  indi- 
cated by  the  sun.iind  differs  from  true  time.  The  apparent 
magnitude  of  a  heavenly  body  is  the  dimension  of  the  angle 
formed  by  two  lines  drawn  from  the  ends  of  its  diaineter 
to  the  spectator's  eye.  The  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the 
sun  and  moon  is  an  optical  illusion  caused  by  the  rotary 
motion  of  the  earth,  an<i  the  real  motion  of  the  moon  is  con- 
trary to  its  apparent  motion.  An  heir-apparent  to  a.  throne 
is  a  person  whose  title  is  better  than  any  other  excejit  the 
actual  occupant  of  the  throne,  and  whose  sn<'cession  does 
not  depend  on  any  contingency  if  he  survive  the  reigning 
monarch. 

Ai)pari'tion  [Lat.  npparifio,  an  appearance;  see  Ap- 
PARii.NTj :  literally  an  api]earance  or  appearing:  in  commcm 
language  a  specter,  a  ghost,  a  visible  spirit.  In  astronomy 
it  means  the  first  appearance  of  a  heavenly  body  iifter  it 
has  been  eclipsed  or  obscured.  Stars  which  appear  to  re- 
volve around  the  pole,  and  which  never  set  below  the 
horizon,  are  said  to  be  within  the  circle  of  perpetual  ajipari-' 
tion,  which  circle  grows  larger  and  larger  in  proportion  as 
the  spectator  approaches  the  pole. 

Appai"'it«r  [Lat..  attendant,  from  appare'ri\  wait  upon]: 
among  the  ancient  Romans  one  of  the  officers  or  pulilic  serv- 
ants who  attended  the  magistrates  and  jndges.  including 
heralds,  lictors,  scribes,  etc.  In  England  tlie  term  is  iip- 
plie<l  to  the  officer  of  an  archiepiscopal,  episcopal,  archilia- 
conal,  or  other  ecclesiastical  court  whose  duly  it  is  to  sum- 
mon persons  to  appear  before  the  judge.  It'  is  also  ajiplied 
to  the  lieadle  of  a  university,  who  carries  the  mace,  as  well 
as  to  a  messenger  of  a  spiritual  court,  who  serves  its  process. 

Appeal' [from  Lat.  o/)/jc//y.  call] :  in  law,  an  accusation 
of  a  private  citizen  against  another  of  some  heinous  crime, 
demaniling  punishment  for  the  peculiar  injury  suffered, 
rather  thiui  for  the  offense  against  the  public.  This  pro- 
ceeding has  been  entirely  abolished  in  England,  and  does 
not  exist  in  this  country.  The  word  also  nieans  the  re- 
moval of  a  cause  from  an  inferior  to  a  su|:ierior  court  for 
the  jiurpose  of  obtaining  a  review  and  retrial  of  the  case. 
It  diffei-s  from  a  writ  of  error  and  a  certiorari,  ituismuch 
as  they  merely  bring  up  for  review  the  questions  of  law  in- 
volved in  the  procei'dings  in  the  lower  court,  while  bv  an 
appeal  the  questions  both  of  law  and  fact  may  be  re-exam- 
ined. In  a  ]io]adar  sense,  the  word  signifies  tjie  removal  of 
a  cause,  or  of  u  jiroceeding  in  a  cause,  from  an  inferi<ir  to  a 
superior  court  for  the  purposes  of  review,  by  whatever 
means  elfected.  Codes  of  procedure  in  a  immber  of  States 
abolish  writs  of  error  in  civil  cases,  and  establish  a  review- 
by  appeal  in  all  actions,  whether  of  a  common-law  or  equity 
nature.  The  word  "appear' is  used  in  parliamentary  law 
to  indieate  the  mode  of  questioning  the  decision  of  the  (ire- 
siding  officer  as  to  a  [larliamentary  rule. 

Appear'aiU'e  [ultimately  from  "L&t.  appareo.he  seen]:  in 
law,  the  act  by  wliich  a  party  to  an  action  brings  himself,  or 
is  brought,  into  court,  usually  applied  to  the  defendant. 
Appearance  is  either  voluntary  or  compulsory.  It  is  said  to 
be  voluntary  when  no  process  has  been  served.  It  is  also 
special  or  general.     It  is  said  to  be  special  when  made  for 


special  purposes,  not  extending  to  the  entire  subject  of  liti- 
gation. It  is  general  when  absolute  and  unconditional.  A 
notice  of  appearani'C  will  sullict-,  or  the  performance  of 
some  act  from  which  an  appearance  can  be  inferred,  such 
as  seiTing  a  pleading.  In  civil  cases  it  may  be  made  liy  an 
attorney  as  well  as  by  a  party.  In  criminal  cases  personal 
appearance  of  the  accused  is  frequently  requisite,  particu- 
larly in  eases  of  felony. 

Appel,  Thomas  Gii,mokk,  Ph.  D..  P.  D..  LL.  D. :  minister 
of  the  (German)  Reformed  Church  in  America;  b.  in  East  on. 
Pa.,  Nov,  14,  182!».  After  graduating  from  JIarshall  Col- 
lege he  served  for  some  years  as  ti'acher,  and  afterward  as 
pastor.  He  was  president  of  Jlercersburg  College,  1865-71, 
and  from  1871  has  been  Professor  of  Chnrch  History  and 
New  Testament  Exegesis  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Lancaster,  Pa.  In  addition  to  this  work  he  was  president 
of  Franklin  and  IMarshall  College,  1877-90,  and  has  edited 
the  lieformt'd  (^iiartrrli/  Rericic  from  1867.  He  has  written 
much  iVir  the  press,  and  has  been  active  in  the  jiublic  work 
of  his  Church,  in  the  movements  for  bringing  the  two  Ke- 
forined  churches  into  elcpser  relations,  and  in  the  alliance  of 
the  Presbyterian  churches  of  the  world.     W.  J.  Beecheb. 

Appendici'ti.s  :  inflammation  of  the  vermiform  appendix 
resulting  from  obstructions  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  appendix  or 
from  extension  of  inflammation  from  the  colon.  Foreign 
bodies,  such  as  grape-seeds,  are  much  less  important  in  its 
causation  than  was  formerly  believed.  The  ajipendix  be- 
comes swollen  and  filled  with  pus,  and  tends  to  rupture, 
when  general  peritonitis  may  result.  Very  often,  however, 
inflammatory  exudations  around  the  appendix  limit  the  in- 
flammation, even  though  rupture  has  occurred. 

The  onset  of  appendicitis  is  usually  abrupt,  and  the  pa- 
tient complains  of  pain  in  the  right  flank,  of  constipation, 
and  of  fever.  Vomiting  is  usually  present  and  may  be  a 
distressing  symptom.  The  occurrence  of  chills  and  marked 
fever  may  indicate  the  beginning  of  suppuration,  and  sud- 
den collapse  may  denote  the  occurrence  of  rupture  of  the 
appendix  into  the  peritoneal  cavity.  A  majority  of  the 
cases  if  left  to  themselves  recover,  but  there  is  a  constant 
tendency  to  relapses  of  the  disease.  Removal  of  the  ap- 
pendix by  surgical  operation  is  justified  in  cases  of  oft-re- 
peated appendicitis,  and  during  acute  attacks  is  often 
proper  or  necessary.  Medicinal  treatment  if  begun  early 
enough  aborts  many  cases.  W.  P. 

Ap'peiizell  [i.  e.  des  Ahts  ZMe,  the  abbot's  (of  .St.  Gall) 
cell] :  a  canton  in  the  N.  part  of  Switzerland ;  bounded  on 
every  side  by  the  canton  of  St.  Gall  (see  map  of  .Switzer- 
land, ref.  3-1).  In  consequence  of  religious  differences  it 
was  divided  in  l.i97  into  two  half  cantons — Appenzell  Inner 
Rhodes  (Catholic)  and  Appenzell  Outer  Rhodes  (Protestant). 
Inner  Rhodes  has  an  area  of  61  sq.  miles,  and  had  in  18!)4  a 
population  of  13,899.  Outer  Rhodes  has  an  area  of  101  sq. 
miles;  pop.  in  1894,55,616.  It  consists  entirely  of  a  wild 
mountain  country,  intersected  by  narrow  valleys.  Capital 
of  Inner  Rhodes,  Appenzell ;  and  of  Outer  Rhodes,  Trogen. 
The  canton  was  formerly  subject  to  the  abbey  of  .St.  Gall, 
gained  its  independence  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
joined  the  confederation  in  1513. 

Apperception :  as  used  by  Leibnitz,  a  knowledge  that 
brings  with  it  a  reflection  of  the  mind  upon  itself  by  which 
we  know  such  objects  as  the  ego,  the  soul,  .self-existence,  true 
substances,  spiritual  being — in  a  word,  immaterial  things 
and  truths.  Herbart  (</.  v.)  used  apperception  to  mean  the 
act  of  recognition,  identification  or  interpretation  with 
which  we  assimilate  what  we  perceive.  In  the  works  of 
Herbart  and  his  followers  this  idea  becomes  of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  philosophy  of  education.  Aiiperception  stands 
for  what  we  imderstand  and  iicrception  for  what  we  only 
.see.  It  is  not  what  we  perceive  but  what  we  ajiperceive 
that  educates  us.  Kant  found  in  the  mind  a  transcendental 
act  of  apperception,  while  Herbart  investigated  the  apper- 
ception which  ari.ses  through  the  recognition  of  what  has 
been  formerly  perceived  in  the  object  before  us.     W.  T.  H. 

Appian  of  .Vlexandria  (in  (ir.  'K-mimis):  Greek  writer 
of  Koiuan  history:  came  to  Rome  under  Hadrian  and  was 
made  a  jiroeurator  by  the  influence  of  Fronto  ((/.  v.).  In 
his  liomon  Histori/  ('Pai/ioiic<£),  written  about  160  A.  D.  in 
twenty-four  books,  he  forsook  the  annalistic  [ihin  for  the 
metliodof  groups,  of  wliich  we  have  those  that  yiertain  to 
the  S|ianish.  Hannibalic,  Punic,  Syrian,  IMithridatic,  lllyr- 
ian,  and  Civil  wars,  about  half  of  the  whole.  Appian  is  not 
critical :  his  .style  has  no  elevation  and  swarms  with  Latin- 


260 


APl'IAXI 


APPLE 


isms.  Ed.  bvSchweighauser(1785):  critical  ed.  bv  Jlendels- 
sohn  (1881).  ■ 

Appia'iii,  Andrea:  Italian  paintL-r:  b.  at  Bosizio,  May 
23,  1754:  imitated  tlie  style  of  Correjrgio.  He  is  thought  to 
have  excelled  all  the  artists  of  his  time  in  fresco-painting. 
About  180.J  he  was  appointeil  court-painter  to  ^Napoleon, 
whose  portrait  he  painted.  Among  his  masterpieces  are  the 
frescoes  on  the  ceiling  of  the  royal  palace  of  !Milan,  and 
those  in  the  I'hurch  of  Santa  Maria  Vergine,  in  the  same 
city.  D.  in  Milan,  Nov.  8.  181".  See  (Jr.  Longhi,  Elogio 
Storico  di  A.  Appinni  (1826). 

Ap'piaii  Way  (in  Lat.  T7  «  Apjiia)  :  one  of  the  great  high- 
ways leading  from  ancient  Kome,  and  the  most  famous  of 
all  because  proljably  the  first  that  was  well  and  thoroughly 
constructed,  and  because  it  was  lined  with  tombs  and  mon- 
uments for  several  miles  outside  of  the  walls.  It  extended 
originally  from  Rome  to  Capua,  12.5  miles,  but  was  eventu- 
ally continued  to  Brundisium.  It  was  built  in  a  very  thor- 
ough manner,  and  was  paved  with  large  polygonal  blocks 
of  the  hardi'st  stotii',  accurately  fitted  to  each  other,  so  as  to 
appear  like  a  solid  mass.  The  substructure  was  solidified 
by  cement.  The  road  has  been  partially  restored  by  exca- 
vation, and  is  found  to  be  in  a  remarkable  state  of  preser- 
vation. Revised  by  Russell  Stuegis. 

Applause  [h-omljut.applau  dere,  applnii sum. strike  upon, 
clap]:  a  shout  of  approbation:  an  approving  acclamation: 
a  public  expression  of  approbation  and  praise  by  striking 
upon  the  floor  or  the  clapping  of  hands.  This  custom  pi-e- 
vailed  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Ro- 
man comedians  usually  terminated  their  performances  with 
a  request  that  the  audience  would  applaud,  vah'/e  et  plau- 
dite!  Three  species  of  applause  were  used  by  the  Romans — 
namely,  Bomhiis,  a  confused  hum,  like  the  buzzing  of  bees, 
produced  l)y  the  month  or  tlie  hands:  and  Imbrices  and 
Tesfw,  which  were  sounds  made  by  striking  vessels  placed 
in  the  theater  for  this  purpose.  The  last  was  like  the  sud- 
den crash  produced  by  the  fall  and  fracture  of  a  set  of 
chinaware. 

In  modern  times,  French  politicians  and  dramatists  often 


small,  hard  apples,  useful  only  for  culinary  pui^poses,  and 
which  are  offspring  of  Pi/nix  bnccata  or  are  supposed  hy- 
brids between  that  s)iecies  and  Pijnis  mains. 

The  apple  is  the  most  important  fruit  of  temperate  cli- 
mates, and  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  large  area  of  North 
America,  where  it  occupies  a  larger  acreage  probably  than 
any  other  fruit.  In  1890  the  number  of  acres  devoted  to 
the  growing  of  apple-trees  in  nurseries  was  20,283.75 :  and 
the  total  numlier  of  trees  then  growing  in  these  nurseries 
was  240.570.666.  The  leading  apjili- "districts  of  North 
America  are  those  comprising  the  Jliddlc  and  Southern 
New  England  States,  New  York  and  Jlichigan,  the  Annap- 
olis valley  of  Nova  Scotia,  a  large  area  of  tlie  Province  of 
Ontario,  the  middle  altitudes  of  the  Alleghanies  in  Virginia 
and  soutliward  in  the  t'arolinas,  the  central  area  comprising 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Northwestern  Arkansas,  and  a  large 
area  in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  including  the  States  of  Oregon 
and  Washington.  The  api)le  is  profoundly  influenced  by 
latitude  and  climate.  In  the  Northeastern  States  and  Can- 
ada the  fruit  is  very  firm,  highly  colored,  of  high  flavor  and 
long-keeping  quality.  As  the  apple  regions  extend  south- 
ward the  fruit  takes  on  a  duller  or  less  intense  color,  and 
loses  much  of  its  sprightliness  or  flavor,  has  a  tendency  to 
become  larger,  and  the  keeping  qualities  are  very  greatly 
diminished.  Thus  the  Tompkins  King,  which  is  one  of  the 
standard  winter  apples  of  the  northernmost  States,  becomes 
a  fall  apple  in  Kentucky.  A  knowledge  of  these  influences 
of  the  climate  upon  the  apple  has  come  to  be  of  great  im- 
portance to  apjile-growcrs.  in  consetpience  of  the  growing 
export  trade  which  demands  apples  of  great  firmness  and  of 
long-keeping  qualities.  Apple  cultivation  is  rai)idly  assum- 
ing a  new  importance  in  the  New  England  States,  New 
York,  and  Canada,  because  of  the  trade  which  is  opening  up 
in  the  European  countries.  So  long  ago  as  1845  apples  were 
shipjied  to  Scotland  in  small  quantities,  but  it  was  not  until 
188(>-81  that  the  exjiort  trade  assumed  great  importance.  It 
is  now  one  of  the  established  lines  of  international  trade. 
The  table  on  this  page,  showing  tlie  apple  exportatioiis  dur- 
ing the  last  decade  in  liarrels,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  this  industry. 


SHIPPING  POPTS. 

RECEIVING  PORTS. 

New  York. 

BostOD. 

Montreal. 

HalUki. 

Portland. 

PhiladelpbU. 

Annapolis. 

Liverpool. 

London. 

Glasgow. 

Varioua. 

]SSrt-81 

599.300 

5IO.:300 

145.276 

24.2.50 

39.908 

9,872 

839.444 

177.9.35 

216.391 

95,036 

1,328.806  bbls. 

18S1-82 

75,889 

65,09:3 

.56.4:3:3 

13.805 

6.497 

21.535 

133,7*1 

46.147 

59,266 

55 

3.39.252     '■ 

1K82~83 

1H9.570 

102, 4W 

64,:390 

18.543 

18.890 

8.900 

19.893 

253.4.32 

46,975 

81.369 

13,318 

395.594     " 

ism-u 

5:1048 

7,145 

7,445 

3.7.58 

9,811 

325 

46,661 

4.843 

29.685 

:34:3 

81.5:33    " 

18iM-«> 

a5t).:314 

307.1.S0 

84.487 

41.307 

71.460 

8.612 

491.898 

123,081 

137,641 

16.590 

769.210     " 

1885-S6 

466.20:3 

321,734 

68.716 

.37.982 

87..301 

186 

3.161 

5:37,695 

147.102 

176,445 

24.031 

88.5,373     " 

1886-87 

175.595 

3a3.479 

106.713 

04.606 

100.596 

26.9:35 

468.5.^3 

187.810 

138.756 

12,775 

807.934     " 

]887-fl8 

275.696 

16:3.916 

93.058 

.32.653 

25.215 

17.8tH 

3»6..5.57 

104.072 

139.517 

18,275 

608.421      " 

1888-S9 

474..137 

382.199 

291, .307 

94.691 

145,825 

860 

18.190 

790.502 

279.374 

272.068 

65.465 

1.407.409     " 

1889-90 

169.5.57 

1.33,589 

163,526 

.53.627 

122,4:33 

37.030 

418.850 

128.248 

116,449 

14,115 

677.762     " 

1890-91 

76,503 

33,123 

182,095 

89,199 

80,365 

252,548 

116,705 

80.7?3 

1,260 

451,285     " 

avail  themselves  of  the  services  of  hired  applauders,  called 
claqueAirs.  who  cry  Bis.  his  !  (twice,  again,  encore),  or  Bien, 
tres  bien  .'  The  audiences  of  English  actors  signify  their  ap- 
probation by  the  cry  of  Encore  !  but  in  the  British  House  of 
Commons  apjilause  is  expressed  by  cries  of  Hear  !  hear.' 

Apple:  the  fruit  of  a  tree  belonging  to  the  rose  family, 
and  Known  botanically  as  Py/-H«  ma/us.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  a  native  of  Southwestern  Asia  and  of  a  large  part  of 
Europe.  Di-  Candolle  thinks  "it  probable  that  the  tree  was 
indigenous  in  Kurope  as  in  Anatolia,  tlie  south  of  the  Cau- 
casus and  Northern  Russia,  iiiid  that  its  cultivation  began 
early  everywhere."  It  has  been  cultivated  from  time  im- 
memorial. The  Siberian  crab-apjile  is  I'ljriis  hiicrntd.  which 
is  characterized  by  very  hard,  ilense  wood,  long-stalkeil  and 
nearly  smoot h  leaves  and  flowei-s,  and  a  hard  and  aiislere 
small  fruit  from  which  the  calyx  clrops  before  the  fruit  is 
fully  ripc^  Several  varieties  of  this  species  are  in  cultiva- 
tion in  this  country,  but  they  are  of  minor  im))ortance. 
There  are  a  numlier  of  species  of  wild  apple  in  .\merica.  two 
of  which  (/'|yr».s  TOr'/Hrt'r/rt  and  /-".  loensis)  appear  to  possess 
some  value  as  possible  fruit-plants.  Another  type  of  native 
apple,  whicli  lias  alreadv  gained  some  prominence,  is  that 
represented  liy  the  Soulard  crab,  which  has  been  recently 
described  uniler  the  name  of  Pyrus  Soulard'i.  but  which 
may  lie  a  hybri<l  between  the  common  apple  and  Pj/nis 
loensis.  The  term  rrdh-npple  is  applied  somewhat  loosely 
to  any  small  and  inferior  apple,  whether  belonging  to  l^i/nis 
mains  or  to  other  species.  Among  pomologists,  however, 
the  term  is  often  technically  used  to  designate  a  class  of 


This  export  trade  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  shipments 
to  England  and  Scotland,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  other  Europetin  markets  may  be  opened  with  profit. 
There  is  |u'obably  no  country  in  the  world  which  can  com- 
pete successfully  with  the  C  .S.  and  some  parts  of  C:inada 
in  the  production  of  ap)iles. 

In  Euroiie  apjiles  are  grown  extensively  in  the  central 
countries,  in  Denmark  and  throughout  (ireat  Britain,  but 
there  are  few  places  in  whicli  apple  cultivation  is  carried 
on  so  extensively  and  with  such  uniform  <-ominercial  re- 
sults as  it  is  in  the  V .  S.  Very  lately  Tasmania  and  New 
Zealand  have  gained  prominence  asa]i|ile-growiiig  countries, 
and  they  now  ship  considerable  quantities  of  fruit  to  Great 
Bi-itaiii  and  some  to  the  Western  l'.  S.  Tasmanian  ajiples 
were  shijiped  to  England  us  early  as  1870,  but  only  recently 
has  this  exportation  become  important.  In  1890  there  were 
shipped  from  Tasm:iiiia  to  Great  I'ritain  some  80.000  cases 
of  apples,  each  lioliling  aliout  40  lb.  of  fruit.  These  sold  at 
prices  ranging  from  Ws.  to  20.«.  Tasmanian  ap]iles  began 
to  attract  attention  in  San  Francisco  in  1S!K).  and  in  1891 
!;hi|iments  were  receiveil  there  from  Australia  and  New 
Zealand.  The  Tasmanian  and  New  Zealand  apples,  how- 
ever, do  not  compete  with  the  V.  S.  product,  as  they  are  re- 
ceived at  a  season  of  the  year  when  domestic  fniit  is  grow- 
ing. They  begin  to  arrive  in  the  San  Francisco  and  Ijon- 
doii  markets  in  April  and  early  in  JIay. 

The  .wils  which  are  thought  to  be  best  adapted  to  aiiple 
cultivation  are  the  higher  and  more  rolling  lands  which 
contain  more  or  less  gravel,  and  arc  possessed  of  both  at- 
mospheric and  water  drainage.     Those  lands  which  are  well 


i 


APPLE 


APPLETOX 


261 


adapleil  to  wliciil  ami  cniii  ordinarily  nuike  jjood  apple 
lands.  Soils  wliiili  im  warm  and  c-omparativply  dry,  and 
which  admit  of  I'rcimonI  and  timely  cultivation,  are  most 
desirable,  both  for  tlie  good  of  the  tree  and  for  the  quality 
of  the  fruit. 

The  varieties  of  apples  are  very  numerous,  reaching  un- 
doubtedly four  or  five  thousand;  but  the  number  of  varie- 
ties a<:tually  grown  for  prolit  in  the  V.  S.  is  probably  not 
over  200,  and  in  any  one  locality  the  number  of  profitable 
varieties  will  not  ordinarily  exceed  a  dozen  or  twenty.  The 
varieties  differ  widely  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  es- 
pecially between  the  .North  and  South,  and  there  are  few  of 
the  apples  which  are  ailapted  to  Xew  Kngland  and  New 
York  which  are  grown  so  far  .S.  as  Mai'yljind  and  Virginia. 
During  recent  yeai's  a  great  ell'ort  has  been  made  to  extend 
the  apple  regions  northward  in  the  northern  parts  of  New 
Euglaiul  and  into  llie  colder  parts  of  the  Mississippi  valley, 
as  Wisconsin.  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  This  has  been  done  by 
the  origination  of  varieties  of  great  hardiness,  and  by  the 
importation  of  varieties  from  Hussia.  The  apples  grown  in 
these  cold  regions  ueai'ly  always  possess  great  delicacy  and 
beauty  of  surface  and  texturi'.  but  so  farthei'e  are  couijiara- 
tively  few  of  them  which  possess  very  liigh  quality.  There 
is  every  reason,  however,  to  hope  for  the  best  results  in  the 
future. 

New  varieties  of  apples  are  produced  by  sowing  seeds.  As 
a  rule,  all  the  seedlings  are  different  from  each  other,  Init  it 
is  only  rarely  that  a  meritorious  variety  is  olitained.  When 
such  a  variety  is  procured,  however,  it  is  readily  projiagated 
by  grafting  or  budding  it  upon  other  seedling  stocks,  or  in 
some  cases  it  is  grafted  into  the  tops  of  old  trees.  The  seed- 
ling trees  or  stocks,  upon  whicli  the  varieties  are  budded  or 
grafted,  are  obtained  by  sowing  the  ajiple  seeds  in  drills  in 
early  fall  or  spring;  and  the  result iug  trees  are  taken  u]i  at 
the  end  of  the  first  season's  growth,  when  they  are  ready  to 
be  set  in  nursery  rows.  In  practice  these  seedling  stocks 
are  stored  in  cellars  during  the  first  winter,  and  the  next 
spring  they  are  set  in  the  nursery  into  rows  about  3  or  4 
feet  apart,  and  about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  If  the  stocks 
are  to  be  budded  (see  Gkaktino).  tlie  operation  is  performed 
during  the  following  July  and  August.  If  they  are  to  be 
grafted,  they  are  taken  up  in  the  following  fall  and  stored 
in  cellars,  and  the  grafting  is  performed  during  the  winter 
season.  During  the  following  season,  which  is  two  years 
from  t he  sowing  of  the  .seed,  the  trees,  whether  budded  or 
grafted,  grow  rapiilly,  antl  make  at  the  end  of  that  year 
what  the  nurseryuum  calls  the  ycjirling  trees.  Apple-trees 
are  rarely  set  in  the  orchard,  however,  until  they  are  two  or 
three  years  old — that  is,  two  or  three  years  from  the  bud  or 
the  graft.  In  the  ordiard,  the  larger  growing  varieties 
should  be  set  as  far  as  40  feet  apart  each  way;  some  of  the 
smaller  growing  varieties  may  lie  put  as  close  as  30  feet. 
Good  cultivation  during  the  (irst  ten  years  of  the  orchard  is 
advisable,  during  which  time  the  soil  should  be  well  ferti- 
lized ;  but  annual  cidtivated  crops,  such  as  corn  and  pota- 
toes, may  be  grown  in  the  same  land  in  the  meantime  with 
good  results.  Trees  should  be  [iruned  regularly  and  .iudi- 
ciously  every  year  from  the  timc>  of  setting.  Pruning  pro- 
duces the  best  (inality  of  fruit,  promotes  the  healthtulness 
of  the  tree,  and  renders  it  amenable  to  the  best  cultivation 
and  treatment. 

Numerous  insects  prey  n|)on  the  apple-tree  and  its  fruit. 
The  uu).st  important  is  the  codUn-moth,  a  small  lepidopter- 
ons  insect  which  lays  an  egg  in  the  apex  or  blossom  en<l  of 
the  apple  soon  after  the  petals  fall.  The  larva  soon  halclies 
from  this  egg  and  bores  directly  downward  into  the  fruit. 
In  recent  years  this  insect  is  being  kept  within  almost  en- 
tire control  by  spraying,  as  .soon  as  the  last  Idossoms  fall, 
with  sonu^  ai'senical  poisiui,  as  Paris  green  or  London  pur- 
ple. One  II).  of  the  poison  to  200  or  2.50  gal.  of  water  is  used. 
(See  IxsKCTinuKs.)  This  is  sprayed  thoroughly  upon  the  tree 
as  soon  as  the  last  pi'lals  fall,  and  again  at  an  interval  of  a 
week  or  ten  <lays.  The  arsenic  lodges  in  the  small  cup-like 
cavity  of  the  apex  of  the  apple  and  destroys  the  young 
larva.  Xo  danger  to  health  may  be  feared  from  this  ojiera- 
tion  of  spraying,  for  all  traces  of  the  poison  are  washed 
away  by  tlie  rain  long  before  Hit'  apple  reaches  maturity. 
The  apple-scab  is  a  well-known  fungous  disease  of  the  apple, 
which  causes  the  fruit  to  become  distorted  and  scabby  (see 
cut),  l)ut  one  which  can  be  controlled  by  a  spray  of  copper 
.solutions,  especially  by  the  amnioniacal  carbonate  of  copper. 
This  disease  is  also  common  upon  the  leaves,  yiroducing  dis- 
colored or  blighted  patclies.  (See  FL'XriiciDES.)  For  further 
information,  see  Downing's  Frull^nml  Fruit  'Trees  of  Amer- 


ica: Warder's  Pomi)/))(/i/ ;  Marry  :>  Fruit  Garden;  Thomas's 
Fruit   Cutturist;    Fitz's   Tlie  Apple;   Wrong's  Fruit  Cul- 


Apple  scab. 

ture;   Todd's  Apple    Culturist;    Bailey's   Field   Notes  on 
Apple  Culture;  Wickson's  California  Fruits.      L.  H.  B. 

Apple  Blight :  a  disease  of  apple-tree.s,  caused  by  a  spe- 
cies of  aphis  {Ajihis  lanigera).  This  little  insect  penetrates 
the  chinks  in  the  bark,  extracting  the  sap,  causing  diseased 
excrescences,  and  ultimately  the  death  of  the  tree. 

Apple  Diseases:  See  Blight,  Rot,  Rusts,  and  .Scab. 

Appledore :  a  small  seaport  and  watering-place  in  the 
parish  of  Northampton,  Devonshire,  England ;  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Torridge  and  on  Barnstaple  Bay,  about  2  miles 
X'.  of  Bideford  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  13-D). 

Apple  Oil  (artificial) :  a  sohition  of  valerianate  of  amyl 
in  six  parts  of  alcohol. 

Apples  of  Sod'om  :  a  frnit  mentioned  by  Josephus  and 
other  ancient  writers  as  growing  near  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was 
fair  in  appearance,  but  when  grasjjed  in  the  hand  collapsed 
into  dust  and  ashes.  Some  modern  writers  have  supposed 
that  it  was  the  fruit  of  Sola  Hum  ^lelun'gena  (nightshade), 
but  Robinson  identifies  it  with  the  Axele  pias  yigante  a,  the 
fruit  of  which  looks  like  an  orange,  but  disappoints  those 
who  touch  it  by  its  nauseousness  in  an  immature  state,  and 
its  emptiness  when  fully  ripe. 

Appletoii:  city;  capital  of  Outagamie  Co.,  Wis.  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  5-E) :  on  the  lower  Fox 
river,  30  miles  S.  of  Green  Bay.  The  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats,  and  has  here  a  constant  fall  of  49  feet,  furnish- 
ing inexhaustible  water-power.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  Ap- 
Iileton  Collegiate  Institute  and  of  Lawrence  University.  Pop. 
(1880)  8,0U.5;  (18!)0)  11,869;  (1895)  14.641. 

TuE  "  Post  "  Publishing  Co. 

Apjiletoii.  Daniel:  founder  of  the  great  publishing  house 
of  1).  .\pplelon  &  Co.;  b.  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1785; 
became  a  dry-goods  merchant  there  and  later  in  Boston,  re- 
moving in  l'825  to  New  York,  where  he  combined  the  busi- 
ness of  importing  English  books  witli  the  sale  of  dry  goods, 
but  soon  abandoned  the  latter  and  gave  his  attention  solely 
to  books  and  publishing.  Daily  Crumbs  from  the  blaster's 
Table  (1831)  was  the  first  of  the  many  thousands  of  valuable 
works  in  literature,  science,  and  art  which  have  been  issued 
from  thepre-ss  of  I).  .Appleton  iS:  Co.  He  retired  in  1848, 
and  died  .Mar.  27. 1849.  His  eldest  .son,  William  11.  (b.  Jan. 
27,  1814),  who  had  been  a  partner  from  1838,  carried  on  the 
business  in  partnership  with  his  brothers  (now  all  deceased) 
and  later  with  his  son  William  W.  and  the  sons  of  his  broth- 
ers John  A.  and  Daniel  .Sidney.  It  has  now  attained  enor- 
mous proportions:  its  growth  necessitating  many  removals — 
from  lOxeliange  Place  about  1830  to  Fifth  Avenue  in  1894. 

.Appletoii.  Jesse,  D.I).:  theologian;  b.  at  New  Ipswich, 
N.  II..  Nov.  17,  1772,  and  settled  over  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Hampton,  X.  H.,  in  Feb..  1797.  In  1803  lie  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  candidates  for  the  chair  of  the- 
ology in  Harvani  University.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  Mowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.,  and  there  died 
Nov.  12,  1819.  A  man  of  rare  abilities  and  high  classical 
culture,  he  was  distinguished  also  for  saintliness  of  charac- 
ter and  singular  dignity  and  grace  of  manners.  His  w'orks, 
with  a  memoir  prefixed,  were  published  by  his  son-in-law, 
Prof.  Alpheus  S.  Packard,  in  1837. 


262 


APPLETON 


APPRAISEMENT 


Appleton.  John.  LL.  D.  :  jurist :  h.  in  Xew  Ipswich.  N.  H., 
July  12.  1«U4;  gradiuited  at'  liow.loiii  College  in  1822.  In 
1852  he  lieeame  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  JIaine, 
and  in  1862  chief  justice,  being  reappointed  in  1869  and 
1876.  He  published  two  volumes  of  Jlaine  Reports.  D.  at 
Bangor,  Me.,  Feb.  7,  1891.  Hexry  Waue  Rogers. 

Appletoii.  Joiix:  b.  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  Feb.  11,  1815; 
graifuated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1834:  became  a  lawyer 
and  prominent  Democratic  editor  in  Portland,  Me.,  where 
lie  settled  in  18o7.  became  chief  clerk  of  the  V.  S.  Treasury 
Department  in  1845.  and  afterward  held  a  similar  position 
in  the  State  Department ;  was  chari/e  d'affaires  to  Bolivia 
(1848-49),  member  of  Congress  (1850-59),  secretary  of  lega- 
tion in  London  (1855-56),  U.S.  minister  to  Russia  (1860-61). 
D.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Aug.  22,  1864. 

Appletoii,  Xatrax,  LL.  I). :  merchant ;  b.  at  \ew  Ipswich, 
X.  11..  Oct.  6,  1779 :  became  a  jmrtner  of  his  brother  Samuel 
in  Boston.  lie  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Lowell,  Mass., 
was  several  times  in  the  JJassachusetts  Legislature,  and 
was  chosen  a  member  of  Congress  in  1830  and  again  in 
1842.  Wrote  speeches  and  essays  on  banking,  cuiTency, 
and  the  tai-iff.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences and  j\rts.  and  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 
D.  in  Boston.  .July  14.  1861. 

Appletoii  City:  village:  on  Mo..  Kan.  and  Tex.  R.  R. ; 

St.  Clair  co..  Mo.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Mis- 
souri, ref.  5-E) ;  has  various  manufactures.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,034;  (1890)  1.081. 

Appoarsriatiira.  ap-pod-ja-too'ra,  literally,  a  support  [Ital. 
from  ajjpiJi/ia'n  (Pr.  appuycr)  <  Lat.  appodia're.  lean  upon  ; 
ad,  to  +  podium,  support,  from  Gr.  Tr6hiov.  base] :  an  Italian 
musical  term  indicating  a  form  of  emljellishment  by  inser- 
tion of  one  or  two  "passing  notes"  in  a  melody.  These 
notes  are  printed  in  a  smaller  character  than  the  notes  of 
the  melody  itself. 

Appoiiitiiient  [remotely  from  Lat.  ad,  to  -I-  punctum, 
point]:  in  law,  a  disposition  of  property  made  by  one  au- 
thorized l)y  a  power  contained  in  a  deed,  will,  or  other  in- 
strument to  direct  its  use;  an  instrument  executed  pursuant 
to  a  power  of  appointment  directing  the  disposition  of  prop- 
erty agreeably  to  such  power  (see  Powers).  The  word  is 
also  used  to  indicate  the  designation  by  lawful  authority  of 
some  person  to  hold  an  office  or  to  perform  a  public  duty. 
Un<ler  the  U.  S.  Constitution  the  President  has  tlie  power 
to  nominate,  and.  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  "  ap- 
))oint."  persons  to  hold  certain  specified  offices. 

Ap'pold.  John  George,  F.  R.S.  :  English  mechanician; 
b.  in  Liindon  in  1800;  the  inventor  of  a  celebrated  centrif- 
ugal pump,  of  machinery  for  paying  out  marine  telegraph 
cables,  and  of  a  process  for  dressing  furs,  which  lasf  gave 
him  the  control  of  that  business.  His  house  was  a  museum  of 
wonderful  mechanical  devices,  which  opened  and  closed  doors, 
shutters,  and  gates,  and  performed  many  other  surprising 
acts  by  automatic  machineiy.    D.  in  London,  Aug.  31,  I860. 

Appold  C'eiitrifiiaral  Piiiiip:  See  Pump. 

Appoiiiat'tox :  a  river  of  S.  E.  Virginia :  rises  in  Appo- 
mattox County,  flows  in  a  general  easterly  direction,  and 
enters  the  James  river  at  City  Point.  Length,  <'stimated  at 
l.">()  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Petersburg, 
20  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Appomattox  Coiirt-hoiise :  former  capital  of  Appomat- 
tox CO.,  Va.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  6-F); 
here  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee.  with  the  Confederate  army  of  Northern 
Virginia,  surrendered  to  Gen.  Grant,  Apr.  9,  1865. 

Appor'tioiimciit  [ultimately  from  Lat.  ad.  to  +  por/io,  a 
share]:  in  law,  the  division  of  a  thing  into  parts;  the  dis- 
tribution of  a  claim  or  charge  among  different  jiersons  in 
proportion  to  their  interests  in  the  subject-matter  to  which 
it  attaches.  The  leading  cases  concern — 1.  Incorporeal  rights 
in  land,  such  as  commons  and  rents;  2,  Encumbrances  u])on 
land;  3,  Contracts.  1.  The  principal  case  under  this  divi- 
sion is  that  of  rents.  The  (|iiestioii  of  apiiortioiiment  may 
arise  as  to  the  lights  of  differenl  owners  either  of  the  rent 
or  of  the  land  to  which  the  burden  of  the  payment  of  the 
rent  attaches,  or  it  may  occur  in  case  of  a  partial  failure  of 
the  title  as  to  the  territorial  extent  of  the  laii<l  rented,  or 
because  the  right  of  the  tenant  to  hold  the  land  ceases  be- 
fore the  time  agreed  upon,  on  account  of  the  expiration  of 
the  landlord's  cstnle.  Thus  a  landlord,  after  a  lease  of  two 
houses  bv  one  contract  for  a  specified  rent,  may  sell  one  of 
thera.     The  purchaser  would  be  entitled  to  collect  a  propor- 


tionate part  of  the  rent.  So.  if  the  lessee  should  assign  to 
a  stranger  all  his  rights  in  one  of  the  houses,  the  latter 
would  during  his  ownership  be  bound  to  pay  a  proportion- 
ate part  of  the  rent.  In  case  the  title  to  a  portion  of  the 
premises  failed,  as  if  in  the  case  supposed  the  landlord  did 
not  own  one  of  the  houses  that  he  assumed  to  lease,  and  the 
tenant  was  accordingly  evicted,  he  would  pay  a  proportional 
part  of  the  rent  for  the  remaining  house.  By  the  common 
law  there  was  no  apportionment  where  there  was  a  failure 
as  to  time.  This  case  is  illustrated  by  a  lease  made  by  a 
life-tenant  for  a  specified  pjeriod — e.  g.  a  year.  Should  "he 
die  before  the  time  expired,  the  lease  would  of  course  in- 
stantly terminate,  and  the  tenant  would  ])ay  no  rent  for  the 
time  intervening  since  the  last  payment  of  rent  fell  due. 
This  defect  in  the  law  has  been  remedied  by  statute.  It 
should  be  added  that  there  is  by  common  law  no  apportion- 
ment where  the  property  leased  is  simply  diminished  in 
value.  Should  a  house  and  lot  be  hired  and  the  house  be 
destroyed  l)y  fire,  no  deduction  can  be  claimed,  as  the  rent 
is  deemed  to  be  paid  for  the  land,  which  stUl  remains.  This 
rule  may  be  obviated  by  agreement  of  the  parties.  2.  En- 
cumhraiiees. — It  is  a  general  rule  that  several  owners  of 
land  must  bear  the  burden  of  an  encumbrance  upon  it  in 
pro]iortion  to  their  respective  interests.  Thus  if  land  were 
mortgaged,  and  then  conveyed  to  A  for  life.  and.  subject  to 
A"s  estate,  to  B,  the  respective  owners  should  share  between 
themselves  the  burden  of  payment ;  while  the  mortgage  re- 
mained. A  should  pay  tlie  interest.  If  it  became  necessary 
to  pay  the  mortgage.  A  would  need  to  raise  a  sura  equiva- 
lent to  his  entire  duty  to  pay  the  interest  during  his  life. 
His  probabilities  of  life  are  estimated  by  well-known  tables 
indicating  longevity,  such  as  the  Xorthampton,  Carlisle,  and 
others.  On  a  similar  principle,  if  mortgaged  lands  be  sold 
in  parcels,  the  duty  to  pay  the  mortgage  is  apportioned 
among  the  owners  of  the  respective  parcels.  This  is  clearly 
the  nile  where  the  sales  are  contemporaneous;  but  if  suc- 
cessive in  point  of  time,  the  better  opinion  is  that  there  is 
no  apportionment,  but  that  the  lots  must  be  taken  to  satisfy 
the  mortgage  in  "the  inverse  order  of  alienation."  By  this 
is  meant  that  the  lands  last  sold  by  the  proprietor  must  be 
first  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  paying  the  mortgage.  As 
soon  as  enough  money  is  thus  realized  the  remaining  lots  are 
discharged.  3.  Contracts. — As  a  general  rule,  there  is  no 
aiiportionment  of  contracts.  In  other  words,  a  party  to  a 
contract  must  completely  fulfill  his  own  obligation  before 
he  can  enforce  the  agreement  against  the  other  j)arty.  Thus 
if  a  servant  agreed  to  labor  for  a  year  at  a  specified  salary, 
and  should  work  for  a  portion  of  the  time,  and  leave  with- 
out cause,  he  could  collect  no  portion  of  his  wages.  There 
are  special  cases  where  a  contract  is  apjiortioned.  One  is 
where,  after  it  has  been  partly  performed,  it  is  dissolved  by 
mutual  consent.  So  also  in  a  contract  for  personal  service 
there  is  an  implied  understanding  that  the  contract  isnot  to 
be  completely  fulfilled  unless  life  should  continue.  Accord- 
ingly, if  the  seiwant  should  die  before  the  expiration  of  the 
time  specified  in  the  contract,  his  wages  would  lie  appor- 
tioned according  to  the  time  of  actual  service.  Some  juri.sts 
have  objected  to  the  severity  of  the  general  rule,  and  would 
allow  an  apiiortionment.  even  where  a  contract  is  deliber- 
ately broken  by  a  party,  corresponding  to  the  benefit  re- 
ceived by  the  other  party;  but  the  prevailing  opinion  of 
courts  is.  and  the  better  philosfiphy  would  seem  to  be.  to 
adhere  to  the  nile  as  modified  bv  the  special  cases  referred 
to.  ■  T.  W.  DwioiiT. 

Apportionment  Bill :  an  act  of  Congress  which  deter- 
mines the  total  number  of  members  sent  by  all  the  Stales 
of  the  L'nion.  and  also  the  number  that  each  State  shall 
send,  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  A  new  apiiortion- 
nient  is  made  after  each  clccennial  census.  The  same  term 
is  applied  to  the  act  by  which  a  State  Legislature  distrib- 
utes among  the  counties  their  respective  portions  of  repre- 
sentation. A  populous  county  often  forms  a  district  by 
itself,  an<l  elects  several  members,  while  another  district  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  three  thinly  populated  coun- 
ties. Those  of  the  doniinant  ]iarty  of  the  Stale  sometimes 
so  contrive  the  apponionment  thai  they  gain  an  advantage 
in  the  election,  by  forming  districts  in  each  of  which  a 
county  that  gives  a  majority  against  them  is  joined  to  one 
that  gives  a  larger  majority  for  their  side.  This  is  called 
gerri/mayiileriiKj. 

Appraise'iiieiit,  or  Apprize'meiit  [from  vb.  praisp.  fix 
a  price  for  <  ().  Vr.  preixer  <  huX.  pretia  re.  froln  pretiiim, 
price]:  the  act  of  estimating  the  value  of  property;   the 


APPRENTICE 


APRICOT 


263 


valuation  of  property  made  by  an  authorized  person  who 
is  called  an  appraiser.  The  nimlo  of  appoiiitin?  appraisers 
varies  in  the  different  States  of  the  L'nioii.  'I'lie  law  of  the 
U.  S.  renuires  that  there  shall  lie  an  appraisement  of  the 
inventoried  property  of  decedents  anil  insolvent  debtors,  of 
property  appropriated  to  jiublic  use,  and  of  real  estate  seized 
upon  execution.  In  Great  Britain,  ajipraisenient,  as  a  legal 
term,  signifies  a  valuation  of  goods  taken  under  a  dis- 
tress for  rent  by  two  appraisers,  who  are  sworn  liy  the 
sheriff  or  constable.  The  appraisers  nuist  be  licensed  for 
the  office. 

Apprcn'tice  [0.  Pr.  ajjrenfis,  from  apreyidre,  learn  < 
Lat.  rippreuchn'.  gnisp] :  a  pei-snn,  ordinarily  a  minor, 
bound  in  dne  form  of  law.  usually  by  indenture,  to  another 
for  a  certain  time  to  learn  some  art,  trade,  or  business.  In 
most  of  the  States  of  this  country  statutes  borrowed  from 
English  legislation  allow  minors,  with  their  own  consent, 
and  with  that  of  their  father,  mother,  or  guardian,  to  be 
bound  out  to  service — if  nudes,  till  the  age  of  twenty-one; 
if  females,  till  the  age  of  eighteen,  or  for  a  shorter  time. 
When  the  chdd  is  a  paupi'r,  ho  may  be  bound  without  his 
consent  by  public  officers  or  by  orphan  asylums,  houses  of 
refuge,  or  of  industry.  The  same  rule  is  followed  in  the 
case  of  children  charged  with  petty  <-rimes.  Apprenticeship 
is  thus  to  some  extent  a  mode  of  |)eual  discipline,  and  is 
reformatory  in  its  nature,  particularly  where  some  central 
authority  oversees  from  time  to  time  the  conduct  both  of 
the  apprentice  and  the  master.  The  master  in  many  re- 
spects stands  in  the  relation  of  a  parent.  It  is  his  duty  to 
instruct  the  apprentice  in  the  art  wliich  he  has  undertaken 
to  teach  him.  to  give  him  a  reasonalile  support,  and  to  pro- 
vide for  him  in  case  of  sickness.  The  apprentice,  on  his 
nart,  is  bound  to  render  faithful  service  and  obedience  to 
his  master,  who  may  administer  for  misconduct  reasonable 
corporal  punishment.  This  relation  is  not  regulated  by 
the  ordiuary  rules  governing  master  and  servant,  but  de- 
pends upon  special  grounds  of  ])ublic  ]jolicy.  It  may  usu- 
ally be  dissolved  by  magistrates  where  the  object  of  the 
apprenticeship  has  failed,  and  in  special  cases  the  appren- 
tice may  be  punished  by  them  for  willful  neglect  to  perform 
his  duties.  The  contract  of  apprenticeship  is  of  a  personal 
nature,  and  is  not  assignable.  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Apprentice  SystPiu(U. S. navy):  Sec  Xautical  Schools. 

Approach'es:  in  military  usage,  the  entire  system  of 
works  employed  in  the  methodic  approach  by  siege  of  a  for- 
tification. The  works  consist  of  enveloping  trenches  called 
prtro//('/s.  and  trenches  of  communication  called  boi/aii.r  or 
ziyziiyii  (terms  indicating  the  tortuous  or  zigzag  form  given 
them,  in  order  to  screen  from  the  fire  of  the"  place), /Vrtccs  of 
arms,  etc.  The  earth  removed  is  thrown  u]iou  the  side 
toward  the  besieged  place,  by  the  height  of  which  and  the 
depth  of  the  trench  itself  adequate  cover  is  gained  for  the 
[lassage  of  troops,  and  even  of  artillery.  Apiiroaches  some- 
times acquire  great  development,  as  at  Sebastopol,  where,  as 
is  stated,  the  allies  dug  70  miles  of  trenches.  Recent 
changes  in  artillery  and  small-arms  have  rendered  almost 
obsolete  the  methodic  rules  for  the  location  and  construc- 
tion of  approaches  laid  down  iu  text-books  on  sieges, 

Appropria'tion  ofraynieiits:  in  law,  the  application  of 
money  paid  by  a  debl<n-  to  his  creditor  to  one  of  several 
delits.  The  general  rule  is  that  when  tlu!  (lavment  is  volun- 
tary, and  not  under  process  of  Uiw,  the  debtor  has  a  right  to 
direct  the  amilication  of  the  money.  If  he  does  not  exercise 
this  right,  tlie  creditor  may  elect  to  which  debt  to  appiv  it ; 
and  in  case  of  the  failure  of  both  parties  to  make  such  elec- 
tion the  law  will  apply  the  money  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain rules,  so  as  best  to  ]iroinole  "the  rights  of  the  parties. 
When  the  payment  is  not  voluntary,  but  is  made  under  com- 
[mlsion,  the  rules  as  to  cli'ction  give  way,  and  the  money 
should  be  applied  ratably  to  all  the  clainis.  Where  a  debt 
bears  interest,  that  is  extinguished  before  application  to  the 
ju-iiicipal. 

^  Appiii.  appwee'  [for  etymology  see  AppoGoiATfRA] :  a 
French  word  signifying  ""siqiporf."  In  military  language 
the  phrase  point  d'nppiii  is  ajiplied  to  a  base  or  position 
fitted  to  give  support  to  troops:  a  fixed  point  at  which 
troops  form,  and  on  which  operations  rest.  Lakes,  marshes, 
hills,  or  steep  declivities  sometimes  serve  as  jiointx  d'uppui. 
Appiir'teiiances  [via  Fr.  from  Late  hut.  apperlinmfia; 
ad.  to  +  perliiie'ri'.  belong]:  in  hiw,  .something  belonging  or 
apiierlaiiiing  to  another  thing  as  princiiial,  as  a  right  of 
way  appurtenant  to  land.     In  a  conveyance  of  land  with 


the  "appurtenances,"  all  easements  and  privileges  in  use 
and  necessary  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  estate  granted  will  be 
iiuludeil.  Land  itself  will  not  be  considered  as  appurte- 
nant to  land.  It  is  often  a  dillicult  question  of  constnic- 
tion  to  determine  whether  land  can  be  regarded  as  a  part 
or  parcel  of  the  thing  granted  ;  in  which  case  it  will  pass, 
while  it  would  not  be  embraced  in  the  word  "  appur- 
tenances." Thus  in  the  conveyance  of  a  "  mill  "  or  a 
"mansion-house,"  land  which  in  the  narrow  accc]  it  at  ion  of 
tlu'  terms  "miir'  or  •■mansion-house"  would  not  be  in- 
cluiled  miglit  be  in  a  comprehensive  sense,  since  there  could 
be  no  complete  enjoyment  of  the  mill  or  mansion-house 
without  them. 

Al)rax'ill,  Feodor  Matveievitch  :  Russian  admiral ; 
called  the  creator  of  the  Russian  navy;  b.  in  1071.  He  was 
one  of  the  princiiial  coadjutors  of  Peter  the  Great  in  his 
efforts  to  civilize  Russia,  and  enjoyed  his  confidence  in  a 
high  degree.  He  built  several  ships  of  war.  became  an  ad- 
miral and  president  of  the  admiralty  in  1707.  and  took  Vi- 
borg  from  the  Swedes  in  1710.  In  1713  he  ravaged  the 
coasts  of  Finland,  and  commanded  a  fleet  iu  the  war 
against  Sweden.     D.  Nov.  10,  1728. 

A])raxiii.  Stefan  Feodorovitch  :  Russian  general ;  grand- 
son of  the  preceding:  b.  in  1702.  He  served  in  a  war  against 
the  Turks,  rose  rapidly,  and  became  a  field-marshal.  Hav- 
ing the  command  of  a  large  army  in  the  Seven  Years  War, 
he  defeated  the  army  of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Gross- 
Jiigerndorf  in  Aug.,  1757.  He  neglected  to  improve  the 
victory  by  marching  to  Berlin,  and  was  recalled  and  tried 
bv  a  court-martial,  but  before  the  trial  was  finished  he  died, 
A:ug.  26,  1760, 

A'pricot  [Fr,  abricof.  Span,  alharicoqnc  from  Arab,  nl- 
hirquij:  «/,  X\ie.  +  hirquq.  from  Gr.  irpmK6Kwv.  perhaps  a 
loan  from  Lat.  prcfcoquiim.  early-ri)ie] :  a  fruit  (Pru'nus 
armeni'aca)  intermediate  between  the  peach  and  the  plum 
in  character,  having  a  small,  thin,  slightly  furrowed  stone,  a 
firm,  sweet  flesh,  and  a  pubescent  exterior.  The  apricot  has 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  and  is  probably  a 
native  of  China.  The  ajiricot  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
most  delicious  fruits  of  temperate  climates.  It  is  grown 
throughout  temperate  Europe,  where,  especially  in  England, 
it  is  commonly  trained  on  walls.  In  America,  apricot  cul- 
ture has  assumed  great  importance  in  California,  and  many 
portions  of  the  country  are  adapted  to  it.  Little  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  apricot  in  the  Eastern  Stales,  because 
of  the  early  blooming  of  the  tree  and  the  consequent  danger 
from  frosts,  the  injury  by  th(^  |ilum-curculio,  and  the  errone- 
ous impression  that  the  tree  is  very  tender.  The  apricot  is 
as  hardy  as  the  peach,  while  the  Russian  varieties — which 
are  only  extra 
hardy  strains  of 
the  same  spe- 
cies, P;'«  ««.?«(•- 
meniaea  —  ai'e 
often  still  hard- 
ier. Even  ill 
New  York  ■•) 
chard  apricoi 
culture  is  now 
receiving  some  at- 
tention. Grown  up- 
on the  north  <ir 
west  side  of  walls 
— where  the  blos- 
soms are  retarded 
— aiiricots  form  one 
of  thechoicest  fruits 
for  the  home  gar- 
den. The  general 
cultivation  of  the 
apricoi  is  nuich  like 
that  of  the  jieach. 
Plum  stocks  are 
comuumly  used  for  the  apricot  in  the  Northern  States, 
especially  if  trees  are  to  be  placed  upon  heavy  soil.  Peach 
stocks  ai'e  generally  used  elsewhere  in  this  country,  except 
in  California,  where  apricot  stocks  can  now  be  obtained. 
The  apricot  will  also  grow  upon  the  almond,  although  this 
stock  IS  not  liked  by  orchardists.  There  are  soiiu't  liing  like 
100  varieties  of  apricots  described.  Among  the  best  known 
are  Breda.  Jloorpark,  Royal,  Early  Golden,  and  Ilemskirke. 
The  Russian  apricots  are  not  esteemed  except  in  regions 
where  the  better  varieties  are  not  hardv.       L.  II.  Bailey. 


i,.^. 


i^ . 


■^ 


A 


Apricot. 


26i 


APRIES 


APURIMAC 


A'prles  (in  Gr.  'Airpl-ns) :  a  King  of  Egypt  of  tlie  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty,  called  in  the  Bible  Pharaoh-Hophra  ;  a  son  of 
Psammeticlius  II.,  whom  he  succeeded  about  588  B.  c.  lie 
attem])ted  the  relief  of  Jerusalem  (587),  but  was  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  See  the  biblical  account,  Jer.  xxxvii.  5-8; 
Ezek.  xvii.  11-13;  2  Kings  xxv.  1-4.  His  subjects  revolted 
and  killed  him  about  568  b.  c,  and  Amasis  then  obtained 
the  throne. 

A'pril  (Lat.  Api-i'lin) :  the  fourth  month  of  the  year;  de- 
rived from  the  Konuins.  but  in  the  early  age  of  the  Roman 
republic  it  was  the  second  month. 

April  Fool's  Day:  the  name  given  to  the  1st  of  April, 
from  the  custom  of  jjlaying  tricks  upon  people  or  sending 
them  upon  bootless  errands  on  that  day.  Some  have  de- 
rived it  from  some  ancient  pagan  custom,  such  as  the  Huli 
festival  (ilar.  iil)  among  the  Hindus,  or  the  Roman  Feast 
of  Fools.  Probably  it  was  observed  as  the  octave  of  JIar. 
25,  which  used  to  be  Xew  Year's  day.  In  France  the  person 
tricked  is  called  ^-)r<(.s,s-o«  d'Avril  (April  fish),  and  in  Scot- 
land he  is  called  a  guwk  (cuckoo). 
A  Priori :  See  A  Posteriori. 

A'pron :  in  former  times,  a  piece  of  sheet-lead  which  cov- 
ered the  vent  of  a  cannon.  In  ship-building  the  ajiron  is  a 
piece  of  curved  timber  fixed  behind  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  and  just  aliove  the  foremost  end  of  the  keel,  to  fortifj' 
the  stem.  Apron  is  also  a  platform  or  flooring  of  plank  at  the 
entrance  of  a  dock.  In  the  Authorized  Version  of  Gen.  iii.  7 
apron  is  used  to  render  the  Heb.  chagorah  (which  is  rendered 
"girdle"'  in  2  Sam.  xviii.  11);  "'And  they  sewed  fig-leaves 
together,  and  maile  themselves  aprons  " — in  the  margin.  "  or. 
things  to  gird  aliout."  In  the  Geneva  (Barker)  Bible  (1509) 
it  is  rendered,  "  And  they  sewed  figge  tree  leaues  together, 
and  made  themselues  breeches" — in  the  margin.  " Ehi: 
things  to  gird  about  them  to  hide  their  priuities."  Because 
of  the  translation  "  breeches,"  this  is  called  "  the  Breeches 
Bible."  In  Acts  xix.  12  apron  is  the  rendering  of  aiiiiKiv^iov, 
from  the  Latin  semicinctiiim,  a  half -girdle,  or  belt  covering 
half  the  person — an  apron  worn  by  workmen,  servants,  etc. 
Apsheron'.  Apcheron.  or  Abeheron;  a  peninsula  which 
extends  into  tlie  Caspian  Sea  at  the  S.  extreiuity  of  Daghe- 
stan.  It  forms  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Caucasian 
chain  of  mountains.  It  is  famous  as  the  place  of  the  sacred 
flame  which  is  venerated  by  the  fire-worshipers  (Ghebers), 
and  is  produced  by  intlammable  gas  rising  from  the  soil. 
Large  quantities  of  najjhtha  are  procured  here. 

Ap'sides.  plural  of  Ajjsis  [from  Gr.  d^ls,  -tSos.  loop,  bow, 
arch] ;  the  two  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  primary  planet  which 
are  at  tlie  greatest  and  the  least  distance  from  the  sun,  cor- 
responding to  the  aphelion  and  perihelion.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  extrenu'  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  satellite,  which 
in  the  case  of  our  moon  are  the  same  as  the  apogee  and 
perigee.  The  straight  line  connecting  them  is  called  the  line 
of  the  apsides. 

Apteryges.  ap-ter'i-jel'Z  [for  etjTnol.  see  Aptertx]  ;  an  or- 
der of  birds  comprising  only  the  species  of  Apteryx  of  Xew 
Zealand.  So  named  because  the  very  short,  wings  are  hidden 
in  the  long  loose  feathers,  and  the  birds  appear  wingless.  See 
Aptervx.  F.  a.  Lucas. 

Ap'feryx  [Or.  d-.  without -I- irrepul.  wing];  a  genus  of 
flightless  "birds,  peculiar  to  New  Zealand.     The  term  is  used 

as  a  common  nanui  quite  as 
much  as  the  native  name, 
kiwi-kiwi.  The  birds  of  this 
genus  rc|)rcsent  also  the  fam- 
ily Apterygidie  and  order  Ap- 
teryges.  They  have  a  keelless 
sternum,  no  clavicles,  rudi- 
mentary wings,  with  a  claw 
on  the  second  digit,  which  is 
the  only  one  present  except 
in  the  embryo.  Tlie  bill  is 
long  and  the  nostrils  open 
near  the  end,  a  unique  feature 
among  birds.  There  ai'c  no 
distinct  tail-feathers,  and  the 
plumiige  is  loose  and  some- 
what hair-like.  Five  species  are  known ;  one  (Apteryx  max- 
ima) only  from  the  feathers  in  the  dress  of  a  Slaori  chief. 
A.  mnnlelli  inhabits  the  North  island,  A.  anstnilis  and  A. 
haasfii  the  South  island,  A.  owenii  both  islands.  These 
birds  arc  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  feed  on  worms,  nest  in 
holes,  and  lay  a  single  egg,  enormous  when  compared  with 


-Apterj-x. 


the  size  of  the  bird.  They  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  num- 
bers, largely  on  account  of  dogs  and  cats  introduceil  by  the 
settlers.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ap'tliorp,  East  ;  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Boston,  Mass..  in  1733,  and  educated  at  the  Boston  Latin 
School  and  afterward  at  Cambridge  University,  England, 
where  he  became  a  fellow  of  his  college.  Returning  to  Ameri- 
ca, he  became  a  missionary  of  the  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  and  was  stationed  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  where  he  built  Christ  church,  still  one  of  the  finest 
models  of  church  architecture  in  Xew  England,  and  became 
distinguished  as  a  controversialist,  an  author,  and  a  divine. 
He  was  supposed  to  be  thought  of  by  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities in  England  as  a  possible  American  bishop,  and  his 
stately  home  in  Cambridge  was  called  in  the  pamphlets  of 
the  time  a  "  palace  "  on  this  account.  Rendered  uncomfort- 
able by  the  bitterness  of  the  controversy  aroused  by  the  pro- 
posed introduction  of  bishops  into  America,  Mr.  Apthorp 
returned  to  England,  was  made  1).  D.  by  Archbishop  Corn- 
wallis ;  was  collated  to  the  Church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  Lon- 
don ;  was  appointed  Boyle  lecturer;  was  collated  to  a  pre- 
bend of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral :  was  tendered  the  bishopric 
of  Kildare,  Ireland,  and  finally  received  the  valuable  living 
of  Finsbury  (London).  He  was  a  voluniincnis  author,  and  no 
American  of  his  time  attained  greater  celebrity  in  letters  or 
as  a  divine.  His  lour  letters  to  Gibbon  in  defense  of  Chris- 
tianity (1778)  wei'e  very  favorably  received.  D.  in  London, 
Apr.  i7,  1816.  "  William  Stevens  Perry. 

Apnieins,  ap-yu-lee'yfis.  Lrorus:  Latin  Platonic  philoso- 
pher and  satirical  writer;  b.  at  Madaura,  in  Africa.  He  lived 
about  150  A.D.,  traveled  extensively,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  learning  and  eloquence.  After  he  had  spent  liis  for- 
tune in  travel,  he  married  a  rich  widow,  and  was  involved  in 
a  lawsuit  with  her  relatives,  who  accused  him  of  using  magical 
arts  to  gain  her  affection.  He  defended  himself  with  success 
bv  an  Apology,  which  is  still  extant.  He  became  popular  as  an 
oi-ator  at  Carthage,  the  senate  of  which  raised  statues  in  his 
honor.  His  chief  work  is  a  fantastic  and  satirical  romance 
entitled  the  3Ietamorphoses,  or  tlie  Goldeti  Ass.  which  is  of 
impoitance  for  the  histoiy  of  manners.  Among  other  epi- 
sodes, it  contains  the  charming  story  of  Ciiiiid  and  Psyche. 
It  has  lieen  translated  into  English' by  T.  Taylor  (1822).  by 
Sir  George  Head  (1851),  and  by  several  others.  Some  of  his 
works  are  lost.  .See  G.  F.  Ilildelirand,  edition  of  complete 
works  (Leipzig,  1842),  and  F.  Eyssenhardt.  cd.  of  Metamor- 
pliosi's  (Berlin,  1869).  "  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Apulia,  ,a-poo'le"e-a  [in  It.  La  PiigliaJ:  province  of  South- 
ern Italy,  bounded  X^.  E.  by  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  was  a  por- 
tion of  Graxia  Magna  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-G).  It  was 
bounded  on  the  S.  W.  by  Lucania  and  Samnium.  Among 
the  chief  towns  of  this  once  i)Oi:)ulous  and  famous  region 
were  Canusiuni.  Arpi,  Luceria,  and  Arpinum.  The  battle  of 
Can na".  and  most  of  the  important  events  of  the  second  Punic 
war,  occurred  in  Apulia.  Many  of  its  cities  aided  llannilial, 
by  whom  it  was  occupied  until  B.  c.  207,  when  it  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Romans.  It  was  conquei'ed  by  C.  Cosconius, 
B.  c.  80,  and  by  the  Normans  about  1042  A.  u.  Apulia  was 
united  to  the  Sicilian  monarchy  in  1127.  and  is  included  in 
the  modc'i-n  provinces  of  Foggia,  Bari,  and  Lecce.  The  pres- 
ent province  has  the  Abruzzi  e  Molise  on  the  X'^.  W.  and  Cam- 
pania and  Basilicata  on  the  W.,  and  consists  of  the  compart- 
ments Bari  delle  Puglie,  Foggia,  and  Lecc'e.  Area,  8,541  sq. 
miles.     Pop.  (1890)  1,750.396. 

Apiiro.  a"!i-poorf7  ;  a  river  of  '\'enezuela.  rises  in  the  Andes 
near  lat.  7  X'.  and  Ion.  72'  W.  It  flows  eastward,  and  enters 
the  Orinoco  in  lat.  7  36  43'  X'".  and  Ion.  66  45'  W.  Length, 
estimated  at  736  miles. 

A])iiriinne.  a-poore"c-mak' ;  a  river  of  South  America ;  one 
of  the  head-streams  of  the  Amazon,  rises  in  the  Andes,  in 
Peru,  aliont  l.-it.  15"  38'  S.,and  about  75  miles  from  tlie  Pacific 
Ocean.  It  flows  nearly  northward,  and  unites  with  the  river 
Unibamba  about  8'  38  S.  The  stream  thus  formed  is  called 
the  L'cayalc.  Its  length  from  its  source  to  the  Ueayale  is 
estimated  at  COO  miles. 

Apiirillinc  ;  a  department  of  Central  Peru,  the  second  in 
size  in  the  state,  Cuzco  being  the  first.  It  is  inclosed  between 
Cuzco  and  Avacucho.  the  former  being  on  the  X.  and  \V.,  the 
latter  on  the'S.  !ind  W.  The  river  Apurimac  (a  tributary  of 
the  Ueayale,  an<l  licnce  of  the  Amazon)  and  its  branch,  the 
Pampas" river,  form  tlie  northern  boundary,  while  the  south- 
ern is  the  Cordillera  de  Iluanzo.  The  area  is  62,325  .sq.  miles. 
Pop.  approximatelv  120.000.  M.  W.  H. 


AQUA 


AQUEDUCTS 


265 


A'C|iia.  jilu.  Aqua;  [Lut..  water]:  in  pharmacy,  spring- 
water,  or  natural  water  in  its  purest  attainable  state.  It  is 
a  compounil  of  oxygen  and  hydrofrcn  ;  syniljol  H^O,  or  Aq. 
The  princiiial  varieties  of  water  are  (listilled  water  {aqua  de- 
stillafa),  river-water  (tiqiiri  ex  lliimiue  or  oqiia  ttuviiiHi).  sea- 
watt'r(«(/«c(  iinin'iia),  rain-water  (aqua  ptuvia/i.i).  and  spring- 
water  (aqua  fontana).  Tliese  terms  are  used  in  pharmacy, 
in  wliich  various  watery  sohitions  are  also  called  aqiuF. 

Aqua  For'fis  (i.  e.  strong  water):  a  name  given  to  nitric 
acid  liy  tlie  alchemists;  is  still  the  common  commercial  name 
of  that  compound.     See  Nitric  Aciu. 

Aqna  Marine:  sea-green  or  blue-tinted  Beryl  (q.  v.). 

Aqua  Rc'aria  (i.e.  royal  water):  a  mixture  of  nitric  acid 
with  liydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid.  The  usual  proportion  is 
one  of  the  former  and  two  of  the  latter  acid.  1  his  is  re- 
markable for  its  power  of  dissolving  gold,  reganh'd  as  the 
king  of  metals.  The  product  is  auric  trichloride,  AuCla.  See 
Gold. 

Aqna  Rpari'nse  (i.  e.  queen's  water) :  a  mixture  of  concen- 
trated sulpliuric  acid  and  nitric  acid,  or  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  niter.     It  has  been  used  as  a  ilisin  feet  ant. 

Aqua'riani;  [from  Lat.  aqua,  water] :  those  ascetic  per- 
sons who  used  water  in  the  sacrament  instead  of  wine,  be- 
cause they  had  scruples  against  the  use  of  the  latter.  This 
practice  is  said  to  have  originated  with  Tatian  in  the  second 
century. 

Aqua'rinni  (pi.  Aquaria),  or  AqnaTlTa'rinin :  a  glass  tank 
or  ves.sel  containing  either  salt  or  fresh  water,  in  which  living 
aquatic  animals  and  plants  are  kept  for  .scientific  study.  It 
must  contain  both  animals  and  plants  in  something  like  a 
due  proportion,  as  the  animals  depend  for  breath  on  the 
oxygen  which  is  given  out  by  the  plants,  and  the  latter  are 
nourislu'd  by  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  the  animals  exhale. 
The  water  should  be  often  aerated  by  agitation,  which  may 
be  effected  by  dipping  up  portions  of  it  and  pouring  them  in 
again  from  a  small  height.  Aquaria  are  stocked  with  mol- 
lusca.  alg<-e,  conferva\  Crustacea,  zoophytes,  goldfish,  stickle- 
backs, minnows,  and  other  fish,  sea-anemones,  etc.  The  pres- 
ence of  molluscous  animals  is  necessiiry  for  the  consump- 
tion of  the  vegetable  matter  which  is  about  to  decay  and 
the  numerous  s|>ores  of  the  conferva",  unless  the  water  be 
continually  renewed,  as  in  the  "fountain  aquarium."  No 
dead  animal  or  decaying  plant  should  Ije  permitted  to  remain 
in  the  aquarium,  the  temperature  of  which  should  be  kept 
between  .50  and  TO'  P.  See  P.  H.  Gosse,  JIandlmok  of  the 
Marine.  Aquarium  (18.55).  The  great  aquarium  situated  at 
the  .Jardin  d'Acclimation  at  Paris  is  50  yards  long  and  12 
yards  wide,  and  was  constructed  in  1860. 

A((na'rin.s  [from  Lat.  aqua,  water]:  the  Water-Bearer  ; 
the  eleventh  sign  of  the  Zodiac,  into  which  the  sun  enters 
about  Jan.  20.  It  is  represented  by  CC^ .  Aquarius  is  also  the 
name  of  a  constellation  which  coincided  with  that  sign  at 
the  time  when  the  signs  were  nanieil.  but  in  consequence  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  it  is  now  in  juxtaposition 
with  the  sign  I'isce-;. 

Aqnat'ic  .Vn'imals:  those  animals  which  live  constantly 
in  the  water,  as  fishes,  and  those  which  frequent  the  water 
to  swim  on  its  surface  or  dive  in  search  of  food,  as  ducks  and 
other  web-footed  birds,  otters  and  beavers  among  quadru- 
peds, etc.  Among  the  aquatic  animals  are  the  majority  of 
the  grand  division  of  Moilusra  :  numerous  tribes  of  theAr- 
tii-utdta.  as  crabs,  lobsters,  and  shrimps ;  and  a  large  jiortion 
of  the  lindiata.  Whales  and  dolphins  are  examples  of 
aquatic  animals  of  the  class  Mammalia.  The  total  number 
of  aipiatic  animals  is  greater  than  that  of  all  terrestrial  ani- 
mals (exclusive  of  insects).  Those  which  live  partly  on 
land,  and  can  not  breathe  under  water,  are  called  amphibi- 
ous. The  peculiarities  of  structure  bv  whicli  they  are  fitted 
for  swimming,  wading,  etc.,  are  very  aiimirable.  Some  water- 
fowls have  long  legs  for  wading;  others  have  webbed  feet 
which  enable  them  to  swim  with  ease,  and  have  waterproof 
plumage  a^iapted  to  their  mode  of  life.  In  aquatic  animals 
of  the  higher  vertebrate  classes  i)rovision  is  made  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  proper  degree  of  animal  heat  by  a  coat 
of  blubber,  fur,  or  plum.Hge,  as  in  the  case  of  otters,  ducks, 
etc.  The  air-breatliing  animals  that  inhabit  salt  water  have 
an  organic  structure  greatly  modified,  and  their  extremities 
resemble  the  purely  aquatic  ty|)e  more  than  the  terrestrial. 

Aquatic  Plants,  or  Wator-plants :  vegetable  organisms 
that  grow  in  water.  .\li  vcgel;ition  must  have  been  origi- 
nally aquatic,  later  .some  ]iliiiit<  bcruiue  terrestrial.     Nearly 


all  the  lower  green  plants  are  aquatic,  even  mosses  and  ferns 
show  strong  acpiatic  tendencies,  while  the  flowering  plants 
as  a  rule  arc  terrestrial.  It  is  true,  however,  that  many  of 
the  latter  live  in  water,  but  most  of  these  root  in  the  mud, 
and  bring  their  leaves  above  the  water.  A  few  only  are  en- 
tirely immersed  in  tlie  water.  It  ap|iears  that  many  of  the 
higher  plants  which  now  grow  in  the  water  arc  really  ter- 
restrial, but  have  been  crowded  into  the  water  by  their 
stronger  rivals.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Aquatics :  See  Kowing. 

Aquatint :  See  Engraving. 

Aqna  Tofa'na :  a  secret  poison,  the  invention  of  wliich 
is  ascrilied  to  a  Sicilian  woman,  a  notorious  poisoner,  named 
Tofana.  Slie  lived  about  1650-1730.  It  is  .said  that  there 
was,  about  1660,  a  society  of  young  married  women  in  Rome 
who  used  this  aqua  Tofana  to  poison  their  husbands.  It  was 
sold  in  vials  marked  "  Manna  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Bari."  Some 
suppose  it  to  have  been  a  solution  of  ai^senic. 

Aqna  Yi'ta*  (i.  e.  water  of  life;  in  French,  eau  de  ?•?>):  a 
Latin  term  applied  to  brandy,  and  sometimes  to  other  ardent 
spirits. 

Aq'ueducts  [from  Lat.  aquce  ductus  (du'cere.  lead),  lead- 
ing of  water] :  artificiid  constructions  for  bringing  water 
from  a  distance  for  the  supply  of  cities  or  which  sei-ve  to 
convey  the  water  of  canals  oi  navigation  and  of  irrigation, 
and  of  miU-raees,  at  an  elevation  across  deep  valleys  or 
streams. 

Works  for  supplying  large  communities  with  water  ap- 
pear to  have  been  constnicted  at  a  veiy  early  date.  There 
are  remains  in  Persia  and  Syria  of  stnictures  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  intended  for  aqueducts,  but  there 
is  nothing  definite  in  existence  regarding  their  history. 
Recent  discoveries  of  wells  and  conduits  cut  in  the  rock 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Jenisalem  appear  to  establish  the 
fact  of  there  having  been  a  system  of  water-supply  for  that 
city  from  the  neighborhood  of  Betiileliem  and  Hebron. 
Portions  of  this  conduit  are  composed  of  eartlien  pipes  of 
about  10  inches  diameter,  cased  with  two  stones  hewn  out  to 
fit  them,  and  covered  over  with  rough  stones  cemented  to- 
gether. In  the  island  of  Samos  there  have  been  discovered 
remains  of  a  tunnel  5,000  feet  long,  containing  water-i)i])es 
about  9  inches  in  diameter,  which  are  sup|)Osed  to  have 
been  constructed  about  the  year  900  B.C.  A  veiy  ancient 
aqueduct  of  unknown  date  exis-ts  near  Patara.  This  con- 
sists of  an  embankment  of  rough  stone,  250  feet  high  and 
about  200  long,  with  archway  at  the  center  of  the  valley  for 
the  passage  of  a  stream  underneath.  The  conduit  for  water 
consists  of  stone  blocks  about  3  feet  in  each  dimension,  with 
a  hole  13  inches  in  diameter  through  the  center.  The  blocks 
are  connected  together  by  annular  projections  on  one  stone 
fitting  into  recesses  on  the  adjoining  stone,  the  joints  being 
filled  with  cement. 

The  Romans  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  construct 
extensive  and  durable  aqueducts,  first  for  the  supply  of 
Rome  itself,  beginning  about  500  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  continuing  until  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire, and 
at  the  present  day  the  city  of  Rome  is  amply  supplied  with 
water,  the  greater  jiart  of  which  is  brought  over  ancient 
aqueducts  repaired  by  the  popes.  Tlie  A|)piaii  aqueduct, 
attributed  to  Appius  Claudius  Caucus,  is  said  to  have  been 
completed  311  years  before  the  Christian  era,  after  the 
building  of  the  Appian  Way.  Its  lengtli  was  about  6  miles, 
and  it  brought  by  a  devious  course  toltome  the  waters  of  a 
spring  whose  fountain-head  was  .5  miles  from  tlie  city,  near 
Kustica  on  the  Via  C<jllatina.  The  Aqua  Augusta  was  at  a 
later  period  .added  to  this  aqueduct.  It  supjilied  the  most 
ancient  portion  of  the  town  and  the  Transtiberine  city. 
■  The  Anio  Vetus  was  built  n.  r.  272  by  Manius  Curius 
Dentatus.  It  brought  its  supply  from  near  Augusta,  in  the 
valley  of  tlic  Anio,  43  miles  from  Rome,  It  was  almost  en- 
tirely subterraneous,  and  the  only  fragment  now  visible  lies 
below  the  road  and  under  the  Aqua  Marcia,  outside  the 
Porta  JIaggiore. 

The  Aqua  .Marcia  (B.C.  14.5).  built  by  the  pra>tor  Quintus 
Marrius  Rex.  was  37  miles  long,  of  wliich  6  miles  were  on 
arches  still  visible,  crossing  the  Campagna  by  the  Frascati 
and  Albano  roads.  This  aqueduct  is  cro,ssed  by  the  Clau- 
dian  aqueduct,  which  for  some  distance  runs  parallel  to  it. 
It  has  been  restored. 

Aqua  Tepula  (B.  c.  126).  the  work  of  Cneins  Servilius 
Ca^pio  and  Cassius  Longinus.  is  10  miles  long.  Its  channel 
ov  specus  ca.\\  still  be  sciu  at  the  Porta  San  Lorenzo  and 


26G 


AQUEDUCTS 


Porta  Maggiore  in  connection  with  tlie  channels  of  the  Aqua 
Marcia  and  Aqua  Julia. 

Aqua  Julia  (B.C.  34).  by  Augustus,  named  in  honor  of 
Julius  C'ifsar.  V2  miles  long.  Its  water  was  brought  to  the 
city  in  a  specus  or  conduit  above  the  Tepula.  and,  like  that, 
upon  the  arches  of  the  Aqua  JIarcia,  which  thus  brouglit 
the  waters  of  three  different  sources  separately  to  Rome. 
Its  channel  is  still  to  be  seen  at  the  gate  of  San  Lorenzo 
and  at  the  Porta  Maggiore. 

Aqua  Virgo,  also  by  Augustus.  Its  source  is  said  to  have 
been  pointed  out  by  a  young  girl,  whence  its  name.  Its 
course  is  mostly  subterraneous,  about  half  a  mile  only  being 
on  arches.  It  was  restored  liy  Pope  Nicholas  V.  as  the 
Aqua  Vergine.  and  it  still  supplies  Rome  with  its  cool  water. 
The  fountains  in  the  Piazza  (li  Spagua.  Piazza  Xavona.  and 
the  magnificent  fountain  of  Trevi  are  supplied  by  this  aque- 
duct, as  are  many  others.  On  the  fountain  of  Trevi.  the 
virgin,  pointing  out  the  source  to  the  soldiers  sent  by  Au- 
gustus, appears  among  many  other  marble  reliefs  and 
statues.  This  is  perhaps  the  finest  fountain  in  the  woi-ld. 
An  inscription,  still  legible,  in  a  cellar  of  Xo.  13  Via  del 
Xazareno,  near  the  Palazzo  del  Bufalo.  states  that  it  was 
repaired  A.  d.  .52  by  Claudius,  after  having  been  disturbed 
by  Caligula  in  the  construction  of  his  wooden  amphitheater. 

Aqua  Alsietina.  30  miles  in  length,  built  by  Augustus  :  re- 
stored by  Trajan,  wlio  added  to  its  waters  those  of  sevei'al 
springs  along  the  hills  to  tlie  W.  of  Ijago  Bracciano.  Its 
original  sources  were  around  the  smaller  Lake  Alsietinus, 
now  the  Lago  de  Martignano.  It  was  restored  1)y  Paul  V., 
and  now  supplies  the  fountains  of  the  great  Piazza  of  St. 
Peter's  and  the  magnificent  fountain  Paolina,  and  turns  the 
wheels  of  many  flour-mills  on  the  slopes  of  the  Jauiculum. 
It  is  known  indifferently  as  the  Aqua  Alsietina  and  the  Aqua 
Paolina. 

Aqua  Claudia,  built  by  Caligula  and  Claudius  (a.d.  36  to 
.50).  Its  sources  were  near  Agosta,  about  38  miles  from 
Rome.  Its  devious  course  was  over  46  miles  in  length,  of 
which  36  were  below  the  surface  and  10  were  on  arches. 
Six  miles  of  arches  stretching  across  the  Campagna  still  at- 
test the  jiower  and  liberality  of  the  Roman  empire.  Re- 
paired by  Septimus  Severus,  by  Caracalla.  and  by  Pope 
Sixtus  v.,  its  arches  now  bring  to  Rome  the  Aqua  Felice 


Ruiiis  of  tlie  .\qua  Claudia. 

from  the  springs  near  the  Osteria  dei  Pantani,  on  the  road 
to  Palcstrina.  They  supply  the  Fontana  dei  Termini,  near 
the  railroad  depot  in  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  the  fountain 
of  the  Triton,  that  of  Jlonte  Cavallo,  and  some  twenty-four 
others  in  difTerent  parts  of  the  city. 

Anio  Xcivus,  also  by  Claudius,  from  the  forty-second  mile  of 
the  Via  .Sublacencis.  Tliiswasthe  longest  of  the  ancient  aque- 
ducts, having  a  course  of  62  miles,  48  of  which  were  under 
ground.  Its  channel  dt  x/ipniK  is  still  visible  above  tlie 
Aqua  Claudia  on  the  arches  of  the  Porta  Maggiore.  It  is 
also  visible  at  the  Villa  Braschi.  near  Tivoli,  where  it  is  9 
feet  high  by  4  feet  in  width,  but  is  choked  up  by  a  calcare- 
<ius  deposit,  wliich   incrustcd,  and  finally,  unless  removed, 


obstructed  the  channels  of  many  of  these  ancient  aqueducts, 
especially  those  from  the  valley  of  the  Anio. 

It  is  estimated  tliat  Rome  received  daily  377,000.000  gal, 
of  water.  The  Acque  'V'ergine.  Felice,  JIarcia,  and  Paola, 
having  their  sources  in  volcanic  districts,  supply  a  pure 
and  delicious  water,  which  does  not  obstruct  its  channels, 
and  at  this  day  they  Ijring  into  Rome  160.000,000  gal.  of 
water  daily.  By  channels  of  masonry  the  water  is  led  to 
fountains  in  every  part  of  the  city,  and  by  ]iipes  of  metal 
and  of  burned  clay  it  is  distributed  to  most  of  the  great 
houses  or  palaces,  in  each  of  which  it  flows  constantly 
into  a  basin,  frequently  an  ancient  sarcophagus,  of  stone  or 
marble.  The  water  is  rarely  carried  by  pipes  to  the  upper 
stories. 

The  Romans  also  constructed  extensive  aqueducts  for  the 
large  cities  in  tlieir  provinces.  Carthage  before  its  destruc- 
tion by  the  Romans  had  been  sup]ilied  by  an  extensive  sys- 
tem of  underground  reservoirs  retaining  the  water  from 
the  roofs  and  jiaved  areas  of  the  city.  After  it  was  rebuilt  by 
the  Romans  the  sui)ply  was  deficient  for  several  years  until 
about  A.D.  120,  when  the  Emperor  Hadrian  constructed  the 
magnificent  aqueduct  of  Zaghouan,  about  60  miles  in  length, 
across  valleys  by  one  and  sometimes  two  tiers  of  arches,  in 
some  places  of  stone,  and  in  others  of  concrete  made  from 
the  surrounding  soil.  Portions  of  this  aqueduct  are  still  in 
existence,  and  are  used  for  the  supply  of  water  to  the  city 
of  Tunis,  Several  arches  still  remain  of  an  aqueduct  .sup- 
]3lying  Constantine  in  Africa,  60  miles  from  the  seacoast 
and  midway  between  Algiers  and  Tunis.  Another  fine 
aqueduct  was  luiilt  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  at  Nimes 
in  the  south  of  France.  This  aqueduct  is  still  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation,  and  consists  of  three  tiers  of  arches 
of  masonry  with  a  rectangular  channel  6  Ijy  4  feet  at  the 
top.  The  lower  tier  conststs  of  6  arches,  the  second  of  11 
arches  of  the  same  span,  and  the  U]))>er  tier  of  35  arches  of 
smaller  span.  The  whole  stru(;ture  is  180  feet  high  and  873 
feet  long.  The  Roman  aqueducts  of  Segovia  and  Seville 
in  Spain  still  supply  those  towns  with  water.  The  former 
is  about  2,4(X)  feet  long  and  100  feet  high,  and  is  composed 
of  two  tiers  of  arches  of  uncemented  stone.  In  the  lower 
tier,  which  is  65  feet  high,  there  are  42  arches  of  15  feet 
span,  and   in  the  upper  tier,  27-  feet  high,  there  are  11!) 

arches.  At  Lyons  and 
at  Jletz  in  France  are 
remains  of  fine  Ro- 
man stitictures. 

For  several  hundred 
years  after  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  empire 
there  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  many 
extensive  aqueducts 
constructed.  In  Eng- 
land the  first  impor- 
tant sti'ucture  of  the 
kind  was  that  for 
bringing  the  Xew 
river  to  London,  built 
in  1613.  Water  was 
brought  a  distance  of 
20  miles,  crossing  val- 
leys by  timber  aque- 
ducts, the  water-way 
or  trimgli  of  which 
was  lined  with  lead. 
These  wooden  aque- 
ducts have  since  been 
iv]ilaced  by  embank- 
ments. In  1738  an 
aqueduct  was  built 
for  supplying  Lisbon. 
It  is  about  n  miles  long,  and  for  part  of  the  way  is  in  exca- 
vation, but  near  the  city  it  is  carried  over  a  deep  valley  for  a 
length  of  2,400  feet  by  several  arches,  the  largest  of  wliich 
is  2.50  feet  high  and  has  a  sjian  of  115  feet. 

The  aqiuMluct  of  Caserta,  built  in  17.53,  supplies  water  to 
Xai)les.  This  .•i(|iioduct  is  37  miles  long,  and  is  a  channel 
of  masonry  5  ft.  3  in.  wide  by  7  ft.  6  in.  high.  In  tuiniels 
it  is  circular  in  section  and  of  7  ft.  6  in.  iliameter.  Twenty 
valleys  are  crossed  by  masonry  structures,  the  conduit  of 
which  is  4  ft.  !l  in.  wide  and  7  ft.  4  in.  high.  One  structure 
consists  of  three  tiers  of  arches,  724  feet  on  top  and  1!)0 
feet  high.  For  15  miles,  from  the  end  of  the  aqueduct  to 
the  city,  the  water  is  carried  hi  iron  pipes. 


AQUBDUCTS 


267 


The  i-ity  ul  ('(iiistiiiitiiiople  was  su|i]iliiMl  for  several  yoars 
by  ail  aiiiu'iliicl  huilt  by  tlic  later  Konian  emperors.  Sinoe 
1885  the  water  has  been  furnished  by  an  aciueiluet  built  by 


irfinilnn;nnrinffli 


a  French  (•oni|)any.  taking;  the  supply  from  Lake  Derkos, 
whence  the  water  is  pumped  358  feet  into  a  reservoir,  and 
then  flows  27  miles  to  the  city  throui^h  an  aqueduct  of  rub- 
ble masonry  3  ft.  5  in.  wide  by  5  ft.  3  in.  hijjh.  Fifteen  val- 
leys are  crossed  by  siphons  of  cast-iron  i)i)ie. 

The  city  of  Otuuiba  in  Mexico  was  supplied  for  125  years 
by  the  aqueduct  of  Zciupoala,  which  was  built  by  a  Spanish 
friar  in  l.").")4-Tl.  This  aqueduct  is  about  27  miles  louar.  and 
7,677  feet  above  tlie  sea-level.  Three  valleys  are  crossed  by 
masonry  having,  respectively.  13.  46,  and  68  arches.  In  the 
last  named  the  valley  is  124  feet  dee]i.  The  conduit  is  8-J 
inches  by  12  inches  in  dimensions,  with  a  flat  bottom  and 
arched  top.  The  flow  of  water  through  this  aqueduct  was 
discontinued  about  1700,  but  it  is  said  that  slight  repairs 
would  enable  it  to  be  used  again. 

The  discovery  of  tlic  method  of  manufacturing  cast  iron 
into  wati'i'-jiipi's  has  obviated  the  necessity  of  the  construc- 
tion of  such  enormoiis  masoniy  structures  for  conveying 
water  across  valleys,  but  there  are  several  fine  examples  of 
uuidern  aqueducts  of  masonry,  such  as  the  High  Bridge 
across  the  Ilarlem  river  in  Xew  York  city,  which  is  120  feet 
high  and  1.460  long,  and  was  constructed  in  the  year  1840. 
The  C'aliin  .lohn  Bridge  of  the  Washington.  D.  C.  aqiu^duet, 
which  is  101  feet  high  and  has  a  single  span  of  220  feet,  is  the 
longest  stone  arch  in  e.\istence. 

The  tendency  of  engineering  at  the  present  day  is  to  con- 
struct aqueducts  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  far  as 
possible,  and  where  valleys  have  to  be  crossed  to  pass  them 
by  inverted  siphons  of  iron  pipe,  rather  than  by  elevated 
structures. 

Among  the  best  examples  of  modern  aqueducts  may  be 
mentioueil  that  of  Vienna,  which  is  5!)  miles  long  and  has  a 
conduit  of  masonry  varying  in  size  from  5  ft.  8  in.  by  6  ft. 
to  2  ft.  !)  in.  by  4  feet. 

Glasgow  is  supplied  through  the  Loch  Katrine  aqueduct 
26  miles  long,  of  which  about  13  are  in  tuinii'liug  and  about 
4  of  iron  i)ipe  across  valleys.  This  was  constructed  in  1859. 
The  conduit  is  of  brick  and  is  of  a  horseshoe  cross-section 
8  feet  wide  and  8  high. 

Li  (he  U.  S.  the  first  important  aqueduct  was  that  for 
supplying  water  to  Xew  York  city  from  the  Croton  river, 
a  distance  of  about  40  miles.  The  first  aqueduct  was  built 
in  1837-41  and  is  still  in  use.  It  is  a  covered  masonry  chan- 
nel of  horseshoe  form,  7  ft.  5  in.  wide  and  8  ft.  6  iii.  high. 
In  1885-00  an  additional  aqueduct  was  const  met  eil  from 
the  Croton  river  to  Xew  York  city.  By  following  a  direct 
line  and  constructing  the  aqueduct  principally  in  tunnel- 
ing, the  length  of  the  aqueduct  was  reduced  to  33  miles. 
In  tunnels  the  conduit  is  circular,  of  12  ft.  3  in.  diameter. 
Where  constructed  by  opening  the  surface  of  the  ground  it 
is  of  horseshoe  form,  13  ft.  7  in.  wide  and  13  ft.  G^  in.  high. 
The  Ilarlem  river  is  crossed  by  an  inverted  siphon  of  iiia- 
.sonry  lined  with  iron,  in  a  tunnel  150  feet  below  the  bed  of 
the  river. 

The  Washington  aqueduct  was  constructed  by  the  U.  S. 
Goveruuient  in  lK.55-6().  It  is  a  circular  conduit  of  brick 
and  rubble  masonry  i)  feet  in  diameter,  and  11  miles  long 


i>f  the  Potomac  to  the  distributing 


from  the  (ireat    Fa 
reservoir. 

The  first  aqueduct  for  supplying  Boston  with  water  was 
built  in  1846-48,  conveying  water  from  Lake  Cochituate,  a 
distance  of  about  15  miles.  The  conduit  is  oviform  in 
cross-section  with  the  large  end  down.  6  ft.  4  in.  high  and  5 
teet  wid(\  In  1876-78  a  new  aqueduct  was  constructed  from 
the  Sudluiry  river  to  Boston.  This  aqueduct  is  generally 
in  excavation,  but  with  two  fine  bridges  across  the  Charles 
river  and  tlie  Waban  valley.  The  conduit  is  of  horseshoe 
cross-section,  !t  fort  wide  and  7  ft.  S  in.  Iiigh. 


lliL'li  lin.lt'i-.  U 


Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island,  is  supplied  with  water  by  an 
aqueduct  constructed  in  1856-59.  about  10  miles  long,  lead- 
ing from  a  series  of  lakes  formed  by  damming  streams. 
This  aqueduct  is  entirely  in  excavation  tlirough  a  level 
country  and  below  the  surface  of  the  ground-water.  It  is 
of  horseshoe  cross-section,  10  ft.  wide  and  9  ft.  8  in.  high. 

Baltimore  receives  its  supjily  of  water  from  Lake  Roland 
through  a  brick  afpieduct  of  elliptical  eros.s-section,  5  feet 
wide  and  8  ft.  10  in.  high,  constructed  in  1857-62.  There  is 
an  additional  sujiply  from  the  Gunpowder  river,  conveyed 
through  a  circular  brick  a((ueduct  12  feet  in  diameter  and 
about  8  miles  long.  This  conduit  is  in  a  tunnel  from  65  to 
300  feet  below  the  surface,  and  was  const  nicted  in  1875-80. 

In  California  the  use  of  wrought-iron  pipes  for  aqueducts 
was  first  introduced  to  any  great  extent  in  the  construction 
of  the  water-supply  of  San  Francisco  about  the  year  1865. 
Large  additional  works  wi're  constructed  in  1878.  At  pres- 
ent the  city  is  supplied  through  several  conduits  of  wrought- 
iron  pipe  of  from  22  to  40  inches  diameter,  laid  following 
the  undulations  of  the  ground. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  the  first  large  wrought-iron  conduit 
built  was  that  at  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  constructed  in  1872-76, 
which  is  36  and  24  inches  diameter  and  28  miles  long.  The 
aqueduct  follows  tlie  surface  of  the  ground,  which  in  some 
places  is  340  feet  below  the  hydTaulie  grade  line. 

In  1890-92  an  acpieduct  of  wrought-iron  j)ipe  was  con- 
structed to  supply  Xewark,  N.  J.,  from  the  Pequannock 
river,  about  15  miles.  This  pipe  is  30  inches  in  diameter 
and  is  laid  following  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

We  defer  till  we  treat  of  Water-supply  of  Cities  re- 
marks upon  the  reservoirs  and  pipes  for  the  distribution 


""^ 


through  them  of  tlie  water  brought  by  the  aqueduct  from 
the  source  to  their  confines,  noting  only  that  the  modern 
practice  makes  reservoirs  much  more  extensive  ami  capa- 
cious than  the  ancient.  Tlie  Romans  brought  large  sup- 
plies through  acjueducls  of  rapid  fiow.  A  small  portion 
only  was  stori'd  in  reservoirs,  generally  of  masonry  covered 
with  arches,  and  the  surplus  was  allowed  to  flow  out  through 
great  fountains  and  cascades  in  constant  streams. 

A'c.srri'c  lieservoirs. — The  moderns  provide  large  reservoirs 
in  which  the  water  not  used  is  st(u-ed  up  to  compensate 
during  the  periods  of  scarcity  for  the  scanty  snpjily  of  the 
original  .source.  These  reservoirs  are  sometimes  covered 
with  brick  arches,  as  In  London,  but  generally  they  are 
open  ponds  or  lakes  of  many  acres.     Such  magnificent  cov- 


268 


AQUEOUS  HU3I0R 


ARABIA 


ered  reservoirs  as  that  for  the  Roman  fleet  at  BaiaD.  and 
the  arched  reservoirs  of  Constantinople,  supported  on  stone 
columns,  are  no  longer  constructed.  They  remain  among 
the  most  stately  monuments  of  the  Roman  empire.  See 
the  article  Water-works. 

Revised  by  J.  James  R.  Croks. 

Afjneotis  Humor :  See  Eye. 

Aqilifolia'cese  [from  Aquifo'Uum.  a  former  name  of  the 
holly] :  a  family  of  exogenous  plants,  all  trees  or  shrubs 
with  simple  leaves,  and  mostly  natives  of  America.  The 
ovary  is  superior,  with  two  or  more  cells,  each  of  which 
contains  a  solitary  anatropal  ovule,  and  generaUy  becomes 
bony  as  a  stone  iii  the  fruit,  which  is  fleshv.  Among  the 
species  of  this  order  is  the  holly  (Ilex),  'fhe  flowers  are 
white  or  greenish,  and  the  species  are  quite  numerous  in  the 
U.  S. 

Aq'nila  (the  JFm/M:  a  constellation  of  stars  in  the  Milky 
Wav  near  the  eiiualor.  and  on  its  north  side.  It  may  l>e 
seen  on  the  meridian  during  the  evenings  of  August  and 
September. 

Aqnila :  a  genus  of  birds.     See  Eagle. 

A'qilila:  a  fortified  town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Aquila;  is  situated  on  the  Pcscara.  near  the  Apennines, 
58  miles  N.  E.  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  .5-E).  It  con- 
tains several  interesting  churches.  Here  are  manufactures 
of  paper,  linen,  and  wax.  It  was  much  injured  by  earth- 
quakes in  1688.  1703,  and  1706.  Aquila  was  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.  about  1240.  on  or  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  vim iVerHwm.  It  contains  a  citadel  built  in  l-')34,  and 
has  a  large  trade  in  salfron,  which  is  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  surrounding  territory.     Pop.  19.027. 

Aqnila  (usually  A.  degli  Abruzzi) :  a  province  of  Italy, 
formerly  calleil  Al)ruzzo  Ulteriore  II.;  bounded  X.  E.  by 
Ascoli,  E.  by  Teranio  and  Chieti.  S.  by  Campobasso  anil 
Caserta,  W.  liy  Rome  and  Perugia,  and  X.  W.  by  Perugia. 
Area,  2.510  sq.  miles.  The  chief  products  are  grain,  vege- 
tables, rice,  wine,  oil.  and  fruits.  Pop.  (1879)  356',371 ;  (1890) 
372,710. 

Aq'nila  of  Poiitns:  author  of  an  extremely  literal  Greek 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  scriptures  (al)out  A.  D.  130).  His 
version  was  embodied  by  Origen  in  his Ilexapla  {q.  i:).  For 
the  fragments  now  known,  see  Field's  ed.  of  the  Ilejiipla. 

C.  H.  Toy. 

Aqiiilaria'ce*  [so  called  from  AquUa'ria,  one  of  the 
genera] :  a  family  of  exogenous  plants,  all  of  which  are 
trees  and  natives  of  tlie  tropical  parts  of  Asia.  The  lea%'es 
are  entire;  the  perianth  coriaceous,  turbinate,  or  tubular; 
the  stamens  usuallv  ten  :  the  ovary  two-celled,  with  two 
o\'ides  :  the  fruit  a  ilrupe  or  capsule.  The  order  comprises 
only  ten  known  species,  one'of  which  produces  the  fragrant 
Aloes-wood  (q.  v.). 

Aquile'ja,  Aqiiileia,  or  Agrlar :  an  old  town  of  Austria  ; 
in  the  littural  |irovinces,  near  the  Adriatic  or  Gulf  of 
Venice,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  canal ;  is  22  miles 
W.  N.  \V.  of  Trieste  (see  majjof  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-C'). 
During  the  Roman  empire  it  was  an  important  city,  was 
called  the  secoiul  Rome  (in  Lat.  Roinn  Secunda),  and  was  the 
chief  emporium  of  tlie  trade  between  the  north  and  sotith  of 
Europe.  The  Emperor  Augustus  often  resided  here,  and 
here  were  held  several  councils  of  the  Church,  the  first  of 
wliich  was  in  381  a.  d.  The  bishops  of  Aquileja  in  the 
sixth  century  took  the  title  of  patriarch,  and  assumed  the 
rank  next  to  the  ])ope.  Aquileja  was  burned  by  Attila  in 
452  A.  D.,  at  wliidi  t  ime  it  is  said  to  have  had  100,000  in- 
habitants.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

Aqiii'iias,  Saint  Thomas:  celebrated  scholastic  doctor  and 
theologian,  surnanu'il  Tfie  Angelic  Doctor:  b.  in  the  castle 
of  Rix'ca  Sicca,  near  Aquino,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Naples, 
in  1227.  lie  was  a  grand-nephew  of  the  Emi)eror  Frederick 
I.,  Barbarossa.  About  1243  ne  joined  the  order  of  Domini- 
can monks,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus.  After 
he  had  studied  theology  and  scholastic  philosophy,  he  began 
to  teach  and  preach  at  Paris  with  great  applause.  Having 
acquired  a  Eiiropean  reputation  Viy  his  talents  and  learning, 
he  left  Paris  in  1201.  and  was  induced  by  Pope  Urban  IV. 
to  remove  to  Rome,  where  he  taught  philosophy.  He  was 
distinguislied  for  liis  modesty,  and  refused  the  oiTer  of  a 
bishopric,  but  lie  had  great  inlluencc  in  tlie  Church.  The 
greatest  of  the  Schoolmen  were  the  Dominican  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  the  Franciscan  Duns  Scotus.  They  were 
founders  of  rival  sects,  which  wrangled  with  each  other  for 


two  or  three  centuries.  Aquinas  wrote  a  number  of  works,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  his  Summa  Theologies,  (Sum  of 
Theology),  which  was  regarded  as  the  most  complete  compen- 
dium of  scholastic  divinity.  He  died  at  Fossanuova,  in  Na- 
ples, Jlar.  7, 1274.  His  disciples  were  called  Thomists.  Aqui- 
nas was  a  great  admirer  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  and 
all  of  his  writings  may  be  regarded  as  commentary  designed 
to  interpret  Aristotle's  doctrines  to  the  support  of  Christian 
views  of  God,  Freedom,  and  Immortality.  He  was  canonized 
in  1323.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  is  devoted  to  him,  and  has  patronized 
an  edition  of  )iis  works  (Rome.  1882,  sqq.).  See  Renn  D. 
Hampden, />//»  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (184.S):  Maffei.  J'ita  di 
Tommaso  d' Aquino  (1842) ;  Tholuck,  IJix.ierfafio  de  Thoma 
Aquinafe  (1842) ;  P.  S.  Carle.  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  IJcrils 
de  Thomas  d'Aquin  (1846):  Philnsophie  de  Tlioinnsd'Aquin, 
par  Charles  Jourdain  (Paris,  1857) ;  The  Life  and  Lal/ors 
of  S.  Tliomas  of  Aquin.  by  the  Very  Rev.  Roger  Bede 
Vaughan  (2  vols.,  1871-72).  See  the  articles  Duxs  ScoTUS, 
Philosophy,  and  Scholasticism. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Aqilita'nia  (in  Fr.  Aquitaine) :  the  ancient  Latin  name  of 
the  most  southwestern  of  the  three  divisions  of  Gaul.  It 
originally  included  the  country  between  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  Garonne,  but  Augustus  added  to  it  the  territory  between 
the  Garonne  and  the  Loire.  The  ancient  inhaljitants  were 
Iberian  tribes.  In  the  fifth  century  the  country  was  con- 
quered by  the  Visigoths,  and  thus  Ijrought  in  close  connec- 
tion with  Spain.  It  was  taken  from  the  Goths  and  added 
to  tlic  possessions  of  the  Franks  by  Clovis.  It  was  an  inde- 
pendent duchy  under  the  feeble  princes  of  the  Carlo\-ingian 
dynasty,  and  became  an  English  possession  in  1152  by  the 
marriage  of  Henry  II.  with  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  who  was 
the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  It  was  united  to 
France  in  1451. 

Arabesque,  ar-a-besk  :  in  the  Arabian  style  or  man- 
ner; an  epithet  ajiplied  to  the  fantastic  decoration  which 
was  profusely  employed  in  the  architecture  of  the  Arabs  and 
of  the  Moors  in  Spain.  Among  the  most  beautiful  sjieci- 
iiiens  of  Jloorish  arabesques  are  the  decorations  of  the 
famous  palace  of  the  ADiambra.  The  name  arabesque  was 
a|)plicd  to  this  mode  of  decoration  because  it  had  been  long 
known  and  admired  in  the  works  of  the  Arabs  before  the 
di-scovery  of  the  beautiful  paintings  in  the  Baths  of  Titus, 
by  Raphael  and  his  pupil  Giovanni  da  Udine,  made  the 
world  acquainted  with  a  magnificent  specimen  of  Roman 
work  in  the  same  style.  The  early  Italian  painters  and 
sculptors,  however,  had  always  taken  delight  in  tliis  style  of 
decoration  as  they  found  it  in  the  antique  Roman  sculi)ture. 
where  scrolls,  flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves  are  mingled  with 
animals  and  genii.  Raphael  painted  his  famous  arabesques 
in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican  in  direct  imitation  of  the 
frescoes  on  the  Baths  of  Titus.  He  was  largely  assisted  by 
Giovanni  da  Udine. 

Arabgrir'.  or  Arahkii*' :  an  important  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  Arabgir-Su,  and  on  the  road  fimii  Aleiipo  to  Trebi- 
zond,  100  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Siwas  (sih'  map  of  Turkey,  ref. 
5-H).  It  has  considerable  trade,  and  a  large  community  of 
Protestant  Armenians.  Pop.  estimated  at  from  25.000  to 
30.000. 

Ara'bia  [Arab.  Jezee'ret  {pv  Jeziref)  -el-A'rah.  i.  e.  the 
isle  or  peninsula  of  the  Arabs;  Turk,  and  Pers.  Arahi- 
stan  ;  Lat.  Arahia'\ :  a  peninsula  forming  the  extreme  S.  W. 
part  of  Asia;  encompassed  by  the  sea  on  all  sides  except 
the  N.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Asiatic  Turkey.  N.  E.  by  the 
Persian  (>ulf  and  Sea  of  Oman,  S.  E.  by  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  S.  W.  bv  the  Red  Sea.  It  extends  from  lat.  12'  35'  to 
34'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  32'  10'  to  59'  40  E.  Its  area  is  now 
estimated  at  1.230.0(M)  sq.  miles.  It  is  connected  wit  h  Africa 
bv  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  at  the  X.  W.  corner.  The  Euphrates 
forms  a  ]iarl  of  the  X.  E.  boundary  of  Arabia,  the  southern 
pari  of  whicli  is  included  in  the  torrid  zone. 

Topor/ra/ihi/. — The  topograjihy  of  llie  interior  of  this  pen- 
insul.H  is  imperfectly  known  to  European  geographei-s.  \Ve 
know,  however,  that  it  is  generally  arid  and  sterile,  desti- 
tute of  forests,  has  no  large  rivers,  and  few  permanent 
streams.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  hills  of  naked  rock, 
plains  of  sand,  and  ranges  of  mountains  of  no  great  eleva- 
tion. Tlie  cenlral  part  "of  Arabia  appeai-s  to  be  occupied 
by  an  elevjited  labli'-land.  A  long  niiige  of  mountains  ex- 
lends  through  llie  \V.  part  nearly  parallel  witli  the  Red 
Sea.  from  wliicli  it  is  not  more  tliaii  80  miles  distant,  and  in 
some  parts  less  than  that.  The  peaks  of  these  mountains 
are  from  5,000  to  8.000  feet  high.     In  the  vicinity  of  the 


ARABIA 


ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  269 


mountains,  and  of  the  torrents  which  flow  fiom  them,  are  a 
number  of  fertile  valleys  ealleil  waili/n.  Ainon-r  the  remark- 
able features  in  the  fieosraphy  of  Arabia  is  Mt.  Sinai,  which 
is  7,407  feet  hijih.  Ancient  and  foreiirn  freojrraphers  divided 
this  country  into  three  parts — namely.  Auahia  Fklix.  tiie 
Happy:  Ahabia  Pktk.ea.  the  Stony  :  and  Auahia  Desickta, 
the  Desert.  The  first  comprises  the  southeastern  part, 
borderinsr  on  the  Persian  (iulf,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  part 
of  the  Red  Sea:  Arabia  I'etra'a  includes  the  norllnvestern 
part,  borderinsr  on  the  Red  Sea;  and  Aral)ia  Deserta,  the 
interior  and  northern  portions. 

( 'liiiiiiff. — The  climate  is  hot  and  extremely  dry.  Jluscat 
and  Mocha,  both  on  the  seacoast,  are  among  the  hottest 
inhabited  spots  on  the  earth.  The  temperature  of  the  plains 
is  often  !()()'  in  the  shaile.  In  many,  parts  of  Arabia  rain 
never  falls  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  the  sun  is  rarely 
obscured  by  a  cloud.  On  the  coasts  of  the  lied  Sea  there  is 
a  rainy  seas<m  of  two  or  three  months  in  summer,  but  on 
the  southern  or  southeastern  coast  the  scanty  supply  of 
rain  falls  in  the  winter,  so  that  tlie  hottest  months  of"  the 
year  arc  also  the  driest.  To  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  at- 
mosphere may  be  ascribed  the  remarkable  deufroe  of  cold 
sometimes  felt  in  Arabia,  for  ice  and  snow  frecpiently  occur 
on  mountains  ranginj;  from  6,000  to  8.0fM)  feet  in  height  in 
the  part  of  the  peninsula  which  is  in  the  torrid  zone.  Among 
the  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  cliuuite  is  a  hot  south 
wind  called  simoinii.  the  poisonous  (inality  of  which  has 
been  exaggerated  by  travelers. 

Prod  lie/ ions. — The  soil,  where  it  is  irrigated,  produces 
cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  tobacco,  tamarinds,  the  date-palm, 
barley,  rice,  sugar,  and  nniny  aroinatit;  j)lants.  The  flora 
of  Arabia  comprises  the  characteristic  ])lants  of  its  neigh- 
boring countries.  Among  the  wild  plants  are  the  mimosa, 
the  Euphorbiaceip.  laveniler,  jasmine,  the  aloe,  and  the  trees 
which  yield  gum-arabi<:  and  oliliannni.  The  animal  king- 
dom is  here  represented  by  the  camel,  the  antelope,  the 
ibex,  hyena,  wolf,  j.ickal,  wild-ass,  wild-l}oar,  the  jerboa, 
monkey,  ostrich,  eagle,  etc.  The  Arabian  hoi-se  is  cele- 
brated, and  perhaps  unrivaled,  for  docility,  endurance, 
beauty,  and  speed.  Among  the  mineral  resources  of  Arabia 
are  copper,  iron.  lead.  coal,  emeralds,  carnelians,  agate,  onyx, 
alabaster,  marble,  sulphur,  and  saltpeter. 

Trade. — Few  nations  of  the  world  have  been  more  nearly 
stationary  or  have  nuide  such  little  progress  in  industrial 
arts.  The  division  of  the  Arabs  into  numerous  independent 
and  unsettled  tribes,  with  consequent  aljsence  of  national 
unity,  is  a  great  obstacle  to  their  improvement  and  organi- 
zation. The  government  is  neither  a  monarchy,  a  republic, 
nor  an  aristocracy,  but  eai-h  tribe  is  subject  to  a  chief  called 
an  emir,  sheik,  or  imam.  Having  the  advantage  of  occu- 
pying the  coasts  between  India  on  the  east  and  Africa  and 
Europe  on  the  west,  the  Arabs  distribute  the  cotton  goods 
of  In<lia  among  the  peojilcs  of  Africa  anil  carry  back  ivory, 
gums,  dye-woods,  etc.  Merchandise  is  conveyed  across  tlie 
deserts  by  large  caravans  of  camels.  The  principal  exports 
are  dates,  coffee,  gum-arabic,  myrrh,  aloes,  pearls,  balsam,  etc. 

Piipiilalion. — The  ]iopulation.  formei'lv  estimated  at  from 
lO.OOD.IlOO  to  iri.OOO.ODO,  amounts,  according  to  recent  cal- 
culations, to  little  over  .'),000,(}()0.  and  is  divided  into  two 
classes — the  nomadic  Bedouins,  who  have  no  habitations  liiit 
tents,  and  have  loose  notions  of  the  rights  of  ]iro|)erty.  and 
agricultural  and  mercantile  Arabs,  who  live  in  towiis  and 
villages.  The  chief  towns  are  Mecca,  Jtedina,  Ijoheia. 
Mocha,  Aden,  ilnscat,  Vemlio  (or  Yambo).  and   Kostak. 

Weights  nnd  Mfaxiirfx. — (1)  Weight. — The  unit  of  weight 
is  the  nuiund  =  :l  lb.  av.  =  l-:3608  kilogs.  Multiples.  10 
niaunds=  1  fi-azil :  l.-i  frazils  =:  1  baliar.  Snb-nndtiples.  { 
maund  =  1  rottle:  -|',-  rottle  =  I  vakia.  At  Jlocha  the 
niaund  of  coffee  contains  but  2!)  vakias.  Egyptian  weights 
are  also  used. 

(2)  Length. — There  are  several  measures  which  are  not 
multiples  of  each  other.  The  guz  =  'i't  in.  =  6:J4-98  mm. : 
the  cobido  =  19  in.  =:  482'6  mm. :  the  kassaba  =  4-1  yards  = 
y"7.5  mi'tcrs. 

(:i)  Surface. — The  feddan  =:  400  cas.sabas  (the  cassaba  for 
this  purpose  =  3-84  meters  =  12-5986  feet)  =  1-4782  acres  = 
0-589824  hectare. 

(4)  Volume. — For  liquid  capacitv,  the  gvidda  or  cuddy  = 
l-yU!)  gallons  =  7-567  litei-s.  Sub-juultiples,  \  cndily"=  1 
noostia :  -^  noosfia  =  1  vakia.  Dry  nu'asnre.  the  tem,an  or 
toman  =  about  2^  pints  or  2  liters.  Its  value  is  not  well 
ascertained:  rfij  ti'iiian  =  1  mecdenia  or  kella.  The  tenum 
of  rice-Weight.  16S  lb.  avoirdupois  =:  76'2  kilogs. 

Hislonj. — Owing  to  the  sterility  of  its  si>il,  Arabia  was 


never  touched  by  any  of  the  great  conquerors  of  ancient 
times.  After  the  death  of  .Mexander  the  Great  the  Arabians 
conquered  a  part  of  C'halda'a,  and  founded  the  empire  of 
Hira.  AnotlK'r  tribe  foumled  the  empire  of  the  Ghassanides, 
on  the  river  (ihassan.  In  I(l7A.D.tlie  Roman  Enqieror  Trii- 
jan  was  the  first  to  jieiietrate  to  the  interior.  With  the  ad- 
vent of  Mohammed  the  different  tribes  began  to  unite  and 
act  in  concei't.  and.  leaving  their  peninsula,  founded  large 
and  powerful  enqiires  in  three  continents.  (See  Moors  and 
C'ALipns.)  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  caliphate  of 
Bagdad  in  12.")S,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain 
in  1492.  the  Arabian  rule  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  came 
to  an  end.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Turks  conquered 
Yemen,  but  w-ere  driven  back  ii;  the  seventeenth,  but 
again  gained  the  nominal  authority  over  the  holy  cities  and 
Ilejaz.  From  lo08  to  1609  Muscat  was  subject  to  Portugal. 
The  nu)st  nnportant  event  of  recent  times  in  the  internal 
history  of  Arabia  is  the  advent  of  the  WAH.iBKES  {q.  v.)  in 
1770,  and  their  defeat  by  Mehemed  All  in  1811.  At  pres- 
ent the  only  European  [lower  having  possessions  in  Arabia  is 
Great  Britain,  which  has  taken  possession  of  Aden.  In  con- 
sequence of'  an  attack  nuide  on  the  Christians  in  .Tidda  in 
1808,  the  city  was  bombarded  by  the  British.  See  Crich- 
ton.  Ilistorii  of  Arnlii/  (1852) :  Sedillot.  Histoire  dn-i  Arahes 
(18.54):  ;\Iiiller.  Bfitrdge  zur  Geschiclite  der  westUchen 
Ariilirr  (lS(i.S);  Weil,  (rfxcliicJife  der  islamitischen  Viilker 
(18G8):  Maltzan.  Wallfa/irf  iiacli  Mekka  (2  vols..  1865):  yl?i- 
nals  of  the  Edrli/  ('(diphiitrs  from  OriniiKd  Sources,  and 
Tlie  Hise  and  Decline  of  Jslani.  by  W.  Muir  (4  vols.,  8vo, 
Loud.  1858-61):  Wrede,  lieisen  in  Ilad/iramaiit  (1870); 
and  the  accounts  of  Niebuhr,  Biii'ckhardt.  Burton.  Palgrave, 
and  ot  hers.  Revised  by  C.  K.  x\dajis. 

Arabiau  Arcliiteeture:  the  style  of  architecture  which 
prevails  in  or  is  characteristic  of  the  Arabs.  In  their  na- 
tive land  they  had  no  architecture  of  importance.  After 
their  concpiests  of  the  former  Roman  provinces  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  they  caused  mosques  and  other  build- 
ings to  be  constructed  in  the  Byzantine  style,  as  modified  in 
accordance  with  their  acquii-ements.  This  style  was  devel- 
oped in  richer  and  larger  buildings  at  a  later  time,  and  was 
flourishing  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  centuiy  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  most  important  monuments  that 
remain  are  in  Cairo.  The  buildings  erected  in  Persia  since 
the  Arab  conquests  are  not  often  considered  as  Arabian, 
because  the  Persian  art  has  always  been  of  great  importance 
and  independent  value:  Ijut,  in  fact,  the  ornamentation  de- 
rived from  Persia  was  tlu^  strongest  influence,  except  the 
Byzantine  method  of  building,  and  the  style  might  well  be 
called  Perso-Byzantine.  The  Moorish  architecture  is  a  late 
and  inferior  modification  of  this  style.    See  Saracenic  Art. 

Russell  Sturqis. 

Arabian  Gulf:  See  Red  Sea. 

Arabian  Laiigiiasre  and  Literature:  (1)  The  language: 

Arabic  belongs  to  what  is  termed  the  Semitic  (or  Shemitic) 
family  of  languages  (see  Semitic  Languages),  and  is  closely 
related  to  the  Hebrew,  which  it  resembles  in  its  general 
grammatical  structure,  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  many  of  its 
w(mls.  Like  the  Hebrew,  it  is  written  from  right  to  left,  and 
like  it,  also,  the  vowels  are  not  written  in  the  body  of  a  word 
or  name,  but  are  indicated  (if  indicated  at  all)  by  certain 
marks  placed  above  or  lielow  the  consonants  to  which  they 
belong  (see  below).  The  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-eight 
letters,  as  follows: 


£ 

55 

is 

Name. 

Transliteration 

1. 

r 

L 

L 

\ 

alif, 

■_ 

2. 

>-j 

w^. 

A 

J 

ba. 

b. 

:!. 

o 

<^^ 

A 

J 

ta. 

t. 

4. 

Cj 

\S>- 

i 

s 

tha. 

th. 

5. 

(L 

e" 

.s^ 

:> 

jira,  gim 

i-e- 

6. 

Z 

,:<A. 

5» 

ha. 

'.'• 

t. 

t 

^ 
o 

i:^ 

s> 

klia. 

kh. 

8. 

0* 

l\ 

A 

J> 

dal. 

(1. 

9. 

,i* 

X 

Js. 

3 

dhiil. 

<ih. 

*  The  Iftfers  thus  marked  oueht  never,  flocordinpr  to  the  rules  of 
Arabic  orthography,  to  be  conuected  with  those  that  follow  them. 


27n 


ARABIAN   LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATURE 


1 

s 

8^ 
■3S 

1^ 

*3 

1 

.1 

'S 

Name.       1 

ranslitera 

10. 

r 

/ 

-J 

J 

ra, 

r. 

IL 

y 

J 

J 

J 

zay. 

z. 

12. 

c- 

\J^ 

^ 

AM 

sin, 

s. 

1.3. 

J^ 

^ 

.^W 

shin, 

sh. 

14. 

u^ 

'J^ 

ajz 

>o 

sad, 

s. 

15. 

L>° 

O^ 

/>13 

o 

dad, 

d. 

16. 

i 

-U 

L 

i 

ta, 

t. 

17. 

J= 

Ja 

f. 

12 

b 

za. 

?• 

18. 

t 

£ 

X 

c 

'aiu, 

'. 

19. 

t 

,i 

i. 

£. 

ghain. 

gl>. 

20. 

^_s 

wA 

k 

S 

u. 

f. 

21. 

o 

■Ji 

a. 

i 

kaf, 

k- 

22. 

li> 

^ 

3C+ 

r* 

kaf, 

k. 

23. 

J 

^ 

Jl 

J 

lam. 

1. 

24. 

r 

r 

•«> 

/o 

mim, 

m. 

25. 

a 

a 

A 

i 

niin. 

n. 

26. 

s 

\ 

f 

S) 

ha. 

h. 

27. 

3* 

^ 

-^ 

3 

waw. 

w. 

28. 

l5 

c5 

^ 

J 

.va. 

y- 

*  The  letters  thus  marked  ought  never,  according  to  the  rules  of 
Arabic  orthography,  to  be  connected  with  those  that  follow  them, 
t  Written  also,  * — » . 
t  Written  also,  ^^_. 

p^  All  the  foregoing  characters  are  regarded  by  Arab 
grammarians  as  consonants.  Alif  has  been  compared  to  the 
soft  breathing  (spirilus  lenis)  of  the  Greeks ;  'Ain  is  a  strong 
guttural  of  which  the  pronunciation  is  very  difficult  for 
foreigners. 

AVhen  a  consonant  is  douljled.  this  doubling  must  be 
brought  out  clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  pronunciation. 


In  Arabic  there  are  three  short  vowels.  These  are  indi- 
cated by  signs  called — 1.  Fet'ha  (a*)\  2.  Kes' ra  (i,  some- 
times e);  and  3.  damina  {on  or  tt  f).  Fetha  is  written  over 
the  consonant  to  which  it  belongs,  thus  -'-■,  kesra  is  placed 
beneath  its  consonant,  thus —;  ilamma  (which  is  in  fact  a 
minute  3)  is  written  over  its  consonant,  thus  _a_.  These 
vowels  are  always  pronounced  after  the  consonant  above  or 
below  which  they  are  written. 

There  an;  thrive  long  vowels,  a. !,  ii  %•  and  to  indicate  these 
the  Arabic  makes  use  of  the  consonants  alif,  ya,  waw,  re- 
spectively, preceded  by  tlie  marks  of  the  corresponding  short 
vowels.  Tliere  are  two  diphtliongs.  ai  and  au,  which  are 
indicated  by  the  consonants  ya  and  wiiw,  respectively,  pre- 
ceded by  the  fetha. 

The  vowel-signs  are  usually  omitted  in  Arabic  manuscripts 
and  printed  works  (Ijut  not  the  consonants  used  to  indicate 
the  long  vowels),  and  they  are  scarcely  needed  by  the  native 
Arabs,  who  are  already  familiar  with  the  language:  but  they 
are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  foreigners  in  learning 
Arabic.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  .jilzm  or  jeziu  C^).  a 
mark  placed  over  a  consonant  to  show  that  it  has  no  vowel 

following  it.  as  \JiyS  (itzrilk.  "blue."  wliich  without  the  ,iiXzm 
might  be  i)ronounce<l  iizilrak).  and  the  teshdecd  or  teshdid 
(»),  |>laced  on  a  consonant  to  show  that  it  is  to  be  doubled 
in  pronunciation  ;  as  iA*-c,i  (^lohammeil). 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  when  the  Arabic  article  (il  or 
el  is  followed  l)y  the  letters  t.  th,  d.  il/i.  r.  z.  .s-.  s/i.  x.  (I.  /.  z.  ?i. 
the  sound  of  th(t  /  is  changed  to  that  of  the  letter  following; 
thus  d-Dun  becomes  ed-Deen;  el-Doichih,  cd-Dowlah;  al- 
Rahman  or  i-l-Iiahmnii.  ar-Iinhman  or  er-Raltman  ;  al- 
Temeemee,  af-Temcemci',  and  so  on. 

•  Often  represented  by  e,  and  sometimes  ^in  English)  tiy  u  short. 
t  Often  represented  by  o,  as  in  the  name  of  Mohammed. 
t  The  long  vowels  in  Arabic  are  to  be  pronounced  very  full  and 
long. 


The  Arabic  alphabet  belongs  to  the  Aramean  family  of 
alphabets.  With  the  exception  of  the  Latin  alphabet  it  is 
used  over  a  greater  extent  of  territory  than  any  other.  By 
means  of  diacritical  points  and  minor  changes  it  has  been 
adapted  to  such  languages  as  Turkish,  Persian,  etc.  There 
are  two  principal  forms  of  the  Arabic  alphabet,  the  Kufic 
and  the  Neskhi.  The  Kutic  is  so  called  from  the  town  of 
Kufa  on  the  Euphrates,  where,  it  is  said,  the  transcription 
of  the  Koran  was  carried  on  extensively.  It  is  a  s([uare 
character,  not  well  adapted  for  ordinary  use.  but  well  suited 
for  inscriptions  on  coins,  etc..  and  for  ornamental  texts.  It 
has  long  since  fallen  into  disuse.  The  Neskhi,  which  is  given 
above,  is  the  form  which  is  used  in  books  and  newspapers. 
On  the  history  of  this  alphabet,  see  Isaac  Taylor's  The  Al- 
phnbet  (Lond."  1883). 

The  Arabic  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  diffused  lan- 
guages in  the  world.  It  not  only  pivvails  in  Arabia,  in 
Syria,  and  in  a  part  of  Mesopotamia,  but  it  is  spoken  in  its 
various  dialects  (which  are  more  or  less  coniipted)  through- 
out a  large  part  of  Northern  Africa,  from  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  the  language  of  Egypt,  wliich, 
since  its  conquest  during  the  caliphate  of  Omiir,  in  641  a.  d., 
has  been  one  of  the  principal  centers  of  Arabian  culture. 
From  about  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century 
it  was  the  prevailing  tongue  of  a  large  part  of  the  Spanish 
Peninsula,  and  its  traces  are  still  seen,  not  merely  in  many 
of  the  names,  but  in  the  language  of  Spain  at  the  present 
day. 

the  Arabic,  together  with  the  Ethiopic,  belongs  to  the 
South  Semitic  family  of  languages.  Of  the  Arabic  tongue 
there  are  two  princijial  dialects,  the  northern  or  prevailing 
dialect,  in  which  the  Koran  is  written  and  which  has  come 
to  be  known  as  the  Arabic  language,  and  the  southern  or 
Sabean  (formerly  called  Himyaritic),  originally  s|3oken  in 
Yemen  and  in  tlie  extreme  southern  part  of  Arabia.  The 
earliest  distinctively  Arabic  writing  dates  from  the  early 
part  of  the  sixth  century,  but  there  have  been  found  in  the 
northern  part  of  Hijiiz  inscriptions  written  in  an  Ai-abian 
dialect  and  of  a  much  earlier  date.  There  seems  little  doubt 
that  in  tlie  sixth  century  practically  one  and  the  same  dialect 
was  spoken  over  the  larger  part  of  Arabia.  As  time  passed 
on,  however,  and  the  language  began  to  be  used  in  places 
far  away  from  its  original  home,  dialectical  differences  in- 
creased and  were  accentuated;  new  and  different  conditions 
required  new  and  different  words,  till  now  each  of  the  coun- 
tries where  Arabic  is  spoken  has  its  own  dialect,  which  dif- 
fers not  a  little  from  the  other  Arabic  dialects  and  from  the 
classical  Araliic.  The  local  dialect  is  used  in  ordinary  con- 
versation even  by  the  learned,  but  for  books,  letters,  i)ublic 
speeches,  or  documents  a  classical  or  pseudo-classical  Arabic 
is  used,  which  does  not  vary  greatly  in  the  different  coun- 
tries. When  one  speaks  of  the  Arabic  dialect  of  a  country 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  not  only  does  the  speech  of 
different  towns  betray  differences.  Init  such  differences  have 
Ijeen  detected  in  the  language  of  the  different  quarters  of 
the  same  large  city. 

The  large  number  of  gutturals  in  the  Arabic,  while  making 
the  pronunciation  difficult  for  a  foreigner,  makes  the  lan- 
guage, esi>eciallv  when  si>oken  by  an  uneducated  ]ierson, 
rather  harsh.  When  used  by  a  master,  however,  it  is  by  no 
means  unpleasant. 

The  Arabic  has  a  very  large  vocabulary.  The  life  of  the 
Arabs  was  necessarily  rather  monotonous,  and  their  oppor- 
tunity for  observation  limited,  but  within  their  narrow  range 
they  noted  and  named  everything  with  great  care  and  accu- 
racy. Every  feature  of  their  lite,  every  phenomenon  of 
nature,  every  point  of  their  horses  and  their  camels,  had  its 
own  individnal  name.  Of  course,  when  the  desert  Arab 
liecame  ae(|iiainted  with  the  culture  of  the  lands  he  con- 
ipiereil  lie  had  to  borrow  or  invent  new  wonls.  and  thus  add 
to  his  already  large  stock.  Arabic  has  proved  itself  admi- 
rably adapteil  for  the  discussion  of  abstract  sulijeets.  and 
Arabic  journals  and  liooks  seem  to  be  able,  with  the  hel])  of 
some  borrowed  words,  to  express  all  modern  ideas.  On  the 
Arabic  and  its  relation  to  the  other  Semitic  languages,  cf. 
Ndldeke's  Die  si>milixc}ien  Spracheii  (Leipzig.  18.H7). 

For  the  .study  of  the  classical  Arabic,  Wright's  Arnhic 
OrittiiiiKir  (Lond.  1S74-75)  is  a  standard  work.  The  gram- 
mars of  Sorin  and  of  Lansing  may  also  be  nieiitiimed.  Lane's 
Arabic  iJicfionari/  (Lond.  1864)  is  a  work  of  great  value. 
C'uche's  Voctibiilitirf  Ar<ilie-Fruni;ais  (2d  ed.,  Beirut,  1888) 
is  an  extremely  valuable  little  book.  Other  dictionaries  of 
value  arc:  Fre\iag's  Lexicon  nrabico-hitiniim  (Ilalle.  1830- 
37);    Cherbonneau's   Dictionnaire   Arnhe-Frtinijaia   (Paris. 


ARABIAN   liANCiUAGE   AXI)    LITERATI' KK 


271 


1876) ;    Steingass's    Student's   Arabic-Enqlish    Dictionary 
(Lond.  1884) ;  Wortabet's  Arabic-English  Dictionary  (Cairo, 

1884). 

For  a  study  of  two  of  tlie  modern  dialpcls,  tlio  following 
works  will  be  found  of  value :  Spitta  liey's  (intiiiiitdtilc  dri^ 
Arabischen  Vii/f/dnlialertes  ron  Aegi/pti-n  {Leipzig,  KS80); 
VoUoi-s's  Lelirhiicti  der  Acffi/pfo-Arabisc/nfn  t'lnf/anff-ssprac/ie 
(Cairo.  1S90);  Ilartmann's  ^lc«ii.sc/ier  Sprac/ifli/irer  (Leip- 
zig) :  Laiidberg,  Proverbes  et  Dictons  dii  I'euple  Arabe  (Ley- 
den,  iss:!). 

Ci)  .VitAiiiAN'  Literature  is  very  rieli.  especially  in  poetry 
anil  other  productions  of  the  imagination.  Kven  before  the 
time  of  Mohamnieil  the  Arabs  had  celelirated  poets  who 
sang  the  iiraises  of  heroes  and  the  charms  of  beautitul 
women.  During  the  great  fairs  at  Okiiz,  near  Jlecca,  |ioetic 
contests  were  held  in  much  the  same  numner  as  at  the  giimes 
of  ancient  Greece.  It  was  a  great  honor  to  be  victorious  in 
one  of  these  conquests.  These  pr<'-Mohammedim  poets  "rep- 
resent the  highest  jiitch  of  the  Arabic  poetic  inuigination," 
and  they  were  much  imitated  liy  the  Moslem  writers. 

The  Arabs  have  produced  no  epic  or  dramatic  poems.  It 
is  in  lyric  and  romantic  composition  that  they  most  excel. 

There  is  one  kind  of  jioetieal  tiction,  called  Asuemblii'.i 
(Arab.  Makamiit  oU.Laio).  which  may  be  said  to  be  pecidiar 
to  Arabic  literature.  The  Asxemldies  may  be  regarded  as 
the  first  step  toward  dramatic  composition.  The  author  of 
this  species  of  writing  was  Ilaniadanee  (or  Al-Hamadanee), 
who  nourished  lowanl  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  He 
imagined  a  witty  and  unscrupulous  improviser.  wandering 
from  place  to  place  and  living  on  the  ]iresenls  wliiili  the 
display  of  his  marvelous  talents  procured  from  his  hearers, 
and  a  narrator  or  stoiy-teller  who  should  be  continually 
meeting  with  the  other,  should  relate  his  adventures  and 
repeat  his  excellent  improvisations.  He  gave  to  these  com- 
positions the  name  of  Assemblies,  because  the  improviser 
was  always  introduced  as  making  his  appearance  in  sonic 
company  or  assembly  of  strangers,  where  the  narrator  also 
happens  to  be.  and  is  sure  to  be  greatly  astonished  at  the 
tricks,  wit,  and  genius  of  the  other,  which  he  afterward  re- 
lates in  his  own  language,  and  these  relations  constitute  the 
Axsemblies  as  they  are  presented  to  us.  Of  this  species  of 
composition  the  Assemblies  of  Hareeree  (Hariri)  furnish, 
perhaps,  the  best  specimen.  Hareeree  is  regarded  by  the 
Arabs  as  a  consummate  master  of  diction,  and  the  highest 
authority  in  the  use  of  language.  "For  more  than  seven 
centuries,"  says  a  recent  writer,  "his  work  (the  Assi-mb/ics) 
has  been  esteemed  as,  next  to  the  Koran,  the  chief  treasure 
t)f  tlie  .\rabic  tongue.  Contemporaries  and  posterity  have 
vied  in  their  praises  of  him.  His  Assemblies  have  been  com- 
mented on  with  infinite  learning  and  labor  in  Andalusia 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  Oxus."  See  Introduction  to  the 
Assemblies  of'  Al-Ilarlri,  translated  by  T.  Cheiiery  (Lond. 
18(iT). 

In  romance  especially  the  Arabs  may  be  said  to  excel. 
Among  the  works  of  this  class  we  may  name  the  Feats  of 
Aiitar,  the  stories  or  fables  of  Ibn  Arabshah,  etc.  But 
perhaps  the  most  universally  popular,  not  merely  of  .\rabian 
fiction,  but  of  all  fiction  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge, 
is  the  famous  collection  of  tales  known  as  the  Arabian 
yitjlils  {</.  v.). 

In  ]ihilosophy.  mathematics,  history,  geography,  medicine, 
and  physics,  the  .\rabs.  during  the  period  <i[  their  power, 
rendered  important  services  to  science  and  civilization  :  the 
Araliie  terms  still  found  in  the  language  of  science,  .such  as 
alco/iol,  alyebra,  almanac,  azimuth,  nadir,  zenith,  etc.,  suf- 
ficiently attest  their  influence  on  the  early  intellectual  <'ul- 
ture  of  Kuropc.  During  the  period  known  as  the  Dark 
Ages  the  scientific  works  of  Aristotle  and  other  (Jreek  pliilos- 
opherswcre  translated  fortheniost  part  liv Christian  scholars 
who  resided  as  jihysiciansat  the  courts  of  the  caliphs  in  great 
numbers.  These  works  were  diligently  studied  in  the  JIo- 
hamniedan  capitals  of  Bagdad.  I)ama.scus,  and  Cordova, 
and  served  to  ditluse  a  knowledge  of  those  great  writers 
among  nations  who  otherwise  would  have  remaiiieil  in  utter 
ignorance  of  them  and  of  their  writings. 

The  study  of  rhetoric  and  of  grammar  was  pursue<l  with 
great  diligence  and  success,  and  an  enormous  amount  of 
labor  was  devoted  to  the  expounding  of  the  Koran,  the  re- 
sult of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  numerous  works  dealing 
with  the  Koran  and  its  exegesis. 

'  The  most  glorious  period  of  Mohammedan  culture  ex- 
tended from  about  7-")()  to  liOO  a.  d.  During  this  period  the 
Abbasside  caliphs,  llaroun-al-Kaschid,  Mamoon,  and  Motas- 
sem,  reigned  at  ISagdad.  which,  under  their  auspices,  became 


a  magnificent  center  of  science,  letters,  and  the  arts.  In  the 
far  East,  Malimood  of  Gazna  (about  900-1030),  tliough  a 
sanguinary  conqueror,  was  ambitious  of  the  distinction  of  a 
patron  of  literature.  At  hiscourt  flourished  Firdousee  (Fir- 
dausi),  the  greatest  not  only  of  all  I'l'i-siau  *  liut  of  all  Mos- 
lem |ioets,  Mohammed  only  exce]>ted.  In  Sjiain,  under  the 
caliphs  of  the  Omeyyade  dynasty,  tlie  pcrioil  of  Arabian  cul- 
ture was  not  less  glorious,  and  was  of  much  longer  duration, 
than  that  under  the  Abbassides.  Al-Ilakem.  Caliph  of  Cor- 
dciva  (imi-TG).  had,  it  is  said,  a  liljrary  of  UOO.OOO  volumes. 
The  high  reputation  for  leaniing  of  the  Sjianish  Arabs  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  Ix'st  .students  of  Chris- 
tendom visited  Cordova  in  order  to  study  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  medicine,  and  mathematics  under  Arabian  pro- 
fessors. To  the  Arabs  w'e  are  indebted  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  many  works  from  classical  antiiiuity,  which  without 
their  care  and  zeal  would  in  all  probability  have  perished 
during  the  long  period  of  darkness  and  semi-barbansm  that 
followed  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Koniaii  empire. 

Among  the  most  distinguished  .\rahian  authors,  besides 
those  already  mentioned  in  this  article,  we  may  name — (1) 
In  poetry,  Kliansa,  a  female  poet  (■ontemporary  with  Mo- 
hammed :  Ibn-Doreid  (838-933);  Al-Mootcnabbee  (about 
9(X)-!)ti.")) :  and  Booseeree  (or  Busiri),  who  flourislied  in  Up- 
per Egypt  (aliout  1250).  (2)  In  pliilosophy,  Alchindus  flour- 
ished under  the  Caliph  Mamoon  (about  820) ;  Alfarabius, 
who  lived  at  Damascus  (about  9.50);  Avicenna  (980-1037), 
who  was  even  more  celebrated  as  a  physician  than  as  a 
philosopher;  Averroes  (about  1120-98),  wrote  at  Cordova, 
in  Spain,  a  commentary  on  Aristotle,  to  which  Dante  alludes. 

(3)  In  medicine  the  Arabs  excelle<l  all  tlie  nations  of  that 
period  ;  they  are  commonly  regarded  as  the  earliest  experi- 
menters in  chemistry  (alchemy).  Among  their  celebrated 
physicians  were  Razes  (or  Rhazes) — 870-930 — who  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  describe  the  smallpox  accurately ; 
Avicenna  (Ibn  Siiia),  already  mentioned,  the  most  famous  of 
all  the  Arabian  physicians;  Averroes  was  also  distinguished 
as  a  physician ;  xVbulcasem  (Abulcasis),  the  most  distinguished 
of  Arabian  surgeons,  is  supposed  to  have  practiced  in  Cor- 
dova (aliout  10.50-1110);  he  left  a  treatise  on  surgery,  the 
most  valuable  that  lias  come  down  to  us  from  early  times. 

(4)  In  mathematics  the  labors  of  the  Arabs  were  not  less 
useful  than  in  other  branches  of  science,  though  they  can 
not  perhaps  boast  of  so  many  famous  names  as  in  philosophy 
and  medicine.  They  contributed  greatly  to  simplify  and 
improve  the  science  of  numbers  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Indian  numerals,  with  the  decimal  notation.  They  appear 
to  have  lieen  the  first  to  introduce  the  kiunvledge  of  algebra 
(which  had  been  previously  cultivated  by  the  (Jreeks  and 
Hindus)  into  Western  Europe.  IMohammed  Ibn  Moosa 
(who  flourislied  at  Bagdad  from  about  810-833)  is  said  to 
have  been  the  fir.st  of  his  countrymen  who  wrote  on  algebra. 
He  also  wrote  on  optics  and  astronomy.  Albategnius  (Al- 
bateni),  who  died  at  Bagdad  in  929,  wrote  some  valuable  works 
on  astronomy ;  Abulfeda  combined  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy with  geography.  (5)  In  history  and  geography, 
Masoodec,  one  of  the  first  of  Arab  historians,  was  born  at 
Bagdad,  and  died  at  Cairo  in  9.50.  11  is  Meadoirs  of  O'old 
and  Jliues  of  Gems  comprises  the  history,  the  politics,  the 
religion,  ami  the  geography  of  many  Oriental  and  Euro- 
pean nations.  Abulfeda  (1273-1331)  has  left  works  of  great 
value  in  this  and  other  departments  of  knowledge.  His 
Description  of  the  Countries  is  considered  the  best  work  on 
geography  which  the  Arabian  writers  have  beipieathed  to 
us.  Abulfaragius  and  Elmacin  (or  Elmakin).  though  Chris- 
tians, wrote  valuable  general  histories  in  the  Arabic  language. 
Ibn  Khaldoon  (1332-1400)  wrote  a  valuable  history  of  the 
.Arabs,  Persians,  and  Berbers.  Makrcezee  flourished  at  Cairo 
(1300-1442).and  wrote  some  excellent  historical  works.  Mak- 
karee.  or  Al-Makkari  (b58.5-l(i31).  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Mohammedan  Djinasties  of  Sjiain,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Gayangos  (Lond.  1840). 

Those  who  seek  for  a  general  view  of  .Arabian  literature 
are  referred  to  Ilammcr-l'urgstairs  Kuei/klopddisrbin  V'ber- 
sicht  der  Wissenschaften  des  Orients  (Leipzig,  1804),  and 
his  Literaturgeschic/ite  der  Araber  (7  vols.  4to.  1850-,5t)) ; 
Henan,  Averrhues  et  I'Averrhoisme ;  Whewell.  Ilistori/  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences.  Revised  by  .1.  I!.  .Iewett. 

*  Not  only  was  the  genius  of  tlie  poetrv  of  tlie  iiioilerii  Persians 
greatly  niodilied  lij'  the  intlnenee  of  Islainism,  but  the  Persian  lan- 
guage itself  includes  a  very  large  mixture  of  Arabic  words  and 
phrases.  This  is  especially  remarkable  witli  i-espect  to  some  of  the 
later  poets.  To  underslaiid  thnronglily  llie  works  of  .Saadi,  f or  ex- 
ainiile,  a  very  considerable  knowledge  of  Arabic  is  absolutely  req- 
uisite. 


27: 


ARABIAN   XIGIITS 


ARACHXOID  MEMBRANE 


Arabian  Nights,  sometimes  called  The  Tlionsaiid  and 
One  Niarlits:  tlie  title  of  a  collection  of  wild  and  fanciful 
Oriental  tales,  Krst  bnmght  to  the  notice  of  Europe  in  tlie 
early  part  of  tlic  eigliteenth  century  by  Antoine  Ualland, 
a  French  Orientalist.  These  fascinating  fictions  are  prob- 
ably more  widely  diffused  and  read  than  almost  any  other 
production  of  the  hunum  mind.  The  origin  and  author  of 
this  collection  are  still  unknown.  According  to  some  autlior- 
ities  the  Arahinn  yujiila  may  be  properly  divided  into 
three  portions,  wliicli  may  lie  respectively  traced  to  a  Per- 
sian, an  Indian,  and  an  Arabian  origin.  Throughout  the 
entire  work,  however,  everything  appears  to  be  eomformable 
to  the  character  and  customs  of  the  Arabian  people,  and  to 
the  Mohammedan  faith.  The  fact  that  Haroun-al-Raschid 
figures  in  several  of  the  stories  goes  to  prove  that  they,  at 
least,  must  have  been  written  after  his  death ;  while  tlie 
omission  of  any  mention  of  coffee  and  tobacco  (excejit  in 
two  or  three  instances  where  the  names  are  supposed  to  be 
interpolations)  shows  that  the  work  must  have  been  com- 
posed before  the  introduction  of  those  articles  into  Western 
Asia  (in  the  latter  half  of  tlie  fifteenth  century).  "  Many  of 
the  tales."  says  Mr.  Lane,  referring  to  this  remarkable  work, 
"are  doubtless  of  diffei-ent  and  early  origins,  and  its  gen- 
eral plan  is  probalily  borrowed  from  a  much  older  produc- 
tion bearing  tlie  same  title."  After  some  further  remarks, 
he  states  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  composition  in  its  pres- 
ent form  was  ])robaljly  commenced  in  the  last  quarter  of  tlie 
fifteenth  and  completed  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  that  the  author  or  authors  must  have  been 
Egyptian,  because  the  description  of  Arab  life  as  it  is  seen 
in  Cairo  is  so  minutely  accurate  in  all  respects.  But  re- 
specting the  date  and  place  of  its  composition.  Oriental 
critics  are  far  from  being  agreed.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the 
tales  differ  considerably  in  various  Arabic  texts.  The  work 
has  been  translated  by  W.  Beaumont  (1811).  Macnaghten. 
Scott,  Torrens,  E.  Foster  (1802).  and  Lane  (1839).  Most  of 
these  translations  were  from  the  French.  Among  the  best 
translations  are  those  of  Lane  (already  mentioned),  Payne's 
literal  translation  (9  vols..  1883-84).  and  Sir  Richard  Burton's 
(10  vols.,  "Benares,"  188.5-87;  with  5  supplementary  vol- 
umes, issued  in  1887-88),  a  slightly  expurgated  edition  of 
which  was  published  by  Lady  Burton  in  six  volumes  (Lon- 
don. 1886-87).  The  Arabian  Sights  has  given  rise  to 
many  imitations,  among  the  best  of  which  in  English  is 
Tales  of  the  Genii,  by  Rev.  James  Ridley. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  Jewett. 

Arabian  Numerals,  or  Figures :  the  characters  1.  2.  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0.  which  Europeans  received  through  the 
Arabs  from  the  Hindus.  The  use  of  these  numerals  was 
not  general  in  Europe  befoi'e  the  invention  of  jirinting. 

Arabian  Sea :  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  lying 

between  India.  Arabia,  Persia,  and  East  Africa,  anciently 

•called   JInrt  Erijtiirimm.     It   has  considerable   commerce, 

mainly  by  virtue  of  lieing  connected  by  the  Red  Sea  and  the 

Suez  (i'anal  with  the  Mediterranean. 

Arab'ici  (i.  e.  Arabians) :  a  heretical  sect  which  arose  in 
Arabia  in  the  third  century,  the  founder  of  which  was  Beryl- 
lus.  Bishop  of  Bostra.  They  denied  Christ's  divinity,  and 
believed  that  the  soul  dies,  and  is  raised  again  with  the 
body.     They  were  confuted  by  Origen. 

Ara'bi  Pasha'  (AnMED-EL-rR.\Bv):  the  leader  of  the 
Egyptian  n-bellion  of  1882;  b.  about  ISH.'iona  state  farm 
at  faiitah,  on  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  where  he  worked  till 
he  was  twenty-six,  an<l  where  his  father  was  a  l.iborer. 
Arabi  i-eceived  no  education  while  young,  but  afterward 
learned  to  read  and  write  a  little  Arabic.  He  was  a  private 
soldier  in  the  Egyptian  army  for  twelve  years:  but  later 
was  rapidly  advanced  to  lieutenant,  colonel,  minister  of  war. 
and  then  pasha.  The  khedive  had  pledged  all  of  Egypt  and 
every  possible  source  of  revenue  to  the  bondholders.  The  tax- 
payers refused  to  Jiay:  the  interest  of  the  foreign  loans 
could  not  be  paiil.  Great  Britain  and  France  semi-otlicially 
interfered  :  the  khedive  was  compelled  to  allow  all  high  posi- 
tions of  trust  to  be  filled  by  men  sent  from  the  British  and 
French  foreign  ollices;  the  natives  were  excluded,  and  thou- 
sands of  tlieiu  joined  Arabi's  party.  Arabi  proclaimed  to 
the  troojis  that  he  was  insjiired  liy  the  Prophet  to  fulfill  a 
holy  mission,  the  motto  of  wliich  was  ••  Kgypt  for  the  Egy|i- 
tians,"  and  he  became  th(^  leader  of  a  great  rebellion.  The 
massacre  by  his  f<jrces  at  Alexandria  soon  followed.  The 
British  intervened,  and  the  forts  at  that  place  were  boin- 
liarded  anil  <lisniantled  by  their  fleet  July  11  and  12.  1882. 
The  war  lasted  but  a  few  months,  and  Arabi's  armv  was 


totally  defeated  at  Tel-el-Kebir,  Sept.  13,  1882,  by  the  Brit- 
ish under  Gen.  Wolseley.  Arabi  soon  after  surrendered  him- 
self to  them,  and  was  sentenced  to  death  Dec.  3,  1882;  but 
his  sentence  was  commuted  by  the  khedive  to  exile  for  life, 
and  he  was  soon  after  sent  to  Ceylon. 

Aracan:  See  Arakas. 

Araca'ri.  or  Aricari :  a  bird  of  the  genus  Pteroglns'sns; 
a  native  of  tropiciil  South  America,  and  nearly  allied  to  the 
toucan,  but  smaller, 
with  longer  tail. 
The  bill  of  one  spe- 
cies of  this  genus  is 
white,  with  a  blood- 
red  stri]ie  along 
the  middle.  One  of 
the  most  remarka- 
ble is  the  curl-crest- 
ed aracari,  having 
the  feathers  upon 
its  head  beautifidly 
curled. 

Araca'ty :  a  port 
in  Cear;i.  Brazil  ; 
has  three  churches, 
several  schools,  and 
a  trade  in  hiiles 
and  cotton.  It  is 
on  the  river  Jagua- 
ribe  :  lat.  4"  3f  S., 
Ion.  37'  48'  W.  (see 
mapof  South  Amer- 
ica. ref.4-H).  There 
is  a  dangerous  bar 
at  the  river'smouth. 
Poj,.  6.000. 

Ara'cea^:  a  fam- 
ily of  endogenous 
herbaceous  plants, 
natives  of  temper- 
ate and  especially 
of  tropical  coun- 
tries, so  named  from 
Anitn,  one  of  its 
genera.  The  leaves 
are  slieathing  at  the  base,  convolute  in  the  bud  ;  the  flowers 
are  naked,  arranged  on  a  spadix,  which  is  usu.nllv  inclosed 
in  a  spatlie  ;  the  male  flowers  at  the  upper  |iart  of  tlie  spadix, 
aiul  the  female  at  the  base.  The  genus  J/k/h  is  the  tyjie  of 
this  order,  which  is  characterized  by  an  acrid  juice  and  a 
nutritious  amylaceous  substance  which  is  used  for  food.  The 
Aniorphiiphal/iis  is  cultivated  in  India  for  its  roots  (or  eorms), 
which  are  edible.     See  Arum  and  Aroids. 

Arachis:  See  Peaxit. 

Araeh'nida  [from  Gr.  apaxi^i.  a  spider]:  a  class  of  ar- 
thropoilous  iinimals.  characterized  by  having  eight  jiaii-s  of 
appendages  adapted  for  eating  and  walking,  by  having  the 
body  divided  into  an  anterior  unjointed  region  *  (ceplialo- 
Ihorax).  and  a  jointed  or  unjointed  abdomen.  They  differ 
from  the  true  inserts  in  many  particulars,  among  which 
may  be  inentioneil  the  absence  of  antenna',  the  situation  of 
the  sexual  openings  near  the  middle  of  the  body,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  respiratory  organs  on  the  alidomen  in  con- 
nection with  legs  which  disappear  after  the  embryonic 
stages.  They  have  rather  more  atfinities  with  the  Cnista- 
rea.  and  are  to  be  closely  associated  with  the  living  horse- 
shoe crabs  (q.  v.).  and  the  extinct  trilobites  anil  eur)'})- 
terans.  .Seven  orders  are  recognized:  (I)  Scorpi(initla,lhe 
scor)iions  ;  (2)  Siilpugida,  or  cylinder  scorpions  ;  (3)  Pseudo- 
isnirpli,  or  false  scorpions:  (4)  Fi-ilipiilpi.  or  whiivscorpions; 
(•5)  Phiilonyida.  or  "daddy  long-legs";  (6)  Arinieida.  the 
true  s]iidei-s:  and  (7)  Acarina.  the  mites.  Almost  all  of  the 
group  are  <arnivorous.  and  many  of  them  are  well  provided 
with  poison  organs.  In  some  ca.ses  they  may  j)roduce  severe 
and  even  dangerous  injury  to  man.  J.  S.  Kixgslev. 

Arach'noid  [from.  Gr.  ipoxvoeiS^s,  cobweb-like] :  resem- 
bling a  sjiidcr's  web,  aii|ilied  to  the  second  or  middle  mem- 
brane of  the  brain. 

Ararhnnid  Membrane  (sometimes  called  me'ninx  me- 
dia): the  line  coliwc-b-like  serous  membrane  situated  between 
the  dura  and  pia  mater  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.     It 

•  In  Oaleodes  and  Solpuga  the  cepbalothorax  is  three- jointed. 


Aracari. 


ARAD 


ARAGOX 


273 


covers  both  brain  anil  spinal  cord.     It  is  a  closed  sac,  dis- 
[losi'il  in  two  layers. 

Arad':  a  county  of  Hungary;  bounded  X.  by  Bihar,  K. 
by  Zanind  and  Transylvania,  S.  by  Temos  and  Krasso,  and 
\V.  Iiy  Csanad.  Area,  2,4M8  sij.  miles.  In  the  E.  it  consists 
of  high  niountain-ranses,  but  the  \V.  is  a  fertile  plain,  trav- 
ersed by  llie  White  Kiiriis.  Grain  of  all  kinds,  wine,  and 
tobacco  are  produced  here  in  large  quant  ities  of  an  excellent 
(juality.     Chief  town,  Arad.     Pop.  ;!0;J,!)t)4. 

Arad,  Xkw  (Ilun.  VJ-Anid) :  town  of  Hungary;  county 
of  'I'einesvar;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Jliiros  (see  map  of 
Austria-Hungary,  ref.  7-1).  Here  is  an  extensive  fortress, 
wliich  is  one  of  the  strongest  in  the  Austrian  empire,  and 
is  used  as  a  prison  for  [jolitical  offenders.    Poj).  ahout  5.(100. 

Arad,  Old  (Hun.  0  Arad):  open  town;  capital  of  the 
counly  of  .\ra(l ;  on  Ihe  right  Ijauk  of  the  Maros  ;  3'i  miles 
E.  of  Szegedin  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  7-1).  It 
is  a  bishop's  see,  has  a  Greek  tlicological  semiiuiry,  a  normal 
school,  and  nuinufactures  of  tobacco,  etc.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant cattle  mai'ket,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in  grain. 
Pop.  (1880)  ;^.5,.5.56  ;  (1891)  41.94.5. 

Ar'adiis  [the  Arvad  or  Arpiul  of  the  Bible]  :  one  of  the 
iliiet  cities  ot  ancient  Phoenicia;  was  Ijuilt  upon  the  island 
T\ow  called  Riiad.  which  is  small  and  rocky,  and  is  situated 
;).")  miles  X.  of  Tri]ioli,  and  2  miles  from  the  mainland.  It 
long  continued  to  be  a  jjlace  of  great  po])ulation  and  im- 
jiortance.  It  was  supplied  ■with  water  from  suljmarine 
si)rings.  It  was  destroyed  and  depopulated  by  the  Mos- 
lems in  the  seventh  century.  Many  relies  of  its  former 
greatness  remain.     It  has  still  a  small  population. 

.\rafal'.  Mount,  or  Jeb'el-er-Rahm'  (i.e.  the  mountain 
I  if  nuM-cy):  a  granite  hill  of  Araliia,  15  miles  E.  of  Mecca, 
lises  about  200  feet  above  the  plain.  To  facilitate  its  as- 
I  rnt,  steps  have  been  cut  in  the  rock  or  built  of  solid  ma- 
sonry. It  is  visited  annually  by  a  great  multitude  of  Mo- 
liannnecian  pifgrirns,  wlio  believe  th,at  this  is  tlie  place 
where  Adam  and  Eve  first  met  after  they  had  been  expelled 
from  Paradise  and  liad  been  separated  120  years.  It  has  a 
chapel  on  its  sunnnit,  which  is  said  by  the  Mohammedans 
to  have  liecn  built  by  Adam. 

Aral'ii'ra:  an  aboriginal  or  non-5Ialay  race  of  the  Spice 
islands,  Celebes,  Papua,  etc.,  according  to  some  ethnologists 
end)racing  the  native  race  of  Australia,  and  indeed  all  the 
Melanesian  tribes,  including  the  extinct  Tasmanians  and  the 
black  forest  tribes  (Negrillos)  of  Malacca  and  the  Philippines. 
Ttiese  neople  are  all  exceedingly  rude.  To  cut  off  a  luiinan 
head  plays  the  same  part  among  their  moral  institutions  as 
confirmation  in  many  Protestant  countries  ;  a  young  man  is 
not  allowed  to  marry  unless  he  has  performed  the  deed.  A 
white  man's  head  is  considered  the  greatest  trophy,  and  is 
treasured  up  in  the  family  sanctuary  as  the  most  Valuable 
piece  of  pro])erty.  Generally  the  people  have  black  or  very 
dark  skins,  and  for  the  most  part  crisp  or  woolly  Iiair  :  but 
fiom  tlie  character  of  their  languages  they  are  considered 
ijuite  distinct  from  the  black  races  of  Africa.  Prom  this 
I)eoj)le  the  sea  N.  of  Australia  andS.  of  the  Malay  Archipela- 
go IS  called  the  Arafura  Sea.  The  name  is  of  Portuguese 
origin,  and  originally  meant  "foreigners." 

Ar'ago,  Dominique  Prax(;ois:  French  astronomer  and 
savant ;  b.  at  Estagel,  near  Perpignan  (Eastern  Pyrenees), 
Feb.  2(),  1786;  entered  the  Polytechnic  School  in  1803,  and 
became  in  1805  secretary  to  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes.  In 
180(;  .\rago  and  Biot  wei'e  employed  by  the  Government  to 
perform  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  from 
Barcelona  to  the  Balearic  isles,  in  order  to  complete  ati  im- 
portant operation  which  Delambre  and  Jlechain  had  com- 
menced. While  he  was  engaged  in  this  arduous  work 
among  the  mountains,  war  broke  out  between  the  French 
and  Spaniards.  Arago  escaped  from  the  violence  of  the 
Spaniarils.  who  suspected  him  to  be  a  spy,  but  on  his  voyage 
towai-d  liome  was  driven  by  a  tempest  to  Algiers,  where  he 
was  field  as  a  slave.  He  was  finally  liberated,  and  returned 
to  France  in  .luly,  1809.  In  consideration  of  his  services 
and  sulferings  he  wa.s  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
1809,  although  he  was  under  the  age  the  rules  rc()uired. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Analy- 
sis in  the  Polyteclinio  School,  where  he  lectured  for  maiiy 
years.  He  afteiward  devoted  much  attention  to  optics, 
astronomy,  and  nuignetism.  In  1812  he  began  a  course  of 
lectures  on  astronomy,  which  were  rendered  very  popular 
by  a  brilliant  style  addc'd  lo  their  other  merits.  Arago  and 
Gay-Lussac  founded  in  1816  the  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de 
18 


Physique.  He  advocated  the  nndulatory  theory  of  light, 
and  nuide  several  discoveries  in  tlie  science  of  electro-mag- 
netism. For  his  discovery  of  the  development  of  magnet- 
ism by  rotation,  he  received  the  Copley  medal  ot  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  in  1825.  lie  became  in  18.'!0  director  of 
the  Observatory  of  Pai'is,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  His  reputation  as  a  writer  was  in- 
creased by  the  eulogies  which  he  comjiosed  on  Condorcet, 
Ampere,  and  C'arnot,  and  other  nuMubers  of  that  academy. 
He  displayed  a  reniarkalile  faculty  of  piopularizing  science 
in  his  writings  and  lectures.  He  promoted  the  revolution 
of  ]fi:l(),  and  was  elected  in  18:il  to  tlie  Chamber  of  Dejm- 
ties,  in  wliich  he  acted  with  the  extreme  gauclic,  the  advanced 
re])ublicans.  He  was  a  member  of  the  pi'ovisional  gov- 
ernment formed  by  the  repnliiicans  in  Feb.,  1848,  and 
co-operated  with  Lainartine  in  resistance  to  the  socialists 
and  in  the  maintenaiu^e  of  order.  He  olliciated  as  Minister 
of  War  and  the  Jlariue  for  several  months,  and  was  one  of 
the  executive  committee  of  five  elected  liy  tlie  Assembly  in 
May,  1848.  About  tliis  time  the  voters  of  his  native  depart- 
ment elected  him  to  the  National  Assembly.  He  opposed 
the  election  of  Louis  Nai>oleon  to  the  jiresidency,  and  re- 
fused the  oath  of  allegiance  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec, 
1851.  The  emperor  recognized  his  eminent  services  by  ex- 
cepting him  from  the  enforcement  of  the  law  on  this  point. 
Arago  died  in  Paris  on  Oct.  2. 185:i,  leaving  a  son,  Emmanuel, 
noticed  below.  He  was  a  friend  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt and  of  Faraday ;  was  a  man  of  a  generous  disposition, 
an  ardent  temperament,  and  great  energy  of  character.  A 
statue  of  him  was  unveiled  at  Perpignan  in  1879.  His 
works  were  edited  by  Barral  with  a  biography,  and  appeared 
in  Paris  (1854-62, 17  vols. ;  2d  ed.  ]865r.«y7.).'  I).  F.  Arago's 
Hintuire  de  ma  Jeunesse  (1854);  .1.  A.  Barral's  F.  Arago 
(8vo,  1853);  Bertrand's  Arago  et  sa  ^'ie  Sr.ientiftqtte  (1865); 
Audiganne's  Frani;ois  Arago  (1869). 

Arago,  Francois  Victor  Emhanuki,:  politician;  b.  at 
Paris,  .June  6,  1812.  He  studied  law,  and  gained  distinction 
as  an  advocate  and  counsel  for  tlie  defense  in  political  trials. 
Like  his  father,  D.  F.  Arago,  he  was  a  keen  republican,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848.  In  this  crisis 
he  was  selected  by  the  republicans  to  protest  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  against  the  appointment  of  a  regency.  He  was 
sent  as  commissary-general  to  Lyons  in  March,  was  elected 
to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  April,  and  was  sent  as  min- 
ister to  Berlin  in  May,  1848.  He  resigned  in  December  in 
consequence  of  the  election  as  president  ot  Louis  Napoleon, 
whose  designs  he  constantly  opposed.  The  coup  d'etat  of 
Dec,  1851,  and  the  regime  that  followed,  excluded  Arago 
from  the  public  service.  On  the  formation  of  a  provisional 
government  by  the  republicans  in  Sept.,  1870,  he  became 
a  member  of  the  same.  He  was  elected  a  meinlier  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1871,  and  to  the  Senate  1876  and  1891. 
D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  26,  1896. 

Arago,  Etienxe:  dramatic  autlior;  brother  ot  tlie  great 
savant.  D.  F.  Arago ;  b.  at  Estagel,  near  Perpignan.  Feb.  9, 
1802  ;  jiroduced  a  number  of  successful  comedies  and  vaude- 
villes, which  exhibit  a  talent  for  satire.  Among  his  works 
is  The  Aristocrats  (1847),  a  comedy  in  verse.  He  fought  for 
the  popular  cause  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  founded 
the  Reform.,  a  daily  republican  journal,  in  1834.  He  was 
director-general  of  the  post-office  from  Feb.,  1848,  until 
December  of  that  year,  and  in  that  position  acted  with 
niucli  vigor  and  ability.  As  a  memlier  of  the  National  As- 
sembly he  voted  with  the  gauche  and  ojiposed  the  policy  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  He  was  exiled  in  June,  1849.  After  the 
proclamation  of  the  re|aiblic  in  Sept.,  1870.  he  was  appoint- 
ed mayor  ot  Paris,  which  position  he  held  until  November. 
In  Fel).,  1S71,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
.Assemlily,  but  soon  resigned  ou  a<'count  of  his  age.  He 
becanu!  conservator  of  the  Lu.xembourg  Museum,  1879.  D. 
in  Paris,  Mar.  5,  1892. 

Arago.  .I,AC(ji;i:s  IStiexn'e  Victor  :  French  litterateur ; 
brot  her  of  I'-lienne  Arago ;  b.  at  Estagel,  JMar.  10,  1790.  He 
accompanied  the  exploring  ex]iedition  of  Freycinet  as 
draughtsman  in  1817,  and  on  his  return  in  1821  published  a 
Tour  Hound  the  World  in  the  Vranie,  etc  (3  vols.,  1822). 
Among  his  works  are  several  dramas.  Although  he  had  be- 
come blind,  he  joined  a  party  tliat  went  to  California  in  1849 
to  dig  for  gold,  and  puLilished  Trarels  of  a  Blind  Mati,  in 
California,  etc.  (1851).     I),  in  Brazil,  .laii.,  1855. 

Ar'agon :  a  former  kingdom  of  Spain ;  bounded  N.  by 
Fi-ancc,  E.  by  Catalonia,  S.  by  Vali>iicia,  and  W.  by  Navarre 
and  the  Casiiles.     Length  from  N.  to  S.,  about  200  miles. 


274 


ARAGONA 


ARAMAIC 


Area,  17,976  sq.  miles.  It  is  now  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Hiicsca,  Saragossa  (Zaragoza),  and  Teruel.  The  Pyrenees, 
which  extend  along  the  northern  border  of  Aragon,  rise  to 
the  height  of  11,000  feet.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  sev- 
eral ranges  of  mountains  and  many  fertile  and  beautiful 
valleys.  Aragon  is  intersected  by  the  river  Ebro.  wliich 
flows  southeastward  and  divides  it  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts.  A  considerable  i>ortion  of  the  soil  is  sterile.  Among 
the  mineral  resouices  of  this  region  are  cojiper,  iron,  lead, 
cobalt,  quicksilver,  marble,  stone,  coal,  alum,  and  salt.  Ara- 
gon was  conquered  by  the  Moors  in  the  eighth  century. 
The  Christian  kingdom  of  Aragon,  founded  in  1035,  became 
a  powerful  state,  wliich  was  united  with  Castile  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile  in 
1469.  The  chief  towns  are  Saragossa  and  Huesca.  Pop. 
(18H7)  910,830.  See  Schmidt,  Geschichfe  Aragonieits  im 
Mittelalfi'i: 

Arago'lia :  a  town  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Girgenti,  8  miles  N.  of  Girgenti  (see  ma]i  of  Italy,  ref. 
9-E).  It  has  a  ruined  castle  and  large  suljihur  mines.  Pop. 
13,5-30. 

Ar'agronite.  or  Ar'ragroiiite :  a  variety  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  first  found  in  Aragon.  It  crystallizes  in  hexagonal 
prisms,  or  in  crystals  of  which  the  primary  forms  a  rhombic 
prism.  It  resembles  calcareous  spar  in  composition,  but 
dilfers  from  it  in  the  form  of  its  crystals,  and  is  reduced  to 
powder  by  a  heat  in  whicli  calcareous  spar  remains  un- 
changed.    Satin  spar  is  a  variety  of  aragonite. 

Arag-iiay,  aa-raTi-gwi',  or  Araguay'a :  a  large  river  of 
Brazil ;  rising  in  the  mountains  aliout  lat.  18'  10'  S.,  and 
Ion.  51°  30'  \V.  It  flows  northward  ;  forms  tlie  boundary 
between  Goyaz  and  Matto-Grosso,  and  after  a  course  of  1,300 
miles  joins  the  Tocantins  at  Sao  Joao.  It  is  navigable  for 
about  1,100  miles.  About  midway  from  its  source  to  its 
moutli  it  incloses  the  island  of  Santa  Anna,  or  Bananal, 
210  miles  long.  The  stream  on  the  east  side  of  this  island 
is  calk'd  Ftirii. 

Arakau,  or  .\racan  (called  by  the  natives  Rakliaing') : 

a  province  of  Burma,  extending  along  tlie  east  side  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  Tlie  greatest  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  about 
280  miles,  and  the  area  is  14,526  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is 
diversified  and  extensively  covered  with  forests.  The  chief 
productions  are  rice,  toliacco,  indigo,  cotton,  salt,  oil,  ivory, 
hides,  and  timber.  Arakan  was  conquered  from  the  Bur- 
mese by  the  British  in  1826.  Chief  town.  Akyab.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Xaf  estuary  in  the  X.,  forming  the 
boundary  between  the  jjrovince  and  Chittagong,  the  Jlpi, 
the  Koladyne,  running  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  navi- 
gable for  40  miles,  and  the  Lemyhu,  a  few  miles  S.  of  the 
Koladyne.  Farther  S.  the  rivers  are  short,  and  are  unim- 
portant except  the  Gwa,  whose  mouth  forms  a  harbor.  Pop. 
(1891)  669,540.  See  Ilav,  Amkan :  Past,  Present,  Future 
(1892). 

Arakan',  or  Aracaii:  a  town  of  Burma,  in  province  of 
same  name;  on  the  river  Arakan:  aliout  .50  miles  from  its 
entrance  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  about  lat.  20  45'  X.,  and 
Ion.  93'  15'  E.  (see  map  of  India,  ref.  2-K).  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  province  and  a  populous  town,  but 
it  is  now  much  reduced.     Pop.  estimated  at  10,000. 

Ara'lia  :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Aralkicen>,  na- 
tives of  the  IT.  S.,  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  and  other 
regions.  It  comprises  a  number  of  species  which  are  used 
in  medicine,  as  the  ginseng,  Aralia  quinquefolia  :  Aralia 
nurlicfiii/is,  called  wild  sarsaparilla,  which  grows  in  the  U.  S. ; 
Araliii  spinosn,  a  native  of  Virginia,  which  is  a  stimu- 
lant diaphoretic,  called  angelica-tree,  or  toothache-tree; and 
Aralia  racemosa,  or  American  spikenard,  which  produces  an 
aromatic  gum-resin.  Chinese  rice-paper  is  cut  from  cylin- 
ders of  the  pith  of  Araha  papyrifern. 

Araliacese,  a-rii-li-a'sc-e'e  (so  called  from  Aralia.  one  of 
its  genera):  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  natives  of 
tropi*al,  tem])erate,  and  cold  regions  in  various  parts  of  the 
globe.  It  comprises  about  375  known  species  (trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants),  generally  possessing  stimulant  or 
aromatic  projierties.  The  fruit  consists  of  several  one- 
seeded  cells.  'Phe  leaves  of  several  species  are  used  as  fo<l- 
der  for  cattle  in  India.  One  species  of  this  order,  the  ivy, 
is  a  native  of  England. 

Ar'al,  Ska  of  :  a  large  inland  sea  in  Asiatic  Russia,  about 
150  miles  K.  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  included  between  lat. 
43  and  47'  N.  Lengtli,  estimated  at  262  miles;  breadth, 
about  184  miles.     Area,  26.900  scj.  miles.     Next  to  the  Cas- 


pian, it  is  the  largest  inland  sea  of  Asia.  Having  no  outlet, 
it  is  saline  or  brackish.  The  S.  W.  part,  called  Lake  Lan- 
dau, is  shallow,  and  not  more  than  5  feet  deep  in  the  deepest 
part.  The  Aral  is  fed  by  the  large  river  Oxus  or  Amu, 
which  enters  the  sea  at  its  south  side  :  it  also  receives  the  river 
Sihon  or  Sir-Daria  from  the  E.  The  latest  measurements 
make  it  157  feet  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea.  Seals,  sturgeons, 
and  other  fish  are  found  in  it. 

A'ram.  Eugene  :  an  English  felon  ;  b.  at  Ranisgill,  York- 
shire, in  1704.  He  had  not  the  advantage  of  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, but  he  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  and  Welsh  languages.  He 
became  a  schoolmaster  at  Knaresborough,  where  he  was  in- 
timate with  a  shoemaker  named  Daniel  Clarke.  The  latter, 
having  purchased  some  goods  on  credit,  suddenly  disap- 
peared, leaving  his  debts  unpaid.  Aram  was  suspected  of 
being  an  accomplice  of  Clarke  in  an  attempt  to  defraud.  A 
portion  of  the  goods  which  Clarke  had  purchased  was  found 
in  the  garden  of  Aram,  who  was  tried,  but  acquitted,  after 
which  he  removed  from  Knaresliorough.  In  1759  a  man 
named  Houseman  having  confessed  that  he  was  accessory  to 
the  death  of  Clarke,  whom  Aram  had  killed,  Aram  was  tried 
for  the  murder,  and  made  an  elaborate  argument  in  his  own 
defense,  but  was  convicted,  and  afterward  confessed  his- 
guilt.  He  was  hanged  at  York,  Aug.  6.  1759.  His  story 
forms  the  suliject  of  one  of  Bulwer's  novels,  and  of  a  poem 
by  Hood.     See  Scatcherd.  Memuirs  of  Eugene  Aram  (1832). 

Arama^'a  [from  A'ram.ihe  son  of  Sliem]:  the  ancient 
name  of  a  region  of  Asia,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  not 
well  defined.  It  extended  from  Mt.  Taurus  on  the  X.  to 
Aral)ia  on  the  S.,  and  coincided  nearly  with  the  countries 
called  by  the  Greeks  Syria,  Baliylonia.  and  Mesopotamia. 
The  Aramaic  language,  a  branch  of  the  Semitic,  was  di- 
vided into  two  forms  or  dialects — the  Syriac  or  West 
Aramaic,  and  the  Chaldee  or  East  Aramaic.  The  former 
was  the  language  commonly  spoken  by  the  .Jews  in  Palestine 
at  the  Christian  era. 

Aramaic,  ar-a-maik  :  geographically  the  middle  member 
of  the  X''ortli  Semitic  group  of  languages.  The  original  seat 
of  Ai'amaic  is  unknown ;  but  in  historical  times  it  was 
spoken  over  the  somewhat  indefinite  area  called  Aram^a 
(q.  v.).  Its  formal  characteristics  are  as  follows :  In  phonetic 
decay  it  has  advanced  aliout  as  far  as  Hebrew,  somewhat 
farther  than  Assyrian.  In  both  verb  and  noun  the  univo- 
calic  form  predominates  in  triliterals.  The  roots  usually 
have  simple  dentals  where  Hebrew  has  sibilants  and  Arabic 
spirants.  In  the  declension  of  the  noun  it  employs  the  ter- 
mination 'a  to  denote  the  emphatic  or  definite  state  ;  and  its 
plural  termination  is  «.  It  forms  passives  by  the  prefix 
'eth.  In  vocabulary  it  is  similar  in  part  to  Assyrian  and  in 
part  to  Helirew.    In  syntax  it  is  marked  by  great  flexibility. 

Aramaic  is  naturally  divided  into  two  branches — West  or 
Palestinian  Aramaic,  and   Kast  or  Mesopotamian  Aramaic. 

West  Aramaic  has  for  its  most  striking  peculiarities  the 
preformative  y  in  the  third  person  of  all  imperfects,  and 
the  preformative  h,  or  more  rarely  V(,  in  the  causative  stem 
of  the  verb  (Ilaphel  and  Ilophal).  About  1000  B.  c.  (and 
doubtless  long  liefore  this)  it  was  used  in  Syria  proper,  and 
thence  down  into  the  region  E.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  In 
some  way  it  came  into  use  in  Western  Asia  as  the  medium 
of  international  intercourse  during  the  Assvrian  supremacy^ 
and  so  continued  even  under  the  Persian  dominion.  Thus 
the  oldest  West  Aramaic,  and  indeed  the  oldest  Aramaic, 
writing  is  that  found  on  weights,  seals,  gems,  pottery,  and 
clay  contract-tablets,  from  Assyria-Babylonia,  and  dating 
from  the  period  between  the  first  year  of  Shalmanezer, 
King  of  Assyria  (727  B.C.),  and  the  nineteenth  year  of 
Parius  Nothus  (407  B.  r.).  In  X'abatica  also  this  use  of 
Aramaic  as  an  international  language  has  left  inscriptions 
on  stone  of  about  the  sixth  century,  and  in  Egypt  inscrip- 
tions on  gems,  seals,  stones,  pottery,  and  papyri  of  the  fifth 
to  third  centuries.  All  of  these"  are  written  in  the  old 
Pha'iiician  character.  The  language  of  these  inscriptions 
presents  the  West  Aramaic  peculiarities,  but  lias  borrowed 
words  from  the  languages  oi^the  foreigners  by  whom  it  was 
used.  The  religious  character  of  some  of  the  XabataNin  and 
Egyptian  inscriptions  moreover  shows  that  Aramaic  was 
known  rather  more  intimately  than  as  a  mere  medium  of 
intercourse. 

The  most  extensive  and  important  part  of  the  old  West 
Aramaic  literature  is  the  Aramaic  portion  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment:  Ezra  iv.  8-vi.  18;  vii.  12-26;  Dan.  ii.  4  b-vii.  28; 
Jer.  X.  11 ;  Gen.  xxxi.  47.    The  language  used  in  these  places 


ARAMAIC 


275 


has  been  falsely  called  Chaklee  on  the  supposition  tliat  it 
was  spoken  in  Chaldea  (that  is,  Haljyloiiia),  and  had  hei'ii 
liroufilil  lliL'nci' by  the  Jews.  But  Arauuiic  was  the  native 
lan^nage  o£  tliu  |)eo]>le  living  in  tlie  region  just  X.  of 
Israel.  And  it  was  after  the  exile  that  this  dialect,  owing, 
perhaps,  to  its  phonetic'  simplicity  and  its  syntactical  flexi- 
bility, began  to  work  its  way  down  among  the  Hebrews  as 
the  common  speech  of  the  people.  By  the  third  century  h.  c. 
Aramaic  was  known  and  used  alongside  of  the  lli'lirew.  and 
this  i)arallcl  use  of  the  two  may  account  for  the  sudden 
changes  in  Daniel  and  Ezra  from  one  to  the  other.  For  it 
seems  proljalile  tliat  here  parts  of  the  Hebrew  text  had  been 
lost,  and  were  replaced  from  Aramaic  translations  which 
had  been  made  for  a  certain  class  of  .Jews.  From  the  end 
of  the  third  century  the  Hebrew  began  to  yield  to  the 
Aramaic,  Ijccomiug  first  the  language  of  learning,  and  then 
in  the  tirst  century  merely  that  of  the  public  worship. 

(.)f  this  biblical  Aramaic  the  portion  in  Genesis  (consist- 
ing of  but  two  words)  and  that  in  .Jeremiah  (a  later  inter- 
polation) re(iuire  no  comment.  The  ditferencc  lietween  the 
Aramaic  of  Daniel  and  that  of  Kzra  is  almost  entirely  lexi- 
cal, with  the  exception  of  a  few  pronominal  forms.  Both 
present  the  West  Aramaic  characteristics,  except  that  in  the 
third  person  imperfect  of  the  verb  "to  be"  they  have  the 
preformative /,  apparently  an  East  Aramaism.  This  I,  how- 
ever, may  bi'  merely  the  |iarticle  /,  used  as  in  .\ssyrian  with- 
out precative  forci^  to  avoid  writing  the  imperfect  in  //, 
whieli  for  this  verl>  "  to  be  "  has  the  same  Aramaic  form  as 
the  sacrosanct  divine  name  Yahweh.  In  general,  the  Ara- 
maic of  the  Hible  seldom  ditfi'rs  from  that  of  the  Targums 
of  Onkelos  and  .Jonathan,  and  then  mostly  in  orthography. 
Further,  in  some  of  the  greatest  of  these  ditlerences  bibli- 
cal Aramaic  is  found  to  agree  with  the  Palmyrene  and  the 
later  Xabata'an  inscriptions  (9  B.  C.-300  A.  D.).  It  also  con- 
tains a  iMiniber  of  Persian  and  Greek  wor(ls.  and  some  of 
these  latter  are  not  found  in  Greek  earlier  than  Aristotle. 
So,  as  nearly  as  can  be  made  out,  the  Aramaic  of  the  Bible 
is  that  of  the  third,  second,  or  even  tirst,  century  n.  c.  In 
agreement  with  this,  from  other  considerations,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  passages  in  Ezra  were  \vritten  between 
2")()  li.  ('.  and  :i()l)  n.  c,  and  that  in  Daniel  about  l(io  n.  f. 

The  'I'argums  of  Onkelos.  .Jonathan,  and  those  known  as 
Jerushalmi  i.  and  ii.,  the  Mishna,  the  Gemara  of  the  .Teru- 
sjilem  Tahnud,  and  scattered  places  in  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
nnid  and  the  Midrashim,  are  also  written  in  West  Aramaic. 
See  Talmud  and  Targum. 

During  the  supremacy  of  West  Aramaic  in  Palestine 
that  language  came  into  use  in  Xabatiea  also.  The  remains 
found  there  consist  of  tombstone  inscrii)tions  ilated  from 
9  B.  (,'.  to  T.")  A.  D.  The  scriiit  is  a  scjuare  cursive  ileveloi)- 
ment  of  the  old  Phaniician.  The  language  is  formally  the 
same  as  the  biblical  Aramaic,  and,  like  the  latter,  contains 
Greek  words.  But  the  predominating  influence  is  Arabic. 
Arabic  words  and  constructions  abound;  and  as  the  jirojier 
names  are  almost  entirely  Arabic,  it  seems  that  Aramaic  had 
here  made  its  way  anu)ng  an  Arabic  people  nearly  as  it  did 
among  the  Hebrews. 

Aljout  this  time  in  Syria  itself,  at  Palmyra  (Tadmor), 
Greek  hail  crept  in  alongside  of  the  Aramaic.  X'ear  that 
])lace  have  been  fomid  a  number  of  Aramaic  inscriptions 
on  stone,  usually  accompanied  by  Greek  translations,  and 
dated  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era. 
They  are  votive,  dedicatory,  memorial,  anil  jiolitieal.  the  last 
sort  giving  decrees  of  the  >ienat('  and  tlie  people  of  Palmyi-a. 
The  language  is  alioul  the  same  formally  as  the  biblical 
Aranuuc  and  the  Xabata>an;  but  shows  a  miuOi  greater 
Greek  influence. 

Th('  people  about  Samaria  also  used  a  West  Aramaic 
dialect  which  came  in  time,  at  least  in  the  written  language, 
to  be  mixed  with  Hebrew.     See  Samaritans. 

West  Aramaic,  thoiigli  hard  pressed  by  Greek  and  Syruic, 
maintaincil  itself  in  I'alcstine  down  to  the  Araliie  period. 
A  number  of  Aramaic  words  and  phrases  occur  in  the  Xew 
Testament:  see  Kautzsch's  OraTOwaV/A-,  p.  7.  And  between 
;i(MJ  a.  I),  and  000  A.  n.  a  West  Aramaic  translation  of  the 
Xew  Testament  was  ])roduced  which  has  come  down  to  us 
under  the  name  of  Ei'ani/i'linrium  Iliemxo/i/niifaniim. 
This  translation  shows  a  strong  Syriac  infiuence.  But 
after  the  .\rabic  conquest,  Arabic  gradtudly  took  the  place 
of  Aramaics  and  tlie  other  languages  in  the  hiwlands  and 
the  cities.  In  the  mountains,  however,  Aramaic  lingered 
on,  and  to-day  is  still  s|ioken,  along  with  Arabic,  in  Ma'lula 
and  two  other  villages  of  Anti-Lebanon,  but  in  fragmentary 
form  and  rapidly  decaying  condition. 


Eastern  Aramaic,  while  it  seems  to  have  been  spoken  for 
centuries  in  Xorthern  Mesopotamia,  is  not  known  to  have 
lieen  used  as  a  written  language  previous  to  the  Christian 
Era.  It  is  characterized  foriiuilly  by  the  preformative  ;j, 
and  its  variation  /,  in  the  third  jierson  imperfect  of  the  verb, 
by  the  preformative  V(  in  the  causative  stem  ('Apliel)  and 
by  the  abseiU'C  of  the  Ilophal  as  the  yiassive  of  the  causiitive. 
if  is  divided  into  several  dialects,  of  which  the  luJncipal  are 
Syriae,  Baliylonian  Aramaic,  Manda'an  and  Moilern  Syriac. 
The  ilitl'erences  between  these  dialects  are  mostly  lexic-al  and 
orthogra|ihic,  except  that  the  later  Aramaic  show's  rnimer- 
ous  jihonctic  and  grammatical  elianges. 

Tiie  earliest  East  Aramaic,  Syriac,  first  came  into  prom- 
inence at  Edessa,  where  a  cursive  script  called  Estrangelo 
(aTpoyyv\os)  was  developed  from  the  old  Pluenician  char- 
acter. At  thiscity,  in  the  second  century  A.  ii.,  the  translation 
of  the  Bible  known  to  us  as  the  I'eshltta  (the  simple)  was 
tnade.  Through  the  influence  of  this  translation  P^lessa 
became  the  center  of  Aramaic  Christendom ;  and  this 
Edessene  literary  language  spread,  especially  eastward 
among  the  Arama>ans  of  the  Tigris  region,  in  which  at  XJsibis 
another  center  of  learning  was  soon  established.  Then  from 
the  name  of  that  whole  indefinite  region,  which  was  called 
Assyria,  or  Syria,  by  the  Greeks,  this  language  written  in 
the  "Edessene  script  came  to  be  called  Syriac.  By  700  A.  D.,  Sy- 
riac literature,  fostered  liy  the  schools  of  Edessa  and  Xisibis, 
had  passed  its  prime  and  produced  it  s  gri-atest  writers,  such  as 
Ephrem  Syms  (306-73),  Xarses  (d.  496),  .James  of  Sarug  (522), 
and  Philoxenus  of  Mabug  (d.  .520).  During  this  time,  owing 
to  theological  controversies,  Syriac  Christendom  split  into 
three  parts.  The  most  of  the  Eastern  Syi'ians  were  Xesto- 
rians,  while  the  most  of  the  Western  were  .lacobites  (Mono- 
physites).  A  small  third  [lai't  remanieil  orthodox  Catholics. 
In  489  the  academy  at  Edessa  was  closed  for  heresy;  and 
from  that  time  Xisibis  was  the  center  of  religion  and  learn- 
ing among  the  Eastern  Syrians,  or  Xestorians.  The  two 
sects  produced  two  sets  of  writings,  scarcely  two  dialects. 
The  greatest  difference  was  in  the  script.  The  Xestorians 
continued  to  use  the  old  Estrangelo,  witli  slight,  changes, 
so  that  indeed  it  came  to  be  called  Xesloriau.  while  the 
Jacobites  used  a  development  jiointed  with  Greek  vowels, 
and  called  after  them  .Tacoliite.  Jjargely  on  account  of  this 
division  a  literal  translation  of  the  New  Testament  from 
the  Greek  was  made  for  the  .Jacobites  liy  Philoxenus.  Bishop 
of  Mabug,  about  .500  a.  d.  and  revised  liy  Thomas  of  Ilarkel 
at  Alexandria  in  616  a.  d.  In  617  Paul  of  Telia,  also  for 
the  Jacobites,  made  a  very  close  translation  of  Origen's  text 
of  the  Septuagint.  Both  translations  are  useful  for  textual 
criticism,  and  together  with  the  Peshiltii  are  the  most  valu- 
able of  the  Syriac  productions  of  the  period. 

After  the  Arabic  conquest,  Syriae  remained  for  some  cen- 
turies the  spoken  language  of  Xorthern  Mesopotamia;  but 
Arabic  gradually  came  in,  especially  as  the  language  of  com- 
mercial and  official  intercourse.  Syriac  liecame  more  and 
more  the  language  of  the  school  and  the  church  until,  in  the 
eighth  century,  it  was  practically  dead.  The  identification 
of  Syriac  with  the  Christian  Church,  however,  served  to 
maintain  it  in  use  among  the  learned.  Even  in  the  present 
century  the  Xestorians  have  used  liooks  written  in  the  now 
half-understood  literary  Syriac,  and  the  Maronite  College  at 
Rome  has  kept  up  a  special  cultivation  of  it.  During  this 
|jeriod  a  great  number  of  writers  were  busy  producing  a 
mass  of  literature,  mostly  theological  and  ritualistic.  The 
most  original  and  im|iortant  of  these  was  Bar  llebneus,  or 
Gregory  Abul  Faraj  (I226-.S6),  whose  chronicles  are  the  main 
source  of  information  for  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  time.  Probably  the  most  notable  work  of  the  Syrians 
under  Moslem  rule  was  the  transmission  to  the  Arabs  of 
the  knowdedge  of  Greek  literature.  And  in  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  ablest  of  the  Syriac  writers  were  mere 
translators  and  adajiters  and  the  most  useful,  bare  chron- 
iclers. From  the  tnne  of  the  .Assyrians  their  country  was 
overrun  and  held  by  enemies.  The  separate  Aramaic  com- 
nnniities  never  had  a  chance  to  unite  m  peace,  and  develop 
a  national  character;  and  so  they  never  produced  any  dis- 
tinctly original  literature. 

East  Aramaic  was  adopted  bv  the  Jews  of  Babylon  as 
West  Aramaic  was  by  those  of  Palestine;  and  the  Babylo- 
nian Talmud  was  written  in  an  Ea.st  Aramaic  dialect  closely 
resembling  Jlaiiihean.     See  Talmi'D. 

In  Southern  Babylonia  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gidf  a  dialect  of  East  Aramaic  was  developed  by  the  sect  of 
the  Jlanda'ans.  so-called  from  Manila  d"  Ilavye  {yvaxrn  (<nfis), 
whom   thev   think    to   be    the   Saviour.    'I'liev  call  them- 


276 


AKAMAIC 


ARANJUEZ 


selves  Nazeraye,  or  Xazarenos,  ami  hold  to  a  qtieer  mixture 
of  Christian  and  lieathen  ideas.  Their  oldest  literature  con- 
sists of  three  religious  works  dating  from  the  period  be- 
tween 650  and  900  a.  d.  :  and,  being  written  at  a  time  wlien 
the  dialect  was  still  a  living  speech,  they  i)resent  it  in  its 
greatest  imrily,  though  it  already  shows  a  general  phonetic 
decay.  From  900  on,  several  astronomical  and  ritualistic 
works  are  known,  whose  language  shows  a  greater  and 
greater  breaking  down  in  grammar  and  orthograpliy.  But 
the  modern  dialect  of  the  sect  still  contains  Aramaic  ele- 
ments mixed  with  Persian  and  Arabic. 

The  region  between  Lake  Urmi,  the  district  of  Salamas, 
and  the  Tur  Abdin  Mountains  is  inhabited  at  the  present 
time  by  a  mixed  population  of  Moslem  Kurds  and  Christian 
Arama'ans.  These  Aramjeans,  while  the  priests  own  and  to 
some  extent  understand  books  written  in  the  ol<l  literary 
Syriac,  sfieak  a  division  of  Aramaic  called  Jlodern  Syriac, 
which  is  "not  exactly  the  daughter  of  the  old  Syriac" 
(Noldeke).  It  is  rather  a  descendant  of  the  folk-speech 
from  which  literary  Syriac  itself  was  developed.  The  lan- 
guage, however,  shows  great  phonetic  change  and  strong 
foreign  influence,  especially  in  vocabulary.  It  is  divi<ied 
into  a  number  of  minor  dialects  due  to  varying  foreign  and 
religious  influences.  Modern  Syriac  lias  been  made  known 
to  European  scholars  mainly  by  American  missionaries,  who 
for  religious  purposes  have  made  a  literary  language  oi\t  of 
the  Urmi  dialect,  and  have  printed  in  it  translations  of  the 
Bil)le  and  of  other  books. 

BiBLiouRAPHY. — Only  a  short  list  of  books  can  be  given 
here ;  for  fuller  list,  see  Nestle,  Si/n'ac  Grammar. 

Lexicons. — Abul'  Hassan,  Isa  bar  Bahlul  (963),  the  best 
native  lexicon  and  basis  of  all  modern  lexicography,  in  MS. 
in  Bodleian ;  Georg  Hoffman,  Sy n'sch-arabische  Gtussar, 
Bar-Ali,  from  Alaf  to  Mim  (Kiel,  1874) ;  Cardahi,  Al-Lobab, 
Diet.  Syro-Arab.  (Beirut,  1887) ;  C.  Schaaf,  Le.vicon  Si/ria- 
cum  Concordantiale  (2d.  ed.  Leyden,  1717),  best  for  the 
New  Testament  and  valuable  as  concordance  ;  CasfeUi  Le.r- 
■icon  Si/riaeum.  revised  by  J.  I).  Michaelis  (Gottingen, 
1788) ;  K.  Payne  Smith,  Thesaurus  Syriacus,  now  pub- 
lishing in  Oxford. 

Grammars. — A.  G.  Hoffman,  Oram,.  Syriaca  (Halle,  1827), 
the  most  exhaustive,  but  not  always  reliable ;  revised  and 
enlarged  (but  not  improved)  by  A.  Merx,  Gram.  Syr.  quam 
post  opus  Hoffman  refecil  A.  jtlerx.  two  parts,  all  that  have 
appeared  (Ilalle,  1867-70);  an  abridged  translation  is  B.  H. 
Cowper's  Syriac  Grammar.  Fr.  Uhlemann,  Grammatik 
der  syrischen  Sprache,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Berlin,  1858),  most  serv- 
iceable, but  by  no  means  scientific ;  translated  l)y  E. 
Hutchinson  (2d  ed.  New  York,  1875) ;  Th.  Noldeke,  Si/rische 
Grammcitik  (Leipzig,  1880) ;  do.,  Jlandiiische  Grammatik 
(1875) ;  E.  Nestle,  Syriac  G-rammar;  R.  Duval,  Grammaire 
Syriaque  (Paris,  1887) ;  F.  Biithgen,  Syr.  Gram,  des  A'lias 
von  7\'rliiin  (Leipzig,  1880);  K.  J.  II.  Gottheil,  Syr.  Gram.. 
by  Elia  of  Soba  (Berlin,  1887) ;  E.  Kautzsch.  Aram.  Gram- 
mar (Leipzig,  1884) ;  I.  Low,  Aram.  Pflanzennamen  (Leipzig, 
1881) ;  i\e«'  Syriac,  Stoddart ;  Noldeke,  Grammatik  der 
neusyrischen  Sprache  (Leipzig,  1863). 

Chresfomat/i ies. — G.  W.  Kirsch,  Chrestom.  Syr.,  revised 
by  Bernstein  (Leipzig,  1832),  the  lexicon  extremely  valuable  ; 
Rodiger,  Chrcstomafhia  Syriaca  (2d  ed.  1868). 

West  Aramaic  Literature. — Besides  the  biblical  passages, 
the  Targums,  the  Talmud,  and  the  Eranf/eliarium  Hiero- 
sulymitanum.  a  late  Palestinian  lectionai'y  (Verona.  1861-64), 
see  Corpus  Iiiscriptionum  Semiticarum:  l)e  Vogue's  La 
Syrie  Centrale;  Euting's  Nabatdische  Insctirifteu. 

East  Aramaic  Literature. — The  Babylonian  Talmud,  and 
the   Manihean   and   Modern   Syriac  works  are   mentioned 


•ipal 
-Up 


First  Period. — Up  to  the  Mohammedan  conquest  a.  D. 
C36. 

Bible  Versions. — A.  The  Peshytd  or  Peshitn  (i.  e.  the 
sim|)!e)  edition,  the  oldest  Syriac  literature  that  has  come 
<lown  to  us.  It  exerted  an  immense  influence  in  mold- 
ing the  language,  as  well  as  all  the  subsei|ucnt  literature, 
and  has  remained  the  accepted  version  among  all  parties 
of  tlie  Syrian  Church.  (a)  New  Testament. — ]\Iade  at 
Edessa  in  the  sccon<i  century.  Editions:  Widmannstadt 
anil  Moses  of  JIarden  (2  vols.,  1555),  editio  princeps,  best, 
but  very  rare.  Serviceable  is  Henderson's  edition  of  Gut- 
bier's  text,  pulilished  by  Baxter.  Cureton  has  published  in 
his  Remains  of  a  very  Ancient  Recension  of  the  Fonr  Gos- 
pels in  Syriac,  etc.  (London,  1858),  a  t,ext  of  the  Peshito 
aifl'eretit  from  that  of  the  MSS.  on  which  our  jjrinted  edi- 
tions are  based.     (A)  Old  Testament. — Valuable  translation, 


made  directly  from  Hebrew.  It  is  the  work  of  Christian 
editors,  and  probably  contemporaneous  with  tlie  version  of 
the  New  Testament.  Editions:  Vet.  Test.  Syriace,  H.  hee 
(Lond.  1823) ;  also  many  editions  of  the  Psalter.  Ceriani, 
Fhotolithograph  of  Cod.  Ambrosianus  (Milan.  1876-79). 

B.  Philoxenian  Version  of  the  New  Testament.  Edi- 
tions :  White  (Oxford.  1778-1803, 4to) ;  Bernstein,  Evang.  des 
Johannes  (Leipzig,  1853). 

C.  Hexaplar  Version  of  0.  ?'.  (formerly  called  Figurata). 
MS.  is  in  Milan.  Various  portions  of  it  have  been  edited 
by  Norberg,  Bugati,  Middeldorpf,  Ceriani,  De  Lagarde,  and 
a  photolit  hograph  of  jNISS.  has  been  published. 

Authors. — See  Land.  Anecdota,  vol.  iv.  (Leyden,  1875). 
Ephrem  Syrus,  S.  Ephraem.  Syri  Opera  omnia  (Rom., 
1732-46,  6  vols,  folio),  edited  by  Petms  Benedictus  and  S. 
E.  Assemani.  Narses  (d.  496) :  James  of  Sarug  (522),  De 
Vita  et  Scriptis  S.  Jacobi  Sarugi.  etc.,  ed.  by  ^Vbeloos  (Lou- 
vain,  1867) :  Isaac  the  Syrian ;  Xenagas  or  Philoxenus  of 
Mabug  (d.  520). 

SiiCOND  Period  (636-1318  a.  d.).— Period  of  decay  of  Sy- 
riac ;  Arabic  and  Syriac  spoken  languages.  James  of  Edessa 
(d.  708),  learned  scholar,  celebrated  grammarian,  and  lin- 
guist. BarhebrcTus :  (a)  Chronicon  Syriacum.  ed.  Brans 
and  Kirsch  (Leipzig,  1789,  2  vols.),  (b)  Chronicon  Eccle- 
siasticum,  ed.  Abeloos  and  Lamy  (Louvain,  1873).  Besides 
this  he  wrote  a  number  of  grammars,  treatises,  commen- 
taries, etc.     Ebed  Jesus  (d.  1318). 

Third  Period  (1318). — Arabic  the  spoken  language ; 
Syriac  cultivated  oidy  as  a  learned  and  ecclesiastical  lan- 
guage, chiefly  in  the  Maronite  College  in  Rome.  Amira 
(1644),  grammarian  :  the  Assemanis.  (a)  Joseph  Simon  : 
Bibliotheca  Orientalis  (Rom.,  1719-28,  3  pts.,  4  vols,  fol.), 
a  complete  history  of  Syrian  literature,  and  the  source  from 
which  our  knowledge  of  it  is  largely  derived,  (ft)  Stephan 
Evodius :  Acta  Sanctorum  JIarfyrorum   (Rom.,  1748.  fol.). 

Syriac  MSS. — The  chief  collections  of  Syriac  MSS.  are 
in  the  British  Museum,  the  Vatican,  the  Bihliotheque  Na- 
tionale  in  Paris,  and  the  Bodleian  in  Oxford.  The  oldest 
MSS.  are  of  the  fifth  century.  Wright.  Catalogue  of  Syriac 
3LSS.  in  Brifi.sk  JIuseum  (1870-72) ;  Zotenberg,  Catalogues 
des  3ISS.  syriaques,  etc..  de  la  Bib.  JS'at.  Paris  (1874), 

Printed  15ooks. — Sec  list  in  Conspectus  Rei  Syrornm  Lit., 
ed.  G.  Bickell  (Munster.  1871).  Festid  Letters  of  Athana- 
sius  (London.  1848);  Corpus  Ignatianum — Complete  Col- 
lection uf  Ignafiaii  Epistles  (London,  1845-49) ;  History  of 
Martyrs  in  Palestine,  by  L'usebius  (London,  1861),  etc.  ; 
Samuel  Lee,  I'.  T.  Syrince  (see  above);  Tlieophany  of  Eu- 
sebius  (1842) ;  Paul  Anton  de  Lagarde,  Libn  Veteris  Test. 
Apocryphi  Syriace  (Leipzig.  1861);  Analecta  Syriaca  (Leip- 
zig, 1858) ;  Geoponica  Syriaca  (Leipzig.  1858) ;  dementis 
Recognitiones  .S'yr/are  (Leipzig.  1861) ;  Didascalia  Aposto- 
lorum  Syriace  (Leipzig,  1854) ;  William  Wright,  Homilies  of 
Aphraates  (London,  1869) ;  I.  P.  N.  Land.  Anecdota  Syi'iaca 
(I -eyden,  1862) ;  W.  Wright,  Apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (Lond.  1871) ;  Martin,  (Eurres  granimaticales  d'Aboul' 
Faradg  di  Bar  Hebrwus  (Paris,  1872) ;  articles  in  Jour- 
nal asiafique;  Zeitschrift  der  deutsch.  Mejrgenland.  Gesell- 
schaft,  etc.  '  C.  H.  Toy. 

Aran'da,  .Tose  Jimenez:  a  Spanish  genre-painter;  b.  at 
Seville  in  1832 ;  well  known  in  the  U.  S.  First  class  medal, 
Paris  Exposition,  1889  ;  stu<lio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Araiida.  Don  Pedro  Pablo  Abaraca  de  Bolea,  Count 
of:  Spanish  statesman;  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  Saragossa, 
Dec.  21.  1718.  He  served  many  years  in  the  army,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general.  In  1765  he  became  president 
of  the  council  of  Castile  and  prime  minister.  He  used  his 
power  to  promote  reform  and  a  lilteral  )iolicy.  and  procured 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Sjiain  in  1767.  In  1773 
he  was  removed  from  power  by  the  intrigues  of  the  clergy, 
but  was  sent  as  an  ambassador  to  France,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1787.  He  was  again  prime  minister  for  a 
short  time  in  1792,  and  was  driven  from  power  by  Godoy. 
He  <lied  on  his  estate  in  Aragon  in  1799. 

Araiio'idii  [from  liat.  ara'nea,  a  siiider] :  the  order  of 
Aruchnida,  which  includes  the  Spiders  (q.  v.). 

Aran,jnoz.  a'iir-a"iin-/rhweth'  (in  Lat.  A  ra  Jo'vis,  i.e.  altar 
of  Jupiter) :  a  town  and  royal  resilience  of  Spain,  in  New 
Castile,  in  the  modern  province  of  Toledo,  and  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tagus,  30^  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  E.  of 
Madrid  (sec  map  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  ref.  16-E).  It  is 
situated  in  a  beautiful  valley,  has  spacious  streets,  elegant 
squares  and  a  royal  palace,  and  gardens  laid  out  by  Philip 
II.    Here  are  also  a  theater,  a  hospital,  and  several  summer- 


ARANSAS   BAY 


ARAUCO 


277 


houses  in  the  royal  gardens.  Aninjuez  suffered  severely 
from  the  Froncli  during  tlie  Peninsular  war.  The  treaty  of 
1773  between  France  and  Spain  was  eoncluded  here.  It 
was  the  seene  of  tlie  insurrection  wliich  eiuled  in  the  abdi- 
cation of  Chai'les  IV.  in  .Mar.,  1^08.     I'op.  (1IS81)  8,134. 

Aniii'sas  Bay,  sonu'times  called  Ariinsa'zna,  or  Araii- 
saso.  Hay  :  on  the  coast,  of  Texas,  in  the  X.  W.  part  of  the 
(iulf  nt  Mexico,  about.  15  miles  N.  by  IC.  of  (Corpus  C'hristi 
Bay,  and  is  about  18  miles  long  and  8  miles  wide  in  its 
broadest  ]>art. 

Aransas  Pass:  the  principal  inlet  to  Aransas  Bay  and 
Corpus  t'hrisli  Bay,  Tex.,  between  St.  Joseph  and  Mustang 
islands.  It  is  becoming  commercially  important,  but  has 
a  troublesome  shifting  bar.  The  lighthouse  is  of  brick, 
40  feet  high,  and  stands  on  Low  island,  inside  the  pass: 
lat.  37°  51'  51'  X.,  Ion.  !t7-  3'  58'  W.  The  Confederate 
works  at  this  jmss  were  ca))tured  by  the  Federal  troops, 
with  100  prisoners  and  some  guns,  Xtiv.  20,  1864. 

Ar'aiiy,  J.ixos :  a  pojiular  Hungarian  poet;  b.  Mar.  7. 
1817;  became  in  1S51  professor  at  Xagy-Kciros,  in  1850 
member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy,  ancl  in  1860  director 
of  the  Kisfaludy  Society  at  Pesth.  His  first  work  was  a 
humorous  pocui  called  J7i«  Lout  Constitution  of  the.  Pud 
(184o),  wliich  gained  a  prize.  He  wrote,  among  other 
poems,  liiiiia  Jlriliilii.  whii-h  in  1874  wjis  crowned  by  the 
Hungarian  Academy.     1).  at  Budapest,  Oct.  33,  1882. 

Arupalioes:  See  Algonqltax  Lndi,vxs. 

Arapai'ma  :  a  genus  of  fresh-water  fishes  found  in  the 
rivers  of  Snutli  Amcricji,  and  highly  esteemed  for  food. 
They  are  the  largest  fresh-water  fishes  in  the  world,  and 
arc  allied  to  the  Cliipi'idie  or  herring  family.  Some  of 
them  measure  about  15  feet  long,  and  weigh  400  lb.  or 
more.  The  body  is  covered  with  sti'ong,  bony,  compound 
scales. 

Arapilcs,  a'iir-a-pi'c'les :  a  small  village  of  Spain,  situated 
4  miles  .'^.  F.  of  Salamanca ;  was  the  scene  of  a  severe  en- 
gagement wliicli  was  called  "the  battle  of  .Salamanca,"  be- 
tween the  allies  under  Wellington  and  the  French  nnder 
Marmont,  July  32,  1813,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated. 

Ararambo'ya  :  the  dog-headed  boa  or  bojobi,  a  green 
snake  most  abundant  in  Brazil. 

Ar'arat :  a  celebrated  mountain  of  Western  Asia ;  rises 
from  the  plain  of  the  Aras  (or  Araxes)  about  33  miles  S.  W. 
of  Krivan.  It  is  called  liy  the  Persians  Koh-i-Xooh,  "  Moun- 
tain of  Xoah."  It  is  on  the  boundary  between  Persia.  Asiatic 
Turkey,  anil  the  Russian  |)ossessions.  The  highest  peak  is 
in  lat.  39°  43'  X.  and  Ion.  44'  35'  E.,  is  covered  n-ith  perpetual 
snow,  and  has  an  altitu<le  of  17,313  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  or  14.300  feet  above  the  plain  of  the  Aras.  It  is  a 
volcano,  the  last  erupticju  of  which  occurred  in  July,  1840, 
when  a  great  eart  lii|u;d<e  shook  tlie  surroundingcountry.  See 
James  Bryee's  Truiixcdiinisiit  and  Ararat  (1877). 

Ararat.  Little  :  a  jjeak  S.  E.  of  the  preceding,  and  rises 
in  the  form  of  a  cone  to  the  height  of  13,840  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  summits  of  these  two  mountains  are 
7  miles  apart  in  a  direct  line,  but  their  bases  are  nearly  in 
contact.  According  to  the  eighth  chapter  of  Genesis,'the 
ark  rested  "  upon  the  mountains  of  Ararat." 

Ararat,  or  Pilot  Moinitaiii :  a  hill  in  Surrev  eo.,  X.  C. 
Iielween  the  Ararat  and  Dan  rivers,  is  .'{.(XW  feet  high.  It  is 
visible  at  a  distance,  and  serves  as  a  landmark  to  travelers. 

Ara'ri,  The  Skhr.\  :  alow  mountain  range  between  the 
Brazilian  states  of  Piauhy  and  Ceara ;  part  of  a  general 
range  which  nearly  crosses  Brazil  from  the  coast  near  Par- 
nahylia.  southward.  It  forms  the  watershed  between  the 
I'arnahyba  river  and  the  coast  streams  to  the  E. — princi- 
pally the  Jaguaribe  and  San  Francisco.  It  takes  on  several 
names  in  its  course.  Beginning  at  the  X.,  these  are  the  Serra 
tirande,  the  Serrania,  the  Serra  Arari,  the  Serra  dos  Irmaos, 
and  Serra  do  Piauhy.  M.  W.  II. 

Aras' (the  ancient  Araxe.s):  a  river  of  Armenia;  rising  in 
the  Turkish  pashalic  of  Krzrum.  It  flows  eastward,  passes 
near  the  nurthcrn  foot  of  Mt.  Ararat,  and  traverses  the  Per- 
sian province  of  Adzerbijaii.  It  afterward  turns  toward  the 
X.  E.,  and  enters  Georgia  or  the  Russian  dominions,  anil 
unites  with  the  river  Kur  about  60  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Caspian  Sea.     Its  whole  length  is  about  500  miles. 

Ara'tiis  (in  Gr.'ApoTos) :  a  Greek  poet  and  astronomer;  b. 
at  Soli,  in  Cilicia;  nourished  about  3110-360  n.  r. ;  contem- 
porary and  friend  of  Theocritus  and  Callimachus.    He  lived 


as  pliysieian  at  the  court  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  at  whose  in- 
stance he  composed  the  poem  which  is  his  title  to  a  place  in 
literature,  P/uenoriiena  (*aii/6iifya).  or  Aspects  of  tlie  Heavens, 
an  asti'onomical  poem,  in  1,154  verses  based  oii  Eudoxus  and 
Tlieophrastus.  The  concluding  \>oxl\oxi.  Signs  of  \Yeather 
(AiooTj^Eia),  is  called  by  Cicero  Prognostica.  The  versifica- 
tion is  smooth,  the  language  is  an  imitation  of  Homer,  the 
plan  an  imitation  of  Ilesiod.  The  poem  was  much  admired 
and  highly  valued.  The  astronomer  Hipparehus  wrote  a 
commentary  on  it,  which  is  still  extant,  and  it  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  bv  Cicero  and  Germanicus  among  others. 
Elaborated  ed.  by  Buhle  (1703-1801);  critical  ed.  by  I.  Bek- 
ker  (1838).  '  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Aratiis  of  Sicyoii:  a  Greek  general  and  statesman;  b. 
at  Sicyon  in  371  H.  c. ;  son  of  Clinias,  who  was  assassinated 
about  364.  Aralus  then  escaped  to  Argos,  where  he  was 
liberally  educated.  In  351  B.  c,  with  the  aid  of  other  exiles, 
he  liberated  Sicyon  from  the  tyrant  Xicocles,  and  united  it 
with  the  Acluean  League,  of  which  he  was  eho.sen  general 
(sirale'gos)  in  345.  An  important  object  of  the  league  was 
to  maintain  the  independence  of  the  Greek  states  against 
the  King  of  Macedonia.  He  cx[ielleil  a  ]\lacedoiiian  garri- 
son from  Corintli  in  343  B.  r..  was  many  times  re-elected 
general-in-chief,  and  managed  the  aft'airs  of  the  league  with 
much  ability.  About  336  the  league  was  involved  in  a  war 
against  Cleomcncs.  King  of  Sparta,  who  defeated  Aratus  in 
several  battles.  Aralus  formed  in  333  an  alliance  with  An- 
tigonus of  Macedon  against  the  Spartans.  He  died  in  213 
R.  r.,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  true  patriot.  Philip  V.  of 
Macedon  is  said  to  have  procured  his  death  by  poison.  He 
left  thirty  books  of  memoirs,  which  were  drawn  upon  by 
Polybiiis  and  Plutarch. 

Arauea'iiia.  or  Araiica'ua ;  once  an  independent  state  in 
the  S.  of  Chili,  bounded  E.  by  the  Andes  and  W.  by  the  Pa- 
cific. It  extended  from  the  river  Bio-Bio  on  the  X.  to  Val- 
divia,  or  to  lat.  40=  S.,  being  about  190  miles  long.  The 
physical  features,  climate,  and  j)roductions  are  like  the  rest 
of  Chili.  The  Araucanians  are  I'cmarkable  for  their  inde- 
pendent spirit  and  their  successful  resistance  to  foreign 
domination.  The  Sfianiards  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  subdue  them  in  1537  and  at  several  subsequent  periods. 
On  this  subject  Krcilla.  a  Spaniard,  wrote  a  celebrated  epic 
poem  i'alleii  ^Ircf^cn/irt.  It  is  said  that  they  possess  many 
noble  qualities,  and  cultiv.ate  poetry,  but  abhor  the  restraints 
of  civilization.  They  recognize  a  Supreme  Being  and  a 
future  state,  but  build  no  tcin]iles.  The  government  was 
administered  by  four  hereditary  toijuis,  each  of  whom  niled 
over  one  of  the  provinces  into  which  their  country  was  di- 
vided. The  most  important  national  questions  were  decided 
by  the  grand  council  comjiosed  of  these  toquis.  or  by  a  gen- 
eral assembly.  In  1860  a  French  lawyer,  De  Tonneins,  who 
had  gained  considerable  influence  among  the  Araucanians, 
])roclaimed  himself,  under  the  name  of  Orelie  Antoine  I., 
constitutional  King  of  Araucania.  He  was  in  1861  taken 
prisoner  liy  the  Chilians  and  sent  back  to  France.  In  the 
tri'aty  of  Jan.  22,  1870,  the  Araucanians  jiromised  to  recog- 
nize the  anthoi'ity  of  Chili.  See  Molina,  Ilistonj  of  Chili; 
Edward  K.  Smith,  The  Aranranians,  etc.  (Xew  York.  1855). 
Only  some  50,000  of  the  original  inhabitants  are  left  at  the 
present  time. 

.^raiioa'ria  [deriveil  from  Akaitania  (y.  r.),  name  of  a 
territory  in  Southern  Chili]:  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Coiiiferti',  milives  of  the  southern  hemisphere; 
all  evergreen  trees,  distinguished  by  having  the  male  and 
female  flowers  on  separate  trees,  the  pollen  contained  in 
from  ten  to  twenty  cases  pendent  from  the  apex  of  each 
scale,  the  female  flowers  two  under  each  scale,  each  having 
one  ovule.  The  Arnucaria  imbricata,  or  Chili  pine,  a  native 
ot  the  Chilian  Andes,  attains  the  height  of  150  feet,  and 
produces  a  seed  which  is  an  important  article  of  food;  also 
a  fragrant  resin  in  abunihmce.  The  timber  is  hard,  heavy, 
and  suitable  for  the  masts  of  shi]is.  This  tree  is  cultivated 
as  an  ornament  of  landscapes.  The  Norfolk  island  pine, 
which  is  about  300  feet  high,  is  Arancaria  excelsa,  a  noble 
tree,  and  Australia  lias  two  or  three  fine  species. 

Araii'co  :  a  marine  depart nient  of  Chile,  forming  the  bold 
projection  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  called  Punta  de  Levapie, 
the  south  wall  of  Arauco  Bay.  On  the  E.  are  the  depart- 
ments of  Coneepcion,  Bio-Bio,  ^Malleco,  and  Cautin.  The 
ten-itory  bearing  this  name  was  formerly  much  more  exten- 
sive. If  is  now  a  strip  of  coast.  Area.  4.348  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
(18!)!)  70,064.  Principal  towns,  Arauco  and  Lebu,  ports, 
and  Xacimiento  and  Tucapel. 


2TS 


AHAUJO  D-AZE%^DO 


ARBITRATION 


omplishments :  lie  wrote  poetry  and  gained  distinction  by 
scientific  attainments.     D.  at  Kio  de  Janeiro,  June  21, 


Araiijo  d'Azevedo,  a-row  ilio-daa-za-Ta  do,  Axtonio 
(Count  da  Barca) :  Portuguese  statesman  ;  b.  at  Ponte  de 
Lima,  May  14,  1754.  He  negotiated  at  Paris,  and  signed,  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  France  in  1797,  but  tlie  French  Di- 
rectory annulled  it.  He  became  Jlinister  of  Foreign  AfEairs 
in  1806.  After  Xapoleon  had  invaded  Portugal  and  cap- 
tured Lisbon.  Araujo  accompanied  the  king.  John  VI.,  to 
Brazil  in  1808.  He  was  appointed  Minister  of  JIarine  in 
1814,  and  in  1817  sole  minister.  He  was  a  man  of  various 
accom 
his 
1817. 

Aranjo  Porto  Alpsrre.  Maxoel.  de  :  Brazilian  poet :  b.  at 
Rio  Pardo.  Xov.  Oil.  ISOO:  tii-st  attracted  attention  as  a  paint- 
er, and,  in  fact,  continued  throughout  his  life  to  devote  him- 
self largely  to  the  tine  arts.  His  fame,  however,  rests  chiefly 
upon  his  poems  and  plays.  Of  the  latter,  few  have  been  pub- 
lished, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  may  be  said  to  have 
brought  into  being  the  modern  Brazilian  drama.  Of  his 
poems,  most  notewoithy  are :  As  Bmzih'aiias  (1843.  seg.), 
lyrics  upon  Brazilian  themes,  and  Colombo,  an  epic  poem  of 
some  length.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Araii're  :  a  citv  in  Zamora,  Venezuela  :  on  the  Acarigua. 
a  branch  of  the  fortiiguesa;  on  the  northeastern  flank  of 
the  Cordillera  de  Merida  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref. 
1-C).  It  is  in  a  fertile  district,  yielding  cotton  and  coffee, 
and  pasturing  many  cattle.     Pop.  10.000. 

Aravall.  or  Aravalli,  a-a-ra-vfili :  a  mountain  range  of 
Hindustan;  traverses  xVjniir,  and  is  about  300  miles  long. 
The  highest  summits  are  about  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  It  constitutes  the  watershed  between  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  svstem  of  the  Ganges.  The  general  direction  of 
the  range  is  Isf.  X.  E.  and  S.  S.  W. 

Ar'baces  (Gr.  'ApPimi!) :  a  Jledian  general  who  revolted 
against  Sardanapalus.  captured  Xitieveh,  his  capital,  and  on 
the  ruins  of  the  Assyrian  empire  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Media,  about  876  B.  c. 

Arbe'la.  now  Arlieol  (Arbil  or  Erbil):  a  small  town  of 
Asiatic  Tuikey.  in  Kurdistan,  about  40  miles  E.  of  Mosul 
(see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  6-J).  The  modern  town  has  some 
large  mosques  and  bazaars.  Arbela  gave  its  name  to  the 
battle  in  which  Darius  was  finally  defeated  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  in  331  B.  r..  I)ut  it  was  fought  at  Gaugamela.  Pop. 
about  6.000,  mostly  Kurds. 

Ar'biter  (Lat.,  supreme  Judge) :  a  person  chosen  by  parties 
in  a  controversy  to  (lecide  a  question  :  sometimes  applied  to 
a  person  who  has  the  power  of  judging  and  determining,  or 
who  is  able  to  control  the  destiny  of  others.  Some  cases 
among  the  ancient  Romans  were  decided  by  an  arbiter,  es- 
pecially when  the  parties  differed  in  respect  to  the  amount 
of  money  which  one  of  them  should  pay  to  the  other. 

Arbitra'tioii  [from  Lat.o;-/;(7ra;-('.act  as  arbiter  or  .judge] : 
a  submission  of  some  matter  in  dispute  to  the  judgment  and 
decision  of  a  person  called  an  "arbitrator."'  It  applies  to 
civil  cases  only,  and  maybe  either  oral  or  written.  It  is 
voluntary  in  itsnatuiv.  as  any  parly  hasa  legal  right  to  have 
an  adjudication  upon  his  case  by  a  court  of  ju.stice.  Statute 
law  sometimes  makes  arbitration  compulsory,  as  where  the 
investigation  of  a  long  account  is  necessary.  Even  after 
parties  have  agreed  to  submit  a  controversy  to  arbitration, 
one  of  them  may  withdraw  his  consent  against  the  will  of 
the  other  at  any  time  before  the  hearing  is  closed.  The  only 
remedy  of  the  other  ]iarty  is  to  bring  an  action  for  damages, 
which  would  usually  lie  nominal.  However,  when  parties 
enter  into  a  contract,  they  may  stipulate  that  no  rights  of 
action  shall  accrue  under  its  provisions  unless  there  is  a  sul)- 
mission  on  their  part  to  arbitration  :  in  which  case  the  duty 
to  submit  becomes  a  condition  precedent,  and  can  not  be 
^voided.  The  result  of  the  arbitration  is  termed  an  award. 
it  is  not,  however,  equivalent  to  a  judgment  of  a  court,  and 
if  not  performed  the  regular  course  of  the  successful  party 
would  be  to  bring  an  action  upon  the  iiward,  and  thus  make 
it  a  judgment  of  a  court.  I'o  avoid  this  inconvenience, 
statute  law  frequently  provides  that  on  reducing  the  submis- 
sion to  writing  a  clause  may  be  inserted  that  the  award  may 
be  entered  on  the  records  of  a  specified  court  as  a  judgment, 
whereupon  it  shall  have  the  like  force  and  effect.  Having 
the  characteristics  of  a  judgment,  the  award  falls  under  the 
contriil  of  the  court,  anil  modes  are  provided  liy  which  mis- 
takes and  errors  may  be  rectified  by  judicial  action.  As  a 
general  rule,  there  is  no  review  of  tli<'  result  of  an  arbitration. 
There  are  no  methods  of  ajipeal  provided,  as  the  theory  of 


the  proceeding  is  that  the  arbitrator  is  to  be  the  judge  of 
the  difference  between  the  parties.  This  rule  does  not  pre- 
vent the  rectification  of  mistakes  in  matters  of  fact,  nor  does 
it  include  the  case  of  fraud  or  the  violation  of  the  firet  prin- 
ciples, of  jiv*tice:  iis,  for  example,  the  act  of  hearing  one 
party,  and  not  the  other. 

Revised  by  Hexrv  Wade  Rogers, 

Aebitratiox  as  a  means  of  setthug  labor  disputes  may 
be  either  voluntary  or  compulsory.  In  the  former  case  it 
has  much  in  its  favor.  The  French  courts  of  conciliation 
(conseils  de  pnirl/iommfs).  dating  from  1701.  which  provide 
a  means  for  talking  over  the  points  at  issue  between  em- 
ployers and  workmen,  have  done  a  great  deal  in  preventing 
trouble,  and  there  have  been  similar  exjicrienees  on  a  smaller 
scale  in  Great  Britain,  especially  in  Xottingham  (1860)  and 
Wolverhampton.  The  efforts  of  Parliament,  in  1824  and 
1872,  to  provide  official  facilities  for  arbitration  on  the 
French  models  have  not  been  very  successful,  and  the  same 
thing  may  be  said  of  similar  efforts  at  State  boards  of  arbi- 
tration in  Xew  York  and  other  parts  of  the  Union.  It  is 
hard  to  make  compulsory  arbitration  of  any  avail,  because 
the  workmen  can  always,  and  the  employers  can  generally, 
avoid  obeying  an  arbitrator's  award.  See  Strikes  and  Lock- 
outs and  Trades-hxioxs.  Arthur  T.  Hadlev. 

Arbitratiox  between  states.  Between  the  breaking  out 
of  an  international  difficulty  and  a  final  recourse  to  war 
there  are  several  methods  of  settlement  which  should  be 
first  resorted  to.  These  are.  in  the  language  of  the  publi- 
cists, amicable  conference,  mediation,  and  arbitration.  The 
first  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  that  diplomatic  ne- 
gotiation which  always  attends  a  quarrel,  and  which  in 
a  majority  of  cases  is  able  to  settle  it.  Mediation  is  the 
decision  of  a  disjjute  by  some  third  power  which  offers  its 
services,  but  whose  award  is  recommendatory,  not  binding. 

Arbitration  is  a  voluntary  siiluiiission  of  certain  definite 
points  in  dispute  to  the  decision  of  a  third  jiarty,  whether  an 
individual,  a  number  of  individuals  forming  a  court,  or  sim- 
ply the  rejiresentative  of  a  friendly  power.  It  is  essential 
that  the  exact  questions  to  be  submitted  be  definitely  agreed 
upon  in  advance,  since  a  failure  to  jiass  judgment  upon  the 
points  submitted  is  a  fatal  defect  in  tlie  award.  This  was 
the  flaw  in  that  award  given  by  the  King  of  the  Xether- 
lands  in  1831  in  our  northeastern  bouiKhiry  question.  In- 
stead of  deciding  wliidi  of  the  two  lines  claimed  was  the 
one  inten<led  by  a  certain  treaty,  he  rec-oinmended  a  third 
line  as  a  compromise.  This  was  very  properly  rejected  by 
both  parties. 

International  arbitration  thus  far  has  lieeii  used  to  settle 
particular  (piestions.  It  has  been  suggested,  but  not  often 
adopted,  as  an  oliligatory  method  of  deciding  all  the  contro- 
versies which  may  arise  between  two  or  more  states.  (See 
Pax-Americax  CoNCiRESS.)  Being  intended  to  meet  a  par- 
ticular known  exigency,  its  adoption  will  usually  be  the  re- 
sult of  a  convention  negotiated  for  the  ]airpose,  in  which  all 
the  details  of  the  arbitration  will  be  formally  laid  down, 
the  composition  of  the  court,  its  place  of  meeting,  the  char- 
acter and  method  of  award,  even  sometimes  the  rules  to  be 
ap]ilied  in  judging  national  conduct.  For  a  most  instruc- 
tive example,  see  Alabama  Claims. 

In  default  of  rales  to  govern  the  award,  in  the  agreement 
to  arbitrate,  the  rules  of  the  Roman  law  are  held  to  apply. 
Thus  unless  unanimity  in  the  court  is  necessaiy,  a  majority 
vote  decides.  There  was.  therefore,  no  ground  for  the  pro- 
test in  the  V.  S.  Senate  iigainst  the  Halifax  fishery  award, 
which  was  inaile  by  a  majority  vote.  The  decision  of  a 
court  of  arbitration  is  binding  upon  the  contestants,  save 
and  except  only  in  these  <-ases:  (1)  If  the  award  is  outside 
of  the  questions  sulimitteil :  (2)  if  there  is  proof  that  fraud 
or  <-orruption  has  influenced  it:  (3)  if  it  involves  an  im- 
possibility :  (4)  if  it  is  equivocal  or  unintelligible :  (5)  if 
(according  to  some  writers)  it  is  an  open  denial  of  justice. 
But  in  this  last  case  the  defeated  litigant  will  be  jmlge  in 
his  own  behalf,  and  this  exception  should  lie  held  iloulitful. 

That  arbitration  is  a  fair  and  valuable  method  of  .settling 
what  may  lie  called  business  controversii's  between  nations 
is  beyond  question.  Under  Ixterxatioxal  Law  are  given 
many  instances  of  its  successful  employment,  particularly 
in  recent  times.  In  1883  Switzerland  proposed  a  general 
arliitration  agreement  to  the  V.  S.  and  other  American  re- 
publics. This  ]irinciple  was  actually  incorporated  into  sev- 
eral commercial  treaties  between  Italy  and  other  ]iowers. 
A  general  treaty  of  arbitration  was  framed  also  between  the 
U,  S.  of  Colombia  and  the  rejniblic  of  Honduras.  Of  six- 
teen eases  of  arbitration  between  Great  Britain  and  other 


AKBITRATION 


AKBUTHXOT 


279 


states  prior  to  1880  seven  were  in  the  last  decade.  But 
wlu'ii  wf  ask  wliothor  some  general  international  court  of 
arbitration  may  not  lie  establislied  to  settle  (ill  international 
disputes,  the  answer  is  not  a  simple  one.  The  advocates 
of  some  such  substitute  for  war  have  been  many.  They 
urge  the  immense  evil  of  war,  its  economic  waste,  its  de- 
struction of  pi-oductive  human  lives,  its  sufTerinj;,  cruelty, 
barV)arity.  They  point  to  the  many  and  constantly  increas- 
ing instances  of  nappy  resort  to  arbitration  by  differing 
powers.  They  suggest  triljunals  or  courts  of  arbitration 
made  uii  in  various  ways,  but  all  neediug,  to  be  effective, 
(1)  a  code  of  law  recognized  by  the  powers,  (2)  a  body  of  ar- 
bitrators to  ajjply  this  code.  (3)  the  military  power  of  Europe 
to  enforce  their  decision.  This  discloses  1  he  weakness  of  the 
advocates  of  such  a  uieasure.  Without  tlie  three  essentials 
given,  no  general  arbitration  scheme  could  be  nuide  appli- 
cable to  «// controversies  between  states.  An  international 
court,  like  a  court  of  civil  or  criminal  law.  must  know  t  he 
law  and  have  tlie  power  of  exi-cution  behind  it.  Now,  as 
yet  there  exists  no  international  code,  nor  is  there  any  sign 
of  one.  Bluntschli  and  Field  have  codified  the  body  of  in- 
ternational law  provisionally,  Init  no  single  state  has  moved 
for  its  ailoption.  Nor  can  one  easily  conceive  of  a  body  of 
arbitrators  who  would  be  acceptable  to  all  nations.  The 
states  of  Europe,  for  instance,  are  not,  have  never  been,  can 
not  be  practically  eciual.  Still  more  is  this  true  with  the 
republics  of  this  continent.  A  powerful  state  will  coidiiiue 
to  he  powerful  through  its  inliuences  with  such  a  court, 
otherwise  it  could  not  afford  to  consent  to  the  arrangement. 
To  assume  the  c<mtrary  pi-esupposes  the  nnllenuium,  when 
quarrels  would  never  arise.  And  again  the  award  of  such 
a  court  to  be  effective  must  be  ca])able  of  enforcement. 
Here  is  the  crucial  difficulty.  The  scheme  if  entered  upon 
bids  fair  either  to  be  impotent,  from  inability  to  execute  its 
judgMients,  or,  if  such  execution  is  attempted,  might  lead  to 
a  general  embroilment,  perhaps  war.  The  truth  is  that  there 
may  come  crises  in  the  life  of  a  nation  when  the  national 
hoiior  or  the  national  life  can  not  be  jeopardized  before  a 
court.  Great  Britain  could  not  surrender  the  cordfol  of  the 
Su('Z  f'anal  to  Uussia,  the  North  could  not  have  settled  its 
.struggle  with  the  South,  in  accordance  with  the  award  of 
arbitrators.  Tlu'i-e  are  differences  which  words  can  not  settle. 
Setting  aside  all  such  questions  as  cmild  not  be  sulimitted 
to  arbitration,  it  is  desirable  and  conceivable  that  all  others 
concerning  damages,  limits,  the  rights  of  individuals,  and 
so  on,  should  be  arbitrated.  ]5ut  even  here  it  is  wiser  to 
submit  each  case  to  such  a  method  of  settlement  separately, 
rather  than  strive  for  a  general  standing  court,  or  consent 
to  a  general  agreement  to  arf)itrate.  for  a  stale  ought  not  to 
be  expected  to  go  into  such  a  scheme  blindfohl.  In  arbi- 
trating a  particular  case,  it  knows  the  worst  w'hich  may 
happen  in  consequence.  It  still  retains  its  liberty  of  choice. 
There  are  other  projects,  a])]iroaching  the  same  ideal  from 
other  standpoints,  which  perliaps  promise  better  results.  The 
growth  of  lU'Utral  trade,  the  growing  importance  of  neutral 
states,  limit  the  ctfeets  of  war  upon  commerce.  The  spread 
of  a  huuuine  system  of  warfare  lessens  its  hardships.  All 
minor  ((uarrels  between  states  to-day  are  settled  without  re- 
course to  war.  We  should  look  to  the  changed  spirit  of  our 
age,  rather  than  to  a  mechanical  device,  for  llie  maiule- 
nance  of  that  dream  of  all  ages — pei-petual  peace. 

^  TUEODORE  S.  WoOI.SEY. 

Arbois.  a'tr'-bwa'a' :  a  town  of  France:  departnuuit  of 
Jura:  about;  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Besangon  (sec  map  of  France, 
ref.  .5-11).  It  is  celebrated  for  its  wine,  and  has  uuimd'ac- 
tures  of  paper  and  earthenware.  Here  are  some  Koman  an- 
ticpiities.     Pop.  aliout  4,H(J0. 

Arl)i)is  dc  Jiibaiiiville,  JIarie  Henri,  d'  (daar-bwaa' 
df-ihii -Ijah-veV-l  ) :  French  paheographer  and  Celtist  ;  I),  at 
Nancy,  Dec.  .5,  1S27:  became  iirofessor  in  the  College  de 
France,  1S82.  He  has  published  much  upon  the  early  his- 
tory of  France,  the  origins  of  the  French  language,  and  the 
literary  history  of  the  Celtic  race.  Among  his  works  are  : 
Jliiiluii-e  des  dues  et  de-i  comtes  de  Champagne  (7  vols..  185!)- 
Cit) :  La  Df'cUnoJmn  latine  en  Gaule  a  Vepoqiic  meroviii- 
gienne  (1873) ;  Etudes  yiammaticales  sur  les  laiif/iies  cel- 
li<jue.s  (1881) :  Les  Celles  el  les  l(i7i(/ues  celliques  (1882) ;  lulrn- 
duction  d  I'l'lude  de  la  litti'ralure  celtique  (188:^):  Exuai. 
d'un  cdtitliif/iie  de  la  litti'ralure  epique  de  I'Irlande  (1883) : 
Le  Cijrte  m i/lhitlociique  irlatidais  et  la  i)i>/tli(iloi/ie  r/reeque 
(1884) ;  lierlierehes  sur  rorir/ine  de  la-  prnpriete  foneiere  et 
des  noms  de  lieux  hahites  en  France  (1890);  Les  voms  r/aii- 
lois  chez  Cesar  et  Ilirtius  (1891).  A.  R.  jMarsh. 


Arbolp'da.  .Tilio:  South  American  statesman,  soldier, 
oratoi',  and  poet  ;  b.  in  New  Granada,  .lune  9,  1817.  Edu- 
cated in  England  aiul  on  the  Continent,  he  carried  home 
with  him  a  wide  knowledge  of  Englisli,  French,  and  Italian, 
as  well  as  of  Spanish  literature.  In  1839  he  was  editing  the 
ymrnid  El  Judependieute  v,'lwn  the  revolution  led  by  Jose 
M.  Obando  broke  out.  During  tliis  and  the  many  subse- 
(luent  upheavals  in  New  (iraiiada,  Arboleda  took  always 
the  line  of  liberal  conservatism,  oiijiosing  both  ultra-social- 
istic and  anarchistic  doctrines,  then  very  prevalent  among 
his  countrymen.  In  his  journal.  El  Jllisnfiiro,  founded  in 
1850,  lie  advocated  law,  order,  and  the  pursuit  of  legitimate 
[jrosjierity,  but  without  much  success.  lie  was  several  years 
a  meiid)C'r  of  the  legislature  of  New  Granada,  and  more 
than  once  nifused  the  vice-presidency  of  the  reptddic.  As 
a  poet  he  is  well  known  in  Sjiainsh  America  for  a  small 
number  of  poems  full  of  passionate  love  (jf  lilierty  and  jus- 
tice. Among  these  are  At  Cvngresu  Oranadino,  Estny  en 
la  Cdrcel,  and  an  unfini-shed  epic  entitled  Qonzalu  de  Oyon. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

,\rbor  Day:  a  day  set  apart  in  most  of  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  U."  S.  for  the  voluntary  planting  of  trees 
liy  the  people.  The  object  is  to  encourage  the  planting  of 
trees,  and  to  stimulate  public  interest  in  forestry.  The  im- 
Iiortance  of  the  day  has  been  greatly  increased  by  interest- 
ing the  children  of  the  puljlic  schools  in  its  observance. 
The  day  is  made  a  school  holiday,  and  special  and  often 
elaborate  programmes  of  exei'cises  are  carried  out.  Arbor 
day  was  inaugurated  by  the  Nebraska  State  Board  of  Ag- 
riculture, which  in  1874  recommended  that  the  second 
Wednesday  in  April  of  each  year  be  dedicated  to  the  work 
of  planting  trees.  The  following  States  and  Territories 
have  since  then  established  an  annual  Arbor  day:  Ala- 
liama,  California,  Colorado,  Connecticut.  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho.  Illinois.  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Jliuuesota,  Montana, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey, 
New  Mexico,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Penn- 
svlvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
Vermont,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming.  See 
Legal  Holidays.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Arboriciil'ture  [from  I^at.  arbor,  tree  -i-  cultu'ra,  culti- 
vation] :  the  art  and  science  of  growing  trees.  See  Forestry, 
Nursery,  and  discussions  of  the  various  fruit-trees  under 
their  proper  heads. 

Ar'bor  A'i'ta?  (Lat.,  tree  of  life):  the  thick  mass  of  white 
substance  in  either  hemisphere  of  the  cereliellum.  This 
mass,  on  section,  presents  a  tree-like  ap]iearance. 

Arb«r  Vitie:  a  plant  of  the  genus  Thuya,  and  family 
Canifrni'.  Thuya  consists  of  evergreen  trees  or  shrubs, 
with  Compressed  or  flattened  branchlets,  and  small,  scale- 
like, anil  indiricated  leaves.  The  Tliuya  occidenlalis  is  a 
native  of  the  U.  S..  and  is  often  planted  as  an  ornamental 
trc'C  in  the  parks  and  pleasure-grounds  of  America  and 
Europe.  It  is  one  of  the  trees  known  as  white  cedar.  The 
Chinese  arbor  vitff  {Thuya  urieutalix),  n  native  of  China, 
has  lai-ger  cones  and  more  u|iright  branches  than  the  [ire- 
ceding.  It  is  cuUivated  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  as  an  or- 
namental tree,  and  jiroduces  a  resin  which  has  been  supposed 
to  possess  medicinal  virtues.  The  geiuis  comprises  several 
other  s]iecics. 

Ar'broath.  Ab'erbrotli'wick,  or  Ab'eibroth'ock  :  a  sea- 
port-town of  Scotland:  in  Forfaishii-e ;  at  the  mouth  of  a 
small  stream  called  the  Brothock  ;  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Dun- 
dee, with  winch  it  is  connected  by  I'ailway  (see  map  of  Scot- 
laud,  rcl'.  10-J).  Jt  has  a  pulilic  library. "and  manufactures 
of  coarse  linetis,  canvas,  leather,  etc.  About  100  vessels 
(tonnage  18.89())  belong  to  this  port.  Here  are  picturesque 
ruins  of  a  richly  endowed  abliey,  founded  by  William  the 
Lion  in  1178.  Uoberl  Bruce  anil  the  Scottish  nobles  met 
in  this  aliliev  in  1320  to  organize  a  resistance  to  Edward  II. 
l'o]i.  of  the  parlianu'iitary  burgh  about  22,000. 

Arbiitbliol.  John.  M.  D.,  F.  R.S.  :  aidhor  and  jihysician; 
I),  at  Arliuthnot,  near  Montrose,  Scotland,  in  10G7.  He 
studied  at  Alierdcen,  where  he  gradual imI,  and  settled  in  Lon- 
don. His  first  work  was  an  Examinatliiu  of  Dr.  Witndirard's 
Account  of  the  J)<'lu<ie  (1097).  His  reputation  was  increased 
bv  his  Tables  of  the  Greek-,  litmian,  and  Jewish  Measures, 
SVeiyhts,  and  Coins  (1705).  He  was  appointed  physician 
to  the  queen  in  170.5,  and  obtained  an  extensive  practice. 
He  was  an  intimate  a-ssoeiate  of  Pope,  Swift,  and  Lord 
IJolingbroke.     In  1713  he  published  a  humorous  political 


280 


ARBUTIX 


AECESILAUS 


allegoiy  entitled  a  JTistorij  of  John  Bull,  in  which  the  great 
powers  then  involred  in  war  were  personated  by  John  Bull 
the  clothier,  Xick  Frog  the  linen-draper,  and  Louis  Baboon 
(Louis  XIV.).  This  work  displays  a  great  talent  for  satire. 
He  produced  another  humorous  and  ironical  work,  called 
The  First  Book  of  the  Memoirs  of  Marfinus  Scrib/erus. 
This  was  part  of  an  unfinished  work  which  Pope,  Swift, 
and  Arbuthnot  projected  in  partnership,  and  which  was  de- 
signed to  be  a  satire  against  jiedantry  and  the  abuse  of 
learning.  In  1723  he  was  chosen  second  censor  of  the  Koyal 
College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1727  was  made  an  elect  of  the 
college.     D.  in  Lonilon,  Feb.  27,  1735. 

Ar'bntin :  a  jirinciple  found  in  the  leaves  of  the  red 
bearbeny  {Arctostaphi/los  tira  ursi). 

Ar'blltus:  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Ericacece, 
mostly  natives  of  America  and  Southern  Europe.  T-liey  are 
evergreen  shrubs,  bearing  a  fleshy  fiiiit  which  has  five  cells 
and  many  seeds.  The  arbutus  mentioned  by  Vergil  was 
the  Arbutus  unedo  or  strawberry-tree,  which  beare  bright 
red  and  yellow  berries,  with  beautiful  foliage,  and  is  culti- 
vated as  an  ornamental  evergreen.  The  fruit  has  narcotic 
properties,  and  is  used  for  making  wine  in  Corsica.  An- 
other species,  the  Arbutus  andrachne,  a  native  of  the  Le- 
vant, is  admired  as  an  ornamental  plant,  and  beai-s  an  es- 
culent fruit.  The  madrofla  of  California  is  a  species  of  this 
genus;  but  the  manzanitii.i\n(i  also  the  bearberry  (or  f'ca 
ursi,  a  trailing  shrub  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  leaves 
used  as  an  astringent  touie  in  medicine)  belong  to  the  related 
genus  Arctostitplnjlos,  although  formerly  included  in  Ar- 
butus.   "Trailing  arbutus"  is  Epig.ea  repexs  (q.v.). 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Arc  [from  Lat.  arcus.  a  bow]:  a  portion  of  a  line,  the 
straight  line  being  excluded.  The  length  of  an  arc,  when 
the  nature  of  the  curve  is  given,  may  be  found  Viy  the  in- 
tegral calculus.  (See  Rectification.)'  The  length  of  an  arc 
is  always  greater  than  that  of  the  straight  line  joining  its 
extremities,  which  is  called  the  chord  of  the  arc.  The  word 
is  laost  commonly  used  in  the  case  of  the  circle ;  and  the 
principal  properties  of  circular  arcs  are  given  in  Euclid's 
works.  The  length  of  a  circular  arc  divided  by  the  entire 
length  of  the  perimeter  is  equal  to  the  angle  subtended  at 
the  center,  expressed  in  degrees,  minutes,  etc.,  and  divided 
by  360. 

Ar'c.l :  a  genus  of  bivalve  mollusks,  the  type  of  a  family 
called  An-ailte.  The  hinge  is  straight,  and  is  coextensive 
with  the  whole  breadth  of  the  shell,  the  breadth  being 
greater  than  the  length.  Numerous  species  are  known, 
some  of  them  fossil. 

Arca'dia  (in  Gr.  'ApKaSla) :  a  celebrated  state  of  ancient 
Greece ;  tlie  most  central  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  (now 
called  the  Morea).  It  was  bounded  X.  by  Achaia.  E.  by 
Argolis,  S.  by  Laconia  and  Messenia.  and  W.  by  Elis.  The 
area  was  about  1,600  sij.  miles  (see  map  of  Greece,  ref.  17-.T). 
It  was  inclosed  on  nearly  all  sides  by  mountains,  and  a 
large  part  of  it  was  occupied  by  fertile  valleys  and  verdant 
mountain-ridges.  The  prineii)al  river  was  the  Alphcus.  It 
was  also  watered  by  the  Ilelisson,  the  Ladon,  the  Eryraan- 
thus,  and  several  smaller  streams,  which  cut  their  way  in 
numerous  instances  by  underground  channels  through  the 
limestone  rocks.  There  were  a  number  of  lakes  in  the  E. 
The  Arcadians  were  a  simple,  pastoral  people,  inferior  to 
most  of  the  other  Greeks  in  genius  and  culture.  This  in- 
feriority may  be  ascribed  to  their  isolated  ))osition,  which 
deprived  tln-ui  of  the  influence  of  the  sea  and  of  the  advan- 
tages of  commerce.  The  chief  towns  of  Arcadia  were  Man- 
tinea,  Tegca,  t)rchoraenos,  and  Megalopolis.  The  Arcadians 
resembled  the  Swiss  in  their  love  of  freedom  ami  money. 
and  in  their  ten<h'ncy  to  enlist  as  mercenaries  in  foreign 
armies.  Among  the  Ten  Thousand  whose  famous  retreat 
Zcnophon  described,  more  than  two  thousand  were  Arca- 
dians. This  country  was  a  favorite  of  ancient  pastoral 
poets,  who  praise  the  peaceful  and  hapin"  life  of  the  Arca- 
dian slie|)herds.  At  present.  Arcadia  is  one  of  the  sixteen 
nomarchies  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  Area,  2,020  so.  miles. 
Pop.  (ISSO)  14S,2.S-). 

Arca'dins  (in  (ir.  'ApKoSios) :  Em|)eror  of  the  East :  eldest 
son  of  Theodosius  the  Great ;  b.  in  Spain  in  377.  In  3115 
Theotlosius  died,  after  he  had  divided  his  empii-e  between 
Arcadius  and  IIonr)rius,  the  latter  of  whom  receiveil  the 
western  part.  The  eastern  empire,  of  which  Byzantium 
was  the  capital,  included  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  aiid  Syria, 
and  cxtcniled  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Tigris.     During  the 


minority  of  Arcadius,  Ruflnus  and  Eutopius  successively 
acted  as  regents  of  the  empire.  The  Empress  Eudoxia  ac- 
quired the  control  over  Arcadius,  who  was  a  feeble  and 
indolent  prince.  He  died  May  1,  408,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Theodosius  II. 

Arca'iil  Discipli'ua  (i.  e.  instruction  in  the  mysterv):  a 
term  for  the  first  time  used  by  the  Protestant  theologian  Dal- 
licus  in  1666  for  the  secrecy  obsened  in  the  early  Church 
with  respect  to  certain  doctrines ;  as,  for  example^  those  of 
baptism,  the  Eucharist,  and  some  others.  These  doctrines 
were  withheld  from  candidates  until  after  they  had  lieen  re- 
ceived into  full  communion  with  the  Church,  and  thev  were 
only  alluded  to  in  the  public  preaching  by  some  such  phrase  as 
'•  the  initiated  knows."  After  the  sermon  the  uninitiated  were 
shown  out  by  the  deacons,  and  the  dooi-s  closed.  Then  the 
Eucharist  was  celebrated.  Thus  the  Christians  imitated  the 
heathen  mysteries.  The  practice  is  not  primitive.  It  first 
comes  up  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  and  disap- 
peared in  the  sixth  century,  being,  in  fact,  synchronous 
throughout  with  the  institution  of  the  catechuiuenate.  It 
is  defensible  upon  the  two  grounds — (1)  that  truth  should  be 
given  no  faster  than  it  can  be  assimilated.  .So  it  is  proper 
that  a  heathen  should  gradually  be  instructed  in  Christian- 
ity. (2)  The  danger  of  irreverent  speaking  of  the  deeper 
truths  of  Christianity  if  they  were  discussed  in  mixed  as- 
seml>lies.  But  the  (jractice  is  not  to  be  taken  as  proof  that 
there  was  any  body  of  secret  teaching  which  was  primitive 
but  publicly  revealed  only  in  a  later  period.  The  secret  in- 
stniction  related  to  those  truths  which  are -taught  in  the 
Xcw  Testament.  The  only  novelty  was  the  way  in  which 
they  were  defended.  Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the 
term,  the  subject  gave  rise  to  a  very  animated  controversy 
between  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  theologians,  which 
has  continued  ever  since.  The  former  used  it  to  accoinit 
for  the  silence  of  the  early  Church  writers  as  to  certain  doc- 
trines and  practices  of  their  Church.  Protestant  writers 
generally  regard  it  either  as  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  op- 
presse<l  condition  in  which  the  Church  foimd  itself  at  that 
time,  or  a  degeneration  of  the  simple  forms  of  primitive 
Chi-istianity  in  the  interest  of  the  hierarchy.  The  best 
nu.xleru  treatises  on  the  subject  are  :  On  the  Roman  Catholic 
side,  J.  A.  Toklot,  De  arcnni  discipliuri,  quae  (infiijua  in 
ecdesin  fiiit  in  iisu  (Cologne,  1836);  Aihilbert  Weiss,  Die 
altkirchliche  Padagogik  dargestellt  in  Kntechumenat  nnd 
Katechese  des  ersten  sechs  Jahrhunderte  (Freiburg.  1S69): 
on  the  Protestant  side.  Th.  Harnaek,  Der  christliche 
Cremei ndegottesdienst  (Erlangen.  1854) :  G.  v.  Zezschwitz, 
System  der  Katechetik  (Lei|izig.  1863);  Huyskens,  Znr 
Frage  ul)er  die  sogenannte  Arcrindisciplin  (Miinster.  1891). 
For  a  comprehensive  study,  see  Bonwetsch's  art.  Wesen.  En- 
stehung  und  Fortgang  der  ArcandiscipUn  in  Zeilschrift  fur 
historische  Tlieotogie  (1873,  ii.  203,  sqq). 

Revised  by  S.  51.  .Jackson. 

Arca'niliii  (plu.  ,\r('a'iia):  a  secret,  a  mystery:  some- 
times applied  to  a  medicine  the  composition  of  which  is 
kc[it  a  secret.  This  term  was  7nuch  used  by  the  idchemists, 
whose  object  was  to  discover  the  grand  arcanum,  the  philos- 
opher's stone. 

Aroaiinm  :  village:  Parke  co..  Ohio  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  5-C) ;  on  the  Peoria  Division  of  the 
■■  Big  Four"  and  the  D.  and  U.  R.  R. ;  26  miles  from  Day- 
ton. It  has  good  graded  schools,  fine  city  tiuildings.  an 
opera-house,  and  two  banks.  The  village  is  surrounded  by 
a  thriving  agricultural  eountrv.  Chief  industrv,  tobacco. 
Pop.  (1880)  778;  (1800)  1,134.    ■Editor  ok  "  E.nterprise." 

jir'ce.  Mantel  .Iose  :  a  general  who  in  1824  was  chosen 
president  of  the  republic  of  Central  America  for  four  years, 
lie  favoreil  the  clerical  party,  at  whose  instigation  he  ar- 
rested Barrundia,  governor  of  Guatemala,  in  Sept.,  1826. 
This  act  provoked  a  jiopular  revolt  and  a  civil  war.  in 
which  Arce  was  defeated  m  1827.     lie  was  expelled  in  1829. 

Arcesila'ns  ('Ap)tc(rf\aos) :  Greek  philosopher :  b.  at  Pitane, 
in  .lEolis,  aliout  315  B.  c. :  founder  of  the  Xew  (or,  as  it  is 
so?netimes  called,  the  Middle)  Academy.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Tlicophi'astu-;.  and  was  an  ailmirer  of  Plato,  but  taught  a 
mo(lifie<l  form  of  Platonic  philosophy.  He  was  eloiiuent, 
witty,  and  ingenious  in  argument,  revived  the  Socratic 
method  of  teaching,  and  recommended  an  abstinence  from 
<logmatism.  It  api>eai's  that  he  left  no  written  statement  of 
his  doctrines,  which  are  known  to  us  only  through  the  medi- 
um of  his  pupils  and  succes-sors.  Among  the  sayings  ascribed 
to  him  is  tliat  "  he  knew  nothing,  not  even  his  own  ignorance." 


ARCH 


281 


D.  in  Athens  in  241  b.  r.    See  Erchmann's  Ilistory  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

Arch  [0.  Fr.  arehe  <  Lat.  area,  chest ;  it  has,  however, 
assumed  the  meaning  of  Lat.  arcus.  a  Itow]  :  a  curved  struc- 
ture of  stone  or  brick 

intended  to  cover  the  ^^ - 

space  between  two  piers 
or  two  eohimns,  and  to 
support  at  the  same 
time  a  superincumbent 
weii;ht.  Tlie  wedge- 
shaped  pieces  of  which 
the  arch  is  composed 
are  called  voiixxoijs. 
The  middle  stone  of 
the  arch  is  called  the 
keystone,  and  the  low- 
est stone  on  eitlier  side 
is  the  springer.  The 
highest  part  is  the 
crown,  tlie  sides  are 
termed  haunches,  the 
inner  curve  is  the  in- 
t ratios,  and  the  exterior 
or  upper  cur\'e  is  the 
eilrauos;  while  the 
base  which  supports 
the  lowest  voussoir  or 
spriuf/er  on  each  side  is  the  impo.if.  The  imjiost-stones  are 
a  part  of  the  abutments,  which  sujiport  the  structure  at  each 
end,  and  also  resist  its  horizontal  thrust.  The  arch  proba- 
bly origimited  in  Egypt.  The  great  pyramid  of  Cheops  (2170 
B.  c.)  has  a  false  room  above  the  ceiling  of  the  sarcophagus- 
chamber,  whose  root  is  formed  of  large  inclined  stones  acting 
like  rafters.  In  pyramids  huilt  several  huiKlred  years  later 
similar  roofs  have  been  found  having  two  inclined  stones, 
an<i  one  ])laced  horizontally  between  them,  thus  forming  a 
rude  arch  of  three  voussoir.s.  A  tomb  of  the  date  1550  B.  c. 
contains  a  brick  arch  of  11  feet  span,  formed  of  four  courses, 
and  having  a  total  thickness  of  nearly  4  feet.  The  arch  was 
also  known  to  the  Ethiopians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Greeks,  and 
the  Etruscans,  though  no  one  of  these  peoples  made  any  ex- 
tensive use  of  it,  since  the  lintel  system  met  all  t  heir  wants.  The 
Grecians  did  not  allow  curved  lines  in  any  important  visible 
parts  of  their  structures;  hence  their  magnificent  buihlings 
retarded  rather  than  encouraged  the  development  of  arches. 

The  Komans  used  the  arch  extensively,  not  only  in  build- 
ings, but  also  for  drains,  aqueducts,  and  bridges.  A  great 
sewer  called  Cloaca  Maxima,  still  seen  in  Rome,  is  believed 
to  be  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Roman  arches,  dating  from 
about  500  B.C.  As  shown  in  the  cut,  it  consists  of  two 
arches,  one  within  the  other,  tlie  inner  one  being  13  feet  in 
diameter.    These  were  built  of  large  blocks  of  tufa  about  oj 


%^fxte^^?;^^,lSfeH>-J 


tensively  used  for  the  windows  of  churches.  For  bridges 
these  forms  are  not  well  adapted,  the  sections  employed  be- 
ing arcs  of  circles  descril)ed  from  three  or  four  different 
centers,  or  sometimes  ellipses. 


3Ioutli  of  Cloaca  Maxima  at  Home. 

feet  long  and  3  feet  thick,  laid  without  cement.  Tlie  Roman 
arches  were  of  the  most  simple  form,  usually  semicircular  or 
of  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

(fothic  or  ])ointed  arches,  introduced  during  the  ninth 
centtiry,  were  quickly  developed  in  mimerous  forms,  such  as 
the  equilateral  arch,  the  ogee,  and  the  foiled  arches,  so  cx- 


Cabin  John  arch. 

The  use  of  the  arch  for  bridges  originated  with  the  Ro- 
mans, and  many  monuments  of  their  skill  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  different  parts  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire.  Near 
Narni.  in  Italy,  four  stone  arches  were  built  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  one  of  which  now  remains:  the  spans  of  these 
were  75,  114,  135,  and  142  feet.  Trajan's  famous  bridge 
over  the  Danulie  (a.  d.  105)  was  4.770  f<'<'t  in  length,  and 
consisted  of  22  wooden  arches,  some  of  which  were  180  feet 
in  span.  During  the  Middle  Ages  a  number  of  stone 
bridges  were  erected,  Perronet  mentions  one  built  at  Ve- 
rona in  1354,  consisting  of  3  arches,  one  being  nearly  160 
feet  in  span,  and  another,  erected  in  1454,  of  184  feet  sjian 
and  71  feet  rise. 

Only  3  stone  arches  exceeding  184  feet  in  span  now  exist. 
One  of  these,  built  in  1820  over  the  river  Dee  at  Chester,  in 
England,  has  a  span  of  200  feet  anil  a  rise  of  42  feet.  The 
other,  constructed  by  Gen.  51.  C.  Jleigs  in  1861  to  cari-y  the 
Washington  aqueduct  over  the  Cabin  John  creek,  has  a 
span  of  220  feet,  a  rise  of  57  feet,  and  a  width  of  20  feet ; 
the  arch  stones  are  4  feet  thick  at  the  crown,  and  6  feet 
at  the  springing  lines.  The  keystone  was  laid  in  cold 
weatlun',  so  that  in  summer  the  crown  rises.  One  of  the 
most  beautiful  stone  stnictures  in  the  U.  S.  is  Iligli  bridge, 
built  in  1840  by  .J.  B.  .Jcrvis.  to  carry  the  Croton  aque- 
duct over  Harlem  river ;  this  has  8  arches  of  80  feet 
span,  and  7  of  50  feet  span. 

The  largest  stone  arch  ever  constructed  was  built  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  over  the  river  Adda, 
in  Northern  Italy,  and  was  251  feet  in  span.  This  arch  is 
not  standing,  but  it  is  said  that  the  voussoirs  were  of  gran- 
ite and  in  two  courses,  tlic  inner  one  3  ft.  3  in.  thick  and  the 
outer  one  !)  inches  thick. 

When  the  face  of  an  arch  is  oblique  to  the  direction  of  its 
axis  it  is  called  a  skew  arch.  Owing  to  the  necessity  of 
making  the  joints  of  .stone  perpen<licular  to  the  directions 
of  the  pressures  that  come  upon  tlieni.  many  radial  joints, 
which  in  an  ordinary  structure  are  plane  surfaces,  become 
warped  surfaces  in  tlu'  skew  arch,  and  the  vtjussoirs  are  laid 
in  spiral  instead  of  horizontal  courses.  Skew  arches  are 
rarely  constructed,  and  none  of  large  span  have  been  built. 
Falls  bridge,  over  the  Schuylkill  river  near  Philadelphia, 
completed  in  1856,  had  6  arches  of  83  feet  span  and  24  feet; 
rise,  each  arch  consisting  of  8  square-built  ribs  of  3  by  3  feet 
in  .section,  and  each  rib  being  piiwed  18  inches  back  of  its 
fellow,  thus  making  a  skew  of  12  feet  in  a  width  of  24  feet. 
Skew  arches  without  rilis  are,  however,  those  usually  Iniilt. 
One  of  the  finest  in  tlie  U.  S.  is  the  structure  at  Reading, 
Pa.,  which  consists  of  a  central  span  of  40  feet  over  a  road- 
way, and  two  side  spans  of  nuich  less  width  over  the  side- 
walks. 

Xo  complete  theory  of  the  stone  arch  exists,  but  several 
theories,  more  or  less  approximate,  enable  computations  to 
be  made  with  sudicient  accuracy.  For  a  linear  arch,  that 
is  an  imaginary  arch  ring  without  thickness,  the  formulas 
given  by  Ifankine  furnish  the  means  of  fully  discussing  pa- 
rabolic and  circular  forms  under  certain  conditions  of  load- 


2S2 


ARCH 


ing.  The  horizontal  thrust  of  an  arcli  is  that  force,  acting 
at  the  crown  in  a  horizontal  direction,  which  would  hold 
one  half  of  the  structure  in  equilibrium  were  the  other  half 
removed.  As  the  point  where  this  is  applied  is  generally 
indeterminate,  the  thrust  itself  can  not  be  precisely  com- 
puted for  a  real  voussoir  arch.  The  tables  of  Woodbury 
(Treatise  on  the  M'ell-proportioned  Arch,  New  York.  1858), 
are  useful  for  segmental  and  circular  forms.  Among  the 
best  short  theoretical  discussions  are  Voussoir  Arches,  by 
William  Cain  (New  York,  1879),  and  Skew  Arches,  by  E.  W. 
Hyde  (Xew  York,  187G). 

"The  word  arch  is  also  applied  to  curved  structures  of 
timber,  iron,  or  steel,  used  for  roofs  or  bridges.  The  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  an  arch,  as  opposed  to  a  girder  or  truss, 
is  that  it  exerts  horizontal  pressures  upon  the  abutments  or 
points  of  support.     Arched  roofs  are  often  provided  with 


Rock  creek  arch.  Washington.  D. 


horizontal  tie-rods  in  order  to  prevent  the  outward  motion 
of  the  walls  wliich  sui)port  them.  Cast-iron  arches  were 
first  built  in  England — one  of  100  feet  span  and  4.1  feet  rise 
in  1779.  one  of  130  feet  span  and  27  feet  rise  in  1795,  and  a 
bolder  design  of  240  feet  span  and  30  feet  rise  in  1796. 
This  last,  known  as  the  Sunderland  bridge,  is  probably  the 
longest  cast-iron  arch  ever  liuilt,  it  being  equaled  but  not 
exceeded  by  the  Southwark  bridge,  erected  in  1818.  A 
unique  construction  is  the  Rock  creek  bridge  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  whose  arches  are  formed  of  two  cast-iron  iiipes, 
through  which  the  water  from  the  Potomac  aqueduct  enters 
the  city;  these  arches  are  200  feet  in  span  and  20  feet  rise, 
each  being  formed  of  sections  of  water-pipe  4  feet  in  diameter 
and  li  inches  thick.  The  Rock  creek  bridge  was  budt  in 
1861.  and  since  that  date  the  only  cast-iron  arch  worthy  of 
mention  is  that  over  the  Schuylkill  river  at  Chestnut  Street 
in  Philadelphia,  which  was  completed  in  1866,  consisting  of 
two  spans,  eacli  of  l.">0  feet. 

Wrought-iron  and  steel  arches  formed  of  parallel  ribs, 
braced  together  with  diagonal  memtieis,  and  hence  often 
caDed  "  braced  arch-  , 


river  at  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  designed  by  L.  L.  Buck,  and  com- 
pleted in  1890,  is  formed  by  a  three-hinged  arch  span  of  428 
feet  span  and  two  approaclacs  of  103  and  93  feet ;  the  road- 
way is  212  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river. 

The  Washington  bridge,  completed  in  1890,  over  the  Har- 
lem river  at  181st  Street.  Xew  York,  has  two  of  its  spans 
composed  of  two-hinged  arches  of  508  feet  span,  which  have 
solid  web-plates  connecting  the  ribs  instead  of  diagonal 
bracing:  the  radial  depth  of  these  arches  is  13  feet,  and  the 
hinge-pin  at  each  end  is  18  inches  in  diameter.  The  chief 
engineer  of  tliis  bridge,  William  R.  Hutton,  has  written  a, 
book  describing  its  construction  in  detail. 

The  great  bridge  over  the  Mississipiii  river  at  St.  Louis 
has  three  main  spans  of  497.  515,  and  497  feet,  respectively, 
tlie  central  one  being  the  largest  arch  in  the  L'.  S.  In  each 
of  tliese  spans  there  are  tour  arches  composed  of  steel  tubes 

9  inches  in  exterior  di- 
ameter, and  connected 
by  lateral  bracing.  Eacli 
section  of  tube  between 
the  joints  is  straight,  the 
joints  being  formed  by 
wedge-like  plates  which 
give  the  necessary  curva- 
ture. In  the  construc- 
tion of  this  bridge  many 
difliculties  were  encoun- 
tered and  overcome,  par- 
ticularly in  the  founda- 
tions. The  chief  engineer  was  James  B.  Eads.  A  histoi-y  of 
the  construction  of  this  bridge  was  written  by  C.  51.  Wood- 
ward, and  published  at  St.  Louis  in  1889.  The  cut  shows 
only  about  one-tliird  of  one  of  the  steel  spans.  The  arch  is 
a  structure  without  hinges,  and  its  ends  are  rigidly  fixed  to 
tlie  abutments. 

The  theory  of  the  equilibrium  of  braced  arches  with  three 
hinges  is  quite  simple,  since  the  horizontal  thrust  must  pass 
through  the  center  hinge,  and  thus  caii  be  readily  deter- 
mined. The  arch  with  two  hinges  and  the  arch  with  fixed 
ends  require  tlie  elastic  properties  of  the  material  to  be 
known  before  the  reactions  and  stresses  can  be  found,  and 
the  computations  are  often  quite  intricate.  The  most  com- 
plete development  of  the  theory  of  the  subject  is  given  in 
Weyrauch's  Theorie  der  elas'tigen  Bogentruger  (JIunich, 
1879).  The  methods  of  Winckler  are  also  good,  and  these 
mav  be  seen  in  Du  Bois"s  Elements  of  Graphic  Statics  (Xew 
Yoi-k.  1875). 

The  arch  of  longest  span  yet  constructed  is  on  the  Gara- 
bit  viaduct  in  Central  trance.     It  is  a  metal  structure  of 


es,"  have  been  built 
both  in  Europe  and 
America  since  1850, 
some  of  which  rank 
among  the  boldest 
bridge  st  met  arcs. 
In  order  to  elimi- 
nate stresses  due  to 
temperature,  hinges 
or  pins  are  some- 
times used  to  connect 
them  with  the  abut- 
meiils.  in  which  case 
tliey  are  called  two- 
hinged  arches.  A 
third  pin  added  at 
the  crown  rendei-s 
the  stresses  more  <lc- 
terminate  still,  and 
these  receive  tin 
name  of  tlirec-hingii  I 
arches.  If  no  liingcs 
exist  the  ar(th  is  very 
stiff,  but  extra  niali- 
rial  must  be  used  to 
resistthe  stressesdui' 
to  temperaUire. 

A  three  -  hinged 
arch  of  64  feet  sjian 
and  12  feet  rise  car- 
ries   raihvav    tracks 


across  Thirtieth  Street  In  Philadelphia,  and  one  of  about 
the  same  span  forms  a  highway  briilge  over  Mill  river  in 
Xew  Haven,  Conn.     The  liighway  viaduct  over  the  Genesee 


Approach  and  steel  arch,  St.  Louis  bridge. 

541  feet  span  and  169  feet  rise,  erected  by  51.  Eiffil  in  1885. 


Next  to  it  ranks  the  Douro  arch,  (m  the  Oporto  viaduct  in 
Portugal,  which  is  525  feet  in  sjian  and  123  feet  in  ri.se.    A 


ARCH,   TKUMl'IIAL 


ARCHiEOLOGY 


283 


vague  statement  concemins  a  stone  arch  of  600  feet  span, 
built  loMf^  ago  on  the  line  of  the  Chinese  wall,  found  in 
several  books,  can  not  be  traced  to  any  reliable  aulhority. 

A  stone  arch  is  always  built  upon  a  timber  framework 
(see  ('KNTERiX(i).  A  metal  arch  is,  however,  sometimes  built 
out  from  the  abutments,  panel  by  panel,  being  sustained  by 
suspension  guys  an<l  cables,  until  the  two  arms  meet  at  tlie 
center  of  the  span.  See  Architecture,  Bridges,  Roof, 
TrxNELS,  Foundation.  Mansfield  AIerriman. 

Arch.  Triiimpiial  [in  Lat.  ar'cus  friumpha'Us:  in  Fr. 
arc  lie  triiiinplic.  or  arc  friomp/ial] :  a  monumental  stnicture 
erected  in  honor  of  a  victorious  general  or  in  coiumenioration 
of  some  important  event  or  victory.  It  was  usually  placed 
at  the  entrance  of  a  city  or  over  a  grand  avenue.  The  an- 
cient Konuuis  built  numerous  triinnphal  arches  at  Rome 
and  elsewhere.  Seipio  Africanus  erected  one  on  the  C'api- 
toline  Hill,  about  1!)0b.  c.  Magnificent  structures  of  this 
class  were  raised  by  Augustus  at  Rimini  and  Aucona,  the 
latter  of  wliich  stands  at  the  head  of  a  great  pier  stretching 
out  into  the  sea;  it  is  in  perfect  preservation.  Several 
structures  of  this  sort  have  been  erected  in  the  U.  S.  as 
gateways  to  parks  and  cemeteries  or  as  menu)rial  struc- 
tures. In  lS!)l-!)2  a  marble  arch  was  erected  at  the  foot  of 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  city,  in  commemoration  of  the 
hundredth  anniversary  of  Washington's  inaugural  ion,  which 
liad  been  celebrated  in  1888,  when  a  similar  structure  in 
wood  hail  been  put  up  for  the  temporary  purpose.  Three 
large  triumphal  arches  at  Rome  are  still  extant — namely,  the 
Arch  of  Titus,  w-hich  commemorates  the  conquest  of  .ludea  ; 
the  Arch  of  Septimius  .Seveiiis;  and  the  Arch  of  Constan- 
tine,  a  beautiful  and  imposing  structure  a<loriied  with  bas- 
reliefs.  There  are  also  several  smaller  ones.  The  most 
magnificent  of  modern  triumphal  arches  are  those  of  Paris, 
and  the  finest  among  these  is  the  Arc  de  I'Etoile,  erected 
by  Xapoleon  I.  at  the  Barriere  de  Xeuilly.  It  has  three 
arches,  the  central  one  of  which  is  0.5  feet  high.  The  whole 
.structure,  which  is  equal  in  grandeur  and  splendor  to  the 
ancient  Roman  arches,  is  about  1(50  feet  high  and  loO  feet 
in  length. 

Arch.  .JosEPn :  founder  and  fli'st  president  of  tlie  Xational 
Agricultural  Laborers'  Union  of  Kngland ;  b.  at  Barford, 
^Varwickshire,  Kngland,  Xov.  10.  18'.J6.  lie  was  brought  up 
as  a  farm-laborer,  educated  himself  as  liest  he  could,  and 
became  a  Primitive  Methodist  preacher.  When  the  union 
movement  arose  among  the  agricultural  laborers  he  became 
its  recognized  leader.  In  187'3  he  founded  the  National 
Agricultural  Laborers'  Union,  of  which  he  became  president. 
In  18T3  he  visited  Canada  to  inquire  into  the  labor  and  im- 
migration questions.  In  1880  he  was  elected  to  Parliament 
for  Northwest  Norfolk,  but  \vas<lefeated  tor  re-election  after 
the  dissolution  of  1886  ;  was  re-elected  in  189'2,  and  again  in 
189.x  He  has  been  the  recognized  leader  of  the  movement 
for  the  elevation  of  the  rural  laborers.  See  Heath's  English 
Peasantry  (1874).  C.  II.  Thurber. 

Archipol'ogy  [Gr.  opxo'o^o?^" :  af>x<uos.  ancient -I- A.67eiy, 
discussj :  litei-ally  the  science  of  antiquities.  Dionysius 
of  Ilahcarmissus  gave  the  title  of  Ji'omnii  Archivi>liigrj  to  a 
work  of  general  history,  and  the  .lewish  history  of  .loseplius 
was  Iik<'wise  entitled  "'louSai'/c}) 'Apx^'o^oy'"'"  The  term  in 
its  widest  sense  includes  the  kuowledge  of  origins,  lan- 
guage, religion,  laws,  institutions,  literature,  science,  arts, 
mannei's,  customs — everything,  in  fact,  that  can  he  learned 
of  the  ancient  life  and  being  of  mankind.  Arclueology  may 
thus  l)e  made  to  comprehend  a  ])art  of  many  branches  of 
knowledge  which  are  recognized  as  distinct  or  independent 
pursuits;  Init  in  its  narrower  and  ]ierhaps  more  popular  sig- 
nification it  is  understood  to  have  reference  to  the  maferialfi 
from  which  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  condition  of  a  couu- 
tiT  is  to  lie  attained.  These  materials  are  written,  monu- 
mental. an<l  traditional.  Written  arclwcologv'  includes  both 
the  scien<-e  of  ancient  writings  and  t  he  knowledge  of  printed 
books.  The  second,  momnncntal  arclui'ology.  admits  of  al- 
most endless  subdivisions,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
remains  to  be  studied,  which  may  lie  works  of  art.  such  as 
buildings,  sculjitnre.s.  paintings,  inscriptions,  coins,  armorial 
bearings,  furniture,  enamels,  glass,  porcelain,  etc. ;  works  of 
engineering,  such  as  roads,  canals,  aqueducts,  mines,  etc. ; 
articles  of  ilress.  armor,  or  personal  ornament  ;  tools,  weap- 
ons, utensils,  habitations,  et(^ ;  f(U'ms  of  sepulture;  vestiges 
of  man  and  iinimals,  such  as  bones,  etc.  The  third,  or  tra- 
ditional archa'o+ogy.  may  be  said  to  include  the  oral  litera- 
ture of  a  people,  their  dialects,  legends,  proverbs,  ballads, 
as  well  as  tlieir  sports,  customs,  anil  superstitions. 


In  regard  to  the  ajiplication  of  the  words  archiEology  and 
antiquities,  it  nuiy  be  remarked  that  the  latter  has  reference 
properly  to  the  objects  studied,  the  former  to  the  studv  it- 
self. And  though  arclueology  in  its  more  limited  significa- 
tion refers  to  the  materials  studied,  those  materials  are  con- 
sidered not  as  individual  specimens,  but  in  their  totality. 
Thus  while  we  might  .say  a  "collection  of  antiquities"  (i.e. 
of  anti(iue  ol)jects),  we  could  not  so  properly  say  "a  collection 
of  archieology,"  though  we  might  say  ''an  archaeological  col- 
lection." Tlu'  study  of  arclueology  was  long  almost  exclu- 
sively confined  to  the  antiquities  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
but  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  attention  was 
turned  to  the  antiquities  of  other  ancient  nations  and  of  the 
Jliddle  Ages.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  Stone, 
which  gave  a  key  to  its  hieroglyphics,  the  archaeology  of 
Eg)-pt  has  made  astonishing  progress;  while  the  discov- 
eries of  Layard,  Rawlinson,  and  others  have  already  far 
advanced  that  of  Assyria.  Within  the  last  few  years  the 
arclueology  of  India  and  that  of  China  have  been  success- 
fully prosecuted.  The  rude  and  scanty  remains  of  the  ab- 
original inhabitants  of  North  America  have  occupied  the 
attention  of  men  of  letters  in  this  country;  while  the  more 
stately  and  instructive  monuments  of  Central  and  South 
America  have  fully  rewarded  the  investigations  of  anti- 
quaries. Prehistoric  archieology.  or  the  study  of  the  relics 
of  man  as  he  existed  liefore  the  dawn  of  history,  is  of  late 
attracting  much  attention.  The  Royal  .Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries at  Copenhagen  has  given  this  branch  of  the  subject 
especial  attention,  Northern  Europe  being  peculiarly  rich 
in  remains  of  the  prehistoric  ages. 

In  Great  Britain,  too,  prehistoric  remains  of  the  most 
ancient  origin  have  been  abundantly  found,  and  there  can 
be  but  little  donbt  that  many  ancient  relics  which  have  been 
regarded  as  Druidical  are  in  reality  ante-Celtic.  But  in 
France  and  Belgium,  especially,  have  the  labors  of  Boucher 
de  Perthes,  Lartet,  De  Yibraye.  and  others  been  rewarded 
by  tlie  discoveiy  of  very  ancient  human  relics.  In  Switzer- 
land (see  Lake-dwellings),  in  Italy,  Greece.  Turkey,  etc., 
the  study  of  these  profoundly  interesting  prehistoric  re- 
mains has  aroused  much  enthusiasm.  But  the  work  is  as 
yet  in  its  early  infancy.  The  cyclopean  walls  of  the  sonthem 
peninsulas  of  Europe  are  now  generally  assigned  to  the  jire- 
historic  ages.  The  fruits  of  the  discoveries  near  the  sn|)- 
posed  site  of  ancient  Troy  are  liy  many  referred  to  pre- 
historic times.  The  later  heroic  age  of  Greece  has  left  many 
undoubted  relics,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  associ- 
ated with  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  .Schliemann  (see  Mycenj^;). 
The  discovery  of  Phrygian  ruins  of  similar  character  is 
interesting,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  the  civilization 
of  MyceiKC  in  Greece  can  be  referred  to  Phrygian  origins. 
The  deeply  interesting  discoveries  in  Cyprus  (see  Cyprus 
and  Cesxola.  di)  have  shown  us  unquestionably  the  w'orks 
of  historic  times.  The  discovery  in  1873  of  the  key  to  the 
reading  of  the  strange  inscriptions  in  the  syllabic  alphabet 
of  Cyprus  has  thus  far  given  no  evidence  of  their  being  of 
very  remote  origin,  and  the  inseri])tions  themselves  are  in 
Greek  of  a  very  marked  dialect. 

While  prchist(U-ic  archaeology  opens  to  us  a  world  of 
mystery  and  wonder,  the  arcluvology  of  later  times  serves 
to'  dispel  mysteries ;  the  resulting  effect  of  the  two  being 
to  remove  the  mysterious  age  farther  backward  into  the 
past.  Much  that  has  hitherto  been  unexplained  is  receiving 
light  from  the  labors  of  archa'ologists  in  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates-Tigris,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  Nile.  Biblical 
archiciilogy  is  greatly  forwarded  liy  the  laliorsof  the  English 
and  Americans  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  Asiatic  societies 
find  abundant  material  for  examination  in  Southeastern 
India,  a  new  and  almost  untrodden  field.  Osiander.  Fresnel, 
and  other  Semitic'  scholars  would  appear  to  have  solved  the 
riddle  of  the  Iliuiyarilic  inscriptions  in  Arabia;  and  the 
wonders  of  the  seini-civilizatious  of  .\merica  before  the  time 
of  CoUimlais  have  been  much  diminishccl  by  the  sim|)le 
and  yet  admirable  generalizations  which  have  been  of  late 
lirought  forward  with  regard  to  them.  Hut  an  interest 
hardly  less  intense  than  attaches  to  the  above-mentioned 
works  is.  and  long  has  been,  felt  in  the  antiquities  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  both  ecclesiastical  and  social.  The  civiliza-' 
tions  of  ancient  Rome  and  Greece  arc  quite  clearly  marked 
off  from  ours,  while  tlie  Christian  civilization  that  s]iraiig 
up  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  is  our  own  civilization,  and  must 
possess  for  ever  a  deep  interest  to  the  student  of  modern 
humanity.  The  French  and  Italians  have  given  special  at- 
tention to  this  department. 

Among  other  recent  archaeological  investigations  may  be 


284 


ARCHEOLOGY 


ARCHAIC   ART 


mentioned  the  labors  of  Mariette  Bey,  Lepsiiis,  Brugsch 
Bey,  Maspero,  and  Flinders  Petrie  in  Egypt,  extending  from 
the  delta  of  the  >rile  up  to  the  Sudan:  the  excavations  at 
Carthage  and  Cyrene  (Greek  Africa) ;  at  Ephesus,  Pergamon, 
and  Assos  in  Asia  Minor;  on  the  island  of  Dolos,  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  (see  Athens);  at  Eleusis,  Epidaurus. 
Olympia,  and  Delphi  in  Greece ;  and  chiefly  at  Rome  and 
Pompeii,  and  among  the  Etruscan  cemeteries,  in  Italy.  The 
monumental  archaeology  of  Brazil,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  the 
rest  of  South  America  has  been  studied  with  important 
results. 

The  quite  modern  science  of  "folk-lore,"  which  examines 
and  compares  the  traditions,  legends,  superstitions,  and  iui- 
memorial  customs  of  existing  peoples,  links  itself  inseparably 
with  some  departments  of  archteology;  and  it  is  from  the 
study  of  long-overlooked  traces  of  the  old  Aryan  and  San- 
skrit traditions,  legends,  superstitions,  and  customs  that  they 
receive  much  of  the  light  which  has  lately  been  shed  ui)on 
them — a  light  whicli  shows  very  plainly  that  a  common,  if 
very  remote,  kinship  unites  all  the  Indo-European  peoples. 
Such  considerations  show  that  the  true  ai'chiPologist  is  no 
mere  antiquarian  curiosity  hunter,  but  a  student  of  matters 
which  have  a  very  wide  and  deep  interest  to  nearly  every 
thoughtful  mind. 

The  foundership  of  areh.Tological  research  has  lately  been 
claimed  in  behalf  of  Kienzi,  the  Roman  tribune,  who  was 
an  enthusiastic  antiquarian  {ViVi-54).  But  classical  arclue- 
ology  appears  to  have  worn  the  aspect  of  a  collector's  holiby 
until  a  vitalizing  spirit  was  infused  into  the  science  of  the 
concrete  remains  of  antiquity  by  Winckelmann.  The  in- 
terpretation and  illustration  of  ancient  ai-t,  as  one  of  the 
principal  fields  of  mental  activity  and  production,  has  since 
been  the  leading  idea  of  ai'ch;eologists,  uiore  particidarly  in 
France  and  Germany.  These  countries  were  the  first  to 
establish  schools  of  archa'ology  in  Rome  and  Athens;  their 
example  has  since  been  followed  in  Athens  by  the  U.  S. 
and  Great  Britain,  and  by  the  Italians  themselves  in  Italy. 
There  is  also  a  French  school  of  archa?ology  on  Egyptian 
soil,  "while  the  science  is  systematically  taught  at  most  of 
the  continental  and  some  of  the  British  and  American  uni- 
versities. The  proper  correlation  of  the  fragmentary  literary 
testimony  of  antiquity  is  pei'haps  the  most  interesting  and 
difficult  problem  with  which  archa'ologists  are  constantly 
occupied. 

The  science  of  arcluTology  has  been  greatly  promoted  Ijy 
the  publication  of  chronicles,  records,  catalogues,  etc..  tiy 
the  formation  of  clubs  and  societies,  and  by  the  establish- 
ment of  museums  for  the  collection  and  classification  of 
antiquities.  Among  the  societies  formed  for  this  purpose 
may  be  mentioned  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London, 
whicli  was  founded  in  l.i72,  but  was  not  incorporated  by 
royal  charter  \mtil  1751 ;  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of 
Scotland,  chartered  in  1780;  and  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
for  promoting  "the  study  of  science,  iiolite  literature,  and 
antiquities,"  which  was  chartered  in  17S6.  The  last  two 
have  good  museums  of  national  autii|uities.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  antiquarian  collections  ai'e  those  of  the 
British  Museum  in  London,  which  contains,  besides  a  great 
collection  of  early  manuscripts,  galleries  of  Assyrian,  Egyp- 
tian, Etruscan,  Greek,  Roman,  British,  and  niedian-al  an- 
tiquities; the  nnisenms  of  the  Louvre  and  the  Hotel  dc 
Cluny  in  Paris,  which  contain  an  unrivaled  collection  of 
mediicval  in  aildition  to  more  ancient  antiquities;  tlie  col- 
lections at  Florence  and  Rome,  and  the  Royal  Jluseum  at 
Naples,  which  contains  most  of  tlii^  objects  recovereil  dur- 
ing the  last  one  hundred  years  from  the  ruins  of  Ilercn- 
laneum  and  Pompeii.  Among  the  best  works  on  classic  an- 
tiquity are  those  of  Montfaucon.  jiarlicularly  his  Antiquilu 
Expliijtiee  (10  vols..  1710).  and  Winckclmann's  GcKrhichte 
der  h'linst  (lex  Altertli iinh-i  ( 1 706).  and  his  Mon nmcnti  (ititicli i 
inediti  (\~%Qi).  On  Egyptian  arelia'ology,  see  the  works  of 
Champollion  and  Ihinsen.  Among  the  recent  works  on 
archa'ology  those  bv  W'estropp,  J/niidhook  of  Airliii'o/iii/i/ 
(1807);  J.  H.  Parker's  Arc/itKi/m/i/  of  Nome '(vol  i.,  1874); 
Newton,  Emnij-s  on  Art  and  Arrfupolof/i/ ;  Waldslein,  Fs- 
Kni/s  on  the  Art  of  Pliidlrts  (18.")(i) :  Lanci'ani.  Aiiriciit  Rome 
in  the  Lirjtit  of  Arrhwology  (1S,S7):  and  .1.  H.  Jliddlelon's 
liemtiins  of  AiirienI  Home  (WM)  deserve  to  be  here  men- 
tioned. On  preliisloricarcha'ologvsee  Lubbock.  I'n/iixlorir 
Times  (2<1  ed.  18()!)) ;  Baldwin,  'Prehixtoric  ^^alion.f  (186!/), 
and  Ancient  America  (1872);  0.  C.  Jones.  AnHqiiilies  of 
the  Southern,  Indiana  (1873);  Foster,  Prehistoric  Races  of 
the  United  States  {\H~:i) ;  Xadaillac,  Prehistoric  America. 
Among  the  writers  upon  Scandinavian  prehistoric  renuiins 


we  may  mention  N.  M.  Petersen,  Finn  Magnusen,  and  Wor- 
saae.  The  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  a,nd  the  American 
Journal  of  Archaoloyij  are  the  best  periodicid  repositories 
of  archaeological  news  and  investigation  published  in  Eng- 
lish. Revised  by  Alfred  Emerson. 

Archieology.  BihHeal :  the  science  which  treats  of 
those  things  which  illustrate  the  public  and  private  life  of 
the  people  and  places  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  these  subjects  is  obtained  from  the  ancient  litera- 
ture both  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  from  the  monu- 
mental and  other  remains  of  ancient  nations.  s\ich  as  in- 
scriptions, ruins,  coins,  etc.  The  )iriiicipal  literary  sources 
of  areha'ological  knowledge  of  this  kind  are  the  Bible,  Jo- 
sephus,  Philo,  the  rabbinical  and  Arabian  writers,  Herodo- 
tus, the  writings  of  the  Christian  F.athers,  the  later  classical 
authors,  and  a  great  number  of  modern  works  of  travel  and 
literary  research.  The  monumental  sources  of  knowledge 
include  the  interesting  literary  and  other  i-emains  of  ancient 
Egypt,  the  coins  of  the  Phoenicians,  of  the  Maccabees,  and 
of  the  Syrians,  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Babylon,  As- 
syria, and  Persia,  the  Moabil  e  Stone,  the  catacombs  of  Rome, 
and  the  remains  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Palestine  and  the 
neighboring  countries. 

Among  the  immense  numbers  of  older  treatises  upon  this 
subject  we  may  mention  J.  1).  JMichaelis,  Commentary  on 
the  Laws  of  Moses  (1770,  2d  cd.  1775  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1814,  4  vols.) ;  J.  .Tahn,  Biblical  Archwologii  (1796-1805,  Eng. 
trans.,  Andover,  183:3;  5th  ed.  1849);  J.  L.  Saalschutz.^rcAff- 
ologic  der  Heliraer  (Konigsberg,  1855-56,  2  vols.) ;  Edward 
Robinson,  Biblical  Researches  (Boston,  1841-56,  4  vols.). 
Jlore  recent  works  are  Bwald's  Die  Alterthiinier  desVolkes 
Israel  (3d  cd.  1866  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London  and  Boston,  1876) ; 
Kcil's  Ilandbuch  (2d  ed.  1875) ;  E.  C.  Bissell's  Biblical  An- 
tiijuities  (Phila.,  1888) ;  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
of  numerous  archa>ological  societies;  the  Bible  dictionaries 
of  Smith,  Kitto,  Riehm,  and  Schaif,  and  the  general  reli- 
gious encyclopa-dias  of  Herzog  and  Plitt,  the  Scliaff-Herzog, 
the  Wetzer  and  Welte  (n.  e.  Kaulen).  and  McClintock  and 
Strong.  Revised  tiy  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Arcliieop'teryx  [from  Gr.  apxaios.  ancient -I- Trrepul,  bird] : 
a  remarkable  fossil  bird  found  in  the  lithographic  lime- 
stones (Jurassic)  of  Solenhofen.  Bavaria.  It  is  the  oldest  bird 
of  which  we  have  any  record,  and  is  in  many  points  of  struc- 
ture intermediate  between  birds  and  reptiles.  It  had,  how- 
ever, undouljted  feathers.  As  in  some  of  the  cretaceous 
birds,  the  jaws  were  furnished  with  teeth.  The  wing  was 
very  bird-like,  but  three  fingers  being  present.  These  were, 
however,  terminated  with  claws.  One  of  the  most  striking 
features  is  the  long,  rei)tile-like  tail,  composed  of  a  large 
number  of  vertebra',  from  which  feathers  diverge  on  either 
side.     Two  specimens  are  known. 

Archa'ic  .\rt :  art  in  its  earliest  stages,  characterized  by 
a  striving  after  ideals  as  yet  unrealized  and  oidy  imper- 
fectly discerned,  with  a  resulting  uncouthness  and  stiffness 
of  expression  which  disappear  as  the  ideals  become  more 
clearly  deiined,  and  exjicrience  and  developing  taste  bring 
with  them  greater  facdity  of  expression  and  an  improved 
technique.  In  this  early  and  immature  stage  the  arts  are  the 
objects  of  careful  study  on  the  part  of  archaeologists  and 
artists,  not  merclv  because  of  the  light  they  throw  upon  the 
influences  of,  and  the  rehdions  between,  the  older  civiliza- 
tions and  the  rising  one.  but  also  because  of  the  simplicity, 
sincerity,  and  ««?/ charm  of  many  of  the  works  themselves. 

Singularly  enough,  the  ohlcst  of  all  civilizations — that  of 
Egypt — has  left  us  practically  no  traces  of  its  archaic  stage, 
and  but  little  has  come  down  to  us  from  the  Eu]ihrates- 
Tigris  valley  that  can  proiierly  be  called  archaic.  The  art 
of  Greece,  on  the  other  liaiul.  and  that  of  the  neighboring 
Asi.atic  peoples  have  be(|ueallied  to  us  an  extraordinary 
number  of  vases,  sculjitures,  rock-carvings,  and  architec- 
tural fragments  belonging  to  the  archaic  periods  of  their 
several  civilizations,  while  the  arts  of  Cyprus  and  Etruria 
seem  never  to  have  emerged  from  the  immaturity  and  un- 
couthness of  archaism. 

The  archaic  vases  of  Greece  have  little  of  the  grace  of  the 
later  more  jierfect  cei-aniic  art ;  the  most  ancient  are 
adorned  with  concentric  rings  or  circles  in  black,  with  zig- 
zags and  crude  frets,  and  sometimes  wilh  rows  of  what 
appear  like  caricatures  of  beasts  and  hninan  figures.  The 
later  archaic  vase.s.  belonging  to  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  dis- 
play more  decorative  skill ;  are  adorned  with  iiictorial  com- 
positions, elaborate  honeysuckle  ornaments  of  rather  Asi- 
atic charactei',  and  other  decorations  in  black  and  white 


ARCHANGEL 


ARCUEGOSAURUS 


285 


upon  llie  lijflit  yellow  or  nearly  white  clay  of  the  vase  itself. 
Tiie  archaic  sculptures  of  (ireoce.  slartiiifc  from  the  XiKina 
or  log-idols  of  prehistoric  limes,  show  a  ijrailual  and  steady 
advance  in  anatomical  knowledf;e,  truth  to  nature,  and 
action.  Tlie  transition  from  archaism  is  marked  by  the 
disappearance  of  the  "archaic  sniilo  "  of  the  countenance, 
by  the  mastery  of  the  expression  of  perfect  and  dignified 
repose,  by  the  horizontal  |)o.sition  and  more  truthful  model- 
ing of  the  eyes,  and  by  the  freedom  and  naturalness  of  the 
pose,  especially  of  the  feet  and  hands,  with  a  corresponding 
freedom  and  boldness  in  the  drapery. 

In  tlie  later  periods  of  (ireek  and  Roman  art  the  practice 
was  introduced  of  inutating  the  archaic  formalism  of  the 
earlier  ages.  These  counterfoils  arc  easily  detected  by  ex- 
perts, and  ai'c  called  archaislic,  to  distinguish  them  from 
their  genuine  prototypes. 

The  nascent  art  of  early  Christian  and  mediaeval  times 
is  not  usually  called  archaic,  nor  is  tlie  term  ajiplied  to  the 
[jroductions  of  savage  and  liarliaroiis  or  jiriniitive  races  or 
tribes,  elaborate  and  beautiful  as  these  often  are.  The  ele- 
ment of  a  developing  civilization  is  usually  understood  to 
underlie  the  application  of  this  term.      A.  I).  E.  Hamlin. 

Arolian'gcl,  or  Archangelsk'  (referring  to  Archangel 
Micliael) ;  a  government  or  jirovince  of  European  Russia; 
bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  E.  by  the  Ural  Mountains, 
S.  Iiy  Wologda  and  Olonetz,  and  W.  by  Finland.  It  com- 
prises Russian  Lai)laii<l,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts  by 
the  White  Sea.  The  siirfu(^e  is  flat  and  the  soil  mostly 
barren,  but  produces  valuable  timber.  The  climate  is  very 
severe.     Area,  331,505  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (18S7)  340,251. 

Arcliail^el :  a  seaport  of  Russia  :  capital  of  the  [jrovince, 
of  that  name:  on  tlie  Dwina.  about  20  miles  from  its  en- 
trance into  the  While  Sea:  lat.  64'  32'  N.,  Ion.  40'  33'  E. 
(see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  4-E).  The  houses  arc  mostly  of 
wood.  It  has  about  twelve  churches  and  an  ecclesiastical 
college.  The  harbor  is  closed  by  ice  except  about  three 
montlis,  from  .luly  to  September,  during  which  period  it  is 
visited  by  many  foreign  vessels.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port are  fish,  furs,  lumber,  tallow,  flax,  linseed,  tai',  iron, 
and  bristles.  This  place,  which  was  founded  in  1584,  was 
for  a  long  time  the  only  seaport  of  Russia.     Pop.  19,702. 

Arcllbish'op  [from  Lat.  arcMepisenpuH;  fir.apx"-,  chief -f- 
dirlaitoiroi,  overseer.  See  Bishop]:  the  chief  bishop  of  an 
ecclesiastical  province  containing  several  dioceses,  who  has 
also  a  diocese  of  his  own.  The  title  came  into  use  in  the 
fourth  century,  and  is  said  to  have  been  first  employed 
by  Athanasius.  It  was  hardly  known  in  the  Latin  Church 
before  the  seventh  century  after  Christ.  The  Church  of 
England  has  two  archbishops — one  of  Canterbury,  who  is 
Priuuite  of  all  England  and  ranks  next  to  the  princes  of  the 
blood-royal ;  and  the  other  of  York,  who  is  i^rimate  of  all 
England  and  ranks  next  to  his  brother  of  Canterbury. 

Arcli'dale,  John  :  an  Englishman  and  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends;  became  Governor  of  Carolina  in  16!>5. 
He  introduced  the  cultivation  of  rice,  and 'in  several  re- 
spects promoted  the  jirospc^rity  of  the  colony.  In  1707  he 
published  a  Deticripliim  of  the  Province  of  Carolina. 

Art'lldca'coii  [from  ^  m\.  arch  idea'  conun^ivom  Gr.  apx'Stii- 
Koi/os  :  apx'-.  chief  +  SiaKoros.  See  Deacon]  :  an  ecclesiastic 
whose  jurisdiction  is  iuimediately  subordinate  to  that  of  a 
bishop.  An  archdeacon  was  originally  an  assistant  of  the 
bishop,  and  an  overseer  of  tlie  deacons  and  younger  clergy. 
The  archdeacon  is  called  the  ocrnliis  Epixcopi,  "  the  eye  of 
the  bishop."  The  importance  and  authority  of  the  arch- 
deacons gradually  increase<l,  although  neither  the  name  nor 
the  office  is  mentioned  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 
The  office  practically  became  distinct  from  that  of  the  bish- 
ops, so  that  in  the  twelfth  century  they  were  recognized  as 
influential  as  prelates.  Sinci^  that  time  the  power  and  influ- 
ence of  archdeacons  liave  lii'cn  mwh  reduced.  The  Church 
of  England  has  seventy-one  archdeacons,  who  have  a.  limited 
vice-episcopal  territorial  jurisdiction.  In  the  Episcopal 
Churcn  in  the  U.  S.,  archdeacons  have  been  introduce<l  in 
a  number  of  the  dioceses,  e.  g.  New  York,  Connecticut, 
Jlaryland.  Chicago,  Iowa,  and  elsewhere.  These  archdeacons 
are  generally  charge<l  with  the  supervision  of  the  missionary 
work,  thougli  in  some  cises  they  are  also  connected  with  the 
cathedral.     See  Deacon. 

Arclidiike'  and  Arclidiu-li'css  :  titles  assumed  by  all  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  inherited 
by  their  descenilanls  through  the  male  line.  The  title  of 
archduke  was  first  taken  by  the  dukes  of  Austria  in  the 


fourteenth  centuiy.  or  earlier,  but  their  claim  to  that  mark 
of  precedence  over  the  other  dukes  of  the  German  empire 
was  not  recognized  bv  the  emperor  and  the  electors  until 
1453. 

Arclic'rtii  E'ra.  or  Arclieaii  Pe'riod  [archean  is  from 
Gr.  iipxaios.  ancient]:  the  earliest  division  of  geologic  time. 
Crystalline  rocks  of  this  era  were  formerly  called  Prindtive 
in  the  lielief  that  they  c<mstituted  |mrt  of  the  original  crust 
of  the  earth,  before  the  formation  of  sedimentary  strata. 
The  name  Azoic  (without  life)  was  afterward  applied  to  all 
rocks  ohlcr  than  the  Cambrian,  and  to  the  time  occupied  in 
their  formation,  in  the  bi-lief  that  life  began  with  the  Cam- 
brian. Still  later,  structures  supposed  to  lie  organic  were 
found  in  the  oldest  rocks  (sec  Eozoon),  and  the  name  Eozoic 
(pertaining  to,  or  marking  the  dawn  of  life)  was  proposed 
for  the  pre-Cambrian  era.  With  the  progress  of  investiga- 
tion it  oecaine  known  that  some  of  the  crystalline  rocks 
were  originally  sedimentary,  but  had  been  metamorphosed 
to  a-  crystalline  condition  ;  great  doubt  arose  as  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  distinguishing  jiortioiis  of  the  original  crust,  if 
they  exist  at  the  surlace,  from  metamorphic  strata;  and 
the  name  Primitive  no  longer  seemed  apjiropriate.  With 
the  progress  of  evolutionary  ideas  it  came  to  Vje  believed  that 
animals  so  highly  organized  as  those  of  the  Cambrian  nmst 
have  a  long  ancestry,  and  thus  the  name  Azoic  ceased  to  be 
an  appropriate  title  for  ]ire-Cambrian  time.  Not  all  were 
agreed  that  the  obscure  structures  discovered  in  the  oldest 
rocks  W(!re  really  fossils,  but  most  students  thought  them 
inorganic.  It  still  seemed  ]iossible  that  part  of  pre-Cam- 
brian time  was  zoic  (marked  by  the  presence  of  life)  and 
part  azoic,  and  so  the  term  Eozoic  did  not  represent  the 
prevalent  opinion  of  geologists.  Thus  each  title  proposed 
for  the  ]irc-t;ambrian  era  proved  unsatisfactory  by  reason 
of  the  theory  it  im)ilicd,  and  need  was  felt  for  a  term  free 
from  theoretic  implication.  In  1872  J.  D.  Dana  proposed 
the  name  Arcliean.,  and  it  was  immediately  adopted  by 
nearly  all  geologists. 

Com]ilicated  structure,  nictamorphism,  and  the  lack  of 
fossils  made  the  classification  of  Archean  rocks  a  matter  of 
great  difficulty,  but  the  fact  that  they  contain  important 
deposits  of  iron  ore  and  of  other  economic  minerals  secured 
for  them  patient  study,  and  substantial  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  discovery  of  their  sequence  and  history.  It 
has  been  found  in  several  districts  that  one  or  more  .series 
of  sedimentary  rocks  antedate  the  Cambrian,  separated 
from  one  another  by  unconformities,  and  usually  exhibiting 
different  degrees  oi'  nietamor|)hism.  There  occur  also  ex- 
tensive bodies  of  rock  older  than  the  series  just  mentioned, 
and  in  these  older  bodies  nictamorphism  has  gone  so  far  that 
it  has  not  been  found  possible  t-o  determine  whether  they 
w<'r<^  originally  igneous  or  sedimentary.  In  1887  R.  D.  Irving 
proposed  to  restrict  the  term  Archean  to  these  fundamental 
crystalline  rocks,  and  estalilish  a  new  category  from  the 
various  series  of  sedimentary  rocks  intermediate  between 
them  and  the  Cambrian.  His  proposition  was  widely  ac- 
cepted by  American  geologists,  and  the  newly  recognized 
])eriod  w.-is  named  Algonkian  (see  Algonkian). 

As  thus  restricted,  the  Archean  includes  a  complex  aggre- 
gate of  gneisses  and  allied  schists,  traversed  by  igneous 
dikes  iind  veins  of  many  ages  and  kinds.  Its  rocks  occur  in 
the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  in  various  mountain 
ranges  of  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  Utah,  in  Southwestern  Mon- 
tana, in  Texas,  in  the  Lake  Su|)erior  region,  north  of  I^ake 
Huron,  abfiut  Hudson  Bay,  in  Newfoundland,  and  prob- 
ably in  the  Laurentian  Mountains,  in  New  England,  and  in 
the' southeastern  belt  of  the  Ajipalachian  Jlountains.  Sim- 
ilar rocks  occur  also  in  Scandinavia,  Scotland,  Central 
Euroi)e,  India,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  The  literature 
of  American  Archean  is  summarized  by  C.  R.  Van  Ilise  in 
Archean  and  Al;p>nl;ian.  (Bulletin  86,  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey, 18!)2).     See  Geolocy,  IlisToitic.  G.  K.  GiLDERT. 

Arclicgroiie.  or  Arclipgoiiium  [from  Gr.  apx^yovos.  origi- 
nal, founiier  of  a  race ;  Apx«-.  fii'st  -I-  y6i/o^.  race] :  the  female 
reprodui'tive  organ  in  mosses,  ferns,  and  their  relatives.  It 
is  a  flask-shaped,  many-celled  structure,  containing  a  germ- 
cell  which  must  be  fertilized  by  an  antherozoid  from  the 
A.NTHKKin  ((/.  )•.).  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

ArcllPgosau'niS  [from  Gr.  apxriy^s,  leader  -1-  <ravpos.  liz- 
ard]:  a  fossil  animal,  so  named  because  it  was  supjiosed  to 
have  been  tli(>  beginning  of  reptilian  life.  It  is  found  in 
the  Bavai'iari  coal-measures,  (ioldfuss  in  1847  descrilied 
three  species  discovered  in  t,he  coal-field  of  Saarbriick,  and 
gave    them    the  generic   name   of  Archegosaurus.      Prof. 


286 


ARCHELAUS 


ARCIIIAC 


Owen  considers  this  animal  as  a  remarkaljle  connecting  link 
between  reptiles  and  fishes.  Agassiz  and  Dana  regard  it  as 
a  ganoid  fish,  while  others  class  it  with  salamandroid  batra- 
chians. 

Archela'ns :  a  Greek  philosopher,  snrnained  Physicus, 
because  lie  applied  himself  chiefly  to  physical  science ;  was 
a  native  of  Miletus,  or,  as  some  say,  of  xVtliens.  ■  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Anaxagoras,  and  flourislied  about  450  B.  c.  Soc- 
rates was  one  of  his  pupils.  Archelaus  taught  that  there 
were  two  principles  of  generation — heat,  which  moves,  and 
cold,  which  reuiains  at  rest.  His  works  are  preserved  only 
in  fragments,  quoted  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  Simplicius, 
Plutarch,  and  otliers. 

Archelaus:  King  of  Macedonia;  son  of  Perdiccas  II., 
■whom  he  succeeded"  in  4V6  B.  c.  He  patronized  Euripides 
and  Zeusis  and  other  Greek  poets  and  artists.  Socrates 
was  invited  to  his  court  at  Pella,  but  did  not  go.  This  king 
promoted  the  prosperity  of  Macedonia  by  roads  and  other 
internal  improvements.     JIurdered  in  399  B.  c. 

Archelaus :  an  able  general  of  Mithridates  the  Great ; 
was  a  native  of  Cappadocia.  He  commanded  a  large  army 
which  that  king  sent  to  oppose  the  Romans  in  Greece  in 
87  B.  c.  He  captured  a  number  of  ishmds  and  occupied 
Athens,  where  lie  was  attacked  and  besieged  by  Sulla. 
Having  been  forced  to  evaciuite  Athens,  he  retired  to  Thcs- 
saly  in  86  B.  c,  and  was  defeated  by  Sulla  at  ('ha^ronea  and 
Orchomeiuis.  He  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Sulla  in  the 
year  8.5,  and  deserted  to  tlie  Romans  in  81  B.  c.  and  com- 
manded on  their  side  in  the  second  Mithridatio  war.  He  is 
last  heard  of  in  74  B.  c. 

Archelaus:  a  son  of  the  preceding;  became  high  priest 
of  Comana  about  6:^  b.  c.  He  pretended  to  be  a  son  of 
King  Mithridates,  and  by  tliat  imposture  ind\ieed  Berenice, 
Queen  of  Egypt,  to  marry  him.  After  lie  had  reigned  about 
six  months  in  Egypt,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  by  the 
Romans  in  55  B.  c.  He  left  a  son,  Archelaus,  who  was  high 
priest  of  Comana  until  he  was  deprived  of  that  office  by 
Ciesar  in  47  B.  c. 

Archelaus:  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace,  a 
Samaritan  woman.  On  the  death  of  his  father  (4  B.  c.)  he 
became  ethnarch  of  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumea;  his  full 
brother  Antipas  and  his  half-brother  Philip  receiving  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom.  Fear  of  him  sent  the  parents  of 
Jesus  into  Galilee.  In  7  a.  d.  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus, 
and  banished  to  Vienne,  Gaul,  where  probably  he  died. 

Archeucephala,   ar-ken-sef'a-la    [from   Gr.   apx^-,  first, 

chief ;  €7K€'(()aA.os.  lirain] :  the  highest  division  of  the  class 
Mammalia,  to  which  the  order  Bimaiiii,  composed  of  the 
solitary  gi'uus  Ilaino.  belongs. 

Archenholz.  aar'-Ahtn-lujlts,  Johann  Wiliielm,  Baron 
von:  German  historian;  b.  at  Langfuhr,  near  Danzig,  Sept. 
3,  1743 ;  took  part  in  the  Seven  Years  war,  and  aftei-ward 
traveled  extensively.  He  wrote  a  number  of  historical 
works,  among  which  his  Oeschichte,  cles  siebenjahrigi-ii 
Kriegeii  is  the  most  celebrated  and  popular.  D.  at  Oyen- 
dorf,  Feb.  28,  1813.  Julius  Goebel. 

Archers  and  Archery:  An  archer  is  one  who  shoots 
with  a  bow.  In  ancient  times  arcliers  formed  an  im- 
portant portion  of  the  armies  of  most  Oriental  and  of  all 
barbarous  or  semi-barbarous  nations.  Among  the  ancients, 
the  Cretans,  Parthians,  and  Thracians,  and  in  the  Jliddle 
Ages  the  English,  were  especially  distinguished  for  the 
skill  and  efliciency  of  their  archers.  The  use  of  the  bow 
and  arrow  in  war  was  probably  first  introduced  into  Brit- 
ain by  the  Romans,  but  it  was  under  the  Nornuin  rule  in 
England  that  archery  was  extensively  practiced  and  greatly 
improved.  [ler  archers  became  su]ierior  to  those  of  all 
other  natioif!;.  The  English  archers  decided  the  fate  of  the 
day  in  the  imiiortant  battles  of  Crecy, Poitiers,  and  Agincourt. 
Aiiiong  the  Asiatic  Turks,  the  Persians,  the  Tartars,  and 
other  nations  of  the  East,  as  well  as  certain  native  African 
tribes  and  some  American  Indians,  the  bow  and  arrow  are 
still  used  as  weapons  of  war.  In  England  archery  is  now 
no  more  lliaii  a  pastime:  it  is  promoted  liy  archery  clubs  or 
societies.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  of  England  arch- 
ery was  much  patronized  by  the  court.  After  his  reign 
archery  fell  into  disuse  for  about  a  century.  Toward  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  revived  as  a 
fashionable  pastime,  even  ladies  often  taking  part  in  the 
trials  of  skill.  The  exercise,  especially  in  the  form  of  target- 
shooting,  is  still  popular. 


Archer.  Branch  T..  M.  D.  :  b.  in  1790  in  Virginia  ;  stud- 
ied medicine  in  Philadelphia,  and  wsis  long  a  prominent 
physician  and  iiolitician  in  Virginia.  He  went  to  Texas, 
in  1831  took  part  in  the  revolution,  was  in  1835  president 
of  the  ■'  Consultation,"  and  was  sent  as  a  commissioner  to 
the  U.  S.  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Texan  Congress, 
and  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  and  Secretary 
of  War  1839-42.     D.  in  Brazoria  Co.,  Tex.,  Sept.  22,  1856. 

Arelier.  John,  M.  D.  :  b.  in  Harford  co.,  Md.,  June  6, 
1741  ;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1760:  was  the  first  person 
who  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  America.  This  degree 
he  received  from  the  Philadelphia  Medical  College  in  1768. 
He  served  for  a  time  as  an  officer  in  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Jlaryland  (1801-07). 
D.  in  Harford  eo.,  Md.,  in  1810. 

Archer-flsh :  a  small  East  Indian  fish  of  the  family  of 
To.rotida'.  The  archer-fishes  are  said  to  project  drops  of 
water  at  insects,  which  they  thus  cause  to  fall  from  the  air 


Aruiifr-ii^h. 

into  the  water,  and  then  devour  them.  TaxoffS  jacniafor, 
one  of  these  archer-fishes,  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  idiout  6 
inches  long.  The  only  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  form 
of  this  fish  is  its  elongated  lower  jaw.  which  may  aid  it  in 
directing  the  liquid  missile  upon  which  its  subsistence  par- 
tially depends,  as  does  that  of  the  ininter  on  the  accuracy  o£ 
his  "rifle.  "  So  powerful,"  says  Wood,  "  is  the  projectile 
force,  and  so  marvelously  accurate  is  the  aim  [of  the  Toxo- 
les  jaculatnr],  that  it  will  strike  a  fly  with  certainty  at  a 
distance  of  3  or  even  4  feet." 

Arches,  Court  of:  a  court  of  ecclesiastical  law  in  Eng- 
land :  the  chief  court  of  appeal  from  the  courts  of  the  sev- 
eral bishojis  or  ordinaries  within  the  iu'ovin<'e  of  Canter- 
bury, which  includes  nearly  all  England.  The  dean  of 
arches  has  long  lieen  the  Archbishoj>  of  Canterbury's  prin- 
cipal official,  and  in  this  capacity  his  jurisdiction,  originally 
confined  to  the  thirteen  London  parishes  belonging  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury,  has  been  extended  to  the  "  peculiars," 
i.  c.  the  fifty-seven  parishes  which,  though  situated  in  vari- 
ous dioceses,  are  subject  only  to  the  archbishop.  This 
court  is  so  called  because  it  was  anciently  held  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  (de  Airubus).  Abolished  by 
act  of  Piirliauient,  1874. 

Archetype  [from  Gr.  ipxtrwov,  pattern;  apxf-,  first  4- 
rviros,  stamp]:  the  original  pattern  or  model  of  a  work;  the 
original  type  on  which  others  are  formed.  Among  Platonic 
|ihilosophers  the  term  archetype  was  ap]iUed  to  the  original 
patterns  or  i<leas  existing  in  the  Divine  mind  before  the 
creation. 

Archiac,  Etie.vne  Jules  Adolphe  Desmier  de  Saint- 
Simon,  \"iconde  d'  (dar'shec-ak') :  French  geologist  and 
author ;  b.  at  Rheims.  Sept.  24, 1802.     He  published,  besides 


ARCniAS 


ARCHIMEDES 


287 


ntlier  works  in  Freiicli,  a  romance  entitled  Zizim,  or  the 
Chii-alnj  of  Rhodes  (8  vols.,  1838),  and  a  Ilistory  of  the 
Proijress  of  Gt'oloyi/  from  JS34  to  1863  (8  vols.,  1847-62). 
The  latter  was  puMislied  at  the  expense  of  the  state.  1).  in 
Paris,  Dec.  24,  18US. 

Ar'cliias,  AuLrs  Licixii's:  a  Greek  poet;  b.  at  Antioeh 
.•ilumt  120  B.  v.:  In'oauie  a  resident  of  Rome  in  102  b.  c,  and 
obtained  tlie  ri;;ht  of  eitizenship.  Having  been  aeeused  of 
assuming  eitizensliip  illegally,  he  was  defended  by  Cicero  in 
his  famous  Pro  Arcliia,  aliout  60  B.  c. 

Arcliia'tcr.  or  AiTliiator  [from  Gr.  opx'oTpoj,  dpx'-.  thief 
+  larpos.  physician j :  a  title  given  by  the  Roman  emperors 
to  some  of  their  medical  attendants;  also  to  certain  officials 
who  were  jjaid  by  the  state  or  city,  and  were  expected  to 
give  gratuitous  medical  treatment  to  the  poor. 

Archibald,  Sir  Adams  George.  LL.  D.  :  Canadian  states- 
man; 1).  at  Truro,  Nova  Scotia,  May  IS,  1814;  educated  at 
Rictou  Academy;  admitted  to  th<>  liar  in  1838;  re|)resented 
Colcliester  in  X."  S.  Assembly  18-51-67;  in  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment 1869-70,  and  r(!-entere"d  tliat  body  in  1888.  He  was  a« 
member  of  the  Executive  Council  of  Nova  Scotia;  a  dele- 
gate to  Great  Britain  on  the  sul)ject  of  mines  and  the 
union  of  the  provinces  in  1857;  to  the  Quebec  union  con- 
ference in  1864;  and  to  tlie  final  conference  in  London  to 
comiilete  tlie  terms  of  union  18(i(>-67.  lie  was  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  provinces  1867-68;  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Manitoba  and  Nortlnvest  Territories  1870-73;  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Xova  Scotia  1873-83.  He  was  one  of  the  di- 
rectors of  the  Canadian  Pacific  R.  R. ;  president  of  the 
board  of  governors  of  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax :  and  was 
knighted  in  1885.     D.  at  Tniro,  X.  S.,  Dec.  14,  1892. 

Xeil  Macdonald. 

Arcliibald,  Axdrew  Webster.  D.  D.  :  Congregational 
minister;  b.  at  Xew  Kingston,  X.  Y.,  Apr.  10,  1851;  grad- 
uated at  Union  College,  Sciienectady,  X.  Y.,  in  1872  at 
tlie  head  of  his  class,  and  in  the  theological  department  of 
Yale  College.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1876.  His  pastorates 
have  been  in  Iowa  and  at  Hyde  Park,  Mass.  He  has  been 
a  trustee  of  Iowa  College  at  Grinnell  since  1888.  He  is  the 
author  of  Tlte  Bihte  Verijied  (1890),  which  in  eigliteen 
months  passed  to  its  third  edition.  He  received  the  honor- 
ary degree  of  D.  D.  from  Union  College,  1891. 

Arcliida'miis  II..  became  King  of  Sparta  about  470  b.  c. 
He  waged  war  against  the  Messenians,  and  commanded  the 
army  which  invaded  Attica  in  4:31  B.  c,  but  the  Athenians 
declined  a  battle.  This  was  one  of  the  earliest  campaigns 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  the  father  of  the  famous 
Agesilaus.     D.  in  427  B.  c. 

Archidamns  III. ;  King  of  Sparta:  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding and  son  of  Agesilaus  H.  lie  defeated  the  Arcadians 
and  Argives  in  367  n.  c.  in  a  battle  which  was  called  the 
"  scarless  "  or  "  tearless,"  liecause  no  S[)artau  was  killed  in  it. 
In  362  he  defended  S]iarta  with  success  against  Kpaminon- 
das.  lie  began  to  reign  on  the  death  of  his  father,  361  B.  c, 
and  was  an  ally  of  the  Phocians  in  the  Sacred  war.  Having 
led  an  army  to  Italy  to  aid  the  Tarentines,  he  was  killed  in 
battle  near  Manduria,  on  Aug.  2,  338  n.  c. 

Archidaiuns  V.:  the  last  king  of  the  Proclid  line.  He 
was  a  In-otlier  of  Agis  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  340  B.  c. 
He  was  soon  killed  liy  the  parlies  that  murdered  Agis. 

Ar'chil,  Or'chil.  or  Orscillc  [from  O.  Pr.  orchel,  from  Ital. 
orci/la;  of  unknown  origin] ;  a  reddish  [airple  dye  obtained 
from  various  species  of  lichens,  among  which  are  the  Lichen 
rorccl/a  or  Rorcellii  tinrtoria,  Roccilla  fiieifnrmiK,  and  Lica- 
norn  tartitreii.  Tliese  are  gatluired  from  rocks  near  the! 
shores  of  the  Canaries,  the  Azores,  the  Cape  de  Verde  isles, 
Sardinia,  Corsica,  (,'eylon,  Madeira,  Lower  California,  Au- 
vergne,  the  Pyrenees,  Sweden,  and  many  other  countries. 
The  lichens  do  not  contain  the  coloring-matter  ready 
formeil,  but  they  contain  colorless  acids,  ertjtliric,  lecanoric, 
orsellinir,  e.rernic,  etc.,  which  readily  change  to  Orcix  (q.  i\). 
I?y  the  action  of  air  and  ammonia  the  colorless  orcin 
changes  to  purple  orcein,  which  is  the  coloring-principle  of 
archil.  To  produce  the  archil,  the  weeds  are  reduced  to 
pulp,  a  little  putrid  urine  or  amnionic  carbonate  is  added, 
and  the  whole  is  allowed  to  putrefy  or  ferment.  In  a  week 
or  ten  days  t  he  color  is  fully  developed.  Uy  adding  potas- 
sium or  sodium  carbonate,  as  well  as  ammonia,  a  blue  color. 
Litmus  (r/.  v.).  is  obtained  instead  of  archil.  Cudbear  is  a 
variety  of  archil  made  at  Glasgow.  Archil  produces  beauti- 
ful shades  of  purple,  violet,  mauve,  red,  etc.,  but.  unfortu- 
nately, they  are  not,  as  generally  employed,  permanent.    Dr. 


Stenhouse  suggested  some  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  archil,  which  were  in  1856  put  in  practice  by  M. 
Mamas,  of  the  firm  of  (iuinon.  Manias  &  Bonnet,  of  Lyons, 
lie  treated  lichens  with  milk  of  lime,  fihered,  precipitated 
the  color-])roducing  jjrincijiles  by  hydrochloric  acid,  washed 
them  on  a  filter,  dissolved  them  "in  ammonia,  and  subjected 
the  solution  to  a  temperature  of  from  153°  to  160°  for  twenty 
or  twentv-five  days.  The  color  being  at  this  time  fully  de- 
veloped, he  [ireciiiitatcd  it  by  adding  calcic  chloride.  The 
purple  lake  thus  obtained  was  sold  as  French  purple.  To 
dve  with  this  lake  it  is  mixed  with  oxalic  acid  and  water, 
boiled,  and  filtered.  The  color  all  goes  into  solution,  a  little 
ammonia  is  added,  and  on  introducing  the  silk,  wool,  or 
mordanted  cotton  (mordanted  with  albumen,  or  as  for  Tur- 
key-red), thev  become  dyed  with  magnificent  fast  shades  of 
purple.  Unfortunately"  for  M.  Marnas.  in  the  same  year 
that  he  developed  his  French  purple  (1856)  Jlr.  Perkin  dis- 
coverecl  his  mciure.  which  was  the  starting-point  in  the  great 
aniline-color  industry.  Archil  has  therefore  a  comparative- 
ly limited  application.  C.  P.  Chandler. 

Arclii'lociius  of  Paros :  a  famous  Greek  poet,  ranked 
by  ancient  critics  as  second  only  to  Homer;  flourished  about 
6.j0  b.  f.  A  soldier,  he  was  in"  battles  often,  and  showed  a 
soldier's  philosophv  at  the  loss  of  his  shield  in  a  fight  be- 
tween men  of  Thra'ce  and  men  of  Thasos,  to  which  island  he 
liad  emigrated  in  his  youth.  A  soldier,  he  met  a  soldier's 
death  in  a  war  between  Paros  and  Xaxos.  A  pioneer  in  po- 
et ical  art,  he  is  said  to  have  invented  or  perfected  the  elegiac 
verse  aiicl  tlie  iambic  ;  and  other  lyric  measures  still  bear  his 
name.  He  was  a  master  in  odes,  in  elegies,  in  the  fable,  but 
his  great  and  formidable  gift  lay  in  satire  ;  and  his  lampoons 
are  said  to  have  driven  his  fickle  love,  Neobule.  and  her  false 
father,  Lycambes.  to  suicide.  He  opened  the  world  of  real- 
ism to  song;  and  his  intense  passion  made  the  unheroic 
heroic  and  gave  wings  to  the  language  of  everyday  life. 
His  name  is  a  proverb  for  remorseless  bitterness,  but  his 
works  have  perished  save  the  few  fragments  in  Bergk's 
Poelti;  Lyrici  Onvci  (4th  ed.  1878-82). 

B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Archiiiia'glis :  the  chief  of  the  ancient  Persian  magi. 
This  title  and  office  belonged  to  the  reigning  King  of  Persia 
after  the  time  of  Darius  I.,  who.  having  ordered  a  general 
massacre  of  the  magi,  directed  tliat  it  should  be  recorded  on 
his  monument  that  he  was  the  master  of  the  magi.  Arclii- 
magus  is  also  the  name  of  a  powerful  and  wicked  magician 
in  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene. 

AiTliiiuan'drite  [from  Gr.  opx'M'"'5p'T')s :  opxi-,  chief  -i- 
/ittvSpa,  inclosure,  monastery]:  an  ecclesiastic  who  presides 
over  monasteries  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Russian  bishops 
are  chosen  from  the  archimandrites.  The  title  is  retained  in 
the  Greek  rite  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Archime'des  (in  Gr.  'Apx'M^Sijj) :  the  greatest  of  ancient 
geometers;  b.  at  Syracuse  about  287  B.  c.  He  was  of  Greek 
•extraction,  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Conon  and  a 
kinsman  of  Hiero  II.,  King  of  Syracuse,  by  whom  he  was 
patronized.  He  enriched  geometry,  mathematics,  and  me- 
chanics with  important  discoveries,  and  invented  several 
useful  and  powerful  machines.  King  Hiero.  suspecting  that 
a  goldsmith  had  mixed  alloy  with  a  golden  crown  which  he 
had  made  for  him.  applied  to  Archimedes  to  detect  the 
fraud.  The  solution  of  this  iiroblem  suggested  itseU  to  him 
as  he  entered  a  full  liathing-tub.  and  jierceived  that  his  body 
must  displace  a  volume  of  water  e(|ual  to  its  own  bulk. 
Greatly  delighted  with  the  discovery,  he  ran  out  of  the 
bath,  without  having  dressed  (as  the  story  goes),  exclaiming 
"  Eureka  !"—••  I  hiive  found  it !"  He  discovered  the  pro- 
portion which  a  spliere  bears  to  a  cylinder  by  which  it  is  in- 
closed. He  was  I  lie  iiuthor  of  a  celebrated  saying,  "  Ais  nov 
o-Tw  Ko!  tJ)»  77)1'  KLvriffai " — ■■  Give  me  where  I  may  stand  and 
I  will  move  the  world  "  (or  universe).  When  Syracuse  was 
besieged  by  the  Roman  general  JIarcellus,  Archimedes 
exerted  his  ingenuilv  in  the  invention  and  construction  of 
powerful  maciiiues  or  engines  for  the  defense  of  that  city. 
The  tradition  that  lii^  burned  the  Roman  ships  by  mirrors 
is  not  confirmed  by  Polybius  and  Plutarch,  and  is  discredited 
by  niaiiv  writers.  He  'was  killed,  it  is  said,  at  the  capture 
oi'  Svracuse,  in  212  B.  c,  by  a  Roman  soldier,  who  would 
have"spared  his  life  if  Arcliiiiiedes  had  not  been  so  absorbed  in 
a  probli'in  that  he  would  not  comply  with  the  soldier's  sum- 
mons lo  surrender  or  to  follow  him.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  of  which  eight  are  extant,  namely :  On  the  Sphere  ctnd 
Ci/linder:  The  Meaxurement  of  a  Circle;  On  the  Equilib- 
rium and  Cenftr  of  Gravity  of  Planes ;  On  Conoids  and 


2SS 


ARCHIMEDES 


ARCHITECTURE 


Spheroids;  On  Spirals:  The  Quadrature  of  the  Parabola  ; 
The  Arenarius;  ami  Oh.  Floating  Bodies.  According  to 
his  direction,  a  cylinder  inclosing  a  sphere  was  engraved  on 
his  tombstone,  to  commemorate  his  discovery  of  their  rela- 
tion. The  latest  edition  of  his  extant  works  is  by  J.  L.  Hei- 
berg  (Leipzig.  1,S80-8I.  3  vols.).  There  is  a  complete  French 
translation  ^Paris,  1807).  and  one  in  German  (Stralswnd, 
1824).  "  He  possessed,"  say.s  Prof.  Donkin.  of  Oxford.  "  in  a 
degree  never  exceeded,  unless  by  Xewton,  the  inventive 
genius  which  discovers  new  provinces  of  inquiry,  and  finds 
new  points  of  view  for  old  and  familiar  objects,  and  the 
power  and  habit  of  intense  and  persevering  thought,  without 
which  other  intellectual  gifts  are  comparatively  fi'uitlcss." 
See  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society  (vol.  vi..  1860). 

William  Jacobs. 

Archimedes:  a  genus  of  Bryozoa  of  the  family  i^encs- 
tellidce.  quite  common  in  certain  limestones  of  the  lower 
Carboniferous  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  to  which  tlie  name 
"Archimedes  limestone"'  has  been  applied.  The  part  of 
the  fossil  more  frequently  met  with  is  the  central  screw- 
like axis  around  which,  in  the  perfect  form,  was  spirally 
wound  a  reticulated  lamella  very  similar  to  the  Fenestellu. 
Pieces  of  such  lamelhe  are  often  found  in  place  upon  the 
central  axis,  showing  the  structure  and  arrangement  of 
the  pores  from  which  the  true  nature  of  the  fossil  has 
been  determined.  Several  species  have  been  described  from 
the  rocks  of  Iowa  and  Illinois  and  elsewhere.  The  genus 
is  not  known  outside  the  carboniferous  system. 

H.  S.  Williams. 

Arcliiniedes.  the  Principle  of:  an  important  principle 
in  the  science  of  hyilrostatics.  the  discovery  of  wliich  is 
ascribed  to  Archimedes.  It  is  this:  "  A  body  immersed  in 
a  fluid  loses  exactly  as  much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  fluid  which  it  displaces." 

Archliuedes's  Screw:  an  engineering  appliance,  said  to 
have  been  invented  \»y  Archimedes,  for  the  purpose  of  lift- 
ing water.  A  tube  is  wound  like  a  screw  around  a  cylinder. 
the  ends  of  which  are  fixed  on  pivots.  The  cylinder  is 
placed  in  an  inclined  position,  with  its  lower  end  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  be  raised,  and  is  then  rotated  by 
means  of  a  handle  at  its  upper  end.  As  the  cylinder  turns 
round  the  water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tube  rises  above 
the  water,  and  continues  to  rise  from  bend  to  bend  as  a 
fresh  charge  is  taken  in  at  the  lower  mouth,  until  it  reaches 
the  upper  mouth  and  flows  out.  This  contrivance  is  also 
sometimes  called  sjnral pump  and  water-scretv. 

Archine:  a  measure  of  length  in  Russia,  exactly  equal  to 
28  English  inches. 

Archipel'aaro  [from  Ital.  areipelago,  the  ^gean ;  arci- 
(from  Gr.  opx'-.  chief) -H/icfa/zo,  pond,  from  Gr.  ireAayos.  sea] : 
a  name  originally  applied  to  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
called  the  .Egean  Sea.  which  lies  between  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor  and  incloses  numerous  islands.  Thev  are  mostly  ar- 
ranged in  two  groups,  the  Cychides  and  "Sjiorades.  "The 
Srincipal  islands  of  the  former  group  are  Melos  or  Milo. 
axos,  Paros,  Andros.  Tenos,  Delos,  Seripho,  Syra.  Crthnos, 
and  Thera.  These  islands,  with  Negropont,  which  is  the 
largest  island  in  the  Archipelago,  belong  to  Greece.  Some 
writers  include  Crete  in  the  Archipelago.  Among  the  Spo- 
rades,  which  Ijelong  to  Turkev,  are  "Rhodes,  Samos,  Scio 
(Chios)  Lemnos,  Metelin,  or  Jl'itylene.  Imbro,  Samothraki. 
and  Thasos.  The  islands  of  this  sea  are  generally  of  calcare- 
ous formation,  and  have  a  fertile  soil,  beautiful  scenerv.  and 
a  pleasant  climate.  >Iany  of  them  have  produced  famous 
philosophers,  artists,  and  poets,  and  have  been  the  scenes  of 
interesting  events  of  ancient  history.  (See  ^Egean  Sea.) 
In  modern  times  the  term  is  applied  "to  any  sea  or  expanse 
of  water  which  contains  many  islands,  or  to  a  group  of  isl- 
ands, as  the  Malay  or  Eastern' Archipelago. 

Archipelago,  Eastern:  See  Eastern-  Archipelago. 

Arch'itectiirr-  [from  Lat.  architeetu'rn.  deriv.  of  architec- 
ius,  iiiasler-liuilder,  a  translation  of  Gr.  apxiTeKTwy.  apxt-, 
chief  -I-  reKTav.  builder,  carpenter;  Sanskr.  tulshan-.  build- 
er]: Although  sometimes  applied  to  building  showing  sys- 
tematic and  scientific  design  without  intended  decorative 
effect  (as  military  architecture),  and  so  used  even  of  the 
work  of  certain  animals  (as  beavers  or  lionev-bees).  archi- 
tecture, strictly  speaking,  denotes  the  art,  as  "distinguished 
from  the  s<-iencc,  of  constructive  design.  It  is  the  highest 
of  the  industrial  arts,  and  the  most  useful  of  the  fine  arts, 
having  for  its  object  to  produce  effects  pleasing  to  the  eve 
and  mind,  as  well  as  to  satisfy  tlie  requii-cmeuts  of  conven- 


ience and  stability.     Vitruvius  defines  its  essential  qualities 
as  "Jirmitas,  utilitas,  venustas  "  (stability,  utility,  beauty), 


Fig.  1.— The  Greater  Temple  at  Ipsambul. 

and  the  most  perfect  architecture  is  that  which  most  com- 
pletely reconciles  these  requirements  without  sacrificing  one 

to  another.  The  architect 
may  impart  to  his  work  sub- 
limity, splendor,  grace,  play- 
fulness, variety  or  solemnity, 
and  beautify  it  by  grace  of 
proportion,  picturesque  out- 
line, play  of  light  and  shade, 
richness  of  carving  and  de- 
tail, or  splendor  of  color,  at 
the  same  time  that  he  con- 
sults and  satisfies  the  de- 
mands of  durable  constnie- 
t  ion  and  convenient  arrange- 
ment :  so  that  architectm-e. 
arising  out  of  the  humblest 
necessities  of  man,  may  min- 
ister to  his  highest  a?sthetic 
emotions,  and  rank  as  a  fine 
art  with  painting  and  sculp- 
ture. 

As  an  art  of  design,  archi- 
tecture comprises  planning, 
or    the    distribution   of    the 
parts  and  divisions  of  each 
iloor  of  a  building;  composi- 
al  arrange- 
ioning  of 
solids,  outlines 
structive  de- 
fiipi.  by  which  the  supporting 
and    sup]iorted   parts  of   its 
constructive   framework  are 
scientifically  disposed  ;    and 
decoration,  or  its  embellish- 
nu'iit  by  cai-ving, 
sculpture,     color, 
or      other     orna- 
ment.    As  a  pro- 
fession, it  involves 
the  preparation  of   working 
drawings  for  the  erection  of 
the  building,  and  the  super- 
intendence of  its  actual  con- 
si  i-uction  ;  besides  much  semi- 
Irgal  business,  in  which  the 
architect  stands  as  the  legal 
agent  of  the  proprietor.    The 
superintendence   of  the  con- 
struction requires  familiarity 
with  several  branches  of  en- 
gineering and  of  the  mechan- 
ical trades  ;  so  that  architec- 
ture has  become  one  of  the 
most  complex  of  modern  pro- 
fessions, instead  of  the  simple 
industrial  art  of  the  master- 
builder  of  ancient  days. 


jSS9^^ki  ^M^KS^S  ticiorof  a  building 

^^^^^^B  i^TrSlj^l  tinii.  or  the  genera' 

::::s:ti»4«::;::i  n.ent  and  proport 

••••••*  •  •  •••(•••V  and  masses ;  cun.str 


Fio.  S.— Plan  of  Great  Temple 
at  Karuak. 


ARCHITECT  UKE 


289 


As  architecture  more  than  any  other  art  reflects  the  polit- 
ical, religious,  social,  and  a>sthetic  conditions  out  of  which 
it  has  grown,  wc  lind  its  history  falling  into  divisions  more 
or  less  sharply  ouliincd  liy  limitations  both  of  time  and 
space.  Dilfercnt  nations,  provinces,  and  races,  having  in- 
vented or  ad(j|)tcd  each  a  particular  principle  or  system  of 
design,  have  (leveloped  their  architecture  along  the  lines  of 
these  various  dominant  ])riiiciples  until  it  has  reached  per- 
fection, in  wliicli  cas(!  decline  lias  (inally  supervened;  or  un- 
til tlie  iulUix  of  new  i<leas  and  principles,  or  conquest  by  a 
foreign  race,  has  crowded  out  the  old  system  and  effected  a 
revolution  in  the  forms  and  methods  of  the  art.  Thus  only 
have  styles — i.  e.  the  customary  and  characteristic  systems  of 
form  and  methods  of  tiesign  of  given  peoples  and  epochs — 
arisen  and  passed  away  by  a  law  of  evolution,  and  m)t  by 
any  mere  caprice  of  fashion  or  scintillation  of  genius.     To 


£e_ 


^mjSAws^ 


Fig.  3.— Egyptian 
coluuiu. 


Fig.  4.— Egyptian  column.     Fig.    5.— Capital 
at  Beni-Hassan. 


the  diff<>n'nt  styles,  according  as  we  wish  to  indicate  na- 
liimal  or  epochal  eliaracteiistics,  we  give  special  names,  as 
.\raliian,  Greek,  French  architecture  ;  classic,  medianal, 
modern  architecture. 

I  )t  the  historic  development  of  architecture  only  the  broad- 
est outlines  can  be  given  in  a  short  article  ;  for  details,  the 
reader  is  relerri'il  to  the  luimeious  histories  of  the  art,  or 
of  spi'cial  |ieriods  of  its  ilevelopment,  liy  Kosengarten.  Fer- 
gusson,  Liibke,  Heber,  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Viollet-le-l)uc, 
and  others. 

Alt  hough  architecture  has  grown  up  from  the  crude  efforts 
nf  primitive  man  to  provide  a  shelter  for  himself  and  his 
gods,  these  ]iriinilive  and  uncouth  works — wigwams,  huts, 
tents,  and  caverns — are  destitute  of  true  alt,  and  do  not  en- 
ter the   domain  of  architectural   historv.      Jloreover,   the 


^^''''OTIiS?^^ 


transitional  striu^tures  wliich  would  reveal  the  successive 
stages  liy  which  a  noble  art  was  evolved  from  these  rade  be- 
ginnings have  all  perished.  The  most  ancient  existing  cdi- 
lii-es  rlisplay  the  well-developed  art  of  a  high  civilization,  so 
that  the  origins  and  early  stages  of  the  art  can  onlv  be  con- 
jectured. The  rude  moniiinenls  attribiitcid  to  the  Druids 
(s<'e  l<'ergusson's  liude.  Slime  Jlonuments),  and  even  thi; 
megalithie  walls  and  fortifications  of  Greece,  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  architecture  of  subsequent  ages,  and  will 
therefore  be  passed  over  with  only  casual  mention  in  this 
article. 


EnvpTiAN. — The  valley  of  the  Nile,  as  the  seat  of  the  old- 
est civilization  known  to  history,  may  be  called  the  birth- 
place of  historic  architecture.  Ijong  liefore  any  known  ap- 
pearance of  permanent  buildings  in  Europe  or  Asia,  the 


Fig. 


-Tomb  at  Beiii-Hassau. 


pyramids  of  Ghizeh.  near  Cairo,  had  lieen  reared  as  tombs 
for  kings  who  died  at  least  H.500  years  B.  c.  They  attest  the 
advanced  civilization  and  mechanical  skill  of  that  early  age ; 
that  of  Shufu  or  Cheoiis  is  the  most  colossal  work  ever 
reared  by  man.  From  a  liase  TOO  feet  square,  covering  13 
acres,  it  rises  480  feet  into  the  air,  built  mainly  of  huge 
limestone  blocks,  with  intricate  passages  and  chambers  of 
iiolished  granite,  in  one  of  which  is  the  royal  sarcophagus, 
long  since  rifled  of  its  mummy.  The  other  two  pyramids 
of  the  trio  that  dominate  the  grou])  at  Ghizeh  are  smaller 
than  "Cheops  "  ;  one  was  built  by  Shafra  and  the  other  by 
Meiikeres.  both  of  the  fourth  dynasty.  Nearly  a  hundred 
others  are  scattered  in  groups  between  Abu-Hoash  and  Illa- 
houn,  some  of  stone,  others  of  brick,  but  none  rivaling  the 
three  giants  of  Ghizeh.  Near  the  latter  is  the  Spliynx,  a 
colossal,  rock-cut,  symbolic  figure,  lion-liodied  and  human- 
headed,  supposed  by  some  authorities  to  antedate  the  pyra- 
mids; and  a  small,  sand-buried  temple,  of 
nearly  equal  antiquity,  built  of  square  jjiers 
and  linti-ls  of  granite,  imposing  in  spite  of 
its  diminutive  size. 

The  monuments  of  Egyptian  architec- 
ture are  almost  wholly  religious,  consisting 
mainly  of  tombs  and  temples;  the  domes- 
tic architecture  of  Egypt  has  wholly  ]ier- 
islied.  owing,  proliably.  to  its  use  of  w'ood 
and  snn-drieil  brick  as  building  materials, 
and  to  its  relative  unimportance  architec- 
turally. The  houses,  as  shown  in  the  re- 
liefs, were  but  one  or  two  stories  high,  and 
comprised  several  rooms  surrounding  an 
open  court,  with  verandas  and  porches  of 
wood.  But  the  religious  architecture  of 
the  Egyptians  was  of  the  most  imiiosing 
and  enduring  character,  building  up  colos- 
s;il  combinations  of  columns,  lintels,  and 
pictured  walls:  or  cutting  the  solid  rock 
ibself  into  architectural  caverns  of  .surpass- 
ing inagnifieeuce.  Of  the  latter  sort  are 
the  two  teinjiles  at  Ti)sa.mlnil,  whose  gigan- 
tic sculptured  facades  and  gloomy  lialls  F^i. 8. -Osiris Pier: 
are  tliiis  hewn  in  the  side  of  the  mountain,     Bet'Abu.  " 

The  fiiiienil  temple  of   llatasu  at  De'ir-cl- 
ISahari  combined  the  two  systems,  being  partly  structural 
and  partly  excavated  in  the  rock. 

We  can  not  delay  to  mention  particularly  even  such  great 
temples  as  those  at  Luxor,  ^leilinet  Abu,  and  Abydos,  be- 
longing to  the  great  age  of  the  Kameses  and  Setis  of  the 
niuetecMith  dynasty  (14.')0  n.  c);  nor  the  magnificent  temples 
at  Edfou,  Denderah,  and  I'hilae,  belonging  to  llie  l^tolemaic 
period  when  Egyiiliaii  architecture  underwent  an  extraordi- 
nary revival.  Even  the  vast  temple  at  Karnak,  which  em- 
bodies all  the  characteristic  features  of  K.gyptian  temple 
architecture  on  a  colossal  scale,  can  only  be  summarily  de- 
scribed.    It  covered  4;iO,000  sq.  feet,  measuring  some  1,200 


290 


ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  9. — The  Lion-gate  at  Mycense. 

flanked  by  colossiil  sitting  figures  of  the  king. 


•  **•*•! 

•    • 

OpuftMJcnu 

•  - 

••      — 

PtoK.0. 

•  • 

•       Riruciu        • 

feet  in  lengtli  by  350  feet  in  width:  and  was  begun  l)y  Osir- 
tasen  I.  of  the  twelftli  dynasty.  It  was  continued  and  ex- 
tended by  many  subsequent 
monarclis,  especially  Thot  li- 
mes III.,  Amenophis  III., 
Soti  I.  and  II.,  and  Rame.ses 
I.  and  II..  of  the  "great  age." 
Like  the  other  temples,  its 
oldest  portion  was  also  the 
smallest  and  the  most  sacred 
— the  sanctuary ;  to  which 
were  added  through  the  cen- 
turies successive  halls,  cham- 
bers, and  open  courts,  each 
addition  fronted  by  a  huge 
double  pylon,  i.  e.  a  gateway 
between  twin  truncated  py- 
ramidal masses,  and  usuallv 
Each  ad- 
dition surpassed  in  size  the  earlier  structures:  so  that,  en- 
tering the  first  (really  the  latest)  pylon,  one  traverses  suc- 
cessively diminishing  courts  and  halls  up 
to  the  small,  solemn,  and  gloomy  srkos  or 
sanctuary,  surrounded  by  the  chambers  of 
the  priests.  The  whole  was  inclosed  by  a 
massive  and  unpierced  wall,  covered  with 
incised  sculptures,  and  again  by  a  sec<md 
circuit-wall  of  brick.  But  the  most  impos- 
ing feature  was  the  hi/posft/le  hall,  near  the 
center  of  the  group,  measuring  343  by  170 
feet,  its  .stone  ceiling  supported  by  134  col- 
unnis  in  sixteen  rows,  those  in  the  two  cen- 
tral rows  being  1\^  feet  in  diameter  and  63 
feet  high.  (A  model  of  this  hall  to  the  ^- 
scale  is  in  the  Jletropolitan  JIuseum  in  New 
York.)  This  and  the  otiier  lesser  halls  and 
courts  were  made  gorgeous  with  symbolic  Fio.  in— Plan  nf 
and  decorative  carvings  and  jiictures,  eov-  ^^''  ^ 
ering  every  available  surface  and  richly  col- 
ored. In  the  dim  light  which  entered  through  tlie  doors. 
or  through  clerestory  windows,  the  effect  must  have  been 
most  solemn  and  impressive. 

The  structural  forms  used  were  few  and  simple.  Round 
columns  of  sturdy  proportions,  carrying  capitals  imitating 
the  buds  or  blossoms  of  tlie  lotus,  or  swelling  into  bell-shaped 
forms  simple  or  compound,  and  square  piers  fronted  by  fig- 
ures of  Osiris,  were  the  supports  chiefly  used.  The  archi- 
traves were  plain,  and  the  pylons  and  walls  esternally  were 
crowned  with  a  simple,  overhanging  cavetto  cornice.  Col- 
ored symbolic  pictures  were  the  chief  decora- 
tive resource. 

Sepulchral  art  is  illustrated  not  only  by  the 
pyramids,  but  also  by  rock-cut  tombs,  like 
those  of  Beni-Uassan  and  many  another  ne- 
cropolis along  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile. 
These  vary  greatly  in  form,  liut  generally 
comprise  narrow  descending  galleries  with 
occasional  large  chambers  ami  lateral  branch- 
es. The  chand)ers  are  ricldy  adorned  with 
wall-paintings,  and  the  whole  is  sometimes 
preceded,  as  at  Beni-IIassan,  by  an  open 
porch  or  vestibule  cut  in  the  rock.  The 
fluted  and  square-capped  form  of  some  of 
the  rock-cut  piers  or  columns  supporting  the 
ceilings  and  fa(;ades  of  these  ante-chambers 
has  given  (hem  the  name  ot  profo-Don'c.  on 
the  hypothesis,  still  much  contested,  tliat 
from  them  was  derived  the  Doric  column  of 
the  (ireek.s. 

Egyptian  architecture  is  characterized  by 

Fio.   n.— Greek  its  grandeur,  solenniily,  and  simplicity:  by 

Done  order.      ((„.  splendor  of  its  carved  and  painted  svm- 

a,  Plinth  or  aha-  bolic  decorations  :  and  bv  the  size  and  raas- 

cus ;  6.  echinus     .  *  -^       *        .  '         i  -i  >  i 

or    ovolo  :    c.  sivcness  of  its  structures,  made  ]iossibie  only 

fluted     shaft ;  by  t  he  us<'  of  t  he  slave-labor  of  a  whole  popu- 

d,    ueck  ;     e,  jation  an<l  an  utter  di.sregard  of  the  lapse  of 
groove;/,  arch-  ..  ,,    ...  u    i  iu  •  •* 

itrave  or  epis-  time.     Hut  it  never  reached  the  exquisite  re- 
tylium :  g,  me-  finement  and  beauty  which  the  Greeks  at- 
'OP*^  ;,  '^'   '"    '"•'"'''  "'■'''  f'""  same  constnictivc  elements, 
nice.       ''  ^"^        A.ssvRnx.— A.ssyrian  architecture  was  de- 
veloped   under   the   limitation   of   poor   and 
scanty  building  materials:  sun-dried  and  burnt   brick,  ala- 
ba.ster  slal>s,  and  wood   being  chiefly  use<l.     The  ancient 
temples  of  Chaldwa,  dating  from  a  ver)-  remote  antiquity 


(perhaps  2000  B.  c).  and  the  elaborate  palaces  of  Assyria 
were  alike  built  of  these  perishable  materials.  Immense  "ter- 
raced mounds,  held  by  retaining  walls  of  stone  (as  at  Khor- 
sabad),  or  of  brick,  were  the  only  means  of  attaining  the 
altitude  made  necessary  by  the  flatness  of  the  land :  and 
enameled  brick  and  alabaster  slabs  carved  in  low  relief  were 
almost  the  only  available  resources  for  decoration.  Never- 
theless the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  were  able  to  produce 
results  of  great  splendor  in  spite  of  these  limitations ;  but, 
as  was  natural,  their  constnietion  was  far  inferior  to  their 
decorative  art.  The  latter  borrowed  much  from  Egypt,  and 
invented  much  besides:  many  of  its  forms,  perpetuated  in 
jiart  by  the  Persian  art  which  succeeded  it,  and  in  part  liy 
that  of  neighboring  Asiatic  races  which  borrowed  from  if, 
were  by  them  transmitted  in  more  or  less  modified  shape 
to  the  Greeks,  who  developed  them  into  a  wholly  new  and 
vastly  superior  art  of  exquisite  beauty.  Sec  articles  Assyria, 
AssYRUX  Art,  and  Assyrian  Exploratiox. 

The  Persians,  who  conquered  Babylonia  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  adopted  the  Assyrian  ornamental  forms  and  sym- 
bols, and  adapted  them  to  a  columnar  architecture  derived, 
apparently,  from  earlier  wooden  prototypes  of  their  own. 
The  ruins  of  Persepolis  and  Susa  exhibit  the  singular  but 
imposing  results  of  this  combination. 

Greek. — The  beginnings  of  Greek  art  are  lost  in  ob- 
scurity. The  "  Cyclopean  "  walls  of  Greece  and  Southern 
Italy,  the  subterranean  "  treasuries  "'  of  Mycena'  and  Orcho- 


FiG.  12  —Doric  construction, 


inenos.  the  MycencT?  "  lion-gate  "  and  fortifications,  and  the 
walls  of  Tiryiis,  belong  to  a  ])rehistoric  age,  and  have  little 
or  nothing  to  do  witli  the  architecture  of  later  times.  The 
oldest  remains  of  historic  Greek  architecture  are  the  ruins 
of  the  temple  at  Corinth,  erected  about  (ioO  B.C.  and  those 
of  a  temple  at  Sclinous.  in  Sicily,  of  not  much  later  date. 
These,  like  all  the  known  Greek  temples  previous  to  the 
Persian  wars,  are  in  what  is  called  the  Doric  style,  and 
differ  from  the  most  perfect  temples  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  only  by  their  less  refinement  of  detail  and  jirojiortion. 
and  by  the  absence  of  sculptural  decoration.  The  efforts  of 
Greek  architects  seem  to  have  been  c'oncentrated  for  two 
hundred  years  upon  the  perfecting  of  the  proportions,  pro- 
files, and' decnrat  ions  of  tliis  their  national  style,  and  not 
u]i<m  the  altering  of  its  fundamental  elements  or  the  inven- 
tion of  new  forms.    The  question  naturally  arises,  Whence 


ARCHITECTURE 


291 


came  this  style,  and  how  and  where  was  the  temple-form 
developed  which  we  find  so  complete  and  well  undei-sitood 
even  in  these  early  shrines  of  C'oi'mlh  and  SoliMuiis  i  This 
can  only  he  answered  by  conjeotnres :  and  it  nnist  lie  con- 
fessed that  none  of  the  theories  hitherto  advanced  quite 
satisfactorily  accounts  for  the  apparently  su<lden  appear- 
ance on  (Jreek  soil  of  so  well  developed  an  architectural 
stvle,  for  no  vestige  remains  of  the  experimental  stages 
wliich  must  have  preceded  it.  As  in  K.irypt,  so  here,  all  the 
buildings  of  a  transitional  age  and  character  seeru  to  have 
been  deuu)lislied  to  make  way  for  the  superior  products  of 
hiter  days.  Some  would  explain  the  Doric  order  as  l)or- 
rowed  from  Kgypliaii  models  like  the  tombs  of  Bcni-IIas- 
san  :  but  this  does  not  account  for  the  (emplc-plan,  which 
is  utterly  un-Eg_\']itian.  Others  ingeniously  account  for 
Doric  forms  liy  a  supposed  translation  into  stone  of  forms 
developed  in  an  earlier  and  Imig-vanished  architecture  of 
wood.  This  may  have  a  grain  of  truth  in  it,  but,  even  so, 
only  i)artially  explains  the  enigma.  Prof.  Melani,  the 
Italian  savant,  argues  for  an  Etruscan  origin  of  the  Doric 
system,  both  as  to  plan  and  details;  but  here  again  evidence 
seems  scanty  for  the  theory,  and  the  question  still  remains 
in  deimte. 

The  typical  Greek  temple  consisted  of  a  windowless  hall, 
called  the  ccl/a,  often  divided  into  two  uneqtuil  chambers, 
the  naot  containing  the  statue  of  the  deity  and  the  f/te.taii- 
ro.<  or  t reasu ry ;  the  whole  standing  on  a  platform  in  two 
or  three  steps,  and  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  or  pfn'sfi/le, 
whose  front  portion  (usually  to  the  K.)  was  called  the  pro- 
naox,  and  the  opposite  end  l\\f  iipis/hoiIoDiiif!.     The  columns 

forming  each   end   of 
the  colonnacle  su]iport- 


^mi^^^^w^ 


ed  a  low  gable  or  /iiil- 

?  y  III''       iiiii'iif,    usually     filled 

with  sculpture ;  and 
accordingas  there  were 
four,  six,  eight,  or  ten 
columns  in  the  end  row, 
the  templi'  was  called  irint.^ijilf, 
hcriislijli'.  iic/dfit !//{'.  or  ili'nia/i/h'. 
The  ceiling  of  the  colonnade 
was  of  stone  slabs  and  beams: 
that  of  the  cella,  with  the  whole 
roof,  was  of  wood  covered  with 
tiles.  In  the  larger  temples  the 
roof  recpiired  additional  sup- 
port internally,  which  was  af- 
forded by. two  rows  of  columns 
in  the  ceUa,  usually  in  two  su- 
perposed ranges,  to  avoid  the 
encund)rance  of  very  large  and 
heavv  shafts.  The  temple  is 
now  \)y  many  snp])osed  to  have 
Fio.  l:j-|iiiiir  i.rder.  been  lighted  only  through  the 
doors  at  the  ends  or  by  artifi- 
cial light.  The  existence  of  /ly/w/'/iivf/  (partially  open-roofed 
or  roofless)  temples,  such  as  Vilruvius  vaguely  describes  as 
"  nine  tecln  et  sub  dim,''  is  now  seriously  questioned.  Many 
ingenious  theories  have  been  proposed  by  Fergnsson.Chipiez, 
and  others  to  remove  the  many  obvious  difliculties  and  ob- 
jections incident  to  any  hy]ja'thral  system,  but  so  far  with- 
out really  satisfactory  orconviui-ing  results.  That  of  C'hip- 
iez.  shown  in  the  s|ilcndid  model  of  the  Parthenon  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  at  New  Vork  city,  seems  the  most 
plausible  of  them  all. 

The  Doric  onler.  which  was  the  exclusive  national  style 
for  two  hundred  years  at  least,  employed  alike  for  temples 
and  civic  buildings,  is  characterized  bv  sturdy  shallow-tluted 
colunuis  without  bases,  and  having  slmi)le  capitals,  consist- 
ing of  a  spre.'iiiiug  circular  cushion  or  rr/ii/iiix  iuu\  a  plain 
sqiuirc  can  or  ri/uirmi.  It  employs  a  plain  architrave  or 
lintel,  a  frieze  divided  into  square  |ianels  or  inetojies  by  ver- 
tical groovc'd  or  channeled  blocks  calle<l  trif//i/p/h'i,  and  a 
cornice  with  a  plain  sheU'-like  corona,  <lecorated  on  the 
under  side  with  slightly  projecting  panels  or  miituleg  orna- 
mente<l  with  rows  of  peg-like  projections  or  gutfir.  Above 
the  corouii  are  two  or  three  small  moldings,  and  (except 
along  the  sides  of  the  temple)  a  ri/mfitiiim  or  gutter-mold- 
ing. The  moldings  were  decorateil  with  patterns  painted 
in  brilliant  colors;  the  metopes,  or  tlieir  backgrounds  when 
they  were  filled  with  sculpture,  were  painted  a  dark  red, 
and  the  triglyphs  blue:  and  color  was  liberally  used  on  all 
parts  of  the  architecture,  though  the  precise  lints  and 
shades  employed  are  no  longer  known. 


After  the  Persian  wars  the  ascendency  of  Athens  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  Ionian  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor 
brought  aliout 
tlie  introduction 
of  the  Iimic 
style,  character- 
ized by  its  vo- 
liiti^d  capitals, 
slender  columns 
deeply  fluted, 
and  rich  bases; 
by  the  substitu- 
tion of  carved 
for  painted  or- 
nament on  the 
moldings  ;  by 
the  use  of  den- 
tils ill  the  cor- 
nice ;  by  the 
absence  of  tri- 
glyphs ;  and  by 
a  general  rich- 
ness and  ele- 
gance very  dif- 
ferent from  the 
sober  dignity  of 
the  Doric.  It 
seems  to  have 
originated  in 
Asia  Minor,  and 
to     have      been 


stronglyafTected  f^^~~!^ 
by  Persian  and  (  'iF^T 
Lvcian       iiillu-  ^^— .■-:7i;.--t: 


FtG.  14— Great  Temple  of  Agrigentum. 


ences  ;  but  its 
precise  history  is 
as  uncertain  as  that  of  the  Doric.  Aljout  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander (383  B.  c.)  a  modification  of  the  Ionic  came  into  use 
called  the  Curinthian,  its  chief  innovation  being  in  the 
capital,  wliich  was  composed  of  two  rows  of  richly  carved 
acanthus  leaves,  and  sixteen  scrolls  meeting  ill  pairs  un- 
der the  four  corners  and  four  middle  points  of  the  abacus, 
the  whole  disposed  around  a  tall  bell-shaped  core.  This 
order  it  was  reserved  for  the  Romans  to  adopt  and  per- 
fect, enriching  greatly  its  base  and  cornice,  as  will  be  no- 
ticed later. 

The  (i  recks  out  of  these  elements  developed  an  architec- 
ture verv  unlike  that  of  Egypt.  They  sought  after  perfec- 
tion and  a  sunny  grace  raifier  than  colossal  size  or  gloomy 
solemnity ;  and  the  richest  aspect  of  their  buildings  was 


Tlie  Erecttieion,  Athens. 


that  which  they  presented  externally  to  the  public.  Their 
carved  ornament,  and,  above  all,  their  decorative  sculpture, 
was  iiiliniti'ly  richer  and  more  perfect  than  that  of  the 
Egyptians,  while  the  execution  of  their  masonry  has  never 
been  equaled.  They  excelled  in  temple-building,  but 
achieved  also  notable  triumphs  in  the  building  of  tombs, 
theaters,  gates,  and  cohuinades,  all  marked  liy  the  same 
spirit  of  refinement  and  simplicity,  of  dignity  and  grace. 


292 


ARCHITECTURE 


It  is  impossible  within  our  brief  limits  to  mention  more 
than  a  small  number  of  these  structures:  for  particulars 
one  must  consult  the  works  of  Stuart  and  Revett,  Reber, 
Penrose.  Durm.  and  the  various  publications  of  archa-ologi- 
cal  societies  in  Europe  and  the  L .  S. 

The  earlier  temples  are  mostly  found  in  Southern  Italy 
and  Sicily,  at  Selinous.  Agrigentum,  Paestum,  Segesta,  Jleta- 
pontium.  and  Syracuse.  These 
for  the  most  f)ait  have  some- 
what heavy  columns  and  entab- 
latures, and  retain  the  |>rimi- 
tive  trigh"ph-frieze  around  the 
external  wall  of  the  cella.  They 
date  mostly  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c,  and  one  of  those  at 
Selinous  shows  the  uncouth  be- 
ginning of  decorative  sculpture 
in  the  metopes.  The  finest  is 
the  temple  of  Poseidon  (Xep- 
tune)  at  Picstum.  The  Basil- 
ica near  by — prob.ably  an  open 
hall  for  public  assemblies — lias 
no  eella-walls.  but  has  nine  c<'- 
umns  in  the  ends  and  a  cent  i 
row  from  end  to  end;  while 
Agrigentum  is  a  veiy  lai  „ 
pseudo-peripfeniHemi:\e.vrh' 
massive  columns  were  connect- 
ed by  a  continuous  wall.    These 

are  almost  the  only  departures  from  the  typical  temple- 
plan.  To  the  first  hall  of  the  fifth  century  are  ascribed  the 
elegant  temple  at  ^gina.  whose  striking  pediment-groups 
enrich  the  museum  at  Munich ;  the  clumsy  provincial  tem- 
ple at  Assos  (explored  by  the  American  Arch;?ologieal  In- 
stitute) ;  and  the  beautiful  hexastyle  temple  of  Theseus,  so 
called,  in  Athens,  the  most  perfectly  preserved  of  aU.  As 
we  advance  toward  tlie  time  of  Pericles  (440  B.C.),  we  find 
in  these  Doric  temples  an  increasing  refinement  and  deli- 
cacy in  the  moldings  as  well  as  in  the  proportions,  more 
slender  columns,  and  greater  subtlety  of  design  and  execu- 
tion, as  in  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  OhTupia. 

The  age  of  Pericles,  made  glorious  by  the  names  of  Icti- 
nus,  Callicrates,  and  Phidias,  marks  the  acme  of  Greek  art, 
when,  by  her  successful  deliverance  of  Greece  from  the 
Persians,  Athens  had  reached  tlie  headship  of  all  Hellas, 
and  grown  rich  to  boot.  Her  wealth  she  expended  upon 
her  public  and  religious  monuments,  especially  those  in 
the  Acropolis,  which  were  rebuilt  with  a  splendor  and 
perfection  impossible  at  any  other  period.  The  Propyhva, 
by  Mnesicles:  the  Parthenon  by  Ictinus  and  Callicrates, 
adorned  with  the  sculptures  of  Phidias;  the  triple  temple 
of  Erechtheus.  and  the  tiny  shrine  of  the  Wingless  Victory, 
with  many  altars,  statues,  and  small  shrines,  formed  on  tlie 
Acropolis  an  unrivaled  group  of  architectural  triumplis. 
Among  them  all  the  Parthenon — the  temple  of  Alliona 
(Minerva)  Parthenos — stood  supreme,  the  master-work  of 
Hellenic  genius.  Hiiilt  of  fine  Pentelie  marble,  laid  up 
without  mortar,  but  so  perfectly  jointed  that  the  blocks 
seem  almost  to  have  united  into  a  inonolithie  whole,  it 
stood  a  little  to  the  S.  of  the  general  axis  of  the  Acropolis. 
an  (Ktastvle  peripteral  temple,  with  ITcolumns  laterally  and 
with  0  additional  columns  in  the  pronaos,  and  as  many  in 
the  opisthodomus,  or  58  in  all.  The  temple  measured  228 
by  101  feet ;  the  columns  were  about  6  feet  in  diameter  and 
3(5  high,  supporting  an  architrave  of  mighty  blocks  of 
marble,  above  which  were  the  triglyphs  and  metopes,  the 
latter  filled  with  groups  in  high  relief,  presumably  by 
Phidias  and  his  scholars,  representing  fights  of  centaui's  and 
Lapiths ;  masterly  works,  though  inferior  to  the  magnificent 
groups  in  llie  galiles.  These  two  unrivaled  compositions, 
representing  the  birth  of  Athena  and  her  contest  with 
Poseidon  for  the  mastery  of  Athens,  respectively,  were 
composed  of  colossal  figures  standing  free  on  the  slielf  of 
the  horizontal  cornice  of  the  pediment,  and  are  the  grandest 
achievements  of  decorative  sculpture  in  any  age.  Removed 
by  Lord  Elgin  to  Limdon  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
they  are  now  the  chief  treasure  of  the  liritish  JIuseum.  to- 
gether with  a  large  portion  of  the  glorious  frieze  which  once 
surrounded  the  cella  just  under  the  ceiling  of  the  colonnade. 
This  frieze  represented  the  Panathenaic  procession,  and  was 
treatetl  in  relatively  low  relief  with  masterly  skill.  All 
these  sculptural  adornments  so  fitted  into  the  architectural 
framework  of  the  temple  that,  without  losing  their  intrinsic 
importance,  they  seemed  rather  a  part  of  the  temple  itself 


than  independent  sculptures  added  to  adorn  the  fabric. 
Equally  remarkal)le  with  this  sculptural  decoration  were 
the  reiinements  of  the  lines  and  execution  of  the  temple. 
All  the  seemingly  straight  lines  were  slightly  curved,  to 
impart  to  them  a  fullness  and  strength  of  which  their  great 
length  would  otherwise  have  deprived  them  by  a  species  of 
optical  illusion;  but  these  curves  were  so  subtle  as  to  remain 


Fig.  16.— The  Parthenon. 

long  undetected  by  archa>ologists.  In  like  manner  the 
seemingly  vertical  surfaces  were  all  slightly  inclined;  the 
columns  leaned  imperceptibly  inward,  and  those  at  the 
corner  were  less  widely  s|iaced  than  the  rest.  Only  the 
most  delicate  iPsthetic  ]ierceptions  could  have  devised  such 
refinements;  the  Parthenon,  built  as  if  by  giants,  seems 
finished  like  a  jewel. 

The  entrance  to  the  Acropolis  was  through  the  propyljea 
of  Mnesicles.  an  imposing  composition,  showing,  to  one  ap- 
proaching it  from  the  jilaiii  below,  a  noble  hexastyle  Done 
colonnade  surmounted  by  a  pediment,  and  flanked  by  two 
projecting  wings  or  chambers  fronted  by  lesser  colonnades  of 
the  same  order.  Behind  the  main  facade  two  rows  of  Ionic 
columns  supported  the  roof,  and  formed  three  aisles  leading 
to  five  doors  in  the  rear  wall,  behind  which  was  another 
Doric  portico  looking  upon  the  Acropolis.  The  whole  was 
of  the  purest  and  most  refined  design  and  perfect  construc- 
tion, and  shows  us  an  early  example  of  the  Ionic  order. 
The  neighboring  Erectheion,  however,  displays  this  order 
in  its  most  splendid  form,  having  two  Ionic  porticoes  to  the 
north  and  east,  besides  a  remarkable  porch  supported  on 


Kio.  17.— Caryatid  porch  of  Erectheion. 

female  figures,  or  Caryatides,  the  only  example  of  the  kind 
in  (ireek  architecture,  but  fully  wortiiy  of  the  splendid  age 
to  wliich  it  belongs.  Besides  the  singiilarity  of  this  porch, 
this  little  temple  is  remarkable  for  the  iiTegularily  of  its 
plan,  which  Greek  genius  knew  how  to  reconcile  with  per- 
fect dignity  and  monumental  balance.  Among  other  Ionic 
temples  are  the  little  shrine  of  the  Wingless  Victory  on  a 
bastion  of  the  Acropolis:  the  temple  on  the  Ili.ssus  in  Athens; 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalaa.  Doric  externally,  but  in- 


ARCJIITECTURE 


293 


ternally  Ionic;  and  that  of  Athena  at  Priene.  But  the 
chief  triumphs  of  this  style  were  in  the  Ionian  cities  of  Asia 
Minor;  the  Mausoleum  (tomb  of  Mausohis)al  Ilalicarnassus, 
anil  the  f;reat  dipteral  temples  of  Ai)ollo  at  Miletus  and  of 
Artemis  (Diana)  at  Ephesus. 

Hut  two  distinctively  Corinthian  monu- 
ments are  recognized  in  Greece;  the  first  is 
the  Chorafrie  monument  of  Lysierates  at 
Athens.  This  is  a  charming  circular  struc- 
ture on  a  square  pedestal ;  six  Corinthian 
columns  support  a  slight  ly  domical  roof  ter- 
minating in  a  magnificent  tiiiial,  on  which 
once  stood  the  tripod  won  by  Lysierates  in 
the  choral  contests.  The  whole  is  but  27 
feet  high.  The  second  example  is  the  great 
temple  of  the  01yinj)ian  Zeus  at  Athens, 
whose  gigantic  ruins  represent  but  a  small 
fraction  of  the  original  structure.  It  was 
a  decastyle  dipteral  temple,  i.  e.  flanked  by 
double  lateral  colonnades,  and  measured 
18-Plan  of  :{,i4  l,y  nO  feet,  with  120  columns  60  feet 
high,  and  a  little  over  6  in  diameter.  Be- 
gun as  a  Doric  temple  in  the  time  of  Pisis- 
tratus,  continued  by  Cossutius,  a  Roman  architect  in  the 
second  century  B.  r.',  it  was  terminated  oidy  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian,  and  should  therefore  rank  as  a  Roman  rather  than 
Greek  building,  especially  as  its  cornice  was  adorned  with 


; ! !  I  III  I  III 

■  •  fl 

•  •  •  •  1  •  •] 

MM       ^M 

•                • 

•                 • 

mm    _■ 

• 

•           • 

^           " 

,              a 

•              • 

■  •       •  • 

MM     ^m 

•  •  •  • 

•••••••••• 

Fio. 
temple  of  ulym 
piao  Zeus. 


Fig.  19.— Decorated  Roman  mold 

modillions,  which  were  a  distinctively  Roman  feature  of 
the  order. 

We  can  not  delay  to  describe  other  monuments  of  Greek 
architecture.  It  must  suffice  to  observe  that  the  theaters, 
excavated  in   the  hillside   and  furni.*hed  with   pennanent 

stage-settings  of  marble  or 
stone  architecture;  the  .s/ofp 
or  porticoes  for  public  assem- 
blies and  promenades ;  the 
propylsea  or  city  gates ;  the 
arsenals,  tombs,  and  sepul- 
chral monuments  erected  by 
the  Greeks,  everywhere  dis- 
play the  same  high  qualities 
of  design,  the  .same  minute 
.ittention  to  details  and  striv- 
ing after  absolute  purity  and 
perfection  of  form.  Of  the 
nouses  of  the  Greeks  we 
know  little;  their  remains  are 
scanty  and  trivial,  and  it  is 
probalile  that  domestic  archi- 
tecture received  from  them 
but  little  attention  compared 
with  that  bestowed  on  it  by 
the  Romans.  The  Greek  was 
essentially  a  jiublic  man  and 
lived  out  of  iloors,  and  thf 
public  architecture  of  his  cii  - 
les  was  his  chief  concern. 

After  the  Macedonian  con- 
q\iest,  Greek  art  began  to  de- 
cline in  purity  and  dignity. 
Ostentation  and  triviality  took  the  place  of  these  qualities, 
and,  in  spite  of  the  magnificence  of  some  of  the  later  tem- 
ples in  Asia  Minor,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  age  of  Alex- 
ander was  one  of  general  decadence.  Yet  the  spark  of  Greek 
genius  was  not  extinguished  ;  under  Roman  dominion  it  kin- 
dled the  flame  of  art  among  the  warlike  Italians,  and  helped 


FlQ,  21) 


create  file  triumphs  of  Roman  architecture.  Even  in  the 
fifth  century  A.  i>.  it  still  burned,  and  under  new  conditions 
was  able  to  originate  still  another  architeclure.  the  Byzan- 
tine, with  whose  f)assing  away  it  finally  vanished. 

RoM.AX. — Xolhing  could  differ 
more  widely  from  the  Greek  than 
the  Roman  taste  and  system  of 
building.  Masters  of  engineer- 
ing, ana  of  the  art  of  planning 
the  most  complex  and  difficult 
structur<is,  the  Romans  preferred 
to  employ  a  massive  system  of 
vaults  and  arches,  clothed  with 
a  merely  decorative  apparel  of 
columns  and  entablatures,  rath- 
er than  to  limit  themselves,  like 
the  Greeks,  to  the  simple  system 
of  the  post  and  lintel.  Their 
works  are  impressive  by  size, 
massiveness,  and  splendor  rath- 
er than  by  those  finer  jesthetic 
qualities  which  we  find  in  Hel- 
lenic work. 

The  Romans  were  consum- 
mate organizers,  but  indifferent 
artists;  they  knew,  however. how 
to  put  to  use  the  artistic  abili- 
ties of  conquered  races,  while 
by  a  ({uasi-formulation  of  archi- 
tectural design  they  imparted  a 
certain  impressive  unity  of  style  to  all  their  buildings,  from 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  Palmyra,  and  from  Britain  to 
Alexandria;  a  unity  which  must  have  ministered  strongly 
to  the  impression  of  an  omnipresent  Rome.  And  if  the  Ro- 
mans distinguished,  as  none  had  done  before  them,  between 
their  construction  and  their  decorative  apparel  of  architec- 
tural forms,  they 
were  at  least  en- 
abled thereby  to  ^♦\»%H1  ttftt/f^ 
util  ize  t  he  unskilled 
hands  of  slaves  and 
barbarians  for  the 
bulk  of  the  work  of 
const  r 
inn 


Fig.  21.— Section  of  eJrterior 
wall,  theater  of  Marcellus. 


onstruction.  leav-  C^^jf/^i 
igto  skilled  arti-  /"^^Dfl 
ins  and  artists  on-  C  ^       Sr 


Fig.  22.— Plan  of  the  theater  of  Marcellus. 


Iv  the  finishing  of 
tlie  details  and  dec- 
oration. It  should 
not,  moreover,  be 
forgotten  that  the 
vast  number  and 
mass  of  the  build- 
ings undertaken  by  the  Romans  would  have  made  it  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  bestow  upon  them  all  the  minute  e.xact- 
itude  and  refinement  of  execution  of  Greek  work.  Con- 
sidering all  the  circumstances,  the  Romans  did  wisely  to 
snib.stitute  for  such  unattainable  refinement  (which,  indeed, 
they  were  not  likely  to  appreciate)  a  splendor  and  lavishness 


Fio.  S3.— The  '•  Maison  Carree  "  at  Ximes. 

of  ornament  and  material  better  suited  to  the  character  of 
their  buildings. 

From  the  foundation  of  Rome  until  the  fall  of  Greece  (146 
B.  r.)  the  Romans  made  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  uncouth 
and  undeveloped  architecture  of  the  Etruscans,  to  whom  they 


294: 


ARCHITECTURE 


f)Wod  t}ie  arch  and  vault,  which  became  as  cliaracteristie  of 
their  later  architecture  as  tlie  column  and  entablature  were 
of  the  Greek.  The  conquest  of  Greece,  however,  with  the 
consequent  influx  both  of  Greek  artists  and  works  of  art, 
revolutionized  Roman  taste,  and  established  Greek  art  as 
the  fashion  of  the  day.     The  craving  for  splendor  and  the 


Fig.  24— Elev,ition  of  Pantheon. 


Fm.  2.S.— Plan  of 
Pantheon. 


accession  of  wealth  which  i'esulto<l  from  the  Greek  con- 
quests combined  to  foster  the  development  of  a  new  archi- 
tecture, in  wliicli  tlie  oivlcrs  of  the  Greeks  were  married  to 
the  Roman  arch  ;  and  to  Cfi'eek  artists  are  doul)tless  due  the 
skill  and  success  with  which  these  Greek  members  were 
adapted  to  Roman  plans  and  systems  of  construction.  This 
adaptation  involved  I'adical  changes  in  the  details  of  the 


/"""  'l^PTiPM^^^  '^•• 


1 


Fig.  26.— Section  of  Pantheon. 

orders.  Tlie  profiles  of  the  moldings  were  modified,  as 
well  as  their  succession  and  proportions  in  the  entablature. 
The  Doric  onler  received  a  base,  and  was  often  unfluted 
and  crowned  with  a  cornice  much  like  the  Ionic.  The 
Tuscan  order,  a  simplified  foi-m  of  the  Doric,  and  the 
Composite,  a  mollification  of  tlie  Corintliian,  were  .idded  to 
the  three  orders  borrowed  from  Greece ;  and  the  Corinthian 


Fig. 


-Arch  of  Titu.s. 


•was  elaborated  and  perfected,  receiving  a  new  base  and  a 
new  cornice  with  modillions.  Out  of  all  these  changes 
there  was  gradually  developed  a  sort  of  canon  of  |iroportions 
for  the  various  parts  of  the  orders.     Not  that  these  rules 


were  established  at  once,  or  arbitrarily  by  the  dictation 
of  authority,  or  as  absolute  and  unchangeable  laws ;  but  the 
systematic,  organizing,  mathematical  turn  of  mind  of  the  Ro- 
mans gradu.allv  led 


^•1 


them  into  practically 
uniform  ways  of  do- 
ing each  tiling,  and 
imposed  these  meth- 
ods iqion  the  Greeks 
wiio  worked  for  tlicni. 
In  the  same  w.ay, 
while  they  used  tlie 
orders  as  did  the 
tfreeks  for  porches 
and  colonnades,  they 
also  used  them  in  the 
form  of  engaged  col- 
umns and  pilasters, 
to  decorate  their  fa- 
cades and  triumjihal 
arclies,  placing  tliem  between  the  arches,  where  they  per- 
formed no  really  constructive  function,  but  served  to  con- 
.stitute  a  most  imposing  system  of  decoi'ative  form.  Carved 
decoration  was  no  longer  confined  to  the  moldings,  but  ap- 
plied to  every  possible  surface ;  and  instead  of  the  sculp- 
tured groups  and  processions  of  the  Greek  temples  (which 
would  have  been  an  absurd  eytravagance  on  friezes  Like  those 
of  the  Colosseum,  for  instance),  they  adorned  their  friezes 
with  magnificent  compositions  of  acanthus-leaved  scrolls 
miugliiig  with  genii,  griffins,  garlands,  and  symbolic  forms. 


^^-tiiSjlt  t  •  •  * 

Fig.  28.— Half-plan  of  Colosseum. 


were    not    pre-eminently  temple-builders, 


Fig.  29.— Section  of  Colosseum. 


Tlie  Romans 
though  theypri'- 
duced  seveiM 
notable  templr^. 
These  all  re- 
tained Etiiiscan 
peculiarities  of 
plans,  in  spite 
of  their  Gre- 
cian columns 
and  pediments. 
They  were  usual- 
ly prosfi/hir  in- 
stead of  ])eripte- 
ral,  having  gen- 
erally a  nearly 
square  ceUa  pref- 
aced by  a  deep 
porch  (e.  g.  the 
temiiles  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  of  Vespasian,  etc.). 
Sometimes  the  flanks  of  the  cella  were  adorned  with  en- 
gaged columns,  giving  them  the  name  of  p.feudo-peripternl, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  temple  of  ^'irile  Fortune :  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Venus  and  Rome  near  the  Forum  offers  a  singular 
example  of  two  cellas  placed  back  to  liack,  and  surrounded 
liy  a  j>si'iii/ii-ili/i/i'nil  colonnaile,  i.  e.  one  in  which  the  width 
oi'  the  lateral  colonnade  is  equal  to  two  intercolumniations 
of  the  front.  They  built  also  a  considerable  number  of  cir- 
cular temples,  a  form  exceptional  in  Greek  work  (c.  g.  the 
Phlippeion  at  Olympia),  but  evidently  a  favorite  with  Etnis- 
cans  and  Romans.  Some  of  these  were  surrounded  by  col- 
onnades, as  in  the  two  sf)-called  temples  of  Vesta,  one  in 
Rome,  and  the  other  at  Tivoli,  and  the  actual  temple  nt 
Vesta  at  one  end  of  the  Forum:  others,  like  the  unrivaled 
Pantheon,  liad  columnar  ]iorches  over  the  entrance.  But 
the  Roman  genius  was  much  better  exemplified  in  such  com- 
plex and  elaborate  structures  as  the  amphithejiters  and 
fhennif,  into  whose  constiiiction  engineering  entereil  large- 
ly. Their  enormous  size  and  nuiss,  tlie  majesty  of  their 
arches  an<l  vaulting,  the  ingenuity  and  dignity  of  llieir 
plans,  constitute  the  soundest  title  of  the  Romans  to  ai-elii- 
tectural  fame.  Roman  love  of  .splendor  also  found  abun- 
dant scope  in  the  monumental  disjiosilion  and  design  of  the 
fni-fi.  with  their  colonnades,  statues,  and  altars;  and  in  the 
erection  of  trium|)hal  arches  and  memorial  columns,  with 
which  they  recorded  throughout  Europe  and  the  Jledite)'- 
ranean  lands  their  feats  of  con(|ue.st.  They  develo|ied  I'ur- 
Ihermore  the  architecture  of  the  liiixi/irii.  which  was  des- 
tined in  later  ages  and  in  Christian  hands  to  become  the 
germ  of  nearly  all  churcli  architec'ture,  the  cathedral  in- 
cluded. In  tlie  basilicas  and  therma-  was  moreover  evolved 
that  splendid  sy.stem  of  internal  decoration  by  paneled  in- 
crustations of  marble  in  various  colors,  by  elaborate  marble 
pavements,  by  monolithic  shafts  of  iiorpliyry,  verd  antique, 


ARCHITECTURE 


295 


Fio.  30. 


Plan  of  XJlpian  Basilica. 


and  other  precious  materials,  and  by  mosaic  and  wall-paint- 
ing, wliich  tlie  ai-eliitccts  of  Byzantium  in  after  years  made 
tlie  basis  of  tlie  decoration  of  their  poigeous  cinirch  in- 
teriors. 

Little  remains  to  us  of  llie  architecture  of  the  republic : 
the  little  temple  of  Virile  Fortune  and  the  temples  of  Vesta, 

so  called,  at  Rome  and 

[  I  J I  1   ■  [  at  Tivoli  are  of  Greek 

I  I  II!    1  •  °   •  [     ^\  I  workmanship,     thoush 

|.4    rivn  •     •.Xfaiiaial..h  „„  Uoman  plans.     Tlie 

nui.sl  important  monu- 
ment of  this  periiicl  is 
t  he  great  theater  of  .Mar- 
cellus  (i;S  n.  r.),  built  of 
stone  with  engaged  col- 
umns in  superposed  or- 
ders, the  Ionic  over  the 
Doric,  between  the  arch- 
es of  the  exterior  (see  Pig.  19).  The  most  nol)le  of  all  Ho- 
nnin  temples,  the  "  Pantheon  of  Agriiipa,"  so  called  from  the 
inscription  upon  the  portico,  has  vnitil  very  recently  been 
ascribed  to  this  period,  as  the  work  of  M.  Vi]jsanius  Agrip- 
pa  (27  B.  c).  \  ery  recently,  however  (summer  of  1892),  a 
French  architect,  JI.  Chedanne,  made  the  important  discov- 
ery tliat  while  the  portico  and  the  temple  to  which  it  be- 
longed were  built  by  Agrippa,  the  circular  domed  hall  is  of 

a  later  date,  having 
been  either  construct- 
ed new  or  rebuilt 
from  the  foundation 
in  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian. The  portico, 
of  twelve  monolithic 
Corinthian  columns, 
arranged  in  three 
aisles  after  the  Etrus- 
can fashion,  admits 
to  a  vast  circular 
structure,  140  feet  in 
diameter,  covered  by 
a  noble  hemispherical 
dome,  and  lighted  by 
a  single  circular  open- 
ing in  the  summit  nl 
the  dome,  28  feet  in  diameter  and  140  feet  above  the  marlil 
pavement.  The  circular  wall.  20  feet  thick,  which  supjiori- 
the  dome  is  lightened  by  eight  alternately  semicircular  au'l 
rectangular  niches,  in  one  of  which  is  the  entrance-door : 
these  niches  are  arched  and  decorated  with  columns.  The 
whole  interior  was  originally  adorned  with  a  splendid  ve- 
neering of  marble,  with  statues  and  with  broiiz<'  eiiri<-h- 
ineuts,  and  the  deeply  coffered  vault  of  the  dome  was  also 
.  richly   ornamented.      A    conjectural 

^   "^  restoration  of  the  original  interior  is 

■         J. *  I  shown  in  the  fine  model  of  the  Pan- 

I  I   thcon  in   the  Metroiiolitan  Museum 

I  jM  I    in  New  York.     The  Pantheon  is  now 

I  —  r^  j^J  used  as  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  della 
T  T  "^  "^  "'■  T  Kotonda  :  it  has  been  internally  al- 
tered liy  successive  restorations,  and 
the  bronze  ceiling  of  the  purlico  was 
long  ago  removed;  but  even  in  its 
preseiu  condition  it  is  one  of  the  most 
majestic  and  impressive  buildings  in 
existence.  The  ruins  of  Agrippa's 
batlis,  of  which  it  was  once  thought 
to  have  formed  the  lacniiirum.  are 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  rear  of  the 
temple. 

Of  the  architecture  of  Imperial 
Rome  the  ruins  are  almost  countless. 
The  Fonim  Romamim  retains  many 
of  the  columns  of  splendid  temples, 
e.g.  of  Vespasian.  Saturn.  Antoniiuis 
and  Faustina,  and  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux C'.Inpiter  Stator."  so  called) ;  and  in  or  near  it  are  the 
arches  of  Septimius  Scvcrus,  Titus,  and  Conslantine.  That 
of  Titus,  in  the  Composite  onler,  is  the  most  elegant,  though 
not  the  largest  or  richest  of  these;  jind  other  examples  of 
this  sort  of  monument.ul  architecture  are  to  be  seen  at  An- 
cona,  Henevenlo.  Orange,  Reims,  and  other  Italian  and  jiro- 
vincial  cities,  some  with  one,  some  with  three  arches.  Of 
somewhat  similar  character  are  the  city  gates,  like  the  Porta 
Maggiore  at  Rome,  aiul  the  gates  at  V'eromi,  Athens  ("  Arch 


Fig.  31.- 


-Plan  of  Rasilica  of  Maxentius 
and  Coustantiue. 


: 


t 


! 


1 r 

Fio.  .3i.-Plan.  Basil- 
ica St.  Paul  beyond 
the  Walls. 


of  Hadrian  "),  Ximes,  Autun,  etc.  The  column  of  Trajan, 
in  the  forum  of  that  em|)eror  at  Rome,  was  erected  both  to 
mark  the  height  of  the  hill  removed  to  create  an  area  for 
the  forum  and  to  counnemorate  the  Dacian  campaigns  of 
Trajan.  It  is  some  90  feet  high,  and  enwra])ped  by  a  con- 
t  iniujus  spiral  bas-relief  picturing  the  victories  of  its  builder, 
whose  statue  crowned  its  sunnnit.  The  Antonine  column  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  is  almost  ]ireci.sely  similar  ;  and  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria  (•'  Pompey's  Pillar '"),  and  other  cities  were 
likewise  adorned  with  colun'ins  of  victory  by  the  Roman  con- 
querors or  nders. 

In  the  liuilding  of  amphitheaters  the  Romans  excelled, 
and  1  he  Flavian  ainiihitheater  of  \'espasian,  commonly  called 
the  Colosseum,  is  not  only  the  finest  of  these,  but  the  greatest 
in  size  and  bulk  of  all  Roman  structures.  Its  circuit-wall 
of  travertine,  pierced  by  240  arches,  rises  in  three  stories  of 
superposed  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  colunnis  and  entab- 
latures, with  a  fourth  range  of  jnlasters,  to  a  height  of  150 
feet,  inclosing  a  vast  elliiise,  COti  feel  long  by  500  wide.  The 
seats,  rising  in  tiers  arounil  the  arena,  could  accommodate 
over  80,000  spectators,  and  even  in  its  in-esent  ruinous  con- 
dition it  is  one  of  the  most  tremendous  and  iniiiressive  piles 
ever  reared  by  man,  its  very  size  converting  the  monotony 
of  its  architecture  into  sublimity.  Less  in  dimension,  but 
still  imposing,  are  the  amphitheaters  of  Pomjieii,  Verona, 
Cajiua,  Ximes,  and  Aries.  The  Romans  also  built  theaters 
of  stone  on  the  same  general  principle  as  their  amphithea- 
ters, but  inclosing  a  little  more  than  a  semicircle,  somewhat 


FiQ.  33.— Interior  view,  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna. 

after  the  Greek  fashion.  The  theaters  of  Marcellus  (see 
ante),  of  Pompeii,  Taormina,  and  Orange  are  among  the 
finest  exam])les  extant.  The  Odeon  of  Ilerodes  Atticus  at 
Athens  belongs  to  the  same  class. 

Of  the  tlirrmm  or  liaths,  which  share  with  the  amphithea- 
ters the  glr)ry  of  disjilaying  the  highest  resources  of  Roman 
engineering  skill  an<l  arcliib'ctural  genius,  only  shapeless 
ruins  exist ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  their  plan  and 
general  design.  In  the  center  of  a  vast,  inclosure,  surrounded 
by  small  bath-rooms,  lecture-rooms,  gymnasia,  and  exedra;, 
was  situated  the  princi]ial  edifice,  which  conlaincd,  besides 
one  or  two  open  court  s  and  various  smaller  chambers,  a  series 
of  enormous  halls  of  the  grealest  magnificence,  planned  with 
consunniiale  skill,  vaulted  with  sim|ile  but  massive  vaults, 
and  decorated  with  the  greatest  possible  splendor  of  marble 
incrustations  ami  mosaic.  One  of  these  halls,  the  /cpir/nrium 
of  the  baths  of  Diocletian  (the  largest  of  the  therma;,  ac- 


296 


ARCHITECTURE 


commodating  3,600  bathers  at  once),  remains  to-day  al- 
most intact,  except  for  the  alterations  which  were  required 
to  convert  it  into  tlie  Church  of  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli. 
Of  the  baths  of  Caracalla  imposing  masses  of  brickwork 
still  remain,  from  wliich  it  has  been  possible  not  only 
to  restore  quite  completely  the  plan  of  the  baths,  but  also 
to  prove  that  the  Romans  were  the  first  to  use  iron  beams 
with  brick  or  concrete  for  the  construction  of  fire-proof 
floors. 

The  ruins  of  the  Flavian  palaces  on  the  Palatine  hill,  the 
excavations  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  the  picturesque 


fWT^ffff^fpfPl 


Fig.  34.— Pillar,  Church  of  St.  John,  Constantinople. 

remains  of  Hadrian's  villa  at  Tibur,  and  other  similar  vestiges 
on  the  Campagna  and  elsewhere,  furnish  us  with  a  very  clear 
notion  of  tlie  Roman  domestic  architecture,  private  and  im- 
perial. The  private  houses  ami  villas  were  less  remarkable 
for  their  external  architecture  than  for  the  beauty  of  their 
gardens  and  surroundings  and  the  splendor  of  their  interior 
decoi-ation,  in  which  wall-painting  of  the  most  brilliant  and 
fanciful  description,  largely  executed  by  Greek  painters  in 
encaustic,  played  an  important  part.  The  houses  themselves 
had  mostly  but  one  or  at  most  two  stories,  and  presented 
little  in  the  way  of  architectural  embellishment  to  the 
street.  The  imperial  palaces  were,  of  course,  far  more  splen- 
did ;  the  magniflcenee  of  Xero's  "  Golden  House,"  as  pre- 
served in  tlie  narratives  of  contemporary  writers,  almost 
passes  belief,  and  the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro  pre- 
sen'ed  in  its  massive  and  imposing  architecture  the  dispo- 
sitions of  the  typical  Ronuvn  camp. 

This  summary  account  of  the  building-art  of  the  Romans 
must  be  brought  to  a  close  with  a  brief  sketch  of  the  basili- 
cas. These  were  civic  buildings,  serving  at  once  as  auction- 
marts,  exchanges,  and  pal- 
aces of  justice,  and  com- 
prised generally  a  great 
hall,  sometimes  open  to  the 
sky,  as  at  Pompeii,  more 
often  roofed  with  wood, 
rarely  vaulted,  as  in  that 
of  Maxentius  and  Constan- 
tine  at  Rome :  two  or  more 
side  aisles,  lower  than  the 
nave  or  hall,  from  which 
they  were  sejiarated  by 
ranges  of  columns,  and  an 
a/jxis  or  tribune  at  the  end 
ojiposite  the  entrance.  In 
the  apsis  was  the  seat  of 
the  quipstor,  with  an  altar 
in  front  of  it,  and  some- 
times a  species  of  transejit 
between  it  and  the  nave.  The  side  aisles  were  sometimes 
two-storied,  with  galleries;  above  their  roofs  the  walls  of 
the  nave,  supported  on  the  columns  below,  rose  to  form  a 
clerestory,  with  windows  to  light  the  hall ;  and  the  whole 
structure  was  preceded  in  many  cases  l)y  a  nnrtliex  or 
porch  iicross  tlie  front  (Basilica  Julia,  Basilica  Ulpia,  Ba- 
silica of  Pano,  etc.).  The  last  of  the  pagan  basilicas  was 
erected  by  JIaxentius  and  Constantine  (328  A.  u.)  after  the 
model  of   tlie  tcpidaria  of   the   baths,   vaulted   and  flre- 


FlQ.  35.— Plan  of  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna. 


proof.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  this  monarch  that  Christianity 
was  first  freely  permitted  to  erect  for  itself  suitable  places 
of  worship.  The  early  Christians,  disdaining  to  convert  to 
their  own  use  the  temples  of  paganism  polluted  by  heathen 
worship,  and  unfitted  by 
their  size  and  plan  for  Chris- 
tian uses,  saw  in  the  ba- 
silicas precisely  what  they 
needed.  When  they  built 
new  churches  they  followed 
the  same  plan  and  arrange- 
ments, often  using  the  mate- 
rials— colum  ns,  archit  raves, 
etc. — of  ruined  or  demol- 
ished Roman  buildings,  and 
adopted  tlie  same  general 
sclieme  of  decoration  by 
marble  incrustations  anil 
mosaic,  using,  however,  the 
forms  of  Christian  symbol- 
ism in  place  of  the  pagan 
representations  in  their  pro- 
totypes. Thus  arose  Early 
Christian  architecture  on 
the  ruins  of  Roman  art, 
and  for  a  thousand  years 
continued  to  furnish  Rome 
with  churches  of  the  sams 
unchanging  type.  Mean- 
while Western  Europe  was 
developing  out  of  the  same 
elements  a  totally  new  and 
sublime  architecture,  evolv- 
ing from  the  Roman  basil- 
ica the  matchless  fabric  of  the  Gothic  cathedral ;  and  the 
architects  of  the  East,  out  of  prototypes  furnished  by  the 
therma;  and  the  basilica  of  Constantine,  were  at  the  "same 
time  developing  the  veiy  different  but  still  splendid  domi- 
cal forms  of  Byzantine  architecture. 

Byzantine. — As  Rome  declined,  Constantinople  advanced 
in  splendor  and  importance  to  the  first  place  in  Christen- 


FiG.  36.- 


Plan  of  St.  Sophia,  Con- 

stautiuople. 


Fig.  37.— Section  of  St.  Sophia. 

dom.  Inheriting  the  traditions  and  constructive  methods 
of  Roman  arcliitecture,  the  Byzantine  Greeks  blended 
with  them  many  Oriental  elements,  due  to  their  relations 
with  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  the  far  East,  and  develojied 
therefrom  a  new  and  distinctively  Christian  architecture. 
To  the  Roman  systems  of  vaulting  they  added  the  dome, 
and  developed  out  of  the  marble  incnis- 
tations  and  mosaics  of  Roman  art  a 
complete  system  of  gorgeous  but  har- 
monious color-decoration,  the  vaults  and 
domes  lieing  made  especially  magnifi- 
cent with  glass-mosaic  ona  gold  ground. 
The  details  of  Roman  architecture,  al- 
ready much  modified  in  the  basilicas 
and  in  provincial  works,  as  in  Dalma- 
tia  and  Syria,  underwent  further  alter- 
ations. Arches  were  supported  on  col- 
umns, capitals  and  profiles  were  change(' 
and  for  the  Roman  carving  in  strong  re- 
lief was  substituted  a  rich  incised  dec- 
oration of  patterns  which  blended  the 
acanthus  leaf  with  Christian  symbols  and  monograms.  By- 
zantine architecture  flourished  from  the  fifth  to  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  was  the  parent  of  several  styles, 


fffnh 

mm 

Fig.  38.— Plan  of  St. 
Mark's  church,  Ven- 
ice. 


ARCIIITECTUEE 


29T 


including  that  of  tlie  modem  Greek  Chuivh,  many  of  t)ie 
Mohammedan  styles,  and  the  earlier  medlanal  aroliitecture 
of  Venice.  In  France,  along  the  highway  of  tlie  Oriental 
commerce  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  cities  of  Angoulemc.  Pia-i- 
gueux,  and  othci-s  betray  in  their  eliurches  of  the  eleventh 

century  the  Byzan- 
tine intlueiicc.  Ka- 
venna  was  in  tlie 
sixth  century  a  part 
of  the  Byzantine 
empire,  and  is  fidl 
of  splendid  monu- 
ments of  the  style, 
among  which  the 
domical  Church  of 
San  Vitale  is  the 
most  important.  It 
was  completed  by 
Justinian,  who  dur- 
ing his  long  reign 
(527-505  A.  D.)  built 
an  extraordinary 
number  of  magnifi- 
cent churches  in 
•  'nnstaiitinople  and 
t  lie  ])roviiices.  But 
it  was  far  surpassed 
\  the  great  basil- 
.1  which  he  dcdi- 
,ited  in  Constan- 
iiiople  in  537  to 
the  Divine  Wisdom 
(ri  'Ay la  2o(pia,  mis- 
called  "  Santa  So- 


m 


Fio.  89. 


-Interior,  Cathedral  of  Speyer 
(Spires^ 


{)hia"),  and  by  many  considered  to  be  internally  the  most 
)eautiful  church  ever  erected.  The  magnificence  of  its 
decorations,  together  with  the  unrivaled  majesty  of  its  in- 
terior, elicited  from  the  emperor  the  historic  and  perhajis 
justifiable  boast :  "  Solomon,  I  have  surpassed  thee  I  "     Its 


fto.  -to.— The  Jlinster  at  Worms. 


general  plan  seems  to  have  been  suggested  to  Anthemius 
and  Isodorus,  its  architects,  by  the  basilica  cf  Mexentius  at 
Rome,  which,  however,  it  greatly  surpasses  in  scale;  while, 
instead  of  ils  groined  vaulting,  the  immense  nave  of  this 


church,  measuring  253  by  115  feet,  is  covered  by  a  masterly 
combination  of  two  half-domes  with  a  central  dome  107  feet 
in  diameter  and  rising  ISO  feet  into  the  air.  This  dome 
was  the  first  pendeiitive  donu^  ever  attempted  on  a  large 
scale,  and  for  internal  etlect  has  never  been  surpassed. 
(The  pendentive  dome  is  supported  on  four  arches  by  means 
of  spherical  triangles  of  masonry,  called  peHilcntivi'X,  which 
fit  in  between  the  adjacent  halves  of  each  pair  of  arches.) 
Side  aisles,  60  feet  wide,  in  ten  stories  forming  galleries, 
are  separated  from  the  nave  by  magnificent  arcades  with 
polished  columns  of  precious  materials. 
Abundant  light  enters  through  cleresto- 
ries above  the  gallery-roofs  and  through  a 
great  circle  of  windows  at  the  base  of  the 
dome  ;  and  whether  we  regard  the  whole 
from  thi^  point  of  view  of  its  engineering 
design  or  its  decoration,  it  appears  a  mas- 
ter-piiccc,  unrivaled  in  its  way.  and  marks 
an  era  in  the  history  of  arcliitecture.  It 
is  now  a  Turkish  mosque. 

A  few  of  the  otlier  Bvzantine  churches 
in  the  Turkish  enijiire  liave  lieen  spared 
by  the  IMohammedans,  and  of  the  Church 
of  the  Apostles,  whic-li  ranked  next  to  that 
Tia.  41.— Plan,  No-  of  the  Divine  Wisdom  in  size  and  beauty, 
crermTn^-FerS'nd  thealmost  exact  counterpart  exists  in  Ven- 
ice,  though  the  original  was  long  ago  de- 
molished. This  copy  is  the  famous  Church  of  St.  Mark, 
erected  by  Byzantine  architects  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
tenth  century,  though  not  completed  till  much  later.  It  is 
a  five-domed  cruciform  church,  and  though  it  lacks  the 
majesty  of  Santa  Sophia  it  is  hardly  less  magnificent  in  the 


r^ifj^^r^^ 


u. 


'■<:-'f^A 


'I 


^U^Z' 


splendor  of  its  internal  color-decoration.  In  Athens  are  a 
number  of  small  but  interesting  Byzantine  churches,  and  in 
the  monasteries  of  Mt.  Athos  the  traditions  of  Byzantine 
art  are  still  maintained.  But  the  vitality  of  Byzantine 
architecture  was  exhausted  with  the  decay  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  which  never  fully  recovered  from  the  Latin  con- 
quest in  1204. 

HoMAKESQUE. — Contemporaneously  with  the  later  phases 
of  Byzantine  art  in  the  East  the  spread  of  Christianity 
through  Western  and  Xorthern  Europe  was  calling  into 
existence  a  new  architecture,  varying  in  detail  according 


298 


ARCHITECTURE 


to  locality,  but  marked  everywhere  by  certain  common 
characteristics,  which  have  given  it  the  name  of  Roman- 
esque. While  in  Italy  the  early  Middle  Ages  show  a  strange 
confusion  of  styles,  with  the  Lombard  in  the  northwest,  the 
Byzantine  in  the  northeast,  the  basilican  in  Konie.  and 
Norman  and  Arab  and  Byzantine  mingled  picturesquely  in 
Sicily  and  the  south,  all  Western  Europe  was  endeavoring  to 
solve  one  and  the  same  problem — the  conversion  of  the 
three-aisled  Roman  basilica  into  a  vaulted  structure.  This 
problem  is  the  key  to  the  whole  history  of  niediiPval  arclii- 

tecture  in  Western 
Eurojje.  of  which  the 
Romanesque  styles 
are  simply  the  first 
stages,  tlie  magnifi- 
cent cathedrals  of  t  lie 
thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  the 
^  consummate  achieve- 
ment. Everywhere 
in  Europe  the  tliree- 
aisled  basilica,  with 
its  apse,  transepts, 
and  clerestory,  was 
accepted  as  the  tyjie- 
plan  for  church  ar- 
chitecture :  and  so 
long  as  classic  tra- 
ditions prevailed,  or 
tile  columns  and  ar- 
chitraves of  Koman 
ruins  were  accessible 
for  use  in  church- 
building,  the  type  u  n- 
derwent  little  modi- 
fication. But  witli 
the  lapse  of  time  local 
and  climatic  influ- 
ences asserted  them- 
selves in  a  progres- 
sive modification  of  tiiis  type,  until  it  could  hardly  be'rec- 
ognized  except  in  the  main  disposition  of  tlie  plan.  These 
changes  were  mainly  motived  by  two  considerations :  first, 
the  difficulty  of  procuring  or  executing  the  fine  classic  col- 
umns of  marble  recjuired  by  the  typical  basilica,  and  the 
rich  marble  revetments  and  mosaic  pictures  with  which  it 
was  adorned  -.  and.  secondly,  the  desire  to  cover  the  wide  nave 
as  well  astlie  aisles  with  a  fire-proof  vault  of  stone.  As  a 
combined  residt  of  both  these  considerations,  heavy  round 
■or  clustered   piers   were  substituted  for  the  columns,  and 


Fig.  43. — Buttress  and  flying  arch. 


Fig.  44.— Plan  of  Sainte  Cha- 
pelle,  Paris. 


Fig.  4.5— Section  of  Sainte 
Chapelle,  Paris. 


spaced  much  more  wiilcly  apart;  the  clerestorv  wall  was 
made  exlreuiely  lieavy  and  thick,  iind  tiie  nave 'reduced  in 
width;  wliile  for  tile  costly  revetment  of  marble  and  mosaic 
was  sulistituled  tiie  dignity  of  simpU'  but  harmonious  ar- 
cliitectural  lines,  with  a  limited  amount  of  strong  carving 
of  moldings,  capitals,  and  door  porches.  The  Lombaril 
churches  of  Northern  Italv.  like  S.  Ambrogio  at  Jlilan, 
S.  Zeno  at  Verona,  and  S.  iWichele  at  Pavia ;' the  magnifi- 
cent abbeys  of  tlie  Khcnish  provinces,  like  Laach,  Worms, 
Mayence,  etc. ;  t  lie  French  churclies  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  as,  for  example,  the  great  abbeys  at  Caen 


and  Vezelay;  and  the  Norman  churches  of  England,  like 
Durham,  St.  Albans,  Peterborough,  Roinsey,  etc.,  are  exam- 


Fig.  46.— I.nnrrf  m  iiidows, 
Wimborue,  Dorset. 


Fig.  47. — Decorated  tracery, 
Cologne  Cathedral. 


[lies  of  tlie  various  national  phases  of  Romanesque  architec- 
ture. In  all  of  these  the  heavy  piers,  the  massive  walls,  the 
round  arch  stroiiglv  mold- 
ed, the  revival  of  lioman 
groined  or  quadripartite 
vaulting,  and  of  the  Ro- 
man system  of  buttress- 
ing the  points  of  spe- 
cial thrust  or  strain,  are 
cliaracteristic  features. 
Deeply    recessed    portals. 


A^ 


Fig  48  — P*  ipondi_iiLii  tra_tr\, 
St.  Michaers,  0.xfoid. 


Pic.  49.— Fla...l.o\..nt  tracerj, 
.St.  Saveur.'Dinau. 


capitals  utterly  unlike  the  Roman,  and  the  zigzag,  billet, 
beak,  and  otlu'r  characteristic  molding-ornaments,  are  also 
found  in  nearly  all  Romanesque  churches.  Changes  in  tlie 
ritual,  moreover,  introduced 
cliaiiges  in  the  plan  ;  the 
liead  of  the  cross  was  length- 
ened to  form  a  clioir.  and 
flanked  by  side  aisles  like 
the  nave;  <'liap('ls  dedicated 
to  viirioiis  saints  were  added 
wherever  convenient;  and 
the  use  of  liells  made  neces- 
sary detached  campaniles 
(.MS  in  Italy)  or  towers,  u.su- 
ally  at  tlie  west  end  of  tlie 
cliur<'li.lo  wliicli  s]iires  were 
added  to  give  them  lofti- 
ness and  grace. 

Gothic. — What  is  com- 
monly called  (iotliic  archi- 
tecture is  simjily  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Roniaiies(|ue, 
from  which  it  can  not  he 
separated  liy  any  sharply  defined  line:  for  the  pointed  arch, 
wliicli  is  usually  considered  its  distinguishing  mark,  was  no 
sudden  innovaiion.  and  involved  no  alu'iipt  breaking  with 
the  met  hods  of  Hoiiianesque  building,  of  which  it  was  the  out- 
growth and  result.  Its  form  had  been  known  from  the  earli- 
est aniiciuity.  The  Assyrians,  the  Aralis.  and  the  French 
Proven(;al  architects  had  used  it  in  successive  ages;  but  its 
general  adoption  came  about  only  when  the  exigencies  of 


Flo.  50.— Fai^ade  of  Notre  Dame, 
Paris. 


ARCHITECTURE 


2'J\) 


tlie  I'll 
to  Imvi 


ilciii 
first 


of  vaultiiif;  ilrinanilcil  its  use,  ami  this  seoms 
occurred  in  Fraiu'r,  iiLTliaiis  (as  Viollet-lc-I)uc 


terns  formed  by  tlie  ribs,  among  tlie  finest  examples  of 
wliicli  may  be  instanced  the  choir-vaults  of  Gloucester  and 
Christ  t'hureh  calhedraLs,  the  retro-choir  of  Peterborough, 
and  tlie  vaults  of  Henry  Vll.'s  ciia|)el  at  Westminster  and 
St.  (ieorge's  chapel  at  Windsor.  The  French  never  pro- 
duced any  vaults  to  compare  with  these  in  beauty,  though 
French  vaulting  is  superior  from  a  scientific  point  of  view. 
It  was  tliey.  however,  wlio  developed  the  constructive  fabric 
ot  the  Uothie  catliedral  to  its  highest  perfection.  Their 
constant  aim  was  to  increase  the  height  of  the  nave  and 
clerestory  and  the  size  of  the  windows  in  order  to  secure 
lic'llcr  light,  and  to  allow  of  a  greater  s]ileudor  of  stained 
glass,  which  in  the  thirteenth  century  had  become  a  deeo- 
i-ative  resource  of  great  importance,  and  continued  through 
the  fourteenth  century  to  stinudate  the  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  windows.  The  use  of  lofty  clerestories,  together 
with  the  constant  effort  to  lighten  the  inassiveness  of  the 


Aiiiifiis  i  ariiPtli'al. 


^1 


n 


suggests)  in  the  great  porch  of  Vezelay.  It  is  impos;,,. 
within  the  limits  of  this  article  to  explain  what  were  tne 
difficulties  encountered  in  the  eifort  to  solve  the  proldem 
of  vaulting  the  nave,  and  how  the 
iiointed  arch  contributed  to  its  so- 
lution (for  such  particulars,  consult 
Jloore's  Ou/hic  Architecture  anil 
£k,  ■  .•♦.  ^j;  the  articles  fV)»,i/';-Mp/('on  and  Foi</e 
3  *  ■  ■  M  in  the  hirlioHiiaire  Raisonne  of 
"^  \_  ,  ,  r  Viollet,-le-l)uc).  It  must  suffice  to 
T  ■  '  -  t  ^^-j  ■■?.■•  r  ^''.^'  ''"^''  these  difficulties  were  part- 
-^  ^  T^  ''T^  -^  -•*"-  ly  constructive,  resulting  from  the 
intersection  of  vaulting  surfaces  of 
different  sjians.  due  to  the  discrep- 
ancy between  tlie  width  of  the  nave 
and  of  the  pier  arches;  and  partly 
a'sthc>tic,  some  of  the  jjossible  solu- 
tions of  the  constructive  prol>lcm 
being  object  ioiiablc  liccaiise  of  I  heir 
ugly  a|iiiearance.  But  the  pointed 
arch,  having  lieen  once  adopted  for 
the  pier  arches  aii<l  vaulting-ribs, 
was  almost  of  necessity  made  use 
of  for  all  the  openings  and  spans; 
so  that  while  in  transitional  works 
of  the  close  of  the  Iwclflli  I'cntury 
and  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  ceii- 
tiiry  we  find  the  round  and  pointed 
forms  occurring  side  by  side,  the 
former  finally  disappears  after  those  dates  except  in  a  few 
isolated  iiislaiices. 

Very  rarly  in  the  course  of  these  efforts  to  devise  a  suit- 
able fcjrrn  for  the  vaulting,  the  church-builders  began  to  use 
plain  or  molded  ribs  of  stone  as  a  sort  of  framework  for  the 
vaults.  This  feature  the  Knglish  architects  dev<doped  into 
a  decorative  as  well  as  constructive  element  of  tlie  greatest 
splendor.  The  dilferent  stages  of  this  development  are 
called  lierne,  star,  and  fan  vaulting,  according  to  the  pat- 


Fia.  5a. -Plan  of  .imiens 
Catliedral. 


Fig.  53.— West  front  of  Cologne  Cathedral. 

masonry,  led  to  the  adoption  of  flying  buttresses,  by  which 
the  enormous  thrust  of  the  vaults  was  conveyed  outward 
and  downward  to  liuttresses  of  great  transverse  depth  built 
against  the  external  walls  of  the  side  aisles  (see  Buttress). 
Where  side  aisles  wen^  omitted  the  flying  arches  became 
unneces.sarv,  and  the  buttresses  directly  resisted  the  vault- 
thrust,  as  in  the  Sainte  C'hapelle  in  Paris.  By  these  means, 
the  germs  of  which  may  be  found  in  Roman  and  Byzantine 
buildings,  the  side  walls  of  the  aisles  and  clerestory  became 
of  little  importance,  and  were  in  large  part  replaced  by  im- 
rnense  windows  of  stained  glass,  furnishing  a  color-decora- 
tion even  more  gorgeous  than  that  of  the  Byzantine  mo- 
saics. Hut  such  walls  of  leaded  glass  required  multiple 
supports  to  stilfen  them,  and  these  were  afforded  by  the 
graceful  stone  traceries  with  which  the  window  opening  was 
filled.     The  changes  in  the  character  of  these  traceries  mark 


300 


ARCHITECTURE 


the  stages  of  development  of  Gothic  architecture  in  France 
and  England,  and  measurably  in  Germany,  and  have  given 
to  them,  as  well  as  to  the  several  periods  in  which  they 
occur,  the  names  of  lancet,  geometric,  and  perpendicular 
for  the  English  styles,  respectively,  of  the  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth, and  fifteenth  centuries;  and  of  early  pointed  (or 
early  French),  rayonnant,  and  flamboyant  to  the  corre- 
sponding phases  of  French  architecture. 

By  these  successive  steps  the  Gothic  cathedral  was  devel- 
oped into  a  structural  organism,  each  of  whose  parts  fulfilled 
a  definite  constructive  function.  All  the  members  of  this 
framework  of  stone,  piers,  arches,  ribs,  etc.,  received  forms 
originating  not  in  caprice  or  mere  asthetic  fancy,  but  in  the 
demands  of  stability,  lightness,  and  convenience ;  and  every 
radical  variation  in  their  shapes  and  proportions  may  be 
traced  to  the  effort  to  meet  more  perfectly  the  special  re- 
quirements of  each  case.  Especially  is  tliis  true  in  France, 
where  a  sure  and  unerring  logic  seems  to  have  guided  the 
mediaeval  builders  in  every  step  they  undertook.     At  the 


Fig.  54.— Orvieto  Cathedral,  west  front. 

same  time  they  were  ever  controlled  by  an  equally  unerring 
artistic  taste,  so  that  the  splendid  ensineeriiig  of  their 
structures  is  clothed  in  forms  of  undviiig  eharni'and  ever- 
fresh  beauty  and  loveliness.  For  their  ornamental  details 
they  ranged  the  whole  univei'se  of  vegetable  and  animal 
forms,  and,  under  the  influence  of  a  fervid  imagination, 
compounded  therofrom  a  marvelous  world  of  grote.'sque! 
symbolic,  and  conventionalized  ornament,  or,  a.s  in  the  later 
stages  of  their  art,  copied  nature  with  realistic  fidelity. 
Thus  was  the  a:-.sthetic  marvelously  blended  with  the  cori- 
structiye  in  extraordinary  creations,  whose  vaults,  like  that 
of  Amiens,  soar  l.W  feet  into  the  air,  or  stretch  into  long 
vistasextending,  as  in  some  of  the  English  cathedrals,  .500 
feet  from  porch  to  ajise.  Never  were  the  demands  of  use 
and  beauty  more  perlectly  reconciled  ami  satisfied  than  in 
these  stmctures,  which  unite  the  aesthetic  charm  which  the 
Greeks  strove  after  with  the  splendid  engineering  and  im- 
pressive magnituile  of  Roman  architecture,  addiiig  thereto 
a_ religious  syml)olism  and  a  glory  of  carved  and  colored 
picturing,  full  of  poetry  and  far  more  inspiring  than  Eg^'pt 
ever  j)roduced. 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  of  attempting  to  specialize 
upon  the  various  national  phases  of  this  ilevelopment  except 
in  the  briefest  manner.  France  was  the  birthplace  of  every 
important  step  in  its  advance,  and  created  its  most  perfect 
examples.  Consiii<'uous  among  many  others  are  the  cathe- 
drals of  Paris  (Notre  Dame);  C'hartres,  with  its  unrivaled 
stained  glass;  Houen;  Amiens,  the  largest  and  internally 


the  richest  of  all ;  Reims,  with  its  magnificent  front  and 
exterior;  and  Tours,  Sens,  Auxerre,  and  Orleans  among  the 
later  examples,  be- 
sides many  splen- 
did abbeys  and  par- 
ish churches.  In 
England  the  ca- 
thedrals were  less 
lofty,  but  longer, 
than  in  France, 
usually  terminat- 
ing in  square  east 
ends  instead  of 
the  French  cfieret; 
Durham,  Peterbor- 
ough, Norwich,and 
Ely  among  the  ear- 
lier built,  Lincoln, 
Canterbury,  Salis- 
bury, and  York 
among  those  of 
the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centu- 
ries may  be  men- 
tioned. In  Germany  the  finest  are  the  earliest  works,  like 
the  minsters  at  Worms,  JIayence,  Limburg,  Laach,  etc., 
which  cxliibit  the  round  arch  in  its  glory.  Strassburg, 
Freiburg,  and  Cologne  (the  largest  of  all)  are  of  later  date, 
splendid  with  elaborately  minute  tracery,  especially  in  their 
magnificent  open-work  spires.  Spain  copied  indiscriminate- 
ly from  other  countries,  and  mingled  with  this  copying  many 
features  of  Moorish  origin  in  most  fanciful  combinations 
(Seville,  Burgos,  Toledo,  etc.).  Italy  never  adopted  the  con- 
structive principles  of  the  West,  and  the  pointed  arch,  intro- 
duced by  French  Cistercian  monks  and  by  German  archi- 
tects, was  used  without  consti-uctive  meaning.    Vaults  were 


-Florid  Gothic  carving. 


FiQ.  5C.— Florid  Gothic  doorway,  Rochester  Chaiiter-hoiise. 

tied  by  iron  rods,  buttresses  omitted,  and  facades  designed 
as  mere  decorative  screens,  though  as  such  often  singularly 
beautiful  (Sienna,  Orvieto,  Ferrara,  Milan,  etc.). 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  ABORIGINES 


ARCTIC 


301 


Two  chief  causes  led  to  the  decay  of  Gothic  architecture. 
In  the  fii'st  place  the  constructive  development,  wliich  was 
its  life,  could  not  continue  forever;  the  main  ))roblem  of 
the  vault  oiu-e  solved,  it  could  only  busy  itself  witli  propor- 
tions and  details.  The  striving  after  height  and  lightness 
and  insenuily  of  construction  became  its  chief  concern  and 
its  bane.  Decoration  a.ssumed  an  undue  importance,  and 
the  elal)orate  naturalistic  ornament  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury prelmleil  the  extravairant  but  often  dry  and  unmeaning 
carving  and  paneling  of  the  fifteenth:  wliile  the  somewhat 
stiff  but  noljle  figure-scul]iture  of  the  thirteenth  century 
degenerati'd  into  an  art  of  overcrowded  and  realistic  carved 
pictures.  In  the  secoml  place,  mankind  was  undergoing  a 
religious  and  intellectual  revolution,  which  was  loosening 
the  hold  of  that  medi:eval  mysticism  which  .so  powerfully 
influenced  the  Gothic  builders.  Jlcn  were  becoTuing  prac- 
tical, independent,  lovers  of  spli-ndur  and  luxury,  and  fash- 
ions changed  in  building  as  in  all  else.  There  was  no 
longer  need  of  new  cathedrals,  and  civic  .architecture  was 
replacing  religious  architecture  in  interest  and  importance, 
as  in  the  town-halls  of  l-'landers  and  Italy.  In  other  words, 
the  Kenaissanc(Mvas  appro.icliing,  bringing  in  its  train  the 
revival  of  classic  tastes  and  of  classic  forms,  with  palace- 
building  and  domes,  with  the  individualism  of  great  build- 
ci-s  like  Brunellesco  and  Bramaiite  and  Michel  Angelo,  in 
place  of  thi^  consistent  ami  ul)i(iui»ous  advance  of  all  archi- 
tectm-e  along  the  same  general  lini>s  through  the  combined 
efforts  of  countless  unknown  di'signers.  A  new  architecture 
arose,  of  coui'tiers  an<l  |irinees,  of  municipalities  and  guilds, 
of  burghers  anil  comm<iu  citizens,  of  merchants  and  corpo- 
rations, to  be  succeeded  by  the  philistinism  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  that  again  by  the  artistic  revival  of  which  we 
of  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  the  wit- 
nesses. Thisn'vival.  still  chaotic  and  uncertain  in  its  tenden- 
cies, is  not  marked  by  those  lofty  impulses  and  strong  cur- 
rents of  feeling  which  we  note  in  all  the  great  epochs  of 
architecture  in  the  past,  but  by  that  more  general  diffusion 
of  taste  and  knowledge  which  to-day  in  intellectual  as  in 
artistic  matters  )iroduces  perhajis  fewer  giants  and  great 
nuister-works.  l)ut  infinitely  more  of  general  and  common 
excellence  of  performance. 

For  the  architecture  of  the  East,  sei'  ARAnr.ix  Abchitec- 
TiRE,  .\ssvKiA,  Chi.va.  Ixdia,  and  Moiiam.veuax  Arciiitec- 
ti'Re;  and  for  its  [irogress  after  the  decay  of  Gothic  art,  see 
Re.x aissaxce  (.1  reh  itecture).  ( )t  her  subdivisions  of  the  sub- 
ject are  covered  by  special  articles  un<ler  the  apjiropriate 
heads.  The  general  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  handbooks 
of  architectural  history  already  cited,  and  to  the  volume  on 
Tliv  Fine  Ar/x  in  the  history  of  The  lieiiaix.sniire  in  Italy. 
by  J.  A.  Symnnds.  A.  1).  F.  Hamli.v. 

Architpcture  <»f  the  .Xincricaii  Aborigines:  See  Ind- 
ians Of  (Je.nthal  America.  Ixoiaxs  oe  North  America. 
and  Inuiaxs  of  Sonit  A.merica. 

Ar'choil  [Gr.  apxai'.  ruler,  deriv.  of  apxetv.  be  first]:  the 
title  of  the  highest  magistrates  or  ruh'rs  of  Athens.  On  the 
death  of  fodrus.  King  of  Athens  (10G8  n.  c).  the  title  of  king 
was  abolished,  and  Medon.the  son  of  Codrus,  became  the  first 
archon,  with  limited  power.  The  office  was  at  first  heredi- 
tary and  held  for  life,  but  in  7.")3  n.  c.  the  term  of  office  was 
limited  to  ten  years,  and  in  714  it  ceased  to  be  hereditary 
and  became  open  to  all  patricians.  In  HKi  the  number  of 
archons  was  iiicre;i.sed  to  nine,  who  were  elected  annually. 
One  of  the  nine  was  calle<l  archon  epnntjmus  (irrdmfws),  be- 
cause his  name  was  used  to  designate  the  year;  the  second, 
who  was  styled /■■(7i^  (3a(riAeus),  had  charge  of  religious  af- 
fairs; the  third  was  called  /Kili-mrirrli  (commander-in-chief), 
and  originally  had  the  connnand  of  the  army.  The  other 
six.  who  wer(;  styled  flii-smoUicfip  (9i(T/no9fTai).  law-givers, 
conducted  criminal  trials,  and  ha<l  jiower  tci  ratify  treaties 
with  fiireign  states.  In  the  latter  period  of  Athenian  his- 
tory all  citizens  were  eligible  to  the  olfice  of  archon.  The 
word  archon  (t  ranslated  riili-r)  occurs  in  the  New  Testament 
as  the  title  of  members  of  the  Saxhedrin  (<y.  v.).  among  whom 
was  Nicodemus  (.lohn  iii.  1).  Among  the  Gnostics  the  word 
is  the  designation  of  two  beings  who  ruled  the  several 
heavens.  .\  sect  of  Gnostics  bore  the  title  Archontic.  It 
arose  in  the  fourth  century,  rejected  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  identified  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament  with 
the  devil. 

Areliy'fas  ('Apx^Tas") :  Greek  philosopher,  general,  and 
mathematician:  li.  at  Tarentnm.  lie  flourished  about  400- 
3.W  B.C..  W!us  a  Pythagorean  in  philosophy,  and  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  I'lato,  whose  life  he  is  said  to  have  saved 


when  the  tyrant  Dionysius  was  about  to  put  him  to  death. 
As  general  of  Tarentura,  to  which  ollice  he  was  elected  seven 
times,  he  eominanded  with  success  in  several  campaigns, 
lie  was  also  employed  in  important  civil  atTairs,  tor  which 
he  displaved  excellent  capacity.  His  virtue  was  as  conspic- 
uous as  his  ability.  Ue  is  reputed  the  first  that  applied 
geometry  to  practical  mechanics,  and  the  first  to  solve  the 
I>roblem  of  the  doubling  of  the  cube.  He  was  drowned  on 
the  coast  of  Apulia.  Only  fragments  of  his  works  are  ex- 
tant. See  teller's  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy  and  Mullach's 
Fidij.  Pkilus.  Gnec. 

Arcis-siir-Auhe,  ar'see-siir-6b :  a  town  of  France;  de- 
partment of  AuIjc;  on  the  river  AuVje  ;  16  miles  N.  byE.  of 
Troyes  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  4-G).  It  has  manufactures 
of  cotton  hosiery.  On  Mar.  20  and  21,  1814,  an  indecisive 
battle  was  fought  here  between  Napoleon  and  Prince 
Sehwartzenburg,  who  commanded  a  portion  of  the  allied 
army.     I'oi).  about  3,000. 

Arc-lamp:  See  Electric  Lioht. 

Arco'la:  a  village  of  Northern  Italy:  on  the  Alpone, 
near  its  entrance  into  the  Adige  ;  1.5  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Verona 
(see  inaj)  of  Italy,  ref.  2-D).  Here  Napoleon  gained  an  im- 
ptirtant  victory  over  the  Austrian  general  Alvinzy.  The 
French  commenced  the  battle  on  Nov.  14,  1796,  by  an  at- 
tempt to  cross  a  bridge  over  the  Alpone,  but  were  reimlsed. 
The  action  was  renewed  on  the  16th.  and  ended  on  the 
17th,  when  Alvinzy  retreated.     Pop.  5,259. 

Areola:  citv  on  railroad;  Douglas  co..  111.  (for  location 
of  count  v.  see'  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  6-F);  158  miles  S.  of 
Chicago ;"  has  a  high  school,  8  churches,  a  city  hall,  electric 
lights.  2  newspapers,  a  broom-factory,  and  2  tile-factories. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,515;  (1890)  1,733.         Editor  of  '-Record." 

Arcoil.  Jeax  Claude  Eleoxore  Lemiceau.  d' :  French  en- 
gineer ;  b.  at  Pontarlier.  1733 ;  invented  (1780)  the  celebrated 
floating  batteries  for  attacking  Gibraltar  ;  directed  success- 
ful operations  against  several  fortresses  in  Holland  ;  author 
of  Consideralions  MiUf aires  el  PoJitiques  stir  leu  Fortifica- 
tiom.    D.  July  1,  1800. 

Arcoiia:  See  Arkoxa. 

Ar'cos  dc  la  Fronte'ra:  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia, 
on  the  right  liank  of  the  Gaudalete,  30  miles  N.  E.  of  Cadiz 
(see  map  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  ref.  20-D).  It  is  called 
Arcos,  because  it  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  bow.  Its  site  is 
a  high  rock,  which  commands  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
prospect.  Here  are  celebrated  manufactures  of  tanned 
leather.  This  town  Wii.s  once  strongly  fortified.  In  1519 
.Alagelhaens  started  from  here  for  the  first  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe.     Pop.  16,280. 

Aroot' :  two  districts  and  a  "city  of  Madras  presidency, 
British  India:  near  the  southern  e"nd  of  the  peninsula,  on 
the  east  side,  just  W.  of  JNladras  city  and  Pondicherry. 
Sorth  Arcot  is  between  latitudes  12"  and  14°  N.  It  is  flat 
and  uninteresting  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts,  but  the 
western  extends  to  the  foot  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  and  is 
agreeablv  diversified.  This  jiart  aliounds  in  minerals,  es- 
pecially the  ores  of  co)iper  and  iron.  Four  railways,  pass 
through  the  district,  tirain,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  indigo 
are  largely  grown,  and  cotton-cloth  is  manufactured.  Area, 
7,256  so.  liiiles.     Pop.  about  2.000.000. 

South  Arcot  lies  inniiediatcly  S.  of  the  preceding,  and  is 
similar  to  it.  Both  districts  are  poorly  watered,  especially 
in  the  dry  season.  Area,  4,873  sq.  miles.  Pop.  about  2,000,- 
000. 

Arcot  City,  also  called  Arciiaty,  is  the  principal  town  of 
North  Arcot;  hit.  12°  54'  N.,  Ion.  79°  24'  E.  (see  map  of 
S.  India,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  a  railway  station  and  military  can- 
tonment. Arcot  was  taken  by  Olive  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  with  an  inconsiderable  force  of  men.  Its 
siege  in  1751  bv  tlie  natives  was  a  memorable  incident  in  the 
history  of  the  Carnatic.  It  became  British  in  1801.  Pop. 
50,000".  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Are'tic  [Lat.  arc'tirns;  Gr.  apKrixis,  belonging  to  [the 
c<instellatiou  of]  the  Bear  (ipia-os],  which  is  near  the  North 
Pole] :  ••  noi-t  hern,"  or,  ratlicr,  "  far  to  the  north,"  "  near  the 
North  Pole." 

The  -Arctic  Circle  is  a  circle  drawn  around  the  North 
Pole  of  the  earth,  23°  27J'  from  the  pole  and  G6°  32^'  from 
the  eiiuator.  It  forms  the  boundary  Ijetween  the  north  tem- 
perate and  the  north  frigid  zones."  Within  this  circle  the 
sun  does  not  set  at  the  summer  .solstice  nor  rise  at  the  win- 


302 


ARCTIC   DISCOVERY 


ARDOCH 


ter  solstice.  The  Arctic  Current  is  supposed  to  originate 
in  the  ice  of  the  Arctic  seas,  whence  it  runs  along  tlie  east- 
ern shore  of  Greenhind.  and  round  Cape  Farewell  to  tlie 
western  shore  of  Greenland,  in  X.  lat.  66',  where  it  turns 
southward,  forming  the  JItiflsoit'n  Bai/  Currnif.  Tlience  it 
passes  near  the  Bank  of  Xewft>undland.  and,  meeting  the 
Uulf  Stream,  pa.sses  beneatli  it.  Utlier  portions  follow  the 
eastern  coast  of  Xorth  America  for  various  distances,  cool- 
ing the  land,  and  eventually  pass  beneath  the  GuU  Stream. 
Both  at  the  surface  and  after  descending,  the  Arctic  is  a  re- 
turn current,  compensating  in  part  for  the  nortliward  trans- 
fer of  water  by  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Arctic  Discovery :  See  Polar  Research. 

Arctic  Ocean :  the  ocean  which  surrounds  the  North 
Pole,  washes  the  northern  shores  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  and  is  nearly  coextensive  with  the  Arctic  Circle. 
It  communicates  with  the  Pacific  by  Bering's  Strait,  and 
with  the  Atlantic  by  a  wide  passage  between  Greenland  and 
Norway.  The  navigation  of  this  ocean  is  obstructed  by 
perpetual  congelation,  but  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  por- 
tion X.  of  80'"is  an  open  polar  sea.  The  Arctic  Ocean  in- 
closes many  large  islands,  and  comprises  large  bays  and 
gulfs,  wliicfi  deeply  indent  the  adjacent  continents,  as  Baf- 
fin's Bay,  the  White  Sea.  and  the  Gulf  of  Obi.  The  water 
of  this  ocean  is  extremely  pure  and  clear,  and  the  ice  is  re- 
markable for  the  beauty  and  variety  of  its  tints.  Those 
parts  of  this  sea  which  have  been  explored  are  occupied  by 
large  fields  of  floating  ice  and  icebergs  in  almost  perpetual 
motion.  Capt.  Ross  measured  an  iceberg  which  rose  325  feet 
above  the  water  in  which  it  floated.  There  are  masses  that 
present  a  front  of  300  feet  in  height,  and  fields  from  10  to 
40  feet  thick  sometimes  extend  over  100  miles.  Icebergs 
often  have  a  violent  rotation,  and  are  dashed  against  each 
other  with  a  tremendous  force.  Fogs,  storms,  and  almost 
endless  night  add  to  the  dangere  which  Ijeset  the  explorer. 
Among  the  navigators  who  have  explored  it  in  search  of  a 
northwest  pjussage  are  Parry.  Ross.  Sir  .John  Franklin,  and 
Kane.  Dr.  Hayes  and  Dr.  Ilall,  and  various  Scandinavian 
and  Dutch  navigators,  are  among  the  recent  explorers. 
Parry  in  1827  reached  lat.  82°  45'  X..  Ion.  19=  25'  E..  and 
found  there  floes  of  ice,  with  open  water  between.  In  1854 
Kane  penetrated  to  lat.  81'  22'  in  Ion.  65=  35  \V.  lie  argued 
that  there  is  an  open  sea.  not  frozen,  around  the  i)ole.  For 
further  details,  and  for  account  of  later  explorations  by 
Xares,  X'ordenskjold.  De  Long,  Greely,  PeaiT,  etc..  see 
Polar  Research.  There  are  valuable  whale-fisheries  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

Arctll'rus*  [from Gr.  dpKToDpos :  &pktos.  bear  4- oSpos.  keeper] : 
a  fixed  star  ot  the  fii-st  magnitude  in  the  constellation  Bootes. 
It  is  sitviated  liehind  the  Great  Bear,  and  may  readily  be 
found  by  contiuuing  the  curve  of  the  tail  of  the  Bear.  It 
is  designated  in  catalogues  a.s  a  Bootis. 

Arciia'tiou  [Lat.  arcuatio,  from  arcua're,  curve  like  a 
bow  (arcits)]:  a  mode  of  propagating  trees;  the  shoots  of 
the  trees,  cut  off  near  the  ground,  are  bent  over  and  partly 
covered  with  earth,  which  causes  them  to  take  root.  It  is 
now  generally  called  inarching. 

Arcueil,  ar  -kii/  :  a  village  of  France  ;  3  miles  S.  of  Paris ; 
on  the  railway  from  that  ca|)ital  to  Sceaux ;  has  a  fine  acjue- 
duct  constnicted  by  Marie  de  Jledicis;  also  the  remains  of 
a  Roman  aqueduct  built  by  the  Emperor  Julian.  It  is  a 
place  of  resort  on  holidavs  for  the  Parisians.  Pop.  about 
6,000. 

Arciis  senilis  [Lat.,  bow  of  old  age] :  the  hazy  zone  seen 
around  the  outer  zone  of  the  cornea  with  advancing  years. 
It  is  rarely  a  complete  circle,  but  may  become  so  in  extreme 
cases.  When  seen  in  persons  at  middle  life  it  is  an  indica- 
tion of  ]>remature  decay  or  actual  disease,  beingdue  to  fatty 
degeneration  from  disease  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  very 
probalily  sissociuted  with  similar  fatty  change  elsewhere,  as 
in  the  heart.  William  Pepper. 

Arcy,  Grotto  of:  an  ancient  limestone  quarry  in  France, 
in  tiie  department  of  Youne,  remarkable  for  its  size  and  the 
beauty  and  extent  of  its  stalactites  and  incrustations,  which 
have  almost  completely  obliterated  all  traces  of  the  labor  of 
man. 

Ardavan :  Sec  Artab.\n'ls. 

Ardebil',  or  Ardabil':  a  town  of  Persia:  province  of 
Azerbijan;  on  the  Karasu :  40  miles  from  the  Cas|)ian  :  !)0 
miles  E.  by  X.  of  Tabriz  (see  nnip  of  Persia,  ref.  l-P).  It  is 
visited  by  the  trading  caravans  from  Tiflis,  Derbend.  and 


Ispahan.     Its  salubrity  is  celebrated,  and  there  are  warm 
mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  10.000  to  15.000. 

Ardeelie.  ar-dash :  a  river  of  France ;  rises  among  the 
mountains  of  Cevennes,  flows  southeastward  through  the 
most  magnificent  and  romantic  scenery,  and  enters  the  Rhone 
a  mile  from  Pont  Saint-Esprit.  after  a  course  of  45  nules. 
X'ear  its  mouth  is  a  natural  curiosity  called  the  Bridge  of 
Arc. 

Ardeelie :  a  mountainous  department  in  the  S.  E.  of 
France;  bounded  X.  by  the  department  of  Loire.  E.  by 
Drome,  S.  by  Gard.  and  W.  by  Lozere  and  Haute-Loire.  and 
drained  by  the  Ardeche.  Area. 2,136  sq.  miles.  The  surface 
is  liivei-sified  by  extinct  volcanic  jieaks,  deep  craters,  ranges 
of  basaltic  columns,  and  romantic  valleys,  forming  com- 
binations of  scenery  which  are  highly  magnificent  ami  pic- 
turesque. The  valleys  near  the  Rhiine  produce  good  wine, 
olives,  figs,  almonds,  and  Spanish  chestnuts,  the  annual 
crop  of  which  latter  is  about  400.000  bushels.  j\lines  of 
copper,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  and  coal  are  worked  in  this 
department.  It  is  subdivided  into  three  arrondissenients. 
Capital.  Privas.     Pop.  (1881)  3T6.86T;  (1891)  371,269. 

Ar'den  (connnonly  written  A rdexxes,  g.  c):  a  forest  in 
which  Shakspeare  ])laces  the  scene  of  his  play  called  As  You 
Like  It.  There  was  formerly  a  forest  of  this  name  on  the 
western  borders  of  Warwickshire,  which  is  believed  to  have 
occupied  a  great  [>:irt  of  the  midland  counties,  and  it  is  note- 
worthy as  the  maiden  name  of  Shakspeare's  mother. 

Ardennes,  or  Arden  (anc.  Archien'na  Si/lva):  a  hilly 
and  densely  wooded  tract  which  includes  a  part  of  Belgium 
and  of  France,  and  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Meuse.  The  forest  of  Ardennes  in  Ciesar's  time  was  more 
extensive,  and  occupied  nearly  all  the  space  between  the 
Sambre,  Moselle,  and  Rhine.  The  highest  points  of  the 
Ardennes  are  about  2,200  feet  al>ove  the  sea.  The  predomi- 
nant rocks  are  clay-slate,  grauwacke.  and  limestone.  The 
channel  of  the  Jleuse  presents  rugged  and  precipitous  rocks 
about  600  feet  high,  jlany  important  military  events  have 
occurred  among  the  Ardennes,  at  Rocmi.  Sedan,  Mezieres, 
etc.  Its  chief  wealth  is  in  its  minerals,  wood,  cattle,  and 
sheep. 

Ardennes :  a  department  in  the  X'.  E.  of  France  :  bounded 
X^.  liy  Belgium.  E.  by  the  department  of  Meuse.  S.  by  Marne. 
and  W.  by  Aisne :  was  ]iart  of  the  old  province  of  Cham- 
pagne. Area.  2.020  s(j.  miles.  It  is  intei-sected  by  the  Jleuse, 
which  flows  northward,  and  by  the  Aisne,  which  flows  west- 
ward. The  surface  is  partly  hilly,  and  covered  with  the  for- 
est of  Ardennes.  The  valley  of  the  Aisne  is  fertile  and 
produces  much  grain.  Among  the  mineral  resources  of  this 
department  are  iron,  lead,  marble,  and  slate.  Tlie  canal  of 
Ardennes,  connecting  the  Meuse  and  the  Aisne,  affords  facil- 
ities for  trade.  Here  are  manufactures  of  glass,  metallic 
wares,  woolen  cloths,  shawls,  firearms,  earthenware,  etc.  It 
is  subdivided  into  five  arroiidisseraents.  Capital,  Mezifires. 
Pop.  (1881)  333.675:  (1891)  324.923. 

Arditi.  LuiGi.  loo-ee'jee  a'jir-dee'tee :  musician  and  com- 
poser ;  b.  at  Crescentino.  Piedmont.  Italy,  .luly  16.  1825.  He 
receiveil  a  musical  education  at  the  ^Nlilan  Conservatory, 
where  he  remained  six  years.  Soon  after  he  made  his  first 
luililic  appearance  as  a  violinist  and  conductor  in  concerts 
and  operatic  performances  at  the  small  town  of  Vercelli  : 
was  engage<l  as  conductor  at  the  Teatro  Re.  Milan.  In 
1846  he  went  to  Havana,  and  subsequently  in  company 
with  an  opera  troupe  visited  the  ijrincipal  cities  of  the  U.  .S. 
In  1856  .\rditi  returned  to  Europe  and  conducted  Italian 
opera  in  Constantinople,  producing  Verdi's  opera  of  Tnin- 
(ifn  in  that  citv  for  the  first  tinie :  settled  in  London  in 
1858  as  conductor,  fii-st  at  Her  Majesty's  theater  and  after- 
ward at  Covent  Garden,  then  managed  by  Gye  and  Jlaplc- 
son.  lie  has  also  conducted  Italian  opera  in  Russia  and 
at  Vienna.  Ardili's  name  has  been  as.sociale<l  proi'essiou- 
allv  with  the  most  famous  artists,  such  as  Mario,  Grisi, 
Piccolomiiii,  aii<l  Patti.  He  is  principally  known  as  a  coui- 
poser  by  his  opera  T/ie  Spi/.  produced  in  X'ew  York  in  1856, 
and  II  Bacio.  a  waltz  song.  He  frequently  visits  \\w  L'.  S. 
to  conduct  operatic  performances.  B.  B.  Vallentixe. 

Ardmore:  villagi';  Montgomery  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  ma]!  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-.I) ;  on  Pa.  R.  R.: 
7  miles  X.  W.  of  Pliiladeljihia:  has  several  yani-faetories. 
It  has  niauv  beautiful  private  residences  and  fine  roads. 
Pop.  (1880)  ol9;  (1890)  2.205. 

Ar'dodl  :  a  small  village  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of 
Perth,  8  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Crieff  (see   map  of  Sct.llaml,   ref. 


ARDOVAN 


ARETiEUS 


303 


lO-G).  Here  is  an  ancient.  Roman  canip,  the  most  entire 
now  in  Britain.  The  intrenclied  works  form  a  rectangle 
500  bv  4:iO  feet,  the  north  anil  east  sides  of  which  are  pro- 
tectcil  Ijy  five  ditclies  and  six  runipiirts. 

Ardovaii :  See  Artabanls. 

Ardsliir',  or  Ardsheer',  BAisEiiAX  :  ii  King  of  Persia; 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  llie  Sassanides  ;  a  man  of  obscure 
origin  who  raise<i  himself  by  his  courage  and  energy.  He 
revolted  a;;ainst  Artabanus  (or  Ardovan).  King  of  Persia, 
whom  he  defeated  and  killed.  He  extended  the  boundaries 
of  Persia  by  cimiiuests,  and  afterward  reigned  in  peace  for 
many  years.  He  was  celebrated  as  a  sage  and  a  legislator, 
and  was  the  author  of  maxims  which  are  still  preserved  by 
the  Persians.  Tlie  Greeks  called  liim  Artaxerxes.  He  died 
about  260  A.  u.,  and  was  succeeiled  by  his  son  Shapur  (or 
Sapor). 

Are  [Fr..  from  Lat.  orKi.  space] :  in  the  metric  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  the  unit  of  measure  of  surface.  It  is 
the  sijuare  of  10  meters  =  110-603fi"2  scj.  yards.  The  are  is 
not  i)ractically  employed,  the  hectare  =  100  ares,  or  2'4T114 
Englisli  acres,  the  declare  (one-tenth  of  an  are),  and  the 
centiare  ((me-hundreth  uf  an  are),  being  the  only  agrarian 
measures  practically  used  in  this  system. 

A'rca  [Lat.,  orig.  an  open  space,  a  courtyard,  a  threshing- 
floor]  :  any  jilane  surface.  In  geoniet  ry  it  means  quantity 
of  surface,  tiie  surface  included  within  any  given  lines. 
The  calculation  of  areas  is  one  of  the  ultimate  objects  of 
geometry.  an<l  the  measuring  units  employed  are  a  square 
inch,  as(|uare  foot,  etc.  The  area  of  a  rectangle  is  ecjual  to 
the  product  of  the  length  and  breadth.  That  of  a  circle  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  the 
decinud  '7804. 

Are'ca  :  a  genus  of  jjalm-trees  having  |)innate  leaves  and 
double  spathes:  a  fruit  which  is  a  one-seeded  drupe,  or  nut. 
with  an  outer  fibrous  husk.  The  Arccd  cutucnu,  called 
pinang-pahn  or  betel-nut  palm,  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  40  or  50  feet.  It  bears  a 
fruit  called  areca-nut  or  betel-nut.  which  is  astringent  ai!<l 
tonic,  and  is  extensively  used  in  the  Kast  a.s  a  masticatory. 
(See  IJetel.)  It  also  yiekls  a  pait  of  the  catechu  of  com- 
merce. 

Areei'l)o:  a  port  of  Porto  Kico.  Spanish  West  Indies;  on 
the  north  side  of  the  island;  45  miles  W.  of  San  Juan  (see 
ma])  of  the  West  Indies,  ref.  .5-.T).  It  is  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Arecibo.  l)ut  is  a  poor  port,  being  shallow  and  ex- 
posed to  tlie  north  winds.  It  is  tlie  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name.     Pop.  about  11,000. 

Are  Frodo,  Tuorgilsson  :  the  father  of  Icelandic  (that 
is,  of  Scandinavian)  history;  b,  in  Iceland  in  1007;  d.  in 
114.S.  Snorri  Sturlason,  in  his  Ileimskringla,  says  of  him 
that  "he  was  the  first  man  in  the  north  who  wrote  down  in 
the  Xorse  lanituage  narratives  of  events  both  old  and  new  "  ; 
that  "he  wrote  principally  about  the  first  setth^ments  in 
Iceland,  the  laws  and  government,  and  next  of  the  lawmen, 
and  how  long  each  had  administered  the  law  " ;  and  that 
"  he  added  many  other  subjects,  such  as  the  lives  ancl  times 
of  kings  of  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  also  of  England." 
Are  Erode  is  tlie  Herodotus  of  Scandinavian  history-writing. 
See  IcKLAXi).  R.  15.  A.NiiiiRsox. 

A'rt'iiibpra:'.  or  Arenberg: :  the  name  of  a  nolile  family 
of  (ierniaiiy.  wliicli  adhered  to  the  l\oman  t'atholic  t'hurcii 
and  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  They  own  large  estates  in  Han- 
over and  Prussia. 

Areiiiberg,  Lkopold  Piiii.ipp  Karl  .losErii  vox  Ligne, 
Duke  of:  b.  at  Mons,  Belgium,  in  KiitO;  became  a  field- 
marshal  in  the  Austrian  army  and  commander-in-chief  in 
Flanders  in  17:!7;  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
MalphKiuet  in  1709,  and  at  that  of  Belgrade  in  1717.  D.  in 
1754. 

Are'lia :  a  Latin  word  signifying  sand :  was  anciently 
applied  to  an  open  space  of  ground  strewed  with  sand  on 
which  athleti's  and  pugilists  contended  for  mastery,  and  to 
the  open  central  part  of  the  amphitheater  where  gladiators 
and  wild  lieasts  fought.  This  was  usually  covered  with 
sand.  In  modern  language  ari'nn  signifies  any  .scene  of 
contest  or  fielil  of  intellectual  exertion;  any  public  place  in 
which  men  display  their  talents  or  contend  in  debate. 

Ar'eiidal :  a  city  of  Xonvav;  41  miles  X.  E.  of  Chris- 
tiansand  ;  on  the  Kattegat ;  in"lat.  58°  2:^  X.,  Ion.  8°  53'  E. 
(see  map  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  ref.  12-B).  It  is  partly 
built  on  the  mainland  and  partly  on  islands,  giving  it  the 


name  of  "  Little  Venice,"  aial  has  considerable  trade  in  iron 
and  timber.     Pop.  5,800. 

Areiids,  Leopold  Alexander  Friedrkii  :  founder  of  a 
famous  German  svstem  of  stenographv  ;  b.  Dee.  1.  1817,  near 
Milma;  removed  "to  Berlin.  1844  :  d.  Dec.  22,  1882.  Author 
of  Introditc/ion  to  liational  Shorthand  (17th  ed.  1888). 

Areiiicola  [literally,  sand-dweller  :  from  Lat.  arena,  .sand 
-H  CO 7e;'e,  dwell]  :  a  genus  of  annelids  containing  the  lug- 
worms.     See  Li'GWORM. 

Arensberg::  .See  Arxsberg. 

Arensivalde :  See  Arxswalde. 

Areiit'zeii,  t'uRiSTiAX  August  E.mil  :  Danish  poet  and 
literary  historian ;  h.  at  Copenhagen,  Nov.  10,  1823.  His 
most  important  work  is  Baggesen  og  OehJenschluger :  Lit- 
eratur-hislorisk  Stiidie  (8  vols.,  1870-78).  See  also  his 
lifcollections  (Fra  yngre  og  oldre  Dage  :  Livs-Erindringen), 
1886.  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Areoi ;  See  Arbeoy. 

Areoni'eter.  or  AraPOmeter  [from  Gr.  opoKis.  thin  +^«- 
Tpov.  measure] :  an  instrument  used  to  measure  the  specific 
gravity  of  fluids  and  ascertain  the  .strength  of  .spirituous 
liquors,  usually  called  Hydrometer  (q.  v.). 

Areop'agns  (in  Gr.  'Apeioj  ira-yos.  i.  e.  hill  of  Mars) :  a 
hill  in  Athens  W.  of  the  Acropolis:  also  a  celebrated  court 
of  justice  which  held  its  sessions  on  the  same  spot  in  an- 
cient times.  This  court  or  council  was  remarkable  for  its 
high  character  and  great  aptiquity,  having  been  organized 
before  the  first  Messenian  war,  the  date  of  which  was  740 
B.  c.  It  was  merely  a  criminal  tribunal  before  the  time  of 
.Solon,  who  made  important  changes  in  its  constitution,  and 
extended  its  jurisdiction  to  political  and  moral  aft'airs.  He 
ordained  that  this  court  should  be  composed  of  those  ar- 
chons  who  had  performed  their  official  duties  faithfully, 
and  who  had  passed  with  credit  the  seiiitiny  to  which  all 
archons  were  subjected  at  the  expiration  of  their  term  of 
office.  Its  influence  was  conservative,  and  tended  to  re- 
strain the  excesses  or  the  progress  of  democracy.  The  po- 
litical power  of  this  court  was  mucli  reduced  by  Pericles 
about  458  B.  c,  but  it  maintained  a  high  reputation  long 
after  that  date.  The  name  of  the  Areopagus  occurs  in  the 
history  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  uttered  a  memorable  dis- 
course on  Jlars  Hill.     See  Acts  xvii.  22-31. 

Areqnipa,  a-ra-kee'pa:  a  department  of  Peru;  border- 
ing on  the  Pacific  Ocean;  bounded  K.  by  Ayacucho  and 
Cuzco,  E.  by  Guzco  and  Puno,  S.  by  Moquega.  and  W.  by 
the  ocean.  Areaj  estimated  at  27,744  sq.  miles.  The  east- 
ern part  is  mountainous.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces 
chiefly  wine.  Gold,  .silver,  zinc,  lead,  and  coal  are  found 
here.     Cajjital,  Areipdpa.     Pop.  160,282. 

Areqiiipa  :  a  city  of  Peru :  cajiital  of  de]iartment  of  same 
name  ;  finely  situated  aliout  40  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
on  the  river  Cluli  and  on  the  plain  of  Quilca,  7.850  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea:  lat  16  24'  28"  S..  Ion.  71=  37  30" 
W.  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  5-0).  It  is  reputed  one 
of  the  best  built  and  most  beautiful  towns  of  South  America. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  and 
several  convents.  The  public  edifices  and  private  houses  are 
built  of  stone,  one  or  two  stories  high.  It  has  been  ruined 
bv  earthquakes  several  times.  It  has  an  active  trade,  facili- 
tated bv  a  railroad  which  extends  from  Puno  on  Lake  Titi- 
caca  to  Jlollendo  on  the  Pacific.  Gold  and  silver  are  found 
in  the  vicinity.  The  adjacent  country  is  fertile.  Here  oc- 
curred a  great  earthciuake,  Aug.  13  and  14,  1868,  destroying 
jn-operty "worth  more  than  $i2.000.(X)0,  and  said  to  have 
caused  the  death  of  more  than  500  persons.  Harvard  Col- 
lege observatory  has  established  a  station  at  an  elevation  of 
over  8.0(M)  feet  near  this  place,  which  is  exceptionally  favor- 
able for  aslronoinical  observations.     Pop.  35,000. 

Areqnipa,  Volcano  ok;  a  volcanic  peak  of  the  Peruvian 
.\ndes:  about  14  miles  E.  of  the  city  of  Arequijia.  It  rises 
to  the  height  of  20.;500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  and 
has  the  form  of  a  regular  truncated  cone,  with  a  deep  crater, 
from  which  ashes  and  vapor  continually  Lssue. 

A'res  (Gr. 'Ap7)s):  the  god  of  war  in  the  Greek  mythology, 
corresponding  to  the  Roman  Mars  (q.  v.). 

Aretaj'ns  (in  Gr.  'AperaToj):  an  able  Greek  medical  writer 
of  Cappadocia:  supposed  to  have  lived  between  50  and  150 
A.  d.  The  events  of  his  life  are  not  known,  but  he  is  con- 
sidered by  some  persons  to  rank  next  to  Hippocrates.  He- 
wrote  a  work  in  eight  books  on  the  causes,  symptoms,  and 


30i 


ARETHUSA 


ARGENSON 


cure  of  acute  ami  chronic  diseases,  which  is  still  extant  and 
is  highly  esteemed.  The  style  is  singularly  elegant  and  con- 
cise. The  Greek  text  hiis  often  heeii  printed,  and  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  T.  F.  Reynolds  (1887);  Greek 
with  English  translation  by  Dr.  P.  Adams  (1856). 

Arethn'sa  (in  Gr.  'ApeSov^a) :  in  classic  mythology,  one 
of  the  Nereids,  of  whom  Alpheus  was  enamored.  Also  the 
name  of  a  fountain  situated  near  Syracuse,  into  which  it  is 
said  she  was  transformed.  (.See  Alpheus.)  Arethusa  was 
invoked  by  Vergil  as  a  source  of  inspiration  in  his  tenth 
eclogue. 

Arethusa :  the  name  of  two  ancient  cities,  one  on  the 
river  Oruntes.  in  Syria,  and  the  other  in  Macedonia.  The 
Syrian  city  (now  called  Jiesfan)  was  reliuilt  by  Seleucus 
Nioator,  the  first  King  of  Syria.  Its  inhabitants  persecuted 
Marcus,  a  Christian  bishop,  who  is  now  honored  as  a  nuirtyr 
by  the  Greek  Church.  The  Macedonian  city  was  the  site  of 
the  tomb  of  tlie  Greek  jioet  Euripides. 

Aretin'ian  Syl'lahles :  the  syllables  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la, 
which  Guido  d\U'ezzo  used  to  designate  his  notes  in  his 
musical  system  of  hexachords. 

Aretlno,  PiETRO,  pee-ii'tro  iiJi-ra-tee'no:  satirical  and  li- 
centious Italian  writer ;  b.  at  Arezzo,  Apr.  20,  1493.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  colibler,  and  was  not  liberally  educated. 
He  became  a  resident  of  Venice  in  1.'527,  and  found  several 
powerful  patrons,  among  whom  were  the  Emperor  Chaides 
V.  and  Pi'ancis  I.  Among  his  numerous  works  were  come- 
dies, dialogues,  sonnets,  and  letters  (6  vols.,  1538-57).  He 
gained  by  liis  writings  great  applause  and  large  sums  of 
money.  His  satires,  which  were  personal  and  bitter,  pro- 
cured for  him  the  surname  of  The  Scourge  of  Princes. 
His  habits  were  extremely  licentious.  D.  in  Venice,  Oct.  21, 
1556.  See  P.  Chasles,  L'Aretin,  sa  vie  et  ses  ecrits  (1879) ; 
Sinigaglia,  Saijijio  di  tin  studio  su  P.  A.  (1882) ;  Saniosch. 
Pietro  A  re//«y '(Berlin,  1881). 

Aretino,  Spinello  :  See  Spinello  di  Luca  Spinelli. 

Ari'ti'nus,  Leoxardo  Brum  :  li.  in  Arezzo,  the  birth- 
place of  Petrarch,  of  low  parentage,  in  1369  ;  orphaned  at 
an  early  age,  the  precocious  boy  was  educated  by  the  famous 
Salutato,  and  the  two  remained  in  close  companionship 
until  1405,  when  Bruni  secured  the  position  of  apostolic  sec- 
retary to  Po|ie  Innocent  VII.  In  1410  he  was  elected  chan- 
cellor of  Florence,  with  very  limited  powers,  which  caused 
him  to  resign  aiul  to  return  to  the  papal  court.  In  1427  he 
was  again  apjiointed  chancellor  of  Florence  with  the  same 
prerogatives  that  Salutato  had  possessed,  ami  he  remained 
in  this  office,  universally  esteemed  and  admired,  until  his 
tleatli  on  Mar.  9,  1444.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his 
elegant  and  justly  famous  translations  of  Greek  writers  into 
Latin,  to  which  he  was  inspired  by  Chrysoloras.  Among 
the  best  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  speeches  of  Demos- 
thenes and  yEschines,  the  biographies  of  Plutarch,  Plato's 
Pluedo,  Gorijinx,  Kritoii.  ApnUtijij,  Pluvdrim,  and  some  of 
the  worJ<s  of  Ai'istotle.  See  G.  Voigt,  Wiederhi'leh.  di'S  clans 
Altrrlh.  (i.  309-314;  ii.  165-174);  J.  A.  Symonds,  Reiiais- 
.sdiiee  in  Italy  (ii.  182-186).  Alfred  Gudemax. 

Arezzo,  a-ret'so:  a  province  of  Tuscany,  Central  Italy; 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Florence,  on  the  F.  and  S.  by  Perugia. 
and  on  the  W.  by  Sienna.  Area,  1,279  scj.  miles.  The  coun- 
try is  chiefly  mountainous,  and  is  traversed  by  the  rivers 
Arno  and  Cliiami.  The  chief  town  is  Arezzo.  I'oji.  (1881) 
238.707;  (1890)242,506. 

Arezzo  (anc.  ^1/'(v'7/h)h):  a  city  of  Italy;  capital  of  the 
province  of  same  name;  on  the  CJhiana;  .55  miles  by  rail 
S.  E.  of  Florence.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town,  having  licen 
founded  by  the  j'ltruscans  several  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  li.'is  two  colleges,  a  .seminary,  a  lyceum,  a 
school  of  technology,  an  academy  of  seic'nces  and  arts,  and 
many  silk,  cloth,  iron,  and  other  factories.  Among  the  |aib- 
]ic  ediliees  are  a  cathedral,  several  churches  rich  in  works  of 
art,  a  nniseum,  and  tlie  famous  LiKjgie  of  Vasari,  Arezzo  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  nundier  of  eminent  m(!n  who  were 
liorn  iu  it — namely,  .M.ecemis,  I'eti'arch,  \'asari,  Pieiro  Are- 
lino,  (iuy  irArczzo.  Uedi  the  iihysiologist,  and  Cesalpino. 
Pop.  39,447  (comMuiiu').  Ancient  Arretiura  was  celebrated 
for  the  manufacture  of  terra-cotta  vases.  The  calhedral 
contaitis  rich  sculptures  by  Giovanni  Pisano,  anil  some  of 
the  finest  glass  wimlows  in  Italy. 

,\r«-ie'iis.  Mount  (in  Turk.  Arjixh-Dagli):  the  highest 
mounlain  in  Asia  .Minor;  in  the  |)ashalic  of  Karamania, 
idiout  12  miles  .S.  of  Kaisariveli.  and  connected  with  a  branch 
of  Mt.  Taurus.     Its  height  is  13,100  feet. 


Argali. 


Ar'y:aH  (Ovis  ammon):  the  large  wild  sheep  of  Central 
Asia  and  Siberia.  A  closely  relalei-1  sjiecies  is  the  bighorn 
of  the  Rocky  jNIouutains 
{O'vis  monta'iui). 

Argand  Lanip  :  a  lamp 
(patented  in  17S7)  invented 
in  1782  by  A.  Argand  (a  Sh  iss 
chemist  who  lived  in  1  n^ 
land;  h.  1755,  d.  1803)  and 
intended  for  burning  oil  11  is 
invention  consisted,  first  in 
using  a  wick  in  the  foim  oi 
a  hollow  cylinder,  thiough 
which  a  current,  of  air  ascendb, 
so  that  the  supply  of  oxygen 
is  increased,  ijrevcnting  the 
waste  of  carbon  (whieli  in  the  old  lamps  escaped  in  the 
form  of  smoke),  thus  greatly  increasing  tlie  amount  of  light ; 
and,  second,  in  adding  the  glass  chimney,  by  which  a  draft  is 
created  and  the  flame  is  rendered  more  steady. 

Ar'gelauMer,  Friedrich  Wilhelji  August  :  German 
aslronomer;  b.  at  Memel,  Mar.  22.  1799;  was  a  pupil  of 
Bessel.  lie  became  in  1823  director  of  the  observatory  at 
Abo,  in  Finland,  where  he  made  ob.servatioiis  for  a  well- 
known  catalogue  of  stars.  In  1832  he  became  professor 
at  Helsiiigfors.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Astronomy  at  Bonn.  PubUshed  a  celestial  atlas  entitled 
Vranometria  Nova.  (1843),  and  was  one  of  the  lirst  to  raise 
the  study  of  variable  stars  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  His 
greatest  work  was  a  catalogue  of  all  the  stars  north  of  the 
equator,  from  the  first  to  the  ninth  magnitude  inclusive,  the' 
number  exceeding  300,000.     I),  at  Bonn,  Feb.  17,  1875. 

Revised  by  S.  Nevvcomb. 

Arg'eino'ne  [through  Ijat.  from  Gr.  apy^fudvri.  a  kind  of 
poppy] :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Piipari'rariui'.  The 
An/riiKiiif  me.ricana  is  an  annual  herbaceous  plant,  with 
yellow  flowers  and  sinualed  spiny  leaves,  a  native  of  Mexico 
and  the  U.  S..  now  naturalized  in  India,  Africa,  South 
America,  etc.  It  has  seeds  which  are  emetic  and  purgative, 
and  have  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  iiiecaeuaiiha. 

Arg'ens.  dar'^han,  Jean  Baptiste  de  Bover,  Marquis  d' : 
French  writer;  b.  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  June  24,  1704.  He 
.served  in  the  army  in  his  youth,  and  gained  distinction  by  his 
JeivisU  Letters  (Lettres  Jiiives.  6  vols.,  1738-42),  and  Cliinese 
Letters  (6  \o\&.  1739—42).  ■  These  procured  for  him  the  favor 
of  the  Crown  Priiu'cof  Prussia,  all  erward  Frederick  the  Great. 
He  went  to  Berlin,  and  became  an  associate  of  that  prince, 
who  after  his  ascension  appointeil  him  director  of  the  Acad- 
emvof  Fine  Arts.  Among  his  works  is  Ilistoire  de  FEsprit 
Ilumaiii  (14  vols.,  1765-68).     D.  at  Toulon,  Jan.  11,  1771. 

Argenso'la,  Bartolojue  Leonaruo.  de:  Spanish  poet;  h. 
at  Barliastro,  in  Aragon,  Aug.  26.  1562.  Having  entered 
the  Church  he  became  a.  canon  of  Saragossa.  and  historiog- 
rapher of  Aragon.  He  published  a  number  of  poems  ;ind  a 
llistorji  of  the  Conquest  of  tlie  Motiicriia  (1009).  He  and 
his  brother  (see  below)  wei'e  called  the  Horaces  of  Spain. 
D.  at  Saragossa,  Feb.  26,  1631. 

Argensola,  LuPERCio  Leoxakdo,  de :  i)opuhir  jioet;  b.  at 
Barbastro,  Dee.  14.  15.59;  was  a  brother  of  the  ])recediug. 
lie  was  appointed  historiographer  of  Aragon  liy  Philip  HI., 
and  Secretary  of  State  by  the  viceroy  of  Maples  in  1610.  He 
produced  tragedies,  entitled  Fills,  Isalieln,  and  Ate/aiidra  ; 
also  lyric  poems  which  were  very  successful.  The  poems  of 
these  two  brothers  display  much  similarity.  D.  in  Naples, 
JIarch,  1613.  Boulerwek  commends  his  true  poelic  feeling, 
and  recognizes  iu  his  works  an  imagiiialiou  mi>re  jihislie 
tlian  creative.  See  Ticknor's  Jfistori/  of  Spanish  Jjitcra- 
ture;  N.  Antonio's  Bibliotheca  Ilispana  Nora. 

Argenson.  <!',  dar'zhah-soh' :  a  French  family  which  has 
produced  many  men  eminent  in  lettei's  and  in  i)ublic  af- 
fairs.— Marc  1{eni5  de  Vover  u'Argknson  (1652-1721)  was 
a  prominent  academician  and  public  olllcer. — His  sou  Rene 
Louis,  JIar<|uis  d'Argenson  (1691-1757),  was  aforeign  miiiis- 
teraud  an  aullior  of  dislinelion. — .Marc  Pierre, Ccaint  d'Ar- 
genson (1696-1761),  a  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  an  able 
stalesmaii  and  a  ))alron  of  letlers. — Marc  Axtoixe  Rene  de 
Paulmv  d'Argenson  ( 1 722-87),  a  .son  of  the  Marquis  Rene 
Louis,  was  an  academician  and  the  collector  of  a  fannnis 
library. — Marc  ]{kni5.  b.  in  Paris.  Sept.  10.  1771,  served  as 
the  adjutant  of  Gen.  La  Fayette,  and  fought  afterward  for 
the  republic.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  a  prominent  leader 
of  the  ultra-republicans.     D.  in  Paris,  Aug.  2,  1842. 


ARGEXSON 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


305 


Argenson.  Pierre  de  Voyee,  Viscount  d' :  b.  in  France 
in  1626;  was  frovcrnor  of  Canada  in  165T-61.  and  made  some 
discoveries  near  liake  Siiliori<ir  and  Hudson's  ISay.  He  was 
of  noble  ancestry,  served  lionorably  at  tlie  siege  of  Hor- 
deaux  and  tlie  battle  of  Sens,  and  was  afterward  reeve  of 
Tonraine.     D.  in  France  about  1709. 

Argrentaii:  a  town  in  the  X.  W.  of  France;  department 
of  Drill':  on  a  railway  wliich  connects  Alen(;on  with  Caen; 
16^  miles  by  rail  X.  X.  W.  of  the  former  (see  niaj)  of  France, 
ref.  ;!-D).  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  line  Gothic  church  and 
a  college;  also  inaiiufactuies  of  linen,  and  lace  called  poitit 
d'ArgentiiH.     Poj),  6.0OO. 

Arjreiiteuil,  ar-^han-lu  :  atown  of  France;  department  of 
Seine-el-(iisc  :  mi  tlie  Seine  :  llj  miles  by  rail  S.  \V.  of  Paris 
(see  map  of  France,  ref,  ;:i-F),  Here  was  a  convent  to  which 
tlie  celebraliMl  llcloise  retired  about  1120,  It  is  now  in 
ruins,     l*o|i,  about  12,000, 

Arsfpii'tpus  Co'dex :  an  old  uncial  maiuiscript  of  frag- 
nicnt.s  of  the  Four  (iospels,  written  in  the  Ma'so-Gothic  dia- 
lect on  vellum  :  is  so  calleil  because  the  letters  are  in  silver, 
except  the  initials.  It  is  supposed  that  it  wa«  written  in  the 
sixth  century.  It  is  a  copy  of  the  translation  made  by  Ul- 
philas.  Bishop  of  the  Jhcso-Goths,  was  found  in  the  abbey 
i>f  Werden,  Westphalia,  in  lo!)7,  and  is  iiuw  preserved  as  the 
most  precious  treasure  of  the  University  of  Upsala,  Sweden, 

Argentina,  aar-gen-tee'na"a :  the  Aegentine  Repiblic, 

.\rirpntine  (from  Lat,  argen'tum,  silver]:  a  variety  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  having  a  silvery-white  luster, 

Argentine:  city:  Wyandotte  co,,  Kan.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  6-K) ;  incorporated  in  IHSO. 
and  made  a  city  of  the  second  class  in  1890:  4  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  Kansas  river,  on  a  level  plot  of  bottom-land, 
almost  surrounded  with  hills;  the  main  tprminal  of  the 
Santa  Fe  system  of  railroads.  The  "Argentine  smelter" 
smelts  g(dd,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  and  employs  about 
1,000  men,  Argentine  has  street-car  lines  extending  to  Kan- 
sas City,  JIo,.  and  Kansas  City,  Kan,  (4  miles  distant),  elec- 
tric lights,  line  water-worlvs,  and  two  large  grain  elevators. 
Pop,  (1890)  4,732;  (1895)  5,503,       Editor  of  "  IlEPuni.ic," 

Argentine  Literature:  See  Spaxish-America.n  Liteea- 

Tf  li  v.. 

.Vrgentine  Republic  [Sp,  La  liepiMica  Argentina, 
nanu'(i  from  the  Ji'io  ite  la  Plata,  i,  e.  the  river  of  silver,  ar- 
qeiitiini\:  a  Soiitli  American  federal  republic:  bounded  X, 
Yiy  Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  E,  by  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  W. 
bv  the  .\ndes,  which  separate  it  from  Chile,  It  extends  from 
hit,  22'  to  56"  S„  and  Ion.  53°  30'  to  72°  W.^  The  area,  includ- 
ing additions,  in  1881,  of  most  of  Patagonia  and  a  small  part 
of  Tierra  drl  Fuego,  is  about  1,125.086  sq.  miles.  The  |">pii- 
lation,  including  additions  from  Patagonia,  etc..  and  includ- 
ing the  "  Federal  District,"  which  is  practically  the  city  of 
Buenos  Avres,  according  to  the  census  of  Mav  10,  1895,  is 
3,973,626,  of  whom  over  2,000,000  are  natives.  280.000  Ital- 
ians. 100.000  Spaniards,  1.50,000  French,  40,000  British,  20,- 
000  Germans,  besides  Uruguayans,  Chilian.s,  Swiss,  Bolivians, 
Paraguayans,  Portuguese,  Asiatics,  Africans,  Oceanians,  etc., 
in  numllers  of  from  18.300  to  about  2,000  each.  The  area 
and  population  of  the  14  provinces  and  9  territories  into 
which  the  republic  is  divided  are,  according  to  the  latest 
ollicial  reports,  as  follows: 


PROVI.NCES  A.ND  TERRITORIES. 


Coast. 


Andes  . 


Central . 


Northern 


Territories, 


1  Buenos  Ayres. . . 
Santa  ¥<• 
Entreliios 
e'<)rrieutes 
Rioja 
Catamarca 

■  I  San  Juan 

t  Meniioza 

[  Cordolta 

!  San  Luis 

■  1  SantiajJTO 

I,  Tiicutnan 

\  Salta. 

■  I  .lujuy 

Misiones 

Formosa 

Oliaco 

I'ainpa 

Kio  Ni'gro 

I  Neuqueo 

Cliulmt 

I  Santa  Cruz 

t  Titrra  del  Fuego.  . 


Area  la 
•q.  miles. 


Pop,  In 
1895, 


63,000 
18.000 
^.i.OOfl 
54.000 
31,.50(1 
81.500 

S9,roo 

54,0(X) 
54.000 
18.000 
SL-WO 
]:j..500 
45.000 
27.000 
23,9:32 

125,612 

191,842 


268,000 


921  222 

40513(50 

302.571 

2:19,344 

TO.OlO 

89.645 

84.239 

114,814 

353,(X)0 

81. .5.37 

160..'i:i4 

2I3.1KK) 

118,107 

55,000 


100,000 


Cfipltals  of 
proTJDcas. 


La  Plata. 

Santa  F6. 

ParanA. 

Corrientes. 

Rioja. 

L'ataniarea. 

San  Juan. 

Mendoza. 

Cordot>a. 

San  Luis. 

Sautiafio. 

Tueuiuaa. 

Salta. 

Jujuy. 


20 


The  chief  cities  with  populations  in  1895  are:  Buenos 
Avres  (665.243),  Rosario  (124,305),  La  Plata  (60,983),  Cor- 
ddba  (54,400),  Santa  Fe  (35,288),  Mendoza  (28,709),  Tucu- 
man  (25,000),  Salta  (20.000),  Parana  (18,000),  Corrieutes 
(14,000),  San  Luis  (17.827). 

Pligsical  Oeograplig. — The  country  is  divided  into  four 
regions,  viz.:  1,  the  regions  of  the  Andes,  the  western 
boundary;  2,  "the  Argentine  Mesopotamia,"  situated  be- 
tween the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana:  3.  the  pamjias  or 
soul  hern  plains:  4.  t!ie  northern  or  interior  jilains  which 
extend  far  into  Bolivia.  The  characteristic  feature  of  the 
country,  excepting  the  region  of  the  Andes,  is  the  plain. 
The  true  pampas  arc  situated  between  the  Rio  Xegro  and 
the  Rio  .Salado,  About  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  X^egro,  be- 
yond Buenos  Ayres  and  some  distance  u))  the  Parana,  the 
ground  consists  of  a,  fine  ile]iosit  of  sand  and  clay,  which 
have  been  washeil  down  from  1  lu-  mountains  in  the  course 
of  time.  For  Inindieds  of  miles  S.  and  VV.  of  Buenos  Ayres 
not  a  stone  is  to  be  found.  In  the  pampas  the  principal 
vegetation  consists  of  grasses,  which  serve  as  food  for  the 
numerous  herds  of  cattle.  In  the  interior  cacti  and  thorny 
mimo.sa'  are  frequent.  Timlier  trees  are  not  met  with. 
Toward  tlie  X'^.  the  vegetation  becomes  extremely  varied ; 
along  the  rivers  it  becomes  luxuriant :  the  trees,  however,  are 
not  extraordinarily  high.  Land  capable  of  being  cultivated 
is  found  only  along  the  rivers.  The  strip  of  country  be- 
tween the  eastern  branches  of  the  Andes  and  the  Parana  is 
more  or  less  sterile  and  deserted,  and  even  the  western 
states  are  partly  separated  from  each  other  by  deserts. 
Large  tracts  in  the  interior  are  covered  by  volcanic  ashes 
and  pumice-stone.  The  southern  plains  are  broken  by  sev- 
eral ranges  of  hills,  some  of  which  stretch  1.50  miles  to  the 
S.  and  S.  W.  of  Buenos  .Ayres.  and  run  from  S.  E.  to  X.  W. 
'I'heir  elevation  above  the  plain  never  exceeds  300  feet. 
Parallel  to  these  are  the  Ventana  Mountains,  whose  highest 
point  is  3,.500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain.  These  ranges 
mostly  consist  of  granite,  which  in  some  jiarts  is  covered  by 
quartz.  In  the  lower  dihivian  strata  many  fossil  remains  of 
marine  animals  occur,  which  are  also  found  occasionally  in 
the  mountains  at  a  height  of  14.000  fec't.  The  next  higher 
stratum  to  the  one  last  mentioned  is  rich  in  fossil  remains  of 
extinct  mammals  of  an  enormous  size,  which  have  a  striking 
resemblance  to  tlie  present  mammals  of  South  America  and 
Africa  (e,  g.  the  large  armadillo,  the  giant  sloth,  the  masto- 
don, fossil  horses).  The  mountains,  esjiecially  the  Acon- 
quija  Cordilleras,  whicli  separate  Tucuman  from  Catamarca, 
are  rich  in  valuable  metals,  especially  in  golil.  silver,  and 
copper.  In  the  Famatina  range,  in  the  province  of  Rioja, 
much  iron  ore  is  found.  In  the  Gran  Chaco  it  was  asciu-- 
tained  by  the  expedition  of  Porter  Cornelius  Bliss  in  1863 
that  t  lie  ground  is  covered  for  miles  around  with  iron,  whicli 
contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  nickel,  A  piece  of  this,  weigh- 
ing about  1,400  lb,,  was  taken  to  the  British  Museum,  Up 
to  the  present  time,  however,  the  rejniblic  iin])orts  the  iron 
it  uses  from  Eurojie,  In  the  southwestern  jirovinces  exten- 
sive coal-fields  have  lieen  discovered,  while  sulphur,  alum, 
etc,  are  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  Andes. 

liivi'nt.  Lakes,  and  Sivanipn. — Almost  all  the  rivers  which 
eome  down  from  the  Amies,  the  southern  slope  of  the  cen- 
tral Brazilian  ranges,  and  the  heights  forming  the  water- 
shed of  Buenos  Ayres,  unite  to  form  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
which  lia-s  a  wider  mouth  than  any  other  river  on  the  globe. 
Between  the  capes  San  -Antonio  and  St.  JIary  it  has  a 
wiiltli  of  170  miles;  50  miles  farther  up  stream,  at  Monte- 
video, it  has  narrowod  down  to  75  miles,  and  the  water  be- 
comes fresh.  At  Buenos  Ayres.  1.50  miles  fartlier  up,  the 
low  shores  can  not  be  seen  from  the  middle  of  the  river. 
The  current  can  be  noticed  as  far  a-s  100  to  200  miles  out  in 
the  ot^ean,  although  the  depth  of  the  river  is  not  very  great. 
Above  Montevideo,  which  is  the  only  good  port  on  it,  its 
navigable  channels  are  so  obstructed  by  sand-banks  that  ves- 
.sols  of  light  draught,  which  go  to  Buenos  .\yi-es,  are  com- 
pelled to  anchor  from  6  to  9  miles  from  the  city.  Even 
small  boats  have  such  difliculty  in  getting  ashore  that  the 
jiassengers  are  generally  landed  by  means  of  wagons  with 
very  high  wheels.  The  chief  branches  of  which  the  La 
Plata  is  formed  are  the  Parana  (with  its  afllnent.  the  Para- 
guay) and  Uruguay,  which  are  respectively  navigable  for 
st(!aniers  for  l.()IM)  and  2.50  miles.  Blany  of  the  eastern 
tributaries,  especially  the  Rio  X'ermejo  and  the  Rio  Salado, 
are  navigable  for  smaller  ve.s.sels  for  400  to  .500  miles.  The 
smaller  tributaries  coming  from  the  E.  are  generally  un- 
snited  to  navigation  by  reason  of  their  strong  currents. 
Those  coming  from  the  Andes,  however,  slowly  wend  their 


306 


AKGf:XTIXE   REPUBLIC 


way  through  the  endless  plains,  and  are  of  tlie  greatest  im- 
portanee  lor  commerce.  The  rivers  of  the  interior  which 
do  not  lielong  to  the  system  of  the  La  Plata  are  mostly  un- 
important, as  they  are  lost  in  swamps  or  temporary  lakes, 
or  entirely  dry  uji  in  sunnner.  These  temporary  lakes,  la- 
goons, and  swamps  are  found  in  great  number,  and  are  some- 
times of  considerable  extent.  Tliose  to  the  E.  of  the  Para- 
guay and  Parana  generally  contain  fresh  water,  while  those 
W.  of  these  rivers  are  brackish,  almost  without  exception. 
Among  the  former  tlie  lake  of  Ybera  in  the  province  of 
Corrientes  is  the  most  imi>ortant.  Tluise  to  the  W.  of  the 
great  rivers  usually  dry  up  at  tlie  end  of  the  rainy  season, 
and  leave  the  ground  covered  with  a  crust  of  saline  nuitter 
several  inches  in  thickness.  The  salts  are  of  different  kinds. 
In  tlie  iilain  around  Fort  ^Melincue,  W,  S.  \V.  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  sulphates  of  magnesia  are  found  which  yield  a  profit- 
able article  of  commerce.  Good  cooking-salt  is  found  in 
large  quantities  S.  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  in  the  neighborhood 
of  San  Luis. 

Climate. — The  most  prominent  characteristic  of  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  extreme  drjTiess.  Al- 
though the  territory  \V.  of  the  Parana  has  plenty  of  rain, 
still  the  plains  in  theinterior  suffer  extremely  from  drought, 
because  tlie  S,  W.  winds,  being  stopped  by  the  Andes,  dis- 
charge their  rain  in  Chili,  and  the  eastern  equatorial  winds 
have  already  exhausted  their  rain  at  the  tropic.  Buenos 
Ayres  and  the  country  immediately  surrounding  are  often 
exposed  to  warm  N.  winds,  which  come  down  the  valley  of 
the  Parana  loaded  with  vapor.  The  mean  temperature  of 
Buenos  Ayres  is  64°  F. ;  the  mean  for  the  summer  T2%  for 
the  winter  52'.  In  many  places  a  warm  and  a  cool  season 
can  be  distinguished,  the  former  lasting  from  October  to 
May.  the  latter  from  May  to  September.  The  time  of  the 
change  from  one  to  the  other  is  the  chief  rainy  season.  The 
heavy  thunder-storms,  sometimes  accompanied  by  hail- 
storms, often  produce  very  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
Nevertheless,  the  climate  is  very  healthy.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  pampero,  a  strong  S.  W.  wind  coming  from  the 
Andes.  Also  the  nights,  which  are  cool  throughout  the 
year,  and  which  tend  to  make  the  heat  of  the  day  less  felt, 
contribute  much  toward  this  end.  In  the  plains  of  the  in- 
terior the  hot  zonda.  the  strong  and  lasting  X.  wind,  is  very 
much  dreaded.  The  rejjublic  lias  a  well-organized  meteoro- 
logical service,  and  its  climate  has  been  studied  with  more 
care  than  that  of  any  other  South  American  country. 

Animal  and  Plant  Life — Products. — With  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  animals  of  the  present  day  have  the  same  char- 
acteristics as  the  gigantic  fossils  found  in  the  country,  ex- 
cept that  they  are  considerably  smaller.  The  animal  pecul- 
iar to  the  plains  is  the  llama.  The  vicuna,  related  to  the 
llama,  is  hunted  in  the  W.  Of  other  wild  animals  are  found 
the  jiuma.  the  tapir,  the  capibara,  and  the  ounce.  Among 
the  birds  tlie  birds  of  prey,  as  the  condor  and  the  Caracara 
vulture,  are  especially  numerous.  The  American  ostrich 
and  different  kinds  of  humming-birds  and  parrots  are  also 
often  met  with.  The  vegetation  of  the  plains  of  the  La 
Plata  is  poor.  Even  in  Bntre  Rios  the  lack  of  wood  is 
often  seriously  felt.  To  the  S.  clumps  of  willows  are  found 
here  and  there.  But  the  shores  of  the  Parana  are  covered 
with  lieautlful  forests,  and  both  toward  the  tropics  and  the 
Cordillera.s  the  vegetation  becomes  varied  and  luxuriant. 
The  most  characteristic  plants  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  as  well  as 
of  the  pampas,  are  mimosas  and  cacti,  and  not  until  the 
foot  of  the  Cordilleras  in  Salta  and  Mendoza  is  reached  are 
palms  and  the  other  ornaments  of  tropical  forests  met  with. 
The  native  plants  and  animals  of  these  regions  are,  however, 
mostly  superseded  liy  naturalized  species.  The  apple-tree, 
wlii<'li  at  the  present  day  forms  large  woods  in  the  S.  of 
Chili  and  toward  the  stjurces  of  the  Rio  Negro,  has  been 
transplanted  by  the  Indians  farther  N.  on  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Cordilleras.  The  peach-tree  is  largely  cultivated  on 
the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Parana.  A  wild  species  of 
artichoke  and  inijienetrable  thickets  of  thistles  cover  the 
gi^ound  for  miles  to  the  W.  and  X.  W.  of  HiuMios  .Vyres. 
Wine  is  extensively  grown  in  Jlendoza  and  La  Rioja. 

Affriciillure,  Indnstri/,  Trade. —  It  is  only  in  late  years 
that  agriculture  has  been  generally  introduced,  especially 
in  tfic  coast  provinces.  In  the  region  of  the  Andes,  where 
tlie  ground  is  more  easily  irrigated,  considerable  wheat,  wine, 
and  fruits  of  all  kinds  have  been  produced  fiu-  a  long  time. 
At  present  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  other  grain  and  vegeta- 
blas  are  cultivated  on  a  large  scide.  Sugar-cane,  tobacco 
(especially  in  Corrientes  and  rucuinan.but  also  in  Salta  and 
Catamarca),  cotton,  peanuts,  and  flax  are  also  cultivated, 


but  many  of  these  iilants  are  of  comparatively  recent  intro- 
duction. Less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  under 
cultivation.  Cattle  and  sheep  breeding,  the  old  national 
occupation,  is  much  more  important  than  agriculture.  The 
natives  had  at  the  time  of  tlie  discovery  no  other  domestic 
animal  than  the  llama  or  guanaco.  Mendoza  introduced  the 
horse  in  1536 ;  in  1550  goats  and  sheep  were  brought  from 
Peru ;  in  1553  the  ox  was  brought  from  the  coast  of  Brazil. 
From  these  importations  have  descended  the  millions  of  cat- 
tle wliich  now  roam  over  the  plains  of  the  republic.  The 
breeds  are  almost  all  good.  1  he  sheep  have  been  greatly 
improved.  In  recent  times  the  breeders  of  cattle  have  suf- 
fered considerable  losses,  as,  in  consequence  of  the  high 
tariff  of  the  V.  S..  they  have  no  market  for  their  products. 
Wild  cattle  are  no  longer  to  be  found.  All  are  inclosed, 
though  often  in  very  large  ranges.  The  large  estancias  of 
former  times  are  becoming  things  of  the  past,  and  they  are 
cut  up  more  and  more  into  smaller  estates.  While  the  price 
of  laud  has  risen  considerably  (in  some  places  it  lia.s  doubled 
within  twenty  years),  the  increase  of  the  cattle  has  been  so 
large  that  the  supply  exceeds  the  demand  largely,  and  ma- 
nure is  made  of  the  unsold  meat.  About  3,000,0()0  hides  of 
cattle  are  exported  annually,  and  in  the  large  slaughter- 
houses {saladeros)  60,000  cattle  are  killed  annually.  The 
herds  of  horses  seem  to  diminish  gradually,  but  are  still  so 
large  that  250.000  horse-hides  are  annually  exported.  The 
[lampa  horse  is  small  and  of  coarse  build,  tint  excels  in 
fleetness  and  endurance.  It  roams  about  in  herds  of  6,000 
or  8.000,  and  is  caught  by  the  gauchos  with  the  lasso  or  the 
bolas.  Mules  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  and  are  exported 
to  Peru  and  other  places.  General  industry  and  manufac- 
tures are  unimportant  in  the  La  Plata  states.  The  manu- 
facture and  export  of  "Liebig's  extract  of  meat"  is  exten- 
sive. Besides  this,  tanning  and  the  soap  manufacture  are 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale.  Valuable  embroidered  cloths, 
wearing  apparel,  gorgeous  blankets,  and  ponchos  are  made 
of  the  finest  wool.  The  Indian  women  of  the  S.  also  make 
wonderfully  fine  quilted  ponchos,  belts,  horse-blankets,  and 
harness.     A  laborer  is  ])aid  from  ^1  to  $3  in  gold  per  day. 

The  commerce  with  the  interior  is  unimportant ;  that  with 
Chili  and  Bolivia  is  of  more  consequence.  To  these  coun- 
tries oxen,  mules,  and  asses  are  ex|)orted  in  large  numbers. 
The  commerce  by  sea  is  about  twenty  times  as  large  as  that 
by  land.  It  is  limited  almost  entirely  to  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Rosario.  The  river-jiorts,  Santa  Fe,  Parana,  Corrientes, 
Gualeguay,  Concepeion,  and  Concordia,  supply  themselves 
from  Buenos  Ayres.  The  inland  trade  is  to  a  great  extent 
carried  on  by  caravans  of  thirty  or  forty  wagons.  The  arti- 
cles of  export  are.  besides  those  obtained  from  the  herds  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep,  chiefly  ostrich  feathers,  Patagonian 
and  artificial  guano,  furs,  honey,  copper,  gold  and  silver 
liars.  The  development,  however,  of  the  vast  resources  of 
the  country  can  as  yet  hardly  be  .siiid  to  have  commenced. 
Its  greatest  wealth  is  still  represented  by  the  herds  of  cattle 
and  sheep  which  graze  upon  its  plains.  The  manufactures 
and  luxuries  imported  into  the  country  are  paid  for  with 
the  proceeds  from  the  flocks.  The  total  exports  amounted 
in  1890  to  $100.81<l.000.  and  the  imports  to  $142,241,000, 
both  in  gold  dollars.  In  1890  13.873  vessels,  of  6.340.955 
tons  entered,  and  9,709  vessels,  of  5,506,469  tons,  cleared 
from  all  the  ports  of  the  republic.  Of  the  expoits  61  per 
cent,  were  animals  or  their  products,  25  per  cent,  agricultu- 
ral produce.  9  per  cent,  manufactures,  and  only  -fV  of  1  per 
cent,  mineral  products. 

In  1890  the  post-office  carried  60.844,963  lettei-s,  860,716 
postal  cards,  and  43,974,107  newspapers,  etc.  The  length  of 
railwav  in  1891  was — open  for  traflic.  6.855  :  in  construction, 
4.840.  "  In  1890  there  were  12,000  miles  of  (iovernment  tele- 
graph line  and  7.000  miles  lielonging  to  private  parlies.  A 
submarine  telegraph  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Montevideo  lias 
been  in  operation  since  1866.  Buenos  Ayres  has  now  com- 
plete communication  with  Eurojie  by  telegraph. 

Inhahitantx. — The  native  tribes  are  divided  into  three 
different  groups:  1.  the  Araucanians.  who  are  found  as  far 
X.  as  the  Rio  Salado:  2.  tlie  (juichuas.  who  were  formerly 
subject  to  the  incas  of  Peru,  and  spread  E.  of  the  Cordil- 
leras as  far  as  Santiago  ;  3,  the  Guaranis,  who  formerly  ruled 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  region.  These  races  were  among  the 
most  civilized  of  the  aliorigines  when  first  found,  and  have 
blendeil  somewhat  (the  Guaranis  especially)  with  the  Span- 
iards, this  mixed  race  constituting  the  larger  part  of  the  in- 
digenous population  of  the  republic.  TJie  number  of  the 
foreign-born  [lopulation  is  verv  large.  The  number  of  im- 
migrants amounted  in  1888  to"  155,632;  in  1889,  289,014;  in 


ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 


307 


1890,  138,407.  The  excess  of  iiiiinigration  over  emigration 
ill  the  years  1871  to  1890  was  1,113.789.  Most  of  the  immi- 
granls  are  from  Italy.  Franco,  and  Spain. 

Matniirn  and  Ciiiiloma. — In  Buenos  Ayres.  wliere  the  for- 
eign [lopnlution  gains  the  ascenfleney  more  and  more,  Euro- 
pean dress  and  mannei-s  have  I>een  rapidly  naturalized.  The 
lower  classes,  which  are  chiefly  mestizoes  and  half-breeds, 
combine  the  inclination  of  the  higher  classes  for  gaining 
and  a  dissolute  life  with  the  plain  and  rough  mode  of  living 
of  the  gaueho  of  the  pampas.  The  gaucho  wears  a  jacket 
of  coarse  cloth  or  sheepskin,  and  ]iaii(alo(ms  of  the  same 
stuff,  which  are  open  from  the  knee  down.  His  poncho  is  a 
s(|uare  piece  of  cloth  with  an  opening  in  the  middle  tor  the 
heatl.  His  ornaments  consist  of  spurs  with  large  silver 
rowels,  and  a  large  knife,  with  the  handle  iidaid  with  silver, 
which  is  carried  in  the  belt.  The  women  are  dres-ied  almost 
exactly  like  the  nuMi,  only  they  have  tlie  neck  and  arms  bare. 
The  ranclio  or  hut  of  the  gaucho  consists  of  a  trellis-work 
of  brushwood,  which  is  covered  with  nnid.  The  roof  is 
covered  with  straw  or  cow-hides,  and  in  the  place  of  a  door 
is  a  horse-hide.  The  food  of  the  gaucho  consists  almost 
entirely  of  meat  and  water.  Prom  1850  to  18()()  there  was 
1  marriage  for  every  140  inhabitants,  1  birth  for  every  22,  1 
death  for  every  44.  and  5  children  for  every  family :  one-fifth 
of  all  the  children  are  illegitimate.  The  mean  length  of 
life  in  the  country  and  the  smaller  cities  is  40  years. 
Since  1780  the  population  has  almost  (puidruplcd  itself.  The 
predominating  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic:  Protestants 
are  only  found  among  the  immigrants.  Under  the  Arch- 
bishoj)  of  Buenos  Ayres  are  the  Bishops  of  the  Littoral  (with 
his  seat  in  Parana),  of  Cordova,  of  Cuyo  (San  .luan),  and  of 
Salta.  There  are  very  few  monasteries,  but  a  large  mimber 
of  nunneries.  Since  the  accession  of  President  Sarmicnto 
much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  education  of  the  people. 
In  1887  Ihi-re  were  :i.028  elementary  schools  with  (i,241 
teachers  and  227.450  ))upils :  there  were  in  1885  15  lyceums 
with  369  professors  ami  3,189  pupils:  also  2  universities,  a 
school  of  mines,  2  colleges  of  agriculture,  a  naval  and  a 
military  school,  15  normal  schools  for  feuuiles  and  (i  for 
males,  a  national  observatory,  a  national  museum,  and  a 
meteorological  bureau.  In  1886  the  general  (iovennuent 
and  the  14  provinces  conlributed  .$3,467,240  to  the  sup- 
port of  elementary  eilucation.  In  1869  Congress  passed 
a  law  that  the  new  civil  code  (cndigo  ciril)  compiled  by 
Dr.  Sarstield,  at  that  time  Minister  of  the  Interior,  was  to 
be  introduced  thi'oughout  the  whole  republic  on  Jan.  1, 
1871. 

Consfifufion. — The  constitution  was  adopted  ^lay  11. 18.53, 
and  was  revised  in  1860  and  1862.  This  is  now  nearly  idi'ii- 
tieal  with  that  of  the  U.S.  At  the  head  of  the  republic  is 
a  President,  elected  for  a  term  of  6  years  by  representatives 
of  the  14  provinces.  Congress  consists  of  a  House  of  Depu- 
ties with  86  members  and  a  Senate  with  two  members  for 
each  province  ami  the  capital.  In  1862  Congress  transferred 
the  seat  of  government  to  Buenos  Ayres.  and  introduced 
several  clauses  into  the  constitution  with  regard  to  the  rela- 
tions of  the  city  to  the  Confederation.  The  province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  elects  its  own  governor,  Iiul  the  city  is  under 
the  direct  jurisdiction  of  the  President  and  Congress.  The 
judiciary  is  entirely  independent.  There  arc  a  supreme  court 
and  tribunals  in  every  state.  The  freedom  of  the  press,  of 
association,  of  education,  and  free  disposition  of  property,  a,s 
well  as  ecpiality  liefore  the  law,  is  guaranteed  to  everybody. 
The  "provinces"  are  really  .states.  The  Honuiii  Catholic 
religion  is  recognized  in  the  constitution  as  that  of  the  state, 
but  all  creetis  are  tolerated. 

Army,  Xavi/,  and  Fiiiaiiri's. — The  armv  consisted  in  1891 
of  1,129  officers  with  789  artillery.  2.227  hoi-se.  and  2.331  foot. 
The  militia  comprises  236,000  men,  besides  68.000  reserves. 
The  navy  includes  several  modern-bviilt  and  ironclad  ves- 
sels, and  has  1,.530  officers  and  men.  In  1S91  the  financial 
position  was  as  follows:  Cnrrencv.  ^:jO0.000,Of)O :  debt,  !i;47.5,- 
000,000;  revenue  (gold),  .i;22.500,()OO.  The  pajierdoUar,  which 
forms  a  large  part  of  the  currency,  was  worth  27^  cents  in 
gold.  A  law  of  national  banks  similar  to  the  banking  law 
of  the  IT.  S.  was  r.ublished  Nov.  3,  1887. 

Weigh's  and  Jli-asni-cs. — The  metric  system  is  established 
hy  law,  but  the  old  Spanish  weights  and  measures  are  still 
in  use. 

History. — The  La  Plata  was  discovered  by  .luan  Diaz  de 
Soils  in  1516,  who  look  j>ossessi(in  of  thi'  country  for  Ihe 
crown  of  Spain.  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  by  Don  Peilro 
de  Mendoza.  who  lieeame  governor  in  1535.  The  city  was 
not,  however,  firmly  established  against  the  attacks  of  the 


Indians  until  after  its  third  rebuilding  in  1580,  and  after 
Santa  Fc,  Mendoza,  and  other  cities  in  the  interior  had  been 
founded.  The  government  of  the  countries  of  the  La  Plata 
was  subject  to  the  Viceroy  of  Peru  until  1778,  in  which  year 
a  viceroyally  was  formed  of  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  Bolivia,  with  Biu-uos  Ayres  as  its 
capital.  '  After  1806-07  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo  were 
for  a  short  time  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  who.  however, 
were  not  able  to  hold  them.  .Soon  after  liberal  ideas  began 
to  gain  ground.  The  viceroy  was  ex|ielled,  and  on  .May  25, 
1810.  SI  jiinhi  gubi'rnatira  was  installed.  Cordova.  Paraguay, 
and  Uruguay,  howevi'r,  did  not  Recognize  this  junta,  and  a 
long  successicm  of  civil  wars  ensued.  Soon  after  the  districts 
in  the  interior  also  joined  the  Confederation.  In  1813  a  con- 
stituent assembly  nu't  in  Buenos  Ayres,  the  Spanish  flag  was 
given  up,  and  the  republic  issued  its  (jwn  coin.  In  the  pre- 
vious year  Montevideo,  wliii'li  had  reuiaincil  longest  connect- 
ed with  Spain,  had  been  taken.  In  1816  the  representatives 
of  all  the  provinces  assembled  in  congress  at,  Tucuman,  de- 
clared the  La  Plata  states  independent,  ami  appointed  Gen. 
Pueyrredon  dictator  of  the  rei>ublic.  The  Spanish  troops 
were  severely  defeated  at  Chacabuco  in  1817,  and  at  Maypu 
in  1818.  Tlie  la.st  and  decisive  victory  was  gained  in  1821. 
In  the  meanwhile  the  repuljlic  was  the  scene  of  serious  en- 
counters between  several  ambitious  lenders.  In  1825  the 
"  Unitarians  "  (who  favored  a  strong  centra!  government) 
succeeded  in  restoring  unity  and  cslablislied  a  new  consti- 
tution. But  Kivadiva  was  their  only  President.  .Juan  Ma- 
nuel de  Rosas,  the  leader  of  the  gauchos.  in  connection  with 
other  malcontents,  forced  him  to  resign,  and  caused  Dorrego 
to  be  elected  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  After  a  counter- 
revolution under  Lavalle.  which  was  for  a  time  successful, 
Rosas  was  elected  governor  in  1826.  in  which  position  he 
remained  for  six  years.  In  1835  he  declined  a  re-election,  but 
accepted  the  position  of  dictator  of  the  re]iuljlie  with  un- 
limited powers,  which  he  held  until  1853.  During  this  entire 
period  Congress  did  not  assemble.  The  civil  wars  neverthe- 
less continued  uninterruptedly.  The  indejiendence  of  Uru- 
guay, which  had  assumed  the  title  of  "  Republica  ( )rieutal  del 
Urugua\'."  had  been  recognized  in  1828.  But  Rosas  did  not 
relinquish  his  plans.  He  assisted  Governor  Oribe.  while 
France  took  sides  with  his  rival.  Rivera.  Peace  was  con- 
chuled  in  1840.  but  in  1845  new  difficulties  arose,  which  led 
to  an  armed  intervention  of  France  and  England.  They 
blockaded  Buenos  Ayres  and  occupied  the  island  of  Martin 
Garcia,  but  were  compelled  to  recall  their  fleets  the  next 
year.  The  provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entrc  Rios  seceded 
from  Rosas  soon  after,  and  on  Feb.  3,  1852.  he  was  defeated 
by  the  united  forces  of  Brazil.  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  Ur- 
quiza,  the  head  of  the  opposition,  in  the  battle  of  Monte 
Ciiseras.  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  compelled  to  fly  to 
England.  After  a  short  administration  of  Vnicente  Lopez, 
Urquiza  declared  himself  President,  and  recognized  on  June 
23.  1852.  the  independence  of  Paraguay.  In  September  an- 
other revolution  took  place,  and  Buenos  Ayres  resolved  to 
secede  from  the  Confederation.  In  the  meanwhile  Con- 
gress had  adopted  a  new  constitution  (May.  1853).  and  Ur- 
quiza was  elected  President.  Biuuios  .\yi-es  remained  inde- 
pendent, but  consented  to  the  conclusion  of  two  treaties  in 
Dec.  1854,  and  Jan.,  18.55.  The  attempts  at  a  reunion  were 
not  suspended,  but  several  difficulties  cau.^cd  the  susjiension 
of  the  treaties.  A  war  followed,  and  Buenos  Ayres  was  de- 
feated. Urquiza  gained  a  victory  at  Cepada  on  Oct.  23. 1859, 
an(l  bv  the  treaty  of  peace  of  San  .lose  de  Flores  of  Xov.  10, 
1M59.  and  the  union  of  Parana,  Buenos  .\yres  again  entered 
the  Confederation.  In  18(>t  new  difficulties  arose  on  account 
of  taxation,  and  (ien.  Mitre  completely  defeated  the  federal 
troops  on  the  Pavon  (a  small  tribulary  of  I  he  Parana)  on 
Sej)t.  17,  1861.  The  I'resid<>nt,  Santiago  Der(|ui,  resigned 
in  consequence  of  this,  and  (ien.  Jlitre  was  appointed  Presi- 
dent pru  tern.,  with  the  direction  to  call  a  Congress  on  May 
25.  1S62.  at  Buenos  Ayres.  Mitre  was  elected  President  of 
the  reunited  Confederation  on  Dec.  14  of  the  same  year.  In 
1866  great  dissatisfaction  arose  in  several  provinces  in  con- 
seciuence  of  the  war  with  Paragi:av  (q.  v.).  In  several  places, 
as  Mendoza  and  Catamarca,  serious  disturbances  arose, 
which  were  secretly  encouraged  by  Peru,  Chili,  and  Bolivia. 
In  1867  the  disturbance,  under  the  command  of  Videla,  be- 
gan to  a.ssume  serious  |]roi)orticins  in  .Mendoza,  and  even  ex- 
tended to  La  Kioja  and  San  Juan.  Gen.  Panncro.  although 
not  till  Jlitre  had  joined  him  with  4,(100  men,  completely 
defeated  the  insurgents,  and  triuuqihantly  entered  Mendoza 
on  May  14.  Both  houses  of  Congress  passed  a  resolution  to 
transfer  the  seat  of  government  to  Rosario,  which  was,  how- 


308 


ARGEXTIXE   REPUBLIC 


ARGONAUT 


ever,  vetoed  by  the  President.  In  1868  Sarmiento  was  elected 
President  for  a  term  of  six  years.  Since  that  time  the  coun- 
try has  been  rapidly  increasing  in  prosperity.  In  1870  a  re- 
bellion broke  out  in  Entre  Rios.  at  the  head  of  which  was 
Gen.  Lopez  Jordan,  a  son-in-law  of  Urquiza.  This  old  pa- 
triot was  murdered  by  the  rebels  in  his  palace  at  San  Jose. 
The  rebellion,  although  rapidly  gaining,  was  opposed  by  al- 
most all  the  other  states.  On  Sejit.  28  Jordan  was  com- 
pletely routed  at  Santa  Rosa,  and  lost  all  his  infantry  and 
artillery.  In  April,  1871,  he  was  again  completely  defeated, 
and  the  rebellion  was  suppressed.  In  Mar.  and  Apr.,  1871, 
the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  visited  by  the  yellow  fever, 
and  suffered  terribly  from  its  ravages.  The  citizens  and 
the  Government  did  their  utmost  to  prevent  its  spread,  but 
still  the  total  of  its  victims  was  found  to  be  1.3.403 — a  figure 
whicli.  altliough  large,  was  still  considerably  below  the  esti- 
mate made  by  the  press.  In  Feb.,  1878,  a  revolution  broke 
out  in  Corrientes,  which,  however,  was  soon  ended.  In  Entre 
Rios,  Lopez  stiU  continued  to  agitate  in  secret,  but  without 
success.  On  Jan.  1,  1872,  a  band  of  gauchos.  under  a  Bo- 
livian fanatic  calling  himself  a  Dios  medico  (God  physician), 
entered  the  town  of  Tandil.  and  crying  "  Death  to  tlie 
Masons  and  Gringos  !  "  massacred  thirty-five  persons.  They 
were  afterward  captured:  fourteen  were  put  to  death,  fifteen 
imprisoned  for  fifteen  years,  and  the  Dios  medico  was  shot 
by  the  populace. 

In  April.  1872,  Gail  Jordan  was  reported  to  be  on  the 
frontier  of  Brazil,  at  the  head  of  2.000,  intending  to  revive 
the  dream  of  Artigasand  Urquiza  concerning  the  establish- 
ment of  an  independent  repulilic.  to  consist  of  the  Argen- 
tine provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios  and  the  republic 
of  Lruguay.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  border 
|)rovinces  had  to  suffer  from  a  new  invasion  of  the  Arau- 
canian  Indians  mider  tlieir  chief  Calfucura.  In  May.  1873. 
the  province  of  Entre  Rios  was  once  more  invaded  by  Lopez 
Jordan.  Dr.  Avellaneda  became  President  in  1874.  and 
served  six  years :  in  Sept..  1880,  Gen.  Roca  was  elected  Presi- 
dent, after  another  reliellion;  Dr.  Miguel  Juarez  Celman 
was  elected  President  for  six  years,  June  13,  1886.  By 
treaty  with  Chili  in  1881.  all  the  country  E.  of  the  east- 
ern crest  of  the  Andes,  including  most  of  Patagonia  and  a 
small  part  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  was  conceded  to  the  Argen- 
tine Repulilic. 

The  enormous  issues  of  paper  money,  and  the  improvidence 
and  mismanagement  of  the  administration  of  President 
Celman,  finally  brought  financial  distress  to  so  sliarp  a  yioint 
as  to  cause  a  revolution,  which  began  July  26.  1890.  It  be- 
gan among  the  troops,  was  favored  by  the  Union  Civiea.  a 
party  opposed  to  financial  excesses,  and  was  soon  joined  by 
the  navy.  The  figliting  lasted  several  days,  and  President 
Celman  remained  master  of  the  field,  but  he  was  not  master 
of  the  situation,  and  piiblic  o])inion  forceil  him  to  resign  on 
Aug.  5,  18!t0.  Gen.  Pelligrini.  the  Vice-President,  became 
President  on  Aug.  il.  and  public  confidence  was  restored,  but 
the  financial  resources  of  the  Government  were  greatly  dis- 
turbe<l  by  the  crisis.  In  Oct..  1891.  the  old  National  Bank 
wa.s  filaced  in  liquidation,  and  a  new  bank,  called  Banco  ile 
la  Nacion  Argentina,  was  created  with  a  capital  of  $.50,000.- 
000.  The  results  of  the  financial  crisis  above  described  were 
undisputed,  involving  among  other  disastrous  consequences 
the  failure  of  the  celebrated  banking-house  of  Baring  Broth- 
ers, London. 

LiTER.tTrRE. — Compare,  liesidesthe  works  of  Nunez.  King. 
Man.-ifield,  and  Page,  Andree's  Bnenns  Ayres  v»d  die  Ar- 
gentininchen  I'rovinzen  (1856);  Mannequin's  Les  provinces 
argentines  et  Buenos  Ayres  (1856) :  De  Moussy's  Description 
geofirapliiqiie  et  stafixtirjue  de  la  Conjederation  Argentine 
(18()1  and  lH(i4):  Burmeister's  Heise  durch  die  La  I'lala 
Slauten  (1861);  Foril's  La  RepMirpie  Ar//entine  (1S67); 
Trelles's  Uegistro  Estadistico  (1867);  L.  Beck  Bernliard's 
7/6  liio  Parana,  etc.  (1865);  Mouchcz's  Xonvean  Manuel 
de  la  navigation  dans  le  Rio  de  la  I'lata,  etc.  (1865) ; 
Schnepp's  jMisxion  Scientifiqite.  dans  VAmerique.  du  Slid 
(1864);  the  Annates  del  Jfiiseo  publico  de  Buenos  Ayres, 
published  yearly  by  Burnieisler  since  1864;  Dominguez's 
flistorij  of  the  Argentine  Hepublic.  \Ti\\\An\fi\  bv  G.  Will- 
iams (1866);  M.  G.  ami  E.  T.  Mulhall's  llnndhook  of  the 
River  Platte  (186!»;  Wappiius's  Argenlinische  Repuhlik, 
in  Stein  and  Iliirschelmann's  Ilandbuchder  Geographic  und 
Slatistik  (7th  ed.  l.s6:i-70);  Hudson.  The  Katuralist  in  La 
Plata  (London,  18!)2);  Turner,  Arr/entina  and  the  Are/en- 
tines  (1892):  and  I'.rackebusch's  map  (1891).  Also,  refer- 
ence can  profitably  be  made  to  the  Argentine  oflicial  publi- 
cations, which  are  numerous  and  valuable;  to  the  numerous 


Consular  Reports:  .and  to  the  Handbook  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  (2d  ed.  Feb.,  1891).  See  also  the  article 
Spanish-American  Literature.     Mark  \V.  Harrington. 

Ar'g'es;  a  genus  of  small  fishes  of  the  family  ,S'i7«rj(Z(E, 
said  to  be  thrown  out  sometimes  from  some  South  American 
volcanoes  (16,000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea-level)  with  hot, 
muddy  water.  One  species,  now  called  Arges  cyclopum,  has 
bjen  described  by  Humboldt. 

Ar'gil  [from  Gr.  &pyi\\os.  white  clay :  deriv.  of  apyfu. 
shiuing-wliite] :  a  term  sometijues  applied  to  clay  or  potter's 
clay,  and,  in  a  technical  sense,  to  |)ure  clay  or  to  alumina. 

Arglllite :  See  Slate. 

Ar'g'ives.  or  Arg'i'vi:  the  inhabitants  of  Argos  and  of 
Argolis.  a  state  of  ancient  Greece.  The  name  was  also  used 
by  Homer  and  other  ancient  authors  as  a  generic  appellation 
for  all  the  Greeks. 

Ar'go:  an  extensive  southern  constellation  named  after  the 
ship  of  the  Argonaut.e  {g.  v.).  It  is  usually  divided  into  four : 
Argo,  Argo  in  Carina  (in  the  keel).  Argo  in  Puppi  (in  the 
stern),  and  Argo  in  Velis  (in  the  sails).  Canopus  belongs  to 
this  constellation,  part  of  which  is  invisible  in  our  latitude. 

Ar'gol:  crude  tartar;  a  salt  which  is  deposited  by  wine 
in  crystalline  crusts  on  the  interior  of  vats,  barrels,  and 
bottles.  Being  less  soluble  in  alcohol  than  in  water,  the 
increasing  proportion  of  alcohol  during  fermentation  causes 
it  to  separate.  It  consists  chiefly  of  potassic  bitartrate, 
KHCjH.Oe.  but  contains  also  variable  quantities  of  calcic 
tartrate,  coloring,  and  muciliiginous  matter.  It  is  purified 
by  solution  in  hot  water,  clarification  by  the  addition  of 
clay,  and  recrystallization.  By  repeating  the  process  it  be- 
comes white,  and  is  then  sold  under  the  name  of  cream  of 
tartar,  and  extensively  used  in  connection  with  sodic  bicar- 
bonate for  raising  bread.  Cream  of  tartar  is  shamefully 
adulterated  with  gypsum,  flour,  etc..  many  samples  contain- 
ing two-thirds  or  more  of  such  fraiululent  admixtures. 
Argol  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  tartaric  acid,  Roehelle 
salt,  and  potassic  carbonate,  or  salt  of  tartar. 

Ar'srolis  (Gr.  "ApyoxW  :  a  state  of  ancient  Greece,  in  the 
N.  E.  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  (Morea),  bordering  on  the 
sea.  It  consists  partly  of  a  peninsula  between  the  Saroni- 
cus  Sinus  (Gulf  of  ^Egina)  and  the  Argolicus  Sinus  {(iult 
of  Nauplia).  It  was  liounded  on  the  S.  by  Lai'onia  and  on 
the  W.  by  Arcadia.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  mountains, 
which  are  about  5.000  feet  high.  Near  the  sea  is  the  large 
plain  of  Argos,  which  is  rendered  unhealthful  by  marshes. 
Argolis  was  one  of  the  most  famous  and  powerful  states  of 
ancient  Greece,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  memorable  events 
or  myths  in  the  heroic  ages.  Here  Hercules  was  born,  and 
the  descendants  of  Pelops  reigned.  The  inhabitants  were 
called  Aroives  (g.  v.).  The  chief  towns  were  Argos,  Mycen», 
Epidaurus,  Hermione,  Sicyon.  and  Trtezene.  each  of  which 
was  a  separate  kingdom.  Aroolis  and  Corinth  is  the  name 
of  a  nomarchv  of  modern  Greece.  Area,  1,447  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1889)  144,836.     Capital,  Nauplia. 

Argon :  a  gas,  somewhat  heavier  than  nitrogen,  found  in 
the  air  in  1894  to  the  extent  of  less  than  one  per  cent,  by  Lord 
Rayleigh  (see  Strutt)  and  Prof.  Ramsay.  It  can  be  obtained 
(1)  by  passing  air  over  heated  copper,  which  combines  with 
the  oxygen,  and  then  over  heated  magnesium,  which  com- 
bines with  the  nitrogen,  leaving  the  argon:  (2)  by  mixing 
air  with  oxygen,  and  passing  electric  sparks  through  the 
mixture  contained  in  a  vessel  over  an  alkali.  Its  most 
marked  property  is  its  inactivity,  to  which  it  owes  its  name. 
It  is  not  known  whether  it  is  an  element  or  not.  I.  R. 

Ar'goiiailt :  a  moUusk  of  the  genus  Argonauta  and  class 
Cephalopoda  :  commonly  called  "  (uiper  nautilus."  The  lat- 
ter name  is  derived  from  the  fragile  nature  of  the  boat-like 
.-ihcll  in  which  the  argonaut  floats  on  the  surface  of  tranr|uil 
seas.  The  shell  is  not  chambered  like  that  of  the  true 
nautilus,  liut  has  one  spiral  cavity,  into  which  the  animal 
can  retire  and  be  c<im|iletcly  hidden.  There  is  no  organic 
coiwKH'tion  between  the  body  of  the  animal  and  its  jiliell ; 
the  latter  being  formed  as  a  secretion  from  the  two  broadly 
expanded  dorsal  arms,  and  thus  not  comparable  to  the  shell 
of  other  mollusks.  The  shell  is  formeil  in  the  female  only, 
and  is  for  the  jiurjiose  of  protecting  the  eggs.  Several 
species  of  Argonauta  are  known.  They  have  eight  arms, 
two  of  which  are  exi)anded  into  broad  membranes.  The 
latter  were  formerly  believed  to  be  sails,  and  the  other  arms 
were  regai-ded  as  oars ;  but,  though  the  fable  is  perpetuated 


ARGONAUTiE 


ARGUS 


309 


by  the  poets,  it  has  long  been  known  that  llie  animal  really 
nroDols   ilseli  bv  eiectinK  water  from  its  funnel.     It  is  a 


propels  itself  by  ejecting 


■y' 


Argonaut  withiu  its  shell. 

pelagic  form,  coming  to  the  surface  (luring  tlie  Ijrceding 
season,  at  otlier  times  living  on  the  bottom. 

Revised  by  David  S.  .Jord.w. 

Argoiiail'tw  {Gr.  'Ap^oyoErai.  1.  e.  the  sailors  of  the  Argo), 
in  Knglish  .\r'g»naiits  :  the  famous  Greek  heroes  who,  ac- 
cording to  tradiliiin.  lived  before  the  Trojan  war,  and 
acquired  celebrity  by  an  adventurous  navigation  of  un- 
known seas.  This  is  the  most  ancient  voyage  of  discovery 
mentioned  by  classic  poets  or  historians.  They  deriveil 
their  name  from  the  ship  Argo.  in  which,  under  tlie  com- 
uuwi\  of  .lason,  they  performed  the  expedition  to  Colchis,  on 
the  Kiixiiie.  in  order  to  recover  the  Golden  Fleece,  whicli 
was  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon.  Among  the  Argonauts 
were  Hercules^  Theseus,  Castor,  Pollux,  and  Orpheus.  In 
the  course  of  the  voyage  they  landed  at  several  points  and 
passed  through  many  perilous  adventures.  Among  the  ob- 
.stacles  which  they  encountered  were  the  enmity  and  treach- 
ery of  /Keti's.  King  of  Colchis,  but  they  were  aided  hy  his 
daughter  .Medea,  apowerful  sorceress,  and  finally  carried  off 
the  Gohlen  Fleece. 

Ar'gOS :  an  important  city  of  ancient  Greece :  situated 
in  Argolis ;  about  ;5  miles  from  the  Argolicits  Sinus,  or 
Gulf  of  Nauplia.  It  was  considered  the  oldest  city  of  Greece, 
and  was  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Inachus,  the 
father  of  lo.  about  1.500  B.  r.  It  was  a  famous  city  in  the 
heroic  age,  and  at  the  time  of  Trojan  was  the  capital  of 
Diomcde.  Argos  was  the  head  of  a  league  of  Doru:  cities 
before  Sparta  accpiired  the  supreuiacy  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
Its  site  is  occupied  l)y  a  small  modern  town  of  the  same 
name.  6  miles  N.  X.  \\'.  of  Nauplia.  Here  are  remains  of 
ancient  cyclopean  structures,  among  them  those  of  the  thea- 
ter and  an  extensive  aqueduct. 

Argos:  town:  Marshall  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  3-E) :  situated  at  junction  of  Eric 
and  Western  and  X.  Y.  C.  and  St.  L.  R.  Rs. ;  8  miles  from 
Plvmoutli.  Furniture,  flour,  and  lumber  are  here  manu- 
factured.    Pop.  tlSSO)  023;  (1890)  1.101. 

Argot,  argo:  a  word  of  uncertain  deriv.ation.  applied  in 
France  to  a  peculiar  language  or  gibl)erish  iuvente<l  for 
purposes  of  concealment  liy  those  whose  jjursuits  nnike 
thcin  dread  tlu'  arm  of  the  law.  In  all  tlie  countries  of 
Europe  a  language  of  tliis  kind  prevails,  an<l  has  prevailed 
perhaps  to  some  extent  from  immemorial  time.  In  Eng- 
land it  is  called  "thieves'  Latin,"  "St.  Giles's  Greek," 
"peddler's  French,"  " fla.sh,"  and  other  names ;  in  Italian, 
"  zergo ''  (or  "  gergo ")  and  "  furbesco  "  (from  fiirim,  a 
rogue);  in  Spanish,  "Germania";  in  Germany.  "Rolh- 
wclsch ''  or  ••  Kdtliwiilsch."  An  able  French  writer,  JI. 
No<lier,  remarks  that  "argot,  a  language  invente<l  l)y 
thieves,  often  sparkles  with  imagination  and  wit."  The 
following  examples  nuiy  serve  to  illustrate  the  truth  of  the 
foregoing  remark:  ApOfre  ("  a])ostle  ")  applieil  to  the  lin- 
gers, because  they  are  "  sent  forth.''  Sons  feiiille  ("  without 
leaf"),  the  "  leafless  "  tree — that  is,  the  "  gallows."  Epouser 
la  venre  (to  "  marry  the  widow  "),  to  "  be  hanged  " :  imply- 
ing that  those  who  had  previmisly  been  joined  in  the  same 
marriage  were  deceased.  Aspic,  (an  "asp."  or  poisonous 
serpent),  a  "slanderer."     Saiic/io  Panza,  "justice  of  the 


peace."  in  allusion  to  Sancho  Panza  having  been  under 
Don  Ijuixole  magistrate  of  the  isle  of  Harataria.  Sanylier 
(a  "  b(iar."  an  animid  having  long  teeth),  applied  to  priests, 
in  allusion  to  their  freiiuent  fasting;  the  phrase  "having 
long  teel  h  "  was  eifuivalent  to  "  being  very  hungry."  Some- 
times the  principle  on  which  the  word  (in  argot)  is  formed 
is  a  mere  resemblance  of  sound  :  thus  arsenic  is  used  for 
"arsenal."  In  a  somewhat  similar  manner  solir  is  used  for 
fcutre  ("belly"),  because  sullir,  "to  sell,"  in  argot  signi- 
fies the  same"  as  vendre,  which  resembles  ve7ilre  in  sound. 
Considerable  attention  has  of  late  years  been  paid  to  the 
studv  of  argot.  Francisipie  Michel  has  written  a  large 
volume  on  argot  (Paris.  IHoti).  which  is  said  to  be  by  far 
the  most  eoinplete  work  on  the  subject.  Several  distin- 
guished novelists,  including  Bulwer,  Dickens,  and  Victor 
Hugo,  have  introduced  frequent  specimens  of  this  language 
into  their  works;  it  may  suffice  to  refer  the  reader  to 
Pel/iam,  Paul  Clifford,  Oliver  Twist,  anil  Les  MiserabUs. 

Argout,  AxToixE  M.\urice  Apollinaibe,  Count  d'  (an- 
twan  md-re'es  a-pol-in-ar  dar-goo):  b.  at  Veissilieu  (Isere), 
Sept.  27,  1782.  lie  became  prefect  of  Gard  in  1817,  and  a 
peer  of  France  in  181!).  In  July,  1880.  during  the  revolu- 
tion, he  negotiated  between  the  popular  party  and  the  king, 
from  whom  he  obtained  concessions,  but  it  was  then  too 
late.  He  was  appointed  Minister  of  Commerce  in  1831. 
Jlinister  of  the  Interior  in  18*!,  and  governor  of  the  Bank 
of  F'rance  in  18:34.  He  retaineil  that  ollicc  many  years.  D. 
in  Paris,  Jan.  15,  1858. 

Arguelles,  ar-gwel  yes,  Avovsti.v  :  a  liberal  Spanish 
statesman  ;  b.  at  Ribadesella  in  the  Asturias.  Aug.  28,  1776. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Cortes,  aiul  was  a  memhei'  of  the  com- 
mittee which  produced  the  liberal  constitution  of  1813.  He 
gained  distinction  as  an  orat(U',  and  became  very  popular 
with  the  liberal  partv.  On  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand 
VIL,  in  1814,  he  was  imprisoned  for  several  years,  but  was 
released  by  the  revolution  of  1820.  He  was  Rlinister  of  the 
Interior  for  several  months  in  that  year,  and  was  an  exile 
from  1823  to  1832.  After  that  date  he  was  a  leader  of  the 
moderate  party  in  the  Cortes,  and  in  1841  was  ap)iointed  tu- 
tor to  the  young  Queen  Isabel.  I),  in  Madrid,  ^lar.  23, 1844. 
See  Evarislo  San  Miguel,  Vida  de  D.  A.  Arguelles  (18.50). 

Ar'guinent :  a  reason  offered  for  or  against  a  proposition, 
opinion,  etc. ;  a  series  of  reasonings;  a  debate  or  disputa- 
tion. In  logic,  an  expression  in  which,  from  something  laid 
down  as  granted  (i.  e.  the  premises),  something  else  (i.  e.  the 
conclusion)  is  to  be  deduced.  "Socrates,"  says  Addison, 
"Introduced  a  catechetical  method  of  arguing.  He  would 
ask  his  adversary  question  upon  question,  until  he  had  con- 
vinced him  out  of  his  own  mouth  that  his  opinions  were 
wrong.  .  .  .  Aristotle  changed  this  method  of  attack,  and 
invented  a  great  variety  of  little  weapons  called  syllogisms. 
.•\s  in  the  Socratie  way  of  dispute  you  agree  to  everything 
which  your  opponent  advances,  in  the  Aristotelic  you  are 
still  denying  and  contradicting  some  part  or  other  of  what 
he  says."  Socrates  conquers  you  by  stratagem.  Aristotle  by 
force.  .  .  .  When  our  universities  found  there  was  no  end  of 
wrangling  this  way.  they  invented  a  kind  of  argument  which 
is  not  reilucible  to  any  mode  or  figure  in  Ari-stotle.  It  was 
called  the  argumeiitiim  hnsilinum  (others  write  it  bacilinmn 
(IV  liac>iliniim).\vhk-h  is  pretty  well  expressed  in  our  Eng- 
lish word  cliih-lau:  When  they  were  not  able  to  confute 
their  antagonist,  they  knocked  him  down."  {Spectator, 
Xo.  230.)  In  the  tables  used  in  the  exact  sciences,  the  term 
arr/iimetit  signifies  the  leading  numbers,  or  (|Uantities.  ar- 
ranged in  order  at  the  top  or  sides  to  guide  to  the  tabular 
number  sought. 

.VrgiiiMen'tiim  ad  Hoin'iiipni  (i.e.  an  argument  [ap- 
plied] to  [the  iiarticular]  man  [one  is  addressing]) :  an  argu- 
ment derived  from  the  princijiles  or  conduct  of  an  antago- 
nist, or  an  appeal  to  the  prepossessions  or  prejudices  of  a 
pel-son  to  whom  the  argument  is  addressed. 

Ar'giiS  (in  Gr.''Ap7os) :  a  falnilous  personage  who,  accord- 
ing to  an  ancient  Greek  legend,  had  a  hundred  eyes,  some  of 
which  were  always  awake.  Having  been  employed  by  Juno 
to  guar<l  the  heifer  into  which  lo  was  transformed,  he  was 
killed  bv  Hermes.  Juno  is  said  to  have  transferre<l  his 
eyes  to  the  tail  of  her  favorite  bird,  the  jieacock.  Another 
mythical  Argus  was  King  of  Argos,  and  a  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Xiobe. 

,\rgiis  (named  in  allusi(m  to  the  Argus  of  the  Greek 
myllioloi;y.  having  a  hundred  eyes) :  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds  remarkable  for  rich  and  brilliant  plumage.    The  best 


310 


A KG VLB 


AKI   THE   WISE 


known  species  is  tlie  Argus  argus,  commonly  called  argns- 
pheasant.     It  is  a  native  of  Sumatra  and  other  parts  of  the 


Argus  pheasant. 

East  Indies,  and  is  about  ei[ual  in  size  to  a  common  barn- 
door fowl.  Two  of  the  tail-feathers  of  the  male  are  about 
4  feet  long.  The  name  argus  is  given  in  reference  to  the 
beautiful  circular  eye-like  markings  which  adorn  the  plu- 
mage of  the  male,  especially  on  the  secondaries  of  the  wings. 

Argryle.  or  Argryll',  Dtkks  of:  Jlanjuesses  of  Lome  and 
Kintyre.  Earls  of  t'aiiiiibell  and  Cowal.  Viscounts  of  Lochow 
and  (ileuilla.  Barons  of  Invcrarv,  .Mull.  Morveii,  and  Tirv 
(1701).  Earls  of  Argyll  {14')7).P.arnns('ampbull(144r)),Bar<iii's 
(if  Lome  (14TH.  in  Scotland),  Lords  Sundridge  and  Hamil- 
ton (176fi,  in  Great  Britain). 

Argryle,  ARcmnALD  Cami'Isicll,  Marquis  of:  Scottish 
peer  ;  li.  in  1598  :  son  of  the  seventh  Earl  of  Argyle.  In  the 
civil  war  he  fought  against  t'harles  I.,  and  was  a  leader  of 
the  Scottish  t'ovenanters.  He  was  defeated  in  battle  l)y 
iMontrose  in  1644.  An  adherent  of  Charles  11.,  he  took 
arms  for  him  against  Cromwell  in  1651.  After  the  restora- 
tion of  1660  he  was  convicted  of  submission  to  the  usurpa- 
tion of  Cromwell,  and  was  beheaded  in  Edinburgh,  Jlay  27, 
1661. 

Araryle,  ARrniBAU)  CAMPnKi.i,,  ninth  Earl  of:  eldest  son 
of  ihc  preceding:  noted  for  his  loyalty  to  the  royal  family, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  his  lather  was  a  leader  of  the 
Covenanters.  He  fought  for  Charles  IL  at  Dunbar  in  1650, 
and  when  the  Coramonwralth  was  established  he  was  im- 
Jirisoiu'd  and  was  carefully  watched  till  the  Restoration. 
Phe  estate  of  his  father  was  restored  to  him.  with  the  title 
of  carl  in  166:!.  When  he  took  the  test-oath,  which  was  ex- 
acte<l  in  HiWl.  lu'  aildcd  the  jihrasc  :  "So  fai- as  consistent 
with  tlie  Protestant  faith."  For  this  ofFcnse  he  was  im- 
prisoned, tried  for  high  treasim,  and  condennied  to  death. 
The  execution  of  the  sentence  being  suspended,  he  escaped 
from  prison,  and,  after  rfUKiining  coiu'ealed  for  awhile  in 
London,  tied  to  Holland,  wlicre  he  reniaineil  until  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  He  returned  with  a  snudi  body 
of  armed  men  to  Scotland  on  the  ac'iession  of  James  II.,  tci 
aid  in  the  rising  of  the  Duke  of  Jlonmonth.  and  was  caji- 
Inrfil,  and  In-headed  in  Edinburgh,  June  30,  16S5. 

Argyle,  or  Arg'yll.  Gkoroe  I)or<iLAs  CAJiritKLL,  eighth 
Duke  of:  b.  in  Ardencaple  Castle.  Dumbartonshire.  Apr.  :i(), 
1823;  stieceedeil  his  father,  the  seventh  duke,  in  1847.  before 


which  he  was  styled  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  He  published 
in  1848  Prrsbi/icri/  Sxamined.  in  which  he  defends  the 
Presliyterian  system  against  prelacy.  Having  entered  the 
House  of  Lords,  he  supported  the  Liljeral  party,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  oratorical  ability  and  soundness  of 
Judgment.  He  beca'me  Lord  Privy  Seafin  1853,  and  Post- 
master-General in  1855.  When  tlie  Tories  obtained  power 
in  1858  he  resigned  office,  but  he  was  reappointed  Post- 
master-General and  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1860.  In  1866  he 
published  a  philosophical  work  called  The  Reign  of  Lair, 
one  of  the  ablest  of  recent  works  advocating  a  theistic  view 
of  creation.  He  resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  June,  1866, 
but  was  Secretary  for  India  1868-74;  again  was  appointed 
Lord  Privy  Seal  under  Gladstone  1880,  but  resigned  1881  be- 
cause of  his  differences  with  his  colleagues  on  the  Irish  Bill. 
He  married  Elizabeth  Gower,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Sutherlanil  (d.  1878) ;  married  in  1881  the  widow  of  Col. 
A.  II.  A.  Anson.  His  eldest  son,  the  JIarquis  of  Lome, 
marrieil  II.  K.  II.  the  Princess  Louise,  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria  (1871),  and  was  Governor-General  of  Canada 
1879-8:). 

Argyle.  Jonx  CAMPniax.  second  Duke  of :  b.  Oct.  10, 
1678:  fought  under  Marl) loi'ough  in  1706  in  Flanders:  de- 
feated tlie  Jacobites  at  Dumlilane,  Scotland,  1715  :  made  an 
English  peer  1718,  with  the  title  Duke  of  Greenwich.  D. 
Oct.  4,  1743. 

Argrjle'shlre,  or  Argi/W  (Gaelic,  country  of  the  Gael): 
a  large  county  of  Scotland  ;  bordering  on  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  is  liounded  on  the  N.  by  Inverness-shire,  E.  by 
Perthshire  and  Dumbarton.  S.  and  W.  by  the  sea.  It  in- 
cludes the  islands  of  Mull,  Islay.  Jura.  Tiree,  Coll,  lona, 
Lismore.  Colonsay,  etc.  Area.  :i.270  si|.  miles.  The  surface 
is  rugged  and  mountainous,  ami  jiresents  some  of  the  grand- 
est and  most  picturesque  scenery  in  Scotland.  The  highest 
peaks  are  Bidean  nam  Bian,  3,760  feet,  and  Ben  Cruachan, 
3,668  feet.  The  rocks  which  predominate  here  are  granite, 
mica-slate,  trap,  limestone,  and  (juiirtz.  Long  arms  of  the  sea, 
called  Loch  Linnhe  and  Loch  Fvne,  extend  into  this  coun- 
ty, which  also  contains  Loch  Awe.  a  fresh-water  lake.  The 
chief  occupation  of  the  farmers  is  the  raising  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  land  is  owned  by  a  few  proprietors,  among 
whom  are  the  Duke  of  Argyle  and  the  5Jar(piis  of  lireadal- 
bane.  Inverarv  and  Campbellton  are  chief  towns.  Pop. 
(1891)  75,945.  The  United  Diocese  of  Argyle  and  the  Isles 
(Scottish  Episcopal  Church)  conqirises  the  counties  of  Argyle, 
Bute,  ]iart  of  Inverness,  and  tlu-  Hebrides.  The  see  of  Ar- 
gyle was  founded  A.  D.  1115,  that  of  the  Isles  A.  D.  1838, 

Ar'gyro-Cas'tro  (in  modern  Gr.  Arguron-Kastron;  Turk. 
Ergree-Kiistree) :  a  town  of  Albania,  on  the  river  Deropuli. 
50  miles  X.  W.  of  Yaniini  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4— B).  It 
is  Iniilt  on  the  steep  declivity  of  a  mountain.  The  Ijcst 
Turkish  simft'  is  manufactured  here.     Pop.  11,000. 

Argyrop'nlos,  Johannes:  b.  in  Constantinople  in  1416; 
wentVarlyto  Italy,  where  he  contributed  much  to  tlie  re- 
vival of  letters.  He  taught  the  Greek  language  and  litera- 
ture and  Aristotelian  philosophy  at  Padua  1434-56,  Flor- 
ence 1456-71,  and  Bome,  where  he  died  in  147:^.  Palla 
Strozzi,  Politianus,  and  l{<'U<hlin  were  among  his  disciples. 
He  became  a  master  of  the  Latin  language,  and  translated 
several  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  directly  from  the  Greek, 
tlins  tinally  displacing  the  median'al  translations  which  hail 
come  through  tlie  Arabic.  Bevised  by  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Ari  the  Wise  (Old  Norse,  Ail  Friifii):  "the  father  of 
Icelandic  history  "  ;  b.  in  Iceland  in  1067.  He  was  a  "  go6i " 
(chief),  and  was  also  in  holy  tirders.  Three  works  of  his  are 
menti(med:  The  Brink  of  Kings  (Konungabok),  the  lino/i 
iif  Seftli'inentii  (Lamlnaniabok),  and  the  Book  of  the  Ice- 
lavderx  (Islendingaliok).  No  one  of  these  has  come  down 
to  us  in  its  original  shape,  and  the  Book  of  Kings  is  by 
many  thought  to  be  altogether  lost,  though  Vigfiisson  holds 
that  |iarts  of  it  ai'e  preserved  in  the  writings  of  Snorri 
Sturlason.  The  hiindnoindhiik,  which  gives  a  record  of  the 
settlers  of  Iceland  and  of  their  descendants,  is,  in  its  pres- 
ent condition,  the  work  of  several  liands ;  but  the  essential 
part  of  it  is  the  work  of  .\ri.  It  is  a  remarkable  monument 
of  genealogical  labor.  The  hunk  of  the  leeliinders  is  pre- 
served only  in  the  form  of  an  alistract.  The  Kristni  >Sogn,ti 
history  of  the  conversion  of  Iceland,  has  also  been  ascribed 
to  .\ri.  Ari  is  remarkable  for  his  accuracy  and  his  power 
of  historical  criticism  in  an  inaccurate  and  altogether  un- 
critical age.  His  style  served  as  a  model  for  later  Icelandic 
[irose-writers.    D.  1148.  G.  L.  Kittredoe. 


AKIA 


ARID   REGION 


311 


A'ria  [Ital.  air  <  from  Lat.  *firius  for  aerius,  deriv.  of 
(irV,  airj:  in  imisic,  a  rliytlimieal  song,  a  lunp,  a  nieasiire<l 
Ivrical  i>i('ic  fur  (mo  or  sovenil  voices;  commonly  a|)i)lipil 
to  a  s</ni,'  intHHluccil  into  a  cantata,  opera,  or  oratorio,  and 
intended  for  one  voice  supjiortcd  by  instruments. 

Ariad'ne  (in  Or.  'ApidSini):  a  daufiliter  of  Minos,  King  of 
Crete ;  liecame  the  lover  of  Tiieseus  \v\nm  he  visited  Crete. 
She  gave  him  a  i:\ew  of  thread  by  which  he  was  enabled  to 
find  his  way  out  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth.  Ilcr  niythus  is 
not  uniform,  but,  according  to  one  account,  she  was  aban- 
doned by  Theseus  at  Xaxos,  and  snbsc(|uently  became  the 
wife  of  Bacchus.  ()lhei"S  say  Ifiat  Diana  slew  her  at  Xaxos 
with  her  arrows.  She  bore  twin  sons  to  Theseus.  Her  name 
is  given  to  the  forty-third  asteroid.    See  Tkeskis. 

.iriill'dlis:  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Milan,  noted  for 
his  zeal  against  the  marriage  of  i)riests;  was  born  in  Lorn- 
hardy.  His  preaching  leil  to  a  .schism  in  the  Church,  at- 
tended with  violent  tumults.  Arialdus  waj>  killed  .June  :JS, 
1066.     See  Muralori,  Annuli  iV llulia. 

Aria'na  :  the  ancient  name  of  a  region  in  the  west  cen- 
tral part  of  Asia.  inhal)ited  by  the  Aryan  or  Arian  race.  It 
])robably  comprised  ancient  Persia  and  Bactriana. 

.\'riaiiisiii :  the  doctrines  of  the  Ariaxs  (q.  v.),  who  held 
that  the  Son  was  begotten  of  the  Father,  and  therefore  not 
eternal  nor  consubstantial  with  him,  but  created  by  and 
subordinate  to  the  Father,  though  possessing  a  similar  na- 
ture.    See  Arus. 

Aria'no:  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Avellino,  among  the  Apen- 
nines; 23  miles  N.  E.  of  Avellino,  on  a  sleep  hill,  2,.500  feet 
above  sea-level  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-1'').  It  was  foundeil 
by  the  Greeks,  and  was  an  important  military  jjost  for  many 
centuries.  The  district  is  volcanic,  and  the"  town  suffered 
severely  from  earlluiuakes  in  IWG  and  1733.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop.  It  has  a  nuiunlain-lortress,  a  fine  cathedral, 
several  churches,  a  gymnasium,  a  normal  school,  and  consid- 
erable manufacture  of  silk.  Wine  and  butter  are  exportAl. 
I'op.  about  1.5,(J0f). 

.\riaii.s:  friends  and  followers  of  Arius.  and  those  who 
have  from  time  to  time  held  his  or  similar  opinions  (see 
.\Rirs).  .Vfter  the  ileath  of  Arius  in  ;^36.  the  strife  between 
the  Arians  and  Athanasians  went  on  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury in  the  Chur<-h.  and  after  the  councils  of  Constantinople 
and  Chalcedon  the  Arians  were  a  heretical  sect  till  far 
into  the  seventh  century.  Eusebius  of  C;psarea  and  Eu-se- 
liius  of  Xicomedi;i.  l)oth  Arians  who  had  signed  the  Xicene 
Creed,  were  the  princi]ial  opponents  of  Athanasiiis.  The 
Emperor  Constantius.  who  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne 
in  337.  inherited  his  father's  syiujiatliies  with  the  Arian 
party,  who  would  say  that  the  Son  was  of  the  "same  sub- 
stance "  with  the  F.'ither.  meaning  of  "  like  substance."  In 
360  the  latter  phrase  wa.s  a<'tually  substituted  for  the  former 
at  the  Council  of  Rimini,  after  which  the  controversy  raged 
hotter  than  before,  but  complicatcil  with  other  points  of 
<loctrine.  The  .\rian  doctrine  had  a  great  attraction  for 
the  Xorlhern  people  pressing  down  upon  the  Roman  em- 
pire. The  Ostrogoths  were  unaniuuMis  in  their  adoption  of  it, 
and  the  Visigoths  also,  withholding  their  assent  from  the 
Xicene  symbol  until  'M),  when  tliev  declarcil  for  it  at  the 
Council  of  Toledo.  The  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Bur- 
gnndians  were  all  largely  Arian.  and  the  Loml)ards  were  the 
last  to  become  orthodox.  From  the  miildle  of  the  seventh 
until  the  middle  of  the  sixleiMith  cenlui-y  1  here  was  no  Arian 
narty,  and  the  individual  .\rians  were  unconscious  of  their 
lapse.  The  "adoption"  heresy,  by  which  certain  Spanish 
teachers  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  ceidury  endeavored  to 
make  their  doctrine  palatable  to  the  Mohammedans,  wa.s 
more  akin  to  the  heresy  of  Xeslorius  than  to  that  of  Arius. 
Even  when  thi'  Reformation  peiiod  produced  departures 
from  the  orthodox  doctrine,  they  wei-e  not  on  Arian  lines. 
Servetus  certainly  was  not  an  Arian,  for  he  wrote  that  Arius 
was  "incapable  of  appreciating  the  glory  of  Christ": 
"gloria!  Christi  incapacimus."  The  Soeini,  Laelius.  and 
Paustus  were  humanitarians  in  their  Christology.  Opiiuons 
of  an  .\rian  stamp  were  developed  among  the  (ierman  Ami- 
l)aptists.  and  passed  over  into  England.  The  charg<>  of 
Arianism  was  common  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  in- 
vestigation often  shows  that  Socinianism  is  uu>ant!as  in  the 
case  of  Bartholomew  Legate,  the  Ciutarian,  who  perished  at 
the  stake  in  161  Land  was  the  last  per.son  burned  tor  heresy 
in  England.  Jlillon.  and  Locke,  and  Cudworlh.  and  Sir 
Isaac  Xewton.  and  Isaac  Watts  were  Arians  with  more  or 
less  decision.     While  the  English  UidtarianiMU  of  the  eigh- 


teenth century  was  generally  Soclnian  (Richard  Price,  the 
frieiui  of  Franklin,  against  whom  Burke  wrote  his  Reflec- 
tionn  (in  fill'  Frmcli  Jicrolii/ion,  was  an  exception),  Ameri- 
can Cnitarianism  in  its  earlier  growth  was  generally  Arian, 
though  it  may  be  doubted  whether  Channing  or  many  of  his 
coreligionists  could  have  used  the  terms  of  Arius  without 
qualification.  But  Christ  was  for  them  a  uni(|ue  being,  of 
whose  pre-exisfence  they  made  cordial  affirmation.  Few  if 
any  Unitarians  are  now  Arians,  and  there  is  a  growing  jirefer- 
euceamong  them  for  thethought  of  At  hanasius  as  compared 
with  that  of  .U-ius,  because  the  former  insisted  on  the  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  while  the  latter  destroyed  it  altogether, 
making  of  Christ  a  being  neither  God  nor  man.  But  the 
iiKHlern  Cintariau  would  luake  the  particular  of  Athanasius 
a  universid,  declaring  that  all  men  are  at  once  human  and 
divine.  .John  W.  Chadwick. 

A'rias  Muiita'niis,  Benedictl-s  :  Spanish  biblical  scholar 
and  Orientalist  ;  b.  in  Estremadura  in  \~)27.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1.5(i2,  and  under  the  auspices 
of  Philijj  II.  edited  a  Polyglot  Bible,  which  was  published 
at  Antwerp  (1.568-72,  8  vols,  fol.),  and  is  highly  commended. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  Jeiriah  Antiquifies  (1593). 
D.  at  Seville  in  1.'598.  See  Loumyer.  Via  ch  B.  A.  Montana 
(1842);  X.  Antonio,  Bihliotheca  JJivpana  Nova. 

Ari'ca:  a  maritime  town  of  Chili;  department  of  Tacna 
(see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  6-C).  It  was  formerly  the 
principal  port  of  BoUvia,  and  is  yet  the  principal  point  of 
imports  and  exports  for  that  country,  BoUvia  having  the 
right  of  trans|iorting  goods  across  this  strip  of  Chili  in  bond. 
A  railro.-id  extends  to  the  town  of  Tacna.  Pop.,  formerlv 
put  at  7.000,  is  now  only  3,000  or  4,000.  31.  W.  11.  ' 

Aricliat,  ar-i'-shat' :  a  seaport  ;  capital  of  Richmond  co.. 
Nova  Scotia;  on  the  south  coast  of  Madame  island,  near 
the  Gut  of  Canso.  and  on  a  small  bav  or  inlet  of  the  Atlan- 
tic ;  lat.  4.5°  28'  X..  Ion.  61°  W.  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  2-D). 
It  owes  its  importance  to  fisheries.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop.  Pop.,  including  West  Arichat,  about 
2,500. 

Aric'ia :  an  ancient  and  celebrated  city  of  Latinm.  on 
the  Appian  Way.  at  the  foot  of  Mons  Albanus,  16  miles 
S.  E.  of  Rome.  It  was  an  important  town  in  the  reign  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud.  The  Aricians  took  i)art  in  a  war  of  the 
Latins  against  Rome,  which  ended  in  thi'ir  defeat  at  Lake 
RegiUus.  498  B.  c.  Cicero  speaks  of  it  as  in  his  time  a 
wealthy  and  flourishing  munidptum.  Here  was  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Diana,  and  here  is  a  Ijeautiful  lake  called  Lago  di 
X^emi.  The  modern  town.  La  Riccia,  is  on  or  near  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Aricia. 

Arid  Reg'ioii ;  that  part  of  the  U.S.  in  which  the  land 
is  not  sufficiently  watered  by  rain  for  the  successful  cultiva- 
tion of  crops,  it  is  a]iproxinuitely  limited  by  the  line  of 
20  inches  mean  animal  rainfall,  but  in  districts  where  the 
princijjal  preci]iitation  occurs  during  the  agricultural  sea- 
son a  less  raiiifall  determiiu's  the  limit.  Between  the  arid 
region  and  the  humid  region — where  rainfall  meets  the  needs 
of  agri<'ultnre — lies  the  sub-humid  region,  a  belt  of  country 
in  which  ordimiry  farndng  is  successful  in  relatively  moist 
year.s.  but  fails  in  other  years.  The  arid  region  includes  the 
States  and  Territories  of  Montaiui.  Wyoming,  Colorado, 
Utah,  X'evada.  Arizona,  and  X*ew  Jlexico.  together  with 
those  parts  of  Xorth  and  South  Dakota.  Xebraska,  Kansas, 
and  Xorthern  Texas  lying  west  of  the  100th  nu-ridian,  a  belt 
of  Soul  hern  Texas  extending  100  miles  from  the  Rio  Graiule, 
all  of  California  south  of  the  37th  parallel,  the  eastern  half 
of  Xorthern  California,  the  eastern  two-thirds  of  Oregon,  the 
southea.stem  third  of  Washington,  and  nearly  the  whole  of 
I<laho  ;  a  total  area  of  about  1.340.000  .sq.  miles.  In  1889  the 
irrigated  portion  of  this  amounted  to  about  half  of  one  per 
cent. 

In  this  region  are  a  few  spots  rendered  fertile  by  perennial 
supplies  of  moisture  from  below,  but  in  general  agriculture 
is  absolutely  depeiulent  on  artificial  iri'igation.  Fortunately, 
the  face  of  the  country  is  diversified  by  mountains,  and  the 
loftier  of  these  receive  in  winter  a  supply  of  snow  which 
does  not  melt  until  spring,  and  then  nourishes  streams  \vhich 
can  be  diverted  to  farms  or  ni'ighboring  lowlands  (see  Imu- 
(iATio.N).  Associated  with  the  small  rainfall  is  a  dryni'ss  of 
the  air.  which  causes  rapid  evaporation  not  only  from  bodies 
of  water  bid  from  the  leaves  of  plants.  This  is  advantageous 
to  irrigated  plants,  giving  them  a  vigorous  growth,  but  un- 
favorable to  plants  not  snjjplied  with  water  at  the  roots. 
The  native  vegetation  is  consequently  scant.     The  lowlands 


312 


ARI^GE 


AKIST^US 


are  destitute  of  trees,  and  but  sparsely  clothed  with  bushes 
and  j;rass.  See  Lamh  of  the  Arid  Region,  by  J.  W.  Powell 
(1878);  11th  Aim.  liep.,  T.  S.  Geological  Survey  (part  2,  Ir- 
risation.  181)1);  12th  Ann.  Hop.,  U.  S.  G.  S.  (part  3,  Irriga- 
tion, isy3).    See  also  articles  JJesert  and  Great  Basix. 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Arifaro.  aiT-it^li :  a  river  of  France  ;  rises  in  the  Pyrenees, 
flows  neai-ly  northward  througli  the  tlepartnient  of  its  own 
name,  passing  by  Foi.x  ;::i(i  Paniiers.  and  enters  the  Garonne 
a  few  miles  south  of  Toulouse.     Length  about  90  miles. 

Arifg'e:  a  <h'parlnu'nt  in  the  S.  of  France:  bounded  X. 
and  \V.  Iiy  Ilaute-Garonnc,  K.  by  Aude  and  Busillon,  and 
S.  by  Spain,  from  wliich  it  is  separated  by  the  Pyrenees. 
Area,  1,889  sq.  miles  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  9-K).  Tlie  sur- 
face is  mostly  mountainous,  tlie  highest  mountains  being  in 
the  southern  part.  x\inong  the  Inghe.st  summits  ai'e  Mont- 
calm, aljout  10.000  feet,  aiid  Serrere,  9.593  feet  liigh.  It  is 
drained  by  the  rivers  Ariege  and  Salat.  Tlie  soil  of  the  lower 
lands  is  fertile.  Here  are  rich  iron  mines,  which  furnish  the 
chief  article  of  export.  It  is  subdivided  into  three  arron- 
dissements.  Capital,  Foix.  Pop.  (1881)  340.601  :  (1891) 
237.491. 

A'riel :  a  wonl  signifying  lion  of  God.  or  altar  of  God: 
was  sometimes  applied  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  (Is.  xxix.  1). 
Among  the  Jews  of  a  more  recent  date  the  name  was  given 
to  a  water-spirit. — Akiel  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal characters  in  Shakspeare's  drama  of  The  Tempest. 
where  he  is  represented  as  a  spirit  of  air. 

Ariel  iiavx'Wc  (Odzella  ilorcufi  or  a  nib' ica):  the  gazelle 
of  Western  Asia,  the  true  gazelle  belonging  to  Northern 
Africa.  The  arid  gazelle  is  one  of  the  most  beantifid  of 
antelopes,  is  31  inches  high  at  the  shoiddcr.  of  a  dark-fawn 
color,  the  belly  white,  with  a  black  or  brown  band  running 
along  the  flanks.  It  is  a  variety  of  the  species  to  which  the 
African  gazelle  belongs.  It  is  hunted  both  for  sport  (by 
falconry)  and  for  its  flesli  and  sldn,  both  highly  prized.  Ga- 
zelles are  often  hunted  in  biittiie,  for  they  can  not  be  success- 
fully followed  in  the  chase,  their  speed  excelling  that  of  tlie 
greyhound.  They  are  great  favorites  in  the  Bast  when 
tamed,  and  the  beauty  of  their  e)'es  is  proverbial. 

A'ries  [Lat..  ram]  :  a  sign  of  the  Zodiac  ;  the  first  thirty 
degrees  of  the  Zodiac  measured  from  the  point  at  which  the 
equator  intersects  the  ecliptic — i.  e.  the  vernal  equinox.  The 
sun  enters  this  sign  aboid.  Mar.  31.  Aries  is  also  the  name 
of  a  constidlation  of  the  Zodiac  which  once  coincided  with 
that  sign,  but  whic-li  now  occupies  the  same  place  as  the  sign 
Taurus.  Among  the  ancient  Komans,  anes  was  the  name 
of  a  battering-ram — a  machine  with  an  iron  head  used  to 
batter  down  the  walls  of  besieged  towns  or  forts. 

Arikara :  See  Caddoan  Indiaxs. 

Ar'il :  a  menibrane  or  peculiar  covering  of  some  seeds, 
fiirmed  by  ,-in  cx|>;nision  of  \\\v  ftniiciihixm-  of  the  placenta. 
Mace.  f(ir  exam|ile,  is  I  lie  mil  of  the  nutmeg.  The  aril  never 
appears  until  after  the  seed  is  fei'tilized. 

Ai'linas])!  :  a  mytliological  one-eyed  Scythian  race  which 
lived  in  continual  warfare  with  treasure-guarding  griffins. 

Ari'oii  (in  Gr.  'A.piiiv):  Greek  musician  and  poet,  who  first 
gave  the  (lit hyi-ariil]  (7.  /'.)  an  artistic  form  :  was  a  native  of 
Lesbos,  and  ihiurislicd  aljout  ()35  B.C.  Herodotus  has  pre- 
served a  curious  legend,  according  to  which  he  was  return- 
ing from  Lower  Italy  to  Corinth  by  .sea  with  much  treasure, 
to  get  which  the  mariners  resolved  to  kill  him.  Having  ob- 
tainc(l  permission  to  iilay  one  tune,  he  threw  himself  into  t  he 
sea,  anil  was  received  on  the  back  of  a  dolphin,  which  had 
been  charini^d  by  the  music,  and  carried  him  to  land.  This 
(h)lplnn  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  .as  that  which  figures 
among  the  stars. 

Ariox'to,  Louo\i'ro:  Italian  poet;  l>.  at  Reggio,  near 
Modena,  Sept.  8.  1474.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Ferrara,  ami  afterward,  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of  his 
father,  studied  law,  wdiich  he  disliked  and  soon  abandoned. 
After  t  he  ileath  of  his  father,  who  left  many  children  younger 
than  Lodovico.  he  devoted  much  time  to  the  support  and 
education  of  his  brnlhcrs  and  sisters.  His  earlv  Ivrical 
poems  procured  for  him  thi'  patronage  of  Cardinal  Ippolito 
(I'Fste,  whose  service  he  entered  in  loO:!.  He  was  employed 
by  this  cardinal,  and  his  [lirother,  the  I)uke  of  Ferrara.  in 
embassies  (o  several  Italian  courts.  In  the  intervals  of  his 
busy  life  he  meditated  and  matured  his  great  romantic  poem, 
Or/fi/n/n  Fiirinm,  which  was  |)ublished  in  1516  and  soon 
acquired  universal  popularity.     In  1.517  he  entered  the  serv- 


ice of  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  in  whom  he  found  a  liberal 
patron.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  favorite  associate  of  that 
prince,  and  to  have  enjoyed  some  ecclesiastical  revenues.  In 
1531  he  was  apjiointed  governor  or  commissary  of  Garfa- 
gnana,  where  he  was  required  to  enforce  order  among  a  tur- 
i>ulent  and  rude  population  addicted  to  brigandage  and  vio- 
lence. In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  married  privately 
a  widow  named  Alessandra  Benucci.  He  had  continued  to 
polish  and  revise  his  Orlando  Furioyo.  of  which  he  ]aiblished 
an  I'ularged  edition  in  1533  in  forty-six  cantos.  It  was  at 
once  seen  how  fortunate  the  poet  had  been  both  in  subject 
and  in  manner.  The  subject  was  the  romantic  history  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  especially  of  Poland — a  history 
which  had  first  been  elaborated  in  media'val  France  and 
treated  in  a  whole  cycle  of  poems,  some  finely  serious,  like 
the  i'lninxoii.  ill'  Jtrdinid,  others  trivial  iind  tedious.  From 
France  the  story  had  come  to  Nortlii'iii  Italy  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  iiiid  been  enormously  poptdar  there,  leading 
to  the  production  of  numerous  works  in  verse  and  prose — 
some  of  them,  like  the  famous  Reali  di  Fraiicia,  long  ea- 
gerly read  by  the  lower  classes.  In  the  encl  of  the  fifti'cnth 
century  the  tradition  had  been  taken  up  by  two  considerable 
poets — Pulci,  in  his  3Iiiri/(iiite  3Iar/(/iore,  and  Boiardo  in 
his  Orlando  Iniiiiiiiora/o — who  had  treated  it,  the  one  gro- 
tes(|ucly,  the  other  satirically.  Ariosto,  who  perhaps  had 
ne\-er  seen  Pulci's  work,  frankly  used  Boisirdo's  as  the  basis 
of  his  own,  continuing  the  story  from  the  ]ioint  where  Boi- 
ardo stopped.  He  used  a  different  manner,  liowever  ;  and 
though  his  irony  continues  the  satiric  strain  of  his  precleces- 
sor,  he  manages  to  give  his  poem,  as  a  wdiole,  a  certain  loveli- 
ness of  stvle  which  makes  what  is  most  fantastic  in  charac- 
tei'  or  action  yet  plausible  and  interesting.  He  also  pro- 
duced, in  Italian,  five  comedies  in  verse,  seven  satiri's  formed 
on  the  Horatian  model,  a  number  of  sonnets,  and  some  Latin 
poems.  "Ario.sto,''  says  Hallam,  "has  been,  after  Homer, 
the  favorite  poet  of  Europe.  His  grace  and  facility,  his 
clear  and  rapid  stream  of  language,  his  variety  and  beauty 
of  invention,  his  very  transitions  of  subject,  so  frequently 
censui-ed  by  critics,  but  artfully  devised  to  spare  the  tediou.-i- 
ness  that  hangs  on  a  ]irotracted  story,  left  him  no  rival  in 
general  popularity."  I),  at  Ferrara.  June  6,  li)'S'.>.  See  Ba- 
rotli.  Vila  di  L.  Ariosto  (4  vols.,  1766):  Carl  L.  Fernow,  Lf- 
bendanf  L.  Ariosto's  des  CfoltlirJien  (1809) ;  Bolza,  Mitniiale 
Arioste.seo  (1866) ;  Ferrazzi,  Bibliografia  Ariostesca  (1881); 
Crcscini,  Orlando  iiidla  Chanson  do  Roland  e  nei  poeiiii  del 
Hnjiirdii  e  dell'  Ariosto  (1880):  P.  Rajna.  Le  Fonti  dell'  Or- 
lando Fnrioxo  (1876) ;  A.  Panizzi,  Boiardo.  Orlando  Inna- 
niorato  :  Ariosto.  Orlando  Fiiriuso  :  edited,  with  an  essay  On 
the  Rninantic  Jy'arratire  Poetry  of  the  Ilaliiins  (London, 
Pickering.  18:!0) :  G.  Carducci,  Delle  Poesie  Inline  edite  e 
ineditc  di  T,.  Ariosto  (1875).        Revised  by  A.  R.  Maksh. 

Ariovis'tus :  a  chief  of  the  ancient  Suevi  or  Marcomaniii ; 
was  a  German.  Solicited  by  the  Sequani  to  aid  them  in  a 
war  against  the  ^Edui,  he  marched  (73  B.  c.)  with  an  army 
into  Gaul,  and  took  possession  of  that  jiart  which  was  after- 
waril  liurgundy.  The  Gauls  then  applied  to  the  Romatis  to 
liberale  them  from  their  new  master.  Ariovistus  was  de- 
feated by  Ca'sar  near  Vesontiuni  (moilcrn  city  of  Besan5on, 
France)  in  58  11.  c.  and  fled  across  the  Khiiie. 

Aris'ta.  ^Iariano:  Mexican  general:  b.  in  the  state  of  San 
Luis  Potosi.  July  26.  1802;  entered  the  army  in  his  youth. 
Having  served  in  several  civil  wars,  he  was  made  general  of 
brigade  in  18:!:?,  and  was  banished  in  that  year  liy  .Santa 
Anna.  He  returned  in  1835,  became  a  general  of  division 
in  1841,  !iiid  commanded  the  armv  wliich  was  defeated  bv 
Gen.  Taylor  at  I'alo  Alto  in  May,'l846.  In  June,  1848,  ho 
was  a|ipoinled  Minister  of  War.  and  in  1850  was  elected 
President  of  Mexico.  I'nder  his  administration  Jlexico  was 
disturbed  bv  the  usual  chronic  revolts  and  anarchy,  and 
Arista  was  driven  from  power  by  Santa  Anna  early  in  1853. 
He  dii'd  on  the  way  from  Lislion  to  France,  Aug.  7,  185.5. 

Aristae'iu'tus  (in  Gr.  'Apio-rod'eTos) :  a  Greek  epistolary 
writer  of  tlii'  fifth  or  sixth  century  ;  a  poor  imitator  of  Alci- 
pliroii  and  Achilles  Tjitius,  who  compo.sed  two  books  of  love 
stories  in  the  fcu'in  of  letters,  |irose  transcripts  of  Alexan- 
drian elegies.     Ed.  by  Boissomide  (1832). 

Aristiv'iis  (ill  (ir.  '\piifraios) :  a  jiersonage  of  classic  iny- 
Ihology.  represented  as  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene.  He 
married  Aubmoi'.  a  daughter  of  Cadnms  ;  was  the  father  of 
Act.Ton,  and  a  lover  of  Enrvdice.  He  was  worshiped  as  a 
divinity  who  presided  over  flocks  and  herds,  and  taught  men 
the  art  of  raising  or  managing  bees.  See  Vergil,  (reoiyics, 
book  iv. 


ARISTJEUS  OF  ALEXAXDUIA 


ARISTOCRACY 


313 


AriMtiens  of  Alexandria:  a  fictitious  person  repre- 
sented as  a. lew  who  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Ptolemy  Phihidel- 
phus  (eir.  280  B.  c).  Uis  alleged  letter  to  I'liilocrates.  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Septuagint,  has  been 
proved  l)y  Humphrey  Hody  and  others  to  be  spurious.  See 
SEPTi'AtiixT.  C.  II.  Toy. 

Aristar'ehns  (in  Gr.  'Apiarapxos) :  Greek  grammarian 
and  critic;  iii-loO  n.  r. ;  a  native  of  Saniothrace;  pupil  and 
successor  of  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium.  He  taught  at  Al- 
exandria, where  he  educated  the  son  of  Ptolemy  Pliilometor. 
In  consequence  of  a  difficulty  in  the  royal  household  he  with- 
drew to  Khodes.  where  he  died  at  I  he  age  of  seveni  y-1  wo.  1 1  is 
especial  excellence  lay  in  textual  criticism,  in  which  lie  showed 
great  acumen,  rare  (lowers  of  divination,  and  soundness  of 
method.  His  lemling  principle  of  exegesis  was  the  exjilana- 
tion  of  the  author  out  of  himself.  He  was  an  inspiring 
teacher,  and  did  much  to  insure  the  prevalence  of  the  ana- 
logical school  of  grammar  in  opiiosilion  to  the  Pergamene 
school  of  anomaly.  He  pulilislie<l  a  large  inunber  of  cor- 
rected texts,  with  critical  signs;  and  the  restoration  of  Aris- 
tarchus's  text  of  Homer  is  still  the  ideal  of  a  school  of  edit- 
ors. The  Homeric  scholia  derive  nnicli  of  their  value  from 
the  preservat  ion  of  the  criticisms  of  Aristarchus.  8ee  Jjehrs, 
J)e  Arista rrlii  S/iiiliis  TTomeriein  {-id  ed.  1882);  Ludwich, 
Arislfirrlis  Ilomerixche  Textkritik.      B.  L.  Gildf.rsleeve. 

Aristarchus  of  Saiiios:  Greek  astronomer;  supposed  to 
have  flourished  about  275  B.  c.  The  events  of  his  life  are 
unknown.  Archimedes  in  one  of  his  works  states  that 
"Aristarchus  of  Samos  supposes  that  the  earth  revolves 
about  the  sun  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle."  All  of  his 
writings  are  lost  except  a  short  treatise  On  the  MiKjiiiliKle.x 
and  Distances  of  ttie  Sun  and  Moon.  He  calculated  that 
the  sun  is  twenty  times  farther  than  the  moon  from  the 
earth.  See  Fortia  d'Urban's  Uistoire  d'Aristarque  de  Samos 
(1810). 

Aristi'dt'S,  or  Arlstei'des  (surnamed  The  Just)  :  eminent 
Athenian  statesman;  son  of  Lysiniachus;  b.  in  Alo|)eke,  a 
demos  of  Attica.  His  political  tendencies  were  conservative 
or  aristocratic.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  generals  who  had  the 
command  of  the  army  when  the  Persians  invadeil  (in'cce  in 
490  B.C.  Kach  general  had  a  right  to  the  chief  cumniand 
for  one  day,  but  Aristides  persuaded  liis  colleagues  to  resign 
or  waive  tiieir  claims,  so  that  Miltiades  commanded  at  Mara- 
thon when  it  was  not  his  turn.  Aristides  became  cliief  archon 
in  4-SO,  anil  a  political  adversaiy  of  Themistocles.  the  leader 
of  the  democracy.  On  the  pretest  that  his  inlluence  was 
dangerous  to  the  public  interest,  he  wa,s  ostracized  in  48:^  B.  c. 
On  this  occiision  a  citizen  who  was  personally  a  stranger  to 
him,  and  who  could  not  write,  requested  him  to  write  ,lr/.s- 
tides  on  a  shell  to  be  used  in  voting.  He  asked  this  voter  if 
Aristides  had  injured  him.  "  Xo,"  replied  the  citizen,  "  but 
I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  always  calleii  Aristides  the  Just." 
When  Xerxes,  King  of  I'ersia.  invaded  Greece  with  a  mighty 
army  in  480  B.  c,  Aristides  sought  an  interview  with  The- 
mistocles, took  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis. 
and  recovered  his  poinilarily.  Hecommandeil  the  .Athenian 
troops,  which,  aided  by  other  Greeks,  defeated  the  I'ersians 
at  Platiea  in  479.  Aristides  and  Cimon  were  appointed  in 
477  B.  c.  cominanders  of  the  Athenian  forces  which  co-oper- 
ated with  other  Greek  armies  against  the  Persians.  Paiisa- 
nias  the  Spartan  had  the  chief  command  of  the  allied  army, 
but  he  offended  the  allies  by  his  arrogance,  while  Aristides 
by  mildness  and  prudence  gained  general  favor,  and  |iro- 
moted  the  supremacy  or  predominance  of  Athens  among  the 
stales  of  Greece.  He  died  poor  in  407  b.  c,  leaving  a  son  and 
two  daughters,  who  received  dowries  from  the  public  treas- 
ury. Few  statesmen  have  left  so  pure  ami  lioiiorabh'  a  repu- 
tation as  Aristides.  See  Plutarch,  Life  of  Aristides:  (.Cor- 
nelius Xepos,  Life  of  Aristides.  M'illiam  Jacobs. 

Aristides,  j-Elivs:  a  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician;  b. 
in  Bithynia  aliout  117  a.  D.;  was  a  pupil  of  Polemon  and 
Ilcrodes  Atticus.  He  acquired  an  undue  rejiutation  for  elo- 
quence, and  produced  manv  orations  and  panegyrics.  His 
emulation  of  Demosthenes  liad  the  unhappy  etTect  of  mak- 
ing his  style  laboi'ed  and  obscure.  He  resided  at  Smyi'iia 
when  that  city  was  ruined  by  an  earthquake  in  178  A.  n.,  and 
|iei-suaded  the  Emperor  J[areus  .\urelius  to  rebuild  it.  D. 
in  185  A.  D.  l^rincijial  edition  by  Dindorf  in  3  vols..  1829. 
See  Baumgart,  JEhus  Aristides  (1874) ;  Schmid,  Atticism  us 
(vol.  ii.).  B.  L.  G. 

Aristides  Qiiintiliniius:  a  Greek  grammarian  (of  the 
thiril  ci'iiiury  a.  d.  ();  autliorof  an  important  work  on  music, 


in  which  he  holds  fast  to  the  great  princi|)les  of  Aristoxenus 
though  beclouded  by  Xeo-Platonic  mysticism.  Ed.  by  Albert 
Jaliu'(18S2). 

Aristides  of  Tliebes:  an  eminent  Greek  painter  who  lived 
about  ;tt(»  B.  c,  anil  was  a  contemporary  of  Apclles.  He  had 
a  brother.  Xicomachus,  who  was  a  skillful  painter.  Accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  Aristides  was  tlie  first  who  exiiressed  on  the 
countenance  the  passions  and  movements  of  the  soul.  He 
painted  a  battle  betw^een  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  wliic'h  the 
Roman  consul  seizeil  among  the  spoils  of  war  and  took  to 
Rome. 

Aristi|)'pus  (in  Gr.  'Apiimimosi:  (iivek  philosopher: 
founder  of  the  Cyrenaic  school  ;  b.  at  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
about  4:^5  B.  c.  lie  was  a  puiiil  of  Socrates,  but  did  not 
adojit  his  principles  or  imitate  liis  mode  of  life.  He  traveled 
extensively,  indulged  freely  in  sensual  pleasure,  was  intimate 
with  the  courtesan  Lais  at  Corinth,  and  flourished  as  a  court- 
ier and  |ihilosophic  vulupluary  at  Syracuse  in  the  reign  of 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  Tlioiigli  he  recognizeil  pleasure  as  a 
priipcr  subject  of  jnirsiiit,  he  apjiears  to  have  observed  some 
miidenitii)n  in  that  pursuil.and  to  have  been  remarkable  for 
self-control  and  equanimity  as  well  as  vcr.sitility,  and  a  fac- 
ulty of  adapting  himself  to  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 
PUilo  is  reported  to  have  said  that  "  Aristipiius  was  the  only 
man  he  knew  who  could  wear  with  etpial  grace  fine  clothes 
aiul  rags."  He  was  celebrated  for  his  witty  sayings  and 
repartees,  some  of  which  are  recorded  liy  Diogenes  Laertins. 
His  works,  if  he  wrote  any.  have  not  come  down  to  us.  He 
d<>s]iised  or  neglected  mathematics  and  physical  sciences. 
He  dii'd  after  JjOO  b.  c,  and  left  a  daughter.  Arete,  who  was 
distinguished  as  a  jjliilosophcr.  Wieland  wroti'  in  German 
a  romance  of  Aristippu's  and  his  Contemporaries  (4  voh.. 
1800-02).  See  (i.  H.  Lewes,  Biogravhieal  History  of  Phi- 
losophy ;  F.  Mentz,  Aristippus  Phitusophus Socraficus,  sive 
de  ejus  Vita  (1719);  and  Zeller"s  Sorratic  Schools. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Aris'to,  or  Aris'toii,  of  Chios  (surnamed  The  Siren)  : 
Stoic  philosopher  who  lived  about  275  b.  c. ;  a  disciple  of 
Zeno.  He  taught  at  Athens,  and  confined  his  attention  to 
moral  i)hiloso|)hy.  He  maintained  that  the  chief  good  con- 
sists in  indifference  to  even-thing  except  virtue  and  vice. 

Aristobii'liis  (Gr. 'Apio-Tii^ouAos):  a  Greek  historian  who 
accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  expedition  against 
Persia,  aliout  332  B.C.,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  same, 
which  is  not  extant.  It  was  highly  praised'  Viy  Arrian  for 
its  trustwoithiness. 

Aristolmlns:  a  .Tew  and  philosopher  who  lived  at  Alex- 
andria about  175-150  B.  r.  He  was  the  reputed  author  of  a 
Commentary  on  the  Books  of  Moses,  the  aim  of  which  was 
to  show  that  the  ancient  Greek  writers  had  borrowed  much 
from  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hebrews. 

AristobnliiS  I. :  high  priest  of  the  Jews;  son  of  Joannes 
Hyrcanus.  He  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  107  B.C.,  and 
died  in  105,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Alex- 
ander Jaiina-us. 

Aristolmlns  II. :  nephew  of  Aristobulus  I.,  and  a  son  of 
Alexander  Jannanis :  Ijccame  King  of  the  .Jews  about  70  n.  r. 
Jerusalem  was  taken  in  G3  by  Pompey,  who  gave  the  throne 
to  Ilyrcanus,  a  brother  of  Arisiolnilus,  and  carried  the  latter 
as  a  captive  to  Rome.     I),  about   48  b.  c. 

Aristoe'raey  [from  Gr.  apiix-roKpaTla:  fipio-Tos.  best  -i-kooti'o 
(in  cornp.).  rule;  cf.  Koiros.  p(^werl  :  signifies  ideally  a  form 
of  government  controlled  and  administered  by  the  best  or 
noblest  citizens.  It  is  enumerated  by  Aristotle  among  the 
principal  forms  of  government.  Aristocracy  is  of  very  an- 
cient origin,  and  in  some  countries  of  ancient  times  it  pre- 
vailed as  subsi<liary  to  monarchy.  The  word  may  be  defined 
as  a  government  controlled  by  the  nobility  or  iirivileged 
class,  or  a  government  in  which  a  minority  of  adult  males 
constitutes  the  ruling  class.  Such  was  the  re])ublic  of 
Venice.  The  aristocralic  element  also  predominated  origi- 
nally in  the  republic  of  ancient  Rome,  which  was  governed 
by  patricians,  whose  power  was  hereditary.  Th<:  feudal 
system  of  the  Jliddle  Ages  favored  the  formation  of  power- 
ful aristocracies.  Among  modern  nations  Great  Britain  is 
]ierliaps  that  in  which  the  aristocracy  is  most  influential  and 
res|iectable.  A  title  of  nobility  is  the  great  ])rize  for  which 
British  statesmen  and  soldiers  compete,  and  the  ranks  of 
the  ancient  noble  families  are  often  reinforced  by  men  of 
genius,  who  ai'e  raised  to  the  peerage.  There  is  probably 
no  country  where  rank  is  more  highly  prized  and  ardently 
covetetl.     In  modern  language,  this  word  is  used  to  denote 


314 


ARISTOGITON 


ARISTOTLE 


nobility,  or  the  higher  class  of  society,  without  roferenco  to 
government.     See  DEMOCR.irv. 

Aristogi'toii.  or  Aristoaroitoii  (tir.  'ApurToyfiruv):  an 
Athenian  conspirator,  an  acconi]ilioe  of  Harmodius  in  the 
as.sassination  of  Hipparchiis.  He  was  jiut  to  deatli  by  llip- 
pias  in  514  B.C.  He  was  rejranled  as  a  patriot  by  the  Athe- 
nians, who  erected  statues  to  liini  and  to  Harmodius  (g.  v.). 

Aristolo'chia  [from.  Gi:  apurT0\6xeia.  an  herl)  promoting 
childliirth :  apio-ros,  liest  +  \6xe^a.  childbed] :  a  genus  of 
lilants  of  tlie  family  AristolochiricMF:  are  mostly  natives  of 
tropical  countries,  and  have  twining  stems.  The  genus  is 
characterized  1)V  n  tubular  oblique  perianth,  and  by  stamens 
adherent  to  the' style.  Some  of  the  species  climb  to  the  tops 
of  high  trees  and  have  handsome  flowers.  The  ArisMoeliia 
serpeiitaria.  or  Virginian  snakeroot.  is  a  native  of  the  U.  S., 
possesses  stimulant  iind  tonic  properties,  and  was  once  sup- 
posed to  be  a  remedy  for  the  bite  of  serpents.  Similar 
virtues  are  ascribed  to  various  species  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.  The  root  of  tliis  plant  is  exported  from  the  U.  S. 
to  Europe,  and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  remedy  in  certain 
fevers.  The  Aristolnchi'a  chmatitis  (l)irthwort)  is  a  native 
of  Europe,  a  perennial  plant,  with  cordate  leaves,  erect  stem, 
and  grows  in  waste  places,  hedges,  and  among  nibbish.  The 
roots  of  these  and  many  other  species,  which  possess  power- 
fully stimulating  properties,  have  lieen  used  in  medicine. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Aristolo'chia'ccac :  a  family  of  exogenous  plants,  of 
which  Aristulochia  (</.  v.)  is  the  type. 

Aristom'eiies  (in  Gr.  '^piaroniv-ns):  a  famous  Messenian 
general  who  commanded  the  army  of  his  state  in  the  second 
Messenian  war.  He  was  renowned  for  personal  valor  and 
daring  enterprises.  Having  been  finally  defeated  in  668 
B.  c.  he  went  with  his  daughter  and  son-in-law  to  Rhodes. 
See  Jourdan,  Iliittoire  d'Ansfdmhir.  (1749). 

Aristopli'aiies  (in.  Gr.  'Api(r7-oij>ai'7)s) :  greatest  of  Attic 
comic  poets:  1).  about  4.)0,  d.  aimut  MS.")  h.  c.  His  birthplace 
is  variously  given ;  that  he  was  a  fuU-ljIood  Athenian  has 
been  denied,  but  in  character,  emlowment,  and  art  he  was 
an  Athenian  of  the  Athenians  :  his  language  is  the  norm  of 
Atticism,  his  genius  has  the  flavor  of  Attic  soil  and  the  light 
of  Attic  sky.  An  aristocrat  by  party  allegiance,  he  was  from 
the  beginning  in  opi)Osition  to  ••democracy  "and  '"progress." 
to  "  elevation  of  the  masses,"  to  "  the  career  open  to  talent," 
to  "free  thought,"  to  "finer  art,"  to  •■art  for  arfs"  sake. 
to  every  form  of  sophistic  phrase-making  and  humanitarian 
claptrap.  Hence  Aristophanes  is  to  this  day  a  powerful  ally 
of  conservative  souls.  He  began  early.  His  first  two  pieces, 
Banqueters  (4^27)  and  Babylonians  (4'36)  are  lost.  Eleven 
out  of  about  forty  are  left.  Aeliiirniann  (425).  a.  burlesque 
plea  for  peace:  Knijjhts  (434),  an  attack  on  CI  eon ;  Clouds 
(4^2.'!),  in  ridicule  of  Socrates  as  the  lii'ad  sophist;  Wasps 
{422),  a  caricature  of  the  Athenian  jury  system  :  Peace  (421). 
a  frolic  in  anticipation  of  the  close  of  the  Ten  Years  war: 
Birds  (414),  in  which  the  poet  builds  an  airy  cloud-cuckoo- 
town  as  a  home  for  all  manner  of  fancies.  Then  the  shadow 
of  the  Four  Hundre<l  (see  Greece,  History  of)  falls  over 
the  j)oet.  Tlie  J^i/sislraln  and  the  Tliesmophoriazuste  were 
acted  in  the  same  year  (411).  Hoth  of  them  have  to  do  with 
women  and  women's  ways.  In  the  Lijsistrata  the  women 
seize  the  helm  of  state:  in  the  'J liesmDjilioriaziisiv  tlieyband 
together  against  Euripides,  the  woman-hater.  The  truce- 
less  war  against  Euripides  etdminates  in  a  formal  siege  in 
the  Frogs  (405).  The  Ecclesiazusa'  (:!89  or  39-2)  is  a  farce 
at  the  expense  of  women's  rights  and  communism.  The 
Plutus  (388)  is  a  manner  of  allegory  and  marks  a  transition 
to  Middle  Comedy  (see  fiREEK  Litkrati-re).  Im  wit.  in 
humor,  in  invejitiveness,  in  command  of  all  the  resources 
of  language  and  rhythmical  art,  Aristophanes  is  one  of  the 
foremost  masters  of  all  time.  Critical  editions  of  all  the 
plays  by  Bekker  {cum  nofis  variorum),  Dindorf,  Meineke, 
Jiergk,  Ijlaydes,  Von  Velscn  (not  yet  complete).  Annotated 
editions  of  single  plays  too  numerous  to  mention.  Famous 
translations  by  .1.  llonkham  Frere.  Xotewoilhy  renderings 
by  Mitchell,  Rogers,  Tyrrell,  Kennedy.  Droysen's  Get  man 
translation  is  a  chissic.  See  also  Browning. -l(/.s/o/^/(rtHes"« 
Apoloe/y.  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Aristopliancs  of  Ityzaiifiiiiii :  Greek  granumirian :  b. 
about  26'2  n.  1. :  slndiid  al  .Mcxandria.  and  suc'ceeded  Apol- 
lonius  Khodius  as  librarian.  I),  about  185.  He  did  impor- 
tant service  in  connection  with  the  Alexandrian  canon: 
published  valuable  critical  editions  of  Homer.  He.siod.  the 
lyric  poets,  es|)ecially  ^Vlca-us  and  Pindar;  wrote  introduc- 


tions to  the  plays  of  the  tragic  and  comic  poets,  especially 
Aristophanes  and  Menander;  made  lexicographical  collec- 
tions: invented  a  series  of  critical  signs:  and  developed  the 
notation  of  prosody,  including  accent,  breathing,  and  quan- 
tity. See  Nauck's  Arlsluphan is  Byzantii  Fragmenta  (1848) ; 
Wilamowitz-Moellcndorlf.  Euripides  Jlerakles,  vol.  i.  pp. 

137-153.  B.  L.  GiLDERSLEEVE. 

Ar'istotle:  Greek  philosopher :  b.  at  Stagira.  a  city  of 
Thrace,  but  a  Grecian  colony,  in  the  first  year  of  the  99th 
Olympiad,  or  384  B.  c.  His  fat  her  was  Xicomachus.  a  physi- 
cian and  friend  of  Amyntas.  King  of  Macedon  and  father  of 
Philip.  The  family  of  Aristotle  was  distinguished  by  the 
heretlitary  profession  of  nu'dicine,  and  was  wont  to  ti'ace  its 
origin  to  Jlaehaon.  son  of  ^Esculapius.  Lett  an  oqihan  at 
an  early  age,  he  was  brought  up  by  Proxenus  of  Atarneus, 
in  Mysia.  to  whose  guardianship  he  seems  to  have  been  in- 
tntsted  by  his  father,  and  whose  memory  Aristotle  held  so 
dear  in  after  life  that  he  erected  a  statue  to  him.  and  lioth 
instnicted  his  son  Xicanor  in  the  liberal  arts  and  adopted 
him  as  his  heir.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  went  to  Athens, 
and  became  a  pujjil  of  Plato,  with  whom  he  continued  twenty 
years,  and  by  whom  he  was  called  the  reader  and  the  intel- 
lect of  the  school,  and  likened,  in  his  ardor  and  restiveness, 
to  a  colt  which  needed  the  bit  more  than  the  spur.  Upon 
the  death  of  Plato  (348  B.  c.)  he  accepted  an  invitation  of 
Ilermias,  tyrant  of  Atarneus.  his  former  fellow-pupil  in  the 
school  of  Plato,  to  take  u])  his  residence  with  him.  Here 
Aristotle  spent  the  three  following  years  of  his  life,  when 
Hermeas,  conquered  liy  a  Persian  invader,  was  sent  a  pris- 
oner to  Persia,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  Artaxerxes. 
To  avoid  a  like  fate,  Aiistotle  fled  to  Mitylene,  taking  with 
him  Pythias,  whom  he  married,  and  who  is  variously  de- 
scriVied  as  the  mistress,  the  sister,  and  the  niece  of  Hermeas. 
After  her  death  he  married  his  concubine  HerpyUis,  the 
mother  of  his  son  Nicomachus. 

When  Alexander  of  Macedon  was  born.  Philip,  his  father, 
is  said  to  have  sent  this  letter  to  Aristotle :  ••  Br  it  known 
unto  you  that  I  have  a  son.  and  that  I  am  thankful  to  the 
gods,  iiot  so  much  for  his  liirth  as  that  he  was  born  in  your 
time.  For  if  you  will  l5ut  take  the  charge  of  his  education, 
I  assure  myself  that  he  will  become  worthy  of  his  father  and 
of  his  future  kingdom."  The  philosopher  accepted  the  com- 
mission of  the  king,  and  there  is  evidence  that  he  gave  early 
directions  respecting  the  care  and  culture  of  the  infant 
prince.  When  Alexander  was  fifteen.  Aristotle  assumed  the 
personal  oversight  of  his  instniction.  taking  up  his  residence 
at  the  court,  and  continuing  there  during  the  lifetime  of 
Philip  and  for  two  years  after  his  pimil  had  ascended  the 
throne.  When  the  conquest  of  the  East  was  undertaken, 
Aristotle  returned  to  Athens,  and  taught  philosophy  in  the 
Ijyccum,  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  Lycian  Apollo,  with 
wiilks ornamented  liy  trees,  fountains,  and  colonnades.  From 
these  shady  walks  (irtpiiraToil  Ins  school  received  the  name 
of  Peripatetic.  He  here  aliode  and  taught  thirteen  years, 
when,  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  he  was  accused  by  the 
Athenians  of  impiety,  and  fled  to  Chalcis  in  Eubcea.  the 
present  Xegropont.  in  order  to  escape  the  fate  of  Socrates. 
or.  as  he  .said,  that  Athens  might  not  have  the  opportunity 
to  sin  against  ])hilosophy  again.  Here  he  died  (b.  c.  322)  in 
his  sixty-third  year. 

His  i'haract'er. — Aristotle's  was  one  of  the  most  highly 
gifted  inleih'cts  of  ail  the  ages.  All  agree  that  his  wealth 
of  scientific  knowledge,  his  unbiased  judgment,  his  con- 
structive power,  and  his  depth  and  breadth  ot  speculative 
insight  are  unsurpassed  in  ancient  or  modern  times.  But 
the  verdict  is  not  .so  unanimous  respecting  his  moral  traits. 
By  some  of  the  ancients  lie  is  extolled  for  his  palriotism.  his 
reverence,  his  modestv.  his  moderation,  his  love  of  truth, 


and  his  altachmeni  to'his  friends,  while  others  hold  him  up 
as  selfish,  ungrateful,  sordid,  gluttonous,  and  impious.  U 
must  be  owned,  however,  that  few  ot  the  stories  told  in  proof 
of  eitherof  these  sides  will  bear  a  sharp  hmk.  They  rest  on 
frail  grounds.  Hut  while  we  have  little  direct  showing  that 
can  lie  trusted  respecting  the  personal  characlerof  Aristotle, 
some  jioints  seem  clear.  The  regard  in  which  he  ever  held 
the  memory  of  Proxenus.  and  the  beautiful  hymn  to  virtue 
•.vhich  he  composed  in  honor  of  Hermeas,  and  which  we  still 
have,  show  that  he  was  not  ineapalile  of  gratitude  or  of  love 
to  his  friends.  The  charge  often  made  that  he  was  jealous 
of  Plato  doi's  not  hang  with  the  fact  of  Aristotle's  contimied 
intinuicy  with  Xenocrate.s.  Plato's  devoted  <lisciple  and  .suc- 
cessor, nor  with  an  elegy,  some  verses  of  whicli  have  come 
down  to  us. in  which  Aristotle  calls  Plato  one  whom  the  bad 


AUISTOTLE 


AUIL'S 


315 


iiiiglit  not  even  praise,  and  who  first  taught  tlie  world  how 
11  mail  roulil  l>e  at  the  same  time  good  and  happv.  In  his 
will  he  shows  not  <inl_v  a  judiciims  care,  Inil  iiii  atlfectionate 
solieitiule,  for  his  family,  while  in  his  writinj^s  a  lofty  moral 
tone  ai)pears  and  a  winning  frankness  and  sincerity  seem  to 
shine. 

//(•s  Wrifiiiy^i. — These  were  very  niimerou!-".  thoiifjli  oidy 
a  small  part,  perhaps  a  fourth,  remains,  all  of  whieh  proli- 
alily  differ  more  or  less  from  the  stale  in  which  Aristotle 
left  them.  Ineompeteiit  editors  and  igiioranl  trauscrihers 
have  maile  almost  us  niueh  miseliief  as  the  mold  and  mil- 
dew by  which  some  of  the  original  nuiniiseripts  are  sjiid  to 
have  lu'en  sadly  injured,  and  some  destroyed.  Hut  while 
the  frajrnieiitary  and  skeleton-like  form  which  many  of  the 
so-callcil  Aristotelian  writings  possess,  ji)ine<l  to  the  evident 
omissions  and  the  repetitions  and  eonlrudictions  which  they 
contain,  show  the  work  of  some  other  hands  than  those  of 
the  great  master,  there  remains  a  solid  nucleus  of  consider- 
alile  sizi'.  whose  purity  of  style  and  depth  of  spc<'ulative 
content  liriug  us  into  tlie  unrui>takal)le  jji-csenee  of  Aristotle 
himself.  In  18!t0  one  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  of 
the  century  was  nuide.  'I'hi'  constitution  of  Athens,  one  of 
the  ioO  constitutional  histories  that  Aristotle  wrote  l>y  way 
of  preparation  for  his  great  work  on  Politics,  was  discoventd 
and  Irauscrilied  iu  the  Mritish  Museum  from  Papyrus  cxxxi. 

Jli"  I'liiloso/t/ii/. — AristotleV  method  is  exactly  the  reverse 
of  Plato's,  which  he  does  not  tire  of  making  mauil'est.  The 
atleulion  which  Plato  had  given  to  tlu'  unity  of  all  being, 
Aristotle  directs  to  the  manifoldness  of  the  phenomenal 
world.  He  is  as  analytic  and  iliscursive  as  Plato  is  synthetic 
and  intuitive.  While  Plato  finds  in  the  universal  the  only 
light  in  which  the  p.-irticular  can  be  si'en.  .Vrlstotle  sees  the 
jiarli<-ular  to  be  necessary  in  order  that  we  may  have  any 
knowledge  of  the  universal.  So  lie  gathers  p,nrli<'ulars  from 
all  (piarters.  History,  the  humau  mind,  anil  all  departuu'Uts 
of  nature  furnish  him  contributions.  He  has  no  rival  in 
the  variety  and  e.\lent  of  the  facts  which  he  has  collected, 
and  has  lu-ver  been  surpasseil  in  the  patient  industry  of  his 
investigations.  Hut  it  is  a  great  mistake,  though  one  easily 
and  often  made,  to  judge  thereby  that  Aristotle  sought  for 
nothing  beyond  experience,  or  that  he  and  Plato  represented 
only  the  opposite  exiremesof  ciupiricisin  and  idealism.  Tlie 
idea  was  as  truly  the  obji'cl  of  .Vristotle's  search  as  it  was 
of  i'lato's.  Uoth  Plato  and  .\ristotle  also  agreed  that  the 
reality  or  the  essence  of  indivi<lual  things  was  in  the  idea. 
Aristotle  also  held  as  strongly  as  Plato  to  the  objective  ex- 
istence of  the  Idea.  The  ihictrlnc  of  the  N'ominalists  in  the 
Middle  .Vges,  that  the  Idea  or  the  universal  is  only  a  sub- 
jective product  in  which  objects  are  represented,  and  by 
whieh  they  are  named,  though  often  ascribed  to  Aristotle, 
is  but  little  less  tVu'eigu  to  him  than  to  Plato.  Hut  while  to 
Plato  the  idea  had  an  objective  existence  independent  of 
the  inillvldual  obji'ct  which  partlclpateil  in  it,  to  Aristotle 
the  Idi'a  was  iuimanent  in  the  indiviilual.  and  had  no  being 
separate  from  it.  This  accounts  for  the  prodigious  attention 
wlilch  .Vrlstotle  gave  to  individual  facts.  He  eollecte<l  these 
in  such  vast  measure,  not  because  they  had  any  interest  in 
themselves,  anil  not  because  their  collection  and  classifica- 
tion could  give  a  satisfying  science,  but  only  tor  the  sake  of 
the  idea  which  was  Imuiauent  in  them,  and  whieh  was  the 
only  proper  object  in  .scientific  inquiry,  since  it  was  the  only 
object  wiiicli  could  be  truly  known. 

This  Immanence  of  the  lilea  In  the  individual  shows  what 
was  the  most  essential  dltfi'ience  between  Plato  and  .Vris- 
totle.  and  also  what  was  the  most  characteristic  and  Important 
doctrine  in  the  .\rlslotellan  philosophy.  Aristotle  criticises 
Plato  because  the  Platonic  ideas,  being  sejiarate  from  and 
independent  of  phenomena,  could  not  explain  the  e.xislence 
of  the  phenomenal  world.  They  are.  in  the  -Vrislotelian 
view  of  Plato's  doctrine,  only  potential,  not  actual,  sources 
of  individual  things.  But  to  the  idea  as  universal  .Vrlstotle 
ascrlbi's  an  activity  which  individualizes,  but  this  individ- 
nall/atloii  Is  not  a  change  to  auythlug  without,  nor  bi'caii.se 
of  anything  without.  Imt  is  wholly  within  the  universal  it- 
sidf;  it  Is  a  change  thus  Into  a  difference  which  is  at  the 
same  lime  an  identity,  a  deteruiiuiug  which  is  a  .self-deter- 
mining, wherein  the  univei-sal  or  the  idea  realizes  or  actual- 
izes itself.  This  self-realizing  of  the  idea  is  a  conformily  to 
an  end  which  is  at  the  .same  time  a  self-end,  a  true  Final 
Cause,  wherein  is  the  living  principle  and  rational  explana- 
tion of  individual  things.  '1  Ills  doctrine  of  the  final  cause, 
or  sufTiclent  reason,  which  It  Is  the  immeasurable  merit  of 
.Vrlstotle  to  have  Introduced  Into  philosophy,  carries  us  back 
1.0  a  principle  deeper  than  that  of  efficient  causation,  and 


brings  us  from  the  world  of  necessity  to  that  of  freedom- 
Our  modern  |)hysicists  would  gain  a  profounder  view  of  na- 
ture and  a  more  successful  pursuit  of  science  if  they  could 
know  this  principle  as  Aristotle  taught  it.  They  would  find 
him,  a-s  the  ancients  called  him,  "  the  father  of  those  who 
know."  See  Zeller,  Arixtotele.t  iind  die  Allen  Peripaletiker, 
and  especially  V..  Wallace.  Aristotle's  Psijchohtfiii  in  Greek 
ritiil  Aiii/linlt;  S{»hr.  Aristotelia  ;  licwv^.  Aristotle  ;  Grant, 
J-Jtti  ics  of  A  risfotle  ;  Trendelcnbu  rg.  ( 'oiii  in .  tid  "  De  A  nima  " ; 
Hegel,  (resctiiclite  der  Philosiiptiie :  Thomas  Davidson.  Aris- 
liille  (inil  tlie  Ancient  Educational  Jdeals:  also  Hitter, 
I'eberweg,  Schwegler.  Erdmann,  etc. ;  also  Philosophy.  Its 
History.  licvised  by  W.  T.  Hakkis. 

Aristnlle's-laiiterii;  the  jaws  of  the  sea-urchlii.  which 
are  largi'  iu  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  com- 
posed of  five  pieces,  which  form  a  lantern-shaped  structure. 

Aristox'eims  of  Tarentiini  :  Greek  iiliilosopher;  a  pupil 
of  -Vrlstotle;  llveil  about  yoO-;J;>0  B.  c.  lie  wrote  numerous 
works  which  are  lost,  and  a  treatl.se  on  music  {Klements  of 
J/arnioni/),  which  is  extant  and  is  accounted  valuable.  It 
was  published  by  Mcursius  In  Uil6.  He  founded  a  school 
of  musicians,  wlio  rejecti^d  the  sysfeiu  of  Pythagoras,  and 
judged  of  the  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale  by  the  ear  exclu- 
sively.    Sve  7a-\\(m:  Aristotele-1  iind  dii'  Allen  Feripatetiker. 

Arith'nietic  [deriv.  of  Gr.  ^  dpie/irirticri  (sc.  rix^v-  art),  art 
of  c<iunting.  from  ipiBixfiv.  tmmX}:  the  science  which  treats 
of  numbers  or  the  art  of  com|mtatiou.  is  a  branch  of  mathe- 
matics. In  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term  It  Is  the  art  of  ex- 
])rcssing  numbei's  by  symbols,  combining  these  symbols,  iind 
applying  to  them  rules  of  the  greatest  ]iractical  utility. 
.Vinong  the  ancient  (ireek.s.  Pythagoras.  Archimedes,  and 
others  cultivated  the  science  of  numbers,  but  they  Itdxired 
iiniler  the  disadvantage  of  a  clumsy  mode  of  tiotallon.  and 
had  no  sign  for  zero  or  naught.  The  Komaii  numerals.  I, 
V,  .V.  L,  C  etc..  continued  to  be  commonly  used  in  Knrojie 
until  the  fifteenth  century.  The  invention  of  tin;  .symbols 
called  Arabian  numerals,  now  in  use,  is  attributed  to  the 
Hindus.  The  use  of  the  cipher  (0)  gives  the  modern  arith- 
metic a  great  advantage  over  the  ancient. 

Aritliinotical  Mean:  See  ^Iean. 

Arithiiu'tical  rrogression  :  See  Progression. 

Ariiis,  aa  ri-us  (properly  ali-iins):  the  founder  of  Arian- 
ism ;  an  Alexandrian  presbyter,  theologian,  and  controver- 
sialist ;  one  of  the  two  principal  figures  in  the  first  great 
controversy  of  the  early  Cluirch  :  b.  In  Libya,  in  Africa,  2.56. 
He  went  as  a  layman  to  .Vlex.-Midrla.  .'Uul  there  sided  with 
Peter,  l!lsh4i|i  of  .Vlexaiidria,  111  the  Meletian  Schism;  was 
ordained  deacon  by  hliii.  but  suliscipieutly  excommunicated 
in  consequences  of  his  joining  the  schismatics.  lie  repent- 
ed, was  restored,  advanced  to  the  priesthood  and  given  sole 
charge  of  a  church.  He  was  .so  popular  that  when  Peter's 
successor.  Achillas,  died,  he  came  very  near  being  elected 
to  fill  the  vacant  archleplscopal  throne.  Alexander  was. 
however,  chosen.  In  318  A rlus  first  came  into  wide  public 
notice.  He  was  then  an  old  man.  He  was  probably  trained 
III  .Viilioch.  Imliibiiig  there  the  doctrine  of  the  Son's  siibor- 
dinaliim  to  the  Father  %vhicli  he  afterward  taught.  While 
the  hlslorian  Socrates  represents  him  asas.salled  by  his  bishop, 
.VIexander  of  Alexandria,  as  a  Sabelliaii — i.e.  as  representing 
the  Son  to  be  a  manifestation  of  the  Father,  as  light  is  of 
the  sun— the  historian  Sozoinen  relates  that  he  had  been  for 
some  lime  regarded  as  a  heretic  before  .VU'Xander,  impelled 
by  others,  caili'd  him  to  account.  His  heresy — for  as  such 
his  opinions  were  at  last  condemned — consisted  in  his  denial 
that  .Jesus  ('lirlst  was  an  unorlginateil  being.  He  would  not 
say  "there  was  a  time  when  he  was  not."  but  only  "there 
was  when  he  was  not,"  admitting  that  he  was  created  before 
time.  Hut  he  insisted  that  he  was  created,  because  a  Son 
must  be  younger  than  his  Father.  This  literallsui  appears 
in  all  the  authentic  re<-ords  of  his  life,  and  notably  In  two 
of  his  letters  lliiit  have  come  down  to  us.  They  deny  that 
Christ  was  "  uiioiiginate.  or  part  of  the  Unoriginate.  or  made 
of  any  previously  existing  substance. "  They  affirm  that  he 
was  begotten  before  time,  that  he  was  perfect  txod  (irA.^p7)s 
ef<is),  liy  whom  all  worlds  wen;  made.  The  controversy  Ijc- 
tweeii  Arius  and  Alexander  widened  till  It  included  Kgyj't, 
Kibya.  and  Palestine  in  its  extent.  A  synod  of  Kgy[)tian 
and  Ijiby.'in  bl>liops  excomuiuiilcated  Arlu.s.  but  his  followei'S 
steadily  iiicrea-^ed.  He  was  a  rigorous  ascetic,  a  persuasive 
advocate,  an  ardent  pro|iagaiidist.  Tall,  gloomy,  fanatical, 
with  ilowncast  eyes  and  tangled  hair,  he  went  about  singing 
his  dix-'trines,  wliieh  he  had  set  to  the  music  of  the  theaters. 


316 


ARIZONA 


Before  long  they  were  being  sung  by  priests,  boatmen,  bakers, 
and  all  sorts  of  people.  Constantino,  who  had  become  sole 
emperor  in  323  A.  u..  was  ashann-il  to  tind  the  religion  which 
he  had  just  embraced  rent  by  such  a  fierce  dispute,  and  in 
32.5  called  the  Council  of  Xietea  to  settle  it,  with  other  mat- 
ters affecting  the  peace  and  honor  of  the  Church.  It  was 
the  first  oecumenical  council,  the  first  attempt  to  bring  to- 
gether all  the  bishops  of  the  Church.  There  is  abundant 
eWdence  that  both  parties  were  seeking  the  same  end  by 
different  means — to  steer  clear  of  Ditheism,  the  doctrine  of 
two  Gods.  To  call  the  Son  unorigiiuite,  or  eternally  created, 
seemed  to  Arius  to  make  him  a  second  God.  No,  said  his 
opponents,  if  one  with  God  he  can  not  be  anothtn'.  But  a 
being  created  before  time,  tlie  creator  of  all  things  but  him- 
self, was  sure  to  be  another  God  soon  or  late.  Arius  insisted 
that  his  ■•  createdness  "  and  his  "  moment  when  he  was  not "' 
nullified  the  danger,  but  his  opponents  did  not  wish  to  be 
convinced.  Their  object  was  to  fix  upon  a  term  that  Arius 
and  liis  party  could  not  aecefjt.  It  was  furnished  them  by 
one  of  the  Arian  party. Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who  declared, 
in  a  letter  that  was  produced  in  the  council,  that  "to  assert 
the  Son  to  be  uncreated  would  be  to  say  that  he  was  liomo- 
ousian,  that  is,  consubstantial.  of  one  substance,  with  the 
Father.  Around  this  word  the  l>attle  waged.  The  Arians 
woidd  say  tliat  Christ  was  Jiomoiousiiin,  of  like  suljstance 
with  the  Father,  but  they  would  say  no  more.  A  creed 
offered  by  Arius  was  torn  in  pieces,  and  that  he  might  not 
share  its  fate  he  was  removed  from  the  assembly.  A  second 
creed,  which  the  emperor  had  approved  beforehand,  fared  as 
ill.  Then  the  creed  since  known  as  the  Xicene  was  offered 
by  the  opponents  of  Arius.  and  prevailed.  A  young  deacon 
of  Alexandria,  Athanasius.  was  its  principal  protagonist, 
and  in  tlie  long  controversy  that  ensueil  lie  was  ever  the 
most  brilliant  and  picturesque  and  noble  figure  on  tlie  scene. 
Constantine.  who  cared  much  for  unanimity  and  little  for 
the  diphthong,  threw  all  his  weight  in  favor  of  the  creed, 
privately  confessing  to  Eusebius  that  he  understood  Itomo- 
ousian  to  mean  homoionsian.  The  Arian  bishops  generally 
availed  themselves  of  this  understanding.  Arius  and  two 
bishops  who  would  not  sign  the  creed  were  banished  to 
lUyria,  and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who,  while  accepting  it, 
objected  to  its  anathemas,  was  sent  to  Gaul.  The  Bishop 
Alexander  went  back  to  his  see  in  triumph,  and  when  he 
died,  soon  after.  Athanasius  succeeded  to  his  throne.  It  was 
not  in  the  nature  of  Arius  to  be  easily  suppressed.  lie  gained 
the  ear  of  Constantia,  the  sister  of  the  emperor,  and  she  per- 
suatled  her  brother  to  recall  him  to  the  court.  'I'liere  he 
renewed  the  strife,  but  when  Athanasius  was  ordered  to  re- 
instate him  at  Alexamlria  he  stubljornly  refused.  In  336 
Athanasius  was  banished  and  Arius  went  back  to  take  his 
old  jilaee.  I)ut  the  popular  uproar  did  not  allow  liim  to  do 
so.  Finally,  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople  consented  to  re- 
ceive liiiu  back  into  the  Church,  but  on  the  eve  of  his  rein- 
statement he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  and  died  (336),  where- 
upon there  was  great  rejoicing  in  the  enemy's  camp,  and 
thanksgiving  to  God  for  his  good  ])rovidence.  As  we  know 
Arius  mainly  through  his  opponents,  some  deduction  must 
be  made  from  their  abuse.  But  that  he  had  an  arid  mind, 
and  a  temper  that  grew  harsher  as  the  winds  of  controversy 
blew  U])on  it,  admits  of  little  doubt.  The  Nicene  creed  as 
now  used  is  longer  than  that  adopted  at  Nica?a,  by  the  clauses 
beginning  "I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and  the  phrase 
"  and  the  Son "'  was  added  by  a  Western  council  in  ."iHil.  The 
new  clauses  were  added  at  or  before  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople in  381  :  probably  before,  to  be  otlicially  ratified  Jit 
the  Council  of  (-'haleedou'(a  suburb  of  Constaiitiiio|ili')  in  4.")1. 
J.  II.  Newman's  Arians  of  the.  Fourth  Centuri/,  though  de- 
scribed Ijy  an  ardent  eulogist,  R.  II.  Ilutton,  as  "dry  almost 
to  grittiness,"  is  useful  for  the  pei-iod,  and  Dean  Stanley's 
Eastern  Cliurch  gives  a  pictures(|ue  account  of  the  Arian 
controvei-sy  and  its  culmination  at  Nica'a. 

.loHX  \V.  Chaowiik. 

Arizo'na  :  a  southwestern  Territory  of  the  U.  S..  between 
lal.  31  20'  and  37'  N.,  and  Ion.  10!)  and  114'  3.5'  \V. 
Bounded  by  Neva<la  nncl  flah  on  the  N.,  New  .Afexico  on 
the  K.,  ]Mexico  on  the  .S..  California  and  Nevada  on  the  W. 
Area.  113,020  so.  miles.  72.332.800  acres,  which  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  New  XnrV.  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, and  Maryland  combined. 

Topoijropliij. — Sui-face  generally  elevated.  an<l  composed 
of  wide  plateaus,  descending  gradually  from  7..500  feet  above 
the  .sea  in  the  N.  to  80  or  100  feet  in  the  .S.  Tlu^se  plateaus 
arc  crossed  by  ranges  of  mountains  with  towering  peaks  ris- 


ing to  the  height  of  12,000  or  14,000  feet.  They  are  riven 
bv  streams  and  rivers  which  have  cut  for  themselves  beds 
varying  from  1,000  to  6,000  feet  below  the  surface.  The 
mountains  have  many  local  names:  the  longer  and  more  im- 
]]ortant  ranges 
are  the  Mogol- 
lon  and  Zuiii 
Slountains  in 
the  E.,  the 
Pinaleiio  and 
Santa  Cata- 
rina  in  the  S. 
E.,  the  Santa 
Ana  and  the 
Dragon  Moun- 
tains in  the  S., 
the  Gila  range, 
the  Black  3Ie- 
sa,  and  the 
San  Francisco 
JMountains  in 
the  center,  the 
Gerbat  and 
Black  j\Ioun- 
tainsintheW., 
and  the  great 

mass  rising  above  the  Colorado  plateau,  the  Northside  Moun- 
tains, in  the  N.  W.  The  San  Francisco  Mountains  seem  to 
have  been  a  group  of  volcanoes,  none  of  them  now  active; 
but  centuries  ago  they  poured  out  immense  streams  of  lava, 
which  flowed  northward  to  the  banks  of  the  Colorado  Clii- 
cjuito.  Extensive  mesas,  or  table-lands,  rise  above  the  plains, 
witli  pei'iiendicular  sides,  often  1.000  feet  or  more  in  height. 
The  whole  of  Arizona  is  drained  by  the  Colorado  river  and 
its  tributaries.  It  is  the  most  remarkable  river  in  the  world. 
Its  own  course  in  Arizona  for  400  miles  is  through  the 
Grand  Canon,  from  .5.000  feet  to  400  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  plateau,  and  its  actual  tall  in  the  400  miles  is  over 
3.000  feet.  Nearly  all  its  affluents,  and  particularly  the  San 
Juan.  Little  Colorado.  Zuui,  Salt,  and  Upper  Gila  rivers, 
pass  tlirough  similar  and  perha|is  deeper  canons.  These 
cailons  are  among  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  It  is 
said  they  expose  to  view  geological  strata  of  all  the  forma- 
tions in  their  regular  places  to  the  thickness  of  25,000  feet. 
The  Colorado  is  navigable  for  about  .550  miles. 

Jlinerols. — Gold,  silver,  platinum,  quicksilver,  copper,  tin, 
lead,  nickel,  iron  ores  of  all  sorts,  bituminous  coal,  and  per- 
haps anthracite,  salt,  sulphur,  gypsum,  loadstones,  opals, 
garnets,  sapphires,  chalcedony.  ,Maiiy  gold  and  silver  mines 
had  been  worked  by  the  Spaniards  and  Jlexicans  success- 
fully for  years  before  the  Territory  came  into  possession  of 
the  U.  S.,  and  they  are  still  lai'gely  iiroductive. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  lava-covered  ami  granitic  sides 
of  the  mountains  are  sterile.  Aside  from  these,  the  soil  is 
fertile  where  irrigation  (now  extensively  introduced)  is  pos- 
sible, and  yields  lai'ge  crops  ;  elsewhere  it  is  dry  and  Ijarren. 
There  are  forests,  generally  of  pine  and  s|n-uce.  in  the 
mountains,  Init  protracted  drought  kills  many  of  the  trees. 
Wherever  there  is  water,  flowers  and  shnibs  are  profuse  and 
lieautiful.  On  the  dry  and  hot  plains,  mimosas  and  cacti  of 
many  forms  are  the  only  vegetation. 

Zoi'itoyt). — The  elk  is  found  in  Arizona,  though  not  abun- 
dant ;  two  species  of  <leer.  anti'lopes,  the  l)ig-li(ii)i,  wild  horses 
or  mu-stangs,  pumas,  jaguars,  ocelots,  black  and  cinnaniou 
l)ears,  wildcats,  lynxes,  the  reil  or  gray  wolves,  the  true  coy- 
otes, foxes,  raccoons,  opossums,  and  skunks  are  very  numerous. 
Binlsof  prey,  game-binls,  anil  birds  of  tine  plumage  abound. 

Climate. — In  the  mountains  and  |)lateaus  a  warm  but 
healthy  and  very  uniform  teuqierature  prevails.  At  Pres- 
cott.  lat.  34'2i»',  the  mean  of  the  year  6r)-49  F. ;  summer 
mean.  84'  :  only  two  days  above  100  .  In  Southern  Arizona 
very  hot  and  dry.  Yuma  (lat.  32  43',  but  low)  had,  in  1877, 
106  days  of  summer  above  100  F.,  30  days  above  108".  and 
12  (hiys  above  110' ;  the  maximum  is  126  F.  Tucson  is  not 
quite  so  hot :  only  .51  days  were  above  100'.  But  the  whole 
(iila  valley  is  very  liot.  yet  the  air  is  dry  and  invigorating, 
and  sunstrokes  are  rare.  The  lack  of  rain  is  very  general. 
Yuma  has  lint  2  or  3  inches  in  the  year,  Prescott  about  10 
inches,  and  Tuoou  not  over  6  or  7. 

Jndiistri('.<<. — Mining  is  the  most  important  of  the.se.  Gold 
is  found,  both  in  i)lacers  and  in  quartz-lodes,  at  various 
points,  and  the  latter  are  often  very  rich  :  silver  in  galena, 
and  combined  with  both  lead  anil  copper  as  sulphides  and 
carbonates ;  copper  as  gray  sulphuret  ;  quicksilver  as  cinna- 


Lcoijptucle     Vegi        113       from      Ga'eenwich. 


1^     >    ~i  1 


-^     GLOBE       J'  ■> 


-Sold   Mir.es       (  1 


^'"^Avr^    _„to'*'rfe^S22 


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13 


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vOma 


(f."'-/'»-.*.>-  ,. -„ 

Cocopa        Indians  i       rapag 


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ago        rnd$  ■        A.  ^SC-Jj-   V»i  Vll 

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'^:2i''/""?'"/'v 


{'^/»al 


I'oiiil  lirraicible  ^n 


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r~^     ^- >*.--' --O'X    ^SU„r1ill.n.sA 


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iMHi'iiliiile  West       ;\ii        IVniii     VTHjihvii'^ii o ii 


AKIZON'A 


ARKANSAS 


317 


bar,  etc.;  platinum  and  nickel  nearly  pure;  iron  in  all 
kinds  of  ores,  anil  coal  where  it  is  easily  accossiljle.  The 
mines  of  both  j;ol(l  and  silver  are  very  niiineions  in  South- 
ern Arizona,  near  and  below  the  Southern  Pacific  K.  K. ; 
copper,  sold,  some  silver  and  iron,  as  well  as  the  other  met- 
als, in  Central  and  Western  Arizona,  between  hit.  US"  and 
'dry.  In  both  .sections  the  scarcity  of  wood  and  water  ven- 
'ders  niinint;  very  e.'ipcnsive.  The  estimated  value  of  prod- 
ucts of  aiM  and  "silver  for  IMDl  was  ^2.8«H..5:i.5. 

Af/ririil/iinil  J'riii/iir/ion-'<.—'\'\n-  Agricultural  Report 
shows  a  vield    in    1H!)1   of  Hit.l.OOO  bushels  of   wheat.     The 

11 uiilof  corn  and  oats  raised  is  insignificant.     There  are 

good  pasturage  l.'inds  in  Central  Arizona  and  in  Apache 
County  in  the  X.  K.,  where  the  N'avajo  Indians  keep  a  great 
numv  "sheep.  The  irrigable  lands  yield  under  irrigation  im- 
mense grain  and  root  crops,  and  the  semi-tropical  fruits  are 
jilentiful. 

Fiirm  Animnh* — In  1891  there  were  in  the  Territory 
MI,(i:!T  horses,  2,0.j5  mules,  725,004  cattle,  593,643  sheep,  and 
20,140  swine. 

Jlanufnrtures. — In  1880  there  were  66  manuf.scturing  es- 
tiiblisliments.  employing  230  persons,  capital  .^272,600;  in 
1800.  76  eslal]lishmeiits,  capital  ^616,629. 

FiiKinri'x.—'Vhc  assessed  valuation  was.  in  tSOl,  $28,270,- 
466.  Terrilorial  debt.  l,si)2,  .?757.15S.  County  and  municipal 
d.-bt,  $2,421,502.    Receipts.  ^2:J6.4;!7:  ex|)en(ritures,  $127,782. 

Rdtlroddx. — The  Southern  .Pacific  crosses  Arizona  from 
\V.  to  K.  between  the  32d  and  3.'id  |)arallels.  Another 
crosses  from  K.  toW.  near  the  :35th  parallel,  and  the  total 
railway  mileage  of  the  Territory  in  1891  was  1.09.5.  Silver, 
co]iper,  lend,  and  iron  ores,  wheat,  and  cattle  are  the  prin- 
cipal freights. 

Kihtcdtiim. — Arizomi  in  1890  had  210  public  schools,  with 
12.882  pupils;  1  |ud)lic  nornud  school. 

Pop..  tS'.tii. — (\Vhile  and  colored,  except  tribal  Indians)  59,- 
620,  including  1,326  Indians.     Pop.  1870,  9,658 ;  1880, 40,440. 


COUNTIES. 

tB.f. 

168o'. 

Pop. 

1890. 

COUNTY-TOWNS. 

Pop. 

1890. 

lO-O 
I5-0 
9-L 
12-N 
lS-0 
I3-L 
10-K 
lO-N 
14-M 
I3-M 
Il-L 

5,383 

5,6SS 
1,190 

'17,666 
3,044 
5,013 
3,215 

4,381 
6,9:« 

"  8,621 
5.670 

lO.OW) 
1,444 

12.673 
4,25t 
8,085 
2,671 

482 

Tombstone 

Flagstaff 

1,875 

t  OocoDino 

903 

(Jila     

Globe 

Soloinonsville 

Phoenix.. . . 

803 

287 

Maricopa 

3,152 

322 

t  Navajo 

Holbrook 

Tucson 

Florence 

Prescott 

Yuma 

206 

6,1.50 

Pinal 

1,480 

1.739 

Yuma 

1,773 

Totals 

40,440 

59.020 

The  number  of  Indians  in  1892  (including  the  Navajo, 
most  of  whom  are  in  Arizona  and  number  16,485)  was  nearly 
85,000.  These  are  of  various  tribes,  the  Apache,  the  most 
turbulent,  numbering  nearly  5.000,  and  the  pueblo-dwelling 
llnpi  or  JIi>ki,  1,976.  The  latter  are  an  offshoot  of  the  great 
Shoshonean  linguistic  stock,  aiul  occupy  a  number  of  com- 
niun,-d  villages  on  three  mesiis  in  the  northeastern  jwrtion 
of  the  Territory.     Their  country  is  called  Tusayan. 

Citiex  anil  Tnini.i,  pop.  isiii). — Tucson,  5.150;  Plucni.'c 
(capital),  3,1.52;  Tombstone.  1,875:  Yuma,  1,773:  Prescott, 
1,759;  Hisbee,  1,535;  Florence,  1,486;  Nogales,  1,194. 

/li.i/i>ri/. — The  Indi.-nis  were  originally  Aztec  or  Toltec; 
these  occupied  the  country  long,  and  reared  walled  towns, 
of  which  there  are  now  ruins;  mostly  dispossessed  by  more 
iiorllicrn  tribes;  Spaniards  and  .Jesuit  missionaries  came  be- 
li're  1600.  iinil  established  many  set! lemenls  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  .\rizonn,  as  well  as  New  Mexico,  belonged 
to  Mexico  till  IH-I.s,  when  all  \.  of  the  (iila  wa.s  ceded  to  the 
r,  S. ;  the  (ia<lsdeii  Purcha.se  nuide  in  1853;  Arizona  mjule 
a  separate  Territory  in  Feb.,  1863. 

GOVERNORS. 


John  A.  Ourlcy 1862-0.3 

John  NV  (ioodvvln ISI(.3-0<J 

Rich.  C.  MeOormick ISIKi-O!) 

.\ .  P.  K.  Safforcl IS«fl-7« 

Chnrlts  K.  I).  French isr6-r7 

Ji'lin  P.  Hovt 1877-78 

J'  'lui  ('.  Fremont ...  187K-82 

Fre<lerick  A.  Tritle 1882-85 


C.  Jlever  Zulick ]88.'>-Sft 

I>e\vis  Wnltley I88;)-90 

John  N.  Irwin 18IKI-92 

Nnlhnn  B.  :Murphy 1892-93 

Lnnis  ('.  Hnuhes l«l.J-97 

Benjamin  J.  Franklin 1SU7- 


Hevised  by  A.  R.  Spofford. 

•  On  farms  only, 

t  Rpference  foi-  loentinn  of  counties,  sec  map  of  Arizona. 

t  Organized  since  census  of  18tM). 


Arjisll' :  a  river  of  Roumania ;  rises  in  the  East  Carpa- 
thian Jloiintains;  (lows  southea-stward,  and  enters  the  Dan- 
ube 42  miles  S.  S.  E,  of  Bucharest.     Length  about  175 

miles. 

Arjisll  Diigli  :  Si>e  Aro.eus,  Mor.NT. 

ArkadePphiil :  on  railroad;  capital  of  Clark  co.,  Ark. 
(for  location,  .see  nuip  of  Arkansas,  ref.  4-B) ;  is  situated 
at  the  liead  of  steam-navigation,  on  the  right  shore  of 
Wushita  river,  65  miles  S.  W.  of  Little  Kock.  Its  chief 
jiroducts  are  lumber  and  cotton  ;  it  has  water-power  and  an 
active  trade.  During  the  first  two  years  of  the  civil  war 
Arkadelphia  was  a  principal  milit.-iry  dep"l  for  the  States  of 
Arkansas,  iMis,souri,  and  Louisiana.  On  Feb.  15, 1863,  a  skir- 
mish took  place  here  bet  wi'cn  a  detachment  of  Union  troops, 
under  (apt.  Hrown.  ami  a  party  of  Confederates,  in  which 
the  latter  were  defeated.     Po]).  (1880)  1.506;  (1890)  2,455. 

Arkniisns:  a  river  of  the  U.  S.,  next  to  the  Missouri  the 
longest  atUuent  of  the  Mississippi,  rises  in  the  Rocky  Jloun- 
tains  and  in  the  west  central  ]iai1  of  Coloriiilo.  Its  general 
direction  is  ea.stward  for  more  than  .500  miles  through  ex- 
tensive plains,  large  portions  of  which  are  sterile.  Having 
crossed  the  eastern  boundary  of  Colorado  into  the  State  of 
Kansas,  and  reached  nearly  the  OSth  degree  of  \V.  longitude, 
it  turns  and  Hows  southeastward  throu.gh  Kansas  and  the 
Indian  Territory  to  Fort  Smith,  on  the  western  boundary  of 
Arkansas:  continuing  thence  in  a  southeastern  course,  it 
traverses  the  State  of  Arkansas,  which  it  divides  into  two 
nearly  cfjual  portions,  and  enters  the  Mississi|ipi  in  lat.  33' 
.54'  N.,  Ion.  91"  10'  W. :  length,  2.170  inile.s.  It  is  navi.gable 
by  steamers  800  miles  from  its  mouth  during  nine  months 
of  the  year:  difference  between  high  and  low  water  in  this 
river  about  25  feet. 

Arkansas  (by  act  of  its  Legislature  to  be  pronounced 
Ar'kan-saw):  oiie  of  the  southwestern  Slates  of  the  Missis- 
siiipi  valley;  bounded  X.  by  Missouri,  E.  by  Mi.ssouri  and 
the  Mississippi 
river,  S.  by  Lou- 
isiana. W.  by  Tex- 
as and  the  Indian 
Terrilory.  It  is 
iK'tweeii  33"  and 
36"  30' N.  lat.,  and 
89°  40'  and  94^ 
42' W.  Ion.  Area, 
.53.8.50  sq.  miles, 
about  the  size  of 
England  without 
Wales.  Arkan- 
S!is,  by  census  of 
1890,  ranked  24tli 
among  the  States 
in  population,21st 
in  value  of  agri- 
cultural products, 
and  361  h  in  value 
of    niauufiU'lures. 

7'ry/;oi7m/(/(//.— Eastern  jiart  of  the  State,  from  30  to  100 
miles  west  of  the  Mississippi,  low,  with  lakes,  bayous,  and 
swamps;  subject  to  overllow. except  occasional  bluff's.  West 
of  thi.s,  land  rises  by  stages  to  the  table-lan<ls  and  hills  of 
Ozark,  Washita,  and  Black  Hills,  in  X.  W..  W.,  and  .S.  W. 
These  rise  1..5(H»  to  2.000  feet,  and  knobs  .500  to  800  feet 
higher.  The  rivei-s  are:  Mississippi,  eastern  boundary; 
Arkansas,  crossing  diagonally  ;  While.  St.  Fiancis,  Wa.shita, 
Red,  and  tiieir  aniuents;  3,000  miles  of  navigable  rivci's  in 
the  State. 

Miiierali. — Gold,  argentiferous  galena,  zinc,  copper,  man- 
ganese, iron  (various  ores),  semi-bituminous  coal,  lignite, 
marble,  novaculite  or  oilstone,  millstone,  kaolin,  mineral 
paints,  salt,  and  remarkalily  hot  and  other  mineral  springs. 
In  1891  4(K).0(K)  tons  of  bituminous  coal  were  mined. 

»S'o(7  (iiiil  \'c!/rfii/ii))i. — Arkansas  has  much  good  soil  and 
some  which  is  not  productive.  The  lowlands  arc  alluvial 
and  highly  fertile.  Some  of  (he  table-lands  are  sterile,  but 
are  covered  with  scattered  pines.  The  river  yalleys  and 
some  of  the  mountain  slopes  have  a  good  and  productivo 
soil,  and  are  largely  covercMl  with  heavy  forests.  There  are 
immense  tracts  of  alluvial  bottom-lands  which  might  be 
made  availalile  for  cultivation  by  a  system  of  drainage. 
Oak.  black  walnut,  hickory,  red  elm.  ma[ile.  tupelo.  gum  trees 
(black  and  sweet),  yellow  |ioi)lar,  American  elm,  white  and 
blue  ash,  hornbeam,  ironwood.  Osage  orange,  red  cedar,  beech, 
pecan,  sycamore,  buttonwooil,  sassafras,  pci-siinmon,  locust, 


318 


ARKAXSAS 


wild  clioiTV,  piiu',  cypress,  and  cottonwood  are  the  prinoipal 
forest  trees.  Wild  and  cultivated  fruits  of  all  kinds  abound, 
and  larjje  portions  of  the  uplands,  jiarticularly  in  the  ncu-th. 
are  adapted  to  the  growing  of  ajjples  of  the  Ijcst  quality. 

Zoi'iloipj. — Wild  game :  Bears,  deer  of  two  species,  rarely 
the  buffalo  and  elk,  peccaries  and  wild  hogs,  rabbits  or 
hares,  several  species  of  sr(uirrel.s  and  other  rodents ;  cou- 
gars or  panthers  rarely,  wolves,  foxes,  raccoons,  opossums, 
skunks,  Texan  coyotes,  (iame-birds:  Turkeys,  ducks,  par- 
tridges, quails,  prairie-hens,  etc.;  eagles,  %TUlures,  hawks, 
owls,  and  many  song-birds.  The  rivers,  lakes,  and  bayous 
aboutid  in  iish,  with  an  occasional  alligator,  serpents,  and 
other  reptiles. 

CJimafi'. — In  the  lowlands,  mean  annual  temperature, 
60'6  ;  summer  mean.  Sl-4  :  winter,  Jiverage  minimum,  9  ; 
summer  maxiiinnu.  !I8  :  annual  rainfall,  68'4'J  inches.  On 
the  table-lands  (Ijittle  Kock),  ainiual  mean,  62't)6  ;  maxi- 
mum, summer.  96  :  winter  minimum,  4°;  annual  range, 
92'  ;  rainfall,  .5.5  to  60  inches.  Jlountains  in  the  west,  an- 
nual mean,  60°  F. ;  rainfall,  about  .58  inches.  As  a  whole, 
the  climate  is  very  fine,  and  it  has  a  high  reputation  for 
alleviation  of  |iuImonary  diseases. 

Affi-iciilf Ill-Ill  Prudurtioii.t.— Cotton.  H'HO.OOO  bales  in  1891 ; 
tobacco,  970.330  lb.:  wheat  (1891).  2.386.000  bush. :  Indian 
corn  (1891).  42,45.5.000  bush.:  oats  (1891),  4,945.000  bush. : 
small  quantities  of  barley,  rye,  and  buckwheat.  Value  of 
all  principal  crops,  about  $88,000,000.  Average  wages  of 
farm  labor  (1890),  .|18.40,  or,  with  IxKird.  .•ftl2..55'  per  month. 
Live  .stock  in  1891:  Horses  and  mules.  ;i3;].;>.59;  cattle,  704.- 
654;  milch  cows.  329.121 ;  sheep,  209,484 ;  swine,  1.679,908; 
total  value  of  live  stock.  |34.021.940. 

ManufactiireK. — Principally  of  cotton-seed  oil,  flour  and 
meal,  lumber,  leather,  cotton  and  wool(>n  goods,  wagons,  to- 
bacco and  cigars,  and  hones  of  novaculite ;  amount  moder- 
ate, but  increasing.  In  1880  there  were  1,202  manufactories, 
$2,953,130  capitaf,  4,557  employees,  |925,358  paid  for  wages, 
and  .16.756,159  in  value  of  products.  In  1890  there  were 
2,073  establishments  with  |14.971,614  capital. 

Railnmds. — There  were  in  1885  2,146  miles  completed, 
and  in  1891  2,287  miles  in  operation.  The  railway  system 
of  the  State  connects  with  the  Texas  and  Southern  Pacific 
lines. 

Finances.— The  State  debt  was  in  1890  .$2,092,100  princi- 
pal;  iiast-due  interest.  !3;2.8S4.897 :  total.  !!;4.97fi.997.  ex- 
clusive of  ^;l,9S(),77:{  levee  bonds  (unconstitutional  and  in- 
valid), $5,350,000  railroad  aid  bonds  (illegallv  issued),  and 
$1,370,000  other  disputed  debts.  The  assessed  valuation  in 
1889  was:  Real  estate,  $108,407,462  ;  jiersoual,  $64,001,035; 
total,  $172,408,497;  State  tax.  .50  cents  on  $100.  The  com- 
merce of  Arkansas  is  wholly  internal,  there  being  no  ports 
of  entry. 

-Education. — Population  of  school  age  1889  (sis  to  twenty- 
one  years),  404.379;  enrolled  in  public  schools,  216.1.52; 
number  of  .school-houses,  2,.535  ;  number  of  teachers,  5,945  ; 
expenditure  for  public  schools,  .$967,609  ;  amount  of  per- 
manent school  fund,  $458,888.  There  are  normal  depart- 
ments in  connection  with  colleges  at  Helena  and  Pine  Bluff. 
There  are  13  private  schools  and  semiiuiries,  with  64  teach- 
ers and  1.056  pupils.  There  are  5  universities  and  colleges, 
with  44  instructors,  1,023  students,  and  $145,000  property. 
Includi'd  in  these  is  the  Arkansas  Industrial  University,  with 
524  students.  There  is  also  one  school  of  medicine,  with  14 
teachers  and  83  students. 

LibriiricH,  JVewspapers,  and  Periodicals. — The  number  of 
public  libraries  in  1886  was  16,  with  48,143  volumes,  besides 
many  .school  and  college  liliraries.  In  1892  the  newspapers 
numbered  216.  of  whi<'h  16  were  dailies. 

Cliiirrhi'-t. — The  .Methodist  and  Baptist  denominations  are 
the  most  numerous,  and.  taking  the  various  organizations  of 
each,  are  of  about  equal  numbers,  having  between  750  and 
800  cluirches.  an<l  from  60,000  to  70,000  members  each.  The 
others,  in  the  order  tiame(l,  were  Presbyterians,  Union,  Epis- 
coiials.  Roman  Catholics,  Lutherans,  etc. 

7^r//>»/a/'//«).— In  1870  Arkansas  had  484.471  irdiabitants; 
in  18M(),  803..535;  in  1890,  1,13.H.17!)  (white  81.S,7.53,  coloreil 
308,992,  besides  304  Indians  and  131  Chinese).  The  coun- 
ties and  county  towns,  with  poimlation  of  each,  are  as  given 
in  the  table. 

Principal  Towns  and  Popiila/ion  in  7,S',W.— Little  Rock, 
capital,  2.5,874;  Fort  .Smilli,  11,311 ;  Eureka  Springs,  3,706; 
Helena,  5,189 ;  Hot  Springs,  8,0.86;  Pine  Bluff,  9,9,52 ;  Fay- 
etteville,  2.94  ;  \rkadelphia.  2.4.55;  Camden,  2,571:  Tex- 
arkana,  3..528 ;  Batesville.  3.1.50;  Jonesboro,  3,065;  Van 
Buren,  3,291. 


COUNTIES,   COUNTY  TOWNS,    AND   POPULATION. 


Arkansas . 

Ashley 

Baxter 

Benton  . . . 

Boone 

Bradley. . . 
Calhoun . . 

Carroll 


Chicot 

Clark 

Clay 

Cleburne  . . 
Cleveland.. 
Columbia. . 
Conway 

Craighead . 


Crawford 

Crittenden 

Cross 

Dallas 

Ifesha 

Drew 

Faulkner 

Franklin 

Fid  ton 

Garland 

Grant 

Greene 

Hempstead 

Hot  Spring 

Howard 

Independence . 

Izard 

Jackson  

Jefferson 

Johnson 

Lafayette 

Lawrence 

Lee 

Lincoln 

Little  River 

Logan  

Lonoke 

Madison 

Marion 

Miller 

Mississippi 

^lonroe ........ 

^Montgomery. . . 

Nevada 

Newton 

Ouachita 

Perry 

Phillips 

Pike 

Poinsett 

Polk 

Pope 

Prairie 

Pulaski 

Randolph 

St.  Francis 

Saline 

Scott 

Searcy 

Sebastian 

Sevier 

Sharp 

Stone 

Union 

Van  Buren 

Washington . . . 

White. . .     

Woodruff ..... 

Yell 


Totals  . 


4-E 
6-D 
1-C 
1-A 
1-C 
5-D 
5-C 

1-B 

5-E 
4-B 
1-F 
2-D 
5-D 
(i-B 
3-C 

2-E 

2-A 
3-F 
2-E 
5-C 
5-E 
5-D 
:i-D 
2-A 
1-D 
4-C 
4-C 
l-F 
5-B 
4-C 
4-A 
2-E 
I-D 
2-E 
"l-D 
2-B 
6-B 
1-E 
.3-E 
5-D 
5-A 
3-B 
3-D 
2-B 
1-C 
5-B 
2-F 
»-E 
4-B 
5-B 
2-B 
5-C 
:j-C 
4-E 
4-B 

a-E 

4-A 

3-C 

3-D 

.3-C 
1-E 
3-E 
4-C 
:j-A 
2-C 

3-A 

5-A 
1-D 
2-D 
(J-C 
2-C 
2-A 
3-D 
3-E 

3-B 


Pop. 

1880. 


8,038 
10,156 

6.0CM 
20,328 
12.14G 

6,285 

5,6T1 

13,.33r 

10.1  ir 
15.771 
7,213 

'  8,:i70 
14,090 
12,765 

7,037 

14,740 

9,115 

5,050 

6,505 

8,973 

12,231 

12.78*; 

14,951 

6,720 

9,023 

6,185 

7,480 

19.015 

7,775 

9,917 

18,086 

10.867 

10,877 

22,.386 

11,565 

5,730 

8,782 

13,288 

9.255 

6,404 

14,885 

12.146 

11,465 

7,907 

9,919 

7,332 

9,574 

5,729 

12,9.59 

6.120 

11,758 

3,872 

21.262 

6,.345 

2.192 

5.8.57 

14,322 

8,435 

32.616 
11.724 
8.389 
8,953 
9,174 
7,278 

19,.560 

6,192 
9,047 
5,089 
13,419 
9,565 
23.»14 
17.794 
8,640 

13,852 


Pop. 
1890. 


11,4:32 
i:i,295 
8,527 
27,716 
15.816 
7.972 
7,267 

17,288 

11,419 
20.997 
12.200 
7,884 
11,362 
19.893 
19,459 

12,025 

81,714 
13.940 
7,693 
9.296 
10.324 
17.352 
18,342 
19.934 
10.984 
15.328 
7.786 
12.908 
82.796 
11.603 
13,789 
21.961 

i3,o:w 

1.5.179 
40.881 
16.768 

7.700 
12.984 
18,886 
10.2.55 

8.903 
20,774 
19.263 
17,402 
10.:39fl 
14,714 
11.635 
15.336 

7.923 
14.8:32 

9,950 
17,033 

5,538 
26,;341 

8,5.37 

4.272 

9.2R3 
19.45S 

11,374 

47.329 
14,485 
13.543 
11. .311 
18.636 
9.664 

33,200 

10,072 
10,418 

7.043 
14.977 

K.567 
32.(124 
22,94i; 
14.(KI9 

18.016 


COUNTY  TOWNS. 


802,525     1,128,179 


Hewitt 

Hamburg 

Mountain  Home . 

Bentonville 

Harrison 

Warren 

Hampton 

*  Berryville 

t  Eureka  Springs. 

Lake  Village 

Arkadelphia 

Piggott 

Helper 

Rison 

Magnolia 

Morrillton 

1  Jonesboro 

I  Lake  City 

Van  Bureii 

Marion 

Vanndale 

Princeton 

Arkansas  City  . . . 

Monticello 

Conway 

Ozark 

Salem 

Hot  Springs 

Sheridan 

Paragould 

Wa.shington 

Malvern 

Centre  Point 

Batesville 

Melbourne 

Newport 

Pine  Blutr 

Clarksville 

New  Lewisville  . . 

Powhatan 

Marianna 

Star  City 

Richmond 

Paris 

Lonoke 

Huntsville 

Yellville 

Texarkana 

Osceola 

Clarendon 

Mount  Ida 

Prescott 

.Jasper 

Camden 

Perryville 

Helena 

."Vlurfreesboro 

Harrisburgh 

Dallas 

Dover 

\  Des  Arc 

I  Devall's  Bluff. . . 

Little  Rock 

Pocahontas 

Forrest  City 

Benton 

Waldron 

Marshall 

\  Fort  Smith 

I  Greenwood 

Lockesburg 

Evening  Shade 

I\It  tuntain  View  . . 

Kl  Dorado 

(_'linton 

Fayetteville 

Searcy 

Augusta 

»  Danville 

)  Dardanelle 


History. — First  settled  in  1670  by  the  French,  near  St. 
Francis  river;  part  of  Louisiana  Territory  in  1893,  of  Mis- 
souri Territory  in  1812,  and  of  Arkansas  Territory  in  1819; 
organized  as  a  State  in  1836,  Indian  Territory  being  .set 
off:  it^  growth  at  first  slow — only  97.574  inhabitants  in 
1840.  309.897  in  18.50;  large  increase  from  Southern  immi- 
gration in  18.50-60.  Having  been  settled  almost  exclu- 
sively from  the  Southern  States,  its  poimlation  entered 
heartily  into  the  secession  movement.  The  State  conven- 
tion assembled  at  Little  Rock,  and  passed  the  ordinance  of 
secession  May  6.  1861.  Arkansas  was  overrun  by  both  ar- 
mies several  times,  1861-63;  controlhu)  by  Federal  troo]is 
after  Dec,  1863:  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  Maf.  18, 
1864,  but  not  accc'Jited  by  Congress,  aiul  the  State  was  for 
four  years  under  military  control :  a  constitution  was 
*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  .Arkansas. 


ARKAXSA8  CITY 


ARMADA,  THE  SPANISH 


319 


a<loj)ti!il  Mar.  1:5,  1868,  Conjiress  restoreil  the  State  to  the 
L'mon  June  22,  1S68,  and  the  present  constitution  was 
iulopted  in  1874. 

GOVER.VORS. 


Territorial. 

James  Miller 1«l9-a5 

<  ie.  .rt;.-  Izard ISi-i--,";! 

.loliM  IVipc IftSI  iVi 

William  S.  Fulton ISJ5-3G 

Stale. 

James  S  Conway IfsKMfl 

Archibiil.l  Yell 1!>I()-14 

Suml.  Adams  lacting) \t<^4 

Thomas  S.  Drew 1M4-IH 

Jollii  S.  Koane 1848-52 

Ellas  N.  CoDway lK'>2-(» 

Heury  M.  Rector lHW-04 


Isaae  Miirpliy l.Sf,4-«8 

Howell  Clayton I8Gt<-71 

Ozro  A.  Hadley  (aetingi..  IWl-Ta 

Klishu  Baxter ISra-T.') 

Aujciisius  H.  Garland 1875-77 

William  R.  Miller 1877-Sl 

Thomas  J.  Churchill 1881-8:1 

James  H.  Berrv ISK-S-SS 

Simon  P.  Hughes 1885-8'.l 

James  I'.  Eagle 1889-9S 

William  M.  Fishbaek IbftS-QS 

Jamns  P.  Clarke 1895-97 

Daniel  W.  Jones 18BT- 


Rc vised  by  A.  R.  Spofkord. 

Arkansas  City :  on  throe  railroads  and  the  southern  bor- 
di-r  ol'  Kansas,  in  C'owlev  County  (for  location  of  county,  see 
Muii)  of  Kansas,  ref.  8-li):  at  the  conlUience  of  the  Arkan- 
sas and  Walnut  rivei-s.  Pop.  (18S0)  1.012:  (1885)  3,328;, 
(1800)  8..347 ;  (189.5)  ().!)04.  Editor  ok  "  Traveler." 

Arkansas  Indians:  See  Siocax  Indians. 

Arkansas  Post  :  a  iHist-villafre  of  Arkansas  co..  Ark.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Arkansas,  ref.  4-E) ;  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Arkansas  river,  50  miles  from  its  mouth: 
settled  by  the  French  in  1()85.  During  the  civil  war  this 
post  was  garrisoned  and  forlilied  by  the  Confederates.  On 
.Ian.  11.  18(>i.  a  combined  attack  of  tlie  l'.  S.  military  and 
naval  forces  under  (ieii.  McClcrnand  and  Admiral  Porli'r 
was  made  upon  the  place,  and  its  works  were  finally  car- 
ried by  storm.     Po]).  (1880)  37  ;  (1890)  not  separately  given. 

Arkansas  Stone :  a  stone  consist  inj;  of  Xovacclite  (f/.  v.). 
which  is  quaiTied  extensively  in  Hot  Spriniri  and  Giant 
COS..  Ark.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  and  valuable  stone,  and  is 
larjrely  used  for  hones  and  oilstones. 

Ark'ansite :  a  name  given  to  the  thick  black  crystals  of 
brookite  (titanic  acid)  found  at  JIagnet  Cove  in  the  Ozark 
Mountains  of  Arkansas.    See  Titanic  Dioxide. 

Arko'na.  or  Arcona  :  a  promontory  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Prussian  island  of  Riigen,  in  the  Baltic.  Here  is  a  light- 
house on  the  site  of  I  he  heathen  temple  of  Swantewit,  which 
King  Waldemar  of  Denmark  burned  in  1168. 

.Vr'kose:  See  Sandstone. 

Arknriirlit.  Sir  Richard:  Knglish  inventor:  li.  at  Pres- 
ton, in  Lancashire.  Dec.  23.  1732.  He  Icarneil  the  trade  of 
a  barber,  which  he  soon  abandoned,  and  applied  himself  to 
the  invention  of  nuK'hinery  for  spinning  collon.  At  that 
time  no  machine  conld  produce  cotton  yarn  fit  for  warp.  In 
17158  he  set  up  at  Preslon  his  lirst  spinning-frame,  for  which 
he  obtained  a  ])atent  in  171)9.  lie  removed  to  Nidtiiigliam 
in  17(59,  and  formed  a  [lartnership  with  Need  and  Sinitl. 
His  machine  caused  a  great  extension  of  the  collon  manu- 
facture, and  greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  the  nation, 
and  he  may  be  called  the  founder  of  the  factory  system.  He 
was  knighlccl  by  (ieorge  III.  in  178(5.  I),  at  Cromford,  Aug. 
3,  1792.  See  Baines,  llistorij  of  the  Cotton  Manufaclun:  in 
Great  Britain  (18:55). 

.\rll)er£r:  a  mountain  mass  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  the  two  Austrian  provinces  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarl- 
berg:  5.400  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Switzerland,  ref. 
4-1).  In  ls,H(i-S4  it  was  pierced,  at  an  elevation  of  4,030  feet, 
witli  a  railway-tunnel,  ti,720  yards  long. 

Aries  (anc.  Ar'ela.%  Are/a' le,  or  Arela'tum):  city  of 
France  :  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone  ;  on  the  Rhone. 
15  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  (see  map  of  Fiance,  ref. 
8-G).  It  has  a  cathedral  of  the  seventh  century,  a  museum, 
a  college,  and  a  public  library.  It  was  once  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  An'late.  Ini|)ortant  councils  of  the  Church 
were  held  here  in  314,  354,  452.  and  475  a.  d.  Here  are  the 
ri'iuain.--  of  a  grand  Roman  amphitheater,  and  an  ancient 
granile  obelisk  which  was  dug  out  of  the  Rliiine  about  1389. 
Aries  has  manufactures  of  liats,  silk,  brandy,  etc.  Pop. 
(1881)  23.4S0 :  (188(i)  23,491. 

Arlington:  on  railroad,  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-H);  7  miles 
N.  W.  of  Boston.     It  has  national  and  savings  banks,  an  ele- 

fant  new  library  building  costing  :f;200,000  (the  gift  of  Mrs 
;ii  I{obbins),  gas  and  water  works,  electric  cars 


and  sends  a  large  supply  of  ice  to  market. 


to  Boston, 
There  are  im- 


portant manufactures.  The  principal  business  is  market- 
gardening.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  4,100;  (1890)  5,(529; 
(1895)  6,515.  Editor  of  "Advocate." 

Arlington,  Henry  Bknnet,  Earl  of:  b.  in  1618;  .served 
as  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war  (1642-45) ;  was  knighted  at 
Bniges  (1658),  became  .Secretary  of  State  (1662),  a  baron 
(1664),  a  member  of  the  " Cabal"  (1667).  received  the  Gar- 
ter, and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  King  of  France  in 
the  same  year:  was  impeached  by  the  Commons,  resigned, 
and  was  appointetl  Lord  Chamberlain  (1674).  D.  .luly  28, 
1685. 

Arlt.  Ferdinand:  German  oculist;  b.  at  (Jbcrgraupen, 
near  Teplitz,  Apr.  18,  1812.  lie  wrote,  among  other  works, 
Kriinkheiten  (lex  Anges  (3  vols..  1851-.56 ;  4tli  ed.  1867); 
I^ilei/e  (ler  AtK/en  im  yemnden  und  krunkiin  y^K.'itande  {id 
etl.  18(55). 

Ann:  in  man  and  the  higher  animals,  the  upper  or  an- 
terior limb,  extending  from  the  shoulder  to  the  wrist.  The 
human  arm  consists  of  the  4rac/u'H;«  or  arm  proper  (some- 
times called  the  upper  arm)  and  the  anttbracliiunt  or  fore- 
arm. The  former  lias  one  bone,  the  luiiiicrus:  the  latter 
two,  the  ulna  upon  the  inside  (as  the  hand  lies  with  the 
palm  upward)  and  the  radius  upon  the  outside.  The  hu- 
merus articulates  with  the  shoulder-blade  or  scapula,  form- 
ing the  shoulder.  This  is  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  having 
universal  movement.  At  'he  elbow-joint  the  inner  bone  of 
the  forearm,  the  ulna,  articulates  with  the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus,  forming  a  hinge-joint.  The  upper  end  of  the 
radius  practically  does  not  enttu-  into  the  elbow-joint,  but 
acts  as  a  fulcrum  upon  which  the  radius  swings  as  the  hand 
is  pronated  and  supinatcd,  for  an  account  of  which  see  the 
article  Hand.  And  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  and  ulna 
are  bound  closely  to  each  other  with  ligaments,  and  form 
an  articulation  with  the  upper  row  of  the  carpal  bones  of 
the  hand — that  is,  turned  palm  upward  or  palm  down- 
ward. 

The  muscles  of  the  arm  may  be  divided  into  separate 
groups;  the  shoulder-joint  is  covered  over  and  rounded  by 
the  powerful  deltoid  muscle  which  springs  from  the  shoul- 
der-blade and  <-lavicle.  and  is  attached  to  the  upper  and 
outer  part  of  the  humerus,  so  that  in  its  actiim  the  arm  is 
moved  from  the  side.  It  is  opposed  by  the  great  pectoral 
muscle  in  front  an<l  the  latissimus  dorsi  behind,  the  two 
latter  in  their  action  drawing  the  arm  to  the  side  and  down- 
ward.    On  the  front  of  the  arm  proper  is  the  biceps,  which 


The  bones  of  the  upper  extremity  with  the  bicepB  muscle. 

flexes  the  forearm  upon  the  arm  and  behind  the  triceps  acts 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  forearm  has  two  groups  of 
muscles,  the  one  on  the  outer  side  surrounding  the  radius 
containing  the  extensor  muscles  for  the  wrist  and  hand, 
t  hat  on  the  inner  or  ulnar  side  being  composed  of  the  flexor 
muscles. 

The  blood-supply  of  the  arm  is  mostly  derived  from  the 
brachial  artery,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  axillary 
artery.  This  vessel  may  be  felt  beneath  the  skin  on  the  in- 
ner side  of  the  biceps  muscle  of  the  arm,  and  especially  at 
the  elbow-joint,  v>-hcre  it  isipiite  superficial  below  the  elbow 
before  it  divides  into  a  radial  and  an  ulnar  branch,  which 
continue  downward  into  the  hand.  The  nerves  of  the  arm 
arc  branches  of  the  brachial  plexus.  They  accompany  the 
axillary  and  brachial  artery,  giving  oil  numerous  branches 
in  their  descent.  W.  P, 

Anna'da,  Tlic  Spanisli :  often  called  the  "  Invincible  Ar- 
mada," a  great  Spanish  fleet  or  armament  which  was  fitted 
out  by  Philip  II.  for  the  con<iuest  of  England  in  1588.     It 


320 


AEiUADILLO 


ARMENIA 


consisted  ot  about  130  vessels,  some  of  which  were  of  enor- 
mous size,  caiiying  in  all  2.4;il  guns  and  more  than  1!),0(X) 
soldiers.  The  command  of  this  armada  was  given  to  the 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  who  was  not  a  competent  naval 
commander.  Lord  iloward  of  Ethngham  commanded  the 
English  fleet,  which  was  greatly  inferior  in  size.  Among 
the  subordinates  were  some  ot  tlie  best  naval  ollicers  of  the 
time,  such  as  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  I'^robisher.  The  armada 
sailed  from  Spain  about  the  end  of  Jlay,  158S,  and  in  pass- 
ing through  the  English  Channel  was  harassed  by  the  Eng- 
lish, who  avoided  a  general  engagement.  During  a  night 
in  August  Lord  Iloward  sent  eiglit  flre-shiiis  against  the 
aruuida,  and  jiroduced  a  panic  and  great  disorder,  in  conse- 
quence of  whicli  the  English  eajitured  or  destroyed  about 
twelve  ships  early  the  next  niornnig.  This  defeat  induced 
the  Spanish  adniiral  to  abandon  the  invasion  of  England, 
and  he  resolved  to  return  to  Spain  by  sailing  around  tlie 
Orkney  islands,  the  jiassage  of  the  English  Channel  being 
closed"  by  the  enemy.  Many  of  the  Spanish  ships  were 
wrecked  "on  their  circuitous  voyage,  and  only  fifty-three  re- 
turned to  Spain.  See  Fronde.  Spani.ih  Sturj  itf  tlie  Armada 
(London  and  New  York,  1892). 

Armadil'lo  [Span,  dimin.  of  armadu.  armed,  one  who  is 
armed  <  1  .at.  annatus,  partic.  of  annare,  to  arm]:  the 
eom]non  name  of  the  Dai<ij pod  idee  {q.  v.).  a  family  of  eden- 
tate mammals,  natives  of  South  and  Central  America.  They 
derive  their  name  from  a  bony  armor  which  covers  the 
body,  and  consists  of  polygonal  pieces  united  to  form  solid 
bucklers,  one  over  the  rump,  one  piece  over  the  shoulders. 
and  between  them  a  dorsal  cloak  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  plates  disjjosed  in  transverse  bands,  which  are  mov- 

al)le  and  allow  freedom  of 
motion.  The  head  is  jjro- 
tected  by  a  similar  buckler, 
not  continuous  with  that  of 
tlie  body.  They  have  short 
legs  and  feet  ailai)ted  to  bur- 
rowing in  the  ground,  in 
which,  when  pursued  by  ene- 
Armatlillos.  mies,    they   bury   themselves 

((iiickly.  These  animals  are 
nocturnal,  and  feed  on  insects,  carrion,  and  vegetable  food. 
Tlieir  flesh  is  often  eaten  by  the  natives,  but,  owing  to  its 
rank  and  strong  flavor,  it  is  not  agreeable  to  European  pal- 
ates. Tlie  giant  armadillo  (Priodon  yiya.-i),  the  largest  mem- 
ber of  the  family,  is  about  3  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail. 
The  claw  of  the  third  toe  of  the  forefoot  is  extremely  large 
and  much  flattened,  forming  an  adndrable  instrument  for 
digging  out  the  ants  which  constitute  the  aniiuars  chief  food. 
It  is  found  in  the  forests  of  Surinam  and  Brazil,  but  is  rare. 
Although  it  is  ((uite  commonly  believed  that  all  armadillos 
can  curl  up  into  a  ball,  the  members  of  the  genus  Tolt/peutci 
are  the  only  ones  which  can  do  so,  this  feat  being  rendered 

Sossible  by  the  arrangement  of  the  back  armor,  which  is 
ivided  into  five  portions,  a  large  shield  over  the  shoulders, 
another  of  tiie  hinder  portion  ot  the  body,  and  three  nar- 
row bands  between.  The  fore  and  hind  legs  are  drawn  up 
under  their  respective  coverings,  tlie  head  and  short  tail 
filling  in  the  little  space  left  below.  The  pelia  {I'n/iisin 
peha)  is  one  of  the  best  known  s]ieeies,  and  is  widely  dis- 
tributed, ranging  from  Southern  Texas  to  the  Argentine 
Kepublic.  The  (  Ilyptodox  (q.  v.)  is  an  extinct  gigantic  rela- 
tive ot  the  armadillo.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

ArmagcdMon  (momit  of  ^legiddo):  the  Plain  of  Esdrae- 
lon.  the  gre.-it  lialth'-lield  of  the  Old  Testament;  used  figu- 
ratively in  iuv.  xvi.  16. 

.\riiin!fli,  ar-maa':  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  province 
ot  Ulster:  liounded  N.  by  Lough  Neagh.  B.  by  Down,  S.  by 
Louth,  and  \V.  by  Monaghan  sind  Tyrone.  Area,  ^y^2  sii. 
miles.  Tlie  sinl'aee  is  undulating  or  level,  except  the  S.  W. 
part,  where  Slieve  Gullion  rises  to  the  height  of  l,H!);i  feet. 
The  soil  is  mostly  fertile.  The  chief  rivers  are  tlie  Bann, 
Ulackwater.  and  Callan.  Granite,  trap,  carboniferous  lime- 
stone, and  Iciwer  Silurian  rocks  underlie  the  count  v.  Capital. 
Armagh.     I'op.  of  the  county  (l.ssl)  l(W,S2;i :  (isill)  143.056. 

Aniiagli  |.\rd-magha,  high  field]:  a  city  of  Ireland:  capi- 
tal of  ecjunly  of  same  name;  situated  on  high  grounil  3() 
miles  by  rail's.  \V.  of  Belfast  (see  maii  of  Irclan<l,  ref.  fi-II). 
It  is  built  of  liniestonir  quarried  in  the  vicinity,  and  lias  a 
Protestant  cathedral  of  red  sandstone  crowning  the  central 
eminence,  down  the  sides  of  which  the  streets  diverge.  Ar- 
magh is  the  archiepiscopal  seat  of  the  primate  ami  metro- 
politan of  all   Ireland,  both  in  the  Anglican  and  Koman 


Catholic  churches.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a 
college,  a  large  public  library,  a  famous  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, and  a  lunatic  asylum.  It  was  the  capital  of  Ire- 
land in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  and  was  renowned 
as  a  school  of  theology,  etc.  On  account  of  the  Danish  in- 
cursions and  the  English  conquest  and  wars  it  fell  into 
deoav,  but  is  now  one  of  the  best-built  cities  in  Ireland. 
Pop."  10,070. 

Aniiagnac.  alir-maan'yak:  a  former  name  of  a  region  in 
Prance,  now  compriscil  in  tiers  and  jiarts  of  Ilaute-Garonne, 
Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  Lot-et-Garonne.  Its  ancient  counts 
were  feudal  to  the  crown  of  France  until  the  time  of  Henry 
IV.,  who  united  it  in  his  own  person  to  the  crown.  In  later 
times  the  title  of  Count  of  Armagnac  was  an  honorary  one. 

Ariiiag:nac.  Bernard,  Count,  d':  constable  of  France; 
was  an  ambitious  and  turbulent  nobleman.  lie  became  in 
1407  the  enemy  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  chief  of  the 
faction  called  "  Armagnacs."  who  waged  a  civil  war  against 
the  Burgiindians.  In  141.5  he  obtained  the  office  of  consta- 
ble of  France,  the  highest  in  the  nation.  Having  excited 
the  odium  of  the  Parisians  by  his  tyranny,  he  was  killed  by 
the  populace  June  12.  1418. 

Armag'iiac,  Jean  V.,  Count,  d' :  a  grandson  of  Bernard, 
nf>ticed  above :  b.  about  1430.  He  was  notorious  for  his 
crimes  (he  married  his  sister),  and  was  exeonimunieated  by 
the  iiope,  but  subsequently  absolved.  As  a  jiarty  to  the 
League  of  Public  Good,  he  revolted  against  Louis  XI.  in 
14(!5.  He  was  put  to  death  bv  order  of  that  king  in  Paris, 
Mar.  n.  1473. 

Ar'inaiisperg',  Joseph  Lvdwig,  Count  von :  an  able  Ger- 
man statesman;  b.  at  Kcitzting.  in  Bjivaria,  Feb.  28.  1787. 
He  became  a  leader  of  the  liberal  party.  Bavarian  IMinister 
of  Finance  in  1826.  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  1828. 
By  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  he  was  re- 
moved from  office  in  1831.  From  Jan.,  1833,  to  Feb.,  1837, 
he  governed  Greece  as  regent  or  chief  minister  under  King 
Otho,  who  was  a  minor.     I),  in  Bavaria,  Apr.  3,  1853. 

Arniato'li.  or  Ar'matoles:  a  body  of  Greek  militia  or- 
ganized about  1.500  a.  d..  (jr  earlier.  They  lived  and  oper- 
ated in  niountainous  regions  that  were  difficult  of  access, 
and  were  very  tenacious  of  tlieir  independence.  They  were 
employed  by  the  Turkish  sultan  to  protect  the  fertile  jilains 
from  tlie  raids  of  the  Mepli/fi  (mountain-robbers)  of  Tlies- 
saly.  Northern  Greece  was  divided  into  about  sixteen  dis- 
tricts, each  of  which  was  placed  under  the  supcn-ision  of  an 
armatol.  In  the  war  of  Greek  inde]iendeiice  the  armatols 
fought  against  the  Turks,  and  distinguished  themselves  by 
daring  exploit.s. 

Ar'niatiirp  [Lat.  nrmatu  rit.  armor]:  a  piece  of  .soft  iron 
which  is  ])la(ed  in  idiitact  with  the  poles  of  a  permanent 
magnet  tii  |ireserve  its  magnetic  power.  To  such  an  arma- 
ture the  name  "  keepen' "  is  freijuently  applied.  In  dynamos 
the  armature  is  the  coil  or  .set  of  coils  of  wires  in  wliich  cur- 
rent is  generated,  either  by  revolution  in  the  magnetic  field 
of  the  machine  or  liy  ])eriodical  fluctuations  othei-wise  pro- 
duced in  the  number  of  lines  of  force  which  pass  through 
the  coils  in  question.  See  DvNAMO-ELErTRic  Macuixes, 
Electric  JIotor.  an<i  Electricity.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Aniie'iiia  (Turk.  Ermineejieh):  an  important  country 
of  Western  Asia  which  has  now  no  jiolitical  existence,  but 
is  iiistorically  very  interesting  as  the  original  seat  of  an  an- 
cient civilized  jieople  (Armenians),  who  have  preserved  their 
nationality  to  the  present  time.  Armenia,  the  boundaries 
of  which  varied  in  different  periods,  was  situated  between 
Asia  Jlinor  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  was  mostly  included 
between  lat.  37°  and  42°  N.,  and  between  Ion.  36  and  4!)'  E. 
It  was  divided  into  Armenia.  JIajor  and  Armenia  ^linoi',  the 
former  of  which  was  bnunded  on  the  N.  K.  by  the  river 
Kur.  on  the  E.  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  and  on  the  \\  .  partly  by 
the  Euphriites.  The  I^esser  Armenia  was  situated  on  the 
western  side  of  the  other.  This  country  is  an  elevated 
table-land,  inclosed  on  several  sides  by  the  ranges  of  Taurus 
anil  Anti-Taurus,  and  partly  occupied  by  other  mountains, 
the  highest  ipf  wliich  is  the  volcanic  pe.Mk  of  Ararat.  It  is 
drained  liy  the  Eujihrates  and  Tigris,  which  rise  within  its 
limits,  and  ti'aversed  by  the  river  Aras  (Araxes).  Among  its 
physical  features  are  the  large  lakes  of  Van  and  Sevan,  the 
former  of  which  is  saline.  It  abounds  in  romantic  mountain 
scenery.  The  climate  of  Armenia  is  very  cold  in  the  high- 
lands, while  the  summer  heat  of  the  valleys  is  intense.  Here 
is  a  variety  of  soils,  some  of  which  in  the  valleys  produce 
good  crops  of  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  and  grapes.     Grazing 


ARME.VIAX   LANTtL'AGK  AND   LITEKATLRK 


AHMEXTlfiRES 


321 


and  cattle-breeding  are  more  extensively  followed  than  agri- 
culture. Among  its  mineral  resources  are  copper,  iron,  lead, 
alum,  and  salt.  The  ciiicf  towns  of  ancient  Armenia  were 
Artaxatn,  Aniii.  and  Tigranocerta.  Tliu  chief  modern  towns 
are  Erivan.  KrzroDm.  and  Van.  The  Arnicnians  (all  lliem- 
gelves  //(;iA-.s  or  Ilaikanx.  a  name  derived  from  Ilaik,  or 
Haig,  represented  as  the  first  King  of  Armenia  and  a  de- 
scendant of . I  apliel.  Among  the  most  famous  of  their  an- 
cient kings  was  Dikran  or  Tigranes.  wlio  lived  ahout  550 
B.C.,  and  wa-s  a  friend  and  ally  of  Cyrus  the  (ireat.  The 
kingdom  was  comiuered  by  Alexander  the  (treat  in  '.i'i5  ii.  c, 
and  recovered  its  independence  almul  1!)0  n.  c.  It  was  after- 
ward ruk'd  by  the  Parthian  Arsaciil.c.  among  whom  was 
Tigranes  tlie  (ireat,  a  son-in-law  of  .Mithridates,  King  of 
Pontus.  He  waged  war  against  the  Romans,  an<i  was  de- 
feated about  63  B.  c.  The  Armenians  arc  physically  a  fine 
variety  of  the  Indo-European  race.  They  have  excellent 
talents  for  business,  and  are  especially  skillful  in  banking 
and  mercantile  pursuits.  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Armenia  by  the  ajiostle  Tliaddciis.  It  be- 
came, through  the  inllueiice  of  (ircgory  the  lUmniiiator,  the 
established  ridigion  of  the  state  in  2W!).  King  'I'iridates  was 
baptized  in  289,  and  Gregory  t!ie  Illuminator  made  "  hier- 
arch  "  in  302.  Political  troubles  prevented  the  Armenian 
Church  from  taking  part  in  the  Council  at  Chalcedon  (451). 
Hence  a  misunderstanding,  which  led  the  Armenians  to  set 
up  a  separate  communitm  in  4!ll,  without  ever  luivirig  be- 
come reallv  nionophysitic.  The  Armenians  believe  in  the 
worship  of  .saint.s  but  not  in  purgatory,  and  are  especially 
rigid  in  the  oliservance  of  fasts.  A  small  portion  of  the 
Armenians  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Austria,  and  Russia  have  recog- 
luzed  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  and  are  called  United  or 
Roman  Catliolic  Armenians;  they  date  from  1816-;U.  Some 
vears  ago  a  split  took  place  among  the  United  Armenians  of 
'I'urkey,  on  account  of  the  changes  which  the  pope  made  in 
the  ancient  ccmstitution  of  their  Cliurch.  They  were  excom- 
municated by  the  pope,  and  in  1872  entered  into  official  com- 
munication with  the  Old  Catliolics  of  Germany.  In  1880  a 
very  successful  Protestant  mission  among  the  Armenians 
was  organized  by  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions,  out  of  which  grew  the  Evangelical  Protes- 
tant Church  in  1850. 

Since  1894  the  Armenians  in  Turkey  have  been  subjected 
at  the  hands  of  the  Kurds  and  Turkish  soldiery  an<l  officials 
to  atrocities  which  have  shocked  the  whole  civilized  world, 
and  called  forth  strong  protests  from  the  L'.  S.  and  the 
great  powers  of  Europe.  It  has  been  estimated  that  during 
these  years  over  50.000  persons  of  both  sexes  have  iiccn  mas- 
sacred. Hitherto  (1897).  owing  chiefly  to  international  jeal- 
ousies, the  so-called  "concert  of  the  great  powers"  of  Eu- 
rope has  failed  to  secure  to  the  Armenians  and  other  Chris- 
tians in  the  Turkish  empire  the  protection  which  they  need 
and  deserve,  and  to  which  they  are  entitled.  Since  the  early 
years  of  the  Christian  era  this  country  has  been  the  subject 
and  scene  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the  Romans, 
Persians,  Byzantine  Greeks,  Saracens,  Turks,  etc.,  who  have 
successively  been  masters  of  it.  It  now  belongs  partly  to 
Russia,  partly  to  Persia,  and  jiartly  to  Turkey.  The  scourge 
of  war  and  persecution  for  religious  o[iinions  drove  great 
numliers  of  tne  Armenians  from  their  native  land,  and  they 
are  now  dispersed  in  various  jmrts  of  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor,  The  number  of  Armenians  is  estimated  at  not  more 
than  4,0(X),0(K),  of  whom  2.500,000  are  in  Turkey,  and  of 
these  about  1,000,000  live  in  Armenia.  See  Saint-Martin, 
Memoire  historique  et  geographiqite  sur  I'Anni'iiie  (1818); 
Curzon,  Armenia  (1854);  (I'rcagh,  Armenians,  Knord.i,  and 
Turks  (1880);  Gattevrias,  L'Armfnie.  (Paris,  1880);  Nor- 
man, Armi-nia  (1896)';  The  liiUe  of  the  Turk  and  Tlie  Ar- 
menian Crisis  in  Turkey,  by  F.  I).  Greene  (1896);  and 
Vartooguian's  Armenia's  Ordeal  (1896).  See  also  Life  and 
Times  of  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator  (trans,  by  Malan, 
1868);  anil  llamachod.  Chronological  Succession  of  the  Ar- 
vieman  Patriarchs  (1865).  Revised  by  R.  Lillkv. 

ArniPiiinn  Langnngo  and  Lileraturp:  The  language 
of  Armenia  belongs  In  the  Indo-tiermanic  family  of  lan- 
guages, under  which  it  forms  an  independent  branch  like 
the  Greek  and  Albanian.  This  view  regarding  its  inde- 
pendence is  the  generally  accepted  one,  in  accordance  with 
HUbschnninn's  investigations;  though  the  Armenian  tongue, 
especially  on  the  claim  of  De  Lagarde  and  Fr.  .Miiller,  was 
formerly  regarded  merely  ns  a  subdivision  under  the  Iranian 
group.  We  possess  monuments  of  Armenian  dating  back 
to  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  our  era.  Three  stages  are 
2 1 


recognized  in  its  linguistic  development :  (1)  the  early  period, 
prior  to  the  fifth  century  ;  (2)  the  classical  periotl,  from  the 
fifth  century,  or  the  date  of  Bi.shop  Mesrob,  to  the  twcUth 
century  ;  (3)  the  later  period,  from  the  twelfth  century  to  the 
present. 

A  statement  preserved  in  Philostratus  (about  200  A.  D.) 
would  point  to  the  existence  of  an  Armenian  alplial)et  at 
the  beginning  of  our  era;  but  tradition  usually  ascribes 
llie  invention,  or  iierliaps  rather  the  reconstruction,  of  an 
,\rmenian  alphaliet  on  the  Greek  basis  to  Bishop  Mesrob  in 
tlie  fifth  century.  Jlesrob's  alphaliet  consists  of  thirty-six 
letters,  to  which  there  were  added  two  new  characters,  one 
for /and  one  for  long  o.  in  the  twelftli  century.  The  writ- 
ing runs  from  left  to  right. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  familiar  sounds  the  Armenian 
phonology  presents  an  indefinite  vowel  a  (cf.  Eng.  l/iit).  like- 
wiseafriicativcsr(^</i).r(^A.'i/(),etc.,  and  spirants  (.s  =  .s7(,2  = 
2h,  etc.)  and  a.-;piratcs  (k'  —  k-h.i-ti:).  The  accent  of  words  is 
prevailingly  on  tlie  final  syllable.  The  inflectional  system 
does  not  ilislinguish  gninimatical  gender:  but  in  declension 
seven  eases,  including  the  instrumental,  are  recognized. 
A  so-called  "narrative"  case  and  a  "circumlocutory"  are 
also  formed  by  added  |)refixes.  There  is  no  dual.  The  ad- 
jective, moreover,  is  (leclined  like  the  substantive,  but  it 
sometimes  remains  invariable.  The  comparative  degree  is 
usually  foriiie<l  liy  mliUuixgnin  to  the  stem  ;  the  superlative 
has  no  special  form,  liut  is  expressed  by  repeating  the  posi- 
tive, or  tiy  enipliasizing  it  by  strengthening  adverbs  resem- 
bling moKl.  very.  The  inimerals.  as  well  as  the  jironouns, 
sliow  full  declensions.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  pre- 
sent a  cliaract eristic  formative  element,*',  d.  n,  which  amal- 
gamates witii  the  stem-form  to  indicate  nearness  or  less  and 
greater  remoteness,  somewhat  like  Lat.  hie,  iste,  ille.  The 
verb-system  distinguishes  three  persons,  two  numbers, 
three  modes,  namely,  indicative,  conjunctive,  imperative, 
likewise  an  infinitive  ending  in  /.and  also  participial  forms. 
There  are  four  tenses,  a  present,  an  imperfect,  an  aorist  of 
twofold  format i<in,  an<l  a  future  of  two  forms.  Four  con- 
jugation classes,  based  on  the  characteristic  vowels,  e,  a,  u,  i, 
are  distinguished.  Tlie  fourth  or  i  conjugation  may  be 
generally  reganled  as  a  passive. 

Armenian  literature,  like  Anglo-Saxon,  practically  begins 
with  the  iiitidduction  of  Christianity,  about  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, but  there  are  only  scanty  remains  until  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. The  fifth  century,  or  the  age  of  Mesrob,  is  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  periods  in  Armenian  literary  activity.  Mes- 
rob. like  the  great  Gothic  Bishoji  I'Ifilas.  practically  in- 
vented an  alphabet,  an<l  created  an  epoch  liy  his  work  on  a 
translation  of  the  Bible.  Aided  by  two  of  his  jiupils  he 
joined  the  Patriarch  Isaac  in  work  ujion  a  version.  The 
translation  was  begun  from  the  Syriac  Pcshilo  vei-sion,  but 
was  finally  made  from  the  (trcek  version.  Its  completion  is 
assigned  to  the  year  41 1,  or  perhaps  rather  about  431.  To 
the  same  century  belongs  the  famous  historian  Moses  of 
Khoreni  or  Chorene  (d.  488).  who  wrote  the  Armenian 
Chronicle  (ti'ansl.  by  Lauer,  Regensburg,  18(>9)  from  the 
time  of  Ilaig  down"  to  his  own  day.  His  contemporary, 
Bislio))  Eghishe,  or  Elisirus,  recorded  the  events  of  the  wars 
of  Vartaii  with  the  Persians  (transl.  by  Neumann,  London, 
1830).  The  succeeding  six  centuries  all  contain  literary 
works,  but  tliere  are  no  names  of  real  impoilance  till  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  To  thisera  belong, among 
other  names,  the  distinguished  religious  writer  and  poet 
Ncrses  Klavensis  (d.  1173)  and  his  nephew.  Nerses  of  Lam- 
jiron.  Ill  the  eighteenth  century  the  Venetian  Mekhitarists 
did  much  toward  reviving  and  encouraging  Armenian  liter- 
ary work,  and  tlu>  comp.'iratively  recent  historical  writings 
of  Tschanitschean  (3  vols.,  Vienna.  1786).  for  example,  are 
of  genuine  value.  Armenian  literature  shows  almost  un- 
broken continuity  since  its  beginning,  and  it  is  of  historical 
and  philological  importance,  as  well  as  of  interest  from  the 
literary  side. 

Ref('n  lice  may  be  made  to  Petermann,  Grammatica  Lin- 
gtiie  Armeniacie  (Berlin,  1837);  lirevis  Lingua'  Armcniara'- 
Grammalica,  Litterahira.  Clirextomathia  cum  Glossario 
(licipzig,  1872);  Ijaiicr  et  Carricre,  Grammaire  Armi'niinne 
traduile  el  augmentee  (Paris,  1883);  Fr.  Miiller,  Armeniaca 
(Vienna.  1860-92);  llilbschmann.vlrmeni.sr/ie  iSVurfifH  (Leip- 
zig, 1883);  also  Bedrossian,  Kew  Armenian  Dictionary 
(Vienna.  187.5-79) ;  Neumann,  Geschichte  der  armenischen 
Literatur  (Leipzig,  1836).  A.  V.  Williams  Jacksox. 

Armentieres;  a  town  of  France;  department  of  Nord; 
on  the  river  Lys;  13  miles  by  rail  N,  \\  .  of  Lille  (see  map 


322 


ARMES 


ARMINIUS  AND  ARMINIANISM 


of  France,  ref.  1-F).     It  has  manufactures  of  cotton,  linen, 
lace,  and  sailcloth.     Pop.  (1886)  27,985. 

Armes,  Philip  :  musician ;  b.  in  Norwich,  England,  in 
1836.  He  was  first  a  chorister  in  Xoi-wich  cathedral,  after- 
ward going  to  Rochester.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  organ- 
ist of  St.  Andrew's.  Wells  Street,  London ;  Chichester  ca- 
thedral. 1861.  and  Durham  cathedral,  1862,  where  he  still 
remains.  Jlost  important  among  his  compositions  are  the 
two  oratorios  Hfzekiah  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  He 
has  composed  largely  in  the  field  of  church  music,  and  his 
anthems  and  services  are  well  known  and  appreciated. 

D.  E.  Hervet. 

Arm'felt.  Gtstaf  JIauritz  :  Swedish  general  and  court- 
ier; b.  in  the  province  of  Alio.  Apr.  1,  1757.  He  became  a 
favorite  of  Gustaviis  III.,  who.  after  he  was  mortally  wound- 
ed by  an  assassin  in  Mar..  1792.  appointed  Armfelt  govern- 
or of  Stockholm.  This  appointment  was  nullified  by  the 
Duke  of  Sudermania.  who  was  the  enemy  of  Armfelt,  and 
acted  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  Gustavus  IV.  The 
regent  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Naples,  and  during  his  ab- 
sence charged  him  with  treason,  for  which  he  was  sentenced 
to  death.  When  Gustavus  IV.  began  to  reign  in  1799  he 
restored  Armfelt  to  honor  and  office.  He  became  governor- 
general  of  Finland  in  1805,  and  commanded  the  army  in  a 
war  against  Norway  in  1808.  Having  entered  the  service 
of  Russia  in  1810,  he  obtained  several  high  civil  offices. 
D.  at  Zarskoje-Selo,  Aug.  19,  1814. 

Arnii'da  :  the  name  of  a  beautiful  sorceress  in  Tasso's 
poem  of  Jenisalem  Delivered.  She  attempted  to  seduce 
Rinaldo  and  other  crusaders.  The  former  was  fascinated 
for  a  time,  but  finally  returned  to  the  war  against  the  infi- 
dels, and  converted  Armida  to  Christianity. 

Ar'millary  Sphere  [armillary  is  from  Lat.  armilla,  ring, 
circle,  deriv.  from  armiin.  upper  arm] :  an  ancient  and  obso- 
lete astronomical  machine ;  consisted  of  an  assemblage  of 
rings  or  circles  fixed  together,  so  as  to  represent  the  prin- 
cipal circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  in  their  proper  relative 
positions.  These  rings  were  movable  round  the  polar  axis 
within  a  meridian  and  horizon,  as  in  the  celestial  globe. 
The  observations  of  Hipparchus  were  made  by  means  of 
the  armillary  sphere. 

Arminins  and  Armiiiinnism:  (1)  Arminius.  —  The 
name  iif  Arminius  in  his  native  language  was  .J.-vcoBUS 
Hermans,  identical  with  Herman,  the  name  of  the  hero  of 
Germany  who  destroyed  the  Roman  legions  under  Varus. 
And  as  this  name  was  transformed  into  Arminius  by  Taci- 
tus and  other  Roman  writers,  so.  in  accordance  with  the 
custom  of  tlie  age  when  Latin  was  the  language  of  current 
literature,  this  name  was  Latinized,  and  has  come  down  in 
modern  English  as  Ja.mes  Armixius.  He  was  born  in  1560 
at  Oudewater  (old  water),  a  small  town  in  the  Southern 
Netherlands.  He  lost  his  father  in  early  childhood,  and.  his 
mother  being  left  in  straitened  circumstances,  the  promising 
intellect  of  the  Ijoyso  attracted  t lie  attention  of  patrons  that 
he  was  taken  to  school  at  Marburg.  When  fifteen  years  of 
age  his  native  town.  Oudewater,  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  his  mother,  brother,  and  sister  were  aU  massacred, 
leaving  him  the  sole  survivor  of  his  family.  He  was  sent 
by  his  patrons  to  the  new  university  at  Leyden,  where  he  re- 
mained six  years.  Such  was  his  proficiency  that  the  city 
of  Amsterdam  adopted  him  as  her  vesterliiig  or  foster-child, 
to  be  educated  at  the  public  expense,  he  being  bound  by  a 
written  obligation  to  be  at  the  command  of  the  city  through 
Ufe.  He  studied  at  (Jeneva  under  Beza,  as  well  as  at  Basel 
under  Gryneas.  At  the  latter  place  he  was  offered  a  doc- 
torate, but  declined  the  honor  on  account  of  his  youth.  By 
Beza  he  was  commended  to  -Amsterdam  in  high  terms.  He 
then  went  to  Italy  to  become  accomplished  "in  philosophy 
under  Zarabclla.  and  having  visited  Rome  and  the  other 
principal  cities  returned  to  .Vmsterdam,  where  he  was  in- 
stalled minister  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight. 

.Vrminius's  ministry  in  Amsterdam,  of  fourteen  vears"  du- 
ration, forms  the  second  period  of  his  life.  His"  learning 
and  eloimence  were  rajiidly  rendering  him  one  of  the  lead- 
ing theologians  and  preiu-hers  of  his  age.  He  was  of  mid- 
dling size,  had  dark,  piercing  eyes,  and  voice  light  but  clear, 
and  possessing  a  winning  mellowness.  His  manners  were 
magnetic,  and  he  had  the  power  of  fastening  firm  friends. 
He  was  condescending  to  the  lowly  and  a  sympathizing 
guide  to  the  religious  intjuirer.  At"  the  same  time  he  was 
an  independent  seeker  anil  follower  o[  truth. 

In   1585  the  extreme  ijredestinarianism  prevalent  in  the 


Netherlands  had  been  for  ten  years  so  effectively  attacked 
by  Richard  Coornhert.  an  eminent  patriotic  and  acute  lay- 
man of  Amsterdam,  that  Arminius  was  invited  by  the  city 
to  refute  him.  In  a  debate  at  Delft  between  Coornhert  and 
two  high  Calvinistic  clergymen,  the  latter  were  so  hard 
pressed  that  they  yielded,  and  took  the  lower  or  sublapsa- 
rian  ground,  and  published  a  pamphlet  against  the  higher 
view.  The  extreme  Calvinists  called  upon  JIartin  Lydius, 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Friesland.  to  refute  them,  liut  he 
handed  over  the  task  to  Arminius,  who  had  thus  a  double 
request  on  his  hands.  He  bravely  undertofik  the  task,  but 
was  soon  convinced  of  the  untenableness  of  either  the 
higher  or  lower  predestination.  At  the  expense  of  an  igno- 
minious failure  in  even  attacking  Coornhert,  he  resolved  to 
pursue  the  light  of  honest  conviction.  Avoiding  the  entire 
subject  in  public,  he  prosecuted  his  investigations  with 
earnest  study.  Yet,  in  lecturing  on  Romans  vii.,  having 
given  the  non-Calvinistic  interpretation,  he  found  himself 
generally  assailed  by  the  high  Calvinists  as  a  I'chigian  and 
Socinian.  He  was  arraigned  before  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
where  he  successfully  defended  himself  (m  the  ground  that, 
though  adverse  to  the  prevalent  opinions,  his  interpretation 
contradicted  nothing  in  the  standards — namely,  the  Belgic 
Confession  and  the  Catechism.  Being  questioned  as  to  pre- 
destination, he  decLLned  to  answer,  as  no  fact  was  alleged 
against  him. 

In  prosecuting  his  inquiries  he  determined  to  consult 
privately  the  best  theologians  of  the  day.  He  commenced 
a  confidential  correspondence  with  Prof.  Francis  .lunius  of 
the  University  of  Leyden.  the  most  eminent  of  the  Dutch 
theologians.  He  was  deUghted  to  find  how  far  .lunius  co- 
incided with  him,  but  when  he  addressed  to  Junius  the  ar- 
guments for  still  more  advanced  views  the  professor  kept 
the  letter  by  him  unanswered  for  six  years,  when  he  died. 
The  friends  of  Arminius  believed  that  this  silence  arose 
from  the  fact  that  Junius  found  more  than  he  could  answer 
or  was  willing  to  ailmit.  Unfortunately,  this  correspond- 
ence was  inadvertently  exposed  by  Junius  to  discovery,  and 
was  used  to  the  disadvantage  of  Arminius.  Arminius  also, 
having  received  a  treatise  in  favor  of  predestination  by 
Prof.  Perkins,  of  Cambridge,  prepared  an  epistle  to  him, 
but  was  prevented  by  Perkins's  death  from  sending  it.  His 
letters  both  to  Junius  and  Perkins  are  embodied  in  his  pub- 
lished works,  and,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  validity 
of  the  argument,  no  one  will  deny  that  in  candor,  courtesy, 
and  Christian  dignity,  they  are  hardly  to  be  surpassed. 

On  the  death  of  Junius  the  curators  of  the  University  of 
Leyden  looked  to  Arminius  as  his  successor.  The  reluc- 
tant consent  of  Amsterdam  being  at  length  gained.  Armini- 
us assented.  But  the  predeslinarians.  led  by  Gomarus. 
senior  Professor  of  Theology  at  Leyden.  opposed  his  election. 
After  a  long  series  of  strifes,  Arminius  offered  to  meet  G()- 
marus  and  satisfy  his  objections.  The  meeting  took  place, 
and  Gomanis,  admitting  that  he  had  judged  Arminius  by 
hearsay,  after  Arminius  had  fully  declared  his  entire  oj)- 
nosition  to  Pelagianism  and  Soeinianism,  fully  renounced 
Iiis  objections.  So  far  as  predestination  was  concerned, 
each  jirofessor  was  to  deliver  his  own  sentiments  with  mod- 
eration, and  all  collision  with  the  other  was  to  be  avoided  ; 
and  Arminius  was  thereupon  elected. 

The  six  yeai-s  of  his  Leyden  professorship  closing  with  his 
death  are  the  most  important,  yet  troublous.  ]ieriod  of  his 
career.  The  terms  of  peace  were  broken  within  the  first 
year  by  Gomarus,  who  delivered  a  violent  jmblic  harangue 
on  predestination  in  terms  of  insult  to  Arminius.  who  was 
personally  present ;  to  which  the  latter  prepared  a  refuta- 
tion clothed  in  terms  of  personal  respect  toward  his  oppo- 
nent. Arminius  was  held  as  invalidating  the  Belgic  Con- 
fession, and  so  was  everywhere  traduced  by  the  clergy  as  a 
pa|)ist.  a  Pelagian,  and  a  Coornherter.  Yet,  really,  the  doc- 
trines he  taught  were  essentially  the  doctrines  of  St.  Chry- 
sostom,  Mel.mchthon,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Jolm  Wesley.  In 
regard  to  the  Confession,  he  ever  treated  it  with  rever- 
ence, and  only  claimed  the  right  of  that  same  liberality  of 
interpretation  which  Lutherans  exercised  with  the  Augs- 
burg Confession.  Arminius  was  proscribed  by  the  clergy, 
harassed  by  irresponsible  deputations,  and  his  students  were 
subjected  to  jiersecutions  and  exclusions  from  the  ministry. 
The  more  intelligent  laity,  including  the  magistracy,  and 
esjiecially  t  he  chief  magistrate.  Olden  Barneveldt.  were  favor- 
able to  .\rminius.  who  at  length  appealed  to  the  national 
legislature  (called  the  States-General)  for  iirotection.  That 
body  ap))ointed  a  committee  or  council,  who,  having  heard 
both  Gomarus  and  Arminius  in  full,  reported  that  the  latter 


AKMlNirS   AM)    .\I;.M1MANISM 


323 


(aught  nothing  but  what  could  lie  tolerated.  Before  the 
States-General  themselves  Arminius  delivered  a  full  ora- 
tion, expoundinff  his  entire  views,  f^iven  in  full  in  the  edi- 
tion of  his  works  pulilished  in  the  I'.  S.  The  elerfiy  de- 
maridrd  the  appointnu-nt  of  a  imtional  synod,  consisting 
purely  of  ecclesiiusties,  but  the  States-tieneral,  well  knowing 
what  would  be  the  fate  of  Arminius  in  their  hands,  re- 
fused. Under  the  constant  pressure  of  these  years  of  per- 
secution the  gentle  spirit  of  Arminius  at  len>:th  sunk,  lie 
was  t«ken  from  the  bloo<ly  times  tliat  followecl  the  .Synod 
of  Dort.  Ills  nervous  system  wius  prosi  rated,  ami.  attended 
by  his  faithful  pupil,  the  afterward  cc'lebr.ilid  Kpiscopius, 
he  died  in  the  faith  he  had  maintained  at  Leyderi,  Uct.  I'J, 
160!»,  a  martyr  to  his  views  of  truth. 

(3)  Armixianism. — Arminianism,  a-s  the  customary  an- 
tithesis to  Calvinism,  is,  within  the  limits  of  the  evangelical 
doctrines,  the  theoU>gy  that  tends  to  freedom  in  op|K)sition 
to  the  theology  of  ne<-essity  or  absolutism.  This  cnntiast 
rises  into  thought  among  all  luitions  that  attain  to  rcllectir.ci 
and  philosophy.  So  in  Greek  and  Uoiiian  thinking.  Stoi- 
cism and  all  materiali.stif  atheism  held  tliat  mind,  trill,  is 
subject  to  just  as  fixed  laws  in  its  volitions  as  physical  events 
are  in  their  successions.  When,  however,  men  like  Plato 
anil  Cicero  rose  to  a  more  transcendent  sense  of  moral  re- 
sponsibility, especially  of  eternal  responsibility,  they  came 
to  say,  like  Cicero,  "Those  who  maintain  an  eternal  series 
of  causes  desjxiil  the  mind  of  man  of  tree  will,  and  bind  it 
in  the  ne<essity  of  fate." 

Theistic  fatalism,  or  Predestination,  consists  in  the  pre- 
determination of  the  Divine  Will,  which,  determining  alike 
the  volitions  of  the  will  and  the  succession  of  physical 
events,  reduces  both  to  a  like  unfreedoni ;  I)Ut  those  who  hold 
Predestination  very  uniformly  hold  also  to  volitional  neces- 
sity, or  the  subjection  of  will  in  its  action  to  the  control  of 
strongest  motive  force.  And  as  the  Divine  Will  is  held 
subject  to  the  same  law,  so  Xecessity,  as  nuister  of  (iod, 
man,  and  the  universe,  becomes  a  universal  and  absolute 
Kate.  This  doctrine,  installed  by  St.  Augustine,  and  still 
niori!  absolutely  I)y  John  Calvin,  in  Christian  theology,  is 
from  them  called  Augustinianism.  or  more  usually  Calvin- 
ism. 

In  opposition  to  this  theology,  Arminianism  maintains 
that  in  true  rexpounibllHy,  ijiiHf,  penalfi/,  especially  eter- 
nal pi'iuill I/.  IhevK  must  be  in  the  agent  a  free  will;  and 
in  a  true  responsible  free  will  the  freedom  must  consist  in 
the  power,  even  in  the  same  circumstances  and  under  the 
same  motives,  of  chousing  either  wn;/.  Xo  man  can  justly 
be  eternally  damned,  according  to  Arminianism,  for  a  choice 
or  action  which  he  can  not  help.  If  fixed  by  Divine  decree 
or  volitional  neiessity  to  the  particular  act.  he  can  not  be 
held  responsible  or  justly  punished.  In  all  svi<-h  statements, 
however,  it  is  presupi«)scd.  in  order  to  a  just  respoiisilnlity, 
that  the  agent  has  not  responsibly  abdicated  or  destroyed 
his  own  power.  It  is  also  to  be  admitted  that  there  may  Ije 
suffering  which  is  not  penalty — finite  sufferings  for  wiiich 
there  are  compensations,  and  for  which  every  one  would 
take  his  chance  for  the  sake  of  life.  IJut  eternal  suffering, 
for  which  there  is  no  compensation,  inflicted  as  a /'"</(>•/»/ 
peiia/li/  on  the  basis  of  jiislice,  can  be  justly  intlictcd  only 
for  avoidable  sin.  If  liiviiu-  <lecree  or  volitional  necessity 
determine  the  act,  it  is  irresponsible,  and  judicial  peiuilty  is 
unjust. 

Arminianism  also  holds  that  none  but  the  person  who 
freely  commits  the  sin  can  be  guilty  of  that  sin.  Oiu'  person 
tMin  not  be  guilty  of  another  person's  sin.  A  tempter  may 
be  guilty  of  tempting  another  to  sin,  but  then  one  is  guilty 
of  the  sin,  and  the  other  of  solely  the  sin  of  templation. 
There  can  thus  be  no  vicarious  guilt;  and  as  punisluneiit, 
taken  strictly,  can  be  only  inlliclion/or  i/HiV^  upon  the  ;/itilli/, 
there  can  literally  and  strictly  be  no  vicarious  punishment. 
If  innociMit  Damon  die  for  Pythias  guilty  of  murder,  Damon 
is  not  ginlty  because  he  takes  Pyt bias's  place  in  dying,  and 
his  death  is  not  /«  him  a  punishment,  but  a  suffering,  which 
is  a  sid)stitu1e  for  another  man's  punishment.  The  doer  of 
sin  is  solely  the  sinner,  the  guilty,  or  the  punished.  These 
preliminary  statenu-nts  will  eluciilate  the  issues  between 
("alvinism  and  Arminianism  on  the  following  points: 

1.  FiireDrilinntinn. — Calvinism  affirms  that  (Jod  does  un- 
changeal>ly  ami  etermilly  foreordain  whatsoever  comes  to 
pas,s.  That  is,  (Jod  fmm  all  eieniily  pre<lelermines  not  only 
all  physiciil  events,  liul  all  I  lie  vulllions  of  responsible  agents. 
To  this  .\rniinianism  objects  that  the  |)redetermitiiilion  of 
the  agent's  viilitions  destroys  the  freedom  of  his  will :  that 
it  makes  God  the  responsible  predeterminer  and  wilier  of 


sin ;  and  that  it  makes  every  sinner  to  say  that  his  sin  ac- 
cords with  the  Divine  Will,  and  therefore,  so  far  as  himself 
is  concerned,  is  right.  It  makes  (iod  fii-sl  decree  the  sin, 
and  then  punish  the  sinner  for  the  sin  decreed.  The  Ar- 
miniaii  theory  is  this:  God  does  from  all  eternity  prede- 
termine the  laws  of  nature  and  the  succession  of  physical 
aiul  iieces,sary  events;  lint  as  to  free  moral  agents,  God, 
knowing  all  possible  futurities,  doi?s  choose  that  plan  of  his 
own  coiuhu't  which,  in  view  of  what  each  agent  will  ulti- 
nuitely  in  freedom  do,  will  bring  out  the  best  results.  His 
system  is  a  system  of  his  own  actions.  And  God's  prede- 
lerMiinalions  of  his  own  acts  are  so  far  ccmtingent  as  they 
are  based  on  his  ]irecognitioii  of  what  the  agent  will  freely 
do;  yet  as  his  omniscience  kiuiws  the  future  with  perfect 
accuracy,  so  he  will  never  be  deceived  nor  frustrated  in  his 
plans  and  providences. 

Some  Arminiansdeny  (iod's  foreknowledge,  on  the  ground 
of  the  intrinsic  impossibility  of  a  future  contingency  being 
foreknown.  As  the  pi-rrorinance  of  a  contradictory  act  is 
impossible,  intrinsically,  even  to  Omnipoteiu*,  so,  say  they, 
the  knowability  of  a  future  contingency,  being  an  essential 
contradiction,  is  impossible  even  to  Omniscience.  A  con- 
tradiction is  a  nothing;  an<l  it  is  very  unnecessary  to  s<Hy  in 
behalf  of  God's  omnipotence  that  he  can  do  all  things,  and 
all  nothings  too.  So  it  is  ecpially  absurd  to  say  in  behalf  of 
his  oiiuiiscicncc  that  he  kiKiws  all  things,  and  all  nothings 
too.  The  <'Xclusion  of  contradictions  does  not  limit  God's 
onniipolence  or  omnisi'ience.  but  tlefiiiex  it.  Arminians  do 
iKit  condemn  this  reasoning,  but  generally  hold  that  their 
theory  is  nuiintainable  against  Calvinism  on  the  assumption 
of  foreknowledge.  They  deny,  as  against  the  Calvinist.  that 
foreknowledge  has  any  influence  upon  the  future  of  the  act, 
as  predetermination  has.  Predetermination  fi.res  the  act — 
foreknowledge /.s' _/f.r«Z  by  the  act.  In  I'oreordiiuition  God 
<letermiiies  the  act  as  he  i)leases;  in  foreknowledge  the  agent 
fixes  the  prescience  as  he  pleases.  In  the  former  case  God 
is  ahme  responsible  for  the  creature's  act;  in  the  latter  case 
God  holds  the  creature  responsible,  and  a  just  divine  govern- 
ment bcK'omes  possible.  Yet  most  Arminians  probably  would 
.say:  If  the  divine  foreknowledge  of  the  volitions  of  a  free 
agent  contradicts  the  freedom,  then  the  freedom,  and  not 
the  fori'knowledge,  is  to  be  believed. 

2.  Divine  Snvereigntij. — Calvinism  atrirms  that  if  man  is 
free  (Jod  is  not  a.  sovereign.  Just  so  far  as  man  is  free  to 
will  either  way,  (iod's  tjower  is  limited,  .\rminians  reply 
that  if  man  is  not  free,  (jod  is  not  a  sovereign,  but  sinks  to  a 
iiu're  nu'chanist.  If  man's  will  is  as  fixed  as  the  physical 
machinery  of  the  univer.se,  then  till  is  nuicliinery  and  not  a 
government,  and  (iod  is  a  machinist  and  not  a  ruler.  The 
higher  man's  freedom  of  will  is  exalted  above  mechanism, 
so  much  higher  is  God  elevated  as  a  sovereign.  Here, 
according  to  Arminians,  Calvinism  degrades  and  destroys 
God's  sovereignty,  and  Arminianism  exalts  it;  the  freedom 
of  man  no  more  limits  (iod's  power  than  do  the  laws  of 
miture  by  him  established;  in  both  cases,  equally,  there  is 
simply  a  self-limitation  by  (iod  of  the  exercise  of  his  |)ower; 
Arminianism  holds  to  the  absoluteness  of  God's  omnipotence 
just  as  truly  as  Calvinism,  and  to  the  grandeur  of  his  sover- 
eignty even  more  exalledly, 

:!.  linpiilation  of  Ailam'.i  Sin.  —  Calvinism  affirms  that 
Adam's  posterity  is  truly  yuill;/  of  Adam's  sin,  so  as  to  be 
eternally  and  justly  punishable  therefor  without  a  remedy. 
As  (/M/7/i/ of  this  sin,  God  might  have  the  whole  race  l)om 
into  exist em-e  under  a  curse,  without  the  |iower  or  means  of 
deliverance,  and  consigned  to  eternal  punishiiuMit.  Armin- 
ians di'uy  that  guilt  and  literal  |iunislimeiit  can,  in  the  na- 
ture of  things,  lie  thus  transferred.  Their  theory  is  that 
upi'ii  Adam's  .sin  a  Saviour  was  forthwith  interposed  for  the 
race  as  a  previous  condition  to  the  allowance  of  the  projia- 
gation  of  the  race  by  Adam,  aiul  a  provision  for  inherited 
ilisadvantages.  The  race  inherits  the  miture  <if  fallen  .\<lam. 
not  by  being  held  guilt;/  of  his  sin,  but  by  the  law  of  natural 
descent,  just  as  all  posterity  inherit  the  species-qualities, 
physical,  mental,  and  mnral.  of  the  progenitor.  The  race  in 
Adam,  without  redemption,  is  totally  incapable  of  salvation  ; 
yet  under  Christ  it  is  plat'cd  upon  a  new  redemptive  proba- 
tion, is  emnowereil  by  the  (piickening  spirit  given  to  all,  and 
through  Clirist  may,  by  the  exercise  of  free  agency,  attain 
eternal  life. 

4.  Jieprnhation. — Of  the  whole  mass  of  mankind  thus  in- 
volved in  guilt  and  punishment  for  sin  they  never  actually 
committed.  Calvinism  aHirms  that  (iod  has  left  a  large  share 
'■pa.ssed  by" — that  is,  without  adecjuate  means  of  recovery, 
and  with  no  inteidion  to  recover  them — and  this  from  the 


324 


ARMINIUS  AND   ARMINIANISM 


"  good  pleasure  of  liis  will "  ami  for  a  display  of  his  "  glorious 
justice.  The  other  portion  of  mankind  God  does,  from 
"mere  good  pleasure,"  witliout  any  superior  preferability  in 
them,  "elect  or  choose,  and  confers  upon  them  regciiera_- 
tion  and  eternal  life,  "all  to  tlie  praise  of  his  glorious  grace." 
Arininians  pronounce  such  a  proceeding  arbitrary,  and  fail 
to  see  in  it  either  "justice"  or  "glorious grace."  The  repro- 
bation seems  to  them  to  be  injustice,  and  the  "grace,"  with 
such  an  aecompaninient,  unworthy  the  acceptance  of  honor- 
able free  agents.  Klection  and  reprobation,  as  Arminianism 
holds  them,  are  conditioned  upon  the  conduct  and  voluntary 
character  of  the  suljjects.  All,  submitting  to  God  and  right- 
eousness, by  repentance  of  sin  and  true  self-consecrating 
faith,  do  meet  the  conditions  of  that  election :  all  who  persist 
in  sin  present  the  qualities  upon  which  reprobation  depends. 
And  as  this  preference  for  the  obedient  and  lioly,  and  rejec- 
tion of  the  disobedient  and  unholy,  lies  in  the  very  nature 
of  God,  so  this  election  and  reprobation  are  from  before  the 
foundations  of  the  world. 

.5.  Philoxnphicalor  Volitional  Necessity. — Calvinism  main- 
tains tlie  doctrine  that  all  v(.)litions  are  determined  and  fixed 
by  tlie  force  of  strongest  motive,  just  as  the  strokes  of  a 
clock-hammer  are  fixed  and  determined  by  the  strongest 
force.  Tlie  will  can  no  more  choose  otherwise  in  a  given 
case  than  the  clock-hammer  can  strike  otherwise.  There 
is  no  "power  of  contrary  choice."  Calvinism  often  speaks, 
indeed,  of  "  free  agents,"  "  free  will,"  "  self-determining 
power,"  and  "will's  choosing  by  its  own  power";  but  bring 
it  to  analysis,  and  it  will  always,  say  the  Arininians,  be  found 
that  the  freedom  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  clock-hammer — 
the  freedom  to  strike  as  it  does,  and  no  otherwise.  Armin- 
ianism affirms  that  it  the  agent  has  no  power  to  will  other- 
wise than  motive-force  determines,  any  more  than  a  clock- 
haiiiMier  can  strike  otherwise,  then  there  is  no  justice  in 
rc(|uiring  a  different  volition  any  more  than  a  different 
clock-stroke.  It  would  be  requiring  an  impossibility.  And 
to  punish  an  agent  for  not  performing  an  impossibility  is 
injustice,  and  to  punish  him  eternally  an  infinite  injustice. 
Arminianism  charges,  therefore,  that  Calvinism  destroys  all 
just  punishment,  ami  so  all  free  volition  and  all  divine  gov- 
ernmeut. 

6.  Infant  Damnation. — Holding  that  the  race  is  truly 
firiiltji,  and  judicially  condemnable  to  endless  torment  for 
.Vdam's  sin,  Calvinism  necessarily  maintains,  according  to 
Arminians,  that  it  is  just  for  God  to  condemn  all  infants  to 
eternal  punishment,  even  those  who  have  never  performed 
any  moral  act  of  their  own.  This  was  held  by  Augustine, 
and  wherever  (Calvinism  has  spread  this  has  been  a  part  of 
the  doctrine,  more  or  less  explicitly  taught.  Earlier  Cal- 
vinists  maintained  against  the  Arminians  that  there  is  ac- 
tual reprobation — that  is,  a  real  sending  to  hell — as  well  as 
particular  election,  of  infants.  Arminianism,  ileiiying  that 
the  race  is  judicially  </itilfy,  or  justly  damnable  for  Adam's 
sins,  affirms  the  .salvation  of  all  infants.  The  individual 
man  as  born  does,  indeed,  irresjionsibly  possess  within  his 
constitution  that  nature  which  will,  amid  the  temptations  of 
life,  commence  to  sin  when  it  obtains  its  full-grown  strength. 
It  born  immortal,  with  sucli  a  nature  unchangeable,  he  must 
be  for  ever  unholy,  and  for  ever  naturally  unha])py  under 
the  divine  re|iugnanee.  Under  such  conditions  Divine  .Jus- 
tice would  not  permit  the  race,  after  the  fall,  to  be  born. 
But  at  once  the  future  Incarnate  Redeemer  interposes,  re- 
stores the  divine  complacency,  and  places  the  race  upon  a 
new  probation.  Man  is  thereby  born  in  a  ".state  of  initial 
salvation,"  as  Fletcher  of  Madeley  called  it,  and  the  means 
of  final  salvation  ari^  amply  placed  within  the  reach  of  his 
frc(^  choice. 

7.  Pagan  Damnation. — On  its  own  princijile,  that  power 
to  perform  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  obligation  to  perform, 
Calvinism  easily  maintains  that  pagans,  who  never  lieanl  of 
( 'hrist,  are  rightly  damned  for  want  of  faith  in  Chri.st.  They 
may  bi^  damned  for  original  sin,  and  for  their  own  sin,  and 
for  uiibeliid'  in  ("^lirist,  without  any  Saviour.  Arminianism, 
on  the  contrary,  inainlaiiis  lh:it  there  doulitless  are  in.'iny  in 
[lagan  lands  sav(Ml  even  by  the  unknown  Redeemer.  They, 
not  having  the  law,  are  a  law  unto  thenuselves.  Nay,  they 
may  have  thr:  spirit  nf  faith,  so  that  were  Chri.st  truly  [ire- 
sented  he  would  be  truly  accepted.  Tliey  may  have  faith  in 
that  of  which  Christ  is  the  embodiment,  like  the  ancient 
worthily  (miimerated  in  Heb.  xi.  There  may  not  be  as  great 
differences  in  the  chances  for  salvation  in  different  lands  as 
Calvinism  assumes.  Where  little  is  given,  much  is  not  re- 
quired. Arminianism  holds  thai  no  one  of  tlie  human  race 
is  damned  who  has  not  had  full  chance  for  salvation.     Mis- 


sions are  none  the  less  important  in  order  to  hasten  the  day 
when  all  shall  be  converted.  If  that  millennial  age  shall 
come,  and  be  of  long  duration,  Arminianism  hopes  that  the 
great  majority  of  the  entire  race  of  all  ages  may  be  finally 
saved. 

8.  Doctrines  of  Grace. — Calvinism  maintains  that  the  death 
of  Christ  is  an  expiation  for  man's  sin  :  first,  for  the  guilt  of 
men  for  Adam's  sin,  so  that  it  is  possible  for  God  to  forgive 
and  save ;  and  second,  for  actual  sin — that  thereby  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Spirit  restores  the  lapsed  moral  powers,  regen- 
erates and  .saves  the  man.  But  these  saving  benefits  are  re- 
serred  for  the  elect  onli/.  Arminianism,  claiming  a  far  richer 
doctrine  of  grace,  extends  it  to  the  very  foundations  of  the 
existence  of  Adam's  posterity,  Grace  underlies  our  very 
nature  and  life.  We  are  born  and  live  because  Christ  be- 
came incarnate  and  died  for  us.  All  the  institutes  of  salva- 
tion— the  chance  of  probation,  the  Sjiirit,  the  Word,  the  par- 
don, the  regeneration,  the  resurrection,  and  the  life  eternal — 
are  through  him.  And  Arminianism,  against  Calvinism, 
proclaims  that  these  are  for  all.  Christ  died  for  all  alike  ; 
for  no  one  man  more  than  for  any  other  man,  and  sufficient 
grace  and  opportunity  for  salvation  is  given  to  every  man. 

Calvinism  maintains  the  irresistibility  of  grace;  or,  more 
strongly  still,  that  grace  is  absolute,  like  the  act  of  creation, 
which  is  called  irresistible  with  a  sort  of  impropriety  from 
the  fact  that  resistance  in  that  connection  is  truly  unthink- 
able. Against  this  Arminians  reply  that  will,  aided  by  ]ire- 
venient  grace,  is  free  even  in  acccjiting  ]iariloiiiiig  grace; 
that  though  this  acceptance  is  no  more  meritorious  than  a 
lieggar's  acceptance  of  an  offered  fortune,  yet  it  is  accepted 
freely  and  with  full  power  of  rejection,  and  is  none  tlie  less 
grace  for  tliat. 

if.  Justifying  and  Saving  Faith. — Faith,  according  to  Cal- 
vinism, is  an  acce])tance  of  Christ  wrought  absolutely,  as  an 
act  of  creation  in  the  man,  whereby  it  is  as  impossible  for 
him  not  savingly  to  believe  as  it  is  for  a  world  to  be  not 
created  or  an  infant  to  be  not  born.  And  as  this  faith  is  re- 
sistlessly  fastened  in  the  man,  so  it  is  resistlessly  kept  there, 
and  the  man  necessarily  perseveres  to  the  end.  Faith,  ac- 
cording to  Arminianism,  is,  as  a  power,  indeed  the  gift  of 
God,  but  as  an  act  it  is  the  free,  avoidable,  yet  really  per- 
formed act  of  the  intellect,  heart,  and  will,  by  which  the 
man  surrenders  himself  to  Christ  and  all  holiness  for  time 
and  eternity.  In  consequence  of  this  act,  and  not  for  its 
meritorious  value  or  its  any  way  compensating  for  or  earn- 
ing salvation,  it  is  accepted  for  righteousness,  and  the  man 
himself  is  accepted,  pardoned,  and  saved.  And  as  this  faith 
is  free  and  rejectable  in  its  beginning,  so  through  life  it  con- 
tinues. It  is  of  the  very  essence  of  his  probationary  freedom 
that  he  is  as  able  to  renounce  his  faith  and  apostatize  as  to 
reject  it  at  first. 

10.  Ejient  of  the  Atonement  and  Offers  of  Salvation. — 
Earlier  Calvinism  niaintinned  that  Christ  ilied  for  the  elect 
alone  :  later  Calvinism  affirms  that  he  died  for  one  and  all, 
and  so  offers  salvation  to  all  on  condition  of  faith.  But  Ar- 
minianism asks.  With  what  consistency  can  the  atonement 
be  said  to  be  for  alt  when,  by  the  eternal  decree  of  God,  it  is 
foreordained  that  a  large  part  of  mankind  shall  be  excluded 
from  its  benefits  f  How  also  can  it  be  for  all  when  none 
can  accejit  it  liut  by  efficacious  grace,  and  that  grace  is  arbi- 
trarily withheld  from  a  large  parti  How  can  it  be  for  all 
when  God  has  so  fastened  the  will  of  a  large  part  of  man- 
kind, by  counter  motive-force,  that  they  are  unable  to  accept 
it  if  The  same  arguments  show  the  impossibility  of  a  right- 
fid  offer  of  salvation  to  all.  either  by  God  or  by  the  Calvin- 
istic  pulpit.  How  can  salvation  be  rationally  offered  to  those 
whom  (iod  by  all  eternal  decree  has  excluded  from  salvation? 
What  right  io  exhort  tlie  very  men  to  reiient  whom  God  de- 
termines, by  volitional  necessity,  not  to  repent  f  What  right 
to  exhort  men  to  do  otherwise  than  God  has  willed,  decreed, 
and  foreordained  they  shall  do?  If  God  hasdecreed  a  thing, 
is  not  that  thing  right?  What  an  awful  sinner  is  the  ]ircacher 
who  stands  up  to  oppose  and  defeat  tiod's  decrees  i  If  a  man 
is  to  be  damned  for  fulfilling  Goil's  decrees,  ought  not  that 
imaginary  God  to  be,  a  /'»;-//o;v',  damned  for  making  such 
decrees'!!  If  a  man  does  as  God  decrees,  ought  he  not  to  be 
by  God  approved  and  .saved  i  And  since  all  men  do  as  God 
decrees,  wills,  and  determines  they  shall  do,  ought  not  all 
men  to  be  saved,  so  that  the  true  theory  should  be  Univer- 
salism?  How  can  grace  be  offered  to  the  man  whom  God  had 
decreed  never  to  have  grace?  or  faith  be  [n-rached  to  those 
to  whom  God  has  made  faith  impo.ssiljlr  i  or  conditions  pro- 
poseii  to  those  from  whom  God  withholds  the  power  of  per- 
forming conditionsK    Hence  the  Arminian  affirms  that  in  all 


ARM  INI  us   AX  It    ARMINIANISM 


325 


public  offpiN  of  rt  free  or  conditional  salvation  to  all  the  Cal- 
vinistio  pulpit  contradicts  its  own  cri'cd. 

liaKii  uf  Mdriililij. — Calvinism  <lHiins  that  the  ver)-  sc- 
verilv  of  its  svstcni.  its  deep  view  of  human  ffuilt  and  neces- 
sary ilamnability  hy  liirth  anil  nature,  its  entire  sulije<'t ion 
to  divine  absolutism  irres]ieetive  of  human  ideas  of  justice, 
tend  to  produce  a  profound  i)iety.  Arminianism  rei)lies  that 
this  is  niissinp;  thi^  true  ideal  of  pietv.  It  seems  to  be  basiiifi 
Christian  morality  on  fundamenlal  immorality.  Fortioil  to 
will  and  predetermine  llie  sin,  and  then  damn  the  sinner — 
for  him  to  impute  jrnilt  to  the  innocent,  and  so  eternally 
damn  the  innocent  as  guilty — are  procedures  that  appear 
fundauu-ntally  uuriKhteous.  so  far  as  the  deepest  intuit  ions  of 
our  nature  caii  decide.  Thus  first  to  make  (iod  in  the  faclH 
intrinsically  and  absolutely  bad,  and  then  require  us  to  nn- 
cribe  holiness  and  go<Klness  lo  his  character  and  conduct, 
perverts  the  moral  sense.  It  is  to  make  him  what  we  are  in 
duty  bound  to  hate,  and  then  recpiire  us  to  love  and  adore 
him'.  Such  a<loralion,  secured  by  the  abdication  not  only  of 
the  reiLson,  but  of  the  moral  sense,  and  the  prostration  of  the 
soul  to  pure,  nakeil  absolutism,  naturally  results  in  the  som- 
ber i>ietv  of  fear;  just  as  children  are  frishtened  into  a  fac- 
titious goodness  by  images  of  terror.  While  the  piety  of 
Jesus  is  serene,  firm,  wiiniing,  and  gently  yet  powerfully 
subduing,  the  piety  of  absolutism  tends  to  be  stern  and 
Judaic-like.  While  thus  apparently  defective  at  the  roots, 
it  diH'S  nevertheless  often  present  an  objective  character  of 
ri'ctitude,  n  practical  hardihood  and  aggressive  energy  in  the 
cause  of  morality  and  regulated  freedom.  Arminianism,  in 
oriler  to  a  true  and  rational  piety,  sees  the  ideal  of  reclitmle 
in  the  ilivine  character  an<l  conduct,  not  by  mere  axrn'pfinni 
contradicted  by  /c/r/.s,  but  both  in  the  fnc/x  and  the  nxrrip- 
lioii-1.  A  liarinony  of  facts  and  intuitive  reascjii  is  produced, 
love  to  the  Divine  Heing  becomes  a  rational  sentiment,  and 
a  piety  cheerful,  hopeful,  merciful,  and  gladly  obedient  be- 
comes realized. 

Civil  ami  /{eliffioiis  Lihirli/. — .\s  the  freedom  of  the  in- 
dividual, ami  his  own  intransferable  responsibility  for  his 
own  voluntary  character  and  comhict,  are  fundamental 
principles  with  Arminianism,  it  is  in  its  own  nature  adversi' 
to  civil  or  religious  despotism.  It  ha.s  been  said  that  wlii'ii 
Romanism  persecutes,  it  accords  with  its  fundamental  /iriii- 
ciple,  the  denial  of  right  of  jirivate  judgment,  while  when 
Protestantism  persecutes,  it  contradicts  itself.  So  when 
Calvinism  persecutes,  it  obeys  an  intrinsic  absolutism,  while 
if  .\rminiaiiism  persecutes,  it  contriulicts  its  own  freedom 
and  individualism.  Yet  piinitiim  has  often  in  history  pro- 
duced in  all  these  parties  palpable  violations  of,  and  dis- 
cordances with,  their  /jriiiri/)lc.  IJomanists  often  beconu' 
\>y  paxifii))!  as.serters  of  idt  ra-democracy,  anil  Protestants  of 
absolute  despotism.  And  so  Calvinism  has,  historically, 
been  bi/  po^ilioii  the  advocate  for  revolution,  and  Armin- 
iainsm  the  asserter  of  authority.  In  fact,  as  Arminianism 
has  been,  as  above  shown,  the  ruling  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
anil  Calviiusm  an  insurgent  specialty,  so  the  historical /w.s/- 
lion  of  the  lirst  has  been  favnrable  to  the  assertion  of 
authority,  and  the  normal  position  of  the  latter  has  lieen 
revolt.     'I'his  nuiy  be  called  one  of  the  nrrir/riitx  (jf  /lixfori/. 

Nor  was  Calvinism,  as  I'rof.  l-'isher  truly  allirms,  the  ad- 
vocate of  liberty  of  conscience.  Not  only  did  Calvin  him- 
self banisli  Bolsec,  ruin  Ca-stellio,  and  favor  the  execution 
of  Servetus,  but  he  maintained,  doetrinally,  the  iliily  of 
the  mrii/islratf  to  pioiivli  lurexi/.  Me/.a,  his  learned  siuces- 
sor.  wrote  a  treatise  in  favor  of  punishing  lieivtiis.  lioger- 
man,  the  president  at  the  .SvihhI  of  Dnrt,  was  the  trauslalnr 
of  Heza's  essay.  It  is  but  too  evident  that  the  I'rotestant 
Calvinisis  dilTered  with  the  Uomanists  not  about  the  pun- 
ishment of  heretics,  but  about  who  the  heretics  lo  be  pun- 
ished were.  In  this  ies|iect  the  Calvinism  of  the  new 
Church  and  the  Arminianism  of  the  old  were  nearly  ii[K)n  a 
pur.  The  new  Church,  however,  lielouged  to  the  progressive 
order  of  things;  liut  whether,  linally.  the  Calvinism  or  (he 
Arminianism  of  the  new  Church  first  actually  proclaimed 
toleration  is  a  matter  of  question. 

Compiiriilifp  Mornli/i/. — Mr.  Fronde  endeavors  by  com- 
parison to  show  that  Calvinism  is  superior  to  .\rmiiiiapism 
m  morals  by  selecting  his  own  examples.  Hut  the  Arinin- 
ian  may  perhaps  in  reply  make  also  liix  selections.  Scot- 
tish Calvinism  has  an  unipiestioiied  severity  of  moral.s,  but 
are  Scotch  iliara<'ler  and  history,  as  a  whole,  even  ethically 
superior  to  the  F.nglish  f  Is  the  morality  of  Presbyterian- 
ism  in  its  entire  luspect  su]ierior  to  that  of  Moravianism, 
(Quakerism,  or  Wesleyan  MetluHlismf  Are  Calvinistic  Bap- 
tists more  Christian  in  morals  than  the  Free-will  Hapti.stsf 


Is  there  any  umpire  qualified  to  decide  that  the  devout 
Presbyterian  is  superior  to  the  devout  Epi.scopalian  i  Did 
Jonathan  Kdwanls  present  a  type  uf  piety  superior  to  that 
of  Fletcher  of  .Madeley  ?  or  John  Calvin  to  that  of  James 
.\rminius(  Can  Calvinism  show  a  grainier  type  of  an  evan- 
gelist than  was  John  Wesley  in  Kngland  or  Francis  Asbury 
in  Americaf  lias  she  produced,  in  all  her  history,  a  system 
of  evangelism  as  earnest,  as  self-saerilicing.  as  aggressive  as 
the  itinerant  ministry  of  Knglisli  and  American  Methodismf 
Taking  the  entire  body  of  Calvinism  sinie  the  Reformation, 
does  it  excel  in  purity,  maitynlom.  duct  line,  and  missionary 
enterprise  the  (.\rmiuiaii)  Cluircli  of  the  first  centuriesi 

Compariifiiv  Jii'piililicdnisin. — Nor  did.  nor  docs,  Predes- 
tination, as  compared  with  Arminianism,  possess  any  pe- 
culiar alVinity  with  republicanism  against  monarchy.  iSy 
its  very  nature  Calvinism  estalilishes  an  infinite  and  eternal 
distinction  between  difrerent  parts  of  mankind  made  by 
divine  |irerogativi'.  by  wliiili  one  is  born  in  a  ilivine  aris- 
tocracy, and  the  other  in  an  eterii.al  helpless  iinil  lio]jeless 
pariahism  ;  while  .Vrmiiiianism,  holding  every  man  equal 
before  God,  proclaims  an  equal  yet  resistible  grace  for  all, 
a  universjil  atonement  and  .Saviour  alike  to  all,  an  equal 
[)ower  of  acceptance  in  all,  a  free,  unpredestined  chance  for 
every  man  to  be  (he  artificer  of  his  own  eternal,  .as  well  as 
temporal,  fortunes.  Caste,  partialism,  are  the  character- 
istics of  t  he  former :  equality,  universjility,  repulilicanism,  of 
the  latter.  It  is  as  jilain  as  consciousness  can  make  any 
fact  that  it  is  the  lalter  that  is  the  natural  ally,  not  of 
monarchies,  aristocracies,  or  hierarchies,  but  of  regulated 
freedom.  Augustine  and  Gottschalk  were  good  papists, 
and  August inianisni  was  as  entirely  at  home  under  the 
tiara  of  (iregory  the  (treat  as  under  the  <-ap  of  Bogerinan — 
in  the  court  of  Charlemagne  as  in  (he  camp  of  (he  Covenan- 
ter. Irrespective  of  their  Calvinism,  the  Weformers  every- 
where acted  (icciirdinfi  to  roiiilitimin.  Where  kings  and 
nobles  favored  them,  they  favored  kings  and  nobles;  where 
(as  was  generally  the  case)  they  were  rejected  by  rank  and 
power,  and  had  nodiing  to  make  royally  and  aristocracy 
out  of,  they  fashioned  a  theocratic  Commune,  out  of  which 
modern  political  experience  has  picked  some  aids  and 
methods  for  voluntary  government.  Jlodern  experience  has 
eliminated  the  t  hencracy,  (he  intolerance,  and  the  preiles- 
(inarianism,  and  added  (he  elemen(s  (o  make  republicanism. 
For  all  (his  it  duly  thanks  the  Reformers,  but  does  not 
(hank  (heir  Calvini.sni. 

History  or  Akminiaxis.m. — The  (heology  of  freedom, 
essentially  Arminianism,  in  o|iposi(ion  to  predestination, 
necessitated  volitinns.  and  imputation  of  guilt  lo  the  inno- 
cent is  universally  acknowledged  to  have  lieen  the  doctrine 
of  the  entire  Christian  Church  through  its  most  glorious 
period,  the  martyr  age  of  the  first  three  centuries.  The 
Calvinistic  hist<irian  of  theology,  Uagcnbach,  says  (vol.  i., 
p.  15.5) :"  .\ II  the  (Jreek  Fathers,  as  well  its  the  apologists 
.lustin,  Tatiaii.  Alhenagoras.  Theophilus,  and  the  Latin 
author  Jliiiuciiis  Felix,  exalt  the  autonomy  or  self-deter- 
minalion  of  the  human  .soul.  They  know  nolhing  of  any 
imputation  of  sin.  except  as  a  voluntary  and  moral  self- 
determination  is  presupposed.  Even  Iren.cus  and  Ter- 
tuUian  slrougly  insist  upon  this  self-ilelermination  in  the 
use  of  freedom  of  the  will."  Again  (157):  "Even  the  op- 
ponents of  human  liberty,  as  Calvin,  are  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge this  remarkable  unanimity  of  the  Fathei-s,  and 
in  order  lo  account  for  it  they  are  obliged  lo  suppose  a  gen- 
eral illusion  about  t  his  ilocd'iue  !  " 

Arminiaus  c<iii(rnd  (lia(  we  know  as  well  when  predes- 
tination was  intiodiiced  into  the  Church — namely,  liy  Au- 
gustine— as  we  do  when  transubstantialiou  and  image- 
worship  were  introduced  :  (ha(  i(  was  in  (he  fourth  century, 
when  Pelagius  upon  one  extreme  made  free  will  dis)iense 
with  ilivine  grace,  ,\iigustine  on  the  other  extreme  made 
divine  grace  irresistibly  nullify  free  will,  and  thus  both 
lost  their  balance  ;  that  both  invented  dogmas  never  liefore 
recognized  in  the  Churih  ;  (hat.  tried  by  (he  nrevious  mind 
of  the  Church,  both  were  equally  hcrclical ;  (hat  the  here.sy 
of  one,  pushed  to  extreme,  becomes  ralionalism  and  pure 
deism — (he  heresy  of  (he  odier,  pushed  to  extreme,  becomes 
presiinqidious  antinomianism.  They  assert  that  the  Ea-st- 
ern  Church  maiiitainiil  her  primitive  position,  neither  Pela- 
gian on  one  side  nor  .Vugustinian  on  the  other,  essentially 
in  the  position  of  modern  Arminianism  :  that  hence  Armin- 
ianism is  not  a  rompromiKi',  but  the  priiuilive  historical 
position,  (he  permaneid  ccider,  rejecting  innovadons  and 
extremes  on  either  side;  that  the  \Ves(crn  Church,  in  spite 
of  the  great  name  of  Augustine,  never  became  Augustinian. 


326 


ARMINIUS   AXl)   ARMINIANISM 


It  is  indeed  cii.stomarily  said  by  anti-Arminian  writers 
that  this  was  because  the  "  age  of  systematic  theology  " 
had  not  then  arrived.  Arniinians  reply  that  a  theology 
not  only  nnrect)gnized  during  that  best  i)eriod  of  the 
Church,  but,  still  more,  a  theology  unanimously  condemned 
as  heretical  by  that  perio<l,  has  little  right  now  to  lay 
claim  to  pre-eminent  Christian  orthodoxy.  The  Eastern 
Church — namely,  the  churches  of  Asia,  with  whom  the 
language  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  was  essentially  ver- 
nacular;  the  Greek  ("hurch,  to  whom  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  was  vernaeular ;  and  the  Russian  Church, 
embracing  many  millions — all  inherited  and  retain,  firndy 
and  unanimously,  the  theology  of  freedom,  essential  Ar- 
minianism.  The  learned  Calvinistic  scholar  Dr.  8hedd,  in 
his  History  of  Doctrines  (vol.  ii.,  p.  198),  says :  "  The  Aiigus- 
tinian  anthropology  was  rejected  in  the  East,  and,  though 
at  first  triumphant'in  the  West,  was  gradually  displaced  by 
the  semi-Pelagian  theory,  or  the  theory  of  inherited  evil 
[instead  of  inlierited  guift]  and  synergistic  [or  co-operative] 
regeneration.  This  theory  was  finally  stated  for  the  pai)al 
Church  in  exact  form  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  Au- 
gustinian  anthropology,  though  advocated  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  a  few  iudividuals  like  Gottschalk,  Bede,  Anselm, 
slumbered  until  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  revived  by 
Luther  and  Calvin,  and  ojjposed  by  the  papists."  It  will 
thus  be  seen,  on  a  review  of  the  uinvcrsal  Church  in  all 
ages,  how  small  though  respec'table  a  minority  Augustin- 
iainsra  or  Calvinism,  before  the  Reformation,  ever  was. 
With  minor  exceptions,  Arminianism  was  the  doctrine  of 
the  universal  Church. 

The  accuracy  of  Dr.  Shedd's  statement  of  the  general  non- 
existence of  Augustinianism  during  the  Middle  Ages  is  not 
invalidated  by  the  fact  of  the  great  authority  of  Augustine's 
name,  arising  from  the  powerful  genius  and  voluminous 
writings  of  the  man.  It  was  no  ]iroot  that  a  man  was  truly 
A ugustinian  because  he  belonged  to  the  "  Augustinian  or- 
der," or  quoted  Augustine's  authority.  Such  Schoolmen  as 
Bernard,  Anselm,  and  Peter  Londjard  modified  Augustine's 
doetrine  materially;  lionaventura  and  Duns  Scotus  were 
essentially  Ariidnians,  and  llincmarof  Rheims  and  Savon- 
arola literally  so.  Gottschalk',  the  high  (ircdestinarian,  was 
condemned  tor  heresy,  and  Tlionuis  Bradvvardine,  the  "  sec- 
ond Gottschalk,"  made  complaints,  doubtless  overstrained, 
that  in  his  day  "  almost  the  whole  world  had  become  Pe- 
lagian." 

At  the  Reformation,  however,  we  encounter  the  phenome- 
non that  all  the  eminent  leaders  at  first  not  only  adopted, 
but  even  exaggerateil  the  absolutism  of  Augustine.  This 
might  seem  strange,  for  it  was  a|)])arently  natural  that  the 
absolute  papacy  should  identify  itself  with  the  absolute,  and 
t hat  asserters  of  freedom  woiUd  have  stood  on  the  frci'-will 
theology.  The  twin  doctrines  of  the  supremacy  of  Scri|iture 
and  of  justification  by  faith  were  amply  sufficient,  without 
predestination,  for  their  purpose  to  abolish  the  whole  system 
of  |iopish  corruptii-in.  The  tornier  dethroned  alike  the  au- 
thority of  tradition  and  the  po|)edom;  the  latter  swept 
away  alike  the  mediations  of  I\Iary,  saints,  and  priests.  But 
the  first  heroic  impulse  of  reform  tends  to  magnify  the  is- 
sues to  their  utmost  dimensions.  The  old  free-will  theology 
belonged  universally  to  the  old  historic  Church,  and  was 
identified  by  the  first  Reformers  with  its  corniptions. 
Luther  at  first,  in  his  reply  to  Erasmus  On  the  Ronilnijp  of 
the  Will,  uttered  fatalisms  that  proliably  had  hardly  ever 
before  Imu'U  heard  in  the  Christian  Church,  and  perhaps  it 
would  lie  hard  to  find  a  Calviidst  at  the  present  day  who 
would  adopt  the  trenchant  predestinarian  utterances  of  Cal- 
vin. Under  the  indoctrinations  of  t hese  leaders,  especially 
of  Calvin  at  Geneva,  the  absolute  doctrines  were  ditfused 
and  fornu'd  into  tln^  creeds  of  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
France,  i'lnglancl,  and  Switzerland.  But  in  Germany  the 
"second  sober  tlionght"  oi  Melanchthon,  who  at  first  coin- 
cideil  with  Liillier,  receded  from  ]ireilestination,  and  Me- 
lanclillion  liiinscll'  iiitinuites  that  Luther  sece<ied  with  him. 
In  the  Nrlhcrlaiids  the  same  "second  thought."  led  by  Ar- 
minius  himself,  was  snppres.sed  by  state  i)ower.  In  France. 
Protestantism,  which  was  Calvinistic,  was  overwhelmed  in 
blood.  Ill  iMigland  the  Calvinism  was  generally  of  a  gentle 
type,  and  the  same  "sec-ond  thought  "  was  awakened  by  the 
Armiiiiaii  writings  of  Grotins  and  Episcopius  diffused 
through  lOnrope.  ,\nd  as  1  he  Knglish  Church  gradually  in- 
clined 111  the  ancient  liii;li  episcopacy  of  the  old  Cluireh.  so 
it  adopted  the  ancient  .Xrminianism.  Calvinism,  persecuted 
and  oppress(>d,  overthrew  monarchy  and  Church,  and  for  a 
brief  |i(^riod  ruled  willi  hardly  less  intolerance,  until,  over- 


thrown in  turn,  Calvinism  tofik  refuge  in  America,  and  laid 
foundations  here.  Even  here  past  sufferings  did  not  teach 
tolerance,  and  that  doctrine  had  to  be  learned  from  checks 
and  lessons  administered  by  surrounding  sources.  Calvin- 
ism has,  nevertheless,  here  acted  a  noble  part  in  our  Chris- 
tian civilization.  It  perhaps  about  equally  divides  the 
evangelic  Church  with  Arnnnianism. 

Arminianism,  proper  and  Protestant,  came  into  existence 
under  the  severe  persecutifin  by  Dutch  Calvinism,  in  which 
the  great  and  good  Arminius  himself  was  a  virtual  martyr. 
The  Synod  of  Dort,,  the  standard  council  of  the  Calvinistii^ 
faith,  made  itself  subservient  to  the  unjirincipled  and  san- 
guinary usurper  Maurice ;  and  even  during  its  sessions  the 
judicial  murder  of  the  greid  Arininian  and  republican 
statesman  Olden  Barnevehlt  was  triumphantly  announced  at 
Dort  to  overawe  the  Arminians  at  the  s)Tiod.  who  were 
l)ravely  maintaining  their  cause  under  the  leadership  of  the 
eloquent  Episcojiius.  Then  followed  the  banishment  of 
Episcopius.  the  imiirisonmcnt  of  Grotius.  the  ejection  of 
hundreds  of  Arininian  miidstcrs  from  their  pulpits,  and  the 
firing  of  soldiers  upon  the  religious  assemblies  of  Arininian 
worshipers.  The  great  Arminian  writers  of  Holland.  Epis- 
copius, Grotius,  and  Limborch.  are  claimed  by  Arminian 
writers  to  be  the  first  public  proclainu>rs  of  the  doctrine  of 
liberty  of  conscience  in  Euroiie,  as  those  two  Arminian 
Puritans.  John  Milton  and  John  Goodwin,  were  its  earliest 
proclaimcrs  in  England. 

Wesleyan  Methodism  is  now  by  all  admitted  to  be  a  great 
modern  Arminian  development.  Beginning  most  humbly 
as  a  half-unconscious  awakening  amid  the  general  religious 
chill  of  Protestantism,  it  has  not  only  quickened  the  relig- 
ious life  of  the  age,  but  gathered,  it"  is  said,  25,000,000  of 
worshipers  into  its  congregations  throughout  the  world.  Its 
theology  is  very  definite,  and  very  nearly  the  exact  theology 
of  James  Arminius  himself,  and  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
('rallied  in  both  the  Arminianism  and  lligh-Churchism  of 
the  English  establishment.  Wesley's  maturcr  years  earnestly 
approved  the  Arminianism,  but  severed  it  from  the  High- 
Churchism.  The  connection  between  Arminianism  and 
High-Chnrchism  is  hereby  clearly  revealed  to  be  historical 
and  incidental  rather  than  intrinsic  or  logical.  Yet,  even 
after  ailii]iting  the  doctrine  that  every  church  has  the  right 
to  shape  its  own  government,  as  a  lover  of  the  primitive, 
post-apostolic  (^hurch,  as  well  as  from  notions  of  Christian 
expediency,  Wesley  preferred,  and  provided  for  American 
Methodism,  an  episcopal  form  of  government.  Arminian 
Methodism  has  apparently  demonstrated  that  the  Augustin- 
ian "systematic  theology"  is  unnecessary,  and  that  the 
]irimitive  theology  is  amply  sutficient  for  the  production  of 
a  iirofonnd  depth  of  ])icty.  a  free  ecclesiastical  system,  an 
energetic  missionary  enterprise,  and  a  rapid  evangelical 
success.  She  exhibits  in  her  variiuis  phases  every  form  of 
government,  from  the  nuist  decisive  system  of  episcojjacy  to 
the  .simplest  Congregationalism,  all  voluntarily  adopted, 
and  changeable  at  will.  The  ]iriibleins  she  has  thus  wrought 
suggest  the  thought  that  the  free,  simple  tlicolngy  of  the 
earliest  age  may  be  the  universal  theology  of  the  latest. 

The  LiTERATfRE  OF  Akminianism. — the  literature  of  the 
controversy  of  free  will  and  predestination,  beginning  with 
Justin  Martyr,  Chrysostoni,  and  the  Greek  Christian  Fa- 
thers generally,  is  very  extensive.  Since  the  Reformat  ion  we 
may  name  the  following:  Arininius'sll'f»7r.s(8  vols.  Hvo.  trans- 
lated info  English  bv  NicoUs  .■iiid  Bagnall.  .\uburn  and  Buf- 
falo. 18.");j):  Episcopius,  //i.x///.  TO ™/.  (Amsterdam.  Ki.'iO); 
Episcopins's  works,  in  two  volumes  folio,  arc  mainly  devoted 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  Arminian  views  against  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Synod  of  Dort;  Stephen  Curcelheus.  Openi 
Tlie(il()(/irn  (1675,  1  vol.  fol.) ;  Limborch's  TIteohn/in  (  liris- 
tiiina.  the  first  com])lete  body  of  Arminian  theology  (1(>86), 
translated  into  English  by  Rev.  William  Jones,  presbvter 
of  the  Church  of  England  (London.  1702;  2il  eil.  1713); 
Bishop  Burnet's  E.rpiisltion  of  the  T/iirti/-y^ine  Articles 
(16!l!>)  furnishes  what  was  intended  as  an  impartial  presen- 
tation of  the  argument  on  both  sidi'S.  though  ex)iressing  a 
[ireference  for  the  Arininian  in  his  preface;  Whitby.  On  the 
Fire  Points  (Ijondon.  1710,  1  vol.  8vo),  a  standard  work  on 
the  subject  in  English  theology;  Wesley's  irocA-s  (New  York, 
7  vols.);  ('her/,-x  to  Antinomianism  and  other  works,  by 
Fletcher  of  Madeley  (New  York,  4  vols.  8vo) ;  Richard  Wat^ 
son's  Theohif/iral  Inxtitiiles  (New  York,  2  vols.),  a  standard 
work  in  I^lelhudisl  theology;  Nicolls's  Calriiiism  atid  Ar- 
minianism ('(impared  (London,  1824,  2  vols.  8vo). 

The  maintenance  of  the  Arminian  view  of  the  divine  gov- 
ernment has,  during  the  |)resenf    |ieriod,  proceeded   largely 


AUMISTICE 


ARMOR 


327 


from  the  Mctliodist  IxkIv,  luid  most  of  the  produftions  have 
hecn  fiiriiUhi-d  in  America.  We  may  enumerate  the  follow- 
ing: Dr.  Willmr  Fisk"s  Calvininlic  ('(mlrorersy  (Xew  Vnrk. 
IWO,  1  vol.).  a  work  whi<-h  exerted  much  inllueneoon  Meth- 
odist theoloifv  ill  the  U.S.;  Bishop  Randolph  S.  Foster's 
Cah'hiixm  its  it  Is  (Cincinnati,  1840),  and  S/iiilieti  in  I'/in/l- 
ogu  (3  vols..  New  York,  1889);  Dr.  A.  T.  Bledsoe's  riieodicy 
(New  York,  18.5:i) ;  Whedon's  Frffdnm  of  l/ie  Will  (New 
York,  18t)4);  liiblidlhecu  Sacra  (Al>ril,  18'(}2);  Dr.  William 
B.  I'ojie,  professor  in  the  Wesleyan  Theological  School,  Dids- 
bury,  Kngland,  has  published  in  one  lars^e  8vo  volume  A 
Sygtemalir  T/ieolitg;/  (Imndou,  187."i) :  Dr.  Miner  Raymond, 
profes-sor  in  the  Methodist  Theological  Seiniiiary,  Kvanston, 
III.,  ha-s  published  (New  York,  18711)  .1  Si/sti-maiir  Tliioloijy 
(in  :{  vols.);  Dr.  Arnold  Sulzberger,  professor  in  the  (ieriiian 
MethiMlist  Theological  Seminary,  Fiankfurt-ain-Main,  has 
issued  (1878,  in  A  vols.)  Chrisiliche.  GlaiibensUlire  vom  Metli- 
odUten  Standpunkl :  Dr.  John  Milev.  Professor  of  System- 
atic Theology  in  Drew  Theological  Seminarv,  has  published 
(3  vols.  8vo)  'SyMematic  Tkeoluijy  (New  York,  18U2-!):i).  See 
Calvinism.  D.  1).  Wiikdon. 

Revised  by  John  F.  Hurst. 
Ar'niistlce  [from  Lat.  anna,  arms,  war  +  -sfifium  (a.s 
in  sitl-s/itiiiiii,  etc.),  a  halt] :  a  truce  :  a  sikspension  of  hos- 
tilities between  two  armies  or  belligerent  powers,  which 
often  agree  to  susi>end  operations  for  a  liefinite  time  while 
the  diplomatists  are  negotiating  the  preliminaries  of  a  peace. 
During  the  tliinl  crusade  Richard  Cujur  de  Lion  and  Sala- 
<lin  iiiiule  a  truce  for  three  yeaix  three  months,  and  three 
days.  In  iiiiHleni  limes  the  duration  of  armistices  is  much 
less.  After  the  (iermans  capdireil  I'aris.  Jan.  liO.  1871,  the 
French  jx'ople,  having  no  regular  (ioveniiiieiit,  ilesired  to 
elect  a  national  ius.seinbly,  for  which  [Hirpose  an  armistice 
was  granted  by  the  Germans.  The  armistice,  during  which 
the  armies  on  both  sides  wore  bound  to  remain  stationary, 
ended  in  a  treaty  of  peace,  the  preliminaries  of  which  were 
ratified  on  Feb.  2G,  1871.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Frankfort  in  Jlay  of  that  year. 

Arniistic'io :  a  territory  of  Venezuela  formed  between 
I.'^yl  and  18H4  from  parts  of  the  states  of  Bolivar  and  7m- 
inora.  It  lies  between  the  Araiica  and  Caparra  rivers,  and 
includes  the  upper  valley  of  IIk-  .Vpure  river.  It  is  a  nar- 
row strip  of  territory,  with  Colombia  on  the  south  and  Za- 
mora  on  the  north.  The  separation  of  this  territory  appears 
merelv  nominal,  and  has  perhaps  been  alreadv  abandoned. 
Area.  7.iMr.  sij.  miles.  "  M.  W.  II. 

Arniitago.  FDW.vRn,  R.  A. :  painter  of  historical  and  other 
figure  subjects:  b.  in  London,  May  20,  1817.  Studied  in 
Paris  under  Paul  Delaroche ;  Royal  Academician  (London) 
1872.  Appointed  professor  and  lecturer  on  painting  at  the 
Royal  Academy  187.').  Painted  the  fresco  of  The  T/iames 
in  18.52.  and  in  18.'>4  that  of  'J'hr  Death  of  Mann  ion,  in  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.     I).  May  24,  1896.  W.  A.  C. 

Aniiitiujc,  Tno.M.\s.  I).  D.,  LL.  D.:  b.  at  Pontefruct.  Kng- 
land,  Aug.  2.  1H19;  became  in  his  youth  a  Methodist  preacli- 
t-r.  In  18.i8  he  removed  to  New  York,  and  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churcli.  In  1848  he 
became  a  Baptist,  anil  .settled  as  a  pastor  in  New  York;  re- 
tire<l  in  1888.  He  warmly  advocated  the  movement  for 
Bible  revision,  which  led,  in  18.")(),  to  the  formation  of  the 
-Vnierican  Bible  Union,  of  which  organization  he  became  an 
effieii'iit  ofllcer,  and  subsi-i|iieiitly  tlie  inesident.  He  o<'cu- 
pies  a  high  rank  its  a  milpit  orator  ami  as  a  writer  of  gnat 
power  and  elegance.  His  position  as  a  leader  in  the  deiioin- 
mation  with  which  he  was  identified  is  generally  acknowl- 
<dged.  I),  at  Y'onkers,  N.  \ ..  Jan.  20.  189G.  Author  of  A 
History  of  the  Baptists  (New  York,  1887). 

Arinitiufc,  Wii.wam  Kdmoxd.  D.  D.  :  seconil  Bishop  of 
WiM-oiisin;  b.  in  New  York  city.  Sept.  6.  18:j0  :  gtadiiated 
at  Columbia  College  in  1849.  uiid  at  the  (ieiieral  Tlieologi- 
C'al  .Seminary  in  I8.'i2.  Ordained  deacon  June  27,  1S,j2.  and 
priest  Sept.  27,  IS.-)4.  he  niinistcivd  at  St.  John's,  Port.s- 
mouth,  N.  II..  St.  Mark'.s,  Augusta.  Me.,  and  at  St.  John's, 
Detroil.  .Mich,  lie  was  consecrated  assistant  to  the  vener- 
able Bishop  .lackson  Kemper,  Dee.  (i,  186().  and  succee<led 
to  the  episcopate  of  Wisconsin  in  1870.  1).  in  St.  Luke's 
Hospital,  New  Y'ork  city.  Dec.  7,  187;J. 

Armor:  garments  of  defense.  The  term  includes  all 
forms  of  shields.  The  materials  usually  employed  are,  be- 
ginning with  the  easiest  to  make  and  least  costly,  quilted 
anil  stuffed  garments,  which  are  often  an  excellent  security 
Against  sword-<-iits  ami  arrows,  and  which  also  serve  better 


than  metal  the  purpo.so  of  protecting  the  body  from  bruises 
and  broken  bones;  secondly,  leather;  thirdly,  nietal  used  in 
small  pieces,  such  as  plates  or  rings,  which  are  sewed  to  textile 
or  leather  fabrics,  or  very  small  rings,  which  are  linked  together 
lus  in  a  making  of  ehain.s.  but  so  as  to  cover  a  surface,  and 
called  chain  mail  or  simply  mail;  fourthly,  metal  in  larger 
pieces,  as  the  si  rips  or  ribbons  of  steel,  which  form  the  body- 
armor  of  the  Roman  .soldiers  and  that  of  the  Japanese,  and 
the  larger  splints  or  |)lates  of  steel  used  in  large  and  elabo- 
rately made  pieces  such  as  the  cuirass,  the  head-piece  (see 
IlKt.MET),  the  greaves,  and  the  like.  Armor  in  antiquity  was 
nearly  always  light  and  manageable;  it  usually  covered  the 
body  only  in  [lart.  and  was  never  allowed  to  interfere  with 
ease  of  movement.  The  Roman  and  (ireek  warriors  depended 
upon  their  helmet  and  shields  for  their  chief  defense;  other- 
wise their  armor  was  confined  to  the  trunk,  the  tops  of  the 
shoulders,  and  the  front  part  of  the  legs  below  the  knees,  the 
boots,  however,  affording  some  protection  to  the  feet;  even 
a  Roman  general  or  prince  engaged  in  battle  with  the  face, 
ncH'k.  arms,  anil  thighs  unprotected,  except  by  the  shield.  In 
the  Middle  Ages,  however,  there  was  a  general  disposition  to 
cover  the  pei-son  completely.  As  early  as  the  tenth  century 
the  helmet  had  a  long  nasal,  which  protected  the  face,  and 
the  hauberk  hjiil  long  sleeves  (even  gloves  attached  at  a  later 
period),  and  protected  the  thighs  to  the  knees.  As  the  skill 
of  armorei-s  Ijecame  greater  the  hauberk  was  reinforced  by 
plates  of  steel  applied  to  its  surface,  covering  the  back  of 
the  u[iper  arm,  Ihe  whole  of  the  forearm,  the  shoulder,  the 
legs,  and  afterward  parts  of  the  trunk.  During  the  same 
epoch  stuffed  armor  and  armor  made  by  qnilting  pieces  of 
steel  between  two  thicknesses  of  strong  textile  fabric  were 
in  constant  use,  and  it  was  customary  to  combine  many 
kinds  of  armor  in  one  equipment;  thus  the  hauberk  wals 
worn  over  the  .stutTeil  gambison.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury smithwork  liail  been  greatly  developed,  and  suits  of 
complete  .steel  were  woni.  Tlie  head-piece  in  particular  had 
become  acom|iIete  covering  closed  in  front  and  til  ling  closely 
at  the  neck,  sotliat  the  wearer  looked  through  small  opening 
in  the  movable  visor,  and  obtained  air  through  minute 
holes  in  the  movable  beaver.  At  this  time  the  armor  of 
mounted  men  became  extremely  heavy  and  cumbrous,  and 
when  the  heavy  heaiime  was  set  upon  the  bascinet  or  steel 
cap  as  an  addition  of  the  defense  in  time  of  battle,  the  wearer 
was  liable  to  suffocation.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  lilting  suits  found  in  collections,  and  sometimes 
weighing  200  lb.,  were  not  worn  in  war.  In  fact,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  fourleentli  century  llie  armor  for  the 
just  and  Ihe  tourney  grew  continually  more  and  more  un- 
like that  intended  for  battle.  The  manufacture  of  armor 
reached  the  highest  excellence  about  1.500.  Soon  after  this 
it  began  to  be  given  up,  because  only  the  most  perfectly 
forged  breast-plates  could  resist  a  musket-ball  :  but  those 
who  could  afVord  to  |iurchase  the  best  work  of  the  armorer 
continued  to  wear  slecl  on  the  hiMil  and  body  down  to  the 
clo.se  of  Ihe  seveiiteeiilh  century.  Moreover,  as  armies  be- 
came national  in  character,  so  that  their  eiiuipment  was 
l)rovideil  out  of  t  he  nat  ioiial  treasury,  regiments  of  cuira.ssiers 
were  established,  some  few  of  which  were  kept  up  evendown 
to  the  I''ranco-Pnis>ian  war  in  1870.  As  steel  armor  was 
gradually  given  up.  leather  replaced  it  to  a  certain  extent  ; 
thus  the  buff  or  buff-coat  was  worn  either  to  replace  the 
ciiiiass  or  in  addition  to  it.  RrssEi.L  Sturgis. 

Armor,  in  modern  usage,  is  a  nulallic  covering  for  ships 
or  fortificalions.  intended  to  furnish  protection  against 
gun-fire.  The  introiliiction  of  shell-guns,  and  the  signal 
instance  of  their  etTect  in  the  annihilation  of  the  Turk- 
ish fleet  at  Sinope.  .showed  the  necessity  of  providing  pro- 
tection against  their  destructive  fire.  To  John  Stevens, 
of  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  belongs  the  credit  of  originating  the 
idea  of  applying  armor  to  the  sides  of  sliip.s.  but  the  French 
first  gave  this  idea  practical  shai)e  in  the  floating  batteries 
which  on  Oct.  17,  1853,  silenced  the  Russian  forts  at  Kin- 
burn.  For  the  moment  the  defense  was  ahead,  but  its  su- 
periority was  short  lived,  and  the  introduction  of  new- 
weapons  of  allack  and  the  continued  advance  of  artillery  in 
weight  and  power  forced  a  corres|ionding  development  of 
armor.  For  some  years  manufaiture  of  armor  was  limited 
to  plates  of  small  area;  and  imperfecl  welds  and  steely 
spots,  as  well  as  great  irregularity  in  quality,  were  necessary 
evils,  owing  to  imperfect  appliances  for  the  production  of 
thick  plates.  Laminated  plating,  when  tried,  was  found 
greatly  inferior  to  the  siime  thickness  in  a  single  plate.  In 
18.59,  )iowever.  armor   manufacture  had   so  far  developed 


328 


ARMOR 


that  French  4J-inch  platinjr  proveil  superior  tn  tlie  attack 
of  the  68-pouniler.  then  the  most  powerful  naval  gun,  and 
in  1860  the  British  report  "vessels  clothed  in  rolled  iron 
plates  4^  inches  thick  are  to  all  practical  purposes  invulner- 
able against  any  projectile  that  can  at  present  be  brought 
against  them  at  any  range."  But  the  general  adoption  of 
riSed  guns  on  the  Continent  and  the  introduction  of  tlie  11- 
inch  and  15-inch  smooth-bore  guns  in  the  United  States 
called  for  renewed  exertions  on  the  part  of  the  armor  mak- 
ers, and  in  1867.  it  being  still  impossible  to  produce  plates 
of  reliable  quality  more  than  6  or  7  inches  thick,  the  plate- 
upon-plate  system,  in  which  several  thick  plates  were  super- 
imposed, was  tried  and  proved  superior.. in  the  then  state  of 
the  art,  to  the  solid  plate  of  equal  tliickness.  In  1868  plates 
over  8  inches  thick  were  tested,  and  in  1873  12-inch  plates 
were  tested  both  in  Great  Britain  and  Prussia,  and.  though 
of  good  quality,  were  hardly  a  match  for  the  guns  brought 
against  them.  Sucli  hail  lieen  the  development  of  the  artil- 
lery with  which  armor  hail  to  contend  that  while  as  late  as 
1868  4i-inch  jilating  nuide  a  ship  invnlneralile,  in  1868  it 
took  9-inch  plating,  and  in  1872  a  12-inch  plate  was  pierced 
on  the  firing-ground.  With  the  introduction  of  12-inch 
plates  the  limit  of  regularity  in  manufacture  with  wrought 
iron  seemed  to  be  reacheil,  and  the  cost  of  the  plate-upon- 
plate  system,  owing  to  difficulty  in  making  the  plates  fit 
each  otlier,  led  to  the  trial  and  adoption  of  the  sandwich 
system,  in  which  layers  i>f  wood  separate  the  two  or  niore 
plates  making  up  the  complete  target.  The  first  applica- 
tion of  this  system  was  to  the  British  ship  Dreadnaught, 
whose  turrets,  built  u[)  of  two  7-inch  plates  separated  by  9 
inches  of  teak  and  secured  to  a  backing  of  6  inches  of  teak 
and  two  J-inch  skin-plates,  were  considered  more  than  a 
match  for  the  12-inch  rifle.  But  the  ail  vent  of  the  14|-inch 
Krupp  rifle  in  1875  and  the  81-ton  Woolwich  gun  in  1876 
marked  the  final  supi'emacy  of  the  gun.  Wrought-iron  ar- 
mor had  now  reached  its  highest  development  in  the  Inflex- 
ible, whose  armor  consisted  of  two  layers  of  12-inch  plates 
with  11  inches  of  teak  between,  backed  by  6  inches  of  teak 
and  two  1-inch  skin-plates.  Simultaneously  with  the  adojv 
tion  of  this  armor-disposition  the  Italian  Government,  de- 
sirous of  building  the  most  powerful  ships  in  the  world, 
called  for  competitive  tests  of  22-inch  armor,  and,  two 
French  and  two  English  firms  having  submitted  plates,  in 
1876  tlie  famous  Spezzia  trials  which  revolutionized  armor 
manufacture  in  fairope  took  place.  The  plates  subnn'tted 
were  solid  wrought  iron,  sandwich  wrought  iron,  sandwich 
with  wrought-iroii  face-plate  and  cast-iron  rear-plate,  and 
solid  steel  (the  latter  made  by  .Schneider  &  Co..  of  France). 
The  guns  used  were  the  10-inch  and  11-inch  Woolwich  rifles 
and  the  Armstrong  100-tou  gun.  The  Italian  commission 
condemned  the  types  containing  cast  iron  as  of  relatively  fee- 
ble defensive  qualities. stated  that  the  remarkable  advantages 
realized  with  thi'  single  plates  left  no  doubt  of  the  superiority 
of  this  disposition  over  the  sandwich,  and  concluded  that 
the  most  advantageous  disposition  of  armor  was  embodied 
in  the  solid  steel  plate,  this  having  kept  out  all  shot,  although 
wrecked  thereby,  while  the  iron  targets  were  pierced  bv 
the  shot  from  the  100-ton  gun.  Thin  steel  plates  and  iroii 
plates  faced  with  steel  had  ere  this  been  tried  in  Great 
Britain  with  doubtful  success,  but  it  was  now  recognized 
that  the  day  of  wrought  iron  had  jiassed,  and  attention  was 
at  once  turned  to  the  production  of  armor  having  the  re- 
sisting qualities  of  the  Schneider  plate  without  its  brittle- 
ness.  In  .\ug.,  1877,  the  first  of  what  are  known  as  com- 
pound plate-i  w.is  tested  at  Shoebtiryness,  England.  This 
Elate,  made  by  casting  a  steel  face  upon  a  wrought-iron 
ack  and  icilling  the  whole  to  a  thickness  of  !l  indies,  was 
tested  with  the  7inch  rifle,  the  iienetration  being  but  Hi 
inches,  whereas  in  a  wrought-iron  plate  it  would  have  been 
fully  H  inches.  In  another  year  9-inch  compound  plates, 
now  adopted  I'or '.he  Inflexibie's  turrets,  resisted  the  9-incti 
rifle,  so  rapid  was  the  development  of  the  new  system,  and 
in  1880  the  mauufaeture  of  both  comjiound  and  steel  armor 
had  so  progressed  that  they  were  brought  intoclose  competi- 
tion. In  1SM2  the  Italian  (nivertnnent  again  invited  armor 
makers  to  submit  plates  to  test  in  order  to  determine  the 
best  system  for  use  on  the  Lepanto.  and  Cammel  &  Co.  and 
Brown  &  Co.,  of  England,  the  foremost  makers  of  compound 
armor,  and  SchneidiT  &  Co..  of  Frani-e.  the  leading  makers 
of  steel  armor,  each  submitted  a  plate  18-9  inches  thick. 
Two  shots  from  the  100-ton  gun  wrecked  eaidi  compound 
plate,  while  the  steel  plate,  after  three,  still  covered  the 
greater  part  of  its  backing.  The  commission  conchuled 
that   the  Schneider  plate  was  superior  to  the  compound 


plates  and  better  adapted  to  protect  a  ship's  side.  Steel 
plates  were  not  always  victorious,  however,  for  in  several 
trials,  notably  that  at  Ochta  in  1882,  the  compound  plate 
proved  the  better,  and  the  less  cost  and  more  rapid  develop- 
ment of  this  system  in  Great  Britain  led  to  its  exclusive  use 
there  and  its  general  adoption  on  the  Continent  during  the 
next  ten  years.  The  demand  for  steel  armor  was.  however, 
sufficient  to  continue  its  development,  and  its  increasing 
superiority  was  so  demonstrated  by  various  tests  that  when 
the  U.  S..  in  1886,  had  before  it  the  task  of  domesticating 
the  manufacture  of  heavy  armor,  the  decision  as  to  the  pref- 
eralile  material  was  not  doubtful,  and  steel  armor  was  or- 
dered for  all  the  armored  ships  then  authorized  by  law.  In 
1890  the  first  public  trial  of  a  new  material  for  armor,  steel 
alloyed  with  nickel,  took  place  at  Annapolis,  JId.,  a  com- 
petitive test  of  a  Cammel  compound,  a  Schneider  steel,  and 
a  Schneider  nickel-steel  [jlate  being  held  by  the  U.  S.  Xavy 
Department.  The  compound  plate  jiroved  inferior  in  a 
marked  degree  to  the  others,  and  the  nickel-steel  showed  a 
remarkable  resistance  to  cracking.  In  the  same  year  a  steel 
plate  hardened  on  one  face  by  a  process  of  sujjerficial  car- 
bonization was  also  tried  at  Annapolis,  and  showed  phenome- 
nal resistance  to  penetration.  In  1891  the  U.  S.  Xavy  De- 
partment tested  three  [ilates  made  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron 
Company  of  Pennsylvania  by  the  usual  forging  process,  and 
three  made  by  Carnegie.  Phipps  &  Co.  of  Pennsylvania  by 
rolling  in  a  heavy  plate  mill  erected  for  the  imrpose.  Five 
of  these  plates  were  of  nickel-steel  and  three  had  been  sur- 
face-hardened, or  Harveyed,  as  it  was  called  from  the  in- 
ventor of  the  process.  This  test  demonstrated  that  good 
armor  can  be  produced  by  the  rolling  process,  a  fact  of  great 
im]K)rtance.  since  enormous  and  costly  hammers  are  thus 
unnecessary:  that  the  nickel-steel  plates  made  in  the  U.S. 
were  markedly  superior  to  any  armor  that  had  been  public- 
ly tested  abroad  ;  and  that  the  process  of  surface-hardening 
offered  a  probable  means,  after  some  difficulties  were  over- 
come, of  greatly  increasitig  resistanci;  to  perforation.  As  a 
result  of  these  trials  it  is  now  generally  recognized  that 
nickel-steel  is  the  best  material  for  armor  yet  produced,  and 
that  |irogress  for  the  present  at  least  lies  in  the  direction  of 
surfai'e-hardening,  with  the  object  of  breaking  up  projec- 
tiles before  they  can  penetrate. 

The  armor  applied  to  the  jirotection  of  shi])s  is  also  jised 
on  coast  and  frontier  defenses,  but  another  armor,  ill  adapted 
to  naval  use  on  account  of  its  great  weight,  has  also  been 
developed  for  land  fortifications.  The  Gruson  system  con- 
sists in  building  up  ellipsoidal-shaped  turrets  of  very  heavy 
iron  castings,  chilled  on  the  outer  surface,  and  fitted  to- 
gether without  bolts.  This  chilled  cast  iron  w.'is  first  tried 
in  Prussia  in  1868,  and  showed  such  remarkable  resisting 
qualities  in  this  and  many  subsequent  tests  that  it  has  been 
largely  adopted  for  land  fortifications  on  the  Continent. 

SlifiliDih  i)f  Maniifarlure. — Gruson  armor  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: A  plaster  model  of  the  plate  is  first  made,  and  from 
this  a  chill  mold  of  cast  iron  representing  its  outer  face. 
Upon  tliis  a  sand  moW  is  Imilt  up  corres]ionding  to  the 
other  surfaces:  and  finally  tlie  jilate  is  cast  of  specially  se- 
lected iron.  Xo  machining  is  needed,  and  the  use  of  bolts 
is  avoided  by  hollowing  the  ends  and  running  solder  into 
the  cavities  thus  formed  between  the  adjacent  blocks. 
Wrought-iron  armor  is  made  by  piling  a  number  of  slalis  or 
thin  plates  of  wrought  iron  together,  raising  them  to  a  weld- 
ing heat,  and  either  forging  or  rolling  the  mass  into  a  solid 
])late.  Rolled  iron  jilates  were  considered  better  than 
forged  ones. 

Compniind  iirmnr  is  made  liy  Brown  &  Co.  under  the 
Ellis  patents,  as  follows:  .\round  three  sides  of  a  wrought- 
iron  plate  is  fixed  an  iron  or  steel  frame,  to  which  is  bolted 
a  thin  steel  plate,  its  surface  parallel  to  tlie  iron  plate  and  at 
the  desired  distance  therefrom,  and  the  sides  of  the  frame 
having  webs  extending  into  the  space  between  the  two 
plates.  Thus  prepared  it  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature, 
the  exposed  steel  surfaces  protected  tiy  gannister,  and  is 
placed  upright  in  a  pit,  where  a  hydraulic  ram  pushes  a 
movable  iron  |>late  against  it  and  holds  it  firmly  against 
another  iron  plate.  The  space  between  the  iron  and  the 
thin  steel  ])late  is  then  filled  with  molten  steel,  and  the  top 
is  covered  with  sand  and  weighted.  After  cooling,  the  com- 
pound plate  is  reheated,  rolled  to  the  desired  thickness, 
bent,  and  machined  as  required,  Cammel  i:  Co.  make  com- 
pound armor  under  the  Wilson  patents,  the  process  being  as 
follows:  A  wrought-iron  plate.  ]irepared  in  the  usual  way  by 
rolling,  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature  and  slid  horizontally 
into  an  iron  mold  lined  with  refractory  material ;  iron  striiw 


ARAIOR 


ARMSTRONG 


329 


are  then  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  plate,  between  it  and 
the  opposite  face  of  the  niolil.  so  as  to  hol<l  the  plate  firndy 
in  place,  and  the  mold  is  phued  upright  in  a  pit,  whore  it  is 
filled  with  molten  steel,  the  top  hv'uii;  tiieii  covered  witli 
sand  and  weighted.  After  cooling  the  mol<l  is  removed, 
the  plate  rolled  to  the  recjuired  thickness,  reheated,  hent  to 
shape,  and  machined.  Cumpouml  |ilates  are  usually  made 
with  one-third  the  thickness  steel  and  two-thirds  iron. 

Steel  armor,  as  made  l)y  Schneider  &  (.'o.  and  the  Hethle- 
hem  Iron  Cumpaiiy.  is  of  dpen-hearlh  .steel.  An  ingot  of 
approximately  rectangular  cros.s-section  and  about  twice  the 
weight  of  the  finisheil  plate  is  cast,  and  after  cooling  is 
stripped,  reheated,  and  forged  to  the  required  thickness  un- 
der a  HX)-ton  hammer,  the  fii-st  operation  being  forging  the 
upper  end  of  the  ingot  into  a  i)orter-bar  for  handling,  and 
the  entire  operation  reipuriiig  several  lunts.  The  upper 
part  of  the  forging  is  next  cut  olT  under  the  hammer,  and 
the  remainder,  after  cooling,  is  trimmed  nearly  to  size  either 
by  a  saw  or  a  planer;  it  is  then  again  heale<l,  bent  to  shape 
under  a  hydraulic  press,  reheated  to  a  high  tem[)erature, 
plunged  in  oil,  where  it  is  allowed  to  cool,  again  heated  to 
a  somewhat  lower  temperature  in  a  clo.sed  furnace,  and  al- 
loweil  lo  cool  there  slowly.  Lastly  it  is  machined  to  size, 
the  bolt-holes  are  bored  and  tiip]ied.  and  the  curvature  is 
rectified  uniler  the  bending-press  at  a  low  heat  not  sullicient 
to  un<lo  the  work  of  the  previous  oil  tempering  and  ainieal- 
ing.  The  manufacture  of  steel  armor  by  rolling  is  similar 
to  the  above,  except  that  instead  of  being  forged  the  ingot, 
after  reheating,  is  passed  back  and  furtli  through  heavy 
rolls  which  reduce  its  thiekni'ss  several  inches  at  each  pass, 
water  orsjdt  being  thrown  on  the  surface  from  lime  to  time 
to  break  up  the  liard  scale.  The  rnlling  operation  reduces 
the  ingot  to  a  jilate  of  the  desired  thickness  in  a  single  heat, 
but  the  tempeniture  of  rolling  is  higher  than  needed  in  the 
forging  operation,  where  immei\se  hammers  are  used,  and  it 
is  on  this  account  that  it  has  been  generally  supposed  that 
the  resulting  i)late  would  have  a  coarser  texture  and  be  in- 
ferior to  the  forged  plate.  In  nniking  nickel-steel  armor 
enough  nickel  is  added  to  the  furnace  charge  to  give  about 
3  per  cent,  in  the  ingot,  the  reiiniining  operations  being  the 
same  as  in  making  steel  armor. 

linrkiiiji  and  Fanteiiiiij/tt. — .Armor  was  first  applied  to 
wooden  ships,  but  when  iron  and  steel  ships  succeeded  these 
it  was  found  necessary  to  interpose  a  certain  thickness  of 
wood  between  the  skin-plating  of  the  ship  and  the  armor  to 
decrease  injury  to  the  snip's  side  from  impact  of  shot,  and 
to  provide  a  surface  that  couM  be  trimmed  to  exactly  fit 
the  plates  as  manufactured.  This  backing  is  of  oak  or  teifk, 
and  in  modern  ship-design  is  usually  of  moderate  thieknes.s. 
In  fortifications  masoiny  has  been  usimI  fur  backing  with 
great  advantage.  From  the  first  iiuich  trouble  was  experi- 
enced with  fastenings,  the  thnaigh  bcilts  originally  used 
causing  leaks,  and  snapping  at  the  bottom  screw-thread 
when  the  plate  was  struck.  These  ilefects  were  remedied  by 
using  bolts  like  wood-screws,  extending  not  <|uitc  through  the 
ba('king.  The  bolts  now  used  are  forged  steel,  pass  llu'ough 
the  skin-plating  and  backing,  and  screw  into  the  pliUe  from 
2  to  ;i  inches.  They  have  shanks  of  reduced  dnuneter  to 
prevent  breaking  at  the  thread  :  are  packed  with  hard  rub- 
ber to  i)revent  leakage  arounil  th<>m  :  an<l  have  rubber  wash- 
ers under  the  luit-heads.  With  sleel  armor  oiu^  l)()lt  is  used 
to  about  every  4i  sq.  feet  of  plate,  and  the  diameters  vary  from 
1^  inches  for  thin  plates  to  ;ii  inches  for  thick  jilates.  With 
compound  armor  the  bolts  are  larg<T  and  f<'Wer  in  luimlier. 

Dispiisitiim  and  L'lix. — The  armor  of  modern  ships  has  a 
twofold  end:  to  prevent  the  efleetive  use  by  an  enemy  of 
explosive  shell  containing  large  bursting  charges,  compel- 
ling rescjil  to  armor-piercing  shell,  which  are  practically  solid 
shot;  and  to  prevent  destruction  of  a  slii])  liy  a  single  blow 
from  a  heavy  projectile.  For  the  first  purpose  the  armor 
need  only  be  thin  and  should  cover  a  wide  area  ;  to  be  elTec- 
tive  for  the  second  ipuijimisc  it  must  be  concentrated  about 
the  more  vital  parts.  These  svsteins  are  both  used,  and  in 
the  largest  ships  a  combination  of  the  two  is  found.  At 
first  sight  it  would  appear  that  a  means  of  greatly  increas- 
ing the  protective  power  of  armor  wotdil  consist  in  ])lacing 
it  so  lus  to  receive  the  shot  at  a  sharp  angle,  liut  luimerous 
experiments  have  shown  that  where  a  given  area  is  to  be 
covered  with  a  fixed  weight  no  advantage  is  gained  by  in- 
clining the  plates,  sinci'  every  increase  of  indimition  re- 
quires a  decrease  of  thickness  to  keep  the  total  weight  within 
the  limit  allowed.  The  principle  of  incliin'il  armor  is.  how- 
ever, largely  use<l  in  protective  decks  which  cover  the  pro- 
pelling machinery  and  in  shields  for  the  defense  of  guns' 


crews.  Till'  imirked  superiority  of  guns  to  armor  on  the 
firing-ground  has  leil  to  the  opinion  that  the  u.se  of  armor 
will  ere  long  be  abandoned,  but  the  circumstances  of  naval 
warfare  are  such  as  to  greatly  increase  the  value  of  armor 
over  that  .shown  in  experiments,  and  it  is  probable  that  as 
long  as  ships  of  war  are  built  armor  will  be  used  for  one  or 
both  of  the  purposes  desi-ribed  al)ove.      PniLU'  K.  Aluer. 

Armnr'ictt  [Lat.;  supposed  to  be  from  Celtic  tir.  upon  + 
mor.  M'li]:  ihv  aiu-ient  name  of  the  northwestern  part  of 
Gaul,  bordering  on  the  ocean,  and  extending  from  the  Seine 
to  the  Loire.  The  Armoricans  had  numerous  ships,  and 
were  extensively  eiig.'iged  in  maritime  jairsuits.  Abimt  400 
A.  I).  Mariadec.a  Urilon.  olitained  the  chief  power  in  .\rmor- 
ica,  which  became  an  independent  stale.  In  consequence  of 
the  innnigration  of  Hritons  or  Welsh  in  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century,  the  name  of  Armorica  was  changed  to  Hretagne. 
The  language  of  the  country  is  closely  allied  to  the  Welsh. 

Arms  [Lat.  (ir'mn]:  weajions  of  war;  <ifTensive  weapons 
or  instruments,  which  are  divisible  into  two  great  classes — 
firearms  and  arms  which  are  used  without  gunpciwder  or 
any  ex|>losive  substance.  The  latter,  wliich  are  the  more 
ancient,  are  the  sword,  spear,  dart,  javelin,  lance,  arrow, 
battle-axe,  cutlass,  dagger,  dirk,  bayonet,  .scimetar.  pike, 
sling,  etc.  The  principal  varieties  of  firearms  are  described 
under  the  heads  Artillery.  Ordxaxce.  M  agazixe-ouns,  and 
Small-ar.ms.  Arms  for  both  war  and  the  cha.«e  have  been 
used  from  the  most  remote  time.  Beautifully  finished  speci- 
mens of  stone  axes  or  tomahawks,  arnnv  and  spear  head.s, 
an<l  stone  knives  or  daggers  have  been  found  with  the  re- 
mains of  prehistoric  men.  The  bow  and  arrow  seem  to  have 
reached  a  somewhat  high  state  of  perfection  at  a  very  early 
age.  The  most  ancient  sculptures  show  missile  and  cutting 
arms  (litfering  but  little  from  the  more  modern  forms. 

A  .sffDid  of  arms  is  a  complete  set  necessary  for  arming 
one  soldier. 

Arms,  iir  .Xrninrial  Hearings:  See  Heraldry. 

Arill'strong.  Kavio  .Maiti.axd:  genre  and  decorative 
painter;  b.  in  New  York:  contemporary;  pupil  of  Luc 
( )livier  Merson.  Member  of  the  .Society  of  American  Artists 
and  Andiiliyetural  League.  New  York.  Legion  of  Iloniu-, 
1878.     Studio  in  New  York.  \V.  A.  ('. 

.\rmstrong.  CrEoiioK  Donn.  D.  D.,  LL.  1). :  a  brother  of 
Dr.  \V.  .1.  .\rmstnirig;  li.  at  ^leiidham.  N.  .1..  Sept.  !">.  181;^; 
graduated  at  Princetiin  in  IKV2.  studied  theology  in  Uinon 
Seminary.  I'rince  Kdward  co..  Va.,  was  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry and  M<'chaiii<-s  in  Washington  College,  Lexington.  \'a. 
(l8iS8-.")l).  and  .since  then  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in 
Norfolk,  Va.;  became  paxfor  emerifiix  ^Sd}.  He  has  been  a 
large  contribut<ir  to  perindicals  and  has  published  77i(-  Sum- 
mer of  I  lie  Pextih'iirr  (Vh\\:i.  18")(i);  The  Dm-trhic  of  liap- 
fixms  (N.  Y..  18.")7);  7'/ie  Clirivfian  Dortriiu'  of  Slarcn/ 
(1858):  The  Thi-olo<jii  of  Chrifitian  E.rpi-n'fiicf  (18G0);  Tfie 
Sacranif/ifx  of  f/ie  S'eir  Testament  (1880) :  Tlie  Hooks  of 
Xaturf  iinil  lievelation  (1886). 

Armstrong.  (Ieorge  Frani'is  :  poet;  b.  near  Dublin.  .May 
5.  184");  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  professor  in 
(Jueen's  College,  Cork,  1871  :  author  of  Poems,  Li/riral  and 
Dramatic  (2d  ed.  1872);  Uqone  (1870);  Israel  (187'2-7(i):  and 
Jle/iliistoplieles  in  Ji  road  clot  I)  (1888). 

Armstrong.  .Iamks  :  commodore  I*.  S.  N.;  b.  at  Shelliy- 
ville.  Ky..  .Ian.  17.  1794;  enli-red  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
in  180!*:  was  captured  by  the  British  while  serving  in  the 
Frolic  in  1814:  received  the  regular  |ironiotions.  becominga 
captain  in  1841.  commandiiig  the  Fast  India  s([uadron  (18,>>- 
58).  and  captured  the  Harrier  Forts  in  the  Canton  river  in 
1857.  .Ian.  12,  181)1.  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  Peiisa- 
cola  navv-vard  to  a  greativ  superior  force  of  Confederates. 
D.  Aug.  27,  1868. 

Armsfronfir, -Tames:  Canadian  jurist ;  b.at  Herlliier.  P.  Q., 
Apr.  27,  1821.  lie  was  a<lmitted  to  the  bar  in  1844.  was 
ai>i)ointe(l  (pieen's  counsel  in  1867.  and  sidiseciueiitly  became 
chief  justice  of  Tobago.  W.  I.,  which  he  held  conjuinlly  with 
the  chief  justiceship  of  St.  Lucia  till  his  resignalinii  in  IHS'2. 
He  was  inslrumcMt.'d  in  introducing  the  Fiiglish  criminal 
law  into  the  islands.  He  was  made  a  Companion  of  the 
Order  of  S(.  Jlichael  and  .St.  George  in  1857.  Since  his  re- 
turn to  Canada  he  has  been  jiresident  of  the  Jlontreal  and 
Sored  Railway,  aii<l  has  written  many  valuable  treatises  on 
law.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Armstrong,  John.  51.  D.  :  physician,  poet,  and  mi.scella- 
neous  writer;  b.  in  parish  of  Castleton.  Roxburghshire,  Scot- 


330 


ARMSTROXG 


ARMY 


land,  about  1709;  received  degree  of  M.  D.  from  Edinburgh 
University  in  1732,  and  went  to  London  to  practice.  He 
was  not  famous  as  a  physician,  but  he  was  popular  as  a  poet. 
His  best  linown  poems  are  the  EeoJtomy  of  Love  (1737).  and 
Art  of  Preserving  Health  (1744).  D.  in  London,  Sept.  7, 
1779. 

Armstrong,  John  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Carlisle.  Pa.,  Xov.  25. 
1758.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war  with  the  rank  of 
major.  He  was  the  author  of  the  anonymous  and  celeljratcd 
JVeii'/iurg  Add  resides,  written  in  JIarch,  1783,  in  order  to 
obtain  trnm  Congress  a  payment  of  the  money  due  to  the 
officers  of  the  army.  He  was  a  member  of  the  old  Congress, 
and  in  1800  was  sent  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  New  York. 
He  was  sent  as  minister  to  France  in  1804,  and  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  in  .January,  1813.  He  was  censured  be- 
cause he"  failed  to  defend  Washington  in  1814.  and  resigned 
in  September  of  that  vear.     D.  at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  1, 

i84;:j. 

Armstrong:,  John:  li.  in  the  north  of  Ireland  in  1725; 
commanded  successfnlly  the  expedition  sent  in  1756  against 
the  Indian  allies  of  the  French  at  Kittanning;  served  as 
brigadier-general  in  the  Revolutionary  army  at  Port  Moul- 
trie, and  eomnumded  the  militia  at  Brandywine  and  German- 
town.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  (1778-bO  and  1787-88). 
D.  at  Carlisle,  Pa..  Mar.  9,  1795. 

Armstrongr,  Samuel  CH.1PMAS:  educator;  b.  at  Wailuka, 
Maui,  Hawaiian  islands,  where  his  father  was  a  missionary. 
Jan.  30,  1839;  educated  at  Oahu  College  and  Williams  Col- 
lege, Mass.  (graduated  1862);  after  being  chief  clerk  of  the 
Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Hawaii  islands,  entered 
the  Union  army  as  captain,  1862 ;  became  brevet  brigailier- 
general  1865  ;  superintendent  of  ten  counties  in  Virginia  in 
Freedman's  Bureau,  1866-68;  principal  of  Hampton  Normal 
and  Agricultural  Institute  (1868),  from  which  time  he  de- 
voted his  life  with  eminent  success  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Negro  and  Indian  races.     D.  at  Hampton,  \  a..  May  11, 1893. 

Armstrong'.  Lord  (formerly  .Sir)  William  George,  C.  B., 
LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.S. :  mechanical  engineer,  etc. ;  b.  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  in  1810.  He  was  educated  at  the 
school  of  Bishop-Auckland,  Durham,  and  articled  to  a 
solicitor  of  Newcastle,  whose  partner  he  subsequently  be- 
came. A  strong  bent  for  scientific  pursuits  diverted  him 
from  the  law.  He  early  investigated  the  subject  of  electric- 
ity. In  1840  a  workman  of  Newcastle,  having  put  one  hand 
in  the  steam  V)lowing  off  from  a  high-pressure  engine  while 
his  other  hand  was  on  the  lever  of  the  valve,  received  a 
j)owerful  electric  shock.  The  investigation  of  this  case  by 
Armstrong  led  to  the  invention  of  the  hydro-electric  ma- 
chine, which  far  surpassed  any  ordinary  machine  in  the 
quantity  of  electricity  furnished  in  a  given  time.  For  this, 
while  very  young,  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Arts.  lie  then  invented  the  hydraulic  crane,  and  the  "ac- 
cumulator "  to  furnish  an  artificial  head  for  working  hydrau- 
lic machines,  and  he  extended  the  application  of  hydraulic 
power  to  machines  of  every  kind.  lie  founded  the  Elswick 
engine-works  for  the  construction  of  this  machinery.  In 
1854  he  invented  the  rifled  ordnance  gun  that  bears  his 
name.  In  1858  the  gun  was  recommended  for  adoption. 
and  upon  presenting  his  patents  to  the  British  Government 
Mr.  Armstrong  was  knighted,  made  a  C.  B.,  and  ai>pointed 
engineer  of  rified  onluanee.  Between  1858  and  1870  the 
Armstrong  gun  underwent  many  changes;  the  breech-load- 
ing feature  was  aliandoned,  but  the  general  principle  of  its 
construction — by  which  coiled  bars  are  shrunk  one  over  the 
other  upon  a  lube  made  with  the  fiber  lengthwise — was 
retained.  The  system  is  applied  to  all  sizes,  from  the  6- 
jiounder  to  the  600-priunder.  Within  three  years  he  fur- 
nished 3.000  guns  to  till'  |{riti>h  service. 

In  ls6:!  Sir  William  resigned  his  position  with  the  Govern- 
ment and  rejoineil  the  Elswick  company,  which  has  become 
one  of  the  most  important  works  of  Europe,  constructing 
not  oidy  guns  but  armor  and  armored  ships  for  various  gov- 
ernments. Ill  1863  he  was  president  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  Newcastle-npon-Tyne,  when  he  drew  attention  to  the 
probable  exhaustion  of  the  coal  of  Great  Britain  at  some 
future  time.  lie  was  made  a  member  of  a  royal  com- 
mi.ssion  to  irupiire  into  this  suVjject  and  make  report.  He 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  the  I  niversity 
of  Cambridge  in  1862  and  that  of  I).  C.  L.  from  Oxford  in 
1870.  Lord  .\rmst  rong  is  a  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath, 
of  the  Danish  order  of  Daimebrog,  of  the  Austrian  order 
of  Francis  Joseph,  and  of  the  Brazilian  order  of  the  Rose. 
He  is  also  a  (irand  Officer  of  the  Italian  order  of  SS.  Maurice 


and  I>azarus  since  1876.  Lord  Armstrong  is  active  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  patent  laws  of  Great  Britain,  and  has  worked 
for  their  repeal.  He  has  been  president  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers,  of  the  Institution  of  Jlechanical  Engi- 
neers, and  of  the  Newcastle  Literary  and  Philosophical  So- 
ciety. He  was  made  a  peer  in  1887,  the  year  of  the  queen's 
jubilee,  under  the  title  of  Baron  Armstrong. 

William  Rich  Hutton. 

Army  [from  O.  Fr.  armee,  Jlod.  Fr.  armee.  ultimately 
from  Lat.  nrmo^Hs.  armed,  ormn.  arms]:  the  entire  organ- 
ized land  forces  of  a  nation,  or  a  force  of  considerable  size 
so  organized,  armed,  and  equipped  as  to  be  able  to  act  inde- 
pendently or  in  combination  with  others. 

In  the  first  sense  we  speak  of  the  anng  of  the  Vnited 
Stales,  the  French  army,  etc.  In  the  second  we  include  such 
forces  as  the  Array  of  the  Potomac,  the  first,  second,  or  third 
German  armies,  etc..  and  also  organized  bodies  sometimes 
of  less  size  which  take  their  names  from  their  duties.  For 
instance,  a  covering  armi/.  which  interposes  itself  between 
the  enemy  and  some  place  to  be  secured  or  protected ;  a 
blockading  army,  which  surrounds  a  place  and  prevents  in- 
gress and  egress ;  an  army  of  ohservation.  vihi(;h  is  held  in 
close  proximity  to  an  enemy,  watching  his  movements,  but 
generally  avoiding  an  engagement ;  and  many  others  whose 
names  sufficiently  indicate  their  duties. 

The  characteristic  feature  which  separates  an  army  from 
a  mob  is  its  organization,  by  which  is  meant  that  system  of 
subordination  which  enables  one  man  to  control  the  entire 
mass  and  move  it  in  accordance  with  his  will.  This  implies 
a  subdivision  of  the  mass  into  units  of  such  small  size  that 
the  conmiander  of  each  one  can  personally  sujiervise,  direct, 
and  control  the  movements  of  each  man  in  it.  This  is  the 
unit  of  combat,  whether  called  a  tetrarchia  by  the  Greeks  or 
a  company,  troop,  or  battery  at  the  present  time,  and  has 
varied  in  numbers  at  different  epochs  with  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent weajions.  from  about  60  to  250  men. 

These  units  of  combat  combine  to  form  tactical  units, 
which  while  small  enough  to  be  under  the  personal  obsei-- 
vation  and  control  of  one  man  are  yet  large  enough  to  be 
an  efficient  factor  in  attack  or  defense,  and  when  acting 
alone  may  use  their  subdivisions  for  successive  attack,  mu- 
tual support,  etc.  In  modern  armies  the  tactical  unit  of 
infantry  is  the  battalion. 

For  administrative  purposes,  such  as  supphing  clothing, 
food,  arms,  etc.,  and  for  recruiting  and  keeping  records,  the 
tactical  units  are  united  into  units  of  administration,  now 
called  regiments. 

The  regiments  are  again  united  into  brigades,  the  bri- 
gades into  divisions,  the  divisions  into  corps,  and  the  corps 
into  armies.  Each  of  these  subdivisions  in  turn  is  con- 
trolled l)y  its  immediate  commander,  who  holds  those  be- 
neath him  to  a  strict  accountability,  and  is  himself  similarly 
held  liy  his  superiors. 

It  is  evident  tliat  by  this  system  of  subordination  in  com- 
mand, sometimes  called  the  "  military  hierarchy,"  the  com- 
mander of  the  army  can  control  each  and  every  man  in  the 
army,  an<l  that  the  relative  command  and  responsibility  of 
each  sidxirdinate  can  be  fixed. 

Coexistent  with  this  organization,  and  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  its  existence,  is  a  proper  state  of  discipline  in  the 
army.  This  discipline  is  not  limited  (as  is  popularly  sup- 
posed) to  training  the  men  in  the  use  of  their  arms  and  the 
details  of  military  drill.  Init  includes  thoroughly  instnu-t- 
ing  botli  officers  and  men  in  their  ndlitary  duties,  and  in 
developing  in  them  a  respect  for  the  authority  of  their 
superiors  and  a  devotion  to  their  duty  which  will  cause 
them  to  implicitly  obey  the  orders  given  them,  even  to  the 
unhesitating  sacrifice  of  their  own  lives.  These  elementary 
principles  of  army  organization,  which  are  the  outgrowth  of 
the  experience  of  the  world,  being  understood,  tlie  reader  is 
at  once  enal)led  to  decide  to  what  extent  the  armed  forces 
of  a  nation  are  entitled  to  be  called  an  army  as  distin- 
guished from  a  mob. 

It  must  not  be  infeiTed  that  magnificent  results  have 
not  l>een  attained  by  the  struggles  of  nations,  who.  actuated 
by  patriotism,  religious  fervor,  or  some  other  strong  emo- 
tion, have  fought  as  individuals  or  in  hands  without  being 
formed  into  armies  properly  so  called ;  but  such  results  have 
been  possilile  only  when  every  man  of  the  nation  was  aroused, 
and  even  then  at  a  much  greater  cost  of  life  than  would 
have  been  necessary  with  an  organized  army. 

Before  describing  the  organization  of  modern  armies  a 
short  resume  will  be  given  of  ancient  and    mediaeval  ones. 


ARMY 


331 


sketcliinj;  their  development  only,  since  the  progressive 
irrowth  of  the  ilitTeretit  iirins  is  ^'wvn  in  more  or  less  detail 
in  the  articles  Artii.i.i:rv,  Cavai.uv.  IsFANrnv.  etc. 

In  the  earliest  stajre  (if  civilizati'iii  armies,  strictly  speak- 
ing, did  not  exist;  the  active  men  of  the  tribes  were  all 
warriors,  while  the  old  men,  women,  and  children  looked 
after  the  sii]iplies,  etc.,  as  anions  the  sava;;esand  harbarians 
of  to-dav.  the  ilitTerent  bands  tifjlitiiii;  amonj;  themselves  or 
uniting  for  a  foray  or  common  defense  as  circumstances 
misrhl  determine. 

TliK  Kiji/iilifin  Arm;/. — History  points  to  Kfjypt  as  the 
first  nation  to  establish  a  military  oricanizution  which  may 
be  called  an  army.  I'nder  Sesostris  the  nation  was  divided 
into  thirty-six  provinces,  in  each  of  which  a  warrior-class 
raised  a  contingent,  all  of  which  when  united  gave  an  army, 
stated  by  Diodorus  Siculus  to  consist  of  tJOO.IlOO  infantry. 
•.J4.000  cavalrv.  and  2",0tH)  chariots  (probably  an  exaggerated 
estimate).  'I'lie  army  was  commanded  by  thi'  king  in  per- 
son, assisted  by  his  ciinipanions.  who  like  himself  had  been 
trained  for  war  by  his  father.  Amenophis.  With  this  army, 
which  seems  to  have  been  well  dnlled,  disciplined,  and 
commanded,  he.  in  a  campaign  of  some  nine  years,  ma<le 
his  extended  conquests  in  Africa,  India,  Tartary,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

After  these  concpiests.  liowever.  the  Egj-ptian  army  as- 
sumes no  further  proininence  as  an  aggressive  fon^e. 

The  tactical  formation  of  its  infantrv  seems  to  have  been 
in  solid  squares  of  UM)  front  ami  deilth.  or  total  of  10.000 
men.  But  little  is  known  of  its  cavalry,  which  was  not  a 
prominent  arm. 

I'lTsidu  Arm;/. — The  Persian  army,  at  tirsi  mainly  cavalr)', 
starting  out  from  the  sterile  mountains,  gradually  extended 
its  conquests  through  the  more  fertile  surrounding  regions, 
garrisoning  the  cities  and  <K-cupying  the  country  with  the 
native  Persians  known  as  the  '"  king's  troops." 

Each  province  was  un<ier  a  military  commander  who  was 
responsilile  for  the  trooj)s  of  his  province,  who  were  annu- 
allv  nuistered  and  inspec'tcd. 

These  troops  made  up  the  standing  army.  efFicient  for 
clefense  against  ordinary  inroads  and  insurrections. 

In  case  of  foreign  war  this  army  was  supplemented  by 
the  addition  of  a  militia  force  collected  from  tdl  the  prov- 
inces and  concpiered  nations,  nuiking  up  a  nuiss  of  troops 
immense  in  nundiers  but  of  little  organization  or  discipline. 

The  army  which  Darius  led  against  Alexander  was  of 
this  character  and  verv  large,  stated  bv  historians  to  consist 
of  from  750.000  to  l.(MM).OIM)  men.  That  it  so  easily  fell  be- 
fore Alexander  must  be  due  to  its  heterogeneous  character 
and  lack  of  organization,  rather  than  to  the  lack  of  fighting 
power  of  the  Persians  themselves,  who,  except  as  cavalry 
which  retaiiu'd  its  old  efliciency,  nuidc  up  but  a  small  part 
of  this  force. 

Tim  Greek-  Armies. — The  armies  of  the  Greek  states  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  infantry,  their  leaders  fighting 
either  on  foot  with  the  men  or  in  chariots.  Their  military 
system  was  rather  that  of  a  state  militia  than  of  a  standing 
army,  since  but  few  garrisons  were  maintained  and  the  men 
were  called  nut  only  when  needed,  returning  to  their  homes 
when  the  war  was  over. 

Their  frecpient  wars,  however,  domestic  and  foreign,  to- 
gether with  their  acceptance  of  service  as  mercenaries,  kept 
them  in  constant  fanuliarity  with  war.  And  the  fact  that 
it  was  the  proud  duty  and  privilege  of  every  freeman  to 
bear  arms,  while  slaves  only  were  called  upon  to  work,  led 
them  to  keep  themselves  fitted,  by  constant  military  train- 
ing and  [ihysical  exercise,  to  take  their  place  and  jiroperly 
perform  their  iluties  in  the  phalanx. 

The  Athenian  freeman  was  enrolled  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
and  for  two  yeai-s  was  kept  upon  home  service  :  from  twenty 
to  forty  he  was  liable  to  service  anywhere.  But  very  few- 
were  exempt.  The  more  wealthy  were  allowed  to  serve  in 
the  cavalry,  but  the  nuiss  of  the  army  was  infantry.  The 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Athenian  troops  was  the  vigor 
and  dash  of  their  attack. 

The  Spartans,  under  the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  were  subjected 
to  rigid  disci[iline,  unquestioning  obedience,  endurance  of 
pain  and  fatigue,  and  contenqit  of  danger.  They  were 
under  constant  drill,  training,  and  exercise,  nuirc  so  in 
peace  than  in  war :  since  in  war  they  were,  so  far  as  possible, 
relieved  of  laborand  fatigue  by  slaves,  baggage-wagons. etc.. 
so  that  they  might  be  fresh  for  battle. 

Every  citizen  was  called  upon  lor  military  duty,  and  their 
term  of  service  was  between  the  ages  of  twi'iity  and  sixty. 

Macedonia,  although  rising  into  civilization  later  than  the 


above-mentioned  states,  became  the  leading  state  of  Greece. 
Under  the  reign  of  Philip  she  built  up  a  standing  army 
whose  organization  was  developed  from  but  improved  upon 
that  of  tlie  other  states. 

At  Philip's  death,  .just  as  he  was  about  to  invade  Persia,  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  the  Great,  who  with  the 
army  soju'ovided  commenced  his  wonderful  career  of  con- 
ques't.  Ilis  actual  force  at  the  outset  was  about  35,000  men, 
of  which  belwei-n  4.000  and  5.000  were  cavalry,  about  5.000 
foreign  mercenaries.  I'J.ODO  Miicedoiiians.  and  Ki.OOO  Greeks 
of  other  states  and  allies.  Recruits  subsequently  sent  to  his 
army  brought  up  its  strength  toabout  ()O,tX)0  men.  constitut- 
ing two  grand  phalanxes;  the  heavy  trooiis  armeil  with  the 
sarissa  or  i)ike.24  feet  long.the  light  troops  with  the  javelin, 
sling,  etc.  The  foriuation  of  the  Greek  infantry  was  in  the 
Pn.u.ANX  ((/.  r.).  'l"he  small  size  of  this  con((iieriiig  army  is 
the  strongest  proof  of  its  excellence  in  individual  courage 
and  skill,  and  in  its  organization,  discipline,  and  tactics. 

The  liiimiin  (iriiii/,  like  the  Greek,  was  made  up  originally 
from  free  citizens  only.  Every  Koman  citizen  was  liable  to 
military  service  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-six. 
Yearly  levies  were  ordered  liy  the  Senate,  and  from  them 
were  selected  the  new  men  re(|uired.  They  were  thoroughly 
trained  in  the  arts  of  fighting,  camping,  fortifying,  and  in 
marching,  working,  carrving  their  heavv  arms,  equipmeids, 
etc. 

The  cavalry  was  recruited  from  tlie  families  of  rank.  One 
regiment  of  ten  turma".  each  of  thirty  men,  was  attached 
to  the  legi(ui.  constituting  about  6  per  cent,  of  its  entire 
.strength.  The  earlier  tactical  formation  of  the  infantry  was 
the  legion  of  ten  maniples. 

Under  Marius  we  first  find  slaves  fighting  among  the  le- 
gionaries, and  at  about  the  same  time  the  replacement  of 
the  maniple  by  the  cohort. 

These  changes  seem  to  mark  the  epoch  at  which  that  de- 
cadence of  the  Roman  army  began  which  ended  in  its  suc- 
cumbing to  the  barbarians  of  the  north.  The  organization 
and  anus  of  the  legion,  maniple,  and  cohort,  are  described 
in  the  article  Ixfaxtry  {(/.v.). 

Mediii'rril  Armie.% — The  Franks  and  Germans  in  their 
warfjire  against  the  Romans  were  organized  by  tribes  and 
families  united  into  larger  masses,  who.  under  the  direction 
of  some  selected  nder.  fought  usually  in  their  wedge-sha)ied 
columns  of  attack,  aided  by  their  cavalry  and  light  infantry, 
the  latter  at  the  time  a  cor/ix  d'elite.  but  which  at  a  much 
later  date  lost  this  character,  and  the  foot  troops  became 
merely  attendants  upon  the  mounted  men  or  knights. 

Alltlie  freemen  of  these  tribes  were  entitled  to  bear  arms, 
and  In  (leace  claimed  ]ierfect  liberty  and  a  voice  in  deciding 
all  public  questions.  In  war.  commanders  were  elected  and 
given  absolute  power.  The  more  ambitious  of  these  com- 
manders, uniting  contiguous  tribes  for  defense  or  conquest, 
gradually  gathered  around  themselves  bands  of  retainers, 
whom  they  rewarded  by  allotting  to  them  booty  and  lands 
gained  by  con(|Uest.  Soon  the  acce|itance  of  these  gifts  was 
made  eifuivalent  to  a  pledge  of  future  service,  and  by  this 
means  they  increased  the  number  of  their  retainers,  aug- 
mented their  p!iwiu-.  and  subji'cted  the  freemen  who  were 
not  among  their  followers  to  oppressions  and  exactions  of 
all  sorts,  until  they  became  in  all  things  subject  to  the  petty 
suzerains,  and  the  feudal  system  was  established. 

The  feudal  armies  were  composed  of  knights,  men  iit  arms, 
and  vassals,  who  were  called  out  as  needed,  and  when  dis- 
banded returiu'd  to  their  ordinary  pursuits.  The  fighting 
I  pi iwer rested  in  the  knights;  the  infantry. being  poorlyariued 
and  eiiuipped  and  almo.sl  without  organization  or  training, 
were  held  in  contempt. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  centun',  however,  the 
victories  of  the  Swiss  pikemen  over  the  chivalry  of  Hnr- 
guudy.  and  the  establishment  by  Charles  Yll.  of  a  standing 
army,  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  trained  and  organized 
forces  over  the  feudal  luinds.  and  in  ii  di-gree  re-established 
the  prestige  of  well  armeil  and  drilled  fool  troops.  These 
changes  marked  the  lieginning  of  the  downfall  of  the  feudal 
system,  which  was  completed  by  the  almost  universal  estab- 
lishment of  standing  armies  and  the  general  introduction 
of  firearms  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centurv. 

The  standing  armies  of  this  date,  and  up  to  the  French 
Revolution,  were  recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment  from 
the  citizens  or  from  foreign  inerceuaries.  The  organization 
and  tactical  development  of  tlu'  dilTerent  arms  being  given 
under  the  heads  Artii.i.ekv.  t'AVALHV.  I.nfaxtrv.  Tactics, 
War.  etc..  will  not  be  rejieated.  Attention  need  be  called 
here  only  to  the  progres.sive  extension  of  front  and  diminu- 


332 


ARMY 


tion  of  depth  of  formation  resulting  from  iinproTements  in 
firearms,  and  to  tlie  successive  subdivisions  of  tiie  larger 
masses  into  smaller  units,  in  order  to  increase  the  mobility 
of  the  whole  by  the  greater  freedom  of  movement  of  its 
components,  at  the  same  time  retaining  the  control  of  the 
entire  army  under  one  head  through  the  subordination  of 
commanders,  to  which  reference  lias  already  been  made. 

Under  this  progressive  change  the  masses  of  the  Swiss 
infantry  disa|>|3eared,  and  by  the  time  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
during  the  Thirty  Years  war  (1618-48),  were  replaced  by 
lines  with  a  depth  of  six  I'anks,  which  with  the  introduction 
of  the  bayonet  were  still  further  reduced  to  four  ranks. 

Under  the  First  Fredi'dck,  the  "  drillmaster  of  Europe," 
guided  by  Lcci]io]d  of  Dessau,  was  formed  that  army  with 
which  Frederick  the  Great  won  his  Ijattles.  The  infantry 
was  reduced  to  three  ranks  in  depth,  and  by  its  drill,  still 
further  perfected  l)y  the  Second  Frederick,  the  mobility  of 
the  army  was  increased,  the  volume  of  infantry  tire  very 
much  developed,  and  that  system  of  mathematical  accuracy 
of  movement  was  estalilished  which  enabled  him  to  strike 
with  liis  army  as  a  wliole  or  liy  wings,  and  with  a  rapidity 
and  dash  that  securcil  to  him  the  victory  in  almost  every 
ease  in  which  he  c-ould  nianu'uver. 

Frederick's  successes  led  not  only  to  the  peipetuation  of 
his  system  in  Prussia,  but  also  to  its  servile  following  by  the 
other  nations  of  Europe,  Many  traces  of  his  drill  still  re- 
main in  the  armies  of  to-day.  and  are  only  now  disappearing, 
forced  out  by  the  requirements  of  modern  methods  and 
weapons. 

Napoleon,  applying  under  all  varying  circumstances  that 
one  great  principle  of  tactics  which  he  had  learned  by  his 
studies  of  all  previous  campaigns — that  success  results  from 
being  stronger  than  the  enemy  at  the  point  of  actual  conflict, 
irrespective  of  the  total  strength  of  the  two  armies — so  modi- 
fied the  tactical  handling  of  his  armies  that  he  was  able  to 
move  the  smaller  units  independently  to  the  points  at  which 
they  were  to  be  used,  and  there  combine  them  for  the  attack 
or  defense.  From  his  acts  and  writings  have  been  developed 
the  princi[)les  of  the  strategy  and  tactics  which  are  accepted 
as  the  basis  of  tlie  art  of  war,  and  which,  while  most  sim|)le 
in  themselves,  have  been  made  to  appear  by  pedantic  mili- 
tary writers  extremely  al)struse  and  difficult  of  application. 

The  immense  losses  during  the  Napoleonic  wars  so  de- 
pleted the  armies  that  new  methods  of  recniiting  became 
necessary.  In  consecpience  the  "  conscription  "  was  estab- 
lished, by  whicli  every  male  citizen  was  declared  liable  to 
military  service  for  five  years,  and  under  which  every  citi- 
zen between  twenty  and  twenty-ftve  years  of  age  was  en- 
rolled by  name  and  called  out  as  required. 

This  system  has  in  recent  years  lieen  adopted  with  some 
modifications  by  nearly  all  European  nations,  and  has  made 
possible  the  formation  of  the  immense  armies  of  modern 
times. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  the  Prussians  were 
allowed  to  maintain  a  standing  army  of  43.000  men  only: 
but  under  Sdiarnhorst  and  Gneisenau  at  this  time  was 
established  the  "  short -service  system,"  by  which  each  nutn, 
so  soon  as  he  was  trained  in  his  military  duties,  was  setit 
home  and  was  replaced  by  a  recniit.  By  this  method  it 
became  jiossible  to  augment  indefinitely  the  trained  force 
of  the  kingdom. 

'I'liis  system  once  established  became  permanent  in  Prus- 
sia, and,  with  the  necessary  modifications  due  to  the  growth 
of  tlie  state  and  its  relations  to  its  neighbors,  remains  in 
force  at  the  |iresent  time. 

The  other  nations  of  Europe  did  not  seem  to  fully  realize 
the  valiii-  of  tills  system  until  they  were  awakened  by  the 
results  (if  Sadowa  and  the  Franco-German  war.  It  Is  now 
adopted  with  slight  modifications  l)y  almost  all  tlie  natnms 
of  I'.uropi'.  The  tierman  army  has  thus  become  the  model 
upon  which  most  modern  armies  are  formed,  and  a  resume 
of  its  organization  will  be  given  first  in  order.  Many  de- 
tails not  included  in  this  article  will  be  found  in  the  article 
War  (q.  v.). 

(rirman  Armi/. — Under  the  military  laws  of  Germany, 
1867-!)(),  every  able-bodied  citizen  is  liable  to  military  serv- 
ice. Kacli  year  a  muster  is  made  of  all  young  men  who 
have  reaclieil  ihe  age  of  twenty-one  years,  together  with 
those  who  have  been  previously  mustered,  found  not  fully 
qualified,  and  "  postponed  "  for  further  examination.  The 
annual  contingent  is  selected  by  lot.  Those  who  fall  to 
pass  the  inspections  for  lack  of  physical  development  are 
postponed  for  the  next  year's  examination.  (Two  postpone- 
ments are  allowed.)    Those  who  are  permanently  discpiali- 


fied  for  active  service  are  passed  into  the  reserve,  to  be 
called  upon  for  such  service  as  they  are  able  to  perform. 
Those  not  dra,wn  by  lot  pass  into  the  Landsturm.  The 
selected  men  serve  three  years  with  the  colors,  four  years 
in  the  reserve,  five  years  in  the  first  ban  of  the  Landwehr, 
and  seven  years  in  the  second  ban  of  the  Landwehr.  They 
then  pass  into  the  Landsturm,  which  includes  in  addition 
all  men  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-six  who 
are  able  to  bear  arms  and  who  are  not  otherwise  enrolled. 

The  term  of  senice  with  the  colors  is  shortened  to  one 
year  for  volunteers  who  pay  their  own  expenses,  and  fre- 
quently to  two  years  for  men  who  are  thoroughly  trained 
in  their  duties  by  that  length  of  service,  the  design  being 
to  have  in  the  state  the  largest  possible  body  of  trained 
.soldiers  at  the  least  expense. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  nineteen  districts,  each  of 
which  furnishes  an  ariuy-corps.  The  Guard  Corps  is  re- 
cruited from  the  entire  kingdom  of  Pru.ssia.  The  districts 
are  divided  and  subdivided  until  each  battalion.  an<l  even 
each  com|)any,  is  localized,  receiving  its  recruits  from  its 
own  locality,  and  returning  its  reserves  to  it.  The  ty|iica! 
organization  of  an  army-corps  in  time  of  peace  (departures 
from  which  are  made  in  the  Guard  and  Bavarian  Corps, 
which  will  not  be  .specified  here)  consists  of  two  divisions 
made  uji  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  a  brigade  of  field-artil- 
lery, a  regiment  or  less  of  foot-artilleiy,  a  battalion  of  pio- 
neers, and  a  battalion  of  train. 

Each  division  contains  two  lirigades  of  infantry  and  one 
brigade  of  cavalry.  Each  Ijrigaile  (Infant  i-y.  cavalry,  and 
artillery)  cfmslsts  of  two  regiments. 

Each  regiment  of  infantry  contains  three  battalions, 
known  generally  as  gi-enadiei's,  musketeers,  and  fusiliers, 
from  their  older  amis  and  drill.  They  are  now  all  armed 
and  drilled  alike.  The  battalion  is  made  up  of  four  com- 
jianies,  and  its  peace  strength  is  about  o8S  enlisted  men. 
There  are  also  independent  battalions  of  "  Jagers,"  or  rifles 
recruited  from  the  foresters,  gamekeepers,  etc.,  who  are  spe- 
cially skillful  as  riflemen. 

The  infantry  arm  is  the  Mauser  rifle,  model  1888,  with 
fixed  magazine  carrying  five  cartridges  (caliber,  7'8T4  mm. 
=  0'31  in.).  Each  regiment  of  cavalry  consists  of  five 
squadrons  of  183  men  each,  armed  with  the  cavalry  saber, 
lance,  and  JIauser  carbine,  model  1888.  The  cuirassiei-s 
carry  the  straight  sword  or  "  Pallasch  "  instead  of  the  .saber. 

Each  brigade  of  field-artillery  is  made  up  of  two  regi- 
ments, one  consisting  of  three  sections,  each  of  three 
■■mounted"  batteries  usually  of  six  guns:  the  other  regi- 
ment of  three  sections  ■' mounted  "  and  one  section  of  two 
'■  horse-batteries,"  The  total  strength  of  the  field-artillery 
is  277  six-gun  and  110  four-gun  mounted  batteries,  and  "38 
six-gun  and  19  four-gun  horse-batteries.  To  each  artillery 
brigade  there  is  attached  a  battalion  of  train  of  tliree  com- 
panies. There  are  in  addition  fourteen  regiments  of  foot- 
artillery  divided  among  the  army-corps  (caliber  of  field- 
pieces.  88  mm.  =  3'5  in.).  Twenty  battalions  of  pioneers, 
the  railroad  brigade,  and  the  lialloon-conqianles  complete  the 
organization  of  the  combatants;  to  which  must  be  added 
the  non-combatant  or  sii]iply  departments. 

The  total  .strength  of  the  army  in  time  of  peace  In  189'.J 
was  as  follows,  viz. : 


DIVISIONS. 

Staff  and  special  troops 

Infantry.  .53*1  Ijattalions 

Cavniry.  4fi.'»  squadrons 

Field-a'rlillfry.  4:i4  batteries. 

Train.  62  eonipanifs 

Foot-artillery.  31  battalions. . 

Pioneers.  101  companies 

Landwehr.  277  districts 

Totals 


Offlcen. 

2.598 

10,983 

■2,:tel 

2,363 

299 

7-28 

588 

530 


20,440 


Men. 


2..580 
3-28.713 
65,347 
48,397 

6,812 
17.169 
12.7-21 

5,211 


486,983 


Organization   during  War. — The   division   into   twenty 

armv-corps  is  rigidly  maintained  :  these  corjis  are  united 
into  aruili-s  as  re(|ulrl-d.  Each  corps  contains  two  divlsl(jns. 
the  Infant  rv  battalions  of  which  are  brought  up  to  a  strength 
of  about  1.0(10  men:  one  regiment  of  mounted  artillery  of  six 
six-gun  liatlcrles,  one  or  two  companies  of  pioneers,  and  a 
sanitary  detachment. 

The  corps-cavalry  consists  of  one  brigade  of  two  regiinents, 
each  of  four  siiuailrons  of  about  li)0  men.  The  remaining 
artillerv  makes  up  the  "corps-artillery,"  as  distinguished 
from  that  belonging  to  the  divisions; "and  the  trains  con- 
taining artillerv  and  infantry  ammunition,  p(mtoons,  spare 


ARMY 


333 


horses,  bakiTies,  |)rovisioiis,  lunVmhuici's,  etc.,  complete  the 
corps  orfiaiiizatioii. 

The  reimiiiiiiiir  ciiviilry  lirii;iulos  arc  not  attaclied  to  corps, 
but  are  uiiiti'il  in  i  avalrv  ilivisions  provided  with  liorse-ar- 
tillery,  and  these  are  again  combined  into  cavalry  corps,  etc., 
as  reciuiri'd. 

The  reserves  of  all  arms  are  enlled  out.  armed,  equipped, 
und  formed  into  tlieir  pi'oper  divisions,  cle. ;  the  depots  be- 
come centers  of  iveruitin^and  instruction,  under  tlie  charge 
of  the  ollieers  of  the  depot  battalions,  companies,  squadrons, 
or  batti'ries  res|)eetively. 

The  strong  places  are  garrisoned  as  needed  by  the  Land- 
wehr  and  LaTiilsturm. 

The  following  is  given  as  the  most  reliable  estimate  of  the 
effective  wnr-stieiigth  in  18!)"2,  viz.: 

Active  arinv  and  reserve,  le.ss  10  per  cent l.C^^.^SO 

First  ban  of  Landwi-lir.  less  v.1)  per  cent 6()5,.S1K) 

Second  ban  of  I^ndwehr.  less  :iO  per  cent 69:2. WK) 

Officers  of  active  army  and  reserve 3G,tKK) 

Total    a,41G,.'iOO 

The  armies  of  the  otlier  nations  of  Euroiie  having  been 
modelecl  upon  that  of  (Termany.  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
describe  theirorganization  in  detail.  Attention  will  be  called 
only  to  the  marked  departures  from  t!u>  (icrman  sy.stem. 

AiiKlrinn  Anni/. — I'lvery  male  siil)ject  of  the  Austro-IIun- 
garian  emjiire  is  iialile  to  military  service,  beginning  on  the 
first  of  .laimary  of  the  year  in  which  he  reaches  the  age  of 
twenty-one. 

The  contingent  each  vear  is  selected  bv  lot ;  for  the  year 
180;}  it  was  l():i.lO()  men"  for  the  army  an'd  navy,  and  2;i.OOO 
for  the  Landwehr.  A  few  exemptions  are  ma<le.  as  in  the 
ca.se  of  those  prejiaring  for  special  professions,  etc. 

Tlu-  selected  recruits  serve  for  twelv(!  years — three  years 
in  the  line,  seven  in  the  reserve,  and  two  in  the  Landwehr. 
Those  not  drawn  by  lot  pass  into  the  depot  reserves  for 
ten  years  or  the  Landwclir  for  twelve  years.  Tho.se  not  able 
to  bear  arms  pay  an  annual  military  tax  during  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  years.  All  able-bodied  citizens  not  othenvi.se 
enrolled  constitute  the  Landsturm,  of  which  there  are  two 
bans,  the  first  including  all  between  the  ages  of  nineteen 
and  thirty-seven  vears.  the  second  those  between  thirty-eight 
and  forty-two.  'Fhe  Landsturin  can  be  called  out  only  in 
time  of  war. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  fifteen  military  di.stricts,  each 
furnishing  a  corps,  consisting  usually  of  two  divisions  of  in- 
fantry, each  of  two  brigades  of  two  regiments,  one  brigade 
of  cavalry  of  two  or  three  regiments,  and  one  brigade  of 
artillery  consisting  of  one  regiment  of  corps-artillery,  two 
divisions  of  heavy  batteries,  and  one  to  three  battalions  of 
fortre.s.s-artilIery. 

The  two  regiments  of  engineers  and  three  of  pioneers 
have  each  five  l)attalionsof  four  c<impanies  of  lit!  men,  with 
their  briilge-trnins  and  other  equipments.  Tlievan^  attached 
to  the  divisions  as  needed,  generally  l)y  battalions. 

The  infantry  regiment  contains  four  battalions  of  four 
companies,  each  of  ninety-five  men.  armed  witli  the  Mann- 
licher  rifle  (caliber,  8  mm.  =  0'33  in.),  fixed  magazine  carry- 
ing five  cartridges. 

The  cavalry  regiment  lias  six  squadrons  of  about  170  men 
each. 

The  artillery  regiment  is  made  up  of  two  divisions  of  three 
mounted  four-gun  batteries  each,  one  division  of  foot-ar- 
tillery of  three  two-gun  batteries,  the  necessary  battery  wag- 
ons, forges,  etc. 

Some  of  the  regiments  have  in  addition  a  division  of  horse- 
artillery  of  two  six-gun  batteries,  anil  others  a  four-gun 
mountain  bath'rv.  The  guns  are  of  Ucjuitius  bronze  (cali- 
bers. 87,  7").  and  70  mm.  =  :!i.  3,  ami  '23  in.  nearly). 

The  methods  of  recruiling.  mobilization,  etc.,  resemble 
those  ailopted  in  Germany.  'I'he  total  .strength  of  the  army 
on  a  peace  footing  in  1891  was  as  follows,  viz. : 


In  time  of  war  this  effective  would  be  increased  to  about 
the  following  figures,  viz. : 


DIVISIONS. 

Offlcvn. 

Men. 

Staff  and  special  troops 

5.485 

9.153 

1.98S 

1,374 

420 

5M 

380 

1,917 

iR.aso 

179,.50a 

46,8(H 

23.992 

7,.'M6 

9,.5«4 

3,465 

28.495 

Cavalrv,  ■J-'>s  s<[imdr«  'ns  and  4^1  <'n<tres 

Field-arlillery.  '^Ml  batteries  and  70  cadres 

Fortress  artillery.  IH  battalit^ns  and  18  cadres  . . . 

Train,  etc.,  H4  squadrons  and  "ja  cadres 

Landwelir.  171  battalions.  60  squadrons,  and  184 

Totals 

31.301 

816.058 

Staff  and  special  troops. . 

Infantry 

Cavalry 

Field-artillery  

Fortress-artillery 

Enpineers.  etc 

Train 

Landwehr,  Austrian 

Hungarian... 
Landsturm 


Totals. 


45,238 


9,386 

57,068 

12.4,35 

635.118 

2,475 

7I.,580 

1.680 

90,268 

648 

21,798 

705 

46,914 

1,020 

45,f42 

.3.129 

252,960 

4.178 

174.063 

9,583 

431.5W 

1.826.940 


Frfnch  Arm;/. — Under  the  French  military  law  of  1872. 
and  its  modifications  up  to  Nov..  1S!)0,  every  Frenchman  be- 
comes liable  to  military  service  upon  reaching  twenty  years 
of  age,  the  service  to  consist  of  three  years  in  the  active 
army,  seven  in  the  reserve,  six  in  the  territorial  army,  and 
nine  in  the  reserve  of  the  territorial  army.  A  certain  [lor- 
tion  of  each  contingent,  however,  is  relegated  to  the  reserve 
after  two  years' service  in  the  active  army,  and  for  .special 
reasons  a  limited  number  pass  into  the  reserve  after  one  year's 
service. 

Those  found  to  be  not  physically  qualified  for  service 
and  certain  others  partially  exempt  pay  an  annual  mili- 
tary tax. 

The  methods  of  recruiting,  mobilization,  etc..  do  not  ditTer 
materially  from  those  of  Germany. 

There  are  eigliteen  military  districts  in  France  and  one  in 
Algeria,  each  furnishing  and  garrisoned  by  a  corps  d'armee. 
The  typical  corps,  from  which  some  variations  exist,  is  made 
up  of  two  divisions  of  infantry,  a  brigade  of  cavalry,  a 
brigade  of  artillery,  a  liattalion  of  engineers,  a  squadron  of 
train,  and  a  legion  of  gendarmes. 

There  are  also  six  divisions  of  cavalry  not  attached  to  any 
corijs. 

Each  infantry  division  consists  of  two  brigades  of  in- 
fantry. 

Each  cavalry  division  contains  one  brigade  of  cuirassiers, 
one  brigade  of  dragoons,  and  one  brigade  of  chasseurs  or 
hussars. 

Each  brigade  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery  is  made 
up  of  two  regiments. 

The  infantry  regiment  contains  three  battalions  of  four 
companies  each,  and  a  separate  battalion  or  company  for  re- 
cruiting, etc. 

The  battalion  on  a  peace  footing  contains  about  five  hun- 
dred men. 

The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  TiCbel  rifle  (caliber,  8  mm., 
fixed  magazine  holding  eiglit  cartridges). 

The  cavalry  regiments  iiavc  eacli  five  squadrons  of  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  men.  The  firearm  of  the  dragoons, 
chasseurs,  and  hus.sars  is  a  carbine,  that  of  the  cuirassiers  a 
revolver. 

The  nineteen  regiments  of  divisional  artillery  have  each 
twelve  mounted  batteries,  the  nineteen  regiments  of  coips- 
artillery  have  each  nine  mounted  and  three  horse  batteries. 
There  are,  in  addition,  twenty-four  mountain  batteries  in 
Algeria.  Tunis.  Coi-sica,  and  attached  to  the  Fourteenth  and 
Fifteenth  army  corps. 

All  liatteries  have  six  pieces  each,  the  calibers  being  !)0 
mm.  for  mounteil,  80  mm.  for  horse,  and  i)5  mm.  for  the 
foot  batteries. 

The  strength  of  the  army  on  a  peace  footing  in  18!)1  was 
as  follows,  viz. : 


DIVISIONS. 

OIBcen. 

Mm.. 

4.000 
11,712 
3,326 
3,046 
1,158 
483 
8,330 

3  473 

Iiifanti-y.  Ttivl  haltnlions 

('.•ivalry.  17S  s'pmdrons  and  8  companies 

3I8..-.02 
7.'!.00B 

Fortress  artillery.  100  battalions.  54  companies. . 

20,(X18 
12.633 

Train,  etc 

16,1.34 

80,841 

508,686 

In  time  of  war  the  corps  (Varmte  are  united  in  armies  ac- 
cording to  the  needs  of  the  service,  and  all  the  organizations 
are  recruitetl  up  to  their  full  war  footing  from  the  trained 
reserves,  bringing  the  effective  strength  of  a  regiment  of  in- 
fantry un  to  about  3,000  men.  a  regiment  of  cavalry  to  650 
men,  ami  a  mounted  battery  to  about  192  men. 


334 


ARMY 


The  probable  efEective  in  1892  is  estimated  to  be  as  fol- 
lows, viz. : 

Active  and  reserve  army,  less  10  per  cent 1 ,395.000 

Territorial  army,  less  20  per  cent 740.0(t0 

Reserve  of  territorial  army,  less  33  per  cent 81.^,000 

D6pot,  etc iKI.aw 

Total 3.040,000 

The  estimated  total  for  1893  is  3,254.000  men. 

Spani'ih  Army. — Under  the  laws  of  1877-82  military  serv- 
ice is  made  obligatory  in  Spain.  I5eginning  at  the  age  of 
twenty  years  it  continues  for  three  years  in  the  active  army, 
three  in  the  first  reserve,  and  six  in  the  second  reserve.  Ex- 
einptions  can  be  purchased. 

The  kingdom  is  divided  into  ten  conscription  districts; 
but  no  coi'ps.  division,  or  brigade  organizations  exist  in  time 
of  peace.  The  infantry  and  engineer  regiments  consist 
usually  of  two  battalions,  each  of  four  companies.  There 
are  also  a  certain  numlier  of  depot  battalions. 

The  cavalry  consists  of  lancers,  chasseurs,  dragoons,  an<l 
hussars;  each  regiment  of  four  squadrons. 

The  field-artillery  regiment  contains  from  four  to  seven 
batteries,  the  battalion  of  fortress-artillery  from  three  to  six 
companies,  and  tlie  regiment  of  siege-artillery  four  batteries. 

The  total  strength  on  a  peace  footing  is  about  as  follows: 

Infantry 90,327 

Cavalry 13.968 

Artillery 11,340 

Engineers 4,671 

besides  the  train-ambulance,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  active 
armv,  and  the  territorial  troops,  which  bring  the  total  up  to 
about  120,000  men. 

In  time  of  war  the  strength  would  be  increased  to  about — 

Infantry 7:S4,C80 

Cavalry 83,300 

Artillery,  460  guns,  etc 30,350 

Engineers 7,500 

Workmen,  sanitary  troops,  and  territorial  troops 9,570 

Total 805,400 

The  colonial  troops  are  not  included. 

Russian  Aniuj.—VmUv  tlie  laws  of  1874,  1876,  and  1888, 
military  service  is  obligatory.  Christian  clergymen  are  to- 
tally exempt.  Mohammedans  are  exempt  upon  payment  of 
a  fixed  tax,  and  certain  artists  and  members  of  learned  ]3ro- 
fessions  are  exempt  in  time  of  peace.  The  remaining  able- 
bodied  men  are  subject  to  conscription  upon  reaching  the 
age  of  twenty-one. 

The  annual  contingent  for  1892  was  262,400  men.  The 
term  of  service  in  European  Russia  is  five  years  in  the  ac- 
tive army,  thirteen  in  the  reserve,  and  five  in  the  fir.st  ban  of 
the  territorial  army.  In  the  provinces  tliese  periods  differ 
somewhat.  Tliose  able-bcidied  men  between  the  ages  of 
twenty-one  and  forty-one  not  otherwise  enrolled  constitute 
the  first  ban  of  the  territorial  army,  and  those  not  physically 
(jualified  for  active  service  make  up  the  second  ban,  used 
for  local  defense,  etc.  The  first  htm  can  furnisli  about 
1,000,000  men  for  their  annual  drills. 

The  couscri])tion  for  the  t'ossacks  takes  place  at  the  age 
of  nineteen.  Tliey  serve  three  years  in  their  native  villages 
under  instruction,  four  in  active  service  in  the  first  ban,  four 
in  the  second  ban,  four  in  the  third  ban,  and  five  in  deiiot. 
All  other  Cossacks  may  be  called  out  by  the  emperor  for 
natioruil  defense  in  exceptional  cases  during  war. 

European  Russia  is  divided  into  13  conscription  districts, 
some  of  which  furnish  two  to  four  army  corps,  giving  a  total 
of  20  corps.  Each  ('orps  is,  as  a  rule,  made  up  of  2  divisions 
of  infantry,  1  division  of  cavalry,  2  brigades  of  mounted  ar- 
tillery, and  2  horse-batteries.  Owing  to  variations  in  corjis 
organization  the  total  strength  is  48  divisions  of  infantry,  18 
divisions  of  cavalry,  48  brigades  of  mounted  artillery,  and 
31  horse-biitteries. ' 

Eacli  infantry  division  contains  2  brigades  of  2  four-bat- 
talion reginuMits. 

Eacli  l)iittaIion  has  four  companies,  all  armed  with  the 
Benhm  rifii'  ((•alil)er,  l()-7  mm.  =  l)-42  in.). 

The  cavah-y  division  is  made  up  of  2  brigades  of  2  regi- 
ments, eacli  of  6  s(|uadroiis,  armed  with  the  dragoon  rifie 
with  bayonet  and  sahctr.  There  are  iuchuled  in  the  regidar 
cavalry  16  regiments  of  Cossacks.  Kacli  brigade  of  field- 
artillery  has  (i  mounted  batteries  (2  heavy — caliber,  106-8 
mm.  =  4-2  in.,  and  4  light — caliber,  86-!)  nnn.  =  3-4  in.),  each 
in  time  of  pcai-e  of  4  guns,  increased  to  H  in  time  of  war. 
The  horse-batteries  have  6  light  guns.  The  mountain-bat- 
teries have  a  still  lighter  gun  (caliber,  63-5  mm.  =  3'5  in.). 


The  special  troops  do  not  belong  to  the  corps,  but  are  as- 
signed as  needed.  The  infantry  of  the  guard,  the  regiments 
of  grenadiers  and  chasseurs,  the  cavalry,  horse-art' lie ry,  ar- 
tillery of  the  reserve,  and  the  technical  troops  are  recruited 
fn>m  the  empire  at  large. 

The  strength  of  the  army  in  1892  on  a  peace  footing  is 
given  as  follows,  viz. : 


DIVISIONS. 


Infantry,  888i  battalions 

Oavalrj',  356  squadrons 

Field-artillery,  350  batt<^ries. . 

Engineers,  44  companies 

Train. . 


Reserve,  125  liaTtalinns  .and  33  batteries 

Garrison  troops.  2K  tiattalioiis  of  infantry,  54^ 

battalions  and  5  Imtteries  of  artillery 

D^pot  troops 

Cossack  infantry.  OA  battalions 

"       cavalry,  11  squadrons  and  275  sotnias. 

"       artillery,  20  horse-batteries 

Caucasian  militia,  26  sotnias,  horse,  2  sotnias, 

foot 

Custom  or  frontier  guards 


Totals. 


Officer!. 


15,764 
3,263 
2,073 
772 
428 
4,225 

1,742 
302 
150 

1,912 
100 

71 

860 


Men. 


429,383 
59,916 
60,787 
23,547 
7,254 
76,380 

40,501 
4.a36 
4.956 

44.714 
3,340 

3,a58 
28,500 


787,372 


818,0.33  combatants 


Upon  a  war  footing  this  force  is  increased  as  follows,  viz. : 

Officen  and  men. 

Infantry,  889  battalions 876,651 

Cavalry,  360  squadrons,  regulars .'i7.4r4 

Field-artillery,  .353  batteries,  regular 77,5iM 

Engineers,  121  companies 29,944 

Train,  etc 146,398 

Reserve  troops,  527  battalions,  92  batteries,  and  46  com- 
panies    544,578 

Garrison  troops,  143  battalions  of  infantr}',  57i  battalions  of 

artillery,  and  16  field-batteries 210.921 

D^pot  tr'  'ojis.  -JO.")  liattalions.  113  squadrons,  and  48  batteries  290.493 

Cossack  iTMops,  siis  sotnias  and  :B8  batteries 1.54,014 

Caucasian  militia 3,429 

Frontier  guards 39,360 

Total 2,420,746 

Not  counting  the  territorial  army  and  the  Cossack  troops 
available  for  national  defense. 

'J'lirkixh  Arinij. — Uuiler  the  laws  of  1880-88,  military  ser- 
vice in  Turkey  is  compulsory.  The  term  of  service  in  the 
permanent  army  is  three  years  for  the  infantry  and  four  for 
the  other  arms ;  in  the  reserve  three  or  two  years,  in  the 
Landwehr  (redif)  eight,  and  in  the  Landsturm  (nu)ustahfiz) 
six.  Conscrijjts  assigned  to  depots  serve  only  six  months. 
Exemptions  may  be  purchased  after  serving  five  months  in 
the  active  army.  The  army  is  divided  into  seven  corjis  of 
an  organization  similar  to  the  German. 

The  Landwehr  divisions  are  attached  to  and  form  part  of 
the  army-corps. 

Each  infantry  regiment  contains  four  4-company  liattal- 
ions  armed  with  the  Mauser  rifle  (caliber,  11  mm.  =  0'44  in.), 
with  fixed  magazine  holding  eight  cartridges.  There  are 
also  unattached  battalions  of  rifles,  zouaves,  etc. 

The  cavalry  regiments  have  five  squadrons  each,  and  the 
tyjiical  field-iirtilleiy  regiment  has  3  horse.  4  mounted,  and 
2  mountain  batteries;  or  3  sections,  each  of  4  mounted  bat- 
teries. 

The  heavy  artillery  is  organized  in  regiments,  separate 
battalions,  and  companies,  which  will  not  be  described  here. 

The  engineer  ri^giments  contain  either  two  or  three  bat- 
talions. 

The  enlisted  strength  (1891)  is  about  as  follows,  viz. : 

Infantr>-.  243  battalions  of  400  men 97.200 

Cavalrv,  1S5  squadrons  of  160  men 29.600 

Field-artillery,  aiS  si.v-gnn  batteries  of  lOO  men 20,800 

Foi.t  artillery  and  lancers  and  122  companies  of  100  men 12.200 

Eiigiiieers,  TiO  ci  niijianies  of  too  nien 5.0(^) 

Train,  20  companies  of  100  men,   2,000 

Landwehr,  352  cadres  of  10  men 3,.520 

Total 170,420 

To  this  must  be  added  about  1.200  officers.  The  artilleiy 
has  1,248  field  and  mountain  guns  and  2,300  heavy  guns. 
The  troops  not,  serving  with  the  colors  are  27,000  reserves 
on  leave,  37,500  depot  troops,  590.000  Lanilwehr,  and  262,000 
Landsturm  ;  which,  added  to  the  active  force,  gives  a  total 
available  for  an  European  war  of  between  800,000  and 
1,000.000  men. 

Uiilg(irl<m  Army. — Although  under  Turkish  sovereignty, 
tlu!  liulgarian  army  constitutes  a  factor  in  the  European 
armaments. 


ARMY 


335 


Military  service  is  oV)lif;iit<)ry,  bcjcimiing  at  twenty  years 
o(  agi'.  The  term  is  in  the  active  army  two  years  for 
the  infantry  and  three  for  the  other  arms;  then  in  the 
reserve  eight  or  five  yeai-s,  in  the  lirst  ban  of  Lanilwehr 
to  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  and  in  tlie  second  ban  to  forty- 
five. 

Mohammedans  inav  l)uy  an  exemption,  and  some  others 
are  exempt  by  law.  The  annual  contingent  is  about  16,000 
men. 

The  Hulgarian  iiriiicijiality  is  divided  into  six  ilistriots, 
each  furnishing  a  brigade.  The  composition  of  brigades, 
regiments,  etc.,  does  not  differ  materially  tnini  that  previ- 
ously descril>ed.  The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  Mannlicher 
repeating  ritlc  (caliber,  8  mm.),  llie  cavalry  with  the  Herdan 
carbine,  and  the  artillery  with  Krupp  guns  (of  8'T,T-5,  and  7 
em.  caliber).  The  strength  on  a  jjeace  footing  is  about  as 
follows,  viz. : 

0£Bccn  and  men. 

Staff  aiHi  siH-fial  troops 68 

U4  repiiiH'iils  of  infantry.  48  battalions ^.181 

4  repiriients  of  cavalry,  17  s({uadroQS a.981 

6  repiiiifnts  of  artillery,  37  batteries 4,0ti2 

I  sie^e-batttry  aiul  '2  depots 765 

1  regiment  of  engineers 1 .603 

Total 35,650 

In  time  of  war  the  total  force  of  trained  troops  available 
is  estimated  at  :3.30O  ulliccrs  and  138,000  men,  with  an  un- 
trained force  of  Landwehr,  etc.,  of  about  150,000  men  in  ad- 
dition. 

Roumanian  Arm;/. — The  army  of  Roumania,  organized 
under  the  military  laws  of  1876-91,  is  recruited  by  a  general 
conscription  similarto  those  already  described.  It  is  divided 
into  4  army  corps,  containing  33  regiments  and  4  separate 
battalions  of  infantry,  15  regiments  of  cavalry,  8  regiments 
of  artillery,  2  regiments  of  engineers,  and  the  train,  a<lmin- 
istrative  departments,  etc.,  which  in  time  of  peace  make  up 
a  total  of  about  3,000  officers  and  411,000  men,  besides  the 
territorial  army  of  about  71,000  men.  On  a  war  footing 
this  strength  may  be  brought  up  to  a  total  of  3,500  officers 
and  14i).0()0  men. 

Serriiiii  Army. — Under  the  law  of  .Ian.,  1889,  military 
service  is  obligatory  at  twenty-one  years  of  age.  The  term 
of  s<Tvice  is  one  year  in  the  active  army,  of  which  cadres 
only  are  maintained  in  time  of  peace,  nine  in  the  reserve, 
ten  ill  the  first  ban,  and  ten  in  the  second  ban  of  the  na- 
tional militia. 

The  kingilom  is  divided  into  five  territorial  divisions,  in 
which  the  cadres  of  the  active  armv  are  located,  forming  a 
force  of  about  1.000  ofiicers  and  20,'0()0  men. 

In  ca.se  of  mobilization  these  eailres  filled  out  form  five 
divisions,  in  addition  to  a  force  of  unattached  troops  of  all 
arms  and  the  reserves  and  militia. 

The  total  effective  strength  is  about  as  follows: 

ACTIVB  ARMY  AND   RESERVE. 

.MCD. 

75  battalions 70,(100 

30  squadrons 3.500 

57  batteries.  28i  pieces 7,000 

34  companies  of  engineers,  etc 3,500 

Total frt,000     84,000 

NATIONAL   MILITIA. 

120  battalions 70,000 

10  squadrons 1,000 

20  batl.-riis  with  ISO  pieces 2,000 

5  companies  of  engineers,  etc 500 

Total 73,500    73.500 

Grand  Total 157,500 

Not  including  trains,  etc. 

Italian  Arm//. — I'lider  the  laws  of  187.'5-91,  military  serv- 
ice is  compulsory  in  Italy.  The  age  of  conscription  is 
twenty  years.  The  conscripts  generally  servo  three  years 
with  the  colors,  five  in  the  reserve,  four  in  the  mobile  mil- 
itia, and  seven  in  the  territorial  militia.  The  annual  con- 
tingent is  82.000  men,  one-third  of  whom,  selected  by  lot, 
serve  oidy  two  years  with  the  colors.  The  cavalry  contin- 
gent serves  four  years  with  the  colois,  five  in  the  reserve, 
and  ten  in  the  territorial  militia.  Those  who  arc^  not  en- 
rolled in  the  active  army  are  formed  into  the  second  and 
third  classes,  and  liable  to  such  service  as  may  be  retjuired, 
under  the  law,  up  to  the  age  of  thirty-nine. 

The  army  is  made  up  of  twelve  corps,  whose  organization 
does  not  differ  materially  from  those  alreaiiy  described.  Its 
composition  is  as  follows,  viz. :  Infantry,  96  regiments  of  the 


line,  12  of  ber.saglieri  (or  rifles),  75  companies  of  Alpine 
troops,  and  98  separate  comiianies.  Tbe  infantry  arm  is 
the  Vetterli  rifie  (caliber,  10-388  mm.  =  0-42  in.),  with  fixed 
magazine  holding  5  cartridges.  Cavalry,  24  regiments  of  6 
sqiiatlrons  each  ;  artillery,  24  regiments  of  8  batteries  each  ; 
engineers,  4  regiments  of  from  17  to  21  comi)anie.s,  beside 
the  territorial  troops  and  militia. 

The  total  strength  in  18!U  was  276.013  men  with  the  col- 
ors, 566,152  on  leave  of  absence,  449,016  mobile  militia,  and 
1.553,158  territorial  troops,  giving  a  grand  total  of  2,844,339 
men. 

lielgian  Army. — The  Belgian  army  is  rccnlited  by  volun- 
tary enlistment  and  by  eonscriiition  by  lot  of  an  annual 
cuntingeiit,  fixed  by  law,  which  will  keep  the  strength  of 
the  active  army  at  about  13,300  men.  The  conscription  is 
made  from  the  young  men  who  have  reached  the  age  of 
nineteen,  but  many  exemiHions  are  allowed. 

The  term  of  service  is  eight  years  in  the  active  army  and 
five  in  the  reserve. 

The  strength  in  time  of  peace  is  as  follows : 


Staff  and  special  troops. 

Infantry,  58  battalions  and  415  cadres 

Cavalry.  4  squadrons  and  8  cadres 

Field-artillerj*,  34  batteries  and  14  cadres. . . . 
Fortress-artillery,  58  batteries  and  4  cadres.. 

Engineers,  17  companies 

Train,  7  companies,  1  d6pdt,  etc 


Totals. 


602 
1,745 
304 
290 
244 
146 
29 


3,360 


28.810 
5.744 
3,400 
4,518 
1,541 
402 


45,884 


The  gendarmerie  and  garde  civique  make  up  an  additional 
force  of  42,827  men.  In  time  of  war  the  strength  is  brought 
up  to  a  total  of  3,849  officers  and  127,119  men,  besides  about 
90.000  men  of  the  local  garde  cirigne. 

Siri.\!<  Army. — By  the  laws  of  1874-87  every  able-bodied 
Swiss  is  liable  to  military  service  from  his  twentieth  to  his 
thirty-second  year  in  the  Aiwztig.  and  from  his  thirty-third 
to  his  forty-fourth  year  in  the  Landwehr.  Service  in  the 
Anszug  includes  a  short  course  of  training,  followed  by  sev- 
eral weeks'  drill  each  year.  The  Landwehr  is  designed  to  be 
eventually  a  trained  army  similar  to  the  Anszug. 

Those  not  rendering  personal  service  pay  an  annual  mili- 
tary tax. 

The  Landsturm  includes  every  able-bodied  man  between 
the  ages  of  seventeen  and  fifty  who  is  not  otherwise  en- 
rolled. 

The  army  is  divided  into  4  army-corps.  The  peace  strength 
is  32  regiments  and  2  battalions  of  fusiliers  and 8 battalions 
of  carbineers,  armed  with  the  Knbin  rifle  (caliber,  7-5  mm.  = 
0'3  in.),  with  fixed  magazine  carrying  12  cartridges;  8  regi- 
ments of  cavalry,  each  of  3  squadron.s.  anil  12  companies  of 
"guides";  24  regiments  of  field-artillery,  each  of  4  batter- 
ies; 1  regiment  of  mountain-artillery  of  2  batteries,  8  com- 
panies of  foot-artillery,  8  battalions  of  engineers  of  3  com- 
panies each,  train,  ambulance,  etc. 

The  effective  strength  on  a  peace  footing  in  1891  was  as 
follows,  viz. : 

Regular  army,  127,973;  Landwehr,  80,272;  total,  208.245. 
This  was  without  the  Landsturm,  which  contains  about 
272.000  men. 

Holhnid. — The  army  of  Holland  is  composed  one-third  of 
men  enlisted  for  six  years  and  two-thirds  of  conscripts 
raised  by  an  annual  contingent  of  11,000  militia.  Service 
in  the  militia  is  obligatory  from  the  age  of  twenty  to  that 
of  twenty-five,  but  Ijy  fre(|Uent  exchanges,  etc.,  the  ac- 
tive service  of  each  man  generally  is  limited  to  from  six 
months  to  one  year.  In  a<ldilion.  every  able-bodied  citi- 
zen is  enrolled  in  the  garde  civile  between  the  ages  of 
twenty-five  and  thirty-five,  and  all  citizens  capable  of  bear- 
ing arms  in  the  Landstrum  between  the  ages  of  nineteen 
and  fifty. 

The  liingdom  is  divided  into  three  military  districts,  which 
are  expected  to  furnish  an  effective  strength  in  time  of  war 
as  follows,  viz. : 


staff  and  special  troops 

Infantry.  4ft  battalions 

Cavalry.  16  squa<lrons 

Artillery.  21  batteries  and  51  companies. 

Kn^ineers.  etc..  8  compauies 

Ottier  troops 


Totals. 


1,58 

693 

1,060 

42.908 

14.3 

3.988 

503 

13.843 

98 

1,614 

27 

626 

63,672 


336 


ARMY 


Add  in  all  reserves  except  the  Ijandsturm  and  civil  societies 
of  riilemen,  etc.,  this  sum  is  increased  to  about  185,600  men. 

In  peace  the  strength  of  the  organizations  is  about  one- 
third  of  that  given. 

Danish  Anny. — In  Denmark  military  service  is  obliga- 
tory, beginning  at  the  twenty-second  year. 

The  service  with  the  colors  is  limited  to  sis  months'  in- 
struction for  infantry  and  nine  months  for  cavalry,  after 
■which  the  recruits  pass  into  the  first  ban  for  eight  years, 
during  whicli  time  they  are  called  upon  for  several  terms 
of  service  of  thirty  days  each.  They  then  pass  into  the  sec- 
ond ban  for  eight  years. 

The  annual  conscription  is  about  11.000  men.  The 
strength  of  the  army  in  1891  was  as  follows,  viz. : 


DIVISIONS. 

Officers. 

Men. 

26 

801 
139 

1-5 

61 

10 

3.3,193 

5  regiments  of  oavali-y 

S,420 

2  battalions,  not  artillery 1 

1,366 

Totals                   

1,201 

a4.9 

49 

41,719 

Add  during  war — 

13,.52.5 

4  battalions  and  6  companies  of  artillery 

8,793 

1,493 

58,067 

Sweden  and  Xonnii/.  —  IMilitary  service  is  obligatory. 
Commencing  at  twenty-three  years,  it  includes  nominally 
five  years  in  the  active  army,  four  in  the  Landwehr,  and 
four  "in  the  first  levy  of  the  Landsturm.  The  service  is 
limited,  however,  to  an  instruction  of  from  two  to  four 
months  for  the  first  year  and  about  one  month  the  second 
year.  All  able-bodied  men  not  otherwise  enrolled  belong 
to  the  Landsturm  between  their  eighteenth  and  fiftieth 
years. 

The  Landwehr  is  available  for  national  and  the  Ijand- 
sturm for  local  defense  only.  The  total  strength  of  the 
array  is  about  13,000  men.  In  time  of  war,  by  adding  the 
first  levy  of  the  Landwehr,  it  can  be  increased  to  about  800 
officers  and  18,000  men,  maxiniuin. 

British  Army. — Tlie  British  army  is  recniited  entirely  by 
voluntary  enlistment.  The  term  of  service  in  the  regular 
army  is  twelve  years,  of  which  nine  in  the  infantry  of  the 
guard  and  seven  in  the  infantry  of  the  line  may  be  in  the 
reserve.  Any  soldier  of  good  habits  may,  however,  enlist 
for  a  term  of  twenty-one  years,  wliich  will  entitle  him  to  be 
"  retired  "  at  the  expiration  of  his  term. 

The  militia  of  the  kingdom  is  recruited  also  by  volun- 
tary enlistment,  but  every  able-bodied  man  between  the 
ages  of  eighteen  and  fifty  years,  belonging  neither  to  the 
regular  nor  volunteer  forces,  is  liable  to  conscription  for 
service  in  the  militia.  The  term  of  this  service  is  six  yeai's, 
which  may  be  prolonged  to  twelve.  The  active  service  in 
the  militia  is  limited  to  six  inonths  for  the  first  year,  and 
to  tliree  or  four  weeks  lor  the  following  years.  Those  en- 
rolled in  the  volunteers  are  exempt  from  militia  .service, 
but  are  called  out  for  manoeuvers  of  nine  days  each  year. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  divided  into  fifteen  military 
districts,  and  these  into  sixty-seven  sub-districts,  each  of 
which  is  expected  to  furnish  a  regiment  of  infantry,  two 
or  three  battalions  of  militia,  and  to  form  a  depot  for  in- 
struction of  recruits  and  tor  collecting  the  reserves,  etc.  The 
infantry  of  the  guard  and  the  rifles  is  recruited  from  the 
country  at  large,  and  the  cavalry  and  artillery  from  special 
districts. 

In  time  of  peace  no  corps,  division,  or  brigade  organiza- 
tions exist,  anil  the  regimental  organizations  differ  very 
much  among  themselves.  The  typical  infantry  regiment 
contains  two  battalions,  each  of  eight  companies  of  from 
100  to  180  men.  The  infantry  arm  is  the  Lee-Metford  rifle 
(caliber,  O'M  in.,  wit h  detachable  magazine  holding  eight 
cartridges).  The  cavalry  regiment  is  made  up  of  eight 
troo|)S  of  about  sixty  men  each,  two  troops  forming  one 
squailnm. 

The  artillery  is  organized  in  batteries  of  six  guns  each 
(calibers  for  horse-batteries,  ;j-inch  12-yiounders ;  for  field- 
batteries,  3J-inch  23-))ounders  ;  and  for  mountain-batteries, 
light  23-po\inders,  muzzle-loaders,  pattern  of  1882.  Tlie 
guns  of  the  horsi!  and  field  Ijalteries  are  breech-loaders  with 
int<?rrupted  screw  termeturc),  and  the  engineers  into  com- 
panies and  battalions. 


The  strength  in  time  of  peace  (1891-93)  is  as  follows,  viz. : 


staff  and  special  troops 

Infaiitr\-,  US  tiattalions,  71  depots,  and  345  cadres 
Cavalr.v,  isti  sijuadrons,  11  depots,  and  43  cadres. 

Artillery,  230  batteries  and  89  cadres 

Engineers,  70  companies  and  24  cadres 

Colonial  troops,  3  battalions,  4  batteries,  and  16 
cadres 


Totals. 


officers. 

1,891 
4,785 

856 
1,445 

933 

171 


Men. 

8,510 

142,069 

18,412 

35,446 

6,620 

5,064 


216,111 


226,198 


In  time  of  war  the  troops  are  united  into  brigades,  divi- 
sions, and  corps,  and  the  cadres  are  filled  to  a  war  footing. 
The  organization  includes  3  army-corps,  1  division  of  cav- 
alry, and  the  depot  troops  for  foreign  service ;  and  for  home 
tlefense  2  army-corps  and  4  brigades  of  cavalry  made  up 
from  the  volunteers  and  militia.  The  army-corps,  besides 
its  staff  and  special  arms,  contains  3  divisions  of  infantry 
and  1  liattalion  of  corp.s-infantry  with  2  machine-guns. 
Each  infantry  division  has  its  staff,  3  brigades,  each  of  4 
bitttalions  of  "infantry,  each  battalion  of  about  1,000  men 
with  3  machine-guns;  1  .squadron  of  cavalry,  3  mounted 
batteries,  and  the  proportionate  force  of  engineers,  ambu- 
liinces,  train,  etc.,  with  a  strength  of  about  327  officers  and 
10,000  men. 

Each  cavalry  division  contains  2  Virigades  of  cavalry,  each 
of  four  4-s(iuadron  regiments,  2  macliine-guns,  2  horse-bat- 
teries, train  pioneers,  etc. ;  4  battalions  of  mounted  infantry 
with  2  machine-guns,  a  company  of  train,  ambulances,  etc., 
with  a  total  strength  of  about  '7,300  officers  and  men,  and 
18  pieces  of  artillery. 

The  estimated  effective  war  strength  is  about  as  follows : 

officer*.  Men. 

Militia 4,517      146,000 

Volunteers 8,723      252,007 

13,240      398,007      411,247 

Reserves  of  regular  army 73,825 

Regular  army  of  United  Kingdom 117.211 

Total 602,283 

To  this  may  be  added  the  regular  army  : 

In  the  colonies 108.981 

Irisil  police,  etc 13,000 

The  colonial  troops  are  not  included  in  this  total,  as  they 
are  organized  principally  for  local  defense,  although  they 
may  contribute  a  contingent  for  foreign  wars  in  some  cases. 
Their  strength  in  1892  may  be  summarized  as  follows,  viz. : 

CANADA.  Men. 

British  troops  at  Halifax 1.494 

Canadian  standing  army 1.200 

militia .37,359 

militia  reserve 655,000 

Tot  al 695,053 

AUSTRALIA,   NEW   ZEALAND,    AND  TASMANIA. 

Regular  troops  and  volunteers,  about 27,000 

INDIA. 

British  troops,  about 72,500 

British  ntlk'ers  commanding  native  troops 26,400 

Nati VI-  troops 125,000 

Police,  partly  officered  by  British 120,000 

TJie  United  Slates  Army.— The  regular  army  of  the  U.  S. 
is  recruited  1)V  voluntary  enlistment.  It  consists  of  2.5  regi- 
ments of  infantrv,  each  of  10  companies;  10  regiments  of 
cavalry,  each  of  12  troops;  .5  regiments  of  artillery,  each  of 
12  batteries;  1  battalion  of  engineers,  of  .5  companies;  the 
signal-cor]is,  the  officers  and  cadets  of  the  Military  Academy, 
unattiiehivl  enlisted  men,  Indian  scouts,  hospital  attendants, 
messengers,  etc.  The  maximum  enlisted  strength  is  limited 
by  the  law  of  188.5  to  25.000  men. 

"  The  staff  and  administrative  departments  consist  of  three 
major-generals,  six  brigadier-generals  with  their  aides,  and 
the'  following  dejiartments,  viz. :  The  adjulant-general's  de- 
partment, <'iiara;ed  with  orders,  corres)iondence,  etc.;  the 
insiJector-gcMicral's  de]iartment,  charged  with  iMs|iectiiig  the 
trooiis.etc.;  1  lie  judge-advocate-generarsdepartment,  charged 
with  supervision  of  courts  martial;  the  quartermaster's  de- 
partment, charged  with  transportation,  (juarter.s,  etc ;  the 
siilisistenee  department,  charged  with  provisioning  the 
army;  the  medical  and  pay  departments,  cliajilains  and 
signal-corps,  whose  names  indicate  their  duties;  the  corps 
of  engineers,  charged  with  the  con.struction  of  fortification.s, 


AKMY-CORPS 


ARNAULD 


337 


military  engineering,  etc.,  and  in  time  of  peace  with  the  im- 
provements of  rivers  and  harbors  and  otlier  civil  works; 
and  the  ordnance  department,  charged  with  the  construc- 
tion and  rejiair  of  cannon,  small  arms,  and  military  equip- 
ments jnid  su|)nlies. 

No  brifjade  division  or  corps  organization  exists  in  time 
of  peace ;  but  the  U.  S.  is  divided  into  military  departments 
commanded  by  the  general  officere,  who  control  the  troops 
stationed  in  tlicir  respective  commands. 

The  regular  army  is  used  in  time  of  peace  principally  for 
suppressing  Indian  outbreaks,  disordei-s  upon  tlie  frontier, 
and  enforcing  the  laws  of  the  U.  S.  when  lU'icssary.  It  is 
ollicered  from  graduates  of  the  Military  Academy,  su|iplc- 
meiiti'd  by  promotions  from  the  ranks  and  .selections  from 
civil  life.  It  is  regarded  rather  as  a  training-school  for 
educating  officers  and  preserving  military  knowledge  and 
traditions  than  as  an  efficient  defense  against  foreign 
armies. 

The  main  reliance  of  tlie  nation  in  a  great  war  is  upon 
the  volunteers  and  militia,  the  nroljable  strength  of  which 
is  indicated  by  the  numbere  called  into  service  during  (he 
civil  war,  at  the  clo.se  of  which  there  were  in  .service  1,000,- 
516  men,  with  an  available  reserve  of  2.500.000  men. 

The  total  number  of  men  in  the  U.  S.  available  for  mili- 
tary service  is  now  between  8,000,000  and  U,000,000.  See 
Militia. 

The  trained  militia  is.  however,  relatively  small  in  num- 
bers, although  in  some  States  the  organized  regiments  arc 
well  trained  in  drill,  etc. 

The  drill,  arms,  equipments,  etc.,  of  the  militia  are  very 
generally  modeled  on  those  of  the  regular  army,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  war  department  are  directed  to  making  tliis 
resemblance  more  complete,  and  to  assisting  in  every  way 
the  more  tliorough  instruction  and  discipline  of  the  citizen 
soldiery. 

The  arms  and  equipments  of  the  17.  S.  army  are  now  in 
a  state  of  transition  from  the  older  to  the  newer  types,  not 
yet  fully  adopted.  They  will  not  be  described  in  this  ar- 
ticle. 

For  methods  of  educating  the  officers  of  modern  armies 
see  Military  Academies,  Artillery,  Schools  op,  and  Staff 
AXD  Staff  Schools.  James  Mercuk. 

.Vrmy-enrps:  See  Corps  d'Armee. 

,\riny-list:  an  official  publication  issued  by  the  British 
War  Oliice  ;  contains  the  names  of  aU  the  commissioned  offi- 
cers in  the  British  armv,  ari'anged  according  to  the  dates 
of  their  commissions.  Then  come  the  officers  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  queen's  army  which  belongs  exclusively  to  In- 
dia. The  bulk  of  the  work  is  filled  with  an  enumeration 
of  all  the  regiments  in  the  queen's  army,  and  all  the  officers 
in  each  regiment. 

Ariiiy-register  is  an  annual  register  published  by  order 
of  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  comi)liance  with  an  act  of  Con- 
gress, containing  lists  of  the  departments,  regiments,  and 
eoramissioncd  officers  of  the  17.  S.  army,  with  the  promo- 
tions and  casualties  for  the  year. 

Armv-regulations  is  the  name  of  a  volume  published 
by  the  U..S.  War  Department,  containing  rules  for  the  man- 
agement of  troops  in  camp  and  tield.  witli  instruotions  for 
keejiing  accounts  and  making  returns  to  the  army  bureaus. 
It  is  ba.-^ed  upon  the  Articles  of  War  and  other  acts  of  Con- 
gress.   See  Articles  of  War. 

Army-Horni :  in  the  Northern  U.  S.  the  larva  or  griib 
of  a  night-tlying  moth  (Leuca'nia  unipunc'la).  It  varies 
considerably  in  color  and  size  with  age  and  locality,  but  its 
markings  arc  characteristic.  It  is  usually  from  less  than 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  length;  dark  gray, 
with  three  narrow  yellowish  stripes  above,  and  a  broader 
one  of  nearly  the  same  color  on  each  side ;  thinly  clothed 
with  short  hairs,  especially  about  the  head,  which  is  of  a 
dull  yellow  color.  The  ravages  of  these  worms,  which 
sometimes  march  over  grain-fields  in  gre.it  numbers,  are 
liest  i)revetited  by  plowing  a  double  fuiTow  around  or 
across  the  field  on  which  they  are  moving.  Then  they 
may  be  killed  by  setting  fire  to  straw  in  tlie  furrows  or  by 
turning  pigs  and  fowls  (after  removal  of  the  crop)  into  the 
field.     Crows  and  blackbirds  will  also  destroy  them  rapidly. 

The  army-worm  of  the  Southeni  V.  S.,  a  near  relative  of 
the  aliove.  sometimes  ap]iears  in  countless  hosts  and  devours 
the  cotton.  In  the  West  Indies  its  ravages  have  led  to  a 
general  aljamlonment  of  the  cotton  crop.  Various  other 
destructive  larvic  are  called  by  this  name. 
22 


Arnal'tlo.  or  ,\riiol(l  of  Brpscia:  an  eloquent  Italian 
reformer;  b.  at  Brescia  aliout  1100.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  Abehird  in  France,  and  adopted  the  monastic 
life.  As  a  preacher  he  boldly  reproved  the  prevalent  venal- 
ity, luxury,  anil  corruption  of  the  clergy.  He  athrmed  that 
tlie  clergy  ougjit  not  to  possess  temporal  power  or  property. 
The  second  Council  of  the  Lateran,  in  1139,  condemned 
Arnaldo  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace,  and  banished  him  from 
Italy.  lie  retired  first  to  France,  where  he  encountered 
the  hostility  of  St.  Bernanl,  and  next  to  Switzerland,  where 
he:  gained  many  adherents.  In  the  meantime  there  was 
formed  in  Koine  a  numerous  party  which  favored  the  prin- 
ciples of  Arnaldo  and  was  frieii<Ilv  to  civil  liberty.  These 
revolted  against  the  pope,  who  lied  or  was  driven  out  of  the 
city.  Arnaldo  in  llio  returned  to  Rome,  again  raised  his 
voice  for  religious  reform,  and  endeavored  to  organize  a 
republic.  His  success  was  hindered  by  the  violence  and 
excesses  of  the  populace,  which  filled  the  city  with  disorder 
for  nearly  ten  years.  A  reaction  ensued,  and  Pope  A<lrian 
IV.  reduced  the  Romans  to  submission  by  laying  the  city 
under  an  interdict  in  1154.  Arnaldo  was  arrested  in  Rome 
by  the  aid  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  IJarbarossa,  and  was 
hanged  in  1155,  his  body  burnt,  and  his  ashes  scattered  on 
the  Tiber.  A  statue  to  liim  .-it  Brescia  was  unveiled  Aug.  14, 
1882.  See  Gregorovius,  6'('.sc/i/r/i/e  rfer  Siadt  Rom  im  Mii- 
li-laltcr,  and  biographies  by  Clavcl  (Paris,  1808);  Bonet- 
Maiiry  (Paris,  1881);  Bongh'i  (Rome,  1885). 

AriiaI'diis  Tillanovix'uiis  [It.  Arnaldo  di  ViUano'va], 
sometimes  called  Arxaluls  Novicomexsis  ;  an  eminent  phy- 
sician :  b.  about  1235.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  al- 
clu^my,  wrote  treatises  on  medicine,  alchemy,  and  religion, 
and  was  suspected  of  heresy,  lie  was  employed  in  diplo- 
macy by  the  King  of  Naples.  1).  near  Avignon,  in  1312. 
llis  works,  in  Latin,  with  a  life  by  S.  Carapegius,  appeared 
in  last  edition  at  Basel,  1585,  fol.  See  his  life  by  Pierre 
Joseph  de  llaitze  (Paris,  1719). 

Arnaouts :  See  Albania. 

Arnason,  aar'na-soii-,  Jon:  Icelandic  scholar;  librarian  at 
Reykjavik  ;  b.  Aug.  IT.  181!) ;  ,1.  at  IfcyUjavik.  Nov.  13, 1888. 
His  very  important  ciillection  of  Icelandic  j)opular  tales  and 
legendary  stories,  tslenzkar  pjofinot/urog  ^SJinh'/ri,  was  pub- 
lished at  Leipzig  in  2  vols.  (1862-64).      G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Arnatto :  See  Annotto. 

Arnaiid,  aar-no.  Henri:  a  pastor  of  the  Waldenses  and 
an  aide  military  commander;  b.  at  Kinbnin.  Ilaiites-.\Ipes, 
France,  Sept.  30.  1641  ;  educated  at  Basel  and  Geneva;  li- 
censed by  the  Waldensian  Church  1670;  was  pastor  in  Tours 
at  the  time  of  the  edict  abolishing  the  Waldensian  Church. 
This  was  the  occasion  of  tin;  daring  resolve  which  eventuated 
in  the  famous  "  Glorious  Return  ol^^the  Vaudois."  He  was  the 
coniinander  of  his  brethren,  who  after  defeating  the  French 
in  sevc'i-al  actions  recovered  their  native  valleys  in  France 
(August.  I6S!)).  from  which  they  had  been  driven  by  perse- 
cution, as  they  were  again  later  on.  He  served  as  colonel 
in  the  allied  "army  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession 
(1702-13),  but  in  his  closing  years  preached  to  the  exiled 
Waldensians  (Jan.  31,  1686)  at  Schoiienberg,  Wiirtemberg, 
where  he  died  Se]it.  8,  1721.  He  i)iiblished  an  llistuire  de  la 
f/lnrirtisc  A'entri'i' des  Vaiidoia  (1710 ;  n.  e.  Neuchatel,  1845), 
translated  by  Acklaiul  (London,  1827).  The  Return  was 
celebrateil  August  and  Seiitember,  1889. 

Arnaiild,  ANOELiyuE,  called  also  Angelique  de  Saint- 
Jean:  an  eminent  French  nun:  b.  in  Paris.  Nov.  28,  1624; 
was  a  daughter  of  Robert  Ariiauld  d'Andilly.  She  was  edu- 
cated at  Port  Royal  by  her  aunt,  JIarie  Angelit^ue,  and  was 
a  zealous  Jansenist.  In  1669  she  was  elected  pnoress  of  the 
convent  of  Port  Royal.  She  acipiired  a  high  reputation  for 
piety,  learning,  and  courageous  endurance  of  persecution. 
She  became  abbess  of  Port  Royal  in  1678,  after  which  she 
was  persecuted  bv  the  Jesuits.  She  wrote  memoirs  of  her 
aunt,  the  abbess  Marie  Angelique  Amauld  (1.591-1661).  I), 
in  Paris,  Jan.  29,  1684.  She  was  the  principal  author  of  the 
M('nioire^  pour  sernr  a  fliisfoire  de  Port  ttoyal  (LTtrecht, 
1742,  3  vols.).  See  Sainte-Beuve,  Por<  Roijal;  also  Beard, 
Port  Jioi/al. 

.\rnaiild  (formerly  written  Aniainl).  Antotne.  surnamed 
L'Avocat:  a  famous  orator:  b.  in  Paris  in  1560;  was  the 
most  eloquent  French  advocate  oT  his  time.  He  was  also 
distinguislied  for  his  probity.  He  became  prociireiir-gcneral 
in  1585.  His  most  memorable  performance  was  his  speech 
against  tlie  Jesuits  in  1.594.  which  resulted  in  their  tempo- 
rary banislimeiit.     He  was  the  father  of  four  distinguished 


338 


ARNAULD 


ARNHEIM 


eons  (the  eminent  Arnaulds  of  Port  Roval)  and  of  six  daugh- 
ters.    D.  in  Paris,  Dec.  29,  1619. 

Arnauld,  A.ntdixe,  called  Le  Gram)  Arxauld  :  a  cele- 
brated Jansenist  tlieologian  and  philosopher ;  a  son  of  the 
preceding :  b.  in  Paris  on  Feb.  8.  1612.  His  mother  was 
I'atherine  JIarion.  He  was  educated  in  the  Sorbonne,  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1641,  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  in 
1642,  and  engaged  in  tlie  controversy  between  -Jansenius  and 
his  opponents  on  the  subject  of  grace.  He  published  in  1643 
a  work  0)i  Freqiitnt  I'omm  union,  which  was  highly  esteemed, 
but  gave  offense  to  the  Jesuits,  of  whom  he  was  a  constant 
and  strenuous  adversary.  This  book  promoted  a  reform  in 
the  style  of  French  theologians.  Having  retired  to  Port 
Koyar(1648).  a  convent  near  Paris,  he  passed  tliere  many 
years  in  seclusion,  and  wrote  numerous  works  on  theologj' 
and  plulosophy.  In  1650  he  published  an  Apology  for  the 
Fathers  (Apologie  pour  lex  Saints  Peres).  He  was  expelled 
froui  the  Society  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1656  for  maintaining 
that  Jansen  liad  been  misunderstood  and  maligned,  after 
which  the  Jansenists  were  generally  proscribed  and  perse- 
cuted, both  liy  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers.  He  aided 
Pascal  in  his  Prorincial  Letters,  and  Lancelot  in  a  Gram- 
ma ire  generale  et  raisonnee.  Among  his  other  woi'ks  are 
Logic,  or  the  Art  of  Thinking,  commonly  called  The  Port 
Royal  Logic  (1662),  written  in  collaboration  with  Nicole, 
and  the  only  one  of  Ids  books  not  entirely  forgotten  (the 
10th  ed.  of  tiie  Eng.  trans,  aiipeared  Edinburgh,  1887);  The 
Moral  Theology  of  the  Jeauits:  The  Perpetuity  of  the 
Catholic  Faith  touching  the  Eucharist  defended  against 
Sieur  Claude  (1669):  aiid  The  Practical  Morality  of  the 
Jesuits  (8  vols..  1683-94).  To  escape  the  persecution  which 
the  Jesuits  instigated,  he  became  an  exile  in  1679,  anclpassed 
the  remainder  of  Ids  life  in  Flanders  and  Holland.  He  died 
near  Liege.  Aug.  8,  1694.  Boileau,  who  wrote  his  epitaph, 
pronounced  him  the  •'  most  learned  mortal  who  ever  wrote." 
Arnauld  was  distinguislied  for  his  earnestness  and  simplicity 
of  character,  his  industiT,  and  his  alacrity  in  controversy. 
His  works  occupy  forty-live  closely  printed  quarto  volumes, 
which  were  published,  Paris  and  Lausanne,  in  1775-83.  See 
P.  Quesnel,  Histoire  de  la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  31.  Ar- 
nauld. (Paris,  1697) ;  X.  de  Larriere,  Vie  d'Antoine  Arnauld 
(1783);  Sainte-Beuve,  Port  Royal,  vol.  ii. ;  P.  J.  Varin,  La. 
Verite  sur  les  Arnaulds  (2  vols.,  1847). 

Aniailld.  Marie  Angelique,  pi-oper  name  Jacqueline 
Marie,  sister  of  preceding:  b.  in  Paris.  Sept.  8.  1591 ;  be- 
came through  influence  abbess  of  Port  Royal  when  only 
eleven  years  old.  and  was  of  course  inefficient,  but  from 
1608.  when  she  was  converted,  on.  she  discharged  her  duties 
in  the  most  exemplary  nuinner,  and  won  great  fame.  She 
resigned  in  1626.  was  superior  of  another  community  of 
nuns,  Ijut  returned  in  1636  and  became  prioress  under  her 
sister,  who  liad  succeeded  her  as  abljess.  D.  in  the  convent 
of  Port  Royal,  Paris,  Aug.  6,  166.1.  See  her  life  by  Miss 
Frances  JIartin,  London,  1873. 

Arnauld  d'Aiidilly,  Robert  :  French  writer;  b.  in  Paris 

in  1589:  a  brotlier  of  Antoine  Arnauld  (1612-94),  and  the 
father  of  Angcliipie  (de  Saint-Jean).  He  was  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  tiie  army  in  1634,  and  retired  to  the  monastery 
of  Port  Royal  aliout  1643.  He  produced  a  translation 
of  Josephuss  History  (1669),  and  wrote  autobiographical 
memoirs  (1734),  besides  two  volumes  of  lives  of  saints,  called 
Vies  des  Saints  Peres  du  Desert.  T>.  in  Paris,  Sept.  27. 
1674.  His  son  Simon  was  Jlarquis  de  Pomponne.  and  his 
l)rother  Henry,  h.  in  Paris,  1597,  was  a  devout  and  zealous 
Jansenist ;  became  Bishop  of  Angers,  1649 ;  d.  there  June  8. 
1692. 

Arnault,  aar-nil'.  Vintext  .Axtoin'e:  French  poet  and 
dramalist  :  b.  in  l^iris.  .Ian.  1,  1766.  He  produced  a  tragedy. 
Mariiis  at  .)linturna;  (1791),  wliich  was  warmly  applauded, 
and  other  tragedies,  entitled  Lucretia  (Luerece,  1792)  and 
Germanicus  (1816).  He  was  appointed  in  1808  secretary- 
general  to  the  university.  He  was  admitted  in  1829  inio 
the  French  Academy,  of  which  he  was  chosen  jierpetual  sec- 
retary in  1833.  Among  his  works  is  Souvenirs  of  a  Sexa- 
genarian (4  vols.,  1833).  D.  at  Goderville,  near  Havre,  Sept. 
16.  1834. 

Arnd,  or  .\ rndt,  arnt,  Johantn, D.D.  :  German  Lutheran  di- 
vine: b.  at  liallenstedt.  Dec.  27,  15.55.  He  became  pastor  in 
his  native  place,  1.58:{.  at  Quedlinbnrg  in  1500,  at  Brunswick 
in  1.596.  and  at  Eislcben,  1605.  In  1611  he  became  general 
superintendent  of  Liineberg.  He  published  a  very  popular 
work  on  True  Christianity,  which  was  translated  into  nuiuy 


languages.  An  English  translation  by  Rev.  A.  W.  Boehm, 
chaplain  at  the  Court  of  St.  James,  was  published  in  1713, 
and  thoroughly  revised,  with  exten<led  introduction,  includ- 
ing sketch 'of 'Arnd's  life,  by  f.  F.  Schaefl"er,  D.  D.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1868.     D.  at  Celle,  May  11,  1621. 

Arndt,  Ersst  Moritz  :  German  patriot  and  popular  po- 
litical writer ;  b.  at  Schoritz,  in  the  island  of  RUgen,  Dec.  26, 
1769.  He  traveled  extensively  in  Europe  after  he  left  col- 
lege, and  was  appointed  Professor  of  History  at  Greifswald 
in  1806.  He  published  a  History  of  Serfdom  in  Pomerania 
and  Riigeii.  and  animated  the  Germans  to  resistance  against 
Napoleon  in  his  Spirit  of  t/ie  Times  (Geist  der  Zeit.  1807). 
He  also  promoted  the  patriotic  cause  by  nniny  eloquent  and 
spirited  poems  and  prose-writings.  His  celebrated  national 
song,  What  is  the  German's  Fatherland  i  (Was  ist  des 
Deutschen  Vaterland  f).  is,  perhaps,  tlie  most  popular  of 
all  the  patriotic  songs  of  Germany.  He  nuirried  in  1817  a 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  Schleiermacher.  In  1818  he  was 
apiKiinted  Professor  of  History  at  tlie  University  of  Bonn, 
lie  was  suspended  in  1819  on  account  of  his  liberal  opinions, 
but  was  I'estored  to  his  chair  in  1840.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  national  assembly  which  met  at  Frankfort  in  1848,  but 
he  seceded  with  tlie  constitutional  party  in  1849.  Among 
his  works  is  Souvenirs  of  my  Outward  Li fe  (Kv'mnerungen 
aus  dem  aussern  Leben,  1840).  D.  at  Bonn,  Jan.  29.  1860. 
His  statue  at  Bonn  was  unveiled  July  29.  1865.  See  his 
biogi-aphv  by  D.  Schenkel  (1866:  2d  ed.  1869):  W.  Baur 
(Zurich.  1861';  5th  ed.  Hamburg,  1882).  See  Schenkel,  F.  M. 
Arndt :  eine  Piographie  (1866). 

Arne.  Thomas  Avgustixe,  Mus.Doc. :  English  musician; 
b.  in  London.  Mar.  12,  1710.  He  was  a  skillful  performer  on 
the  violin.  He  set  to  music  Addison's  Rosamond  in  1731, 
and  gained  a  high  reputation  by  the  music  which  he  com- 
posed for  jMilton's  Comus  (1738).  This  formed  an  era  in  the 
history  of  English  music.  The  national  air  Rule  Britannia 
was  his  composition.  Among  his  chief  jiroductions  were 
Arta.rer.res,  an  opera  (1762),  and  Eliza,  aii  opera.  D.  in 
London,  Mar.  5,  1778. 

Ar'nee,  or  Ar'na  (Bos  arnee) :  a  large  animal  of  the  family 


Bovidm:  a  native  of  India,  nearly  allied  to  the  ox  and  buffalo. 
It  is  larger  than  an  ox.  and  the  horns  are  very  long. 

Arn'Ilpni,  or  Aru'heim  (anc.  A  renacum) :  a  fortified  town 
of  Holland,  capital  of  the  ]irovince  of  Gclderland.  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  57  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Amsterdam 
(see  maji  of  Holland,  ref.  6-11).  '  It  is  very  ancient,  well 
Iniilt.  has  a  governor's  palace,  and  a  famous  cluirch  contain- 
ing the  ti)nd)s  of  the  Dukes  of  Gelderland :  also  manufactures 
of  paper  and  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs.  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
died  at  Aridiem  in  1586.  It  was  taken  in  1795  by  the  French, 
who  were  driven  out  by  the  Prussians  in  1813.  Poj).  (1891) 
50.194. 

Arn'hoim.  or  Arnim,  Johann  Georg,  von  :  Gorman  gen- 
eral an<i  dijilomatist ;  b.  at  Boitzenbin-g,  in  Brandenburg, 
in  1581.  He  gained  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1628.  and 
entered  th(^  service  of  Sax(my  in  1630.  He  commanded  a 
wing  of  the  army  of  Gustavus"  Ailolphus  at  Leif)zig  in  1631, 
and  was  opposed  to  Wallenstein  in  1633.     In  May.  1634,  he 


AKXICA 


ARNOLD 


339 


defeated  the  imperialists  at  Liegnitz.     D.  at  Dresden,  Apr. 
18,  1641. 

Ar'iiica  [a  Mod.  Latin  term  of  unknown  origin] :  a  plant 
of  SwitzurUuid  and  Germany,  of  which  the  flowers  and  root 
are  iisicl  in  medicine,  generally  in  the  form  of  the  tincture 
or  fluid  extract.  It  contains  an  active  principle,  arnicin.  and 
two  peculiar  volatile  oils  and  various  resins.  The  prepara- 
tions from  the  flowers  are  said  to  be  stronger  tlian  those 
made  from  the  root.  The  use  of  arnica  in  medicine  is  very 
liiniteil.  and  it  possesses  far  less  activity  for  good  tlian  is 
generally  thought.  It  is  used  externally  for  bruises  and 
sprains  as  a  lotion,  and  internally  as  stimuhint  in  typhoid 
and  other  low  fevers.  It  has  also  been  used  in  Germany  for 
the  treatment  of  such  severe  nervous  troubles  as  paralysis, 
but  is  of  no  value  in^  such  cases.  When  it  does  good  in  tlie 
treatment  of  bruises  a  large  part  of  the  gain  is  through  the 
effect  of  the  alcohol  which  the  tincture  contains.  The  dose 
of  the  tincture  of  arnica  flowers  is  ten  to  forty  drops. 
Arnilil :  See  Arxiieim,  Jou^vxs  Georu,  von.' 
Arniiii,  Elisabeth  or  Bettixa,  von:  German  authoress; 
b.  at  Frankfort-on-lhc-Main,  Apr.  4,  1785:  was  a  sister  of 
Clemens  Brentano.  She  had  a  very  sensitive  spirit  and 
ardent  inuigination.  In  her  youth  she  cherished  a  passionate 
admiration  and  plalonic  aitection  for  Goethe,  with  whom 
she  corresponded.  She  was  married  in  1811  to  Ludwig 
Joachim  von  Arnim.  Among  luT  works  arc  The  Corre- 
K/jiiiKlriii-f  uf  Oofllii'  with  a  Child  (3  vols.,  1835),  which  she 
translated  into  Englisli,  and  Die  Gunderode  (2  vols.,  1840), 
which  are  commended  as  graceful  and  fascinating.  D.  in 
Berlin,  Jan.  20,  1859. 

.Vrnim.  IIarrv  Karl  Kurt  Eduard,  Count  von:  b.  at 
Moitzillitz,  in  Pomeiania,  Oct.  3,  1824.  As  envoy  to  R(mie 
In  18(>4  he  was  noted  for  his  attitude  toward  tlie  (TCcuraenical 
Council,  and  was  prominent  in  1871  in  the  negotiations  with 
the  French  resulting  in  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort;  was  am- 
bassjidor  to  Paris  in  1872,  and  to  Constantinople  in  1874, 
but  was  dismissed  from  the  service  by  Bismarck,  who  dreaded 
his  iiiMiience  with  Emperor  William.  He  had  a  controversy 
with  I'liiice  Bismarck,  and  was  afterward  iirosecuted  for 
stealing  stale  documents  from  the  German  embassy  at  Paris. 
After  he  removed  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  German 
courts  he  was  sentenced  to  Ave  years  of  penal  servitude  for 
(reason  and  insults  to  the  chancellor  and  the  foreign  ollice. 
D.  at  Xice.JMay  19,  1881. 

Arnini.  Ludwig  Joachim,  von  (generally  called  Achim 
vox  .\kxim):  popular  and  fantastic  German  poet,  distin- 
guished for  his  originality;  b.  in  Berlin, Jan.  26.  1781.  lie 
(levoleil  some  years  to  the  study  of  the  physical  sciences, 
and  pul)lished  a  Thfuri/ of  Electricifi/ (\~'M).  He  was  one 
of  the  f(«indersof  the  romantic  school  of  German  literature. 
In  conjunction  with  Clemens  Brentano,  whose  sister,  Bettina, 
hennirried,  he  published  a  collection  of  popular  songs  en- 
title'd  The  Boys  Wonder-horn  (3  vols.,  1806).  Aincmg  his 
works,  which  exhibit  a  rich  imagination,  are  The  Porerft/  and 
Richex.  (Iiiilt  and  Repentance  of  the  Countess  of  Dolores,  a 
novel  (1810);  Angelica  the  Genoese  and  Cosm us  the  Rope- 
dancer;  and  The  Crown  Ouardia7ts{\S17).  D.at  Wciiiersdorf, 
near  Dahme.  14  miles  S.  of  Berlin.  Jan.  21,  1831.  See  Diet's 
Clemens  Brentano  (IS'T);  J.  B.  Jle'mv'ich's  Clemens  Bren- 
tano (1878). 

Ar'lio;  celebrated  river  of  Italy,  which  rises  at  Mt. 
Falterona  in  the  Apennines,  and  falls  into  the  sea  7  miles 
below  Pisji.  which  citv,  like  Florence,  is  intersected  by  this 
stream.  Its  valley(Val  d'Arno)is  one  of  the  most  beaiitiful 
regions  in  Italy.  The  banks  of  the  river  are  partially  dyked 
on  account  of  the  floods  which  sometimes  cxcur.  and  ordi- 
narily small  vessels  can  ascend  to  Florence,  but  since  the 
oiienlng  of  the  railway  traffic  it  is  not  much  navigated.  Its 
lengtli  is  140  miles;  basin,  3,300  sq.  miles. 

Ariio'biiis,  Akrr;  Christian  apologist;  b.  of  pagan  parent- 
age j  became  a  Professor  of  Khetorie  at  Sicca,  in  Numidia, 
having  among  his  pupils  Lactantius.  About  303  was  con- 
verted, and  wrote  some  time  between  then  and  313  his  Dis- 
pntntiones  adrersns  Oentes  (or  ndversus  Nationes),  in  seven 
nooks  (Eng.  trans.  The  Seren  Boohs  of  Arnohius  against 
the  Heathen  [New  York.  Christian  Literature  Co..  V(>l.  vi., 
18881).  of  which  the  first  two  defend  Christianity  and  Ihc 
remainder  expose  the  absurdities  of  paganism.  It  shows, 
however,  an  imperfect  acquaintance  witli  Christianity,  and 
has  its  principal  value  as  presenting  the  arguments  which 
were  then  powerful  in  the  conversion  of  educated  heathens. 


The  best  edition  of  the  original  Latin  is  by  A.  Reiffei-scheid 
(Vienna,  1875).  Revised  by'S.  M.  Jackson. 

Arnold,  Bexedict;  general  and  traitor;  b.  at  Norwich, 
Conn..  Jan.  14,  1741.  In  his  boyhood  he  was  noted  for  his 
audacity  anil  unruly  dispositicm.  He  enlisted  in  the  army, 
but  sooii  deserted.  He  was  employed  in  an  apothecary's  at 
Norwich  till  1762.  when  he  moved  to  New  Haven  and  set 
up  in  the  drug  and  bookselling  business  for  himself.  He 
aei|uired  property,  and  became  a  general  and  the  owner  of 
several  small  vessels  employed  in  trade  with  the  West  In- 
dies. In  this  business  he  failed,  and  incurred  a  su.spicion  of 
fraudulent  dealing.  He  olitaiiied  a  commission  as  colonel 
in  the  service  of  Massachusetts  soon  after  the  war  broke 
out.  in  A]iril.  1775.  In  the  autuiun  of  that  year  he  com- 
manded a  force  of  about  1.000  men  sent  to  capture  Que- 
bec, and  in  the  long  marcli  through  the  pathless  forests  of 
Maine  proved  himself  well  fitted  for  sucli  a  service.  Hav- 
ing reached  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  he  effected  a  junction 
with  Gen.  Montgomery,  who  had  the  eliief  command.  They 
attacked  Quebec  in  Dec,  1775,  Inil  failed  to  take  it,  and 
Arnold  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  for  his  service  in  this  campaign.  He 
commanded  a  small  flotilla  which  encounte'-ed  a  su|)erior 
force  on  Lake  Chaiiiplain.  (let.  11, 1776.  and  disjilayed  there 
such  unflinching  courage  as  well  as  skill  ^hat  he  gained 
much  applause,  although  he  was  not  victorious.  He  was 
deeply  nibrlified  l)y  the  action  of  Congress,  which  neglected 
him.  while  it  gave  the  rank  of  major-general  to  five  of  his 
juniors  in  rank.  In  1777  he  was  appointed  a  major-general, 
i)ut  !is  he  remained  below  the  other  five  he  was  still  discon- 
tented. He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bemis  Heights.  Sei)t. 
19,  1777,  where  he  was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Gen. 
Gates.  At  the  battle  of  Stillwater,  Oct.  7,  he  entered  the 
field  without  permission  from  Gates,  rushed  into  the  hottest 
part  of  the  action,  rode  about  issuing  orders  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  acted  like  a  madman.  He  received  on  that  day  a 
severe  wounil.  wliielidisidilcd  him  for  some  months,  and  Con- 
gress at  last  aeccji-ded  him  full  rank.  In  June,  1778.  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  Philadelphia,  where  he  lived 
in  an  extravagant  style  and  ran  into  debt.  His  first  wife, 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Siimuel  .Mansfield,  whom  he  married 
Feb.  22.  1767.  died  June  19,  1775:  while  in  Philadelphia  he 
married  JIargarct.  daughter  of  Edward  Shippeii  (afterward 
chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania).  He  made  many  enemies, 
who  trumped  up  (-liarges  against  him.  from  most  of  which 
lie  wascleariMl  by  a  court  martial,  which,  however,  ordered 
him  (Jan.  26,  1780)  for  some  trifling  offenses  to  be  repri- 
manded liy  the  general-in-chicf.  Washington  turned  the 
reprimand  into  a  eidogy,  as  he  believed  that  Arnold  had 
been  persecuted.  Shortly  after  this  .Vrnold  committed  his 
great  crime  for  which  he  had  made  long  jireparation.  lie 
solicited  and  obtained  (in  July,  1780)  command  of  West 
Point,  the  most  important  fortress  in  tlie  U.  S.,  w-hich  he 
offered  to  betray  into  the  ])Ossessi(m  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
The  agent  chosen  by  tlu'  British  general  to  conduct  the 
negotiations  with  Arnold  was  Major  John  Andre.  (See 
.VxuRii.  Joiix.)  Arnold  and  Andre  had  an  interview  on 
Sept.  21,  anil  made  the  final  arrangements  for  the  surrender 
of  West  Point,  but  in  eonsequciiec  of  the  capture  of  Andre, 
.Sept.  23.  1780.  the  ])lnt  was  detected  and  .\riiold  escaped  in 
the  British  sloop  Vulture.  Sept.  2.5.  He  received  about 
£6,300  from  the  British  (ioveriiment  as  a  reward  for  his 
treachery.  Having  joined  the  British  army  ami  issued  an 
address  to  the  American  people  in  vindication  of  his  course, 
he  obtained  command  of  an  exiiedition  against  Virginia, 
which  sailed  from  New  York  in  Dec,  1780.  jiassed  up  the 
James  river,  and  burned  and  pillaged  a  considerable  amount 
of  property.  In  the  autumn  of  1781  the  troops  under  his 
command  burned  New  London,  Conn.  He  went  to  Eng- 
land about  the  eml  of"  the  war.  and  passed  many  years  in 
that  country,  where  he  was  generally  despised.  He  died  in 
London,  June  14,  1801.  See  his  life  by  .Sparks.  Lihmry  of 
American  Biography,  vol.  iii.,  and  by  I.N.  Arnold  ((^'liicago, 
1880).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

.\riioId.  Sir  Enwix  :  journalist  and  poet :  b.  a)  Rochester. 
England,  June  10,  1832;  graduated  at  Oxford  18.54.  and 
was  subsequently  amiointed  ]irincipal  of  the  Government 
Sanskrit  College  at  Poona,  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  and 
fellow  of  the  University  of  Bomliay.  which  ]iosilions  he  re- 
signeil  in  1861  and  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  London 
Daily  Telegraph,  llis  epic  The  Light  of  Ax/a  (1879)  has 
run  through  many  editions.  He  has  also  published  llito- 
padesa.  the  Indian  Song  of  Songs,  and  other  translations; 


3-iO 


ARNOLD 


History  of  the  Administration  of  India  tinder  the  late 
Marquis  of  Dalhousie  (1862-64) :  'India  Bevisited  (1886) : 
The  Light  of  the  World  (1891);  and  many  other  works, 
trjinslations  from  the  Sanskrit  and  the  Persian,  or  otherwise 
relatino;  to  Eastern  poetry  and  religion.  An  edition  of  his 
poetical  writings  was  pubUslied  in  1888  in  8  vols.  He  was 
made  Knis^ht  t'omniander  of  the  Indian  Empire  l)y  Queen 
Victoria  in  1888.  In  1889  he  visited  the  U.  S.  and  lectured, 
and  in  the  autumn  he  went  to  Japan.  Just  before  this  visit 
his  wife,  11  dauiihter  of  W.  II.  Chaxxixg  (q.  v.).  of  Boston, 
died,  and  he  dedicated  ii  volume  of  poems,. /«  my  Lady's 
Praise  (1889),  to  her.  One  of  the  poems  was  a  curious  Cas- 
ket of  Gems,  in  which  an  acrostic  was  made  by  selecting 
gems,  the  initials  of  wliose  names  spelled  out  his  wife's 
name  in  full.  From  Japan  he  wrote  letters  to  the  London 
Daily  Telegraph  which  were  published  in  book  form ;  namely. 
Seas  and  Lands  (London,  1891)  and  Japonica  (X.  Y.,  1891), 
The  same  year  he  i-enewed  liis  visit  to  the  U.  S,  on  a  read- 
ing-tour. His  Aziimti.  or  a  Japanese  Wife  (1892),  is  a  drama 
of  the  East,  and  Polipliar's  Wife  and  other  Poems  (1892)  a 
collection  of  verse. 

Arnold,  Frederick  :  author  and  divine ;  b,  at  Chelten- 
ham, England,  in  18*^;  educated  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford.  Author  of  Public  Life  of  Lord  Jlacaulay  (1862) ; 
Tlie  Path  on  Earth  to  the  Gate  of  Heaven  (186.5);  History 
of  Greece  (1861) :  Christ  Cliurch  I)ays(\Se7) :  Turning  Points 
in  Life  (2  vols.,  1864) ;  Memorials  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
(1874);  Our  Bishops  and  Deans  (2  vols,,  1875);  Ttiree-cor- 
nered  Essays  (1886) ;  Bobertson  of  Brigliton  (1887) ;  Clerical 
and  Literary  Bemtniscences  (3  vols,,  1890),  etc. 

William  S,  Perry, 

Arnold,  Friedri™  :  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 
ogy in  the  Univei-sity  of  Heidelberg;  b.  Jan,  8,  1803,  at 
Edenkoben.  near  Landau ;  M,  D..  University  of  Heidelberg, 
1825 ;  assistant  professor  in  medical  faculty  of  Heidelberg 
1834 ;  professor  and  director  of  the  Anatomical  Institute, 
L^nivcrsity  of  Zurich,  1835 ;  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology, University  of  Freiburg,  1840-45,  University  of  Tu- 
biiigeu  1845-52,  and  L'niversity  of  Heidelberg  1852-73,  re- 
tiring from  his  professorship  in  1873.  Among  his  numer- 
ous important  professional  works  are  Der  Kopftheil  des 
vegetativen  Neriensystems  heim  Menschen  in  anatomisclter 
und  physiologischer  Hinsicht ;  Lehrbuch,  der  Physiologie 
des  Menschen ;  Ueber  die  Atlimungsgrosse  der  3Ienscfien,  etc. 

Arnold, George  B.,Mus, Doc. ;  musician:  b. atPetworth, 
Ji^ngland,  1832;  ai)point('d  organist  of  Winchester  cathedral 
1865 ;  has  composed  much  church  music  and  several  oratorios. 
His  first  oratorio,  Ahab,  was  produced  in  London,  at  Exeter 
Hall,  in  April,  1864.  Sennacherib  was  composed  for  the 
Gloucester  meeting  of  tlie  Three  Choirs  Festival  in  1883, 
The  Song  of  the  Bedeemed  was  composed  for  St.  James' 
church  choii-,  New  York,  and  first  brought  out  there  April 
12,  1891.  D.  E.  Hervey. 

Arnold,  Georoe;  poet ;  b.  in  New  York,  June  24,  1834; 
lived  at  .Mlou.  111.,  till  1849,  and  afterward  at  Strawbeny 
Farms,  Jlonmnutli  co.,  N.  J,  He  enlisted  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  civil  war,  and  his  humorous  war  corres]iond- 
enee,  McArone  Papers,  appeared  mainly  in  Vanity  Fair  in 
1860-65,  Drift :  a  Seashore  Idyl,  and  Poems,  Grave  and 
Gay,  were  published  postiiumously  in  1866,  with  a  memoir 
by  William  Winter.  I),  at  Si  rawberry  Farms,  N.  J.,  Nov,  3, 
1865,  Henry  A,  Beers, 

Arnold,  Gottfried;  b.  at  Annaberg,  Saxony,  Sept,  5, 
1660:  (1.  at  Pcrlelu-rg.  Prussia.  May  30,  1714;  became  court 
preacher  at  Allsledl  1700;  preacher  at  Werben  1705,  then 
at  Perleberg  1707,  and  published  (1699-1700)  his  Imjiartial 
History  of  the  Church  (2  vols,;  best  ed.  Schaffhausen, 
1740-42,  3  vols.),  written  on  the  principle  that  no  individual 
or  sect  shall  be  condemned  by  history  because  he  was  con- 
demned by  tlie  Church  of  his  time — a  principle  to  which 
not  only  the  Koman  Catholics  but  also  the  Lutherans  were 
strongly  opposed.     See  his  life  by  P.  Dibelius,  Berlin,  1873. 

Arnold,  Joii,\xx  Of.oro  D.ixiel;  writer  and  .iurist;  b. 
in  Slrassburg,  Feb,  18,  1780;  became  Professor  of  Roman 
Law  in  that  city  (1811).  He  published  a  work  on  Roman 
law  (1812),  and  wrote  in  the  Alsatian  dialect  a  comedy  of 
Whitmondai/,  which  was  praised  by  Goethe.  D.  in  Slrass- 
burg, Feb.  18,  1829. 

Arnold,  JoxATnAX:  b.  at  Providence,  R,  I.,  Dec.  14, 
1741;  as  a  member  of  the  Colonial  As.sembly  brought  for- 
ward in  1776  a  bill  repealing  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great 
Britain  ;  was  a  surgeon  in  the  Revolution,  and  a  member  of 


Congress  (1782-84),  Becoming  a  resident  of  St.  Johns- 
burv,  Vt„  he  was  long  a  judge  of  the  Orange  County  court. 
D.  there  Feb.  2,  1798. 

Arnold.  Laurex  Briggs:  agriculturist  and  dairyman; 
anthi>r  of  American  Dairying;  b.  at  Fairfield.  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
13,  1S14:  d.  at  Rochester,  Mar.  7.  1888.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent investigator  of  the  jirocesses  of  cheese-making,  and  was 
a  frequent  lecturer  upon  the  subject  in  the  U.S.  and  Canada. 
He  was  also  lecturer  upon  dairy-husband  ly  in  Cornell  Uni- 
versity in  his  later  years. 

Arnold,  Leml'EL  Hastings  (son  of  Jonathan);  b.  at  St. 
Johnsbury,  Vt.,  Jan.  29,  1792;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
in  1811 ;  became  a  lawyer  and  manufacturer  in  Rhotle  Island ; 
was  Governor  of  that  State  1831-33,  member  of  Congress 
1845-47,     D.  at  Kingston,  R.  I.,  June  37,  1852. 

Arnold,  Lewis  G.  :  general ;  b.  in  New  Jersey,  Dec,  1815 ; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837;  served  gallantly  in  Mexi- 
co, and  in  1862  became  a  brigadier-general  of  U.'  S.  volun- 
teers. •  Stricken  with  paralysis  in  that  year  while  on  dutv, 
he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  in  1864."  I),  in  South  Bos- 
ton. Sept.  22,  1871, 

Arnold,  Matthew:  English  poet,  critic,  and  "apostle  of 
culture " ;  eldest  son  of  'Thomas  Arnold,  of  Rugby ;  b.  at 
Laleham,  IMiddlesex.  Dec,  24.  1822;  educated  at  Rugby; 
studied  in  Balliol  College,  Oxford:  graduated  in  honors 
1844:  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  College  (as  his  father  had 
been)  1845:  Iiecame  private  secretary  to  Lord  Ijansdowne 
in  1847;  a  lav  inspector  of  schools  in  1851 :  and  was  Profes- 
sor of  Poetry  at  Oxford  (1857-87).  The  collected  editioii  of 
his  poems  a))iieared  in  1869,  and  was  reprinted  in  1877, 1881, 
and  1885.  Ilis  prose-writings  comprise  i'.woys  in  Criticism 
(1865:  second  series  in  1888);  On  tlie  Study  of  Celtic  Lit- 
erature (ISm):  Culture  and  Anarchy  (ISGi));  St.  Paul  and 
Protestantism  (1870);  Literature  and  Dogma  (\HTi);  Last 
Essai/s  on  Cliurch  and  Beliijion  (1877);  Mixed  Essays 
(1879);  Irish  Essays  and  Others  (1882).  His  educational 
writings,  which  have  a  high  value,  include  Beport  on  Edu- 
cation in  France.  Germany,  and  Holland  (1861) ;  A  French 
Eton  or  Middle-class  Education  and  the  State  (1864) ; 
Schools  and  UniversitiesoftheCotitinent  (1868);  and  Higher 
Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany  (1874).  In  June,  1882, 
he  delivered  the  annual  Bede  lecture  at  Cambridge,  on  the 
subject  Literature  and  Science.and  in  the  winter  of  1883-84 
he  made  a  lecturing  tour  through  the  U.  S.  See  his  Dis- 
courses in  America  (1885).  He  received  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Laws  from  Edinburgh  1869,  Oxford 
1870,  and  Cambridge  1883.  He  exerted  a  remarkable  in- 
fluence upon  the  young  men  in  the  universities  and  col- 
leges of  the  English-speaking  world  by  means  of  his  essays, 
which  are  fresh  in  matter,  jieculiarin  style  (having  the  trick 
of  repeating  a  phrase  in  many  successive  pages,  yet  so  clev- 
erly as  not  to  produce  weariness),  and  very  indejiendent  in 
thought.  He  enriched  the  conversation  of  liberally  educated 
persons  by  numerous  exi^ressive  phrases,  such  as  "  sweet- 
ness and  light  "  (borrowed  from  Swift) ;  "  conduct  is  three- 
fourths  of  life";  ■■  The  Eternal  not  ourselves  which  makes 
for  righteousness."  etc.  He  was  skeptical  and  critical,  dis- 
contented and  unsettled,  but  his  influence  was  on  the  whole 
good.  His  iKiems  did  not  enjoy  the  popularity  of  his 
essays.  He  might  have  excelled  in  translating  Greek  had 
he  chosen  tp  do  so,  as  he  was  a  superior  scholar  and  master 
of  English  in  prose  and  verse.  D.  in  Liverpool,  England, 
Apr,  15.  1S8S.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Arnold  of  Brescia;  See  Arxaldo. 

Arnold,  Peleg  ;  b,  at  Smitlrfleld.  R,  L.  1752 ;  was  a  dele- 
gate to  Congress  from  Rhode  Island  1787-89,  and  afterward 
was  long  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Rhode 
Island.     D.  at  Smithfield,  R.  I.,  Feb.  13,  1820. 

Arnold.  Gen.  Richard  (son  of  Lemuel  H.) ;  b.  at  Pro^-i- 
deiice,  R.  I.,  A|ir.  12,  1828,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1850.  He  entered  the  artillery,  and  in  1803  became  a  lirig- 
adier-general  of  U.  S.  volunteers,  serving  chiefly  in  the  Gulf 
States.  In  1860  he  was  breveted  major-general  U.  S.  A. 
D.  on  Governor's  island.  New  York  harbor,  Nov.  8,,  1883. 

Arnold,  Samuel,  !Mus.  Doc.  (Oxford,  1773);  an  English 
musician;  b.  in  London,  Aug.  10.  1740.  He  became  com- 
poser to  the  Covent  Garden  theater  about  1763.  Ilis  opera. 
Maid  of  tlie  Mill  (1765),  was  very  popular;  also  Bosnmond, 
(1767).  He  was  ai)pointcd  organist  to  the  king  in  1783,  and 
composed  four  volumes  of  Cathedral  Music.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  22,  1802, 


ARNOLD 


AROMATICS 


341 


Arnold,  Samuel  Greexe:  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Apr. 
12,  lii.ll:  grailuatctl  at  Brown  University  in  1841,  a$.<l  at 
Cambriilf;e  Law  .ScIumiI  in  1845.  lie  was  several  times 
Lieutenant-Goveniiirof  Rliixle  Island,  .served  for  a  few  weeks 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  late  civil  war,  and  became  U.  S.  Sena- 
tor in  186;J.  lie  published  a  Jlisturij  uf  lihude  Island  (7 
vols.,  18.5!)-()()),  and  numerous  addresses,  reviews,  and  ar- 
ticles for  periodicals.   D.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Feb.  13,  1880. 

Arnold,  Thomas.  D.  D.  :  En<;lish  teacher  and  historian; 
b.  al  ('owes,  in  the  Isle  of  Wijjht,  .June  Vi.  ITO.x  He  entered 
the  University  of  D.Kford  in  1811;  t;raduated  in  1814,  and 
became  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College  in  1M1.5.  He  gained  the 
chancellor's  prize  for  Latin  and  English  es.says  in  181.5  and 
1817.  He  removed  to  Laleham,  near  Staines,  in  1819,  and 
marrierl  .Mary,  a  daughter  of  Rev.  John  Penro.se,  in  1820. 
In  182>l  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  became  heail-nnuster 
of  Rugby  School,  which  he  conducted  with  eminent  wis- 
dom and"  decided  .success,  fulfilling  the  prophecy  that  he 
would  regenerate  public-school  education  in  England.  He 
did  better  than  merely  turn  out  clever  scholars.  He  culti- 
vated among  the  .students  a  sense  of  duty  and  ii  high  moral 
and  religious  tone.  He  set  an  example  of  I'lirislian  manli- 
ness which  induced  many  followers,  for  to  him  religion  was 
the  dominant  force,  the  very  life.  lie  was  a  Whig  or  Lib- 
eral in  politics,  and  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  High 
•  'hurch  and  new  school  of  theology  represented  by  Puscy. 
In  1832  he  purchased  Fox  How,  a  small  estate  between 
Rydal  ami  .\mbleside,  where  he  afterward  spent  liis  vaca- 
tions. He  contributed  to  the  Qiiaitirly  Review  and  Edin- 
burgh llevieu;  published  a  gooil  edition  of  Thucy<lides 
(1830-35),  and  five  volumes  of  sermons  (1828-42).  liis  capi- 
tal work  is  a  I/islarif  of  Rome  (3  vols.,  1838-42),  which  lie 
dill  not  live  to  finish.  It  terminates  near  the  end  of  the 
.second  Punic  war.  In  1828  he  became  B.  D.  and  I).  I),  at 
O.vford.  He  wasai)pointed  Regius  Prufessnrof  Mixlern  His- 
tory at  O.vford  in  1841,  and  delivered  there  an  introductory 
course  of  lectures  which  were  published  in  1842.  He  died 
at  Rugby,  of  angina  pectoris.  .June  12,  1842,  leaving  three 
sons,  Matthew,  Thomas,  and  William  I).,  and  a  name  of 
priceless  value.  See  his  Ufe  by  Dean  Stanley  (2  vols.,  1844, 
many  editions  and  reprints),  and  the  novel  of  Thomas 
Hughes,  Tom  Brown  at  Rngl»j\  also  Zinzow"s  Thomas 
Arnold  (186!l).  Revised  by  S.  M.  .Tacksox. 

Arnold.  Thomas  Kebcheveb:  English  clergyman;  b. 
at  Stamford.  1800:  educated  at  Cambriilge,  became  fellow 
of  Trinity  College  1821:  rector  of  Lyndon,  Kullaiidsliire. 
where  he  died,  Mar.  !).  18.53.  He  published  a  number  of 
]iopidar  text-books  for  schools,  among  which  are  manuals 
for  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  German  languages. 

ArnoITo  di  Cambio:  sculptor  and  architect ;  b.  at  CoUe, 
1232;  (1.  .It  Florence.  1310.  lie  was  a  master  of  that  beau- 
tiful combinaticm  of  building  and  sculpture  peculiar  to  me- 
diaeval Italy.  The  rich  west  front  of  tlu^  Cathedral  of  Or- 
victo  anil  a  rich  tomb  in  the  same  city,  the  tomb  of  Pope 
Ilonorius  III.  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  aiul  that  of  Pope 
Bonifacio  VIII.  in  St.  Peter's,  both  at  Rome,  and  other  im- 
portant works  in  Central  Italy,  are  either  wliolly  or  in  great 
part  of  his  design.  But  his  most  important  work  was  done 
in  Florence,  where  there  still  remain  for  our  admiration  the 
Bargello  (now  the  National  Museum),  the  Church  of  Orsiin- 
michele  with  its  very  elaborate  shrine,  the  Church  of  Santa 
Croce,  the  marble  exterior  of  the  baptistery,  the  beginning 
and  general  design  of  the  |iublic  palace  (Palazzo  Vecchio). 
and  the  great  catheilral  from  almost  its  commencement  up 
to  the  roof  of  the  nave.  RfssELL  Sturgis. 

Ar'nott,  Neil,  M.  D.  (Aberdeen,  1814),  F.R.S.  (1838):  d. 
at  .\rliroath,  near  Montrose,  Scothind,  1788:  was  educated 
at  Aberdeen,  and  in  medicine  in  London;  became  a  sur- 
geon in  the  F]ast  India  Company's  service;  settled  in  Lon- 
don in  1811  as  a  phvsician  ;  published  Elemenlx  of  Phi/sics 
(1827) :  E.smi/  on  XVarming  and  VvutiUtling  (183'2) ;  a  Sur- 
vey of  Human  Progrexs  (1861),  etc.  He  was  distinguished 
as  an  inventor,  especially  of  a  smokeless  grate,  known  as 
"Arnott's  stove,"  and  as  a  benefactor  of  institutions  of 
learning.     D.  in  London,  JIarch  22,  1874. 

Arnott.  Wji.MAM  :  b.  at  Scone.  Perthshire.  Scotland.  Nov. 
C,  ISIIS;  educ.-iled  at  the  University  of  Glasgow:  ordained  as 
a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  in  18:i!);  subsci|ui'ntly 
joined  the  Free  Church  movement  (184:i).  and  was  one  of  its 
ablest  champions.  In  18(53  he  removed  to  Kdiidmrgh.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  meeting  of  the  Kvangelical  Alliance  in 
1873  at  New  York.     He  declined  the  degree  of  1).  D.  from 


the  universities  of  Glasgow  and  New  York  city.  His  best 
known  books  are  Laws  from  Heaven  fur  Life  on  Earth  ; 
Illustrations  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (2  vols.,  1857-58) ;  and 
Ttie  Parables  of  Our  Lord  (18G5).  See  his  autobiography 
and  memoir  (London,  1877).    D.  in  Edinburgh,  June  3, 1875. 

Arnutto :  See  A.v.notto. 

Aruoiild.  or  Arnonlt.  aar-noo',  Sophie  :  a  popular  French 
actress:  b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  14.  1744.  She  was  very  successful 
as  an  opera-singer,  and  was  distinguished  for  her  wit  and 
convcrsatiomil  powers.  Her  society  was  sought  by  such 
menasD'Alembert  and  Diderot,  and  her  beauty  was  jiraised 
by  several  eminent  jioets.  1).  in  Paris.  1803.  See  her  biog- 
raphy by  Lamotle-Langon  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1837),  and  by  E. 
and  J.  do  Goncourt  (1857),  and  her  bon  mots  in  Arnoldiana 
(1813). 

Arnprior;  on  Cainulian  Pacific  Ry..  Renfrew  co.,  On- 
tario, Canada  (for  location  of  county,  see  nuii>  of  Ontario, 
ref.  1-G) ;  situated  on  Chats  Lake,  at  the  conuuence  of  the 
Madawaska  and  Ottawa  rivers.  52  miles  W.  of  Ottawa:  has 
saw-mills,  woolen-mills,  and  marble-works.  There  are  iron 
mines  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  (1881)  2,147;  (1891)  3,341. 

.\rus'bera:,  or  A'rensberg :  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  West- 
phalia; situated  on  the  river  Ruhr;  46  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
ililnster  (see  map  of  the  German  Empire,  ref.  4-D).  It  con- 
tains several  churches  and  a  gymnasium  :  also  manufactures 
of  broadcloth,  linen,  etc.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  seat 
of  the  Vehmic  court.     Pop.  6,733. 

Arn'stadt :  an  old  town  of  Germany ;  in  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen :  on  the  river  Gera,  10  miles  S.  of  Erfurt, 
wit  h  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (see  map  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  .5-E).  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  Thu- 
ringian  towns.  Here  are  manufactures  of  gloves,  pottery, 
etc.  In  the  viciiiitv  are  copper  mines  and  saline  springs 
used  for  bathing.     Pop.  11,287. 

Arnswalde.  aarnsvaal-d?  :  a  town  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Brandenburg.  66  miles  N.  E.  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder:  has  chemical  nuuuifactnres,  iron-founilries,  and  spin- 
ning-works. It  is  on  the  railroad  from  Stettin  to  Poscii  (see 
map  of  the  German  Empire,  ref.  3-II).     Po]>.  about  7,.500. 

Ar'nnlf  (in  Lat.  ArnuTphus):  Emperor  of  Germany: 
son  of  Carlonnm  of  Bavaria.  The  latter  was  a  grandson  of 
Charlemagne.  Arnulf,  b.  about  850,  was  clcctc'd  King  of 
Germany  in  887  A.  D..  invaded  Italy  about  894,  and  captured 
Rome  in  896.  He  was  crowned  as  emperor  by  the  i)ope  at 
Rome.  He  died  at  Regensburg,  Dec.  8,  899,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son.  Louis  IV.  See  Gasern,  Arnnlji  Imprra- 
toris  Vita  (1837). 

Aroids  [from  Lat.  arum  =  Or.  ipoy.  a  plant-name  -t-  Gr. 
flSos.  form]:  the  Araceen;  a  family  of  hcrbaci'ous  mono- 
cotyledons, bearing  small  fiowers  upon  a  fleshy  spike  (spadix) 
which  is  commonly  inclosed  in  a  spat  he.  About  900  species 
are  known,  distributed  mainly  in  warm  climates. 

CUARLES  E.  BeSSEV. 

A'rolsen :  a  town  of  Germany;  capital  and  residence  of 
the  Prince  of  Waldeck  ;  on  the  Aar,  23  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Cas- 
sel  (see  map  of  the  German  Kmpire,  ref.  4-E).  It  has  manu- 
factures of  woolen  cloth.  Here  is  a  fine  castle  of  the  Prince 
of  Waldeck,  with  a  librarv  of  30,000  volumes.  Pop.  (1890) 
2,620. 

Aro'ma  [Lat.  =  Gr.  ipufm.  spice,  sweet  herbs]:  the  prin- 
ciple in  plants  or  other  substances  which  constitutes  their 
fragrance;  the  peculiar  odor  of  aromatic  plants,  such  as  nut- 
meg, cloves,  vaiulla,  and  lavender.  It  is  extremely  subtle, 
and  seems  to  bo  almost  im])onderable.  as  these  substances 
diffuse  their  odors  for  a  long  time  without  sensible  diiniiui- 
tion  of  weight.  The  aroma  of  plants  is  imparted  to  fixed 
oils  by  maceration. 

Aroniatari.  (iII"Sei>i>e,  degli  (jyti-sep-pe  dayl'-yee  a"!i-ro- 
ma'ii-taa'n'e) :  learned  physician  and  naturalist;  b.  at  Assisi, 
Italy,  about  1.586;  jiracticcd  medicine  with  great  success  at 
Venice  about  fil'tv  yi'ars.  His  fame  reached  Kngland.  and 
he  received  and  declined  invitations  from  James  11.,  from 
the  pope,  and  others.  His  principal  work  is  De  Generatione 
Plantarum  ex  Seminibus.  a  treatise  on  the  reproduction  of 
])lants.  showing  the  analog)'  between  their  seeds  and  the  eggs 
of  animals.     I),  in  1660. 

Aromatic  Hydroearhons;  See  HvoRocARnoxs. 

AroiHat'it'S  [Lat.  aromat'icus,  deriv.  of  aro'ma,  a  spice]: 
spicy  |)lants  or  drugs;  substances  which  emit  aroma  or 
agreeable   perfumes,  and  are  generaUy  characterized  by  a 


3J:2 


AROMATIC   VINEGAR 


ARREST 


wann,  pungent  taste,  as  cloves,  cinnamon,  ginger.  They 
often  contain  essential  or  volatile  oils  or  resins.  The  term 
aromatic  is  also  applied  tu  several  animal  substances,  as 
ambergris,  musk,  and  castor.     See  Arojia. 

Aromatic  Viii'eg:ar:  a  compound  or  mixture  of  ordi- 
nary vinegar  with  aromatic  essential  oils,  and  a  powerful 
perfume.  As  it  is  veiy  volatile,  and  is  an  .excitant  when 
snuffed  in  the  nostrils,  it  is  used  as  a  remedy  tor  fainting 
and  nervous  debility.  It  is  often  prepared  by  combining 
crystallizable  acetic  acid  with  the  oils  of  cloves,  lavender, 
rosemary,  and  Acorus  calamus. 

Aroo:  See  Aru. 

Aroos'tooH  :  a  river  of  the  U.  S. ;  rises  in  Piscataquis  co.. 
Me.,  flows  northeastward  througli  Aroostook  County  into  New 
Brunswick,  and  enters  the  St.  Jolin's  river.  Length  about 
120  miles. 

Arpdd  :  the  national  hero  of  Hungary  and  the  chief  of  the 
Magyars,  wlio  in  889  a.  d.  migrated  from  GaUcia,  and  con- 
quered the  Slavonic  peo])le  of  Croatia  and  Transylvania.  He 
is  called  the  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  D.  in  907 
A.  D.  The  dvnastv  of  Arpad  lerminated  in  Andrew  III.,  in 
1301. 

Ar'pe.  Peter  Friedricii  :  b.  at  Iviel  in  HoLstein  in  1683: 
was  Professor  of  Law  (1717-32)  at  Kiel,  and  a  learned  juris- 
consult and  writer.  He  wrote  Themis  Cimbrica  (1737),  de- 
scribing the  institutions  and  manners  of  the  Cimbri  and  other 
tribes.    D.  aljout  1745. 

Arpeggio,  ar-pej'6  [Ital..  connected  with  arpciigln're,  play 
on  the  arpa,  or  harj)] :  in  music,  a  chord  of  which  the  notes 
are  given  in  succession ;  or  the  sounding  the  notes  of  a 
chord  in  quick  succession,  so  as  to  imitate  the  harp. 

Arpent :  a  French  land-measure  nearly  equivalent  to  an 
English  acre.  The  French  now  measure  land  by  the  hectare 
instead  of  the  arpent,  which  is  obsolete. 

Arpi'iio  (anc.  Arpi'num):  a  town  of  Italy;  province  of 
Caserta ;  pleasantly  situated  on  liigh  ground,  5  miles  S.  of 
Sora  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  surrounded  by  very 
beautiful  scenery,  has  a  royal  college,  several  churches  anil 
convents;  also  manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  paper,  etc. 
Here  is  a  cyclopean  wall  and  other  remains  of  Arpinum, 
which  was  founded  by  the  Volsci,  and  became  a  Roman 
municipium  about  188  B.  c.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  native 
place  of  Cains  Marius  and  of  Cicero.  Variegated  and  white 
marbles  are  quarried  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  11,629. 

Arraca'clia  [native  name]:  an  umbelliferous  South  Amer- 
ican plant  (Arracacha  escitlen/a).  It  grows  in  Colombia,  Ja- 
maica, and  other  tropical  regions,  and  is  cultivated  for  its 
roots,  which  are  large  and  sweet,  and  are  eaten  after  being 
boiled  or  roasted.  The  taste  is  descrilied  as  between  that  of 
a  parsni]!  and  a  sweet  chestnut.  This  plant  was  recom- 
mended as  a  .substitute  for  the  potato,  and  attempts  were 
made  to  cultivate  it  in  Kngland,  but  that  climate  was  found 
to  lie^inifavoralile. 

Ar'raek',  or  Rack  :  an  alcoholic  li(iuor  distilled  from  fer- 
mented rice  ;  a  common  intoxicating  drink  in  the  East  Indies 
and  other  Oriental  countries.  Also  a  strong  drink  obtained 
from  the  fermented  sap  of  the  palm-tree,  and  often  called 
palm-wine  or  toddy.  Among  the  species  of  palms  which  yield 
this  drink  are  the  cocoanut-|)alm  and  the  date-palm.  When 
new  it  has  an  oily  and  disagreeable  taste,  which  is  improved 
by  a.ije. 

Arragon;  See  Aragox. 

Ar'rall:  a  town  of  liritish  India:  in  the  presidency  of 
Bengal.  2.")  miles  \V.  of  Dinapoor  (see  map  of  N.  India,' ref. 
6-G).  The  British  here  gained  a  victoi-y  over  the  mutinous 
Sepoys  in  18,57.  Arrah  was  the  scene  of  several  exciting 
incidents  of  that  nuitiny.     Pof).  (1881)  42,998. 

Ar'raii:  an  island  of  Scotland,  in  the  Frith  of  Clyde, 
county  of  Hute,  13  miles  W.  of  Ayrshire,  and  4  miles  ft.  of 
Cantyre  (see  map  of  Scotland,  reif.  13-E).  It  is  about  20 
miles  long,  12  miles  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  16.5  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  the  granite  peaks  of  the  north- 
cm  part  being  remarkably  grand.  Goatfell,  the  highest 
peak.  Is  3,s(iO  f.-ct  above  tlie  level  of  the  sea.  Here  is  a 
cavern  in  which  Hubert  Hruce  once  hid  liimself.  The  geol- 
ogy of  .\rran.  it  is  .said,  presents  a  greater  succession  of 
strata  than  any  other  equal  portion  of  the  British  isles. 
The  southeastern  half  consists  of  Devonian  sandstone,  trap- 
rock,  anil  (•arl)oniferous  strata.  The  northwestern  half 
exhibits  a  central  gi-anite  nucleus,  bordered  by  mica-slate 


on  one  side,  and  by  lower  Silurian  rocks  on  the  other  sides. 
Pop.  about  6,000. 

Arran,  South  Isles  of  :  three  small  islands  lying  across 
the  entrance  to  Galway  Bay.  about  4  miles  off  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland,  and  37  miles  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Galway 
(see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  10-15).  They  are  named  Inish- 
more,  Inismain,  and  Inishcre  (or  Iimishere).  Area,  18  sq. 
miles.  They  once  contained  twenty  churches  and  monas- 
teries, and  St.  Kenanach  church,  built  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, is  still  standing.  Here  are  also  remains  of  a  cyclo- 
pean fort  of  unhewn  stone,  supposed  to  have  been  built  in 
the  first  century,  and  described  as  among  the  most  magnifi- 
cent barbaric  monuments  of  Europe.  The  old  shi'ines  and 
relics  scattered  through  the  islands  attract  many  visitors. 

Arrangement :  the  adaptation  of  a  piece  of  music  to  an 
instrument  dilferent  from  that  for  which  it  was  originally 
composed,  as  when  orchestral  compositions  are  adapted  to 
the  piano,  or  when  a  piece  originally  written  for  an  instru- 
ment or  instruments  is  adapted  for  a  voice  or  voices. 

Arras  (anc.  jVemefacum,  afterward  Atreb'ates):  a  forti- 
fied city  of  France,  capital  of  the  dejiartraent  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  on  the  river  Scarpe  and  on  the  Railway  du  Nord,  30 
miles  N.  E.  of  Amiens,  aiul  100  miles  N.  N.  E!  of  Paris  (see 
map  of  Prance,  ref.  3-F).  It  was  formei'ly  the  capital  of 
Artois,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop  as  early  as  390  A.  D.  It 
was  fortified  by  Vauban,  and  ranks  as  a  fortified  town  of 
the  third  class.  The  citadel  is  separated  from  the  town  by 
an  esplanade,  but  it  is  inclosed  within  the  same  wall.  Arras 
is  well  built,  partly  on  a  declivity  and  partly  on  flat  ground, 
and  is  ailorned  by  fine  |iublic  buildings,  among  wliich  are  a 
cathedral,  a  town-hall,  and  a  theater.  It  has  a  museum,  a 
.school  of  design,  and  a  puljlic  library  of  about  36,000  vol- 
umes. Here  are  manufactures  of  hosiery,  lace,  woolen  and 
cotton  goods,  etc.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  so  famous  for 
its  tapestry  that  this  article  was  commonly  called  arras  by 
the  English.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Robespierre.  The 
grain-market  of  Arras  is  said  to  be  the  most  important  in 
the  N.  of  France.     Pop.  (1886)  26,914. 

Arras'tre :  a  mill  used  in  Spain  and  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies for  grinding  gold  and  silver  ores.  It  is  a  circular  basin 
of  granite  or  other  hai'd  rock,  in  the  center  of  which  a  ver- 
tical wooden  shaft  revolves,  with  four  horizontal  arras,  to 
which  large  flat  stones  are  attached  by  chains.  The  ore  is 
lu'oken  into  small  fragments  before  it  enters  the  arrastre. 
The  revolution  of  the  shaft  is  produced  by  two  mules.  See 
Silver. 

Ar'rawak  Ind'ians;  a  race  or  collection  of  tribes  in 
Guiana,  remarkable  for  the  euphony  of  their  language  and 
theii"  mild  and  friendly  disposition  toward  the  whites. 
They  were  formerly  very  numerous  and  powerful.  They 
have  Iieen  nuich  benefited  liy  the  labors  of  ^Moravian  niis- 
.sionaries. 

Ar'rebo.  Anders  Christensen;  Danish  poet ;  h.  at  Arfis- 
kjobing,  .Ian.  3,  1587 ;  d.  at  Vordingborg,  Mar.  12, 1637.  His 
cliief  work  is  the  He.raemeron,  on  the  creation  of  the  woild, 
an  imitation  of  the  Dirine  Week  of  Du  Bartas.  His  main 
importanee,  however,  is  as  the  introducer  of  Renaissance 
influences  into  Danish  poetry.  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Arrest'  [from  Old  Fr.  arest.  deriv.  of  arester.  stop,  check, 
ultimately  from  Lat.  ad.  to-t-  restare,  stay  back] :  the  appre- 
hension or  seizui'e  of  a  person  by  lawful  authority,  usually 
by  tlie  command  or  direction  of  some  court  or  officer  of 
justice.     It  may  take  ]ilace  either  in  civil  or  ci-iminal  cases. 

(1)  In  Civil  Vases. — In  tliis  instance  it  may  be  eitlier  on 
mesne  or  final  process.  The  object  of  the  first  is  to  make  it 
certain  that  the  defendant  will  answer  the  order  of  the 
coui't.  He  may  eithei'  remain  in  custody  or  give  bail,  ac- 
(Mirding  to  the  rules  of  practice,  as  security  for  his  ajipear- 
anee.  On  final  process  the  arrest  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
execution.  The  defendant  is  to  be  kept  in  confinement, 
either  in  jail  or  within  prescribeil  limits,  until  the  judgment 
is  satisfied,  or  until  he  is  discharged  by  order  of  the  court. 
In  the  early  common  law  an  arrest  was  allowed  almost  as 
a  matter  of  course,  imprisonment  for  debt  lieing  the  i-egu- 
lar  ])raetice.  This  rule'  is  now  greatly  modified,  and  by  a 
statute  in  Great  Britain  and  in  a  number  of  the  Cnitcd 
Stales  an  arrest  can  only  lie  had  in  special  cases  and  upon 
a  judge's  order.  The  facts  necessary  to  be  shown  as  a  liasis 
for  the  order  arc  presented  on  affidavit.  There  are  certain 
persons  privileged  from  arrest  by  rules  of  general  preva- 
ienee.  such  as  members  of  legisliitures,  or  witnesses  while  at- 
tending the  .sessions  of  the  legi.slatures  or  courts,  and  while 


AKRIIID^EUS 


ARROWROOT 


343 


ftoiiij;  to  anil  rc'luniiiig  from  tlie  same.  The  arivst  in  such 
eases  is  irregular,  uiiil  the  party  arrested  may  be  ilisohargecl 
on  motion.  Tliis  privilege  is  secured  to  menibei-s  of  Con- 
gress by  tlie  V.  S.  t'onstitiilion.  An  original  arrest  ean  not 
be  made  on  Sunday,  nor  is  it  lawful  to  break  into  a  house 
for  this  j>Lir|i'ise,  owing  lothelegal  rule  that  "  a  man's  house 
is  his  castle."  This  rule  does  not  apply  where  the  defend- 
ant has  been  rescued,  and  the  ollicer  is  proceeding  regu- 
larly to  retake  him.  The  common  law  permits  an  arrest  by 
night  as  well  as  by  day.  This  rule  is  sometimes  affected  by 
statute. 

(2)  In  Criminal  Cases. — The  power  to  arrest  in  this  class 
of  cases  is  much  less  restricted.  Xone  ai-e  privileged  (ex- 
cept ainbassiiloi's  and  their  servants),  outer  doors  may  be 
broken  o|>en,  Sunday  is  not  regarded,  and  a  warrant  is  not 
in  all  cases  essential.  Such  an  arrest  is  made  either  under 
a  warrant,  or  by  an  officer  without  a  warrant,  or  liy  a  pri- 
vate person  without  a  warrant.  A  wariaut  is  granted  by  a 
ma<jistrale  on  information  in  writing  and  supported  by 
oath,  and  is  executed  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed, 
usually  a  sheriff  or  constable.  An  arrest  may  be  made 
without  a  warrant  by  a  peace  officer,  such  as  a  sheriff  or 
constable,  when  a  felony  or  breach  of  the  peace  is  com- 
mitted in  his  presence,  or  where  a  felony  has  been  connnit- 
ted,  or  he  has  reasonable  ground  to  suspect  that  it  has  been, 
though  not  in  his  presence,  and  he  has  also  rea-sonalile 
ground  to  suspect  the  party  arrested.  The  right  of  a  pri- 
vate person  to  make  an  arrest  without  a  warrant  is  much 
more  restricted.  He  must  be  prepared  to  show  that  a  felony 
has  been  artnnlly  committed,  as  well  a-s  reasonable  grounds 
of  suspicion  that  the  party  arrested  wa.s  the  wrong-doer.  A 
private  person  is  bound  to  arrest  for  a  felony  committed  in 
liis  i)reseuee.  In  making  an  arrest  necessary  force  may  be 
used,  and  in  case  of  felony  even  life  may  be  taken  where 
arrest  is  enjoined.  An  arrest  can  only  properly  be  made 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  \A  hen  a  [)erson 
charged  with  crime  escapes  from  one  State  to  another,  his 
return  may  be  demanded  under  the  laws  of  Congress. 
Should  he  escape  to  a  foreign  country,  he  may  in  certain 
cases  be  retaken  under  an  extradition  treaty  with  that 
country.     See  Extradition. 

The  word  "arrest"  is  also  used  in  law  in  connection  with 
judgment.  This  means  that  judgment  is  not  to  bo  entered, 
although  a  verdict  has  been  given,  on  account  of  some 
reason  appearing  upon  the  record,  as  where  the  allegations 
in  the  [ileiulings  are  not  a  suflicient  basis  for  an  act  ion. 

T.  W.  Dwight. 

Ariiiidie'iis,  Philip:  a  son  of  Philip  tl.  of  Maceilon  by  a 
dancing-girl,  I'liilinna  of  Larissa;  accompanied  his  half- 
brother,  Alexaniler  the  (treat,  in  his  campaigns  in  Asia, 
and  was  always  kindly  treated  by  him,  but  never  held  any 
civil  or  military  comnuind.  He  was  imbecile,  and  it  was 
said  that  he  had  become  so  from  a  [lotion  administered  to 
him  while  a  boy  by  Olympias,  his  father's  wife  and  Alex- 
ander's mother.  He  was  present  at  Habylon  wIkwi  Alexan- 
der die<l,  and  was  immediately  proclaimed  king  by  the 
army,  though  the  son  of  Alexander  by  Roxana,  born  shortly 
aftiT,  was  associated  with  him.  He  now  married  Kurydice, 
a  graiuhlaughter  of  Philip  11..  a  daughter  of  Cynane,  his 
own  and  Alexander's  half-sister.  Kurydice  was,  like  her 
mother,  a  woman  of  thoroughly  masculine  education,  of 
many  masculine  talents,  and  of  an  inordinate  ainl)ition. 
She  wishe<l  to  get  rid  of  Roxana  and  her  son,  of  Olympias, 
and  of  Alexander's  generals;  and  after  the  death  of  An- 
li|)ater  (in  :!!!»)  she  collected  an  army  and  inarched  against 
Polysperchou.  Hut  in  Polysperchoii's  army  was  Olympias, 
and  the  .Macedonian  soldiers  declared  that  they  would 
never  fight  against  Alexander's  mother.  Kurydice  was 
deserted,  captured  in  her  flight,  and  confined,  together 
with  her  husband,  in  a  narrow  dungeon,  whither  Olympias 
sent  to  her  a  sword,  a  roiio,  ami  a  cu|)  of  hendock.  She 
accepted  the  presents,  made  Arrhidieus  drink  the  hemlock, 
and  then  hanged  herself  (317  B.  c). 

Ar'rian  ((ir. 'A(}^iai'((j  ;  \ja.i.  Arrianus  Flavins):  Greek 
historian  :  b.  at  Xiconiedia,  in  Bithynia,  about  100  a.  n. :  was 
a  pujiil  and  friend  of  Kpictetus.  He  was  a  Stoic  in  philoso- 
phy. I'liiin  131-137  A.  D.  he  was  governor  of  Cap|)adocia 
under  llailrian.  He  is  said  to  have  served  in  tlie  army 
against  the  (Joths  and  .Mani.  He  spent  the  closing  yeai's 
of  his  life  in  Athens,  and  died  before  180  A.  n.  In  his  life 
as  in  his  writings  he  look  Xenophon  as  his  model,  and 
Epictetus  was  to  him  what  .Socrates  was  to  Xenophon.  As 
Xenophon  wrote  the  Memoirs  of  Hocrales,  so  he  composed 


the  Discourses  of  Epictefiis  (AiorpuSo!  'EiriicT^Tou).  in  eight 
books,  of  which  four  are  extant,  and  eililed  his  master's  Kn- 
chiridion(,'Eyxfip''Stov),  a  manual  of  Stoic  morals,  which  still 
enjoys  great  popularity.  His  [irincipal  historical  work  is 
the  Expeilition  of  Alexander  {"And^aais  'AXf{av5pou),  in  .seven 
books,  title  and  number  both  being  in  imitation  of  Xeno- 
phon "s  Anabasis.  The  work  is  baseil  on  Ptolemy  and  Aris- 
tobuhis,  and  commends  itself  to  the  student  of  history  by 
its  simplicity  and  sobriety.  The  book  on  Jndin  ('lvSiKri).ii 
•(eographical  ap|)endix  to  the  Anabasis,  is  written  in  the 
Ionic  dialect.  An  olUcial  report  to  Hadrian  is  preserved 
under  the  title  neplir\ous  irivrou  Ev^elvou.  a  narrative  of  a 
coa.sting  voyage  around  the  Euxine.  A  treatise  On  Tactics 
(TaKTiK^)  and  a  slight  tract  On  Jliintini/  (KmrtycriK&s)  have 
also  come  down  to  us  under  his  name,  with  Iragiiieiits  of 
various  historical  works.  In  his  language  Arrian  tries  to 
revive  the  elegance  of  the  classical  period,  but  his  speech 
betrays  him,  and  his  labored  simplicity  is  lacking  in  charm. 
Kd.  by  Diibner  and  Jliiller  (1846).  Jlinor  writings  by  Her- 
cher  in  (he  Teubner  Library.  Annotated  ed.  of  Anaba-iis 
by  Kruger  (183.5-48),  by  Sintenis  (1863),  by  Abicht  (1879). 
For  the  philosophical  works,  see  Sclnveighiiuser,  Epicteteie 
philosophiip  monumenta  (1799);  for  the  geographical  re- 
mains, Mi'dler,  Geoqraphi  Grieci  minores,  i.  pp.  3.57^02. 

B.  L.  (tii.dersleeve. 
.\ri'iaza,  a'ii-re'e-aatha,  JuAX  Bautista:  Spanish  poet, 
sometimes  called  Akriaza  y  Siperviela  ;  b.  at  Madrid  in 
1770.  He  passed  some  years  in  London  as  secretary  of  lega- 
tion, and  published  in  XSO'i  Emilia,  a  poem  on  the  influence 
of  the  fine  arts.  Having  returned  to  Spain  in  1807,  he  took 
an  active  part  in  politics,  and  wrote  in  suiiport  of  absolute 
monarchy.  He  obtained  an  important  position  in  the  de- 
partment of  foreign  affairs.  In  1810  he  producefJ  Poesias 
Patrioficas.     I),  in  Madrid,  1837. 

4rrit're  Ban :  See  Ban. 

Arri'glii  di  Casanova.  .Teax  Toissaixt  :  Duke  of  Padua  : 
a  Coi'sicaii  general  ;  b.  at  Corte,  Mar.  8.  1778.  He  entered 
the  French  army  in  early  youth,  and  served  with  distinc- 
tion at  Marengo,  A  usierlitz,  and  Friedland.  ami  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  general  of  division  on  the  field  of  Esslingen, 
in  1809.  He  lived  in  exile  from  1815  to  18'30 ;  was  elected 
to  the  French  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.  1).  in  Paris, 
JIar.  22,  18,53.  Si'c  his  biographv  Ijv  A.  Du  Casse  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1866). 

Arro'ba:  a  Sjianish  weight  and  measure:  used  also  in 
Brazil  and  the  Spanish  colonies.  There  are  ten  kinds  of 
arroba  for  weight,  ranging  between  21, ".f^  lb.  avoirdupois 
anil  32-1%-  lb.  avoinlnpois.  Only  two  of  the  number  are  as 
great  as  28  lb.  There  are  eleven  kinds  of  arroba  for  liquid 
measure,  ranging  from  2-^Ss  gil-  to  •'A'ff  K'l'-  The  arroba 
for  Spain  generally  is  (or  was,  as  it  is  abolished)  4-i-o^ij  gal. 

Arroiidisspiiipnf.  aa-ron-dees'mon  [Pr.,  a  district  or  cir- 
cuit] :  a  principal  civil  division  of  the  departments  of  France. 
Kaeh  department  is  divided  into  arrondis-sements,  each 
arrondissement  into  cantons,  and  each  canton  into  com- 
munes.    See  France. 

AlTOO:  See  Aru. 

Ar'rowlicad  :  an  aquatic  plant  of  the  genm-  Sayiitaria. 
and  family  .Mismarew,  natives  of  both  cold  and  tropical 
climates.  They  have  unisexual  fU>wers,  with  many  stamens 
anil  many  car|)els.  which  are  comjiressed  and  one-seeded. 
The  Saf/iltaria  saf/ittifolia,  a  native  of  P'urope.  is  a  beauti- 
ful plant  with  arrow-shaped  leaves,  which  rise  aljove  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  Saf/ilfaria  variabilis  of  the  U.  S. 
is  very  similar  to  it.  The  Saf/ilfaria  sinensis  (Chinese  ar- 
rowhead) is  cultivated  in  China  in  ponds  and  ditches  for  the 
sake  of  its  iMilrilious  conns,  which  abound  in  starch. 

.\rron-hoado(l  Characters:    See  Ci'.veiform  Ixscrip- 

TIOXS, 

Ar'nnvroot:  the  starch  or  fecula  from  the  root  of  the 
Maranta  anindinacea  and  other  species  of  Marania.  It  is 
nnich  esteemed  as  an  easily  digestible  diet  for  infants  and 
invalids.  Large  (luantities  of  it  arc  imported  into  the  U.  .S. 
and  Kurope  from  licrmuda  and  .Tamaica,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated. It  is  also  raisi'd  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  roots, 
or  rather  rhizomes,  yield  aliout  25  |icr  cent,  of  this  starch, 
which  is  in  the  form  of  a  light,  opaque,  white  powder.  It  is 
often  adulterated  with  potato-starch  and  other  substances. 
The  name  arrowroot  is  said  to  refer  to  the  use  of  the  fresh 
roots  as  an  application  to  wounds  inflicted  by  poisoned  ar- 
rows ;  and  the  expressed  juice  has  been  recommended  as  an 


3il  ARKOWSMITH 

antidote  to  poisons,  and  a  cure  for  the  stings  and  bites  of 
venomous  insects  and  reptiles.     Some  think  that  the  name 

is  really  another 
_-  form      of      ara, 

Iji:.  f-^-y^  which  is  said  to 

nwvFiMJJlI  V^T'ir    CV;\         be  tlie  Indian  ap- 

^^^f  V!S??fe        ^^l    /,0;K    pellatlon   of  the 
.'ii,  -^VJiK-.-   (    plant:   but  it  is 

-  not     improbable 

1  Qfl\li/Xw\\\  \^^'  that  the  scales  on 

l4ri™ffY*  t  \\jSk5*^  tljp  root,   resem- 

I.  ilWrWi'-s     IV  \l  bling   tlie   point 

>i   of  an  arrow,  may 

!lV|\  .xT  V^-\  \l       /ffllJA    ''''^'''     suggested 

the  'name.       In 

preparing  arrow- 

"//V'k'l'/Jh    \x       1  ^■KZ/'^a    root,     the      rhi- 

'W^Vl.K'i^    ^^V  ABi^' '«   zomes     of      the 

C\i)k^'wli^?^      \\Mw^^'f   plant,     wlien     a 

i/'\)       A\        ^\^^^^      washed,  careful- 
^-  ill        '11  \\  ■'-'''    pe^ld.     '"iii 

beaten  inawood- 
^f\     ^  en  mortar  or  by 

i  /ri'A        \       ''"^^P  '■°  ^  niilky 

1/       -^r    r       ^'!y\f  p"'p-  The  puip 

'  ^"~  '  ^-^  ""  is     then     dilut- 

)    '/"^aa^"-  ed    with    water. 

Arrowroot.  P^^sf^d     through 

a  sieve  of  coarse 
cloth  or  hair  to  separate  the  fibers,  and  the  starch  is  allowed 
to  settle.  Albumen  and  salts  are  held  in  solution,  wliile  the 
starch  settles  down  as  an  insolulile  powder,  wliieh  is  finally 
dried  in  the  sun.  According  to  Benzon,  the  fresh  rhizomes 
contain — 

Starch • 2600 

Cellular  fibers 600 

Albumen 1'58 

Gummy  substances O'fk) 

Volatile  oil Q-or 

Chloride  of  calcium 0*:i.5 

Water 6550 

Total 100  00 

Tlie  prepared  arrowroot  is  almost  pure  starch.  It  has  a 
peculiar  firm  feel  between  the  fingers,  and  wlien  rubbed 
produces  a  peculiar  crackling  sound,  like  tliat  of  dry  snow 
in  very  cold  weather.  Like  starch  from  other  sources,  it  is 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  forms  on  boiling  a  gelatinous 
solution.  • 

The  purity  of  arrowroot  is  best  determined  by  microscopic 
examination,  as,  while  the  starch  gi-anules  of  different  plants 
(see  Sx.iRCH)  are  almost  identical  in  clicmical  composition 
and  properties,  they  are  often  very  iieculiar  in  size,  form, 
and  structure.  Tlie  granules  of  the  genuine  Maranta  arrow- 
root are  of  a  regular  ovoid  form,  of  nearly  equal  size,  and 
smooth  on  their  surface ;  wliile  the  granules  of  potato-starch, 
one  of  the  mo.st  common  adulterants,  are  irregularly  ovoid, 
Very  variable  in  size,  from  ^o'lnr  to  3^  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  streaked  and  furrowed  on  tlieir  surface.  Tlie  fecula 
of  many  other  jilants  is  used  eitlier  as  a  substitute  or  an 
adulterant  for  the  true  arrowroot.  Zamia  ivtKjri folia 
yiel<ls  an  arrowroot  in  the  West  Indies  and  tlie  neighlior- 
hood  of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  Ar>im  i-ul<jare.  (nake-roliin) 
yields  Portland  arrowroot  in  the  isle  of  Portland.  Curcuma 
anfjusti folia  yields  East  Indian  arrowroot.  Jalrnpho  Mani- 
hol,  the  cassava  or  tajiioca-plant,  yields  Brazilian  arrowroot. 
7'acca  oceanica  yields  Tahiti  arrowroot.  A/n/ra'mi-ria  pal- 
lida yields  Talcahuana  arrowroot.  The  potato  yields,  liy 
careful  preparation,  the  English  arrowroot.  Sl.-irch  similar 
to  arrowroot  is  also  prepared  in  the  West  Indies  from  tlie 
roots  of  Dioxcoren  saliva  or  yam,  of  Colorasia  rKruhntn, 
and  from  the  fniit  of  Artocarpus  ijicisa  or  breadfruit-tree. 

For  use,  arrowroot  should  be  rubbed  to  a  paste  with  a 
little  cold  water,  and  wliile  this  is  stirred  a  considerable 
quantity  of  boiling  water  .sliould  be  added.  It  may  be 
sweetened  with  sugar  and  flavored  with  lemon-juice  or  with 
wines  and  spices.  For  infants  it  may  be  prepared  with  milk. 
A  tablespoonful  is  sufficient  for  a  pint  of  water  or  milk. 

C.  F.  C'll.\M)I.ER. 

.\rrows)iiitll,  Aahox:  an  English  geographer;  b.  at 
Winston,  Durham,  .Inly  14.  1750;  became  (iislinguished  as 
a  publisher  of  excellent  maps,  over  100  in  number.    D.  in 


ARSENAL 

London,  April  2.3,  1823. — His  son  Aarox.  and  his  nephew 
JoHX,  were  also  noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  maps. 

Arrowsmitli,  Johx.  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Gateshead,  near  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  England.  Mar.  29.  1602.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  Puritan  divines  of 
liis  time ;  became  member  of  Westminster  Assembly  1643, 
I).  D.  and  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge,  and 
master  of  St.  Catharine's  Hall,  all  in  1644;  vice-chancellor 
1647.  and  master  of  Trinity  College  from  16.53  till  his  death 
in  Feb.,  1659.  Wrote  Tadica  Sacra  (1657);  Armilla  Cate- 
chetica,  in  English  (1659),  etc. 

Arsa'ces  I.  (in  Gr.  'Apa-iicris) :  the  founder  of  the  Arsaci- 
dre  and  of  the  kingdom  of  Parthia;  lived  about  250  B.C. 
His  origin  and  history  are  involved  in  much  obscurity.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  tlie  chief  of  a  nomadic  tribe  of  Scyth- 
ians or  Bactrians.  All  his  successors  assumed  the  name  of 
Arsaces. 

Arsaces  III. :  King  of  Armenia :  was  a  son  of  Tiridates 
III.,  whom  he  succeeded  about  340  a.  D.  He  waged  war 
against  Sapor,  ICing  of  Persia,  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
Julian  the  Apostate  about  360.  The  defeat  and  death  of 
Julian  are  ascribed  to  the  treachery  of  Arsaces,  who  deserted 
him  in  the  campaign  of  863  a.  n. 

Arsaces  VI.,  or  Mitliridates  I.:  King  of  Parthia;  en- 
larged his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Baetria,  and  ex- 
tended his  conquests  to  the  Indus.  He  defeated  Demetrius 
Nicator  of  Syria.  After  a  reign  of  twenty-five  years  or  more, 
he  died  about  135  B.  c. 

Arsac'ldae ;  a  d™asty  of  Parthian  kings  which  was 
founded  by  Arsaces  in  256Brc.,and  continued  to  reign  until 
226  A.  D.  The  last  king  of  this  dynasty  was  Artabanus  IV. 
(Arsaces  XXIX.). 

Arsenal  [through  Italian  and  French,  from  Ar.ib.  clar 
aggind'ah,  literally,  house  of  construction]:  a  storehouse  or 
magazine  of  arms  and  military  stores,  or  a  manufactory  of 
arms,  equipments,  etc. 

The  arsenals  of  ancient  castles  and  strongholds  were  lo- 
cated in  their  keeps,  and  served  as  repositories  of  arms.  etc. 

The  Tower  op  London  {q.  v.)  remains  as  a  type  of  this 
class,  and  contains  a  collection  of  antique  arms,  armor,  etc. 
Corresponding  collections  exist  at  Vienna,  Delft,  Berlin, 
Paris,  and  Madrid. 

Great  modern  arsenals  are  located  at  Cherbourg.  Brest, 
and  Toulon.  France,  with  lesser  ones  at  the  centers  of  mili- 
tary districts.  Similar  rejiositories  of  arms,  supplies,  etc., 
usually  known  as  "  depots,"  are  establislied  in  each  of  the 
military  districts  of  Germany.  Russia,  Austria,  and  the  other 
European  states,  at  whicli  are  collected  everything  neces- 
sary for  the  immediate  mobilization  of  the  troops  of  the 
district. 

In  Great  Britain  there  is  the  great  ar.scnal  of  Woolwich, 
which  has  given  em]iloyment  to  more  than  10.000  men  at 
one  time,  and  at  which  iinmen.se  quantities  of  all  kinds  of 
warlike  material  are  manufactured  and  stored  (see  Wooi,- 
\VKH).  Besides  this  arsenal  there  are  the  great  dockyards 
of  Chatham,  Sheerness,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  Pembroke, 
etc. 

In  the  \J.  S.,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  neither 
arsenals  nor  armories  existed;  but  in  1776  the  manufacture 
of  powder  was  commenced  in  ^■irginia,  and  in  1777  brass 
cannon  were  cast  in  Philadelphia.  An  arsenal  was  estab- 
lished at  Carlisle.  Pa.,  ami  a  foundry  and  laboratory  were, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Gen.  Washington,  established  at 
Springfield.  JIass..  which  was  the  origin  of  the  present  Xa- 
tioiial  armory.  Supplies  were  furnished  (ien.  Schuyler 
from  here  in  July.  1777.  and  before  1787  the  manufacture  of 
small  arms  had  commenced.  The  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry 
was  commenced  in  179.5.  These  two  arsenals  furnished 
small  arms  and  supplies  during  the  war  of  1812.  and  the 
former  is  now  the  principal  manufacturing  arsenal  of  the 
r.  .S.  The  arsenal  at  Harjier's  Ferry  continued  in  use  until 
the  civil  war.  \vlien  it  was  destroyed,  and  lias  not  since  been 
rebuilt.    See  Harper's  Ferry. 

In  1S38  the  Ordnance  Department  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  arsenals  and  armories.  Under  its  direction  gi'ew  up  tlie 
system  of  making  arms  by  machineiT  with  such  accuracy 
and  adherence  to  established  patterns  that  all  the  parts  of 
similar  arms  are  intercliangeable.  This  system  has  given 
great  facility  in  repair  of  arms  in  the  ticld,  and  is  now  uni- 
versally adopted. 

At  the  bcjjinning  of  the  civil  war  there  were  twenty-three 
arsenals  and  armories  in  the  U.  S.,  nine  of  which,  besides 


ARSENIC 


ARSENIOUS  OXIDE 


345 


the  Springfield  armory,  wore  tonverted  into  arsenals  of  con- 
struct ion.  The  Si)rin';(iold  armory  beeame  capable  of  turn- 
ing out  l,0f)O  rifles  a  day,  and  a  large  number  of  private 
armories  n\anufactured  an  equal  nuudier  under  the  direc- 
tion and  inspection  of  ordnance  oflicers.  These  arms  were 
so  made  tliat  the  corresponding  parts  could  be  interchanged 
with  those  of  the  Springfiidd. 

Kecentlv  the  uund)er  of  ai-senals  has  been  still  further  re- 
duced, ami  of  those  which  renuiin  the  greater  number  are 
used  ordy  as  depots  and  for  repairs. 

Small  arms  are  manufactured  at  Springfield,  ammunition 
at  rrankford,  and  the  Kock  Island  ai-senal  is  designed  for 
extensive  manufactures  when  needed.  The  Watervlict  ar- 
senal at  West  Troy,  X.  Y.,  has  been  e(juipped  as  a  gun  foun- 
drv  forthe  maiuifaCtuiv  of  modern  higli-powcred  cannon,  etc. 

"riie  following  is  a  list  of  arseiuils,  armories,  and  depots 
now  occ\ipied,  viz. : 

Allegheny  arsenal,  Pittsburg,  Pa. :  Augusta  arsenal,  Au- 
gusta, tia. ;  "Benicia  arsemd,  Henicia,  Cal. ;  ( 'olmnbia  arsenal, 
('olumbia,  Tenn. ;  Fort  Monroe  arsenal.  Port  Jlonroe.  Va. : 
Fort  Siulling  ordnance  dfiiot,  St.  Paul,  Minn. ;  Frankford 
arsenal.  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Indianapolis  arsenal,  Indianapo- 
lis. Ind. ;  KeiHiebecars4'nal.  Augusta.  Me. ;  Xational  armory, 
Sjjringlield.  Mass. ;  Xew  York  arsenal,  (Jovernor's  island. 
Xew  York  city ;  Omaha  onlmmce  depot,  Omaha,  Xcb. ;  Rock 
Island  arsenal.  Rock  Island,  111.;  St.  Louis  powder  depot, 
JclTer.son  Barracks,  Mo. ;  San  Antonio  arsenal,  San  Antoido, 
Te.\. ;  U.  S.  powder  depot,  Dover,  X.  .1. ;  \'ancouviT  barracks 
ordnance  depot,  Vaiu-onver  Barracks,  Wash.;  Watertown 
arsenal,  Watertown,  JIass. ;  Watervlict  arsenal,  West  Troy, 
N.  Y.  J  AS.  Mercue. 

Ar'sonic  as  an  adj.  pronounced  ar-wn-ik  [from  Gr. 
ifHrfviK6v.  deriv.  of  ipanv.  masculine ;  s.iid  to  be  so  Tiamed  from 
its  strength  as  a  [mison] :  cliem.  synd)ol.  Ax;  atomic  weight. 
7,5;  the  conunon  name  of  arsenious  acid  or  white  oxide  of 
arsenic,  a  virulent  poison.  (See  .Aksknioi's  Oxide.)  The 
name  ansenie  is  limited  in  scientific  language  to  the  metal. 
Arsenic  is  fmnul  native  to  a  limited  extent,  but  occurs  usually 
in  combination  with  metals  or  with  suli)hur.  or  both.  The 
most  important  ai-senical  minerals  are  those  in  which  arseinc 
is  combined  with  iron,  cobalt,  and  tnckel,  as,  for  example, 
mispickel,  or  arneiiical pi/ritex,  FcAsS ;  cobalt  i/lance,  t'oA.sS  ; 
nicM  yliinct',  Xi.\sS;  tirse/ui/ili:  or  arseniti',  AsjOs,  etc. 
Arsenic  also  occui's  in  snudi  ([uanlitics  in  many  other  min- 
erals, specially  in  antimony  ores,  iron  pyrites,  etc..  hematite 
iron  ores,  the  soil,  ndneral  walere,  etc.  Arsenic  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  most  wi<lely  dilluscd  elenuuits  in  natin'e. 

Owiny  to  its  occurrence  in  antimony  ores  and  iron  py- 
rites, it  IS  liable  to  lind  its  way  into  the  various  preparations 
of  antimony,  into  sidphuric  acid,  and  the  various  chemical 
products  of  which  this  aciil  is  the  basis,  as  sodic  sulphate 
and  carbonate,  hydrochloric  acid,  superphosphates,  etc.  In 
the  chemical  exandnation  of  the  bodies  of  persons  supposed 
to  have  been  poisoned  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  to  pro- 
cure reagents  entirely  free  from  arsenic. 

Metallic  arsenic  is  prepared  by  sublinuition  :  (1)  from  arsen- 
ical pyrites;  (2)  frnio  a  nuxtureof  arsenious  acid  and  charcoal. 

Arsenic  is  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  stecl-gi'ay  color.  On  the 
fresh  fracture  it  exhibits  a  bright  metallic  luster,  which 
soon  tarnishes.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  .')  ()2  to  a'Dfi. 
Its  at<imio  weight  is  75.  It  crystallizes  in  rhoinboliedra.  It 
volatilizes  at  a  dull  red  heat  without  pre\ious  fusion,  with  a 

f)cculiar  odor,  <lescribed  as  reseiidding  that  of  garlic.  When 
ieate<l  in  the  open  air  it  burns  with  a  bluish  flame. 

(For  the  detection  of  arsenic  st>e  Arsexkus  O.xide.)  With 
oxvgen,  arsenic  forms  two  imiiortant  compounds — arsenious 
oxide,  Asj(  >j,  and  arsenic  oxidc.  AsjOj.  which  give  rise  to 
arsenious  acid,  ll.AsO,.  and  arsenic  acid,  lIsAsOi.  With 
sulphiu",  arscinc  forms  three  important  compounds — realgar, 
As.S,  orpiment,  AsjSj,  ami  As^Sj,  Arsenic  combines  with 
metals  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphur  and  phosphoru.s, 
which  it  reseiidiles,  especially  the  latter,  in  nnmy  respects. 
Its  eompouiul  with  hydrt)gcn.  arsine,  AslI,,  is  analogous  to 
annnoiua.  Xlfj. 

Metallic  arsenic  is  rarely  used  in  the  arts.  Lead  contain- 
ing a  small  proportion  of  arseinc  is  useil  for  the  numufac- 
furc  of  shot,  and  iron  contaiiung  a  little  arsenic  is  very 
fluid  when  melted,  and  better  adapted  for  fine  castings 
for  which  strength  is  not  essential. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsek. 

Arse'nioiis  Oxide  (or  .Viihydritle):  AscO«;  the  substance 
commonly  called  ar.scH/V  or  ii'liili'  arsenic.  It  is  also  fre- 
quently spoken  of  us  arsenioua  acid. 


Occurrence. — It  is  fovind  native,  as  the  mineral  arsenolite, 
in  silky,  crystalline  crusts  on  ores  of  silver,  lead,  nickel, 
aidimony,  etc.,  in  the  Ilartz  Mountains  and  other  localities. 

Preparation. — At  Reichcnstein,  in  Silesia,  arsenious  oxide 
is  pre])ared  by  roasting  arseincal  pyrites  (nnspickel).  FeAsS, 
in  a  inullle  furnace.  At  Ribas.  in  Catalonia,  niispickel  is 
roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  without  muilles,  tlie  crude 
product  being  subse(|uently  purified  as  at  Reichenstein.  At; 
Andreasberg,  in  the  Ilartz,  native  arsenic  is  roasted  for  the 
silver  it  contiiins,  the  arseiuous  oxide  being  obtained  as  an 
incideidal  product.  Much  arsenious  oxide  is  produced  in 
the  roasting  of  tin  ami  cobalt  ores  at  Altenberg,  in  Saxony, 
and  of  tin  ores  in  Cornwall. 

Arsenious  oxide  usually  appears  as  a  very  heavy,  white, 
grittv, crystalline  powder.  It  has  no  decided  tjiste.  At  218'  C. 
it  volatilizes  to  a  heavy,  colcu'U^ss,  odorless  vapor,  which  con- 
denses to  octahedral  crystals  on  cool  surfaces.  When  heated 
with  charcoal  it  is  reduced  to  metallic  arsenic.  In  its  com- 
mon octahcdrat  form  it  is  sohd)le  in  about  iiO  parts  of  cold 
or  10  parts  of  boiling  water.  When  thrown  iido  water,  a 
portion  floats  like  wheat  flcjur,  while  the  portion  which  sinks 
rolls  itself  into  little  rouiiil  |iellcts.  dry  within.  It  is  nearly 
insoluble  in  alcohol,  alisolutely  insoluble  in  ether.  It  is 
soluble  in  hot  dilute  acids  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  water, 
but  it  mostly  separates  on  cooling.  It  dissolves  readily  in 
alkalies,  forming  arsenites. 

Etfect  of  Arsenious  Oxide  on  the  Animal  Economy. — Ar- 
scidou.s  oxidc  when  taken  into  the  stomach  is  soon  ab.sorbed 
into  the  blood,  ami  circulates  with  that  fluid,  exhibiting 
power  over  certain  diseases,  especially  intermittent  fever 
and  skin  diseases,  as  ]isoriasis,  lei>ra.  eczema,  etc.  It  is  also 
classed  among  the  toincs,  and  is  given  tor  nervous  disorders, 
especially  those  which  an'  periodic.  Among  the  remedies 
for  chorea  (St.  Vitus's  dance)  it  holds  a  pronnnent  place. 

The  quantity  necessary  to  destroy  life  varies  considerabfy. 
Under  circumstances  favorable  for  its  operation  the  fatal 
dose  for  an  adidt  is  from  3  to  'i  grains.  Death  from  a 
poisonous  dose  of  arseiuc  may  occur  in  a  few  hours,  or  after 
the  lapse  of  many  days.  Arsenic  has  been  used  as  a  slow 
poison,  the  symptoms  lieing  attributed  to  inflammation  of 
the  bowels  from  natural  causes.  In  most  eases  its  detection 
is  ea.sy.  Arsenic  is  u.scd  by  anatomists  as  an  antiseptic; 
but  is  dangerous,  as  it  is  apt  to  get  into  cuts  on  the  hands 
and  cause  disagreeable  symptoms.  In  some  countries,  espe- 
cially in  Styria,  arsenic  is  taken  by  the  inhabitants  to  in- 
crease their  endurance.  When  used  habitually  it  can  be 
tiiken  in  comparatively  large  doses.  Cases  are  recorded  by 
goo<l  authorities  in  which  G  grains  and  more  have  been 
taken  at  a  lime. 

'J'he  most  effective  chemical  antidote  for  arsenic  is  ferric 
hydroxide,  pre]iared  liy  the  rapid  precipitation  of  a,  solution 
of  a  per-salt  of  iron  (as  the  ]iersnlphate  or  trichloride)  by 
an  alkali  las  annnonia).  The  nuxture  of  ferric  hydroxide 
with  nuignesia,  obtaiiu'd  by  precipitating  the  iron  solution 
with  an  excess  of  calcined  magnesia,  is  still  more  efficacious. 
In  case  of  an  overdose  or  of  intcidional  poi.soning  the  fol- 
lowing treatment  is  recommended:  Evacuate  the  stomach 
by  the  stomach-puni]),  using  lime-water;  administer  large 
dratights  of  tepid  sugar  and  water,  magnesia  and  water,  or 
lime-water;  avoid  the  use  of  alkalies,  but  administer  char- 
coal and  ferric  hydroxide.  If  the  fatal  symptoms  be 
averted,  let  the  pati<Mitf(U-  a  long  time  subsist  wholly  on 
farinaceous  food,  nnlk,  and  denuilceids. 

It  is  an  easy  nniffer  for  the  chemist  to  detect  arsenic,  the 
method  most  commonly  used  being  that  known  as  Marsh's 
test.  This  consists  in  pouring  a  little  of  the  solution  of  the 
suspected  substance  into  a  vessel  contaiiung  pure  zinc, 
water,  aiul  sulplunic  acid,  and  from  which  hydrogen  giis  is 
being  given  olT.  This  gas  acts  upon  the  comiioiind  of  ar- 
senic, I'ornnng  the  conqioinid  arsine,  Aslls,  which  is  a  gas, 
and  is  therelore  given  otT  mixed  with  the  hydrogen.  When 
set  fire  to.  this  nnxlure  burns  with  a  peculiar  livid  flame, 
which  deposits  a  black  spot  on  a  piece  of  white  porcelain 
introduced  into  it.  So  also,  it  the  gases  are  passed  through 
a  tidie,  and  the  tube  heated,  metallic  arsenic  is  deposited  in 
the  tube  in  front  of  the  part  heated.  Antimony  acts  nuu-h 
like  arsenic,  but  it  is  not  diflicult  for  the  chemist  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them. 

Ar,Mnites. — Arsenious  acid  forms  with  bases  a  series  of 
salts,  which  are  not  very  stable  and  have  been  but  little 
stmlied.  "  Fowler's  Solution  "  is  a  solution  of  equal  weights 
of  arsenious  oxide  and  potassic  bicarbonate,  boiled  with 
water  and  flav<ircd  with  spirits  of  lavender.  It  contains  64 
grains  of  arseiuous  oxide   in  1   pint.     The  sheep-<lipping 


340 


ARSIXOfi 


ARTAXERXES 


mixtures  commonly  employed  are  composed  of  arsenious 
acid,  soda,  sulphur,  and  soap,  which,  \Yhen  used,  are  dis- 
solved ill  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  thus  constitute  es- 
sentially dilute  solutions  of  arsenite  of  soda.  Arsenite  of 
copper,  or  Seheele's  green,  is  a  pigment  largely  used  as  a 
pretty  and  cheap  gi-eeii  paint.  The  same  substance  is  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  nuinufacture  of  green  paper- 
hangings  for  the  walls  of  rooms :  and  recent  inquiries  would 
lead  to  the  belief  that  rooms  covered  with  paper  coated  with 
this  green  arsenite  of  co[)per  are  detrimental  to  health,  from 
the  readiness  with  which  minute  particles  of  the  poisonous 
pigment  are  detaclied  from  the  walls  by  the  slightest  fric- 
tion, are  diffused  through  the  room,  and  ultimately  pass 
into  the  animal  system.  It  is  also  said  that  arsine,  HsAs,  a 
very  poisonous  gas,  is  generated  in  damp  weather.  Another 
green  pigment  is  named  Schweinfurth's  green :  it  contains 
arsenious  acid,  oxide  of  copper,  and  acetic  acid,  and  is  a 
double  arsenite  and  acetate  of  copper. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Arsin'oe:  daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.,  King  of  Egypt;  b. 
about  816  B.  r.  About  300  B.  c.  she  was  married  to  Lysi- 
macluis,  King  of  Thrace.  She  instigated  Lysimachus  to 
put  to  death  his  son  Agathocles  (horn  before  her  marriage), 
in  order  to  promote  the  succession  of  her  own  son.  By  this 
crime  Lysimachus  was  involved  in  war  with  Seleucus. 
King  of  Syria,  and  was  killed  in  281  b.  c.  Her  sons  hav- 
ing been  niurdered  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  she  tied  to  Egypt, 
and  bccanie  the  wife  of  her  In-other,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

Arsiiioe :  an  Egyptian  princess ;  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Auletes.  and  sister  of  the  famous  Cleopatra.  C*sar,  hfiving 
conquered  Egypt  (48  B.  c),  took  her  as  a  captive  to  Rome, 
but  soon  released  her.  She  was  assassinated  by  JIark  An- 
tony in  41  b.  c. 

Arsinoe:  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt;  capital  of  a  nome; 
situated  near  Lake  Moeris,  about  .50  miles  S.  S.  W.  of 
Cairo.  It  was  originally  called  Crocodilopolis  (the  city  of 
crocodiles)  because  it  had  a  temple  devoted  to  the  worship 
of  those  reptiles.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  gave  it  the  name  of 
Arsinoe  in  honor  of  liis  queen.  The  site  is  now  occupied 
by  the  town  of  Medinet-cl-Faium. — Arsinoe  was  the  name 
of  another  city  of  Egypt,  situated  at  the  N.  W.  extremity  of 
the  Red  Sea,  near  the  modern  Suez.  It  was  an  important 
emporium,  connected  with  the  Xile  by  a  canal. 

Ar'sis  and  Tlie'sis :  two  Greek  words  (apa-is,  Beffis)  signi- 
fying raising  up  and  sotting  down.  This  nmsieal  term  de- 
notes the  rising  and  falling  of  the  foot  in  beating  time.  It 
is  also  applied  to  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  voice. 
and  to  the  accent uaticm  of  syllables  in  the  scansion  of 
poetry,  thesis  being  the  stress  of  voice  given  to  the  strongly 
accented  syllables,  and  arsis  being  the  withdrawal  of  stress 
in  the  other  syllables.  Bexj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Ar'soii  [from  Lat.  ardc' re,  a r' sum,  hnrn}:  the  willful  and 
malicious  Inirning  of  t  he  house  of  another.  There  must  be  an 
actual  burning — an  unexecuted  attempt  to  fire  a  house  does 
not  constitute  the  offense.  If  the  act  be  negligent  instead 
of  willful,  the  crime  is  not  committed,  and  the  wrong-doer  is 
only  liable  to  a  civil  action.  Tlie  English  law  on  tliis  sub- 
ject has  been  modified  in  this  country.  Arson  is  in  some 
instances  divideil  into  degrees,  and  cases  included  in  it 
which  were  not  offenses  at  connnon  law.  It  is  made  a 
crime  by 'statute  law  to  set  fire  to  one's  own  house  with  in- 
tent to  injure  anotlier — as,  for  exaiiiple,  to  defraud  insurers. 
The  punislnnent  of  arson  is  .severe,  and  in  some  of  its  de- 
grees capital. 

Art  [tlirough  Fr.,  from  Lat.  ars,  artem] :  (1)  the  system- 
atic a)>p]i('atii>n  of  knowledge  in  producing  a  desired  re- 
sult, {'i)  A  systematic  collection  of  itrinciples  and  rules  for 
attaining  a  di'sirecl  end.  ruder  this  last  head  the  arts  are 
divided  scientifically  into  (1)  those  which  are  intended  to 
I>roduce  material  results,  termed  the  useful  arts  (those  use- 
ful arts  in  which  the  effects  are  produced  entirely  or  mostly 
by  machinery  or  by  mechanical  contrivances  are  termed 
Mecmaxic  A'rts,  (/.  ('.);  and  (2)  those  intended  to  produce 
a'sthetic  results,  termeil  llie  Fine  Arts  {q.  v.).  The  applica- 
tion of  a-stlictic  |irinciples.  or  the  laws  of  taste  to  works 
whicli  are  intended  to  prochice  a  religious  effect,  is  termed 
religious  art ;  the  a])|)li(^al  ion  of  the  laws  of  taste  to  works 
of  a  material  nature  is  termed  industrial  art.  (See  Fine 
Arts.)  The  word  rtr/  is  often  used  as  a  collective  term  for 
any  or  all  of  the  fine  arts  (as  the  "study  of  art,"  a  "patron 
of  art"');  as  relating  to  the  fine  arts  are  also  used  various 
derivatives  and  comiionmls  of  the  wortl  art  (as  "  artist,"  "  ar- 


tistic," "art-museum").  For  formative  arts,  arts  of  design, 
etc.,  see  Fine  Arts. 

The  term  "  liberal  arts  "  {artes  libemles)  was  applied  by 
the  Romans  to  the  higher  studies,  which  only  freemen  were 
permitted  to  pursue.  They  were  summed  up  in  the  follow- 
ing verse : 

Lingrua.  Tropus,  Ratio.  Numerus,  Tonus,  Angulus,  Astra. 

The  term  "servile  arts"  (artes  serciles)  they  applied  to 
trades  which  were  practiced  only  by  slaves.  They  were 
summed  up  in  the  verse : 

Rus,  Keraus,  Arma,  Faber,  Vulnera,  Lana,  Rates. 

In  modern  times,  the  term  "  liberal  arts "  is  applied  to 
the  collection  of  studies  in  philosophy,  science,  art.  and  his- 
tory which  compose  the  academic  and  collegiate  (ante-pro- 
fessional) course  of  study ;  hence  to  graduate  in  the  arts, 
bachelor  of  arts  (A.  B.),  master  of  arts  (A.  JI.). 

G.  P.  Comfort. 

Ar'ta  :  a  nomarchy  or  province  of  Thessaly,  Greece.  It 
is  the  extreme  noi'thwestern  province,  adjoining  Albania, 
along  the  river  Arta.  and  forming  part  of  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  Capital.  Arta  (anc.  Anibracia). 
Area,  39.5  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1889)  32,090.     See  Ambracia. 

Arta,  Gulf  of  (the  ancient  Si'niis  Amhra'cins):  a  gulf  of 
the  Ionian  Sea.  in  the  X.  W.  of  Greece ;  lies  between  Acar- 
nahia  and  Albania,  and  is  nearly  landlocked.  It  is  about  25 
miles  long  and  about  10  miles  wide.  The  naval  battle  of 
Actium  was  fought  near  this  gulf. 

Artaba'mis  (in  Gr.  'hprd^mos),  written  also  Ardavan  and 
Anlovan  :  King  of  Parthia.  and  the  last  of  tlie  dynasty  of 
the  Arsacidie.  He  began  to  reign  aliout  216  a.  d.,  and 
waged  war  against  the  Roman  Emperor  JIacrinus.  He  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians  under  Ardshir, 
who  put  him  to  death  in  226  a.  d. 

Artaba'ziis  (in  Gr.  'Aprti/Sofor) :  Persian  general ;  a  favor- 
ite of  Xerxes ;  commanded  a  large  tlivision  of  the  army  which 
invaded  Greece  in  480  B.  c.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Plata'a  (479  b.  c).  after  which  he  retreated  with  his  division 
by  forced  marches  to  Byzantium,  and  thence  crossed  into 
Asia. 

Artabazus:  Persian  general  and  satrap ;  revolted  against 
Artaxerxes  III.  in  3.56  b.  c.  Having  been  defeated  in  battle, 
he  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Philip  of  JIacedon.  He  was 
pardoned,  returned  to  Persia,  and  fought  for  Darius  at  Arbela. 
lie  was  satrap  of  Bactria  under  Alexander  after  330  b.  c. 

Artaplier'iies  (in  Gr.  'Apracpepmis) :  Persian  satrap  and  a 
half-brother  of  King  Darius  Ilystasnis.  He  was  appointed 
satrap  of  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  in  506  B.  c.  He 
used  his  power  to  restore  Hippias,  who  had  been  expelled 
from  Athens.  About  498  b.  c.  he  subdued  the  lonians,  who 
hail  revolted  against  the  King  of  Persia. 

Artai)Iiei'iies:  general :  son  of  the  preceding:  was  associ- 
ated witli  Datis  in  tlie  command  of  the  Persian  army  which 
invaded  Greece  in  490  b.  c  and  was  defc-itril  .at  Marathon. 
He  also  served  in  the  army  of  Xerxes  in  Greece  in  480. 

Artaild.  a'lr-to'.  Xicolas  Louis:  French  writer;  noted  as 
a  Greek  scholar;  b.  in  Paris.  Dec.  6.  1794.  He  became  in- 
s]iector  of  the  Academv  of  Paris  soon  after  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  translated  the  dramas  of  Sophocles  (3  vols.,  1827) ; 
the  comedies  of  Aristophanes  (6  vols..  1830) :  and  the  trage- 
dies of  Euripides  (1832).  He  obtained  the  office  of  inspec- 
tor-general.    D.  in  Paris.  Kov.  9,  1861. 

Artaxprx'es  I.,  Loxgimaxus  (Gr.  'ApTa|e'p|7)s  VlaKpdxeip: 
Pers.  Arclslieer  DarOzdast) :  a  King  of  Persia  ;  son  of  .\erxes 
I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  465  b.  r.  He-  was  called  Longi- 
nuinus  ("long-handed")  because  his  right  liand  was  longer 
than  his  left'.  The  Egyptians  revolted  against  him  about 
460,  but  they  were  reduced  to  sulijection  about  4.55  B.  c.  In 
449  the  Persians  were  defeated  by  the  Athenian  forces  of 
Cimon,  near  Salamis.  in  Cyprus.  Artaxerxes  died  in  425 
B.  r..  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Xerxes  II. 

Artaxerxes  II.  (surnamed  JLvemon,  because  he  had  a 
good  memory):  the  eldest  .son  of  Darius  II.  of  Persia.  He 
became  king"  in  405  b.  c.  His  younger  l>nither.  Cyrus,  who 
was  Governor  of  Asia.  IMinor.  revolted  and  raised  a  large 
army,  in  wJnch  were  10.000  Greeks.  The  king,  commanding 
in  person,  defeated  the  army  of  Cyrus  at  Cuna.xa  in  401. 
Cyrus  was  killed  in  this  action,  which  was  followed  by  the 
famous  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand.  (See  Te.\  Thousand, 
Retreat  OF.)  'Agesilaus,  the  Spartan,  invaded  the  domin- 
ions of  Artaxerxes,  and  gained  several  victories,  but  this 


AKTAXERXES  III. 


ARTESIAN   WELLS 


347 


war  was  ended  bv  the  peace  of  Antaleidas  (387  b.  r.).  He 
put  to  death  Darius,  liis  elilest  son.  for  a  conspiraty.  Ue 
died  in  atV-J  u.  <■.,  a^'ed  alK>ut  ninetv-four,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  Sim.  Artaxcrxes  111.  See  Vhitarch,  Life  of  Artax- 
trxes;  Diodorus  Sicuhis;  'I'hiilwull,  I/ixturi/  of  Greece. 

Artaxcrxes  III.  (oiOi-hus):  Kin.i;  of  Persia;  a  son  of 
the  pncediiii;;  bejjan  to  reiifii  in  ;iUl  B.  c.  and  disgraced 
himself  bv  his  cruellv  and  sensuality.  Amonjr  the  impor- 
tant events  of  his  reijfn  was  the  subjugation  of  Egypt,  which 
he  elfeoled  abdut  ISijO  n.  c.  1).  in  338  B.  c.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  was  poisoneil  by  his  eunucli.  Bagoas. 

Arle'di.  Pkter:  Swedish  naturalist:  b.  at  Anund,  Feb. 
23.  170.1 ;  educated  at  Upsal.  where  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendshil)  with  Linna-us.  They  co-operated  on  the  princi- 
ple of  a  ilivision  of  labor  in  the  fieUl  of  natural  history,  and 
Artedi  chos.'  the  <h-partment  of  ichthyology,  in  ad<lition  to 
phvsioloirv  and  miuerah)gv,  which  they  both  cultivated.  He 
visited  I':"ngland  in  1734.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was 
drowned  in  a  canal  at  Amstenkm,  .Sept.  27.  1735.  He  left 
a  Latin  work  on  fishes,  which  Liinueus  published  in  1738, 
and  whicli  is  highly  eoniniended.  .See  Linna'us,  Life  of  Ar- 
tedi. ]nvt\\  to  liie  work  mentioned  above. 

Artcmido'riis  ((ir.  "ApTf^fSaipos) :  a  famous  interpreter  of 
dreams;  lived  under  Hadrian.  His  Dream-lmo/c  ('Ovctpo- 
(cp.TiKo)  was  edited  by  Ilerchcr  (Leipzig,  1864) ;  Ger.  trans. 
Oy  Kiauss  (Vieniui,  IHSl). 

Ar'teiiiis  (Cir.  'Aprf^us):  a  Greek  goddess  corresponding 
to  the  Koinaii  Dea.na  ((/.  i:). 

Artemis'ia  (tir.  'Aprf^ifffo) :  a  martial  Queen  of  Halicar- 
nassus;  a  tributary  or  ally  of  Xerxes  L,  King  of  Persia. 
She   commanded    in    person   her 
fleet,  which    fought  for  Xerxes 
against  the  Greeks,  and  she  ili- 
played  skill  and  courage  at  lli 
bat'tle  of  Salamis  (480  B.C.).     .\c- 
cording    to    tradition,    the   gods 
compelled  lier  to  jump  from  the 
Leucadian  rock,  the  famous  lov- 
er'i  ti'/i/t,  into  the  sea,  wherein 
she  was   drowned,    because    she 

put  out  the  eyes  of  a  youth  who  did  not  return  her  affec- 
tion. 

Artemisia:  an  Oriental  princess  celebrated  for  her  con- 
jugal affection  and  her  grief  for  the  loss  of  Jier  husband. 
>lausolus,  Prince  of  C'aria,  who  died  in  3.52  e.  c.  She  erected 
to  his  nu^mory  at  Halicarnassus  a  magnificent  mausoleum 
-  (so  called  in  honor  of  .Mansolus).  which  was  considered  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Henuiins  of  it  still  exist. 
Aeconling  to  tradition,  she  mingled  his  ashes  with  her  wine 
and  died  of  grief.  Sec?  J.  C  Avenarius,  Diasertatio  de  Ar- 
temisin  <■!  Miiiiaoleo  (1714). 

Artemisia :  a  genns  of  ])lants  of  the  family  ComposHm ; 
comprises  numerous  species  of  herbs  and  shrubs,  natives  of 
the  temperate  regions  of  Asia  and  Europe.  They  generally 
have  an  aromatic  odor,  and  a  warm  or  acrid  and  bitter  taste. 
The  Artiiiiisiii  iilisiii/hiiini  (or  wormwood)  grows  wild  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.S..  is  ])(rcnnial,and  hasbipinnatifi<l 
leaves.  Containing  a  bitter  principle  and  an  essential  oil, 
both  very  strong,  it  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  anthelmintic 
or  vermifuge.  Among  the  other  species  which  have  medici- 
nal |)ro|iertii'S  are  the  Arleminin  sniifonica  (Tartarian  worm- 
wood or  southern-wood),  a  native  of  Tartary  :  Arlet/iixia  iri- 
dira  (Indian  wormwood),  which  grows  on  the  Himalaya 
Mountains:  Arlemisin  arlmreKmix  {Iwi'  wormwood).  whi<'h 
is  a  native  of  the  Levant;  and  Arfemifiii  riili/ii rix  imniiwovi), 
which  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain.  The  dried  llower-buds 
of  several  species  of  Artemisia  are  soltl  under  the  name  of 
worinseed.  On  the  Western  plains  and  the  diT  table-lands 
of  the  Uocky  Mountains  several  species  are  known  as  "sage- 
brush," the  largest  of  which  is  A.  tridentata.  See  Worm- 
woon.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessf.v. 

Artemiis  Ward  :  See  Browse.  Charles  Farrar. 

Ar'tery  [Lat.  nr/e'ria.  from  Gr.  iprripla:  proliably  con- 
nected with  ifrrifiv.  hang]  :  any  one  of  the  vessels  wliieh  con- 
vey the  lilooil  jiassing  from  the  heart  to  the  various  parts  of 
the  body.  With  the  exception  of  the  pulmonary,  arteries 
derive  their  blood,  which  has  been  oxygenated  in  the  lungs. 
from  the  left  side  of  the  heart.  The  puhnonary  arteries, 
however,  carry  venovis  bIoo<l  from  the  right  heart  to  the 
lungs.  The  arterial  walls  consist  of  three  coats — an  inner, 
lined  with  endothelial. cells;  a  middle,  principally  nniscular 


and  elastic  tissue  coat ;  and  an  outer  fibrous  tunic.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  arteries  are  not  rigid,  like  metal  tubes, 
but  capable  of  distension  and  contraction.  This  power  is 
most  important  in  the  maintenance  of  proper  circulation, 
and  when  it  is  disordered  by  rigidity  or  excessive  elasticity 
untoward  results  are  occasioned.  The  former  happens  in 
old  people  aiul  in  younger  persons  who  have  been  subjected 
to  a  lite  of  exposure  aiwl  hard  work  or  addicted  to  the  ex- 
cessive use  of  alcohol ;  the  latterln  many  debilitating  affec- 
tions, particularly  fevers  in  which  general  as  well  as  arterial 
relaxation  occurs.  The  condition  of  the  arteries  therefore 
is  most  important  to  the  physician  in  indicating  general 
bcHlily  affections,  and  also  in  warranting  the  suspicion  of 
various  diseases  which  follow  as  a  result  of  the  arterial 
disease  and  failing  circulation.  This  test  is  of  all  the  more 
value  because  the  arteries  are  in  several  places,  particularly 
at  the  wrist,  accessible  to  careful  examination.  (See  Pii.se.) 
Arteries  are  liable  to  various  other  diseased  conditions, 
such  as  intlamnnition  and  aneurism.  In  wounds  of  arteries 
bright-red  blood  issues  in  spurts,  whereas  dark  blood  flows 
from  injured  veins  and  in  continuous  stream.  The  arteries 
are  usually  di-ep-seated.  the  veins  near  the  surface. 

William  Pepper. 

Artesian  Wells:  drill-holes  sunk  into  the  earth,  usually 
to  depths  of  several  hundred  feet,  through  which  water  from 
pervious  strata  rises  to  the  surface.  Compared  with  their 
depth,  the  diameter  of  these  holes  is  very  small,  being  in 
general  from  3  to  (i  inches,  though  sometimes  as  small  as 
an  inch.  In  tlie  U.  S.  the  tendency  is  to  apply  the  epithet 
"artesian  "  to  anv  deep-drilled  well,  even  though  the  water 
obtained  is  brought  to  the  surface  by  jjumps.     The  name  is 


Fig.  1.— Ideal  sertiun  illustr.atinfJT  tlie  cliief  rt^qiiisite  eoniiitions  of  artfsiau  wells.  ,-1,  a  pnrous  stra- 
Iiiai;  B  and  C,  impervious  beds  below  and  above  .1.  acting  as  coiitliiiuK  sirata;  F,  the  tiei^Iit  of 
tlie  water-level  in  the  porous  t)ed  ,4,  or,  in  other  words,  tlie  lieiKlit  of  tlie  reservoir  or  fountain- 
liea<l;  D  and  E,  Howing  wells  springing  fi'om  the  porous  water-tilled  bed.  A.  (According  to  T.  C. 
Chamberliu.) 

derived  from  Artois  (ancient  Arte.'iium)  in  France,  where 
such  wells  have  long  been  used,  but  wells  of  this  character 
were  probably  iti  use  in  other  countries  at  earlier  dates,  as 
they  are  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 

'riie  principal  <-on(litionsu])on  which  artesian  Hows  depend 
are  the  existeneit  of  pervious  strata,  such  as  sandstone,  in- 
clined at  a  gentle  an,sle  to  the  horizontal,  and  inclosed  be- 
tween less  pervious  layers,  as.  for  example,  shales  or  clays. 
Also  the  higher  edge  of  a  pervious  bed  thus  conditioned  must 
receive  an  abundant  supply  of  water  either  directly  from 
rainfall  or  from  the  drainage  of  the  adjacent  country,  and 
there  must  be  little  or  no  escai)e  at  lower  levels.  When  this 
beil  is  full  of  water,  and  the  water  is  not  in  motion,  the  pres- 
sure at  the  lowest  part  of  the?  l)ed  is  equivalent  to  that  ex- 
erteil  by  a  colunui  of  water  of  the  height  to  which  complete 
saturation  extends.  If.  however,  there  is  a  small  outlet  and 
the  water  moves  towanl  this,  the  pressure  at  the  lowest  point 
of  the  saturated  rock  will  be  reduced,  and  wiU  be  less  and 
less,  according  as  the  jilace  of  escane  is  made  larger  or  is 
lower  down.  When  water  thus  uniter  inessure  finds  for  it- 
self a  natural  outlet  a  .s|iriiig  is  formed,  but  when  the  bed 
is  tapped  artilicially  by  a  <lrill-hole.  and  the  water  rises  to 
the  surface,  an  arte'siaii  wtdl  is  the  result.  In  all  cases  the 
water  has  come  from  higher  grouiul  by  working  its  way 
:;radually  down  through  the  minute  interstices  or  crevices 
in  the  iiielined  rock,  iiiul.  pressed  by  the  other  particles  be- 
hind, rises  through  the  easiest  outlet. 

On-iirrciirc  of  Arlcsian  Wolir. — In  many  places  where  the 
surface  of  the'groutul  si  ones  so  gently  tliat  to  the  eye  the 
country  appears  to  be  nearly  level,  and  the  underlying  rocks 
dip  at  the  rate  of  only  a  few  feet  to  the  mile,  the  difference 
in  elevation  between  the  top  of  the  well  and  tjie  catchment 
or  (Irainage-area  from  which  the  water  comes  may  not  be 
apparent.  In  sueli  localities  the  discharge  of  the  water 
seems  to  be  at  variance  with  the  laws  of  gravity,  but  in  all 
instances  the  neces-^ary  diirerence  in  elevation  can  be  found 
bv  examiiuition  of  topogra|ihic  maps.  or.  in  absence  of  these, 
by  leveling.  In  order,  therefore,  to  investigate  the  possibili- 
ties as  to  the  occurrence  of  artesian  water  it  is  essential  to 
liave  at  haiul  a  map  showing  the  elevation  of  all  parts  of 
the  country  under  examination,  and  to  acquire  by  thorough 
observation    all    available   facts    concerning    its    geologic 


3i8 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


structure.     By  this  means  the  probability  of  success  in  ex- 
perimental tests  of  this  character  can  be  determined. 

Bv  far  the  trreater  number  of  artesian  flows  come  from 
stratified  porous  rocks,  and  especially  from  those  but  par- 
tially consolidated.  In  rare  instances  water  in  large  quan- 
tities is  found  in  close-textured  crystalline  or  slaty  rocks 
where  these  are  greatly  fissured  or  traversed  by  numerous 


Fig.  -^  — Seetir>n  illustratinj.'  tho  rliinniri;^'  ..at  of  a  porous  water-beflring  bed,  A.  inclosed  between  im- 
pervious beds,  B  and  C.  thus  fiuui^liiiig  the  necessari'  conditions  for  an  artesian  fountain,  Z>. 
(According  to  T.  C.  Chamberlin.) 

jointing-planes.  The  chief  strui^tural  conditions  of  strati- 
fied rocks  giving  rise  to  flowing  wells  are  found,  as  shown 
in  the  figures,  first,  when  the  water-bearing  layers  between 
inclosing  strata,  and  extending  unchanged  over  wide  areas, 
have  been  gently  curved  into  the  form  of  a  basin,  or,  second, 
when  a  pervious  bed,  gently  dipping,  thins  out  or  becomes 
relatively  close-grained  or  water-tight. 

Sow  Located. — The  location  of  artesian  wells  has  been  in 
the  past  left  largely  to  chance,  experimental  holes  being 
drilled  at  points  where  water  was  desired,  but  with  little  or 
no  reference  to  the  structure  of  the  rocks.  A  notion  has 
prevailed  that  if  a  well  were  drUled  deep  enough  water 
would  ultimately  be  obtained.  Experience  has  at  last  taught 
the  folly  of  spending  large  sums  of  money  without  .some 
definite  information  concerning  the  probability  of  reaching 
a  rock  of  porous  nature  which  presents  the  conditions  requi- 
site for  supplying  water,  for  without  such  knowledge  the 
chances  of  success  are  small.  There  are  regions,  however, 
in  which,  in  the  absence  of  specific  knowledge  of  the  under- 
lying strata,  as  obtained  by  the  usual  methods  of  geological 
inquiry,  it  is  necessary  to  sink  a  deep  well  as  a  test,  but  these 
are  comparatively  rare. 

With  the  aeqidsition  of  knowledge  concerning  the  geo- 
logic structure  of  a  region  and  the  completion  of  maps  show- 
ing the  elevation  of  the  surface,  it  becomes  possible  to  out- 
line areas  in  which  artesian  success  may  be  anticipated,  and 
to  mark  off  the  localities  where  it  is  useless  to  bore.  There 
will  then  remain  doubtful  areas  of  considerable  size  where 
local  conditions  decide  success  or  failure.  The  necessity  of 
bringing  together  all  available  information  and  plotting  it 
upon  maps,  in  order  to  forbid  useless  exjienditure  or  to  teach 
caution,  should  not  need  argument.  With  increase  of  dejilh 
beyond  a  few  hundred  feet  the  chances  of  encounterLug 
porous  strata  filled  with  fresh  waters  become  less  and  less, 
from  the  fact  that  the  rocks  are  less  apt  to  be  pervious  at 
great  depths,  and  the  waters  are  more  likely  to  be  heavily 
charged  with  saline  matter,  since  the  temperature  is  higher 
and  they  have  presumably  been  longer  exposed  to  soluble 
minerals. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  artesian  waters  are 
more  iiii])regniited  with  mineral  salts  than  surface  waters, 
notable  exceptions  being  in  cases  in  which  rain-water  falls 
upon  sandy  soil,  and  passes  at  once  into  an  open  stratum  of 
quartzose  sandstone  free  from  impurities,  from  which  it  is 
.soon  brought  again  to  the  surface.  It  petroleum  or  gas  is 
present  in  the  rocks,  this,  under  suitalde  conditions,  will  be 
forced  to  the  stirface.  water  following  only  when  the  lighter 
fluids  have  been  displaced.  The  manner  of  sinking  a  liore 
for  artesian  water  varies  with  the  depth  and  with  the  nature 
and  inclination  of  the  rocks  to  be  penetrated.  The  methods 
by  whicli  deep  wells  are  bored  or  drilled  are  described  in 
the  article  W  kll-dkilling  (q.  v.). 

Noted  Wellx. — .\mong  the  most  noted-  of  deep  flowing 
wells  is  the  Grenelle  well  at  Paris.  This  city  is  situated  in 
the  lowest  portion  of  a  rock  basin,  so  that  the  strata  slope 
toward  it.  The  well  was  begun  in  18;i:i  under  tlie  auspices 
of  the  Government  and  completed  in  1841.  having  reached  a 
depth  of  1,7!)")  feet.  At  first  it  yielded  over  700,000  gal.  a 
day,  but  in  18.")2  the  lube,  originally  6'7  inches  in  diameter, 
was  eruslied  by  the  pressure  of  the  .surrounding  beds  of  clay, 
and  was  replaced  by  a  new  tube  4  inches  in  diameter,  the 
supply  then  being  2()0,000  gal.  per  day.  On  the  comiiletion 
of  a  neighboring  well  at  Passy  in  1861  the  discharge  sank 
over  10  per  cent.  At  the  suinmit  of  the  delivery  pipe,  125 
feet  above  ground,  the  daily  yield  was  in  188!)  a  little  over 
■  70,000  gal.  The  water  is  excellent,  but  must  be  cooled  for 
drinking  purposes,  since  the  temperature  is  82"  F.,  or  about 
;J2'  above  the  mean  annual  tciiqierature  of  Paris.  The  well 
at  Passy  at  first  yielded  4,400,000  gal.  per  day,  but  owing  to 


obstmctions  caused  by  sanil  it  discharged  in  1889  only  about 
one-third  as  much.  A  tlurd  well  at  Paris  has  been  com- 
pleted to  a  depth  of  2,360  feet,  the  temperature  of  the  water 
obtained  being  94°  P. 

Probably  the  deepest  bore-hole  in  the  world  is  at  Schlade- 
bach,  near  Kiitschau,  on  the  railway  between  Corbetha  and 
Leipzig,  undertaken  by  the  Prussian  Government  in  search 
for  coal.  The  apparatus  used 
was  a  diamond  drill,  and  the 
total  depth  reached  is  5,740  feet. 
There  are  several  other  wells  in 
Germany  over  4,000  feet  deep. 
Ill  the  U.  S.  deep  wells  have  been 
put  down  mainly  in  the  search 
for  petroleum,  and,  not  being 
successful,  have  been  continued  for  exploration  purposes  to 
depths  of  nearly  5,000  feet.  One  drill-hole  at  Wheeling,  W. 
Va.,  driven  to  a  depth  of  4,500  feet,  did  not  encounter  water 
below  1.600  feet.  In  nearly  all  civilized  countries  artesian 
wells  of  1,000  feet  and  upward  are  to  be  found,  and  their 
frequency  is  such  that  little  comment  is  necessary.  In 
Southern  Algeria  and  out  upon  the  desert  of  Sahara  flowing 
wells  have  become  of  great  importance,  since  they  make 
possible  the  development  of  agriculture  at  oases  formed  by 
their  presence,  and  also  furnish  water  at  points  along  routes 
of  trade  and  military  roads.  The  few  thousand  acres 
brought  under  cultivation  by  these  wells  have  become  im- 
portant centers  in  the  vast  desert  areas. 

Throughout  the  U.  S.  artesian  wells  are  numerous,  being 
found  oh  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi, 
along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  in  the  northern  plains  region,  in 
valleys  among  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  those  near  and 
along  the  Pacific  coast.  They  furnish  in  the  aggregate  a 
large  amount  of  water  for  municipal  and  domestic  supply, 
for  cattle,  and  to  some  extent  for  cultivating  the  soil.  In 
Western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  West 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  are  probably  over  50,000 
wells  of  from  1,000  to  2.000  feet  in  depth,  drilled  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  petroleum  or  the  inflammable  gas  which 
usually  accompanies  this  fluid.     From  many  of  these  wells 


•TLMCNIHCULO 


Fig.  3.— Geological  section  from  Chartres  to  Verdun  through  the  Paris 
basin.  Horizontal  scale,  9U  miles  to  the  inch;  vertical  scale,  1,500 
feet  to  the  inch. 

salt  water  would  flow  if  not  prevented  by  suitable  devices, 
and  in  nearly  every  respect  as  to  stnicture,  method  of  drill- 
ing, and  other  circumstances,  these  may  be  classed  as  artesian 
wells.     See  Petroleum. 

In  nearly  every  large  city  of  the  U.  S.  deep  wells  have 
been  drilled  to  obtain  water  "for  industrial  purijoses,  and  in 
many  instances  with  success.  In  New  York  good  water  has 
been  found  at  moderiite  depths  in  large  quantities,  although 
the  structure  was  a|jparcntly  unfavorable.  At  Chicago,  St. 
Louis,  New  Orleans,  Charleston,  S.  C,  Denver,  and  many 
other  localities  arc  notable  wells.  The  water  of  some  of 
these  is  cUiar,  pure,  and  suitable  for  all  general  purposes. 
In  other  cases  it  is  somewhat  or  quite  saline,  there  being 
every  degree  of  impurity  to  the  .strongest  brine.  Many 
waters,  notably  those  from  deep  wells  in  Indiana,  are  char- 
acterized by  sill phurated  hydrogen,  rendering  them  disagree- 
able to  thctaste,  but  not  liecessjirily  worthless  for  manufac- 
turing purposes.  On  low  lauds  along  the  coast,  for  instance, 
that  of  New  Jersey,  or  in  the  lower  5Iississi]ipi  valley,  where 
the  surface  water'  is  not  suitable  for  drinking,  the  flowing 
wells  have  proved  of  incalculable  benefit,  enabling  on  the 
one  hand  a  large  population  to  remam safely  at  the  summer 


ARTEVELD 


ARTHUR 


349 


resorts,  and  on  the  otlier  permitting  the  utilization  of  ricli 
agricultural  lands  without  great  risk  to  health  from  impure 
water. 

In  the  western  half  of  the  U.  S..  where  the  rainfall  is  in- 
sufficient for  the  needs  of  af^rieullure,  artesian  wells  have 
proved  of  great  value,  since  they  fiirnish  in  many  localities 
a  perennial  supply  in  quantities  s\ini<ient  for  household 
use,  and  occasionally  for  the  cull ival ion  of  small  areas. 
There  were  in  June,  1890,  as  shown  by  the  census,  over  8,000 
artesian  wells  upon  the  farms  of  tlie  western  half  of  the 
country.  Of  these,  nearly  4,000  were  eniployod  in  irriga- 
tion, watering  about  o2,0(>b  acres.  Of  these  over  2,000  were 
in  the  Stale  of  California,  irrigating  over  38,000  at.Tcs.  The 
average  dejifh  of  these  flowing  wells  was  210  feet,  average 
cost  ^24.5,  and  average  discharge  over  54  gal.  per  minute,  or 
about  78,000  gal.  per  day.  Comparatively  few  have  been 
put  down  for  irrigation  alone,  the  greater  number  being 
drilled  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  drinking- 
water;  but  since  the  amount  consumed  in  this  way  is  small, 
a  large  surplus  is  available  for  other  uses,  'i'he  temperature 
of  the  water  from  these  comparatively  shallow  artesian  wells 
is  usually  low,  from  40°  to  .50°  F.,  varying  slightly  through- 
out the  year.  Prom  the  deeper  wells,  1,000  feet  or  more,  the 
water  is  warmer,  and  thus  is  of  more  value  tor  irrigation  if 
not  impregnated  with  earthy  salt.s. 

Most  of  the  artesian  wells  show  a  gradual  decrease  in  tlie 
amount  of  water  discharged,  this  rcsid ting  either  from  the 
well  being  gradually  tilled  with  fine  sand  or  from  increasing 
leakage  into  pervious  strata.  Sometimes,  however,  the  di- 
minished flow  is  due  to  a  gradual  exhaustion  of  the  ba-sin 
or  rocks  containing  the  water,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  dis- 
charge from  the  wells  nearly  equals  the  amount  entering 
from  the  catchment  area  or  gathering  grounds.  Artesian 
areas  in  California.  Colorailo,  I'tali,  ami  other  localities  have 
been  so  completely  developed,  and  so  many  outlets  provided, 
that  the  wells  on  ihe  higher  grounds  have  ceased  to  flow,  or 
discharged  oidy  after  heavy  rains.  As  settlement  advances 
it  seems  probable  that  all  artesian  areas  will  gradually  ap- 
proach this  condition  unless  [)rotecteil  by  etlicient  legisla- 
tion. Already  in  many  States  laws  against  the  wasting  of 
artesian  waters  have  been  enacted,  and  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  compel  owners  of  wells  to  stop  the  flow  at  times 
when  water  is  not  needed.  By  this  means  draining  of  Ihe 
saturated  beds  can  be  in  part  prevented,  and  Ihe  wells  will 
be  less  apt  to  interfere  with  each  other.      F.  H.  Newell. 

Ar'teveld'  (or  Artovelde),  Jacob,  van:  Flemish  dema- 
gogue: b.  at  Ghent,  128.5;  became  a  rich  brewer,  and  by 
his  lali'nts  and  eloquence  acquired  much  influence  and 
popularity.  The  people  of  Ghent,  who  had  revolted  against 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  chose  Arteveld  as  their  commander. 
He  banished  a  number  of  Flemish  nobles  and  knights,  and 
adopted  a  despotic  and  arbitrary  )>olicy.  As  an  ally  of  Ed- 
ward 111.  of  Kngland,  he  waged  war  against  France.  Hav- 
ing formed  a  design  to  give  tlie  sovereignty  of  Fliinders  to 
the  English  lilack  Prince,  he  provoked  a  revolt  of  the  Flem- 
ings, who  killed  him  in  Ghent,  .Julv  !l,  Vi-lo.  See  Froissart, 
Chronicles :  l)iograr)hies  bv  J.  de  \\'inter,  ./.  ran  Arleivlde 
(1846) ;  .1.  Ihitton  (London,'l882) ;  and  \V.  J.  Ashley  (London, 
1883). 

ArtcvPld.  Philip,  van:  a  son  of  the  preceding;  h.  at 
Ghent  in  1340.  He  was  also  a  popular  favorite,  but  passed 
many  yeai-s  of  his  mature  life  as  a  private  citizen.  When 
Ghent  was  besieged  by  the  Count  of  Flamlers  in  1:181.  and 
reduced  to  a  desperate  condition,  .\rteveld  was  appointed  to 
the  chief  command.  May  3,  1382,  he  defeated  the  count, 
and  then  assumed  Ihe  title  of  regent.  Charles  VI.  of  France 
intervened  in  favor  of  the  Count  of  Flanders  with  an  army, 
and  Arteveld  was  defeated  anil  killed  at  Koosenbeeke,  Nov. 
27,  1382.     See  Froissart,  VlirimicleH. 

Arthri'tis  [Or.  iupepiTis.  deriv.  of  tpBpov.  joint]  :  literally, 
inflammation  of  a  joint ;  a  term  inclusive  of  gout  and  rheu- 
matism, though  properly  applicable  to  inflammations  of  the 
joints  of  whatever  cnaracler. 

Arfliro'diil  [Gr.  ipepwSia.  from  ap$pu>Sris.  well-jointed:  fip- 
Spoy,  ji'iiit  +  e/5o.-.  form|:  a  connection  of  bones,  in  which 
the  head  of  one  is  received  into  a  very  superficial  cavity  in 
another,  so  as  to  admit  of  uiolion  in  almost  all  directions,  as 
in  the  joint  between  the  humerus  and  the  scapula. 

Artliro])'o<la  [from  Gr.  ipOpov.  a  joint  ■+■  -roh.  iro5i<j.  foot] : 
one  of  the  griNit  divisions  or  Imimhes  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, formerly  included  by  Cuvie.r  in  his  Articulata.  They 
are  characterized   by  having  the   bilaterally  symmetrical 


body  made  uji  of  a  series  of  es.sentially  similar  joints  or  seg- 
ments, each  of  which  may  bear  a  pair  of  jointed  feet, 
whence  the  name  of  the  group.  The  mouth  is  near  the  an- 
terior end,  upon  the  lower  surface;  the  intestine  terminates 
below,  near  the  posterior  end.  The  heart  is  dorsal  and  pro- 
pels the  blood  forward.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a 
••  brain  "  above  and  in  front  of  the  mouth,  and  a  series  of 
secondary  nerve  centers  on  the  lower  surface  behind  the 
mouth,  there  being  a  pair  of  these  centere  in  each  segment. 
These  centers  or  ganglia  are  connected  together  by  two 
longitudinal  nerve  cords,  which  also  connect  them  with  the 
brain,  one  cord  going  on  either  side  of  the  throat,  so  that 
the  alimentary  canal  may  be  described  as  passing  through 
the  nervous  system.  From  the  brain  nerves  go  to  the  eyes 
and  other  sense  organs  of  the  head  ;  from  the  other  centers 
to  the  appendages  and  muscles  of  the  corresponding  seg- 
ments. The  outer  wall  of  the  body  is  usually  hardened  by 
a  peculiar  chemical  substance  known  as  chitine,  and  the  ex- 
ternal jointing  which  is  so  evident  is  produced  by  a  thinning 
of  this  integument  to  form  a  hinge,  allowing  one  (larl  to 
move  upon  another.  As  this  external  crust  can  not  increase 
in  size,  provision  is  made  for  the  growth  of  the  animal  by 
periodical  castings  of  the  sldn.  The  appendages  .show  much 
variation  in  size  and  function.  Thus  some  may  become 
supportci-s  of  sense  organs,  some  are  modilied  to  form  jaws 
to  chew  the  food,  some  are  for  walking,  some  for  breathing, 
while  not  infrequently  they  disappear  in  the  adult  from 
more  or  fewer  of  Ihe  segments  on  which  they  occurred  in 
the  young.  The  Arthropods  reproduce  exclusively  by  eggs, 
but  both  Cn/.ilarea  and  ITcxapoda  afford  numerous  in- 
stances of  Paktiiexogexesis  {q.  v.)  or  develoianent  of  unfer- 
tilized ova. 

Three  great  divisions  of  Arthropoda  are  recognized:  (1) 
The  Crustacea,  lireathing  by  gills  ;  (3)  the  Arachnida, 
breathing  by  gills,  lungs,  or  air-tubes  (trachea);  and  (3)  the 
y|?)/(!H««/a  or  true  insects,  breathing  by  air-tubes  and  pro- 
vided with  antenna'.  The  species  are  verv  numerous,  there 
being  about  10.000  Crustacea.  3.000  Arachnida,  and  .500.000 
true  iusect.s.  Vet  in  all  the  similarities  of  structure  are 
plainly  marked.  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Ai^tliiir.  Ar'tnr.  or  Ar'tns  :  a  semi-fabulous  British  hero 
and  King  of  the  Britons;  supposed  to  have  flourished  about 
500  or  550  A.  n.,  after  the  Romans  evacuated  the  island, 
lie  is  celelirated  as  the  hero. of  Ihe  romances  of  the  Round 
Table,  and  his  exploits  were  favorite  themes  of  mediaeval 
romancers.  According  to  the  usual  form  of  the  story,  he 
defeated  the  Saxon  invadei-s  in  several  engagements,  but 
was  finally  killed  in  a  battle  against  his  rebellious  nepiiew 
Modred.  "  See  Romances.       Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan:  twenty-first  President  of  the 
U.  S. ;  b.  at  Fairfield,  in  Franklin  co.,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830 ; 
graduated  at  Union  College.  New  Vork,  in  1848;  studied 
law  in  Vermont,  sup|)ortiiig  himself  by  leaching,  then  came 
to  New  York  city  in  1853.  and  was  that  year  admitted  to 
the  bar;  was  delegate  to  the  first  Re|iublicaii  State  con- 
vention at  Saratoga  (185(i).  Before  the  civil  war  he  was 
judge-advocate  of  the  second  brigade  of  New  York  State 
militia,  and  afterward  engineer-in-chief  on  staff  of  Gov. 
Morgan,  of  New  York.  In  18G1  he  was  inspector-general 
of  New  York,  and  subsequently  quartermaster-general  of 
New  York  until  Ihe  expiration  of  Gov.  Alorgan's  term  of 
office.  He  was  collector  of  the  port  of  New  Vork  under 
President  Grant  from  1871  to  .luly  12.  1878,  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  Republican  State  committee  of  New  York, 
lie  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  by  the 
Republican  convention  at  Chicago.  111.,  .liine  8,  1880.  and 
elected  Nov.  2,  1880.  Upon  the  death  of  President  Garfield, 
Sept.  1!),  1881,  he  became  the  twenty-first  President  of  the 
U.  S.  His  accession  was  viewed  with  considerable  appre- 
hension by  the  independent  men  of  all  parties  because  of 
his  afTiliations  with  mere  politicians;  but  lie  quickly  showed 
his  appreciation  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his 
office,  threw  off  his  former  unworthy  associates,  chose  an 
excellent  cabinet,  and  gave  the  country  a  clean  and  able 
administration.     I),  in  New  York  city,  jJov.  18,  1886. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Arthnr.  Joseph  Charles,  I).  .Sc. ;  botanist ;  b.  in  Low- 
ville,  N.  v.,  Jan.  11,  1850;  educated  in  Iowa  Agricultural 
College,  the  Johns  Hopkins,  Harvanl,  and  Cornell  universi- 
ties ;  botanist  to  New  York  Agricultural  Fxperiment  Sta- 
tion 1884-87;  Professor  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pa- 
thologj-  in  Purdue  University  1887  to  present.  Ho  has 
written  many  papers  on  plant-diseases,  notably  Ilistortj  and 


350 


ARTHUR 


ARTILLERY 


Biolor/y  of  Pear-blight  (1886).  He  is  one  of  the  editoi-s  of 
the  Botanical  Gazette,  and  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Coulter 
anil  Dr.  Barnes  published  a  Handbook  of  Plant  Dissection 
(1886). 

Arthnr,  Timotht  Shay:  novelist;  b.  near  Xewburarh. 
K.  Y..  in  1809.  He  removed  to  Pliiladelphia.  Pa.,  1841,  and 
there  founded  Arthur's  Home  Magazine  in  1852.  He  pub- 
lished some  fifty  stories,  which  have  proved  popular  as  do- 
mestic and  Sunday-school  books — I'en  u\('ights  in  a  Bar- 
room. Tales  of  Married  Life.  Woman's  Trials.  Fireside 
Ani/el.  Tom  Blinn's  Temperance  Society,  etc.  D.  in  Phila- 
delphia. Mar.  6.  1885.  H.  A.  B. 

Arthur,  William  :  b.  at  Kells,  Ireland,  in  1819;  educated 
at  Hoxton  College,  and  went  to  India  in  1839  as  a  Wesleyan 
missionary,  where  he  was  engaj^ed  for  some  two  years.  He 
resided  in  France  1846-48.  He  became  secretary  to  the 
Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  1851 ;  became  honorary  secre- 
tary 1868.  and  was  president  of  the  Methodist  College  at 
Belfast,  Ireland.  1868-71.  Among  his  works  are  A  Mission 
to  the  Mysore  (London.  1847);  Tlie  Successful  Merchant 
(sketches  of  the  life  of  Mr.  Samuel  Budgett,  18.")2):  The 
Tongue  of  Fire,  or  True  Power  of  Christianity  (1856;  40th 
ed.  1885.  many  reprints) ;  The  Pope,  the  Kings,  and  the  Peo- 
ples (1877. 2  vols) ;  The  Difference  between  Moral  and  Physi- 
cal Law  (1883) :  awl  Religion  without  God  and  God  without 
Religion  (1885-87.  2  parts). 

Arthur.  William  Patrick  Albert  :  prince  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  Duke  of  Cojinaught  and  Strathearn  and  Earl  of 
Sussex,  Duke  of  Saxony,  Prince  of  Coljurg  and  (iotlia.  sou 
of  Queen  Victoria  of  England  ;  wash,  in  Buckingham  Palace, 
London,  May  1,  1850,  and  married  Mar.  13, 1879,  to  Princess 
Margaret  Louise  of  Prussia,  third  daughter  of  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles,  and  grandniece  of  the  Emperor  WilUam  I. 

Arthur's  Seat :  a  rocky  hill  which  rises  in  the  environs 
of  Edinburgh  to  the  height  of  822  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  and  commands  a  prospect  of  great  extent  and  su- 
perlative beauty.  It  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from 
King  Arthur.  It  is  formed  of  several  varieties  of  trap- 
rock  upheave<I  through  the  carboniferous  strata,  and  pre- 
sents on  the  southern  and  western  sides  perpendicular  preci- 
pices. 

Ar'tichoke  [via  Ital.  artieiocco.  and  Span,  alcarchofa, 
from  Arab,  al-kharshuf]:  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant 
(Cyna'ra  Scol'ymus)  of  the  natural  arder  .Composite ;  is 
nearly  allied  to  the  thistle.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  and  is  cultivated  for  food.  The  genus  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  bracts  of  the  involucre  being  fleshy  at  the 
base,  and  einarginate  with  a  hard  point.  The  part  which  is 
eaten  is  the  succulent  flower-head,  gathered  before  the  flow- 
ere  expand,  and  boiled  or  made  into  a  salad.  The  Jemsalem 
artichoke  (Jlelian'thus  tubero'sus)  is  an  entirely  different 
plant,  a  native  of  North  America,  wliich  is  sometimes  culti- 
vated for  its  potato-like  tubere. 

Ar'ticle  [Lat.  arti' cuius,  little  joint :  deriv.  of  artus,  joint. 
In  grammar,  a  formal  translation  of  (ir.  ipepop] :  a  word  used 
in  various  senses,  nsually  denoting  a  distinct  part  of  a  sys- 
tematic work.  It  may  signify  a  single  clause  in  a  contract, 
treaty,  or  other  written  document,  a  particular,  separate 
charge  or  item  in  an  account,  or  a  point  of  faith.  In  gram- 
mar it  is  a  part  of  speech,  usually  the  shortest  and  simplest 
of  all;  in  mercantile  language,  a  particular  commodity:  in 
journalism,  the  principal  editorials  are  called  leading  articles. 

Articles;  in  law,  various  kinds  of  instruments  drawn  up 
under  distinct  heads  or  divisions.  Instances  of  the  use  of 
the  word  are  a  liliel  in  admiralty,  where  the  libellant  (or 
plaintilf)  is  said  to  ■"articulately  propound";  "articles  of 
agreement,"  "  articlesof  impeachment,"  "  articles  of  partner- 
ship," or  of  peace  or  of  war.  "  Articles  of  Confederation  "  is 
a  phrase  employed  to  designate  the  compact  made  between 
the  original  thirteen  States  of  tlio  U.  S..  forming  a  general 
government  before  the  iiresent  Constitution,  and  which,  hav- 
ing gone  into  effect  >lar.  1,  1781,  continued  in  force  until 
the  first  Wednesday  of  .Mar.,  1789. 

Articles  of  Faith:  the  particular  points  of  doctrine 
which  logi-l her  make  up  tlie  sum  of  Christian  belief.  The 
various  churches  of  Cliristundom,  not  being  agreeil  upon  all 
these  points,  have  for  the  most  ]iart  sot  forth  tlieir  own  ex- 
positions of  belief ;  and  it  is  to  these  creeds,  sjnnbols,  or  con- 
fessions that  the  term  Articles  is  most  commonly  applied. 
The  Articles  of  tlie  English  Churcl^,  which  are  no't,  strictly 
speaking.  Articles  of  Faith,  or  a  creed,  but  "Articles  of  Re- 
hgion,"  though  formerly  forty-two  in  number,  are  now  re- 


duced to  thirty-nine.  (See  Thirty-nine  Articles.)  In  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  Article  XXI.  Of  the  A  uthority 
of  Genercd  Councils  is  omitted,  "because  it  is  partly  of  a 
local  and  civil  nature,  and  is  provided  for,  as  to  the  remain- 
ing parts  of  it,  in  other  Articles."  In  the  Standard  Ameri- 
can Prayer-book  of  1892  the  Articles  appear  with  a  separate 
title-page,  indicating  that  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
part  of  the  Prayer-ljook.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  U.  S.  has  reduced  these  Articles  in  its  Book  of  Dis- 
cipline to  twenty-five.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Pekry. 

Articles  of  War:  an  act  of  Congress  approved  Apr.  10, 
1806,  to  establish  rules  for  the  government  of  the  U.  S. 
army.  Separate  articles  (those  now  in  force,  approved  in 
1864,  to  supersede  the  old  articles  of  1802)  establish  rales 
for  the  goveniment  of  the  navy.  Also  the  code  of  military 
law  embodied  in  the  Jlutiny  Act  annually  passed  in  the 
British  Parliament.  For  the  enforcement  of  .such  Articles 
of  War  power  is  given  to  the  crown  to  establish  courts  mar- 
tial to  try  and  punish  offenses  according  to  the  Articles 
themselves.  Another  annual  Mutiny  Act  embodies  "  Arti- 
cles of  War  for  the  Mai-ine  Forces,"  which  relates  exclusively 
to  the  royal  marine  forces  u'hile  employed  on  shore.  The 
navy  is  not  controlled  by  any  annual  Mutiny  Act,  but  the 
Articles  of  War  relating  to  it  are  contained  in  an  old  act  of 
Parliament,  the  22d  Geo.  IL  c.  33. 

Articles.  The  Six :  were  set  forth  by  King  Henry  VIII. 
and  accepted  by  Parliament  in  1539.  They  asserted  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation.  condemned  the  marriage  of 
priests,  enjoined  the  continued  observance  of  vows  of  chas- 
tity, and  sanctioned  private  masses  and  auricular  confession. 
Tliese  articles  were  imposed  on  the  people  solely  by  the  king 
and  Parliament  without  any  authority  of  the  convocation  of 
the  clergy.  They  were  repealed  by  1  Edward  VI.,  cap.  13, 
sections  1  and  3. 

Articula'ta  [neuter  plur.  of  Lat.  articiila'tus.  jointed] : 
the  articulated  animals;  one  of  the  four  primary  or  grand 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingilom  according  to  the  system  of 
Cuvier.  The  group  has  now  been  dismembered,  the  species 
included  in  it  being  usually  disti-ibuted  into  the  two  primary 
groups  or  sub-kingdoms  of  Arthropods  and  Vermes. 

Articulation  :  (in  speech)  see  Elocittiox  ;  (in  anatomy) 
see  .Joint. 

Artific'ial  Butter:  See  Butter. 

Artificial  Horizon :  a  horizontal  mirror,  usually  the 
surface  of  a  basin  of  mercmy,  used  to  determine  the  alti- 
tude of  a  star  or  other  object  when  the  sensible  horizon  is 
ill  defined. 

Artificial  Limbs:  See  Limbs,  Artificial. 

Artificial  Stone:  See  Cement  and  Artificial  Stone, 
under  Stone. 

Arti'gras.  Jose  :  a  South  American  general ;  b.  at  Monte- 
video, Uniguay,  in  1755:  became  in  early  life  a  leader  of  the 
gauchos,  a  class  of  outlaws.  In  1811  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Junta  of  Buenos  Ayi'es.  for  which  he  fought  against 
the  Spaniards  or  royalists.  He  defeated  the  latter  in  several 
battles,  and  became  in  1814  master  of  Uniguay.  He  at- 
tempted to  conquer  Buenos  AvTes,  but  was  finally  defeated 
in  1820.     D.  in  Paraguay.  1851. 

Artil'lery  [Old  Fr.  artiUerie.  deriv.  of  artillier.  fortify; 
deriv.  of  Late  Lat.  arti  cuta.  dimin.  of  ars.  art] :  in  early 
times,  all  kinds  of  missile  employed  in  warfare,  and  the  ma- 
chines by  which  they  were  propelled. 

The  artillery  engines  in  use  by  the  ancients  were  chiefly 
the  ballista  and  catapult,  for  throwing  stones  and  heavy 
darts,  and  the  battering-ram,  for  effecting  breaches  or  de- 
molishing walls.  These  engines  were  rude,  bulky,  heavy, 
clumsily  constructed,  and  refjuircd  many  men  and  much 
time  and  labor  for  their  transportation,  placing  iu  position, 
and  manoDiuTing ;  but  for  the  period  and  purpose  they  were 
doubtless  f>f  gi'cat  power  and  sufficiently  destructive.  The 
elTeclive  range  of  the  ballista  and  catapult  did  not  exceed 
100  or  1.50  paces,  but  at  this  distance  they  were  capable  of 
discharging  missiles  of  300  11).  weiglit.  In' the  Jliddle  Ages 
the  cross-bow  canu^  into  military  use.  and  gradually  sup- 
planted the  catapult.  It  is  ])robable  that  an  engine  of  sim- 
ilar constniction  took  the  place  of  the  ballista.  These  en- 
gines were  constructed  of  tough,  filyous  wood,  and  in  some 
instances  of  steel.  By  their  introduction  greater  portability 
and  some  increaSe  of  range  were  obtained. 

Since  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  the  term  "artillery  " 
is  understood  to  denote  all  firearms  other  than  those  used  as 


ARTILLERY 


351 


hand-weapons.  It  thcrofore  includes  all  guns,  howitzers, 
mortars,  and  maehino-ffuns,  and  excludos  muskets,  rifles, 
ami  pistols.  It  is  svnonyinous  with  ordiKuice,  and  is  gener- 
ally used  in  a  plural  sense  ;  when  in  the  sint;ular.  it  is  usual 
to  say  't  jiifer  of  artillerij.  Carriajres  upon  whieh  pieces  are 
mounted  or  transported,  together  with  the  ammunition,  im- 
plements, efjuipments,  etc.,  employed  in  the  service  of  pieces, 
arc  called  tirlillerij  maleriuf,  and  are  always  mentioned 
with  the  prefix  "artillery  "  or  its  ecmivalent.  Troops  em- 
ployed in  artillery  service  are  called  (irtilttnj  troops.  In 
sjK'aking  of  artillery,  the  tenn  "cannon"  is  frequently 
used,  signifying  always  the  piece,  and  uotliing  more.  See 
Okd.vaxik. 

Previous  to  1846  all  cannon  were  made  with  smooth  cylin- 
drical bori's:  their  sizes  were  then  designated  by  the  weiglif 
of  their  solid  shot,  in  |)ouhds,  or  by  the  dianu'ter  of  the  bore, 
expressed  in  inches  or  centimetei's.  Tliis  latter  method  is 
now  used  for  all  rifled  cannon,  except  in  England,  where  the 
size  is  often.  I)ul  very  imperfectly,  exi)ressed  by  the  weight 
of  the  pieie  in  tons  or  hundredweights. 

The  birth  of  artillery,  as  we  to-day  underetaiul  it,  dates 
from  the  inlmduclion  of  gunpowder  into  Europe.  The 
earliest  record  of  the  construction  of  cannon  is  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  but  contemporaneous  men- 
tion is  obscure,  and  refers  to  cannon  more  a.s  curiosities  than 
>'.s  engines  of  war.  Tlie  first  woll-authriiticated  use  of  can- 
non in  battle  was  by  Edward  111.  of  England  in  the  battle 
of  (.'reiisy.  .t.  D.  \'Mti.  Even  on  tliis  occasion  it  woidd  appear 
that  their  ellect  upon  the  French  was  due  more  to  astonisli- 
nu>nt  than  to  any  inherent  power  of  the  novelty  itself.  From 
this  date,  however,  the  construction  and  use  of  caiuion  in- 
crea.sed  with  great  ra|)idity.  At  the  very  first  tliey  were  of 
small  caliber,  tin-owing  stone  or  leaden  balls  of  only  3  or  4 
lb.  weight,  but  bifore  the  close  of  the  centuiT  they  were 
capable  of  throwing  stone  projectiles  of  40  (U-  .50  lb.  forfield- 
guns,  and  of  200  lb.  for  siege  or  fortification  guns.  In  fact, 
their  excessive  size  and  weight  not  oidy  seriouslv  interfered 
with  but  actually  prevented  their  general  use.  I'lie  earliest 
cannon  were  constructed  of  iron  bars  joined  together  longi- 
tudinally and  sirengthenod  by  exterior  hoops  of  iron.  Wood 
wound  with  rope,  and  sometimes  with  wire,  was  also  used 
upon  the  exterior  to  strengthen  them.  One  of  tlie  most  in- 
teresting of  ancient  mounter  cannon  still  extant  is  the 
"Mons  .Meg,"  made  in  1486  at  Mons.  Brittany,  aiul  now  in 
the  castle  of  Edinburgh.     An  inscription  on  tlie  carriage 


Fio.  1.— "Mods"  Meg. 

slates  that  it  was  employed  at  the  siege  of  Xorham  Castle, 
in  1513.  It  bui-st  in  1683  in  firing  a  salute.  It  is  made  of 
iron  bars  hooped  together,  and  its  liore  is  20  inches  in  dijim- 
eter.  Another  superb  specimen  of  early  cannon — of  much 
later  date  than  the  preceding — is  the  "Tsar  Cannon"  (or 
"King  of  Cannon"),  in  the  arsenal  of  the  Kremlin,  Jlos- 
cow,.  It  was  made  early  in  the  seventeenth  century  un- 
der the  Emperor  Theoilore,  It  is  of  bronze,  with  a  ciililier 
of  about  ;iO  inches.  Tlie  carriage  U|)on  which  it  stands  is 
merely  an  ornamental  support.     Ta-ii  withmit  trunnions,  it 


W^X^>^ 


was  proliably  laid  in  peniianent  position  for  firing.     Still 
more  curious  are  the  famous  Turkish  guns  defending  the 


Dardanelles.  The  diameter  of  the  shot  is  36  inches;  length 
of  gun.  1.1  feet.  These  i>ieces  likewise  were  without  trun- 
nions, and  also  without  means  for  lateral  motion.  It  was 
impossible,  therefore,  to  train  them  upon  moving  objects; 
conse(iuently,  after  being  loaded  they  awaited  the  arrival  of 
the  hostile  vessel  at  the  spot  where  the  shot  would  strike  be- 
fore being  fired.  8o  recently  as  1807  these  clumsy  weapons 
were  brought  into  requisition  against  the  British  fleet  un- 
der Admiral  Duckforth  in  its  passage  up  tlie  Dardanelles. 
Gustavus  Adolplms  introduced  the  so-called  "leather"  can- 
non, consisting  of  a  thin  metal  tube  strengthened  with  bands 
and  cortis  anti  inclosed  in  a  tightly-fitting  cover  of  boiletl 
and  varnished  leather. 

In  the  very  infancy  of  cannon-construction  the  breech- 
loading  principle  suggested  itself,  and  was  made  use  of  in 
a  cnide  manner;  but  the  low  state  of  the  mechanic  arts 
forbade  the  exact  mechanism  necessary  to  [lerfeet  the  idea. 
About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  caniion  began  to 
be  cast  in  iron,  and  towanl  the  latter  portion  in  various 
alloys.  A.  D.  1477.  Louis  XI.  of  France  caused  many  cast- 
iron  cannon  to  be  fabricated  for  use  against  the  cities  of 
Picardy  and  of  Flanders.  About  this  period  the  projectiles 
for  large  cannon,  which  had  hitherto  been  of  stone,  were 
made  of  cast  iron ;  but  to  some  extent  stone  balls  continued 
in  use  fur  a  niiinber  of  years  afterward.  Shells  were  also  in- 
troduced at  this  time,  and  we  have  a  record  of  their  use  by 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  at  the  sii'ge  of  Naples.  A.  D.  1494. 
Brass  cannon  were  first  cast  in  England  by  .lohn  Owen,  1.53.5, 
and  a  few  years  later  in  Scotland  by  order  of  .lames  IV. 
During  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  mortars  for 
throwing  .shells  were  introduced  in  Germany,  and  in  the 
first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  France.  Jlortars 
were  at  first  discharged  by  igniting  the  shell  before  it  was 
introduced,  and  then  igniting  the  charge  in  the  mortar. 
The  great  danger  of  such  a  practice  caused  its  abandonment, 
but  not  until  it  had  been  followed  for  half  a  century. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  short 
cannon,  a  howitzer  (German  Uaubitze),  was  introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  using  large  shells  by  direct  fire.  In  1799 
there  was  introduced  a  short  cannon  of  large  relative  cali- 
ber called  a  carronade,  named  from  the  Carron  iroii-4vorks, 
where  it  was  first  cast.  No  long  guns  tor  firing  hollow  pro- 
jectiles at  long  range  l>y  direct  fire  were  known  until  1812, 
when  Col.  Bomford.  of  the  U.  .S.  Ordnance  Department,  in- 
vented a  gun  for  that  purpose,  which  he  imjiroved  in  1814 
and  called  a  columbidd.  Some  veal's  afterward  this  invention 
was  introduced  into  France  liy  Gen.  I'aixhans.  and  was  gen- 
erally called  in  Europe  by  his  name.  In  1841  a  gun  of  this 
character,  but  of  somewhat  dilTereiit  model,  and  called  a 
.sedcotixt  howitzer,  was  introduced  into  the  U.S.  service,  and 
three  yea i-s  later  these  were  followed  by  coluinbiads  of  al- 
tered model,  increased  weight,  and  greater  [lower. 

After  a  long  series  of  cxperinK'iits  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  best  form  and  dist  ribution  of  metal  in  guns. 
Admiral  (then  Lieut.)  Dahlgren,  L^.  S.  navy,  produced  in 
1856  the  gun  bearing  his  name.  These  pieces  are  of  east 
iron,  cast  solid  and  cooleil  from  the  exterior;  they  are  of 
great  thickness  at  the  breech  and  as  far  forward  as  the 
truiinioii.s  and  from  thence  to  the  muzzle  rapidly  diminish- 
ing in  thickness,  .so  that  their  external  configuration  is  not 
unlike  that  of  a  champagne  bottle.  They  arc  adapted  ex- 
clusively tor  hollow  projectiles,  and  are  chiefly  of  9-inch 
and  11-inch  caliber.  Previous  to  the  intnxluction  of  rifled 
cannon  t  hey  were  considered  a  most  serviceable  gun. 

For  several  years  previous  to  1860.  Gen.  (then  Capt.) 
Rodman.  U.  S.  army,  was  engaged  upon  investigations  for 
the  improvement  of  gunpowder  and  for  the  better  ca.sting 
of  heavy  ordnance.  In  that  year  he  (iroduced  the  gun  now 
bearing  his  name.  These  guns  arc  of  east  iron,  and  his  in- 
vention was  the  process  by  whieh  heavy  ordnance  is  east 
hollow  and  cooled  from  the  inside  by  means  of  a  stream  of 
colli  water  flowing  through  a  hollow  core  occujiying  the 
place  of  :he  bore  of  the  gun.  the  exterior  being,  in  the  mean- 
while, kept  from  rapid  cooling  by  fires  around  the  gun  in 
the  casting-)>it,  Rodman  guns  arc  further  distinguished  by 
great  thickness  of  metal  at  the  breech,  by  graceful  curves 
of  their  exterior  lines,  and  by  the  absence  of  all  exterior  or- 
namentation, sharp  angles,  or  edges, and  of  the  cascabel  and 
swell  of  the  muzzle,  and  by  having  the  trunnions  at  the 
center  of  gravity,  thus  doing  away  with  prqionderance  and 
greatly  facilitating  the  service  of  thegiin.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  "siege"  4".5-inches  rifle,  all  the  Rodman  pattern 
are  smooth-bore  guns,  having  calibersof  8, 10,  and  15  inches 
respectively.      A  couple,  fur  experimental   purposes,  were 


352 


ARTFLLERT 


cast  having  a  caliber  of  20  inches.  All  Roflman  guns  are 
adapted  to  the  use  of  solid  as  well  as  hollow  projectiles. 
The  1.5-inch  gun  (Fig.  3)  weighs  2.5  tons,  the  solid  shot  450  lb. 
and  the  charge  is  100  lb.  of  mammoth  powder.     The  piece 


Fig.  3, —  16-mch  Rodman  gun. 

is  mounted  on  an  iron  carriage  provided  with  two  pneu- 
matic butlers  for  checking  recoil.  At  the  time  of  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Rodman  15-inch  gun  it  was  the  most  powerful 
piece  of  artillery  in  existence.  In  its  employment  against 
iron-clad  vessels' its  shots  were  intended  to  have  a  racking 
effect,  in  contradistinction  to  the  puncliing  effect  of  rifle 
projectiles.  By  many  it  is  still  considered  a  serviceable 
gun,  capable  of  great  execution  against  the  powerful  armor 
of  modern  ships!^  Improvements  are  now  in  progress  where- 
by a  more  powerful  charge  can  be  used  and  a  still  greater 
efficiency  secured.  All  nations  are  now,  however,  replacing 
their  smootli-bore  guns  with  rifles,  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Soon  after  the  rifle-principle  had  been  applied  to  small 
arms,  experiments  commenced  to  be  made  with  a  view  to 
applying  it  to  cannon :  and  in  1846  cast-iron  I'ifled  pieces, 
loaded  at  the  breech,  were  invented  by  Col.  Cavalli,  of  the 
Sardinian  service,  and  Baron  Wahrendorf ,  of  Sweden,  for  the 
purpose  of  firing  elongated  projectiles.  After  two  or  three 
years  of  successive  improvements,  this  invention  proved  the 
practicability  of  applying  the  rifle-principle  to  cannon  and 
demonstrated  the  great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  such 
application.  From  that  period  up  to  the  present  time  the 
minds  of  military  inventors  and  constructors  have  been 
actively  alive  to  the  subject  of  rifled  ordnance.  A  great 
variety  of  guns  have  been  produced,  and  long  and  exhaust- 
ive experiments  made  to  determine  the  best  form  and  con- 
stniction  of  piece,  number  and  twist  of  grooves,  character 
of  breech-mechanism,  and  form  of  projectile.  Each  year 
has  added  its  improvements,  and  enormous  strides  have  been 
made  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  in  gun-constmction, 
and  in  that  of  carriages  and  projectiles  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  steel  and  of  gunpowder.  More  is  due.  probably,  to 
the  im|>roveraents  made  in  the  two  last  named  than  to  any 
other  cause. 

The  history  of  modern  artillery  may  be  divided  into  three 
epochs — the  first,  the  introduction  of  rifled  cannon  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859,  whicli  showed  the  advantages  of 
the  new  weapons;  the  second,  their  general  adoption  by  all 
European  powers,  and  their  employment  in  the  campaigns 
of  1866  and  of  1870-71 ;  the  third,  tlie  introduction  of  the 
present  armaments  by  the  ditferent  European  powers  after 
the  Franco-German  war,  which  showed  the  necessity  for  im- 
proved and  more  powerful  guns.  The  increased  power,  ac- 
curacy, and  range  of  the  modern  rifle-n>uski't  called  for  a 
corresponding  improvement  in  ficld-artilleiy,  while  the 
progress  macie  in  armor-plating  for  ships  of  war  demanded 
that  heavy  ordnance  should  be  constructed  with  power  suf- 
ficient to  pierce  their  armor.  Passing  over  the  various 
stages  of  improvement — which,  to  a  great  degree,  was  tliat 
of  expi^riment — the  following  is  the  present  status  of  gun- 
construction  among  tlie  principal  nations  of  Europe. 

First,  as  regards  Field-artillery,  (.'ommencing  with  the 
German  guns,  as  the  pioneers  along  the  path  of  jirogress, 
these  are  made  of  cnicible  steel  of  low  carbon  hooped  around 
the  breech  with  a  jacket  of  the  same  material.  The  breech- 
closing  apparatus  is  that  known  as  the  "  round-wedge 
breech-block  " — i.  e.  a  cylindro-])rismatic  wedge  tightened 
in  the  breecli  of  the  gun  by  means  of  an  interrupted  screw 
acting  perpendicularly  to  the  axis  of  I  he  piece.  1  he  breech- 
block is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  works 
horizontally  m  a  mortise  cut  through  the  breech  of  the  piece 
immediad'ly  in  rear  of  the  cartridge-chamber.  The  breech- 
block being  withdrawn,  the  projectile  and  cartridge  are 
inserted  from  the  rear;  the  block  is  shoved  in  and  tightened 
by  means  of  the  screw  just  mentioned.     The  piece  is  fired 


in  the  ordinary  way,  by  friction-primers.  The  gas-check  is 
composed  of  a  ring  of  soft  steel  abutting  against  the  steel 
plate  in  the  surface  of  the  wedge.  The  ring  is  fitted  into  a 
recess  cut  into  the  rear  of  the  cartridge-chamber;  and  when 
the  gun  is  discharged,  the  ring,  being  instantaneously  ex- 
panded, and  at  the  same  time  pressed  .rearward  with  tre- 
mendous force,  hermetically  closes  the  tube  of  the  piece  and 
prevents  all  escape  of  gas.  A  single  ring  endures  a  vast 
amount  of  firing  and  seldom  has  to  be  renewed.  The  gun 
just  described  is  knownthroughout  the  world  as  the  "  Krupp 
gun."    (A  general  idea  of  the  field-piece  is  given  in  Fig.  4.) 


Fig.  4.— Field-piece. 


Tlie  most  important  detail  in  the  construction  of  a  breech- 
loading  gun  is  an  efficient  and  durable  gas-check ;  and  this 
was  the  great  desideratum  until  Broadwell,  of  the  U.  S.,  in- 
vented the  ring  just  mentioned,  and  wliich  is  known  by 
his  name.  There  being  no  demand  for  his  invention  in  the 
U.  S.,  he  patented  it  in  Great  Britain,  and  soon  after  it  was 
adopted  by  Krupp,  the  great  gun-manufacturer,  of  Essen  in 
Germany. 

The  Russian  guns  and  the  Italian  3'43-inch  gun  are  of  simi- 
lar construction,  and  they,  as  well  as  the  German  guns,  are 
supplied  to  the  various  governments  by  Ki'upp.  Their 
breech-loading  mechanism,  as  well  as  that  of  tlie  Italian 
2'95-inch.  is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  German  guns. 
The  French  guns  are  also  of  steel,  and  are  strengthened 
around  the  breech  liy  six  mild-steel  rings,  which,  as  in  Great 
Britain,  are  put  on  hot.  The  Italian  2'95-inch  gun  is  of 
bronze ;  the  Austrian  guns  are  made  of  the  so-called  steel 
bronze,  composed  of  an  alloy  of  92  parts  copper  and  8  tin. 
The  guns  are  chill-cast  in  iron  molds,  and  the  liore  is  hard- 
ened and  compressed  by  forcing  coned  steel  mandrels  through 
it  with  tremendous  pressure.  By  this  means  the  material  is 
brought  into  such  a  state  that  from  the  inside  of  tlie  bore  to 
the  external  surface  of  the  gun  the  metal  is  brought  into 
the  most  favorable  condition  for  resisting  the  explosive 
force  of  the  powder-charge.  The  breech-action  of  the  Aus- 
trian field-piece  is  similar  to  that  of  the  German  guns,  ex- 
cept that  the  breech-block  has  not  a  round  back,  but  the 
edges  of  the  rear  surface  ar*  chamfered  off. 

The  breech-closing  mechanism  of  the  French  guns  pre- 
sents several  peculiarities.  It  consists  of  a  soUd  interi-upted 
screw.  The  surface  of  the  thread  of  both  the  male  and  the 
female  screws  being  divided  into  six  equal  parts,  the  threads 
of  the  alternate  parts  are  removed,  so  that  one-sixth  of  a 
turn  disengages  the  thread  and  allows  the  breech-screw  to 
be  removed.  The  axis  of  the  screw  is  coincident  with  the 
axis  of  the  bore,  and  the  screw  has  a  diameter  greater  than 
that  of  the  bore,  so  that  the  square  face  of  the  screw  abuts 
against  and  closes  the  cartridge-chamber.  The  screw,  hav- 
ing been  turned  until  the  threads  are  disengaged,  is  with- 
drawn by  hand  and  swung  to  one  side  upon  hinges,  after  the 
manner  of  a  door.  The  charge  is  then  inserted,  the  screw 
swung  back,  shoved  in,  and  secured  by  giving  it  a  slight 
turn,  thcrcbv  engaging  the  threads.  This  method  of  closing 
the  breech  Is  known  as  the  "Reffye,"  or  French,  system. 
The  interni])ted-screw  princijile  was  a  U.  S.  invention,  pat- 
ented in  1853  by  J.  P.  Schenkel  and  A.S.  Savoni.  Six  guns 
upon  this  jilan  were  cast  at  Boston  for  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  1855.  The  gas-check  of  the  French  gun  consists 
of  two  iiarts — viz.,  a  steel  mushroom-shaped  plate,  the 
long  stalk  of  which  projects  through  the  breech-screw  and 
is  allowed  a  certain  amount  of  play  t)ackward  and  for- 
ward, and  an  elastic  gas-check,  comi«i?ed  of  a  thick  cake  of 
a  mixture  of  asbestos  and  mutton-fat  wrapped  in  canvas 
and  secured  by  tin  cups  and  brass  rings.  This  gas-check  is 
strung  on  the  stalk  of  the  mushroom,  rests  between  the  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  latter  and  the  anterior  face  of  the 
brecch-screw,  and  serves  by  its  elasticity  to  close  the  breech 


ARTILLERY 


353 


when  the  charofc  is  fired.  The  guns  are  vented  tlirough  the 
stalk  of  the  mushroom.  The  German  and  Russian  guns 
ami  the  Italian  li-W-inch  are  vented  through  the  breech- 
piece,  and  the  vent  is  so  arranged  that  the  charge  can  not  be 
Ignited  lill  llie  foniuT  is  screwed  hi)n>e.  The  Austrian  gtins 
and  Ihi^  Italian  2!J5-inch  are  vented  through  the  metal  of 
the  gun. 

The  British  were  among  the  first  to  adopt  a  breech-load- 
ing ticld-gun,  but  after  a  time  dropped  it  and  returned  to 
the  muzzle-loader.  This  was  in  conscfjuence  of  the  undue 
importance  attached  tii  their  Ea.st  Iiuhan  service,  where  it 
was  feared  the  l)rceeh-mechanism,  if  out  of  order,  could  not 
l>e  repaired.  The  breech-loading  system  which  they  adopted 
was  that  of  Sir  William  .\nnslrong.  The  body  of  the  piece 
was  nnide  by  welding  together  several  wrought-iron  tubes 
at  their  end's;  these  tubes  are  formed  by  twisting  square 
bars  of  iron  around  a  mamlrel  ami  welding  the  edges  to- 
gether, after  the  manner  of  a  fowling-piece.  The  part  of 
the  gun  in  rear  of  the  trunnions  was  strengthened  by  two 
iwhlitionid  tubes.  Ttie  breech  was  closed  with  a  block 
slipi)ed  by  hand  into  a  vertical  moitise  in  the  breech  of  the 
piece,  directly  beliind  the  cartridge-chamber,  and  was  held 
in  its  place  by  a  breech-screw  abutting  against  it  from  be- 
hind. The  axis  of  this  screw  was  coincident  with  that  of 
the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  was  bored  (Hit  so  as  to  constitute  a 
prolongation  of  the  bore.  The  vent  was  througli  the  lu'eech- 
block.  which  worked  with  a  vertical  action  instead  of  hori- 
zontallv.  as  in  the  Krupp  system.  Tlie  lirilisli  have  re- 
turned to  breech-loadei"s,  using,  as  before,  the  Armstrong 
system,  but  employing  steel  instead  of  iron.  The  breech 
fernieture  is  a  modification  of  the  French  RefTye  meeh- 
unisni. 

With  regard  to  rifling,  a  diversity  of  practices  obtain 
concerning  the  number  and  the  depth  of  the  grooves.  But 
with  the  adoption  of  l)reecli-loaders  and  an  increasing  twist 
the  mirul>cr  of  grooves  hius  been  increased,  their  depth  and 
width  iliminishcd,  and  the  projectiles  are  generally  made  to 
take  th(^  rilling  by  the  use  of  copper  rings.  All  use  elon- 
gated I  irojectiles,  solid  shot,  shell,  and  case-shot,  or  shrap- 
nel. The  muzzle-velocities  of  guns  of  the  different  services 
vary  from  about  1,:!I)0  tii  2,()()0  feel  for  fiehl-guns.  The 
weight  of  piece  also  varies,  but  averages  800  lb.  for  light 
guns,  and  1,1(K)  lb.  for  the  heavier  class  of  field-pieces. 

The  carriages  and  limbers  of  most  modern  guns  are  of 
steel,  or  of  a  combination  of  steel  and  wood,  and  the  aminuni- 
t  ion-chests  open  to  the  rear  like  a  cupboard  instead  of  chest 
fashion. 

The  lield-guns  and  carriages  are  driven  by  pole-draught, 
except  in  the  Hritish  service,  where  shafts  are  used.  All 
the  wheels  have  naves  after  the  pattern  known  in  the  U.  S. 
as  the  ■■  Ari'hibald  wlird."  Fifty-five  inches  is  the  average 
diameter  of  the  whei'ls,  and  the  average  track  is  fiO  inclies. 
The  weight  of  a  piece  on  its  carriage,  fully  equipped,  with 
ammunition-chests  filled,  varies  from  4,784  lb.  lor  the  Rus- 
sian heavy  gun  to  2,744  lb.  for  the  light  Italian  piece;  the 
average,  howevi^r,  is  abo\it  ^,600  for  light  guns  and  4,.?00 
for  heavy.  The  light  Italian  gun  is  drawn  by  four  hoi-ses, 
all  other  natioMs  use  six,  exce|)l  for  the  English  heavy 
piece,  where  eight  an'  used.  All  caissons  have  six  hoi-scs, 
except  for  that  of  the  light  Italian  |iiece,  for  which  four  are 
used.  The  .\uslrians  and  the  Italians  have,  when  on  a  war 
footing,  eight  pieces  to  a  battery,  and  so  likewise  do  the 
Russians,  except  for  their  hoi-se-batteries,  in  which  six  are 
used.     All  other  nations  have  six  pieces  to  a  battery. 

The  Armstrong  breech-loader,  now  introduced  into  the 
British  service,  consists  of  a  steel  tube  with  a  wrought-iron 
jacket.  Its  breech  is  closed  somewhat  after  the  French  plan 
— viz..  by  an  interrupted  screw.  The  gas-check  is  a  shallow 
steel  cup  attached  to  the  face  of  I  he  breech-screw. 

Previous  to  the  civil  war  the  field-artillery  of  the  U.  S..  in 
common  with  that  of  other  nations,  was  smooth-bore  R  and 
13  pouudiT  guns  anil  12-iio\inder  howitzers,  all  of  bronze, 
mounted  on  w(Mi<ien  c.arriages  of  excellent  pattern.  .\t  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  rifled  muzzle-loading  pieces  were 
introduced.  .Mr.  I'arrott,  of  the  West  Point  foundry,  in- 
troduced a  10  and  a  20  pounder — 3-inch  and  3-(i7-inch  re- 
spectively. These  guns  had  a  cast-iron  body,  of  the  usual 
form  ami  dimensions  of  guns,  strengthened  by  shrinking  a 
band  of  wrought  iron  over  that  portiim  of  the  piece  sur- 
rounding the  charge.  The  grooves  had  an  increasing  twist. 
The  projectiles  were  solid  shot,  shell,  and  case-shot,  all  of  a 
pattern  devised  liy  the  inventor  of  the  gun.  A  malleable 
cup  or  ring  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  project ile.  and 
expanding  by  the  eflecl  of  discharge,  caused  the  projectile 
23 


to  take  the  grooves.  The  smaller  of  these  two  guns  proved 
to  be  an  excellent  weapon,  and  did  good  service  ;  the  larger 
gun,  from  some  occult  cause,  was  a  failure.  At  the  same 
period  another  rilled  gun  was  introduced  by  the  U.  S.  Ord- 
nance I)e])artment.  This  piece  lia<l  a  bore  of  3  inches 
and  was  of  wrought  iron,  constnicted  by  wrapping  boiler- 
plate around  an  iron  bar,  so  as  to  form  a  cylindrical  mass, 
which,  being  brought  to  a  welding  heat,  was  pa.<sed  through 
rollers,  so  as  to  unite  it  solidly ;  the  trunnions  were  after- 
ward welded  on  and  the  piece  bored,  rifled,  and  turned  to 
its  iiroper  size  and  shape.  The  method  originated  at  the 
Plucnixville  iron-works,  Pennsylvania.  This  gun  fired 
solid  shot,  shell,  and  ease,  and  both  it  and  the  Parrott  used 
canister  for  close  quarters.  A  variety  of  patterns  of  pro- 
jectiles were  used,  but  that  which  proved  most  serviceable 
was  the  Schenkel,  which  consisted  of  a  cast-iron  body  with 
a  piipier-mache  sabot  surrounding  the  rear  part  of  it.  The 
force  of  discharge  swedgcd  this  sabfit  into  the  grooves  and 
caused  the  projectile  to  rotate.  This  also  proved  a  most 
excellent  gun,  and  was  extensively  used  during  the  war. 
The  carriage  for  both  this  and  the  Parrott  10-pounder  was 
that  of  the  old  smooth-bore  (i-pouniler.  In  addition  to 
these  tw^o  rifles  a  bronze  sniootli-liore  12-pounder  of  the 
Napoleon  pattern  was  also  much  used,  and  did  good  service. 

A  4'5-inch  rifle-gun  (known  in  the  ['.  8.  classification  as 
a  siege-iiiece)  was  to  some  extent  used  as  a  heavy  field-piece, 
and,  although  somewhat  cumbersome  for  bad  roads,  proved  a 
useful  weapon.  Its  use  in  this  manner  I'orrespoiided  to  that 
of  the  heavy  field-batteries  of  Euro|iean  armies.  It  is  of 
cast  iron,  and  in  exterior  form  is  of  the  Rodman  model. 

A  limited  number  of  steel  breech-loading  guns  of  3'2-inch 
caliber,  with  an  interrupted  screw  feiiucture.  have  been 
made,  and  are  now  used  for  fielil-guns.  A  3'6-inch  gun  of 
similar  construction  is  in  process  of  manufacture,  with 
which  it  is  ]iroposed  to  arm  the  mounted  batteries,  using  the 
.3'2  for  the  horse-batteries.  The  carriages  are  of  steel  and 
iron,  except  the  wheels,  which  are  of  wood,  with  the  Archi- 
bald nave.  These  are  the  ap]>roved  models  of  field-guns  of 
to-day. 

Certain  patterns  of  machine-guns  were  taken  into  the 
fiehl  during  the  civil  war,  but  were  little  used.  One  of 
these — called,  in  derision,  the  "coffee-mill" — had  a  hop- 
per, in  which  the  cartridges  were  dropjied,  and  from  which 
they  were  fired  through  a  single  barrel  by  means  of  a  hand- 
crank.  Another  pattern  of  machine-gun  was  an  improved 
form  of  the  viliaudequin,  or  organ-gun,  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, known  during  the  war  as  the  "  Requa  rifle-battery." 
This  piece  receive<l  favoralile  notice  at  the  siege  of  Charles- 
ton in  1863.  It  consisted  of  twenty-five  barrels  arranged  side 
by  side  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  secured  by  an  iron  frame, 
a  sli<liMg-l)ar  in  the  rear  worked  by  two  levers  forcing  the 
cartridges  into  the  chambers.  The  Galling  gun  was  adopt- 
ed just  too  late  to  be  used  in  this  war,  and  the  French 
mitrailleuse  saw  its  first  service  in  the  Franco-German  war 
of  1870-71. 

The  G.\TLIN0  iirN  (q.  r.)  is  a  machine-gun,  invented  by  R. 
J.  (iatling.  of  Indiana,  in  ]8()1.  The  first  gun  was  made  by 
him  in  1S(;2:  in  the  following  yi^ar  he  caused  it  to  be 
brought  to  the  notice  <if  the  French  Artillery  Committee. 
This  was  before  the  invention  of  the  French,  or  llie  Mon- 
tigiiy,  mitrailleuse,  and  may  therefore  be  considered  the 
first  practical  military  machine-gun.  The  pert'ection  to 
which  it  has  been  brought  in  all  its  mechanical  appliances 
has  caused  it  to  be  intriHluced  into  the  militaiy  service  of 
ino.st  nations,  and  it  hiu-i  prove<l  the  forerunner  of  the  Gar- 
diner, the  Lowell,  and  the  Ilolchkiss — all  invented  in  the 
U.S.:  as  the  Requa  battery  has  of  the  Nordenfeldt,  of 
Swedish  invention. 

In  the  civil  war  the  armies  of  the  Confederate  States  used 
rifled  cannon  (obtained  chiefly  from  (iivat  Britain)  of  the 
Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  lilakely  iialferns.  The  Whit- 
worth  field-piece  is  forged  solid  from  low  steel;  the  larger 
guns  are  limit  up  with  coils  or  hoops  forced  on  by  hydrau- 
lic pressure.  The  cross-section  of  the  Whitworth  bore  is  a 
hexagon  with  rounded  corners,  and  the  twist  is  very  rajiid. 
The  projectiles  are  quite  long,  those  intended  for  armor- 
punching  being  made  of  harcleiied  iron  or  steel,  with  very 
thick  flat  heads,  to  prevent  glancing.  The  projectiles  are 
manufactured  hexagonal,  of  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
bore,  and  aic  thus  made  to  take  a  rotary  motion  when  fired. 
This  gun  had  an  extraordinary  range  and  great  accuracy, 
being  in  these  respects  far  ahead  of  other  guns  of  its  date, 
and  approximating  closely  to  the  most  modern  forms.  The 
Blakely  gun  is  also  a  built-up  gun,  combining  in  its  con- 


354 


ARTILLERY 


straetion  the  principles  of  initial  tension  and  varying  elas- 
ticity, tlie  object  being  to  bring  the  strength  of  all  the 
metal  of  the  piece  into  simultaneous  play  to  resist  the  ex- 
plosion of  the  powder-charge.  The  inner  tube  is  of  low 
steel,  and  the  rings,  also  of  steel,  are  of  varying  quality. 
The  piece  is  rifled  with  one-sided  grooves  and  tired  with 
projectiles  having  an  expanding  base-ring.  The  Confeder- 
ates also  used  a  riHe  known  as  the  "  Brooke  gun,"  made 
after  the  plan  of  C'apt.  Brooke  of  the  Confederate  service. 
It  somewhat  resembles  the  Parrott  in  shape  and  construc- 
tion ;  the  rifling  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Blakely.     See  Ri- 

FLINC.  OK  OrDXAN'CE. 

Rifled  guns  have  entirely  superseded  smooth-bores  for 
field-service,  and  breech-loa<lers  liave  taken  the  place  of 
muzzle-loaders.  This  class  of  artillery  has  now  stood  the 
test  of  three  great  wars — viz.,  the  Austro-Prussian,  the 
Franco-German,  and  the  Russo-Turkish ;  to  which  may  be 
added  the  recent  Anglo-Egj-ptian  and  many  other  minor 
struggles.  It  is  estimated  that  four-fifths  of  all  breech- 
loading  field-pieces  in  existence  are  upon  the  Krupp  plan. 
The  French,  for  obvious  reasons,  were  compelled  to  adopt 
another  system,  and  the  British  adhere  to  the  Armstrong, 
somewhat  modified.  Armstrong  has  produced  a  2-5-inch 
gun,  and  Krupp  one  a  trifle  larger,  intended  for  use  in 
mountain-warfare ;  it  is  constructed  in  two  parts  screwed 
together.  By  this  means  the  piece  is  divided  into  two 
lengths  convenient  for  mule-packing.  When  the  parts  are 
screwed  together — which  can  be  done  with  great  facility  and 
quickness — a  gun  is  obtained  far  surpassing  in  power  any- 
thing that  can  be  obtained  from  a  mountain-gun  of  ordi- 
nary constniction,  limited,  as  it  must  be,  In  weight  to  tlie 
mode  of  transportation  on  mule-back.  The  Armstrong 
gun,  just  mentioned,  has  been  used  with  considerable  effect 
in  Afghanistan. 

The  tendency  of  modern  warfare  has  been  to  give  greater 
value  to  a.  moiv  |iowerful  field-artillery.  Infantry-fire  has 
become  so  terrible,  and  its  range  has  been  so  much  pro- 
longed, as  to  make  necessary  a  like  increase  of  the  power  of 
field-artillery  fire.  To  this  end  inventive  energy  has  been 
directed  toward  the  production  of  guns  of  much  larger 
caliber,  but  of  such  imjiroved  pattern,  lioth  of  piece  and  of 
carriage,  as  to  secure  the  desireil  end  without  increasing  the 
weight  to  be  drawn  by  the  teams  or  impeding  the  mobility 
of  batteries  on  the  field. 

In  the  early  stages  of  artillery  the  personnel  of  it  con- 
sisted of  mechanics  and  laborers  hired  for  the  handling  of 
the  pieces  and  the  management  of  the  trains.  These  per- 
sons served  a  regular  apprenticeship  and  had  a  guild  of 
their  own ;  when  war  broke  out  the  different  monarchs 
hired  as  many  as  they  retjuired  or  could  get.  '  Their  pay 
was  considerably  greater  than  that  of  an  enlisted  soldier. 
Guns  were  hauled  to  the  field  on  cumbersome  carriages 
and  placed  in  position  as  best  they  could  be ;  here  they  re- 
mained stationary,  and.  in  case  of  disaster,  nearly  always 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  At  this  period  there 
were  no  tactical  manoeuvres.  A  step  in  advance  of  this 
system  consisted  in  attaching  one  or  more  pieces  to  each 
regiment  of  infantry,  from  which  men  were  detailed  to 
serve  the  guns.  During  the  Tliirty  Years  war  the  can- 
noneers, with  regularly  appointed  officers,  became  recog- 
nized in  Germany  as  a  component  part  of  the  army.  For 
a  long  period,  however,  after  this,  artillery-drivers  were 
hired  as  before.  The  horses  were  strung  out  in  single  file, 
and  the  drivei-s  walked  by  their  side.  A  great  variety  of 
calibers  existed,  jiroduciug  infinite  confusion  in  amunmi- 
tion  and  equijiinents.  In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  Maurice  and  Henry  Frederick  of  Nassau  made 
many  improvements,  among  which  was  a  reduction  in  the 
numbc'r  of  calibei-s,  restricting  them  to  6,  12,  and  24  pound- 
ers for  field-service.  The  dimensions  of  these  pieces  were 
fixed,  while  handles  and  cascabels.  shaped  for  the  attach- 
ment of  i-opes,  facilitated  mechanical  mameuvers.  The 
gun-carriages,  which  had  limbers,  and  the  ammimition- 
wagons  wi're  similarly  reduced  (o  four  varieties,  and  their 
dimensions  made  so  uniform  that  wheels  and  other  parts 
were  interchangeable.  About  the  same  time  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  jierceiving  the  advantage  that  would  result  from 
fielil-guns  capable  of  quick  motion  and  rapid  fire,  intro- 
duced light  pieces  m.-wle  of  thin  copper  wrapped  with  rope 
and  leather:  these,  not  proving  <lurable.  were  replaced  by 
iron  4-pound(Ts  weighing  (ioO  lli.  and  drawn  by  a  .single 
pair  of  liorses.  Rapidity  of  fire  was  attained  by  the  use  of 
cartridges,  the  slow  process  of  inserting  the  powder  with 
a  ladle   being  thus  got  rid  of.     Two  of   these  guns  were 


attached  to  each  regiment  of  infantry.  Gustavus  did  much, 
also,  toward  developing  the  tactical  powers  of  the  arm  by 
massing  the  heavy  guns  in  strong  batteries  on  the  wings 
and  center,  and  doing  away  with  the  old  fashion  of  stringing 
them  along  the  line  at  regular  inrervals.  As  guns  have  im- 
proved in  range  and  power  this  principle  of  massing  them 
has  i)roved  more  and  more  advantageous,  and  has  led  to  the 
abandonment  of  attaching  batteries  to  small  subdivisions  of 
an  army.  In  France,  toward  the  end  of  this  century,  ar- 
tillery material  was  mollified  and  improved,  nmch  attention 
being  paid  to  the  character  of  the  gun-metal,  to  the  form  of 
the  chamber,  and  to  the  jiroper  length  and  weight  of  the 
piece.  The  calibers  for  field-service  were  restricted  to  4,  8, 
12,  and  16  pounders,  which  calibers  were  retained  until  the 
change  to  rifles.  Gun-carriages  were  also  changed  for  the 
better  and  provided  with  limbers,  while  trains  ot" wagons  or 
carts  were  organized  for  carrying  ammunition  ;  some  of  the 
carriages  were  maile  of  wrought  iron.  Louis  XIV.  was  the 
first  sovereign  to  create  a  special  artillery-force;  he  raised, 
in  1671,  a  regiment  for  artillery-duty,  aiid  in  1690  founded 
the  first  artillery-school.  To  his  age  belong  also  the  im- 
portant inventions  of  the  elevating-screw,  the  prolonge, 
and  the  priming-tube  filled  with  powder,  the  old  method 
being  to  work  jiowder  into  the  vent  from  a  horn. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  artillery 
was  genei'ally  recognized  as  an  arm.  had  its  regularly  in- 
corporated troops,  and  in  consequence  made  very  marked 
jjrogress.  Field-artillery  performed  an  important  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  Marlborough.  In  1747  the  French  began 
to  fire  howitzers  in  siege-operations  without  first  igniting 
the  shell,  it  having  been  found  that  the  flash  from  the 
charge  would  light  the  fuse  if  there  was  no  tamping.  The 
gun-carriages  and  atnnnmition-wagons  were  still  of  various 
patterns,  each  arsenal  having  its  own  way  of  constructing 
them  :  the  axleti-ees  were  of  wood  and  the  limbers  very  low, 
with  horses  attached  in  single  file.  After  the  Seven  Years 
war  field-guns  began  to  be  assigned  permanently  to  brigades 
in  batteries  of  five  to  ten  guns.  In  Prussia,  Frederick  the 
Great  introduced  short,  light  regimental  guns  of  3,  6,  and 
12  pound  caliber;  his  example  was  followed  by  Austria  and 
other  countries.  He  also  established  howitzer-batteries. 
Frederick  at  first  looked  upon  artillery  with  disfavor,  and 
permitted  it  to  nni  into  a  state  of  great  confusion  with  ref- 
erence to  the  models  for  each  caUber.  After  Rossbach, 
where  it  did  excellent  service,  he  seems  to  have  got  over 
his  prejudice,  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  first  horse- 
artillery,  in  1759.  It  consisted  of  a  battery  of  ten  light  6- 
pounders,  and.  though  long  in  a  very  inefficient  condition, 
and  destroyed  at  Kunersdorf  and  again  at  Maxen,  was  al- 
ways reorganized.  The  Seven  Years  war  ojiened  the  eyes  of 
the  Austrians  to  the  im|]ortauce  of  the  artillery  arm.  which 
was  carefully  reorganized  and  improved  under  the  direction 
of  Prince  Liechtenstein,  who  was  created  chief  of  artillery, 
with  rank  and  authority  commensurate  with  the  importance 
of  his  position  ;  this  gave  their  artillery  an  iTumense  advan- 
tage and  assiu'ed  its  constant  superiority  to  that  of  most  of 
the  contemporary  powers.  The  Russians  always  altache<i 
great  importance  to  their  artillery.  When  they  entered 
Germany  in  1758  they  had  425  guns  to  104,000  men  ;  three 
light  howitzers  were  attached  as  horse-artillery  to  each  dra- 
gocm  regiment.  Artillery  in  that  century  consisted  of  guns 
attached  in  pairs  to  each  infantry  battalion,  of  guns  of  posi- 
tion organized  into  large  batteries,  and  of  siege-guns.  The 
number  of  gmis  was  usually  four  or  five  to  a  thousand  men. 
The  regimental  guns  advanced  with  the  battalions,  unlim- 
bered  at  musket  range,  and  thence  were  moved  forward  by 
hand.  The  position-guns  were  posted  at  the  most  favorable 
points  along  the  line,  and  generally  reuudned  stationary 
throughout  the  battle.  The  lironze  cannon  of  this  age  were 
elidiorately  ornamented  with  carvings  and  with  the  ciphei's 
and  crests  of  arms  of  the  reigning  monarchs.  the  early  cus- 
tom of  giving  a  special  name  to  each  piece  being  retained. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  artillery  when  Gribeauval  ap- 
peared upon  the  stage.  This  celeiirated  Frenchman,  having 
served  in  the  Austrian  artillery  under  Prince  Liechtenstein 
during  the  Seven  Years  war,  returned  to  France  with  a  thor- 
ough knowleilge  of  all  the  improvements  suggested  by  the  ex- 
perience of  that  struggle,  and  was  intrusted  in  1765  with  the 
reorganization  of  the  French  artillery,  then  in  a  very  poor 
condition.  He  began  by  creating  a  distinct  material  for  each 
service,  field,  siege. and  seacoast.  His  field-guns  were  4.  6,  and 
8  poundei's.  By  reducing  windage  and  improving  the  powder 
he  was  enabled  greatly  to  reduce  the  length  and  weight  of 
field-guns.     To  these  were  a<ldcd  a  6-inch  howitzer,  still  re- 


AK'I'll.l-ERY 


355 


tiiiniiiK  11  small  cliiircc,  though  proportionately  liii),'i'i-  tliaii 
tliat  iHjfore  useil.  These  pieces  were  without  oniameiits, 
and  were  cast  solid  and  then  bored  out,  which  made  their 
dimensions  much  more  exact  than  the  old  hollow-cast  can- 
non; the  trunnions  were  strenfrlliened  by  rinil)ascs.au<l  C(ip- 
I)er  vent-pieces  enabled  the  guns  to  be  rebushcd.  The  horses 
were  hitched  in  double  tile,  which  greally  facilitated  the 
movements  of  the  carriage,  and  the  draught  was  made  easier 
by  iron  axletrees,  higher  limbers,  and  traveling  trunnion- 
beds.  Fixed  ammunition,  elevating-screws,  and  tangent- 
scales,  together  with  bricoles  and  prolonges,  facilitated  the 
service  and  increased  the  mobility  of  the  piece.  Stronger 
carriages  were  made  for  the  lighter  guns,  and  uniformity 
was  establisheil  in  all  new  constructions  by  ri'i|uiring  the 
ars<>nals  to  make  every  part  ot  the  carriages,  liudiers,  and 
caissons  after  certain  fixed  dimensions,  so  that  parts  could 
be  interchangeable  and  spare  material  carried  into  the  field 
exactly  corresponding  to  those  in  use.  An  e(iuipmcnt  was 
thus  ol)taineil  which"  could  be  moved  and  repaire<l  with  a 
facility  hitherto  unknown.  These  reforms  were  so  excellent 
as  to  secure  the  ocruuinency  of  many  of  them  as  the  basis 
of  the  system  of  the  present  day. 

Griheiinvars  reforms  tlid  not  stop  at  the  material,  the 
personnel  of  the  French  artillery  being  completely  reor- 
ganized in  176.1  through  his  efTo'rts.  Two  guns  were  still 
assigned  to  each  infantry  liattalion.  which  were  served  by 
detachments  from  a  company  of  artillery  attached  to  each 
brigade  of  four  reginu'nts.  The  rest  of  the  artillery  was 
organized  into  two  or  three  resen'es.  each  reserve  consisting 
of  ilivisiims  of  eight  pieces,  to  each  of  which  was  assigned 
a  company  of  artillery.  Here  we  have  the  creation  of  the 
artillery  linit — the  company  organization,  afterward  merged 
into  that  of  the  battery  with  its  horses  and  drivers,  for  the 
first  time  inseparably  joined  to  its  munitions  and  guns. 

The  French  introduccil  horse-artillery  in  17!13  and  cut 
down  their  batteries  to  six  |)ieces.  eight  lieing  found  loo  un- 
wieldy. In  17!l!l  they  entirely  abandoned  battalion-guns,  as 
impairing  the  nioliility  of  the  infantry,  one  or  two  batteries 
attached  to  divisions  taking  their  places.  An  artillery-train 
or  corps  of  drivers,  composed  of  enlisted  men,  was  organized 
in  1H(M)  and  distributed  among  the  French  batteries:  they 
had  previously  depended  upon  civilian  drivers  hired  with 
their  teams  by  <M)ntractors,  the  result  being  that  drivers, 
hoi-ses.  and  harness  were  always  in  bad  condition.  The  use 
of  artillery  in  uuiss  dates  from  the  French  camp  at  lioulogne 
in  1805.  where  tliis  important  tactical  improvement  was 
conceived  an<l  taught.  The  great  value  of  it  was  nnide 
manifest  in  the  battles  suliscquently  fought  by  Napoleon. 
In  1827  the  French  re]>laced  the  two  flasks  which  forme<i 
the  trail  of  the  (iribeauval  system  by  a  single  piece,  called 
the  "stock."  which  permitted  the  carriage  to  turn  in  a 
smaller  circle  than  before.  Tlie  mode  of  connecting  the 
lindjer  with  the  gun-carriage  was  simj)lilicd  by  employing  a 
hook-shaped  pintle  to  the  axletree  instead  of  an  upright 
bolt;  this  greatly  facilitated  the  mano'uvers  of  limbering 
and  unlimbering.  and  adnutteil  of  an  annnunition-chest 
iH'ing  ])laced  on  the  limber,  the  wheels  of  which  were  made 
interchangeable  with  those  of  the  gun-carriage.  A  cai.sson 
provided  with  chests  for  the  transportation  of  ammunition, 
constructed  upi>n  the  general  ]irinci]iles  ot  the  linilier  and 
gun-carriage,  admitted  of  such  moliility  as  to  allow  it  to 
accompany  its  piece  in  all  mana'uvers.  These  imi)rove- 
mcnts  were  soon  adopted  by  all  Eurojiean  nations,  and  in 
1833  were  introduced  into  the  U.S.  .service  and  were  the 
carriages  used  during  the  civil  war.  Within  the  last  twenty 
years  iron  and  st<>el  have  gradually  replaced  wood  in  the 
construction  of  lield-carriages  in  mo,st  European  services, 
and  are  now  used  in  the  V .  S. 

The  systems  of  field  and  siege  artillery  in  the  I'.  S.  were 
chiolly  derived  from  those  of  France.  After  the  war  of 
1812  with  Great  Hritain  the  artillery  arm  was  almost  en- 
tirely neglected;  no  field-batteries  were  kept  uji,  and  the 
heaviest  gun  mounteil  on  the  seacoast  in  1S20  was  a  24- 
pounder.  The  four  regiments  of  artillery,  though  mostly 
garrisoning  the  forts  of  the  .\llantic  coast,  performed  little 
other  tliau  infantry  duty;  artillery  as  a  science  was  imt 
thought  of,  and  as  an  art  was  scarcely  at  all  practiced. 

The  liritish  artillery,  about  the  beginning  of  the  French 
Rcvohition,  had  been  greatly  neglected,  and  was  behind 
that  of  olhi'r  nations.  There  was  no  reserve  artillery,  each 
regiment  having  two  guns,  whose  horses  and  drivers  were 
hired.  .\s  late  as  17011  there  were  only  two  (i-poutidei-s  to  a 
brigade  of  infantry;  each  [liece  was  drawn  by  three  horses 
tandem,   the   driver  on   foot   with   a   long   wagoner's   whip. 


Ilorse-artillery  was,  however,  introduced  in  1793,  and  a 
drivers' coips  established  the  following  year.  In  1802  the 
battalion-guns  were  abandoned,  and  were  replaced  by  field- 
brigailes  of  mount i'<l  batterii's  and  troop,  or  hoi'se,  batteries. 
The  detachment  of  drivers  with  a  field-brigade  was  an  in- 
di'peudent  organization  under  its  own  lieutenant,  who  had 
no  authority  over  the  cannoneers  and  t<iok  rank  after  all 
the  artillery  otTicers  pro|)er.  The  ilrivers'  corps  was  abol- 
ished in  1822,  and  men  were  enlisted  for  the  Koyal  Artillery 
both  as  cannoneers  and  as  drivers.  The  troop,  or  horse, 
artillery,  however,  continued  to  havt^  ilrivers  especially  en- 
listeil  for  that  purpose,  and  to  this  faulty  system  the  other 
batteries  reverted  after  I lu'  Crimean  war. 

The  ])roportion  which  field-artillery  should  bear  to  other 
troops  in  campaign  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  country 
and  of  the  projected  campaign,  and  Hat  character  of  the 
troops  c(jiniirising  the  army.  In  a  wooded  and  l)roken  coun- 
try less  artdlery  can  be  advantageously  employed  than  in  an 
open  country  with  good  c()Uiuiunications,  and  m<)re  is  re- 
(piired  when  the  field  of  op(^ralions  is  limited  than  where 
long  and  rapid  luiirches,  made  more  for  purposes  of  invasion 
than  for  figiiting,  are  intended.  iMore  also  is  re(|uired  when 
the  army  is  composed  ot  raw  and  inexperienced  troo]is  than 
when  of  well-instructed  veterans.  In  the  Crimean  war  the 
pro]>ortiou  of  artillery  was  a  fraction  less  than  threi'  guns 
per  l.OIH)  infantry;  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  France  and 
.Sardinia  against  .\ustria.  the  proportion  was  between  three 
an<l  four  pieces  per  l.OOII;  in  the  Seven  Weeks  war.  the  pro- 
]iortion  was  about  the  same;  in  the  Franco-Oerman  war. 
the  j)roportion  was  three  guns  jier  1,(K)0;  and  in  the  Kusso- 
Turkish  war  it  was  a  little  greater.  During  the  civil  war 
in  the  U.  S.  the  ])roportion  was  at  first  a  little  over  three 
pieces  for  1,000  infantry,  but  as  the  latter  became  more  vet- 
eranized this  was  reduced  to  about  two  ]jieces.  Much  of 
this  redu(^tion,  liowcver,  wasdnc^  to  the  superior  organization 
given  toward  the  close  (d'  the  war  to  the  artillery,  as  here- 
after mentioned.  The  proportion  of  artillery  serving  with 
cavali-y  is  generally  a  fraction  less  than  that  for  infantry. 
Improvements  in  small-arms  have  had  a  tendeia^y  to  in- 
(nvase  the  value  ot  artillery-fii'c,  and  nations  that  have  had 
most  recent  experience  are  increasing  the  proportion  of  their 
field-guns. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  field-artillery  of  the  army  consists  at 
|)resent  of  ten  mounted  batteries,  two  to  each  regiment  of  ar- 
tillery. The  other  ten  batteries  of  each  reginu'iit  are  armed 
and  ecpiipped  as  infantry,  and  serve  mostly  in  forts  and  gar- 
risons on  the  seaboard. 

During  the  war  of  1S12  with  (ireat  Britain,  field-batteries 
were  created  by  mounting  foot -batteries  from  the  artillery 
regiments.  At  the  close  of  the  war  all  these  batteries  re- 
verti'd  to  the  status  of  foot  "companies,"  anil  none  were 
mounted  until  I8:!(i.  when  ('apt.  Kinggolil  succeeded  in 
having  his  company  organized  into  a  field-battery.  This 
was  soon  followed  i]y  t In'ce  others — one  from  each  of  the 
regiments  of  artillery.  The  [lieces  for  each  battery  were 
four  (l-i)ounder  bronze  guns  and  two  12-poundcr  howitzers. 
The  carriages  and  ei|uipmenfs  were  of  the  best-known  pat- 
tern, and,  under  selected  otliiers.  these  bjittei'ics  soon  ae- 
i|uireil  an  astonishing  degree  of  efiiciency.  One  lield-baltery 
for  each  rcgiuu-nt  was  t  lien  the  legal  uuiidier.  During  the 
war  with  Sicxico  (184(i— IS)  an  additional  ticld-liatfery  to 
each  regiment  was  authorized.  These  were  all  mounted 
during  t  hat  war.  but  at  t  he  close  of  it  were  dismounted,  and 
renudned  so  until  a  short  time  before  (he  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war.  When  that  war  liroke  out  (IStil).  a  regiment  of 
/«//(/ artillery  was  added  to  the  regular  establishment,  and 
a  vast  numlierof  volunteer  liatteries  were  called  into  exist- 
ence. During  the  Mexican  war  the  field-batteries  were  at- 
tached, as  a  rule,  t^i  infantry  divisions.  There  were  no 
corps  organizations  during  the  war. 

During  the  first  year  of  the  civil  war  a  division  of 
infantry  of  about  ."5.000  men  was  the  highest  organiza- 
tion, and  to  each  division  (in  the  -Army  of  the  I'otomac. 
where  the  organization  of  all  ai'ms  was  the  most  (-omplete) 
were  attached  three  field-batteries,  one  of  regulai'S  and  two 
of  volunteers.  By  thus  ndngling  the  instructed  batteries 
with  those  freshly  raised,  the  latter  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  their  duties  with  marvelous  rapidity,  and  in  the  battles 
that  ensued  the  field-artillery  proved  itself  the  strong  point 
of  reliaiu'c  for  the  other  arm.s.  For  a  couide  of  years  after 
the  formation  of  army-corps  during  that  struggle,  the  as- 
signment of  batteries  to  divisions  continued.  It  was  soon 
perceived,  however,  that  this  arrangement  was  faulty  in  the 
exlrenu-.     The  batteries,  bv  being  attached  to  an  arm  of  a 


356 


ARTILLERY 


different  nature,  were  badly  provided  for.  and  soon  ran 
down  in  material.  Their  services  were  confined  to  the  oii- 
erations  of  the  parlieular  division  to  which  they  were  at- 
tached, and  fretiuently,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground  or 
other  causes,  their  full  effectiveness  was  impaired  or  entire- 
ly misdirected,  whereas  if  they  had  not  been  thus  tram- 
meled they  could  have  been  more  advantageously  used  in 
other  parts  of  the  field.  To  a  great  degree  it  prevented  the 
massing  of  artillery  and  the  crushing  effect  of  concentrated 
fire,  and  a  large  division  of  reserve  batteries  had  therefore 
to  be  maintained  for  this  jairpose.  and  also  for  affording  a 
recuperating  iilace  for  tlie  deteriorated  divisional  batteries. 
Toward  the  close  ot  ttie  war  the  divisional  batteries  of  each 
corps  were  united  and  formed  an  artillery  brigade,  which 
was  a  distinct  command,  under  a  field-officer  of  suitable 
rank.  Each  of  these  bi'igades  had  its  own  staff  and  supply 
organization,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  maintain  the  batter- 
ies in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency.  This  organization  ad- 
mitted of  the  most  effective  use  of  artillery  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  consequently  the  proportion  oi'  artillery,  which 
before  had  been  three  guns  to  a  thousand  infantry,  was  con- 
siderably reduced  and  reserves  almost  entirely  dispensed 
with.  The  horse-artillery  portion  of  the  field-artillery  was 
organized  u])on  the  same  principle.  These  batteries  oper- 
ated, of  course,  with  the  cavali-y,  opened  and  maintained 
the  actions  for  them  in  regular  fields  of  battle,  accompanied 
that  body  even  on  those  rapid,  and  sometimes  remote,  "cav- 
alry raids"  upon  the  comniunications  of  the  enemy  which 
constituted  so  extraordinary  a  feature  of  that  war.  The 
services  of  this  body  of  artillery  could  not  possibly  be  ex- 
celled in  brilliancy  and  Han. 

During  [leace  the  mounted  batteries  of  each  regiment  con- 
stitute a  school  for  the  puriiose  of  diffusing  throughout  the 
regiment  instruction  in  held-artillery  service.  The  cap- 
tains are  changed  when  desirable,  and  the  lieutenants  after 
a  tour  of  two  years.  In  the  event  of  war,  all  the  batteries  of 
a  regiment  can  be  moimted  at  the  shortest  notice  and  sup- 
plied with  instructed  officers. 

The  personal  arms  of  an  artilleryman  of  the  field-batter- 
ies consist  of  a  salier  and  a  revolver  for  the  officers  and  the 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  a  saber  only  for  the  drivers 
and  the  cannoneers.  During  the  civil  war  it  was  found  tliat 
the  saber  was  an  encumbivince  worse  than  useless,  and  it 
was  therefore  dispensed  with  in  the  field.  The  artillery- 
man of  batteries  not  mmuited  is  armed  and  equipped  as  an 
infantry  soldier.  The  facings  of  the  uniform  for  artillery 
are  scarlet,  otherwise  the  dress  is  the  same  as  that  for  other 
troops.  The  pay  of  mounted  batteries  is  the  same  as  for 
cavalry;  for  lUl  others  it  is  the  same  as  for  infantry. 

The  Drill  Jfe(/iilalio)ifi  for  field-artillery  were  originally 
adopted  in  1844  from  the  French,  and.  although  since  re- 
vised a  number  of  times,  are  essentially  the  same  now,  Imt. 
together  with  those  for  heavy  ginis  and  foot-batteries,  liave 
recently  been  modernized  ami  simplified. 

Ihavy  Arlilli-ri/. — In  18()2  Capt.  Palliser  introduced  into 
P>ngland  a  nu't-hod  of  converting  smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns 
into  rifies.  'I'his  he  did  by  inserting  a  tube  of  wrought 
iron  or  .steel  into  tlie  Ijore  of  the  piece  and  rifiing  the 
tube.  The  rifled  picu'c  thus  formed  has  a  less  calilier  than 
the  origiiuil  gun,  and  in  order  to  secure  the  requisite  thick- 
ness of  tube  lilt'  original  bore  of  the  piece  is  reamed  out 
to  a  greater  diameter.  The  tube  consists  of  two  parts, 
called  the  A  and  M  tubes.  The  former  extends  the  entire 
length  of  the  bore,  and  contains  the  rifling;  the  latter, 
or  H.  tube  is  shorter,  envelops  the  rear  part  of  the  long 
tube,  and  is  shrunk  upon  the  latter,  which  is  cut  away  for 
t  lial  purpose.  The  two  tubes  thus  united  have  the  same  ex- 
terior dianu'ter  from  end  to  end,  and  are  made  to  fit  accu- 
rately the  bore  of  the  cast-iron  casing.  The  bottom  of  the 
tube  is  closed  by  a  steel  or  iron  cup-sha]jed  plug  sci'ewed 
into  the  A  tube.  The  tid)e  is  secured  from  slipping  forwaril 
by  a  nnizzle-colhir  screweil  into  the  face  of  the  jiiece.  and 
from  turning  by  a  steel  pin  tapped  through  the  casing  into 
the  tube.  Formerly  the  tulies  were  inserted  from  the  muz- 
zle, but  more  recently  the  gun  has  been  bored  through  the 
breech  ami  the  tube  or  tubes  inserted  from  that  end  and 
closed  by  a  screw  brc^ech-plug.  This  system  of  conversion 
worked  so  favorably  in  Fngland  that  soon  after  its  adoption 
there  it  was  taken  up  in  the  IT.  S.,  with  a  view  to  utilizing 
the  large  stock  on  hand  of  smooth-bores.  A  nundier  of  10- 
inch  smooth-liores  wcri!  converted  into  8-inch  muzzle-load- 
ing rifl(!s,  which,  for  their  length,  were  very  efficient  guns, 
and  which  are  still  retained  in  .service. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war  (1861),  Mr.  R.  1*. 


Parrott,  proprietor  of  the  West  Point  foundry,  New  York, 
produced  his  system  of  guns.  These  guns  are  of  cast  iron,  of 
aliout  the  usual  dimensions,  strengthened  by  a  baml  or  ring 
of  c-oiled  wrought  iron  shrimk  over  that  portion  of  the  breech 
surrounding  the  charge.  The  bodies  of  the  larger  Parrott 
guns  are  cast  hollow,  on  the  Rodman  plan.  Parrott  guns 
consist  of  300,  200,  100,  30,  20,  and  10  jiounders,  the  diame- 
ters of  the  bores  being  respectively  10.  8,  (i.  4,  4-2,  Ji-GT.  and 
3  inches,  and  weights  of  projectile  200.  150.  80,  28.  1"J.  and 
10  lb.  A  large  number  of  these  gmis  were  used  during 
the  civil  war,  on  both  sea  and  laiul,  and  the  amount  of 
work  done  by  them  was  very  gi-eat.  They  were,  in  fact,  the 
first  riftes  used  in  any  country  for  bondiardinents  and  the 
breeching  of  masonry.  The  Lancaster  gun  at  Sebastopol 
was  scarcely  an  exception  to  this.  Large  numbers  of  Par- 
rott guns  were  employed  in  the  siege  of  Charleston  (1863). 
These  pieces  successfully  bombarded  the  city  at  a  distance 
of  7,000  yards,  and  demolislied  the  walls  of  Fort  Sumter  at 
distances  varying  from  3,500  up  to  4.300  yards. 

In  the  hasty  preparation  for  hostilities  consequent  upon 
the  outbreak  of  tlie  civil  war  a  number  of  old-pattern 
24,  32,  and  42  pounders  were  rifled,  but  proved  of  little 
service.  At  the  siege  of  Fort  Pulaski.  Ga..  in  1862,  five  of 
these,  together  with  five  4'2-inch  Parrotts,  effected  a  breach 
in  the  heavy  masonry  of  that  fort  in  a  few  hours,  firing  from 
a  distance  of  1.650  yards.  The  Parrott  guns,  although  in 
many  instances  showing  wonderful  endurance,  are,  never- 
tlieless,  liable  to  burst;  especially  was  this  the  case  with 
those  supplied  to  the  navy.  This  fact  lias  caused  them  to 
be  omitted  from  the  system  of  artillery  established  for  the 
U.  S.  service.  There  are,  however,  many  of  them  still 
mounted  in  works. 

In  the  matter  of  modern  heavy  guns  it  may  be  said  that 
all  civilized  nations  n  hich  attempt  to  keep  their  armaments 
u])  to  a  modern  standard  have  adojited  high-iiower  steel 
breech-loading  guns,  and  are  replacing  their  older  guns 
with  them  as  rapidly  as  possible.  There  still  remain  in 
service,  however,  in  nearly  all  nations  a  greater  or  less  . 
nundier  of  the  older  patterns,  which  are  still  efficient 
against  all  but  the  most  heavily  armored  ships,  and  will 
probably  be  retained  for  a  number  of  years  in  important 
])laces,  and  then  be  transferred  for  further  use  to  those  of 
less  importance.  Among  these  are  the  large  muzzle-load- 
ing, smooth-bore,  and  converted  rifled  guns  of  the  U.  S., 
Turkey,  and  a  few  other  nations;  the  muzzle-loading  Arm- 
sti'ong'  guns  of  England,  Italy,  and  Turkey ;  aiul  the  cast- 
iron,  steel-hooped  rifles  of  Italy  and  France. 

(iermaiiy  was  the  pioneer  in  the  nuinufacture  of  steel 
cannon,  and  with  the  magnificent  works  of  Kru|ip  at  Kssen 
still  leads  the  world  in  capacity  for  their  manufacture. 
Krupp,  besides  supplying  tiermany.  has  furnished  large 
nundiers  of  guns  to  other  governments.  The  calihers  made 
at  these  works  vary  from  light  mountain-guns  to  the  120- 
ton  gun  ot  15-75  inches.  The  standard  calibers  of  Germany 
are  '15-75.  13-!I7.  12.  !)-45.  and  587  inches. 

Italy  imrchases  her  most  powerful  guns  from  Germany 
and  England:  she  has  mounted  a  number  of  100-ton  17- 
inch  Armsti-ong  muzzle-loaders,  and  has  ]nircliased  from 
Ki-upp  a  I  l!t-ton.  40  cm.  (=  15-75-inch)  rifle  capable  of  pierc- 
ing 24  inches  of  steel  at  a  mile.  Great  Britain  has  her 
Royal  gun-foundi-y  at  Woolwich  and  Armstrong's  and 
Whitworlh's  establishments  to  draw  upon.  She  has  110- 
ton,  16-2.5-inch  Armstrong  guns  mounted  on  some  of  her 
ships,  iind  lesser  caliliei-s  down  to  4  inclu-s.  including  cer- 
tain wire-wound  guns  of  6  Indies  and  !»-2  inclies  which  have 
passed  successful  tests,  but  which  have  not  yet  been  placed 
in  service.  Her  modern  rifles  have  the  interrupted  screw 
fennel  ure. 

France  has  developed  in  a  wonderful  degree  her  gun-pro- 
du(-ingeapaeitv.  and  at  the  factory  of  the  Societe  des  Forges 
et  Chant  iers  de  la  Mediterranee.of  which  M.  Canet  is  the 
dire(-tnr  and  originator  of  the  system  used,  is  turning  out 
a  l.-n-ge  nuudier  of  guns  remarkable  for  their  finish,  beauty 
of  nianuract\ire.  high  initial  velocity,  and  accuracy  of  fire. 
The  caliliers  made  range  from  3'6  inches  u]i  to  16-8  inches, 
and  the  lengths  of  bore  between  20  and  50  calibers.  Besides 
the  large  nundier  furnished  to  the  French  (iovernment.  this 
factory  has  jdso  sold  heavy  guns  in  greater  or  less  numbers 
to  (ireece,  Spain,  Portugal,  Chili,  and  .Japan. 

The  muzzle  velocities  obtained  with  the  Canet  guns  vary 
between  1,()((5  feet  per  second  for  the  20  caliber  up  to  2,624 
tor  the  .50  caliber  guns.  A  velocity  of  2.661  feet  per  second 
has  been  obtidned  with  a  36  caliber  gun  in  actual  trials. 

Messi-s.  Schneider  &  Co.,  of  the  Creusot  works,  also  man- 


ARTILLERY 


357 


ufactiire  (runs  giving  corresponding  velocities ;  they  giinran- 
tcc  with  6-iiicli  40  caliber  guns  2,674,  and  with  'j'C  ami  12 
inch  40  calibers  2,625,  feet  per  second. 

The  I'.  S.,  although  late  in  entering  into  the  nianufacture 
of  modern  strel  ritles.  hit-i  now  (IWKi)  made  a  fair  Ijcjiimiiug. 
and  has  establislu'd  gun  factories  at  Washington  under  the 
navy,  aiul  at  West  Troy  under  the  army.  Both  have  made 
high-|)Owcr  rifles  up  to  12  inches  caliber,  which  compare 
favorably  with  any  made  abroad. 

The  Hflhleliem  iron-works  at  Bethlehem.  Pa.,  have  built 
an  extensive  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  iron,  steel,  and 
guns,  and  are  now  engaged  in  making  both  for  the  use  of 
the  Government. 

The  failure  of  several  of  the  largest  guns,  and  the  difli- 
culty  of  handling  such  large  weights,  together  with  the 
greatly  incri'ased  power  of  the  smaller  guns,  have  led  many 
of  the  best  informed  artillerists  to  think  that  no  advantage 
results  from  the  use  of  guns  of  more  than  12  or  13  inches 
caliber:  ami  this  opinion  seems  to  be  rapidly  gaining  ground. 
although  able  men  still  julvocate  the  use  o(  16-inch  guns  on 
land,  even  if  they  are  not  to  be  carried  on  ships. 

The  nnc'easing  changes  in  calibers,  lengths,  and  details  of 
construction  of  heavy  guns  make  it  useless  to  try  to  give 
the  detailed  armament  of  any  nation.  It  will  not  be  at- 
tempted. Information  upon  these  points  may  be  obtained 
from  the  annual  reports  of  the  bureaus  of  intelligence  of 
the  War  and  Xavy  departments,  and  from  the  Atmanach 
df  (lulhii. 

The  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Germans  in  1871,  and  the  bom- 
bardment of  Alexandria  by  the  Hritish  in  1882,  are  instances 
of  the  work  of  which  rilled  ordnance  is  capable. 

Following  closely  upon  the  introduction  of  rifled  guns 
was  that  of  rilled  howitzers  and  mortars,  and  the  results 
oblaineil  were  no  less  wonderful  than  for  guns.  So  far  as 
now  known,  the  mortar  was  the  tirst  form  in  which  artil- 
lery of  a  large  size  was  used.  At  first  they  were  employed 
to  throw  sloni!  balls  at  great  angles  of  elevation,  which 
produceil  elTect  merely  by  their  crushing  force.  Cast-iron 
shells  were  invented  about  1480,  and  first  used  by  the  Turks 
at  the  siege  of  Rhodes.  Since  their  first  introduction  as 
engines  of  war  mortars  have  had  various  forms,  chiefiy 
as  to  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  powder-chamber.  Until 
1861  all  mortars  had  their  trunnions  cast  upon  the  breech, 
and  till*  elevation  was  given  bv  means  (tl*  a  wooilcn  (juoin 
under  the  muzzle:  since  the  above  dale  all  mortars  made 
for  the  \j.  S.  service,  excepting  the  small  coehorn,  have  been 
cast  with  their  trunnions  at  the  center  of  gravity,  thus 
greatly  facilitating  their  service.  Mortars  of  very  large 
calilier  have  from  time  to  time  been  fabricated, but  the  larg- 
est is  that  now  at  Woolwich,  England,  constructed  in  18.57 
by  Mr.  Mallet.  It  is 
miule  in  six  sections  (so 
as  to  be  transported), 
which  are  fitted  gas- 
tight  and  bound  to- 
gether by  six  staves ; 
the  breech  is  a  solid 
forging  set  in  a  cast- 
iron  basi'.  This  mor- 
tar has  fired  shells 
weighing  2,48 1  lli.,  con- 
taining a  bursting- 
charge  of  4S0  lb.,  to 
a  distance  of  2  miles. 
A  small  mortar(called 
the  "coehorn,"  after 
its  inventor),  of  such 
lightness  as  to  be 
readily  carricKl  by  a 
couple  of  men,  has 
nrove<l  of  great  service 
in  the  field  and  in  siege 
operations.  \  similar 
mortar  lias  been  de- 
vised for  mountain- 
service,  arranged  so  ils 
to  have  the  piece  car- 
ried by  one  mule,  while 
another  carries  the  bed. 
Smooth-bore  mortars 
have  inherent  defects 
as  to  aecuracy  of  fire ;  it  was  to  overcome  these,  and  also  to 
secure  greater  range  for  curve<l  fire,  that  rified  mortal's  were 
devised  (Fig.  5).     Armstrong  in  1864  constructed  one — a 


muzzle-loader — of  6-4-inch  caliber  which  gave  such  good 
results  that  other  nations  were  encouraged  to  take  up  the 
subject.  Urcech-loailing  methods  were  soon  introduced,  and 
rilled  mortars  u|ion  lliis  jihiii  are  now  everywhere  taking  the 


Fig.  5.— oil-inch  Krupp  Titled  mortar. 

jilaceof  the  old  style  smooth-bore  muzzle-loaders.  The  cali- 
bers used  are  approximately  6,  8,  10.  and  11  inches,  and  the 
lighter  are  in  som<^  instances  mounted  on  carriages  for  field 
service  (Fig.  6).  For  seacoast  defense  the  U.  S.  is  now  build- 
ing a  large  number  of  12-inch  rified  mortars  which  fire 
elongated  projectiles,  and  are  ellective  for  ranges  varying 
from  1  mile  to  6  miles,  and  some  up  to  8  miles.  There  is 
every  indication  that  they  will  W:  used  for  firing  high  ex- 
plosives. 

Wrought  iron,  and  in  some  instances  steel,  have  entirely 
superseded  wood  in  the  const riicl ion  of  carriages  for  heavy 


Fig.  6.— 6-iuch  Knipp  ritleii  mortar. 

ordnance.  Various  plans  for  checking  recoil  have  been  in- 
vented, but  that  most  generally  adopted  is  what  is  known 
as  the '•  hydraulic  biilTer."  but  which  in  reality  works  with 
oil,  glvcerin,  or  some  other  non-freezing  or  corroding  fluid. 


Fig.  7.— lli-incli  ("1  tons)  Knipp  priin,  mounted  on  constearriapre. 


A,  40-centinneter   (IS'JB    in.)    guu ;  F  and    li, 
length,  .'W  ft.  10  in.  .sights. 

B,  Breech-olcser,  showinR  (C)  end  of  H.  Ciirriane,  wroueht  iron, 
drivinpr-screw.  1.  LoadinK-platform. 

D,  D.  Studs   for   hool{inK   on   shot-  J,  Crane,  pivoiinc  verticallv  on  pillar 
KUide.  hiiifed   horizontally  nt  K  with 

E,  v.,  Rinps    for    rammer  -  jmlley  counterspringon  arm  L,  beneath 
blocks.  the  carriage. 

M,  Chilled  iron  projectile. 


TaiiRenl  and  trunnion  X,  Hand-wheel  for  elevation,  with 
train  of  wheels  working  on 
toulhed  elevaling-are  O. 

P,  Graduated  disk,  showing  quad- 
rant elevHtiiiu,  being  set  by  re- 
verse (inner)  edge  of  elevating 
arc. 

Q.  Q.  Q.  Q.  Handles  tor  working 
traversing-gear. 


contained  in  a  cylinder  similar  to  that  of  a  steam-engine. 
A  pisioii  allache'd  to  the  moving  p;irl  of  the  carriage  works 
back  and  forth  in  the  cyliiuler,  and  is  so  arranged  that  the 


358 


ARTILLERY,  SCHOOLS  OF 


rate  of  flow  of  the  liquid  from  its  front  to  its  rear  may  be 
regulated.  When  the  piece  is  fired,  the  sudden  jar  of  recoil 
is  taken  up  by  the  action  of  the  fluid,  and  the  top-carriage 
glides  back  with  an  easy  motion.  Pneumatic  buffers  upon 
the  same  principle  are  used  in  the  U.  S.  for  the  15-inch 
gun. 

Fig.  7  is  given  to  illustrate  the  necessary  complications 
introduced  into  the  construction  of  gun-carriages  of  heavy 
guns  when  worked  by  hand. 

Various  plans  have  been  proposed  of  late  years  to  secure 
a  practicable  disappearing  gun-carriage — i.  e.  a  carriage  so 
constructed  that  the  piece  can  be  raised  to  a  height  suflicient 
to  fire  over  a  parapet,  and  then  lowered  so  as  to  be  loaded 
in  a  secure  position  behind  the  parapet.  The  Moncriefl 
••  counterpoise  gun-carriage,"  designed  to  effect  this  object, 
having  given  satisfactory  results  upon  trial  with  short  muz- 
zle-loading guns,  was  extensively  adopted  by  the  English. 
In  the  U.S.," Major  King,  of  the  Engineers,  invented  a  "de- 
pressing-carriage" which  upon  trial  also  gave  good  results. 
This  carriage  consists  of  a  cliassis  with  an  inclination  to  the 
rear  of  about  :J()  degrees.  The  top-carriage  is  attached  to  a 
counterpoise  by  a  banil  composed  of  wire  ropes.  The  coun- 
terpoise is  a  heavy  mass  of  metal  descending  into  a  well 
in  front  of  the  chassis.  When  the  piece  is  fired  from  the 
usual  position  tlie  top-carriage  slides  back  and  downward, 
where  it  is  caught  by  a  brake  and  lield  until  the  piece  is  re- 
loaded. A  slight  movement  of  the  lever  of  the  brake  re- 
leases the  top-carriage,  and  the  gun  ascends  to  the  firing 
position.  The  great  length  of  modern  guns  has  rendered 
necessary  the  use  of  disa|ipearing  carriages  and  platforms 
worked  bv  steam  or  hydraulic  power.  A  number  of  these 
are  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  not  having  stood  the  test 
of  war  service,  althougli  introduced  to  a  limited  degree  in 
seacoast  works.  Disappearing-carriages  are  intended  to  pro- 
tect the  piece  and  carriage  as  well  as  the  cannoneers.  The 
accuracy  of  modern  artillerv-fiie  increases  the  danger  to  the 
guns  with  which  a  work  is  armed,  and  the  disabling  of  a 
piece  is  of  greater  moment  now  than  formerly,  when  works 
were  garnished  with  a  great  number  of  pieces,  but  of  such 
smallsize  as  to  be  readily  replaced  when  injured. 

The  artillery  troops  of  the  regular  army  of  the  U.  S.  con- 
sist of  five  regiments,  each  composed  of  1  colonel,  1  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, 3  majors,  1  adjutant,  1  quartermaster,  1  ser- 
geant-major, 1  quartermaster-sergeant,  2  principal  musi- 
cians, and  12  batteries.  Each  battery  consists  of  1  captain, 
3  first  lieutenants,  3  second  lieutenants,  and  1.50  enlisted 
men  (sergeants,  corporals,  artificers,  musicians,  and  privates). 
In  time  of  peace  the  President  is  autliorized  to  reduce  the 
battery  organization  to  1  captain.  1  first  lieutenant.  1  sec- 
ond lieutenant,  and  60  jirivates:  practically,  this  number  is 
but  about  35.  The  law  reciuircs  tliat  one  battery  in  each 
regiment  shall  be  "  mounted  " — i.  e.  equipped  with  guns, 
horses,  etc. — and  gives  tlie  President  discretion  to  mount  as 
many  of  the  others  as  the  exigency  of  the  public  service 
may  "seem  to  him  to  demand.  When  not  thus  mounted  the 
remaining  batteries  of  artillery  serve  as  heavy  or  garrison 
artillery,  principally  in  the  seacoast  fortifications.  See 
Explosives,  Gunpowder,  Ordnance.  Projectiles,  JIachine 

AND  KaPID-FIRE  Glns,  KlFLlNG  OF  ORDNANCE,  etC. 

John  C.  Tidball. 

.\rtillery,  ScliooLs  of:  Sjiccial  schools  for  instruction  in 
artillery  have  for  many  years  been  organized  and  main- 
tained by  the  various  nations  of  the  civilized  world  as  a  com- 
ponent |)art  of  tlieir  military  establishment.  As  early  as 
A.  D.  15  bi  such  a  school  wjis  organized  by  the  Venetians.  A 
few  years  hiter  Charles  V.  establislied  a'  school  of  artillery 
in  Spain  and  another  in  Sicily.  Toward  the  end  of  the  next 
cent 

foUMI 

school  at  Mezieres.  Hoth  of  these  schools  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes  and  ri^movals  until  1802,  when  the  two 
were  combined  at  Melz.  and  continued  there  until  that  place 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  After  the  close  of 
the  Franco-tierman  war  this  school  was  reopened  at  Pon- 
tainebh>au,  when;  it  now  Is.  An  artillery  school  was  organ- 
ized in  Saxony  at,  about  the  same  date  as  that  at  Metz,  and 
some  years  afterward  similar  schools  were  establlshe<l  by 
other  states  of  Germany.  The  Artillery  and  Engineering 
School  in  Berlin  is  a  technical  school,  and  has  a  course  of 
two  years.  In  Swi'diwi,  Austria,  an<i  Russia  artillery  schools 
were  in  existence  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  artil- 
lery school  at  Woolwich  was  established  in  Great  Britain. 


tury  (167it)  a  school   of  apiilication   for   artillery  was 
ndcd  at   Douai  bv  Louis  XlV.     The  engineei-s  had   a 


In  some  nations  the  school  is  a  joint  one  for  artillerists 
and  engineei's,  but  this  is  exceptional,  the  general  rule  being 
to  keep  the  instruction  of  these  two  scientific  corps  separate 
and  distinct.  In  the  U.  S.  an  artillery  school  for  practice 
was  established  at  Fort  ^lonroe.  Virginia,  in  1824,  and  it 
continued  in  existence  for  about  six  years,  and  as  a  practi- 
cal school  solely,  when  the  exigencies  of  the  military  service 
(due  chiefly  to  Indian  wars)  caused  its  discontinuance.  In 
May,  1858,  a  school  for  practical  and  theoretical  instruction 
was  organized  at  the  same  place.  This  school  languished 
after  the  first  year  and  a  half  of  its  existence,  and  was  finally 
brought  to  an  end  in  1861  Viy  the  gi-eat  civil  war.  In  Nov., 
1867.  an  artillery  school  for  theoretical  as  well  as  practical 
instruction  was  again  established  at  Fort  Monroe,  and  has 
since  continued  uninterruptedly  up  to  the  present  date — 
1893.  This  school  was  organized  under  the  command  of 
Brevet  Maj.-Gen.  Barry,  who  remainctl  at  the  head  of  it 
until  1877,  when  he  was  succeeded  bv  (ieii.  Gettv,  1877-83; 
Gen.  Tidball.  188:3-89;  and  Col.  R.  T."  Frank.  1889. 

The  organization  of  the  U.  S.  Artillery  School,  adopted  in 
1867.  contem]jlates  a  course  of  studies  and  practical  training 
not  limited  to  what  is  necessary  for  merely  expert  artillery- 
men, but  one  which  aims  to  (jualify  officers  for  any  duty 
they  may  be  called  upon  tfi  ]ierform.  or  for  any  position, 
however  higli  in  rank  or  command,  to  wliich  they  may  as- 
pire in  service.  Such  an  advance  is  demanded  by  the  prog- 
ress made  in  the  methods  of  warfare  during  the  last  twenty 
vears.  jiarticularly  as  regards  artillery,  wherein  imiirovement 
has  been  from  almost  primitive  nideness  to  the  I'equirements 
of  an  exact  science,  combining  with  it  many  cognate  branches 
heretofore  considered  of  but  little  importance  to  a  military 
man.  With  reference  to  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  the 
artillery  school  is  a  post-graduate  institution. 

The  persojiriel  of  the  scliool  consists  of  the  commandant 
(l)oth  of  the  post  and  school),  the  directoi-s  of  instruction,  in- 
structors and  assistant  insti-uctors,  and  such  other  officers 
and  troops  as  may  be  assigned  to  it  for  duty  or  instniction. 
The  commandant,  the  two  other  field-officers  of  artillery  on 
dutv  with  it — who  shall  be  directors  of  instruction — and  the 
conimanding  officer  of  \he  Fort  Jlonroe  arsenal  constitute 
the  staif  of  the  school.  The  adjutant  of  the  post  is  ex-ofHrio 
secretary  of  the  staff  and  custodian  of  all  records.  The 
troops  tisuallv  at  the  school  arc  five  foot-batteries  of  artil- 
lerv  (one  from  each  regiment)  and  such  officers  and  enlisted 
men  as  may  be  ordered  to  the  school  for  instruclion.  The 
batteries  are  permanently  assigned,  and  are  called  "  instruc- 
tion batteries."  The  officers  for  instniction  are  lieutenants, 
four  to  each  battery,  attached  thereto  for  a  tour  of  two  years, 
commencing  Sept.  1  of  each  alternate  year.  Prior  to  1875 
the  course  of  instruction  was  for  one  year  only.  Experience 
proved  this  to  be  too  short  a  jieriod  in  whicli  to  accomplish 
all  that  was  desired.  The  additional  time  allows  of  much 
more  thorough  and  extended  instruction. 

In  addition  to  the  drawback  arising,  as  just  mentioned, 
from  want  of  time,  the  school  was  greatly  crlpjiled  during 
the  first  years  of  its  existence  for  want  of  yiroper  facilities 
for  instruction.  Aside  from  a  few  old  and  worn-out  instru- 
ments obtained  from  the  Engineer  Bureau,  there  was  noth- 
ing in  that  line.  Text-books  even  were  limited  lu  number, 
and  supplied  from  small  sums  received  from  time  to  time 
from  the  contingent  fund  of  the  War  Department.  In  1878 
a  small  appro]iriation  was  granted  by  Congress.  This  has 
been  continued  annually  since  that  time.  By  a  judicious 
management  of  these  approiiriations  the  school  facilities 
have  been  increased,  until  now  they  may  be  considered  upon 
a  verv  resiiectable  footing.  In  the  meanwhile  other  im- 
])roveinents  were  made,  adding  greatly  to  the  convenience 
and  comfort  of  the  post  and  school.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  new  barracks  for  the  soldiers,  additional  quar- 
tei-s  for  officers,  and  buildings  for  library,  school-rooms, 
laboratories,  etc. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  divided  into  six  departments, 
as  follows,  viz. : 

1.  Knglneerlng.  Embracing  land  and  topographical  sur- 
veying and  reconnoissance,  field-works,  permanent  foi-lifica- 
tion,  and  siege-works. 

Steam  and  mechanical  engineering.  To  include  an  ele- 
mentary course  on  the  steam-engine,  mechanism,  hydraulic 
power,  and  machinery. 

2.  Artillery.  To  include  exterior  and  interior  ballistics, 
the  emi)loyment  of  artillery,  artillery  material,  munitions, 
armor,  etc. 

3.  Electricity  and  submarine  mining.  Consisting  of  a 
course  of  instruction  upon  theoretical  and  j)raetical  electric- 


AirrioDACTYL 


ARWIDSSON 


359 


ily.  anil  the  the(iry  mid  luactieal  construction  and  use  of 
submarine  mines. 

4.  Chemistry  and  hi^li  explosives,  liududinj;  lectures,  lali- 
oratory  work,  and  e.\|ieriniental  work  upon  tlie  dillerent 
liranelies. 

.1.  Military  science.  Includin<j  minor  tactics,  logistics, 
l)attle  tactics,  stratc-ry.  and  military  <;eo;;raiihy. 

0.  Practical  military  e.xerclsivs.  Including,'  practical  use  of 
all  classes  of  field,  siej;e.  puTison,  and  seacoasl  guns,  howit- 
zers anil  mortai-s,  and  iiiachine-giins. 

These  depart iiieiits  are  sup]ilemented  by  instruction  in 
photofiraphy.  telegraphy,  cordage,  etc. 

Studi'iits  who  pass  siiecessfully  through  the  entire  course 
of  instruction  are  awardeii  a  certiKcate  of  proficiency,  and 
special  reports  are  made  in  all  cases  of  failure. 

The  military  policv  of  the  U.  S.  demands,  above  that  of 
mo.st  other  nations,  tliat  her  means  for  military  instruction 
should  be  of  the  most  ellicient  nature.  Unlike  the  states  of 
Kurope,  she  is  not  recpiired  to  stand  constantly  in  an  offen- 
sive anil  defensive  attitude  toward  contiguous  neighbors. 
Iler  wars  of  magnitude  are  comparatively  rare;  those  eilu- 
eated  in  the  s<-hool  of  experience  by  one  war  pass  beyond 
the  period  of  active  service  before  another  occurs,  and  fresh 
armies  have  to  be  raised  from  the  civil  population  and  coin- 
pcllcd  to  leurn  the  practice  of  war  under  the  most  adverse 
circumstances.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  with  artillery 
instruction,  which,  from  the  very  nature  of  artillery  service 
and  material,  can  not.  like  that  of  otherarms.be  disseminated 
among  the  people  by  either  the  militia  or  the  volunteer 
system.  In  consecpience  of  the  siiiallness  of  the  regular 
army,  the  only  means  of  securing  ellieient  (ireparation  for 
the  use  of  artillery  in  war  lie  in  providing  for  a  corps  of 
thoroughly  trained  artillery  ollicers;  conseipiently,  the  ne- 
cessity of  maintaining  an  artillery  school  of  theory  and 
practical  application.    See  Mii.itarv  Aiaukmiks. 

John  C  Tidmai.l. 

Artiodiic'tyl  |froni  (ir.  Sprios.  complete,  even  +  SoktuKos. 
finger.  toe| :  a  memlier  of  that  division  or  sulj-order  of  ungu- 
lates or  hoofed  mammals  in  which  the  number  of  toes  is 
even,  either  two  or  four  in  all  the  existinir  forms.  The  axis 
of  the  foot  [lasses  between  the  third  and  fourth  toes,  which 
are  ei|iial  in  size  and  have  their  hoofs  flattened  on  the  inner 
side.  Ill  the  (lerissodactyls  the  axis  jiasses  down  the  center 
of  the  third  digit,  and  the  number  of  toes  is  odd  in  all  exist- 
ing forms  save  the  tapir.  The  art iodacty Is  contain  two  prin- 
cipal groups — the  Pfi-or/i  or  ruminants,  in  which  the  stomach 
is  compound,  and  the  Siiina  or  allies  of  the  hog  and  hippo- 
|)Otamus.  in  which  it  is  simple.  I).  S.  .Ioudax. 

ArtocarpaVi'ii'  [froin  (ir.  Upros.  bread  +  xafmSs.  fruit]:  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  of  which  the  Artocar  piix 
incisii,  or  breadfruit,  is  the  type;  it  is  regarded  by  some 
botanists  as  a  sub-order  of  Urticacece.  This  order  comprises 
more  than  fifty  species,  nearly  all  natives  of  tropical  coun- 
tries.    Sec  .Taik-tri:!:. 

.\rtois.  aar-twaw'  (anc.  Atri'lm'tcx) :  a  former  province  of 
Fianie.  bordering  on  Flanders,  in  the  department  of  I'as- 
de-t'alais  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  3-F).  The  capital  of 
Artois  was  .\rras.  Artesian  wells  wen;  named  from  Artois 
(in  liatin.  Ar/f'siti).  Charles  X.  of  France  before  his  acces- 
sion was  Count  of  Artois. 

Artotype :  See  Photourai'IIV. 

Arts.  lUciiKi.oR  OK  and  Master  of;  .See  Dkgrees. 

A'ril :  a  group  of  islands  situated  between  hit.  5"  20'  and 
6  55  S..  and  between  Ion.  I:i4  10'  and  KU  45  K. ;  .S.  of 
Xcw  (iiiiiiea,  noiniiially  in  the  Dutch  govc>rnmeiit  of  the 
Moluccas.  There  are  five  principal  islands  and  many  small 
ones.  Total  area  about  :i.(l()0  si|.  miles  (see  map  of  Kast  In- 
dies, ref.  8-K).  The  largest  island  is  70  miles  long  and  20 
miles  wide.  Somcof  the  natives  have  adopted  Christianity. 
Here  is  a  town  called  DoIiIh),  into  which  British  goods  are 
imported  annually  to  the  amount  of  about  ijil.j.OOO.  The 
exports  are  pearls,  trepang,  and  birds  of  paradise.  Pop. 
of  islands,  7,750. 

Aril'lm:  an  island  of  the  Dutch  West  Indies;  \V.  of  Cii- 
rai;oa  and  20  miles  X.  of  Cape  St.  Koman;  peninsula  of 
Paragiiana  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref.  O-II).  The  cap- 
ital is  Oraiijestad.  with  a  fort  named  Zoutman  (lat.  12'  28 
X.,  Ion.  70    1 1   W.).     Area,  09  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1891)  7.74:i. 

A'riini  [Lat.  a  rum.  (ir.  dpov,  wake-robin]:  a  genus  of  di- 
cotyledonous herbaceous  plants  of  the  family  ,I;«C('«'.  This 
genus  has  a  convolute  spathe,  the  spadix  naked  at  the  point. 
In  some  of  its  species  a  stench  like  that  of  carrion  is  pr<j- 


iluced  during  flowering,  and  in  some  a  remarkable  degree  of 
heat. 

Aniiii  Family :  See  Aroids. 

Ar'iiiulcl.  Thomas:  Archbisliop  of  Canterbury;  b.  at 
Arundel,  i;i53 ;  became  liishoii  of  Kly  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one;  was  at  different  times  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  Kng- 
land  (i:i8(>-89:  i:!9I-9(i;  1399;  1407;  1412);  Archbishop  of 
York,  1388;  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1.39(5;  was  banished 
for  comiilication  in  the  insurrection  against  Kichard  II., 
1397;  returned  with  Henry  of  Lancaster  (Henry  IV.),  1399, 
and  took  jiossession  of  his  see;  iiersecuted  the  Lollards  and 
followers  of  Wiclif.     D.  at  Canterbury,  Feb.  19,  1413. 

Arundel.  Tiio.mas  Howard  :  Karl  of  Arundel  and  Surrey; 
art  collector;  b.  in  London.  158(i;  made  a  fanions  collection 
of  ancient  scul|itiires  bearing  the  name  of  the  Arundel 
Marhle.1,  which  was  presented  to  the  University  of  O.xford 
in  16()7.  The  jirincipal  jiortion  of  it  is  the  Fariiin  Ctiruiiide, 
originally  chronological  tables  of  (xreck  history,  from  1583- 
264  B.C.  (interpreted  liy  Boeckli  in  Corpus  Inscripf,  vol.  ii.). 
I),  in  Padua,  l(i4G.  The  Arundel  Society,  London,  is  named 
after  him. 

Arus'pices.  or  Hanis'pices  [Lat..  literally  entrai!  exam- 
iners, from  Imru-:  cf.  Iiira.  entrails;  (ir.  xop^M'-  Bonian 
siHitlisayei-s,  who  foretold  future  events  from  the  inspection 
of  the  entrails  of  the  victims  offered  at  the  altars  of  the  gods. 

Aruninii.  a'l'-roo-wee'mw ;  a  tributary  of  the  Congo,  ris- 
ing to  the  X.  W.  of  Albert  X'yanza.  Its  general  course  is 
westward,  and  it  empties  into  the  Congo  al  the  village  or 
station  of  .\ruwimi.  or  IJasoko.  in  lat.  2  40'  X.,  after  a  course 
of  about  tiOO  miles.  It  receives  various  names  in  its  coui'se, 
as  the  Luliali.  Novelli.  Ituri.  The  name  of  the  river  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  district  of  the  Congo  Free  State  through 
which  it  flows. 

Ar'vad:  ancient  city  of  Plitcnicia,  on  small  island  near 
month  of  the  river  Kleiitheriis:  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Sidonians  and  noted  lor  the  seafaring  skill  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

Arval  Brclhren  (in  Ij^t.  Fratres  Arvales):  a  very  an- 
cient college  of  priests,  at  Rome,  twelve  in  number,  chosen 
by  co-optation  for  life,  from  the  highest  families,  and  under 
the  empire,  including  the  emperors.  They  celebrated  a 
yearly  festival  for  three  days  in  the  latter  half  of  May. offer- 
ing sacrifices  for  the  fertility  of  the  fields.  To  their  cult 
there  are  but  few  allusions  in  literature.  l)ut  the  minute  de- 
tails of  their  ccremonijil  are  contained  in  a  series  of  in.scrip- 
tioiial  records  dating  from  14-241  A.  i)..  which  h;ive  been 
found  from  time  to  time  in  the  grove  of  the  Dea  Dia.omiles 
from  Uome  on  the  Via  Camiiana.  These  were  published  un- 
der the  title  Ada  fratrum  Arr/ilium,  by  (1.  Ileiizen  (lierlin. 
1874).  Since  then  other  fragments  have  lieen  discovered. 
Sec  also  Birf  under  Dea  Dia  in  Koscher's  Lexikon  der 
Oriechisr/ien  und Rumi^rhen Mytholoyie  (columns. 9()f>-975). 

M.  Wakrkn. 

.Vrvlc'ola  [^from  Lat.  arriim,  field  +  -rnia,  inhabitant]:  a 
genus  of  small  animals  of  the  order  Riidiii/iii,  Mu•^\  to  the 
rat  and  mouse.  They  are  distinguished  iiy  the  prismatic 
form  and  fangless  structure  of  the  molar  teeth.  The.lrc/c- 
<i/ii  rt(//r.sy('.<  (field  campagliol)  and  the  Arriralfi  riparia 
(liank  campagno!)  are  natives  of  Kiigland.  There  are  over 
twenty  species,  called  field-mice,  in  the  U.  S. 

.\rvionx.  Latrkn't  Chevalikr,  d';  French  traveler  and 
Orientalist  ;  b.  at  Marseilles  in  1G35.  He  negotiated  a  treaty 
with  the  Dey  of  Tunis  in  1068.  and  was  consul  at  Aleppo 
from  1()79  to  1686.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Manners 
ami  Customs  of  tlie  Artilm  (MXI).  From  his  papers  Labat 
compiled  }[em<>lrs  of  C/iemtier  d'Arrieux,  Contaiiiin;/  Itis 
Trarels  in  Asia  (6  vols.,  1735).  His  works  arc  commended 
by  Xiebnhr.     D.  in  1702. 

.Vrivaipu:  See  Athapascan  I.ndians. 

Al^'widsson.  .\iion"  I  war:  b.  at  Pailasjoki.  Finland.  .\ug. 
7.  1791  ;  studied  at  the  Universityof  Abo.and  wasappointed 
docenf  in  history  there  in  1817.  A  [icriodieal  which  he 
founded  in  1821  was  suppressed  in  the  same  year  by  the 
Kussian  (fovernment,  and  in  1822  he  was  exileil.  He  went 
to  Stockholm,  where  he  was  made  director  of  the  royal 
library.  D.  at  Wilwirg,  Finland.  June  21.  1858.  He  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  Srenska  Fornsanqer  (3  vols., 
1834-12);  Storkholm  farr  ocli  nu  (1837-40):  anil  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Icelandic  ISaga  of  Frithjof  (Fri^]'jofs  Saga). 
"Revised  bv  G.  L.  Kittredoe. 


360 


ARX 


ASCALON 


Arx :  in  Roman  archseologr,  a  stronghold  within,  or 
closely  connected  with  a  city.  The  term  is  applied  to  the 
citadels  of  the  towns  of  Italy,  and  those  where  the  Koman 
civilization  prevailed;  thus  we  speak  of  the  arx  of  Tusculura. 
The  term  is  nearly  equivalent  to  acropolis  in  a  Greek  city. 
The  arx  of  Kome  was  one  of  the  two  high  points  of  the 
capitoline  hill,  the  other  being  the  capitoliuui :  it  is  not  en- 
tirely certain  which  of  the  two  was  tlie  arx,  but  it  is  gcner- 
aUy  thought  to  be  where  tlie  Church  of  S.  JIaria  in  Ara 
CceU,  or,  shorter,  the  Ara  Coeli,  stands. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Ar'yan  (also  spelled -1  )■('««):  'i  terra  which  the  stricter 
usage  among  modern  philologists  limits  in  application  to  the 
Indo-Iranians  and  the  Indo-Iranian  speech-family,  i.  e.  the 
family  whose  chief  ancient  representatives  are  the  Sanskrit 
and  Zend.  It  represents  a  name  which  this  people  applied 
to  itself  in  distinction  to  the  darker-skinned  peoples  about  it, 
and  of  which  the  Sanskrit  form  was  aria-  or  drya-.  The 
etymology  of  the  word  is  uncertain,  as  is  usually  the  case 
with  proper  names,  but  it  may  perhaps  signify  "  the  band  of 
the  loyal."  Jlaiiy  philologists,  and  especially  anthropolo- 
gists, have  used  the  term  in  a  broader  sense  to  denote  the 
whole  family  which  is  by  others  called  the  Indo-European 
or  Indo-Germanic.  Such  is  particulai'ly  the  case  in  Eng- 
land, where,  however,  of  late  the  term  Indo-European  has 
been  gaining  ground.  Indo-Germanic  is  comuKjnly  used  in 
Germany,  Indo-European  in  Prance  and  the  U.  S.  See 
Indo-Europeans  and  Language.        Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Ar'zai'hel :  Jewish  astronomer;  b.  in  Spain,  and  lived 
about  lO.jO-llOO.  He  ascertained  the  obliquity  of  the  ecli|i- 
tic,  and  prepared  astronomical  tables,  called  Toledo  Tables. 

As  (gen.  As'sis) :  a  Roman  weight;  also  called  Libra; 
nearly  equal  to  the  modern  pound.  It  was  divided  into 
twelve  uncia>,  "  ounces,"  and  was  equal  to  10  oz.  18  dwts.  134 
gi's.  Troy.  As  was  also  the  name  of  a  lirass  Roman  coin 
which  originally  weighed  a  pound,  but  in  consequence  of 
the  increase  of  the  value  of  metal,  compared  with  that  of 
food  and  other  commodities,  it  was  gradually  reduced  to 
half  an  ounce.  During  the  second  Punic  war  the  value  of 
the  as  was  about  two  farthings,  but  its  weight  and  prices  in 
Rome  were  so  variable  that  its  value  can  not  be  accurately 
fixe<I.     See  Sestertius. 

Asa'ba :  the  capital  of  the  Niger  territories  in  West  Af- 
rica, and  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  Royal  Niger  C'om- 
pany — a  company  controlling  the  greater  part  of  the  Niger 
basin.  Asaba  is  on  the  Niger,  l.'iO  miles  from  the  coast  and  75 
above  the  delta,  in  lat.  6'  20'  N.,  Ion.  7°  E.  (see  map  of  Africa, 
ref.  5-C).  Here  resides  the  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
and  here  are  also  the  central  prison,  the  civil  and  military 
hospitals,  and  other  puljlic  buildings. 

A'sa  Diil'cis  (i.  e.  sweet  asa) :  a  drug  highly  prized  liy  the 
ancients  as  an  antispasmodic  and  diuretic.  It  was  worth  its 
weight  in  gold,  and  was  obtained  from  a  plant  of  the  genus 
T/iapsia,  a  native  of  Barbary  and  Southern  Europe. 

Asafu>tida :  See  Assaf(etida. 

Asagra>'a  [named  in  honor  of  Asa  Gray,  the  botanist] :  a 
Mexican  plant  which  has  bulbous  stems,  linear,  grass-like 
leaves,  and  spikes  of  wliitish  flowers.  The  Asagrcea  offici- 
nalis, which  is  said  to  be  the  only  species  of  this  genus,  pro- 
duces the  cebadilla-seeds  from  which  the  poison  veratrine  is 
prepared, 

Asaii'der  (in  Gr.'Ao-oi/Spos) :  Jlacedonian  general ;  brother 
of  I'anuenio;  appointed  governor  of  Lydia  by  Alexander 
the  Great  in  334  B.C.  After  the  death  oif  that  king  he  was 
satrap  of  Caria,  an  ally  of  Ptolemy,  and  an  enemy  of  Antig- 
onus,  against  whom  he  waged  war  about  314  B.  r. 

As'apll,  Saint :  cathedral  city  in  the  northwest  of  Flint- 
shire, Wales  (see  map  of  England,  r<'f.  H-E).  The  cathedral. 
one  of  the  smallest  in  (Jreat  Britain,  was  built  in  12f<4  on 
the  site  of  a  wooden  structure  founded  before  5!J6.  Pop. 
(I8i)l)  14,000. 

Asarabac'ca:  See  Asarum. 

As'ariim  ((ir.  iaapov) :  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the 

UimWy  Aristolochidreip;  is  distinguished  by  kidnev-shaj)('il 
leaves,  twelve-lmrned  stamens. distinct  from  eacli  other  and 
from  the  style,  and  liy  a  bell-shaped,  three-lob<>d  perianth. 
Asarum,  europeiim  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The  roots  and 
leaves  are  stimulant,  purgative,  and  emetic,  and  contain  a 
bitter  principle  <ir  cryslalline  sulistance  called  asarin.  A. 
canadense,  a  native  of  North  America,  called  wild  ginger,  is 


a  stimulant  and  diaphoretic.     Two  other  sjjecies  grow  in  the 
Atlantic  States. 

As'beii,  called  also  A'lr :  a  kingdom  of  the  Southern  Sa- 
hara, bordering  on  the  Sudan,  of  considerable  but  ill-de- 
fined area,  now  within  the  French  sphere  of  influence.  It  is 
in  the  Niger  drainage-basin,  but  its  rivers  are  usually  dry. 
It  is  on  a  great  caravan  route  from  the  north  to  Sokoto.  It 
includes  a  large  tract  of  desert,  and  some  fertile  land  which 
produces  dates.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry.  Capital, 
Agades,  with  a  population  of  about  7,000. 

Asbes'tos.  or  Asbestiis  [Gr.  So-zSecttos.  unquenchable;  a-, 
not  +  a$fvi/vvai.  quench.  Originally  ap|ilied  by  the  Greeks 
to  unslaked  quicklime ;  Pliny,  to  wliom  the  present  per- 
verse use  of  the  term  is  due,  probably  applied  it  in  the  .sense 
of  "inconsumable"]:  a  fibrous  mineral  composed  of  fine, 
flexible,  and  easily  separable  filaments  of  a  silky  luster.  It 
is  a  variety  of  actinolitc  and  tremolite,  and  consists  chiefly 
of  silica,  magnesia,  and  lime,  or  pyroxene.  The  fibers  of  a 
very  silky  variety  of  asbestos  are  called  amianthus.  As- 
bestos may  be  woven  into  cloth  whicli  is  incombustible,  and 
if  soiled  may  be  cleansed  by  fire.  The  ancients  wrapped  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  in  such  cloth,  in  order  that  when  they 
were  burned  on  the  funeral  pyre  their  ashes  might  be  kept 
separate.  It  was  also  used  for  the  wicks  of  the  lamps  in  the 
temples.  Mountain-cork  and  mountain-leather  are  varieties 
of  asbestos.  It  is  now  employed  as  a  material  for  roofing, 
boiler-felting,  night-lamp  wicks,  steam-jiacking,  and  jiaper- 
stoek.  Asbestos  is  abundant  in  Canada,  Corsica,  Savoy,  the 
Valtelline,  and  the  Tyrol.  Seventy-one  tons  were  mined 
and  marketed  in  the  U.  S.  in  1890. 

Asbjoriiseii.  a'ls-byorn'sen,  Peter  Crristen  :  b.  in  Chris- 
tiania,  Norway,  Jan.  1.5,  1813;  studied  botany  and  zoology; 
visited  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  in  1849-50;  spent  two  years 
at  the  academy  of  Tharand,  Saxony,  1856-58.  and  on  his 
return  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  forests  of  Nor- 
way. Besides  a  number  of  popular  books  on  natural  history 
and  essays  on  forest  culture,  he  published  A'orske  Folke- 
Evenfyr  (1842-43)  in  connection  with  Jorgen  Moe;  an  addi- 
tional collection  of  the  same  in  1871  (2d  ed.  1876) ;  and 
Norske  Iliildreeventyr  og  Folkesagn  (1845-48  ;  3d  ed.  1870). 
D.  in  Christiania,  Jan.  6,  1885. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

As'boliiie  [from  Gr.  S(rj3o\os,  soot] :  a  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance found  in  soot. 

As'both,  Alexander  Sandor;  Hungarian  officer;  b.  at 
Keszthely,  Hungary,  Dec.  18, 1811 ;  fought  under  Kossuth  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  1851  removed  to  the  U.  S.  He 
entered  the  Union  army  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in 
1861.  distinguished  himself  in  various  engagements,  and  was 
made  a  major-general  in  1865.  He  was  minister  to  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic  in  1866,  and  died  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Jan. 
31,  1868. 

As'biiry.  Francis:  Methodist  minister;  b.  at  Hands- 
worth,  Staffordshire,  England,  Aug.  20.  1745,  of  Methodist 
p.arents;  was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen;  became  a  lo- 
cal preacher  at  sixteen  ;  an  itinerant  under  Wesley  at  twenty- 
two;  removed  to  America  in  1771  as  missionary ;  in  1772  be- 
came Wesley's  "general  assistant  "in  America.  In  1784  he 
was  elected  bishoji  of  the  new  Methodist  Episcopal  Cluirch, 
and  was  consecrated  by  Bishop  Coke.  His  labors  and  suc- 
cess in  establishing  his  Church  (chiefly  in  fields  where 
churches  were  almost  unknown)  are  among  the  most  re- 
markalili'  ol'  which  historv  bears  recurd.  I),  at  Spottsylv.-niia, 
Va.,  Mar.  21, 181li.  See  Ashurifs  Journals  (New  York,  1852), 
and  life  by  \V.  P.Strickland  (18.58). 

Asbiiry  Park :  a  noted  summer  resort  on  Atlantic  coast 
of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jer- 
sey, ref.  4-K);  about  5  miles  S.  of  Long  Branch;  has  seven 
churches,  a  fine  opera-house,  electric  street-railway,  artesian 
water-works,  and  complete  sewer-sy.stem.  Pop.  (1880)  1,040 ; 
(1890)  3,S15;  (1895)3,761.  Editor  of  "Journal." 

As'calon  (in  Gr.  'A<rKd\uv),  called  Ash  kelon  in  the  Bible: 
one  of  the  five  capilal  cities  of  the  Philistines,  a  former  sea- 
port of  Palestine,  10  miles  N.  of  Gaza.  12  S.  by  W.  of  A.sh- 
dod  or  .\zolus.  and  42  W.  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  a 
place  of  unich  importance;  the  seat  of  the  Philistine  licen- 
tious Astarte  wnrsliip;  its  temple  was  plundered  by  the 
Scythians. B.C.  625.  Herod  the  Great  was  born  there.  It  was 
taken  by  the  crusaders,  a.  n.  1099;  partially  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens,  but  rebuilt  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion.  Its  first 
fall  came  when  its  small  and  insecure  harbor  was  filled  with 


ASCARIS 


ASCIDIA 


361 


stones  by  the  Sultan   Bibni-s.  a.  d.  1270.     It  is  now  a  small 
village  cuUed  Asculan,  and  has  extensive  ruins. 

Hevised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

As'caris  (dr.  iurKopts):  a  i;enus  of  intestinal  parasites,  of 
whieh  the  most  ci>mmon  is  the  roundworm,  .Iwori*  lumbri- 
eoitUii,  found  in  the  intestines  of  man.  Children  fr<'(iuently 
have  them,  prineipally  in  the  small  intestines.  The  liody  of 
this  worm  is  round,  ela.stie,  with  a  smooth  surfaee,  of  a  red- 
dish or  yellowish  color ;  it  tapers  especially  toward  the  an- 
terior extremity,  whieh  commences  abruptly  by  three  tuber- 
cles which  surround  the  mouth.  The  body  is  transversely 
furrowed  with  numerous  fine  lines,  and  marked  also  with 
four  lines  from  heail  to  tail.  In  the  female  there  is  usually 
a  constriction  of  the  body  ut  the  distance  of  about  one-third 
of  its  lenirlh  from  the  nuiuth.  Sometimes,  especially  in 
younj;  and  weakly  children,  their  accunndation  may  cause 
serious  rellex  clisturbaiices;  even  convulsions  may  be  thus 
produced.  There  are  no  symptoms  (apart  from  tin-  passage 
of  the  worms  from  the  bowels)  invarialdy  connected  with 
their  presence.  Itching  of  the  nose,  capricious  appetite, 
swelling  of  the  abdomen,  and  grinding  the  teeth  when  asleep 
may  all  occur,  Imt  they  may  also  be  produced  by  other 
causes.  <).ri/uris  ivrmi<ii/tiii.f.[hi^  small  while  lhivadtti>rm 
or  seatworm,  was  formerly  classed  as  an  .l.irnn'x.  but  is 
lielter  called  Oxi/unK.  Its  length  is  from  two-twelfths  to 
Ive-twelflhs  of  an  inch,  the  fennile  being  larger  than  the 
male.  The  head  is  blunt,  widening  on  each  .side;  the  body 
ta|H'rs  (at  least  in  the  female)  to  a  point.  Seatworms,  by  the 
itching  Ihi'y  produce,  often  distress  children  very  much: 
they  are  less  freijuently  met  with  in  adults.  F(M'  tri'iiliiiciit 
of  worms,  see  A.N'THKLMiXTics.  As  a  common  mmK  Axvu rides 
is  the  plural  of  A-^cdrix.        Revised  by  William  Pkiu'EH. 

Ascinvii'iiil  Lake:  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  3  miles 
long  and  1  mile  wide,  in  I'nt nam  valley  township,  Putnam 
CO.,  \.  Y.     It  is  a  place  of  summer  resort. 

Asceii'sioii :  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  7i)0  nwles 
N.  W.  of  St.  Helena:  lielongs  to  Great  Britain  (see  map  of 
VVorhl,  ref.  (i-I).  It  has  an  area  of  35  sq.  miles.  It  is  vol- 
canic and  mountainous,  one  peak  rising  to  the  height  of 
2,870  feet.  It  has  a  fort  in  lat.  T  0.5'  .5.5'  S.  and  Ion.  14'  2.5' 
.5"  W.  Turtles,  vegetaljles,  and  birds'  eggs  are  procured 
here.  It  was  discovered  in  1.501  by  the  Portugiu'se  on  As- 
cension Day,  but  was  uninhaliited  till  Oct.  1-5.  1S15.  when 
the  Knglish  look  jHissession  of  it,  and  estalilished  a  military 
station  there  after  the  arrival  of  Xapoleon  Bonaparte  at  St. 
Ilelemi.  It  is  uscil  as  a  coaling,  victualing,  and  store  depot 
for  British  ships  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Chief  town, 
Georgetown,  a  British  naval  station.  The  island  is  a  saiui- 
torium  for  the  iMiropeans  of  West  Africa.     Pop.  about  360. 

Asfciision  [from  Lat.  aacensio,  an  a.scent] :  in  astrono- 
my, see  Ruiiir  .\s(  KXsiox. 

Asreiisiuii  Day.  or  Holy  Tliiirstlay :  one  of  the  great 
religious  festivals  of  ilie  Kouian  Catholic  and  Anglican 
Churches,  held  on  the  fortieth  d.iy  after  Easter,  to  com- 
memorate the  a.scension  of  Christ  into  heaven.  Ascension 
Dav  has  been  observed  at  least  since  fi8  A.  i).,  and  perhaps 
earlier.  St.  Augustine  speaks  of  it  as  uidversally  observed  in 
the  Church,  and  contends  that  it  must  have  been  instituted 
either  by  the  apostles  themselves  or  Ihe  bishoi>s  immediate- 
ly succeeding  them.  This  feast  concludes  the  cvcle  of  fes- 
tivals of  our  li(]rd,  and  is  marked  out  in  the  linglish  and 
American  Prayer-books,  by  the  proper  jirefacc  provided  for 
it  in  the  communion  ollice.  as  ou<^  of  the  great  leslivals  to 
be  observi-d  with  Ihe  aduiinistration  of  the  Kucharisl  daily 
during  the  octave. 

Ascet'icism  [from  (ir.  io-iojT^j,  hennit.  one  who  disci- 
plines himself;  deriv.  of  lurKeli/,  practice,  discipline] :  a  vol- 
untary retirement  from  the  wcuhl  and  the  practice  of  acts 
tending  to  mortify  the  body;  so  called  from  the  rigid  disei- 
plino  to  which  the  devotee  subjects  himself,  the  object  of 
the  ascetic  being  to  ailvance  the  spiritual  interest  of  himself 
or   others.      Asceticism  was    practiced   among  .lewish   and 

fagan  nations  long  before  the  lime  of  Christ,  especially  in 
ndia.  The  Essenes  in  Juda'a  and  the  Thcrapeuta'  in  Egypt 
were  bodies  of  Jewish  ascetics.  At  the  present  dav  a.sceti- 
cism  is  most  prevalent  among  Brahmans.  Buddhists,  and 
Christians  of  Ihe  Armenian,  t"optic,  Greek,  and  Konum 
Catholic  Churches.  Early  in  the  second  century  zealous 
members  of  the  Christian  Church  devoted  themselves  to 
lives  of  poverty,  celibacy,  and  abstinence  from  all  sensiud 
gratificalion.  Some  of  these  remaini'il  among  men.  others 
dwelt  apart  as  hermits.     The  union  of  numbers  of  hermits 


into  one  bmly  was  firet  miule  by  Pachomius,  340  A.  D.  This 
was  the  \irtmd  origin  of  Mo.\'asticis.m  (q.  v.). 

Ascct'ics:  those  who  practice  Asceticism  {q.  v.). 

Asfh:  a  town  of  Austria:  in  Bohemia;  100  miles  W.  of 
Prague  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-C).  It  has 
factories  of  liiu'U.  cali<'o,  paper,  hosiery,  and  leather  goods, 
and  nuiny  <lyeing  establishments  and  breweries.  Pop.  13,- 
5.57. 

Ascliaffonbiirg::  a  town  of  Bavaria;  in  the  circle  of 
Lower  Eranconia:  m\  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  24  miles 
by  rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Frankfort  (see  map  of  Ihe  German  Em- 
pire, ref.  ti-D.)  It  luis  a  royal  castle,  a  Gothic  church,  a 
library  of  about  22,000  volunu-s.  a  hospital,  a  gymnasium ;  also 
miiiuifactures  of  woolen  goods,  jiaper,  straw  goods,  etc.  It 
belonged  to  the  Elector  of  Mentz  for  many  centuries,  and 
was  ceded  to  Bavaria  in  1814.  A  victory  of  the  Prussians 
over  the  Austrians  was  gained  here  Julv  14,  1806.  Pop. 
(l.s'.IO)  l:!,27.5. 

.Vs'chrtlll.  RooKK :  English  scholar  and  writer:  b.  at 
Kirliy  Wiske.  lu'ar  Nortiiallerton.  in  Yorkshire,  in  1515. 
lie  gradiuited  at  St.  John's  Colh'ge,  Candiridge,  in  1.534.  be- 
came a  fellow,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  classical 
scholar.  In  1.544  he  published  a  work  in  defense  of  arch- 
ery, eiditled  Tfj.iiiphilux.  which  is  remarkabh^  as  a  specimen 
of  pure  English  style.  He  was  appoiided  in  1548  tidor  to 
the  Princess  Elizabelh,  whom  he  instructed  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  but  he  resigned  that  position  in  1.5.50.  Soon  after 
this  event  he  was  sent  as  secretary  of  eiidiassy  to  the  court 
of  the  Emjieror  Charles  Y.,  and  passed  three  years  in  Ger- 
many. Although  he  wa.s  a  Proteshint,  h(!  was  appointed 
Latin  swretary  to  Queen  JIary  in  1553,  and  alter  her  death 
(in  1558)  he  was  retained  at  court  in  the  doulile  cjipacity  of 
secretary  and  tutor  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  w'lio  again  took 
lessons  in  (ireek  and  Latin,  lie  remained  at  her  court  un- 
til his  death  in  London,  Dec.  30,  156.S,  having  by  his  pru- 
dence or  good  fortune  passed  through  very  perilous  times 
without  persecution  or  dishonoralile  t<'mporizing.  Ilis  chief 
work.  The  Sc/iole-Jftisler  (1570),  contains  cxcc^llent,  advice 
on  Ihe  subject  of  tea(^hing  Latin.  Ilis  complete  works  were 
edited  by  'j.  A.  Giles  (London,  1804-6.5,  3  vols.).  See  Dr. 
Johnson's  Life  of  K.  Ascham,  prefi.\eil  to  his  works  (1767); 
K.  Grant,  Df  Vila  lioi/eri  A-scham  (1576)  is  the  original 
source,  but  the  best  life  is  in  German  by  A.  Katterfeld 
(St  rassburg.  1876). 

Ascli'bach.  .Iosi:i>n :  German  historian ;  b.  at  Ilochst, 
near  Eraukfort-on-tlie-Main,  April  2!l,  1801.  lie  became 
Professor  of  History  at  Bonn  1842.  aiul  in  18.53  at  Vienna. 
He  was  ennobled  1870.  retired  1872.  D.  in  Vienna,  April  25, 
188"2.  His  most  important  w^orks  are  a  I/in/ori/  nftlie  A'mper- 
<>r  Sii/ixtiiiiiiil (4  vols..  1838-45);  Alli/iDteitie.'i  Kircfie7ile.ricon 
(4  vols..  1846-.50);  and  J{(i.sirif/i<i  lutd  Cimidd  t'c//w  (1867). 
He  also  wrote  a  /lifitiiri/  of  Ihe  VixiijolhK  (1827):  a  History 
of  tlie  Omei/i/adea  in.  iSpniii  (2  vols..  1829-30) ;  and  a  History 
of  Vienna  University  (3  vols..  186.5—88). 

AscllVrsle'bpii :  a  town  of  Prussia:  province  of  Saxony ; 
on  the  river  Eine;  18  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Magdeburg  (see 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-F).  It  has  about  seven 
churches,  one  synagogue,  and  a  gymiuisiinn,  and  is  sur- 
rounded bv  a  strong  wall.  Here  are  manufactinvs  of  flan- 
nel, frieze."  linens,  pottery,  and  brandy.     Pop.  (I8!)0)  22,893. 

As'fiaiis.  or  As'cii  [from  Gr.  Sutkioi,  shadowless;  a-,  not-l- 
o-Kiii,  slijidow] :  the  jieople  of  the  torrid  zone,  who  twice  in 
the  vear  have  the  sun  pi-rpendicularly  above  their  heads, 
and  lieiice  are  without  shadow. 

.Vscid'ia.  or  .Xscid'iaiis  [from  Gr.  aaKl^iov.  dimin.  of 
itTKcJ;.  Ii'alhern  bottlel:  a  sub-class  of  animals  belonging  to 
Ihe  class  7'iinicnta.  The  words  ascidian  aiul  tuiucate  have 
often  been  used  as  synonyms.  They  are  llask-shaped.  at- 
tached by  one  end,  anil  inclosed  in  a  gelatinous  or  leathery 
tunic,  and  have  the  mouth  and  the  amd  orifice  usuallv  close 
together.  This  external  tunic  was  formerly  regarded  a.s 
corresponding  to  the  mantle  of  the  moUusks,  with  which 
the  tunicates  were  associated.  The  greater  part  of  the  cavity 
of  Ihe  mantle  is  occupied  by  the  l)ranchial  .s)u%  whi<h  has 
innnerousslil-like  perforat  ion.s,  and  serves  at  once  as  [iharyn- 
geal  cavity  aiul  as  respiratory  organ.  They  have  no  eyes  or 
olher  organs  of  special  sense,  but  they  have  hearts  and  a 
circulation  of  blood,  with  a  remarkable  peculiarity  that  its 
direction  is  .sometimes  reversed.  In  their  mature  state  they 
are  fixeil  by  the  base  to  some  solid  substance,  as  a  rock  or 
seaweed,  but  the  young,  resembling  tadpoles  in  form,  swim 
by  means  of  a  vibratile  tail,  which  disajjpears  when  they 


362 


ASCIDIUM 


ASCOMYCETES 


settle.  These  youns  forms  are  in  many  respects  fish-like,  a 
fact  wliieh  has  led  naturalists  to  the  conclusion  that  tlie 
group  of  tunioates  are  degenerate  descendants  from  a  fish- 
like  tyjie.  The  majority  of  the  jrroup  are  solitary  or  simple 
forms,  but  some  of  tliem  live  in  colonies  formed  l)y  l)ndding, 
the  members  of  which  are  connected  by  a  stem,  thoTigh  each 
has  its  own  heart,  respiratory  apparatus,  and  digestive  organs. 
In  other  kinds,  called  compound  ascidians,  the  tunics  of 
many  are  united  into  a  mass,  and  they  form  systems  like 
zofip'hytes.  The  individuals  in  these  systems  have  always 
sprung  l)y  gemmation  from  one,  and  both  the  solitary  and 
compound  ascidians  propagate  by  eggs.  "  In  the  clim  oli- 
scurity  of  the  past,"  says  Darwin,  "  we  can  see  that  the  early 
progenitor  of  all  the  Ve.rtebrafa  must  have  been  an  aquatic 
animal  provided  with  branehiiP,  with  the  two  sexes  united 
in  the  same  indiviilual,  ami  with  the  nu)st  important  organs 
of  the  body  (such  as  tlie  brain  and  heart)  imperfectly  devel- 
oped. This  animal  seems  to  have  been  more  like  the  larvie 
of  our  existing  marine  ascidians  than  any  other  known 
form."  Descent  of  3Ian  (vol.  ii.,  p.  372).  See  Tunicata. 
Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

Ascid'inm  [for  etymology,  see  Asoidia]  :  in  botany,  a 
hollow,  pitcher-shaped  body  which  occurs  on  the  leaves  of 
certain  plants,  as  Nepenthes  and  Sarracenia.  It  usually 
contains  water,  and  is  sometimes  furnished  with  reflexed 
hairs,  which  prevent  the  escape  of  insects  that  fall  into  it. 
(See  Nepenthes.)  In  zoology,  a  genus  of  tunicates  belonging 
to  the  Ascidia. 

Asei'tes  [from  Gr.  acrKhns  (sc.  y6(Tos,  disease),  a  kind  of 
dropsy;  from  aa-Kis,  Icatliern  bottle]  :  dropsy  of  the  abdomi- 
nal cavity  is  most  frequently  an  indication  of  portal  ob- 
struction caused  by  "  cirrhosis  "  or  other  disease  of  the  liver, 
which  hinders  the  return  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart  and 
causes  pressure  in  the  veins,  leading  to  transudation  of  serum 
into  the  peritoneal  (abdominal)  cavity,  whence  the  name. 
In  other  cases  it  is  a  symptom  of  general  dropsy ;  or  it  may 
result  from  cancer  or  tubercle  of  the  peritoneum ;  or,  in 
children  especially,  it  may  appear  fis  a  temporary  and  quite 
inexplicable  jilienomenon,  without  serious  danger  or  distress. 
Ascites  must  be  regarded  in  almost  all  cases  as  a  very  grave 
symptom  of  disease,  yet  there  are  not  a  few  cases  where  the 
immediate  danger  passes  away,  and  the  patient  becomes  for 
the  time  comfortable ;  but  such  results  are  temporary  and 
inifrequent.  The  treatment  is  governed  by  the  cause,  but 
is  largely  palliative.  Diuretics  may  be  useful,  but  hydra- 
gogue  cathartics  are  much  more  effective  in  relieving  tlie 
symptom.  Tapping  may  be  practiced  where  the  dropsy 
very  seriously  distends  the  abdomen. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Ascle|)ia(la'cpa^ :  See  JIilkweed  Family. 

Asdt'pi'ada^  [tir.  ■A(rKA.777ria5oil :  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
those  who  were  reputed  to  be  the  descendants  of  ^scula- 
liius,  the  god  of  medicine  ;  afterward'those  who  were  trained 
in  his  temples  (Asclepions)  in  the  science  and  art  of  healing. 
Aristotle,  though  not  a  physician,  was  one  of  the  family  of 
the  Asclepiache.  Young  men  designed  for  the  medical  vo- 
cation, if  sons  of  physicians,  began  their  studies  before  tlieir 
twentieth  year;  others,  after  a  preparatory  education  last- 
ing from  the  seventeenth  to  the  twentietli  year;  in  both, 
the  special  medical  training  probably  did  not  end  before 
their  twenty-fifth  year.  Jluch  secrecy  and  exclusiveness 
were  observed  in  their  initiation ;  and  after  the  first  ordeal 
of  preparati(jn  had  been  )iassed,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  ceremoines  of  ilhiminalion.  the  Hippocratic  Oath  (q.v.) 
was  iidminislered  to  the  candidate.  At  the  close  of  the 
jiiTidd  (it  training  came  the  ceremony  of  coronation,  by 
whicli  the  young  AsclepiadiR  were  fully  introduced  into  the 
profession  of  medicine.  See  Watson,  3Iedical  PrufesstDii 
in  Ancient  Times  (New  York,  18.56). 

Asclcpiade'an  Verse  [from  its  inventor,  Asdepindes] :  a 
logan^dic.  measure  (see  LofiAtEDic)  made  up  of  trochees  and 
irrational  dactyls.  In  Horace  the  first  foot  is  always  a 
spondee.     The  Lesser  Asclepiadean  runs  thus : 

Ma'ece  1  na's  ata  j  vi's  i  e'dile  |  re'g  i  |  bu's.    Od.  i.  i.  1. 
The  Greater  Asclejuadean  thus: 

Tu'  ne  I  quae'sie  |  ri's  I!  sc'ire  ne  j  fa's  il  que'm  mihi  |  quVin  ti  1  hi'. 

Ud.  i.,  \i.  1. 

See  Schmiilt's  Rhythmic  and  Metric,  transl.  bv  White  (pp. 
97-99). 

Asclepi'ades  [in  Gr.  'A(r/tA.7)7rid5i7s] :  celeliraleil  Greek  phy- 
sician ;  b.  at   I'rusa,  in  iiilliyriia;  fiourished  about  100  B.  c. 


He  practiced  at  Rome,  where  he  founded  a  school,  and  was 
very  popular  with  the  Romans  on  account  of  his  pleasant 
and  simple  remedies.  His  maxim  was  that  a  physician 
ought  to  cure  his  patients  safely,  speedily,  and  agreeably. 
He  relied  much  on  diet,  bathing,  and  exercise  or  gestation. 
He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  only  small  fragments  are 
extant.  See  C.  G.  Gumpert,  Asclejnadis  Bithyni  Frag- 
menfa  (Weimar,  1798) ;  G.  P.  Bianchini,  La  Medicina  d'As- 
elepinde  (Venice,  1709) ;  A.  G.  M.  Raynaud,  De  Asclepiade 
medico  ae philosopho  (Paris,  1862). 

Ascle'pias  [named,  on  account  of  its  medicinal  virtues, 
from  'A(TK\riTrt6s,  the  Gi'eek  name  of  .,3ilscula]iius,  the  god  of 
medicine] :  a  genus  of  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  the  type 
of  the  family  Asclepiadacem,  mostly  natives  of  the  U.  S. 
The  corolla  is  wheel-shaped  and  reflexed,  the  crown  or  coro- 
net is  fleshy,  and  each  of  its  hooded  appendages  has  an  in- 
curved horn.  The  Asclepias  cnrnuti  (or  A.  si/riaca)  (milk- 
weed or  silkweed)  is  an  American  plant,  abounding  in  an 
acrid  milky  juice,  which  contains  caoutchouc.  The  seed- 
vessels  are  filled  with  a  silky  ddwn,  which  is  sometimes  used 
f(ir  stuffing  pillows.  The  fiber  nf  the  stem  is  said  to  be  val- 
uable for  ropes.  The  Asclepias  tiiberosa,  sometimes  called 
pleurisy-root  or  butterfly-weed,  has  handsome  flowers.  Its 
root  is  u.sed  as  an  expectorant  and  diaphoretic.  Many  other 
species  of  Asclepias  grow  in  the  U.  S. 

As'coli,  Gbaziadio  Isaia:  the  most  eminent  linguistic 
student  Italy  has  produced  in  the  nineteenth  century;  b.  at 
Goritz,  of  Jewish  parents,  July  16,  1829;  became  Professor 
of  Comparative  Philology  in  the  Accademia  Scientifico-let- 
teraria  of  Milan  in  1860;  made  senator  in  1889.  He  is  one 
of  the  small  group  of  eminent  scholars  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica (e,  g.  Bopp,  Brugmann.  Whitney)  who  have  given  to  the 
study  of  language  its  rigidly  scientific  character.  His  in- 
vestigations have  extended  to  very  widely  diverse  fields,  and 
evervwhere  have  led  to  brilliant  results.  In  his  Stiidj  ori- 
entcili  e  linguistici  (1854),  and  his  Fonologia  comparaia  del 
satiscrifo.  del  greco  e  del  latino  (1870).  as  well  as  in  his  Saggi 
indiaui,  pulilished  in  the  Aicliirio  gloftologiro  itnliano,  he 
has  shown  himself  a  niaslerof  the  larger  s<'ience  of  com- 
parative Indo-Germanic  j)hilology.  His  brilliant  studies  in 
Romance  philology  (\\  allach,  Roumanian.  Rhaeto-Ru- 
inansch,  and  especially  in  the  dialects  of  Italy)  have  given 
a  firm  basis  to  important  divisions  of  this  science.  His 
Saggi  ladini  (also  first  published  in  the  Arrhivio),  in  whidi 
these  studies  are  summed  up,  nuist  long  remain  essential 
for  the  study  of  the  origins  of  the  Italian  and  more  closely 
allied  Romance  tongues.  His  Celtic  researches  also  have 
been  most  fi-uitfid  ;  and  lie  has  touched  u])on  the  Semitic 
languages.  He  was  the  founder  in  1873  of  the  Archirio 
glollolugico  italiano,  a  review  which  has  continued  to  be 
the  organ  of  the  best  Italian  students  of  language.  See  his 
iStiidj  Critici  (Torino,  1877),  German  trans,  by  Merzdorf, 
Kritische  Studien  zur  iSpraeliirissc/ischaff  (1878);  also, 
Vorlesvngen  i'ther  die  vergleicheiide  Luutlehre  des  Sanskrit, 
lies  Oricrliixrliin  iind  des  Lateinischen  (trans,  by  Bazzigher 
and  Schweizcr-Sidler),  1872.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

AscoH  di  Sati'ia'iio:  an  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Foggia;  25  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Poggia,  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Apennines  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
6-G).  Near  it,  Pyrrhus.  in  279  B.  c,  won  a  great  victory 
over  the  Romans,  and  in  1246  a.  d.  an  imperial  army  crushed 
the  Apulian  insurgents  led  by  Cardinal  Raiiier.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

Ascoli-Piceno,  aas'ko-lee  pee-chay'ny;  a  province  of  the 
Marches,  Central  Italy:  bounded  N.  by  Macerata,  E.  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  S.  by  Tciaiiio.  and  W.  by  Perugia.  Area,  808 
s(|.  miles.  The  provini-e  consists  chiefly  of  mountain-ridges 
running  parallel  to  each  other,  the  portion  on  the  coast  being 
(if  superior  licautv.  Chief  town,  Ascoli-Piceno.  Pop.  (1879) 
210,610;  (1890)  214,927. 

AseoH-Piccno  (anc.  Asnihim  Picemim) :  an  old  episcojial 
city  of  Central  Italy ;  province  of  tlie  .same  name,  situated 
on  a  hill  and  on  the  river  Tronto.  .53  miles  S.  of  Ancona  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  ,5-E).  It  commands  a  fine  view  of  the 
Apennines,  a  few  miles  distant.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a 
cathedral,  a  museum,  a  theater,  a  library,  and  many  private 
]ialaces.  It  was  aiinexe(l  to  the  Papal  States  in  1420.  A 
battle  was  fought  here  between  Tancred  of  Sicily  and  the 
Emperor  Henrv  VI.  of  Germany,  in  which  the  latter  was  de- 
feated (119f}).    "Pop.  23,847. 

Ascoinycp'fes  [lilerally  sac-fungi ;  from  Gr.  ia-Kis,  bag  + 
fivKris.  -jjTos,  musluoom]:  u  class  of  (mostly)  parasitic  plants 


ASCONIUS  PEDIANUS 


ASHDOD 


363 


much  degratled  from  Reneral  red  seaweed  type.  They  pro- 
rluce  enlarged  end-cells  which  divide  internally  into  spores. 
These  sjMJre-sjies  are  known  as  axri  (sing,  axciifi),  and  the 
spores  as  (inmxpores.  The  class  may  be  divided  into  seven 
orders:  viz..  (1)  simple  sjic-fnngi  (I'l^rispitriaceit);  (2)siibter- 
ranean  sac-fnnj^i  (Titheroiilfie);  (;J)  Wlack-funt;i  (Pyrenumycu- 
lecB);  (4)  lichens  (iiV/i<^/ie.'!);  (5)  cup-fungi  (Z)t«eo»iJ/ce/e<e) ; 
<6)  rusts  (l'i-e(liiie(e) ;  (7)  snmts  ( Ustitagitieie).  These  include 
many  families,  not  a  few  of  which  are  composed  of  very  harm- 
ful panusiles.  With  the  sac-fungi  are  commonly  associate<l 
three onlei-s  of  •'  imperfect  fungi,"  viz.,  Sphirropxidew,  Melan- 
conifip.  anil  Iliiphomijceteie.  Althoiigli  the  details  of  the 
structure  of  these  latter  are  not  fully  known,  it  is  prolialile 
that  they  are  sjic-fungi.  Of  the  sjic-fungi  proi)er  about  lii.OOO 
sjiecies  are  known,  and  of  the  "  imperfect  fungi "  about  «.000. 

CUARLES  E.  BeSSEV. 

A.sco'iiiiiS  Pcdia'nus,  Quixtus:  Uoman  critic  and  com- 
mentator: I),  proliably  at  I'adua,  and  lived  from  about  3-88 
A.  D.  lie  taught  at  Kome,  and  wrote  a  reply  to  the  critics  of 
Vergil.  Among  his  works  were  valuable  commentaries  cm 
CieeroV  Or«/»oH.<{.  Poggio  Bracciiplini  found  in  1416  .it  St. 
(iall  commentaries  on  these  orations — In  Vcrrun,  In  iJivi- 
nalioni'm.  Pro  Conieliii.  In  To(/a  Candida,  In  Pisonem, 
Pro  Srauro,  and  Pro  Miloni'.  The  first  two  of  these  are  no 
longer  considered  geimine  by  scholars.  (Ik'st  edit  ion  of  genu- 
ine commentaries  by  Kiessling  and  .Schoell,  Berlin,  1875.)  lie 
wrote  a  Lifi-  of  .Sailiix/,  which  is  not  e.^tant.  M.  W. 

Ascat'iiey  Moiui'taili:  an  isolated  mass  of  granite  in 
Wiixlsor  CO.,  \t..  3,165  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (see 
map  of  Vermont,  ref.  H-(').  Its  summit  affords  an  extensive 
anil  beautiful  view  of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  river. 

Asel'li,  Gasparo:  an  Italian  anatomist  and  physician;  b. 
at  Cremona  aliout  1580.  He  became  Professor  of  .'Vnatomy 
at  Pavia.  and  acquired  distinction  l)y  the  im|)ortant  disi'overy 
of  the  lacteal  vi's.scis  in  1623.  lie  wrote  on  this  subject  a 
treatise  entitleil  J)i'  linrlihiix  sive  Lacteis  re?u'«  (published 
in  1627,  a  year  after  his  death). 

Asexual  Geiieratiun:  See  Alterxaticvok  Genekation's. 

Asfeld.  Ci.AiDE  Franvois  Bidai,.  Marquis,  d':  an  able 
French  general :  b.  in  l()(i7.  lie  served  with  distinction  in 
Spain,  and  commaiided  the  Frencli  cavalry  at  .Mnianza  in 
1707.  He  was  second  in  ccmimand  MTi<ler  Villars  in  Italy  in 
1733,  was  commander-in-chief  in  (iermany  in  1784,  and  be- 
came a  marshal  of  France  in  that  year.     1).  Mar.  7,  1743. 

As^ard :  the  heavenly  residence  of  the  .Scandiiuivian  gods. 
See  Scandixavia.v  Mvtholouy. 

Asgill,  Sir  Charles:  British  general:  b.  in  1762.  He 
served  against  the  U.S.,  and  having  been  captured  at  V'ork- 
town  was  selected  by  \ol  from  thi;  prisoners  to  be  hung  in 
retaliation  for  the  ileath  of  an  American  officer,  but  he 
was  saved  by  the  intercession  of  the  French  court.  I),  in 
1823. 

Ash :  an  important  tree  of  the  genus  Fraxinus  and  family 
Ohariie.  distingnished  by  imperfect  flowers,  sometimes  des- 
titute of  corcilla.  and  leaves  uneiiiially  pinnate.  The  fruit 
{samara)  is  winged.  The  genus  Fraxinus  comprises  about 
thirty  species,  mostly  mitivesof  Kurope  and  North  America, 
and  valuable  for  timber,  for  fuel,  and  shade  trees.  The 
Fraj-inii-f  excehior,  the  common  ash  of  England,  is  a  beauti- 
ful ornamental  tree,  and  the  timber  is  much  esteemed  by 
carpetiti'is,  joiners,  coachiuakers,  and  wheelwrights.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  1(X)  feet  or  more.  Cultivation  has 
pro<luced  several  varieties  of  it,  among  which  is  the  wceping- 
jksh,  the  branches  of  which  droop  nearly  to  the  ground.  The 
Fraxiniin  orniia,  or  flowering  ash,  a  native  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope, has  more  perfect  flowers  than  the  other  species.  A 
saccharine  substance  called  manna  is  obtained  from  it  by 
making  incisions  in  the  bark,  and  sometimes  exudes  .spon- 
taneously. Among  1  he  noblest  trees  of  the  genus  is  the  Frax- 
iniix  amiriraiKi,  or  whiti>  ash,  which  is  abundant  in  the 
Xorthern  aiul  Middle  V.  S.  Its  leaflets  are  petiolate.  ovale, or 
lance-oblong,  entire,  acuminate,  and  in  autumn  are  changed 
to  a  dark  brown  or  |)ur]ile  tint.  The  timber  is  tough,  and 
valuable  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  Fraxinus  excelnior. 
In  the  forests  of  the  I'.  S.  occur  also  F.  viriiliK  (green  ash), 
F.  pnlifxrcnx  (red  ash),  /''.  qiiadrangiilatn  (blue  ash),  anil 
others.  The  black  ash  (/•'.  snmhucifolia)  has  a  tough  wood 
separable  inlci  thin  layers,  and  is  used  in  basket-nuiking. 
The  mountain-ash,  conspicuous  for  its  clusters  of  red  berrie.s, 
is  a  species  of  Pynis,  having  no  affinity  with  the  genus 
Fraxinus.  Kevised  by  Charles  E.  Bessev. 


Ashaii'tce:  an  extensivekingdomof  Western  Africa,  Uf>- 
per  Guinea,  nominally  tributary  to  the  British  Gold  Coast 
colony:  is  between  hit.  5  and  9 '30  X.,  and  between  Ion. 
0  55  E.  and  4°  7  W.  It  lies  inland  from  the  coast  between 
the  Volta  and  Comoe  river.s.  Area  about  40,000  sq.  miles. 
Population  estimated  at  from  1.000,000  to  3.000,000.  It  is 
generally  mountainous,  well  watered  aiul  fertile,  and  covered 
with  dense  forests,  which  are  almost  impenetrable.  The  sta- 
ple ])roducts  are  nuiize,  rice,  sugar,  yams,  tobacco,  eocoanuts, 
gums,  and  dyewoods.  Gold  is  said  to  be  abundant  here,  and 
t  he  chief  articles  of  export  are  gold-dust,  palm  oil,  and  slaves. 
The  ]ieople  are  warlike  and  fierce,  and  human  sacrifices  are 
common.  They  have  some  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  sword- 
blades,  cotton  cloths,  and  golden  ornaments.  The  govern- 
ment is  a  despotism.  Capital.  Cooir.assie  (or  Kumassi).  The 
British,  who  have  a  fort  on  the  coast  at  Cape  Coast  Castle, 
were  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Ashantees,  which  began  in 
1807,  and  contiiu»-d  until  1825.  The  Dutch  also  had  a  col- 
ony on  the  coast  until  1871,  when  they  ceded  it  to  the  British. 

In  1S73  a  war  arose  between  the  Ashantees  and  the  British, 
because  the  British  refused  to  [lay  the  annual  tribute  to  the 
King  of  Ashanlee  which  the  Dutch  had  formerly  paid  him. 
The  Ashantees  first  attacked  the  Fantis,  living  under  British 
protection,  entirely  defeated  them,  and  subsequently  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  all  the  natives  friendly  to  the  British  into 
the  two  forts,  Elmina  and  Cape  Coast  Castle.  The  British 
troops  under  Sir  (iarnet  Wolseley  then  invaded  Ashantee, 
pushed  forward  directly  toward  Coomassie.  and  after  some 
fighting  took  it  and  burned  it.  The  King  of  Ashantee 
agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  to  the  British,  and  the  war 
ceased.  Trouble  having  again  arisen  in  1895,  another  ex- 
peilition,  under  Sir  Francis  Scott,  was  sent.  Coomassie  was 
taken,  a  protectorate  declared,  and  the  king  carried  to  Cape 
Town  as  a  hostage,  .Jan.,  1896. 

.Ash'biirtoii,  Ai.EXAXUKR  Baring,  Lord :  an  English  diplo- 
matist; b.  in  London.  Oct.  27.  1774:  was  a  son  of  .Sir  Fran- 
cis Baring,  an  eminent  merchant.  He  was  employed  in  his 
youth  in  mercantile  affairs  in  the  U.  S..  and  married  a 
daughter  of  Senator  William  Bingham  of  Pennsvlvania 
(1798).  In  1810  he  became  the  hcail  of  the  firm  of 'Baring 
Brothers  &  Co.  of  London.  He  represented  'I'aunton  (1806- 
26).  Callington  (1826-31),  Thetford  (18;il-;32),  North  Essex 
(1833-35).  in  Parliament,  in  which  he  acted  with  the  Liberal 
party  until  1831,  wlii-ii  he  became  a  supporter  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel  and  a  moderate  Conservative.  lie  was  created  Baron 
Ashburton  in  1835.  In  1842  he  was  scut  as  a  special  am- 
ba.^sador  to  the  V.  S.  to  settle  a  disinite  which  had  long  been 
pending  in  relation  to  the  northeastern  boundary.  He  was 
selected  for  this  mission  because  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
American  people  and  institutions,  and  was  incliiu'd  to  a  pa- 
cific policy.  Lord  Ashburton  and  I\Ir.  Webster  negotiated 
this  imjiorfaiit  trealv,  which  was  signed  at  Washington  in 
.-\ug..  1S42.  and  was'calleil  the  Ashburton  Treaty."  D.  at 
Loiigle!il.  Jlay  13,  1848,  and  was  .succeeded  by  his  son,  Will- 
iam Bingham  Baring. 

-Vsliburtoii  Treaty:  See  Ashburton. 

.\shby,  Tl-r.ner:  a  Confederate  general:  b.  at  Rose  Hill, 
Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  1824.  He  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1862.  and  was  greatly  distinguished  as  a  cav- 
alry commander.  During  Banks's  pursuit  of  Jackson  in 
the  Shenandoah  valley,  Gen.  Ashby  was  in  command  of 
cavalry  covering  the  rear  of  .Jackson's  army,  and  in  an  en- 
gagement near  Harrisonburg,  June  5,  1862,  he  was  shot 
through  the  body  and  killed.  His  loss  was  severely  felt  by 
the  Confederates,  he  being  one  of  their  ablest  and  bravest 
cavalry  leaders. 

Asliby-de-la-Zoiiclie,  -zooch' :  a  market-town  of  England, 
in  Leicestershire:  20  miles  t>y  rail  N.  W.  of  Leicester  (see 
map  of  England,  ref.  9-H).  It  has  a  ruined  castle  in  which 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  once  confined,  and  an  ancient 
church  in  which  was  the  burial-place  of  the  Hastings  family. 
Here  are  iron  smelt ing-works  and  manufactures  of  hats  and 
hosierv.  Coal  mines  and  salt-springs  occur  in  the  vicinitv. 
Pop.  8..500. 

.\sli'dod,  or  Azo'tns  (modem  Asdood  or  Exdiid) :  an  an- 
cient city  of  the  Philistines,  in  Palestine,  about  3  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  12  miles  N,  E.  of  Ascalon  (see  map  of 
Palestine,  ref.  10-B).  It  was  an  imporfiuit  city  and  strong- 
hold of  the  Philistines,  who,  after  defeating  the  people  of 
Israel  in  the  time  of  Samuel,  caiitured  their  ark  and  carried 
it  to  the  temple  of  Dagon  in  Ashdod.  It  was  dismantled  by 
Uzziah,  besieged  by  Psamnu'tichus,  and  destroyed  by  the 


361 


ASHE 


ASHMBAD-B  ARTLETT 


Maccabees.  It  is  called  Azotus  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts 
viii.  40).  Near  its  site  is  a  village  of  raud-houses  called  As- 
dood  or  Esdiid,  on  the  sea  21  miles  S.  of  Jaffa. 

Ashe.  .John  :  a  general  and  patriot  of  the  Revolution  ;  h. 
at  Grovelv.  Brunswick  co..  N.  C.  in  1720:  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  political  movements  which  preceded  the  Revo- 
lution, and  served  as  a  brigadier-general  during  the  war.  D., 
a  prisoner  of  war,  in  Sampson  co.,  X.  C,  Oct.  24,  1781. 

Ash'e,  or  Ashi  :  Jewisli  rabbi  of  Sora,  in  Babylonia  (3.53- 
427  A.  D.).  He  was  eminent  for  his  learning  and  genius,  and 
was  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  Devoting  his 
life  to  the  organization  of  the  vast  mass  of  commentary 
(Gemara)  on  the  Mishna,  lie  laid  the  foundation  on  which  his 
successors  built.  Revised  by  C.  H.  Tor. 

Ash'er :  a  tribe  of  ancient  Israelites,  descended  from  Asher, 
eightli  son  of  Jacob  by  the  handmaid  Zilpah.  They  wei-e  as- 
signed a  portion  of  bind  in  tlie  X.  W.  of  Palestine,  but  never 
entirely  dispossessed  the  t'anaanites  and  Pho?nicians  who 
dwelt  there.  The  tribe  furnislied  Imt  one  noteworthy  per- 
son, the  prophetess  Anna,  who  lived  during  tlie  infancy  of 
Christ  (Luke  ii.  3(>-38).  The  territorial  boundaries  and  the 
history  of  tliis  tribe  are  very  obscure. 

Ashe'ra:  a  Phcenician  idol  or  image,  most  probably  rep- 
resenting the  goddess  Ashtoreth.  The  image  was  always  of 
wood,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Ash'es :  tlie  solid  or  earthy  residuum  left  after  the  com- 
bustion of  wood,  coal,  or  other  organic  substances.  The  most 
important  ingredient  of  the  aslies  of  land-plants  is  potash, 
or  a  salt  of  potasli  with  a  portion  of  lime  and  silica.  Tlie 
potash  is  extracted  from  ashes  by  a  process  called  lixiviation 
— leaching.  By  dissolving  tlie  salt  contained  in  the  ashes 
the  water  is  converted  into  lye,  which  is  afterward  evaporated 
by  boiling.  The  insoluble  part  of  the  ashes  remaining  after 
lixiWation  is  called  leached  ashes,  which  is  composed  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.  The 
ashes  of  marine  plants,  and  those  that  grow  near  the  sea,  con- 
tain soda  instead  of  potash,  with  a  small  portion  of  iodine. 
The  soda  is  also  separated  from  the  insoluble  mass  by  lixivia- 
tion. Wood-ashes  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap,  and  are  useful  as  manure.  The  salts  obtained  from 
them  by  lixiviation  are  called  potasli  and  pearlash,  which 
latter  is  a  carbonate  of  potassa.  Bone  ashes  consist  mostly 
of  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  a  valuable  manure.  See 
Agricultlral  Chemistry',  Potassium,  and  Soda-ash. 

Ashevllle:  city;  capital  of  Buncombe  co.,  X.  C. ;  between 
the  French  Broad  and  the  Swannanoa  rivers:  on  the  South- 
ern Railway ;  142  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Salisbury  {for  location, 
see  map  of  North  Carolina,  rcf.  5-E).  It  is  in  a  tobacco- 
growing  region,  at  an  elevation  of  2,389  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  is  widely  known  as  a  summer  and  winter  health  resort. 
It  contains  24  churches,  4  public-.sehool  buildings.  8  other 
educational  institutions,  2  libraries,  2  national  and  2  State 
banks,  15  hotels,  2  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers,  .5  tobacco 
warehouses,  and  flour,  cotlon,  and  wood-working  mills.  Pop. 
(1880)  2,616 :  (1890)  10,235. 

Ash'hurst,  Jonx.  Jr.,  A.  M.,  M.  D. :  surgeon :  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Aug.  23,  1839;  M.  D.,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1860;  acting  a-ssistant  surgeon,  U.  .S.  armv,  1862-65; 
surgron  to  the  Episcojial  IIos])itah  Philadelphia,  1863-80 :  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery.  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1877;  vice-president  surgical  section,  International 
Jledical  Congress,  1876;  author  of  Injuries  of  the.  Sjtiite 
(1867) ;  Principles  and  J'raclice  of  Surgery  (5th  ed.  1889) ; 
editor  International  Encyclopmdia  of  Surgery  (6  vols.,  rev. 

Ash'land  :  railroad  junction:  Boyd  co.,  Ky.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref.  2-K);  on  the  Ohio 
river,  13  miles  below  Catlettsburg.  It  has  large  blast  pig- 
iron  furnaces,  complete  rolling-mill,  and  a  Bessemer-steel 
plant,  and  manufactures  steel  nails,  tire-brick,  and  furniture 
cxtensivclv.  Inm  ore,  pig  iron,  and  liituminous  and  cannel 
coal  are  sliipiied  from  this  point.  Pop.  (1880)  3.280;  (1890) 
8,000.  Editor  of  "  News." 

Ashland  :  town;  Cass  co..  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  6-C);  on  Chi.  and  Alt.  and  Ohio  and 
Miss.  R.  Ks. ;  21  miles  from  Springfield  ;  is  a  shipping-point 
for  grain.     Pop.  (1880)  609  ;  (1890)  1,045. 

Ashland:  town;  Middlesex  co.,  Mass.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  3-H);  24  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston. 
The  chief  business  is  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes, 


boxes  and  thread.     Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,394;   (1890) 
2,532 ;  (1895)  2.090.  Editor  of  "  Advertiser." 

Ashlaud:  village;  Saunders  co..  Neb.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  7-K) ;  on  B.  and  M.  Riv. 
R.  R.  and  on  Salt  Creek,  about  3  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Platte  river ;  24  miles  N.  E.  of  Lincoln.  The  sur- 
rounding region  is  a  farming  district,  and  contains  superior 
magnesian  limestone.     Pop.  (1880)  978  ;  (1890)  1,601. 

Ashland :  town ;  on  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio 
R.  R. ;  county  seat  of  Ashland  co.,  0.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-G) ;  65  miles  S.  W.  of  Cleveland,  and 
85  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Columbus ;  has  ten  churches,  elegant 
public  schools,  and  Ashlaml  University.  There  are  several 
manufactures,  and  a  railway  north  and  south  is  under  con- 
struction. Has  one  didlv.  one  semi-weeklv,  and  two  weekly 
papei-s.  Pop.  (1880)  3,004;  (1890)  3.566."  Estimated  pop. 
(1892).  including  suburbs,  5,000.       Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Ashland :  torni  and  health-resort ;  on  railroad,  Jackson 
CO.,  Or.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  7-C); 
the  largest  town  in  Southern  Oregon  ;  situated  in  a  fiiiit  re- 
gion. It  has  a  high  school,  water-power,  a  woolen  factory, 
planing-mills,  quartz  mines  and  mills,  abundance  of  pure 
mountain  water,  etc.  There  are  numerous  mineral  springs 
here  and  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  (1880)  842  ;  (1890)  1.784. 

Editor  of  "  Tidings." 

Ashland  :  borough  in  the  Mahanoy  valley;  in  the  center 
of  the  anthracite  coal-fields  of  Schuylkill  co..  Pa.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-H);  on  Phil, 
and  Reading  and  Le.  Val.  and  Pa.  R.  Rs. ;  13  miles  from 
Pottsville,  the  county-seat.  It  has  large  machine-shops, 
foundries,  factories,  etc.,  and  extensive  mining  industries. 
Pop.  (1880)  6.0.52;  (1890)  7,346;  (1893)  estimated,  8.900. 

Proprietor  of  "  Evexing  Telegram." 

Ashland  :  on  railroad.  Hanover  co..  Va.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Virginia,  ref.  6-H) ;  17  miles  N.  of  Richmond.  In 
May.  1864.  Gen.  Sheridan,  in  the  cmirse  of  a  raid,  destroyed 
a  dejjot  here.  It  is  the  seat  of  Randoljjh-Jlacon  College. 
Pop.  (1880)  764  ;  (1890)  948. 

Ashland  :  city  on  Chequamegon  Bay,  Lake  Superior  ;  181 
miles  from  St.  Paul,  410  miles  from  Chicago;  capital  of 
Ashland  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wis- 
consin, ref.  2-C).  Ashlaml  is  the  fifth  port  on  the  Great 
Lakes  in  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  ;  is  terminus 
of  four  railroads  (Northern  Pacific,  Wis.  Cent..  Ch.,  St.  P.. 
Min.  and  0..  and  Mi!..  Lake  Sh.  and  W.) ;  ha.s  several 
churches,  public  and  parochial  schools,  a  business  college, 
and  Federal  buildings.  It  is  the  center  of  vast  lumber, 
iron,  and  brown-stone  industries.  Its  ore  docks  are  im- 
mense ;  capacity,  100.000  tons.  Ashland  has  two  very  large 
charcoal  blast-furnaces,  used  in  manufacture  of  pig  ii'on. 
In  1892  175.000,000  feet  of  lumber  were  produced  here,  and 
2.3(X).000  tons  (if  ore  were  shipjied.  The  real  growth  of 
Ashland  dates  from  the  development,  in  1885,  of  iron  mines 
in  the  Gogebic  ransre.  40  miles  S.  E.  Pop.  (1890)  9,956  ; 
(1892)  about  13,000,  including  suburbs:  (1895)  12.310. 

Editor  of  "  Xews." 

Ash'lar:  originally  a  large  bhx-k  of  stone  with  squared 
sides,  smoothly  cut  and  dressed  on  its  beds  and  joints.  But 
the  word  is  now  more  generally  used  as  an  adjective  applied 
to  cut  stonework,  or  to  a  number  of  dressed  stones  laiii  in 
place.    See  Masoxry. 

Ash-leaved  Maple  :  See  Box-elder. 

Ash'ley  :  a  small  river  of  South  Carolina :  rises  in  Col- 
leton County,  and,  flowing  southeastward,  unites  with  the 
Cooper  river  at  Charleston. 

Ashley:  village;  Washington  co..  III.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  9-E) ;  on  111.  Cent,  and  L. 
and  N.  R.  Rs. ;  62  miles  from  St.  Louis;  in  a  farming  and 
fruit-growing  district.     Pop.  (1880)  950;  (1890)  1,035. 

Ashley  :  borough  ;  Luzerne  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  coun- 
tv,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-H);  on  Cent.  K.  R.  of 
>J.  J.;  3  miles  from  Wilkesbarre;  is  in  a  coal-inining  dis- 
trict, and  has  manufactories  of  machinery.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,799;  (1890)3,192. 

Ashley,  Lord  :  See  .Shaftesbury. 

Ashinead-Bartlett.  Sir  Ellis.  M.  P. :  English  statesman; 
b.  at  I'.nioklyii.  N.  Y.,  1849;  educated  at  Oxford  University; 
was  eallcil  In  the  b.ir  1877;  entered  Parliament  1880;  held 
the  positiim  of  Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  Lord  Salis- 
bury's administration ;  has  been  a  frequent  speaker  in  the 


ASIIMOLE 


ASIA 


365 


House  and  on  public  platfonns,  and  is  noted  for  his  an- 
tipathy to  Kussia.  Uis  brotlier  is  married  to  Baroness  Bur- 
dett-Coutls.  t'-  II.  T. 

Ash'mole.  Kmas,  F.  K.  S.  :  !>.  at  Lichfield.  Enjiland,  May 
23,  i(517:  was  ediicaled  at  Oxford,  and  served  as  f;entlenian 
of 'ordnance  under  Kiiif;  Charles  1.  in  the  eivil  wars.  In 
1(!4()  li.'  turned  his  attention  lo  ihe  study  of  judicial  astrol- 
ogy and  Uosierueiainsni.  and  Oct.  It)  of  that  year  liceanie 
one  of  the  larliest  EuLrlisli  Freemasons.  He  was  Winilsor 
Herald  l(}(il>-T.'i.  In  H{.">1»  Ihe  younger  Tradeseant  gave  him 
his  collection  of  curiosities,  which  Ashniole  presented  in 
lt}82  to  Oxford  I'nivei-sitv.  It  was  the  basis  of  the  present 
Ashmolean  Musiumu.  I'le  wrote  Theatniin  Chemiciim 
nfi-eralt  pofleeall   pifces   of  our 


(16?2);  Aii/ii/ii 

whimsical  Diaru  (1717).     D.  in  London.  :May  ix.  I(i!l2. 

Revised  by  Hexry  A.  Beers. 

Asll'niilii.  .Iehidi  :  a  promoter  of  colonization  in  Liberia  ; 
b.  at'  (.'haiup'lain.  N.  Y..  in  April,  17!(4  :  graduated  at  Univer- 
sity of  Vermont,  lSl(i ;  became  professor  in  Baugor 'I'licci- 
logieal  Seminary,  later  entered  the  Hpiscopalian  Church: 
went  to  Lilieria'  in  1S22  lus  an  agent  of  the  Colonization 
Society,  and  rendered  imiiortant  services.  I),  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,' Aug.  2.5, 1828.  See  his  Life  by  R.  R.  Gurley  (2d  ed.  1839). 

Aslimiilipn:  See  Hermoi-ous  Magna. 

.Vshoka:  See  AsoKA. 

Ashtabu'lu :  im|)i>rtant  railroad  center,  Ashtabula  eo., 
O.  (for  location  of  county,  sec;  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  1-J);  5.5 
miles  K.  of  Cli'veland,  and  the  principal  town  between  that 
city  and  Erie.  It  has  extensive  railroad  connections  with 
the  coal-mining  regions  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  and  the 
great  Muinufacturing  districts  of  Pittsburg  and  the  Maho- 
ning valley.  It  has  a  s|)lcndid  harbor,  and  receives  the 
largest  amount  of  iron  ore  of  any  port  in  the  U.  S.,  and  in 
the  amount  of  ore  shipped  it  is  surpassed  by  few  on  the 
lakes.  The  town  has  eU-ctric  light,  water-works,  electric 
street  railroail.  fine  jinblic  buildings,  and  is  becoming  an 
important  manufacturing  center.  Pop.  (1870)  1,999;  (18S0) 
4.44.5  ;  ( ISIIO)  H.:!:W  ;  (1892)  lO.OOO.         EurroR  of  "  Xews." 

Ash'tarotli:  See  Asmtoueth. 

Ash'toii-in-.Ma'kerllcld  :  a  town  of  England,  in  South 
Lancashire  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-F).  The  inhabit- 
ants are  mostly  employed  in  cotton-factories  and  in  collier- 
ies.    Pop.  abolit  Ifi.OtM). 

.^shton-iindcr-Lyno :  a  town  of  England:  in  the  S.  E. 
part  iif  Lancashire;  on  the  Tame;  OJ  miles  by  rail  E.  S.  E. 
of  Manchester  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-(i).  It  is  a 
great  seat  of  the  cotton  maimfacture.  and  is  remarkable 
for  Ihe  rapidity  of  its  growth.  It  returns  one  nu'iubi>r  to 
Parliament,  li  has  a  cliurch  built  in  the  time  of  Henry 
v.,  a  theater,  a  mechanics'  iustitute.  etc.  Many  of  the 
inhal)itants  are  employed  in  calico-printing,  bleaching. 
dyeing,  and  the  manufacture  of  machines.  Po]).  (1881) 
:i7.(M(l. 

Asirtorcfli,  or  (in  plural  form)  .\sh'faroth  :  a  Syrian 
gmldess,  worshiped  by  the  ancient  Israelites  and  other 
nations  of  Western  Asia.  .She  was  called  the  (^ueen  of 
Heaven,  and  appi'ars  to  have  tieen  a  personificalion  of  the 
moon.  The  (Jreek  and  L.nliu  name  for  her  is  Asliera.  Iran- 
slated  ■■grcive"  in  llu' Aullmrized  Version  of  the  Bible:  it 
should  l)e  renderecl  "statue."  Her  worship  exis1<'il  in  the 
ilays  of  .\brahani  and  is  incidentally  mentioneil  in  all  jjarts 
of  the  OliI  Testament.  She  is  commonly  identified  with 
AsTARTE  ((/.  I'.).     Her  chief  temph'S  were  al  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  .Jackson. 

Ashlir:  See  Assin'R. 

Ashville  iN'orlli  Carolina):  See  Asheville. 

Ash-»  ednesdiiy  (in  Lat.  Dies  Cin'erum;  literally,  day 
of  ashes) :  the  fii-sl  (lay  in  Lent,  also  known  as  Cii/iiif  Je- 
junii,  the  head  <n'  beginningof  the  fast ;  called  Ash  Wednes- 
day because  in  ancient  times  it  was  the  custom  for  penitents 
to  appear  in  Ihe  church  covered  with  saek<'lotli  and  aslies. 
In  the  English  Prayer-book  Ihe  "  Comminalion  "  serviei' is 
used  on  A ^li-Wednesday  as  a  provisional  substitute  for  the 
"godly  discipline"  to  whi<h,  of  old,  offenders  were  sub- 
jected to  on  tnis  day.  Portions  of  this  service  were  incor- 
porated  into  the  Ash- Wednesday  office  in  the   American 


Book  of  Coraraon  Prayer  in  1789;  and  "A  Penitential  Offieo 
for  Ash- Wednesday  "  has  been  appended  to  the  "  Special 
Pravers  and  Thanksgivings"  in  the  Standard  of  1892. 

\V.  S.  Perry. 

.Vsia,  a  shi-a :  the  largest  continent  on  the  globe :  has 
been  commonly  supimsed  to  be  the  oldest  habitat  of  the 
human  race,  "it  comprises  nearly  one-third  of  the  land- 
surface  of  the  earth,  having  about  17,000,OI)t)  S(i.  miles  and 
about  900,000.090  inhabitants,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  earth.  Asia  is  bounded  X.  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  touching  the  78lh  parallel  X.  latitude;  on 
the  E.  by  the  Pacific,  S.  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  S.  W.  by  the 
Red  Sea.  lying  between  it  and  Afric^a.  and  W.  by  Europe 
and  the  Mediterranean.  Black,  and  Caspian  Seas.  The  coast- 
liiu^  exceeds  33.0011  miles,  and  is  indented  by  great  bays 
and  gulfs,  forming  the  great  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor, 
Arabia.  India.  .Siam.  Anuam,  Korea,  and  Kamtchatka. 
Connected  with  Africa  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
this  has  been  penetrated  "by  the  Suez  Canal,  uniting  the 
Red  Sea  with  Ihe  Mediterranean.  On  the  X.  E.  the  nar- 
row Bering  Strait  separates  it  from  the  continent  of 
America. 

Mouiildinn,  Rivers,  etc. — The  mountains  of  Asia  surpass 
in  height  those  of  all  other  parts  of  the  globe,  the  loftie-st 
summit  being  Mt.  Everest,  in  the  Himalayas,  29.002  feet, 
while  the  mean  height  of  the  range  (running  in  Southern 
Asia  between  India"  and  Tiliel)  is'  18.000  feet.  The  long 
chain  of  Altai  Mountains  stretches  3.000  miles  across  Xorth- 
ern  .\sia;  the  I'ral  .Mountains  divide  Asia  from  Europe. 
The  mountains  of  the  Caucasus  are  10.1100  lo  18.000  feet 
high:  Mt.  Ararat,  in  .\rmenia.  is  17.212  feet;  the  Taurus 
Mountains  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Kamtchatka  range  in  Xorth- 
eastern  Asia,  and  many  other  heights,  diversify  the  whole 
face  of  the  country.  Immen.se  i)laiiis  or  steppes  (the  plain 
of  Siberia  being  "larger  than  all  Europe)  lie  between  the 
mountain-ranges.  The  table-land  of  Tibet  (over  16,0t)0 
feet  high),  of  Afghanistan  and  adjacent  countries,  of  Persia 
(2.000  to  (i.OI)O  feet),  <if  Hindustan,  etc.,  represents  other 
great  natural  features  of  Asia.  Asia  has  great  rivers  flow- 
ing hundreds  of  miles  through  fertile  regions,  the  Indus, 
(ianges.  Euphrates,  Tigris.  Hwang-Ho,  Amur,  Obi,  Yenisei, 
and  Yang-tse-kiang  being  the  clnef.  Lakes  abound,  and 
the  great  Caspian  Sea  and  Aral  Lake  are  the  principal  in- 
land bodies  of  water.  (ieologists  find  evidence  of  great 
structural  changes,  inilicating  the  very  recent  formation  of 
large  portions  of  Asia,  ^'ast  areas  of  dry  land  were  once 
covered  Ijv  water.  Xo  active  volcanoes  exi.st  in  the  interior, 
but  several  are  found  on  the  east  coast.  Traces  of  glacial 
action  abound  on  the  Himalayas. 

Ctiniiife.  Soil,  and  I'roiliirtions. — The  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  are  found  in  Xorlhern  and  Southern  Asia,  the 
mean  temiierature  of  Upper  Siberia  being  near  zero,  and  the 
highest  mean  temiierature  of  India  about  82",  with  continu- 
ous lieat.  at  some  seasons,  much  nearer  100  .  A  large  part 
of  .\sia  lies  ill  the  Icuipcrale  zone,  and  has  a  mild  climate. 
The  lile;d<  regions  of  Northern  Asia  have  a  sterile  soil,  with 
very  little  rainfall,  the  earth  being  frozen  constantly  to  a 
depth  of  300  feet.  The  hotter  regions  near  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  Chiiui  Si'a  are  subject  to  violent  cyclones  or  ty- 
phoons, and  the  heated  air  blown  over  Southern  Asia  by  the 
S.  W.  monsoon  brings  watery  v,'i|ior  and  heavy  falls  of  sum- 
mer rain.  The  annuid  rainfall  varies  from  .■>  to  100  inches. 
The  great  diversities  of  cliuuite.  water-distribution,  and  soil 
yield  a  corresponding  variety  of  natural  prodtictions.  In 
forestry,  while  vast  regions  of  territory  have  been  wholly 
stripped  of  trees,  pines,  birches,  and  willows  abound  in  the 
X..  balsams,  palms,  acacias,  banyans,  breadfruit,  magnolia, 
cedars,  etc.,  in  Sold  hern  and  Cent  rid  .\sia.  Jledicinal 
plants,  dyewoods.  an<l  sjiices  grow  in  jirofusion.  China  and 
.Japan  are  the  great  cultivators  of  the  tea-plant  and  the 
camellia.  Rice  is  of  .Asiatic  origin,  and  in  t  he  cooler  regions 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  maize,  and  nuUet  are 
grown.  Banana.s,  plantains,  yams,  sugar-cane,  pepper,  to- 
bacco, indigo,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  and  that  baneful  plant  the 
opium  poppy,  are  largely  cultivated.  The  orange,  lemon, 
olive,  peach,  fig,  mulberry,  vine,  etc.,  all  are  natives  of  Asia. 
.\nu>ng  Ihe  animals  are  Ihe  ox,  butTalo,  sheep,  goat,  horse, 
camel,  eleplianl.  yak.  reindei'r,  dog.  ape.  bear,  fox.  lion,  tiger, 
leopard,  boar,  rhinoceros,  etc.  Among  birds  are  the  eagle, 
vulture,  raven,  owl,  heron,  swan,  goose,  duck,  flamingo,  al- 
batross, pigeon,  nightingale,  bird  of  paradise,  oarrot.  ostrich, 
etc.  The  cobra  and  other  serpents  infest  tne  tropical  re- 
gions.    Fish  are  almndant  in  the  inland  and  ocean  waters. 


set; 


ASIA 


ASIA  MINOR 


Insect  life  is  ramj)ant  in  the  warmer  regions,  and  the  locust 
in  innumerable  swarms  often  devastates  wide  areas.  The 
great  fertile  districts,  cultivated  by  native  industn,',  sustain 
the  enormous  population  and  yield  surplus  productions  for 
export,  roughly  estimated  at  $450,000,000  per  annum.  Gold 
is  found  in  Siberia  and  Japan  :  silver,  in  China,  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia. Annam,  etc.:  mercury,  tin.  lead,  copper,  and  iron, in  .Ja- 
pan, Siberia,  India,  Persia,  and  Turkey:  coal  is  mined  in 
China,  Japan,  and  Siberia;  and  salt  is  abundant.  Asia  is 
also  rich  in  precious  stones. 

Civilization,  Religion,  etc. — Asiatic  civilization,  although 
differing  widely  from  tliat  of  Europe  and  America,  has  its 
own  peculiar  development.  Oriental  culture  reaches  to  a 
certain  point,  after  which  civilization  is  stationary  instead 
of  obeying  tlie  law  of  progress  as  in  the  Western  nations. 
In  Western  Asia  are  t  he  seats  not  only  of  Hebrew  civiliza- 
tion, but  of  tliose  great  Oriental  monarchies  of  the  Babylo- 
nians. Assyrians,  and  Persians,  among  whom  architecture, 
road-building,  and  the  useful  and  decorative  arts  were  car- 
ried to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  In  India,  likewise,  are 
the  magnificent  remains  of  an  architecture  far  superior  to 
anything  erected  by  the  modern  Hindus.  In  the  northern 
half  of  Asia  the  ppo|.)le  live  almost  wholly  by  hunting  or  l)y 
keeping  flocks  in  tlie  great  grazing  regions.  They  are  of  a 
low  order  of  intelligence,  but  in  Siberia  are  peaceful  tribes. 
The  great  Tartar  race,  emliraeing  the  Mongols.  Manchus, 
and  Turks,  are  divided  into  Buddhists  and  Mohammedans, 
and  are  gradually  losing  their  nomadic  and  predatory  hab- 
its, becoming  more  a.ssiniilated  to  Chinese  civilization. 
The  Chinese  and  Ja|ianese  are  veiy  little  migratory,  but  are 
a  settled  people  of  traders  and  cultivators  of  the  soil.  In 
China  Buddhism  and  Taoism  prevail,  but  nearly  everybody 
is  also  a  follower  of  Confucius.  The  Japanese  are  mostly 
Buddhists,  but  some  are  followers  of  Shinto.  Brahmanism  is 
the  religion  of  India,  but  in  certain  regions  the  Mohamme- 
dans are  in  the  majority,  while  W.  of  India  Asia  is  almost 
wholly  Mohammedan,  except  some  small  districts  of  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor,  where  there  is  a  population  of  Christians. 
The  Greek  Church  has  many  adherents  in  Russian  Asia, 
while  the  Armenians  and  Xestorians  are  numerous  in  Tur- 
key and  Persia.  Vague  estimates  place  the  adlierents  of 
the  native  religions  of  Asia  at  600,000,000.  tlie  Jlohamnu-- 
dans  at  90,000,000,  the  Christians  at  12,000.000  (4.000.000 
Roman  Catholics,  7,000,000  Greek  Church,  and  1,000,000 
Protestants,  etc.),  and  the  .Tews  at  350,000.  Of  savages, 
properly  speaking,  Asia  liolds  few,  and  those  in  the  remote 
hyi)eriiorean  regions  or  in  the  southern  archipelago. 

Popiildtinn.  Ltuiijuiiije,  etc. — The  inhabitants  of  Asia  are 
of  the  Mongolian,  Aryan,  and  Semitic  races,  and  their  an- 
cestry runs  far  liack  beyond  recorded  history.  The  Mon- 
gols include  tlie  wliole  of  Eastern  and  Southeastern  Asia — 
viz.,  the  Cliinese.  Japanese,  Tartars,  Siamese,  Turcomans, 
Kamtchatkans,  Malays,  etc.  The  languages  used  by  this 
great  division  are  very  various,  including  the  Araliic  alpha- 
liet  employed  by  all  the  Turkish  varieties,  the  monosyllabic 
language  of  the  Indo-Chinese,  tlie  rude  dialects  of  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  the  Singhalese,  Tamil,  and  Carnatic  in  South- 
ern Asia.  The  Aryan  I'ace  embraces  the  people  of  Afghan- 
istan, Balucliistan,  Persia,  and  Northern  India.  These  use 
the  Indo-European  languages — viz.,  Sanskrit,  Persian,  and 
Armenian.  The  third  great  group  includes  the  Syrian,  He- 
brew, and  Araliian  races,  sjieaking  tlie  Semitic  tongues. 
Among  tlicsc  various  races  and  languages,  between  thirty 
and  forty  distinct  nations  are  distributed. 

Hisfori/. — The  oldest  historical  records  are  of  Asiatic  ori- 
gin, and,  however  oliscure,  will  be  studied  with  increasing 
interest  as  time  goes  on.  About  600  n.  c.  the  union  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Persia,  and  Media  took 
place  under  Cvrus  Ihi^  Persian,  whose  dominion  reached 
from  the  .Mi'dilerraueaii  to  the  Inihis.  About  500  B.  r.  be- 
gin the  remarkalile  records  of  tlie  Vedie  theology  in  India. 
The  Persian  monarchy  was  destroyed  by  Alexander  about 
330  B.  c,  soon  after  which  liis  Asiatic  empire  was  dissolved. 
The  Roman  invasions  of  Asia  about  the  beginning  of  the 
('hristian  era,  with  the  conflicts  continued  for  centuries  be- 
Iwecn  them  and  tlie  Persiiins,  iiuuh'  no  ailvance  beyond  Ar- 
riiciiia.  Cliristianily  was  born  in  Syria,  spread  rapidly  over 
Asia  Minor  ami  the  wliole  Roman  empire,  becoming  the 
only  reliicion  of  Europe,  but  producing  no  similar  effects  in 
Asia.  Mohanimechiiiism.  with  lis  spirit  of  ccmquest,  made 
great  advances  and  ac(|uired  a  permanent  foothold.  The 
annals  of  Asia  abound  in  records  of  tyranny  and  cruelty 
perjiel  rated  by  the  MohammedHns.  who  have  unquestionably 
olislructed  its  progress  in  civilization,  and  the   predatory 


warfare  of  the  Tartar  tribes  of  the  Mongolian  race  fills  many 
of  the  bloodiest  pages  of  Asiatic  history.  The  dynasties  of 
India  and  China  have  been  prolific  in  wars  and  rebellions, 
but  the  people,  with  their  fixed  customs  and  their  pro- 
ductive soil,  have  remained  and  multiplied  where  their  an- 
cestors flourished  thousands  of  years  ago.  A  prodigious 
change  was  effected  in  Asia  by  the  modern  influx  of  British 
and  Russian  settlement.  The  British  East  India  Company 
founded  its  powerful  empire  in  the  East  upon  its  mastery  of 
the  great  avenues  of  trade  and  shipping,  and  through  the 
dominant  and  aggressive  character  of  the  British  race 
Great  Britain  has  become  firmly  established  as  the  para- 
mount power  in  India.  At  the  same  time  she  has  competed 
with  Russia  in  extending  the  outposts  of  European  civiliza- 
tion farther  and  farther  into  Central  Asia,  and  they  now 
stand  face  to  face  on  the  confines  of  Afghanistan  and  the 
Pamirs.  France  is  firmly  planted  in  Southeastern  Asia,  and 
is  contributing  her  share  to  the  material  and  intellectual  ad- 
vancement of  the  Far  East.  A  progressive  spirit  has  taken 
a  firm  hold  in  Japan,  and  she  has  become  a  great  power  in 
the  East.  Korea  is  no  longer  a  "  hermit "  nation  :  and  even 
China  under  the  influence  of  foreign  contact  lias  waked  up 
and  is  assimilating  European  ideas  and  methods.  The  old- 
time  exclusiveness  is  disappearing:  the  telegraph  ramifies 
the  land,  and  railways  are  beginning  to  stretch  out  over  the 
provinces  and  bring  them  nearer  to  each  other. 

The  following  table  gives  the  chief  political  divisions  of 
Asia,  together  with  their  areas  and  population,  according  to 
the  best  authorities : 


COUNTRIES. 


Af  trhanistan 

Annam 

Arabia 

Baluchistan 

Bokbara 

Cambodia 

Caucasia 

Ceylon 

China  proper 

Dependencies 

Cochin  China 

Cyprus 

Hongkong 

India— British,  including  Burma.. 


.  milei. 


Fi-e 


ch. 


Portuguese 

Feudatory  states 

.Japan,  including  Formosa 

Kafiristan 

Khiva 

K'»rea 

Persia 

Russia  in  Central  Asia 

Siberia 

Samos 

Siam 

Straits  Settlements  and  dependencies 

Tonqnin 

Turkey  in  Asia 


Totals. 


Borneo 

Java 

Philippine  islands. 
Sumatra 


257,000 

106.250 

1,330,000 

130,000 

92,254 

32,370 

91,348 

25,364 

1,322,841 

2,881,560 

23,000 

3,584 

29 

965,000 

205 

1.080 

.598.000 

161.&10 

6.000 

22,320 

92,000 

640,000 

1,639,780 

4,925,000 

289 

200,000 

36,130 

34,740 

086,370 


PopoLitioD. 


Totals. 


16,203,152 

2S3,400 
50,848 
114,326 
162,608 


611,182 


5,000,000 

5,000,000 

5,000,000 

500,000 

2,500,000 

1,500,000 

5,011,555 

3,008,466 

383,182,793 

27,180,000 

1,991,500 

309,300 

321,441 

221,173,000 

282,900 

561,400 

66,081,000 

43.718.000 

200.000 

70O,0lW 

14.000.0IX> 

10,000,000 

29,467,900 

6,000,00) 

43,901 

5,000.000 

930.870 

9.000.000 

22.500,000 

869.964,020 

1,734,000 
23,064,086 
7,000.000 
2.972,383 


34,770,469 


Totals  for  Asia 16,814,3.34 

AixswoRTH  R.  Spoffoui).     Revised  by  R.  Lillev. 

Asia  Minor:  the  ancient  name  of  a  jieninsula  forming 
the  western  extremity  of  Asia,  now  called  Anatolia  (q.  v.). 
It  was  bounded  N.  bv  the  Euxhw  (Ponti/s  Ei(.riniis)  and 
Propontis,  S.  bv  the  jlediterranean.  and  W.  by  the  ^Egean 
Sea  {^Kge  inn  Mare).  The  principal  divisi<ms  were  Bithynia, 
Cappadocia,  Cilicia,  Galatia.  Ionia.  Lycaonia.  Lydia,  Lycia. 
Mvsia,  Pamjilivlia,  Phrvgia,  Pontus.  aiid  Paphlagonia.  which 
will  be  noticed  separately.  The  Jit.  Taurus  range  extends 
through  tlie  southern  part,  and  Anti-Taurus  through  the 
uortheni.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Halys  (Kizil-Irmak). 
which  rises  in  the  eastern  part  and  enters  the  Euxiiie:  the 
Saiigarius  (Sakarceyah),  which  also  flows  into  the  Euxine; 
and  the  Jleaiider,  which  enters  the  ..lEgean  Sea.  Here  flour- 
ished many  famous  and  powerful  kingdoms  of  antiquity,  and 
here  many  conquerors  in  successive  generations  contended 
for  supremacy.  "We  are  now,"  says  Malt  e-Brun,  "to  tread 
upon  a  soil  rich  in  interesting  and  splendid  recollect ion.s, 
with  an  existing  population  completely  debased  by  ignorance 
and  slavery.     The  glory  of  twenty  different  nations  which 


N 


(-1     I    -., '""''"'"'•■^eaHv-i-  .r- 'I-' ■"  .;-    -■    -t.l.L^St'i'i-'^"         ''■-■■•I"'      ' "  - 

'"       ,l'.ii.Si;.i... — -  .  ,  '.'"',  ^ 


^ 


ASIARCHS 


ASPARAGUS 


367 


once  flourished  in  Western  Asia  has  been  extinfjiiished :  flocks 
wander  over  Uie  tombs  of  Achilles  and  Hector;  and  the 
thrones  of  Mithridatcs  and  Antinchiis  have  ilisa|>|iean'd,  as 
well  as  the  iin laces  of  I'riani  and  Cru'siis."  Keceiilly,  how- 
ever, much  lias  licen  done  to  determine  the  boundaries  and 
jjeographical  characteristics  of  the  nations  wliieh  once  flour- 
ished on  this  now  desolate  peninsula.  In  m8(),  1887,  and 
1888  Prof.  \V.  M.  Kauisay  made  extensive  and  careful  ex- 
plorations, and  fust  determined  iu  moilern  times  the  loca- 
tion of  many  of  the  ancient  cities,  lie  was  alile  also  to 
establish  with  considerable  coiifi<lence  the  remarkable  sys- 
tem of  roads  by  means  of  which  the  country  was  traversed 
by  the  Homans.  Scarcely  less  important  was  the  work  of 
Prof.  J.  H.  S.  Sterrett,  carried  on  between  1883  and  188,5, 
when  by  means  of  a  systematic  study  of  inscriptions  he  was 
able  to  make  many  determinations  of  ijreat  fjco.uraphical 
value.  Si'i^  Til*"  Ilistitrii-nl  iTi'ntintphi/  of  Afiiti  Jliiior,  \iY 
Prof.  W.  M.  Uamsav  (London.  18!M)) ;  tlit;'  H'oZ/c  E-tpeUilion 
to  Asia  Minor,  by  J.  K.  S.  Sterrett  (Boston,  1888). 

lievised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Asiardis:  "certain  chiefs  of  .\sia"  (Acts  xi.x.  31),  were 
wealthy  citizens  who  had  been  chosen  by  the  cities  of  that 
part  of  the  province  of  .\sia  of  whi{h  Kphesus  was  the 
metropolis  under  the  Uonians  to  preside  at  an<l  indeed  to  pay 
for  the  public  ijames,  and  watch  that  the  customary  rules 
ami  regulations  were  not  infriiiijed  upon.  The  otlice  was 
held  only  onr  year,  and  only  by  one  man  at  a  time,  but  the 
tilh'  was  probably  jiiveii  to  those  who  had  held  it.  which 
accounts  for  Luke's  plural.    It  was  considered  a  high  honor. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  J.iCKsox. 

Asiat'ic  Soc'i'eties:  societies  formed  for  the  promotion 
of  the  knowledf;e  of  the  language,  literature,  and  history  of 
the  Asiatic  nations.  The  lirst  society  of  this  kind  wjis  estab- 
lished l)y  the  Dutch  at  IJatavia  in  1780.  The  next  was  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  founded  at  Calcutta  by 
Sir  \V.  Jones  in  1784.  Among  those  of  more  recent  date 
are  the  S(K'iete  Asiatiqne,  founded  at  Paris  in  1822;  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  18'23: 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Ceylon,  184-5;  the  (Jeriiuin  Oriental 
StK'iety  in  1845;  the  North  China  branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  established  in  1847;  the  American  Oriental 
Society  in  1842;  the  .Tai)an  branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  So- 
eietv  in  1873:  and  the  Italian  Asiatic  Society,  established  in 
188t. 

Asiiia'rii  [deriv.  of  I,at.  a'sinus.  ass]:  a  nickname  origi- 
nally given  to  the  .lews  because  they  were  said  to  worship 
an  ass,  but  afterward  also  apgilied  to  the  Christians,  against 
whom  the  same  accusation  wa.s  made.  The  story  is  told  us 
by  Tertidlian  (Apohnjij.  Hi;  Ad  Nat.,  1,  14),  and  has  been 
most  curiously  illustrated  by  a  drawing  scratched  in  mock- 
ery on  the  walls  of  the  pedagogium  in  the  palace  of  Ctesar 
in  Rome  some  lime  in  tiK;  second  (■eiitury,  and  representing 
some  Christian  convert  worshiping  a  man  with  !tn  ass's  head 
hanging  on  a  cross.  Underneath  in  (ireek  is  written  "  Alex- 
anienos  is  worshiping  (bid."  The  drawing  was  discrovered 
in  18o(>  on  a  wall  under  the  western  angle  of  the  Pala- 
tine, and  is  now  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  CoUegio 
Romano. 

Asiliilis:  See  Pollio. 

Ask:  iu  Scandinavian  mytholi>gy,  the  first  man  created 
by  Odin.  Iloner.  and  Loiler  from  an  ish-tree.     See  ScA.VDi- 

NAVIAX  JIVTIIOI.OGV. 

As'kaloii,  or  .\shkcloii :  See  Ascalo.v. 

Askpluil :  See  .\siAi,ox. 

As'kew,  Anne;  b.  at  Stallingborough.  near  Grimsby, 
Ijincolushire,  1.531;  a  gentlewoman  of  high  distinction  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII..  and  an  intimate  court-frien<l  <if 
his  queen.  Catharine  Parr.  She  was  the  daughter  of  .Sir 
VVilbam  Askew,  of  Kelsey,  Lincolnshire :  married  to  Thomius 
Kyme,  and  bore  him  two  children.  In  March.  1.54.5,  she 
was  ini|)risoneil  and  examined  in  London  by  Christopher 
Dare  and  Sir  Martin  Bowes,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  and 
snl)sequen11y  bv  Bonner,  on  thechargi'  of  denying  transub- 
stantiution.  She  was  released  on  bail,  and  on  June  13  ac- 
•luitted.  The  next  year  she  was  arrested  for  heresy,  and 
some  time  in  June,  154(i,  in  the  Tower,  she  was  tortured  by 
the  rack,  W'riothesley,  tin'  lord  chancellor,  and  Sir  Richard 
Rich  iulliiling  this  iidiumanity  with  their  own  haiiils. 
Finally.  Imjiu,'  unable  to  walk  to  .Smithfield.  she  w.as  carricfl 
there  in  a  cludr,  and  her  bodv  chaineil  to  the  stake,  at  which 
she  was  l)urnt  on  the  Ulth  of  Jidy,  1546. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 


Ask'ja :  the  largest  volcano  of  Iceland ;  situated  in  65" 
X.  lat.  and  16'  45'  w.  Ion.  The  crater  has  an  area  of  23  sq. 
miles,  circumference'  of  17  miles,  and  depth  of  700  feet. 
The  height  of  the  moimtain  is  4,633  feet.  The  surface  of 
the  crater  is  covered  with  lava  flooils  and  a  hot-water  lake, 
while  volumes  of  steam  issue  from  nmnerous  vents.  A 
great  eruption  occurred  in  1875.  C.  II.  T. 

As'mai'.  or  Asiiiayi :  b.  about  741 ;  d.  about  830;  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Harun-al-Uaschid.  and  the  uu)st  celebrated  repre- 
.senlative  of  Arab  scholarship  not  oidy  at  that  c()urt.  but  in 
that  century.  The  most  widely  known  of  his  many  pro- 
ductions are  his  synchriinous  history  of  Persia  ami  Arabia 
liefore  Islam  (which  Kawlinson  has  cluiracterized  as  "  per- 
haps the  nmst  valuable  and  authentic  historic  volumes  in 
the  whole  range  of  Arabian  literature")  and  his  romance  of 
Aii/tir.  the  "Iliad"  of  the  desert.  But  besides  these  he 
wrote  a  great  inimber  of  other  works,  poetical  and  scientific, 
and  founded  a  literary  school  which  has  produceil  many 
renowned  pupils,  such  as  Thalab.  Ibn-el-Anbcri.  Sukkari, 
and  others.  Revised  by  J.  K.  JiiwiiTT. 

.Asniode'ns.  or  .Vsnio'doi :  a  denum,  who.  according  to 
the  Apocryphal  book  of  Toliit,  killed  the  seven  husbands  of 
Sara  upon  tlie  wedding-night.s,  until  Tobia.s,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Baphael,  married  Sara  and  drove  away  the  demon  by 
burning  in  the  briile's  chandjer  the  heart  and  liver  of  a  fisli 
he  had  caught  in  the  Tigris.  When  the  demon  smelled  the 
fumes,  "he  Hi'd  into  the  idtcrmost  parts  of  Kgypt  and  the 
angel  bound  him. '  In  the  'J'oh/iiiil  he  is  calleil  the  prince 
of  demons,  and  a  Talmuilic  tale  tells  us  how  he  once  drove 
Solomon  out  <if  his  kingdom,  though  at  length  Solomon  got 
the  ascendency  over  him  and  compelled  him  to  work  for 
him  in  building  the  temple,  which  he  did  without  noise  by 
means  of  Sharnis,  a  mystcrions  stone.  The  name  is  the  Per- 
sian Acshma-dafva  (see  Spiegel,  Emuinc/ii'  Allerfhumer),  and 
the  figure  of  the  demon  is  in  general  Persian.     C.  II.  Toy. 

As'mona''ans.  or  Asmonoaiis :  the  proper  designation 
of  the  family  of  Jewish  princes  better  known  as  the  Macca- 
bees. The  name  was  derived,  according  to  .Josephus  (Anfi(/. 
xii.  fl).  from  a  certain  Asmomcus  who  lived  about  300  n.  r.. 
Init  who  otherwise  is  unknown  to  history,  which  makes  the 
derivation  somewhat  doiditful.  His  great-grandson,  Matta- 
thias,  was  a  distinguished  patriot  and  leader  of  a  revolt 
against  the  King  of  Syria,  lie  had  sirveral  sons,  who  nileil 
over  Judea  and  were  called  Maccaukks  (</.  ;•.). 

As'iiyk.  AiiAM  :  Polish  |)oet  and  patriot  :  1).  at  Kalish, 
Sept.  11.  1838:  stu<lied  at  Warsaw,  then  in  Paris  and  Heidel- 
berg. He  took  part  in  the  insurre<tion  of  1863  in  Poland, 
and  was  forced  to  spend  some  years  in  exile  in  tb'rmany. 
He  has  lived  at  Cracow  since  1873.  He  has  published  I'ovzi/e 
(3  vols.,  1873-80):  several  historical  tragedies,  M'alkii  Stroii- 
nic.tci'  (IHH!)):  Cdla  Rienzi  (1873);  Kifjdnt  (1878);  and  a 
comedv,  Przyjitriclf  IJiohii  (The  Friends  of  Job),  in  1879. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Aso'ka.  .\<;(('ka.  or  Asho'ka  (with  the  by-mime  Pit/a- 
da.s.si):  an  ancient  King  of  Maghada.  iu  India;  wjis  a  grand- 
son of  Chandragupla  (or  Sandraeollus).  He  reigned  about 
250  n.  I'.,  was  converted  to  I'uddliism.  and  erected  a  great 
nund)er  of  monasteries.  His  <loijiiuion  extenih-d  over  the 
greater  part  of  Hindustan.  See  K.  Senart.  L)'s  iiixrrijjfions 
de  I'li/ddiix)  {Vauii,  1881-8(>,  2  vols.) ;  and  Xotea  d'i'jii(/rap/iie 
iiidiniiK'  (1888). 

Asp,  or  As'pic  (Lat.  ax'/iis  ;  (ir.  oo-Trfs) :  a  species  of  venom- 
ous serpent  nuMitioned  by  ancient  writers.  Some  of  these 
describe  its  bite  a.s  inevitably  fatal,  and  as  producing  speedy 
death  without  pain.  Modern  naturalists  iclentify  it  with  the 
I\'aJ(i  /loje.  a  species  of  hooded  viper  which  is  found  in 
Egypt,  and  is  from  3  to  5  teet  in  length.  When  it  is  irri- 
tatc'd  it  dilates  its  neck.  The  figure  of  the  Xaja  hnje  occurs 
on  the  sculptured  numuments  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
The  jugglers  of  modern  Kgypt  catise  it  to  dance  to  their 
music,  and  throw  it  into  a  cataleptic  state.  The  name  of 
asp  is  also  applied  to  the  VI pera  ac'pis,  common  in  many 
parts  of  Europe.     It  is  much  (lrea<h;d  on  account  of  its  bite. 

Aspar'aSllS  [from  (ir.  hripipayos.  or  A(Tirapo7osl :  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  family  Ijlliiiri'ii'.  natives  of  Southern  Europe 
and  Africa.  Its  species  are  partly  shrubs  and  partly  herba- 
ceous. They  have  a  six-parted  perianth,  six  .stamens,  one 
style,  and  the  fruit  is  a  berry.  Tlie  nio.st  important  species 
is  Ayi(ini(/UK  nfliciiiahx.  the  common  asparagus  of  gardens, 
which  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  generally  cidtivated  in 
Europe  and  the  U.  S.  It  was  used  as  food  by  the  ancient 
Romans.    It  grows  to  the  height  of  al«)ut  4  feet,  and  thrives 


368 


ASPASIA 


ASPHALT 


best  in  a  rich  and  deep  soil.  Tliis  plant  is  raised  from  the 
seed,  and  should  not  be  used  until  about  three  years  have 
elapsed  after  the  planting  of  the  seed.  The  perennial  roots 
continue  for  many  years  to  send  uji  every  sprinjj  a  ciop  of 
tender  shoots,  which,  after  having  attained  the  lieight  of  a 
few  inches,  are  cut  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
A  peculiar  principle  called  asjmrgine,  CiHsNjOa,  is  obtained 
from  these  shoots,  and  also  from  the  i-oot  of  the  marsh- 
mallow. 

Aspa'sia  (in  Gr.  'Acmuria) :  a  celebrated  woman  of  ancient 
Greece,  remarkable  for  her  genius,  beauty,  and  political  in- 
fluence; b.  at  Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  470  n.  c.  She 
became  in  her  youtli  a  resident  of  Athens  and  the  leader  of 
the  hetairai.  Her  house  was  a  celebrated  resort  for  the 
mo.st  eminent  Athenians,  including  Socrates,  who  professed 
to  be  her  disciple.  Pericles  was  another  of  her  admirers, 
and  in  order  to  live  with  her  (44.))  he  divorced  his  wife. 
Having  been  accused  of  imjiiety  and  inducing  free  women 
to  become  hetiiirai  by  Hermippus,  a  comic  jjoet  (432).  she 
was  defended  by  Pericles  and  acnuitted.  She  had  a  high 
reputation  for  talent,  and  a  report  olitained  currency  that  she 
composed  part  of  the  great  funeral  oration  wliich  Pericles 
pronounced  over  the  Athenians  who  fell  in  l)attle  about 
iAi).  After  the  death  of  Pericles,  439,  she  lived  with  Lysi- 
cles.  There  is  extant  an  antique  bust  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  Aspiisia.  See  the  works  on  the  age  of  Pericles  by 
E.  Filleul  (Paris,  1873.  3  vols.),  and  A.  Schmidt  (3  vols!, 
June,  1877-7!)).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Aspasia  the  Younger:  an  Ionian  woman  who.se  original 
name  was  JIilto.  She  became  the  favorite  mistress  of  Cyrus 
the  Younger,  who  changed  her  name  to  Aspasia.  She  was 
distinguished  for  beauty  and  intellect.  She  was  taken  cap- 
tive by  King  Artaxerxes  at  the  battle  in  which  Cyrus  was 
killed.  401  B.  (".,  and  was  consecrated  by  him  as  a  priestess  of 
Anaitis. 

As'pect :  look,  appearance,  countenance.  In  astrology 
the  position  of  one  planet  with  respect  to  another.  Aspect 
is  defined  l)y  Kepler  as  "  the  angle  formed  by  the  rays  pro- 
ceeding from  two  planets  and  meeting  at  the  earth."  The 
ancients  reckoned  five  aspects — namely,  conjunction,  indi- 
cated by  the  symbol  c5  ;  opposition,  by  8  ;  trine,  by  A  ; 
quartile,  by  D  ;  and  sextile,  by  )£,  Planets  in  conjunction 
have  the  same  longitude ;  in  opposition  the  difference  of 
their  longitude  is  180'. 

As'pen.  or  Tremulous  Po|>lar  (Pop'ulnfi  trem'xla):  a 
tree  of  the  natural  family  Suliruci'a':  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Western  Asia.  It  is  remarkaV)le  for  the  mobility  of  its 
leaves,  wliich,  having  long  petioles  laterally  compressed,  are 
caused  to  flutter  liy  the  gentlest  breath  of  air.  The  name 
aspen  is  also  ap])lied  to  the  Pnpuhis  iremnloidf'i  and  gvan- 
didenfdfn,  natives  of  the  U.  S.,  resembling  the  European 
aspen  in  the  proverbial  quivering  of  their  leaves. 

Aspen:  city;  on  the  Colo.  Midland  and  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  R.  Rs. ;  capital  of  Pitkin  Co.,  Col.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Colorado,  rcf.  3-C) ;  has  an  altitude  of 
7,700  feet  and  is  in  a  lieautiful  mountain-locked  valley.  The 
city  has  several  churches,  excellent  |niblic  schools,  etc.  Its 
principal  business  is  mining,  ami  some  of  the  most  famous 
lead  and  silver  mines  of  the  SInli'  are  here.  The  production 
of  silver  is  at  the  rate  of  .|  10,0(10,000  per  annum.  Pop.  (1885) 
3,874;  (1890)  5,108;  (1892)  estimated  at  10,000. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 

Asperffil'liim :  a  genus  of  tubicular  bivalve  mollusks. 
chara<'lerize(l  by  the  .soldering  of  both  valves  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  calcareous  sheath.  The  shell  has  the  form  of 
an  elongated  cone,  the  larger  end  of  which  cx|iands  into  a 
disk,  which  Is  pierced  by  many  small  tubular  holes.  Hence 
it  <lerives  lis  popular  name  of  "  watering-pot."  The  animals 
of  this  geiuis  are  borers,  which  live  in  sand.  They  are 
chiefly  found  in  the;  Indian  and  South  Pacific  Oceans.  Others 
have  been  found  fossil  in  Kairope. 

As'perii.  or  <i!ross  Aspern  :  a  village  of  Austria;  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube.  5  miles  p].  X.  K.  of  Vienna  (see 
nuip  of  Auslrla-IIuMgary,  rcf.  5-F).  Aspern.  with  llie  adja- 
cent village  of  Kssling,  was  the  scene  of  a  great  battle  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  the  Austrian  Archduke  Cliarles  after 
th(^  French  army  had  taken  Vieinui.  The  Ki'eiich  crossed 
the  river  bv  a  bridge  which  thev  constructed  at  the  island 
of  Lobau.  and  began  the  allaek  on  May  21,  180i).  After 
half  of  the  Kreiich  had  crossed  the  river,  the  .\ustrians  as- 
sumed the  olTensive.  Moth  of  the  villages  were  taken  and 
retaken,  and  the  day  dosed  without  a  decisive  result.     The 


fight  was  renewed  on  the  23d,  when  Napoleon  retreated  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  river,  having  lost  about  7,000  killed 
and  30.000  wounded  and  jirisoiu-rs.  The  Austrians  lost 
about  30,500  killed  and  wounded. 

Asphalt  [from  Gr.  daipaKTov.  a  loau-word] :  a  general 
name  for  the  solid  forms  of  bitumen.  Asphalt  is  widely 
distributed  in  nature  and  exhibits  several  very  distinct  vari- 
eties. Generally  asphalt  is  distinguished  from  coal  by  being 
soluble  in  bisulphide  of  earlion  and  benzole.  It  occurs  dis- 
seminated throvigh  nuiiiy  crystalline  rocks,  often  deprived 
of  its  volatile  matter  and  resembling  anthracite.  See  As- 
PHALTic  Coal.  It  occurs  often  in  veins  that  have  evidently 
Ijcen  injected  into  fissures  in  a  plastic  condition :  albertite 
and  grahamite  are  examples.  On  the  coast  of  California, 
near  Santa  Barbara,  veins  of  asjjhaltic  sand  occur ;  also  in 
the  island  of  Cul)a  anil  in  Albania  and  various  localities  in 
France.  At  Seyssel,  in  the  dejiartment  of  Ain,  and  Val  de 
Travers.  in  the  canton  of  Xeufchatel,  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  in  Texas,  veins  of  limestone  impregnated  with 
asphalt  occur.  French  authors  have  given  these  latter  forms 
the  name  of  asphalte.  Asphalt  also  occurs  in  beds,  where  it 
has  resulted  from  the  oxidation  of  mineral  tar,  or  primarily 
of  petroleum.  Such  deposits,  of  small  extent,  are  frequently 
met  in  Southern  California.  In  the  N.  E.  states  of  Mexico 
deposits  of  this  character  of  enormous  extent  occur.  The 
most  noted  are  founil  in  Tamaulipas.  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Thamesi ;  in  Vei'a  Cruz,  a  suudi  mountain  near  the 
village  of  Moloasan,  1.300  feet  high,  is  largely  composed  of 
asphalt,  which  is  called  by  the  Indians  chapapote.  On  the 
island  of  Trinidad  and  near  San  Timolis,  Venezuela,  lakes 
of  as]ihalt  occur.  They  are  each  about  3  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  are  supposed  to  fltjat  on  water.  While  the  sur- 
face of  the  Trinidad  lake  is  sufficiently  hard  to  admit  of 
teams  being  driven  over  it.  the  whole  mass  is  in  constant 
motion  around  several  vortices.  Trunks  of  trees  arise  and 
after  a  time  disappear  again. 

The  depth  of  the  lake  has  been  ascertained  by  boring  to 
be  18  feet  near  the  .sides  and  78  feet  in  the  middle,  with  an 
estimated  content  of  6.000.000  tons.  Dni'ing  the  last  ten 
years  180.000  tons  have  been  removed  without  a])preciably 
reducing  the  amount.  It  is  dug  u]i  with  pick  and  shovel,  and 
conveyed  to  the  shoi-e  in  carts,  where  it  is  lightered  to  vessels 
off-shore.  On  the  voyage  it  becomes  comjiacted  into  a  solid 
mass  that  has  to  be  again  broken  up  with  the  pick.  When 
unloaded  it  is  heated  in  tanks  over  a  slow  fire,  and  the  roots 
of  vegetation  with  which  it  is  contaminated  are  removed, 
and  tlie  hot  pitch  strained  through  a  sort  of  colander  into 
barrels.  Trinidad  as]ihalt  is  said  to  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  clay. 

In  the  mountains  that  border  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea  anil  the  island  of  Ragusa.  asphalt  has  accumu- 
latiMl  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  and  on  an  immense  scale. 
Asphalt  is  also  of  fi-eiiuent  occurrence  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  where  it  frequently  rises  to  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  floats  or  is  cast  ashore  by  the  waves.  Asphalt 
from  this  source  has  been  an  article  of  local  commerce  from 
the  most  remote  anti(piily.  The  asphaltof  commerce  is  ob- 
tained from  Trinidad,  Cuba.  Dalmatia,  and  Syria,  and  as- 
[ihaltic  limestone  from  Seyssel  and  Val  de  Travers.  Other 
lo<-alities  furnish  local  supplies  of  more  or  less  value. 

Pure  asphaltum  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1-3  to  1-3,  and 
hardness  2-5  to  3.  It  is  a  dry  solid  with  a  conchoiilal  frac- 
ture and  glossy,  black  surface.  Some  varieties  are  brownish 
black  in  color,  with  a  more  or  less  splintery  fracture.  These 
are  earthy  and  impure;  when  rulilied  it  has  a  peculiar  odor. 
It  is  usually  easily  melted,  is  very  iutiannuable,  and  burns 
with  a  yellow,  sooty  flame,  leaving  but  little  or  no  residue. 
It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol,  the  fixed  and  essential  oils 
and  ether,  and  readily  .soluble  in  benzole  and  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  With  benzole  it  forms  a  solution  of  an  intense  black 
color  which  is  uscil  in  the  arts  under  the  name  of  black  var- 
nish. Asphalt  is  very  lirittle  at  low  temperatures,  but  when 
warmed  it  may  be  sutliciently  hard  to  readily  break  liy  a  sud- 
den blow,  and  at  the  same  time  yiehl  to  the  tread.  When 
.•iubjecled  to  <iestructivc  distillation  it  is  resolved  into  a  <lis- 
tillate  of  oils  of  varying  density,  and  a  tarrv  residue  that  be- 
conu's  solid  when  cold,  and   is  called  asphaltum. 

The  uses  of  asjihalt  are: 

1.  Vai'uish. 

2.  Insulation. 

3.  Water-proofing. 

4.  Cement. 

5.  Roofing  auil  paving. 


ASPHALT 


ASPINWALL 


369 


Varnish  prepared  willi  as])halt  is  known  as  hUick  varnish. 
and  is  used  pnnciiially  iijioii  iron  structures.  It  is  prepared 
bv  clissolvini;  Syrian  or  ullier  uf  tlic  purer  asplialts  in  l>en- 
zole  or  liquids  containing  benzole.  A  black  enamel  is  ob- 
tained on  iron  l>y  aji|ilyin{;  the  varnish  to  the  hot  iron,  by 
which  the  volatile  in;;redients  of  the  varnish  are  expelled 
and  the  surface  left  siuiKith  as  if  polished. 

Asphalt  enters  into  many  mastics  aiul  cements  that  are 
used  by  many  ditTeri'iit  nu'tliods  of  ajiplicat ion.  chiefly  for 
underu'round  purposes  of  insulation.  Asphalt  is  one  of  the 
most  tenaciously  adhesive  substances  in  nature.  This  is 
proved  by  the  persistence  with  which  for  unknown  centu- 
ries the  alabaster  slabs  of  Nineveh  anil  Habylon  have  been 
held  in  their  places  by  the  a.si)lialt  that  was  used  to  retain 
them.  In  modern  time.s  it  is  used  to  n\ake  constructions 
water-jiroof.  Foundations  of  brick  or  stone  are  saturated 
with  asplialt  dissolved  in  some  moi'e  fluid  form  of  bitumen 
and  then  laid  in  asphalt ic  mortar  or  cement.  This  makes  a 
water-proof  foundation  of  the  most  durable  character.  For 
cement  asphalt  is  mixed  witli  petroleum  residue  to  render  it 
more  plastic,  and  the  -whole  tempered  with  one-seventh  its 
weight  of  sharp  sand.  Cement  of  this  character  was  used 
witii  great  success  in  the  construction  of  the  arch  over  the 
water  main  at  High  liridge  in  New  York  city. 

It  was  also  usi'd  in  the  ('onsl ruction  of  the  La  Salle  Street 
tunnel  in  Cliicngo.  where  its  superiority  was  fully  demon- 
strated, this  tunnel  being  free  from  water,  while  those  fin- 
ished with  hydraulic  cement  are  never  free  from  more  or 
less  intiltration.  This  cement  is  also  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  foundations  where  vibration  is  for  any  reason  to  be 
avoided. 

Enormous  fjuant it ies  of  Trinidad  asiihalt  enter  the  com- 
position of  rooting  materials  at  the  ]ircsent  time.  Felt 
made  for  the  pui'jiose  is  saturatecl  with  a  mixture  of  as- 
phalt, coal-tar.  ]iilch,  and  petroleum  residue,  or  still  bot- 
toms. The  felt  is  then  laid  together  and  rolled  of  two  or 
three  thicknesses,  in  such  manner  that  tiro  or  t/tne ply  felt 
is  obtained.  In  this  compound  felt  the  two  or  three  layers 
are  so  completely  cenumted  together  that  the  whole  appears 
as  it  it  was  one  piece  of  felt.  When  laid  the  felt  is  hedd  in 
place  by  nails  driven  through  tin  disks,  and  the  whole 
completely  covered  with  the  cement  used  in  preparing  the 
felt.  While  this  is  still  soft  the  whole  is  covered  with  sharp 
sand  or  screened  gravel.  This  nuikes  a  roof  that  is  tight 
and  durable,  and  is  being  extensively  used,  especially  for 
large  structures. 

Artificial  bituminous  mastics,  made  largely  of  Trinidad 
asphalt,  for  use  in  pavement  have  been  made  by  artificially 
incorporating  fine  sand  or  pulvei-lzrd  limestone  with  natural 
lusjdialt,  and  are  used  in  vast  quantities.  No  method  of 
nuxture,  however,  has  ever  produ.ced  a  combination  eqvial  to 
those  found  in  nature. 

The  natund  asplialtic  sands  of  La  Goleta  on  the  coast  of 
Califonna  contain  .">()  per  cent,  of  sand,  so  fine  and  so  uni- 
formly distributed  as  to  give  the  a])i)earance  of  a  pure  as- 
iihalt. Others  found  in  France,  ."^pain,  Mexico,  and  the 
S'orthwesl  Territory  contain  from  10  to  IS  per  cent,  only  of 
bitumen.  They  are  locally  valuable  as  a  material  for  road- 
wavs. 

The  bituminous  limestones,  called  asphaltic  rock,  found 
at  .Seyssel  and  at  Val  de  Travel's  are  the  most  valuable  de- 
posits of  asphalt  known,  (^uite  recently  deposits  of  very 
similar  character  have  been  observed  in  Texas,  but  they 
have  not  yet  been  developed.  That  from  Seyssel  consists 
of  HO  per  cent,  limestone  an<l  10  per  cent,  bitumen.  The 
Val  de  Travers  rock  is  richer,  containing  20  jier  ci'nt.  bitu- 
men. The  stone  is  massive,  of  irregular  fracture,  and  of  a 
liver-brown  color.  Though  easily  .scratched  with  the  finger- 
nail, it  is  diflicult  to  break  with  a  hammer. 

The  bituminous  mastics  are  generally  made  by  mixing 
these  bituminous  linu'.stones  in  jiowder  with  the  mineral 
tar  extracl<'d  from  the  molaxne  or  bilundnous  SiUidstone  of 
the  same  locality.  Seven  to, S  ])er  c^■nt.  of  nuneral  tar  is 
re<iuired  for  the  Seyssel  nuistic,  and  44  to  .5  per  cent,  for 
that  of  \n\  de  Travers.  The  rock  is  first  broken  into 
fragments  of  3  inches  in  size  and  then  poured  through 
toothed  rollers,  and  afterward  heated  to  .100°  F.  in  a  cylin- 
der in  which  a  helix  revolves,  the  pieces  being  fed  in  at  one 
end.  The  nuistic  is  then  put  on  to  a  concrete  bed.  hot  and 
rolled.  lAir  transportation  it  is  prepared  by  heating  the 
mastic  in  kettles  with  S  piT  cent,  of  Trinidad  asphalt  at 
2.S0'  for  five  hours,  wlii'n  it  is  run  into  mollis.  When  used, 
these  bricks  are  again  broken  anil  healed  with  nmre  Trini- 
dad asfihalt  and  sand  for  ten  hours  at  ;j00'  F.,  when  it  is 
24 


spread  hot,  rubbed,  and  rolled.  Five  million  sq.  yards  of 
surface  have  been  put  down  in  Paris,  with  a  length  of  1,000 
miles.  During  the  ten  vears  previous  to  1889  there  were 
;i..')00,000  sq.  yards  laid  'in  the  U.  S.,  200  miles  in  length, 
over  which  .'i(j,000  vehicles  pass  daily.    See  Bitumen. 

S.  F.  Peckham. 
As|ilial'tic  foul:  certain  coal-like  substances  which  are 
founil  filling  irregular  cavities  and  fissures,  generally  of  the 
older  rocks.  U'hey  have  been  often  classed  as  coals,  l)ut  dif- 
fer in  composition  and  geological  position  from  all  true 
coals.  They  are  not  stratified,  liut  fill  fissures  into  which 
they  have  evidently  flowed  when  in  a  fluid  or  plastic  state. 
They  are,  in  fact,  ancient  asjihalts,  which  have  become  more 
compact  and  drier — i.e.  containing  less  oil  and  gas — in  the 
lapse  of  ages.  These  asphaltic  coals  are  found  in  carbonif- 
erous rocks  in  New  Brunswick  and  West  Virginia,  and  in 
Devonian  strata  in  Ohio  and  Kentuckv. 

Kevised  by  G.  K.  Gilhert. 

As'pliotlel  :  an  herbaceous  plant  of  the  genus  vl«p7iode?M« 
and  family  lJlince(r.  nearly  related  to  the  asparagus  and 
onion.  The  asphodels  are  natives  of  Harbary,  Sicily,  txreece, 
and  other  jiarts  of  the  Ijcvant.  Several  species  are  culti- 
vated in  gardens  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers,  as  the  .4s- 
■plioddua  hiti-H.s  (vellow  asphodel).  ^1.  ramosus  is  said  to  be 
the  flower  which  llomer  describes  as  growing  in  the  mead- 
ows of  Klysimn.  It  is  now  abundant  in  Apulia.  The  an- 
cients imagined  th.at  the  nuuies  of  their  friends  fed  on  its 
roots,  and  they  planted  it  near  their  tombs. 

Kevised  by  Cii-ARLES  E.  Bessev. 

Asphjx'ia  ffir.  from  d-,  not  -l-  aipi^is.  pulse;  aipi^dv, 
throb] /originally  cessation  of  the  motion  of  the  heart; 
but  the  word  has  now  come  to  signify  disturbance  and 
finally  arrest  of  breathing  by  suifocation  or  strangulation. 
It  occurs  in  drowning,  bv  wjiter  excluding  air  from  the 
lungs;  in  hanging  or  choking,  by  the  compression  of  the 
wiiuliiijie,  preventing  the  entrance  of  air;  m  the  presence 
of  certain  gases,  as  chlorine  or  pure  carbonic  acid,  liy  sjia.s- 
modic  (dosui'c  of  the  glottis  or  entrance  to  the  windpipe. 
It  has  been  jiroved  by  careful  obsen'ations  that  after  death 
by  as|)liyxia  the  left  cavities  of  the  heart  are  empty,  and 
the  right  distended  with  blood.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  venous  blood,  not  i-enewed  by  exposure  to  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  will  not  circidale  through  the  lungs,  thus  being 
forced  to  accumulate  in  the  right  or  venous  .side  of  the 
heart.  The  mode  of  treatment  of  asphyxia  must  depend 
on  its  cause.  (See  Dliowxixi;.)  In  partial  strangulation, 
abstraction  of  Ijlood  in  moderate  amount  may  unload  the 
heart  and  jiromote  the  movement  of  the  blood,  after  the 
cause  of  olistruction  has  been  removed.  For  asphyxia  from 
ii-respiral)le  ga.ses  the  first  necessity  is  a  supply  of  pure  air. 
When  the  heart  has  almost  or  quite  ceased  to  beat  for  a  few 
nu)ments.  life  is  sometimes  restored  by  artificial  Kespira- 
•rio.N  (i/.  I'.),  or  by  application  of  galvanic  electricity  to  the 
chest.  "  Kevised  by  William  Peim'ER. 

Aspic:  Sec  Asp. 

As|>id'iiilll :  a  genus  of  ferns  (shield-ferns),  who.sc  fruit- 
dots  are  covered  with  round  or  kidney-shaped  shields  (im/ii- 
siei).  There  are  about  oOO  species  widely  dist  ributed  through- 
out the  world.  '  C  E.  B. 

Aspidicll'f  liys  [from  fir.  drrnis.  -ISos.  shield  -I-  IxSis.  a  fish] : 
a  genus  of  fossil  fishes,  described  by  Or.  Xewlierry,  from  the 
Devonian  rocks  of  Ohio;  allied  to  I^ltriehthys,  but  very 
much  larger.  The  middle  dorsal  plate  of  the  carapace  is 
a.  foot  wide  and  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  more  than  an  inch 
thick  at  the  center,  and  its  external  surface  is  studded  with 
smooth  enamel  tubercles  as  large  as  split  peas. 

As'piinvall  [named  for  William  II.  Aspixwall  (?.  i;.); 
called  Colon  by  the  natives]:  seaiiort  in  the  republic  of  Co- 
lombia; on  the  north  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  on 
Xavy  Bay.  48  miles  by  rail  from  Panama,  and  on  the  Carib- 
bean' Sea:  hit.  0°  2r'N..  Ion.  79°  54  W.  (see  map  of  North 
America,  ref.  11-11).  As])inwall  was  founded  in  18.52  by  the 
Panama  K.  K.  Company,  and  is  the  northern  terminus  of 
the  Panama  K.  R.,  which  was  opened  in  18o5.  It  has  a 
good  harlior.  which  is  deep  enough  for  large  shijis,  and  has 
several  large  hotels.  It  was  I'oi'inerly  a  great  thoroughfaro 
for  the  travel  between  California  and  the  Atlantic  States. 
Steamers  ply  frequently  between  this  place  and  New  Vorlv, 
which  is  about  2.000  niiles  distant.  A  ship-canal  between 
Aspiiiwall  and  Panama,  the  latter  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was 
attempted,  but  failed  because  of  the  enormous  cost.  Poi>. 
1,800,  but  lluctuating.     See  Pa\ama  and  Suip-caxals. 


370 


ASPINWALL 


ASSAULT 


Aspiuwall.  William,  M.  D.  :  b.  at  Brookline,  Mass..  Jlay 
23,  1743:  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1764,  and  subsequently 
took  his  inodical  degree  in  Pliiladeliihia  :  became  a  surgeon 
in  the  Kovolutionary  army,  and  after  the  war  was  a  promi- 
nent Jeffersonian  politician  in  Massachusetts.  He  practiced 
medicine  with  great  success  at  Brookline,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  the  practice  of  "inoculation"  and  his  early 
adoption  of  vaccination.  D.  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  Apr.  16, 
1823. 

Aspinwall,  William  II.:  \>.  in  tlie  city  of  New  York, 
Dec.  16.  1807:  was  trained  as  a  clerk  in  the  house  of  G.  G. 
&  S.  Howland ;  liecame  a  partner  in  1832:  formed  the  firm 
of  Howland  &  Aspinwall  in  1837;  retired  from  the  firm  in 
18o0.  D.  in  New  York.  .Jan.  18.  187.5.  He  was  the  chief 
promoter  of  tlie  constniction  of  the  Pananui  R.  R.,  tlie  north- 
ern terminus  of  which  is  named  after  him.  and  acquired  a 
fortune  in  the  Pacific  trade,  being  a  large  owner  of  the 
Pacific  JIail  Steamsliip  Company. 

As'pirate  [from  Lat.  aspira'tiis.  jjartic.  of  aspira're, 
breathe  upon]:  in  pronunciation,  a  breath-sound  or  a  con- 
sonant accompanied  by  a  l)reatli-sound.  In  the  stricter  use 
of  modern  jihilology.  the  term  is  applied  to  those  explosives 
(stops)  whicli  enil  in  a  Ijreathing.  really  due  to  an  audible 
escape  of  breath  after  a  forcilile  breaking  of  the  closure; 
such  are  tlie  .Sanskrit  aspirates  k/i.g/i.ph.  b/i,  etc..  tlie  Greek 
aspirates  6.  p.  x  ("*  pronounced  in  fifth  and  fourth  cen- 
turies B.  c).  and  even  the  modern  German  and  Englisli 
A-,  I,  p.  initially  l)efore  an  accented  vowel.  In  popular  use 
tlie  term  is  often  made  to  include  the  fricative  sounds,  as 
German  ch.  or  even  tlie  sound  of  /).  xpirifus  (ifiper,  which  is, 
in  general,  no  more  tliaii  a  collecti^•e  representation  for  a 
variety  of  whispered  vowels,  tlie  particular  vowel  character 
in  each  case  being  determined  by  the  following  vowel;  thus 
compare  hd,  he,  in  wliicli  /)  represents  two  different  sounds. 

Bexj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

As'pirator  [Mod.  quasi-Lat.  format,  from  Lat.  aspira're, 
brcatlie  upon]:  an  api)aratiis  used  by  chemists  to  draw  air 
or  other  gases  through  liottles  or  other  vessels.  It  is  a  tight 
vessel  filled  with  water,  having  a  tube  with  a  stopcock  con- 
nected with  the  upper  end.  and  another  tube  with  a  stop- 
cock connected  witli  tlie  lower  end.  The  former  rube  is 
attached  to  the  vessel  through  which  the  gas  is  to  be  drawn  ; 
the  stopcocks  are  both  opened,  and  the  weight  of  the  water 
issuing  from  the  lower  tube  acts  as  a  suction,  and  draws  in 
the  gas. 

As'pis.  or  Clu'pea :  an  ancient  and  important  fortified 
city  of  tlie  Cartliagiiiians,  on  the  Meditcrriinean.  aljout  50 
miles  E.  of  Cartilage;  founded  about  310  B.C.  It  was  the 
place  where  Regulus  landed  in  the  first  Piniic  war,  and  was 
a  distinguished  episcopal  see  from  411  to  646  .\.  i>.  It  was 
the  last  spot  on  which  the  African  Christians  made  a  stand 
against  the  Saracens.  Remarkable  ruins  are  to  be  seen 
there. 

Asple'iiimii:  a  genus  of  ferns  (the  spleenworts)  whose 
elongated  fruit-dots  arc  covered  with  a  membrane  {iiir/ii- 
sium)  attached  its  full  length  at  one  side.  About  350  species 
are  known,  many  of  which  are  grown  in  greenhouses. 

C.  E.  B. 

Aspromon'te ;  a  mountain  at  the  south  western  extrem- 
ity of  llaly;  6.:W0  feet  high;  16  miles  E.  X.  E.  of  Reggio 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  i)-G).  lli're  Garilialdi  an<l  the  greater 
part  of  Ills  army  were  taken  prisoners  in  Aug..  1862. 

A.sijnipot'aiiio  (i.  e.  white  river) :  the  ancient  Aehelous ; 
tlie  largest  river  in  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  It  rises  in  Al- 
bania, flows  in  a  S.  S.  \V.  direct  inn,  and  after  a  course  of 
about  100  miles  enters  the  .Mciliterranean  (or  Ionian)  Sea, 
nearly  ]■")  niiles  W.  of  Missolonghi. 

A^<^|uitll.  Herbert  IIexry;  English  public  man;  b.  at 
Morh'V.  JMii^lanii.  Sept.  12. 18.i2  ;  .scliolar  and  afterward  fellow 
of  Balliol  College.  Oxford;  B.  A..  1874:  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln's  Inn,  1876;  queen's  counsel.  Fell..  1800;  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  Kast  Fife.  .July.  1886.  and  again 
in  18i)2;  Secretarv  for  Home  Affairs  in  Jlr.  (Uadslone's  Cab- 
inet, 1892. 

Ass.  or  Don'kev  :  a  quadnijied  of  the  genus  Asinns  and 
family  Eiiiiirl(p.  It  is  characterizeil  by  long  ears,  a  black 
cross  over  the  shoulder,  and  short  hairs  on  the  upper  i>art 
of  the  lull.  It  is  remarkiil)le  for  its  patience,  stolidity,  and 
power  of  endurance,  and  has  been  tiie  domesticated  drudge 
of  man  from  time  immemorial.  The  a.ss  is  probably  a  na- 
tive of  Central  Asia,  as  it  is  now  found  wild  in  that  region. 


Yast  numbers  of  the  wild  ass  (which  the  Romans  called 
onager)  roam  over  the  great  Asiatic  deserts  and  steppes, 
feeding  on  saline  herbage.  They  also  inhabit  Persia,  Asia 
Jlinor,  and  Syria.  An  interesting  notice  of  this  animal  is 
given  in  the  thirty-ninth  chapter  of  Job.  The  wild  ass  is  a 
high-spirited  animal  of  extraordinary  speed,  and  is  one  of 
the  principal  objects  of  the  chase  in  Persia,  where  its  flesh 
is  highly  esteemed  as  food.  There  appears  to  be  some  doubt 
whether  the  domesticated  ass  is  descended  from  this  wild 
animal,  so  much  superior  in  speed  and  other  qualities.  In 
Oriental  countries  the  custom  of  riding  on  the  back  of  the 
tame  ass  is  very  common :  and  the  Old  Testament  informs 
us  that  it  was  thus  used  by  patriarchs  and  kings  in  the 
earliest  times.  The  asses  which  are  raised  in  Syria  and  other 
])arts  of  the  East  are  a  better  breed  than  those  of  Europe. 
The  animal  is  not  much  employed  in  the  \j.  S.,  except  lor 
the  propagation  of  mules,  which  are  the  hybrid  progeny  of 
the  ass  and  mare.  Being  veiT  sure-footed  and  able  to  live 
on  scanty  fare,  tlie  ass  is  well  adapted  for  service  as  a  beast 
of  burden  in  locky  and  mountainous  regions.  Its  milk  is 
recommended  as  a  diet  for  dysjieptic  and  consumptive  pa- 
tients. The  proverbial  stu])idity  of  the  ass  seems  rather  due 
to  its  patience  and  endurance  than  to  any  particular  want 
of  intelligence. 

Assab' :  a  liay.  a  territory,  and  a  town  on  the  African  shore 
of  the  southern  jiart  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  bay  is  about  40 
miles  N.  W.  of  the  Bab-el-Mandeb.  opening  northward.  It 
is  about  16  miles  long  by  5  broad,  and  is  full  of  islands. 
The  territory  is  an  ill-defined  region  on  the  coast  near  the 
bay.  in  what  is  called  the  Danakil  country,  now  the  Italian 
colony  of  Eritrea.  The  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the  bay, 
is  an  Italian  station.  Pop.,  with  the  district  immediately 
around  it,  6,800.  M.  W.  H. 

Assafwt'ida.  or  Asafwtida  [from  Lat.  am  (loan  from 
Pers.  azu.  mastic)  +  fee  fidiis.  stinking] :  a  gum-resin  or  the 
concrete  juice  of  the  root  of  Xarthex  asuafcefiehi  (the  Ferula 
Of-siifa'tiila  of  Linna'us).  It  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  Af- 
ghanistan, has  a  peculiar  and  disagreealile  odor,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  medicine  as  an  antispasmodic.  It  is  con- 
sidered an  efficacious  remedy  for  hy.steria,  nervous  diseases, 
and  spasmodic  pectoral  affections.  In  many  parts  of  Asia  it 
is  used  as  a  condiment. 

Assal' :  a  salt  lake  of  Eastern  Africa ;  25  miles  S.  W.  of 
Tajura.  and  about  760  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is 
8  miles  long  and  4  miles  wide,  .and  has  an  area  of  20  sq. 
miles.  The  shores  are  covered  with  ciiists  of  salt  about  a 
foot  thick.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  carried  hence  by 
caravans  to  Abyssinia. 

Assam' :  a  province  of  British  India,  bordering  on  China, 
and  forming  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra.  It  is 
included  between  lat.  25°  45'  and  28°  15'  N.,  and  between 
Ion.  90'  35  and  96'  50'  E.  Area.  49.004  sq.  miles.  It  is  well 
watered  by  numerous  rivers,  and  has  a  fertile  soil,  but  a  large 
part  of  it  is  swampy  and  subject  to  inundation.  The  staple 
products  of  the  soil  are  rice,  tea,  cotton,  opium,  and  mustard. 
Gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  are  found  here,  and  coal, 
petroleum,  and  iron  are  abundant.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
about  six  months,  from  A|iril  to  October,  during  which  time 
the  whole  country  is  inundated.  The  large  and  dense  forests 
of  Assam  are  infested  by  great  numbers  of  elephants,  tigers, 
leopards,  rhinoceroses,  buffaloes,  etc.  Assam  was  ceded  to 
the  British  by  Burma  in  1826.  The  religion  of  the  Assamese 
is  Brahmanism.     Pop.  (1891)  5,476,883.  M.  W.  H. 

Assas'sin  [via  Fr.  from  Arab.  liasliKhdsh'in  (plur.).  hash- 
ish-eaters] :  one  who  attacks  and  kills  liy  treachery  or  sur- 
prise a  person  who  is  nniirepared  for  defense.  The  word  was 
originally  the  name  of  a  fanatical  sect  or  order,  the  disciples, 
it  is  said,  of  .\lo-ed-P<M'n  (Aloaddin).  conimonlv  calleil 
Sheikh-el-.Tebel.  or  the  "Olil  Jlan  of  the  Mountains."  The 
founder  of  the  order  is  said  to  have  been  Ilassan-ben-Sabah, 
who  flourished  in  Persia  about  1080  A.  I).  They  were  called 
Assassins  from  their  immodt'rate  use  of  liasliish,  an  in- 
toxicating dnig  obtained  from  Indian  hemii.  The  order 
consisted  of  several  degrees,  the  lowest  of  which  were  Te- 
(lar'ieif  or  Fedais  (i.  c.  the  devoted),  who  were  not  initi- 
ated into  the  secret  doctrines  and  mysteries,  but  with  blind 
obedience  executed  the  bloody  orders  of  the  prince  or  Old 
Man  of  the  .Mountains. 

Assault' [through  Old  Fr.  from  Im^.  adsili're.  aKsili're, 
to  leap  iqion  ;  ad.  ujion  +  .sail  re,  mlitim.  leap] :  in  niilitaiy 
language,  a  sudden  and  vigorous  attack  on  a  fortified  post  or 
camp,  or  an  effort  to  carry  by  open  force  a  breach  which  has 


ASSAULT   AM)   BATTERY 


A&SEMANNI 


371 


Ijccii  made  in  a  fortress.  In  llic  logiilar  routine  of  sieges 
(as  tliey  wert  roiiiialized,  for  recent  clianges  in  the  art  of 
fortifiiation  and  in  the  eliaraeter  of  fireaims  have  rendered 
the  old  rules  somewhat  inapplicable)  the  "assault  "is  one  of 
the  last  scenes  of  the  drama  called  a  "  siege."  In  the  regu- 
lar sieKe  the  assault  (if,  instead  of  gaining  the  breach  by 
covered  "approaches,"  it  is  decided  to  resort  to  it)  is  deliv- 
ered after  I  lie  outworks  are  captured,  and  one  or  more 
'•  breaches "  formed  (by  "  breaching  batteries")  in  the  body 
of  the  i)lacc.  It  is  usually  j)erforme<l  by  picked  troops  or 
vt)lunteers  (sometimes  calleil  a  "forlorn  hope"),  who,  at  a. 
concerted  signal  (upon  which  the  besiegers'  artillery  (-eases 
to  fire),  issue  from  the  contiguous  parallels  or  places  of  arms, 
descend  intotheditch,aiul  advance  rapidly  and  without  much 
order,  but  without  firing,  upon  the  breach.  "Firing  parties  " 
are  stationed  in  neighboring  parallels  to  keep  <l()wn  the  fire 
of  the  l)esiii,'i'd,  and  "supports"  are  close  at  hand  to  follow 
up  the  assault  iiig  party,  if  successful  in  etTecting  an  entrance. 
Uniler  Louis  Xl\'.  commandants  of  besieginl  jihw-es  were 
forbidden  to  capitulate  before  receiving //(;'ee  assaults.  Un- 
der N'apoleon  it  was  declared  dishonorable  and  punishable 
with  death  to  capitulate  before  receiving  at  least  one  a-ssjiult. 
According  to  Vauban  and  thi'  "  schools,"  the  open  assault  is 
a  "useless  massacre,"  which,  if  successful,  results  only  in  the 
demoralization  of  the  trooi)s,  the  .sicking  of  the  place,  and 
the  destruction  of  resources  valualile  to  the  besiegers. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  sometimes  compulsory,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  assault  of  Constantine  (ISiT)  by  the  French,  with  a  loss 
of  TjOO  out  of  1,750.  In  Spain  the  British  army  delivered 
terrilile  assaults,  as  those  at  Badajos  (1812)  and  St.  Sebastian 
(lHl:j) :  the  loss  at  the  former  (which  failed,  tiie  phu'e  being 
entered  by  exralade)  cost  3,700  nu-n.  and  the  latter  (success- 
ful) 2,000,  killed  and  wounded.  The  bloody  assault  by  which 
the  siegi?  of  Sebastopol  was  terminated  Sept.  8,  IH.").!,  was 
necessitated  by  the  fact  that  the  "approaches"  could  be 
pushed  forward  \w  fjirther.  This  so-called  siege  differed 
from  an  ordinary  siege  in  this,  that  "tlKMliHicully  was  to 
com/tier  the  Ji'uxninn  army  upon  a  ground  preparetl  before- 
hand, quite  as  much  as  to  surmount  the  material  obstacle 
presented  by  tlie  fortitications"  (.We/).  The  allied  loss  in 
this  a.ssault  (killed  aiul  wounded)  was  nearly  10.000;  that  of 
the  Russians,  11.700  men;  thus  terminatinga  siege  of  eleven 
months"  duration,  and  which  cost  the  besiegers  1.50.(X)0  and 
the  Russians  81.0(10  men. 

As!iiuilt  and  Bat'tery:  an  assault  is  an  offer  or  attemirt 
to  inflict  corporal  injury  upon  another,  accompanied  by  cir- 
cumstances which  indicate  an  intent,  coupled  with  a  present 
abilitv,  to  do  actual  violence.  If  violence  be  actually  in- 
flicled.  the  act  amounts  toa  battery :  but  tlie  offer  or  attempt 
to  do  violence  is  alone  suilleient  to  <'oiistitute  an  assault.  It 
is  not  necessiiry  that  an  actual  intent  ion  to  do  violence  ex- 
ist: it  is  enough  that  there  be  a  sulliciently  indicated  intent, 
so  that  it  woidd  aiipear  to  a  rea.sonable  mind  that  the  a|j- 
parent  purpose  was  the  true  one.  Moreover,  if  threats  or 
offers  of  violence  be  made,  but  there  is  an  apparent  iiresent 
inability  to  carry  them  into  effet'i,  there  is  no  assault  com- 
mitted. Thus  one  misht  vehemently  threaten  actual  vio- 
leiu'e;  but  if  an  impassalih^  barrier. as  a  ditch  or  wall,  inter- 
vened between  him  and  the  person  menaced,  the  act  would 
not  be  an  assault.  A  battery  is  really  the  consumnuition  of 
an  assault,  and  therefore  requires  that  the  offer  or  attempt 
to  do  violence  be  carried  into  elTect  by  the  actual  use  of  vio- 
lence. An  assault  and  battery  is  sometimes  justifiable,  as 
when  it  is  committed  in  thi'  reasonable  defense  of  one's  per- 
son or  his  real  or  personal  [n'operty.  And  in  exercising  this 
right  of  defense  the  person  threateneil  is  justified  in  acting 
upon  reasonable  appearances,  but  in  no  case  should  the  force 
used  be  greater  than  is  properly  adequate  to  re|)el  the  as- 
siudt  or  avert  or  prevent  the  injury  apprehended.  An  as- 
saidt  and  battery  is  also  sometimes  justifial)le  when  coin- 
mil  I  eil  in  the  cause  of  rightful  discipline,  as  where  a  father 
or  -schoolmaster  inflicts  moilerate  punishment  upon  a  child, 
or  the  master  of  a  vessel  u|)on  a  seanuin  ;  but  in  these  cases 
also  there  must  lie  no  excess  of  violence.  .Vn  a.ssault  and 
batlerv  is  b.ilh  a  civil  and  a  crinun.d  wrong,  and  there  may 
be  a  civil  action  for  damages  by  the  person  injured, and  also 
a  criminal  prosecution  instituteil.  In  criminal  law  there  are 
also  recognized  certain  forms  of  aggravated  (ussjiiilt  which 
iwroive  .severer  punishnu-nts  than  common  assault,  as  an  a.s- 
sault with  intent  to  kill,  with  intent  to  commit  rape,  etc. 

Georue  CnASK. 

Assay',  or  Assay'ilia:  [0.  Fr.  nsat/er;  Ital.  asxagr/inre  < 
Late  Lat  *ej-agii't  if,  dei-iv.  of  exa'gium,  weighing,  testing] : 


the  process  of  a.scertaining  the  pioijortion  of  gold  or  silver  in 
an  alloy,  or  of  ])ure  metal  in  a  metallic  ore.  Silver  plate  and 
manufactured  articles  of  gold  and  silver  generally  contain 
an  alloy  of  cop^ier  or  othermctal.  (See  Alloy.)  In  Great 
Britain  each  article  before  it  is  sold  is  as.sayed  at  Goldsmiths' 
Hall,  so  as  to  determine  the  proportion  of  precious  metal  in 
its  composition.  The  process  of  assaying  gold  and  silver 
depends  on  tlu'  principle  that  those  metals  can  not  be  con- 
verted into  oxides  liv  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  while 
the  baser  metals  with  which  they  are  alloyed  can  lie  oxidized 
if  raised  to  a  high  tempirature.  The  ajiijaratus  employed 
in  this  process  consists  of  a  cupel,  a  small  shallow  vessel 
made  of  bone-ash,  and  a  muffle.  The  latter  is  made  of  fire- 
clay, is  about  8  inches  long,  3  or  4  inclu's  in  diameter,  and  is 
shaped  like  a  railway  tunnel  (that  is,  having  a  flat  bottom 
and  an  archeil  top);  it  is  open  at  one  i'ikI  and  closed  at  the 
other,  and  has  several  a]iertures  in  its  sides  for  air  to  pass 
through.  Weighed  fragments  of  mixed  silver  and  lead  are 
placed  on  cupels,  which,  introduced  into  a  iriufEle,  are  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  a  funiace  until  the  metals  are  melted. 
The  oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the  lead,  forming  an  ox- 
ide, which  is  partly  volatilized  ami  partly  absorbed  by  the 
])orous  cupel.  At  the  end  of  this  \n'o<_vsr^o(  cu/jfUiif ion  thiuu^ 
reuuiins  a  globule  of  pure  silver,  which  by  its  (liminishe(l 
weight  shows  how  much  alloy  was  contained  in  the  sample. 
Duriiig  the  a,s.say  of  silver  by  the  foregoing  [irocess.  called 
the  dry  methoil,  a  small  lo.ss  of  silver  occui-s.  For  this  rea- 
son the  humid  process  ha,s  been  adopted  in  the  mints  of 
France,  of'  the  U.  S.,  and  of  other  nations.  This  method 
consists  in  dissolving  the  comjiound  or  impure  silver  in 
nitric  acid  of  densily  r2.'j,and  adding  a  solution  of  common 
salt  (NaC'l),  which  causes  the  precipitation  of  the  chloride  of 
silver  (AgC'l)  in  while  flocculi.  The  solution  of  salt  is  made 
of  a  definite^  strenglh.  and  is  poured  out  of  a  graduated  ves- 
sel until  all  precijiilation  of  pure  silver  ceases.  The  assay 
of  gold  ores  or  impure  gold  is  performed  in  a  manner  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  silver.  If  gold  alloyed  with  copper  is  to  be 
assayed,  some  silver  must  be  added  to  tl\f;  alloy.  The  alloy 
of  the  three  metals,  gold,  silver,  and  I'opjier.  may  be  assayed  by 
cupellatioM.  by  which  the  copper  is  oxidized  and  the  gold 
and  silver  remain  comliined.  Tlu'se  may  be  separated  by  a 
process  called  parfiiiy,  which,  however,  is  only  practicable 
when  the  alloy  contains  three  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold. 
The  parting  or  quart  at  i<m  consists  in  acting  on  the  alloy  by 
hot  nitric  acid,  which  di-ssolves  the  silver,  forming  the  solu- 
ble nitrate  of  silver,  and  leaves  the  gold  in  a  solid  and  sepa- 
rate state.  As  no  ore  of  gold  or  artificial  alloy  contains  .so 
much  silver  as  three  to  one.  it  is  necessary  to  ineorjiorate  an 
additional  quantity  of  silver  with  it.  Tliis  is  done  by  wraji- 
ping  the  proper  (piantities  of  gold  and  silver  in  lead-foil 
and  heating  them  on  a  cupel.  The  metallic;  button  which 
is  the  result  of  this  cupellation  is  hammered  on  an  anvil, 
and  rolled  into  a  thin  plate  or  ribbon,  which  is  coiled  up  and 
called  a  cnrml.  This  is  exposed  in  a  gla.ss  vessel  to  the  ac- 
tion of  nitric  acid,  which,  dissolving  the  silver,  leaves  a 
brown,  spongy  mass  of  gold.  It  is  then  heated  in  a  cruci- 
ble, annealed,  and  weighed.  As  jewelry  and  other  articles 
can  not  be  a.s,sayed  either  by  the  dry  or  humid  method  with- 
out injuring  their  form,  their  purity  is  a.scertained  by  the 
use  of  the  louchstone,  with  whicn  a  streak  is  drawn  on  the 
surface  of  the  gold.  Black  basalt  is  one  of  the  minerals  used 
as  a  touchstone. 

.\s'say(' :  a  village  of  S.  India,  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions, 
24  miles"  N.  of  .laulna  (see  map  of  .S.  India,  ref.  3-V>).  It  was 
the  scene  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington's  first  irreat  victorv.  On 
Sept.  23.  1803.  with  a  force  of  2.000  British  and  2.500  na- 
tives, he  utterlv  defeated  the  JIahialta.s.  numbering  from 
30,000  to  50,000' men,  partly  officered  by  the  French."  Wel- 
lington, then  Gen.  Wellesley,  captured  98  cannon,  and  lost 
1,560  killed  and  wounded. 

Asselyil,  or  Asselijii.  a'iis'spl-lln,  .Iax  (or  Haxs);  land- 
scape anil  aninud  painter;  b.  at  Antwerp  in  1610:  studied 
painting,  first  in  his  native  city  under  Isaiah  Vandervehh', 
then  in  Koine,  where  Bamboccio  and  Claude  Lorraine  be- 
came his  models;  settled  .subsequently  in  Amsterdam,  and 
died  there  in  lOfiO.  lie  painted  battle-pieces,  animals,  and 
landscapes,  and  his  views  of  the  neighborhood  of  Rome  are 
much  appreciated. 

Assoinaii'iii,  Giuseppe  Simose  :  Bishop  of  Tyre  i»  pnr/i- 
hus;  a  learned  Maronitc ;  b.  at  Tripoli,  in  Svria,  in  1687. 
He  was  sent  in  1715  by  the  pope  to  Syria  and  Ijgypt  to  col- 
lect manu.s4'ripts.  ami  was  keeiier  of  the  Vatican  Lilirary 
(1738-68).     He  pulilish'cd  a  valuable  work  on  Syrian  litera- 


372 


ASSEMBLY 


ASSIGNMENT 


ture.  entitled  Bibliotheca  Orienlnlis  Clemeniino-Vatieana 
(4  vols.,  1719-28).  D.  in  Rome,  Jan.  14,  1768.— His  nephew, 
Stefaso  EvoDio,  an  Orientalist,  born  at  Tri]ioli  in  1707,  was 
educated  at  Rome.  He  wa.s  Archliisliop  of  Apaniea  in  pint  i- 
liiix.  He  succeeded  his  uncle,  Giuscp|)e  Sinione.  as  keeper 
of  the  Vatican  Libi-ary,  in  1768.  He  jjublished  several  cata- 
logues of  Oriental  manuscripts.    D.  in  Rome,  Nov.  24,  1782. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Asseni'bly  :  in  politics,  a  convention  or  body  of  men  asso- 
ciated for  civil  or  legislative  business,  and  possessing  more  or 
less  political  power.  In  some  States  of  tiic  U.  S.  the  legis- 
lature, is  collectively  called  the  General  Aasembli/.  anA  visls 
formerly  also  called  the  General  Coiirf,  and  had  certain 
judicial  powers  which  are  now  mostly  taken  away;  in  some 
of  the  States  the  lower  brnueh  of  the  legislature  is  called 
the  Assembli/.  anil  the  other  house  is  called  the  Senate.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  the  membei-s  of 
the  Tierx  Elat  (Third  Estate),  who  had  been  chosen  to  rep- 
resent the  common  people  in  the  States-General,  assumed 
(Jan.  17,  178!))  the  title  of  AAiemblee  Xafionale.  and,  hav- 
ing been  joined  by  the  more  lilieral  members  of  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  proceeded  to  frame  a  new  constitution.  The 
court  denied  their  authority,  and  made  a  not  very  vigorous 
effort  to  dissolve  the  Assembly,  but  failed,  and  finally  yield- 
ed to  the  popular  current.  This  body,  whicli  w;is  termed 
the  Constituent  Assembly,  formed  a  constitution  which  was 
accepted  by  the  king,  and,  having  ordered  the  election  of 
a  legislative  assembly,  dissolved  itself  Sept.  30,  1701.  The 
Legislative  Assembly,  from  which  all  members  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  were  expressly  excluded,  met  Oct..  1791, 
and  continued  to  undermine  or  defy  the  royal  authority, 
wliich  was  abolished  Aug.  10. 1793.  Having  convoked  a  Xa- 
fioiial  Convention,  the  Assembly  closed  its  laljors  and  exist- 
ence Sept.  21,  1792.  The  formation  of  the  second  French 
republic  (Feb..  1848)  was  followed  by  the  election  of  a  Na- 
tional Assembly,  which  met  in  May  of  that  year,  and,  having 
formed  a  constitution,  transferred  its  power  to  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly.  This  body  was  dissolved  or  abolished  by 
the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851.  The  third  republic  was  pro- 
claimed Sept.  4,  1870,  but,  on  accoinit  of  the  presence  of 
German  armies  in  France,  the  election  of  deputies  was  post- 
jKined  until  the  armistice,  which  began  just  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Paris.  Jan.  30,  1871.  Tlie  National  Assembly  met  at 
Bordeaux  in  February,  and  elected  Adolphe  Thiers'  as  chef 
dti  puueuir  executif  (chief  of  the  executive  power). 

Revised  by  P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Assembly,  General :  See  General  Assembly. 

Assembly,  Unlawful:  See  Riot. 

Assessments  {political):  See  Civil  Service  Reform. 

Asses'sor  [from  Lat.  assessor,  one  who  sits  beside,  assist- 
ant, judge;  nd.  to  +  sede're,  sit]:  in  Great  Britain,  a  persim, 
usually  a  lawyer  or  jurist,  who  is  appointed  to  advise  the 
judge  ;  the  legal  adviser  of  a  magistrate  in  determining  po- 
lice and  similar  ca.ses.  In  several  inferior  courts  assessors 
are  appointed  by  statute.  The  burgesses  of  every  borough 
are  requireil  to  elect  annually  two  assessors,  who  assist  the 
nuiyor  in  revising  tlie  burgess  lists  and  in  presiding  at  the 
municipal  elections.  An  assessor  is  also  a  person  elected  by 
the  |)eople,  a.s  in  the  V.  S.,  or  appointed  to  assess  or  appraise 
all  taxable  property,  in  order  that  the  owner  of  the  same 
may  pay  a  tax  proportioned  to  its  value.  This  valuation  or 
appraisement  is  called  assessment.  The  asses.sed  value  is 
usually  less  than  the  real,  or  less  than  the  price  for  which  it 
could  be  purchased. 

^  As'seteajue  Island :  an  island  off  the  east  coast  of 
Northampton  co.,  Va.,  to  which  it  belongs  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  6-J);  has  a  brick  light- 
house 129  feet  high,  standing  2  miles  from  the  S.  W.  ex- 
tremity o[  the  island  and  showing  a  fixed  light  of  the  fii-st 
order,  l.")0  feet  above  the  sea,  in  lat.  'dV  54'  37"  N.,  Ion.  75° 
21'  04-  W. 

As'sets  [0.  Fr.  asez.  enough  <  vulg.  Lat.  ad  satis,  to  suffi- 
ciency]: in  law,  denotes  the  property  in  the  possession  of  an 
heir  or  under  control  of  an  executor,  administrator,  or  trus- 
tee, applicable  to  the  payment  of  debts  an<l  charges  against 
the  estate  which  they  represent.  It  is  mainly  applied  to  the 
ca.se  of  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators.  Assets  are 
either  real  or  personal.  Real  estate  is  assets  in  the  hands  of 
an  heir ;  personid  property,  in  like  manner,  in  those  of  an 
executor  or  administrator.  If  the  real  estate  is  devised  to 
an  executor,  he  takes  it  as  trustee.  Assets  are  also  distin- 
guished into  legal  and  equitaljle,  the  first  being  under  the 


control  of  a  court  of  law.  and  the  .second  administered  by  a 
court  of  equity ;  and  the  two  courts  are  not  governed  by  the 
same  rules.  In  the  U.  S.  this  last  distinction  is.  by  reason  of 
statute  law,  of  little  consequence,  as  all  the  estate  of  a  de- 
ceased person  becomes  a  fund  for  the  liquidation  of  his 
debts,  according  to  a  prescribed  statutory  order.  The  dis- 
tinction between  real  and  pei-sonal  assets  is  still  of  impor- 
tance, as  it  is  a  general  rule  that  real  estate  is  not  to  be 
taken  for  the  payment  of  debts  until  the  personal  property 
is  exhausted.  A  testator  may  liy  a  suflicieutly  clear  direc- 
tion in  his  will  avoid  the  eft'ect  of  this  rule,  and  make  his 
real  estate  the  primary  fund  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 

Assll'nr,  or  Ash'iir:  an  ancient  and  iioi)ulous  city;  capi- 
tal of  Assyria ;  on  the  Tigris,  40  miles  below  Calah,  and  60 
miles  S.  of  Nineveh.  Its  site  is  marked  by  extensive  ruins 
at  Kileh-Sherghat.  Here  is  a  large  square  moimd  or  plat- 
form, 2i  miles  in  circumference,  about  100  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  plain,  and  composed  in  part  of  sun-dried  bricks. 
Cuneiform  inscriptions  of  great  interest  have  been  found 
here. — A  son  of  Shem  was  also  called  Asshur,  from  whom 
the  name  of  the  city  was  derived. 

Asshnrbauipal  (i.  e.  As.shur  creates  a  son):  the  gieatcst 
of  the  Kings  of  Assyria ;  niled  at  Nineveh  668-626  B.  c.  The 
literary  remains  from  his  liljrary  and  the  treasures  of  art 
from  his  palace  liave  been  brouglit  in  large  numbers  to  the 
British  JIuseum.     See  Assyria  {History).        D.  G.  Lyon. 

Assien'to  (or  preferably  Asiento):  a  word  applied  to 
treat  ies  which  the  Government  of  Spain  made  with  several 
foreign  nations  for  the  purjiose  of  supplying  her  colonies 
with  Negro  slaves.  The  first  of  the  assientos  was  made  with 
the  Flemings,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  The 
Genoese  obtained  the  contract  in  1580.  The  privilege  was 
transferred  to  the  Portuguese  in  1096.  and  to  the  French  in 
1 701.  The  Britisli  acquired  it  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  1713, 
but  resigned  or  sold  it  to  Spain, about  1750,  since  which  no 
such  contract  has  been  made. 

Assign,  or  Assignee  :  See  A.«signment. 

Assignat,  ils'-ig-nat  (in  Fr.  a'aseenyaa) :  one  of  the  notes 
forming  the  ]>a|)er  cui'rency  issued  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment in  1790,  and  at  subsequent  periods  of  the  revolution- 
ary regime.  It  was  liased  on  the  security  of  the  national 
domains,  which  consisted  of  the  confiscated  estates  of  the 
Church  and  wealthy  emigres.  The  total  amount  of  assignats 
issued  was  45.578.000.000  francs.  The  public  credit  having 
been  ruined  by  the  reign  of  terror  and  anarchy,  the  v.alue 
of  the  assignats  declined  lower  and  lower.  In  June,  1793, 
one  franc  in  siher  was  worth  three  francs  in  paper.  The 
Government,  in  order  to  check  tlu'ir  deiireciation.  jiassed  a 
law  to  fix  the  maximum  prices  of  commodities,  the  effect  of 
which  law  was  very  injurious  to  trade.  In  Mar.,  1796,  one 
franc  in  gold  was  equivalent  to  300  francs  in  paper.  In 
July  of  that  .year  the  assignats  were  recalled,  and  replaced 
by  the  mandais. 

Assign'ment  Ifrom  Lat.  assigna're,  appoint] :  in  law.  the 
act  of  making  over  to  another  one's  estate  or  interest.  The 
person  making  the  assignment  is  an  assignor;  the  recipient 
is  an  assignee  or  assign.  The  word  is  mainly  used  in  refer- 
ence to  transfers  of  lea.ses,  incorporeal  rights,  such  as  copy- 
rights and  patents,  and  rights  of  action.  Such  transfers  are 
to  some  extent  by  statute  law  required  to  be  in  writing.  It 
is  a  rule  of  common  laic  that  a  thing  in  action  is  not  assign- 
able, though  this  doctrine  is  not  followed  in  a  court  of 
eqiiiti/.  an  assignment  lieing  regarded  in  that  court  as  in  the 
nature  of  a  declaration  of  trust,  so  that  the  assignor  becomes 
a  trustee  for  the  assignee.  There  are  some  exceptions  to 
this  rule,  as  in  the  case  of  mere  pei-sonal  causes  of  action 
and  cases  where  pid)lic  policy  intervenes.  Such  an  assignee 
simply  takes  the  rights  of  his  assignor,  and  holds  subject  to 
any  defenses  wliich  the  debtor  could  urge  against  his  cred- 
itor. There  is  a  class  of  things  in  action  not  subject  to  this 
infirmity,  such  as  bills  of  exclumge.  promissory  notes,  checks 
upon  banks,  and  jiublic  securities  jiayable  to  order  or  bearer. 
He  who  purchases  these  in  good  faith  and  Ijcfore  maturity, 
for  a  valuable  consideration,  may  shut  out  for  the  most  part 
the  defenses  which  might  have  been  urged  against  the  pavee. 
Such  paper  is  termed  negotiable.  In  this  way  the  distinc- 
tion Ijetween  that  which  is  negotiable  and  that  which  is  as- 
signabU'  bi'comes  of  great  jiractical  consetjuence.  It  is  a 
fn'queiil  practice  on  taking  an  assignment  of  a  claim  to  ob- 
tain Ji  statenieiil  from  the  ilebtor  that  he  has  no  defense  to 
it.  He  would  then  be  precluded  from  setting  up  any  that  he 
might  have  on  the  doctrine  of  estoppel. 


ASSIMILATION 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS 


373 


Tlio  word  "  assignment "  is  also  used  to  indicate  the  act  of 
sett  ins  ii|>iirt  dower  for  a  widow  in  the  real  estalc  of  her 
hiishaiKl.  It  is  also  ciuplovod  in  case  of  bankruptcy  or  in- 
solvency, to  inilicate  the  act  of  transfer  of  a  failing  debtor's 
properly  to  a  person  called  an  assijinec;,  who  is  substantially 
a  trustee  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors.  A  failing  debtor 
bv  tlie  laws  of  some  Slates  is  permitted  to  make  a  voluntary 
aiid  even  preferential  transfer  t(>  an  assignee  acting  in  the 
same  general  manner,  though  such  laws  are  substantially 
superseded  for  the  time  being  when  there  is  a  U.  S.  bank- 
rupt law  in  operation.  T.  W.  Dwight. 

Assimilation  (in  plants) :  the  change  or  series  of  changes 
made  ujiiMi  I  lie  carlion-dioxide  (carbonic  acid  gas)  and  water 
in  green  cells,  resulting  in  the  production  of  a  hydrocarbon 
food-stulf  (usually  starch).  We  can  not  yet  give  an  exact 
account  of  the  successive  steps  in  assimilation.  The  princi- 
pal facls,  however,  are  as  follows  :  Carbon-dioxide  contains 
carbon  (C)  and  oxygen  (O)  in  the  proportion  of  one  atom  of 
tlic  former  to  two  of  the  latter  (COj).  Water  contains  hydro- 
gen (II)  two  atoms  and  oxygen  (O)  one  atom  (II3O).  These 
are  taken  iu  by  tlie  green  cells,  and  eventually  starch  is  pro- 
duced, whether  directly  or  indirectly  is  not  now  certainly  de- 
termined. Some  oxygen  is  liberated  during  assimilation,  in- 
dicating a  breaking  up  of  one  or  both  of  the  constituents. 
It  can  readily  be  seen  that  six  molecules  of  carbon-dioxide 
and  five  of  water  afford  the  necessary  elements  in  the  proper 
(juantities  for  the  formation  of  a  molecule  of  starch.     Thus  : 

Six  molecules  of  COj     =  Co  Ou 

Five  molecules  of  IlaO  =     H10O5 

One  molecule  of  starch  =  Callio06-I-12  atoms  of  0  set  free. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  process  is  as  simple  as 
this;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  probably  quite  complex,  this 
statement  serving  merely  as  a  summary  of  the  results.  As- 
similation takes  place  in  cells  which  contain  cliloropliyll, 
the  green  substance  of  plants,  and  only  in  the  light.  Parts 
of  plants  destitute  of  chlorophyll  are  destitute  of  the  power 
of  assimilation,  nor  can  green  cells  assimilate  in  darkness.  ^ 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Assiniboia,  li&s-sin'i-boi'-a  (named  irom  Asuinihoine):  a 
district  of  the  Northwest  Territories  and  a  future  province 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  is  rectangular  in  form  and 
has  Saskatchewan  district  on  the  N.,  Manitoli:i  on  the  E., 
North  Dakota  and  ^lontana  on  the  S.,  and  Alberta  on  the 
W.  It  is  a  part  of  the  great  plains  E.  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, but  has  many  hills  and  coteaus.  The  most  celebrated 
of  the  latter  is  a  low  ridge  called  the  Missouri  Coteau,  ex- 
teniling  from  about  the  center  of  the  district  southe.istward 
far  into  North  Dakota.  The  country  is  well-watered,  and 
has  many  small  lakes.  About  a  third  of  it  is  draineil  by  the 
Saskatchewan  river,  which  emi)ties  into  tlie  north  eml  of  jjake 
Winnipeg:  about  a  half  drains  through  the  Qu'appellc  and 
Souri  rivers  into  the  Assiniboine,  and  so  into  the  south  end  of 
the  same  lake  :  the  remainder  consists  in  jiart  of  small  inde- 
pendent basins,  and  in  part  drains  into  the  Missouri  river. 
Area,  i).),0(K)  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1H8-'))  22,08:!,  but  rapidly  increas- 
ing. Of  the  population,  4.492  were  Indians  and  1,017  half- 
breeds;  5,85;i  were  engaged  in  agriculture.  There  were  160,- 
000  acres  under  cultivation,  and  the  live  stock  included 
8,000  horses,  20,000  cattle,  9.000  sheep,  and  17,000  swine. 
Wheat  (1,000,0110  bushels  in  IS80),  barley,  oats,  pease,  and 
potatoes  are  raised;  and  there  is  a  considerable  proiluction 
of  ])eltry,  including  13,000  muskrat  skins,  :5,000  mink,  and 
900  beaver.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  pksses  nearly  cen- 
trally through  the  district.  Capital.  Regina,  which  is  also 
the  capital  for  the  Northwest  Territories  gener.illy.  The 
climate  of  Assiniboia  is  rather  severe,  but  the  winter  temper- 
ature is  fre(|uently  tempered  by  chinooks.  It  is  subject  to 
sev<>re  bli/zards,  and  the  most  of  the  severe  winter  storms 
and  cold  waves  of  the  Northern  States  come  from  Assiniboia. 

Mark  W.  IIakrinoton. 

Assisi,  a'l-sce'see :  a  town  of  Italy  ;  province  of  Perugia; 
built  on  a  steep  liill,  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Perugia  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  ."i-E).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  flanked  with 
towers,  and  has  a  cathedral  built  in  the  eleventh  century 
and  many  monasterii^s.  It  is  the  native  place  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, and  has  remarkable  jiaintings  liy  Cimabue  and  Giolfo, 
and  a  lar:;e  and  beautiful  Gothic  structure,  Convento  Sacro, 
with  fine  paintings.  Among  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
Assisium  is  a  beautiful  portico  of  llio  temple  of  Minerva. 
Pop.  about  6,000. 

Assis'fanco.  Writ  of:  in  Great  Britain,  a  writ  issued  by 
the  court  of  chancery  to  the  sheriff  directing  liiin  to  put  a 


party  in  whose  favor  a  decree  has  been  rendered  in  posse.s- 
sion  of  land  to  which  the  decree  has  declared  him  to  be  en- 
titled ;  also,  in  tlie  U.  S.,  a  writ  issued  by  the  colonial  courts 
to  aid  the  crown  ollicers  in  enforcing  the  acts  of  trade. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen'. 
Assint,  tiiis'see-o'bt',  Assiont,  or  Siut  (ane.  Lyco'poUs) :  a 
district  and  a  cit  v  of  Upper  Egvpt.  The  dist  rict  is  a  very  fer- 
tile one.  Area,  840  sq.  miles ;  "pop.  (1882)  562,137.  The  city 
is  the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt ;  is  near  tlie  Nile,  in  lat.  37° 
11'  N. ;  the  terminus  of  the  railroad  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river,  and  228  miles  S.  of  Cairo.  It  is  the  finest  city  in 
Egypt,  except  Cairo,  and  has  fine  mosques  and  bazaars,  a 
palace,  bat  lis,  and  a  cotton-factory.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  fhnir- 
ishing  American  mission.  It  is  the  chief  resort  of  the  cara- 
vans i'rom  the  Sudan,  and  was  until  recently  a  center  for 
the  slave-trade.  It  is  also  an  important  military  station, 
and  has  a  large  manufactory  of  iiipe-bowls.  Traces  of  the 
ancient  civilization  are  abundant  iii  and  about  it,  including 
the  ruins  of  a  Roman  amjihit heater.  The  view  of  the  Nile 
valley  from  the  tops  of  the  adjacent  Lybian  hills  is  said  to 
be  the  finest  in  Egypt.  The  population  is  said  to  be  indus- 
trious and  reliable.     Pop.  31,57o.  M.  W.  H. 

Assize  [O.  Fr.  adse,  a  sitting,  assessment ;  past  partie.  of 
vb.  from  Lat.  asside're,  sit  down  to]:  an  ancic^nt  English 
court ;  also,  formerly,  a  writ  to  recover  the  possession  of  a 
freehold.  The  word  is  now  used  in  the  plural  to  denote  the 
stated  sittings  of  the  judges  of  the  superior  courts  in  Eng- 
land in  the  vai'ions  counties,  by  virtue  of  several  commis- 
sions, to  try  civil  and  criminal  cases. 

lieviscd  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Associate  Presbytery:  1.  The  organization  formed  by 
Ebenezer  Erskiiie  and  others,  who  seceded  from  the  Churcli 
of  Scotland  in  1733.  In  1745,  having  grown  to  forty-five 
congregations,  it  was  reconstituted  under  the  name  of  the 
Associate  Synod.  In  1747  it  was  torn  into  two  bodies,  com- 
monly knoNvn  as  Burglier  and  Antiburghcr,  each  of  which 
claimed  the  name  Associate  Synod,  tliough  from  1778  the 
Antiburghers  are  called  the  General  Assocuile  Synod.  2. 
In  1799  the  "Old-light"  Burghers,  having  se])araled  them- 
selves i'rom  the  " New-li!>lit "  majority,  called  themselves  at 
first  file  Associate  Presliytery,  but  from  1805  the  Associate 
Synod,  or  Oriyinal  Buiylier  Synod.  Constitutional  Asso- 
ciate I'resliyte'ry  is  the  name  taken  by  the  Old-light  Anti- 
burghers, When  they  separated  from  the  New-light  majority, 
in  1804, 

Through  many  schisms  and  reunions  tliese  bodies  are  now 
represented  in  various  existing  Presbyterian  Churches,  par- 
ticularly those  that  are  known  as  "  United,"  or  "  Reformed,"' 
or  "Secession,",  or  "Seceder,"  as  well  as  in  the  Associate 
Church  of  North  America,  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of 
New  York,  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South,  and 
the  Associate  Synod  of  North  America.  For  statistics  of 
these  Churches,  and  for  their  history,  with  the  history  of  the 
various  "  Associate "  movements,  see  the  article  Presbv- 
TERiAX  CiiiTRoii ;  also  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
United  Secession  Church,  United  Original  Seceders, 
Scotland,  Church  of,  and  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  etc. 

W.  J.  Beecher. 

Associated  Presbyteries:  the  presbyteries  of  Morris 
County,  Westchester,  Northern,  and  Saratoga  (in  New  York 
State),"organized  from  1 780 1  o  1807.  So  far  as  t  heir  associated 
character  is  concerned,  they  were  soon  absorbed  in  other 
bodies.    See  Presbyterian  Church. 

Associated  Press  :  an  association  of  newspapers  in  the 
IT.  S.  for  the  eolleetion  of  news.  Its  principal  center  was  at 
New  York,  but  there  were  subordinate  centers,  as  at  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago,  and  Washington,  to  which  items  of  news  were 
transmitted,  to  bo  there  condensed  and  distributed  to  the 
various  journals.  The  association  either  sold  the  news  it 
collected  to  other  similar  associations  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  or  in  Europe,  or  exchanged  with  lliem.  In  1893 
it  was  absiirbed  by  The  United  Pre^s,  an  association  organ- 
ized in  1882  for  similar  purposes. 

Associate  Synod  :  See  Associate  Presbytery. 

Association  of  Ideas  (otherwise  called  Mental  Asso- 
ciation, or  simply  Association,  Suggestion,  Connection 
of  Ideas,  Train  "of  Thouglit,  Succession  <tf  Thoughts, 
etc.):  a  principle  or  law  in  mental  pliilosoiiiiy  exercising  an 
important  inlluence  ii|)on  tlie  operations  of  the  mind.  "  \\  hen 
a  traveler  visits  the  ruins  of  Athens  or  of  Rome,  the  plain  of 
Pharsalia  or  of  Marathon,  the  sight  of  these  places  awakens 
the  memory  of  the  men  and  of  the  deeds  which  have  made 


374 


ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAS 


them  glorious."  The  names  of  the  great  recall  their  achieve- 
ments. A  ]iortrait  revives  similar  memories,  and  calls  tip 
emotions  which  might  have  seemed  dormant  forever. 

It  may  be  a  sound, 
A  tone  of  music,  summer's  eve,' or  spring:, 
A  flower,  the  wind,  the  ocean,  which  shall  wound, 
Striking  the  electric  chain. — Byron, 

These  facts  rest  upon  the  reciprocal  power  of  thought  to 
evoke  thought.  Under  this  power  arises  wiiat  is  called  the 
association  of  ideas,  but  its  law  is  the  law  of  intellectual 
gravitation — its  sphere  is  the  universe  of  mind.  It  is  wider 
tlian  "ideas,"  and  extends  to  all  our  mental  modifications. 
Our  cognitions,  emotions,  and  active  powers,  all  come  under 
the  law  of  association.  Our  feeUng.s,  our  willings.  and  our 
efforts  are  as  completely  held  in  groups  by  internal  bonds 
as  our  ideas  are. 

Association  may  connect  ideas  by  a  simple  link  or  liy  a 
multitude  of  link's.  The  idea  of  the  civil  war  of  England 
prompts  the  question,  "  Wliat  is  the  value  of  a  Roman  de- 
narius?"  There  are  no  two  thoughts  so  remote  as  to  have 
no  link,  Tlie  laws  of  association  have  been  variously  enu- 
merated.    Some  of  the  most  obvious  and  important  are  : 

1.  Simultaneity  and  succession,  sTOchronism  and  cliro- 
nology.  Thus  Caesar  and  Pompey,  Luther  and  Leo,  Charles 
I.  and  Charles  II. ;  Aristotle  back  to  Plato,  Descartes  on  to 
Spinoza. 

2.  Contiguity  and  remoteness  between  ourselves  and  the 
things,  or  between  the  tilings  themselves:  Xew  York  and 
Brooklyn,  oui-selves  and  our  antipodes.  We  think  of  5Ier- 
cury  as  nearest  the  sun,  and  that  suggests  Neptune  as  the 
farthest  off, 

3.  Resemblance  and  contrast  to  the  eye  in  works  of  art, 
which  recall  the  original  to  the  mind:  metaphor;  punning 
rests  on  the  association  of  sounds  tliat  resemlile  with  things 
that  differ.     Night  recalls  day,  sickness  recall's  healtli. 

4.  The  logical  relations  involve  association  of  ideas,  though 
not  all  association  of  ideas  is  logical :  cause  and  effect,  work- 
men and  work,  father  and  child,  the  universe  and  God,  ob- 
ject and  means,  analogy,  premise  and  conclusion,  part  and 
whole.  The  relations  of  physical,  mechanical,  and  cosmical 
order  are  of  tlie  same  kind,  and  hence  association  is  the 
mother  of  invention  and  discovery. 

5.  The  association  of  the  verbal  sign  with  the  thing  sig- 
nified, wliich  is  the  essence  of  language  and  the  necessary 
preliminary  to  reasoning.  Two  or  more  of  these  causes  may 
co-operate  in  particular  cases,  or  the  thing  may  in  one  as- 
pect give  rise  to  one  association,  in  another  aspect  to  an- 
other. Aristotle  reduces  the  principle  of  association  to 
three  parts:  Proximity  in  time  and  contiguity  in  place  as 
one :  resemblance,  contrast.  Hume  says :  "  There  appear  to 
lie  only  three  principles  of  connection  among  ideas — name- 
ly, resemblance,  contiguity  in  time  or  place,  and  cause  or 
effect.  A  picture  naturally  leads  our  thouglits  to  the  orig- 
inal (resemblance) ;  tlie  mention  of  one  ajiartment  intro- 
duces an  inquiry  concerning  the  others  (contiguity) ;  we 
think  of  a  wound  and  the  pain  which  follows  it  (cause  and 
effect)."  Augustine  reduces  the  principle  to  one :  What  is 
once  together  is  afterward  together.  Hoblics  says :  "  The 
cause  of  the  coherence  or  consequence  of  one  conception  to 
another  is  their  first  coherence  or  consequence  at  that  time 
wiien  they  are  produced  by  sense."  Cardaillac  (1830)  in 
substance  repeats  Hobbes  when  he  says  that  simultaneity  is 
the  common  condition  of  all  the  other  connections :  nothing 
i-an  be  linked  now  that  has  not  been  linked  before.  Ham- 
ilton in  the  same  way  reduces  the  laws  to  two,  simultaneity 
and  all'iiiily ;  and  these  two  laws,  ho  asserts,  are  only  modi- 
fications of  one  law,  redintegration,  or  totality:  "Tliose 
thoughts  suggest  each  other  which  had  previously  consti- 
tuted parts  of  the  same  entire  or  total  act  of  cognition," 
This  is  ending  where  Augustine  began.  Hamilton  main- 
tains that  a  third  thought  may  be  a,ssociated  with  a  first 
through  a  second  which  "  does  not  rise  into  consciousness," 
"suggestions  [lassing  through  one  or  more  ideas  which  do 
not  themselves  rise  into  consciousness,"  This  false  tlieory 
in  metaphysics  he  illustrates  by  an  example  drawn  from  a 
false  theory  in  physics — to  wit,  that  billiard-balls  in  a  row, 
intermediate  between  the  first  one,  which  is  struck,  and  the 
last  one,  which  flies  otf,  remain  motionless.  Hamilton's 
whole  iKisitinn  and  argument  are  marked  by  the  crudity 
and  seir-contrailietion  which  often  mar  his  lectures.  The 
tnie  theory  in  such  cases  is  that  the  acts  of  consciousness 
are  too  rapid  to  mark  themselves  deejily  and  distinctly 
enough  in  memory  to  be  carried  on  Ijy  it  to  the  end  of  the 
process.     Reflection  usually  with  very  little  dilliculty  ar- 


ticulates all  the  parts.  When  Hamilton  reflectively  asso- 
ciated Ben  Lomond  with  the  Prussian  system  of  education, 
he  simply  did  slowly  what  he  had  done  before  rapidly.  The 
human  mind  is  subtler  than  light,  far  beyond  the  degree  in 
which  light  is  subtler  than  lead.  Consciousness  is  the  es- 
sential condition  of  an  idea.  Memory,  as  objectively  sepa- 
rated in  time  from  consciousness,  is  not  essential  to  it,'  Both 
can  be  born  together,  and  both  die  together.  A  precedence 
ill  the  order  of  thought  must  not  be  confounded  with  a  pre- 
cedence objectively  in  time.  Alexander  Bain  reduces  the 
primary  attributes  of  intellect  to  three,  of  which  the  third 
is  retentiveness,  the  facts  connected  with  which  may,  with 
few  exceptions,  "be  comprehended  under  the  principle 
called  the  law  of  contiguity  or  contiguous  adhesion.  The 
principle  of  contiguity  has  been  described  under  various 
names — as  Hamilton's  law  of  '  redintegration,'  the  'associa- 
tion of  ideas,'  The  princijjle  may  be  stated  thus :  Actions, 
sensations,  and  states  of  feeling,  occurring  together  or  in 
close  succession,  tend  to  grow  together  or  cohere  in  such  a 
way  that  when  any  one  of  them  is  afterward  presented  to 
the  mind  the  others  are  apt  to  be  brought  up  in  idea,"  Bain 
further  discusses  agreement,  law  of  similarity,  compound  as- 
sociation, constructive  association. 

Not  all  ideas  once  integrant  are  necessarily  redintegrated. 
The  strength  of  the  impression  which  they  originally  made, 
their  duration  in  fellowship,  the  time  which  has  elapsed 
since  we  had  them,  the  cogency  of  their  connection,  are  all 
determining  forces.  But  in  advance  of  all  this  the  tenden- 
cies of  the  law  of  association  in  the  particular  individual  are 
determined  by  the  native  constitution  of  his  mind  and  by 
the  circimistances  of  his  whole  training,  mental  and  moral. 
These  tendencies  carried  out  make  the  poet  or  the  mathe- 
matician, the  sensualist  or  the  sage.  An  illegitimate  asso- 
ciation of  ideas  may  mar  a  whole  life,  may  work  out  crime 
and  ruin.  One  and  the  same  thing  may  be  to  two  persons 
a  deadly  or  a  reviving  sa%  or.  The  same  flag  calls  forth  tlie 
fiercest  assaults  and  the  most  vigorous  defense.  The  same 
strain  of  music  awakens  joy,  sadness,  hope,  or  despair.  The 
poem  of  Wordsworth  on  the  Potver  of  Sound  is  but  an  ex- 
quisite painting  of  one  class  of  illustrations  of  the  power 
of  association.  There  are  national  tendencies  under  this 
law  as  well  as  individual.  Governments  and  societies  are 
Vmilt  for  ages  on  the  ideas  associated  with  a  single  central 
idea  embodied  in  a  word.  It  is  the  association  of  ideas 
wliich  makes  the  mightiest  and  holiest  bond  of  our  life — 
the  tie  of  the  home,  the  native  land,  the  Christian  com- 
munion. It  makes  the  heart  of  the  Swiss  sicken  and  die  for 
the  little  rocky  mountain-nook  which  is  associated  with 
the  lianz  des  Vaches.  The  principle  of  the  association  of 
ideas  is  therefore  not  only  of  profound  interest  in  psychol- 
ogy, but  has  great  imiiortance  in  morals.  Like  every  power 
of  man,  it  comes  under  the  law  of  moral  responsibility.  As- 
sociation is  in  certain  respects  involuntary,  and  habit  can  in 
any  case  carry  it  beyond  the  proper  control  of  the  will.  But 
the  will  can  largely  determine  wliat  shall  be  the  original 
links  of  association,  and  bear  an  important  part  in  determin- 
ing ■whether  we  shall  follow  up  or  repress  a  particular  class  of 
associated  ideas.  The  association  of  a  profane  or  ludicrous 
idea  with  a  sacred  name  or  fact  may  make  that  name  or 
fact  through  a  whole  lifetime  the  means  of  recalling  blas- 
phemy or  mockery. 

The  attempts  to  account  for  the  association  of  ideas  are 
of  course  affected  by  the  general  features  of  the  different 
systems.  The  effort  to  give  them  in  whole  or  in  part  an 
organic  mechanical  relation  has  been  made  by  Descartes, 
Hartley,  Bonnet,  and  a  number  of  later  writers,  who  relate 
them  to  brain-fiber  and  the  nerve.  Locke  says :  "  They 
seem  to  tie  but  traces  of  motion  in  the  animal  spirit." 
Kant  (Anthropologie)  truly  says  :  "  It  is  in  vain  to  look  for 
a  physiologic  solution  of  them."  This  wonderful  power  of 
the  human  mind  is  part  of  the  perfection  which  it  owes  to 
the  Great  Being  who  is  its  author.  The  thinker  who  makes 
ideas  and  tlieir  associations  physical  tilings  is  as  extrava- 
gant as  tile  iilralist  wlio  converts  the  solid  I'nrth  into  a  mere 
relation  lictwecn  the  mind  that  thinks  of  itself  and  the  mind 
itself  thus  thought  of.  The  materialist  and  the  absolute 
idealist  are  the  antipodes  of  the  one  world  of  extravagance 
in  thought.  The  later  psychologists,  llerbart,  Benecke, 
and  others,  have  ma<lo  clearer  the  twofold  character  in  the 
association  of  ideas:  First,  where  tlie  associated  elements 
are  homog(>neous,  and  ju'oduce  what  llerbart  calls  perfect 
fusion  ;  second,  where  the  elements  are  heterogeneous,  and 
result  in  eoiiqilication  or  imperfect  fusion.  This  distinction 
is  regarded  as  of  great  value  for  the  entire  soul-life,  but  es- 


ASSOCIATIONS  FOR  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE 


ASSYRIA 


3Y5 


pccially  witli  reference  to  tlie  points  at  which  the  approaches 
of  soul  to  tlic  pliysiolo<i;ical  processes  are  closest. 

A  well-re^ulaled  association  of  ideas  on  our  own  part  and 
a  delicate  perception  of  what  is  likely  to  be  the  association 
in  the  minds  of  othei-s  with  particular  words  or  things  are 
essential  to  the  charm  of  conversation  and  of  social  inter- 
course. Without  both  of  these  a  good  and  intelligent  man 
may  be  a  bore  and  a  nnisance.  Dne  of  the  characteristic 
dilferenccs  between  logic  and  wit  is  that  logic  kex'ps  the 
association  of  ideas  under  the  control  of  reason,  while  wit 
uses  it  for  comljinations  which  triumph  over  reason  and 
carry  it  away  a  delighted  cajitive.  The  active  imagination 
is  the  result  of  this  fori'e  of  the  association  of  ideas.  The 
imagination  no  more  creates  its  own  primtiry  elements  than 
the  painter  creates  the  matter  of  his  colors  or  his  canvas. 
The  imagination  selects  and  combines  what  the  law  of  as- 
sociation furnishes.  Its  most  daring  so-call<^d  "creations  " 
are  caiialile  of  an  easy  analysis,  which  shows  that  they  are 
shaped  under  this  law.  The  mcmorv  is  largely  dependent 
upon  association.  (See  Meuorv  andl^lNKMOTEcnxics.)  Va- 
rious uses  have  been  made  of  the  principle  of  association 
in  philosophy.  Hume  employs  it  to  explain  the  idea  of 
causality:  Iteid  and  others  to  account  for  the  force  of  habit. 
Hul  I  hough  the  association  of  ideas  can  become  the  subject 
of  culture,  it  is,  as  we  have  seen,  primary  and  innate. 

The  association  of  iileas  has  been  observed  by  thinkci-s 
from  an  early  |>eriod.  Aristotle  speaks  of  it  in  his  Treatise 
of  Re  111  ill  ixce  lice  very  brielly,  but  in  a  nianner  worthy  of 
his  wonderful  acuteness.  It  is  to  Locke,  however,  in  the 
latest  edition  of  his  J[iiiiinn  VmhrKtaiKlini),  we  owe  the 
tii-st  discussion  of  the  subject  with  a  fullness  at  all  commen- 
snrate  with  its  importance;  and  no  system  worthy  of  the 
name,  since  Locke,  has  failed  to  devote  a  large  space  to  it. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Assoriatioiis  for  .\(lviiii('pnient  of  Science  :  See  Ameri- 
can' Association  for  .Vdvanc  emext  ok  Science  and  BaiTisn 
Association  for  Advancement  of  Science. 

As'sonanee:  in  prosody,  the  repetition  of  the  same  ac- 
cented vowel  with  dillerent  consonants,  as  hat  and  man, 
late  and  s/iapc.  "  The  rule  of  assonance  requires  the  repe- 
tition of  the  same  vowels  in  the  a-s-sonant  words,  from  the 
hist  accented  vowel  inclusive"  (jVara/i)-  This  may  extend 
to  several  syllables.  This  substitute  for  rhyme  is  common 
in  Spanish  poetrv,  and  also  in  old  French  poetrv. 

■    C.  H.  T. 

As'sos,  or  Assns  (in  Gr.  "Airaos)  :  an  ancient  city  and  sea- 
port of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  territory  of  Mysia  :  was  situated 
oil  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  .\draniyttium,  between 
Cape  Leclum  and  Andros,  about  7  miles  from  tlie  oi)posite 
e<«ist  of  the  island  of  Lesbos  or  Jlilylene.  It  occupied  a 
eommaiKling  position  and  was  connected  with  the  sea  by 
a  long,  sleep  ascent ;  was  well  protected  by  walls,  and  was 
still  visited  by  shijiping  in  the  tiiiK^  of  the  apostle  Paul. 
The  surrounding  country  was  famous  for  its  wheat.  Assos 
was  singularly  a  Greek  city,  and  contains  many  interesting 
ruins,  including  those  of  a  theater,  citadel,  temples,  etc. 
The  Street  of  Tombs  is  one  of  its  most  remarkable  features. 
The  earliest  work  done  by  the  Archa-olo^ical  Institute  of 
America  was  a  thorough  exploration  of  tlie  site  of  Assos. 
in  1881-8;^ :  the  first  volume  of  a  full  report  upon  this  was 
published  by  the  Institute  in  1883. 

Revised  by  Russell  Stcruis. 

Assoiisin.  aas-swa"iin'  (anc.  Si/e'ne)  :  a  toxvn  of  Upper 
Kirvpl.i.ii  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  near  the  bonier  of 
Nubia,  ll.-;  miles  S.  of  Thebes;  lat.  24  5'  N.,  Ion.  3:!  E.  (see 
iMiiii  of  Africa,  rcf.  :i-K).  It  is  2|  miles  below  the  First 
Cataract,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  picturesque  situation 
and  ancient  monuments.  Here  are  quarries  of  syenite,  a 
variety  of  granite  whicli  derives  its  name  from  Syene.  From 
these  (piarries  came  the  red  obelisks  that  adoincd  various 
temples  of  Egyjjt.  Here  are  also  ruins  of  a  large  Saracen 
or  Araljian  town,  among  which  are  found  many  Cufic  in- 
-cripliiuis.  Here,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  poet 
.luvenal  died  in  exile  about  125  A.  D.,  but  this  is  not  now 
generally  believed.     Pop.  4,000. 

Assnmp'sit  (Tjat.,  ho  has  taken  ujion  himself,  perf.  act. 
•'id  sing,  of  ailmi  iiifre]:  a  contract  not  under  seal,  either 
written  or  oral,  express  or  implied,  as  distinguished  from 
a  coienaiil,  or  written  contract  under  seal ;  also,  a  common- 
law  action  to  obtain  damages  tor  the  violation  of  such  an 
agreement.  It  is  usually  divided  into  C(uuiiion  or  inih'lii- 
tatiis  assumpsit,  brought  in  general  upon  an  implied  prom- 


ise ;  and  special  assumpsit,  which  is  founded  on  an  express 
promise.  This  action  is  now  generally  superseded  by  statute, 
lievised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 
A$siiiii|>'tioii ;  village;  on  111.  Central  R.  R.,  Christian 
CO.,  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref. 
7-E):  23  miles  S.  of  Decatur.  It  has  flouring-mills.  Po]). 
(1880)  706:  ( 181)0)  1.070. 

Assiiniptioil  of  the  Vir'gin:  a  festival  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches  in  commemoration  of  the  resurrection 
and  miraculous  ascent  of  the  Virgin  Jlary  to  heaven.  It  is 
held  on  August  l.'j.  Protestant  Christians  unanimously  re- 
ject the  tradition  of  these  events. 

Assnniption  of  Moses :  a  psendepigi-aphical  or  apocry- 
phal book  containing  a  pretended  account  of  the  death  of 
Moses  and  of  the  assumption  of  his  soul  to  heaven.  Some 
suppose  that  St.  Jude  allu<lcs,  in  his  reference  to  the  c<m- 
test  between  the  archangel  Micluiel  and  the  devil,  to  the 
statements  made  in  this  book;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  it 
existed  in  apostolic  times. 

Asswaii :  See  Assouan. 

Assye :  See  Assave. 

Assy'ria  (in  Gr.  'Aa-avpla,  Ij.  Assyria):  the  ancient  Semitic 
kingdom  of  Asshur,  whose  great  ca|)itals  were  Assluir,  Nine- 
veh, and  Calah,  on  the  Tigris  river,  Assyria  proper  was  a 
small  region  about  these  capitals.  It  was  settled  by  colonists 
from  Babylonia,  according  to  the  statement  of  Genesis  x. 
8-12.  which  is  supjiorted  by  many  considerations  drawn 
from  (he  native  literature  and  from  a  study  of  the  native 
religion,  art,  and  institutions.  Assyria  was  bounded  N.  by 
what  is  now  Armenia,  E.  by  Media.  S.  by  Babylonia,  with 
an  indeterminate  line  on  the  \V.  At  times  the  liounilaries 
were  greatly  enlarged  tiy  conquest,  and  includeil  Bal)ylonia, 
])(>rtious  of  Elam,  Palestine,  Egypt,  parts  of  Arabia,  and 
Asia  Minor ;  in  a  word,  most  of  Asia  west  and  south  of 
Assyria  proper.  This  period  of  enlargement  falls  particu- 
larly in  t  he  eighth  and  seventh  cent  uries  b.  c.  Assyria  proper 
has  no  mountains,  though  it  has  several  ranges  of  hills.  Its 
chief  streams  besides  the  Tigris  are  the  Upper  Zatj  and  the 
Lower  Zab.  both  of  which  enter  the  Tigris  on  the  E.  The 
natnral  fertility  of  the  soil  was  aided  by  irrigation.  During 
t  he  long,  dry  siimmiM'  season  the  heat  becomes  intense. 

nistiinj. — Our  sources  of  information  regarding  Assyrian 
history  are  ehi(>fly  the  native  literature  preserved  in  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  and  the  remains  of  art  and  industry 
dug  from  the  ruins.  These  sources  are  now  so  abundant 
as  to  supersede  very  largely  what  has  been  written  on  the 
subject  by  classic  authors.  Many  of  the  great  kings  have 
left  a  double  record  fif  their  lives,  one  in  the  bas-reliefs  with 
which  they  lined  their  palace  walls,  and  one  on  books  of 
stone  and  clay.  Some  of  thi^  kings  felt  an  interest  in  past 
history,  and  have  given  us  valuable  epitomes.  The  royal 
annals  frequently  make  references  to  past  events,  stating  the 
number  of  years  which  have  intervened.  Sennacherib,  705- 
681  I!.  <'..  fixes  for  us  the  date  of  Tiglathpileser  I.  at  about 
1120-1100  B.C.  .\  long  inscription  of  Tiglathpileser  I.  nieii- 
tioiis  restoring  a  temple  at  the  capital,  Asshur,  which  had 
been  built  701  years  previously  by  Shamshi-Uaman.  son  of 
Ishmi-Dagan.  This  carries  the  erection  of  the  temple  back 
to  about  1820  B.C.,  the  oldest  .Assyrian  date  yet  recovered. 
Shamshi-Ramaii  and  his  father  are  called  Issliak.  a  word 
which  is  bi'lieved  to  mean  priest-])rince.  It  seems  likely, 
therefore,  that  in  their  day  Assyria  had  not  yet  grown  info 
a  kingdom.  In  the  sixteenth  century  B.  c.  royalty  is  well 
established,  and  we  have  letters  written  from  this  time  to 
the  Pharaohs.  Assyria  now  begins  a  series  of  quarrels  with 
Babylonia,  which,  with  interruptions,  continued  till  Nineveh 
was  destroyed.  The  Assyrians  were  more  warlike  than  the 
Babylonians,  and  were  more  often  the  successful  contestants. 
In  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  Babylon  was  at  times 
tributary  to  Assyria.  The  first  -Assyrian  king  from  whom 
we  have  long  records  is  Tiglathpileser  I.  One  of  these,  an 
octagonal  clay  prism,  of  which  four  eojiies  were  dug  from 
the  ruins  of  Asshur,  contains  809  lines  of  writing,  recording 
the  wars,  hunts,  and  buildings  of  the  king,  Assurnazirpal 
(884-860)  carried  his  conquests  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, From  his  |ialace  at  Calah  many  of  the  finest  bas- 
reliefs  were  excavated  by  Jlr.  .V.  11.  Layard.  and  are  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  These  ba.s-reliefs,  as  well  as  the  inscrip- 
tions on  them,  \vere  often  duplicates.  Several  of  these  were 
sent  to  America,  and  copies  are  now  in  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  the  Mercantile  Library  of  St.  Ijoiiis,  the  li- 
braries of  Yale  University,  the  Univei-sity  of  I'ennsylvania, 


376 


ASSYRIA 


and  in  several  other  libraries  and  institutions  of  learning. 
His  son  Siialmancscr  II.  (860-834)  was  the  fti-st  Assyrian 
king,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  to  come  into  rehitions  with 
Israel.  Ih'  defeated  a  great  eoalition  led  by  Damascus,  one 
of  the  allies  being  Ahab,  who  furnished  2,000  eliariots  and 
10,000  soldiers.  Jehu  likewise  paid  tribute  to  Shalmaneser. 
The  successors  of  .Shalmaneser  continued  these  western  cam- 
paigns. Tiglalhjiileser  111.  (745-727).  the  first  Assyrian  king 
mentioned  by  the  Hebrews  (2  Kings  xv.  2!)),  and  now  proved 
to  be  identical  witli  Pul  (2  Kings  xv.  19).  carried  a  portion 
of  northern  Israel  into  captivity.  With  him  begins  the 
period  of  Assyria's  greatest  glory.  Tlie  last  dynasty  was 
founded  by  Sargon  (722-705),  and  includes  some  of  the  great- 
est names  in  the  history — .Sennacherib  (705-681) ;  Esarhad- 
don  (681-668);  and  Asshurbauipal  (668-626).  Under  this 
dyna-sty  tlie  kingdom  reached  its  greatest  territorial  enlarge- 
ment. Sargon  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (722). 
Tlie  discovery  of  tlie  palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad,  a  few 
miles  X.  E.  of  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  by  P.  E.  Botta,  in  1843, 
was  the  beginning  of  the  era  of  exploration.  In  the  Louvre 
are  some  fine  winged  bulls  and  bas-reliefs  from  this  palace. 
The  Berlin  Museum  contains  an  inscribed  monument  of 
Sargon,  found  on  C!ypiais,  set  up  there  at  the  time  when  this 
island  submitted  to  Assyria. 

Sennaclieril)  has  left  a  vivid  account  of  his  campaign  in 
Palestine  in  701  (cf.  Isa.  xxxvi.  and  xxxvii).  He  destroyed 
Babylon,  but  his  son  rebuilt  it  eleven  years  later.  Esar- 
haddou  names  the  western  kings  who  were  subject  to  him, 
and  among  them  we  find  Mauasseh  of  Judah.  He  made 
three  caniiHiigns  to  Egypt,  and  died  on  the  road  during 
the  third.  By  his  wiU  Asshurbauipal  succeeded  him  in 
Assyria,  and  another  son,  Shamash-shum-ukin,  in  Babylon, 
with  a  certain  degree  of  inferiority  to  Asshurbanipal.  After 
twenty  years  tlie  two  brothers  became  involved  in  a  disas- 
trous war,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Shamash-shum- 
nkin,  but  wliicli  struck  a  serious  blow  at  Assyrian  greatness 
and  hastened  its  decay. 

Asshurbauipal,  the  most  illustrious  Assyrian  ruler,  gath- 
ered in  his  pahice  at  Xineveh  a  library  of  clay  books,  and 
was  a  great  patron  of  letters.  He  seems  to  be  the  Osnappar 
of  Ezra  iv.  10.  Under  the  name  of  Sardauapalus  his  true 
character  has  been  much  distorted  by  classic  tradition. 
Little  is  known  of  liis  successoi-s  or  of  the  destruction  of  the 
Assyrian  |)ower  in  606  B.  c. 

The  best  history  of  Assyria  is  C.  P.  Tiele's  Babyhnisch- 
Assi/rische  Gexehichte  (1  vol.  in  two  parts:  Gotha,  part  i. 
1886 ;  ])art  ii.  1888).  George  Rawlinson's  Fire  Great  Moii- 
archies  is  still  serviceable,  though  greatly  in  need  of  revision. 
Franz  Kaulen's  Amyrien  und  Babi/loiiieii  is  very  useful, 
and  gives  a  full  bibliography,  though,  like  tlie  Five  Great 
Monarchies,  not  the  work  of  a  specialist.  See,  further, 
George-  Smit  h's  Hinluri/  of  Babylonia  (1  vol.) ;  George  Smith's 
Jlistory  of  Assi/ria;  A.  H.  Sayce's  Ancient  Empires  of  the 
EaM;  E.  Meyer's  Gesclnchte  ties  Alterthums  (vol.  i.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1884);  P.  Hommel's  Geschichte  Babyloniens  und  As- 
syriens  (Berlin,  1885-87);  .Iiisti's  Geschichte  des  Alien  Per- 
siens  (Berlin,  1878) ;  Perrot  and  Cliiniez's  History  of  Art  in 
Chald(ea  and  Assyria,  from  the  French  (2  vols.,  London, 
1884) ;  A.  H.  Sayce's  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and 
People  (1  vol..  Loi'idon);  E.A.  W.  Budge's  Babylonian  Life 
and  History  (London) ;  E.  Schrader's  Cuneiform  Inscri'p- 
tifiiis  and  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  German  (3  vols., 
London,  1885.  1S88);  Records  of  the  Past  (new  series,  edit- 
ed by  A.  II.  Sayce,  6  vols.,  1888^92);  G.  Maspero's  Life  in 
Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  (New  York,  1892). 

Social  Organ-ization. — The  social  organization  of  the  an- 
cient Assyrians  and  Babylonians  was  complex  and  highly 
developed,  as  we  can  clearly  see  in  the  numerous  records  of 
social  transactions.  Our  information  is  fuller  regarding 
Babylon,  but  the  constitution  of  societv  was  perhaps  not 
very  ditlerent  in  AssjTia.  While  llie  monarchy  was  liered- 
itary,  (lie  insurrections,  revohitioiis,  and  dvnaslic  chanses 
of  which  we  read  show  that  tlie  sulijects  oi'len  made  their 
own  wishes  felt.  Keal  estate  was  owned  by  tlie  jieople, 
who  bought  and  sold  it  at  will.  Slavery  was  an  ohi  insti- 
tution. C'aptivi-s  of  war  were  at  times"  enslaved,  and  the 
children  of  slaves  inherited  the  condition  of  their  parents. 
While  the  king  and  perhaps  also  the  weahhy  had  many 
wives,  the  rule  among  the  common  peo|)le  was  moiioiraiuy. 
Women  might  hold  property  and  engage  in  all  forms  of 
commercial  transactions.  Liiwsuils,  in  the  later  Babylonian 
times  at  leiust,  were  decided  by  a  board  of  judges,  apparently 
without  the  intervention  of  lawyers.  Fraudulent  claim's 
were  punished  by  fines  as  well  as  by  loss  of  the  suit.     The 


great  complexity  of  the  social  organization  must  have  di- 
vided the  society  into  numerous  castes  and  giulds.  The  good 
ordei',  the  industrial  activity,  the  prosperity  are  clear  from 
the  commercial  records,  and  are  likewise  attested  by  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  Jews,  on  the  fall  of  B,ibylon  in  538  B.  c, 
preferred  residence  there  to  returning  to  Palestine.  See 
G.  Ma.sjiero"s  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  (1  vol.. 
New  'iork,  1892);  Budge's  Babylonian  Life  and  Jlistory; 
Tiele's  Babylon  isch-Assyrisclie  Geschichte. 

lii'ligion. — Like  the  Semites  in  general,  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  were  a  very  religious  people.  All  their  wars  were 
carried  on  in  the  name  of  the  gods,  and  in  important  com- 
mercial transactions  the  gods  were  invoked  to  punish  vio- 
lators of  agreements;  restoration  and  adornment  of  the  tem- 
ples were  specially  meritorious  works.  The  great  gods  were 
largely  the  striking  olijects  and  moods  of  nature — as  the 
heavens,  Anil :  the  sun.  Shamash ;  the  moon.  Sin ;  the  weather, 
Raman.  There  was  no  supreme  deity,  but  there  was  in  As- 
syria a  special  national  god  called  Asshur.  The  national  god 
at  Babylon  bore  the  name  Marduk.  The  most  .striking  dif- 
ference between  the  pantheons  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  is 
that  Asshur  has  no  jilace  in  the  latter,  while  Marduk  has 
place  in  the  former,  though  not  the  first  place.  A  notable 
fact  is  the  disposition  to  group  the  gods  in  triads.  The  first 
of  these  consists  of  Ann,  god  of  the  heavens ;  Bel,  god  of  the 
earth  ;  and  Ea.  god  of  the  abj-ss — corresponding  to  the  eos- 
mogonic  notions  of  the  people.  A  second  triad  comprised 
Sin,  the  moon-god  ;  Shamash,  the  sun-god  ;  and  Raman,  the 
weather-god.  As  god  of  the  abyss.  Ea  had  control  of  the 
sea  and  of  canals,  and  was  likewise  the  god  of  wisdom.  Sha- 
mash, as  the  seer  of  all  things,  was  the  great  judge  of  things 
in  heaven  and  on  earth.  Raman  was  in  charge  of  the  rains, 
which  he  used  to  reward  the  good  or  to  deluge  the  wicked. 
Among  the  other  great  deities  were  Ishtar,  who  appeared 
both  as  war-goddess  and  as  goddess  of  love,  and  whose  wor- 
ship, under  the  name  of  Ashtoreth  and  Astarte,  si)read  far 
to  the  W.  of  AssjTia;  Xergal,  the  god  of  the  chase;  Adar, 
the  god  of  war ;  and  Nabu,  the  inventor  of  writing  and  god  of 
literature.  There  were  also  other  gods  of  great  consequence, 
as  the  fire-god,  the  pestilence-god,  the  messenger-god,  etc. 
The  gods  are  represented  by  symbols  and  by  human  and 
animal  forms.  A  favorite  symbol  was  the  numeral.  Thus 
Sin,  the  moon,  was  30,  for  the  thirty  days  of  the  month ;  Ish- 
tar was  15;  Jlarduk  11.  At  other  times  the  moon  was  rejj- 
resented  by  his  disk;  the  sun  by  an  image  of  that  orb;  the 
weather-god  by  the  lightning.  The  great  sun-god  of  Si|)- 
par  is  represented  by  a  sun-disk  and  also  by  a  human  fig- 
ure. Sometimes  the  gods  arc  represented  by  combinations 
of  elements,  as  of  a  man,  ox,  lion,  and  eagle,  in  the  giant 
figures  cai-ved  from  stone  acting  as  guardians  of  palaces 
and  temples.  The  winged  globe,  within  which  a  human 
bust  appears,  is  another  favorite  symbol.  The  human-shaped 
statues  were  at  times  overlaid  with  gold,  adorned  with  jewels, 
and  dressed  in  gorgeous  attire.  After  the  great  gods  came 
the  demons  and  spirits,  which,  if  hostile,  were  a  source  of 
constant  dread,  and  to  ward  off  or  exorcise  which  there  ex- 
isted an  elaborate  system  of  magic.  Sometimes  these  spirits 
even  attacked  the  greater  gods,  producing  solar  and  hinar 
eclipses,  or  joining  the  dragon  Tiamat  in  resisting  the  work 
of  creation.  Disease  was  due  to  them,  and  hence  medicine 
and  magic  were  closely  allied.  The  gods  were  believed  to 
reveal  themselves  to  men  by  oracles,  and  in  dreams  and 
visions.  The  oracle  of  Ishtar  at  Arbela  was  one  of  the  most 
famous.  Ishtar  appears  to  a  seer  by  night,  and  encourages 
the  Assyrian  army  to  cross  a  swollen  river.  Marduk  and  Sin 
reveal  themselves  to  Nabonidus,  and  communicate  insti-uc- 
tions  regarding  the  restoration  of  a  temple.  Jlen  apjiroached 
these  gods  liy  prayer  and  liy  sacrifice.  Jlany  of  the  psalms 
are  prayers  for  the  divine  faviu-.  The  royal  prayers  are  for 
victory,  peace,  numerous  offspring,  and  firm  throne.  But 
some  of  the  later  Baliylonian  royal  prayers  also  ask  the  gods 
to  implant  in  the  heart  a  reverence  of  the  deity,  so  that  no 
sin  may  be  committed  against  him.  The  temples  were  nu- 
merous. Among  the  oldest  and  most  famous  was  the  teniiile 
of  Shamash  at  Sippar,  built  nearly  4000  years  B.C.  The 
people  whom  Sargon  transported  from  Sippar  to  Samaria, 
l)eing  snn-worshipcrs,  burned  their  children  in  the  fire 
(2  Kings  xvii.  31).  A  second  famous  temple  was  that  of  Nabu 
at  Borsippa,  re|jresented  now  by  the  ruins  called  Birs  Xim- 
riid.  Most  grand  and  magnificent  of  all  was  the  temple  of 
Marduk  at  Babylon,  whose  superiority  is  due  to  the  political 
supremacy  attained  by  Babylon  under  Hammurabi  aliout 
2300  B.C.  This  is  the  temple  on  which  Xebucliadnezzar 
lavished  so  much  wealth,  and  which  Herodotus  describes  in 


ASSYRIAN  ART 


ASSYRIAN  EXPLORATIONS 


377 


detail.  Wliile  the  great  temples  were  sacred  to  individual 
gods,  thev  were  provided  with  numerous  shrines  in  which 
other  gods  were  also  worsliiped.  The  same  city  might  have 
several  teiiiplos,  each  with  iiumy  shrines.  One  tal)let  records 
for  US  the  list  of  temples  in  the  city  Asshur,  and  the  many 
gods  who  hud  shrines  therein.  The  temples  consisted  of 
chambers  and  courts  with  houses  for  the  priests,  places  for 
altars  and  sacrifices,  depositories  for  recorcls  and  other  valu- 
ables. A  tower  of  solid  masonry,  witli  an  external  ascent  by 
an  inclined  plane,  was  also  an  attachment  to  the  teni|ilc,  and 
there  imiy  at  times  have  been  a  shrine  on  the  top  of  this 
lower.  The  sacrifices  were  o.\en,  sheep,  birds,  wine,  oil,  and 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  They  were  oll'eied  daily,  as  well  as 
at  special  limes.  The  |)riests  in  whose  charge  was  the  elabo- 
rate religious  system  must  have  been  a  very  inllneiitiiil  por- 
tion of  the  connnuiiity.  The  vitality  of  the  system  is  seen 
in  its  power  to  survive  the  greatest  jiolitical  changes.  Both 
Persian  and  (ireelc  kings  of  Uabylon  record  restorations  of 
the  ancient  temples  in  language  similai'  to  that  used  by  their 
great  Semitic  [jredecessors. 

The  most  elaborate  study  of  the  religion  is  by  A.  IT.  Sayec 
in  t he  Ifi/jbert  Lectures  for  1SS7.  See  also  the  account  in 
t'.  P.  Tide's  lialii/Ziinixc/i-Assj/rische  Gescliichte,  and  in  other 
workG  mentioned  higher  up  under  the  sub-heading  Jlifsfnri/. 

D.  O.  Lyon. 

Assyrian  Art:  The  Assyrians  wore  artists  of  no  mean 
ability,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  thousjuids  of  sctdptured  slabs 
of  alabaster  and  limestone  exhumed  by  Layard,  I'cilla,  Place, 
and  other  explorers.     These  slabs,  about  b  feet  high, formed 


Fio.  1.— Bas-relief.    Assyrian  court  offlcials. 

a  wainscoting  for  the  crude  brick  walls  of  the  royal  ]mlaces, 
and  represent,  in  low  relief,  scenes  of  war  and  the  chase,  and 
mvthologieal  subjects.  While  far  inferior  to  the  best  Greek 
reliefs,  they  surpass  the  Egyptian  in  lidelity  to  nature,  es- 
pecially in  their  representations  of  animal  life.  More  .strik- 
ing even  than  the  reliefs  are  I  he  ••  portal  guardians'" — winged 
and  human-headed  bulls  and  lions  of  great  size  and  terrible 
aspect — flanking  the  city  gateways  and  palace  entrances. 
All  Assyrian  sculjiture  is  subordiiuitc  to  the  architecture,  in 
which  art  the  Assyrians  achieved  colossal  works  in  s]iile  of 
the  scarcity  of  si  one  and  timber  and  the  lack  of  fu(d,  which 
j^..,  compelled  Iheiu  to  use  their  abundant  clay-deposits 
in  the  form  of  crude  brick,  and  to  employ  the  more 


Kio.  2.— Remains  of  Propylsea  at  Khorsabad. 

costly  burned  brick  only  for  facings  aiul  decorations.  Build- 
ings in  several  stories  being  impracticable  with  such  tioor 
materials,  they  raised  enormous  clav- mounds,  eai-eiuUy 
drained  by  vaulted  sewers;  faced  them  with  hard  brick  or 
stone,  and  built  upon  them  palaces  of  vast  extent,  elaborate- 
ly planned  with  co\irts,  halls,  and  chambers,  separated  bv 
cnide-briek  walls  from  10  to  liO  feet  thick.  The  lack  of 
pood  tiudier.and  the  generally  admitted  tact  that  the  Assyr- 
nms  did  not  employ  tlie  column  exceiit  in  minor  structures, 
restricted  the  spans  of  the  halls  and  rooms  to  25  feet  or  less, 


except  in  a  few  cases,  where  it  would  appear  that  barrel- 
vaults  were  used,  built  of  crude  or  burned  brick.  The  inte- 
rior chambers  must  have  been  poorly  lighted,  a  fact  of  less 


Fig.  3. — Winged  bull  uitU  a  human  head,  from  Nimrood;  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

consequence  in  a  hot  climate  than  in  one  like  ours.  The 
walls  were  wainscoted  with  the  alalmstcr  reliefs  already  re- 
ferred to;  aliove  these  they  were  either  plastered  and 
painted,  or  adorned  with  enameled  tiles  in  sumptuous  sym- 
bolic or  conventiomd  patterns  in  blue,  green,  red,  yellow, 
and  black.  In  these  decorative  details,  largely  im  itated  from 
Egj'pliaii  motives,  the  Assyrians  showed  great  taste,  as  well 
as  ill  the  arts  of  weaving,  embroidery,  and  bronze-working. 


*aft!!i?-,. 


-,  /■; 


^^^ 


5  »r'  ■■■' j-:rj 


Fig.  4.— Plan  of  the  palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad. 

The  temples  followed  Cludda'an  models,  and  consisted  of 
small  shrines  or  observatories  surmounting  terraced  pyra- 
mids with  exterior  ramps,  the  whole  faced  with  enameled 
brick  in  divers  colors.  For  Assyrian  art,  etc.,  see  Perrot 
and  Chipiez.  Ilistortj  nf  Art  in  Chattlcca  and  Assyria  (tr. 
Armstrong,  l!S8-l);  V.  Place,  ATdi'ce  et  I'Assyrie;  also  the 
works  of  Layard  and  Botla.  Pcrgusson's  conclusions  regard- 
ing Assyrian  iivchhccturc  {Pat((ees  of  If ineve/t  and  Persepolis 
Restoreil)  have  not  found  general  acceptance. 

A.  D.  P.  Hamlin-. 

Assyrian  Explorations:  the  explorations  carried  on  in 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Assyria.  The  great  period  of  explora- 
tion begins  with  the  appointment  in  1842  of  P.  E.  Botta  as 
French  con.<ul  at  Mosul.  Botta  began  by  digging  in  the 
ruins  of  Nineveh  just  across  the  Tigris  from  Mosul.  Init  willi- 
out  much  result.  Learning  that  at  a  modern  village  named 
Khorsabad.  a  few  miles  north  of  Nineveh,  stones  of  ancient 
buildings  might  be  dug  from  the  earth,  he  investigated  the 
spot,  and  soon  came  upon  what  proved  to  be  the  palace  of 
Sargon.    This  was  fully  excavated  by  himself  in  1843  anil 


378 


ASSYRIAN  LANXiUAGE 


ASSYRIAN  LITERATURE 


1844,  and  his  consular  successor,  Victor  Place,  whose  excava- 
tions extended  from  1851  to  1855.  Botta  published  his  results 
in  five  magnificent  folios,  entitled  Le  Monument  de  Niriive 
(Paris,  1847-50),  and  Place  published  his  in  two  folios,  en- 
titled Nineveh  et  I'Assi/rie  (Paris,  1867-70).  Botta's  great 
success  at  Khorsabad  led  Austen  Henry  Layard  to  take  up  the 
work  at  Nineveh,  Calah.  and  other  mined  cities  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  and  Mr.  Layard's  good  fortune  enriched  the 
British  JIuseum  with  vast  treasures  of  Assyrian  art  and  litera- 
ture. In  his  Nineveh  and  its  Remains  and  Nineveh  and 
Babylon  are  the  accounts  of  his  excavations  carried  on  in 
1845-47.  and  in  his  second  expedition  beginning  in  1849.  In 
Babylonia  W.  K.  Loftus  led  two  ex]jloring  parties  in  1849 
and  "in  1853.  while  .J.  E.  Taylor  was  at  the  same  time  digging 
in  the  niins  of  Slugheir,  commonly  identified  with  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees.  Two  expeditions  by  George  Smith,  of  the  British 
Museum,  resulting  from  his  discovery  in  1872  of  a  deluge 
story  on  the  tablets,  greatly  enriched  the  museum  treasures  (cf. 
his  Assyrian  Discoveries).  Mr.  Hormuzd  Kassam,  who  took 
part  with  Mr.  Layard  in  exploring  Nineveh,  made  repeated 
visits  to  the  East  for  the  British  jMuseum,  and  met  with 
great  success,  notably  at  Nineveh,  at  Balawat  and  at  Abu- 
Habba.  In  1877  the  French  consul,  E.  de  Sarzeo,  began 
excavating  the  ruins  of  Telloli,  about  midway  between  Baby- 
lon and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  made  the  discovery  of  tlie  re- 
markable statues  in  the  rounil  whicli  are  now  one  of  tlie  or- 
naments of  tlie  Louvre.  Witli  the  aid  of  Prof.  Leon  Heusey 
he  has  pulilislied  the  story  and  representations  of  the  art  ob- 
jects in  IJi'couvi'vtes  en  Chaldi'e.  In  the  winter  of  1884-85 
there  was  an  American  party  to  Babylonia,  led  by  Dr.  William 
Hayes  Ward,  the  expenses  being  met  by  Miss  Catherine 
Wolfe.  Some  hundreds  of  tablets,  seals,  and  other  objects, 
acquired  by  purchase,  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
New  York,  are  tlie  result.  The  Germans  have  in  recent  years 
sent  an  expedition  to  Babylon,  whose  most  interesting  fea- 
ture was  tlie  excavation  of  an  ancient  Babylonian  burial- 
mound,  which  shows  that  cremation  was  extensively  em- 
ployed. The  discovery  at  el-Amarna.  in  Egypt,  in  1887,  of 
several  hundred  clay  tablets  in  cuneiform  script  and  in  the 
Assyrian  language,  many  of  which  were  written  in  Plioiuicia 
and  Palestine,  has  revealed  to  us  the  fact  that  this  script  and 
language  were  used  for  international  purposes  in  the  sixteenth 
centurv  B.  c.  In  1889-93  extensive  diggings  were  carried  on 
at  NifCer,  S.  E.  of  Babylon,  by  Prof.  John  P.  Peters,  of  Pliila- 
delphia.  Jlany  interesting  objects  were  found,  including  a 
great  mass  of  clay  tablets  and  fragments,  some  thousands  of 
which  are  now  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  D.  G.  Lyon. 

Assyrian  Lansfiiage  :  the  language  of  the  ancient  Semitic 
people  who  lived  in  tlie  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu|ihrates 
rivers.  (See  Semitic  L.iNOUAOES.)  The  oldest  specimens  of 
this  language  date  from  about  4000  B.  c,  and  the  latest  from 
about  the  beginning  of  our  era.  The  most  ancient  and  most 
recent  are  from  Babylonia,  this  country  antedating  Assyria 
as  a  power,  and  continuing  after  the  fall  of  Assyria  (606  b[  c). 
The  name  Assyrian  has  gained  general  currency,  tliough 
Babylonian  might  be  better,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  Assyrian  people  were  originally  a  colony  from  Baby- 
lonia. The  dialectical  differences  are  few,  the  most  impor- 
tant being  the  Babylonian  tendency  to  a  softer  pronuncia- 
ciation  of  the  mutes,  h  for  /;,  y  for  k.  tau  for  te/h. 

The  Assyrian  belongs  to  what  is  known  as  the  northern 
branch  of  the  .Semitic  stock  of  languages,  being  thus  more 
closely  related  to  the  Aramaic  and  Hebrew  than  to  Arabic, 
the  chief  memljer  of  the  soutliern  branch.  It,  liad  originally 
all  tlie  sounds  found  in  Helirew,  Init  has  sulfered  great  pho- 
netic degrailaliim.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  gutturals 
and  the  so-called  rjiiiescents  {wato  and  yod). 

In  its  grammar  the  Assyrian  has  the  general  characteris- 
tics of  the  Semitic  languages,  but  there  are  certain  features 
peculiar  to  it,  or  which  belong  to  it  along  with  one  or  two 
others.  There  is  no  article;  in  the  noun  tlirce  case-forms 
exist,  rcpres(>nted  by  final  »,  i.  a  ;  llie  verb  has  four  primary 
stems  (simple  stem,  as  sapdnu,  to  overwhelm;  intensive 
stem,  as  suppunu,  to  overwhelm  much;  causative  stem,  as 
shusjmnu.Xo  cause  to  overwhelm  ;  and  reflexive,  passive  stem, 
as  naspunu.  to  lie  overwhelmed),  and  four  secondary,  maile  by 
insertion  of  the  syllable  ta  in  the  primary  stems.  From  the 
simple  and  tlie  ri'dexive  slems  two  tertiary  stems  are  formed 
by  insertion  of  the  syllable  t((n.  Ea<-h  verb  stem  has  a  per- 
fect and  an  imperfect  form.  The  perfect,  connnonly  called 
permansive,  indicates  condition  or  state,  .and  is  usually  pas- 
sive in  signification.     Of  the  imperfect  there  are  two  forms, 


the  shorter  being  the  usual  form  in  narrating  past  events, 
while  the  longer  is  used  for  repeated  and  future  actions. 
In  vocabulary  and  syntax  the  Assyrian  language  is  strik- 
ingly like  the  Hebrew,  and  the  chief  ditficulty  in  apquiring 
it  comes  from  the  complexity  of  the  written  character.  The 
recovery  of  the  language  kept  pace  with  the  decipherment 
of  the  inscriptions,  the  chief  workers  being  Henry  RawUn- 
son,  Edward  Hincks,  and  .Jules  Oppert.  Grammars  have 
been  published  by  Jules  Oi-ipert,  Joachim  Sli'nant,  A.  H. 
Sayce,  and  Priedrich  Delitzsch.  The  last  named,  both  Eng- 
lish and  German.  1889,  is  tlie  most  recent  and  the  best.  The 
Assyrian  dictionary  of  Edwin  Norris  (1868-73)  omits  the 
verbs  and  extends  only  into  the  letter  N.  Friedrich  De- 
litzsch has  begun  in  German  a  lexicon  on  the  scale  of  a 
thesaurus.  For  beginners  several  chrestomathies  have  been 
prepared,  among  which  those  of  Friedrich  Delitzsch  and  of 
Abel  and  Winckler  deserVe  special  mention.  The  Assyrian 
J/anual  published  by  the  writer  of  this  article  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  a  student  to  acquire  the  language  without  learning 
the  signs.  The  growth  of  interest  in  the  Assyrian  language 
during  the  past  decade  has  been  remarkable,  especially  in 
Germany  and  the  U.  S.,  and  there  are  now  many  institu- 
tions in  both  countries  where  the  subject  is  taught. 

I).  G.  Lyon. 

Assyrian  Literature:  Assyrian  wi-itings  may  be  grouped 

as  historical,  social-commercial,  scientific,  religious,  and 
jKietical.  The  historical  writings  are  preserved  on  clay  and 
stone,  and  are  found  in  the  ruins  of  palaces  and  temples, 
especially  at  the  four  corners  of  the  great  edifices.  The 
finest  record  of  Asshurbanipal  was  found  by  Ilormuzd  Ras- 
sam  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  walled  in  by  solid  masonry. 
Some  of  the  royal  records  are  arranged  chronologically. 
Others  follow  a  geographical  or  an  oratorical  order.  Closely 
related  to  the  historical  are  such  state  documents  as  royal 
proclamations,  reports  from  generals,  petitions  to  the  king, 
and  oracular  responses.  Under  social-commercial  are  in- 
cluded the  inscribed  boundary  stones  and  the  great  mass 
of  sulall  clay  tablets,  already  found  by  scores  of  thousands, 
recording  loans,  sales,  partnerships,  lawsuits,  marriages,  wills, 
adoption  of  children,  etc.  These  are  found  especially  in  the 
ruins  of  temples.  They  are  commonly  known  as  '"  contract- 
tablets,"  and  many  of  them  are  stamped  with  the  seals  of 
the  contracting  parties.  Of  peculiar  interest  are  those 
called  "case-tablets,"  on  account  of  the  outer  covering  of 
clay  completely  concealing  the  inner  document,  and  dupli- 
cating its  record.  The  olijeet  was  the  better  protection  of 
the  inner  record  against  violence  or  fraud.  In  case  of  dis- 
pute it  was  always  possible  to  break  the  covering  in  order 
to  read  the  original  on  the  inner  tablet.  By  scientific  must 
be  understood  the  astronomical  reports,  comjiutations  of 
eclipses,  lists  of  squares  and  cubes,  grammatical  and  lexico- 
graphical compilations,  and  other  lists  showing  the  begin- 
ning of  interest  in  botany,  zoology,  geography,  geology,  etc. 
The  religious  documents  include  lists  of  the  gods,  of  the 
temples  and  sacrifices,  of  omens  and  portents,  of  magical 
formulas,  etc.  Here  belong  also  the  hymns  and  psalms. 
These  last  are  poetic  in  form,  and  tlu'y  make  with  the  epic 
and  the  mythological  writings  what  might  be  called  litera- 
ture in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word.  The  poetical  writ- 
ings come  for  the  most  part  from  the  library  of  Asshurbani- 
pal, but  they  are  copies  from  older  Babylonian  originals. 
The  hymns  and  psalms  sing  the  pi-aises  of  the  great  gods, 
as  .Shamash,  the  snn-god;  Sin.  the  moon-god;  Raman,  the 
weather-god ;  Marduk,  the  national  god  of  Babylon,  etc. 
Some  of  these  productions  indicate  genuine  poetic  feeling 
anil  religious  fervor.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  so- 
called  penitential  psalms,  which  frequently  remind  the 
reader,  both  in  tone  and  in  expression,  of  the  biblical 
psalms.  A  most  remarkable  literary  fragment  is  the  ac- 
count of  the  descent  of  Ishtar.  goddess  of  love,  to  the  Assyr- 
ian Shcol.  This  region,  presided  over  by  a  goddess,  is  lo- 
cated in  the  subterranean  waters,  and  is  surrounded  by  seven 
walls.  Tlie  inmates  live  in  gloom,  have  clay  for  food  and 
feathers  for  clothing.  The  seven  gates  are  guarded  by  a 
watchman,  who  strips  the  goddess  of  ornament  and  apparel 
before  he  grants  her  entrance.  Once  within  the  innermost 
gate  there  is  no  exit  for  her  excejit  by  intervention  of  other 
gods  in  her  behalf.  The  creation  of  the  world  is  represented 
by  a  series  of  tablets,  of  which  considerable  fragments  have 
been  recovered.  Begiiinitig  with  a  condition  of  cliaos,  the 
first  tablet  relates  how  by  the  commingling  of  the  waters  of 
the  abyss  (personified  as  a  male  called  Apsii  and  as  a  female 
ealltid  Tiamai  =r  Tehum,  "abyss,"  Gen.  i.  2),  the  gods  were 


ASSYRIAN'   IJTERATURE 


ASTER 


379 


generated.  After  a  break  in  llie  story,  we  find  Tiamat  as  a 
tlrafjiiii  enframed  in  a  fierce  contest  with  the  gods,  by  one  of 
whom  she  i.s  fmiilly  .slain.  Tlien  follows  the  creation  of  the 
constellations,  the  moon,  sun,  uninials,  and  doubtless,  last 
of  all,  man,  though  the  close  of  the  story  has  not  yet  been 
found.  The  war  of  the  dragon  with  Marduk,  who  slew  her, 
is  a  favorite  theme  in  the  art,  especially  on  the  seals.  The 
most  considerable  literary  work  yet  found  is  the  epic  com- 
moidy  known,  after  its  hero,  as  the  Izduliar  epic.  It  is  writ- 
ten on  twelve  tablets,  containing  in  all  some  3.600  lines  of 
writing.  Fragments  of  several  copies  have  been  found,  and 
some  of  the  tablets  have  been  almost  entirely  restored.  The 
discovery  of  a  portion  of  this  epic  among  the  clay  books  in  the 
British  Museum  by  George  Smith  in  1^73  gave  a  new  inter- 
est to  Assyriology,  because  there  is  related  on  the  eleventh 
tablet  a  deluge  story  which  is  strikingly  similar  to  the  one 
recorded  in  Genesis.  The  epic  i.s  believed  to  have  taken 
shape  in  Babylonia  prior  to  2000  B.C.  The  scene  is  laid  at 
Erech.  at  a  time  when  this  ancient  city  is  oppi'cssed  by  a 
foreign  tyrant.  Izdubar,  the  hero,  residing  at  Erech,  has  a 
<lream  which  none  can  interpret  until  he  induces  Kabaiii  to 
come  into  the  city.  Eabani  is  a  composite  creature,  partly 
man  and  partly  bull,  famous  for  wisdom,  whose  home  has 
been  in  the  m(juntains.  He  interprets  the  dream,  and  the 
two  become  fast  frieiuls.  They  succeed  in  ridding  Erech  of 
the  oppressor.  Hereupon.  Ishtar.  goddess  of  love,  attracted 
by  his  prowess,  woos  Izdubar,  but  is  rejected.  At  her  re- 
quest, Anu,  her  father,  the  god  of  the  heavens,  sends  down 
a  monster  bull  to  gore  the  two  friends,  but  after  a  fierce 
struggle  they  dis|)ateli  this  creature.  This  struggle  is  a 
favorite  theme  with  the  ancient  artists.  The  gods  then 
smite  Eabani  and  Izdubar  with  disea.sc.  The  former  dies  in 
agony,  and  the  latter  travels  over  the  world,  across  its  des- 
erts and  mountains,  in  search  of  healing.  At  last  he  arrives 
at  the  gates  of  death  and  finds  them  barred  and  guarded. 
After  much  parleying  he  gains  admission,  and  is  rowed  by 
a  boatman  to  the  blessed  isles  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers, 
where  he  finds  a  deified  man  who  gives  him  the  secret  by 
which  he  may  be  healed,  but  before  doing  so  he  rcilates  to 
Izilul)ar  the  deluge  story  already  mentioned.  After  tliis 
Izdubar  is  healed  by  following  the  instructions  given,  and 
then  returns  to  Erech  to  lament  the  dead  frieml  Kabani. 
Sir  Henry  Kawlinson  first  pointed  out  the  astronomical 
character  of  this  poem,  which  seems  to  represent  the  annual 
passage  of  the  sun  through  the  heaveidy  constellations.  The 
twelve  tiiblets  correspond  to  the  twelve  zodiacal  signs  and 
to  the  twelve  months  of  the  Babylonian  year.  The  Izdubar 
story  has  been  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  stories 
regarding  Hercules,  Ximrod,  and  Samson.  Indeed,  the 
poem  is  by  some  scholars  called  the  Nimrod  epi(\  The 
exact  pronunciation  of  the  cuneiform  signs  by  which  the 
name  li-dn-lmr  is  written  hius  not  yet  been  ma<]e  out. 
(Juite  recently  Mr.  T.  G.  Pinches,  of  the  British  Museum, 
hiLS  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  hero  ought  to  be  called 
OihianiPH.  Fragments  of  fables  have  likewise  becui  found 
amiing  the  Assyrian  writings,  in  which  the  eagle,  the  fox, 
the  serpent,  the  horse,  and  the  ox  are  the  speakers.  That 
the  poetic  literature  of  Babylonia  was  once  extensive  is 
proved  by  some  fragments  in  the  British  Museum  giving 
a  list  of  the  ancient  works,  with  the  luunes  of  their  reputed 
com|josers.  Some  of  these  works  have  doubtless  perished 
completely.  Others  still  await  the  spade  of  the  explorer. 
For  what  has  alrejuly  been  recovered  we  are  indebted  mainly 
to  the  farsightedness  of  Asshurbanijial.  who  caused  copies 
to  lie  nuide  for  his  own  library  at  Nineveh. 

Great  collet-tions  of  inscrijitions  in  the  original  script 
have  been  edited  by  Sir  H.  C.  Rawiinson,  P.  E.  Bolta.  J.  X. 
Strassmaier.  ami  Hugo  W'inckler.  Collections  of  transla- 
tions from  the  monuments  are  found  in  George  Smith's 
Cliahli-nn  Account  of  Gi'iufnix;  Records  of  the  A/.s^  edited 
by  A.  II.  Sayce ;  A.  H.  Sayce's  Ililiberf  Lectures  for  i,s'A7; 
Keiliii.sclii-lfllkhe  BiMiotheh,  edited  l>y  E.  Schrader  (Ber- 
lin, 188!)-!I0).  Accounts  of  the  literature  are  given  in  A.  H. 
Sayce's  liiilnjlonian  Literature,  an<l  in  George  Smith's  book 
just  I'nentioned.  A  well-digesteil  bibliography  of  modern 
works  on  Assyriology  is  given  in  Friedrich  Delitzsch's  .l.*- 
si/ri(in  (iriinimar  (Berlin,  1880),  and  also  (in  chronological 
arrangement)  in  P.  Kaulen's  Ansi/rieti  und  Baht/lonien; 
Carl  liezold's  Kurzgefa.tfiter  fljerfjlick  uber  die  Babi/loiiincli- 
Axsi/ri.irlie  Lilerntnr  (Leipzig,  b'SSO)  can  be  used  only  by 
students  of  the  original.  The  journals  whose  interest  is 
mainly  or  largely  the  study  of  tiie  Assyrian  language  and 
literature  are  the  Proceed iiir/x  of  the  Society  of  Bil/lical 
Archteuloijij  (London);    the    Zeitacltrijl   fur   Asmjriologie 


(Leipzig) ;  the  Beiirage  fur  Assyriologie  (Leipzig) ;  and  the 
Babylonian  and  Oriental  Record  (London).     I).  G.  Lyon. 

Ast,  Georo  Antox  FRiEDRicn :  German  philologist  and 
critic;  b.  at  Gotha.  Dec.  20,  1778;  a|)pointed  Professor  of 
Classical  Literature  at  Landsfaut  in  INO.'i,  antl  obtained  the 
same  chair  in  the  University  of  Munich  in  1826.  He  wrote, 
besides  other  works,  a  j)/a7i!<ai  of  jiCxthetics  (1805);  Intro- 
duction to  Philology  (1808);  and  'Die  Life  and  Writings  of 
Plato  (1816).  He  also  published  a  good  edition  of  the  works 
of  Plato,  with  a  Latin  version  and  a  commentary  (11  vols., 
1810-^32).     1).  in  Jlunich,  Oct.  31,  1841. 

As'tacus  [Lat.,  lobster,  from  CJr.  SuttokSs}:  a  genus  of 
crustaceans,  including  the  crayfishes  of  Europe  and  the  Pa- 
cific Stales  of  the  U.  .S.  'I'hose  of  the  Eastern  U.  S.  belong 
to  another  geiuis,  Cambarus.    See  Cr.iwfisii. 

Asfar'te  [the  Greek  and  the  Phoenician  form  of  AsJir- 

tareth] :  a  goddess  worshiped  by  the  Phcenicians,  Syrians, 
and  Carthaginians,  and  llu^ 
original  of  the  (ireek  Aphro- 
dite (Venus).  The  common 
view  is  that  as  Haal  was  the 
sun-god,  so  Astarte  was  the 
moon-goddess,  or  goddess  of 
the  heavens.  .She  is  vari- 
ously represented,  but  more 
usually  with  four  wings  (the 
two  uppermost  of  which  are 
intended  to  symbolize  the 
horns  of  the  moon),  wearing 
a  [loiuled  cap,  and  liolding  a 
dove  in  her  hand,  as  shown 
in  the  accom])anying  illus- 
tration, taken  from  an  image 
of  Astarte  found  in  Etruria. 
The  Syrians  built  to  her  a 
famous  temple  at  Hierapolis. 
Her  chief  temples,  besides 
that  at  Hierapolis,  were  at 
Tyre  and  Sitlon.  The  Assyr- 
ian goddess  called  Ishtar  or 
Istar  is  identified  with  As- 
tarte. But,  according  to  an- 
other view,  Astarte  is  the 
virgin  goddess  of  death  and 

war.  wjio,  unlike  Ashera  {cj.  v.),  lays  the  strictest  chastity  and 
continence  upon  her  priests  and  priestesses. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 
Astarte:  a  geinis  of  bivalve  mollusks;  the  type  of  the 
family  Cyprinida',  nearly  related  to  the  Veiierida'.  Fossils 
of  some  200  extinct  siiecies  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
world.  •  Some  of  them  are  found  in  the  lias  formation.  Fif- 
teen or  twenty  sjiecies  of  Astarte  now  exist  in  the  deep  sea 
in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

Astat'ic  (from  (ir.  So-totos,  unstable;  a-,  not -i- o-tV", 
stand]:  applied  to  the  magnetic  needle  when  it  is  withdrawn 
from  the  action  of  the  earth's  nuignetism,  and  has  no  longer 
a  statical  position  of  equilibrium  under  the  infiuence  of 
this  force;  also  to  the  galvanometer  of  whi<-h  such  needles 
form  an  essential  part.  A  needle  becomes  astatic  when  the 
axis  about  which  it  is  movable  is  placed  parallel  to  the  lines 
of  force  of  the  niagnelic  field  in  which  it  lies,  because  it 
can  not  receive  any  motion  from  the  force,  and  will  rest 
in  any  position.  The  teritt  is  generally  ap|)lied  to  a  pair 
of  needles,  which  are  rendered  neutral  as  regards  the  earth's 
magnetism  by  iilacing  them  ])arallel  to  one  another,  the 
north-seeking  pole  of  the  one  in  opposition  to  that  of  the 
other.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

As'ter  [from  Gr.  ior^jp,  star] :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  Cniiipositai  (whicli  Lindlcy  pro]iosed  to  call  Aster- 
acea').  This  genus  comprises  a  great  number  of  species,  gen- 
erally herl-iaceous,  mostly  natives  of  the  V.  S.  Many  of 
them  are  cultivated  in  the  ganlens  of  Europe  for  the  beauty 
of  the  flowers,  which  bloom  from  July  to  November.  The 
ray-florets,  which  are  never  of  the  same  color  as  the  disk, 
are  purple,  blue,  violet,  white,  etc.  Among  the  remarkable 
American  species  are  Aster  •nova-anglixe.  Aster  puniceus. 
Aster  cyaneus,  and  Aster  spectahilis.  The  China  aster  (As- 
ter ctuneiisis:  Callistephns  chinensis)  is  a  favorite  garden- 
flower  in  England  aiKl  the  U.  S.  Many  varieties  are  culti- 
vated, and  present  a  great  diversity  of  colors.  They  prefer 
a  rich  soil,  und  bloom  until  the  end  of  autumn. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 


Astarte. 


380 


ASTER 


ASTEROID 


Aster,  Ernst  Ludwig,  Ton:  b.  at  Dresden.  Oct.  5,  1778; 
received  a  military  education,  and  served  first  in  the  Saxon, 
then  in  the  Russian,  and  finally  (after  1815)  in  the  Prussian 
service.  In  1810,  while  still  in  the  Saxon  army,  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  Napoleon  by  a  plan  for  the  fortification  of 
Torgau,  and  while  in  the  Prussian  service  he  undertook  the 
fortification  of  Coblentz  and  Ehrenbreitstein ;  was  made  in- 
spector-general of  all  the  Prussian  fortresses  and  general  of 
infantry  in  1843.  D.  at  Berlin,  I''eb.  10,  1855.  Ilis  JS^uch- 
gelassene  Schriften  were  published  at  Berlin  (5  vols.,  1856- 
61). — His  brother,  Kabl  Helnrich  von  Aster,  b.  at  Dres- 
den, Feb.  4.  17«2;  d.  there  Dec.  23,1855;  colonel  in  the 
Saxon  army:  wrote  several  valualile  military  works,  of  which 
the  most  noted  are  Li-lire  vom  Festungskriifge  (2  vols.,  1812; 
often  reprinted  and  translated  into  other  languages),  and  Die 
Gefeclilf  uiul  Schlachtene  bei  Leipzig  (2  vols.,  1852-53). 

Asteracaii'thiis  [from  Gr.  dariip.  star  +  SKacSo.  spine] :  a 
genus  of  fossil  sharks,  of  which  only  the  dorsal  defensive 
spines  are  known.  These  are  found  in  the  Mesozoic  rocks  of 
England,  and  were  named  by  Agassiz  from  the  stellate  tu- 
bercles with  which  they  are  ornamented. 

Asterla  :  See  Sapphire. 

Asteroid  [from  Gr.  ao-TcpocfS^s,  star-like;  darT-fip,  star -l- 
cTSos,  form] :  one  of  the  small  planets  which  revolve  around 
the  sun,  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  The  name 
was  lii'st  used  by  Sir  William  Herschel,  but  is  not  univer- 
sally recognized  by  astronomers,  '•  small  planets "  being 
sometimes  preferred.  As  far  Viack  as  the  time  of  Kepler  it 
was  noticed  that  a  wide  gap  existed  between  the  orbits  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  in  which  an  additional  planet  might  be 
so  placed  that  the  distances  of  all  the  planets  would  then 
follow  a  uniform  law.  (See  Bode's  Law.)  It  was  therefore 
surmised  that  a  planet  yet  to  be  discovered  might  actually 
revolve  in  this  region.  After  the  discovery  of  the  planet 
Uranus  this  conviction  became  so  strong  that  an  association 
of  astronomers  was  organized  to  search  for  the  supposed 
missing  member  of  the  solar  system.  The  zodiac  was  di- 
vided among  twenty-four  observers,  each  of  whom  was  to 
search  through  one  hour.  But  just  as  the  search  was  com- 
mencing the  discovery  was  made  by  an  astronomer  who  did 
not  belong  to  the  association  at  all.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  was 
at  work  on  his  great  Catalogue  of  Stars,  and,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  nineteenth  century,  his  attention  was  attracted 
by  an  apparent  change  of  place  in  one  of  the  stars  he  had 
oij-served.  In  a  few  days  more  it  proved  to  be  the  planet 
required  to  fill  the  gap.  When  the  orbit  was  computed 
it  was  found  that  the  new  planet  travels  at  a  mean  dis- 
tance of  2'767  from  the  sun,  the  earth's  distance  being 
unity,  while  the  predicted  distance,  from  Bode's  Law,  was 
2'8.  The  approach  to  the  expected  distance  was  so  near  that 
the  law  .seemed  to  be  confirmed,  and  the  planet  to  be  the 
one  member  necessary  to  complete  the  solar  system.  Piazzi 
gave  it  the  name  Ceres. 

But  while  astronomers  were  congratulating  themselves  on 
this  new  proof  of  law  and  harmony  within  the  solar  system, 
a  fresh  discovery  threatened  to  throw  all  into  disorder  again. 
On  Mar.  28,  1802,  while  examining  a  part  of  the  constella- 
tion Virgo,  Olbers.  a  physician  and  astronomer  of  Bremen, 
noticed  a  small  star  which  he  was  sure  had  not  previously 
been  visil^le.  In  two  hours  he  found  that  it  nnist  be  a  new 
planet.  In  the  course  of  a  month  an  approximate  orbit  was 
lound  for  it,  and  its  mean  distance  was  found  to  be  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  Ceres.  Thus  there  were  two  planets 
where  only  one  had  been  wanted  to  complete  the  system. 
Olbers  was  led  to  ex|)ect  that  others  would  bo  found,  and.  a 
search  being  instituted  for  the  purpose,  a  third  was  discov- 
ered on  Sept.  1.  1804,  and  a  fourtli  on  Mar.  20.  1807. 

The  discovery  of  four  planets  where  apparently  only  one 
belonged,  and  the  fact  that  these  planets  were  excessively 
small,  miii'h  smaller,  in  fact,  than  Mercury  itself,  suggested 
to  Olbers  the  idea  that  these  four  bodies  were  the  fragments 
of  a  single  origiiud  planet  which  had  been  destroyed  through 
some  internal  explosion,  or.  perhaps,  by  coming  into  con- 
flict with  some  heedless  comet.  This  idea  has  since  become 
celebrated  under  the  name  of  "  Olbers's  hypothesis."  The 
author  of  tlie  hypothesis  himself  suggested  that,  if  true, 
there  were  proliably  many  other  fragments,  but  that  the 
orbits  of  all  these  fragments  must  pass  through  a  common 
pi>irit,  namely,  the  point  where  the  explosion  occurred. 
This,  however,  would  not  be  true  uidess  the  cataclysm  was 
of  comparatively  recent  occurrence.  Owing  to  the  secular 
variations  to  which  nil  orbits  in  the  solar  system  are  sub- 
ject, the  orbits  of  these  planets  would  change  their  form 


and  position  in  such  a  way  that,  after  a  few  thousands  of 
years,  the  common  point  of  intersection  would  no  longer  be 
recognizable.  Thus,  so  long  as  only  four  bodies  were  known, 
it  was  impossiVile  to  find  any  decisive  test  for  or  against  the 
hypothesis.  It  therefore  remained  for  many  years  a  mere 
subject  of  speculation,  the  general  current  of  the  best  opin- 
ion being  against  it. 

Thirty-eight  years  passed  after  the  discovery  of  "Vesta  be- 
fore another  of  the  supposed  fragments  was  found.  But  in 
1845  the  astronomical  world  was  interested  by  the  discovery 
of  a  fifth,  and  two  years  later  a  sixth  was  added.  Ambitious 
observers  then  began  to  search  for  new  ones  with  greater 
system  and  zeal  than  before,  with  the  result  that  not  a  year 
has  since  passed  without  adding  one  or  more  to  the  list. 
The  progress  of  discovery  is  shown  in  the  following  list, 
which  gives  the  number  found  during  intervals  of  five  years. 
It  will  be  seen  fi'om  this  list  that  since  1850  the  general 
average  rate  has  been  approximately  ten  per  year.  The 
number  now  known  (1893)  is  about  350. 

Before  1845  4  were  discovered  :  from  1845  to  1850,  9 ;  from 
1851  t<i  185.5.  24:  from  1856  to  1860.  25  ;  from  1861  to  186.5. 
23 ;  from  1866  to  1870, 27 ;  from  1871  to  1875,  45 ;  from  1876 
to  1880.  62;  from  1881  to  1885,  34;  from  1886  to  1890,  49; 
in  1891,  21. 

The  number  of  these  bodies  is  now  so  great  that  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  keep  the  run  of  their  motions.  In  fact, 
two  or  three  are  as  good  as  lost,  but  will  doubtless  be  redis- 
covered at  no  distant  time.  Apparently  all  that  can  be  done 
with  them  is  to  discover  them,  get  an  apjiroximate  orbit,  and 
let  them  go  again,  bearing,  metaphorically  speaking,  the  in- 
itials of  the  astronomer  who  found  them.  Hitherto  they 
have  been  found  only  by  careful  and  systematic  search  with 
the  telescope,  and  by  the  exercise  of  a  great  amount  of  skill 
derived  from  long  practice.  It  is  expected,  however,  that 
the  photographic  chart  of  the  heavens  which  is  now  being 
commenced  under  the  auspices  of  an  interaational  associa- 
tion organized  in  1887,  will  result  in  the  discovery  of  all 
which  are  bright  enough  to  make  an  impression  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate.  Indeed,  since  the  beginning  of  1893  Wolff, 
of  Heidelberg,  and  Charlois,  of  Nice,  have  so  perfected  the 
method  that  these  bodies  are  now  being  discovered  by  pho- 
tography much  more  rapidly  than  they  ever  were  by  the 
telescope.  The  planets  show  themselves  on  the  plate  in  a 
very  curious  way.  To  the  eye  they  are  indistinguishable 
from  the  stars,  and  can  be  detected  as  planets  only  by  their 
motion.  In  taking  a  photograph  of  the  stars  the  plate  has 
to  be  exposed  for  a  considerable  period,  perhaps  half  an  hour 
or  an  hour,  and  to  be  so  moved  by  clockwork  that  the  image 
of  the  star  shall  constantly  be  formed  on  the  same  point  of 
the  plate.  Since  a  planet  will  move  among  the  stars,  it  fol- 
lows that  if  a  planet  is  also  making  its  impression  on  the 
plate  the  motion  will  cause  the  planet  to  be  represented  by 
a  straight  line  instead  of  by  a  point,  as  in  the  case  of  a  star. 
In  the  space  even  of  half  an  hour  a  planet  moves  over  such 
a  distance  as  to  make  an  appreciable  line.  Thus  all  the 
planets  which  happen  to  be  in  the  field  of  the  plate  will,  it 
is  hoped,  be  detected. 

The  bodies  forming  this  group  are  distinguished  from  the 
larger  planets  by  a  innnber  of  characteristics. 

1.  Their  very  small  size.  They  are  so  small  that,  unless 
with  some  of  tlie  recent  great  telescopes  of  the  world,  they 
appear  to  the  eye  simply  as  points  of  light,  and  so  admit  of 
no  measurement.  Judging  from  the  amount  of  light  which 
they  reflect,  the  largest  may  be  300  or  400  miles  in  diameter, 
the  smallest  perhaps  10  or  20.  The  whole  mass  of  th<'m. 
known  and  unknown,  is  so  small  that  it  has  not  yet  been 
detected  by  its  attraction  upon  the  planet  Mare,  as  it  would 
be  if  equal  to  a  single  large  planet. 

2.  The  orbits  are  generally  much  more  eccentric  than 
those  of  the  larger  planets,  one,  Polglii/mtiia.  having  so  large 
an  eccentricity  that  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun  is 
double  its  least  distance.  Hence  the  brightness,  as  seen  from 
the  earth,  varies  in  a  yet  greater  degree;  many  are  scarcely 
visible  when  at  their  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  unless 
with  the  most  jiowerful  telescopes. 

3.  The  inclinations  of  their  orbits  arc  also  in  the  general 
average  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of  the  larger  planets. 
Many  exceed  ten  degrees,  and  one,  Pallas,  is  nearly  thirty- 
five  degrees. 

This  great  eccentricity  and  inclination,  and  the  small  size 
of  the  planets,  are  about  what  might  be  expected  if  Olbers's 
hypothesis  were  true ;  nevertheless,  at  the  present  time  the 
general  consensus  of  opinion  is  against  it.  In  fact,  when  the 
secular  variations  of  the  orbits  are  computed,  it  is  found 


ASTEROIDEA 


ASTOR  LIBRARY 


581 


that  if  they  were  subjected  only  to  the  action  of  the  larger 
]>!uncts  the  orl>its  nover  eoulil  h;ive  intersected  in  a  single 
]iciint.  Still  this  is  not  alisohiti'iy  conclusive,  because,  if  at 
any  linu'  two  of  the  planets  had  passed  very  close  together, 
tliey  might  possibly  have  so  influenced  each  other  as  to  make 
a  considerable  change  in  their  orbits.  This  kind  of  action 
(iocs  not  admit  of  being  calculated  or  foreseen.  Rut  the 
idea  now  is  that  the  original  ring  of  nuitter  out  of  which 
these  bodies  were  formed,  instead  of  collecting  into  a  single 
])lanet,  lus  in  the  case  of  the  larger  ones,  separated  itself  into 
these  minute  fragments,  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  one 
center  of  condensation  sufficient  to  draw  the  entire  ring  into 
its  neighl)orhood.  S.  NiiwcoaB. 

Astcroi'doa  [from  Gr.  dar^p.  star  +  ilSos.  form] :  a  class 
of  the  division  fcc/iiiitK/erHio/a,  including  the  startishes.  It 
is  charaiterii'.ed  by  the  star  shape,  with  live  or  more  angles, 
and  by  the  fact  that  its  arabulacral  feet  are  confined  to  the 
ventral  surface,  'i'wo  ordei-s,  Slelleriiia  or  Asteridea,  the 
starfishes,  and  Ophturidea,  the  brittle  stars,  are  usually  rec- 
ognized.    See  .Starfisu.  I).  S.  J. 

Asterol'cpis  [from  Gr.  iiTTip,  star  +  Aeir^j.^cale,  in  allu- 
sion to  t  he  marks  on  the  dermal  plates  of  the  lieadj  :  a  genus 
of  fossil  ganoid  fishes,  described  by  the  famous  geologist, 
Hugh  .Miiier.  from  the  Scotch  old  red  sandstone.  Some  are 
believed  to  liave  been  20  feet  long. 

Asthllin.  aaz  ma  [Gr.  curSna,  panting,  from  arfvat.  breatlie 
hard]:  in  a  general  sense,  any  disease  characterizeil  by  diffi- 
culty of  lireatliing,  occurring  in  paroxysms:  thus  spasm  of 
the  glottis  is  sometimes  called  "thyraic  asthma":  autum- 
luil  catarrh  is  known  as  "hay  asthma";  the  dyspnoM  (diffi- 
cult breathing)  of  Bright's  disease  has  been,  with  question- 
able propriety,  called  "uncmie  asthma";  and  similar  symp- 
toms arising  from  heart  or  lung  disease  have  also  been  mis- 
taken for  true  asthma,  which,  however,  may  be  associated  with 
these  various  diseases.  True  asl  hma,  accortling  to  Xiemeyer, 
includes  oidy  those  cases  where  the  point  of  the  irritation 
jiroducing  the  attack  is  either  at  the  origin  of  the  vagus 
nerve  or  in  some  remote  part  of  its  course.  This  does  not 
exclude  cases  of  reflex  asthma,  such,  for  example,  as  may 
occur  in  uterine  disease.  Others  state  that  irritability  and 
hypenpinia  of  the  bronchial  raucous  membrane  are  essential 
elements  of  the  disease ;  and  the  readiness  with  which  pow- 
dered ipecacuanha,  the  exhalations  fi-oin  feathei-s,  etc.,  ^vill 
excite  paroxysms,  woulil  ai)pear  to  confirm  this  view.  It  is 
rare  to  find  structural  changes  of  any  organ  in  cases  of  sim- 
ple asthma.  The  trained  diagnostician  alone  can  discrimi- 
nate between  asthma  and  dyspnica  from  other  chest  disejises. 
True  or  nervous  asthma  consists  in  a  paroxysmal  spasm  of 
longer  or  shorter  duration,  attacking  the  muscular  elements 
of  the  bronchial  tubes,  diminishing  temporarily  their  caliber, 
and  thereiiy  obstructing  respiration.  Tlie  jieculiar  wheezing 
and  whi.stling  sounds  produced  by  the  breathing  of  asthmatic 
persons  are  due  to  the  air  passing  through  mirrow  air-tubes. 
Wfiile  true  asthma  may  thus  occur  wiiliout  any  disease  of 
the  lungs,  it  very  commonly  h^ads  to  diseases  by  its  repeated 
occurrence.  Of  such  distensiob  of  the  tissue  by  excessive 
air,  a  ilis(!ase  called  emphysema  is  most  common  ;  and  from 
the  fact  that  the  elasticity  of  the  lungs  is  greatly  impaired 
liy  this  distension  the  subsequent  )iaroxysms  of  asthma  are 
all  the  more  severe.  Notwithstanding  the  great  distress 
which  may  accom]iany  the  attack  of  asthma,  the  immediate 
clanger  is  not  great.  The  smoking  of  saltpeter  paper  or  of 
siraiiionitnu  leaves,  the  administraiion  of  opiates,  coffee,  bel- 
ladonna, conium,  cannabis,  chloral,  vapor  of  chloroform,  etc., 
may  or  may  not  relic've  the  paroxysm.  Iodide  of  potassium 
benefits  many  cases,  pernuiliently  or  temporarily.  Quinia, 
Fowler's  solution,  iron,  and  other  tonics  arc  often  useful.  A 
nutritious  diet,  with  careful  regulation  of  the  bowels,  is  ira- 
jiortant.  The  compressed  air-bath  is  reeommended  as  af- 
fording great  relief  during  the  jiaroxysm. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

As'ti  (anc.  A^'ta  Pompe'ia):  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  .Messanilria;  situateil  on  the  river  Tanaro,  and  on 
the  Turin  ami  Genoa  Railway,  ::i6  miles  by  rail  K.  S.  E.  of 
'I'urin  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  2-A).  It  is  a  bishop's  see, 
has  a  fine  Gotliic  cathedral,  a  royal  college,  a  theological 
seminary,  a  [u-inting-ofTice,  established  in  1470,  and  many 
elegant  mansions.  Here  are  several  manufactories  of  silk 
stuffs.  This  is  the  native  place  of  the  poet  .Vlfieri.  Asta 
I'oinpeia  was  a  town  of  great  auticpiity.  In  the. Middle 
Ages  it  was  the  cajiital  of  a  rejaiblic',  which  existed  from 
lOil.S  to  11.").').  Its  light  white  and  sparkling  wine  is  in  very 
great  demand.     Pop.  about  34,000. 


Astif,  aas'tc'e-ay',  Jean  Frederic:  b.  at  Nerac,  depart- 
ment of  Lot-et-Garonne,  France,  Sept.  21,  1822;  was  a  pas- 
tor in  New  York  1848-.');{,  became  Profes.sor  of  Philosophy 
at  Lausanne  1H.~)6,  and  wrote,  liesides  various  theological 
works,  Le  h'ereil  rdigieux  des  F.tals-Unin  (Lausanne,  1857), 
llistoire  de  la  Rhmhlique  des  Etats-Unis  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1865),  Tlu'ologie.  mlemniide  roiitemporaine  (1874).  I/Orllio- 
doxie  el  le  Lihi'rdlisme  (1880),  and  ia  Crise  f/iMogitjue  et 
ecclesiastigue  (1881).    V.  at  Lausanne,  May  20,  1892. 

Astigr'inatisni  [from  Gr.  o-,  not  +  trTiy/xa.  a  point,  i.  e. 
focus]:  a  peculiar  defect  in  the  eye  which  consists  in  its  re- 
fracting the  ravs  of  light  differently  in  different  planes. 
The  defect  may  lie  detected  by  looking  at  a  small  pinhole  in 
a  card  held  up  against  any  bright  object,  and  moved  to  dif- 
ferent distances  from  the  eye.  To  an  ordinary  eye  the  image 
of  the  hole  remains  circular  at  all  flistances,  but  to  an  eye 
having  the  peculiar  defect  in  question  the  image  of  the  hole, 
as  the  card  is  moved  away  from  the  eye,  becomes  elongated, 
and  at  a  certain  distance  passes  into  a  straight 'line.  This 
imperfection  may  be  corrected  by  means  of  a  cylindrical  or 
spherieo-cylindrical  lens.       Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Astol'phus,  or  Astill'pllllS  (in  Pr.  Astolpke ;  in  Germ. 
Ais'tiilf):  Iving  of  the  Lombards;  obtained  the  throne  in 
749  or  750  A.  u.  Having  seized  Ravenna  about  752,  he 
threatened  Rome.  The  pope  then  applied  for  helj)  to  Pepin, 
King  of  the  Franks,  who  defeated  Astolphus  in  754,  and 
forced  him  to  cede  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  to  tlie  pope. 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  popes.     I),  in  756  A.  D. 

Aston  Manor:  a  suburb  of  Birmingham,  England.  Po]). 
(1881)  5;!,842;  (181)1)  08,0:39. 

As'tor.  JouN  Jacob  :  1).  at  Waldorf,  near  Ileidelberg,  in 
Germany,  July  17.  170:3;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  in  178:3, 
and  invested  his  capital  in  furs,  which  he  took  to  London 
and  sold  with  much  profit,  lie  next  settled  at  New  York, 
and  engaged  extensively  in  the  fur-trade.  He  exported  furs 
to  Europe  in  his  own  vessels,  which  returned  with  cai'goes 
of  foreign  commodities,  and  thus  rapidly  amassed  a  fortune. 
In  1811  he  founded  Astoria  on  the  western  coast  of  North 
America,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  as  a  depot  for 
the  fur-trade,  for  the  promotion  of  which  he  sent  two  expe- 
ditions to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
sagacity  and  diligence  in  business.  He  purchased  in  New 
York  a"  large  amount  of  real  estate,  the  value  of  which  in- 
creased enorinouslv.  At  his  death  (in  New  York  citv.  Mar. 
29.  1848)  liis  fortuiie  was  estimated  at  120,000.000.  ile  left 
§400,000  to  found  a  pulilic  library  in  New  York.  See  Astor 
Library. 

Astor.  William  Walhorp  :  public  man  and  author;  b.  in 
New  York.  ^lar.  :31.  184^ :  only  son  of  John  Jacol)  Astor,  and 
great-grandson  of  John  Jacoii  Astor,  foiiii<ler  of  the  family; 
graduated  from  Columbia  College  Law  School,  admitted  to 
the  bar  1874 ;  member  of  New  York  Asserablv  1877,  of  the 
New  York  Senate  1879;  V.  S.  minister  to  Italy  1882-85; 
author  of  Valentino  and  Sforza,  both  novels  of  interest  and 
power. 

Aslo'ria :  town  ;  Pulton  co. ;  111.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  5-C) ;  on  C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R.,  119  miles 
from  Rock  Island:  surrounded  bv  fine  coal-fields,  and  much 
coal  is  mined.     Pop.(J880)  1,280  i  (1890)  1,:357. 

Asloria:  city  and  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Clatsop  Co., 
Ore.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  1-B); 
in  the  extreme  northwester'n  part  of  the  State  ;  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Columbia  river,  15  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is 
the  he.ndquarters  of  the  salmon  and  fishery  business  of  the 
Northwest  ;  24  of  the  :38  canneries  of  the  Columbia  river  are 
here,  yearly  packing  !S:!,000.000  worth  of  salmon.  The  city 
is  the  general  depot  for  coast  and  river  steamers,  has  large 
lumber-trade,  water-works,  gas-works,  electric  light,  electric 
street-railway,  telephone  system,  district  telegraph  messen- 
ger service,  extensive  summer  travel,  fine  public  schools, 
free  mail-deliverv,  iron-works,  machine-shops,  etc.  Pop. 
(1870)  6:39 ;  (1880)  2,80:{ :  (188.5)  6.204  ;  (1890)  8,:371.  In  1891 
the  citv  limits  were  enlarged.  Pop.  (1892)  between  9.000 
and  10.000.  Proprietor  of  "Astorian." 

Astor  Library  :  a  librarv  of  New  York  citv.  founded  by 
John  Jacob  Astcu-  (d.  1848).  who  bequeathed' ^400.000  for 
that  imrpose.  His  will  directed  that  the  government  of  the 
library  sliould  be  vested  in  eleven  trustees,  including  the 
mayor  of  New  York  and  the  chancellor  of  the  State.  The 
librarv,  erected  on  Lafayette  Place,  was  opened  in  1853. 
William  Backhouse  Asto'r  (d.  Nov.  24,  1875),  eldest  son  of 


382 


ASTRABAD 


ASTROLOGY 


tlie  founder,  added  $200,000  to  his  father's  bequest,  besides 
building  an  addition  on  adjoining  property  -which  he  gave. 
John  Jacob  Astiir  (<1.  Feb.  22, 1890),  grandson  of  the  founder, 
bequeathed  ^450,000  for  this  library,  and  in  his  lifetime  pre- 
sented it  three  lots  on  which  he  erected  an  addition,  and 
added  to  the  central  building.  It  now  has  260.651  ToUanes. 
In  1896  it  was  consolidated  with  the  Lenox  and  the  Tilden 
Libraries  as  the  New  York  Public  Library. 

As'trabad':  a  to%vn  in  the  northern  part  of  Persia,  capi- 
tal of  a  province  of  its  own  name.  It  is  on  a  small  river 
which  enters  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  from 
which  it  is  about  20  miles  distant  (see  map  of  Persia,  ref. 
2-H).  The  situation  is  not  healthful  in  summer,  but  is  ren- 
dered attractive  by  extensive  gardens.  The  greater  part  of 
the  town  is  in  ruins.  Here  are  some  manufactures  of  silk 
and  cotton  stuffs.     Pop.  15,000:  of  province,  80,000. 

Astraclian :  See  Astrakhas. 

Astrw'a  (in  Gr.  'Ao-Tpma) :  goddess  of  justice,  a  personage 
of  chissic  mytlioh>gv:  was  said  to  be  a  daughter  of  Jupiter 
and  Themis.  At  tlie  termination  of  the  Golden  Age,  when 
violence  began  to  pi-evail  in  the  world,  she  ascended  to 
heaven,  being  the  last  of  the  goddesses  to  leave  the  earth. — 
Astr-i:a  is  also  the  name  of  an  asteroid  discovered  by 
Hencke  in  1845.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  2-577 
times  that  of  the  earth.  It  completes  a  revolution  in  1,511 
days. 

Astraa:  a  genus  of  coral  animals  of  the  order  Jladre- 
poraria.     They  live  in  the  sea,  and  form  calcareous  skeletons 

(star-corals),  which  are  cha  r- 
acterized  by  sessile,  star- 
shaped,  lamellate  cells, 
crowded  on  the  upper  sur- 
face. The  polyps  are  often 
an  inch  in  cliameter.  They 
form  large,  hemispherical 
nuisses  of  coral. 

Astrag-'alus  [Lat..  from 
Gr.  tuTTpayaXos.  vertebra, 
baU  of  the  ankle-joint]  :  in 
anatomy,  the  first  or  upper- 
most bone  of  the  tarsus, 
which  forms  with  the  leg- 
bones  the  hinge  of  the 
ankle-joint.  Its  lower  sur- 
face rests  on  the  os  ealcis, 
or  heel-bone. 
AstragralllS :  a  genus  of  herbaceous  and  shrubby  plants  of 
the  family  L/'r/UDiinoxd'.  The  leaves  are  pinnate,  with  an 
odd  leaflet,  and  the  pod  is  two-celled.  It  comprises  numer- 
ous species,  mostly  natives  of  the  temperate  and  cold  parts 
of  the  eastern  h('misi>here.  Several  species  of  Astraijnliis 
growing  in  Persia  and  Asia  Elinor  yield  gmn-tragacanth. 
The  Asfragahiii  bcefiatis  is  cultivated  in  Hungai-y  aiid  Ger- 
many for  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  cotfee. 
Numerous  species  of  Adragalus  are  found  in  the  U.  .S.,  espe- 
cially westward. 

Astrakhan':  a  government  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Kuropean  linssia.  bounded  N.  by  Samara.  E.  l)y  Orenburg 
and  the  Caspian  Sea,  S.  by  Caucasia,  and  W.  by  the  country 
of  tlic  Don  Cossacks  and  Saratov  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
10-G).  It  is  intersected  by  the  Volga,  which  divides  it  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts.  Area,  91,;i27  sq.  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  nearly  level,  and  the  soil  mostly  sterile  and  .saline. 
A  large  l"irt  of  it  is  occupied  by  salt  marshes  and  saline 
lakes.  The  fisheries  of  the  Volga  in  this  government  are 
verv  valuable,  manv  stui-geon  being  caught  in  it.  Poj). 
(1890)  847,;i(5,  of  wliom  220,000  are  Kirghiz  Tartars  antl 
139,000  Kalmucks. 

Astrakhan,  or  Astraohan :  a  city  of  Russia,  capital  of 
the  above  government  ;  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  river 
Volga,  40  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Cas])ian  Sea 
(see  ina|)  of  Russia,  ref.  10-G).  It  has  crooked  and  dirty 
streets,  and  houses  mostly  built  of  wood.  It  contains  "a 
catlieclnd.  aliout  :i5  churches,  15  mosques,  an  arcliiepiscopal 
palace,  a  liotanic  ganlen.  an  Indian  temple,  and  a  gymna- 
sium. Immense  quantities  of  fi.sh  are  exported  hence!  The 
other  articles  of  export  are  leather,  fur.  linen,  and  woolen 
goods.  This  place  is  the  seat  of  Greek  and  ArnuMiian  arch- 
bishoprics. It  luis  an  extensive  trade,  and  manufactures  of 
silk  and  cotton.  Steamboats  ply  between  this  place  and  the 
ports  of  the  Caspian  Sea.     Pop.  (1888)  73,710. 


Astrsea  viridis. 


As'tralite :  a  variety  of  glass  resembling  aventurine, 
containing  crystals  of  a  cuprous  compound,  which  exhibits 
a  dichroitic  iridescence  of  dark  red  and  greenisli  blue.  It 
is  nuide  by  fusing  and  cooling  slowly  a  mixture  of  80  parts 
of  silica,  120  of  litharge,  73  of  carbonate  of  soda,  18  of 
borax  glass,  24  of  scale  oxide  of  copper,  and  1  of  scale  oxide 
of  iron. 

As'tral  Spir'its:  spirits  supposed  by  the  ancient  Per- 
sians and  other  Orientals  to  animate  the  stars.  This  opinion 
or  superstition  was  adopted  by  some  of  the  Greeks  and  Jews. 
The  demonologists  of  the  Middle  Ages  conceived  them  as 
fallen  angels  or  souls  of  dej^arted  men. 

Astriu'g:ent  [from  pres.  partic.  of  Lat.  asfrin'gere.  draw 
together;  ad,  io  +  strin'gere.  bind]:  an  agent  which  pro- 
duces a  persistent  contraction  in  organic  tissues,  and  thus 
checks  discharges  from  the  body,  such  as  excessive  purging 
or  diarrhcea  and  ha?morrhages.  Astringents  are  of  two 
classes,  vegetable  and  mineral.  Of  the  former,  tannic  and 
gallic  acids  are  the  prevailing  active  principles,  and  these 
nuiy  be  obtained  and  used  in  the  [uire  state.  The  most 
common  vegetable  astringents  are  galls,  oak-bark,  logwood, 
blackberry  root,  rhatany,  catechu,  and  kino.  Of  mineral 
astringents,  the  most  im].iortant  are  acetate  of  lead,  sulphate 
and  chloride  of  iron,  nitrate  of  silver,  alum,  carbonate  of 
Lime,  and  the  mineral  acids,  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydro- 
chloric. 

Astroea'rynm  [from  Gr.  ia-rpov.  star -i- icapuoi',  nut]:  a 
genus  of  palms :  comprises  about  sixteen  known  species,  na- 
tives of  tropical  America,  and  remarkable  for  tlie  sharp 
spines  with  which  the  stem  and  almost  every  [lart  are  armed. 
They  have  pinnated  leaves.  The  murumui-u  jialm  (Astro- 
caryiim  tnnnimuni),  a  small  tree  about  10  feet  high,  grows 
on  the  Amazon  ancl  bears  a  fruit  about  an  incli  long,  which 
is  esculent  and  highly  esteemed.  Another  edil)le  fruit  is 
produced  by  the  tucuma  palm  (Asfrocargum  fiinnria),  which 
grows  near  the  Amazon  to  the  height  of  30  to  40  feet.  The 
Aatrocarytim  i-ulgare.  called  tucum  [lalm.  is  more  lofty 
than  the  tree  last  noticed.  It  is  cidtivated  by  the  natives, 
who  obtain  from  the  epidermis  of  its  unopened  leaves  a  fine 
and  strong  fiber  of  which  they  make  cordage,  nets,  etc. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

As'trolahe  [from  Gr.  aarpoXi^ov.  star-taking ;  iarpov,  star 
+  XajSeiv,  take] :  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a  circular 
instrument  used  to  make  astronomical  observations.'which 
is  now  superseded  by  better  instruments.  The  ancient  as- 
trolabe consisted  of  two  or  more  circles  having  a  common 
center,  and  so  inclined  to  each  other  as  to  enalde  the  as- 
tronomer to  observe  in  the  planes  of  different  circles  of  the 
sphere  at  the  same  time. 

Astrol'ogy  [Gr.  oaTpoKoyla.  star-doctrine  :  iffrpov,  star  -i- 
Xeyeiv.  discuss] :  originally,  astronomy ;  later,  a  spurious 
science  which  professed  to  explain  the  events  of  human  life 
Ijy  the  intluence  of  the  stars  or  planets.  Astrology,  which 
is  a  very  ancient  form  of  superstition,  may  be  defined  as  the 
study  of  horoscopes  and  an  attempt  to  predict  the  fortunes 
of  nien  by  the  positions  and  aspects  of  the  stars.  Judicial 
astrology  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  ChakhTa.  The 
Jews,  after  their  captivity  in  Babylon,  were  much  addicted 
to  it.  and  tlie  same  delusion  has  prevailed  among  all  the 
nations  of  Eurojie.  In  ancient  Rome,  during  the  empire, 
a-strologers  were  a  numerous  and  influential  class.  In  the 
]\Iiddle  Ages  astronomy  proper  was  cliiefly  studied  as  sub- 
sidiary to  astrology,  which  was  considered  as  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  two  sciences.  The  relation  between  astrol- 
ogy and  astronomy  was  like  that  between  alcliemy  and 
chemistry.  The  Copernican  system  contrilmted  greatly  to 
bring  astrology  into  discredit.  The  fundauiental  concep- 
tion of  astrology  seems  to  have  been  drawn  from  the  actual 
influence  of  the  sun  upon  the  earth  in  affecting  health,  fer- 
tility, and  tenqierature.  Connected  with  these  facts  was 
the  worship  of  the  heavenlv  bodies  as  divinities.  The  no- 
tion of  Aristotle,  set  forth  iri  the  twelfth  book  of  the  Meta- 
physics, that  the  heavenly  bodies  were  "ensouled,"  and 
that  each  moved  in  its  orljit  by  a  conscious  volition,  gave 
currency  to  similar  ideas  among  the  students  of  the  Peri- 
patetic system.  The  power  of  these  heavenly  beings  was 
supposed  to  flaw  out  from  their  dwelling-places,  and  affect 
bemgs  on  the  earth  for  good  or  evil.  Astrological  predic- 
tion.s  are  foundi'd  on  the  relative  positicuis  and  aspects  of 
the  sun,  nuion.  and  planets  at  the  moment  of  birth,  and  on 
certain  arbitrary  influences  suppo.sed  to  belong  to  each  of 
these  bodies.     To  facilitate  the  determination  of  the  aspects; 


ASTRONOMY 


383 


the  whole  hoavcn,  visible  and  invisible,  is  divided  into 
twelve  equal  parts  by  the  horizon,  the  meridian,  and  lour 
other  circles  pjissin^  through  the  north  and  south  points  of 
the  horizon  and  the  points  of  the  equator  (or  prime  vertical), 
which  are  at  the  distance  of  thirty  and  sixty  decrees  from 
the  meridian.  These  equal  si)aces  are  called  the  twelve 
houses  of  the  heavens,  and  the  circles  by  which  they  are  cir- 
cumscribed are  called  circles  of  position.  The  circles  of  po- 
sition are  supposed  to  remain  fixed,  so  that  a  celestial  body 
is  carried  throuf^h  each  of  the  twelve  hou.ses  in  the  coui-seof 
a  day  by  the  diurnal  rotation.  The  first  house  is  contained 
bi'tween  the  eastern  horizon  and  the  next  circle  of  position 
f;oing  to  the  eastward.  The  beginniiif;  of  the  first  house,  or 
the  point  of  the  ecliptic  just  rising,  is  called  the  horoscope. 
The  first  house  is  the  house  of  life;  the  second,  of  riches; 
the  third,  of  brothers  :  the  fourth,  of  parents;  the  fifth,  of 
children ;  the  sixth,  of  health ;  the  seventh,  of  marriage  ; 
the  cightli.  of  death;  the  ninth,  of  religion  ;  the  tenth, of  dig- 
nities; the  eleventh,  of  friends;  and  the  twelfth,  of  ene- 
mies. Each  of  the  houses  has  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as 
its  peculiar  lor<l.  They  have  different  powers,  the  first  be- 
ing the  most  powerful.  The  next  oliject  is  to  consider  the 
aspects  or  coidigurations  of  the  inlluential  bodies.  The  an- 
cients reckoned  five  suspects.  (8ee  Aspkct.)  The  quart  ile  and 
opposition  were  considered  malignant  or  adverse,  the  tritu? 
and  sextile  as  benignant  or  propitious,  and  the  conjunction 
was  an  indifferent  as[)ect.  The  intluenc'es  ascribed  to  the 
plaiu^ts  were  as  arbitrary  as  those  ascrilied  to  the  aspects. 
Saturn,  being  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  was 
supposed  to  be  of  a  cold  nature;  Jupiter,  Venus,  and  the 
Moon,  temperate  and  benignant;  Saturn  and  .Mars  were 
the  most  dangerous.  The  inlluence  of  the  sun  and  Mercury 
varied  according  to  circumstances.  See  ZaJikieVs Maiidbook 
to  Astruluijii  and  Lilly,  William. 

Astronomy  [from  Or.  iurTpoeoiita,  classification  of  stars, 
aaTpoviiwi.  ast  rononier ;  6.<rrpoi/,  star  -I-  yiiitiv,  arrange] :  the 
science  whicli  treats  of  the  constitution,  motion,  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  heavenly  bodies,  anil  the  art  or  practice  of 
utilizing  their  known  positions  for  determining  positions 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Under  the  term  heavenly  bodies  is  included  every  visible 
ma.ss  of  matter  outside  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  Since 
these  ma.sses  of  matter,  known  as  planets,  stars,  comets, 
etc.,  are,  in  most  ca-^^es,  immensely  larger  than  the  earth 
itself,  it  follows  that,  so  tar  as  mere  extent  is  concei'ned,  the 
lU^ld  of  astronomical  science  is  immensely  greater  tlian  that 
iif  all  other  sciences  combined.'  The  earth  is  but  a  speck  in 
the  order  of  creation,  and  every  other  si-iencc  besides  as- 
tronomy is  concerned  with  what  is  going  on  upon  this  little 
>peck  of  matter.  In  the  present  article  we  can  do  nothing 
more  than  give  a  general  idea  of  the  development  and  |)res- 
ent  condition  of  the  science,  referring  to  subdivisions  for 
all  details. 

Astronomy  is  the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ideas  on  which  modern  astronomy  rests  is  co- 
extensive with  the  history  of  civilization.  The  names  of  the 
constellations  antedate  all  authentic-  history;  and  the  earli- 
est thinkers  devoted  to  the  heavenly  bodies  an  amount  of 
careful  study  which,  had  it  been  applied  to  mundane  things, 
would,  we  may  suppose,  have  enaliled  them  to  antici])ate 
many  of  the  cimclusions  of  nuxlern  science.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  ideas  of  the  constitution  of  the  univer.se  has 
been  so  natural  and  orderly  that  no  treatment  of  astronomy 
is  complete  without  explaining  it. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  first  conception  which  ignorant 
men  forme<l  of  the  earth  was  that  of  a  vast,  extende<l  plain. 
Hut  it  neede<l  very  little  oliservation  to  show  that  this  sup- 
posed plain  was  an  illusicm,  and  that  we  really  live  on  the 
surface  of  a  glolie.  Ptolemy  himself,  aliuut  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era,  gave  the  proofs  that  tlie  earth  is  a  sphere  as 
fully  and  ch^arly  as  they  are  given  in  our  modern  geogra- 
phies; in  fact,  we  have  no  authentic  record  of  a  time  when 
men  did  not  know  that  the  earth  was  a  glolie. 

The  earliest  astronomii'al  system  was  that  in  which  this 
gliibe  was  supposed  to  be  at  rest  in  the  center  of  the  uni- 
verse, all  file  heavenly  bodies  revolving  around  it  in  the 
space  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  theory  which  assigned  the 
earth  to  this  position  in  the  universe  is  known  as  the  Ptole- 
maic or  geocentric  system.  (See  Ptolemaic  System.)  It  re- 
mained the  accepted  system  until  the  time  of  C'o|)eniicus. 
whose  hypothesis  or  discovery  that  the  sun  is  the  actual  cen- 
ter of  the  [)lanetarv  motions,  and  that  the  earth  revolves  on 
its  own  axis,  introiluces  the  second  great  era  in  the  progress 


of  astronomy.  To  this  era  belong  not  only  Copernicus,  but 
Kepler,  Tycho  Brahe,  and  Galileo.  The  Copernican  system 
hatl  to  l)e  established,  and  the  laws  of  t  he  motion  of  the  plan- 
ets discovered,  before  further  progress  was  possible.  The 
third  era  was  intrnduced  by  Sir  I.-^aac  Newton,  through  the 
discovery  of  gravitation.  The  Newtonian  system  did  not 
supersede  that  of  t'o])ernicus,  but  only  generalized  and  ex- 
plained it  by  referring  the  celestial  motions  to  known  me- 
chanical laws.  The  heavenly  bodies  were  no  longer  myste- 
rious creations,  revolving  in  ellipses  owing  to  some  inscru- 
table law  impressed  upon  them  by  their't'reator ;  but  they 
were  simply  masses  of  matter,  flying  through  s|>aee  with 
perfect  freedom,  each  gnivitating  toward  all  the  others,  and 
toward  the  sun.  The  motion  in  ellipses,  which  had  been 
demonstrated  by  Kepler  from  observation,  was  shown  to  be 
the  result  of  gravitation  toward  the  sun. 

The  acceptance  of  the  Copernican  and  Newtonian  systems 
and  the  discoveries  made  with  the  telescope  have  complete- 
ly revolutionized  our  ideas  of  the  universe  and  thi^  place  of 
the  earth  in  it.  So  long  as  the  latter  was  considi-red  as  the 
center,  all  the  rest  of  creation  was  supposed  to  be  with- 
in a  comparatively  short  distance  of  it.  Surrounding  the 
I'arth  were  a  succession  of  spheres,  and  outside  of  all  the 
empyrean,  the  realm  of  fin-,  the  abode  of  the  gods.  But 
the  new  system  of  astronomy,  and  the  discoveries,  observa- 
tions, and  measurements  made  |)ossible  by  the  telescope,  ex- 
teniled  the  universe,  step  by  step,  into  the  domains  of  infin- 
ity itself.  The  eartli  became  merely  one  of  a  mimber  of 
bodies  circulating  around  the  sun.  some  larger  and  some 
smaller  than  itself.  The  fixed  stars  became  not  merely 
points  of  light,  but  suns,  each  with  its  possible  retiiuie  of 
inhid)ited  planets.  As  observations  were  made  upon  these 
stars  to  determine  their  distance  by  their  annual  parallax, 
they  retreated  I'arlhi'r  and  farther  towaril  infinity.  Coper- 
nicus proliably  supposed  them  not  very  tar  outside  the  solar 
system.  Kepler  su]iposed  tlial  they  were  arranged  lU'ar  the 
surface  of  an  iniineiise  sphere.  As  the  arts  of  measurement 
improved.it  was  found  thai  even  the  whole  orbit  of  the 
earth,  a  sti-etch  of  l^iG.OOO.OOO  miles,  must  form  a  very 
snuill  angle  as  seen  from  the  nearest  of  the  stars.  To  deter- 
mine this  angle  became  one  of  the  great  problems  of  as- 
tronomy ;  yet  it  eluded  all  measurement  generation  after 
generation.  The  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  wa.s 
past  when  the  illustrious  Bessel  found.  Iiy  the  aid  of  a  new 
instrument,  that  there  was  one  star  which  was  only  COO.(K)I) 
times  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  This  distance 
has  since  l)een  diminished  a  little,  and  another  star  in  the 
southern  hemis]ihere  has  been  found  to  be  distant  only 
about  270,000  times  the  radius  of  the  earth's  orbit.  A  .score 
of  others  have  been  found  within  a  distance  of  2,000.000  or 
li.OOO.OOO  of  these  railii ;  but  t  he  great  mass  of  t  he  stars  still 
lies  without  this  range,  and  all  we  can  say  of  their  distances 
is  that  they  are  immeasurably  great,  even  with  the  refined  in- 
struments of  modern  astronomy.    See  Stars. 

The  stars  forming,  as  it  were,  the  basis  of  creation,  the 
centers  of  possible  planetary  systems,  we  reach  the  question 
of  their  number  and  extent.  About  .5.000  are  usually  visi- 
ble to  the  naked  eye,  but  very  keen  observers  can  detect  as 
nuuiy  as  8.000.  The  number  visible  is  greatly  increased 
when  a  small  telescope  is  used,  and  continues  to  increase 
with  the  power  of  the  instrument,  rising,  in  the  ca.se  of  the 
most  powerful  telescopes,  to  perhaps  .')0.0()0,000,  or  many 
thousands  for  every  one  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  But  even 
then  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  smallest  .stars  are  .seen, 
but  every  reason  to  believe  that  greater  instruments  would 
show  millions  more  in  every  dii'cctioii. 

Besides  these  millions  of  scattered  stars,  great  clusters 
exist,  in  which  pow<-rful  telescopes  show  a  whole  firmament 
of  stars  in  a  spot  scarcely  large  enough  to  be  visible  to  the 
naked  eye. 

As  to"  the  extent  of  the  universe,  and  the  scale  on  which 
it  is  constructed,  we  can  do  little  more  than  set  an  inferior 
limit  to  the  magnitude  of  creation.  Beyond  this  limit  we 
can  not  tell  how  extensive  it  may  be.  We  may,  however, 
conclude,  with  considerable  probability,  that  most  of  the 
stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  lie  at  distances  which  light 
would  traverse  in  between  fifty  and  three  huiulred  yeai-s. 
In  other  words,  it  we  conceive  of  two  spheres  described 
aroiiiul  our  sun,  the  smaller  with  a  radius  over  which  light 
would  pa.ss  in  fifty  years  (in  round  numbei-s,  three  hundred 
millions  of  millions  of  miles),  and  another  with  a  radius 
four  times  as  great,  it  is  probable  that  we  should  find  a  few 
score  of  the  brighter  stars  within  the  inner  sphere,  and  the 
great  mass  of  the  fainter  ones  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  be- 


384 


ASTRONOMY 


tween  the  two  spheres.  If  we  suppose  that  the  smaller  tele- 
scopic stars  have  a  general  average  of  about  the  same  intrin- 
sic brilliancy  as  the  brighter  ones,  we  may  eonchule  that 
tliey  are  placed  at  distances  which  light  would  traverse  in 
from  five  to  fifty  thousand  years.  Of  what  is  beyond  we 
know  nothing  as  yet. 

Of  the  form  and  boundaries  of  this  agglomeration  of 
stars  which  forms  tlie  visible  universe  nothing  certain  is 
known,  but  it  is  certain  that  there  is  a  great  tendency  to 
aggregation  near  the  jilane  of  the  Jlilky  Way.  The  latter 
is  well  known  to  consist  of  vast  aggregations  of  telescopic 
stars  too  small  to  be  separately  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
This  fact  was  first  clearly  shown  by  Hersehel,  and  led  him 
to  his  celebrated  theory  that  all  the  visible  stars  form  a 
comparatively  thin  stratum,  near  the  center  of  which  our 
sun  is  placed.  That  tlie  densest  portions  of  the  universe 
are  spread  out  into  such  a  stratum  or  plate  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  but  of  the  limits  of  the  thinner  portions,  composed 
of  stars  scattered  outside  of  this  stratum,  nothing  positive 
can  be  asserted. 

Xothing  indicating  either  growth  or  decay  has  been  ac- 
tually observed  in  the  stellar  universe.  There  is  no  estab- 
lisheil  instance  either  of  a  known  star  disappearing  from 
the  heavens,  or  of  a  really  new  one  coming  into  view.  The 
supposed  cases  of  the  latter  kind  are  now  found  to  be  due 
to  extraordinary  variability;  a  small  star,  perhaps  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  suddenly  bursting  forth  into  brilliancy, 
and  after  a  time  subsiding  to  its  former  magnitude.  Sev- 
eral instances  of  this  kind  are  on  record,  the  last  as  late  as 
1866.  when  a  star  of  the  second  or  third  magnitude  sud- 
denly appeared  in  the  Northern  Crown.  An  examination 
of  Argelanders  great  star-catalogue  showed  that  it  was 
formerly  a  telescopic  star  of  tlie  ninth  magnitude.  After 
a  few  weeks  it  gradually  returned  to  this  magnitude,  and 
has  not  since  shown  any  kind  of  disturbance. 

Tlie  stars  ai'e  found  to  be  moving  among  themselves  in  a 
way  that  must  ultimately  lead  to  an  entire  change  of  their 
distribution,  and  perhaps  to  their  entire  separation.  The 
velocity  of  motion  is  usually  from  30  to  50  miles  per  second, 
but  in  one  instance  it  probably  exceeds  200  miles  per  second. 
So  far  as  observation  can  show,  the  rule  is  that  each  star 
moves  forward  independently  in  a  straight  line  with  a  uni- 
form velocity.  From  the  few  estimates  of  the  masses  of  the 
stars  which  have  been  made,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  their  motions  can  be  appreciably  affected  by  tlieir 
mutual  gravitation,  unless  after  the  lapse  of  thousands  of 
ages,  or  when  two  cliance  to  pass  near  each  other.  Tlie 
comliined  attraction  9f  all  the  stars  visible  with  the  most 
powerful  telescope,  supposing  their  masses  to  be  correctly 
judged  by  those  of  the  stars  which  have  been  weighed,  would 
never  stop,  and  would  hardly  turn  aside,  the  star  Areturus 
in  its  couree  of  60  or  80  miles  per  second,  nor  Groombridge 
1880  in  its  headlong  course  of  300  miles  per  second.  There 
is.  in  fact,  no  certain  evidence  tliat  tlie  stellar  universe  is 
held  togetlier  by  any  bond  of  attraction  whatever,  as  our 
soUir  system  is.  Mildler's  view  that  Alcyone  is  the  central 
sun  of  the  universe  is  a  piece  of  groundless  speculation 
wliicli  has  never  received  the  a.^sent  of  astronomers  qualified 
to  judge  it.  The  stellar  motions  take  place  in  every  possible 
direction,  and  without  regard  to  any  known  law,  except 
that  very  frequently  stars  in  the  same  region  of  space  move 
nearly  in  the  same  direction. 

Besi(U^s  stars,  we  have  nebulie  as  component  parts  of  the 
telescopic  univei-se.  They  are  cloud-like  jiatches  of  light 
scattered  all  over  the  heavens,  but  less  numerous  in  tlie 
Milkv  Way  than  at  a  distance  from  it.  Two  of  them,  sit- 
uated in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  great  ncbuhe  of  Orion 
and  of  Andromeda,  are  clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Before  the  discovery  of  spectral  analysis  it  was  not  [lossible 
to  draw  the  line  between  iielnila'  and  clustei-sofstars.be- 
cause  large  numbei-s  of  objects  which  look  like  nel]iila' 
through  small  telescopes  are  fouml.  with  large  ones,  to  be 
clusters  of  stars,  and  every  increase  in  the  power  of  the 
instrument  was  found  to  change  objects  from  the  former  to 
tlic  latter  class.  It  was  therefore  doubtful  whetlu-r  all  neb- 
uliB  were  not  really  clusters  of  stars  too  small  or  too  distant 
to  be  resolved  with  the  telescojie.  But,  as  soon  as  the  spec- 
troscope was  turned  upon  such  of  these  objects  as  could  give 
a  visible  spectrum,  it  was  found  that  many  of  them  were 
not  solid  bodies  at  all.  but  masses  of  incandescent  gas,  gen- 
erally hydrogen  or  nitrogen.  To  this  class  belongs  the  neb- 
ula of  Orion,  which  is  therefore  a  true  nebula.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  nebula  of  Andromeda  gives  a  continuous 
spectrum,  showing  that  the  luminous  matter  is  in  a  solid  or 


liquid  state,  and  probably  consists  of  an  agglomeration  of 
stai-s.  though  no  telescope  has  yet  resolved  it. 

We  have  no  data  whatever  for  forming  a  judgment  of 
the  distance  of  the  nebul.T,  as  we  have  in  the  case  of  the 
fixed  stai-s.  A  favorite  theory  is  that  the  forty  or  fifty 
millions  of  stare  separately  visible  through  the  largest  tele- 
scopes, the  greater  number  of  which,  as  we  have  said,  are 
spread  out  in  a  thin,  widely  extended  stratum,  form  a  sys- 
tem to  which  our  sun  belongs,  and  that  many  of  the  resolv- 
alde  nebuhe  are  similar  systems  situated  tar  outside  of  our 
own.  In  favor  of  this  view  is  to  be  said  that  our  Milky 
Way,  viewed  from  a  point  500  times  the  distance  of  the 
most  remote  star  in  it,  would  have  the  appearance  of  a  neb- 
ula, and  would  give  a  continuous  spectrum,  although  no 
telescope  we  p6ssess  would  resolve  it.  It  is  therefore  possi- 
ble that  many  of  the  more  distant  resolvable  nebuk-e  may 
be  such  systems.  But  the  greater  number  of  visible  clus- 
tere  can  not  compare  with  our  Milky  ^^■ay  in  the  number  of 
their  stars,  as  they  only  comprise  a  few  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands. We  can  really  draw  no  line  of  demarkation  between 
the  agglomerations  of  stars  within  our  own  system  and  the 
most  distant  cluster,  the  whole  range  from  one  extreme  to 
the  other  being  filled  with  known  objects.  We  must  there- 
fore regard  the  views  in  question  as  forming  a  vei-y  grand 
but  yet  unproven  hypothesis. 

Our  description  of  the  stellar  universe  may  be  summed 
up  by  sailing  that  it  is  composed  of  an  unknown  host  of 
stars,  certainly  more  than  50,000.000.  mostly  scattered  in 
irregular  aggregations  forming  the  Milky  Way,  while  many 
are  aggregated  in  yet  closer  clusters,  some  of  which  are  sit- 
uated within  the  Milky  Way  and  some  without  it,  and  of  a 
number  of  enormous  masses  of  incandescent  gases  situated 
at  unknown  distances.  Our  sun  is  siuqily  one  of  these 
50,000.000  of  stars,  without,  so  far  as  we  know,  any  mark 
to  distinguish  him  among  his  fellows.  He  is  probably 
rather  smaller  than  the  average :  removed  to  1,000.000 
times  his  present  distance,  which  is  probably  the  average 
distance  of  the  stars  of  the  firet  magnitude,  he  would  shine 
only  as  a  star  of  the  third  or  fourth  magnitude.  He  is, 
indeed,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  non-luminous  planets, 
while,  with  one  possible  exception,  no  such  companions  are 
seen  to  the  stars  ;  but  this  does  not  disprove  their  existence, 
because  eveiy  planet  of  our  system  would  disappear  from 
view  in  our  most  powerful  telescopes  at  a  distance  far  less 
than  that  of  the  nearest  star. 

The  physical  constitution  of  the  sun  and  stars  is  a  subject 
which  has  greatly  occupied  investigators  in  recent  times, 
without  leading  them  to  an  entirely  certain  and  definite 
conclusion.  The  theory  of  Wilson  and  Ilerschel  that  the 
sun  is  a  dark,  cool  body,  suiTounded  by  a  stratum  of  lumi- 
nous clouds  floating  in  an  atmosphere,  has  been  one  of  the 
best  known,. but  it  is  com]>letely  disproved  by  the  modern 
discoveries  of  the  conservation  of  force  and  the  equivalence 
of  heat  and  force.  The  enormous  volumes  of  heat  sent  off 
by  the  sun  can  be  supplied  only  by  a  continuous  expendi- 
ture of  force,  and  any  theory  which  accounts  for 'the  solar 
light  and  heat  must  show  whence  that  force  comes.  We 
know  that  our  sun  has  been  radiating  light  and  heat  in 
quantities  as  great  as  at  present  for  thousands,  or  even 
millions,  of  years,  while  the  sun  of  Hersehel  would  cool  off 
very  quickly,  and  then  cease  to  give  either  light  or  heat.  In 
one  respect,  however,  the  theory  in  question  is  now  univer- 
sally agreed  to:  the  "photosphere" — that  is,  the  shining 
surface  of  the  solar  sphere — is  composed  of  cloud-like  mat- 
ter, apparently  floating  in  some  kind  of  fluid,  the  whole  be- 
ing at  an  extremely  high  temperature.  The  sjiofs  are  known 
to  be  dark  depressions  in  the  photosphere,  as  to  the  cause  of 
which  investigators  are  not  yet  agreed.  Of  the  interior  of 
this  enormous  globe  we  can  see  nothing,  but  there  is  good 
reason  for  holding  that  it  is  mostly  formed  of  materials 
similar  to  those  which  compose  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
heated  to  so  high  a  temperature  as  to  be  conijilctely  vaiior- 
ized  and  reduced  to  a  slate  of  dissocial  Ion.  or  one  in  which 
chemical  union  of  .different  elements  is  no  longer  possible. 
At  the  same  time  the  pressure  to  which  this  vaporous  in- 
terior is  subjected  by  the  weight  of  its  outer  layers  is  so 
great  that  it  is  coni|i!'i'sscd  into  the  smallest  possible  space, 
so  tliat  the  mean  density  of  the  sun  is  not  much  greater  tliau 
that  of  water. 

On  the  outside,  this  mass  is  continually  cooling  off  by 
radiatifui.  and  hence  condensing  to  the  solid  or  liquid  state. 
The  matter  thus  condensed  forms  the  photo.'^phere,  which 
seems  to  be  in  a  state  of  continual  change. 

Immediately  above  the  jihotosphere  lies  a  comparatively 


ASTRONOMY 


385 


shallow,  but  fxliviiioly  c(>iii|ilex,  incniulesi'cnt  nlmosphere, 
the  abtjoiiitidii  of  which  causes  the  dark  lines  in  the  solar 
spectrum.  This  atmosphere  consists  of  hydrogen  gas,  mixed 
with  the  vapors  of  many  of  the  metals,  especially  magne- 
sium, calcium,  sodium,  and  iron:  the  metallic  vapoi's,  ex- 
cept that  of  magmsium,  mostly  lying  so  near  the  base  that 
they  are  not  visible,  even  with  a  sjici-troscope.  except  just  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  a  total  eclii)se.  This  atmosphere 
shines  with  a  red  light,  and  was  frequently  seen  during 
total  eclipses  of  the  .sun,  but  its  existence  and  nature  were 
first  clearly  brought  to  light  by  Mr,  J.  N.  Lockyer's  spectro- 
.seoi)e.  This  gentleman  termed  it  the  chromosphere.  It  is 
agitated  by  storms  of  fire,  the  fury  of  which  exceeds  any- 
thing ever  pictured  by  the  wildest  inuigination  of  the  j)oet, 
the  velocity  of  the  wind  sometimes  rising  to  lOIJ  miles  per 
.second,  and  nia,sses  of  liery  vapor  nuiny  times  the  size  of  our 
earth  shooting  up  to  the  height  of  20.000,  50,000,  or  even 
SO,0()0  miles.  These  masses  constitute  the  red  "  protuber- 
ances" always  visible  during  total  eclipses  of  the  sun,  the 
nature  of  which  was  a  complete  mystery  until  the  spectro- 
scope was  turned  upon  them  by  Janssen  in  India  during  the 
great  eclipse  of  Isds.  They  are  now  the  subjects  of  daily 
observation  by  soeetroscopists. 

Outside  the  clironujspherc^  lies  an  appendage  the  nature 
of  which  is  still  involved  in  mystery,  as  it  can  be  studied 
only  during  the  rare  moments  afforded  by  total  eclipses  of 
the  sun.  It  is  seen  in  the  glow  of  light  which  then  sur- 
rounds the  whole  sun,  extending  to  a  height  greater  than 
the  serai-diameter  of  that  body,  and  is  known  as  the  solar 
corona.  Its  spectrum  consists  principally  of  a  single  green 
line,  not  identifie(.l  with  that  of  any  terrestrial  substance, 
but  Janssen  also  recognized  some  of  the  lines  of  hydrogen 
during  the  etdipse  of  Ihn:.  1871.     See  Spkctrum. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  questions  respecting  the  sun  is, 
Whence  come  the  floods  of  Iwat  which  he  is  continually  ra- 
diating into  space  <  Why  did  he  not  cool  off  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  years  ago  I  Why  does  he  not  now  grow  cooler 
from  year  to  year  J  Only  in  recent  years  have  serious  at- 
tempts been  made  to  answer  these  questions,  because  only 
then  wa^  it  reeogni/.ed  that  heat  Wiis  a  form  of  force  which 
could  not  be  expended  without  being  continually  renewed. 
The  theory  now  most  generally  received  is  that  of  cuiir- 
traclioii.  It  is  supposed  that  as  the  sun  cools  off  he  con- 
tracts in  volume;  and  it  is  found  by  calculation  that  a  very 
small  contraction  will  develop  an  enormous  amount  of  heat 
in  a  nia-ss  so  immense  as  that  of  the  sun,  so  long  as  it  does 
not  condense  to  the  solid  or  liquid  stale.  Thus  the  supply 
of  heat  nuiy  be  kept  u[)  for  a  million  of  years  to  come,  l)ut 
it  must  give  out  .some  time,  unless  renewed  from  some  un- 
seen source,  aiul  our  system  will  then  be  involveil  in  dark- 
ness and  ileath. 

Uy  the  motion  of  the  spots  it  is  found  that  the  sun  rotates 
on  his  axis  in  about  twenty-five  days,  this  being  the  period 
at  the  eciuator.  Hut  as  we  approach  the  i)oles  the  rate  be- 
comes slower  and  the  period  longer,  approaching  twenty- 
six  days  at  a  distance  of  45°.  Heyond  this  point  very  few 
spots  are  to  be  seen,  and  the  law  of  rotation  is  not  com- 
pletely known.  The  liquid  or  gaseous  or  cloud-like  charac- 
ter of  the  sun's  surface  is  conclusively  proved  by  the  varia- 
tioti  in  the  rate  of  rotation.     See  Sun. 

The  sun  is  aecom[)anied  by  a  retinue  of  eight  major 
plaiu'ts,  of  which  our  earth  is  cue,  and  by  a  large  group  of 
minor  planets,  often  called  asteroids.  (See  Astkroid.)  Thi' 
maj(jr  planets  may  themselves  be  divided  into  two  groups  of 
four  each,  the  four  inner  and  suudler  ones  being  Mercuiy, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  and  Mars,  and  the  four  outer  aiul  larger 
ones  being  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  The 
smallest  of  the  outer  group  (Uranus)  has  more  than  ten 
times  the  mass  of  the  largest  of  the  inner  group  (the  Earth). 
and  is  more  tluui  fifty  times  its  size.  ISetween  the  two 
groups  is  a  wide  gap  in  which  the  minor  planets  are  found. 
The  sun  with  its  planets  and  their  satellites  form  a  con- 
nected grou[)  called  the  Solar  Si/sfem.  For  a  description 
of  this  system  ami  of  the  bodies  which  compose  it,  see  As- 
TKRoiu,  Sloo.s',  Plankt.  Sonar  Svstkm,  and  the  names  of  the 
eight  major  planets  nu'ulioned  abovi'. 

Hesidi-s  the  planets  (piile  a  mnnber  of  comets  are  known 
to  be  members  of  the  solar  systi'm,  and  a  great  number  of 
others  are  suspected  to  be  such,  even  though  their  time  of 
revolution  is  so  great  that  they  have  never  been  i-ecorded  ns 
seen  but  once.  The  general  rule  is  that  a  comet  comes  into 
view  sud<lenly  and  unexpectedly,  falling  nearly  toward  the 
sun  lus  if  dropped  from  an  infinite  distance.  It  whirls 
around  the  sun  m  a  parabolic  orbit,  and  flies  off  into  space 
26 


nearly  in  the  direction  from  which  it  came.  If  astronomers 
have  an  opportunity  of  observing  it  carefully  for  several 
months,  they  can  tell  whether  it  is  or  is  not  living  sc  fast 
that  the  attraction  of  the  sun  will  never  bring  it  back  again. 
It  is  thus  definitely  ascertained  that  the  great  comet  of  1858 
will  return,  in  cipiisequence  of  the  sun's  attraction,  in  about 
1,!(50  vears,  probably  between  the  vears  :i8(IO  and  :i820,  after 
llying"off  into  space  to  the  distance  of  15,000,000,000  mile.s. 

The  physical  constitution  of  conu'ts  is  still  one  of  the 
enignuis  of  astronomy.  Large  comets  are  generally  found 
to  consist  of  three  distinct  formations:  (1)  a  small  l>right, 
but  ill-defined  nucleus;  (2)  a  round  mass  of  hazy,  nebulous, 
or  foggy  matter  surrounding  this  nucleus,  and  indeed  seem- 
ing to  rise  from  it  :  and  (H)  a  tail  of  extremely  rare  matter, 
but  of  enormous  length,  extending  off  from  the  comet  in  a 
direction  opjaised  to  the  sun,  growing  wider  and  fainter  as 
it  extends,  until  it  gradually  becomes  invisible.  But  the 
smaller  telescopic  comets  often  exhibit  iu>ither  nucleus  nor 
tail,  but  consist  only  of  an  irregular,  ill-defined,  nebulous 
mass,  perhaps  Ijrighter  at  one  point.  As  the  comet  ap- 
proaches the  sun  the  tail  develops  enormously,  and  fre- 
(picntly  shows  itself  when  none  was  visible  at  a  distance. 
It  is  now  generally  considered  that  the  tail  of  a  comet  is  not 
a  ])ermtnu-nt  appendage,  but  a  stream  of  finely  divided  mat- 
ter continually  driven  off  from  the  conu't  into  space  by  some 
rejiulsive  force  resiiling  in  the  sun,  the  nature  of  which  is 
not  yet  understood.  It  may  be  compared  to  the  steam  ris- 
ing from  a  boiling  pot,  or  to  smoke  from  a  chimney.  If  this 
view  be  correct — aiul  it  can  hardly  lie  disputed — all  the 
comets  are  continually  evaporating  into  space,  and  must  in 
time  be  entirely  dissipated.     See  CoMET. 

This  theory  of  the  constant  dissipation  of  comets  has  re- 
cently received  a  striking  confirnuition  in  the  ascertained 
coincidence  of  meteor-streams  with  the  orbits  of  comets, 
and  in  the  disappearance  of  Biela's  comet  from  the  heavens. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  we  have  either  a  meteoric 
shower  or  an  unusual  nuird)er  of  meteors  every  year  on  the 
nights  of  Aug.  it  and  Nov.  14.  and  they  are  now  fcamd  to  be 
produced  by  the  earth's  atmosphere  meeting  a  swarm  of  very 
minute  imiiicles  which  move  in  the  respective  orbits  of  two 
comets.  The  particles  are  sup[)osed  to  be  the  fragments  or 
dust  of  the  comets  which  have  become  seiiarated  in  the 
course  of  ages.     See  Meteors. 

The  sun,  being  seven  hundred  times  as  heavy  as  all  the 
planets,  keeps  them  moving  in  orbits  around  him  by  his 
own  gravitation,  while  the  motion  of  each  planet  is  alTected 
with  small  irregularities  caused  by  the  attraction  of  all  the 
others.  By  this  theory  the  courses  of  all  the  planets,  and  of 
the  moon  and  nuuiy  of  the  satellites,  are  jiredicted  with  an 
astonishing  degree  of  accuracy.  The  first  thing  which  gravi- 
tation settles  is  the  motion  of  the  earth  itself  on  its  axis. 
The  daily  revolution  around  its  axis  seems  to  take  place 
with  perfect  regularity,  but  the  axis  itself  is  subject  to  sev- 
eral very  slow  motions,  which  make  its  direction  decide<lly 
different  in  the  coiirse  of  ages.  These  motions  can  not  well 
be  described  without  a  globe,  but  as  the  whole  earth  and  the 
instruments  with  which  observations  are  imide  peirtake  of 
them,  they  change  all  observed  positiims  of  the  heavenly 
l)odies,  anil  these  changes  must  be  carefully  allowed  for  in 
all  calculations.     See  Pre<essiox  of  the  Ecjuixoxes, 

The   t'opernican  sy.stem    and   the   theory  of   gravitation 
have  reduced  theoretical  astronomy  almost  to  branches  of 
pure  mathematics — nu'chanics,  ge 
The  system  is  quite  simple  in  its 

very  complex  when  we  descend  to  minute  details.  A  num- 
ber of  imaginary  planes  are  conceived  of  as  pa.ssing  through 
the  earth  or  suii,  and  extending  <mt  into  infinity  in  every 
direction.  The  positions  of  the  heavenly  liodies  are  defined 
by  their  distaiu'es  from  these  planes,  and  the  angles  which 
the  line  drawn  from  the  sun  or  the  earth  to  the  body  makes 
with  different  lines  drawn  in  the  planes.  The  nuist  common 
mode  of  defining  position  is  by  giving  three  data :  (1)  the 
distance  of  the  heaveidy  body  from  some  point,  either  the 
center  of  the  earth  or  the  center  of  the  sun,  in  a  .straight 
line;  (2)  the  angle  which  this  straight  line  makes  with  one 
of  the  planes  in  ((uestion  :  {'i)  a  perpendicular  being  dropped 
from  the  body  on  the  plane,  the  angle  which  the  line  to  the 
point  of  intersection  makes  with  sonu'  fixed  line  in  the 
plane.  When  the  distances  are  reckoned  from  the  earth,  it 
IS  usual  to  take  the  plane  of  the  equatcn-  as  that  of  refer- 
(Mice;  when  from  the  sun,  the  ecliptic  is  usually  selected. 
Both  these  planes  are  constantly  changing  their  position  in 
consequence  of  the  attraction  of  the  moon  and  planets  on 
the  earth,  and  this  change  has  always  to  be  calculated  and 


lure  mathematics — nu'chanics,  geometry,  aiul  trigonometry, 
juite  simple  in  its  original  conceptions,  but 


386 


ASTRUC 


ASYLUM 


allowed  for.  This  operation  makes  the  subject  a  very  in- 
tricate one,  wliich  can  be  fully  developed  only  in  works  de- 
voted especially  to  the  subject. 

The  various  branches  of  astronomical  research  may  be  in- 
cluded under  tliree  great  classes.  We  have,  first,  a  branch 
which  is  a  direct  continuation  of  t  he  studies  of  the  ancient  and 
mediasval  astronomers,  namely,  that  which  is  concerned  with 
the  positions  and  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Astrono- 
mers who  pursue  this  branch  prepare  catalogues  of  stars,  ac- 
curately determine  tlieir  positions  in  the  heavens  by  the  aid  of 
instruments  of  measurement,  study  the  motions  of  planets, 
compute  orbits  of  comets,  measure  the  satellites  of  the 
planets,  and  investigate  the  laws  of  motion  in  the  planetary 
svstem.  Work  of  this  kiiul  frequently  requires  the  co-opera- 
tion of  many  men,  and  is  therefore  that  principally  pursued 
in  the  great  national  observatories.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  least 
interesting  branch  of  astronomy,  since  it  is  concerned  with 
development  and  not  with  discovery.  Yet  to  men  with 
mathematical  tastes  it  olTers  a  splendid  field  for  their  inge- 
nuity. Prol)ably  no  achievement  of  the  human  intellect 
compares  with  that  of  discovering  the  laws  of  motion  of  the 
planets  Ijy  tlie  aid  of  gravitation,  through  countless  ages 
past  and  to  come. 

Directly  connected  with  this  is  the  application  of  practical 
astronomy  to  the  determination  of  positions  on  tlie  earth. 
Every  navigator  who  finds  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  his 
ship  by  observations  of  tlie  sun  with  a  sextant  is  an  astron- 
omer in  tliis  sense.  This  branch  is  principally  pursued  in 
the  great  national  surveys,  such  as  the  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  in  tlie  U.  S.  It  is  intimately  associated  with  Geodesy 
{q.  v.).  It  is  a  branch  of  astronomy  only  in  the  sense  that 
its  work  has  to  be  done  by  observing  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  that  astronomical  instruments  and  methods  have  to  be 
used. 

The  usefulness  of  practical  astronomy,  and  the  perfection 
it  has  attained,  may  be  judged  from  this  consideration:  take 
an  astronomer  blindfolded  to  any  part  of  the  glolie,  give  him 
the  instruments  we  have  mentioned,  a  chronometer  regulated 
to  Greenwich  or  Wasliington  time,  and  the  necessary  tables, 
and  if  the  weather  be  clear,  so  that  he  can  see  the  stars,  he 
can  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  tell  where  he  is  in 
latitude  and  longitude  within  a  hundred  yards. 

Anotlier  liranch  is  known  under  various  names,  as  physical 
astronomy,  astrophysics,  cosmical  physics,  etc.  Probably 
the  term  astrophysics  will  supersede  all  others,  because  it  is 
concerned  with  the  physical  constitution  of  the  heavenly 
boflies.  Photography  has  in  recent  times  come  to  its  aitl, 
and  proved  a  most  powerful  method  of  research.  The  great 
progress  made  in  scientific  pliotography  has  made  it  possible 
to  obtain  an  impression  on  a  photographic  plate  of  objects 
which  are  quite  invisilile  to  the  naked  eye,  and  has  led  to  the 
discovery  of  new  iicbuLe  in  this  way. 

But  tlie  great  instrument  of  research  in  this  line  has  been 
the  spectroscope.  Tlie  chemical  constitution  of  the  stars  is 
now  being  investigateil,  and  their  motions  to  and  from  the 
earth  iiave  l)een  subject  to  measurement.  The  most  wonder- 
ful discovery  in  this  line  is  tliat  of  Vogel.  that  the  variations 
of  light  in  tlie  star  Algol,  which  have  been  observed  for  a 
century  or  more,  are  due  to  the  revolution  of  a  dark  body 
around  it,  partially  eclipsing  it  during  each  revolution,  as  it 
passes  between  the  earth  and  the  star.  The  body  itself,  and 
the  whole  mechanism  of  its  motion,  is  absolutely  invisible, 
star  and  ])lanet  forming  but  a  point  wliich  the  most  powerful 
telescope  can  not  distinguish.  Yet  the  attraction  of  the  in- 
visible planet  upon  the  star,  wholly  intangible  in  any  other 
way,  is  measured  in  the  spectral  lines  by  a  minute  change  in 
the  wave-length  of  the  light  which  the  star  emits.  Jlodern 
science  has  in  no  direction  gone  farther  than  in  this.  See 
Algol.  S.  Newcomb. 

Astriic,  aas'trilk',  Jean:  French  medical  writer;  the  son 
of  a  Huguenot  pastor;  b.  at  Sauve,  in  Languedoc,  Mar. 
Ill,  1084.  He  was  educated  at  Montpellier.  became  Jf.  f). 
lTO:i;  appointed  Professor  of  .\natnmy  at  Toulouse  in  1710, 
and  of  Medicine  at  Monti)ellier  in  1716.  Having  removed 
to  Paris  in  1728,  he  became  consulting  phvsieian  to  the  king, 
and  in  17:il  Professor  of  Medicine  at  the  feoyal  College.  He 
had  a  high  reputation  as  a  professor.  He  published,  besides 
other  medical  works,  T)e  Morbis  ]'enereis  (On  Venereal  Dis- 
eases, 1736).  His  mc^ilical  researches  led  him  to  study  those 
passages  in  the  Pentateuch  which  treat  of  diseases.  While 
so  doing  he  lighted  upon  the  discovery  which  has  immortal- 
ized him:  viz.,  he  noticerl  that  in  some  passages  of  Genesis 
in  Hebrew  God  is  called  Klohim  and  in  others  Jehovah, 


whence  he  inferred  that  the  passages  so  distinguished  be- 
longed to  two  different  documents  from  which  Moses  ha<l 
compiled  his  book.  This  was  the  virtual  start  to  the  fruit- 
ful Pentateuch  criticism,  and  the  germ  of  the  documentary 
hypothesis  of  Eichhorn.  He  issued  his  book  anonymously 
under  the  title  Conjectures  s>ir  les  memoires  originaux  do)it 
il  paroit  que  Moise  s'est  servi  pour  composer  le  livre  de  la 
Genese  (Brussels.  1753).  (There  is  a  copy  of  the  rare  volume 
in  the  library  of  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 
city.)  Besides  the  two  principal  documents,  the  so-called 
Elohist  and  Jehovist,  he  distinguished  nine  or  ten  others  on 
the  basis  of  repetitions  and  alleged  inconsistencies.  He  did 
not,  however,  dispute  that  Moses  was  the  compiler  of  Gen- 
esis, nor  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  rest  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. I),  in  Paris,  May  5,  1766.  See  A.  C.  Lorry,  Vie 
d'Asfruc.  in  his  edition  of  Astruc's  Memoires  pour  serrir  d 
r/tis/oire  de  la  Faculte  de  Medicine  de  Motitpellier  (Paris, 
1767).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Astnlphns :  See  Astolphis. 

Astu'ria :  a  former  kingdom  in  the  X.  of  Spain :  bounded 
N.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  S.  by  the  Cantabrian  Moun- 
tains. The  Asturians  made  a  long  and  brave  resistance  to 
the  Gotlis  and  Vandals  who  invaded  S])ain  about  .500  A.  D.. 
but  were  finally  subdued.  Asturia  was  the  only  fiart  of 
Spain  that  was  not  conquered  by  the  Moors.     See  Astueias. 

Asturias :  an  ancient  division  of  Spain,  now  the  province 
of  Oviedo;  area  of  4,091  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded  f<.  by  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  E.  by  Santander,  S.  liy  Leon,  and  W.  by  Gali- 
cia  (see  map  of  Spain,  rcf.  12— D).  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
and  abounds  in  wild  and  jiicturesque  scenery.  Along  the 
southern  border  extends  a  chain  of  mountains,  the  summit  of 
which. called  Peila  de  Penaranda,  is  about  1  l.tKIO  feet  high.  It 
has  extensive  forests  of  oak.  chestnut,  beech,  and  fir.  Among 
the  mineral  resources  are  copper,  iron,  lead,  cobalt,  antimony, 
marble,  coal,  and  zinc.  The  eldest  sons  of  the  Kings  of 
S])ain  formerly  took  the  title  of  Prince  of  Asturias.  Pop. 
(1887)595,420."  The  chief  town  is  Oviedo.     See  Asturia. 

Asty'agres  (in  Gr.  ' KaTuafris) :  King  of  Media ;  a  son  of 
Cyaxarcs  I. ;  reigned  from  593  to  569  B.  c.  He  had  a  daugh- 
ter, Mandane,  who  was  married  to  Cambyses.  a  noble  Persian, 
and  bore  a  son  who  was  Cyrus  the  Great.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Cyaxares  II.,  the  last  King  of  Media  (569-536  B.  c). 

Asuncion,  a"a-soon'-se~e-6n'  (i.  e.  assumption):  a  city  of 
South  America,  the  capital  of  Paraguay;  situated  on  the 
left  (east)  bank  of  the  river  Parasuav,  645  miles  N.  of  Buenos 
Ayres;  hit.  25'  16'  29"  S.,  lon.^57'"42  42"  W.  (see  map  of 
South  America,  rcf.  7-E).  It  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1536.  It  has  a  cathedral,  five  churches,  a  government 
palace,  a  college,  a  jiublie  library,  etc.  Hides,  tobacco,  tim- 
ber, and  yerba  mate  (or  Paraguay  tea)  are  shipped  here  by 
the  river.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  brick,  one  story 
high.     Pop.  of  commune  (1886)  24.838. 

Asy'lnni  [Lat.  asylum,  from  Gr.  iurvKov.  refuge ;  davKos, 
inviolaV)le;  a-, not-i-  o-uAtj.  o-DAov.  right  of  seizure]:  a  sanctuary 
and  place  of  refuge  and  security  for  criminals  and  others; 
any  place  of  retreat  and  security.  In  ancient  Greece  the 
temples,  altars,  and  sacred  places  were  appointed  as  asylums 
for  criminals  and  persecuted  persons,  ancf  it  was  considered 
a  sacrilege  to  kill  or  remove  by  force  those  who  hail  taken 
refuge  in  them.  They  were,  however,  sometimes  surrounded 
and  watched  until  they  died  of  starvation.  Among  the 
ancient  Jews  cities  of  refuge  were  appointed  for  the  benefit 
of  persons  who  had  accidentally  committed  manslaughter. 
Komulus  is  saiil  to  have  attracted  men  from  other  states  to 
Konie  by  oft'ering  an  asylum  to  criminals,  debtors,  or  out- 
laws. Asylums  became  so  numerous  under  the  Roman  em- 
pire that  they  were  considered  nuisances  by  honest  people, 
and  were  nearly  all  abolished  by  Tiberius.  In  the  reign  of 
("onstantine  the  Great  all  Christian  churches  were  asylums. 
The  jirivilege  w.is  afterward  extended  to  convents,  and  was 
much  abused  by  criminals  in  the  Middle  Apes.  Several 
popes,  in  order  to  prevent  this  abuse,  excluded  murderers 
and  some  other  classes  of  offenders  from  the  privilege  of 
sanctuary,  which  was  abolished  in  England  by  acts  passed 
in  1.534  and  1697.  In  modern  usage  the  term  asylum  is  ap- 
plied to  charitable  institutions  for  the  relief  of  the  blind, 
insane,  orphans,  etc. 

Asylum,  in  international  law :  The  jurisdiction  of  a  state 
covers  only  its  own  territory.  When  one  of  its  subjects 
takes  refuge  within  another  state  he  becomes  amenable  to 
the  laws  of  that  state.  The  right  of  asylum  then  is  that 
exercise  of  the  right  of  sovereignty  which  forbids  one  gov- 


ATABALIPA 


ATBAKA 


387 


cmment  to  apply  its  laws  to  its  own  or  its  enemy's  subjects 
when  within  the  jurisdiction  of  another  governnient.  It 
may  be  used  to  protect  individuals,  ships  with  their  crews, 
or  armed  bodies.  It  may  apply  within  the  territory  of  a 
state,  upon  its  ships  on  the  lii!<h  seas,  in  certain  cases  even 
in  it^  embassies  in  fcjreign  parts.  Where  the  refu};ee  is  a 
common  criminal,  the  country  of  his  refuge,  not  wishing 
crime  to  go  unpunished,  yet  utidesirous  of  assuming  this 
burden  itself,  will  i)robably  surrender  him.  This  is  solely 
under  treaty  regulation,  however.  Kxtradition  is  thus  a 
limitation  of  the  right  of  asylum.  (.See  ExTR.iDiTioN.)  But 
the  surrender  of  political  otTenders  is  not  customary,  since 
their  crime  is  not  against  society,  and  no  sympathy  with 
their  punishment  can  be  presumed.  If  such  ollenders  e-scjipe 
to  foreign  men-of-war  in  port,  or  to  foreign  ships  on  the 
high  seas,  the  right  of  asylum  holds  good.  In  most  coun- 
tries if  they  seek  refuge  In  foreign  embassies  the  right  would 
Im;  denied  thenj.  In  Oriental  countries  and  in  the  .states  of 
South  .\merica.  however,  it  has  been  frequently  exercised. 
,\n  instanci!  of  this  was  seen  in  Chili  after  the  overthrow  of 
Bulmaccda,  when  a  number  of  his  adherents  were  protected 
in  the  U.  S.  legation.  The  IT.  S.  Government  has  consist- 
ently discouraged  such  protcf-ticm  a-sasettled  policy,  though 
granting  it  in  some  such  instances.  Where  armed  troops 
are  driven  by  superior  force  into  neutral  territory  the  right 
of  asylum  Is  granted  them,  but  they  are  not  at  liberty  to  use 
this  refuge  as  a  vantage  ground  f(u-  making  war.  The  prac- 
tice Is  to  ilisarm  and  Intern  them  in  the  interior  of  the  neu- 
tral country  until  the  close  of  the  war.  A  man-of-war  may 
take  refuge  from  superior  force  within  the  watere  of  a  neutral, 
hut  subject  to  whatever  conditions  it  chooses  to  lay  down. 

Theodore  S.  Woolsey. 

Atabalipa :  See  Atahuallpa. 

.4tacama.  aa-taVkiia'ma :  a  territory  of  riiili ;  bounded  X. 
by  the  province  of  Tarapaca,  E.  I)y  the  .Vrgeuliiie  liepublic 
and  Bolivia,  S.  by  the  province  of  Coquimbo.  and  \V.  by  the 
I'iU'ilic  Ocean.  Area,  4:!.W0  sii.  miles,  liuluding  former 
[irovince  of  .\taeama,  Bolivia.  'I  he  country  is  for  the  most 
part  mountainous  and  sterile,  and  produces  only  along  the 
lianks  of  a  few  rivers  some  vegetables  and  a  few  fruits.  It 
(•(jntains,  however,  rich  cop[ier  mines.  The  climate  is  dry 
and  warm  :  most  of  the  springs  contiiin  salt  water.  Capital, 
Copiapo.     Pop.  (18!)1)  GT,205. 

Atac'aiiiitp :  an  ore  of  copper,  abundant  in  the  de.sert  of 
.Vtacama  (whence  its  luime),  and  occurring  also  as  a  crust  on 
Ihi^  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and  Etna.  It  may  lie  defined  as  a  hy- 
dniled  o.xychloride  of  copper,  or  a  combination  of  pro- 
toxide of  copper  with  chloride  of  copper.  It  is  a  rich  ore, 
containing  i)~)  or  60  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  natural  vari- 
eties of  atacamlte  are  crystallized,  massive,  and  pulvc^rulent 
or  granular.  The  primary  form  of  its  crystals  is  a  rhombic 
prism.  The  greenish  Incrustation  which  Is  formed  on  anti([ue 
bronze  weapons,  utensils,  etc.,  and  which  Is  called  wntgo  nu- 
bilis.  Is  composed  of  this  salt. 

Atahiiall'pa.  or  Ataba'lipa :  the  last  Inca  of  Peru ;  a  son 
of  lUiayna  Capac.  who  died  In  l.TJi).  By  his  will  the  latter 
divided  his  dominions  between  his  two  sons,  Hua.scar  and 
Atahuallpa,  who  obtained  the  kingdotn  of  Quito.  These 
brothers  reigned  in  jieace  about  five  years,  after  which  Iluas- 
ear  sent  an  envoy  to  .Vtahuallpa,  and  required  him  to  render 
homage  for  the  kingdom  of  Quito.  That  inca,  who  was  am- 
bitious and  warlike,  n'fused  to  [)ay  homage,  and,  having  in- 
vaileil  Peru  with  an  army,  defeated  Ilua-scar  and  Kiok  him 
prisoner  in  13:$3.  He  spared  the  life  of  Hua.sf;ar,  but  de- 
prived hlin  of  his  throne  and  liberty.  In  the  same  year 
rem  was  invaded  by  I'Izarro  and  a  small  army  of  Spaniards. 
The  Inca,  with  an  unarmed  retinue,  approache<l  tlie  camp  of 
I'Iz.-irro  in  Nov.,  I.^ii,  for  a  frienrlly  interview,  during  which 
a  Spanish  priest  Informed  the  inca  that  the  jiope  had  given 
I'eru  to  the  Kiiig  of  Spain.  .\s  he  rejected  with  indignation 
th(;  authority  of  the  pupe.  the  treacherous  Spaniards  seized 
him  and  ma'^sacred  his  iil  tendants.  The  captive  inca  ofTered 
to  rans<jm  himself  by  aquantity  of  gold  which  would  fill  the 
r<«)m  In  which  he  was  confined  as  high  as  he  could  reach. 
The  Spaniards  accepted  the  gold,  but  refused  him  liberty. 
I'Izarro  acc\ised  -Mahuallpa  of  plotting  against  him,  and  or- 
dered him  to  be  tried  by  a  court  martial,  which  condemned 
him  to  bi'  l)urneil  alive.  After  he  had  (■onsented  to  be  bap- 
tized his  sentence  was  commuted  to  strangulation,  and  he 
was  executed  Aug.  29,  1533.  See  Prcscott,  Conquest  of 
Peru,  vol.  i. 

Atalan'ta  (In  fJr.  'AroAetiTTil :  the  name  of  two  mythical 
personages  who  figure  in  ancient  Cjreek  legends — (1)  the  most 


swift-footed  of  mortals,  and  renowned  for  personal  beauty. 
Having  numy  suitors,  she  offeri^d  to  marry  any  man  who 
should  defeat  her  in  a  foot-rju'e,  with  the  condition  that  if 
he  lost  he  must  be  put  to  death.  He  was  to  be  unarmed, 
but  she  was  to  carry  a  spear.  Hippomeiu's,  who  had  received 
from  Aphrodite  three  golden  apples,  became  the  successful 
competitor  by  dropping  them  one  by  one  before  Atalanta, 
who  could  not  resist  the  teuqrtation  to  stop  aiul  pick  them 
up.  Having  forgotten,  in  his  joy,  to  thank  the  goddess  as 
he  should,  the  latter  tdok  revenge  in  singular  fashion.  She 
so  infiamed  him  that  he  embraced  his  bride  within  the  shrine 
of  Cybele,  who  thereu|)on  in  punishment  changed  the  pair 
into  lions.  (2)  Another  Atalanta  was  a  renowned  huntress, 
like  Artemis.  She  wounded  the  Calydonian  boar  ;  took  part 
In  the  Argonautic  expedition;  and  wrestled  successfully  with 
Peleos  at  the  funeral  games  of  Pelias.  She  wmi  the  patient, 
long  unre(|uited  love  of  Meilanion,and  finally  yielded  to  his 
quiet  ]iersisteney  and  married  the  hero,  to  whom  she  bore 
Parthenopaios.  See  W.  Immerwahr,  Di'  AtaUinta  (Berlin. 
188.5).  Kevised  by  S.  M.  Jackso.v. 

.\  la  III  an  :  See  Attamax. 

.\taiiias'co  Lily  (Zip/ii/rn allies  alumaseo) :  an  amaryllis- 
like ornamental  bulbous  plant,  with  white  or  flesh-coiored 
flowers,  native  of  the  Southern  U.  S.,  but  cultivated  for  up- 
ward of  2r,0  years.  C.  E.  B. 

At'aiiH'.  Adaiilf.  (u-  Adolf  (In  hat.Ataul'phus):  King  of 
the  Visigoths,  and  a  lirother-in-law  of  Alaric  I.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded In  411  A.  D.  He  had  aided  -Marie  in  the  capture  of 
Rome  in  410,  and  had  captured  Placidia,  a  sister  of  the  Em- 
peror Ilonorius,  whom  he  married.  In  413  he  retired  froni 
Italy  intf)  Gaul,  whert^  he  defeated  Jovinus,  took  Bordeaux 
(Burdujdiii),  and  conquered  Aquitania.  He  was  a.ssassinated 
by  one  of  his  own  otlicers  in  41.5  a.  d. 

Al'avisni  P'r.  atavisme,  from  Lat.  a'tavus,  ancestor] :  1. 
In  natural  history  atavism  is  the  reappearance  in  animals  or 
plants  of  traits  belonging  to  their  remote  progenitors  which 
their  immediate  parents  did  not  present.  Jieverxinn  Is  a 
term  nearly  synonymous,  used  (by  Darwin  and  others)  to 
indicate  not  only  the  occasional  or  individual  lipiiearance  of 
such  n'motely  descended  traits,  but  the  actual  returning  to 
them  of  a  variety  or  species.  Domesticated  breeds  of  ani- 
mals allowed  to  run  wild  become,  after  a  time,  nearly  (sel- 
dom exactly)  like  their  wild  ancestors.  This  is  a  familiar 
fact  with  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  [jigeons.  The  wild  horses 
on  th(^  great  North  American  [U-alries  and  on  the  pampas  of 
South  .\merica,  though  all  derived  from  those  imported  to 
the  Western  continent  by  p'liropeans,  are  nearly  of  one  size, 
shape,  and  color;  and  the  .same  is  true  of  the  wild  herds  of 
cattle  of  the  South  American  jiampas  and  llanos.  Domestic 
hogs  running  wild  assunu'.  in  a  few  generations,  a  moderate? 
size,  slender  figure,  and  (in  some  places  at  least)  a  lu'arly 
black  color,  with  head  and  tusks  approaching  those  of  the 
wild  boar  of  Europe.  Darwin  mentions  the  fact  that  in  all 
the  breeds  of  donu^stic  jiigeons  there  appear  occasionally 
birds  of  a  slaty-blue  color,  with  bars  ami  other  marks  char- 
acteristic of  the  ancestral  rock-pigeini  {('oliim/ja  lima).  He 
al.so  consulers  the  occasional  appearance  of  stripes  upon  a 
horse  or  mule  as  indicating  ancestral  Identity  between  the 
now  distinct  species  of  the  equine  genus.  2.  In  luunaii  pa- 
thology atavism  is  a  reversion  (similar  to  the  above)  to  mor- 
bid traits  existing  in  ancestors,  but  not  in  immediate  parents. 
This  may  be  briefiv  Illustrated  by  an  examph'  (from  Liclurefi 
on  Prnclirc  of  ]l/edirine,  by  Sir  T.  Watson):  A  deaf-nnite 
man  married  a  woman  whose  hearing  was  perfect,  and  had 
two  chihlren  by  her — one  a  deaf-mute  .son,  who  died  child- 
less; the  other,  a  hi-nrhiij  daughter,  who  married  a  /lenriiif/ 
man,  and  gave  birth  to  two  deaf-mitlii  daughters  ami  a  htiir- 
infi  son.  This  son  married  a  woman  also  with  good  hearing, 
and  had  by  her  a  deaf-mute  son.  One  of  the  daughters  mar- 
ried a  deaf-mute  and  bore  a  hearing  son.  Gout,  consumption. 
Insanity,  and  other  disea.ses  sometimes  thus  disappear  for 
one,  two.  or  more  generations  in  a  family,  and  yet  return  in 
a  manner  evidently  <luc  to  hereditary  (though  interrupted  or 
latent)  transmls-sion.  Revised  by  William  Pei'PER. 

.'Vtaxia,  LoroMOXOR :  Sec  Tabes  Dorsalis. 

Atl)a'ra  {AxtahOran) :  a  river  of  Xort hea.stern  Africa:  rise* 
In  .Vbyssinla.  near  Lake  Dembea  (or  Tsana),  and  flows  north- 
westward. After  receiving  several  tributaries  from  the 
mountains,  it  traverses  the  desert  of  Southern  Xubia.  and 
enters  the  N'ile  in  lat.  17'  37'  N.,  and  about  25  miles  S.  of 
Berber.  It  is  the  last  tributary  that  the  Nile  receives,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  inundation  of  Egypt.    Its 


388 


ATC'llAFALAYA   BAYOU 


ATHANASIUS 


length  is  estimated  at  050  miles.  In  the  diy  season,  October 
to  June,  it  contains  no  water  except  standing  pools.  Croco- 
diles and  hippopotami  abound  in  this  river,  on  the  borders 
of  which  are  great  numbers  of  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  gi- 
raffes, lions,  etc. 

Atchafalay'a  Bay'oii :  an  outlet  in  Louisiana  of  the  Red 
river,  from  whence  it  issues  near  the  mouth  of  the  latter  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  Point  Coupee  parish.  It  flows 
nearly  southward  thro'ugh  Chctimaches  Lake,  and  enters 
Atchafalava  Bav,  a  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  whole 
length  is  estimated  at  225  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  steamers. 
At  Uie  entrance  to  the  bay  is  Southwest  Keef,  with  an  iron 
lightliouse  50  feet  high, 

At'cllison  :  city  and  important  railroad  center  ;  capital  of 
Atchison  co.,  Kan',  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kan- 
sas, ref,  4-J) ;  beautifully  situated  on  the  west  bjink  of  the 
Missouri  river,  at  the  extreme  western  point  of  the  "Great 
Bend."  It  is  one  of  the  principal  commercial  cities  in  the 
State  and  has  fine  public-school  buildings,  one  of  which  cost 
.$50,000,  acailemies,  and  St.  Benedict's,  Midland,  and  St.  Louis 
collegers ;  10  churches :  has  fine  paved  streets  (vitrified  brick); 
3  newspapers,  and  the  largest  output  of  flour  of  any  city  in 
Kansas.  Pop.  (1870)  7,054;  (1880)  15,105;  (1890)  ia.963 ; 
(1895)  15..500.  Editor  of  "  Patriot." 

A'te  (iu  Gr. 'At)7):  in  classic  mythology,  a  goddess  sup- 
posed to  avenge  crimes,  and  also  to  stir  up  mischief.  Ac- 
cording to  Iloiuer,  she  was  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  who,  for 
her  mischief-making  character,  banished  her  from  Olympus. 

At'cles[Gr.aTe\ns,  imperfect:  o-,  not  +  tc'\os.  completion]: 
a  genus  of  .Snuth  American  monkeys,  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  a  rudimentary  condition  of  the  thumb  of  the  an- 
terior hands.  They  have  long,  prehensile  tails.  The  genus 
comprises  the  marimonda  (Ateles  heelzebiih),  which  is  very 
numerous  on  the  Orinoco,  besides  a  dozen  other  species. 

Atella'na  Fa'biilie  [from  Afdln,  a  small  Oscan  town  in 
Campania,  soutli  of  Capua] :  rude  farces,  largely  improvisa- 
tory, performed  originally  in  the  Oscan  vernacular,  with 
certain  stock  characters.  Afterward  they  were  brought  to 
Rome,  and  acted  by  Roman  youth  of  good  family,  wearing 
masks.  Still  later  (about  89'b.  c.)  they  received 'a  literary 
development  at  the  hands  of  Pomponius  and  Novius.  The 
ordinary  masks  or  characters  were  four  in  number:  Maccus, 
the  simpleton;  Buccus, the  loquacious  glutton  and  boaster; 
Pappus,  the  old  man  constantly  outwitted ;  Dossennus,  the 
cunning  parasite.  See  fragments  in  O.  Ribbeck's  Comicorum 
Roinanorum  Fragmen-ta  (pp.  325-76).  M.  Warren. 

A  Teiu'po  (literally,  in  time) :  a  musical  term  used  to  de- 
note that  after  .some' short  relaxation  in  the  time  the  per- 
former must  return  "  to  the  [proper]  time,"  or  original  de- 
gree of  movement. 

A  Tempo  Gius'fo  (in  the  correct  time) :  in  music,  a  direc- 
tiiin  to  the  pertornu'r  to  keep  the  rhythm  true  and  correct 
without  retarding  or  accelerating  the  time. 

Ateiichiis:  See  Scarai)a:us. 

Atliahasc'a  :  a  river  and  lake  of  the  Northwest  Territories 
of  15ril,ish  North  Ainerii-a.  The  lake  is  about  lat.  59°  N., 
ami  between  Ion.  100  and  112'  W.  It  extends  E.  and  W. 
aliout  230  miles,  and  has  an  average  width  of  20  miles.  The 
river  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  flows  northeastward, 
and  ent.ei-s  the  lake  near  its  western  extremity.  The  water 
of  this  lake  is  discharged  through  Great  Slave  river,  event- 
ually into  the  Mackenzie  river. 

Athabasca  (from  Athaba,sca  Lake) :  a  district  of  the  North- 
west Territories,  Canada,  and  a  future  province  of  the  do- 
minion. It  is  nearly  scpiare  in  form,  with  Alberta  on  theS. 
and  British  Columbia  on  the  \\'.:  on  the  N.  and  E.  are  the  still 
undistricted  Northwest  Territories.  The  northern  boundary 
is  a  parallel  not  far  from  that  of  60°  N.,  and  the  eastern  one 
is  for  the  most  part  formed  by  Athabasca  and  Great  Slave 
rivers.  It  is  south  of  Great  .Slave  Lake,  and  Athabasca  Ijake 
is  on  the  eastern  border;  Peace  river  crosses  the  district 
diagonally:  Little  Slave  Lake  is  iu  the  southern  part  of  the 
district.  The  surface  is  made  up  of  wooded  plains  lirokeii 
by  low  mountain-ranges.  The  population  is  mostly  Indian, 
including  the  Slrongbow  and  Beaver  nations.  The  agricul- 
tural j)Ossibilities  of  the  district  are  greater  than  the  geo- 
graphical situation  would  indicate.  Wheat,  barley,  and 
]iotatoes  can  be  raised  in  favorable  situations  in  all  parts  of 
the  district,  and  oc<-asioiial  chiuook  winds  give  warm  weather 
for  a  few  days,  even  in  midwinter.  Peltry  is  the  chief  prod- 
uct of  the  country  at  present,  and  the  old  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 


jiany's  posts  are  numerous.  There  is  quite  a  settleraeiit  at 
Duiivegan,  in  the  southwestern  angle  on  the  Peace  river. 
The  area  of  Athabasca  is  104,500  sq.  miles.  M.  \V.  H. 

Athali'ah  :  a  Queen  of  Judah  ;  a  daughter  of  Ahab,  King 
of  Israel,  and  Jezebel.  She  was  married  to  Jehoram,  King 
of  Judah,  whom  she  survived,  and  became  a  notorious  idola- 
ter. After  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah,  about  884  B,  c. 
she  usurped  the  royal  power  and  murdered  all  the  males  of 
the  royal  family  except  Joash.  In  878  B.  c.  she  was  killed  by 
the  partisans  of  Joash.  Her  story  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
Racine's  most  celebrated  tragedies.    See  2  Kings  viii.  and  xi. 

Athana'sian  Creed  (in  Lat.  Stjnihohim  A  fha/iasia'num) : 
so  called  because  it  was  mistakenly  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Athanasius  (d.  373).  It  did  not  appear  in  Greek 
till  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  and  was  then  evidently 
a  trjinslation.  In  the  West  it  was  commented  ujion  l)y  Ve- 
nantius  Fortunatus  in  570.  And  it  contains  extracts  from 
Augustine's  Trinity  (415  A.  d.).  and  from  the  Commonitorium 
of  Vincentius  Lirinensis  (434  a,  n.);  so  that  it  was  probably 
written  not  far  from  450  a,d.,  and  apparently  in  Gaul, 

The  Athanasian  Creed  is  the  sharpest  and  most  rigid  of 
the  three  catholic  symbols.  It  sometimes  takes  as  its  title 
the  words  Quicuiiijue  (•»//.  with  which  in  its  Latin  version  it 
commences.  The  entire  passage  of  which  tiiose  words  are  a 
part  is  in  English  as  follows:  "Whosoever  will  be  saved,  be- 
fore all  things  it  is  necessary  that  he  hold  the  catholic  faith ; 
which  faith  except  every  one  do  keep  whole  and  undefiled. 
without  doubt  he  shall  perish  everlastingly,''  Then  follows 
a  minute  and  precise  exposition  of  the  Trinity,  and  an  equally 
exact  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation ;  after 
which  this  clause  occni-s :  "  This  is  the  catholic  faith  ;  which 
except  a  man  believe  faithfully  he  can  not  be  saved,"  The 
common  inference  would  be  that  unless  a  man  held  the  doc- 
trine precisely  as  it  is  taught  in  the  creed  he  can  not  be  saved. 
On  account  of  these  "  damnatory  clauses,"  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  many  Christians,  while  substantially  accepting 
the  doctrines  of  the  creed,  disapprove  of  its  being  used  in 
the  churches.  Though  still  retained  in  the  church-service  in 
England,  and  its  use  appointed  for  certain  festivals,  it  is 
omitted  from  the  American  Book  of  Conunon  Prayer,  al- 
tliough  its  retention  was  ardently  desired  by  Seabury,  the 
first  American  bishop. 

Revised  by  William  Stevens  Perry, 
Athana'sins  (in  Gr.'Aflaviiirios),  Saint:  a  celebrated  Greek 
Father  of  the  Church ;  b,  at  Alexandria  about  296  A.  D.  His 
education  was  directed  by  Alexander,  Archbishop  of  Alex- 
andria, with  whom  he  lived  as  a  son  with  a  father.  Alex- 
aiuler  ordained  him  a  deacon  in  319,  and  was  accompanied 
by  him  to  the  general  Council  of  Nice  (325),  in  which  Atha- 
nasius distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence,  learning,  and 
zeal  against  Arianisni,  In  326  or  328  he  was  elected  Arch- 
bishop of  Alexandria  by  the  clergy  and  the  people  to  suc- 
ceed Alexander.  The  beginning  of  his  e])iscopate  was  sig- 
nalized by  the  organization  of  the  Church  in  Abyssinia, 
through  Frumentius,  whom  he  consecrated  as  its  first  bishop 
(329).  But  to  his  dying  day  he  was  in  trouble  from  the 
Meletians,  the  schismatics  who  supported  Mcletius,  Bishop 
of  Ijycopolis,  in  his  insubordination  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Alexandria,  and  especially  from  the  Arians,  whose  doctrines 
he  opposed  so  determinedly,  Ilis  enemies  contrived  to  gain 
the  ear  of  Constantine,  whom  they  convinced  that  Arius 
had  really  altered  his  views.  So  the  emperor  ordered  Atha- 
nasius to  restore  him  to  communion.  But  he  refused  (331), 
Then  he  was  summoned  to  ajijiear  at  a  council  held  in  Ciesa- 
rea  (334)  to  answer  to  certain  alleged  offenses,  but  he  would 
not  attend  it.  The  next  year  he  was  by  Constantine  sum- 
moned to  appear  at  the  Council  of  Tyre  (probably  June  6) 
to  answer  several  charges,  and  was  there  deposed.  The 
Emperor  Constantine  banished  him  to  Treves,  but  the  Em- 
peror Constantius,  on  the  death  of  Constantine,  restored  him 
(338)  to  his  see.  and  he  was  received  with  great  rejoicing. 
Yet  in  340  Atlianasius  deemed  it  advantageous  to  lay  his 
case  before  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  In  his  absence  he  was 
deposed  by  a  council  held  at  Antioch  (341).  lie  recovered 
his  oHlci' in  :'.46.  The  Arians  ]irevaileil  in  the  Council  of 
Aries  (353)  and  in  that  of  :Milan,  wliich,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Emperor  Constantius,  condemned  Athanasius  in 
355,  lie  was  again  driven  out  of  Alexandria (356),  and  took 
refuge  in  the  solitudes  of  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  jiassed  six 
years,  and  wrote  several  doctrinal  works.  Shortly  after  the 
accession  of  Julian  the  Apostate  he  returned  to  Alexandria 
(Feb,  22,  362),  under  the  general  order  that  all  bishops  exiled 
by  his   predecessor  should   be  allowed  to  return  to  their 


ATIIAI'ASCAX    INDIANS 


389 


homes.  But  the  pagans  easily  pei-suaded  Julian  to  ))anish 
Athanasiiis  on  the  ground  that  he  was  destroying  their  relig- 
ion, anil  so  for  a  fourt  h  time  he  was  an  exile  (;i62).  The  ne.xt 
yejir  he  Wiis  restored  by  .loviiiian.  In  ^65  he  was  otice  more 
exiled  by  the  Arian  Emperor  Valens.  but  after  a  few  months 
(366)  he  Wiis  allowed  to  return,  and  continued  in  peace- 
able possession  of  his  otlice  until  his  death.  Jlay  2.  373. 
Athanasius  was  the  most  eminent  and  influential  leader  of 
the  orthodox  party  (who  were  sometimes  called  Athanasians), 
and  was  distinguished  by  his  fortitude  under  |>crsccution. 
self-sacrifice,  steadiness  of  purpose,  vei-satility,  resourcefid- 
ness,  width  of  ready  sympatliy,  and  other  virtues  which  en- 
deared him  to  his  people  and  ciualifled  him  to  be  a  j)illar  of 
the  militant  Church  in  stormy  and  perilous  times,  lie  left 
numerous  polemical  ami  religious  works,  written  in  Greek 
in  a  simple,  nervous,  anil  jierspicuoiis  style.  The  most  c-om- 
plcte  edition,  unhappily  inaccurately  printed,  is  .Migne's,  in 
his  Pafrol'ji/iri.  (irci'ca  (vols,  xxv.-xxviii.).  .J.  E.  Thilo 
cdilc<l  his  select  dognuitic  works  (Athiin.  0pp.  dwjm.  stiecta, 
Ijciiizig,  185:i),  anil  W.  Uright  his  Orations  aqainst  the 
Anitns  (his  chief  work  ;  London,  l.ST:i ;  2(1  ed.  ISSii) :  and  his 
llisloriciil  Writings  (Oxford,  1S81).  His  principal  works, 
including  his  writings  against  the  .\rians,  his  7/(/n  «/ .1«- 
/<;/;'/ (founder  of  monastieism,  a  disputed  work),  and  his  Fi-x- 
lal  J.flli'r.i.hiivc-  been  translated  and  edited  liy  Archibalil 
Robertson,  with  admiralile  introductions,  general  and  sjiecial 
(New  York.  Christian  Literature  Co.,  1S!I2),  who  has  written 
a  sufficiently  full  life  of  Athanasius  for  the  general  reader. 
Sec  also  the  Lifi'.  popular  vet  scholarlv,  bv  II.  K.  Kevnolds 
(Lonilon,  Ueligious  Tract  Soc,  1889). 

SaMCEI^  JlACAfLEY  JaOKSO.N. 

.\tha|)iiscan  Indians:  the  whole  stock  or  family  of  North 
American  Itnlians,  formerly  called  Tinneh,  extending  from 
Alaska  and  British  North  .\merica  to  Mexico;  also  a  single 
tribe,  the  Athapascan  Indians  proper, dwelling  around  .\tha- 
biusca  Lake  and  along  Slave  river.  The  name  is  derived 
from  Lake  Athabasca  in  British  North  .Vmerica,  and  signi- 
fies, according  to  Lacombe,  "  place  of  hay  ami  reeds."  In 
literature  it  once  referred  specifically  to  the  Northern  Tin- 
neh, Chippeweyans  or  Montagnais,  in  .\la,ska  and  British 
North  .Vmerica  W.  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  N.  of  Churchill 
river. 

lliihitnt. — .\s  defined  by  Gallatin  the  area  occupied  by 
the  .Vtliapascan  Iiidi.'in  family  is  included  in  a  line  drawn 
from  the  month  of  the  Churchill  or  Mississippi  river  to  its 
source ;  thence  along  the  ridge  which  separates  the  north 
branch  of  the  Saskatchewan  from  those  of  the  Athapascans 
to  the  llockv  Mountains:  and  thence  northwardly  till  within 
100  miles  o'f  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  .52'  :«) .  'l'h(;  only 
tribe  within  the  above  area  excepted  by  (iallatin  as  of 
probably  a  different  stock  was  that  of  the  t^uarrelcrs, 
Kutehin  or  Loucheux,  living  at  the  mouth  of  Slackenzie 
river.  This  trilje,  however,  has  since  been  ascertained  to  be 
.Vthapasean.  The  Athapascan  Indians  thus  occupied  almost 
the  whole  of  British  Columl)ia  and  .Vlaska,  and  were,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Eskimo.  t)y  whom  they  were  cut  off  on 
nearly  all  sides  from  the  ocean,  the  most  northern  family  in 
North  America.  Since  tiailjitiu's  lime  the  history  of  this 
family  has  lii'cii  further  elucidated  liy  the  discovery  on  the 
iiart  of  Hale  and  Turner  that  isolated  branches  of  the  stock 
liave  become  established  in  Oregon,  California,  and  along 
the  southern  border  of  the  XJ.H.  The  boundaries  of  the 
.\thapascan  Indian  family,  as  now  understood,  are  best 
given  under  three  primary  groups — Northern,  Pacitic,  and 
Sdiilhern. 

(1)  The  Xorthirn  Group  includes  all  the  .\thapascan 
tribes  of  British  North  -Vmerica  and  .Vlaska.  In  the  for- 
mer region  the  Athapa-seans  occupy  most  of  the  western 
interior,  being  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  -Vrctic  Eskimo, 
who  inhabit  a  narrow  strip  of  coast ;  on  the  E.  by  the  Eski- 
mo of  Iludsoirs  Bay  as  far  S.  as  Churchill  river,  S.  of  which 
river  llie  I'oiintry  is  occupied  by  .Vlgoni|uian  tribes.  On  the 
S.  file  .Vthapasean  tribes  extended  to  tlie  main  ridge  between 
the  -Vthapasca  and  Saskatchewan  rivers,  where  Ihey  met  .VI- 
gonquian  tribes:  W.  of  this  area  they  were  bounded  on  the 
S.  by  the  Salislian  tribes,  the  limits  of  whose  territory  on 
FriLscr  river  and  its  tributaries  appear  on  Tolniie  and  Daw- 
son's map  of  1884.  On  the  W.,  in  British  Columbia,  the 
Athapiuscan  tribes  nowhere  reach  the  coast,  being  cut  off  by 
the  Wakashan,  Salislian,  and  Chimmesyan  families.  The 
interior  of  .Vlaska  is  chiefly  occupied  by  tribes  of  this  fam- 
ily. Eskimo  tribes  have  encroached  somewhat  ujion  fh(>  In- 
terior along  the  Yukon,  Kuskokwim,  Kowak,  and  Noatak 


rivers,  reaching  on  the  Yukon  to  somewhat  below  Shageluk 
island,  and  on  the  Kuskokwim  nearly  or  quite  to  Kolma- 
koff  Kedoubt.  Upon  the  two  latter  Ihey  reach  quite  to 
their  heads.  A  few  Kutehin  tribes  are.  or  have  been,  N,  of 
the  Porcupine  and  Yukon  rivers,  but  until  recently  it  has 
not  been  known  that  t hey  extended  N.  beyond  the  Yukon 
and  Koiuanzoff  Jlouiilains.  The  region  to  the  N.  of  those 
mountains  is  occupied  by  Athapascan  tribes.  Only  in  two 
places  In  .Vlaska  ilo  the  Athapascan  tribes  reach  the  coast — 
I  he  K'naia-kliotana(Kenai),  on  Cook's  Inlet,  and  the  Ali-tena, 
of  Copper  river. 

(2)  The  Pacific  Group. — L'nlike  the  tribes  of  the  Northern 
group,  most  of  those  In  the  Pacific  group  have  removed 
from  their  prisean  habitats  since  the  advent  of  the  white 
race.  The  Pacific  group  embraces  the  following:  Kwalhio- 
(pia.  formerly  on  W'illopali  river,  Wasliiiigtun,  near  the  Lower 
Chinook;  Owilapsh,  formerly  belwi'i'ii  Shoahvater  Bay  and 
the  heads  of  the  Chehalls  river,  Washington,  the  territory 
of  these  two  tribes  being  pracllcally  continuous;  Tlatskanai, 
formerly  on  a  small  stream  on  the  nort Invest  side  of  Wapa- 
too  Island,  Gibbs  was  informed  by  an  old  Indian  that  this 
tribe  "  formerlv  owned  the  prairies  on  the  Tslhalls  at  the 
moulh  of  the  Skukumchuck,  but,  on  the  failure  of  game,  left 
the  country,  cros.sed  the  ('<]himl>la  river,  and  occupied  the 
mounlalus  to  the  south" — aslatemcnl  of  loo  uncertain  char- 
acter to  Ijc  deiiended  upon:  the  .Vlliaiiascan  tribes  now  on 
llii^  Grande  Ronde  and  Si  let  z  reservations,  Oregon,  whose  vil- 
lages on  and  near  the  coast  extemled  from  CoqulUe  river 
southward  to  the  California  line,  including,  among  others, 
the  Upper  Coqullle,  Sixes.  Euchre  creek,  .loshua,  Tutu 
tuiiiie,  and  other  "Rogue  river  Indians"  or  " Tou-tou-ten 
bands,"  Chasta  Costa,  tialiee  creek,  Naltnnne  tunne,  and 
Chetco  villages;  the  .Vthapasean  villages  formerly  on  Sniilh 
river  and  tributaries.  California;  lliose  villages  extending 
southward  from  Smith  river  along  the  California  coast  to 
the  mouth  of  Klamath  river;  the  Hupa  villages  or  clans 
formerly  on  Lower  Trinity  river,  California;  the  Kenesti  or 
Wailakki  who  live  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Shasta 
Mountains,  from  North  Eel  river  (above  Kound  valley)  to 
Hay  Fork  :  along  Eel  ami  Mad  rivers,  exieiiding  down  the 
latter  about  to  Low  (lap;  also  on  Dobbins  and  Larrabie 
creeks;  and  Saiaz.  who  lormerly  occupied  the  tongue  of 
land  jutting  down  lielween  Eel  river  and  Van  Dusen's 
Pork. 

(ij)  The  Southern  Group. — This  grou|),  which  Is  the  best 
known,  includes  the  Navajo,  Apache,  and  Lipan. 

jVrtCfy'o. — Ten  Kate  says  that  the  term  Navajo  has  been 
erroneously  attributed  to  the  Si)aiilsli  naraja,  a  pocket- 
knife,  instead  of  to  ndriijo.  a  lank  or  pond  formed  by  heaxy 
rains.  ISancroft  stales  that  "  Navajo  is  said  to  mean  ijrand 
semiiiile  or  great  sowing." 

Ilabitiit  I'inil  J'lipulaliim. — The  Navajo,  since  first  known, 
have  occupied  the  country  on  and  S.  of  the  San  .Juan  river 
In  Northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  extending  into 
Colorado  and  Utah.  They  were  surrouniled  on  all  sides  by 
the  cognate  Apache,  except  on  the  N..  where  they  meet 
Slioshoneaii  tribes.  In  l(i:!0  they  were  mentioned  as 
••  .Vpaches  de  Navajo"  by  Benavldes' In  his  letter  to  Philip 
IV.  The  first  known  reference  to  them  liy  the  single  name 
Navajo  is  found  in  Blaeu,  Atltix.  xii.  p.  G2.  IIUiT.  'I'he  Span- 
ish missionaries  among  them  wen;  killed  in  1G8().  Sclier- 
merhorn  (in  3Ia.f.'</irliu.-<el/.'<  Ilistoricdl  Ciillcrtion,  2d  ser.,  p. 
29,  1812)  mentions  them  as  the  "  Namakan,  an  erratic  people, 
N.  W.  of  Santa  Fe,  and  esdmaled  at  2,()(H)  warrlois  and  0,500 
souls."  The  Navajo  made  their  first  treaty  with  the  U.S. 
Nov.  22.  1846.  At' that  time  they  were  iirihemain  range 
of  the  Cordilleras  on  Colorado  river,  200  miles  W.  of  Santa 
Fe.  Bent  gave  their  (loimlatlon  in  1846  as  LOOO  families 
and  7,000  souls.  Itackus,  In  Schoolcraft,  gave  their  habitat 
in  18.');!  as  W.  of  Santa  Fe,  exi ending  from  near  the  Hio 
(irande  on  the  E.  to  the  Colorado  on  the  \V..  and  from  the 
land  of  the  Utes  on  the  N.  to  tlial  of  the  Apaches  on  the  S. 
Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft,  said  that  the  Navajo  moved  down 
into  the  country  near  the  Sierra  of  Clljolletta  (San  Mateo 
Mountain),  but  were  so  severely  treated  by  the  Comanche 
and  others  that  they  abandonei'l  that  country  and  removed 
to  their  present  abode.  The  population  of  the  Navajo  in 
1891  was  16,102. 

Sorioloi/)/. — Matthews  says  that  among  the  Navajo  de- 
scent Is  III  the  female  line,  and  that,  although  the  names  of 
tlu'  Navajo  clans  are  not  now  toteiuic,  the  legend  to  which 
he  refers  in  an  article  on  the  Navajo  social  organization 
seems  to  indicate  that  some  of  them  once  were  of  that  char- 
acter.    On  the  other  hand,  among  the   .Vthapa-scan  tribes 


390 


ATHAPASCAN   INDIANS 


found  by  Dorsey  in  1884  mi  the  Siletz  reservation,  Oregon, 
descent  is  reckoned  in  the  male  line.  A  list  of  the  Navajo 
clans  is  given  by  Matthews.  In  the  tradition  recorded  by 
him  it  is  said  that  the  present  Jicarilla  Apache  are  suj)- 
posed  to  be  descended  from  part  of  the  Navajo.  The  same 
tradition  tells  of  bands  of  Apache,  Ute,  and  Zuiii  who  joined 
the  Navajo,  and  among  the  present  clans  are  several  which 
are  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  captive  Mexicans  and 
refugees  from  alien  tribes. 

Apaches. — Accoriling  to  Corbusier,  Apache  Is  a  term  of 
the  Yuma  Linguistic  family,  applied  to  southwestern  tribes 
which  differ  in  origin,  race,  and  language.  Its  real  mean- 
ing is  ■'  hostile  man."  To  prevent  confusion  the  term  is 
confined  to  tribes  of  the  warlike  Atliapascan  stock.  The 
fii-st  recorded  use  of  the  terra  is  that  of  Uiiate  in  1598. 

Habitat. — .loutel,  iu  1687,  referred  to  the  Apache  as 
Chancres  or  Chanzes,  placing  them  iu  Texas  W.  or  X.  W. 
of  Louisiana  and  the  Maligne  river.  Margry  gives  a  list 
(a.  d.  1700)  which  speaks  of  the  Canessy  territory,  35  or  40 
leagues  from  I  lie  Naouadiches  tribe.  It  is  spoken  of  as 
Iving  about  145  or  150  leagues  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  a  longitude  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
Clioumans  or  Quivira.  Jefferys,  in  1763,  placed  the  Cannecy 
in  Louisiana  between  95°  and  100°  W.  of  London,  and  be- 
tween 35°  and  37°  N.  latitude.  Gatschet  now  identifies 
these  people,  the  Cance.s,  Cancy,  etc.,  with  the  Lipan  and 
other  Athapascan  Apache,  who  are  called  l-<inlsi,  or  "de- 
ceivers," by  the  Caddo.  Jose  Cortez,  waiting  in  1799,  de- 
fines the  boundaries  of  the  Lipan  and  Apache  as  extending 
N.  and  S.  from  29=  N.  to  36°  N.,  and  E.  and  W.  from  99'  W. 
to  114'  \V. ;  in  other  words,  from  Central  Texas  nearly  to 
the  Colorado  river  in  Arizona,  where  they  met  tribes  of  the 
Tuinan  stock.  He  located  the  Lipan  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  above  territory,  extending  in  Texas  from  the  Comanche 
country  (above  Red  river)  S.  to  the  Rio  Grande  (Cortez  in 
I'rir.  li.  R.  Rept.,  iii.  pt.  3,  pp.  118,  119,  1856).  In  more 
recent  times  the  Apache,  as  well  as  the  Lipan,  have  grad- 
ually moved  southward  into  Mexico,  where  they  extend  as 
far  as  the  province  of  Durango. 

Lipan. — According  to  Bandelier,  the  original  name  of 
this  people  is  said  to  have  been  "  Ipa-nde,"  of  which  "  Li- 
pan "  is  a  corruption. 

Ilabifid  and  Po/iiilafion. — According  to  Margry,  the  Li- 
pan were  first  mentioned  iu  1699  as  allies  of  the  Comanche, 
and  as  probably  living  in  Texas.  The  Apaches  and  Li|ian 
were  in  the  canons  of  San  Saba  and  on  the  Rio  Colorado  of 
Texas  in  1792,  at  which  time  the  Tonkane  and  Towakarehu 
(the  latter  a  Caddoan  tribe,  often  called  Towocconie  or 
Tawakoni)  intended  making  war  on  the  Lipan.  Cortez,  in 
1799,  stated  that  the  Li|iaii  habitat  was  bouniled  on  the  W. 
by  that  of  tlie  Llanero  A|iache,  on  the  N.  by  the  Comanche 
territory,  on  tlie  E.  by  the  Mexican  province  of  Coahuila,  on 
the  S.  by  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  on  tlie  right 
by  the  military  posts  of  ('oahuila — which  woulil  make  the 
Lipan  habitat  about  coterminous  with  that  part  of  Texas 
between  the  I'ecos  river  and  the  province  of  Chihuahua.  In 
1H()5  the  trib('  was  divided  into  three  bands  of  300,  350.  and 
100  men.  respectively.  In  1816  the  Lipan  numbered  800, 
and  ranged  from  the  Rio  (Ti'ande  to  the  interior  of  TeXiis. 
Whippli'  spoke  of  the  Lipan  as  a  tribe  which  ranged  over 
t  lie  country  from  Tncumcari  creek,  along  the  Canadian  river, 
and  oe(nisionally  to  the  Rio  Pecos.  In  1884  the  Lipan  were 
i-hiefly  in  Old  Mexico,  near  the  Rio  Grande,  some  being  in 
the  Santa  Rosa  Mountains.  In  1886  there  were  90  Tonkawe 
and  Lipan  on  the  Ponca.  Pawnee,  and  Otoe  reservation,  in 
the  Inilian  Territory,  but  the  niimberof  the  Lipan  alone  was 
notstateil.  A  Mexican  docuiiient  of  1828  distinguishes  be- 
tween the  Lipanes  del  Sur  (Southern  Lipan)  and  the  Li- 
panes  Llaneros  (Prairie  Lipan)  f)r  Ijijianes  del  Norte  (North- 
I'rn  Lipan).  Orozco  y  Herra  divides  the  Lipan  into  three 
parts:  Lipajeiine  or  Lipanes  (in  Coahuila),  Lipanes  de  Ar- 
riba, and  Lipanes  lU:  Abajo.  He  places  tlieni  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  and  Tamaulipas,  in  Old 
.Mexiio. 

Laiiijiini/e  and  Cuxtoms. — The  relationship  of  the  various 
tribesof  Atliapascan  Indians  to  one  another  is  clearly  shown 
by  a  comparison  of  their  languages,  social  organization,  and 
mythology.  In  many  cases  there  are  words  in  the  languages 
of  I  he  Noli  hern  group  which  differ  only  in  one  or  two  sounds 
from  their  ei|iiiva!cnls  in  the  languagesof  the  Pacific  grou]i. 
This  is  applieatili'  in  some  degree  to  the  Southern  grou))  as 
compared  with  tin-  I'acilic.  These  languages  are  highly 
consonantal,  and  they  exceed  the  .Siduan  languages  in  the 
use  of  classifiei-s,  duals,  pronouns,  and  conjugations.     The 


tribes  of  the  Northern  group  subsist  chiefly  by  hunting  and 
fishing,  and  on  this  account  they  are  compelled  to  wander 
over  a  larger  territory  than  that  which  is  traversed  by  their 
kindred  of  the  Pacific  group,  who  are  the  most  sedentary  of 
the  Athapascan  Indians.  With  the  exceptions  of  the  Uupa 
and  some  of  the  "  Rogue  river  tribes,"  those  of  the  Pacific 
group  have  not  been  very  warlike.  In  this  respect  the  tribes 
of  the  Southern  group  stand  iire-eininent. 


PRINCIPAL 
,  yoi'thern  group  : 
Ab-teua. 
Kaiyuli-khotaua. 
Kealtana. 

K'naia-tchotana  (Kenai). 
Koyuloitcliotaua. 
Kutchin  (Loucheux). 
Wontagnais. 
Montaguards. 

Pacific  group : 
Ataakut. 
Chasta  Costa. 
Clietco. 
Daliul^e  tede  ion  Applegate 

creek). 
Eucbre  creek. 
Hupa. 

Kalts'erea  tunn5. 
Kenesti  iWailakki). 
Kwalbioqua. 
Kwatami. 
Micikqw-utme  tunn§  tor  Upper 

Coquille). 
-\Iikono  tunne. 


TRIBES. 

Nagailer  (Chin). 

Sarsi. 

Slave. 

Sluacus-tinneh. 

Takulli  (Carriers). 

Tahl-tan  (1). 

Unalvbotana. 


Naltunne  tuun&. 

Owiiapsh. 

Qwinctunnetuii  (Pistol  river). 

Saiaz. 

Taltuctun  tude  (on  Galice  creek, 

Oregon  \. 
TCenie  (Josbiias). 
Tcetlestcau  tiinne. 
Tenvar. 

Tlatskanai  (Claxtar). 
Tolowa. 
Tutu  tiinue  iTou-tou-teu.  Loto- 

ten). 


C.  Southern  group: 

.\rivaipa.  Mesealero. 

Cbirieabua.  Mimbreiio. 

Coyotero.  MogoUou. 

Faraone.  Na-isha. 

Gileno.  Navajo. 

Jicarilla.  Pinal  Coyotero  (Tonto). 

Lipan.  Teblkun  ( Piualeno). 

Llanero.  Tchisbi  (Hot  Springs  Apache). 

Piipulation. — The  present  number  of  Athapascan  Indians 
is  about  33.000,  of  whom  about  8.595.  constituting  the  North- 
ern group,  are  in  Alaska  and  British  America,  according  to 
Dall,  Dawson,  and  the  Canadian  Indian  Report  for  1888. 
About  895.  comprising  the  Pacific  group,  are  in  Washing- 
ton. Oregon,  and  California.  About  23,409,  belonging  to 
the  Southern  group,  are  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico.  Colorado, 
Indian  Territory,  and  Oklahoma.  Besides  these  are  the 
Lipan  and  some  refugee  Apache,  who  are  in  Mexico.  These 
have  not  been  included  in  the  above  enumeration,  a.s  there 
are  no  means  of  ascertaining  their  number. 

AfTiioRiTiES. — Bandelier.  Arch.  Iiwf.  Paper.-<.  iii.  p]i.  175, 
181  (1890);  Barreiro,  Ojeuda  .tnhre  yuevo  JW.rir<i.  a[ii).,  p.  7 
(1832) ;  I5ent  (1846).  in  Cala.  JIe.i,i.  and  Curre-^pondence, 
p.  193  (1850):  Bourke.  JS'oles  upon  the  Gentile  Organization 
of  the  Apaches  of  Arizona,  in  Jour.  Am.  Folk-lore.  iii.  ix. 
pp.  111-126  (1890) ;  Buschmann,  Der  athapaskische  Spracli- 
sfamm,  p.  250  (1856) :  Crenionv.  Life  among  the  Apaches 
(1868);  Dall,  Alaska  and  its  Resources,  p.  428  (1870);  Dall, 
in  Confr.  N.  A.  Ethn.,  1.  p.  24  (1877) :  Dall.  in  Proc.  Amer. 
A.1SOC.  Adv.  Sci..  xviii.  p.  269  (180!l);  D^dl,  in  Proc.  Amer. 
Assoc.  Adr.  Sci..  xxxiv.  pp.  376-379  (1885);  Dall,  Tribesof 
Extreme  Xortlucesf,  p.  75  (1877):  Hawson,  Indians  in  Can- 
ada (1877);  Dorsey,  Indians  of  Siletz  Reserration.  Oregon, 
in  Amer.  Anthropologist,  \\.  No.  1,  pp.  55-61  (Jan.,  1890) ; 
Dorsev,  The  Gentile  System  of  the  Siletz  Tribes,  in  Jour. 
Amer'.  Folk-lore,  iii.  x.  pp.  227-237  (1890);  French,  Bisl. 
Coll.  of  Louisiana  and  Florida,  i.  pp.  138,  152.  etc.  (1846); 
Gallatin,  in  Trans,  and  Coll.  Amer.  Antiij.  Soc.  ii.  pp.  14- 
305  (1.S3()) ;  Gallatin,  in  Trans.  Amer.  Ethn.  Soc,  ii.  pt.  1, 
P]).  xcix.  9,  77  (1H48):  (iatschet,  in  Beach,  Ind.  Miscellany, 
pp.  438.  440  (1877):  Gatschet.  in  Geol.  Sun:  »'.  lOoth  M., 
vii.  p.  406  (1879);  Gatschet,  in  Mag.  Am.  Hist.,  pp.  163,  165 
(1877) ;  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft.  Hist.  Ind.  Tribes,  iii.  |i.  422 
(1853);  Hale,  in  V.  S.  E.rpl.  E.rp..  vi.  pp.  198.  201,  569 
(1846) ;  Ilardisty.  in  Smith's  Rept..  p.  303  (1866) ;  Keane,  in 
Stanford's  Compendium,  p.  464  (1878);  Latham,  in  Jour. 
Eth.  Soc.  Lond..  i.  p.  161  (1848);  Latham.  Sat.  Hist.  3Ian, 
pp.  302,308  (1850);  Latham,  in  Tran.'s.  Philol.  Soc.  Lond., 
ii.  pp.  31-50  (1846) ;  ib.  jip.  65,  96  (1S.56);  Latham.  Elements 
Compar.  Philol.,  p.  388  (1862):  Latham,  Opuscula,  pp.  257- 
259,  276  (1860) ;  IMargry,  DeC(juvertes.  iii.  iv.  vi. ;  Matthews, 
Tlie  J/ountaiii  Chant:  a  i\arajo  Ceremoni/.iu  Fifth  An. 
Rept.liur.  Kthn..  pji.  38.5-467(1887):  Jlatlhews,  The  Prayer 
of  a  yacajo  Shaman,  in  Amer.  Anthropologist ,  Apr.,  1888, 
|)p.  149-171 ;  Jlatthews.  Xarajo  Gambling  Songs,  in  Amer. 
Anthropologist,  Jan.,  1889,  pp!  1-1!» ;  Matthews,  The  Gentile 


ATHEISM 


ATHENS 


391 


.Sunlem  of  /lie  Nai'nji)  Indiann,  in  Jour.  Ainer.  Folk-lore, 
iii  ix.  pp.  ny-llO  (1890) ;  Mowrv.  in  Jour.  Amtr.  (feogr.  iS'oc, 
i.  p.  71  (185!));  Petitot,  J)ict.  fjene-Dindjie  (1876) ;  Petitot. 
in  Jour.  Jioi/.  Oeogr.  Soc.  Loud..  1883;  Petroff,  Almka 
<1884);  Powi'i-s,  in  Overland  Monllili/,  p.  Vtr,.  Au}r.,  1872; 
I'owers.  in  Contr.  N.  A.  Ethn..  iii.  p.  72  (1877);  Priehard, 
Phij«.  Hill.  Mankind,  v.  p[).  y7r>,  440-443  (1847) ;  KiiOmrd- 
son,  Arc.  E.r/i.,  ii.  (1851);  Soliodlcnift.  Ili.st.  Jiid.  Tribe.'i  of 
the  U.  S..  i.  p.  24:i;  iii.  [>.  401  (18.>3):  Scoulcr,  in  Jour. 
Hoi),  (leot/r.  Sor.  Lond.,  XI.  p.  218  (1841);  Taylor,  in  Calu. 
/■V/r/Hcr,  .June  13,  1862;  Juno  5  and  12,  1803;  Turner,  in 
l.iterani  World,  p.  281.  Apr.  17,  18.52  ;  Turner,  in  Pac.  Ii.  It. 
Kept.,  iii.  pi.  3,  p.  84  (1850).  J.  Owen  Dorskv. 

A'tlu'ism  [Kr.  aflie'ismr.  from  Gr.  Sfleos,  without  god;  d-, 
not  +  e^is.  irod] :  the  denial  of  the  existence  of  God,  or  the 
doctrine  that  there  is  no  God.  Atheism  niay  be  either 
specuhitive  or  practical;  the  former  consists  in  denying 
the  existence  of  God:  tlie  latter  in  living  as  if  there  were 
no  (iod.  .Spi'culative  atheism  is.  strictly  speaking,  impos- 
silile,  for  the  diMiial  of  the  Divine  existence  necessarily  af- 
firms it.  For  if  one  deny  God's  being,  his  denial  is  worth- 
less unless  it  rests  upon  some  reason  ;  but  this  reason  must 
be  absolute,  or  it  can  be  no  sullicient  warrant  I'or  liis  denial, 
and  tliis  will  only  be  to  adduce  alisoliito  reason  to  declare 
that  tlie  Alisolule  Reason  can  not  be,  wliich  is  the  very  ab- 
sunlit  V  of  all  alisuniil  ies.  To  suppose  the  existence  of  some 
initureof  things  whose  chain  of  invincible  necessity  stretches 
above  and  arouml  the  Deity  is  to  suppose  what,  if  it  have 
any  meaning,  must  itself  be  invested  with  the  being  an<l 
the  atlriliutes  of  tlie  (Jodhead.  Strictly  speaking,  the  be- 
lief in  a  Goil  would  seem  to  imply  a  belief  in  his  person- 
ality— that  is,  in  his  existence  as  n  conxciou-s  being.  But, 
according  to  its  modern  acceptation,  atheism  is  undei-stooil 
to  deny  not  merely  the  existence  of  a  personal  Deity,  but 
also  the  presence  in  the  universe  (apart  from  individual  in- 
telligences) of  any  Principle  of  intelligence,  beauty,  or  good- 
ness. (See  Paxtheksm.)  Perhajis  the  most  remarkable 
phase  of  systematic,  atlieism  is  that  which  is  set  forth  in 
I  lie  writings  of  Epicurus  and  his  foUowere ;  for  although 
that  philosopher  nominally  acknowledged  the  existence  of 
goils,  he  doubtless  did  so  (as  (,'icero  suggests)  merely  to 
avoid  the  |iopular  odium  which  by  a  denial  of  their  exist- 
ence he  was  certain  to  incur.  In  his  system  of  philosophy 
there  is  no  all-pervading  Intelligence,  as  in  that  of  Anax- 
agonus — no  principle  of  order,  no  law  except  the  law  of 
chance.  All  possible  forms  of  existence  have  been  tried  in 
th(!  fortuitous  concourse  of  the  primitive  atoms,  and  those 
beings  only  which  had  at  liLst  attained,  by  repeated  acci- 
dental trials,  a  certain  regularity  and  completeness  of  parts 
posses-ed  any  permanent  existence,  .\mong  many  of  the 
ancient  nations  in  very  early  times  to  deny  the  gods  was 
much  the  same  as  to  deny  all  religious  and  moral  obliga- 
tions; hence  the  name  "atheist"  became  a  term  of  the 
greatest  reproach;  at  length  those  who  had  political  ends 
to  serve  came  to  use  it,  not  very  unfrei|uently.  as  a  con- 
venient nu'thod  of  exciting  popular  odium  against  an  op- 
ponent :  and  it  has  been  n'|>eateilly  applied  to  worthy  and 
virtuous  men,  liolli  ill  ancient  and  modern  times.  Seethe 
articles  liiiD  and  AdXosTIcisM. 

.4tlu>liii!^  [().  K.  (I'llieliiu/.  belonging  to  a  noble  family; 
<pIIiiI.  niible  family;  cf.  Germ.  Adel]:  a  title  of  honor 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  applied  first  to  the  descendants 
iif  the  first  nobles,  then  to  princes  of  the  royal  house,  and 
finally  (ninth  and  tenth  centuries)  only  to  sons  and  brothers 
<if  the  reigning  king. 

Atirclsliin.  or  .fitllclKtan  :  an  able  Anglo-Saxon  King  of 
KuL;laiid  :  b.  alpout  8!)5  a.  d.  :  the  natural  son  of  Kdwanl  the 
Elder,  and  a  grandson  of  .Alfred  the  Great.  He  began  to 
n-ign  in  !(25,  ami  was  the  first  actual  sovereign  of  all  Eng- 
land. On  the  death  of  Sihlric,  King  of  Xorthuinbria,  Atli- 
elstan  annexed  that  country.  A  league  wa.s  formed  against 
him  by  thi^  Welsh,  .Scots,  and  Pict.s,  whom  he  defeatiHl  in  a 
great  dal  tie  at  Mruiiarilmrh,  '.137  A.  I>.  He  reigned  over  nearly 
all  the  island,  except  Scotland  and  Wales.  lie  promoted  learn- 
ing and  civili/atioi],  and  was  reputed  one  of  the  wisest  of 
the  .\nglo-.Saxon  kings.  lie  dieil  wiihout  issue  Oct.  27,  (MO, 
and  wa.s  succeeded  liy  his  brother  Edmund.  See  Freeman, 
.Xorman  Cont/ue-il,  vol.  i. ;  Hume,  History  of  England. 

.\tlie'nil  (in  (ir.  "Afligi/j;  or  '\6iiva).  sometimes  called  Pallnn 
.Mhina:  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  and  one  of  the  principal 
divinities  of  the  (ireek  mythology.  According  to  an  ancient 
legend  she  was  the  <laughter  of  .lupiter,  from  whose  head 
she  issued  in  full  armor.     She  was  the  favorite  national  di- 


vinity of  the  Athenians,  wliose  capital  was  named  in  her 
honor.  She  presided  over  the  sciences,  inventions,  arts  of 
peace,  laws,  et<\,  and  was  supposed  to  have  invented  eveiy 
kind  of  art  or  work  proper  to  women.  Atliena  corresponds 
to  the  Kiiman  JIl.NKRVA  (q.  v.). 

Athpiiie'iini :  in  classical  archeology,  a  school  founded 
by  the  Koman  Emperor  Hadrian  at  Hcmie  for  the  cnltiva- 
tion  of  Greek  learning.  In  modern  time  a  term  used  some- 
what loosely  for  literary  institutions,  such  as  support  libra- 
ries, conduct  courses  of  lectures,  and  the  like. 

Atliena^'iis  (in  Gr. 'AflVji'aios) :  Greek  man  of  letters  and 
anti(iuary;  b.  at  Xaucratis,  in  Egypt;  otherwise  unknown 
except  by  his  great  work,  which  must  have  been  composed 
after  the"<leath  of  Conimodns  (1'.I2  a.d.).  who  is  ridiculed  in 
it.  The  title  of  this  work,  £t.nT!voao(purTai.  means  Banquet  of 
tlie  Learned  or  Profe.isorial  Dinner,  but  the  table-talk  is  a 
mere  excuse;  the  literary  faculty  of  Atheiuens  is  naught, 
and  his  account  of  the  imaginary  baii(|uet  given  by  a  noble 
Koman  to  a  number  of  eminent  men  is  nothing  but  an  un- 
wieldy vehicle  for  a  rich  fund  of  anecdotes,  criticisms,  and 
extracts  from  the  wiu-ks  of  about  700  jjoets  and  historians, 
most  of  whom  would  be  iiractically  unknown  to  us  but  for 
the  learned  compiler.  Athenanis  is  simply  invaluable  as  a 
rejiertory  of  literary,  social,  and  domestic  gossip,  and  our 
vision  of  whole  ranges  of  antiipie  life  is  due  to  him.  Com- 
mentary by  Casaubon  (1.5!)7)  and  Schweighiiuscr  (1801-07). 
iMost  receiit  critical  ed.  by  Kaibcl  (3  vols..  1887-90).  Eng- 
lish translation  in  Bohn's  Classical  Library. 

Revised  by  Ii.  L.  Giluersleeve. 
Atlipua'goras  (in  Gr.  'AeyaySpas)  of  Athens:  a  Greek 
philosopher  and  Christian  writer;  nourished  about  170  A.D. 
\Ve  have  by  him  an  elaborate  treatise  On  the  Ee.surreciimi 
of  the  l)e<id ;  also  an  A /lolugg  {or  rather  i«/o/io»)  addressed 
ti)  I\Iar<-us  Aurelius  and  Comiuodus  about  177  a.  d.  Athena- 
goras  has  some  pretensions  to  style.  Edited  by  Otto  (.leiia, 
1857).  Am.  ed.  by  W.  P>.  Owcii,  Xew  York,  1876  (in  the 
Douglas  series  of  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  writers).  Trans- 
lated by  15.  P.  Pratten  in  the  Aute-Xicene  Christian  Library 
(1867)  ;"ed.  Co.xe,  Xew  York.  Christ  ian  Literature  Co.,  vol.  ii. 
AUl' ens ( And e7it):  acelebrated  Hellenic  city  (called  in  Gr. 
'MTiyai.  in  Lat.  Athena^)  and  rejiulilic,  distinguished  for  un- 
rivalecl  achievements  in  art  and  literature,  .-md  immortal  in 
the  records  of  Greek  statesmanship  aiul  military  glory.  No 
state,  ancient  or  modern,  has  |)roduce<i  in  proportion  to  its 
size  so  many  statesmen,  orators,  authors,  and  artists  of  the 
first  order,  or  has  had  so  lasting  an  infiuence  on  the  civdiza- 
tion  and  culture  of  posterity. 

To/iographi/. — Athens  is  situated  about  4  miles  X'.  E.  of  the 
Saronic'  Gulf,  in  the  jiortion  of  the  Attic  peninsula  known  as 
the  plain  (ir«Siaj) :  lat.  37  .58'  X.,  Ion.  23  44'  E.  The  plain 
forms  a  grand  natural  theater,  inclosed  by  monntains  on 
everv  side  except  the  south,  where  it  opens  seaward.  It  is 
bouiided  X.  by  Mt.  Panics.  X.  K.  by  .All.  Pcntelicus.  8.  E.  by 
Mt.  Hvmettus.  and  \V.  by  Mt.  .Kgal'eips.  About  a  mile  north- 
east of  tlie  city  rises  Mt.  Lycahettus,  an  isolated  jieak  (height, 
900  feet),  which  is  a  striking  and  |u-omiuent  feature  in  the 
landscape.  Within  the  city  walls  were  four  lower  hills, 
composed  of  the  same  hard  gray  limestone:  namely,  the 
Acropolis,  with  the  Areopagus  (Mars  Hill)  west  of  it.  and 
the  Museum  southwest.  The  Acropolis,  or  citadel,  an  iso- 
lated rockv  eminence  about  1.000  feet  long  and  4.50  wide 
(measured  on  its  flat  too),  is  near  the  center  of  the  space  in- 
closed bv  the  walls  of  Themistocles.  It  rises  aliruptly  300 
feet  froni  the  plain.  The  outline  of  its  walls  follows  the 
brow  of  the  clitL  and  roughly  resembles  the  outline  of  a  human 
eye.  It  is  inaccessible  on  all  sides  except  the  west,  where  the 
ascent,  however,  is  very  steep.  From  the  citadel  nearly  the 
wliole  of  the  Saronic  (Jnlf  is  visible,  with  Salamis,  iEgina, 
find  other  islands  ;  also  the  coa.st  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
the  once  hostile  fortress  of  AcRO-ComxTlR's  (</.  i:). 

Athens  stands  on  a  bed  of  limestone,  but  thinly  covered, 
even  in  the  depressions  of  the  plain,  with  a  light  and  rather 
sterile  soil.  The  olive  and  the  vine,  however,  flourish  wher- 
ever they  have  sufiicicMit  irrigation;  the  orange  and  fig, 
which  tlirive  in  Laconia.  do  not  ripen  in  Attica;  and  the 
palm,  as  at  Rome,  figures  only  as  a  garden  exotic.  The  cli- 
mate of  Athens  is  delightful,  and  its  air  is  proverbial  for  its 
singular  purity  and  transjiarency.  This  feature  is  lieauti- 
fully  touched  inion  in  one  of  the  choral  odes  of  Euripides's 
Medea.  IJyron  s  lines  on  an  Athenian  sunset,  in  the  third 
canto  of  The  Corsair,  are  equally  impa.ssioned.  On  account 
of  "the  violet  hue  which  Ilymettus  assumes  in  the  evening 
sky,  in  contnust  to  the  glowing  furnace  of  Lycabettus  and 


392 


ATHENS 


the  rosy  pyramid  of  Pentelieus  "  (Stanley),  Athens  was  sa- 
luted by  poets  as  violet-crowned  (io(7T€'<()aj'oi).  The  plain  of 
Athens  is  watered  by  the  Cephissus.  the  course  of  whicli  is 
fairly  hidden  in  a  continuous  olive-grove,  and  by  its  trilm- 
tary  rivulet  Ilissus,  which  is  rjuite  waterless  in  summer.  The 
Pir'anis  was  a  rocky  peninsula  near  the  mouth  of  the  Cephis- 
sus, witli  three  w'ell-protectcd  harbors,  to  which  Themis- 
toeles  transferred  the  naval  station  of  Athens  from  the 
sandy  roadstead  of  Phalenun.  The  harliors  were  protected 
by  afortified  city  and  a  citadel  built  on  the  eminence  called 
Munychia,  The"  walls  of  Athens  in  its  most  prospei-ous 
period  inclosed  not  only  the  city  proper,  but  also  a  long  and 
narrow  suburb  which  extended  from  the  city  (  rh  iarv)  to 
the  Piranis.  A  third  long  wall  extended  to  tlie  beiu-li  at 
PluiK'rum,  some  miles  east  of  Munvchia. 


Fig.  1.— Flan  of  ancient  Athens. 


irixfuii). — Till'  iidi.ibiliints  of  .\ttiea  asserted  themselves 
to  be  aliorigines,  "  suns  uf  the  soil."  The  historian  Thucv<l- 
ides.  who  adopts  this  view,  considers  that  before  the  devel- 
opment of  maritime  commerce  the  soil  of  Attica  was  too 
poor  to  tempt  immigration  or  eoni|uest.  But  the  Athenians 
a<'kMo\vledged  the  ties  that  bound  them  to  the  loniaiis  of  the 
Pelopounesiau  peninsula  and  of  Asia  Minor.  The  relation 
of  the  Altic  dialect  to  the  Ionic  branch  of  tlie  (ireek  lan- 
guage iswrll  known.  Legeiidarv  traditions  imply  an  ances- 
tral worship  of  the  tribal  gods  Apollo  and  Poseidon  (Nep- 
tune). And  the  localizatitm  in  Attica  of  the  giant-stories 
which  symliolize  struggles  between  natives  and  immigrants 
(as  in  Canaan  and  Cornwall)  indicates  the  subjugation  of  an 
earlier  slock  by  Hellenic  con(|uerors.  The  discrepancies  of 
tradition  are  reconciled  by  assuming  a  gradual  acqnies- 
c<'nce  of  the  l'elasgi;in  or  Protolielli-nic  inhabitants  of  Attica 
in  tlu^  rule  of  an  Ionian  .aristocracy,  which  proliably  entered 
the  peninsula  from  the  north  by  way  of  Eubo-a  and  Mara- 
thon. According  to  legend,  Athens  was  fonndeil  by  Cecrops. 
ami  was  first  ealli'd  Cccropia  or  Cranae.  The  name  was 
changed  later  to  Atliniir  owing  to  the  j)rominenci'  acqnired 
by  the  worship  of  .\lhcna  (Minerva),  or,  mythically  speaking. 
in  virtue  of  that  go(hl<'Ss"s  triumph  over  Poseidon  in  a  con- 
test for  I  h(^  position  of  chief  divine  patron  of  Attica.  It  is 
more  probable  that  the  storm-goddess  Pidlas  w;is  surnamed 
the  Athcnidu  {'ABrivcLia  or  'ASjiyda.  contr.  'A97)ra)  from  th<"  seat 
of  her  most  f(^rvid  worshi[).  In  this  ease  the  name  of  the 
city  might  well  be  derived  from  fafl,  signifying  point  or 
peak.  Before  its  artificial  (laltening  the  cita<lel  rock  ro.se 
some  100  feet  higher  than  at    present,  so  as  to  resemble  the 


conical  sister  height  of  Mt.  Lycabettus.  Homer  in  the  Iliad 
mentions  Athens,  with  the  house  of  Ereohtheus  and  a  tem- 
ple of  Athena.  This  allusion,  once  credited  to  Attic  inter- 
polators, was  brilliantly  confirmed  by  the  discovery  on  the 
citadel,  in  the  excavations  of  1886  aiid  1888,  of  the  founda- 
tions of  a  royal  palace  of  the  Myceniean  type  (see  Mycen^), 
and  also  of"  a  very  early  temple  built  of  Acropolis  stone. 
Theseus,  the  natioiial  liero  of  Attica,  is  said  to  have  united 
the  twelve  independent  townships  (di'mi)  of  the  peninsula 
into  one  political  body,  with  Athens  for  its  capital.  The 
historic  kings  of  Athens  were  descendants  of  Peloponnesian 
princes,  who  traced  their  ancestry  back  to  the  Acluean  Nes- 
tor. The  last  was  Codrus,  who,  in  the  Dorian  invasion  of 
1068  B.  c  .  sacrificed  himself  for  Athens,  in  compliance  with 
an   oracle  which   foretold   success  to  the  side  whose  king 

should  be  slain.  The 
^  aristocracy  made  the 
heroism  of  Codrus  a 
pretext  for  abolishing 
the  royal  prerogative. 
The  Neleidie  thereupon 
eudgrated  to  Miletus, 
where  they  maintained 
a  royal  or  princely  rank 
for  many  years.  The 
youngest  son  of  Co- 
drus, Jledon,  had  been 
elected  archon.  The 
government  became  an 
oligarchy,  or  aristocrat- 
ic republic.  Until  the 
close  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury (714  B.  r.)  only 
Neleida'  were  eligible  to 
the  office  of  archon : 
but  the  archon 's  term 
liad  been  reduced  (752 
B.  c.)  frotn  life  (ipx^y 
iV(*j3ios)  to  ten  years.  In 
lis;!  the  civil,  religious, 
military,  and  judicial 
authority  of  the  archon 
was  divided  among  nine 
iirchons.  (See  Archon.) 
The  second  of  the  nine 
exiTcised  the  priestly 
functions  of  royalty, 
with  which  he  retained 
the  kingly  costume  and 
name  (Spx™"  j8a<ri\€i}s). 
His  wife  acted  the  part 
of  (lUeen  (|8a(r(Ai(r<ra).  It 
was  the  archon-king. 
also,  who  presided  over 
the  venerable  court  of  the  Areopagus,  which  di'alt  with 
all  ott'eiises  regarded  as  .sacrilegious,  including  liloodshcd. 
The  constitution  of  Athens  at  this  period  was  ba.sed  on 
the  Ionic  division  of  the  people  into  four  tribes  (<pvKai). 
The  nmnes  of  the  tribes  were  derived  from  the  four  .sons  of 
Ion  (reKfovTis,  "Ott\7\t(s,  \lyiKopf7s,' hfryaSiis).\mX  their  signifi- 
cation implies  an  original  ihvision  by  the  occupations  of 
landholders,  warriors,  herders,  and  laliorers.  The  prover- 
bially severe  legislation  of  Draco  (archon  (Wl  n.  c.)  brought 
no  relief  from  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  landlord  clas.s. 
Villeinage  and  serfdom  for  delit  became  crying  evils.  Po- 
litical and  class  feeling  crystallized  into  the  sectional  parties 
of  the  I'lain  (irtSitis.  conservatives),  the  Hills  (Siaxpioi.  radi- 
cals), and  the  Shore  (irapoAoi.  moderates).  Solon,  a  descend- 
ant of  Codrus.  whom  his  birth  and  record  made  aeeeptable 
to  all  ]i.Mrlies  (iirehon  ,5!l4  B.C.),  undertook  to  remove  the 
causes  for  dis.sen.sion.  Serfdom  for  debt  was  .abolished, 
mortgages  were  largely  canceled,  the  vidue  of  the  silver 
drachnni.  the  uidt  of  currency,  was  reduced  27  per  cent. 
The  citizens  were  recla-ssified  on  a  property  basis,  by  the 
amount  of  their  real  estate,  or  their  aliilily  to  pay  taxes  pro- 
portionate to  an  annual  yield  of  500.  800.  1.50  Attic  l)usli. 
{irevTaKOfftoixfZi^voi,  iinTits^  ^evylTai).  Citizens  of  these  chisses 
were  eligible  to  the  Council  (/8ou\i))  of  400.  and  to  most  of- 
fices; but  the  archons  and  judges  of  the  Areopagus  could 
he  of  th(^  first  class  only.  The  Areopagus,  to  which  the  au- 
ditnrship  of  all  public  offices  was  a.ssigiied.  became  a  power- 
ful instrunuMit  on  the  conservative  side.  A  fourth  class  of 
9^Tes  paid  no  taxes,  and  was  not  eligible  to  offices,  but  ren- 
dereil    military   service  and    sat    in    the  popular  .\ssembly 


ATHENS 


393 


(iKKKriala).  Tlio  oniiimry  fo\irt.s  wciv  fi)iitroll('<l  by  popular 
juries  sclt'Oti'il  frnin  a  Ixuiy  of  (i.OOO  jurynu'ti.  Solon  also 
drew  up  a  code  of  Attic  law.  His  constitution,  hut  not  his 
li'jiislatioii,  was  overthrown  1>V  the  ns\n-pation  of  Pisistratus 
(560  n.  c),  a  leader  of  the  Hill  faction,  who  Mianaf;e<l,  al- 
tlion<;h  twice  ejecte<l,  to  recover  an<l  transmit  his  ilictator- 
sliip  (Tupowfa)  to  his  sons.  Ilippias  and  llipparchus  (.T27  H.  c.). 
The  pcrinil  nf  the  I'isisira  tida-  was  one  of  irreat  public  pros- 
perity and  cxc'clleiit  ffovernrncnl.  They  p.nid  f;reat  attention 
to  public  roads,  which  were  even  embellished  with  statuary; 
organized  the  I'anathcnaic  athletic  festival  after  the  nioclel 
of  the  Olympic  games;  caused  the  Homeric  lays  to  be  col- 
lected, critically  edited,  and  regularly  recited:  an<l  l>egan 
; he  liirgest  temple  in  (ireecc  ]iropcr,  thai  of  Zeus  Olympius. 
which  remained  unfinished  for  TOO  years.  The  lilieralion  of 
Athens  from  this  mild  despotism  was  popularly  dated  from 
th<' murder  of  llipparchus  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogi  ton 
in  ol4  B.C.  Ilippias  was  unseated  only  in  olO.  when  he  re- 
tired to  Sige  um  on  the  Hellespont,  a  place  which  he  held  as 
a  fief  from  Persia.  He  is  crwlited  with  a  large  share  in  in- 
stigating Persia  to  make  war  on  Athens.  Herodotus  tells 
with  characteristic  dry  humor  that  a  tooth  the  aged  Ilippias 
sneezed  out  in  the  coin'sc  of  the  Persian  hauling  at  Mara- 
thon was  the  oidy  one  of  his  bones  that  found  the  coveted 
resting-place  in  Attic  soil.  The  Solonian  constitution  was 
re-estalilished  in  principle,  but  greatly  expanded  by  Clis- 
thcni'S.  an  aristocratic  leader  of  the  Attic  democracy  (o09 
B.C. I.     The  fiiur  chioe^  were  relaiiieil.  Iml    large  niimliers  of 


f  A.-n.p.ilis 


aliens  ami  freedinen  were  enrolled  as  citizens  in  ten  new 
tribes.  whi<di  Clisthencs  substituted  for  the  old-time  four. 
The  ten  tribes  were  named  after  ancient  .\ttic  heroes 
(KfKpoiris.  Atyr)is.  Atayrls.  etc.).  Each  was  ct|iially  reprcs(Mited 
in  the  Council  ot  'lOO;  and.  by  a  more  curious"  than  happy 
device,  ciu-h  batch  of  fifty  senators  from  one  tribe  consti- 
tuted an  executive  coiinnitlee  (■xpurdyeis)  forone-tenth  of  the 
year.when  it  presided  in  parliament,  ilealt  willi  embassies,  etc., 
until  relieved.  Ten  townships  {r/i'mi).  not  adjacent,  appear 
to  have  bei^n  a-ssigned  to  each  trilie;  later  there  were  174  in 
all.  A  .Spartan  attem|)t  to  overthrow  this  democratic  con- 
slitntion.  with  the  assistance  of  Chalcis  (Eubfca),  resulted 
immediately  only  in  the  annexation  of  the  Chalcidian  terri- 
tory to  Attica  as  an  Athenian  colony,  but  was  the  prelude 
i>f  the  lati-r  protracted  struggle  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 
In  4!)!l  Athens  lent  her  aid  to  the  revolt  of  the  Ionian  cit- 
ies from  Pei-sia.  The  ancient  Lydian  <'apilal.  Sardes.  w.-is 
sacked  iniil  tired  by  the  Athenian'anxiliaries.  After  the  de- 
feat of  the  Ionian  fleet,  and  the  collapse  of  the  confederacy 
with  the  fall(>f  Miletus,  the  richest  of  the  Ionian  cities.  Da- 
rius determined  to  subjugate  Greece,  and  to  punish  the 
Atlieuians  in  an  especial  manner.  The  Persians  sailed 
thpiii^rji  the  .Ega>an  Sea.  confirming  their  suprema<-v  over 
llic-llreek  islands,  destroyed  Krelri.a.  and  eflVcti'il  a  l.'inding 
at  M.-irathon.  Here  the"  Athenian  troops  under  Miltiades 
defeated  the  Persians  signally  (490  H.  c).  The  repulse  of 
the  Orientals  on  this  occasion  is  commonly  accounted  one 
of  the  most  momentous  events  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Xo  further  attempt  against  Greece  was  made' for  ten  vears. 
In  tlie  nieanlinie,  under  the  inspiration  of  Theniist"ocles. 
Athens  gave  all  her  attention  to  the  ecpiipmenl  of  a  strong 


fleet.  The  army  of  Xerxes  entered  Greece  by  way  of  the 
Hellespont  and  the  Thraeian  coast,  forcing  the  pass  of  Ther- 
nu)pyla'  after  a  memorable  seven  days'  defense  by  a  band 
of  some  (),000  Greeks  under  King  Ijconidas  of  Sparta,  who 
was  finally  surrounded  and  slain  with  all  but  two  of  his 
:i(H)  Laccda'monians.  The  Athenians  promptly  evacuated 
Athens,  removing  their  women  and  children  to  neighboring 
i^lanlls.  Athens  was  occupied  and  destroyed  by  the  Persian 
army,  but  a  tircek  fleet  of  2N0  trii-enies  utterly  defeated  and 
routed  the  Persian  navy  of  1,000  vessels  in  the  Straits  of 
Salamis  (480  B.  c),  into  which  the  simulated  treason  of  The- 
mistocles,  the  Athenian  commauder.  had  entrapped  Xerse.s. 
An  army  of  800.000.  renuiining  in  (ireece  under  JNIardonius, 
was  defeated  at  Plata>a>,  in  liieutia.  in  the  following  year. 
This  event- was  followed  by  the  rapid  development  of  the 
maritime  |)ower  of  Athens.  Themistocles  fortified  the  city 
and  the  Piraeus,  and  the  navy  was  so  .strengthened  that 
Athens  soon  became  the  heail  of  an  important  island  con- 
federacy, and  ventured  on  daring  ex|)cditions  against  other 
(ireek  states  and  the  maritime  dependencies  of  Persia  as  far 
as  Cyprus  and  Egypt.  The  Athenians  also  began  to  rebuild 
their  capital, anil  to  erect  those  nuisterpieces  of  architecture 
which  have  excited  the  admiration  of  succeeding  ages.  The 
able  administration  of  Cimon.  son  of  Miltiades.  was  excelletl 
in  brilliancy  by  that  of  Pericles,  whose  jiower  became 
nearly  absolute  in  444  B.C.. after  his  conquest  of  Euba-a,  the 
negotiation  of  a  thirty  years' truce  with  Sparta,  which  re- 
liui|uished  the  hegemony  or  leadership  of  the  Greeks  by 
lanil,  the  death  of  Cimon,  and  the  banishment  of  Thucyd- 
ides.  the  head  of  the  aristocratic  party.  The  citizens  of 
the  fourth  class  had  been  nuide  eligible  to  public  offices 
a  geiuo-alion  before,  and  Pericles  had  himself  broken  the 
power  of  the  Ai'eopagus.  The  name  of  Pericles  is  almost  a 
synonym  for  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  Athens  in 
pnlilies.  literature,  and  art.  During  his  long  and  able  ad- 
ministration ^Eschylus.  So]}hocles.  and  Euripides  trod  the 
Atlic  stage,  while  Phidias  in  sculpture  and  Ictinus  and 
.Miiesicles  in  architecture  were  convei-ling  Athens  and  its 
Acropolis  into  a  perfect  museum  of  (ireek  art  at  its  ju'imi-. 
In  4:il  Sparla.  at  the  instigation  of  Corinth  and  other  Do- 
rian allies,  but  chiefly  moved  by  her  apprehension  of  further 
expansion  on  the  part  of  Athens,  resolved  on  war  with  the 
Athenian  republic.  This  struggle  was  called  the  Pelopoii- 
uesian  war.  It  continued  with  little  interruplion  for  twen- 
ty-seven years,  and  resulted  disastrously  for  the  Athenians. 
The  year  404  finds  Athens  with  her  walls  dismanlle(l,  her 
navy  siirrenilered  to  Sparla.  and  an  irres])ousible  oligarchy 
of  liiirty  reactionary  politicians  in  possession  of  the  govern- 
ment, under  the  protection  of  the  Spartan  Admiral  Lysan- 
der.  The  darkest  incidents  of  the  war  were  the  outbreak  of 
the  plague  at  Athens  in  the  .second  year  of  thewar,  to  which 
Pericles  succundied.  anil  the  capture  and  nuissacre  ot  the 
whole  fleet  and  army  with  which  the  Athenians  hail  under- 
taken to  i-oiKjuer  Syracuse,  in  the  eighteenth  (41.'i  B.C.). 
Nearly  all  the  principal  Athenian  connuanders  cjinie  to  an 
ill  end.  being  slain  in  battle,  excented  by  the  enemy  or  by 
their  fellow-citizens,  or  exiled  (Thucydides.  Kleon,  Demos"- 
thenes,  Nicias.  Laimichus,  Alcibiailes,  and  six  ot  the  last's 
successors).  The  .\thenian  democracy  was  re-established  by 
the  exploit  of  Thrasybulus.  who  exjielled  the  Thirty  Tyrant"^ 
in  40:5.  Strangely  enough,  the  heyday  of  Attic  comedy 
(Cratinus.  Eupolis.  .\ristoplianes)  coincides  with  the  Pelo- 
poiniesian  war.  The  same  nuiy  be  said  of  the  philosophic 
teaching  of  Socrates,  whose  execution  for  irreverence  to  the 
gods  and  corru|)tion  of  the  young  occurred  in  39!)  n.  r.  The 
following  period  of  military  and  political  decline  continues 
to  be  tnarked  by  the  intellectual,  literary,  and  artistic  su- 
premacy of  Athens.  It  is  illustrated  by  the  genius  of  Plato, 
the  orator  Demosthenes,  and  the  sculptor  Praxiteles.  The 
grandest  elorpience  of  Demosthenes  was  i-alled  forth  in  his 
(lelermined  opposition  to  Philip  of  Jlacedon  (the  Philippics, 
delivered  :}r>l  to  :!41  B.C.),  and  after  the  victory  of  Philip 
over  the  alliance  of  Thebes  and  .Vthens  at  Chan-onea,  in  his 
fulminant  defense  of  his  i)olicy,  in  the  oration  On  Hie  Crown, 
delivered  ;i;tO  B.C.  Athens  did  not  entirely  succmnb  to 
Macedonia  until  the  year  after  Alexander  the  Great's  death 
in  Habylon  (322  B.C.).  when  Anti]iater  garrisoned  Munychia, 
abrogated  the  constitution,  banished  more  than  half  the 
citizens,  levied  a  war  indemnity,  and  procured  the  death 
seiitence  of  Demosthenes,  who  escaped  execution  by  taking 
poison  in  the  island  of  Calaurea.  Athens  was  unable  to 
nuike  itself  more  than  teniiKirarily  independent  of  Mace- 
donia (387  to  2(i2B.  c.)  after  this".  The  beginning  other 
subjection  is  sigmdized  by  the  comeilics  uf  .Meiiander,  in 


394 


ATHENS 


literature,  and  she  continued  to  be  the  chief  home  of  cul- 
ture and  the  tine  arts  in  Greece  proper.  On  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Macedonia  by  Rome.  Athens  allowed  herself  to  be 
incorporated  in  the  Homan  "sjihere  of  influence  "  without 
serious  resistance,  which  would  have  been  futile  after  the 
fall  of  the  Achaean  league  and  of  Corinth  in  146  B.  c  when 
Greece  became  a  Koniaii  province  under  the  name  of  Achaia. 

Athens  enjoyed  much  municipal  prosperity  under  Rome. 
Its  monuments  survived  Sulla's  occupation  of  the  city  (86 
B.  c.)  in  tok'Valile  ]iertection.  The  Athenian  schools  of 
eloquence  and  philosophy  attracted  great  numbers  of  stu- 
dents from  Konu'  and  all  parts  of  the  civilized  woi-ld.  Here 
Cicero,  Vergil,  and  Horace  received  part  of  their  education. 
The  Emperor  Hadrian  favored  Athens  greatly.  The  com- 
pletion of  the  temple  of  Zeus,  and  many  other  architectural 
improvements,  dated  from  his  reign.  There  exists  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  city  written  shortly  after  (174  a.  d.)  by  Pausanias 
of  Magnesia  iu  Asia  Jlinor.  The  last  calamities  to  overtake 
Athens  were  its  occupation  by  the  Goths  under  Alaric.  A.  D. 
396.  and  the  closing  of  its  schools  of  philosophy,  as  strong- 
holds of  paganism,  by  the  Christian  Emperor  Justinian,  A.  D. 
529.  This  edict  definitely  extinguished  the  importance  and 
renown  of  ancient  Athens. 

The  population  of  Athens  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  pros- 

iierity.  just  before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  was  estimated  by 
jeak'e  at  192.000.  including  the  Pineus.  It  is  doubtful 
whether,  even  with  slaves  and  aliens,  the  total  population  of 
Attica  ever  reached  500.000. 

Monuments  and  Antiquities. — The  walls  of  Athens  were 
60  stadia  (6  miles)  in  circumference:  their  line  can  still  be 
made  out.  The  oldest  extant  vestiges  of  the  city  are  on  the 
rocky  eminences  within  the  walls,  and  serve  to  distinguish 
between  the  four  chief  divisions  of  the  city,  viz.:  the  town 
proper,  on  the  Museum  hill,  the  citailel.  occupied  by  the  royal 
residence  and  later  reserved  for  sacred  buildings,  the  court 
and  assembly  grounds  on  Areopagus  aiul  Pnyx,  and  the  mar- 
ket-place in  the  deiu-ession  between  the  hills.  A  northwest 
quarter  was  called  the  Ceramicus.  on  the  way  toward  Eleu- 
sis,  near  the  burial-ground;  a  southwest  quarter  bore  the 
name  of  Melite  :  Diomeia  extended  northeast  in  the  direction 
of  Lyeabettus ;  Liirnue  was  near  t  he  bed  of  the  Ilissus,  south- 
east. Much  controversy  has  raged  about  the  identification 
of  two  terraced  esplanades,  of  which  the  lower  has  the  form 
of  a  great  semicircle  with  a  stepped  cube  of  rock  at  the 
(■entral  point,  with  the  place  of  assembly  of  the  Athenian 
peo|)le,  or  Pnyx.  Ernst  Cvu'tius.  the  historian,  contends 
that  it  was  a  Pelasgian  sanctuary  and  altar  dedicated  to 
Zeus;  but  the  former  view  is  now  again  prevalent  among 
scholars.  On  a  narrow  lane  of  the  old  town  to  tlie  south  of 
the  Pnyx  is  a  row  of  seven  seats  cut  in  the  roek.  supjiosed 
to  mark  the  site  of  an  early  judicial  court.  Of  the  court  on 
the  Areopagus,  on  the  other  hand,  nothing  is  left  but  a  plat- 
form on  the  top  of  the  rock  or  bowlder  which  bears  this 
name,  and  a  flight  of  sixteen  steps  ascending  to  it.  Some 
vestiges  of  the  hexastyle  Doric  temple  of  Zeus,  begim  by 
Pisistratus.  were  brought  to  light  by  Penrose  in  his  recent 
e.xcavatiou  of  the  foundations  of  the  Corinthian  01ym]iieuui 
fiiushed  by  Hadrian.  The  Panathenaie  stadium,  or  race- 
course, lies  across  the  Ilissus  l)ack  of  this  temple,  again  de- 
nuiled  of  the  marble  seats  with  which  it  was  furnished  by 
the  orator  Herodes  Atticus,  a  contemporary  of  Hadrian. 
For  any  other  remains  as  old  as  the  sixth  century  H.  r.  it  is 
nece.ssary  to  diseriuiiuate  among  the  tombstones  of  the  Ce- 
ramicus, or  to  examine  the  lower  strata  of  the  accumula- 
tions within  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis.  This  work  has 
lately  been  done  with  great  thoroughness  by  the  Greek  Ar- 
chaeological Society.  It  has  bei'U  shown  (11  that  the  earliest 
structures  on  the  citadel  date  from  the  royal  period  ;  (2)  that 
several  ring-walls  of  early  date  preceded  the  outer  one 
which  is  still  extantaud  visil>le:  (:!)  that  amlntiousattempts 
to  embellish  the  old  temple  and  sanctuary  of  Athena  with 
colonnades  and  sculi>tures  ha<l  alreaiiv  been  made  in  the 
time  of  Pisistratus;  (4)  that  the  Athenians  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury renovateil  the  citadel,  after  the  Persian  invasion,  with 
great  disregard  for  the  monunuTits  of  ait  partly  destroyed 
by  the  enemy.  Thus  some  twenty  marble  statiu's.  some  of 
them  by  artists  of  the  highest  repute  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century.  wer<'  found  built  up  in  a  terrace  to  the  west 
of  the  Ereelil Ileum,  and  are  now  among  the  choicest  t ri'iis- 
ures  of  the  .Acropolis  Museum.  The  majority  appear  to  lie 
dedicatory  offerings  to  Athena  of  her  own  imiige.  clad  not  in 
the  usual  martial  array,  but  in  the  raiment  of  peace,  befit- 
ting the  patroness  of  artisans  and  artists  ('Mrivu'Zpyivi)\. 
Tliev  are  remarkable  not  oiilv  for  the  altogether  new  light 


they  have  oast  on  the  condition  of  sculpture  in  Athens 
about  540  to  480  B.  c,  but  also  for  an  unusually  fine  preser- 
vation of  the  ornamental  coloring  with  which  the  Greeks 
habitually  enlivened  their  works  of  sculpture.  The  Acro- 
polis acquired  an  entirely  new  physiognomy  under  Cimon 
and  Pericles.  A  small  Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Victory,  of 
Pentelic  marble,  to  the  right  of  the  western  ascent  to  the 
citadel,  has  been  wrongly  ascribed  to  the  time  of  Cimon. 
Its  small  frieze  bears  a  representation  of  combats  between 
Greeks  and  Persians.  The  masterpiece  of  Periclean  archi- 
tecture was  the  grand  gateway  which  Mnesicles  designed 


Flo.  3. — l^iiins  of  tiie  Partlienou. 

to  stretch  entirely  across  the  citadel  rock  just  behind  this, 
the  Propyhea.  left  unfinisheil  in  A'd'i  B.  c.  It  consisted  of  a 
wall  pierced  by  five  unequal  doorways,  with  two  Doric  hexa- 
style fronts,  and  an  interior  vestilmle  of  the  Ionic  order. 
Tiie  central  portion  was  flanked  by  smaller  porticos  of 
the  Doric  order,  of  which  the  northern  served  as  a  picture 
gallery.  Passing  thi'ough  the  Propyhea,  still  tolerably  pre- 
served, we  ascend  to  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of  Athena 
Parthenos,  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  archi- 
tecture ever  executed.  It  was  designed  by  Callicrates  and 
Ictiniis,  was  built  in  the  Doric  order  of  white  Pentelic 
marble,  and  was  dedicated  in  488  B.  c.  It  consisted  of  a 
walled  cella.  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  of  46  columns,  which 
are  over  6  feet  iu  diameter  and  34  feet  high.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  tem])le  were  228  feet  long.  101  feet  wide,  and  66 
feet  high  to  the  top  of  the  pediment.  The  Parthenon  was 
adorned  with  exquisite  scul|iture.  of  which  some  jiarts  are 
preserved.  (See  Partuenox.)  Within  stood  the  statue  of 
the  virgin  goddess  Athena,  by  Phidias,  of  ivory  and  gold, 
fully  armed  and  holding  a  figure  of  Victory.  6  feet  high,  on 
her  extended  right  hand.  The  Ereehtheum  was  a  beautiful 
Ionic  temple  to  Athena,  standing  north  of  the  Parthenon, 
with  two  elegant  [lorticos.  still  in  fair  preservation.  It  was 
completed  in  393  B.  c.  The  exact  date  of  the  Tlieseum,  a 
handsome  Doric  temple  in  the  lower  town,  is  not  known. 
The  exterior  is  in  excellent  preservation,  including  a  por- 
tion of  the  decorative  seiiliitures.  Other  structures  cluster 
aliout  the  Acropolis.  The  oldest  is  the  tlieater  of  Dionysus, 
at  the  east  end  of  the  southern  slope,  forming  a  great  semi- 
circle of  seats  rising  to  the  foot  of  the  citadel  cliff,  around 
what  was  originally  a  circular  space  for  the  dramatic  and 
choral  perforinaiiees.  much  Imilf  over  in  JIacedonian  and 
Imperial  times  with  the  high  stages  that  had  then  come  into 
I'lishioii.  Here  the  plays  which  reflect  such  literary  glory 
on  Athens,  the  tragedies  and  the  conu'dies  already  touched 
upon,  were  given.  .Above  the  theater  are  two  columns  and 
vestiges  of  another  monument  cominemoratingdraiiiiitic  vic- 
tories. To  the  \V.  is  a  terrace  once  occupied  by  the  sanc- 
tuary of  .i-Esculapius.  Further  on  a  .second  theater,  the 
Odeum,  erected  by  Ilerodes  Atticus  in  the  age  of  the  .Auto- 
nines.  Across  the  valley,  on  the  Museum,  rises  the  monu- 
ment of  .Antiochus  Philopappus.  atituhir  [irinee  of  Coiiima- 
gene.  who  had  resiiled  in  .\theus  under  the  lioiiian  rnpnie. 
Burial  within  the  city  gates  was  illegal.  The  cemetery  of 
the  Ceramieus.  in  wliiiOi  many  funeral  mouuments  and  rel- 
ies of  the  Ilelli'iiie  |ieriod  have  been  brought  to  light,  was 
out  of  bounds.  Public  buildings  of  a  more  municipal  char- 
acter are  distributed  north  of  the  .\eropolis.     The  most  ex- 


ATHENS 


ATHERINA 


395 


qtiisite  is  one  long  known  as  the  "  Liintern  of  Demosthenes," 
really  the  coninienioration  of  a  draniatie  victory  l)y  one 
Lvsii-rates,  in  tlie  form  of  a  eircnlar  t'orinthian  temple,  sur- 
mounted by  a  lironze  tripoil.  It  bears  the  date  of  HSi  li.  c. 
Other  structures  belong  to  the  Macedoni;in  and  Roman  peri- 
ods. Sucli  are  the  clock  or  dial-tower  of  Andronicus  (Tower 
of  the  Winds),  an  octagonal  pavilion  adorned  with  the  lig- 
ures  in  bas-relief  of  eight  wind-gods  (1()4  n.  c).  and  the 
great  Stoa.  or  court-house,  of  Altalus  of  I'ergamuiii,  in 
which  St.  I'aul addressed  the  Athenian  Areopagus;  and  for 
the  Koinaii  perioil  a  market-gate  built  under  Augustus,  a 
great  iiortico  similar  to  the  imperial  t'ora  in  Rome  itself, 
erected  by  Hadrian,  and  the  same  emperor's  arch,  which 
marks  the  boundary  between  old  (ircek  Athens  and  its  east- 
ern snlnirl)  of  Roman  orquasi-Roinan  count  ry-houses.  Uf  the 
temple  of  Zeus  ( )lympius.  which  a  Roman  architect  com- 
pleted in  the  Corinthian  order,  aclusler  of  sixteen  huge  mar- 
ble columns  remains  in  one  corner  of  the  vast  temph^  area, 
resembling  the  bunch  of  men  left  staiuling  on  a  ehes.s-l)oard 
wlien  the  ganu'  is  done  (Wordsworth).  The  remains  of 
a  wall  encircling  only  the  central  portion  of  the  city,  and 
abutting  against  the  east  and  west  extremities  of  the  cit- 
adel, with  the  hasty  repair  of  the  citadel  walls  and  gates 
by  Diiji-leti.nn,  are  witnesses  of  the  last  decline  of  the  city 
which  had  once  come  near  establishing  its  empire  over  the 
whole  .Mediterranean. 

Hiitnooit.viMiv. — .Stuart  and  Revett,  Antiquities  of  Athens 
(17ti2-l«l(i) ;  Ijeake,  Topoffriipli;/  nf  Athenx  (1841)';  Waeh- 
sinuth,  y^/fi  Stiiilt  Athen  im  AltKi-tlnim;  Cnrtius-Kauiiert, 
Atlas  vim  Al/wn  :  Cnrtins,  Stiidtgescliiclite  von  At/ien  ;  IJau- 
mcister's  Denkmiiler  s.  v.  Atlien.  Alfred  Emerso.v. 

Athens  (MeJIiPAuiI  and  Mndcrn)  :  the  first  European  city 
of  importance  in  which  the  new  doctrines  of  Christianity 
were  preaiOied  by  St.  Paul,  ami  espoused  by  Dionysius,  a 
member  of  the  .Vreopagus,  afterward  canonized  as  .St.  Dio- 
nysius .\reopagita.  The  Parthenon  and  other  temples  were 
•  arly  (sixth  century)  converted  into  Christian  churches,  and 
the  see  became  an  archbishopric  in  857.  Great  deference 
was  paid  to  till'  naim.' of  Athens  under  the  Eastern  emper- 
ors, even  to  formally  acknowledging  the  city's  autonomy. 
In  nil!)  ISasil  II.  celebrated  a  feast  of  victory  in  the  Par- 
thenon. Hut  in  1040  t  lie  Xormans,  under  Harold  Ila.irdra- 
da,  captured  the  Pineus.  Xorthmen  cruising  homeward 
from  Byzantine  .service  had  before  this  covered  an  antiijue 
lion  at  this  port  with  runic  inscri[itions.  This  lion,  which 
afterward  gave  tlie  name  of  Porto  Leone  to  the  Pira'us,  is 
now  In  front  of  the  naval  arsenal  at  Venice.  The  Latin 
conc|uest  of  Constantinople  in  1204  resulted  in  the  investi- 
ture of  a  French  family,  thc^  De  la  Roche,  with  the  newly 
created  duchy  of  Athens.  In  VM'i  the  duchy  became  a  de- 
pendency of  Kaples.  In  1394  Rainerio  Acciaiuoli  of  Corinth, 
a  Florentine  adventurer,  ejected  the  Catalan  garrison  and 
made  hims.'lf  independent  duke.  In  14.5()  the  Turks,  after  a 
hard  siege,  wrested  .\thens  from  his  second  successor.  The 
siege  and  capture  of  .Vtheiis  by  the  Venetian  general  Moro- 
sini  was  disastrous  to  its  moiiumenls.  .'ibove  all  to  the  Par- 
thenon, which,  being  at  the  time  the  Turkish  [lowder-maga- 
zine,  was  wrecked  by  a  shell  skiliruUy  dropped  on  it  by  a 
Hessian  giumer.  Morosini  himself  shattered  some  of  its  best 
nljilur(!s  in  an  attempt  to  remove  them  for  transnorlation 
i  Venice.  The  Turks  soon  recovered  the  strongliold  and 
city,  and  flaunlcd  the  crescent  tianner  from  the  minari't 
they  hail  jilanteil  on  the  Parthenon,  while  the  town  sank 
deeper  and  deeper  in  uttc>r  insignilicance  and  degradation. 
Hare  visits  by  foreign  explorers,  like  Stuart  and  Revell  .'ind 
Lord  Byron,  arc  the  best  part  of  its  history,  until  within 
three  months  of  the  outbreak  of  the  (Jreek  revolution  in  the 
Peloponnesus  the  (freeks  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
Acropolis  {.lune  21, 1S22).  mainly  by  famine.  The  year  WHS 
saw  a  sharper  struggle  of  the  (ireek  garrison  against  the 
assaults  of  Kioiitagi  Pasha.  The  IVirced  entrance  of  OriO 
Phillielleiies.  under  Fabvier.  with  fresh  ammunilion.  was  a 
dramatic  episode  of  this  siege,  but  could  not  prevent  the  sur- 
render of  the  .-Vcropolis  on  .lune  ~>.  1S2T.  Fliis  signalized 
the  virtual  collap.se  of  the  (Jreek  war  of  independi'iice.  had 
it  not  been  for  the  foreign  intervention  which  followed. 
Athens  was  not  evacuateii  bv  the  Turks  until  the  entrv  of 
the  Bavarian  troops  with  Kiiig  Otho  (!s:«).  In  18:!.-)  it'be- 
came  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Hellas.  The  city 
wius  laid  out  anew,  not  very  regularly,  with  broad  boule- 
vards, and  a  fair  number  of  handsome  public  buililings,  more 
or  less  cla.ssieal  in  design.  The  royal  palace  and  park,  between 
Lvcabcttus  and   Hadrian's  arch   (184:!),  and  the  university 


to 


(1837)  and  cathedral  (18.>5),  are  the  most  conspicuous  land- 
marks of  Othonian  Athens.  A  collegiate  institute  for  girls 
(Arsakeion),  a  school  of  arts,  the  National  IMuseum,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Parliament  building,  theater,  and 
exposition  building  have  been  added  since.  The  French, 
(iernian,  American,  and  British  archicological  schools,  and 
the  embassies,  are  centers  of  tlu^  considerable  foreign  colony 
in  .\tlieiis.  The  boulevards  are  wi'll  lined  with  attractive 
private  residi'iuesand  club-housesor  hotels,  and  the  town  it- 
self has  quite  lost  itsold-time  Orient alcharacler, except  per- 
ha])S  in  the  quarter  toward  the  north  foot  of  the  Acropolis. 
The  sites  of  ancient  monuments  are  protected  from  en- 
croachment and  guarded.  'I'lie  city  has  mai-adamized  streets, 
street-car  service,  and  three  railway  stations.  It  lacks  seri- 
ous industries  or  commerce,  in  which  jiarticular  it  may  be 
compared  to  Washington.  I).  C.  The  Pira-ns  boasts  a  stock 
exchange  an<l  a  governmental  naval  sc4iool.  It  is  feebly 
fortified.  Population  of  Athens  in  lS8i).  107.2.')1  ;  Pirasus, 
34,327.  See  Biideker's  Greece,  pp.  33-90 ;  K.wvaTavTiiiiii]s, 
'laTopla  Twy  'A8riv7ov  (1876):  Gregorovius,  (rcsc/iiehte  der 
Stadt  Allii'ii  :  Curtius.  iSiadtgescliichte  (1891). 

Alfred  Emerson. 

Athens:  on  railroad:  capital  of  Limestone  co..  .\ la.  (for 
location  of  couiitv.  see  map  of  Alabama,  ret.  1-C);  27  miles 
W.N.  W.  from  ■lliintsville.  On  Sept.  23,  1864,  the  Con- 
federate genei-al  I''orrest.  with  a  largt^  bodv  of  cavalry,  in- 
vested the  town,  held  by  Col.  Campbell  of'tlic  llOth  "U.  S. 
Colored  Troo|is  and  600  men,  and  demande<l  its  surrender, 
which  was  finally  made  just  as  re-enforcenicnts  were  on 
their  way.  The  place  was  again  occupit'd  by  U.  S.  forces, 
and  again  attacked  by  the  Confederate  general  Butord  Oct. 
2-3.  1864.  but  this  time  the  place  was  firmly  held  by  Col. 
Slade.  of  the  Seventv-tliird  Indiaiiii.  and  Buford  repulsed. 
Pop.  (1870)  887;  (1880)  1,011 ;  (1890)  940. 

Athens :  city :  railroad  junction  and  capital  of  Clarke  co., 
Ga.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  2-11) ; 
on  Oconee  river.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Georgia, 
the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  the  Lucy  Cobb  Institute, 
several  other  schools  of  a  high  grade,  and  a  number  of  com- 
mon schools.  It  has  cotton-mills  and  otlier  manufactures, 
electric  lights,  sewers,  a  paid  fire-department,  water-works, 
and  good  streets.  Pop.  (1880)  6,099;  (1890)  8.639;  (189'2)  in- 
cluding suburbs.  12.000  (estimated). 

Managing  Editor  of  "  Banner." 

Athens:  village  (founded  in  1780);  on  W.  S.  R.  R. ;  in 
(ireene  co.,  N.  Y.  (tor  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New 
York.  ref.  6-J):  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Hudson  river, 
opposite  the  city  of  Ilud.son.  It  has  7  churches,  2  grammar 
schools,  3  shipyards,  limestone  quarries,  and  inannfaetories 
of  bricks,  ice-tools,  and  glue.  Pop.  (1880)  2,106  ;  (1890)  2.024; 
(1892)  estimated.  2.300.  Editor  ok  "  News." 

.\thens:  capital  of  Athens  co..  O.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  ( »liio.  ref.  i-ti) :  on  four  railroads  (the  Col.,  Hock. 
V.  jind  Tol..  the  Tol.  and  Ohio  Central.,  the  Kanawha  and 
Alich..  and  the  Baltimore  and  Oliio  Soiitliwestc'rn).  and  on 
the  Ilockhocking  river.  41  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Marietta. 
Here  are  the  Ohio  University,  founded  in  1804.  and  the 
Southeastern  Ohio  asylum  forthe  insane.  Pop.  (1870)  1.696  ; 
(1880)  2,4.57  ;  (1890)  2.620.  Editor  ok  "  Herald." 

Athens  :  on  railroad,  Bradford  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  P-nnsylvania,  ref.  2-0) :  embraces  the 
junction  of  the  North  Branch  of  the  Susquehainia  with  the 
Chcnuing  (once  called  Tioga)  river.  .\thens  wa-s  early 
known  as  "  Tioga."  or  "•  Tioga  Point,"  and  w.-is  the  most  im- 
IKU'taiit  trading-post  in  the  region.  The  borough  is  15 
miles  N.  of  Towanda,  the  eounty-sc>at.  and  4  miles  .S.  from 
Waverlv.  Athens  has  the  oldest  academy  in  the  section. 
Pop.  (1870)  965  :  (1880)  1..592  :  (1890)  3.274.  ' 

Athens:  on  railroad;  capital  of  JlcJIinn  co.,  Tenn.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  7-1) ;  55  miles 
S.  W.  of  Knoxvilie.  II  is  the  seat  of  Gnwil  Memorial  Uni- 
versity (formerly  the  East  Tennessi'C  Weslevan  University). 
Pop.  (1870)  974;  (1880)  1,100  ;  (1890)  2,'224.  ' 

Athens  :  town  on  railroad  :  capital  of  Henderson  co.,  Tex. 
(for  location  of  cminty.  see  mai)  of  Texas,  ref.  3-J);  situated 
in  a  cotton-raising  district.  75  miles  from  Dallas.  The  clay 
industry  is  the  only  business  carried  on.  brick.  Vile,  and  pot- 
tery being  manufactured  here.  Pop.  (1870)  545  ;  (1880)  368 ; 
(1890)  1,035 ;  (1892,  estimated)  1,270. 

Editor  of  "  Review." 

Atheri'na:  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Atherinidm, 
related   to   the    mullel.s.     They  have  a  broad   silvery   bana 


396 


ATHEROSPEKMACEJE 


ATLANTA 


along  each  flank.  The  genus  comprises  many  species  which 
abound  in  both  America  and  in  Europe.  Those  of  the  U.  S. 
coa.>;t  are  called  "silversidos"  and  "  smelf  and  "Pesce  Rev." 
They  aro  good  food-fish  when  not  too  small. 

Atherosperma'ceae  [from  Atheroapenna,  one  of  the  gen- 
era] :  a  natural  order  of  incomplete  aromatic  exogenous 
shrubs  found  in  New  Holland  and  South  America,  remark- 
able for  having  their  flowers  in  a  cup-shaped  involucre,  and 
the  [leculiar  anthers  of  LanracecE. 

Atli'erton,  Joshua:  b.  at  Harvard,  Mass.,  June  20, 1737; 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  1762;  practiced  law,  be- 
came register  of  probate  of  Hillsborough  co.,  N.  U.,  and 
removed  in  1773  to  Amherst,  N.  H. ;  was  for  a  time  a  loyal- 
ist, but  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  U.  S.,  and  was 
admitted  to  practice  in  the  superior  court  in  1779  :  became 
a  member  of  the  convention  to  adopt  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion; was  afterward  elected  to  New  Hampshire  House  of 
Representatives  and  Senate,  and  was  made  attornev-general 
of  the  State  in  1783.     D.  at  Amherst,  N.  H.,  Apr.  3,  1809. 

Ath'lete.  plur.  .\tliletes.  or  Athletae  [from  Gr.  a3\TiTr]s. 
deriv.  cit  a9\ov.  prize  in  a  contest] :  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
a  person  who  contended  for  a  prize  in  public  games  as  a 
wrestler,  pugilist,  or  runner:  a  man  who  competed  for 
honor  or  awards  in  contests  of  physical  strength  or  agility. 

Athletics :  See  Sports,  Rowinq,  etc. 

AtliloiiR  (Atkluhan.  i.  e.  ford  of  the  meon):  a  market- 
town  of  Ireland,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Shannon,  about 
67  miles  W.  of  Dublin  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  9-F) ;  is 
chiefly  in  the  county  of  Westmeath  and  partly  in  Roscom- 
mon. '  It  is  on  the  railway  from  Dublin  to  Galway.  ami 
about  2  miles  S.  of  Lough  Rea.  Athlone  Castle,  built  in 
the  reign  of  King  John,  has  been  converted  into  an  impor- 
tant military  position.     Pop.  6,755. 

Atli'ol :  town  (incorporated  in  1762) ;  Worcester  co.,  Mass. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  3-F) ; 
situated  26  miles  from  the  city  of  Worcester,  at  the  jvmc- 
tion  of  Hoosac  Tunnel  R.  R.  and  B.  and  A.  R.  R.  It  has 
24  public  schools  (including  a  high  school).  8  churches,  and 
other  public  buildings.  Silks,  woolens,  lumber,  wooden- 
ware,  castings,  shoes,  and  many  other  goods  are  manufac- 
tured. Pop.  (1870)  3.517  ;  (1880)  4,307  ;  (1885)  4,758  ;  (1890) 
6,319 ;  (1895)  7.364. 

Editor  of  "  Worcester  West  Chroxicle." 

Atll'ole,  Dukes  of,  and  Marquesses  of  Tullibardine 
(1703),  and  of  Athole  (1676);  Earls  of  Tullibardine  (1606), 
of  Athole  (1629),  and  of  Strathtay  and  Strathardlc  (1703) ; 
Viscounts  of  Balquhidder  (1676),  of  Glenalmond  and  Glen- 
Ivon  (1703):  Barons  Murrav  (1604);  Barons  Bal(|uhidder 
(1606);  Barons  Balvenie  and  tiask  (1676,  in  Sc(.tland); 
Barons  Strange  of  Knocklyn  (1628,  in  England):  Barons 
Percy  (1722,  in  Great  Britain);  Barons  Murray  of  Stan- 
ley (1786,  in  Great  Britain):  Earls  Strange  (1785.  in  (ireat 
Britain);  Lords  Glenlyon  (1821.  in  the  United  Kingdom). 
— lon.v  Jamf.s  Hugh  Henry  Stewart-Murrav.  the  seventh 
duke,  was  born  Aug.  6,  1840,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
1864. 

Atlior.  .\ytlior,  Het-her.  or  Hathor:  an  Egyptian  god- 
dess, till'  daughter  of  Ra,  sup|iosed  to  correspond  to  the 
Aphrodite  of  tin'  (ireeks.  The  cow  was  regarded  as  lirr 
symbol. 

A'tllOS.  Moniit  [calle<l  Ifrtf/fnn  Oros  by  the  modern  Greeks. 
and  Mimte  Santo  by  the  Italians,  both  names  signifying 
holy  mountain]:  a  celebrated  mountain  of  Greece,  at"  the 
extremity  of  llie  ijeiiiiisula  of  Chalcidice,  80  miles  S.  E.  of 
Salonica.  It  rises  abruptly  to  the  height  of  6,350  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  is  cut  in  various  directions  by  deep  ravines, 
which,  covered  with  old  luxuriant  forests,  present  the  most 
striking  natural  scenery.  With  the  mainland  it  is  connected 
only  by  the  narrow  isthmus  through  which  in  olden  times 
Xerxes  dug  a  canal  to  avoid  the  dangerous  navigation  around 
the  promontory.     In  the  Middle  Ages  Mt.  Athos  wa.s  occu- 

f)ied  by  numerous  numasteries  and  was  a  celebrated  seat  of 
earning.  The  origin  of  some  of  those  mona.steries  is  by 
legenil  dated  t)ack  to  the  time  of  Constantine.  In  the  elev- 
enth century  they  numbered  180.  and  exercised  a  decisive 
influence  not  oidy  on  the  ecclesiastical  and  literary,  but  also 
on  the  political,  affairs  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  the  decadence  began.  Nevertheless,  iiere 
were  preserved  the  remains  of  famous  libraries  which  fur- 
nished to  scholars  many  valuable  Greek  manuscripts.  In 
1892  there  were  twentv  mona.steries  containinir  6.000  monks. 


See  A.  A.  Neyrat,  L' Athos  (Paris,  1880);  Athelstan  Riley, 
Athos,  or  the  Mountain  of  the  Monks  (London,  1887). 

At'kiiiS,  John-  D.  C.  :  b.  in  Henry  co.,  Tenn.,  June  4. 
1825 ;  was  educated  at  the  LTniversity  of  East  Tennessee, 
and  graduated  there  in  1846 ;  was  elected  to  the  lower 
branch  of  the  Legislature  in  1849  and  1851.  and  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1855  ;  was  a  presidential  elector  on  the  Bu- 
chanan ticket  in  1856,  and  a  member  of  Congress  from 
Tennessee  from  1857-1861  ;  then  resigned  and  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Confederates,  serving  in  the  field  part  of 
the  time,  as  well  as  in  the  public  councils.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  at  the  time  of  the 
general  surrender  in  1865;  was  again  returned  to  the  Fed- 
eral Congress  1872-74,  and  was  re-elected  to  the  45th,  46th, 
and  47th  Congresses.  He  was  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Ind- 
ian affairs  188.5-88. 

Atkinson,  Edwaru,  Ph.D.,  LL.  D. :  economist  ;  b.  at 
Brookliue.  Mass..  Feb.  10,  1827  ;  educated  in  private  schools 
and  at  Dartmouth  College ;  has  become  widely  known 
through  the  numerous  articles  on  economic  subjects  which 
he  has  contributed  to  current  literature,  covering  the  topics 
of  banking,  competition,  cooking,  tariff  laws,  mechanic  arts, 
and  insurance.  He  organized  a  fire-insurance  company  on 
new  principles,  and  invented  an  improvetl  cooking-stove, 
called  the  "Aladdin  Cooker."'  Auumg  his  longer  works 
are  The  nisfribiilion  of  Products  (New  York,  1885);  The 
Industrial  Progress  of  the  Xation  (1889) ;  ITie  Science  of 
JS'utrition  (1892).         '  C.  H.  Thurber.  " 

Atkinson,  Thomas,  D.  D..  LL.  D.  iCantab.):  third  Bishop 
of  North  Carolina:  b.  in  Dinwiddie  co..  Va.,  Aug.  tj,  1807; 
was  graduated  at  Yale  1825:  ]jractieed  law  for  nine  years: 
was  ordained  deacon  1836  and  priest  1837,  and  served  in 
Norfolk  and  Lynchburg.  Va..  and  Baltiuuire.  Md. ;  was  con- 
secrated 18.53  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.  I'nlilisheil  sermons, 
charges,  and  polemic  pamphlets.  D.  in  Wilmington.  N.  C, 
Jan  4,  1881. 

AtLin'ta  :  capital  of  Georgia  and  of  Fulton  co.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  3-G) ;  situated  1,100  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  a  high  ridge  dividing  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic 
slopes.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  the  State  and  the  chief 
railroad  center  of  the  South.  By  rail  it  is  171  miles  from 
Augusta  and  95  from  Macon,  the  nearest  two  large  cities  in 
the  State. 


state  Capitol.  Atlanta.  Ga. 

In  1845  the  Georgia  and  the  Western  and  Atlantic 
R.  Rs.  were  completed  to  this  )ioint.  Besides  these  roads, 
the  Central,  Richmond  au<l  Danville,  Atlanta  and  West 
Point.  Atlanta  and  Florida,  Georgia  Pacific,  East  Ten- 
nessee, Virginia  and  Georgia,  Marietta  and  North  Georgia, 
and  the  Georgia,  Carolina  an<l  Northern,  all  center  here. 
Atlanta  has  62  miles  of  street-railway  lines,  and  many  miles 
more  under  construction.  The  city  ha.s  no  water-transporta- 
tion, the  Chattahoo<-hce  river  being  7  miles  distant. 

There  are  17  jiuhlie  .schools  (white  and  colored),  with  1.36 
teachers,  and  a  total  attendance  of  7.669.  There  are  located 
here  the  State  Technological  School,  several  colored  uni- 
versities and  seminaries  of  high  standing,  medical  colleges, 
and  a  law  school.  There  are  82  churches  (70  white  and  12 
colored),  2  hospitals,  an  orjihans'  honu'.  an<l  a  Young  Men's 
Library  AsscK'iation. 

Susitiess  Interests. — Atlanta  has  been  a  port  of  delivery 
for  many  years.  The  wholesale  houses  number  217;  banks, 
20  (with  a  capital  and  surplus  of  |;4,532,500) ;  loan  and  build- 
ing associations.  24  ;  manufactories.  fi:i:{,  with  a  capital  of 
.'?16,190.00().   and   employing    15.20S   hands.      There  are  in 


ATLANTA 


ATLANTIS 


391 


operation  :i  lar^'f  fot Ion-factories,  9  furnilure-faetories,  25 
founilries.  maLhine-sliof)S.amla<;iie>iltuial  ini]ilenicnt  works, 
4  cottonseed-oil  mills.  7  fertilizer-factories.  1  •.'las.s-factory, 
and  4  iee-t'aetories.  There  are  23  ne\vspa|iers — three  dailies, 
the  Conalitiition  (morning  paper),  and  the  Jmtrnul  and  the 
Herald  (afternoon  papers).  In  1893  2,01)0  buildings  were 
erected.  The  cotton-trade  for  that  year  amounted  to  270,000 
bales. 

The  first  house  was  built  in  1886.  The  place  was  called 
Terminus  until  184:i,  when  its  name  was  changed  to  Marthas- 
ville,  anil  it  was  incorporated  as  a  town.  In  1S47  it  was  in- 
corporated as  the  city  of  Atlanta.  The  population  was  then 
about  2,")00.  Atlanta  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "  (iate 
City."  .\ccording  to  the  U.S.  census  the  ]iopulalioii  was 
(18^0)  21,78!l :  (IHSO)  ;i7,40!) ;  (1800)  O.").."):!:!.  The  city  direc- 
tory for  1801  showed  a  population  of  !)2.4()0.  aiul  the  esti- 
nuited  population  of  thecity  and  subnrbsin  1802  was  lio.OOO. 

At  the  bc'ginniug  of  the  war  period  the  city  was  growing 
rapidly,  with  a  [iopulation  of  lo.OOO.  The  Confederates 
inaile  it  a  manufacturing  center  and  a  depot  of  supplies. 
The  siege,  begiiudng  with  the  battle  of  .luly  21,  18ti4.  biund 
it  a  eitv  of  80.000  inhabitants.  Sheriuau's  boudiardmcnt 
lasti'd  forty  davs.  and  uuiny  citizens  were  killed  by  the 
shells.  The  Fellerals  captuiVd  the  place  Sept.  2,  and  held 
it  until  the  middle  of  Novemljer,  wlien  they  destroyed  it 
and  started  on  their  "  uuirch  to  the  sea."  (See  Shkrman, 
William  Tkci-mskii.)  Every  building  was  burned,  with  the 
exception  of  about  a  dozen  in  the  center,  and  4o0  dwell- 
ings. After  the  surrender  the  rebuilding  of  the  eitv  was 
very  rapid.  The  new  Capitol  and  the  Equitable  building 
e.ist  !?1,0()0,00(I  eacdi.  A  very  successful  Cotton  States'  Ex- 
position was  held  here  Sept.  18-I)ec.  81,  1805.  The  attend- 
unee  on  some  occasions  exceeded  100,000. 

The  health  record  of  Atlanta  is  very  satisfactory.  The 
mortality  report  for  the  decade  shows  a  death-rale  of  19  in 
1.000  in"  the  gi^neial  population,  but  of  oiUy  12  in  1,000 
whites.  The  climate  is  mild  and  eciuable.  the  mercury  rarely 
rising  to  95    in  Muunier  or  falling  bidow  12'  in  winter. 

Atlanta  has  180  miles  of  streets,  many  of  them  [laved 
with  lielgian  block.  The  buildings  are  of  brick,  granite, 
and  marble,  and  are  of  a  very  substantial  cliaracter.  With- 
in a  ra<Uus  of  15  miles  are  numerous  ]io])nlar  suburbs,  all 
connected  with  thecity  by  numerous aci'onunodation  trains 
and  dummy  or  eleclri<'  lines.  Fort  Mid'herson,  the  army- 
])ost,  is  about  4  miles  distant,  and  steam  and  electric  lines 
connect  it  witli  \\w  city.  For  iiuuiy  miles  around  the  entcr- 
|>rise  of  many  nuirket-gardeners  and  progressive  farmers  has 
<leveloped  the  country,  and  made  it  resemble  the  more 
thickly  settled  portions  of  the  Northeastern  and  Middle 
-States!  Wallace  P.  Kbed. 

Atlanta:  city  and  railroad  junction,  Logan  co.,  III.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  (>-E) ;  89  miles 
N.  N.  E.  from  Springfield.  Atlanta  is  the  trading-jioinl  for 
ji  highly  proiluctive  grain  and  stock  growing  district.  It 
hasone'of  the  larg(^st  and  best  school-buildings  in  Central 
Illinois.     Pop.  (1880)  1,3G8;  (1890)  1,178. 

Editor  of  "Argus." 

.\tlanta :  town ;  Cass  eo.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Texas,  ref.  2-K):  on  Texas  and  Pac.  K.  li.,  28  miles 
Irom  Jelferson,  in  a  lundiering  district.  It  is  a  shipping- 
point  for  cotton.     Po|i.  (1880)  89(5;  (1800)  1,704. 

.■Vtlan'tic:  city;  capital  of  Cass  co.,  la.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Inwa,  ref.'(i-E):  on  the  East  Nishnabotone  river;  79 
miles  W.  by  S.  from  Des  Moines.  Has  numerous  inanufac- 
turing  interests,  including  starch-works,  pork-packing,  soap- 
factorv,  canning-faetorv,  and  two  machine-shops;  a  water- 
works'plant  valued  at  '§100.000,  and  tiiu-  electric-light  aiul 
gas  plants.  Atlaidic  has  four  largo  waril  schools,  and  a  fine 
high-school  building.  Pop.  (1880)  8,002  ;  (1800)  4,851 ;  (1895) 
4,954.  Editok  ok  "  Teleurapu." 

Atlantic  Cable:  See  Cable  (Electric). 

Atlantic  City:  railroad  center  and  fashionable  watering- 
ila<:e.  Atlantic  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
S'ew  .Jersey,  ref.  7-C) ;  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  60  miles  S.  K.  of 
Philadelphia.  Pop. (1880) 5.477;  (1890)18,055;  (1895)18,329. 
The  summer  jiopulation  at  tinU'S  exceeds  100,000.  Forty 
express  trains  run  daily  to  and  from  Philadelphia.  Numer- 
ous hotels  and  boarding-houses  are  open  both  winter  and 
summer,  ^vith  moilern  facilities  for  sea-water  bathing.  The 
town  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has  electric  street-cars. 
A  plank-walk  exte'nding  4  miles  aUuig  the  ocean-front  is  a 
special  feature.    IJoating  and  fishing  fiuiilities  are  unexcelled. 


^ 


The  public  seliools  emi>loy  forty-six  teachers,  and  are  first 
class.  There  are  good  churches  of  several  leading  denomi- 
nations. Editor  op  "  Daily  Union." 

Atlantic  Ocean :  that  part  of  the  acrueous  envelope  of 
the  earth  which  separates  America  from  Euroi)e  and  Africa. 
Where  it  ad.joins  other  oceans  its  boundaries  are  indefinite, 
and  geograjihers  have  arljitrarily  assigned  them  various 
positions,  tiood  usage  seiiarates  it  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
at  the  north  by  lines  from  Northern  Labrador  to  Greenland 
and  from  (ireenland  to  Iceland  and  Southern  Norway;  and 
separates  it  from  the  Southern  Ocean  by  a  line  .joining  the 
southern  extremities  of  America  and  Africa.  In  common 
parlance  the  term  includes  ojien  bays,  such  as  the  Hay  of 
iJiscavand  the  (iulf  of  (iuinea.but  does  not  include  the  tiulf 
of  St."  Lawrence,  the  (iulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the 
Mediterraiu^an  ami  Black  Seas,  and  the  N<u-th  and  Baltic 
Seas,  all  of  which  are  landlocked  dependencies.  With  the 
addition  of  these  dependencies  the  Atlantic  has  an  extent  of 
30.000,000  S(i.  miles,  nearly  oiu'-fourth  the  water  area  of  the 
globe;  without  them  its  area  is  about  27,000.000  si],  miles, 
and  its  mean  depth  2,220  fathoms.  The  length  of  the  At- 
lantic from  north  to  south  is  7,500  miles,  and  its  . average 
width  3,000  miles.  5Iidway  it  is  constricted  to  about  1,800 
miles  by  the  ajiproach  of  the  eastern  angle  of  South  America 
to  the  prominence  of  the  African  coast  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  The  great  lobes  thus  separated  are  nearly  equal  in 
area  and  depth, and  are  called  the  North  Atlantic  and  South 
Atlantic  Oceans. 

Topoyraphy  of  Bed. — With  small  exception  the  conti- 
nental coasts  of  the  Atlantic  are  margined  by  liroad  shoals, 
deep  water  beginning  somc;\vhat  abruptly  at  a  distance  of 
several  hundred  miles.  These  shoals,  sometimes  called  the 
continental  shelves,  are  broadest  on  the  Auu'rican  side. 
Their  greatest  development  at  the  north  is  called  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland.  15etween  the  continental  shelves  the 
bottom  exhibits  a  diversity  of  configuration  comparable 
with  the  greater  features  of  a  continental  area.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  North  Atlantic,  from  Great  Britain  to 
Labrador,  the  bottom  lies  at  moderate  depth,  and  has  been 
called  the  Telegraphic  plateau.  An  irregular  jilateau  ex- 
tends thence  southward  to  the  Azores,  and  then  southwest- 
ward,  and  afterward  northwestward  to  Bermuda,  traversing 
the  middle  of  the  ocean.  A  great  trough,  from  2.000  to 
3.000  fathoms  deep,  lies  east  of  it,  and  extends  to  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  where  it  is  joined  by  another  great  trough,  mar- 
gining North  America  from  Newfoundland  to  Florida  and 
thence  skirling  the  West  Indies.  The  deejiest  sounding  of 
the  .\tlantic.  4.561  fathoms,  \vas  obtained  a  few  miles  N.  of 
Porto  Kico  island.  The  S<mth  Atlantic  is  traversed  midway 
from  N.  to  S.  by  a  submerged  plateau,  from  which  spring 
St.  Paul,  Ascension,  and  Tristan  de  Cunha  islands.  A  broad 
trough,  2.500  to  3,000  fathoms  deep,  follows  the  African 
coast,  and  a  less  regular  trough  the  coast  of  South  America. 

Circiiliifimi. — The  easterly  trade-winds  of  the  inter-trop- 
ical region  drive  tin-  surface  water  of  the  ocean  westward, 
the  westerly  winds  of  middle  latitudes  drive  the  water  east- 
ward, and  there  results  in  each  oceanic  lobe  a  great  circular 
movement.  In  the  North  Atlantic  the  circulation  is  from 
left  to  right  ;  in  the  South  Atlantic  from  right  to  left.  By 
the  configuration  of  the  bottom  the  rate  of  movement  is 
locally  accelerated,  and  currents  are  produced  to  which 
individual  names  are  given.  Of  this  class  are  the  Guiaiut 
current,  the  (it'Li'  Stkeam  ((/■'■•).  the  North  African  current, 
the  Brazil  current,  and  the  South  African  current.  The 
Greenland  current  follows  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  south- 
ward; the  Labrador  current  also  moves  southward;  the 
Arctic  current,  formed  by  their  combination,  follows  the 
east  coast  of  the  LT.  S.,  and'  finally  disappears  under  the  Gulf 
Stream.  The  (Guinea  current,  an  eddy  or  back-water  (Mirrent 
of  the  equatorial  current,  follows  the  Guinea  coast  easl\yard. 
Near  the  middle  of  each  oceanic  lobe  is  a  great  tract  without 
definite  or  continuous  current.  In  the  North  Atlantic  it  is 
characterized  by  the  abundance  of  floating  seaweed,  and  is 
called  the  Sargasso  Sea.     See  also  Ocean. 

References. —  Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake,  Alexander 
Agassiz:  The  Depths  of  the  Sea,  Wpille  Thompson. 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Atlantic  Telegrapll :  See  Telegraph. 

Atlan'tides  (in  Gr.  ■AtAoi't(5cs)  :  in  classic  mythology,  the 
daughters  of  Atlas.  They  were  also  called  llesperides,  Ple- 
iades, and  Ilyades.     See  Hesperides. 

Atlan'tis:  a  large  island  which,  according  to  an  ancient 
tradition  that  was  credited  by  the  Greek  geogi-aphers,  was 


398 


ATLAS 


ATOMIZATION 


situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  W.  of  Africa,  Just  over  against 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  In  reality,  this  was  a  great  conti- 
nent, larger  in  extent  than  Libya  and  Asia  put  together, 
and  yet  it  was  only  the  passage  to  another  continent,  for 
which  the  Mediterranean  was  notliing  but  a  simple  harbor. 
One  of  the  earliest  writers  who  mentions  Atlantis  is  Plato, 
who,  in  his  dialogue  Tinueus.  states  that  an  Egyptian  priest 
gave  Solon  a  description  of  it.  Plato  gives  a  beautiful  pic- 
ture of  this  island,  to  which  he  adds  a  fabulous  history. 
Nine  thousand  years  before  the  time  of  Plato,  Atlantis  was 
(so  the  legend  "ran)  populous  and  powerful,  and  conquered 
the  western  part  of  Europe  and  Africa.  At  one  time  its 
■whole  power  was  arrayed  against  the  nations  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean,  ai'id  ev'ery  nation  gave  way  for  the  tre- 
mendous force  of  the  invaders,  except  alone  the  Athenians. 
Though  abandoned  by  all,  tlie  Athenians  fought  bravely  and 
were  victorious.  The  gods  finally  came  to  the  rescue  of  the 
earth.  An  earthcpiake  afterward  caused  the  whole  island 
to  sink  in  the  ocean.  Tliis  is  the  explanation  of  tlie  shal- 
lows which  are  found  in  tliat  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  or, 
at  least,  said  to  be  found  there.  See  Rudbeck,  Athtntica  (4 
vols.,  16T.5-98);  Bailly, -Le/Zrc*-  sur  I'Atlan  de  Plafoii;  and 
C'arli,  Leitres  Ami'ricaines. 

At'Las  (in  Gr.'ATXos):  a  mythical  personage,  said  to  be  a 
sou  of  Japetus  and  t'lyniene,  and  a  brother  of  Prometheus. 
He  was  represented  by  the  ancient  Greek  legends  as  a  leader 
of  the  Titans  in  the  war  against  .Jupiter,  for  which  offense 
he  was  condemned  to  support  the  vault  of  heaven  on  his 
head  or  slioulders.  According  to  some  Avriters  who  have 
rationalized  the  myth,  he  was  a  king  who  acquired  great 
skill  in  astronomy. 

Atlas :  in  anatomy,  the  first  cervical  vertebra ;  the  piece 
of  the  vertebral  column  nearest  to  the  skull.  It  forms,  with 
the  occipital  bone,  tlic  joint  on  which  the  head  moves  in 
bowing.  It  turns  on  the  pivot  of  the  second  cervical  verte- 
bra, the  '■  axis,"  when  we  look  from  side  to  side. 

Atlas  [so  called  because  some  early  collections  of  maps 
had  prefixed  a  picture  of  Atlas  upholding  the  sphere] :  a 
volume  containing  a  collection  of  maps,  usually  including 
more  or  less  descriptive  letterpress.  The  name  was  probably 
first  applied  as  the  proper  title  of  such  a  book  by  Gerard 
Mercator  (1.513-94)  to  his  Atlas,  published  in  the  year  of  his 
death.  Among  the  best  atlases  are  the  works  of  Stieler  (in 
German,  French,  Swedish,  Finnish,  Italian,  etc.),  of  Menke, 
Spruner,  Berghaus,  Sydow,  Andrees,  and  others,  illustrating 
not  only  geography  proper,  but  history,  ethnogi-aphy,  geol- 
ogy, astronomy,  botany,  and  otlier  sciences;  the  works  of 
A.  K.  Johnston,  Black.  Bartholomew,  .Stanford,  and  numer- 
ous others  in  Great  Britain ;  and  of  Colton.  Morse,  Bradley. 
Johnson,  Rand,  JlcXally  &  Co.,  and  D.  Appletou  &  Co.,  and 
nuany  others  in  the  U.  S. 

Atlas  Mountains:  a  mountain-system  of  Africa;  mostly 
in  Morocco  and  Algeria;  extends  from  Cape  Gher  on  the 
Atlantic  to  Cape  Bon  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  a  conge- 
ries of  mountains,  sometimes  isolated  and  sometimes  con- 
nected, with  many  irregular  branches.  The  system  is  di- 
vided into  the  Greater  and  the  Lesser  Atlas,  the  latter  of 
which  is  nearer  to  the  Jlediterranean.  The  highest  point  of 
the  system  is  in  Jlorocco,  and  is  estimated  at  13.000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Mt.  MiUsin  rises  to  11,400  feet.  Numerous 
metals  are  found  in  these  mountains. 

Atmonipter  [from  Gr.  drfids,  vapor  +  /ifTpov.  measure] : 
a  hollow  ball  of  porous  eartlicnware  joined  with  a  graduated 
glass  tube,  used  for  nu'asuring  amount  of  evaporation.  The 
ball  and  tube  being  filled  with  water  and  e.xpo.sed  to  the  free 
action  of  the  air,  the  extent  to  which  the  water  transuiles 
through  the  porous  material  and  is  removed  by  evaporation 
is  measured  on  the  tube.  The  instrument  was  invented  by 
Sir  John  L(^slie. 

Atniospliprc  [from  Gr.  4t^<{j,  vapor  +  o-i^arpo,  sphere] :  the 

envelope  of  aeriform  fluid  which  surrounds  and  rests  upon 
the  earth,  iinil  in  wliich  we  live,  move,  and  have  our  being, 
or  any  similar  envelope  surrounding  a  heavenly  body. 

In  chemical  composition  the  atmosphc^re  surrounding  the 
earth  is  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  pro|)ortion, 
by  measure,  of  21  (larts  oxygen  and  70  parts  nitrogen.  It 
also  contains  about  4  parts  in  10.000  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
usually  some  impurities,  which  vary  from  place  to  place, 
arising  from  loeal  cau.ses.  .Vmoiig  these  are  ammonia  and 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  To  ordinary  observation  it  seems 
so  light  as  to  be  almost  immaterial,  as  is  evinced  by  the 
phrase  "as  light  as  air";  yet  13  cubic  feet  weigh  a  pound, 


and  a  single  large  room  therefore  contains  more  than  an 
ordinary  man  could  lift.  The  weight  of  the  whole  mass  is 
such  that  it  presses  on  every  square  inch  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face with  a  weight  which  averages  14-7  lb.  The  entire 
mass  of  the  whole  atmosphere  may  be  found  by  multiplying 
this  quantity  by  the  number  of  scpuire  inches  on  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth;  the  result  is  that  the  entire  weight,  in 
tons,  would  require  sixteen  digits  for  its  expression.  In 
round  numbers  we  might  say  that  it  is  five  thousand  millions 
of  millions  of  tons.  This  mass  is  such  that  the  comlnistion 
of  all  the  coal  which  has  been  mined  in  a  century,  or  is  likely 
to  be  mined  for  centuries  to  come,  woidd  not  appreciably 
increase  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air. 

To  the  ordinary  vision  air  is  invisible,  and  therefore  does 
not  reflect  light.  But  the  light  of  the  blue  sky  can  be  noth- 
ing but  light  reflected  from  the  great  mass  of  atmosphere 
above  our  heads;  and  the  glow  of  the  evening  twilight  can 
also  arise  from  nothing  but  reflected  suidight.  But  dust 
and  other  impurities  nuiy  play  an  important  jiart  in  the  re- 
flection of  light. 

The  height  to  which  the  atmosphere  extends  has  not  been 
definitely  fixed.  The  phenomena  of  twilight  show  that  it 
certainly  does  not  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun  at  a  height 
greater  than  45  miles ;  perhaps  not  even  at  a  height  so  great 
as  this.  But  observations  on  meteors  show  that  it  really 
extends  to  a  height  of  at  least  100  miles,  and  indeed,  at  that 
height,  is  sufficiently  dense  to  cause  the  raiiid  combustion 
of  a  meteor  passing  through  it.  Observations  on  the  aurora 
lead  at  least  to  a  suspicion  that  this  phenomenon  sometimes 
takes  place  at  a  height  of  three,  four,  or  five  hundred  miles. 
We  can  hardly  suppose  it  to  occur  in  an  absolute  vactmm ; 
though  it  would  be  unsafe  to  infer  from  this  that  the  medium 
in  which  it  occurs  is  an  extension  of  the  atmosphere  proper. 

For  fuller  details  of  the  physical  piroperties  of  air,  see 
Aroi'.STics,  Barometer,  and  Pneumatics;  also  Climate,  Cy- 
clone, Meteorology.  Storm,  Winds,  etc.        S.  Xewcomb. 

Atmospheric  Electrfcity  :  See  Lightning. 

Atoll,  or  Atoln  :  a  low.  circular  reef  of  coral,  inclosing 
a  lagoon,  which  in  many  instances  communicates  with  the 
ocean  by  a  luirrow  inlet,  or  by  more  than  one.  See  C'orai, 
Islands. 

At'oni  [from  Gr.  Sto/jos,  indivisible:  a-,  not  +  -ro/ios  (re/i- 
vfiv).  cut] :  a  minute,  indivisil)le  particle  of  matter.  Ac- 
cording to  one  theory  of  speculative  philosophy,  matter  is 
infinitely  divisible.  On  the  other  hand,  chemists  maintain 
that  all  matter  consists  of  particles  which  do  not  suffer  de- 
composition, whatever  chemical  influences  the  matter  may 
be  subjected  to.  They  believe  that  all  the  atoms  of  each  ele- 
ment have  the  same  weight  and  form,  but  the  atoms  of  dif- 
ferent elements  have  unequal  weights.  This  conception  is 
based  u|ion  a  very  thorough  study  of  an  immense  number 
of  chemical  ])henomena,  which  can  be  satisfactorily  inter- 
preted only  by  its  aid.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  old 
metai)hysical  discussion  as  to  the  question  whether  matter 
is  or  is  not  infinitely  divisible — a  question  which  it  is  hardly 
profitpble  to  discuss  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge. 
See  AT0.MIC  Weights,  Chemistry,  Moleitles,  and  Stereo- 
chemistry. Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Atomicity:  See  Chemistry-. 

Atomic  Theory:  See  Chemistry. 

Atom'ic  Weights,  or  Cliem'ical  Eqiiiv'alents:  the  pro- 
portions by  weight  in  which  chemical  elements  unite.  One 
element  must  be  selected  as  the  starting-point  of  the  series, 
and  an  arbitrary  value  affixed  to  it,  and  thereafter  .all  the 
other  elements  can  have  their  values  awarded  to  them  ac- 
cording to  the  proportional  amounts  in  which  they  combine. 
It  can  lie  demonstrated  that  a  given  amount  of  one  element 
is  e(iulvalent  to,  and  serves  the  saine  purpose  in  combining 
with,  a  second  element  as  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  a  third 
substance.  Hydrogen  is  taken  as  Land  all  the  other  ele- 
ments are  represented  by  a  quantity  which  is  the  minimum 
amount  in  which  they" unite  vvitli  1  of  hydrogen.  For  a 
table  of  the  atomic  weights,  see  Chemistry'. 

Atomiza'lion:  in  practical  medicine,  the  very  minute 
subdivision  of  liquids  for  inhalation  or  application  to  the 
throat.  It  was  first  introduced  in  Prance  by  Sales-Girons. 
It  is  effected  by  forcing  a  fine  jet  of  liquid  against  either  a 
solid  body  or  a  strong  current  of  air,  so  as  to  convert  it  into 
diffused  spray.  Bergson,  for  instance.  ap|ilied  to  this  use 
the  tubes  used  as  odorators  to  spread  perfumed  liquids 
through  the  air.  Two  glass  tubes  with  minute  orifices  are 
fixed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  that  the  end  of  the 


ATOXEMEXT 


399 


upright  tulio  is  ncir  anil  opposite  to  tlip  contpr  of  the  orifice 
of  the  hiiriziiiital  t\il>c.  The  upiifiht  tube  beins  placed  in 
the  li(|iii<l  to  lie  iitciniized.  air  is  forcibly  blown  thnnij;h  tlic 
horizontal  one.  The  current  of  air  passing  over  the  outlet 
of  the  uprishl  lube  rarefies  the  air  in  the  latter,  caiisin;;  a 
rise  of  the  jiquiil  Ihrough  it.  and  its  very  niiiuite  subdivision 
(atonnzation.nebulization.  pulverization)  as  it  escapes.  Siegle 
has  applied  steam-power,  generated  by  the  lieat  of  a  spirit- 
lamp,  to  the  ]iropu!sion  of  vapor  for  atomization.  Hiehard- 
son's  hand-ball  spray-proilueer  is  a  simpler  apparatus,  con- 
structed essentially  u|ion  the  same  principle.  One  of  its 
uses  is.  bv  the  ra|iid  evaporation  of  ether  or  rhigolene.  to 
produce  a  great  degree  of  cold  for  local  aniesthesia  (i.  e.  to 
annul  sensibility  in  a  part  for  a  surgical  operation). 

Atonenieiit :  I.  The  Word. — The  English  word  is  de- 
rived from  •' at-one-ment."  and  its  earlier  signification  whs 
"reconciliation."  .\t  ]irc>sent  it  is  universally  used  in  the 
sense  of  ••  satisfaction  for  an  nfTense."  "expiation."  In  the 
authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible  the  word  occurs  only 
once  in  the  S'ew  Testament  (Rom.  v.  11).  and  there  repre- 
sents KaToWarfq.  "  reeonciliation."  In  the  Old  Testament  it 
occurs  frequently,  translating  nSS,  to  "cover  with  sacri- 
ficial blood,"  and  hence  to  "expiate,"  to  "appease,"  to 
"  purge  away."  The  biblical  equivalent  of  the  word  in  the 
Old  Testament  i^  D'"I33,  "expiation."  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment :  (1)  As  it  respects  God,  i\iaK«reai.  to  "  propitiate " 
(I  .John  ii.  2  and  iv.  10);  (2)  a.s  it  respects  sin.  to  "expiate" 
(Ileb.  ii.  11);  (U)  as  it  respects  the  sinner.  070^0^*11'.  to  "  re- 
deem" (bv  blood.  Rev.  V.  9),  and  \uTpoovv,  to  "ransom  by 
substitution  "  (1  Pet,  i.  18;  1  Tim.  ii.  6). 

II.  Tni;  DorTRiNE.  1.  Patristic. — The  biblical  view  above 
presented  has  always  prevailed  in  the  Church  as  the  basis 
of  religious  experience.  It  was,  however,  but  inqierfectly 
discriminated  as  a  logical  conception  by  the  early  teachers. 
From  an  exaggerated  conception  of  the  independence  and 
power  of  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  many  of  the  Fathers,  as 
Irena'us,  Origen,  and  even  Augustine  and  Jerome,  etc., 
founded  on  such  texts  as  Col,  ii.  15  and  Heb.  ii.  14  the  notion 
that  Christ  by  his  sufferings  rendered  satisfaction  to  Satan, 
who  had  aci|uired  rights  of  conquest  over  the  human  race. 

2.  The,  An-idmic. — The  doctrine  which  was  from  the  be- 
ginning the  living  principle  of  the  devotional  writings  of 
all  Church  teachers  and  of  all  liturgies  and  hymns,  and 
which  since  his  time  has  been  taught  in  the  anthm-ized 
creeds  of  all  sections  of  the  Church,  was  first  svstematically 
unfolded  by  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ( 10n;)-l  109). 
in  his  tract.  Cur  Dens  Homo,  lie  teaches  that  the  essential 
moral  perfection  of  the  divine  luiture.  which  is  immutable, 
necessarily  demands  the  punishment  of  sin — that  sin  is  an 
intrinsii-  and  infinite  evil.  The  law  is  consecjuently  unre- 
laxable,  and  the  [)enalty  must  be  executed  u[ion  the  sinner 
unless  a  substitute  (1)  personally  free  of  all  legal  demands 
and  (2)  of  sullicient  dignity  is  willing  to  be  punished  in  his 
stead.  This  condition  is  answered  only  by  a  I'erson  at  once 
divine  and  human — i.  e.  a  divine  Person  who  has  assumed 
a  human  nalure.  Christ  made  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
men  by  vicariously  suffering  the  legal  penalty  of  death  to 
which  they  were  condemned,  and  thus  expiated  the  guilt  of 
sin  and  |iropitiated  the  justice  of  (lod. 

(1)  This  wa.s  in  substance  taught  from  the  beginning. 
Athanasius  (d.  :i7;i).  Cnntra  AriaiifiK,  i.  60.  etc.:  "Laden 
with  guilt,  the  world  was  condemne<l  of  law,  but  the  Logos 
assumed  the  condemnation,  and  suffering  in  the  flesh  gave 
salvation  to  all."  Auirustine  (d.  430).  iJc.  /V.  J/er.,  i.  56 ; 
Gregory  (he  (ireat  (d.  604).  Mor.  in.  Job.  17:  46. 

(2)  The  same  doctrine  is  taught  in  the  standards  of  the 
Roman  and  the  orthodox  Greek  Churches,  Cone.  Trent.,  sess. 
6,  c.  7:  ".lesus  Christ,  who  when  we  were  enemies  merited 
justification  for  us  by  his  mo.st  sacred  passion  on  the  tree, 
and  satisfied  God  the  Father  for  us."  Cat.  Horn.,  ii.  5,  63; 
()rllt(}tlii.r  Conf.  of  Apos.  East.  Church,  by  Petrus  Mogilas 
(A.  n.  1642);  Winer.  |i.  85. 

(3)  The  saiu(!  doctrine  is  taught  in  the  confessions,  lit- 
urgies, and  hymns  of  every  branch  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches:  Formula  t'o/icordiVp  (Lutheran) ;  Ilasc, 
Eibri  Si/>iilii)lici,  p.  684;  Heidelberg  Cat.,  Ques.  60;  Second 
Jfelntic  ('iinf..ch.  15;  Gallic  Coiif..  avi.  18;  Belgic  Conf., 
art.  22 ;  Westminster  Conf.,  ch.  8,  S  5  ;  Liturgji  and  Articles 
of  the  Church  of  England,  art.  28,  art.  31 :  "The  offering 
of  Christ,  once  made,  is  that  perfect  re<lemption,  pro[)itia- 
tion,  and  satisfaction  for  all  the  sins  of  the  whole  world 
both  original  and  actual." 


3.  Abelard  (d.  1142)  first  systematically  developed  what 
ha.s  since  been  known  as  the  '^  moral  influence  theory  of  the 
atonement."  He  regards  the  love  of  (iod  as  the  sole  princi- 
ple determining  him  in  his  provision  of  redemption  for  sin- 
ners. All  that  God's  nature  or  will  requires  of  a  sinner  as 
prerequisite  to  forgiveness  anil  happiness  is  repentance  and 
reformation.  As  rebellious  men  are  obstinately  intfisposed 
to  this  repentance,  and  are  afraid  to  trust  his  favor,  God  by 
his  alliance  with  human  nature  in  Christ,  and  by  his  surren- 
der of  him  to  death,  makes  such  an  exhibition  of  his  love 
for  man  as  awakens  man's  love  fur  and  trust  in  him,  and  so 
disposes  man  to  repentance.  This  view  is  essentially  the 
doctrine  of  the  Socinians  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Racoi-ian 
Cat.)  and  of  modern  Unitarians,  and  of  such  Trinitarians  as 
Maurice,  .Jowett,  and  Bushnell. 

4.  The  "governmental  theory  of  (he  aloneuient  "  was  first 
propounded  by  Hugo  Grotius  (d.  1(545)  in  his  work  against 
the  Socinians,"  Defensio  Fiilei  Catholic<B  de  Satisfactione 
Christi.  He  taught  that  the  moral  law  under  which  men 
are  held,  including  precept  and  penalty,  is  a  positive  prod- 
uct of  tlie  divine  will.  The  right  of  waiving  or  relaxing 
its  dcman<ls  is  therefore  an  element  of  God's  prerogative  as 
moral  sovereign.  But  since  this  gratuitous  remission  of  the 
penalty  in  ciuse  of  some  sinners  would  weaken  the  motives 
restraining  the  sul)jects  of  the  divine  government  in  general 
from  disolieilience.  by  affording  an  examjile  of  impunity, 
the  lit.NKVoLEXci-;  of  God  requires  that  he  sliould  make  such 
an  e.ram/j/e  of  s\iffering  in  Christ  as  will  indubitably  ex- 
hibit his  determination  not  to  allow  .sin  to  pass  in  any  case 
without  signal  marks  of  his  displeasure.  This  doctrine  has 
never  been  accepted  by  any  historical  Church  as  an  adequate 
rationale  of  the  atonement,  nor  has  i(  been  embodied  in  any 
creed,  but  it  has  lieen  fre(|Uently  adopted  by  several  schools 
of  thecilogians — e.  g.  tlie  supernal uralists  of  the  last  age  in 
(iermanv,  as  Stiiudlin,  Flatt.  an<l  Storr,  and  in  America 
Jonathaii  Edsvards,  .Ir.,  Smalley,  Maxey,  Dwight,  Emmons, 
and  Park. 

5.  The  "  mystical  theory,"  which,  existing  in  various 
forms,  may  be'gencrally  stated  thus:  That  the  reconciliation 
effected  Viy  Christ  is  brought  aliout  by  the  mysterious  union 
of  God  and  man  accomplished  by  the  incarnation,  and  not 
by  his  sacrificial  death.  This  was  held  liy  the  Platonizing 
Fathers,  by  followers  of  Scotus  Erigena  during  the  Jliddle 
Ages,  by  Osiander  and  Schw-enkfeld  at  the  Reformation, 
and  by  the  school  of  Schleiermacher  among  modern  German 
theologians.  See  Prof.  Edwards  A.  Viirk's  Atonement ;  Dr. 
Shedd's  m.'if.  of  Christ.  Doctrine ;  Ritschl's  Ilist.  of  Doc.  of 
lieconcil.;  Schaff's  Jlisf.  Chr.  Ch.;  Watson's  Institutes; 
Winer's  Comp.  of  Docs,  of  Christendom  ;  Outram,  De  Sac; 
Ilase.  Libri  Symbol.;  Xiemeyer.  CwWcc.  Conf.;  the  recent 
works  on  the  Atonement  liv  Thomas  .1.  Crawford  (Edin- 
burgh. 1871;  2d  cd.  1874)  and  R,  W.  Dale  (Loiulon,  1875; 
9th  ed.  1883).  A.  A.  Hodge. 

AtonnnPlit:  A  statement  of  the  Rom.an  C.\tholic  Doc- 
TKiNi;.  1.  Sin  is  an  offense  against  God;  it  deprives  the 
soul  of  the  friendship  of  (iod,  makes  it  the  slave  of  the 
devil,  anil  is  deserving  of  punishment.  (Council  of  Trent, 
scs.sion  vi.  c.  1;  also  Colossians  i.  13;  ib.  ii.  14.)  2.  All 
men  siniu'd  in  Adam.  (Romans  v.  12.)  3.  In  strict  justice, 
(jod  could  have  refused  forever  to  pardon  fallen  man.  In 
his  mercy,  he  cmdd  have  ])ardoned  sin  by  a  mere  act  of  his 
free  willvvithout  any  satisfaction  from  man,  but  directly  on 
man's  simple  repentance  and  purpose  of  amendment.  The 
contrary  opinion  limits  the  free  will  and  the  infinite  mercy 
and  power  of  God.  Vet  the  ordinary  condition  for  the  re- 
mission of  sin  is  that  the  sinner  should  nuike  reparation  for 
the  sin.  God  may  be  content  with  an  incomplete  repara- 
tion, or  he  may  demand  a  complete,  rigorous  reparation 
equal  to  the  offense.  This  is  what  God  demanded.  4.  Such 
reparation  could  be  given  only  by  a  num,  for  man  had 
sinned.  At  the  same  time  it  could  be  given  only  by  God; 
for.  the  offense  being  infinite,  only  an  infinite  person  cindd 
repair  it.  Hence  no  one  but  a  person  at  once  God  and  man, 
the  God-man  .lesus  Christ,  could  give  adeipuite  satisfaction 
for  sin.  Hence,  too,  the  incarnation  of  Christ  was  necessary 
only  hypothetically.  5.  The  Son  of  God  became  man  to 
sal  isfy  for  us,  and  instead  of  us.  He  is  the  natural  mediator 
between  God  and  man.  By  his  incarnation  he  is  our  great 
High  Priest.  6.  As  priest  he  could  satisfy  the  justice  of  God 
tor  us  liy  any  expiatory  act  of  his  life.  But  he  chose  to  do 
.so  by  the  most  [lerfect  act.  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  life  on  the 
cross.  7.  By  his  sacrifice  Jesus  Christ  has  redeemed  the 
whole  human  race,  and  freed  man  from  the  slavery  of  the 


400 


ATRATO 


devil.  Christ's  sacrifice  was  (ifferod  to  God  the  Futlier. 
••Jesus  Clirist,  when  we  were  enemies,  merited  justification 
for  us  by  his  most  sacred  passion  on  the  cross,  and  satisfied 
God  tlic" Father  for  us."  (Roman  Catechism.)  8.  The  fruit 
of  Christ's  sacrifice  is  applied  to  each  of  us  by  sacraments, 
sacrifices,  good  works,  etc.  9.  The  satisfaction  of  Clu-ist 
was  free,  as  all  grace  is  free.  It  was  vicarious.  It  was  in- 
finitely meritorious— i.  e.  of  miliraited  inherent  dignity  and 
value."  It  was  superabundant — i.  e.  sutficient  for  the  salva- 
tion of  all  men.  It  was  universal— i.  e.  offered  for  all 
men.  10.  From  what  is  said  above  it  follows:  (1)  That  the 
atonement  does  not  consist  merely  in  the  effect  produced 
on  the  hearts  of  men  by  the  doctrines,  character,  examiilo, 
life  of  Christ :  nor  (-3)  merely  in  the  hypostatic  union  of  the 
two  natures,  the  human  and'the  divine,  in  one  person:  nor 
(3)  merely  in  the  fact  that  Christ  taught  the  truth  and 
sealed  his  teaching  with  his  blood;  nor  (4)  merely  that  he 
nuiiiifested  by  his  death  his  .self-sacrificing  love ;  nor  (5) 
merely  that  he  died  a  martyr.  It  is  something  more.  These 
opinions,  held  by  some  outside  the  Church,  entirely  omit 
what  is  essential  to  the  atonement,  i.  e.  the  fact  that  Christ  as 
Priest  offered  himself  as  victim  to  satisfy  the  justice  of  God 
the  Father  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  See  H.  N.  Oxenham, 
Doctrine  of  tlie  Atonement  (London,  1865.  1869,  and  1881). 

John  J.  Kea.ne. 

Atra'to:  a  river  of  South  America:  in  republic  of  Co- 
lombia; rises  near  the  Cordillera,  flows  northward  through 
Cauca,  and  after  a  course  of  about  •^SO  miles  (185  navigable) 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Darien  by  several  moiiths.  It  traverses  a 
region  rich  in  gold.  In  1857  the  Government  of  the  U.  S. 
sent  an  expedition  to  explore  a  route  for  a  ship-canal  from 
the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific.  In  18T0-T'J  the  explorations  under 
Capt.  Selfridge,  U.  S.  navy,  were  resumed,  and  all  the  routes 
between  Panama  and  the  Atrato  examined,  with  results  far 
from  realizing  the  hopes  entertained  of  a  favorable  route. 

A'treus  (in  Gr.  'Arpeis) :  an  ancient  and  celebrated  King 
of  MyceniP;  was  called  a  son  of  Pelops.  He  was  the  father 
of  tlie  famous  Atridw — i.  c.  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus. 
The  story  of  Atreus  and  his  family  was  embellished  by  the 
ancient  fabulists  and  tragic  poets  with  many  wild  legends, 
involving  horrible  crimes  and  calamities. 

Atri'des  (in  Gr.  "ATpefSris),  plural  Atridse  (in  Gr.  'ATpcTSoi) : 

a  patronymic  from  Atreiix;  sigiufles  a  son  or  descendant  of 
Atreus.  The  name  in  the  singular  is  more  usually  applied 
to  Agamemnon,  but  the  plural  is  used  to  designate  the  two 
brotliers,  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus. 

A'triiliii  [Lat.,  a  court,  a  hall] :  in  Roman  architecture, 
an  entrance-liall  or  central  apartment,  which  was  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  a  private  house.  In  this  room  the  faniily  lived 
and  took  tlieir  meals.  Here  stood  the  Lares  and  Penates, 
and  here  the  female  servants  were  employed  in  weaving 
and  other  labors.  The  atrium  was  also  used  as  a  waiting- 
room  for  clients  ami  other  visitors.  In  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture the  term  denotes  an  open  space  before  a  church, 
forming  part  of  the  narthex  or  ante-temple. 

At'roi)inp,  or  Atro'pia:  a  peculiar  alkaline  principle 
obtained  from  the  Altiipii  (jef/adonna;  is  very  poisonous. 
It  (exists  in  all  parts  of  the  plant.  A  very  minute  |)ortion 
of  it  has  the  power  to  dilate  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  Atropine 
is  composed  of  carbon,  70'98;  oxygen,  16'36;  hydrogen, 
7-83;  and  nitrogen,  4-83. 

.4  trophy  [from  Gr.  a-,not  -I-  TpE(^eii»,  nourish,  feed]:  wast- 
ing or  decrease  in  size  of  parts  of  the  body.  This  occurs 
nornuilly  at  advanced  age:  also  in  the  uterus  after  jireg- 
nancy,  and  in  the  thynnis  gland  in  early  life.  Atrophy  is  to 
be  distiTiguished  from  /ii//m/t/<isia,  a  condition  in  which  full 
developnu'ut  has  never  been  reached. 

Attacai>iin  Indians:  a  numerous  family  of  North  Anu'ri- 
can  Iniliaus  who  inhabited  the  district  of  Louisiana,  still 
popularly  styled  the  ••  Old  Altacapa  country"  or  '•Tuckapa 
country."  whicli  incliiilcd  Die  |)arishes  of  Louisiana  between 
the  Red,  Sabine,  and  Vermilion  rivers  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico;  also  some  adjoining  counties  of  Texas,  Very  little 
beyond  fragments  of  its  language  is  now  known  of  the 
faniily,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  language  is  distinct  from 
all  others, except  jiossibly  the  Chitimachan.  The  knowledge 
of  it  possessivl  by  Gallatin  was  derived  from  a  vocaliu.lai'y 
and  some  scanty  inl'orriiation  furnished  in  18(15.  More  was 
obtained  in  1885  by  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  from  a  few 
survivors  in  Calcasieu  Parish.  La.  The  Coco  and  Iliyeketi 
are  the  only  tribes  of  this  linguistic  family  the  names  of 


ATTAINDER 

which  are  identified.  The  Attacapa  were  mentioned  by 
Penicaut  in  his  account  of  the  exploration  ordered  by  M.  de 
Bienville  in  1703.  The  name  Attacapa  is  derived  from  a 
Choctaw  woril  meaning  "  man-eater,"  and  is  merely  a  term 
of  obloquy  devised  liy  enemies  and  never  adopted  by  the 
family  itself;  but  they  have  never  appeared  historically 
under  any  other  except  the  two  trilial  names  mentioned 
above.  lii  the  early  colonial  period  the  name  was  also  ap- 
plied to  several  Texan  tribes  accused  of  anthropophagy, 
with  rather  moi-e  evidence  than  can  be  produced  against 
other  North  American  Indians,  but  which  is  by  no  means 
conclusive.     See  Indians  of  North  Amkrica. 

Garrick  Mallery. 

Attac'li'ment  [from  Old  Fr.  atfncliement  <  a-  (L.  ad-)  to 
-I-  a  verb  from  the  same  root  as  E.  laclc,  a  nail] :  the  ap- 
prehension of  a  person  or  seizure  of  a  thing  liy  virtue  of  a 
writ  or  order  issued  by  a  court  or  judge  under  authority  of 
law.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  process 
itself.  In  respect  to  property,  the  terra  is  usually  applied 
to  seizure  on  mesne  process.  Attachment  was  originally 
one  of  the  common-law  means  of  obtaining  an  appearance 
in  an  action  by  the  defendant.  In  some  of  the  States  a  plain- 
tiff can  at  the  commencement  of  any  action  to  recover  money 
attach  the  projierty  of  the  defendant  as  a  security  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  judginent  expected  to  be  recovered  ;  and  in  case 
of  recovery  the  jiroperty  is  to  be  applied  in  satisfaction  of 
the  judgment.  But  the  more  usual  rule  is  that  there  can 
be  lio  seizure  of  jiroperty,  except  in  specified  cases,  till  the 
rights  of  the  jiartics  have  been  settled  by  judgment  of  the 
court.  The  exceptions  are  chiefly  in  eases  where  the  defend- 
ant is  a  non-resident  or  a  fraudulent  debtor,  or  is  attempting 
to  conceal  or  remove  his  property  for  the  purpose  of  defraud- 
ing or  delaying  his  creditors.  An  attachment  is  said  to  be 
foreign  where  a  creditor  attaches  property  in  the  hands  of  a 
third  person  belonging  to  his  debtor,  or  a  delit  due  from 
a  third  person  to  such  debtor.  The  name  is  said  to  arise 
from  the  fact  that  the  proceeding  is  often  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  collecting  a  debt  against  a  non-resident. 
In  some  of  the  Eastern  States  this  proceeding  is  called 
'•  trustee-process " ;  in  other  States  it  is  generally  known 
as  "garnishment,"  meaning  a  warning.  Foreign  attach- 
ment was  derived  from  local  customs  in  London  and  other 
cities,  and  formed  no  part  of  the  general  law  of  England. 

Attacliment  is  issued  against  the  olticers  of  the  court  for 
any  misconduct  or  neglect  of  duty,  and  against  any  person 
wlio  has  been  guilty  of  contempt  of  court.  The  object  of 
the  attachment  is  to  bring  the  guilty  party  actually  before 
the  court.  lie  has  then  an  opportunity  to  show  cause  why 
he  should  not  be  found  guilty,  or,  in  legal  langinige,  to 
'•  purge  himself  of  the  contempt."  If  he  can  not  do  this  he 
is  subject  to  such  punishment  as  the  law  jicrmits  and  the 
court  inay  award.  T.  W.  DwionT. 

Attain'der  [subst.  use  of  0.  Fr.  niaindre.  touch,  accuse 
<  Lat.  altin'gcre,  touch.  The  meaning  '•stain"  is  due  to 
false  association  with  Fr.  taindre  <  Lat.  tin'guere,  dye] : 
in  law,  the  extinction  of  civil  rights  as  the  consequence  of 
a  judicial  sentence  of  death  for  a  capital  crime,  trom  this 
moment  the  criminal  was  deemed  to  be  legally  dead,  inca- 
pal.ile  of  bringing  an  action,  cxce]it  to  reverse  the  attainder, 
or  of  appearing  in  court  as  a  witness.  Its  two  most  impor- 
tant consequences  are  forfeiture  and  cornqition  of  blood. 
The  effect  of  forfeiture  upon  the  offender's  land  was  such 
that  it  related  back  to  the  time  of  the  commission  of  the 
offense,  and  avoided  intermediate  sales,  even  to  purchasers 
in  good  faith.  The  consequence  of  cornqition  of  blood  was 
that  the  person  attainted  was  incapable  of  inlieriting  himself 
or  of  ti'ansMiitting  an  estate  by  inheritance  to  another.  Thus 
if  a  grandfather  owned  land,  and  a  son  were  attainted,  his 
descendant  could  not  inherit  from  the  grandfather,  even 
though  the  son  were  dead  when  the  land  passed  from  the 
graiidralher.  This  harsh  rule  is  now  modified  in  F^ngland 
liy  statute.  Forfeiture,  except  in  cases  (d'  treason  and  niur- 
di'r,  does  not  extend  in  the  I'ase  of  estates  of  land  beyond 
the  mdural  life  of  the  offender.  I5y  tlie  U.  S.  Constitution 
no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corrujition  of  blood  or 
forfeiture,  exceiit  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 
In  case  of  reliellion  the  V.  S.  might  regard  the  rebels  either 
as  belligerents  or  traitors.  In  the  former  asjiect  of  the  case 
they  would  not  be  bound  liy  the  restriction  ,iust  referred  to, 
but  might,  under  the  rules  of  |iublic  law  applicable  to  a 
state  of  war,  confiscate  their  property.  If,  however,  they 
wei-e  treated  as  subjects  and  as  guilty  of  treason,  the  re- 
striction of  the  C'onstitution  would  become  operative. 


ATTAKAPAS 


ATTICA 


401 


Attakn|)as,  iit-tuk  a-paw:  a  larpe  and  fertile  district  in 
the  soutlK-rn  ])art  of  Ijouisiana.  cdmprisintr,  aecordinj;  to 
(ilil  iiiaps.  Sfvcnd  parislics.  It  produces  larire  ipiaiilllies  of 
siifcaraiid  molasses.  'riiinis;li  often  used  in  eunversution,  the 
name  has  no  legal  existence. 

Atta'Ica :  a  genus  of  palm-trees  including  about  twenty 
species,  native  of  tropical  South  America  and  tlie  West  Incf- 
ies.  The  leaves  are  pinnate  witli  a  inuch-conipressed  prin- 
cipal raehis  and  droopini^  pinnules.  The  pistil  of  the  flowers 
is  tricarpelhiry,  and  ttie  fruit,  a  smooth  berry  or  drupe, 
generally  contains  throe  edible  seeds.  Some  species  are 
of  much  economic  interest — e.  g.  A.  fniiifera,  the  I'iassabe 
or  Coipiilla  palm  of  Brazil,  which  yields  fil)er  and  "(.'(Hpiilla 
nuts,"  and  .1.  rnhnne,  the  Cohune  palm  of  Ilondurius,  whose 
seeds  yield  a  valuable  oil.    See  Palm  Family.        (J.  E.  B. 

Attal'la:  town;  Ktowah  co.,  Ala.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  .\lal)ama,  ref.  2-0);  on  L.  and  N.,  10.  T.  Va.  and 
tt..  and  t^ueen  and  Crescent  R.  Rs. :  at  southern  extremity  of 
Lookout  .Mounlain.oK  miles  from  BirminLrham  ;  has  excellent 
public  schools  for  white  and  colored  children.  .)  churches 
(3  white  and  'i  colored),  water-works,  idcctric  li;;hls,  charcoal- 
furnace,  anil  several  iron  and  steel  works.  In  the  surround- 
ing region,  which  is  favorable  to  agriculture,  are  line  iron- 
ore  deposits.  Attalla  has  a  large  cotton-trade,  and  in  the 
shipnu'iit  of  iron  is  the  second  pLice  in  the  State.  Pop. 
(1880)  ;3ol ;  (IHitO)  1,254;  (1893)  estimated,  1,T0I). 

Editor  ok  "  IIerai-d." 

At'tallis  I. :  King  of  Pergamus ;  b.  269  B.  c.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  cousin,  Eumenes  I.,  in  241  B.C.,  defeated  the 
Gauls  who  had  occupied  Galatia.  and  became  an  idly  of  the 
Romans  in  a  war  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  lie  was  re- 
puted a  wise  ruler  and  able  general.     D.  in  197. 

Attains  II.,  surnaincd  Philadki.phi'S  :  b.  210  ».<■.;  was 
the  second  sou  of  .\ttalus  I.  He  succeeded  his  brollu'r, 
Eumenes  II..  in  l.")!*  it.  c,  was  a  constant  ally  of  the  Romans, 
and  |iatripnizecl  ails  and  sciences.     D.  in  138. 

At'tainaii.  or  liol'man:  the  title  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
t'os.sacks,  formerly  elected  by  the  people.  (Si«  Cossacks.) 
After  the  revolt  of  Mazeppa  the  office  was  suppressed  by 
the  Cziir  of  Russia  vmtil  17.50.  Catherine  II.  abolished  the 
office  among  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine;  among  those  of 
the  Don  it  still  exists,  but  its  prerogatives  have  been  great- 
ly reduced.  Tin-  hcir-apjiarent  of  the  Russian  crown  is 
principal  altaman  of  the  Cossacks. 

.\t'far  of  Rn'ses  [from  Pers.  atar,  loan-word  from  Arab. 
(7;-,  [H'rlume]:  lla;  oil  or  essence  of  Rosa  cfnti folia  and  its 
varieties,  Ji'oxa  damiixcena  and  Ro^n  moxrliatd.  It  is  pre- 
parcil  by  distillation  of  the  petals  in  Persia,  India,  and 
other  Eastern  countries,  whence  it  is  exported  in  small 
vials.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is  often  adulterated  :  100,000 
roses,  from  10,000  bushes,  are  said  to  yield  but  ISO  grains 
of  attar.  It  is  often  called  otto  of  roses.  That  of  Adriau- 
ople  is  called  the  best.  In  1887  25  acres  were  planted  with 
roses  near  Leipzig,  Germ.any,  for  the  purpose  of  manufac- 
turing the  attar.  In  the  first  year  about  4  lb.  of  the  oil  and 
6,000  lb.  of  rose-water  were  obtained.  From  1,000  ll>.  of 
rose-leaves  1  lb.  of  oil  was  obtained.  luA  Rkmskx. 

Atfenlioii:  See  Psychology. 

At'tcrboiii.PKTKRDAN'iKL  Amadei's:  b.  at  Asbo.  in  South- 
ern Sweilen,  .Ian.  19,  1790;  studied  (1805)  at  the  University 
of  Upsala  languages  and  literature,  history  and  philosophy; 
traveled  in  Uermauy  and  Italy  1817-19;  was  tutor  to  the 
Crown  Prince  Oscar  181!l-21,  and  was  appointed  docent  in 
1821  and  professor  in  1828  at  the  University  of  Upsala, 
where  he  died  July  21,  185.5.  In  1807  he  formed  the  liter- 
ary association  Aiirora,  ami  in  1810  he  founded  the  critical 
periodical  I'/irhiplinrox;  iind  it  was  t  lirough  these  two  insti- 
tutions that  the  French  or  ]iseudo-classical  taste  which 
reigned  in  all  Swedish  literature  and  art  received  its  first 
and  its  heaviest  blows.  The  romantic  ideas  which  started 
this  whole  movement  were  afterward  developed  by  Atter- 
bom  in  a  long  series  of  brilliant  ^writings,  poetical  and  his- 
torico-critical — Lyckxalighelens  0  (3  vols..  1824-27);  Sam- 
lade  Diklir  (2  vols.,  18:!(i-37);  Svenska  mare  ock  sktilder  (6 
vols.,  1841-55);  and  Roexiens  liistoria  (4  vols.,  18ti2);  but 
the  form  of  the  romantic  school  reprcsentcil  by  Atterbom 
did  not  become  the  model  of  modern  Swedish  poetry. 

At'terlmry.  Francis  :  English  prelate,  writer,  and  poli- 
tician; b.  at  Middleton-Kevnes,  in  Buckinghamshire.  Alar. 
6,  16()2.     He  entered  Christ  Church,  Uxford,  in  1«80,  t(K)k 
holy  orders  in   1687,  and  became  lecturer  ill   St.  Bride's 
26 


church,  London,  in  1691.  Having  gained  distinction  as  a 
pulpit  orator,  he  was  appointed  a  chaplain  to  the  king.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  witty  but  superficial  Examiiialinn  of 
Dr.  Rciiflri/'s  Dixsertdlions  on  the  Rpixths  of  R/ialans, 
which  appi'are<l  under  the  name  of  Charles  Boyle,  his  pupil, 
in  1098.  He  was  a  .Jacobite  in  politics,  and  a  zealous  dc- 
feiulcr  of  High  Church  d(H'trines.  He  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Quivn  Anne  in  1702,  Dean  of  Carlisle  in  1704,  and 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1713.  His  turbulent  and  imjierious 
temper  several  tiiucs  involved  him  in  difficulties,  .■md  his 
hopes  of  pi<iinotioii  were  blasted  by  the  death  of  t^ueen 
Anne  in  1714.  He  was  a  friend  of  Pope,  Swift,  and  Boling- 
brok<'.  In  Aug.,  1722,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  on  a 
charge  of  treason  as  an  accomplice  in  plots  for  tlie  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuarts.  He  was  convicted  by  the  House  of 
Lords  in  Jlay,  1723.  and  wji-s  condemned  to  jierpetual  ban- 
ishment. He  became  a  resident  of  Paris,  where  he  died 
Feb.  15,  1732.  Four  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published 
in  1740.  His  reputation  as  a  writer  is  founded  on  his  ser- 
mons and  letters,  which  have  great  literary  merits.  .See  liis 
Epixtolarij  Correxpondi'nee  (5  vols.,  London,  1783-90),  ed- 
ited bv  J.  Nichols ;  3I<fiioirx  and  Correxjiundeiice,  compiled 
by  F.  ^Villlalus  (2  vols..  1869). 

Aftcrbiiry,  William  Wallace.  D.D.  :  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, distinguished  as  a  leader  in  the  Sabbat h-rcforni  move- 
ment;  born  of  honorable  Huguenot  parentage  at  Newark, 
N.  .1..  Aug.  4.  1823.  At  Yale  he  took  the  courses  in  arts 
and  in  theology,  and  a  j.artial  course  in  law.  He  was  pas- 
tor to  Presbyterian  churches  in  Lansing,  Mich.,  six  years, 
and  in  Madison,  Ind..  twelve  years.  In  1869  he  succeeded 
the  Rev.  Pliili])  .Schalf  as  secretary  of  the  New  York  Sab- 
bath Committee,  and  has  .since  devoted  him.self  to  that 
work,  traveling,  preaching,  lecturing,  and  writing  for  the 
press.  His  honorarv  degree  was  given  him  by  the  Univer- 
sity of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1888.  "     W.  J.  B. 

Attfleld.  John.  M.  A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R..S. :  chemist  ami  phar- 
macist;  b.  ,\ug.  28, 1835.  in  Ili'rtfonlshiie.  Kngland  ;  studied 
in  the  Pharmaceutical  Society's  School  1853-54.  and  was 
first  prizeman  in  all  subjei'ts;  Demonstrator  of  Chemistry 
at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  1854-62;  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Practical  Chemistry  in  the  Pharmaceutical  Soci- 
ety's School  1862,  where  he  is  now  (1893)  senior  professor 
and  dean.  His  chief  work  is  A  3/aniial  of  (in'miafry, 
(ji-)ii-ritl,  Jfi'dical.  and  R/iarmaciutical,  of  which  thirteen 
large  editiiuis  have  been  imblished.  C.  H.  TlUKiiKR. 

Attic  [from  Lat.  alticiix.  ])ertaining  to  Attica;  (ir.  'Atti- 
k6s]  :  pertaining  to  or  characteristic  of  ancient  Athens,  or  its 
people,  language,  literature,  etc.  In  architecture  an  iittic 
base  is  a  form  of  base  employed  in  the  Ionic  ami  sometimes 
in  the  Corinthian  ordi'r,  and  consists  of  two  tonises  sepa- 
rated by  a  Scotia,  and  resting  upon  a  square  plinth.  An 
af/ic  .ttori/,  or,  more  briefly,  an  al/ic.  is  a  subordinate  story 
introduced  into  the  uppermost  frieze  or  imuuHliately  below 
the  architrave,  or  added  above  the  iilain  eonii(e.  It  is  of 
less  height  than  the  other  stories,  and  usually  has  small, 
square,  oval,  w  horizontally  oblong  windows.  The  attic  is 
a  feature  of  freiiuent  occurrence  in  the  Italian  palaces,  es- 
pecially of  Rome,  Vicenza,  and  Venice.  Attic  irit  and  Attic 
xrilf  signify  a  j:oignant  and  delicate  wit  specially  character- 
istic of  the  Athenians.  A.  D.  F.  Ha.mlix. 

At'tica[in  (ir. 'Attikii]:  astateof  ancient  Greece;  bounded 
N.  by  Bo'otia,  K.  by  the  yEgean  Sea.  S.  W.  by  the  Saronicus 
Sinus,  and  W.  by  Mcgai'is.  It  occupied  a  liiaugular  penin- 
sula, at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  which  is  the  promontory  of 
Suniuin.  A  range  of  hills  called  Mt.  Citlacron  extends 
along  the  northern  border.  Tlie  surface  is  diversified  by 
Limestone  hills  and  plains,  the  soil  of  which  is  light  and 
unproductive.  About  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Athens  rises  Mt. 
Pentelicus,  which  has  an  altitude  of  3,884  feet,  and  contains 
inexhaustible  quarries  of  w- lute  marble  of  a  sujierior  (pial- 
ity.  Among  tlie  jn-ominent  physical  features  of  the  coun- 
try are  Mt.  Hymeltiis.  about  3.500  feet  high,  and  Mt.  Lau- 
rium,  whose  silver  mines  have  again  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. The  principal  streams  are  the  Cephissus  and  llis- 
sus,  which  flow  southwestward  into  the  Saronic  (inlf.  The 
climate  is  dry  and  extremely  pleasant.  The  chief  produc- 
tions are  wlu^at,  olives,  figs,  and  grapes.  Rich  silver  mines 
were  worked  at  Lauriuiu.  Attica  was  very  advantageously 
situated  for  commerce,  and  was  at  one  time  the  greatest 
maritime  power  of  the  world.  The  iieople  of  Attica,  who 
belonged  to  the  Ionic  division  of  the  llelleuic  race,  planted 
colonies  in  various  distant  lands.  I'he  region  which  they 
colonized  on  tlie  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  was  called 


402 


ATTICA 


ATWATER 


loniii.  The  capital  of  Attica  was  Athens  (Athena"),  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica  were  citizens  of  Athens,  possessing 
the  riglit  to  assemble  in  tlie  cafiital,  and  take  part  in  the 
legislative  and  jndicial  proceeilings.  The  ancient  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  oOO.UOU.  the  majority  of  whom  were 
slaves.  iVIodcrn  Attica  is  deficient  in  forest  trees,  and  pre- 
sents an  arid  and  rather  desolate  aspect,  except  in  sprmg. 
(For  the  history  of  Attica,  see  Athens.)  Attica  and  BcEo- 
TIA  form  a  department  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece, 
comprising  Jlegaris  and  the  islands  of  Egina  and  Salamis. 
It  has  an  area  of  3.47'i  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is  less  fertile  than 
it  was  in  ancient  times,  and  is  not  well  cultivated.  Imt  it 
still  produces  olives,  grapes,  and  some  wheat.  Pop.  (18t<!)) 
257,764 

Attica:  city  and  railroad  junction.  Fountain  co..  Ind.  (for 
lorati<in  of  ciaintv.  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  6-B);  on  the 
Wabash  n.  K.  and  river;  21  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Lafayette: 
has  various  manufactures.     Top.  (1880)  2,150:  (1890)  3,:320. 

Attica:  village  and  raih-oad  junction;  on  Erie,  N.  Y. 
Central,  and  Buffalo,  Attica  and  Arcade  R.  Ks. ;  Wyoming 
CO.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Ycirk,  ref. 
5-D):  31  miles  E.  of  Buffalo;  is  located  in  an  agricultural 
district.     Pop.  (1880)  1,935  ;  (1890)  1,994. 

At'ticus:  b.  at  Sebaste,  Armenia:  went  to  Constantino- 
ple :  liecame  a  presbyter ;  was  a  leader  in  the  conspiracy 
against  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  testi- 
fied against  him  in  the  sytiod.  Atticiis  was,  after  some 
months  of  intrigue,  elected  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  JIar., 
406.  and  held  that  office  till  his  death,  Oct.  10,  426.  Pope 
Innocent  I.  refused  at  first  to  recognize  him  as  patriarch. 
Atticus  declined  for  a  long  time  to  put  the  name  of  Chrys- 
ostom on  the  diptyehs  of  the  Church. 

AtticilS.  Titus  Pomponius:  an  accomplished  Roman  of 
the  equestrian  order ;  b.  in  109  B.  0.  During  the  war  between 
Sulla  and  Marius  lie  remained  neutral,  and  passed  many 
years  (86-65)  in  Athens,  to  which  city  he  rendered  important 
services.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero,  whose  letters 
to  him  are  still  extant.  Having  returned  to  Rome  in  65  B.  c, 
he  declined  to  take  part  in  political  affairs,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  moderation,  generosity,  and  mediatorial  spirit. 
He  was  on  friendly  terms  with  the  leaders  of  both  parties 
that  divided  the  Romans.  He  wrote,  beside  other  books,  an 
epitome  of  Roman  history  called  Annalis,  but  all  his  works 
are  lost.  His  dauglil  er  was  the  wife  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa. 
the  eminent  statesman.  [).  in  32  b.  c.  See  Corn.  Nepos,  Life 
of  Atticus ;  Hilllemann,  Dialyilie  in.  T.  Poinponium  Atticum 
(1838);  Boissier,  Ciciron  et  ses  amis  (Paris,  1884). 

At'tila  [Gr.  'hrriXa^:  Ger.  Et'zel  or  At'zel :  Hung.  Etiiele]  : 
a  famous  barbaric  eoni[uer(U-  and  King  of  the  Huns:  was  a 
son  of  Mundzuc  (or  Mundzuccus).  lie  succeeded  his  uncle 
Ruas  as  King  of  the  Huns  in  434  a.  d.,  his  subjects  being 
nomadic  hordes  who  occupied  Pannonia  and  Sarmatia.  He 
extended  his  dominion  by  conquest  over  Germany  and  Scyth- 
ia,  and  obtained  the  sin'uame  of  The  Scourge  ok  God. 
The  Vandals.  (Jstrogoths,  and  Gc)iiihe  fought  tinder  his  ban- 
ner. In  447  he  invaded  the  Rninan  i'iii]iii'e  of  the  East,  and 
defeated  the  armies  of  Tlieodosius  II.,  who  obtained  peace 
(448)  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute  of  2.100  lb.  of 
gold,  after  tlie  Huns  had  devastated  Thrace  and  Macedonia. 
Marcian,  who  succeeded  Theodosius  II.  in  450  A.  D.,  refused 
to  pay  tril)ute  to  Attila,  saying,  "  I  have  gold  for  my  friends 
and  iron  for  my  enemies."  In  451  A.  D.  Attila  invaded  Gaul 
with  an  army  estimated  at  700.000  men,  and  besieged  Orleans 
(Aun'li(tnuiti),  which  was  relieved  by  the  approach  of  a  Ro- 
man army  commanded  by  Aetius.  Attila  retired  to  Cliam- 
[)agne.  and  awaited  the  enemy  on  the  Catalaunian  jilain, 
near  the  site  now  occupied  liy  Chalons-sur-Marne.  Here  he 
was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  by  the  combined  armies  of 
Aetius  an<l  TheodoricKingof  the  Vi.sigoths.  in  .Iune.451  A.n. 
It  is  staled  that  2.50,000  men  or  more  were  killed  in  this  battle. 
.Attila  then  retired  into  (iermany.  In  4.53  he  led  an  army 
into  Xorlhern  Italy,  whirli  he  ravaged,  and  threatened  Koine. 
Tlie  Kmperor  Videntinian  HI.,  unable  to  defend  his  capital, 
invokcMl  the  mediation  of  Piqie  Leo  L,  who  had  an  interview 
with  Attil.'i,  and  persuaded  him  to  grant  the  Romans  a  truce. 
Attila  retired  from  Italy,  and  died  in  Pannonia  in  453  A.  D.. 
on  the  nigfit  after  his  marriage  with  Ildico.  He  was  buried 
by  night,  and  the  prisoners  wlio  dug  his  grave  were  killed, 
in  order  llial  the  plac<>  of  liis  burial  might  be  kept  secret. 
He  had  two  sons,  named  EUac  and  Hengezic.  lie  is  de- 
scribed as  short,  somewhat  misshapen,  with  broad  shoulders, 
a  large  head,  flat  nose,  an<l  small,  deei)set  and  singularly 


piercing  eyes.     See  Jornandes,  De  Rebus  Geticis :  Amedee 
Thierry,  Histoire  d' Attila  et  ses  successeurs  (Paris,  1864  ;  6th 
ed.  1884). 
Attius:  See  Accius. 

At'tleboroug'li :  Bristol  co.,  Mass.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  5-1) ;  on  Old  Colony  R.  R.,  12 
miles  from  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  30  S.  S.  W.  of  Boston  ;  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  jewelry,  calicoes,  clocks,  metal, 
buttons,  braids,  and  straw  bonnets.  Pop.  of  townshi])  (1880) 
11.111;  (1890)  7.577;  (1895)8,288;  North  Attleborough  hav- 
ing been  set  ofi  as  a  separate  town  sulisequent  to  1885,  when 
Attleborough  had  a  population  of  13.175. 

Attor'ney  [0.  Fr.  atonte.  past  partic.  of  atourner.  assign, 
i.  e.  one  assigned  to  a  function] :  one  who  acts  for  or  on  be- 
half of  another.  Attorneys  are  of  two  kinds — in  fact  and  at 
law.  An  attorney  in  fact  is  an  agent,  thougli  the  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  one  who  is  authorized  to  act  for  another 
Viy  a  writing  called  a  power  of  attorney.  An  attorney  at  law 
is  one  who  is  authorized  by  law  to  act  in  the  place  of  another 
in  the  management  or  conduct  of  law  proceedings.  In  Eng- 
land the  term  is  employed  to  denote  a  class  of  legal  prac- 
titioners whose  duties  are  preliminary  to  those  of  the  bar- 
rister, who  conducts  the  cause  in  court.  An  attorney  is  ad- 
mitted there  after  a  prescribed  term  of  study,  on  passing 
an  examination  directed  by  the  court.  Barristers  come  to 
the  bar  through  the  action  of  voluntary  .societies  of  lawyers 
which  have  existed  for  several  centuries.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
same  person  is  in  general  admitted  both  as  counselor  (an- 
swering to  barrister)  and  attorney,  and  examined  in  the  same 
manner  and  under  the  same  authority  as  to  his  qualifications 
to  |iertorm  both  classes  of  duties.  An  attorney  is  an  officer 
of  the  court,  and  liable  to  be  punished  for  a  breach  of  duty, 
and  in  aggravated  cases  to  have  his  name  stricken  from  the 
roll,  and  thus  lose  his  right  to  practice.  His  duties  to  his 
client  require  the  exercise  of  reasonable  cai-e.  He  is  respon- 
sible for  negligence  or  willful  default  whereby  his  client  sus- 
tains loss ;  for  example,  for  the  disclosure  by  him  of  con- 
fidential communications.  He  is  entitled  to  compensation, 
and  has  a  lien  upon  his  client's  papers  or  securities  in  Ids 
possession,  and  upon  any  judgment  obtained  through  his 
exertions. 

Attoriiey-General :  an  officer  in  England  whose  duty  it 
is  to  prosecute  for  the  king  in  criminal  matters,  and  to  man- 
age civil  actions  or  proceedings  where  his  revenue  or  other 
jiroperty  is  concerned,  as  well  as  to  enforce  public  rights. 
The  U.  S.  and  the  respective  States  have  a  public  officer  of 
the  .same  name,  with  similar  duties. 

Attorney.  Power  of:  See  Power  of  Attor.ney. 

Atlrae'tioii  [Lat.  attractio ;  ad,  to  -I-  tra'here,  draw]  :  the 
tendency  of  bodies  to  approach  each  other  and  unite;  the 
force  wliich  brings  bodies  together  and  resists  their  separa- 
tion. The  principal  kinds  of  attraction  are — the  attraction 
of  gravitation  (see  Gratitatiox)  :  capillary  attraction  :  chem- 
ic'al  attraction  (see  Affinity);  the  attraction  of  cohesion, 
which  unites  the  particles  of  a  body,  and  operates  only  be- 
tween two  portions  of  matter  tliat  are  in  contact;  and  mag- 
netic attraction  (see  Magnetism).  These  attractions  are  di- 
visible into  two  classes — 1,  those  which  act  at  sensible  and 
measurable 'distances,  as  gravitation  and  magnetic  attrac- 
tion ;  and  2,  those  which  extend  only  to  extremely  small  or 
insensible  distances,  as  chemical  attraction  and  the  attrac- 
tion of  cohesion. 

Attraction  of  Mountains. — In  1774  ]\[askelyne  made  an 
experiment  on  the  mountain  Schehallion,  in  Perthshire,  to 
ascertain  the  attraction  of  mountains.  This  and  subsequent 
experiments  have  established  the  fact  that  mountains  are 
capable  of  |irodiicing  sensible  deflections  of  the  plumb-lines 
of  astronomical  instruments. 

At'tiicks.  Chispus:  a  mulatto  or  half-breed  Indian  \yho 
was  the  leader  of  the  mob  which  attacked  the  liritish  troops 
in  Boston.  i\l.ar.  5,  1770.  Attucks  and  a  number  of  others 
were  killed  in  tliis  affray,  which  \vas  called  "the  Boston 
Jlassacre."  It  was  the  outcouu!  of  several  previous  quar- 
rels lietween  the  peo))le  and  the  soldiery,  and  served  to  in- 
cite reviilutiouary  feeling  among  the  peoiile.  A  monument 
to  him  was  dedicated  in  Boston,  Nov.  14,  1888. 

Attwood,  George  :  See  Atwood,  George. 

Atwater,  Lvmax  llorcnKiss,  P.  D.,  LL.  D. :  b.  at  Hamden, 
Conn..  Feb.  23.  1813:  graduated  at  Yale  in  1831;  tutor  and 
theological  student  at  Yale  (1833-3.5) ;  pastor  of  First  Con- 
gregational church  in  Fairfield,  Conn.  (1835-54);  became  in 


ATW'ATKU 


AUBLET 


U.'i 


1854  Professor  of  Mcntiil  uml  Moral  Pliilosopliy  at  Prince- 
ton, X.  J.  In  ISO!)  the  ilcpiutnient  of  Kconomics  and  Poli- 
tics was  ffivcn  to  liini.  anil  from  that  time  he  was  Professor 
of  Ijo<^ic,  Jletaphysics,  Ethics,  Economics,  and  Political 
Science.  Uo.  was  an  editor  of  the  I'rincffoii  Jii-rinv,  18(i!)- 
78.  He  published  a  Manual  of  Elrmenluri/  Luyic  (Pliila.. 
1807).     I),  at  Princeton,  Eeb.  17,  1883. 

AtHiltiT,  Wii.iiLB  Olix  :  agriculturist ;  b.  at  .Tohnsburgh, 
N.  Y..  May  ;J.  1844;  sraduated  as  A.B.  at  Wesley  an  Uni- 
versity in  18fi"i  and  as  Ph.  D.  at  Yale  in  18(;<):  studied  for 
two  years  in  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  and  else- 
where in  Germany;  became  Professor  of  CluMnistry  in  East 
Tennessee  Uliivei'sity  and  in  the  Maine  State  College,  and 
lias  occn|)icd  the  like  position  in  Wesleyan  University  since 
1873.  lie  was  director  of  the  first  agricultural  experiment 
station  in  the  U.  S.,  the  work  of  which  was  done  in  1875-77 
In  the  chemical  laboratory  of  Wesleyan  Univei'sity.  When 
the  exiieriment  station  enterprise  was  matlc  national  by  the 
establishment  of  stations  throughout  the  U.  S.  under  act  of 
Congress,  and  the  oflice  of  experiment  stations  was  organ- 
izt'd  in  1888  as  a  central  bureau  in  connection  with  the  U.  S. 
Departnu'iit  of  Agriculture,  ho  was  made  the  first  director 
of  the  office,  and  is  still  associated  with  it.  lie  is  also  di- 
rector of  the  Storrs  (Connecticut)  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.  His  specialty  is  biological  and  agricultural  chem- 
istry. Of  his  publications,  the  articles  in  the  American 
Chemical  Journal;  Report  of  flie  Vniteil  States  Fiah  Com- 
misxion;  Annates  lie  Chemie  et  de  Pli  i/xirjue :  (,'omptes 
liemtiis  of  the  French  Academy  of  .Sciences;  Zeitschrift 
fur  Jiioloi/ie;  Beric/ite  der  Deiit-ichen  Oheniixclien  Oeselt- 
scluift ;  and  Landwirthschaftliche  Jahrlmrher  have  the 
uK)st  scientific  interest.  Those  in  the  Century  Magazine, 
are  doubtless  better  known  to  the  general  public  than  any 
others. 

Atwill.  Edward  Robert,  D.  I). :  first  Bishop  of  West  Mis- 
souri;  b.  at  Bed  Hook,  X.  Y.,  .Jan.  18,  1840;  graduated  at 
Columbia  College  1862,  and  at  tlu>  (ietieral  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1804;  ordained  deacon  ISfil,  and  priest  1805.  He 
served  in  the  dioceses  of  Xew  York,  Vermonl.and  Ohio,  and 
was  consecrated  Oct.  14,  1890.  He  has  published  sermons 
and  addresses,  and  a  tract  on  confirmation.  W.  S.  P. 

At'wood.  George,  F.  R.  S.  :  English  mathematician;  b.  in 
r.oudim  in  1740.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College.  Cam- 
bridge, where  lie  lectured  on  natural  philosophy.  He  pub- 
lished a  Treatise  on  the  Rectilinear  Motion  and  Rotation  of 
Bodies  (Xl^A) ;  a  Dissertation  on  t/ie  Construction  of  Arches 
(1801).  and  other  works.  (See  A'lwoou's  MAriiiNK.)  I),  at 
Westminster,  .luly,  1807. 

Atwtiod's  Machino;  a  machine  invented  by  George  At- 
wood  to  douKiiisi  rail'  the  laws  of  uniformly  accH'lcrated  mo- 
tion, and  illustrate  the  relations  of  time,  space,  a?id  motion 
in  the  case  of  a  body  falling  under  the  action  of  gravitation. 
This  machine  is  so  constructed,  by  means  of  pulleys  and 
wliiM'ls  that  luni  with  thi'  least  possible  friction,  that  aweight 
(or  falling  body)  suspended  from  one  of  the  pulleys  descends 
much  more  slowly  than  a  body  falling  in  free  space,  yet  in- 
creases in  velocity  in  the  same  ratio  as  when  falling  "in  the 
air.    See  Fai,i.i.n(i  Bodies. 

Allbiuiel,  obali-ncl',  .losKpii  .M.utiE  .Je.vx  Baptistk  Theo- 
dore :  Provencal  orator  and  |)oet  ;  b.  at  Avignon,  j\Iar.  26. 
182!);  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  group  of  men  who  have 
aimed  to  restore  the  Provencal  tongue  to  its  old-time  liter- 
ary dignity.  In  1854  he  was  one  of  the  seven  persons  who 
fiiiinded  the  Soi-iety  of  Feli/jrii/e,  whose  object  has  been  the 
purilicalion  an<l  renewal  of  the  degradeil  dialects  of  Pro- 
vence and  Catalonia:  and  in  March,  1870,  when  .Mistral  re- 
organized the  society  as  an  academy,  with  three  grand  divi- 
sions of  its  activity  (Provence,  Ijanguedoc,  and  Catalonia), 
Aiibanel  was  chosen  niajoral,  ami  syndic  for  Provence. 
Under  his  guidance  were  foundeil  almost  all  the  schools  of 
Felibres  now  in  existence.  Meanwhile  he  was  ))ublishing 
from  time  to  time  poems  in  the  new  Proven<;al  tongue:  La 
Miouf/rano  entradulierto  (ISGO):  La  Perlo.  vers  (1880);  La 
Vf-nloux,  vers  (1882);  Lou  Caslelas.  vers  (1883).  lU:  has 
published  also  a  drama,  IjOU  Pan  dait  pecat  (1883).  Auba- 
nel  has  been  called  "  the  French  Petrarch." 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

.\iil)e,  ob:  a  river  of  Franco;  rises  in  ITaute-Marne,  flows 
northwestward  through  the  department  of  Aube,  passing 
Chiirvaux,  Bar-sur-Aube,  and  Areis,  and  after  a  course  of 
140  miles  enters  the  Seine  about  34  miles  below  Troves. 


Aube:  a  department  in  the  northeast  part  of  France; 
formed  of  t he southein  portion  of  the  province  of  Champagne 
and  a  small  |)art  of  Burgundy  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  4-G). 
It  is  bounded  X.  by  the  department  of  Marne,  E.  by  Haute- 
Marne,  S.  by  Cote-d'Or  and  Yonne,  and  W.  by  Seine-et- 
Marne.  Area,  2,317  S(|.  miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the  riv- 
ers Seine  and  Aube.  The  surface  is  nearly  level ;  the  soil  is 
fertile,  especially  in  the  southeast  part,  which  produces  grain, 
wine,  etc.  It  has  manutactures  of  cotton  ancl  woolen  stuffs, 
hosiery,  glass,  and  leather.  It  is  divided  into  five  arroudisse- 
nients.    Capital,  Troyes.    Pt.p.  (1881)  255,320 ;  (18!)1)  255,548. 

Aubor,  o  ber,  Daniel  Francois  Ksi>rit;  French  com- 
poser; b.  at  Caen,  .Ian.  29,  1782.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cheru- 
bini,  and  produced  in  1813  Le  Sejour  Jlihtaire,  an  opera 
which  was  not  succcssfid,  but  his  comic  opera  called  7>a. 
Beryere  Chatelaine  (1820)  was  warmlv  applauded.  In  1821 
he  composed  L'nima,  an  opera  whicli  w'as  much  admired. 
His  works  are  remarkable  for  grace,  originality,  and  ingen- 
ious combinations.  The  opera  of  Jjii  j/uetle  de  J'ortici,  or 
Masaniello  (1828).  is  called  his  masterpiece.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1829.  Among  his  most  popu- 
lar operas  are  Fra  Diavolo  (1830) ;  I^e  Domino  jVoir  (1837) ; 
//((//(/('k  (1847);  and  Manon  Lescaut  (\H^iG).  He  was  direc- 
tor of  the  Paris  Conservatory  of  Music  (1842-1870)  and 
chapel-master  under  Louis  Philippe  and  Na|>oleon  III.  I). 
in  I'aris,  May  12,  1871.  See  Fetis,  Bioi/rajihie  Universelle 
lies  Musicie/is;  L.  de  Loiuenie,  Galerie  des  Contemporains. 

Aii'berleii,  Karl  Aijgust,  D.I).:  German  orthodox  the- 
ologian; b.  at  Fellbach,  in  Wiirtemberg.  Xov.  19,  1824;  edu- 
cated at  Tubingen  ;  became  professor  at  Basel  1851.  I),  at 
Basel,  Jlay  2,  18(i4.  He  is  known  to  Englisli  readers  through 
his  able  work  The  Divine  Revelation,  an  Fssiii/  in  Defense 
of  the  Truth,  translated  and  published  in  Edinburgh,  1867. 

Aiibert,  6-biir',  Jean  IjOuis,  Al)be :  French  poet  and 
fabulist;  b.  in  Paris  in  1731.  He  edited  a  journal  called 
Les  Fetites  Ajjicltes,  and  published  in  1750  a  collection  of 
fables  which  gained  a  Eiiro)>eaii  reputation.  They  were 
highly  couimeniled  by  Voltaire,  who  wrote  to  Aubert,  "You 
have  placed  yourscH'  l)esidc  La  Fontiiiiic."  He  became  Pro- 
fessor of  French  Literature  in  the  College  Koval,  Paris,  in 
1773.     I),  in  1814. 

Aubert  du  Hayel,  Jean  Baptiste  Axxihal:  French  gen- 
eral; b.  ill  Louisiana,  Aug.  29,  1759.  He  fought  for  the 
U.  S.  under  Hochambeau,  and  was  chosen  in  1791  a  member 
of  the  French  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  he  supported 
the  same  princi|ilcs  as  La  Fayette.  He  coiumanded  at  the 
siege  of  Meiitz,  which  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  in  1793, 
and  was  Minister  of  War  for  several  months  in  1795.  D.  at 
Constantiiio]ile,  where  he  was  ambassador,  Dec.  17,  1797. 

Aubcrvilliers.  o-ber-vee  ya :  a  town  in  France;  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine ;  4  miles  X.  of  Paris,  and  one  of  its  sub- 
urljs  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  3-F).  Pop.  (1881)  19,437; 
(1886)  22,223. 

Aubiguf.  Merle.  A':  See  d'Aubiq.n6,  Jeam  He.nri  JIerle. 

Aubignf'.  TiiEODORK  Aorippa,  d'  (do-been-ya') :  French 
Protestant  historian  and  soldier,  distinguished  for  his  wit, 
learning,  and  audacity;  li.  in  Saintoiige,  F^raiice,  Feb.  8, 
1550.  ile  studied  at  St.  Maury,  Geneva,  under  Beza.  and  at 
an  early  age  joined  the  Ilugueuot  army,  then  waging  a  civil 
war  against  the  court.  He  afterward  entered  the  service  of 
Henry  of  Navarre,  whose  favor  he  enjoyed.  He  fought  for 
Henry  against  the  Catholic  Ijcague,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  Coutras  (1587).  His  chief  work  is  a  his- 
tory of  his  own  times,  entitled  Ifixfoire  Universelle,  Mir^O- 
1001  (3  vols.,  Maille,  101(!-20).  Ile  left  autobiographic 
nu'inoirs,  »SV(  vie  a  ses  enfants  (1557-1618),  published  under 
the  title  Histoire  secrete  de  T.  A,  d'Aubigwi  (.Vmsterdam, 
1731)  and  as  Memoires  (Paris,  1854;  2d  ed.  1889).  His  com- 
plete works  appeared  in  Paris,  1873-77,  4  vols;  the  5th  vol. 
promised.  D.  at  Geneva,  Apr.  29,  1630.  His  sou  Constan- 
tine  was  the  father  of  Madame  de  JIaintenon.  See  his  bi- 
ography bv  A.  V.  Salis  (Heidelberg.  1885).  and  bv  G.  Guizot 
(Pans,  "1890).  Revised  by  S.  M. "Jackson. 

Aubiu,  o-ban' :  a  French  town ;  department  of  Aveyron  ; 
20  miles  X.  E.  of  Villefranche,  in  a  mining  region,  with  fur- 
naces, etc.  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-F).  It  contains  a 
church  of  the  twelfth  century  with  remarkable  sculpture, 
and  has  considerable  trade  in  sheep,  iron  goods,  etc.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

Aiiblet,  o-blii,  Albert:  contemporary  genre,  history  and 
portrait  painter  of  the  French  school;  b.  in  Paris;  pupil  of 


404 


AUBURN 


AUCHMUTY 


Gerome:  first-class  inedal,  Paris  Exposition.  1889;  Legion 
of  Honor,  lyUO.  His  first  notable  work  was  The  Wash-ruom 
of  the  Reserves  in  the  Cherttourq  Barracks,  Salon  of  1879. 
His  best  historical  work  is  the  Meeting  of  Henri  III.  and 
the  Due  de  Guise,  Salon  of  1880.  "  W.  A.  C. 

Auburn :  on  railroad ;  Lee  co.,  Ala.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Alabama,  ref.  5-E) ;  60  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Moiit^'oiuerv.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Alabama  Agricultural 
and  Jlcchanical  College.  Pop.  (1870)  1,018;  (1880)  1,161; 
(1890)  1,440. 

Auburu:  city;  on  C.  P.  R.  R. :  capital  of  Placer  co.,  Cal. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  6-1));  33 
miles  N.  E.  of  Sacramento  and  126  miles  from  San  Fran- 
cisco. Aiibuni  has  the  Sierra  Normal  College  and  a  gram- 
mar school.  Its  principal  industries  are  mining,  fruit-rais- 
ing, and  general  farming.  It  was  founded  as  the  county- 
seat  in  18.51.  There  are  near  the  town  rery  rich  quartz  and 
gravel  mines,  and  many  (|uartz-mills.  t'op.  (1870)  800; 
(1880)  1,229;  (1890)  1.595;  (1S92)  estimated,  1,700. 

Editor  or  "  Pl.'Icer  Argus." 

Auburn  :  town  (founded  in  1836);  capital  of  DeKalb  co.- 
Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ret.  2-G)  • 
on  B.  and  D.  R.  R.,  Detroit  div.  of  Wabash  R.  R.,  and  the 
Jack.son  branch  of  the  Lake  Shore  R.  R. ;  22  miles  N.  of 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind. ;  has  2  schools,  8  churches,  a  court-house, 
and  jail ;"  manufactures  of  buggies,  church  furniture,  road- 
building  machines,  stoves,  windmills,  cigars,  etc.;  and  has 
2  wells  of  natural  gas  in  use.  besides  2  electric-light  plants. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,543 ;  (1890)  2,415 ;  (1892)  2,800,  by  actual  coinit. 

Editor  op  "  CouRraR." 

Anbnrn :  city  on  railroad;  capital  of  Androscoggin  co.. 
Me.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  9-B) ;  34 
miles  from  Portland  ;  on  the  Androscoggin  and  Little  An- 
droscoggin rivers,  which  furnish  extensive  water-power.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  shoes.  The  shoe-product 
has  greatly  increased  recently,  and  now  (1892)  employs  about 
4.000  hands.  The  city  has  excellent  public  schools,  is  lighted 
by  electricity,  is  growing  rapidly,  and  many  new  industries 
are  being  introduced.  Pop.  (1870)  6.169 ;  (1880)  9,555  ;  (1890) 
11,250.  Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Auburn:  city  of  Nebraska;  capital  of  Nemaha  County 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  11-H);  on  the 
Little  Nemaha  river;  65  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Omaha  and  72 
miles  S.  E.  of  Lincoln ;  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  Bur- 
lington and  Missouri  R.  Ks.  Has  7  churches,  3  newspapers, 
a  public  library,  .-ind  several  faetories.     Pop.  2.376. 

L.  I).  WUEELDON,  PLBLISHER  OF  "  GRANGER." 

Auburn:  city  ami  important  railroad  center;  capital  of 
Cayuga  co..  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  4-F);  174  miles  W.  of  Albany,  and  on  both  sides 
of  the  outlet  of  Owasco  Lake,  2i  miles  distant,  which  sup- 
]ilies  its  manufactories  with  water-power  and  is  also  the  res- 
ervoir for  thi^  Auljurn  Water-works  Company  (the  Holly 
system).  ]Many  of  the  private  houses  display  an  elegant 
style  of  arcliitecture,  and  are  adorned  with  beautiful  gar- 
dens. Aul)urn  has  twenty-two  churches,  and  is  the  scat  of 
a  theological  seminary  under  the  direction  of  the  Presbyteri- 
ans, which  has  recently  added  large  new  buildings  and  is 
largely  endowed.  This  city  was  long  the  home  of  the  late 
Hun.  William  II.  Seward.  A  fine  bronze  statue  of  him  was 
unveiled  here  Nov.  1,5,  1888.  Here  is  a  State  insane  a.sylum 
and  a  large  stone  State  prison,  noted  for  its  system  of  disci- 
pline. The  convicts,  numliering  1,285,  manufacture  pearl 
buttons,  furniture,  stovc-hanhvare,  horse-col lai's,  etc. 

The  city  has  manufactures  of  wool,  cotton,  iron,  threshing- 
in.'ichines,  agricultural  implements,  etc.  Here  are  also  very 
large  manufactories  of  reapers,  mowers,  and  binders.  The 
census  of  1890  showed  209  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  capital  of  if  10,382,6 II,  employing "6,001  pei-sons,  to 
whom  wages  were  |>aid  during  the  Tear  amounting  to 
$2,472,574;  value  of  product,  ^9,064,093.  Pop.  (1880)21,- 
924 ;  (1890)  25,858.   ■  Editor  of  "  Advertiser." 

Au'burndalp :  a  part  of  the  city  of  Newton,  Middlesex 
CO.,  Mass.  (for  lociition  of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts, 
ref.  3-II) ;  on  Charles  river  and  \i.  and  A.  R.  R. ;  10  miles  W. 
of  Boston.  It  has  two  churches,  and  is  the  seat  of  Lasell 
Seminary.    Pop.  (1895)  2,816. 

Anburndiilo :  village ;  Lucas  co.,  O.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  OIno,  ref.  1-E);  on  Mich.  Cent,  and  Lake 
S'hore  and  Mich.  So.  R.  R.  (Wagon  Works  station);  near  the 
west  side  of  Toledo;  wairon  manufacturing  is  a  thriving  in- 
dustry.    Pop.  (1890)  1,609. 


Anburn  Theological  Seminary :  an  institution  founded 
in  1818  by  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Geneva,  and  incor- 
porated in  1820  under  the  name  "  The  Trustees  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  of  Auburn  in  the  State  of  New  York." 
A  board  of  trustees  has  immediate  control,  but  the  trustees 
and  the  professors  are  appointed  by  a  board  of  commission- 
ers, which  also  exercises  general  control  and  has  a  concur- 
rent vote  in  all  appropriations  of  funds.  The  commission- 
ens  are  elected  by  certain  presbrteries,  at  present  eighteen 
in  number,  each  presbytery  electing  three. 

The  seminary  occupies  a  group  of  handsome  stone  build- 
ings on  a  large  campus  in  the  city  of  Auburn,  and  has  an 
invested  endowment  of  about  $550,000.  There  are  seven 
professors.  The  total  number  of  students  (1892)  is  not  far 
from  1,450.  The  theological  )iosition  of  the  seminary  is  that 
of  a  strict,  though  tolerant,  orthodoxy.       W.  J.  BEEcnER. 

Anbusson,  Pierre,  d'  (do'bu-soiV) :  grand-master  of  the 
order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem ;  born  of  a  noble  French 
family  in  1423.  At  an  early  age  he  joined  tlie  order,  the 
liead(juarters  of  wliich  was  at  Rhodes.  He  distinguished 
himself  l)y  hLs  energy  and  courage  in  fighting  against  pirates, 
and  was  employed  on  important  missions  to  several  courts. 
In  1458  he  formed  a  league  between  tlie  Kings  of  France 
and  Hungary  against  the  Sultan  Mahomet  II.  He  was 
electetl  grand-master  of  his  order  in  1476,  and  fortified 
Rhodes  as  an  advanced  post  for  the  defense  of  Christendom 
against  the  victorious  Turks.  The  great  aim  and  idea  of 
his  life  was  the  formation  of  a  league  of  Christian  princes 
against  the  infidels.  In  >Iay.  1480,  Aiahomct  II.  commenced  J 
the  siege  of  Rhodes  with  an  army  of  al)out  100.000  men.  ■ 
The  Turks  were  repulsed  in  several  des|)erate  assaults,  in  ' 
which  Aulmsson  was  severely  wounded,  and  they  were  forced 
to  abandon  the  enterprise  in  July,  1480.  In  1489  he  was 
a])]iointed  a  cardinaL  In  1501  he  was  chosen  general-in- 
chiet  of  the  armies  of  the  German  Emperor,  the  King  of 
Prance,  and  the  pope,  who  had  formed  a  league  against  the 
Turks.  His  success  was  hindered  by  the  jealousy  and  dis- 
cord of  these  allies.  D.  July  13.  1503.  He  is  regarded  as 
one  of  the  ablest  Christian  slatt'smen  and  commanders  of 
his  time.  See  Dominique  Bouhours,  Ilistoire  de  Pierre 
iVAnhusson  (Paris,  1676;  3d  ed.  La  Haye,  1739;  Eng.  trans. 
London.  1679).  Revised  by  S.  51.  Jackson. 

Aubusson.  o'bii-son' :  a  town  of  Prance;  department  of 
Creuse:  on  the  river  Creuse;  22  miles  S.  E.  of  Gueret  (see 
map  of  France,  ref.  6-F).  It  has  a  celebrated  manufactory 
of  carpets.  Velvets  and  woolen  stuffs  are  also  ma<le  here, 
as  well  iis  tapestries.     Pop.  about  7.000. 

Audi,  osh  (a.nQ.  August' ta  Auaco'rum  or  Elimieris):  an 
old  town  of  France;  capital  of  the  deiiartinent  of  Gers;  on 
the  river  Gers;  43  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Agen  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  8-E).  In  the  time  of  Ca-sar  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Ausci  or  Auscii.  It  has  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral, 
an  archbisho]i's  palace,  a  royal  college,  a  pulilic  library,  a 
museum  of  natural  science,  and  a  town-hall.  Here  are 
manuf.'ictures  of  linens,  cotton  stuffs,  leather,  etc.  Arma- 
gnac  brandy  is  cxjiorted  from  this  town,  which  was  once  the 
capital  of  Armagnac.     Pop.  (1881)  14.186 ;  (1886)  15,090. 

Auebe'nia  [from  Gr.  alxh".  neck;  in  allusion  to  the 
length  of  tlicir  necks]  :  a  genus  of  South  American  animals 
of  the  order  llumluaiitia.  and  family  Cnmelidir.  The  genus 
comprises  the  alpaca  and  the  llama,  and  other  species,  all  of 
which  inli.'ibit  the  mountain-ranges  of  the  Andes.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  camel,  which  they  resemble  in  general 
form  and  in  the  structure  of  the  stomach.  They  differ  from 
the  camel  in  having  no  hump;  also  in  dentition,  and  in  the 
more  cloven  feet  and  movable  toes.  Some  naturalists  think 
that  the  alpaca  is  not  a  distinct  species,  but  a  v.nriety  of  the 
llama.     See  Alpaca. 

Aucllinlpck.  awrh'-in-lek' :  Ayrshire  village,  15  miles  E. 
of  Ayr  (sec  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  13-F);  seat  of  the  Boswell 
family.  Sir  .\  li'xander  Boswell,  son  of  Jolin.son's  biographer, 
established  here  in  1815  the  Auchinleck  Press  for  the  print- 
ing of  MSS.  and  rare  works. 

AurhiiMity.  awkmoo-te,  Samuel,  D.  D.  ■  Episcopal  clergy- 
man ;  b.  at  lioston,  Jan.  16.  1722;  wjus  graduated  at  H.ar- 
vard  in  1742.  He  was  ordained  to  the  diaconate  in  1747  by 
the  Bi.shoj)  of  London,  and  was  appointed  missionary  of  the 
Society  for  tlie  Propagation  of  the  (Jospel  in  Foreign  Parts ; 
acting' as  assistant,  and  as  catechist  to  the  Negroes  of  Trin- 
ity parish,  New  York.  In  1764  he  succeeded  Rev.  Dr.  Bar- 
clay as  rector  of  Trinity.  In  1766  he  receiveil  the  degree  of 
D.  b.  from  the  University  of  Oxford,  which  honor  was  re- 


AUCIIMUTY 


AUDLEY 


405 


peatcd  bj-Kin-r's  (now  fohiinbirt)  Colli'sc  the  following  year, 
lie  aillured  to  the  royalist  (mity  in  llio  Kevoliition.  D.  in 
New  York,  Mar.  4,  1777.  "i{evi.sed  by  W.  S.  1'erry. 

Ancliniiity,  Sir  Samuel:  Rrilish  goneral :  a  son  of  the 
iirpceding;  b.  in  Xi'W  York.  June  22. 17.5t).  and  {jradiiatod  at 
kinjr's  (now  Columbia)  C'olle.i;o  in  lll'i.  lie  loii{;lit  uijninst 
the  U.  S.  in  177(>-(8.  served  many  years  in  India,  and  in 
1806  obtained  command  of  an  army  sent  to  .South  America. 
Ho  took  the  fortified  city  of  .Montevideo  from  the  Spaniards 
in  1H07,  anil  caiitured  Java  from  the  Dutch  in  1811.  D.  in 
Dublin.  Auf,'.  11,  1H22. 

Aiu'k'laml :  a  seaport-town  ;  former  capital  of  the  British 
colony  uf  New  Zealand;  situated  on  the  northeast  coa.st  of 
the  island  of  New  Ulster  or  northern  island  of  New  Zea- 
land; lat.  (W  .W  .S.,  Ion.  174^  iiO'  K.  (see  map  of  World,  rof. 
7-1)).  It  has  two  tine  harbors  and  considerable  trade.  It 
is  connected  by  steam.sliips  with  Sydney,  Melliourne,  Hono- 
lulu,and  San  Francisco.  It  is  the  sieof  an  An;;lic:in  bishop. 
and  has  four  banks,  st^vcral  newspapers,  and  many  iine 
buildinjrs.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  coldest  month  is 
about  i)0  F.,  and  that  of  the  warmest  about  68  .  Auckland 
was  founded  in  1840.  Pop.  (18111)  28,773;  (18116)  with  sub- 
urbs, 41.758. 

Auckland.  Gi:oROE  Edex,  Karl  of:  an  Kurdish  peer;  b. 
at  E<len  Farm,  Hcckenham.  Kent,  AiiK-  25,  1784;  inherited 
the  title  of  baron  at  the  death  of  his  lather  in  1814.  lie  att- 
edwitli  the  W'lii^.  became  President  of  the  Board  of  Tra<le 
in  18;i0,  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  18;i4.  and  (jovernur- 
General  of  India  in  18:i.5.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Auckland 
in  ISity,  and  returned  to  En;;laud  in  1841.  He  died  willniut 
issue  at  the  Grange,  near  Alresford,  Hampshire,  .Ian.  1,  184!*. 

Auckland,  WrLi^r.\M  Eden.  Lord  :  an  English  diplomat- 
ist, and  lawyer;  was  born  in  Wimllestone  Hall.  Durham, 
Apr.  S.  1744.  He  was  one  of  the  three  commi.ssioners  ap- 
pointed in  1778  to  negotiate  with  the  revolutionists  in  the 
U.S.  Having  been  sent  as  ambassador  lo  France  in  178.5, 
ho  negotiated  a  counuercial  treaty  with  that  nation.     He 

fiiblished  J'rniriji/e.'<  of  Peiidl  Law  (1772)  and  other  works. 
n  1793  he  received  the  title  of  baron.  J),  at  Eden  Farm, 
Bcckenham,  Kent,  .^lay  28, 1814.  See  his ■Joiirniilxdiid  Cur- 
renpoiidfiice.  eil.  by  his  son,  4  vols.,  London,  1860-62. 

Auckland  Islands:  a  group  of  islands  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin; discovered  in  1806  by  the  British  in  the  South  Pacific, 
about  180  miles  S.  of  New  Zealand  (see  map  of  World,  ref. 
7-D).  The  largest  Island  is  about  30  miles  long  and  15 
miles  wide,  and  has  two  good  harbors.  This  grou[)  is  valu- 
able as  a  whaling-station. 

Anc'tion  [Lat.  aiictio.  increase,  sale  by  increase  of  bids, 
from  aiir/e  re,  increase] :  in  law,  the  act  of  exposing  property 
for  sale  by  open  competition  to  the  highest  bidder  by  a  per- 
son called  an  auctioneer.  Every  bid  is  deemed  to  be  an  of- 
fer, which  is  accepted  by  t la;  au<^t  ioru-er  when  his  hammer 
falls.  On  general  principles  of  the  law  of  contracts,  the  of- 
fer may  be  withdrawn  by  the  bidder  at  any  time  before  ac- 
ceptance. The  acceptance  of  a  higher  olTer  is  the  rejection 
of  the  lower  one.  Such  a  side  nnist  be  fairly  conducteil  by 
both  seller  and  buyer.  TIk^  secret  employuu'nt  of  "  pullers  " 
or  fictitious  biilders  by  the  owner  to  uniluly  enhance  the 
price  is  a  fraud  on  the  purchaser,  who  may  avoid  such  a 
sale.  The  s,ime  rule  applies  to  secret  agreements  between 
purchasers  to  stifle  com|ietiti(Ui.    Such  sales  frequently  take 

lace  under  conditions  nuide  known  at  the  time  of  sale. 

'hese  must  be  followeil  by  the  jiarty  to  whom  they  are  ap- 
[ilicalile.  An  auctioneer  is  to  some  extent  an  agent  for  both 
parties — as.  for  example,  to  siiin  on  their  behalf  a  written 
memiuandum  of  sales,  where  that  is  required  by  law.  The 
conduct  of  auctioneers  is  sometimes  regulated  by  statute. 
In  what  is  known  as  a  Dutch  anclioii.  the  auctioneer  starts 
with  a  high  price  and  comes  down  till  he  meets  wil  h  a  bidder. 
Audmns.  or  Andius  (in  SjTiac  JTdo):  the  founder  of  a 
religious  sect  called  Audians;  was  a  native  of  Mesopotamia. 
lie  was  banished  to  Seylhia  in  338  A.  D.,  and  died  about  370 
A.  I).  He  incurred  the  enmil  y  of  t  he  clergy  by  censuring  their 
luxuries  and  vices.  The  Audians  are  accused  of  professing 
anthro[ioMU)rphism. 

Andp,  ("id :  .'i  nuiritime  dejiartment  in  the  S.  of  France: 
boimdeil  N.  by  the  departments  of  Tarn  and  Heratdt.  E.  by 
the  Mediterranean.  S.  by  the  Pyrenecs-Orientales.  W.  by 
Ariege  and  Ilaute-fiaronne.  nntlhas  an  area  of  2.437  sq. 
miles.  It  was  formeily  part  of  the  [irovince  of  Languedoe. 
'I'lio  surface  is  partly  mountainous,  being  near  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees;  tlie  soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile  and  calcare- 


\ 


ous.  It  is  intersected  by  the  river  Aude  and  the  caiial  of 
Languedoe  (or  Canal  du  Midi).  Among  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  Xuda  are  iron,  coal,  and  marble.  The  staple  pro- 
ductions are  grain,  olives,  wine,  aiul  fruits.  It  ha.s  manu- 
factures of  silk  and  woolens, etc.  Capital,  Carcassonne.  Pop. 
(1891)317,372. 

Audebert,  od  bar',  .Teas  Baptiste:  an  eminent  French 
arti.st  and  naturalist ;  b.  at  Rochefort  in  1759.  He  first  ac- 
quired distinction  as  a  miniature-painter,  ami  subseijucntly 
applied  himself  to  natural  histijry.Ihe  love  of  which  became 
his  ruling  pa-ssion.  He  published  in  \W()a,  A'afuialJIinlort/ 
i/f  Ape.t.  Lemuin,  and  Onleopitheci,  with  sixty-two  a<lniira- 
bly  colored  plates,  printed  in  oil-colors  by  a  new  method 
which  he  invented.  He  was  the  first  to  use  gold-leaf  in  il- 
lustrating the  iilumage  of  birds.  His  s|)lcndidly  illustrated 
History  of  Iluinitiinii-bird.-i,  Fli/cotrfu'rx,  Jaciimurs,  etc.,  ap- 
peared in  1802.     He'died  in  Pa'ri.s,  Dec.  .5,  1800. 

Audenarde.  odcn-aard',  or  Ondcnarde,  owdwii-aard' :  a 
town  of  Beljjium :  in  East  FlaudiTs:  on  the  Scheldt:  14 
miles  S.  S.  W .  of  Ghent.  It  has  a  fine  Ciothic  town-hall  (see 
map  of  Ilollaiul  and  Belgium,  ref.  lO-C).  Pop.  5,000.  Here 
Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  French  army  in  July,  1708. 

Audift'ret-Pasquier.  o  dee-frav-pa'iis  kee-tvy,  Edme  Ar- 
MA.ND  tJASTON,  Due  d" :  French  politician;  b.  at  Paris.  Oct. 
2;j,  1823;  elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  Feb.  8,  1871, 
where  he  soon  ac(piired  a  strong  position.  He  was  the  first 
person  elected  life  senator  by  the  Assembly.  In  1876  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Senate,  which  office  he  held  until 
Jan.,  1879.  Elected  member  of  the  French  Academv  in 
1878.  C.  II.  T. 

Au'diphone  [malcoustructed  of  Lat.  uudi'ri'.  hear  4- 
(puvi).  \onv]:  an  instrument  for  the  deaf;  is  shaped  like  a 
large  fan,  and  made  of  a  sheet  of  vulcanized  rubber  about 
aV'i  of  an  iiuh  thick,  fa.stencd  to  a.  handle  of  the  same  sub- 
stance. This  sheet  is  curved  at  the  farther  end,  when  u.sed, 
by  pulling  a  cord  which  is  put  through  holes  in  the  upper 
edge,  and  passiis  along  the  inner  side  of  the  sheet  into  a  slot 
in  the  handle.  The  curve  reciuired  is  very  small,  but  the 
more  deaf  the  person  using  the  iuslrument  the  tighter  must 
the  rubber  be  drawn.  When  in  use  the  straight  or  lower 
end  of  t  he  sheet  is  kept  in  contact  with  the  upper  jaw-teeth, 
andany  sound  striking  against  the  rubber  sheet  is  communi- 
cated to  the  nerve  of  the  ear  through  the  teeth  and  bones  of 
the  hea<l,  so  that  ordinary  conversation  can  be  heanl.  The 
same  result  is  produced  in  the  case  of  artificial  teeth  if  well 
fitted. 

Au'ditor  [from  Lat.  uudi're,  hear]:  a  person  whose  duty 
it  is  to  examine  and  jiass  upon  the  accounts  of  those  who 
have  been  intrusted  with  money,  or  to  examine  a  particular 
account  and  certify  the  result.  Most  public  and  private 
corporations  have  such  officers.  -Vn  auditor  is  ajipointed  by 
courts  in  the  course  of  some  actions  to  examine  and  state 
accounts,  and  report  them  to  the  court  for  further  proceed- 
ings. The  U.  S.  Treasury  has  six  auditors  who  have  charge 
of  the  ai:counts  of  (1)  the  civil  service,  customs,  judiciary, 
etc.;  (2)  Indian  atlair.s,  etc. ;  (3)  qmirtermaster-general,  etc. : 
(4)  navy  ;  (5)  internal  revenue.  State  Department,  and  Patent- 
Office  :  aiul  (6)  the  Post-Office. 

Au'ditory  Nerve  [auditori)  is  from  Lat.  audilo'rius,  per- 
taining to  hearing ;  audi' re,  hear] :  the  special  nerve  of  hear- 
ing, sometimes  called  the  acouxtic  nerve.  It  is  the  seventh 
nerve  rising  from  the  base  of  the  brain,  and  lies  in  close  as- 
sociation with  the  facial  nerve,  or  the  nerve  supplying  the 
muscles  of  the  face.  It  originates  in  the  nucleus  lying  on 
the  fioor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  of  the  brain,  and  it  makes 
its  exit  from  the  skull  through  the  internal  auditory  meatus, 
where  it  enters  into  the  petrous  i)ortion  of  the  temporal  lione, 
and  is  divided  into  tine  filaments,  supplying  the  vestibule 
and  cochlea  of  the  ear.    See  Ear  and  Acoustics. 

Audlcy.  Sir  James  :  follower  of  the  Black  Prince,  and  one 
of  the  original  knightsof  the  order  of  the  Garter;  displayed 
such  courage  in  the  battle  of  Poicliers  in  1356.  in  which  he 
was  wounded,  that  the  Black  Prince  innnediately  retained 
him  as  his  own  knight,  and  later  appointeil  him  Governor  of 
Aquitaine.     I),  at  Pontenay-le-Comte  in  1369. 

Audley,  Tuomas,  Lord  Audlev  op  Waldex:  an  English 
lawyer;  "b.  in  Essex  in  14,S8.  He  became  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1.529,  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  in  1532, 
and  Lord  Chancellor  of  England  in  1533.  He  presided  at 
the  trial  of  Sir  Thonuis  More.  Acconling  to  some  authori- 
ties, he  disgraced  himself  by  his  subservience  to  the  arbitrary 


406 


AUDOUIN 


will  of  Henry  VIIl.     D.  in  London,  Apr.  30. 1544.    See  Lord 
CaniiiliL-ll.  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chaticellors. 

Aiidoiiin.  odoo-an',  Jean  Victor:  an  eminent  French 
naturalist  and  comparative  anatomist;  b.  in  Paris,  Apr.  27, 
179T.  lie  was  one  of  the  foumleni  of  the  Anilities  des  Sci- 
ences yaliirelles,  first  issued  in  18-24.  and  co-oiiorated  with 
Milne-Edwards  in  researches  into  the  Crustacea  and  vIh- 
nelida.  He  succeeded  Latrcille  as  Professor  of  Entomol- 
ojry  at  the  Museum  in  18:J3.  and  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  Institute  in  1S38.  Among  his  works  is  a  History  of  the 
Insects  which  Infest  the  Vine  (1840-43).  D.  in  Pans.  Nov. 
9.  1841. 

Aiidraii.  odran.  EnMoxu:  opera-compc;ser ;  b.  at  Lyons. 
France.  Apr.  11.  1842:  educated  at  the  Ecole  Niedermey- 
er.  Paris;  in  1861  organist  of  St.  Joseph  church,  Mar- 
seilles: composed  overtures,  marches,  masses,  and  motets, 
but  achieved  his  greatest  fame  as  a  composer  of  light  op- 
eras, which  are  almost  as  well  known  in  England  and  the 
U.  S.  as  in  France.  His  best  as  well  as  best-known  works 
are  Olirette  (Paris,  1870:  London,  1880):  The  Mascot  (Paris, 
ISSO-  London.  1881):  and  Gillette  de  Xarbonne  (Paris,  1883; 
Lnudon,  188:5).  D-  K-  Hervey. 

4iulrilli.  Gerard:  a  French  engraver  of  the  first  order: 
b.  at  Lyons.  Aug.  2,  1640.  He  studied  under  Carlo  Maratti 
at  Konie  lor  several  years,  and  returned  to  Paris  about  1670. 
Having  been  appoin'ted  engraver  to  the  king,  he  engraved 
for  him  the  masterpieces  of  Le  I5run,  Tlie  Battles  of  Alex- 
ander. Among  his  works  are  two  cartoons  of  Raphael.  re|i- 
resenting  the  Death  of  Ananias  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  at 
Li/stra.\nd  Coriolanus.  after  Poussin.  D.  in  Paris.  July 
26,  170:3.  (See  Strutt,  Dictionary  of  Enyrarers.)— Others 
of  the  Anilran  familv  attained  eminence  as  engravers :  as 
Benoit  (1661-1721);  ('laude  pere  (1592-1677);  Claude  flls 
(1640-84):  Germain  (16::!1-1710);  and  Jean  (1667-17.56). 

An'diibnn  :  railroad  junction  :  capital  of  Audtibon  eo..  Ta. 
(see  map  of  Iowa.  ref.  5-E,  for  location  of  county) ;  is  in  Le- 
rov  township;  a  stock-raising  and  farming  region.  Pop. 
(1880)  792;  (1885)  1,152;  (1890)  1,310. 

Andiibon.  Jnnx  James  :  naturalist ;  b.  near  Xew  Orleans, 
La..  Mav  4.  1780.     He  was  the  son  of  an  opuh-ut  French 
naval  ulVu  cr  who  owneil  a  plantation  in  the  then  French 
colonv.     In  his  childhood  he  became  deeply  interested  in 
the  study  of   birds   and   their   habits.      He"  was   educated 
partly  in'  Paris,  whither  he  was  sent  about  1794,  and  he 
studied  design  under  David,  the  eminent  painter.     He  re- 
turned to  the  U.  S.  about  1798,  and  settled  on  a  farm  which 
his  father  gave  him.  on  the  Perkiomen  creek,  in  Eastern 
Pennsylvjuiia.     Here  he  found  time  and  opi>ortunity  for  his 
favorite  stuily.     He  married  Lucy  Bakewell  in  1808,  sold  his 
farm,  and  became  a  merchant  at  Louisville,  Ky,   About  1810 
ho  began  to  make  extensive  excursions  tlirongh  the  primeval 
forests  of  the  Southern  ami  Southwestern  States,  in  the  ex- 
jiloration  of  which  he  passed  many  years.     He  made  colored 
drawings  of  all  the  species  of  birds  that  he  found.     He  re- 
sided with  his  wife  and  cliildren  for  several  years  at  Hen- 
dersouville.  on  the  (.)hio  river.     In  l!^24  he  visited  Philadel- 
jihia.  where  he  met  Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte,  who  encour- 
aged him  to  ])uhlish  a  work  on  ornithology.     Before  this 
date  he  is  said  to  have  failed  in  trade  and  been  reduced  to 
lioverty.  and  to  have  successively  followed  the  occupation  of 
portrait-painter  and  dancing-master.     He  went  to  England 
in  1826,  and  commenced  in   l.ondou  the  publication  of  his 
great  work,  for  which  he  obtained  a  large  number  of  sub- 
scribers at  !j;l,000a  copy.     'Phis  admiralde  work  was  entitled 
The  Birds  of  America  (10  ynU.  folio,  18:10-39),  and  was  il- 
Instrated  with  448  beautiful  colored  plates  of  1,065  species 
of  birds,  of  the  natural  size.     The  work  is  divided  into  five 
volunu's  of  letterpress,  and  five  of  engravings  designed  by 
the  author.     This  was  pronounced  by  C'uvier  "the    most 
Muiguiliceut  monument  that  art  ever  raised  to  ornithology." 
.■\udubon  returned  to  America  in  1829.  and  again  explored 
the  forests,  lakes,  and  coasts  from  Canada  to  Flori<la  to  col- 
lect nuiterials  for  another  work.    This  was  his  Ornilholoyical 
Biof/raphi/.  or  an  Account  of  the  Habits  of  the  Birds  of  the 
I'nited  Slates,  etc.  (Kdinburgli,  5  vols.,  1831-39).     He  revis- 
ited  England  in   1831,  and  returned  home  in  18;i9,  after 
which   he   resided  at   Minniesland.   now  called  "  Audubon 
Park,"  on  the   Hudson   river,  now  |>arl   of  the  city  of  Xew 
Vcu'k.     lb'  pidilished  a  cheaper  edition  of  his  liirdsof  Amer- 
ica (7  vols.  8vo.  1844), and  was  associated  with  Dr.  Bachman 
in  the  preparation  of  a  work  on  The  Quadrupeds  of  JS'orth 
America,   with   plates  (6  vols.,  1846-50),  the  drawings  of 


AUERSPERG 

which  were  made  by  his  sons,  Victor  GifiEord  and  John 
Woodhouse  Amlubon.  He  died  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  27, 
1851.  See  Life  and  Adrentures  of  John  J.  Audubon,  edit- 
ed, from  materials  supplied  bv  his  widow,  by  Robert  Bu- 
chanan (Xew  York,  1867-69). 

Auenbriifirffer  (owcn-broodi -ger)  Ton  Au'eiibrii^r', 
Leopold  (called  Avexbhugger  by  the  Frencli) :  a  German 
jihysician  who  introduced  percnssion  of  the  chest  as  a  means 
of  "diagnosis:  b,  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  Nov.  19,  1722.  He 
studied  at  Vienna,  and  practiced  there.  He  announced  his 
discovery  in  a  work  called  Inrentum  novum  e.r  Percussione 
Thoracis  IJumani  (New  Discovery  by  the  Percussion  of  the 
Human  Chest,  1761).     D.  in  Vieniia,"May  17.  1809. 

Auer,  ower,  Alois:   b.  in  Wels.  Austria.  May  11.  1813; 
learned  the  printer's  trade ;  occupied  himself  with  the  stvidy 
of  languages;  1841  appointed  director  of  the  state  printing 
establishment  in  Vieniui :   discovered  spontaneous  imjires- 
sion,  or  nature-jirinting,  in  photography,  and  invented  sev-         ■ 
eral  jjresses.  Xuihox  oi  Discovery  of  Spontaneous  Impressimi,        ■ 
(1854);  Hi  star  II  of  the  Vienna  State  Printing  E-ttablishment         ■ 
(1S51) :  issued  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  603  languages  in  Roman 
type  (1844):  and  the  same  iii  200  languages  with  the  na- 
ti(mal  alphabets  (1847),     D.  in  Heitzing,  near  Vienna,  Jidy 
10,  1869.  C.  H.  T. 

Auer.  John  Gottlieb.  D.  D.  :  second  missionary  bishop 
of  Cape  Palmas  and  parts  adjacent,  on  the  west  coast  of  Af- 
rica ;  b.  at  Xeubidach.  in  Wiirtemberg.  Nov.  18, 1832.  After  J 
studying  several  vears  at  the  mission  school  at  Basel,  Switz-  I 
erlaiid.  he  Iiecame  (1858)  a  missionary  at  Akrapong,  among 
the  Akraiiim  Jlountains,  in  Africa.  In  1862  he  connected 
himself  with  the  American  Episcopal  mission  at  Cape 
Palmas,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  on  Apr.  20, 
1862,  bv  Bishoii  John  Payne,  whom  he  succeeded  Apr,  17, 
1873.    "D.  at  Cavalla.  in  Africa,  Feb.  16.  1874. 

W.  S.  Perry. 

Anerbaeli.  ow  cr-baach,  Berthold  :  German  author ;  very 
popular  during  his  lifetime;  b.  at  Nordstetten  in  the  Black 
Forest,  Wiirtcinberg,  Feb.  28, 1812.  He  was  intended  for  the 
synagogue,  and  was  educated  at  Carlsruhe.  Tubingen.  Heid- 
elberg.'and  Munich  universities,  but  at  eighteen  announced 
his  intention  of  devoting  himself  to  literature.  His  earliest 
work  was  Judaism  and  Jlodern  Literature,  but  his  merit 
was  not  recognized  until  he  issued  his  Villai/e  Tales  of  the 
Black  Forest.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  was 
correspondent  for  one  of  the  Berlin  papers.  Among  his 
novels  are  Baarfussle.  Edelweiss,  (hi  the  Heights,  Jo- 
seph in  the  Snoic.  and  y\'aldfried  (1874).  The  Professor's 
Ladij  is  perhaps  his  most  characteristic  work.  In  all  his 
writings  the  influence  of  Spinoza  can  be  traced,  whose 
works  he  translated  into  German.  D.  at  Cannes,  Feb.  8, 
1882. 

Aiiersiterg. owers-perAh,  Prince  Adolpii  Wilhelm  Dan- 
iel: b.  July  21,  1821 ;  a  son  of  Prince  Wilhelm  Auersperg 
and  brothe'r  to  Prince  Carlos;  entered  the  army  very  early, 
and  was  a  major  in  Prince  Eugene's  dragoons  when  he 
left  the  military  service  in  1870^  In  1867  he  was  elected 
a  mcmlier  of  th'e  Bohemian  Diet,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
apjiointed  jiresident  of  the  assembly  on  the  resignation  of 
Count  Hartig.  In  1868  he  was  elected  a  member  for  life  of 
the  upi)er  chamber  of  the  Austrian  Reichstag,  and  in  1870 
was  made  governor  of  Salzbin-g.  Finally  he  succeeded 
Count  Bcust  as  president  of  the  Austrian  ministry,  Nov.  25, 
1871.  Like  his  brother,  who  at  an  earlier  date  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Cisleithaii  ministry,  he  represented  the  Ger- 
man interest  in  Austria,  anil  supported  the  present  organ- 
ization of  the  cmiiire,  established  by  Beust,  and  comprising 
an  Austrian  ilivision,  in  which  tlie  German  element  pre- 
dominates, and  a  Hungarian,  in  which  the  JIagyars  rule. 
In  1879  he  became  jiresident  of  the  highest  chamber  of  ac- 
counts. D.  in  his  castle,  Goldegg,  near  Vienna,  Jan.  5, 
1885. 

Anerspprer.  Anton  Alexander.  Count  von:  a  German 
poet  whose  nom  <le  plume  was  Anastasr-s  Grun;  b.  at 
Lavbach.  Ai.ril  11.  1806.  He  displayed  much  wit  and  hu- 
mor in  a  jioem  called  Spazierqanqe  einex  ^yiener  Poeten 
(Promenades  of  a  Poet  of  Vienna,  1831).  Published  a 
volume  of  poems  (Oedichte.  1838),  which  must  be  consid- 
ered the  principal  work  of  his  life.  An  ardent  promoter  of 
liberal  ideas  in  feudal  Austria,  he  died  at  Graz,  Sejit.  12, 
1^76.  Revised  by  JvLius  Goebel. 

Auerspprar.  Prince  Carlos  Wilhelm  :  an  Austrian  states- 
man; b.  .May  1,  1814.     In  1867-68  he  was  president  of  the 


AUERSTADT 


AUGSBURG   COXPESSIOX 


407 


('isli'ithaii  ministry.  Uc  was  a  member  of  the  Reiehstajr.  nf 
which  he  was  president,  and  of  the  Huheniian  Diet,  where 
he  acteil  with  the  German  jiartv.  1).  in  l'raf;ue.  Jan.  4, 
181)0. 

Aiiorstiidt.  <>w  er-stet :  n  vilhi^e  of  Prussian  Saxony,  10 
miles  \V.  of  Xanmbnrg  (see  iinip  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
H-F).  nolc'd  as  llie  scene  of  an  important  victory  gained  by 
the  French  f;eni'ral  Davousl  over  the  Pnissians,  commancU'd 
by  the  Duke  of  lirunswick,  Oct.  14.  1S06.  wliicli  was  also  the 
ilate  of  the  battle  of  Jena. 

All'lidiis:  the  name  of  an  ancient  river  in  Italy,  near  the 
mouth  of  which  wjis  foiiglit  the  great  battle  of  funme,  216 
B.  I'.     See  Ofanto. 

.\ufreclit,  ow  freclit,  Thi;oi)Or:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Lesch- 
nitz,  Up]ier  .Silesia.  Jan.  7,  1822 ;  became  Professor  of  San- 
skrit at  I'MinbnrKli  1862.  at  Bonn  1875:  retired  Id  live  at 
Ileidelber;;  188!l.  He  i)ublished  at  Jierlin,  1861-63,  the 
Ilf/mns  of  the  liirj-Veda  (see  Sanskrit  lirrKUATi'KK).  the  first 
complete  edition  of  this  great  monument  (Max  Miiller's,  be- 
f;\in  in  184!',  was  finisheil  in  1874).  Besides  many  other  im- 
porl  ant  works,  Aufreeht  |>ublislied  a  catalogue  of  the  Sanskrit 
MSS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (Oxford,  1864),  and  Calalot/iis 
Cutaloyorum,  an  Alphiihetical  lieyister  of  Saiiakrit  Works 
and  Authors  (Leipzig,  18U1).  C.  R.  Lanma.v. 

An'greas  (in  Gr.  Au7€05or  Au7e/os):  a  mythical  Kingof  Elis, 
wlio  is  said  to  have  own<'il  ;i.l)0()  oxen.  One  of  the  twelve 
hiliors  imposed  on  Ilercides  by  Kurvstheus  was  to  cleanse  in 
one  day  the  Augean  stables,  in  which  the  dung  of  these 
<ixen  had  accumulated  for  many  years.  Hercules  turned 
the  river  iMenios  or  Alpheus  through  the  stalilcs.  and  killed 
Augeas  because  he  refused  to  pay  his  wages,  which  was  one- 
tenth  part  of  the  herd. 

Ailgrercail.  o'zhfr-o  .  Pikuri:  FRAXf;ois  Charles  (Drc  i>k 
C'astkii-ioxk):  a  Frencli  uuirshal ;  b.  in  Paris.  Nov.  11,  1757: 
became  a  fencing-nuister  at  Naples  before  the  Revolution : 
enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  French  army  in  1702.  and  gained 
the  rank  of  general  of  division  in  1706.  In  1706  he  con- 
tributed to  Ihe  victories  of  Lodi,  Castiglioue,  and  Areola. 
He  enforced  Ihe  will  of  the  majority  of  the  Directory  in  the 
(tiup  d'rtnt  of  Ihe  18th  Fructid<n'  of  the  year  5  (Sept.  4, 
1707).  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Iluiulred  in  1790.  He  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1804, 
Duke  of  Castiglione  in  180.5.  served  with  distinction  at  Jena 
in  1806.  and  was  wounded  at  Kylau  in  1807.  In  18l;{  he 
displayed  intrepid  courage  at  Leijizig.  lie  transferred  his 
allegiance  to  Louis  XVIII.  in  1S14.  I),  in  La  Houssayc, 
June  12.  ISKi. 

.Vii'ginii  Co'dex :  a  defective  uncial  nuinuscript  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles;  was  found  in  the  monastery  of  Augia 
Dives  or  Major,  at  Reichenan.  L.nke  Constance.  Switzer- 
land ;  was  purchased  by  Dr.  Benlley  in  1718,  and  is  now  in 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  It  is  jcnown  as  P  in  the  list 
of  uncials  of  the  X.  T.,  iias  the  Latin  Vulgate  in  parallel 
columns  to  the  Greek,  and  dales  from  the  ninth  century. 
Scrivener  issued  a  transcript  of  it.  Caml)ridge.  1S,5».  Sei>  F. 
II.  A.  Scrivener's  //(/(■O'/hc/'/oh.  ])p.  167-60;  C.  R.  Gregory, 
Protegomnid,  pp.  424-26. 

Allgior.  o>liw-ay',  Gi'illaimk  Vutoii  Kmii.k;  French 
dranuitisi  ;  b.  at  Valence.  Sept.  17,  1820;  has  contributed  a 
great  number  of  jiieces  to  tiu;  modern  French  stage.  His 
first  success  was  La  CiynP,  represented  at  the  Odeon  in 
1844.  In  1848  his  play  L'Arenturiire.  alter  the  man- 
ner of  the  Ronumtie  school,  was  acted  with  great  success, 
and  is  still  by  many  considered  his  nuisterpiece.  In  1849 
tinlirii-lte  was  not  merely  a  great  success  upon  the  stage, 
but  also  obtained  fro;n  the  French  Academy  the  Montyon 
prize  bei'ause  of  its  moral  tendency.  ()ther  plays  by  Augier 
are  Le.  Gendre  de  M.  Poirii'r,  written  with  JI."  J.  "Sandeau 
in  1855;  J/of/re  Oumn  (1864);  Paul  Forexticr  (1868); 
./''««  di-  Thommi'rai/  (187:5);  Madame  Carerli't  (1876);  I.cs 
Fourrhamliault  (1875).  Augier  became  ii  member  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1857.  He  is  the  chief  representative 
of  Ihe  school  of  French  dramalists  which.  su('eceding  the 
Ronumtieisls.  gave  up  the  extravagances  of  these,  though 
not  striving  for  the  complete  realism  of  the  moderns.  Thus 
his  dramas  have  generallv  a  moral  or  political  lendenev. 
D.  at  Croissy,  Oct.  25.  1880.  A.  R.  Marsh." 

Au'aritc  [from  Gr.  auyhiis.  name  of  a  stone  ;  atiyfi.  luster] : 
a  <rystalline  mineral  sometimes  called  Pyroxene,  is  nearly 
allied  to  hornblende.  It  often  occurs  in  volcanic  rocks,  is 
composed  of  silica,  lime,  and  magnesia,  and  is  nsu.illy  of  a 
jjreenish  color.     It  cry>tallizes  in  six  or  eight  sided  prisms 


variously  mollified,  and  is  an  essential  component  of  basalt, 
dolerite,  and  augile  porphyry. 

.Vilgs'lmrir  (anc.  Anyun'tn  Vindelico'rum):  an  ancient 
and  imjiorlaut  city  of  Germany,  in  Bavaria;  capital  of  the 
proviiue  of  .Swabia  and  X'euburg;  is  situated  on  the  river 
Lech,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wertacli,  39  miles  bv  rail  W.  N. 
W.  of  JIunich  ;  hit.  48°  21'  43"  N.,  Ion.  10"  ,54'  16'  E.  (see 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  7-E).  Several  railways  ex- 
tend from  il  toward  Ihe  four  cardinal  points,  and  connect 
it  with  Munich.  Xuremberg.  etc.  The  Roman  Emi>eror 
Augustus  jilautcd  a  colony  here  in  12  ii.  c.  Il  became  a 
free  imperial  city  in  1276.  after  which  it  was  an  important 
commercial  emporium.  This  city  was  also  one  of  the  chief 
centers  of  German  art,  and  the  native  place  of  Holbein.  It 
was  also  the  native  place  of  the  Fugger  family,  at  one  time 
the  richest  family  in  Europe.  Some  (lecliiie  in  its  prosperity 
occurred  after  l-50().  but  it  slill  has  an  extensive  trade  and 
many  large  manufactories  of  cotton,  silk,  machinery,  and 
paper.  Augsburg  is  one  of  the  principal  money-inarkels 
of  the  Continent,  and  owes  much  of  its  importance  to  its 
banking  business  and  operations  in  stocks.  The  Allge- 
iin'ine  Zcituru).  issued  in  Augsburg,  is  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated and  widely  circulated  journals  of  Germany.  Pop. 
(1890)  7.5..52:i,  one-third  Protestant. 

Augsburg  Confession  :  the  first  Protestant  Ccmfession  of 
Faith:  picscnted  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsluirg.  .luiie  25,  1.580.  When  the  Elector  John  of  Sax- 
ony was  summoned  to  the  Diet,  he  rec|uesled  the  Witten- 
berg thecilogians,  Luther.  iMelanchlhou.  Jonas,  and  Bugen- 
hageii.  to  ])repare  a  paper  .setting  forth  the  complaints  to 
be  made  concerning  abuses  in  the  Chun-h.  This  was  done 
by  them  with  considerable  haste  in  the  memoranda  known 
as  the  Torgau  Articles,  from  the  name  of  the  place  where 
the  last  notes  were  made.  Portions  of  these  memorandii 
wci—  elaborated  with  great  care.  Oilier  portions  consist 
sim|ily  of  disjointed  words  and  phrases,  intended  to  sug- 
gest Ihe  thought  to  Ihe  composer.  These  articles  may  be 
found  in  English  in  the  Book  of  Concord.  Jacobs,  PhiUidel- 
phi.a.  188;!.  vol.  ii.,  pji.  75-08. 

TiUther  having  been  left  at  Coburg,  Mclanehthon  accom- 
panied the  Elector  of  Saxony  to  Augsburg  as  his  chief 
theological  adviser.  As  they  reached  Augsburg  on  Jfay  2, 
and  the  emjieror  delayed  appearing  until  June  15.  aliundant 
time  was  giviMi  by  Mclanehthon.  in  eonsultatioii  with  Jonas, 
Regius,  Osiandcr.  Brenz.  and  other  theologians,  and  the 
princes  anil  representatives  of  the  slates  and  free  cities,  to 
formulate  the  confession.  A  paui])hlet  of  Dr.  Eek  having 
been  found  in  circulation,  charging  the  Lutherans  with 
some  of  the  gravest  heresies  thai  had  ever  appeared,  and 
confouniling  their  doctrines  with  those  of  the  Reformed 
and  Anabaptists,  rendered  it  necessary  for  Mclanehthon  to 
formulate  an  explicit  ami  complete  statement  of  the  doc- 
trines taught  by  Ihe  Lullierans.  The  Confession  therefore 
consists  of  two  parts.  The  Articles  (m  Abuses,  prepared  on 
the  basis  of  the  Torgau  Articles,  constitute  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  Confession.  To  this  were  prefaeeil  twenty- 
one  doctrinal  articles.  Of  these  the  last  two  are  based  on 
the  Torgau  Articles,  and  the  other  articles  principally 
upon  the  Marburg  Articles,  revised  at  Schwabaeh  in  Oct., 
1529.  Tiiese  articles  may  also  be  found  in  English  in  the 
volume  above  mentioned,  pji.  69-74.  During  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Confession  it  was  repeati'dly  submitted  in  rough 
drafts  to  Luther  and  approved  by  him.  and  discussed  sen- 
tence by  sentence  before  the  princes  and  theologians.  The 
introduction  was  written  by  the  Saxon  Chancellor  Briick. 
It  was  read  in  German  before  the  einperiu',  and  given  to 
him  in  both  German  and  Latin.  Both  of  Ihe  originals  soon 
disappeared.  As.  during  Ihe  i)re]iara1ion.  numerous  tran- 
scripts had  been  made,  and  unauthorized  editions  at  once 
appeared,  Melanchlhon  prepared  an  edition  in  both  German 
and  Latin,  whic-li  was  printed  even  before  the  adjournment 
of  the  Diet,  but  not  issued  until  the  following  year.  Me- 
lanchthon  afterward  undertook  in  editions  ]iublished  in 
1540  and  1543  lo  make  radical  changes  in  the  interests  of 
Church  uni(m  upon  a  less  definite  doctrin.-d  basis.  These 
editions  are  known  a.s  those  of  Ihe  Variala.  in  distinction 
from  Ihe  t'ditiii  jiriiicfpn  of  15:il,  known  as  Invariata. 
The  latter  alone  has  symbolic  authority  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  the  former  being  only  an  interesting  private  docu- 
ment, and,  with  the  exception  of  the  parts  intended  to  affect 
Ihe  terms  of  confes.sional  obligations,  an  important  exposi- 
tion and  defense  of  the  original  document.  Dr.  SchafI  has 
given  a  correct  estimate  of  it :  "  It  best  exhibits  I  he  prevail- 


408 


AUGUR 


AUGUSTA 


ing  genius  of  the  German  Reformation,  and  will  ever  be 
cherished  as  one  of  tiie  noblest  monuments  of  faith  from 
the  Pentecostal  periotl  of  Protestantism."  It  formed  the 
basis  not  only  of  ecclesiastical  but  also  of  political  guaran- 
tees, the  Keformed,  imtil  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648).  en- 
joying tolerance  in  Germany,  according  to  the  terms  of  the 
Peace  of  Augsburg  (1.5o")).  only  because  of  a  certain  degree 
of  agreemeut  with  the  Augsluirg  Confession.  The  efforts  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  Hngland,  from  1535  on.  to  enter  the  Smal- 
eald  "League  were  met  by  the  Lutheran  princes  with  the 
presentation  of  tlie  Augsburg  Confession  and  its  Apology 
for  adoption  as  the  necessary  ecclesiastical  preliminary  for 
civil  negotiations.  This  led  to  protracted  conferences  con- 
cerning the  Augstiurg  Confession  and  discussions  of  its  arti- 
cles, in  connection  with  which  English  theologians  (Fox, 
Heth,  and  Hiirnes)  were  sent  to  Wittenberg,  and  Ijutheran 
theologians  (Alyconiu.s,  etc.)  were  sent  to  England,  The 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  the  various  confessions  framed 
after  'them,  have  their  historical  origin  in  these  negotia- 
tions. (See  Jacobs,  The  Luflicraii  Movement  in  Enyland, 
Philadelpliia.  1801.)  The  earliest  trai}sIation  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  into  English  was  made  by  Richard  Taver- 
ner,  the  translator  of  the  Bible,  in  1536;  republished  in 
Philadelphia,  1HS8.  The  most  recent  is  the  thorough  revis- 
ion, on  the  liasis  of  Tavcrner,  [ircpared  for  the  Connnon  Serv- 
ice for  English-speaking  Lutherans,  and  jniblished  first  in 
the  Church  Book  of  the  General  Council,  Philadelphia,  IHStl. 
LiTER.vri'RE. — In  English :  Krauth,  Augsburg  Confession, 
with  Notes  (1868);  'I'lie  Conservative  Reformation  and  its 
Theoloi/i/  (1871);  ^1  Chronicle  oftlie  Augsburg  Confession 
•  (1878);  Jacobs,  T/ie  Hook,  of  Coiirurd,  with  Historical  In- 
troductions, etc.  (1882-83);  Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom, 
vol.  iii.  (1877);  B.  M.  Schmuekcr,  English  Translations  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession  (1887).  In  German:  G.  L.  Plitt, 
Einleitung  in  die  Augustana  (1867) ;  O.  Zcickler,  Die  Augs- 
burgische  Konfession  als  Sgnibotische  Lehrgrunde  (1870) ; 
A.  W.  Vilniar,  jiie  Ang.shnrgisclie  Konfession  erktdrt  (1870). 
Among  th<^  earlier  ciiMiuieiitators,  Carpzov,  Isagoge  in  Li- 
bros  l:ignibuliciis,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 

Henry  E.  Jacobs. 

Au'gnr :  among  the  ancient  Itomans,  a  soothsayer,  a  di- 
viner, a  person  who  [irotVssed  to  foretell  events  by  the  flight 
of  birds  or  other  omens.  The  augurs  were  supposed  to  be 
capable  of  inter|)reting  the  will  of  the  gods,  and  divinely 
gifted  with  special  qualifications  for  this  service.  Their  office 
was  considered  as  very  important  in  the  state,  no  public  en- 
terprise being  undertaken  unless  they  declared  the  omens 
favorable.  Their  divinations  were  called  auguries  or  au- 
spices, the  latter  uf  wliicli  terms,  though  properly  applied  to 
the  inspection  of  the  flight  of  birds,  was  extended  by  the 
Roman  writei's  to  other  signs.  In  the  earliest  period  of 
Roman  Iiistcuy  the  lunuber  of  augurs  was  only  two,  one 
from  each  of  the  tribes,  Ramnes  and  Tities;  in  300  b.  c, 
when  the  Ogulnian  law  was  jiassed,  tliere  were  four,  who 
must  be  patriei;nis.  The  law  rendered  the  plebeians  eligible 
to  the  ollice  of  augur,  and  increased  the  number  to  nine. 
Sulla  increased  the  number  to  fifteen:  Julius  Ca'sar  ap- 
pointed a  sixteenth,  but  after  him  the  college  remained  at 
fifteen.  The  augurs  lield  ollice  for  life,  and  had  the  power 
of  filling  vacancies  that  occurred  in  their  college. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Augur.  Christoi'Uer  Colon:  soldier;  b.  1821  in  New  York; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  184;i;  in  infantry  till  Mar.  4, 
186U,  wIkmi  he  became  brigadier-general  U.  S.  army.  He 
served  chiefiy  at  frontier  posts  1843-61,  in  the  militarv  occu- 
pation of  Texas  1845-46,  in  the  war  with  Mexico  1846-48. 
engaged  at  Palo  Alto,  Kesaca  de  la  Palma,  ami  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  Brig.-Gens.  Hopping  and  Cushiug,  scouting  and  on 
expeditions  against  Nnilhcrn  Pacific  Indians  18,5.5-56,  en- 
gaged in  several  skirmishes,  and  as  counnandant  of  cadets 
at  Military  Academy  1861.  In  the  civil  war  became,  Aug.  9, 
1863,  major-general  U.  S.  Vols.,  and  served  in  the  defenses 
of  Washingron  1861-62.  in  operations  on  Kappahaunock  and 
in  the  Shenaralriah  valley  1862,  in  command  of  a  division  in 
the  Fifth  Corps  1862,  engaged  at  Cedar  Muuntaiu  (severelv 
woundecl  ami  brevet -colonel),  in  (ien.  Banks's  expedition  to 
New  Orleans  1862;  in  coiinnan<l  of  the  district  o(  Baton 
Rouge  1863,  in  expedition  to  Fort  Hudson  1863  (brevet 
brigadier-general),  engaged  in  action  and  siege  of  the  place; 
in  comnninil  of  depart uwnt  of  Washington  1863-66,  of  the 
Platte  1867-71,  and  of  Texas  since  1871.  Brevet  major-gen- 
eral Mar.  13,  1865,  f'oi'  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in 
the  fielil.     Retired  July  10,  1885.        Georoe  W.  Cl-lllm. 


Augrur,  Hezekiah:  sculptor;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Feb.  21, 1791  ;  was  also  noted  for  mechanical  ingenuity.  He 
invente<l  a  carving-machine  wliich  is  in  general  use,  and  as 
sculptor  produced  Jeplithali  and  his  Daughter.  1).  at  New 
Haveu.  Jan.  10,  1858. 

August  [Ijat.  Augustus:  in  Fr.  Aoiit]  :  the  eighth  month 
of  the  year,  so  named  in  honor  of  Augustus  Ca'sar.  Before 
his  time  it  was  called  Sej'tilis — that  is,  the  sixth  month, 
because  the  Komiin  year  once  began  on  the  1st  of  JIarch.  In 
the  calendar  of  Julius  Cicsar  the  first,  third,  fifth,  seventh, 
ninth,  and  eleventh  months  consisted  each  of  thirty-one  days, 
and  each  of  the  other  months  of  thirty,  except  Februarv, 
which  in  connnon  years  had  twenty-nine,  and  in  lea)i-year 
thirty  days.  To  gratify  the  vanity  of  Augustus,  one  day" was 
taken  from  February  and  added  to  August. 

Augusta :  a  seaport  of  Sicily.     See  Agosta. 

Augusta:  city  and  important  railroad  and  commercial 
center;  comity-seat  of  Richmond  co.,  Ga.  (for  lot^ation  of 
county,  see  map  of  Georgia,  ref,  3-J);  the  third  city  in  size 
in  the  State  ;  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Savannah  river, 
231  miles  from  its  mouth,  120  N.  N.  W.  of  Savannah,  and 
136  X.  W.  of  Charleston.  It  is  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation  on  the  Savannah.  Lat.  33'  28'  X..  Ion.  81 '  ,54'  W. 
From  its  [losition  it  is  actively  engaged  in  the  cotton-trade, 
receiving  annually  aboid  200,000  bales  from  a  considerable 
portion  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  Augusta  also  fur- 
nishes a  good  market  for  the  general  produce  of  its  region. 
For  many  years  it  was  the  center  of  the  wagon-trafiic,  send- 
ing out  goods  in  all  directions  in  the  great  lumbering  wagons 
of  that  linie,  and  receiving  cotton  and  produce  in  return. 
After  the  railroads  began  to  break  up  this  trade  the  city  de- 
clined for  a  time,  but  soon  regained  its  trade,  and  is  now  en- 
terprising and  prosperous.  The  Augusta  canal  brings  the 
waters  of  the  Savannah  river  from  above  the  city  at  such  an 
elevation  as  to  give  a  head  of  water-power  of  33  feet. 

Manufactures. — Augusta  is  one  of  the  largest  numufactur- 
ing  centers  of  the  South.  The  census  of  1890  showed  417 
manufactories ;  capital,  lj!7,075,996;  average  number  of  hands 
employed,  5,861;  w;iges  paid  during  the  year,  $1,88(5,807 ; 
value  of  )ir(iduels,  .$8,631,888.  The  city  has  now  cotton-mills 
alone  valued  at  nearly  $6,000,000,  besides  the  Granitevilh' 
and  Langley  col  ton-mills  (across  the  river  in  South  Carolina), 
which  are  practically  a  part  of  its  manufacturing  system. 
These  cotton-factories  employ  4.500  hands;  pay  .$1,000,000 
in  annual  wages;  o|ierate  5,419  looms  and  213,114  spindles, 
which  spin  annually  80,000  bales  of  cotton  into  85,000,000 
yards  of  cloth  and  3,000.000  lb.  of  yarn,  worth  in  the  aggre- 
gate over  $6,000,000.  These  factory-buildings  are  very  hand- 
some, two  of  them  being  worth  over  $1,000,000  each.  Won: 
are  also  extensive  manufactures  of  fertilizers,  flour,  iron, 
lumber,  ice,  cotton-seed  oil,  tobacco,  etc. 

Education,  etc. — Augusta  has  a  medical  school,  the  Medi- 
cal College  of  Georgia,  founded  in  1830,  a  deiiai'tment  of 
the  State  Universitv  at  Alliens.  It  has  .also  an  incorporated 
academy  called  the  "Richmond  Academy,  the  Paine  Institute, 
a  private  normal  school,  3  high  schools  (one  for  c<ilored 
pupils),  and  numerous  gr.immar,  intermediate,  and  primary 
si'liools.  The  city  has  2  hospitals  connected  with  the  medi- 
cal college,  a  Masonic  hall,  the  Augusta  Orphan  Aspluiu, 
richly  endowed,  2  Itoman  Catholic  orphan  asylums,  a  widows' 
home,  and  oilier  clniritable  institutions, 

I'ulilic  Uiiililiui/s  and  Monuments. — Among  the  principal 
are  the  cily-hall,  ()dd  Fellows'  hall,  the  Masonic  hall.  Kich- 
mond  Academy,  the  medical  college,  the  o|iera-honse.  Inde- 
pendence and  Confederate  monuments,  and  several  of  the 
churches. 

Streets,  Avenues,  etc. — These  are  spacious  and  elegant. 
The  principal  streets.  Broad  and  Greene,  have  double  rows 
of  wide-spre.-idinglri'es  on  I'acli  siiie  of  the  commoilious  high- 
ways. Broad  Street  is  paved  with  asphalt,  and  is  120  feet 
wide.  The  residences  on  lower  Broad  and  Gi-eene  and  other 
streets  are  tasteful  and  elegiint.  The  streets  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles.  There  is  a  well-regulated  poli<'e  force.  The 
city  cemetery,tlie  Park,  anil  the  Augusta  Exposition  grounds 
near  the  city,  are  laid  out  in  fine  walks  and  drives,  and  are 
favorite  jilaees  of  resort.  There  is  a  borse-railniad  from  the 
city  to  Summervillc,  a  beautiful  suburb,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  noted  resorts  in  the  South  for  winter  tourists  and  in- 
valids. Water  is  supplied  to  the  city  from  the  Augusia 
canal,  which  has  been  enlarged  and  its  power  greatly  in- 
creased. Augu.sta  is  lighted  with  electric  lights.  Pop.  (1880) 
21.891 ;  (t890)33.3()0(a  police  census  taken  immediately  after 
the  U.  S.  census  showed  several  thousand  more). 


AUGUSTA 


AUGUSTIJTE 


409 


J{i,ilorij. — Aiifni-^lii  w'ii-^  scttk'il  by  Enfjli^li  ciilnnists  iinilor 
Oglelhorpf,  and  liiiil  out  in  ITitt  uiidiT  rnyal  charter,  anil 
was  naincfl  in  lionor  of  an  Knj;lisli  |irincfss.  It  was  again 
churtcreil  in  Jan.,  ITIIH.  and  incoriioiated  as  a  c-ity  in  Dec, 
1817.  It  Wiis  for  many  years  the  m<jst  important  inland  town 
of  the  colony.  It  had  acqnired  a  eonsidcrahle  trade  at  the 
eommoncenient  of  llie  Kevolntionary  war,  Init  in  the  hesin- 
niiis;  of  ITTit  wa.s  captured  hy  the  IJritish  and  loyalists,  who 
held  possession  of  it  till  the  spring  of  17H1.  when  tlu;  British 
force  there  was  commanded  by  a  loyalist  namnl  Krown.  (In 
May  2.!,  1T81,  an  .Vmerican  force  under  commaml  of  (ien. 
Henry  Lee  ("  Liirht  Horse  IlaiTy  ")  laiil  siege  to  it,  and  on 
June  5  Brown  surrenflered.  The  Americans  lost  51  killed 
anil  wounded  :  the  liritish  lost  ■)2  killed,  and  :i:i4.  iucludiiig 
the  wounded,  were  taken  prisonei-s.  .\iigusla  was  the  capital 
of  Georgia  for  a  number  of  years  after  the  Kevolutionary 
war.  During  the  war  of  1812  or  the  Indian  wars  it  was  not 
molested.  In  the  civil  war  it  was  garrisoned  by  the  Con- 
federate troops,  and  twice  threatened  by  .Sherman — in  his 
march  to  the  sea,  when  he  passed  between  it  anil  M.icon  ; 
and  in  his  march  through  the  Carolina.s,  when  he  nuide  feints 
against  both  .Vugusta  and  Charleston — but  it  was  not  visited 
by  a  hostile  force.  I'rksidext  ok  "Tue  Chro.mcle." 

.\llgiistu :  town  (founded  in  1880);  on  C.  B.  and  Q.  R.  K. ; 
Hancock  co..  III.  (for  local  ion  of  county,  see  maj)  of  Illinois. 
ref.  'T-B);  37  miles  N".  K.  of  (^uincy;  has  publii'  school  and 
3  churches.  Its  principal  industries  are  stock-raising,  farm- 
ing, coal-mining,  and  llouring.  Fine  potter's  clav  and  min- 
eral paint  are  produceil.  Pop.  (1880)  l.OIo:  (IM'.JO)  1.07!); 
(18U2)  l.loO.  EuiToR  OF  ■■  Eacle." 

An^iista  :  city;  Butler  co..  Kan.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  7-11);  loO  miles  S.  W.  of  Topeka.  the 
State  capital ;  is  in  a  wheat-growing  district.  Pop.  (1880) 
932;  (IHSo)  1.47G;  (1800)  1,3«  ;  (189.'))  1,02.5, 

Aiij^ustik :  city;  Brjuken  co.,  Ky.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  mafi  of  Kentucky,  ref.  2-1);  ou  railroad  and  on  the  Ohio 
river,  4.5  miles  above  Cincinnati:  has  2  pulilic  schools,  2  pri- 
vate schools,  a  flouring-mill,  a  saw  and  pl.-ming  mill,  a  har- 
ness-supply factory,  23  leaf-tobacco  warehouses,  and  2  news- 
papers. I^op.  (1870)  960;  (1880)  1,282;  (I8i»0)  1,447;  (1892, 
estimated)  1,600.  Editor  ok  "Chron-icle."' 

Augusta  :  city ;  capital  of  the  State  of  JIaine,  and  seat  of 
justice  of  Kennebec  co.  (for  location  of  county,  sei'  map  of 
Maine,  ref.  !)-(') ;  on  the  Kennebec  river,  at  the  head  of  tidal 
navigation,  43  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  03  miles  liv  railroad 
N.  N'.  E.  of  Portland;  hit.  44'  lO'  N..  Ion.  OiC  .-)0'\V.  The 
main  division  of  the  Maine  Central  U.  K.  pas.scs  through  it. 


.....   Lupitol,  Augu.^;,i,  ::. 

The  chief  part  of  the  city  is  on  the  right  (west)  bank  of  the 
river,  and  many  of  the  residences  stand  on  ground  which  is 
nuich  higher  than  the  river.  The -State-house  isa  hand.some 
granite  struct  nre.  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in  IM'.M)  at  a  co.st  of 
iJbjO.OOO.  Atnong  the  public  institutions  are  a  hospital  for 
the  insane,  a  f.  S.  arsenal,  and  St.  Catharine's  school  for 
young  liulies.  Augusta  has  abundant  water-power,  which  is 
employed  in  manufactures  of  cotton-goods,  paper,  wood-pulp. 


and  lumber.  The  city  has  a  free  library  and  the  JIaine  State 
Library.  The  National  .Military  Asylum  is  outside  the  city 
limits.  Nearly  all  the  business  portion  of  Augusta  was  con- 
suraeil  by  fire  in  Sept.,  18(i5.  The  city  is  growing  rapidly, 
has  fine  water-works, electric  light,  electric  street-railway, etc. 
.\  U.  S.  building,  for  post-office,  pension  office,  U.  S.  court, 
etc..  was  erected  in  1889  at  a  cost  of  |191,000.  Pop.  (1870) 
7,808;  (1880)8,665;  (1890)  10,527. 

JiuiroR  OK  "  Kexmebec  Jourxai,." 

Aiiarnsfa:  city:  on  C,  St.  P.,  M.  and  0.  R.  K.s.;  Eau  Claire 
CO..  Vi'is.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref. 
4-C) ;  22  miles  E.  .S.  E.  of  Kim  Claire;  is  situated  in  an 
agricultural  and  lumber  region.  Pop.  (1880)  1,116;  (1885) 
1/263;  (ISIIO)  1,187;  (189.5)  l',3.56. 

Aligustau  .Vgp :  the  reign  of  Augustus,  first  Emperor  of 
Rome,  under  whom  Roman  literature  reached  its  highest 
development.  (Jvid,  Horace,  Cicero,  Vergil,  and  Catullus, 
are  among  the  famous  names  of  this  period. 

AiigustanaCoMpKP  and  Tlicologrical  Seminary:  found- 
ed in  Chicago  in  18H0;  renu>ved  to  I'axton,  III.,  in  1863,  and 
to  Rock  Island,  III.,  in  1875.  It  is  the  educational  center  of 
the  Lutheran  Augustana  Synod,  and  comprises  six  depart- 
ments of  instructions — theological,  collegiate,  preparatory, 
musical,  commercial,  and  normal— with  27  professors  and 
510  students.  It  has  a  mu.seum,  and  a  library  of  16,000  vol- 
umes and  pamphlets.  The  seminary  is  designed  to  train 
young  men  for  the  Lutheran  ministry.  The  collegiate  in- 
struction embraces  the  usual  four  years'  classical  and  scien- 
tific courses  as  well  as  post-graduate  study.  Presidents;  L. 
P.  Esbjorn,  1860;  T.  N.  Hasselquist,  1863";  0.  Olsson,  1891. 

Angnstan  History:  a  collection  of  biograiihies  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  from  Hadrian  to  Xumeriaiuis  and  Carinns, 
i.  e.  from  117-284.  which  in  the  MSS.  bears  the  title  Vitce 
diversorum  pnnriptim  et  fi/r(inniirum  n  dim  Hadricinn  vsqne 
ad  Xtimrrianfim  n  divfrxis  rnjipnxHtP.  While  containing 
much  valuable  information,  the  biographies  are  uncritical, 
ill-arranged,  with  no  sense  of  proportion,  full  of  trivial 
anecdotes,  and  with  no  pretension  to  style  or  classical  cor- 
rectness. The  work  apjiears  to  have  been  compiled  at  the 
end  of  the  third  and  tlie  beginning  of  the  fourth  century 
by  six  writers,  namely :  .,TCIius  .Spartianns,  Julius  Capitoli- 
nus,  Vulcacius  tiallicaims,  Trebellius  Pollio,  ji^lius  Lam- 
pridius,  and  Flavins  Vopiscus.  Of  these  writers  no  bio- 
graphical details  are  known,  and  their  very  existence  has 
recently  been  called  in  question  by  scholars  who  would 
brand  the  whole  collection  as  the  forgery  of  one  individual, 
a  view,  however,  which  has  been  sufficiently  refuted  by  F,. 
Klebs  in  the  liheuii-trlifx  .l/w.sf«m  for  18!I2.  vol.  xlvii..pp. 
1-52  and  515-549.    Best  edition  by  II.  Peter  (Leipzig.  1884). 

>I.   \V.\RREN. 

Aiignsti,  JOHAXX  Christian'  Wilhelm;  b.  at  Eschen- 
berga,  near  Gotha,  Germany.  Oct.  27,  1772:  studied  at  Jena, 
where  he  became  a  professor  extraordinary  in  1800,  Profes- 
sor of  Oriental  Literature  in  1803,  and  Professorof  Theology 
in  1807.  In  1812  he  became  Professor  of  Theology  at  Bres- 
lau,  and  in  1819  at  Bonn.  In  1833  he  became  director  of 
the  Conservatory  at  Coblentz.  where  he  died,  Apr,  28,  1841. 
Me  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  an  orthodox  conservative 
L\itlieran.  His  writings  are  valued  as  books  of  reference, 
though  they  are  not  without  serious  faults.  His  best-known 
worksare  Denkiri'irdijikeilcn  aiix  derchrixtlichm  Airliaologie 
(12  vols.,  Leipzig,  18I7-;!1);  Ilnndhiich  der  clnixf/irhen  Ar- 
clidolnific  (3  vols..  1836-3i).  He  published  various  other 
works,  historical  and  dogmatical. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksom. 

An'giistine  (in  Jjixt.  Aure'liiis  Aiiffiis/i'iius),  Saixt:  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of  the  Church;  b.  at 
Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  Nov.  13,  353  A.  D.  He  was  a  son  of  a 
pagan  father  and  a  Christian  mother  (Monica  or  Monnica), 
an  excellent  and  devout  woman,  by  whom  he  was  instructed 
in  religion.  Educated  at  the  best  schools  of  Madaura  and 
Carthage,  he  learned  rhetoric,  the  Greek  language,  philos- 
ophy, etc.  When, at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  entered  the  great 
city  of  Carthage  to  complete  his  education,  he  was  an  eager, 
ambitions  student  and  a  youth  of  ardent  pas.sioiis,  with  a 
propensity  to  sensual  pleasure.  ,\bout  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  M.Miiiilueans,  and  returned  to 
Tagaste,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  and  grammar.  He  ad- 
hered to  Manicha'ism  alwut  nine  years,  during  [lart  of  whic'h 
he  lectured  on  rhetoric  at  Carthage.  In  the  meantime  his 
mother,  by  her  prayei-s  and  exhortations,  strove  to  convert 
him  to  Christianity,  without  success.      He  wrote  at  Car 


410 


AUGUSTINE 


AUGUSTUS  III. 


thage  in  his  twenty-sevpiith  year  a  treatise,  De  Apto  d  Pul- 
cJiro.  whioh  is  not  extant.  At  length  he  perceived  that  tlie 
mystical  [jhrases  and  futile  s]ieculations  of  the  JIanicha'ans 
were  not  capable  of  satisfyiiif;  the  wants  of  his  spirit- 
ual nature.  Much  perplexed  with  doulits  and  unrest,  he 
removed  in  38:3  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Milan,  where  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Khetoric  in  384.  He  was  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  Platonic  ])liilos(iiihy.  and  after  he  renounced 
Jlanicha'ism  studied  the  liihje  from  a  Platonic  point  of 
view.  The  sermons  of  St.  Amiirose.  tlieu  Bishop  of  Mil- 
an, made  a  deep  impression  on  him.  and  after  severe  spirit- 
ual conflicts  he  became  a  Christian  and  was  baptized  on 
Easter  Eve,  387.  In  388  he  went  l)ack  to  Tagaste,  was  or- 
dained presljytcr  at  Hippo  in  391,  associate  bishop  in  39.5,  and 
bishop  in  396.  Among  his  earlier  writings  was  a  treatise 
against  the  Manicha^xns  {Dp.  Genesi  contra  JfatiicJireos).  and 
On  True  ]\i-liiii(m  (De  Vera  liellgione).  He  published  about 
397  his  Coiifeaaions.  in  thirteen  books,  a  very  interesting 
autobiography.  He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  Pelagianism, 
against  wlucli  he  wrote  two  treatises,  entitled  On  the  Grace 
of  Chrint  and  Un  Oriyimil  Sin.  Semi-Pelagianism  was  op- 
posed by  him.  in  428,  in  two  famous  treatises  on  Predestina- 
tion and  on  Perseverance.  He  also  wrote  vigorously  against 
the  Donatists.  He  finished  about  426  a  work,  ])e  Civitate 
Dei  (On  the  City  of  God),  which  is  regarded  as  the  great- 
est monument  of  his  genius  and  learning.  One  aim  of  this 
book  was  to  vindicate  the  Christian  faith  against  those 
pagans  who  asserted  that  the  capture  of  Rome  by  Alaric 
ami  ot  tier  calamities  were  conse(iuences  of  the  prevalence  of 
the  new  religion.  Near  the  end  of  his  life  he  wrote  the 
Jtetractatione-t.  in  whicli  he  reviewed  carefully  all  his  own 
works.  Otiier  important  treatises  are  the  De  Dodrina 
C/iriafiana  and  the  De  Trinitate.  He  leftbeliind  him  also 
cxegetical  treatises,  sermons,  and  letters  in  great  number. 
Tlie  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  bv  the  Bene- 
dictines at  Paris  (11  tom.  in  8  vols.  fol..  1679-1700).  He 
died  at  Ilipi)o  while  that  city  was  besieged  by  the  Vandals, 
Aug.  28.  430.  His  character  and  writings  exerted  an  im- 
mense and  durable  influence  on  the  Church.  "Of  all  the 
Fathers  of  tlie  Latin  C'hureh,"  says  VillenKiin.  "St.  Au- 
gustine manifested  tlie  most  imagination  in  theology,  the 
most  eloquence,  and  even  sensibility,  in  scholasticism."  For 
leai'ning  his  reputation  is  not  so  higli.  He  w-as  a  poor 
Cireek  scliolar,  and  knew  nothing  of  Hebrew.  See  the  bi- 
ography in  Latin  by  Possidius  (the  original  source,  written 
432,  in  Benedictine  edition),  the  Benedictine  editiirs  (in 
their  edition  very  elaborate),  and  by  G.  Jloringo  (Antwerp, 
1533) ;  in  French  by  L.  S.  Le  N.  de  Tillemont  (Mi'nioires 
^ccUniaiitiejueii,  torn,  xiii.)  and  .1.  J.  F.  Poujoiilat  (Paris,  1844, 
3  vols.;  5th  ed.  1866.  3  vols.);  in  German  bv  F.  A.  G. 
Kloth  (R.  C. :  AaeJien,  1840,  2  vols.)  and  C.'Bindemann 
(Protc'stant :  Berlin,  1844-69,  3  vols.);  in  English  bv  W.  R. 
Clark  (London,  n.  d.)  and  Philip  Schaff  (New  York,  1886) 
— there  is  an  Kngli.'ih  trans,  nf  his  i-liicf  wm-ks  (Edinburgh. 
1873-76,  15  vols.),  ed.  by  Philip  Schalf,  reprinted  and  en- 
larged (New  York,  Christian  Literature  Com|iany,  1886-88, 
8  \'ols.).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jaikson. 

Aiis:ustine.  or  Austin.  Saint  ;  the  "  apostle  of  England  " 
and  first  Arclibishop  of  Canterluiry.  He  was  a  Benedictine 
monk,  connected  witli  a,  monastery  in  Rome,  wlien  lie  was 
sent  by  Po])e  (iregory  I.  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons,  in 
.'596  A.  1).  He  was  received  aniicalily  by  King  Elhelbert, 
whose  wife  Bertha  was  already  a  Christian,  lie  converted 
Ethelbert.  and  is  said  to  have  baptizeil  10.000  of  his  sub- 
jects. Augustine  was  consecrated  archbisho)i  tit  Aries  in 
France  by  thi^  Metropoliliin  of  ,\rles,  Vergilius.  Seeking 
an  interview  with  the  Uritish  bishops  who  claimed  a  direct 
succession  from  the  apostles'  days,  seven  of  these  prelates 
met  Augusliiie  on  the  borders  of  Wcssex,  accompanied  by 
tli(^  monks  from  the  great  monastery  of  Bang<H'  and  a  large 
nunilier  of  Mritish  priests.  These  bishops  refused  to  admit 
the  |irimacy  of  Augustine,  and  the  results  of  the  conrereiice 
were  far  from  being  satisfactory  to  either  party.  The  per- 
maueiil  results  of  the  l.-ibors  of  Augustine  were  limited  to 
the  kiiigdum  of  Kent,  wliere  tliey  began.  I),  at  Caiitei-liurv, 
May  26.  (i07.  See  W.  F.  Hook's  Lives  of  the  Arrhlii.tliops 
of  Cantrrliuri/.  "      W,  S.  Pi:rhv. 

Aiiirnstiii'iaii  Monks:  a  monastic  order  of  the  Roman 
t'athoHc  (liiirdi.  This  oi-iler  was  formerly  divided  into 
t  liree  classes,  of  which  two  still  remain  :  1.  Canons  Kefinlar. 
— This  class  of  ecclesiastics  originated  at  Avignon  in  the 
vear  1038,  by  authority  of  Bishop  Benedict  of  Avignon. 
Phev  were  called  Canons  Regular  because  their  ranks  were 


recruited  from  the  lay  and  clerical  canons  who  had  not  pre- 
viously taken  monastic  vows.  They  assumed  the  name  and 
rule  of  Augustine  in  1139.  They  had  170  houses  in  Eng- 
land and  28  in  Scotland.  2.  The  so-called  Hermits  of  St. 
Augustine,  one  of  the  four  great  mendicant  orders  of  the 
Church.  Tliis  body  incorrectly  claims  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  St.  Augu.stine.  Its  true  origin  was  in  1256.  when 
Pope  Alexander  IV.  compelled  eight  small  bodies  of  Italian 
monks  to  unite  in  one  order  under  1  lie  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  exeni]ited  them  from  the  Jurisdiction  of  bishops.  The 
Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  have  now  about  200  houses.  They 
are  much  diminished  in  importance.  The  Special  Congre- 
gations consisted  of  those  August inians  who  desired  a  severer 
rule  and  better  disciyiline  than  commonly  prevailed  in  the 
order.  Jlartiii  Luther  was  a  member  of  the  Special  Con- 
gregation of  Saxony.  3.  The  Barefooted  Augustinians 
originated  in  1.582,  by  command  of  the  King  of  Spain.  They 
have  a  very  severe  rule.  The  number  of  monasteries  in  1860 
was  about  fifteen.  This  class  is  nearly  or  quite  independent 
of  the  former. 

An^ustinian  Nuns  date  themselves  back  to  the  com- 
pany of  nuns  gathered  at  Hippo  by  Perpetua,  the  sister  of 
Augustine.  They  are  now  of  four  classes:  First,  those 
under  the  guidance  of  Augustinian  monks;  secondly,  those 
under  the  control  of  diocesan  bishops :  thirdly,  barefooted 
nuns;  fourthly.  Augustines  of  the  Interior  of  Mary.  See 
"Sligne's  Dictionnaire  des  ordres  Jieligieu.i;  tom.  iv,;  Dug- 
dale,  Onomasficon.  vi.  37. 

Augus'tnlus,  Romulus:  the  last  Roman  cm|5eror  of  the 
West;  a  son  of  (h'estes,  a  rich  patrician.  He  obtained  the 
title  of  empei-or  in  475  A.  D.,  and  was  deposed  by  Odoacer  in 
476. 

Angns'tns :  a  Latin  word  equivalent  to  the  Gr.  Se^oo-rcis, 
and  signifying  "  majestic,"  "  sacred,"  '•  venerable."  It  was 
a  name  or  surname  conferred  on  Caius  Julius  Cipsar  Octavi- 
anus  by  the  Roman  Senate.  27  b.  c. 

Augustus  (or  August)  I.:  Elector  of  Saxony;  a  son  of 
Henry  the  Pious;  b.  at  Freiberg,  .luly  31,  1526,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  bi'other  Maurice  in  1553.  He  was  an  intolerant 
promoter  of  Lutheranism,  and  persecuted  the  Calvinists,  but 
was  a  liberal  ]iatron  of  learning,  and  under  his  administra- 
tion the  manufactures,  agriculture,  and  commerce  of  the 
country  were  greatly  promoted  and  improved ;  he  also  in- 
troduced some  valuable  reforms  in  jurisprudence.  He  was 
chieflv  instrumental  in  negotiating  the  jieace  of  Augsburg 
(1.5.55)".  He  died  at  Dresden,  Feb.  12,  1586,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son.  Christian  I. 

Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  (and  Augustus  I.  of  Poland): 
b.  at  I)resilen,  May  12,  1670;  was  second  .son  of  .John  (Tcorge 
III..  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Anna  Sojihia  of  Denmark.  He 
possessed  extraordinary  jihysical  streiigtli,  and  was  not  de- 
ficient ill  mental  faculties.  lie  became  Elector  of  Saxony  on 
the  death  of  his  lirother  in  1694.  and  was  elected  King  of 
Poland  in  1697.  having,  for  the  sake  of  the  crown,  adopted 
the  Roman  C.'itholic  religion.  His  competitor  in  this  elec- 
tion was  tlie  French  Prince  of  Conti.  Augustus  formed 
about  1700  an  alliance  with  Peter  the  Great  against  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  in  several  liattles 
By  a  treaty  signed  in  1700  he  renounced  the  crown  of  Po- 
land, whicli  Charles  XII.  gave  to  Stanislas  Lesczynski.  In 
consequence  of  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.  by  the  Rns.sians 
in  1709.  Augustus  recovered  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  as  an 
ally  of  Peter  the  Great  w'aged  war  against  Sweden  for  sev- 
eral yeai's.  Augustus  was  luxurious,  licentious,  and  fond  of 
splendor.  He  squandered  the  revenues  of  Saxony  on  his 
mistresses  and  on  alchemists,  whom  In-  patronized.  He  had 
many  illegitimate  chihlreu,  among  whom  was  the  famous 
IMauriee  of  Saxony  (Mar.shal  Saxe).  He  died  in  Warsaw, 
Feb.  1,  1733,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Augu.stus.  See 
Fassmanu  and  Uovn,  Priedrich  August  des  GrossenLehen 
(1734);  Desroches  de  VnrWu-nay,  ITistoire  de  Pologne  sous  le 
lioi  Auguste  IT.  (4  vols.,  1734.)' 

Augustus  III.,  Freiif.rick  :  King  of  Poland  :  b.  at  Dres- 
den. I  let.  7.  1696 ;  was  a  son  of  the  )jreceding.  He  was  infe- 
rior in  talents  to  his  father.  Having  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  he  married,  in  171!!.  Maria  .losephine,  a 
daughter  of  .Joseph.  Emiicror  of  .\iisl ri;i.  In  1733  he  be- 
came Elector  of  Saxony,  and  was  chosen  King  of  Poland  by 
a  jiarty  of  the  Diet.  Favored  by  the  courts  of  Austria  and 
Russia,  he  (irevailcd  over  his  rival  Stanislas.  In  1743  he 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  pjm|iress  jMaria  Theresa  again.st 
Frederick  the  Great,  who  defeated  the  Saxons  in  1745  and 


I 


AUGUSTUS 


AUK 


411 


captured  Dresden.  This  war  was  ended  in  1746.  but  Au- 
gustus was  soon  involved  in  tlie  Seven  Veal's  war,  wliieli  be- 
gan in  1755,  and  liis  army  wa:>  again  <lof(?aled  by  llie  Prus- 
sians. He  died  in  Dresden.  Oet.  5,  176*!,  and  his  son,  Fred- 
erick Clirislian,  then  became  Elector  o£  Saxony. 

Ailgriistlis,  Wri.i.iAM:  Prince  of  Prussia;  a  younger  brotlier 
of  Frederick  the  (Ireat:  b.  at  Berlin,  Aug.  '.).  1722.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Hohen-Fricdberg  in  1745,  became  a 
general  of  infantry,  and  displayed  skillful  generalshiii  at  the 
battle  of  Lowositz  in  17.')6.  lie  died  at  Oranicnburg,  .June 
12,  17.5.S,  anil  left  a  son,  who  became  King  Fredio-ick  Will- 
iam 1 1. 

Ailgiisfiis  ('a>'sar,  or  simjily  .\iigiistiis  (called  in  his 
\(iuth Cahs  OiTAvirs,  and  Caii's  Julil's  C.ksak  Octavianus 
iifter  he  became  the  heir  of  t'a'sar  the  dictator):  the  first 
l{oman  emperor;  b.  at  Vclitra",  Sept.  2:i.  (i:>  a.  r.  He  was  the 
sou  of  t'aius  Octavius,  a  senator,  and  Attia,  wlio  was  a  niece 
of  Julius  Ca'sjir.  His  father  having  died  58  B.  c.,  his  mother 
was  married  to  L.  Jlarcius  Philippus.  who  directed  the  edu- 
cation of  young  Octavius.  At  the  age  of  sixtec-n  he  assumed 
the  toga  ririlin.  and  was  ado[)tcd  as  a  son  l)y  .lulius  C'a>sar, 
whom  he  attended  in  Ids  expedition  to  Spain  in  45  n.  c.  He 
became  a  pupil  of  Apollodorus  of  Pcrgamus,  under  whom 
hi' was  pursuing  his  studies  at  Apollouia  when  Ca'sar  was 
killed.  .Mar.  1.5.  44  B.C.  As  he  had  been  appointed  the  heir 
of  the  dictator,  he  hastened  to  Kome  to  claim  his  inheritance. 
Mark  Antony,  who  then  had  the  chief  power  iu  Kome.  re- 
fused to  deliver  the  property  and  papers  of  the  late  dictator. 
Octavius  temporized. and  in  the  turbulent  and  critical  times 
that  eusueil  cxhiliitcd  the  pryulence  and  astuteness  of  a  ma- 
ture |iolitician.  He  gained  the  favor  of  the  Senate,  whicli 
in  .Ian.,  4:!  B.  c.,  gave  him  the  command  of  an  army, 
which  defeated  thai  of  Antony  near  Mutina  (llodena).  The 
adhesion  of  the  army  to  his  interest  enabled  him  now  to 
defy  the  authority  of  the  Senate.  He  marched  to  Home, 
was  elected  consul  in  Aug.,  4;S,  and  formed  a  triumvirate 
with  Antony  and  Ijcpidus  against  15rutus,  Cassius,  and  the 
Senate.  Antony  an<l  Octavius  defeated  Brutus  aiul  Cassius 
in  tlii^  ilei'isive  battle  of  Philippi  in  42  li.  c,  and.  to  contirni 
their  power,  proscribed  and  massacred  thousands  of  their 
opponents  in  Italy.  Augustus  then  obtained  control  of  Italy 
by  a  new  division  of  the  provinces,  but  dissensions  .soon 
aro.se  between  him  and  Antony,  who  had  coiumanil  in  Asia, 
An  open  rupture  was,  however,  po.'it  poued,  and  Antony  mar- 
ried (X'tavia,  the  sister  of  his  great  rival.  .About  :iS  b.  c.  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed  for  another  period  of  five  year.s, 
during  which  Octavius  and  Antony  were  virtually  nuisters 
of  the  Komau  world,  Octavius  defeated  Sextos  I'ompey  in 
battle  in  the  year  ;!(i,  and  was  chosen  consul  for  the  second 
time  in  33.  In  the  meantime,  Antony,  infatuated  with 
Cleopatra,  neglected  Ins  own  interests,  and  by  his  ill-treat- 
ment of  Oetuvia  broke  the  only  bond  of  union  with  his  col- 
league. The  contest  for  supreme  power  was  decided  by  a 
great  naval  victory  whicli  Octavius  gaitu'il  at  Adium  in  .31 
B.C.,  after  which  he  was  the  sole  master  of  the  Komau  em- 
pire. He  was  subsecpiently  chosen  consul  several  times,  and 
profes.sed  an  intention  to  restore  the  republic,  but  he  usurped 
absolute  power,  partly  disguised  under  re])ublican  forms. 
In  27  B.  c.  the  title  of  Augustus  wa.s  conferred  on  him  by  the 
obsecpiious  Senate,  which  retained  the  sliadow  of  its  fornu'r 
power.  His  favorite  iidnisters  and  advisers  were  Agrippa. 
^I.•ecenas,  and  Asinius  Pollio.  He  was  thrice  married;  the 
names  of  his  wives  were  Clodia,  Scribonia.  and  Livia  Dru- 
silla.  He  had  an  only  child.  .Julia.  In  23  b.  r.  he  accepted 
the  IrihiDiiliii  mli'xIriK  (tribunitian  power)  for  life.  Ills  reign 
was  renuirkably  pacitie  and  prosperous,  and  the  Augustan 
.\ge  was  rendered  the  most  brilliant  in  the  Koman  literature 
liy  the  geinus  of  Vergil  and  Horace,  whom  the  emperor  lib- 
erally patronized.  He  was  a  prudent  and  rather  popular 
ruler,  governing  meti  with  artful  jiolicy.  and  skillfully  usi'^jj 
their  passions  and  talents  to  proninti'  jiis  own  designs.  The 
peace,  order,  an<l  prosperity  which  his  su  I ijects  enjoyed  under 
Ills  mild  and  niodilied  tyranny  reconciled  them  to  the  loss 
of  their  ancient  liberty.  He  centralized  the  administration 
and  enforced  disciiiline  in  the  armies.  He  adorned  the  city 
of  Kome  with  i>uiilie  buildings,  and  nnule  such  improve- 
ment in  that  capital  that  it  was  said  that  he  found  it  a  city 
of  lirick  ar]d  left  it  a  city  of  marl)le.  He  was  not  hapjiy  in 
Ids  dciuustic  relations.  His  adopted  sons,  fains  an<l  Lucius 
Ca'sar,  to  whom  he  intended  to  leave  the  throne,  died  young. 
He  was  temperati^  in  his  diet  and  moderate  and  frugal  in 
his  style  of  living.  He  had  studied  oratory  with  some  suc- 
cess, but  i>n  important  occasions  he  would  never  sjieak  with- 


out careful  (jreparation.  He  composed  numerous  works  in 
prose  and  verse  on  various  subjects.  Having  designated  his 
stepson  Tiberius  as  his  successor,  he  died  at  Nola,  Aug.  19, 
14  A.  D.  See  Suetonius,  Vita  AiiguK/i  (Life  of  Augustus); 
Nicolas  Daniascenus,  Df  Vila  Augusti;  Tacitus,  A nnaies; 
Beule,  Aiiguste  (Paris,  1807;  3d  ed.  1868);  V.  Gardthausen, 
Aiigustus  itnd  seine  Zeil  (Leipzig,  1891,  sqq.,  4  vols.). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 
Auk:  the  common  name  of  several  sjiecies  of  sea-fowl 
belonging  to  the  family  Alcidce.     The  auks  are  thickset, 
heavily  built  birds,  with  short  wings  and  tail,  and  three- 
toed,  webbed  feet.     They  are  found  only  in  the  colder  por- 


IJl-c.if  auic. 

tions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  many  breed  within 
the  Arctic  Circle,  migrating  southward  in  winter.  They  are 
strictly  aquatic  in  their  habits,  visiting  the  shore  only  to 
breed;  fly  rai)idly,  though  heavily,  owing  to  the  .■shortness 
of  their  wings,  but  are  most  ex)iert  swimmers  and  divers, 
using  their  wings  as  well  as  their  feet  when  swimiuiiig  under 
water.  The  most  noted  as  wcdl  as  the  largest  member  of  the 
family  is  the  great  auk  or  garcfowl,  Ah-a  impenni.%  which 
has  become  extinct  within  the  last  fifty  years.  This  bird 
was  about  the  size  of  a  goose ;  the  head,  neck,  and  upper 
parts  were  black,  the  under  parts  and  a  s|)ot  in  front  of  the 
eve  white.  The  wings  w<'i'e  so  small  that  the  great  auk  was 
quite  incapable  of  llight.  It  was  a  resident  of  the  shores  of 
Teeland  and  Newfouinlland.  but  occurred  in  winter  as  far 
south  as  ICngland  anil  Virgiida,  At  the  time  of  the  discovery 
of  Xewfouiidland  the  great  auk  was  found  in  inimeiise  num- 
bers, and  was  largely  used  for  food  by  the  colonists  and 
fishermen.  At  a  later  date  the  bird  was  killed  for  the  sake 
of  its  feathers,  and,  as  it  bred  only  in  a  few  localities  and 
was  heli)less  when  on  land,  the  species  was  soon  extirpated. 
The  ultimate  cause  of  the  extinction  of  the  garcfowl  in 
Europe  was  the  destruction  of  its  most  .secure  breeding 
place,  a  small  islet  oft  the  southern  coast  of  Iceland,  liy  a 
volcanic  eruption.  The  birds  then  moved  to  a  more  acces- 
sible spot,  and  were  soon  destroyed,  the  last  specimens  being 
taken  for  their  skins.  About  20  skeletons,  80  skins,  and  70 
eggs  are  known  to  be  preserved  in  collections.  Although 
by  no  means  the  rarest  of  birds.  S[)eciinens  of  the  great  auk 
are  verv  highly  valued,  an  egg  having  been  quite  recently 
sold  in'  Londim  for  ,t30fl,  about  l?l,.500.  The  razor-billed 
auk.  or  razorbill,.  I /m  ('orrfo',  is  a  well-known  species,  common 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  occurring  at  some  localities  in 
great  numbers.  Like  the  other  nionibers  of  the  group,  the 
razorbill  lays  a  single,  dispro]iortionately  large  egg.  It 
breeds  on  narrow  shelves  of  rock,  or  under  overhanging 
ledges,  and  its  eggs,  as  well  as  those  of  the  other  species,  are 
much  sought  after.  Continued  taking  of  the  eggs  ha.s,  in 
some  localities,  very  percejilibly  reduced  the  iiumbei'S  of 
these  birds.  The  term  little  auk  is  often  apjilicd  to  the 
dovekic,  Alle  nigricaiij<.  a  small  and  abundant  species  found 
in  great  iiumbei'S  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland  as  far 
north  as  hit.  82°.  In  winter  it  usually  keeps  well  out  at  sea, 
unless  driven  inshore  by  gales.     'J'liese  two  last-mentioned 


412 


AULA   REGIA 


AURELLE  DE   PALADINES 


species  play  an  important  part  in  the  domestic  economy  of 
the  Eskimo,  supplying  him  with  both  food  and  clothing. 
See  GuiLLESiOT.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

An'la  Re'gia  [Lat..  king's  hall  or  court] :  a  court  estab- 
lished in  England  liy  William  the  Conqueror,  and  afterward 
regulated  by  Magna  Charta. 

Au'lic  CiJillicil  [auUc  is  from  Lat.  aula,  court] :  one  of 
the  two  highi'st  councils  or  courts  of  the  former  (Tennan 
empire,  co-ordinate  witli  the  imperial  chamljer.  The  aulic 
council,  whicli  was  organized  in  149.5,  consisted  of  a  j)resi- 
dent,  vice-president,  and  eighteen  councilors,  sis  of  whom 
were  Protestants,  whose  unanimous  votes  could  not  be  over- 
ruled by  the  Catholic  majority.  The  members  anil  officers 
of  this  council  were  appointed  In'  tlie  emperor,  and  had 
jurisdiction  over  all  mutters  of  feudality  in  which  the  em- 
peror was  directly  concerned  ;  all  questions  of  appeal  made 
ijy  states  from  decisions  in  favor  of  the  emperor  in  inferior 
courts;  and  Italian  affairs  in  which  the  emperor  was  inter- 
ested. After  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire  in  1806, 
the  term  aulic  council  was  applied  to  the  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria's council  of  state. 

Au'lls :  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  in  Btpotia.,  on  the 
Euripus.  It  had  a  temple  of  Artemis  (Diana).  According 
to  tlie  poetical  legend,  Agamemnon  here  assembled  the 
Grecian  fleet  liefore  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  here  he  offered 
his  daughter  Iphigcnia  as  a  sacrifice.  Aulis  was  in  the 
territory  of  Taii.igra,  and  is  sujiposed  to  have  been  about 
3  miles  S.  of  Chalcis.     Its  present  name  is  Vatchi. 

Au'lns  (iel'lilis:  a  Latin  author  who  lived  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Antonines.  Little  is  known  of  the  events  of 
his  life.  He  resided  much  at  Athens,  where  lie  composed 
his  Nodes  Altic/p.  probalily  about  160  A.  D.  His  book  is  a 
mass  of  curious  information  upon  a  great  variety  of  sulj- 
jects,  and,  though  ill-arranged,  is  valuable  to  critics,  from 
the  light  it  throws  ujmn  many  oliscure  yioints  of  ancient  his- 
tory and  literature.  The  best  edition  is  by  J[.  Hertz  (Berlin. 
138o-85)  and  cditio  minor  (1886).  English  trans.,  London, 
1795;  modern  French  trans.,  Paris,  1862,  3  vols.;  Gernuin 
trans.,  Leipzig,  1875-76,  3  vols. 

Aiiinale.  o-m,<iar  (formerly  ,\lheiiiarle) :  a  small  town  of 
France;  department  of  Seine-lnferieure ;  13  miles  E.  N.  E. 
of  Xeufehatel  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  2-E).  Pop.  about 
2.000.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Aumale  was  erected  into  a 
duchy,  and  the  title  of  Duke  of  Aumale  was  given  to  Claude, 
a  brother  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise. 

Anmale,  Claitie  II.,  Due  d':  French  general;  b.  in 
1.526 ;  was  a  brother  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Guise.  He 
fought  against  the  Huguenots  at  St.  Denis  (1.567)  and  Mon- 
contour  (1569),  and  was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the 
massacre  of  St.  ISartholomew  (1572).  He  was  killed  during 
the  siege  of  La  Roi'helle.  Jlar.  14.  1573. — His  son,  Charles 
DE  Lorraine,  Due  d'Aumale,  b.  1.5.56,  was  an  ardent  parti- 
san of  the  Catholic  League.  After  the  death  of  his  cousin, 
Henry,  Duke  of  Gidse,  1.588.  Aumale  and  the  Duke  of 
Mayenne  were  the  leaders  of  the  Ijeagne,  and  commanded 
the  armies  that  fought  against  Henry  IV.  He  had  ill-suc- 
cess as  a  general.  Having  ]ilotted  treason  with  the  King  of 
Spain,  he  was  condemned  fo  deafh  by  Parliament  in  1.50.5, 
but  escaped.     D.  at  Brussels  In  1631. 

Aumale,  Henri  EiiofixE  Philippe  Lons  d'Orleans, 
Due  d' :  the  fourth  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the 
French  ;  b.  in  Paris,  .Tan.  16.  1822.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1839,  served  several  campaigns  in  Algeria,  and  was  rapidly 
promoted.  In  i\lay,  1843,  having  defeated  Abd-el-Kadcr, 
whose  camp  and  treasures  became  the  spoil  of  the  victors, 
he  was  raised  fo  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In  Sept., 
1847,  he  Wii.s  appoiiileil  governor-general  of  Algeria,  aliout 
tliree  months  affer  which  Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  fo  him. 
On  learning  of  the  abdication  of  his  father,  he  resigned 
his  comnumd.  Mar.,  1848,  and  went  into  exile,  residing 
inany  years  in  England.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Xational  .\ssembly  in  Feb.,  1871,  soon  after  which  dale  that 
body  annulled  the  decree  or  law  which  hsid  excluded  the 
Orleans  princes  from  France.  He  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  the  winter  of  1871-72.  He  was  banished  in 
1886,  but  the  decree  exiling  him  was  revoked  in  1889.  In 
1886  he  gave  his  magnificent  chateau  at  Clianlilly  to  tlie 
Institute  of  France,  with  all  its  priceless  contents,' in  trust 
for  the  French  nalioii.  In  1891  Hie  University  of  Oxford 
conferred  on  iiim  Hie  honorary  degree  of  doctor'of  laws. 

Revised  bv  S.  M.  Jacksox. 


Aune  [Fr.  <  0.  Fr.  aine  <  Late  Lat.  alena,  loan-word 
from  Teutonic ;  cf.  Goth,  aleina.  Germ.  EUe.  Eng.  ell,  Lat. 
ulna,  Gr.  w\epri,  elbow,  forearm] :  an  old  European  cloth 
measure,  having  many  values  in  different  jilaces,  varying 
between  27  and  .54  inches.  The  name  survives  only  in 
Switzerland,  where  it  signifies  a  measure  equal  to  4  feet  in 
length,  the  foot  being  30  cm.  The  Swiss  aune  is  therefore 
about  47i  inches  long. 

Aii'ra  [Lat.,  from  Gr.  oupa,  breath]  :  a  subtle  vapor  or 
exlial.-ilion. — Aura  electrica  (literally  the  electrical  breeze), 
the  .sensation  as  of  cold  air  experienced  when  electricity  is 
received  from  a  sharp  point. — Aura  epihplicd,  a  jiecnliar 
sensation  felt  by  epilejjtic  patients  as  of  a  cold  fluid  ascend- 
ing towiird  the  head. — Aura  hysterica,  the  sensation  as  of 
cold  air  ascending  to  the  head,  said  to  occur  sometimes  in 
hysteria. — Aura  seiiiiualis  or  aura  semiiiis,  the  supposed 
vivifying  principle  of  the  semen  virile,  formerly  believed  to 
ascend  through  the  Fallopian  tubes,  thereby  impregnating 
the  ovum  in  the  ovarium. — Aura  vi/alis,  a  name  for  the 
principle  of  life. 

Aiiraiig'zebe:  See  Aurunozebe. 

Aiiraiitia'cese  [from  Lat.  aurantium.  orange] :  a  family 
of  dicotyledonous  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  the  warm 
liarts  of  Asia  and  Northern  Africa.  All  parts  of  these 
plants  contain  a  fragrant  and  volatile  oil,  which  abounds  es- 
pecially in  the  leaves  and  in  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  The  leaves 
are  alternate,  articulated  with  the  petiole,  and  dotted  or 
pellucid-punctate  :  the  fruit  is  a  kind  of  berry  (hesperidium). 
The  family  comprises  numerous  species,  some  of  which  are 
remarkable  for  beauty  and  are  highly  |irized  for  their  fruits, 
as  the  orange,  lemon,  and  citron.  (See  (_'itrvs.)  The  fruits  of 
^■Eyle  marmelos,  Cookia.  punctata,  Ulyeosmis  citrifolia.  and 
many  others  are  also  edible.  The  Sk immia  japnnica,  a  beau- 
tiful slirul)  of  .Tapan,  is  more  hardy  than  the  other  plants  of 
this  order,  and  flourishes  in  the  open  air  in  F.ngland.  This 
family  is  commonly  regarded  ,as  a  sub-family  of  the  .Rm^- 
ce(e.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Anre'Han.  or  AureHa'nns.  Claudius  Lui  ius  Valerius 
DoMiTius  :  ;i  Koman  emperor  of  luimble  origin;  b.  at  Sir- 
mium,  in  Pannoiiia,  or,  as  some  say,  in  Lower  D.acia.  Sept. 
9,  214.  He  served  with  distinction  in  several  campaigns, 
and  raised  himself  by  his  merit  to  the  highest  rank  in  the 
army  of  Valerian.  It  is  stated  that  he  usually  fought  in 
the  foiemost  rank.  On  the  death  of  Claudius  (270  A.  D.), 
Auivliaii  was  elected  emperor  by  the  army.  Early  in  his 
reign  the  empire  was  invaded  by  the  German  tribe  of  Ale- 
manni.  whom  he  defeated.  He  abandoned  Dacia  to  the 
(ioths  and  Vandals,  in  order  that  the  Danube  might  become 
the  boundary  of  the  emiiire.  The  most  important  and 
famous  of  his  enteriirises  was  an  expedition  against  Zenohia, 
Queen  of  PidmjTa.  whose  extensive  dominions  included 
Syriaand  Egypt.  Having  defeated  her  army  in  battle  near 
Einesa.  he  captured  Palmyra  and  its  (|neeii  in  273  a.  d., 
after  which  he  received  at  Rome  a  triumph  of  extraordi- 
nary magniticcnee.  He  recovered  Gaul  from  Tefricus,  who 
had  usurjied  royal  power,  and  obtained  the  title  of  "Re- 
storer of  the  empire."  His  memory  is  stained  by  the  judi- 
cial murder  of  Longinns,  the  critic,  and  other  acts  of  exces- 
sive severity.  He  was  assassinated  by  his  own  ollicers  be- 
tween Byzantium  and  Heraclea  in  275  a.  D.,  and  was  snc- 
cecdcd  by  Tacitus.  See  Vopiscns,  Vila  Aiireliani;  Tillemont, 
Jfis/oire  des  Eiupereurs;  (iiblion.  Decline  and  Fall  of  tlie 
Huinini  Empire,  chap.  xi. 

Aiirdiiis  Antoiiiiiiis,  Marcus  :  See  Antoxixus,  Marcus 

AURELIUS. 

Aure'liiis  Victor,  Sextus  :  a  Roman  historian  who  flour- 
ished aliout  360  A.  I).,  under  the  Emperor  Constant  ius  and 
his  successors.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Pannonia 
.Secunda  by  .Julian  the  Apostate  about  360,  and  was  prefect 
of  Rome  under  Thcodosius  I.  He  wrote  a  series  of  biog- 
raphies of  the  Roman  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Con- 
stantius,  entitled  Tte  C'(psaril)us  Ilisturia.  which  is  extant 
and  was  first  jirinfed  at  Antwerj)  (8vo,  1.579).  with  the  com- 
mentary of  Scliotliis;  later  ed.  Sclii-riler,  Leipzig.  1829-31, 
2  vols. ;'  German  trans,  by  ('loss,  Stuttgart,  18:i7.  Two  other 
works  are  falsely  ascribed  to  liim — namely.  The  JAres  of 
Jlluslrioits  Jiiimiiiix  and  Aurelii  Vicloris  Epitome. 

AnrcUe  dp  Palatliiies.  Claude  Michel  Louis,  d'  (dri- 
rerdp-para-decn  ) :  b.  at  Malzieu,  de]>iirtment  of  Lozcre, 
France,  .Tan.  9.  1804;  received  a  military  I'ducation  ;  served 
in  Algeria  1841-48;  distinguished  himself  and  was  made 
a  general  of  division  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  was  command- 


AUREOLA 


AURORA 


413 


er-iiK-liiof  of  the  ninth  militury  division  (Jlarseilles)  at  the 
outlireiilv  of  the  Franco-Cjennun  war.  ()n  Oct.  14  he  was 
nuule  coniinander-iu-i-hiot  of  the  fii-st  army  of  tlie  Loire. 
Tn  the  battle  of  Couhniers  (Nov.  i),  187(1)  he  defeated  Von 
der  Thann.  and  coMipoUed  the  Cierniaiirt  to  retire  from  Or- 
leans; Iml  his  attaek  on  the  left  winir  of  the  army  of 
I'riiue  Frederiek  t'harles  at  Beaiine-la-Uolande  (Xov.  28) 
failed:  on  |)ee.  3  he  was  defeated  at  Arlcnay  by  the  (irand 
I)iike  of  .Mecklenburg,  and  on  Dee.  ;i  an<l  4  was  driven  far- 
ther back  by  Prince  Freclerick  Charles,  who  aj;ain  occupied 
Orleans,  (iand)elta  now  instituted  a  committee  of  inquiry 
into  the  conduct  of  I)'.\urelle.  who  imm<>iliately  resigned 
his  command,  and  afterward  declined  to  accept  any  com- 
mand under  the  tiovernment.  lie  sat  in  the  National  As- 
send)ly  of  IJordeaux,  was  one  of  the  nuMubers  associated 
with  Thii'i's  in  the  nci;oliations  of  peace,  and  was  appointe<l 
commander  first  of  the  national  f.'uard  in  the  department  of 
Seine,  afterward  of  the  fourteenth  military  division  (lior- 
dejuix).  In  1872  lie  i>ublished  La  l^emiere  Armee  de  la 
Loire.     1).  at  Versailles.  Dec.  17,  1877. 

Aiire'ola:  See  H.\lo. 

Aii'reiis,  or  Dcna'riiis  Aii'rous:  the  standard  and  most 
ancient  Roman  gold  coin,  first  struck  in  217  B.  r.  Thi^  aver- 
age weight  of  the  aureus  wits  about  121  grains — aliout  the 
.same  as  the  tireck  slater  and  the  Per.sian  darie. 

Aii'riclo  [from  Lat.  aiiri'ciiln.  dimin.  of  aiirix,  ear] :  the 
external  fiorlion  of  the  ear.     See  Ear. 

.\fRici.Ks  OF  THK  ueaut:  those  cavities  of  the  heart  which 
receive  the  blood  returning  from  the  veins,  and  convey  it 
to  the  ventric  les.  The  auricles  are  popularly  called  •'  deaf 
ears."     See  IIkart. 

.\liric'iila  (Primula  auricula):  a  plant  of  the  family 
Primularme,  nearly  related  to  the  primro.se,  and  much  cul- 
tivated in  flower-gardens.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Alps  and 
other  mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  prized  for  the 
beauty  and  fragnince  of  its  flowers,  which  grow  in  the 
form  of  an  umbel  on  a  scape.  The  size  and  <'olor  of  the 
flowers  have  been  much  improved  by  cultivation.  Among 
the  colors  prevailing  in  the  1.21)1)  or  more  cultivated  varie- 
ties are  red,  pink.  <-rimson.  and  mvilberry.  Some  varieties 
present  a  single  color,  and  others  are  vai'iegate<l  or  are 
adorned  with  a  green  margin.  The  auricula  blooms  in 
April  or  May,  and  often  has  a  second  crop  of  flowers  in 
autumn.  It  prefers  a  rich,  light  .soil,  and  the  finer  varieties 
are  usually  cultivated  in  jjots.  The  chief  rei|uisiles  of  a 
good  auricula  are  large  flowers,  which  are  nearly  round,  and 
have  in  the  center  a  white  or  yellow  eye  wliich  is  dibtiuct 
and  round,  its  color  not  mixed  with  the  ground  color;  ajud 
a  long  scape,  strong  enough  to  hold  itself  erect. 

Auricula:  a  genus  of  .4»r/c«/(V/(F,  a  family  of  MuUusca 
of  the  eliLss  (juxhrnpoda.  They  have  a  sfiiral  shell  cover(«d 
with  a  horny  epidermis.  The  spire  is  olituse  or  short,  luid 
the  aperture  elongated  and  narrow.  They  have  respiratory 
organs  adapted  for  breathing  in  air,  and  they  frecpiciit  salt 
marshes  or  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  They  are  chiefly  found 
in  and  near  warm  seas.     Several  species  are  fossil. 

Aiiric'iilar  Coiifcs'siou  :  private  confession  of  sins  to  a 
[iriest.  For  certain  ofTenses  the  early  Church  required  con- 
fession. In  the  fifth  century,  owing  to  some  scandals  in 
j)ulilic  confession,  Leo  the  (ireat  (440-461)  authorized  the 
|iarish  priest  to  receive  confessions.  By  the  twenty-first 
canon  (Omnis  vtriusque  sexusjiddix)  of  the  Foui-th  Lilteran 
Council,  in  121.J,  under  Innocent  III.,  it  is  enjoined  upon 
the  faithful  to  confess  their  sins  once  a  year,  at  least,  to  the 
parisli  priest,  under  pain  of  losing  Chi'istian  burial.  In  the 
olliee  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick  in  the  English  T'rayer- 
liook  the  ruliric  directs  that  "the  sick  ]ierson  be  moved  to 
make  a  special  confession  of  his  sins,  if  he  feel  his  con- 
science troubled  with  any  wi'ighty  matter.  After  which 
confession  the  priest  shall  absolve  him  (if  he  humbly  and 
heartily  desire  it)  after  this  sort,"  etc.  Tliis  rubric  and  the 
absolution  following  it  are  not  in  the  .\nieriean  Rook  of 
Common  Prayer.  Revised  by  W.  S.  1'ekky. 

Au'rifaber,  .Toiiann  {AurifahcrUn  Lat.  translation  of 
(Jerm.  I ioi,iisi:nMU)T| :  b.  at  Weimar  or  in  the  countship  of 
iMansfeld,  .Saxcniv,  in  lolO:  studied  theologv  in  Wittenberg 
].>i7-4():  tutor  to  the  young  count  of  Ma'nsteld  l.")40-44: 
bec-anie  amanuensis  to  Luther  in  Willenberg  in  1.54.J,  and 
was  with  him  when  he  died  at  EisleU'ii  l.)4(i:  acted  as 
army-chaplain  during  the  Schtnidkald  war  l.'J47;  became 
court-chaplain  at  Weimar  in  1.5.J1;  deposed  as  a  Flacianist 
1.'561 ;  lleil  to  Eisleben  ;  became  minister  at  Erfuit  in  1500, 


where  he  died  Nov.  18,  l.'i'.');  edited  the  German  writings 
of  Luther  (Eisleben,  1.504-6.5,  3  vols.)  and  his  Epistolm 
(ir>.56-0."»  and  Table  Talk  (1506). 

Auri'ira  [in  Lat.,  charioteer]:  a  northern  constellation  of 
the  celestial  sphere,  sometimes  called  TiiK  Wagoner.  It 
contains  ('a[)elia,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  which  may 
be  seen  near  the  zenith  in  winter. 

Aurig'iiy :  See  Ai.deenkv. 

Aiirillao,  u'-ree  yak'  (aiic.  Aureli'acum) :  a  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  dejiartment  of  Cantal ;  is  pleasantly 
situated  in  a  valley  on  the  river  Jourdanne,  272  miles  S. 
of  Paris  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  7-F).  It  i.s  well  built  and 
has  wide  and  clean  streets.  The  houses  are  covered  with 
slate,  whicli  is  quarried  in  the  vicinity.  Among  its  ancient 
and  remarkable  iiublie  buildings  ari'  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame,  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  castle  of  St. 
Stephen,  and  the  college,  which  has  a  valuable  library. 
Most  of  the  town  is  of  com|)aratively  modern  construction. 
It  has  manufactures  of  cop]ier  kettles,  jewelrv,  paper,  car- 
pets, and  woolens.     Pop.  (18!)1)  15,824. 

Aiii'in  :  See  Rosolic  Acid. 

Aurispa.  Giovan-xi:  (1370-1459);  celebrated  humanist 
and  ilincnint  teacher  (Venice,  ]?ologna,  Florence.  Ferrara). 
He  arriveil  in  Venice  from  Constantinople  in  142^,  a  mem- 
orable y<'ar  for  classical  learning,  for  he  brought  with  him 
288  MSS..  including  the  works  of  Plato,  Ijucian.  Demos- 
thenes, Dio  Cassius,  Arrian,  Diodorus,  Strabo,  ..'Eschylus, 
Sophocles,  Apollonius  Rhodins,  Calliniachus.  Pindar,"and 
many  others,  nearly  all  of  these  authors  having  been  until 
then  lost  to  Western  Eurojie.  Alfred  Gudemak. 

Aurochs.  Germ,  pron.owr'oks  [loan-word  from  Germ. yli/r- 
or/i.f  or  aufroc/is,  JI.  11.  tJ.  umchxe.  from  Tent.  *urus,  adopted 
into  Lat.  u'rus,  wild  ox  +  och-se:  Eng.  ox.  etc.] :  the  common 
name  for  the  Eurojiean  bison,  Bi.vin  bonamtiK.  Though 
once  found  in  great  numbers  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  it  is 
now  limited  to  the  forests  of  Lithuania  and  tlie  Caucasus. 
It  bears  many  points  of  similarity  to  the  American  bison. 
It  is  a  very  powerful  animal,  being  somewhat  larger  than 
an  ordinary  ox.  and.  though  clumsy  in  apjiearance,  can  run 
rapidly  for  a  short  distance. 
The  b(_)dy  of  this  animal  ex- 
hales a  strong  odor,  some- 
what resembling  musk.  The 
aurochs  is  a  good  swimmer, 
and  delights  in  (hilibling  in 
the  water  and  rolling  in  the 
mud.  Its  food  consists  in  a 
great  partof  lichens, of  which 
it  is  espi^ially  foncL  The 
Lithuanian  herd  has  been 
jircserved  by  imperial  edict 
since  1820.  and  in  ISCO  num- 
bered 1,700  individuals. 
Many  were  killed  during  the  Polish  uiu-ising  of  186;l,  and 
the  ollicial  count  of  1870  showed  but  847.  This  number  had 
dwindled  to  600  in  1880,  and  is  still  on  the  decrease.  'J'he 
aurochs  is  ]irote,cled  by  law  in  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  by 
the  rough  and  unsettled  nature  of  the  country,  and  this 
locality  will  jirobably  be  the  last  stronghold  of  the  once 
numerous  bisim. 

The  European  bison  furnishes  a  good  example  of  the 
transjjosil  ion  of  names.  As  the  term  ]jenguln  was  originally 
given  to  the  great  auk,  so  the  mime  Autr  Uehs  was  given  to 
the  now  extinct  urns  of  Ciesar's  ('ommentarien,  the  Bos  vrux 
of  scientific  nomenclature,  and  a  totally  distinct  aniimd 
from  the  bison.  The  name  aurochs  is,  however,  so  lirnily 
connected  with  the  bison  that  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  luake  any  change.  Revised  by  Frederic  A.  Lucas. 

Aiiro'ra:  a  Lai  in  word  signifying  "morning."  or  the 
"goddess  of  morning."  corresponding  to  the  (ireck  'Eoij. 
The  poeli<-al  legenil  represents  her  as  the  daughter  of  lly- 
I)erion,  the  wife  of  the  Titan  Astranis,  the  mother  of  Iles- 
[lerus,  Boreas,  Zephyrus,  and  Meinnon.  According  to  one 
mythical  tradition,  she  loved  Tithonus  (a  son  of  Laomedon), 
for  whom  she  askeil  and  obtained  imniorfality,  but  forgot 
to  a.sk  perpetual  youth.  She  lived  with  him  at  the  end  of 
the  earth,  on  the  banks  of  the  Owiinus.  and  when  he  grew 
old  she  nursed  him,  until  at  last  his  voice  disapjieared  and 
his  body  became  dry  and  shriveled.  She  then  transformed 
him  into  a  cricket  and  locked  him  up  in  her  chamber.  After 
that  time — the  (rreek  mythology  continues — she  adopted  the 
habit  uf  carrying  off  young  men  distinguished  for  their 


Aurochs. 


414 


AURORA 


ArRL'XGABAD 


beauty,  such  as  Orion,  Cleitus,  and  others,  until  Father  Zeus 
became  angry  and  ]ilit  a  stop  to  that  practice.  She  was 
sometimes  represented  as  dressed  in  a  saffron-colored  robe, 
with  a  torch  in  her  right  hand. 

Aurora :  a  luminous  phenomenon  common  in  certain  re- 
gions surrounding  the  magnetic  and  geographical  poles  of 
the  earth.  In  tlie  northern  hemisphere  it  is  called  the  Au- 
rora Borealis  or  Xoi-tliern  Lights,  and  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere the  Aurora  .\ustralis  or  Southern  Lights.  Nearly  all 
our  accurate  knowledge  of  it  is  derived  from  studies  of  its 
raanitestation  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  because  of  the 
predominance  of  laTid  areas  there  and  of  water  areas  in  the 
Bouthern  hemisphere,  but  the  same  conditions  seem  to  pre- 
vail in  each.  It  is  intimately  associated  with  the  electro- 
magnetic system  of  the  earth,  both  as  to  its  origin  and  visi- 
bility, although  the  causes  and  conditions  of  its  intermittent 
manifestations  are  not  yet  fully  understood.  The  most  prob- 
able explanation,  derived  froiu  recent  investigations,  is  that 
the  solar  radiations  possess  electro-magnetic  energy,  which 
at  the  earth  is  distributed  into  two  principal  fields,  one  pass- 
ing through  the  eartli  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the 
line  I'oining  the  two  magnetic  poles,  and  the  other  nearly 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  former  acting  by  the 
law  of  magnetic  induction,  and  the  other  by  the  law  of  mag- 
netic refraction.  The  first  field  is  [leculiar  to  the  jiolar  re- 
gions, embracing  the  magnetic  and  the  geographical  poles, 
and  the  second  is  characteristic  of  the  middle  latitudes. 
Besides  these  fields  there  is  the  normal  terrestrial  magnetic 
field  surrounding  the  earth,  in  which  a  freely  suspended 
magnet  comes  to  rest  in  definite  positions  according  to  the 
locality.  There  is  an  oval  belt  where  these  three  fields  come 
together,  and  overlapping  each  other  produce  an  interference 
of  vibrations  wliieh  gives  rise  to  the  auroral  himinosity. 
The  light  is  apparently  electrical,  shooting  out  in  long,  thin 
streamers,  which  flash  and  qtiiver,  though  sometimes  these 
become  diffused  and  continuous  over  large  spaces,  here  and 
there  traversed  by  lines  in  certain  directions,  controlled  by 
the  magnetic  fields.  The  special  appearance  at  any  time  is 
the  result  of  many  complex  conditions  acting  simultaneously, 
which  depend  ujion  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  especially 
the  presence  of  aqueous  va|ior.  The  commonest  optical 
effect  is  the  long,  low  arch  spanning  the  sky,  of  jray.  green, 
purple,  or  red  colors,  sometimes  brightening  into  the  most 
magnificent  display  of  evanescent  tints,  suffusing  the  whole 
heavens;  there  are  also  crisp,  figured  forms  occurring  in 
patches,  which  rapidly  shift  in  position  and  give  place  to 
other  weird  and  fancifid  sliajies;  and  finally,  in  the  vanish- 
ing point  of  the  tern'strial  magnetic  lines,  the  long  streamers 
receding  from  the  observer  seem  to  unite  in  a  glorious  crown 
or  halo  called  the  cuioiia.  The  geographical  distribution  of 
the  auroras  shows  tliat  there  are  certain  well-marked  lines 
of  equal  frequency,  called  imchasmen.  which  are  closely 
related  to  the  magnetic  isoclinals  and  the  meteorological 
isothermals.  though  not  quite  identical  with  them.  The 
climatic  conditions  affect  the  relative  frequency.  If, for  in- 
stance, the  climate!  is  dry  and  arid,  or  it  it  is  excessively 
moist,  the  numlier  of  auroras  seen  will  be  a  minimum,  but 
a  damp  climate  or  the  neighborhood  of  large  bodies  of  water 
is  favorable  to  a  maximum  number;  low  barometric  pres- 
sures anil  their  accompanying  vapor  conditions  are  also 
suitable  to  the  aiipearance  of  auroras.  The  isochasmen  ex- 
tend downward  over  the  ocean  areas  and  contract  along 
the  edges  of  the  northern  continents.  The  belt  of  niaxiniuin 
frequency  passes  near  Point  IJari-ow,  Hudson's  Bay,  Northern 
Russia  and  .Siberia,  the  inimber  soon  falling  off  oil  each  side, 
rapiilly  toward  the  pole  and  more  slowly  toward  the  equator. 
The  maxinnnn  belt  of  frequency  is  observed  to  change  its 
position  in  latitudes  in  several  well-marked  periods,  depend- 
ing upon  the  intensity  of  the  solar  energy.  Thus,  when  the 
intensity  increases,  the  polar  field  and  the  maximum  belt 
spread  out  from  the  pules  and  emliraee  larger  spaces  on  the 
earth.  If  the  inimber  of  spots  visible  on  the  sun  is  taken  as 
an  indication  of  its  electro-magnetic  eiuugy.  then  the  fre- 
(luency  increases  with  the  s)X)ts  and- the  belt  expands  with 
tliem,  this  being  seen  obscurely  in  a  56-year  period,  but 
clearly  in  the  11-year  j)erio(l  and  in  a  period  of  about  27 
days,  that  of  the  rotation  of  the  sun  on  its  a.xis.  In  the 
same  way  there  is  an  annual  |)eri<)(l  depending  on  the  posi- 
tion of  tli(!  siin  relatively  to  tlie  poles,  having  a  maximum 
in  Mareh-.\pril  and  Sejit ember-October,  and  a  minimum  in 
l)ecember-,Ianuary  and  June-July;  also  a  diurnal  period 
depending  upon  the  local  hour-angle  of  the  sun,  there  being 
an  increase  in  visibilitv  from  6  i:  M.  to  H  P.  m.,  a  slow  de- 


crease from  11  p.  Ji.  to  2  A.  M..  and  a  rapid  falling  off  from 
3  A.  M.  till  daylight,  this  law  availing  for  tlie  northern  hemi- 
sphere. Many  unsatisfactory  attempts  have  been  made  to 
measure  geometrically  the  heights  of  the  aurora,  but  all  the 
formuhe  depend  upon  some  assumption  regarding  its  loca- 
tion in  space,  which  really  involves  the  result  of  the  observa- 
tion and  computation.  Hence  we  have  heights  of  so  great 
range  as  to  make  all  such  work  untrustworthy,  though  it  is 
generally  thought  that  the  aurora  can  occur  anywhere  within 
the  limits  of  the  atmosphere,  from  the  surface  of  the  earth 
to  its  final  dissipation  in  space,  according  its  the  local  state 
of  it  is  favoralile  to  the  display.  Each  observer  sees  a  ray 
or  figure  peculiarly  his  own,  as  is  the  case  with  the  rainbow, 
ami  hence  simultaneous  observations  from  distant  points 
are  not  capable  of  accurate  comliinatioii.  The  siiectrum  of 
the  aurora  is  likewise  a  very  difficult  thing  to  observe,  be- 
cause the  faint,  ever-shifting  light  can  not  l)e  well  retained 
in  the  focus  of  the  instiiimeut.  But  it  is  known  that  the 
auroral  lines  are  quite  the  same  as  those  occurring  in  the 
spectra  of  rarefied  air  and  gases,  such  as  oxygen  in  Geissler's 
tubes,  and  that  it  has  some  characteristic  though  inexactly 
determined  lines.  Prank  II.  Bigelow. 

Aurora  :  town  (incorporated  in  1863):  village  of  York  co., 
Ontario,  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the  Northern  Division  of 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  .30  miles  N.  of  Toronto  (see  map 
of  Ontario,  ref.  4-D).  It  has  .i  churches,  a  liigh  school,  Me- 
chanics' Institute  with  a  large  library,  a  bank,  flour,  saw, 
shingle,  and  planing  mills,  agricultural  inanufaetories,  a  tan- 
nerv,  water-works,  and  electric  lights.  Pop.  (1881)  1.540; 
(1891)  1,743.  Editor  of  "  Banner." 

Aurora:  city  and  important  railroad  center;  Kane  co., 
111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  ma]!  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-F) ;  on 
Fox  river;  39  miles  W.  ^.  W.  of  Chicago.  Besides  the  lo- 
motive  works  and  shops  of  the  C..  B.  and  Q.  R.  R.,  Aurora 
has  many  important  manufacturing  industries,  including 
iron-works,  wheel-scraper,  buggy-to|i,  sal-soda,  silver-plated 
ware,  road-carts,  wood-working  machinery,  smelting,  and 
other  works  and  manufactures.  The  city  owns  its  own 
water-works  and  electric-light  plants,  has  fine  c4ectrie  street- 
railway.  5  banks,  25  churches,  excellent  schools,  including 
Jenning's  seminary,  free  public  lilirary.  Y.  M.  C.  A.  build- 
ing, etc.  There  are  5  dailv.  1  semi-wecklv.  and  6  weeklv 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  11.873:  (1890)  19.688;  estimated 
(Jan.  1,  1892)  25.000.  Editor  of  "  Daily  Express." 

Aurora :  Dearborn  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Indiana,  ref.  8-Ct)  ;  on  dhio  and  Miss,  and  CI.,  Cin., 
Ch.  and  St.  L.  R.  Rs..  and  the  Ohio  river:  25  miles  W.  by  S. 
from  Cincinnati,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  steamboats. 
It  has  large  barrel-factories  and  various  nninufaetures.  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  R.  R.  car-shops,  an  extensive  grain  and  hay 
trade,  and  is  engaged  in  milling,  distilling,  ami  coojieriiig. 
Pop.  (1880)  4,435;  (1890)  3.929. 

Aurora  :  city;  Lawrence  co..  Mo.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  nf  Missouri,  ref.  7-E) :  on  St.  Louis  and  San  Fran. 
R.  R.;  35  miles  S.  of  Springfield.  Mo.;  is  in  a  lead  and  zinc 
mining  and  a  farming  district.     Pop.  (1890)  3,482. 

Aurora:  city  (founded  in  1872):  capital  of  Hamilton  co., 
Neb.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  7-.T); 
situated  in  an  agricultural  district,  on  the  Wyoming  branch 
of  the  B.  and  JI.  R.  R.;  75  miles  W.  of  Lincoln.  It  has  7 
churches,  4  high  schools,  court-house,  opera-house,  large 
creamerv.a  foundrv, machine-sho]is.  water-works, and  3  news- 
papers. '  Pop.  (1890)  1.862:  including  suburlis.  about  3.000. 

Editor  of  " Repiblkax." 

Aurora:  on  railroad,  Cayuga  co.,  X.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4-F):  is  finely  situated  on 
the  east  side  of  Cayuga  Lake.  25  miles  N.  "W.  of  Ithaca.  It 
is  a  place  of  summer  resort,  lias  many  fine  residences,  some 
maiiufaelures,  and  is  the  seat  of  Wells  College  for  ladies  and 
of  Cavuga  Lake  Acadcmv.  Pop.  (1870)  450;  (1880)  444; 
(1890)'.5.)5. 

AuruugabaU  (i.  e.  abode  of  Auningzebe) :  a  city  of  Hin- 
dustan; in  the  territory  of  the  Nizam;  68  miles  N.  E.  of 
Ahmadnagar,  and  138  from  Puna;  hit.  19  .54'  N.,  Ion.  75' 
33'  E.  (see  maji  of  .S.  ln<lia,  ref.  3-D).  It  was  a  faA-orite  resi- 
dence of  Aurungzebe.  Among  the  monuments  of  its  former 
grandeur  are  a  ruined  palace  of  Aurungzelie,  and  a  mau- 
soleum witli  domes  of  white  marble  erected  by  that  monarch 
to  the  memory  of  his  daughter.  Many  of  the  mosques  and 
other  public  buildings  are  substantial,  but  signs  of  decay  are 
visible.     Pop.  about  35,000. 


AURrXGZEBE 


AUSTIN 


il5 


Aii'riniarzebe,  or  Aiiriiiiffzcbc  (i.  c.  ormiment  of  the 
tluoiie),  ulterwanl  (iillcd  Aliiiii-sreer.  or  Alamsrir  (con- 
queror of  the  worlil):  a  fiimoiis  JIi>^'iil  Efn|K>n>r  of  Hiiiilu- 
stiin  ;  b.  Oct.  33,  lOl.S.  lie  was  a  yoiini^er  son  of  Shah  .Ichrm, 
who  ceased  to  reifjii  in  1657.  Tlie  elder  sons,  Dara  and 
Shuja,  then  contended  for  the  crown  in  battle,  while  Arung- 
zebe  atlccted  indifference  to  temporal  jinwer,  and  craftily 
concealed  his  desij;ns  under  the  cloak  of  piety.  Having  pro- 
cured the  assassination  of  Dara  and  Shuja.  lie  becanie  mas- 
ter of  the  empire  in  Iti.jS.  and  detained  in  (irison  his  father 
until  his  death  in  KitiO.  As  a  bigoted  Jluslem  he  ])erseeuted 
the  Hindus  and  provoked  the  Mahrattas  to  revolt.  He 
added  Hejapoor  and  Golcouda  to  his  empire,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  of  the  Mohamuiedan  monarchs  of  India. 
His  long  reign  wius  a  period  of  outward  and  specious  pros- 
perity, but  the  empire  was  diseased  at  heart,  and  soon  en- 
tered' a  state  of  deeadenee.  which  was  partly  the;  etVecl  of 
his  policy,  duplicity,  and  intoleraiue.  Conscious  of  the 
crimes  bv  which  he  obtained  |)Ower.  he  lacked  confidence 
in  his  ministers,  and  is  said  to  have  lived  in  continual 
fear  of  treachery.  D.  in  Ahmadnag.'ir,  Feb.  31.  1707.  See 
Elphinstone,  Jl'istory  of  Iitdiii ;  IJernier,  Voi/ayi'S  cf  TM- 
scription  de  C Empire  Mogol;  i.  Mill,  Ilislitnj  of  liritiah 
India. 

All  Sil'ble  (also  called  Otsmda) :  city  and  railroad  junc- 
tion, Iosco  CO.,  Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  nuip  of 
Micliigan,  ref.  .^T) :  on  Det.,  Bay  City  and  Alpena  H.  H.  and 
Au  .Sable  and  Xnrthwestern  K.  U..  and  on  Saginaw  Bay, 
Lake  Huron  ;  ."iO  miles  X.  K.  of  Bay  City.  It  has  liiniliering, 
salt-making,  farming,  ami  fishing  industries.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,338;  (1800)  4,338. 

Auseulta'tioii  [Lat.  aw w»7/ff7)'o,  listening;  from  auncxd- 
tare,  listen  ;  cf.  auris,  ear,  auricula,  external  ear] :  the  method 
of  determining  the  condition  of  the  heart  and  lungs  by  the 
sounds  heard  on  applying  the  ear  to  the  chest-walls,  which 
was  introduced  by  the  celebrated  French  physician  Laknnkc 
(q.  c.)  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Some  few  observa- 
tions had  been  made  before  his  time,  notably  by  Auenbrug- 
ger,  of  Vienna,  who  in  17G1  introduced  the  art  of  Pkiu  ussiON 
(q.  v.),  and  by  the  French  physician  Piorkv  (q.  v.).  who  in- 
vented the  pleximeter,  but  it  is  to  Laennec  and  particularly 
to  his  application  of  a  hollow  tube  or  Stethoscoi'K  {g.  v.)  that 
we  are  indebted  for  the  accuracy  of  auscultative  processes. 
The  diagnosis  of  pulnu)nary  and  eanliac  diseases  now  rests 
very  largely  upon  auscultation,  aiul  furthermore  by  this 
method  much  has  been  learned  of  the  successive  stages  of 
various  diseases,  their  progress,  and  the  like. 

Aiiso'iiins,  Decimi-s  Magnus:  an  eminent  Latin  poet;  b. 
at  Burdigala  (Bordeaux)  about  310  A.  D.  He  was  lilierally 
educated,  pra<-ticed  law  in  his  early  life,  and  gainecl  distinc- 
tion us  a  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Burdigala.  In  304  a.  u.  he 
was  aj)pointed  tutor  to  Gratian  by  the  Emperor  V'alentiu- 
iau.  lie  held  several  high  otlices  under  tlie  reign  of  Gra- 
tian, who  raised  him  in  370  to  Hit!  dignity  of  consul.  He 
was  a  convert  to  Christianity,  but  better  acipiaintcd  with 
the  cla.ssical  poets  than  with  the  Bible.  He  wroti;  epigrams, 
epi.stles,  idyllia,  etc.,  which  were  admired  by  his  contempo- 
raries, but  display  little  genius,  and  are  very  faulty  in  style. 
His  most  happy  performance  is  a  description  of  the  river 
Moselle  in  epic  measure.  D.  about  3i)4  a.  d.  See  editions 
by  K.  Schenkl  (Berlin,  1883)  and  K.'  Peiper  (Leipzig,  1886); 
of  the  Mosella  alone  by  De  .Mirmont  (Bordeaux,  issit).  There 
is  a  German  translation  (Trier,  1885).  M.  Wakke.v. 

An'spii'CS  [from  Lat.  atispicium,  for  *ari-!ipecium,  the 
observing  of  birds  ;  ari.i.  bird  +  gpcc-,  observe] :  among  the 
ancient  Komans,  divinations  foumled  on  the  night  of  birds 
or  other  omens,  by  which  the  augurs  or  soollisayers  pro- 
fessed that  they  could  a-scertain  the  will  of  the  gods  and 
predict  events.  (See  AvuuR.)  Xo  important  enterprise  or 
iiusiness  was  undertaken  without  consulting  the  aus])iees. 
lu  performing  this  ceremony  the  augur  with  a  wand  marked 
out  a  [lurtion  of  the  sky  for  his  observations,  which  portion, 
called  a  ti-.mpium,  was  divided  into  riglit  and  left.  If  the 
birds  appeared  on  the  right  hand,  the  omen  was  favorable: 
if  they  flew  toward  the  left  {ad  siiiiKtrum),  it  was  unfavora- 
ble. The  chief  magistrates  also  had  the  right  to  conduct 
this  ceremony,  and  the  commander  of  the  army  in  time  of 
war  had  the  exclusive  power  of  taking  the  auspices.  If  a 
victory  was  gained  liy  his  legate  or  lieutenant,  it  was  said  to 
be  Weill  uiuler  the  auspices  of  the  geueral-iu-chief.  Thus 
originated  the  common  English  phriuse,  "  under  the  auspices  " 
of  some  one.  In  such  cases  "  auspices  "  signifies  influence, 
patronage. 


Aus'sicr:  an  Austrian  town;  in  Bohemia;  on  the  Elbe;  46 
miles  \V."X.  \V.  from  Prague  (see  map  of  Avistria-Hungary, 
ref.  3-1));  has  coal  mines  in  the  vicinitv,  and  manufactures 
of  linen,  gohl.  and  silver  work.  Pop.  (1880)  16,534;  (1891) 
34,083. 

Aiis'ton.  Jaxk  :  aut  horess ;  b.  at  .Steventon.  in  Hampshire, 
England,  Dec.  16,  1775.  She  was  eilucated  by  her  father, 
who  was  rector  of  Steventon,  and  after  his  death  she  lived 
at  Southampton  and  Cliawton.  Her  first  novel.  Sense  and 
Senxihififi/.  appeared  anonvmouslv  in  1811.  She  afterward 
produceil  'Pridi:  a/id  Prejudice  (18i3),  Mniisfiehl  /'«;•/.•  (1814), 
A'miua  (1816);  Sorfhanfjer  Abbey  (1818),  and  Permamoii 
(1818) ;  the  first  three  were  anonymous.  These  works  repre- 
sent with  great  fidelity  the  ordinary  life  of  the  middle  classes 
of  England,  and  have  been  frequently  reprinted.  Many  con- 
sider them  the  l)est  novels  ever  written  by  a  woman.  D.  at 
Wincliester.  Julv  18.  1817.  See  her  memoir  by  her  nephew, 
J.  E.  Austen  Leigh  (London,  1870 :  3d  ed.  1871).  and  sketches 
by  Mrs.  Charles  Maiden  (1889),  and  by  Goldwin  Smith  (1890.) 

Aiis'terlitz :  a  small  town  in  Jloravia;  on  the  Littawa; 
13  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Briinn  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary, 
ref.  4-F).  It  has  a  fine  castle.  Poji.  about  3.000.  ^  It  is  cele- 
brated as  the  scene  of  a  great  victory  which  Xapoleon  I. 
gained  over  the  combined  armies  of  Austria  and  Russia. 
comnian<led  by  their  respective  emperors,  on  Dec.  3,  1805. 
Xapoleon  had  'taken  Vienna  about  Xov.  13,  after  w  hich  he 
fixeil  his  headquarters  at  Briinn,  where  he  had  about  7.5.00O 
men.  The  armies  of  the  allies,  amounting  to  about  85.000, 
advanced  in  five  eoluiiins  to  offer  battle  to  the  French,  who 
occupied  high  ground  nartly  covered  by  wooded  eminences, 
morasses,  and  small  lakes.  '  The  battle  began  about  7  A.  M., 
when  the  allies  atlemptcd  to  turn  the  right  wing  of  Xapo- 
leon, who  attacked  them  in  flank  and  at  various  points  with 
great  advantage.  While  a  portion  of  the  allieil  army  was 
retreating  across  a  frozen  lake,  tlie  ice  was  broken  by  the 
French  artillerv,  and  nearly  3.000  men  perished  in  the 
water.  The  allies  lost,  about  30.000.  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  and  the  French  about  13,000.  Among  the  results 
of  this  victory  was  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  Dec.,  1805. 

Austin  :  city  and  railroad  junction  ;  capital  of  Mower  co., 
Jlinn.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  .Minnesota,  ref. 
11-F) ;  on  Red  Cedar  river.  Austin  has  a  fine  court-house, 
a  beautiful  o]iera-house,  water-works,  a  board  of  trade,  rail- 
road shops,  canning  and  preserving  factory,  jiressed-brick 
works,  lloiiring-mills.  plow-factory,  foundry,  machine-shop.s, 
creamcrv.  marlile-works.  two  iiews|iapers,  etc.  Pop.  (1880) 
3.305;  (1890)3,901;  (1895)  .5,087. 

II.  O.  BaSFORD,  Pl'HLISHEK  OF  "  REGISTER." 

Austin  :  city  on  railroad ;  capital  of  Lander  i:o.,  Xev.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xevada.  ref.  5-11)  j  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  tlie;  Toyalie  range  of  mountains.  There  arc 
several  quartz-mills  anil  manv  rich  silver  mines  here.  Pop. 
(1870)  1,334;  (1880)  1,679;  (1890)  1.315. 

Austin  :  borough.  Potter  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-E);  on  Sinncmahoning  Val- 
ley R.  R. ;  13  mil'es  from  Coiidersport,  the  county-seat.  It 
is'in  a  farming  district,  and  was  organized  ill  1888  from  part 
of  Portage  township.     Pop.  (1890)  1,679. 

Austin:  city  and  important  railroad  center;  capital  of 
Texas  and  of  Travis  County  ;  in  lat.  30"  16'  35 "  X.,  Ion.  97° 


(,'ai»itol,  Avisuii,  lexas. 


43'  58'  W.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref. 
5-11);  on  the  left  bank  of  the  "Cohirado  river,  which  is  a 
clear  and  beautifid  stream,  but  is  not  navigable.     Austin  is 


416 


AUSTIN 


AUSTRALIA 


surrounded  by  fine  scenery,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Texas  iu  1839;  was  chosen  capital  of  the  State 
in  1850,  and  in  18T:J  was  made  the  permanent  capital  by  vote 
of  the  people.  The  Colorado  river  is  here  spanned  by  two 
fine  liridges. 

Austin  W!is  originally  Ijuilt  on  a  beautiful  plateau  in  the 
bend  of  the  river,  but  now  extends  back  from  the  original 
front  about  2  miles  and  along  the  river  about  2|  miles. 

atreels  and  Avenues. — It  is  intersected  by  two  central 
avenues  120  feet  wide,  extending  from  the  Capitol  grounds 
(about  10  acres,  situated  on  Capitol  Hill,  a  beautiful  emi- 
nence near  the  center  of  the  city  projier)  E.,  W.,  X..  and  S. 
to  the  original  citv  limits,  which  are  bounded  E.  and  W.  by 
avenues  200  feet  wide.  Most  of  the  other  streets  are  80  feet 
wide,  and  none  less  than  GO  feet.  The  principal  streets  are 
shaded,  and  the  hills  and  valley  studded  with  live-oaks  and 
other  forest  trees. 

Public  Buildings. — The  old  Capitol,  which  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  lias  been  replaced  by  a  magnificent  stone  edifice,  for 
the  cost  of  wliich  ;5,000,000  'acres  of  State  lands  have  been 
appropriated.  The  chief  public  buildings  besides  the  Capi- 
tol are  the  temporary  State-house,  the  post-office,  general 
land-office,  and  graded-school  building  (all  handsome  and 
commodious  stone  edifices),  the  asylum  for  lunatics,  mutes. 
and  blind,  ami  the  Governor's  mansion.  The  State  Univer- 
sitv,  a  fine  brick  building,  is  on  College  Hill,  in  the  northern 
pai-t  of  the  city.  Pop." (1870)  4,428;  (1880)  11.013;  (1S!)0) 
lo.TOO:  but  since  this  census  was  taken  the  city  has  greatly 
increased  its  limits  bv  adding  7  sq.  miles  and  .5.000  people. 
A  dam,  1,200  feet  long,  60  feef  high,  and  60  feet  thick  at  base, 
has  been  constructed  across  the  Colorado  river  at  a  point  2 
miles  above  the  city,  thus  furnishing  14.500  horse-power  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  etc.       Editor  of  "Statesman." 

Austin,  Alfred:  English  poet;  b.  at  Headingley,  near 
Leeds,  Englan<l,  May  30,  1835  ;  educated  at  Stonyhurst  Col- 
/ege  and  St.  Mary's  College.  Oscott.  talcing  his  degree  at  the 
University  of  London  in  1853 ;  called  to  the  bar  of  tlie  In- 
ner Teuiple  1857,  entering  the  law  only  out  of  deference 
to  his  parents,  being  himself  determined  from  an  early  age 
to  follow  literature;  went  to  Italy  in  1861,  on  the  death  of 
his  father;  published  The  Season,  a  Satire  (1861);  The 
Human  Trnyedi/  (1862);  The  Golden  Age  (1871);  Inter- 
lades  (18T2);  Ihime  or  Death  (1873);  Madonnas  Child 
(1^73);  The  Tower  of  Babel  (1874);  Savonarola  (1881); 
Fiiglish  Lyrics  (1890);  in  addition  to  three  novels,  several 
otlicr  volumes  of  poetry,  and  numerous  political  articles.  Ap- 
pointed Poet  Laureate  {g.  v.)  Jan.  1,  1896. 

Austin,  CoE  FiNXH:  botanist;  b.  at  ]Mount  Hope.  Orange 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  June  20,  1831;  published  Musci  Appalachiaiii 
and  Hepalicte  BoreaU-Americante,  and  described  many  si)e- 
cies  of  mosses  and  liverworts.  D.  at  Closter,  X.  J.,  Mar.  18, 
1880. 

Austin.  .Tonx:  jurist;  b.  at  Creeling  Mill,  Suffolk.  Eng- 
land, .Mai'.  3.  1790';  called  to  the  bar  in  London  1818:  be- 
came the  iutiiiuite  Iriend  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  James  Jlill, 
and  other  influential  persons;  was  Professor  of  Jurispru- 
dence in  tlie  University  of  London  1826-32,  but  his  public 
life  was,  on  tlie  whole,  a  failure.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
Province  of  Jurispnidence  Determined  (London,  1832:  5th 
cd.  1885).     I),  at  Weybridge,  Surrey,  Dec.,  1859. 

Austin,  Saint:  See  Augustine,  Saint. 

Austin,  Samuel,  D.  D.  :  Congregational  minister;  b.  at 
Xew  Haven,  Conn..  Oct.  7, 1760;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1783; 
became  pastor  at  Fair  Haven,  Conn.,  1786,  and  at  Worces- 
ter. Ma.ss.,  1790;  president  of  the  University  of  Vermont 
1815,  resigned  1821.  J),  at  Glastonbury,  Conn.,  Dec.  4. 
1830. 

Austin,  Sarah  :  English  writer  and  accomplished  trans- 
lator; a  member  of  the  eminent  Taylor  family  of  Xorwich  : 
b.  there  in  1793.  She  was  married  in  1820  to' John  Austin, 
a  barrister  of  London  (q.  v.).  She  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
Characleristicji  of  Goetlie  (from  the  German  of  Falk,  3  vols., 
18:^3),  which  was  very  successful,  and  Sketches  of  Gennnug 
from  1700  to  ISl/i.  She  produced  a  good  translation  from 
the  German  of  Prince  PUckler-Muskau's  Tour  in  England 
(l*i2),  and  also  one  of  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes  (3  vols., 
1840),  wliich  was  highly  commended  by  Macaulay.  I),  at 
\Veybri<lge,  in  Surrey,  Aug.  8,  1867. 

Austin,  Stephen  F. :  b.  about  1790;  was  a  son  of  Moses 
Austin,  a  pioneer  born  at  Durham,  Conn.  About  1821  he 
conilncted  a  company  of  emipants  from  Xew  Orleans,  and 
planted  u  colony  where  the  city  of  Austin  now  stands.    His 


father  emigrated  to  Texas  about  1820.  and  obtained  a  land- 
grant  and  permission  to  plant  a  colony  in  that  province ; 
this  grant  was  confirmed  to  the  son  in  1822  or  1823.  pearly 
in  1833  the  Texan  colonists  formed  a  constitution,  to  obtain 
a  ratification  of  which  Austin  and  other  delegates  went  to 
the  city  of  Mexico.  In  consequence  of  the  frequent  revolu- 
tions and  anarchy  of  Mexico,  they  did  not  obtain  the  admis- 
sion of  Texas  into  the  confederacy.  In  18;35  Austin  was 
chosen  commander  of  the  Texan  army,  and  joined  in  the 
movement  for  the  liberation  of  Texas.  He  went  as  a  com- 
missioner to  tlie  L'.  S.  to  obtain  the  recognition  of  Texas 
as  an  independent  .State.  D.  in  Texas,  Dee.  27,  1836.  See 
Yoakum.  Ilisturg  of  Texas.  1856. 

Austin,  William:  lawyer  and  author;  b.  at  Charles- 
town.  Mass..  Mar.  2.  1778;  author  of  Letters  from  London 
(Bostim,  1804) ;  An  Es.viy  on  the  Human  Character  of  Jesus 
Christ:  Peter  Rnqg.  the  Missing  Man.  a  legendary  story 
published  in  the  'Xew  England  Galaxy  (1824-26),  etc.  D. 
in  Charlestown,  Mass..  June  27,  1841. 

Austin,  William  Piercv.  D.  D..  Oxon..  LL.  D.,  Cantah. : 
Lord  Bishop  of  Guiaim  and  Primate  of  the  West  Indies;  b. 
at  Si  one.  Staffordshire,  England,  Xov.  7,  1807;  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Guiana  Aug.  24.'"1842.     D.  Xov.  9,  1892. 

Australa'sla  (i.  e.  Southern  Asia) :  the  islands  of  the 
Southern  Pacific,  with  Australia.  It  includes  (1)  Australia 
and  Tasmania,  area,  3.056.986  sq.  miles,  pop.  3,330,00(1 ;  (2) 
Xew  Guinea  group,  area.  313.000  sq.  miles,  pop.  837.000:  (3) 
Xew  Zealand  group,  area,  104.000  sq.  miles,  pop.  620.000; 
(4)  Jlelanesia.  including  the  Bismarck  archipelago.  Solomon 
islands.  Xew  Caledonia.  Fiji,  and  others,  area,  57,000  sq. 
miles,  pop.  642.000.  The  total  land  area  is  about  3.531.000 
sq.  miles,  and  population  5.429.000.  consisting  in  part  of  a 
brown  Polynesian  race,  in  part  of  black  Papuans  and  Aus- 
tralians, in  part  Euro]iean  immigrants  and  some  Malays. 
Great  Britain  claims  all  of  (1)  and  (3).  about  one-third  of 
(2).  and  about  one-fifth  of  (4).  The  remainder  are  divided 
auioiig  the  Germans.  Dutch,  and  French,  very  little  of  the 
area  being  now  without  at  least  a  nominal  "  protector."  A 
federal  council  of  British  colonies  in  Australasia  was  estab- 
hshed  in  1885. 

Australia,  aws-tra'li-a  (formerly  New  Holland):  the 
largest  island  on  the  globe;  sometimes  reckoned  as  a  fifth 
continent;  derives  its  name  from  its  geographical  location 
(austrn'lis.  "southern").  Lying  to  the  S.  of  Asia,  between 
lat.  10"  39'  and  39°  11'  S..  and  113°  and  153i°  E.  Ion.,  its 
area  is  about  3.000,000  sq.  miles.  From  E.  to  W.  it  is  2,500 
miles,  and  from  X.  to  S.  1.600  nides.  The  coast-line  is  in- 
dented by  singularly  few  bays,  except  on  the  northern 
shore,  which  has  the  great  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 

Geology  and  Physical  Features. — The  peculiar  features 
of  Australia  suggest  the  probability  of  its  having  been  at 
no  remote  period  the  bed  of  an  ocean.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  to  be  dish-shaped,  having  a  low-l_\-ing  interior  with 
conqiaratively  elevated  table-lands  of  sandstone  formation 
at  an  average  distance  of  aliout  30  miles  from  the  coast,  and 
with  an  altitude  of  from  1.000  to  3,000  feet.  These  table- 
lands are  traversed  in  some  places,  principally  in  the  east, 
by  mountains,  which  are.  however,  of  insignificant  height, 
tliat  of  the  highest  summits  Vieing  only  about  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  The  principal  mountains  of  the  continent  ex- 
tend along  its  eastern  side  in  a  broken  scries  from  Cape 
York  on  the  north  to  Wdson's  Promontory  on  the  south. 
Mt.  Kosciusko,  in  the  Warragong  or  Australian  .Uj)s  of  X'^ew 
South  Wales,  is  the  culminating  point  of  the  cimtinenf.  and 
has  an  altitude  of  7.308  feet.  Tiie  geological  formations  are 
chiefly  Pal.aKizoic,  Tertiary,  and  Secondary,  broken  by  intru- 
sioiLs  of  granite,  trap-rock,  syenite,  etc.  Tertiary  deijosits 
are  found  in  Victoria  and  on  the  west  coast,  while  absent  in 
Eastern  Australia.  Granite  occurs  largely  along  the  coast 
and  in  the  east  drifts,  and  igneous  rocks  are  found  with 
fragments  of  pahcozoic  strata.  In  the  interior  occur  great 
deposits  of  animal  bones.  In  the  district  north  of  .Spencer 
Gulf  (c.-illed  the  "lake  district  of  Australia")  and  elsewhere 
in  the  interior  are  numerous  salt  lakes,  and  some  whose  wa- 
ters are  fresh.  Most  of  them  vary  in  size  with  the  season, 
becoming  in  the  dry  season  shallow  or  nearly  dried  up. 
There  are  no  active  volcanoes,  but  numerous  extinct  ones 
are  foumi  in  .South  Australia  and  in  Victoria,  the  craters  of 
many  of  which  are  now  the  basins  of  beautiful  lakes.  Aus- 
trali.Vs  priiK'ipal  and  only  great  river,  the  Murray,  1.100 
miles  long,  is  navigable  in  the  interior,  but  its  outlet  where 
it  empties  into  the  Southern  Ocean  is  a  shallow  lagoon. 
The  Mctoria,  in  the   northwest,  runs  in  a  deep  channel 


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AUSTKlA-HUXfiARY 


417 


thr()ii;;h  cliffs  300  fcot  liiijli.  OtluT  rivers  arc  tho  Glenelg, 
flowiiit;  tliroufih  a  fertile  cimntry  iiiul  [larlially  navisaljle, 
the  I'riiiie  Ueireiit.  Mrisbane.  UirliiniiiKi.  Clarence.  Hunter, 
Ilawkesliury.  .Swan,  Kcpper,  Alliert  .M\irniiMlii(li;ee,  ami  I'ar- 
liiij;.  Ill  periixls  of  ihoiinlil  many  cil'  tliese  streams  ihvin- 
(lle.  into  a  eliain  of  "water-holes."  In  Soiilhca.slern  Aus- 
tralia, extenilinj,'  from  the  "lake  ilistrict"  on  the  W.  to 
the  mountains  on  the  K.,  and  from  the  coast  far  into  the 
interior,  is  a  vast  rcf^ion  of  f;ra.ssy  hii^hlaiids  covered  with 
scattered  heath,  scrnli.  ami  thin  forests  of  niajjnificent  trees, 
and  intersected  by  broad  valh'ys.  This  immense  district, 
wliieli  is  drained  by  the  Murray  and  its  tributaries,  has 
ffreat  areas  of  deep  black  soil  of  remarkalih'  fertility.  In 
ordinary  seasons  these  tracts  arc  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vefjetation  and  furnish  sustenance  tof;real  numbers  of  slu'cp, 
cattle,  and  horses.  In  a  yearof  drouj^ht  the  f^rass  and  lierl)- 
a;j;e,  onlinarily  so  abundant,  is  dried  up  by  the  fierce  heal, 
and  the  cattle  ami  sheep  die  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands, 
and  I'ven  the  n;ilive  animals  ]ierish  of  starvation.  Attempts 
are  now  (lS!Ki)  lieini;  made  lo  insure  a  jiroper  water-supply 
by  the  establislimeni  of  irrigation  colonies.  'I'lieri' an-  two 
of  these  (those  of  Mildura  in  Vicloria  and  of  Kenniark  in 
Sonlh  Australia)  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Murray,  from 
which  they  derive  tlic  water  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 
There  are  about  5()().()()0  acres  in  these  colonies,  on  which 
the  founders  have  spent  about  1 1  .ooO.OOO  and  the  settlers 
$.")00.(H)()  more.  The  oopulation  innnbers  over  :!.(IIM),  and  is 
rapidly  increasinij.  1  he  secpaj^e  system  of  irrii;aliori  is  I'm- 
[>loyed,  and  the  results  obtained  have  proved  liijjhly  satis- 
factory. In  ollu'r  places  than  these  water  for  irrijjalion  has 
been  obtained  from  artesian  wells,  nniny  of  which  have  been 
bored.  The  flow  from  two  wells  alone  is  estimated  to  be 
nbout  o.OOd.OOO  ijal.  ilaily.  The  wi'stern  half  of  the  south 
coast  of  .\ustralia  is  low  and  sandy,  the  west  coast  is  skirt- 
ed by  detached  mounlain-ranges  with  inlervenini;  fertile 
valleys,  and  the  norlhi'rn  coast  is  in  many  parts  low  and 
swampv.  Of  the  i;reat  western  interior,  however,  compara- 
tively little  is  known,  exploration  bein;;  ri'ndered  almost 
impossible  by  the  lack  of  water. 

Climiite. — In  general  the  climate  of  Australia  is  warm 
and  dry  and  very  sjdnbrions.  Sontliern  Australia  gets  lit- 
tle rain,  while  Vicloria  ami  N'ew  South  Wales  and  parts  of 
(^uei'iisland  have  from  '.Vi  to  44  inches  annually.  In  the 
tropical  regions  there  are  but  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the 
<lry;  but  in  the  other  portions  of  the  continent  the  four 
seasons  of  the  temperate  zone  are  distinctly  nnirked.  Here 
the  seasons  of  Anu'rica  and  Europe  are  reversed,  January 
and  Felirnary  being  the  hottest  monthsof  summer,  and  .lulv 
the  coldest  of  winter.  Iidand  on  the  vast  drv  plains  llie 
heat  risi'S  to  the  height  of  100  lo  140°  in  the  "shade,  wiiile 
the  coast-regions  are(|uite  tejiijierate,  with  a  m<>an  ainiual 
lempi'i-alure  of  ,"),S    \a  {\i  ,     Protracted  droughts  ami  violent 

11 Is  characterize  Australia,  which  has  a  marked  |ioverty 

of  pernuinenl  fresh-water  reservoirs. 

Suit  (lilt/  I'nii/iirfitm.':. — The  part  of  .\ustralia  lying  in 
the  tropical  regions  has  forest  proilucts  of  gri'at  luxuriance, 
while  the  highlands,  almost  bare  of  trees,  abound  in  pasture 
gra-ss  and  herbaceous  vegi4ation.  The  dry  clinuite  in  the 
N'.  favors  evergreen  growth,  while  there  is  a  marked  absence 
of  mosses  and  lichens.  Of  the  eucalyptus,  or  gum-tre<>,  400 
species  are  fcaiml,  some  being  loO 'to  200  feet  high,  with 
stately  trunks.  About  10.000  species  of  indigenous  Aus- 
tralian plants  are  descrila'd,  but  none  of  the  cereals  and  few 
of  the  esculent  fruits  or  roots  are  natives  of  the  soil.  Cattle 
are  .-ibundantly  raised  by  herdsmen.  The  marsupial  ani- 
nuds  predonnn.-ite  among  the  Australian  mammals.  Thei-e 
are  found  thi-  kangaroo,  opossum,  (lying  si|uirrel.  bear,  wild 
dog,  etc.,  but  no  ruminant  beasts.  ' 'i'lie  duck-liillcd  platy- 
pus is  peculiar  to  .\uslralia,  and  forms  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween (iuadru|ieds  and  birds.  Xothing  similar  to  it  exists 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  birds  embrace  near  700 
specii's.  among  which  are  the  white  eagle,  black  swan,  par- 
rot, emu,  lyre-biril,  honey-eater,  etc.  Saurians  or  lizards 
are  numerous.  Food-fish  abound,  several  species  being  jie- 
culiar  to  Australia,  (iold  was  discovereil  in  IS.")!  in  Vic- 
toria and  New  .Suutli  Wales,  and  later  in  (Queensland.  The 
annual  value  of  gold  .■xpoiis  was  $-,>.S,000,000  for  the  years 
IH.SK-<H).  Victoria  alone  has  produced  an  aggregate  of 
*1.I(II).IIO(I.OOO  in  gold.  Large  coal-fields  exist,'  alsii  profit- 
able eojipi.r,  iron,  and  lead  mines.  Wool  is  a  great  .-ilaple  of 
.Australia,  sheep-farming  being  easy  and  profitable.  I'otton, 
wheat,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  produced,  .and  the  grape  flour- 
ishes. Aggregate  exports  reach  nearlv  :i;-JI)."),OI)0.illlO  annual- 
ly; total  imports,  $301,000,0011. 
27 


Wfigh/K  find  Mi'nsiirex. — The  same  as  in  Great  Britain. 

liihubitiints. — The  aborigines  of  Australia,  thoiin:h  similar 
to  the  Africans  in  thick  lips,  flat  noses,  etc.,  are  lighter  in 
color,  being  dusky  lirrjwn,  and  have  well-shaped  limljs  and 
straight  or  curly  black  hair.  Their  intelligence  is  of  a  low 
order  ;  their  knowledge  of  mechanic  arts  very  slight.  They 
build  no  perinanenl  dwellings,  but  only  hovels.  The  sole 
dress  is  a  single  garment,  the  skin  being  tattooed.  Their 
hatchets  are  of  stone,  with  s|icars  and  axes  of  hard  wood,  as 
is  their  peculiar  weapon,  the  boomerang.  The  tribal  rela- 
tion exists  and  caiinibalisiu  is  said  to  |irevail  among  some 
tribes.  They  have  no  religion  beyond  believing  in  tlie  god 
Buddai,  a  giant  sleei>ing  for  ages,  whom  they  expect  some 
day  to  awake  and  eat  up  the  world.  The  native  Au.stra- 
lians  are  computed  at  about  31,000.  The  rapidly  increasing 
European  population  is  almost  wholly  British,  who  have 
foumled  thriving  settlements,  advanced  in  civilization  and 
all  the  arts  of  life. 

llixtiiri/. — .Vnstralia  was  first  discovered  by  the  Dutch 
and  Spaniards  in  1001  to  lOIXi.  Capl.  Cook  in  1770  explored 
the  eastern  coast,  and  took  possession  of  the  country  for  the 
British  (nivernnieiit.  In  178S  the  fii-st  setllement"  of  New 
South  Wales  began.  Botany  Bay  following  as  a  penal  colony 
of  (ireat  Britain.  Western  Australia  was  .set  apart  in  1829, 
Southern  .\uslralia  in  1834.  Victoria  in  1851,  and  Queen.s- 
laiid  in  IS.")!).  Each  of  these  five  colonies  has  a  distinct  gov- 
ernment, a  parliauK'iit  of  two  houses,  and  a  governor  ap- 
pointed ijy  the  British  Crown,  but  a  bill  to  provide  for  the 
federation  of  the  colonies  under  the  title  of  the  Comnion- 
weallli  of  Australia  is  now(l8!»3)  under  con.sideration  of  the 
colonial  parliaments.  Explorations  of  the  almost  unknown 
interior  were  conducted  by  Sturt  in  1828-^5;  Leiehhart 
(who  never  returned)  in  1844;  Stuart.  18.")8;  Warburton, 
1873:  and  Winnicke  in  1883.  jiroving  that  the  unexjilored 
interior  is  more  fertile  than  ]ireviously  believed.  See  Wood's 
Iliattirij  (if  Dixriircri/  kikI  E.rijloralitiu  iif  Aiis/ra/i(t  (1865); 
Soiifh  AuxtniUa.  bv  William  llarcus  (1870);  and  llistory 
of  Auxfralla.  3  vols',  by  G.  W.  Kusden  (1883). 

Pulitiail  JJivisiona. — Australia  is  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing colonies : 


NAME. 

Sq.  milei. 

Pop. 

New  South  Wales,  1891 .... 

310,700 
668.497 
903.690 
87.884 
1,060,(X)0 

1,134.207 
393,718 
31.5,048 

1,140,411 
49  782 

Queensiaiiil.  isill 

Scuitli  .\ustnvlia,  1891 

Vieturia.  isiil 

Western  Australia,  1891 . . . 

Totals 

3,030,771 

3,033,166 

Revised  by  A.  K.  Spofford. 

Austra'liau  Alps:  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  .south- 
eastern part  of  .Vnstralia.  in  the  colonies  of  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria.  They  are  called  Warragong  Jloun- 
tains  by  tlie  natives.  They  are  the  highest  mountains  in 
Australia,  but  their  to]is  hardly  reach  the  line  of  per]ietiial 
snow.     Tlie  highi'^l  peak  i--  :\lt'.  Kosciusko,  7,176  feet. 

AiistraliiiM  System  (if  Voting:  See  Ballot  Hefokji. 

.\ustra'siii :  the  eastern  dominions  of  the  Franks  under 
the  .Merovingians:  made  a  kingdom  by  Chivis.  511  a.  D., 
coniiirising  the  present  Lorraine.  Belgium,  and  acljacent  ter- 
ritory.    It  was  merged  in  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 

Alis'tria.  .\rcli<liicliy  of:  the  nucleus  around  which  the 
Austrian  empire  has  grown.  Area,  12.285  so.  miles.  It 
is  bounilerl  X.  by  Bohemia  an<l  Moravia.  E.  by  Hun- 
gary. .S.  by  Slyria.  and  W.  by  Bavaria.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Danube,  and  is  dividi'il  by  the  river  Eiins  into  two 
provinces,  Ujiper  Austria  (Ober-ocslerreich)  and  Lower  Aus- 
tria (L'nter-  or  Xieder-oesti'rreich),  in  which  Vienna  is  situ- 
ated. Pop.  of  Upper  Austria  in  1890,  785,831;  of  Lower 
Austria,  2,661,790.  Both  provinces  are  mountainous  and 
abound  in  beautiful  scenery.  The  X'oric  Alps  extend  along 
the  southern  Ixmndary.  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  arch- 
duchy are  occupied  by  mountains  called  the  Biihmerwald. 
The  climate  is  moilerale.  the  average  annual  temperature 
of  Vienna  being  51  F.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube 
is  fertile,  and  the  hilly  regions  produce  valuable  timber. 
Among  the  staple  productions  are  grain,  wine,  and  ex<'ellent 
fruits.  Lower  Austria  has  a  more  extensive  commerce  than 
any  other  province  of  the  empire. 

Austria-Hungary :  an  empire  situated  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Europe  lietween  Ion.  9  and  20  E..  and  hit.  42'  and 
51  X.  It  forms  an  irregular  but  compact  region,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  other  countries. except  where  it  bor- 


418 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


ders  the  Adriatic.  It  is  bounded  W.  and  N.  by  the  German 
empire,  N.  E.  by  Russia,  E.  and  S.  by  the  Danubian  prov- 
inces and  Turkey,  S.  W.  by  tlio  Adriatic  Sea,  Switzerland. 
and  Italy.  Exchisive  of  liosnia  and  Herzo(;ovina.  it  has  an 
area  ot  240,943  English  sq.  miles,  ranking  third  in  jKiint  of 
extent  among  the  countries  of  Europe.  JIuch  of  the  terri- 
tory is  nearly  as  mountainous  as  Switzerland.  'J'he  Alps 
extend  over  the  southwestern  i}ortion.  while  the  Carpathians, 
scarcely  less  in  picturesqueness  or  importance,  extend,  in  the 
form  of  a  bow.  along  the  northeastern  portion  for  a  distance 
of  more  tlian  600  miles.  The  valley  of  the  Danube  and  its 
tributaries  constitute  a  vast  and  fertile  region  of  great  im- 
portance. The  Danulie,  with  the  exception  ot  the  Volga  the 
largest  river  in  Eurojie,  has  a  course  ot  about  820  miles 
within  the  country,  and  during  nearly  all  of  this  distance 
is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels.  The  numerous  tribu- 
taries of  the  Danulie  also  i'orm  important  waterways  l'<ir 
eorainerce.  Along  tlie  foot  of  the  mountains  there  are  nu- 
merous lakes  and  marshes.  No  other  country  in  Europe 
contains  so  many  or  so  valuable  mineral  springs.  These  are 
no  less  than  1,500  in  ninidier.  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
are  Karlsbad.  Jlarienliad.  Fi-anzensbad,  Teplitz.  and  Seidlitz. 
The  climate,  owing  to  tlie  great  differences  of  elevation,  is 
extremely  various.  In  the  south  grapes.  Indian  corn,  and 
olives  are  among  the  most  important  products:  wliile  in  the 
province  of  Dalmatia  ]5lants  of  a  tropical  nature  flourish  in 
the  open  air.  In  the  middle  zone  the  winters  are  colder  and 
the  summers  hotter.  The  vine  and  maize  are  here  cultivated 
only  in  favored  situations,  while  wheat  and  oats  are  more 
generally  grown.  In  the  ncirthern  portion,  emln-acing  Bo- 
hernia,  Moravia.  Silesia,  and  (ialicia.  the  winters  are  long 
and  cold;  grapes  and  maize  are  no  longer  grown,  the  princi- 
pal crops  lieing  wheat,  oats.  rye.  barley,  hemp,  and  flax.  In 
the  Alps  the  rainfall  sometimes  reaches  60 inches:  the  aver- 
age is  from  20  to  24  inches:  while  on  the  plains  of  Hungary 
it  is  often  as  low  as  16.  The  flora,  owing  to  the  great  vari- 
ety of  soil  and  climate,  is  extremely  various,  ranging  nearly 
all  the  way  from  the  plants  of  the  tropics  to  those  of  tlie 
arctic  zone.  It  is  estimated  that  the  numlier  of  species  is 
no  less  than  12.000.  There  are  90  species  of  mammals,  248 
of  birds,  877  of  fishes,  and  more  than  13.000  of  insects. 

Area.  Popidnfion,  and  Religion. — The  following  talile 
gives  the  area  of  the  several  provinces  foi'ming  the  empire, 
with  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  on  Dec.  31,  1890 : 


PROVINCES  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 
or  CROWN-LANDS. 

Sq,  miles. 

Pop. 
Dec.  31.  1890. 

Lower  Austria 

7,6.>1 
4.631 
2,767 
8.B70 
4,005 
8,8,56 
3,084 

11,324 

20.060 
8,583 
1,987 

30,-307 

4.0.3,5 

4.940 

108.258 

16,773 
8 

23.202 

2  661  799 

785  831 

Salzburg 

Styria 

Carinthia ...                                           

Carniola 

Littoral 

Tyrol 

Bohemia . .                                        

Moravia 

Silesia 

173,510 

1,282.708 

361.008 

498,958 

695.3(H 

928.76!) 

8,843,094 

2,276,870 

605  649 

Galicia 

6,607,816 

Biikowina 

Dalmatia 

646,591 
527  426 

Croatia  and  Slavonia  ....                       

2,200,977 

30,337 

1,404,000 

Bosuia  and  Herzegovina  .     ,                

Totals 

364,204 

42  7R2  888 

The  population  of  Austria-Hungary  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  distinct  races.  Of  these  the  Germans  numl)er  onlv  a 
little  more  than  9,0110.000.  while  the  Slavonians  amount  to 
as  manv  as  17,400,(HK);  the  Magvurs  or  Hungarians  aliout 
6,0(XI.O(iO:  thi'  Wallarliians.  3.000.000;  the  ,I<^ws.  1.106,000; 
the  Italians.  .')  1  ."kOOO,  The  Gipsies.  Armenians,  liidgarians, 
Albanians,  and  (Jreeks  make  up  the  rest.  Aljout  two-thirds 
of  all  the  nt'ople  profess  the  Uoman  Catholic  religion.  The 
Greek  Catholics  niiml)er  aliout  one-tenth  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. Of  Protestants  there  are  about  375.000  in  Austria 
profier,  and  3.4()0,()00  in  Hungary.  The  statute  of  May  25. 
1868.  secures  tlu'  sulistantiid  independence  of  the  Church  as 
regards  I  lie  .stat<'.  full  lib.-rty  of  faith  and  conscience,  and 
the  indepenileiit  enjoyment  of  civil  and  political  rights. 
Every  religious  body,' legally  recognized,  has  the  right  of 
ordinary  public  worship,  I  he  "management  of  its  own  affairs, 
and  the  undisturbed  7)o.s.<ession  of  its  own  premises  and  en- 
dowments. In  Hungary  there  is  perfect  religious  equality, 
each  religious  deiiominaliou  having  the  intlependent  organ- 
ization of  its  own  affairs. 


Product.'^. — Agriculture  is  at  the  head  of  the  industries  of 
the  country.  Jluch  attention  is  paid  to  the  raising  of  cat- 
tle, but  excejit  in  the  Alpine  regions  the  breeds  are  inferior. 
The  country  is  distinguished,  however,  for  the  number  and 
superiority  of  its  horses.  The  finest  and  most  beautiful 
horses  are  .said  to  be  found  in  Transylvania,  while  the  larg- 
est and  most  powerful  come  from  tfie  vicinity  of  Salzburg. 
In  the  S(iuthern  parts  of  the  country  horses  are  less  numer- 
ous, and  mules  and  asses  very  generally  take  their  place. 
The  proiluctive  land  of  Austria  is  estimated  at  89'6  per 
cent.,  while  that  of  Hungary  is  84'4,  making  86-9  per  cent, 
for  the  whole  country.  This  great  percentage  is  owing 
largely  to  the  systematic  care  of  the  forests,  which  occupy 
one-third  of  the  productive  area.  The  forests  very  gener- 
ally belong  to  the  state,  and  they  are  carefidly  managed  by 
the  boards  known  as  the  Administrators  of  Forests  and  Do- 
mains, the  Direction  of  Forests  and  Domains,  and  the  Min- 
istry of  Agriculture.  It  is  estimatcil  that  the  forests  yield 
annually  more  than  27.000.000  cords  of  building-timber  and 
firewood,  much  of  which  is  exported.  Of  the  standard  crops 
the  amounts  produced  are  in  the  order  of  oats,  rye,  barley, 
and  whciit.  The  crop  of  the  sugar  beet  is  in  amount  aboiit 
two-tldrds  that  of  potatoes.  In  Hungary  the  products  of 
wine  and  silk  are  large.  Many  of  the  Hungarian  wines  are 
ot  superior  quality.  The  various  mining  industries  of 
Austria-Hungary  give  employment  to  somewhat  more  than 
150.000  persons.  Coal  is  found  in  abundance.  There  is 
also  a  large  supply  of  iron  ore.  Jlities  are  successfully 
worked,  [iroducing  silver,  lead,  zinc,  ami  quicksilver.  The 
exports  of  the  countrv.  valued  in  millions  of  florins,  were 
in  1890:  Grain,  79-9 :  timber.  61-7:  sugar.  05-4;  cattle,  35-8; 
hardware,  27'5;  coal  and  coke,  32-5 :  wool,  20;  paper  and 
paper  wares,  20-6;  wine,  15-5;  eggs,  16"2. 

Educatiun. — The  educational  organization  of  the  country 
consists  of:  (1)  Elementary  schools;  (2)  gymnasia  and  Real 
schools :  (3)  colleges  and  universities ;  (4)  technical  schools ; 
(5)  schools  for  special  subjects.  In  the  elementary  schools 
attendance  is  compulsory  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
year  to  the  end  of  the  fourteenth.  The  subjects  taught  in 
these  schools  are  prescribed,  and  embrace  religion,  reading, 
writing,  language,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  natural 
history,  physics,  geography,  history,  drawing,  singing,  gym- 
nastics, and,  for  girls,  domestic  duties.  The  cost  of  main- 
taining the  primary  schools  is  defi-ayed  in  different  ways  by 
the  local  communities,  in  very  few  cases  by  the  general  Gov- 
ernment. The  gymnasia  and  Real  schools  are  designed  to 
give  ]ire]iaration  for  the  universitiesand  the  technical  schools 
res)iectivcly.  The  curriculum  of  the  gymnasium  extends 
over  eight  years;  that  of  the  Real  schools  over  seven.  They 
are  maintained  partly  by  the  state,  partly  by  the  separate 
provinces,  and  jiartly.  as  in  the  case  of  the  Church  schools, 
by  ecclesiastical  foundations.  In  Austria  proper  there  were 
in  1891  172  gymnasiaand  78  Real  .schools;  in  Hungary,  158 
gvmnasia  and  30  Real  schools.  In  all  the  gvmnasia  there 
were  in  1889  80.269  pupils,  and  in  the  Real  schools  25,034. 
In  the  empire  there  are  eleven  universities,  each  having  the 
four  faculties — theology,  law.  medicine,  and  philosophy.  In 
1890-!tl  there  were  in  all  the  universities  17.680  students, 
and  1.477  ]irofessors  and  instructors  of  subordinate  grade. 
In  the  University  of  Vienna  there  are  usually  about  5,000 
students.  There  are  seven  Government  technical  high 
schools,  and  no  less  than  about  2.000  special  technical  train- 
ing schools  of  lower  grade  for  training  in  agriculture  and 
all  kinds  of  art,  music,  mining,  commerce,  and  trade.  Schools 
of  this  grade  have  about  15(),000  pupils.  There  are  138  ag- 
ricultural schools ;  6  veterinary  schools ;  09  forestry  schools ; 
9 art  schools;  5  mining  schools;  5  nautical  schools;  and  277 
music  schools.  By  the  Trade  Law  of  1884  every  commune, 
whei'e  there  jiri'  50  or  more  apprentices,  is  liound  to  provide  a 
school  for  special  technical  instruction.  Nearly  90  per  cent, 
of  the  children  of  school  age  are  in  attendance  at  school. 

(rorernmenl. — The  present  Constitution  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary was  adopted  in  18G7.  It  recognizes  the  existence  of  two 
states,  united  politically  under  one  crown,  but  for  local  pur- 
poses (piite  independent.  Those  parts  ot  the  Government 
which  are  commonly  a.ssociated  with  the  prerogatives  of 
monarchy  are  common  to  Austria  and  Hungary.  These  in- 
clude (1)  foreign  alfairs ;  (2)  military  and  naval  affairs;  (3) 
finance;  (4)  defense;  (5)  coinage.  The  headship  of  the  com- 
mon monarchy  is  hereditary  in  the  Habsburg-Lothringen 
dynasty,  the  oHlcial  title  being"  Emperor  of  Austria.  King  of 
Bohemia,  and  King  of  Hungary."  The  monarch  exercises 
legislative  authority,  with  the  "co-operation  and  consent  of 
the  representative  boilies."  These  consist  of  the  Imperial  Par- 


20  Kn.-1     friim    I    fn-etniwirii      2  a_ J 


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rri„„A>i^„        fwS-^    f  r '-^Wx^'-K''   J      ,     ,  ''I-,\  Scnle  of  Miles 

I   mill.  SwJl^^\     ,  V.     ffum^'i-':  hi.-lK"  ,„    „  „  .„ 


.J 


M       103 


AUSTRIA-U  UNG  ARY 


AUTOMATOX 


419 


liainent  (the  Keiohstas  anil  IIk'  Ki'iihsnilli)  and  the  jirovin- 
eial  Parliaments.  The  two  luMlie.s  of  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment, known  as  the  Delegations,  consist  eaoli  of  sixty  ilelc- 
gates,  twenty  havinf;  been  ehosen  from  each  of  the  Upper 
ileuses  of  the  Austrian  ami  the  Ilwiifjarian  Parliaments,  and 
forty  from  the  Lower.  The  Austrian  and  llwii:,'arian  dile- 
jjates  legislate  separately.  commnniiatiTij;  wit  li  each  other  in 
writing;  but  in  ciuse  of  disagreeme[it,  after  three  such  inter- 
changes, all  come  together  and  vote  wit  liout  discussion.  The 
meetings  are  held  annually  and  alternately  at  Vienna  and 
Budapest.  The  ministry  is  res])onsilile  to  the  Delegations, 
and  may  be  impeached.  The  departments  of  the  united 
monarchy  are  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  AtTaii-s,  the  Miius- 
trv  of  War,  the  Ministry  of  Finance.  The  Parliament  of 
Austria,  as  well  as  that  of  Hungary,  consists  of  an  I'pper  and 
a  Lower  lluusi'.  The  I'jiper  House  in  Austria  is  made  up 
of  the  imperial  princes,  (in  1892)  1!»  in  iniml)cr:  of  (is  nobles, 
possessing  large  estates;  of  10  archbishops  an<l  7  bishops; 
and  of  such  men,  distinguished  in  art  or  science,  lus  may  be 
appointed  for  life  by  the  emperor.  Of  this  ela.ss,  the  num- 
ber in  1HH3  was  125.  The  Lower  House  consists  of  'S53 
members,  elected,  partly  directly  and  partly  indirectly,  by 
vote  of  all  citizens  twenty-four  years  of  age  and  possessing 
a  small  property.  In  this  House  S.i  members  repres<'nt  the 
landed  pronrietors ;  118  represent  the  towns;  21  the  cham- 
bers of  trade  and  commerce;  and  12'J  the  rural  population. 
In  Hungary  the  Upper  House  consists  of  all  hereditary  peers 
who  pay  a  land  tax  of  3.000  florins  or  more :  40  dignitaries  of 
the  Catholic  Chunh;  11  re|iresentatives  of  the  Protestant 
confessions:  82  life  peers  appointed  by  the  crown;  and  17 
state  dignitaries,  ex  officio.  The  Lower  House  is  cnmposed, 
according  to  the  law  of  1889,  of  4."):i  members,  elected  for  five 
years  by  all  male  citizens  twenty  years  or  more  of  age  who 
pay  a  sundl  aiuiual  tax.  The  army  is  founded  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  universal  military  service,  beginning  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  and  continuing  three  years  for  active  service  and 
seven  years  for  the  reserve.  The  aimual  contingent  of  re- 
cruits is  about  103.100.  The  peace  footing  of  t hi' army  in 
1892  was  3;i7.419  ;  the  war  footing.  1.872,178.  The  navy  in 
1892  consisted  of  129  ships,  of  which  25  were  armor-clad, 
401  he.avy  guns,  and  300  nuichine-guns. 

nixtorij. — The  empire  took  its  rise  from  the  nuirgraviate 
founded  on  the  south  side  of  the  Danube  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  and  received  its  name  OxtrKirh  (eastern  coun- 
try) from  its  geographical  relations  with  the  rest  of  (ienuany. 
It  coMtitmed  uniler  the  rule  of  a  nuirgrave  till  11.5G.  when, 
the  terribiry  west  of  the  Knns  having  been  addi'd,  it  was 
raised  to  a  duchy.  In  the  course  of  the  next  three  hundred 
years  it  received  further  accessions  of  territory,  ami  became 
an  archduchy  in  1453.  The  llabsburg  dynasty,  wdiich  still 
oe'cupies  the  throne,  was  introiluced  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1283  Albert  became  sole  ruler  n.>t  only  of  Austria, 
but  also  of  Styria  and  Carniola.  From  the  accession  of  Al- 
bert to  the  Keformation  the  history  of  Austria  was  an  ex- 
ceedingly turbulent  one:  but  from  time  to  time  considerable 
territorial  additions  were  nuide.  The  Arclulukc  .\lbert  V.. 
having  nuirried  the  daughter  of  the  F.mperor  Sigismund, 
obtained  the  thrones  of  Bohemia  and  llnngjiry,  and  became 
emperor  in  the  year  14;W.  as  Albert  II.  It  was  his  son  Jlax- 
imilian  who.  by  marrying  a  daughter  of  Charli's  the  Bold, 
acquired  the  Netherlands,  and  transferred  the  empire  with 
these  new  acquisitions  to  Philip  the  Fair.  Philip  was  mar- 
ried to  .lo.'iinia.  the  daughter  cjf  the  Spanish  mon.'irchs  Fer- 
dinand and  Isaliella.  and  their  son.  the  celebrated  Charles 
v.,  iidieritcd  not  only  Austria  and  the  Xetherlands,  but  also 
the  vast  possessions  of  Spain.  The  extent  of  these  territories 
so  strengthened  the  intiuencc  of  the  Austrian  princes  that 
they  were  able  from  that  time  on  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  election  to  the  imperial  throne  of  (ieruiany.  In  the 
Thirty  Years  war  Austria  represented  the  interests  of  the 
Catholics.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  an<i  the 
Seven  Years  war  the  country  also  played  leading  jiarls.  In 
opposition  to  the  demands  of  Frederick  the  (treat,  the  claims 
of  Austria  were  upheld  with  great  skill  and  power  by  Maria 
Theresa.  When  Napoleon  I.  came  into  power  Austria  took 
a  conspicuous  part,  and  was  n^peatedly  uefeated.  When  in 
1800  Napoleon  uiflicted  the  fatal  blow  on  the  old  (Tcrnian 
em|)ire  of  creating  the  Confederation  of  ihe  liliine.  aTid  thus 
alienating  from  the  empire  about  l(l.lMK).(l(IOof  the  penple.  the 
Emperor  Francis  renounced  the  imperial  crown,  and  by  that 
act  jiractically  dissolved  the  old  empire.  The  events  that 
resulted  in  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  howevi'r.  ditl  much  to  rein- 
state Austrian  influence.  In  the  new  (Jerman  empire  there 
was  no  emperor,  but  Austria  became  entitled  to  the  presi- 


dency of  the  Diet,  and  in  this  way  acquired  a  predominant 
influence.  This  continued  until  the  war  with  Prussia  in 
18fit),  when  Austria  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  at  the 
batt  le  of  Koniggriitz,  and  the  Constitution  of  t  he  empire  was 
in  conseciuence  .so  remodeled  as  to  give  the  dominant  influ- 
ence and  authority  to  Prussia.  Since  1806  Austria,  though 
excluded  from  the  (lerman  Confederation,  has  occupied  an 
independent  and  influential  position  in  the  internati<mal 
affairs  of  Furope.  Internal  affairs  have  not  been  free 
from  turbulence  and  iliniculty.  The  revolution  which  swept 
over  Europe  in  1848  shook  thi^  (iovernment  of  Austria  to  its 
foundations.  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  the  conserva- 
tive reaction  under  the  iiowcrful  influence  of  Metternich 
swept  everything  before  it.  The  revolution  in  Vienna  fol- 
lowed immediately  after  that  of  Paris.  Metternich  was  drivcm 
into  exile.  A  long  period  of  civil  strife  followed,  in  which 
Hungarv  took  a  leading  part.  The  Austrian  troops  were 
repeatedly  defeated  by  the  Hungarians,  anil  it  was  only  when 
Russia  joined  Austria  that  the  national  cause  became  suc- 
cessful. It  W!U«  not  until  Austria  was  defeated  by  Prussia 
in  I860,  however,  that  the  emjieror  consented  to  the  adoption 
of  a  Constitution  that  would  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  May,  1867,  the  new  Constitution  was  adopted,  and 
on  .lune  8  the  emperor  and  empress  were  crowned  King  and 
Queen  of  Hungary.  C.  K.  Aua.ms. 

Aastriau  Succession.  War  ok:  See  Succession  Wars. 

Alltoch'thones  [Gr.  avT6x9uv.  of  the  land  itself;  avT6s. 
self -I- xflw''.  earth]:  literally  those  sprung  from  the  land 
itself;  hence  the  original  inhabit.ants  of  a  country.  The 
Athenians  claimed  to  be  autochthones,  and  wore  on  their 
headdress  an  emblematic  grasshopper,  in  reference  to  their 
origin.     The  same  claim  was  made  by  many  other  peoples. 

Ail'to-do-Ff  [Span.,  act  of  faith.  The  form  with  -da-  is 
Portug.]  :  the  mime  given  in  Spain  and  Portugal  originally 
to  the  public  announcement  of  the  sentence  pa.ssed  by  the 
Inquisition  against  heresy;  later,  the  execution  of  that  sen- 
tence by  burning  at  the  stake.  High  church  days  by  prefer- 
ence were  chosen  for  the  deed.  JInltitudes  of  spectators 
assembled  to  witness  the  execution  and  the  procession  of 
monks  and  priests  which  formed  a  part  of  the  ceremony. 
The  first  to  take  place  was  at  Seville,  under  Toniuemada, 
1481;  the  last  probably  was  in  Jlexico,  1815.  In  1761  an 
auto-de-fe  was  held  at  Lisbon,  at  which  upward  of  fifty  per- 
sons perished. 

Au'tograph  [(^r.  av-r6ypa<pov,  written  by  oneself;  ouriii, 
self  +  ■Yf>a(p(iv,  write] :  a  mamiscript  written  by  the  hand  of 
the  author:  an  original  maiuiseript  as  distinguished  from  a 
copy.  The  term  is  sometimes  ajiiilied  to  a  speciuuMi  of  the 
handwriting  of  any  eminent  pei-son.  In  modern  times 
manv  persons  devote  much  time  to  the  collection  of  auto- 
graplis,  which  are  articles  of  literary  trade.  Some  men 
study  autographs  as  exponents  of  the  char.acter  or  tempera- 
ment of  the  writers.  The  sigujiture  of  Shakspeare  is  one 
of  Ihe  most  .scarce  and  highly  prized  of  autographs.  See 
John  (}.  Nichols.  Aiifniinijihx  oj  lioi/al,  Aohli'.  Lmrned.  and 
lifrndi-kahle  I'ei-xontKicx  <Jori.i/>iciious  in  Englink  IliMory 
from  the  Ri-liiii  of  h'ir/iard  J  I.  to  Unit  of  Charles  II.  (1829) ; 
and  Is<i</rn/ilii('  cifx  IIoiiiiiii-h  Celihres  (Y'av\s,'A  vols.,  1828-30). 

Antol'.VClls  (in  (!r.  aWaukos)  :  a  Greek  a.^troncmier  and 
mathematician:  b.  at  Pitane.  in  ^Folis:  flourished  about 
325  H.  c.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  revolving  sphere,  and  an- 
other on  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  fixed  stars;  both  are 
extant  (ed.  H.  Hoche.  with  Latin  translation  and  commen- 
tary, llamliurg,  1877). 

Anf  oiii'atoii,  plu.  Alltoiii'ata  [Gr.  aiT6fw.rov,  neut.  of  adj., 
acting  of  itself) :  a  piece  of  nun-hanism  so  constructed  as  to 
imitaTe  the  actions  of  an  animal.  This  exercise  of  uu'chani- 
cal  ingenuil  v  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  Da'dalus  was  among 
the  fii-st  « hi")  excelled  in  this  art.  Archytas  of  Tarentum, 
who  lived  about  400  li.  c,  is  said  to  have  made  a  dove  that 
could  fly.  .\mong  the  most  wonderful  automata  of  modem 
times  was  the  flute-player  which  Vaucanson  exhibited  in 
Paris  in  1738.  This  had  the  form  of  a  man,  and  performed 
with  its  lingers.  He  also  proiluced  an  automaton  duck 
which  swam,  liived.  ate  and  (ligested  barley  (!),  and  ipiacked 
like  a  real  duck.  Kempelen  constructed  a  famous  automa- 
ton chess-player,  the  mechanism  of  which  was  very  ingenious 
and  complex.  This  autonuiton  could  beat  the  mo.st  of  the 
plavers  who  tested  its  skill,  hut  it  was  long  susnected  that  a 
mail  was  concealed  in  it — a  Russian  officer  who  ha<l  been 
sentenceil  to  death  and  escaped  by  this  contrivance.     It  was 


420 


AUTONOMY 


AVA 


afterward  fully  proved  that  the  supposed  skill  ot  the  au- 
tomaton was  due  to  the  presence  of  a  living  man,  who  was 
concealed  within  the  maehine. 

Aiiton'oiny  [Gr.  ouTOTO^ufa.deriv.  of  ouT(i>'ouos,  independent ; 
ourds,  self  +  i'6iM)s,  law] :  tlie  power  or  right  of  self-govern- 
ment ;  political  independence.  The  term  is  used  to  desig- 
nate the  cliaracteristie  of  the  political  condition  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  which  nearly  every  city  was  a  separate  state,  and 
the  people  were  vei-y"  tenacious  of  the  indeiiendence  and 
sovereignty  of  their  respective  cities.  For  this  reason  they 
could  not  form  a  large  centralized  republic  or  staljle  gov- 
ernment. 

Au'ttiplasty  [deriv.  from  (ir.  auT6w\a(rTos,  self-formed; 
ouTiir,  self  -I-  ir'xaaa-fiv,  sliapc] :  an  ojieration  by  which  lesions 
are  repaired  bv  means  of  healthy  parts  being  taken  from  the 
patient  himself  (usuallv  from  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  lesion  to  be  rejiaired),  and  made  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency caused  by  wounds  or  disease.  The  operations  for 
this  purpose  have  different  names,  according  to  the  parts 
affected,  as  cheilopln-ffic  (the  <iperation  for  the  lips),  rhino- 
plastic  (for  the  nose),  etc. 

Autopsy  :  See  Post-.mortkm  Examination'. 
Autrefois  Acquit,  "tr'fwaa'  aa'kee'    [Fr.,   formerly   ac- 
f(uitted] :  a  plea  by  a  person  indicted  for  a  crime  or  mis- 
demeanor that  he  has  previously  been  tried  for  the  same 
offense  and  acquitted. 

Autrefois  Convict,  otr-fwaa'  kon-vik'  [Fr.,  formerly  eon- 
victeil] :  a  plea  by  a  defendant  under  the  same  circumstances 
as  in  the  case  of  autrefois  acquit,  that  he  has  previously 
been  tried  and  convicted  of  the  same  offense.  These  pleas, 
if  true,  are  a  liar  to  tin  action  by  the  rules  of  the  common 
law.  They  are  in  this  country  estaljlished  as  constitutional 
rights,  both  by  the  U.  S.  Constitution  and  those  of  the  re- 
spective States.  The  constitutional  provision  is  that  no  per- 
son shall  be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  put  twice  in 
jeopardy  of  life  or  limb.  This  rule  does  not  apply  where  a 
new  trial  is  ordered  for  errors  in  a  previous  trial,  nor  where 
the  judge  in  the  course  of  a  trial,  in  the  exercise  of  a  sound 
iliscretion,  discharges  the  jury,  so  that  there  is  no  acquittal 
nor  conviction.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  accused  may  be 
tried  again  as  often  as  the  ease  arises.  In  a  legal  sense  he 
has  not  been  in  jeoparilyi  The  rule  upon  this  point  is  the 
same  in  England  under  the  common  law  as  in  the  U.  S.  un- 
iler  constitutional  provisions. 

Au'tumu  [Lat.  mitiini'iiiin] :  the  season  of  the  year  which 
follows  summer,  sometimes,  especially  in  the  U.  S.,  called 
fall,  in  reference  to  the  lull  of  the  leaves.  In  a  vague  and 
"poindar  .sense  it  comprises  September,  October,  and  Novem- 
ber. In  the  language  of  astronomy  it  is  the  time  which 
elapses  between  the  autumnal  equinox  and  the  winter  sol- 
stice. In  the  southern  hemisphere,  March,  April,  and  May 
are  the  months  of  autunni.  Autumn  may  be  regarded  as 
occupying  the  same  relative  position  among  the  seasons  of 
the  year  as  evening  among  the  periods  of  the  day,  and  ma- 
ture age  among  the  stages  of  lunuan  life. 

Autuil,  o'tuh  (anc.  Bilirar'li;  iind  Auffustodii'num):  a  city 
of  Franc^e;  department  of  Saone-et-Loire  :  on  the  river  Ar- 
roux  ;  at)  miles  liy  rail  N.  VV.  of  ('hillons-sur-Saoue  (see  map 
of  France;,  ref.  .)-(.•).  It  is  i>icturesquely  situated  at  the  foot 
of  mountains,  has  a  tine  Gothic  cathedr.-d,  a  college,  and  li- 
brary;  also  manufactures  of  cloth,  paper,  and  carpets.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  aiiei<'nt  Hibracte  was  the  chief 
city  of  the  iEdui.  Here  are  ruius  of  an  amphitheater,  tem- 
ples, and  otiier  Roman  antiquitii^s.  Autun  was  the  scene  of 
hostile  operations  between  Garilialdi  and  theGermans  in  the 
winter  of  1«7()-71.     I'op.  (18'.)1)  1.^,187. 

Auvergnc,  o-varn'  (anc.  Arver'ni  or  Alver'nia):  a  former 
province,  in  the  south  central  part  of  Prance:  coincided 
nearly  with  present  departments  of  f'antal  and  Puy-de-I)oine. 
It  isa  nuiuutainous  district  ot  volcanic  formation,  [iresenting 
many  conical  and  dome-like  summits  of  extinct  volcanoes. 
The'soil  in  some  parts  is  fertile,  especially  near  the  river 
Allier.  Auvergne  has  produced  many  eminent  men,  among 
whnm  were  Pascal.  Tun'one,  Desaix,  and  La  Fayette.  The 
chie'f  towns  were  Clermont  and  Aurillac. 
AHVcrffiie,  Ijatoiib  d":  See  Latoub  d'Auvergne. 
.\nvergn<',  Moiintiiins  of:  a  branch  of  the  Cevennes.  sit- 
uated in  the  Fi-cnch  departments  of  Cantal  and  I'uy-de- 
P'lme.  Tliey  si^parate  the  basins  of  the  Allier.  Cher,  and 
Creuse  from  those  of  the  Lot  and  I)ordogn<',  The  highest 
summits  of  these;  volcanic  mountains  are  Mont  d'Or,  0,188 


feet  high ;  Cantal,  6,093  :  and  Puy-de-D6me,  4,806  feet  high. 
The  last  is  a  remarkable  specimen  of  an  extinct  volcano. 
They  are  generally  like  truncated  cones.  The  scenery  of 
Auvergne  is  grand  and  picturesque. 

Aliwers,  ow'vers,  Arthur:  astronomer:  b.  at  Gottingen, 
Germany,  Sept.  13,  1888 :  became  assistant  in  the  observa- 
tory at  Konigsberg  1859,  at  Gotha  1863 ;  succeedfid  Encke 
as  astronomer  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Berlin.  1866.  While  still  a  student  he  began  to  investigate 
the  variable  proper  motions  of  Sirius  and  Procyon,  fixing 
with  great  precision  the  motions  of  the  unseen  companions 
around  them.  As  president  of  the  Astronomische  Gesell- 
schaft,  he  took  a  leading  (lart  in  the  gre.it  co-operative  work 
of  constructing  a  catalogue  of  more  than  100,()00  stars.  As 
secretary  of  the  German  Commission  on  the  Transits  of 
Venus,  he  was  the  leading  executive  officer  in  fitting  out  the 
expeditions  for  observing  those  phenomena  in  1874  and  1883, 
and  in  the  latter  year  he  conducted  the  expedition  to  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  to  observe  it.  His  most  considerable 
works  are  the  discussion  of  the  German  observations  of  the 
transit  of  \'enus  (4  vols.  4to)  and  the  re-reduction  of  Brad- 
ley's Oliserrdliuiis,  of  which  two  volumes  have  appeared  and 
a  third  is  in  press.  For  this  and  otiier  works  he  has  received 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  for- 
eign membership  and  the  Watson  medal  from  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Washington.  S.  Newcomb. 

Auxanoin'ettT  [Gr.  ou|a;'€ii',  grow  +  /xerpov,  measure]  :  an 
instrument  for  measuring  the  rate  of  growth  of  plants.  In 
its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  slender  arm  borne  by  a 
small  wheel,  which  is  moved  by  a  cord  attaeheil  at  one  end 
to  the  plant,  and  weighted  at  the  other.  By  noting  the 
movement  of  the  arm  over  a  gi-aduated  arc  the  rate  of 
growth  may  be  calculated.  The  arm  sometimes  is  brought 
in  contact  with  a  revolving  drum,  on  which  it  makes  its  rec- 
ord. CUABLES  E.  BeSSEY. 

Auxerre.  6-zar'  (anc.  A  utisgiodo'rum) :  a  town  of  France ; 
capital  of  the  department  of  Yonne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Yonne:  93  miles  .S.  S.  E.  of  Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway  (see  nuip  of  France,  ref.  4-G).  It  has  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral,  a  college,  a  museum,  and  a  public  library 
of  25,000  volumes.  Calico,  serge,  hosierv,  and  good  wine 
are  manufactured  here.     Pop.  (1891)  18,036. 

Anxonne,  o-zon' :  a  town  of  France;  in  the  department 
of  Cote-d"Or,  on  the  Saone.  here  crossed  by  a  bridge;  20 
miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Dijon  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  5-H). 
It  has  an  ai-senal,  a  barrack,  and  a  magazine,  with  manu- 
factures of  woolen  cloth  and  nails.     Pop.  (1891)  6,695. 

Anzoux.  o-zoo',  Theodore  Loi'is  :  b.  at  St.  Aubin  d'Ecros- 
ville,  department  of  Eure,  France,  1797:  studied  medicine 
in  Paris:  invented  the  so-called  n;i(//ow>p?((«s/(7«f,  a  method 
of  making  )iernianent  models  of  anatomical  preparations  in 
]iaiiier-maciu'.  ami  wrote  Jfemnire  sirr  Ic  Cholera  jMorbns 
(1832):  Leriins  elemeutaires  d'Anatoinie  et  de  Physiologie 
(1839):  De's  Tares,  molles  et  Osseuses  dans  le  Clieral  (1853); 
Insiiflisaure  des  c'herau.r  forts  et  legers,  du  Clier-al  de  Guerre 
et  de'Liue  (1860).     D.  in  Paris,  May  7,  1880. 

A'va :  former  ca])ital  of  Burma;  on  the  Irawadi  river, 
lat.  21°  .52'  N..  Ion.  96°  1'  E.  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  2-L). 
In  1853  the  capital  was  transferred  to  Mandalay,  situated  a 
few  miles  to  the  northeast.  Ava  is  a  fortified  city,  being 
surrounded  by  a  w.all  (15i  ft.  high  and  10  feet  thick)  and  a 
moat.  There'  is  also  an  upper  or  lesser  town,  with  a  higher 
wall  (30  feet),  containing  a  palace  and  Government  Imild- 
ings.  The  circumference  of  the  city  is  5|  miles,  but  the 
houses  are  verv  thinlv  scattered,  and  some  (juarters  are  en- 
tirely destitute  of  habitations.  The  dwellings  are  usuallv 
nu're  huts  thatched  with  grass.  The  city  is  adorned  with 
nunuM-ous  temples  with  gilded  s]iires.  which  give  it  an  im- 
posing appearance  from  a  distance,  due  ot  these  tem|)les 
contains  a  sitting  image  of  Gautama,  in  sandstone,  24  feet 
his;h.  and  several  are  large,  beimtitul,  and  celebrated.  There 
are  also  several  large  monasteries.  The  city  at  one  time 
contained  .50.000  inhabitants  or  more.  It  is  now  much  de- 
eaved.  and  there  are  few  signs  of  industry.  Pop.  probably 
8,()00.  Ava  is  the  jiolitical  center  of  a  district  with  an  area 
of  288  ndles  ami  a  population  of  3.54,300.  In  this  are  in- 
cluded the  cities  of  Sagaing  and  Amarapura.  M.  W.  H. 
Avii.  KiNoooM  ov  :  See  Burma. 
Avalokiteshvara:  See  Kwan-vin. 

A'va.  or  Ka'va  (Macro' piper  methys'ticum):  a  narcotic 
plant  of  the  natural  order  P(>erarc(e ;  is  a  native  of  many 
South  Sea  islands,  the  inhabitants  of  which  intoxicate  them- 


AVALANCHE 


AVERAGE 


421 


selves  with  a  fermentod  liipior  prepared  from  its  root  (rhi- 
zome). It  is  11  shniljbv  iilaiit,  with  cordate,  iicuiiiiiiate 
leave-s  and  wa.s  funiuTly  clasr-ed  witti  thi-  p-uiis  I'ipii: 
The  elTect  of  tliis  lii|ui>r  is  a  stupefaction  like  that  caused 
by  opium,  ami  is  followed  by  copious  |)ers|>irution.  The 
liquor  is  prepared  liy  maceration  in  water. 

Av'alanc'lie  [!•>.,  from  avaler.  descend,  verbalized  phrase 
«  val  <  Lat.  (til  riilli-m.  to  the  valley] :  a  mass  of  snow  or  ice 
sliding  or  rollinj;  down  a  steep  slope.  Usually  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  snow,  starting  near  the  top  of  a  slope, 
dislodges  other  [jortions  as  it  strikes  them,  so  that  the  mov- 
ing body  grows  in  volume  as  it  goes.  The  name  avalanche 
is  sometimes  applied,  rather  figuratively,  to  sliding  ma.sses 
of  rock,  .\valanches  abound  on  the  steep  upper  slopes  of 
all  mountains  reaching  above  the  snow-line,  and  are  impor- 
tant feeders  of  ghuiers.  They  occur  also  between  the  snow- 
line and  the  upper  limit  of  timber,  and  in  many  regions 
they  fight  for  territory  with  the  forests.  The  avalanche 
can  not  develop  among  trees,  but  once  starteil  on  a  bai-e 
surface  above  may  overwhelm  and  destroy  trees.  I'sually 
avalanche  districts  are  uninhabited,  but  in  .'switzerl.-irid  man 
encroaches  on  tliem.  striving  by  the  driving  of  stakes  and 
planting  of  trees  to  prevent  the  snow  from  starting. 

Ava'ri,  or  A'vars  :  a  warlike  triije  of  Mongolians  that 
entered  the  countries  near  the  Don,  the  Ciuspian  Sea,  the 
Volga,  and  westward.  I'art  of  them  renuiined  near  the 
Caucasus,  and  another  part  proceeded  about  .1.1.5  a.  d.  to 
Dacia.  They  served  in  the  army  of  .Justinian,  and  fought 
against  the  (iepiihe.  They  in  .'508 obtained  Paunonia.  They 
oppresseil  the  Slavi,  ami  niaiie  inroads  into  (iermany  and 
Italy.  In  Tli!)  they  were  defeated  liy  Charlemagne,  and 
nearly  exterminated.  They  used  to  intrench  themselves  in 
circular  walled  camp.s,  traces  of  which,  called  "  Avarian 
rings,"  are  still  visil)lc  in  Hungary.  The  .Vvars  penetrated 
into  Greece  and  e,stablished  colonies  in  the  Morea.  Xavarino 
derives  its  luime  from  them.  (See  Thierry's  Attila.)  They 
appear  to  have  amalgamated  with  the  Bulgarians,  or  rather 
to  nave  adopted  the  Jiulgarian  language,  and  their  descend- 
ants are  confoumleil  with  the  lUdgarians,  of  whom  numbers 
are  found  throughout  Greece. 

Avatiir'.  or  Avatara  [from  Skr.  avatdra-,  descent,  incar- 
nation; iivd.  down  +  titr-.  pa.ss  over] :  in  Hindu  mythology 
signifies  "descent,"  or  "  transformation,"  and  is  applied  to 
incarnations  of  some  of  the  principal  deities,  especially 
Brahnni,  .Siva,  and  Vishini.  The  avatars  of  Vishnu,  which 
are  particularly  celebrated,  are  reckoned  a-s  follows:  1,  Mat- 
sya,  the  "  lish  "  ;  2,  Kurma,  the  "tortoise";  .'},  Variiha,  the 
"lx>ar";  4.  N'anusinha,  the  "man-lion";  5,  Vamana  (or  \Va- 
mana).  the  "  dwarf"  :  ti.  I'arashurama  ;  7,  liiima  Chandra,  or 
Da.sharatlia  Rama;  s.  Krishn.i;  !l.  Buddha;  the  tenth,  yet 
to  come,  is  called  Kaiki,  the  "horse." 

Avat'clia.  or  .ivatch'ka;  a  bay  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  Kamtchatka.  It  h.is  tli(r  best  and  most  extensive  harbor 
of  the  whole  peninsula.  The  capital,  Petropaulovski,  is  on 
this  bay,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  The  same  name  is  apiilied 
to  a  small  town  20  miles  S.,  and  to  a  river  on  which  it  lies; 
also  to  one  of  three  mountains  near  Petropaulovski. 

A'vebiirv.  A'liiiry,  or  Abiry  :  a  small  village  of  Kng- 
land,  in  W'illshire,  -j."!  miles  N.  of  Salisbury  (see  map  of 
England,  rcf.  12-11).  It  is  the  site  of  extensive  remains  of  the 
prehistoric  periinl  in  Europe,  and  is  in  the  vicinity  of  sev- 
eral barrows  and  cromlechs  of  great  anti(jiiity.  The  jirinci- 
fial  relies,  formerly  ascribed  to  the  Druids,  consist  of  UH) 
arge  blocks  of  stone  placed  on  end  in  a  circle,  inclosing  a 
level  area  of  about  470  yards  in  diameter,  which  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  ditch  and  a  high  embankment.  Some  of  the 
stones  measure  20  feet  high  above  the  ground.  Ni'arly 
a  mile  S.  of  this  temple  is  a  barrow  or  conical  artificial 
mound  called  Silbury  Hill,  which  is  170  feet  high,  and  cov- 
ers a  space  of  .5  acres.  This  was  undoubtedly  constructed 
long  before  thi'  Komaii  conquest  of  Britain,  an<l  the  opinion 
of  the  later  aiclueologists  refers  the  whole  group  to  times  of 
very  remote  antiipiity. 

Avellaiie'da.  GKRTitrDE  Gomes,  de;  S[ianish  poet;  b. 
in  the  island  of  Cuba  in  ISIG.  She  became  a  resident  of 
Madrid  about  1840,  ami  published  a  volume  of  lyric  poems  in 
1841.  Soon  after  this  date  she  produced  several  novels  and 
successful  tragedies  entitled  Alfonso  Mitiiio  and  Ef/ilonn. 
She  was  married  in  184G  to  Don  Pedro  Subator,  who  died 
the  same  year.  Among  her  works  are  La  Cruz,  a  poem, 
and  dramas  called  The  Olories  of  Spain  (1850)  and  Sonam- 
bula. 


Avelli'no  {&bc.  Abelli'ntim):  a  fortified  town  of  Italy; 

capital  of  province  of  same  name  ;  23  miles  E.  of  Naijles  ;  at 
the  foot  of  -Mt.  Vergine  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  C-F).  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  manufactures 
of  pajjer,  woolen  goo<ls,  and  maccaroni,  and  an  extensive 
trade  in  hazelnuts  {Xtices  aiellance),  chestnuts,  and  grain. 
It  was  much  damaged  by  an  earthquake  in  1G04.   Pop.  2;5,7.')3. 

Avclliiio  (formerly  called  Principato  I'lteriorc):  a 
province  of  Campania,  Italy;  bounded  X.  by  Benevcnto,  E. 
by  Foggia  and  Potenza,  S.  by  Salerno,  and  W.  by  Caserta. 
Area,  1,410  s(|.  miles.  The  country  is  throughout  moun- 
tainous. The  soil  everywhere  is  cvtremely  fertile,  and  the 
harvests  are  therefore  generally  very  large.  The  C(mntry  is 
traversed  by  the  Calorc  and  the  Ofanto.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  cattle,  sausages,  linen,  and  leather.  Poji.  (1890) 
408.67.").     Chief  town,  .\vellino. 

A'vc  Mari'a,  or  Aiigel'ica  Saliita'tio:  a  form  of  prayer 
to  the  Virgin  ^Mary  (commencing  Ave  Maria,  "  Hail  Mary  "), 
which  at  first  was  simply  the  "annunciation  "  or  salutation 
of  the  angel  in  Luke  i.  28,  and  the  words  of  Klizabeth  (ib.  42), 
but  grew  bv  siu-cessive  additions  till  it  reached  its  present 
form  in  tlie"time  of  Pius  V.  (1566-72).     Sec  Kosary. 

Ave'na  [Lat.,  oats] :  a  genus  of  grasses  containing  forty 
species,  mainly  natives  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Old 
World.     The  common  oat  {A.  saliva)  is  a  familiar  example. 

Aveng^er  of  Hlooti :  In  early  ages,  as  now  in  barbarous 
countries,  the  infliction  of  the  penalty  for  murder  did  not 
take  place  by  the  action  of  public  authorities,  but  was  left 
to  the  nearest  male  relative  of  the  murdered  person,  whose 
duty  was  to  ])ursue  and  slay  the  murderer.  He  was  called 
the  "avenger  of  blood"  (in  Hebrew  f/oc/.  which  term,  how- 
ever, was  of  wider  signification).  The  Jlosaic  law  (Num. 
sxxv.)  did  not  set  aside  this  custom,  but  placed  it  under 
regulations,  prohibiting  the  commutation  of  the  penalty  of 
death  for  money,  and  ap|}oinling  six  cities  of  refuge,  three 
on  either  side  of  the  .Jordan,  for  the  manslayer  who  wsis  not 
a  murderer,  in  which  he  might  live  till  the  death  of  the  high 
priest  under  whom  the  deed  was  committed.  He  then  was 
free  to  return  home.  A  willful  murderer  was,  however,  to 
be  given  up  to  the  avenger.  The  Koran  sanctions  the  aveng- 
ing of  blood  by  the  kinsman,  but  also  sanctions  the  pecuniary 
commutation.  The  custom  prevails  among  the  Arabs  at 
present,  as  well  as  in  other  rude  nations. 

Revi.sed  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Aventine  Hill:  See  Rome. 

Aveiiti'niis.  .Johannes :  a  German  historian,  whose  proper 
name  was  Turmair  or  Thurnmaier;  b.  at  .\bensberg,  in  Ba- 
varia, in  1466.  He  was  invited  to  Munich  in  1512,  and 
appointed  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  His 
principal  work  is  a  History  of  Bavoi  in  (\y\i\a.\es  Vioioriim, 
1554),  which  was  highly  esteemed.  The  most  complete  edi- 
tion is  that  pulilished  at  Basel  by  Nicholas  Cisner  in  1580, 
in  which  the  jiassages  adverse  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  which 
had  been  removed  in  the  first  edition,  are  restored.  D.  at 
Ratisbon,  .Jan.  (1,  1584.  A  monument  to  him  was  unveiled 
at  Aijensberg  in  1861.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
issued  bv  the  Bavarian  .Academv  of  Sciences,  Munich,  5 
vols.,  1880-84.     See  .).  Ziegli'r,  Vita  Avenlini. 

Aven'tiiriiic:  See  Qi-aktz. 

Aventiirinedilass,  also  called  Gold  Flux  or  Gold  Stone: 

a  varietv  of  glass  used  as  an  ornamental  stone  by  jewclei-s. 
The  gro'uml  is  of  a  rii'h  yellowish-brown  color,  with  innumer- 
al)le  golden  scales.  It  may  be  made  by  fusing  together  300 
parts  of  powdered  glass,  40  parts  of  copper  filings,  80  parts 
of  iron  filings,  and  cooling  slowly. 

Aveinio:  village;  .\lleghenyeo..Pa.  (for  local  ion  of  county, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-B);  in  Harrison  township; 
on  Pa.  H.  K.  and  on  Alleghenv  river;  22  miles  N.  E.  of  Al- 
legheny.    Pop.  (1880)  415;  (1890)  1,4.53. 

Av'eragP  [from  a  Mediterr.  maritime  word  appearing  in 
Span,  as  aivria.  Ital.  araria,  etc.,  meaning  duty,  impost; 
whence  the  meanings  expense,  distribution  of  expense  among 
ownei"s,  mean]:  a  mean  proportion;  a  medial  sum  or  quan- 
titv  intermediate  l)et ween  several  unequal  quantities.  The 
relation  of  the  average  to  the  other  quantities  is  such  that 
the  sum  of  the  excesses  of  the  greater  above  the  average  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  defects  of  the  less  below  it.  The 
average  of  several  quantities — for  example  3,  7,  9,  and  13 — 
is  obtained  by  lulding  them  together  and  dividing  the  sum 
bv  the  number  of  quantities.  The  sum  32,  divided  by  4, 
I  gives  8  as  the  average. 


422 


AVERAGE 


A\'ESTA 


Average:  a  word  used  in  iiiaiitiiiie  law  in  ilifferent  senses 
when  preceded  by  tlie  words  general,  pdrticulnr.  or  petty. 

1.  General  Average. — Tliis  means  the  ease  where  several 
interests  connected  together,  as  beinir  engaged  in  a  common 
adventure  at  sea,  such  as  slii]i  ami  cargo,  are  exposed  to  a 
marine  peril,  and  one  of  these  interests  is  voluntarily  sacri- 
ficed, either  in  whole  or  in  part,  as  the  price  of  the  safety  of 
the  residue  of  the  property  at  risk  ;  or  expense  is  incurred 
for  the  same  reason,  and  the  amount  of  such  sacrifice  or  ex- 
penditure is  charged  by  law  upon  the  respective  interests  in 
proportion  to  their  value.  The  act  of  voluntarily  casting 
away  property  under  such  circumstances  is  termed  a  "  jetti- 
son." The  elements  of  a  general  average  ease  are  said  to  be 
these:  there  must  be  a  sacritice  of  property,  it  must  be  vol- 
untary, and  must  be  successful.  There  is  no  general  average 
allowed  in  cases  of  goods  laden  on  deck,  unless  it  is  usual  to 
place  the  goods  there  on  a  voyage  such  as  the  one  in  which 
this  question  arises.  I5y  the  nuu-itime  law  the  master  of  the 
shi|i  is  intrusted  with  the  power  to  order  a  jettison  when  the 
circumstances  justify  it.  In  the  U.  S.  the  law  allows  general 
average  where  a  ship  which  would  have  foundered  is  volun- 
tarily wrecked  in  such  a  manner  as  to  save  the  cargo  or  a 
part  of  it.  Expenditures  of  money  in  some  instances  justify 
a  contribution  of  the  nature  of  general  average,  as  where 
they  are  incurred  for  the  preservation  of  the  ship  or  cargo 
from  extraordinary  perils,  or  where  they  are  necessary  for 
the  completion  of  the  adventure  in  which  all  the  interests  at 
risk  are  concerned:  as,  for  example,  for  the  prosecution  of 
the  voyage.  The  property  upon  which  the  contribution  is 
assessed  is  tlie  ship,  cargo,  and  freights.  The  jjroperty  lost 
contributes  as  well  as  that  which  is  saved.  The  general 
priTiciple  is  substantially  this:  as  the  whole  property  at  risk 
is  to  tlie  whole  amount  of  the  loss,  so  is  each  owner's  partic- 
ular interest  to  his  share  of  the  loss.  This  rule  results  in 
assessing'a  certain  percentage  of  the  loss  on  each  owner,  ac- 
cording to  the  value  of  his  interest.  The  values  are  esti- 
mated by  ride :  the  ship  and  appurtenances  are  valued  as  at 
the  end  of  the  voyage,  and  the  cargo  at  its  value  at  the  time 
and  place  of  discharge.  An  adjustment  made  at  the  end  of 
a  voyage  at  the  port  of  arrival  is  deemed  to  be  valid  every- 
where, according  to  a  settled  maritime  ride.  The  special 
rules  apiilieable  to  the  cases  in  which  general  average  is  al- 
lowed are  not  (jrecisely  the  same  in  England  and  in  the  U.  S., 
and  the  sul)ject  branches  out  into  much  detail  in  the  books 
of  maritime  law.  Practically,  it  is  closely  connected  with 
the  business  of  marine  insurance,  as  the  insurance  on  ship, 
cargo,  and  freight  may  be  made  by  different  underwriters, 
and  under  the  law  of  abandonment  the  rights  to  claim  gen- 
eral average,  as  well  as  the  burden  of  its  assessment,  may 
vest  in  and  rest  upon  the  respective  insurers.  2.  Particular 
Average. — This  signifies  damage  happening  to  interest  (ship, 
cargo,  and  freight)  at  risk  at  sea  in  consequence  of  pure 
accident.  The  loss  in  such  a  case  rests  upon  the  omier  of 
the  property  injured  or  upon  his  insurer.  3.  Petty  Average. 
— This  term  refers  to  certain  petty  charges  in  port  for  pilot- 
age, lights,  towage,  anchorage,  and  the  like,  which  were  for- 
merly apportioned  u|)on  the  owners  of  the  sliip  and  cargo. 
The  modern  practice  is  to  include  these  charges  in  the  freight. 

T.  W.  DWIGHT. 

A' verell.  William  Woods  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Cameron,  Steuben 
CO.,  X.  Y.,  Nov.  .5,  1832  :  graduated  at  West  Point  18.i5 :  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  Mounte<l  Riflemen ;  served  on  frontier 
and  fighting  Indians  till  1859,  when  wounded.  Served  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  :  captain  Third  Cavalry  U.  S.  A..  .July, 
1862,  and  breveted  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,  brig- 
adier-general, and  major-general  U.  S.  A.  Resigned  May, 
186.1.  He  wius  restored  to  his  rank  of  captain  in  U.S.  army. 
-Vug.  17,  1888,  aiul  was  retired  Aug.  31  of  same  year. 

Aver'iins  [ I iat.,  supposed  to  be  from  6r. 'Aopras :  i-not  + 
Spyts,  a  bird] :  a  famous  lake  [It.  Lago  d'Averno]  of  Italy.  10 
miles  W.  of  Naples.  It  occupies  the  crater  of  un  extinct 
volcano,  is  about  a  mile  in  diameter  and  170  feet  deep.  It 
was  supposed  that  the  name  A  vernus  was  given  to  it  because 
the  mephitic  vapors  killed  the  birds  that  flew  over  it.  The 
ancients  imagined  that  this  lake  was  the  entrance  to  the 
infernal  regions.  Agrippa,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  opened 
a  canal  from  .\ vernus  to  the  sea,  converting  it  into  a  harbor, 
but  the  canal  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1.538.  It 
Wius  speciallv  dedicated  to  Proserpine,  and  an  oracle  was 
maintained  tien^  This  lake  seems  to  have  orighmlly  had  no 
outlet.     It  is  often  visited  by  tourisl.s. 

Aver'rops,  or  Averrhoos,  originally  Ibii-Roshd  :  a  cele- 
brated Arabian  philosopher  and  physician ;  b.  at  Cordova, 


in  Spain,  1126.  He  rose  to  great  dignity  in  the  Moorish 
kingdom,  but  late  in  life  he  was  accused  of  heretical  opin- 
ions, dejirived  of  his  office,  and  sent  to  live  at  a  place  near 
Cordova.  Before  his  death,  however,  which  occurred  in 
Morocco,  Dee.  12. 1198,  he  was  restored  to  his  patron's  favor. 
He  was  a  great  admirer  of  Aristotle,  on  whom  he  wrote  a 
celebrated  commentary.  In  the  Middle  Ages  he  was  called 
"The  Commentator.'"  and  was  said  to  have  translated  Aris- 
totle into  Arabic,  which  story  was  repeated  over  and  over 
again,  until  in  1852  E.  Renan  proved  it  to  be  a  fable ;  in- 
deed, Averroes  did  not  understand  the  Greek  language. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  Jewett. 
Aver'sa  (anc.  Atella):  a  town  of  Italy:  province  of  Ca- 
serta;  and  in  a  beautifid  plain  9  miles  N.  of  Naples  (see  map 
of  Italy,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bi.shop.  is  well  built, 
has  a  cathedral,  several  convents,  about  ten  churches,  and  a 
lunatic  asylum.     Pop.  about  21,000. 

A'verv,  Waightstill  :  b.  at  Groton,  Conn.,  May  3, 1745; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1766;  became  in  1769  a  lawyer 
in  Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C.  He  was  an  early  and  constant 
jiatriot  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  being  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  (1775),  a  member  of  the 
Hillsborough  congress  (1775),  of  the  State  congress  (1776), 
first  attorney-general  of  the  State  (1777),  and  was  in  1779  a 
colonel  of  militia  in  active  service.  D.  in  Burke  co.,  N.  C, 
Mar.  15.  1821. 

Averysboro :  Harnett  co.,  N.  C.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  North  Carolina,  ref.  3-G);  on  Cape  Fear  river,  about  40 
miles  S.  of  Raleigh.  During  Gen.  Shennan's  Carolina  cam- 
paign, while  his  army  was  marching  toward  Goldsboro,  a 
strong  force  of  Confederates  under  Gen.  Hardee  was  in- 
trenched in  front  of  Averysboro  (Mar.  16,  1865),  to  check 
Gen.  Sherman  and  gain  time  for  the  concentration  of  forces 
at  Smithfield  under  Gen.  .Johnston.  After  three  or  four 
hours' severe  fighting  the  Confederates  fell  back  to  a  second 
and  stronger  line.  The  attack  being  renewed  along  this  line, 
fighting  continued  through  the  day,  the  Confederates  being 
driven  within  their  intrenchments;  during  the  night,  which 
was  dark  and  stormy,  their  works  were  evacuated,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  17th  it  was  found  that  the  army  of  Gen. 
Hardee  was  retreating  toward  Smithfield.  The  Federal  loss 
was  about  600,  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Confeilerate  loss 
was  jiroljably  smaller,  except  in  jirisoners.  of  which  nuiny 
remained  in  Gen.  Sherman's  hands.  This  battle  is  known 
as  the  battle  of  Averyslioro.  Pop.  of  viUage  (1880)  38; 
(1890)  not  separately  returned. 

A'ves  [Lat.  a'vis.  a  bird] :  birds  considered  as  a  class,  a 
group  best  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  feathers.  See 
Birds. 

Avesta.  or  Zeiid-.\ vesta  :  the  Zoroastrian  Bible,  forming 
with  the  Pahlavi  books  (.see  PAHLAVi)the  ancient  scriptures 
of  the  Parsis  (q.  v.).  In  age,  there  is  much  of  the  Avesta 
that  nuiy  date  back  a  thousand  years  or  more  before  Christ ; 
but  there  are  many  portions  several  centuries  later  than 
this,  while  some  parts  may  even  belong  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era. 

A  ve-'!fa  is  a  word  of  uncertain  derivation ;  it  has  been  sup- 
posed to  signify  "knowledge,  the  book  of  wisdom";  but 
more  probably  it  means  "the  text,"  or  "the  law."  The 
designation  Zend-Avesta,  often  used  for  the  book,  sliould 
rather  be  Avexta  and  Zend,  corresponding  to  the  Pahlavi 
phrase  Avestak  va  Zand  used  of  the  scriptures.  The  latter 
wonl.  Zand  (.\v.  azainti).  means  "  commentary,  or  explana- 
tion "  ;  i.  e.  of  the  original  Avesta  or  "text,"  and  Parsi  tra- 
dition so  understands  the  terms. 

For  the  discovery  and  first  deciphering  of  the  Ave-sta  we 
are  indebted  to  the  young  French  scholar  AxgiETiL  DU 
Perrox  ((/.('.).  who  ill  1754  went  to  the  East  and  learned 
from  the  Parsi  priests  their  sacred  language.  His  transla- 
tion {Zend-Ave.'ita.  mivrage  de  Zvroastre.  3  vols..  Paris.  1771) 
was  so  inaccurate,  perhaps  excusably,  however,  and  often  so 
fantastical  that  the  question  was  rai.sed.  espec-ially  by  Sir 
William  .Tones,  whether  I)ii  Perron's  work  was  not  a  forger}', 
or  whether  he  had  not,  at  least,  been  <luped  by  the  priests. 
Hefore  many  years,  however,  the  authenticity  of  the  Avesta 
and  Anquetil's  credit  were  happily  vindicated,  through  the 
aid  of  Sanskrit,  by  such  scholars  as  Burnouf  (1825).  Rask, 
and  Bo])p;  and  the  scientific  interpretation  of  the  tests  was 
carried  on  by  men  like  Hang,  Windischmann,  Westergaard, 
Roth,  and  particularly  S|>iegel,  and  has  been  to-day  by  Bar- 
Iholomae,  Darmesteter,  De  Harlez,  Ill'ibschmann,  Geiger,and 
especially  Geldner. 


a\t;sta 


A\aAXUS 


423 


Tradition  has  it  that  the  Avesta  was  onee  far  greater  in 
extent  tliaii  in  its  present  form.  We  have  mention  in  I'liny, 
for  example,  of  2.000.000  verses  eoniposeil  by  Zoko.vster 
(q.  v.);  the  semblance  of  truth  is  given  to  this  statement  also 
by  Arabic  anthorities  and  by  the  I'uhlavi  works  whieh  tell 
of  31  Xasks,  or  books,  of  tlie  original  Avesta.  inscribed  in 
gold  letters  upon  12,000  cowhides,  and  deposited  in  the 
palace  lilirjiry  al  IVi-sepolis.  Tlu'se  liooks,  it  is  claimed, 
were  destroyed  liy  the  Cireeks  under  Alexander  the  (ireat, 
when  he  allowed  the  lilirary  tcj  be  burneil.  It  was  this  same 
victorious  invasion  of  llie  great  concjueror  that  broke  the 
power  of  the  Zoroasirian  religion,  which  for  centuries  had 
been  the  ruling  faith  of  Persia,  including  that  of  the  AchiP- 
menian  kings,  Cyrus,  Darius.  Xerxes,  and  their  followers. 
The  religion  maintained  a  lingering  existence,  however, 
during  tlu'  governiiu'ut  of  thi'  Seleucidae  and  under  the  Par- 
thian sway,  until  about  the  third  and  bmrtli  centuries  a.  D., 
when  it  was  rcstore<l  to  ils  former  glory  by  the  Sassanian 
dyna-sty,  true  Zoroastrian  monarchs.  It  wa.s  at  this  time 
that  the  scattered  portions  of  tlie  Avesta  were  again  gath- 
ered, as  far  as  was  possible,  and  edited,  and  the  Avesta  was 
made  the  canonical  book  of  the  state  religion  of  Iran.  The 
oonncil.it  seems,  succeeded  in  collecting  and  restoring  the 
fragments  of  about  one-third  of  the  originid  scriptures. 
The  -Mohammedan  conquest  in  the  si'vcnili  century,  how- 
ever, dealt  a  final  fatal  lilow  to  the  Zoroastrian  creed.  The 
fanatical  followei's  of  the  Koran  forced  the  worshipers  of 
Mazda  (see  OnjiAzn)  to  a<lopt  the  faith  of  the  new  prophet, 
or  else  they  drove  tliein  into  exile.  8onie  of  the  fugitives 
lied  to  the  mountains  of  Pei'sia,  where  their  descendants  are 
still  to  be  found,  numbering  oidy  about  10.000:  lint  most  of 
them  look  refuge  in  India,  especially  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Boudiay.  where  as  Paksis  (i/.  c.)  they  still  form  a  thrifty, 
jirosperous  comnuniity  of  some  80,000  souls.  It  is  these  two 
scattered  peoples  that  have  preserved  for  us  all  they  could 
rescue  of  their  ancient  sacred  book. 

What  now  reuuiins  of  the  Avesta  would  equal  perhaps 
one-tenth  of  our  Mible  in  extent.  Like  our  own  sacred 
text  the  extant  portions  of  the  Avesta  are  divided  into 
several  l)ooks.  (1)  The  Vdfiiia  (Skt. //fy'/Ia),  lit., '•  sacrifice," 
the  chief  liturgical  work,  and  forming  with  the  Visperad 
and  Vendidad.  below  mentioned,  a  sort  of  Zoroastrian 
prayer-bo<ik.  In  the  midst  of  the  Yasna  are  inserted  the 
live  ^ro/A((.s.  lit..  •■  hymns,  psalms,"  the  sacred  hymns,  say- 
ings, or  sermons  of  Zoroaster  himself.  The  Gathas  are  the 
oldest  part  of  the  .\ vesta  (see  Avestan  JjA.xnUAGi:),  and  in 
them  we  have  before  us  the  jirophet  speaking,  much  as  does 
David  in  the  psalms.  (2)  The  Vlspi'i-ad  (Av.  vlspe  ralnvo, 
"all  the  lords"),  a  collection  of  minor  litanies,  invocations, 
and  ollVrings  to  the  various  divinities  and  spiritual  heads  of 
the  faith.  (:i)  The  ynnhlx  (Av.  yeahti,  "  worship  by  praise  "), 
some  t\venty-<me  longer  hymns  of  praise  and  adoration  of 
the  ancient  divinities  and  mythical  heroes.  (4)  The  Minor 
Texts,  Ki/dishi's,  (lulis,  S'lruzalm.  Afiinganx.  a  collection 
forming  a  kind  of  numual  of  morning  devotion.  (5)  The 
Vind'ulrul,  a  species  of  Iranian  Pentateuch,  containing 
priestly  injunc-tions  and  rules  for  riles  and  ceremonies, 
together  with  some  legendary  matter.  (H)  L'nder  the  head 
Avesta  there  belong  also  some  fragments  and  glos.ses,  such 
as  those  from  the  llndlinklil  Nask,  XirangiKtCin,  Aogema- 
dafca,  and  the  Zdml-I'ahlain  (Hoititary. 

In  style,  nmch  of  the  Avesta  is  easy  and  simple ;  the 
Gathas,  however,  are  extremely  dilTicult.  The  keynote  of 
their  thought  is  the  doctrine  oi'  the  new  kingdom,  a  better 
life,  anil  the  hereafter.  They  are  written  in  verse  resem- 
liling  the  \'edic  meters.  The  rest  of  the  Avesta  is  either 
composed  in  verse  sonunvhat  atnilogous  to  our  familiar 
Hiawatha,  or  is  written  in  prose.  Meter  is  the  sign  of  an- 
tiquity ;  prose,  as  a  rule,  is  a  mark  of  later  age.  There  are 
exceptions,  of  course,  like  the  prose  "Yasna  of  the  Seven 
("hapters"  (Ys.  .'i.V-ll).  which  is  but  little  later  than  the 
Gatlia  hymns.  The  metrical  jiortious  of  the  .\ vesta  are  not 
without  poetic  merit;  most  of  the  iirose  passages  are  young, 
without  spirit,  or  even  stupid.  This  <listiru-tion  iseasily 
recognized,  and  should  be  properly  emi)hasized. 

There  is  a  fine  edition  of  the  text  by  Geldner,  Avextti.  the 
Sacrnl  limihn  of  the  Parm's  (Stuttgart,  1884,  .s«/.);  a  com- 
plete dictionary  was  made  bv  .Tusti.  Jlandlnich  dfr  Xctid- 
sprache  (Leioz'ig.  18(!4).  The  best  English  translation  that 
has  appeared  is  bv  Dannestetcr  and  Mills,  ,?<'nf/-,4i'('.<^/,  3 
vols.,  in  the  Sacii'd  Books  of  the  KiiM  (Oxford,  1880-87). 
There  are  .several  German  and  French  grammars  of  the 
languag(! ;  an  English  one  is  ntdjlished  in  Boston  (18i»2)  by 
Ginn  &  Co.     For  a  bibliography  of  the  subject,  consult  the 


names  mentioned  above.  See  also  Iranian  Languages, 
Pahlavi,  and  Zoroastkr.  A.  Y.  Williams  Jackson. 

Avostaii.  or  Avt'sta  Laii^riingo:  the  ancient  speech  pre- 
served in  the  Avksta  {(/.  v.),  ami  the  oldest  member  of  the 
Iranian  group  of  languages  (see  Iranian  Languages),  some- 
times erroneously  called  Zend,  which,  however,  really  sig- 
nifies ■' interpretation"  or  "commentary,"  and  refers  rather 
to  llu!  Pahlavi  version  of  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  (see 
Avesta).  The  term  Old  Bactrian  for  the  language  is  now 
(|uite  abandoned.  Two  dialects  of  Avestan  are  recognized: 
(1)  the  (iathii  dialect,  the  oldest  form  of  the  language  as  pre- 
served in  the  Gathas.  or  Psalms  of  Zoroaster  (q.  r.);  (2)  the 
Younger  Avesta  dialect,  or  the  language  of  the  rest  of  the 
texts.  These  dialects  may.  perhaps,  be  due  also  to  a  separa- 
tion of  j)lace  as  well  as  to  a  difference  of  time. 

The  Avesta,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  written  in  an  ali)habet 
of  Pahlavi  (  ^.  ?'.)  origin ;  the  writing  i-uns  from  right  to 
left,  and  the  script  is  of  much  later  date  than  (he  speech 
which  it  records.  The  language  of  the  Avesta  itself  is  most 
closely  allied  to  Sanskrit  (</.  v.),  though  independent  of  it. 
IJy  certain  phonetic  changes,  eaidi  Sanskrit  woril  may  be 
transferred  into  its  Avestan  eipiivaleut.  and  (v>6  v'i'rxti. 
Thus  Av.  im,)i>i  firuiii  paoir'im  i/iiti^m  liiioitiii  Jiiicti/emi,''l 
ask  of  thee,  0  Ilaoma.  this  first  boon,"  would  answer  to  a 
possible  Skt.  inidm  fvi'lm  purrijdm  ijOntIm  soma  gndijCnni. 
Striking  features  of  the  Avestan  jihonology  are:  (1)  tlie  fre- 
ipient  use  of  epenthetic  and  ana[)tyctic  vowels,  e.  g.  Av. 
dad'ma'de,  "we  give"  =  Skt.  dddmake;  (2)  a  ri<'hness  in  its 
vowel-system;  (3)  the  connnon  occurrence  of  spirants  (ji. /, 
etc.);  and  (4)  the  change  of  Skt.  voiced  aspirates  (yh,  d/i, 
etc.)  into  stop  sounds  {g.  d.  etc.)  which  nuiy  develop  into 
spirants.  The  Avestan  inflectional  sy.stem  sIiotvs  eight  cases, 
three  nundiers,  and,  in  the  older  texts,  rich  verbal  forms 
quite  ijarallel  with  the  Yedic  Sanskrit;  in  later  [lassages, 
however,  there  is  evidence  of  grammatical  and  syntactical 
decay. 

Reference  nuiy  be  made  to  .Tnsti's  ITavdlivch  der  Zind- 
spraclii-  (Leipzig.  1864);  SpiegePs  Orammafik  der  Alt  iron. 
Sprachen  (Leipzig,  1882);  Bartholomae"s  AltintiiUclie  Din- 
lekte  (Leipzig,  1883) ;  Jackson's  Avesta  Series  (Boston.  18i)2). 

A.  Y.  Williams  Jackson. 

Ave.Tron,  a'a-va'v-roiV  :  a  department  in  the  south  part  of 
France;  liounded  X^.  by  Cantal,  E.  liy  Lozerc.  (iard,  and 
Ilerault,  S.  by  Tarn,  and  W.  by  Lot.  Area.  3,370  sq.  miles. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  river  Lot  and  th(^  Tarn,  and  also 
drained  by  the  river  Aveyron.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
and  the  chain  of  the  Cevennes  extends  along  the  southeast- 
ern bonier  of  the  department.  Among  its  mineral  resources 
are  coal.  copi)er.  lead.  zinc,  and  ii'on.  The  coal  mines  are 
very  vahudde.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  yarn,  paper, 
woolen  stuffs,  carpets,  and  leather.  It  is  dividl'd  into  five 
arrondissements.  Among  the  chief  articles  of  export  is 
lioiiucfort  cheese.     Pop.  (1891)400.467.     Capital,  Hodez. 

Avt'zzana.  nli-vet-zaa  lui.  Gu-seppe:  an  Italian  republi- 
can and  patriot  :  b.  at  Cliieri.  in  Piedmont.  Feb.  )!).  1780. 
lie  fought  against  Bustamente  in  Mexico  in  1832,  and  be- 
(vuue  a  merchant  in  the  city  of  Xew  York  in  1834.  Early 
in  1848  he  returned  to  Italy  to  fight  for  the  indejicndence  of 
his  country,  and  was  aiipointed  connuander  of  the  national 
guard  at  Genoa.  In  Mar..  184!).  he  was  chosen  minister  of 
war  of  the  Konuui  reimblic  ami  commander  of  the  army. 
Konu^  was  taken  by  the  French  in  .Inly  of  that  year,  and 
Avezzana  escaped  to  the  l'.  S.  He  joined  (iaribaliii  in  1860, 
and  fought  witli  him;  became  delegate  of  the  Italian  House 
of  Representatives  1867.  anil  head  of  the  Italia  irredenta 
party  in  1878.     D.  in  Home,  Dec.  25,  1879. 

Aviaiuis.  or  .Vviaiiiiis.  Flavius(<)  :  Latin  fabulist,  prob- 
ably of  the  fonrtli  or  early  fifth  century  A.  D.  (cf.  O.  L'nrein, 
de  Al'.  (ptafe,  Jena,  188o),  who  threw  into  elegiac  verso 
forty-two  ^Esopic  fables.  The  work  is  dedicated  to  a  cer- 
tain Theodosius  (perhaps  Macrobius  Theodosins).  The  au- 
thor names  as  his  forerunners  .i-I'^sop,  Socrate.s,  Horace,  Bab- 
rius,  and  Pha'drns ;  but  speaks  as  if  his  immediate  source  were 
a  later  collection  of  prose  fables  {quas  nidi latinitaie  romposi- 
tas  £legis  sum  ejplicare  conalus).  These  were  jjcrhaps  the 
fables  of  Titianus,  spoken  of  by  Ausonius  (cpist.  16).  Avi- 
anus  probably  lived  at  Rome,  and  in  the  jiagan  circles  there. 
His  .style  is  on  the  whole  good,  showing  in  some  ways  the 
same  tendencies  and  ideals  as  that  of  Claudian.  His  version 
of  the  tables  at  onee  becanu'  popular,  and  as  a  school-book 
was  much  used  and  imitated  during  the  early  Middle  Ages. 
Later  the  fables  of  Avianus  were  confused  with  those  pur- 
porting to  be  by  a  certain  liumulus  imjjerator  (tenth  cen- 


424 


AVIATION 


A  VITUS 


tury?),  and  thus  eaiiie  to  be  one  of  the  sources  of  the  exten- 
sive ^sopic  literature  of  tlie  later  Jliilille  Ages.  In  the  elev- 
enth century  we  have  a  prose  version  entitled  Novus  Aviamis 
(ed.  E.  Grosse,  Konigslierfi,  1868) ;  in  the  twelfth  century 
another  version  by  Alexander  Neekain  (d.  1227).  Tlie 
French  Isopet-Aviuiiuet  (Paris,  fourteenth  century)  contains 
a  Frencli  version. 

Bibliography. — The  FaUes  of  Ainanus.  ed.  by  Robinson 
Ellis  (witli  extensive  prolegg.,  etc.),  Oxford,  1887 :  L.  Iler- 
vieux,  Les  FnbuUstes  latins  depuis  le  sier/e  d'Avgusta 
jiisqn'a  la  fin  du  mni/i-n  age  (2  vols..  Paris.  1884) :  ^-Esopua — 
fables  as  first  printed  by  W.  Caxton,  with  those  of  Avian, 
Alfonso,  and  Poggio — by  Joseph  Jacobs  (3  vols.,  London, 
1889).  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Avia'tioii :  See  AiiRONAUiics. 

Avicenna.  ira-vee-chen'na  (the  Latin  form  of  Tbii-Sina) : 
the  most  eminent  of  Arabian  physicians;  b.  at  Afshena.  near 
Bokhara,  about  980  a.  d.  He  was  well  versed  in  mathemat- 
ics, astronomy,  philosophy,  and  other  sciences.  Before  he 
was  twenty  years  old  he  was  reputed  the  most  learned  man 
of  his  time.  He  was  employed  as  a  physician  by  several 
Samanide  sovereigns,  and  resided  at  Ispahan  and  Hamadan. 
He  wrote  in  Araljic  a  large  numlier  of  works  on  medicine 
and  philosopliy,  the  most  important  of  which  is  his  System 
of  Medicine  (Canon  Medicinie),  wliich,  translated  into  Latin 
by  Gerardius  Cremonensis  (2  vols.,  1595).  was  for  five  cen- 
turies a  standard  book  of  llie  highest  authority  in  the  schools 
of  Europe.  His  writings  exercised  a  ]iowerful  influence  in 
spreading  a  knowledge  of  Aristotle's  logic  among  his  own 
countrymen,  and  svdisequently  among  the  Schoolmen.  lie 
died  at  Hamadan.  June.  1037.  See  S.  Klein,  Dissertntio  de 
Avicenna  Medico  (1840):  Iljn-Khallikan,  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary, edited  by  I)e  Slane  (Paris,  1842) ;  Freind,  History 
of  Physic. 

Aviceii'liia :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Myoporacea- ; 
consists  of  trees  or  shrubs  resembling  mangroves,  and  grow- 
ing in  salt  swamps  in  tropical  regions  and  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  "Che  Avicennia  ^mentosa,  the  white  mangrove 
of  Brazil,  has  cordate,  ovate  leaves,  downy  on  the  lower  side. 
Its  bark  is  used  for  tanning.  Its  gum  is  used  as  food  in  New 
Zealand,  and  its  seeds  in  India. 

Avid'iiis,  Cassius:  an  able  Roman  general:  b.  in  Syria: 
commanded  for  Marcus  Aurelius  an  armv  which  defeated 
the  Parthians  in  165  A.  D.  Having  become  Governor  of  Syria 
and  coranumder  of  several  legions,  lie  revolted  in  175  a.  d., 
and  took  tlie  title  of  emperor.  He  obtained  possession  of 
Egypt  and  part  of  Asia.  He  was  killed  by  his  own  officers 
in  175  A.D. 

Avie'nus.  Rufius  Pestus  :  a  Latin  poet  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  fourth  century,  distinguished  for  the  vigor  and  cor- 
rectness of  his  diction,  as  well  as  for  a  command  of  form  re- 
markable in  a  period  of  decline.  In  subject-matter,  how- 
ever, he  was  not  original.  He  translated  into  hexameters 
the  Phtpnnniena  and  J'n/gnasfira  of  Aratus  (</.  c),  and  wrote 
in  the  same  measure  a  Description  of  the  Earth,  following 
the  Periegesis  of  Dionysios.  Of  his  Ora  Maritima  in  iam- 
bics only  a  fragment  is  extant,  describing  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  lieginning  with  the  Atlantic,  as  far  as  Mar- 
seilles.    Best  ed.  by  A.  Holder  (Innsbruck,  1887). 

M.  Warren. 

Avigrnon,  a"a-veen'yon  (anc!  ,4('<>'««V;) :  an  ancient  city  of 
France:  capital  of  tlu!  defiartinent  of  Vaucluse:  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  74  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  W.  of 
Marseilles  (see  inai)  of  Kraiici!,  rcf.  8-II).  It  is  the  scat  of 
an  archbisliop,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  country  with  de- 
lightful scenery.  It  contains  a  college,  a  public  library  of 
about  45,000  volumes,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  botani- 
cal ganliMi.a  fine  theater,  a  lunatic  asylum,  etc.  Among  the 
interesting  and  ancient  public  edifices  are  the  media'val 
walls,  witli  liattleinents  and  flanking  towers,  the  former 
palace  of  the  popes,  a  vast,  irregular  Gothic  structure,  orig- 
inally a  very  strong  fortress,  now  for  a  long  time  used  iis  a 
barrack  and  prison,  but  recently  restored,  and  now  the  epis- 
copal residence :  and  th<> cathedral  called  Notre  I)ame  des 
Dons,  rebuilt  liy  Charlemagne,  and  containing  a  richly 
sculptured  <Oiapel.  Petrarch  passed  several  years  at  Avi- 
gnon and  at  Vaucluse  (which  is  about  3  miles  distant),  where 
he  first  saw  Laura.  Tlie  manufacture  of  silk  is  the  principal 
branch  of  indiisl  ry  in  I  his  city,  which  also  has  several  paper- 
mills,  iron-foundries,  and  niaiiufactiires  o[  velvets  and 
woolen  stuffs.  It  has  an  active  trade  in  wine, brandy, grain, 
etc.    Avenio  was  the  capital  of  the  Cavares  before  the  time 


of  C'iBsar.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  in  730  a.  d.,  and 
after  many  changes  was  purchased  in  1348  by  Pope  Clement 
VI.,  and  became  the  seat  of  the  papal  government.  Seven 
successive  popes  resided  at  Avignon  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, during  which  it  had  about  100,000  inhabitants.  The 
]iapal  court  was  transferred  to  Rome  in  1377,  an<l  Avignon 
was  annexed  to  France  in  1791.     Pop.  (1891)  43,453. 

A'vila:  a  province  in  Spain:  in  Old  Castile;  bounded  N. 
by  Valladoliil,  E.  by  Segovia  and  Madrid,  S.  by  Toledo  and 
Caceres,  and  W.  by  Salamanca.  Area.  2.981  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  except  the  northern  part.  The  chief 
article  of  export  is  merino  wool.     Pop.  (1887)  193,093. 

Avila  (anc.  Ob'ila.  or  Ab'ula) :  an  episcopal  city  of  Spain  ; 
capital  of  province  of  same  name;  on  the  liver  Ada,ja;  71 
miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Madrid  (see  map  of  S]iain,  ref.  15-E). 
It  was  once  a  ricli  ami  more  pojailous  city,  having  a  flour- 
ishing university,  founded  about  1482  and  abolished  in  1807. 
It  has  a  fine  cathedral  and  convent.     Pop.  9,136. 

Avila  y  Ziifiig'a,  Luis,  de  (da  aa'vee-laa-e'e-thoon-yee'- 
ga) ;  Siianish  historian  and  <liplomatist ;  b.  at  Placencia,  in 
Estreinadura,  about  1490.  He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Charles 
v.,  who  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  Kcuue  about  1558.  He 
wrote  in  Spanish  Commentaries  iin  tlie  War  uf  Charles  V. 
in  Germany  in  1541;  and  15J,7  (1548;  last  ed.  Madrid,  1853; 
Ger.  trans.  I5erlin,  1853).  This  work  has  considerable  liter- 
ary merit,  but  is  not  impartial.     U.  about  1552. 

Aviler.  a'a-vc'e-lay',  Augustin  Charles;  b.  at  Paris  in 
1653;  studied  in  Rome  the  profession  of  an  architect,  aided 
by  a  pension  from  the  king.  He  was  engaged  for  some  time 
with  JIansard  in  Paris,  and  afterward  erected  some  fine 
buildings  at  various  places,  among  them  being  the  palace  of 
the  Arcrhbishop  of  Toulouse.  He  wrote  Course  of  Architec- 
ture (1691)  and  Dictionary  of  all  the  Terms  of  Architecture, 
Ciril  and  Hydraulic.     D.  in  1700. 

A'viles:  a  Spanish  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name;  15  miles  W.  N.  W,  of  the  city  of  Oviedo  (see 
map  of  Spain,  ref.  12-D) ;  one  of  the  most  important  trad- 
ing-places in  the  province  of  Oviedo.     Pop.  (1887)  10,235. 

A'vis,  or  Aviz ;  an  order  of  knighthood  in  Portugal,  in- 
stituted by  King  Alphonso  I.  in  1143  to  iiromote  the  defeat 
of  the  Moors.     The  King  of  Portugal  is  grand  master. 

Avi'tus,  Alciju's  Ecdicius,  Saint :  Bi-shop  of  Vienne  and 
Christian  poet;  b.  of  a  senatorial  family  of  Anvergne  iUjoiit 
450  A.  D. ;  succeeded  his  father  (perhaps  also  hisgramlfather 
and  great-grandfather)  in  the  episcopacy  about  490.  He  was 
a  vigorous  representative  of  Roman  Catholicism  among  the 
Arian  Burgundians,  and  endeavored  to  convert  King  Gun- 
dobad  to  orthodoxy.  He  seems  also  to  have  intrigued  with 
the  Franks  after  the  conversion  and  baptism  of  Clovis  (496^ 
— an  event  which  he  celebrated  in  a  letter  full  of  adulation 
to  Clovis  himself  (Ep.  46).  He  thus  belonged  to  the  party 
which  for  ecclesiastical  reasons  desired  anil  helped  on  tlie 
subjection  of  Southern  Gaul  to  the  Franks. 

Avitus  is,  however,  chiefly  known  to  the  modern  world  as 
the  author  of  a  poem  whose  similarity  in  theme,  and  at 
times  in  treat  uieiit,  to  the  Paradise  Lost  of  Milton  long 
since  attracted  attention.  This  jxiein  was  called  by  Avitus 
himself  in  a  letter  (Ep.  51)  De  spiritalis  historio'  ge.<stis,  nnd 
is  in  five  books,  to  which  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (De  vir. 
illustr.,  Ch.  xxiii)  gives  the  following  (ities:  I.  De  origins 
mundi;  II.  De  originali  peccato;  III.  De  sententia  dei;  IV. 
De  diluvio  mundi ;  V.  De  transitu  maris rnliri.  The  poem 
is  of  course  base<l  upon  Genesis  and  Exodus,  and  describes 
the  Creation,  the  Fall  of  Man,  the  Flood,  and  the  Captivity 
in  Egypt.  What  is  chiefly  noteworthy  about  it,  however,  is 
that  it  is  an  heroic  poem  ;  i.  e.  deals  with  Bible  history  after 
the  manner  of  the  classic  epic  poets.  PVr  this  reason  Avi- 
tus has  a  place  in  a  poetical  tradition  of  great  importance. 
To  be  sure,  he  was  not  the  first  to  hit  upon  the  sacred 
heroic.  The  Spaniard  Juvencus  had  in  his  poem  on  the 
four  gospels  (Erangelioriim  liftri  IV..  written  330  A.  n.)  told 
the  life  of  Christ  in  this  fashion  ;  In  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury liad  bci'ii  composed  a  I<mg  version  in  hexameters  of 
the' Pentateuch  and  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  (attri- 
buted in  .some  manuscripts  to  an  unknown  Cyprianus,  l)ut 
possibly  in  |iart  due  also  to  Juvencus);  another  of  the  Book 
of  Jonah;  still  another  (by  a  certain  Victorinus)  of  the  .sec- 
ond Hook  of  Maccabees.  A  (iallic  lady.  I'roha  by  name, 
had  undertaken  to  compose  in  mosaic  fashion,  with  lines 
a.iid  phrases  taken  from  the  poems  of  Vergil,  the  history  of 
the  Fall  and  the  Kedemption  (frttia'  ('entoVirgilianvs).  In 
the  century  of  Avitus  himself  and  in  Gaul  there  had  been 


A  VITUS 


AVON 


425 


made  new  poetical  versions  of  Genesis;  one,  the  Me.lrum  in 
Oenesin,  by  a  certain  Hilariiis:  another,  the  *4/e/A(a  sen 
Commenlal ioniim  in  Genexiin  libri  HI.  of  C'hiiulius  Marius 
Victor,  probalily  a.  jirofessor  of  Jtai-scilles.  Seiluliiisalso,  in 
his  Pancliulf  ( 'ill-men.  had  foiiml  it  necessary  to  preface  his 
account  of  man's  reilemption  by  the  story  of  his  fall — the 
Paradise  Kesaineil  by  the  Paradise  Lost.  In  short,  there 
had  been  established  a  new  iina}i;inative  tradition  before 
Avitus  undertook  to  write  his  poem  :  and  allhouj;h  his  work 
is  far  the  most  poetical  and  powerful  of  those  here  men- 
tioned, it  is  so  largely  lieeause  he  made  use  freely  and  skill- 
fully of  what  his  predeccssoi-s  had  done. 

Few  literary  trailitions  are  more  interesting  than  this  to 
which  Aviliis'  made  so  important  a  contribution.  It  was 
destined  to  live  on  through  the  Dark  and  Middle  .\ges,  and 
in  the  Kenais.sance  to  give  rise  to  the  great  poems  we  all 
know  about.  We  find  it  first  in  Anglo-Saxon  England, 
where  tlie  poems  attribiite(l  to  C.\t;u.MON  ((/.  v.).  from  which 
again  Milton  has  been  charged  with  plagiarizing,  show  us 
the  now  epic  material  treate<l  by  a  Germanic  singer  in  the 
heroic  maniu'r  peculiar  to  the  north.  A  little  later  another 
Anglo-Saxon  poem  of  great  power, Cynewulfs  fVir/.s/,  though 
not  directly  ba.sed  upon  Latin  epic  originals,  illustrates  es- 
sentially the  same  tendencies.  We  know  from  Aldhelm, 
Bede.  .\lcuin.  aiul  others  that  no  works  were  more  widely 
known  and  read  in  England  from  the  seventh  to  the  ninth 
centuries  than  the  poems  of  .Juvencus.  Sedulius, and  ,\vitus; 
and  we  are  justified  in  believing  that,  even  in  ca.ses  where 
direct  Uirrowing  iias  not  been  proved,  the  English  poets 
were  indirectly  inspired  by  these  examples.  Nor  were  these 
the  only  poets  to  l)e  attracted  by  the  new  material.  In  the 
ninth  century  we  find  it  amcmg  the  Germans  on  the  Continent, 
giving  rise  to  the  .Sax(jn  Heliand  and  the  (rDupd-book  of  the 
Frank  Otfried.  In  the  Middle  Ages  proper  we  find  it  in  a 
doulile  form.  On  the  one  hand,  it  gives  us  poetical  versions 
of  parts  of  the  IJilde  in  the  vulgar  tongues;  on  the  other,  the 
epiir  speeches,  se[)arated  from  tlie  narrative,  are  thrown  to- 
gether in  dialogue  form,  and  we  have  the  mysteries  dealing 
with  the  Fall  and  the  Redemption.  After  the  Renaissance 
had  renewed  the  interest  of  poets  in  the  forms  of  classic  art, 
we  have  great  numbers  of  works  in  both  these  directions — the 
poetical  version  Ijeconnng  the  sacred  heroic  poem,  the  mys- 
tery becoming  the  sacred  tragedy,  without  or  with  musical 
accompaniment  (later  the  oratorio).  There  is  not  space  to 
name  all,  or  even  a  large  part,  of  these  works,  but  the  follow- 
ing are  worth  mentioning,  as  having  been  spoken  of  now  and 
again  in  connection  with  .Milton:  Antonio  Cornozano's  Dix- 
corso  in  T'cr.'si'  della  Creazione  del Moiido  sino  alia  Venula  di 
Gem  Vriiito  (1472) ;  Uu  B.4RTas"s  {q.  v.)  La  Seinaine  (1579) 
and  La  seconde  Semaine  (1.584);  Hugo  Grotius's  Latin  trag- 
edy Adamus  Exul  (1601);  Giovanni  .Soranzo's  Dell'  Adaino 
(1604);  Tasso's  {ij.  r.)  Le  sette  yiornate  del  Mondii  Creato 
(1607);  Giovainu  Hattista  Andreini's  tragc-dy  ,l(/'(/«o  (101^) ; 
Alonzo  de  .Vzevedo's  CVfnci6«  del  Jlioido  (lOlo);  Phineas 
Fletcher's  Latin  poem  Locu.ihe  (1627);  .Vndrew  Ramsay's 
Poemata  xacra  (\G'S'-i) ;  Joost  van  den  Vondel's  {q.  v.)  trag- 
eily  Lucifer  (1604).  Before  bringing  the  list  to  an  end  it  is 
well  to  mention  also  a  poem  later  than  Milton's,  but  almost 
a-s  famous  in  tiermany  as  is  the  Paradixe  Loxt  in  England, 
i.  e.  Klopstock's  .Me.s.iiax,  finished  in  1773.  Naturally,  the 
poem  of  .\vitus  can  not  be  said  to  have  inspired  directly  all 
these  luimerous  and  diverse  works.  What  can  be  said  is 
that  it  belongs  to  the  same  tradition,  and  helped  constitute 
that  tradition. 

Besitics  the  De  spiritalis  hisforim  ge.stis.  we  have  from 
Avitus  a  \>in-m,  De  con^olaloria  castilafix  /rtHf/p.  addressed 
to  his  sister  Fuscina;  also  fragments  of  controversial  works 
in  prose,  and  a  considerable  body  of  letters,  which  have 
great  interest  for  students  of  the  political  and  social  con- 
dition of  the  fifth  century.  Avitus  seems  to  have  lived 
at  least  as  late  as  525,  but  we  do  not  know  the  date  of  his 
death. 

BinLiooRAPBV. — Alcimi  Ecdicii  Avili  Opera  gum  xtiper- 
sunt,  rcc.  K.  Peiper  (Berlin,  IH!*!) :  t'haraux,  St.  Avite,  eveque 
de  Vienne,  xa  vte.  Men  aiui'res  (Paris,  1876);  fjiiizot,  ///•'</.  de 
la  cirili.iati(in  en  France,  IS'  lefon  ;  Binding,  Gexchirhte  des 
buri/undischen  Konigreichs  (Leipzig,  1868) ;  A.  Ebert,  Lit- 
eratur  des  MMelalters,  bd.  i.  (Leipzig,  1889). 

A.  R.  Marsu. 

AtHhs,  Marcus  MiECiLius:  a  Roman  emperor  of  the 
West ;  b.  in  Auvergue  probably  about  400  A.  n. ;  was  the 
fatlier-in-law  of  Sidonius  .Vpolliuaris  ;  fought  uiuler  the  ban- 
ner of  AiJtius ;  became  prefect  of  Gaul  in  4^9 ;  and  succeeded 


Avocet. 


Maximus  as  Emperor  of  the  West  in  455  a.  d.    He  was  de- 
posed by  Ricimer  in  456.     D.  in  457  A.  n. 

A  vo'ca,  or  Ovo'ca :  a  small  river  in  Wicklow  co.,  Ireland ; 
enters  the  sea  at  Arklow.  It  runs  through  a  very  narrow 
and  |)icturesque  valley,  inclosed  between  wooded  banks  from 
300  to  500  feet  high.  The  Vale  of  Avoca  is  the  subject  of 
one  of  Moore's  songs. 

Avoca  (formerly  Pleasant  Valley):  borough;  Luzerne  co., 
Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
;i-l) ;  on  the  Leh.  Val.,  Del.  and  Hudson  Canal  Co.  and  Erie 
and  Wyoming  Val.  R.  Rs. ;  in  a  coal-mining  region;  3  miles 
from  Pittston.     Pop.  (1880)  1,913;  (1890)  3,031. 

Avoca'do  Pear,  or  Alligator  Pear  (Per  sea gratissima) : 
a  fruit-tree  of  the  family  Lauracece;  a  native  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America.  It  has  leaves  which  resemble  those  of 
the  laurel.  The.fruit  is  a  drupe,  like  a  pear  in  shape,  and 
has  a  soft  pulp  of  delicate  flavor,  which  dissolves  like  but- 
ter in  the  mouth,  and  is  called  "vegetable  butter."  It  is 
much  esteemed  in  the  West  Indies,  and  grows  in  Southern 
Florida.  In  Mexico  and  Central  America  the  fruit  is  often 
called  agiiacate. 

Av'ocet:  a  web-footed  bird  of  the  genus  Recurviroslra, 
having  long  legs  and  very  long,  slender  IjIIIs.  The  avocets 
are  easily  distinguished  from 
other  wading  birds  liy  the 
upward  curvature  of  the  bill, 
which  is  like  elastic  whale- 
bone, and  is  adapted  to  seek- 
ing in  the  mud  for  its  food, 
which  consists  almost  wholly 
of  worms,  insects,  and  little 
crustaceans.  They  are  birds 
of  powerful  wing,  and  bel  - 
ter  adapted  for  flying  au'i 
walking  than  swinnniuL; 
The  Bee u  rvirosfra  a m  erica ii .  / 
abounds  in  the  U.  S.  An- 
other species,  Recurviroslra 
arocefta.  is  common  in  Eu- 
rope.    The  length  of  each  species  is  about  eighteen  inches. 

Avogradro,  Aji-iDEO,  Count:  physicist  and  chemist;  b.  in 
Turin.  Aug.  9, 1776 ;  studied  jurisprudence  at  the  Turin  Uni- 
versitv;  became  Doctor  of  Laws  in  1796,  and  then  held  a 
position  under  the  Government  initil  1806.  at  which  time  he 
began  his  scientific  work.  In  1809  he  became  Professor  of 
Phvsics  at  the  gymnasium  in  Vercelli.  In  1820  he  was 
elected  Professor  of  Matheuuitieal  Physics  at  the  Turin  Uni- 
versity. He  died  in  Turin,  .Jvily  9,  1856,  at  the  age  of  eighty 
vears."  He  is  known  chiefly  as  the  discoverer  of  the  law 
governing  the  relations  between  the  specific  gravity  and  the 
molecular  weight  of  substances  in  the  gaseous  state.  This 
law.  commonlv  called  Avogadro's  law.  has  been  of  the  high- 
est value  in  the  development  of  Chemistry  {q.  v.).        I.  R. 

,\voi(l'anee:  in  English  ecclesiastical  law,  the  condition 
of  a  bi'iiefice  void  of  an  incumbent ;  a  vacancy  in  a  benefice. 

Avoirdupois',  or  Averdnpois  [goods  of  weight  ;O.Pr. 
oroir.  property;  subst.  use  of  verb  aroir,  have  <  Lat. 
Itahe're  +  de.  of  -I-  /mis.  weight  <  Iml.  /lensuiii] :  the  common 
system  of  weights  by  which  we  ascertain  the  weight  of  all 
commodities  except  medicines,  gems,  aiul  precious  metals. 
A  iiound  avoirdupois  contains  7.000  grains,  the  legal  stand- 
ard of  which  is  such  that  a  cubic  inch  of  water  weighs  252- 
•458  grains.  The  pound  is  divided  into  16  ounces,  and  an 
ounce  into  16  drams.     An  ounce  is  equal  to  437A  grains. 

TABLE  OF   AVOIRDUPOIS. 

2711  grains  =  1  dram,  dr. 

16  drams  =  1  omiee,  oz. 

16  oimces  =  1  iwuiul,  fc. 

88  pounds  =  1  quartiT.  qr. 

4  <iuarters  =  1  liundredweight,  cwt. 

SO  liundredweigllt  =  1  ton,  ton. 

A  cubic  tool  of  water  weighs  fl9ri7  ounces  avoirdupois. 

Avo'la :  a  seaport-town  of  Sicily ;  jn'ovince  of  Xoto ;  13 
miles  S.  W.  of  Syracuse  (sec  map"  of  Italy,  ref.  9-F);  sup- 
posed to  occupy  "the  site  of  the  ancient  It/la  or  Ilgbla,  fa- 
mous for  honey.  It  luus  an  active  trade  for  grain,  cattle,  oil, 
anil  fruits.  An  earlliiiuake  in  1693  destroved  the  ancient 
Amlu.     Pop.  13,182. 

Avon  :  town  ;  Norfolk  co.,  Ma.s.s.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  JJ-I);  on  Old  Colony  R.R.; 
17  miles  S.  of  Bostou,  has  boot  and  shoe  manufactories. 
Pop.  of  township  (ISilO)  l,:i84;  (1895)  1,626. 


426 


AVON 


AXIS 


Avon :  village  on  the  Erie  and  the  Western  \.  Y.  and  Pa. 
R.  Rs. ;  in  Livingston  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  coiuity,  see 
map  of  New  York,  rof.  5-D) ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gene- 
see river:  18  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Rochester.  Avon  is  delight- 
fully sitiuited  on  a  terrace  100  feet  above  the  river.  Here 
are  sulphur  springs,  with  several  hotels,  which  are  much  fre- 
quented in  summer  by  invalids.  Pop.  (1870)  900;  (1880) 
1,617;  (1890)  1,6."):! 

Avon  (river) :  There  are  several  rivers,  bearing  this  name 
in  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  France.  The  princiiial  of 
them  in  English  rivers  are  noticed  below.  Scotland  has  an 
Avon  river  which  flows  into  the  Clyde,  another  into  the 
Forth,  and  a  third  into  the  Annan.  France  has  two  Avon 
rivers  in  the  Loire  system,  and  two  connected  with  the 
Seine. 

Avon,  Lower  :  a  river  of  England ;  rises  in  Wiltshire  ; 
flows  southwaril,  then  nearly  northwestward,  passes  by  Bath 
and  Bristol,  and  enters  the  Bristol  Channel  after  a  course  of 
about  80  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Bristol,  7 
miles.  The  valley  of  the  Avon  is  very  picturesque.  Another 
river  called  Avon,  or  East  Avon,  rises  in  Wiltshire,  flows 
southward,  passes  Salisbury,  and  enters  the  English  Chan- 
nel at  Christ  Church. 

Avon,  Middle,  or  Little  :  a  river  of  England.  Its  whole 
course  is  in  Gloucestershire,  entering  the  Severn  a  little  be- 
low the  town  of  Berkeley. 

Avon,  Upper  :  a  river  of  England ;  rises  near  Naseby.  in 
Northamptonshire :  flows  in  a  general  S.  W.  direction  through 
Warwickshire  and  Worcestei'shire.  passing  Rugby,  War- 
wick, and  Stratford,  the  birthplace  of  Shakspeare,  and 
joins  the  Severn  at  Tewkesbury.  It  is  about  100  miles  long. 
Its  tributaries  are  the  Alne,  Leame,  Stour,  and  Swift. 

Avondale :  town :  Jefferson  co..  Ala.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Alabama,  ref.  3-D) ;  on  Queen  and  Cres- 
cent R.  R. ;  3  miles  from  Birmingham ;  in  an  agricultural 
and  coal  and  iron  mining  district.     Pop.  (1890)  1,642. 

Avondale:  village  and  suburb  of  Cincinnati,  Hamilton 
CO.,  ().  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  7-C) : 
on  Cin.  and  Northern  R.  R.  Pop.  (1880)  2,553  ;  (1890) 
4,473. 

A vranches,  aa-vraaiish'  (anc.  A  hrm'ere) :  a  town  of  France ; 
department  of  the  Manche ;  33  miles  S.  W.  of  Saint-Lo  (see 
map  of  France,  ref.  3-C).  It  was  an  important  Roman  mil- 
itary station,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  England  at 
the  Norman  conquest.  The  Bretons  captured  the  town  in 
1203.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  English  got  possession 
of  it,  and  held  it  until  1450.  It  was  once  a  bishop's  see,  and 
its  cathedral,  destroyed  in  the  time  of  the  first  French  revo- 
lution, was  the  finest  in  Normandy.  It  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  a  hill,  and  has  a  ruined  cathedral,  a  college,  and  a 
convent.  Here  reside  many  English  families,  attracted  by 
the  beauty  of  the  position  and  the  cheapness  of  living.  There 
is  some  trade  in  grain,  cider,  and  salt;  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  candles,  lace,  nails,  leather,  parchment,  etc.  Pop. 
(1891)  7,785. 

Avrillon,  aVvrre'yoiV,  .Jean  B.^ptiste  Elias:  an  eloquent 
Franciscan  monk ;  b.  at  Paris  in  1632 ;  made  profession  Jan. 
3,  1()71,  in  the  convent  of  the  Minims  (called  Bo ns7io mines) 
at  Nigeon.  He  was  a  noted  preacher  1676-1738,  an<l  left 
many  devotional  works,  which  are  greatly  esteemed  in  tlie 
Roman  Chun^h.  Some  of  them  have  been  translated  by  the 
Romanizing  party  of  the  Church  of  England.  Among  these 
are  (luide  for  Pnn-iiiu/  Advent  nnlihi  (London,  1844)  and 
Eiic/iaristic  Meditations  (1864).     D.  May  16,  1739. 

Award  [from  tlio  O.  Fr.  awarder,  adjudge] :  the  result  of 
an  arl)itration.  (See  ,'\rbitration.)  An  award  is  guverned 
by  well-cstahlishcd  rules,  such  as  that  it  must  conform  to 
the  agreement  wliereby  the  matters  in  dispute  were  sub- 
mitted to  arbitration ;  it  must  enibr.ace  them  all ;  it  must  be 
final,  as  well  as  certain  and  reasonable.  Where  several  mat- 
ters are  submitted,  it  is  not  necessary  that  each  one  slionld 
be  specifically  ri-ferriMl  to  in  the  award.  If  the  arbitrators 
purport  to  dispose  of  tlie  things  submitted  by  a  general  re- 
sult, it  will  be  [irvfiumcil,  prima  facie,  that  each  subject  was 
acted  upon  and  embraced  in  their  conclusion.  The  arbi- 
trators in  making  an  award  are  presumed  to  be  guided  by 
the  rules  of  law  whi<'h  govern  the  questions  involved  in  the 
subject-matter  arbitrated  upon.  An  awani  does  not  have 
the  force  of  a  jurlgment  in  a  court  of  justice.  If  not  per- 
formed, an  action  may  be  brr)uglit  upon  it.  If  a  sum  of 
money  were  directed  io  be  paid,  a  debt  would  be  created 


which  could  be  collected  by  action.  Statutes  sometimes  al- 
low a  clause  to  be  inserted  in  the  submission  that  judgment 
in  a  court  of  justice  may  be  entered  upon  the  award.  In 
such  a  case  no  action  is  necessary,  and  a  judgment  may  be 
taken  in  accordance  with  the  statute. 

Awe,  LocH  :  a  lake  of  Scotland  :  in  tlie  county  of  Argyle ; 
8  miles  N.  W.  of  Inverary;  extends  34  miles  in  a  direction 
N.  E.  and  S.  W.  Its  average  \yidth  is  about  a  mile,  but  in 
some  places  it  is  3-}  miles  wide.  The  adjacent  scenery  is 
very  jiicturesque.  The  northeastern  end  is  overshadowed 
by  rugged  mountains,  one  of  which,  Ben  Cruaehan,  is  3,669 
feet  high.  The  water  of  this  lake  is  discharged  through  the 
river  Awe  into  Loch  Etive.  Loch  Awe  incloses  many 
islands,  and  abounds  in  trout.  Its  scenes  are  favorites  with 
artists  and  with  tourists.  On  its  islands  are  the  ruins  of  sev- 
eral convents  and  castles. 

Awn  [M.  Eng.  awene;  cf.  0.  N.  ogn  ;  0.  H.  G.  ngana> 
Jlod.  Germ.  ^/(«.e ;  Gr.  Sxi-i).  chaft'] :  a  stiff  and  pointed  bristle 
which  occurs  in  the  flowers  of  many  grasses,  forming  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  glume  or  jialet.  as  the  beard  of  wheat  and  barley. 
The  flowers  of  some  grasses  are  awnless.  The  parts  which  are 
furiuslied  with  this  organ  are  called  aristate.  The  awn  is  a 
prolongation  of  the  midrib  of  a  glume  or  palet,  or  is  a  rigid, 
barren  branch  of  inflorescence.  Sometimes  it  is  twisted, 
and  liable  to  twist  and  untwist  hygrometrically ;  sometimes 
it  is  seri'ate,  as  in  barley. 

Aw' jaw':  See  Oyo. 

Axe :  a  tool  used  by  carpenters  and  others  for  cutting 
wood :  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  Savage  peoples  of  antiquity 
formed  axes  of  stone,  copper,  bronze,  etc.  The  axe  of  mod- 
ern civilized  nations  is  constructed  of  wrought  iron,  with  a 
cutting  edge  of  steel,  which  is  welded  to  the  iron  when  they 
are  heated  to  a  white  heat.  After  it  has  been  hammered 
and  ground  into  the  projier  form,  it  is  carefully  tempered  by 
heat  and  cold  water. 

Axe'stone  :  a  mineral  regarded  as  a  variety  of  nephrite; 
is  hard,  tough,  and  more  or  less  translucent.  It  occurs  in 
primitive  rocks  in  Saxony  and  New  Zealand;  the  natives  of 
the  latter  use  it  to  make  axes,  hence  the  name. 

Ax'liolnie  Isle:  a  level  and  once  marshy  tract  of  Eng- 
land; in  the  northern  part  of  Nottinghamshire;  was  drained 
in  1634  by  a  Dutchman  named  Vermuyden,  and  was  for  a 
long  time  inhabited  by  French  and  Dutch  Protestant  refu- 
gees. After  much  litigation  between  the  colonists  and  the 
proprietors,  the  lands  were  divided  in  1691,  and  about  one- 
sixth  was  given  to  the  former.  It  is  now  extremely  fertile 
of  all  kinds  of  crops. 

Ax'ia :  a  town  of  ancient  Etruria.  whose  remains  are 
identified  with  the  sculjitured  tufaceous  rocks  at  Castel 
d'Asso;  6  miles  AV.  of  Viterbo.  Here  are  many  chambers 
believed  to  be  sepulchral.  There  are  many  Etruscan  in- 
scriptions. These  remains  were  discovered  in  1808.  It  is 
probable  tliat  Axia  never  was  a  large  town,  but  it  must  once 
have  been  quite  important. 

Ax'inite  [from  Gr.  a|(vj|.  an  axe]:  an  anhydrous' silicate 
of  alumina,  lime,  etc.,  wilh  boracic  acid;  so  named  because 
it  occui-s  crystallized  in  obli(|ne  rhomboidal  prisms,  so  flat 
as  to  appear  tabular  and  shar])  like  the  edge  of  an  axe.  The 
crystals  have  a  brilliant,  glassy  luster,  and  are  translucent 
or  sub-translucent. 

Ax'iom  [from  Gr.  a^luixa.  what  commends  itself,  from 
S|ios.  wcuthy]:  in  geometry,  a  proposition  which  admits  of 
no  demonstration,  but  is  taken  for  granted  as  a  self-evident 
truth;  as.  "  The  whole  is  greater  than  its  part";  "Things 
which  are  efpial  to  the  same  are  equal  to  one  another"; 
•'Two  straight  lines  can  not  inclose  a  space,"  etc.  P^very 
rational  science  requires  such  fundamental  propositions  and 
established  principles,  to  which  the  assent  of  the  student  is 
demanded  witliout  proof  as  a  basis  for  further  argument. 
It  is  an  axiom  in  logic  that  he  who  admits  a  ])rinciple  ad- 
mits its  consequence. 

Ax'is,  plu.  .\xes  [Lat.,  axle] :  a  straight  line,  real  or  im- 
aginary, aljout  which  a  body  revolves  is  called  the  axis  of 
rotation.  Axis  is  an  inqiortant  term  in  astronomy,  botany, 
crystallography,  geometry,  and  mechanics.  The  axis  of  the 
earth  or  other  planet  is  that  diameter  about  which  it  re- 
volves. In  botany,  the  .ixis  is  the  central  part  of  a  plant, 
around  which  various  organs  are  arranged.  The  stem  is 
called  tlie  ascending  axis,  and  tlie  root  is  the  descending 
axis.  Tlie  stem  is  an  axis  for  the  branches,  the  branch  is 
an  axis  for  the  leaves,  and  the  rachis  is  an  axis  of  iiiflorcs- 


AXIS 


AYE-AYE 


427 


cenee.  In  geometry,  the  axis  of  any  geometrical  solid  is  the 
right  line  which  passes  through  the  center  of  all  the  corre- 
sponding parallel  seclions  o[  it  or  the  riglil  line  about 
which  the  jiarls  of  tlie  ligure  are  synunelrically  disposed. 
Thus  the  sixis  of  a  oonc  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  ver- 
tex to  the  center  of  tlu^  hase.  The  axis  of  a  curved  line  is 
formed  hy  a  right  line  dividing  tlie  curve  into  two  symmet- 
rical parts.  .\  right  line  ilrawn  tln-ough  the  foci  of  an 
ellipse  is  its  transverse  axis.  The  lines  upon  which  the  ali- 
.>icissas  and  ordinatesiif  plane  curves  are  measureil  are  called 
co-ordinate  axes,  of  which  one  is  the  axis  of  abscissas  and 
the  otiier  tlie  axis  of  onlinates.  For  determining  points  in 
space  a  third  axis  is  used.  In  crystallography,  each  form 
of  crystal,  except  the  hexagcmal  prism  and  the  rhoml>ohe- 
dron,  lia.s  three  axes,  one  vertical  and  two  lateral.  In  anat- 
omy, the  axis  is  the  secoiul  cervical  vertebra,  which  in  man 
is  the  pivot  on  which  tlie  head  turns,  ^l.r'i'.s-  in  Peritn/c/iio, 
an  old  term  fur  one  of  the  five  mechanical  powers,  common- 
ly calli'd  the  Whekl  and  Axlic.  It  (nmsisls  of  a  wheel 
fixed  immovably  to  an  axle,  so  that  both  Im-n  together 
arouiul  the  axis  of  motion.  Axis  of  JHerafion.  in  geology, 
the  line  or  direction  in  which  rocks  hav('  been  elevated  by 
an  internal  force.  This  line  generally  governs  the  strike  of 
the  strata,  or  the  direction  of  a  horizonltd  line  upon  them, 
when  removed  from  their  luitural  or  original  po.silion  and 
inclined  to  the  horizon. 

Axis  (A.ris  (i.rix) :  a  si)eeies  of  deer  found  in  Indiji  and  in 
many  of  the  Kast  Indian  islands,  sometimes  called  chittm 
by  the  luitives.  It  reseiid)les  in  size  and  color  the  European 
fallow-deer,  but  its  horns  are  slender,  pointed,  and  little 
branclied.     The  female  has  no  horns.     It  is  easilv  donuis- 


Ax'olotl' :  a  large  larval  salamander  of  the  genus  Am- 

blystoma  found    in   the   lakes   of    Mexico    and    northward 


^'^^^^^^ 


.\xi.s  deer. 

ticated,  and  is  kept  in  parks  in  Europe.  Other  species,  or 
marked  varieties,  are  known.  The  horns  are  used  for  knife- 
handles. 

Ax'Ie  (in  Ijat.  ax' in) :  a  bar  of  iron  or  a  wooden  shaft 
which  supports  the  body  of  a  carriage  or  wagon,  and  is 
PU|)ported  on  two  wheels,  in  the  hubs  or  naves  of  which  its 
I'uds  are  inserted.  Also  the  jiart  of  machinery  which  forms 
the  center  of  the  revolving  portion,  or  the  immediate  bear- 
ing of  the  revolution  of  a  jiiece  of  machinery  which  re- 
volves on  its  own  center.  Axles  of  railway  cars,  instead 
of  revolving  in  the  hubs  of  the  wheels,  are  strongly  keyed 
in  them,  and  journals  are  turned  on  the  portions  outside 
the  wheels.  These  journals  pa.ss  through  and  revolve  in 
boxes. 

A x'mi lister:  a  town  of  England;  in  the  county  of  Dev- 
on, IG  nules  E.  of  Exeter  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  14-E). 
It  has  nmnufactures  of  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  etc.  The 
Ax'minsler  carpets,  whose  manufacture  was  formerly  the 
chief  employnuMit  of  the  inhabitants,  are  excellent  imita- 
tions of  those  of  Persia  and  Turkey,  but  the  so-called  .\x- 
minster  carpets  are  now  made  elsewhere.     Pop.  about  3,000. 


Axolotl. 

through  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  has  bushy  external 
gills,  such  as  are  permanent  in  the  mud  puppy  (Accten(A-), 
It  has,  however,  been  shown  to  lose  these  gills,  under  some 
circumstances  at  least,  when  it  develops  into  the  common 
tiger  salamander,  Ambh/slamd  tit/rinum.  It  was,  however, 
long  regarded  as  a  di.stinct  animal,  and  known  in  science  as 
Siredon  liclii-noiile.s.  It  reaches  a  length  of  8  or  10  inches. 
It  is,  however,  claimed  that  the  true  axolotl  of  the  Mexi- 
can lakes  never  leaves  the  larval  state. 

David  S.  Jordan. 
Axoom :  See  Axvm. 

Axtell,  Samiki.  B.:  jurist  ;  b.  Oct.  14,  1819; 
was  educated  at  Oberlin  and  Western  Reserve 
Colleges;  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1867 
and  again  in  1869;  in  1874  he  was  appointed 
(iovernor  of  Utah  Territory,  and  afterward  of 
New  Mexico.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  chief 
justice  of  the  .Su|irenu>  Court  of  the  latter  Terri- 
tory, resigning  in  18.55.  I),  in  i\lorristown,  N.  J., 
Aug.  6.  18tU.  Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Ax'lllll,  or  Axtioill  (in  Gr.  Ai^oi/iri  or  'A^d/in): 
ancient  and  decayed  town  of  Abyssinia;  the 
former  capital  of  the  .\xiniiite  empire;  in  the 
]>rovince  of  Tigre  ;  8.")  miles  N.  W.  of  Anlalo  (see 
map  of  Africa,  ref.  4-(r).  Here  is  a  Christian 
church.  V)uilt  about  1657,  which  is  held  in  great 
veneration.  Among  the  antiquities  of  Axum  and 
^'~-  the  monuments  of  its  former  grandeur  are  sev- 

eral finely  sculptured  prostrate  obelisks,  and  one 
granite  monnlilh  60  feet  high,  which  is  still 
standing.  The  Axumite  empire  extended  over 
Aliyssinia  and  Venu'n  in  .\j-abia.  Through  .\dule, 
a  i)ort  on  the  Ued  Sea.  the  people  of  ancient  ,-\xinn  carried 
on  commerce  with  Arabia  and  India.    Pop.  5,000. 

Ayaeil'clio:  a  department  of  Southern  Peru;  bounded 
N.  by  .lunin.  E.  Iiy  Cuzco.  S.  by  Areipiipa.  and  W.  by  lluan- 
caveliea.  .\rea,  estimated  at  24,21:!  .sq.  miles.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Ajniriniac  and  its  affluents.  Gold  and  silver  are 
found  here,  and  in  asricultural  respects  it  is  the  richest  part 
of  Peru.     Pop.  142.205. 

AyaeiU'ho:  a  town  of  Peru;  in  department  of  the  same 
name;  25  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Huancavelica  (see  nuip  of  South 
America,  ref.  5-15).  Here  the  armies  of  Colombia  and  Peru 
completely  defeated  the  Spaniards  on  Dee.  9,  1824.  This 
victory,  gained  by  Gen.  Sucre,  ended  the  Stianish  dominion 
on  the  American  continent,  and  w'as  followed  by  the 
speedv  surrender  of  idl  the  Spanish  .soldici's  in  Peru.  (See 
Pi:Ru'an<l  Sucre.)     Pop.  20.000. 

Are-Aj'P  (Chi'romys  madagasearien'sis) :  a  very  singular 

quadrujied  of  l\Indagascar,  belonging  to  the  order  "of  lemurs. 
It  has  a  long,  bushy  tail,  and  is  about  as  large  as  a  hare. 
Karh  of  its  four  extremities  has  an  opposable  thumb,  and 


428 


AYER 


AYRTON 


the  digits  are  armed  with  pointed  nails,  which  it  sometimes 
uses  to  pick  kernels  out  of  nuts.     Il  sleeps  during  the  day. 


Aye-aj-e. 

and  is  very  active  in   tlic   night,  feeding  on  insects   and 
fruits. 

Ayer  :  an  important  railroad  center,  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-H) ; 
35  miles  X.  W.  of  Boston  :  formerly  known  as  Groton  Junc- 
tion, and  incorporated  as  a  separate  town  in  1870.  Pop.  of 
township  (1880)  1,881  ;  (18'J0)  2,148 ;  (1895)  2,101. 

Ay'eshah.  or  Aieshah  :  the  favorite  wife  of  the  prophet 
Moliammed :  b.  at  Medina  about  610  A.  D. ;  was  a  daughter 
of  Abu-Bekr,  who  afterward  became  caliph.  In  the  twenty- 
fourth  sura  (or  chapter)  of  the  Koran,  entitled  "  Light,"  JIo- 
hammed  expressly  vindicated  her  cha.stity,  which  had  been 
questioned.  After  his  death  she  took  an  active  part  in  pub- 
lic affairs  as  an  enemy  of  the  Caliph  Othman  and  his  suc- 
cessor AH,  who  defeated  her  in  battle.  D.  in  677  a.  d.  See 
Irving,  JIahomet  and  his  Suceessors. 

Aylesford.  Karls  op  (1714,  in  the  peerage  of  Great 
Britain),  and  Barons  of  Guernsey  (1703,  in  the  English  peer- 
age).— Charles  Wightwick  Pinch,  the  eighth  earl,  was  b.  in 
1851,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1885. 

Ayl'mer:  a  lake  in  British  North  America;  about  80 
miles  N.  of  Great  Slave  Lake.  It  is  about  70  miles  long 
and  40  miles  wi<le.  It  lies  on  the  margin  of  the  forest  area 
of  Canada. 

Aylmer :  incorporated  town,  Elgin  co..  Ontario.  Canada 
(for  "location,  see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  5-C) ;  on  the  Air  Line 
Div.  of  the  G.  T.  Ry.,  12  miles  E.  of  St.  Thomas.  It  is  also 
connected  with  M.  C.  Ry.,  the  depot  being,  however,  2J- 
miles  N.  It  is  surrounded  by  fine  farming  land.  Aylmer 
has  a  large  canning  and  fruit-evaporating  industry,  furni- 
ture-factory, pork-factory,  hub  and  spoke  factory,  2  organ- 
factories,  2  sash  and  door  factories,  2  roller-mills,  a  foun- 
dry, water-works,  electric-lights.  2  newspapers,  etc. :  has  5 
churches.  5  public  schools,  a  collegiate  institute,  and  a  me- 
chanics" institute  with  a  lilirary  of  more  than  4.000  vols. 
Pop.  (1881)  1.540;  (18!)!)  2.167.  "    Editor  of  "Express." 

Aylmer:  on  Can.  Pac.  Ry.  and  Lake  Deschenes,  Ottawa 
CO.,  Quebec,  Canada  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ontario,  ref. 
2-H) ;  has  manufacturing  and  lumbering  industries.  A 
line  of  steamers  for  the  Upper  Ottawa  navigation  start 
from  here.     P<ip.  (1881)  1,763  ;  (1891)  1.945. 

Aylmer,  or  Elmer.  John:  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land; I),  in  Aylmer  Hall,  parish  of  Tivetshall  St.  Mary,  in 
Norfolk,  EnglaiKl,  in  1521.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
B.  A.  1541;  was  tutor  to  Lady  Jane  Grey;  became  arch- 
deacon of  Stow  1553,  but  shortly  after,  for  opposing  tran- 
substantiation,  was  deprived  under  Mary,  and  for  safety 
fled  to  the  Continent.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  (1558) 
he  returned  to  England ;  became  archdeacon  of  Lincoln 
1562,  bish<i|)  of  London  1576.  lie  treated  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  Puritans  witli  severity  on  doctrinal  grounds.  He 
wrote  in  ri'ply  to  John  Knox's  Blast  uf  the  trumpet  against 
the  monstruns  regiment  of  women,  a  work  entitled  An 
JIarborowe  for  faithfull  and  trewe  Subjects,  against  the 
late  bloune  lilaste,  concerning  the.  (forernment  of  Wemen 
(Strassburg,  1.559).  I),  in  London,  June  3, 1594.  See  Cooper, 
AthenCE  Cantabrigienses,  s.  v.  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Aylmer.  Matthew.  Lord :  b.  at  Balrath,  County  Meath, 
Ireland,  about  1643;  l)ecame  a  rear-admiral  in  the  British 
navy  in  169:!,  having  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
La  lloguc ;  vice-admiral  1694.  He  became  in  1709  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the.  fleet;  was  superseded  in  1711,  but 
restored  in  1714.  He  was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage  as 
Lord  Aylmer,  Baron  of  Balrath,  in  1718.    D.  Aug.  18,  1720. 


Aylmer,  Matthew  Whitworth.  Lord  :  an  English  gen- 
eral; b.  in  1775;  succeeded  to  the  peerage  Oct.  22,  1785; 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1787;  served  at  the  siege  of 
Co|iei]hagen,  also  in  Portugal  in  1809,  in  the  peninsular 
caui|i,iigiis,  and  was  made  full  general  in  1825.  He  was 
Governor-General  of  Canada  1828-33.  I),  in  London,  Feb. 
23,  1850. 

Aymaras:  See  Bolivia  and  Indians  of  South  America. 

Aymor^s:  an  Indian  tribe  of  Brazil.    See  Botocudos. 

Ayr.ar:  a  river  of  Scotland;  flowsnearly  westward  through 
Ayrshire,  and  enters  the  sea  at  the  town  of  Ayr;  noted  for 
stones  used  in  sharpening  cutlery.     Length,  33  miles. 

Ayr:  a  seaport;  county  town  of  Ayrshire.  Scotland;  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ayr;  42A  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Glasgow.  The 
river  is  here  crossed  by  three  bridges — the  new  bridge  (■'  New 
Brig"  of  Burns,  since  twice  rebuilt)  for  general  traffic,  the 
'■  Auld  Brig."  still  open  to  foot-passengers,  and  a  railway 
bridge.  In  1873  Newton-on-Ayr  and  WaUacetown,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  river,  were  amalgamated.  Ayr  has  an  ex- 
cellent academy,  a  public  library  (the  gift  of  Andrew  Car- 
negie), a  handsome  spire,  a  fine  race-course,  elegant  suburbs, 
and  a  marine  esplanade.  \Vith  Campbeltown,  Irvine,  In- 
verary,  and  Oban,  it  sends  a  member  to  Parliament.  It  pos- 
sesses a  large  carpet-factorv  and  extensive  docks.  The  chief 
export  is  coal.     Pop.  (1891)  24,791. 

Ayrer.  Jacob:  a  German  dramatist.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous dramas  in  the  style  of  Hans  Sachs  and  partly  after  the 
model  of  English  plays,  from  which  he  copied  the  character 
of  the  clown.  D.  at  Nuremberg,  Mar.  26,  1605.  See  his  life 
by  C.  Sehmitt  (Marburg.  1851).  JuLirs  Goebel. 

Ayres.  iXrz,  Rojievn  Beck  :  soldier ;  b.  at  East  Creek,  Mont- 
gomery CO.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  20,  1825;  graduated  at  West  Point 
1847;  promoted  to  colonel  Second  Artillery  July  28,  1879, 
and  Nov.  29.  1862.  brigadier-general  of  V.  S.  Vols. ;  served 
in  war  with  Mexico  1847^8,  at  various  posts  1848-73,  and  on 
expeditiim  to  Yellow  Jledicine  river  1857.  In  the  civil  war 
served  in  the  Manassas  campaign  1861,  engaged  at  Black- 
burn's f^ord  and  Bull  Run  as  chief  of  artillery  of  division 
1861-62,  and  of  corps  1862-63,  in  Virginia  Peninsula  1863, 
engaged  at  Yorktown.  Williamsburg,  New  Bridge.  Garnett's 
Farm.  Gaines's  Mill,  Golden's  Farm,  and  Glendale ;  in  the 
Jlaryland  campaign  1862,  engaged  at  South  Jlountain  and 
Antietam,  in  Rappahannock  campaign  1862-63,  engaged  at 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  in  the  Pennsylvania 
campaign,  in  command  of  a  division  1863;  engaged  at  Get- 
tyslnirg  (brevet  major),  in  suppressing  New  York  draft  riots 
in  1863,  Rapidan  campaign  1863,  engaged  at  Rappahannock 
Station  and  Mine  Run,  in  Richmond  campaign  1864-65.  en- 
gaged at  Wilderness  (brevet  lieutenant-colonel).  Laurel  Hill, 
Spotsvlvania.  Jericho  Ford.  Tolopotomy,  Betliesda  Church, 
Petersburg  (wounded),  Weldon  Railroad  (brevet  colonel). 
Chapel  House,  Rowanty  Creek,  Dabney's  Mill,  Five  Forks 
(brevet  brigadier-general),  and  Appomattox  Court-house;  in 
command  of  a  division  in  the  district  of  Shenandoah  1865-66, 
and  member  of  tactics  board  1867-69.  Brevet  major-general 
U.  S.  army  Mar.  l:i!,  1865,  for  gallant  and  meritorious  serv- 
ices in  the  field,  and  brevet  major-general  U.  S.  Vols.  Aug. 
1,  1864,  for  conspicuous  gallantry  in  battles  of  Richmond 
campaign.     D.  at  Fort  Hamilton,  New  York,  Dec.  4,  1888. 

Avr'sliire:  a  maritime  county  of  Scotland:  bounded  N. 
bv  Renfrew.  E.  by  Lanark  and  Dumfries.  S.  by  Kirkcud- 
bright aiul  Wigtown,  and  W.  by  the  Frith  of  Clyde.  Area, 
1.149  s(|.  miles.  The  surface  is  generally  undulating  or 
hilly,  and  the  southeastern  part  mountainous.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Avr,  the  Doon,  the  Lugar,  and  other  small  streams. 
The  county  is  rich  in  minerals,  especially  coal,  limestone, 
freestone,  and  iron.  Silurian  and  Devonian  strata  occur 
here.  Tlie  soil  is  generally  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
Ayrshire  is  noted  for  its  good  dairies  and  superior  breed  of 
milch  cows.  It  has  important  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
wool.     Pop.  (1881)  217,504  ;  (1891)  224,232.     Capital,  Ayr. 

Ayr'ton.  William  Edward,  F.  R.  S.  :  physicist  and  writer 
on  electro-technical  subjects;  b.  in  London,  England,  in 
1847.  Prof,  .\yrton  may  almost  be  said  to  be  the  father  of 
electro-teclmical  education,  since  from  1873  to  1879,  while 
professor  at  tlic  Imperial  College  of  Engineering,  Japan,  he 
organized  and  maintained  courses  of  instruction  in  electri- 
cal engineering,  a  subject  for  which  no  pra<tical  provision 
had  at  Unit  time  been  made  in  the  techincal  schools  of 
either  Europe  or  America.  Ayrton  was  educated  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  where  he  received  the  degree  of 


AYTIIOR 


AZEGLIO 


429 


B.  A.,  with  honors,  in  1H67.  Liko  many  of  thp  oMor  Eng- 
lish elect riciiins,  he  bepm  his  pnicticiil  eai-eer  in  the  (Jovern- 
ment  tek'firanh  service,  in  which  he  ultimately  rose  to  the 

Eosition  of  electrical  superintcnilenl.  Since  187!)  he  has 
een  Professor  of  xVpnlied  I'hysics  at  the  City  and  tiuihls 
of  London  Institute,  the  leading  technical  school  in  Great 
Britain.  I'rof.  Ayrtim  has  heen  at  once  a  fertile  writer  on 
electrical  sulijects  and  a  prolilic  invetitor.  'I'he  lumilier  of 
scientilic  paper's  from  his  ]ien  is  very  large,  nearly  a  hun- 
dred liaving  appeared  in  the  Proceedings  and  TraiiKar/ions 
of  the  Royal  Society,  tlie  I'liysical  Society,  the  Society  of 
Telegraph  Kngineers,  etc.  He  is  the  author  of  the  widely 
known  text-hook  entitled  Pracliail  E/ecfriciti/,  and  of  a 
large  number  of  papers  in  the  Proceeiliiii/.i  and  Trii/ix/irfions 
of  the  Koyal  and  other  .societies.  In  connection  with  I'rof. 
Perry,  he  has  been  awarded  some  twenty-six  patents  in 
(treat  Britain,  and  several  in  the  l'.  S.,  France,  (iermany, 
etc.  He  is  a  Fellow  of  I  lie  Koyal  Society,  London,  a  vice- 
president  of  the  Physical  Society,  and  president  (18y2-i):{)  of 
the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers.        E.  L.  Nichols. 

Aythor:  See  .\tiioii, 

Ay'toii,  .Sir  Kobkkt:  Scotch  poet  and  courtier:  b.  at  the 
castle  of  Kinaldie,  near  St.  Andrews,  l.'iTO,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Aiiilrews.  He  was  one  of  the  first  Scotclimen 
who  wrote  in  English  witli  elegance  and  purity;  intimate- 
ly acciuainted  witli  tlie  iMuinent  men  of  his  lime;  and  was  in 
great  favor  at  the  couils  of  .lames  L  and  Charles  L  1).  in 
Whiteluill  Palace,  Feb..  lG:!7-:38. 

Av'toiin,  William  Ei)MoxDSTor\K  :  jioet  and  ess.iyist  :  b. 
in  Edinburgh.  June  '2\.  18l;j ;  and  was  educated  in  the  uni- 
versity of  that  city.  He  studied  law  ;  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1840:  and  married  a  daughter  of  Prof.  John  Wilson. 
He  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  the  I'niversity  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1845.  Under  the  assumecl  name  of  "Augustus 
Dunshunner"  he  contributed  many  articles  to  Bhiekirood's 
Jfaymiiie,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  humorist  as  well 
as  a  poet.  In  1848  he  produceil  1'lie  Lai/s  of  the  Snitfixh 
Cavaliers,  and  ot/ier  Poems,  which  had  great  success  (29th 
ed.  188:);  n.  e.  1891).  Among  his  other  works  are  a  humor- 
ous tale  called  lloir  I  became  a  Yeoman:  Firmilian.  a 
Spasmodic  Trnt/edi/  (18.54):  and  Bothirell.  a  nai'rative  jjoem 
(1856).  I),  at  Blackhills,  near  Elgin,  Scotland,  Aug,  4,  1865. 
See  his  life  by  Theodore  Martin  (London,  1867). 

Ayiiiifaiiiieii'to  (literally,  a  joining  or  meeting)  :  in 
Spain,  a  coiiiicil  or  governing  body  of  a  town.  Tliese  coun- 
cils acijuired  much  jiolitical  influence  and  im|iortance  dur- 
ing the  wars  Ijctween  the  Moors  and  Spanish  Christians. 
The  Spanish  kings  granted  to  the  towns  municipal  privi- 
leges and  institutions  which  were  similar  to  those  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  and  promoted  a  spirit  of  liberty.  The 
councils  were  elected  by  the  vote  of  the  citizens.  These 
institutions  were  abolished  under  the  Bourbon  kings,  and 
were  restored  in  WHI.  They  were  deprived  of  i)olitical 
power  in  1844. 

Azad'iriiic^:  a  hitter  principle  found  in  an  East  Indian 
tree  (Melia  Azedirach),  used  to  .some  extent  as  a  sul)stitute 
for  quinine.  This  tree  is  called  "  Pride  of  China"'  in  the 
U.S. 

AzilKs'.  PiKRRK  HvAciNTiii::  b.  at  Sorreze,  department  of 
Tarn.  France.  Mar.  1.  1766:  was  educated  in  the  Benedic- 
tine college  of  his  native  city,  and  becan;e  secretary  lo  the 
Bishop  of  Oleron  ;  was  condemned  to  transportation  on  ac- 
count of  a  bitter  criticism  of  the  excesses  of  the  revolution- 
ists, but  esca|>ed  and  livid  for  several  years  in  retirement  : 
went  to  Paris  in  1806  :  Professor  of  History  at  the  military 
school  of  St.  Cyr.  and  afterward  inspector  of  the  ]iubli"c 
libraries  of  .\vignon  and  Xancy  :  lost  this  position  in  181.5 
bec^ause  he  wrote  a  defense  of  Xapoleon  :  received  a  pen- 
sion from  thedovernmeiit  through  the  influence  of  Madame 
de  Stael,  and  lived  quietly  in  Paris,  lecturing  on  philosophy 
in  his  garden,  and  publisliing  a  great  number  of  books.  D. 
in  Paris,  Jan.  22.  184.5.  His  two  most  characteristic  works 
are  Le  Si/sfeme  de  Compensation  (1806)  and  Le  Si/steme 
universel  (1812). 

Aza'loa  [from  Gr.  h(a\ios.  dry ;  probably  so  called  because 
it  is  usually  found  in  dry  situations] :  a  section  of  the  genus 
li/iododeiiilni)i.  ti(  the  family   ^nVr(ce(P,  still  commonly  re- 

farded,  especially  liy  horticulturists,  as  a  distinct  genus, 
'here  are  about  100  species  or  nu>re,  natives  of  North 
America,  China,  and  other  countries.  Many  of  them  are 
cultivated  for  their  flowei-s.  which  are  beautiful  and  fra- 
grant.    The  Azalea  pontica,  a  small  shrub  growing  lu'ar 


the  Black  Sea,  has  fragrant  flowers  covered  with  glutinous, 
hairy  glands.  The  whole  jilant  is  narcotic  and  poisonous. 
Among  the  American  species  (which  have  deciduous  leaves) 


A/alea  mdica. 

are  the  Azalea  muliflora,  sometimes  called  honcy.suckle, 
which  is  cultivated  in  English  gardens,  and  the  Azalea  ms- 
cosa.  which  has  glutinous  and  fragrant  flowers.  The  Aza^ 
lea  indica.  a  native  of  India,  is  a  favorite  of  florists,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  brilliant  coloi-s.  The  Azalea  calendftr- 
larea.  found  in  the  Southern  L*.  S.,  is  said  sometimes  to 
clothe  the  mountains  with  a  robe  of  living  flame-color. 
JIany  hybrid  azaleas  are  cultivated  as  flowering  shrubs. 

Aza'lii  :  an  ancient  and  ruined  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
Anatolia,  on  the  Rhyndacus,  which  is  here  crossed  by  two 
Roman  bridges,  7:?  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Brusa.  Here  are  ex- 
tensive remains.  am<ing  wliicli  are  an  Ionic  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter, with  eighteen  columns  standing,  and  a  theater  232  feet 
in  diameter. 

Aza'ra,  Don  Felix,  de  :  a  Spanish  naturalist ;  b.  at  Bar- 
Imnales,  in  Aragon.  May  18,  1746.  He  was  a  member  of  a 
commission  sent  in  1781  to  South  America  to  determine  the 
boundary  between  the  .Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions, 
and  he  remained  there  twenty  years.  He  [u-epared  nunu-r- 
ous  maps  of  South  America,  and  published  in  Spanish 
Observations  on  the  Qiiadni/)eds.  Reptiles,  and  Birds  of 
Paraguay  and  La  Plata  (5  vols..  1802).  He  also  wrote 
Travels  in  South  America,  which  were  pulilished  in  French 
(4  vols.,  1809).  These  works  are  highly  esteemed.  I),  in 
Aragon  in  1811.  See  Walckenaer,  ^Vo?/ce,wri^.  .4i-«ra,  pre- 
fixed to  his  Voi/ar/e  dan.  I'Anierique  JlHridiotiale  (1809), 

Azari'ah  [Heb.  nniK.  the  Lord  helps]:  a  name  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  t>l(l  Testament:  (1)  Another  name 
for  I'zziah,  the  tenth  King  of  Judah.  who  began  to  reign, 
according  to  Winer.  809  n.  c.  (2)  One  of  Daniel's  three 
friends,  a  noble  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  carried  captive  to 
Babylon  in  605  B.  c  whose  name  was  changed  to  Abedne- 
go.  (3)  The  name  of  some  twelve  other  pel-sons  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  most  of  whom  were  either  priests  or 
high  priests. 

.V/e'^lio,  Massimo  Tapparf.lli,  Marquis  d' (dat-zalyo) : 
Italian  statesman,  author,  and  artist  ;  b.  at  Turin,  Oct.  24, 
1798.  He  studied  and  worked  as  an  artist  in  Rome,  where 
he  passed  eight  vears  (1821-29),  and  became  a  .skillful  land- 
scape-painter, liaving  removed  to  Milan,  he  married  a 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  author  Manzoni.  He  published 
in  1833  an  historical  novel  entitled  KItore  Fieramosco,\\h\c\\ 
was  very  popular.  lie  stimulated  the  national  spirit  and 
patriotism  of  the  Italians  by  another  popular  historical 
romance.  Xiccolfi  de'  La/ii  (1841).  His  political  princi))Ies 
were  liberal,  but  moderate.  He  wrote  numerous  political 
treatises,  and  fought  against  the  .Viistrians  at  Vicenza  in 
1848.  In  May,  1849,  he  was  appointed  |)resident  of  the 
council  (prime  minister)  by  King  Victor  Emmanuel.  In 
this  position  he  rendered  important  services  to  his  country. 


430 


AZEVEDO 


AZTECS 


He  was  superseded  by  Cavoiir  in  1852.  D.  at  Milan,  Jan. 
15,  1866.     See  his  life  by  Morozzo  (Florence,  1884). 

Azeve'do,  Manoel  Anthnio  ALV.iRES.  de  :  Brazilian  poet; 
b.  Sejit.  12.  18:^1.  at  S.  Paolo;  d.  Apr.  25,  1852,  He  was 
e<Uicatcd  mainly  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  wliere  his  father  was  an 
eminent  advocate.  He  himself  had  heeome  a  learned  law- 
yer before  his  premature  death.  He  is  chiefly  known,  how- 
ever, as  the  most  passionate  of  Brazilian  Romanticists.  His 
poems  are  full  of  the  revolt  and  despair  of  Victor  Hugo, 
be  Musset,  Lamartine,  and  especially  Byron.  Aside  from  a 
few  unimportant  critical  articles,  his  achievement  is  sunnued 
up  in  the  edition  of  his  poems  pulilishcd  Ijy  Ids  father; 
Obras  dc  J/.  A.  Alcares  ch  Azevedo.  preci'didas  de  inn  dis- 
curso  bioffrnphico,  etc.  (3  vols.,  3d  ed,  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
Paris,  1862).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Az'iniutli  [viii  Pr..  from  .Vrab.  o.s  siimuf;  al,  the  -I-  siimni, 
way,  iioinls]:  the  angle  made  at  the  zenith  by  the  meridian 
and  tlie  vertical  circle  in  which  a  heavenly  body  is  situated, 
or  the  angle  measured  along  the  horizon  between  the  north 
or  south  i)oint  and  the  poiiit  where  a  circle  passing  through 
the  zenith  and  the  body  cuts  the  horizon.  In  trigonome- 
trical surveys  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  the  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  azimuth  of  an  object  is  very  important.  It 
is  usually  performed  with  a  theodolite.  Azimuth  circles  or 
vertical  circles  are  great  circles  of  a  sphere,  passing  through 
the  zenith  and  intersecting  the  horizon  at  right  angles. 

Azincourt:  See  Agincourt. 

Azo-colors :  an  important  class  of  dyestuffs  that  have 
come  into  prominence  within  the  past  few  years.  They  be- 
long to  a  group  of  compounds  known  as  azo  compounds,  the 
simplest  of  which  is  azo-benzene.  This  is  related  to  ben- 
zene as  shown  in  the  formuliP  CeHe,  benzene,  and  CeHe.Ns.- 
CsHs.  azo-benzene.  The  azo-colors  that  were  first  uumu- 
factured  are  oiiiliiie  yellow,  C'bHb.Xs.CsHi.NHj  ;  rhri/sol- 
dine.  Otlli.'Si.Cellsi^li,),;  and  Bismarck  brown,  NHj.Ce- 
n,.N,.C6H3(NH5),. 

In  general  terms  whenever  a  diazo  compound  is  brought 
together  with  a  phenol  or  an  aiiudo  compound,  reaction 
takes  place  with  the  fornuition  of  a  colored  substance,  and 
many  of  the  products  thus  formed  are  valuable  as  dyes. 
The  simplest  diazo  compound  is  diazo-benzene.  tlie  chloride 
of  which  is  represented  liy  the  foruuda  C'sHB.NaCl.  When 
diazo-benzene  chloride  acts  upon  the  amido  compound,  ani- 
line, CoIIs.NIIa.  aniline  yellow  is  formed: 

c.Hs.NV'i  +  CJI5.XH,  =  CeHB.Xc.c.ni.xn,  +  iiri. 

Auiliue  3-ellow. 
The  simplest  example  of  tlie  products  formed  by  the  action 
of  a  diazo  compound  u|ion  a  phenol  is  the  compound  ben- 
zene-azo-phenol,    C'BnB.Nj.l'oHj.OII.   which    is    formed    as 
shown  in  the  equatiim  helow : 

Ceiia.N'j.ci  +  c,iio.oH  =  (',n5.x,.C'6n,.on -I- iici. 

Diazo-beuzene  chloritle.    Pht'Uol.  Bcuzene-azo-plieiiol. 

Among  the  most  important  azo-colors  are  the  following  : 
The  fropwo/ines.  heh'a/if/tin,  acid  tjcllow.  nnisol-red,  beiizo- 
piirpiirin,  etc.  t'hryso'idine  was  discovered  almost  at  the 
same  tiuu'  liy  Caro  and  Witt,  independently,  and  its  com- 
posilioti  and  constitution  were  established  by  Hofmann  in 
1877.  The  first  dyestutTs  fornu'd  by  the  action  of  diazo 
conipouuils  on  phenols  were  introduced  liy  Witt  in  1870  un- 
der the  name  of  " tropa'olincs,"'  and  simultaneously  by 
Poirrier.  of  St.  Denis,  under  the  name  of  "orange."  These 
are  all  known  in  general  as  iicid  azo-colors.  Of  these  an 
immense  number  have  been  patented,  and  a  great  many 
have  come  into  use.  Secoiidari/  azo-colors  are  those  that 
contain  two  azo-groups,  all  of  them  being  derivatives  of  the 
substance  o.\y-azo-azobenzene,  ('oH6.Xj.C6H4.X3.('9ll4.0H, 
which  was  discovered  in  1H7!)  by  Caro  and  Schraube.  "  Bie- 
brieli  scarlet  "  and  the  "  erocei'n  scarlets "  belong  to  this 
class.  The  benzidine  colors  are  also  secondary  azo-colors. 
The  first  of  these  brought  into  the  market  was  "  Congo  red,'" 
which  is  formed  by  treating  the  tetrazo  compound  of  benzi- 
dine with  o-iiaplithylaminesulphonic  acid; 

CJI..X,("1  (',„n,.HS03.XH,  _ 

c',H..x,ri    "^    CoHe.nsOs.XH,  ~ 

Tetrazo-benzidine  o-naphthylaniine- 

chloride.  sulplionic  acid. 

c.n,.x,.c,„ii5.nso3.Nn, 

ci,II,.N,.C,„H5.nS0s.NII,  "*"  " 

"Congo  red." 
Both  acid  and  basic  azo-colors  dye  silk  and  wool  readily, 
but  a  mordant  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  take  upon 


cotton.  The  secondary  azo-colors,  however,  have  a  decided 
affinity  for  cotton.  This  makes  the  benzidine  colors  es- 
pecially valuable,  as  they  can  be  dyed  upon  cotton  directly 
from  a  soap-bath  without  the  use  of  mordants.  Benzo- 
PURPURIN  ((/.  V.)  is  the  most  extensively  used  of  all  the  azo- 
colors.  Those  oxyazo  compounds  wliich  are  insolulile  in 
water  form  unstable  compounds  when  heated  for  some  time 
in  alcoholic  or  aqueoiis  solution  with  potassium  or  sodium 
bisulphite.  As  these  compounds  are  soluble  in  water,  and 
are  decomposed  by  steaming  or  by  alkali,  they  can  easily  be 
deposited  on  the  fiber.  Ira  Remsen. 

Az'of,  Azopli,  or  Azov,  Sea  of  (the  anc.  Pa'lus  Jlreo'tis. 
called  by  tlie  Russians  JJore  Amirskoe) :  a  large  body  of 
water  situated  in  the  southeastern  ])art  of  Europe,  between 
Russia  and  the  Black  Sea,  with  which  it  communicates  by 
the  Strait  of  Yenikale  or  Kertch  (anc.  Cimmerian  Bo.<<porus). 
It  extends  from  the  Crimea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  about 
200  miles,  and  is  in  some  places  100  miles  wide  or  more. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  14,000  sq.  miles.  This  sea,  the 
water  of  which  is  nearly  fresh,  contains  a  great  abundance 
of  fish.     A  canal  connects  it  with  the  (lulf  of  Perekop. 

Azof,  or  .\zov  (anc.  Tan'ais) :  a  small  town  and  fort  of 
Russia  ;  government  of  Ekaterinoslav  ;  near  the  month  of 
the  river  Don,  25  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Taganrog  (see  map  of 
Russia,  ref.  10-E).  It  has  declined  in  population  and  im- 
portance. Its  harbor  is  shallow.  Azof  was  taken  from 
the  Turks  by  Peter  the  Great,  It  was  .settled  by  the  Ca- 
rians,  and  in  ancient  times  had  the  name  Tanais.  After  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Italians  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Venetians,  who  held  it  until,  in  1410,  it  was 
captured  by  the  Tartars.  The  Cliristiaiis  were  put  to  death 
bv  the  captors,  ivom  whom  came  its  present  name.  Pop. 
aixiut  20,000. 

Azores  [Port.  Afo'res.  from  a(or.  a  hawk],  or  Western 
Islands  ;  three  groups  of  islands  situated  in  the  Xorth 
Atlantic,  about  500  miles  W.  of  Portugal,  to  which  they 
belong,  and  between  lat.  36°  55'  and  39°  44'  X.,  and  Ion. 
25°  lO'  and  31"  16'  W.  (see  map  of  the  World,  ref.  4-1).  The 
first  group  consists  of  Elores  and  Corvo.  About  114  miles 
S.  E.  of  this  group  is  the  central  group  of  Terceira,  St. 
George,  Pico,  Payal,  and  Graciosa.  St.  Michael  and  St. 
JIary  form  the  third  group,  which  is  nearly  70  miles  S.  E. 
of  the  central  group.  St.  Michael,  the  largest  of  all,  is  50 
miles  long,  and  varies  in  width  from  5  to  12  miles,  and  has 
an  area  of  340  sq.  miles.  They  are  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  have  fertile  soils,  though  the  surface  is  mostly  moun- 
tainous. The  highest  point  is  the  Peak  of  Pico,  which  has 
an  altitude  of  7,613  feet.  Volcanic  distnrljances  of  a  terrible 
character  have  occurred  at  various  times.  Wliole  towns 
have  disap)ieared  in  opening  chasms,  and  in  1811  an  island 
emerged  suddenly  from  the  deep,  and  later  disappeared. 
The  sugar-cane,  cotfee-plant.  orange,  and  grapevine  tlourish 
here,  but  the  soil  is  not  well  cultivated.  The  chief  arti- 
cles of  export  are  wine,  brandy,  giaiii.  and  oranges.  The 
inhabitants  are  very  ignorant.  The  land  is  held  by  feudal 
tenure,  and  under  such  restrictions  that  the  farmers  never 
think  of  improving  it,  and  simply  gather  the  products 
which  grow  wild.  It  is  owned  in  immciise  entailed  estates. 
The  peojile  are  extremely  fond  of  music.  They  are  not  in- 
temperate in  their  habits,  are  very  clean  in  their  dress,  but 
are  |ironc  to  the  grossest  sujierstition.  The  Azores  have 
no  good  liarliors.  The  Portuguese  took  possession  of  these 
islands  in  144!).     Area,  1,005  .sq.  miles.     Pop.  269,401. 

Az'otized  Bodies  (or  Principles);  substances  which 
contain  nitrogen  (azote),  and  form  jiart  of  the  living  struc- 
ture of  ati  animal  or  plant.  Among  them  are  albumen, 
fibrine,  cascine,  gelatine,  and  kreatine. 

Azo'tns  ;  the  Greek  name  of  Ashdod.  an  ancient  city  and 
stronghold  of  the  Philistines,  in  Palestine,  about  3  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  21  miles  S.  of  Jaffa.  See 
Asnnon. 

Azov.  Sea  of:  See  Azof. 

Azpeitia.  a'ls-pa'ye'e-teea:  Spanish  town  in  province  of 
Gnipuzcoii,  IS  miles  S.  W.  of  San  Sebastian  (see  map  of  Spain, 
ref.  12-G).  In  the  convent  of  Loyola,  a  mile  from  the  vil- 
lage, St.  Ignatius  of  Lovola,  founder  of  the  Jesuits,  was 
born,  1491.  Pilgrims  from  all  quarters  flock  to  the  great 
festival  held   here   in  his  honor  everv   vear  in  July.     Pop.  I 

about  6,000.  "  I 

Az'tecs;  a  name  of  a  Mexican  nation  which  inhabited 
tlie  table-land  of  Anahuae  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  eon- 


AZTKC   AXTKjCITIKS 


AZYMITES 


431 


quest  of  Mexico.  Accordiiis  to  tiailition,  they  came  origi- 
nally I'roiii  Aztlan  to  Mexico,  wliidi  was  inhabiled  by  the 
Toltecs  before  the  migration  of  tlie  Aztecs.  It  is  sujuiosed 
that  the  hitter  foundeil  I  lie  city  of  Mexico  (or  Tenochtitlan) 
about  Vti'i'),  some  say  as  early  as  121(>,  and  became  the  most 
powerful  and  dominaril  peo|ile  of  Mexico  or  Anabuac. 
They  made  consideralile  progress  in  civilization  an<l  the 
useful  arts,  derived  partly  from  the  Toltecs.  They  were  a 
warlike  people,  and  coiujuered  several  neighVjoring  tribes. 
"At  the  begnniiug  of  the  sixteenth  century,"'  says  I'rescott. 
"the  Aztec  dominion  reached  across  the  continent  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacilic."  The  goverrniient  was  an  elective 
monarchy,  and  the  sovereign  was  selected  from  the  brothers 
or  nephews  of  the  preceiling  king,  .so  that  the  choice  was 
always  restricted  to  the  same  family.  As  they  had  never 
learned  the  art  of  aljihabetical  writing,  their  laws  were  ex- 
hibited to  the  public  in  hieroglypliical  paintings  or  picture- 
writing.  Their  religion  was  a  gross  polytheism.  They 
sacrificed  human  victims  to  their  goils  on  a  larger  scale 
than  other  nations — i.  e.  about  20,000  annually.  Astronomy 
was  the  science  which  tbey  cultivated  with  most  success. 
"  We  can  not,"  says  I'rescoii,  "  contemplate  the  astronomical 
science  of  the  Mexicans  without  ustonislnnent."  They  were 
acquainted  with  the  cause  of  eclijjses,  and  they  recognized 
some  of  the  most  im|)ortant  constellations.  They  adjusted 
the  times  of  their  festivals  by  the  movements  of  the  planets, 
and  fixed  the  true  length  of  the  tropical  year  witli  great 
precision.  An  immense  dial,  disinterred  in  IT'.Kt  in  the  great 
square  of  Mexico,  has  supplied  ns  with  interesting  iacts. 
The  calendar  engraveil  on  it  shows  that  they  settled  the 
hours  of  the  day  precisely;  also  the  periods  of  the  solstices 
and  equinoxes,  and  the  transit  of  the  sun  across  the  zenith. 
The  Aztecs  were  diligent  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and  had  ac- 
quired respectable  proficiency  in  agricidlure,  but  they  had 
no  horses,  oxen,  or  other  animals  of  draught.  Their  staple 
productions  were  maize  and  the  agave  or  Mexican  aloe, 
which  supplied  them  with  fooil.  drink,  and  clothing.  They 
were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron,  but  found  a  substitute  in 
bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  t  in,  of  which  they  made  weap- 
ons and  tools.  They  also  cast  golden  and  silver  vases  of 
large  size.  In  mimetic  art  they  were  much  inferior  to  the 
Egyptians.  The  Spanish  coiupierors  of  Mexico  destroyed 
nearly  all  the  maiuiscripts  which  they  fo\ind  in  the  country, 
and  it  is  not  probal)le  that  the  art  of  reading  the  picture- 
writing  will  ever  be  recovered.  "  The  .\ztec  character,"  says 
Prescott.  "was  perfectly  original  ami  uni(|Ui^  It  was  made 
up  of  incongniilies  apparently  irreconcilable.  It  blended 
into  one  the  marked  peculiarities  of  different  nations,  not 
only  of  the  same  phase  of  civilization,  but  as  far  re- 
moved from  each  other  as  the  extremes  of  barliarism  and 
refinement.  It  may  find  a  fitting  jiarallcl  in  their  ow^n  won- 
derful climate,  capable  of  producing  on  a  few  sipiare  leagues 
of  surface  the  boundless  variety  of  vegetable  fiu'ms  which 
Ix'long  to  thi^  frozen  reginus  of  the  north,  the  tcnipcrale  zoiu' 
of  Euroj)e,  and  the  burning  skies  of  Arabia  and  Hindu- 
stan."   bee  Prescott,  ConqiieM  of  Mexico,  vol.  i. 

Revised  by  K.  I).  Hitchcock. 
Aztec   Aiitiqiiitios:  See  Central  American  AxTiyui- 

TIES. 

Aziiav.  aa-zoo-ay' :  a  southern  department  of  Kcuailor ; 
comprisnig  the  plateau  of  Cuenca  and  the  mountains  about 
it.  It  is  fertile  and  rich  in  minerals,  and  largelv  devoted  to 
the  raising  of  cattle.     Area,  11,300  sij.  miles.     Pop.  132,400. 

Azil'iii,  DoMENKo  AiJiiiRTo:  an  Italian  writer  known 
from  his  researches  in  nuiritime  law  :  b.  at  Sassari.  .Aug.  •'!. 
174!) ;  was  a  jmlge  in  (ieiioa.  He  publislied  JJmil  Miirih'me 
de  rEiini/ii'  (Paris.  ISO.)),  and  Dlziiiiinriii  Cnirersalp  ra- 
t/innn/o  ili/ln  yiun'spriidctizit  mercantitf.  D.  at  Cagliari, 
Jan.  23.  1S27. 

Az'iirc  [0.  Fr.  aziir,  from  I'ers.  lazhivurd,  lajiis-lazuli] : 
the  fine  blue  color  of  the  sky  ;  also  tlie  blue  pignu'ut  which  is 
produced   by  melting  a  mixture   of  a  salt  of  cobalt   with 

?nartz-sand  and  potash,  and  is  used  in  coloring  porcelain. 
n  heraldry,  azure  is  one  of  the  colors  employed  in  blazonry, 
and  is  re|>resented  in  engraving  by  horizontal  lines.     It  is 


equivalent  to  the  color  of  sai)phire  among  precious  stones. 
In  painting,  azure  is  a  sky-colored  blue,  called  ultrama- 
rine. 

Aznre-stoiie :  See  Lapis-lazcli. 

.\z'urilie:  a  blue  varietv  of  the  common  red-eve  or  rudd 


Azurine  or  tjlue  roach. 

(Scnrdi'niiitiPrythro'phthahiiiiK).  a  minnow  (}r  chubfonn<l  in 
tlu^  waters  of  England. 

Az'nrite :  a  deep  blue  carbonate  of  copper,  differing 
slightly  in  composition  from  Malachite  {q.  r.),  and  often 
occurring  with  it  as  an  ore  of  copper,  and  occasionally  as 
an  iu-iui!uental  stone;  but  it  is  opaipic.  and  not  hard  enough 
for  jewelry.  Arizona  has  yielded  masses  of  dce]i  violet-l)lue 
azuritc.  lioth  pure  and  mingled  with  green  malachite,  that 
can  be  wrouglit  into  small  articles  of  extreme  l)eanty. 

Georue  F.  Kunz. 

Az'ymites  [from  (Jr.  a^vfiirris.  &Cv/ios.  unleavened  ;  a-,  not 
-t-  fii/iTj,  leaven]  :  the  oiiprobrious  epithet  a]>plied  by  the  Greek 
Church  tiolemics  to  the  Latins  because  the  latter  used  un- 
leavened bread  in  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
while  the  Greek  Church  uses  leavened  breail.  The  Latins  in 
reply  called  the  Greeks  "  Frumentarians."  "  There  is  dist  inet 
evidence  that  mdeavened  bread  was  used  in  the  Eucharist 
by  the  Latins,  and  by  some  Eastern  sects  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries,  and  there  is  probable  evidence  that  it  was 
used  in  the  third.  In  the  orthodox  Eastern  Church  there 
can  be  no  doulit  that  leavened  liread  has  been  used  from  a 
very  early  pci'iod  indeed  ;  if  not  from  the  very  first,  at  any 
rate  from  the  time  when  Judaizing  sects  insisted  on  using 
unleavened  cakes,  like  those  of  the  Passover,  in  the  Lord's 
Supper"  (Smith  anil  Chcethani,  Dicf.  L'lirisf.  Aniii/..  suh 
■■  Elements"  [i.  602]).  The  controversy  upon  the  point  was 
begun  by  the  Greeks,  but  not  until  the  eleventh  century.  It 
was  fairly  opened  by  Michael  Cacndarius,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, 1043-59.  The  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  had 
long  been  on  bad  terms,  but  Caerularius  brought  matters  to 
a  crisis.  The  charge  against  the  Latins  on  account  of  their 
use  of  unleavened  bread  is  not  stated  by  Photins  in  his 
famous  Kiici/rlira/  Letter  (867).  in  which  he  goes  over  the 
points  of  difference  lietweeu  the  two  churches.  This  does 
not  of  course  pi-ove  that  it  had  not  been  made,  but  it  does 
show  that  it  was  not  considered  by  Photius  very  important. 
Caerularius  raised  it  to  prinu'  importance.  The  argument  of 
the  Greek  Church  is  that  our  Lord  in  instituting  the  Eucha- 
rist after  \\\c  Passover-nu'al  used  true,  nourishing  bread  as 
the  sign  of  the  new  dispensation  of  joy  and  gl.'idncss;  that 
of  the  Latin  Church  is  that  the  Eucharist  was  instituted 
during  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  and  therefore  the  only 
bread  that  our  Lord  could  get  for  it  was  unleavened  bread. 
The  Greek  position  is  stated  in  the  Orthodox  Confession  of 
t/ie  Eastern  Clntrch  (Q.  107),  wdiicli  specifies  that  the  bread 
of  the  Eucharist  shall  be  nuide  from  wheat,  fermented  and 
as  far  as  possible  pure.  So  also  in  the  Lotii/er  Catecltism  of 
the  Eastern  Church  (q.  328)  it  is  tiuight  that  the  bread  for 
the  .sacrament  shoulil  be  leavened  pure  w'heaten  bread. 
The  Latins  have  ma<le  the  use  of  such  bread  in  the  sacra- 
nu'nt  a  grievous  sin,  but  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439)  de- 
cided that  as  transubstanliation  took  place  just  the  same 
whether  the  bread  was  leavened  or  unleavened,  the  Greeks 
could  not  lie  anathematized  for  their  practice  in  this  re- 
spect. Sami-el  Macailev  Jackson. 


B 


and  B  for  3,000. 


the  second  letter  of  the  English  alphabet, 
and  of  most  others.  It  is  a  sonant  conso- 
nant of  the  class  known  as  labial  mutes. 
It  is  cognate  with  the  mutes  p  (surd)  and 
/,  and  etymologically  interchangeable  wit  li 
them  and  with  the  liquid  m  and  the  semi- 
vowels «•  and  r.  (See  Alphabet.)  In  an- 
cient Rome  B  sometimes  stood  for  300, 
Tlie  Greek  $  stood  for  2,  and  ,$  for  2,000. 
On  old  French  coins  B  stands  for  Rouen :  on  Prussian,  for 
Breslau.  B  in  cliemistry  is  the  symbol  of  the  element  bo- 
ron. As  an  ablireviation,  B.,  or  b.,  signifies  "born,"  and 
sometimes  ""  book." 

B:  in  music,  the  seventh  letter  in  the  natural  diatonic 
scale  of  either  C  major  or  minor.  In  this  melodic  connec- 
tion it  forms  the  "leading  note"  of  the  C  scale,  calling  for 
the  octave  C  to  follow  it.  In  the  German  language  £  cor- 
responds to  our  B  flat,  tlie  letter  II  being  used  for  this,  our 
B  natural.  £.  is  sometimes  written  as  an  abbreviation  for 
the  word  Basso.  D.  B. 

B.ia'der,  Fraxz  Xaver,  von  :  b,  at  J[unich,  JIar.  27. 1765 ; 
studied  medicine  at  Ingolstadt  and  Vienna  1781-86;  then 
natural  science,  esiieciallv  mineralogv.  at  Freiberg,  under 
Werner.  1788-92:.  visited 'England  1792-96,  and  held  vari- 
ous positions  in  the  Bavarian  mining  department  from  1797 
to  1820.  In  this  period  he  wrote  Vom  Warmesfof  ^yienna. 
1786);  Versaeh  einer  TUeorie  der  Spreiigarbeit  {Freiberg. 
1803):  and  Auhitutig  zum  Gehrauehe  der  srliwrfiflsnureJi 
Soda  oder  des  Ghiubrrsalzi'ti  zur  Glaserzeiigung  (1815),  for 
which  he  received  a  prize  of  12,000  florins  from  the  Austrum 
Government.  Meanwhile  he  cultivated  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy and  theology  with  great  energy,  became  acquainted  with 
all  the  leading  men  of  the  time  and  with  their  ideas,  and 
finally  brought  himself  to  rest  in  the  mysticism  of  Jakob 
Bohme.  In  1826  he  was  made  Professor  of  Philosophy  and 
Speculative  Theology  at  the  University  of  Munich,  and  the 
deep  enthusiasm  and  ingenious  argumentation  of  his  lectures 
and  writings  attracted  great  attention,  though  his  ideas  were 
mystical  and  the  form  in  which  he  represented  them  aphor- 
istical.  His  views  tended  to  a  reconstruction  of  the  whole 
civilization  on  the  basis  of  religion  and  of  the  Church,  but 
in  this  new  CImrch  there  should  be  no  pope.  In  1814  he 
presented  a  memorial  to  the  sovereigns  of  Russia.  Prussia, 
and  Austria,  in  which  he  urged  the  necessity  of  bringing 
politics  once  more  into  close  connection  with  religion,  but 
in  1837,  during  the  troubles  at  Cologne,  he  spoke  with  much 
sharpness  against  the  pope.  lie  died,  however,  a  good  Ro-* 
man  Catholic,  ^lay  33.  1.841.  at  Munich.  Ills  philosophical 
writings  have  lieen  publislied  in  a  collec-ted  edition  in  16 
volumes  by  Franz  Hoffmann  (Leipzig.  185C>-60),  who  also  has 
given  a  general  rejiri'senlation  of  iiis  standpoint  (Leipzig, 
1857).    Cf.  Classen,  on  Baader,  Stuttgart,  1886-87,  2  vols. 

Ba'al,  or  Bel  [Heb.,  lord]:  an  ancient  Xorth  Semitic 
title  of  deity.  Originally  the  baal  seems  to  have  been  re- 
garded as  the  owner  and  fructifier  of  the  soil,  and  the  name 
was  given  to  any  local  deity.  Every  city  and  locality  in 
Phoenicia  had  its  bnal  (IJaal  of  Tyre,  etc),  and  the  same 
tiling  was  probably  true  of  Caanan  (Baal-peor,  etc..  and  see 
Judges  vi.2t):  ix.  4) ;  lience  the  plural  in  O.  T..  "  the  baalim." 
Jehovah  also  had  the  title  bcuil  down  to  the  time  of  the 
prophet  Hosea  (c.  750  B.C.);  see  Hos.  ii..  and  the  proper 
names  (Ishbaal.  etc.)  com|iounded  with  this  title.  The  wor- 
ship of  the  Sidonian  Baal  was  introduced  into  Israel  by 
Jezebel  (1  Kings  xvi.  31),  bvit  the  Canaanite  Baals  were  there 
worshiped  earlier.  The  title  was  in  Phtmicia  applied  also 
to  a  celestial  deity  (Baal-sliemem,  "  the  Baal  of  the  sky"). 
In  the  more  developed  Babylonian  cultus  the  name  (pro- 
nounced lifl.  Latinized  form  Beliis)  was  individualized  and 
connecteil  with  the  sun.  In  Carthage  it  appears  in  Hanni- 
bal, Ha-sdrubal,  etc.  See  \V.  K.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Sem- 
itex :  Say<-e,  Hibberl  Lectures.  C.  H.  Toy. 

Baal'boc  Balbee,  or  BaaH)ok  [final  bek  derived,  per- 
haps, from  Arabic  bakkii.  be  thronged]:  an  ancient  and 
magnltiecnt  city  of  Syria  (called  by  the  Greeks  Ilcliop'olis. 
i.  e.  city  of  the  sun);  situated  in  a  valley  or  plain  near  the 


foot  of  Anti-Libanus,  about  42  miles  X.  W.  of  Damascus; 
lat,  34'  r  30'  X.,  Ion.  36'  11'  E.,  and  about  3.800  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  origin  and  early  history  are  not 
known.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  populous  and  im- 
portant cities  of  Syria,  and  contained  many  palaces  and 
monuments.  Antoninus  Pius  built  here  a  grand  temple, 
which  subsequently  became  a  Christian  church.  In  636, 
Baalbec  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  in 
748  was  sacked  by  tlie  Caliph  of  Damascus.  The  site  is  now 
occupied  by  a  modern  village  of  2.000  inhaliitants  and  ex- 
tensive ruins  of  ancient  temples,  among  which  was  the  great 
temple  of  the  sun.  This  was  324  feet  long,  and  had  a  peri- 
style of  fifty-four  Corinthian  columns,  about  7  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  89  feet  high,  including  capital  and  jjedestal.  Six 
of  these  columns  are  now  standing.  Some  of  the  stones 
used  in  the  walls  or  substructions  of  this  temple  are  64  feet 
long  and  13  feet  thick.  The  chief  material  of  these  temples 
was  limestone  or  marble  and  granite.  See  Wood  and  Daw- 
kins,  ii?M)'«.«  of  Baalbec  (1757);  Cassas,  Voyajje  Pittoresque 
de  la  Syrie  (1799);  Yolney,  Voyage  en  Si/ne;  Robinson's 
Later  Biblical  Researches  (1852,  pp.  505-527);  Badeker's 
Palestine,  s.  v. 

Ba'hadagli :  a  town  of  Bulgaria;  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Danube.  93  miles  X.  E.  of  Silistria  (see  inap  of  Turkey,  ref. 
3-E).  It  has  considerable  commerce  with  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea.  and  has  a  Tartar  high  school.  It  was  stormed 
bv  the  Russians  in  1771  and  1828.  and  was  ineffectually  be- 
sieged in  1854.     Poll,  about  10,000. 

Babahoy'o  :  a  town  of  Ecuador,  in  the  province  of  Guay- 
aquil ;  20  niiles  X.  E.  of  Guayaquil,  on  the  Cabacol.  The 
goods  sent  from  Guayaquil  into  the  interior  go  to  this  place, 
and  are  thence  sent  farther  by  mules.  In  consequence, 
there  are  large  warehouses  here.  But  Babahoyo  is,  in  spite 
of  this  great  trade,  only  a  small,  poorly  built  town. 

Bab'bage.  Cuarles.  F.  R.  S.  (1816) :  English  mathemati- 
cian :  b.  near  Teignniouth.  Devonshire,  Dec.  26. 1792  ;  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1814.  He  early 
showed  extraoritinary  genius  for  mathematics,  and  mechan- 
ical speculation  and  invention.  His  principal  work  is  On 
the  Ecoiwmi/  of  Machinery  ayid  Manufactures  (London, 
1832),  which  was  translated  into  several  languages.  Among 
his  other  works  is  the  Ninth  Bridgeicater  Treatise  (ISS7). 
But  the  public  knows  him  best  as  the  inventor  of  a  calcu- 
lating machine,  which  was  never  comjileted.  although  about 
£17.000  of  the  lailjlic  money,  and  i'6.000  of  his  own,  was 
expended  on  it.  He  then  spent  his  life  upon  the  ecpially 
abortive  analytical  engine.  His  fellow-citizens  knew  him 
as  the  remorseless  foe  of  organ-grinders.  I),  in  London. 
Oct.  20.  1871. 

Bab'bltt.  Isaac:  b.  at  Taunton,  Mass..  July  20,  1799. 
He  was  a  goldsmith,  and  made  at  his  native  town  the  tirst 
britannia  ware  jiroduced  in  the  U.  S.  In  1841  he  received 
a  gold  medal  for  his  valuable  invention  of  the  alloy  which 
bears  his  name.  Congress  also  gave  him  !S20.0no.  He  after- 
ward engaged  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  this  alloy, 
and  also  of  soap.  D.  insane  at  the  McLean  Asylum,  Somer- 
ville.  Mass..  :\Iay  26,  1862, 

Babbitt  Mct'al  :  a  soft  alloy  invented  by  Mr,  Isaac 
Babbitt,  of  Bdst nil,  and  used  in  lining  boxes  for  axles  and 
gudgeons,  in  order  to  diminish  the  friction  and  abrasion. 
These  boxes  are  extensively  used  in  the  machinery  of  steam- 
boats and  locomotives.  The  alloy  is  (irepared  thus:  to  4 
lb.  of  melled  copper  add  gra<lually  13  lb.  of  the  best  Banca 
tin.  then  8  Hi.  of  antimony,  and  finally  12  lb.  more  of  tin. 

Bab'oock.  Orvili.e  E.  :  soldier:  b.  in  Franklin.  Berk- 
shire CO.,  Vt.,  Dec.  25.  1835;  graduated  a1  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  July  6.  1861.  and  entered  the  army  as  second  lii-u- 
tenaut  of  engineers;  promoted  to  be  first  lieutenant  Xov.. 
1861;  captain  1863,  major  1867,  lieutenant-colonel  1884; 
upon  graduating  he  was  assigned  to  active  duty  as  assistant 
engineer  on  the  defenses  of  "Washington,  and  subsecjucntly 
on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Banks  on  the  Upper  Pot(miac.  In  the 
Virginia  peninsular  campaign  of  1863  he  served  willi  the 
engineer  battalion  at  Yorktown  and  subsequent  operati.in-^ 

(433) 


BABCOCK 


BABOON 


433 


I  if  the  campaign ;  in  Jan.,  1863,  lie  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  volunteers,  and  served  as  assistant  inspector-sen- 
cral  of  the  Sixl  h  Army  Corps ;  as  chief  engineer  and  assistant 
inspector-general  of  the  Ninth  Corps;  as  chief  engineer  de- 
partment of  the  Ohio;  and  in  1864  he  became  aide-de-camp 
to  (yen.  tirant,  with  whom  he  served  in  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness  and  in  subsequent  operations,  ternunating  with 
the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  armies  in  ^'irginia  and 
Xortli  Carolina;  in  July,  1866.  he  was  appointe<l  colonel 
and  A.  1).  C.,  and  continued  to  serve  as  such  lo  Gen.  Grant 
until  the  latter  was  inaugurated  President,  when  he  was 
assigned  to  duty  with  the  President,  as  his  secretary.  In 
ISTl,  in  addition  to  his  other  duties,  he  was  placed  in  charge 
of  public  buildings  and  grounds  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
and  also  made  engineer  in  charge  of  the  \^'ashington  aque- 
clu<-l.  which  duties  he  ])prforracd  till  1877;  also  president  of 
lioard  of  directors  of  Columbia  Hospital  for  Women  and 
Ijving-iu  Asvluni.  Drowned  in  Mosquito  IiUel,  Phi.,  June 
•,>.'1884. 

IJilbcock.  SxEPnEX  MouLTO.v,  M.  A..  Ph.D.:  agricultural 
chemist:  b.  at  Kabcock  Hill.  Oai-ida  co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  22.  lS4:i; 
educated  at  Tufts  College,  Cornell  L'niversity,  and  at  (Jot- 
tingen.  Germany.  Dr.  Babcock  has  given  special  attention 
to  the  chemistry  of  milk  and  its  products,  is  the  inventor  of 
the  Balicock  milk-tester,  now  much  used  by  farmers  for  the 
determination  of  fat  in  milk,  and  is  at  present  (1 8i);{)  Pro- 
fessor of  Agricultural  Chemi.stry  in  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, having  previously  been  conncete<l  with  the  chemical 
department  of  Cornell  University.  lie  was  also  chemist  to 
the  Xew  York  State  Espcriment  Station,  lie  is  author  of 
many  articles  upon  the  composition  of  milk  and  butter,  and 
is  joint  author  with  Dr.  G.  V.  Caldwell  of  *1  Manual  uf 
(^uulUadve  Chemical  Analysis.  L.  M.  Hailev. 

Ha'bel.  or  Ba'bil  [Ileb.  bdhd,  Babylon:  perhaps  from 
hilhi/i,  gate  of  the  gods]:  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  city  com- 
uiiinly  called  Babylon,  which  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  word 
liabei :  it  was  also  the  name  of  the  famous  tower  which  the 
descendants  of  Xoali  began  to  build  soon  after  the  Deluge, 
(in  the  plain  of  Shinar,  but  in  conse(pieuee  of  the  confusion 
of  tongues  tliey  could  not  finish  it.  The  jirojeetors  of  the 
tower  said,  "Go  to,  now;  let  us  Iniild  us  a  city,  and  a  tower 
whose  top  may  reach  unto  heaven,  and  let  its  make  us  a  name, 
lest  we  be  scattered  abroad  upon  the  face  of  the  whole  earth." 
(Genesis  xi.)  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  work  was  ever 
raised  above  the  foundations,  but  several  extravagant  re- 
pi>rts  or  traditions  of  its  immense  height  have  obtained 
currency.  (See  The  Chaldean  Account  of  (fetieais,  by 
(ieorge  Smith,  revised  ed.  by  Sayce,  1880.)  Sir  Henry  Haw- 
linson  identifies  it  with  the  ruin  now  called  .Vninin.  within 
the  citv  of  liiiliylon  itself.  But  it  is  generally  ideutitiecl 
with  Hirs  Ximrud  in  Uorsippa,  a  suburb  of  Babylon.  The 
ruin  rises  l.")4  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain.  Some  per- 
sons have  confounded  the  tower  of  Babel  with  the  temple  of 
Belus. 

Bllb-el-Man'deb  [Aral).,  gat  e  of  mourning] :  a  strait  which 
connects  the  Bed  Sea  with  the  Gidf  of  Aden  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  On  the  Arabian  side  of  the  strait  is  a  cape  called 
Bab-el-Maiideb.  The  strait  is  about  20  miles  wide,  and  in- 
closes the  rocky  islaiul  of  Perim,  on  which  is  a  British  fort. 
The  eastern  channel  is  most  frecpiented.  It  is  4  miles  wide 
and  7  lo  14  fathoms  deep.  The  name  was  given  lo  the  strait 
because  the  navigation  of  the  sea  to  which  it  is  the  entrance, 
owing  to  numerous  small  rocky  islets,  wa.s,  before  the  intro- 
duction of  sti'aiueis,  extremely  dangerous. 

llii'ber.  Itabnr.  or  Itnbour.  Mohammed  (surnnmed  Za- 
iiei:k-eo-|)ki:n.  i.e.  protector  of  religion) :  a  celebrated  Em|)er- 
nrof  India,  and  the  lii-st  of  the  Great  Moguls ;  b.  Feb.  14, 14s:l 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane  (Timur-Leng).  In  14114 
he  sncccedeil  his  father,  who  was  King  of  Ferghana.  The 
first  part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  wars  with  neighbor- 
ing powers,  and  he  experienced  great  vicissitudes  of  fiu'tune. 
He  perbirmcd  remarkable  exploits  in  war,  and  extended  his 
dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Kandahar,  Cabul,  etc.  He 
niaile  an  incursion  into  the  Punjab  in  1.50.5,  and  a  second 
lime  in  1.510.  Having  again  crossed  the  Indus  in  1.524,  he 
defeated  Ibrahim,  King  of  Delhi,  on  the  plain  of  Paniput  in 
1526,  and  became  masterof  India.  He  was  an  able  ruh'r.  and 
had  a  genius  for  poetry  and  music.  He  died  Dee.  26.  1.5:)0, 
and  was  succi'e(le<l  l>y  his  son  Humayoou.  See  his  antolii- 
ograjihy  (London,  1826),  abridged  in  B.  M.  Caldecott's  Life, 
of  Jiuber.  Emperor  of  llindostan  (London,  1844) ;  cf .  Wheeler, 
'Short  History  of  Jiidia  (1880). 


Babeiif.  baabiif,  Prax^ois  Noel:  a  French  conspirator 
and  .Socialist,  who  assumed  the  name  of  C'aius  Gracchus; 
b.  at  Saint-yuentin  in  1760.  He  fimnded  in  Paris,  in  1 794, 
The  Trihiine  of  the  I'enple,a  journal  in  which  he  advocated 
equalitv  and  community  of  ]iroperty.  His  di.sciples  were 
called  iJabouvistes,  and  his  system  Babouvisnie.  He  formed 
a  conspiracy  against  the  Directory,  was  arrested  and  tried  in 
Paris,  and,  the  sentence  of  death  being  pronounced  upon  him, 
he  stabbed  himself  with  a  ilagger,  but  not  fatally,  and  was 
guillotined  the  next  day.  May  28,  1797. 

Babi:  the  Malay  word  for  "hog,"  is  the  name  of  several 
islands  in  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

Bab'iiigtoii,  AxToxv  :  Knglish  Catholic  gentleman;  b. 
at  Dethick.  Oct..  1.5til  ;  entered  into  a  consijiracy  to  free 
Jlaiy  .Stuart  and  murder  tjuceii  Elizabeth.  The  plot  being 
discovered,  he  was  executed  by  hanging  and  quartering  in 
London,  Sept.  20,  1586,  with  a  number  of  his  coin]mnions. 
(^ueen  Mary  hei'self  was  executed  largely  on  the  evidence  of 
a  letter  she  was  said  to  have  written  to  Babington.  approv- 
ing of  the  plot  to  murder  I-Ilizabeth,  although  she  strenu- 
ously denied  having  any  knowleilge  of  it. 

Babington,  Cihrcuii.l:  classical  philologian ;  b.  in 
Leicestersliire,  Euglaiid.  in  1821;  graduated  at  St.  John's 
College.  Cauibriilge:  held  the  chapelry  of  Ilorningsea,  Cam- 
bridgeshire. 1S4'S-61 ;  was  Disney  professor  of  arclia'ology 
1865-80;  became  rector  of  Cockiield  in  1866;  edited  from 
MSS.  discover(!(l,  1847  and  1856,  orations  of  Hypcrides ; 
wrote  largely  on  botany,  ornithology,  archaeology,  and  nu- 
mismatics for  various  works  and  Transactions,  a.wA  was  a 
contributor  to  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities. 
D.  .Ian.  13,  1889. 

Habingtonitp:  a  silicate  of  iron  and  calcium. 

Babiriissa:  See  Baisyhoussa. 

Bab'isls  [Pers.  hiilil.  babisin,  deriv.  of  huh.  gate,  the  name 
assumed  by  the  founder,  Ali  Jlohammed  ibn  Kedha]  :  a  Mo- 
hammedan sect  which  originated  in  Persia  in  the  second  quar- 
ter of  the  present  century,  and  in  a  sliort  time  attained  to  a 
widespread  cult.  Its  political  agitation  led  the  present  shah 
to  oppose  it.  The  Babists  defended  t  lieuiselves,  and  civil  war 
ensui'd.  The  Bab  was  shot  at  Tabriz.  1850.  His  successor  was 
Yahya  Hazrat-i-Ezel.  In  1852.  in  consecpience  of  a  Babist  at- 
tempt oil  t  he  sluiirs  life,  the  sect  was  suppressed.  Many  were 
])ut  to  death,  many  more  were  forced  to  recant,  but  the  sect 
still  lives;  indeed.it  is  said  that  its  adherents  at  present 
amount  to  several  millions.  In  1867  a  split  occurred,  headed 
by  Bella  (Iluseyn  Ali),  who  claims  to  be  inspired.  The  Bab- 
ists profess  to  be  reforuiers,  assert  the  absolute  unity  of  God, 
and  claim  that  the  Hab  is  as  much  superior  to  Mohammed 
as  tin'  hitler  is  to  Christ.  They  cousider  the  Bab  to  be  an 
incarnation  of  God.  Their  religious  ideas  are  a  mixture  of 
various  elements — mysticism,  gnosticism,  and  fanaticism — 
well-nigh  impossible" of  definition.  Their  ju-incipal  social 
reforms  are  in  the  way  of  elevating  the  position  of  women 
1)V  rendering  divorce  less  easy  and  remarriage  of  the  divorced 
women  allowable.  They  also  forbid  Irallic  in  slaves,  and 
smoking.  See  E.  G.  Bi-owne,  Tlie  Babis  of  Persia,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  new  series,  vol.  xxi. 
(.luly  and  Oct..  18H9);  cf.  his  translation  Ttte  Episode  of  the 
IUib(\im\'\in\  and  New  York.  1892) ;  also  Clement  Iluart,  La 
Religion  de  Bab  (Paris,  1889). 

Samuel  JIacauucv  Jacksox. 

Bnb'lab  :  the  fruit  of  several  species  of  acacia.  II  contains 
tannic  acid  and  a  red  coloiiiig-matter.  It  is  used  in  dyeing 
and  ealicn-printing  for  fawn  colors. 

Ba'boo  [Bengali  aii<l  WmW,  babri'\:  a  Hindu  title  e(piiv- 
alent  to  the  English  "Mr.,"  usually  given  to  gentlemen 
who  are  educated  and  wealthy.  The  Baboos  are  noted  for 
gencrositv  and  public  spirit,  and  are  liberal  in  religion. 
Many  of  them  are  bankers  and  merchants. 

Baboon' [from  Old  Fr.  habuin.  haboin,  babion  ;  of  un- 
known origin] :  one  of  a  grou|)  of  monkeys  belonging  to  the 
fainilv  Hiiniida',  distinguished  by  long  truncated  muzzles 
and  cheek-pouches.  The  face  resembles  that  of  a  dog,  and 
the  ridges  over  the  eyes  are  very  distinct.  Baboons  have 
large  callosities  on  the  but  locks,  and  a  repulsive  physiognomy. 
They  walk  or  run  easily  on  the  ground,  and  climb  trees  with 
agility.  They  are  exceedingly  strong,  cunning,  and  mis- 
ciiievous.  Troops  of  these  animals  scimetiuics  enter  a  plan- 
tation for  plunder,  and  di.'slrov  much  besides  what  they  eat 
and  carry  away  in  their  cheeli-pouches.  They  are  chiefly 
found  on"  the  continent  of  Africa,  and  feed  mostly  on  fruits 


i34 


BABRirS 


BABYLON 


and  vegetables.  The  group  is  divisible  into  two  genera — the 
baboons  proper  (Ci/nocephrilns),  which  have  long  tails,  and 
the  mandrills  (Munnun),  whieli  have  very  short  tails.  As 
examples  ut'  baboons  of  the  first  genus  may  be  mentioned 


The  baboon  mother  and  her  infant. 

the  ehaoma.  or  pig-faced  baboon  (Cynocephalus  porcarius), 
a  native  of  South  Africa,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  baboons, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  mastiff ;  and  the  dog-faced  baboon 
(Cynocepkaliin  hamnilrydii),  which  is  a  native  of  Arabia  and 
Abyssinia.  The  latter  species  is  often  sculptured  on  the  an- 
cient monuments  of  Egypt,  and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  "Thotli"  liaboon  to  which  divine  honors  were  paid.  It 
was  frequently  embalmed,  and  the  mummies  are  still  found. 
The  mandrill,  or  rili-noscMl  liaboon  (C.  mormon),  a  native  of 
Guinea,  is  the  largest,  ugliest,  and  fiercest  of  the  whole  group. 
Its  muzzle  is  marked  with  blue  and  scarlet  ribs.  Numerous 
other  species  are  known,  the  most  familiar  being  Cynoceph- 
alus babiiin  of  Northeastern  Africa. 

IJevised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Ba'briiis  (in  Gr.  Bd$pios):  a  famous  Greek  fabulist;  a 
Syrian  by  liirtli:  of  uncertain  period.  The  estimates  are  no 
less  tlian  five  liunilred  years  apart :  but  it  is  safer  to  put 
him  in  tlie  early  centuries  a.  d.  Babrius  drew  his  material 
mainly  from  tlie  old  stock  of  fables,  and  liis  great  charm 
lies  in  his  careful  handling  of  the  choliambic  meter  in  which 
his  fables  are  composed  and  in  the  popular  character  of  his 
style.  Tlie  poems  of  lialirius  lay  liid(h,>n  for  ages  under  a 
prose  paraplirase.  The  iioetic  form  was  detected  by  Tyr- 
whitt  in  177(5;  12']  cjf  the  poems  were  discovered  at  Mt. 
Athos  by  Minoi'des  JMinas  in  184:3,  and  first  edited  by  Bois- 
sonade  in  1844.  A  valuable  edition,  with  notes  by  W.  G. 
Rutherford  (fjondon,  1883).  There  is  an  English  translation 
by  .lames  Davics  (London,  1860).        B.  L.  Gildersleevb. 

Babiir.  .A1oiia>i.med:  See  Barer. 

I$abiiynii'.  or  Five  Islniuls:  the  northern  end  of  the 
Philippine  Archipelago,  forming  a  kind  of  circular  chain 
fronting  the  norl  h  coast  of  Luzon,  consisting  of  Fiiga,  Dalu- 
piri,  C'alavan.  liabiiyan,  CTaro,  and  Caniiguin.  They  are  vol- 
canic, and  turnish  a  supply  of  sulphur.  Babuyan  Glaro  (i.  e. 
bright  liabuyan)  has  been  all  but  abandoned  on  account  of 
volcanic  eruptions.  They  are  under  S]ianish  rule,  forming 
the  department  of  Cayan.  Area  of  the  group,  175  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  alioul  7,000. 

Baby,  Louis  Francois  George:  Canadian  jurist;  b.  in 
Montreal,  .Vug.  2B,  18;S3;  educated  at  St.  Sulpice  College, 
Montreal,  and  at  the  College  of  Joliette ;  adnutled  to  the 
bar  of  Lower  Canada  in  18.'i7;  represented  Joliette  in  the 
Dominion  Parliament  1872-80;  became  Minister  of  Inland 
Kevenue  Oct.  20,  1878;  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  the 


Province  of  Quebec  1880,  and  a  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Queen's  Bench  April,  1881.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  His- 
torical Society  of  Montreal :  has  been  several  times  mayor 
of  Joliette;  and  was  appointed  an  advocate  of  the  papal 
see  in  1888.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great. 

Neil  Macdonalu. 

Bab'ylas.  Saint  :  Bishop  of  Antioch  from  2::i7  to  250  a.  n., 
when  he  suffered  martyrdom.  He  is  noted  for  liis  holy  cour- 
age in  com|ielling  the  Emperor  Philip  to  undergo  jniblic 
penance  at  Antiocli  for  his  part  in  the  murder  of  his  prede- 
cessor, the  Emperor  Gordianus.  The  body  of  the  saint  was 
buried  first  in  Antioch  ;  transferred  in  ;ii51  to  Daphne,  a 
sniiurb,  by  Gallns  Ca'sar,  who  built  a  church  over  his  relies, 
with  the  object  of  cheeking  the  licentiousness  for  which  the 
groves  of  Dajihne  were  notorious.  There  was  a  temple  of 
Apollo  hard  by,  but  the  oracle  of  the  heathen  god  w.as  si- 
lenced liy  the  relics  of  the  Christian  saint.  In  ;J62  the  pagan 
Emperor  Julian  visited  Antioch.  He  learned  of  the  troubles 
of  Apollo  from  the  god  himself,  and  therefore  ordered  the 
relics  to  be  removed,  which  was  done  ann'd  a  great  outburst 
of  (.'hristian  zeal.  They  were  transferred  to  a  church  in 
Antioch.  But  that  very  night  the  temple  of  Apollo  was 
struck  by  lightning,  the  roof  was  burnt,  and  the  famous  im- 
age of  Apollo  liimself  destroyed.  Julian,  in  rage,  punished 
the  ])agan  priests,  and  shut  up  the  great  Christian  church 
of  Antioch.  Shoi'tly  after  the  relics  were  removeil  to  tlie 
church  built  to  receive  them  on  the  other  side  of  the  I  )rontes. 
See  the  Ilomity  on  S.  Babylas  by  Chrysostom.  delivered  in 
:387.  (Eng.  trans,  in  Nieene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  New 
York,  Christian  Literature  Company,  vol.  ix.,  141^3.)  Dur- 
ing the  crusades  the  relics  were  taken  to  Cremona.  Italy. 
His  day  in  the  Latin  Church  is  Jan.  24  :  in  the  Greek  Church 
Sept.  4.     See  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  sub  Jan.  24. 

Samuel'  Macauley  Jackson. 

Bab'ylon :  an  ancient  powerful  city  situated  on  the  Eu- 
phrates river,  about  60  miles  south  of  the  present  Bagdad. 
It  was  for  many  centuries  the  most  important  cent  ei'  of  civil- 
ization in  Western  Asia.  The  native  Semitii'  form  of  the 
name  Buhilii,  i.  e.  gate  of  God,  is  the  translation  of  an  older 
non-Semitic  mane.  Ka-dingir,  Ka  meaning  gate  jind  ilinijir 
God.  There  were  various  other  names,  one  of  wliich.  Tintir, 
means  grove  of  life.  Such  names  arise  from  the  .sacred 
character  of  the  city  as  the  home  of  the  gods.  Kegarding 
the  earliest  history  of  the  city  W'e  are  not  informed.  It  is 
likely  that  many  other  cities  in  the  valley  are  older,  and  it 
seems  that  they  attained  to  importance  before  Babylon.  It 
was  about  2;i00  B.  c.  that  Babylon  became  the  chief  city, 
through  the  successful  wars  waged  by  its  king,  liammurabi, 
against  his  neighbors.  The  political  supremacy  thus  at- 
tained by  Babylon  resulted  also  in  religious  supremacy,  and 
Marduk.  the  god  of  the  city,  became  the  national  god.  After 
Ilammuralii's  time  we  are  instructed  regarding  the  succes- 
sive dynasties  nding  at  B;ibylon.  but  of  many  of  the  kings 
we  have  little  more  than  the  names  and  the  length  of  the 
reigns.  In  the  sixteenth  century  B.  c.  fall  the  wars  with  As- 
syria and  the  corresjiondence  with  Egypt,  already  mentioned 
in  the  article  on  Assyrian  Exploration.  Several  of  these 
letters  were  from  Burnaburiash,  King  of  Babylon,  about  1550 
B.C.  After  this  time  Babylonian  politieid  history  is  largely 
involved  in  that  of  Assyria,  and  much  of  w  hat  we  know  on 
the  subject  comes  from  Assyrian  soui-ces.  The  state  ar- 
chives of  P>abyloii  have  not  yet  been  found,  and  though  we 
have  numerous  records  from  the  later  kings,  these  are  mainly 
devoted  to  architecture  and  religion. 

The  early  records  of  tlie  city  have  doul>tless  perished  in 
war.  Wlieii  Sennacherib,  about  600  B.  c,  Siicked  and  <lemol- 
ished  it.  he  stales  that  he  cast  even  the  debris  into  canals 
and  pits,  and  made  the  very  site  unrecognizable.  There  is 
likewise  a  tradition  that  Nabonassar,  King  of  Haliylon.  747- 
7;S:3  B.C.,  destroyed  all  the  records  he  could  find  of  former 
kings,  in  order  that  subsei|Uent  history  might  ilale  from  his 
reign,  but  such  an  act  is  highly  improbable. 

The  Babylonians  were  much  less  given  to  wars  of  con- 
quest than  their  northern  neighbors.  During  the  time  of 
the  Assyrian  foreign  wars  Babylon  was  often  ■•subject  to 
Assyria.'  The  brutiil  jiolicy  of  .Sennacherib,  involving  the 
city  in  the  catastrophe  just  mentioned,  was  reversed  by  his 
son,  Ksarhaddon,  who  early  in  his  reign  rebuilt  liabylon. 
During  the  reign  of  Asshufbanipal  at  Nineveh,  a  brother  of 
tiiis  monarch  w'ns  for  twenty  years  on  the  Babylonian 
throne,  668-()48.  after  which  the  city  was  again  made  niore 
directly  suliject  to  Assyria.     \u  the  declining  years  of  Nine- 


BABYLON 


BABYLONIA 


435 


vch,  Bahylon  was  rej;ainin<;  something  of  her  former  sreat- 
noss.  Niibopolassar, 6"-J4-604, liegan  tliose  great  restorations 
and  new  l>uililiiif,'s  forwhieli  llie  eity  became  famous.  Willi 
the  fall  of  Nineveli,  al)out  (ilMi,  Bal>ylon  again  aecjuireil  po- 
litical significance.  Naliopolassar's  great  son  Nehuehad- 
rczzar,  tiO-t-otja.  was  botli  warrior  and  architect.  His  in- 
scriptions have  been  found  in  large  numbers,  but.  wliili-  he 
applies  to  him.sdf  military  titles,  we  have  not  yet  the  nativi^ 
records  of  his  wars.  From  the  biblical  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles,  and  from  the  contemporary  [irophels  Jeremiaii 
and  Kzekiel,  we  have  accounts  of  his  Syrian  wars,  resulting 
in  a  lapl  urc  of  Jerusalem  in  ~>'.>7  n.  v..  and  of  a  second  ca|}- 
tnre  and  demolition  in  oHO.  both  of  which  captures  were  at- 
tended with  deportation  of  Hebrews  to  Baliylon.  The  writ- 
ings of  Ni'l>ucliailrezzar  give  uinuerous  details  regarding  his 
buildings,  I'spcciidly  of  the  |ialace  at  Babylon,  and  of  tlie 
temple  of  iMarduU  in  that  city,  and  of  the  temple  of  N'aliu 
in  liorsippa.  The  succeeding  native  kings  are  (jf  little  cou- 
seipience  till  we  come  to  Nabonidu.s,  ,15.5-538  B.C.  This 
monarch  likewise  was  a  great  buililer  and  antifjuarian.  but 
not  a  warrior.  I''or  some  reason  he  became  distasteful  to 
liis  sulijects.  His  son  Bolshazzar.  tliotigh  not  king,  was 
active  in  public  alTairs,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  defending 
Babylon  against  I  lie  invasions  of  the  Persians.  But  in  5:!S 
B.C.  the  city  fi'll  into  the  hands  of  Cyrus,  and  thus  lost  for- 
ever its  independence.  Its  subseipn-nt  political  history  is 
Pi'rsian  and  (ireek,  and  our  infornuilion  regarding  it  comes 
fi-om  foreign  sources,  Cyrus  aiul  his  successors  resided  at 
Babylon  during  a  part  of  the  year,  and  Hie  city  was  one  of 
the  (■apitiils  of  the  Persian  empire.  Both  Persian  and  Greek 
kings  continueil  to  care  for  its  temples,  and  the  old  culture 
lived  on  .'is  before.  But  the  loss  of  indepeudeuce,  the  Jires- 
ence  of  foreign  rulers,  the  rise  of  other  cities  in  the  vicinity, 
buih  in  part  from  the  materials  removed  from  Babylon,  led 
to  the  gra<lual  decay  of  the  c-ity  until  it  became  a  place  of 
utter  desolation.  In  the  time  of  Nebuchadrezzar  the  city 
was  surrounded  liy  a  double  wall  and  moats,  Herodotus 
and  other  (ireek  and  Homan  writers  give  accounts  of  its 
great  extent  and  magnificence,  its  principal  temple  and  its 
hanging  gardens  being  two  of  tlu^  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  See  C,  J.  Kich's  Miiiinir  on  flic  Ruins  of  Buhi/Um 
(London,  ISIS);  Sir  K.  K.  I'orterV  Tniir/.<<  {2  vols.,  1W21- 
22):  Friedrich  Delitzsch's  U'o /(/f/ (/«.s /Vrarff'cs  .^  (Leipzig, 
1881);  (jeorge  Kawlinson's  Jlir()tli>lii«\  and  the  works  re- 
ferred to  niider  Assvrei.i,  D.  G.  LvoN. 

Babjioii :  town  and  popular  watering-place:  Suffolk  co., 
Long  Island,  N,  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  8-K) :  on  the  Great  South  Bay,  and  the  Long  Island 
Railroad;  3;>  miles  E.  of  Brooklyn.  It  is  connected  with 
Fire  island  by  steam  ferry,  ami  is  famed  for  the  salubrity 
of  its  eliniale,  and  much  freiiuenteil  as  a  summer  resort. 
The  township  of  Babylon  was  formed  in  1872  from  the  south 
part  of  Huntington  township.  Pop.  (1880)  4,739;  (1890) 
6,035. 

Itilliylo'iiia:  the  territory  through  which  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  rivers  flow,  extending  from  about  Bagdad  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  This  district  has  been  won  from  the  sea  by 
the  deposits  of  the  two  rivers.  It  is  accordingly  an  alluvial 
plain,  much  of  which  is  covered  by  water  at  the  time  of 
the  annual  overflow  of  the  rivers  (Tigris,  March-June  ;  Eu- 
phrates, Jlai'ch-September).  The  rale  of  encroachnienl  on 
the  sea  is  estimated  to  be  about  a  mile  in  seventy  years,  but 
is  believed  to  have  been  much  mori'  rapid  in  ancient  times. 
Prof.  George  Hawlinson  reckons  the  gain  in  tlie  past  4.(100 
years  to  be  a  region  130  miles  long  by  GO  or  70  miles  bi-oad. 
This  great  gain  is  explained  by  the  lowness  of  the  plain,  the 
.swiftness  of  the  rivei-s.  and  the  shallowness  of  the  gulf.  The 
Babylonia  of  history  was  perhaps  not  much  larger  than  the 
State  of  South  Carolina.  This  plain  is  bounded  on  the  K. 
by  the  niouulains  of  Klam,  aiKl  on  the  W,  liy  the  Araliiaii 
<lcsert.  Owing  to  lack  of  irrigation  it  is  being  gradually  in- 
vaded by  the  desert,  anil  the  sand  moves  at  times  in  slorms 
of  great  intensity.  Formerly  there  was  an  extensive  system 
of  canals,  the  old  beds  of  which  intersect  the  (ilain  in  all  di- 
rections. These  canals  were  both  for  eoninieree  and  for  irri- 
gation, and  on  their  banks  stood  some  of  the  largest  cities. 
Changes  of  government  and  of  population,  misrule  and  ex- 
tortion, have  led  to  neglect  of  these  waterways,  so  that  the 
region,  which  was  once  a  paradise  of  productiveness,  is  now, 
during  a  |iortion  ot  the  year,coven'd  with  marsliesand  lakes, 
and  during  the  remainiler  is  a  desolate  waste.  The  heat  of 
the  summer  is  intense,  while  the  exhalations  from  the  marshes 
in  summer  and  autumn  fill  the  air  with  pestilence  and  fever. 


The  inhospitality  of  the  climate,  together  with  the  lack  of 
money  and  the  difliculty  of  obtaining  firmans  from  the  Turk- 
ish Government,  has  allowed  but  little  exhaustive  digging  in 
the  artificial  mounds  which  are  so  numerous  in  the  plain, 
and  which  mark  the  sites  of  the  ancient  cities. 

Babylonia  is  one  of  the  fii'st  centers  at  which  men  reached 
a  high  state  of  culture.  Whether  the  beginnings  of  this 
culture  antedate  that  of  Egypt  is  impo.ssible  to  liecide.  It 
is  also  unknown  whence  the  first  occu]iants  of  the  land  came, 
but  there  are  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  the  first  set- 
tlements were  at  or  near  the  upper  end  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
These  first  settlers  were  jierhaps  the  inventors  of  the  cunei- 
form system  of  writing,  a  system  ilestineil  to  have  such  a 
long  history  in  Western  Asia,  and  to  which  we  now  owe 
most  of  our  information  regarding  Babylonia,  To  .I'ndge 
from  the  language  and  the  physiognomy  (discoveries  Ijy  E. 
lie  Sarzec  at  Telloh),  the  first-comers  were  of  non-Semitic 
stock.  As  early  as  4000  li.  c.  or  earlier,  the  land  was  in- 
vaded by  Semites.  These  may  have  been  rude  inhabitants 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula  who  were  attracted  by  the  easier 
life  in  Babylonia.  For  many  generations  the  two  popula- 
tions lived  together.the  newer  borrowing  much  of  its  culture 
from  the  older,  but  also  robbing  it  by  degrees  of  its  political 
significance.  This  early  occupation  of  Babylonia  by  Semites 
is  only  one  wave  of  a  succession  of  invasions  by  the  pei)j>le 
of  this  race.  Similar  invasions  are  the  one  by  the  Arania'- 
aiis,  the  one  by  the  ]Mohamnieilan  conquerors,  and  the  one 
by  the  Bedouin  tribes  of  to-day.  In  ancient  times  the  popu- 
lation had  still  other  elements.  There  were  the  Kahli,  or 
Chalda>ans,  who  may  likewise  have  lieen  Semites,  the  A'o,s.s/(/, 
or  Kassites,  the  Elamites,  and  in  the  jieriod  of  foreign  wars 
hosts  of  captives  brought  ill  as  well  bv  Kings  ot  Assyria  as 
by  those  of  Babylon. 

The  history  of  Baliylouia  after  the  time  of  Hammurabi, 
about  2300  b.  c.  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the 
city  of  Babylon.  Of  the  centuries  preceding  this  time  our 
information  is  scant,  and  conies  mainly  from  the  very  brief 
inscriptions  of  certain  of  the  earlier  kings,  and  from  ref- 
erences in  the  writings  of  kings  of  later  dale.  Successively 
or  contcui]ii>raneously  small  kingdoms  arose,  with  capitals  at 
Ur.  Nisin,  Xipur  (Nitl'er),  L'ruk  (Ereeh,  Warka),  Larsa.  and 
other  points.  At  times  several  of  these  smaller  kingdoms 
were  united  under  a  single  scepter. 

The  oldest  definite  date  takes  us  to  North  Babylonia, 
to  the  time  of  Sargon  I.  and  his  son  Naram-Sin.  On  the 
authority  of  Nabu-na'id,  the  last  native  King  of  Babylon 
(B,  c.  55.5-538),  these  two  rulei-s  belong  to  the  first  half  of  the 
Ihirty-eighth  century  b,  c.  Nabu-na'id  relates  that,  while 
he  was  restoring  the  temple  of  the  sun-god  at  Si]ipar.  he 
found  a  record  dejiositod  in  the  foundation  by  Naram-Sin 
3200  years  before  the  discovery.  Inscriptions  have  reached 
us  from  both  of  these  ancient  kings.  Sargon  is  called  the 
King  of  Agade  (which  is  the  twin  city  of  Sippar).  and  it 
seems  certain  that  he  erected  buildings  at  Agade,  Babylon, 
and  Nipur,  .\  late  .Assyrian  scribe  has  preserved  a  record  in 
which  Sargon  speaks  in  the  first  person,  telling  how  he  was 
born  in  secret,  exposed  as  an  infant  in  a  basket  of  rushes  on 
the  river,  rescued  and  reared  by  a  sheplierd,  chosen  leader 
of  a  band  in  the  mountains,  and  afterward  crowned  as  king. 
Another  inscription  records  that  his  comiuesls  reached  the 
Jlediterranean.  The  British  Museum  owns  an  egg-shaped 
marble  object  with  an  inscription  of  Sargon  written  in  nine 
lines  of  very  archaic  scri|)1  and  reading:  "Sargon  the  king. 
King  of  Agade.  To  the  Sun-god  in  .Sippar  I  have  dedicated." 
One  of  the  finesi  carved  seals  ever  found  bears  the  name  of 
Sargon,  and  has  eight  lines  of  archaic  writing.  From  the 
son,  Narani-Sin,  there  is  likewise  an  inscription  in  eight  ar- 
chaic lines.  The  diggin,gs  by  the  party  from  Philadelphia 
(1888-90).  led  by  Dr.' J.'P.  Peters,  in  'the  ruins  of  NiiTer, 
lirouglit  to  light  various  objects  from  Sargon  and  Naram- 
Sin.     These  rulers  seem  to  h.ave  been  Semites. 

Not  much  later  perhaps  were  the  rulers  who  resided  at  the 
city  represeiitiMl  by  the  modern  ruins  called  Telloh  (Shir- 
pui-la,  in  the  inscriptions),  in  Southern  I'abylonia.  where  De 
.Sarzec  found  (1S78-.S2)  a  large  quant ily  of  the  most  archaic 
material,  including  about  a  dozen  statues.  According  to  the 
researches  of  M.  Aniiaud,  four  or  five  of  these  rulers  call 
themselves  king,  while  the  remaining  nine  style  themselves 
by  the  lower  title  piilini.  The  inscriptions  of  the  kings  have 
a  more  archaic  ap|iearaiice,  and  one  may  hence  place  them 
earlier  than  those  of  the  /uifi-xi.i.  If  this  be  correct,  the  ex- 
jilanation  is  probably  that,  after  a  period  ot  independence, 
the  city  had  become  fci-ibntary  to  some  other  power,  as  that 
of  Ur.     We  know  that  one  of  t\w  palexis  was  contemporary 


436 


BABYLONIA 


and  apparently  subject  to  the  ^oat  King  Dungi  of  Ur.  and 
that  this  Dungi  also  erected  temples  for  the  gods  of  Shir- 
purla.  At  the  same  time,  one  of  tlie  jiafesis,  Gudeaby  name. 
if  tribntiiry.  was  still  a  ruler  of  great  power  and  magnifl- 
cenee.  From  him  eonie  eiglit  of  the  reraarkalile  statues 
from  Tolloh.  two  large  clay  cylinders  covered  with  writing, 
and  hundredsot  sniallertalilets  and  fragments,  tiiidea  waged 
successful  war  with  Elam.  and  had  commercial  relations 
with  distant  regions,  as  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Sinaitic  pen- 
insula, and  apparently  Egypt.  The  inscriptions  of  these 
rulei-s  are  chiefly  accounts  of  the  erection  of  temples. 

The  next  strong  governuient  in  Babylonia  seems  to  have 
had  its  center  at  Ur,  the  biblical  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  the 
modern  ruins  Mugheir.  Inscriptions  from  the  kings  of  this 
dynasty  have  been  found  at  Mugheir,  Warka.  Senkereh, 
Niffer,  Telloh,  and  Alni-Shalirein.  .Such  wide  dispersion  in- 
dicates that  the  rule  extended  over  a  considerable  part  of 
Babylonia.  The  two  chief  rulers  were  Dungi  and  his  father, 
whose  name  is  read  variously  as  Urhagas.  Urban.  Urgur,  etc. 
These  kings  style  themselves  not  only  "  King  of  Ur.*'  Viut 
also  King  of  Sumer  and  Akkad.  These  terms  are  commonly 
held  to  be  sTOonyms  of  South  Babylonia  and  North  Baby- 
lonia, but  Dr.  H.  Winckler  has  shown  that  at  tliis  early  time 
they  designated  two  portions  of  South  Babylonia,  the  union 
of  whichunder  one  rule  makes  the  first  important  kingdom 
in  Baliylonia.  Dungi  seems  also  to  have  held  rule  over  a 
portion  of  North  Babylonia.  In  Cutha,  near  BaI)ylon.  he 
built  a  temple  to  the  god  Nergal.  He  likewise  calls  liimself 
king  of  the  four  regions.  This  term  is  counntmly  supposed 
to  mean  king  of  all  the  world,  Imt  Dr.  Winekler  sees  in  it  a 
designation  for  North  Baljylonia,  corresponding  to  Sumer 
and  Akkad  for  South  Babylonia. 

Unknown  conditions  led  to  a  shifting  of  the  seat  of  power 
to  other  Babyloni.an  cities,  followed,  however,  by  a  second 
])erioil  of  supremacy  at  Ur.  The  rulers  nf  the  new  dynasty 
call  theuiselves  not  only  kings  of  Ur,  but  also  kiugs  of  the 
four  regions.  This  dynasty  was  displaced  liy  an  invasion 
from  Elam.  led  by  Riui-.Sin.son  of  Kudur-Mabuk.  Rim-.Sin 
was  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  Babylonian  gods,  and  has 
left  records  of  temple  constructions.  The  invader,  however, 
was  not  to  found  a  dmasty.  A  power  was  rising  at  Baby- 
Ion  which  was  to  jnit  an  end  to  the  existing  order  and  to 
make  that  city  ever  after  the  first  in  the  land.  Its  ruler. 
Hammm'alii,  repulsed  I!im-Sin,  and  nnited  all  of  Babylonia 
under  himself.  Henceforth  the  great  cities  of  the  south 
were  to  have  religious  significance.  Ijut  their  political  power 
passed  over  to  Babylon.  From  this  time  the  liistory  of 
Babylonia  and  that  of  Babylon  are  inseparably  connected. 

For  the  Babylonian  chronology  after  this  time  we  have 
most  valuable  inform.ation  in  the  so-called  Di/naxtic  Tfibhts. 
(See  translation  in  the  Records  of  the  Pant,  new  series, 
vol.  i.)  These  tablets  give  us  the  succession  of  dynasties 
ruling  at  Babylon,  beginning  with  the  one  to  which  Ham- 
muralii  belonged  and  extending  to  the  death  of  Asshurbani- 
pal.  626  B.  i;.  There  are.  unfortunately,  some  seriovis  lacunse. 
In  their  unljroken  condition  the  tablets  gave  the  names  of 
the  successive  dynasties,  the  length  of  their  continuance,  and 
the  names  of  the  respective  kings.  Hammurabi  is  the  sixth 
king  of  the  "  Dynasty  of  Babylon."  He  began  Ids  rule 
about  2^00  B.  c  and  reigned  for  fifty-five  years.  The  dyn- 
asty, embracing  eleven  kings,  began  about  2400  B.  c.  and 
continued  for  305  years.  Prom  the  second  king  of  tlie 
dynasty  to  the  eleventh,  the  succession  passed  regularly  from 
father  to  son,  and  the  average  length  of  the  reigns  was 
twenty-eight  years — facts  which  imlicato  tranquility  or 
executive  ability.  From  Hammurabi  we  have  many  inscrip- 
tions recording  his  victories,  his  buildings,  and  his  digging 
of  canals.  There  are  also  many  connnercial  records  from 
his  time,  as  well  as  from  the  reign  of  his  son  Samsu-iluna 
and  other  kings  of  the  dynasty.  Some  of  these  documents 
contain  in  their  (hites  valuable  historical  allusions. 

The  sunnnary  of  tlie.se  dynasties  is  as  follows : 


1.  Bnliylonian. 
a.  Uru-azagga, 

.3.  Kassite 

4.  Pa«he 

h.  S«acoast 

6.  Bit^[Ba2i]... 

S>.  Babylonian. 

10 


Ko.  of 

N«.  of 

Approximate 

jem. 

Uagi 

dntos,  B.  C. 

305 

11 

ai22-211T 

368 

11 

2117-1749 

src.} 

38 

1743-1172 

72^ 

11 

1172-1100 

21A 

3 

1 100-1078 

20i 

3 

1078-]0.'i8 

6 

1 

in.-,«-in52 

200 

\-i1) 

10.52-7G2 

81 

5(J) 

704-781 

lOIJi 

1G  + 

7.31-G2S 

DjTiasty  nine  really  includes  various  dynasties  of  brief 
duration.  The  first  name  in  this  dynsisty  is  Ukin-zir,  who 
was  defeated  and  succeeded,  in  739  B.  c,  by  Puhi.  the  bib- 
lical Pul  or  Tiglathpileser  (King  of  Assyria  745-727  B.  c). 
On  tlie  dynastic  tablets  tlie  names,  or  portions  of  the  names, 
of  seventy-seven  of  the  kings  of  Babylon  are  preserved.  Be- 
fore the  talilets  were  injured  they  must  have  contained  at 
least  one  hundred  names. 

The  Knsahi.  or  Kassites,  who  furnished  many  of  the  kings 
of  the  third  of  these  dynasties,  were  a  warlike  jieople,  living 
to  the  east  of  Babylon,  in  the  mountainous  borders  of  Elam. 
Having  once  gained  ))ossession  of  the  Babylonian  territory, 
tliey  played  an  important  rule  ftir  nearly  six  centuries.  Our 
information  concerning  the  character  of  this  period  comes 
from  Assyria  and  Egypt.  The  fragments  of  the  so-called 
synchronous  history  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  give  brief  ac- 
counts of  the  quarrels  between  the  two  countries  at  this 
time.  There  were  frequent  invasions  and  counter  invasions, 
the  differences  being  at  times  .settled  by  intermarriage  of  the 
two  royal  houses.  Some  of  these  Kassite  Kings  of  Baby- 
lon lived  also  on  friendly  terms  with  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
and  were  among  those  who.  in  the  sixteenth  century  B.  c, 
sent  presents  and  letters  to  the  Pharaohs. 

Of  the  succeeding  dynasties  at  Babylon  we  know  but  little. 
The  history  becomes  intimately  involved  with  that  of  As- 
syria. The  armies  from  Nineveh  frequently  overran  the 
country,  and  most  of  the  rulers  named  in  the  tentli  dynasty 
are  either  kings  of  Assyria  or  their  appointees.  During  this 
time,  however,  there  were  two  other  jjowers  contending  for 
the  throne  of  Babylon,  the  Elamites  and  the  C'halda>ans. 
The  Elamites  liad  been  from  time  immemorial  enemies  both 
of  Babylon  and  of  As,syria.  But  in  the  times  when  their 
own  country  wjus  overrun  by  Assyrians,  they  joined  their 
forces  to  those  of  Babylon  or  to  those  of  C'halda'a  in  order 
to  resist  the  ])0wer  from  Nineveh.  Tlie  so-called  Babylo- 
nian Chronicle  gives  the  account  of  the  relations  of  tlie 
three  countries,  Babvlon,  Assvria,  and  Elam,  from  745  to 
668  B.  c. 

For  the  correct  understanding  of  tlie  later  history  of 
Babylonia  it  is  important  to  know  who  the  Chalda-anx  were. 
The  confusion  of  the  name  Baljylonian  and  Clialda'an  has 
led  to  much  oliscurity.  Tlie  credit  of  liaving  cleared  up 
this  obscurity  by  a  close  study  of  the  data  in  tlie  cuneiform 
inscriptions  belongs  to  A.  Delattre  and  H.  Winekler.  f'hal- 
d;pa  proper  was  a  district  in  South  Baliylonia  on  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  its  inhabitants  were  the  Chalda'ans.  Whence  and 
when  they  c'ame  is  unknown, but  they  were  perhaps  of  Semi- 
tic stock.  The  fifth  of  the  Babylonian  dynasties,  called  the 
dynasty  from  the  seacoast,  was  probably  Clialda'an.  Even 
as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Kassite  dynasty  the  Chaldiean 
kingdom  may  liave  existed  as  a  tributary  powei'.  However 
this  may  be,  when  the  period  of  Assyrian  conquest  begins, 
after  900  b.  c.  we  find  tliat  t  he  invaders  march  past  Babylon 
to  the  subjection  of  the  Chalda-ans.  There  were  even  times 
when  the  t'hahheans  disimted  with  Assyria  the  possession 
of  Babylon.  Such  was  the  case  when  tlie  Cliaktean  Mero- 
dachbaladan  conteiide<l  with  varying  fortune  against  Sargon 
and  Sennaclierib.  Some  of  the  fiercest  figliting  about  Baby- 
lon was  with  these  Chalda'ans.  who  spread  themselves  over 
the  country,  dispossessing  the  people  of  Babylon  of  their 
lands,  and  even  carrying  the  people  into  ca[>tivity  to  Chal- 
diea.  When  Sargon  overran  Chalda^a  he  released  these  cap- 
tives from  prison,  and  his  grandson  Esarliaddon  restored 
to  tlie  people  of  Babylon  and  Borsipjia  the  lands  of  which 
they  had  been  robbed  by  the  Chalila'ans.  Tlie  peo]ile  of 
Chalda'a  were  more  warlike  than  the  natives  of  Babylon. 
When  the  Assyrian  jiower  licgan  to  wane  toward  the  end  of 
the  .seventh  century  B.  r.,  the  Chalda'ans  again  became  mas- 
ters. Nabopolassar  may  have  recognized  in  a  manner  the 
su])eriority  of  Assyria.  His  son  Nelniehadrezzar  succeeded 
him.  and  Chahi.ea  now  became  supreme.  This  great  prince 
so  idenlifii'il  his  interests  with  those  of  Babylon  that  he 
raised  the  city  to  a  degree  of  splendor  and  power  which  it 
had  never  known  before.  It  is  the  Baliylon  of  tliis  great 
buihler  which  is  pictured  in  glowing  language  by  Daniel 
and  Herodotus.  1  he  name  Chahhea  now  came  to  l)e  applied 
to  all  of  Babylonia,  and  Babylonian  and  Chalda>an  became 
synonymous  terms,  'i'here  were  extensive  foreign  wars,  the 
real  Chalda'ans  doubtless  forming  the  more  important  por- 
tion of  the  army.  This  is  the  army  to  which  the  powers  of 
.ludah  submitted,  and  by  wliich  they  were  led  into  exile. 
(For  further  details  of  the  jiolitieal  hi.story.see  article  Babt- 
i.o.N.)  In  ■•itill  later  times,  when  the  government  of  Babylon 
had  passed  away  from  the  Semites,  the  Chakheans  became 


BABYROUSSA 


BACHE 


Babyroussa. 


famous  for  their  wisdom.     Tlioy  were  no  longer  regarded 
as  a  people,  but  as  a  class  or  caste. 

See  Ct.  Hawlinson's  Ancient  Monarchies  (London,  1862- 
67);  Kr.  Dclitzsch's  Wo  lag  das  I'aradie.^?  (Lcipzijr,  1881): 
Lavard's  J\'«>jet'e/(  and  Babylon;  i;.  l)e  Sarzec's  i>(r«wwr/e« 
en'Clialdee;  II.  Winckler's  Untermchum/en  zur  Allorienta- 
linchen  (fi'xchichte  (Leipzig.  188!)):  A.  Dclattre's  Les  I'hal- 
rf<->/w(  Lou  vain,  lS8i») :  {'.  P.  Tide's  Jialji//oni.siii-A.-i.ii/iisclie 
(JeHclticlite  (Clotha,  1886-88);  Rtcords  of  the  Pa-st  (new  scries, 
vols  i.  and  ii.).  1>.  <J.  Lvo.v. 

Babyroiis'sa,  or  Babirnssa:  an  animal  (Hahyroussa 
alfurus)  allied  to  the  hog;   found  only  in  the  islands  of 

Celebes  and  Burn.  It  is  re- 
markable for  the  long  tusks 
of  the  upper  jaw,  which  are 
curved  backward  and  reseni- 
lile  horns.  Its  Icjrs  are  more 
slendcrtlian  tliose  of  the  hog. 
Baecarat.bSk  ka-raa[Fr.]: 
game  of  cards,  of  French  or 
Italian  origin,  played  with 
one  or  more  packs  of  cards, 
any  number  of  betters,  and  a 
banker.  Kach  better  plays  a 
stake  which  the  banker  duplicates,  after  wliicli  two  canls  are 
dealt  by  the  latter  to  eacli  player,  including  himself.  The 
face  cards  count  ten  and  the  others  according  to  the  spots. 
The  aim  is  to  make  the  value  of  the  phiyer'scard  foot  up  the 
total  of  !),  19, 29,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible.  The  player  may 
■  all  for  more  cards  at  the  risk  of  exceeding  29.  in  which 
rase  his  stake  is  forfeited.  If  a  player  has  9,  19,  or  29  he 
declares  it,  and  the  banker  pays  all  hands  superior  to  his 
own  their  bets  and  takes  the  stakes  of  the  inferior  hands. 
In  America  face  cards  and  tens  do  not  count.        C.  II.  T. 

Kaocliaiia'lia  (called  by  the  Greeks  Dionysia):  the  feasts 
aiul  orgies  of  the  votaries  of  Bacchus  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans.  (>a  account  of  the  licentious  practices 
and  drunkenness  which  prevailed  on  these  occasions,  they 
were  prohibited  by  the  Roman  Senate  in  186  B.  c.  In  modern 
language  the  term  is  applied  to  wild  revels  and  intemperate 
feasts.  Theatrical  representations  originated  in  Greece  from 
these  feasts.    See  Dionysia. 

HafChan'tes  [from  pres.  partic.  of  Lat.  harclia'ri,  cele- 
brali'  Willi  frenzy,  based  on  Gr.  Paxxv-  "  Bacchant]:  those, 
whether  male  or  female,  who  joined  in  the  orgies  of  Bacchus 
among  the  ancient  (ireeks  ami  Romans.  Their  conduct  was 
very  disorderly.  They  danced,  swiiiig  the  thyrsus  about,  and 
made  a  great;  noise.  According  to  an  ancient  poetical  le- 
gend, Orpheus  was  lorn  to  pieces  by  some  female  liacchante.s. 

IJacVhiis  [Lat.,  from  Gr.  Bokxo!]  :  the  god  of  wine  (called 
also  DioiiyaiiH  by  the  Greeks,  and  sometimes  Lihcr  by  the 
Romans).  Lie  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele, 
or,  according  to  one  tradition,  of  Amnion,  King  of  Libya, 
and  .\maltliea.  He  taught  men  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and 
tii'st  produced  from  grapes  an  intoxicating  drink.  Ills  wor- 
^llip  W!is  spread  over  many  countries  of  the  world,  and  the 
myt  li  of  Bacchus  was  variously  nu)dified  by  different  peoples. 
Bacchus  is  usually  represented  as  an  etfeminate  young  man, 
crowned  with  vine  or  ivy  leaves,  with  a  thyrsus  (a  stick  with 
a  pine  cone  at  the  en<l)  in  his  hand.  His  votaries  carried 
sticks  or  staves  called  thyrsi  (sing,  thyrsus),  which  were 
bound  with  leaves  of  the  ivy  and  vine.  He  is  said  to  have 
performed  a  successful  expedition  to  India.  The  Greek  fes- 
tivals in  honor  of  Bacchus  were  called  Dionysia.  See  Bac- 
CUAXA(,IA  and  Bacchantes. 

Hacclijl'ides  (in  (Jr.  BtucxvKlSris) :  one  of  the  nine  canon- 
ical Greek  lyric  jinets.  about  470  B.C.:  was  a  nephew  of 
Simoniilcs  of  ('cos,  and.  according  to  tradition,  joint  rival 
with  him  of  Pindar.  The  peer  of  his  uncle  in  elegance  of 
composition  and  softness  ot  tone,  he  was  not  his  ei|ual  in 
range  or  powi-r.  Of  the  few  fragments  that  remain  famous 
is  the  one  on  Peace.    See  Bergk's  Poetm  Lryrici  Grari. 

B.  L.  G. 

Bach,  ba.'i/ih :  the  name  of  a  celebrated  German  family 
whiih  for  upward  of  two  centuries  was  noted  for  great 
nuisical  talent  and  produced  more  than  fifty  distinguished 
artists. — VmT  Bacu,  the  founder  of  the  family,  was  a  niitivi> 
ot  Presburg  in  Hungary,  and  emigrated  to  Tliuringia  about 
ItiOO.  Besides  the  great  .Iohanx  Sii:BASTiAX  (1685-1730), 
other  eminent  members  of  the  family  were  .Iohaxx  CnRis- 
TiAN,  called  the  "  Milane.se  Bach"  (17:t'5-82);  Johax.v  Ciiris- 
TOPB  (1642-170:j),  with  his  sons  Joua.n.n  Christopu  and  Jo- 


HAXV  N'iKOLArs ;  also  Karl  Philipp  Emaxuel  (1714-88), 
and  WiLHELM  Friedeman.n  (1710-84). 

Bacli,  JoHANN  Sebastian  :  youngest  son  of  .Johann  Ara- 
brosius,  court-musician  of  Eisenach  :  b.  there  Mar.  21, 1685; 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  remarkable  family  of  Bach, 
and  one  of  the  great  musicians  of  the  world.  A  North 
Cierinan  and  a  Protestant,  he  was  a  patriarch  and  founder 
of  (ieruum  music,  and  has  been  not  inaptly  termed  the  Al- 
bert Diirer  of  his  art.  An  extraordinary  talent,  united  with 
enthusiasm  and  tireless  industry,  made  his  whole  long  life, 
from  childhood  on.  a  career  of  acquisition  and  greatness. 
Early  throwing  asiile  the  traditions  of  the  Italian  school,  he 
penetrated  by  severe  study  the  secrets  of  musical  science, 
sought  the  boldest  masters,  and  pursued  the  most  rigorous 
metlioils.  Music  in  every  style  interested  him — instruments 
of  all  kinds,  but  the  organ  was  his  great  delight.  He  walked 
miles,  as  a  boy,  to  hear  a  master's  performance  on  that  in- 
strument. Such  ability  and  enthusiasm  were  recognized 
from  the  first.  Bach  was  sparc<l  the  struggle  with  noverty, 
and  rapidly,  by  his  own  efforts,  rose  to  emiiu'nce.  lie  had, 
till  his  voice  became  manly,  sung  treble  in  a  choir  at  Lune- 
burg ;  at  eighteen  he  was  a  violinist  at  the  court  of  Weimar; 
at  twenty  he  filled  the  place  of  organist  at  Arnstadt;  at 
twenty-one  he  was  at  Mijhlhausen  ;  at  twenty-two  he  was  at 
Weimar  again  as  court-organist ;  seven  years  later  he  re- 
signt-d  that  most  honorable  position  for  that  of  concert- 
master  to  the  duke,  an  office  demanding  high  capacity,  im- 
posing varied  responsibilities,  and  oifering  rich  ojiportunity 
for  stiuly  and  practice  in  composition.  His  industry  at  this 
period  w"as  marvelous.  Here,  however,  his  stay  was  short. 
In  172:! — in  the  meantime  he  had  jiassed  six  years  as  chapel- 
master  to  the  court  at  Kcitheii.  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Au- 
halt-Kiithen — the  city  authorities  of  Leipzig  chose  him  to 
the  place  of  musical  director  of  the  St.  Thouuis  School:  la- 
was  thirty-eight  years  old.  Here  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
twenty-seven  years,  lu^  lived,  honored  and  happy,  in  the 
bosom  of  a  large  family,  for  he  had  ten  sons,  all  musicians — 
beloved  by  numerous  pupils,  an<l  occupied  with  the  art  he 
had  done  "so  much  to  create.     D.  at  Leipzig,  July  28,  1750. 

Bach's  compositions  were  numerous,  original,  and  in  many 
stvles.  He  wrote  for  voice  and  instrument — f(u-  orchestra, 
organ,  pianoforte,  instruments  of  wood  and  metal,  him.-;elf 
being  a  performer  on  them  all.  He  wrote  for  sacred  occa- 
sions masses,  oratorios,  concerted  pieces  of  every  kind;  his 
preludes,  fugues,  cantatas  are  famous;  but  his  stately  genius 
unbent  at  festive  occH.sions,  births,  and  weddings;  and  even 
comedy  was  not  out  of  his  range.  In  nearly  every  fielil  of 
his  art  he  was  a  discoverer — in  soiiui  he  was  a  prophet  of 
future  discoveries.  The  fame  ot  Bach  has  been  increasing 
siiU'C  his  death.  For  generations  to  come  they  who  would 
study  the  dillu-ult  science  of  music  will  go  to  him,  as  stu- 
dents of  literature  or  painting  go  to  the  grand  masters. 
There  are  statues  of  him  at  Leipzig  (1842)  and  Eisenach 
(1884).  See  his  biography  by  Spitta  (Leipzig,  1873-80,  2 
vols). 

Bache,  baych,  Ai.i:xaxi)er  Dallas.  LL.  D.  :  a  distin- 
gnishcil  educator  and  scientist;  b.  in  Philadelphia.  July  li), 
1806;  great-grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin;  received  his 
higher  education  at  the  U.  Sl  Military  Academy,  where  he 
gradiutted  in  1825  at  the  head  of  his  class.  After  serving 
there  as  assistant  professor  for  oni^  year,  and  on  military 
engineering  duty  for  two  more,  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
ot  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  in  the  Cniversity  of 
Pennsylvania,  which  position  he  filled  with  great  success 
for  eight  yeai-s,  during  which  he  was  also  constantly  en- 
gaged upoii  scientific  researches  in  physics  and  chemistry, 
and  as  member  of  the  Franklin  Institute  conducted  impor- 
tant experiments  on  steam-boiler  explosions  and  kindreil 
matters.  In  18:i6  he  was  appointed  president  of  Girard 
College,  then  about  to  be  organize<l,  and  went  to  Europe  to 
stiulv  the  systems  of  education  and  methods  of  instruction 
and  (liscipline  adopted  there.  His  report  on  education  in 
Euiope  (1839).  emnodying  the  results  of  his  studies,  has 
done  very  much  to  imjirove  the  theory  and  art  of  education 
in  America.  The  Girard  College  not  being  ready  to  go  int<i 
operation,  Bache  undertook  the  organization  of  the  school- 
system  of  Philadelphia:  after  accomplishing  which  he  re- 
sumed his  old  chair  at  the  university.  He  established  at 
(tirard  College,  and  during  five  yeare  directed,  a  magnetical 
and  meteorological  observatory,  supported  by  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  The  re- 
sults of  these  observations,  which  were  made  in  correspond- 
ence with  other  observations  in  different  countries,  have 


438 


BACHE 


BACKGAMMON 


largely  added  to  our  knowledge  of  terrestrial  magnetism. 
In  1843  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Coast 
Survey,  wliieli  important  jiosition  he  filled  to  the  end  of  his 
life,  displaying  tlie  highest  administrative  ability,  combined 
with  all  the  scientific!  knowledge  requisite  for  the  successful 
prosecution  of  that  important  work.  By  the  confidence 
with  which  he  inspired  the  Government  he  was  enabled 
largely  to  increase  tlie  scale  of  expenditure  for  the  survey, 
resulting  in  a  still  greater  ratio  of  progress.  He  omitted  no 
opjioi'tunity  nf  scrnring  for  science  the  collateral  re-sults 
that  could  be  gathered  during  the  prosecution  of  the  work  ; 
he  organized  a  systematic  exploration  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
an  extended  series  of  tidal  observations,  of  the  magnetism 
of  the  earth,  of  the  direction  of  the  winds;  and  instituted 
researches  in  regard  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  within 
soundings,  and  to  the  foi'ms  of  animal  life  existing  there. 
His  annual  reports  to  f'ongress  are  a  monument,  not  only 
of  Ills  administration,  but  also  of  his  personal  investiga- 
tions in  regard  to  the  subjects  named,  and  many  others 
connected  with  the  improvement  of  methods  of  geodesy. 
In  addition  to  the  direction  of  the  coast  survey.  Prof. 
Baehe  had,  ex  officio,  charge  of  the  construction  of  standard 
weiglits  and  measures  for  the  V.  S.,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  lighthouse  board.  As  a  regent  of  tlie  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution from  1846  to  the  end  of  his  life,  he  had  a  l.-irge 
share  in  shaping  its  operations.  During  the  civil  war  he 
was  active  as  a  member  of  the  Sanitary  Commission,  and  in 
directing  the  resources  of  the  coast  survey  to  the  assistance 
of  the  naval  and  military  forces.  Wheii.  in  1863,  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences  was  organized  by  Congress, 
Prof.  Baehe,  as  the  acknowledged  leader  of  science  in  the 
country,  was  elected  its  pi-esident;  nor  were  his  distin- 
guished services  to  science  less  acknowledged  abroad,  as 
was  evinced  by  his  election  to  membership  of  the  most 
prominent  scienlilic  bodies  of  Europe.  Prof.  Baehe  mar- 
ried Miss  Nanuy  Clarke  Fowler,  of  Newport,  but  had  no 
issue.  He  left  his  property  in  trust  to  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  the  income  to  be  devoted  to  researches  in 
phvsical  science.  1).  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  after  a  lingering  ill- 
ness, Feb.  17,  1867. 

Baehe,  Franklin,  M.  r). :  son  of  Benjamin  Franklin 
Baehe;  b.  in  Philadel|)hia,,  Oct.  2.5,  17!)3.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  I'ennsylvania  in  1810.  He  ]iublished  a 
System  of  (llietninlrii  for  the  Use  of  Stitdenis  of  Medir.ine 
(1810);  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy  in  1831,  and  obtained  the  same  chair 
at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1841.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  Wood  and  Bai-he's  Dispensatori/  of  the  United 
States,  an  aeknowkMlged  slandiird  of  authority.  D.  in 
Philadelphia,  Mar.  liJ,  1864. 

Baehe,  George  M.  :  commander,  IT.  S.  N. :  b.  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Colninl)ia,  Nov.  13,  1840;  graduated  at  the  Naval 
Academy  in  18()0;  became  a  lieutenant  in  1863.  lie  com- 
manded the  iroiieliid  Cincinnati  during  her  various  en- 
gagements on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  until  she  was  sunk 
by  the  Vicksburg  batteries.  May  27,  1863.  His  conduct  in 
this  last  atfair  elicited  the  admiration  of  Admiral  Porter 
and  Gen.  Sherman;  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Gideon 
Welles,  in  his  ••  letter  of  thanks  to  Lieut.-Commander  Baehe," 
says:  "Amidst  an  incessant  fire  of  shot  and  shell,  even 
when  t\u:  fat(!  of  t.hc!  vessel  had  been  sealed,  and  destruction 
both  from  the  eli-ments  and  the  enemy  was  threatened,  the 
olRcers  and  men  appear  to  h.-ive  stood  bravely  at  their 
posts;  and  it  is  a  proud  record  of  the  Cincinnati  that  wdien 
her  last  monieiils  came  she  went  down  with  (he  colors 
nailed  to  tlie  mast.  It  is  with  no  ordinary  pleasure  that  I 
express  to  you,  anil  to  the  surviving  officers  and  crew  of  the 
Cincinnati,  the  department's  appreciation  of  your  brave 
conduct."  lie  was  in  commaml  of  a  little  squadron  of 
three  vessels,  the  Tyler,  the  Naumkeag.  and  Fawn,  in  tlie 
very  spirited  action  of  .June  24,  1864,  at  Clarendon,  Ark., 
where  in  forty-five  minutes  he  drove  the  enemy  from  their 
battery  of  seven  guns,  capturing  guns,  ammunition,  and 
stores.  He  was  in  both  attacks  on  Port  Fisher,  and  led  flic 
men  of  the  Powhatan  in  the  naval  assault  on  t  he  fort  Jan. 
lo,  186-'),  where  he  was  wounded  in  the  right  shoidder.  Re- 
ferring to  this  assault,  Iicar-.\dmii'al  Porter,  in  his  dispatch 
of  Jan,  38,  186,"),  says  :  "  .\owhere  in  the  annals  of  war  have 
olTioers  and  sailors  undertaken  so  desperate  a  service.  The 
names  of  some  of  these  olticers  will  be  fourul  on  record  on 
the  files  of  the  department,  among  which  that  of  Lieut. 
George  M.  Baehe  will  be  found  most  conspicuous."  Re- 
tired Apr.  5,  187.). 


Baehe,  II artman:  soldier;  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Frank- 
lin ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  3,  1798;  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1818;  colonel  of  engineers  Mar.  3,  1863; 
served  chiefly  as  topographical  engineer  on  surveys  for  coast 
defense,  naval  depots,  harbor  and  river  improvements, 
roads,  and  canals,  and  for  lighthouse  sites  1818-47,  in  con- 
structing Brandywine  screw-pile  lighthouse  and  ice  harbor, 
Del.,  1848-51.  on  engineer  boards  1853-55,  as  lighthouse  en- 
gineer 1853-70,  in  charge  of  military  roads  on  Pacific  coast 
1855-58,  in  topograiihical  bureau,  Washington,  I).  C,  1861- 
63,  in  charge  1861,  and  member  of  lighthouse  board  1863- 
70.  Became  Virevet  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.  Mar.  13, 
1865,  for  long,  faithful,  and  meritorious  services,  and  re- 
tired from  active  service  May  7,  1867.  D.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  8,  1872. 

Baehe,  Walter;  a  pianist  of  extraordinary  merit,  and 
devoted  to  the  compositions  of  Liszt;  b.  in  Birmingham, 
England.  June  19,  1842;  studied  first  at  home,  tint  in  1858 
went  1(1  Leipzig  and  studied  under  Plaidy,  Moscheles,  Haupt- 
ma-nn,  and  Richter;  then  he  went  to  Kome  and  for  three 
vears  received  lessons  from  Liszt,  returning  to  London  in 
1865.  From  that  time  till  his  death  on  Mar.  26,  1888,  he 
was  an  unflinching  advocate  of  Liszt's  music,  bringing  it 
forward  on  all  occasions.  He  gave  many  concerts  of  Liszt's 
compositions  at  a  personal  pecuniary  loss,  but  before  he 
died  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  a  change  in  the  public 
appreciation  of  his  beloved  master,  and  he  was  instru- 
mental in  establishing  a  Liszt  scholarship  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  where  he  was  one  of  (he  piano  teatOiers. 
He  composed  little  or  iiotbing,  liis  fame  resting  entir^^ly 
upon  his  piano  playing  and  his  teaching.     D.  E.  Hervey. 

Baehelor's-hut'toiis :  the  double-flowered  I'oi'ins  of  one 
of  the  buttercups  (Haiiunciiltis  acris). 

Bachelor  of  Music  :  See  Doctor  op  Music. 

Biiehkirtsev,  Marie:  See  Basiikirtseff,  Marie. 

Baeliniaii,  bSk'raan,  John,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  naturalist;  b. 
in  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  4,  1790.  He  was  pastor  of  a 
Lutheran  church  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1815  to  death).  He 
contributed  to  Audubon's  great  work  on  ornithology,  and 
wrote  the  principal  part  of  the  work  on  the  quadrn)ieds  of 
North  America,  which  was  illustrated  by  Audubon  and  his 
sons.  Ariumg  his  otlier  works  is  Cli<irtieteristies  of  Genera 
and  Species  as  App/ieable  to  tlie  Dorlriiie  of  the  Uiiity  of 
the  Ihiman  Race  (1854).  D.  in  Charleston',  S.  C,  Feb.  35, 
1874. 

BaeiUaria'oese ;  See  Diatoms. 

Baeil'liis:  See  Bacteria. 

Baekergrunge,  baa-ker-gunj',  or  Bakargaii.j' :  a  district 
of  the  D.'icca  division,  Bengal,  India.  Area.  3,649  sq.  miles. 
Po|i.  about  3.000,000.  It  lies  in  the  delta  formation  at  tho 
apex  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  to  the  W.  of  the  liramaputra, 
here  called  the  Megna,  river.  It  is  a  flat,  even  country, 
without  a  liillock,  intersected  by  a  perfect  network  of  dark- 
colored,  sluggish  streams,  and  dotted  with  clusters  of  bam- 
boos and  betel-nut  trees.  It  is  always  green  and  fresh; 
aquatic  ))lants  grow  in  the  greatest  luxuriance  and  profu- 
sion. Travel  is  almost  impossible  except  by  lioat.  Toward 
the  N.  W.  the  country  is  so  marshy  as  to  be  still  for  the 
most  part  unreclaimed.  Along  the  sea-face  lie  the  forest 
tracts  of  Sundarbans,  the  home  of  tigers,  leopards,  and 
other  wild  beasts.  The  streams  are  all  subject  to  tidal 
action.  A  very  strong  bore  runs  up  the  IMegna  at  spring 
tides,  giving  rise  to  a  singular  sound  like  thunder,  known 
as  the  '■  Barisal  guns,"  often  heard  far  out  to  sea.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are  JInhammedans.  here  of  a  very 
low  type.  A  gipsy-like  tribe. called  the  I'eliajias,  are  rather 
numerous.  They  live  in  boats,  travel  from  place  to  place, 
profess  IMoliaiiimedanism,  and  make  a  living  by  wood-cut- 
ting, fishing,  fortune-telling,  and  trading  in  trinkets.  Tlie 
towns  are  all  small,  Barisal,  the  largest,  containing  about 
8.000  inhal)itants.  Rice  is  the  great  crop,  and  three  har- 
vests are  olilained  annually.  Othei-  crops  arc  mustard, rape, 
linseed,  jute,  sugar-cane,  and  betel-nut.  'I'he  rainfall  is 
heavy  and  the  water  bad.  but  the  district  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  of  Eastern  Bengal,  because  fully  exposed  to  the 
strong  S.  W.  monsoon.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  63° 
to  98\  with  a  mean  aumud  temperature  of  78°  to  85°. 
Cholera  is  always  jirescnt,  and  smallpox  is  occasionally  epi- 
demic. Mark  W.  Harrinoton. 

Baek'giiininoii  \-riamnion  is  from  M.  Eng.  .v«w(fK,  game ; 
the  clement   tiiick-  is  of  doubtful  origin]  :  a  game  of  com- 


BACKHUYSEN 


BACON 


439 


I)ineil  skill  and  chance,  pliiyed  upon  a  peculiar  board  or 
table  with  men  and  with  ilice.  The  men  are  of  two  colors, 
and  the  table  is  diviiled  into  two  coin])artnicnts,  eacli  with 
two  sets  of  [joints,  of  which  there  are  twenty-four  in  all. 
L'pon  tliese  points  tlie  men  are  placed  in  playing,  and  their 
niovcincnts  are  deterniined  by  throws  of  tlie  dice  alternately 
made  by  eiu'li  player:  but  tlie  rules  of  the  game  are  such 
that  much  skill  may  be  exercised  in  executing  the  move- 
ments of  the  men  as  indicated  by  the  dice.  The  object  of 
the  game  is  for  the  player  to  bring  his  own  men  iuto  his 
own  inner  table,  and  to  prevent  his  adversary  from  doing 
the  same.  There  are  several  games  of  backgammon,  for 
which  the  rules  are  given  in  Iloyles  Games.  Backgamtnon 
is  a  very  ancient  recreation,  and  is  by  many  autliorities  said 
to  have  originated  in  Knghind,  or  perhaps  in  ancient  Britain. 

Backliiiyspii :  See  B.\kiiuvse!J. 

ISac-k'iis.  AzEL,  T).  D. :  nephew  of  Charles  Backus:  b.  at 
Xorwich,  tnnn..  Oct.  l:i.  170.') :  graduated  at  Yale  1787:  in 
1791  succecilud  Dr.  licUamy  as  [lastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  in  licthlchcm.  Conn.;  in  1813  was  chosen  first  presi- 
dent of  Hamilton  College,  ('linton,  N.  Y.,  and  liicd  in  that 
place  Dec.  i).  1817.  lie  took  great  interest  in  political  cpies- 
tions,  was  an  eloipieut  preacher,  and  a  successful  teacher  and 
disciplinarian.     He  published  only  a  few  sermons. 

Itiiokus,  Chari.es,  D.  I).  :  b.  at  Xorwich,  Conn.,  Nov.  5, 
174!*:  graduated  at  Yale  176!);  was  settled  over  the  Congre- 
gational church  in  .Souu;rs,  Conn.,  in  1774,  and  died  there 
Dec.  30,  1803.  For  many  years  he  w;is  luteustonied  to  re- 
ceive theological  students  into  his  family.  Nearly  fifly 
were  trained  by  him,  among  whom  were  Dr.  Woods,  of  An- 
dover,  I'resident  Moore,  of  Amherst  College,  President  Davis, 
of  Hamilton  College,  and  several  other  distinguished  men. 
lie  puljlished  many  sermons. 

ISacklls.  IsA.\c:  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  , Ian.  9,  1724;  or- 
dained pa.st.or  of  a  Separatist  church  in  Titicut  {a  parish 
ot  Bridgewater  and  Jliddleboro),  Mjiss.,  Apr.  13,  1748; 
preache  I  in  Titicut  till  his  death,  which  occurred  Nov.  20, 
18l)j.  In  li'il  -Mr.  Backus  espoused  Baptist  principles,  and 
soon  bee  vuiv!  o.ie  of  the  most  active  ami  influential  ministers 
ot  that  cleu  1  niuatio'i.  He  was  for  thirty-four  years  a  trus- 
tee of  Hh  )  le  Island  C'ollege  (now  Brown  ITniversity) ;  was 
in  1771  agent  of  the  Warren  (R.  I.)  Association  to  advocate 
before  Con.;ress  dpial  privileges  for  all  religious  denomina- 
tio  IS,  and  in  17-ii  delegate  from  Middleboro  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts co-iventioii  which  ratified  the  Federal  (.'onstituti<m. 
In  1777-!)t>  Mr.  Backus  pul)lished  .1  Jfi.tlon/  nf  _yi;iv  Eiuj- 
land.  icitk  E<peci  tl  Reference,  to  the  linpliala  (3  vols.),  a 
work  which  is  still  of  value  to  the  gcru'ral  slu<ient  ot  the 
history  of  New  Kugland.  A  new  edition,  in  two  oclavo  vol- 
umes (carefully  edited  by  Prof.  David  Weston,  of  Madison 
Universitv),  was  published  by  the  Backus  Historical  Society, 
Newton  Centre,  Mass.,  in  1871.  See  his  Life  by  ,\.  Hovey, 
Boston,  1858. 

Ba'coii,  Be.vjamix  Wisxer:  Congregationalist:  son  of 
Rev.  Leonard  W.  Bacon;  b.  at  Litchf1(dd,  Jan.  1.5,  1860; 
gratluatcrl  at  Y'ale  1881,  and  at  the  Yale  Divinitv  School 
1884;  pastor  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  1884-89;  at  Oswego,  N.  Y., 
since  188!).  He  is  the  author  of  an  able  and  scholaily  woi'k, 
77(6  Oenexia  of  Oenesis  (1892),  which  has  been  reprinted  in 
Germany.  Georoe  P.  Fisher. 

Bitcoii,  Delia  :  author  ;  sister  of  Dr.  Leonard  B.ieon  ;  h. 
at  Tallmadge,  ().,  Feb.  3,  1811;  wrote,  bcsi<les  Tnles  of 
the  Piiri/iinn  and  a  ilrama  entitled  T/ie  Bride  of  Fort  Jirl- 
wurd.  The  Philosophy  of  Shalcupenre'x  P/ai/s  (1857),  in 
which  she  first  threw  out  ihe  startling  liypothesis  that  these 
plays  went  really  written  by  Francis  Bacon,  who  simply 
used  Sliakspeare  jus  a  shield  against  the  prejudices  of  the 
time.  In  support  of  this  hjiiolhesis,  which  became  an  in- 
fatuation, she  visited  Englaml,  met  much  repression,  and 
her  troubles  impaired  her  health.  D.  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
Sept.  3,  1859.  See  Delia  Bacon  :  a  Biofirnphical  Sketch. 
by  Theoilore  Bacon  (1888);  and  Recollectiom  of  a  Gifted 
Woman,  in  Hawthorne's  Our  Old  Home. 

Revised  liy  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Bncon.  Ezekiel,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Stockbridgc,  Mass.,  Sept. 
1,  1776;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1794;  was  one  of  the  chief 
justices  of  the  .\|iussachusetts  court  of  eommon  pleas  in  1813, 
first  comptroller  of  the  U.S.  treasurv  (1813-15), and  a  mem- 
ber ot  Congress  from  Massachusetts  (1807-13).  He  after- 
ward removed  to  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
.State  constitutional  convention  of  1821.  He  |uiblished  in 
I84;J  liecoUecliona  of  Fifty  Years  Since.    D.  Oct.  18,  1870. 


Baoon,  Francis  (in  Latin  Francis' cu.t  Baco'nus),  Baron 
Ver'ilam,  Viscount  Saint  Albans:  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious of  modern  i)hilosophers;  b.  in  London,  England,  Jan. 
22,  1561.  His  father.  Sir  Nichola-s  Bacon,  wjts  Lord-Keeper 
ot  the  Great  Seal  under  Elizabeth.  His  motlier.  a  lady  of 
fine  talents,  whose  maiden  name  was  Anne  Cooke,  was  a 
sister  of  Mildred,  the  second  wife  of  Lcuvl  Burleigh.  Bacon, 
soon  after  he  had  completed  his  twelfth  year,  was  sent  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  is  said  to  have  distinguished  himself 
by  diligence  and  by  rapid  progress  in  his  studies.  While  at 
the  university  he  conceived,  it  is  said,  a  decided  dislike  to 
the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  as  it  was  then  taught  in  the 
schools.  Soon  after  leaving  Cambridge  he  visited  France, 
in  order  to  acquire  the  French  language  and  to  continue 
his  studies  on  the  Contiuciil,  Ijut  his  fatlicr"s  death,  in  1579, 
obliged  him  to  return  to  England.  In  15K3  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  became  in  1.584  member  of  Parliament,  and 
in  1.5!I0  counselor-extraordinary  to  the  queen — a  distinction 
almost  without  example  for  one  so  young.  Ben  Jonson 
speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  his  gifts  as  an  orator;  he 
tells  us  that  Bacon  '•commanded  when  he  spoke,  and  had 
his  judges  angry  or  pleased  at  his  devotion.  No  man  had 
their  affections  more  in  his  jiower.  The  fear  of  evei-y  man 
that  heard  him  was  that  he  should  make  an  end."  Lord 
Burleigh,  though  Bacon's  uncle  by  marriage,  appears  rather 
to  have  rt'tarded  than  aided  the  promotion  of  his  nephew. 
The  latter,  left  wholly  to  his  own  exertions,  applied  himself 
diligently  to  his  lU'ofession,  and  at  length  acquired  a  lucra- 
tive practi<'e.  He  became  in  1.594  a  candidate  for  the  office 
of  solicitor-general,  but  was  unsuccessful,  'i'he  Earl  of  Es- 
sex, who  ajjiiears  to  have  conceived  a  warm  and  sincere  friend- 
ship for  Bacon,  in  order  to  console  him  under  his  disappoint- 
ment iiKule  him  a  present  ot  an  estate  near  Twickenham 
worth  €1,800  sterling,  which  in  real  value  wa.s,  in  all  jiroba- 
bility,  nearly  it  not  quite  ecjual  to  five  times  that  number 
of  pounds  at  the  present  day. 

It  appears  to  have  lieen  Bacon's  aim  for  many  yeare  to  ac- 
quire a  fortune  by  a  wealthy  marriage.  He  paid  court  (1597) 
to  the  rich  young  widow.  Lady  Ilatton,  but,  though  aided 
by  the  intercession  of  Essex,  who  was  then  in  great  favor 
at  court,  he  was  not  successful  ;  which,  according  to  Ma- 
caulay,  was  a  very  fortunate  circumstance  for  Bacon.  The 
lady  afterward  married  Bacon's  rival  and  enemy.  Sir  Ed- 
ward Coke,  ami  "did  her  Ijesl  to  make  him  as  miserable  as 
he  deserved  to  be."  When  Essex,  .seduced  by  a  wild  and 
reckless  ambition,  embarkeil  <m  those  schemes  which  after- 
ward led  to  his  death  on  the  block  (see  Essex),  liacon  ap- 
pears to  have  used  whatever  influence  he  had  in  order  to 
mitigate  the  resentment  of  the  queen  against  lier  misguided 
kinsman.  Unhappily  for  his  reputation,  he  was  induced  by 
the  desire  to  advance  his  interest  at  court — for  we  can 
scarcely  suppose  he  was  infiuenccd  by  a  sense  of  duty — to 
abandon  the  office  ot  intercessor,  and  to  take  an  active  and 
prominent  part  in  the  prosecution  of  his  former  friend. 
And  worse  still,  after  the  death  of  E.ssex.  in  ord<'r  to  vin- 
dicate the  conduct  of  the  (|uccn,  he  employed  liis  talents 
and  eloi|uence  to  l)lacken  the  character  of  his  benefactor. 
After  the  accession  of  James  I.,  Bacon  appears  to  have 
enjoyed  the  highest  favor  at  court.  He  was  knighted  (1603) 
before  the  king's  coronation.  His  law  practice  had  now  be- 
come, if  not  very  extensive,  at  least  very  lucrative.  In 
1606  he  married  Alice  Barnham,  thi'  daughter  of  a  rich 
London  merchant.  Hit  had  previously  been  appointed 
king's  counsel,  and  in  1607  he  wits  nuide  solicitor-general. 
He  became  in  1613  attorney-general  and  a  nuunber  of  the 
privy  council.  He  was  selected  by  the  king  as  his  agent 
to  conduct  the  prosecution  against  Peacham.  in  which  af- 
fair Bacon  is  accu.sed  ot  having  sought,  against  law  and 
justice,  to  obtain  the  o|)inions  of  the  judges  before  the  case 
came  up  for  trial.  Bacon  was  appointed  in  1617  Keeper  of 
the  Great  Seal,  .-iiid  in  January  ot  the  ensuing  year  he  was 
made  Lord  High  Cliancellor  of  England,  the  highest  civil 
office  to  which  any  subject  couhl  then  attain.  In  the  fol- 
lowing July  he  was  created  Baron  Verulam.  and  admitted 
to  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Peere.  In  1621  he  became  Viscount 
Saint  Albans,  and  in  1620  imblished  liis  greatest  work,  the 
Novu.M  OK(iANU.M  {(/.  I'.).  The  cup  of  his  prosperity  and  fame 
afipearcd  t<i  be  full  to  ov(trfIowing.  but  a  great  reverse  was 
near.  It  seemed  as  if  Fafe  had  raised  him  to  the  highest 
piniuicle  ot  greatness  that  his  fall  might  be  the  more  tragic 
and  more  conspicuous.  He  was  accused  of  accepting  bribes 
by  a  nuin  named  Waynham,  against  whom  Bacon  had  de- 
cided a  suit  in  chancery.  A  commit  tee  of  Ihe  House  ot 
Commons  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  case,  which  was 


440 


BACON 


referred  to  the  House  of  Lords  as  the  only  legitimate  tri- 
bunal for  trying  it.  At  the  beginning  of  the  trial  Bacon 
strongly  asserted  his  innocence,  but  he  subseqiiently  aban- 
doned his  defense  and  confessed  his  guilt.  He  was  sen- 
tenced (May  3.  1G21)  to  pay  a  fine  of  £40,000  and  to  be  im- 
prisoned at  the  king's  pleasure.  James  was  disposed  to 
show  him  every  indulgence.  As  a  mere  form  he  was  sent 
to  the  Tower,  but  two  days  afterward  he  was  set  at  lib- 
erty. His  fine  was  also  remitted,  and  he  was  allowed  an 
income  of  .€1.200.  a  sum  which  may  safely  be  pronounced 
fully  equal  to  £0.000  at  tlie  present  day.  He  died  at  High- 
gate,  London,  Apr.  'J,  1626,  and  left  no  children.  Ba- 
con's celebrated  yoriim  Uryaitian  and  his  De  Augmentis 
are  but  parts  of  a  more  extensive  work  entitled  Insfaui-afin 
Magna,  or  Great  Eestoration.  so  called  because  through 
its  means  he  hoped  to  recall  Philosophy  from  what  he  con- 
sidered the  vain  and  idle  speculations  of  the  Aristotelian 
school,  and  restore  her  to  her  true  and  legitimate  office  of 
interpreter  of  nature.  Among  his  other  works  shoidd  be 
mentioned  his  Essays  (first  published  in  1.59T),  doubtless  the 
most  popular  and  widely  read  of  all  his  writings,  and  his 
De  Saph-nfia  Veteritm  (.On  the  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients, 
1609).  of  whicii  a  good  translation  Isy  Sir  A.  Gorges  was 
published  in  1619.  Although  Bacon's  celebrity  as  an  author 
may  be  said  to  rest  exclusively  on  his  philosophical  writings 
and  his  Essays,  he  left  some  very  able  legal  ti'eatises ; 
among  others  his  History  af  the  Alienation  Office.  In  per- 
son Bacon  was  well  formed,  but  not  robust,  of  a  middling 
stature,  with  a  high  and  broad  forehead,  his  countenance 
conveying  the  impression  both  of  intellectual  power  and 
benevolence  of  disposition.  In  society  he  is  said  to  have 
been  "  a  most  delightful  companion,  adapting  liimself  to 
company  of  every  degree,  calling,  and  humor,  .  .  .  bringing 
out  with  great  effect  his  unexhausted  stores  of  jests  new 
and  old."  His  complete  works  were  edited  by  Spedding, 
Ellis.  an<l  Heath  (London,  1857-59,  7  vols.);  for  general  use 
see  his  Works  (selected.  New  York,  1877,  2  vols.) ;  his  biog- 
raphy bv  Spedding  (London,  1863-74.  7  vols.) ;  K.  W.  Church 
(1884),  E.  A.  Abbott  (1885).  Best  edition  of  the  Essays  is 
by  \V.  Aldis  Wright  (new  ed.  London,  1883).    J.  Thomas. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 
Bacon,  GEORnE  Blagden' :  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Leonard  Bacon, 
Sr. ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  23, 1836 ;  stutlied  theology 
at  'if ale  Bivinitv  School ;  rainisti;r  at  Orange  Vallev,  N.  J., 
from  1861  ;  d.  'there  Sept.  16,  1876.  He  wi-ote  Si.v  Ser- 
mons  on  the  Sabbath  Question  (1st  and  2d  ed.  New  York, 
1882).  George  P.  Fisheb. 

Bacon.  Hen'RV  :  genre-painter;  b.  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  in 
1839;  pupil  of  Cabanel  in  Paris,  and  at  Ecouen,  France, 
of  Edouard  Prcre.  Among  his  most  popular  works  are  pic- 
tures of  life  on  tlio  transatlantic  steamships,  and  he  lias  also 
painted  a  numl)er  of  pictures  of  peasant  life  in  Prance, 
which  are  not.-ible  for  good  cpialities  of  color  and  drawing. 
Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Bacon,  Joel  .«!..  D.  D. :  b.  in  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y..  Sept.  3, 
1802 ;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  in 
1826;  studied  th.'ology  at  Newton.  Mass.,  1829-30:  was  suc- 
cessively president  of  Georgetown  College,  Kentucky,  pastor 
of  a  Baptist  church  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  professor  in  the  institu- 
tion at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  (18:^4-37),  president  of  Columbian 
College,  D.  C.  (1843-54),  and  subsequently  was  a  teacher  in 
Alabama  and  in  Virginia.  D.  at  Richmond,  Va.,  Nov.  9, 
1869. 

Bacon,  Joux  :  See  Bacontuorpe. 

Bacon,  John  :  sculptor;  b.  in  Southwark,  Nov.  24.  1740; 
in  1769  received  tlie  first  gold  medal  for  scidpture  awarded 
by  the  Royal  Academy.  Principal  works  are  monuments  to 
Lord  Chatham  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  the  Guildhall; 
to  Howard  and  Johnson  in  St.  Paul's;  to  Blackstone  in  AU 
Souls'  College,  O.xlord.     D.  in  London,  Aug.  4, 1799. 

Bacon,  Leoxard,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  the  son  of  a  Connecticut 
missionary  to  the  Indians  ;  b.  at  Detroit,  .Mich.,  Fel).  19, 1802 ; 
graduated  at  Yale  1820,  and  at  Andover  1824.  P>om  1825  to 
1866  he  wa-s  pjistor  of  the  First  church  (Congregational), 
New  Haven,  Conn. ;  from  1866  to  1871  he  was  acting  Profes- 
sor of  Systematic  Theology,  and  after  1871  was  lecturer  on 
church  polifv  and  American  church  history  in  the  Divinity 
School  of  Yale  College.  He  contriliuted  largely  to  the 
Christian  Spectator  and  the  New  Enr/Iander,  and  was  for 
several  years  one  of  tlie  editors  of  the  Independent.  Besides 
numerous  occasional  sermons  and  addresses,  he  published 
Select  Practical  Writings  of  Richard  Baxter  (WiO),  Thir- 


teen Discourses  on  the  Two  Hundredth  Anniversary  of  the 
Eirst  Church  in  Xew  Haven  (1839);  Slavery  Discussed 
(1846);  Genesis  of  the  Sew  England  Churches  (New  York, 
1874).  D.inNew'Haven,Conn.,'Dec.24, 1881.  He  was  a  pro- 
lific writer,  and  among  Congregationalists  a  leader  of  great 
ability  and  influence.  Revised  by  George  P.  Fisher. 

Bacon.  Leonard  Woolsey.  M.  D.,  D.  D.  :  Congregational- 
ist ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn..  Jan.  1,  1830 ;  gradmited  at  Yale 
College  18.50.  and  at  Yale  Divinity  School  18.54;  minister 
at  Litchfield.  Conn..  1857-60.  He  spent  several  years  in  Eu- 
rope (1872-77).  principally  at  Geneva.  He  has  been  pastor  in 
several  other  places,  including  Norwich,  Conn.  (1878-82), 
Brooklyn,  N.  'V  .,  and  Philadelpliia.  Pa,  His  contributions  to 
the  public  press  are  numerous.  He  has  pulolished  a  number 
of  volumes  of  hymns  and  tunes.  Among  his  other  writings 
are  Church  Papers,  etc.  (1876),  and  a  volume  of  Sermons, 
marked  by  freshness  and  vigor  (1886).    George  P.  Fisher. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel  :  a  young  English  lawyer ;  b.  in  Suf- 
folk, Jan.  2,  1647,  and  migrated  to  Virginia,  where  he  died 
Oct.  29,  1676.  See  Sparks's  American  Biography,  vol.  iii. 
of  new  series,  and  Bacon's  Rebellion. 

Bacon. Sir  Nicholas  :  an  English  statesman  ;  b.  at  Chisle- 
hurst,  in  Kent,  in  1.509;  was  the  father  of  Sir  Francis  Bacon, 
Baron  %'cnilam.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  studied 
law,  and  was  appointed  solicitor  to  the  court  of  augmenta- 
tions in  1537.  In  1546  he  obtained  the  office  of  attorney  to 
the  court  of  wards  and  liveries,  which  he  kept  under  Queen 
Mary,  although  he  was  a  Protestant.  He  was  appointed 
Lord-Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  by  Elizabeth  in  15.58.  He  was 
distinguished  for  his  moderation,  sagacity,  and  discretion, 
and  rendered  important  services  to  the  Protestant  cause. 
Among  the  English  statesmen  of  that  age  he  was  ranked 
next  to  Lord  Burleigh,  who  was  his  friend  and  brother-in- 
law.  Having  held  tlie  office  of  lord-keeper  aliout  twenty 
years,  he  died  in  London.  Feb.  20,  1579.  See  G.  Whetstone, 
Jlemotr  of  Sir  X.  Bacon  ;  Lord  Campbell,  Lives  of  the 
Lord  Chancellors. 

Bacon.  Roger  :  an  eminent  English  philosojiher  and  monk, 
called  The  Admirable  Doctor;  b.  near  Ilchester.  in  Somer- 
setshire, aliout  1214.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and  at  Paris, 
wliere  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  law.s.  Having  en- 
tered the  oi'der  of  Franciscan  monks,  he  settled  at  Oxford 
and  devoted  much  time  to  experimental  philosophy.  He 
was  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  and  made  discoveries  in  sev- 
eral sciences.  He  wrote  in  Latin  a  number  of  works  on 
chemistry,  optics,  physics,  etc.  By  denouncing  the  immo- 
rality and  ignorance  of  the  clergy  and  monks,  he  made 
many  enemies.  His  mechanical  skill  and  his  insight  into 
the  secrets  of  nature  were  such  that  he  was  sus]iected  of 
dealing  in  magic.  Thus  he  became  in  the  popular  imagina- 
tion the  necromancer.  Friar  Bacon,  who  figures  largely  in 
legends.  Ills  writings  having  been  condemned  by  a  council 
of  Franciscan  monks,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  about  1278, 
and  confined  at  least  ten  years.  Indeed,  it  is  not  certain  that 
he  ever  came  out  of  prison.  Nor  is  it  certain  in  what  year 
he  died,  but  probably  at  Oxford.  June  11,  1294.  His  capital 
work,  which  t  reals  of  several  sciences,  is  entitled  0//iis  Majus, 
and  was  written  about  1266.  It  was  first  printed  in  1733. 
Several  of  his  works,  such  as  the  Opus  Tertium.  Opus  Minus, 
and  Compendium  Philosophice,  ■were  pulilished  for  the  first 
time  in  1859.  It  appears  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
composition  and  explosive  power  of  gunpowder.  "The 
mind  of  Roger  Bacon,"  says  Hallam,  "  was  strangely  com- 
[lounded  of  almost  prophetic  gleams  of  tlie  future  course  of 
science  and  the  best  principles  of  the  inductive  philosophy, 
with  a  more  than  usual  credulity  in  the  superstitions  of  his 
own  time."  Hecent  investigations  have  proved  how  much 
inadvanceof  his  times  he  was,  and  that  he  really  anticijiated 
later  discoveries.  See  his  Opera,  ed.  J.  S.  Brewer  (London, 
1859) ;  best  biography  (in  French)  by  E.  Charles  (Paris,  1861). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackso.v. 

Bacon,  Thomas  Scott,  D,  D,  :  controversial  and  theo- 
logical writer  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Cliurch  ;  b.  in 
Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  1,  1825;  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege; originally  a  lawyer  and  member  of  the  .Suffolk  bar, 
Boston,  1847:  ordained  deacon  1853,  priest  1854.  The  civil 
war  found  him  at  his  parish  in  the  old  French  town  of 
Natchitoches,  La.  Though  an  ardent  sympathizer  with  the 
North  he  was  able  to  remain  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  exer- 
ci.se  his  ministry  under  most  romantic  and  trying  circum- 
stances. Removing  to  Marylanil  at  the  close  of  the  war  lie 
has  lived  the  life  of  a  student  and  di^^ne  in  a  secluded  par- 


BACON'S   REBELLION 


441 


ish.  Autlior  of  Both  Sides  of  the  Controversy  between  the 
Unman  and  the  Reformed  Churches  (1858):  Christian 
Clii/dren:  IIow  the  Church  lieyards  and  Addretises  them 
(18(iS);  The  Reign  of  God,  not  the  Reign  of  Law  (187!)); 
The  Beginnings  of  Religion  (Loiulon,  1887);  Primitive 
Man  in  Christian  Thought  (1800);  It  is  Written  (18!)1); 
The  Primitive  and  Catltolic  Doctrine  as  to  Holy  Scripture 
(18'J~) ;  sermons,  reviews,  atldresses,  etc.         W.  S.  Perky. 

Bacon's  Hcliollinn ;  the  eivil  conflict  which,  under  tlie 
loadersliii)  nf  Nalhaniid  Bacon,  took  place  in  Yirmnia  dur- 
inj;  the  rule  of  .Sir  William  Berkeley,  one  hundred  years 
lieforc  the  American  Revolution.  About  the  details  and 
the  real  sifrnilicjince  of  the  conllict  there  has  been,  until  re- 
cently, much  obscurity;  but  careful  studies  of  the  oriirinal 
sources  by  .(ohu  W.  .Johnston  and  (i.  Urown  Goode  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  lOdward  Kirslcston  in  the  liritish  Kocord  Ollice, 
have  tendeil  to  clear  up  many  (]|)scurities  and  relieve  Bacon 
of  much  of  the  opprobrium  which  formerly  attacheil  to  his 
name.  That  the  colonists  hail  great  reason  for  complaint 
against  the  oppressive  tyranny  of  Berkeley  can  no  longer 
admit  of  any  doubt.  The  causes  of  dissatisfaction  were  ag- 
gravated by  the  attitude  of  the  liritish  Governmeut.  An 
act  of  Parliament  declared  that  all  goods,  from  whatever 
country  or  place  they  cauu-,  if  intended  for  Virginia,  should 
be  shipped  first  to  I'jUgland.  and  then  be  reshipped  in  Brit- 
ish vessels  to  the  colony.  The  practical  effect  of  this  meas- 
ui'e  was,  on  the  one  hand,  to  liudt  the  market  for  tobacco  to 
England,  and  thus  greatly  reduce  the  only  source  of  revenue 
to  the  colony,  and,  on  the  other,  greatly  to  increase  the 
price  of  all  articles  furnished  by  foreign  countries.  It  was 
for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  this  obnoxious  law  that  the 
Goverinuent  erected  a  scsries  of  forts,  against  which  the 
most  strenuous  objections  were  made  by  the  colonists. 
Popular  ojiinion  became  still  more  hostile  when  the  edict 
was  promulgated  that  no  tobacco  or  other  produce  could  be 
sold  at  any  point  except  where  there  was  a  fort.  Not  less  ob- 
noxious were  the  duties  imposed  on  trade  between  the  colo- 
nies themselves,  especially  when  it  was  found  that  no  jjart 
of  the  duties  colleclc'd  went  into  the  colonial  trc'asury.  Of 
all  the  moneys  thus  ])aid  in  the  collector  receive  1  one-half, 
the  coni|iti'nlIer  one-fourth,  and  the  other  fourth  went  to 
the  ininur  ollicials.  .V  similar  spirit  was  shown  in  the  law 
requiring  that  fish  from  the  other  colonies  shouli.l  pay  du- 
ties, while  fish  im|)orted  by  people  living  in  England  should 
be  admitteil  free.  .Still  further  to  shake  the  faith  of  the 
colonies  in  the  beneficent  disposition  of  the  mother  country 
was  the  fact  that  about  the  year  1()7;J  the  crown  assigned 
the  whole  jirovinco  of  Virginia  for  thirty-one  j-ears  to  the 
royal  favorites.  Lords  Arlington  and  Culpepper,  with  power 
to  collect  for  their  own  uses  all  quit  rents,  escheats,  and 
duties ;  to  name  sheriffs,  surveyors,  and  other  olHcers ;  to 
make  new  counties,  and,  in  general,  to  exercise  in  their  own 
name  all  the  essential  authoritv  of  absolute  rulers.  The 
Governor  of  the  province.  Sir  William  Berkeley,  was  an  ar- 
dent royalist,  who  seemed  to  Ihiuk  that  the  function  of  a 
governor  was  to  obtain  as  much  as  possible  from  the  colo- 
nists for  himsidf  and  for  his  masters  at  the  least  possilile 
cost.  But  the  most  flagrant  (ilTense  of  Berkeley  was  his 
total  neglect  and  refusal  to  proviile  for  the  sjifety  and  de- 
fense of  the  c<ilonists  against  the  Indians.  Murderous  as- 
saults were  made  again  and  again  upon  the  inhabitants 
along  the  James  river;  but  no  remonstrance  or  ])etition 
that  the  Governor  would  organize  a  defensive  army  was  of 
any  avail. 

Such  was  the  general  state  of  affairs  when  Nathaniel 
Bacon  arriveil  in  the  colony  in  1073.  B.  .Ian.  2,  1047,  he 
had  been  admitted  to  St.  Catherine's  College,  Cand)ridge,  in 
1601),  where  he  took  the  degree  of  JI.  A.  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  in  the  year  1607.  After  studying  law  at  the  Inns 
of  Coiu't,  he  determined  to  go  to  Virginia.  When  he  ar- 
rived in  the  colony  he  W'as  oidy  twenty-six.  Descended 
from  a  patrician  family,  he  lirought  with  him  a  fortune 
sufficient  to  give  him  immedialc  prominence.  He  pur- 
chased one  estate  at  a  point  now  occnpie<l  by  the  city  of 
Kichniond,  and  another  some  miles  lower  down  on  the 
.lames  river.  Bacon  had  scarcely  taken  u|)  his  abode  in  the 
new  province  when  his  qualities  as  a  leader  began  to  make 
themselves  manifest.  Though  he  professed  unswerving  loy- 
alty to  the  crown,  he  saw  plainly  the  abuses  to  which  the 
colonists  were  sulijected.  nncl  did  not  hesitate  to  denounce 
the  course  taken  l)y  Berkeley.  His  aliililyanil  energy  soon 
gave  him  inilmundeil  po|)ularity.  Though  there  were  nniny 
causes  of  discontent,  the  most  extreme  dissatisfaction  was 


felt  with  the  refusals  of  the  Governor  to  take  any  measures 

to  protect  the  colonists  against  the  Indians.  Bacon's  fii-st 
important  movement  was  in  this  direction  at  the  moment 
when  it  was  ascertained  that  the  Intlian  tribes  were  collect- 
ing all  their  forces  with  the  evident  intent  of  exterminating 
the  whites.  Bacon  had  never  seen  a  hostile  Indian,  and  he 
knew  absolutely  nothing  from  personal  exiierience  of  the 
most  successful  manner  of  fighting  them.  The  knowledge 
came  to  him  as  by  instinct.  He  fli'st  applied  to  the  Gov- 
ernor for  authority  to  organize  the  ]>eoplc.  Berki'ley  neither 
granted  nor  refused  the  petition;  he  simply  did  nothing. 
Bacon  then  declared  that  if  another  white  person  lost  his 
life  at  the  hands  of  the  hostile  Indians  he  wouhl  not  wait 
for  formal  authority,  but  would  act  without  it.  He  had  not 
long  to  wait.  One  of  Bacon's  own  men  was  killed  at  his 
lower  plantation,  whereupon  the  news  s]iread  rapidly,  and 
tlu!  peo|)le  tlock<'d  togctlu'r,  demanding  that  Bacon  should 
put  himself  at  their  head  and  take  the  field  against  the 
savages.  With  a  force  of  500  men,  but  without  authority 
or  even  permission  from  the  Governor,  he  assumed  the  of- 
fensive against  the  savage  foes.  As  soon  as  Berkeley  heard 
of  what  had  taken  place  he  issued  a  proclamation,  depriv- 
ing Bacon  of  his  .seat  in  the  House  of  Burgesses  and  order- 
ing his  followers  to  disband  and  disperse  to  their  homes. 
Many  of  the  men.  fearing  the  confiscation  of  their  properly, 
deserted,  and  Bacon  was  left  with  only  fifty-seven  men. 
With  this  force,  however,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  sally  forth 
into  the  wilderness.  In  his  first  confliet  with  the  enemy  he 
set  fire  to  the  palisades  erected  by  the  Indians  and,  it  is 
said,  killed  150  of  the  enemy,  with  a  loss  of  oidy  three  of  his 
own  men.  After  the  capture  of  the  Indian  fort  he  deter- 
mined to  go  to  Jamestown  and  demand  of  Berkeley  not  only 
the  restoration  of  his  seat  in  the  assendily.  but  a  commis- 
sion as  major-general.  This  was  an  audacious  move,  but 
Bacon  was  conscious  of  liaving  the  support  of  the  entire 
province.  Forty  men  insisted  on  accom])anying  him.  On 
approaching  Jamestown  he  was  arrested  and  brought  before 
Berkeley,  who  adilressed  him  as  ''the  greatest  reliel  that 
ever  was  in  Virginia.''  The  news  of  his  arrest,  however,  set 
the  country  ablaze  with  excitement,  and  Berkeley  thought 
it  not  prudent  to  ]innish  or  retain  him.  Though  Bacon 
escaped,  it  was  immediately  evident  that  matters  could  not 
be  settled  without  a  fornud  trial  of  strength.  Berkeley  at 
once  called  his  forces  together,  but  Bacon  determined  to 
avoid  the  defensive  by  making  an  immediate  attack  on 
.Jamestown.  Everyboily  at  the  capital,  excejjting  the  Gov- 
ernor, appears  to  have  been  panic-stricken.  lierkeley.  how- 
ever, never  lost  his  courage,  for  on  the  a|ipearanee  of  Bacon 
he  drew  his  swonl  and  offered  to  dei'ide  the  nuifter  In  a 
haml-to-hand  contest.  Bacon  answered  that  ho  came  not 
to  hurt  a  hair  of  the  Governor's  head,  but  simply  to  get  a 
commission  against  the  heathen  who  were  spilling  so  much 
good  blood.  But  these  courtly  speeches" were  not  successful. 
It  was  necessary  that  he  try  a  new  device.  Drawing  up  his 
troops,  he  ordered  them  to  present  arms,  and  then  declared 
that,  if  the  commission  were  not  forthcoming,  he  would  kill 
the  Governor  and  the  Council  and  then  sheathe  his  sword 
in  his  own  heart's  blood.  His  energetic  declaration  was  ef- 
fective, for  one  of  the  burgesses  called  out  that,  it  he  would 
hoUl  his  hand,  he  should  have  what  he  pleased.  He  de- 
manded a  connnission  as  major-general  for  himself,  and 
thirty  commissions  in  blank  for  his  sul)ordinale  ofliceis. 
]More  than  this,  he  extorted  a  letter  signed  by  the  Governor 
and  directed  to  the  king,  exculpating  himself  and  his  fol- 
lowers. The  Governor  even  a.ssented  to  a  large  number  of 
laws,  some  of  them  repealing  the  most  obnoxious  statutes, 
and  some  of  them  providing  for  meeting  the  present  needs 
of  the  colonies.  But  while  this  legislation  wa.s  going  on. 
Bacon  heard  of  a  <lesperate  attack  by  the  Indians  only  a  few 
miles  away,  and  determined  to  advance  to  the  invaded  region. 
No  sooner  had  he  gone,  however,  than  Berkeley  set  liimself 
to  undo  all  that  had  been  accomplished.  He  summoned 
(roops  fro\n  York  and  elsewhere;  but  when  they  learned 
that  it  was  against  Bacon  that  they  were  to  march  they  re- 
fused to  move.  It  is  said  that  the  Governor  fainted  with 
chagrin.  Bacon,  on  the  other  hand,  as  soon  as  he  learned 
of  the  attempts  of  Berkeley,  made  a  ringing  speech  to  his 
troops  anil  turned  to  go  back  to  .Jamestown.  Berkeley  fled 
at  his  approach,  and  Bacon  fountl  the  government  of  the 
province  practically  in  his  hands.  The  Indians,  however, 
had  taken  .adv.'inlage  of  his  absence,  and  h.ad  again  made  an 
attack  upon  the  inhabitants  up  the  river.  Bacon  not  only 
le.trnod  of  this  fact,  but  he  knew  that  if  he  should  leave 
Jamestown  Berkeley  would  at  once  return  and  attempt  to 


442 


BACONTHORPE 


BACTERIOLOGY 


re-establish  himself  in  power.    Bacon  determined  to  attack 

the  savages  with  Rroat  vigor.  The  liattle,  whicli  comiiletcly 
lin-ko  their  power,  was  fouglit  on  the  jironnd  now  oounpied 
by  the  eastern  part  of  tlie  city  of  Kichmund.  Tlie  name 
"  Bloody  Run "  lias  from  that  day  to  this  clunj;  to  the 
stream  which  is  said  to  have  been  reddened  by  Indian  blood. 
But  no  sooner  had  Bacon  turned  against  the  Indians  than 
Berkeley  turned  against  Jamestown.  The  cajjital  could 
make  no  resistance.  Bacon,  liowever.  decided  to  I'cturn. 
and  marched  willi  such  extraordinary  speed  tliat  he  was 
ready  for  an  attack  before  Berkeley  knew  of  his  a])pi'oaeli. 
A  siege  was  begun  and  carried  on  witli  such  vigor  that  Berke- 
ley, though  he  had  superior  numbers,  soon  decided  to  evacu- 
ate. The  Governor's  fleet,  however,  anchored  near  the  town 
with  the  evident  purpose  of  returning  to  the  attack.  Bacon, 
knowing  that  he  had  a  greatly  inferior  force,  acted  with 
characteristic  promptness  and  set  fire  to  all  the  buildings  of 
the  town,  including  the  church  and  the  State-liouse.  But 
this  was  practically  tlie  end  of  his  career.  He  had  enacted 
and  caused  to  be  prouiulgated  a  numljer  of  laws  so  favor- 
alile  to  tlie  people  that,  long  after  liis  death  and  when  all 
his  acts  had  been  reversed,  there  was  a  popular  clamor  for 
tlie  re-enactment  of  "Bacon's  laws."  But,  in  the  course  of 
liis  latest  expedition  in  the  swamps,  Bacon  was  attacked 
with  a  fatal  dysentery,  and  he  died  Oct.  29. 1676.  Until  very 
recently  the  date  of  his  death  was  unknown,  and  the  ]ihire 
of  his  ijurial  has  remained  in  persistent  obscurity.  Friends 
disposed  of  his  body  in  sucli  a  way  that  it  was  impossible 
for  Berkeley  to  disphiy  it  upon  the  gibbet.  Bacon  left  no 
leader  to  take  his  place  ;  and  lience  it  has  been  customary  to 
attach  to  his  name  the  obloquy  which  usually  accompanies 
the  name  of  an  unsuccessful  rebel.  l'>ut  recent  studies  have 
revealed  the  fact  tliat  he  was  actuated  by  lofty  motives, 
that  he  did  much  to  protect  the  colonies,  and  that  his  laws 
were  of  a  most  benefieent  nature.  Tlie  reasons  for  his  re- 
bellion, though  local  in  their  scope,  were  not  less  flagrant 
than  the  reasons  for  the  American  Revolution  just  a  hun- 
dred years  later.  The  aecoiuits  in  the  standard  histories 
have  been  made  inadequate  by  recent  investigations.  See 
3Iarjazine  of  American  History,  vols.  xvii.  and  xviii.,  and 
the  Cfiitunj  Magazine  for  1890.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bacdiithorpp.  Bacon,  or  Baclio.  .Jonx :  an  English  Car- 
melite, surnamed  The  Resolcte  Doctor;  b.  at  Bacon- 
thorpe.  in  Norfolk,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  was  said  to  be  the  grand-nephew  of  Roger 
Bacon,  and  he  advocated  the  pliilosophy  of  Averroes,  and 
had  great  reputation  for  learning.  Among  his  works  is  a 
commentary  on  tlie  Master  of  Sentences  (Peter  Lombard). 
D.  in  London,  1346. 

Bacs,  baach :  a  county  of  Hungary :  bounded  N.  by  the 
county  of  Pesth,  E.  by  Torontal,  S.  by  Slavonia.  and  \V.  by 
Baranya.  Area.  4,300  sq.  miles.  Tlie  Danube  flows  along 
the  westei-n  boundary,  and  the  Tlieiss  along  the  eastern, 
while  the  two  are  connected  by  the  canal  of  Bacs,  which  is 
about  60  miles  long.  The  county  is  entirely  level,  and.  with 
the  exception  of  the  swamps  along  the  rivers,  is  very  fertile. 
Pop.  (1890)  710.:J2o.     Chief  town,  Zombor. 

Bacte'ria  [jdur.  of  Gr.  ffaKTripiov :  diniin.  of  $aKTr)pla  or 
SaKTpov,  staff,  stick] :  minute,  chloroiihyll-less  plants,  belong- 
ing to  the  lowest  class  (iSchizop/u/reip)  in  the  vegetalde 
kingdom.  They  are  allied  to  the  minute  aquatic  green 
plants,  water-slimes,  so  common  in  pools  of  water,  and  lie- 
loiigiiig  to  the  genera  Nostoc.  Osrilliiria,  Le/jlof/iri.r.  Spiru- 
lina,  etc.,  from  which  they  may  have  been  derived  by  degen- 
eration due  to  t  heir  para,sitie  anil  saprophytic  habits.  ■■  Bac- 
teria ap|)i'ar  in  the  form  of  round  or  cylindrical  rod-shaped, 
rarely  fusiform,  cells  of  very  minute  size.  The  diameter  or 
the  transverse  section  of  the  cylindrical  cells  is  in  most  cases 
about  one  iiiicromillimeter  (r-hno  inch),  or  even  less:  the 
length  of  the  cylindrical  cell  is  iwo  to  four  times  the  trans- 
verse section,  rarely  more.  There  are  only  a  few  forms  with 
distinctly  large  dimensions"  (J>e  Bary). 

On  account  of  their  minute  size  their  study  is  surrounded 
by  many  diincuhies.  Thus  while  thev  are  "nmpiestionalily 
cells,  and  chains  of  cells,  according  to  He  Bary,  "cell-nuclei 
Iiave  not  yet  been  observed  in  lliem."  They  multiply  by 
simple  fission  of  the  ortlinary  cells  a.s  in  other  simple  plants, 
and  by  spore  formation.  Of  the  latter  there  are  two  kimls, 
distinguished  as  endi)Sporous  and  arthrosnorous.  which  seem 
to  divide  the  Bacteiia  into  two  groups.  In  the  development 
of  an  endosporc,  it  begins  as  "  a  comparatively  very  minute, 
})oint-like  granule  in  the  protoplasm  of  a  hithei-t'o  vegeta- 
tive cell.    This  granule  increases  in  volume,  and  soon  pre- 


sents the  appearance  of  an  elongated  or  round,  highly  re- 
fringent,  sharply  defined  body,  attains  its  ultimate  size  rap- 
idly, sometimes  in  a  few  hours. and  is  then  the  mature  spore. 
The  spore  always  remains  smaller  than  its  mother-cell,  the 
protoplasm  and  other  contents  of  which  disappear  with  the 
growth  of  the  spore,  being  doubtless  consumed  for  its  bene- 
fit, until  at  length  the  spore  is  seen  suspended  in  a  pellucid 
substance  inside  the  delicate  nienibranc  of  the  mother-cell  " 
(De  Bary). 

In  the  :irthrosporous  Bacteria  the  spores  are  produced  by 
the  breaking  asunder  of  the  cells  which  constitute  the  fila- 
ment, each  cell  thus  becoming  a  spore. 

The  classification  of  Bacteria  is  as  yet  largely  artificial, 
lieiug  based  to  a  gi-eat  extent  upon  form.  The  arrangement 
by  De  Toni  and  Trevisan  is  as  follows: 

Sub-family  I. — Plants  in  mature  state  filamentous;  ar- 
throsporous.  The  priiicijial  genera  are  Crenothrix,  Clado- 
t/trix,  Kocardin.  Hasnnissenia.  Leptoi  icliia,  and  Beggiatoa. 

Kocardia  aeliiioniyrcs  is  the  cause  of  the  disease  in  cattle 
known  as  "Actinomycosis."  Hasmussenia  buccalis  occurs 
in  decayed  teeth. 


^e  «  n 


Bacteria  :  /.  A  species  of  bacillus,  some  of  the  plants  fnrminfr  spores, 
niaf^nified  ()(Hi  times.  //.  ,\  species  of  niicrococciis  ( M  tirecf ).  niafj- 
iiitied  1.100  times.  ///.  The  Ijacillus  of  anthrax  {B.  aittliracts\ 
two  plants  forming  spores,  magnified  GOO  times. 

SiiJi-family  II. — Plants  in  mature  state  short  rods  (I'ac- 
uli);  mostly  endosporous.  The  principal  genera  are  Bacil- 
lus (of  which  227  species  have  been  described),  Pasteurella, 
Cornilia.  Clostridium,  Vibrio,  Spirillum,  Pacinia,  Bacte- 
rium, and  Kleb.siella. 

Bacillus  tuberculosis  produces  tuberculosis  in  animals 
(and  man) ;  B.  anthracis  is  the  cau.se  of  anthrax  in  animals; 
B.  subtilis  is  common  in  fermenting  and  decaying  sub- 
stances; B.  amylocorus  is  the  cause  of  apple  lilight.  Species 
of  I'asteurella  produce,  or  are  associated  with,  diseases  in 
domestic  animals;  c.  g.  P.  billingsii, Texas  fever;  P.  suilla, 
swine  plague ;  P.  cholera'-gallinariim.  chicken  cholera.  Cor- 
uilia  alrei  produces  a  serious  disea.se  in  bees.  Pacinia 
heffleri  is  associated  with  di]ihtlieria,  and  P.  cliolerm-asiaticm 
with  Asiatic  cholera  in  man,  the  latter  being  the  so-called 
'•  ('ouima^  Bacillus'^  of  Koch.  Bacterium  aceti  is  the 
"mother  of  vinegar,"  producing  acetous  fermentation. 

Sub-family  III. — Plants  minute  spheres  (cocci).  The 
principal  genera  are  Snrcina,  Streptococcus,  Neisseria, 
Staphylncoccns,  and  Micrococcus.  Sarcina  vcntricuti  oc- 
curs in  the  intestinal  canal  of  animals  (and  man);  Strepto- 
coccus varinlo'  occurs  in  smallpox  pustules ;  .S'.  insectarum 
ju'oduce  a  disease  in  chinch-bugs;  S.  alvearis  is  the  cause  of 
"  foul  brood  "  in  bees. 

On  account  of  their  importance  Bacteria  have  been  much 
studied  in  recent  years,  and  llu;  literature  of  the  subject  is 
already  large.  A'ery  high  jiowers  of  the  inicroscope  are  nec- 
essary, and  special  cultures  must  be  resorleil  to  in  order  to 
isolate  the  species  from  one  aiidther. 

The  following  works  may  be  profitably  consulted ;  they 
contain  a  full  account  of  the  volumiiKius  literature;  De 
Bary,  Comparative  Morphology  and  Biology  of  the  Fungi, 
Mycetozoa,  and  Bacteria  (lks7);  De  Toui  and  Trevi.san, 
Schizoniycetdceir.  in  Saccai'do's  Sylloqe  Pungorum  (vol.  viii., 
1889);  Dolley,  T/ie  Technology  of  ^iacteria  Inve.fligation 
(188."));  (irove,  A  Synopsi.s  of  the  Bacteria,  and  Yeast 
Fungi  (18S4);  Hueppe,  The  Metliods  of  liacteriolngical 
Inrcstigaliou  (1886);  Prudden.  The  Story  of  the  Bacteria, 
and  their  Relations  to  Health  and  Disease  (1889).  See  also 
BacTEKIIU.oov.  CllAKLES  K.  Besskv. 

Bactcria'coiV  [from  bacterium  +  -acea>,  a  botanical  suffix 
used  in  furrriing  ordinal  and  family  names] :  liaeteria  con- 
sidered as  ;i  grou])  in  .systematic  botany.    See  P.actekia. 

Bactcriol'ogy  [from  bacterium  +  Kiyav,  to  dLscuss] :  sci- 
entific study  of  bacteria.  The  general  term  "P>acteria"  de- 
notes a  group  of  minute  miscellaneous  vegetable  organisms 


BACTERIOLOGY 


443 


closely  allied  to.  and  now  usually  classed  with,  the  fungi. 
Tln'V  inultiply  by  the  simple  process  of  transverse  division, 
anil  arr  tlirrefore  known  as  Sr/i aoi» i/rr/is.  ov  Ikaion  fniifji. 
'IMii'  >ini|ilest  fonus  appear  under  the  Miieroseope  as  spherical 
liodies  varyinji;  in  size  from  minute  points  just  visible  under 
the  lii.t;ti  powers  to  TnAiiii  "^  ""  iiuiU  in  diameter.  These  are 
called  Micrococci.  Olliers  are  rod-shaped — from  tjW  I" 
TtiJW  "f  an  inch  in  lensth.  and  usually  much  less  tlian  half 
that  in  lireailth.  To  these  the  name  Bnci/ltis  is  -riven. 
(Mliers  a|)pear  as  undulating  threads  or  rods  twisted  like  a 
corkscrew.     To  thi'se  the  nann^  Spirillum  is  {;iven. 

These  uioriiholoi;ical  peculiarities  of  the  dilTerent  bac- 
teria are  constant — that  is  to  say,  an  oru;anism  that  is  nor- 
niallv  spherical  in  shape  always  remains  spherical  and  can 
never  be  caused  to  become  rod-like  in  outline,  and  a  rod- 
shaped  orpmism  remains  rod-shaiied,  never  becominj;  either 
a  sphere  or  a  spiral  form.  For  this  reason  a  number  of 
classilicalions  for  the  bacteria,  based  entirely  upon  morpho- 
logical iM'culiarilies,  have  been  sui;j;ested  :  but  as  they  are 
in  the  main  the  classifications  of  the  older  authors,  many 
<letails  have  been  introduced  thiit  are  now  known  to  be  un- 
necessary. 'J'he  tendency  of  the  day  is  to  simplify  the  };roup- 
iiijT,  and  recognize  the  three  grand  morphoh)gical  groups 
already  nu'titioued — viz..  Micrococci.  Bucilli.  and  Spirilla. 
In  the  course  of  development,  however,  the  memiiers  of  these 
three  divisions  are  seen  to  group  themselves  in  a  more  or  less 
constant  and  characteristic  manner,  and  undergo  certain 
peculiar  alterations  in  their  lite  cycle,  and  for  this  reason 
many  of  them  have  received  names  indicative  of  these  con- 
ditions. 

l"'or  example,  in  the  group  Micrococci  there  are  those 
which,  when  growing,  divide  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  clus- 
ters somewhat  resendiling  bunches  of  grapes;  to  these  the 
nanii'  Slttphi/lococci  is  given.  Others  when  growing  are  al- 
wavs  seen  in  chains  somewhat  resembling  strands  of  l)eads. 
These  are  therefore  known  as  Slreplococci  ;  while  again 
others  divide  commonly  into  twos,  and  are  conse((uently 
scon  in  pair-^ — Diplococci.  The  're/radi  are  those  that  de- 
velop by  diviiling  in  length  and  bi'eadth,  forming  groups 
of  fours,  .\uother  group,  the  Si(rriiin\  include  those  forms 
tiiat  divide  regidarly  in  length,  lireaclth.  and  thickness,  the 
resulting  clusler  having  somewhat  the  appcai'ance  of  a 
bale  of  cotton.  Thi!  Bacilli  comprise  all  straight  bacteria, 
whether  long  or  short,  that  are  not  s|)heri<'al  in  outline. 
.Vmong  the  bacilli  some  forms  possess  the  interesting  jirop- 
erty  of  pa-^sing  into  a  stage  in  which  they  are  much  more 
resistant  to  detrimental  influenc'cs  than  wlien  growing  nor- 
mally. This  stage  of  development  is  kiu)\vn  as  the  spore,  or 
permanent  stage.  The  jn'opcrty  of  forming  spores  is  not 
possesse  1  liy  all  bacilli.  Some  of  them  under  all  comlitions 
appear  as  nothing  else  than  simple  rods  that  elongate  and 
ilivide  into  two,  and  repeat  this  process  initil  conditions  un- 
favorable to  their  lite  processes  arise,  when  development 
cease-s  and  they  die.  Others  also,  when  growing  un<ler  the 
most  favorable  conditions,  appear  only  as  rods  longer  or 
shorter  in  size,  but  with  the  advent  of  surroundings  not 
lavorable  to  this  regular  and  normal  vegetation  tliere  ap- 
)iears  a  change  in  the  individual  rods  th:d  indicates  the 
formation  within  the  boily  ot  the  rod  of  a  structure  ((uite 
ililTerent  in  size,  outline,  and  color  from  the  bacillus  in  which 
it  is  forming.  This  body  when  formed  is  round  or  oval  in 
outline,  very  highly  refractive  to  light,  and  nuirkedly  glisten- 
ing. It  is  the  spore  of  the  bacillus,  and  is  usually  situated 
about  the  center  of  the  rod  in  which  it  appeai-s.  When  in 
this  condition  the  organisms  are  said  to  be  in  the  resting 
stage,  and  nuiny  of  them  by  virtue  of  this  pecidiarity  retain 
their  vitality  for  years  under  con<lifions  that  would  be  <le- 
.structive  to  the  vitality  of  organisms  in  the  stage  of  active 
growth  and  ilevelopment. 

The  spore-stage  is  strictly  a  resting  or  inactive  stage  of 
these  organisjus.  That  is  to  say,  spores  can  not  divide  into 
two  and  form  other  spores  in  the  same  way  that  the  vegeta- 
tive I'orms  multiply,  but  they  lie;  dormant  until  cotulitions 
favoralilc  to  their  growth  appear;  they  then  germinate,  not 
into  s]  lores,  l)ut  into  rods  in  everyway  identical,  not  oidy 
nu)rpliologically  but  physiologically,  with  the  rods  from 
which  they  were  formed. 

.Spores  are  much  more  resistant  to  chemical  and  thermal 
influeiues  than  the  vegetative  forms  from  which  they  arose, 
and  il  is  this  that  nuikes  disinleclion  of  those  sulislances 
C(,n*aining  spores  a  nudter  of  some  diiliculty.  The;  spiral 
forn\s  a|>pear  as  those  having  the  turns  of  the  spiral  long 
and  (pute  obtuse,  .S'/J' (■///«.  and  those  in  which  the  angles 
are  acute,  Spiroclunhe.    Owing  to  the  dillicidty,  and  in  many 


instances  the  impossibility,  of  obtaining  the  spiral  bacteria 
in  artificial  cultiu'es,  our  knowledge  ot  them  is  quite  limited. 
They  apparently  mul1i]ily  liy  simjile  fission. and,  so  far  as  is 
known,  do  not  i'orm  spores.  Another  property  possessed  by 
many  bacteria  is  motility — they  possess  the  power  of  inde- 
pendent motion,  and,  by  the  lashing  movements  of  delicate 
hair-like  appendages  (flagella),  move  themselves  about  from 
one  place  to  another  in  the  iiuid  in  which  they  iloat.  Other 
forms  are  witho\it  the  locomotive  a]iparatus.  and  in  conse- 
quence do  not    possess  the  ])r(iperty  ot  independent   nuition. 

In  their  nutritive  processes  tiacteria  differ  markedly  from 
the  more  highly  organized  nu'udiers  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. They  ai'c  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  the  green  coloring- 
matter  by  virtue  of  which  the  higher  plants  decompose,  and 
obtain  their  luitrition  from,  such  bodies  as  carlionic  acid  and 
ammonia,  and  must  therefore  obtain  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds necessary  to  the  building  up  ot  their  tissues  from 
previously  formed  orgatnc  nudter.  They  can  not  exist  upon 
inorganic  compounds  alone.  Because  of  the  absence  of 
chlorophyll  from  their  tissues,  they  exist  as  sajirophytes.  ob- 
taining their  ludrition  from  dead  organic  matter,  or  as  para- 
sites, which  exist  at  the  expense!  of  either  a  living  animal  or 
vegetable. 

Owing  to  the  rapidity  of  their  life  processes,  they  produce 
the  nuist  jirofound  decomiiosilion  and  fermentative  changes 
in  the  materials  to  which  they  have  gained  access.  Decom- 
position and  fernuMitation  are  the  results  of  the  growth  of 
saprophytic  bacteria,  whereas  the  parasitic  forms  produce 
changes  in  the  tissues  of  their  hosts,  which  nuiy  result  in 
disease,  and  frequently  in  death. 

To  those  unfamiliar  with  the  part  played  in  nature  by 
these  nunute  organisms,  the  wonl  bacteria  is  frequently  as- 
sociated exclusively  witli  disease.  This  is  erroneous,  for  the 
number  ot  species  of  bacti^ria  cajiable  of  causing  disease  is 
relatively  small.  The  great  nuijority  of  them  are  concerned 
in  processes  tlud  are  not  only  in  no  way  relatetl  to  disease, 
Imt  are  directly  beneficijil  to  all  living  memiiers  of  both  the 
aniiruil  and  vegetable  kingdoms;  in  fact,  they  are  csseid.ial 
to  life  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Through  their  action 
the  highly  complicated  tissues  of  dead  animals  and  vegeta- 
bles are  resolved  into  sinqile  compounds — carbonic  acid,  am- 
monia, and  water — in  which  form  they  serve  as  nutrition 
for  the  more  highly  organized  growing  plants.  It  is  fo  the 
ultimate  |iroduction  of  carbonic  acid  and  annnonia  by  liac- 
teria.  lis  end  products  in  the  process  of  deconqiosition,  that 
the  denunids  of  growing  vegetal  ion  for  these  compounds  can 
be  supplied.  Without  the  carbon  and  nitrogen  com|iounds 
resulting  from  the  activities  of  saprophytic  bacteria,  the 
growth  of  higher  vegetation  would  cease.  Deprive  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  of  the  foodst nil's  supplied  to  it  by  the  vegeta- 
ble worlil  and  life  is  no  longer  jmssible.  The  parasites,  on 
the  other  hand,  play  a  part  winch  is  usually  in  no  way  bene- 
ficial to  the  higher  kingdoms.  Their  host  must  always  bo 
either  a  living  animal  or  vegetable,  in  which  arc  present 
con<litions  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  parasite. 
With  this  developuu'ut  substances  are  appropi'iated  as  nutri- 
tion that  are  essential  to  the  health  and  life  of  the  tissues 
in  which  the  jiarasitc  is  located.  At  the  same  time  the  n)a- 
terials  formed  as  a  result  of  the  nutrition  of  the  parasites 
are  direct  ])oisons  for  the  surrounding  tissues. 

It  is  ]ilain.  therefore,  that  the  positions  occupied  by  the 
saprophytii'  and  jiarasitic  bacteria  in  nature  are,  in  their  re- 
lation to  mankin<l.  diaiTU'trically  opposite,  the  saprophytes 
standing  in  the  relation  of  licnefactors.  while  the  result  of 
the  growth  of  the  ]iarasitcs  is  almo.st  always  a  more  or  less 
serious  loss  to  their  hosts. 

For  the  growth  of  bacteria  organic  matter,  moisture  and 
a  suitable  temperature  arc  neccssjiry,  the  latter  varying 
from  about  70°  F.  to  that  of  the  hunuiii  body.  Living  bac- 
teria are  almost  omniiircsent  in  nature;  they  are  found  in 
the  water,  soil,  air,  on  the  surface  of  moist  and  dry  bodies 
exposed  to  the  air.  and  in  the  intestinal  canal  of  all  animals. 
They  are  never  present  in  the  tissues  of  the  healthy  organs 
of  the  living  aninuil. 

As  foinid  in  nature,  nniny  species  of  bacteria  are  usually 
present  as  a  heterogeneous  mixture,  and  in  order  that  the 
characteristics  ot  the  individuals  comprising  the  group  can 
be  studied,  separation  of  the  individual  species  by  artificial 
means  in  what  are  called  "  pure  cultures"  is  necessary.  The 
process  commonly  employed  lor  this  purpose  is  in  principle 
similar  to  the  means  that  would  be  takc^n  for  separating  the 
ditferent  granules  from  a  handful  of  mixeil  .seeds.  As  the 
grains  lie  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand  it  is  ditlicult  if  not  im- 
possible to  pick  out  each  separate  granule  having  a  distinct 


Ui 


BACTERIOLOGY 


size  and  shape,  but  if  one  throws  them  upon  the  surface  of 
a  table,  or  some  hirf;e  tlixt  object,  the  task  then  becomes  verv 
simple.  So  it  is  wil  li  1  he  bacteria :  if  they  can  be  diffused 
in  some  medium  that  has  the  property  of  at  one  time  being 
fluid  and  at  another  soliil,  they  can  be  scattered  so  that  each 
drop  of  the  fiuiil  will  contain  a  few  of  these  microscopic 
bodies.  If  now,  while  fluid,  this  diluted  culture  medium 
is  poured  out  upon  a  large  glass  surface,  the  individiuil 
bacteria  are  more  widely  separated  the  one  from  the  other, 
and  if  the  medium  possesses  the  property  of  solidifying 
when  brought  in  contact  with  the  cool  surface  of  tlie  glass 
plate,  the  bacteria  are  not  only  separated,  but,  as  solidifica- 
tion occurs,  are  fixed  in  this  separated  condition.  The  media 
that  are  employed  for  this  purpose  are  composed  [irimarily 
of  beef  tea  to  which  enough  ordinary  bone  gelatin  or  vege- 
table gelatin  (agar-agar  of  the  Japanese)  is  added  to  per- 
mit of  their  being  at  one  temperature  fluid,  and  at  a  lower 
temperature  solid.  These  media  afford  conditions  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  bacteria,  so  that  in  the  course  of  from  twen- 
ty-four to  forty-eight  hours  the  organisms,  separated  by  the 
process  described  above,  liegin  to  grow,  and  very  quickly  give 
rise  to  what  are  known  as  colonies  of  biicteria  that  can  easUy 
be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye.  Each  colony  represents  the 
offspring  from  a  single  bacterium  that  was  fixed  at  the 
point  at  which  it  appears.  Tliey  are  therefore  each  a  pure 
culture  of  the  organism  from  which  they  sprang.  As  colo- 
nies fi'om  different  species  of  bacteria  commonly  present 
peculiar  characteristics,  it  is  usually  possible  to  determine 
the  number  of  particular  species  that  were  present  in  the 
original  mixture  by  the  appearance  of  the  colonies  develop- 
ing from  them.  In  some  instances  the  resulting  colonies  will 
have  a  characteristic  shape,  being  regularly  round  or  oval  in 
outline;  again  they  will  be  irregular  and  ragged  at  their 
borders :  in  some  instances  they  will  be  dense  and  non-trans- 
parent ;  and  again  very  thin,  delicate,  and  translucent.  Some 
of  them  grow  as  dry  iusterless  patches,  others  as  moist  glis- 
tening islands  that  stand  up  above  the  surrounding  medium. 
Many  species  of  bacteria — the  chromogenie  varieties — possess 
the  interesting  property  of  producing  brilliant  pigments,  by 
which  they  can  readily  be  recognized.  Just  as  some  rose's 
grow  red,  others  white,  and  otiiers  yellow,  so  will  the  colonies 
resulting  from  certain  ot  the  chromogenie  species  be  in  one 
case  red,  in  another  yellow,  and  in  still  others  violet  in  color, 
so  that  a  plate  that  is  made  for  tlie  purpose  of  separating  the 
individuals  of  a  mixture  containing,  with  other  organisms, 
certain  of  these  color-producers,  will  often  present  a  most 
attractive  array  of  these  various  pigmented  colonies. 

If  now  a  portion  from  each  representative  colony  is  intro- 
duced into  a  tul)e  or  (lask  containing  a  sterile,  nutrient  medi- 
um, the  growth  that  results  will  be  a  pure  culture  of  the  or- 
ganism forming  the  colony  from  which  the  bit  was  taken. 
By  this  means  it  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  separate 
from  a  mixture  of  bacteria  the  individuals  that  composed  it. 
The  process,  as  just  described,  represents  the  well-known 
method  of  Koch  tor  the  isolation  and  cultivation  of  bacteria 
on  solid  media. 

Another  means  for  distinguishing  them  is  by  their  relation 
to  bone  gelatin.  Some  of  them  by  their  powers  of  peptoniza- 
tion cause  the  gelatin  to  become  lluid,  and  in  doing  this  so 
alter  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  medium  that  it  can 
not  again  be  rendered  solid.  Others  never  under  any  cir- 
cum.stances  bring  about  this  change. 

Again,  certain  of  them  are  characterized  by  their  relation 
to  oxygen.  Most  species — the  aerobic  forms — recpiire  this  gas 
for  their  development,  while  others — the  anaerobic  forms — 
not  only  do  not  grow  where  it  is  present,  but  are  directly 
destroyed  through  its  influence. 

Still  another  means  of  identification  is  by  the  nature  of 
their  chemical  products,  and  finally,  and  most  important  to 
mankind,  by  the  ab.sence  or  presence  of  the  power  to  pro- 
duce disease. 

With  certain  mixtures  of  Ijacteria,  particul.arly  those  sus- 
pected of  containing  ])athogenic  (disease-producing)  organ- 
isms, another  method  of  separation  is  often  resorted  to  :  the 
inoculation  of  susceptible  animals  with  the  suspicious  mix- 
tures. The  innocent  saprophytes  are  quickly  destroyed  by  the 
tissues  of  the  animal,  while  the  disease-producers  will  per- 
form their  specific  function,  and  can  often  be  obtained  from 
the  l)l(>od  or  organs  in  pure  culture. 

The  life  history  of  the  para.sites  when  outside  of  the  lw)dy 
of  their  host  is  not  only  an  interesting  one,  but  to  mankind 
a  matter  of  great  practical  importance.  When  disease-pro- 
ilueing  bacteria  }m;  thrown  off  from  the  body  of  the  affected 
animal  or  man,  either  with  tiie  intestinal  evacuations,  the 


sputum,  or  from  the  skin,  the  conditions  which  they  meet, 
tliongh  not  sufficiently  unfavorable  in  most  cases  to  prevent 
till!  di'velopment  of  the  ordinary  saprophytes,  ai'e  by  no 
means  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  more  delicate  parasites, 
so  that  in  the  main  they  quickly  lose  their  vitality.  Where 
conditions  of  a  more  favorable  character  do  exist,  they  are 
likewise  those  under  which  tlie  saprophytic  forms  grow  most 
luxuriantly,  so  that  again  the  delicate  disease-producers  meet 
another  element  not  favorable  to  their  growth — the  antagon- 
ism that  is  offered  to  them  by  the  common  organisms  found 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  the  water,  etc.  Were  it 
otherwise,  the  causes  of  some  diseases,  such  a.s  tyjihoid  fever, 
would  be  much  more  persistent  and  widespread  than  they 
seem  to  be  at  present. 

By  the  methods  described,  with  certain  modifications,  the 
details  of  which  can  hardly  lie  given  in  an  article  of  this 
character,  a  very  large  number  of  ditrerent  species  of  bac- 
teria have  been  isolated,  and  their  peculiarities  in  cultures 
an<l  their  relation  to  changes  going  on  about  us  and  to  dis- 
eases have  been  established. 

At  different  places  upon  the  earth's  surface  bacteriological 
analyses  of  waters  have  been  made,  and  com|iarisons  of  the 
results  reveal  the  interesting  fact  that  there  is  a  definite 
flora  of  Ijacteria  from  open  watercourses  over  the  entire 
earth.  These  water  liacteria.  as  they  are  commonly  called, 
are  sajirophytes.  and  do  not  possess  the  jiroperty  of  induc- 
ing disease.  By  their  presence  in  water  complex  nitroge- 
nous matter  is  converted  into  sim])ler  forms,  in  which  it  is 
either  taken  up  as  food  by  the  higher  inhabitants  of  the 
water,  or  is  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  stream  Ijy 
chemical  processes,  or  remains  in  solution  in  the  water  in 
the  form  of  innocent  inorganic  salts. 

No  less  interesting  and  instructive  are  the  results  of  studies 
upon  the  soil.  Here  are  found  countless  numbers  of  bac- 
teria, the  majority  of  which  are  those  concerned  in  the  great 
process  of  decomposition  and  disintegration  constantly  in 
progress.  Of  these  certain  species  are.  however,  directly  in- 
strinnental  in  a  more  or  less  specific  feature  of  decomposition 
— nitrification,  i.  e.  the  production  of  soluble  salts  of  nitric 
acid  from  the  more  complex  forms  of  nitrogenous  organic 
matter.  It  is  through  the  agency  of  these  organisms,  most 
probably  in  combination  with  other  organisms  that  are  eon- 
cerneil  in  the  primary  process  of  decomposing  the  nitroge- 
nous organic  matter  as  such,  that  the  purification  of  sewage 
by  filtration  through  soil  is  mainly  accomplished.  It  is  also 
due  to  the  activities  of  the  same  organisms  that  ammonia, 
nitrous  and  nitric  acid  are  found  in  water  polluted  by  ni- 
trogenous wastes,  and  it  is  these  microscopic  creatures  that 
are  instrunienlal  in  ]ierpetuating  the  niter  or  saltpeter  beds 
of  Chili  and  Peru,  tlud  are  of  such  importance  in  commerce. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  though  the  organisms  ot  nitri- 
fication produce  these  characteristic  end  products  from  ni- 
trogenous organic  matter,  they  are  still  incapable  of  devel- 
opment; in  the  nitrogenous  nutritive  media  employed  in 
general  bacteriological  studies.  They  can  not  be  isolated 
by  the  ordinary  methods  from  water  or  soil  in  which  they 
are  present,  lait  require  for  their  isolation  media  quite  dif- 
ferent from  those  utilized  in  the  cultivation  of  any  other 
known  bacteria.  Those  who  have  worked  with  greatest  suc- 
cess u[ion  this  organism  have  cultivated  it  only  through  the 
use  of  .solutions  of  inorganic  salts  in  distilled  water,  from 
which  organic  matter  is  absent.  It  is  isolated  from  waters 
in  which  nitrification  is  in  progress  by  a  process  of  dilution. 
As  other  organisms  that  were  originally  present  with  the 
nitrifying  bacillus  do  not  retain  their  life  properties  in  solu- 
tions favorable  to  the  growth  of  this  organism,  it  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  to  exclude  them  altera  few  gen- 
erations. 

The  nitrifying  bacillus,  when  examined  microscopically, 
is  a  short  rod  of  a  slightlv  oval  sha|ie.  It  varies  in  size  from 
1-1 "  to  1-7 "  in  length,  and  from  0-8"  to  0-9''  in  breadth. 
It  stains  willi  difficulty  with  the  ordinary  aniline  staiiuiig 
reagents,  and  is.  when  ex.amined  fresh,  seen  to  be  without  the 
power  of  independent  movement.  As  found  in  cultures  they 
are  grouped  very  characteristically  in  irregidar  clumps,  and 
are  held  together  by  a  jelly-like  material.  These  clumps  arc 
found  usually  at  the  bottom  of  the  fluid.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  tliei-e  nniy  bo  several  closely  allied,  though  not 
identical,  organisms  included  in  this  term  "nitriryiug  bacil- 
lus." Tlie  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  organism,  and 
that  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  bacteria  thus  far 
stu<lied,  is  its  peculiar  source  of  luUritiou.  The  absence 
of  chlorophyll  from  its  tissues  precludes  the  possibility  of 
its  obtaining  the  necessary  carbon  and  nitrogen  from  such 


BACTERIOLOGY 


445 


simf)le  substances  as  gaseous  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid,  as 
do  the  more  liiijhly  orijanized  pfreon  plants:  and  its  failure 
to  grow  in  artificial  cultures  or  media  containinj;  nitrogenous 
organic  matter  renders  it  somewhat  enigmatical  as  to  how 
its  firocosses  of  nutrition  are  conducted.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  further  studies  upon  this  interesting  and  important  or- 
ganism will  clear  away  some  of  these  obscure  points. 

The  disease-producing  organisms  are  not  very  rarely  found 
in  the  soil,  ami  an^  for  the  most  part  tliose  possessing  the 
property  of  forming  spores,  by  which  they  are  eiuiblinl  to 
resist  liiose  detrinu-ntal  intluences  that  result  in  the  death 
of  the  less  resistant,  non-spore-1'orming  organisms.  Of  these 
forms  the  most  conspicuous  are  the  bacillus  of  tetanus  (lock- 
jaw) and  the  bacillus  of  malignant  u'denia. 

The  bacillus  of  lelanus  is  a  delicate  rod  of  about  l-C 
to  l-:!**  in  length,  and  of  about  0-1  to  O-^"  in  thickness.  It 
possesses  the  property  of  forming  spores,  and  when  iu  this 
stage  has  somewhat  the  a]ipearauce  of  a  miniature  drum- 
stick, owing  to  the  tendency  of  the  sporo  to  form  at  one  end 
of  the  rod.  at  which  point  the  rod  becomes  slightly  enlarged. 
It  is  feelily  motile.  It  is  anaerobic,  and  will  therefore  not 
grow  iu  the  presence  of  oxygen.  When  this  gas  is  rigidly 
exclud<'d  from  the  cultures,  the  organism  grows  well  on  the 
ordinary  eidlure  media  after  Ihey  liave  been  I'l'iidered  a  little 
more  alkaline  than  is  necessary  for  the  uuijoritv  of  other 
organisms.  It  grows  best  in  those  media  to  whicli  a  little 
(about  1  to  2  per  cent.)  of  grape  sugar  luis  been  added.  It 
is  not  a  rapidly  growing  org.anism,  and  thrives  best  at  the 
temperaturi'  of  the  human  iiody.  It  li(|uefies  gelatin,  and 
gives  off  a  peculiar.  un|)le,H-saut  odor.  It  c-an  be  stained  with 
the  ordinary  aniline  dyes.  It  is  most  readily  obtained  in 
pure  cultures  from  the  soil  or  other  materials  in  which  it  is 
present,  after  subjecting  them  for  two  or  three  successive 
days  to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  (170'  F.)  for  one-half  to  one 
liour.  a  tempi^rature  that  destroys  the  other  organisms  pres- 
ent but  is  not  harmful  to  the  spores  of  the  tetanus  bacillus. 
When  sulijected  to  the  temperature  of  steam  (100°  C.  or  213° 
V.)  for  five  minutes  the  organism  and  its  spores  are  killed. 
When  in  the  dried  condition  the  spores  of  this  organism 
have  been  known  to  retain  their  virulence  for  as  long  as  six- 
teen months. 

The  animals  that  are  susceptible  to  its  pathogenic  activi- 
ties arc  horses,  sheep,  dogs,  mice.  rats,  guinea-pigs.  rabl)its, 
anil  also  man.  .\s  seen  experinuMitally.  the  cliidcal  mani- 
festations and  pathological  alterations  in  this  disease  are  due 
entirely  to  the  absorption  of  t  he  poisonous  productsof  growth 
of  the  organisms  loe,-it<'il  at  the  point  at  which  they  gaiiu'il  ac- 
cess to  the  tissues.  In  animals  dead  of  this  disease  neither  the 
liacilli  nor  their  spores  are  ever  found  in  the  internal  organs, 
and  in  many  cases  they  arc  even  absent  from  the  seat  of  in- 
<«-ulati(m.  The  presence  of  this  organism  in  the  soil  serves 
to  explain  the  fre<iuent  appearance  of  tetanus  as  an  aecom- 
pauiuuMit  of  wouncis  to  which  dirt  and  dust  have  had  access 
— those  wounds,  for  exam|ile.  of  individuals  eugageil  in  agri- 
cultural labors,  street  workmen,  and  crushed  wouml.s  from 
the  wheels  of  engines  and  railroad  cat's. 

The  bacillus  of  ni.'dignant  <cdenui  (French.  Vlbrlnn  upp- 
ti(/in').  another  pathogenic  organism  found  in  the  soil,  is  a 
rod-shaped  orgaidsm  of  3  to  4''  long  and  I'O  to  1-1  <*  thick. 
It  is  sometimes  straight  and  sometinu's  slightly  curved  in 
shape,  and  not  infreiiuently  grows  as  long  threads.  In  the 
vegetative  stage  it  is  motile,  but  becomes  motionless  ju;  the 
spores  form  within  it.  It  is,  strictly  speaking,  an  anaerobic 
organism,  and  grows  best  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen.  It 
is  nol  a  gas-proilucer.  and  gives  off  when  growing  an  un- 
jileasant  acid  odor.  On  bone  gelatin  it  jiroduces  liquefac- 
tion. It  stains  with  the  ordinary  aniline  dy<-.s.  It  grows 
most  luxuriantly  at  tlie  tem]ieratnre  of  the  luunan  body. 

The  animals  that  are  susceptible  to  the  action  of  this  ba- 
cillus are  guinea-pigs,  mice,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  chick- 
ens, and  ralibits,  though  the  intensity  of  the  disease  varies 
<-onsideralily  with  the  animal  atfected.  tiuiuea-pigs  tliat 
have  died  as  a  result  of  sulicutaiu'ous  inoculation  with  this 
organism  present  the  condition  of  intense  (cdema  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous and  mnscular  tissues  at  and  about  the  point  of 
inocidation.  The  bacilli  can  easily  be  found  in  this  o'dema- 
tous  lluiil.  and  have  been  detecteil  iu  the  tissues  of  the  im^s- 
enlery.  Horses,  asses,  and  white  rats  when  inoculated  ))re- 
sent  oidy  a  very  limiteil  local  swelling  that  (jui<'kly  disap- 
pears without  i)roving  fatal,  while  hogs.  dogs.  cats,  rabbits, 
ducks,  chickens,  and  pigeons  arc  practically  susceptible  to 
the  dise.ise.  Aside  from  the  importance  of  the  relation  of 
this  organism  to  the  lower  animals,  it  is  principally  of  in- 
terest historically  as  being  the  organism  that  was,  prior  to 


the  more  exact  metliods  of  work  of  to-<lay,  most  fi^equently 
confounded  with  the  b.Hcillu.s  of  Axthr.^x  (</.  v.). 

Hacteriological  study  of  the  air  has  shown  tliat  tlie  num- 
ber of  organisms  present  are  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  floating  matters,  i.e.  the  amount  of  dust;  and  micro- 
scopic examinatiim  of  these  dust  particles  shows  them  to  be 
covered  in  most  cases  with  a  group  of  a<lherent  organisms. 
Individual  bacteria  alone  are  probably  not  present  in  tlie  air, 
but.  as  stated,  are  deposited  upon  dust  jiarticles.  The  bac- 
teria found  in  the  air  are  most  commonly  the  ordinary 
saprophytes,  though  under  certain  conditions  disea.se-pro- 
ducing  bacteria  may  be  detc-cled  not  in  the  open  air,  but 
in  that  of  closed  apartments  occupied  by  pereons  or  ani- 
mals sulfering  from  infections  diseases.  In  liadly  managed 
surgical  wards  of  hospitals  the  bacteria  concerned  inordi- 
nary suppurative  jiroccsses  have  been  detected;  also  the 
>Stn'p/or(>cruso{  erysijielas  has  in  a  few'  in.stances  been  found 
in  the  dust  of  these  rooms.  Tliough  it  has  not  been  found 
floating  in  the  air,  still  the  liacillus  of  tuberculosis  (con- 
sunijition)  has  been  found  iu  rpiite  a  number  of  instances  in 
the  dust  of  apartments  occupied  liy  individuals  suffering 
from  this  malady.  This  is  jiartieularly  the  case  in  those  in- 
stances in  which  cleanliness  is  not  rigidly  observed — where 
th(>  expectoration  finds  its  way  to  the  floor  and  is  ground 
into  dry  dust  by  the  feet  of  those  w^alking  about  the  room. 
As  this  expectoration  contains  the  tubercle  bacilli,  frequently 
in  very  large  numbers,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  of  the  danger 
of  breathing  the  dust-laden  atmosiihere  of  such  rooms.  This 
.source  of  infection  can  easily  be  eliminated  by  having  the 
sputum  from  these  patients  collected  in  vessels  containing 
water.  The  vessels,  with  their  contents,  should  be  boiled 
every  morning.  Bacteria  can  only  be  swejit  into  the  air 
from  dry  surfaces,  ami  can  not  by  ordinary  means  find  their 
way  into  the  air  from  moist  siiifaccs.  The  characteristics 
of  the  pathogenic  organisms  nami'd.  that  may  under  excep- 
tional instances  bo  present  in  the  air  of  closed  spores,  are  as 
follows : 

The  ordinaiT  organisms  of  suppuration,  the  pyogenic  cocci, 
as  t  hey  are  called,  comprise  a  gi'oup  of  micrococci  that  are 
distingtiislied  from  one  another  by  the  fact  that  they  are  of 
different  degrees  of  virulence,  produce  ditrereiit  colors  in  the 
course  of  their  artificial  cultivation,  and  in  the  course  of 
their  growth  are  grou|ied  differently.  There  are  four  differ- 
ent kinds  of  micrococci  to  which  the  term  pyogenic  is  ap- 
plied :  The  Sta/)/i  i/loroccns pi/of/enes  aureus,  so  called  because 
of  the  golden  color  of  its  colonies:  the  Stii/jln/locdrfiif: pi/o- 
f/e/ira  o/A».s,  the  colonies  of  which  are  white;  the  Stii/jlii/!o- 
cocciis  pi/ngenes  citreux,  which  grows  in  lemon-cohjred  colo- 
nies; and  the  Sirfplornceufi  ptjoijeni-s.  so  called  because  it 
grows  in  chains  consisting  of  several  individual  organisms 
joined  together.  The  staphylococci  of  pus  are  veiy  closely  al- 
lied in  their  cultural  peculiarilies.and  biologically  are  distin- 
guished the  one  from  the  other  only  by  the  color  of  the  pig- 
ments produced.  They  are  all  micrococci  of  about  O'ST**  in 
diameter.  gTouped  together  like  clusters  of  grapes.  They  are 
non-motile,  and  being  of  the  micrococcus  group  do  nol  form 
spores.  They  grow  readily  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of 
a  room,  about  68°  to  70°  F.,  but  most  luxuriantly  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body.  They  grow  on  all  the  ordinary  culture- 
media^ — agar-agar. gelatin,  jiotato.  blood-serum,  and  bouillon. 
They  liiiuefy  gelatin,  and  can  readily  be  stained  with  the 
ordinary  aniline  dyes.  They  may  be  found  both  micmscopi- 
cally  and  by  culture  methods  in  the  pus  from  acute. eircuni- 
.scriiied,  sniipnrative  processes,  though  the  Stiip/ii/hicornix 
pi/of/enesatireiin  is  much  more  frequently  ])resent  than  either 
of  tlie  others.  Snp|)urative  jirocesses  similar  to  those  from 
which  these  organisms  are  obtained  can  be  reproduced  in 
susceptible  lower  animals  by  the  introduction  of  the  organ- 
isms into  the  tissues;  and,  by  the  intravenous  injection  of 
the  Staph i/loeiicciig  aureitfi  into  rabbits,  miilti|>le  ab-scess 
formations,  ino.st  conspicuous  iu  the  muscles,  the  heart,  and 
kidneys,  can  be  produced. 

The  ,Stri'pt(icor.c>i.i  pi/ngenp.t  is  most  commonly  found  in 
those  suppurative  processes  which  jiartake  of  the  nature  of 
erysipelas,  i.  c.  those  of  a  spreading  tendency.  As  stated, 
this  organism  is  grouped  in  the  form  of  chains  somewhat  re- 
sembling strands  of  bea<is.  In  cultures  it  grows  less  luxuri- 
antly than  do  the  other  pyogenic  cocci,  and  is  Ihnmghout  a 
much  less  hardy  organism,  though  the  disease  proces.ses  |iro- 
duced  by  it  are  usually  of  a  more  serious  character  than  those 
resulting  from  the  activities  of  ;t he  .SV((/;/;!//orowi.  It  docs 
not  lifjuefy  gelatin.  It  is  not  motile,  ami  under  artificiid 
conditions  not  very  tenacious  of  life.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  ajipeai-s  to  be  of  high  vitality  when  once  having  gained 


446 


BACTERIOLOGY 


BADAJOZ 


access  to  the  tissues  of  siisceptilile  animals,  and  particularly 
man.  It  stains  readily  with  the  ordinary  staining  reagents. 
This  organism  is  so  like  the  Sfnpfococctis  concerned  in  the 
production  of  erysipelas  as  in  all  probability  to  be  identical 
with  it.  Inoculations  of  lower  animals  with  this  organism 
do  sometimes,  though  nut  constantly,  result  in  the  appear- 
ance of  a  condition  analogous  to  that  from  which  the  organ- 
isms were  olitaincd. 

The  Baci/lus  lubeirulusis.  tlie  other  pathogenic  organ- 
ism that  may  possilily  be  present  in  the  air  of  an  inclosed 
space,  is  a  rod-shaped  bacillus  of  about  3  to  5**  long  and 
very  slender.  It  is  usually  beaded  in  appearance  and  slightly 
curved  or  bent  on  its  long  axis.  It  forms  spores.  Under  arti- 
ficial conditions  it  grows  very  slowly,  and  either  very  slightly 
or  not  at  all  at  a  temperature  lower  than  that  of  the  animal 
body.  It  grows  best  on  solidified  blood-serum  or  nutritive 
agar-agar  to  which  a))out  6  per  cent,  of  glycerin  has  been 
added.  Its  growth  on  those  media  is  characteristic,  being 
very  dry  and  coarsely  granular,  so  that  the  point  at  which  it 
is  developing  has  somewhat  the  appeai'ance  of  having  been 
spread  with  dry  meal.  It  grows  also  on  glycerin-bouillon, 
forming  a  dry  pellicle  that  floats  upon  the  surface  of  the 
fluid.  It  does  not  develop  upon  gelatin,  because  of  the  low 
temperature  at  which  this  medium  must  Ije  used.  It  does 
not  stain  by  the  orilinary  methods,  but  requires  a  special 
process,  so  that  it  can  be  identified  by  this  means.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  stain,  but  when  once  stained  is  equally 
tenacious  of  its  color. 

These  organisms  are  present  in  the  sputum  of  all  persons 
suffering  from  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  in  the  intestinal 
evacuations  of  all  patients  with  tubercular  enteritis,  in 
scrofulous  glands,  and  in  tuberculous  bone  troubles.  They 
stand  in  direct  causal  relation  to  tliese  processes.  Tuliercu- 
lar  infection  can  occur  tin-ough  the  air-passages,  tlie  alimen- 
tary tract,  and  through  wounds  of  the  skin.  The  animals, 
including  man,  that  are  susceptible  to  the  action  of  this  or- 
ganism are  cattle,  hogs,  cats,  rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  and  field 
mice.     Wliite  mice,  rats,  and  dogs  possess  natural  immunity. 

In  addition  to  the  organisms  mentioned,  the  liacillus  of 
anthrax,  that  of  typlioid  fever,  and  that  of  Asiatic  cliolcra 
are  now  and  then  found  outside  the  body  in  either  tlie  soil 
or  water.  Besides  these  there  are  other  pathogenic  organisms 
whose  relation  to  disease  is  established,  but  which  have  not 
been  found  outside  of  the  diseased  conditions  with  which 
they  are  associated.  Of  tliese  may  bih  mentioned  the  BaciUiis 
dip'/i//ieriie  and  the  Diphicorciis  Imiri'iilnfus  of  pneumonia, 
an  organism  that,  according  to  Stcrnlierg,  is  found  in  the 
mouth  cavity  of  about  20  [ler  cent,  of  all  healthy  persons. 

The  BctciUus  diphtlieriie  is  a  rod-shaped  organism  of  about 
the  size  of  the  tubercle  liacillus.  but  very  irregular  in  its 
morphology,  whicli  may  be  curved,  straight,  spindle  or 
club  shaped.  It  is  always  present  in  the  false  membranes 
in  tlie  pharynx  of  diphtlieric  patients,  and  rarely  in  the 
internal  organs  of  individuals  that  have  died  of  the  disease. 
It  can  be  isolated  and  cultivated  upon  artificial  nii'dia.  and 
when  introduced  into  tlie  tissues  of  guinea-|iigs  and  kittens 
gives  rise  to  alterations  quite  identictil  with  those  of  dijili- 
theria  in  the  human  being.  Like  tetanus,  the  symptoms 
and  pathological  lesions  of  diphtheria  are  due  not  to  the  dis- 
semination of  th(^  bacteria  through  the  body,  but  rather  to 
the  absorption  of  their  poisonous  products  from  the  scat  of 
activity  in  the  throat. 

The  />i/i/(ir(iiTu.s  liiiici'olulus  of  piicumonia.  though  not  ful- 
filling id!  the  postulates  necessary  to  prove  absolutely  its 
ivhition  to  acute  filirinous  |inciimonia.  is  nevertheless  in  all 
proliability  the  etiological  factor  in  the  production  of  this 
disease.  As  its  name  iinjilies.  it  is  a  coccus  commonly  found 
in  pairs.  It  is  an  extremely  delicate  organism,  so  that  it  is 
with  much  difficulty  that  it  can  he  cultivated  for  any  length 
of  time  upon  artificial  media.  It  is  possilde  to  i-iolatc  it 
from  |)neuMionic  proeesses.  however,  and  cultivate  it  arti- 
(ii'ially.  Wlien  introduced  into  the  tissues  of  su.sceptilile 
animals,  particularly  mice  and  rabbits,  thi'  resulting  iirocess 
is  not  pneumonia,  but  a  very  acute  and  fatal  form  of  septi- 
caemia. Tliis  organism  is  present  in  the  saliva  of  about  20 
jier  cent,  of  all  normal,  hi'iillhy  individuals. 

The  results  of  stialies  upon  the  modua  nperaiuli  of  infec- 
tion lead  us  to  believe  that  bacteria  invade  and  destroy 
the  vitality  of  tissues  in  which  tlii'V  are  located.  ]prim-ipally 
by  the  pi'oduction  of  p(iisouous  jiroducts  that  are  of  an 
albuminous  nature.  These  products  are  the  weapons,  so  to 
speak,  of  the  invading  foe  and  the  result  of  the  contest  de- 
penils  mainly  iqion  the  power  of  the  tissues  to  resist  the  ac- 
tion of  these  agents  :  this  thev  do  through  sulistanees  which 


are  chemically  of  a  somewhat  similar  nature  to  the  products 
of  the  bacteria,  but  which  act  as  antidotes  in  neutralizing 
the  poisons  as  fast  as  formed. 

The  study  of  bacteria  in  disease  is  by  no  means  the  only 
direction  in  which  bacteriological  research  is  being  directed. 
The  employment  of  bacteria  in  the  industries  is  a  very  im- 
portant problem.  It  is  to  the  activities  of  peculiar  species 
of  bacteria  that  certain  cheeses  owe  their  flavor  that  gives  to 
them  their  value  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  by  bacteria 
and  closely  allied  forms  that  many  of  the  organic  acids  are 
produced,  and  the  part  played  by  the  yeast  fungus,  which, 
though  not  a  bacterium,  is  usually  considered  with  them,  in 
the  manufacture  of  beer,  ale,  and  alcohol,  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one.  A.  C.  Abbott  and  J.  S.  Billings. 

Baete'riniii,  plural  Bacteria:  See  Bacteria  and  Bac- 
teriology. 

Bac'tria,  or  Bactria'iia :  an  ancient  country  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  bounded  X.  by  the  river  t»xus  (Amoo  or  Gihon) 
and  S.  by  the  Hindu  Koosh  Mountains  (anc.  Pniopamisus). 
Its  boundaries  are  not  perfectly  known,  but  it  is  considered 
to  be  identical  with  the  modern  province  of  Balkh.  This  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  native  country  of  the 
Aryan  race.  Bactria  was  the  center  of  a  powerful  kingdom 
which  flourished  before  the  historical  period.  Its  capi- 
tal. Bactra.  or  Zariaspa,  which  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
modern  Balkh.  was  the  hcadipiarters  of  the  Magi.  In  the 
time  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  Bactria  became  a  Persian  province, 
and  was  coiupiered.  with  the  rest  of  the  Persian  emiiire,  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  In  the  third  cent\iry  b.  c,  liy  the  re- 
volt of  the  satrap  Diodotus.  it  gained  independence,  and  was 
ruled  by  a  dynasty  of  Greek  origin,  whose  coins  have  not 
yet  elucidated  their  succession.  In  the  eai-ly  Christian  cen- 
turies it  became  a  powerful  seat  of  Buddhism.  With  Bok- 
hara, to  which  it  was  subject,  it  passed  under  Russian  con- 
trol about  ISOS.  This  history  of  Bactria  has  recently  been 
elucidated  by  numerous  Gra'co-Bactrian  coins  and  other  an- 
tiquities found  in  the  tnpex  or  burial-places  of  Afghanistan. 
Some  of  these  coins  present  Greek  letters,  and  also  letters  of 
a  dialect  of  Sanskrit.  See  Wilson,  Ariaria  Anfiejiia  (1841) ; 
Lassen.  Imiixrlie  Altevtiiiiniskiinde  (1840):  E.  Thomas.  Bac- 
ti-ian  Coins,  in  Juiirmd  of  'Boi/al  Asiatic  Soriefi/  (London, 
1873).  '         Revised  by  I).  O.  Kelloug. 

Bac'tris  [from  (!r.  ^aKTpov.  a  stick] :  a  genus  of  palms, 
comprising  about  fitly  know  n  species,  all  natives  of  America. 
They  are  generally  small  trees,  with  slender  stems  and  pin- 
nate leaves.  Some  of  them  are  spiny,  and  form  thickets 
which  are  almost  impenetrable.  The  Bnctris  marnja,  oi' 
the  niaraja  palm,  bears  clusters  of  fruit  resembling  small 
grapes,  with  a  ]iulp  of  an  agreeable  flavor.  The  stems  are 
used  as  walking-sticks. 

Bat'tri'tes  [from  Gr.  PaKTpov.  a  stick] :  a  genus  of  fo.ssil 
Xiiiifiloideii.  with  a  straight  shell,  sutures  siuqily  curved, 
and  siphon  marginal.  Classed  with  the  (hthocfrdtlitiv  by 
Zittell,  but  by  Sandlierger  it  was  placed  auioug  the  (liiiiid- 
tiiis.  Several  species  from  the  Devonian  ami  Silurian  rocks 
are  descrilied.  II.  S.  Williams. 

Baciill'tes  [from  Lat.  hdciihim.  stick]  :  a  genus  of  fossil 
Am.moxoidea  ((/.  v.).  with  a  straight  shell  with  finely  foli- 
ated sutures  and  marginal  siphon.  Characteristic  of  the 
Cretaceous.  Though  iireseiiting  some  resemblance  to  the 
Pal.a^ozoic  Bartriles.  this  genus  is  readily  distinguished  from 
it  by  the  foliated  sutures.  '    U.S.  Williams. 

Bac'n|>:  a  flourishing  (own  of  Lancashire.  Enghind  :  22 
miles  liy  rail  X.  of  Manchester  (see  limp  of  England,  ref. 
7-G).  it  is  situat<'(l  in  a  beautiful  valley,  and  is  a  terminus 
of  a  branch  of  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway.  It 
has  many  churches  and  chapels,  a  fine  market-house,  and  a 
literary  institut<'.  Here  are  extensive  cotton-factories  and 
several  brass  and  iron  foundries  and  dve-works.  Coal  mines 
are  worked  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  (tSO'l)  2:i,4!»8. 

Bada^'ry:  a  seaport-tcjwn  in  the  southwest  angle  of  the 
British  Niger  Territorv.  Africa  :  50  miles  K.  X.  E.  of  Why- 
dah  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  Ti-V).  The  I'ortugue>e  once  had 
several  factories  at  this  place,  whidi  was  a  m:irket  for  slaves. 
Poj).  about  10,000. 

Bndajoz.  ca-da-^-hoth'.  or  Bada.jos' :  a  iirovinee  of  S|^iain  : 
formerly  known  as  Lower  lOslreuiadura  :  bounded  J\.  by 
Caciu'es!  E.  liv  Ciud.-id  Heal  and  ('ordoyjt.  S.  by  Seville  and 
Iluelva,  and  \V.  by  I'orlugal.  Area.  8,087  sq. 'miles.  It  is 
for  the  greater  part  a  poor  and  uncultivated  region,  and  is 
chiefly  used  as  ])asture-grounds  for  immense  herds  of  sheep 
and  swine.     Pop.  (1887)  480.418. 


HADAJOZ 


I'.ADKN-POWELL 


447 


Dadiijoz.  or  Itsulajos  (iinc.  Pax  Augnx'tn)  :  a  fortifioil 

town  oi  SiJiiiii  ;  cMiiilal  <if  province  of  SHiiio  name;  situated 
on  till"  left  bank  of  the  (iuadiana:  i;!3  miles  by  rail  K.  of 
Lisbon  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  IT-C).  The  river  is  here 
erosseil  liy  a  ijood  granite  bridge  of  t\venty-oii;ht  arehes. 
The  town  eonlains  an  old  oathcilral,  an  arsenal,  and  a  ean- 
non-foiindry.  It  has  manufactures  of  soap,  coarse  woolen 
stulYs,  ;uid  leather,  and  a  lirisk  eonlraliaml  trade.  Uadajoz 
was  the  native  place  of  the  painter  .'Morales.  It  has  been 
the  scene  of  several  important  military  events.  II  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  the  FrencluJIarshal  Soult  in  JIar.,  1811. 
Wellington  attempted  to  retake  it  in  April,  but  he  failed. 
Having  renewed  the  siege  in  Mar.,  1SI2,  he  took  it  by 
storm  i>n  .\pr.  (!  ensuing,  after  a  desperate  contest,  in 
which  the  ISrilish  lost  4.S04  men,  killed  and  wounded.     Poi). 

Itadaklishiiii,  baa-da'a^h-shaan' :  a  portion  of  Eastern 
Afghanistan,  lying  bc'tween  IJokhara  and  Kafiristan,  W.  of 
the  Pamirs  and  N.  of  the  Hindu  Kush  .Alountains.  It  in- 
cludes several  valleys  of  I  ho  head-streams  of  the  Oxus.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  a  great  mountain-range  e.\- 
tends  along  the  eastern  border.  Here  are  ruby  mines  and 
massive  cliffs  or  quarries  of  lapis-lazuli.  Iron,  salt,  and  sul- 
phur are  also  obi  iiiued  here.  The  inhabitants  are  Mohaiu- 
medaus.     Capital,  Faizabad. 

Baddt'ck' (originally  7/ff/i'g»f'):  a  watering-place  and  shire- 
town  of  \'ietoria  eo..  Cape  Breton  island,  N.  S. ;  40  uulcs  W. 
of  Sydney.     I'op.  1,900, 

nadcaii,  AuAM  :  soldier:  b.  in  New  York  city.  Dee.  29, 
1S:>I.  Ill'  received  an  excellent  education,  and  devoted 
himself  lo  literary  pursuits.  He  was  one  of  the  first  volun- 
teers in  defense  of  the  I'nion.  and  bccanie  a  captain  in  l.S(i3, 
He  served  on  (ien,  Sherman's  stall',  and  was  wounded  at 
Port  Hudson  (May  27,  18(i:i),  In  1864  he  was  ajipointed 
militarv  secretarv  to  Gen,  Grant,  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 
This  position  he  "held  until  Mar,,  1869,  After  the  close  of 
tlie  war  he  received  a  brevet  a.s  brigadier-general  in  recog- 
nition of  "faithful  anil  uu'ritorions  services,"  He  pub- 
lished a  Militnrii  Jlixlorji  of  (ri-tn'ral  Orant  (lSfi~-81,  ii 
Vols.:  n.  e.  18S.5),  and  became  in  18()9  secretary  of  legaticm, 
and  afterward  C  S.  consul-general  in  London,  and  U,  S. 
consul-general  at  Havana  18S2-84.  Author  of  Conspiracy 
(1885);  Aristocracy  in  Em/land  (1886);  and  Grant  in  Peace 
(1886).     D.  at  Ridgewood,'N.  J.,  Mar.  19,  1895. 

Radon,  baaden  (literally,  baths ;  anc,  called  Ther'nue 
111 Irrt'ica'.  i.e.  Helvetian  baths):  a  town  and  watering- 
[ilace  of  Switzerland  ;  canton  of  Aargau ;  on  the  Limmat  : 
14  miles  by  rail  X.  W.  of  Zurich  (see  map  of  Switzerland, 
ref.  2-F.).  Tacitus  mentions  it  (c.  67.  Histories)  ;  the 
(ioths  despoiled  it:  the  11,-ipsliurgs  hchl  it  until  it  became 
Swiss  in  14ir).  The  dispute  of  /wingli  and  tKcoIampa- 
ilius  with  Kck  was  held  here  (1.52(>),  and  the  treaty  which 
ended  the  Spanish  Succession  war  was  made  here  (1714). 
In  Jan..  18:M,  tlie  "conference  of  Baden"  was  held  here, 
in  which  tlie  representatives  of  Ijueerne,  Aargau,  Thnrgau, 
Soleurc,  Berne,  Basel  city,  and  Si.  (iall  met  to  settle'lhc 
relations  of  tlu^  Catholic  Church  with  these  cantons.  The 
temperature  of  the  baths  is  about  117'  F.  Pop.  (1888) 
:!.S>ST. 

Badoii.  (ii-iiiid  Diidiy  of:  a  state  of  (iernuuiy;  border- 
ing on  Alsiici'  anri  Switzerland;  bounded  X.  by  Ilesse- 
l)armstadt.  F.  by  Wi'irtembcrg,  and  S.  and  W.  by  the 
llliine.  It  has  an  area  of  o,S21  s(|.  miles.  Pop.  (1890) 
l.(i.">(5,817.  The  surfa<-e  is  mountainous.  A  long  mountain- 
range  called  the  Black  Forest  (Schwarzwald)  extends  along 
Ihi'  <'aslern  border.  The  liighest  point  is  the  Feldbcrg, 
4,886  feet  high.  The  western  part  of  P.aden  is  a  long  plnin 
extending  along  the  h'hinc  from  I!as(d  lo  Mannheim.  The 
<'hi<'f  rivers,  besides  the  Rhine,  are  the  Danube,  which  rises 
in  Ba<len,  and  the  Xeckar,  The  valley  of  Ihe  Rhine  has  a 
niild  elinuite  and  a  very  fertile  soil,  wliich  is  well  cultivated, 
Thf  grape  and  other  fruits  flourish  here  in  abuiulance. 
.\mong  the  staple  products  are  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats, 
pulse,  jiotatoes,  and  tobacco.  (Jood  pine  limlier  abounds  in 
the  Black  Forest.  The  average  quantilv  of  wiiu^  jiroduced 
annually  is  about  14.000.0(M)  gal.  Tlie  mineral  |)ro<luce 
consists  almost  solely  of  salt  and  building-slone.  Baden  is 
rich  in  mineral  springs,  which  are  lunch  frequented  as 
watering-places,  as  Bailen-Bailen,  Badenwciler,  etc.  The 
|irinei|ial  numufaetures  are  silk  ribbons,  hats,  brushes, 
leather,  |iaper,  clocks,  musical  instnnnents,  and  machinery. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  arc  wine  and  timber.     The  chief 


towns  are  Mannheim,  Carlsrnhe  (the  capital),  Freiburg, 
Heidelberg,  Pforzheim,  and  Constance. 

Religion  and  Government. — Two-thirds  of  the  people  are 
Roman  Catholics  ami  one-third  Protestants,  Baden  has 
two  universities  (Heidelberg  anil  Freiburg);  an  excellent 
system  of  public  instruction,  and  the  children  are  compelled 
to  atteiul  school.  This  state  is  governed  h\  a  hereditary 
grand  ilnkc,  who  in  relation  to  foreign  and  military  alfaiis 
is  dependent  uiion  the  Euipi;ror  of  Germ.any.  He  governs 
according  to  a  constitution,  which  is  among  ihe  most  liberal 
in  Germany.  The  parliament  of  Baden  consists  of  a  cham- 
ber of  peers  and  one  of  sixty-three  deputies.  The  jiublie 
debt  consists  almost  cntirelv  of  tlie  railwav  debt,  which  at 
the  beginning  of  1891  amouiiled  to  328,733,^6:!  marks.  The 
state  then  owned  836  of  the  total  907  miles  of  railway  in 
the  duchv.  For  1891  the  revenue  was  estimated  at  65,9.52,- 
000  niari<s,  and  the  expenditure  at  68,120,000,  Hermami 
II„  who  died  in  1130,  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of 
Margrave  of  Baden,  The  grand  dvical  family  now  reign- 
ing in  Baden  are  his  lineal  descendants.  In  1746  Charles 
Frederick  became  Margrave  of  Baden,  which  under  his 
reign  inci'eased  in  extent  and  importance.  He  acquired  the 
dignity  of  elector  in  1803,  and  the  title  of  grand  duke  in 
1806,  Having  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  he 
gained  a  large  accession  of  territory.  His  grandson,  Charles 
Louis,  granted  in  1818  a  charter  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  |)resent  constitution.  Lender  the  impulse  of  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  which  began  in  Prance  in  Feb,,  1848,  the 
popular  jiarty  of  Baden  took  arms  to  found  a  republic.  The 
grjind  duke  fled,  and  a  constituent  assemlily  was  convened 
in  Jlav,  1S49.  Bv  t  he  aid  of  a  Prussian  army  he  was  restored 
in  July  of  that  year.  In  Aug.,  1866,  Baden  formed  with 
Prussia  a  secret  alliance,  which  was  made  public  about  Apr., 
1867.  Baden  became  in  1870  a  slate  of  the  new  German 
empire,  in  the  federal  council  of  which  she  has  three  votes, 
the  whole  number  of  votes  being  fifty-eight.  The  Grand 
Duke  Fricdrich  I.,  born  Sept.  9.  1826.  came  to  the  throne 
Sept.  5,  1856.  Revised  liy  C.  K.  Adams. 

Biidcn-Badcii  (anc.  Clr'itas  Aiire'lia  Ai/nen'sis)  :  a 
town  and  a  rclilirated  watering-place  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Baden:  is  beautifully  situated  in  the  Oos  valley  at  the  foot 
of  the  Schwarzwald  (Black  Forest)  Mountains:  23  miles  by 
rail  S.  S.  W.  of  Carlsruhe  and  6  miles  from  the  Rhine.  It 
is  on  a  branch  of  the  Jlannheim  and  Basel  Railway.  Here  are 
warm  saline  springs,  the  temperature  of  which  ranges  from 
117"  to  154"  F.,  which  were  much  resorted  to  in  the  time  of 
the  Roman  em|)erors.  They  are  elKcacious  in  cases  of  gout 
and  chronic  cutaneous  diseases.  Baden-Baden  is  freqiu'iited 
in  suninicr  by  visitors  from  all  |iartsof  Kuropcand  America, 
to  the  iiumbcr  of  aliont  30,000  annually.  In  former  years 
its  gambling-hall  was  a  great  attraction,  but  upon  the  res- 
toration of  the  (ierman  emiiire  gambling  here,  as  in  the 
other  watering-places,  was  suppressed.  R(!lics  of  Roman 
sculjiture  and  architecture  have  been  fomid  here.  From 
the  i^ourtecnth  century  the  margraves  dwelt  here  ;  first  in 
the  old  castle  whose  ruins  crown  the  hill  above  the  town. 
They  removed  (1479)  to  the  new  castle  near  the  town, 
rebuilt  in  1()97.  whii'li  still  remains  with  its  dungeons.  The 
parish  churcli  was  the  seiuilchreof  tlii' old  margraves.  ]*op. 
(1890)  13,889. 

Bndcii-boi-Wieil.  baa'dcu-bT-reen  (anc.  Tlier'nup  Ce'tia; 
or  Panno'nia'):  a  town  and  bathing-place  of  Lower  Austria; 
on  the  river  Scliwaehat ;  12  miles  by  railS.  of  Vienna.  Here 
are  warm  mineral  springs,  which  are  frequented  by  the  citi- 
zens of  Vienna.  Many  of  the  .Austrian  nobility  have  man- 
sions here,  among  them  the  imperial  castle  of  Weilberg. 
Small  steel  tools  are  the  principal  manufacture,  .\bout 
8,000  jial  ients  visit  Ihe  waters  annually.     Pop.  (1890)  11.262. 

IJadcii-PowcU.  bay'den-|iowVl.  Sir  Georoe  Smyth,  M,  P., 
I\.  C.  M.  (i.,  F.  R.  S. :  British  diplomat  and  author:  b.  in 
Oxford.  Dec.  24.  1847:  ediicalcd  at  Si.  Paul's  School.  Marl- 
borough, and  Balliol  Collegi',  Oxford.  Between  leaving 
Marlborough  and  entering  Balliol  he  traveled  extensively 
in  the  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain,  and  published 
dui'ing  the  first  year  of  his  university  career  .\eir  Homes  for 
tlie  Old  Country:  a  Personal  Experience  of  the  Political 
and  Domestic  Life,  the  Industries,  and  the  Aaliirai  His- 
tory of  Australia  and  Xeu-  /Zealand,  which  has  been  called 
a  cyelopaxlia  of  .Vuslralian  knowledge.  Commissioner  to 
investigate  West  Inilian  alTaii's  1882-84:  joined  Sir  Charles 
Warren  in  Bechuanaland  1884.  and  made  a  tour  of  investi- 
gation in  Basutoland.  Zululand,  and  other  places  in  South 
Africa;  and  in  1886-87  came  to  Canada  and  the  United 


448 


BADGE 


BAEHREXS 


States  to  prepare  a  statement  of  the  fishery  dispute.  Some 
of  Ills  otlier  works  are  Protection  and  Bad  Times  (1879) : 
State  Aid  and  atate  Interference  (ISH'Z);  T/ie  iYutfi  about 
Home  RuU  (1888);  The  Political  and  Social  Results  of  the 
Absorption  of  Small  States  by  Large{\876) ;  The  Land  Sys- 
tems of  India  (18!)2) ;  ami  many  essays  and  addresses. 
He  was  knighted  in  1887.  "  C.  H.  Thukber. 

Badgre  [O.  Fr.  baye  ;  possibly  of  Ger.  origin]  :  anything 
worn  as  a  distinguishing  mark,  to  show  that  the  wearer 
belongs  to  a  certain  body  of  men,  society,  rank,  or  the  like  ; 
thus  a  wliile  cockade  was  a  badge  of  .Jacobites  in  England, 
a  cockade  of  red,  white,  and  blue  was  the  badge  of  the  Revo- 
lutionists in  Paris  in  178!)  and  after.  The  badge  has  some- 
times been  a  part  of  the  lieraldic  bearings  of  the  wearer, 
but  more  usually  it  was  wholly  separate.  The  same  thing 
is  seen  in  national  liadges  ;  thus  the  rose,  which  is  the  liadge 
of  England,  and  tlie  thistle,  which  is  the  badge  of  Scotland, 
do  not  appear  in  the  royal  arms  of  Great  Britain.       R.  S. 

Badg'er  [prol>ably  from  badge,  in  allusion  to  the  stripes 
on  its  head] :  a  carnivorous  animal  of  the  family  Mustel- 
idre,  belonging  to  the  genus  Jleles,  Jlydaus,  Arrlmiy.T.  or 
Tnxidea.  They  attain  the  size  of  a  cat  or  medium-sized 
dog,  are  plantigrades,  have  a  pointed  skull,  and  feet  adapted 
for  burrowing.  They  have  anal  glands,  as  in  the  closely  re- 
lated skunks,  the  secretion  of  which  has  a  disagreeable  odor. 
They  live  in  deep  burrows,  going  out  at  evenings  in  search 
of  roots,  fruits,  insects,  frogs,  etc.  The  common  badger  of 
Europe  (Jleles  taxus)  is  about  the  size  of  the  common  fox. 


The  European  badger. 


It  was  formerly,  and  is  even  now,  kept  for  "  badger-draw- 
ing." The  animal  is  put  into  a  barrel  and  assailed  Ijy  nu- 
merous dog.s,  wliich  are  trained  to  pull  the  badger  out.  The 
animal  resists  obstinately  until  overjiowered,  when  he  is 
alloweil  a  short  rest  and  is  then  ready  for  another  struggle 
with  his  enemies.  The  animal  is  quite  harmless  it  not 
abused.  Allied  species  are  found  in  Asia.  The  East  Indian 
badger  (Art-tnnyx  collaris)  is  a  more  formidable  animal. 
The  fur  of  the  American  bailger  (7V(.r(f/ea  americana)  is 
fine  and  soft,  and  is  used  for  uuiffsand  rugs.  The  species  is 
more  carnivorous  than  the  Euroiieau  badger,  and  is  remark- 
aide  for  its  slioi't  ears,  long  hair,  and  the  vapidity  witli  which 
it  burrows  in  the  eartli.    "  Revised  by  I).  S.  Jordan. 

IJail^er,  Okorok  EuMrxn,  LL.  D. :  statesman  :  b.  in  Xew- 
beru,  N'.  ('..on  Apr.  Ki,  170.5.  lie  gra<luated  at  Yalein  1S18, 
praclice(l  law  at  Raleigh  with  distinction,  and  in  Mar.,  1841, 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Xavy  by  President  Harrison. 
He  resigned  in  SeptendWr  of  that  year,' because  Tvler  vetoed 
the  bill  to  recharter  the  U.  S.  Bank.  He  was  a  "Senator  of 
Hie  U.  S.  for  al)nut  seven  years  (1846-.5:S).  He  opposed  seces- 
sion.    D.  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  11,  1866. 

Badirer,  Osc^r  C.  :  commodore  V.  S.  X. ;  b.  in  Windham, 
Conn.,  .\ug.  12,  182;! ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshifinian  on 
Sept.  1!|.  1811.  In  1861-62  he  commanded  the  steamer 
Anacostiaof  the  Potomac  flotilla,  was  engaged  at  various 
t lines  with  the  liatteries  on  the  Potomac  river,  and  the  •'  pre- 
cision "  ot  tlie  fire  of  his  vessel  is  more  than  once  referreil 
to  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  flotilla,  Lieut.-eom- 
man<ling  Wyman.  in  his  reports  to  the  Xavy  Depart  ment. 
liadger  was  in  command  of  the  ironclads  Patapsco  and 
Montauk  in  their  many  engagements  with  the  forts  and 
l)atteries  of  Charleston  liarbor  in  the  summer  of  1863 ;  as 


fleet-captain  was  with  Rear- Admiral  Dahlgren  on  board  the 
ironclad  Weehawken  in  a  night  attack  upon  Fort  Sumter, 
Sept.  1.  1863,  when  he  received  a  severe  wound  in  the  right 
leg.  His  services,  character,  etc.,  are  thus  mentioned  by  Rear- 
Admiral  Dahlgren,  in  his  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
of  Si'pt.  2.  1863  :  "  I  shall  feel  greatly  the  loss  of  Commander 
Badger's  services  at  this  time.  He  has  been  with  me  for 
more  than  eight  years,  and  his  sterling  qualities  have  ren- 
dered him  one  of  the  very  best  ordnance  otticers  in  the 
navy."  In  1873  he  was  made  captain  and  in  1881  commo- 
dore.    Retired  1885.  .  Revised  by  S.  B.  Luce. 

liad'linui.  Charles  :  Greek  scholar  ;  b.  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, 1813:  was  in  his  early  years  a  pupil  of  Pestalozzi  in 
Yverdun.  He  was  graduated'  at  Oxford  in  1837.  After  travel- 
ing in  Germany.  France,  and  Italy  for  seven  years,  he  took 
holy  orders  in  1847.  In  1867  he  went  to  Sydney  (New  South 
Wales)  as  Professor  ot  Classical  Philology  and  Logic,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.  Fell.  27,  1884.  His  work  was 
chiefly  confined  to  editions  of  Plato,  notably  the  Philebns, 
Laws,  Eutliydemus,  Laches  And  Symposium.  In  his  criti- 
cal methods  Badham  was  strongly  influenced  by  Person  and 
Cobet,  for  whom  he  professed  an  almost  idolatrous  admira- 
tion. Alfred  Gudeman. 

Badia  y  Lablicli,  ba"a-deea-ee-Iaab'Ie'ek,  Domixgo  :  trav- 
eler: b.  in  Barcelona.  1766:  disguised  as  a  Mussulman,  and 
aided  by  a  perfect  knowledge  of  Arabic,  he  crossed  to 
Africa,  1801,  and  after  two  years'  residence  in  Morocco 
made  a  tour  to  Mecca,  traveling  through  Barbary,  Greece, 
Syria,  and  Egypt  :  first  Christian  to  visit  Mecca  since  the 
institution  of  Islam  :  returning  to  Spain,  was  apjiointed 
prefect  of  Cordova  1812:  published  Voyage  d'Ali-Bei  en 
Afrique  et  en  Asie  (Paris.  1814).  D.  in  Syria  on  his  way  to 
Damascus,  Aug.  30,  1818.  C.  II.  t. 

Bad'laiu,  Stephen  :  b.  in  Milton.  jMass.,  Jlar.  2.5,  1748; 
entcri'd  tlie  army  in  177.5:  commanded  the  artillery  in  de- 
partment of  Canada;  became  a  Revolutionaiy  officer,  and 
was  maili'  brigadier-general  of  militia  in  1779.  D.  at  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  Aug.  24,  181.5. 

Bad-Lands  (oi-iginaUy  caWed  3Iauraises  terres pour  tra- 
verser by  the  French  explorers,  from  the  extreme  irregu- 
larity of  the  surface) :  Bad-lands  are  common  in  the  arid 
Western  regions  of  the  U.  S.,  where  the  absence  of  vegeta- 
tion enables  the  scanty  rains  to  wash  away  the  fine  uncon- 
solidated sediments,  often  old  lake-beds,  and  carve  them 
into  innumerable  hills  and  ravines  of  ever-varying  yet  sys- 
tematic form.  They  are  generally  best  devclojied  near  the 
line  of  some  relatively  large  stream,  whose  valley  has  been 
deepened  on  account  of  a  general  uplift  of  the  land  in  re- 
cent geological  time,  thus  enabling  the  small  wet-weather 
branches  to  dissect  the  weak  strata  for  several  miles  on 
either  side  in  an  effective  maimer.  Many  remarkable  fossils 
of  extinct  mammals  have  been  preserved  in  tlie  sediments 
of  extinct  Western  lakes:  the  discovery  of  the  fossils  is 
greatly  aiiled  in  the  bad-lands  from  the  thorough  dissec- 
tion of  the  niiiss  by  ravines  and  by  the  barrenness  of  the 
surface.  W.  31.  Davis. 

Pad-Lands :  as  a  specific  geograjihical  name,  refers  to 
an  extensive  region  lying  partly  in  South  Dakota  and  partly 
in  Xebraska,  between  the  Xortji  Fork  of  the  Platte  and  the 
Soutli  Fork  of  the  Cheyenne  rivers.  It  affords  tlie  refuge  of 
a  natural  fortress  to  the  great  family  ot  Sioiix  Indians  in 
their  wars  with  the  C  S,,  but  is  more  famous  for  the  pal»- 
outological  work  done  there  by  0.  C.  Marsh,  1).  I).  Owen, 
E.  D.  Copi'.  and  other  geologists. 

Bnd'iiiinton  :  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  in  the  south 
of  (Jloiicestershire,  England,  from  which  have  been  named 
a  kind  of  claret-cup  and  a  game  somewhat  resembling  lawii- 
tennis,  ]ilayi'd  with  a  shuttlecock  instead  of  a  ball. 

Baedeker,  bay  di--kpr,  Karl:  German  publisher:  b.  in 
Essen,  Xov.  3,  1801 ;  began  publishing  in  1827  at  Coblentz. 
where  he  died  Oct..  4,  18.59.  As  the  originator  of  a  cele- 
brated series  ot  guidc-liooks,  his  name  is  favorably  known 
to  all  travelers.  Tlie  fii-st  guide-book  published  by  Karl 
ISaedeker  was  a  small  book  on  tlie  Rhine,  183!) :  the  series 
now  comprises  admirable  guides  to  every  country  much 
visited  liy  travelers,  and  is  published  in  all  the  principal 
languages.     The  business  was  removed  to  Ijeipzig  in  1872. 

C.  H.  T. 

Baelireiis.  bay'rens.  Pavl  Heinrich Emil,  Ph.D. :  classi- 
cal scholar:  b.  at  Bayeuthal,  near  Cologne,  Sept.  24,  1848; 
took  his  degree  (I'h.  D.)  at  Bonn  in  1870;  became  Professor 
of  Latin  in  Groningen  1877;  d.  there  Sept.  26,  1888.    He 


BAENA 


BAGGESEN 


449 


was  a  man  of  wiile  erudition,  astoiinclinj;  ilili^enoo.  and  great 
literary  prodiietivitir.  The  permanent  cliaracter  of  much  of 
his  work  is,  however,  jiartially  invali(hiled  by  the  extreme 
recklessness  of  his  critical  nietliod,  and  by  the  i)assionate 
invective  asraiiist  ojiponents  which  tuo  often  dcfaies  his 
wrilinjis.  His  most  vahiablc  contriliulions  to  Latin  phil- 
ology, for  he  W!L--  but  an  indiircrent  (ireek  scholar,  are  I'oetie 
Latiiil  miniire.i (5  vols,) :  ( 'nlii//(i>i.  with  commentary  (3  vols,) ; 
Fragmeii/tt  poetarnm  liuinaiionim.        Alfreu  Glukmax, 

liaeiia,  biDi-ay'naa :  a  town  of  Spain:  proWncc  of  Cor- 
dova: situated  on  the  .Marbella:  'ii  miles  S,  E,  of  Cordova 
(see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  18-E),  It  occupies  the  site  of  an  an- 
cient Roman  town,  (irain  and  oil  are  exported  from  this 
place.     Pop,  C1«8T)  Vi.um. 

Baer.  baacr,  Kari,  Khxst,  von:  a  Russian  naturalist  of 
Ocnnan  extraction:  b.  in  I'icp,  Ksthonia,  Feb,  17  (28).  1793, 
lie  became  in  1S19  Profi'ssin-  of  Zoology  at  Kiiuigsberg. 
He  wrote,  besides  other  works  in  German,  a  ni-ttory  of  the 
Developmi-nt  of  Animals  (3  vols.,  IS3S-:i7).  In  18:!4  lie  re- 
moved to  St,  Petersburg,  and  was  apiioinled  librarian  of  the 
Aca«lemy  of  Sciences.  Hi!  made  several  discoveries  in  [)hysi- 
ology  and  zoology.     D.  in  Dorpat,  Xov.  28,  1876. 

Baeyor,  bl-er.  Adolpii,  von  :  chemist:  b.  in  Berlin,  Oct. 
31,  183.).  lie  was  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  (Jewerbe 
.■Vkademie  at  Horlin  (1866),  but  afterward  became  professor 
in  the  Univei'sity  of  Strassburg  (1873),  and,  after  Llebig's 
death,  was  calleil  to  Munich  (1875).  lie  has  carried  on  many 
important  investigations,  particularly  in  the  field  of  orgjinic 
chemistry.  Among  the  subjects  to  the  development  of 
which  his  work  has  largely  contributed  are  indigo,  the  phtha- 
leins.  benzene.  lie  discovered  a  niethoil  for  the  artificial 
preparation  of  indigo. 

Baeza.  baa-aytha  (anc.  Bnatia)  :  an  old  town  of  .S|)aiu ; 
province  of  .laen  :  33  miles  X,  E,  of  the  city  of  ,!aen.  It 
'  (intains  a  cathedral  and  several  monasteries  in  the  Gothic 
Myle.  which,  with  other  buildings,  [ircsent  an  imposing  ap- 
pearance. The  university,  estaljlished  in  W>d,  has  ceased 
to  exist  in  recent  times.  Under  the  Jloors  the  city  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Bajiusat,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
150,000  iidialiitants,  CU)th,  leather,  and  soap  are  made 
here.     Pop.  (1887)  KJ.yil. 

BafTa,  baaf'fa  (anc.  Pa'pliox):  a  seaport-town  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  the  island  of  Cyjirus,  It  was  once  an 
important  place,  but  is  now  ruined  or  decayed  and  nearly 
deserted.  In  ancient  times  Paphos  was  a  beautiful  city, 
having  several  temples,  and  was  a  famous  place  for  the  wor- 
>hip  of  Venus,     Lat.  34°  47'  X.,  Ion.  33°  36'  E, 

Bariiii,  Willi-vm:  English  navigator:  b,  probably  in 
London  in  15S4  :  accompanied  .lames  IliUl  in  an  Arctic  ex- 
pedition in  1613,  and  on  a  subseijueiit  expeilition  di.scovered 
lialJin's  Bay  in  1616.  lie  wrote  two  narratives  of  these 
vo.vages,  and  gave  in  the  first  a  new  method  of  ascertaining 
the  longitude  at  sea  by  observation  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
He  was  killeil  at  the  siege  of  Ornniz,  May  23,  1623,  See 
Clements  R.  Markhani,  Vni/fn/ex  of  William  Baffin,  U!  1^-23 
(London,  l.ssl,  for  the  Ilaklu'yt  Society). 

Bulllii's  Bay  :  a  large  gulf  or  inland  sea  of  Xorth  .Vmer- 
ica ;  coinmuiucates  with  the  Xorth  Atlantic  Ijy  Davis's 
Strait,  anil  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Smith's  Sound.  It  is 
about  li.50  miles  long,  and  hius  an  average  width  of  about  300 
miles.  Thcgrcatest  depthisabout  1.050  fathoms.  Theshores 
are  generally  high  and  rocky,  backed  by  ranges  of  snow-cov- 
ered mountains.  It  wius  first  explored  by  William  Balliu  in 
1616.     Whales  abound  here. 

Bagatelle'  [Fr.,  from  Hal.  bngalella.  trifle]  :  a  game  some- 
what ivseiiibling  billiards.  A  bagatelle-table  is  usually 
alK)ut  7  feet  long  and  21  iiudies  wide,  and  is  lined  with  cloth. 
I'he  other  apparatus  of  the  game  consists  of  small  ivory 
li.'dls  and  a  mace  or  cue. 

Bag' (lad  :  a  pashalie  forming  the  S.  E.  portion  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  lionlcring  on  .Vraliia  and  Persia.  It  extends  from 
the  Persian  (iidf  northwest wanl  about  600  miles,  and  is  in- 
tersected liy  the  Huplirates  and  the  Tigris.  It  includes  the 
.incient  Chalda-a,  Susiana,  and  Mesopotamia.  The  Jiart 
which  lies  between  the  Euphrates  and  Arabia  is  a  barren. 
Nindy  plain.  The  soil  of  some  other  parts  is  fertile.  The 
population  is  a  mixture  of  Turks,  Arabs,  Kurds,  Armenians, 
etc.     Area,  54,503  sq,  miles.     Pop.  (188.5)  850,00t). 

Bagdad  :  a  celebrated  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey  :  formerly 
Ihe  capital  of  the  empire  of  the  caliphs,  and  now  the  capital 
■f  the  pashalie  of  Bagdad;  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
29 


Tigris;  about  60  miles  X,  of  Babylon;  lat,  ^3"  20'  X,,  Ion, 
44'  23'  38"  E,  The  river  is  here  about  700  feet  wide,  and  is 
cros.sed  by  a  bri<lge  of  boats.  The  apj)earance  of  the  city  at 
a  distance  is  rendered  picturesque  by  groves  of  palm-trees 
and  numerous  minarets,  but  the  streets  are  mirrow,  crooked, 
aiid  dirty.  The  dwelling-houses,  having  no  windows  on  the 
side  next  to  the  street.  ]iresent  an  unpleasing  exterior,  but 
the  interiors  are  often  richly  decorated.  Bagilad  contains 
about  100  mos(jues,  siuue  of  which  have  beautiful  (hunesand 
lofty  minarets.  Here  are  large  bazaars  filled  with  the  prod- 
ucts of  European  and  Turkish  markets.  It  was  formerly  a 
very  magnificent  city,  and  was  for  many  ages  the  great  em- 
porium of  commerce  of  the  surrounding  comitries,  but  its 
trade  has  decline<i.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk  ami  cotton 
stufi's  and  red  and  yellow  leather.  In  1831  an  inundation 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  city,  liagdad  was  founded  by 
the  Caliph  .\hnansur  about  763  a,  d..  and  Imilt  out  of  the 
ruins  of  Ctesiphon.  In  the  ninth  century  it  was  enl.-irged 
by  llaroun-al-Rjuschid,  who  built  here  a  fine  jialace.  In  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  it  is  said  to  have  had  2,000,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  sai-ked  by  Ilulaku  about  13.58, an<l  after 
several  changi's  of  nuisters  was  conquered  bv  the  Turks  in 
1638.     Pop.  (18,85)  180.(X)0. 

Bagdad,  or  Boca  del  Rio,  bf)  ka"!i-del-ree'5  :  a  town  on  the 
RioGrande,  near  its  mouth,  in  the  Mexican  state  of  Tsmuiuli- 
I)as:  was  during  the  civil  war  in  the  L'.  S.  a  ])lace  of  great 
importance  to  blockade-runners,  who  carried  on  from  this 
point  a  heavv  tra<le  with  Western  Texas  (see  map  of  Mexico, 
ref.  4-1). 

Bageliot,  baj  ot,  Walter:  an  English  puldicist,  whose 
writings  went  tar  to  restrict  the  scope  of  deductive  and  en- 
hirge  that  of  historical  economies.  He  was  born  in  Lang- 
port,  Somersetshire,  Feb,  3,  1836;  edtieated  at  Bristol  and 
University  College,  (Jxford,  where  he  was  graduated  in 
1848,  Four  years  hiter  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  hu 
entered  then  his  lather's  banking-house,  and  made  that  his 
lifelong  business.  A  witness  in. Paris  of  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Dec,  1851,  he  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  a  London  paper  de- 
fending the  conduct  of  Louis  Kapoleon  as  advantageous  to 
France,  In  1858  he  married  a  daughter  of  James  Wilson, 
founder  of  The  London  Economist,  and  soon  liccame  editor 
of  that  periodical,  continuing  this  duty  until  he  died.  His 
books  ai'e  The  English  Constitution  (London,  1867),  a  com- 
parative treatment  of  its  tendencies  and  utilities;  Physics 
and  Politics  (London,  1873);  Lombard  Street  (London, 
1873 ;  8th  ed.  1878),  a  treatise  on  money  and  its  functions  of 
great  vogue;  and  The  Depreciation  of  Silver  (lf<'!'i).  Post- 
humously, under  the  etlitorship  of  R,  II.  Hutton,  appeared 
rjterarij  Studies  (1879) ;  Economic  Studies  (1880) :  and^fo- 
graphical  Studies  (1881).  a  l)ook  of  critical  literary  ability. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  nbout  1888 
by  an  uisurance  company  of  Hartford.  Conn.  I),  in  Lang- 
port,  Mar,  34,  1877.  Bagehot  in  early  life  was  a  disciple  of 
Ricardo,  but  an  indepi'ndent  investigator,  who  gave  a  kindly 
recei)tion  to  the  historic  school  when  it  arose.  He  did  much 
to  clear  the  field  for  it.  To  him  the  "abstract  economic 
man  "  of  the  English  school  was  a  good  working  hypothesis 
for  highly  organized  industrial  conditions,  whei-c  competi- 
tion efTecis  promi>t  tran,sfcrs  of  capital  and  labor  from  one 
em])loyment  to  anotlier.  Such  conditions  he  considered  to 
be  substantially  realized  for  (ireat  Britain.  But  the  theory 
was  limited,  and  did  not  apply  to  other  countries  and  times; 
it  was  insular,  and  convenient  for  use  in  Lombard  Street  or 
in  the  great  markets  of  the  world.  Outside  of  the  abstrac- 
tions of  the  orthodox  school  lay  the  concrete  world,  where 
quite  other  methods  were  rccpiisite,  which  give  rise  to  a 
general  science  of  sociology,  H's  inllueiue  was  marked  in 
showing  the  restrictions  which  rest  upon  the  a  priori 
method,  .and  the  necessity  of  the  historical  investigation  of 
wealth  as  an  instrument  for  the  moral  and  material  develop- 
ment of  htnuan  societies.  For  this  sort  of  research  he  dis- 
played great  ability,  though  he  wrought  in  it  only  in  a 
fragnu-ntary  way.  His  trcatnu-nt  of  the  '"  middleman."  or 
the  function  of  superintendence,  was  the  amjilest  and  clear- 
est then  extant,  and  throws  light  on  practical  industrial  co- 
ojieration. 

Baggesen.  biiaggc-spn.  Jens:  Danish  poet :  b.  at  Korsiir, 
in  the  island  of  Seeland,  Feb,  1.5.  17()4,  He  was  liighly 
gifted,  but  of  a  weak  character:  with  a  fine  fancy,  but  of  a 
restless  sjiirit :  excitable,  but  without  passion  :  fantastic,  but 
without  imagination.  Born  between  two  periods,  he  could 
neither  stay  with  the  old  nor  march  with  the  new.  He  was 
enthusiastically   received    by    the    educated,  but  he  never 


450 


BAGIXSKY 


BAHAMA   ISLANDS 


reached  the  great  publio.  Born  a  Dane,  and  married  first 
to  a  German,  then  to  a  French  hidy,  he  fluttered  from  one 
country  and  laniiuajje  and  literature  to  another — made  a 
noise  in  all,  and  became  ^reat  in  none.  Of  his  Danish  writ- 
ings, his  Koiititike  Fuii(vllinger.  in  Terse  (1785),  and  his 
Labyrinthen,  in  prose  (lT!li-!i:i  2  vols.),  are  entertaining.  Of 
his  German  writings,  liis  IlaiiUbhimen  are  not  without 
merit.  His  letters,  of  which  lie  wrote  thousands  in  different 
languages,  are  very  interesting.  D.  in  Hamburg,  Oct.  3, 
1826. 

Baginsky,  ba'a-Ahin'ske'e,  Adolf  :  German  specialist  in 
children's  diseases ;  b.  at  Ratibor,  May  22, 1843 ;  M.  D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  1866  :  became  Lecturer  on  Diseases  of  Chil- 
dren, University  of  Berlin.  1883 :  author  of  Handbiirh  dcr 
SchiiUiyijiyiie  (.Stuttgart,  1883) :  Le/irbi/ch  dcr  Kiiuhrkmnk- 
heiteti  (Berlin,  188-1:  3d  ed.  1889):  I^rakiische  Be il rage  fur 
Kinderhe ilkunde  (Tiibingcn,  1884) ;  editor  of  Archir  fur 
Kinderheilkiinde  (.Stuttgart). 

Bagirnii,  baVgeer'mee,  or  Ba^liirmi :  a  sultanate  of 
Central  Africa ;  southeast  of  Lake  Ciunl ;  on  the  lower  Shari 
river,  between  Bornu  and  Wadai.  Area,  56,600  sq.  miles. 
The  greatest  length  is  about  250  miles.  Capital,  Massenya. 
The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  nearly  level;  the  soil  is  the 
most  fertile  and  tlie  l)esl,  watered  of  the  Sudan.  It  was 
founded  by  a  heathen  eliief  aljoiit  300  years  ago,  but  JIo- 
hammedanism  soon  became  the  ruling  religion.  It  is  tribu- 
tary to  both  Bornu  and  Wadai.  The  natives  are  pliysically 
well-formed  and  warlike.  Bagirmi  was  visited  by  Dr.  Bartli 
in  1852.  Pop.  about  1,500,01)6.  See  Barth's  Travels  in,  Cen- 
tral Africa. 

Baglivi.  biia-glee'vee,  Gioroio,  F.  R.  S.  :  an  Italian  medi- 
cal writer;  b.  at  Ragu.sa,  Sept.,  1669.  He  became  in  1692 
t)ie  pupil  of  JIalpighi  at  Rome,  and  subsequently  Professor 
of  Anatomy  at  the  College  Delia  Sapienza  in  that  city.  He 
gained  distinction  as  the  author  of  the  system  of  Solidism — 
i.  e.  the  theory  that  diseases  originate  in  the  solids.  He 
published  Opera  Omnia  Jledieo-^iracfica (1704).  D.  in  Rome, 
Mar.,  1707. 

Bagnacavallo,  Bartolomeo  Ramexghi;  See  Ramenohi. 

Bagni'res  de  Bigorre,  ba'anyiirde  be"e'gor'  (anc.  Vi'cus 
Aquen'sis) :  a  town  and  fiishionable  watering-place  in  the 
S.  of  France ;  department  of  Ilautes-Pyrenees  ;  on  the  river 
Adour ;  14  miles  l)y  rail  S.  S.  E.  of  Tarbes  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  9-D).  It  is  situated  in  the  romantic  valley  of 
Campan,  and  is  among  the  most  frequented  watering-places 
in  France.  It  has  a  college,  a  public  library,  a  theater,  a 
museum,  and  good  hotels.  The  springs,  of  which  there  are 
thirty-two,  and  whose  temperature  ranges  from  72°  to  134°  F., 
are  visited  bv  about  35,000  persons  annuallv.  Bareges  and 
woolen  stuffs  are  made  here.     Pop.  (1891)  8,638. 

Bagneres  <le  Liichon,  baan  yar'  de  llVshoiV  (anc.  A'qitw 
Conrena'rum):  a  town  of  France;  department  of  Upper 
Garonne,  and  in  the  Pyrenees ;  43  miles  by  rail  from  Ba- 
gneres  de  Bigorre  (see  map  of  I'^rance.  ref.  9-E).  It  has  sul- 
phurous thermal  spi-ings.  and  is  a  place  of  summer  resort. 
Po]).  (1891)  3,538.  Aljout  10,000  patients  visit  the  town  an- 
nually. 

Bagnes:  a  French  word  signifying  "galleys";  is  now 
tlie  name  of  the  coinict  jirisoiis  of  France  in  which  crimi- 
nals were  contineil  and  employed  at  hard  labor,  since  the 
galleys  were  abolished  in  1748.  Large  numbers  of  convicts 
were  thus  confined  at  Hrest  and  T(.)ulon,  and  were  employed 
in  mechanical  and  other  work.  Various  trades  or  mechan- 
ical arts  were  taught  to  the  convicts.  In  the  reign  of  Na- 
poleon III.  Ilie  l)agnes  were  gradually  abolished,  and  the 
penal  colonies  substituted  in  their  place. 

Bagnos-lo-riiahic:  a  parish  and  village  of  Switzerland: 
in  Valais.  on  tin'  Dranse  ;  13  miles  K.  S.  K.  of  JIartigny.  Pop. 
of  the  parish,  which  is  coextensive  with  the  Val-de-Bagne.s, 
4,356.  Tliis  valley  was  inundated  in  1818  by  a  debacle  which 
carri(-d  away  400  cottages. 

Bago'as:  a  Persian  eunuch  and  soldier  in  the  service  of 
Arlaxerxes  Ochus.  In338n.  c.  he  jioisonod  that  king  and 
several  of  liis  sons.  He  raised  to  the  throne  of  Persia  Darius 
Codomannus,  who  put  Bagoas  to  death  about  336  B.  c. 

Baff'ot,  Sir  Ciiari.es:  an  English  diplomatist:  b.  in 
Blithfield,  StalTordsliir<\  Sept.  23,  1781.  He  was  minister 
plenipolonliary  at  Washington  1816-19;  ambassador  to  St. 
Pcterslairg  1830-34;  to  Holland  1834-34:  to  Austria  18:54- 
43.  He  in  1842  became  Governor-General  of  Canada,  where 
lie  died  May  18,  1843. 


Bagot,  Lewis:  b.  in  London,  .Jan.  1,  1740;  was  educated 
at  Westminster  School  and  C'hrist  Church,  Oxford,  England. 
In  1777  he  became  dean  of  Cln-ist  Church,  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bristol  in  1783.  He  was  transferred  to  Norwich 
in  1783,  and  to  St.  Asaph  in  1790.  I),  in  London.  June  4 
1802. 

Bagpipe  :  a  wind  instrument  supjiosed  to  be  of  great 
antiipiity.  It  consists  of  a  leathern  bag  which  the  player  in- 
flates by  blowing  with  his  mouth  through  a  tube,  or,  in  some 
eases,  by  a  bellows  worked  by  the  elbow.  The  music  pro- 
ceeds from  three  or  four  pipes,  whose  mouthpieces  are  in- 
serted into  the  bag,  the  wind  being  forced  out  by  pressing 
the  bag  under  the  arm.  One  of  the  pipes,  called  the 
"  chanter,"  is  ]iierced  with  eight  holes,  wliile  the  others,  or 
"  drones,"  sound  each  only  one  continuous  low  note.  Though 
generally  fallen  into  disuse,  the  bagpipe  is  still  a  popular 
instrument  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  west  of 
Ireland,  and  the  Highland  reginuMits  are  always  accom- 
panie<l  by  their  pipers,  dressed  in  proper  costume.  The  bag- 
pipe is  still  used  in  Southern  Italy,  as  formerly  in  Spain. 

Bag'radites  :  the  name  of  a  royal  family  of  Georgia  and 
Armenia:  of  .Jewish  extraction.  In  Armenia  from  a  very 
early  jieriod  it  had  the  privilege  of  crowning  the  Armenian 
momu-chs.  In  748  it  came  to  regal  avithority,  and  main- 
tained it  till  1079.  In  Georgia  the  Bagradites  ruled  the 
countrv  from  574  till  994  in  direct  line,  and  in  collateral 
brandies  till  1424. 

Bagrra'tioii.  Peter  Ivanovitch:  a  Russian  general ;  b.  in 
1765;  was  descended  from  the  noble  Georgian  family  of 
Bagradites.  He  served  with  distinction  under  Suwarrow  in 
Italy  in  1799.  In  Nov.,  1805,  he  kept  in  check  for  six  hours 
a  su])erior  force  of  French  under  Murat.  He  led  the  van- 
guard at  Austerlitz,  Dec,  1805.  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Eylau  and  Friedland  (1807).  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Borodino,  Sept.  7,  and  d.  Oct .  7.  1813. 

Bagsliot  Beds  [named  from  Bagshot  Heath,  Surrey] :  a 
British  geologic  formation  of  Eocene  age.  The  Eocene  rooks 
of  England  occupy  two  synclinal  basins  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  island.  Tlie  Bagshot  beds  constitute  the  upper 
part  of  the  series  in  the  London  basin,  where  they  rest  on 
the  London  clay.  They  range  in  thickness  from  200  to  700 
feet,  and  consist  chiefly  of  sand.  In  the  lower  part  are  clays 
and  marls  containing  marine  shells  and  the  remains  of  sharks- 
and  turtles.  They  are  ordinarily  classified  in  three  subdi- 
visions, of  which  upper  is  referred  to  the  newer  Eocene,  and 
the  middle  and  lower  to  the  Middle  Eocene.  The  sandy 
lieds  are  in  the  main  unconsolidated  or  feebly  coherent,  but 
at  a  few  horizons  are  cemented  into  firm  sandstones.  In 
districts  where  much  of  the  formation  has  been  eroded  away, 
scattered  blocks  of  the  sandstone  remain,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  these  "  Druid  stones  "  is  popularly  ascribed  to  pre- 
historic races.     See  Stonehexge. 

Bahama,  ba-haa  nia.  Grand  :  the  most  western  island  of 
the  Baliama  group.  57  miles  E.  of  Florida.  It  is  74  miles 
long  and  9  miles  wide.  Area,  438  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is- 
nioderately  fertile.     Pop.  1,030. 

Baliaiua  Islands,  or  Lucayos.  loo-klos:  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean:  lying  N.  E.  of  Cuba,  from 
which  they  are  separated  Ijytlie  old  Bahama  Channel.  They 
belong  to"  Great  Britain.  They  consist  of  36  islands,  647 
keys,  and  2,387  reefs  and  cliffs,  together  3.060  islands  and 
islets.  25  of  which  are  inhabited.  They  extend  like  a  chain 
from  lat.  31°  to  27°  31'  N.,  in  a  northwestern  direction  for  a 
distance  of  about  700  miles.  They  are  generally  long  and 
narrow,  and  have  little  elevation  above  the  sea.  The  climate 
ill  winter  is  very  mild  and  salulirious.  The  soil  is  thin,  but 
produces  maize,  cotton,  oranges,  pineapples,  etc.  The  area 
is  5.4.50  s(|.  miles.  Capital,  Nassau,  in  New  Providence.  In 
1890  the  receipts  amounted  to  .£54,826,  and  the  exjienses  to 
,£48,688.  The  value  of  the  imports  was  £232,512,  and  of  the 
exports  £168,121.  The  names  of  the  larger  islands  are  Grand 
Bahama.  Abaco.  Eleuthera,  New  Providence,  Andros,  San 
Salvador  (or  Cat  island),  Exuma.  Long  island.  Crooked 
island,  Inagua,  and  Caicos.  These  are  mostly  covered  with 
forests  of  t  he  madeira  tree,  the  mastic,  lignum  vita',  etc.  San 
Salvador  (or  perhaps  Watling's  island)  was  the  first  land 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492.  The  Bahamas  were  then 
inhabited  by  a  gentle  race  of  aborigines,  who  were  soon  ex- 
teriniiiati'd  'bv  the  Spaniards.  The  English  obtained  posses- 
sion of  them 'in  1639.  The  chief  island  i>olitirally  is  New 
Providence  (area,  85  sq.  miles),  on  which  is  the  capital,  Nas- 
sau (pop.  12,000),  a  handsome  city,  and  a  winter  health-re- 


BAHr.V 


BAIKAL 


451 


sort  for  AiiKM-icans  anJ  West  liulimis.     Among  the  pxports 
are  oanella,  arrowroot,  sponges,  salt,  concli-shells.  cleiitliera 
bark,  fresh  and  canned  pineapples,  etc.     I'op^  (1 8SM)  4.s,000. 
Revised  by  JI.  W.  UAKKixiiTox. 

Bilhia.  haa-ee  aa  (i.  e.  bay) :  a  stale  of  Hrazil ;  liounded 
N.  Iiv  I'rrnanilmeo,  K.  by  Sergipe  and  the  Athmtie  Ocean, 
S.  iiv  Minas  (ieraes  and  Kspirito  Santo,  and  W.  by  (ioyaz. 
Area.  If>t.ti4!(  sip  miles.  The  large  river  Sao  Francisco  Hows 
along  or  near  the  northwestern  border  of  the  [irovinei'.  which 
is  traversed  by  a  high  mountain-range  about  2(K)  miles  from 
the  seacoast.  The  soil  of  the  lowlands  is  fertile.  The  chief 
products  are  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  manioc,  and  coffee. 
Diamonds  and  gohl  are  found  in  this  province.  Pop.  (1888) 
l.s-ji.nsit. 

lialiia  del  .Vlmiraiitc  :  See  Ciiiiu(^ri. 

Bahia.  or  Sao  Salvutlor.  sowiV-saal-va'-i-dor  :  an  impor- 
tant maritime  city  of  Brazil;  capital  of  province  of  same 
mtme ;  situated  aijout  740  miles  N.  K.  K.  of  Kio  .Janeiro; 
lat.  Vi'  S.,  Ion.  HH  ^3  W.  The  mime  is  derived  fripin  Ba- 
hia  lie  Todos-os-Santos  (All  Saints'  Bay),  at  the  entrance 
to  which  it  is  ]ileasantly  situated.  The  upper  part  of  the 
city  is  several  hundred  feet  higher  than  the  lower,  and  pre- 
sents a  very  fine  appearance  from  the  sea.  The  ui)|ier  town 
is  the  most  p<)puh)us,  most  beautiful,  and  contains  the  im- 
portant nul)lic  buildings,  among  which  are  the  governor's 
palace,  the  cathedra!,  the  theater,  the  mint,  and  many  tine 
churches  and  convents.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Sito  Salvador.  A  public  library  was  founded  here  in  1811. 
The  liarbor  of  Bahia  is  one  of  the  best  in  America,  and  ad- 
mits vessels  of  the  largest  size.  It  is  defeniled  by  several 
forts,  and  has  a  lighthouse  at  the  entrance.  The  chief  ex- 
ports of  Bahia  are  sugar,  cotton,  cotfee,  tobacco,  rum,  dye- 
stuffs,  hides,  and  horns.  The  commerce  is  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  Englishmen.  Bahia  is  the  oldest  city  of 
Brazil,  having  been  founded  in  1.5-1!).  and  was  until  1763  the 
capital.  It  is,  next  to  Kio  de  Janeiro,  the  largest  commer- 
cial city  of  Bnizil.  The  Bahia  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
organized  in  ImGI.  has  a  large  innnber  of  steainei's  in  use 
here.     Pop.  csl  imalcd  (ISltO)  8(),00(J. 

Biilir,  bayr.  or  Itaelir,  Johanx  C'ukistiax  Fklix  :  an 
eminent  German  philologist;  b.  in  Darmstadt.  June  13, 
17!t8.  and  educated  at  Heidelberg,  where  in  182G  he  became 
Professor  of  Classical  Literature.  He  ])ublished  a  Ilixtory 
of  Roman  Literature  (Karlsruhe,  2  vols.,  1828:  4lh  ed. 
18(58-73:  with  supplement  of  Christian  Latin  literature,  3 
parts.  1S3(;-1()).  and  edited  several  of  Plutarch's  Lives.  He 
also  puljlished  a  Latin  translation  of  Herodotus,  with  valu- 
able notes  (18.-)6-61).     D.  in  Heidelberg,  Nov.  2«,  1872. 

Bahraiell,  ba"ji-rich' :  citv  and  district  of  Faizabad,  Ondh, 
India.  The  district  is  in  lat.  27  to  28  N.,  Ion.  81  to  H2 
E.  Area,  2,741  sq.  miles;  pop.  DOO.OOO.  It  is  at  the  foot  of 
the  Himalayas,  on  the  Goggra  river.  The  city  is  62  miles 
N.  V,.  of  Lucknow.  It  is  a  city  of  great  activity,  and  has 
manufactures  of  fireworks  and  native  cloth.     Pop.  li),439. 

Balirdf,  baart,  Karl  Frikdricii:  German  theologian;  b. 
in  Bischofswerda.  Aug.  25.  1741.  A  representative  of  ex- 
treme rationalism  in  religion,  he  occupied  various  ]iositions 
a-s  professor  of  theology  and  preacher.  Died  as  an  inn- 
keeper ni-ar  Halle,  Apr.  23.  17!»2.  See  J.  Levser.  h'nrl  Fricdr. 
Biihnlt  (Xeusladt.  1867;  2d  ed.  1870).        Ji'Lll's  GoKBEL. 

Baliroiii,  baa-rayn .  Islands  (anc.  Ti/'los  or  Tyros):  a 
group  of  British  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf:  near  the  Ara- 
bian coast :  about  200  miles  S.  of  Bushire.  The  chief  island 
is  27  miles  long  and  10  wide,  and  is  surrounded  by  several 
snnill  islands.  Manama,  the  capital,  on  the  northern  ex- 
'tremity,  has  a  good  harbor.  These  islands  derive  their  im- 
I)i)rtance  from  their  pearl-fisheries,  the  annual  jiroduct  of 
which  is  estimated  at  .^1.000.000.  Area.  270  so.  miles.  Pop. 
about  20.000. 

Ball  r-('l-.\hla(l.baar'-el-a"a-bee-aadr  Arab.,  white  stream]: 
the  rild  Arabic  name  of  the  White  Nile,  which  is  the  uuirn 
branch  of  the  Nile  after  it  receives  the  Bahr-el-Gliazal.  anil 
until  it  unites  with  the  Blue  Nile  at  Khartum.  The  river 
is  said  to  be  navigable  1.000  miles  above  Khartum.  The 
upper  divisions  of  the  Nile  abuve  the  conlluence  of  the  Bahr- 
el-Ghazal  going  south  are  Bahr-el-.Iebel  (river  of  the  moun- 
tains), or  the  Kir,  a  nanu>  ap|)lied  below  the  outlet  of  Albert 
Nyanza  :  and  the  Victoria  Nile,  which  unites  the  Victoria 
and  .Mbert  Lakes.  The  White  Nile  also  receives  the  east- 
ern tributary,  Sobat,  about  !I0  niiles  below  Bahr-el-Ghazal. 
See  NiLK. 


Balir-el-.4^zrek,  baar  el-a'az-rek  JArab.,  blue  river] :  one 
of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Nile.  It  unites  with  the 
other  branch,  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  ("white  river")  iu  lat. 
1.5  37  N.  Its  sources  are  in  lat.  about  13  N.  at  the  cen- 
ter of  Tana  Ijake,  and  37  30  E.  long.,  but  its  coin-se, 
traced  through  all  its  windings,  will  probably  exceed  1,(M)0 
miles.  In  this  distance  it  descends  with  immense  impetu- 
osity from  an  elevation  of  !).(K)0  feet  to  one  of  1.500  feet. 
The  Blue  river  is  navigable  up  to  Fazogl.  under  the  twelftli 
parallel.  1..500  miles  from  Hosetta.  Its  upper  waters  before 
It  In-eaks  through  thi'  mountains  and  reaches  its  confluence 
with  Vabus  river  are  known  as  the  Abai.  a  rapid  nu>untain- 
ous  stream  which  nuikes  an  enormous  llsh-hook  bend  from 
Lake  Tana  to  the  Vabus.  extending  over  three  degrees  of 
latitude  and  five  of  longit ude,  encircling  the  southern  end  of 
the  Aliyssinian  mountains. 

Balir-('l-(«liazal.  baar-el-ga"ii-zaar  (i.  c.  Gazelle  river):  a 
name  applied  lo  two  distinct  African  rivers,  and  sometimes 
to  the  area  of  their  basins,  both  in  the  Sudan.  One  in  the 
Eastern  Sudan  joins  the  Bahr-el-Jcbel  to  form  the  Bahr-el- 
.\biad,  or  White  Nile.  Its  basin  is  very  extensive,  reaching 
from  5°  to  13'  N.  lat.  and  23  to  30  E.'lon.  It  :s  very  rich 
in  river  courses,  some  of  which,  however,  come  from  the 
desert  and  do  not  bring  down  much  water.  The  principal 
river  contains  nuu'h  water,  but  has  often  no  iierceptible 
current,  and  is  much  obstiiicted  by  vegetable  growths.  The 
southern  watershed  of  its  valley  forms  the  northeastern 
boundary  of  the  Congo  Free  State.  The  basin  includes  the 
nnrtliwest  of  Brit  ish  East  Africa, a  large  part  of  Dar-Fur,  Dar- 
Fertil.  and  some  unnamed  territory.  The  second  is  a  des- 
ert watei-course  on  the  east  side  oi'  Lake  Chad.  It  lies  in 
the  district  between  Wadai  and  Borku,  east  of  Kanem  and 
northwest  of  Dar-Fur,  between  the  parallels  13'  and  18°  N. 
and  the  meridians  16  and  22'  E.  It  is  a  desert  area,  in- 
habited by  Aralis.  and  is  very  little  known.  M.  W.  H. 

BalireiiS :  See  Bakhrkxs. 

Baia;  (mod.  liaja,  baa  yali) :  an  ancient  town  of  Italy  ; 
beautifidly  situated  on  the  liay  of  same  name,  in  Camiiania. 
10  miles  W.  of  Naples.  It  was  the  favorite  watering-place 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  who  were  attracted  by  the  beauty  of 
its  position  and  adjacent  scenery,  the  amenity  of  the  climate, 
and  the  virtues  of  its  warm  mineral  s]irings.  Jidius  C;esar 
and  Pompey  had  country-houses  at  Baia'.  and  Horace  pre- 
ferred it  to  all  other  places.  The  society  of  Baia;  was  pro- 
verbially voluptuous  and  dissolute.  Ruins  of  ancient  tem- 
ples and  villas  are  visible  in  this  vicinity.  These  include 
temples  of  Mercury,  of  Venus,  and  of  Diana,  all  of  which  are 
in  reality  only  parts  of  Roman  Ijaths. 

Baler,  bi  er,  Johaxx  Wiluelm  :  German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian :  b.  in  Nuremberg,  Nov.  11,  1()47;  d.  as  court-preach- 
er in  Weimar,  Oct.  10.  101I5.  His  C<impenclitim  theologiie 
/)(j.sitir(e  (Jena,  1686;  last  ed.  Berlin,  18U4)  was  for  long  years 
a  standard  manual. 

Baif,  ba";ieef'.  Ji:ax  Axtoixk.  de:  French  poet;  member 
of  the  Pi.KiAUE  {(/.  I'.):  b.  in  Venice.  Feb.,  1532;  d.  in  Paris. 
158!).  The  son  of  Lazare  Antoine  de  BaTf,  prothonolary  of 
Francis  I.  and  ambassador  to  Venice,  the  young  man  had 
the  best  education  possible  in  the  (ireek  and  Latin  classics. 
He  was  a  fellow-student  of  Ronsard.  and  helped  the  latter 
much  in  his  Greek  studies.  In  1551  he  published  a  French 
version  of  the  Latin  distiches  written  for  the  tomb  of  Jlar- 
guerite  de  Valois.  In  1552  ajipeared  his  Jiarisscmetit  d'Eu- 
rope  and  his  A  moKrs  de  31i'li)ie  ;  in  1555  his  Amours  de  Fran- 
cine.  After  a  sojourn  in  Italy  he  translated  the  Antigone 
of  Sophocles  and  the  L'unuc/iiis  of  Terence  (1565).  In  1367 
he  wrote  Le  Brave,  a  comedy  in  the  manner  of  Plautus.  In 
his  later  years  he  attempted  to  introduce  ancient  meters 
into  French  and  to  simplify  French  orthography.  To  this 
end  he  devised  an  academy  of  music  ami  poetry,  which  was 
authorized  by  Charles  l.\.  and  endured  twenty  years  (from 
Nov.,  1370).  In  1574  he  [lublished  his  Etrennes  de  poesie 
frani;aise.  in  which  he  used  the  orthographic  system  of 
Kannis.  In  1576  he  brought  out  tw^p  books  of  Mimes.  See 
Choix  des  poesies  de  BaTf.  with  irRroduction.  by  Boeq  de 
Fouquieres  (Paris,  1874):  Les  Mimes,  etc.,  de  Ba'if,  ed.  by 
Blanchemain  (2  vols.,  Paris.  1880).  A.  R.  Maksii.  ' 

Baikal,  bi  kaal  [Tartar,  the  rich  lake],  called  also  the 
Hoi.v  Ska  :  a  large  lake  in  the  .southern  part  of  Siberia,  be- 
tween Irkutsk  and  Transbaikal:  an  expansion  of  the  river 
.Angara.  It  is  situated  between  lat.  51  28  and  55"  41'  N., 
and  Ion.  103  aiul  110  E.  It  is  about  400  miles  long,  and 
has  an  average  width  of  nearly  45  miles.    Area,  estimated  at 


452 


BAIKIE 


BAILEY 


13.200  sq.  miles.  It  is  in  some  places  300  fathoms  deep, 
and  lies  in  a  depression  or  crevioi'.  with  tlie  Baikal  Moun- 
tains on  the  west  and  tlie  Barsasinsk  on  the  east,  wliich 
approacli  the  lake  so  as  to  divide  it  into  the  great  and  little 
parts.  It  receives  the  Sclenga,  Barguzin,  and  other  rivei's, 
and  discharges  its  waters  by  tlie  Angara,  an  affluent  of  the 
Yenisei.  In  summer  steamljoats  navigate  this  lake,  which  is 
frozen  from  November  to  April.  Here  are  valuable  seal  and 
stnrgeon  fisheries.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  said  to  liave 
a  curious  gi-ound  swell  called  zyh,  the  nature  of  which  has 
never  been  explained.  One  basis,  among  many,  for  tlie  legend 
of  Prester  John,  tlie  mrthical  Christian  king  of  the  twelfth 
century  in  Farther  India,  has  been  found  in  Gur  Khan  of 
Kara-ivhitai,  whose  dominions  lay  from  Baikal  Lake  to  the 
great  Chinese  wall. 

Bai'kic,  William  Balfour:  traveler;  b.  at  Kirkwall, 
Orkney,  Aug.  37.  182.5 ;  assistant  surgeon  Royal  Navy, 
1848  :  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  Niger  expedition  (1854), 
in  which,  after  tlie  death  of  the  captain,  he  succeeded  to 
the  command  of  the  Pleiad,  which  was  wrecked  on  the 
second  expedition  in  1857.  He  founded  a  settlement, 
built  roails,  opened  the  Niger  to  navigation,  and  collected  a 
native  vocaljuhiry.  I),  at  Sierra  Leone,  Dec.  13,  1864.  Au- 
tlior  of  Lint  of  Bunks  and  3Iimuscripf>i  Relating  to  Orkney ; 
Ohseri'ations  nil  tlie  Hauxsa  and  Fulfutde  Languages 
(1861) ;  and  of  works  on  natural  history.  C.  H.  T. 

Bail  [Old  Pr.  hail,  power,  custody ;  hailler,  control,  de- 
liver] :  Tlie  original  signification  of  this  word  is  to  "  deliver." 
It  is  used  both  as  a  noun  and  a  verb,  and  refers  to  property, 
as  well  as  to  a  person,  in  the  custody  of  the  law.  It  im- 
plies safe-keejiing  or  delivery  for  a  special  pui'pose.  It  may 
signify  the  ilelivery  of  a  person  arrested,  either  on  civil  or 
criminal  process,  from  the  custody  of  the  sheriff  or  some 
other  officer  of  the  law,  into  the  safe-keeping  of  jiersons 
who  liind  themselves  for  his  appearance  in  court  or  obedi- 
ence to  its  processes.  Again,  it  denotes  tlie  persons  into 
whose  keeping  the  party  discharged  from  actual  arrest  is 
delivered,  and  sometimes  the  amount  of  security  given  or 
required  for  the  defendant's  appearance. 

In  all  civil  actions  the  defendant  may  give  bail  as  a  mat- 
ter of  right,  and  generally  in  criminal  proceedings,  unless 
lie  is  charged  with  a  capital  otfense.  The  amount  of  bail  is 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court,  controlled  by  the  somewhat 
vague  constitutional  provision  that  excessive  bail  shall  not 
be  required. 

Bail  below,  or  bail  to  the  nJieriff,  is  bail  given  to  the  sheriff 
to  secure  the  apjiearance  of  the  defendant  in  the  action,  or 
Ills  putting  in  s]ircial  bail  on  a  re((uired  day.  Bail  to  the 
action,  or  bail  aliove,  is  given  either  to  satisfy  the  Judg- 
ment if  one  should  be  recovered,  or  to  deliver  up  the  de- 
fendant to  custody.  In  some  of  the  States  the  defendant 
when  arrested  gives  bail  to  render  himself  at  all  times 
amenable  to  the  jirocess  of  the  court,  which  takes  the  place 
of  bail  below  and  bail  above. 

Common  bail  is  the  formal  entry  of  fictitious  security 
with  the  clerk  of  the  court.  It  is  given  for  the  appearance 
of  the  defendant  and  his  future  obedience  in  cases  where  lie 
lias  not  actually  been  arrested.  Special  bail  is  responsible 
bail,  given  when  the  defendant  has  actually  been  arrested. 
Bailors  must  in  general  possess  certain  prescrilied  qualifica- 
tions. They  must  be  freehotdei:i  or  householders;  must  be 
within  reach  of  the  process  of  the  court,  and  must  not  be 
|)rivileged  from  arrest;  must  be  competent  to  make  a  con- 
tract, and  of  suflicient  means  to  pay  the  aniduut  for  whicli 
they  become  responsible.  They  can  be  compelled,  on  suit- 
able application  in  the  action,  to  Justify ;  this  means,  to 
show  by  satisfactory  evidence'  that  tliey  possess  the  cpudifi- 
cations  recpiired  by  law. 

While  the  prisoner,  when  released  on  bail,  is  in  fact  gen- 
erally allowed  to  go  at  large,  lie  is  regarded  by  tlie  law  as  in 
custody  of  his  bail.  They  can  take  possession  of  his  jierson 
at  any  time  or  in  any  place,  even  though  it  is  lu'cessary  to 
break  into  his  house."  By  delivering  him  to  the  sheriff  and 
complying  with  legal  f^rius  of  surremler,  they  I'an  discharge 
(hemselves  from  liability. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  wlien  a  jirisoner  is  hi'ld  under 
final  process — that  is,  process  to  enforce  a  Judgment  of  the 
<'ourt — he  can  not  be  released  on  liail.  However,  liy  statute 
law  he  is  sometimes  allowed  in  civil  cases,  on  giving  se- 
curity of  tlie  nature  of  bail,  to  be  released  from  strict  con- 
finement in  Jail,  at  tlie  same  time  being  partially  restrained 
of  his  liberty  by  the  action  (if  rules  defining  territorial  lim- 
its beyond  which  he  can  not  lawfully  go.    T.  W.  Dwionx. 


Bai'ley,  Gamaliel,  M.  D.  :  b.  at  Mt.  Holly,  N.  J.,  Dee. 
3,  1807.  In  conjunction  with  J.  G.  Birney  he  founded  in 
1886  the  ('inciniiati  Philanthrojiisf,  an  anti-slavery  jour- 
nal. Although  his  press  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  he  con- 
tinued the  publication  till  1847,  when  he  issued  the  first 
number  of  the  National  J^ra  at  Wjishington.  The  cele- 
brated novel  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  first  appeared  in  this  Jour- 
nal.    Died  at  sea,  on  his  way  to  Europe,  June  5,  1859. 

Bailey.  Gilbert  Stephens,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Dalton,  Pa.,  Oct. 
17,  1833;  educated  at  Oberlin  College.  0.;  pastor  of  a  Bap- 
tist church  in  Cornwall,  N.  Y..  184.5-46;  pastor  in  Illinois 
1846-63 ;  superintendent  of  missions  for  the  Baptist  Gen- 
eral Association  of  Illinois  1863-67;  and  from  1867  to  1875 
secretary  of  the  Baptist  Theological  I'liion  at  Chicago.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  works,  mostly  denominational.  Dr. 
Bailey  originated  the  system  of  "  ministers'  institutes"  now 
prevalent  in  the  Baptist  denomination,  liolding  the  first  at 
Chicago  in  1864. 

Bailey.  Jacob  Whit.man:  soldier  and  naturalist;  b.  at 
Ward  (now  Auburn),  iVIass..  Apr.  39,  1811;  graduated  at 
West  Point  1833 ;  served  as  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  Charles- 
ton harbor  (1833-33)  during  threatened  nullification  of  South 
Carolina;  at  Bellona  arsenal,  Va.,  1834-35;  as  assistant 
professor  at  INIilitary  Academy  1834-35,  and  acting  Profes- 
.sor  of  Chemistry,  Jlincralogy.  and  Geology  1835-38,  becom- 
ing, upon  resigning  his  lieutenancy,  July  8,  1838,  full  pro- 
fessor, which  position  he  held,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the 
academy  and  advantage  to  cadets,  till  his  death.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  Jiailei/'s  Jndicator.  and  of  many  improve- 
ments in  tlie  microscope,  in  the  use  of  which  he  achieved 
the  highest  distinction,  particularly  in  the  examination  of 
infusoria,  alga>,  and  the  jiroducts  of  the  deep-sea  sound- 
ings of  the  coast  survey.  L'.  S.  ex])loring  expeditions,  and 
the  Atlantic  telegraph  plateau,  of  whicli  lie  made  valuable 
collections  and  numerous  delineations,  bequeathing  them  to 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence 1857.  and  member  of  various  societies  of  savants  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  author  of  over  titty  able  papers  in 
various  scientific  journals.  His  health,  always  delicate,  was 
completely  shattered  by  exposure  in  the  Hudson  river  while 
attempting  to  rescue  his  wife  and  daughter,  lost  in  the  burn- 
ing of  the  steamer  Henry  Clay.  D.  at  West  Point,  Feb.  26, 
1857. 

Bailey,  James  jMoxtoosiery  :  editor  of  The  Danlmry 
News:  a  well-known  humorist;  b.  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
25,  1841 ;  commenced  Journalism  on  the  Danbury  Times 
(afterwards  Neirs)  in  1865.  which  paper  soon  acquired  a 
celebrity  throughout  the  U.  S.  from  an  incessant  flow  of 
humor  which  the  ]ien  of  its  editor  imparled  to  its  columns, 
lie  has  published  The  Danbury  News  Man  (1873),  and  Life 
ill.  Danbury  (Boston,  1873).    D.  in  Danbury,  Mar.  4,  1894. 

Bailey,  Joseph:  soldier;  b.  in  Salem.  0.,  Apr.  28, 1827; 
served  on  the  Federal  side  in  the  civil  war.  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  successful  atteni])!  in  1864  to  save  thirteen 
gunboats,  etc.,  of  the  Mississippi  flotilla.  The  water  of  the 
Bed  river,  La.,  having  fallen  so  low  that  Admiral  Porter's 
squadron  was  unable  to  pass  the  rapids.  Col.  Bailey  in  the 
course  of  eleven  days  constructed  dams  which,  by  raising- 
the  water,  enabled  the  boats  to  descend  safely,  for  which  he 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress  anil  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general,  lie  removed  to  Missouri,  where  he  was  shot  by 
some  ruflijuis  near  Nevada,  Vernon  County,  Mar.  21,  1867. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde:  horticulturist:  an  associate  edi- 
tor of  this  cyclopa'dia  and  editor  ni  American  Gardening; 
1).  in  South  Haven,  Mich.,  Jlar.  15,  1858;  graduated  at  the 
iMichigan  Agricultural  College  in  1883;  two  years  assistant 
to  the  late  Dr.  Asa  Gray  at  Harvard  University;  Professor 
of  Horticulture  and  Laiidsea|ic  Gardening  at  the  Michigan 
Agricultural  College  18S5-.SS:  then  Prol'esscir  of  General 
and  Exjierimental  Horticulture  at  Cornell  University;  em- 
ployed 111  isy6  on  (he  geological  and  natural  history  survey 
of  jlinnesota;  has  given  particular  attention  to  the  genus 
Cf/rcr,  upon  which  he  has  )iublished  a  number  of  papers 
and  two  preliminary  monographs;  author  of  Annals  of 
Iforiiciiltiire.  a  yearly  ri'siime  of  progress  in  horticulture, 
which  has  now  reached  four  volumes;  also  Talks  Afield, 
about  I'lirnts  and  the  Science  of  I'lants;  Iforficiilliirists' 
Rule-book;  Nurseri/-book,  or  ITnndbook  of  Plant  Propa- 
gation and  Pollinnlion;  Field  Notes  on  Apple  Culture; 
Cross-breeding  and  Hybridizing;  American  Orape  Train- 
ing; also  many  special  reports  and  monographs. 


BAILEY 


BAILMEXT 


453 


Bailey,  Xathax:  an  English  lexioognipher  and  classical 
scholar,  wlio  kc|)t  a  school  at  Stepney,  where  he  died  June 
27,  1742.  In  1721  lie  published  his  Viiiivrsal  Kfi/muloe/ical 
J-Jiiglish  Dicticnarij.  the  first  English  dictionary  which  aimed 
at  completeness,  and  which  was  the  basis  of  Dr.  Johnson's 
more  celebrated  work  (17.55).  He  wrote  also  a  Domestic 
/^iWioHrtry  {17fif)),  and  other  books  on  education,  lie  wjls 
a  Seventh-day  Baptist. 

Biiilpy.  I'liii.ip  James  :  poet ;  b.  in  Nottingham,  England. 
.\|ir.  22.  IsKi.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
IS4(I.  In  1«:59  he  published  Ffulux  (8tli  ed.  IWiS),  a  poem 
which  treats  of  the  highest  themes  of  philosophy  and  re- 
ligion. It  excited  much  admiration,  and  had  a  wiile  tem- 
porary success,  to  which  its  extravagance  and  defects  con- 
tributed. He  wrote  other  poems,  entitled  The  Aii(/el  World, 
afterward  incorporated  with  FeMns  (1850);  The  3I)/xli<: 
(1855);  2'he  Age,  a  satire  (1858) ;  and  2'he  Universal  lii/mn 
(18(57). 

Bailey,  Theodorus:  b.  in  Dutchess  co.,  K.  Y..  Oct.  12, 
17.58;  member  of  ('ongres.s  from  New  York  17it3-97  and 
17'J!t-18(«:  U.S.  Senator  I80:i-04,  when  he  resigned,  and 
was  appointed  postmaster  of  New  York.  I),  in  New  York 
city,  Sept.  «,  1828. 

Bailey,  Theodorus  :  rear-mlmiral  U.  S.  N. ;  b.  at  Chat- 
eaugay,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  13,  1805;  entered  the  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman, .Ian.  1,  1818.  He  did  good  service  on  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  during  a  part  of 
1861-63  conimaiuled  the  frigate  Colorado,  western  Gulf 
blockading  squadron.  On  Ai)r.  24,  l.s(i3,  he  commanded 
the  right  coUimn  of  Earragufs  lleet  in  the  piussage  of  Forts 
St.  Philip  and  Jackson,  and  at  the  capture  of  the  Chalmette 
batteries  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  where  he  led  the  fleet, 
and  was  conspicuous  for  his  great  gallantry  and  self-posses- 
sion. From  1863  to  1865  he  was  in  command  of  the  eastern 
Gulf  blockading  squadron.  I),  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb. 
10.  1877. 

Bailey,  William  Whitman,  B.  V. :  b.  at  West  Point, 
Orange  co.,  N.  Y..  Feb.  22,  1843;  was  educated  at  Brown 
Univei'sity.  Brovidence,  H.  I.,  whence  he  graduated  in  1864; 
was  botanist  of  the  U.  S.  geological  survey  of  the  fortieth 
parallel  in  1867;  ileputy  secretary  of  State  of  Rhode  Island 
in  1808;  assistant  librarian  of  Providence  Athenaeum  1869- 
71 ;  then  instructor  (1877),  but  since  Professor  of  Botany 
at  Brown  University.  He  published  Botanicdl  CoUcctor's 
Jfanrlbook  (Boston,  1881),  and  many  contributions  to  period- 
ical literature  in  prose  and  verse. 

Bailie:  a  Scottish  law-term  having  several  applications. 
The  most  common  and  popular  is  to  a  superior  officer  or 
magistrate  of  a  municipal  cor[>oration,  with  judicial  author- 
ity within  the  city  or  burgh.  In  royal  burghs  the  office  is 
in  .some  inspects  analogous  to  that  of  alderman  in  Englaml. 
Bailiff  10.  Fr.  bail/if  <  Late  Lat.  bajuli'cus,  adjee. 
friun  hM.  ba'jidnii,  carrier,  manager];  in  (ireat  Britain  a 
deputy  of  a  sheriff  or  of  a  local  magistrate:  also  a.  uiagi.s- 
trate  of  certain  towns  and  a  keeper  of  a  castle.  Bailiff  may 
be  defined  as  the  keeper  or  superintendent  of  some  duty  or 
charge  legally  imposed  on  him.  As  officers  of  the  law,  bail- 
iffs arrest  culprits,  summon  juries,  and  collect  fines.  There 
is  a  class  of  men  employed  by  the  sherill  on  account  of  their 
adroitness  and  dexterity  who  are  called  bound  bailiffs,  be- 
cause the  sheriff  being  resnonsible  for  their  official  mi.sde- 
meunors,  they  are  annually  bound  in  an  obligation  with 
sureties  for  the  due  performance  of  their  service.  The 
sheriff  himself  is  the  queen's  bailiff.  The  term  bailiff  is 
seldom  used  in  the  U.  S. 

Bail'lie,  Joanna:  poetess;  b.  in  the  manso  of  Bothwell, 
Lanarkshire.  Scotland,  Sept.  11,  1702,  In  early  life  she  went 
to  reside  in  London  with  her  brother,  Matthew  liaillie,  the 
celebrated  physician.  She  publishe<l  in  1798  the  first  vol- 
ume of  Plays  on  the  Passions,  which  had  great  success. 
Several  other  volumes  of  the  same  appeared  in  1802,  1812, 
etc.  Among  the  most  popular  of  her  other  works  are  Z>c 
Mont  fort,  a  tragedy,  and  Jiasil,  a  dranui.  She  wrote  sev- 
eral ballads  and  songs  which  were  much  admired.  She  was 
an  intinuite  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  her  house  was 
the  resort  of  many  other  British  and  foreign  literary  celeb- 
rities. Wov  Dramatic  and  Poetical  Works  Complete  in  one 
Volume  (London,  1851).     I),  in  London,  Feb.  2;i,  1851. 

Baillie,  Matthew,  M.I).:  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Shots,  in  Ijanarkshire,  Scotland,  Oct.  27,  1761. 
His  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  great  anatomists,  John  and 
William  Hunter,    lie  studied  anatomy  under  his  uncle,  and 


entered  Oxford,  where  lie  graduated  as  M.  D.  In  1783  he 
succeeded  Dr.  Hunter  as  Lecturer  on  Anatomy  in  London. 
He  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher  and  expositor 
of  that  science.  He  published  in  1795  an  excellent  work 
on  The  Morbid  Anittomij  of  Some  of  the  Most  Important 
Parts  of  the  Human  Body,  which  had  a  remarkable  influ- 
ence on  the  study  of  medicine.  He  practiced  medicine  in 
Loiulon  with  great  succes.s,  and  was  appointed  physician  to 
the  king  in  1810.  1).  at  Duntisbourne,  (iloucestershire,  Sept. 
2:!,  182;i.  See  his  J.ife  by  Wardrop  prefixed  to  his  Works 
(London,  1825,  2  vols.).  • 

Baillie,  Robert:  an  eminent  Scottish  Presbyterian  theo- 
logian; b.  in  Glasgow  in  1.599.  He  was  distinguished  for 
his  learning  and  moderation.  He  was  one  of  the  comnus- 
sioners  sent  to  London  in  1640  to  jircpare  charges  against 
Laud ;  became  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Glasgow  in  1642 ; 
and  was  principal  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  after  the 
Restoration.  He  wrote  various  works  and  letters.  1).  in 
Glasgow  in  July,  1663. 

Baillie  of  Jerviswood,  Robert:  a  Scottish  patriot  of 
excellent  aliilities  and  character.  He  opposed  the  tyran- 
nical measures  of  the  Duki'  of  Lauderdale,  and  about  1676 
was  fined  and  imprisoned  for  four  months.  Having  entered 
into  a  correspoiulence  with  Kussell  anil  Sidney,  he  was  ar- 
rested and  charged  with  complicity  in  the  Kye  House  Plot. 
He  was  condemned  on  insufficient  evidence,  and  executed, 
in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  34,  1684. 

Bailly,  Jean  Svlvain  :  French  astronomer  and  states- 
man ;  b.  in  Paris,  Sept.  15,  17:36.  He  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  176:3,  and  published  in  1771  a  re- 
markable Treatise  on  the  Light  of  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter. 
In  1775  he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  As- 
tronomy, Ancient  and  Modern  (4  vols.,  177.5-8;3),  which  by 
its  eloquent  diction  and  ingenious  ideas  obtained  great  pop- 
ularity. He  became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1784,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1785.  Fonte- 
nelle  was  the  only  Frenchman  who  before  that  time  had 
had  the  honor  to  be  a  member  of  the  three  great  academies 
of  Paris.  He  was  the  first  jiresident  of  the  Slates-General 
or  National  Assembly  in  1789,  and  was  elected  mayor  of 
Paris  in  July  of  that  year.  His  influence  was  exerted  to 
pron.ote  oi'der  and  moderation.  He  offended  the  Jacobins 
by  commanding  the  national  guard  to  fire  on  a  riotous 
crowd  in  July,  1791.  and  resigned  his  office  soon  after  that 
date.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  was  proscribed  bv 
the  Jacobins,  and  after  insulting  treatment  was  guillotineti, 
Nov.  12,  1793.  Among  his  works  is  3Iemoirs  of  the  Revo- 
lution  by  an  Eye-rcitness  (3  vols.,  1804).  See  his  LAfe  by 
F.  Arago  (Paris,  1853  ;  Eng.  trans,  in  Biographies  of  Dis- 
tinguished Scientific  Men,  Boston,  1859);  J.  P.  Nourrisson 
(Paris,  1885). 

Bailly,  Joseph  A. :   a  French  sc.ulptor ;  b.  in  Paris  in 

1825;  emigrated  to  Philadelphia  in  1850.  Anwug  his  best 
works  are  Adam  and  Eve,  a  group  of  Eve  and  her  7\ro 
Children,  and  a  marljle  monument  of  Washington  (1869), 
placed  in  front  of  the  State-house  in  Philadeli)hi.-i.  1). 
.June  15,  1883. 

Bailment  [0.  Fr.  bailement.  deriv.  of  bailler,  deliver] : 
a  didivcry  of  goods  for  some  particular  |nn'pose,  or  on  mere 
deiiosit,  upon  contract,  express  or  implied,  that  after  the 
purpose  has  been  performed  the  identical  goods  shall  be 
redelivered  to  the  bailor,  or  otherwise  dealt  with  according 
to  his  direction.  If  the  contract  permits  the  rclurn  of  an 
equivalent  instead  of  the  goods  bailed,  there  is  no  bailment, 
but  the  transaction  constitutes  a  debt  or  some  cognate  en- 
gagement. Also  a  delivery  of  a  thing  in  trust  for  some 
special  object,  and  upon  contract,  express  or  implied,  to 
conform  to  the  object  of  the  trust. 

Bailment  includes  the  borrowing,  lending,  hiring,  or 
keeping  of  chattels,  and  the  carrying  or  working  upon 
them  for  another.  The  |)arty  making  the  delivery  or  bail- 
ing the  property  is  termed  the  bailor ;  the  party  to  whom 
it  is  delivered,  the  bailee. 

Bailments  have  been  classified  as  follows:  1.  Depositum, 
or  deposit;  a  delivery  of  goods  to  be  kept  by  the  Iiailee, 
and  rcturmid  on  demand,  without  recompense.  3.  Manda- 
tum,  or  mandate;  where  llu^  bailee  agrees  to  do  something 
with  or  about  the  thing  bailed,  without  recompense.  3. 
Commodatum  (see  Loan);  where  the  thing  bailed  is  lent  for 
use,  without  recompense.  4.  Pignus,  or  pledge;  where  the 
thing  bailed  is  security  for  a  debt  or  other  engagement.  5. 
Locatio,  or  hiring;   where  the  use  of  something  is  to  be 


454 


BAILY 


BAIRD 


gireii,  or  labor  porformed  about  it,  for  a  compensation. 
Xocrr/i'o  is  subdivided  as  follows:  LociiHo  rei  (hiring  of  a 
thing)  where  the  bailee  by  hire  gains  the  temporary  use  of 
a  thing;  Locatio  uperis  faciendi  (\dvm^'woYk.  to  be  done), 
where  the  bailee  agrees  to  jjcrforni  labor  and  services,  or 
bestow  care  and  attention  upon  the  thing  bailed,  for  a 
recompense:  Locatio  open's  merciiiin  vehendiinun  (hiring 
the  work  of  carrying  goods)  where  goods  are  delivered  to 
a  liailee  to  be  transported  to  another  place,  for  a  recom- 
pense. 

The  question  wliich  most  frequently  arises  and  presents 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  law  of  Ijailment  relates  to  the 
responsibility  which  attaches  to  a  bailee  if  the  property  is 
lost  or  injured,  and  the  degree  of  care  which  he  is  bound  to 
bestow  upon  it.  With  reference  to  this  question,  bailments 
have  been  divided  into  three  groups:  1.  Where  the  bailment 
is  for  the  benefit  of  the  bailor  alone.  This  class  includes  de- 
posits and  mandates.  Here,  its  the  bailee  receives  nothing 
for  his  services,  lie  is  held  only  to  the  care  which  prudent 
men  are  supposed  to  give  to  their  own  affairs,  and  he  is  re- 
sponsible only  for  such  loss  or  injury  as  results  from  the  ali- 
sence  of  such  care.  The  degree  of  care  depends  much  upon 
tlie  circumstances  of  each  case  :  for  example,  upon  the  bulk 
of  the  article,  its  fragility,  or  its  exposure  to  thieves  from 
tlie  dense  jjopulation  of  a  city  as  compared  with  the  scanty 
population  of  a  country  district.  In  each  case  it  is  a  ciues- 
tion  of  fact  wliether  the  proper  care  was  used.  2.  Where 
the  bailment  is  for  tlie  benefit  of  the  bailee  only.  This  class 
includes  rniiimodatitm.  Here  the  greatest  care  is  required 
of  the  bailee,  and  he  is  responsible  for  the  slightest  negli- 
gence. It  is  also  a  rule  that  he  must  keep  strictly  within 
the  privilege  conferred  on  him  with  respect  to  the  thing 
Ijailed.  or  he  will  be  liable  for  any  loss  or  injury  to  it.  even 
though  he  is  guilty  of  no  negligence.  3.  Where  the  bailment 
is  for  the  benefit  of  both  bailor  and  bailee.  This  is  the  ease 
in  pignus  and  locdtio.  Here  the  bailee  is  held  to  the  exer- 
cise of  the  care  and  attention  which  prudent  men  under  the 
circumstances  would  reasonably  be  expected  to  take. 

There  is  a  class  of  bailments  of  an  exceptional  natvire. 
embraced  under  tlie  head  of  locatiu,  where  the  policy  of  the 
law  imposes  upon  the  bailee  responsibilitiesfor  loss  or  injury 
to  the  property  delivere<l  to  his  charge,  entirely  irrespective 
of  the  question  of  his  care  or  negligence ;  this  class  includes 
innkeepers  and  common  carriers,  the  liabilities  of  whom  will 
be  considered  in  another  place.  In  these  cases  the  bailees 
are  often  called  insurers.  See  Carriers,  Hiring,  and  Inn- 
keepers. 

The  relation  of  bailor  and  bailee  is  largely  one  of  trust, 
and  the  law  requires  gooil  faith  of  each  party.  As  a  rule, 
the  bailee  will  not  be  allowed  to  dispute  the  title  of  his 
bailor.  He  has  a  right  to  the  possession  of  the  thing  bailed 
during  the  bailment,  and  in  some  instances  a  special  prop- 
erty in  it.  In  other  cases  he  has  a  bare  custody.  This 
would  enable  him  to  maintain  an  action  against  any  one 
who  should  unlawfully  interfere  with  the  chattel  or  ilejn'ive 
him  of  its  possession.  In  such  an  action  he  woulil  hold  the 
proceeds  beyond  what  was  sufficient  to  indemnify  him  for 
nis  special  interest  as  a  trustee  for  the  bailor. 

T.  W.  DWIGHT. 

Bai'ly.  Edward  Hodges  :  an  English  sculptor;  b.  in  Bris- 
tol. JIar.  10,  178S  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Flaxman.  He  gained  the 
gold  and  sih'er  medals  of  the  Hoyal  Academy  1800,  and  be- 
came a  royal  academician  in  1821.  Among  his  masterpieces 
are  Eve  cif  the  Fountain,  which  is  exquisitely  graceful; 
Apo/lo  Diae/iaryini/  Jiis  Armies;  Tlie  Graces  Seated ;  Ere 
Listeninij  ti>  the  Voice;  tutii  a  statue  of  Lord  Xelson.  I), 
in  Holloway,  May  22,  1867. 

Baily.  I'"R.\xt'is,  D.  C.  L. :  English  astronomer;  b.  in  New- 
bury, lierkshire.  Ajir.  28,  1744;  'became  a  stock-broker  in 
London  1799.  He  retired  from  business  in  1825, and  thence- 
forth devoti^d  himself  to  science.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Astronomical  Society  (1820),  and  renilered  im- 
portant services  to  a.stronomy  by  the  improvement  of  the 
Nautical  Almanac  and  the  i>ro(luction  of  the  Astronomi- 
cal Society's  Cataloi/iie  of  Stars.  He  wrote  several  staiul- 
ard  works  on  life  annuities,  and  a  Life  of  Flamsteed  (1835). 
1).  in  London,  Aug.  30,  1844. 

Bain.  Alexander.,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in 
1818;  graduated  as  M.  A.  at  Marischal  College  in  1840.  In 
1845  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Xatural  Philosophy  in 
the  Andersonian  I'niversity  at  (ilasgow;  in  1857  Exam- 
iner in  Logic  and  )Moral  Philosojihy  in  the  London  L'nivcr- 
.sity ;  in  18C0  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  L^niversity  of  Aber- 


deen, of  which  he  was  elected  lord  rector  in  1881.  He  has 
published  Tlie  Senses  and  the  Intellect  (1855),  Tlie  Emo- 
tions and  the  Will  (1859),  forming  together  a  complete 
course  of  mental  philosophy  :  Study  of  Character,  including 
an  Estimate  of  Phrenology  (1861):  English  Composition 
and  Rhetoric  (1866);  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1868); 
Logic,  Deductire  and  Inductire  (2  vols.,  1870) ;  Mind  and 
Body :  Theories  of  their  Belation  (1873) ;  Education  as  a 
Science  (Xlil'd);  James  Mill  and  John  Stuart  Jlill  (1882); 
Practical  Essays  (1884);  Manual  of  Rhetoric  (part  i,  1887; 
part  ii.  1888).  He  belongs  to  the  Sjiencerian  or  experimental 
school,  and  his  psychology  is  physiological. 

Baiu'bridgre  ;  town  and  railroad  junction  :  cajiital  of  De- 
catur CO.,  Ga.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Georgia, 
ref.  7-G) ;  on  Flint  river.  50  miles  from  its  mouth  and  at 
the  head  of  navigation  ;  236  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Savannah ; 
has  public  and  private  schools,  a  cotton  manufactory,  and 
is  a  shipping-point  for  cotton  and  center  of  a  great  tobacco- 
growing  region.     Pop.  (1880)  1,436;  (1890)  1,668. 

Bainbridge;  on  Susquehanna  River  and  A.  and  S.  R.  R., 

Chenango  co..  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New 
York.  ref.  .5-G):  32  miles  E.  of  Binghamton.  It  has  five 
churches  and  a  beautiful  park.  It  has  various  industries, 
including  the  manufacture  of  patent  food-preparations, 
children's  sleds  and  wagons,  cigare,  furniture,  lumber,  but- 
ter, cheese,  etc.  Pop.  (1870)  681;  (1880)  781;  (1890)  1.049; 
(1892)  1,340.  Editor  of  "  Republican." 

Baiiibridge,  William:  commodore:  b.  in  Princeton, 
N.  J..  May  7. 1774.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1800, 
and  commanded  the  frigate  Philadelphia  in  the  war  against 
Ti'i|joli.  This  vessel,  having  run  aground,  was  cajitured  liy 
the  enemy  Nov.  1, 1804.  He  remained  a  prisoner  until  peace 
was  concluded,  June,  1805.  and  was  afterward  raised  to  the 
rank  of  commodore.  In  Sept.,  1812,  he  obtained  command 
of  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  Constitution,  of  forty-four 
guns,  the  Essex,  and  the  Hornet.  In  Dec,  1812,  he  capttired 
the  British  frigate  Java,  mounting  fortv-nine  guns.  D.  in 
Philadeljihia,  Pa.,  July  28,  1833.  See  his  Life  bv  Thomas 
Harris  (Phila.,  1837). 

Bailii.  ba"a-ee'nE"e.GirsEPPE :  Italian  musician :  b.  in  Rome, 
Oct.  21.  1775:  became  director  of  the  Papal  Orchestra.  1814. 
D.  May  21,  1844.  Author  of  Tlie  Biography  of  Palestrina, 
numerous  sacred  compositions,  and  History  of  the  Papal 
Orchestra.  He  is  chiefly  famous  for  his  work  in  the  history 
of  music. 

Bains,  bah  (i.e.  baths):  the  name  of  several  watering- 
places  in  Prance.  The  most  important  of  these  is  Bains- 
Ics-Bains,  in  the  department  of  Vosges,  14  miles  S,  W.  of 
Epinal,  situated  about  1.000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  place 
has  thirteen  springs.  Among  these  "  La  grosse  source  "  has 
a  temperature  of  about  120^  F. 

Bai'ran)  :  a  feast  of  the  Mohammedans ;  begins  at  the  end 
of  the  fast  of  Ramadan.  It  is  inaugurated  with  gi-eat  pub- 
lic rejoicings  and  illuminations.  Its  observance  is  com- 
manded by  the  Koran.  •"  Little  Bairam  "  occurs  seventy 
days  later. 

Baird,  Absalom  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Washington,  Pa.,  Aug, 
20,  1824;  graduated  at  West  Point  1849  in  artilleiT;  captain 
and  assistant  adjutant-general  Aug.  3,  1861 ;  major  and  in- 
spector-general Nov.  12.  1861 ;  lieutenant-colonel  June  13, 
1865;  brigadier-general  V.  S.  vols.  1862-66.  He  served  at 
various  posts  1849-61 :  in  Florida  hostilities  1851-53:  as  as- 
sistant professor  at  military  academy  1856-59 ;  assistant 
adjutant-general  at  Washington.  I).  C..  1861 ;  in  Manassas 
campaign  1861  :  engaged  at  Blackburn's  Ford  and  Bull 
Run;  in  the  adjutant-generars  office  1861;  in  the  Virginia 
Peninsula  campaign  1862;  engaged  at  Yorktown  and  Will- 
iamsburg; in  command  of  a  brigade  in  the  army  of  the 
Ohio.  1862;  engaged  in  the  capture  of  Franklin  in  Rose- 
crans'  Tennessee  campaign  1863:  engaged  at  Tullahoma, 
Shelbyville.  Dtig  Gap,  Chickamauga  (lirevet  lieutenant-colo- 
nel), and  occupation  of  Chattanooga;  in  command  of  a  tli- 
vision  in  tlie  Fourteenth  corps  in  the  oi)erations  about  Chat- 
tanooga (brevet  colonel)  1863-64:  engaged  at  Missionary 
Ridge  and  skirmished  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy  in  the  inva- 
sion of  Georgia  1864;  engaged  at  Resaca,  Pine  Jlountain, 
Kenesaw,  Vining's  Station,  Peach  Tree  Creek.  Atlanta 
(brevet  brigailier-general),  Jonesboro ;  pursuit  of  Hood's 
army;  in  the  "march  to  the  .sea"  and  surrender  of  Savan- 
nah; in  the  invasion  of  the  Carolinas  1865;  engaged  at  Ben- 
tonville.  Raleigh,  and  surrender  of  Johnston's  army  at  Dur- 
ham Station.     He  was  breveted  major-general  V.  S.  army 


UAIKI) 


BAKER 


455 


Mar.  Ki,  186-5,  for  giilliiiit  mid  meritorious  services  in  the 
field,  and  iniijor-geiiHnil  V.  S.  vols..  Sept.  1,  1864,  for  distin- 
<;uishcd  eondiiet  in  Atlanta  campaign  and  at  Savannah. 
Beeanie  inspector-fjeneral  of  army   188.j.     Uetireil  Auj;.  20, 

l.MSS. 

Itaini.  Lient.-Col.  .\xi)hk\v  Wilson,  F.  U.S.:  I),  in  .Xber- 
deen,  Apr.  28.  1842;  educated  at  Jlarischal  ('ollejie.  .Vherdeen 
rniversity;  obtained  a  eonunission  in  I  lie  corps  of  Royal 
Enjrineers  1861 ;  entered  the  service  i>r  the  Bomliay  (iovern- 
Mient  1864;  was  {■mploycd  :ui  Hold  enf,'in<'er  in  thi-  .\liyssin- 
ian  expeililion ;  employed  on  the  great  trifjononielrieal  sur- 
vev  of  Inilia  1868;  selected  to  superintend  the  results  of 
the  harmonic  analysis  of  tidal  observations  in  ln<lia.  where, 
beffiimin;;  at  the  Gulf  of  Cuteh.  he  established  over  thirty 
ticlal  observatories  from  .Vden  to  IJurma;  lieutenant-colonel 
18S,S:  mint  master  of  Caleutta  188'.);  is  espi-cially  noti'd  for 
liis  collaboration  with  (i.  II.  Darwin  in  producini;  'J'/ir  flar- 
monir  Aitii/i/si.s  of  Tidiil  OliKcrvaliiiiix  (188.')).  jiresented  to 
the  Royal  Society  of  Loudon,  for  his  a<'count  of  the  S/tin'/- 
/(•reliiif/  (>/)crali<>n-i  of  the  Orcat  Surri'i/  of  Initio,  and  for 
his  otiicial  reports  uiion  these  and  kindred  suljjeets.  He  is 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  (ieojjraphical  Society. 

BainI,  IIf.nkv  Martvn,  Ph.D..  1).  I)..  LL.  D.;  son  of  the 
Rev.  Rob,'rt  Uaird.  D.D.;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  .Ian.  17,  18:i2; 
firaduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  ly.jO; 
attended  lectures  in  the  National  I'niversity  (then  University 
of  Otho).  .\thens.  Greece,  18.jl-.'i2;  studied  theolojjy  in  the 
Union  Theological  Semiiuiry,  New  York.  1 8.):i-.').5,  and 
Princeton,  N.  .).,  18o5-r)6.  lie  was  tutor  of  Gri'ek  in  the 
College  of  New  .lei'sey  18.i.t-.5!I,  and  in  18.5!)  becauu'  Professor 
of  the  Greek  Ijanpfuajie  and  Literature  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York.  In  1866  he  was  ordained  as  an  evan- 
gelist. ■  He  has  published  J/w/f-m  (Irci-fi'  (18.56);  The  Life 
of  the  Rer.  Robert  Bairil.  I).  I).  (1866) ;  Ilistni-f/  of  the  Rixe 
of  the  Iliii/iieiiotx  of  Fniiiee  (IHTII);  Tlie  Iluijiwiiotf!  nod 
Henrij  of  Ntieorre  (1886) ;  Tlie  Edirl  of  Xantes  and  it.-i  Re- 
etill  (1886) :  and  many  articles  in  the  quarterlies. 

Bairil.  Roiii;rt.  D.I).:  theologian  and  writer;  b.  near 
Vniontuwn.  Fayette  eo..  Pa.,  Oct.  (!,  1T98.  He  graduated  at 
.letTerson  College.  Washington.  Pa.,  in  1818,  and  at  Prince- 
ton Theologit'al  Seminary  in  1822.  He  spent  several  years 
(18;i5  to  1848)  in  Europe,  where  he  did  much  to  promote 
Protestant  Christianity  and  the  temperance  cause.  He  was 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Chris- 
tian Union  184!)-.5a,  1861-6:!.  .\mong  his  works  arc  Ilistori/ 
of  the  Wotdenses,  Atliiffen.'<es.  and  \'ond(ji.<;  Jlistori/  of  the 
Teni/jeniiiee  Societies  (French  orig.  Paris,  1886);  lietiijion 
in  America  (fila.sgovv  and  New  York,  1844).  D.  at  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.,  Mar.  15,  1863.  See  his  Life  1)V  his  son,  Henry  M. 
Baird  (New  York.  1866). 

BainI,  Si'k.ncer  Fi'i.i.kkto.v,  LL.  D.  :  natui-alist;  b.  in 
Reading.  Pa..  Feb.  3,  1828 ;  entered  Di<'kinson  CoUegc;  in 
1886,  and  graduated  in  1840.  He  got  his  first  love  for  nat- 
ural history  from  his  lather,  who  was  fond  of  out-of-door 
.studies  of  nature,  and  he  was  greatly  stimulated  in  this  di- 
rection by  an  early  acquaintance  with  Audubon,  whicli  he 
formed  as  early  as  1888.  From  1846  to  1850  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  in  Dickinson  College,  and  just 
before  resigning  this  position  he  began  his  first  imiiortant 
literary  work — that  of  translating  and  editing  the  Irono- 
(/raphic  Enri/r/o/xedia.  In  1850  he  was  a]iii<iinted  assist- 
ant si'cretary  of  Smithsoiuari  Institution,  whieh  position  he 
held  until  the  death  of  Prof.  Henry,  in  May.  1878,  when  he 
sueceedeil  to  the  position  of  secreiary,  and'  held  it  till  his 
ileath.  His  most  elaborate  original  nu'inoirs  are  the  cata- 
logue of  North  American  serpents  (18.53);  Moiumolx  of 
2iorth  America  (1858) ;  the  Review  of  Xorth  American  liirds 
(1864-66) ;  and  a  Ilintori/  of  Xorth  American  Birdx  in  con- 
nection with  .Mr.  Brewer  and  Mr.  Ridgeway.  From  1870  to 
1878  he  was  scientific  I'ditor  of  the  periodicals  published  by 
Harper  &  ISrothcrs.  In  his  writings  Prof.  Baird  covered 
nearly  every  branch  of  mitnral  history.  In  1871  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  newly  created  U.  S.  connnission  of 
fish  and  fisheries — an  unsalaried  olTiee.  Maiidy  through 
his  exertions  this  comnnssion  was  rai.sed  to  its  present  im- 
iiortant position.  Not  only  was  he  honored  by  being  imide 
an  honorary  member  of  nearly  every  American  scientific  .so- 
ciety, but  he  was  also  either  a  foreign  or  corres|ionding 
member  of  most  of  the  important  scicntifU;  .societies  in  I'lng- 
,  land,  France,  (iermany,  .\nstria,  and  .Spain,  and  w.is  a  mem- 
l)er  of  the  conneil  of  the  American  National  Academy  of 
Sciences.  In  1879  he  was  awarded  the  gohl  medal  of  "the 
Societe  d'Acclimatation  of  France,  and  in  1880  tlie  "erstcr 


Ehrenpreis"  of  the  Internationale  Fischerei  Ausstellung.  at 
Berlin — the  gift  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  In  1875  ho 
received  from  the  King  of  Norway  and  Sweden  the  decora- 
tion of  •'  knight  of  the  royal  Norwegian  order  of  St.  Olaf." 
Other  honors  and  medals  were  received  by  him.  He  was 
director  of  the  National  Museum.  D.  in  Wood's  Hole, 
Mass.,  Aug.  1!).  1887. 

Haii'ciith.  or  Bayrputh.bi'roit;  a  city  of  Bavaria ;  capi- 
tal of  the  circle  of  I  pper  Pranconia  :  on  the  lied  Main  ;  126 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  .Muinch  (see  uuip  of  (ii-rm,-in  Empire, 
ref.  6-F).  It  is  jileasantly  situated  and  well  built,  and  has 
gardens  and  pviblie  fountains.  The  princi|ial  buildings  are 
the  new  palace,  the  mint,  ojiera-house.  town-hall,  and  the 
tlx'ater  built  for  Wagner,  wlio  is  buried  near  here.  Here 
are  manufactm-es  of  cotton,  woolen,  porcelain,  and  leather. 
Pop.  (1S!)0)  24.8(i4. 

Bairilt:  See  liEYEOUT. 

Bai'us  (7?«/h.s), the  Latinized  name  of  JIichael  De  Bat: 
a  Flemish  theologian  ;  b.  in  Melin.  Hainault.  in  1518.  He 
became  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Louvain  in  1550.  an<l  in 
1578  chancellor  of  that  university.  He  adojited  the  doc- 
trines of  St.  Augustine,  and  wrote  works  on  free  will  and 
grace,  which  were  condemned  by  Pope  Pius  V.  in  1567. 
Biuus  retracted  or  submitted,  but  his  doctrines  were  propa- 
gated in  the  Netherlands  and  afterward  maintained  by  the 
.lansenists.  He  condemned  the  .lesuits  as  Pelagians.  His 
works  (Cologne.  1606.  2  vols.)  were  ]iut  in  the  Index.  D.  in 
Louvain,  Dee.  16,  1589. 

Ba,ja;  See  Bale. 

Baja,  b5'y6 ;  an  important  market-town  of  Hungary ;  in 
the  county  of  Biics;  on  the  Danube:  90  miles  S.  of  Pesth 
(see  ma])  of  Austfia-Hungary,  ref.  7-H).  Here  is  an  impor- 
tant market  or  annual  fair  for  swine.  Large  quantities  of 
grain  and  wine  are  produced  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  about 
20.000. 

Baja  California:  the  Mexican  territory  comprising 
Lower  California. 

Bajada  de  Parana :  See  Parana. 

Bajazet ;  See  Bayazid. 

Ba'kpr,  Abijah  Richardson,  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Franklin,  Mass., 
Aug.  80.  1805;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1880;  became  a 
teaclu-r  in  Medway,  Dorchester,  and  Andover.  Mass.;  or- 
dained pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in  Jledford,  Mass. ; 
and  was  subsequently  settled  in  Lynn.  M'ellesley,  and  Bos- 
ton. T).  in  Boston,  April  30,  1876.  He  published  a  School 
nistori/  of  the  United  State.f,  The  Catechism  Tested  by  the 
Bible :  an  E.rposition  of  the  Sermon  on  the  3Iount,  etc. — 
His  wife.  Harkiette  Newell  Woods,  a  daughter  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Leomird  Woods,  was  born  at  Andover  in  1815.  She  has 
|ud)lishetl  ovi'r  160  volumes,  mostly  for  children,  written 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Madeline  Leslie." 

Baker.  Sir  Ben.iamin.  F.  R.S..  Hon.  LL.  D..  Hon.  Master 
of  Engineering.  V.-P.  Inst.  C.  E. ;  civil  engineer;  b.  near 
Bath.  England,  in  1840.  His  ]irofessional  training  began 
with  hammer  and  chisel  in  one  of  the  oldest  workshops  in 
Wales.  Thence  he  w'as  articled  to  Mr.  H.  H.  Preeee,  in 
whose  office  and  shops  he  obtained  experience  in  foundry, 
forge,  and  manufacturing  processes,  and  the  designing  of 
machiuerv.  Three  years  later  he  obtained  some  experience 
in  worksdf  masonry.  Going  to  Loiulon.  hi'  enteri'd  the 
ollici'  of  Sir  .lohii  Fowler,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
manv  imjiortant  engineering  works  then  being  carried  out, 
including  the  Metropolitan  Railway  (underground)  of  Lon- 
don. It  has  fallen  to  him  to  repair  and  strengthen  the  three 
historical  briilges  of  Telford,  the  Menai  susiicnsion  bridge, 
the  Buildwas  cast-iron  arched  bridge,  and  the  masonry 
bridge  over  the  Severn,  near  Gloucester.  In  1877  Mr.  Baker 
designed  the  cylindrical  shiji  in  which  Cleopatra's  Needle 
was  trinisported.  He  su])erint ended  the  loading  of  the 
obelisk  in  Egvpt  and  its  re-erection  in  London.  His  great 
work  is  the  l<\irth  bridge,  of  which  Sir  .lohn  p'owler  and 
himself  were  the  engineere.  He  is  consulting  engineer  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Government,  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, and  one  of  the  consulting  engineers  of  the  Bristol 
Railway  Company,  of  the  Chignecto  Shi]i-railw,ay,  and  the 
Hudson  River  Tunnel,  representing  together  a  ca]iital  of 
$7.50.000,000.  Anumg  his  writings  are  Long  Span  Iron 
Hridj/es:  The  Metropolitan  Railway;  The  River  Xile; 
Tran.ymrtnlion  and  Re-erection  of  Cleopatra's  Needle ;  The 
Strent/th  of  Reams;  The  Pressure  of  Earthwork;  On  Tim- 
ber and  Metal  Arches;  Rivefs  in  Oirder-flanges;  Lattice 


400 


BAKER 


BAKHMUT 


versus  Box  Girders;  Phi  Conjiec/ions  I'ersus  Rivets:  Vic- 
toj'ia  Bridge;  iSuspension  versus  Cantilever  Bridyes;  Jlatiu- 
facture  and  Wear  of  Mails;  Steel  for  Tires  and  A.des,  etc. 

William  K.  Hutton. 

Baker,  Daniel,  D.  D.  :  Presbj'terian  miuistci';  b,  in  Mid- 
way. Lilierty  co.,  tia.,  Auj.  17,  17511 :  graduati'il  at  Prince- 
ton in  181.5;  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in 
1S18:  was  i>astor  at  Wasliington,  1).  C,  Savannah,  Ga., 
Frankfort,  Ky.,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  and  Holly  Springs,  Jliss. ; 
was  for  a  time  president  of  Austin  College,  HuntsWlle, 
Tenn.;  was  a 'popular  and  successful  preacher;  and  the  au- 
tlior  of  sovend  pi-aetical  and  polemical  religious  works.  1). 
in  Austin,  Tex.,  Dec.  10,  18.57. 

Baker,  William  Ml'mford:  clergyman  and  author:  son 
of  Daniel  Baker;  b.  in  Washington,  D.  C.  June  5,  1835; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1846;  is  the  author  of  a  Life  of 
his  father  (1858),  and  of  several  other  popular  works,  such 
as  Inside,  a  Chronicle  of  Secession  (1866);  T/ie  JVew 
Timothy  (1870) ;  and  His  Majesty  Myself  (1879).  He  was  a 
Preshvterian  minister  in  Galveston  (1850)  and  Austin,  Tex. 
(ls,"-)0-65'):  at  Zauesville,  0.(1866-72);  Newburvport,  Mass. 
(lSTi_74);  South  Boston,  Mass.  (1874-81);  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
(1881);  resigned  shortly  before  his  death  in  South  Boston, 
Mass.,  Aug.  20, 1883. 

Baker,  Col.  Edward  Dichnsos:  a  lawyer:  b.  in  Lon- 
don. England,  Feb.  24,  1811 ;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  in  his 
youth.  'He  was  M.  C.  from  Springfield,  III.,  1844-46,  184fl- 
51;  removed  to  California  in  1852,  and  became  a  popuUu- 
orator  of  the  Republican  party.  In  1860  he  was  elected 
U.  S.  Senator  for  Oregon.  Having  ot>tained  connnand  of  a 
brigade  of  the  Union  army,  he  was  lulled  at  Ball's  Bluff, 
Va.,  on  the  Potom.ae,  Oct.  31,  1861. 

Baker,  George  Augusti^s:  portrait-painter;  b.  in  Xew 
York  in  1831,  and  died  there  Apr.  3,  1880.  He  was  a  stu- 
dent in  the  schools  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New 
York,  and  visited  Europe  in  1844,  where  he  remained  two 
years.  He  painted  many  portraits  in  New  York,  and  was 
elected  a  National  Academician  in  1851.  W.  A.  C. 

Baker,  Ira  Oshorx,  B.  S.,  C.  E.  :  b.  in  Linton,  Ind.,  Sept. 
23,  1853;  graduated  at  University  of  Illinois  1874;  was  As- 
sistant Professor  of  Civil  P^ngineering  in  that  institution 
1874  to  1880,  and  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  since  1880. 
XvA\\ox ot Engineers  Surrei/ing Insfn/ine)ifs{\KXC)):  Treat ixe 
on  Masonry  Construction  (1880) ;  and  Brirk  Barenients  (18!ll). 

Baker,  John  Gilbert,  P. R. S.,  P. L. S. ;  botanist;  b.  in 
Guisborough,  England,  Jan.  13,  1834;  educated  at  the 
Friends'  schools  at  Ackworth  and  York.  He  is  keeper  of 
the  herbarium  and  library  of  the  Kew  Gardens,  and  has 
published  a  new  eilition  of  Hooker's  Si/nopsis  Filicum 
(1883);  a  Ilandliook  of  the  Fern  Allies  (1887);  Handbook 
of  the  Amaryllidem  (1888) ;  Handbook  of  the  Bromeliacem 
(1889) ;  besides  many  papers  on  botanical  subjects. 

Baker,  Osmon  Oleander,  D.  D.  :  Methodist ;  b.  in  Mar- 
low,  X.  IL,  July  30,  1813;  studied  at  Wesleyan  University, 
Connecticut  ;  became  teacher  in  the  Newbury  Wesleyan 
Seminary  (Vermont)  1834,  and  its  principal  1839-44.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Methoilist  theological  schools, 
and  professor  in  the  Biblical  Institute  at  Concord,  N.  H., 
1847-52.  In  1852  he  was  elected  bishop.  D.  at  Concord, 
N.  IL,  Dec.  20,  1871.  Baker  on  the  niscipline  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  (New  York,  1855)  is  a  standard 
work. 

Baker,  Sir  Richard:  author  of  Tl)e  Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  Hnglancl ;  b.  in  Sisinghnrst,  near  Cranbrook,  Kent, 
1568;  educated  at  Oxford;  put  into  the  Fleet  Prison,  Lon- 
don, for  debt  in  1635.  where  he  wrote  his  Chronicle.  D.  a 
prisoner  and  in  poverty,  Feb.  18,  1644-5. 

Baker,  Sir  Sa.muelWuite:  explorer;  b.  in  London,  June 
8,1831;  organized  an  extensive  agricultural  colony  at  Ne- 
werra  Elba,  in  Ceylon,  1847.  which  afterward  became  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.  In  1861  he  went  to 
Africa,  willi  tlie  design  of  visiting  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 
He  fell  in  wil  h  Speki'  and  Grant .  and  afterward  explored  the 
western  arm  of  the  Nile,  and  discovered  the  Alln'i't  Nyanza 
Lake.  In  1869  he  set  out,  under  the  direction  of  the  Kliedive 
of  Egypt,  with  1,000  picked  men,  with  the  design  of  sup- 
Iji'cssing  the  slave-trade  and  s|)rcading  the  cultivation  of 
cotton.  In  1873  he  returned  from  this  expedition,  reporting 
complete  succc^ss.  He  has  pulilished  77ie  L'ifte  and  Hound 
in  Ceylon  (1854,  1874);  Eiqht  Vears'  Wanderings  in  Cei/lon 
(ISoo);  The  Albert  ^^yan^a  {lS<i<i,'2  ^ois.);  The  Nile  Tribu- 


taries of  Abyssi}iia  (1867);  Ismaila  (1874,  2  vols.);  Cyprus, 
as  I  Saw  It  (1879) ;  Wild  Beasts  and  their  Ways  (1891).  D. 
Dec.  30,  1893. 

Baker,  William,  D.  D.  :  head-master  Merchant  Taylors' 
School,  London ;  b.  at  Keigate,  Dec,  1841 ;  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford ;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London,  1880  ;  fellow  of  St.  John's,  Oxford  (1860-70) ;  author 
of  JIanual  of  Devotion  Jor  Schoolboys  (1876);  Lectures  on 
the  Historical  a7id  Dogntatical  Position  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1882);  A  Plain  Exposition  of  tlie  XXXIX.  Arti- 
cles (1883) ;  Daily  I'rayers  fur  Younger  Boys  (1886). 

Baker,  William  Bliss:  landscape-painter;  b.  in  New 
York  in  1859;  pupil  of  Albert  Bierstadt,  M.  F.  de  Haas,  and 
of  the  National  ^Vcademy,  New  York.  His  landscapes  are 
notable  for  almost  pliotographic  exactness,  but  are  painted 
with  breadth  and  much  truth  of  observation.  One  of  his 
best  works.  Silence,  is  in  the  collection  of  Thomas  B.  Clarke, 
New  York.     D.  in  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  in  1889.  W.  A.  C. 

Baker,  William  Henry,  M.  D.  :  gyna'cologist ;  b.  in  Med- 
ford,  Mass.,  Mar.  11,  1845;  graduated  at  Harvard  Medical 
Scliool ;  Professor  of  Gynaecology  in  Harvard  Medical  School ; 
visiting  physician  of  gyiiiecological  department  of  Boston 
Dispensary ;  author  of  The  7'reat.m.ent  of  Cancer  of  the  Uter- 
us ;  Diseases  of  the  Urethra  and  Bladder,  etc. 

Baker  City :  capital  of  Baker  co.,  Or.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  3-1).  It  is  situated  on  the 
east  fork  of  Powder  river,  in  a  farming,  stock-raising,  and 
gold-mining  region.     Pop.  (1880)  1,258  ;  (1890)  2,604. 

Baker's  Creek,  Battle  of:  See  Champion  Hills. 

Baker's  FaHs :  a  cascade  of  the  Hudson  river,  in  Kings- 
bury township,  Washington  co.,  N.  Y.  The  stream  falls  56 
feet  in  60  rods,  and  the  scene  is  one  of  remarkable  beauty. 
The  falls  furnish  a  great  water-power.  Here  are  two  ma- 
chine-shops and  some  paper-mills. 

Baker  Island,  or  New  Nantucket :  a  low  coral  island 
in  the  North  Pacific.  It  is  in  lat.  0^  13'  N.,  Ion.  176°  29'  E., 
E.  of  the  Gilbert  Archipelago  and  N.  of  the  Phenix  islands. 
It  is  a  low  coral  island  (20  feet  high),  and  had  a  large  deposit 
of  guano,  which  was  worked  by  the  American  Guano  Com- 
pany. Its  surface  is  very  nearly  level,  and  it  is  devoid  of 
vegetation  except  for  a  few  patches  of  grass.  The  outline 
is  quadrilateral,  a  mile  long  E.  and  W..  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  wide  N.  and  S.  Fresh  water  is  not  found,  but  must  be 
obtained  by  distilling.  The  guano  was  worked  out  in  1873. 
The  island  is  now  uninhabited,  though  the  wooden  houses 
remain.  M.  W.  H. 

Baker  Lake  (Keewatin,  Canada) :  an  extension  of  Chester- 
field inlet  of  Hudson  Bav,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
two  channels  ;  lat.  63"  50'  N.,  Ion.  98°  W.  It  is  50  miles  long 
E.  and  W.,  by  30  miles  broad.  It  receives  the  drainage  of 
many  lakes,  including  the  Doobauut  on  the  W.  and  the 
Yathkyed  on  the  S.  'I'here  is  said  to  be  a  fine  waterfall  in 
the  river  coming  in  from  the  west.  It  is  within  the  sterile 
Arctic  plains,  beyond  the  timber  line,  which  are  destitute 
of  agricultural  possibilities.  M.  W.  H. 

Baker.  Mount :  volcano  in  the  Cascade  Range.  N.  W.  part 
of  tlie  State  of  Washington;  height,  11,100  feet  ;  frequently 
in  enqitiiui  ;  vei'y  active  in  1880. 

Bakerslield :  town ;  capital  of  Kern  co.,  Cal.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  10-E) ;  is  situated 
on  Kern  river,  abtmt  60  miles  from  Visalia.  It  is  the  center 
of  a  considerable  cotton  trade.  Fruit-growing  is  a  tlmving 
industry.     Pop.  (1880)  801 ;  (1890)  2,6'3(5. 

Bake'well  :  an  old  m.arket-town  of  Derbyshire.  England ; 
on  tile  river  Wye.  near  its  conlluence  with  the  Derwent ;  25 
miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Derliy.  It  has  an  ancient  Gothic 
church,  and  chalybeate  springs  with  warm  baths,  wliich  are 
visited  by  many  persons.  Ouarries  of  black  marble  and 
mines  of  coal  and  lead  are  worked  in  the  vicinity.  Chats- 
worth  House,  the  splendid  mansion  of  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire, is  3  miles  from  this  town,  which  is  surrounded  by 
beautiful  scenery.     Pop.  (1891)  2,748. 

Bakpwell.  Rohert:  an  English  agricidturist ;  h.  in  Dish- 
ley,  Lciccstersliire.  in  1725.  He  gained  distinction  bv  his  im- 
prov<iment  of  domestic  animals,  especially  sheeji  anc"l  horned 
cattle.  He  originated  a  breed  of  shee)i  formerly  c.illed  by 
his  name,  but  now  known  as  the  Leicester  breed.  D.  in 
Dishley,  Oct.  1,  1795. 

Baklimiit.  baa7,-h-nioot' :  a  Russian  town ;  province  of 
Ekaterinoslav  ;  127  miles  S.  E.  of  Kharkov.     In  the  vicinity 


UAKHCIIISARAI 


BAKUXIX 


457 


are  large  coal  mines.  It  manufactures  much  tallow,  and  is 
a  market  for  meat  and  grain.     Pop.  (1882)  17,i)U!). 

Bakhchisarai.  Ima/.h-slu'e-sna-ri'  (Turkisli.  The  Garden 
PiiliK-c):  a  Tartar  town  of  Russia;  govcniinenl  of  Taurida 
(friracii);  15  niilos  S.  W.  of  Simferopol.  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Tartar  klians,  whose  palace  is  a  remark- 
able Oriental  editiee  and  in  good  repair,  with  spacious  galler- 
ies. Iirilliaiit  paintings,  and  [lavilions  of  light  and  airy  form. 
Pop.  i:l.">00. 

Bakhtegan.baaAh-ta-gaan',  Lake:  in  Persia  ;  is 50  miles 
K.  of  Shiraz.  It  is  60  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  8  miles,  and  receives  at  its  western  extremity  the  river 
Bundemir  (anc.  AruMs).  The  lake  yields  large  quantities 
of  salt. 

Bakhnysen.  baak-hoi'-zcn,  or  Backhiiyseii,  Ludolp  :  a 
celebrated  Dutch  marine-painter;  b.  at  Kmden,  Dec.  18, 
KiiJl.  He  was  a  close  student  of  nature,  and  often  ventured 
out  to  sea  during  storiis.  His  paintings  arc  said  to  express 
the  poetry  of  the  s<'a.  Among  his  works  is  a  marine  view 
which  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam  presented  to  Louis 
XIV.  of  France.  D.  in  1T0!».  Several  of  his  liest  works  sire 
in  tlie  gallery  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 

Baking  is  the  mode  of  cooking  food  in  an  oven  usually 
nearly  or  quite  air-tight.  The  term  is  also  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  bricks,  porcelain,  q^c.  (The  baking  of 
breiKl  will  be  treated  under  Bre.\d.)  In  baking,  strictly 
so  called,  the  oven  is  so  closed  that  the  steam  and  aroma 
arising  from  the  substances  within  are  confined  ;  but  by 
opening  ventilators  a  current  of  air  may  be  produced,  and 
then  these  ovens  may  be  used  for  oven-rojisting.  The 
offensive  taste  tliat  often  characterizes  baked  dishes  is  thus 
avoided.  Baking,  although  a  conveiuent  mode  of  cook- 
ing, is  not  so  good  a  process  for  cooking  meats  as  roa.sting. 
See  Cookery  (Ronsliug). 

Baking-ixnvders:  mixtures  of  substances  prepared  for 
use  in  l)rcail-maklng  (see  Uhead)  in  place  of  yeast.  In  the 
fermentation  caused  by  the  yeast,  carbon  dioxide,  or  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  is  given  olT,  and  this  makes  tiie  bread  rise. 
Baking-powders  lU'e  made  of  sidjstances  that  give  off  carbon 
dioxide  when  they  are  brought  together,  and  the  effect  thus 
produced  upon  the  dough  is  llie  .same  as  that  i>roduced  by 
tlie  carbon  dioxiile  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  yeast. 
At  the  same  time  otiier  slight  chan<res  are  caused  by  the 
yea.st  that  may  be  of  importance  in  delermiuing  the  quality 
of  the  bread.  Most  b.iKing-powders  are  nuule  of  tartaric 
acid  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  niixeil  with  starch.  When  the 
tartaric  acid  acts  upon  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  three  prod- 
ucts are  formed,  viz.,  water,  .sodium  tartrate,  and  carbon 
dioxide.  Cream  of  tartar,  or  acid  potassium  tartrate,  is  fre- 
quently used  instead  of  tartaric  acid.  When  this  acts  upon 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  the  products  are  water,  carbon  dioxide, 
and  Roehellc  salts.  Insteail  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  bicar- 
bonate of  ammonia  is  sometimes  used.  There  is  no  good 
objection  to  the  use  of  the  latter  substance,  though  the 
effort  is  sometimes  made  to  convince  the  public  that  any- 
thing related  to  ammonia  is  higldy  objectionable,  because 
ammonia  is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  animal  matter. 
Sucli  reasoning  is  absolutely  worthless.  It  is  only  nece.ssary 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  both  water  and  carbon  di- 
oxiile also  arc  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  animal 
matter.  As  substitutes  for  the  somewhat  expensive  tartaric 
acid  other  substances  are  often  used.  Among  these  alum 
is  perhaps  the  most  prominent.  When  ordinary  alum  acts 
upon  bicarbonate  of  soda  the  products  are  sulphate  of  soda, 
sulnluite  of  potash,  and  hydrate  of  alumina,  or  aluminium 
hydroxide.  It  appears,  however,  that  ammoiua  alum  is 
used  practically  to  the  exclusion  of  pl)tash  alum,  and  there- 
fcu'e  sulphate  of  ammonia  instwul  of  sulphate  of  potash  is 
formed  when  the  baking-powder  is  used.  Again,  most  bak- 
ing-powders contain  acid  phosphate  of  calcium  ("  .superplios- 
phale  ■').  and  this  acting  with  the  other  ingredients  gives 
some  products  in  addition  to  those  mentioned.  There  is  no 
objection  to  the  use  of  phosphoric  acid  or  of  acid  phosphate 
calcium,  but  objection  has  frequently  been  made  to  the  use 
of  alum.  Whet  her  or  not  the  use  of  alum  in  baking-pow- 
ders is  objectionable  on  sanitary  grounds  is  dillicult  to  de- 
cide positively.  From  investigations  carried  out  ijy  Prof.  J. 
W.  Mallet,  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  among  other  con- 
clusions the  following  is  drawn  :  "  From  the  general  nature 
of  the  results  obtained  the  conclusion  may  fairly  be  deduced 
that  not  only  alum  Itsidf.  but  the  residues  which  its  use  in 
baking-powder  leaves  in  bread,  can  not  be  viewed  as  harm- 


less, but  must  be  ranked  as  objectionable,  and  should  be 
avoided  when  the  object  aimed  at  is  the  production  of  whole- 
some bread."  Ira  Remse.n. 

Bako'iiy-Wald  (forest  of  Bakony) :  a  densely  wooded 
mountain-range  of  Hungary;  extends  between  the  river 
Raab.  tlie  Danube,  and  Lake  Balaton.  It  is  a  spur  of  the 
Styrian  Alps,  projecting  into  the  largest  plain  of  Kurope, 
and  is  .50  miles  long  and  2:J  miles  wide.  The  average  height 
is  2,000  feet.  Large  herds  of  swine  are  annually  driven 
hither  to  feed  on  mast  (acorns).  Quarries  of  good  marble 
are  worked  in  these  mountains. 

Baku,  baa-koo',  or  Badkii:  a  seaport  of  Asiatic  Russia; 
capital  of  a  province  or  government  of  the  same  name;  on 
the  west  sluire  of  the  Ca-spian  Sea,  and  on  the  south  side  of 
the  peninsula  of  Ai'siikron  (q.  v.) ;  550  miles  from  Batoura 
on  the  Black  Sea.  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  via 
Tiflis  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  12-11).  In  the  immediate 
neighborhood  are  many  naphtha  springs,  some  of  which  ig- 
nite spontaneously,  anil  this  circumstance  has  caused  Baku 
to  be  regarded  as'  a  holy  city  by  the  I'arsis,  who  have  built 
several  temples  here.  lii  ISiCS  458  oil-wells  were  operated 
some  part  of  the  vcar,  with  a  yield  of  33.104.120  barrels  (of 
42  gal.)  of  crude  oil.  an  increase  over  18S0  of  over  31,000,000. 
barrels.  The  oil  refineries  here  give  employment  to  nearly 
5,000  persons.  In  1806  Baku  became  a  Russian  possession. 
For  three  hundred  years  before  that  it  had  been,  with  brief 
exception-s,  under  Persian  control.  The  harbor,  which  is 
spacious  and  well  sheltered,  is  strongly  fortified.  Pop.  (1892) 
107.701. 

Bakiinin.  baa-koo'ne"en,  Michael:  Russian  agitator  and 
earliest  advocate  of  Nihilism;  b.  in  Torschok,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Tver,  1814,  of  a  rich  family  of  high  rank.  He 
graduated  at  the  Jlilitary  School  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  was 
aii])ointed  ensign  in  the  artillery,  but  resigned  and  devoted 
himself  to  .science  with  great  success.  In  1841  he  left  Rus- 
sia and  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  occupied  himself  with 
philosophy,  especially  Hegelianism ;  to  Dresden,  where  he 
studied  with  Arnold  Rugc;  and  finally  (1843)  to  Paris, 
where  he  Lived  with  the  Polish  emigraid.s.  In  Switzerland 
he  became  acquainted  with  tlie  communistic  and  socialistic 
societies,  and  often  attended  their  meetings.  In  1847,  in  a 
speech  at  Paris,  he  advocated  a  Russian  republic  and  a 
Russo-Polish  fraternity,  aiming  to  revolutionize  Russia. 
On  demand  of  Russia  lie  was  expelled  from  France.  Jan., 
1848.  From  this  time  he  took  part  in  all  the  revolutions  of 
Europe,  was  put  into  prison  in  Saxony,  sentenced  to  death 
in  .\ustria.  delivered  up  to  Russia,  and  finally  exiled  to  Si- 
beria (1855).  In  1800  he  escaped  to  Japan,  whence  through 
the  U.  S.  he  returned  to  London,  lleri^  he  took  up  again 
his  revolutionary  work,  and  advocated  with  fervor  and 
boldness  the  overthrow  of  the  contemporary  government  in 
Russia  and  the  foundation  of  a  great  Slavonic  federal  re- 
public. In  a  speech  at  Geneva  in  1808  he  announced  him- 
self the  bearer  of  a  new  gospel.  The  next  year  he  organized 
the  Social  Democratic  .\lliance.  which  was  speedily  ab- 
sorbed in  the  International,  and  in  turn  he  was  expelled 
from  the  latter  organization  by  the  Marx  faction  in  1872  at 
The  Hague  Congress.  He  attempted  to  lead  a  revolt  in 
Lvons  (1870),  and  his  views  have  perceptibly  toned  the  so- 
cialism of  IMcditi'rranean  F.urope.  His  teachings  involve  a 
pure  miderialistic^  naturalism.  Jlen  free  from  every  arti- 
ficial or  historical  restraint  will  act  in  accordance  with 
natural  law.  and  nothing  else  is  needed.  His  aim  was  to 
destroy  the  Lie;  but  the  beginning  of  the  Lie  was  God. the 
belief  in  whcmi  we  therefore  were  to  get  rid  of.  Having  got 
ritl  of  it,  the  next  lie  to  be  destroyed  was  Itighl ;  for  Riglit 
was  but  a  fiction  "invented  by  Might,  simply  in  order  to  in- 
sure and  strengthen  her  reign,  aiul  Might  formed  the  sole 
groundwork  of  society,  making  and  inimaking  laws. 
••  Therefore  our  first  work."  he  .said.  "  must  be  destruction 
and  annihilation — ilcstruction  of  everything  as  it  now  ex- 
ists, the  good  with  the  bad:  for  it  but  an  atom  of  this  old 
world  remains,  the  new  will  never  be  created."  By  these 
means  he  would  secure  perfect  equality  for  all  persons;  the 
control  of  the  natural  sources  of  subsistence  and  of  industry 
by  the  workers,  and  a  .solution  of  the  social  problem  by  ul- 
timate solidarity  of  labor  associations  of  all  countries. 
Views  like  these  form  the  very  platform  of  the  Russian 
conspiracv  known  as  Nihilism.  While  Baknnin  detested 
communism,  lie  advocated  the  abolition  of  marriage  and 
inheritance,  and  taught  that  con.science  is  a  mere  matter 
of  education.  D.  in  Bern,  July  1,  1876.  See  his  Dieu  et 
I'A'tat  (God  and  the  State). 


458 


BALAAM 


BALANCE 


Balaam  [Heb.  Bileam,  devourer] :  son  of  Beor.  the 
prophet  of  Petlior.  in  Armu,  by  the  river  Enphrates,  wlio 
was  hired  liy  Balak,  King  of  Jloab,  to  eurse  Israel,  but  who 
instead  blessed  thciii.  and  foretold  a  great  future  for  them 
in  words  of  wonderful  eloquence,  lie  later  advised  the 
JMoabites  to  invite  the  Israelites  to  the  licentious  worship  of 
their  god  Baal  Peor.  In  punishment  of  their  transgression 
God  sent  a  plague  which  slew  24,000  Israelites.  When  the 
plague  was  stayed  Israel  fought  Moab,  and  in  the  general 
ove^-throw  Balaam  fell.  The  narrative  is  found  in  Num. 
xxii-xxv..  xxxi. ;  cf.  Josh.  xiii.  33;  and  its  historicity  is  as- 
sumed in  Dent,  xxiii.  4,  .) ;  Josli.  xxiv.  9.  10:  Xeh.  xiii.  2; 
Micah  vi.  5.  It  is  alluded  to  in  the  New  Te-stament,  wherein 
Balaam  is  a  synonym  for  avarice,  impurity,  and  impiety 
(3  Pet.  ii.  15,  16;  Jude  11 ;  Rev.  ii.  14).  It  is  probable  that 
lie  was  a  heathen  in'ophet  and  necromancer  of  great  celebrity, 
who  was  hired  by  Balak  like  any  other  diviner.  He  mistook 
the  real  divine  possession  for  the  "  possession  "  witli  which 
his  arts  had  made  him  cognizant,  and  thought  not  that  he 
was  but  a  tool  in  the  hand  of  God.  The  story  must  have 
come  from  some  Moabite  captive. 

The  aliove  interpretation  is  on  the  theory  that  the  narra- 
tive is  truthful  and  a  unit.  Many  biblical  critics  of  stand- 
ing affirm  that  it  is  made  up  of  different  and  contradictory 
elements,  and  contains  at  most  only  a  modicum  of  truth. 
But  to  those  who  accept  the  testimony  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers  upon  historical  matters,  their  confirmation  of 
the  narrative  will  be  entirely  satisfactory,  especially  since 
Peter  expressly  states  his  belief  in  the  only  portion  of  the 
narrative — the  speaking  ass — which  is  antecedently  improlj- 
able. 

Josephus  and  Philo  tell  the  story  of  Balaam,  and  the  for- 
mer (Antiq.  iv.  6)  cons'ders  him  a  prophet  of  the  true  God, 
but  the  latter  as  a  lu'croniancer.  In  the  Talmud  he  is  spoken 
of  as  a  godless  prophet.  In  the  Fathers  he  is  mentioned,  of 
course,  for  the  story  is  one  of  the  most  striking  in  the  Biljle. 
Origen  (Contra  Celsum,  i.  59)  applies  Balaam's  prophecy  of 
the  star  out  of  Jacob  (Num.  xxiv.  17)  to  the  star  which  the 
Magi  saw.  TertuUian,  Augustine,  Ambrose,  Jerome  judge 
him  variously.  He  is  alluded  to  in  the  Koran  (Sale's  trans., 
chap,  vii.,  Al  Araf),  and  the  Mohammedans  tell  various  tales 
about  him.  as  tliat  he  was  of  the  Anakim,  the  giants  of  Pal- 
estine, and  that  he  learned  the  mystical  name  Jehovah  from 
the  books  of  Abraham,  and  by  the  use  of  it  worked  miracles. 
Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 
BalaMiicep'idii'  [fmrn  Lat.inte'Ho, whale  +-ceps  (citpaf), 
head] :  See  SlloK-IillJi. 

Balngliat,  ba"a-hra-gavvt'  [Pers.-Hind.  Buldghdf,  lit.,  upper 
plateaus] ;  a  name  applied  to  several  sub-Alpine  districts  in 
India;  but  specifically  to  a  district  in  Nagpur,  Central 
Provinces,  between  parallels  31°  and  33°  N.,  and  meridians 
80°  and  81°  E.  It  is  the  eastern  portion  of  the  central 
plateau  which  divides  Nagpur  E.  ami  W.  These  highlands 
remained  desolate  anil  neglected  until  1866,  when  the  Bala- 
ghat  district  was  formed  and  immigration  encouraged.  It 
contains  extensive  forests,  which,  however,  do  not  produce 
limber  of  value,  and  much  of  the  area  is  covered  by  Jungle 
iind  is  incapable  of  cultivation.  Rice,  wheat,  and  other 
cereals,  oil-seeds,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  raised.  Iron  ore 
exists  and  is  smelted  by  the  natives.  There  are  no  roads, 
.•mil  the  towns  are  small.  Although  but  lately  an  impene- 
Indile  waste,  there  are  .some  evidences  that  this  district 
once  enjoyed  a  high  civilization.  Of  such  a  character  is  a 
hatidsome  Buddhist  temple  of  cut  stone  belonging  to  a 
period  of  wliich  no  liistorical  traces  remain.  Area,  3,146  sq. 
miles.     I'op.  about  350,000.  M.  W.  H. 

Halagii(-r,  bira-laa-gar',  Victor;  Spanish  poet  and  his- 
torian; 1).  in  Barcelona,  Dec.  11,  1824;  known  principally 
for  his  investigations  of  the  early  literature  and  history  of 
Calalonia.  In  1.S54  he  wjus  appointed  archivist  of  Barcelona, 
and  sunn  after  Professor  of  History  in  the  university  there. 
He  was  also  in  1886  made  Ministro  de  Ultramar  in  Sagasta's 
<-al)inet.  Among  his  historical  essays  and  works  are  Estudios 
/lish'in'ros  i/  pu/i/icos  {IH76);  Ilislon'a  de  Gataluna  (1878); 
/linlorifi  piililica  y  literaria  de  Ins  trovadores  (6  vols.,  1878- 
80).  As  poet  he  has  treated  mainly  subjects  dr.awn  from  his 
native  province.  His  Tragedias  were  published  in  1879.  and 
his  I'lienids  compleftis  in  1884.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

IJalaklava,  bali-hra-klaa'va.  or  Balaclava:  a  small  jiort 
and  I  own  of  Itnssia,  in  t  lie  Crimea,  ami  on  the  Black  Sea.  abinit 
7  miles  S.  from  Sevastopol:  is  separated  from  the  harbor 
of  Sevastopol  by  a  rocky  peninsula  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
ll-C).     It  has  a  good  landlocked  harbor,  sujiposed  to  be  the 


port  of  the  La3strigonians  at  which  Ulysses  landed.  The 
ruins  of  churches  and  mosques  attest  the  ancient  magnifi- 
cence of  this  town.  Pop.  in  1883,  695.  A  few  days  after 
the  battle  of  Alma,  which  occurred  in  Sept.,  1854,Balaklaya 
was  occupied  by  the  British  army,  and  the  harlior  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  fleet.  The  British  army  suffered 
here  great  privations  in  consequence  of  the  ineiliciency  of 
the  War  Office  and  the  mismanagement  of  the  commissariat. 
Soldiers  perished  with  hunger  and  cold,  while  anqile  stores 
of  food  and  clothing  were  in  the  holds  of  ships  in  the  har- 
bor. Here  occurred  the  battle  of  B.alakl.-iva  between  the 
British  and  Russians,  Oct.  25. 1854.  The  charge  of  the  Brit- 
ish cavalry  in  this  action  was  a  famous  but  unsuccessful 
exploit. 

Balance  [via  Pr.  from  vulg.  Lat.  *bi!ancin ;  cf.  Lat.  hilanx, 
adjec.  (sc.  libra) ;  hi-,  two  +  lanx,  pan] :  a  lever  of  the  first  kind, 
the  fidcrum  being  between  the  power  and  the  weight ;  iised  to 
ascertain  the  weight  of  liodies  in  standard  units.  The  ordinary 
balance  consists  essentially  of  a  metallic  bar  or  lever,  called 
the  beam,  either  delicately  suspended  or  supijorted  on  a  stand 
by  the  intervention  of  a  wedge-shajied  prism,  technically 
termed  a  knife-edge,  exactly  at  its  niid<lle  point.  An  index 
is  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the  beam,  and  made  to  travel  over 
a  graduated  arc,  so  as  to  show  when  the  be^nn  is  horizontal. 
A  scale-pan  is  suspended  from  each  end  of  the  lever.  Since 
the  arms  of  the  balance  are  equal,  it  is  plain  that  there  can 
not  be  eqnililirium  unless  the  weights  placed  in  each  scale 
arc  also  equal.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  beam  is  perfectly 
horizontal  and  the  index  vertical.  The  balance  is  then  said 
to  be  true.  When  the  beam  is  horizontal  with  unequal 
weights,  the  balance  is  false.  Thus  it  is  easy  to  test  the 
truth  of  a  balance  by  first  placing  in  the  scales  weights 
which  ajiparently  are  equal,  and  then  transferring  eadi  into 
the  other  scale.  If  the  weights  are  not  really  ecpial,  one  of 
them  will  ai)pear  lieavicr  than  the  othi>r  after  the  transfer. 
There  ai'e,  however,  two  methods  of  finding  the  exact  weight 
of  a  liody  loy  means  of  a  false  balance.  The  body  may  be 
weighed  with  standard  weights  in  each  scale  successively, 
and  the  true  weight  is  the  mean  proportional  between  the 
two  apparent  weights.  Or  the  body  (placed  in  one  scale) 
nniy  be  l)alanced  by  a  sufficient  quantity  of  any  convenient 
substance — sand,  for  instance — so  that  the  beam  is  horizontal, 
and  then  replaced  liy  standard  weights  until  the  sand  is  bal- 
anced ;  the  weight  thus  obtained  is  the  true  one.  A  good 
balance  nnist  have  its  beam  in  stable  equililirium,  for  which 
pur[)ose  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  beam  and  its  appendages 
must  fall  a  little  below  the"  knife-edge.  The  points  of  sus- 
pension of  the  scale-pans  and  the  fulcrum  of  the  beam 
should  lie  in  the  same  straight  line.  Both  when  the  scales 
are  empty  and  when  equal  weights  are  placed  in  tlieni  the 
beam  should  be  horizontal  and  the  index  vertical,  the  arms, 
of  course,  being  exactly  equal  to  one  another.  It  is  often  of 
importance  that  the  balance  should  be  very  sensitive  and  in- 
dicate very  slight  inequalities  in  the  weights.  The  sensibility 
of  a  balance  becomes  greater,  first,  as  the  length  of  the  arms 
is  increa-sed,  which  renders  the  movement  about  the  fulcrum 
more  obvious ;  and  secondly,  as  the  weight  of  the  beam  is 
diminished,  for  when  the  beam  is  displaced  by  the  inequality 
of  the  weights,  its  own  weight  gives  it  a  tendency  to  return 
to  its  first  jiosition.  But  this  displacement  is  less  for  a  given 
inequality  in  tlie  weiglits  as  the  weight  of  the  beam  is  in- 
creased ;  so  that  the  less  the  beam  weight,  the  more  sensitive 
the  balance  becomes.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  balance  also 
<leiieiids  on  the  distance  between  the  point  of  suspension  and 
the  center  of  gravity,  the  sensitiveness  increasing  as  the  dis- 
tiince  diminishes. 

'I'he  lialiince  of  a  watch  is  a  wheel  nicely  poised  on  its  axis, 
the  pivot-holes  in  which  it  turns  being  frequently  formed  in 
rubies  or  other  jewels.  The  natural  effect  of  an  impulse 
given  this  wheel  would  be  complete  rotation,  Vmt  this  is  ar- 
rested by  the  balance-spring,  so  that  it  recoils,  and  a  vibra- 
tory motion  results.  The  balance-spring  is  a  coil  of  steel  wire 
so  fine  and  delicate  that  4.000  springs  weigh  only  about  1  oz. 
One  of  the  extremities  of  the  spring  is  fastened  to  a  jioint 
independent  of  the  balance,  and  the  other  end  is  attached 
near  its  axis.  When  the  impulse  is  given  to  the  lialance,  it 
moves  round  just  so  far  as  the  impulse  given  is  able  to  over- 
come the  elasiic  resistance  of  the  spring.  When  that  resist- 
ance becomes  equal  to  the  impulse,  tlie  b.-iljince  is  driven 
back  by  the  elastic  recoil  of  the  spring.  In  marhie  ilironome- 
ters  a  cylindrical  helical  spring  is  used.  See  the  articles 
Torsion'  Balance  and  Weighing-machines. 

Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 


KALAXCE  OF  POWER 


BALBOA 


459 


Balance  of  Power  |Kr.  equilibre politique,  i.  o.  political 
«'(HiililiriiiMi  or  i-i|iiililirivim  of  states]:  a  phrase  usetl  in 
iiioilern  Kuropeaii  ilipioiiuR-v  to  express  a  stale  of  iiolitical 
♦■i|iiililiriiiMi  aiuoMir  neijrliliorin.a;  powers,  or  a  polilieal  system 
.-()  arranijeil  ami  coiinterpoiseil  that  no  nation  or  monarch 
mav  he  so  jiowerful  lus  to  endanger  the  indepemlenei'  of  other 
states.  Such  a  balance  was  aimed  at  in  (he  political  comlii- 
nations  in  hehalf  of  (ireece:  in  those  of  Italy  jnsl  hefore  the 
Kcfonnation  :  in  the  policy  of  Knrope  nnder  the  lead  of 
Kraiice  ajjainst  Austria  and  Spain;  in  the  alliances  against 
Ijoiiis  XIV..  ajrainst  Napoleon  I.,  and  more  recently  against 
Knssia  in  order  to  preserve  the  independenc<'  of  'I'nrkey.  It 
was  the  characteristic  justification  of  the  foreign  poli<-y  of 
William  III.  of  (ireat  Hritain,  who  shape<l  it  into  a  European 
priucipli'.  Its  oliject  is  to  prevent  politicul  aggrandizement 
only.  ThiMV  were  in  Europe,  after  tlie  overthrow  of  Napo- 
leon in  ISl.").  five  monarchies  recognized  as  the  great  powers 
— namely:  France.  Austria,  Cireat  I'.ritain,  Russia,  and  Prus- 
sia, to  which,  in  IS.V.I.  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  added.  The 
victories  of  the  Prussians  in  IHIiti  and  1S7I)  estal;lished  the 
(iermau  empire,  and  for  a  time  jiroslrated  the  armies  of 
FraTice  and  Austria.  Hut  now  the  military  and  |)oliticaI  re- 
cslalilishmeiit  of  these  two  powers  has  given  rise  to  a  fresh 
applieation  of  the  halance  of  power  principle.  This  is  seen 
in  the  Triparlile  alliance — a  defensive  treaty  of  alliance 
wluu'eliy  (ierniany,  .\ustria.  and  Italy  on  the  one  han<l  are 
lialanced  against  France  and  Russia  on  the  other.  See  I.N- 
TERN.vTio.NAi.  Law.        Revised  by  Tni;onoKK  S.  Woolsey. 

Billitlice  of  Trarte:  the  difference  in  value  between  the 
exports  aud  imports  of  a  country.  If  the  country's  exports 
cxei'ed  the  imports  in  value,  the  balances  of  trade  is  said  to 
be  in  its  favor,  and  if  is  a.ssuraed  that  such  a  country  is  grow- 
ing rich,  just  a.s  a  man  grows  rich  when  he  |)roduces  more 
than  he  consumes.  In  point  of  fact,  a  fall  in  imports  does 
not  denote  prosperity,  or  at  least  not  to  the  extent  which  is 
often  assumed.  In  one  important  sense  the  trne  advantage 
(pf  foreign  Iraileloa  country  is  tound  in  the  imports.  By 
its  means  ]>eople  olitain  those  things  which  they  can  not 
themselves  produce,  except  at  great  sacrifice.  The  custom- 
house statistics  are  fallacious  at  this  point,  because  they  rep- 
resent the  value  of  the  goods  in  the  exporting  country,  not 
their  value  to  the  importing  countrv.  If  we  import  British 
goods  wtiich  i-ost  :{!1(10,0(K).(')()0.  and  wliich  s(dl  for  $  1 1 0.OOO.- 
(MHI,  the  advaulage  to  us  is  measured  liythe  latter  figiuv, 
not  l)y  the  former.  In  this  sense  both  nations  nuiy  gain, 
aud  generally  do  gain,  by  international- trade. 

The  balance  of  trade  iloes  not  consist  of  the  simple  dif- 
ference between  exports  aud  imports.  Many  other  elements 
enter  into  a  nation's  accounts.  Some  of  the  chief  items  are 
us  follows : 


INCOME. 

Exports. 

Payments  l)y  foreigners  to 
liome  ship-owners. 

Interest  from  foreign  in- 
vestments. 

Keceipis  from  foreign  trav- 
elers and  imniigrunts. 


KXPENSE. 

Imports. 

Payments  to  foreign  ship- 
owners. 

Interest  on  securit  iesowned 
abi'o.'id. 

The  expenses  of  travelers 
abroad. 


The  difference  between  these  two  is  the  balance  of  trade, 
properly  speaking:  but  as  this  balance  nniy  be  settled  cither 
in  c.ish  or  liy  securities,  another  im|inrtanl  factor  is  l)rouglit 
in.  It  will  ipiite  generally  lie  found  that  th(!  years  wlien 
our  balance  of  ti'adc  appears  most  favorable  are  those  when 
Europe  is  sending  our  securities  home  tons  in  large  num- 
bers;  and  that  theap|)arent  favorable  result  means  a  loss, 
rather  than  a  gain,  in  the  productive  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, because  of  tin'  iniwillingness  of  foreign  investors  to  con- 
tinue to  aid  us  with  their  capital.     See  Excuaxok. 

A.  T.  Hadi.f.v. 
Italanoglos'siis  [Mod.  Latin,  from  Gr.  $i\avos.  acorn  + 
7Aii(r<ro.  lougue|:  a  genus  of  wonn-Iikc  forms  belonging  to 
the  group  of  Juiffni/Jiii'iixta  (q.  v.),  the  position  of  which  is 
very  micertain.  The  larva  presents  many  resemblances  to 
those  of  cchiuodcrms,  and  th(^  adult  has  characteristics  w'hich 
elsewhere  are  I'ounil  only  in  vertebrates.  The  aninuds  live 
in  llu-  siind  of  the  sea,  are  usually  l>rightly  colored,  and  in 
size  nughl  be  compared  to  an  earthworm. 

BaPanils  [dr.  /SoAokos.  acorn] :  a  genus  of  barnacles,  dis- 
tinguished by  Ihf  absence  of  a  llc'xible  stalk  and  the  pos- 
si'ssion  of  a  synuuetrical  shell.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  (ireek  word  for  acuni.  ami  the  animals  are  commonly 
known  as  I  he  "  acorn-barnacles."    The  base  is  usually  formed 


of  a  thin  calcareous  plate,  the  sides  of  six  valves ;  and  four 
snuill  valves  form  the  operculum,  exactly  closing  the  aperture 
at  the  top.  This  genus  comprises  many  species,  which  arc 
found  in  nearly  all  seas,  attached  to  stones,  shells,  and  other 
objects.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  early  stage  of  their 
existence  they  are  capalile  of  active  locomotion,  and  have 
large  eyes  which  disapjiear,  along  with  the  organs  of  loco- 
motion, wdu-n  they  become  slatioiuiry.  Some  of  the  large 
species  were  esteemed  a.  delicacy  by  the  ancient  Romans. 
The  Chinese  collect  and  eat  the  Baldnux  linlliinabulum, 
which  is  said  to  resendile  lobster  in  laste;  and  Balnnun 
piiittdciin,  a  South  American  species,  is  also  witen.  This 
species  is  .sometimes  4  inches  in  dianu'ter  and  H  or  9  inches 
in  height.     There  are  several  .species  fotmd  in  the  U.  S. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jokuan. 

Balasorc.  Im'ii-la'ti-sor  :  a  district  and  city  of  the  Orissa 
division,  Bengal  Province,  British  India.  The  district  is  a 
strip  of  alluvial  coast-land,  near  the  heail  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  W.  of  the  Gangetic  delta,  between  the  parallels  20' 
and  21"  N.  aud  the  meridians  S(i°  and  87  E.  It  runs  to  the 
hills  behi[iil  I  lie  coast  anil  varies  from  !)  loIU  miles  in  breadth. 
The  coast  .striji  )iroper  is  incapable  of  cidlivation.ljut  is  u.sed 
for  the  produ<'tion  of  salt.  Behind  this  comes  the  arable 
land,  a  characteristic  feature  of  which  is  the  miuu'rous  cup- 
shajicd  depressions  whicdi  bear  the  finest  crops.  This  is  des- 
titute of  luitural  forests  and  passes  gradually  into  the  foot- 
hills, which  are  rocky  and  sterile.  The  district  has  several 
streams  of  considerable  size,  but  thevare  subject  to  destruc- 
tive floods.     Ai-ea.  2.0G0  .sq.  miles.     "Pop.  about  itoO.OOO. 

The  town  of  Bala.sore,  capital  of  the  district,  is  8  miles 
from  the  seacoast.  on  the  river  Buraljalang  (see  map  of  S. 
India,  ref.  2-H).  The  English  settlement  here  was  made  in 
1642.  and  soon  liecame  a  large  trading-post.  ]irotected  by  a 
fortification.  It  was  one  of  the  seats  from  which  the  Brit- 
ish Indian  empire  took  its  rise.  The  importance  of  the  city 
i-apidly  decdiued  in  (hi'  eighteenth  century,  because  of  a  bar 
which  formed  across  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  which  still 
remains.     Pop.  2(.),()0().  M.  \V.  II. 

Balas-rub.v :  See  Spinel. 

Bal'atoii,  hake  [(in:  Platteii-iiee,:  linn.  Biilafoni/;  anc. 
PeI.'<o] :  the  lin-ge.st  lake  in  Hungary;  55  miles  S.  \V.  of  Pesth ; 
is  •')1  miles  long  and  T  miles  wide.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
4.50  sq.  miles.  It  receives  numerous  streams,  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  Szala.  and  discharges  its  water  through  the  Sio 
and  Sarvitz  into  the  Danube.  Fish  of  various  kinds  are 
found  here.  This  lake  is  often  celebrated  in  the  old  romantic 
ballads  of  the  Magyars. 

Balbi.baal  bt'e,  AiiRiANo:  an  eminent  Italian  geogi-apher; 
b.  at  Venice.  .\pr.  25.  1782.  He  became  a  resident  of  Paris, 
where  he  passed  many  years.  He  published  in  182(i  an 
Et/i)iot/rapliiriil  Afhi-s  iif  the  Globf,  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
His  otiicr  chief  work  is  a  Cumpmdium  of  (feogrttphy  (Abri-ye 
de  Oi'u(/nt/i/iie,  1  vol.  8vo),  wdiich  was  considered  one  of  the 
best  treatises  on  that  science  that  had  then  a]ipeared.  His 
works  arc  mostly  wriKeii  in  Freiu'h.  lie  removed  from  Paris 
to  Italy  in  1832.     I),  at  Padua,  Mar.  14.  1848. 

Balbi.  Gasparo  :  Venetian  merchant  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury: in  pursuit  of  his  business  he  visited  Aleppo;  made  a 
trip  to  India  lasting  several  years,  the  published  account  of 
wdiich  (151)0)  was  the  first  description  of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges. 

Balbo.  Cksark:  Italian  statesman  and  author:  b.  at 
Turin.  Nov.  21.  178!).  He  was  in  govcrnmeni  service  1807- 
21.  He  ailvoca(ed  (he  indeiiendence  of  Italy  in  a  work  called 
Speranze  d'ltulia  {I/iipii,f  of  Italy.  184:!).  which  widely  ex- 
tended his  reputation.  Asa  moderate  and  liberal  patriot 
he  took  a  promineid  pail  in  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848.  Among  his  works  is  a  Ili.stnri/  of  Ilii'li/  fi-om  tlic  Jie- 
ffiiuiiiiq  to  ISl/f  (1849),  which  is  high'lv  esteemed.  D.  at 
Turin.  June  3,  1853.  See  his  life  by  ll.  Reuchlin  (Xijrd- 
lingen.  1801). 

Balbo'a.  Vasco  XuRez.  de  :  a  famous  Spanish  navigator 
and  explorer;  b.  at  Xercs  de  los  Cabelleros  in  Estremadura 
in  1475.  He  emigrated  to  Ilayti  about  1500.  and  in  1510 
accompanied  Enciso  in  an  expedition  to  Daricn.  Having 
quarreled  with  Enciso,  Balboa  obtained  the  chief  command 
of  the  party,  and  Se))t,  25,  1513,  tliseovered  the  Pacific 
Ocean  from  (he  top  of  a  mountain.  He  descended  to  the 
shore  and  took  |iossession  of  the  ocean  in  the  "name  of  his 
sovereign.  In  1514  Pednirias  Diivila  was  sent  from  Spain 
to  su|iersede  Balboa,  wdio  was  punished  by  a  fine  for  his  in- 
subordination.   He  served  as  a  deputy  under  Pednirias,  who. 


460 


BALBUENA 


BALDPATE 


actuated  by  cruelty  and  jealousy,  accused  Balboa  of  treason- 
able designs,  and  put  him  to  death  at  Castilla  de  Oro,  Darien, 
in  1517.  See  Irviiij;,  Vuijaycs  and  Discoveries  of  the  Com- 
panions of  Coliinil/us;  M.  J.  Quintana,  V'idas  de  Mspailoles 
Celebres ;  and  Justin  Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  His- 
tory of  A  merica. 

Balltiieiia.  baal-bway'na,  Bernardo,  de:  Spanish  poet; 
b.  at  Val-do-Penas  in  1568.  He  became  Bishop  of  Porto  Kieo 
in  1620.  Of  his  worlvs  only  three  have  been  preserved:  La 
grandeza  Mejicana  {Mexico,  1609  ;  Madrid,  lb39) ;  El  Siglo 
de  Oro  (1608);  and  El  Bernardo,  an  epic  poem  (1634  and 
1808).     D.  at  Porto  Kico  in  1627. 

Bal'bus,  L.  Cornelius,  surnaracd  Major:  a  Roman  offi- 
cer ;  b.  at  Oades  (Cadiz) ;  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Ciesar, 
whom  he  aecompaniod  to  Spain  in  61  B.  c.  In  40  b.  c.  he 
was  chosen  consul.  Wmg  the  first  adopted  citizen  who  re- 
ceived that  honor.  He  wrote  a  diary  of  the  events  of  his 
own  and  Ciesar's  life. 

Balch,  George  H.  :  rear-admiral  U.  S.  N. ;  b.  in  Tennessee, 
Jan.  3,  1821 ;  entered  tlie  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1837. 
Prom  1863  to  1865  commanded  first  the  steamer  Pocahontas 
and  afterward  the  steamer  Pawnee,  South  Atlantic  blockad- 
ing squadron,  during  wliich  period,  in  co-operation  with  the 
army,  he  was  almost  constantly  engaged  with  the  enemy's 
batteries  and  forts  on  tlie  Stone  and  Black  rivers,  S.  C.  lie 
was  superintendent  of  tlie  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis 
(1879-81).     Iletired  Jan.  3,  1883. 

Bal'dachiii  [from  Ital.  haldacchi' no,  deriv.  of  Baldacco, 
Ital.  name  of  Bagdad,  whence  came  the  rich  material  of 
which  the  baldaeliins  were  made] :  a  canopy  in  the  form  of 
a  crown  or  umbrella,  made  of  costly  materials,  richly  adorned, 
and  raised  over  a  throne,  couch,  pidpit,  or  altar.  In  the 
Church  of  St.  Peter  in  Kome  there  is  a  magnificent  baldachin 
cast  in  bronze,  by  Bernini,  and  supported  by  four  twisted 
columns.  The  baldachin  is  used  in  processions  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  silk  or  stufi  supported  on  four  poles 
being  cari-ied  over  tlio  pope. 

Bald  Ea^'le:  the  Ilalia'etus  leucoceph' alus ;  so  called  on 
account  of  tlie  snowy-white  color  of  the  head  and  neck  of 
the  adult  bird ;  a  native  of  North  America,  where  it  is  widely 


Bald  eagle. 

distributed.  The  length  of  tliis  liird  is  aliout  40  inches,  the 
stretch  of  wing  from  7  to  8  U-vt.  The  white  feathers  of  the 
neck  and  tail  are  not  acquired  until  the  third  year.  The 
nest  of  the  bald  eagle  is  genei-ally  made  upon  some  lofty 
tree,  and  s<imetimes  liecomes  of  great  size,  as  the  bird  is  in 
the  habit  of  using  the  same  nest  year  after  year  and  making 
ailditions  to  it  every  season.  The  female  bird  generally  lays 
her  eggs  in  .January,  two  or  three  in  number  and  of  a  dull 
white  color,  and  llu'y  an^  hatc^hed  by  the  middle  of  February. 
It  is  strongly  attached  (o  its  young  and  will  not  forsake 
them,  even  if  tbe  tree  on  which  they  rest  be  enveloped  in 
flames.     Tlie  bald  eagle  will  eat  almost  anything,  even  car- 


rion, but  it  is  especially  fond  of  fish,  which  it  steals  from 
the  osprey  when  practicable,  but  also  takes  them  from  the 
water  with  much  skill.  Young  lambs,  pigs,  also  ducks, 
geese,  and  gulls,  are  seized  by  the  eagle  with  avidity.  For 
an  interesting  description  of  the  manner  in  which  it  takes 
its  prey  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  account  given  by  Au- 
dubon. E.  Coues  speaks  of  it  as  a  "  piratical  parasite  of  the 
osprey,  otherwise  notorious  as  the  emblem  of  the  republic." 

Revised  by  1).  S.  Jordan. 
Balder :  See  Baldr. 

Bal'deric,  or  Baudry,  bu  dree' :  a  French  chronicler. 
Bishop  of  Dol ;  b.  al)out  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
He  took  part  in  all  the  Church  councils  of  the  time,  and 
made  active  efforts  to  restore  the  rigor  of  monastic  discipline. 
He  visited  England  and  left  an  account  of  his  travels.  He 
wrote  a  chronicle  of  the  first  crusade,  entitled  Historio' 
Ilierosolomytance. 

Baldi  d'Urbino,baarde~e-do"br-bee'no, Bernardino: math- 
ematician and  man  of  letters;  b.  at  Urbino,  June  6,  1553 ; 
accomplished  as  a  wiiter  and  in  science  as  well ;  under  the 
tutelage  of  Commandino  developed  a  remarkaljle  zeal  for 
the  study  of  mathematics.  He  learned  the  Hebrew  and 
Chaldean  tongues  the  better  to  under.-tand  the  Bible.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with  twelve  languages.  His 
multitudinous  writings  deal  with  almost  every  branch  of 
science.  Chief  among  his  works  are  Cronica  de'  3Iateinatici 
(Chronology  of  Mathematicians);  JVaiitica,  a  didactic  poem 
on  navigation:  an  Araljic  grammar  and  dictionary;  and  a 
translation  of  the  Targiim  of  Onkelos.  He  began  the  prejja- 
ration  of  a  geographic  dictionarv.  but  got  no  farther  than 
the  letter  C.     D.  at  Urbino,  Oct.  iO,  1617. 

Baldness  :  same  as  Alopecia  ;  the  loss  or  absence  of  the 
hair  of  the  scalp.  There  are  some  few  cases  on  record  in 
which  the  hair  has  never  been  developed.  This  is  termed 
congenital  baldness.  Accidental  baldness  is  caused  by  an 
atrophy  of  the  hair-follicles.  Baldness  in  the  comparatively 
young  may  occur  from  wearing  waterproof  cajis  or  unventi- 
lated  hats,  which,  by  preventing  evaporation  from  the  head, 
occasion  an  unhealthy  state  of  skin.  It  may  be  complete  or 
partial,  occurring  in  patches.  Senile  lialdness  (calvities) 
arises,  like  the  preceding  variety,  from  an  atrophy  of  those 
parts  on  which  the  hairs  depend  for  nutrition.  It  generally 
commences  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  Women  are  not  so 
frequently  bald  as  men.  The  causes  of  baldness  are  defec- 
tive supply  of  nutrition,  a  hereditary  tendency,  dissipation, 
Ijut  especially  old  age.  The  hair  falls  off  after  severe  illnesses 
or  after  other  causes  of  general  debility.  Alopecia  is  some- 
times the  result  of  sy}ihilis.  The  treatment  consists  in 
cleanliness,  and  in  exciting  the  circulation  of  the  scalp  by 
using  a  haii'brush  and  the  application  of  stimulants,  as  the 
Spanish-fly  ointment,  two  drachms  to  an  ounce  of  lard,  mixed 
with  the  same  quantity  of  pomatum,  or  some  equivalent 
preparation.  Any  constitutional  debility  should  be  reme- 
died. Shaving  tlie  head  is  sometimes  resorted  to  and  is 
often  useful.     P'avus  (q.v.)  permanently  destroys  the  hair. 

Bald'patc,  or  American  Wid'g'eon  {Mareca  ameri.- 
cana):  a  duck  found  throughout  North  America,  breeding 


l)f?VN..  ^^ 

'if/  ^■'1>'^., 

The  baldpate,  or  American  widgeon. 

to  the  southward,  and  prized  for  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh.    It 
takes  its  name  from  its  white  crown.    It  is  variously  marked 


BALDR 


BALDWIN 


401 


with  redilisli  lirowii,  gray,  white,  and  chestnut.     The  male 
liiL-;  a  green  bund  runiiinif  fnini  tlie  eyes  to  tlie  nape. 

Kalilr.  Haider,  ov  IJaldiir:  often  ealled  Hai.dr  the 
(iooi>:  tlie  .sueuiul  sun  iif  Udin,  in  the  Northern  mythology. 
lie  wa.-i  supposed  to  make  all  things  bright  and  cheerful, 
and  is  identilied  by  some  scholars  with  the  bright  summer 
sun;  hence  he  has  l)een  termed  the  "Apollo  of  the  North." 
I  lis  abode  was  Breiftabllii  ("widely  shining'"),  where  noth- 
ing impure  could  enter.  The  account  of  his  deatli,  as  given 
in  the  /Vow  Edda,  is  as  follows:  He  dreamed  one  night 
that  his  life  was  in  the  utmost  danger;  and  when  he  re- 
lated this  dream  the  gods  were  .so  distressed  that  his  moth- 
er, Frigg,  exacted  an  oath  from  all  things,  animate  and 
inanimale,  that  they  would  not  injure  Balilr.  She  did 
not,  however,  exact  any  oath  from  the  mistUaoe,  because 
it  seemed  so  harmless  aiui  insignificant.  Now  the  gods 
were  accustomed  to  amuse  theuiselvi'S  liy  shooting  arrows 
and  throwing  st(mes  at  IJaldr,  to  all  of  which  he  proved  in- 
vulnerable. When  Loki,  the  god  of  evil,  found  that  the 
mistletoe  had  not  taken  the  oath,  he  obtained  the  i)lant  and 
went  to  the  a-^sembly  of  gods,  where  he  found  Baldr"s  brother 
IliiSr,  staniling  apart  from  the  others.  He  asked  him  why 
he  also  did  not  throw  something  at  Baklr.  "  Because  I 
am  blind,"  answered  Hii^ir,  "  and  have  nothing  to  throw." 
"Come,"  .sai<l  Loki,  "do  like  the  rest;  show  honor  to  Baldr 
by  casting  this  trifle  at  him.  and  I  will  ilirect  your  liand." 
1  iiiSr  did  as  the  tempter  bade  him,  aiul  lialdr,  pierced  through 
bv  the  mistletoe,  fell  dead.  .So  great  was  the  grief  of  the 
gods  that  HermoiSr  visiteil  the  realms  of  death,  and  besought 
I  lei  to  release  her  prey  and  allow  Baldr  to  return  to  the 
dwelling  of  the  gods.  Bel  answered  that  if  everything 
nu)urned  him,  then  he  should  ri'turn;  but  if  anything  what- 
ever failed  to  weep,  then  Baldr  must  remain  in  the  world  of 
shades.  .Ml  things  aninuite  and  inanimate  were  requested 
liy  the  gods  to  weep  for  Baldr.  and  all  diil  so  except  a  giant 
hag  named  pokk,  or  piikt  (afterward  found  to  be  Loki  him- 
self, who  had  assumed  this  form  in  order  to  prevent  Baldr 
from  returning  to  life).  She  answered  the  request  by  jeers, 
and  Balilr  wa.s  accordingly  forced  to  remain  in  the  abode  of 
the  dead.  It  is  possible  that  this  story  hits  been  influenced 
by  Christian  teaching  and  Christian  legend.  In  any  cjise 
there  is  no  certain  evidence  that  a  god  Baldr  was  known  to 
any  Teutonic  tribe  outside  of  Scandinavia. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Baldllligr.  baaldoong,  IIaxs  :  German  painter  and  en- 
graver; b.  in  Giniind  about  147.5;  d.  in  Strassburg.  1.54.5. 
His  best  work  is  his  engraving  on  copper,  although  this  is 
nuirked  by  exaggeration  and  fantastic  ornament.  A  num- 
ber of  his  paintings  remain,  but  are  not  of  great  value. 

Baldtir:  See  B.u,dr. 

Baldnin  :  on  railroad.  Douglas  co.,  Kan.  (for  location  of 
<-ounty,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  .5-.I) ;  15  miles  S.  of  Law- 
rence"; has  Baker  Universilv.  The  surrounding  region  is 
agricultural.     Pop.  (1(S80)  325;  (18U0)  !);!5;  (18"J5)  l.lJiS. 

Baldwin  I.:  King  of  .lerusalem ;  b.  in  10.58;  was  a 
brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  lie  joint^l  (he  first  crusade 
in  ]()!)(),  and  fought  bravely  against  the  infidels.  He  was 
chosen  Count  of  Edes.sa  by  the  Christian  iidudiitants  of  that 
city.  On  the  death  of  Godfrey,  in  1100.  he  succeeded  him  as 
King  of  .lerusalem.  lie  defeated  the  .Saracens  in  several 
li.-ittles.  anil  captured  Acre,  (\esarea.  and  Sidon.  He  w.as 
more  ambitious  and  worldly  than  his  brother  Godfrey.  D. 
in  Kgypt  in  Mai-.,  1118.  See  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of 
till'  /{iimaii  Empire. 

Baldnin  II.  (Baldwin  du  Boi'iui):  King  of  Jenisalem ; 
was  a  rinisin  of  Baldwin  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1118.  He 
waged  war  again.st  the  .Saracens.  During  his  reign  the  mili- 
tary order  of  Templars  wsis  instituted  for  the  defense  of  the 
Holy  Laiul.  I>.  in  .lerusalem,  .Vug.  21.  IK'l.and  left  the 
throne  to  his  son-in-law,  Poulques  of  Anjou. 

Baldwin  III.:  the  son  of  Foidques  of  Anjou ;  was  born 
in  112!t.  and  became  King  of  .leru.salem  in  1143.  He  de- 
feated Xocir-eil-I)een,  the  Sultan  of  Aleppo,  at  .lerusalem,  in 
1 1.52  and  1157.  He  acquired  much  renown  and  inlluence, 
and  was  respected  even  by  the  Saracens.  His  wife  was 
Theodora,  a  daughter  of  the  Greek  Kmperor  Manuel.  D.  at 
Tiipolis,  Syria.  Feb.  10,  1162,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brothrr.  Amalrie  or  Amaury. 

Baldw  in  IV. :  King  of  .Jerusalem  ;  surnamed  The  Leper  ; 
was  born  in  1160.  He  succeeded  his  father  Anndric  in  1174. 
He  defeated  the  famous  Sid.ulin  near  Tiberias  in  1182.  but 


was  afterward  defeated  by  that  prince.  D.  in  Jerusalem, 
1180,  .-mil  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Baldwin  V.,  who 
died  in  cliililliood. 

Baldwin  1.:  the  first  Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople; 
was  bom  at  Valenciennes  in  1171.  He  wjis  Baldwin  IX., 
Count  of  Flanders,  having  inherited  that  title  from  his 
father,  Baldwin  VIII.  He  joined  the  fourth  crusade  in  120O, 
and  eo-operated  with  the  Venetians  in  an  enterprise  against 
Con.stantino])le.  the  throne  of  which  was  occupied  by  Alexis, 
an  usurper.  The  cnisadei's  defeated  Alexis,  captured  the 
city,  and  elected  Baldwin  emperor  in  1204.  He  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Bulgarians  in  1205.  and  died  in 
captivity,  1201), leaving  the  throne  to  his  brother  Henry.  See 
A.  Cahoiir,  Jiiinduuin  de  Cons/an finojile  (18.50). 

Baldwin  II.:  Kmperor  of  Constantinoiile;  b.  in  1217; 
was  a  son  of  I'eter  de  Courtenay,  and  a  nephew  of  Baldwin  I. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throni?  in  1228,  and  was  placed  under 
the  giuirdianshi[)  of  John  de  Brienne.  He  began  to  reign  in 
12;J7,  and  encountered  itnuOi  oppo.sition  from  the  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians.  In  1261  liis  capital  was  taken  by  Jlichael  Pahe- 
ologus,  and  Baldwin  fled  to  Italy,  where  he  died  127;!.  The 
English  family  of  Courtenay  claims  to  be  descended  from 
the  stock  of  this  emperor. 

Baldwin,  Charles  H.:  rear-admiral  T^  S.  N. ;  b.  in  the 
citv  of  New  York  Sept.  3,  1822;  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman  Apr.  24,  1839.  lie  served  on  west  coast  of 
Mexico  during  Jlexican  war.  and  was  in  several  sharp  en- 
gagements with  the  enemy  on  shore  near  Mazatlan.  He  com- 
manded steamer  ( 'lifton  of  mortar  flotilla  at  pa-ssage  of  Ports 
St.  Philip  aiul  .lackson  by  I'arragufs  fleet,  Apr.  24, 1862,  and 
at  attack  on  \'iiksburg.  June  28.  1862.  In  command  of 
Mediterranean  squadron  from  Mar.  10,  1883,  to  date  of  his 
retirement.  Sept.  3,  1884.  I),  in  New  York  city.  Nov.  17, 
1888.  Revised  by  S.  B.  Lite. 

Baldwin,  Hexry  Porter:  b.  at  Coventry,  R.  I.,  Feb.  22. 
1814;  emigrated  to  Detroit  in  his  vouth ;  was  Governor  of 
Michigan  (1869-73),  and  U.  S.  Senator  (1879)  for  imexpired 
terra  of  Senator  Chandler,  ending  Jlar.  4.  1881.  He  was  for 
years  a  leading  member  iiiid  office-bearer  of  the  diocese  of 
jliehigan,  and  repeatedly  re[iresented  the  diocese  in  the 
general  convention,  the  Board  of  Missions. and  other  organ- 
ized bodies  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  D.  at  De- 
troit, Mich.,  Dee.  31,  1892. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark,  Ph.D.:  psychologist;  b.  in  Co- 
lumbia, S.  C,  Jan.  12,  1861 ;  educated  at  Princeton  College 
and  Leipzig  and  Berlin  Universities;  instructor  in  French 
and  German  at  Princeton  1886-87 ;  Professor  of  Philosophy 
in  Lake  Forest  Universitv  1887-89,  and  in  Toronto  Univer- 
sity 1889-93;  Professor  of  Psychology  at  Princeton  1893-  . 
He  is  eoeditor  of  77(6  Paycliitlof/ical  Revieir.  and  author  of 
Handhoitk  of  PKiir.liiiUiqy  (3  vols.,  2d  ed.  London  and  New 
York,  1889-i»l);  'Elcmiiif.t  of  Pst/ch')l(jf/i/  {ISiU);  a  transla- 
tion of  Kibot's  OermriH  Psi/choioffy  of  To-day  (New  York, 
1886) ;  various  articles  in  Mind,  I'kilos.  Review,  A'ation,  etc. 

Baldwin,  Johx  Dexiso.n  :  b.  at  North  Stonington,  Conn., 
Sept.  28,  1810.  After  studying  law  and  theology  he  became 
a  journalist,  and  was  long  the  editor  and  proprietor  of  the 
Worcester  Spij  (IMass.).  lie  wa.s  a  member  of  Congress  from 
IMassachnsetts  (1863-69).  and  h.as  published  Raymond  Hill 
and  Other  Poems  (1847):  Prehistoric  Kations  (1809);  An- 
cient  America  (1872).     I),  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  July  8,  1883. 

Baldwin.  Josi:i'H  G. :  of  Sumter,  Ala.;  was  a  native  of 
Virginia.  He  was  an  able  lawyer  and  active  politician  ;  au- 
thor of  Flush  Times  in  Alahiima  and  Mississippi  ami  of 
Parly  Leaders  (1840).  He  was  judge  of  the  Snjierior  Court 
of  California  1857-63.  and  chief  justice  of  California  in  1803. 
D.  in  San  Francisco.  Sept.  30, 1864.— His  son,  Alexander  W.. 
was  district  judge  for  Nev.ada.     D.  Nov.  1.5,  1869. 

Baldwin.  Robert:  Canadian  statesman;  h.  in  Toronto, 
May  12.  1804.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  in  1825;  was 
elected  to  the  Upper  Canada  Assembly  in  1829;  and  visited 
London  in  1836  m  the  interest  of  responsible  government  for 
Canada,  but  failed  in  his  mission.  He  became  an  executive 
councilor  in  1836,  solicitor-general  in  1840.  and  in  1842 
i)remier  and  altoriU'V-general  of  LTpper  Canada,  which  offices 
he  held  till  184;i.  lii  1848  he  resumed  office  in  the  Baldwin- 
Lafontaine  government;  retired  from  official  life  in  1851. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  Reform  party  of  Canada. 
D.  in  Toronto,  Dec.  9,  1858.  Neil  Macdoxald. 

Baldwin.  Stephen  Livingston,  D.  D.  :  secretary  of  the 
Missionary  Society  of  M.  E.  Church;  b.  at  .Somerville,  N.  J., 


ifi-2 


BALDWINSVILLE 


BALFE 


Jan.  11,  1835 ;  educated  at  Newark  Wesleyan  Institute  and 
Concord  Biblical  Institute ;  has  been  pastor  in  Newark  anil 
New  England  conferences,  and  superintendent  of  the  Foo- 
ehow  (China)  Mission.  Author  of  a  translation  of  Judges 
aud  Daniel  into  Foochow  colloquial:  article  on  Confucian- 
ism in  Reid's  Doomed  Jieliffions ;  editor  of  Chinese  Recorder. 

Baldwiiisvllle :  village  forming  part  of  Lysander  and 
Van  Buren  towns.  Onondaga  eo..  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  New  York.  ref.  4-F) :  on  Delaware,  Lacka- 
■wana  and  Western  H.  K.,  12  miles  N.  W.  of  Syracuse,  and 
on  Seneca  river,  wliich  f in-nishes  excellent  water-power ;  has 
graded  schools  and  an  academy  and  five  churches.  Bald- 
winsville  is  a  numufacturing  town,  in  a  rich  agricultural 
district :  is  center  of  the  tobacco-raising  industry  of  the 
Onondaga  region.  Fiist  settled  in  1807,  and  named  Colum- 
bia, then  (1815)  Baldwin's  Bridge,  and  soon  after  Baldwins- 
ville.  Pop.  (1880)  2.121  :  (1800)  3.040  ;  (1892)  estimated,  :i.m 
Editoii  of  "Gazette  and  Farmers'  Journal." 

Bale,  or  Basle.  French  form  of  Basel  {q.  i:). 

Bale.  bavl.  John  :  English  theologian  and  dramatist ;  b. 
at  Cove.  Siiff'ilk.  in  Nov..  1495 :  became  a  Carmelite ;  was 
educated  at  Jesus  College.  Oxford:  turned  Protestant;  and. 
after  eight  years  of  exile  in  Flanders,  was  made  Bishop 
of  0.ssory,  Ireland,  in  1532.  During  the  reign  of  Queen 
Mary  he  took  refuge  in  Switzerland.  On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  he  was  appointed  a  prebend  in  Canterbury  Cathe- 
dral, and  died  in  Nov..  1563.  Besides  numerous  controversial 
writings,  he  published  in  Latin  the  fii-st  literaiy  history  of 
England.  Scriptorum  Ilhistrium  Majoris  Brilanniw  Cata- 
?o^H«(154.S-.50).  and  wrote  a  number  of  interludes  and  moral- 
ity plays  in  the  Protestant  interest,  the  most  uuportant  of 
which  was  the  historical  play  of  King  John.  See  his  Select 
Works  (Parker  Society,  Cambridge.  1849). 

Hexrt  a.  Beers. 

Balear'ic Crane  (Balearica pai'onina):  a  beautiful  crane 
found  in  Northern  and  \yestern  Africa,  conspicuous  for  its 
crown  of  golden  plumes  and  its  scarlet  cheeks.  It  is  readily 
tamed,  often  indulging  in  fantastic  dances,  running  about 


Balearic  eraui-. 

■with  great  speed,  and  screaming  with  a  liarsh  and  ringing 
voice.  It  is  of  a  bluish-slate  color,  and  is  4  feet  high.  It  is 
exceedingly  gentle,  ami.  unlike  some  other  cranes.-is  quite 
harmless. 

Balearic  Isles  (imc  Balea  res  or  Balea  res  In'sxilet):  a 
grouii  of  five  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  forming  a  Span- 
ish province,  the  area  of  which  is  l.SHO  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (in 
1887)  312.()4().  Capital.  Palma.  'I'lieir  names  are  Majorca. 
Minorca,  Ivica.  Kormeutera.  and  Cabrera.  The  soil  is  mostly 
fertile,  though  badly  cultivated.  The  climate  is  very  fine. 
Vegetation  has  a  tropical  aspect.  The  chief  exports  are 
olive  oil,  figs,  oranges,  wool,  mules,  wine,  hats,  brooms, 
brandy,  cajiers,  saffron,  cheese,  salt,  wnodenware,  baskets, 
etc.  'Fhe  ancient  natives  of  these  islands  were  very  expert 
slingers.  and  served  in  the  Carthaginian  army.  The  name 
is  sup|)osed  to  refer  to  their  expertness  lln-ough  the  Greek 
word  jSoWfiK.  to  sling.  'Phe  Baleares  were  made  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  in  12.56,  but  soon  became  feudal  to  Ani- 
gon.  to  which  kingdom  they  were  annexed  in  1344.  The 
Moors  were  long  masters  here,  but  were  expelled  in  1285. 


Tlie  Kings  of  Spain  long  retained  the  title  of  "King  of  the 
Balearic  Islands"  as  one  of  their  secondary  honors.  The 
langiiage  is  made  up  of  various  dialects  (Mallorquin,  Minor- 
quin,  etc.)  of  the  Catalan,  mingled  with  Arabic  (and  perhaps 
Punic)  elements.  The  Archduke  Ludwig  .Salvator  is  pub- 
lishing (1893)  an  elaborate  work  on  these  islands.  Vol.  iv.. 
Minorca,  appeared  in  1891.  The  work  is  not  in  the  trade. 
See  Majorca  and  Minorca. 

Balechon.  baald'shoo.jEAX  Joseph  Nicolas:  a  very  emi- 
nent French  engraver:  li.  at  Aries  in  1715.  lie  was  the  fii-st 
Ijurinist  of  his  time.  His  works  are  remarkably  neat,  and 
his  style  brilliant,  vigorous,  and  bold  :  but  his  drawing  is- 
often  defective,  and  he  paid  too  little  attention  to  detail. 
His  Women  Bathing.  Storm,  and  Calm  (after  C.  J.  Vernet), 
Saint  Generieve  (after  Charles  Vanloo).  and  his  fidl-length 
portrait  of  Augustus.  King  of  Poland,  are  his  most  famous 
works.  The  last  mentioned  is  one  of  the  great  triumphs  of 
the  engravers  art.     D.  in  Avignon,  Aug.  18.  1764. 

Baleen'  [0.  Fr.  baleine.  whale,  whalebone  <  Lat.  balaena, 
whale]  :  a  substance  commercially  known  as  whale-fin  and 
whalelione:  procured  from  the  mouth  of  the  right  whale, 
and  various  other  species.  It  grows  from  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  of  all  the  Baleen  idee  or  true  whales,  though  in  some 
it  is  too  small  to  be  of  commercial  importance.  It  is  never 
found  in  the  sperm  whales  or  the  dolphins.  From  single 
whales  as  much  as  2  tons  of  baleen  has  been  taken.  It 
consists  of  horny  plates  of  allmminous  matter  charged  with 
phosphate  of  lime.  Baleen  takes  the  place  of  teeth,  and 
serves  as  a  strainer  for  separating  fi'om  the  water  the  little 
animals  which  serve  as  food  for  the  whale.    See  Whaxe- 

BOXE. 

Balen.  baa  len.  or  Balleu.  baal  Ifn.  Hexdrik.  van :  a 
Flemish  painter  ;  b.  in  Antwerp  in  1.560:  studied  with  Adam 
van  Oort  and  in  Italy,  and  was  the  first  instructor  of  Van- 
dyck.  In  spite  of  a  certain  coldness  and  nuinnerism,  his 
harmonious  coloring,  correct  taste,  and  skillful  composition 
liave  given  him  a  more  tlian  respectalile  rank  among  paint- 
ers. Of  his  numerous  works,  the  best  known  are  scriptural 
and  ecclesiastical  pieces.  His  nude  figures  are  well  exe- 
cuted.    D.  in  Antwerp.  July  17,  1632. 

Balestier,  bales-teer,  Wolcott :  novelist ;  b.  at  Roches- 
ter^ N.  Y..  Dec.  13. 1861.  After  a  short  course  in  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, and  a  trip  to  Colorado  and  Mexico,  he  went  to  New 
Y'ork  and  connected  himself  with  the  publishing-house  of 
Lovell  &  Co.  As  London  agent  of  that  house  he  went  to 
England  in  1888.  D.  in  Dresden.  Saxony.  Dec.  6. 1891.  Bales- 
tier's  fictions  ileal  largely  with  frontier  life  in  Colorado. 
They  include,  besides  a  number  of  short  stories  in  the  maga- 
zines and  three  eai'ly  novels  of  inferior  merit.  The  yaulalika. 
written  in  co-operation  with  his  brother-in-law.  Kudyard 
Kipling,  aud  Benefits  Forgot.  ^\l^'M^'n  in  1885  and  published 
serially  in  The  Century  (liufi).  Hexry  A.  Beers. 

Bales'tra.  Axtoxio:  an  Italian  painter:  b.  at  Verona  in 
1666.  After  his  father's  death  he  followed  commercial  pur- 
suits until  he  came  of  age.  when  he  went  to  Venice  and  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Belucci  (an  able  colorist),  and  afterward 
studied  at  Rome  with  Carlo  Maratti.  His  Defeat  of  the 
Giants  gained  the  prize  at  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  in  1694. 
.\moug  his  other  famous  pictures  arc  a  Saint  Theresa  at 
Bergamo,  a  Virgin  at  Mantua,  a  Life  of  Saints  Co.fma.i 
and  Damian  at  Padua,  and  his  own  portrait  at  Florence. 
He  was  one  of  the  last  able  artists  of  the  Venetian  school, 
though  not  a  slavish  follower  of  any  school.  He  was  a  skill- 
fid  designer,  a  good  colorist.  a  laborious  and  faithful  stu- 
dent of  "his  art.  and  was  possessed  of  a  vigorous  hand  and 
spirit.  The  works  of  Giovanni  Balestra.  a  skillful  engraver, 
are  often  incorrectlv  assigned  to  the  subject  of  this  notice. 
D.  in  Verona.  Apr.  21.  1740. 

Balfe.  MicuAEL  William:  opera-composer:  b.  in  Dublin. 
Ireland.  May  15.  1808.  and  d.  at  Rowney  Abbey,  Hertford- 
shire, Fngl.-nid.  Oct.  20.  1870.  His  first  studies  in  music 
were  as  a  violinist,  and  he  appeared  as  a  solo  performer  when 
a  boy.  He  also  studied  the  i)iano.  but  sjiecially  devoted 
him.self  to  singing  and  dramatic  com])osition.  and  became, 
while  still  young,  one  of  the  most  jiopular  stage  composers 
of  the  period.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  career 
he  had  uninterrupted  success.  His  o])eras  were  sung  every- 
wliere.  The  list  is  a  long  one.  but  the  following  include  not 
only  the  best  known  l)ut  also  the  best  works  :  The  Siege  of 
Ro'chelle  (1833) :  The  Bohemian  Girl  (1.843) :  The  Daughter 
of  St.  Mark-  (1844):  The  Enchantress  (1845);  The  Bo.ie  of 
Castile  (1857):  Satanella  (1838):  The  Armorer  of  Xanles 


BALFOCK 


haIjKan'  pexixsula 


•463 


(1H6:!);  Blanche  de  iVeiw-Af  (1863):^  Tlif  Kniyht  of  the 
/ypo/xirrf,  produced  in  Iliilian  as  //  7V//('»nirt;i«  (1874) ;  lUid 
Pit/ore  e  Duca,  produced  in  English  a^:  Moro,  /he  Painter 
(if  Antwerp  (1881).  .Several  of  these  attained  wide  popular- 
ity. The  Bohrininn  (iirl  was  performed  in  German  a.s  Die 
Zigeunerin,  and  in  French  as  L(i  /.iiiaarelln.  This  was  in  a 
special  five-act  version  made  liy  Balfe  for  the  Paris  Grand 
(.)pera.  Manv  of  hissonj.'s  have  also  become  favorites.  Come 
into  the  (lanlen.  Maiut.  is  a  famous  tenor  show.sonj;.  He  also 
composed  several  eantata.s  an<l  concert  chorujses.  A  polacca 
which  he  coni|>osed  for  full  orchestra,  scoring  it  himself, 
was  played  in  Dublin  when  he  was  seven  years  old.  He 
was  sometimes  called  the  "  Knglish  Rossini, '  and  for  fer- 
tilitv  in  genial  melody  he  deserved  the  title,  but  his  work 
lacked  seriousness  of  purpose.  D.  E.  IIervkv. 

Bill  Tour,  biilfoor.  The  Right  Hon.  .Vrtiilr  .Jamks,  1*.  ('., 
Idi.  I)..  F.  R.S. :  Mritish  statesman:  b.  .July  -i'l.  184.8:  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  :i)rivate 
secretary  to  his  uncle,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  (1878-80), 
as  such  attending  the  Berlin  Congress;  mendier  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Ilertforil  187!),  and  for  Ea.s|  Division  of  Mjiiudicster 
188.1:  president  of  Local  Government  Board,  without  .seat 
in  the  cabinet,  188.') :  .Secretary  for  Scotland.  Aug.  :J.  1886; 
admille<l  to  the  Cabinet.  Xov.  19,  1886:  Chief  S<'cridary  for 
lrelan<l.  Mar.  it.  18sr:  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Nov., 
ISill,  retiring  on  thi'  ac<-ession  of  the  Gladstone  ministry  in 
the  summer  of  18!)2,  wlien  he  became  leader  of  the  Con- 
servative opposition  \n  the  House  of  Commons.  Author  of 
Defenne,  of  Philosophic  DoiM  (London,  1879)  and  various 
nniga/cine  articles.  His  remarkable  success  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  Irish  alTaii's  during  a  most  trying  period  led  to  his 
selection  as  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  decease 
of  W.  H.  Smith.  V\t  to  1878  .Mr.  Balfour  was  known  only 
as  a  brilliant  young  scholar.  His  development  of  rare  |)oliti- 
cal  capabilities  has  since  been  very  rapid.      C.'K.  Adams. 

Balfonr.  Francis  Maitlano;  erabryologist ;  brother  of 
Artliur.J.  IJalroiir:  b.  at  Edinljurgh.  18.il;  educated  at  Har- 
row and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  became  Professor 
of  Morphology  at  Cambridge  after  (leclining  offers  from 
Oxford  and  Edinburgh:  published  (1880-81)  Comparative 
Emiiryologxj,  on  which  his  fame  rests;  lost  his  life  July  19, 
1882,  in  attempting  to  elind)  one  of  the  spurs  of  Mont  Blanc. 

Balfour.  IsA.^r  Bavlkv.  M.  A..  M.  D.,  D.Sc,  P.  R.S. : 
botanist:  b.  in  Kdiuburgh.  Mar.  31.  18.53  ;  educated  in  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh.  St  nussburg,  and  Wiir/.l)urg  ;  bot- 
ani.st  to  thetninsit  of  N'einis  ex))edition  to  Uoilriguez  1S74; 
leader  of  natural  history  exploration  of  Socotra  1879;  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  in  Utiiversity  of  GUusgow  1879-^4;  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  in  University  of  Oxford  1884-S8 ;  since 
then  Professor  of  Botany  in  Fniversity  of  Edinbiu'gh,  keeper 
of  Koyal  Botanic  (tardeiis,  and  Queen's  Botanist  of  .Scollaiul. 
His  princijial  ]iublical ions  are  Botany  of  Hodnyaez  (V\\\\. 
Trans..  1879)  and  /iofaiii/  of  Socotra  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
F.din..  1888).  and  he  wa.s  editor  of  the  English  translations 
of  Goebel's  Outlines  of  the  Claxsification  ami  S/ii-rial  Mor- 
photoijij  of  Plants;  De  Bary's  Comparative  Morpliolojiy  and 
liiologii  of  Fungi,  Miicelozoa,  and  Bacteria ;  L)e  Barys  Bnr- 
leria;  and  Solms-Laubacirs  Fossil  Botany.  Since  1887  he 
has  been  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Annals  of  Botany. 

Cuarles  E.  Bessev. 

Balfour.  .John  Bi.air.  (^.C,  LL.D.,  P.C.  :  Scottish  law- 
yer; b.  at  Clackmannan.  1837;  educated  at  Edinl)ui'gli 
.\cademy  and  at  University  of  Eilinbm-gh  :  called  to  the 
.Scottish  bar  IStJl ;  Soli<'ilor-General  for  Scot I.hikI  ISSO;  privv 
councilor  18H:i;  Lord  Advocate  for  Scotland  WSl-S.j,  188(5, 
and  again  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  cabinet  of  1893. 

Balfour,  Joii.v  Hittox,  M.  D.,  P.  R.  S. :  botanist  and  phy- 
sician; b.  in  Edinlmrgh,  Sept.  ITi.  1808:  nephew  of  Hutton. 
the  geologist,  in  1845  he  became  Professor  of  Botany  al 
Edinburgh.  He  published  a  Manual  of  Botany  (\>H'.))  and 
li  ('lass-book  of  Botany  (18.")'2).  and  contributed  the  articles 
on  botany  to  the  eighth  and  ninth  editions  of  the  Eneyclo- 
/Kiilia  Britannica.     D.  in  Edinburgh.  Feb.  11,  1884. 

Balfour.  Tiio.mas  Grauam.  >r.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  ;  phvsician  ; 
I',  in  Edinburgh.  Mar.  IS,  isi:! ;  .M.  D.,  University  of  Eilin- 
liurgh  ls:!4;  gazetted  to  the  medical  stalT  of  the  army 
is;)(i;  promoted  to  be  heail  of  the  newly  formed  statistical 
branch  on  the  reorganization  of  the  Army  Meilical  Service 
in  18.59;  became  siirge(Ui-general  in  1873;  retired  in  1876; 
represented  the  Army  Medical  Dei)artnient  in  the  Intenui- 
tional  Medical  Congress  at  London  in  1880;  mend)er  of 
numerous  learned  societies;  author  of  five  volumes  of  statis- 


tical reports  (hi  the  Health  of  the  Army  (with  Sir  A. 
TuUoch) ;  of  thirteen  .\iniual  Reports  of  the  statistical 
branch,  and  of  numerous  articles.  D.  in  Windtledon.  Jan. 
17,  1891.  C.  11.  Tulkber. 

Bali,  baa  lee,  or  Bally,  baal  Ic'e  :  an  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago;  about  3  miles  E.  of  Java  ;  area,  1,999  so.  miles. 
It  is  nearly  70  miles  long  and  .35  miles  wide.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  rice,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  hides,  etc.  The  island 
IS  divided  into  several  small  .states,  of  which  Badong  is  the 
chief.  The  lialincse  mostly  profess  Brahnianism.  They  are 
said  to  be  superior  to  the  Javanese  in  mind  and  other  re- 
spects. Their  langtuige  resembles  that  of  Java.  Bali  is  a 
Dutch  dependeiu-y.     Pop.  about  500,000. 

Ba'liol,  or  Bal'liol.  Joux  :  Lord  of  (Jalloway  aiul  King 
of  Scotland  ;  b.  aliout  12.59.  He  became  the  rival  of  Robert 
Bruce,  and  claimed  the  crown  as  a  graiulson  of  David,  who 
was  a  brother  of  King  William  the  Lion.  The  dispute  was 
referred  to  Edward  I.  of  England,  as  arbiter,  who  decided 
that  Baliol  was  the  rightful  heir,  and  inipo.sed  the  condition 
that  he  should  do  homage  to  the  King  of  England.  He  was 
crowned  in  1292,  and  swore  fealty  to  Edward,  but  soon  re- 
nounced his  alli'giance.  Edward  invaded  .Scotland,  defeat- 
ed Baliol's  army,  and  compelled  him  to  resign  the  crown 
July  7,  1296.  .Vfter  thirteen  years'  residence  in  Xormandy 
he  died  in  131 5. 

Baliol.  or  Balliol.  EnwARn:  a  son  of  King  John  Ba- 
liol; invaded  Scotland  in  1333  at  the  head  of  discontented 
barons.  Having  gained  several  victories  over  the  Scottish 
army,  he  was  crowned  king  at  Scone  in  September  of  that 
year.  About  three  months  later  he  was  surprised  in  his 
camp  at  Annan  by  Archiliald  Douglas,  and  lost  his  crown. 
His  suljseqiu'nt  career  was  inifortunate.  The  last  of  his 
house,  he  died  lu^ar  Doncaster,  1367. 

Baliol  College :  See  Oxford,  University  of. 

Balis'titlae :  the  trigger-fishes;  a  family  of  plectognath 
fishes  with  the  pelvic  bone  well  developed  and  movable, 
without  ventral  spines,  and 
with  tlie  spinous  dorsal  rep- 
resented by  at  most  three 
spines.  Tliey  are  mostly 
found  in  tro])icaI  or  sub- 
tropical sea.s,  and  are  divisi- 
ble into  two  sub-families. 
The  typical  species  (Bali.'i- 
tinte)  have  brilliant  colors 
and  a  curious  provision  for 
fixing  the  first  dorsal  spine 
in  an  erect  ]iosition  or  lower- 
ing it  at  will.  For  this  reason  they  are  sometimes  called 
trijiger-fishes.  The  fool-fishes  (Monaeanthinw)  are  general- 
ly dull  in  color,  and  have  one  spine,  supplemented  by  a  sec- 
ond small  one  behind.  Revised  by  D.  S.  JoiIdan. 

Balkan,  biilil-kaan' (anc. //cp'niw.t) :  an  important  moun- 
tain-chain of  Europe:  extends  from  Sofia  eastward  to  Cape 
Emineli  on  the  Black  Sea.  and  forms  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  basin  of  the  Danube.  Souu'  peaks  of  this  range  are 
over  5.000  feet  high.  The  Balkan  is  connected  with  the 
mountains  of  Middle  Huro[ie  liy  the  ranges  of  Montenegro 
an<l  Herzegovina.  It  is  an  iniporlaiit  natural  barrier,  slop- 
ing aliru|)lly  to  the  S. 

Balkan  Peninsula  ;  the  easternmost  of  the  southern 
peiiinsuliis  of  Europe,  so  named  from  the  Balkan  Mountains 
within  it.  It  lies  between  the  Black  an<l  ^l^^gean  .Seas  on 
the  E.,  and  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  on  the  W.  The  north- 
ern boundary  is  not  well  defined,  but  may  conveniently  be 
t.iken  as  theDantibe  river  and  its  triluilaries.  the  Save  and 
the  Una.  Thus  defined  it  is  almo.st  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  and  includes  Bosnia.  Herzegovina.  Montenegro.  .Ser- 
via,  Bulgaria.  Rumelia.  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  Greece. 
The  peninsula  is  very  mountainous,  culminating  in  an  ele- 
vated triangular  plateau  of  which  the  angles  are  Sarajevo 
(capital  of  Bosnia),  Sofia  (in  Eastern  Bulgaria),  and  Metso- 
van  (on  the  Grecian  frontier).  The  climate  is  varied.  It  is 
rigorous  in  the  Danubian  plain  of  Bulgaria,  but  ra])idly 
grows  mild  toward  tlu'  south.  Constantinople  is  celebrated 
for  the  mildness  of  the  climate  an<l  .serenity  of  its  sky.  The 
summers  of  Thrace  and  the  lower  plains  of  JIacedonia  are 
cooled  and  refreshed  by  sea-breezes.  The  winters  are  very 
severe  in  the  north  and  over  the  central  plateau.  The  pop- 
ulation is  turbulent,  and  very  diverse  as  to  race  and  religion. 
In  Macedonia  the  races  are  confused,  but  elsewhere  they  are 


Trigger-fish:  batistes. 


4tU 


BALKASH 


BALLAD  POETRY 


more  distinct.  Bosnia.  Servia,  ITerzopfOvina,  and  ^loiitenc- 
gro  are  cliiefly  occupied  by  a  branch  of  the  Slavs  called  the 
.Servo-Croats.  In  Bidgaria  and  Eastern  Runielia  the  domi- 
nant people  is  the  Bulgarian,  another  branch  of  the  Slavs. 
Albania  is  largely  occupied  by  an  aboriginal  race,  the  Ar- 
nauts  or  Skiptai's.  Greece  and  a  littoral  band  several 
leagues  wide,  extending  from  Salonica  to  Constantinople,  are 
occupied  by  Greeks,  the  latter  part  being  more  distinctly 
Byzantine  than  the  former,  and  there  is  a  large  popidation 
of  Greeks  in  Constantinople,  Adrianople,  and  other  large 
cities  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  The  Turks  are  generally 
disseminateil  through  the  proper  Turkish  part  of  the  penin- 
sula, but  are  in  the  majority  only  in  Staraboul  (a  quiirter  of 
Constantino]ile)  and  in  Adrianople,  In  Salonica  .lews  of 
Spanish  origin  make  up  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  population. 
There  are  three  principal  religions:  the  Greek  Orthodox, 
professed  by  the  Greeks,  .Servians,  Bulgarians,  and  Southern 
Albanians  -."the  Roman  Catholic,  professed  by  the  Bosnians 
and  Northern  Albanians  :  and  Mohammedanism,  professed 
by  the  Turks  and  some  Bosnians  and  Albanians. 

"  The  Balkan  Peninsula  has  played  an  important  part  in 
history.  The  Greeks,  the  Macedonians,  the  Byzantines,  and 
the  Turks  have  alternately  advanced  or  retarded  civilization 
within  its  borders.  The  Turks  formerly  controlled  the  whole 
peninsula.  Successive  revolts  and  invasions,  especially  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century,  have  generally  given  a  more 
or  less  complete  autonomy  to  the  various  races  mentioned 
above.  Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Greece  are  independent ; 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  are  controlled  by  Austria-Hungary ; 
Bulgaria  is  nominally  tributary  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey;  the 
remainder  of  the  peninsida  is  Turkish.  t)ut  the  Albanians 
are  practically  independent.  Mark  W.  Hakbinuton. 

Balkash,  balil-kaash'  (Kalmuck,  great  lake ;  called  by 
the  Khirgiz  ^'lA:  Tenghiz,  i.  e.  white  sea.  or  simply  Tenghiz 
Sea) :  a  large  lake  of  Asiatic  Russia  having  no  visible  out- 
let ;  is  between  the  provinces  of  Semipalatinsk  and  Semi- 
ryetshensk.  in  hit.  4-T'  N..  Ion.  79°  E.  Its  length  from  N.  E. 
to  S.  W.  is  3!t0  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  .jO  mUes. 
Area.  7,12U  sij.  miles;  elevation  above  sea-level,  781  feet. 

Balkh,  baaU-h  (anc.  Bac'tria) :  a  province  of  Afghan 
Turkestan  between  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Oxiis.  It  is  tlie 
best-watered  and  most  fertile  part  of  the  country.  The 
|iopulation  is  variouslv  cstimatecl.  but  probably  does  not 
surpass  .'500,000.  Area  about  3,000  sq.  miles.  Capital, 
Masar-i-Sherif. 

Balkh  [Turkish  balik,  city] :  former  capital  (anc.  Zar- 
•ias  pa  and  linc'tra)  of  the  province  of  Balkh ;  about  33 
miles  S.  of  the  Oxus  river,  and  I'M  miles  X.  N.  W.  of  Cabul. 
The  ancient  Bactra  was  an  important  city,  the  remains  of 
which  cover  a  space  about  30  miles  in  circuit,  and  comprise 
eighteen  aqueducts  now  in  ruins.  It  was  destroyed  by 
.lengis  Khan.  The  modern  town  is  insignificant.  Pop. 
about  3,000. 

Ball,  in  militjiry  affairs  :  See  Bullet. 

Ball,  Game  of;  This  was  a  favorite  gymnastic  exercise 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  latter  of  whom 
called  it  pila.  At  Rome  it  was  played  by  persons  of  all 
ages  and  by  men  of  high  rank.  The  Greeks  prized  the 
game  as  the  means  of  giving  grace  and  elasticity  to  their 
figures  and  motions.  In  the  sixteenth  century  this  game 
was  fashionable  in  the  courts  of  French  and  Italian  princes. 
The  French ye«  f/eyja///K(!  and  English  tennis  were  modifi- 
cations of  the  game  of  ball.  The  ball  was  struck  with  a 
mallet  {Vr.  mail  or  maille;  Eng.  mall),  i^ometimes  called 
pall-mall  or  pell-mell,  from  the  Italian  palla.  a  ball.  A 
form  of  this  game,  called  cricket,  is  much  (dayed  by  the 
Knglish  at  the  present  time.  The  popular  game  of  the 
U,  S.  is  ba.se-ball.    See  Base-ball,  Cricket,  and  Tennis. 

Ball,  Gkoroe  n..  D.  V>. :  b.  at  Oxford,  Sherbrook  co..  East 
Canada,  Dec.  7,  1818;  studied  at  the  Theolngical  Seminary 
of  Xew  York,  whence  he  graduated  in  1847:  was  psustor  of 
the  Niagara  Square  Baptist  churcli,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  for  about 
twenty  years ;  [lastor  of  Roger  Williams  church.  Providence, 
R.  1..  for  two  years;  editor  of  the  Jinplint  Union,  and  ])ul>- 
lished  Guide  in  t.lie  Lord's  Supper,  Christian  Baptism,  etc. 

Ball.  Sir  KoBKKT  Stawell,  IjL.  D..  P.  R.  S. ;  astronomer : 
b.  in  Dulilin,  July  1.1840;  educated  at  Trinity  College; 
Professor  of  Astronouiv  at  I)ul)lin  and  Astronomer  Roval 
for  Ireland  1874:  knighted  188li.  Author  of  E.rperinwntal 
Mechanics  (London,  1871  ;  3d  ed.  1H88);  Elemr-nts  of  .4.1- 
tronmnij  (1880) :  The  Story  of  the  Ihaeens  (188.5 ;  3d  ed. 
1890),  etc.,  as  well  as  numerous  magazine  articles. 


Ball,  Thomas:  sculptor;  b.  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  June 
3.  1819.  Employed  in  tlu"  Boston  Museum,  he  cleaned  and 
imitated  tlie  pictures,  and  gradually  passed  on  to  minia- 
ture and  then  to  portrait  painting.  During  this  period  he 
sang  in  oratorios,  his  voice  passing  from  soprano  to  a  rich 
deep  ba.ss,  effective  in  Elijah.  Ills  first  published  plastic 
work  w'as  a  small  bust  of  Jenny  Lind  during  her  visit  to 
America,  which  was  pirated  by  Italians  and  sold  in  vast 
numbers.  His  life-size  bust  of  Welister,  just  after  that  states- 
man's death,  led  to  a  commission  for  a  full  statue,  and 
launched  him  on  his  especial  career.  He  went  to  Florence, 
opened  a  studio,  and  commissions  flowed  in  upon  him.  For 
many  years  his  time  was  passed  in  Italy,  inteiTupted  by 
visits  to  America.  In  186.1  he  made  an  equestrian  statue  of 
\Vashington,  cast  in  bronze  and  now  in  the  Boston  Public 
Garden.  An  lieroic  bronze  statue  of  Webster  by  Ball 
stands  in  Central  Park,  New  York.  Boston  has  decorated 
her  public  buildings  with  busts  or  statues  of  Rufus  Choatc, 
Etlward  Everett,  Gov.  John  Andrews,  and  other  portrait 
work  by  the  same  artist.  In  idealization  he  produced  a 
Coriolanus,  witii  Edwin  Forrest  for  a  model,  an  Ece,  and, 
besides  many  other  pieces,  a  colossal  group  representing 
Emancipafivn,  which  is  in  Washingtim,  D.  C,  and  is  the 
culmination  of  hLs  art.  His  later  years  were  passed  in  Bos- 
ton. His  Three  Score  Yeui-s  and  Ten  (Boston,  1891),  an 
autobiography,  is  a  genial  and  rather  garrulous  collection 
of  reminiscences  of  a  life  rich  in  acquaintance  with  artists 
and  noted  men. 

Ballad  Poetry :  The  word  halhid  in  English  signifies 
a  narrative  song,  a  short  tale  in  lyric  verse,  which  sense  it 
has  come  to  have,  probably  through  the  English,  in  some 
other  languages.  It  means,  by  derivation,  a  dance-song,  but 
though  dancing  was  formerly,  and  in  some  places  still  is, 
performed  to  song  instead  of  instrumental  music,  the  ap- 
plication of  the  word  in  English  is  quite  accidental.  The 
popular  ballad,  for  which  our  language  has  no  unequivocal 
name,  is  a  distinct  and  very  important  species  of  poetry. 
Its  historical  and  natural  place  is  anterior  to  the  appeai-- 
ance  of  the  poetry  of  art,  to  which  it  has  formed  a  step,  and 
by  which  it  lias  been  regularly  displaced,  and.  in  some  cases, 
ail  but  extinguished.  Whenever  a  people  in  the  course  of 
its  devclojiment  reaches  a  certain  intellectual  and  moral 
stage,  it  will  feel  an  impulse  to  express  itself,  and  the  form 
of  expression  to  which  it  is  firet  impelled  is,  as  is  well  known. 
not  prose,  l)ut  verse,  and  in  fact  narrative  verse.  The  con- 
dition of  society  in  which  a  truly  national  or  popular  poetry 
appeai-s  exjilains  the  character  of  such  poetry.  It  is  a  con- 
dition in  which  the  people  are  not  divided  by  political  or- 
ganization and  book-culture  into  markedly  distinct  cla.sses, 
in  which  consequently  there  is  such  community  of  ideas 
and  feelings  that  the  whole  people  form  an  individual.  Such 
poetr>-.  accordingly,  while  it  is  in  its  essence  an  expression 
of  our  common  human  nature,  and  so  of  universal  and  in- 
destructible interest,  will  in  each  case  be  differenced  by  cir- 
cumstances and  idiosyncrasy.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will 
always  be  an  expression  of  the  mind  and  heart  of  the  people 
as  an  individual,  and  nivcr  of  tlie  jiersonality  of  indivi<iual 
men.  The  fundamental  characteristic  of  popular  ballads  is 
therefore  the  absence  of  subjectivity  and  of  self-conscious- 
ness. Though  they  do  not '•  write  themselves,"  as  William 
Grimm  hits  said,  though  a  man  and  not  a  people  ha.s  com- 
posed them,  still  the  author  counts  for  nothing,  and  it  is 
not  by  mere  accident,  but  with  the  best  reason,  that  they 
have  come  down  to  us  anonymous.  Hence,  too,  they  are  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  imitate" by  the  highly  civilized  modern 
man,  and  most  of  the  attempts  to  reproduce  this  kind  of 
poetry  have  been  ridiculous  failures. 

The  primitive  ballad,  then,  is  po]iular,  not  in  the  sense  of 
something  arising  from  and  suited  to  the  lower  orders  of  a 
people.  As  yet,  no  sharp  distinction  of  high  and  low  exi.sts, 
in  respect  to"  knowleilge.  desires,  ami  tastes.  An  increased 
civilization,  and  esjiecially  thi'  introiluction  of  book-culture, 
gradually  gives  rise  to  such  a  division;  the  poetry  of  art 
ai)pears:"  tjie  popular  poetry  is  no  longer  relished  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  )ieople.  and  is  abandoned  to  an  uncultivated  or 
not  over-cultivated  clas,s — a  constantly  diminishing  number. 
But  whatever  may  be  the  estimation  in  which  it  may  be 
held  by  particular  classes  or  at  iiarticul.-ir  epochs,  it  ('an 
not  lose  its  value.  Being  founded  on  what  is  permanent  .  . 
and  universal  in  the  heart  of  man.  and  now  by  printing  | 
put  beyond  the  danger  of  perishing,  it  will  survive  the  T 
fluctuations  of  taste,  and  may  from  time  to  time  serve,  as  it 
notoriously  did  in  England  and  Germany  a  hundred  years 


BALLAD  POETRY 


465 


ago,  to  rociiU  a  literature  from  false  and  artificial  courses  to 
^  nature  and  truth. 

Of  the  Kur()|)can  nations  the  Spaniards  and  those  of 
Scandinavian-German  stock  have  hist  preserved  their  early 
popular  poetry.  We  lijive  early  notices  of  the  poetry  of  the 
tierinans.  Their  ballads,  mythical  or  historical,  are  several 
times  spoken  of  by  Tacitus,  who  says  that  these  were  their 
only  annals.  The  earth-lxirn  Tiiisi-o  ami  his  son  Mannus 
were  celelirated  in  the  one,  anil  the  hero  Armiuius  in  the 
other.  The  historian  of  the  Goths,  Jornandes,  writing  in 
the  sixth  century,  says  that  theSe  people  were  accustomed 
to  sing  the  exploits  of  their  fathers  to  the  harp,  and  seems 
to  have  taken  not  a  little  of  his  history  from  such  songs. 
The  like  is  true  of  I'aulus  Diaconus,  the  Lombard  liistorian, 
who  wrote  in  the  eighth  century,  and  mentions  songs  about 
Alboin  (who  dieil  in  od:])  as  existing  among  all  the  nations 
of  German  speech.  Charlemagne  had  I  be  old  traditional 
songs  of  his  people  collected  and  committed  to  writing,  and 
even  made  them  one  of  the  subjects  of  school  instruction. 
Side  by  side  with  heroic  ballads,  social,  convivial,  and 
funeral  songs  (which  nuiy,  to  be  sure,  have  been  |iretty 
much  the  same  thing)  seem  to  have  been  in  use  from  the 
earliest  recorded  times.  To  all  this  popular  poetry,  by  rea- 
son of  its  heathen  derivation  and  character,  the  (Christian 
clergy  opposed  themselves  with  the  most  determined  hos- 
tility. Not  suceeeding  in  extirpating  it  by  the  use  of  the 
spiritual  and  legal  means  at  their  command,  the  German 
churehmen  of  the  ninth  century  conceived  the  idea  of 
crowding  it  out  by  substituting  poetry  of  a  Christian  sub- 
ject and  tone — an  expedient  wliich  has  been  tried  more 
than  once  since  then.  Though  popular  song  lived  on  in 
obscure  iilaees.  the  forcgi'ounil  of  history  is  filled  for  600 
yeai-s  with  religious  aiul  I'ourtly  poetry,  and  with  the  chival- 
rous anil  native  epic.  Nothing  is  left  of  the  old  heroic 
songs  but  a  fragment  of  the  Ilildebraitdslied,  from  the 
eighth  century  (best  known  in  a  modernized  form  of  the 
fifteenth  century);  and  of  the  Christianized  song  we  have 
also  but  a  single  specinum,  the  Jyiulirigdied,  of  the  year 
8H1.  Tlie  fornun-  is  in  the  ancient  alliterative  meter,  the 
latter  in  the  then  newly  introiliiceil  rhymed  stanza.  During 
the  fifteenth  and  the  early  ])art  of  the  sixteenth  century  a 
second  growth  of  the  geimine  popular  song  appears,  some  of 
it  springing,  doubtless,  out  of  shoots  from  the  old  stock 
which  had  lived  through  this  long  interval,  some  of  it  a 
fresh  product  of  the  age.  These  ball.'uls  were  popular  in 
the  large  and  strict  sense:  that  is.  they  were  the  creation 
and  the  manifestation  of  the  whole  jieople,  great  and  hum- 
ble, who  were  still  one  in  all  essentials,  having  the  same  be- 
lief, the  same  ignorance,  and  the  same  tastes,  and  living  in 
much  closer  relations  than  now.  The  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  slinudation  of  thought  through  the  art  of 
printing,  the  religious  and  intellectuid  consequences  of  the 
Refonnalion,  the  intrusion  of  cold  rellection  into  a  world  of 
sense  and  fancy,  broke  up  the  national  unity.  The  edu- 
cated classes  took  a  direction  of  their  own,  and  left  what 
had  been  a  common  treasure  to  the  people  in  the  lower 
sense,  the  ignorant  or  unschooled  mass.  German  ballads 
have  been  collected  inconsiderable  numbers.  The  sources 
liave  been  "  flying  leaves,"  man\iscripts,  printed  song-books 
(mostly  of  the  sixteenth  century),  and  oral  tradition.  In 
interest  they  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  Scandinavian  and 
Knglish. 

Christianity  and  foreign  culture,  which  in  different  ways 
have  been  efpuilly  destructive  in  their  effects  upon  ancient 
national  poetry,  were  introduced  into  the  Scandinavian 
countries  much  later  than  into  Germany  and  England.  In 
the  Scandinavian  countries,  too,  the  jieasant^ry  long  main- 
tained a  much  higher  position.  They  were  not  an  op- 
pressed and  ignorant  class,  but  free  men,  who  shared  fully 
in  the  indigenous  culture,  and  so  wore  well  fitted  to  keep 
and  transmit  their  poetical  heritage.  While,  therefore,  the 
heroic  ballads  of  (iermany  and  England  have  been  lost — 
those  of  Kngland  utterly,  those  of  (iermany  being  preserved 
only  in  epic  conglomerates  like  the  A'ibelungenlird — and 
while  the  mythical  cycle  in  both  countries  is  \)ut  feebly,  if 
at  all,  represented,  Scandinavia  hn-s  kept  a  great  deal  of 
both.  The  story  of  Thor"s  Hammer  forms  the  subject  of  a 
ballad  still  known  in  all  the  Scamiinavian  countries;  a  vol- 
ume of  iiallads  concerning  Sigurd  has  been  gathered  from 
tradition  in  the  Faroe  isles  within  this  century,  and  several 
(lallads  of  this  cycle  and  of  that  of  Dietrich  of  Bern  are  found 
in  Danish  manuscript  ballad-books.  Svend  Grundtvig,  the 
editor  of  the  still  unfinished  but  truly  magnificent  collection 
of  the  old  I  >anish  ballads,  has  arranged  theiu  in  four  classes ; 
30 


first,  the  Heroic ;  second,  the  Trylleviser,  or  ballads  of 
giants,  dwarfs,  nixes,  elves,  mountain-spirits,  enchantment, 
spells,  and  ghosts;  third,  the  Historic:  and  fourth,  ballads 
of  Chivalry.  The  historic  ballads  (in+ending  their  orig- 
inal, not  their  actual,  form)  mostly  fall  within  the  period 
from  ILW  to  laOO;  the  chivalrous  are  later,  and  the  two 
other  classes  belong  to  a  still  earlier  term,  which  may  ex- 
tend over  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  into,  or 
perhaps  through,  the  elevenlli — that  is,  to  the  epoch  of  the 
introduction  of  Christianity.  Ballads  arc  best  preserved 
by  oral  tradition  in  Norway  ami  the  Faroe  isles,  but  not 
at  all,  there,  in  old  nuinnscripts;  Sweden  has  a  few  manu- 
scripts, and  Denmark  a  great  inind)er,  written  mostly  liy 
noble  ladies  living  on  their  estates,  and  giving  the  ballads 
as  they  were  sung  three  or  four  hundred  years  ago,  as  well 
in  the  lord's  castle  as  in  the  peasant's  hut.  The  Danish 
ballads  were  collected  in  a  printed  form  earlier  than  any 
otiiers  exce])t  the  Spanish.  Vedel  published  a  hundred  in 
15'Jl:  another  collection,  called  Trdtjiea,  or  old  Danish  his- 
toric love-ballads,  appeared  at  Coiienhagen  in  l(i.~)7;  and  in 
1()!)5  Syv  republished  Vcdel's  ballads,  with  the  addition  of 
another  hundred. 

The  English  have  preserved  Init  a  moderate  number  of 
very  early  ballads,  and  the  date  of  uuiny  of  these  it  is  im- 
possible to  fix.  There  are  some  narrative  poems  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  which,  without  stretcli  of  language,  might  be  called 
ballads.  The  Noi-man  Conquest,  and  the  predominance  of 
the  French  language  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  had 
of  course  monuuitous  literary  consequences,  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  jiroduction  of  the  native  ballad  should  have 
stopped.  The  story  of  the  Saxon  outlaw  Ilereward,  which 
begins  with  the  second  year  after  the  Conquest,  and  has 
been  handed  down  to  us  in  Latin  prose  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, is  full  of  such  adventures  as  form  the  themes  of  bal- 
lads, and  very  likely  was  made  up  from  }iopular  songs. 
Such  ballads,  if  they  existed,  are  lost,  but  ballads  concern- 
ing outlaws  are  among  the  earliest  anil  best  ones  of  the 
English.  In  [ilace  of  Hereward  of  the  Conqueror's  time,  and 
Fulk  Fitz-Warin  of  John's  time  (wliose  history  was  also  ex- 
tremely popular),  we  have  l^obin  Hood  of  uncertain  time. 
Songs  of  liobin  Hood  and  of  Uandolpli,  Vmv\  of  Chester 
(probably  the  third  earl,  who  died  in  1232),  we  know,  from 
I'iers  Ploughman,  were  current  anumg  the  lower  orders  at 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  one  Robin  Hood 
ballad  exists  in  a  manuscript  which  may  bo  as  old  as  the 
first  quarter  of  the  next  century.  Another  occurs  in  a 
nuinuscri]it  dated  at  about  1500,  others  in  the  Percy  manu- 
script. The  Lifl/e  (Ifst  of  itoliin  Hood,  which  is  a  min- 
iature epic  made  up  of  half  a  dozen  ballads,  was  printed 
bv  Wynken  de  Worde,  " probably,"  says  Ritson,  "in  148!)." 
\Vo  may  reasonably  place  the  origin  of  the  Robin  Hood 
ballads  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century.  To  the  thir- 
teenth century  may  belong  Hugh  of  Lincoln,  which  is 
founded  on  an  incident  that  occurred  in  1'255.  An  Anglo- 
Norman  ballad  on  the  same  subject  twice  refers  to  a  King 
Henry,  and  is  therefore  put  within  the  reign  of  Henry  111., 
which  ended  1270.  After  this  there  are  only  one  or  two 
ballads  with  dates  till  we  come  to  the  Battle  of  Otterbourn, 
1:588,  from  which  time  we  have  a  succession  of  ballads 
founded  on  ascertained  events,  down  to  the  nnddle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Ballads  like  those  of  Grundtvig's  sec- 
ond class  exist  in  "a  snuill  number;  one  of  them  in  a  manu- 
script of  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  little 
that  we  have  of  ballads  of  the  Arthur  cycle,  and  many  of 
the  best  of  all  kinds,  we  owe  to  the  Percy  manuscript,  writ- 
ten just  before  UioO.  A  few  ballads  besides  those  named 
have  been  gleaned  from  manuscripts  and  early  prints,  but  a 
large  part  of  our  whole  stock  has  been  recovered  within  the 
last  l:iO  years  from  the  oral  tradition  of  Scotland.  The 
first  impulse  to  tlui  collecting  of  this  poetry  was  given  by 
the  publication  of  Percy's /("('//V/'dw  in  17G5.  The  Beiiques 
inspired  Kiirgcr  and  Herder,  through  whom,  and  especially 
through  Herder's  l'i9//i.'«//V''/i')' (1778-7!)),  that  interest  in  the 
literature  of  the  people  was  awakened  in  Germany  which 
has  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  has  led  to  the 
collecting  and  study  of  the  traditional  songs  and  tales  of 
all  the  European,  and  some  of  the  Asiatic,  African,  ami 
American  races. 

The  Spanish  alone  of  the  Latin  nations  can  boast  a  bal- 
lad poetry  of  great  compass  and  antiquity.  Following  the 
law  of  aiialogy  where  documents  are  wanting,  the  oiigin  of 
these  balladswould  be  put  between  the  years  1000  and 
1200,  the  period  when  the  Spanish  nationality  and  lan- 
guage had  been  developed  to  that  degree  which  invariably 


466 


BALLAD   POETRY 


incites  ami  leads  to  expression  in  epic  song.  Some  sort  of 
popular  poetry  about  the  Ciil  (whose  time  is  1040-99)  is 
known  to  have  been  sung  as  early  as  1147;  the  poem  of  the 
Cid  itself  is  placed  about  1300.  During  tlie  century  that 
follows  we  find  occasional  mention  of  ballad-singers,  but  no 
ballads.  As  in  Germany,  the  popular  poetry,  alter  the  fii'st 
bloom  of  the  national  genius,  was  supplanted  by  art-poetry, 
among  tlie  higher  classes,  and  it  passed  out  of  notice  for 
two  or  three  hundred  years.  A  reaction  set  in  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  Tliis  was  the  glorious  period  of  Spanish 
history,  and  the  return  to  the  national  poetry  was  a  nat- 
ural conse([uence  of  tlie  powerful  stirring  of  the  national 
mind.  Omitting  "  flying  leaves  "  or  broadsides,  and  a  few 
ballads  in  the  Cancioiiero  General  of  1511.  the  earliest  col- 
lection of  .Spanish  ballads  is  an  undated  Cancioiiero  de  Bo- 
?»a;ices,  printed  at  Antwerp  about  1546:  andtliis.it  must 
be  observed,  is  the  first  ballad-book  printed  in  any  language, 
and  Wivs  gathered  in  part  from  the  memory  of  the  people. 
Other  similar  collections  followed,  from  wliich  was  made  in 
1600  the  great  Romancero  General.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  national  ballads  declined  in  favor, 
with  a  decline  of  national  spirit,  but  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  they  have  been  restored  to  a  high  esti- 
mation at  home,  and  have  gained  the  admiration  of  the 
world.  The  oldest  ballads  are  those  which  relate  to  the  his- 
tory and  traditions  of  Spain,  and  recount  the  exploits  of 
Bernardo  del  Carpio,  Fernau  Gonzalez,  the  Seven  Lords  of 
Lara,  and  the  Cid.  Then  comes  a  variety  of  romantic  and 
chivalrous  ballads,  and  then  ballads  of  the  Carlovingian 
cycle.  These  oldest  and  most  characteristic  of  the  Spanish 
ballads  have  been  excellently  edited  by  WoLf  and  Hofmann, 
and  the  entire  body  of  this  literature,  amounting  to  more 
than  1.900  pieces,  is  included  in  the  Homancero  General, 
edited  by  Duran  in  1849-51.  The  collections  of  ballads  in 
the  other  Latin  languages  will  be  found  below. 

The  ballads  of  other  Eurojiean  nations  are  scarcely  less 
interesting  than  those  which  have  been  noticed,  and  those 
of  races  which  possess  little  or  no  other  literature  are  pecul- 
iarly instructive,  by  reason  of  the  light  which  they  throw 
on  the  history  of  national  poetry ;  for  instance,  the  songs 
of  the  Slavic  races.  The  Slavic  songs  as  a  class  are  distin- 
guished from  the  Teutonic  by  the  absence  of  the  sentiment 
of  romantic  love  and  of  chivalrous  heroism.  In  their  form, 
too,  they  are  much  less  dramatic,  and  even  the  division  of 
epic  from  lyric  songs  is  not  easy.  Many  songs  begin  with  a 
few  narrative  verses,  and  then  become  entirely  lyric,  and  the 
narrative  part  is  almost  always  descriptive.  The  Servians — 
especially  those  of  Turkish  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Slontenegro, 
who  have  not  been  much  affected  by  civilization — afford  a 
capital  example  of  a  race  that  has  not  outlived  the  ballad  era. 
Vuk  has  collected  many  hundreds  of  their  songs,  one-third 
of  them  epic,  and  every  one  of  them  from  the  mouths  of  the 
people.  A  few  of  these  are,  in  their  actual  form,  as  old  as 
the  fifteenth  century,  some  belong  to  a  remoter  time,  and 
indeed  many  retain  marks  of  an  ante-Christian  origin.  So 
far  the  Servians  are  like  the  German  nations :  the  distinction 
is  that  the  fountain  of  popular  poetry  still  flows,  and  that 
heroic  poems  have  been  produced  among  the  Servians  in 
this  century  which  are  essentially  similar  to  the  older  ones, 
and  not  at  all  inferior.  We  find  the  national  poetry  there 
in  a  conilition  closely  resembling  that  in  which  it  was 
among  the  races  of  Xorthern  and  Eastern  Europe  many 
hundred  years  ago.  Kew  songs  appear  with  new  occasions, 
but  do  not  supersede  the  ancient  ones.  The  heroic  ballads 
are  chanted  at  taverns,  in  the  public  squares,  in  the  halls  of 
chiefs,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  simple  instrument.  Some- 
times they  are  only  recited,  and  in  this  way  are  taught  by 
the  old  to  the  young.  All  classes  know  them  :  the  peasant, 
the  merchant,  the  hayduk  (the  klepht  of  the  modern  Greek, 
a  sort  of  Robin  Hood),  as  well  as  the  professional  bard. 
No  class  scorns  to  sing  them — not  even  the  clergy  or  the 
chiefs. 

One  or  two  general  remarks  are  required  to  prevent  mis- 
conceptions and  to  supply  omissions.  Emm  what  has  been 
said,  It  may  be  seen  or  inferred  that  the  popular  ballad  is 
not  originally  the  product  or  the  property  of  the  lower  or- 
ders of  the  people.  Nothing,  in  fact,  is  more  olivious  than 
that  many  of  the  ballads  of  the  now  most  refined  nations 
had  their  origin  in  that  class  whose  acts  and  fortunes  they 
depict — the  upper  class — though  the  growth  of  civilization 
has  driven  them  from  the  iiuMiiory  of  the  highly  poli-shed 
and  instructeil,  and  has  left  them  as  an  exclusive  possession 
to  the  uneducated.  The  genuine  popular  ballad  had  its  rise 
in  a  time  when  the  distinctions  since  brought  about  by  ed- 


ucation and  other  circumstances  had  practically  no  exist- 
ence. The  vulgar  ballads  of  our  day.  the  "broadsides" 
which  were  printed  in  such  huge  numliers  in  England  and 
elsewhere  in  the  sixteenth  century  or  later,  belong  to  a  dif- 
ferent genus;  they  are  products  of  a  low  kind  of  art,  and 
most  of  them  are,  from  a  literary  point  of  ^-iew,  tlioroughly 
despicable  and  worthless. 

Next  it  must  be  observed  that  ballads  which  have  been 
handed  down  by  long-repeated  tradition  have  always  de- 
parted considerably  from  their  original  form.  If  the  trans- 
mission has  been  purely  through  the  mouths  of  unlearned 
people,  there  is  less  probaliility  of  willful  change,  but  once 
in  the  hands  of  professional  singers  there  is  no  amount  of 
change  which  they  may  not  undergo.  Last  of  all  comes 
the  modern  editor,  whose  so-called  improvements  are  more 
to  be  feared  than  the  mischances  of  a  thousand  years.  A 
very  old  ballad  will  often  be  found  to  have  resolved  itself 
in  the  course  of  what  may  be  called  its  propagation  into 
several  distinct  shapes,  and  each  of  these  again  to  have  re- 
ceived distinct  modifications.  AVlien  the  fashion  of  verse 
has  altered,  we  shall  find  a  change  of  form  as  great  as  that 
in  the  Hildehrandslied,  from  alliteration  without  stanza  to 
stanza  with  rhyme.  In  all  cases  the  language  drifts  insen- 
sibly from  ancient  forms,  though  not  at  the  same  rate  with 
the  language  of  every-day  life.  The  professional  ballad- 
singer  or  minstrel,  whose  sole  object  is  to  please  the  audi- 
ence before  him,  wUl  alter,  omit,  or  add,  without  scruple, 
and  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  find  different  ballads 
blended  together. 

There  remains  the  very  curious  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  resemblances  which  are  found  in  the  ballads  of  different 
nations,  the  recurrence  of  the  same  incidents  or  even  of  the 
same  story,  among  races  distinct  in  blood  and  history,  and 
geographically  far  separated.  The  Scottish  ballad  of  Way 
Colvin,  for  instance — the  German  Ulinger — is  also  found  in 
Danish,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  Icelandic,  Dutch,  Low  Ger-  t, 
man,  Spanish,  Ponuguese,  Italian,  French,  Polish,  Servian, 
Bohemian,  Wendish.  Magyar,  and  there  are  traces  of  it  in 
other  languages.  Some  have  thought  that  to  explain  this 
phenomenon  we  must  go  back  almost  to  the  cradle  of  man- 
kind, to  a  primeval  common  ancestry  of  all  or  most  of  the 
nations  among  whom  it  appears.  But  so  stuiiendous  an  hy- 
pothesis is  scarcely  necessary.  The  incidents  of  many  bal- 
lads are  such  as  might  occur  anywhere  and  at  any  time ;  and 
with  regard  to  agreements  that  can  not  be  explained  in  this 
way  we  have  only  to  remember  that  tales  and  songs  were 
the  chief  social  amusement  of  all  classes  of  people  in  all  the 
nations  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  tliat  new 
stories  would  be  eagerly  sought  for  by  those  whose  business 
it  was  to  furnish  this  amusement,  and  be  rapidly  spread 
among  the  fraternity.  A  great  effect  was  nndoubtedlv  pro- 
duced by  the  cmsades,  which  both  brought  the  chief  "Euro- 
pean nations  into  closer  intercourse  and  made  them  ac- 
quainted with  the  East,  thus  facilitating  the  interchange 
of  stories  and  gi-eatly  enlarging  the  stock. 

Some  of  the  more  important  collections  of  popular  bal- 
lads are : 

English. — ReUqiies  of  Ancient  English  Poetrij,h\  Thomas 
Percy,  1st  ed.  1765,  4ih  improved  cd.  London,  1794,  and 
often  since  then;  Ancient  and  Modern  Scotti.^h  Songs,  hy 
David  Herd,  3d  ed.  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1776;  Minstrehy  of 
the  Scottish  Border,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  3  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1803-03,  and  often  since  then;  Popular  Ballads  and  Songs, 
by  Robert  Jamieson,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh.  1806  ;  Ancient  Scot- 
tish Ballads,  by  George  R.  Kinloch.  Edinlmrgh,  1837 ;  3Iin- 
strel.fl/.  Ancient  iiiid  Modern,  by  William  Jlotlierwell,  Glas- 
gow, 1837:  Ancient  Ballads  and  Snnijs  of  the  North  of 
Scotland,  by  Peter  Buchan.  2  vols..  Edinburgh,  1828;  The 
Engli-th  and  Scotti.<ih  Popular  Ballads,  by  F.  J.  Child,  Bos- 
ton", 1882-93,  8  parts,  and  one  to  follow,  which  will  contain 
a  full  bibliography. 

Scandinarian.—Dcinmarks  Gamle  Folkeviser  (The  An- 
cient Ballails  of  Denmark),  by  Svend  Grundtvig,  5  vols., 
the  last  half  of  the  5th.  liy  Axel  Olrik,  unfinished,  Copen- 
hagen, 1853-90;  Jg.^l-e  Folkevi-^er.  in  .///.sAc  Folkeminder,  liy 
E.  T.  Kristensen,  vols,  i.,  ii..  x..  Copenhagen,  1871-89 ;  An- 
cient Danish  i?(7//nf7.s,  translated  from  the  originals  by  K. 
C.  Alex.  Prior,  3  vols..  Ijondon.  1860;  ynrske  Folkeviser 
(Norwegian  Ballads),  by  M.  B.  Landstad,  Cliristiania.  1853  ; 
Gamle  Xorske  Fiilkei'i.ier  (Ancient  Norwegian  Ballads), 
by  Soplius  Bugge,  Christiania,  1858:  Srenska  Folkvisor 
(Swedish  Ballads),  by  Gcijer  and  Afzelius,  3  vols.,  Stock- 
liolm,  1814-16,  improved  ed.  by  Bergstrom  and  Hoijer.  3 
vols.,  Stockholm,  1880 ;  Svenska  Fornsanger,  by  A.  I.  Ar- 


T.AI.l.AD   POKTKV 


4tM 


\'olk.ilii-ih-i:  noll'iiiaiin  von  Fallei'sleben  and  Ricliter.  Leip- 
zii;.   lH4t2 ;   Alti'  lioch-  ntid    uiedcrdeutsche    Volk 


widsson,  3  vols.,  Stockholm,  18;34-42;  Fwroiske  Krceder 
(Ballads  of  the  Faroe  Isles),  by  V.  U.  llununershaiuib,  Copen- 
hagen, 1851-.55;  Fwrank  Antholor/i,  by  the  same,  Copenha- 
gen, 188(5,  18!H:  txlemk  Fornkvieoi,  by  Grundtvig  and  Si- 
gurSsson,  Copeidiagen,  1834-85. 

lliqh  fri'i-iitan. — Di.i  Knaben  Wtinderhorn.  Aiiiim  and 
Brentano,  3  vols.,  Heiilelberg,  1806-08.  4  vols.,  Berlin.  18.J3- 
.^4;  A/If  teutsfhe  Volkslieder  in  der  Minuhirt  di-s  KnhlSnd- 
cJieiis.  J.  (t.  Meinert,  Vienna  and  Ilanibniir.  1817;  Oister- 
reicliisclii'  roM-.>f/(Wr-r,  Ziska  and  Scliotlky.  IVstli.  isut;  Die 
Volkdiedi-r  der  Deul.sclien,  F.  K.  von  Eilacli,  .5  vols.,  Mann- 
lieim.  18;i4-:iG ;  Deutsche  Volkslieder.  A.  Kietzselimer  and 
A.  W.  V.  Zncoalraaglio,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1840:  iSc/ilesisrlte 

L'liter.  Leip- 
kslieder,  h 
ridand.  i  vols..  Stuttgart.  1844-4.5;  Die  deutwkeii  Vtilks- 
lieder.  K.  Simrock.  Frankfnrt-ani-Main,  18.51:  iJeutyrlie 
Vulksliedcr.  V.  L.  Mittler,  JIarbiirg  and  Leipzig,  18-5.5; 
Friiiikisilie  \'i)lk!<lieder,  F.  M.  von  Ditfurtli,  3  jjarts,  Leip- 
zisT.  18.5.5;  Sc/iimtjische  Volkslieder,  E.  Jloier,  Berlin,  18.55; 
Welti iche\u.  ijeistliche  Volk.ilieder.  II.  Priilde,  Aschei-slebcn, 
ls.5.5:  Deutscher  Liederliort.  L.  Erk,  Berlin.  18.56;  Die  his- 
lorisclien  Volkslieder  der  Deufscheii.  R.  von  Ijiliencron.  4 
vols.,  Leipzig,  186.5-69:  Altdeulsclies  Liederhiich,  F.  M. 
Biihme.  Leipzig.  1877  ;  Westfiilische  Volkslieder,  A.  ileiiler- 
seheid.  Ileilbronn.  1870. 

Low  German.  Netlierlandish. — Uhland,  as  above;  Oude 
Vlaemsche  Liederen,  .7.  F.  Willems,  Ghent.  1848;  Xieder- 
Inndsrhe  Volkslieder.  Holfmann  von  Fallersleben,  3d  ed. 
Ilanovei',  18.56;  Chants  Populairea  des  Flamands  de 
France.  E.  de  Coussemakeiv  Ghent,  18.56;  Oiide  en  nieiiwe 
Liedjes.  F.  A.  Snellaert,  2d  ed.  Ghent,  1864;  Chants  Popii- 
laires  Flamands,  A.  Lootens  and  J.  M.  E.  Fevs,  Bruges, 
187!). 

Spanish  and  Portuguese. — Romancero  Cfeneral  (vols.  x. 
I  and  xvi.  of  Bililioteea  de  nutores  Fspanoles),  Agnstin  Dn- 
ran.  JIadrid.  1840,  1851;  Primarera  ij  Flor  de  Romances, 
V.  .1.  Wiiir  and  C.  UoJl'mann,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  18.56;  Roman- 
sen  Asturiens,  u.  s.  w.,  .Jo.se  Amador  de  los  Kios,  in  Jahr- 
liiich  fiir  romanische-  u.  englische  Lileratur,  iii.  268,  1861 ; 
Coleccion  de  los  riejos  romances  que  se  cantan  por  los 
Asturianos.  J.  JI.  Piual,  Madrid.  1885;  Cansons  de  la  Ter- 
ra, Cants  /lopiilars  Catalans.  F.  Pelay  Briz,  .5  vols,  (i,  y 
Candi  Caiidi,  ii,  v  .J.  Salto),  Bareelorui.  1866-7.5 ;  Roniance- 
rillo  Catalan.  Jf.  Mila  y  Pontarials,  Barcelona,  1882 ;  Ro- 
manceiro.  Almeida-Garrett.  ;i  vols.,  Lisbon,  186:! ;  Th.  Braga. 
Cancioneiro  Popular.  Coimbra.  1867,  Romanceiro  (leral. 
Coind)ra.  1867.  Cantos  Popiilares  do  Archipelafjo  Acoriano. 
I'orto,  I860;  Romanceiro  Porliii/iiez.y.K.  llariUing,  2  vols., 
Leipzig,  1877:  Romanceiro  do  Archipelago  da  Madeira.  A. 
Hodrigues  de  Azevcdo,  Fnnclial.  1880;  Cantos  pop.  do  Bra- 
zil. S.  Itomero,  3  vols.,  Lisl)on.  1888. 

Italian. — Canii  popolari  Toscani.  Corsi,  Illirici,  Greci. 
X.  Tomnniso.  4  vols.,  Venice;  1841^2,  2d  ed.  of  vol.  i.,  1848; 
Cant i  pop.  inediti  I'mtiri.  etc..  O.  Mareoaldi,  Genoa,  1856; 
Sagqio  di  eanti  pop.  Veronesi,  E.  S.  Righi,  Verona.  186:i ; 
Vidhslieder  atis  Venetien,  gesammelt  con  G.  Wiilter.  ed.  A. 
Wolf.  Vienna,  1864;  Canzoni  pop.  Comasche.  G.  B.  Bolza, 
Vienna  Academy,  1867;  Canti  pop.  Veneziani.  G.  Bernoni, 
Venice,  1873 ;  Canti  e  Raceonti  del  Piipolo  Italiano,  D. 
Comparetti  and  A.  d'Ancona,  Turin  and  Florence,  vols, 
i.-v.,  viii.,  ix..  1870-01;  Archicio  per  lo  Studio  delle  Tra- 
dizinni  pop..  I'ilre  and  Iml)riani,  i.-xi.,  1.882-02:  Canti  pop. 
Pmliri.li.  Mazzatinti,  Bologna,  1883;  Canti  pop.  del  Pie- 
nionte.  ('.  Nigra,  Turin.  ISSS;  Canti  pop.  Siciliani,  G.  Pitre, 
3d  ed.  3  vols.,  Palermo.  1801. 

French. — Instructions  relatires  aux  Poesies  populaires  de 
la  France,  J.  .J.  Ampere,  Paris,  18.53;  Etude  sur  la  poesie 
populaire  en  \ormandie.  Eug.  de  Beaurepaire,  Avranclies. 
18.56;  Chansons  pop.  des  Provinces  de  /'/vjHr^  (.Jules  Fleury), 
Paris,  1860;  Chants  populaires  du  pai/s  castrais,  A.  Combes, 
Castres,  1862;  Xoels  et  Chants  pop.  de  la  Franche-Comte, 
M.  Buchon.  Salins,  1863;  Chants  pop.  de  la  Provence,  Da- 
mase  Arliand,  3  vols.,  Aix,  1863-64;  Romancero  de  Cham- 
pagne. P.  Tarl)e,  3  vols..  Reims,  1863-64:  Chants  pop.  re- 
cue  ill  is  dans  le  pays  messin.  Compte  de  Pnyinaigre,  Metz, 
1863,  2d  ed.  3  vols.,  1881 ;  Chants  et  chan.wns  pop.  des  prov- 
inces de  t'ouc^t,  Poitou,  etc..  .1.  Bujeaud.  2  vols.,  Xiort,  1866; 
Chansons  pop.  du  Canada,  E.  (iagnon,  (Quebec,  2d  ed.  1880; 
Chants  pup.  du  Ijonguedoc,  A.  Jlontel  et  L.  Lambert.  I'aris. 
IM.'SO;  Cliiinis  pop.  du  Velay  et  du  i'''«rej  (Victor  Sniitli),  in 
Ixnniania.  Paris,  1872-81;  Poesies  pop.  de  la  Gascogne,  .1. 
F.  Blade,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1881-82 ;  Chan.ton.s  pop.  de  VAin, 
C.  GuiUon,  I'aris,  1883;  Chanson.i  pop.  d'llle-el-Vilaine,  L. 


Dccombe,  Renncs,  1884;  Chansons  et  Ballades  pop.  du  Fa-_ 
/« I. s,  Gerard  de  Nerval.  Paris,  1883 ;  Vieu.r.  Chants  pop.  re-' 
cueillis  en   Quercy.  .J.  Dayniard,  Cahors,  1889:  Chants  pop. 
du  Ba.s-Quercy.  E.  Soleville,  Paris,  1880;  Recueil  de  Chan- 
sons pop..  6  vols.,  E.  I{oIlan<l,  Paris,  1883-00;  Traditions, 
etc..  des  Ardennes,  A.  Meyra<',  Charlcville.  1890. 

Roumanian. — Balade,  B.  Alexandri,  3  vols.,  .Jassy,  1853- 
34,  and  Poesi'i  Populare  ale  Romunilor.  Bucharest,  1866; 
Ballades  et  Chan's  pop.  de  la  lioumanie.  recueillis  et  tra- 
duils  par  V.  Alexandri.  Paris,  18.53;  Rouman  Anthology, 
'National  Ballads  of  Moldavia,  etc.,  II.  Stanlev,  Hertford, 
1830;  Poesia  Popurala.  Balade.  Marieneseu,  iVsth.  1859; 
Balade  popurale  romdne.  JI.  Pompiliu,  .las.sy,  1870. 

Romaic. — Chants  populaires  de  la  Grece  moderne.  C. 
Fauriel,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1824-33  ;  the  sami^  in  German,  by  W. 
Miiller.  Lei])zig,  1823;  ('anti  popolari  Toscani.  Corsi.  Illi- 
rici. Greci.  X.  Tomnui.so,  4  vols.,  Venice,  1841-42 :  Seu- 
griechische  ]'olks-  n.  Freiheilsliriler.  1).  II.  Sanders,  Leipzig, 
1843;  Das  Volkslehen  der  yoigriechen.  etc..  I).  II.  Sandei'S. 
Mannheim,  1844  :  TpwyovUa  efli/ira.  2  parts,  ,\.  Manonsos.  Cor- 
eyra,  18.50;  Chants  da  Peuple  en  (Irtce.  Coniple  <le  Mar- 
cellus,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1831  ;  "Auriiara  Sr]fioTiKa  t^s  'E\AaSos 
(Popular  Songs  of  Greece).  Spyr.  /,aMi|ielios.  Corcyra,  18.52: 
Cannina  popularia  Gra'ciie  receiitioris.  A.  Passow.  Leip- 
zig, 1860;  Anthdiogie  nrngriechischer  Vijlkslicder.  Til.  Kind, 
Leipzig,  1N01  ;  SuA.Aot't)  tuv  Kara  t^jv  "Hiretpoi'  SrifioTiKuv  acrfid- 
Tuv.  G.  Chr.  Chasiotcs.  Alliens.  ISOti:  Ncugrieclnsche  ]  olks- 
gesdnge.  J.  Jl.  Finnenich-Ricliartz.  2  parts,  Berlin.  1840. 
'1867;  Ar);uoTiK))  "Ai'floA.oYfa.  ]M.  .S.  Lelekos,  Athens,  1868;  Ti 
KuwptaKa.  3d  vol.,  A.  A.  .Sakellarios.  Athens,  1868;  NeofWriviKa 
'Ai/oAeKTa.  Athens.  1871-81 ;  Recueil  de  chan.yons  po/jiilaires 
Grecipies.  l5.  Legrand.  Paris.  1874;  Kretas  Volkslieder.  A. 
.Jeaunaraki.  Leipzig.  1876;  Griechische  Mdrchen.  Sagen, 
und  Volkslieder.  A.  Schmidt,  Leipzig,  1877;  'S,v\\(rfy  Srifiii- 
Suv  da-tiiTwe  rfis  'HTreipou,  P.  Arabaiitinos,  Athens,  1880; 
TpayuiSia  toS  'OKvixttou.  A.  K.  Oikonomides.  Athens,  1881; 
AeXxfof  TTJs  IfTTopiKTJs  Kol  4di/o\oyiK7is  ^Taipias  t^s  'E\A.a5oy.  Ath- 
ens. 1883  ft'.;  K.  X\  Kaiiellakes,  Xmica  'AtoAekto.  Alliens, 
1890;  Zwypa(pf7os  ' f^yiii'.  vol.  i..  Constanliiiople.  1S91. 

Russian. —  Byliiias.  Popular  lOpics,  Heroic  Ballads:  the 
coUeclioiis  of  Kirslia  Danilof  ami  Kalaiilovitcli,  Moscow, 
1818,  Sd  ed.  1878;  of  P.  X.  Rvbnikof.  vols,  i.,  ii..  Moscow, 
1861-62.  vol.  iii.  Petrozavodsk.  1863.  vol.  iv.,  St.  Peters- 
burg. 1867;  of  P.  V.  Kirveevskv.  ed.  Bezsonof.  10  parts,  2d 
ed.,  Moscow,  1868-75;  of  A.  F".  nilfenling,  St.  Petersburg, 
1873;  Vntersuchungen  uher  die  Volksepik  der  Grossrussen, 
W.  WoUner,  Leipzig,  1870;  The  Epic  Songs  of  Russia.  Isa- 
bel Florence  Hapgood.  X^ew  York,  1886.  Piesni  rus-skago 
tiaroda  (^T)ngs  of  the  Russian  People),  5  vols..  J.  P.  Saklia- 
rof.  St.  Pctersliurg,  1838-39,  and  his  Skazaniya  r.  n..  3d  ed. 
vol.  i.,  St.  Peterslnirg,  1841 ;  Kalyeki  Perekhozhie  (Wander- 
ing Psalm-singers),  2  vols.,  P.  Bezsonof,  Moscow,  1801-62; 
Russkiya  narodnyya  piesni.  P.  V.  Shein.  JIoscow.  1870. 

South  Russian  (Little  Russiafi,  Ruthenian.  White  Rus- 
sian).— Piesni  ludu  ruskiego  w  Galicyi.  %.  Pauli.  Lemberg, 
1839—10;  Piosnki  wie.iniacze  z  nail  S'iemna  i  Dzu-iny,  J. 
Czeczol,  Wilna.  1844.  184(i:  Shornik  ukrainskikh  piesen, 
JI.  A.  ]\Iaksimovic.  Kiev.  1849;  Xarodnyya  yuzhnorusski- 
ya  piesni.  A.  Mel  Husky.  Kiev,  1834;  liieiorusskiga  piesni, 
\'.  A.  Bezsonof,  JIoscow,  1871  ;  Bielorusskiya  narodnyya 
piesni,  P.  V.  Shein,  St.  Petersburg,  1874;  Tchumatzkiya 
narodnyya  piesni.  I.  Ya.  Rudtchenko,  Kiev.  1874;  "  Trudy'' 
of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  southwest  division, 
vol.  v.,  St.  Petersburg,  1874;  Jsloritcheskiya  pie.tni  malo- 
ru.f.-ikago  naroda.  V.  Ij.  Anionovitch  and  ^L  Dragomanof, 
vols.  i.  and  ii.  1.  Kiev,  1874-73:  Xarodnyya  piesni  galitzkoi 
i  ugarskoi  Rusi,  J.  P.  Golovatsky,  4  vols.,  Moscow,  1879. 
See  also  Polish,  below. 

South  Slavic  {Servian.  Croat.  Plyrian.  Slovenian). — Xa- 
rodne  -irpske  pjesnie  (Songs  of  the  Servian  People),  Vuk  St. 
Karadzic,  3d  ed.  3  vols,  Vienna.  1841-63:  Volkslieder  der 
Serlien.  Talvj  (Mrs.  Robinson).  2d  ed.  2  vols..  Leipzig.  18.53; 
Die  Gesdnge  der  Serben.  S.  Kap]ier,  2  |iarts,  Leipzig,  1852; 
Poesies  pop.  Serbes,  A.  Dozon.  Paris.  1839;  Pievaniya  tzer- 
nogorska  i  hertzegovatchka,  S.  Milntinovic.  Vienna.  1833, 
Leipzig.  1837;  Srp.tke  narodne  pjesme  iz  Bozne  i  Hertze- 
qovine.  B.  Petranovic,  Belgrad.  1867;  Srpske  narodne  pjesme, 
K.  X.  Ristic,  Belgrad.  1873;  Pesme  :  s  dndatkom  narodnih 
pesamah  puka  hdrvatskoga.  I.  Kukuljevie.  Agram,  1847; 
Xarodne  pjesme  (Croat,  Dalmatian,  Bosnian,  Servian),  L. 
Zupan,  Agrain,  1848;  Xarodne  pjesme  izdala  Matica  Dal- 
matinska.  Zara,  1865 ;  Xarodne  pjesme,  V.  Bogisie.  Bel- 
grad, 1878;  Jafke  Hi  narodne  pesme  pnka  hrvatskoga. 
F.   Kurelac,   Agram,   1871 ;    Juino-slorjen.ike   narodne  po- 


468 


BALLAD   POETRY 


BALLAST 


pievke.  Chansons  nafionales  des  Slaves  du  Sud,  P.  Kuhac, 
■4  vols.,  Agram,  1878-81;  Narodne  pfsni  ilirske  (Styria, 
Carinthia,  West  Hungary),  Stauko  Vraz  (=  Jacob  Fras), 
Agram.  1889;  Volkslieder  aiis  Krnin,  iibersetzt  von  A. 
Griin  (Count  Auersperg),  Leipzig,  18.i0 ;  Cvetje  .ilovenxkega 
naroda.  A.  Janezic,  Klagenf urt.  1852 ;  Xaiodiie  pesmi  ko- 
roskih  alnrencei'  (Carinthian).  J.  Sohfiiiigg,  Laibaoh,  1889. 

Bulgarian. — Balgarskii/a  pieisni,  P.  Bezsonof,  Moscow, 
1855;  Bidi/arfski  narodni.  pie-ini.  I),  and  K.  Miladinof, 
Agram,  1861.  "Jd  od..  Sopliia.  1891 :  Cha/isons  pop.  biih/ares 
inedite-s.  A.  Dozon.  Paris.  1875 :  Sbornik  zapadno-hotgar- 
skikh  piesen.  V.  Katchanovski.  St.  Petersburg,  1882 ;  Sbor- 
nik of  the  Bidgarian  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  Sophia, 
1889-91,  vols,  ii.,  iii.,  v. 

Polixh. — Pieini  polskie  i  ruskie  ludii  galicyjshiego  (Pol- 
ish and  Russian  people  in  Galicia),  W.  z  Oleska,  Lemberg. 
1833;  Pipsni  Iiirlii  bialo-chrobafijii;  maznrow.  i  nisi  z  nad 
Bugu  (White  Clirobatians,  Massovians.  and  Russinians  on 
the  Bug),  K.  W.  Wojeicki,  Warsaw,  1836;  Piosnki  i.i-i- 
niaczez  nad  Xiimiui.^S.  Czeczot.  Wilna.  1837;  Piesni  liidii 
pohkiego  iv  (raliegi,  Z.  Pauli,  Lemberg,  1838 ;  Piosnki  ludu 
wielkopol.-tkicgo.  .1.  J.  Lipinski,  Posen.  1843;  Pie-ini  ludu 
podhalan.  L.  Zeiszuer,  Warsaw,  1845;  Pie-ini  ludu,  polskie- 
go,  Oskar  Kolberg,  Warsaw,  18.59.  and  in  many  of  twenty 
subsequent  volumes  of  his  Lud,  1867-88,  as  also  in  his  Ma- 
zowsze,  4  vols.,  Cracow,  188.5-88,  and  Ins  Pokucie,  4  vols., 
Cracow,  1.883-89;  Piesniludn polskiego  w  Gornijm  Szla.skti 
(Silesia),  .1.  Roger,  Wroclaw,  1863;  Lud,  Pi/'.vii,  etc.',  K. 
Kozlowski.  Warsaw,  1869:.  0.  Jfazurach,  W.  Ketrzynsld. 
Posen,  1873;  Lud  okolir  Zarek.  M.  Fedorowski,  Warsaw, 
1888-89:  Z.  Pou'reici  i  Pie.ini  (jijrali  beskidoin/rli.  R.  Zawi- 
liiiski,  Warsaw,  1.889;  /rti;wrf/«(»,'Z.Wasilewski.  Warsaw,  1889. 

Boheminn,  Moravian,  SloviiJcian.  —  Slowan-ike  narod- 
ni pi-sne  (Boliemian,  Moravian,  Slovakian,  and  other).  F.  L. 
Celakowsky,  3  parts,  Prague,  1832-27  and  1839^14 ;  Ndrod- 
nie  zpiewdnkg  fili  pjsne  swetske  sloa-dku  w  Uhrdch  (Popu- 
lar Songs  of  the  Slovaks  in  Hungary),  J.  Kollar,  3  vols., 
Buda,  1834-33;  Prostondrodni  ee-ike  pisne,  etc.,  K.  J.  Erlien, 
3d  ed.  Prague,  1802-64;  Bohmische  Granalen,  Czec/i i-ielie 
Volkslieder,  M.  Waldau,  2  vols.,  Prague,  1838-60 ;  Morar- 
ske  ndrodni  pisne,  P.  Susil,  3d  ed.  Briinn,  1860;  Sbornik 
slovenski'/ch  ndrodnich  piesni,  etc.,  Matica  Slovenska,  Turc 
St.  Martin,  i.  1870,  ii.  1,  1874;  Xdrodni  pohddky  pisne,  etc., 
by  the  society  "  Slavia,"  Prague,  1873-75  (Xarodni  pisne, 
pohadky,  etc."),  1877-78;  SVove  ndrodni  pis?ie  morarske,  F. 
Bartos,  Bruun,  1883. 

Wendish. —  Volkslieder  der  Wenden  in  der  Ober-  u.  jVie- 
der-Lausitz,  L.  llaupt  and  J.  E.  Schmaler,  Grinnna.  1841- 
43 ;  Delnjoluziske  pesnje.  E.  Muka,  Bautzen,  1877 ;  Dodawk 
k  ludowym  pi^snjam,  E.  Muka,  BautZ(!n,  1883. 

General  Works. — Geschichie  der  slnrischen  Literatnren, 
von  A.  V.  Pypin  und  V.  D.  Spasovic,  i'lbertragen  von  T.  Pech, 
3  vols..  Lei]izig,  1880-84:  Historical  View  of  the  Languages 
ami  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Xatious.  etc.,  Talvj  (Mrs.  Rob- 
inson), Xi'w  York.  18.50;  Slawische  Volkslieder  (Russian,  Bo- 
hemian. Slovak,  Bulgarian).  .1.  Wenzig,  Halle,  1830;  Slaw- 
ische Bidalaika  (Russian,  Little  Russian,  Carniolan,  Polish), 
W.  V.  WaldbrUhl,  Leipzig,  184:3. 

Breton.— Barzaz-Breiz,  Chants  populaires  de  la  Bretagne, 
Th,  Hersart  de  la  Villemarqne,  Paris,  1867:  Chants  popu- 
laires de  la  Basse-Bretagne.  P.  M.  Luzel :  Gwerziou  Brciz- 
Izel,  3  vols.,  Lorient,  1868,  1874,  Soniou  Breiz-Izel,  3  vols., 
Paris,  1890;  Chansons  et  Danses  des  Bretons,  N.  Quellien, 
Paris,  1889. 

Of  non-Indo-European  races  the  more  important  collec- 
tions are ; 

Finnish. — Finnische.  Runen  (Finnish  and  German),  by 
II.  R.  von  SchnKer,  Stuttgart,  1834,  Tpsala.  1819,  .Stuttsart, 
1875;  Kanteh-tar,  E.  Lcinnrot,  2  vols.,  Hclsingfors,  1840, 
in  one  vol.,  1804;  Kalevala.  ed.  E.  Lonnrot,  llelsingfors, 
1849,  1866  (c()mj)ounded  from  jiopular  epic  songs);  Les 
Variantes  dn  halewala.  .1,  Krolni  (1st  part),  llelsingfors, 
1888.  Esthonian.  —  Flisfnische  Volkslieder,  original  and 
translation,  H.  Xeus,  Reval.  1850-.53 ;  Vana  kannel.  Voll- 
stdndige  Sauimlung  alter  e.itni.'icher  Vnlk.ilieder,  3  vols.,  J. 
Hurt,  Dor|).il,  1884-86.  Magi/ar.—Xepdalok  es  Monddk 
(Songs  au<i  Talcs),  .1.  Erdelyi,  3  vols.,  Pesth,  1846-48;  -4".?- 
gewdhlte  uugarische  Volkslieder,  translated  and  edite<l  by 
K.  M.  Kertbeny,  Darmstadt,  1851 ;  Vadruzsdk  (Wild  Roses, 
a  collection  of  Szekler  Popular  Poetry),  .J.  Kriza,  Klausen- 
burg,  1863;  Magyar  XepkOltesi  Gyujtemeny  ((Collection  of 
Magvar  Popular  Poetrv),  L.  Aranv  and  P.  Gvulai,  3  vols.. 
Pest,  1873,  1882;  h'oszoritk  (Garlaiids  from  Alf.ilil),  L.  Kiil- 
uuinv,   Arad,  1877.     Turkish. — Proben  der  Volkslilteratur 


der  turkischen  Stdmme  Sud-Siberiens,  W.  Radlof,  6  vols, 
of  text  and  6  of  translation,  St.  Petersburg,  1866-86. 

Of  comprehensive  works  and  collections  the  most  notice- 
able are;  Stimmen  der  Volker  in  Liedern.  .J.  G.  v.  Herder, 
1778,  ed.  by  J.  v.  MilUer,  Tubingen,  1807;  Tah-j  (Jlrs.  Rob- 
inson), Versuch  einer  geschichtlichen  Charakferistik  der 
Volk-'ilieder  germanischen  Xalionen,  etc..  Leipzig,  1840; 
Hanssrhatz  der  Volkspoesie,  O.  L.  B.  Wolff,  Leipzig,  1853; 
Volksdichtunyen  nord-  u.  sudeurojn'iischer  Volker  alter  u. 
neuer  Zeit,  J.  M.  Firmenich,  1867,  F.  J.  Child. 

Ballanehe,  baalhiiinsh',  Pierre  Simox  :  a  French  social 
theorist ;  b.  at  Lyons,  Aug.  4, 1776 ;  was  at  first  a  simple  print- 
er, but  soon  gave  signs  of  a  certain  strange  literary  power.  In 
1813  Mine,  fiecamier  made  Iiis  acquaintance,  and  a  deep,  as 
well  as  lasting,  friendship  began  between  the  two,  which  led 
Ballanehe  to  sell  liis  printing  business  and  remove  to  Paris. 
Here  he  at  once  attracted  attention  because  of  his  mystical 
speculations  upon  the  course  of  human  history,  and  his  pre- 
dictions of  the  speedy  coming  of  a  new  order  of  things  in 
society  and  government.  Taking  up  Bonnefs  theory  of  in- 
dividual palingenesis,  he  transferred  it  to  states,  and  brought 
it  into  the  form  of  a  system,  which  he  developed  in  the  fol- 
lowing works;  Antigone  (mia);  Essai  sur  les  Institutions 
Sociales  (1818) ;  VieiUard  et  jeune  homme  (1819) ;  L' Homme 
sans  num  (1820);  Essais  de  palingenesiesociale  (never  com- 
pleted). His  system  bears  the  name  of  "  Ballanchisme." 
See  (Euvres  de' Ballanehe  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1830;  ibid.,5  vols., 
1833):  L.  de  Lomenie,  M.  Ballanehe,  par  un  homme  de  rien 
(1841) ;  Albert  Aubert,  P.  S.  Ballanehe  (1847).  See  his  Life 
by  J.  J.  Ampere,  Paris,  1848.     D.  in  Paris,  June  19.  1847. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bal'lantiiie,  William  :  English  lawver:  b.  in  London, 
Jan.  3.  1812;  called  to  the  bar  1834;  created  sergeant  18.56; 
assisted  in  the  famous  Miiller  murder  trial,  the  Tichbome 
case,  and  the  defense  of  the  Gaikwar  of  Baroda;  said  to  fc 
have  received  a  fee  of  20,000  guineas  for  the  latter  case  to 
induce  him  to  visit  India.  Author  of  E.rperiences  of  a 
Barrister's  Life.  London  (1882) ;  Old  World  and  the  Xew 
(1884).     I),  in  .Alargate,  Jan,  9,  1887, 

Ballantine.  William  Gay  ;  Congregationalist ;  b.  at 
Washington.  I).  C,  Dec.  7. 1848 ;  graduated  at  Marietta  Col- 
lege, Oliio.  1868.  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York.  1872.  He  wa-s  professor  at  Ripon  College  (1874-76), 
at  Indiana  University  (1876-78),  and  in  Oberlin  Tlieologi- 
cal  Seminary  from  1878  to  1889,  when  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  Oberlin  (^'oUege.  He  is  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Bibliotheca  Sacra.  George  P.  Fisher. 

Ballaiityne.  Ja'ies:  b.  at  Kelso,  Scotland,  1772;  d.  in 
Edinburgh,  Jan.  17,  1833 ;  and  John,  b.  at  Kelso,  1774 ;  d. 
at  Edinburgh,  June  16,  1821  :  Sir  Walter  Scott's  printers. 
See  The  History  of  the  Ballantyne  Press  (Eiiinhurgh,lSll); 
and  Scott,  Sir  Walter. 

Bal'larat ;  an  Australian  city  and  gold-field  in  Victoria  ; 
75  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  Jlelbourne  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref. 
8-H).  The  gold  mines  of  this  place,  which  were  opened  in 
1851,  are  among  the  richest  in  tlie  colony  of  Victoria.  Sur- 
face digging  is  a  thing  of  the  past :  many  of  the  mines  are 
hundreds  of  feet  deep.  Quartz  reefs  are  also  worked,  and 
tliere  is  extensive  crushing  nuichinery  for  extracting  the 
gold.  Ballarat  is  unrivaled  in  the  fineness  of  its  gold,  which 
averages  33^  carats,  the  pure  metal  being  34  carats.  Pop. 
(1895)  45,326  (estimated). 

Bal'last  [nautical  term  common  to  most  European  lan- 
guages. Perhaps  from  Scand.  bar,  bare,  mere  -t-  last,  load]  : 
material  carried  by  a  ship  or  other  vessel  to  increase  its  sta- 
bility. Hence,  in  railroad  engineering,  material  placed  be- 
low and  around  the  cross-ties  of  a  railroad  track,  such  as 
gravel,  cinders,  furnace  slag,  or  broken  stone.  Its  otfiee  is 
to  make  a  soliil  roadway  over  which  trains  may  pass 
smootlily,  to  secure  quick  and  thorough  drainage,  and  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  dust.  On  the  best  roads  the  depth 
of  the  ballast  below  tlie  bottom  of  the  ties  is  13  inches,  and, 
as  the  spaces  arouiid  the  cross-ties  are  filled  in  level  with 
their  tops,  its  total  depth  is  16  or  17  inches.  Gravel  and 
cinders,  often  used  on  light  roads,  make  a  ballast  cheaper 
than  broken  stone,  but  it  is  liable  to  become  dusty  and  also 
to  heave  inider  the  action  of  frost.  Furnace  slag,  in  locali- 
ties where  it  can  be  had.  is  extensively  used,  and  makes  a 
verj'  snuioth  riding  track.  But  broken  stone  best  answers 
the  requiremi'iits  of  a  jierfect  ballast.  It  should  be  iniiform 
in  size,  angular,  and  each  piece  should  be  able  to  pass  in 
any  way  through  a  li-ineh  ring.      By  its  use  an  even  and 


1!.\ij,i;n.stkdt 


BALLOT   REFORM 


469 


solid  track  is  secured,  tojjethcr  with  perfect  ilniinnjie,  thus 
insuring  long  life  ti>  the  cross-ties;  it  does  ni>t  lieave  in 
winter,  can  be  worked  in  both  wet  and  dry  weather,  and  is 
free  from  dust.  Trap  and  hard  sandstone  rocks  nuike  gooil 
ballast,  and  also  some  limestones.   Ma.nsfiklu  Mkkki.max. 

Balleiistedt,  baal'l^n-stet :  town  in  the  du<hv  of  An- 
halt;  S.  E.  i>art  of  Ilarz  Jlountains.  Pop.  (18!")0)  4,7T!). 
The  ca.stle  was,  until  liiti'S.  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Anhalt-Uernburir. 

IJilUct.  Iiaallay  [Kr.,  iliniin.  of  i«/.  dance]:  a  dramatic 
or  theatrical  exhibition  of  dancing  ami  iiantumimc,  with 
music;  a  speci<'S  of  dance  usually  forming  an  interlude  in 
theatrical  performances,  but  conlined  |)rincipully  to  operas. 
The  ballet  has  some  resemblance  to  tlie  pantomimic  sacri- 
ficial dances  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  among  whom  were  dan- 
cers who  expressed  actions  and  pa.ssions  by  rhythm  applied 
to  gesture.  The  ballet  was  introduced  into  France  under 
the  auspicis  of  Catherine  de"  Medici  about  1580.  Xoverre 
about  1770  made  improvements  in  it.  to  which  ho  gave  an 
independent  dramatic  form.  The  Vestris  family  were  cele- 
brated as  performers  in  ballets.  In  re<'ent  times  the  public 
favor  is  almost  exclusively  bestowed  on  female  dancers. 
The  ballet  has  degenerated  in  many  respects  of  late  years. 

Rullia:  a  district  of  Benares  division,  Xorthwestern  Prov- 
inces, British  India.  It  is  at  the  ea.stern  extremity  of  these 
provinces,  between  tlie  (iangesand  Goggra.  Area,  1.145  scj. 
miles.     I'.ip.  about  1.(100,001). 

Itiillina' :  a  market-town  and  seaport  of  Ireland,  partly 
in  Mayo  and  partly  in  .Sligo  counties;  on  the  river  Moy;  7 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Killala  Bay, and  18  miles  N.  N. 
K.  of  Castlebar  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref.  (>-D).  The  part  of 
the  town  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Moy  is  called  Arduaree. 
IJallinu  has  nuunifactures  of  coarse  linens  and  siuid;  also 
an  active  trade  in  tish,  provisions,  etc.     Poj).  (5,000. 

lialliol :  Sie  1?ai.ioi,. 

liallis'ta.  or  Balis'ta  [Lat.| :  a  military  engine  used  be- 
fore the  inventiun  of  gunpowder  to  propel  large  stones  or 
other  heavy  missiles.  It  pmbalily  origiiuited  with  the  an- 
cient Romans,  who  used  it  in  the  siege  aiul  defen.'^e  of  for- 
tified places.  The  construction  of  the  ballista  is  not  well 
understood.  It  appears  that  the  elastic  force  with  which  a 
twisted  ropo  uncoUs  itself  was  conimoidy  used  as  the  pro- 
pelling power,  with  which  other  forces  were  perhaps  com- 
liined.  For  a  vivid  picture  of  the  effects  of  the  ballista,  see 
Lucan's  I'hatsalia,  lib,  iii.  1.  4G5  et  seq. 

Ballis'tic  (ialvaiiom'elcr:  a  galvanometer  which  meas- 
ures electrical  (plant ity  by  means  of  its  first  o.scillatmn,  in- 
stead of  measuring  electric  current  by  its  permanent  deflec- 
tion. The  term  refers  rather  to  the  method  of  using  a 
galvanonu'ter  than  to  the  tyi)e  of  instrument  employe<l,  al- 
though the  qualities  sought  for,  viz.,  a  long  period  of  oscil- 
lation and  an  undampeiieil  movement  of  the  needle,  ditfer 
from  those  essential  to  the  ordinary  galvanonuter.  See 
Hi.tXTKicnv  and  Galvaxometkk.  K.  L.  Nichols. 

Ballistic  I'en'rtiiliiiii :  an  instrument  used  to  a.sccrtain 
the  velocity  of  projectiles  ami  to  prove  the  (puility  of  gun- 
powder. In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  large  block  of 
wooil  suspended  as  a  pcndulmn  bob  at  that  point  in  the 
path  of  the  projectile  for  which  the  velocity  is  desired. 
NVhi'U  the  angle  ihrough  which  the  pendulum  swings  after 
impact  with  the  shot,  which  lodges  in  the  wooden  bob.  is 
known,  together  with  the  centei'sof  suspension  and  oscilla- 
tion of  the  nuiss,  the  velocity  of  the  shot  can  bo  determined 
by  <-alculation.  The  gun  itself  is  also  sometimes  made  a 
ballistic  peniluluni,  being  suspended,  and  its  recoil  observed. 
liut  these  contrivances  are  both  long  since  superseded  by 
various  eleclricivl  devices  for  determining  the  velocity  of 
projectiles.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Itallistics  [from  hallisld.  q.  v.]  :  that  branch  of  dynam- 
ics which  treats  of  the  circumstances  of  motion  of  projec- 
tiles from  the  instant  of  ignition  of  the  powder  charge  to 
that  at  which  the  projectile  comes  to  rest. 

It  is  divided  into  "  interior"  and  "exterior"  ballistics. 

Inlerinr  hd/hs/icn  attvm\tts  to  determine  the  intensity  of 
the  pressure  of  the  powder  gases  in  the  bore  of  the  gun.  and 
the  law  of  variation  in  this  arising  from  dilTerences  in  the 
<puintity,  composition,  density,  size  of  grain  and  density  of 
lojuling  of  the  powder,  and  the  weight  aiui  frictional  resist- 
ances of  the  projectile. 

Also  it  attempts  to  determine  the  law  of  variation  in  the 
motion  of  the  projectile  anil  its  velocity  at  any  point  of  the 


bore  of  the  gini,  uiulor  the  varying  pressure  of  (he  powder 
ga.s,  the  friction  of  theiu'ojeetile, and  the  rasistances  of  iner- 
tia arising  from  its  acceleration  in  motion  of  translation  and 
rotation.  • 

Kjcterior  ballix/irat  deijls  with  the  circumstances  of  the 
motion  of  the  projectile  between  the  instants  at  which  it 
leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  and  that  at  which  it  comes  to 
rest.  It  seeks  to  determine  the  auunint  of  and  law  of  varia- 
tion in  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  and  its  effect  in 
retarding  projectiles  of  different  weight  and  form,  moving 
with  different  velocities;  as  well  as  in  producing  "ilrifl  "  or 
lateral  deviation  in  rifled  projectiles;  and  from  the.se  ele- 
ments to  constnict  the  actual  trajectories  desi^'ibed  by  pro- 
jectiles fired  from  small  arms  ami  cannon  of  all  kinds.'  The 
physical  and  mathenuitical  discussion  of  this  subject  is  very 
complicated.     See  (iCNXEliV  and  Grxi'()wnf:K. 

Books  of  Rekf.rk.nce. — Ingall's  Interior  Ballixtici ;  In- 
gall's  Exterior  Ballistics;  Noble  and  A  bed's  E-rjieriments 
on  Fired  Gimpotvder;  Sarrau's  Researches  on  the  Effect  of 
Powder.  James  JlEiicuR. 

IJalloons;  See  Aehoxai'TIcs. 

Ballooii-flsll :  a  name  of  various  fishes  of  the  families 
Tetraodontidm,  Diodontidte,  and  TriodontidcF.  They  are 
so  named  from  the  power  which  t  hey  possess  of  inflating  their 
stomachs  with  air,  and  thus  floating,  belly  ujiward,  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  evading  pursuit. 
Many  species  are  known,  of  which  several  are  American. 
They  are  not  used  for  food.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jorpan. 

Ballot  Reform  [Ijulhit  is  from  Hal.  hallottu,  dimin.  of 
hnlhi.  Iiallj:  such  changes  in  the  vol ing  .system  as  will  best 
secure  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot,  anil  prevent  fraud  at  the 
polls  and  in  the  count.  The  earliest  and  simplest  form 
of  election  in  all  parts  of  the  world  has  diuditlcss  been 
viva  voce,  or  by  a  showing  of  hands,  as  is  now  common  in 
ordinary  public  meetings  upon  matters  of  les.ser  importance. 
It  soon  Viecomcs  evident,  however,  everywhere,  that  nniny 
persons  have  not  the  nuiral  courage  to  express  their  opinions 
independently  in  the  preseiu-e  of  others  hohling  hostile 
opinions.  Consetiuently.  as  in  ancient  (ireec<>,  in  the  case 
of  ostracism,  anil  in  modern  times  in  nearly  all  civilized 
countries  in  elections,  the  method  of  voting  by  ballot  has 
been  introduced  in  older  to  secure  secrecy,  and  thereby  in- 
dependence. The  form  of  the  ballot  at  limes  has  been  a 
ball,  a  shell,  colored  beans,  etc.,  but  the  most  common  form 
has  doubtless  been  by  written  or  printed  ticket. 

In  all  of  the  elections  in  the  U.  S.,  and  in  many  'o-oijrn 
countries,  it  has  been  the  custom  for  the  candidate,  or  liis 
])arty  managers,  to  provide  printed  slips  of  paper  containing 
the  names  of  the  candidates  to  lie  presented  to  the  votei-s. 
The  voter  then,  after  making  his  selection  among  these 
tickets,  could  fold  his  ballot  and  present  it  to  the  election 
otlicers,  or  himself  place  it  in  the  ballot-box  without  reveal- 
ing its  jnirport.  The  importance  of  the  interests  at  stake, 
however,  and  the  consequent  influence  that  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  voters,  led  in  very  many  casesto  intiniidatiim 
and  fraud,  so  that  of  late  yeais;,  especially  among  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking races,  some  method  of  reform  has  been  found 
necessary. 

Methops  of  Fravd. — The  expense  involved  in  the  print- 
ing of  tickets  by  political  parties  and  by  candidates  led  to 
the  practice  of  raising  large  sums  of  money,  ostensibly  for 
the  purpose  of  paying  these  legitimate  expenses.  The  money, 
however,  in  the  hands  of  campaign  committees  was  fre- 
quently used  for  the  purpose  of  reiiling  unnecessary  rooms, 
of  hiring  voters  at  enormous  pay,  for  erecting  campaign 
poles  for  banners,  etc.,  for  paying  voters  for  guarding  these 
poles,  and  for  other  methods  more  or  less  indirect  and  of  pur- 
chasing votes.  Perhaps  the  most  common  form  in  the  L.  S. 
has  been  that  of  hiring  ticket-jjeddlers,  that  is,  men  whose 
business  it  is  to  stand  at  the  polls  and  provide  voters  with 
tickets  of  the  various  candidates.  The  work  seems  a  legiti- 
mate one  under  the  ohl  method  of  voting,  but  it  wius  easy 
to  hire  an  unnecessarily  large  number  of  men  to  do  this 
work,  and  thus  secure  their  votes.  Another  form  of  fraud 
at  times  practiced  was  the  voting  of  tissue  ballots.  The 
ballots  were  printed  on  light  but  stiff  tissue  |iaper,  so  that 
a  large  number  of  ballots  might  be  folded  inside  of  one 
prinled  upon  ordinary  paper  without  detection.  If  they  were 
not  folded  too  closely  tile  shaking  of  the  box  or  a  twist- 
ing of  the  ballots  as  they  were  dropped  into  the  box  would 
separate  them,  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether  they 
were  pro[)erly  cast  or  not.  When,  at  the  close  of  the  polls, 
it  was  found  that  more  ballots  had  been  cast  than  there 


470 


BALLOT  REFORM 


were  votei-s  in  tlie  district,  tlie  drawing  out  of  the  surplus 
ballots  at  random  would  still  leave  tlie  advantage  very  largely 
with  the  fraudulent  voter.  The  fact  that  it  was  possible  to 
put  a  ticket  into  a  voter's  hand  and  keep  hini  in  view  until 
it  was  safely  deposited  in  the  balj^it-box  made  possible  also 
the  direct  purchase  of  votes.  In  many  cases  voters  have 
been  corrupti'd  by  the  dozen  ;  tickets  have  been  placed  in 
their  liands  which  were  lo  lie  held  in  such  position  that  a 
watcher  could  see  them,  and  the  men  then  marched  in  file 
to  the  ballot-box  under  carefid  supervision  until  each  ticket 
was  deposited,  when  they  coidd  be  taken  to  a  place  free 
from  observation  and  paid  the  reward  of  their  infamy.  In 
densely  populated  cities,  where  the  number  of  voters  at  any 
polling-place  was  large,  and  where,  consequently,  it  was  prac- 
tically impossilile  for  all  the  voters  in  any  one  precinct  to  be 
persiimdly  known  by  any  one  man.  ^'repeating"  has  been 
cnnnnoM.  A  man  might  vote  readily  in  his  own  home  dis- 
trict in  the  morning,  then  pass  from  voting  precinct  to  vot- 
ing ]ii-ecinct  in  the  same  city,  casting  a  vote  in  every  place 
with  little  danger  of  detection.  So,  too,  it  was  possible  for 
political  managers  to  bring  into  the  voting  district  men  from 
elsewhere,  not  legitimate  voters,  and  have  tlieui  cast  votes 
on  election  day. 

Reform  Measures. — To  check  these  methods  of  fraud  the 
following  methods  of  reform  have  been  introduced  in  various 
places,  with  a  large  degree  of  success. 

1.  Registration. — To  guard  against  "repeating"  and  the 
"  importation "  of  voters,  no  method  has  been  found  so 
efficient  as  that  of  a  previous  registration.  Lender  this  system 
each  voter  is  required  to  register  his  name  with  the  election 
officers  at  certain  fixed  times,  varying  from  ten  days  to  four 
weeks  before  the  election.  These  registration  lists,  when 
completely  made  up,  are  then  opened  to  the  inspection  of 
the  public :  and  agents  of  the  various  candidates,  or  other 
citizens,  looking  them  through  carefully  with  ample  leisure 
for  investigation,  have  full  opportunity 'of  detecting  and  ex- 
posing any  illegal  registration.  On  election  day  these  regis- 
tration lists  are  in  tfie  hands  of  the  election  officers,  and  no 
jierson  whose  name  does  not  appear  upon  the  list  is  per- 
iiutted  to  vote.  In  country  districts,  where  voters  have  fre- 
(juently  to  go  long  distances  in  order  to  register,  and  where 
also,  on  account  of  the  more  intimate  acquaintance  of  the 
voters  one  with  the  other,  "repeating"  or  "importation" 
of  voters  is  less  likely  to  be  snccessful,  the  system  of  regis- 
tration seems  at  times  to  work  hardship.  A  modification  of 
this  system,  introduced  in  Indiana  in  1889,  has  numy  com- 
raendalile  features.  In  rliat  State  the  law  does  not  rei[uire 
repeated  registration  of  citizens  who  reside  continuously  in 
the  same  county ;  but  registration  is  required  of  every  "per- 
son wlio  moves  into  any  county  within  six  months  preced- 
ing an  election,  and  also  of  every  person  who,  having  once 
been  a  citizen  of  that  State,  shall  have  voted  in  another 
.State,  or  shall  have  been  absent  from  the  State  for  a  period 
long  enough  to  lose  his  domicile,  unless  upon  leaving  the 
State  he  has  declared  his  intention  of  still  holding  his  citizen- 
ship and  of  returning  within  a  specified  period.  The  regis- 
tration also  is  i-equired  to 
be  made  at  a  period  (fifty- 
nine  days)  longer  than 
usual  before  an  election. 
This  modification  of  the 
system  seems  lo  guard 
again.st  fraud  as  well  as 
the  other,  and  to  work 
much  less  hardship  in  or- 
"linary  cases. 

2.  The  most  efficieid. 
safeguard  that  has  yet 
been  attempted  against 
the  oilier  methods  of 
fraud  mentioned  .seems  to 
bu  the  Australian  l)al/ot  system.  The  essential  features  of 
this  system  are  the  arrangement  and  control  of  the  polling- 
places,  the  inclosed  polling-booth,  and  the  official  ballot. 

a.  While  usage  in  different  iilaces  varies  somewhat,  it  is 
<-ustomary  for  no  elect ioncering  to  be  permitted  within  .")0 
feet  of  the  polls,  and  for  ca(-li  voter  to  approach  the  poUinq- 
plaee,  through  a  clmte  50  feet  long,  forineil  of  ropes  or'a 
light  railing.  In  the  voting-room  onlv  the  officers  of  elec- 
llim  and  from  one  to  three  voters  are 'permitted  at  a  time. 
In  this  way  the  voter  is  protected  from  the  importunities 
of  electioneering  agents  while  preparing  his  liallot. 

h.  The  booths  are  small  stalls  arranged  in  some  jiart  of  the 
voting-room,  so  that  the  voter,  while  preparing  his  ballot  in 


the  booth,  shall  be  entirely  screened  from  observation.  Each 
booth  is  provided  with  a  shelf  or  counter  at  the  proper 
height,  and  with  all  of  the  materials  necessary  for  marking 
or  otherwise  preparing  the  ballot. 

c.  The  expenses  of  preparing,  jirinting.  and  distributing  the 
official  ballots  are  all  borne  by  the  state  or  the  local  govern- 
ment, thus  removing  from  political  parties  in  good  part  the 
necessity  for  the  raising  of  large  sums  of  money  to  be  used 
as  campaign  funds.  The  system  at  its  best  permits  the  use 
of  no  ballots  except  the  official  ones ;  and  these,  prepared 
and  printed  under  the  direction  of  election  officers,  are  given 
out  only  within  the  polling-place,  one  to  each  voter  as  needed. 
It  is  a  crime  in  some  States,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment, for  any  person  to  have  an  official  ballot  in  his  pos- 
session outside  of  the  polling-place. 

The  original  and  perhaps  the  most  common  form  of  this 
ticket  in  the  U.  S.  is  that  used  in  JIassacluisetts.  There  the 
names  and  addresses  of  all  the  candidates  for  each  office  are 
arranged  in  a  column  alphabetically,  with  a  small  blank 
space  opposite  each  name.  All  the  names  for  all  the  offices 
are  thus  grouped  together  upon  one  "  blanket  ballot." 

In  the  United  Kingdom  and  Canada,  where  usually  very 
few  officers  are  voted  for  at  the  same  time,  often  only  one,  be- 
sides the  name  and  residence  of  the  candidate  appears  also 
his  business.  The  voter  designates  the  candidate  for  whom 
he  wishes  to  vote  by  placing  in  the  square  opposite  his  name 
a  small  cross  with  a  lead-pencil  or  a  rubber  stamp.  In  Mis- 
souri the  names  of  those  not  voted  for  are  to  be  erased,  leav- 
ing untouched  the  name  of  the  preferred  candidate. 

A  second  form  of  ballot  that  meets  with  more  favor  where 
party  feeling  is  strong,  and  there  is  a  large  number  of  officers 
to  be  voted  for  at  the  same  election,  is  that  used  in  Indiana 
and  other  States.  On  this  the  names  of  all  the  candidates 
representing  one  political  party  are  grouped  together  in  one 
cohiinn,  with  the  name  of  the  political  party  which  they 
represent  at  its  head,  and  in  the  small  square  in  line  with 
that  name  the  voting-mark  is  to  be  placed.  Usually  also  at 
the  head  of  the  column  will  be  placed  some  device,  readily 
recognized  by  the  illiterate  voter,  such  as  a  domestic  fowl, 
an  eagle,  or  the  like,  as  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  In 
order  to  prevent  more  effectively  the  use  of  any  but  official 
ballots,  it  is  customary  to  place  upon  the  back  of  the  ballot 
some  official  designation,  either  a  printed  device  or  the 
name  and  numlier  of  the  polling-district,  or.  more  commonly, 
the  written  initials  of  the  poll-clerks;  and  when  voted  the 
ballot  must  be  so  folded  that,  while  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates are  all  concealed,  these  initials  or  other  devices  shall 
be  on  the  outside  and  visible  to  the  inspector  of  elections. 

In  order  to  favor  the  illiterate  voter  still  more,  as  well  as 
to  avoid  the  constitutional  objections  in  the  States  providing 
for  manhood  suffrage,  some  of  the  States,  notably  !New  York, 
have  provided  that  "  paster  ballots  "  may  also  be  employed. 
These  paster  ballots  may  contain  the  names  of  any  caiidi- 
dates  for  whom  the  voter  may  desire  to  cast  his  ballot,  and 
may  be  prepared  outside  by  any  person  and  brought  by  the 
voter  into  the  poUing-place,  and  east  by  pasting  them  "upon 


the  face  of  the  official  ballot.  It  is  claimed  by  many,  with 
some  justice,  that  without  the  use  of  the  "paster  ballot" 
many  illiterate  voters  woulil  be  practic^dly  disfranchised.  In 
most  States,  however,  provision  is  made  that  any  voter,  by 
declaring  his  inability  to  reail,  or  such  physical  disability 
that  he  can  not  jireparc  his  ballot,  may  be  accompanied  to 
the  booth  by  the  election  otrieers,  who  wiU  give  him  needed 
assistance. 

For  the  success  of  this  system,  as  well  as  of  a  careful 
registration  system,  it  is  desirable  that  the  election  precincts 
be  made  small,  so  that  the  number  of  voters  in  each  shall 
not  be  more  than  two  or  three  hundred,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  readily  known,  and  may  all  vote  in  one  day  without 


BALLOT  REFORM 


471 


D  ■ 

w 

,D- 

E 

\s 

w 

w 

nndiio  haste.    The  accompanyiiifrdia^nuii  A  will  make  clear 
the  method  of  voting  muler  the  Australian  election  system. 
Tlie  voter  enters  the  chute  E,  E.     Challengers,  represent- 
ing the  hailing  political  parties,  standing  outside  of  the  poll- 
ing-place by  the 

£^  window  C,  may 

i  challenge        his 

vote  if  there  is 
question  as  to 
his  being  a  legal 
voter.  A  judge 
of  election,  from 
the  inside,  at 
the  window,  may 
a<lniinisler  the 
Ijroper  oat  h  to 
test  this  (juos- 
tion.  Passing  the 
challengers,  he 
enters  the  door 
I),  and  receives 
from  one  of  the 
poll-clerks  at  the 

table  A  his  offi- 

DiAGRAM    A.  —  A.    Table    for    election    board.  ,.:.,i    u.^ji^*.    .i,.,i 

B.  B.  B.  Booths  where  ballots  are  marked.  I'j"    """Oi    'H"' 

C.  Challenge  window.  D.Door.  E.  E.  Chute  whatever  ex- 
through  which  the  voter  must  enter.  F.  Hail-  i)lanations  he 
ing  separating  the  election  board  from  tlie  -i.i.;;wic  x,.iib  f^f 
voters.    W,  W.  Windows.  iicsirts  wnn  rei- 

erence  to  the 
metlioil  of  voting.  Entering  then  one  of  the  booths,  he  pre- 
pares liis  ballot,  screened  from  observation,  and.  foldmg  it  so 
that  no  one  of  the  names  on  the  ballot  can  be  seen,  he  goes 
out  of  the  booth,  hands  the  ballot  to  the  inspector,  who  places 
it,  in  his  presence,  in  the  ballot-box.  He  then  withdraws 
immediately  from  the  room,  and  gives  place  to  another  voter. 

The  JIt/ers  Americnn  bnllot-machine  offers,  probably,  the 
most  effective  wjiy  of  insuring  absolute  secrecy  of  the  ballot, 
with  the  additional  advantage  (no  slight  one)  of  readiness  of 
counting.  This  liallot-machine  consists  of  a  cabinet  some 
7  feet  higli  and  .J  feet  in  width  and  depth.  It  is  simply  a 
light  iron  frame  covered  with  heavy  sheet  iron,  divided 
by  a  steel  |)arlition  into  a  voter's  compartment,  4  feet  by 
.1  feet  in  size,  and  a  counter  compartment,  1  foot  by  5 
feet,  in  which  are  lever  ineehanical  counters.  The  voter 
enters  his  compartment,  and  a  door  is  closed  after  him,  leav- 
ing him  entirely  alone.  In  the  eomiJartment  are  vertical 
rows  or  columns,  6  inches  apart,  of  "  ballot-pushers,"  nick- 
el-plated knobs  standing  out  ;!  inches  from  the  partition. 
To  the  left  of  ea<-h  column  of  knobs  are  the  permanent  bal- 
lots of  each  particular  party,  containing  in  large  print  the 
name  of  the  cantlidatcs  anil  the  name  of  the  office  for  which 
each  is  intcMided  to  be  chosen,  and  nothing  else  but  a  large 
index  hand  pointing  to  the  proper  knob.  These  ballots  are 
arrangeil  in  the  most  convenient  manner,  with  the  most  im- 
jiorlant  ollicc  at  the  toj).  A  man  votes  for  any  candidate 
whom  he  prefers  by  pushing  inward  for  3  inches  thi^  knob 
opposite  his  name.  This  act  counts  one  for  this  candidate 
upon  the  lii<hlen  dial  in  the  counter  compartment,  and  at 
the  same  time  h)(^ks  out  .ill  other  push-knobs  of  the  other 
candidates  for  the  same  office.  By  pushing  in  these  ballot 
knolis,  in  a  few  seconds  a  man  may  vote  either  a  straight  or 
a  split  ticket  without  possibility  of  mistake,  and  his  votes 
are  at  the  same  time  counted  upon  the  unseen  dials.  .Vfter 
voting  he  goes  out  through  the  exit  door,  the  closing  of 
which  returns  the  knobs  ready  for  the  next  voter. 

As  there  are  models  of  the  keyboard  of  the  nnichine  placed 
in  different  situations  about  the  polling-place,  that  may  be 
studied  before  one  enters  the  cabinet,  an  illiterate  voter  by 
counting  the  knolis,  and  even  a  blind  voter  by  a  .sense  of 
touch,  may  vote,  it  is  claimed,  with  perfect  accuracy  without 
assistance.  Immediately  after  the  closi^  of  the  election  the 
eoiintcr  compartment  is  unlocked  by  the  inspectors  of  elec- 
tion, and  they  find  the  totals  already  recorded  upon  the  dial 
opposite  each  candidate's  name,  so  that  within  three  minutes 
after  the  polls  close  the  entire  result  is  known,  and  there 
can  be  no  error  in  the  count.  The  machine  is  durable,  cheap, 
nuiy  l«  used  more  rapidly  than  the  present  system,  seems 
to  be  absolutely  secret,  and  does  its  own  counting.  It  has 
been  tested  in  many  places  and  seems  to  meet  all  the  require- 
ments for  voting.  The  accompanying  diagrams  (B  and  C) 
show  a  section  of  the  keyboard  and  of  the  concealed  coun- 
ter compartment. 

These  ballot-reform  laws  already  described  have  doubtless 
done  much  to  prevent  corruption  of  the  voters,  but  none  of 


them  have  proved  entirely  efficient.  For  the  nuvn  who  lacks 
the  moral  courage  to  vote  as  he  wills  in  the  presence  of 
others,  or  who  is  likely  to  be  terrorized  by  an  employer  or 
other  person  to  whom  he  is  under  obligations,  the  Australian 


DlAGKAU   B. 


ballot  or  the  Myers  machine  gives  perfect  security.  But 
many  voters  who  are  willing  to  sell  their  votes,  even  though 
they  can  not  be  followed  to  the  polls  by  the  briber,  have 


Diagram  C. 

still  honor  enough  left  to  cast  their  vote  as  they  have 
agreed.  So.  too.  at  times,  when  election  inspectors  are  not 
unwilling  to  tolerate  corruption,  the  laws  are  in  good  part 
practically  set  aside  by  their  lax  enforcement  by  the  election 
officers.  Various  devices  to  cheat  the  election  officers  have 
also  been  discovered  in  different  places ;  but,  on  the  whole, 
the  Australian  system  has  been  very  efficient,  and  ha.s  doubt- 
less reduced  vote-buying  to  a  very  great  extent.  The  system 
is  in  use  in  all  Austi-ahisia,  where  it  was  first  used.  Canada 
and  all  the  States  of  the  U.  S.  but  fifteen  have  adopted  some 
modification  of  the  system,  while  in  Europe  Belgium,  Italy, 
Gi-eece,  Norway,  Great  Britain,  and  Luxembourg  have  simi- 
lar systems. 

No  ballot  reform,  however,  is  complete  that  deals  only 
with  the  casting  of  the  ballot.  The  method  of  making  nom- 
inations (see  Primary  Elections)  must  also  be  controlled, 
and  efficient  laws  must  be  provided  for  inflicting  .severe 
penalties  upon  those  violating  election  laws.  The  most  effi- 
cient form  of  a  Corrupt  Practices  Act  is  perhaps  found  in 
Great  Britain. 

Corrupt  Practices  Acts. — The  first  act  for  the  prevention 
of  corrupt  practices  in  elections  in  the  United  Kingdom  was 
passed  in  1854,  and  this  h,is  since  then  been  supplemented  bv 
othei-s  in  185S,  18(5;!.  1882,  and  1883.  These  acts  give  in  the 
first  place  a  very  completi;  and  thorough  definition  of  brib- 
ery, both  for  the  giver  snid  the  receiver,  of  treating,  and  of 
uiiduc  influence  over  voters.  The  law  limits  strictly  the 
amount  of  money  that  may  be  expended  at  any  election  by 
any  candidate,  or  by  an  agent  in  his  behalf.  It  forbids  the 
expenditure  of  money  for  many  purjioses  that  are  common 
in  otlier  places ;  such  as  for  the  conveyance  of  electors  to  or 
from  the  polls  by  the  liiring  of  horses  or  carriages,  or  pay- 


472 


BALLOr 


BAIJ/S   BLUFF 


ment  of  railway  fares  or  olherwiso.  or  for  the  use  of  com- 
mittee-rooms or  other  buildings  or  premises  beyond  a  certain 
fixed  number,  or  for  any  entertainment  (beyond  a  cei'tain 
fixed  amount  for  speakers  and  others),  or  for  bands  of  music, 
torches,  flags,  badges,  rililjons,  etc.,  or  for  the  emiiloyment 
of  more  tlian  a  designated  number  of  agents  and  sub-agents 
for  electioneering  purposes.  After  the  election  an  itemized 
statement  of  all  the  expenditures  incurred  on  his  account  is 
to  be  made  by  the  candidate  and  his  agent  under  oath,  and 
the  further  tieclaration  that  no  expenses  have  been  made 
contrary  to  the  law  or  for  purposes  of  bribery,  direct  or  indi- 
rect. These  reports  must  be  public.  "If  it  is  found  that 
a  corrupt  practice  has  been  permitted  with  the  knowledge 
and  consent  of  the  candidate,  he  is  forever  disqualified 
from  holding  office  and  is  deprived  of  his  franchise  as  an 
elector.  If  sucli  corrupt  practice  is  found  to  liave  occurred 
by  the  act  of  the  agent,  with  or  without  the  candidate's 
knowledge  and  consent,  the  candidate  huuself  is  disqualified 
from  serving  during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  and 
can  neither  hold  otfiee  nor  act  as  an  elector  for  seven  yeare. 
Similar  penalties  are  inqiosed  on  agents  and  sub-agents 
found  guilty.  These  penalties  ai-e  all  in  addition  to  penal- 
ties of  fines  and  imprisonment  for  conviction  on  an  indict- 
ment of  bribery,  undue  influence,  treating,  illegal  payments, 
or  other  corrupt  practices." 

Any  unsuccessful  candidate,  if  he  has  reason  to  believe 
that  his  successful  opponent  has  employed  corrupt  practices 
of  any  kind,  may  by  petition  have  a  scrutiny,  and,  if  he  can 
]irove  his  charge,  may  unseat  his  o|iponent  and  take  the  seat 
himself,  unless  it  can  be  proved  that  he  also  has  been  guilty 
of  corrupt  practices,  in  which  ease  a  new  election  nmst  be 
held.  These  acts  in  connection  with  the  secret  ballot  have 
resulted  in  almost  entirely  suppressing  corruption  in  elec- 
tions in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Canada,  and  have 
gi'eatly  decreased  it  wherever  introduced.  Similar  ac-ts.  more 
or  less  complete,  some  covering  only  the  expenses  of  the 
candidate,  which  may  be  evaded  by  giving  a  large  sum  to 
an  irresponsible  committee,  othei-s  covering  also  the  work 
fif  committees,  have  been  passed  in  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  Minnesota,  and  other  States.  It  is  too  soon  yet  to 
see  the  full  effect  here,  but  it  will  doubtless  be  good. 

Authorities. — John  H.  Wigmorc.  The  AustraJian  Ballot 
System  (Boston,  1889),  and  the  statutes  of  the  States  men- 
tioned above.  Jeremiah  W.  Jexks. 

Ballon',  Hosea:  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Univei-salist 
denomination  in  the  U.  S. :  b.  at  Kichmond.  X.  II.,  Apr. 
iJO,  ITTl.  His  early  education  was  acquired  liy  his  own 
efforts,  though  he  had  to  contend  with  unusual  ol)stacles. 
He  began  to  preach  when  about  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
and  labored  in  various  places  in  New  England.  In  1807 
he  settled  in  Portsmouth,  X.  II..  in  1815  in  Salem,  Mass.. 
and  in  1817  in  Boston.  In  1819  he  became  editor  of  the 
Unii'prsalist  Magazine,  and  in  18:^1-33  was  connected  with 
the  Exjmxitor.  He  was  a  radical  reformer  of  the  Universal- 
ist  theology,  which,  as  shaped  by  Jlnrray,  the  founder  of 
Universalism  in  America,  had  been  Calvinistie  in  its  doc- 
trines, with  the  exception  that  all  were,  as  he  thoiiglit,  elect 
and  consequently  all  saved.  Ballon  rejected  t'alvinisiu  en- 
tirely, and  the  orthodox  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  anil  Atone- 
ment by  the  vicarious  sacrifice  of  Christ.  He  did  this  sev- 
eral years  before  it  w-as  done,  at  least  openly,  liy  the  New 
England  Unitarians.  D.  in  Boston.  June  7,  i8.Vi.  Among 
his  works  are  JS'uti-s  on  llw  Parahles  (1804),  and  an  Exam- 
ination of  the  Dortrini-  of  a  Future  lielributiim  (1846) ;  also, 
with  a  friend,  a  book  of  Universalist  hymns,  now  very  rare, 
remarkable  for  its  lack  of  poetic  merit.  See  his  Life,  by 
M.  JI.  Ballon;  another  by  T.  Whittemore  (1854),  anil  one 
by  0,  P.  Safford  (1889).     Revised  by  Jonx  W.  Chadwick. 

Ballon,  IIosEA,  D.  D.:  b.  at  Halifax,  Vt„  Oct.  18,  1706. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  the  foregoing.  He  entered  the  Univer- 
salist ministry  in  his  youlli.and  preached  at  Stafford,  Conn., 
and  lioxbury  and  Med  ford,  3Iass.  In  18'32  became  anedi- 
tor  of  the  Unirersalint  JIagazine,  and  was  long  connected 
with  various  joumals  of  his  denomination.  He  displayed 
much  ability  as  editor  of  the  UnirersalisI  Quarteili/.  He 
was  (1854-61)  the  first  president  of  Tufts  College.  lie  pub- 
lished Ancient  IIi)<tonj  of  Uniivmalism  (1829)  and  a  hvmn- 
book(1837).     D.  atSomerville,  Mas.s.,  May  27,  1861. 

Kevised  by  John  W.  Chadwick. 

Ballon,  JIaturin-  Mi-rray:  journalist :  sou  of  Kev.  Hosea 
l?allou:  b.  in  Boslon.  .Mass..  Apr.  14.  1820:  has  edited  Bal- 
lou's  Pictorial,  The  Flag  of  our  Viiion,  Ballou's  Monthly, 
and  other  periodicals;  and'lias  published  a  History  of  Cuba 


(1854),  Biography  of  Hosea  Ballon,  Life-u'ork  of  Hosea 
Balluu,  and  a  valuable  compilation  of  quotations  from  a 
great  number  of  writers.  He  became  in  1872  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  editor-in-chief  of  the  Boston  Olole.  D. 
in  Cairo,  Egypt,  Jlar.  27,  1895.  Author  of  Due  South;  or, 
Cuba,  Past  and  Present  (1885) ;  Due  North  (1887),  etc. 

Ball's  Bltlff :  Loudon  co.,  Va. ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  about  38  miles  N.  W.  of  Washington.  The  bank 
here  rises  about  150  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  It 
was  the  scene  of  a  disa.strous  defeat  of  the  U.  S.  forces  un- 
der Col.  E.  D.  Baker.  Oct.  21,  1861.  The  hostile  forces  of 
the  Kortli  and  So\ith  liad  for  .several  months  confronted 
each  other  on  opposite  banks  of  the  Potomac.  On  Oct. 
19  and  20  reconnoissances  were  made  in  the  direction  of 
Dranesville  and  Leesburg  by  the  Federal  forces  under  Gen. 
McCall,  without  encountering  any  opposition.  Gen.  Mc- 
Clellan  being  anxious  to  ascertain  the  strength  of  the 
Confederates  in  these  positions,  on  Oct.  20  (10:30  p.m.) 
instructions  were  sent  to  Gen.  .Stone  at  Poolesville,  Md., 
directing  liim  to  keep  a  good  lookout  on  Leesburg,  to 
note  the  effect  of  this  movement,  and  adding  that  "per- 
haps a  slight  demonstration  on  your  (Stone's)  part  might 
have  the  effect  to  move  them."  Accordingly,  Gen.  Stone 
ordered  the  Fifteenth  Massachusetts,  Col.  Devens,  to  be 
nn)ved  to  Harrison's  island  in  the  Potomac,  opposite  the 
bluff,  and  about  100  yards  distant  from  the  Virginia  shore; 
which  wiis  promptly  effected  in  flatboats.  At  dark  Devens 
sent  a  detachment  of  fifteen  men  under  Capt.  Philbrick  to 
the  Vii'ginia  shore  to  ascertain  the  wliereabouts  of  the  Con- 
federates. After  ascending  the  bluff  they  had  proceeded 
but  a  short  distance  when  they  discovered  what  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  camp,  apijarently  but  poorly  guarded,  which 
situation  Philbrick  reported  to  Col.  Devens  on  his  return. 
Devens  forwarded  tliis  report  to  Gen.  Stone,  who  immedi- 
ately issueil  an  order  directing  Col.  Devens  to  land  with 
five  companies  of  his  regiment  and  proceed  to  surprise  the 
discovered  camp  at  daybreak,  and.  after  having  accomplished 
this,  to  pursue  as  far  as  he  deemed  prudent,  destroy  the 
camp,  and  return  to  his  position  on  the  island,  uidess  he 
saw  a  favorable  position  on  the  Virginia  side  which  he  coxdd 
hold  until  re-enforced.  At  the  same  time  Col.  Lee  (Twen- 
tieth Jl  a.ssachusetts)  was  ordered  to  occupy  Harrison's  island 
with  liis  regiment,  and  to  throw  one  compiany  across  to  the 
heights  on  the  Virginia  shore  to  cover  Col.  Devens's  return. 
These  orders  were  carried  into  effect,  and  at  daylight  Devens 
advanced  only  to  fiiul  the  reported  camp  to  be,  in  fact,  no 
camp,  the  detachment  of  the  night  before  having  been  de- 
ceived in  the  moonlight,  and  mistaken  the  openings  between 
the  trees  for  tents.  Col.  Devens.  however,  advanced  to  with- 
in a  mile  of  Leesburg.  wliere  he  halted  and.  concealing  his 
force  in  the  woods,  reported  to  Gen.  Stone  that  he  had  met 
with  no  opposition,  and  asked  for  fm'ther  orders.  About 
7  A.  >i.  a  body  of  Confederates  appeared,  but  retired  when 
approached,  and  cavalry  were  also  seen  on  the  Leesburg 
road :  whereupon  Col.  Devens  fell  back  to  the  bluff  without 
interference,  and  re|iorteil  to  Gen.  Stone,  who  directed  him 
to  remain,  and  that  he  would  be  re-enforced.  At  this  time 
his  force  ol'  olficci-s  and  men  was  aliout  650.  The  position 
he  had  taken  up  was  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  woods, 
and  here  about  noon  he  was  attacked  and  fell  back  to  a 
more  secure  position:  being  again  attacked,  he  retired  still 
farther,  to  the  edge  of  the  bluff,  where  he  was  re-enforced 
by  Col.  Bilker  with  his  regiment  of  First  California  Volun- 
teers, and  who  by  seniority  of  rank  took  connnand.  Col. 
Baker's  instructions  were  discretionary  whether  to  remain 
or  withdraw,  but  on  finding  an  attack  already  commenced 
he  decided  to  remain.  The  force  at  his  command  amounted 
to  about  1.900  men  ;  the  Confederate  force  in  the  woods  was 
reported  at  1.700.  not  including,  however,  a  regiment  of 
Jlississippi  volunteers  so  stationed  as  to  ])revent  succor  to 
Col.  Baker  from  Edwards's  Ferry.  Col.  Baker  had  no  more 
than  disposed  his  men  in  line  when  he  received  a  vigorous 
attack  on  his  right.  e.\tending  soon  to  his  left  and  center. 
For  two  hours  a  ilesperate  conflict  was  niaintaincd,  the 
Federals  from  their  exjiosed  position  suffei'ing  by  far  the 
heaviest  lo.ss.  Col.  Baker,  who  displayed  the  greatest  brav- 
ery, was  killed  about  five  o'clock,  an<l  the  command  de- 
volved ujion  Col.  Cogswell  (New  York  Tammany  Regiment). 
The  severe  fire  to  which  the  Federal  troops  had  licen  sub- 
jected, and  the  fearful  loss  they  had  sustained,  caused  them 
to  waver,  and  the  oidy  hope  that  apjieared  to  be  left  was  to 
endeavor  to  join  Gen.  Stone,  who  was  known  to  have  a  strong 
force  at  Edwards's  Ferry,  about  2   miles  away;  but  this 


HALI.STOX  SPA 


BALTIC 


movement  was  met  by  a  body  of  fresh  Mississippi  infantry, 
anil  under  tlieir  attack  the  disheartened  antl  ri'duced  troops 
were  rmited,  and.  tlyini;  in  jcreat  disoriler  down  the  blutf, 
were  siil)jected  to  a  gallinj:  fire  from  ail  direetions.  The 
boats  to  whicli  tliey  ilcil  were  upset  or  suiilc  by  the  Confed- 
erates' fire,  and  the  few  tliat  escaped  eitlier  swam  out  into 
the  stream  or  concealed  themselves  alon^  the  banks  of  the 
river,  reaehins  the  Federal  lines  under  cover  of  tlie  dark- 
ness. In  the  Mu^antime.  Oen.  Stone  had  ordered  an  advance 
across  I'Mwards's  l<"ei'ry  to  thi'ir  a.ssistance.  but  as  they  did 
not  arrive  on  the  fielil.  they  furnished  no  aid.  The  Federal 
loss  in  killed,  drowned,  and  wounded  exceeded,  probably, 
1.000  men;  Gen.  Kvans,  in  command  of  the  Confederate 
forces,  reported  his  loss  at  loo.  Much  blame  was  attached 
to  Col.  Baker  for  recklessness,  and  Gen.  Stone  was  subse- 
(pientlv  arresteil  and  confined  in  Fort  La  Fayette  in  New- 
York  llarbor.  but  was  afterward  discharged,  and  at  a  later 
perind  ai.'ain  jriviTi  a  connnand. 

Itiillston  Spa.  sometimes  called  sim|>ly  Ballstoii :  a  vil- 
lajre  oil  l)i-l.  and  IL  Canal  Co.  K.  \\..  capital  of  Saratoga  co., 
X.  \'.  (fur  location  of  county,  see  map  i>r  .\ew  York,  ref.  4-,!) : 
0  miles  S.  \V.  of  Saratoga  Si)rings.  Here  are  mineral  springs, 
which  rise  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Hudson  river  (Silu- 
rian) shales,  an<l  rank  among  the  best  acidulous  chalybeate 
springs  in  the  V.  S.  The  village  has  several  mainil'aclones, 
including  axe  and  .scythe  works,  innnense  pulp  and  paper 
mills,  and  one  of  the  largest  tanneries  in  the  world;  five 
churi-hes,  and  irraded  sehool-svstem  with  hi^di  school.  Pop. 
(IHTO)  a.DTO;  (1880)  :i,011  ;  (1800)  8,.T-i;;  (1802)  including 
suburbs,  estimated,  4,850.  Editok  "  Daily  \i;ws." 

Bally ;  See  Bai.i. 

Bally  [from  Gael.  J« (7c  Manx,  halleij.  town]:  a  prefix 
signifying  "town,"  entering  into  the  compositum  of  the 
nanus  nf  a  great  number  of  places  in  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

Ballyilio'lia:  a  nuirket-town  of  Irelaml;  in  the  county 
of  Antrim  :  on  the  river  Braid,  2  miles  above  its  jiniction 
with  the  Maine  and  ;i3  miles  liy  rail  N.  N.  W.  of  Belfast 
(.see  map  of  Ireland,  rel'.  4-1).  It  has  large  public  .schools, 
acotton-s]iiiniing  mill,  and  extensive  lilea<:hing-grounils.  and 
is  one  of  the  greatest  linen  and  tlax  markets  in  Ireland. 
Pop.  0,0110. 

Ballysliail'non  ;  a  seaport-town  of  Ireland  ;  in  the  comity 
of  I)<>ni";;al:  on  the  river  Krue  at  its  entrance  into  Donegal 
Bay;  120  niil.-s  N.  \V.  of  Dublin  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref. 
4-F).  A  bridge  of  fourteen  arches  here  crosses  the  Erne. 
It  has  six  chiu'ches  and  chapels.  Here  is  a  valuable  sahuou- 
lishcry  in  the  Krue.     Pop.  8,000. 

Balm  (.l/r/('.s''.ST(  officinalis):  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant 
of  the  family  Lubiiitte  ;  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  ;  is 
cultivated  in  American  gardens,  and  prized  for  its  lemon- 
scented  leaves.  The  leaves,  which  luv  ovate  an<l  crenafe. 
and  the  stem  are  occasiomiUy  used  in  UK'dicine  as  a.  gentle 
aromatic,  stinudant,  and  tonic.  Its  [iroperties  depend  on  an 
essential  oil  called  oil  of  balm.  An  infusion  of  balm  is  an 
excellent  beverage  in  felirile  diseases. 

Balniaceda.  ba'd-maa-thay'da,  .losi';  iMaxukl:  president 
of  Chili;  b.  in  Santiago,  1840;  committed  suicide  in  the 
Argentine  legation  house  there,  Sept.  1!),  1801.  Educated 
for  the  priesthood;  founded  Reform  Club  (18G8);  deputy 
and  senator  in  Chilian  Congress;  minister  to  Buenos  Ayres; 
Minister  of  Interior  (1882);  president  (188())  for  live  years. 
In  1800  he  began  intrigues  to  place  one  of  his  creatm'es  in 
olTice  as  his  successor;  appointed  an  unpopular  cabinet, 
prorogued  t'ongrcss,  and  set  on  foot  fictitious  revolts  in  Val- 
paraiso, which  tu'oke  out  in  June.  A  junta  was  formeil  in 
Congress  an<l  the  navy,  which  denounee<l  Balmaceda,  seized 
the  best-armed  vessels  and  the  nitrate  provinces,  and  inarched 
south,  beating  the  president  ial  forces  as  they  advanced,  unt  il 
they  appeared  before  Santiago,  Aug.  27,  1801.  The  presi- 
dent fled,  but  returned  to  refugi>  with  the  Argentine  luiius- 
ter.  lie  was  succeeded  liy  Admiral  Jorge  Montt,  provision- 
ally at  first,  by  election  N'ov.  6,  1801. 

Balm^S,  Javme  Lvcio;  a  Spanish  Catholic  priest  ;  b.  at 
Vich,  in  Catalonia,  Aug.  28,  1810.  lie  was  a  remarkably 
^  precocious  Scholar.  He  wrote  in  reply  to  Guizot  an  able 
work  entitled  Prntestanfism  Comparid  with  Catholii-iitm  in 
itx  Jield/ion.i  to  Europeon  Ciri/ization  (3  vols.,  1848).  which 
was  translated  into  English.  French,  Italian,  and  (ierman. 
.\mong  his  other  works  is  Filoxofin  Pinirlami'iilii!,  which 
was  translated  into  English  bv  II.  F.  Brownson  (Xew  York. 
1857).  D.  at  Vich.  July  0.  1848.  See  Antonio  Soler,  Jiin- 
ijmjia  de  D.  J.  Balmes  (1850) ;  Garcia  de  los  Santos,  Vida 


de  Balmi'x  (1848);  A.  de  Blanehe-Raffin,  J.  Balmes,  sa  Vie 
et  ses  OuvraijeK  (1840). 

Balm  of  (lilcad  :  either  of  several  quite  distinct  plants. 
In  Great  Britain  it  is  a  small  shrub  {Cedronella  trij>htjlla)  of 
the  mint  family,  and  native  of  Canary  islands.  In  the 
U.  S.  it  is  a  species  of  poplar  (PojyuUia  txdsamifera,  var. 
candicans).  In  Arabia  the  bakn  of  gilead  is  Commiphora 
onohulsnmum,  var.  gileadeiisii,  a  small  tree  of  the  family 
Burseracea:  Charles  E.  Bi'.ssey. 

Balmor'al  Castle ;  the  autumnal  residence  of  Queen 
Victoria;  is  in  a  beautiful  valley  in  Aberdeenshire,  .Scot- 
land, on  the  river  Dee,  48  miles  \V.  S.  W.  of  Aberdeen.  It 
commands  a  magnificent  prospect,  and  comprises  40,000 
acres  <n  lieautiful  groinids.  Prince  Albert  (lurchased  this 
estate  in  1852  for  .€;!2,000,  and  erected  a  granite  castle  in 
the  Scottisli  baronial  style.  It  consists  of  two  blocks  of 
Iniildings  united  by  wings,  and  a  massive  tower  35  feet 
square,  rising  to  the  height  of  80  feet,  and  surmounted  by  a 
turret  20  feet  high. 

BalnavVs,  IIlxrv.  of  Halhill :  an  eminent  Scottish  re- 
formei-  and  writer;  b.  at  Kirkcaldy  in  Piteshire  about  1520. 
He  studied  law.  and  became  Secretary  of  Stale  in  1540.  In 
1546  he.  with  other  Protestants,  took  refuge  in  the  ea.stle  of 
St.  Andrews,  and  was  declared  a  traitor.  The  castle  was 
captured  by  the  French,  who  took  him,  with  Knox,  to  Rouen 
as  prisoners.  While  in  ]irisf)n  he  wrote  a  Confession  of 
Faith.  He  refurneil  to  Scotland  in  1530.  ]».  in  Edinburgh, 
1570. 

Balsam  {fmpaficns  balsamina)  [Lat.  laJ'samiim,  from 
Gr.  |3oAo-a;uov;  of  Semitic  origin] :  a  well-known  herbaceous 
annual  belonging  to  the  geranium  family,  and  closely  re- 
lated to  the  touch-me-not.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  has 
been  cultivated  in  European  gardens  for  300  years.  It  hiis 
developed  many  varieties.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Balsam,  Canada:  the  thick,  terebinthine  sap  of  Abies 
batsamea,  which  collects  in  blisters  beneath  the  epidermis 
of  the  trunks  of  young  trees.  These  blisters  are  punctured, 
and  the  lialsam  gathered  as  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is 
used  in  medicines,  tor  varnishes,  for  mounting  microscopic 
objects,  etc.  Abies  grandis  of  the  west  coast  of  North 
America  furnishes  a  similar  fluid. 

Balsam  Fir;  See  Abies. 

Balta,  l>aalta  ;  a  well-built  town  of  Russian  Poland  ;  in 
Podolia;  on  the  Kodenia  river;  132  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Kam- 
ieniee  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  9-C).  It  has  over  twenty  fac- 
tories of  candles,  soap,  etc.,  and  has  an  extensive  trade  in 
cattle,  horses,  hides,  wool,  and  grain.     Pop.  (1888)  32.083. 

Balli,  baaltee,  Baltistaii,  ba'al-tw-staan',  or  Little 
Tibet  :  the  upper  end  of  the  Indus  valley,  subject  to  Kash- 
mir; having  Chinese  Tartary  on  the  N.,  Afghanistan  on  the 
W.,  and  Kashmir  on  the  S.,  between  lat.  34"  30'  and  36°  N., 
and  Ion.  74  40  and  76  30  E.  The  inhabitants  are  Shiite 
.Mohammedans  of  Tibetan  origin.  The  climate  has  greater 
extremes  than  that  of  Kashmir;  the  soil  im)duces  grains 
and  fruits  in  abundance.  Chief  town,  Iskardi.  Area,  10,000 
sq.  miU'S. 

Bal'tic.  or  Baltie  Sea  (in  Germ.  Ostsee;  New  Lat.  Mare 
Balticum  and  Sinus  Coda  nits):  an  inland  sea  or  gulf  of 
Northern  Europe;  situated  between  Hussia,  Sweden,  Ger- 
many, and  Denmark,  and  connecting  with  the  German 
Ocean  and  the  Cattegal  bv  the  Sound  and  the  Great  and 
Little  Belts.  It  is  830  miles  long,  lis  greatest  width  is 
420  miles,  and  the  area  154,570  sip  miles.  On  account  of 
the  small  propm-tion  of  salt  it  contains  (not  over  2  per  cent.), 
the  Baltic-  freezes  much  more  easily  and  early  than  the 
ocean.  It  is  not  alTecte(l  by  the  tide.  The  numerous  sand- 
banks and  islands,  and  the  violent  storms  with  sudden 
changes  of  wind,  render  the  navigation  of  the  Baltic  dan- 
gerous. It  reci'ives  sevend  large  rivers — namely,  the  Oder, 
Vist ula.  N  iemen,  Diiua,  Niirva.  Neva,  Tornea,  Dal,  etc.  No  sea 
has  iu  pro|iorlion  to  its  size  so  groat  an  influx  of  fresh  water. 
The  chii-f  ports  are  St.  Petersburg,  Riga.  Daiitzig,  Slralsund, 
Kiinigsberg,  Stockholm,  and  Copenhagen.  A  remarkable 
phenomenon  connected  with  this  sea  is  the  slow  and  grailual 
rising  of  its  shore  in  Sweden.  A  ship-canal  connecting  the 
Bait  ic  Sea  and  the  N'orl  hSea  I  hrough  the  river  Elbe  was  begun 
in  1801 ;  opened  tor  trallic  June  2(i,  1805.  It  liegins  at  Ilolle- 
nau  on  Kiel  Bavand  reaches  the  Elbe  15  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  latter,    "it  is  61-31  miles  long  and  needs  no  locks. 

By  some  the  word  "  Baltic ''  is  derived  from  Ijith.  haltas, 
white,  balti,  be  while;  bv  others  from  the  same  source  as 


474 


BALTIC  LANGUAGES 


BALTIMORE 


Lilt,  baltetis,  Eng.  heU.  According  to  an  ancient  tradition 
wliicii  lias  come  down  to  us  tlirough  Pliny,  Baltia  was  the 
name  of  a  great  island  situated  at  a  distance  of  three  days' 
sail  from  the  coast  of  Scj-thia.  This  term  is  not  found 
either  in  German  or  in  any  of  the  Scandinavian  languages; 
the  lialtic  is  there  invariably  called  the  "  East  Sea."  It  is 
an  aid  to  the  understanding  of  ancient  geograi)hy  to  know 
that  both  terms  were  used  in  early  days. 

Baltic  Laiig'uag'es :  See  Lithuanian,  Lettish,  and  Old 

PlU'SSIAX. 

Baltimore:  the  chief  city  of  Maryland:  an  important  rail- 
roail  and  commercial  center  (for  location,  see  map  of  Marv- 
land,  ivf.  2-F) ;  is  in  Sil"  17'  X.  lat.  and  0°  26'  E.  Ion.  (76° 
37'  80"  \V.  from  Greenwich),  at  head  of  tide-water  and  navi- 
gation on  Patapsco  river,  about  14  miles  from  ('hesapeaUe 
Bay,  and  nearly  200  from  the  ocean  by  ship-channel.  The 
Patapsco  to  this  jioint  is  a  broad  estuary;  above,  a  small 
and  swift  stream,  furnisliing  water-power  to  many  mills  and 
manufactories.  The  hai'bor  is  spacious  and  secure,  and  its 
original  depth  of  about  20  feet  has  been  increased  to  the 
re(iuireraents  of  the  ocean  steamships  by  extensive  dredging 
prosecuted  at  the  ex|)ense  of  the  IT.  S..  the  State,  ami  tlie 
city  governments.  The  city  covers  about  itt.OOO  acres  of 
land,  and  the  surface  of  its  site  was  originally  very  hilly. 

The  first  steps  for  "erecting  a  town"  on  the  Patapsco, 
to  be  called  Baltimore  Town,  were  taken  by  a  legislative  ai't 
in  1729,  and  it  was  laid  out  in  half-acre  lots  in  1730,  In 
17.")2  it  contained  25  houses  and  200  persons;  in  17(55  the 
numlier  had  increased  to  50  liouses.  After  this  the  growth 
w'as  more  rapid,  and  in  1775  there  were  ,561:  houses  and 
5,!)o4  persons.  In  Dec,  177(),  the  Continental  Congress 
transferred  its  sittings  from  Philadelphia  to  Baltimore,  and 
met  here  for  about  two  months.  In  1797  it  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  citv.  Pop.  (1790)  Vi.rm;  (1870)  367,354;  (1880) 
332,313 :  (189())  4:M,439, 

The  city  is  laid  out,  for  the  most  part,  at  right  angles, 
the  streets  having  generally  a  width  of  about  GO  feet,  and 
the  buildings  are  mostly  built  of  red  brick,  many  of  them 
with  white  marble  bases;  granite  and  iron  are,  however, 
largely  used  in  the  construction  (jf  stores  and  warehouses, 
some  of  which  are  very  fine.  The  bricks  used  for  building 
are  made  from  immense  clay-beds  adjacent  to  the  city,  and 
are  of  unsurpassed  quality.  The  white  marble,  of  excellent 
quality,  is  procured  from  inexhaustible  quarries  about  10 
miles  N,  of  the  city:  the  granite  from  quarries  about  15 
miles  W.  .Sliip-building  lias  always  been  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  the  city,  and  the  repairs  of  ships  are  greatly 
facilitated  by  an  excellent  dry-ilock  capable  of  receiving  the 
largest  ships  that  can  enter  (he  harbor. 

Manufactures. — By  the  census  of  1890  Baltimore  had 
5,258  manufactories,  with  $82,.526,344  capital,  emplovins 
83,091  hands  ;  wages  for  the  year.  :f35,377,538 ;  value  of  |i"rod- 
ucts,  $140,401,026.  The  principal  industries  are  clothiiu,'. 
producing  goods  valued  at  $15,997,924  ;  tobacco,  at  f5,90(i,- 
333;  foundries  and  machine-shops,  . '14,718,189;  meat  ])ack- 
ing,  $4,311,412;  breweries,  $3,825,174:  fertilizers,  $3,957,345; 
distilleries,  $2,085,560;  patent  medicines,  $1,947,950;  brass- 
eastings  and  finishing,  $1,903,850 ;  and  canning  and  pre- 
serving, $8,516,799,  There  are  forty  establishments  for 
packing  oysters  and  fruits.  Tliis  is  a  very  important  iudus- 
trv,  and  n'ives  ciiiplovmeut  to  8.990  hands,  C(msunies  from 
7,6l)0,0(»0  los.ddll.ddlihushcls  of  oysters,  gathered  from  the 
Chesajieake  Bay,  in  a  year,  and  during  the  season — Sept.  1  to 
Apr.  1 — often  sends  inland,  jiacked  raw,  or  cooked  and 
hermetically  sealed,  from  40  to  60  rail-car  loads  a  day. 
These  industries  find  their  outlet  both  by  land  and  water 
eoinmunication.  There  are  lines  of  steamships  to  Liverpool. 
Bremen.  Boston.  Providence,  Wilmington  (N.  C.),  Charles- 
ton, SaviUiiiah,  Havana,  New  Orleans,  etc..  and  steaiiilioat 
lines  to  Norfolk,  liichmond,  Fredericksburg,  Washington, 
and  all  points  on  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  many  estua- 
ries, A  ship-canal  across  the  State  lif  Delaware  gives  the 
city  a  direct  outlet  for  trade  with  Philadelphia.  There  are 
several  excellent  railroads,  and  they  are  rapidly  multi]ilying, 
Tlie  Baltimore  .-ind  Potomac  R.  R.  (to  Washington)  passes 
by  a  tunnel  7.100  feet  in  length  under  the  northwest  part  of 
the  city;  and  the  Xorthern  Central  R.  R.  (to  llarrisburg) 
reaches  tide-water  by  a  similar  tunnel  3.500  feet  long,  under 
the  northeast  section.  Besides  lloiiling  elevators  for  the 
transfer  of  grain,  reaching  the  market  by  water,  the  rail- 
roads have  at  (heir  termini  six  substantial  elevators,  with  a 
storage  cajiacity  of  5,000,000  bushels,  and  others  are  jiro- 
jected. 


Its  sobriquet  "  Monumental  City  "  was  derived  from  the 
Washington  Monument  and  Battle  Monument,  erected  by 
the  gratitude  and  patriotism  of  its  citizens.  The  former, 
located  at  Jit.  Vernon  Place,  North  Charles  Street,  is  a 
Doric  shaft  of  white  marble  180  feet  high,  surmounted  by 
a  statue  of  Washington  16  feet  high,  erected  1816-30,  Ac- 
cess to  the  top  is  had  by  220  w-inding  stairs  within  the 
column.  Battle  Monument  in  JMonuinent  Square,  North 
C'alvert  Street,  is  also  of  white  marlile.  52|-  feet  liigli.  Wil- 
dey  Monument  on  Broadway,  of  white  marble,  .52  feet  high, 
was  erected  to  Thomas  Wildey,  a  citizen  of  Baltimore,  who 
died  in  1861,  and  was  the  founder  of  Odd  Fellowship  in 
America.  There  is  also  in  Greeiimount  Cemetery  a  monu- 
ment and  statue  to  John  McDonogh.  who  bequeathed  to 
the  city  a  large  sum  (amounting  now  to  about  $1,000,000) 
to  establish  the  McDonogh  Institute  "for  the  education  of 
poor  eliildreii."  A  monument  in  Harlem  Park  to  .lames 
L.  Ridgely,  secretary  of  the  Sovereign  (jraml  Lodge  of  Odd 
Fellows,  was  unveiled  Sept,  22,  1885,  Greenraount  and 
Loudon  Park  are  two  beautiful  cemeteries,  and  there  are 
several  other  minor  ones.  The  city  has  about  160  churelies 
and  6  Ji'wish  synagogues.  The  first  church  founded  in  the 
city  was  St.  Paul's  (Episcopal)  in  1731.  The  first  Presby- 
terian church  was  erected  in  17.56:  the  first  Roman  Catholic, 
in  1770:  the  first  Wesleyan  Metliodist,  in  1773;  the  first 
Baptist,  in  1780:  the  first  Friends'  meeting-house,  in  1781. 
Several  of  the  churches  are  imposing  and  beautiful  struc- 
tures. Among  the  most  noticeable  are  the  cathedral,  St. 
Alplionsus's,  and  St.  Slartin's  (Roman  Catliolic) ;  Grace,  St. 
Peter's,  and  Christ  (Eiiiscopal) ;  the  Mount  Vernon  (Method- 
ist) :  Westminster,  Brown  Jlemorial,  and  First  (Presbyte- 
rian) ;  and  the  Unitarian. 

The  water-su|)ply  of  the  city  until  1881  was  taken  from 
Jones's  Falls,  about  7  miles  above  the  city,  and  was  of  good 
quality  and  ordinarily  ainindant.  In  that  year  a  further 
supply  was  brought,  at  an  expense  of  $4,000,000,  from  the 
Gunpowder  river  by  natural  flow  through  a  tunnel  of  12 
feet  interior  diameter,  7  miles  in  length,  with  capacity  for 
daily  delivery  of  170.000,000  gal.  The  reservoirs  upon  the 
two  systems  h.ive  a  storage  cap.acily  of  2,241,dd0,dd0  yal. ; 
the  average  daily  flow  of  the  streams  that  supply  them  is 
165,000,000  gal.,  and  the  aqueducts  leading  from  the  stor- 
age reservoirs  have  a  capacity  for  delivering  in  the  city 
200.000.0(10  g,Ml.  a  day.  This  is  distributed  everywhere  in 
abundance,  and  there  are  about  1,000  fire-plugs  for  use  in 
case  of  fire.  The  fire  department  is  w-ell  organized,  directed 
by  a  police  ,and  fire-alarm  telegrajih.  and  notably  eflicient. 
It  has  23  steam  fire-engines  and  9  hook-and-ladder  com- 
panies. 

Numerous  public  squares  add  to  the  beauty  and  liealthful- 
nessof  the  city.  Patterson  Park,  in  the  northeiist  section  of 
the  city,  contains  54  acres.  Druid  Hill  Park,  in  the  north- 
west section,  contain  704  acres  of  ground,  with  fine  forests, 
lakes,  anil  lawns,  and  about  20  miles  of  good  carriage-drives. 

Piihlir  Build iiii/s. — First  anions  tlie  |iiiblic  buildings 
should  be  named  tlie  city-hall,  Imilt  of  white  marble,  occu- 
pying an  entire  square,  and  costing  $3,000,000;  the  Mary- 
land Institute,  of  brick,  3.55  feet  long;  the  custom-house, 
240  feet  long,  with  a  dome  115  feet  high;  the  eourt-hou.se, 
and  Odd  Fellows'  Hall,  all  of  brick ;  the  Masonic  Temiile,  of 
white  marble ;  the  jail,  of  granite,  is  a  remarkalile  structure. 
Outside  of  the  city  limits,  but  a  p.-irt  of  its  institutions, 
should  be  noted  Bay  View  Asylum  (cily  almshouse),  714  feet 
in  length  ;  the  house  of  refuge,  maintiiining  about  .500  juve- 
nile <lelinqueiits  ;  Sju'ing  Grove  Asylum,  a  State  institution 
for  the  insane,  of  granite,  with  eiqiacity  for  300  |iatients  ; 
the  Maryland  Institution  for  the  Blind,  a  beautiful  white 
marble  building,  where  about  .50  of  these  unfortunates  are 
instructed:  and  the  Slieppanl  Asvluni  (for  the  insane),  en- 
dowed by  tlie  will  of  iMoses  Shcpp'ard  witli  about  .$1,000,000. 
A  superb  building  fi>r  a  post-otlicc  and  tlie  U.  S.  courts  has 
been  erect ('(1  bv  tlie  Government.  The  Pcabodv  Institute 
of  Baltimore  was  the  recipient  of  over  $1,000,00(3  from  the 
late  George  Peabody.  It  h<as,  in  its  fine  white  marble  Imild- 
ing  by  the  side  of  the  Washington  Monument,  a  free  library 
of  121,993  books  and  pamphlets,  an  art-gallery,  music  con- 
servatory, rooms  for  lectures,  concerts,  etc.  The  nojikins 
Hospital  has  no  superior  in  its  appointments  in  this  country 
— probal)ly  none  anywhere.  It  originated  in  Jlar.,  1873, 
when  Johns  Ho]ikins,  a  merchant  of  the  city,  pl.aced  in  the 
hands,  of  trustees  selected  by  him  13  acres  of  land  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  city,  with  directions  to  establish  thereon 
a  free  hospital  for  the  "  indigent  sick  of  the  city  and  its 
environs,  without  regard  to  sex,  age,  or  color,"  guarantee- 


INDEX. 

Railroad  Depots.    JJ;  "^^"i'"*'""- **       Eta 


!i_ 


0- .  H   I   I    i      P-i   R  K      ^-nf 


lUl7l>Bil.    FuIUD 


^i 


r 


r,.\l,Tl.M(,iKK.  LORD 


BALUCHI 


iiif;  it  $100,000  a  voar  <liiiiiiK  liis  lift",  and  endowing  it 
with  ^2.000.000  for'its  suiiport  tlu-roaftcr. 

Eilucalion.etr. — .lohns  Hopkins  established  l)_v  most  lib- 
eral endowment  the  nniversily  beiiriiif;  liis  name.  It  was 
opened  in  187(5,  and  lias  sub-f;ni<huite  aiid  ]Kist->rniiluate 
departnu'nts,  with  .">•')  inslrnetms  and  over  4(JU  students. 
Its  buildings  and  e(|uipmen1s  are  valued  at  .$849,104,  and 
its  pro.lnetive  funds  at  !i;:J,O00,000.  There  are  60,000  vol- 
umes in  its  lil)rary.  Its  nunlieal  school  received  an  en<k)w- 
miMit  from  Miss  Garrett  of  ncai-Iy  $400,000  on  condition  that 
its  courses  of  instruction  should  be  open  to  wonu'n.  which 
was  done  in  ISi):!.  The  jjeneral  education  of  the  city  is  pro- 
vided for  in  147  jrraded  pidilic  schools,  in  which  5:3,203  pupils 
aretani;ht  l)yal)oiil  1,27!)  leachei-s.  Loyola  College,  a  Catholic 
institution  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  (St.  Mary's  College),  a  Catholic 
theological  institution,  are  both  in  a  flourishing  coi\dilion, 
while  the  medical  deiiartment  of  the  University  of  Mary- 
land takes  very  high  rank,  and  the  law  department  a  re- 
.spectalile  |iosiliiin  among  professional  .schools.  The  city  has 
24  naticinal  banks,  !)  ciaily,  39  weekly,  8  monthly,  and  4 
semi-monlhlv  news|iapers. 

In  1873  Enoch  Pratt,  a  successful  merchant  of  the  city, 
established  a  free  circulating  library  for  the  use  of  the 
citizens,  which  the  city  accepted  and  named  the  "  Knoch 
Pratt  Free  Library."  "it  has  a  central  building  on  JIul- 
berry  Street  and  "five  branches  in  the  different  ([uarters 
of  the  city.  The  endowment  consisted  of  these  buildings 
and  a  sum  of  money  so  invested  with  the  city  as  to  yield 
perpelUidly  an  amnnil  income  of  $.50,000;  and  its  library 
now  muni I'ci-s  103.4G.5  volumes.  The  other  principal  libra- 
ries of  the  city  are — Peabody  Institute.  121,993  books  and 
pamphlets:  Mercantile  Libriiry  Association,  33,278;  Mary- 
land Institute,  l.-j.fiOO;  Baltiiiiore  Bar  .Vssociation,  7.500: 
Yoiuig  Jlen's  Chrisiian  .Vssociation,  2..500 :  Odd  Fellows". 
19,:«6:  .Marvland  Historical  Society,  l:i.366 ;  Loyola  Col- 
lege, 22.000.  Hk.vry  STOcKiiRiDot:. 

Baltimoro.  Lord:  a  title  of  the  Calvert  family  in  the 
Irish  p<'erage ;  created  in  11)25  l)y  .lames  I.,  who  marked  his 
confidence  in  .Sir  (ieorge  Calvert  by  making  him,  though  a 
Roman  Catholic,  liai-ou  of  li.-illimore  (Ireland).  Calvert 
was  born  at  Kipling,  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1582.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford  ;  held  several  important  public  trusts  ; 
was  knighted  in  1017;  became  principal  Secretary  of  State 
in  1619;  member  of  Parliament  1020-21;  and  first  Lord 
Baltimore  1625.  By  grant  of  .lames  I.  he  became  proprie- 
tary of  Avalon  in  Newfoundland,  endeavored  to  plant  a 
colony  there,  and  went  thither  himself  in  1625.  Owing 
chiefly  to  the  unfavorable  .soil  and  climate,  the  colony  was 
a  failure.  He  then  (1628)  visited  Virginia,  met  an  ungra- 
cious reception,  and  returned  to  England.  He  seems  then 
to  have  petitioned  Charles  I.  for  a  charter  for  founding  a 
new  colony,  and  to  have  met  with  favor;  but  before  the 
charter  was  issued  he  ilied  in  London,  Apr.  1.5,  1632.  The 
charter  which  he  had  secured  was  reissued  in  .June,  1632,  to 
his  son  Cecil,  who  became  the  second  Lord  Baltimore,  and 
real  founder  of  the  colonv  of  Maryland.  The  territory 
panted  by  the  charter  included  the  whole  of  the  [iresent 
Stale  of  Maryland.  Cecil  never  visited  it,  but  sent  out  an 
expedition  in  Nov..  1633,  under  the  charge  of  his  brother, 
Leonard  Calvert,  as  governor.  The  Calverts  have  been 
much  praised  for  their  liberal  and  tolerant  spirit,  and  their 
wise  and  equitable  legislation  in  the  colony.  The  succes- 
sive Lords  Baltimore  were  Charles  (the  third),  Benedict- 
Leonard  (fourth),  Charles  (fifth),  and  Frederick  (sixth). 
Frederick  died  in  1771,  leaving  no  legitimate  children,  and 
with  him  the  title  Lord  Baltimore  became  extinct.  See 
Fuller's  IV'or//i ('<■»  of  Eugldiid;  Bancroft's  aiul  Ilildreth's 
JliKlories  of  the.  United  Slntes ;  J.  P.  Kennedy,  (.'hanicle.r 
of  George  Calvert ;  Proeeedinys  of  Mari/land  Historical 
Society ;  Sparks's  American  Jiioyraptnj,  vol.  ix.  S.  S. 

Henry  Stockbridqe. 

Italfinioro  Oriole,  also  called  Golden  Robin:  a  well- 
known  and  conspicuously  beautiful  bird  (Icterus  gallmla) 
of  the  Xcw-World  family  Irleridie.  This  fandly.  closely 
allied  in  structure  and  habits  with  the  weaving-birds  {Plo- 
ceiiliv)  of  Africa  and  Asia,  ilisplays  an  equally  wonderful 
skill  in  the  construclion  of  pensile  and  intricately  woven 
nests.  Both  are  also  dislinguished  liy  the  brilliant  contrast 
in  the  colors  of  their  plumage.  Black  and  yellow,  the  two 
colors  of  the  coat-ol-arms  of  Lord  Baltimore,  suggested  the 
name  of  this  spi'cies.  whiiOi  is  the  best  known  of  the  group. 
In  till!  summer  months  the  Balliniore  oi'iole  is  fouml  from 


Florida  to  Xew  Brunswick  on  the  coast,  westward,  as  far  as 
the  great  plains,  from  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  on 
tlie  N.  to  Louisiana  and  Texas.  It  is  a  winter  resident  of 
the  West  Indies  anil  Central  America  as  far  S.  a.s  Panama. 
It  is  no!  found  W.  of  the  Rocky  Jlountains,  where  it  is  re- 
placed by  closely  allied  species,  and  is  not  at  all  common 


The  Baltimore  oriole. 

beyond  llic  Mississippi,  being  found  less  numerous  as  we 
proceed  W.  As  a  vocalist  it  is  a  bird  of  rare  power,  com- 
bining beauty  and  variety  in  its  notes.  It  arrives  in  New 
FiUgland  with  great  regularity  about  Jlay  10.  but  remains 
in  .-^ong  only  aliont  two  months,  rarely  singing  after  the 
young  are  hatched.  Its  nest  is  a  jiendulous.  cylindrical 
pouch,  and  is  suspended  from  the  extremity  of  a  hanging 
branch.  It  is  m.ide  by  {\w  interweaving  into  a  homogene- 
ous fabric,  very  strong  and  admirably  adapted  to  its  pur- 
pose, of  the  filaments  of  various  Ihix-like  plants,  Audu- 
Ixm  figures  one  made  entirely  of  Sjianish  mo>i»  (TiUnndsia 
iisneoiiles),  so  conspicuous  in  Southern  cvpress- swamps. 
The  eggs  are  from  four  to  six  in  number;  tliey  hatch  in  14 
days,  iialtimore  orioles  are  devoted  and  courageous  parents, 
;ui(l  resolutely  defend  their  young  when  in  danger,  fear- 
lessly exposiiig  themselves  to  death  rather  than  forsake 
them.  The  mother-bird  has  been  known  to  enter  her  ne.st 
when  the  branch  to  which  it  was  attached  was  being  sev- 
ered from  the  tree,  and  to  persist  in  remaining  there  until 
the  nest  had  been  taken  into  a  house.  It  will  follow  its 
young  when  taken,  and  will  teed  them  when  in  captivity. 
Rcari'd  from  the  nest,  it  may  be  comiilctely  domesticated, 
be  allowed  full  liberty  of  the'honse,  making  no  attempt  to 
escape,  aiul.  like  a  sjioilcd  child,  delighting  in  occasional 
acts  of  mischief,  such  as  putting  its  pointed  bill  through  the 
meshes  of  lace  curtains,  and.  0]>eiiing  widc^  its  beak,  seeming 
to  enjov  the  noise  made  by  the  breaking  of  the  threads.  It 
feeds'chiefly  on  insects,  maiiy  of  them  highly  injurious  to  vege- 
tal ion.  and  is  thus  of  immense'  service  to  I  he  farmer,  destroy- 
ing the  worst  i>ests  of  the  orchard.  The  parents  feed  their 
young  chiellv  with  caterpillars,  which  they  swallow  and  dis- 
gorge for  this  purpose.  Besides  the  Baltimore  oriole  there 
lire  four  otiier  orioles  common  in  the  U.  S. — Bullock's  oriole 
of  the  Pacific  coa.st.  the  orchard  oriole  of  the  Eastern  States, 
and  the  hooded  and  Scott's  orioles  of  Texas  and  Arizona. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

ISaliiclli.  baa-loochcH',  or  Balflcl.  bali-loo'che'e  (also  Be- 
loockep.  Bilndii):  the  language  s|u)ken  in  B.u.rrnisTAX 

(i/.  ('.).  a  branch  <if  the  Iranian  division  of  languages,  which 
closely  resemliles  modern  Persian.  Two  dialectic  groups 
are  distinctlv  rci'ognizcd :  first,  the  northeastern  or  North 
Baluchi;  second,  the  southwestern,  the  MakranI  or  South 
Balneiii.  The  dialcittic  division  is  made  by  the  interposed 
wedge  of  the  Brahui  tribes,  a  people  of  Dravidian  stock  and 
speech.  The  sei)aration  thus  made  is  so  marked  that  South- 
ern Baluchi  speech  is  sometimes  almost  unintelligible  in 
the  north.  The  South  Baluchi  dialect  is  more  ancient  in 
its  character:  the  X<irlh  Baluchi  is  marked  especially  by 
the  use  of  spirants  and  aspirates. 

Baluchi,  like  modern  Persian,  may  be  regarded  as  an 
analvtic  language.  The  noun-inttection  consists  chiefly  in 
adding  a  to  form  the  oblifpie  case  in  the  singular,  and  an, 
or.  in  the  oblique  ca.^cs  dtta.  in  the  plural.  The  verb  sys- 
tem is  comparatively  meager  in  forms  and  inflection,  and 
somewhat  irregular. 

Baluchi  hardly  jiossessed  a  written  literature  until  recent 


476 


BALrtlllSTAX 


BALZAC 


times,  when  the  Pei-sian  sciipt  began  to  be  used  in  recording 
it.  There  exists  quite  a  rich  store  of  popular  songs  and 
stories,  on  legendary,  historical,  religious,  heroic,  and  ama- 
tory subjects.  A  number  of  these  have  already  been  col- 
lected, and  some  of  theni  bear  the  name  of  .lam  Durrak.  a 
celebrated  Baluchi  |)oct  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Kid- 
dles seem  to  have  been  an  especially  popular  style  of  com- 
position among  the  Baluchis. 

Consult  Pierce's  Mekranee  Bdoocliee  Diahrl  {Journ. 
Bombay  Branch  Roy.  Ax.  Socii'ty.  Bombay.  ISTO);  Dames's 
Northern  Balochi  Lamjuage.  Grammar,  Vocabulary,  Sjjcci- 
mens  (Journ.  Boy.  Ax.  Society  of  Bengal,  Calcutta,  1881): 
and  especially  the  contribu  ions  of  WUhelm  Geiger,  Dia- 
IckUpalhing  'in  Baluc'i,  Etymologie  des  Balucl,  Lautlelire 
des  Baluil  (Bayer.  Aka<lem'ie  der  Wiss..  1889-91,  seq.).  See 
also  Irasiax  Languages.  A.  Y.  Williams  Jacksox. 

Baliieliistan,  baVloo-chis-taan'.  or  Belncliistan.  be-loo- 
chis-taau  (from  Baluchi,  one  of  the  races  occupying  the 
country):  a  maritime  country  of  Asia;  with  Afghanistan  on 
the  N.,  British  India  on  the  E.,  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  S., 
and  Persia  on  tlie  W.  It  is  an  irregular  rectangle  in  form, 
with  a  projection  at  the  nortlieast  angle  which  extends  to 
lat.  32'  N.  The  seacoast  runs  E.  and  W.  for  about  600 
miles,  but  has  no  good  harbor.    Area  about  K'.O.OOOsq.  miles. 

Topoejraphy. — The  surface  is  nigged  and  elevated,  gener- 
ally barren,  and  deficient  in  water.  The  Ilerbue  or  Ilala 
Mountains  run  N.  and  S..  separating  the  country  from  India, 
and  there  are  several  parallel  ranges  in  Eastern  Baluchistan. 
The  northeastern  extension  is  very  mountainous.  The  coast 
is  bordered  by  a  lower  range  at  some  distance  inland,  with 
parallel  ranges  farther  in  the  interior.  The  northwestern 
quarter  is  a  dry,  elevated  plateau,  with  many  independent 
drainage  basins,  and  includes  a  ]iart  of  the  great  Sarhadd 
plateau  of  Persia,  and  a  part  of  tlie  periodically  dry  and 
overflowed  territory,  the  most  of  which  lies  in  Afghanistan 
and  Persia.  The  drainage  of  tlic  country  is  for  the  most 
part  into  this  area,  but  a  few  short  streams  find  their  way 
into  the  gulf. 

Inliabitants.— The  total  population  is  about  500,000.  There 
are  two  distinct  races  occupying  the  country,  the  Baluch  or 
Baluchi  and  the  Brahui.  They  are  clearly  distinguished 
from  each  other  in  language  and  afipeai'ance,  and  each  is 
divided  into  an  infinity  of  tribes.  The  Baluchis  have  a  lan- 
guage allied  to  Persia,  are  handsome,  active,  tall,  strong, 
with  long  visages  and  raised  features,  pastoral,  predatory, 
and  hospitable,  warlike,  but  lazy.  Their  chief  articles  of^ 
food  are  milk  and  flesh,  the  latter,  by  preference,  only  half 
cooked.  They  keep  many  slaves,  and  usually  the  men  have 
several  wives.  The  BraliQIs  have  a  language  strongly  re- 
sembling the  Hindu  dialect  spoken  in  the  Punjaub. are  short 
and  thick,  with  round  faces  and  flat  features.  They  are  the 
dominant  race,  though  the  Baluchis  were  the  earlier  occu- 
pants of  the  country. 

Productions. — The  climate  is  various,  but  usually  dry,  and 
the  soil  generally  unfertile,  though  there  are  regions  where 
the  most  of  the  crops  of  India  can  be  produced.  The  chief 
pursuit  is  that  of  camel-raising:  the  other  domestic  animals 
are  the  horse,  nmle,  ass,  buffalo,  black  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
fowls,  and  pigeons.  Especial  atleution  is  given  to  the  cul- 
ture of  dates  in  Mekran,  in  liie  southwest.  A  great  variety 
of  ores  have  been  found.  Iron  and  lead  are  mined  near  Xal, 
MO  miles  S.  of  Khelat.  Coal  has  been  found  in  several 
]ilaces.  At  Khost,  on  the  Sind-Pisliin  Railway,  it  has  been 
successfully  worked  for  .souu)  years. 

Jli.Hlory. — The  nower  of  the  Brahui  Khans  of  Khelat  was 
founded  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cenlury.  The 
previous  d>Tiasty  was  a  Hindu  one.  Xasir  Khan  IL  of  the 
Brahui  d)Tia.sty "was  recognized  by  the  British  in  1841,  and 
in  18.54  a  treaty  was  nuide  with  him,  under  the  terms  of 
which  he  received  an  annual  subsidy  of  !i;l7.0tKI.  He  was 
succeeded  in  1857  by  his  brother  Kliudadad.  who  is  the 
present  khan.  With  him  a  fresh  treaty  was  nuidi'  in  187C, 
and  the  subsidy  paid  him  was  douliled.  "  He  turned  over  the 
district  of  Quetta  to  tlie  British,  for  which  he  receives  an 
annual  quit-rent  of  !S8,000,  besides  $10,000  per  annum  in 
lieu  of  his  right  to  levy  duty  on  merchandise  in  the  Bolan 
Pass— making  ^oO.OOO  pjiid  to  him  bv  the  British  annually. 
In  1888-89  the  district  of  Khefriin,  between  Quetia  and  lii- 
dia,  \yas  lirought  under  British  control,  and  the  territory 
has  since  been  extendeil. 

Government. — Baluchistan,  as  it  now  (18!)^)  stands,  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts  :  (1)  The  districts  to  the  nrirthea.4, 
for  the  most  part  formerly  included  in  Afghanistan,  now 


under  British  rule,  and  forming  British  Baluchistan.  (2) 
The  districts  of  tjuetta  and  Bolan,  now  administered  liy 
British  officials  on  the  khan's  behalf.  (3)  The  greater  part 
of  Baluchistan,  composed  of  a  confederation  of  chiefs  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Khan  of  Khelat,  and  in  a  general  way 
under  Britisli  protection.  The  capital  of  this  part  of  Baluch- 
istan is  Khelat.  The  British  administrative  center  is  Quetta. 
From  Quetta.  which  is  strongly  fortified,  a  railway  runs 
through  the  Kwaja  Amran  range  toward  Caxdahab  \q.  v.). 
LiTEKATi'RE. — lluglies,  llie  Country  of  Baluchistan 
(1877);  Floyer,  Uncrplored Baluchistan  (1882);  MacGregor, 
Wandcriiiys  in  Baluchi.itan  (1882) :  Oliver,  Across  the  Bor- 
der, or  Pathan  and  Biloch{lSi)l).    Mark  W.  Harrixutox. 

Balnze,  ba'aliiz',  Etiexne:  a  French  historian;  b.  at 
Tulle,  Dec.  24,  1630;  became  in  1668  Professor  of  Canon 
Law  in  Paris,  and  in  1707  director  of  the  Koyal  College  un- 
der Louis  XIV.  Among  his  works  are  Lives  of  the  Popes  of 
Avignon  (Paris,  1693).  and  History  of  the  House  of  Au- 
vergne  (1708,  2  vols.),  in  which  he  endeavored  to  show  that 
the  House  of  Bouillon  was  descended  from  the  ancient  Dukes 
of  Guienne.  and  therefore  owed  no  allegiance  to  tlie  King  of 
France.  Tlie  king  suppressed  this  work,  exiled  the  author, 
and  confiscated  his  estates,  but  he  was  recalled  in  1713.  He 
miblished  forty-five  works,  among  which  were  Capitularia 
Begum  Francnrum  (1677,  2  vols.l ;  Conciliarum  Xova  Col- 
lectio  (1685),  etc.     D.  in  Paris,  July  28,  1718. 

Balzac,  ba'alzaak',  Hoxore,  de:  the  most  famous  French 
novelist  of  the  nineteentli  century;  b.  at  Tours,  Slay  20, 
1799;  of  plebeian  origin,  notwithstanding  the  rfe  whic'h  he 
placed  before  liis  name.  Coming  early  to  Paris,  he  lived  on 
to  the  age  of  nearly  thirty  with  his  head  full  of  ambitions, 
but  without  achieving  a  suix'css.  In  1829  he  published  his 
Dernier  Chouan  (written,  however,  in  1827),  the  first  of  his 
novels  to  show  real  power.  In  1829  (dated  1830)  appeared 
his  Physiologic  du  mariage,  wittv,  acute,  often  gi'oss — and 
his  fortune  was  almost  made.  In  1831  it  was  quite  made 
by  his  Peau  de  Chagrin,  full  of  wise  and  just  things,  min- 
gled with  much  that  was  the  opposite.  From  this  time 
till  his  dcatli  Balzac  produced  enormously — the  list  of  his 
books  from  1827^8  including  ninety-seven  titles.  He  early 
began  to  elidiorate  a  new  theory  of  novel-writing — that  it 
should  consist  in  giving  documents  from  the  l''>  of  the 
society  in  which  the  writer  lives;  and  his  enouuous  pro- 
duction purported  to  be  the  carrying  into  practice  of  this 
theory.  In  it  he  has  been  followed  also  by  later  novelists ; 
and  has  thus  become  jjerhaps  the  most  important  influence 
upon  the  imaginative  literature  of  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  His  total  work  he  called  the  Corned ie  humaine, 
in  contrast  to  the  Dantesque  Divina  Commedia.  Further- 
more, he  divided  his  stories  into  lesser  groups — Contes 
philosophiques.  Scenes  de  la  vie  privee.  Scenes  de  la  vie  de 
province,  Contes  drolatiques,  etc.  Of  single  novels,  besides 
those  named  above,  the  most  famous  arc  perhaps  Eugenie 
Orandet  (1833);  Seraphita  (1834);  Le  Pire  Goriot  {\m4); 
La  Recherche  de  rab.<:olu  (1834);  Le  Lys  dans  la  Vallee 
(1835);  Cesar  Birotteau  (1837);  Beatri.c  (1844);  Modeste 
Mignon  (1844).  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  most  of 
the  prevailing  French  theories  about  novel-writing — so- 
called  "  realism,"  "  nat uralism."  etc. — go  back  to  Balzac.  His 
most  popular  novels  have  lieen  translated  into  English  by 
Jliss  K.  P.  Wormlev,  and  published  in  Boston.  D.  in  Paris, 
Aug.  18,  18.50. 

See  George  Sand,  yotice  biographique  de  H.  de  Bahac 
(1853);  Vicomte  de  Spoelberch  de  Lovcnjoul,  Histoire  des 
(Euvres  de  H.  de  Bahac  (1886) ;  A.  Cerlbeer  et  J.  Christ ophe, 
Repertoire  de  la  Comedie  humaine  de  H.  de  Balzac  (1887); 
M.  Barriere.  L'iPuvre  de  H.  de  Bahac  (1890):  E.  E.  Saltus, 
Balzac,  with  full  bibliography  of  his  works  (Boston,  1888). 

A.  K.  Marsh. 

Balzac,  .Teax  Lotts  GfEZ.de,  Seigneur;  French  writer; 
b.  at  Angouleme  in  1.597.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  anil  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in 
1634.  He  did  fur  French  prose  what  Malherbedid  for  verse, 
i.  e.  purified  it  from  the  pedantries  of  the  sixteentli  century 
and  the  obscurities  of  a  still  earlier  time.  Almost  all  the 
great  writers  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  show  his  influence. 
As  Sainte-Beuvc  said  ;  "  He  gave  the  French  tongue  a  stiff 
course  in  rhetoric."  Personally  he  was  vain,  uncertain,  and 
vacillating.  His  youth  was  spent  in  dissipations,  his  age  in 
devotions;  but  he  had  oliserved  much,  and  reflecteil  deeply 
upon  the  coni-se  of  Innnan  life,  and  his  wurks  contain  so 
much  of  hunum  experience  that  they  must  long  remain 
famous.     His  reinitation  nuiinly  rests  upon  his  Letters,  the 


BAMBAKRA 


lUXAXA 


first  colleotion  of  which,  iifti'i-  theyliad  passoil  throii<;h  many 
privali^  hands,  a|>])eaivil  in  1624.  JSesides  these,  lie  |iiililisliutl 
.several  works  avowedly  written  for  the  pnhlie  at  hu'fre — as 
his  Prince  (I6.il) ;  Socrale  Chri'lini  (105:2);  Eiitn-tii-Hx{\t!iTi~) ; 
ArinlippeiW'yyi).  His  collected  works a|>i>eared  l(i(i.").2  I.  I'ol., 
anil  1>*54.  Many  separate  editions  of  his  Liflein  have  ap- 
peared, c.  ir.  Iiy  i'.  T.  de  Larrotiiie,  Paris,  1ST4.  1).  at  An- 
gonli'iiie,  i'lli.  15,  1654.  KeviseJ  by  A.  R.  JIaksu. 

Itaiiibar'ru  :  a  large  district  in  the  Western  Simian,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Upper  Xiger  or  Joliba,  wldch  flows  in  a 
N.  E.  direi-tion  through  the  middle  of  this  state.  Its 
lioundaries  are  nneertain,  but  it  lies  entirely  in  the  area 
claimed  by  the  French.  The  soil  is  well  watered  and  fer- 
tile. The  rainy  season  lasts  from  .June  to  XoveudxT.  'J'wo 
crops  of  niai/e,  cotton,  and  yams  are  raisc<l  annuallv.  The 
baobab,  butter-tree, and  date-palm  are  found  here.  'J"'he  wild 
animals  are  lions,  elephants,  leopards,  panthers,  etc.  The 
population  is  composed  mostly  of  Mandingoes.  Area  about 
•JO.tKlO  sc).  miles. 

Itnm'lu'r^ :  a  city  of  Bavaria,  in  Upper  Franconia;  is 
lieautifuUy  situated  on  the  river  Hegnitz,  ;iO  miles  X.  of 
Xurembcrg  and  3  miles  from  the  river  JIain  (see  nuip  of 
German  Krnpire.  ref.  6-E).  It  is  connected  liy  railway  with 
Nuremlicrg  and  other  towns.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  spa- 
cious, well-lighted  streets,  which  are  lined  with  handsome 
houses.  Among  the  remarkable  public  buildings  are  the 
magnificent  cathedral  (Domkirche)  in  tlie  Byzantine  style, 
founded  in  lOOt  by  the  Kinperor  Henry  II.;  the  old  palace 
of  the  bishops  of  Bamberg;  and  the  .Jesuit  church  of  St. 
.Martin's.  Bamlierg  contains  a  theater,  a  lyceuni,  a  museum 
of  natural  history,  and  a  royal  library  of  l;55,0()0  volumes. 
Here  are  inanufaetures  of  porcelain,  jewelry,  musical  instru- 
ments, gloves,  etc. ;  also  numerous  breweries,  wliich  produce 
beer  of  superior  quality.  It  has  numerous  literary  and 
rharilabli'  institutions.  '  Pop.  (18'J0)  35,348. 

Itiim'boo'  (Pr.  bnmbou):  the  common  name  of  the  arbo- 
rescent gra-sses  of  the  genus  ]i<tmhn«fi,  numbering  forty-six 
spceie.s;  natives  of  the  tropical  and  warm  jiarts  of  Asia  and 
-Vmerica,  and  grow  to  a  large  size.  Some  of  the  species  are  a 
foot  in  diameter  and  X'H)  feet  in  height.  The  bamboo  is  a 
plant  of  great  utility  and  importance.  It  has  a  jointed  and 
liollow  stem,  wliich  is  very  hard  and  light,  and  is  externally 
coated  with  sih'X.  It  has  been  called  the  national  plant  of 
China,  the  natives  of  which  make  from  it  a  great  variety  of 
articles,  furniture,  weapons,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  used  for 
bnilding  houses  and  bridges  and  for  water-pipes.  The  smaller 
stems  are  converted  into  walking-sticks,  and  are  employed  in 
wiekerwork  and  the  seats  of  chairs.  Some  species  of  Bam- 
liiina  secrete  a  silicious,  phosphorescent  substance  called 
lal)asheer,  to  which  remarkable  properties  have  been  at- 
tributed.   See  Tabasheer. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Ram'lxiroiigli  (or  lianibroiigli)  Castle  :  one  of  the  old- 
■  ■~t  castles  in  (iival  lirilain  ;  is  on  the  coast  of  Xorthuinber- 
land,  16  miles  S.  E.  of  Berwick.  It  stands  on  a  basaltic  rock 
150  feet  high,  and  accessible  only  on  the  southeast  side.  It 
was  founded  in  1070.  Cimnected  with  this  ca-stle  is  an  exten- 
sive public  library,  a  dispensary,  life-boats  to  save  the  crews 
of  shipwrecked  vessels,  and  other  charitable  institutions. 
Near  the  castle  is  a  village  of  the  same  name. 

Banibllk,  ba~ain-book  :  a  district  in  the  French  Senegal 
Territory,  West  Africa:  on  the  Uiiper  Senegal  river,  be- 
tween ii  and  its  tributary,  the  I'aleme.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  anil  the  soil  of  the  valleys  fertile.  It  is  inhabited  by 
-Manilingoes.  who  are  said  to  be  very  ferocious.  The  baobab 
and  other  trees  here  attain  an  enormous  size.  Baiuliuk  has 
long  been  celebrated  for  its  rich  gold  mines.  Pop.  about 
HOO.OOO. 

Itaniiaii.  baVmee-aan' :  a  valley  and  pass  of  Afghanistan  ; 
on  the  route  fromCabul  to  Turkestan, and  between  the  cen- 
tral and  western  ranges  of  the  Hindu  Kush  Jloiintains;  is 
at  an  elevation  of  8.4116  feet,  and  is  important  as  the  only 
kiKuvn  pass  over  the  Hindu  Kush  Jloiintains  that  is  practi- 
cable for  artillery.  The  valley  is  covered  with  ruins  of  the 
city  of  ftulgnla,  which  was  destroyed  by  .lengis  Khan  about 
1220.  Bainian  wa-s  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the  Bdddhist 
worshij),  and  presents  numerous  caves  with  gigantic  idols 
cut  out  of  the  rock.     One  of  these  is  100  feet  high. 

Itamn:  same  as  Bhamo. 

Itanip'ton  Lec'tiiros:  so  called  after  the  name  of  their 
founder,  the  Rev.  .I.,hn  Bampton  (1680-1751),  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  Canon  of  Salisbury,  who  in  1751  left  his  "  lands 


and  estates"  to  (he  University  of  Oxford  for  "  the  endow- 
ment of  eight  divinity  lecture  sermons,"  to  be  preached  an- 
nually at  "St.  JIary's  in  Oxford."  The  subjects  .specified 
were:"  (1)  "To  confirm  and  establish  the  Christian  faith, 
and  to  confute  all  heretics  and  schismatics;  (2)  upon  the  di- 
vine authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  (3)  upon  the  author- 
ity of  the  writings  of  the  primitive  Fathers  as  to  the  faith 
and  practice  of  the  primitive  Church  ;  (4)  upon  the  divinity  ' 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ :  (5)  upon  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost;  (6)  upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian 
faith  as  comprehended  in  the  Apostles'  and  Xiecne  creeds." 
When  the  lectures  commenced,  in  1780,  the  income  of  the 
estate  was  £130  a  year.  Ever  since  then  (except  in  the  years 
1834,  18:J5,  and  1841)  these  lectures  have  been  delivered. 
Some  of  the  more  noted  of  the  earlier  lecturers  were  Dr. 
White,  in  1784,  on  Chrintinniti/  and  Mohammedanism;  Dr. 
Nott,  in  1802,  on  Religious  Enthusiasm;  Bishop  Ileber,  in 
1815;  and  Archbishop  Whately,  in  1832.  Mansel,  in  1858, 
on  The  Limits  of  Religious  'jiioiight,  oiicned  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  the  lectures.  Since  tlien  we  have  had,  among 
others,  George  Rawlinson  in  1851),  Farrar  in  1863,  Bernard 
in  1864,  Mozly  in  1863,  Liddon  in  1866,  Irons  in  1870, 
Jackson  in  1875,  Row  in  1877,  Wace  in  1879,  Hatch  in  1880, 
John  Wordsworth  in  1881,  Temple  in  1884.  Hurst's  Biblio- 
Iheca  2'heologica,  rev.  ed.,  gives  a  complete  list  down  to  1892. 
Ban  [a  Teutonic  word  signifying  proclamation,  edict, 
prohibition,  the  verb  of  which,  bannnn.  exists  in  O.  I'-ng., 
but  which  actually  came  into  Eng.  via  Fr.  Cf.  root  of  Gr. 
(pivot.  Lat.  fari.  assert] :  a  word  which  occurs  in  many 
modern  languages,  signifying  an  edict :  a  public  order  or 
lirohibition  ;  an  interdiction;  a  notice  of  marriage;  a  curse 
or  e.Kcommunication.  In  the  former  German  empire  to  put 
a  prince  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  to  dive.st  him  of 
his  dignities,  and  i)ronouiice  on  him  a  sentence  of  outlawry. 

Ban  and  .Vrriere  Ban:  military  terms  used  in  France 
under  the  feudal  system.  When  the  feudal  barons  were 
sunimoned  t>)  the  service  of  the  king  in  time  of  war,  they 
were  called  the  lian.  Their  tenants  or  inferior  va.ssals  formed 
the  second  levy,  or  arrihv  han.  The  ban  and  arriere  ban 
constituted  the  entire  military  force  of  France  in  feudal 
times. 

Ban,  or  Ba'nns  [Pers.  ban.  lord! :  the  title  fonnerly  given 
to  military  governors  of  certain  districts,  called  banals,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Hungary.  The  ban  was  apjiointed  by 
the  king,  with  the  consent  of  the  Diet,  and  had  formerly  very 
extensive  powers.  In  political,  judicial,  and  military  affairs 
his  authority  was  supreme.  In  time  of  war  he  commanded 
the  troops  of  his  banat.  The  most  important  banats  were 
tho.se  of  Dalmatia.  Croatia,  Slavonia.  Bosnia,  and  Jlakovia 
(or  JUachow),  but  their  boundaries  often  changed,  .and  they 
were  at  length  united  into  the  double  banat  of  Dalmatia  and 
Croatia. 

Ban.Viaan.MATl.iA:  Servian  poet  and  writer ;  b.  atKagusa 
in  Dalmatia,  Dec.  18,  1818.  He  went  to  Constantinople  in 
1830.  and  was  married  tlu'i-e  to  a  Greek  lady  in  1840.  He 
studied  at  Greek  and  Preiu-h  colleges,  and  learned  many 
languages  and  literatures.  In  1845  he  went  to  Belgrade  in 
Servia,  and  settled  there.  From  1845  to  1849  he  was  tutor 
of  the  daughters  of  the  Prince  Regent  of  Servia.  In  1848 
he  took  vehement  part  in  the  revolution  that  broke  out  in 
Servia,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  striving  to  unite  Croats, 
Servians,  and  Dalmatians  against  the  Hungarians.  During 
these  yeai-s  he  wrote  the  mo.st  famous  of  his  tragedies — 
Mejrima,  or  the  Lilieralion  nf  Bosnia  (1851).  After  the 
revolution  he  taught  foreign  literatures  in  the  lyceum  and 
the  college  in  Belgrade.  In  1860  he  became  Jlinister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  for  Servia;  in  1868  he  was  given  a  national 
pension  ;  in  1885  there  was  a  magnificent  celebration  of  the 
fiftieth  year  of  his  literary  career. 

Amoiig  his  works  may  lie  mentioned:  Dramas,  J/i7/e?!io, 
Dnbrild,  Dabroslavili .  Jean  IIiis,  Manijni  Kahoga;  poems, 
Raslisne  pezme  (1853).  He  has  written  also  many  books 
and  articles  upon  various  aspects  of  the  Eastern  question. 
See  Sinie<in  Pjerotic,  Sulfa  vifa  e  snlle  opere  di  Mnttia  Ban 
(Zara,  1881).  A.  H.  Marsh. 

Bana'na  (.J/i'sn  sapien'U'um):  a  tropical  fruit-tree  (and 
fruit)  of  great  importance  in  both  hemispheres.  It  is  an 
herbaceous  jilant  with  a  strong  rhizome,  from  which  s|M0uts 
or  suckei-s  arise  and  jiropagate  the  specie-s,  for  the  fruit  is 
nearly  always  seeilless.  Tlie  fdant  grows  to  a  height  of  10  to 
20  feet,  bearing  enormous  entire  ascending  leaves,  and  clus- 
ters containing  from  50  to  150  fruits.    A  vear  or  two  after 


478 


BAXAXAL 


BAXDA 


a  banana-plant  becomes  established  it  begins  to  flower,  the 
fruit  maturing  in  from  90  to  120  days  thereafter.  After  tlie 
fruit  is  ripe,  the  plant  dies  to  the  ground  and  the  younger 
shoots  take  its  place.  Two  or  three  suckers  are  allowed  to 
grow  from  a  plant,  the  others  being  destroyed  or  trans- 
planted. The  suckers  are  transplanted  when  3  or  3  feet 
high,  and  are  set  deep,  as  low  as  2  feet  in  many  cases.  It  is 
thought  that  the  transplanted  plants  do  not  produce  so  well 
as  the  suckers  which  are  undisturbed.  Bananas  are  planted 
in  rows  about  8  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  in  adjoining  rows 
alternate  at  a  distance  apart  of  about  9  or  10  feet.  This 
method  affords  shade  to  the  ground,  while  it  does  not  keep 
the  sun  from  the  jilants.  The  banana  is  now  grown  in 
Southern  Florida  wit  h  success.  The  varieties  are  numerous 
and  various.  Bananas  are  constantly  gaining  in  popularity 
in  this  country  as  a  common  article  of  food.  This  is  due  in 
part  to  the  better  trans|)ortation  facilities  of  recent  years 
t)etween  the  tropics  and  northern  markets.  The  first  bananas 
brought  to  this  country  are  said  to  have  come  from  Cuba  in 
1804,  and  the  first  fulfcargo  (1.500  bunches)  arrived  in  18H0. 
The  annual  importation  is  now  (1893)  not  far  from  10,000,000 
bunches.     See  Plantain.  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Banaiial.  bali-naa-naal'  [said  to  be  from  hfinriiia]  :  an 
island  of  Brazil;  in  the  river  Araguay.  and  in  t lie  province 
of  Goyaz.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  290  miles,  ami  its  width 
about  35  miles.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  covered  with  a  dense 
forest.     There  is  a  large  lake  near  the  middle  of  the  island. 

Banana-quit' :  one  of  a  group  of  veiy  small  birds  of  the 
honey-creeper  family  (Ccerehidie).  found  in  tropical  America. 
One  species  (Certhioht  buliumensis)  is  found  in  Florida. 

Banat :  district  or  territory  under  a  Ban  {q.  v.) ;  especially 
the  name  of  a  temtory  of  Hungary  (distinctively  pronounced 
baa-naat ),  embracing  tlie  counties  of  Temesvar,  Torontal, 
and  Krasso;  princijial  town,  Temesvar:  originally  a  part 
of  Hungary :  belonged  to  the  Turks  1653-1716 ;  became 
united  with  Hungary  ITTi). 

Ban'bury :  small  town  of  Oxfordshire :  78  miles  X.  W.  of 
London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  ll-II) ;  returned  a  member 
to  Parliament  until  1885.  Pop.  (1891)  12,767;  famous  in 
Ben  Jonson's  day  and  at  present  for  its  cakes  and  ale. 

Banc ;  in  law,  a  term  used  in  the  phrases  trial  in  banc, 
sitting  in  banc,  meaning  a  trial  or  sitting  at  which  the  full 
number  of  judges  are  present,  as  distinguished  from  a  trial 
or  sitting  M(Si\pi-ji(S  presided  over  by  a  single  judge.  See 
Xisi  Prius.  "  F.  Sturges  Allex. 

Banea.  baang'kaa,  or  Bang-ka :  an  island  in  the  Malay 
Archi|ielago :  belonging  to  Holland  ;  about  10  miles  E.  of 
Sumatra,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Bauca 
(see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  7-C').  It  is  about  100  miles 
long,  and  has  an  area  of  4,977  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  the  soil  mostly  dry  and  stony,  and  the  island  to  a  great 
extent  covered  with  forests.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  tin  mines, 
which  are  very  productive,  about  4.700  tons  having  been  ]jro- 
duced  in  a  single  vear.  Copper,  iron,  and  lead  are  also  found 
here.     Pop.  (1890)  79,648. 

Ban'co:  the  standard  money  in  which  a  bank  keeps  its 
accounts,  as  distinguished  from  current  money.  The  term 
is  chiefly  applied  to  the  money  in  which  the  Hamburg  bank 
keeps  its  accounts,  which  is  not  coined  money.  The  Ham- 
burg mark  banco  (=  l.s.  5Jrf.  sterling)  is  to  the  current  mark 
(  =  l.s-.  -ZU.  sterling)  as  20  to  17. 

Ban'croft,  Aarox,  I).  I). ;  Unitarian  minister ;  b.  at  Read- 
ing, Mass.,  Xov.  10. 1755.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1778, 
and  became  in  1785  pastor  at  Worcester,  where  he  remained 
iijjward  of  fifty  years.  Among  his  works,  beside  a  great 
number  of  sermo"ns,  is  a  life  of  George  Washington  (1807), 
which  was  very  popular.  He  was  the  father  of  George  Ban- 
croft, the  historian.     D.  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1839. 

Bancroft.  Edwarh,  M.  I).,  F.  R.  S. :  b.  at  Westficld,  Mass., 
Jan.  9, 1744  ;  ran  away  from  his  native  country  in  his  youth  ; 
practiced  medicine  in  Guiana,  and  resided  long  in  England. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  professed  to  labor  in 
behalf  of  America,  but  is  believed  to  have  been  a  spy  of  the 
British  Government.  He  published  several  political  works, 
a  yatuml  Ilixlon/  of  6'wiV/H(f  (London.  1 769).  and  Reseairlies 
Concerning  t/ie.  Philosophij  of  Permnnent  Colors  (2  vols.. 
1794-1813).     D.  in  London.  Sept.  8,  1830. 

Bancroft.  GEnR(iK.  Ph.  D..  LL.  D.,  L.  H.  D.,  D.  C.  L. ;  his- 
torian: a  son  of  Aaron,  noticed  above;  b.  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1800:  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1817, 
and  entered  in  1818  the  University  of  Gotlingen,  where  he 


studied  history  and  philology  under  Heeren.  Bunsen.  and 
othei's.  In  1820  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
at  Gfittingen.  Having  returned  home  in  1822.  he  pulilisheil 
a  volume  of  poems  (1823)  and  a  translation  of  Heeren's  Re- 
flections on  Vie  Puliticn  of  Ancient  Greece  (1824).  In  1834 
he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  Histori/  of  tlie  United 
States.  He  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Xavy  by  Presi- 
dent Polk  in  Mar.,  1845,  in  which  year  he  foundetl  the  U.  S. 
X^aval  Academy :  resigned  office  in  1846.  and  was  sent  as 
minister  pleniiiotentiary  to  England  in  the  same  year.  He 
returned  ho-ne  in  1849,  retired  from  the  public  service,  and 
for  several  years  resided  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Appointed 
minister  to  the  court  of  Berlin  in  1867.  he  negotiated  a  treaty 
by  which  Germans  emigi-ating  to  the  U.  S.  are  released  from 
their  allegiance  to  the  Government  of  their  native  country. 
In  1871-74  he  was  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  German 
empire,  and  rendered  important  services  in  settling  the  San 
Juan  boundary  ciuestion.  His  capital  work  is  a  History  of 
the  United  States.  The  tenth  volume,  to  the  end  of  the 
Revolutionary  war,  appeared  in  1874.  The  eleventli  and 
twelfth  volumes,  giving  the  hi>tory  of  the  Constitution,  aji- 
peared  in  1882.  In  the  same  year  he  began  to  issue  his  final 
revised  edition  of  the  whole  work.  This  edition  (last  vol- 
ume puljlished  in  1885)  is  completed  in  6  vols.  8vo.  The 
work  is  the  most  elaborate  and  carefully  prepared  history 
of  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  periods  yet  published. 
It  is  the  result  of  fifty  years  of  labor  on  all  available  Euro- 
pean and  American  sources.  The  style  is  stately  and  some- 
what discursive.     D.  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  17,  1891, 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe  :  historical  writer ;  h.  at  Gran- 
ville, ( )..  May  5,  1833 ;  fii-st  went  to  California  in  1852 ;  estab- 
lished a  book-store  in  San  Francisco  1856.  which  developed 
into  one  of  the  largest  book-stores  and  publishing-houses  in 
the  country;  began  (1859)  coUeoting  books  in  Europe  and 
America  concerning  the  Pacific  coast,  and  gradually  formed 
the  Bancroft  library  (50,000  vols.),  which  occupies  a  substan- 
tial building  erected  by  5Ir.  Bancroft  on  Valencia  Street ; 
resolved  about  1871  to  devote  himself  to  the  writing  of  the 
history  of  the  Pacific  slojie.  On  account  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  task  he  organized  a  large  stafl'  of  literary  assistants.  His 
published  works  in  thirty-nine  volumes  are;  Native  Races 
of  the  Pacific  States  (5  vols..  1875-76) ;  histories  of  Central 
America  (3  vols.,  1882-83);  3Ie.rico  (6  vols.,  1883-85) ;  North 
Mcrican  States  (3  vols..  1887) ;  California  (7  vols.,  1886-90) ; 
Oregon  (2  vols.,  1886-87):  Northwest  Coast  (2  vols.,  1884); 
British  Columbia  ■.AlasKri:  Utah;  Nerada  and  Colorado; 
New  Mexico;  Popular  Tribunals;  California  Pa.<<toral ; 
Califortiia  inter  Pocida  ;  £ssai/s  and  Jliscellani/  ;  Literary 
Industries.  The  last  named  contains  an  interesting  account 
of  his  methods  of  work.  His  avowed  purpose  was  less  to 
write  history  than  to  make  accessible  to  students  the  vast 
accumulations  of  documents  and  information  which  lie  had 
gathered.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Bancroft.  Richard  ;  Archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  b.  at 
Farnworth,  Sept..  1544;  educated  at  Cambridge:  chaplain  to 
Archbisliop  \V  hitgift ;  consecrated  Bishop  of  London  1597; 
attended  Queen  Elizabeth  during  her  last  illness ;  liecame 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1604;  Chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  1608;  bitterly  opposed  the  Puritans;  pro- 
claimed the  divine  origin  and  prerogative  of  bishops ;  en- 
forced conformity  with  a  high  hand;  deprived  forty-nine 
ministers  of  their  livings  for  disobedience ;  was  "  chief  over- 
seer "of  the  commission  which  produced  the  King  .James 
version  of  the  Bible.  He  was  a  resolute  ruler  and  an  elo- 
quent preacher,  and  the  High  Church  party  of  the  Anglican 
Church  dates  from  him.     I),  in  London,  Xov.  3,  1610. 

Banda.  baan'daa;  a  district  and  city  of  the  Allahabad 
division,  Xorthwestern  Provinces,  British  India.  It  lies  be- 
tween the  parallels  25  au<l  26'  X'.,and  meridians  80'  and  82° 
E. ;  on  the  Jamna  river.  Area.  3,061  sq.  miles.  Pop.  700.000, 
nearly  all  of  whom  are  Hindus.  The  siu'face  is  variegated 
and  somewhat  rocky,  the  Vindhya  Hills  forming  the  boun- 
dary on  the  S.  E.  The  most  important  crop  is  cotton,  and 
the  district  is  so  well  known  for  this  that  its  product  is  dis- 
tinguished in  commerce  as  Banda  cotton.  Millet,  wheat, 
corn,  barley,  and  rice  are  also  raised  extensively.  Iron  and 
building-stone  are  the  only  mineral  products.  Coai-se  cotton- 
cloth,  sackcloth,  and  stone  handles  for  knives  are  manufac- 
tured. Tlu' climate  is  cold  in  winter,  but  very  hot  in  sum- 
mer. Hot  wiiiils  are  a  not  unusual  cause  of  death  to  natives 
exposed  to  them.  The  annual  rainfall  is  about  50  inches. 
A  branch  of  the  East  Iiulian  Railway  passes  through  the 


BAXDA(iK.S 


BAXDIERA 


4r;> 


ilislrict.  Banila  i-ity  (lat.  2.)^  28'  X.,  Ion.  80'  23'  E.)  (see 
map  of  X.  India,  n-f.  6-F).  on  tlie  river  Ken,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  2!l.(»00.     Tlie  otlirr  towns  are  small.  JI.  \V.  H. 

liniitliii^cs  [from  Fr.  humhige,  a  banda*;!',  dcriv.  of  bande, 
En;;.  IkiiiiI:  of  Teutonic  ori;;in]:  the  hands  used  hy  surgeons 
to  iiind  wounils  or  injured  parts,  or  t<i  retain  dressings.  Tlie 
most  eomniun  form  of  liandage  is  made  of  strijis  of  muslin, 
linen,  or  the  like,  of  varying  width,  and  rolled  longitudinally 
into  a  cylinder.  The  bandage  is  applied  to  a  limb  in  a  spiral 
Mumner,  each  turn  overlapping  one-third  of  the  hist,  and 
where  the  limb  is  conical  the  bandage  is  folded  back  or  re- 
rersed  so  as  to  exercise  pressure  e(|Uably.  Pressure  must 
be  carefully  regulated  lesl  the  circulation  be  obstructed, 
and.  as  ha.s  freijuently  happened,  gangrene  result.  Special 
forms  of  liandages  arc  used  for  dilterent  Jiarts  of  the  body. 
A  large  handkerchief  may  sometimes  be  used  witli  advan- 
tage. Sometimes  bandages  are  made  to  become  immovable 
liy  first  being  soaked  in  starch  or  plaster-of-Paris.  One  of 
the  most  useful  of  baiuUiges  for  emergencies  is  the  "  Spanish 
windlass,"  to  check  serious  bleeding  from  any  part  of  either 
extremity.  It  is  merely  a  strip  of  muslin  or  a  pocket  hand- 
kerchief passed  around  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  tied  in  a 
knot,  and  then  twisted  firmly  by  a  stick  or  bayonet  passed 
under  it,  so  as  to  press  with  sufficient  force  to  arrest  t\w. 
arterial  circulation.  It  must  not  be  left  on  many  hours,  but 
its  temporary  application  has  often  saved  life.  In  like  man- 
ner, free  bleeding  from  a  wound  of  the  scalp  may  be  eon- 
trolled  by  a  compress  and  bandage  tightly  apjilied  around 
the  head.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

ISaiidai-Snn.  baan'-dl-salin' :  a  volcano  of  .Japan;  about 
1  (0  miles  .\.  of  Tokio.  Tlie  summit  includes  several  ])eaks. 
■  4'  which  the  highest  rises  (),035  feet  above  the  ocean  and 
aliout  4.0110  feet  above  the  adjacent  plain.  On  the  morning 
of.luly  lo,  1888,  a  tremendous  explosion  of  steam  occurred 
by  which  a  side  of  the  mountain  was  blown  out,  i)roducing 
a  crater  more  than  a  mile  wide,  with  precipitous  walls  on 
three  sides.  The  rock  was  broken  into  fragments  and  partly 
reduced  to  dust,  and  the  di'l/n's  rushed  down  the  slope  and 
over  the  adjacent  plain,  covering  a  district  27  si|.  miles  in 
area,  burying  a  number  of  villages  and  killin;»401  persons. 
The  volume  of  the  ejected  material  was  about  two-sevenths 
of  a  culjic  mile.  The  eruption  is  described  by  S.  Sekiya  and 
V.  Kikuchi  in  vol.  xiii.of  the  I'ransactiuHs  of  the  Scismohg- 
iiitl  Sofifli/  ofJiijMiit.  (t.  K.  Gilbert. 

Bail'da  Isles:  a  gioiip  of  islands,  about  50  miles  S.  of 
C'eram.  forming  part  of  the  Molucca  .Vrchiiielago ;  belonging 
to  the  Dutch  (.see  map  of  East  Indies,  ret.  8-1):  discovered 
in  1511  by  a  Portuguese.  Antonio  Abreus.  Portugal  took 
|K)ssessioii  of  the  islands  in  l.")24,  and  in  loflit  they  pa.ssed 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Dutch,  and  as  a  Dulcli  province 
they  now  form  the  presidency  of  lianda.  with  an  area  of 
7.150  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  111,000.  of  whom  6.000 
are  in  Xeira,  the  seat  of  government.  They  are  lofty  and 
volcanic;  one  of  them,  named  Gnnong  Ajii,  rises  7.880  feet 
above  the  .sea,  and  is  an  active  volcano.  In  the  larger  isl- 
ands nutmegs  and  mace  are  grown  exclusively.  The  name 
is  sometimes,  but  improperly,  applied  to  all  the  islands  N'.  of 
the  Banda  Sea. 

Bailda'lia.  or  naildaii'lia:  a  silk  or  cotton  handkerchief 
of  Kast  Indian  <irigin.  tluaigh  now  extensively  m:inufactured 
in  (ireat  Britain.  The  cloth  is  dyed  Turkey-red.  and  then 
the  pattern  is  made  by  discharging  I  he  color  with  bleaching- 
liipior  in  a  hydraulic  press.  Tlie  patterns  of  the  real  ban- 
dana are  s[iots  and  diamond  prints. 

Itaiida  (baan'dali)  Oriental,  i.  e.  the  Eastern  Shore,  a 
name  oflni  employed  for  Urlol'.w  (q.  i:). 

Baiidcl.  baanih'l,  Joseph  Erxst,  von:  b.  at  .\nspach, 
Mav  17,  1800;  receive<I  his  artistic  education  at  the  academy 
of  .\Iunich  ;  studied  for  several  ycai-s  in  Koine,  and  settled  in 
1S27  at  Munich.  In  18;!4  he  moved  to  Hanover.  His  prin- 
eijial  Work  is  the  Hermann  monument  in  the  Tcutobuvger- 
\\  aM.  near  Detmolil.  It  was  begun  in  18;38.  but  not  finished 
until  nearly  forty  years  later,  and  consists  of  a  figure  repre- 
senting Hermann.  !I0  feet  high,  of  co|iper,  and  raised  on  a 
foundation  of  granite  9:iJ  feet  high.  In  1846  the  foundation 
was  ready  to  receive  the  statue,  but  the  reaction  which  in  1850 
set  in  and  swept  through  the  whole  of  Germany  made  it 
impossible  to  carry  out  a  plan  like  that  of  the  Ilerinann 
moiiunient.  In  1S62  an  association  was  formed  in  Hanover 
for  the  purpose,  but  only  an  iiisiu'nil\<anl  sum  was  raised; 
in  186!)  the  King  of  Prussia  gave  2,000  thalers;  but  after  the 
Franco-German  war  the  Hermann  monument  became  a  na- 


tional affair  and  was  soon  completed.  D.  at  Xeudegg,  near 
Donanworl  h.  Sept.  25,  1876. 

Itaii-de-la-lioclie  :  See  Oi!erlix,  .Jean  Frederic. 

Itaiidelkliiiiid  :  another  spelling  of  Bixuelkuaxd  (</.  v.). 

liandollo.  baan-dcl'lo,  Mattko:  Italian  story-wTiter ;  b. 
at  Castelmiovo,  Piedmont,  in  1480 ;  became  a  Dominican, 
and  was  teacher  to  Lucrezia  Gonzaga.  Alter  the  battle  of 
Pavia  he  had  to  flee  to  France,  and  tinally  Henry  II.  made 
him  Bishop  of  Ageii  (15.50).  He  was  living  in  1.561.  His 
Xovelle  were  famous  over  all  Europe,  and  like  the  similar 
collection,  the  Dercimeroii,  serveil  as  a  quarry  for  many  suc- 
ceeding writers,  among  them  Shakspeare.  There  are  214  of 
these  Novelle  divided  into  four  parts.  The  best  edition  is 
that  of  Sylvestri  (Milan,  1813-14,  9  vols.).  Some  of  them 
were  translated  by  T.  Roscoe  in  his  Italian  Novelists  (vol. 
iii.,  London.  1825)!  Revised  by  A.  R.  Maksu. 

Itaudettini.  baan-det-tee'ne"e,  Teresa:  Italian  poet  and 
iinprovisatrice;  b.  at  Lucca,  Aug.  12,  1755;  d.  Apr.  5,  1837. 
She  began  life  as  a  dansense.  and  only  by  cliance  discovered 
her  talent  for  poetical  improvisation.  Her  success  in  the 
latter  field  \vas  extraordinary;  and  the  Amarilli  Etrusca, 
as  she  wa,s  called,  received  distinguished  honors  in  many 
[larts  of  Italy.  Of  her  vei-se  we  have  in  jiermanent  form : 
La  J/orte  di  Adniiide,  a  iioem  in  four  chants;  II  Polidoro, 
a  tragedy;  La  Jidsmunda,  a,  drama;  besides  many  shorter 
pieces.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Itandilsli:  the  Cep'ola  n/ie.f'«'«.s  or  any  allied  fish  hav- 
ing the  body  much  elongated  and  compressed.     The  name 


Red  bandflsli. 


has  also  been  given  sometimes  to  other  elongated  and  much 
compressed  fishes.  Th<>  reil  bandfish  iCc/Kita  riibescens)  is 
about  15  inches  long,  and  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Baii'dicoot:  a  species  of  Peramelida'.n  family  of  marsu- 
pial quadiiqieds,  natives  of  Australia  and  Tasmania,  having 
a  long  head  and  a  pointed  muzzle.     They  devour  grain  in 


Lon^-nosed  bandicoot. 

granaries  and  potatoes  in  the  field.  The  Perameles  7iaf:nta 
is  about  IS  inches  long.  The  name  is  popularly  extended 
to  several  kindred  genera  of  marsupials. 

Bandiora,  ba"iin-dee-ayra,  Atilio  and  Emilio:  two  broth- 
ers and  Italian  patriots  ;  liorn  respectively  in  1817  and  1819  ; 
were  sons  of  a  vice-admiral  in  the  Austrian  service.  In  the 
year  1842  they  opened  a  correspondence  with  Mazzini.  and 
formed  a  design  to  lilierale  Italy  by  a  conspiracy.  They 
failed,  and  escaped  to  Corfu  about  Jfar..  1844.  but  hearing  a 
false  or  exaggerated  rumor  of  a  revolt  in  Xaples.  they  re- 
turned with  a  few  friends  and  laniled  in  Calabria  in  June. 
They  were  executed  in  the  public  square  of  Cosenza,  July 


480 


BANDINELLI 


BANGOR 


25,  1844,  tlieir  letters  to  Slazzini  having  been  opened  by  the 
Britisli  postmaster-general,  and  the  contents  communicated 
to  the  Austrian  Government. 

Bandiuelli,  baan-de'e-nel'le'e,  Baccio:  sculptor  and 
painter :  b.  1493 ;  d.  at  Florence,  1560.  He  was  one  of  the 
more  celebrated  artists  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  ratlier 
from  the  large  amount  of  his  generally  skillful  and  popular 
work  than  by  any  lofty  character  or  unusual  excellence 
given  to  it.  "  Tlie"  Jlercules  and  Cucus  in  the  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi  at  Florence,  the  tombs  of  the  Popes  Clement  VII.  and 
Leo  X.  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva  at 
Rome,  and  the  Archangel  Michael  on  the  top  of  the  Castle 
of  St.  Angelo,  also  at  Rome,  are  perhaps  his  best-known 
works.  Russell  Sturgis. 

Bandiiii,  haan-dce'ne'e,  Angiolo  Mama  (1726-1803):  clas- 
sical philologian  and  librarian  of  the  Laurentiana  in  Flor- 
ence; made  famous  by  his  Catalogue  of  the  Laurentiana,  a 
monumental  work  of  erudition  and  accuracy. 

Baiidit'ti  [from  Ital.  handito,  proclaimed,  outlawed,  de- 
riv.  of  handire  =  Med.  Lat.  hanni're.  from  Teutonic  ban ; 
cf.  Eng.  ban] :  bands  of  robbers  in  the  mountainous  jiarts 
of  Italy  and  Greece,  who  fall  upon  travelers  and  hold  them 
captive  for  a  ransom.  In  former  times  there  existed  in  the 
larger  towns  of  Italy  organized  associations  of  bandits, 
whose  stilettoes  were  ready  for  hire  to  accomplish  any  deadly 
scheme.  They  were  called  euphemistically  bract  ("brave 
men  "),  and  were  not  exterminated  until  the  modern  im- 
provements in  police  organization.  Hired  assassination  (ho- 
micidiiim  conductum,  assassinatiis)  was  a  worse  crime  than 
ordinary  murder,  and  punished  by  the  wheel. 

Band  of  Hope  :  See  Loyal  Temperanxe  Legion. 

Baii'doii,  or  Baiidoubrid^e :  a  town  of  Ireland ;  on  the 
river  Bandon  ;  20  miles  S.  W.  of  Cork  (see  map  of  Ireland, 
ref.  14-E).  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which 
enters  the  harbor  of  Kinsale.  Bandon  was  formerly  a  pros- 
perous manufacturing  town,  but  its  prosperity  has  consider- 
ably declined.    Pop.  6,000. 

Baii6r,  bali-nar',  written  also  Banuier,  or  Banner,  Jo- 

HAN :  a  famous  Swedish  general ;  b.  at  Djursholm,  near 
Stockholm,  .lune  23,  ir)!l0.  lie  commanded  the  right  wing 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the  battle  of  Leipzig  in  Sept., 
1631.  His  conduct  in  this  action  was  highly  applauded. 
On  the  death  of  Gustarus  Adolphus  (Nov.,  1632)  he  became 
tlie  conuMander-in-ehief  of  the  Swedish  army.  He  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  near  Wittstock,  Oct.  4,  1636,  and  again  de- 
feated the  imperial  army  near  Chemnitz,  Apr.  14, 1639,  after 
which  he  overran  a  large  part  of  Germany.  I),  at  Halber- 
statlt,  June  20,  1641.  Schiller  represents  him  as  great  in  ad- 
versity, and  formidable  even  after  defeat.  Sit  Schiller,  Ilis- 
tnrg  of  the  Thirty  Years  War;  Carl  Manderfeldt,  Ehxje  de 
J.  Baner,  Copenhagen,  1787. 

Banff.  V)amf  :  an  ancient  seaport-town  of  Scotland  ;  capi- 
tal of  Banffshire ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Leverou  ;  on 
Moray  Frith  ;  about,  40  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Aberdeen  (see  map 
of  Scotlaml,  ref.  6-1).  A  bridge  over  the  river  connects  it 
with  Macdutf.  Here  is  Duff  House,  the  seat  of  the  Earl 
of  Fife,  with  a  ])ark  14  miles  in  circumference.  Bantf  has 
manufactm-es  of  leather,  soap,  iron  castings,  linen,  sails,  and 
cordage,  and  has  ini|)ortanl  fisheries  of  salmon,  cod,  and  her- 
ring, wliich,  with  agricultural  products,  are  exported  from 
this  town  by  sea.  Banff  has  a  lighthouse  in  lat.  57°  40'  N., 
Ion.  2°  31'  \V.  The  harbor  is  shallow  and  poor.  The  town 
has  numerous  and  excellent  schools  and  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  river  is  liable  to  floods,  which  have  sometimes 
been  destructive.    Pop.  8,000. 

BaiifTshirp :  a  county  of  Scotland;  bounded  N.  by 
Mi>rav  Frith.  K.  and  S.  by  Aberdeenshire,  and  W.  by  Elgin 
and  invcrness-shire,  and  [larlly  by  the  river  Sjiey,  a  very 
rapid  stream.  Area.  014  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  greatly 
diversifieil  by  mountains  and  valleys.  Among  its  liighest 
peaks  is  Cairngorm,  4,090  feet  high.  Granite,  slate,  old  red 
sandstone,  limestone,  and  serpentine  occur  here.  The  soil 
of  the  valleys  is  fertile.  The  breeding  of  cattle  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  farmers.  Capital,  Banff.  Pop.  (1881)62,- 
736;  (1891)64,107. 

Ban^,  baling,  Antox  Chbistian  :  a  Norwegian  author  of 
a  series  of  valuable  works  on  church  history;  b.  Sept.  18, 
1840.  His  chief  works  are ;  JIans  Nielsen  Hauge  og  bans 
Samtid  (2d  ed.  1875);  Kirken  og  Romerstoten  indtil  Con- 
stantin  den  Store  (1879) ;  Julian  den  Frafaldne  (1881) ;  and 


Vdsigt  over  den  norshe  Kirkes  Hisforie  efter  Hefnrmaiionen 
(1883).  In  recent  years  he  has  written  some  valuable  pam- 
phlets on  Norse  mythology.  R.  B.  Anderson. 

Ban^.  Herman  ;  Danish  novelist  and  poet ;  b.  on  the 
island  of  Alsen,  Apr.  20.  1857.  His  masterpiece  is  perhaps 
Ved  Veien  (By  the  Roadside).  Of  his  other  works  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned :  Haahlose  Shegter  (Hopeless  Gen- 
erations) ;  Ftedra  ;  Excentriske  XoveVer  (Eccentric  Tales) ; 
Sttik;  Digte  (Poems);  Under  Aaget  (Under  the  Yoke) ;  Ti 
Aar  (Ten  Years) — all  published  since  1879. 

G.  L.  KiTTREDGE. 

Bangalore,  bajing-ga-lor' :  a  strongly  fortified  town  of 
India;  the  capital  of  Mysore;  on  a  high  table-land;  71 
mdes  N.  E.  of  Seringapatam ;  lat.  12'  58'  N.,  Ion.  77'  38'  E. 
(see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  the  chief  British  mili- 
tary station  in  Mysore,  and  is  much  frequented  liy  Eiu-opeans, 
attracted  by  the  salubrity  of  the  air.  The  tem]ierature  sel- 
dom exceeds  90'  F.  Here  are  important  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  silk.  It  was  taken  by  storm  by  Lord  Cornwallis 
in  1791.     Pop.  (1891)  179.070. 

Bang-ka,  baang'ka,  or  JIaug-ka,  maang'ka,  the  largest 
city  of  Northern  Formosa  (g.  v.),  on  the  Tamsui  river,  and 
about  13  miles  from  its  mouth.  A  railway  connects  it  with 
KiLUNo  (q.  !'.).  Near  Bang-ka  is  Twa-tu-tia,  the  great  cen- 
ter of  the  tea-trade  of  Formosa,  and  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Taiwan  (i.  e.  Formosa)  from  1885  to  1896.  Pop. 
variously  estimated  from  50,000  to  100,000. 

Bang'kok'.  or  Baukok  :  a  large  commercial  city  ;  capi- 
tal of  Siam  ;  situated  on  the  river  Meinara,  about  20  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam  ;  lat.  13°  38'  N.,  Ion. 
100'  34'  E.  (see  map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  3-B).  It  is  mostly  built 
of  wood,  but  has  some  brick  and  stone  houses.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  built  on  movable  bamboo  rafts  on  the  river.  The 
Chinese  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  population,  which  is 
estimated  at  000.000  to  1,000.000.  Bangkok  contains  a  large 
royal  palace  and  numerous  Buddhist  temples,  which  are 
decorated  in  a  gorgeous  style.  The  stationary  dwelling- 
houses  are  raised  on  piles  6  or  8  feet  from  the  ground,  in 
order  to  proy:-ct  them  from  intnidations.  The  river  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  250  tons  from  its  mouth  to  liangkok, 
which  has  an  extensive  trade.  The  chief  articles  of  export 
are  sugar,  pepper,  rice,  ivoiy,  cardamoms,  hides,  tin,  etc. 
Iron  mines  and  forests  of  teak  occur  in  the  vicinity.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Roman  Catholic  and  of  American  Baptist  and 
Presbyterian  missions.  It  has  some  native  Christians  of 
Portuguese  descent.     See  Sir  John  Bowring's  Siam. 

Ban'gor  :  an  episcopal  city  and  seaport  of  North  Wales  ; 
county  of  Caernarvon  ;  on  the  S.  E.  shore  of  Jlenai  Strait ; 
2i  miles  from  the  Britannia  bridge,  and  9  miles  N.  E.  of 
Caenuirvon  {see  map  of  England,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  on  the 
railway  which  connects  Chester  and  Holyhead,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  a  narrow,  romantic  valley.  The  grandeur  and  beauty 
of  the  scenery  render  it  a  favorite  place  of  summer  resort. 
Six  miles  from  Bangor  are  slate-quarries  which  em])loy  about 
2.000  men.  This  city  is  very  ancient.  The  famous  monas- 
tery of  Bangor  was  founded  by  Comgall.  The  cathedral, 
originally  founded  in  525.  has  been  twice  destroyed  (in  1071 
and  in  1402).  Bangor  has  eight  annual  fairs,  four  of  which 
are  for  cattle.  They  are  visited  by  great  throngs  of  Iniyers 
and  sellers.  The  trade  by  sea  is  not  imjiortant,  the  liarbor 
not  being  accessible  to  large  vessels.  The  diocese  includes 
the  island  of  Anglesea.     Pop.  (1891)  9,892. 

Bangor :  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  important  railroad  and 
commercial  center;  capital  of  Penobscot  co..  Me.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  .Maine,  ref.  C-E);  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Penobscot  river,  about  00  miles  from  its  motith,  and  at  the 
head  of  navigation.  The  Kenduskeag  stream,  navigable  to 
the  center  of  the  city,  runs  directly  through  it.  dividing  the 
city  into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  The  stream  is  spanned  by 
a  number  of  bridges,  and  on  it  are  located  several  impor- 
tant manufacturing  industries.  The  city  is  surrounded  by 
an  excellent  agricultural  country,  which  sends  to  Bangor 
large  quantifies  of  farming  produce  for  export.  There  is  a 
large  business  in  insurance  done  here.  '\Vater  is  carried 
from  the  river  by  the  Holly  system  to  every  |KU'tion  of  the 
city,  supplying  residences  and  stores,  furnishing  power  for 
small  inilustries,  ami  an  abundant  supply  for  extinguishing 
fires.  The  dam,  bidlt  at  an  expense  of  |500.000,  crosses  the 
river  at  the  water-works,  and  affords  excellent  power  for 
manufacturing  in<lustries.  Bangor  has  a  fine  granite  custom- 
house, an  elegant  opera-house,  and  several  first-class  hotels. 
The  streets  arc  broad,  well  shaded,  and  lighted  by  clec- 


BANGOR 


BANK 


481 


tricity.  There  are  5  iintioiial,  2  savings,  and  several  private 
tianks. 

Jfiiiiufaclures,  etr. — The  niunufaetiiriiij;  industries  of 
l{un;;or  are  diversified,  iiiehidinjr  several  large  iron  foun- 
dries, |ilaniiig-iiiiUs,  furniture,  carriaije,  and  trunk  manu- 
factories, and  a  nund)er  of  boot  and  shoe  manufactories. 
The  cil.v  otfers  special  inducements  to  manufacturers  on  ac- 
count of  the  low  cost  of  snitatjle  locations  and  the  cheai)- 
ness  of  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  most  magnifi- 
cent water-powi'r  in  New  England  is  located  a  few  miles 
above  llie  city,  and  here  extensive  woolen  mills  are  situated. 
.Several  iiul|i-niills  are  located  along  the  river  above  the  city, 
and  in  tune  this  sectiim  is  certain  to  lie  one  of  tlie  nio.st  im- 
portant matnifacturing  localities  in  New  Kngland.  The 
mmber  business  is  the  principal  industry,  the  amoimt  sur- 
veyed here  being  1T5.000,()()()  feet  annually.  The  ice-busi- 
ness of  Bangor  has  lately  become  important.  The  storage 
<apacitv  of  its  ice-houses  is  about  4'jr).0(X)  tons.  The  ice  cut 
in  the  Penobscot  river  is  of  the  best  (piality. 

Comnii-rn',  eir. — There  is  considerable  commei'ce,  coast- 
wise and  foreign:  the  average  yearly  arrivals  are  about 
2.0(KI.  The  foreign  exports  amount  to  about  .^I.5I),000  an- 
nually, of  which  spool-wooil,  shooks.  and  lumber  form  the 
principal  part.  The  city  has  railroad  and  steamboat  com- 
munication with  all  points  ea.st.  west,  and  .south.  The  com- 
pletion of  the  Catiadian  Pacific  Railway,  conn<'cting  with  the 
Bangor  and  I'iscataipiis  R.  R.  at  Brownsville,  adils  greatly 
to  the  advantages  of  Bangor  as  a  commercial  center.  Ban- 
gor is  the  distributing  point  for  travel  to  the  summer-resorts 
of  Eastern  .Maine,  among  the  principal  of  which  are  Bar 
llarljor.  which  is  within  two  hours'  ride  of  the  city,  and 
Mooschead  Lake.  A  new  railroad,  the  Bangor  and  Aroos- 
took, is  now  lieing  constructed  from  Bangor  to  Northern 
Aroostook,  a  distance  of  2(H)  miles.  The  Bangor  and  Pisca- 
taqius  has  been  leased  by  the  new  road. 

Sdlmiiii-fixliiiKj. — In  1880  it  was  discovered  that  salmon 
could  be  taken  with  a  fly  in  the  river  Ixdow  the  dam,  and 
now  salmon-fishing  is  very  popular  here.  A  fine  club- 
house for  sportsmen  has  been  built. 

Chitrchex,  Kducatiun.  etc. — The  city  has  18  churches,  and 
:{  daily  papeis  with  weekly  e<litions.  The  city  schools  are 
among  the  liest  in  the  State,  and  the  theological  seminary 
has  a  high  reputation.  The  fine  [lublic  library  hsis  about 
2o,()()()  volumes.  It  is  malidy  supported  by  the  income  of 
a  fund,  amounting  to  $112,000,  established  by  citizens  of 
Bangor,  the  greater  portion  of  which  ($100,000)  was  given 
Ipy  the  late  Samuel  F.  Mersey. 

llixtonj. — The  French  erected  a  fort  on  the  jiresent  site 
•  if  Bangor  in  1H")I>.  and  named  it  Xorombega.  The  place 
wiLS  settled  in  17(i!).  and  was  then  called  Kendusk<>ag.  Its 
name  was  changeil  to  Bangor  by  Rev.  Seth  Noble,  in  honor 
of  a  well-known  psalm-tune  of  that  name.  In  ITSil  the  vil- 
lage was  incor]ioraled  as  a  town,  and  in  1834  it  became  a 
city.  Its  rapid  growth  sin(-e  that  time  has  been  the  result 
"f  its  ])osition.  which  combines  the  advantages  of  a  noble 
and  navigable  tidal  river  with  a  large  and  constant  water- 
power.  It  has  in  the  upper  waters  of  the  Penoliscot  the 
means  of  very  cheap  transportation  of  logs  froiu  the  bound- 
less forests  of  Northern  Maine.  Tlu'se  advantages  math'  it 
for  a,  long  time  the  greatest  lumber-market  in  the  worlil. 
and  even  now  but  few  places  excel  it  in  the  amount  and 
value  of  lumber  sawed  and  shiiiped.  Pop.  (1870)  18,280; 
<1880)  16.s,-)(};  (1800)  lO.KKi.  Bangor,  with  its  suburb. 
Brewer,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  bridge  and  a  steam- 
ferry,  had  in  18!)()  u  iiopidation  of  about  2-"),0t)0  and  a  valua- 
tion of  aliout  ^512,000.000.     Editor  "  Daily  Commkrcial." 

Itungor:  liorough  :  Northampton  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of 
couniy,  see  inaii  of  I'eiHisylvauia,  ref.  4-.1):  on  N.  J.  t'ent. 
and  Bangor  and  Port.  R.  Rs..  1.5  miles  N.  of  Easton.  It  has 
slate-i|Marries  anil  manufactories.  Poii.  (1880)  l,;i28;  (1800) 
•-'..•)0!l. 

liiiiigor  Theological  Seminary :  chartered  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts  in  1811 ;  o|ieneil  at  Hampden  in 
181(5,  imii  removed  to  Bangor,  .Me.,  in  1819,  where  its  first 
cliuss  graduated  the  next  year.  It  is  a  Congregational  in- 
stitidion,  but  its  rooms  and  tuition  are  free  to  Christian 
young  men.  The  regular  course  consists  of  three  years' 
work.  The  library  contains  over  17,000  volumes,  and  the 
property  of  the  institution  is  valued  at  $275,000.  In  1892 
there  were  fiirty-one  students  at  the  seminary,  and  the 
graduates  numliered  (!93. 

lianas.  11i;man:  Methodist  preacher;  b.  at  Fairfield. 
Conn.,  Apr.,  1790;  joined  the  New  York  Annual  Conference 

31 


in  181.5.  He  labored  effectively  in  the  pulpits  of  his  denomi- 
nation in  New  York  and  Coiniecticut.  lie  was  one  of  the 
princifial  fmniders  of  the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  and  one  of  the  most  powerful  preachers  of 
Methodism.     I),  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  2,  18U9. 

Kan^s,  N.VTHAN.  D.  1).:  ^lethodist  minister;  b.  at  .Strat- 
ford, Conn.,  May  2,  1778.  He  became  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian Adiocate  ami  Juiirnal  {ISiH).  and  presiiient  of  the  \Ves- 
Icyan  University  at  Middletown.  Conn.  (1841),  but  resigned 
the  next  year.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  llinlnry  of 
the  jHelhodisI  Episcopal  Church  (4  vols..  New  Y'ork,  ISlO^tS). 
I),  in  New  York  city,  Mav  3,  1862.  See  his  Life,  by  Abel 
Stevens,  New  York,  1863. 

Baiiffweo'lo.  or  ISein'ba:  a  large  lake  in  South  Africa; 
lat.  10°'to  13'  S.,  Ion.  30  K.;  about  150  miles  long  from  N. 
to  S..  and  half  as  broad:  elevation  above  the  sea  aliout 
4,000  feet.  It  was  discovered  liy  Livingstone  in  1808.  It  is 
fed  by  several  large  streams,  the  principal  being  the  Cham- 
bezi  from  the  northeast.  It  is  of  very  irregular  outline  and 
shallow.  It  empties  at  its  southwestern  extremity  into  the 
Luapida.  and  this,  probably,  through  Lake  Moero,  into  the 
Congo  river.  M.  W.  H. 

ISaniiilnka.  bali-nee-iiSi-loo'ka ;  a  fortified  town  of  Bos- 
nia: (111  the  river  Verbas.  94  miles  N.  W.  of  Bosna-Scnai 
(see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  O-F).  It  luis  numerous 
mosques,  many  bazaars,  a^ manufactory  of  giuipowder.  hot 
springs,  and  Roman  antiquities.  Pop.  (1879)  9,560;  (1885) 
11.357. 

Ba'liiin.  .Iohn:  Irish  novelist;  b.  at  Kilkenny,  Apr.  3, 
1798:  excelled  in  the  delineation  of  the  life  and  character 
of  the  Irish  |ieasantrv.  He  published,  with  his  brother,  in 
1825  Talcs  of  the,  ()  Ilara  FamHi/,  which  was  very  popular. 
Among  his  other  works  are  The  Battle  of  the  lioi/ne  (1828); 
7'/i<'  i)ei((,iinced  (1830);  The  Smuggler  (1831):  and  The 
Mai/or  of  Wind-gap.  T).  at  Wind-gap.  near  Kilkenny.  Aug. 
1,  l'842.  He  has  been  called  the  "Scott  of  Ireland,"'  but  is 
deficient  in  humor,  which  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  seeing 
he  was  a  lifelong  invalid.  He  wrote  several  successful  plays. 
See  his  Life,  by  P.  .1.  Murray.  Loiulon.  1857.  A  new  edition 
of  the  0' Ilara  Tales  appeared  in  1865;  individual  novels 
rei)ublished  and  reiirinted  frequently. 

Bail'ister.  .Iohn;  b.  in  England;  came  frotu  the  West 
Indies  to  Yirginia.  and  settled  in  the  neighliorhood  of  .lames- 
town,  devoting  himself  to  botanical  investigations.  He 
contributed  in  1680  a  catalogue  of  Yirginia  plants  to  Ray's 
Ilisforg  of  Plants.  He  published,  among  other  works,  Ob- 
.ieri'ation.i  on  the  Natural  Productions  of  Jamaica,  2'he  In- 
■seets  of  Virginia,  and  Curiosities  in  Virginia.  The  genus 
lianisleriii  was  named  in  his  honor.  He  was  killed  in  Vir- 
ginia, in  1692.  in  one  of  his  botaidcal  excursions,  by  a  fall. 

Banister,  .lonx:  son  of  preceding;  b.  in  Virginia;  was 
educated  in  England,  and  studied  law  there.  He  was  colonel 
in  the  Virginia  line;  was  prominent  in  the  patriotic  con- 
ventions of  the  Revolution;  member  of  th<'  Virginia  As- 
sembly; delegate  from  \'irginia  to  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1778-79.  and  signed  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  He 
was  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry  in  1781.  I),  near  Hatch- 
er's Run,  Dinwiddle  co.,  Va.,  1787. 

Banitvas:  a  tribe  of  South  .\merican  Indians  living  on 
the  Amazon  and  the  Rio  Negro.  A  vocabulary  of  their  lan- 
ginige  is  given  by  Alfred  Wallace  in  A  Narrative  of  Travels 
on  the  Amazon  and  the  liiu  Negro  (185li,  pp.  521-541). 

Baniya :  See  Baxyax. 

Banjarniassiii.   balui-jar-maassin,    or    Beiijar-Massen 

(i.  e.  the  river  of  plenty):  a  town  on  the  river  Banjar,  15 
miles  from  its  mouth,  on  the  south  coast  of  Borneo  (see  map 
of  East  Imlies,  ref.  7-F).  Owing  to  the  inundations  of  the 
river,  the  town  is  mostly  built  on  piles.  It  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  gold-dust,  precious  stones,  birds'  nests,  wax, 
resin,  rubber,  rattan,  pepper,  and  steel  of  native  manufac- 
ture and  excellent  quality.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Chinese,  and  most  of  the  trade  is  with  China.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  former  sultanate,  which  comprises  about 
6,000  sq.  miles,  with  300,000  inhabitants,  mostly  Jlohamme- 
dans.  It  has  been  tributary  to  the  Dutch  since  1787,  and 
was  annexed  by  them  in  1857.    Pop.  of  town,  30,000. 

Bank  [via  Fr.  banque  and  Ital.  hanca,  loan  from  Teu- 
tonic; cf.  O.  H.  Genu,  bnnch,  Kng.  bench.  The  special  con- 
nection of  signification  with  money  is  an  Italian  develop- 
ment]: a  credit  institution  or  a  dealer  in  credits.  This 
credit  is  of  various  kinds.     A  Savixus-baxk  (</.  v.)  receives 


482 


BANK 


deposits,  and  loans  them  to  investors  for  long  terms,  chiefly 
on  real-estate  mortgages.  A  loan  and  trust  com[)aiiy  ad- 
vances money  on  pledges  of  stocks,  bonds,  or  other  securities. 
A  banker  deals  chiefly  with  commercial  papers,  secured  not 
by  real  estate  or  stocks,  but  by  the  l.nisiness  transactions  of 
his  customers.  Some  bankers  make  a  specialty  of  foreign 
exchange  business ;  but  the  great  majority  of  the  loans  are 
made  on  ordinary  commercial  paper ;  i.  e.  on  accepted  bills. 
If  A  sells  B  a  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  goods,  B  may  not 
and  generally  will  not  pay  for  it  in  cash,  but  in  an  accept- 
ance, which  is  virtually  a  promise  to  pay  30,  60,  or  90  days 
afterward.  But  a  liusiness  man  wants  the  cash  to  use  im- 
mediately. He  therefoi'e  takes  tliis  bill  to  his  bank,  and 
has  it  discounted.  The  bank  considers  that  a  hundred  dol- 
lars two  months  hence  is  worth  ninety-nine  dollars  to-day. 
and  offers  that  amount  for  it.  If  the  bank  (or  broker)  pays 
in  specie,  it  has  to  charge  an  extra  rate  of  interest  to  make 
a  profit  on  the  transaction.  But  it  may  make  a  profit  at  the 
ordinary  rate  of  interest,  either  by  paying  in  its  own  notes 
as  a  bank  of  issue  or  by  simply  crediting  its  customers  with 
the  ninety-nine  dollars,  .■uid  allowing  him  to  draw  cheeks 
on  this  credit  from  time  to  time,  as  he  may  have  occasion — 
acting  as  a  bank  of  deposit.  The  more  advanced  the  com- 
merce of  a  country,  the  more  important  does  the  last-named 
function  become.  Large  payments  are  universally  made  by 
check ;  metallic  money  and  its  representative,  the  circulat- 
ing note,  are  together  only  the  small  change  of  trade,  em- 
ployed in  the  settlement  of  balances  and  in  the  smaller  pur- 
chases and  payments.  The  operations  of  the  New  York 
Clearing-house  are  a  good  illustration  of  the  small  amount 
of  money  required  in  the  transaction  of  business,  the  bal- 
ances paid  in  money  being  only  about  4  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  the  settlements. 

The  earliest  banking  institution  in  Europe  was  the  Bank 
of  Venice,  founded  A.  D.  IITI.  It  was  ljase<l  upon  a  forced 
loan  of  the  republic.  Funds  deposited  in  it  could  not  be 
withdrawn,  but  were  transferable  on  the  books  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  owner — in  this  respect  not  unlike  the  perpetual 
annuities  of  the  British  debt.  These  inscriptions  of  credit 
were  usually  at  a  premium  over  current  coins,  which  were 
worn  and  clipped  and  were  of  various  countries  and  values. 
Except  in  so  far  as  the  transfei-s  of  credit  on  the  books 
were  concerned,  the  bank  was  only  a  fiscal  agent  of  the 
government.  It  continued  in  operation  until  1797,  when  it 
was  overthrown  by  the  Revolutionary  army  of  France. 

The  Bank  of  Genoa  went  into  operation  in  1407.  For 
centuries  it  was  one  of  the  principal  banks  of  Europe.  It 
was  the  first  to  issue  circulating  notes,  which  were  nego- 
tiated or  passed  only  by  indorsement,  not  made  payable  to 
bearer.  It  is  not  known  whether  or  not  they  were  issueil  in 
small  denominations.  They  were  probalily  made  for  con- 
sideraljle  amounts,  and  employed  only,  or  'chiefly,  in  large 
transactions.  This  was  a  large  step  in  atlvance  of  t  lie  earlier 
system  of  deposit  transfers,  which  was  also  employed  by  this 
bank.  In  1800,  when  its  circulating  notes  were  at  a  large 
premium,  it  was  pillageil  by  the  French  army,  and  thence- 
forth cetused  to  perform  the  functions  of  a  bank. 

The  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  established  in  the  year  1607, 
was  the  earliest  considerable  institution  of  the  kind  which 
looked  to  the  promotion  of  commerce.  Its  predecessors  of 
Venice  and  Genoa  were  chiefly  devoted  to  the  management 
of  state  finances.  It  was  plundered  bv  the  French  armv  in 
1794,  when  it  was  found  that,  with  the  reputation  of  fifty 
millions  of  dollars  in  its  vaults,  it  had  nothing,  its  capital 
having  been  loaned  to  tlie  States-General,  the  East  India 
Company,  and  tothecityof  Amsterdam.  In  this  condition 
of  its  affairs  it  had  done  an  immense  business  during  the 
preceding  fifty  years. 

The  Bank  of'llamlnirg,  established  in  1619,  was  a  bank 
of  deposit  and  circulation  based  upon  fine  silver  bars.  The 
deposits  were  confined  to  silver.  This  institution,  like  nearly 
all  those  of  the  lime,  hiul,  as  a  principal  object,  the  protec- 
tion of  the  people  from  worn,  sweated,  clipped,  and  plugged 
coins,  and  from  coins  of  the  German  empire  secret  ly  reduced 
in  standiird  value.  The  remedy  was  that  previouslv  adopted 
by  the  Hank  of  Amsterdam— to  lock  up  the  debased  and  de- 
preciated coins,  and  circulate  the  credit  granted  for  them. 

The  Hank  of  Kngland  was  established  in  the  year  1694. 
Nearly  all  the  paper  money  of  England  and  Wales  is  issued 
by  this  bank,  €1.5,000,000  being  based  on  securities,  the  rest 
upon  actual  deposits  of  coin,  like  U.  S.  golii  certificates. 
During  the  period  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  and  immediately 
afterward  (1797-1822)  specie  payments  were  suspended,  but 
at  present  such  a  contingency  is  wholly  out  of  the  question. 


Its  charter  lias  been  frequently  renewed,  and,  although  con- 
sidered as  perpetual,  is  subject  to  amendment. 

Previous  to  the  passage  of  the  bank-cliarter  act  of  1844 
any  bank  or  private  person  could  issue  bank-notes,  subject 
to  the  condition  that  they  must  be  paid  in  coin  on  demand. 
By  that  act  such  issue,  with  but  slight  exceptions,  was  con- 
fined to  the  Bank  of  England.  This  was  divided  into  two 
departments — the  bank  and  the  issue  department.  The 
bank  department  is  as  private  as  any  bank  cor|ioration  :  the 
issue  dejiartment  is  an  office  of  the  state.  The  bank  re- 
ceives from  the  state  office  15  millions  of  pounds  in  currency, 
which  amount  is  loaned  or  issued  to  the  Government,  on 
which  the  bank  receives  3  per  cent,  interest.  The  bank, 
however,  pays  to  the  Government  about  £200,000  annually 
for  this  privilege,  an<l  the  profit  to  the  bank  from  this  source, 
after  deducting  the  expense  of  management,  is  estimated 
at  only  aliout  £100,000  annually.  The  notes  are  a  legal 
tender  everywhere  except  in  payments  by  the  liank.  Bank- 
notes in  excess  of  15  million  pounds  are  furnished  by  the 
issue  department  upon  the  gold  coin  and  bullion  held  by 
it,  which  amount  is  not  included  in  the  reserves  and  is  not 
under  the  control  of  the  bank.  In  1847,  1857,  and  1866  the 
act  was  suspended,  and  the  bank  issued  notes  without  hold- 
ing gold :  but  the  amount  issued  has  only  once  exceeded  the 
amount  allowed  by  the  bank  charter,  and  then  the  excess 
was  but  £800,000. 

The  bank  rate  of  interest  since  1865  has  varied  from  10 
to  2  per  cent.  The  average  rate  for  1866  was  7  per  cent. ; 
for  1875,  3i  per  cent. ;  for  1880, 2'76  per  cent.  The  rate  w'as 
reduced  in  Mar.,  1887,  from  4  to  3^  per  cent.  Its  usual 
dividends  are  10  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  total  issues  of 
the  United  Kingdom  on  Feb.  5,  1887,  were :  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, £23,682,138:  148  private  and  joint -stock  banks,  £2,- 
652,765  ;  Scotland,  £5,686.201 ;  Ireland,  £6,132,129  ;  total  tor 
the  United  Kingdom,  £38.153.970. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  joint-stock  banks  which  are 
not  banks  of  issue.  The  usual  dividends  of  the  London  and 
Westminster,  London  and  Joint  Stock,  London  and  County, 
and  the  L^nion,  which  are  leading  joint-stock  banks,  are  20 
per  cent,  per  annum,  and  their  average  deposits  are  about 
twelve  times  the  amount  of  their  ca])ita!.  lu  1887  11  joint- 
stock  banks  in  England,  with  a  capital  of  £11,305,000,  had 
426  branches.  The  total  deposits  of  the  joint-stock  banks 
of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1891  amounied  to  £.539.000.000. 

The  number  of  banks  in  the  I)omir,ion  of  Canada  in  1890 
was  39 ;  capital,  .59  millions  of  dollars;  circulation,  33  mil- 
lions; deposits,  136  millions. 

The  Bank  of  France  was  authorized  in  1800.  Since  1803 
it  has  had  the  exclusive  privilege  in  Paris,  and  since  1857  in 
France,  of  issuing  notes  ])ayable  on  demand.  The  bank  in 
Mar.,  1876,  had  74  branches  in  the  departments,  and  14 
others  were  in  course  of  organization.  Its  present  charter 
extends  to  the  year  1897.  During  the  revolution  of  1848  it 
was  authorized  to  suspend  specie  payments  and  its  notes 
were  made  a  legal  tender.  The  Bank  of  France  is  not  a 
fiscal  agent  of  the  Government,  as  is  that  of  England,  It 
does  not  collect  or  disburse  the  revenues  of  the  exchequer, 
but  lends  to  it  largely  in  its  exigencies,  while  its  credits,  in 
the  form  of  circulating  notes  and  other  acceptances,  have 
borne  the  government  safely  thi'ough  extraordinary  needs. 
During  the  war  with  Prussia,  which  continued  for  ten 
months  and  terminated  on  May  10,  1871,  it  rendered  unex- 
ampletl  service.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Minister  of 
Finance  for  1873.  tli.<'  total  expenditures  arising  out  of  the  war 
to  that  date  were  9.288  millions  of  francs,  or  (at  20  cents  to 
the  franc)  about  1,857  millions  of  dollai-s — an  amount  equal 
to  about  two-thirds  of  the  war-debt  of  the  U.  S.  When  the 
war  began  the  circulation  of  the  bank  was  251  millions  of 
dollars,  and  its  specie  229  millions,  or  90  per  cent,  of  its  cir- 
culation. In  June,  1871,  the  capital  of  the  bank  was  36^ 
million  dollars,  its  circulation  442  millions,  and  its  specie 
110  millions,  or  about  25  pcT  cent,  of  its  circulation.  In 
Nov.,  1873,  the  circulation  reached  its  maximum,  and  w.as 
614  millions,  wliili'  its  specie  had  increased  to  14(5  millions, 
or  24  per  cent,  of  its  circulation.  In  Dec.  1874,  the  ratio  of 
specie  to  circulation  was  52  per  cent.,  and  in  Sept..  1875,  70 
per  cent.  Since  that  date  the  amount  of  the  circulation  has 
fluctuated,  standing  on  Nov.  3, 1876,  at  515  millions,  and  on 
Feb.  .8,  1877,  at  .533  millions.  The  .stock  of  specie  has  risen 
rapidly  since  Dec,  1874.  On  Mar.  30.  1876.  the  bank  held 
3.50  millions  of  specie  (of  which  250  millions  w.as  in  gold), 
being  76^  per  cent,  of  its  circulation  and  63  per  cent,  of  its 
deiiosits  and  circulation.  In  1877,  Feb.  22,  it  held  446  mil- 
lions of  specie,  being  84^  per  cent,  of  its  circulation,  which 


BANK 


483 


was 528  millions.  The  increase  of  the  circulation  from  July, 
1870,  to  Nov.,  1873,  was  351  millions,  and  the  decrea.se  in 
specie  83  millions.  The  <lecrcase  in  circulation  from  Nov., 
1873,  to  Sept.,  1875,  when  it  reached  it.<  lowest  point,  was  135 
millions,  and  the  increase  in  specie  in  the  same  |ieriod  was 
179  millions.  In  An;;.,  1870,  the  hank  was  a^aiii  authorized 
to  suspend  specie  payments  and  its  notes  witc  made  a  legal 
teniler,  hut  It  has  since  paid  out  a  lar<;e  amount  of  coin.  In 
1875  it  paid  out  126  millions  in  gold  and  IHi  millions  in  silver, 
and  vet  its  stock  uf  coin  inereiused  over  07  millions.  Since 
the  declaration  of  war  in  1S70  the  hank  loaned  to  the  Gov- 
ernment ahout  $600.0(K),(KK),  and  since  the  suspension  of 
speeie  payments  in  1870  the  notes  of  the  hank  have.  exce[)t 
during  a  hrief  period,  renuiined  at  par.  It  resinned  spe<ie 
pavmeiits  .Jan.  1, 1878.  In  18!)0  its  circulation  was  .$572,000,- 
00<) ;  its  metallic  reserve,  $474,000,000— not  quite  half  of  it 
silver. 

The  first  organized  hank  in  the  V.  S.  hail  its  origin  in  the 
formation  of  a  hanking  company  without  charter,  which  was 
proposed  in  a  resolution  passed  .lune  17.  1780,  hy  citizens  of 
I'liiladelphia.  The  first  action  in  the  Congress  of  the  U.  S. 
looking  to  the  estahlislimeiit  of  a  hank  was  taken  June  21, 
17H0.  Ml  reference  to  this  proposed  association.  In  the  spring 
of  17S1,  Unhert  Morris,  tlien  superintendent  of  finance,  suh- 
mitted  to  Congress  a  plan  for  the  estahlislimeiit  of  the  Hank 
of  North  .Vmericaat  I  hiladelphia,  which  plan  was  approved, 
and  on  Dec.  31  following  a  perpetual  charter  was  granted  to 
that  institution.  The  hank  opened  for  husiness  on  Jan.  2, 
1782.andon  .Vjir.l  followingihe  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania 
graiiti'd  to  the  company  a  perpetual  cimrter.  which,  though 
repcialed  in  1785,  was  suhseipicntly  renewed  from  time  to 
time  to  the  date  of  its  liust  charter,  on  Doc.  3. 1854.  On  Pel). 
7,  1781,  the  State  of  Massachusetts  incorporated  the  Massa- 
chusetts Hank.  The  Hank  of  New  York  was  <'hartered  on 
Mar.  21,  17'.H,  although  it  hail  since  1784  heen  doing  husi- 
ness under  "articles  of  association"  drawn  hy  .\lcxandcr 
Hamilton,  who  was  a  niemher  of  its  first  hoanl  of  directors. 
.\ll  of  the  ahove-named  institutions  are  still  in  a  prosperous 
condition,  and  all  have  heen  converted  into  national  hanks. 

The  plan  of  eslahlishing  a  Hank  of  the  U.  S.  originated 
with  .Vlexandcr  Ilamillon,  then  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
and  wits  fii-st  emhodied  in  his  report  to  Congress  on  Dec.  13, 
1700.  The  capital  of  the  proposed  hank  was  fixed  at  $10,- 
000,000,  onu-fourth  of  the  private  and  corporate  suliscrip- 
tioiis  to  he  paid  in  gold  and  silver,  and  Ihree-fourtlis  in  l'.  S. 
stocks  hearing  6  per  cent,  interest.  Two  millions,  to  he  suh- 
scrihcd  hy  the  U.  S.,  were  to  he  |)aid  in  ten  equal  annual  in- 
stallments by  loans  from  the  hank,  or,  as  Mr.  Hamilton  de- 
scribes the  operation,  "by  borrowing  with  one  li.-iiid  what  is 
lent  with  the  other."  This  plan  wasadojited  without  material 
alteration  bv  Congress,  and  approved  bv  Washington,  Feb. 
25,  1701.  During  the  years  1700-1802  the  (ioven'imenf  dis- 
posed of  its  stock  in  the  bank  at  a  considerable  profit,  2.200 
shares  having  lieen  sold  in  the  last-mentioned  year  at  a  pre- 
mium of  45  per  cent. 

On  .Ian.  2tt.  181.5,  in  accordance  with  the  recommendation 
of  .Secretary  Dallas,  a  hill  was  pa.ssed  reorganizing  the  bank, 
many  prominent  merubei-sof  both  houses  who  had  previously 
voted  against  a  renewal  of  the  charter  now  voting  in  its  fa- 
vor. President  Madison  leu  days  later  returned  the  bill  with 
his  objections,  but  on  .\pr.  10,  1816,  he  approved  a  bill  of 
sub.stiintially  the  same  import  ;  and  this  w;is  the  second  and 
htst  charter  of  the  liaiik  granted  by  I  he  general  (tovcrnmont. 
The  plan  proposed  by  Mr.  Dallas  was  moileled  upon  the 
charter  of  the  first  U. .S.  bank,  ami  the  act  of  incorporation, 
a-s  finally  passed,  did  not  ilifTer  materially  from  the  plan  pro- 
posed bv  him.  The  charter  was  limited  to  twenty  vears,  ex- 
piring on  Mar.  3. 1836.  The  cajiital  was  fixed  at  .^35,000.000, 
seven  millions  of  which  was  to  he  subscribed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, payable  in  coin  or  in  stock  of  the  U.  S.  bearing  inter- 
est at  5  per  cent.,  and  redeemable  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
Government. 

During  the  following  year  f  he  currency  was  greatly  de- 
preciated ;  very  many  failures  of  State  hanks,  corporations, 
and  individuals  had  occurred,  and  the  country  had  not  yet 
recovered  from  the  exhausting  efTects  of  its  late  war.  In 
this  emergency  the  bank  attempted,  by  the  imiiortation  of 
more  than  seven  millions  of  dollars  from  Europe,  at  a  cost 
of  half  a  million,  to  restore  soundness  to  the  currency;  but 
it  became  it,sclf  embarrassed,  largely  through  the  misman- 
agement of  the  branch  at  Haltimore,  and  was  in  danger  of 
absolute  failure.  Its  losses  were  reported  to  exceed  three 
millions  of  dollars;  hut  the  bank,  as  well  as  the  business  of 
the  country,  eventually  recovered.     The  industries  of  the 


people  and  the  finances  of  the  Government  prospered  from 
1820  to  1835.  In  this  interval  the  national  debt  was  paid, 
and  the  stock  of  the  bank  ro.se  in  the  market  until  it  com- 
manded a  premium  of  20  per  cent. 

Congi'ess  having  refused  to  recharter  the  hank,  a  bill  was 
introduced  in  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  to  charter  a 
Stale  hank,  to  he  called  the  U.  S.  Hank,  which  bill  became 
a  law  just  thirteen  days  before  the  expiration  of  the  original 
charter.  The  circulating  notes  and  the  di>[)osits  of  the  Hank 
of  the  U.  S.  were  eventually  paid  in  full,  and  the  accounts  of 
the  as-signees  were  finally  settled  in  1856.  The  shares  of  the 
bank  were  quoted  in  1837 at  125,  in  ls;!!l  at  1 1 1.  and  in  1843, 
after  its  failure,  at  IJ  jier  cent.  The  shareholders  received 
no  returns  on  their  stock  in  the  final  settlement,  the  whole 
twenty-eight  millions  invested  by  tliciii  having  been  a  total 
loss.  The  treiusury  records  show  that  the  Government  real- 
ized a  profit  of  $6,093,167  upon  its  investment  in  the  stock 
of  the  bank. 

State  banks  were  organized  in  most  of  the  States  of  the 
L'nion  under  special  charlei-s  obtained  from  their  several 
Legislatures.  Many  of  the  States,  cliiefiy  Southern  and 
Western,  aulhorizeil  hanking  corporations,  with  the  State  .is 
part  or  sole  stockholder.  The  amount  of  currency  issued  hy 
them  was  frequently  twice,  and  in  many  instances  three 
times,  the  amount  of  their  nominal  capital.  These  charters 
were  valuable,  and  the  State  Legislatures  were  hesieged  by 
applicants  for  such  special  privileges.  In  1814  a  bill  was 
jiassed.  liy  a  two-thirds  vote  over  the  second  veto  of  Gov. 
Snyder,  of  Pennsylvania,  authorizing  forty-one  banks,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  .s;17.()(M).l)OI).  of  which  only  one- 
fifth  pwt  was  required  to  be  ])aid  in.  Charters  of  banks 
authorized  liy  the  New  England  and  the  Southern  .States  in 
some  instances  were  disposed  of  to  non-residents,  who  or- 
ganized banks  of  (■irculation  with  little  or  no  capital,  and 
the  citizens  of  other  remote  States  suffered  great  loss  from 
the  worthlessncss  of  such  bank  issues.  The  charters  of  the.se 
banks  were  in  the  interest  of  individuals,  and  generally  of 
the  friends  of  the  dominant  political  [larty  in  the  Legisla- 
ture which  granted  them.  In  many  instances  they  were 
corruptly  obtained.  Gov.  Tompkins,  of  New  York,  in  the 
year  1813.  under  authority  of  a  clause  in  the  constitution  of 
1777.  prorogued  the  Lc^gislature  of  that  State,  a.ssigning  as 
one  of  the  reiusons  for  such  action  that  bank  applicants  had 
used  or  attempted  to  use  corrupt  means  to  secure  a  charter; 
and  a  clause  was  inserted  in  the  constitution  of  1821  which 
required  the  assent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Legislature  to  the 
incorporation  of  a  riioiieyed  institution.  In  18t)4  and  in 
1818  restraining  acts  were  pas.sed  hy  the  Legislature  of  that 
State,  the  latter  of  which  provided  that  no  person  or  ilsso- 
ciation,  unless  authorized  by  law,  should  open  an  ofiice  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  deposits,  discounting  promissory 
notes,  or  issuing  circulation.  This  act  was  not  repealed 
until  the  year  ls;'>7.  Specie  payments  were  generally  sus- 
pended in  1814.  in  l.S:!7,  and  in  1857.  but  many  of  the  bank.s, 
particularly  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  which  were 
authorized  to  issue  currency  without  security,  and  without 
such  judicious  restrictions  as  should  always  accompany  leg- 
islation of  this  kind,  were  in  a  continual  state  of  suspension. 
The  rates  of  exchange  between  the  Eastern,  Southern,  and 
Western  States  were  oppressive,  and  the  losses  to  the  bill- 
holders  from  this  cause  were  e.stimatiKl  to  be  not  less  than  5 
per  cent,  annually  upon  the  circulation,  and  to  equal  in  20 
years  the  entire  amount  of  circulation  outstamling. 

In  1H13  a  movement  toward  a  reform  in  bank  currency 
began  in  Ma.ssachusetts.  This  system  was  more  fully  devel- 
oped in  1825,  when  five  Boston  banks  undertook  its  manage- 
ment. Its  exclusive  control  was  finally  assumed  by  the 
Sufi'olk  Hank,  which  association  compelled  the  redemp- 
tion at  par  in  Boston  of  the  notes  of  the  New  England 
banks  by  a  system  of  a.ssorling  and  returning  the  notes  to 
the  place  of  issue  ;  and  its  operations  were  continued  down 
to  the  estatilishment  of  Ihe  national  bank  system. 

In  1829  Mr.  Van  Hnren,  then  Governor  of  New  York,  rec- 
omineiided  a  "  safety-fund  "  system  as  afl'ording  greater  se- 
curity to  the  creditors  and  bill-holders  of  chartered  banks  ; 
and  during  that  year  a  bill  which  embodied  his  recommen- 
dation pa.ssed  the  Ijcgislaturc  and  became  a  law.  The  sys- 
tem continued  in  operation  for  nine  yeai-s.  and  its  chief 
features  were  subsequently  copied  by  Ohio  and  other  States 
of  I  he  Union. 

Suggestions  regarding  the  expediency  of  requiring  secur- 
ity to  he  given  for  hank  issues  were  made  by  financial 
writers  ivs  earlv  as  1815,  and  by  .Mr.  Gallatin  in  1831.  The 
latter  jiroposeil  that  existing  bank-notes  he  taxed  out  of  ex- 


4:84 


BANK 


istenoe,  and  suggested  a  system  of  currency  whidi  should 
be  secured  by  stocks  and  real  estate.  The  system  of  author- 
izing banks  by  special  charter,  with  its  attending  evils,  con- 
tinued, however,  in  all  the  States  down  to  the  jiassage  bv  the 
Kew  York  Legislature  of  the  Free  Bank  ai-t  on  Api-.  ly, 
1838.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  any  number  of  per- 
sons were  authorized  to  form  banking  associations,  upon  the 
conditions  and  subject  to  the  liabilities  specified  in  the  act. 
The  law  originally  provided  for  the  deposit  of  the  stocks  of 
the  different  States  aiid  bonds  and  mortgages  as  security  for 
circulating  notes.  Previous  to  the  year  1843  twenty-nine  of 
these  banks,  with  an  aggregate  circulation  of  $1,283,374, 
had  failed,  and  their  securities  were  sufficient  to  pay  but  74 
per  cent,  of  the  cii'culation  alone.  Losses  to  biU-holders 
occurred  only  in  the  cases  of  those  banks  which  had  deposited 
State  stocks'  other  than  those  of  New  York.  The  law  was 
so  amended  in  1849  as  to  require  that  at  least  one-half  of 
the  securities  so  deposited  sliould  consist  of  New  York  State 
stocks,  and  tliat  not  more  than  one-half  should  be  in  the 
stocks  of  the  United  States,  the  securities  in  all  cases  to  be, 
or  to  be  made,  equal  to  a  stock  producing  an  interest  of  6 
per  cent,  per  anum,  and  to  be  taken  at  a  rate  not  above 
their  par  value,  ami  at  not  more  than  their  market  value. 
Tli(!  banks  were  under  the  supervi?;ion  of  a  commissioner 
appointed  under  the  Safety  Fund  act  until  the  year  1843,  in 
which  year  tliey  were  required  to  report  to  the  State  Comp- 
troller; but  in  1851  the  present  oHice  of  bank  superinten- 
dent was  established.  In  1840  a  law  was  passed  reiiuiring 
the  banks  of  New  York  to  redeem  their  notes  at  an  agency 
of  the  bank,  either  in  New  York  city,  Albany,  or  Troy,  at 
one-half  of  1  per  cent,  discount.  This  discount  was  reduced 
in  1851  to  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent.  After  the  passage  of 
this  act  two  of  the  pi-incipal  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York 
inaugurated  a  plan  of  redemption  similar  to  the  Suffolk 
system.  The  notes  of  such  associations  as  kept  a  (le]ii>sit 
witli  them  were  returned  to  the  banks  of  issue,  and  the  dis- 
count of  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent,  was  divided  between  the 
redemption  agent  and  the  associations  whose  notes  were  re- 
deemed. Those  banks  which  did  not  provide  the  means  lor 
redemption  were  forced  to  close  up  their  affairs. 

.Some  of  the  States  adopted  banking  laws  based  on  the 
New  York  system,  but  most  of  them  were  careless  in  this 
mattw',  and  ■'  wildcat  banking "'  was  a  prominent  cause  of 
the  crisis  of  1857.  The  just  dissatisfaction  of  the  public 
with  State  banks  in  general  and  the  flnancial  exigencies  of 
the  Government  in  the  course  of  the  war  combined  to  pave 
tlie  way  for  the  establishment  of  a  national  banking  system, 
modeled  on  the  general  lines  of  the  New  York  act.  Such  a 
system  was  recommended  by  Secretary  Chase  in  1861  and 
1862.  An  act  to  this  effect  was  passed  Feb.  25,  1863.  but 
proved  inoperative,  and  was  superseded  by  the  act  of  June 
3,  1864,  wliich  forms  the  basis  of  the  existing  system. 

It  proviileil  for  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank  bu- 
reau in  the  Treasury  Department,  the  chief  officer  of  which 
is  the  comptroller  of  the  currency.  LTndi'r  this  act  national 
banks  may  be  organized  by  any  number  of  persons,  not  le.ss 
than  five,  the  capital  in  any  instance  to  be  not  less  than 
$100,000,  except  that  in  cities  cniilaiiiing  a  population  not 
exceeding  6,000  liaiiks  may  be  established  with  a  capital  of 
not  less  than  $50,000.  Tlie  capital  stock  in  cities  having 
a  population  of  30,000  must  not  be  less  than  $200,000.  Not 
less  than  one-third  of  the  capital  was  required  to  be  in- 
vested in  U.  S.  bonils,  upon  which  circidating  notes  may  be 
i.ssued  equal  in  amount  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  current  mar- 
ket value,  l)ut  not  exceeding  90  per  cent,  of  the  par  value  of 
the  bonds  deposited  :  the  notes  are  receivable  at  par  in  the 
U.  S.  in  all  payments  to  and  from  the  Government,  except 
for  duties  on  imports,  interest  on  the  ]iublic  delit,  and  in 
redemption  of  the  national  currency.  On  Mar.  3,  1865,  an 
act  was  passed  providing  that  every  banking  association 
should  pay  a  tax  ot  10  per  cent,  on  the  notes  of  any  person 
or  Slate  bank  used  for  circulation  and  paid  out  by  them; 
which  act  had  the  effect  of  taxing  State-bank  circulation 
out  of  existence. 

Tlie  national  bank  act  authorized  the  issue  of  $300,000,000 
of  circidation,  which  amoimt  was  increased  to  $354,000,000 
by  the  act  ot  May  12,  1870.  The  act  of  June  20,  1874,  pro- 
vided for  the  deposit  by  any  a,ssociation  of  lawfid  money 
witli  the  trciusurer  in  sums  of  not  le.ss  than  $9,000,  and  the 
withdrawal  of  a  [iroportionate  amount  of  I  lie  bonds  on  de- 
posit as  security  for  its  circulating  notes.  The  act  of  Jan. 
14,  187.5,  authorized  the  unlimited  i.ssno  ot  circwlaling  notes, 
subject  to  the  restrictions  of  then  existing  law,  but  iiuide  it 
the  duty  ot  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  retire  legal-ten- 


der notes  to  the  extent  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  additional 
national  bank-notes  issued,  and  to  continue  such  retirement 
until  the  legal-tender  notes  should  be  reduced  to  $300,000,- 
000.  The  greatest  amount  of  natifinal  bank  circulation  out- 
standing at  any  one  time  was  on  Uct.  13,  1882,  when  it 
reached  $363,407,474.  Since  that  time  it  has  steadily  and 
of  late  years  rapidly  decreased,  while  the  deposits  have  at  the 
same  time  been  increasing. 


DATE. 

CirculHtiOD. 

Individual 
deposits. 

DATE. 

Circulation. 

Individual 
deposits. 

Oct.,  1880.... 
■•      1882.... 
"      1884.... 
■■     1886.... 
'■     1887.... 

Millions. 
317-3 
315-0 
289-8 
828-8 
167-3 

MUlions. 

887-9 
1,134-9 

993-0 
1,189-5 
1,374-7 

Oct.,  1888. . . 
"     1889... 
"     1890... 
"     1891... 

MilUons. 
155-4 
138-5 
123-0 
131-3 

Millions. 
1,350-r 
1,6230 
1.594-2 
1,608-6 

This  difference  is  due,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  increased 
use  of  checks  as  a  means  of  payment  instead  of  notes  ;  and 
on  the  other  hand  to  the  high  price  of  U.  S.  bonds,  which 
has  reduced  the  net  interest  to  about  2+  \>er  cent.,  and  made 
it  very  unprofitable  to  hold  them  as  a  reserve  to  secure  cir- 
culation. So  great  has  been  the  contraction  of  the  bank- 
note currency  from  this  latter  cause  that  many  efforts  have 
been  made  to  allow  the  banks  to  base  their  circulation  on 
securities  other  than  .U.  S.  bonds,  but  these  efforts  have 
been  thus  far  without  effect. 

The  national  banks  in  twenty-three  of  the  larger  cities 
are  required  to  keep  a  reserve  amounting  to  25  per  cent,  of 
their  deposits.  In  New  York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  such 
reserves  must  be  actually  on  hand  ;  in  the  other  cities,  one- 
half  of  such  reserve  may  be  kept  in  the  form  of  bank  de- 
posits in  any  of  the  cities  above  named.  Outside  of  these 
larger  cities  the  required  reserve  is  only  15  per  cent.,  and 
three-fifths  of  this  reserve  may  be  in  the  form  of  balances 
in  the  hands  of  banking  associations  in  larger  cities.  The 
reserve  has  been  habitually  kept  much  higher  than  the  legal 
requirement,  in  the  neighborhood  of  30  jiercent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  resources  and  lialiilities 
of  the  national  banks,  in  millions  of  dollars,  at  different 
[leriods : 


RESOURCES,  ETC. 

Oct.,  1810. 

Oct,  1880. 

Oct.,  1890. 

Oct.,  1891. 

Number  of  banks 

1,615 

715-9 
840-9 
.37-7 
23-6 
109-4 
27-5 
18-5 
79  3 

ia-5 

79-1 
66-3 

2,090 

1.041-0 

3.57  8 
43-6 
48-9 

213-5 
48-0 

109-3 
66-6 
18-2 

121  1 

7-7 

17-1 

230 

3,540 

1,986-1 

1400 

30-7 

115-5 

3;)6-3 

76-8 

195-9 

80-6 

18-5 

106-8 

6  2 

6  9 

41-3 

3,677 

Resources. 

2,005-5 

Bonds  for  circulation 

Other  U.  S.  bonds 

Stocks,  bonds,  etc    

150-0 
24-9 
125-2 

338-7 

Real  estate     .          

83-3 

Specie 

18:j-5 

97-6 

National  bank-notes 

Clearing-house  exchanges. . 

U.  S.  certif.  of  deposit 

Due  from  U.  S.  Ti"easury . . . 

20  0 
1220 

15-7 

8  0 

38-7 

Totals 

1,5107 

2.105-8 

3.141-5 

3.231- 1 

Liabilities. 
Capital  stock 

430-4 
94  1 
38-6 
293-9 
515-2 
130-1 
8-4 

457  6 
120-5 
46-1 
317-3 
887-9 
267-9 
8-5 

6.50-4 
313-6 

97-0 

123-0 

1,594-2 

426  4 

36-9 

677-4 

227  6 

ITndivided  profits 

103-3 

Circulation  outstanding 

Due  to  depositors 

131-3 

1,608-6 

430-6 

Other  liabilities 

34-3 

1,510-7 

2,105-8 

3,141-5 

3,213- 1 

Statistics  (partly  unofRcial)  of  State  and  private  banks, 
savings-banks,  and  trust  companies,  are  given  as  follows,  by 
tlie  comptroller  of  the  currency,  for  the  year  1891 : 


BANKS,  ETC. 

Number. 

CaplUl. 

Surplus. 

Deposits. 

State  banks 

2,572 
171 
647 
304 

1,2.-15 

Millions. 

208  6 

79-3 

.32- i 
30  8 

Millions. 
81    1 
.55-5 
143-5 
l.-i-4 
12-1 

Millions. 
6,56-6 

Loan  and  trust  companies.. 

Savings-banks  (mutual) 

(stock) 

Private  banks 

3.55-3 

1.402-3 

2,52-5 

95-0 

Totals 

.\dd  to  thi.s— 

4,989 
3.677 

356-8 
677-4 

304-6 

3.-i0-9 

2,661-8 
1,700-5 

8,666 

1.034-2 

6.35-5 

4,362-3 

F5ANK  BAN 


BANKS 


485 


Fuller  figiirps  are  given  in  the  reports  of  the  comptroller 
of  the  currency  for  sHceessive  years.  See  also  C'learino- 
uousE,  Currency,  Savinos-baxks. 

Revised  by  A.  T.  IIadley. 

Bank  Ban  :  Imn  of  Ilunjjary,  llourislieil  in  the  first  lialf 
of  till' lliirlet'iitli  ctMiliirv,  and  ac(|uiri'il  a  kiiiil  of  romantic 
fame  from  tlie  |)rompt  revenue  lie  look  iiiion  Qiu'on  der- 
triule,  the  spouse  of  Andreas  II.,  Kin;;  of  Ilunf,'ary.  The 
queen's  Ijrollior.  Kckart.  sccliued  the  wife  of  the  Ijan,  and 
the  ([ueen  aidrd  him  in  carryiiif;  out  his  evil  design.  But 
as  soon  as  Bank  discovered  the  (|Ueeii's  participation  in  the 
conspiracy  lu'  galliered  a  mob,  stormed  tlie  palace,  and 
killed  the  queen,  tliough  he  knew  that  it  would  cost  him 
his  life.  And  so  it  did.  When  King  Andreas  II.,  who  was 
absent  on  a  campaign  in  Poland,  returned,  he  immediately 
put  Bank  to  death.  'I'he  story  has  .several  times  been  nuide 
the  subji'ct  of  dramatic  treatment.  Katona's  drama  Bank- 
ban  (KlausiMibur::,  1S2T)  is  considered  one  of  the  best  dramas 
the  Hungarian  literalure  lias  produced:  it  was  translated 
into  (ic'rTuan  by  Dux  (If^oH),  and  the  genuine  pathos  of  the 
characters  and  the  scenic  strength  of  the  story  made  a  great 
impression. 

Bankos.  IIk.vrv:  b.  in  London,  1737;  was  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
entered  Parliament  in  17S0for  Corfo  Castle,  which  jilace — 
the  family  Ijorough — he  continued  to  represent  till  l.S'3(i. 
He  wrote  The  Cii'il  anil  Ciins/ifiifiiinal  llmlori/  iif  Home 
from  till-  Foundation  to  tin'  Afji-  of  Aiiijnafus  (1818,2  vols.). 
1).  at  Tregothnan,  Cornwall,  Dec.  17,  1S;J4. 

Baiik'head.  .Toiiv  1'ine:  captain  U.  S.  N. :  son  of  Gen. 
.Tames  liaukhcad,  V.  S.  A.;  b.  in  South  Carolina,  Aug.  ;!, 
1821  ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Aug.  6,  1838.  lie 
commanded  the  guntioat  Peinl)ina  at  the  battle  of  Port 
Royal,  Nov.  7,  18f)l,  and  during  the  subsequent  operations 
on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina;  commaniled  the  Jlonitor 
when  she  foumlcM-cd  olT  llatteras  on  tlie  night  of  Dec.  31, 
18()2,  and  displayed  adminilile  coolness  on  that  trying  occa- 
sion. He  was  made  captain  in  IStili.  1).  near  Aden.  Arabia, 
Apr.  27,  IKti!). 

Bankrupt  forig.  banlce  rota,  from  Hal.  Itanra  rotta. 
hank  broken.  Imt  changed  to  ban/cnipf  under  influence  of 
Lat.  ni/>l)is]:  i^riginally  a  merchant  whose  bench  or  counter 
had  been  broken  by  reason  of  inability  to  pay  his  debts.  In 
its  popular  .sense  the  wonl  is  now  nearly  synonymous  with 
inxoliTnt,  and  denotes  any  person  unable  to  meet  his  lia- 
bilities. In  Kngland  its  legal  signification  is  well  defined. 
It  emiiraces  only  trailers,  or  persons  whose  business  it  is  to 
buy  and  sell  for  gain,  and  the  various  statutes  which  have 
been  enacted  there  since  the  reign  of'  Henry  VIII.  in  relation 
to  baiikni])ts  have  licen  applicable  to  that  class  ahme.  By 
the  Kiiglisli  laws  a  bankrupt  is  a  trader  who  has  committed 
an  act  of  liankniptcy,  as  defincil  by  statute.  A  trader  may 
have  coinmilli'd  an  act  of  bankriijitcy,  and  have  been  form- 
ally ailjiidgeil  a  bankrupt,  and  yet  be  entirely  solvent  — 
that  is,  <'veiitiially  able  to  pay  his  debts  in  full :  and  he  mav 
be  wholly  unable  to  pay  his  delils,  and  yet  have  committed 
no  act  of  bankruptcy.  A  bankrupt  was  jit  first  regarded  as 
an  ofTender  against  the  law.  and  bankru|)t  laws  were  in- 
tended for  the  lienefit  of  creilitors.  But  at  present  they  are 
founded  on  tlii'  interests  of  trade,  and  intended  to  be  bene- 
ficial to  lioth  debtor  and  creditor.  If  the  conduct  of  the 
baukni|>t  has  been  such  as  to  entitle  him  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  court,  he  is  discharged  forever  from  all  debts 
owing  by  him  at  the  time  he  became  a  bankrupt.  The  law 
is  confined  to  traders,  liecause  they  are  regarded  as  possess- 
ing peculiar  facilities  for  delaying  and  (lefrauding  credit- 
ors ;  and,  on  the  other  hainl,  they  are  cousidereil,  generally 
speaking,  the  only  class  subject  to  heavy  accidi'ntal  los.ses, 
and  to  an  inability  to  pay  their  debts  without  any  fault  on 
their  part.  The  above  statements  must  be  qualiiied  by  the 
results  of  the  statute  46  and  47  Vict.,  c.  ,52  of  1883,  aiid  r,:i 
and  54  Vict.,c.71  of  IHDO.   For  other  details,  see  1.nsolvi:n(V. 

In  the  U.  S.,  Congress  possesses  the  power,  under  the  Con- 
stitution, to  establish  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bank- 
ruptcies. Pursuant  to  this  power,  in  the  year  1800,  Congress 
passed  abaiikni|>t  law,  which  by  its  own  terms  was  limited 
to  five  vears,  but  it  was  repealed  in  ISO:!.  This  law  pre- 
served t)ie  heading  features  of  I  hi>  Knglish  laws  relating  to 
bankruj)tcy.  It  could  lie  enforced  only  on  the  ai)plication 
of  cre<litors,  and  embraced  only  the  mercantile  class. 

In  the  year  1841  the  second  bankrupt  act  was  enacted  by 
Congress.  It  could  be  taken  advantage  of  by  all  persons 
whomsoever  residing  in  the  U.  S.  owing  debts  not  con- 


tracted in  a  fiduciary  capacity,  although  it  could  be  en- 
forced at  the  instance  of  creditors  only  against  merchants, 
banker.s,  brokers,  factors,  and  underwritei-s.  This  extended 
exercise  of  the  |)ower  over  the  subject  of  bankruptcy  was 
violently  opposed  as  unconstitutional,  on  the  ground  that 
Congress  was  confined  to  the  well-recognized  meaning  of 
the  term  bankruptcies  as  understood  in  the  Knglish  courts 
when  the  Constitution  was  formed.  The  law  was  repeided 
in  JIar.,  184:5. 

But  by  act  ajiproved  JIar.  2, 1867.  Congress  pa.«sed  a  third 
bankrupt  law,  even  more  general  in  its  scope  than  the  pre- 
ceding. Under  it  any  person  residing  in  the  U.  S.  and 
owing  debts  to  the  amonnt  of  $;:!00  could,  on  his  own  appli- 
cation showing  his  inability  to  pay  his  debts  in  full,  and 
his  desire  to  surrender  his  property  for  the  benefit  of  his 
creditors,  lake  advantage  of  the  .net  and  be  declared  a  bank- 
rupt. So  ii  del'liir  uwiiig  ii  specified  amount  could  be  forced 
to  become  a  bankrupt  upon  Hie  application  of  creditors  it 
he  has  committed  any  of  certain  offenses  or  acts  specified  in 
the  statute.  The  bankru[it,  after  the  distribniioii  of  his 
property  amounting  to  a  fixed  percentage  of  his  debts,  ob- 
tained a  discharge  from  all  his  indebtedness  exi.«ting  at  the 
time  the  petition  was  tiied,  except  in  certain  instan<'es  spe- 
cified in  t  lie  act.  This  act  has  been  in  its  turn  repealed  (chap. 
160,  laws  of  1878). 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  a  bankrupt  act  is  the  sum- 
mary seizure  of  all  the  debtor's  pro]ierty,  and  its  division 
among  his  creditors  in  proportion  to  their  claims.  The  race 
of  diligence  among  creditors  is  entirely  at  an  end,  and  all 
legal  proceedings,  excejit  su<'h  as  are  in  conrormity  to  the 
slatute.  are  stjiyed.  It  is  against  the  policy  of  the  bankrupt 
law  to  allow  the  debtor,  in  coutemjilation  of  bankruptcy,  to 
give  ju'eference  to  one  creditor  over  another.  All  such 
preferences  are  void,  and  an  attempt  to  make  them  is  of  it- 
self an  act  of  bankruptcy. 

The  various  States  also  possess  the  power  to  pass  bank- 
rupt laws,  but  no  Slate  bankrupt  or  insolvent  law  can  im- 
pair the  obligations  of  contracts.  Hi^ncc  they  can  not  re- 
lease a  debtor  from  obligations  incurred  before  the  passage 
of  such  hiw,  nor  act  upon  the  rights  of  citizens  of  other 
States.  And  %vlien  Congress  sees  fit  lo  exercise  the  power 
over  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  granted  it  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, the  State  laws  on  the  same  subject  are  suspended.  On 
the  repeal  of  the  Congressional  law  the  Stale  laws  would 
revive.  The  power  of  Congress  over  the  subject  is  pleiuiry, 
and  its  law  may  afl'ect  existing  debts  as  well  as  those  which 
are  contracted  after  its  enactment. 

The  judicial  business  in  bankrniitey  is  in  the  main  trans- 
acted by  the  distri<'t  court  of  the  V.  S.,  with  oflicers  called 
registers  lo  conduct  the  administrative  or  non-eontested 
business.  The  estate  is  managed  by  an  assignee,  who  acts 
as  a  trustee,  and  is  accountable  to  the  court  referred  to. 

T.  W.  DwniiiT. 

Banks  (nameil  after  Sir  .1osi:i>ti  Banks,  q.r.):  name  of 
four  single  islands  or  groups:  (1)  An  island  off  the  coast  of 
liritish  Columbia,  on  the  east  side  of  Hei-ate  Straits,  in  hit. 
r>:r  m  N.,  ion.  VMY  lO'  W. :  41  miles  long  by  .'i  to  10  broad  ; 
liigh,  rocky,  and  wooded.  (2)  A  large  island  in  the  Arctic 
Sea.  north  of  British  America,  in  about  Ion.  120'  W.  (3)  A 
small  islan<l  in  Torres  Straits,  between  New  Guinea  and 
Australia.  (4)  A  group  of  islands  in  the  South  Seas,  con- 
sisting of  two  larger  and  five  smaller  islands,  the  northern 
part  of  the  New  Hebrides  cluster.  HI.  W.  H. 

Banks,  Sir  .Iosi:i'n.  LL.  I).,  F.  K.  S. :  naturalist;  b.  in 
Londim.  Fell.  l:i.  1743.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
sailed  with  Capt.  Cook  in  his  voyage  round  the  world  in 
1768.  returning  in  1771  with  rich  collections  of  plants,  ani- 
mals, etc.  In  f77S  he  was  chosen  iiresident  of  the  Royal 
Society,  over  which  he  presided  forty-two  years.  He  con- 
triliuti'd  memoirs  to  the  P/iiloso/i/iiral  Tranxactionx  and 
cither  publications.  I),  at  S|iriiig  (irove.  Isleworlli.  near 
Lomhin.  .lune  Ii),  1820. 

Banks.  Nathaniel  Prkntiss.  LL.  I). :  a  statesman  and 
general;  b.  at  Walt  ham.  Mass..  .Ian.  30,  1816.  He  learned 
the  trade  of  a  machinist,  studied  law,  wa-s  elected  to  the 
Legislature  as  a  Democrat  in  1840.  and  was  chosen  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Kepresentalivi's  of  Massachusetts  in  1851. 
Having  been  elected  a  member  of  tlie  national  Congress  in 
1852.  hir  was  separated  from  Hie  Democratic  party  by  his 
opposition  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  and  in  18.54  was  re- 
turned to  Congress  by  the  Republicans  and  Knowiiotliings. 
In  Feb..  18.56.  after  an  exciting  contest  which  oeciipieil  two 
months,  he  was  chosen  Sjieaker  of  the  House  on  the  one 


486 


BANKS 


BANTAM  FOWL 


hundred  and  thirty-tliird  ballot.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  Nov.,  18.^7,  for  one  year,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1858  and  18.59.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed 
a  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  soon  obtained  the  coni- 
manci  of  an  army  on  the  I'otoraac.  Having  gained  some 
advantage  at  Winchester,  in  Mar.,  1862,  he  pursued  the 
enemy  to  Harrisonburg.  On  May  34  lie  was  attacked  by 
Stonewall  Jackson,  and  retreated  rapidly  to  the  Potomac. 
In  Dec,  1863,  lie  succeeded  Gen.  Butler  as  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  Gulf.  About  the  end  of  May,  1863, 
he  invested  Port  Hudson,  which  was  taken  with  about  6,000 
prisoners  July  9.  In  the  spring  of  1864  he  conducted  an 
expedition  up  the  Red  river,  in  which  Rear-Admiral  Porter 
co-operated  with  tlie  gunboats.  He  ascended  above  Grand 
Ecore.  After  several  battles  at  Pleasant  Hill  (Ajiril  !l)  and 
other  iila(u's,  lieing  pressed  liy  superior  numbers,  he  retreated 
toward  New  Orleans,  anil  was  relieved  from  tlie  command 
in  Jlay,  1864.  He  was  eliosen  M.  C.  bv  tlie  Republicans  of 
Massachusetts  in  1864,  1866,  1868.  and  "1870.  He  served  as 
chairman  of  the  t'oinmittee  of  Foreign  Relations  in  the  For- 
tieth and  Forty-first  Congresses.  He  advocated  the  election 
of  Horace  Greeli^y  as  President,  and  was  defeated  for  Con- 
gress in  1872,  but  was  re-elected  in  1874  and  1876.  He  was 
U.  S.  marshal  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1879-88;  re-elected  to  Con- 
gress Nov.  6,  1888.     1).  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  Sept.  1,  1894. 

Banks,  Thomas:  the  first  great  English  sculptor:  b.  at 
Lambeth,  Dec.  29,  173.5.  He  gained  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1770,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1772.  He 
remained  lor  several  years  in  Rome,  and  produced  there 
C'aractacus  Pleading  hi-fore  Chiudiu.f,  and  an  admiralile 
statue  of  P.iyche  mid  the  Bitttt-rfly,  which  was  purchased  by 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  at  whose  invitation  he  visited  .St. 
Petersburg  in  1784.  Among  his  masterpieces  is  the  31nuni- 
ing  Achillea.  He  excelled  in  imaginative  works.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.    D.  in  London,  Feb.  3, 180.5. 

Banks.  Saviiigrs:  See  Savings-banks. 

Bank  Safes  and  Vanlts :  See  Safes,  Burglar-pboof. 

Bank'siii :  a  genus  of  Australian  shrubs  and  trees  of  the 
family  I'l-Dleaceip,  named  in  honor  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks ; 
have  liai'd,  di'y  leaves,  and  an  umbellate  arrangement  of 
branches  bearing  near  the  extremities  oblong  heads  of  nu- 
merous flowers,  which  .secrete  much  honey.  They  are  called 
honeysuckle  trees,  and  abound  in  all  parts  of  Australia.  One 
species  (Hanksia  j/randis).  found  at  Swan  river,  grows  to  a 
height  of  .50  feet. 

Banks  I;an(l :  island  in  western  part  of  Arctic  America  ; 
discovered  by  I'arry  1819:  separated  by  Banks  Strait  from 
Melville  islan<l  on  the  X.  \V.  and  by  Prince  of  Wales  Strait 
from  Prince  Alliert  Land  on  the  S.  See  map  of  North 
America,  ref.  2-1). 

Banklira:  a  district  and  town  of  Burdwan  division, 
Bengal,  British  India;  between  the  iiarallels  23°  and  28  X. 
anil  the  meridians  86'  and  87  E. ;  X.  W.  from  Calcutta. and 
between  the  Gangetic  delta  and  the  liighlands.  The  fat 
paddy  lands  along  the  eastern  margin  gradually  pass  into 
the  undulating  forest  tracts  of  the  west.  The  district  is 
noted  for  the  fine  colored  silk  cloths  manufactured  within 
it.  The  climate  is  fairly  healthy.  The  winters  are  cool  and 
bracing,  but  the  summers  are  hot  and  oppressive.  The  rain- 
fall is  about- 60  inches.  The  district  suffered  greativ  from 
the  famine  of  18(i,5-66.  Area,  2.621  sq.  miles.  'Pop.."l.OOO,- 
(100.  Hankura  citv  (see  map  of  X.  India,  rcf.  8-1)  is  the  capi- 
tal (lat.  a:i '  14'  N.,'lon.  87"  7'  E.) ;  has  a  |iopulation  of  19,0(J0. 
Bishnupur  is  about  as  large.  M.  W.  II. 

Bann  :  either  of  two  rivers  in  X.  E.  of  Ireland — the  Upper 
Bann,  2.5  miles  long,  flowing  into,  and  the  Lower  Bann,  40 
miles  long,  flowing  out  of.  Lough  Neagh.  The  Lower  Bann 
has  important  .salmon  and  eel  fisheries. 

Ban'natync  (iiib  :  a  literary  club  deriving  its  name  from 
(ieorge  Baiinatym-  (1.54.5-1608).  who  was  born  in  Scotland. 
He  compiled  a  cullcction  of  manuscri]its  called  Corpus  Poef- 
inim  Scii/iiriiiii.  This  club  was  founded  at  Edinburgh  in 
1823  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  its  design  being  to  jjromote  the 
knowledge  of  .Scottish  history  and  antiquities,  and  to  |)rint 
rare  works  wliich  lend  to  illustrate  those  subjects.  The  club 
originally  consisted  of  thirty-one  members,  and  gradually 
increased  to  one  hinidreii,  to  which  number  it  was  finally 
limited. 

Ban'nckcr.  Bknmami.v  :  a  Negro  mathematician:  b.  at 
Kllicotfs  Mills.  Aid..  Nov.  9,  1731.  He  was  the  author  of 
an  almanac  (1792,  >i(j(j.),  of  which  a  copy  was  sent  by  Thomas 


Jefferson  to  the  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris.  Banneker  assisted  in  laying  out  Washington  city 
and  running  the  boundarv-lines  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
I),  at  Baltimore  in  Oct.,  1806.  See  his  Liff  bv  J.  II.  B.  La- 
trobe  (Phila..  184.5),  and  by  J.  S.  Norris  (1854).' 

Ban'ner  [0.  Fr.  baiiere.  formed  with  Lat.  suffix  -aria 
from  a  Teutonic  loan-word :  ef.  Goth.  liiiidwO,  emblem,  of 
same  root  with  Eng.  bind] :  a  flag ;  that  is  to  say,  a  piece  of 
cloth  attached  to  a  spear  or  staff,  and  serving  to  denote  the 
nationality  of  a  company  of  soldiers,  the  character  and  piir- 
pose  of  a  society,  or  the  rank  of  a  prince  or  chief.  The 
modern  use  of  the  term  for  a  flag  which  hangs  from  a  cross- 
bar is  not  the  original  or  proper  meaning.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  term  denoted  the  square  flag  carried  before  a 
knight-banneret.  In  literature  the  term  is  used  as  synony- 
mous with  flag,  but  in  a  somewhat  lofty  or  poetical  sense. 

Rl'ssell  Sturgis. 

Ban'neret :  See  Knight. 

Ban'nister,  Henry,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Conway,  Mass.,  Oct.  5, 
1812:  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  University,  Conn.,  in  1836; 
studied  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary;  was  teacher  and 
princi[)al  of  the  Methodist  Academy  at  Cazenovia  1838-56 ; 
and  in  1856  was  ajijiointed  Professor  of  Exegetical  Theology 
in  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  which  is  now  the  Theolog- 
ical Department  of  the  Xorthwestern  L'niversity  at  Evans- 
ton.  111.  He  was  author  of  several  able  published  sermons, 
addresses,  and  reviews  scattered  in  various  periodicals.  He 
was  also  a  highlv  esteemed  professor,  teacher,  and  lecturer. 
1).  at  Evanstim,  III,  Apr.  15,  1883. 

Ban'noi'kbnrn  :  a  village  of  Scotland:  in  the  county  of 
Stirling,  on  the  Bannock  rivulet,  3  miles  S.  of  Stirling  (see 
ma])  of  Seiitland.  ref.  11-G).  It  was  the  scene  of  a  famous 
and  complete  victory  gained  by  Robert  Bruce  over  the 
English  army,  led  by  the  king,  Edward  II.,  on  June  24, 
1314.  The  Englisli  lost  about  30,000  men.  Here  are  im- 
portant manufactures  of  woolens,  especially  tartans  and 
carpets.     Pop.  about  2.600. 

Banns  (nr  Bans)  of  Marriage  [for  etymology  see  Ban]  : 
a  public  notice  of  an  intended  marriage,  given  in  a  church 
or  other  ])lace  prescribed  by  law.  The  law  of  England  re- 
quires that  all  banns  of  matrimony  shall  be  pulilished  in  an 
audible  manner,  according  to  the  rubric  prefixed  to  the  mar- 
riage service  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  after  the  second 
lesson  at  matins  or  evensong,  upon  three  Sundays  jireceding 
the  ceremony.     This  rubric  is  in  the  following  terms:  "I 

publish  the  banns  of  marriage  between  A,  of ,  and  B,  of 

.     If  any  of  yon  know  cause  or  just  impediment  why 

these  persons  should  not  be  joined  together  in  holy  matri- 
mony, ye  are  to  declai'e  it."  The  English  law.  however,  dis- 
penses with  this  preliminary  publication  if  the  jiarties  obtain 
a  license  from  the  court  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  or  any 
of  his  surrogates,  or  from  the  Archbishop  of  Canterlniry.  A 
republicatiim  of  the  banns  is  necessary  if  the  marriage  is 
not  solemnized  within  three  months.  The  "bidding"  of 
banns  has  fallen  into  disuse  in  the  U.  S..  though  if  is  still  oc- 
casionally heard.  The  practice  was  first  directed  in  the  times 
of  the  Fathei's.  w.is  enacted  afterward  by  Odo.  I'.ishop  of 
Paris,  about  1176.  placed  in  the  canon  law  in  1200  bv  the 
Synod  of  Westminster,  and  ju'escribed  for  the  whole  Latin 
Church  by  the  Lateran  Council  in  1215.  It  is  still  required 
by  the  cannu  law  nf  England  and^of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Pkrrv. 

Bannii :  See  Banu. 

Bansnara.  ba'nn-swaa'ra  (i.  e.  the  foresi  cmintry):  a 
feudaforv  state  in  Raj]iutana,  British  India;  lat.  23  30  N., 
Ion.  74'  30'  E. ;  area.  l'..500.sq.  miles.  Pop.  105,000.  of  whom 
48,000  are  Bliils.  abrave  and  warlike  hill  tril)e  of  India,  not 
disposed  to  agriculture.     The  country  is  arid. 

Bantam,  lia'm-taam' :  an  old  town  of  Java,  on  the  north 
coast,  44  miles  W.  of  Batavia  (see  ma|i  of  East  Indies,  ref. 
8-C).  It  was  formerly  a  larire  city  and  great  entrepot  of 
trade,  but  on  account  of  the  unhealthy  climafe  is  at  present 
almost  deserted.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  the  chief 
town  of  a  powerful  Mohammedan  enqiire  of  the  same  name, 
which  at  one  time  even  comprised  the  southern  p;irt  of 
Sumatra  and  the  west  coast  of  Borneo.  In  168;i  the  Sultan 
of  Bantam  became  a  vassal  of  the  Netherlands,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  centurv  the  Dutch  took  possession 
of  the  sultanate.     The  town  is  in  lat.  6°  2'  S.,  Ion.  106°  50'  E. 

Bantam  :  a  mime  applied  to  the  numerous  dwarf  breeds 
of  the   domeslie   fowl,  many   of  which   are  of  very  recent 


BAXTENG 


liAPIIOMET 


487 


origin.  f)rij?innlly  given  lo  a  siiuill  bniil  supposed  to  have 
been  brouglit  from  Uanluin,  Java.  liaiitani  fowls  are  re- 
markable for  their  courage  anil  for  consequential  fussiness. 

Itan'teil^  (liibns  sonda  imx):  a  species  of  ox  {linriclre); 
a  native  of  .lava  anil  Borneo,  which  in  color,  sliape,  horns, 
anil  want  of  dewlap  bears  some  resemblance  tu  the  gaur  of 
India.  It  has  short  anil  sleek  hair,  slender  limbs,  and  a 
sharp  muzzle.  Though  extremely  wild,  it  is  often  domesti- 
cated by  the  natives,  and  becomes  a  very  serviceable  ani- 
mal. 

Iiilii'tiii!;isiii :  a  regimen  for  the  reduction  of  corpulence ; 
so  called  after  a  London  undertaker  lumied  William  Bant- 
ing (17'J7-Mar.  16.  IHTS),  who  introduced  it  (If^ti:!)  a.s  the  re- 
sult of  his  own  experience.  The  regimen  was  suggested  to 
him  by  Mr.  William  Harvey.  In  several  weeks  he  reduced 
his  weight  from  'ZU'i  lb.  lo  bVi  lb.,  and  with  nuirked  gain  to 
his  health.  The  regimen  consists  essentially  in  the  avoid- 
ance of  food  containing  fatty  matter,  and  of  materials  which 
may  make  fat  in  the  body,  a.s  starch  and  sugar.     Lean  meat 

{)redominates  in  this  diet ;  vegetables  are  almost  excluded ; 
)utter,  milk,  sugar,  and  malt  liquors  are  ]>rohibited.  With 
active  exercise  this  method  is  often  successful  in  reducing 
excessive  weight. 

Baiitry  Bay:  a  deep  inlet  in  the  .south  of  Ireland,  in 
Cork  County;  is  23  miles  long  and  from  •'!  to  ~i  miles  wide. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  harboi's  in  Kuropc,  atTording  safe  and 
commodious  anchorage  for  ships  of  idl  sizes.  The  coast  of 
the  bav  is  high  and  rocky,  consisting  of  Devonian  strata, 
and  exliibits  some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  island.  Near 
the  entrance  of  this  bav  occurred  a  naval  action  between 
the  English  and  French 'in  Ki.Si). 

lian'til :  See  African  Laxhiaues. 

IJaiiil,  baa'noo,  or  Itannii  :  a  <listrict  of  the  Darajat  di- 
vision of  the  Punjab,  British  India:  situated  between  the 
I)arallels  :i2°  and  :W  N.  and  the  meridians  70°  and  73'  E. 
Area,  :i,8(i.S  sq.  miles.  Bop.  :i:!:i,0(K).  !H)  per  cent,  of  whom 
are  Jlohammedans.  The  Indus  Hows  through  the  district, 
but  it.s  course  is  very  caprii-ioiis  and  it  has  a  tendency  to 
move  eastward.  During  inundations  it  is  a  vast  body  of 
water,  many  udles  across.  The  principal  crops  are  the  or- 
dinary cereals,  millet,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  oil  .seeds. 
The  princijial  towns  are  Trakhel.  pop.  7,500,  and  Kalabagh, 
(i.oOII.  JI.  \V.  II. 

Uaiivillc.  baaiVvecl',  Thkodokio  Faii.lain,  de  :  French 
poet;  b.  at  Moulins,  Mar.  14.  1823:  has  obtained  the  admi- 
ration of  a  clique  (xdi-dimiil  decadent)  of  French  and  other 
writers.  In  1842  he  published  Lcs  Cdrintidcx.  and  Tje.s 
Slahirtitfxm  1S4() :  but  he  lirst  attracted  general  attention 
by  his  Odi'xfunnni/iiilf'Xijue.silS')'!).  Afterward  he  published 
many  verses  and  wrote  several  play.s.  Ills  jioetic  works  have 
been  published  together  in  ;i  vohunes  (1878-79):  also  his 
plays  (except  the  opera-ballet  Lix  Xaliunx).  under  the  title 
Comedinx.  A  volume  of  recollections,  Jfex  Souvenirx,  a|i- 
peared  in  1882.     D.  in   I'aris, 


Ban'ynii,  Baiiinn,  or.  in  Bengale.se  form,  Baiiiya  [from 
Skr.  vuHij,  a  merchant]:  a  Hindu  shop-keeper  or  merchant: 
especially  oiu;  of  the  wholesale  dealere  and  importers  of 
Bomliay,  Surat,  Cainbay,  etc.,  who  carry  on  a  trade  with 
the  interior  of  Asia  by  caravans  and  with  Africa  by  ships. 
They  usually  belong  to  the  csiste  called  Vaisayas,  and 
strictly  abstain  from  aninuil  food. 

Banyan,  or  Banian  [so  called  because  frequently  used 
as  market-places  by  the  banyans  or  merehantsj :  an  East 


rfvS^^zA 


Tupaia,  or  banxriDg. 


Uauyaa  tree. 

Indian  tree  (Ficiix  (Hf/icff),  remarkable  for  its  mode  of  prop- 
agation liy  means  of  aih'ial  roots,  which,  on  descending  to 
the  gi'ound  and  penetrating  it,  become  stems  or  trunks. 
These  roots  at  first  hang  like  loose  cords,  but  after  they  take 
hold  they  are  gradually  tightened,  till  they  become  almost 
as  firm  as  a  rod  of  iron.  In  this  nuuiner  a  single  tree 
spreads  over  a  hirge  extent  of  ground,  and  cTidures  for 
many  centuries.  One  of  these  trees  has  been  described  jus 
having  ■>'>()  large  stems,  and  occupying  so  large  a  space 
that  many  thou.sand  persons  might  stand  under  its  shade. 
It  is  a  species  of  fig.  and  produces  a  fruit  about  as  large  as  a 
cherry,  and  of  a  rich  scarlet  color.  An  abundance  of  gum- 
lac  is  ])rocurcd  from  this  tree,  the  bark  of  which  is  esteemed 
as  a  tonic  by  Hindu  physicians.  The  above  illustration  may 
serve  to  give  oni^  an  iilca  of  a  vigorous  and  comparatively 
young  banyan-tree.  In  very  old  trees  many  of  the  stems 
often  become  almost  or  ipiite  as  large  as  the  original  trunk. 
Its  wood  is  light,  porou.s.  and  of  little  value. 

Banz.  baans:  the  mime  of  oiu^  of  the  finest  Benedictine 
abbeys  known  in  history:  situated  in  Bavaria  in  the  midst 
of  a  beautiful  landscajie.  The  monks  of  this  abbey  were 
noted  for  their  learning  and  humane  spirit.  It  w,h.s  founded 
in  10.")8.  The  convent  was  abolished  in  1802,  and  is  now 
the  summer  residence  of  the  princes  of  Bavaria.  Here  is  a 
museum  which  is  especially  rich  in  petrifactions. 

Ba'nhah:  See  Adaxso.via. 

Baoiir-Lnrniian,  ba'i  oor'  lor'mi-iiiin',  Pikhre  Marie 
Fkaxi;ois  Loiis :  French  ]ioet  of  the  fii-st  empire:  b.  at 
Toulouse.  Mar.  24,  1770:  translator  of  Tasso  {l~i)r>)  and 
Ossian  (1801),  and  author  of  many  tragedies  in  the  severely 
cla-ssic  style,  which  were  greatly  admired  in  their  time;  but 
before  his  death  he  saw  himself  one  of  the  most  despised 
of  poets,  the  butt  of  numberless  eiiigrams,  and  the  especial 
detestation  of  the  Romanticists,  lie  had  lieen  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  .\cademy  (181.')).  however,  and  when  he 
died  this  body,  still  a  stronghold  of  the  classicists,  mani- 
fested their  respect  for  him  by  unusual  signs.  Xisard,  whose 
own  clas.sical  sympathies  were  in  the  main  with  him,  pro- 
nounced the  funeral  oration.     D.  in  Paris,  Dee.  10,  18.54. 

Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Itiipll'onict  :  a  mysterious  symbol  of  the  Knight  Tem- 
plars, was  a  small  human  figure  cut  out  of  stone,  having  two 
Iliads,  male  and  female.  It  was  environed  with  serpents 
and  astrological  atiributes,  and  marked  with  inscriptions, 
mostly  in  .\rabic.  The  word  is  supnosed  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  Mohammed  or  Mahomet  (calliMl  by  the  Portuguese, 
Bafoma),  to  whose  religion  the  Templars  were  susjiected  of 
'eaiiing.  Others  derive  it  from  Bcupij  M^retDj,  the  "bath  of 
wisdom,"  a  reputed  name  of  the  Gnostic  baptism,  often 
called  in  old  writings  "baphometic  bajitism.  Some  ex- 
plain it  as  a  cabalistic  term  formed  by  writing  backward, 
tem.  o.  h.  p.  all,  i.  e.  teiiipli  omnium  honiiniim  pads  ab- 
bas. Quite  a  number  of  uaphomets  are  preserved  in  Eu- 
ropean archa-ological  collections. 


488 


BAPTISM 


BAPTISTERY 


Baptism  [from  Gr.  ^aimo-^i^s,  subst.  to  fiairTlCdv.  Iiap- 
tize] :  ii  sacrament  and  initiatory  rite  of  tlie  Christian 
Church.  By  whatever  other  ceremonies  one  may  be  ad- 
vanced to  the  privileges  of  full  membership,  it  has  been 
universally  held  in  Christendom,  except  among  sects  repvi- 
diating  sacraments  altogether,  tliat  a  baptized  person  was 
by  that  rite  incorporated  into  the  Church  which  Christ  and 
the  apostles  founded,  or  into  the  mystical  "body  of  Christ." 
The  authority  for  tliis  rite  rests  upon  the  New  Testament. 
(See  Matt,  xxviii.  18-20;  Mark  ivi.  16;  Acts  ii.  38.  x.  44; 
Rom.  vi.  4  ;  Col.  ii.  12,  etc.)  From  these  and  similar  texts  a 
doctrine  of  baptism  has  been  developed,  as  a  common  Chris- 
tian heritage,  altliougli  it  has  been  variously  modified  by 
differing  religious  bodies. 

It  has  been  customary  to  find  the  antecedents  of  Viaptism 
in  the  rites  with  which  "it  was  alleged  that  the  .Jews  received 
proselytes  into  their  number,  and  also  in  the  rite  jiracticed 
by  John  the  Baptist ;  but  both  of  these  subjects  are  very 
oliscure.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  Jewish  baptism  of 
proselytes  came  into  use  after  the  final  tlispersion  of  the 
luition,  and  in  imitation  of  Christian  practice.  As  for 
John's  rite,  it  is  not  known  what  formula  he  used,  nor  into 
what  body  he  regarded  it  as  an  initiation,  if  any  at  all,  nor 
what  the  inward  benefits  were  which  he  attached  to  the 
ceremony,  except  that  it  was  a  symbol  of  repentance.  For 
all  purpose  of  argument  or  use,  baptism  must  stand  upon 
New  Testament  texts  and  the  usages  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Rites. — The  practice  of  the  early  Christians  as  given  in 
the  New  Testament  was  very  simple.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  Christ  ever  baptized,  but  he  seems  to  have  adopted  the 
rite  of  his  forerunner  and  to  have  lifted  it  into  a  higher 
significance.  It  was  no  longer  a  symbol  merely  o*  repent- 
ance, but  also  of  a  new  Hie,  iipali7ige7iesis  wrought  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  an  assurance  of  forgiveness,  and  a  badge  of  en- 
trance into  the  "  Kingdom  of  God."  It  is  clear  that  the 
apost  les  (Acts  ii.  38^1 ;  viii.  16)  and  tlie  evangelists  (Acts  viii. 
37,38;  xix.  3-5)  baptized,  and  in  these  two  passages  there 
is  an  intimation  of  the  verbal  formula  at  first  used.  Soon, 
however,  it  began  to  be  held  that  the  two  outward  essen- 
tials of  baptism  were  the  use  of  water  and  of  the  words  of 
Christ  as  given  in  Matt,  xxviii.  19.  It  is  probable  that  the 
primitive  rite  was  ordinarily  performed  by  immersion, 
which  became  a  trine  immersion  in  respect  to  the  three  per- 
sons of  the  Trinity,  but  later  the  trine  innnersion  ceased,  as 
affording  ground  for  questioning  the  unity  of  the  Godhead. 
The  Council  of  Ravenna,  131  i,  legalized  the  baptism  of 
sprinkling,  by  leaving  to  the  olliciating  minister  the  choice 
of  the  two  modes  of  applying  water ;  but  the  practice  of 
"  clinical "  or  bedside  baptism  had  long  lieen  in  use,  and 
had  spread  from  the  sick-room  to  the  churches.  This  prac- 
tice received  an  impulse  from  the  desire  of  catechumens  to 
postpone  their  baptism,  as  was  the  case  with  Constantine, 
until  the  end  of  life  di-ew  nigli,  that  the  recipient  might 
receive  the  spiritual  benefits  involved  at  the  latest  moment, 
and  when  the  danger  was  least  of  forfeiting  baptismal 
grace  by  subsequent  misconduct.  By  reason  of  this  post- 
ponement Christians  now  and  then  died  unliaptized,  but  if 
they  departed  this  life  as  martyrs  they  weri^  held  to  have 
received  the  "baptism  of  blood."  St.  Augustine  speaks 
also  of  a  "  baptism  of  tears  "  as  possible  for  the  deeply  peni- 
tent. Baptism  of  the  dead  was  a  rite  received  often  by 
proxy,  but,  was  regarded  as  heretical.  Lay  baptism  was 
long  recognized  as  valid  in  the  early  and  mediaeval  Church, 
a-s  it  still  is  by  the  Itoman  Catholics,  although  with  the 
development  of  high  views  of  the  clerical  function  this 
practice  was  discouraged.  In  emergencies  nurses  and  mid- 
wives  and  even  nnl)aptized  laymen,  if  their  intent  was  right, 
could  administer  tlie  sacrament.  Among  Protestants,  how- 
ever, lay  baptism  is  scan.'ely  recognized  at  all. 

The  early  Church  developed  elaborate  ceremonies  in  con- 
nection with  liaplism.  Candidates  for  the  rite  were  termed 
catechumens,  and  n^ceived  by  laying  on  of  hands  to  a  long 
cour.sc  of  instruction.  At.  fh-stthey  were  not  allowed  to 
witness  the  mysteries  (lience  the  ti^rm  "  mass"  or  iiiixna  for 
the  Eucharist,  which  was  cclctirated  after  the  dismissal  of 
the  general  congregation).  They  were  permitted  to  attend 
churcli,  worship  as  witness<-s  at  'first,  and  then  to  take  part 
in  the  responses  and  genuflections.  From  these  the  electi 
were  taken,  and  baptism  was  administereil  at  the  great 
church  festivals,  especi.-dly  Whitsunday.  The  catechumen 
was  received;  given  a  Christiau  niiuu';  turning  to  the  west 
he  renoiinceil  the  "devil  and  all  his  works";  then  he  was 
exorcised,  the  priest  laying  his  hands  on  him,  breathing  in 


his  face,  and  commanding  the  evil  spirit  to  come  out  of  him. 
The  ceremony  of  opening  the  candidate's  ears  and  nose  fol- 
lowed, indicating  that  he  was  to  receive  the  Word  and 
Holy  Spirit.  He  was  then  anointed  with  oil ;  sometimes  an 
anointing  followed  the  baptism  itself.  Then  came  an  in- 
struction, whicli  ended  with  the  rehearsal  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  Apostle's  Creed  by  the  catechumen.  Often  a 
whole  day  was  passed  in  these  preliminaries.  In  baptism 
the  water  was  first  consecrated.  The  rite  was  performed 
at  the  entrance  of  the  church,  and  quite  commoidy  after  it 
the  baptized  received  a  white  garment  in  token  of  liis 
cleansing  from  sin.  These  garments  were  often  laid  up  in 
the  churches  as  witnesses,  lest  the  baptized  forget  tneir 
vows. 

Water  is  still  variously  applied :  in  immersion  the  per- 
son is  submerged  backward  in  the  water ;  in  pouring  or 
affusion,  water  is  poured  from  a  vessel  or  a  shell  over  the 
head ;  in  aspersion  or  sprinkling  the  water  is  dropped  from 
the  hand  upon  the  head.  In  ]irimitive  immersions  the  cate- 
chumen was  submerged  face  downward.  In  the  Church  of 
England  infant  immersion,  or  dipping,  was  practiced  until 
after  the  Reformation.  In  the  Greek  churches  a  form  of 
innnersion  is  still  observed.  In  these  two  and  in  the  Angli- 
can communions  the  a|i]olication  of  water  is  followed  by  the 
minister's  making  a  sign  of  the  cross  upon  the  forehead  of 
the  ba])tized. 

The  practice  of  infant  baptism  gave  rise  to  Sponsors  (q.  ?•.), 
or  god-parents,  who  promised  in  the  child's  behalf  faith  and 
obedience,  and  on  their  own  the  child's  Christian  nurture. 

Divergencies  of  views  concerning  baptism  have  arisen, 
extending  from  the  ex  opere  operafo  theory  found  in  St. 
Augustine,  and  the  High-Church  expansion  of  his  views, 
to  the  Quaker  contention  that  the  inward  witness  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  suffices  without  other  ceremony.  They  arise 
over  the  mode  of  applying  water  and  ovei-  the  qualifica- 
tions for  it.  from  the  l)a|itiMn  of  infants  to  that  of  adults 
only,  and  then  on  a  pi'ofession  of  re|ientance  and  faith. 
These  characteristic  views  will  lie  found  slated  in  tliis  work 
in  the  article  Baptists  {g.  v.)  and  under  the  titles  of  the  va- 
rious Christian  denominations.  S.  M.  J. 

SaptisiH  from  the  Roman  Catholic  standpoint  "  is  the 
sacrament  of  regeneration  by  water  in  the  word."  (Cate- 
chism of  tlie  Coiinril  iif  Trent.)  1.  Tlie  mnttefoi  baptism  is 
natural  water  poured  on  the  head  of  the  person  to  be  bap- 
tized. But  baptism  by  immersion  or  by  sprinkling  would 
be  equally  valid. 

2.  The  form  of  words  to  be  pronounced  by  the  minister 
in  the  very  act  of  pouring  on  the  water  is :  "I  baptize  thee 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

3.  The  ordinary  minister  of  baptism  is  the  priest;  but 
any  man  or  woman,  heretic,  Jew.  or  pagan  can  validly  bap- 
tize, provided  he  applies  [iroperly  the  matter  and  form,  and 
has  the  intention  to  do  what  Christ  ordains. 

4.  The  effects  of  bajitism  are  in  general  regeni'ration. 
and  in  particular  the  infusion  of  sanctifying  grace,  the 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  etc.,  and 
the  remission  of  all  sin,  original  and  actual,  and  of  all 
penalties  due  to  sin.  both  temporal  and  eternal.  Baptism 
also  imiirints  an  indelible  character,  and  makes  the  recip- 
ient a  member  of  the  Church  of  Christ. 

.5.  Unless  already  validly  baptized,  any  human  being 
(even  infants  and  idiots)  is  a  subject  capable  of  receiving 
ba])tism.     Adults  shouki  have  the  proper  dispositions. 

6.  Baptism  is  necessary  to  salvation.  But  in  case  of 
necessity  the  baptism  of  desire,  or  of  lilood,  can,  in  the  ease 
of  adults,  supply  the  place  of  baptism  by  water. 

John  J.  Kkane. 

Baptistery  [from  Gr.  ffa-ma-Triptov,  bathing-place,  bap- 
tistery] :  the  building  or  cliamlur  set  apart  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacrament  of  baptism.  These  buildings  are 
either  octagonal,  polygonal,  or  circular.  They  are  usually 
placed  at  the  west  end  of  the  church  or  at  the  entrance, 
baptism  syniliolizing  the  entrance  into  the  Churcli  of  ('lirist. 
They  liegaii  to  lie  erected  |irobably  in  tlie  time  of  Constan- 
tine. The  l)a[)tistery  of  the  Lateran  in  Rome  (alioiit  63  feet 
in  diameter)  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  him.  The  bap- 
tistery of  Florence,  among  the  most  celebrated,  is  an  octag- 
onal structure  about  1(10  feet  in  diameter,  standing  in  close 
proximity  to  the  cathedral.  It  is  built  of  black  and  white 
marlile.  The  most  remarkable  features  of  this  baptistery 
are  the  magnificent  bronze  doors,  adorned  with  bas-reliefs  by 
Ghiberti  and  others.     In  the  center  of  each  of  these  build- 


BAPTISTS 


489 


ings  erected  for  baptismal  purposes  is  a  font,  wliicli  is  often 
of  considerable  proportions — that  at  Uavenna  being  about 
9  feet  square,  and  that  of  the  Lateran,  at  Koine,  37  inches 
or  more  in  depth. 

Baptists:  a  body  of  evanfjelical  Chrislians  nmnliering 
about  5,000.0l)t)  of  oomniunieants,  wlio  insist  that  believers 
are  tlie  only  proper  subjects,  aiul  that  immersion  is  the  oidy 
proper  mode  of  Ijaplism.  They  insist  also  on  the  Bible  as 
the  sole  and  sullieient  rule  of  faitli  and  practice,  on  the  in- 
dependence of  the  local  cluircli,  the  separation  of  the  Church 
from  the  state,  and  the  widest  liberty  of  conscience.  In 
America  tlie  large  nuijorily  adhere  to  strict  communion  at 
the  Lord's  table.  There  are  several  divisions  among  them, 
but  the  largest  division  is  Calvinisti(!  in  its  type  of  doctrine. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  (ireat  IJritain  and  North  Ameri- 
ca, but  are  also  represented  in  many  other  cii\uUries. 

So  far  as  present  researches  go,  tlu>  name  "  Bcip/ist,"  as 
applied  to  this  body  of  Christian  people,  firsi  appears  in 
literature  in  the  year  1044  in  a  volume  entitled  The.  Ana- 
haptistif  Groumlii'urk  for  Hi- format  ion,  page  2:f,  Prior  to 
that  date  they  were  without  a  name,  and  commonly  desig- 
nated themselves  as  "those  who  are  unjustly  called  Anabap- 
tists." (See  AxAHAlTisTS.)  The  new  name  gave  offense  :  it 
was  charged  that  "  they  arrogate  to  tliemselves  the  title  of 
Baptists,  as  if  none  were  baptized  but  themselves."  Much 
speculation  lias  been  bestowed  to  determine  why  this  more 
aggressive  attitude  should  have  been  assumed  about  the 
year  lti44.  .Some  have  fancied  that  the  new  title  was 
claimed  and  maintained  because  of  the  change  in  the  form 
of  administering  baptism,  wliieh  is  alleged  to  have  occurred 
about  the  year  lf)41,  when  immersion  was  restored  in  the 
place  of  sprinkling  and  pouring.  If  these  had  been  re- 
tained it  would  have  been  as  impossible  for  them  to  shake 
off  the  inline  Anabaptist  as  it  was  in  the  case  of  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Germany.  .Vfler  the  restoration  of  immersion, 
it  was  easy  to  insist  that  those  who  practiced  it  were  alone 
"baptized  people,"  emphasis  being  laid  not  only  upon  the 
subjects  as  formerly,  but  also  upim  the  mode  of  baptism. 
This  latter  emphasis  was  clearly  indicated  by  the  name 
Baptist. 

In  the  year  1609  or  1610  a  body  of  English  Anabaptists 
was  organized  in  Holland,  which  subsei|uently  developed 
into  the  Arminian  Anabaptist  moveiuenl  in  Kngland.  Af- 
ter 1641,  when  believers"  immersion  was  restored  in  Eng- 
land, this  body  of  Arminian  .Vnabaptists  bei'ame  known  as 
General  Baptists.  Xo  traces  of  believers'  immersion  have 
vet  been  discovered  in  England  between  l.iOl)  and  1641. 
^he  Puritan  movement  was  in  progress:  Ainswoith.  .lolin- 
son,  Clifton,  and  their  ailhcrents  were  already  settled  in 
Amsterdam,  when'  they  rcunid  refuge  from  their  Englisli 
persecutors.  Possibly  in  1606  .lohn  .Smyth  made  his  way  to 
Amsterdam  from  Lincolnshire  for  the  same  purpose,  with 
another  party  composed  of  about  forty  adults.  Arrived  in 
Amsterdam,  iMr.  Smyth  shortly  fell  in  with  the  Mennonites, 
and  fell  out  witli  Ainsworth  and  the  friends  with  whom  he 
had  hitherto  co-operated.  The  Mi'iiiicmites,  who  opposed 
infant  baptism,  persuaded  Synith  that  lie  had  never  been 
baptized.  All  of  Symth's  company  apparently  joined  him 
in  this  conviction,  and  drcidcd  to  have  IlK-mselves  rebap- 
tizcd.  Smyth  took  the  lead,  and,  after  performing  the  cere- 
mony in  his  own  case,  proceeded  to  baptize  the  others.  The 
mwle  of  this  baptism,  it  is  believed,  was  by  sprinkling,  since 
that  had  now  liecome  the  general  mode  in  England,  and  the 
Brownists  do  not  appear  to  have  used  any  other.  Certainly 
there  was  no  other  mode  among  the  Mennonites,  and  sprink- 
ling had  by  this  time  become  almost  universal  in  every  sec- 
tion of  Holland  and  (termaiiy. 

Instead  (rf  welcoming  this  change  tlie  Mennonites  criti- 
cised the  action  of  Smyth  and  his  people,  asserting  that 
they  had  no  right  to  baptize  themselves,  for  the  reason  that 
they  had  no  succession  in  respect  to  baptism  or  the  ordina- 
tion of  elders.  Smyth  was  impressed  by  that  reasoning, 
and  shortly  became  assured  that  his  new  position  was  un- 
tenable. According  to  de  Hoop  Sclieffer,  il  was  in  the  year 
1600  that  he  applied  ti>  lie  admitted  to  the  Jlennonite  Church 
in  Amsterdam,  where  he  fancieil  wa,s  true  succession  both  as 
regards  onlinances  and  olVicers.  Thirty-one  of  his  followers 
united  with  him  in  that  request.  They  were  not  immedi- 
ately ailmitted,  but  remained  on  the  threshold  till  the  year 
lOl.")  liefore  they  were  finally  received.  Smyth  had  passed 
away  meanwhile,  in  1612. 

Four  persons  of  the  parly  of  .Smyth  were  unwilling  to 
join  liiiii  in  seeking  admission  to  the  Mennonite  Church,  as- 


serting that  succession  is  a  mark  of  the  beast,  and  intimating 
that  the  Jlennonites  could  not  demonstrate  their  own  suc- 
cession. Their  names  were  Tliomas  Ilehvys,  William  Pig- 
gott,  Thomas  .Seaiuer  and  John  Murton.  Their  protest  was 
uttered  on  Mar.  12,  1609.  Some  time  afterward,  possibly 
before  the  close  of  the  year,  they  concluded  to  organize 
themselves  into  a  church,  a  step  in  which  they  may  have 
been  joined  by  their  wives  or  other  members  of  their  fami- 
lies. Ue  Hoop  Sclieffer  suggests  that  as  many  as  ten  per- 
sons participated  in  founding  this  English  Anabaptist 
Church.  In  the  year  1611  appeared  their  earliest  confession 
of  faith,  entitled  A  Dfclnrutiun  of  Faith  of  L'tiglixh  People 
Remaining  at  Amxtenlam,  in  Jlollanif.  They  shortly  re- 
turned to  England,  and  established  tlieir  church  at  New- 
gate, in  London.  In  tlie  year  1626  there  were  five  of  these 
English  Anabaptist  churches  in  England,  which  comprised 
about  150  communieants.  By  the  year  1644  tlie  number 
of  churches  had  increased  to  something  over  forty. 

Tliougli  the  company  of  Ilehvys  and  Morton  had  refused 
to  enter  the  Jleiinonite  communion,  they  had  not  escaped 
the  influence  of  the  Mennonites.  They  lost  in  Holland  the 
assured  faith  which  they  had  carried  thither  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  Calvinislic  sy.stem,  and  became  Arminians.  The 
denomination  which  they  founded  later  became  known  as 
General  Baptists,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  believed  in 
a  general  atonement.  They  also  surrendered  the  Brownist 
ecclesiastical  constitution,  and  borrowed  from  the  Mennon- 
ites the  constitution  with  elders  and  deacons  which  has  now 
become  almost  universal  among  Baptists.  They  stoutly  re- 
fused to  accept  the  Mennonite  opinion  regarding  oaths  and 
the  magistracy,  but  were  disposed  to  favor  the  idea  that  it 
of  churches  is  sinful  for  a  Christian  man  to  bear  arms. 

The  other  branch  which,  after  1641,  became  known  as 
English  F<irtini/ar  Boj/ti.sts,  had  a  different  history.  At 
the  outset,  all  Brownists  wlio  could  conveniently  escape 
took  refuge  from  persecution  in  Holland.  By  the  year 
1616,  however,  it  was  considered  possible  for  them  to  re- 
main at  home,  and  in  that  year  the  oldest  Independent 
church  on  English  soil  was  established  at  London  under 
Jlr.  Henry  .Jacob.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  perceived 
that  a  portion  of  the  members  of  Mr.  Jacob's  church  denied 
the  truth  of  the  parish  churches,  while  others  conceded  that 
point.  This  led  to  a  peaceful  separation,  the  seceding  party 
organizing  a  new  church  on  Sept.  12, 1633.  A  large  portion 
of  this  seceding  party  also  scrupled  the  baptism  which  they 
had  received  in  infancy,  and  these  submitted  to  adult  bap- 
tism, apparently  by  sprinkling.  Having  had  no  kind  of 
connection  with  Holland  or  the  IMennonites,  their  Calvin- 
ism remained  intact.  Their  church  constitution  was  like- 
wise at  the  beginning  unaffected  by  the  Mennonite  scheme; 
they  were  in  favor  of  the  four  grades  of  officers — pastors, 
teachers,  elders,  and  deacons — which  at  that  period  pre- 
vailed among  tlic  Independents.  In  fact,  so  intimate  and 
fraternal  were  the  subse(iucnt  relations  between  the  Particu- 
lar or  Calvinislic  Baptists  and  the  Independents,  that  the 
custom  was  sliortly  established  of  organizing  mixed  churches, 
composed  in  part  of  Independents  and  in  jiart  of  Baptists, 
with  a  pastor  selected  iiiiiitTereiitly  from  either  denomina- 
tion. The  cliureh  over  which  Mr.  jiunyan  presided  was  of 
that  sort,  and  there  were  many  others.  The  lines  between 
the  two  denominaliotis  are  now  more  strictly  drawn,  but 
there  are  still  numbers  of  these  mixed  churches  in  England. 
Tlie  Particular  Baptists,  having  received  no  education  in 
Jleunonite  views,  did  not,  as  the  General  Baptists  are 
known  to  have  done,  feel  any  scruples  touching  the  lawful- 
ness of  military  serviee.  That  a  Christian  might  become  a 
magistrate,  or  incur  the  res|ionsibilities  of  a  judicial  oath, 
was  also  never  questioned  among  them. 

Soon  after  the  organization  of  this  first  Calvinislic  Ana- 
baptist Church  a  discussion  was  raised  concerning  the  proper 
mode  of  administering  baptism,  and  the  conviction  was  at 
length  established  that  immersion  was  the  only  scriptural 
mode.  Much  embarrassnieiil  resulted  when  they  began  to 
consult  as  to  the  wisest  course  of  procedure.  Mr.  Spillsbury, 
the  pastor,  and  most  of  the  members,  held  the  opinion 
that,  since  the  circumstances  were  extraordinary,  it  was  ad- 
missible for  any  minister  to  administer  immersion  even 
tliough  he  had  not  himself  received  the  rite,  arguing  that 
neither  John  the  Baptist  nor  the  twelve  apostles  had  been 
baptized  before  they  commenced  to  baptize  others.  That 
position  was  approved  by  the  larger  number,  ami  those  who 
were  accounted  most  judicious.  Others  were  discontented, 
and  insisti'il  upon  oljtaining  succession.  Some  of  these 
I  were  members  of  .Mr.  Spillsbury's  Hock,  but   it   is  supposed 


490 


BAPTISTS 


that  the  majority  still  belonged  to  the  Independent  Church 
from  which  Spillsbury's  church  had  separated.  No  succes- 
sion could  be  obtained  in  England  :  they  were  aware  of  the 
existence  of  the  Arminian  Anabaptists,  but  as  these  were 
still  in  the  practice  of  sprinkling  they  could  afford  no  relief. 
Mr.  Richard  Blunt,  who  took  an  active  part  in  favor  of  suc- 
cession, was  master  of  the  Dutch  language,  and  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Holland.  He  cited 
attention  to  the  Collegiants,  who  in  the  year  1620  had  estab- 
lished the  practice  of  immersion  at  Rhyusburg.  and  pro- 
posed to  send  thither  and  ol)taiu  succession  from  them.  He 
was  deputed  to  go  abi-oad  for  tliat  purpose,  and.  arriving  at 
Khynsburg,  was  courteously  received  by  Mr.  John  Batten, 
successor  of  the  brothers  Van  der  Codde  in  the  pastoral 
office  there.  In  due  time  Batten  consented  to  immerse  him, 
and  returning  to  England  he  administered  the  rite  to  the 
rest  of  his  company.  Tlius  the  people  now  known  as  Par- 
ticular Baptists  became  divided  into  two  separate  tenden- 
cies; the  followers  of  S|>illsbury  laid  no  stress  upon  succes- 
sion, his  opponents  regarded  it  as  indispensable.  The  same 
division  prevails  at  the  present  time. 

If  the  Rhynsburgers  introduced  immersion  only  in  the 
year  1620.  it'mightbe  claimed  that  their  succession  was  a 
mere  myth,  and  that  Blunt,  did  not  obtain  what  he  went  so 
far  to  seek.  That  question  has  lieen  investigated  in  a  spe- 
cial treatise  by  de  Hoop  Scheffer.  entitled  Orerzic/it  der 
GescJiiedeiiis  van  den  Doop  fn'J  Onderdonipeling I. Amsterdam, 
1882),  in  which  he  suggests  that  immersion  had  been  brought 
out  of  Poland  to  Khynsburg  by  Joannes  Geesteranus.  From 
the  Polish  Anabaptists  it  might  also  be  traced  back  to 
Switzerland  and  the  Reformation.  Hence  the  friends  of 
succession  are  not  so  hardly  bestead  as  might  at  first  appear. 
Their  case  is  stronger  than  some  are  aware  of  who  oppose 
their  claims. 

As  soon  as  they  perceived  tliis  change,  the  English  Ar- 
minian Anabai)tists  almost  immediately  accepted  it,  and  so 
became  English  General  Baptists.  Mr.  Edward  Barber  has 
the  honor  to  have  written  the  initial  treatise  in  the  long 
controversy  in  favor  of  the  immersion  of  believers,  entitled 
A  Treatise  of  Baptism,  or  Dipping  (1S4\).  The  Particular 
Baptists,  who  had  now  increased  to  seven  congregations, 
published  their  earliest  confession  of  faith  in  1644,  and  took 
pains  to  provide  for  immersion.  This  confession  was  to  a 
degree  dependent  upon  the  confession  of  the  Brownist 
ch\irches,  which  had  been.issued  in  various  editions  in  Hol- 
land. The  confession  of  1644  retains  the  Independent  form 
of  church  constitution,  providing  for  pastors,  teachers,  el- 
ders, and  de.acons;  but  when  the  edition  of  1646  was  issued 
they  adopted  the  scheme  derived  by  the  General  Baptists 
from  the  Mennonites.  As  already  intimated,  that  scheme 
has  become  prevalent ;  but  some  of  the  older  churches,  as 
that  of  Mr.  Spurgeon,  still  retain  some  features  of  the  Inde- 
pendent scheme. 

First  Period  of  English  Baptist  History  (16U-i''oO).— 
Having  descrilied  above  the  beginnings  of  Baptist  history  in 
England,  at  least  in  so  far  as  any  organized  churches  are 
concerned,  it  is  now  in  order  to  give  a  brief  account  of  their 
early  progress.  Almost  immediately  after  the  two  parties. 
General  and  Particular  Baptists,  had  established  themselves 
in  the  doctrines  and  usages  which  they  were  destined  to 
maintain,  the  upheavals  of  the  Revolution  began  to  be  ob- 
served. This  movement  was  of  special  advantage  to  the 
Baptists,  who  flourislied  amazingly  as  long  as  it  continued. 
Freedom  of  speech,  freednm  of  the  press,  and  freedom  of 
many  other  kinds  were  enjoyed  and  improved.  The  Particu- 
lar Baptists,  linwever,  reaped  the  highest  benefits.  They 
stood  nearest  to  the  Independents,  who  became  the  vic- 
torious party.  Mr.  Killin.  their  most  prominent  i)reacher 
and  leader,  was  a  person  of  wealth,  energy,  and  experience 
in  affairs,  whose  influence  was  felt  in  many  cpnirters.  When 
the  Protector  was  distributing  favors,  a  dui'  share  would  go 
to  his  firm  friends  and  allies  of  the  Particular  Baptists.  A 
portion  of  their  niinister>  were  granted  positions  in  the  es- 
tablished church:  others  accompanied  the  army  in  the 
character  of  chaplains.  Thousands  of  their  adherents  were 
in  the  ranks,  and  some  few  attained  to  prominence  in  offi- 
cial station.  Indeed,  when  Richard  Cromwell  displayed  his 
incompetency  to  succeed  his  father,  it  was  for  a  season 
apprehended  that  the  Baptists  might  come  to  the  helm  of 
state. 

The  (leneral  Baptists,  on  the  contrary,  were  handicapped 
by  the  principle  of  opposition  to  the  bearing  of  arms  by 
Christian  men  which  they  had  inherited  from  the  Mennon- 
ites.    Tliat  principle,  however,  was  not  universally  accepted 


by  the  General  Baptists,  since  Gen.  Desborough,  one  of  their 
leaders,  attained  to  prominence  and  influence  in  the  army. 
It  is  also  possible  that  not  a  few  members  of  his  com- 
munion may  have  served  in  the  ranks.  Yet  the  fact  re- 
mains that  the  great  body  of  the  General  Baptists  abstained 
as  far  as  possible  from  taking  part  in  the  triumphs  of  the 
military.  This  attitude  toward  Cromwell  and  the  cause  of 
the  people  condemned  them  to  insignificancy.  During  these 
convulsions  was  established  the  marked  sympathy  between 
the  General  Baptists  and  the  (Quakers  that  has  been  so  fre- 
quently a  matter  of  observation  and  remark.  Both  these 
parties  alike  were  composed  of  men  of  ])eace,  and  they  would 
naturally  comfort  and  encourage  each  other  by  denouncing 
the  men  of  the  sword.  It  is  suspected  that  this  close  con- 
tact with  the  Quakers  might  have  been  injurious  to  the  Gen- 
eral Baptists,  who  were  commonly  more  enthusiastic  and 
less  safely  poised  than  the  Particular  Baiitists. 

The  numbers  of  the  Particular  Baptists  at  the  Restora- 
tion in  1660  can  not  be  definitely  ascertained,  but  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  may  have  been  something  like  100,000  of 
them;  the  General  liaptists  claimed  "more  than  20,000." 
Following  the  return  of  the  king  there  was  a  season  of  re- 
pression and  decay.  The  Particular  Bajitists  are  believed 
to  have  experienced  tlie  heaviest  losses,  due  in  part  to  the 
fact  that  multitudes  had  become  attached  to  them  during 
the  Commonwealth  ])eriod  in  the  expectiition  that  they 
would  one  day  attain  to  sujireme  control  in  the  government. 
When  that  hope  was  thwarted,  there  was  no  further  incentive 
to  profess  their  creed,  and  the  floating  element  retired  from 
their  churches.  The  General  Baptists  issued  a  confession 
of  faith  in  March,  1660.  composed  of  twenty-five  articles,  in 
which  that  detiomination  as  a  whole  committed  themselves 
to  the  practice  of  innnersion.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
Stuarts  the  Particvdar  Baptists  held  a  general  assembly  at 
London  in  Sept.,  1680,  in  which  they  set  forth  a  new  con- 
fession for  that  jiarty.  It  was  based  on  the  \^'estminster 
Confession.  There  were  more  than  100  churches  in  the 
General  Assembly  of  1689.  and  it  is  likely  that  they  repre- 
sented nearly  all  the  Particular  Baptists  then  in  England. 
It  is  believed  that  1.5.000  would  be  a  fair  estimate  of  the  en- 
tire nnndjer  of  communicants.  One  of  the  leading  items  of 
the  platform  upon  which  this  assembly  stood  is  given  in  the 
following  words:  "Tliat  in  those  things  wherein  one  church 
(lifters  from  another  church  in  their  principles  or  practices, 
in  point  of  communion,  that  we  can  not.  shall  not  impose 
njion  any  particular  church  therein,  but  leave  every  church 
to  their  own  liberty  to  walk  together  as  they  have  received 
from  the  Lord."  This  provision  was  indispensable  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  mixed  churches,  as  well  as  for  the 
accommodation  of  stu'h  as  did  not  receive  a  mixed  member- 
ship and  yet  granted  open  communion  at  the  Lord's  table. 
Mr.  Bunyan.  as  the  leader  of  the  mixed  church  contingent, 
was  also  the  leader  of  the  open  communion  party.  Mr.  Kif- 
fin  seems  to  have  opposed  mixed  churches,  and  was  the 
leader  of  the  strict  communion  party.  These  two  leaders 
had  recently  engaged  in  a  controversy  that  was  still  un.set- 
tled.  and  the  assendjly  found  it  impossible  to  take  any  de- 
cided position,  either  in  its  platform  of  organization  or  in 
the  confession  of  faith  which  it  indorsed.  This  open  com- 
munion, however,  was  hardly  intended  to  apply  to  any 
others  than  mendiers  of  the  Independent  body;  it  did 
not  embrace  the  General  Baptists,  who,  having  no  mixed 
churches,  were  in  their  turn  strict  communionists  at  the 
Lord's  table. 

There  was  still  further  decay  among  the  Baptists  of  Eng- 
land from  1689  to  IToO.  Tlie  seeds  of  Socinianism,  which 
the  General  Baptists  had  brought  over  with  them  from  Hol- 
land, came  to  ripeness  during  this  period.  an<l  the  denomina- 
tion was  almost  desolated.  The  Particular  Baptists  drifted 
into  Hyper-Calvinism  :  a  portion  of  them  likewise  were  in- 
fected by  the  Socinian  leaven.  A  pretty  relialile  census  of 
the  PartiVuliir  Baptists  in  17.50  showed  10,000  eoinmuiiieants. 
It  is  likely  that  tlie  General  Baptists  did  not  then  number 
more  than  .5.000. 

Second  Period  of  English  Baptist  iristori/  {1750-1S97). 
— The  (h-nomination  was  at  a  low  ebb  at  the  beginiung  of 
this  period,  hut  the  influences  of  the  Great  Awakening  were 
already  be<jinning  to  be  felt  among  them.  The  ascendency 
of  Dr.  Gill  and  of  men  yet  more  extreme  was  still  acknowl- 
edged, but  their  views  were  beginning  to  be  called  in  ques- 
tion. Finally  Andrew  Fuller  appeared  upon  the  .scene  with 
a  modified  and  evangelical  form  of  Calvinism  which  in  the 
coiirse  of  time  broke  the  sway  of  Gill  and  I  he  Hyfier-Calvin- 
ists,  bringing  Baptists  into  cordial  sympathy  with  the  re- 


BAPTISTS 


•191 


vived  reliKioiis  life  of  the  times.  In  1792  was  formed  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society,  and  tlie  next  year  Cany  and 
Thomas  wore  sent  as  missionaries  to  India.  Durinj;  llie 
long  period  of  decay  it  is  suspected  that  tlie  strict  coiiunun- 
ion  element  had  gained  some  ground  among  I'articidar  Bap- 
tists; but  Uoljort  Hall  in  1815  took  up  the  cause  of  Bunyan 
and  secured  the  triumph  of  open  communion.  After  that 
period  the  strict  communion  party  retireii  from  the  fellow- 
ship of  their  hrethren  and  nuiintained  a  separate  existence. 
Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  interests  of  education, 
and  there  are  several  flourishing  institutions  of  learning. 
Mr.  .Spurgeon  and  liobert  Hall  have  been  the  most  iiromi- 
neiit  ministers.  Tlio  (ieneral  Baptists  took  little  part  in 
the  revival  of  religion.  At  length,  however,  Mr.  Dan  Tay- 
lor, of  Yorksliire.  who  hail  been  for  some  years  connected 
with  the  .Methodists,  becoming  persuaileil  tliat  immersion 
was  the  proper  mode  of  baptism,  wjis  immersetl  by  a  Cien- 
eral  Baptist  minister  in  170:!.  He  continued  in  alliance 
with  tlie  tJeneral  Baptists  till  1770,  but  a  deal  of  friction 
was  occasioned  by  their  .Socinian  tendencies.  Fmiling  it 
impossible  longer  to  eiulure  their  heretical  sentiments,  lie 
withdrew  in  1770.  and  formed  a  new  denomination  called 
the  Oener.'d  Baptists  of  the  New  Connection,  who  were 
somewhat  decidedly  Methodi.stie  in  their  doctrine  and 
usages.  The  original  denomination  continued  to  exist,  but 
it  is  believeil  that  they  are  now  nearly  extinct.  The  Gen- 
eral Baptists  of  the  Xcw  Connection,  on  the  conti-ary,  are 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  numbering  at  present  203  churches, 
134  pastors  and  missionaries,  and  •J7,2.")6  members.  They 
are  open  communion  in  their  practice.  The  Baptists  of 
England,  according  to  the  latest  statistics,  embrace  360,113 
communicants.  They  have  been  laborious  and  successful 
in  the  cause  of  missions  in  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  the 
West  Indies. 

Baiiists  of  America. — In  1636  Roger  Williams,  who  liad 
been  banished  from  the  colony  of  Jlassacluisetts  Bay,  estab- 
lished a  community  at  Providence,  and  set  up  a  church.  He 
prea<'hed  with  zeal  and  regularity  until  Jlar..  1639,  when  it 
was  dei'ided  to  make  a  new  departure.  Williams,  having 
become  convinced  of  the  error  of  infant  ba[)tism,  coiiciluded 
to  obtain  ndiaplism.  Eleven  others  joined  fiim  in  this  step, 
Ezekiel  Holliman  baptized  Williams,  and  then  Williams 
baptized  the  rest  of  the  company,  and  so  they  be<'aiiie  an 
Anabapt  ist  church.  The  ceremony  was  ino.st  likely  performed 
by  sprinkling;  the  immersion  of  believers  had  not  yet  l)een 
re.storeil  in  KiigUind ;  and  there  is  no  reason  which  renders 
it  probable  that  Williams  was  in  that  regard  in  aiivance  of 
the  people  with  whom  he  now  allied  himself,  .lolin  CUirke, 
who  had  likewise  been  <lriven  from  .Massachusetts  Bay,  ar- 
rived at  Newport  in  I63S.  Like  Williams,  he  was  a  zealous 
nreacherand  kept  regular  worship  among  his  fellow-colonists. 
When  Williams  caused  himself  to  be  rebaptized  in  163!),  it 
is  likely  that  Clarke  and  liis  people  approveil  the  change.  In 
1640  Gov.  Winthrop  announces  that  Clarke  and  divers  of  his 
associates  had  become  Analiaptists.  Possibly  they  were  re- 
baptized  liy  Williams  or  some  of  the  men  from  Providence. 

Res/oriition  nf  Bel  in  rem'  Immersion. —  In  1(>44  Williams 
returned  from  Kngland  with  a  charter  for  the  colony.  It  is 
possil)le  that  Mr.  Mark  Lucar  came  over  with  him.  Lucar 
had  been  a  niemOer  of  the  church  organized  in  Knglanil  on 
Sept.  \'l.  1633.  In  the  year  1641.  when  Mr.  Blunt  returned 
from  Holland.  Air.  Lucar  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  [lersons 
who  receivi-d  iinmi'i-sion.  Upon  his  arrival  in  America  he 
would  be  swift  to  advertise  the  brethren  touching  the  change 
that  had  been  enacted  in  Kngland.  His  represent  at  ions 
appear  to  have  met  with  decided  favor;  for  in  the  year  H!44 
the  chureli  in  Newport  was  reorganized,  with  him  as  one  of 
the  most  important  inember.s.  This  is  believed  to  signify 
that  they  then  received  immersion  at  the  hands  of  Lucar, 
and  became  for  the  first  time  a  regular  Baptist  church  in 
the  sense  now  accepted.  Probably  the  immersion  of  the 
Proridence  men  followed  in  a  short  while.  3Ir.  Lucar,  who 
is  understood  to  be  the  founder  of  bc'lievers' immersion  in 
America,  lirought  with  him  the  ideas  of  sncce.ssion  that 
were  so  much  valued  in  England,  and  many  American  Bap- 
tists have  become  commit IimI  to  tlierii.  The  relations  be- 
tween the  Independents  and  the  Baptists  in  ,\nierica  were 
very  different  from  those  that  prevailed  in  England;  by 
consequence  there  has  never  been  anything  like  mixed 
churches  here,  and  the  tendency  toward  open  communion 
has  l)cen  very  slight. 

First  Periiid  of  Amerira7i  Bnpti.it  Ifi.itnri/  (76',J.J-/7.OT). — 
The  earliest  churches  of  Providence  and  Ni'wpiu-l  were  liolh 
of  the  Particular  Baptist  persuasion,  but  tlie  General  Bap- 


tists shortly  appeared  upon  the  scene.  In  1652  a  General 
Baptist  church  was  formed  at  Providence  by  Chad  Brown, 
Gregory  Dexter,  and  William  Wickenden,  and  in  1656  a 
simihir  church  was  established  at  Newport,  making  two  rival 
anil  more  or  less  hostile  Baptist  churches  in  each  place. 
Throughout  the  period  before  us  the  General  Baptists  were 
in  the  ascendant.  About  the  year  1718  the  first  church  in 
Providence,  of  which  Williams  was  the  founder,  became  ex- 
tinct, anil  the  (ieiK'ral  Baptist  church  of  the  Browns  tri- 
niiijihed  over  it.  After  that  casualty  only  three  Particular 
Baptist  churches  remained  in  New  England,  while  the  (ien- 
eral Baptist  churches  were  quite  numerous,  having  a  large 
and  aggressive  Yearly  Jleeting.  In  the  Middle  Colonies  the 
forces  .seem  to  have  been  more  evenly  divided,  there  being 
many  General  Baptists  in  the  Philadelphia  Association,  and 
also  many  Particular  Baptists.  The  two  parties  ajipear  to 
have  watched  each  other  narrowly  and  to  have  maiueuvred 
for  the  advantage,  which  in  tlie  end  remained  with  the  Par- 
ticular Baptists.  Philadelphia  Association  is  suspected  to 
have  begun  its  history  in  the  character  of  a  Yearly  Meeting, 
but  in  the  year  1707  the  other  element  rallied  and  gave  it 
the  title  of  Association,  a  Particular  Baptist  designation. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  the  churches  appear  to  have  been 
honeycombed  by  Arminian  sentiments,  so  that  it  was  im- 
possible for  the  body  to  ado]it  a  Calvinistic  confession  of 
faith  before  the  year  1742.  In  the  Southern  Colonies  the 
General  Baptists  prevailed  almost  exclusively,  there  being 
only  a  single  Particular  Bafitist  church.  The  Arminians, 
however,  combined  against  this  church  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  had  well-nigh  :lestroyed  it  before  deliverance  came.  In 
North  Carolina  the  General  Baptist  Yearly  Meeting  was  per- 
haps the  most  pro.-^|ierous.  tliough  not  the  most  powerful, 
body  of  Baptist  people  then  in  existence. 

Second  Period  of  American  Baptists  {1750-1S97). — The 
Particular  Baptists  were  on  the  point  of  defeat  in  K.'iO;  if 
succor  had  not  been  bestowed  it  is  more-  than  likely  that 
the  General  Baptists  would  have  controlled  the  destinies  of 
the  Baptists  of  America.  But  at  an  early  stage  of  its  prog- 
ress the  Great  Awakening  in  America  fell  under  Calvinistic 
auspices.  Jonathan  Edwards  and  George  Whitefield  took 
the  lead,  and,  without  intending  toaccomplish  .-^uch  a  result, 
rescued  the  falling  fortunes  of  the  Particular  interest.  In 
1742.  shortly  after  Mr.  Whitefield  appeared  upon  the  scene, 
the  Philadelphia  Association  adopted  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  which  was  the  bai|ner  of  the  Particular  party 
in  England,  and  prepared  herself  for  action.  In  a  few  years 
this  association  acquired  the  hegemony  of  American  Bap- 
tists, and  has  ever  since  maintained  that  dignity.  It  sent 
representatives  to  Maryland  and  Northern  Virginia,  where 
they  S]M'edily  captured  the  Arniiiiian  churches  that  existed 
ill  that  region.  It  also  dispatched  agents,  men  of  admirable 
gifts  and  zeal,  to  North  Carolina,  where  in  1755  they  cap- 
turcil  nearly  the  whole  of  the  fiourishing  Yearly  Meeting 
that  had  been  cultivated  with  so  much  care  by  Kev.  Paul 
Palmer.  A  few  of  Palmer's  followers  resisted,  and  still 
stand  to  their  colors  in  that  portion  of  the  country,  whence 
they  sent  forth  colonies  to  the  Cumberland  country,  which 
have  grown  to  be  a  somewhat  numerous  people  in  Kentucky 
and  Indiana.  A  Philadelphia  minister  went  to  Charleston 
in  174!),  and.  taking  charge  of  the  first  church,  .«oon  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  away  the  (ieneral  Bajitist  opponent.  In 
1751  it  was  given  to  the  exertions  of  Oliver  Hart  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  Charleston  Association  on  the  Philadelphia 
model  and  with  the  Philadelphia  creed.  The  men  of  Phila- 
delphia I'ven  ventured  as  far  as  Nova  .Scotia  to  preach  the 
Word.  Two  of  its  nio.st  gifted  young  ministers  also  had  the 
temerity  to  invaile  the  (ieneraf  Baptist  stronghold  in  New 
Englanil.  and  to  carry  a  college  to  Khode  Island,  which  at 
first  scarcely  anybody  was  pri'pared  to  receive.  James 
Planning  and  Ilczekia'h  Smith,  however,  persevered  in  their 
task,  and  at  last  earned  for  themselves  a  welcome.  It  is 
amazing  the  amount  of  work  that  was  accomplished  in  the 
interest  of  Philadelphia  within  a  period  of  twenty  years_. 
In  1751  Charleston  Association  was  established.  In  1765 
Kehukee  Association  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  General 
Bapti.st  interest  in  North  Carolina ;  in  1766  Ketocton  was 
foundeil  by  a  like  process  on  the  borders  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia;  in  1767  Manning  and  .Smith,  assisted  by  John 
Gano,  Abel  Griflith,  and  Noah  Hammond,  who  had  made  a 
special  journey  from  Philadelphia  for  t  he  jnirpose,  established 
Warren  Association  in  Rhode  Island.  By  this  means  the 
entire  country  was  occupied  by  the  Philadelphia  Association 
and  its  allies.  The  General  "Baptists  were  driven  back  at 
every  point ;  their  cause  was  now  lost.     Their  Yearly  Meet- 


492 


BAPTISTS 


ing  in  New  England  has  perpetuated  itself  in  a  feeble  way 
to  the  present  time,  reporting  in  1896  only  10  churches  and 
741  members.  They  still  retain  the  ancient  designation  of 
Six-princijjie  Iia/>lists. 

The  Gibraltar  of  the  General  Baptists,  however,  still  held 
out;  the  churcli  in  Providence  had  not  yet  been  directly 
assailed.  In  1770  the  labor  of  taking  this  stronghold  was 
begun.  Manning  succeeded  to  admiration  ;  in  due  time 
Samuel  Winsor  retired  to  Johnston  with  the  original  church. 
and  the  present  First  Bajjtist  church  of  Providence  was 
founded  iu  1771.  Long  years  of  patient  education  were 
required  before  the  last  vestiges  of  the  old  Arrainian  leaven 
could  be  eliminated;  it  was  not  until  the  year  1782  that 
Manning  could  induce  the  new  church  to  attach  itself  to 
Warren  Association ;  the  Second  church  of  Newport  de- 
clined to  take  that  step  until  the  year  1801. 

Separate  Baptisf.f. — Through  the  influence  of  Whitefield 
and  Edwards  Calvinism  gained  the  victory  among  American 
Baptists,  and  Aruiinianism  was  defeated.  WhUe  the  con- 
flict between  these  parties  was  going  forward  a  dangerous 
rival  to  the  Calvinistic  interest  appeared  upon  the  scene. 
As  a  direct  result  of  Whitefield's  preaching,  a  new  denom- 
ination of  Christians  had  arisen  in  New  England  called 
Separates,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  had  sejiarated 
from  the  churches  of  the  Standing  Order.  About  the  year 
1750  numbers  of  these  Separates  became  convinced  of  the 
correctness  of  Bapti-st  principles,  and  had  themselves  im- 
mersed. By  that  means  churches  of  Separate  Baptists  were 
constituted  in  many  sections  of  the  country.  More  than 
half  the  Baptists  of  New  England  are  supposed  to  be  of 
Separate  Baptist  extraction.  Planning  and  Smith  succeeded 
in  conciliating  Isaac  Backus,  the  leader  of  the  Separate 
Baptists  in  New  England,  at  an  early  date,  and  their  forces 
were  thus  united  with  those  of  Philadelphia.  Owing  to  the 
intimacy  of  that  union  there  has  not  been  much  friction  be- 
tween the  two  tendencies  in  the  New  England  States.  A 
handful  of  these  Separate  Baptists,  under  the  lead  of  Shu- 
bael  Stearns  and  Daniel  Marshall,  got  abroad  in  North  Caro- 
lina in  1755  and  started  a  movement  of  gigantic  propor- 
tions. In  the  year  1758  they  established  the  first  Separate 
Baptist  Association  at  Sandy  Creek,  in  North  Carolina. 
Before  the  advent  of  the  American  Revolution  they  hail 
captured  nearly  the  whole  of  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Georgia  for  their  party.  They  had  also  invaded 
Virginia  and  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of  that  State:  the 
battle  for  religious  liljerty  in  Virginia  was  fought  and  won 
almost  exclusively  by  Separate  Baptists.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  seven-tenths  of  the  Baptist  people  of  the  South- 
ern States  are  of  Separate  Baptist  extraction.  The  power 
of  the  Separate  Baptists  was  so  marked  in  the  South  that 
the  friends  of  Philadelphia  were  driven  to  assume  a  special 
designation,  and  so  they  called  themselves  Regular  Baptists. 
But  at  length,  after  the  Separate  Baptists  had  achieved  the 
triumph  of  religious  liberty  in  Virginia,  it  became  plain 
that  they  could  not  be  despised,  even  though  they  might 
not  be  quite  Regular.  Both  parties  were  Calvinistic,  but 
the  Separates  were  Calvinists  of  the  Whitefield  and  not  of 
the  Philadelphia  type.  Nevertheless,  a  union  was  proposeil 
by  the  friends  of  i'hiladelphia  in  Virginia,  and  it  was  hap- 
pily accomplished  in  the  year  1787.  By  that  means  the 
party  who  of  late  seemed  destined  to  become  formidable 
rivals  of  Philadelphia  were  brought  into  close  alliance. 
Thenceforward  the  Baptists  of  the  Southern  States  were 
known  as  United  Baptists,  a  designation  that  is  still  often 
heard.  A  small  faction  of  Separate  Baptists  declined  to 
enter  this  union,  and  these  have  tnaintaiiu'd  an  independent 
existence,  mainly  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  down  to  the 
present  time.  They  embrace  about  six  thousand  communi- 
cants. 

Free-will  Baplixts. — Since  the  Separate  Baptists  had  no 
creed  like  the  Regular  Baptists,  there  were  many  shades  and 
grades  of  Calvinism  among  them,  and  in  some  instances 
they  veered  round  toward  .Vrminiauisra.  A  connnunity  of 
Separate  Baptists  existed  in  New  Hampshire  who  were  so 
moderate  in  their  Calvinism  as  to  be  almost  Arminians. 
Benjamin  Randall,  who  perhaps  in  some  way  had  come  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Arminian  Baptists  of  New  England, 
succeeded  in  organizing  these  into  a  party,  after  the  year 
1780,  who  repudiated  Calvinism.  They  have  been  quite  suc- 
cessful in  divers  directions.  In  the  year  1806  they  reported 
1.3ii5  churches  and  S6,680  communicants.  It  is  important 
to  remember  that  they  are  of  Separate  and  not  of  General 
Baptist  extraction. 

Primitive  Baptista. — For  a  number  of  years  after  1787 


the  United  Baptists  advanced  with  much  harmony  and  suo 

cess.  But  at  length,  in  the  year  1813,  through  the  agency 
of  Adonirani  Judson  and  Luther  Rice,  the  denomination  was 
committed  to  the  enterprise  of  promoting  missionary  work 
in  foreign  lands.  From  the  outset  persons  were  found  who 
objected  to  that  course,  and  the  disaffection  continued  to 
spread  until  about  the  year  1835,  when  a  schism  was  begun 
in  which  the  opponents  of  missions  withdrew  and  founded 
another  denomination  which  they  called  Primitive  Baptists, 
but  which  is  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Anti- 
Mission  Baptists.  They  have  been  in  a  declining  condition, 
and  at  present  an  active  discussion  is  in  progress  among 
them  which  seems  likely  to  result  in  a  fresh  schism.  One 
of  the  parties,  which  advocates  missions,  Sunday-schools, 
and  other  agencies,  is  known  as  the  party  of  Means:  the 
Anti-Means  party  stand  upon  the  platform  which  the  de- 
nomination originally  assumed.  The  Primitive  Baptists  in 
1896  reported  3,536  churches,  and  125.000  communicaiits. 

Seventh-day  Baptists. — These  are  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  they  keep  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath. 
Their  first  church  in  America  arose  in  1071  by  means  of  a 
schism  from  j\lr.  Clarke's  church  in  Newport,  R.  I.  They 
have  taken  little  part  in  the  historical  development  of 
American  Baptists.  For  the  year  1896  they  reported  105 
churches  and  9,173  communicants,  Kev.  A.  II.  Lewis, 
D.  D.,  of  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  is  the  leading  figure  among 
them. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  by  the  Baptists  of  America 
during  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  year  1700  there  were 
6  Calvinistic  Baptist  churches.  6  Arminian  Baptist  churches, 
and  in  the  limits  of  Philadelphia  Association  4  that  are 
supposed  to  have  been  doubtful.  In  addition  to  these  there 
were  1  church  of  Seventh-day  Baptists,  1  of  so-called  Roger- 
ene  Baptists,  ami  2  Indian  churches.  Reckoning  all  these  as 
Baptists,  there  were  20  churches  in  the  year  1700,  with  per- 
haps as  many  as  800  members.  In  1784  there  were  471 
churches,  424  ministers,  and  35.101  members.  In  1896 
there  are  reported  in  the  U.  S.  46,686  Baptist  churches  and 
4,130,706  communicants.  In  Canada  and  Mexico  tlrfre  are 
990  churches  and  96,335  communicants.  The  press  is  rep- 
resented in  every  State  and  Territory,  and  is  prosperous 
anil  powerful.  Their  missionaries  are  found  in  nearly  all 
heathen  countries,  and  also  in  many  regions  where  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  is  predominant. 

Literature. — Thomas  Armitage,  -4  History  of  the  Bap- 
tists (New  York,  1887);  Henry  C.  Vedder,  A  Short  History 
of  the  Baptists  (Phila.,  no  date,  but  appeared  in  1892),  the 
first  effort  made  by  a  Baptist  writer  to  introduce  historical 
criticism  into  Baptist  history  :  J.  M.  Cramp,  Baptist  History 
(Phila.,  no  date);  Thomas  Crosby,  The  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Baptists  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Reign  of  George  I.  (4  vols.,  Lond..  1738-40) ;  Joseph  Ivimey, 
A  History  of  the  English  Baptists  (4  vols.,  Lond.,  1811-30); 
n.  M.  Dexter,  True  Story  of  John  Smyth,  the  Se-liaptist 
(Boston,  1881);  H.  JI.  Dexter,  Congregafiotiatism  as  Seen 
in  its  Literature  (New  York,  1880) ;  Robert  Barclay,  The 
Inner  Life  of  the  Religions  Societies  of  the  Cominontrealth 
(Loud..  1876);  Isaac  Backus,  ^4  History  of  Xeif  England, 
with  Barticnlar  Reference  to  the  Denomination  of  Chris- 
tians Called  Baptists  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1777-96) ;  David 
Benedict,  A  General  History  of  the  Baptist  Denaminatiori 
in  America  (2  vols..  Boston,  1813) ;  I).  B.  Jlontgomery, 
General  Baptist  History  (P,\3.ns\\\\e.  Ind.,  1882);  Knight's 
History  of  the  General  Baptists  (1827):  Fristoe,  A  Con- 
cise History  (if  the  Ketoctoii  Baptist  As.sociation  (Staun- 
ton, 1808);  Wood  Furman,  History  of  Charleston  A.i,iocia-  . 
tion  (Charleston,  1811);  Morgan  Edwards,  Materials  to-  A 
ward  a  History  of  the  American  Baptists,  in  12  volumes  1 
(Pennsylvania  volume,  Phiia.,  1770;  the  New  Jersey  volume 
was  issued  about  the  same  time;  the  volume  for  Rhode 
Island  lias  also  been  published;  the  others  exist  in  MS.); 
I.  I).  Stewart,  Histori/  of  the  Free-will  Baptists  for  Half  . 
a  Century  (Dover,  N.  H.,  1862);  R.  1.  Deven,  llistory  of 
Grassy  Creek  Baptist  r/n/rr/;  (.Separate  Baptist)  (Raleigh, 
1880);  Adam  Taylor,  The  History  of  the  English  Gen- 
eral Baptists  (2  vols.,  Ijond.,  1818);  George  W.  Purefoy, 
.4  History  of  the  Sandy  Creek  Association  (New  York, 
1859);  .S.  S.  Cutting,  Historical  Vindicatinris  (Boston,  1859); 
Alvah  Ilovey,  ^4  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Isaac 
WncA-w.s  (Boston,  18.58):  Bu'rkitt  and  Head, -4  Concise  His- 
tory of  the  Kehukee  Bapti.ft  As.iociation  (Halifax,  1803); 
J.  G.  de  Hoop  Scheffer,  I)e  Brownisten  te  Amsterdam,  in 
Ve.rband  mit  het  Onstaan  van  de  Broederschap  der  Bap- 
tislen  (Amsterdam,   1881);  J.  G.  de  Hoop  Scheffer,  Over- 


BAR 


BARATARIA   BAY 


493 


ziehl  der  Oeschiedenis  van  den  Doop  bij  Onderdompeling 
(Amsterdam,  1S83);  B.  Kvans,  Early  English  Baptists  (2 
vols.,  Loiul.,  18(12-1)4);  George  Gould,  Open  Cummuniun  and 
the  Jiaptisis  uf  yuiwich  (Xorwich,  IbliO);  J.  G.  de  Hoop 
Schetler,  art.  Mi-nnnnileH,  '.Mi  vol.  of  the  second  edition  of 
llerZDfj's  Uenl-Encijclopikdie;  John  (,'allender.  An  Histor- 
ical Discourse  (I'rovidenee,  1838) ;  .John  Gaiio,  Biographical 
Memoirs,  written  principally  by  himself  (Sew  York,  180B). 

William  II.  WnnsiTT. 
Bar:  a  long  and  narrow  piece  of  wood,  metal,  or  other  solid 
substance,  generally  round,  quadrangular,  and  other  uni- 
form section.  Bar.  in  hydrography,  is  an  accumulation  of 
mud  or  sand  in  any  navigalile  channel  by  which  iiavigalion 
is  obstructed,  but  more  particularly  a  similar  fcjriuat ion  al- 
most universally  fouiiil  across  and  exterior  to  the  mouthsof 
rivers  and  harbors,  rendering  entrance  diHicult  except  to 
vessels  of  light  draught.  In  music,  the  word  Har  denotes  a 
straight  line  drawn  across  the  stalT  to  divide  the  music  into 
small  portions  of  e(puil  duration,  and  also  comprises  the  mu- 
sical notes  written  or  played  between  such  lines.  Bar.  in 
heraldry,  is  one  of  the  important  charges  known  as  ordina- 
ries. The  bar  is  formed  by  two  horizontal  lines  passing  over 
the  shield  :  it  dilTers  from  the  less  in  size,  the  bar  occupying 
only  one-tiflh  of  the  shield.  Bar  si.nister  is  a  term  misused 
for  "baton  sinister"  to  denote  illegitimacy.  In  law  Bar 
denotes:  1.  A  partition  or  railing  intended  to  inclose  that 
part  of  the  court-room  in  which  prisoners  are  arraigned  or 
sentenced,  and  in  which  the  members  of  the  legal  iirofes- 
sion  usually  sit  :  hence  this  space  itself.  In  Great  Britain 
there  are  admitteil  within  the  bar  only  solicitors,  queen's 
counsel,  and  some  othei-s  having  precedence,  all  others,  in- 
cluding the  great  body  of  barristers  (called  utter  or  outer 
barristers),  being  obliged  to  stand  behind  it.  Hence  the 
word  often  collectively  signifies  lawyere, or  persons  admitted 
to  practice  in  the  courts;  and  in  some  cases  it  refers  to  or 
implies  the  presence  of  the  court  itself.  A  trial  at  bar  is  a 
trial  before  a  fidl  bench  of  judges,  as  distinguished  from  a 
nisi  prius  tr\;i\ — that  is,  a  trial  before  a  single  judge.  Trials 
at  bar  in  civil  causes  were  abolished  in  Great  Britain  by  the 
.ludicature  Act  of  1875.  2.  A  complete  defense  to  an  action  in 
law.  A  [dea  in  bar  is  a  plea  which,  if  true,  (completely  defeats 
the  plaintiff's  action.  Revised  by  F.  .Sitrges  Allex. 

Bar:  a  town  of  Russia:  government  of  Podolia.  In  1768 
the  Confederation  of  Bar  was  formed  here  l)y  the  nobility 
of  Poland,  to  counteract  the  iniluence  of  Russia  on  King 
Stanishis  Augustus.  Bar  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  the 
same  year,  and  the  confederates  were  com|)elled  to  go  to 
Wallachia.  Hen'  they  deilare<l  the  king  dethroned,  had  him 
carried  off  from  Warsaw  in  1771.  and  were  oidy  suppressed 
by  Hussia  after  four  yeai-s'  hard  fighting.  Eleven  fail's  are 
helcl  here  everv  vear  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  i)-B).     Pop. 

vi.mm. 

Biir.  K.  K..  von:  naturalist.     See  Baer. 

Bar'aba' :  a  vast  stepiie  of  West  Siberia,  lying  between 
the  rivers  Ob  and  Irtish  on  the  W.,  and  the  Altai  Mountains 
on  the  S.  E.  Area  about  .'j.5.fX)0  S(|.  miles.  It  is  very  level, 
covered  by  recent  deposits,  fertile,  with  large  forests  sepa- 
rated bv  mai-shes  and  salt-lakes.  It  Wiis  (colonized  by  the 
Kussians  in  17:if).  Pop.  about  2.")0,000;  only  4,000  aljorig- 
ines,  the  rest  Kussians. 

Bara  Baiiki.  baara-baan'kc'e:  a  district  of  Lucknow  di- 
vision, Ouilh,  liritish  India;  between  parallels  36°  and  28' 
X.  hit.,  and  meridians  81  and  82'  E.  Ion.  Area.  1.768  sq. 
miles.  It  is  a  level  plait\  interspersed  with  marshes.  The 
Gogra  river  forms  the  northern  boundary.  This  is  naviga- 
ble, and  a  railway  passes  through  the  district.  The  poi)ula- 
tion  is  about  1,()00,(M)0;  aboiit^  8.j  per  cent.  Hindus.  The 
largest  town  is  Kudauli,  with  12,(M)0  inhabitants. 

Bar'ahoo :  city :  on  C.  and  X.  W.  H.  K..  capital  of  Sauk  co., 
^yis.  (r(^r  location  of  county. see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  fi-D); 
situated  in  Baral)oo  valley,  on  the  Baral)oo  river;  is  noted 
for  its  beauty  of  situation  and  magnificent  scenery,  and  is 
3  miles  from  the  famous  Devil's  Lake.  It  is  in  the  center  of 
a  prolific  fruit-growing  district,  has  excellent  water-power, 
jiavcd  streets,  a  fine  city  hall,  4  large  and  handsome  .school- 
nouses,  :i  m.'ignificcnt  iron  bridges,  water-works,  electric 
lights,  and  gas-works.  Pop.  (1880)  8,266;  (1890)  4.605  ;  (1895) 
5,484.  Editor  ok  "  Refl-hlic." 

Barali'ra.  or  Hcrab'cra :  a  name  applied  by  the  Egyp- 
tians to  the  iidiabitants  of  a  small  district  in  Upper  Xnbia. 
They  are  not  the  same  as  the  Berbers,  the  latter  having  de- 
rived their  name  from  the  Arabians.     They  trade  wiili  the 


Egyptians  in  cattle,  which  they  pasture  among  the  moun- 
tains beyond  the  Atbara  and  near  the  Red  Sea. 

Baracoa.  baa-ra-ko  a :  a  seai)ort  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
Cuba  (see  map  of  West  Inilies.  ref.  4-F):  has  consideraJjle 
trade.  In  its  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  mountain  called  the 
"  Anvil  of  Baracoa." 

Barada.  ba'a-raada :  a  river  of  Syria ;  probably  the 
Aljana  of  the  Old  Testament.  Its  remotest,  though  not  its 
largest,  source  is  a  lake,  some  •WO  yards  l»y  50,  in  the  plain 
of  Zebdany  (8  miles  by  3),  3,349  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  in  the  heart  of  .Vnti-Lebaiion.  The  stream  flows  south- 
eastward, pa.ssing  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Abila, 
breaking  through  three  ridges  of  the  mountain,  and  reach- 
ing Damjuscus  ^23  miles  from  its  source)  after  a  descent  of 
l,i49  feet.  Then  it  flows  on  ea.stward  some  17  or  18  miles 
farther,  emptying  itself  into  two  marshy  lakes,  each  about 
20  miles  in  circumference.  In  going  through  the  city  and 
gardens  of  Dania.scus  it  is  parted  into  at  least  seven 
stricaras.  which  afterward  reunite.     See  Porter's  Damascus. 

Bar'adlii  Cave:  a  celebrated  cave  near  AtiTELKK  (g.v.). 

Baraga,  liaa-raaga,  Friedric.  D.  D. :  a  Roman  Catholic 
missionary  ;  b.  at  Treffen,  in  Carniola,  Austria,  .Iinie  29, 1797. 
He  was  ordained  1823.  came  to  America  in  1830,  devoted 
himself  to  missionary  labor  among  the  Indians  of  the  Lake 
Superior  region,  ami  was  made  Bishop  of  Sault  St.  IMarie 
1857,  of  Sault  St.  JMarie  and  Marquette  1865.  He  published 
innnerous  works  in  the  Ojibway  (or  Chippewa)  dialect;  a 
Grammar  of  the  Otchipwe  Language  (1851);  andaDiction- 
an/  of  the  Otchipwe  language  (1853).  D.  at  Marquette, 
Mich.,  Jan.  19.  1868. 

Baragruey  d'HiUicrs.  baji'ra-ga'  de"eryii.  Achtlle,  Count: 
a  French  general :  b.  in  Paris.  .Sept.  6,  1795.  Having  .served 
with  distinction  in  Algeria,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general 
of  division  in  1843.  In  the  autumn  of  1849  he  became  com- 
man<ler  of  the  army  that  occupied  R<une.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1S,")(),  and  in  the  Crimean  war  comnuindeda  corps 
which  co-ojieratcd  with  the  British  fleet  in  the  Baltic.  He 
was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1854.  D.  at  Araelie-Ies- 
Bains,  France.  June  6.  1878. 

Baragiiey  d'HiUiers,  Loins:  a  French  general:  the 
father  of  the  preceding;  was  bom  in  Paris,  Aug.  13,  1764. 
He  served  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  1796-97,  .soon  after 
which  he  became  a  general  of  division.  He  commanded  the 
dragoons  of  the  grand  army  in  Austria  in  1805,  and  was  ap- 
[minted  Governor  of  Venice  in  1808.  In  the  Russian  cam- 
paign of  1812  he  was  taken  prisoner,  with  all  his  division. 
D.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  13.  1812. 

Baraiiofr.  ba'a-raanof.  Alexander  Axdrevevitch  :  fii-st 
Governor  111'  Russia  in  America:  b.  1746;  established  a  col- 
onv  on  Heiiug  Strait  179tJ:  took  possession  of  Baranoif 
island  1799.     1).  at  sea,  near  Java,  Apr.  28,  1819. 

Barante.balinranf, Pierre  Aimable  Prosper  Brvgiere, 
de  :  a  French  statcsnum  and  historian;  b.  at  Riom.June  10, 
1782.  He  came  of  a  literary  stock,  his  father  and  his  great- 
grandfather having  distinguished  themselves  as  writers.  He 
was  appointed  collector-in-chief  of  customs  in  1818,  and  lic- 
canie  a  peer  of  France  in  1819.  His  chief  works  are  a  His- 
tory uf  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  (13  vols.,  1826).  and  a  His- 
tory of  the  National  Convention  (6  vols.,  1853).  D.  at 
Puy-de-D6me,  Nov.  21,  1866.  Sec?  sketches  by  Guizot  in 
Berne  des  deux  Mondes  (Julv,  1867),  and  E.  de  Mirecourt 
(Paris,  lst)7). 

Baratynski.  ba"ii-ra-twn'skw,  Jewgeniz  Abramovitcu: 
Russian  |«)et ;  b.  in  the  government  of  Tambov,  Russia,  Mar. 
2,  1800:  d.  in  Xaples.  Italy.  July  11,  1844.  He  was  educated 
in  St.  Pelcrsburg,  and  became  an  orilinary  soldier  in  the 
guard.  As  early  as  the  age  of  twenty,  however,  he  had 
writ  ten  interest  ing  verse.  In  1826.  having  become  an  olficer, 
he  resigned  from  the  service.  His  bust  yeai-s  were  spent  in 
Paris  and  X^aiiles.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  a  lyric  poet,  having 
issued  various  collect  ions  of  his  h-ric  verse,  as :  7  he  Banquets 
(1826);  The  Ball  (IS-iS):  The  Death  of  Goethe  {W,i'2):  Twi- 
lights (1842).  His  complete  works  were  published  (Moscow, 
1868)  by  his  son.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Baraii'ya :  one  of  the  most  popvilous  counties  of  Hun- 
gary;  bounded  N.  by  Tolna,  E.  by  Bacs,  S.  by  Slavonia,  W. 
by  Somogy ;  area,  1,966  sq.  miles.  It  is  partly  niountainou.s, 
but  is  very  fertile.  The  Danube  forms  part  of  the  western 
boundary."    Capital.  Funfkirchen.     Pop.  (1890)  :321,4-'S5. 

Barata'ria  Bay:  Louisiana;  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  lying  between  the  Mississippi    and   the    Bayou  la 


494 


BARATIBR 


BARBAEY   APE 


Fourclio ;  about  12  miles  Ions  from  Jf.  to  S.,  and  5  or  6 
miles  l)road,  communicating;  with  bayous  and  lakes  of  the 
interior.  Its  shores  are  marshes  little  elevated  aljove  the 
tides,  which  extend  to  the  cypress  swamps,  (irande  Terre 
island,  a  ridge  of  sand  which  lies  across  the  mouth,  was  llie 
headquarters  of  the  brothers  Laffite,  the  so-called  "  pii-ates." 
(See  Laffite.)  The  entrance  to  the  bay  was  fortified  by  the 
U.  S.  in  1840-50  by  the  construction  of  Port  Livingston  on 
the  west  end  of  Grande  Terre  island.  The  bar  has  7  feet  of 
water.  Barataria  lighthouse,  on  Grande  Terre  island,  is  in 
lat.  29°  16'  47"  N.,  Ion.  Sil  54'  33"  W.  It  is  of  brick  and  00 
feet  high. 

Baratier.  bMara-ti-av',  Johaxn  Philipp:  b.  of  French  an- 
cestry at  Swabacli.  near  Nureud)ei'g.  Jan.  lit,  1721:  wlien 
five  years  old  spoke  French,  German,  and  Latin;  when  seven 
could  repeat  tlie  Psalms  in  Hebrew  ;  and  wlien  nine  com- 
posed a  Hebrew  diet  ionarv;  when  thirteen  years  old  trans- 
lated the  liineranj  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  He  wrote  a 
reply  to  Crellius"s^r/(v»otti«s, called  Antiarlemoniiis{173o), 
and  "a  Di><qnisition  on  the  Siiccexsiott  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs 
in  verij  Ancient  Times  (1749).  He  was  a  Protestant,  studied 
theology  and  law.     D.  in  Halle,  Oct.  5,  1740. 

Barb  [Fr.  harhe,  deriv.  of  Barbarie,  Barbary] :  name  of  a 
breed  of  horses  whicli  originated  among  the  Moors  of  Bar- 
bary, who  introduced  it  iiito  Spain.  Barbs  are  remarkable 
for  "their  endurance,  docility,  and  gentleness.  The  Cartha- 
ginian cavalry,  which  decided  several  victories  over  the  Ro- 
mans, are  said  to  have  been  movmtcd  on  horses  of  this  breed, 
which  is  a  variety  of  the  Arabian  horse.  Tlie  celebrated 
"  Godolphin  Arabian  "  was  a  barb,  as  were  most  of  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  thoroughbred  horse  of  the  present  day. — Barb 
is  also  the  name  given  in  New  Jersey  to  the  kingfish 
{llenticirrus  saxati/is). 

Barbacena.  baar-baa-thay'nali,  Fesberto  Caldeira 
Brant,  Marquis  of:  a  Brazilian  soldier  and  diplomatist ;  b. 
at  Sal)ora  in  1773.  He  was  appointed  liy  the  Emperor  of 
Brazil  to  negotiate  concerning  tlie  independence  of  that 
country  with  Portugal,  and  for  his  success  was  created  a 
marquis.  He  was  afterward  twice  Minister  of  Finance.  He 
introduced  steam-engines,  steanitioats,  and  the  printing- 
press  into  Brazil.     D.  in  Rio  Janeiro,  June  13,  1841. 

Barbados,  baar-bay'dos  (perhajjs  from  Span,  barhado, 
beardcii,  l)ut  it  was  early  called  St.  Bernardo) :  the  most 
eastern  of  the  Caribbean  islands  (see  map  of  West  Indies, 
ref.  8-M);  is  a  British  colonv.  Its  capital,  Bridgetown,  is 
situated  in  lat.  13°  4'  N.,  and  Ion.  59°  37'  W.  The  island  is 
21  miles  long,  14  miles  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  166  sq.  miles. 
It  is  tiearly  encircled  by  coral  reefs,  which  are  dangerous  to 
navigation.  Tlie  highest  point  of  the  island  has  an  altitude 
of  1.104  feet.  Destructive  hurricanes  often  occur  here.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  sugar,  cotton,  arrowroot,  etc.  The 
po]iulaliciii  and  pi'ospi'ritv  of  liarbados  have  increased  since 
tlie  aljolition  of  slavery,  Aug.  1,  1834.  In  1890  the  imports 
weie  16,000,000 and  the  exports  15,900,000.  and  85.261  hhd. 
of  sugar  were  raised.  There  are  24  miles  of  railway  and  58 
miles  of  telephonic  communication.  In  1891  the  ])ublic  debt 
was  1150,000.  Pop.  (1891)  182,333— the  most  densely  po])!!- 
lated  island  in  the  world.  Tlie  diocese  of  Barbados  includes 
the  Windward  islands  from  St.  Lucia  to  Granada,  of  wdiich 
the  see  is  liridgetown,  tlie  capital ;  and  it  enjoys  a  legislative 
appropriation  of  |50,000  annually.  The  public  schools  of 
Barliados  are  under  Government  control.  It  is  headquarters 
for  the  British  troojis  in  the  West  Indies.  JI.W.  II. 

Barbados  Cherry  :  the  edible  fruit  of  a  small  West 
Indian  tree  {Miilpii/tiiii  (//abm).  Each  fruit  contains  three 
seeds.  Tile  leaves 'of  Miiljji(/hia  urens,  which  also  has  edi- 
ble fruit,  liave  slinging  liairs  on  the  lower  side. 

Barbados  Gooseberry:  tlie  edible  fruit  of  Peresk-ia 
aculeala,  a  shrtibliy  plant  of  the  family  Cactaceip.  having  a 
round  stem,  thick,  alternate  leaves,  and  large  s|jines.  'J'he 
fruit  has  expectiirant  properties.  The  plant  grows  in  the 
West  liidii^s. 

Barbados  Leg:  See  IOlei'Iiaxtiasis. 

Barbados  Tar,  or  Petroleuiu:  a  black,  opaque,  inflain- 
malile  H(piid  of  the  consistence  of  molasses.  By  distillation 
it  yields  naphtha  and  a  residuum  of  asphaltum. 

Barbara.  Saint:  a  virgin  martyr  of  the  ancient  Church 
in  regaril  to  wliom  traditions  clash.  Baronins  accepts  the 
story  of  lu-r  martyrdom  at  Nicomedia  in  the  reign  of  Max- 
iininns  (235-238),  and  says  tliat  she  had  been  a  )iii|iil  of 
Origen.     Assemani  thinks  she  suffered  martyrdom   under 


Galerius.  about  306,  at  Heliopolis  in  Coele-SjTia.  She  is  the 
patron  saint  of  artillery,  and  the  [irotectress  against  light- 
ning and  tire.  Tlie  powder-magazine  on  French  men-of-war 
is  still  called  "  Sainte  Barbe.''    She  is  commemorated  Dec.  4. 

Barbarian  [from  Fr.  barbarien,  deriv.  of  barlxirie,  land 
of  barbarians;  from  Lat.  bar'barus,  Gr.  j3dp;8aposJ :  a  term 
applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  all  foreigners  and  all  who 
could  not  speak  the  Greek  language.  Plato  divided  the 
human  family  into  two  great  classes — Hellenes  (Greeks) 
and  Barbaroi  (barbarians).  After  the  Persian  invasion  the 
Greeks  used  the  word  as  a  term  of  rejiroach,  imidying  hos- 
tility to  their  own  freedom  and  civilization.  After  tlie  Ro- 
man's had  conquered  Greece,  and  had  become  in  some  meas- 
ure Ilellenized.  the  word  barbarian  was  applied  to  all  nations 
except  Greeks  and  Romans.  St.  Paul  uses  the  word  in  this 
sense  in  Romans  i.  14;  see  also  Acts  xxviii.  4. 

Barbaros'sa :  the  name  of  two  brothers,  renegade  Greeks 
and  natives  of  Mitylene,  who  became  Turkish  corsairs,  and 
were  the  scourge  of  Christendom  for  many  years  (1510-46). 
The  elder,  Aruch  (Horuk  or  Ouradjh),  made  himself  master 
of  Algiers,  but  was  defeated  by  Charles  V.,  caiitured  and  be- 
headed (1518).  He  was  succeeded  in  1518  as  ruler  of  Algiers 
bv  his  brother,  Havraddin,  a  Christian  corruption  for  Khair- 
ed-Deen.  He  obtained  Tunis  Ijy  conquest  in  1532,  and  be- 
came the  chief  admiral  of  Sultan  Solyman  in  his  war  with 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.     D.  in  Constantinople,  July  4, 1546. 

Barbarossa,  Emperor:  See  Frederick  I. 

Barbaroiix,  baar'-ba-roo',  Cuarles  Jf.an  Marie:  French 
Girondist  and  eloquent  advocate ;  b.  at  Marseilles,  Mar.  6, 
1767.  He  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  the  Legislative  Assembly 
in  1791,  and  a  member  of  the  "National  Convention  in  1793. 
He  denounced  Robespierre,  and  on  the  trial  of  the  king 
voted  for  an  appeal  to  the  people.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  energy  and  personal  beauty.  Having  been  pro- 
scribed by  the  Jacobins  in  May,  1793,  he  fled  from  Paris. 
He  was  guillotined  at  Bordeaux,  June  25,  1794.  See  his 
Mhnoires  (1822). 

Bar'bary  [of  Arab,  origin]  :  an  extensive  region  of  North- 
ern Africa,  comprising  the  modern  Barca,  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Fez- 
zan,  Algeria,  and  Morocco;  extending  from  Egypt  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  included  between  lat.  25°  and  37°  N., 
and  Ion.  10°  W.  and  25'  E.  It  included  the  ancient  Jfauri- 
tcmia,  Nitmidia,  Africa propria,  and  ( 'i/renaicn.  Barbary  is 
divided  by  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The  north  side  comprises 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  Jlorocco.  and  Algeria.  The  south  is  called 
Beled-el-Jereed  (i.  e.  the  country  of  dates).  The  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  It  was  very  rich  and  populous  under  the 
rule  of  the  Carthaginians  and  of  the  ancient  Romans,  who 
became  masters  of  this  region  about  146  n.  c.  It  was  con- 
quered about  430  A.  D.  by  the  Vandals,  who  misgoverned  it 
for  a  hundred  years,  and  it  fell  under  the  domination  of  the 
Arabs  in  647  A.  D.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Mohamme- 
dans. 

Barbary  Ai»e.  Pigmy  Ai)e.  or  Magot:  one  of  a  small 
species  of  tailless  monkey  (Jntius  ecuudatiis);  found  in  but 


Tlie  maRot,  or  Barbary  ape. 

one  place  in  Europe— the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  It  also 
abounds  in  Northern  Africa,  especially  among  rocky  moun- 
tains and  forests.     It  is  gregarious,  displays  great  agility  in 


BAKBAILI) 


BARBER'S  ITCH 


495 


passing  from  tree  to  tree,  and  usually  walks  on  four  feet.  It 
IS  of  a  greenisli-trray  color,  and  rather  larjrer  than  a  larf;e 
cat.  Bands  of  these  apes  often  plunder  gardens.  This  spe- 
cies of  monkey  is  frequently  seen  in  captivity,  and  is  capable 
of  being  trained  to  many  tricks. 

Barbaiihl,  Anna  LtTiTi.\  :  Knglish  antlioress;  b.  in  Kib- 
worth,  Leicestershire,  June  20,  174;!;  was  a  daughter  of 
Rev.  John  Aikin.  Slie  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  ITT^i, 
and  was  married  in  1774  to  Roelieiuoiit  Barbauld,  a  Dis- 
senting minister,  with  whom  slie  taught  a  boarding-school 
for  ten  years  at  I'algrave,  Suffolk.  She  pidjlished,  besides 
other  works,  JJfroliuniil  Pieces  (177"))  and  Early  LesKoiin 
for  Chihlreii.  tind  assisted  lier  brother.  Or.  John  Aikin,  in 
the  composition  of  a  popular  work  calliMl  Kreninija  at 
Home.  1).  at  Stoke  Xewington.  Mar.  !».  IS-J.'i.  She  wrote 
also  J  Leijary  fur  Ytiiiiiy  Ladies.  \m\<V\Awi\  after  her  death. 
See  a  Life  of  Mrs.  liarhuuld,  bv  Lucy  Aikin,  prefixed  to  her 
works  ci  vol's.,  182.")). 

Bar'bociie  [ultimately  from  llaytian  iorinpoa.  a  frame- 
work of  sticks  set  upon  posts,  generally  for  use  in  drying 
or  smoking  meat] :  term  originally  applied,  especially  in  the 
Southern  States,  to  the  practice  of  roa.sting  an  ox  or  other 
large  animal  whole:  since  applied  in  the  U.  .S.  to  a  social  en- 
tertainment on  a  large  scalc\ generally  in  the  open  air,  where 
animals  are  roasted  whole  and  provisions  .'ind  drink  [irovided 
in  generous  ipiantities.  A  barbecue  was  formerly  a  favorite 
means  of  celebrating  political  victories. 

Barbell  Wire:  See  Wire  .\ni)  VVike-drawi.ng. 

Bar'bee,  William  J.,  M.  1). :  b.  in  Winchester,  Ky.,  in 
1816 ;  educateil  at  .Miami  L^niversity,  O. ;  practiced  medicine 
ten  years  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  and  became  widely  known  as  a 
teacher,  author,  and  preacher  among  the  Disciples  of  Christ. 
He  has  published  Physical  and  Moral  Aspects  of  Geology, 
The  Cotton  Question,  and  various  religious  and  seientilic 
and  other  works.  He  died  at  the  residence  of  his  eldest  sou 
iu  Kentucky,  Oct.  27.  1802. 

Bar'bel :  a  fish  of  the  genus  Par  bus ;  of  the  carp  family, 
or  Cyprinidie.  It  resemliles  the  .Vmerican  sucker,  but  is 
furnished  with  four  soft  barbels,  iiendeiit  from  the  snout 


Barbel  (Barb^ts  barbuxl. 

and  upper  jaw,  and  sugsresting  the  name  :  derived  from  the 
Latin  barha.  Iiiard.  The  numerous  species  of  baH)el  are  all 
inhabitants  of  fresh  water,  and  seek  tlieir  food  by  inserting 
their  snouts  into  t lie  mud  like  swine.  The  common  barbel 
is  abundant  in  iMiglaml.  and  affords  sport  to  anglers,  but  is 
not  much  e.steemcd  for  food.  It  sometimes  measures  'A  feet 
long,  and  weighs  about  16  lb.  Another  species  called  binny 
or  barbel  is  abundant  in  the  Nile  and  the  .lordan,  and  is  es- 
teemed for  food.     It  sometimes  weighs  TO  lb.  D.S.J. 

Barb6-Marboi.s,  baar-bay'  malir-bwali',  Fi!ax<;ois,  Mar- 
quis de  :  French  statesnum  ;  b.  at  .Metz,  Jan.  31,  1745;  con- 
sul-general to  the  U.  S.,  and  intendant  of  San  Domingo 
(1 783-1(0),  where  he  introduced  many  reforms;  retrrned  to 
France,  and  in  1795  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
elders,  but  was  accused  of  various  offenses  and  e.xiled ;  re- 
called in  IHOl,  he  became  direc-lor  of  the  treasury  under 
Napoleon;  negotiated  the  sale  of  Louisiana  to  the  U.  S. ; 
was  made  a  Senator  in  18K!.  and  Minister  of  Justice  in 
181G.  He  wrote  Complot  d' Arnold  (1810J;  Ilistoire  dc  la 
Louisiane  (1828),  etc.     D.  Jan.  14,  1837. 

Barber  [earlier  barbour,  from  ().  Fr.  barbeor,  as  if  from 
Lat.  *An;'A(( /or,  deriv.  of  \ ,n\ .  barba .  beardj:  a  person  who 
shaves  others  and  cuts  their  hair.  This  trade  or  profession 
is  very  ancient,  and  is  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
(chap,  V.  1).  In  China  and  other  Oriental  countries  barbers 
shave  the  wliole  or  part  of  the  head.  The  practice  of  shav- 
ing the  liiard  was  coiumon  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
Orecks,  and  Hoiuatis.     Among  the  ancient  Israelites  the  re- 


moval of  the  beard  by  shaving  or  plucking  it  out  was  a 
sign  of  mourning.  In  former  times  barbers  served  the  pub- 
lic in  the  capacity  of  surgeons,  and  performed  the  opera- 
tion of  bleeding.  The  sjiiral  red  stripe  seen  on  the  barber's 
jiole  is  said  to  symbolize  \\w  winding  of  a  ribbon  round  the 
arm  previous  to  letting  blood.  In  London  the  barber-sur- 
geons formed  a  corporation  with  certain  privileges.  They 
were  incoi-porated  in  England  in  1401.  anil  were  united  with 
the  surgeons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V'lll.  The  connection 
was  dissolved  in  the  reign  of  George  II.  by  an  act,  the  pre- 
amble of  which  allirmstliat  the  trade  of  a  barber  is  "foreign 
to  and  independent  of  the  practice  of  surgery."  Quite 
recently  the  surgeons  of  the  Swedish  navy  wen^  also  barbers 
for  the"  crews.  The  barber's  art  was  practiced  in  Greece 
about  420  n.  c,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Sicily 
to  Kome  in  20!)  n.  c. 

Barber.  Fkantis  :  soldier  and  teacher:  b.  at  Princeton, 
X.  J.,  in  1751 :  graduated  at  Princeton  in  17(57.  He  entered 
the  army  iu  1776  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Trenton,  Princeton,  Urandywine,  (iermantown, 
and  .Monmouth.  He  was  afterward  raised  to  the  rank  of 
colonel,  and  in  1781  was  selected  by  (Jen.  Washington  fdr 
the  d<'licate  duty  of  suppressing  a  mutiny  of  the  troops, 
which  he  ])erfornieil  with  success.  He  was  killed  accident- 
ally by  the  fall  of  a  tree  at  Newburg,  Jan.  11, 1783. 

Barber,  Jon.v  Warxkr:  h.  at  Wind.sor,  Conn.,  in  1798. 
He  iiublished  a  History  of  New  Haven  (1831);  Historical 
Collections  of  Connecticut' (1836),  Massachusetts  (1839),  New- 
Jersey  (1844),  Virginia  (1844),  Ohio  (1847);  Incidents  of 
American  Jfistory  (1847);  Elements  of  General  History 
(1844) :  Our  WJiole.  Country  (1861),  and  several  other  works, 
I),  at  New  Ilaven,  Conn.,  June,  188.5. 

Barberini.  balir-bf-ree'nee,  Fraxcksco:  an  Italian  car- 
dinal: lu'iiliew  of  Pope  I'rban  VIII. ;  li.  in  Florence  in  1597. 
He  became  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  and  translated  the 
twelve  books  of  JIarcns  .\urelius  from  (ireek  into  Italian. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  great  Barberini  Library.  I),  in 
Kome  in  1679. 

Bar'berry  :  a  ]ilant  of  the  genus  lierberis  and  family 
Berberiflaceie;  comprises  many  species,  which  ari^  all  shrubs 
anil  natives  of  tem|)erate  climates  in  both  hemispheres. 
They  have  six  stamens,  which,  when  touched  at  the  base, 
exhiliit  irritability.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  with  two  or  three 
seeds.  They  are  divide<l  into  two  sub-genera,  sometimes 
ranki'd  as  genera;  tliosi'  with  sim]ile  leaves  forming  the 
Perberis,  and  those  with  pinnate  leaves  the  sub-genus  Ma- 
i  honia.  The  barberries  of  Asia  are  numerous  and  important 
I  for  their  fruits.  Thosi'  of  our  Pacific  slojie  are  3lahonias. 
i  The  common  barberry  (Perberis  rulyaris)  is  a  native  of 
Kurope.  sparingly  naturalized  in  the  IT.  S.,  a  shrub  armed 
with  spines,  and  |iroduces  small  oval  red  berries  in  pendu- 
lous clustei's,  which  contain  free  malic  acid,  and  are  valua- 
ble for  preserves  and  jelly.  The  bark  is  astringent,  ami  is 
used  in  medicine,  and  the  inner  bark  and  root  furnish  a 
good  yellow  dye.  On  account  of  its  yellow  color  the  inner 
bark  was  formerly  in  much  repute  as  a  remedy  for  jaundice. 
Several  fine  species  of  Berberis  grow  in  the  central  and 
western  portions  of  North  America.  H.  aquifolium,  with 
spiny  leaves  and  yellow  flowers,  is  generally  cultivated  as  an 
ornamental  shrub.  B.  pinnuta  of  Oregon  bears  blue,  acid 
berri<'S.  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Oreyon  qrape.  B.  can- 
adensis is  a  native  of  the  Alleghaiiies.  Parts  of  South 
America  abound  in  native  species  of  the  barbeny. 

Barberry  Family  (Berberidacetr):  herbaceous  or  shrub- 
by dicotyledons,  witli  the  parts  of  the  flower  all  free  from 
oi'ie  another,  and  one  or  few  simiilc  jiistils.  Therefore  re- 
lated to  buttercups,  nnignolias.  and  moonseeds.  There  are 
about  100  species,  widely  distributed,  especially  in  temperate 
regions.  The  barberry  and  May-apple  are  well-known  mem- 
bers of  this  family.      "  '  CiiARLKs  E.  Bessey. 

Barber's  Iteli :  a  term  applied  somewhat  indiscriminately 
by  the  public  anil  many  physicians  to  two  distinct  diseases. 
1.  ,\  majority  of  cases  are  inslani'cs  of  sycosis  non-parasi- 
lica,  or  pustular  eruption  on  the  face,  from  the  irritation  of 
too  frequent  and  close  shaving.  The  face  is  inflamed,  red, 
tender,  and  nodular,  with  numerous  pustules  of  various  size, 
discharging  pus,  which  mats  in  the  stumps  of  the  beard  and 
forms  scabs,  2.  The  second  form  is  the  true  barber's  itch, 
or  Tinea  sycosis,  contracted  by  contact  of  person  or  the 
soiled  and  contaminated  razors  and  brushes  of  the  barber. 
It  is  really  "ringworm  in  the  beard."  Each  hair  of  the 
infected  beard  is  covered  with  a  whitish  powder  of  parasitic 


496 


BARBET 


BAKCELONA 


scales  or  sporules.  Tlie  parasitic  regetation  is  the  Trichopyh- 
ton  tonsurans.  In  eithur  the  sycosis  non-parasitica  or  the 
true  sycosis  the  inilanuiuition  is  to  be  removed  by  frequent 
applications  of  cold  water,  perfect  cleanliness,  and  soothing 
lotions,  as  of  glycerine,  opium,  and  acetate  of  lead.  \\  ith 
the  first  form  su'cli  mcthoils  will  suffice.  In  the  second  or 
parasitic  form  all  the  infected  hairs  should  be  pulled  out 
with  the  depilation-forceps,  and  the  parasites  destroyed  in 
the  hair-follicles  by  |)arasiticide  lotions  or  unguents.  Chief 
of  these  are  sulphurous  acid,  either  pure  or  diluted,  carbolic 
acid  in  glycerine,  weak  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and 
ointments' of  sulphur,  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  white  precipi- 
tate. Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Bar'bpt  [Fr.  and  0.  Pr.  harhet,  from  Lat.  harbatus, 
bearded,  deriv.  of  barba,  beard]:  a  bird  of  the  genus  Laimo- 
don\  related  to  the  Picidm,  or  woodpeckers.  The  barbets 
have  a  large  conical  beak  surrounded  with  tufts  of  bristles ; 
hence  the  name.  They  inhabit  warm  countries,  particularly 
tropical  Africa,  and  feed  on  insects. 

Barbet  is  also  the  name  given  to  birds  of  various  genera, 
chiefly  South  American  and  Asiatic,  allied  to  the  kingfishers 
and  tiie  trogons.  Revised  by  1).  S.  Jokua.n. 

Barltct :  a  small  variety  of  the  poodle-dog,  remarkable 
for  its  activity,  intelligence",  and  fidelity  to  its  master ;  but 
equally  distinguished  for  its  ill-temper  and  its  dislike  of  all 
strangers.  It'is  also  very  liable  to  disease,  and  hence  is  not 
a  general  favorite. 

Barbpy  d'Aurevilly,  baar-bay'do-re-vee-?ee',  Jules  Ame- 
DEE :  French  novelist ;  b.  at  St,  Sauveur-le-Vicomte,  Xov.  3, 
1808 ;  wrote  a  great  number  of  volumes  of  a  character,  on  the 
whole,  very  brutal  and  perverse.  He,  however,  attracted  the 
attention  of  a  certain  noisy  set  of  writers  and  readers.  The 
most  lauded  of  his  productions  are  Une  vieille  maitresse 
(1851,  5th  ed.  1886):  L'Ensorcellee(\HM)\  Les  CEiovresef  le.s 
Hommes,  XIX'  Sierle  (7  parties,  1861-87);  Le  Chevalier 
Desfouehes  (1864);  Memoranda  (1885).  D.  in  Paris,  Apr. 
23,  1889.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Barbier,  baar'bi-ay',  Paul  Jules  :  French  dramatist  of 
remarkable  fecundity;  b.  in  Paris.  Mar.  8,  1825.  His^first 
work  was  l' Ombre  de  3IoUere,  played  at  the  Theatre  Fran- 
9ais  (Jan.  15.  1847).  Since  then  he  has  written  almost  in- 
numerable plays,  besides  librettos  for  both  grand  and  comic 
opera.  He  has  had  many  coUaborateurs,  among  them  Carre, 
Barriere,  Decourcelle.  His  librettos  have  been  set  to  music 
by  Meyerbeer,  Gounod,  Thomas,  Reyer,  Saint-Saens,  and 
others.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Barbon,  baar'boo' :  name  of  a  celebrated  French  family 
of  printers,  the  descendants  of  John  Barbon.  of  Lyons,  w  ho 
lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  His  press  published  in  1539 
a  beautiful  edition  of  the  works  of  Clement  Marot.— His  son. 
Hugh  Barbou,  having  removed  to  Limoges,  published  his 
celebrated  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus,  1580.— 
Joseph  Gerard  Barbou,  of  the  same  family,  settled  in  Paris, 
and  continued  in  1755aseriesof  Latin  classics  in  duodecimo, 
begun  in  1743  by  Coustelier.  The  series  rivals  the  Elze- 
virs of  earlier  date,  and  is  much  prized  for  its  elegance  and 
correctness.  C.  H.  Tuurber. 

Bar'bonr.  James:  statesman;  b.  in  Orange  co.,  Va.,  June 
10,  1775.  He  was  Governor  of  Virginia  1813-14;  author  of 
Virginia  anti-dueling  law,  and  a  Senator  of  the  U.  S.  1815- 
25.  He  voted  to  recharter  the  U.  S.  bank,  and  became 
president  of  1  he  Senate  pro  tern.  He  was  Secretary  of  War 
in  the  cabinet  of  John  (iuincy  Adams  (1825-37):  was  sent  as 
minister  to  England  in  1828,  but  was  recalled  in  1829.  In 
1839  he  was  president  of  the  Whig  national  convention.  D. 
in  Orange  co.,  Va.,  June  8,  1842. 

Barbour,  or  Barber,  Joii\:  Scottish  poet;  a  contempo- 
rary of  Chaiii'er;  b.  aliout  1320.  He  became  Archdeacon  of 
Aberdeen  in  1356.  and  went  to  Oxford  in  1357  to  complete 
his  education.  .\bi>ut  1374  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
auditors  ot  the  exchei|uer.  His  chief  work  is  a  natural  epic 
called  The  lirner.  a  histoiy  of  Rolicrt  Bruce,  which,  in  ad- 
dition to  its  poetical  merit,  has  much  historical  value.  D. 
Mar.  13.  l:!!)6. 

Barbour.  John  Humphrey:  divine,  educator,  and  writer 
of  the  Protestant  Fi])i.s(«pal  Church ;  b.  at  Torrington, 
Conn.,  May  29.  1854;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, and  "at  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Jliddletown, 
Conn.;  orilained  ]>riest  in  1878.  Rector  of  Grace  Chapel. 
Hartford.  t:.inn.,  1876-89;  liln-arian  of  Trinity  College 
1882-89;  Professor  of  the  Literature  and  Interpretation  of 
the  New  Testament  in  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  and 


librarian,  since  1889.    His  Beginnings  of  the  Historie  Epis- 
copate (New  York,  1887)  has  reached  a  second  edition. 

William  Stevens  Perry. 

Barbour.  John  S.  :  U.  S.  Senator:  b.  in  Culpeper  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  39.  1830:  bore  the  name  of  his  father  (1790-1855), 
who  served  five  terms  in  Congress  (1833-33),  and  was  a 
States-rights  advocate ;  studied  law  at  LTniversity  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  served  in  the  Virginia  Legislature ;  president  of  the 
Orange  and  Alexandria  R.  R. ;  in  Congress  from  1881-87 ; 
chairman  of  the  committee  which  overthrew  the  Mahone 
hold  upon  Virginia ;  LT.  S.  Senator  in  1889.  D.  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  May  14,  1892. 

Barbour.  Oliver  Lorenzo  :  lawyer :  b.  at  Cambridge, 
Wasliington  co..  N.  Y.,  July  12,  1811.  He  was  reiioi'ter  of 
the  New  York  Court  of  Chancery  from  1847-49  ;  of  the  New 
York  Supreme  Court  from  1849-76.  Hamilton  College 
made  him  LL.  D.  in  1859.  D.  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y..  Dec.  17, 
1889. 

Barbour,  Philip  Pendleton:  a  jurist;  b.  in  Orange  co., 
Va.,  May  35.  1783;  was  a  brother  of  James,  noticed  above. 
He  gained  distinction  as  a  criminal  lawyer;  became  a  mem- 
ber ot  Congress  in  1814  ;  was  cliosen  Speaker  of  the  House 
(1821),  resigned  1825;  re-elected  to  Congress  1827.  resigned 
again  183(X  He  was  appointed  an  associate  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.  in  1836.  D.  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  Feb.  34,  1841. 

Barbour.  William  JIcLeod.  D.  D.  :  Congregationalist ; 
b.  at  Focliabers.  Scotland,  May  29.  1837;  graduated  at 
Oberlin  College  1859,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary 1861.  He  was  pastor  at  South  Danvers  (now  Peabody), 
JIass..  1861-68.  i.irofessor  in  Bangor  Theological  Seminary 
1868-77.  and  Professor  of  Divinity  in  Yale  College  from 
1877  until  1887,  and  principal  and  Professor  of  Theology  in 
the  Congregational  College  in  Montreal,  Canada,  1887-96. 

Georue  p.  Fisher. 

Bar'boursvllle :  capital  of  Knox  co.,  Ky.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref .  5-1) ;  on  L.  and  N.  R.  R., 
and  on  the  Cumberland  river,'ll6  miles  S.  E.  of  Frankfort. 
It  is  situated  in  a  farming,  mining,  and  lumbering  region. 
Pop.  (1880)  250;  (1890)  1.162. 

Barboursville.  or  Cab'ell  Court-house  :  the  capital  of 
Cabell  CO.,  West  Va.  (for  location,  see  map  of  West  Virginia, 
ref.  8-D) ;  on  railroad  and  the  Guyandotte  river,  154  miles 
S.  W.  of  Wheeling.  It  became  the  seat  of  a  State  normal 
school.  July  13,  1861,  it  was  the  scene  of  a  brilliant  action 
in  which  the  Federal  troops  were  successful.  Pop.  (1880) 
361  ;  (1890)  1,838  in  its  magisterial  district. 

Barboza :    Brazilian  poet.    See  Caldas  Barboza,  Do- 

MI.NDOS. 

Barbuda,  ba'ar-boo'da  (Fr.  La  Barboude) :  one  of  the 
British  West  India  islands ;  23  miles  N.  of  Antigua  (see  map 
of  West  Indies,  ref.  6-M).  Its  area  is  60  sq.  miles.  It  is  of 
coral  formation,  has  no  harbor,  and  is  partly  covered  with 
forests.  It  is  a  dependency  ot  Antigua,  in  the  colony  of  the 
Leeward  islands.  It  belongs  to  the  Codrington  family,  and 
has  a  local  proprietary  government. 

Bar'ea  (anc.  Ci/renn' lea):  a  maritime  district  of  North- 
ern Africa  ;  bounded  X.  by  the  Mediterranean.  E.  by  Egy))t, 
S.  by  the  Libyan  desert,  and  W.  by  Tripoli  and  the  Gulf  of 
Sidr'a :  area  about  60,700  sq.  miles.  It  is  deficient  in  per- 
manent streams,  and  the  southern  part  is  a  desert,  but  the 
soil  near  the  sea  is  fertile.  On  the  mountain-sides  are  pines, 
date-palms,  and  olive  trees.  The  inhabitants  are  Arabs 
and  Berbers,  who  are  Mohammedans.  Formerly  it  lielonged 
to  Tripoli,  but  since  1869  has  been  immediately  dependent 
upon  Turkey.    Pop.  estimated  at  302,000.  Capital,  Benghazi, 

Barcelona,  ba"iir-sp-lo'na,  or  ba1ir-tha'y-lona:  a  province 
of  .Spain  ;  conqirising  the  southeastern  part  of  Catalonia, 
and  sloping  toward  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  an  area  of 
2  9S5  sq.  miles.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  best-culti- 
vated provinces  of  Spain.      Pop.  (1887)  899.264. 

Barcelona  [Lat.  Bar'cino;  Gr.  ^apKtviv.  name  said  to  be 
from  liorca,  the  surname  ot  the  Carthaginian  general  Hamil- 
<-ar]:  the  most  important  miinnfacturing city  of  Spain;  cap- 
ital (if  the  iirovincc  of  the  same  name  :  in  Catalonia,  beau- 
tifully situated  on  the  Jlcditerranean  ;  113  miles  E.  of  Lerida; 
lat.  4l°  23'  N..  Ion.  2°  11'  E.  (see  map  of  Spain,  ret.  14-K). 
Next  to  Cadiz,  it  is  the  most  important  seaport  of  Spain. 
Pop.  (1887)  272.481.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  iletcnded 
by  a  citadel  and  the  strong  tort  of  Mohtjoi.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  the  old  and  the  new  town  by  a  beautiful  prome- 


BARCELONA 


BAUDESANES  OF  EDESSA 


■i'.rt 


nude  called  La  Rambla.  The  streets  of  the  new  town  are 
more  spacious  and  regular  than  those  of  the  oKl.  Jlany  of 
the  houses  are  liuilt  of  htwii  sic  inc.  and  liave  an  iniiiosiufj 
appearance.  The  nuist  remarkable  puljlie  cdilices  are  the 
(lothic  cathedral,  which  is  alumt  (iOO  years  old,  and  the  Au- 
dieneia,  or  I'alacio  de  la  Deputacion  which  is  now  occupied 
by  the  courts  of  law.  Barcelona  has  a  university,  several 
public  lil>raries,  a  fine  theater,  an  ataileuiy  of  arts  and  sci- 
ences, and  two  museums.  Here  are  extensive  manufactures 
of  silks,  woolen  stulfs,  calicoes  or  figui'ed  cotton  stuffs,  lace, 
shoes,  aiul  tirearms,  which,  with  copper,  wine,  and  hrandy, 
constitute  the  principal  exjiorts  of  the  city.  The  harbor 
is  commodious,  but  is  obstructed  by  a  bar  which  excludes 
vessels  ilrawin<;  more  than  13  feet  of  water.  This  is  the  most 
populous  city  of  Spain  except  Ma<lrid.  Barcelona  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  by  Ilamilcar  Barca.  The  llomans 
became  masters  of  it  at  the  end  of  the  third  Punic  war  (146 
B.C.).  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  or  >b)ors  aliout  714  a.  u., 
and  became  an  independent  state  in  878.  In  the  twelfth 
century  it  wjis  annexed  to  Aragon.  In  1714  it  was  taken  by 
the  Duke  of  Berwick  after  a  long  and  heroic  defense. 

Barcelona :  a  town  and  seaport  of  Venezuela;  capital  of 
the  state  of  Bermudez ;  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  :  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Xeveri :  lat.  10°  10  N.,  Ion.  C4'  48'  W.  (see  map 
of  .South  Anu-rica,  ref.  l-D).  The  houses  are  built  of  mud, 
and  the  climate  is  unhealthful.     Pop.  13,000. 

Bar'clay,  or  Barklay,  Alexander  :  British  writer  and 
translator;  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Scotland  about 
147.1.  He  studii'd  in  one  of  the  English  universities,  trav- 
eled on  the  Continent,  and  was  made  a  priest  in  the  College 
of  Ottery  .St.  Mary  in  Devonshire.  He  afterward  entereil 
the  Benedictine  mona-story  of  Ely.  probalily  in  LULanil 
on  the  diss<ilution  of  the  monasteries,  in  1.540.  he  became 
Vicar  of  Much  Badew.  and  in  March  Vicar  of  Wokey.  The 
first  named  he  held  till  his  death ;  the  second  he  resigned  in 
1.5.52  to  accept  the  rectory  of  All  Hallows,  Lombard  Street, 
London.  He  wrf)te  the  lives  of  several  saints,  translated 
Sallust's  Jiii/iirlltiiie  War  and  a  French  jioem  called  T/ie 
Cnitle  of  Lahnr  (1506).  His  most  popular  wm'k  is  his  »S7i/;; 
of  FddIx  (1.500),  a  free  translation  from  the  German  of 
Sebastian  IJrandt.  I),  at  Croydon;  buried  there  .June  10, 
1.5.52.  See  .lamieson's  edition  of  the  Sliip  of  Foo/t  (Edin- 
burgh, 1S74).  Revised  by  Henrv  A.  Beers. 

Barclay.  .lonx:  English  satirist;  b.  at  Pont-a-Moasson, 
Lorraine.  Jan.  28,  1.582;  d.  in  Rome,  Aug.  1,5,  1621.  Uis 
celebrated  work  ^Iri/e/K's  appeared  in  the  same  year.  Cow- 
per  called  it  the  best  romance  that  ever  was  written.  It 
nius  been  translated  into  numerous  languages.  It  is  a  politi- 
cal allegory,  containing  several  allusions  to  the  state  of 
Europe. 

Barclay.  .Tonv,  51.  D. :  b.  on  a  farm  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, Dec' 10,  17.58;  waseducati'd  at  the  United  College  of 
St.  Andrews,  where  he  afterward  studied  divinity.  He  wa-s 
licensed  as  a  preacher  by  the  Dunkehl  Presbytery ;  he  be- 
came tutor  at  Edinburgh  in  1789  to  the  family  of  Sir  .James 
Campbell,  and  commenced  the  study  of  medicine  ;  took  the 
degree  of  .AI.  D.  in  1796.  He  became  a  noted  lecturer  on 
anatomy,  commencing  his  lectures  at  Edinlmrgh  in  1797, 
and  cuntiuuiug  them  until  a  short  time  before  his  death. 
I),  in  Edinburgh.  Aug.  21.  1826,  and  left  to  the  Royal  Col- 
legia of  Surgeons  his  anatomical  collection,  afterwai-d  called 
the  Rarelayan  Museum. 

Barclay,  Rohert:  reformer,  and  apologist  for  the  Society 
of  Fricucls :  b.  at  (iordonstown,  in  Morayshire.  Scotland.  Dec. 
2;i,  164.S.  He  was  educated  in  Paris  at  the  Scottish  College, 
of  which  his  uncle  was  rector,  and  learned  to  write  and 
speak  Latin  correctly  and  fluently.  He  returned  to  Scot- 
land in  1664.  and  became  a  member  and  minister  of  the  .So- 
ciety of  Frienils  in  1667.  In  1670  he  married  Christian 
Mollison.  and  in  the  same  vear  published  a  defense  of  his 
fellow-religionists,  entitled"  Tnilh  Cleari'd  of  Cfihimnien. 
He  afterward  published  a  Calerhixm  and  ('onffsninn  of 
Faith  (Uu.i).  and  I  he  A  narrhy  of  the  Ranti-rs  (1676).  In  1677 
he  visited  Gernumy  on  a  religious  mission  in  eompanv  with 
George  Fox  and  William  Penn.  In  addition  to  superior  tal- 
ents, he  had  moral  cimrage.  which  qualified  him  for  the 
part  of  a  n>foruu?r.  His  priiuMpal  work  is  An  A/mln(/i/  for 
t/te  True  f'hrixtian  Difiniti/.  a.s  the,  name,  in  held  forth  and 
preached  In/  the.  Peoj,le.  catted  in  scorn  Quakers  (1676),  writ- 
ten ami  published  in  Latin  at  .Vmsterdam,  and  afterward 
(167H)  translated  by  the  author  into  English,  and  published 
in  Lomlon  (a  standard  book;  many  later  editions  and  re- 
32 


prints).  This  work  exhibits  great  logical  acnmen,  and  has 
been  commended  by  eminent  persons  of  different  creeds.  In 
167!)  he  pulilislied  a  Vindication  of  his  Apotmjy,  which  had 
been  criticised  by  several  writers.  He  was  a]i])ointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  province  of  East  Jer-sey— which  had  been  set 
apart  for  a  (Quaker  settlement  wherein  their  doctrine  of  tol- 
ei'ation  could  have  free  sco|)e,  and  the  persecuted  for  re- 
ligion's sake  might  find  an  asylum — in  1S62,  lint  he  never 
went  to  America.  D.  at  Fry,  Oct.  :},  1690.  His  Catechism, 
Treatise  on  Church  Government,  formerly  called  Anarchy 
of  the  Ranters,  and  Apology  are  reprinted  by  the  Friends' 
Book  Store.  Pbiladelphui.  See  his  Life  by  Joseph  G.  Bevan 
(London,  1802),  and  by  Wilson  Armistead  (Manchester,  lS.50) ; 
cf.  The  Histories  of  the  Quakers,  by  W.  .Sewell  (London, 
1722,  reju'.  Philadelphia,  1844).  and  by  F.  S.  Turner  (Lon- 
don, 1889).  Revised 'by  S.  M.  Jackso.v. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  baarklay'de-tol-ky',  JIicnAEL  Ax- 
DREAS,  Prince:  a  celebrated  Russian  general  of  Scottish 
extraction;  was  b.  at  Luhde-Grnsshoff.  Livonia,  Dec.  16  (27) 
1761.  He  fought  against  the  Swedes  in  1790.  and  against 
the  Poles  in  1792  and  1794.  With  the  rank  of  major-general 
he  led  Beimingsen's  advanced  guard  in  1806.  In  1809.  at 
the  head  of  10.000  men,  he  crossed  the  frozen  Gulf  of  Both- 
nia, and  advanced  a.s  far  as  Stockholm.  In  1810  he  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  War.  He  became  in  1812  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Army  of  the  West,  but,  having  been  defeated 
by  the  French  at  Smolensko  in  August  of  that  year,  in  obe- 
dience to  popular  clamor  the  emiieror  reluctantly  supplanted 
him  by  Ivutuzof,  but  after  his  death  (1813)  he  again  ob- 
tained the  chief  command  of  the  army,  which  he  directed  at 
Bautzen,  Cidm,  and  Leipzig.  lie  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  field-marshal  in  Paris  in  1814.  I),  at  Insterbui-g,  East 
Prussia,  May  14  (26).  1818. 

Bareokli'eba.  or  Barkochlm  (i.  e.  son  of  a  star).  Simon  : 
a  famous  Jewish  impostor,  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah.  The 
name  by  which  he  is  known  was  given  to  him  by  Rabbi 
Akiba,  the  most  noteworthy  of  his  converts,  who  believed 
his  Me-ssianic  claims  and  apjilied  to  him  the  prophecies 
Num.  xxiv.  17;  Haggai  ii.  6.  7.  In  the  reign  of  Hadrian 
(a.  D.  182)  he  excited  an  insurrection  among  the  .Jews,  and 
seized  Jerusalem  and  numy  fortified  places.  After  a  long 
and  blooily  contest  the  city  wjus  retaken  by  the  Roman  Gen- 
eral Julius  Severus,  and  Barcokhelia  was  killed  in  the  for- 
tress of  Bethar,  tradition  says,  on  the  9lli  of  Ab  (August), 
135.  Ilis  disappointed  countrymen  afterward  changed  his 
name  to  Bar-coziba  (son  of  a  lie).  See  J.  H.  Schwarz,  Der 
Bar-Cochbaische  Aufstand,  Briiim,  188-5. 

Revised  by  .S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bard.  Sajiuel.  M.  D..  LL.  D.  :  physician  ;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia. Apr.  1,1743;  educated  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  was 
an  inmate  in  the  family  of  Dr.  Robertson,  the  historian.  He 
practiced  in  New  York  city,  and  was  the  family  jihysieian  of 
Gen.  Washington.    He  published  several  medical  wocks,  and 


became  president  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons 
of  New  York.  He  wjis  an  active  promotor  of  benevolent  en- 
terprises. D.  at  Hvde  Park,  N.  Y.,  Jlay  24,  1821.  See  his 
Life  by  Rev.  Jolin  McVickar  (N'ew  York,  1822). 

Bardelebeii,  biuir-de-lay'ben.  Kakl  :  German  anatomist ; 
b.  at  Giessen.  Mar.  7.  1849;  studied  in  Greifswald.  Heidel- 
berg, Berlin,  and  Lei()zig,  taking  the  ilegree  of  M.  D.  at 
Berlin  in  1871  :  appointed  prosector  and  profes,sor  in  the 
L^niversity  of  Jena  1873;  author  of  Beitrdije  zur  Anatomie 
der  Wirbelsaule  (1874);  Die  Gesetzmassif/keil  des  Kiioch- 
enhaues  und  seine  alh/emeine  liedeutung;  the  anatomical 
part  of  his  father's  Lehrbuch  der  Chirurgie.  etc. 

Bardesa'nes  of  Edes'sa,  properly  Bar-Daisan  (i.  e.  son 

of  the  river  Daisan,  because  ho  was  born  on  its  banks):  b. 
at  Edessa,  July  11,1.5.5  A.  D. ;  lived  at  the  royal  court  in 
great  favor;  went  as  missionary  to  Armenia  after  the  fall 
of  his  patron  (217);  d.  iHMha|>s  at  Edessa.  223.  He  is  com- 
monly but  not  quite  justly  called  a  Gnostic.  He  was  an  as- 
trologer, and.  although  in  the  main  an  orthodox  Christian, 
had  [leculiarities  due  to  Valentinian  Gnostic  or  pagan  iii- 
fluen<es.  The  treatise  attributed  to  him.  The  Dialogue  on 
Fate  or  Bookof  the  Laws  of  Countries,  was  written  by  some 
early  follower.  It  was  known  only  from  the  fragment  of  the 
Greek  translation  preserved  in  Eu'sebius's  Pnrparalio  Evan- 
gelica.  vi.  9,  10,  but  the  complete  original  .Syriac  fext  was 
brought  by  Archdeacon  Tattam  from  the  Syt-ian  convent  in 
the  Xitrian  desert  in  1843;  recognized  by  W.  Cureton  and 
published  by  him  in  18.5.5.  with  an  English  translation  ;  re- 
published  in   the  Anie.-Nieene  Fatlter.$,  vol.  viii.,  72-3-734 


498 


BARDINGS 


BARGAIN  AND  SALE 


(Sew  York.  1886).  Ephraem  Syrus,  who  flourished  about 
two  centuries  later,  says  Bardcsanes  wrote  also  150  hymns, 
which  appear  to  have  been  more  dualistic  than  the  treatise 
just  spolven  of.  The  best  compendious  notice  of  Bardesanes 
is  by  liort  in  Smith  and  Wace's  Dictionanj  of  Christian 
Biographij.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bar»riiigs.  or  Bard,  or  Bnrdiii^  :  a  bard  is  any  piece  of 
armor  for  a  liorse;  lience,  liardings  are  the  protective  trap- 
pings of  a  liorse,  whether  housings  made  defensive  by  stuff- 
ing and  (piilting,  or  cliain-mail  or  forged  pieces  of  steel. 
Such  ilefenses  were  not  used  in  antiquity ;  they  reached  their 
greatest  development  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  A 
horse  thus  protected  is  said  to  be  barded. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Bardslpy,  Charles  Wareino  :  b.  at  Kcighley,  York- 
shire, England,  1834:  educated  at  Oxford  1868;  ordained 
deacon  1870  ;  Vicar  of  Ulverston  with  Osmotlierley,  diocese 
of  Carlisle.  Author  of  English  Surnames,  their  Sources  and 
Signilieolions  (3d  ed.  1875);  John  Le.r/ei/'s  Troiih/es0Yoh.. 
187G) ;  Memorials  of  St.  Anne's,  Manchester  (1876);  Ro- 
mance of  the  London.  Directory  (2d  ed.  1879) ;  Curiosities 
of  Puritan  Nomenclature  (2d  ed.  1880);  Chronicles  of  the 
Toroi  and  Parish  of  Ulverston  (1884) ;  Her  lirandfattiers 
Bible,  a  Tale  of  Furaer's  Fells  (2d  ed.  1886). 

Bardsley.  John  Warring,  D.  D.  :  Bishop  of  Carlisle  ;  b. 
at  Keigldey,  Yorkshire,  England,  1835  ;  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin ;  ordained  in  I860,  and  became  Bishop  of 
Sodor  and  JIan  in  1887,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  Car- 
lisle in  l8i)2.  lie  has  piiblishcd  Counsels  to  Candidates  for 
Confirmation  (1883),  and  Tlie  Origin  of  Mam  (1888). 

Bardstown :  town  (founded  in  1785) ;  caintal  of  Nelson 
CO.,  Kv.  (for  location  of  countv.  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref. 
3-G) ; "  on  branch  of  L.  and  N.  R.  R. ;  39  miles  S.  "E.  of 
Louisville ;  has  public  schools  (white  and  colored),  several 
academies,  and  six  churches.  Its  industries  are  distilling, 
milling,  and  coopering.  Pop.  (1880)  1,803;  (1890)  1,524; 
(1893)  estimated  with  suljurl)s.  3.000. 

Editor  ok  "  Nelson  County  Record." 

Barebones.  Barebone.  or  Barbon,  Praisegod  :  b.  in 
London  in  1596;  was  a  leathcr-si'ller :  became  a  Baptist  and 
preacher.  He  defended  pa'doliaplism.  He  |ireached  in  his 
own  large  house  and  was  very  ]iopular.  He  was  also  wealthy. 
On  July  4.  1633,  he  was  sunimoned  to  Parliament  by  Crom- 
well, and  his  enemies  called  the  Parliament  •'  Baretiones's,"  or 
the  ••  Little  Parliament."  It  was  dissolved  the  same  year, 
and  Barebones  did  not  sit  again.  When  Gen.  Monk  can'ie  to 
London,  Barebones  Iieaded  a  procession  of  the  people,  and 
presented  a  remonstrance  to  Parliament  against  the  restora- 
tion of  Charles  II.  (1659).  He  was  in  the  Tower  during  1662. 
D.  in  Loiuhm.  Dec,  1679.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bare'footed  Fri'ars  [in  Lat.  Discalceati  fratres] :  an  ap- 
pellation of  certain  Roman  Catholic  monks  who  either  wear 
sandals  ^t  go  entirely  barefoot.  They  are  connected  witli 
various  congregations  of  the  strict  observance  in  nearly  all 
the  orders.  There  jirc  also  barefooted  nuns.  In  some  (ilaees 
they  wear  shoes  in  severe  weather. 

Baregrilie,  bar-ay '^hin:  a  miicus-like  substance  produced 
by  the  alga;  which  grow  in  mineral  springs.  It  abounds  in 
the  hot  springs  of  Barreges  in  Prance  ;  hence  the  name.  It 
is  a  substance  resembling,  to  some  extent,  the  white  of  an 
egg,  imparts  a  flesh-brotli  flavor  and  odor  to  the  water,  and 
is  prized  fin'  that  reason. 

Barcilly,  ba"a-ray'le"e, :  a  city  of  British  India;  in  the 
Northwi'st  Provinces;  on  the  river  Jua;  151  miles  E.  of 
Delhi ;  nrincipal  city  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  (see 
map  of  N.  India,  ref."5-E).  It  contains  a  number  of  mosques, 
a  college,  ami  many  IHikUi  schools.  Here  are  manufactures 
of  cutlery,  cai-pets,  brazen  water-pots,  tables,  and  ornamental 
chairs.  Bareilly  was  a  scene  of  outrage  and  rapine  during 
the  mutiny  of  1S57.  whi'U  the  Scpovs  murdered  a  numlier  of 
Europeans.     Pup.  (1891)  131,870. 

Barenf/,  baa'rents,  Willem  :  Dutch  navigator;  made  re- 
peated alleniiits  lo  reach  Cliina  through  the  .\rctic  Ocean; 
reached  lat.  78  N.  on  his  (liiril  expedition;  d.  near  Nova 
Zenibla  on  Jun(>  20,  1.597.  In  1871  Captain  Carlsen  found 
Barentz's  winter  quarters  undisturbed  after  a  lapse  of  274 
years.  A  part  of  his  journals  were  recovered  1875.  See 
Van  Campen's  Barentz's  Helirs  (London,  1877). 

Barerft  de  Vieuzac,  baa-rar'dc-vi-5-zaak'.  IJertraxd:  a 
French  demagogue  and  hiwyer  ;  b.  at  Tarbes.  Sejit.  10,  1755. 
He  was  elected  in  1793  to  the  Convention,  in  which  he  voted 


for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  Apr.,  1793,  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He  supported 
the  Jacobins  in  their  contest  with  the  Girondists,  and  be- 
came the  reporter  of  the  committee  which  usurped  supreme 
power  in  July,  1793.  He  was  the  first  who  iiroposed  that 
"  terror  sliould  be  the  order  of  the  day,"  and  he  dressed  the 
atrocious  decrees  of  tlie  conmiittee  in  such  flowery  language 
that  he  was  called  the  "  ^Vnacreon  of  the  guillotine."  On  the 
9th  Thermidor,  1794,  he  acted  with  the  enemies  of  Robes- 
pierre. He  was  banished  as  a  regicide  in  1816.  but  was  per- 
mitted to  return  in  1830.  He  has  been  called  one  of  the 
most  graceful  and  aecomi)lislied  liars  in  history.  D.  in 
Paris,  Jan.  13,  1841.  See  Memoires  de  Barere  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1834 ;  2d  od.  4  vols.,  1843)  and  the  notice  of  Barere  in  Ma- 
caulay"s  Essays. 

Baretti,  bali-refte'e,  Giuseppe:  Italian  writer:  b.  at 
Turin,  Apr.  25,  1719;  removed  to  Lonilon  in  1751,  and  be- 
came a  teacher  of  Italian  and  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  He 
]ndilislied  the  Italian  Lihrary  (1757);  Italiitn  and  English 
Dictionary  (1760);  and  Travels  through  Sjiain,  Portugal, 
and  France  (1770),  whicli  is  liigldy  conunciided  by  Dr.  John- 
son ;  Spanish  and  English  Dictionary ;  and  many  other 
works.  D.  in  London,  May  5,  1789.  See  G.  Franchi's 
Notizie  intorno  alia  Vita  di  G.  Baretti  (1790). 

Barfod.  baar  fod,  Paul  Frederik  :  a  Danish  historian  ; 
1).  at  Ijvngby,  Jutland,  Apr.  7,  1811  ;  became  assistant  in 
the  royal  library  in  Copenhagen  1866.  His  Forfallinger  af 
Fcedrelandets  ilistorie  appeared  in  1853  (4t]i  ed.  in  1874). 

R.  B.  jVnderson. 

Barfiiriish.  ba'ar-foo-roosh'  (i.e.  the  mart  of  burdens): 
iuipoiiant  commercial  town  of  Persia;  province  of  Mazan- 
deran  ;  on  the  river  Bahbul ;  14  miles  from  its  entrance  into 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  about  110  miles  N.  E.  of  Teheran  (see 
map  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  ref.  2-H).  It  has  an  extensive 
trade,  and  contains  numerous  colleges  and  caravanserais. 
The  bazaars  are  large,  and  filled  witli  a  great  variety  of 
goods.  A  good  road  extends  from  tliis  town  to  its  port, 
Meshedi-Ser.  on  the  Cas|jian.     Pop.  50.000. 

Barg'ain  and  Sale:  the  act  of  conveying  and  transfer- 
ring real  or  personal  property  for  a  valuable  consideration. 
Tlie  term  is  also  employed  to  indicate  the  instrument  by 
which  the  transfer  is  made.  In  the  law  of  real  estate  this 
form  of  conveyance  is  in  extensive  use.  The  original  mode 
of  conveying  corporeal  real  estate  was  by  means  of  a  cere- 
mony termed  Livery  of  Seisin  {q.  v.).  in  wliich  the  seller 
delivered  to  the  purchaser  some  visible  symbol,  such  as  a 
clod  of  earth  or  twig  of  a  tree,  in  the  name  of  the  property 
to  be  conveyed.  This  method  of  conveyance  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  cumbersome  aii<l  inconvenient.  It  was  governed 
by  strict  and  technical  rules,  and  the  estates  that  could  be 
created  by  it  were  inelastic — not  readily  molded  to  the  de- 
mands of  a  growing  civilization.  The  attention  of  convey- 
ancers was  attracted  to  other  methods  more  suited  to  mod- 
ern necessities.  These  methods  were  founil  in  the  doctrine 
of  uses.  (See  Uses.)  A  use  in  land  was  a  notion  derived 
from  the  Roman  law,  by  means  of  wliicli  the  formal  title  re- 
mained in  one  person,  while  the  beneficial  estate  or  enjoy- 
ment of  the  profits  appertained  to  another.  It  corresponded 
in  the  main  to  the  idea  of  trusts  in  modern  law.  (See 
Trust.)  A  use  could  be  created  by  a  pecuniary  or  other 
legal  consideration.  For  example,  if  an  owner  of  land  for  a 
]ieeuuiary  (■i>nsideration  purpiu'ted  l)y  present  words  to  sell 
it,  he  would  be  at  once  converted  into  a  formal  owner,  and 
the  person  advancing  the  money  would  be  the  beneficial 
owner,  or,  in  technical  language,  woiihl  have  "  a  use  "in  the 
land.  He  could  become  formal  or  legal  owner  by  the  action 
of  a  court  of  equity,  wliii'h  would,  on  application,  direct 
that  a  conveyance  should  be  made.  Winle  I  lie  law  was  in  this 
condition  an  important  statute  was  passed,  37  Hen.  VIII., 
c.  10,  called  the  Statute  of  I'ses,  the  effect  of  which,  in  .sub- 
stance, was  to  declare  tlud  one  who  liad  acquired  a  use  under 
certain  prescribed  conditions  in  an  estate  in  land  should  he 
the  legal  or  formal,  as  well  as  the  beneficial,  owner.  One 
great  consequence  of  this  statute  was  to  introduce  new  con- 
veyances. The  principal  one  was  "  bargain  and  sale."  The 
sale  of  land  for  a  consideration,  as  already  explaineil,  created 
a.  use,  and  tlie  statute  gave  the  owner  of  the  use  the  title.  A 
subsei|uent  .statute  (known  as  the  Statute  of  Fraud-'i)  re- 
(piires  conveyances  to  be  in  writing.  This  is  the  foundation 
of  the  modern  system  of  conveyancing,  both  in  England 
and  the  U.  S.  Other  conveyances,  proceeding  either  wholly 
or  in  part  on  the  same  theoi-y,  are  "  covenant  to  stand 
seised     and  "  lease  and  release."     In  the  first  of  these  the- 


BARQUE 


BAKK 


49S> 


1 


consideration  is  the  affection  between  near  relatives,  tech- 
nically called  a  "  good  "  consideration,  as  distinguished  from 
"  vaUiubie."  In  the  second,  the  doctrine  of  uses  is  resorted 
to  to  |>ut  the  purchaser  in  constructive  possession  of  an 
estate  for  years  in  the  land,  whereupon  he  may  receive  a 
release,  and  thus  become  complete  owner. 

T.  W.  DwniiiT. 

Banri'P.  baars.  CuAKLEs:  genre-painter:  h.  in  Paris,  and 
died  there  in  1HH3  in  povertv  when  about  tweul y-tive  years 
of  age.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cicronie.  painted  only  a  few  pic- 
tures, aiul  never  exhibited  at  the  Salon.  His  works  are 
highly  prized  bv  collectors  for  their  minute  (biish  and  depth 
of  color,  and  for  their  extreme  rarity.  Playing  Vhen^on 
the  Terinii;  his  last  work,  is  in  the  collection  ol  Mrs.  \\  ill- 
iam  11.  Vaiidi-rbilt,  New  York.  W.  A.  C. 

Bnrhani.  baaram.  KiniARU  IlARRis(whose  pen-name  was 
Tliomiis  JiK/ii/ilxhi/) :  Knglish  clergyman  and  huiiuirist ;  b. 
at  Canlei-lii'iry,  Dec.  (i.  1TS8.  lie  was  educated  at  Mrasenose 
College,  (JxI'o'rd  :  held  various  cliureh  livings,  and  in  1842 
was  appointed  divinity  lecturer  at  St,  Paul's.  His  most 
noteworthv  work  is  the  lugoliUby  Leyenth  (1840  arul  1847). 
a  series  of  comic  tales  in  grotescpu",  irregular  metei-s,  frc- 

uentlv  reprinted.     I),  in   London,  .luue  1",  184-").     See  his 

ife  bV  his  son  (London,  2  vols.,  1870;  3d  ed.  1880). 

IIeXKY  a.  BliKRS. 

Bar  Harbor:  a  noted  summer  resort  of  Hancock  co.. 
Me.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  rcf.  8-K): 
situated  on  l''renchman"s  Uav  and  on  cast  side  of  Ml.  Desert 
island,     Pop.  of  Mt.  Desert  town  (1890)  \MT-,. 

Bari,  baa'n'e  (anc.  Barium)  :  a  fortified  city  and  seaport 
of  Italv;  capital  of  the  province  of  Bari:  situated  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  58  miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Brindisi  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref,  6-G),  It  is  defended  by  a  massive  old  castle  of 
Norman  origin.  The  harbor  adinits  only  small  vessels. 
IJari  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  lias  some  fiiu^  ec<'lesi- 
aslieal  buihlings.  among  which  is  tlie  iiriory  of  St.  Xicholas. 
fountled  in  1087.  It  contains  a  cathedral,  also  nianul'ac- 
tures  of  silk,  cotton,  linen,  and  glass.  Barium  was  a  very 
ancient  city,  and  was  floiirisliing  as  early  as  300  n.  c.  Pop. 
of  commune.  tU.Odll. 

Bari, or  Bari delle  Piigrlie, baaree-del-lc-pool  ye :  a [irov- 
ince  of  Apulia,  Italv;  bounded  N,  E.  by  the  Adriatic  Sea,  S, 
bv  Lecce  and  PotenV.a,  VV,  by  Potenza,  and  N.  W.  by  Koggia ; 
area,  2,2i);i  .sq.  miles.  The"  soil  is  very  fertile,  producing 
wheat,  fruits,  and  wine.  The  climate  is  very  hoi  in  summer. 
Pop.  (1891)  750,071.     Capital,  Bari. 

Baril'la:  a  crude,  impure  carbonate  of  soda,  which  is  a 
consiilerable  article  of  commerce,  and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap  and  glass.  It  is  ]>r(>eureil  liy  burning  plants 
of  the  genus  .SVi/wj/rj  or  other  plants  which  grow  lu'ar  the 
sea.  Large  quantities  of  it  are  exported  from  Spain  ami 
the  Balearic  isles.  The  Salso/a  miliva  is  cultivated  on  ground 
adjacent  to  the  sea.  by  which  it  is  occiusionally  sulinu'i'ged. 
the  sea  being  admitted  by  Hood-gates  through  an  end)aiik- 
ment.  The  ASalsola  is  cut  in  September,  is  drieil,  and  Inirned 
in  a  hole  in  the  ground. 

Barillas,  eaa-reena'ii.s.  or  Sail  CarUw :  a  tomi  in  the  state 
of  Zarmira.  Venezuela;  near  the  river  Santo  Domingo  (sec 
map  of  South  America,  ref.  1-Ci:  founded  in  the  sixteenth 
ccniury;  has  sulTcri'd  dcv.-istatiou  twice  within  a  century. 
It  is  noted  for  the  exportation  of  the  tobacco  which  bears 
its  name.     Pop.  4.000. 

Baring,  bay'ring.  Sir  Francis  :  an  English  financier;  b. 
at  Larkbcar.  near  Exeter.  Apr.  18,  1740:  was  the  father  of 
Lord  .Vshlinrton,  and  the  principal  founder  of  the  great 
banking-house  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Co.  of  London.  He 
was  nui<le  a  baronet  in  1703.  D.  in  London,  Sept.  10,  1810. 
— His  eldest  son.  Thomas,  b.  .lune  12,  1772,  was  a  member 
of  llie  House  (if  C.MMinons  1830-32.  D.  Apr.  3,  1848.  For 
his  second  sou.  Alexander,  see  Asubl'RTox. 

Bariiig-(ioiil(l,  Sabine:  clergv-man  and  author;  b.  at 
Exeter.  England,  .Ian.  28.  1834;  was  educated  at  Clare  Col- 
lege. Cambridge:  visilccl  Iceland  in  1802 ;  took  orders  in 
1865;  was  appointed  curate  of  Horliury,  subsequently  of 
Dalton;  rector  of  P'ast  Jlersea  1871,  of  Lew  Trencliard 
IHMl;  ami  published  Jfijfhs  of  the.  Middle  Ai/e^  (1808): 
Tlie  Origin  and  Derelopmenl  of  Beliyioiis  Belief  (1870) : 
l.n/eiids  of  the  PalritircliK  and  Prophets  (1871);  Lont  and 
Iliixlile  (lmj)el.'<  (1S74) ;  Lirex  of  tlie  Saints  (15  vols.,  1872- 
77);  Traiieily  nf  tlie  Cipsars  (2  vols..  18112);  and  other  works 
to  the  number  of  about  fifty,  chiefly  on  religious  subjects  or 


relating  to  folk-lore,  legend,  and  popular  superstitions.  He 
also  in  later  years  became  noted  for  his  novels,  as  JUehalah  ; 
Richard  Cable;  John  Ilerriny,  Oareroeks. 

Revised  by  lli-;xRY  A,  Beers. 
Bari'tall  :  a  large  Australian  bir<l  belonging  to  the  Cor- 
vidiK  (crow  family).     The  bill  is  large  and  conical,  the  base 


Wr^"^ 


liaritali,  or  piping  crow. 

of  it  extending  far  backward  on  the  forclu'ad.  The  Oym- 
norhina  tibicen  (piping  crow  or  i>iping  grackle)  lias  a  melo- 
dious voice,  is  ea.sily  tauu'd,  and  learns  to  wliistle  tunes. 
Thi'i'e  are  several  genera  of  these  birds. 

BaritoiK^ :  See  Barytone. 

Bn'riiini  (name  devised  by  Davy  from  baryta  (Gr.  jSapuj, 
heavy),  after  tlie  analogv  of  rhodium,  strontium]:  one  of 
the  lilkaline  earthy  meials;  clicm.  symbol.  Ba:  atomic 
weight.  137.  It  occurs  in  nature  cliielly  in  the  forms  of 
sulphate,  barite,  barytes.  or  heavy  spar,  of  carbonate,  with- 
crite,  and  of  silicate.'  harmolome.  It  is  very  rarely  prepared 
in  the  metallic  state.  Barium  salts  are  prepared  either 
from  the  native  carbonate  by  the  action  ol  acids,  or  from 
the  native  sulphate  by  first  ivducing  it  to  sulphide  by  treat- 
ing with  sawdust  or  some  other  rcilncing  agent,  then  treat- 
ing this  with  tlie  proper  acids.  The  most  important  salts 
are  the  chloride  and  nitrate  ;  lioth  are  used  as  tests  for  .sul- 
pliuric  acid  and  soluble  sulphates.  The  chloride  is  used  as 
a  preventive  of  boiler  incrustations,  owing  to  its  action  on 
the  sulphate  of  lime  of  the  feed-water.  It  is  also  exten- 
sively used  for  the  preparation  of  an  artificial  sulphate 
known  as  lilinir  lire.  v.h\vh  is  used  in  ciiamcUng  pa|ier.  Ba- 
rium forms  a  protoxidi'.  Bad.  i-allrd  liaryta.  and  a  dioxide, 
BaOj.  The  latter  is  eiuplovcil  in  tlic'  preparation  of  hydro- 
gen dioxide,  lljO,.  Baric  hydrate.  BalljOj,  is  the  most 
soluble  of  the  alkaline  earthy  hyilrates:  it  is  used  in  the 
laboratorv  as  a  test  for  carbon'ic  acid,  with  which  it  forms  a 
white  precipitate.  Baric  sulphate  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
soluble salts  known.  In  its  native  form,  barytes  or  heavy 
spar,  it  is  extensivelv  mined  and  used  to  adulterate  white 
lead,  an  ai>plicalion  for  which  it  is  sjiecially  adapted  by  its 
high  sp<'cific  gravitv.  The  soluble  barium  salts  are  all  poi- 
sonous. Anv  scilulile  sulphate,  as  sodic,  Glauber's  salt,  or 
magnesia  sniphate,  Epsom  salt,  is  an  antidote. 

C.  F.  Chandler. 

Bark  :  the  outer  jiarts  of  the  stem  of  plants,  especiallv  of 
trees.  It  is  best  developed  on  trees  of  cool  climates,  such  as 
conifers,  oaks,  cottonwoods.  maples,  etc..  but  the  name  is 
also  aiiplieil  to  the  outi'r  part  of  the  stem  in  many  herbace- 
ous plants.  Tlie  cortical  part  of  the  stem  in  a  lii-mp  plant 
includes  all  the  tissues  outside  of  the,  woody  cylimler.  Here 
the  inner  bark  consists  largely  of  fibrous  cells  intermingled 
with  sieve  cells  and  soft  tissue  ;  next  to  this  externally  is  a 
ma,ss  of  soft  tissue  containing  more  or  less  chlorophyll,  and 
external  to  this  is  the  epidermis.  This  is  essentially  tho 
structure  of  the  cortex  of  the  young  stems  of  our  trees, 
but  as  the  stems  become  older  the  epidermis  splits  olT,  and 
soon  the  green  parenchyma  cells  disa|>pear  also.  The  bark 
is  henceforth  coiuposed'of  the  aggregated  annual  layers  of 
fibrous,  sieve  and  soft  tissue,  intermingled  with  a  greater  or 


500 


BARK-BEETLE 


BARLAAM   AND  JOSAPHAT 


less  development  ot  cork.  i.  e.  modified  soft  tissue.  (See 
IIiSTOLOGV,  Vegetable.)  The  annual  layers  can  not  long  be 
distinctly  recofjuizcd  in  the  bark,  and  in  the  older  portions 
of  trees  the  outer  layers  of  bark,  beeominjj  dry  and  lifeless. 
are  j;radually  shed  or  thro\vn  off.  The  peculiar  juices  and 
characteristic  properties  of  a  plant  are  often  most  abundant 
in  the  true  bark,  wliich  is  the  most  important  part  of  many 
medicinal  plants,  especially  of  Cinxhona  (q.  v.).  In  making 
leatlier.  tanners  prefer  those  kinds  of  bark  which  contain 
most  tannic  acid.  Oak  bark  is  chiefly  used  in  the  tanneries 
of  Europe.  In  the  U.  S.  the  bark  of  several  species  of  oak, 
and  also  tliat  of  the  hemlock,  is  used.  The  Spaniards  em- 
ploy the  iuner  layer  of  the  bark  of  the  cork-tree  (Quercus 
sub'er),  and  the  Australians  that  of  the  eucalyptus. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Bark-beetle,  or  Bark-chafer:  any  one  of  several  co- 
leopterous insects,  belonging  to  the  family  Scohjtidm. 
They  bore  hoh's  in  bark,  deposit  their  egjre  in  the  inner 
bark,  and  often  kill  the  tree.  One  species  (Tom'iciis  typvy- 
m/jliiif!,  or  the  typographic  beetle)  infests  the  forests  of 
(ierniauy  in  great  nuuibers.  In  1783  it  caused  the  death  of 
a  million  pines  or  more  in  the  Hartz  Forest.  It  receives 
its  name  from  the  circumstance  that  the  burrows  formed  by 
it  in  feeding  upon  the  soft  wood  immediately  within  the 
bark  often  present  a  rude  resemblance  to  printed  charac- 
ters.    The  U.  S.  have  several  destructive  species. 

Barker,  A.  S. :  commander  U.  S.  X. :  b.  in  Massachu- 
setts, Mar.  13,  184:3;  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in 
1861.  He  served  in  the  steamer  Mississippi  at  the  passage 
of  Ports  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  and  capture  ot  Xew  Or- 
leans, Apr.  24,  1863,  and  in  the  attack  on  Port  Hudson, 
Mar.  14,  1863,  where  the  Mississippi  grounded  and  was  de- 
stroyed; aud  afterward  in  the  Monongahela  at  the  siege 
of  Port  Hudson,  and  was  iu  various  engagements  in  her 
with  batteries  on  the  Mississippi  river ;  was  promoted  to  a 
captaincy  May  5,  1892. 

Barker,  Edmund  Henry:  English  philologist:  b.  at 
Ilollyui,  Dec.  22,  1788;  studied  at  Cambridge;  edited  nu- 
merous classical  works,  including  the  Revision  of  Stephnn's 
Thesaurus  LinguiB  Grcecm  (12  vols,  folio) ;  lost  all  he  had 
in  a  lawsuit,     H.  in  London,  Mar.  21,  1839. 

Barker.  Fordyce,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  b.  at  Wilton,  Jle., 
Jlay  2,  1818;  educated  at  Bowdoiu  College  1837,  and 
studied  medicine  in  Boston  and  Paris.  He  became  in  184.5 
Professor  of  Midwifery  in  the  Medical  School  at  Brunswick, 
Jle. ;  held  the  same  position  in  tlie  New  York  Medical  Col- 
lege (1850-57),  and  in  1860  became  Obstetric  Physician  and 
Professor  of  Midwifery  at  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  Col- 
lege, Xew  York  ;  published  many  papers  on  obstetrical  and 
other  kindred  subjects,  a  treatise  on  Seasickness,  and  one 
on  Puerpc.rul  Disi'n,->es.  Ilis  private  practice  was  large  and 
lucrative.  He  was  a  model  man  in  all  tlie  relations  of 
life.  He  was  president  of  tlie  Xew  York  Academy  of 
Medicine,  and  a  leading  man  iu  his  profession.  D.  in  New 
York  city,  May  30,  1891. 

Barker,  George  Frederic,  M.  D.  :  chemist  and  physi- 
cist: b.  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  July  14,1835.  He  became 
an  apprentice  in  1851  in  a  philosophical  instrument  manu- 
fai^tory  in  Uoston,  where  lie  remained  until  1850,  in  which 
yc^ar  lie  entereil  the  Yale  Scientific  School,  and  graduated 
as  Bachelor  of  Philosophy  in  1858.  He  was  chemical  as- 
sistant f(M-  two  winters  (1858-61)  in  the  Harvard  Jledical 
School.  In  1861  he  was  ap|>ointed  Professor  of  Chemistry 
and  Geology  in  Wheaton  College,  Illinois,  and  was  acting 
i'rofessor  of  C^hemistry  in  1862-63  in  the  Albany  Medical 
Ciillege,  wliere  he  graduated  as  M.  D.  in  1863.  "  Early  in 
1864  he  became  Professor  of  Xatural  Sciences  in  the  West- 
ern University  of  Pennsylvania  at  Pittsburg,  was  instructor 
(1865)  in  the  Yale  Medical  College,  and  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiological  Chemistry  and  Toxicology  at  Yale 
in  1867.  In  1878  lie  was  chosen  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  In  1873  he 
became  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1876  he  was  "elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Scieiu-es.  In  1881  he  received  the  decoration 
of  commander  of  the  Li^gion  of  Honor  from  the  French 
(ioveriiinenl.  lie  wa-i  one  of  the  I'.  S.  commissioners  to 
the  Paris  Int.  Elec.  Kxhibition  in  1881,  a  delegate  to  the 
Int.  Congress  of  Klectricians,  and  a  vice-president  of  the 
jury.  He  was  apjiointed  by  President  Arthur  a  member  of 
the  U.  S.  Electrical  Commission  in  1884.  Among  his  vari- 
ous productions  may  be  named  a  Lecture  on  the  Force  of 


Barker's  mill. 


Nature,  delivered  (1863)  before  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Union  College,  by  whom  it  was  published  ;  and  one  on  the 
Correhitlon  of  Vital  and  Physical  Forces,  delivered  (Dec. 
31,  ISO'.))  before  the  American  Institute  in  New  York;  re- 
published in  France.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Te.rl-book  of 
Ehmmtary  Chemistry  (New  York,  1870),  which  has  already 
passed  through  twenty  editions.  , 

Barkers  Mill,  or  Segrner's  Wheel :  a  hydraulic  ma- 
chine invented  by  Dr.  Barker  toward  the  end  of  tlie  seven- 
teenth century.  It  is  a  de- 
vice in  which  the  reaction 
due  to  two  water  jets,  e  c 
(see  cut),  is  utilized  to  pro- 
duce rotary  motion.  The 
tube  from  which  the  jets 
issue  tends  to  revolve  in  the 
direction  opposed  to  that  of 
the  water  emitted.  The 
machine  is  sometimes  called 
the  centrifugal  mill. 

E.  L.  N^. 

Barking-bird  (Ilylactes 
tariii)  :  a  small  bird  of 
the  family  Pteroptorliiihe. 
found  in  Chili;  remarkable 
for  its  cry  like  the  yelping 
of  a  small  dog. 

BarksMale,  William  : 
a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service;  b.  in  Ruth- 
erford CO.,  fenn.,  Aug.  21,  1821 ;  killed  at  Gettysburg.  Pa., 
July  2,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Nashville  University,  re- 
moved to  Mississippi,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  He  served  in  the  Jlexican  war.  In  1853  he  was  elected 
to  Congress  from  Mississippi,  and  resigned  his  congressional 
seat  and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
army:  and  it  was  at  the  head  of  his  brigade  that  be  was 
killed  on  the  second  day  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Bar'laam :  b.  at  Seminara  in  Calabria,  Southern  Italy, 
near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century;  was  of  Greek  de- 
scent. He  became  a  monk  in  a  Roman  Catholic  monastery 
of  the  order  of  St.  Basil :  continued  his  studies  afterward  at 
Thessalonica,  becoming  proficient  in  theology,  philosophy, 
and  mathematics;  went  to  Constantinople  in  1327,  where  he 
joined  the  Greek  Church,  and  was  made  Alibot  of  St.  Sal- 
vador (1331).  In  1339  he  was  sent  Viy  the  emperor  to  Avignon 
to  try  to  bring  aliout  a  union  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Churches,  but  the  scheme  failed.  Being  condemned  for 
heresy,  he  returned  to  Italy  and  the  Roman  Church  in  1341, 
and  was  made  Bishop  of  Gerace  in  Calabria  in  1342.  He  is 
chiefly  known,  however,  as  the  person  from  whom  Petrarch 
unsui'cessfully  endeavored  to  learn  Greek.    D.  there  in  1348. 

Barlaani  and  Jos'aphat  (or  Joasaph):  a  Greek  religious 
romance  or  legend,  often  erroneously  attributed  to  Johannes 
Damascenus.  a  Byzantine  theologian  of  the  eighth  century. 
According  to  thelegend.  Josaphat  is  the  son  of  a  heathen 
King  of  India.  In  consequence  of  an  astrologer's  predic- 
tion!, he  is  shut  uji  in  a  palace  by  his  father,  and  surrounded 
with  young  and  beautiful  attendants,  in  order  that  he  may 
learn  nothing  of  misery,  disea.se.  or  death.  Later  the 
prince  is  allowed  to  make  excursions  from  his  retreat,  but 
the  streets  are  carefully  cleared  of  the  sick  and  unfortunate. 
By  accident,  however,  he  sees  on  one  occasion  a  blind  man 
aiid  a  leper,  and  on  another  he  meets  a  man  broken  down 
by  age.  These  sights,  and  the  explanation  of  them  given 
him  by  his  tutors,  nuike  him  very  thoughtful.  Barlaam,  an 
ascetic,  gets  admitted  to  the  prince,  and  converts  him  to 
Christianity  and  the  monastic  ideal.  The  prayers  and 
threats  of  ilie  king  and  the  temjitations  devised  by  the  ma- 
gician Theudas  c.-in  not  shake  Josaphafs  faith,  and  both  the 
king  and  Tlninlas  become  converts.  Forty  days  after  his 
father's  death  J.isapliat  abdicates.  After  long  and  perilous 
wanderings  be  fimls  Barlaam.  and  joins  in  his  ascetic  devo- 
tions, remaining  with  liini  till  the  old  monk  dies,  and  coni inn- 
ing the  same  austerities  till  his  own  hajipy  end.  The  narrative 
contains  a  number  of  i)arables  (such  as  The  Trumpet  of 
Ih'alh.  The  Caskrix.  The  Fowler  and  the  Bird.  The  Man  in 
tlie  Pit),  whii'h  became  a  part  of  the  anecdotic  literature  of 
the  later  iMiddlc  Ages  (see  Benfey.  J'antsc/iataiitra.  i.  SO; 
Brnunholtz,  in  the  liibliography  at'  the  end  of  this  article: 
T.  F.  Crane.  Kremphi  from  tlie  Sermones  Vulyares  of  Jacques 
de  Vitri/.  London,  1800 ;  Oesterley.  (iesln  Romanorum.  pp. 
736,  730,  745,  etc.).     It  also  contains  an  elaborate  exposition 


ISAKLAAM    AND   .lOSAIMIA'l 


BARLOW 


501 


of  Christian  theology  (witli  a  marked  tendency  to  polemic 
iif^ainst  the  Monotheletic  heresy)  and  of  Christian  ethics. 
'I'lic  iuilhor  is  enthusiiustic  in  his  praise  of  the  nionaslie  life. 
His  style  is  rlietcirieal,  and  shows  the  influence  of  John 
Chrysostom  arul  Ciregory  Xazianzen. 

Barlaam  and  .losiiphat  is  really  a  Christian  rifacimentu 
of  a  lost  Sanskrit  or  lYdi  legendary  biograiihy  of  the  Buddha, 
and  most  of  the  parables  it  tonlains  are  Buddhistic  (see 
Lielireeht,  who  compares  the  halitmusliira).  Tlie  name 
Ju.iiinliiil  has  I'Ven  lieeii  identified  with  Jiadhissalca,  a  title 
of  the  Ituddha  (ZtitHeltrijt  dir  iJfu/sc/ien,  Mtirijenh'iiitl. 
(IfselUrhiifl.  xxiv.  480;  Zotenberfr,  p.  68;  llomniel,  p.  178). 
Yet  both  Barlaam  and  .losaphat  stand  as  .saints  in  the  Ko- 
man  iMartyrolof;inm  (Nov.  27)  antl  the  Greek  Menspa  (Aujj. 
2li).  'I'lie  history  of  the  passage  of  this  Buddhist  legend 
into  Christian  hagiology  is  obscure.  The  author  of  the  Greek 
romance  professes  to  have  heard  the  .story  from  certain 
pious  (€i>\a/3crj)  men  of  India,  who  had  translated  it  from 
trustworthy  records  or  memorials.  Zotenl)erg,  combining 
this  statement  with  another  eniliodied  in  the  title  as  given 
in  most  of  tlie  older  JISS.,  thinks  it  likely  that  this  Greek 
ronnince  was  written  by  .lolin,  a  monk  of  the  convent  of  St. 
Saba  in  .Jerusalem,  about  (i^M.  on  the  basis  of  communi(ta- 
tiiins  from  Nestorians  from  India.  But  one  of  the  oldest 
MSS.  (eleventh  century)  asserts  that  the  book  was  translated 
from  Iberian  (i.e.  Georgian,  Grusinian)  by  Kulliymius  Ibcrus 
(d.  lO'-'li) ;  and  the  discovery  in  1S87  of  a  Grusinian  version 
has  pei-suaded  Kosen  of  the  truth  of  this  note.  Ho  supposes 
the  monk  John,  who  can  not  in  any  case  be  Johainies 
Damascenus,  to  have  written  the  romance  (probably  in 
Syriac)  in  the  first  part  of  the  seventh  century,  deriving  his 
nniterials  from  Nestorian  pilgrims.  John's  text,  he  con- 
jectures, was  turned  into  (irusinian  liy  monks  of  the  .same 
convent,  and  this  Grusinian  translation  was  the  source  of 
the  Greek  romance,  which  he  takes  to  be  the  work  of  Euthym- 
ius.  The  extant  Grusinian  version  bears  the  nam<'  of 
Sophron  Pala'stinus,  whom  Mommel  wishes  to  identify  with 
Sophron,  the  friend  of  St.  .Teronu'  (fourth  centvn'y).  llom- 
niel derives  this  text  from  a  lost  Syriac  version  (d'  a  P<'hlevi 
translation  (also  lost)  of  the  original  Buddhist  legend,  and 
compares  the  literary  history  of  tin'  h'li/l/d/t  u'<t-Diiiiiiali 
(see  riLi>.\Y).  He  postulates  a  siuular  derivation  for  three 
non-Christian  versions  of  the  Bnrhtam  tluit  have  come  down 
to  us:  (1)  Arabic,  thought  to  be  by  the  celebrated  physician 
Khazes  (ar-Kazi,  ninth  to  tenth  centin-y),  and  preserved  in 
un  unpublished  work  of  nl-Kummi  (d.  !)!)!)  on  the  Mahdi 
and  in  an  unpulilished  Pei-sian  translation;  (2)  Arabic,  an 
anonymous  abstract  in  a  llalle  MS.,  editi'd  by  llomniel.  .16- 
hiiinlliDii/rn  (Irx  VI f.  iiifrniaf.  Orii'iiliitixfrn-Ciiiuiressi's  zu 
Willi,  1887;  (•!)  Hebrew,  by  Ibii  Cliisdai,  a  Spanish  Jew  (d. 
1240),  lia.sed  on  a  lost  Arabic  translation.  From  these  three 
versions,  the  relations  of  which  have  not  been  fully  cleared 
up,  it  is  possilile  ]partly  to  reconstruct  the  Buddhist  form  of 
the  legend. 

The  tireek  liiirliKiin  ami  Josapliat  was  very  Jiopnlar.  It 
was  translafeil  into  Arabic  (earlii'st  JIS.  thirteeiitli  century), 
and  thence  info  Kthiopic  (l.")."):!).  A  Slavonic  n^ndering 
made  it  known  to  .Servia.  Bulgaria,  Koumania.  and  Russia. 
Fragments  of  a  French  version  have  been  discovered.  A 
Latin  translation  was  made  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  (his 
was  inserted  iiy  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  1264)  in  his  Spccii- 
liim  Jlixtiirialf  (bk.  xv.,  ch.  l-O^i),  was  condensed  by  Jai-obus 
a  Voragine  (12-i(l-i)8)  for  his  Lcyeuda  Aiirea  (see  .^Acomis  a 
VoRAOl.s'i:),  and  has  given  rise,  mediately  or  immediately,  to 
prose  or  verse  translalions  in  almost  all  the  tongues  of 
Western  Kurope.  Tlius  there  are  versions  in  French  (poem 
of  Gui  de  Cambrai,  thirteenth  century;  poem  of  the  Anglo- 
Norman  Chanlrv,  thirteenth  ceiiturv;  pro.se,  twelfth  cen- 
tury;  inystery,  about  1400),  Provencal  (prose,  MS.  of  134:J). 
Spanish,  Italian  (various  prose  texts ;  mystery),  Rlia'to- 
Romanic  (]irose,  seventeenth  century  or  earlier),  Czech 
(MSS.  of  fifteenth  century).  Middle  High  German  (poem  of 
Rudolf  von  Fms,  thirleenlli  ceidury:  other  fragments), 
Norse  {liarlaaiii  mj  Joxnplutlx  Sruja.  about  12(M)),  Swedish 
(prose,  fifteenth  eentnrv),  Icelandic  (fifteenth  century).  Mid- 
dle Knglish  (prose  ani\  verse),  etc.  A  complete  catalogue 
would  take  much  space. 

Biin.iooRAi'nv. — .1.  Fr.  Boissonade,  Anecdnta  Grwca.  iv. 
!-;!().">.  Paris,  18:!a  (Greek  text);  F.  Liebrecht, /J/e  Qiiellen 
de.i  liiirlaam  uiid  Jiixaphat  in  Kberfs  Jnhrht'irlier  fur  ro- 
manische  und  enf//incliit  Lihrafiir,  ii.  (1800)  :!14  IT.  (re- 
printed in  his  ZurVotkHkunde.  pp.  441  IT.),  cf.  Bentcy,  Oi'it- 
lingisr/ie  (hirhrte  ./lHie/(/(»n,  1800,  pp.  871  ff. ;  E.  Cosfpun. 
La  Lvijende.  des  Satitts  B.  el  J.,  sun  Origine  in  the  lieviie 


des  Questions  ITisforiques,  xxviii.  (1880)  579  IT. ;  Sfax  Miil- 
ler,  Seli'cted  Emai/s,  London,  1881,  i.  'y.iii  iX. ;  E.  Braunholtzi 
iJic  eiv/i'  niclitrlirislliclie.  J'amhel  des  Barlaam  und  Josa- 
pliat, Halle,  1884;  11.  Zotenberg,  jVulice  sur  le  Lirre  de 
Barlaam  el  Joamrp/i,  Pari.s,  1886;  F.  Hommel.  ^H/ioniy  to 
N.  Weisslovits,  Prinz  ttnd  Derwisch,  ein  iiidischer  Roman 
in  liehrdisc/ier  Ddrstelliint/.  Municli,  1890 ;  H.  Zotenberg 
and  Paul  Meyer,  Barlaam  und  Jo/iapliaf,  allfranz.  (iudicht 
mn  Oui  de  Cambrai.  nebsf  Aiiszih/en  aus  midireren  andern 
riiinanischi'n  Versionvn,  Stuttgart,  1804;  P.  Jleyer,  Frag- 
ments d'une  Tradiivlion  friini;.  de  Barlaam  et  Joasapli  faite 
sur  le  text  grec,  Paris,  1866;  Chardry's  Josaplaiz.  Si-t  Dor- 
mam  und  Petit  Plet,  lierausg.  von  John  Koch,  Ilcilbronn, 
187!);  Rudolf  von  Ems,  Barlaam  vnd  Josapliat,  lierausg. 
von  Franz  Pfeiffer,  Leipzig,  1843;  Barlaam  ok  Josapliats 
Saga,  iiilgint  af  R.  Keyser  og  C.  U.  "['nger.  Christ iania, 
18.")!  ;  Deenrtins,  Arrliivio  (llottologieo  Italiano,  vii.  SHo  if. 
(I{ha'li>-Romanic  texts);  M.  (iastcr,  Literatura  I'opulard 
JioniCina,  Bucharest,  1883,  pj).  31^03,  cf.  his  llchester  Lectures 
on  Ureeko-Slavonic  Literature,  London.  1887  ;  C.  Horstmann, 
B.und  J.,eine  [mittelenglisclie]  I'rosaversion,  Sagan,  1877; 
the  same,  Altenglische  Legenden,  Paderborn,  1875;  Stein- 
sclmeider,  Ztschr.  der  Deutsrtien  jHorgenldnd.  Gesellschaft, 
xxiv.  :i60:  !\Iussafia,  Oermania,  x.  115;  Ztselir.  fur  roman- 
isclie  Fliilologie,  iii.  591;  Festgruss  an.  Biilitlingk,  Stutt- 
gart, 1888,  p.  68;  Baudouin  de  Sebourc,  ii.  254  ff. 

G.  L.  Krn-REnoE. 

Hiir-lc-Diic,  baar'lc-diik',  or  Bar-snr-Ornain.  baar'.siir- 
or-naiV  :  a  town  of  France;  cajiital  of  the  de|)ar1ment  of 
.Meuse;  is  on  the  river  Oriiain.  and  on  the  railway  which 
connects  Paris  with  Nancy,  159  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Paris  (see 
map  of  France,  ref.  3-H).  It  has  a  communal  college,  a 
normal  school,  and  a  public  library;  also  manufactures  of 
cotton  stuffs,  hosiery,  and  calicoes.  Its  trade  is  facilitated 
bv  a  canal  which  connects  the  Marne  with  the  Rhine.  Pop. 
(1891)  18,761. 

Barlet'ta  (anc.  Bardulum):  a  fortified  seaport  of  Italy; 
in  the  province  of  Bari;  on  the  Adriatic,  and  on  a  rock v 
island  :!4  miles  by  rail  W.  N.  W.  of  Bari ;  hit.  41  20'  N.,  loii. 
It)'  19'  E.  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  5-F).  It  is  well  built,  has 
handsome  stone  houses,  and  wide,  well-paved  streets.  It 
contains  a  fine  cathedral,  a  college,  a  strong  citadel  or  castle, 
and  a  colossal  statue  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  said  to  have 
belli  found  in  the  sea.  Grain,  wine,  oil,  and  fruits  are  ex- 
ported from  this  town.     Pop.  35,000. 

Barloy  (in  Lat.  Iior'deum):  a  valuable  cereal  of  the  family 
Oriunineiei  said  to  be  more  wididy  distributed  than  any 
other  grain.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  was  an  important  article  of  food 
in  remote  anti((uity;  mentioned  in  lOxoiliis  ix.  81.  It  is 
adapted  to  both  cold  and  warm  climates.  Three  species  are 
known  to  agriculture,  the  common  (Iior'deum  vulga're)  two- 
rowed  (//.  dislirlion)  and  the  six-rowed  {II.  hexastichon). 
Late  writers  regard  these  as  forms  of  one  species.  Barley 
meal  is  n.sed  for  bread  in  Xorthern  Europe,  but  in  many 
(larts  of  the  world  this  grain  is  mostly  malted  (germinated) 
for  the  manufacture  of  beer.  It  is  also  valualjle  as  food  for 
iKirses.  When  the  jiellitde  of  the  grain  is  removed  aiul  the 
grain  is  rounded,  it  is  called  iiearl-barley,  which  is  used  as 
food  for  invalids.  The  sprat  or  battledore  barley  (sometimes 
called  German  rice)  is  iiiueli  esteemed  in  Germany.  It  has 
only  two  rows,  and  has  widely  spreading  awns.  The  Nepaul 
or  Himalaya  barley  is  well  adapted  for  cold  and  mountainous 
regions,  as  it  produces  good  crops  at  the  lieight  of  14,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Barley  is  .sown  in  the  spring, 
and  is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  spring  wheat. 
Nearly  all  the  American  barley  is  used  for  malt. 

Revised  by  L.  II.  Bailey. 

ISarleyconi,  Jonx;  a  personificaf ion  of  the  spirit  of 
barley  or  malt  liquor;  used  in  humorous  poetical  composi- 
tion and  in  jocular  parlance.  There  is  an  old  whimsical 
h'nglish  tract  entitled  The  Arraigning  and  Indicting  of  Sir 
Jiiiin  Barlegcorn,  printed  for  Timotlig  Tosspot,  in  which 
Barleycorn  is  described  as  of  ••  nobli;  blood,  well  beloved  in 
England,"  etc. ;  but  John  Barleycorn  is  best  known  from 
Burns's  humorous  poem  of  tliat  name. 

Barlow,  Fraxcis  Chanxing;  major-general;  b.  at  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  Oct.  19. 1834;  graduated  first  in  his  cla.ss  jit  Har- 
vard College  in  1855;  served  in  the  Union  army  1862-65. 
He  was  at  Fair  Oaks  and  in  almost  every  subsequent  battle 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  won  a  distinguished  repu- 
tation as  a  brave  and  able  officer.    He  was  Seeretarv  of  State 


502 


BARLOW 


BARNABITES 


for  New  York  in  1866-68,  and  was  elected  Attorney-General 
of  New  York  in  1871.  Prom  1873  he  practiced  law  in  New 
York  city,  where  he  died  Jan.  1,  1896. 

Barlow.  Joel  :  poet:  b.  at  Redding.  Conn..  Jlar.  24. 17o4; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1778.  He  served  as  chaplain 
in  the  army  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  after  which  he  studied 
law.  He  produced  in  1787  Thi'  Vision  of  Columbus,  a  poem 
which  was  very  popular,  and  which  he  expanded  into  an  epic, 
T?te  Columhidd  (1807).  Having  visited  Europe  on  business 
in  1788,  he  passed  some  years  in  Paris  during  the  French  Rev- 
olution, and  amassed  a  competence  by  trade  or  speculation. 
He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1805.  He  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  France  in  1811,  and  died  near  Cracow,  Dec.  24,  1812, 
while  on  his  way  to  Wilna,  whither  he  had  been  invited  to 
meet  Napoleon."  His  best  jioeni  is  Hastij  Pudding  (1798).  a 
mock  heroic.  See  Life  and  Letters  of  Joel  Barlow,  by  Charles 
Burr  Todd  (New  York,  1886).  Revised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Barlow.  AViLLiAM  Hexry,  F.  R.  S.  :  civil  engineer;  pa.st 
president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers;  hon.  mem. 
Soeiete  des  Ingenieurs  Civils;  son  of  Prof.  Barlow.  B.  at 
Woolwich,  England,  1813  ;  educated  at  Woolwicli ;  pupil  of 
H.  B.  Palmer,  JI.  I.  C.  E.  In  1832  erected  tiuildiugs  and 
plant  at  Constantino])le  for  reconstruction  of  Turkish  ord- 
nance for  Messrs.  Maudsley  &  Field ;  reporteil  on  light- 
house at  entrance  of  Bosphorus ;  received  the  decoration  of 
"  Nishan."  In  1833  was  assistant  engineer  of  the  Birming- 
ham and  Manchester  Railway,  then  resident  engineer  (it  the 
Midland  Counties ;  became  engineer  of  the  Midland  Railway 
when  formed.  In  18.57  he  took  offices  in  London  and  lie- 
came  consulting  engineer  of  tlie  Midland  Company.  He 
made  many  of  the  new  lines  of  the  Jlidland  Railway,  in- 
cluding its  London  end  and  the  St.  Panci'as  station.  He 
was  joint  engineer  with  Sir  Jolni  Hawkshaw  (or  tlie  comple- 
tion of  Clifton  bridge,  a  description  of  which  he  contributed 
to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  He  was  tissociated 
with  Sir  John  Fowler  and  Mr.  T.  Harrison  to  decide  the 
general  plan  of  the  Forth  bridge,  and  himself  designed  and 
constructed  the  new  Tay  liridge.  He  was  one  of  the  j\ulges 
of  the  Centemiial  Kxposition  (Pliihideljihia,  1S76).  and  vice- 
president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1881.  He  did  much  to 
facilitate  the  nse  of  steel  in  constructions,  and  was  a  member 
of  three  Government  commissions;  1.  To  decide  the  coeffi- 
cient for  steel  to  be  used  in  engineering  structures:  2.  To 
ascertain  the  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  first  Tay  bridge  ;  3.  To 
report  on  the  provision  against  wind-pressures  in  engineer- 
ing structures. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Ordnance  Committee  in  1881. 
which  he  resigned  from  ill  health  in  1888.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1845,  and 
its  president  in  1880.  Ills  wife  was  Selina  Crawfonl.  daugh- 
ter of  W.  Coffin,  of  the  Royal  arsenal.  He  has  written  sev- 
eral papers  for  the  Philosophical  Society,  and  taken  part  in 
numerous  papers  and  discussions  in  tlie  Institution  of  C'ivil 
Engineers  ujion  almost  every  department  of  engineering. 

Wm.  R.  Hutton. 

Bar'niecidps  (sing.  Barmecide) :  the  name  of  a  dis- 
tinguislicil  and  |i"\vcrrul  Persian  family,  wliieh  was  <lei'ived 
from  Barniak  or  liarmek.  His  son,  Khaled-ben-Barmak. 
became  the  Prime  Jlinister  of  the  Caliph  Al-Mansoor,  and 
also  of  Al-Mahili,  who  aiijrointed  him  tutor  to  Haronn-al- 
Raschid.  Yaliya.  the  son  of  Khaled,  was  vizier  under 
lIaroun-al-Raschid,to  whom  lie  rendered  important  services. 
Yahya  had  four  sons,  named  Fadhl,  Mohammed,  IMiisa,  and 
Jaafai',  who  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  sovereign.  Fadhl  was 
vizier  for  some  time.  llaroun-al-Raschid.  who  was  jealous 
of  their  power  and  po)iularity,  ordered  them  to  be  put  to 
death  about  802  .\.  D.  (See  Jaafar.)  The  virtues  and  mis- 
fortunes of  tlie  Barmecides  have  been  celelirated  liy  many 
Oriental  poets  and  historians. 

Barmecide's  Feast:  the  name  of  a  celebrated  tale  from 
the  Araliii/H  \ig/ilx;  often  applied  to  an  ostenlalious  display 
of  worthless  bounty.  The  tale  is  a«  follows :  Scliacabac  being 
reduced  to  great  poverty,  and  having  eaten  nothing  for  two 
days  together,  made  a  visit  to  a  noble  Barmecide  in  Persia, 
who  was  very  hosjiitidih',  but  withal  a  great  humorist.  The 
Barmecide  was  sitting  at  his  table,  that  seemed  readv  covered 
for  an  entertainment.  Upon  hearing  Schacabac's  comjilaiut. 
he  desired  liim  to  sit  down  anrl  fall  to.  He  then  gave  him 
an  em])ty  phite,  and  asked  him  how  he  liked  his  rice-soup. 
Schacal)ac,  who  was  a  man  of  wit,  and  resolved  to  comply 
with  the  Barmecide  in  all  his  humors,  told  him  it  was  ad- 
mirable, and  at  the  same  time  lifted  up  the  empty  spoon  to 


his  mouth  [apparently]  with  great  pleasure.  The  Barmecide 
then  asked  him  if  he  ever  saw  whiter  bread.  Schacabac, 
who  saw  neither  bread  nor  meat,  answered,  "  If  1  did  not 
like  it.  you  may  be  sure  I  should  not  eat  so  heartily  of  it." 
Several  other  fine  dishes  were  served  up  in  idea,  which  both 
of  them  commended  and  feasted  on  after  the  same  manner. 
This  was  followed  by  an  invisible  dessert ;  and  Schacabac. 
at  length  being  tired  of  moving  his  jaws  np  and  down  to  no 
purpose,  desired  to  be  excused,  for  that  really  he  was  so  full 
he  could  not  eat  a  bit  more.  "  Come,  tlieu,"  said  the  Bar- 
mecide, "  you  shall  taste  of  my  wines,  which,  I  may  say  with- 
out vanity,  are  the  best  in  Persia."  He  then  filled  their 
glasses  out  of  an  empty  decanter.  Schacabac  would  have 
excused  himself  from  drinking  so  mnch  at  once,  because  he 
said  he  was  a  little  rpiarrelsome  in  his  liquor:  however,  be- 
ing pressed  to  it,  he  pi'ctended  to  take  it  off,  having  before- 
hand praised  the  color  and  afterward  the  flavor.  Being 
plied  with  other  imaginary  tium[iers  of  different  wines,  he 
pretended  to  grow  flustered,  and  gave  the  Barmecide  a  box 
on  the  ear;  but  immediately  recovering  himself,  '"  Sir,"  said 
he,  '•  I  beg  ten  thousand  ]jardons,  but  I  told  you  before  that 
it  was  my  misfortune  to  be  quarrelsome  in  my  drink."  The 
Barmecide,  who  was  (ileased  with  the  complaisance  of  his 
guest,  then  ordered  a  good  substantial  dinner  to  be  served  up, 

Bar'meii :  a  town  and  valley  of  Rhenish  Prussia;  on 
river  Wipper;  17  miles  by  rail  E.  N.  E.  of  Diisseldorf.  The 
town  is  3  miles  E.  of  Elberfeld,  or,  according  to  one  state- 
ment, is  a  continuation  of  Elberfeld,  with  which  it  forms 
one  uninterrupted  street  6  miles  long  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  4-C).  Barinen  is  the  princijial  seat  of  the  rib- 
bon manufacture  on  the  Continent,  and  its  fabrics  are  dis- 
tributed to  all  [larts  of  the  world.  Here  are  also  manufac- 
tures of  cotton  and  linen  g<iods.  velvet,  lace,  hardware,  and 
chemical  products.  'J"he  district  which  contains  Barmen 
and  Elberfeld  is  the  must  jiopulous.  industrious,  and  thriv- 
ing in  Germany.  Barnieu  has  a  handsome  church,  an  asylum 
for  the  deaf  and  dunil),  an  exchange,  etc.  Pop.  (1885)  103,- 
066;  (1890)  116,248. 

Bar'iiabas  [Gr.  Bapvd$as.  from  a  Heb.  word  meaning  son 
of  consolation].  Saint:  an  early  Christian  and  apostle; 
originally  nameil  Joseph  ;  was  born  in  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
He  was  a  companion  and  fellow-laborer  of  the  apostle  Paul 
on  Ins  first  missionary  journey,  and  appears  to  have  been 
the  principal  fnundei-  of  the  church  of  Antioch,  to  which  he 
was  sent  bv  the  church  of  Jerusalem.  "  He  was  a  good  man, 
and  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  faith  "  (Acts  xi.  24).  His 
falling  out  witli  Paul  prevented  his  going  with  the  latter  on 
his  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  xv.  39).  He  returned  to 
Cypi-us,  and  was  still  active  in  a.  d.  57  (cf.  1  Cor.  ix.  6).  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  he  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Slilan. 

Barnabas,  Epistle  of:  an  epistle  of  twenty-one  chapters, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  between  107-120  A.  D. 
After  having  been  lost  sight  of  for  several  centuries,  this 
epistle  was  first  published  in  1645,  but  the  first  four  chapters 
and  a  part  of  the  fifth  were  only  in  Latin.  In  1859  Tischen- 
dorf  discovered  the  whole  in  Greek  IMS.  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury at  Mt.  Sinai,  and  it  was  published  in  1862.  Another 
JIS.  (dated  1056)  was  discovered  at  Constantinople  by  Brv- 
ennios  in  1875.  It  was  formerly  ascribed  to  the  apostle 
Barnabas,  but  it  is  evidently  the  work  of  another  and  hater 
hand.  It  is  frequently  cited  by  the  Fathers,  and  was  by 
many  regarded  as  liciug  of  authority  in  the  Cliurch,  .some 
even  claiming  for  it  a  |ilace  in  tlie  sacred  canon.  It  is  cliiefly 
directed  against  the  Judaizing  Christians,  and  its  principal 
value  now  is  in  the  light  it  throws  upon  the  customs  and 
doctrines  of  the  Christians  of  that  time.  Sevend  English 
translations  have  been  published.  The  best  recent  editions 
of  Barnabas  are  bv  Funk  (1878)  and  Gebhardt  and  llarnack 
(1878).  and  that  contributed  liy  Hev.  J.  R.  Harmer,  Fellow 
of  Christ  Cliurcli  College,  Camliridge,  to  the  edition  of  The 
Apostolic  Fathers,  issued  by  the  trustees  of  the  Lightfoot 
Fund  (1891).  This  text  and  translation,  prepared  by  the 
personal  friend  and  eoUahorateiir  of  the  late  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, leaves  nothing  wanting  for  the  critical  stuiiyof  this 
epistle.  '  Revised  by  W.  S.  I''erry. 

Bar'nabites:  an  order  of  monks  which  was  founded  by 
Zaecaria  at  Jlilan  iu  1.530.  and  were  so  called  because  they 
]ireaehed  in  the  cliurch  of  St.  Barnabas.  Their  designation 
pro|)erly  is  ••  Regular  Clerks  of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Paul."  Their  duties  were  to  attend  the  sick,  to  preach,  to 
in.struct  the  young,  etc.  They  became  numerous,  and  estab- 
lished monasteries  or  colleges  in  Italy,  Prance,  Austria,  and 
Spain. 


BARXABY 


BARNARD 


503 


Bar'iiiiby.  Sir  Xatiiaxiel,  K.C.  B.  :  chief  naval  architect 
and  director  of  naval  constnution  of  the  British  navy;  b. 
in  t'liatlnun  in  1(S2"J,  of  a  family  which  has  produced  many 
fienerations  of  shipwri-rhts  in  the  royal  dockyards.  Ap- 
prenticed to  the  trade  of  shipwrijiht  at  Sheerness  in  184;i,  in 
\H4H  he  won  liy  competition  an  Admiralty  scholarship  in  the 
school  of  naval  architecture  at  Portsmouth.  In  IMoi  he  su- 
perintended tile  construction  of  two  };un-vessels  built  for  the 
roval  navy.  In  18.').')  he  entered  the  desijjninji-oHice  at  the 
Admiralty,  and  durinK  the  thirty  years  he  served  there  he 
was  conci^rned  in  the  desij^i  and  construction  of  all  but  three 
of  the  entire  list  of  British  sea-goin;;  lijjhtinfj  ships,  armored 
and  unarmored.  in  existence,  or  buildinjj  at  the  time  of  his 
retirement  in  1S8.).  From  li^iili  to  1870  this  ollice  was  under 
the  control  of  .Sir  Kdward  .1.  Heed,  who  also  is  credited  with 
the  desijiHi  of  some  '.i'l.UOO  tons  of  ironclads  during  the  first 
three  years  of  his  service.  Jlr.  Barnaby  was  appointed  chief 
naval  constructor  in  1872.  after  the  retirement  of  Sir  E.  .1. 
I{eed.  lie  aided  in  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  in  shijj- 
liuiidin^.  Tie  initiated  the  Admiralty  list  of  subsidized  mer- 
chant ships,  constructed  with  appreciable  fijihtins  or  trans- 
j)ortat ion  value  in  time  of  war.  One  of  the  four  founders 
of  the  Institute  of  Xaval  .Vrcliitects  in  bSCiO.  he  Inis  con- 
tributed many  jia]iers  to  its  Transactions,  and  wrote  the 
articles  on  the  ?i ar;/ and Sh ip-hii ilil i lu/  for  Ww KncijclopipJia 
Brilannica.  lie  wa.s  made  a  Companion  of  tlie  Bath  in  1876, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Jlr.  Disraeli,  and  a  Knij;ht  Com- 
mander of  the  Bath  in  188.1,  on  the  recommendation  of  Jlr. 
tiladstone.  \V.M.  R.  Ill tton. 

Biirniiele:  See  CiitKiPKniA  and  B-M,.v.nis. 

Har'naclo  (ioose.  or  Itraiit  <ioos('  (Braiita  bcr'nichi):  a 
bird  which  freipients  the  coasts  of  Britain  in  winter,  and 
migrates  northwanl  in  sprin<?.  It  is  smaller  than  the  com- 
mon wild  goose,  and  is  esteemed  for  food.  The  plumage  of 
the  upper  part  of  its  body  is  ash-gray  and  black,  and  that 
of  the  lower  |)art  white.  The  nanu^  of  barnacle  is  some- 
times ajiplied  to  other  species  of  wilil  geese.  All  of  them 
are  reuuirkable  for  powerful  flight  and  distant  migrations. 
and  prized  for  the  table.  The  barnacle  goose  is  a  winter 
bird  of  passage  in  the  U.  S.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  old 
belief  that  barnacles  were  often  transmuted  into  geese — a 
superstition  which  wa.s  once  shared  by  learned  and  unlearned 
alike.  Revised  by  D.  S.  .Jokdax. 

Itiir'liard.  K.  E. :  astrononter ;  b.  in  Xashville.  Teini.,  Dec. 
10.  I.S.')7.  In  his  youth  he  learned  the  art  of  photography, 
aiul  it  was  with  the  slender  means  gained  by  its  practice 
that  he  was  eii.ibli'd  to  purchase  his  first  telescope,  .\liout 
1878  he  began  to  search  for  comets,  but  it  was  not  until 
September,  1881.  that  his  efforts  were  rewarded  with  suiv 
cess.  From  this  time  until  1891  he  found  one,  two.  or  three 
comets  almost  every  year.  In  188:5  he  entereil  the  Vander- 
bilt  Tniversity  as  Fellow  in  Astronomy,  taking  charge  of 
t  heir  small  observatory,  and  at  the  siime  time  taking  a  course 
of  instruction  in  the  subjects  most  necessary  toastronoudcal 
pursuits,  (iraduating  in  1887.  he  resigned  the  position  of 
mstractor  in  astronomy  to  accept  that  of  astronomer  at  the 
Lick  Observatory.  Here  he  showed  himself  one  of  the  most 
zealous  and  enthusiastic  of  observers.  In  1892  he  was  al- 
lowed to  search  the  heavens  wit  h  t  he  great  :it)-inch  telescope, 
and  on  Sept.  9  he  fouiul  a  new  satellite  of  .]upit<'r.  thus  add- 
ing a  fifth  to  the  four  which  had  been  discovered  by  ftalileo. 
In  1889  he  received  the  degree  of  A.  .'M.  from  the  University 
of  the  I'acitic.  and  in  1892  the  Lalunde  medal  of  the  Frencii 
Academy  was  awariled  him  for  the  discovery  of  the  new 
satellite  of  .lupiter.  S.  Xkwcomii. 

Biiriiiinl.  I)anii:i,  I)ii\vi:v.  LL.  D.  :  a  lawyer  and  Whig 
politician  :  b.  at  Shetlield,  .Mass..  Julv  16,  1797;  gradmited  at 
Williams  College  in  181.S,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y..  in  1821  ;  was  coinitv  attornev  in  1826,  and  a 
meml)er  of  Congress  from  Xew  York  (1.82.8^!0  and  18:!9-4.")). 
He  traveled  in  Europe  in  18:!()-;il.  corresponding  with  a 
Rochester  newspaper;  removed  to  .Albany  in  18:i2;  became 
noted  in  the  Whig  parly,  anil  as  a  member  of  the  Xew  York 
.\s.seiid)ly;  and  was  U.  S.  miidster  to  Prussia  (1849-.5:i).  He 
was  the  author  of  many  |iublished  reviews,  speeches,  etc..  in- 
cluding All  llixtiiririil  SIcffrh  of  llifi  Coliiiiy  iif  liiiissflinr- 
ii-ir/;.     1).  at  Albany,  X.  Y.,  Apr.  24.  1861. 

Itaniard,  FKEDKntcK  .\rcn-sTi-s  Portkr.  S.T.  1)..  LI,.  I).. 
L.H.D.,  D.C.L.;  mathematician.  |ihvsicist,  educator,  and 
ilivine;  b.  at  Shedield.  JIass..  Mav  H'.  1809;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1828;  tutor  there  18:i0:  Professor  of  Malh- 
omatics  and  Xatural  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Ala- 


bama 1837-48;  Profcs-sor  of  Chemist'rv  and  Xatural  History 
in  the  same  1848-.>i;  Professor  of  ^Iat hematics,  Xatural 
Philosophy,  anil  t'ivil  Engineering  in  the  University  of 
Jlississippi  18.54-61  ;  president  of  the  University  of  Jlis- 
sissipjii  18.56-58;  and  chancellor  of  the  same  18.58-61.  In 
1854  he  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  re- 
signed his  chancellorship  and  his  chair  in  the  univei-sitv  in 
1861  on  accoinit  of  thecivil  war:  moved  to  Washington, IJ.C, 
and  in  186;j-64  was  connected  with  the  U.  .S.  coast  snrvev,  in 
charge  of  chart-printing  and  lithogra|)hy.  In  Jlay.  1864.  he 
was  elected  president  of  Columbia  College,  Xew  York  eitv, 
which  he  resigned  in  1888  on  account  of  failing  health.  lie 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.  I),  from  .Icflerson  Col- 
lege, Mississippi,  in  1855.  and  from  Yale  in  18.59;  also  de- 
gree of  S.  T.  1).  from  the  University  of  Mississippi  in  1861, 
and  that  of  L.  II.  I),  from  the  regents  of  the  University  of 
the  Slate  of  Xew  York  in  1872.  In  1860  he  was  a  meinber 
of  the  eclijise  expedition  sent  to  Labrador  (Cape  Chudleigh) 
by  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey:  and  during  his  absence  was  elect- 
ed presidetit  of  the  .Vmerican  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  In  the  act  of  Congress  establishing  the 
Xational  .\cademy  of  Sciences  (1863)  he  was  named  as  one 
of  t  he  original  corporators,  and  was  chairman  of  the  physical 
section.  187l>-72:  in  1807  he  was  one  of  the  U.  S.  coiiimis- 
sioiiei-s  to  the  Paris  Exposition.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society,  an  associate  member  of 
the  American  .\cadcmvof  Arts  and  Sciences,  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  t>ociety  of  Liege,  and  member  of  many 
other  scientific  and  literary  associations.  During  his  long 
i-esidence  in  the  South,  Dr.  Barnard  was  actively  engaged  in 
jiromoting  public  education,  both  primary  and  higher,  en- 
couraging an<l  assisting  iu  all  departnuMits  of  .scientific  re- 
search and  literary  culture.  lie  was  a  persistent  advocate  of 
the  higher  education  of  women  in  the  old  colleges,  and  the 
Barnard  annex  for  girls  to  Columbia  College.  Xew  York,  is 
named  for  him  in  recognition  of  his  labors  for  its  creation. 
His  publications  have  related  chiefly  to  scientific  and  educa- 
tional subjects,  .\mong  these  may  be  mentioned  Letterx  on 
('iilti'ye  Gon-nimenf  (1854);  lieporf  on  Colh-giale  Education 
(18.54):  AH  Culture  (1854):  Ilislm-i/  of  l/ie  American  Coast 
Surrey  {iii\  extended  Report  to  the  .Vmerican  Association  for 
the  .\dvancement  of  Science.  1.857);  i'nivcrsity  Education 
(18.58);  Vndulatory  Theory  of  Jjiy/il  {IHlVi);  Machinery  and 
Processes  of  the  Industrial  Arts,  and  Apparatus  of  the  Ex- 
act Sciences  (1868);  Metric  System  of  ^yeu/ilts  and  Measures 
(1871).  D.  in  Xew  York  city,  Apr".  27,  1889,  See  his  Me- 
moirs, by  John  Fulton  (Xew  York,  1896). 

Bnriinrd.  Hkxuv.  LL.  D.,  L.  II.D. :  an  eminent  educator; 
b.  at  1 1  art  fori  1.  Conn..  .Ian.  24.  1811  :  graduated  at  Yale  in 
18;)0:  called  to  the  bar  in  1835  :  while  in  the  Legislature  of 
Connecticut  (18:i7-40)  he  reorganized  the  public  schools.  lie 
was  secretary  of  the  board  of  school  commissioners  (1838- 
42) ;  school  commissioner  of  Rhode  Island  (184.3-49) :  super- 
intendent of  schools  in  Connecticut  (18.50-54);  president 
Stale  University  of  Wisconsin  (18.56-.59).  and  of  St.  .lohn's 
College,  .\nnapolis,  Md.  ( 1  .S0.5-6(i).  The  normal-.school  sys- 
tem found  in  him  one  of  ils  cirliest  and  most  ellicient  pro- 
moters. He  pulplished.  Iicsides  other  works.  The  Connecti- 
cut Common  School  Journal,  wh'wh  had  reached  several  vol- 
umes in  1855:  Aormnl  Schools  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe  (\H'>1);  Education  in  Factories  (1842);  School  Li- 
braries {lH~i4);  Hints  and  Methods  for  the  I'se  of  Teachers 
(1857):  and  Sutional  Education  in  Europe  (1851).  when  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  Hie  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
ciitioii.  He  was  U.  S.  commissioner  of  education  1867-70. 
In  18.86  he  began  the  publication  of  The  American  Library 
of  Schools  a ud  Education,  whivh  waA  to  comprise  the  800 
reports,  treatises,  and  studies  which  came  from  his  pen. 

Itnrnanl.  .Toiix  :  a  famous  minister  of  JIarblehead,  Mass. ; 
b.  in  Boslon.  Xov.  6.  1681,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1700, 
He  was  a  chaplain  in  the  Port  Royal  expedition  of  1707,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  unpublished  account.  Visiting  England, 
he  was  offered  a  chiiplaincy  to  Lord  Wharton,  but  refused 
to  conform.  He  was  ordained  colleague  minister  of  Marble- 
head  in  1716.  and  there  remained  for  life.  He  took  great 
pains  in  establishing  the  fisheries  and  commerce  of  his  people. 
1  le  published  ,1  History  of  the  Strange  Adventures  of  I'll  Hip 
Ashton  (1 725) ;  a  version  of  the  Psalms ;  sermons,  etc,  I),  at 
Marblehead,  Mass.,  .Jan.  24.  1770. 

Itarnaril.  .Toiix  Gross,  LL.D.:  military  engineer;  b.  in 
Slicllicld.  Mass..  .May  19. 1815 ;  was  a  brother  of  the  president 
of  Columbia  College.  Xew  York  ;  graduated  at  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  1833  ;  commissioned  as  lirevet  second  lieutenant  in 


5U4 


BARXAUL 


BARNES 


the  corps  of  engineers.  In  1835  was  sent  to  the  Gulf  coast, 
where  he  served  seventeen  years  as  an  assistant  or  principal 
engineer  for  the  fortifications  of  Pensacola  and  New  Orleans, 
and  on  works  of  harljor  improvement.  During  tlie  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  twice  called  to  the  field,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  major  "  for  meritorious  services  while  serving  in 
the  enemy's  country."  In  18.50  he  was  named  by  the  Presi- 
dent (Taylor)  as  chief  of  a  scientific  commission  for  tlie  sur- 
vey of  the  Isthmus  of  Tchuantepcc.  with  the  view  of  estab- 
lishing a  route  of  commerce  and  travel  to  our  newly  acquired 
Pacific  possessions.  The  report  drawn  up  by  J.  J.  Williams 
(1852)  gives  the  first  full  account  of  that  isthmus  ever  pub- 
lished. In  1854  Barnard  was  in  charge  of  the  construction 
of  the  new  fortifications  of  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  in  185.5-56 
superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Subse- 
qiiently,  till  1861,  he  was  in  charge  of  the  fortifications  of 
>«ew  York  harbor.  Serving  as  chief  engineer  under  Gen. 
McDowell  in  the  first  Bull  Run  campaign,  he  was  present 
on  the  field  of  that  battle,  as  also  at  the  earlier  combat  at 
Blackburn's  Ford,  the  very  first  of  the  inchoate  "Army  of 
the  Potomac."  As  cliief  engineer  (with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general) of  tlie  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  Virginia 
Peninsula  campaign  of  1862,  he  directed  the  siege  operations 
at  Yorktown  and  before  Richmond ;  and  subsequently,  as 
"  chief  engineer  of  the  defenses  of  Washington."  the  exten- 
sive works  for  the  defense  of  the  national  capital.  In  the 
campaign  of  1864-65  he  served  on  the  staff  of  Lieut.-Gen. 
Grant  as  "chief  engineer  of  tlie  armies  in  the  field."  until 
the  surrender  of  Lee's  army  at  Appomattox  Court-house,  at 
which  he  was  jiresent.  He  was  breveted  through  several 
grades,  and  finally  received  tlie  brevet  of  major-general  U.  S. 
army  "  for  gallant  and  meritorious  services  in  the  field  "  ; 
also  breveted  .luly  4, 1864,  major-general  U.S.  volunteers  "  for 
meritorious  and  ilistinguished  services."  From  the  close  of 
the  civil  war  he  served  as  senior  member  of  the  board  of 
engineers  for  permanent  fortifications,  and  as  a  member  of 
the  U.  S.  lighthouse  lioard.  He  was  a  member  and  original 
corporator  of  the  Xational  Academy  of  Sciences.  The  de- 
gree of  A.  M.  was  conferreil  upon  him  bv  the  Universitv  of 
Alabama  in  1838,  and  of  LL.  D.  by  Yale  College  1864.  "  He 
was  a  member  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  and 
an  honorary  member  of  tlie  American  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers. His  principal  publications  are  The  Pheiwmena  of 
the  Gyroscope  Analytica/li/  E.r<ii)tijied  (1858) ;  Notes  on  Sen- 
coast  DefeiisK  (1861) :  Jiejiortx  of  tlie  Engineer  and  Arfittery 
Operations  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  (1S63);  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Gen.  W.  F.  Barry,  chief  of  artillery.  Report  on,  the 
Defenses  of  Washinylon  (XSIX):  Report  on  the  Fabrication 
of  Iron  for  Defensive  Purposes,  etc.  (1871),  made  in  con- 
junction with  Gen.  II.  G.  Wright  and  Col.  P.  S.  Michie ; 
The  A^or/A  Sea  ('ana!  of  ITotland. and  Improvement  of  Nav- 
igation from  Rotterdam  to  the  Sea  \  Probtems  of  Rotary 
Motion  Presented  by  the  (jyroscope.  the  Precession  of  the 
Eqnino.res,  and  the  Pendulum.  In  JIay.  1864,  he  was  nomi- 
nated brigadier-general  ami  chief  of  engineers.  The  nom- 
ination was  withdrawn  at  his  own  request.  Retired  with 
rank  of  colonel  of  engineers  Jan.  2,  1881.  D.  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  May  14,  1882. 

Barnaul,  ba"!ir-nowr  :  a  town  of  Siberia  :  government  of 
Tomsk;  at  the  junction  of  the  Barnaul  with  the  river  Ob ; 
230  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Tomsk  (see  map  of  Asia,  ret  3-F).  It 
has  a  miuing-scliool.  four  churches,  and  several  hospitals. 
All  the  gold  of  the  Altai  Mountains  is  brought  here  to  be 
smelted.  A  magnetic  and  meteorological  observatory  was 
established  here  aliout  1841.     Pop.  18,000. 

Barnave.  batir'naav,  AxToTXE  Pierre  Joseph  Marie:  a 
French  revolutionist  and  advocate;  b.  at  Grenoble,  (.)ct.  22, 
1761.  He  was  elected  in  178!)  to  the  States-General,  ami  be- 
came a  loader  of  the  popuhir  party.  Asa  member  of  the 
National  Assemlily  he  opposed  the  absolute  veto,  and  ad- 
vocated the  confiscation  of  church  lands  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  convents.  He  wa.s  a  member  of  the  committee 
appointed  to  attend  the  king  on  his  return  from  Varennes 
to  Paris  in  1791,  after  whicli  he  became  a  more  moderate 
reformer,  and  even  di'feiided  the  royal  cause.  This  change 
of  course  rendered  him  unpopular.  He  retired  to  private 
life  in  Sept.,  1791,  anrl  was  guillotined  in  Paris,  Nov.  2(1, 
17it3.  According  to  Macaulay,  he  was  "the  best  debater 
in  the  National  Assembly,  but  he  flinched  before  the  ener- 
gy of  Mirabeau."  lie  left  several  political  treatises,  among 
which  is  Reflexions  politiques.  See  Life  of  Burnave.  by 
M.  <le  Salvandy,  and  lliatory  of  the  Girondists,  by  Laniar- 
tine. 


Barnburners :  a  nickname  given  to  that  portion  of  the 
Democratic  party  of  the  State  of  New  Y(U-k  which  opposed 
the  extension  of  slavery  and  supported  Van  Biiren  against 
Cass  for  President  in  1848.  They  were  esteemed  too  radical 
by  their  adversai-ies,  one  of  whom  illustrated  his  meaning  by 
a  story  of  a  farmer  who  was  so  greatly  annoyed  by  the  rat's 
who  devoured  his  grain  that  he  burned  his  barn  toget  rid  of 
them.  The  barnburners,  led  liy  Col.  Samuel  Young.  Hon. 
Silas  Wright,  Michael  Hoffman,  etc..  opposed  further  bor- 
rowing for  the  improvement  or  extension  of  their  State 
canals,  and  were  hostile  generally  to  public  debts,  corporate 
privileges,  etc. 

Barnby,  Sir  Joseph  :  musician ;  b.  at  York,  England, 
Aug.  12,  "l838 ;  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
London.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  succentor  and  director 
of  musical  instruction  at  Eton,  which  position  he  held  till 
apjiointed  head  of  the  Guildhall  School  of  Music  in  Lon- 
don in  1802.  He  was  conductor  of  the  oratorio  concerts  in 
London  established  by  Messrs.  Novello,  Ewer  &  Co.,  and 
has  been  the  conductor  of  the  Royal  Albert  Hall  Choral 
Society  since  its  establishment.  His  compositions  have 
been  chiefly  of  a  sacred  character.  an<l  include  many  church 
services,  anthems,  hymn  tunes  an<I  chants.  He  edited  The 
Hymnary :  a  Book  of  Church  Song,  published  in  1873, 
which  contains  sixty-three  tunes  of  his  composition.  Sulli- 
van's Church  Hymns  with  Tunes  contains  fourteen  of  Barn- 
by's  composition,  and  Hymns  Ancient  and  llodern  four- 
teen. His  cantatas  Rebeiah  and  The  Lord  is  King,  the 
latter  composed  for  the  Leeds  festival  of  1883,  are  two 
examples  of  larger  form.  Barnliy's  music  is  immensely  pop- 
ular both  in  England  and  the  U.  S..  many  of  his  songs  and 
part  songs,  as  well  as  his  church  music,  being  as  well  known 
here  as  there.  He  was  knighted  in  Aug,  1892.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, Jan.  28,  1896.  D.  E.  Hervey. 

Baruegat'  Bay  :  Ocean  co.,  N.  J. ;  connects  with  the  At- 
lantic by  an  inlet  over  a  mile  wide.  The  bay  extends  23 
miles  N.  to  the  mouth  of  the  Metetecnnk  river.  There  is  a 
lighthouse  150  feet  high  on  the  south  side  of  the  inlet,  with 
a  flashing  white  light  ;  lat.  39=  45'  48"  N.,  Ion.  74'  6'  3"  W. 
Barnegat  Bay  is  separated  from  the  ocean  by  Squan  Beach 
and  Island  Beach. 

Barnes,  Albert  :  Presbyterian  divine :  b.  at  Rome,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  1,  1798.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1820; 
became  in  1830  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church  at 
Philadelphia,  where  he  remained  until  1867.  He  declined 
the  degree  of  D.  I),  and  was  much  op|iosed  to  its  use.  As  a 
commentator  on  the  Scrijitures,  Jlr.  Banies  was  popular 
with  the  religious  community  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  circulation  of  his  Notes  on  the  New  Testament  (in 
eleven  volumes)  is  said  to  liave  reached  more  than  a  million 
volumes.  He  commented  also  on  Isaiah  (1840),  Job  (1844), 
Daniel  (1853),  and  the  Psalms  (1871).  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  named  The  Church  and  Slavery  (Phila., 
1857);  The  Atonement  in  its  Relations  to  Law  and  Moral 
Government  (1859);  Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Christian- 
ity (1868);  Life  at  Threescore  and  Ten  (1869).  He  was 
tried  for  heresy  lieeause  he  maintained  an  unlimited  atone- 
ment; was  acquitted,  but  the  tension  produced  resulted  in 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Presbrterian  Church  (1837),  and 
he  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  advocates  of  the  New 
School  doctrines.  lie  did  not  love  controversies,  however, 
an<l  so  rejoi<'e<l  in  the  union  of  the  Old  and  New  School 
branches 'in  1870.     I),  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24.  1870. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Barnes.  Charles  Ried,  M.  A.,  Ph.D.:  botanist;  b.  in 
JIa<lison.  Ind..  .Sept.  7, 1858 ;  educated  in  Hanover  College  and 
Harvard  Univei-sity;  Professor  of  Botany  and  Geology  iu 
Purdue  Univei-sity  1870-87;  Professor  of  Hotany  in  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin  1887  to  present.  He  is  one  of  tlie  editors  of 
the  Botanical  Gazette,  and  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Coulter 
anil  Dr.  .Arthur  publislied  a  Handlmok  of  I'lant  Dissection 
(1886).  He  has  written  papers  ujiou  North  American 
mosses,  including  Keys  to  Genera  and  Species  of  North 
American  Mosses  (1890).  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Barnes.  James  :  soldier  and  engineer;  b.  at  Boston.  Mass., 
in  IHOfi;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829:  was  a  lieutenant 
of  artillery  till  he  resigned  from  tlie  army  July  31,  1836; 
serveil  at  Military  Academy  as  assistant  insiructor  1829-30, 
and  1833-36;  at  Fort  McIIenry,  .Aid..  18:!t)-:!2:  in  Black 
Hawk  expedition  1832;  and  at  Cliarleston  harbor  1832-;J3, 
during  the  threatened  nullification  of  South  Carolina.  He 
was  a  prominent  civil  engineer  (183(5-57),  and  constructed 


BARNES 


BARXUM 


505 


many  important  railroads.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war 
lie  re^iiinieil  llie  military  profession  as  colonel  of  Eifjiiteenth 
Massialiiisills  volunteers;  was  appointed  Nov.  2!>,  lW-2, 
brij;adier-;;eiieral  U.  S.  volunteers,  and  sei'ved  in  the  \'ir- 
ginia  peninsula  IHH2,  Northern  Virginia  eanipaign  l.>^ti2,  in 
Slaryland  eampaign  ltS02,  and  at  Antletain:in  Uappahau- 
noeli  campaign  I^G;i— (i^i,  at  Froderickslnirg  and  Chaneellor.s- 
ville,  in  IVLiisylvania  <ampaign.  in  several  skirmishes,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Oeltysbiirg  (wounded) ;  was  in  comnnuul  of  the 
defenses  of  Norfolk  and  Porlsiiiouth,  Vn.,  lS()U-04.  of  St. 
Mary's  district  1SG4-C5.  and  Point  J^ookoul  camp  for  pris- 
oner's of  war  lS(i4-lJ.~).  Jiievet  major-general  L'.  S.  V(dun- 
teers  Mar.  i:J,  isti.),  for  meritorious  st-rvices,  and  mustered 
out  of  service  .Jan.  l.j,  18()fi.  With  health  destroyed  he  re- 
maiiu'd  at  his  home  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  he  died  Feb. 
12,  im'J. 

Barnes,  JosKi'ii  K.:  brigadier-general  and  surgeon-gen- 
eral r.  S.  army;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  .July  21,  1817;  educated 
in  Philadelphia,  re(-eiving  his  degree  of  M.  U.  fi-om  the 
medical  department  of  thi'  University  of  Pennsylvania,  class 
of  18;iS.  lie  followed  the  practice  of  his  prolV.-isioii  in  the 
hospitals  and  as  physician  to  the  outiloor  piK)r  of  Philadel- 
phia till  .June  1.5.  1840,  when  he  was  appointed  an  assistant 
surgeon  in  the  army,  and  a  surgeon  Aug.  29,  IS.JG.  In  lH(i3 
(Feb.  9)  he  was  appointed  medical  inspector,  and  Aug.  10 
medical  inspector-gi'ueral.  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  On 
Aug.  25  he  was  jilaced  in  charge  of  the  .surgeon-general's 
office,  and  Aug.  22.  1804,  received  the  a|ipointineiil  of  sur- 
geon-general until  retired.  .June  :iO.  18,s2,  having  adminis- 
tered the  responsible  duties  of  his  de[iartmeMt  with  marked 
ability.     I),  in  Washingtoti,  D.  ('.,  Apr.  5,  1S8S. 

Barnes,  Josiiu.i:  I),  in  London,  Jan.  10,  1C.54;  studied  at 
Cambridge.  F.ngland  ;  became  professor  of  fireek  there  169.5. 
He  was  Idghly  esteemed  as  a  scholarly  editor  of  Exripides 
(Cambridge,  1694).  Aiirtcreon  (170.5),  and  Homer  (1710) ;  but 
Ills  scholarslnp  was  inexact,  and  so  his  works  liave  little  per- 
manent value.     D.  in  Cambridge,  Aug.  3,  1712. 

Barnes,  Thomas:  b.  about  178.5;  educated  at  Christ's 
Ilnspital.  Liindon,  and  at  Pembroke  (.'ollcge,  Caml>ri<ige. 
lie  became  chief  editor  of  the  London  Timi's  1817,  and 
finally  one  of  tlu'  prc)pri<'tors.  He  jilaced  it  beyond  reach 
of  competition.     I),  in  London,  May  7,  1841. 

Barnes,  Wii,i,i,vm:  philologist.  clcrg\inan.  and  poet;  b. 
in  Dorsetshire,  Kngland,  about  1810;  published  a  number  of 
works,  among  which  were  a  Philological  (iraiiimiir  and 
I'orms  (if  Rnral  Life,  written  in  the  Dorsetshire  dialect. 
D.  as  rector  of  Winterbourne  Came,  Oct.  7,  1886. 

Barnesville  ;  town  ;  Pike  co.,  Ga.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Georgia,  ref.  4-G);  on  Ga.  Cent.  R.  R..  60  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Atlanta;  has  two  large  buggy-factories  and  a 
cotton-factory.  Apprf)priations  have  been  made  (1892)  for 
water-works  and  electric  lights.  Karnesville  is  the  seat  of 
Gonlon  Institute.  Pop.  (1880)  1,962  ;  (1890)  1,H;W  ;  (1892)  es- 
timated, with  suburbs,  2,.500.  Kditor  or  "  Gazettk.'' 

Barnesville  :  city;  Clay  co.,  Slinn.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Minnesota,  ref.  5-A) ;  218  miles  from  St.  Paul,  on  (rt. 
Northern  K.  IJ..  the  division  headquarters  and  shops  of 
which  are  located  here.     Pop.  (1890)  1,069  ;  (1895)  1,2:J8. 

Barnesville:  village;  Belmont  co..  O.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  (Jhio.  ref.  .5-1);  ;S2  nules  \V.  of  Wheeling, 
on  B.  and  O.  It.  K.  It  has  a  variety  of  manufactures,  is  the 
commercial  center  of  a  iHrge  and  wealthy  agricultural  dis- 
trict, and  is  noted  for  its  sujierior  strawberries  and  tobacco. 
Pop.  (1«,S0)  2.4;i5  :  (1890)  :!.207. 

Barnet.  or  C'hipiiiiig  Barnet :  market-town  of  Hert- 
fordshire. Kngland;  11  nules  N.  N.  W.  of  Ijondon.  Great 
cattle  fairs  are  held  here.  The  famous  battle  of  Barnet 
was  fought  near  here  in  1471  Ijctween  the  Yorkists  and  Lan- 
castrians, in  which  the  latter  were  routed.  The  Karl  of 
Warwick,  "the  king-maker,"  their  leader,  was  killed.  The 
result  of  this  battle  was  to  firmly  establish  Edward  IV. 
Pop.  4..500. 

Barnett.  .loii.v:  musician;  b.  near  Bedford,  England, 
.Tulv  15,  l.'^02,  of  German  parentage.  When  ten  years  old, 
having  a  remarkable  contralto  voice,  he  was  articled  to 
Samuel  James  Arnolil,  nianager  of  Diiiry  Ijane  theater, 
London,  where  he  sang  in  many  English  operas.  Studied 
first  uudir  C.  K.  Ib.ni  and  Price,  and  later  under  Perez, 
Fer<linand  Uies.  Sehiieidcr  ami  Kalkbreimer.  J I  is  first  mu- 
sical clramatic  work,  a  musical  farce,  was  produced  in  1825: 
his  oratorio   The  Omniprenence  of  the  Deity  in  1829;  the 


Mountain  Sylph,  his  most  famous  work,  in  1834;  Fair 
Rdisainoiul  in  18;!6 ;  and  Farinelli  in  1838.  In  1841  he  re- 
tired from  public  life,  and  lived  at  Cheltenham  till  his 
death.  Ai>r.  17.  1890.  He  wrote  much  miseellaiieous  music, 
including  ujiwartl  of  2,000  songs,  and  several  operas  and 
other  works  were  left  in  manuscript.  D.  E.  Hekvev. 

Barnett.  John  Fkancis:  musician;  son  of  Jo.scph  Alfred 
IJaruett  ;  professor  of  music,  and  nephew  of  John  Barnett, 
the  composer  of  The  Mountain  Sylph;  b.  in  Kngland  in 
1837;  studied  first  under  his  parents,  both  being  e.vcellent 
musicians;  then  tinder  Dr.  Henry  Wylde;  next  at  the 
Koyal  Academy  of  Alu.sic.  London,  wdiere  he  won  the 
Queen's  scholai-ship;  and  finally  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatory 
under  Ilauptmaiin,  Itietz.  Plaidy,  and  Moscheles.  Ue  re- 
turned to  London  in  1861.  and  has  since  pursued  a  success- 
fid  career  as  compo.ser.  His  chief  works  are  The  Jiai.iing 
of //«3nr«s  (1873),  which  was  originally  sketched  out  dur- 
ing his  student  career:  The  Ancient  Mariner,  for  the  Bir- 
mingham festival  (1867):  J'arailise  and  Ihe  Peri.  Birming-' 
ham  festival  (IStO) :  La i/  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  Liverpool 
festival  (1874);  (Jood  Shepherd.  Brighton  festival;  Biiild- 
iny  of  the  Ship.  Leeds  festival  (1880);  JIarvext  Fcstiral, 
Norwich  festival  of  1881.  He  has  also  composed  many 
smaller  works  both  for  voices  and  instruments,  together 
with  a  symi)hony,  and  overture  for  full  orchestra,  and  trios, 
quartets,  and  quintets  for  pianoforte  and  string  instru- 
ments. He  also  <-omi)leted  the  orchestration  of  Schubert's 
imfinished  .symphony.  1).  E.  Hervey. 

Barneveldt.  Joiix  van  Olden- :  an  eminent  Dutch  states- 
man :  lp.  at  .\mcersfoort  in  I'trecht,  Sept.  14.  1547.  He  was 
a  mcniberof  an  important  embassy  sent  to  Kngland  in  1585, 
and  after  his  return  was  apjiointed  advocate-genera!  of  Hol- 
land. He  was  an  adversary  of  the  Earl  of  liCicester,  and 
became  the  head  of  the  republican  party,  while  Maurice  of 
Nassau  was  the  chief  of  its  opponents.  Barneveldt  opposed 
the  ambitious  designs  and  warlike  policy  of  Maurice,  and  in 
1609  conclu<leil  a  truce  with  Spain  for  twelve  years.  He 
was  for  many  years  grand-jiensionary  of  Holland.  The  ani- 
mosity between  the  two  parties  was  aggravated  by  religious 
dissension.  Barneveldt  favored  the  Arminians  or  Remon- 
strants, while  Maurice  patronized  the  intolerant  Gomarists, 
who  were  also  su]iported  by  the  majority  of  the  army,  the 
clergy,  and  the  populace.  The  Synod  of  Dort  having  con- 
demned the  Arminians  in  1618.  Barneveldt  was  accused  of 
treason,  unjiistlv  convicted  and  beheaded  at  The  Hague, 
Mav  13,  1619.  See  Motley's  Life  of  Barneveldt  (New  York, 
1874). 

Barn-owl :  one  of  certain  species  of  owls,  in  which  the 
facial  disk  is  long  and  suljtriangidar  in  form,  constituting 
the  geinis  Stri.r.  S.  JUimmen  is  the  common  European 
species.  The  closely  related  American  species  is  Strix pra- 
tincola.  This  solemn-looking  and  fierce  little  owl  is  more 
abundant  southward  and  westward  than  along  the  Atlantic 
States.     See  Owl.  D.  S.  J. 

Barnsley :  a  market-town  of  England  ;  in  the  West  Rid- 
ing of  Yorl<shire.  on  the  river  Dearne,  11  miles  N.  of  Shef- 
field, on  the  North  Jlidland  Railway  (see  map  of  Kngland, 
ref.  7-H).  It  is  situated  on  a  hill,  has  coal  and  iron  mines, 
and  manufactures  of  linen,  glass,  etc.  The  damasks  and 
drills  of  Barnsley  were  considered  to  be  unrivaled.  Here 
are  also  bleaching  and  dvc  works  and  iron  foundries.  Vo^. 
(1891)  35.427. 

Barnstable  :  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Barnstable  co., 
Mass.  (for  location  of  countv.  see  map  of  Ma.ssachuselts,  ref. 
5-K);  on  Old  Colony  R.  R.  and  Banistable  Bay.  72  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Boston.  Tlie  inhabitants  are  principally  engaged 
in  maritime  pui'suits  and  cranberry  culture.  'J'lie  southerly 
portion  of  the  township,  on  Vineyard  Sound,  is  a  noted 
place  of  summer  resort,  and  contains  llyannis,  Hyannis 
Port,  Cotuit.  Wianno,  Craigville,  Osterville.  and  Centrcville. 
Pop.  of  township  (1880)  4.242,  including  780  in  village ;  of 
township  (1800)  4,023 ;  (1895)  4,055.    Editor  of  "  Patriot." 

Barnstaple :  a  town  and  seaport  of  Devonshire.  Eng- 
land;  on  the  river  Taw;  6  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  40 
miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Exeter  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  13-D). 
The  Taw  is  here  crosseil  by  an  old  bridge  of  sixteen  arches. 
Barnstaple  is  pleasantly  situated  and  well  Iniilt.  and  has 
manufactures  of  pottery,  lace,  etc.  The  harbor  has  been 
filled  with  sand,  so  that  it  will  not  admit  large  vessels. 
Pop.  (1891)  13.0.58. 

Bar'niini.  Piiixeas  TAvr,oR :  showman ;  b.  in  Bethel, 
Conn.,  July  .5.   1810:  d.  in  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Apr.  7,   1891. 


506 


BARNWELL 


BAROMETER 


His  father  kept  an  inn  and  a  country-stoi'c,  and  died  poor  in 
1825.  Barnum  wauilered  about,  and  was  in  business  in 
Brooklyn,  New  York,  and  other  places.  Having  saved  a  little 
money,  ho  returned  to  Bethel,  opened  a  small  store,  took  the 
aseney  of  a  State  lottery  for  building  tlie  Groton  Monu- 
ment, moved  into  a  larger  .store  and  failed.  He  married  in 
1829,  and  soon  after  started  a  weekly  newspaper  called  The 
Herald  of  Freedom ;  Wiis  prosecuted  for  libel,  and  impris- 
oned for  sixty  days.  He  went  to  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia in  1834."  In"  the  latter  city  he  bought  for  $1,000  a 
colored  slave  woman,  .Joyce  Heth,  represented  to  be  the 
nurse  of  Ueorge  Washington  and  161  years  old  :  from  her 
exhibition  his  receipts  soon  reached  $1,500  a  week.  She 
died  a  year  after,  but  her  venerable  age  was  more  than 
doubtful.  In  1841,  %vithout  any  funds,  he  bought  Scudder's 
American  Museum  in  New  York,  which  he  called  Barnum's 
Museum  ;  and  with  his  profits  paid  his  indebtedness  the  first 
year.  In  1843  lie  introduceil  the  dwarf.  Charles  S.  Strat- 
*ton  (Gen.  Tom  Thumli).  whom  he  exhibited  in  the  U.  S., 
France,  and  England.  In  1849  Barnum  engaged  Jenny  Lind 
(q.  V.)  to  sing  in  America  for  150  nights,  at  $1,000  a  night. 
The  gross  receipts  in  1850-31  in  nine  months  were  over 
$712,000.  In  1856--57  he  indoi-sed  notes  for  nearly  $1,000,- 
000,  which  went  to  protest,  and  wijjed  out  all  of  his  estate  ex- 
cept a  fortune  settled  on  his  wife.  He  again  visited  England 
in  1857  with  Tom  Thumb,  and  gave  lectures.  His  museum 
in  New  York  was  burnt  .July  l;l  1865.  Another  one  was  also 
destroyed  by  fire  Mar.  3,  1868.  Afterward,  in  the  spring  of 
1871,  lie  established  his  "  Greatest  Show  on  Earth,"  the  firm 
being  Barnum,  Bailey  &  Hutchinson.  He  was  four  times  a 
member  of  the  Connecticut  Legislature,  and  was  mayor  of 
Bridgeport.  His  benefactions  were  large  antl  numerous. 
He  wrote  Humhiigs  of  the  World  (New  York.  1865);  Lion 
Jack,  a  Story  (1876) ;  and  an  autobiography  (1855.  n.e.  1869 
and  later).  B.  B.  Vallentine. 

Barnwell.  Robert  Woodwari).  LL.  1). :  statesman  ;  b. 
at  Beaufort,  S.  ('.,  Aug.  10,  1801:  graduated  at  Ilarvarcl  in 
1821.  He  .studied  law;  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
South  Carolina  (1829-33) ;  U.  S.  Senator  in  1850  ;  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Confederate  Congress.  He  was  president  of  South 
Carolina  College  (now  University  of  South  Carciliiui)  (183.5- 
41) ;  and  after  the  civil  war  held  the  same  position  until 
1873.     D.  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  Nov.  25,  1882. 

Baroacli' :  See  Broach. 

Baroccliio,  or  Barozzi.  Giacomo  da  Vignola:  See  Ba- 

ROZZO. 

Barocci.  baa-rot  clu"e,  or  Baroocio,  ba'a-rofchi-d  (Fiori 
Federr'o  d'Urhino)  :  a  famous  Italian  painter;  b.  at  Ur- 
bino  in  1528.  Among  his  best  works  are  a  IJe.ieeiit  from 
the  Cross,  at  Perugia,  and  a  IMi/  Family,  in  the  Jluseuin 
at  Naples.  He  also  engraved  in  excellent  stvle  a  number  of 
his  pictures.     D.  in  Urbino,  Sept.  30,  1612. 

Baroclie,  liali'rosh',  Pierre  Jules  :  a  French  advocate 
and  minister  of  state;  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  18, 1802.  Me  became 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  1848-49,  and  was 
^[inistorof  the  Interior  in  1850;  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
in  1851  from  April  to  October.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  council  of  state  immediately  after  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Di'c.  1S51.  and  Ijecanu'  IMiuister  (if  Justice  and  Keeper  of 
the  Seals  in  1863.  Senator  ill  1864.  D.  in  St.  Helier's,  Jer- 
sey, Oct.  29,  1870. 

Baroda,  baVro'da :  a  tributary  state  in  Northern  Bombay. 
British  India.  It  is  in  several  distinct  irregular  ]iatclies. the 
largest  of  whicli  is  between  Ahmadabad  and  P.-ilanpur,  and 
includes  the  towns  of  Patan,  Sidhpur,  Barnaggarh,  and 
Alaisana;  a  second  is  about  the  city  of  Baroda,  and  a  third 
in  the  S.  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar.  Total  area.  8.569 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1S9I)  2.414.200.  These  districts  are  uniler 
a  -Mahratta  prince  called  the  Guicowar,  or  Gaikwar.  of  Ba- 
roda. It  came  into  dependence  on  Great  Britain  in  1802. 
In  1874  the  ruling  Gaikwar,  JIalhar  Rao,  was  tried  for  at- 
tempting to  ])oison  the  British  resident,  and,  though  not 
convicted,  was  ile]iosed.  The  districts  of  Baroda  are  very 
fertile,  iiroducing  cotton,  grain,  tobacco,  flax,  and  indigo. 
Baroda  city  is  the  capital.  M.  W.  IL 

Baroda:  a  citv  of  Hindustan;  in  Guzerat  ;  situated 
about  90  miles  by  rail  N.  X.  E.  of  Surat:  lat.  22"  16'  N., 
Ion.  73  14'  E.  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  8-C).  It  is  the  I'esi- 
dence  of  the  gaikwar.  a  Mahratta  prince,  and  has  an  exten- 
sive trade,  for  which  its  position  is  advantageous.  A  rail- 
road extends  from  Baroda  via  Surat  to  Bombav.  2.S1  miles. 
It  is  a  rich  city  in  proportion  to  its  size.     Pop.  (1891)  1 16,460. 


Baroiu'eter  [from  Gr.  $dpos.  weight  -t-  fierpov.  measure] : 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  a  tube  of  uniform  bore  be  bent  into  the 
form  of  the  letter  U,  and  partially  filled  with  a  liquid,  the 
height  of  the  liquid  column,  as  measured  above  the  bend, 
will  be  found  to  be  the  same  in  both  branches.  This  will 
continue  to  be  true  though  the  air  be  withdrawn  from 
aliove  the  liquid  on  both  sides — a  thing  which  may  easily 
be  effected  liy  suitably  connecting  the  two  extremities  of 
the  tube  witli  an  air-pump.  But  if,  while  things  are  in 
this  condition,  the  air  be  gradually  readmitted  to  one  of 
the  branches  and  not  to  the  other,  the  column  in  that 
branch  will  steadily  sink,  and  that  in  the  other  will  cor- 
respondingly rise.  Arresting  this  process  at  any  moment, 
we  may  say  that  the  difference  of  height  of  the  two  liquid 
columns  is  a  measure  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  lower ;  or  that  the  weight  of  a  column  of  the 
liquid  having  a  height  equal  to  this  difference  is  just  equal 
to  the  pressure  on  that  surface.  In  this  experiment  it 
would  be  easy  to  expel  the  liquid  entirely  from  one  branch 
of  the  tube,  without  establishing  an  e(iuilibrium  with  the 
column  in  the  other,  unless  the  a])])aratus 
should  be  of  inconveniently  large  dimen- 
sions, or  the  liquid  employed  should  be  one 
having  great  specific  gravity.  Mercury, 
in  fact,  which  is  nearly  fourteen  times  (13'6) 
heavier  than  water,  is  the  only  liquid  con- 
venient for  the  purpose  of  the  experiment ; 
and  if  this  be  used,  the  difference  of  height 
of  the  columns  in  the  two  branches  will  be 
found  to  be  about  30  inches  when  the  full 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  admitted  to 
one  branch,  while  it  is  wholly  withdrawn 
from  the  other.  The  weiglit  of  a  vertical 
column  of  mercury,  therefore,  of  uniform 
horizontal  section,  30  inches  in  height,  is 
e(|ual  to  the  mean  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
jihere  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  an  area 
equal  to  the  base  of  the  column.  The  same 
fact  is  demonstrated  more  expeditiously  by 
simply  taking  a  straiglit  tube  32  or  33 
inches  in  length  (Fig.  1).  closed  at  one  ex- 
tremity and  open  at  the  other,  filling  it  en- 
tirely full  of  mercury,  placing  the  thumb 
firmly  on  the  open  end,  inverting  it  and 
jilunging  this  extremity  beneath  tlie  sur- 
face of  mercury  in  a  basin,  and  finally  re- 
moving the  thumb.  The  column  will  fall, 
and  stand  as  before  at  about  30  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  bas- 
in. This  is  the  original  experiment  of 
Torricelli,  made  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  by  which  he  furnished  the  first 
satisfactory  explanatioji  of  the  phenomena  which  the  old 
philosophers  vaguely  ascribed  to  nature's  abhorrence  of  a 
vacumn. 

If  the  pressure  of  the  atmos]ihere  were  invariable,  the 
Viarometer  would  lie  an  instrument  of  no  practical  use,  and 
would  simply  serve  to  illustrate  an  interesting  physical 
truth.  But  this  pressure  is  constantly  finctuating,  and  its 
fluctuations  are  measured  by  the  varying  heights  of  the 
Torricellian  column.  All  that  is  necessary  to  form  a  barom- 
eter, therefore,  is  to  connect  with  the  tube  and  basin  of 
Torricelli  some  kind  of  scale  suitable  to  measure  these  vari- 
ations. In  the  barometers  conimonly  used  in  tireat  Britain 
and  the  U.  S.  this  scale  is  divided  into  inches  and  decimals; 
in  I-'rance.  and  in  continental  Europe  generally,  into  milli- 
meters. If  the  instrument  is  to  be  stationary,  the  scale 
need  oidy  have  a  range  of  3  or  4  inches,  since  even  in 
localities  where  the  fluctuations  are  largest  they  never 
tran.seend  these  limits.  The  divisions  directly  marked  on 
the  scale  are  made  sufficiently  large  to  be  read  by  the  unas- 
sisted eye.  I'^or  smaller  divisions  a  vernier  must  be  em- 
ployed. (See  Vernier.)  In  the  best  instruments  the  height 
of  the  column  may  be  read  by  means  of  the  vernier  to  the 
•niVirth  of  an  incli.  Some  little  pi-actice  is  required  in  order 
to  learn  to  read  with  accuracy.  The  vernier  carries  a  hori- 
zontal index  which  moves  close  to  the  glass  tulie  containing 
the  mercurial  column  ;  but  the  top  of  the  column  is  round- 
ed, so  tliat  the  highest  point  is  distant  from  the  index  by 
half  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  tulie.  Ordinarily  the  bore 
of  the  tube  is  snudl.  not  exceeding  three-sixteenths  to  three- 
eighths  of  ail  inch  :  but  in  large  standards  a  tube  an  en- 
tire inch  in  bore   is  often  employed,  and  in  such  instru- 


FlG.    1. 


BAKOMETER 


507 


m  '■ 


n 


u 


I 


I 


ineiits  the  imlox  is  a  ring  or  thimble  surrounding  the  tube 
.  Mtiiflv.  ,  , 

The 'height  of  tlie  column  must  be  racasm-ea  fioni  the 
surface  cjI'  the  mercury  in  the  basin:  but  the  level  ol  this 
surface  itself  varies  with  the  rising  and  falling  ^ 

of  the  colunin  in  the  tube.     To  |iruvi(le  against 
error  from  this  cause,  the  whole  scale  is  in  some  | 

barometers  made  movable,  and  is  raised  or  de- 
pressed, as  may  be  neces- 
sary, by  nu'ans  of  a  thumb- 
screw, before  observation. 
An  ivory  point  directed 
downward  from  a  short 
projecting  arm  carried  by 
the  scale  is  brought  so  as 
exactly  to  meet  its  image 
reflected  in  the  mercury 
of  the  basin,  and  this  in- 
dicates tliat  the  zero  of 
the  scale  is  in  its  true  po- 
sition. In  other  instru- 
ments, and  generally  in 
those  in  common  use,  the 
adjustment  is  made  by 
raising  or  depressing  the 
level  of  the  mercury  it- 
self while  the  scale  re- 
mains fixed.  Instead  of 
the  ivory  point,  an  ivory  Fig.  S. 
float  is  somi'times  used, 
carrying  an  upright  stem  on  which  is 
a  liducial  niai'k  designed  to  be  bronght, 
ill  the  adjustment,  into  coincidence 
witli  a  similar  fixed  mark. 

In  tubes  of  small  bore  the  mercurial 
colunm  does  not  reach  the  full  height 
due  to  the  pressure,  owing  to  the  effect 
of  Capillary  Action  {(/.  r.).  A  small 
correction  is  therefore  necessary  on 
this  account,  which  depends  on  the 
diameter  of  the  tube.  With  lubes  of 
large  dimensions  this  effect  is  insensi- 
ble :  and  it  may  in  any  ease  be  com- 
pletely eliminated  by  giving  to  the  ba- 
rometer the  form  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
called  a  si|)h(m  baroini'ter.  in  which  the 
basin  is  <lispensed  with,  and  the  tube 
is  bent  upward  at  the  bottom,  the  re- 
curved |>art  serving  as  a  substitute  for 
the  basin.  In  this  form  of  the  instru- 
menl,  if  the  bore  be  uniform  through- 
out, every  fluctuation  of  pressure  oe- 
(•asions  e(|ual  and  o])i>osite  movements 
of  the  two  surfaces  of  mercury;  and 
the  rea<ling  on  a  fixed  scale  will  change 
only  half  as  nuich  as  in  the  common 
instrument.  The  whole  scale  should 
therefore  be  movabli>:  or  if  a  fixed 
scale  only  bi'  used,  the  divisions  should 
be  made  of  only  half  their  nominal 
nuignilud<'.  liaronu'tric  in<lieations  of 
fluctuating  atmospheric  pressure  are 
sometimes  magnified  by  transforming 
the  vertical  movements  of  the  mercu- 
rial cohnnii  into  rotary  movements  of 
a  long  index  upon  a  dial.  The  siphon 
barcinu'ler  presents  a  convenient  means 
of  doing  this.  A  float  introduced  into 
the  open  short  arm  of  llii^  siphon,  an<l 
connect eil  by  asilk  thread  with  a  snuill 
pulley  on  the  axis  of  the  index,  will 
render  cons|iicuous  even  a  very  minute 
change  in  the  altitude  of  the  eolunni. 
The  mieertain  action  of  this  ap|iara- 
tus,  however,  owing  to  friction  and 
other  causes,  is  such  as  to  deprive  it  of 
anv  scientilic  v:dm'. 

'rhe  form  of  barometer  now  most 
generally  approved,  constructed  origi- 
nally by  Fori  in,  of  I'aris,  and  since 
adopted  by  Caselln,  Beck,  and  others  of  London,  anil  by 
.lames  Green,  of  \e\v  York,  who  has  made  in  it  important 
iin|iriivemen1s,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  In  this  the  glass  lube  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  a  protecting  tube  of  brass,  somewhat 


W- 


Fio. 


enlarged  at  the  top,  for  convenience  in  applying  a  scale  and 
vernier,  and  having  a  vertical  opening  at  the  same  part  to 
allow  the  siimniil  of  the  mercurial  column  to  be  seen.  The 
cistern  at  the  bottom,  whicrh  is  of  boxwood  exce|it  the  upper 
portion,  which  is  a  short  glass  cylinder,  is  similarly  protect- 
ed— the  glass  portion,  however,  being  uncovered,  in  order 
to  allow  the  surfaces  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  to  be 
visible.  The  cistern  has  a  bottom  of  flexible  leather,  which 
rests  on  a  broad  disk  of  metal  supported  by  a  vertical  screw, 
of  which  the  milled  head  is  represented  in  the  figure  below 
the  instrument.  By  turning  this  si'rew  the  level  of  the 
mercury  in  the  cistern  is  brouglit  to  the  true  zero  of  the 
scale,  indicated  by  a  fixed  fiducial  point  of  steel  or  ivory 
seen  within  the  cistern. 

Since  the  barometer  measures  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  since  this  pressure  is  simply  the  weight  of  a  ver- 
tical coliiinn  of  the  aerial  ocean  above  the  level  of  the  place 
of  observation,  it  follows  that,  if  we  carry  the  instrument 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level,  the  barometric  column  will 
fall.  One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  the  barometer, 
therefore,  is  as  a  means  of  determining  heights.  (See  IIyp- 
soMKTRV.)  But  a  barometer  intended  for  this  purpose,  or  a 
•so-called  "mountain  barometer,"' must  have  a  construction 
in  a  number  of  respects  differing  from  the  barometer  in 
coinmon  use.  It  must  have,  of  course,  a  much  larger  range 
of  scale,  and  especial  care  must  be  taken  to  guard  it  against 
the  danger  of  fracture  in  lrans])ortation.  If  it  is  a  cistern 
barometer,  the  cistern  should  be  air-tight,  and  should  have 
no  communication  with  the  atmosphere,  except  through  an 
aperture  which  may  be  stopped  by  a  closely  htting  screw  or 
cock:  and  the  adjusting  screw  at  the  bottom  should  have  so 
large  a  range  of  movement  as  to  allow  all  the  air  of  the 
cistern  to  be  expelled  by  raising  the  leather  bottom,  so  that 
the  cistern  and  tiilie  may  lie  both  entirely  filled  with  the 
mercury.  The  danger  of  fracture  from  the  oscilliitioiis  of 
this  dense  liquid  may  thus  be  avoided.  The  best  mercurial 
mountain  liarometer.  however,  is  the  siphon  barometer  of 
Gay-Lussac.shown  in  Fig. 
4,  f(,  without  its  .scale  or 
mounting.  In  this  in- 
strument a  tube  bent  in 
the  manner  shown,  and 
closed  at  both  eiiils.  has 
two  straight  portions,  of 
small  but  equal  bore,  con- 
nected by  an  intermediate 
portion  so  much   smaller  W fj 

that  when,  after  being 
filled  with  mercury,  it  is 
reversed,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4.  I),  the  luereiiry  will  be 
held  in  the  bend  by  ca- 
pillarity. The  only  com- 
munication with  the  air 
is  by  the  aperture  o.  which 
is  so  small  that  any  dro]is 
of  mercury  which  may  fall 
into  the  short  arm  from 
the  bend,  when  the  instru- 
ment is  reversed,  can  not 
escape.  The  design,  how- 
ever, is  to  have  no  excess 
of  mercury  beyond  what 
will  be  held  by  cajiillarity 
in  the  [losilion  //.  This 
tube  is  suitably  support- 
ed throughout  its  whole 
length,  and  protected  by 
a  surrounding  tube  of 
brass.      The   zero    of   its     ^  ^b 

scale  is  at  the  middle  of  pm.  4. 

the  length,  and   it  reads 

from  this  zero  both  upward  and  downward.  The  readings 
are  taken  at  both  surfaces  of  the  mercury,  and  their  sum 
gives  the  true  barometric  height.  The  scide  is  usually  in- 
scribed on  the  tube  itself.  In  transporting  the' instrument 
it  is  carried  in  the  inverted  position,  where  the  niercury, 
filling  the  whole  lube,  is  necessarily  prevented  from  oscillat- 
ing. It  is  usually  carried  by  the  mountaineer  in  a  leather 
case  swung  over  his  back,  and  when  set  up  for  observation  is 
suspended  in  giinbal  rings,  supported  by  a  tripod. 

When  a  barometer  of  this  kind  is  carried  from  place  to 
[ilair,  snliject  to  oi'casioiial  jars  and  concussions,  sometimes 
perhaps  in  u  horizontal  position,  there  is  a  possibility  that 


1 


50S 


BAROMETER 


minute  portions  of  air  may  now  and  then  intrude  into  the  I 
tube,  between  the  mereury  and  the  glass.  An  effectual  eon- 
trivance  for  preventing  these  from  making  their  way  into 
the  Torrieellian  vaeuum  was  devised  by  M.  Bunten.  which 
is  represented  in  Fig.  4,  c.  The  capillary  pai't  of  tlie  tube 
is  divided;  tlie  extrennty  of  the  upper  portion  is  drawn  out 
to  a  minute  orifice ;  that  of  tlie  lower  is  widened,  so  as  to 
form  a  globular  or  cylindrical  chamber  contracted  at  the 
mouth:  "and  then  the  "two  are  united  again  by  fusion  in  the 
manner  sliowii  in  the  figure.  Any  air  which  may  make  its 
way  into  the  tube  from  tielow  is  caught  in  this  chamber,  and 
afterward,  when  the  instrument  is  inverted  for  transporta- 
tion, it  escapes  l)y  the  way  it  entered.  The  invention  evinces 
a  higli  degree  of  ingenuity. 

When  scientific  accuracy  is  necessary  in  barometric  ob- 
servations, all  mercurial  barometers  require  that  their  read- 
ings should  be  corrected  for  temperature.  According  to 
Regnault,  the  absolute  dilatation  of  mercury  between  0°  and 
100°  C.  =  a2'  and  212°  F.,  is  0-01813,  or  about  ^Vth  of  its 
bulk.  This  corresponds  to  irgV^th  of  the  bulk  for  each  de- 
gree of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  which  would  be  equal, 
for  the  mean  column  of  30  inches,  to  an  increase  of  altitude 
of  about  TrSirths,  or  ^^T^th  per  degree.  Assuming  the  height 
at  32°  P.,  therefore,  to  be  the  normal  height,  the  reading  at 
54°  F.  will  be  ;i%ths,  or -[Vth  inch  too  great;  at  76°  P.,  or 
so-called  "  sunimcr-heat,"  ,Verths,  or  -i\ths  inch  too  great; 
and  at  08°  P.,  j'^Hrths,  or  0-2  inch  too  great.  The  correction 
for  any  temperature  may  be  made  by  calculation  from  the 
data  here  given ;  but  it  is  more  convenient  to  be  pro- 
vided witli  a  table  which  has  been  calculated  in  advance  for 
all  the  temperatures  to  which  the  observation  is  likely  to 
extend. 

The  process  of  filling  the  mercurial  barometer  is  one  which 
requires  great  care.  In  pouring  mereury  into  a  long  and 
narrow  tube  it  is  almost  impossible  to  "avoid  introducing 
along  witli  it  some  buliljles  of  air,  which  adhere  with  tenac- 
ity to  the  sides  of  the  tube,  but  which,  after  the  tube  is  in- 
verted, gratlually  find  their  way  into  the  space  above  the 
column  and  vitiate  the  vacuum.  These  may  be  expelled  by 
boiling  tlie  mercurv  in  the  tube  before  inversion,  when  they 
will  be  carried  off  with  the  vapor.  The  operation  is  at- 
tended with  some  danger  to  the  tube,  the  boiling-point  of 
mercury  being  about  3G0°  C,  and  the  concussions  of  the 
heavy  ci)liimu  in  ebullition  violent.  It  is  expedient,  there- 
fore, to  introduce  at  first  only  a  small  quantity.  an<i  after 
boiling  tliat  to  add  more,  and  so  proceed  till  the  tube  is 
filled,  always  applying  the  heat  at  a  point  but  a  few  inches 
below  tlie  top  of  the  column.  Jlr.  Green,  however,  recom- 
mends filling  the  tube  comjiletely  before  beginning  tlie  op- 
eration, then  lioiling  downward  from  the  top,  and  finally 
upward  from  the  bottom. 

It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  mereury  used  in 
barometers  should  be  quite  pure.  To  be  entirely  safe  on  this 
score,  the  metal  should  be  distilled  before  using.  The  effect 
of  the  presence  of  impurities  is  to  diminish  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  tlie  fluid,  and  therefore  to  make  its  indications  uncer- 
tain ;  tiut  it  is  also  to  tarnish  the  tube,  and  to  render  ob- 
servation after  a  time  diHicult  or  impossible. 

Otiier  fluids  liesides  mercury  may,  of  coui-se,  be  employed 
in  the  cnnstruetion  of  barometers,  but  the  height  of  the  col- 
umn will  in  every  ciise  be  greater  in  proportion  as  the  specific 
gravity  of  tin;  liquid  is  less.  Water,  for  example,  requires  a 
column  of  34  feel,  mean  height.  Very  few  water  barome- 
ters have  ever  been  constructed.  The  first  of  the  kind  was 
erected  liy  Otto  (iuericke,  the  inventor  of  the  air-pump,  in 
liis  house  at  Jlagdelnirg.  The  upper  portion  of  tlie  tube 
only,  to  an  extent  oF  about  6  feet,  was  of  glass,  and  this  was 
but"  partially  exposed  to  view,  the  rest  being  concealed  be- 
hind the  woodwork  of  the  apartment.  Floating  on  the  top 
of  the  liiiuid  the  Inveiitoj-  had  introduced  a  diminutive  fig- 
ure of  a  man.  which.  wKli  the  rising  of  the  column  in  fair 
weather,  presented  itself  to  view,  but  with  the  a]iproa(h  of 
foul  weather  retreated  out  of  sight.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie 
lliieiuatioiis  of  height  of  the  water  column  are  jiroportion- 
ally  large,  and  serve  to  render  conspicuous  slight  changes  of 
pnjssure,  which,  in  the  mercurial  liaronieter.  are  nearly  or 
quite  imperceptible.  It  is  an  objection,  however,  to  the 
water  barometer  that  its  indications  are  largely  affected  by 
the  vapor  from  the  liquiil  which  occupies  the  space  above 
the  eolumii,  and  that  the  error  thus  arising  varies  with  the 
temperature.  Thus  at  70'  F.  the  column  is  depressed  by 
this  cause  10  inches:  at  80'  P.,  14  inches;  and  at  90'  P., 
nearly  20  indies;  while  even  at  32°  P.,  the  freezing-point, 
below  which  the  water  bai'ometer  is  unavailable,  the  depres- 


sion from  the  same  cause  is  no  less  than  3^  inches.  There 
are  water  barometers  in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  and  in  tlie  theater  of  the  natural  philosophy  class 
ill  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  About  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  barometer  of  large  dimensions,  in 
which  the  fluid  used  was  sulphuric  acid,  was  set  up  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  Washington  by  .lames  Green,  of 
New  York,  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Henry.  This  liquid 
is  free  from  the  objection  of  forming  vapor  in  the  Tor- 
ricellian void  ;  and  owing  to  its  large  specific  gravity  a 
column  of  it  less  than  20  feet  high  suffices- to  balance  the 
mean  atmospheric  pressure.  Such,  however,  is  the  avidity 
Tivith  which  this  acid  absorbs  watery  vapor  that  its  exposed 
surface  must  be  in  some  manner  protected  from  direct  con- 
tact with  the  atmosphere.  The  protection  used  in  this  case 
was  a  balloon  of  india-rubber  firmly  secured  to  the  short 
arm  of  the  siphon  barometric  tube.  But.  though  moisture 
was  thus  excluded,  air  was  found  to  make  its  way  gradually 
into  the  void  above  the  column,  and  the  instrument  was 
finally  disused  and  taken  down. 

A  description  of  barometer  known  as  the  aneroid  barom- 
eter, emjiloying  no  liquid,  has  come  extensively  into  use.  It 
is  the  invention  of  51.  Vidi,  a  physicist  of  Prance. 

The  instrument  itself  consists  essentially  of  a  flat  cylin- 
drical box  formed  of  thin  corrugated  metal,  from  the  in- 
terior of  which  the  air  has  been 
nearly  exhausted  ;  the  immedi- 
ate effect  being  to  bring  the  top 
and  bottom  into  contact  with 
each  other  by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. The  touching  surfaces 
are  then  separated  by  means  of 
a  strong  spring  at- 
tached to  the  center 
of  the  upper  surface, 
while  the  lower  is 
held  down,  the  whole 
being  placed  within 
a  larger  box  proper- 
ly adapted  to  reeeivr 
it.  With  the  varying 
pressure  of  the  at-  I 
niosphere  the  scpara-  | 
tioii  of  the  surfaces  is  ' 
greater  or  less,  or  tlie 
spring  is  more  or  less 
bent,  and  the  move- 
ments thus  occa- 
sioned are  trans- 
mitted by  proper 
multiiilying-appara- 
tus  to  an  index 
which  traverses  a 
dial  like  that  of  a  watch  (Fig.  5).  Aneroid  barometers 
often  perform  very  well,  and  perform  well  for  long  periods; 
Init  in  time  the  spring  is  liable  to  lose  its  elasticity,  so  as 
to  render  the  in- 
dications untrust- 
worthy. These  in- 
struments should 
therefore  be  occa- 
sionally compared 
with  standard  iiii'r- 
eurial  barometers. 
They  are  very  con- 
venient for  trall^- 
portatioii,  being 
constructed  of  va- 
rious dimensions, 
from  8  or  10  inches 
in  external  diame- 
ter down  to  2.  and 
are  often  graduated 
to  serve  as  moun- 
tain barometei-s  for 
heights  lus  great  a.s 
12,000  or  16.000 
feet. 

Another  form  of  ^  "■   •' 

barometer  without  . 

liipiid,  and  in  external  appearance  resembling  the  aneroid,  is 
Bourdon's  metallic  barometer,  improved  liy  M.  Richard,  ot 
Paris.  In  this,  a  broad  tiiid  nearly  flat  tube  of  thin  metal, 
bent  into  the  form  ot  a  horseshoe,  having  been  exhausted  of 


Fig.  5.— Aneroid  mountain  barometer. 


BAROMETER 


BARON 


509 


air,  is  secured  bv  the  midille  pai-t  of  the  box  inclosing  it, 
while  the  ends  left  free  are  connected  liy  delicate  chains  or 
wires  witli  the  apparatus  conndllinj;  the  index  {I'iii.  6). 
The  efl'ect  of  increased  atinosplieiic  pressure  upon  an  ex- 
Iniustod  tube  of  this  form  is  to  urinj;  tlie  extremities  nearer 
toKcllier.  and  that  of  diminislied  pressure  to  cause  them  to 
recede :  and  lliese  clumgesare  shown  liy  the  index  on  tlie  dial. 
Ij(mi:-c"Mtinuc(i  ohservations  of  the  Imrometer  linve  dem- 
nnsl rated  that  there  are  certain  Huclualions  of  atmospheric 
pressure  whicli  are  periodical  anil  re^juhir.  thnush  not  lar^e: 
n-hile  such  as  are  rioticeahle  for  their  ma<:nilude  are  subject 
to  no  obvious  htw.  Of  periodical  fhu'tuations  tlu'ro  is  a  senii- 
diurmd  ine<pialily  liavinsf  its  maximum  at  about  ten  o'clock 
moriiinj;  and  aftenioou.  and  its  mininnim  at  four,  afternoon 
and  moriiinjr,  lis  ma.irni'ndc  varies  with  the  latitude,  being 
greatest  (0-104  inch)  at  tlie  eipiator.  In  hit.  40 ^  it  is  0-0.1 
inch,  and  in  laf.  70°  oidy  O-OO;!  iiu-ii.  There  is  also  an  in- 
eiiuality  deiiendeni  on  the  seasons,  which  in  some  parts  of 
the  earth  is  larjre,  and  in  othei-s  almost  or  tpiite  impercep- 
tible. Where  it  is  noticed,  the  liij;hest  reading  occui-s  in 
.laniuiry,  and  the  lowest  in  July,  or  a  little  later.  At  Peking, 
in  China,  the  mean  pressure  for  the  lii-st  of  these  months 
is  thi-c-e-fourtlis  of  an  inch  greater  than  that  for  tlie  second. 
A  large  part  of  Asia  is  similarly  affected,  Al  Havana  tlie 
fluctuation  is  hardly  a  cpiarter  of  an  inch,  the  minimum 
seems  not  to  be  reached  before  the  inonlli  of  August,  and 
the  decline  of  the  nioutlily  means  is  not  regular.  At  Bos- 
ton and  at  Loudon  the  monthly  means  thi-ougliout  the  year 
scarcely  diflir  from  each  other  by  the  tenth  of  an  inch,  and 
an  annual  iuetpiality  can  liardly  be  said  to  exist.  The  po- 
sition of  the  moon  seems  to  liave  a  slight  influence  on  at- 
mospheric pressiu-e,  but  this,  even  where  most  observable, 
is  little  more  tlian  half  a  hunilredth  of  an  inch. 

The  non-periodic  fluctuations  of  pressure  are  very  much 
greater  than  the  periodic.  If  we  call  the  dilTcM-ence  l)etwecn 
the  greatest  and  lea.st  readings  of  the  liaromctcr  within  any 
month  the  monthly  oseiZ/dfiayi. iini\  coinl)iiie  the  observa- 
tions of  many  years  for  tlie  same  month,  we  shall  oljtain  the 
mean  monthly  oscillation.  This  is  least  near  the  eijuator, 
and  incrca--es  tow'ai-d  the  poles.  At  the  ei|Uator  it  liardly 
exceeds  O-l  ini-li ;  in  lal.  Hi)  it  is  0*4  inch;  in  lat.  4.5^,  over 
the  Atlantic,  it  is  1  inch;  in  lat,  ()■")'  it  is  1^  inches.  During 
thetliree  winter  months  the  mean  isaliout  one-third  greater. 
On  the  (-ontinents  bordering  the  Atlantic  the  means  arc 
usually  less  than  over  the  interviMuiig  ocean.  The  extreme 
fluctuations  of  the  barometer,  however,  very  much  exceed 
these  means.  In  ISoston  the  greatest  height  oliscrved  in 
thirty-seven  ycai-sis  ;il-l2,')  inches,  and  the  lea.st,  28-47  inches 
— ililference,  2-(!.>')  inches.  The  greatest  oliserved  range  at 
London  is:i  inches ;  at  St.  Petersburg,  :5-.5  inches.  Within  the 
tropics  the  range  is  small.  At  Christiansborg,  near  the 
erpiator,  the  greatest  range  observed  in  five  years  was  0-47, 
Loomis's  Metenroldf/i/. 

The  barometer  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  weather-glass;  and 
the  scale  of  the  iuslrumcnt  is  often  inscribed  with  wonls 
indicative  of  the  weather  which  may  be  expected  wliiMi  the 
head  of  the  column  stands  op|)osite  them.  This  is.  however, 
apt  to  convey  very  erroneous  notions ;  for  neit  her  tlie  actual 
nor  the  approaching  weather  can  be  correctly  inferred  from 
a  knowledge  of  only  a  single  one  of  the  conditions  which 
iletermine  meteorological  phenomena.  The  indications  of 
the  thermometer,  the  anemometer,  ami  the  hygrometer,  and 
the  progressive  changes  denoted  by  those  instruments,  are 
quite  as  important  to  the  prediction  of  the  weather  as  tliose 
of  the  barometer.  Moreover,  the  prognostic-alions  derived 
from  these  instruments  which  would  be  justified  in  one  part 
of  the  world  would  not  be  at  all  .so  in  another  where  the 
physical  conditions  are  different.  One  remark,  however,  is 
true  generally.  Inasmuch  as  there  can  be  no  considerable 
change  in  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  as  to  heat  or 
moisture  or  movement  which  is  not  accompanied  or  imme- 
diately preceded  or  followed  by  a  change  of  pressure,  there- 
fore when  the  barometer  continues  steady,  whether  it  be 
high  or  low,  the  actual  state  of  the  weather,  whatever  it  may 
be,  is  likely  to  last.  It  may  be  added  that  a  rapid  movement 
of  the  barometer  upward  or  downwiird,  say  three-fourths  of 
ail  inch  in  twenty-four  hours,  is  of  unfavorable  augury.  Also 
that  a  very  rapid  fall  will  probably  be  foUoweii  by  a  violent 
wind.  A  slow  movement  upward  gives  assurance  generally 
of  fair  weather. 

While  ob.servation  enables  us  thus,  in  some  manner,  to 
connect  the  fluctuations  of  the  barometer  with  the  varying 
conditions  or  aspects  of  the  w-eather,  it  is  not  easy  in  all 
cases  to  assign  satisfactory  causes  for  the  fluctuations  them- 


selves. The  low  state  of  the  column  which  is  commonly 
observed  to  accompany  the  formation  of  heavy  clouds  and 
the  fall  of  rain  or  snow  shows  that  the  popular  language, 
wliicli  speaks  of  the  atmosiiliere  at  such  times  as  "  heavy,"  is 
scientifically  incorrect.  Many  hypotheses,  among  them  some 
which,  in  the  present  state  of  science,  woulil  lie  pronounced 
absurd  on  the  face  of  them,  have  been  pri)posed  to  account 
for  the  phenomena;  but  the  true  reason  of  at  least  the  more 
conspicuous  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure  must  be 
looked  for  in  rare  fact  ioii  bv  heat,  of  which  the  ultimate  source 
is  the  sun.  Different  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  become 
unequally  heated  by  the  solar  radiation.  The  heat  thus  ac- 
(piired  is  imparted  by  the  earth  to  the  atmosphere  above  it, 
of  which  the  portions  most  heated  are  also  most  dilated,  and, 
in  consequence  of  their  diminished  specific  gravity,  tend  to 
rise.  In  rising  they  are  further  dilated  by  diminished  pres- 
sure, and  Iheir  leiiipcrature  consccpiently  falls  until  their 
contained  vapor  is  condcu.scd  to  cloud,  with  evolution  of  its 
latent  heat.  The  heat  evolved  increases  the  riirefaclion.and 
the  upward  movement  continues.  The  rarefied  column  is 
not  changed  in  wi-ight  by  the  mere  fact  fif  its  rarefaction; 
but  as  its  altitude  is  inerciised  it  necessarily  overflows  at  top 
upon  the  surrounding  air,  of  which  the  pressure  is  thus  aug- 
mented, while  its  own  is  correspondingly  diminished.  As 
a  necessary  C(>nsi'(|ucnce,  the  baionieler  below  it  falls;  and 
as  rain  naturally  follows  the  (ireeipitation  of  vapor.the  rain- 
area  will  usually  be  found  to  correspond  with  the  area  of 
low  barometer.  Of  jieriodical  oscillations,  the  diurnal  are 
in  like  manner  traceable  to  heal.  Those  of  longer  period 
depend  on  causes  less  easy  to  ascertain. 

For  fuller  information  as  to  the  barometer  and  its  uses, 
see  Smit/i.ioniaii  J/incellaiieoiis  ('olleefioiis,  vol,  i.,  p,  693, 
bv  Prof,  (iuvot  and  .1.  W.  ('.  Collin  (1!S()2);  also  J]J/iiiiial  of 
the  Barumeter,  by  .J.  W.  ISclville  (London,  1849);  also  the 
SmUhmnian  Annunl  Reportn  of  the  years  185.5,  185G.  1859, 
and  18(iT.  The  report  of  ]8.5()  has  a  detailed  descrijitiou  of 
the  construction  of  Green's  standard  barometer;  that  of 
1867  contains  an  important  memoir  by  Marshid  Vaillant  on 
the  horary  variations.  Loomis's  Meteorology  and  Reid's  Latv 
of  Storms  may  al.so  be  consulted  with  advantage.  See  also 
Gas.  Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Karometric  Ligrlit:  See  Electric  Discharge. 

Biir'onietz.  sometimes  called  Tartarian  (or  Scytliian) 
Laiull:  llic  prostrate  stem  (rhizome)  of  a  U'vn  {As/iidiiiin 
A«ro»tf/i)  which  grows  in  salt  plains  near  llu'  Caspian  Sea. 
It  is  covered  w-ith  a  shaggy,  silky  down,  and  has  some  re- 
semblance to  an  animal.  It  was  anciently  believed  to  be 
half  jilant,  half  animal.     It  was  al.so  known  as  baranetz. 

Baron:  the  title  of  the  lowest  degree  of  hereditary  peers 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ;  is  the  next  below  that  of  vis- 
count. The  word  was  formerly  used  to  include  the  whole 
English  nobility,  because  all  noblemen  were  barons.  The 
distinction  between  the  greater  and  lesser  barons  seems  to 
have  been  made  at  an  early  jieriod  in  nio.st  of  the  countries 
of  Europe.  The  greater  barons,  who  w-ere  the  king's  chief 
tenants,  held  their  lands  directly,  or  in  eapile.  of  the  crown  ; 
while  the  lesser  held  of  the  greater  by  the  tenure  of  military 
service.  The  greater  liarons  had  a  perpetual  summons  to 
attend  the  parliament  or  great  councils  of  the  nation.  The 
practice  of  conferring  the  rank  of  baron  by  letters-patent, 
and  as  a  mere  title  of  honor  apart  from  the  possession  of 
land,  originated  in  1387.  Bai-ons  are  sometimes  created  by 
writ,  but  I  his  mode  is  nearly  obsolete,  and  creation  by  patent 
is  the  surest  way  of  insuring  the  hereditary  character  of  the 
peerage.  On  great  occasions  a  baron  wears  a  coronet  adorned 
with  six  pearls  set  at  equal  distances  on  the  chaplct.  He  is 
addressed  as  "my  lord"  or  "  your  lordsliip,"  and  is  styled 
•'  right  honorable."  In  France  and  Germany  and  in  many 
other  countries  a  baron  is  a  nfiblemaii  next  in  rank  to  a 
count,  l-'ormerly  in  Scotland  a  baron  was  not  necessarily 
a  nobleman,  but  wjis  a  holder  of  land  in  what  was  called 
baronial  right.  There  are  at  )>rescnt  several  classes  of 
barons :  (1)  barons  of  England  ;  (2)  barons  of  Great  Britain  ; 
(H)  b;irons  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom  (all  the  meniliers  of  these 
classes  have  seats  in  the  IIousi^  of  Lords) ;  (4)  barons  of  Scot- 
land ;  and  (.5)  barons  of  Ireland:  the  members  of  the  two 
latter  chus.ses  liave  no  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  unless 
chosen  as  representative  peei-s.  The  life  peerage,  rarely 
conferred,  does  not  entitle  to  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
Certain  judges  of  the  exchequer  courts  of  England  and  Ire- 
land are  cfilled  barons  of  the  exchecpier. 

Raron,  biiii'ivln',  originallv  Boyron,  MicnAF.L:  French 
actor;  b,  in  Paris,  Oct,  8,  1653,    Ills  father,  u  Icather-mer- 


510 


BAROX 


BARRACKS 


chant,  having  fallen  in  love  with  a  very  beautiful  traveling 
actress,  left  his  business  and  entered  the  same  troupe.  The 
actress  became  tlie  mother  of  Michael  Baron.  Going  to 
Paris  in  after  years,  Michael,  a  very  handsome  young  man, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  great  Moliere,  who  Ijecame  his 
friend  and  instructtir.  Baron  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank 
of  his  profession,  and  was  as  eminent  in  tragedy  as  in  comedy. 
He  was  with  justice  called  "  the  honor  and  the  marvel  of 
the  French  stage."  As  a  writer  of  plays  he  was  very  [iro- 
lific.  His  beauty  and  talents  caused  his  name  to  be  mixed 
up  with  much  of  the  gross  scandal  of  the  time.  His  personal 
vanity  was  very  great.  He  used  to  say,  "Every  century 
might  produce  a  Citsar.  but  it  took  ten  thousand  years  to 
produce  one  Baron."  It  is  commonly  reported  that  he  died 
upon  the  stage,  but  in  reality,  though  stricken  with  apoplexy 
on  the  stage,  he  lived  after  that  event  more  than  two  months. 
D.  in  Paris.  Dec.  3.  172',).       Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallextixe. 

Baron.  Pierrk. called  Peter  Baro :  b.  in  Etampcs,  France, 
Dec,  1.584;  liecame  a  Protestant. and  escaped  to  England  in 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time.  In  1574  he  was  appointed  Lady 
Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge,  an  oflice  which 
he  held  till  1596,  notwithstanding  the  sti'ong  opposition 
which  his  doctrinal  teachings  encountered.  He  was  an  ojj- 
ponent  of  Calvini.sm.  then  strongly  maintained  at  the  uni- 
versity and  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury — Dr.  Jolm 
Whitgift.  Baron  was  therefore  subject  to  many  vexatious 
annoyances,  and  was  openly  accused  of  heresy  and  of  en- 
deavoring to  carry  the  university  back  to  Romanism.  He 
held  to  his  course  with  great  persistency,  and  even  had  the 
courage  to  preach  against  the  famous  Lambeth  Articles, 
which  had  been  drawn  up  to  oppose  him  and  his  party.  He 
was  consequently  forbidden  to  engage  in  polemics,  and  was 
made  so  uncomfortable  that  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his 
position  (1596)  and  retire  to  London,  where  he  died,  April, 
1599.  leaving  a  number  of  Latin  treatises,  since  published  in 
English. 

Baronet  [dimin.  of  baron] :  a  title  of  honor  which  is 
hereditary.  A  baronet  is  next  lower  than  a  baron,  compared 
with  whom,  however,  he  is  very  inferior  in  rank.  Baronets 
were  first  created  in  1611  by  James  I.,  whose  object  was  to 
raise  jnoney  especially  for  tlie  reduction  of  Ulster,  but  the 
money  went  mostly  into  the  king's  purse.  The  creation  of 
baronets  is  limited  only  by  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  who  con- 
fers the  rank  either  by  jiatent  or  by  writ.  A  baronet  is  en- 
titled to  the  prefix  Sir  to  his  name,  and  has  precedence  of 
all  knights  exce[)t  bannerets,  knights  of  the  Garter,  and 
privy  councilors.  Baronets  are  of  four  classes — those  of 
Ulster,  England,  Nova  Scotia  (or  Scotland),  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  James,  having  promised  not  to  create  more  than 
200  baronets  in  England,  extended  the  title  to  Xova  Scotia 
to  raise  money  for  its  reduction,  and  this  is  the  origin  of  the 
Scotch  baronets.  Sir  William  Alexander  (Earl  of  Stirling) 
was  the  first  American  baronet.  This  process  in  Xova  Scotia 
stopped  in  1629,  when  the  province  was  sold  to  France,  Xo 
baronets  of  Scotland  have  been  created  since  1799. 

Baro'nins,  Ces.^r  :  Roman  Catholic  Church  historian ; 
b.  in  .Sora.  near  Xaples,  Oct.  30,  1538 ;  was  a  disciple  of  St. 
Pliilip  of  X^eri,  He  became  cardinal  (1596),  and  librarian 
of  the  Vatic'an  (1597).  His  celebrated  Ecclesiastical  Annals 
from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  1198  A.  D.  (Rome.  1588-93.  12 
vols.  fol. ;  Antwerp.  1589-1603  ;  Mayence.  1601-05,  rev.  ed.) 
was  the  result  of  twenty-seven  yeai-s'  labor.  The  annals  of 
Baronius  are  continued  by  Raynolds  to  1565.  bv  Caderchi  to 
1571,  and  by  Theiner  to"  1584  (in  1856).  In  1864  Theiner 
began  a  new  e<lition  of  the  annals,  but  died  suddenly  in 
1874.  Baronius  was  a  brilliant  dialectician  and  stylist,  but 
has  been  charged  with  many  blunders,  owing  to  his  igno- 
rance of  Greek.  Xolwithstanding  these  erroi-s  and  his 
strong  partisan  spirit,  his  Amials  are  conceded  to  possess 
very  great  learning  and  value.  They  vrere  written  in  reply 
to  the  Magdebiu'g  ('mtiirifs.  He  published  a  mnnber  of 
other  works,  characterized  by  the  same  faiilts  and  the  same 
great  learning  lus  marked  his  Annals.  I),  in  Rome,  June 
30,  1607, 

Barony :  the  rank,  title,  or  dignity  of  a  baron  :  the  terri- 
tory or  jurisdiction  within  which  a  baron  exercises  his  lord- 
ship :  specifically,  the  territory  over  which  a  court  baron  has 
jurisdiction,  the  court  baron  originally  being  a  court  in 
which  the  free  tenants,  or  the  freeholders,  of  a  manor  were 
the  judges,  and  the  steward  of  the  manor  the  registrar.  It 
anciently  had  jurisdiction  in  suits  concerning  lands  held  in 
the  manor,  and  some  other  matters :  but  such  courts  are  now 
rarely  held,  except  with  regard  to  certain  fines,  heriots,  etc. 


Barozzo.  bali-rod  z5.  or  Baroechio.  Infa-rot  chi-o,  Jacopo  : 
an  illustrious  Italian  architect;  b.  at  Vignola,  near  Modena, 
Oct.  1, 1507,  from  which  fact  he  is  often  called  A'igxola.  He 
studied  painting  at  Bologna,  but  was  so  fascinated  by  the 
stuiiy  of  perspective  that  he  abandoned  ])ainting  for  archi- 
tecture, in  which  art  he  attained  a  great  reimtation.  He 
was  employed  by  an  association  of  antiquaries  in  Rome  to 
take  measurements  and  execute  models  of  the  remains  of 
tlie  ancient  statuary  of  Rome.  These  models  were  afterward 
cast  in  Ijronze.  In  1541  he  went  to  Paris  to  superintend  the 
casting  of  his  copies,  and  while  there  was  engaged  in  archi- 
tectural pursuits.  In  1550  he  became  architect  to  Pope 
Julius  III.  He  designed  the  splendid  palace  of  Cardinal 
Parnese  (Caprarola).  in  which  were  placed  some  of  his  own 
pictures.  He  was  engaged  upon  this  work  from  1555  to  1578. 
Jlcimwhile.  upon  the  death  of  Michael  Angelo  in  1564,  he 
succeeded  the  latter  as  architect  of  St.  Peter's  church.  He 
published  several  valuable  works  on  architecture,  among 
which  the  best  known  is  Regole  de'  cinque  ordini  d'architet- 
iura  (1563),  illustrated  by  engravings.  This  was  long  the 
standard  authority  in  classic  architecture.  He  was  one  of 
the  designers  of  the  Escorial  Palace  in  Spain.  D.  in  Rome, 
July  7,  1573. 

Barqnisimeto.  baar-kee-see-may'to :  a  city  of  Venezuela ; 
capital  of  the  state  of  Lara ;  on  a  branch  of  the  river  Portu- 
guesa.  a  jiart  of  the  Orinoco  system  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  1-C).  It  is  the  fourth  city  in  size  in  the  re- 
public. It  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1812, 
previous  to  which  it  had  about  15.000  inhabitants.  It  has 
a  college,  and  is  situated  in  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated 
district.     Pop.  32,000. 

Barr  :  a  town  of  Lower  Alsace,  Germany  :  23i  miles  by 
rail  S.  W.  of  Strassburg;  situated  on  the  east  slope  of  the 
'Vosges,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Uhlrichthal  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  7-D) :  has  numerous  vineyards,  distiller- 
ies, manufactures  of  leather,  arms,  etc.,  and  three  annual 
fairs.     Pop.  (1890)  5.674. 

Barr.  Amelia  Edith  (TTiiddleslnn):  Anglo-American 
novelist ;  b.  at  Ulverstone,  Lancashire.  England,  Jlar.  29, 
1831  :  married  Robert  Barr  in  1850.  and  has  resided  in  the 
U.  S.  since  1854.  first  in  Texas  and  afterward  (1869)  in  Xew 
York  State.  Her  husband  died  in  1867.  Among  her  novels, 
which  are  largely  historical,  are  Homanec  and  Reality 
(Xew  York,  1872) :  Young  People  of  Shakespeare's  Time 
(1882);  The  Hallam  Succession  (1884):  Jan  Vedders  Wife 
(188.5)  ;  A  Daughter  of  Fife  (1886) ;  .1  Bow  of  Orange  Rib- 
bon (1886) ;  Friend  Olivia  (1891)  ;  Beads  of  Tasmer  (1891) ; 
Sister  to  Esau  and  A  Rose  of  a  Hundred  Leaves  (1892). 
Scotch,  north  of  England,  and  Dutch  Xew  York  tales,  with 
a  plot  of  religious  persecution,  are  her  finest  fields  of  in- 
vention. IIexry  a.  Beers. 

Barrackpur.  liar-rak-poor' :  a  town  and  military  can- 
tonnunt  of  British  India ;  on  the  left  (or  east)  bank  of  the 
Hugh  ;  about  15  miles  above  Calcutta  (see  map  of  X.  India, 
ref.  8-1).  It  contains  the  country  residence  of  the  Gov- 
ernor-General of  India,  and  many  elegant  numsions  of  the 
Fluropean  citizens  of  Calcutta,  who  are  attracted  by  the 
salubrity  of  the  place.  The  adjacent  country  is  covered 
with  lieautiful  forests  and  a  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation. 
Here  is  a  noble  park  of  250  acres,  which  exhibits  an  ad- 
iniraV)le  specimen  of  landscape-gardening.  Barrackpur  was 
called  the  cradle  of  the  Sepoy  mutiny  (</.  v.)  of  1857.  Sev- 
eral regiments  of  native  troops  were  stationed  here.  They 
objected  to  l>iting  ofE  the  ends  of  the  cartridges  for  the  En- 
field rirte.  believing  the  paper  to  be  polluted  with  animal 
fat.  A  Se]ioy  named  JIungal  Pandy  wounded  an  officer  in 
Feb..  1857,  w'hose  blood  was  the  firs"t  that  was  shed  by  the 
mutineers.     Pop.  (1891)  57.330. 

Barracks:  buildings  for  the  habitation  of  troops.  The 
word  is  sometimes  applied  to  any  collection  of  buildings 
densely  occupied  by  human  beings. 

The  experience  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  has  demon- 
strated that  ventilation,  abundance  of  pure  air,  is  more  im- 
portant to  the  health  of  man  tlian  complete  protection  from 
extremes  of  cold  and  heat.  Wliile  soldiers  camped  in  small 
and  crowded  tents,  kept  closed  to  exclude  the  cold,  sulTered 
from  tyiihoid  fever,  the  sick  anil  wounded  in  hospital  tents 
and  in  tlie  light  and  open  wooden  barracks  e.staWished  as 
general  hos|iitals.  recovered  more  rapidly  and  certainly  than 
those  in  what  are  called  better  buildings,  closer  and  more 
substantial. 

There  are  few  large  masonry  liari-acks  in  the  V.  S.,  such 


BARRACKS 


BARRAS 


511 


as  are  found  on  the  continent  of  Kurope  in  almost  every 
large  town.  Most  of  the  military  posts  are  beyond  the 
friiiitior  which  separates  the  ccmiitry  of  eivilizatioii  and  cid- 
tivatioii  from  the  region  oeeupieil,  or  nitlier  traversed,  by 
the  nomadic  Indian  tribes,  and  the  scarcely  less  nomadic 
white  miner  and  hunter.  A  very  few  of  these  posts  built 
on  the  open  prairies,  where  timber  is  scarce  and  costly,  have 
been  constructed  of  stone  or  liriek  ;  some  are  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  called  itilnhea  by  the  Mexicans,  and  within  recent 
years  a  tew  lia\e  been  recon>tructed  in  a  more  permanent 
manner.  Hut  the  greater  part  of  them  are  of  wood — log 
houses  in  the  timbered  country,  light  frames  covered  with 
boards  in  the  prairies.  The  open  joints  of  the  board  wall- 
coverings ami  roofs  and  floors  make  it  impossible  to  e.\clude 
fresh  air.  and  tln-y  insure  a  circulation  of  air,  notwithstand- 
ing the  elfurts  (if  the  ot-cupants  of  the  building  to  close  all 
ventilating  openings. 

The  principal  aiul  more  permanent  liarracks  of  the  U.  S. 
are  Madison  liarraeks,  Sackett's  Harbor,  X.  Y. ;  Jackson 
barrack.s,  Xcwdrleans,  I^a. ;  JetTerson  barracks,  St.  Loui.s. 
Mo.;  and  Coluiidnis  barrai-ks.  Ohio,  now  used  as  recruit- 
ing depots;  Fort  Sheridan.  111.;  Mt.  Vernon  barracks, 
Missis>ij)pi  :  Beiiitia  baif.-icks.  California;  Vancouver  bar- 
racks, Washington:  t)maha  barracks.  Onuvha ;  Fort  Leav- 
enworth. Kansas;  Newport  barracks.  Kentucky:  Presidio  of 
San  Fnniciseo,  Cal. ;  Kinggold  barracks  and  Fort  ISrowu, 
on  the  Kio  Grande,  Tex. ;  and  Plattsburg  barracks.  Lake 
Champlain.  In  the  otlicial  list  published  in  the  Army  Rci)- 
ixter  there  are  140  military  posts,  including  19  arsenals, 
ordnance,  and  powder  ileputs,  ;i  recruiting  depots,  aiul  1  en- 
gineer depot,  at  all  of  which  there  are  barracks  either  owned 
or  rented  by  the  V .  S. 

At  most  of  the  U.  S.  navy-yards  tliere  are  barracks  for 
the  marines,  generallv  of  masonry.  Among  them  are  the 
marine  barracks  of  \V'ashington,  Charlestown,  Brooldyn, 
Pensaci5la,  and  Benicia. 

Since  the  Revolution.  Paris  has  been  enriched  with  very 
fine  buildings  as  barracks.  Those  of  the  Prince  Eugene, 
the  Napoleon  barracks,  and  the  new  barracks  cm  the  lie  de  la 
Cite,  are  noble  anil  bi'autiful  luiildings.  Hut  it  seems  im- 
possible to  so  arrange  these  great  buildings  as  to  .secure 
thorough  and  satisfactory  ventilation.  Williout  fresh  air, 
and  disturbed  by  the  movement  which  must  take  place 
night  and  day  among  large  bodies  of  men  occupying  large 
rooms,  tliesi'  palaces  are  not  believed  to  have  as  low  rate  of 
mortality  as  the  temporary  cheap  structures  in  which  the 
U.  S.  army  lives  on  the  frontier. 

There  are  large  barracks  in  all  the  great  European  capi- 
tals. .Stuttgart,  St.  Peteisliurg.  Paris.  Xapl<'s.  Ixome.  are 
noted  for  the  beauty  aiul  extent  of  their  barracks.  The 
Museo  Horbonico  at  Naples  was  built  for  a  cavalry  barrack  ; 
in  it  are  now  collected  the  nnniy  remains  of  Roman  and 
Greek  art  unearthed  at  Pompeii  an<l  Ilerculaneuui. 

The  Romans,  who  conquered  the  known  world  and  lu'Id 
it  by  military  occupation,  built  .strong  barracks  wherever 
tliev  estalilished  a  permanent  post.  They  had  no  firearms, 
and  a  small  garrison  depended  upon  the  strength  of  their 
walls  to  resist  the  attacks  of  barliariaus.  The  renuiins  of 
such  barracks,  nearly  Jierfect.  have  lieen  found  of  late  years 
at  ancient  Roman  stations  in  the  wilderness  of  Syria  and 
Palestine.  While  the  Roman  legionary  was  trained  and 
practiced  at  hard  work,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  use  in  all 
such  constructions  the  forced  labor  of  his  captives  of  what- 
ever rank  or  station.  Our  troops  were  oliliged  generally  to 
build  their  own  barracks,  liut.  arnuMl  with  riiles  of  long 
range,  they  depended  upon  their  superior  knowledge  and 
discipline,  and  seldom  fought  the  savages  from  behind  their 
barrack-walls. 

There  are  two  uses  to  which  liarraeks  are  put :  one  is  pro- 
tection during  a  siege  and  boml)arduu>ut  from  the  mis.-iles 
of  the  enemy  :  the  other,  and  far  more  constant  use,  is  pro- 
tection mainly  from  the  weather. 

Many  of  th<'  seacoast  forts  of  the  U.  S.  make  ample  pro- 
vision in  vaulteil  caseiuates  for  the  garrison  during  a  siege. 
but  such  barracks  in  the  climati'  of  the  coasts  of  the  U.  S. 
should  never  be  occupied  in  time  of  peace.  They  are  dark, 
ilamp,  ill-ventilated,  and  uidiealthy,  and  provision  should 
be  nnide  for  shelter  outside  the  ramparts  for  the  peace  gar- 
rison in  all  cases.  In  the  climate  of  Spain  and  Italy,  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  of  Mexico,  it  is  probable  that  the'  custom 
of  the  tropics  of  living  in  rooms  loofcd  with  earth  or  ma- 
sonry has  not  such  disadvantages  as  farther  north. 

European  practice  allows  from  4'2I)  to  1.2110  cubic  feet  of 
space  per  man  ui  barracks  and  hospitals;  and  the  latter  is 


1?; 


better  than  the  former;  but  in  practice  the  air-space  is 
limited  by  the  appropriations  which  the  govennnenl  grants. 
Thorough  draiiuigc  of  the  buildings  and  of  the  sites  is  essen- 
tial to  healt  h.  Temporary  cantonnu'nts  should  never  remain 
long  in  one  place.  The  troops  should  lemove  to  fresh 
ground,  and  the  ol<l  site  should  not  be  reoccupied  until 
time  and  frost  have  thoroughly  destroyed  the  eflfete  animal 
antl  vegetable  matter  which  collects  about  any  large  body  of 
men. 

All  liarraeks  are  liable,  on  any  temporary  increase  of  the 
garrison,  to  overcrowding.  In  well-built  houses  each  man 
should  have  at  least  800  cubic  feet  of  air-space,  and  in  hos- 
pitals at  least  :3,000.  In  a  room  intended  to  be  occupied  by 
thirty  men,  at  least  60.000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour 
should  be  admitted  from  the  outside,  and  as  much  more  as  can 
be  borne  witlamt  inconvenience,  a  safe  rule  lieing  that  each 
man  should  have  one  cubic  foot  of  fresh  air  jier  second. 
Hut  all  ventilating  arrangements  are  liable  to  be  ob.structed 
by  those  for  whose  benefit  they  are  intended,  uidess  made 
on  the  most  extensive  and  elaborate  scale,  and  placed  en- 
tirely beyond  their  control.  A  man  feels  the  cold  sensation 
from  a  draught  more  distinctly  than  the  headache  or  op 
pression  resulting  from  a  close  and  im[)ure  atmosphere.  II 
knows  that  if  he  stops  the  ventilating  inlet  near  him  he  will 
get  rid  of  the  drauglit.  He  does  not  realize  that  at  a  future 
tinu'  his  health  may  break  down  as  a  conse((uence  of  this  in- 
terference. Practically,  therefore,  the  uuist  efficient  barrack 
ventilation,  except  in  thejialaccs  of  masonry  built  in  Europe 
and  ventilated  by  steam-power,  is  that  inseparable  from  the 
imperfect  construction  of  the  building  itself.  These  defects, 
beyoiul  the  skill  and  power  of  the  .soldier  to  remedy,  save 
his  health  by  supplying  him  continually  with  fresh  air 
against  his  will. 

The  War  Departimuit  has  of  late  years  adopted  an  iron 
barrack-buid<  to  be  occupied  by  a  single  man.  which  gives 
space  for  circulation  of  air.  and  has  abolished  the  use  of  the 
two-story  double  w'ooden  bunks  in  which  soldiers  formerlv 
slept. 

Books  ok  Refkrente. — liciinrlx  of  the  Brilixh  Barrack 
Commission  (Loudon,  1861) ;  Cirnilars  AVw.  ,i  and  4  of  the 
Siir(/ro»-frnii'i-al  of  /liP  T'nih'iJ  Stii/rx;  It'rporfs  on  Barracks 
and  lliispihil.i ;  Outline  T)csrri])tiiin  of  Mi/itari/  I'o.tts  and 
Stations,  published  in  1871  by  the  ipiartermaster's  de]iart- 
ment.  Revised  by  .Ias.  Mercur. 

Uiirracndn,  bar-ra-koo'da,  or  BarriuMnilii  [native  namel: 
a  fish  of  the  family  Spliyra-nidce.  notably  Splii/nvna  picuda, 
S.  sphi/rania,  and  .S'.  aryentca,  which  are  long,  slender,  very 
voracious  fishes  of  the  West  Indian  and  other  warm  seas, 
highly  valued  as  food. 

linrraildo.  l)a"iM-'ra"jiiid'.  .Ioa^i'im  :  eminent  French  pa- 
hcontologist  ;  b.  at  Saugues.  Haute-Loire.  FraiU'C.  Aug.  11, 
I7!)!t.  I),  ne.ar  Vieinia.'  Austria.  Oct.  ',.  \mi.  His  great 
work,  Syslimi'  siliiric/i  dii  centre  de  la  Boliemc.  occu|iying 
nearly  ti.OOO  (piarto  pages,  is  one  of  the  most  important  sin- 
gle treatises  on  Pala'ozoic  fossils.  His  T/ieory  of  Colonies, 
devised  to  exjilaiu  the  sporadic  occurrence  of  fossil  species 
or  groups  of  sjiecies  in  formations  older  or  younger  than  that 
of  whiili  they  are  characteristic,  was  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  the  jiliilosophy  of  geologic  correlation.  See  Paleon- 
Toi,o(iv.  G.  K.  G. 

Barraiilos  v  Moreno.  bi&r-raan'ta'y-.sel'-mS-rayno,  Vi- 
cente: a  Sp.'UHsh  poet  and  pul'lieist  ;  b.  at  Badajoz  in  Es- 
tremadura.  -Mar.  i-i.  18'.2!(.  lu  1S4S  he  went  to  Madrid,  and 
in  1S.")0  he  became  a  writer  for  the  journals  La  Ilxistracion 
and  Las  Xoredades.  In  18.")1  apjieared  his  novel  Siempre 
tarde.  which  attracted  general  attention.  His  dehuf  an  poet 
was  soon  after  made  with  his  Baladas  Espailolas.  From 
18.51  he  engaged  also  in  ])olitics.  and  his  satiric  articles  en- 
titled Pildoras  brought  a  heavy  fine  upon  him  for  their 
audacity.  In  18.")9  he  abandoned  the  Liberals  and  joined 
the  New  Catholic  Conservatives — a  change  already  prefig- 
ured in  his  novel  Juan  de  Pif/'////rf  (IHo.')).  in  which  he  at- 
tem])ted  to  rehabilitate  the  old  Spanish  ideals  of  life  and 
government.  In  18fi6  he  was  nnule  secretary  to  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  Philippine  island.s.  and  in  1872  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Spanish  .\cademy.  Among  his  works  are: 
La  iloven  Kspaiia  (18o4) :  Narraciones  extremenas  (\S72— 
73) ;  Viaje  a  los  inliernos  del  siifrayio  iiiiirersal.  etc.  (1873) ; 
Diccionario  hiogrutico  de  liombres  celebres  ext rem e iios. 

A.  R.  JlAKsn. 

llarrns.  balifaa .  Pail  Francois  Jean  Nicola-s,  Count 
de :  a  French  Jacobin  and  regicide;  b.  at  Fox-Amphonx,  in 
Provence,  June  30,  1755.     He  was  chosen  a  dejiuty  to  the 


>12 


BAKKATRY 


BARRIERE 


States-General  in  1789,  and  a  member  of  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1793.  He  acted  witli  the  party  called  the  Moim- 
tain,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  joined  the  enemies 
of  Robespierre  on  tlie  9th  Thermidor,  1794.  in  wliieh  crisis 
he  was  commander  of  the  national  guard.  On  tlie  13th  Ven- 
demiaire  (Oct.  5,  179.5)  he  was  again  appointed  commander 
of  the  troops  by  tlie  Convention.  Witli  the  aid  of  Bonaparte 
he  defeated  the  royalist  insurgents  of  Paris  on  that  day. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  five  members  of  the  Directory  ap- 
pointed in  Nov..  179.5.  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the 
conflict  of  the  18lli  Fructidor  (Sept.  4,  1797).  after  which  he 
was  perhaps  the  most  powerfiil  of  the  Directoi-s.  He  was 
venal  and  dissolute,  and  abused  his  power.  His  political 
career  was  ended  bv  the  ascendencv  of  Bonaparte  in  1799. 
D.  in  Paris,  Jan.  29.  1829.  See  Thiers.  Hi><tor>i  of  the 
French  Revohit ion  ■.  C.  Doris.  Amours  el  Acentures  du 
Vicomte  de  Barras  (4  vols.,  1816). 

Bar'ratry  [from  0.  Fr.  deriv.  of  baraf.  fraud ;  et^-m.  ob- 
scm-e] :  any"  distinct,  unlawful,  or  dishonest  act  committed 
bv  the  master  or  marinei-s  of  a  vessel,  tending  to  their  own 
benefit  and  to  the  injury  of  the  o\vner  of  the  vessel.  A 
mutiny  of  the  crew,  and"  forcilde  dispossession  by  them  of 
the  officers  from  the  ship,  woidd  be  a  form  of  barratry. 

Hentet  Wade  Rogers. 

Bar're :  a  village  (and  township) :  on  B.  and  31.  R.  R. 
and  on  Ware  river,  Worcester  co.,  Mass.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref,  -S-F) ;  21  miles  N,  W. 
of  Worcester ;  lias  an  institute  for  feeble-minded  children, 
and  cotton,  woolen,  and  straw  factories.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  Col.  Isaac  Barre.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,419 ; 
(1890)  2,239  ;  (1895)  2,278. 

Barre  :  city  (chartered  1894) :  Washington  co.,  Vt.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  4-C) ;  on  rail- 
road, 6  miles  S.  E.  of  Montpelier.  It  is  the  seat  of  Goddard 
.Seminary,  and  has  four  churches :  is  the  center  of  a  large 
granite  industrv.  and  has  manufactures  of  agricultural  tools 
and  castings.    Pop.  of  village  (1890)  4.146 :  ot'township,  6,812. 

Editor  of  "  Enterprise." 

Barre,  baar,  Axtoixe  Joseph  le  Fevre,  de  la:  French 
naval  officer;  b.  about  1625:  Governor  of  Guiana  in  1663: 
retook  Cayenne  from  the  Dutch  in  1667:  was  made  lieuten- 
ant-general in  1667,  and  was  Governor  of  Canada  1682-85. 
D.  in  France,  May  4,  1688. 

Barrfi,  baar-ray'.  Col,  Is.iac  :  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in 
1726,  of  French  parents :  entered  the  British  army,  where 
he  served  with  great  distinction,  receiving  a  wound  at 
AV'olfe's  victory  at  Quebec  (1759),  in  consequence  of  which  he 
ultimately  became  blind.  He  entered  the  Britisli  Parlia- 
ment in  1761.  where  for  years  he  nobly  defended  the  rights 
of  the  American  colonists.     D.  in  London,  July  20,  1802. 

Barred-owl :  a  species  of  owl  {Syrninm.  nehiiJosiim) 
foiMid  in  Eastern  North  America.  The  noisiest  of  our  owls, 
but  rather  mild  in  temper. 

Barre^es,  baarre^h',  or  Bareges:  a  celebrated  water- 
ing-place of  France :  department  of  Hautes-PjTenees,  23 
miles  S.  of  Tai'bes  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  9-D) ;  3.240  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Here  are  warm  sulphurous 
springs  having  a  temperature  of  about  104°  to  122°  F., 
which  are  esteemed  efficacious  in  cases  of  scrofula,  gout,  etc. 

Barrel :  a  large  wooden  vessel  for  holding  liquids  or 
solids :  bound  with  hoops,  and  formed  of  staves,  which  are 
wilier  in  the  middle  than  at  the  ends,  and  have  beveled 
edges,  which  render  the  joints  tight.  Each  end  of  the  bar- 
rel is  closed  by  a  circular  head.  The  arched  arrangement 
of  the  slaves  enables  it  to  resist  pressure  from  without.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  quantity  contained  by  a  barrel, 
which  varies  lor  diflereiit  substances.  A  barrel  of  flour  in 
the  U.  S.  is  equal  to  196  lb.,  and  a  barrel  of  pork  or  beef 
contains  200  lb.  In  wine  measure,  31^  gal.  make  a  barrel. 
A  barrel  of  beer  in  England  is  equal  to  36+  imperial  gal. 

Barrett,  Bexjajiix  Fisk:  Swedenborgian  theologian;  b. 
in  Dresden,  Me.,  June  24,  ISOS;  educated  at  Bowdoin  (Col- 
lege (1832)  and  Harvard  Divinity  School  (1838);  adopted 
.Swedenborgian  views  and  held  pastorates  of  the  "  New- 
Church "  in  New  York  city  (1840-48);  in  Cincinnati  till 
1850;  worked  at  a  trade  four  years  in  Chicago  to  recover  his 
health ;  settled  as  a  pastor  in  Philadelphia  in  1855,  and  edi- 
tor of  the  A'pm.'  ('hurch  JIo>ifhl)/:  founded  the  Swedenbor- 
gian Publication  Society  (Philadelphia)  in  188-5,  and  pre- 
sided over  it  until  his  death  in  Germantown,  Aug.  6,  1892, 
Besides  many  pamjihlets  and  periodical  articles,  he  pub- 


lished a  Life  of  Swedenhorg:  Doctrines  of  the  New  Jerusa- 
lem Church  (New  York,  1842) :  Xew  Dispensa/iun  and  Let- 
ters on  the  Divine  Trinity ;  The  Golden  Reed  (New  York, 
1855):  Catholicity  of  the  New  Church  and  The  Visible 
Cliurch  (1856);  On  Future  Life  (1872);  The  New  Church: 
its  Nature  and  Whereahont;  Swedenhorg  and  Channing; 
and  a  New  View  of  Hell  (1872).  He  edited  the  Swedenborg 
Library  (12  vols.,  1876).  See  his  collected  works  (Philadel- 
phia, 1876). 

Barrett.  Lawrence  :  actor :  b.  in  Paterson.  N.  .T.,  Apr.  4, 
1838.  He  first  appeared  in  Detroit  in  1853  in  The  French  ' 
Spy.  He  played  leading  pai-ts  at  the  Boston  Museum  in 
1858.  At  the  Winter  Garden  in  New  York  he  acted  Othello 
to  Edwin  Booth's  lago,  and  it  was  considered  a  most  strik- 
ing performance.  He  was  a  captain  in  a  Massachusetts 
regiment  during  the  civil  war.  In  1872  he  played  Ca.ssius 
to  Booth's  Bnitus.  As  Lanciotto  in  Francesca  di  Rimini 
he  made  a  great  success.  In  1884  he  played  in  London  and 
was  favorably  receiveil.  Wrote  a  Life  of  Edwin  Forrest 
(Boston.  1881).     D.  in  New  York,  Mar. '20,  1891. 

B.  B.  Vallentin-e. 

Barrhead  :  a  manufacturing  town  of  Renfrewshire.  Scot- 
land: 7  miles  S.  W.  of  Glasgow  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref. 
12-1^.  It  has  cotton-mills,  a  machine-shop,  print-works, 
bleaching-works,  etc.    Pop.  8.000. 

Barrias.  ba'ar're'e-a'jis',  Felix  Joseph:  historical  painter; 
b.  in  Paris.  Se]3t.  13. 1822.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Leon  Cogniet, 
and  was  awarded  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in  1844;  Legion 
of  Honor  1859;  first  class  medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889. 
Painted  frescoes  in  the  churches  of  St.  Eustace  and  La  Trin- 
ite.  Paris.  One  of  his  compositions.  ir(«(//H9  of /Ae  French 
Troops  in  the  Crimea,  is  in  the  museum  at  Versailles.  His 
work  is  academic  and  conventional,  but  sound  in  method. 

W.  A.  C. 

Barricade:  a  military  barrier  or  defensive  work,  em- 
ployed to  obstruct  the  pa.ssage  of  an  enemy  through  a  road 
or  a  street  of  a  city,  or  to  protect  troops  against  the  fire  of 
the  enemy.  .Such  works  are  formed  of  trees,  wagons,  paving- 
stones,  chains,  palisades,  etc.  They  have  been  often  used  in 
popular  revolts  and  street-fights,  especially  by  insurgents  in 
Paris.  In  1588  the  Roman  Catholic  faction  raised  barri- 
cades in  Paris  against  Henry  III.,  who  was  compelled  to 
save  himself  by  flight.  A  great  number  of  barricades  were 
erected  in  Paris  by  the  popular  party  in  the  revolution  of 
July.  1830,  when  Charles  X.  was  dethroned.  In  June.  1848, 
thestreets  of  Paris  were  again  obstnicted  by  ban-icades,  and 
a  bloody  battle  was  fought  between  the  government  of  Cav- 
aignac  and  the  Socialists  or  Communists,  who  were  defeated. 
In  order  to  counteract  such  operations.  Napoleon  III.  widened 
and  macadamized  the  principal  streets  of  his  capital,  but 
barricades  were  again  employed  by  the  Communist  insur- 
gents in  the  spring  of  1871. 

Barrie:  capital  of  Simcoe  co.,  Ontario  (Canada):  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Simcoe,  and  on  the  Northern 
and  Northwestern  Division  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway; 
65  miles  N,  N,  W.  of  Toronto  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref,  3-D) ; 
has  excellent  schools,  including  a  collegiate  institute,  9 
churches,  a  large  trade,  manufactures  of  woolen  goods,  and 
3  weekly  paiiei-s.  Steamboats  ply  on  the  lake.  The  town 
was  founded  in  1832,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1871.    Pop.  (1881)  4,854 ;  (1891)  5,5.50. 

Editor  of  "  Examixer." 

Barrie.  .Iames  Matthew  :  novelist ;  b.  in  Kirriemuir.  For- 
farshire, Scotland,  May  9, 1860;  educated  in  Dumfries  and  at 
Edinburgh  University  (1882) ;  wa-s  journalist  in  Nottingham 
and  London,  His  first  tale  was  Better  Demi  (1887),  a  satire 
on  London  life.  Next  followed  Auld  Licht  Idi/lls  and  When 
a  Mans  Single  (\mS):  then  .1  Window  in  Thrums  (1889); 
My  Lady  Nicotine  (1890) ;  The  Little  Mini.'^ter  (1891) ;  and 
a  comedy  (1892),  written  for  J.  L.  Toole.  Sentimental  Tam- 
my and  Margaret  Ogilvie  appeared  in  1896.  Barric's  delinea- 
tions of  Scotch  lite  in  his  native  region  are  vivid  and  pathetic. 

Barrier  Act :  the  common  name  of  an  act  passed  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  Jan.  8,  1697, 
intended  as  a  barrier  against  innovations  and  an  obstruction 
to  precipitate  legislation. 

Barriere,  bali  ri-flr',  Jean  Fran-?ois:  French  writer;  b, 
in  Paris,  May  12,  1786;  edited  (with  Berville)  Memoires 
relatifs  a  la'  Revolution  Franfaise  (47  vols.,  1822  et  seq.) 
and  (alone)  Memoires  relatifs  a  XVIIlieme  Siecle  (29  vols., 
1846-64).     D.  in  Paris,  Aug.,  1868. 


BAKRIEUE 


BARROW 


6U 


BarriOre,  TnEODORE:  French  dramatist  ami  satirist:  b. 
in  Paris,  1823;  author  of  Filltx  de  mnrbre  (185:1)  in  opjMjsi- 
tion  to  Diimas's  Dame  aiix  Cnnieliaa;  L'tinye  de  niiiiuil 
(1861);  JIallieur  mix  vaincus  (1872),  etc.  D.  in  Paris,  Out. 
1(5,  1877. 

Biirrier-reef.  The  (Jreat ;  a  vast  coral-reef  sitnateil  oft 
the  nortlicast  coast  of  Australia,  ami  extemlinj?  from  lat. 
24''  30'  S.,  Ion.  l.)8'  20  IC,  to  Bristow  ishuul,  on  the  coast  of 
the  island  of  Papua,  lat.  9"  15  S.,  Ion.  143'  20'  E.,  nearly 
1.300  miles.  It  is  at  a  distance  varying  from  10  miles  to 
over  100  miles  from  the  coast,  and  rises,  gcncniUv  precipi- 
tously, from  a  great  depth.  It  has  a  number  of  breaks  or 
jiassages. 

Barrier  Treat  ies;  tlie  name  given  to  severa.!  treaties  be- 
tween Oreat  Britain  and  foreign  powers;  the  first  between 
Great  Britain  and  tlie  Netlicrland.s,  negotiated  by  Lord 
Townsend  in  1701).  The  Dutch  |iledged  tliemselves  to  main- 
tain the  (^nccn  of  England's  title  ami  the  Protestant  suc- 
cession, while  the  British  engaged  to  assist  the  Dutch  in 
preserving  their  barrier-towns.  The  second  was  concluded 
between  the  same  ijowere  at  Utrecht  in  1713.  The  third  wjis 
siCTed  at  Antwerp  in  1715,  between  Great  Britain,  the  Xeth- 
enands,  and  the  Emperor  Charles  \'II. 

Barringer,  D.\niel  ^Ioueau:  politician;  b.  in  f'abarras 
CO..  N.  ('.,  in  1807;  grjiduatcd  at  tlie  State  Univei-sity  in 
1826,  ami  became  a  lawyer,  lie  was  seveial  years  in'  the 
State  Legislature;  represented  the  State  in  Congress  for  six 
years  (1843-4!)) ;  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Spain  from  184!)  to 
1853;  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Congress  of  1861.  and  to  the 
national  imion  convention  at  Philadelphia  in  1866.  D.  at 
White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  Sept.  1,  1873. 

Burriiigtoil :  a  post-village  of  Barrington  township,  Siiel- 
burne  co.,  Xova  Scotia;  on  the  Atlantic  coast  (see  map  of 
yuebcc,  ref.  3-A):  has  thriving  fisheries,  ship-buihling,  and 
eoiusting  trade. — Bakklvotox  Passaok,  another  village  of 
the  same  township,  has  extensive  fisheries,  and  is  cotmect- 
ed  with  l'ai>e  Sahle  island  by  ferry.  Pop.  of  Barrington, 
1,000. 

Barrington;  township;  Bristol  co..  \X.  I.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Rhode  Island,  ref.  8-0);  on  Old  dd. 
R.  R..  8  miles  from  Providence.  ISrirk-making  is  tlie  chief 
industry.     Poji.  (1880)  l,35!j;  (18!)0)  1,461;  (18'Jd)  1,608. 

Barrington.  Hon.  Daixks;  an  English  jurist  and  natu- 
ralist: brother  of  Slmtc  Barrington  (1734-1826);  for  thirty- 
live  veal's  Bishop  of  Durham;  b.  in  1727.  He  jiublished  Ub- 
si-rniliimx  upoii,  the  S/nfittes,chielli/  the  More  Ancient,  frojn 
Mayna  Charta  to  the  21  Jac.  I.  c.  ,.'?  (1766),  a  standard 
work;  wrote  a  Dixxertntion  im  tlie  Linnieun  Hijxlem,  &rvX 
other  works.     D.  in  London,  Mar.  14,  1800. 

Barris.  Willis  IIekvev.  D.  D.  ;  theologian  and  scientist; 
b.  at  liarrisville  (fornuTly  Zilienople),  Beaver  eo.,  Pa.,  .July  9, 
1821 ;  educated  at  Allegheny  College  and  General  Theological 
Seminary,  N'ew  York  ;  ordained  deacon  bS.W;  leading  clcrg;!- 
nmn  in  Iowa  ;  for  twenty  years  jiresident  standing  committee 
of  diocese,  and  fora  quarter  of  a  eentiu-y  Ely  Professor  Eccle- 
siastical History  in  the  theological  rlepartment  of  Griswold 
College.  Davenport,  la. ;  a<-ting  Professor  of  IIel)rew  and  Bib- 
lical Exegesis,  and  dean  of  the  faculty  ;  interested  in  the  study 
of  geology  and  pala'ontology.  His  chief  pul)lications,  other 
than  sermons,  essays,  and  reviews,  are  a  series  of  articles  on 
local  geology  contributed  to  \\\e  I'rocetdingx  of  the  Daren- 
port  Aciideinij  of  ydtural  Science.  His  work  on  the  Blas- 
toidea  of  the  Hamilton  Group  w as  republished  in  vol.  viii. 
Jtlinoix  State  Oeolor/ical  Snrreij.  Dr.  Harris's  collection  of 
crinoids  was  secured  by  Prof.  Agassiz  for  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  Harvard  College.  W.  S.  Perry. 

Barrister:  in  England,  a  lawyer  who  has  been  called  to 
the  liar,  ami  who  conducts  the  trial  and  argument  of  causes 
in  court,  as  distinguished  from  an  atlnniey.  whose  ilnty  it  is 
to  ilraw  the  pleailings  and  prei)are  the  case  for  triid.  See 
Attokxey.  H.  W.  R. 

Barrois,  ba'jir'wa'ii'.  Charles.  Dr.  Sc. :  geologist ;  li.  at 
Lille,  Prance,  Apr.  21.  1851 ;  educated  at  the  University  of 
Lille,  and  afterward  Professor  of  Natural  Sciences  in  the 
same  institution.  In  the  organization  of  the  official  geologi- 
cal corps  of  France  he  has  charge  of  the  work  in  Brittany. 
His  pulilicat ions  on  the  geology  of  France  are  both  numer- 
I'us  and  voluminous,  ami  are  at  once  flistingnished  by  their 
ability  and  by  their  wide  range  of  topics,  which  include 
stratigraphy,  mountain  structuri',  metauior|ihism.  petrogra- 
phy, and  several  branches  of  ]iala>onlologv.  He  is  Bigsbv 
33 


medalist  and  foreign  member  of  the  Geological  Society  of 
London,  and  was  a  vice-president  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Geologists  at  the  Wasliingtim  meeting  (1891). 
Among  his  greater  memoirs  are  Le  Terrain  cretuee  supe- 
rieitr  de  VAmjIeterre  et  tie  I'lrlawle  (1876) ;  Lex  Terrains  an- 
ciens  dex  Axturiex  et  de  la  Galiee  (1882) ;  and  Faune  du  cal- 
caire  d' Erbray  {imj).  G.  K.  G. 

Barron.  James:  naval  officer;  b.  in  Virginia  in  1769; 
served  in  the  navy  under  his  father,  who  was  a  "•commodore 
of  all  the  armed  vessels  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Virginia  " ; 
was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  the  U.  S.  navy  in  17!)8,  and 
in  1799  was  promoted  to  be  a  captain.  He  was  employed  on 
sea-service  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other  waters  until  1807, 
and  had  actjuired  a  high  reputation  for  seamanship  and  dis- 
cipline when  the  alfair  of  the  Chesapeake  cast  a  shadow  over 
his  life.  On  .June  22,  1807.  the  Chesapeake,  bearing  the  pen- 
nant of  Commodore  Barron,  saileti  from  Hampton  Roads 
lor  the  Mediterranean.  The  British  war-vessel  Leopard, 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  bore  down  ujion  and 
hailed  the  Chesa]ieake.  informing  Commodore  Barron  she 
had  a  dispatch  for  him.  A  lioat  being  sent  alongside,  the 
message  proved  to  be  the  instructions  of  Admiral  B«rke- 
ley  of  the  British  navy  to  search  tlu^  Chesajieak((  for  desert- 
el's.  This  Commodore  Barron  refused  to  permit,  and  he 
wrote  to  Captain  Humphreys,  commanding  the  Leopard, 
that  he  knew  of  no  deserters  on  the  Chesapeake,  and  that 
his  orders  woidd  not  permit  his  men  to  be  mustered  by  any 
other  than  their  own  officer.  The  lieutenant  who  had 
brought  this  dispatch  to  Commodore  Barron  returned  to  the 
Leojiard.  and  shortly  after  this  vessel  opened  fire  on  the 
Chesapeake,  whicli  [U'oved  to  be  entirely  nnpre]iared  for  bat- 
tle. But  one  gun  was  discharged  from  the  Chesapeake  be- 
fore she  struck  her  colors.  Three  desertere  were  found  on 
board,  and  taken  to  the  Leopard,  Commodore  Barron  being 
permitted  to  retain  his  ship,  with  which  he  at  once  returned 
to  Norfolk.  Barron  was  court-martialed  for  neglect  of  duty, 
found  guilty,  and  suspended  from  the  service  for  five  yeare. 
Although  restored  to  his  rank  and  ]ilaced  in  responsible  po- 
sitions ashore,  he  never  again  did  sea-service.  A  long  cor- 
resiiondeiice  with  Commodore  Decatur  on  the  Chesapeake 
alfair  terminated  in  a  duel  between  them  at  Bladensburg, 
Md..  in  1820.  in  which  both  were  sevendy  wounded.  Decatur 
mortally.  Barron  lived  to  be  the  senior  oflieer  in  the  L^  S. 
navy.     D.  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  Apr.  21,  1851. 

Barros.  baar'ros.  .JoAo,  de  :  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
Portuguese  historians;  b.  at  Viseu  in  1496.  He  was  ap- 
poiute<l  governor  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Guinea 
in  1522.  His  greatest  work  is  entitled  Axia.  or  the  Hixtory 
of  tlie  Dixcoreriex  and  Coni/iiextx  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
Eaxl  Jndiex  (1552-62).  He  wrote  only  three  decades  of 
this  work,  which  was  continued  by  Diego  de  Couto  to  the 
twelfth  decade.  This  liistory  is  admired  for  elegance  of 
style  and  other  merits.  D.  in  Pombal.  Oct.  20,  1570.  See 
Manoel  Severiin  de  Faria,  Vida  de  JoOo  de  Barras  (1624). 

Barrow  :  a  river  of  Irelan<l :  rises  in  Queen's  County,  on 
the  northea.st  slope  of  t  he  Slieve  IMoom  Mountain.  It  flows  in 
a  general  southward  direct  ion.  jiasses  by  Carlow  and  New  Ross, 
divides  the  counties  of  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  Wexford  from 
the  counties  of  Queen's  and  Kilkenny,  and.  alter  uniting 
with  the  Suir,  entei-s  the  sea  through  Waterford  harbor.  It 
is  about  100  miles  long,  and  is  next  in  im|iortaiiee  to  the 
Shannon  among  Irish  rivers.  It  is  navigable  for  ships  of 
300  tons  to  New  Ross,  25  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Barro'»V  [0.  Eng.  beorc/.  mound  :  Germ..  Dutch  bery.  hill] : 
a  name  of  artificial  mounds  which  are  found  in  many  coun- 
tries, and  were  erected  in  ancient  times  in  honor  of  eminent 
persons  or  for  monumental  i)urposes.  They  arc  formed  of 
earth  or  stones,  jnul  contain  in  some  cases  human  bones, 
with  armor  and  utensils.  In  Great  Britain  there  are  nu- 
merous barrows,  whicli  are  supposed  to  have  been  raised 
before  the  island  was  conf|Uered  by  the  Romans.  One  of 
the  largest  barrows  in  Europe  is  Silbury  Hill,  in  Wiltshire, 
which  has  a  vertical  height  of  170  feet  and  covers  5  acres. 
Many  artificial  mounds  occur  in  the  U.  S.,  as  at  Grave  Creek, 
West  Va..  and  near  JIarietta,  O. ;  also  in  Central  America. 
See  MoixD-iu-iLUERs. 

Barrow.  Isaac.  D.  D..  F.  R.  S.  ;  English  pulpit  orator  and 
mathematician:  b.  in  London,  Oct..  1630.  He  graduated  at 
Camliridge  as  JI.  ,\.  in  16.52.  and  became  Professor  of  Greek 
in  that  place  in  1(!60.  lie  was  appointed  Lucasian  Professor 
of  Jlathemafics  in  1663.  Imt  resigned  that  chair  in  favor  of 
his  pupil,  the  illustrious  Newton,  in  166!).     In  1672  he  was 


514 


BARROW 


BARRY 


appointed  master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  lie  pub- 
lished, besides  other  able  works,  Lecfiones  Opiicce  (1669) 
and  Lectiones  Geometriciv  (16T0).  His  reputation  as  a  theo- 
logian rests  chiefly  on  his  sermons,  which  were  edited  by 
Dr.  Tillotson  (3  vols.,  1685).  They  ai-e  very  remarkable 
specimens  oE  clear  and  exhaustive  argument.  "  The  ser- 
mons of  Barrow,"  says  Hallam,  ■'  display  a  strength  of  mind, 
a  comprehensiveness,  and  fertility  which  have  rarely  been 
equaled."  Frequently  reprinted  is  his  Treatise  on  the 
Pope's  Supremacy  (London.  UWO) :  e.  g.  1851.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, May  4,  1677.  His  perscjnal  character  was  noble.  See 
Arthur  Hill,  Life  of  Burrow,  prefixed  to  his  collected 
works  (1685) ;  Ward,  Lives  uf  the  Professors  of  Gresham 
College;  biogra[)hy  by  W.  Whewoll  in  vol.  ix.  of  Napier's 
edition;  Barrow's"  Theological  Works  (Cambridge,  1859,  9 
vols.). 

Barrow.  Sir  John,  Bart.,  P.  B.  S. :  traveler ;  b.  in  Lanc- 
ashire, England,  .June  19.  1764.  As  secretary  to  Lord  Mac- 
artney he  went  tii  China  in  1792.  and  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  1797.  He  was  secr(;tary  to  the  Admiralty  lor  nearly 
forty  years,  and  rendered  many  services  to  geographical  sci- 
ence by  promoting  scientific  expeditions.  He  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  Royal  (icographical  Society.  Among  his 
works  are  Tiavels  in  South  Africa  (2  vols..  1801-04) ;  An 
Account  of  the  Miitini/  of  the  JJounti/  (1831):  and  Voyages 
of  Discovery  ami  h't'Si-arcli  within  the  Arctic  Peyions  (1846). 
D.  in  London,  Nov.  23, 1848.  See  hia  Autobiographical  Jle- 
moir  (1847). 

Barrow.  Washington  :  b.  in  Davidson  co.,  Tenn.,  Oct.  5, 
1817;  laecaine  a  lawyer;  was  for  several  vears  editor  of  the 
JS^ashi'ille  Paniier,  and  a  leader  of  the  NVhig  party;  State 
Senator  in  1861.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  charge  d'affaires 
to  Portugal,  and  was  a  Representative  from  Tennessee  in 
Congress  1847—49.  During  the  civil  war  he  was  arrested 
for  alleged  dislovaltv,  but  was  released  soon  after  by  order 
of  President  Lin'eolii.     D.  in  St.  Louis,  Oct.  19,  1866. 

Barrowe,  Hknry:  English  Nonconformist;  called  to 
the  bar  in  1576.  After  a  licentious  youtli  he  was  eon- 
verted,  and  abandoned  the  law.  Being  attracted  to  Jolm 
Greenwood,  he  became  interested  in  Clmrch  reform.  Robert 
Brown  influenced  them  in  favor  of  independency,  and  Bar- 
rowe was  illegally  arrested  Nov.  19,  1586.  He  was  charged 
with  publishing  seditious  books  against  the  queen  and  Gov- 
ernment, and  spent  the  i-est  of  his  life  in  Fleet  Prison.  He 
was  eondenmed  with  John  Greenwood,  and  they  were  hanged 
Apr.  6, 1593.  Barrowe  wrote  A  Brief  Discovery  of  the  False 
Churches. 

Barrow-ill-FurneSS :  a  seaport  and  important  town  of 
Lancashire,  England;  on  tlio  Irish  Sea,  18  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Liineaster  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  on  the 
peninsula  of  Furness,  and  is  the  western  terminus  of  a 
railway  which  extends  to  Dalton,  and  connects  Barrow  with 
the  whole  railway-system  of  England.  It  is  separated  by  a 
narrow  channel  from  Barrow  island,  and  has  a  good  harbor, 
formed  by  the  island  of  Walney,  which  is  8  miles  long. 
This  place,  which  in  1845  was  only  a  small  fishing-village, 
derives  its  prosperity  from  rich  mines  of  iron  ore  (red  hema- 
tite) and  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,  and  it  has  increased 
with  great  rapidity.  The  Marrow  Hematite  Steel  Company 
has  twel\'e  blast  furnaces  in  oiieration,  anil  the  quantity  of 
ore  taken  from  the  mines  is  500,000  tons  auinially.  This 
ore  yields  about  57  per  cent,  of  iron.  The  steel-works  of 
Barrow  are  .said  to  l)c  the  largest  Bessemer  steel-works  in 
Britain.  About  20.000  tons  of  slate  are  annually  quarried 
in  the  vicinity.  Harrow  has  a  towu-hall,  a  jjulilic  library, 
and  numerous  churches.  Large  sums  of  money  have  lieen 
expended  in  converting  the  channel  between  the  town  and 
Barrow  island  into  doek.s.     Pop.  (1891)  51,712. 

Barrows,  Em.iah  Poktkr.  1).  D.  :  b.  at  Mansfield,  Coini., 
Jan.  5,  1805;  grad\iated  at  Vale  in  1826;  tauglit  school  in 
Hartford  1826-31  ;  was  ordained  in  1832:  pastor  of  the  first 
Free  Presliyterian  church,  New  York  city,  1835-37;  Pro- 
fessor of  Sacred  Literature  in  Western  Reserve  College  1837- 
52.  and  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  1853-(i6.  In  1872  he  entered  the 
Siime  prot'essorshi])  in  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary.  He 
published  a  Memoir  of  Bvertson  ./udson,  (IJoston,  1852) ;  Com- 
panion to  the  Bible  (New  York,  1869);  Sacral  (reogrn- 
phy  and  Antiquities  (1872).  He  was  one  of  the  authors 
and  e<litors  of  the  Bible  with  Notes  (American  'I'ract  So- 
ciety), and  iiublished  many  articles  in  the  lUtiliitlheca 
Sacra. 


Barrows.  John  Henry,  D.  D. :  Presbyterian  minister; 
chairman  of  the  General  Committee  on  Religious  Congresses 
in  connection  with  the  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 ;  b. 
in  Medina,  Mich.,  July  11,  1847;  was  educated  at  Olivet 
College,  Mich.,  and  at  Yale,  irnion,  and  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminaries.  Since  1881  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbvterian  chui'ch  in  Chicago.  He  published  a  history  of 
that  church  (1883) ;  The  Gospels  are  True  Historiex  (Bos- 
ton, 1891);  I  Believe  in  God  the  Father  Almighty  {Chicago. 
1892) ;  and  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  the  Pulpit  Jupiter  (New 
York,  1893).  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Barrows,  Samuel  June:  Unitarian  minister  and  editor; 
b.  in  New  York.  May  26.  1845  ;  educated  at  Ilarvai'd  Divinity 
School  and  Leipzig  University;  became  a  Baptist  minister, 
but  soon  exchanged  that  connection  for  Unitarianism ; 
secretary  to  William  H.  Seward  1867-69;  pastor  of  First 
Parish.  Dorchestei-.  Mass.,  1876-80;  editor  Christian  Regis- 
ter 1881 ;  author  of  The  Doom  of  the  Majority  (Boston, 
1883);  A  Baptist  Jleeting-house  (1885);  The  Slaybacks  in 
Camp  (1888) ;  editor  of  various  volumes  of  essays  and  ser- 
mons; noted  as  an  earnest  worker  in  educational  and  penal 
reforms,  and  for  his  linguistic  attainments.  His  wife,  Bella 
C.  Barrows,  has  assisted  him  in  his  literary  work. 

Uarriiiidia.  balir-roon'dee-a'a,  Jose  Francisco;  a  states- 
man ;  b.  in  Honduras  in  1779  ;  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
against  the  Spanish  Government,  and  was  chosen  in  1829- 
president  of  the  republic.  As  a  member  of  the  first  Re- 
publican asseml>ly.  in  1824.  he  introduced  and  carried  a  de- 
cree for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  In  1854  he  was  minister 
to  the  U.  S.,  and  d.  Aug.  4,  1854',  in  New  York  city. 

Barry :  city  (founded  in  1836) ;  Pike  co.,  111.  (for  location 
of  countv,  see  nuip  of  Illinois,  ref.  7-B);  on  Wabash  K.  R., 
18  miles  E.  of  Hannibal,  Mo.,  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Qnincy.  111. 
Barry  has  a  high  scliool.  three  churches,  woolen-mill,  flour- 
mill,  and  pork-packing  estalilishments.  The  surrounding 
country  is  agricultural.  Pcjp.  (1880)  1.392;  (1890)  1,354"; 
(1892)  estimated,  1,500.  Publisher  of  "  Auage." 

Barry.  Alfred.  D.  D.  :  late  Bishop  of  Sydney ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don in  1826;  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambri<lgc ;  or- 
dained in  1850.  and  became  Bishop  of  Sydney,  Metropolitan 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  Prinuite  of  Australia  in  1884: 
Principal  of  King's  College.  London,  1868-83;  Canon  of 
Worcester  1871-81 ;  Canon  of  Westminster  1881-83  :  but  re- 
signed in  1889,  and  in  1891  was  appointed  Canon  of  Windsor. 
Besides  sermons  and  commentaries,  he  has  published  a  Life 
of  Sir  C.  Barry,  his  father:  What  is  Natural  Theology? 
(1876);  The  Teacher's  Prayer-book  (numevous  editions);  The 
Parables  of  the  Old  Testament  (1889);  Christianity  and 
Socialism  (1891).  W.  S.  Perry. 

Barry.  Sir  Charles:  English  architect;  b.  at  Westmin- 
ster. May  23. 1795.  He  visited  Italy,  Gi-eece.  and  Egypt  about 
1818.  ile  designed  the  Manchester  Athena'um  and  tiie 
grammar  school  of  Edward  VI.  at  Birmingham.  In  1841 
he  became  a  royal  academician.  His  design  for  the  new 
Houses  of  Parliament  was  preferred  to  those  of  his  com- 
petitors, and  the  work  was  coninienci'd  in  1840.  D.  in  Clap- 
ham.  London.  May  12,  1860;  Imried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
See  Jlemoir  of  Sir  Charles  Barry,  bv  his  son,  the  Rev.  Al- 
fi-ed  Barry  (1867). 

Barry,  Edward  IMiddleton:  b.  in  London.  1830;  son  of 
Sir  Charles  Barry,  whom  he  succeeded  as  architect  of  the 
Houses  of  Parliaincnt ;  also  architect  of  the  Nat  ioiial  Gallery 
and  other  prominent  buildings.    D.  in  London,  Jan.  29, 188(). 

Barry.  Jajies:  historical  painter;  b.  in  Cork,  Ireland, 
Oct.  11. 1741 ;  was  patronized  l)y  Eduuuul  Burke.  He  passed 
about  five  yeai-s  at  Rome,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  luit  he  was  exjielled  from  the 
same  in  1797  on  account  of  dilTcrencesof  ojiim'on  on  methods 
of  art-teaching.  His  niaster|iiece  is  The  1  ictors  at  Olijmpia. 
I),  in  Londoii.  Fell.  6,  1806.  See  Cunningham,  Lives  iif 
Painters  and  Sculptors  (Edinburgh  lieview  for  Aug.,  1810). 

Barry,  John:  naval  officer;  b.  in  Tacumshane.  County 
Wexford.  Ireland,  in  1745  ;  emigrated  to  America  about  1760. 
He  became  commander  of  a  U.  S.  frigate  in  1776,  ami  cap- 
tured the  Britisli  vessel  Atlanta  in  May.  1781.  After  the 
reorganization  of  the  U.  S.  navy  he  was  appointed  senior 
ollicer.  and  selected  to  command  the  frigate  ITnited  States. 
D.  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  13.  1803. 

Barry.  .Iohn  Woi.ee.  31.  Inst.  C.  K. :  civil  engineer;  en- 
gineer of  the  extension  of  the  Metropolitan  District  and 
Inner  Circle  (umlerground)  Railways  of  London;  youngest 


BARRY 


BARTIlfiLKMY  SAIXT-HILAIRE 


515 


son  of  the  late  Sir  C'harlf•^i  Barry,  R.  A.:  b.  in  1836:  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College.  GlonHlinond,  Perthshire,  and  at 
King's  College.  London ;  studied  first  with  Lutas  Brothei-s, 
afterwiird  articled  to  Sir  Jolin  llawkshaw.  Whiie  with  the 
latter  he  was  resident  engineer  on  the  Thames  bridges  and 
the  Charing  Cros-s  and  Cannon  Street  stations.  Jjcaving  Sir 
John  llawkshaw  in  Ititi'.  he  eoninienced  work  on  his  own  ac- 
count. He  built  tlie  Lewes  anil  East  Grinstead  Railway, 
the  Kaling  and  Fulliain  extensions  of  tile  Metropolitan 
Uistriet  Railway,  the  Inner  Circle  Railway  (the.se  being  ex- 
tensions of  llie  rndergnmiid  Railway  of  London),  the  new 
Blackfriars  bri<lge  over  the  Thames,  the  BaiTV  dock  near 
Cardiff,  and  the  railways  to  connect  it  with  South  Wales; 
engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  new  Tower  bridge  for 
the  corporation  of  London.  In  1872  he  visited  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  hiid  out  a  railway  from  Buenos  .Vyres  to 
Rosario.  In  18«(i  he  was  appointed  l)y  the  Government  on 
the  Royal  Commission  on  Irish  I'ldjlic  Works:  in  1889  on  a 
commission  to  settle  important  matters  in  connectiim  with 
the  river  Ribbh-:  anil  again  in  the  same  year  on  the  West- 
ern Highlands  Commission,  having  duties  simihir  to  those 
of  the  Irish  Commission.  Mr.  IJarry  is  mendier  of  the 
Council  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Kngineers.  member  of 
the  Institution  of  Meclianical  Engineers.  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Institute,  author  of  Railwdij  Ajip/ id ncc.i,  and  of  a 
course  of  lectures  with  Sir  F.  J.  BramweU  on  litiitivai/  and 
Locomutive  (1883).  Wm.  R.  I1i:tto.\. 

Biirry,  Patkick  :  horticulturist :  b.  near  Belfast,  Ireland, 
in  .May.  181G.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  removed  to  the  L^.  S., 
and  in  1840  moved  to  Rochester,  where  he  died  June  33, 
1890.  In  his  earlier  Life  he  wa.s  editor  of  the  Ilorlicidtuiist 
and  also  of  the  Oenesee  Farmer.  His  book  called  tlie  Fruit 
Garden  has  long  been  an  authority  ujion  pomological  mat- 
ters. He  was  well  known  from  his  connection  with  the 
nursery  lirm  of  Ellwanger  &  Barry. 

Barry.  William  Farc^iuar:  soldier:  colonel  of  the  Second 
Artillerv  and  brevet  Iprigadier-general  CS.  armv:  b.  in  New 
York  ciiy.  Aug.  18.  1818;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838. 
His  first  active  services  were  in  the  war  against  tlie  Indians 
in  Florida  1853-53,  when  he  was  advanced  to  a  captaincy. 
In  the  Mexican  war  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  Maj.-Gen. 
Worth,  lie  served  in  the  dilliculties  with  the  Indians  in  Da- 
kota in  1850.  and  took  part  in  the  Utah  expedition  1858. 
When  the  civil  war  broke  out  he  was  appointed  chief  ot  ar- 
tillery of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  with  the  rank  of  major 
and  brigadier-general  of  volunleers.  His  gallant  and  meri- 
torious conduct  in  the  capture  of  Atlanta  won  him  tlie  brevet 
titles  of  colonel  L'.  S.  army  and  major-general  of  volunteers, 
Sept.  1,  1864.  Mar.  13, 1865,  he  was  breveted  brigadier-gen- 
eral V .  .S.  A.  for  gallant  .services  in  the  campaign  terminat- 
ing in  the  surrender  of  the  army  under  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston, 
and  was  made  brevet  major-general  U.  S.  .V.  in  1865.  Gen. 
Barry  organized  the  entire  artillery  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  served  in  the  field  witli  that  army  a.s  chief  of 
artillery  from  Mar.,  1862.  to  Sept.,  1862,  participating  in  the 
siege  of  Yorktown  and  the  Seven  Days'  battles  ending  with 
Malvern  Ilill.  He  subsecpiently  commanded  the  artillery 
serving  in  the  defenses  of  Wiusliington  1861-63,  and  served 
as  chief  of  artillery  in  the  armies  commanded  by  Gen.  Sher- 
man. He  was  a  memlier  of  various  boards,  and  after  the 
war  was  a.ssigne(l  to  the  command  of  the  northern  (lake) 
frt.ntier  for  the  preservation  of  the  national  neutrality:  in 
1867  appointed  to  command  the  l'.  S.  Artillery  School  at 
Fortress  Monroe.  Gen.  Barry  was  the  author  of  Engineer 
and  Artillery  Operations  of  the  Ann;/  of  the  lotomnc.  a.  d 
lSiil-*>3.  in  conjunction  with  the  writer,  and  .1  Si/stem  of 
Taetirx  for  the  Field  Artillen/  of  the  United  Slatex.  in  con- 
junction" with  Maj.-Gens.  W.  H.  Freni-h  ami  II.  J.  Hunt.  D. 
near  Baltimore,  July  18,  187!). 

Barry.  Wtlijam  Tavlor  :  b.  in  Lunenlmrg.  Va..  Feb.  5. 
1784;  graduated  at  William  and  .Mary  College  in  1803;  be- 
came a  lawyer;  was  member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky 
(1810-11);  served  in  the  war  of  1813;  was  U.  S.  Senator 
(1814-16);  Avas  in  turn  a  judge,  lieulemint-governor.  State 
secretary,  and  chief  just  ice  of  Kent uckv ;  Postmaster-General 
uncler  Jackson  (1838-35);  and  d.  in  Liverpool,  Aug.  30,  1835, 
while  nn  his  way  to  Spain  n.s  U.  S.  minister. 

Barry,  Countess  du  ;  See  Du  Barry. 

Barry  ("ornwall:  See  Proctor.  Brva.v  Walter. 

Bars,  bursh  :  a  county  of  Xorthern  Hungary:  area,  1,033 
sq.  miles.  Willi  the  exception  of  a  small  part  in  the  S..  the 
country  is  mountainous,  and  is  traversed  bv  the  Gran  and 


the  Zsitva.  The  soil  of  the  plain  in  the  southern  part  is  very 
fertile,  and  produces  ehielly  grain.  Pop.  (1890)  153,053. 
Chief  town,  Kreninitz. 

Barse.  (lEORGE  R.,  Jr. :  figure-painter:  I),  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
July  31.  1861.  Pupil  of  Calianel,  Boulanger,  and  Lefebvre, 
Paris;  meiiil)er  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists  1889. 
His  pictures  latterly  have  been  painted  from  motives  found 
in  Capri.  Italy,  where  he  went  to  reside  in  1890,  and  his  work 
is  generally  tlecorativc  in  character.  W.  A.  C. 

Bar-.siir-Anbe.  Iia'ar'siir-ob' (Lat.  Bar'rum  ad  At  bnlam): 
an  ancient  town  of  France;  department  of  Aube;  on  the 
river  Aube;  33  miles  by  rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Troyes  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  4-(i).  It  has  a  trade  in  wine,  hemp,  grain,  and 
wool.  The  allied  sovereigns  held  a  council  here  Feb..  1814, 
and  here,  in  the  same  year,  occiirrecitwo  battles  between  the 
allies  and  the  French.'   Pop.  (1891)  4.343. 

Bar-sur-Seiiie,  ba1ir silr-sayn'  (Lat.  Bar'rum  ad  Seq- 
iianum):  a  town  of  France:  department  of  Aube;  on  the 
river  Seine ;  17  miles  S.  E.  of  Troyes  (see  map  of  France,  ref. 
4-G):  w'as  important  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  allies  de- 
feated the  French  here  in  1814.     Pop.  (1891)  3,237. 

Barter:  the  exchange  of  one  commodity  for  another,  as 
dis(inguishe<l  from  the  exchange  of  a  commodity  for  money. 
This  is  a  (irimitive  method  of  trading  commonly  practiced 
by  barbarous  peoples,  but  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the 
comnieree  of  civilized  nations,  wiiich  demands  a  standard 
of  value  or  money.  (See  Moxet.)  Ships  sailing  to  uncivi- 
lized countries  often  carry  weapons,  tools,  or  ornaments  to  be 
used  in  barter  with  savages,  farmers  in  the  U.  S.  also  often 
barter  their  produce  for  goods  at  the  stores. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allex. 

Bartfeld,  baart'felt,  or  Bartfa :  an  old  town  of  North 
Hungary,  in  t  he  county  of  Saros,  on  the  river  Tepla,  30  miles 
X.  of  Eperies  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  4-.J).  It  has 
mineral  baths,  wiiicli  are  much  fre(|uente.d,  and  a  consider- 
able ccpiiiiiierce  in  wine,  brandy,  linen,  etc.     Pop.  5,403. 

Barth.  baart.  or  Bardt:  a  seaport -town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Pomerauia,  on  the  Binnensee,  15  miles  W.  X.  W. 
of  Stralsund  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-F).  It  ha.s 
ship-liuilding  docks,  and  a  trade  in  grain  and  wool.  Pop. 
(1890)  .5.578. 

Bartli,  Caspar,  von  (1587-1658) :  classical  [Oiilologian  ; 
spent  his  life  as  a  scholarly  man  of  leisure  in  Halle  and 
LiMpzig.  A  prolific  author,  and  much  admired  in  his  own 
day  for  his  erudition  and  critical  acumen;  now  chiefly  re- 
membered jis  an  unscrupulous  fabricator  of  text  readings 
which  he  pretended  to  have  di.scovered  in  neglected  MS.S. 

Alfred  Gldem.vx. 

Barth,  IlEiNRirti:  an  enterprising  German  explorer;  b. 
in  Hamburg.  Feb.  1(>.  1821.  He  traveled  in  Northern  Africa 
in  1845,  after  which  he  extended  his  explorations  to  Palestine, 
Arabia,  and  .Asia  Minor,  and  [jublished  Wiiuderinffs  along 
the  Shoref!  of  the  Mediterranean  (1849).  He  joined  Richard- 
son and  Ovevweg  in  an  expedil  ion  to  Central  .\frica.  but  they 
died  in  1851.  and  he  explored  that  country  alone  for  about 
five  years.  In  1863  he  became  Professor  of  (jcography  in 
Berlin.  He  published  TraveU  and  Discoveries  in  Central 
Africa  (5  vols.,  1858),  which  is  a  very  valuable  \york.  D.  in 
Berlin.  Nov.  35.  1866. 

BarthC'lcmy,  ba'arta'vl  mee',  Jean  Jacques:  French  an- 
tiquary: b.  near  Aubagne.  in  Provence,  July  30,  1716.  He 
learned  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  .Arabic,  and  Chaldee  languages, 
and  became  keeper  of  the  royal  caliinet  ot  medals  in  1753, 
after  which  he  traveled  in  Italy  and  collected  many  medals. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  numismatics  and  ancient  in- 
scriptions. His  principal  and  mo.st  popular  work  is  Travels 
of  Anarharxi.i  the  Younger  in  Green-  (\"oyage  du  jeuiie 
Anacharsis  en  Grece,  4  vols..  1788),  in  which  a  young  Scyth- 
ian describes  his  observations  in  Greece  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  It  has  been  translated  into  many  languages.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1789.  D.April 
30,  1795.  .See  Mancini-Nivernais.  Kssai  xur  la  vie  de  J.  J. 
liarthelenii/  (1795);  Yillenave,  yotice  sur  les  ouvrages  de  J. 
J.  Barthelemg  (1831).  in  connection  \vith  a  complete  edition 
of  his  works  in  four  volumes. 

Barthf'lemy  Saint-HHairo,  baar-tayl'-mee'  silii-lel'-lar', 
JiLEs:  French  scholar  and  journalist ;  b.  in  Paris.  Aug.  19, 
1805.  He  was  an  edit<u'  of  the  Xatinnal  and  other  liberal 
journals.  In  1838  he  became  Pro(es.-ior  of  Greek  and  Latin 
Philosophy  in  the  College  of  France ;  translated  tlie  works  of 
Aristotle  (4  vols.,  1839-44),  and  wrote  several  works,  among 


516 


BARTHEZ 


BARTLETT 


which  is  Du  Bouddhisme  (1855).  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  (lie  National  Asscmblv  in  1848.  He  was  secretary  to 
President  Thiers  in  1872-73.     D.  in  Paris,  Xov.  25,  1895. 

Bartliez,  IiM'ir'tes'.  nr  Bartlios.  Paul  Joskpii,  M.  D., 
I,L.  I). :  French  ]ilivsiri;in  ;iiid  writer;  b.  in  IMontpellicr, 
Dec.  11,  1734.  lie  lu'came  I'rcilV.-iMir  of  Jledicine  in  that 
city  in  1759.  and  removed  to  Paris  in  1780,  after  which  he 
was  consnlting  jihysician  to  the  king;  and  a  member  of  the 
council  of  state.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  Sew  Ele- 
7neiils  of  the  Science  of  Man  (1778).  D.  in  Paris.  Oct.  15, 
1806.  See  Lordat,  Jlemoires  siir  la  vie  de  P.  J.  Barthez 
(1818). 

Bartholdl.  baartol-dce',  Frederic  Auguste:  sculptor; 
b.  at  t'olmar,  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  Apr.  2,  1834;  first  studied 
painting  under  .Vry  Schetfer  in  Paris,  but  afterward  devoted 
himself" exclusively  to  sculi>turc,  and  began  to  exhibit  in 
1847.  Among  his  best-known  works  ai-e  the  busts  of  Erek- 
mann  and  Chatrian,  the  statues />«  Mdh'diction  d' Alsace: 
Lafayette.  Arriving  in  America;  and  Libertij  Enligldening 
the  World,  the  colossal  figure  of  the  goddess  of  Liberty  (a 
complete  lighthouse,  see  New  York  City)  which  the  people 
of  France  presenteil  lo  the  U.  S.  Bartholdi  is  author  of  a 
description  of  this  statue,  pulilished  in  1885,  was  present  at 
its  unveiling,  Oct.  28,  1886,  and  has  been  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Bartholin,  baar'to-lin,  Casper:  b.  in  Malmo,  Sweden,  in 
1585.  He  was  famous  for  his  precocity  and  learning ;  entered 
the  University  of  Copenhagen  when  about  eighteen,  and  af- 
terward studied  at  Rostock  and  Wittemburg  ;  was  Professor 
of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  1613  to  1624.  He 
afterward  became  Professor  of  Divinity ;  wrote  about  fifty 
works,  mostly  on  medical  subjects.  D.  in  Soro,  July  13, 
1630. 

BarthoHii,  Thomas,  M.  D. :  physician;  son  of  Casper 
above ;  b.  in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  20,  1619.  He  became  in  1647 
Professor  of  Mathematics,  and  next  year  of  Anatomy,  at 
Copenhagen,  and  wrote,  among  other  works  in  Latin,  one  on 
the  lymphatic  vessels  (the  discovery  of  which  he  claimed) ;  a 
treatise  on  the  functions  of  the  liver;  and  Anatomia  (1641), 
which  [lassed  through  many  editions  and  obtained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  text-book.  His  house,  library,  and  MSS.  were 
burned  in  1670.  Thereupon  he  was  nnide  physician  to  the 
king  and  librari.'Ui  of  the  university.  (Irand  councilor  of 
Jtenmark  in  1675.  The  Bartholin  family  produced  many 
eminent  physicians.     D.  Dec.  4,  1680. 

BarthoUn.  Thomas:  b.  April  8.  1659;  d.  Nov.  15,  1690. 
One  of  the  founch'rs  of  the  study  of  northern  anti<iuities. 
His  chief  work,  Aiifiquitatuiii  Danicanim  de  Causis  con- 
tempttB  a  Danis  odhiic  Gentitihiis  Jlortis  Libri  Tre.%  was 
published  at  Copenhagen  (where  he  was  professor)  in  1689. 

G.  L.  KlTTREUGE. 

Bartliol'omew:  a  bayou  in  .\rkansas  and  Louisiana;  rises 
in  JetTerson  County  in  the  fornu'r  State,  Hows  nearly  south- 
ward into  Louisiana,  and  enters  the  Wjishita  river  at  Wash- 
ita city.     H  is  navigable  for  steamboats  for  250  miles. 

Bartholomew  |in  tir.  BapBoKofiaTos :  in  liat.  Bartholomm'- 
us]:  saint,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles;  supiiosed  to  be  the 
same  as  the  Xiithanael  mentioned  in  John  i.  45—49.  We 
have  no  authentic  information  respecting  his  labors  or  his 
death.  According  to  tra<lition,  he  preached  the  gospel  in 
India. 

Bartholomew,  KnwARD  Suefi'ield:  .sculptor;  b.  in  Col- 
chester, Conn.,  in  1822.  He  jiracticed  dentistry  lor  a  lime, 
and  then  learned  painting,  but  afterward  became  distin- 
guished as  a  sculjitor.  From  1845  to  1848  he  was  in  Hart- 
ford, and  after  two  years  sjient  in  New  York  he  went  to 
Italv,  where  he  died  at  Naiiles.  May  2,  1858.  Some  of  his 
works  are  greatly  admired.  Among  them  Are  'J'he  Shep- 
herd Boi/:  Youth  and  Age,  a  monument  to  Charles  Carroll ; 
Cfant/niede  and  the  Kagle,  etc. 

Bartholomew  Fair:  a  great  English  market  held  annu- 
ally in  West  Smithfield,  London,  on  the  festival  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (Aug.  24,  old  style).  The  charter  of  this  fair  was 
granted  by  Henry  L  in  113:!.  11  was  origimdly  connected 
with  the  Chnri-h,  under  whose  auspices  miracle-plays,  mys- 
teries, and  moralities  were  represented  at  the  fair.  In  the 
first  centuries  of  its  existence  this  was  the  chief  cloth-fair 
of  the  kingdom.  Leather,  pewter,  and  live  cattle  were  also 
sold  here.  Crowds  of  people  were  attracted  to  it  by  a  variety 
of  popular  amnsements  and  the  I'xhibitions  of  acrobats,  tnm- 
l>lers,  mountebanks,  mummers,  an<l  merry-andrews.    Having 


ceased  to  be  a  place  of  traffic  and  become  a  nuisance,  it  was 
abolished  in  1855.  See  Henry  Morley,  Jfemoirs  of  Barthol- 
omew Fair  (1859). 

Bartholomew's  Hospital.  Ijondon;  foimded  in  1102  by 
Rahere.  the  king's  minstrel:  was  at  tir.st  connected  with  a 
priory  established  by  the  same  jierson.  It  was  made  a  sanc- 
tuary by  Edward  II.,  but  hospital  and  prioi'y  were  both  dis- 
solved by  Henry  VllL.  who  founded  the  hospital  anew,  giv- 
ing 500  marks  yearly  for  its  maintenance,  on  condition  the 
city  should  give  the  like  sum.  There  is  a  medical  school 
attached  to  it.  and  the  hospital  relieves  about  70,000  jiatients 
annually. 

Bartholomew,  St. :  an  island  of  the  West  Indies.  See 
St.  Baktholomew. 

Bartholomew,  St.,  Massacre  of:  the  massacre  of  French 
Protestants  which  commenced  at  Paris  in  the  night  of  the 
23d  and  24th  of  Aug.,  1572.  During  the  minority  of  Charles 
IX.  and  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  a 
long  civil  war  raged  in  France  between  the  Catholics  and 
Huguenots,  whose  leaders  were  the  Prince  of  Conde  and  Ad- 
miral tloligny.  In  1570  the  com-t  made  to  the  Huguenots 
overtures  which  resulted  in  a  treaty  of  peace.  Charles  in- 
vited Coligny  and  other  leaders  of  that  party  to  court,  and 
received  them  with  warm  demonstrations  of  friendship, 
which  were  ])robably  perfidious.  The  false  security  of  the 
Huguenots  was  increased  liy  a  marriage  between  Henry 
of  Navarre  and  Jlargaret,  who  was  a  sister  of  Charles  IX. 
Many  Huguenots  went  to  Paris  to  attend  the  wedding  in 
Aug.,  1572.  Probably  the  principal  instigator  of  the  mas- 
sacre was  Catherine  de  Medicis.  Admiral  Coligny  was 
womided  by  a  shot  from  a  window  of  the  royal  jialace  on  the 
22d.  The  general  massacre  commenced  at  two  o'clock  on 
Sunday  morning,  Aug.  24,  and  continued  for  several  days. 
The  provinces  followed  the  example  of  the  capital,  with 
some  exceptions.  In  regard  to  the  number  of  victims  there 
is  no  certainty.  Estimates  have  varied  from  1.000  to  10.000 
for  Paris,  and  from  2.000  to  100,000  for  the  whole  of  France. 
Naturally,  in  that  age  when  the  idi-a  prevailed  that  religious 
dissidents  were  projjcrly  to  be  put  to  death  as  foes  of  God. 
and  persecution  was  ju-stified  on  all  hands,  the  news  of 
the  massacre  occasioned  joy  in  Rome.  A  medal  struck  at 
the  time  is  monmueiital  jiroof  of  this.  See  Sismondi,  His- 
tory of  France;  II.  Martin.  History  of  France;  De  Tliou, 
Ilistoria  siii  Temporis  ;  'J'he  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
by  Henry  White  (London,  1868):  especially  II.  M.  Bainl, 
the  liise  of  the  Huguenots  (New  York,  1879,  2  vols.,  vol.  ii.) 

Bar'tizaii :  a  term  in  architecture,  first  used  by  Sir  Wal- 
ter Seiitt.  and  employed  by  him  to  mean  sometimes  a  bal- 
cony (as  in  ^Varertel|) :  sometinu'S  a  fortified  turret  or  flank- 
ing ]irojection  (as  in  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  and  in 
The  Eve  of  St.  John).  Scott  uses  the  f.)articij)le  "Imr- 
lizaned  "  in  the  sense  of  embattled,  orfiirnished  with  battle- 
ments (as  in  The  Heart  of  Midlothian).  In  this  sen.se  it 
has  been  used  liy  other  writers,  but  the  word  has  no  author- 
ity and  no  positive  signification. 

Bart'lett.  Edwahi>  Tottersox.  D.  D.  :  Professor  of  Fccle- 
siastieal  lli>torv.  and  dean  of  the  Episcopal  Divinitv  School, 
Philadeliihia:  b.  in  Philadelphia,  July  2.5.  1S43  ;  was  grad- 
uated at  University  of  Pennsylvania  1865 :  received  D.I). 
from  his  ahiia  uiatrr  1!S87;  studied  theology  at  Andover 
1865-68;  onlained  lS(>9-70;  professor  and  dean  1884.  Chief 
literary  work,  other  than  occasional  sermons,  reviews,  etc., 
is  the  third  volume  of  Tlie  Scriptures,  Hebrew  and  Chris- 
tian, 18!)2  :  published  in  connection  with  the  Orientalist, 
Rev.  Prof.  John  Punnelt  Peters.  Ph.D.,  formerly  Professor 
of  Hebrew  in  the  I'liiladelphia  Divinity  School.  Hartlett's 
contriliution  to  this  woik  was  the  New  Testament  volume. 

Bart  let  t.  Elisha.  M.  D.  :  physician  ;  b.  in  Smitlifield,  R.  I., 
Oct.  6,  l.S()4.  He  was  the  first'  ni.ayor  of  Lowell,  Mass.:  de- 
livered many  medical  lectures:  be<'ame  Professor  of  Medi- 
cine in  tile  University  of  IMaryland  in  1844.  and  took  the 
same  position  in  the  Univei-sity  of  New  York  in  l.s.50,  which 
he  left  in  1(S.52  to  become  Profes.sor  of  Materia  Sledica  and 
Medical  Jurisprudence  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  of  the  same  city.  Among  other  niedleal  works, 
li(-  wrote  an  Ks.tai/  on  the  Philo-iophy  of  Medical  Science. 
D.  in  Smithlield,  .fuly  18.  18.55. 

Bartlett.  Jonx  R.  :  U.  S.  naval  officer:  b.  in  Provi- 
ilence.  R.  1..  Sept.  2(i.  ls'43;  enteriMl  the  naval  academy 
Nov.  2.5,  1.S.5!) :  a  commander  in  1S77;  chief  hydrographer 
to  Bureau  of  Navigation,  Washington.  D.  C..  June  22,  1883, 
and   was   promoted  to  the  rank  of  ca|jtain  July   1,  1892. 


BARTLETT 


BARTOLOMMKO 


511 


He  served  in  tlic  steamer  Mississippi  at  tlie  passage  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Pliilip  and  capture  of  New  Orleans,  Apr.  24, 
1862.  While  attached  to  the  stcain-sloop  Susf|uelianna  lie 
took  part  in  butli  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  and  was  one  of  the 
assaulting  party  of  Jan.  15. 18(5.).  and  was  specially  mentioned 
in  the  reports  of  Com.  Uodou  and  Lieut. -Com.  Blake. 

Bartlett.  Jonx  Kisskll:  writer;  b.  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
Oct.  2:i.  ISO."):  was  one  of  thefoundeisof  the  .\inerican  Kth- 
nolo;;ical  Society,  lie  \va.s  appointed  in  IH.JO  commissioner 
to  determine  the  Iniundary  between  Mexico  and  the  V.  S. 
Ho  published,  Ijesides  other  works,  a  yarrulive  of  Explora- 
tions and  Incidents  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico  (3  vols., 
1854);  Progress  of  Ethnologij  (1847);  Dictionary  of  Ameri- 
canisms (1848);  Bililiol/ieca  Americana  (4  vols.,  1863-70); 
many  reconls  of  Rhode  Island  from  original  documents ; 
historian  of  the  State's  part  in  the  civil  war;  local  gene- 
alogies, and  Primeval  Man  (18(i8).  Secri'tarv  of  .Slate  for 
Rhode  Island  1855-72.     D.  in  Providence,  May  28,  1880. 

Uartletf,  Josiau,  M.  D.  :  physician  and  chief  justice  of 
New  Ilampshire;  b.  in  Amesbury.  Mass.,  Nov.  21, 1729.  He 
signed  the  Di'claration  of  Independence,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776-78.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  New  Hampshire  in  1790,  and  Governor  of  tliat  State 
under  the  new  constitution  in  1793.  1).  in  New  Ilampshire, 
May  I'.l,  179.). 

IJartli'tt,  SAjruEL  Coi.cord,  D.  D..  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Salisbury. 
N.  H.,  Nov.  25,  1817  ;  graduated  in  18:56  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, where  ho  was  afterward  tutor,  and  at  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1842.  Tn  1843  he  was  settled  over 
the  Congregational  chMnh  in  Monson.  Mass.;  in  1846  be- 
came Professiu-  of  Intellectual  and  Moral  Philosophy  in 
Western  Reserve  College  ;  in  1852  took  charge  of  the  Frank- 
lin Street  church,  Manchester.  N.  H. ;  in  1857  became  pastor 
of  the  New  England  church,  ('hicago.  III.;  and  in  1858  wjis 
maile  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in  the  Chicago  (Con- 
gregational) Theological  Seminary.  In  1873  he  hail  leave  of 
absence  for  a  year  to  travel  in  the  East.  In  1877  he  w'as 
made  president  of  Dartmouth  College,  which  olTice  he  re- 
signed in  1892.  He  has  published  Life  and  Death  Eternal ; 
Sketches  of  Missions  of  lite  American  Board  ;  Future  Pun- 
ishmi-nt ;  besides  a  goodly  numljcr  of  sermons,  orations,  ad- 
dre-«es,  and  articles  in  the  leading  reviews.  He  contributed 
to  the  American  edition  of  Smitirs  Dictionari/  of  the  Bihle. 
Revised  by  Georoe  P.  Fishek. 

Bartlett.  William  Alvin-,  D.  D.  ;  Presbyterian  minister  ; 
1>.  in  llinghamton,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  4,  1834  ;  educated  at  Hamil- 
ton College,  L'tnon  Theologictal  Seminary,  and  the  univer- 
sities of  Halle  and  I'erlin,  Germany.  Before  entering  >ipon 
his  present  charge  as  pastor  of  the  New  York  Avenue  Pres- 
byterian church,  Washington.  D.  C,  he  was  successively 
pastor  of  Congregational  churches  in  Owego  and  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y..  and  Chicago,  111.,  and  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
church  in  Indiaiuipolis,  Ind.  lie  hiis  published  a  serial  story, 
The  Lost  Image,  and  contributed  largely  to  periodical  lit- 
erature. Willis  J.  Beecher. 

Bartlett.  Wh.liam  Francis:  volunteer  solilier;  b.  in 
Haverhill,  .Mass.,  June  0,  1840;  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1801.  On  the  outl»reak  of  the  civil  war  he  enteri^d 
the  service  as  a  private  soldier,  and  was  appointeil  captain 
in  the  Twentieth  -Massachusetts  July,  1861 ;  at  the  siege  of 
Yorktown,  Apr.,  1862,  he  lost  a  leg;  was  commissioned 
colonel  of  tho  Forty-ninth  Massachusetts  Infantry,  which 
regiment  he  led  in  "the  assault  on  Port  Hudson,  La.,  May 
27,  1863,  where  he  wjis  wounded  in  the  leg  and  arm.  On 
this  occasion  he  ilisplayed  such  daring,  and  was  so  conspicu- 
ous a  mark,  being  mounted,  that  the  Confederate  olhcers 
gave  orders  not  to  shoot  at  him.  Colonel  of  the  Fifty- 
seventh  Miussachusetts  Veteran  Regiment,  Aug.,  1863; 
woundiul  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness;  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  June  22,  1864,  for  consiiicuous  gallantry.  He 
led  the  assaidting  column  at  the  explosion  of  the  mine  near 
Petersburg.  July  30,  1864.  and  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner. Hreveted  major-general  U.  S.  volunteers.  I),  in 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Dec.  17,^1870. 

Bartlett,  William  Henry:  artist  and  writer;  b.  in  Lon- 
don. Englanil,  Mar.  26,  1809.  He  traveled  in  many  parts  of 
Eunipe  and  .VnuMica,  and  visited  Kgvpl  and  Palestine.  He 
published  numerous  popular  works,  illu.strate<l  with  engrav- 
mgs  designed  by  himself.  Among  his  works  are  Waiks  in 
and  nhoiit  Jerusalem  (1844),  and  The  Xile-boat,  or  Glimpses 
of  the  Land  of  Ei/iipl  (1849.)  D.  at  sea,  between  Malta  and 
Marseilles,  Sijpt.  13,  1854. 


Bartlott,  William  IIe.vrv:  contemporary  landscape- 
painter  of  the  English  school ;  b.  in  Lonilon ;  pupil  of  Bou- 
guereau  and  of  Tonv  Robert  Fleury.  Received  a  second- 
class  medal  at  the  f'aris  Exposition,  1889,  for  his  picture 
Return  from  the  Fair.  Has  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy and  at  the  Grosvenor  Gallerv,  London.  Studio  in  Lon- 
don. ■  W.  A.  C. 

Bartlett,  William  Holms  CnAMBERS,  LL.D. :  soldier 
and  scientist ;  b.  in  Lancaster  co..  Pa.,  1809  ;  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1826.  He  serveil,  while  lieutenant  of  engi- 
neei's,  iis  assistant  professor  at  the  Jlilitary  Academy  1827- 
29 ;  in  the  constniction  of  Fort  Monroe,  Va.,  and  Port 
Adams,  R.  I.,  1828-;i2  ;  as  assistant  to  the  chief  engineer  at 
\\'ashington,  D.  C,  1832-34;  and  as  acting  Professor  of 
Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy  at  the  Military  Acad- 
emy 1834-36.  On  resigning  his  lieutenancy,  Apr.  20.  18.36, 
he  was  appointed  full  Professor  of  Philosophy,  continuing  as 
such  till  retired  from  active  service.  Feb.  14,  1871.  lb'  is 
author  of  a  Treatise  on  0/)//V.s' (1839);  of  Synthetical  Me- 
chanics (1850-58);  ot  Acoustics  and  Optics  (1852-59);  of 
Analytical  Mechanics  (1853-59) ;  and  of  Spherical  Astron- 
omy (1855-58).  He  w'as  a  member  of  several  scientific  a.sso- 
cialions,  corporator  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
from  its  formation,  and  became  in  1871  actuary  of  the  Mu- 
tual Life  Insurance  Companvof  New  York  citv.  D. at  Yon- 
kers.  N.  Y.,  Feb.  11,  1893. 

Bar'tol,  Cyrus  Augustis,  D.  D. ;  Unitarian  preacher 
and  author;  b.  in  Freeport,  Me.,  Apr.  30.1813.  He  grad- 
uated in  Howdoin  College  in  1832,  at  the  Cambridge  Divin- 
ity School  in  1835 :  settled  as  colleague  pastor  of  West 
church,  Boston,  in  1837.  A  mendier  of  the  famous  Tran- 
scendental Club.  His  principal  writings  are  Discourses  on 
the  Christian  Spirit  and  Life  (1850):  Discourses  on  the 
Christian  Bod)/  and  Form  (1851) ;  Pictures  of  Europe{lS5S); 
Radical  Proh'lems  (1872);  and  The  Rising  Faith  (1873). 
His  contributions  to  periodical  literature  are  numerous  and 
valualile,  being  characterized  by  a  style  at  once  homely  and 
uni(iue,  and  deep  religious  feeling.  Retired  from  the  min- 
istry after  a  pastorate  of  fifty  yeai's. 

Revised  by  Joii.v  W.  Cbadwick. 

Bartoli,  b.aarto-lee,  Anoi.Fo;  philologist  and  historian  of 
Italian  literature  ;  b.  in  Fivizzano,  Nov.  19. 1833;  since  1874 
Professor  of  Italian  Literature  in  the  Instituto  di  Studj  Su- 
periori  in  Florence.  His  first  important  work  was  /  primi 
dm;  secoli  delta  lelteralura  ilaliana  (Milan.  1875-80),  of 
great  infiuence  upon  the  study  of  early  Italian  literature. 
Since  this  he  has  puhUahQ A I  precursori  del  Boccaccio  (1876) ; 
/  precursori  del  Rinasciinento  (1876):  and,  chief  among  his 
works.  La  storia  della  lelteralura  italiana  (7  vols..  1878-^9). 

A.  R.  Marsu. 

Bartoli,  Taddeo:  Italian  painter  of  the  Siennese  school ; 
b.  1362;  d.  1422;  chief  work.  Life  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  Pa- 
lazzo at  Sienna. — Daniello  :  Jesuit  scholar ;  b.  in  Ferrara, 
Nov.  12,  1608;  d.  Jan.  13. 16S5,  as  rector  of  the  Jesuit  Col- 
lege in  Rome  ;  chief  wcirk.  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. — 
Pietro  Sa.nti  :  called  Perugino;  painter  and  etcher;  pupil 
of  Nicholas  Poussin ;  b.  in  Baratola,  Perugia,  1635;  d.  in 
Rome,  Nov.  7,  1700. 

Bartolini.  baar-tw-lee'ne"!'.  Lorenzo  :  an  Italian  sculptor  ; 
b.  in  Vernio,  Tuscany,  Jan.  7. 1777.  He  studied  and  worked 
in  Paris,  and  was  patronized  by  Napoleon,  who  in  1808  di- 
rected him  to  found  a  school  of  sculpture  at  Carrara.  In 
1815  he  removed  to  Florence,  where  he  worked  for  many 
yeai-s.  Among  his  masterpieces  are  a  colossal  bust  of  Na- 
poleon 1..  the  group  of  Hercules  and  Lichas ;  Faith  in  God ; 
and  a  group  called  Charity.  His  works  are  characterized 
bv  a  classic  repose  and  simplicity.  He  is  ranked  by  the 
Italians  as  second  only  to  Canova."  D.  in  Florence,  Jan.  20, 
1850. 

Bartolonimeo,  ba"iir-t(5-loni-may'o,  Fra  (whose  true  name 
was  Paccio  delle  Porta)  :  b.  in  Savignano  in  1475  :  studied 
under  Cosinu)  Rosselli  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  had 
already  acciuired  a  great  reputation  as  a  ])ainter  when  the 
condemnation  and  execution  of  his  friend  Savonarola  caused 
him  to  give  up  his  art  and  retire  to  a  Dominican  convent 
in  1.500.  In  1.506.  however,  he  again  took  uj)  painting,  and 
he  subsequently  visited  Rome  in  order  to  study  the  works 
of  Michael  Angelo.  Most  of  his  life  he  spent  in  Florence, 
where  he  died  Aug.  3.  1517.  and  here  are  his  most  cele- 
brated pictures,  the  Nativity,  Circumcision;  Virgin  on 
the  Throne,  in  the  public  gallery;  the  St.  Mark  and  the 
Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  Palazzo  Pitti ;  and  Last  Judgment, 


518 


BARTOLOZZI 


BARTSCH 


in  chapel  of  Santa  Jlaria  Xiiova.  His  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Sebastian  were  painted  to  prove  that  he  did  not  lacli  power, 
and  are  his  best  works. 

Bartolozzi.  baar-to-lot'sei?.  Francesoo:  an  Italian  en- 
graver :  b.  in  Florence,  Sept.  31. 1728 ;  was  a  scliolar  of  Fer- 
reti  and  Joseph  Wagner.  He  lived  many  years  in  London, 
and  exerted  a  bad  influence  by  spreading  the  stippled  man- 
ner. His  works  are  veiT  numerous.  D.  in  Lisbon,  Portugal, 
about  1816. 

Bar'ton  :  village,  on  railroad,  Orleans  co.,  Vt.  (for  location 
of  countv.  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  2-D).  The  fertUe  soil 
and  abundant  water-power  of  the  township  make  agricultu- 
ral and  manufacturing  business  profitable.  Tlie  chief  ar- 
ticle of  manufacture  is  lumlier  :  a  hirge  factory  for  making 
underwear  was  built  in  1893.  It  has  graded  schools,  an 
academv,  and  a  librarv.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,364. 
Pop.  ofVaiage  (1880)  742:  (1890)  778  ;  (1892)  estimated,  865. 
EuiTOR  OF  '•  Orleans  County  Monitor." 

Barton.  Benjamin  Smith  :  physician  and  botanist ;  son 
of  Thomas  (1730-80),  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  and  of  a  sister 
of  David  Rittenhouse ;  b.  in  Lancaster.  Pa.,  Dec.  19,  1766; 
educated  at  York.  Pa.,  and  at  wliat  now  is  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania ;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgli  and  Gottin- 
gen ;  and  became  a  practitioner  in  Pliiladelphia.  He  was 
Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Botany  in  the  college 
where  he  graduated  1789,  of  Materia  Medica  1795,  and  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Benjamin  Rush  in  its  medical  school  1813.  Presi- 
dent of  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society ;  promoter  and 
officer  of  the  American  Philosopliical  Society,  contributing 
to  its  Transact iuiix.  He  wrote  treatises  on  natural  history, 
aboriginal  American  ethnology,  and  on  materia  medica. 
His  most  memorable  book  was  'Elements  of  Botanij  (Phila- 
delpliia.  1803).  wliicli  was  reprinted  and  lor  many  years  a 
standard  test-book.  D.  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  19.  1815.  See 
Biofimphy,  bv  liis  nepliew,  W.  P.  C.  Barton  (Pliiladelphia. 
181.^). 

Barton,  Bernard  :  known  a<  the  "  Quaker  poet  " ;  b.  in 
London,  England,  Jan.  31,  1784;  was  a  member  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends.  He  became  a  clerk  in  a  bank  at  Wood- 
iiriclge.  He  publislicd  Poems  (1820) :  Napolfon,  and  other 
Poems  (1823) ;  Devotional  Verses  (1826) ;  Tlie  Reliquary 
(1836);  Household  Verses  (1845);  and  other  works.  Sir 
Robert  Peel  procured  for  him  a  pension  of  £100.  His  works 
are  jiervaded  by  pious  sentiment  and  tenderness.  I),  at 
Woodbridge,  Feb.  19,  1849.  See  Memoirs  and  Letters  of 
Bernard  Barton,  edited  by  liis  daughter. 

Barton,  Clara  :  b.  about  1830  on  a  farm  at  Oxfoi-d,  Mass. : 
a  daughter  of  Capt.  Stephen  Barton,  and  educated  at  Clin- 
ton. X.  Y.  Early  in  life  she  engaged  in  teaching,  and 
founded  a  free  school  at  Bordentown,  the  lirst  in  New  Jer- 
sey, which  she  opened  with  six  pupils,  liut  which  numbered 
nearly  600  when,  in  1854,  slie  went  to  Wasliington.  Here 
she  was  appointetl  clerk  in  the  department  of  patents,  but 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  she  resigned  her  clerkship 
and  devoted  herself  to  the  alleviation  of  the  sufferings  of  the 
soldiers,  serving  not  in  the  hospitals,  but  on  the  battle-field. 
She  was  present  at  several  battles,  and  after  the  close  of  the 
war  originated,  and  for  some  time  carried  on  at  her  own 
expense,  the  search  for  missing  soldiers.  Having  lectured 
(1866-67)  on  Inridents  of  the  Vl'nr,  she  went  to  Europe  for 
iier  health,  and  settled  in  Switzerland,  but  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Franco-lierman  war  she  accepted  the  invitation  of 
tlie  Grand  Duchess  of  Bailcn  to  aid  her  in  the  establishment 
of  her  hospitals ;  and  she  afterward  followed  the  German 
army,  and  was  decorated  with  the  Golden  Cross  by  tlie 
Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  and  with  the  Iron  Cross  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany.  In  1881  she  organized  the  American 
lied  Cross  Society,  and.  becoming  its  president,  succeeded 
in  procuring  an  international  treaty  granting  it  protection. 
In  18s:!  she  was  ajipoiuteil  superintendent  of  the  Reforma- 
tory Prison  for  W  omen  at  Slicrljorii,  Mass.,  and  in  1884  was 
chosen  delegate  to  the  Intei'nalional  Peace  Convention  at 
Geneva.  In  1883,  at  the  request  of  a  committee  of  Congress, 
she  prepared  a  History  of  the  lied  Cross,  which  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Government  at  Washington. 

Barton.  David  :  b.  about  1785;  one  of  the  earliest  emi- 
grants to  Missouri  Territory  ;  president  of  the  convention  in 
1830  to  form  u  State  constitution;  Senator  in  Congress  from 
Missouri  1821-:ll ;  and  chairman  of  the  committee  on  public 
lands.     D.  at  Booncville,  Mo.,  Sept.  38,  1837. 

Barton,  Elizabetu  :  bee  Maid  of  Kent. 


Barton.  William  :  a  Revolutionary  general;  b.  in  War- 
ren, Bristol  CO.,  R,  I.,  May  26,  1748.  "As  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  Rhode  Island  militia  he  captured  Gen.  Prescott  July 
10,  1777.  He  was  wounded  and  disabled  in  1778  at  Bristol 
Ferry.  Congress  gave  him  a  colonel's  commission  and  a 
sword,  and  lie  received  a  grant  of  land  in  Vermont.  He  was 
many  years  imprisoned  in  Vermont  for  debt,  but  was  liber- 
ated in  1825  bv  La  Favette,  who  paid  the  demand  against 
him.     D.  at  Providence,  Oct.  32,  1831. 

Barton,  William  Paul  Crillon.  JI.  D.  :  a  botanist ; 
nephew  of  Dr.  B.  S.  Barton ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov. 
17.  1786;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1805;  received  his  de- 
gree of  M.  D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1808; 
surgeon  in  U.  S.  navy,  and  organizer  of  its  bureau  of  medi- 
cine and  surgery ;  Professor  of  Botany  in  University  of 
Pcnnsvlvania  1815.  and  in  Jefferson  Jledical  College.  He 
published  Flone  Pli iladelphicre  (181^-2ri):  Flora  of  North 
America  (3  vols..  1821-23) :  Materia  Medica  ;  Medical  Bot- 
any; Plan  for  Marine  Hospitals  (ISIT):  Biography  of  his 
uncle  (1815):  and  several  other  works.  D.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Feb.  29.  1S56. 

Barton-on-Hnmbpr ;  a  market-town  of  North  Lincoln- 
shire, England ;  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  llumber 
river.  6  miles  S.  W.  of  Hull,  with  which  it  has  steam-com- 
munication (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-J).  It  is  a  very 
ancient  place,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the 
Humber  river  before  Hull  was  settled.  It  was  once  sur- 
rounded liy  a  rampart  and  ditch  to  protect  it  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Danes  and  Saxons,  and  has  manufactures  of 
ropes,  sacking,  bricks,  pottery,  and  whiting ;  also  quarries  of 
chalk  and  oolite.  St.  Mary's  chiu-ch  is  a  fine  building, 
erected  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  ruins  of  Thornton 
Abbey,  founded  in  1139,  are  about  3  miles  to  the  southeast. 
Pop.  .5,300. 

Barton's  Bnttons  (called  also  Iris  Ornaments):  by 
means  of  a  dividing-engine.  Mr.  John  Barton  succeeded  in 
engraving  lines  on  steel  and  other  surfaces  not  more  than 
from  theViiiTTith  to  the  rJonth  of  an  inch  apart.  These,  ow- 
ing to  the  action  of  grooved  surfaces  on  light,  shine  in  the 
light  of  candles  or  lamps  with  all  tlie  colors  of  the  spectrum. 
Prom  steel  dies  thus  prepared  impressions  were  stamped 
upon  buttons  and  other  articles,  forming  ornaments  rival- 
ing in  colors  the  brilliant  flashes  of  the  diamond. 

Bartow,  baarto:  cajiital  of  Polk  co.,  Fla.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  ma])  of  Florida,  ref.  6-^1):  in  the  phosphate 
belt,  on  Southern  Florida  and  Florida  Southern  \\.  Rs..  76 
miles  N.  E.  of  Punta  Gorda.  It  has  manufactories  and 
orange  groves.     Pop.  (1880)  77  ;  (1890)  1.386. 

Bartow.  Francis  Stebbins;  b.  in  Savannah.  Ga.,  Sept.  6. 
1816 ;  graduated  at  Franklin  College.  Georgia.  1835  ;  studied 
law  at  the  law  school.  New  Haven,  Conn.;  became  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  Savannah  bar ;  was  a  member  of  the 
Georgia  Legislature,  of  the  Senate,  and  of  tlie  Confederate 
Congress.  During  the  civil  war  lie  entered  the  army  as 
captain  of  the  Oglethorpe  Light  Infantry,  was  appointed 
colonel  of  Eiglith  Georgia  Infanti-v.  and  brigadier-general 
C.  S.  A.     Killed  at  Jlanassas.  July  31,  1861. 

Bartrain,  William  :  an  American  botanist,  who  may  also 
be  classed  among  the  earlier  ornithologists;  b.  Feb.  9,  1739. 
He  spent  five  years  in  the  Southern  States  drawing  and  col- 
lecting specimens  of  natural  history,  and  published  the  re- 
sults of  his  obseiTations  in  a  work  entitled  Travels  throuyh 
North  and  South  Carolina.  Georgia,  etc.  (Phila.,  1791).  This 
book,  which  jiassed  through  several  editions  and  was  trans- 
lated into  French  and  German,  is  called  by  D.  Cones  "  the 
starting-point  of  a  distinctively  American  school  of  orni- 
thologv."  It  contained  a  catalogue  of  the  birds  of  the  East- 
ern U.S.,  in  which  many  species  are  named  as  new  which 
later  on  were  fully  described  by  Wilson,  who  was  aided  by 
Hart  ram  in  the  earlier  portion  of  his  book.    D.  July  33, 1833. 

P.  A.  Lucas. 

Bartsch.  Karl  FRiKURirn  Adolf  Koxrad;  philologist; 
b.  in  Sprottau.  Prussian  Silesia,  Feb.  35.  1832 ;  educated  at 
the  gymnasia  of  (ileiwitz  and  Breslau.  and  at  the  Univerei- 
ties  of  IJreshm  an<l  Berlin.  In  1853  he  went  to  Paris  to 
study  the  manuscri|)ts  of  Provencal  poetry,  and  also  visited 
libraries  at  London  and  Oxford  in  the  same  year.  In  18.55 
he  received  an  appointment  at  the  library  of  the  Germanic 
Museum  at  Nuremberg;  was  professor  at  Rostock  from 
1858-71.  and  at  Heidelberg  from  1871-88.  His  untiring  in- 
dustry combined  with  natural  talents  obtained  for  hnn  a 
high  rank  among  specialists  in  the  mediasval  languages  and 


BAUrclI 


BASCOM 


519 


literatures  of  boll)  (iermaiiy  iind  France,  ami  he  displayed 
iin  astoiiisliingr  activity  in  i]ulilisliiiif;  editions  of  texts,  and 
in  producing  investijjatious  on  metrical  and  lili-rary  sub- 
jects connectcil  with  them.  His  most  important  work  in  the 
Germanic  field  wsls  his  L'n/eisui-liuiu/en  fiber  i/its  yiOeliing- 
enlied  (1865),  followed  by  his  edition  of  the  poem  Der  Nibe- 
lunge  NOt.  with  the  readings  of  all  the  manuscripts  and  a 
lexicon  (lH70-«()),  As  a  Komance  scholar  he  is  most  widely 
known  through  his  books  fur  be;;innci-s  in  the  study  of  Old 
Frencii  and  Provencal,  the  Chnstomalhie  de  Vancien  fran- 
fai'«(lsl.  ed.  IMGti)  and  Chrestomuthie  proveni;ale  (1st  ed. 
1H6«),  both  of  which,  however,  even  in  the  latest  editions, 
still  contain  errors  due  to  a  lack  of  thorou<rhness  in  some 
details.  In  IHST  lie  published  with  A.  Ilorninj,' a  work  for 
the  studv  of  Old  French  on  a  similar  jilan.  Im  /iiiif/ue  ef  la 
lillerntu're  fniin'iiixe  (ninth  to  fourteenth  centuries).  lie 
contributed'  many  articles  on  various  subjects  to  philolog- 
ical periodicals,  and  was  since  1869  the  editor  of  one  of 
the  most  important,  the  Oermaiiid.  Among  his  other  pub- 
lications mav  be  mentioned :  Karl  der  Oroxxe  von  dem 
Strieker  (185^) ;  Albrechl  von  Iliilbersfadt  mid  Ovid  im  Mit- 
tetalter(\m\):  I'eber  Karlmeinel  (181)1);  Dcuhrhe.  Lieder- 
dichler  dex  XII.  bis  XIV.  ./((/iWiMHi/er/s  (1804  ;  id  ed.  1879) ; 
Kndriin  (180.)) :  Jtn.s  X'ibeliinf/enlied  (1860) ;  Ddi  Xihelung- 
eiilied  (a  translation  into  modern  German,  1807);  JTerzog 
Ern.it  (186!t) ;  Al/franzosi.'ic/ie  Romanzen  und  I'an/uurellen 
(1870);  ^yolfr(lm■^s  von  Eschenbnch  Parzival  und  Tiliirel 
(1870-71);  (Tnindrins  ziir  Ge.scliic/ile  der  provenzalischen 
LileratiirilSTi):  I)(i.<i  Jioland.slied  {l^"4);  a  translation  of 
Dante's  Divina  Commedia  (1877):  a  second  edition  of  Diez's 
Leben  und  Werke  der  Troubndunnt  (1M82):  and  of  Diez's  Die 
Poeme  der  Troubadours  (188;!) ;  Die  Alldetif.iv/ien  Iland- 
Krhriflen  der  Vniveriiitut.i-Bibliothek  in  Heidelberg  (1886). 
D.  in'  Heidelberg,  Feb.  19,  1888.  E.  S.  Siiki,I)on. 

RiiriU'h.  bay'rook  :  a  Hebrew  scribe ;  friend  and  com- 
panion of  the  prophet  .leremiah,  whom  he  served  as  amanu- 
ensis. Shortly  after  586  b.  r.  he  accompanied  Jeremiah  to 
Egypt,  Jer.  xliii.  6,  7.  His  subsequent  history  is  unknown. 
The  Book  of  IPiniv/i,  which  the  Roman  Catholics  admit  into 
the  canon  of  tlu!  Holy  Scripture,  is  considered  apocryphal 
bv  Protestants  an<l  .lews,  as  it  forms  no  part  of  the  Hebrew 
canon.  It  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew,  and  was  prob- 
ably the  joint  composition  of  si-veral  persons.  Haruch  had 
nothing  to  do  with  it.  As  a  whole,  it  dates  from  (he  third 
century  B,  r.  The  so-called  E/ti-flle  of  Jeremiah,  which  is  of 
later,  though  very  ancient,  date,  appeal's  sometimes  jis  its 
sixth  chapter.  The  Apocalypse  of  Jiariich  was  published  in 
a  Latin  translation  from  the  Syriac  by  Ceriani  in  1806,  and 
the  Sn-iac  itself  (liy  Ceriani)  in  1.S71.  Kneueker's  edition 
ii|)peared  in  1879.  The  bf)ok  was  writ  ten  originally  in  Greek. 
There  is  a  i)semlepigraphic  Epistle  of  IJuruch  in  tlie  Syria<; 
language,  probably  a  inoniLStic  forgery,  antl  certainly  worth- 
les.s.     See  Pskidki'Iokapha. 

Bartrood,  or  Caiinvuud :  a  red  dyewood  from  the  west- 
ern cciast  of  Africa.  It  is  the  wood  of  Bapliia  nifida,  a 
leguminous  tree.  Its  coloring  principle  is  slightly  soluble  in 
bulling  water,  freely  in  alcohol  and  alkaline  solutions. 

Itary,  biwree,  IlEiNRirn  A.nto.v,  de:  German  botanist:  h. 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  .Ian.  36,  18:U;  educated  in  the 
gvmntusinm  of  his  mitive  city  and  in  the  universities  of 
Heidelberg,  Marburg,  and  Berlin.  He  was  Professor  of 
llolany  successively  in  the  universities  of  Freiburg,  Ilalle, 
and  Slra-ssburg.  His  more  important  works  are:  Die 
Mi/relozoen  (1H59) ;  Britruge  ziir  jforpliologie  und  Pln/sioln- 
gie  der  Pilze  (1864-81):  Jiie  Morpliologie  und  Phi/siologie 
der  Pilze,  Flechlen  und  Myxomgreten  (1866) :  Vergleichende 
Anatnmie  der  Vegetationsorgane  der  Phanerogamen  und 
/•'arne  (1877);  Vergleichende  Mnrphologie  und  Biologic  der 
I'ilze.  Mgcelozoen  und  Bacterien  (1884):  Vorle.tungen  iiber 
Biiclerien  (1885).  The  bust  three  have  l)cen  translated  into 
Knglish.    D.  Jan.  19,  1888.  CnAitLES  E.  Bessev. 

Marycen'lric  Cal'onlus:  an  aiiplication  to  geometry  of 
the  mcehaniial  theory  of  tlie  ccnler  of  gravity,  executed  in 
two  ilistiiul  ways,  accoriling  as  nielrical  or  descriptive  geo- 
metrical proper!  ies  ari>  to  be  investigated.  It  was  developed 
ahnost  comiiletelv  by  Jliibius  in  his  Derbari/venlrische  Cal- 
ch/ (1837). 

Barye,  hira'ree',  AxTOi.vE  Lou'is:  sculptor;  b.  in  Paris, 
Sept.  34,  1795 ;  apprenticed  to  an  engraver:  served  in  the 
army  1S12-14:  studied  drawing  and  modeling  under  Bosio 
anil  Baron  Gros;  began  to  exhibit  his  seul)>tin'es  in  1827: 
a<>hieved  a  great  reputation,  especially  by  his  statuettes,  and 


groups  of  beasts,  reptiles,  etc.,  in  vigorous  action — a  deer 
stepping  liigh  through  the  grass,  an  elephant  in  Iidl  charge, 
a  jaguar  devouring  a  gazelle,  the  lion  aiul  the  serpent ;  be- 
came a  member  oi'  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1868.  D. 
in  Paris.  June  35.  1875.  Copious  collections  of  his  works 
nuiy  be  seen  in  Baltimore,  in  >'ew  York,  and  in  the  Corcoran 
Art  Gallery  in  Washington. 

Bary'ta,  or  Bary'tos  [nmd.  from  (ir.  j8opiis.  heavy]:  the 
oxide  of  barium:  an  alkaline  earth  and  a  virulent  poison 
(BaO,  sp.  gravity  4-5).  It  is  an  ingredient  in  sulphate  of 
baryta,  or  heavyspar,  from  which  it  is  obtained,  but  it  is  not 
useful  for  any  'puri>oso  except  chemical  analysis.  A  solu- 
tion of  baric  hydrate  is  used  by  the  chemist  as  the  best  test 
of  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid.  Barium  sulphate,  or  heavy 
spar,  is  a  common  crystallized  mineral  which  is  mixed  witli 
while  iead  and  used  iis  a  pigment  under  the  name  o{ perma- 
nent white.  Several  mixtures  of  this  sulphate  and  white 
lead  are  manufactureil  and  known  in  commerce.  Venice 
white  contains  1  part  of  the  sulphate  and  1  part  while  lead. 
Hamburg  white  contains  3  parts  of  the  sulphate  and  1  oart 
white  lead.  Dutch  while  contains  3  parts  of  the  sulphate 
and  1  part  white  lead.  'J'he  native  sulphate  \vas  employed 
by  the  celebrated  potter  Wedgwood  in  the  manufacture  of 
jasper-ware  and  for  the  formation  of  white  figures,  etc..  on 
'colored  jars  and  yessels.  It  is  extensively  used  for  a<luller- 
ating  white  lead  and  for  giving  weight  to  paper.  Baryta  is 
produced,  according  to  the  census  of  1890,  as  follows:  Illi- 
nois, 300  tons;  Jlissouri,  7.558  tons;  North  Carolina.  3,000 
tons;  Virginia,  10,702  tons:  aggregate  value,  §106.313. 

Bar'ytoiie.  written  also  Baritone  [fiom  Gr.  $apiroms, 
deep-soimding  :  j3opus,  heavy  +  rdi-os,  tone.  The  spelling 
baritone  represents  introduction  via  \\i\\.l>ariiono,:\\\A  isthe 
older]:  the  tone  of  a  man's  voice,  about  half-way  between 
the  bass  and  tenor.  It  generally  exten<ls  in  compass  from 
lo\v  A  of  the  ba.ss  clef  to  high  F'aboye  the  staff,  and  occu- 
pies the  same  position  as  the  mezzo  .toprano  of  the  female 
voice.  In  Greek  gramnuir.  words  with  an  unaccented  final 
syllable  are  called  barytones. 

Basalt'  [from  Lat.  bamltes] :  an  ancient  term  used  by 
Pliny  and  said  to  be  of  African  oi-igin.  In  common  usage 
it  includes  part  of  the  fine-grained,  dark-colored  igneoiis 
rocks  which  are  connnon  in  all  geological  horizons.  In  this 
sense  it  is  nearly  synonymous  with  trap  (Swed.  trappa, 
stairs),  a  term  first  vised  in  Scandinavia  in  allusion  to  the 
step-like  ai)i)earance  i)roduced  by  intrusive  sheets  of  this  rock 
in  softer  strata.  A  common  feature  of  basalt  or  tra])  is  its 
Icmleiu'y  to  divide,  by  contraction  due  to  cooling,  into  |)olyg- 
onal  columns,  whose  'position  is  in  the  main  normal  to  the 
cooling  surface.  Thes(!  may  therefore  be  vertical,  i-adialing, 
or.  in  dykes,  horizontal.  This  columnar  parting  sometimes 
occurs  in  otlier  igneous  rocks,  Init  is  so  characteristic  of  ba- 
salt that  it  is  often  called  "basaltic  structure."  Basalt  is 
usually  compact  and  heavy,  but  it  may  be  vesicular  or 
amvgdaloidal. 

In  a  more  restricted  and  scientific^  sense  basalt  is  used 
to  denote  an  igneous  rock  composed  essentially  of  a^triclinic 
feldspar  (labradorite).  augite,  olivine,  and  magnetite,  with 
more  or  less  glassy  bas(\  Its  silica  percentage  is  low  (45-53). 
Basidt  wa.s  formerly  applied  oidy  to  rocks  of  tertiary  age.its 
coarser  varieties  being  called  d'olerile.  The  cori-esponding 
pretertiarv  rocks  were  known  as  melaphi/rc  and  olivine-dia- 
base.  Now,  however,  it  is  preferable  to  use  the  term  basalt 
without  reference  to  age  for  all  the  finer  and  partly  glassy 
varieties,  reserving  the  terms  diabase  and  doleiite  for  tliose 
that  are  coarser  and  holocrystalline. 

Basalt  occurs  in  surface  flows,  intrusive  sheets,  and  dykes. 
When  molten  it  is  very  fluid,  and  often  spreads  oyer  large 
areas  in  thin  slu^ets.  "According  to  \'on  Kichthofen's  law 
(sec  Andesite).  basalt,  in  virtue  of  its  basic  character,  is  one 
of  the  youngest  products  of  volcanic  activity.  By  virtue  of 
their  durability,  basalt  flows  protect  softer  rocks  beneath 
them  from  erosion,  and  in  regions  undergoing  rapid  surface 
wa.ste  they  frequently  constitute  the  caps  of  mesas  and 
plateaus,  "  See  Giant's  Causeway  and  Rocks. 

George  H.  Williams. 

Bas'anitc:  See  Jasper. 

Bas'coin.  Henry  Biplemax,  H.  D„  lyL.  D. :  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episco|)al  Church  South;  b,  at  Hancock,  Dele- 
ware  CO..  N.  v..  >lay  27,  1796.  He  was  licensed  (o  preach  in 
1813,  and  in  1823  Was  chosen  chaplain  to  Congi-ess ;  was 
president  of  Madi.son  College,  Pa.,  1837-29;  Professor  of 
llorals,  Augusta  College,  Ky..  in  1832,  and  in  1842  president 
of  Transylvania  Uniyei-sity,"Ky,    From  1846  to  1850  he  was 


520 


BASCOM 


BASE-BALL 


editor  of  tlie  Quarterly  Review  of  his  Church.  In  1850  lie 
was  maiie  a  bisliop.  I),  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  8,  1850.  In 
one  of  his  earlier  j'ears  he  preached  400  times,  and  received 
a  salary  of  $12.10.  Bishop  Basconi  was  an  extremely  popu- 
lar speiiker.     Uis  complete  writings  were  published  in  185G. 

Bascom,  John,  LL.  D  :  author  and  scholar;  h.  at  Genoa, 
X.  Y..  May  1.  1827:  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1849 ; 
studied  law  and  theology,  the  latter  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1855  he  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  Will- 
iams College ;  president  of  tlie  University  of  Wisconsin 
iy74_y7.  [u.  has  publislied  Political  Economy  for  Colleges 
(1859):  ^Kst/ieficii  {1862):  Elements  of  Psychuloyy  (1869); 
The  Philosophii  of  Eiiylish  Literature  (1874);  Problems  in 
Philosojiliy  (1886)';  Socioloyy  (1887) :  and  other  works. 

Base  [\ia  Fr.  from  Lat.  basis,  from  Gr.  $d.<rts.  step,  base, 
pedestal,  from  sanu'  root  as  0aiv^iv,  to  go] :  a  term  having 
important  applications  in  architecture,  chemistry,  geometry, 
heraldry,  ami  nuisic  (It.  basso).  Base  in  general  signifies 
tlu'  bottom  of  anything  considered  as  its  support,  as  the  base 
of  a  mountain.  In  arcliitecture  it  denotes  the  lower  part  of 
an  architectiu-al  composition,  as  of  a  pier,  column,  or  ]iilas- 
ter;  and. also  of  a  comjilete  structure,  as  of  a  whole  building 
or  one  face  of  it.  In  these  different  senses  it  is  often  used 
loosely ;  tlius  a  base  of  a  wall  may  be  understood  as  a  bot- 
tom of  the  fomidation  or  as  the  lowest  part  of  the  decorative 
structure  aliove  ground.  The  base  of  a  column  is  the  mem- 
ber which  interposes  between  the  shaft  and  that  upon  which 
the  column  rests  as  the  pedestal  or  stylobate.  In  classical 
architecture  the  true  Doric  column  of  Greece  had  no  base  ; 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders  had  bases  of  convex  and 
concave  moldings,  sometimes  enriched  with  scidpture.  In 
European  mediaeval  architecture  the  columns  and  piers 
usually  had  bases,  and  these  are  of  endless  variety. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

In  chemistry  it  signifies  a  substance  that  has  the  ]iower 
to  neutralize  acids  and  form  salts  with  tliem.  The  terms 
acid  and  basic  are  complementary.  The  common  bases  are 
compornuls  consisting  of  a  metal  in  combination  with  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen.  Thus  the  base  potassium  hydroxide,  or 
hydrate,  or  caustic  potassa,  or  caustic  potash,  consists  of  the 
metal  potassium  in  combination  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
as  expressed  in  the  lormulu,  KOll.  So,  too.  sodium  hydrox- 
ide, NaOlI,  ammonium  hydroxide,  NII4OII,  calcium  !iy- 
droxide,  Ca(01I)3,  barium  hydroxide,  Ba(OH)j,  cuprie  hy- 
droxide, Cu(0II)5,  ferric  hydroxide,  Pe(OII)3,  aluminium 
hydroxide,  A1(0II)3,  etc.,  are  bases.  In  general  terms, 
whenever  a  base  acts  upon  an  acid  a  salt  is  formed.  Thus 
when  potassium  hydroxide  acts  upon  nitric  acid,  the  salt  po- 
tassium nitrate  or  saltpeter,  KNOs,  is  formed.  Similarly 
sodium  hydroxide  and  sulphuric  acid  form  the  salt  sodium 
sulphate. 

T  he  above  refers  to  oxygen  bases.  But  there  are  similar 
substances  containing  sulphur,  and  when  these  act  upon 
corresponding  sulphur  acids,  salts  containing  sulphur  in- 
stead of  oxygen,  but  analogous  to  the  oxygen  salts,  are 
foruu'd.  It  appears  also  that  clilorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and 
fluorine  take  the  place  of  oxygen  in  acids,  bases,  and  salts, 
and  form  the  well-known  compounds  commonly  called  dou- 
ble chlorides,  double  iodides,  double  fluorides,  etc. 

By  the  expression  organic  base  is  meant  a  compound  like 
aniline,  which  is  related  to  ammonia.  There  are  many  of 
these  substances  known  to  chemists.     See  Alkaloids. 

Ira  Remsen. 

The  military  term  base  of  operations  denotes,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  ///(('  of  operations,  the  (usu.'illy)  contiguous  and 
well-giuu'ded  (by  our  own  or  allied  forces)  region  upon  whicli 
an  army  depends  for  its  supplies,  re-enforcements,  etc.,  to 
which  it  sends  back  its  sick  and  wounded,  and  upon  which 
it  (generally)  would  fall  back  in  case  of  reverse  and  retreat. 
Much  pedantry  is  exi)ended  upon  these  plirases  in  what 
were  recogiHzed  as  standard  military  treatises.  The  es.sen- 
tial  thing  is  that  an  army  /aire  a.  base,  though  it  may  tem- 
porarily aliandon  one  ti)  ac(|uire  another;  or  in  ran>  cases 
it  may  so  thoroughly  control  the  hostile  region  in  which  it 
operates  lus  to  use  it  for  most  of  the  purposes  of  a  base. 

James  Mebcur. 
Base,  in  music:  See  Bass. 

IJasc-liall  :  the  national  out-door  game  of  the  U.  S. ;  re- 
puted to  lie  a  dcvelopim-nt  of  the  English  game  of  "  round- 
ers," but.  it  has  little  abmit  it  now  to  suggest  a  kinship,  ex- 
cept it  is  )ihi.yed  with  bat  and  liall.  The  game  hfis  developed 
from  the  crudest  of  games  in  1S45,  when  little  .skill  was  re- 
quired to  play  it  ami  only  the  simplest  rules  governed  the 


play,  into  one  of  the  most  scientific  and  e.xeiting  of  the 
world's  sports.  It  has  brought  into  its  development  the  in- 
born craving  of  youth  to  strike  hard  blows  ;  the  [ilaying  at 
catching  ball,  a  pastime  of  primitive  nations ;  running,  in 
which  swiftness  is  at  a  premium  ;  throwing  for  distance, 
s]jeed,  and  accuracy  ;  individual  chances  for  brilliant  prog- 
ress in  making  scores ;  and  the  whole  combined  in  such  a 
way  that  individual  skill  and  judgment  are  closely  joined 
with  team-play. 

The  first  real  step  toward  progress  in  the  development  of 
base-ball  was  made  by  the  Knickerbocker  Club  of  New  York 
city,  which  organized  in  1845,  and  soon  after  prepared  a 
code  of  playing  rules.  Up  to  1858  the  clubs  were  wholly 
amateur,  but  after  that  date  professional  clul.is  were  formeil, 
and  the  game  took  on  new  development,  which  culminated 
in  its  present  perfected  state.  There  are  now  hundreds  of 
anuiteur  and  professional  clubs  throughout  the  U.  S.,  sepa- 
rated into  different  leagues.  First  and  greatest  among 
these  is  the  National  and  American  Association  League, 
which  pays  its  players  salaries  varying  from  one  to  several 
thousand  dollars  for  the  season. 

The  game  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  by  players 
from  the  U.  S.  in  1874,  and,  although  it  failed  at  first;  to  ex- 
cite much  interest,  it  increases  steadily  in  favor,  while  the 
same  is  true  of  Australia,  into  wluch  it  was  introduced  in 
1888. 

The  jjlaying-rules  regulate  the  size  of  balls  and  bats,  as 
well  as  define  the  way  the  ground  shall  be  laid  out.  A 
level  plot  of  land  450  feet  square  will  be  sufficient  for  the 

.     Th.    ■  ■       ■ 

a  scpuire  with 
sides  90  feet 
long,  and  are 
called  respec- 
tively {Joing 
from  right  to 
left  from  home 
base,  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third 
ba.se.  White 
chalk  lines  run- 
ning through 
home  and  first 
base  .-ind  home 
and  third  liase 
mark  the  foul 
lines.  A  back- 
stop for  stop- 
ping pitched 
balls  is  ]ilaced 
90  feet  back  of 
home  base. 

Nine  jilayers 
occupvpositicms 
inthisfield.  The 
catclier  plays 
anvwhere  back 
of  home  base  to  A^-  ground  reserved  for  batsman,  umpire,  and 
catcher;  B  B.  for  captain  niu!  assistant  :  CC. 


CATCHER'S  FENCE 


plaj'ers'    benches  ;    t).   bat-raet;    tor   visiting; 
players  ;  E,  for  home  players. 


suit  his  particu- 
lar duty.  The 
pitcher  delivers 
the  ball  to  the  batter  from  a  defined  "box"  distant  OO  feet 
from  home  base.  The  first,  second,  and  third  basemen 
attend  to  their  respective  bases.  The  short-stop  jilays  any- 
wh(!re  between  second  and  third  bases.  The  left,  center, 
and  right  fielders  take  positions  outside  the  diamond  and 
usually  in  tin?  direction  which  their  name  indicates. 

The  players  are  divided  into  three  distinct  groups,  the 
pitcher  aiid  catcher  forming  the  "battery";  the  first, 
second,  and  third  basemen  and  short-stop  composing  the 
"infield";  and  the  left,  center,  and  right  fielder  complet- 
ing the  "  outfield." 

These  three  groups  have  specialized  duties,  the  players 
being  selectecl  and  placed  according  to  their  skill  in  per- 
forming these.  The  battery  attends  to  the  work  of  tryin.g 
to  keeii  the  batter  from  reaching  first  base,  through  the 
pitcher  using  every  art  and  strategy  be  possesses  in  deliver- 
ing the  ball  to  him',  and  tlie  catcher  receiving  and  holding  the 
ball  when  not  struck.  The  pitcher  is  helped  in  his  work  by 
being  allowed  perfect  freiulom  in  throwing  underhand  or 
overhand,  being  the  gradual  development  from  a,  simple 
fiiti'h  or  toss  through  restricted  underhand  throwing  to  the 
pi'esenl  rrerdom  ;  i)y  the  discovery  that  a  ball  can  be  made 
to  curve  when  givcii  a  revolving  motion  on  its  own  axis  as 


BASE-BALL 


BASEDOW 


J21 


{; 


it  is  thrown  from  the  Imml,  the  direction  of  the  curve  de- 
pending on  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  axis  twist ; 
and  by  acijiiired  inuscidar  co-ordination  and  control,  where- 
bv  he  deceives  the  eyes  of  the  baiter  by  varving  the  speed 
of  the  ball  without  an  apjiarent  change  of  delivery. 

The  infield  attends  mostly  to  fielding  balls  hit  along  the 
ground  and  throwing  the  ruiuier  out  at  first  luise,  but  fre- 
quently at  other  bases.  One-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  twen- 
ty-seven or  more  put-outs  in  a  game  are  nuide  by  the  iidield. 

The  outfield  has  mostly  to  do  with  fielding  balls  hit  into 
the  air.  From  one-tiflh  to  one-third  of  the  batters  are 
caught  out  by  the  outfield. 

Eighteen  idayers  in  all  take  part  in  a  game.  A  recent 
rule  allows  a  change  battery  to  exchange  places  with  the 
one  already  playing.  Bv  toss  of  a  coin,  or  l)y  previous  ar- 
rangement, one  captain  has  the  right  to  decide  for  liis  team 
to  ■■  take  the  bat  "  or  "  the  field."  Then  each  player  takes 
his  turn  in  .striking  at  the  ball  until  three  batters  are  "out," 
when  the  nines  exchange  [ilaces.  The  order  of  strikers  is 
oreviously  arranged  by  the  captain.  When  the  other  side 
uus  hail  a  turn  at  the  bat  and  been  put  out,  one  inning  has 
been  played.  Kine  innings  constitute  a  game,  unless  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  two  nines  are  tied  in  number  of  runs 
or  in  failure  to  score  any,  when  the  game  continues  until 
one  side  exceeds  the  score  of  its  opponents  on  even  innings. 

The  batter  takes  a  position  at  the  home  base  ready  to  hit 
the  ball  which  the  pitcher  throws.  Ilis  limitations  are  tb.at 
while  .standing  within  a  defined  position  he  must  .strike  at 
every  ball  coming  over  the  home  plate  between  his  shoulders 
and  knees  or  lay  hinusclf  open  to  having  a  "strike"  "called" 
by  the  umpire.  Three  strikes  put  the  batter  out,  except 
when  there  is  no  runner  on  base,  or  when  one  is  on  second 
or  third  bitse,  or  when  two  are  out,  the  catcher  has  to  hold 
the  third  strike  or  throw  him  out  at  first  ba.se.  If,  however, 
four  "  balls  " — i.  e.  pitched  balls  not  coming  under  the  rule 
of  a  strike — have  been  called  by  the  um])ire  while  the  bat- 
ter is  striking,  the  latter  is  given  his  base  by  forfeit.  Should 
the  batter  strike  the  ball  so  that  it  touches  the  ground  and 
remains  within  bouiuls  until  it  passes  first  or  third  base,  the 
ball  is  fair  and  he  becnnu'S  a  "  base-runner."  Batted  ground 
balls  outside  the  foul  lines  are  "foul,"  ami  no  base  can  be 
run  until  the  base  which  the  runner  occupied  when  the  ball 
was  hit  is  touched  after  the  ball  is  held  by  the  |iitcher  in 
his  box.  If  the  ball  is  struck  into  the  air  and  falls  inside 
the  fiad  lines  again,  the  batter  becomes  a  base-ruinier,  un- 
less the  ball  is  caught  by  some  fielder.  The  batter  also  be- 
comes a  base-runner  when  his  person — excepting  his  hands 
aiul  forearm,  which  makes  the  ball  a  "dead  ball,"  when  no 
ba.ses  can  be  run-r-is  struck  liy  a  pitched  ball,  unless  the 
umpire  decides  that  the  batter  intentionally  [lermittcil  him- 
self to  be  hit. 

The  aim  of  a  runner  on  ba.se  is  to  score  a  run,  which  is 
done  when  he  touches  first,  second,  third,  and  home  base  in 
their  order  without  being  [)ut  out.  He  is  helped  in  this  by 
the  time  given  him  during  the  delivery  of  a  ball  to  the  bat- 
t>'r  to  nuike  an  attempt  to  ri'ach  the  next  ba.se  :  by  the  ball 
sometimes  being  pitched  wildly  or  jiassing  the  catcher;  by 
being  forced  on  to  give  room  for  some  one  who  has  been 
given  first  base  by  a  base  on  balls ;  or  by  being  struck  by  a 
pitched  ball ;  by  a  i)itcher's  balk,  which  is  a  feint  with  all 
the  appearances  of  an  intention  to  pitch  the  ball,  allowing 
a  base-runner  an  additional  base  ;  and  bv  safe  hits  between 
the  fielders  (U-  by  balled  balls  not  fielded".  All  balls  batted 
into  the  air  aiul  caught  allow  the  base-runner  to  take  a  base 
at  his  risk,  provided  he  leaves  his  base  after  the  ball  is 
caught. 

Ba.se-runners  must  return  to  their  bases  after  a  foul  ball, 
aiul  remain  there  until  the  pitcher  receives  the  ball  in  his 
position  (in  case  of  a  foul  or  fair  fly  ball  they  need  remain 
there  only  until  the  ball  is  caught  by  the  fielder):  when  the 
ball  becomes  dead  by  hitting  the  batter's  bat  or  person  or 
the  umpire,  or  when  the  batter  strikes  when  outside  his  po- 
sition, called  a  foul  strike;  or  when  another  runner  is  hit 
with  a  batted  ball. 

The  aim  of  tlie  nine  in  the  field  is  to  put  out  the  batsman 
and  biuse-runners.  The  batter  is  out  when  he  has  ha<l  three 
strikes  as  explained  above;  when  he  is  discovered  having 
batted  out  of  order:  when  he  makes  a  fold  strike;  when 
iilli'mpting  to  interfere  with  a  cati-lu'r  in  fielding  or  throw- 
ing ;  when  he  nuikes  an  intentional  foul  hit  after  he  has  had 
two  strikes. 

Hiuse-runners  are  declared  out  when  hit  with  a  batted  ball 
while  at  the  bat  and  about  to  run  ;  when  they  attempt  to 
hinder  the  catcher  from  fielding  a  muflcd  third  strike  ;  when 


hit  by  a  batted  ball  while  running  for  a  base ;  when  a  ball 
batted  into  the  air  is  momentarily  held  by  a  fielder  before 
touching  the  ground  or  any  object  other  than  a  fielder;  when 
after  three  strikes  or  a  fair  hit  he  be  touched  with  the  ball 
in  the  hands  of  a  fielder,  or  when  the  ball  is  securely  held 
by  a  fielder  while  touching  first  base  before  the  runner 
reaches  the  base  ;  when  he  runs  more  than  'S  feel  otit  of 
line  to  dodge  a  lieliler  trying  to  touch  him  out;  when  inten- 
tionally obstructing  a  fielder  in  fielding  a  ball ;  when  touched 
by  the  ball  in  the  hands  of  a  fielder  unless  his  person  is 
touching  a  base  he  is  entitlcil  to  occupv,  except  he  may  over- 
run first  base  if  he  turns  to  the  right  in  returning  to  the 
base  when  on  fair  grouiul ;  when  a  fair  or  foul  b.nll  is  caught 
and  then  held  by  a  fielder  on  the  base  occu|)ied  by  the  runner 
when  the  ball  was  struck,  or  if  the  runner  be  touched  by  the 
ball  in  the  hands  of  a  fielder  before  he  returns  to  the  base; 
when  a  fielder  holds  the  ball  while  touching  a  ba.se  before 
a  ninner,  who  is  t'cn'ced  on  by  another  runner,  reaches  the 
base,  except  in  the  ease  of  a  base  on  balls,  or  when  a  batter 
is  hit  by  a  pitched  ball ;  when  he  fails  to  touch  a  base  in 
regular  order  in  running  or  on  the  return,  except  in  the  case 
of  foul  balls,  provided  he  be  touched  by  the  ball  in  the  hands 
of  a  fieliler,  or  the  ball  be  held  at  the  ba.se  he  failed  to  touch. 

A.  Alo.nzo  Staog. 

Basedow,  Jon.wx  Ber.viiard:  educational  reformer; 
head  of  the  .so-called  Philanthropin ;  b.  Sept.  11,  172;S,  in 
Hamburg;  educated  at  Leipzig;  professor  in  the  academy 
at  Soroe,  l)enmark,  17-53 ;  transferred  by  the  Government, 
on  account  of  the  opposition  raised  against  his  unorthodo.x 
writings,  to  the  Gymnasium  of  Altona  1761.  Inspired  by 
Kousscau's  Emile.  he  turned  his  attentiim  about  this  time 
to  educational  reform,  and  .soon  published  the  Address  to 
Philanthrojyists  and  3Jen  of  Pnjpi'i/i/  on  Schools  and 
Studies,  and  tlieir  Influence  on  the  I'til/lic  M'enl,  in  which 
he  called  upon  all  who  loved  tlieir  tellow-men  to  contribute 
to  aid  him  in  publishing  his  book.  Among  those  who  re- 
sponded were  the  Em|icror  Joseph  11..  the  Empress  Catherine 
II..  King  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  and  numerous  other 
celel)rities.  With  the  i^lO.OOO  thus  received  he  published 
in  1774  h\s  Flenientary  (h'lenietitarwer/i).  in  four  volumes, 
with  100  copper-plate  illustrations.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  called  to  Dessau  by  Prince  Leopold  to  take  charge  of 
the  famous  Philanthropin.  founded  as  an  ideal  school,  to  be 
conducted  entirely  upon  his  improved  principles.  While 
never  largely  attcnde<l.  the  school  excited  the  greatest  inter- 
est thnuighout  G(!i'niany.  Kant  prophesied  that,  quite  an- 
other race  of  men  would  grow  up  now  that  the  Philanthropin 
had  introduced  a  new  system  of  education.  Basedow  soon 
retired  (1770)  from  its  management,  and,  after  an  irregular 
life,  died  in  1790  at  IMagdeburg.  The  keynote  of  Basedow's 
system  was  everything  according  to  nature.  Language  he 
would  teach  by  the  conversational  method;  object  lessons 
and  pictures  were  to  be  largely  employed.  His  famous  lS!e- 
mentartj  contains  a  large  amount  of  information  about  vari- 
ous tollies  arranged  as  a  ilialogue,  interspersed  with  talcs 
and  poetry,  and  illustrated  by  a  set  of  engravings.  The 
natural  desires  and  inclinations  of  children  were  to  be  edu- 
cated and  directed  aright,  but  never  suppressed.  The  ac- 
counts of  those  who  visited  the  Pliilantnro])in  are  mostly 
favorable.  The  teachers  used  originality  in  their  teaching, 
and  the  brightness  and  animation  of  the  children  were 
noticeable.  "Children  love  motion  and  noise;  here  is  a 
hint  from  nature,"  said  Basedow.  The  development  of  the 
body  was  specially  cared  for;  gymnastics  were  for  the  first 
time  introduced  into  modern  schools,  jis  well  as  the  practice 
of  taking  long  excursions  on  foot,  now  so  general  in  Ger- 
many. Kant's  expectations,  noted  above,  were  generally 
shared  by  the  friends  of  humanity  throughout  Europe.  The 
Philaiithrojiin  disajipointed  these  expectations,  but  it  un- 
questionably introduced  valuable  new  ideas  and  methods, 
and.  through  the  teachers  who  had  been  connected  with  it, 
disseminated  new  iloctrines  which  had  great  influence  in 
callin"  attention  to  the  neglected  field  of  education,  and 
stimulating  thought  in  that  direction.  Basedow  was  a  bold 
and  fearless  innovator,  who  lacked  the  personal  qualities  to 
embody  successfully  the  iileas  he  struck  out.  His  character 
was  in  many  respects  unlovely.  (See  sketch  by  Goethe  in 
Wdlirheit  nnd  Diclitiing.)  He  had  no  tact,  and  was  any- 
thing but  a  suitable  person  for  the  head  of  a  model  school. 
German  education,  in  Kanfs  words,  needed  "not  reforma- 
tion, but  revolution."  Basedow  is  a  notable  revolutionist. 
See  Quick's  Educational  Reformers ;  Williams's  History  of 
Modern  Education.  C.  11.  Thubber. 


522 


BASEDOW'S  DISEASE 


BASHKIRTSEPP 


Basedow's  Disease,  called  also  Graves's  Disease  ami 
Exophtlialiulc  (Joitre:  a  disesise  more  cominoii  aiiiDiig 
women  than  men.  ami  cliaraoterized  by  prominent  eyeballs, 
enlarged  thyroid  gland,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  gener- 
ally by  anaemia.  Basedow's  disease  sometimes,  though  very 
rarely,  ends  in  recovery.  Its  cause  is  stated  by  Nicnieyer 
to  be'jjrobably  a  paralysis  of  the  vasomotor  nerves,  Init  others 
look  upon  it  as  a  disease  of  the  sympathetic  nerves  or  a  gen- 
eral neurosis.  It  is  best  treated  by  electricity,  digitalis,  ergot, 
good  food,  gentle  exercise,  and  hygienic  measures. 

Basel,  baa'zfl,  or  Bale,  baal  (Fr.  Bcde  or  Basle ;  Germ. 
Baxel:  ane.  Bimli'a  or  Basile'a.  i.  e.  royal  city):  an  im- 
portant city  of  Switzerland:  beautifully  "situated  on  both 
sides  of  the"  Rhine  ;  (io  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Bern,  and  about  'i 
miles  from  the  frontier  of  Alsace;  lat.  47°  34'  N..  Ion.  7°  36' 
E.  The  Rhine,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  divides  it  into  two 
parts,  named  "  Great  Basel  "  ai'id  ■'  Little  Basel."  Basel  is  at 
or  near  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Rhine,  and  is  the  most 
important  commercial  and  manufacturing  city  of  Switzer- 
land. It  was  more  po|)ulous  in  the  Middle  Ages  than  at 
present.  An  o^cumonical  council  was  held  here,  opening 
July  23,  1431.  Among  its  public  buildings  is  a  fine  cathe- 
dral, built  by  the  Rmperor  llenry  II.  between  1010  and  1019, 
with  towers  218  feet  high,  which  were  not  completed  till 
1500.  The  University  of  J5asel.  founded  in  145!),  once  had  a 
high  reputation,  and  was  one  of  the  centers  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  Erasmus  and  (Ecolampadius  dying  while  in  its 
service.  Luther's  writings  were  printed  here  from  1519. 
This  city  also  contains  a  valuable  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, a  botanic  garden,  and  the  university  library  of  160,000 
volumes  and  4,000  JISS.  The  museum  of  art  is  noteworthy 
for  its  fine  collection  of  the  works  of  the  younger  llolbein. 
A  large  majority  of  the  iidial)itants  are  Protestants.  Basel 
has  extensive  maiuifactures  of  ribbons,  printed  cottons,  pa- 
per, gloves,  jewelry,  etc.  It  was  first  mentioned  in  373  A.  D., 
was  destroyed  by  the  Huns,  and  rebuilt  by  Henry  I.  in  917. 
The  city,  with  its  14  sq.  miles,  since  1833  has  formed  a  si-i)a- 
rate  part  of  the  canton,  known  as  "  Basel-Stadt."  Pop.  (1888) 
73,749. 

Basel,  or  Bale  :  canton  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  :  con- 
fronting Alsace  on  the  W.,  and  Baden  on  the  llliinc^  fron- 
tier. It  has  an  irregular  dumb-bell  sort  of  shape,  and  com- 
prises 177  sq.  miles.  The  Rhine  tributaries  of  this  canton 
are  tlie  Birz  and  the  Ergolz.  On  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Jura  Alps,  which  lierc  reach  an  altitude  of  3,400  feet,  the 
region  is  one  of  hills  and  valleys,  where  cattle  pastui-e  and 
vineyards  and  orchards  abound.  The  manufactures  are 
ribbons  (large),  woolens,  linens,  and  leather-work.  After 
union  with  Switzerlaml  the  city  engrossed  the  places  of  in- 
fluence and  authority,  lost  its  preponderance  during  the  first 
French  Revolution,  regained  supremacy  in  1814:  but  in  the 
<-ivil  war  of  1831-32  the  union  troops  took  possession  of  the 
canton,  and  the  Diet  in  1833  divided  it  into  independent 
parts — the  Basel-Stadt  and  Basel-Landschatt.  The  latter 
division  contains  163  sq.  miles.  Together  they  send  .seven 
representatives  to  the  Nationalrath.  Pop.  of  Basel-Land- 
.schaft,  exclusive  of  city  (1888)  61,941.  The  capital  of  Basel- 
Landschaft  is  Liesthal. 

Basel  (or  Biile).  Couueil  of:  a  memorable  (ecumenical 
council  of  the  Church  held  in  Bale;  summoned  by  Pope 
.Martin  V.,  who  died  (Feb.  21,  1431)  before  the  a|jpointe(l 
time  of  its  meeting.  It  was  opened  July  23,1431,  under  the 
pontificate  of  Kugenius  1 V.  (elected  Mar.  3,  1431).  It  was 
the  result  of  the  deciree  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  was 
a  response'  to  the  general  dcMuand  for  reform  in  the  Ijatin 
Church,  and  th(^  termimition  of  the  Bohemian  schism.  The 
(xisition  it  iunnediately  took  of  superiority  to  the  po[ie 
naturally  excited  llu^  lallcr's  dislike  and  fear.  So  the  i}ope 
tried  repealeilly  to  dissolve  the  council,  but  in  vain.  It-  en- 
deavored to  end  the  Bohemian  troubles  liy  granting  the  cu|) 
to  the  laity  (Nov.  30,  14;)3).  and  its  action  was  ratified  by  the 
|)ope  Dec.  15.  1533.  A  quarrel  in  regard  to  the  manner  and 
place  of  holding  negotiations  with  the  Greek  (_'hurch  led 
finally  to  a  split.  Many  liishops,  and  all  the  cardinals  liut 
one.  went  olf  with  .lulianus  Cesarini.  the  ]iope's  legate,  first 
to  Ferrara  (.lau.,  14:!M).  and  thence  to  Florence  (Feb..  1439). 
Those  who  renuumnl  chose  a  new  president,  and  went  on 
with  their  work.  Kxcommunicated  by  Fugenius,  t  hey  elected 
a  new  iiope,  Felix  V.,  Nov.  17, 1439.  Very  few  acknowledged 
him.  This  blunder  broke  the  moral  power  of  the  council. 
Its  forty-fifth  and  last  formal  session  was  held  Jlay  16. 1443, 
though  the  council  was  not  technically  "dissolved  "  till  May 
7,  1449,  when  it  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  Nicholas  \^,  the  suc- 


cessor to  Eugenius  IV.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  ac- 
knowledges only  the  first  twenty-five  sessions  of  the  council, 
before  the  split.  See  Wessenberg,  Die  Allgemeinen  Concil- 
ieii  des  mien  and  KJfen  Jahrli undertes,  2  vols.  (Constance, 
1770);  also  Hefele's  Conciliengesch I'cltte  (vol.  vii.). 

Revised  by  John  J.  Keane. 

Basel  (or  Bale).  Treaty  of:  the  name  of  an  important 
treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Basel.  Apr.  5.  1795,  between  the 
French  republic  and  Prussia.  The  latter  then  agreed  to 
abandon  the  coalition  against  France,  and  to  give  up  her 
possessions  on  the  left  bunk  of  the  Rhine.  In  July,  1795, 
another  treaty  was  here  concluded  between  France  and 
Spain. 

Base  Level :  the  level  below  which  a  stream  can  not  erode 
by  reason  of  the  height  of  its  jioint  of  discharge.  When  the 
degradation  of  a  region  has  progressed  so  far  that  all  its 
slopes  are  very  gentle,  running  water  has  but  little  erosive 
power,  and  the  region  is  said  to  be  reduced  to  base  level  or 
to  have  become  a  base-level  |)lain.  G.  K.  G. 

Basel'la  :  a  genus  of  tropical  plants;  order  Cliennpodia- 
cece.  The  Base/In  dibit  and  rubra  have  twining  stems,  and 
are  commonly  used  as  potherbs  in  the  East  Indies.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Paris  they  are  raised  in  hotbeds,  transiilanted  to 
borders,  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  spinach.  The  Basella 
rubra  yielils  a.  rich  purple  dye. 

Ba'sliau  [lleb.  |j,'0.  of  disputed  significance];  a  district 

in  Palestine ;  E.  of  the  Jordan  :  most  of  it  high  table-land, 
extending  from  Mt.  Hermon  in  the  N.  to  Gilead  in  the  S., 
the  Yaruudv  (Hieromax),  which  enters  the  Jordan  just  below 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  being  the  boundary  between  Bashan  and 
Gilead.  At  the  tnne  of  the  Exodus  it  was  occupied  by 
Amorites  ("  highhuiders  ")  whose  king,  Og,  was  slain  in  battle 
with  the  Israelites,  his  peo]ile  overpowered,  and  the  whole 
territory  assigned  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh.  After  the 
Captivity,  Bashan  consisted  of  four  provinces:  (1)  Golan 
(modern  Jaulan);  (2)  Argob,  or  Traclionitis  (modern  Lejah); 
(3)  Ilauran  (name  unchanged) :  (4)  Batanica  (modern  Beth- 
anyeh).  Iturea  (now  Jedur)  in  the  N.  \V.  was  not  strictly  a 
pai-t  of  Bashan,  though  taken  by  the  Israelites.  The  whole 
district  was,  and  still  is,  exceedingly  fertile,  and  was  famous 
for  its  oaks  and  its  cattle.  Remarkable  ruins  of  ancient 
cities  are  found  there.  See  Porter's  i'»w«w».s' (1855);  Wetz- 
stein's  Reisebericht  fiber  Ilauran  und  die  Trachouen  (1860); 
Porter's  Oirml  Cifies  of  Bashan  (1865) ;  and  Selah  IMerrill's 
East  of  the  Jordan  (1881).  The  antiquity  of  these  ruins  is 
disputed ;  recent  explorers  have  claimed  that  they  are  not 
earlier  than  the  first  century  A.  D. 

Bashaw :  See  Pasha. 

Bashford.  James  Whitkord.  Ph.  D., D.  D. :  president  Ohio 
Weslcvan  Universitv:  b.  at  Pavette,  Wis..  May  25,  1849; 
A.  B..  'University  of  Wisconsin  1873,  and  A.  M.  1876  :  Ph.  I)., 
Boston  University  IH.SO;  held  pastorates  of  M.  F.  churches 
at  Harrison  Square,  Jamaica  Plains,  and  Auburndale,  Mass., 
and  at  Portland,  Me. ;  in  jiresent  position  since  1889 ;  con- 
triljutor  to  periodical  literature  and  author  of  numerous 
published  sermons. 

Basll'i-Bazonks  [Turk.,  head-turned] :  certain  irregular 
troopers,  ununiformed  and  generally  mounted,  in  tin;  service 
of  the  Turkish  sultan.  Tliey  serve  without  pay,  except 
maintenance,  are  often  under  the  municipal  governors,  and 
are  wild,  turbulent  men  much  addicted  to  plundering. 

Bashkirs,  baash'ki'erz  :  a  Tartar-Finnish  race  ;  a  mixture 
of  Ostyaks  ami  Tart.-irs.  inhabiting  the  slopes  of  the  Ural 
Mountains  and  neighlxiring  pl.ains  in  the  governments  of 
Orenburg.  Perm.  Samara,  and  Viatka,  European  Russia. 
They  first  appearcil  in  the  tenth  century,  auil  formed  origi- 
nally a  powerful  independent  state,  but  in  1556  submitted 
to  Russia.  They  still  preserve  some  elements  of  iudejiend- 
ence.  anil  are  governed  by  their  own  officials.  A  part  are 
settled  and  engaged  in  cattle-rearing  an<l  agriculture ;  the 
remainder  are  si  ill  nomads.  They  are  usually  very  poor  and 
improvident,  ntlen  sulfeiing  from  famine.  They  are  lazy 
and  jiredatory.  yet  hospitable  and  good-natured,  strung,  and 
nutscular,  cajiable  of  enduring  great  hardships  and  priva- 
tions. Tliev  are  professed  Mohammedans.  Thev  number 
about  700.0()0.  M.  W.  II. 

Bashkirtseff.  batish-ke-ert-sef,  or  Bachkirtsev,  Maiuk: 
Rus.sian  artist;  author  of  a  diarv  of  some  celebrity;  b.  at 
Gavontsi  (district  of  Poltava),  N'ov.  11,  1860;  d.  in  Paris, 
Oct.  31.  1884.  She  was  well-born  and  received  an  extended 
education,  learning  Latin  and  Greek,  as  well  as  all  the  moi'e 


HASIDIOMVCETES 


BASILIDES 


523 


iiiiiiorlmu  inmU'rii  liuigimges.  in  lata  sne  weni.  lo  runs 
anil  eiitrifil  tin-  stuilio  i)f  Hodolphe  Jtiliiui.  ller  talent 
nipiiUv  tlfvclci|i('(l,  iinil  in  IWO  slie  was  alili"  to  cxliiliil  a 
pifturu  in  the  Salon.  Fmin  this  tiniu  till  her  death  she 
woi-kcil  eaijerly  at  her  art.  ami  resnlarly  exhihiteil.  Soon 
after  she  died  "her  fandly  piililished  her  diary,  kept  by  her  in 
Freneh  from  the  age  of  thirteen.  Uere  she  appeare<i  us  one 
of  those  vehenuMil,  sensitive,  emotional  natures  whieh  use 
themselves  up  in  their  own  passionate  eaj^erness  to  live.  On 
neither  art  nor  literature,  however,  has  she  lefl  a  permani^nt 
impression.  One  of  her  pictures,  TIte  Mttting,  has  been 
puichased  by  the  Frencli  Government  and  placed  in  the 
Luxembourg. 

HiBLiooKAPiiv. — Journal  de  Marie  liaxhkirlxeff  (^  vols., 
Paris,  1887);  Cdtd/oyiie  des  muvres  de  Mile.  Jiashkirtseff, 
avec  preface  de  Francois  Coppee  (Paris,  1885). 

A.  R.  Mausii. 

Basidioniycp'tcs  [from  bn.iidium  (dimin.  from  Gr.  jBaVit, 
base)  +  (ir.  fiVKJii.  a  mushroom]:  in  fun^olojry,  a  class  of 
(mostly)  saprophytic  plants,  related  to  the  Ascomvcktks 
(y.  c),  from  whii-li  Ihey  are  apparently  derived.  Like  the 
Ascomi/fi'/ex,  they  jiroiluee  large  end-cells:  these,  however, 
do  not  divide  internally  into  spores,  but  produce  spores  by 
means  of  protrusions  from  Ihe  surface,  these  becoming  ex- 
tended and  finally  enlarged  at  their  extremities,  the  enlarge- 
ment eventually  separating  as  a  spore.  The  spores  thus 
formed  are  known  as  basidiospores,  and  the  large  end-cells 
from  which  they  grew  are  bnsidia  (sing,  h(i'ildiiim).  The 
cliLss  is  naturally  divided  into  two  orders,  viz. :  (1)  the  puff- 
balls  ((raaleromi'ircti-a').  and  (2)  the  toadstools  {Hipnmnmy- 
celew).  each  containing  a  numlierof  families.  Between  n,000 
and  10.000  species  of  the  higher  fungi  are  known,  many  of 
which  ai-e  very  commoti.  The  mushroom  (AijaricuH  cam- 
pesfrm)  and  the  larger  pull-liall  (Calmtia  mrt.rima)  are  fa- 
miliar cxamphs.  CuAKLKS  B.  Bksset. 

Ba'sil :  an  herb  or  shrub  of  the  genus  Ocimtim  and  fam- 
ily/i'i/""''e  ;  natives  of  tropical  and  other  warm  regions; 
generally  have  an  aromatic  siiu'll  and  taste.  The  (kimiim 
fcf(.s(7«fMm  (sweet  basil)  is  an  annual  [il.nni,  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  is  cultivate<l  in  Europe,  wliere  it  is  used  to 
season  food.  The  Ociiuum  minimum,  or  bush  basil,  another 
East  Indian  plant,  is  cultivated  for  the  same  use.  The  Oci- 
miim  ciimpeiirliianum  is  a  native  of  Florida  and  of  tropical 
America.  Basil  is  also  a  common  name  for  Pi/riHin/lirmiim, 
a  North  .\merican  genus  with  numerous  s(iecies,  all  erec^t, 
rigid  herbs;  also  of  the  C'rilnm in/ /id  rl imipodium  of  Europe 
and  Xorth  America,  anil  otherlabiate  herbs. 

Bii'sil.  or  Riisil'iiis,  Sai.nt  (surnamed  The  Great)  :  an 
eminent  Greek  Father  of  the  Church:  b.  at  Ca'sarea,  in 
C'appadocia,  about  :i2it  A.  D.  He  was  older  by  about  two 
yeai^s  than  his  brother,  Gregory  of  Xyssa.  and  was  an  inti- 
inate  friend  of  Gregory  Nazianzen.  From  ;3ol  to  3.>j  he 
was  a  student  at  Athens.  Then  he  traveled  extensively. 
Afterward  he  sjient  some  seven  yeai-s  of  momustic  retirement 
in  Poutus.  In  :{70  he  succeedeil  Eusebius  sis  IJishop  of  Cie- 
sarea,  and  died  there  Jan.  1.  379,  worn  out  by  his  ascetic 
habits.  His  works  (in  li  vols..  .1.  Garnier"s  ed..  Paris,  17"21-;W  ; 
n.  e.  a  vols..  lH:i!l:  reprinted  in  Migne,  Pa/roloi/ia  Orava, 
XXIX.-XXX/I.)  consist  of  treatises,  homilies,  and  leltei-s. 
He  excelled  lus  a  letter-writer.  He  was  the  author  of  monastic 
rules  and  a  liturgy  which  bears  his  name,  and  is  still  used 
in  the  Russian  Church.  See  G.  Hermant.  Vie  de  Sain/ 
Banile  (1074) ;  J.  E.  Feisser.  Dia-iertatio  de  Vila,  naxiiii 
Magni  (1828);  Klose,  liasilius  der  Cfronse  naeli  xeinem  Le- 
lien  (183:));  Scholl,  Die  Lehre  de.f  heil.  Ba.nl  von  der  (inade 
(1881);  and  Hammond's  Liturgies,  Hantern  and  Weslern 
(1878). 

Basil  I.  (surnamed  The  Macedoxian):  Emperor  of  the 
East :  b.  in  Macedonia  in  820  a.  d.  His  origin  was  obscure. 
He  gained  the  favor  of  the  Emperor  Michael  III.,  who  ai>- 
pointed  Basil  his  own  colleague  in  the'empire  in  H(H'>.  After 
Jlichael  was  lussassinated  in  867.  Basil  became  emperor.  He 
obtained  Asia  JHnor  by  conquest  from  the  .Saracens,  whom 
he  also  drove  out  of  Italv.  tie  was  an  able  ruler.  D.  Aug. 
29.  886  A.  n.,  and  left  the'  throne  to  his  son,  Leo  VI.  See  G. 
Irapaccianti,  lianilio  il  Macedone,  2  vols.,  180i). 

BnsU  II. :  Emperor  of  the  East :  a  son  of  Romnnus  II. ; 
h.  in  ICiS  A.  I).  He  began  to  reign,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Constantine,  in  975,  He  was  an  able  commander, 
and  wageil  war  with  success  against  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad 
and  the  Hulgariaus.  He  completed  the  conquest  of  Bul- 
garia in  1018.     D.  in  Dec,  1025. 


Basile'an  Maii'iiscript  [Lat.  Codex  Bwtilen'sis,  from 
^(W(7t'a,  the  I^at.  mime  of  liasel,  Switzerland]:  the  name 
of  two  very  valuabh^  manuscripts  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment, now  in  the  library  of  Ba.se  1 :  1.  A  nearly  complete 
uncial  copy  of  the  Gosp<Js,  lacking  only  Luke  iii.  4-15 ; 
xxiv.  47—5:3.  It  is  technically  known  as  E  in  the  li.st  of 
uncials.  It  is  believed  to  belong  to  the  eighth  century,  and 
to  have  been  written  at  Constantinople.  2.  A  beautiful 
cursive  manuscript  of  the;  whole  New  Testament  except 
the  Apocalypse.     It  dates  from  the  tenth  century. 

BasU'iaii  Man'uscript  (Codex  Basi/ia'nnn):  an  imj)or- 
tant  uncial  manuscript  of  Ihe  Apocalypse,  now  in  \]u;  Vati- 
can library,  tei-hnically  ku(.wn  as  B  of  the  Apocalypse.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  Basilian  monastery  at  Rome,  to 
which  it  oiH-."  belonged.  It  is  referred  to  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. 

Basilian  Monks,  or  Monks  of  St.  Basil:  a  religious 
monastic  onler  founded  bv  St.  Basil  the  (ireat  in  361  A.  D., 
and  the  exclusive  order  of 'the  Greek  Chui-ch.  He  composed 
a  svstem  of  monastic  disciidine  which  was  |iracliced  by 
great  nnndiers  of  monks  both  in  the  churches  of  the  East 
and  the  Latin  or  Western  Church.  Spain,  Italy,  Asia 
Jlinor,  and  n\anv  other  countries  contain  monasteries  of 
this  order  at  the"  present  time.  Tho.se  of  Italy  are  chieHy 
of  the  Greek  rite,  and  those  of  Spain,  etc.,  of  the  Latin  rite. 
In  Asia  Minor  the  United  JNIclchite  Greeks  have  many  Ba- 
silian monks.  There  are  convents  of  Basilians  in  Toronto 
and  Sandwich.  Canada.  The  monks  of  the  Husso-tireek 
Church  iicarlv  all  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  variously 
modified,  even  the  so-called  monks  of  St.  Anthony  follow- 
ing what  is  substantially  the  Basilian  rule.  The  Armeidan 
Church  has  also  an  order  of  Basilian  monks.  In  1557.  at 
Tardon  in  Spain,  Matteo  de  la  Fuonte  established  the  Re- 
formed Basilians,  or  Tardonites. 

Basilian  Nuns:  founded  by  Macrina.  the  sister  of  St. 
Basil,  and  governed  by  a  rule  "written  by  him,  spread  into 
the  Gccideiit.  but  scarcely  exists  there  now.  It  is  a  contem- 
plative onler. 

Basil'ica  [Lat.,  from  (',r.  PatrtKiidi  (sc.  arod).  royal,  femin. 
of  an  adjec.  deriv.  of  Pa<n\(is,  king]:  among  tlie  ancient 
Greeks  and  Ronums  a  public  hall  or  court-house  in  which 
princes  and  nuigistrates  administered  justice.  Among  the 
Romans  it  attained  the  greatest  importance,  and  became, 
besides  a  court  of  justice,  a  markel-pl.nci>  and  exchange. 
The  first  basilica  mentioned  in  Roman  history  was  the  Ba- 
silica Porcia,  built  about  182  B.C.  Great  nmnbers  were 
sid)seqnentlv  erected  in  Rome,  and  each  provincial  town 
had  its  basilica,  which  was  usually  adjacent  to  the  forum. 
The  most  ancient  basilicas  were  ojien  to  the  external  air, 
and  surrounded  bv  a  iierislvlc  of  columns,  for  which  an  ex- 
ternal wall  was  afterward  'substituted.  After  the  reign  of 
Constantine  I.  some  basilicas  were  converted  into  Christian 
churches.  The  term  Ijasilica  is  still  applied  to  the  live  great 
patriarchal  churches  in  Rome  and  to  several  smaller  ones, 
among  them  the  cathedral  in  Quebec,  Canada. 

Basilica:  a  code  of  laws,  the  compilation  of  which  was 
comuuniced  by  Basil  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East  (8(i7-886  a.  d.), 
and  completed  by  his  son  Leo.  It  is  considered  valuable 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  Roman  corpus  jiirix.  but  a  por- 
tion of  it  is  lost.  The  Jianilica  was  published  by  ilcim- 
bach  (5  vols..  1833-50). 

Basiliea'ta  (anc.  Lura'nia):  a  province  of  Italy:  bounded 
N.  W.  bv  Campania.  N.  E.  and  E.  I>y  Ai>ulia,  S.  by  the  Gulf 
of  Tarai'ito.  and  S.  \V.  by  Calabria.  It  is  also  called  Poten- 
za.  Area,  4,122  si),  miles.  The  surface  is  mountainous.  It 
contains  a  large  fertile  plain  next  to  the  Gulf  of  Taranto. 
Wine  grain,  tobacco,  aiul  hemp  are  the  staple  products. 
Capital,  Potenza.     Pop.  (1890)  5;«,707. 

Basil'icon  Do'ron  [Gr.,  royal  gift] :  the  title  of  a  work 
which  .Tames  I.  of  England  wrote  for  the  instruction  of  his 
son  Henry  (1599).  It  is  interesting  chiefly  sis  a  literary 
curiosity. 

Basiliron  Ointmont.  sometimes  written  Basilipnm 
[Gr.  ^ai\iK6v  (sc.  (pifiiaKov.  drug),  royal,  so  named  from 
Its  supreme  virtue]:  tile  Cera  turn  resi  tim  of  the  ]>harnui- 
copiriiis,  is  composi'd  of  5  parts  of  resin,  8  of  lard,  and  2  of 
yellow  wax.  It  is  much  used  as  a  stimulating  application 
to  ulcers,  bin-ns,  etc. 

BasiliMcs  (in  Gr.  Ban-iXtfSijs) :  a  Gnoslic,  and  founder  of 
a  sect  called  Basilidians:  lived  in  Egypt  in  the  reigns  of 
Trajan  and  Hadrian,  about  100-140  A.u.     The  events  of 


524 


BASILIO   DA   GAMA 


BASQUES 


his  life  are  not  known.  Like  Zoroaster,  he  taught  the  ex- 
istence of  two  independent  creative  principles  or  powers — ■ 
Good,  or  Light,  aiitl  Evil,  or  Darkness.    See  Gnostics. 

Basilio  da  finilia,  bifii-sce'lee-o  da-gaa'm.aa,  Jose:  Bra- 
zilian pML't :  li.  at  S.  .lose  do  liio,  1740:  d.  at  Lisbon,  July 
31,  ITU.j.  He  was  one  of  the  poets  of  Minas  Geraes  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  tlie  Arcadia  Ultraraarina.  He  studied  in 
Rome,  and  in  1763  was  made  a  member  of  the  Roman  Ar- 
cadia, with  the  name  of  Termindo  Sepilio.  Prom  Rome  he 
went  to  Lisbou.  and  attracted  there  the  attention  of  Pom))al. 
Whentlie  latter  fell  in  1777,  the  ^jro%e  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw to  Brazil ;  but  here,  too,  he  was  rendered  unliappy  by 
the  persecutions  of  his  enemies.  Once  more  he  went  to 
Lisbon,  where  he  died  in  retirement.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  epic  Uraqunij.  an  account  of  the  contest  between 
the  Portuguese  aiid  Spanish  troops  under  Gomes  Freyre  de 
Andrade.  and  the  natives  of  Paraguay,  incited  by  the  Jesuits 
(1756).  He  wrote  also  a  shorter  epic,  Quitubia.imd  a  poem 
entitled  Cantico  aos  Campos  EJysios.  The  Uruyiitin  luis 
been  often  printed,  but  perhaps  best  in  Varnhagen,  Epicm 
brasiUtims  (Lisbon,  l«-t.5).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Basilis'ciis(in  Gr.  BacriXlaKos):  Emperor  of  the  East;  was 
a  brother  nf  Verina,  tlie  wife  of  Leo  I.  In  468  a.  d.  he  com- 
manded a  large  armament  which  Leo  sent  against  Genserie 
the  Vandal,  by  whom  he  was  totally  defeated.  He  usurped 
the  throne  in  474,  but  was  defeated  and  deposed  by  Zeno  in 
476.  D.  in  477  a.  d.  See  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Boman  Umpire. 

Bas'ilisk  [from  Gr.  Paa-iXlincos.  little  king:  name  of  a 
serpent,  dimin.  of  ffaa-iKeis.  king] :  a  lizard  of  the  genus 
Basilisciis  and  family  Ii/iianiihc:  natives  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  America.  The  ba.silisks  are  characterized  by  a  thin 
triangular  fold  of  skin  rising  from  the  occiput  and  inclined 
backward.     They  also  have  an  elevated  crest  along  the  back 

and  tail,  capable  of  being 
erected  or  depressed  at  pleas- 
ure. They  are  well  adapted 
for  swimming  and  for  climb- 
ing trees,  and  are  innocuous 
and  inoffensive  animals.  Tlie 
tail  is  much  longer  than  the 
body.  The  Ba.^i/iscus  m  itra- 
tiis  is  from  2.5  to  30  inches 
long,  including  the  tail.  The 
'''''''"■^'"  terra  basilisk  was  also  applied 

to  a  fabulous  monster  by  ancient  and  medieval  writers,  who 
supposed  that  it  had  the  form  of  a  snake  or  lizard,  that  it 
infested  the  deserts  of  Africa,  ami  that  it  was  hatched  by  a 
toad  or  serpent  from  an  egg  laid  by  a  cock.  According  to 
popular  opinion,  its  breath  poisoned  the  air  and  burned  up 
vegetation,  and  the  glance  of  its  eye  was  fatal  to  men  and 
other  animals.  It  was  sometimes  called  cockatrice  and  the 
king  of  dragons.  The  only  creature  wlio  could  face  the  bas- 
ilisk and  live  was  believed  to  be  the  cock:  anil  travelers 
were  advised  to  carry  loud-crowing  cocks  with  them,  for  the 
basilisk  was  believed'  to  stand  in  great  dread  of  his  near  rel- 
ative, the  cock,  and  the  crowing  of  the  cook  was  considered 
the  only  means  of  driving  him  away. 

Ba'sin  (in  Pr.  bassin):  in  geography,  a  great  natural  de- 
pression or  concavity  on  the  earth's  surface,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  stral  ification.  The  basin  of  a  river  is  the  whole 
tract  of  land  ilrained  l)y  that  river  and  its  tributaries.  The 
basin  of  the  Slississippi,  for  examiile,  is  coextensive  with 
all  the  country  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Ap- 
palachian chain.  The  area  of  this  is  estimated  at  1.244,000 
S(i.  ndles.  The  basin  of  a  lake  includes,  besides  the  space 
occupied  by  the  lake,  the  land  drained  by  the  rivers  that 
llovv  into  it.  The  highest  line  between  two  basins  is  the 
water-parting  or  divide.     See  Vallevs. 

Basin,  in  geology,  is  applied  to  depressions  in  the  strata 
in  whicli  lieds  of  a  later  age  have  been  deposited.  Thus 
the  site  of  the  city  of  London,  called  the  London  basin, 
consisting  of  tertiary  sands  and  clays,  occupies  a  hollow  in 
the  chalk,  which  is  iMninded  by  the  North  Downs  on  the  S. 
and  by  the  chalk-hills  of  Berks,  Wilts,  and  Bucks  on  the  N. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  synclinal  depressions  of  strata, 
es]iecially  in  the  coal-fields. 

Ba'silliTstokc:  a  town  in  Ilanipshire,  England;  on  the 
TiDuiliin  and  Sduthwestern  Railway:  40  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
London  (see  map  of  England,  re f.  12-11).  It  ha.s,  in  grain, 
malt,  coal,  and  timber, considerable  commerce,  facilitati-d  by 
the  Basingstoke  Canal.     Here  is  a  church  built  at  the  lime 


of  Henry  VIII.  Basingstoke  has  been  a  market-town  ever 
since  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  was  anciently  of  more  im- 
portance than  at  present.     Pop.  (1801)  7,!)60. 

Bas'kerville,  John:  an  English  printer  and  letter- 
founder  ;  b.  in  AVolverley,  Worcestershire,  England,  in  1706. 
He  made  great  improvements  in  typography.  Prom  his 
press  came  editions  highly  prized  of  Vergil  (17.')6),  Wilton, 
and  the  New  Testament  (1763),  besides  many  other  beauti- 
fully printed  works.     D.  in  Birmingham,  Jan.  8,  177.5, 

Bas'ket  [etyniol.  unknowii] :  a  vessel  made  of  willows, 
twigs,  or  splints  interwoven.  Baskets  have  been  in  use  from 
very  early  ages.  The  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt  abound  in 
representations  of  baskets.  They  are  frequently  nientioned 
in  the  Bible.  The  ancient  Britons  were  remarkably  expert 
in  the  manufacture  of  baskets,  which  were  much  prized  by 
the  Romans  for  their  neatness  and  elegance.  The  process 
of  basket-making  is  very  simple,  and  ap|)ears  to  be  well 
known  among  the  rudest  peoples — even  among  the  aborig- 
ines of  Van  Dicman's  Land — and  many  tribes  of  American 
Indians  display  great  skill  and  tasti^  in  making  and  orna- 
menting them."  Willow,  oak,  and  ash  are  chietly  made  use 
of  in  tlie  manufacture  of  baskets.  In  the  U.  S.  the  rattan, 
oak,  willow,  and  black  ash  are  employed  extensively.  The 
Chinese  export  many  beautiful  baskets  made  of  finely  split 
bamboo. 

Basket-flsli :  any  species  of  the  genus  AsfropJiyto7i,  of  the 
order  Ophiuroidea;  a  group  of  brittle  stars  in  which  the 
arms  are  greatly  branched,  in  some  si)ecies  the  subdivisions 
of  the  arms  being  many  thousands, 

Baskiug-shark  (Cetorhintis  nia.rimus):  the  largest  of 
the  sharks  and  the  largest  of  fishes ;  the  type  of  a  peculiar 
liunily  (Cetovliinidee).  It  attains  a  length  of  nearly  40  feet, 
but  its  teeth  are  very  small,  and  it  feeds  on  small  animals 
and  is  harmless  to  man.  It  is  a  sluggish  animal,  found  in 
the  northern  seas,  and  is  often  captured  by  whalers.  A 
large  specimen  will  yield  six  or  more  liarrels  of  oil  from  the 
liver.     It  is  also  known  as  bone-shark,  elephant-shark,  etc. 

Basnaare  de  Beaiival.  ba'a'uaash'df-bO'vald',  Jaques  :  a 
French  scholar  and  theologian ;  b.  at  Rouen,  Aug.  8,  1653. 
In  1670  he  became  a  Protestant  minister  at  Kouen,  whence 
he  emigrated  to  Holland  in  1685,  on  the  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes.  Among  his  works  are  a  church  history  in 
reidy  to  Bossuet  (Rotterdam.  1649.  2  vols.),  and  a  History 
of  the  Jews,  in  continuation  of  Josephus  (1766,  5  vols. ;  Eng. 
trans.  London,  1708),  both  of  which  he  brought  down  to  his 
own  dav.  I),  at  The  Hague,  Dec.  32,  1723.  See  liis  life  by 
E.  A.  JIailhi't,  Geneva,  1880. 

BaS(|ue  Provinces  (Sp.  Yascovga'das) :  a  part  of  Spain  ; 
bounded  N.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  comprises  the  four  prov- 
inces, Navarre,  Biscay,  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava.  These  coin- 
cided with  the  ancient  Cantabrla.  Area,  6,827  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1887)  814,459.  The  surface  is  mountainous  and  pre- 
sents much  picturesque  scenery.  The  tojis  of  the  hills  are 
mostly  covered  with  forests  of  oak.  chestnut,  beech,  etc. 
Among  the  mineral  resources  are  copper,  tin.  iron,  marble, 
and  poi'phyry.  The  chief  towns  arc  Bilbao,  Tolosa,  and  Vit- 
toria, 

Basques  [Fr.]  :  the  name  of  a  people  speaking  a  pecul- 
iar language  and  now  occupying  a  small  extent  of  terri- 
tory in  and  near  the  Pyrenees  Mountains,  alxnit  the  bend  of 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  This  territory  includes  a  small  portion 
of  Southwestern  France  and  a  larger  ))art  of  Spain;  the 
provinces  in  which  it  lies  are  Vizcaya  (Biscay),  Guipiizcoa, 
Ahiva,  Navarra  in  Spain,  and  Labourd,  I5asse-N avarre, 
Soule  in  France  (in  the  department  of  the  Basses-Pyrenees), 
the  coast-line  running  approximately  from  Bilbao  in  Spain 
to  Bayonne  in  France.  The  (irople  call  themselves  Eskal- 
kunae'or  Euskaldunac,  and  their  language  Eskara  or  Eus- 
kara,  names  which  have  been  connected  with  the  naine  (in 
Latin  author.s)  A\isci,  applied  to  a  people  of  Aqnitania. 
The  name  Basques  is  connected  with  Yascones.ihi.'  Latin  form 
of  a  muue  corresponding  to  the  modern  name  Gascons,  and 
a]iplied  to  a  i>e()ple  dwelling  in  Sjiain.  The  Vascones  were 
probably  a  branch  of  the  Iberian  stock  which  once  occupied 
a  largepart  of  Spain  ami  Southwestern  France,  and  the 
Basques  are  accordingly  in  all  probaliiiity  a  remnant  of  the 
old  Iberians,  and  their  iaiig\iage  is  the  only  surviving  form 
of  the  old  Iberian  speech."  The  lias(|ues  numbered  in  1875 
about  620.000.  of  which  number  500.000  w.'i-e  in  Spanish 
territory.  Pride  and  a  strong  local  patriotism  are  among 
their  miirked  characteristics,  and  they  have  shown  repeat- 
edly evidences  of  a  bold  and  adventurous  spirit.     It  is  of  in- 


BASQUES 


BASS 


525 


terest  to  rocall  the  tlofeat  of  Charlemagne's  rcnr-giiard  by 
the  i5a.«|iu'S  in  the  valley  of  Koncesvallcs  (Koneovanx). 
while  111!*  army  was  returning  I'mm  an  expeiliiidii  inin 
Spain  in  T7M;  for  this  dufeal,  with  the  death  of  Ihodland 
(Roland),  furnished  the  l)asis  for  the  most  famous  work 
of  Old  French  literature,  the  Chanson  dit  IMaiul.  The 
indeiionilent  spirit  of  the  Basiiiies  is  further  shown  by  the 
speeml  jirivileges  (fiieros)  wliieh  they  long;  enjoyed  in 
Spain,  l)y  virtue  of  which  they  held  in  many  respects,  as  in 
matters  of  taxation,  finance,  and  military  service,  a  semi- 
iridcpcndcnt  position.  These  privileges  were  not  finally 
and  entirely  abolished  until  187ti. 

The  lias^ue  language,  which,  as  said  above,  is  probably  a 
modern  form  of  Iberian,  is  ]ieeuliar  in  its  vocabulary  and 
its  grammatical  structure,  and  stands  in  an  entirely  isolated 
position,  surrounded,  except  on  the  sea  side,  liy  languages 
belongingto  the  Indo-Euro])eaii  family,  to  which  it  is  wholly 
unrelated,  and  indeed  it  has  not  yet  lieen  shown  to  be 
ri'lated  to  any  other  language  now  spoken  in  Europe  or 
elsewhere.  As  no  early  luonnments  of  the  language  have 
lieen  jireserved,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  it  has 
changed  much  or  little  since  the  time  when  we  first  learn 
of  Iberians  in  Spain,  and  our  knowledge  of  ancient  Ibe- 
rian is  practically  nothing.  At  present  tlie  language  exists 
ill  several  dialects,  the  phonology  orsouml  system  of  which 
appears  to  resemble  considerably  that  of  Spanish,  though 
there  are  differences.  The  following  features  may  bc^iien- 
tioned  :  There  is  a  cerebral  s  (the  letter  2  is  written  for  the 
sound  .<).  the  souinl  /  is  nearly  or  quite  confined  to  words  of 
foreign  origin,  instead  of  c  (which  seems  to  be  lacking)  oc- 
curs a  lillabial  spirant,  perhaps  the  same  a«  the  Siianish 
sound  of  c.  J.  and  there  are  two)- sounds  (perhaps  like  the 
two  recognized  in  Spanish),  neither  of  which  ever  begins  a 
word.  Some  dialects  have  the  aspirated  sounds  Jch,  fh,  pli, 
]>rouounced  like  /.-,  f, />,  followed  by  /i.  Tlii'rc  exist  also 
fialatalized  /and  n.  jiresumablv  ]ironounced  like  Spanish  II 
and  a  respectively.  Tlie  written  eh  Is  pronounced  as  in 
Spanish  and  English,  except  in  dialects  in  France,  where 
the  sound  is  that  of  rh  in  French.  The  written /  represents 
dltferent  sounds  in  dillerent  dialects;  sometimes  it  means 
the  sound  of  (ierman./ or  English  y.  sometimes  that  of  the 
modern  Spaiii>li  /,  and  soiuetlmes  that  of  modern  French  /. 
The  W(U-ds  of  the  language  seem  to  be  in  general  developed 
from  nionosyllal)ic  roots,  noun  roots  and  verb  roots  lieing 
distinct.  Xumerons  sndixes  are  in  use.  some  of  which  cor- 
respond to  declensional  endings  in  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guages. There  is  an  article.  develop(Ml  from  an  older  pro- 
noun, which  is  suflixed  to  the  noun  {iir,  water,  ura,  the 
water),  or,  when  an  adjective  follows,  to  the  adjective.  The 
singular  subject  of  transitive  verlis  often  appears  with  a 
peculiar  suffix  k,  which  is  not  added  to  the  subject  of  in- 
transitive verbs.  Xonns  have  no  grammatical  gender. 
The  inflexion  of  verbs  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
grammar,  on  account  of  the  perplexing  combinations  of 
pronouns  and  sulVixes  and  prefixes,  which  produce  many 
forms  very  difficult  to  analyze  and  explain.  Auxiliary 
verbs  coml)ine  with  verbal  adjectives  or  iiouus  anil  with  pro- 
noniiiial  forms,  and  this  |ierlplirastlc  conjugallnn  is  imw  the 
commonest.  There  exist  also  speel.-il  forms  for  three  moods. 
Iiiillcative.  imperative,  and  optative,  and  two  tenses,  present 
and  imperfect.  A  few  exam|;les  (taken  from  Gerland)  will 
illustrate  some  of  these  features.  Ekarri  (properly  a  verbal 
adjcclive).  to  carry  ;  dakiirl,  I  carry  it  (the  prefixed  (I-  =  it, 
the  suffixed  -/  =  !);  nenkarrcii,  X  carried;  iduki  (verlial 
adj.).  1(1  have;  dul.  1  have  it  ;  nufii,  1  had  ;  niz,  I  am  (the 
prelixed  «-  ^  I) ;  I'Hiorzen  niz,  I  come  (am  In  coming,  the  end- 
ing -lit  =  in) ;  I'thnrrii-n  niz,  1  shall  come  (am  for  coming); 
i-lliurn'  in'z.  1  have  come  (etlinrri  is  the  verbal  adj.) :  ctliiirt- 
zen  nitziiiik.  I  come  to  thee  (man);  cl/ior/zen  nitziiun.  I 
come  to  t  hee  (woman) ;  e/horfzeii  ii  iiifzattkan.  1  was  coming  to 
thee  (mail  or  woman).  For  the  vocabulary  of  the  language 
it  should  be  added  that  there  is  a  cimslilerable  nuinber  of 
words  from  other  languages,  naturally  for  the  most  part 
from  the  adjacent  Komance  languages  or  dialects.  The 
Hascpie  has  also  contributed  somewhat  to  the  vocabulary  of 
the  neighboring  languages,  particularly  Spanish,  though 
the  niimlier  of  these  words  is  not  very  large,  and  in  some 
cases  the  borrowing  is  perhaps  rather  from  the  old  Iberian 
than  from  the  modern  Basque.  j 

The  n.itive  Uasipie  literature  is  naturally  not  very  large, 
nor  are  there  any  monuments  which  can  be  traced  farther 
back  than  the  fifteenth  century.  The  most  interesting  pro- 
dnetlons  are  proveibs.  lyric  poems,  satirical  verses,  histor- 
ical ballads,  certain  draimitic  works  somewhat  resembling 


the  mediicval  mystery-plays,  the  subjects  of  which  are  taken 
from  the  liible  or  from  legends,  stories,  or  history,  and  com- 
edies and  farces  arc  also  found.  For  further  intorinatiim 
on  all  the  subjects  treated  in  this  brief  sketch,  reference  may 
be  made  to  the  following  works:  G.  Gerland,  Die  Biisken 
uiiil  die  Iberer,  in  Hrober's  Orundriss  der  romanischun 
Pliiluluyii'.  i.  313-:i34 ;  this  is  the  main  source  for  the  present 
sketch,  and  contains  most  of  the  needed  references  to  au- 
thorities. See  also  Schuchardfs  review  of  this  In  Lilerulur- 
bliilt  fiir  i/ermanimliii  mid  roiiiiiuische  I'liili>h>ijie,\\.  225- 
2:i4  ;  Larramendi.  El  iiiipiinKihle  vencido.  Arte  dp  la  lengua 
Basconijada  (172!l).  and  his  Diccionario  del  ( 'ank-llano,  liiix- 
cueiice'ij  Latin  (174.5);  W.  v.  Humboldt,  lifiicMiyungen 
iind  Ziisaize  ztiin  ersten  AlisiUnitle  des  zireilen  Bandes  des 
Mil/iridales  iiber  die  Cantabrisrhe  oder  Baxkische  Spraehe 
(I.SIG),  ami  his  J'n'ifiing  der  i'ntersnchiinyen  iiber  die  i'r- 
heiroliner  Siianiena  vermitleht  der  Vaskisehen  tSprache 
(1821) ;  Francisiine  Jlichel,  Le  piii/s  baxqiie  (18.57) ;  C.  A.  F. 
Malm.  Denkiniiler  der  baskiselten  Spraclie  (18.57);  Prince 
L.-Ii.  Bonaparte,  Carle  des  nept  provinces  basques  (1863), 
and  his  Le  verbe  basque  en  tableaux  (18()!l) ;  W.  J.  van  Eys, 
Victionnaire  basque-franfais  (1873).  and  his  Grammaire 
coniparee  des  diiilecles  basques  (1870),  mu\  Outlines  of 
Basque  Grammar  {\><H'S);  P.  Broca.  .S'///-  Voriyine  et  la  re- 
partition de  la  lani/ue  basque  (187.5);  A.  Luchalre.  Les 
orii/ines  lingvisliques  de  I  Aquitiiine  (1877);  J.  Vinson, 
Essui  sur  la  langiie  basque  par  Franijois  Hibdry.  traduit 
du  hongrois  avec  des  notes  coinplementa ires,  etc.  (1877).  and 
his  Les  Basques  et  le  pays  basque  (1882).  JjC  folk-lore  du 
pays  basque  (1883).  and  Essai  dune  bibliographic  de  la 
lanyiie  basque  (18i)l);  A.  Campion.  Gramdtica  de  log  lua- 
tro  dialertos  literarios  de  la  lengua  eiiskara  (1884) ;  Aiz<)ui- 
bel.  Direionario  basro-espailol  {XH^^'i-S^i) :  Friedrich  Jliiller, 
Grundriss  der  tSpracbirisseuscliaft.  ill.,  Ii.  (1.^87);  II.  Schu- 
cliiirdt.  BouHino-baskisches  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  romuiiischc 
B/iilologie,  xi.,  4'i-i-rili:  and  varicms  articles  in  the  Bevue 
de  Linguistique  ami  other  philological  journals. 

E.  S.  Sheldon. 
Bns-rolicf,  baartWeef.  or  Kiisso-rilicvo.  baas'sd-iwl- 
yii'vi;  |l>'r.  bus-relief.  It.  basso-rilicvo,  low  relief]:  >i  terra 
applied  to  that  kind  of  sculpture  in  which  the  figures  have 
but  slight  projection  from  the  background.  (Compare 
Al.TO-KiLlEVo.)  The  slabs  of  alaliaster  which  lined  the  halls 
of  Assyrian  palaces  were  covered  with  elaborate  lias-reliefs 
representing  deities  and  their  worshipers  and  scenes  of 
hunting  and  war.  In  Egyptian  monuments  bas-rellel's  are 
common,  and  some  of  these  are  of  a  peculiar  character  called 
cavo-rclievo,  that  is.  having  the  whole  figure  in  relief  kept 
below  the  general  surface  :  a  groove  or  channel  being  cut  all 
arounil  the  figure,  so  that  the  relief  occiijiii's  a  sunken  jianel 
of  exactly  its  own  size  and  sluiiie.  Thi'  most  famous  Ijas- 
rellefs  In  the  world  are  tlifise  which  formed  the  frieze  of  the 
cclla  wall  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens.  The  sculiitorsof  flic 
fifteenth  and  sixleciitli  centuries  In  Italy  jiroduccd  bas-reliefs 
in  which  the  figures  have  but  the  slightest  ])rojection,  and 
reached  very  great  excellence  in  these,  both  in  truth  of  mod- 
eling and  in  expression.  The  most  familiar  bas-reliefs  are 
the  figures  on  coins,  which  are  very  low  indeed. 

KrssKLi,  Sturgis. 

Uils-IJhin.  baaran  (Lower  Rhine) :  a  former  department 
of  France,  in  the  northern  part  of  Alsace,  which  was  an- 
nexed to  Germany  in  1871.    See  Alsace. 

Bass,  biiys,  or  IJnsp  [same  as  adj.  base,  but  difTercntlatcd 
in  spelling  under  Infl.  of  Ital.  basso;  fidiii  Fr.  bas.  low]  :  In 
music,  is  the  dee|)est  or  lowest  part.  In  respect  to  harmony 
the  base  is  the  most  iiii])ortant  part  in  music,  containing 
more  frequently  the  fundamental  notes  of  the  chords,  while 
on  it  is  formed  that  important  and  effective  figure  in  music 
called  •■  organ-point."  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  deep- 
est and  gravest  qiialitv  of  the  human  voice,  the  usual  com- 
pa.ss  of  which  Is  from  l*!  or  F  below  the  bass  ataS  to  D  orE 
above  it.     See  Fioi:red  Bass. 

Bliss,  biis.  or  Bnsswood  [for  bast,  the  inner  bark  of  lin- 
den. (.).  E.  biest :  (ierin.  Jiast]  :  a  tree  (Til in  america'na), 
also  called  Linden  or  Linie-trcc.  It  is  common  in  the 
U.  S. ;  has  serrate  leaves,  which  arc  more  or  less  heart- 
shaped,  and  beai-s  a  woody  globular  nut  one-celled  and  one 
or  two  seeded.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and  not  of  much 
value  for  fuel.  It  is  used  in  carriage-building.  Si'veral 
species  of  Tilin  are  found  in  the  I'.  S..  one  of  which,  the 
Tilia  heterophylla.  or  white  ba.sswood.  is  found  in  the  West 
and  South,  ami  sometimes  grows  to  an  immense  size  and 
height.     Tlie  flowers  of  the  basswood  abound  in  honey  of 


626 


BASS 


BASSELIN 


excellent  quality,  and  are  eagerly  sought  by  bees.  The 
European  limlcn  {Til in  furnpiea)  ik  planted  as  an  ornamen- 
tal tree  in  many  cities  of  Euro|)e  and  tlie  U.  S.  Tliis  species 
vields  the  liark  which  is  made  into  Russia  matting.  See 
Bast  and  Linden. 

Bass,  or  Bars  [also  Base,  and  in  dial.  Barse ;  0.  Eng. 
bars;  (ierra.  Barsch] :  the  name  ot  many  species  of  fish  of 


European  bass. 

variovis  genera,  but  appropriately  belonging  to  the  genus 
Labra.r.  of  the  porcli  family,  and  other  closely  allied  genera. 
The  typical  species  is  a  European  sea-fish,  which  is  prized 
as  food,  Lnbrax  (or  rather  Dicentrarchus)  lupus. 
The  striped  bass  of  the  Eastern  U.  S.  (Roccns  line- 
alus),  often  called  rock-fish,  affords  a  valuable  sup- 
ply of  food.  It  ascends  rivers,  and  is  cauglit  in 
lioth  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  has  been  successfully 
introduced  into  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
white  bass  or  percli  of  the  tireat  Lakes  (Roccus  chri/- 
sops),  the  white  perch  (Morone  americana).  the  yel- 
low bass  (Mnrone  interrupta)  of  the  Mississippi,  are 
examples  of  true  bass.  Equally  well  known  are  the 
two  species  knowu  as  black  bass,  of  the  rivers  of 
America  (Jficroptei-us  dolomieii  and  Micropterus 
saJmoideii).  among  om-  very  best  game-fishes.  The 
grass  bass  {Pomuxis spnruides),  the  rock  ba.ss  (Aiiiblo- 
plites  rupi'/ilri.i).  etc..  are  allied  species.  There  are 
also  several  marine  fishes  known  as  sea. bass  {Cen- 
tropristis),  stone  bass  (Poli/prioii),  etc.,  and  the  name 
bass  is  also  applied  to  some  fishes  which  have  no 
claim  to  the  name.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Bass,  Edward,  D.  D.  :  the  first  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Bishop  of  Jlassac-hu-ictts ;  b.  at  Dorchester, 
Mass..  Xov.  23,  1726:  graduated  at  Ilarvju-d  in  1744. 
He  was  ordained  in  England  in  1752  by  Bishop 
Sherlock.  During  the  Revolution,  at  the  request  ot 
the  wardens  and  vestry  of  his  churcli  (St.  Paul's, 
Newburyport,  Mass.),  he  saved  his  parish  from  dis- 
ruption by  omitting  those  parts  of  the  public  pray- 
ers which  relate  to  tlie  royal  family  and  (lovernment 
of  Great  Britain.  He  was  also  dismissed  from  his 
position  as  a  missionary  of  the  Society  for  Propa- 
gating the  fjospcl,  for  liis  supposed  sympathy  with 
the  Ameri(-au  cause.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Jlassa- 
chusetts  May  7,  17117,  and  his  episcopal  authority  was  after- 
ward extended  over  Rliode  Island  and  New  Hampshire. 
D.  in  Ncwlniryport.  Sei)t.  10,  1803. 

Bass,  Ediiar  \V.:  soldier  and  scientist;  b.  in  1843  at 
Prairie  du  Chien,  Wis.  In  1862  he  enlisted  in  the  Eighth 
Minnesota  Volunteei's  and  as  quartermaster-sergeant  served 
against  the  hostihi  Sioux  Indians  until  1864.  when  he  was 
appointed  a  cadet,  (iraduating  at  West  Point  in  1868,  lie 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant  of  engineei's.  He  twice  served 
with  the  engineer  battalion  at  WilU^ts  Point  as  lieutenant, 
adjutant,  ami  counnanding  a  company,  and  in  the  scientific 
work  of  the  school  of  application.  He  was  twice  on  duty  at 
the  Militarv  Academy  as  Instructor  in  tlie  Department  of 
Xatural  and  Experimental  Philosophy.  He  served  as  assist- 
ant astrouomiV  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  1875,  and 
resigneil  liis  commissinn  as  lieutenant  in  order  to  accept  the 
profe.ssoiship  of  mat  hematics  at  the  Military  .\cademy.  to 
which  he  was  appointed  in  Apr.,  1878.  Author  of  Inlroduc- 
tioH  to  the  Calculus  and  Differential  Calculus. 

James  Mercur. 

Bassaiio.  ba"iis-s«a'nS :  a  town  of  Xorthern  Italy  ;  province 
of  Venice :  on  tlie  river  Brenta:  19  miles  X.  E.  of  Viccnza 
(see  ma])  of  Italy,  ref.  2-D).  It  stands  on  an  eminence  near 
the  foot  of  tlie  Alps,  in  a  conntrv  wliich  jn-oduces  excellent 
wine  and  fruits.  It  is  well  built,  has  many  churches  and 
several   fine  palaces,  also  a  theater,  a  picture-gallery,  a  bo- 


tanic garden,  and  the  celebrated  old  printing-estaldishment 
of  Remondini.  Bonaparte  here  defeated  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral Wurmser,  Sept.  8,  1796.     Pop.  15,000. 

Bassano,  Duke  de  :  See  Maret. 

Bassaiio, or  Poute,JAropo, da:  painter;  b.  in  Bassano  in 
l.'ilO:  educated  by  liis  father,  Francisco  (1475-1530),  himself 
a  pupil  of  Gio.  Bellini,  and  in  A'enice.  Settled  in  Bassano 
in  1510 ;  was  one  of  the  earliest  Italian  genre-painters ;  ex- 
celled in  chiaroscuro,  color,  and  perspective;  at  first  imi- 
tated his  father,  then  studied  the  works  of  Titian;  is  said 
to  have  been  prolific  of  paintings,  but  his  genuine  works 
are  scarce.  His  latest  manner  is  the  best.  He  was  exten- 
sivelv  copied  bv  two  of  liis  four  artist  sons,  namelv,  Giocomo 
(1553-1613)  and  Girolamo  (1560-1630).  His  best 'work  is  an 
altar-piece,  in  Bassano,  of  The  Natirify.  Others  of  his  can- 
vases are  Tlip  EnfoDihing  uf  Clirisf.  nt  Padua;  a  Famili/ 
Concert,  in  Uffizi  gaUery,  Florence ;  and  the  3lnurniti(j 
JIarie-s.  at  Chiswick,  near  London.     D.  Feb.  19,  1592. 

Bas'saris  [from  Gr.  Baxiirapis.  a  fox]  :  the  only  genus  of  the 
North  American  family  Bassaridw.  including  only  two 
species,  and  mostly  nearly  related  to  the  raccoons.  The  Bas- 
saris  astuto,  known  as  civet-cat  or  caconiixtle,  is  found  in 
Mexico.  Texas,  California,  etc.  Tliese  auinials  are  about 
the  size  of  a  common  cat,  and  very  playful  and  easily  tamed. 


Tlic  ling  tailed  bassans 

Tliev  live  in  trees,  catching  rats,  mice,  and  birds.  The  tail 
is  bushy,  and  markeil  with  rings  like  tliat  of  tlie  raccoon. 

Basseiii.  baas-sayn' :  a  city  of  British  Burma  :  on  an  arm 
of  the  Irrawaddi.  which  joins  the  Bay  of  Bengal  S.  of  Cape 
Negrais  (see  map  of  .S.  India,  ref.  4-L).  It  is  !I0  miles  from 
tlie  sea,  and  large  ships  ascend  tothecitv.  ^lueli  rice  is  ex- 
ported hence.    'Pop.  (1881)  28.147. 

Bassclill,  lia~!is  liih,  Olivier  :  a  French  popular  poet  ;  b.  at 
Vii-e.  in  tlie  valh\\-  of  the  river  Vire  (  Vit!  de  TVre),  in  Xor- 
niandv,  late  in  llie  fourteenth  or  early  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. He  is  cliirfiy  iiiitable  as  the  inventor  of  tlie  joyous 
pojailar  song  known  originally  from  the  jilace  where  it  was 
written  as  Van  de  Vire.  which  name  was  later  corrupted 
into  Vniideril/e.  Little  is  really  known  of  Basselin"s  life. 
From  a  study  of  the  documents,  however.  Jl.  Armaud  Gaste 
thinks  the  following  facts  to  be  pretty  well  made  out :  Basse- 
lin  was  a  fuller  by  trade  :  owner  of  a  fullimr-iiiill  near  Vire, 
in  the  Val,  or  Van.  de  Vire  ;  he  was  a  merry  and  dissipated 
fellow,  the  chief  of  a  liand  of  jolly  comrades,  who  in  time 
of  ])eace  composed  and  sang  drinking  and  love  songs  of  a 
popular  kind,  Imt  in  time  of  w.ir  campaigned  it  to  the  tune 
of  their  own  patriotic  songs;  he  was  killed  by  the  English 
either  in  the  battle  of  Formigny  (14.50),  or  in  an  ambuscade 
shortly  Iiefore  this  battle.  Several  editions  purporting  to 
be  of"  the  poems  of  Ba.sselin  have  been  ]iulilisheil  in  the 
nineteenth  century  (1811,  1821,  1833,  1858):  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  none  of  the  poems  so  printed  are  really  by  him. 


BASSES-ALPES 


BASTARD 


521 


Tlie  author  of  them  was  Jean  le  IIoux,  a  poet  of  Vine  be- 
lonuiiiK  to  tlio  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  wrote 
Vauxde  Virf  nounaux,  \\\\\v\\  he  dareil  nut  si^n  because 
of  the  reliffious  troubles  uf  liis  time,  and  wliieh  were  soon 
attril)uted  to  the  great  orifrinator  of  such  songs.  Probably 
the  oidy  verilal)le  remains  of  Basselin's  works  are  to  be  found 
in  tlirei'MSri.  of  the  Bibliothcque  Nalionale  in  Paris,  of  which 
the  first  two  were  jmblislied  by  M.  Arniaiid  Gasle  in  1866, 
the  tliird  l)y  M.  Gaston.  Paris  (Soc.  des  auc.  texies  fr.,  1875). 

BlBLlotiKAPUV. — Eug.  de  Beaurepaire.  EtiKlf  xur  Bitiisi'lin, 
Jean  le  IIoux  it  le  Vuit  elf  17/-c  tiormand  (Aliin.  de  la  Sue. 
des  Aniiq.  de  Normande,  t.  xxiii.) :  A.  Gaste,  Ckanjiuns  nor- 
mandes  da  AT"  Steele,  Caen.  1866;  A.  Gaste,  J^tiide  sur 
Olivier  Bitxselin,  elc,  Caen,  18ti6  :  A.  Gaste,  Olivier  Basse- 
lin  etle  Viiii  de  Vire,  Paris,  18T7.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Bassos-Alpes.  baa  zaali>'  (i.  e.  Lower  Alps) :  a  dcpait- 
Mient  in  the  southeast  part  of  France:  boundccl  N.  by 
llautes-Alpes,  E.  by  Italy  anil  Alpes-JIarilimes.  8.  by  Var, 
and  \V.  by  \'aueluse.  Area,  2,68.i  s().  miles.  The  surface  is 
moitlv  mountainous,  with  some  fertile  vallevs.  It  is  drained 
by  thb  river  Durance.  Pop.  (1881)  131,918;  (1891)  124,285. 
Capital.  Digue. 

Basses-PyrC'iiC'es,  baaspee  ray-nay'  (i.  e.  Lower  Pyre- 
nees): a  frontier  department  of  France;  bounded  N.  by 
Landes,  E.  by  Hautes-Pyrenecs,  b.  by  Spain,  and  W.  by  the 
Atlantic.  Area,  2.94o  so.  miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
river  Gave  de  Pan.  an  atuuent  of  the  Adour.  which  forms  its 
northwest  boundary.  Tlie  surface  is  partly  mountainous: 
tlie  soil  of  the  lowlands  is  fertile.  Copper,  iron,  and  marble 
are  found  here.  The  chief  towns  are  Bavonne  and  Pau. 
Pop.  (1881 1  4:!4,:i66 ;  (1891)  425.027. 

IJasse-Tcrrp.  baas  tar  (i.  e.  low  land) :  a  seaport;  capital 
of  the  French  island  of  Giuidelou[)e  ;  on  the  southwest  coast ; 
hit.  15  57  X..  Ion.  61°  44'  W.  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref. 
7-M ).  It  is  the  residence  of  a  bisliop,  and  has  a  botanic  gar- 
den.    It  has  no  harbor.     Pop.  9,500. 

Bassp-Terrc  :  a  town  of  the  British  West  Indies ;  capital 
of  St.  Christopher  (or  St.  Kitts) ;  on  the  west  coast  (see  map 
of  West  Indies,  ref.  6-L).  It  has  a  harbor  and  an  active 
trade.     Pop.  8.500. 

Bas'sot  Horn  (It.  cor'no  di  basset'to):  the  richest  and 
■softest  of  all  wind  instruments  ;  invented  in  Passau  in  1770, 
.md  afterward  improved.  It  is  similar  to  a  clarionet  in 
tone  and  fingering,  and  its  com])ass  is  two  and  a  half  oc- 
taves. It  is.  Iiowever.  nearly  obsolete  in  modern  orchestra- 
tion. Jbizart  has  made  hue  use  of  two  basset  horns  in  his 
celcbrat  ed  Reqii  iem . 

Bas'sett.  .Jamks  :  mission;iry :  b.  in  town  of  Glenford, 
near  Hamilton,  Ont.,  Jan.  :J1.  1834  ;  graduated  at  Lane  Theo- 
logical .Seminary  in  1859.  lie  served  in  the  L'.  S.  volunteer 
army  1802-63;  held  pastorates  in  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Newark  and  Englewood.  N.  .J..  1803-71  :  and  the  hitter  year 
became  a  missionary  for  the  Presbyterian  Board.  He  has 
traveled  extensively  in  Europe  ;  piissed  many  veal's  in  Turkey 
and  Persia ;  auil,  as  a  pioneer  of  missionary  work  in  the 
latter  country,  gained  an  aecnrale  knowledge  of  its  people 
and  languages.  He  was  the  first  American  to  visit  the  tomb 
of  Harouii  al  Rasliid  in  Eastern  Khora-isan.and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  legation  of  the  U.  S.  to  Persia  was  largely  due  to 
his  publications  and  etforls.  He  established  the  ndssion  in 
Central  and  Eastern  Persia,  but  since  1884  has  resided  in  the 
r.  S.  Among  his  works  are:  Among  the  Tureoiniims  (Lon- 
lon,  1880);  Hymns  in  /'<>r.f/an  (Teheran,  1884);  Orammati- 
'  'it  Xijte  on  the  Simniini  Diitlerls  of  the  Persiitn  (London, 
1884);  Bemia,  the  Land  of  the  Imams  (New  York.  1886). 

KeIL  Ma(  DONALD. 

Bassott.  Richard  :  a  statesman  of  Deljiware  ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1787,  and  of  the  convention  of  the  .same 
vear  which  framed  the  V.  S.  Constitution,  lie  was  U.  S. 
Senator  (1789-93).  Governor  of  the  State  (1798-1801),  and 
r.  S.  district  juilge  (1801-02).  He  was  the  father-in-law  of 
Hon.  ,lame-i  \.  Bayard.     I),  in  Sept.,  1815. 

Ba.s'sia  :  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Siipotacece  ;  com- 
prises several  species  of  trees,  natives  of  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical countries.  It  produces  flowers  remarkable  for  their 
tlesliy  corolla,  and  a  [ailpy  fruit  inclosing  three  or  four 
seeds,  which  contain  an  abundance  of  oil  or  biityraeeous  fat, 
which  is  used  as  food  and  for  other  purposes.  The  Brinsia 
hilifolid.  an  East  Iniliau  tree  called  niadhuca  or  mahowa. 
is  valuable  for  timber,  and  beai^s  seeds  from  which  oil  is 
obtained.  The  (ialam  or  Shea  butter,  an  important  article 
of  commerce  in  Central  .\frica,  which  is  procured  from  the 


seeds  of  Bassia  pnrkii,  is  more  solid  and  more  palatable 
than  the  butter  of  cow's  milk.  It  is  as.sertcd  that  it  will 
keep  for  a  year  without  salt. 

Bassompicrn-,  baa.s'son  pi-ar  ,  FRAxyois,  Baron  de  :  a 
French  general;  li.  at  llarnel.  in  Lorraine.  1579.  He  was 
an  ac<-omplished  courtier,  greatly  addicted  to  intrigues,  and 
gained  the  favor  of  Louis  XIII.,  who  raised  him  to  the  rank 
of  marshal  of  France  in  1622,  and  sent  him  on  embassies  to 
Spain  and  England.  lie  fought  against  the  Huguenots  at 
La  Hochelle.  Having  offended  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  was 
confined  in  the  Bastile  aljout  twelve  years  (1031^2).  He 
(lied  Oct.  12,  1646,  leaving  interesting  Memoirex  (2  vols., 
1665),  which  were  written  in  the  Bastile,  and  are  commended 
as  attractive  in  stvle.  See  Puvmaigre,  t'Ve  de  Bassompierre, 
1848. 

Bassoon'  (Fr.  bosson,  deriv.  of  Ixis.  low] :  a  wind  in- 
strument winch  consists  of  a  perforated  tube  of  wood  in 
several  i>ieees,  which  are  fastened  together,  so  a.s  to  bring 
the  holes  and  keys  within  the  reaeli  of  the  fingers.  At  the 
end  is  attached  a  suudl  tapering,  crooked  brass  tube,  at  the 
termination  of  which  is  placed  a  reed  lo  produce  the  tone. 
It  has  a  compa.ss  of  three  octaves,  from  tiouble  15  flat  to  B 
flat  in  alt. 

Bassora,  baasso-ra,  or  Basra,  baas' ra:  a  city  of  Asiatic 
Turkcv ;  province  of  Iiak-Arabi,  Jlcsopotamia ;  on  the 
Eui)hrates  (here  called  Shat-el-Arab) ;  70  miles  from  its 
mouth  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  8-L).  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  brick  wall  nearly  8  miles  in  circuit,  which  incloses  gar- 
dens, rice-fields,  and  groves  of  the  date-palm.  The  houses 
are  mean  and  the  i)lace  is  unhealthy.  Al)cnit  half  of  the  in- 
habitants arc  Ara1)s.  Bassora  has  an  extensive  trade,  being 
an  entrepot  for  the  exchange  of  the  productions  of  Turkey 
and  Pci-sia  for  the  commodities  of  ]n<lia.  The  river  is  navi- 
gable to  this  point  for  ships  of  500  tons.  Among  the  ex- 
ports are  horses,  dates,  raw  silk,  and  precious  metals.  Ba-s- 
sora  was  founded  by  the  Caliph  Omar  about  636  a.  d.,  and 
wa.s  once  a  rich  and  populous  city.     Poji.  40,000. 

Bassora  Glim  :  a  whitish  or  yellowish  opaque  substance 
resembling  gum-arabic,  but  dilVcring  from  it  by  being  most- 
ly insoluble  in  water.  It  was  introduced  into  comiuercc 
from  the  ricinit  y  of  Bassora,  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Basso-rilievo  :  same  as  Bas-relief. 

Bass  Rock  :  remarkable  island-rock  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  composed  of  volcanic  material :  about  a 
mile  in  circumference;  nearly  round  ;  313  feet  high;  inac- 
cessible on  all  sides  except  the  south  ;  cavern,  accessible  at 
low  tide,  tunnels  the  rock  from  cast  to  west.  St.  Baltherc, 
or  Baldred,  died  here  in  a  hermitage  1756;  Charles  II.  pur- 
chased it  for  f4.000  in  1671.  and  in  its  dungeon  nianv  of  the 
most  eminent  Covenanters  were  confined  during  his  and 
the  succeeding  reign.  Four  young  .Jacoliite  prist)ners  cap- 
tured and  with  twelve  more  I'lcld  the  rock  for  King  James 
from  June.  1691.  till  Apr..  1694.  against  all  the  force  sent 
against  them  bv  William  HI.,  surrendering  at  last  on  hon- 
orable terms.  "See  Brisn  Bw-lc.  by  Hugh  Miller  and  lour 
others  (1848),  and  Pictorial  Jlidory  of  Enyland. 

Bass"8  Strait :  seiiarates  Australia  from  Tasuumia.  and  is 
about  140  miles  wide.  It  was  fii-st  explored  in  a  whaling- 
boat  bv  a  surgeon,  George  Bass,  in  1798,  who  sailed  from 
Port  Jackson,  Australia.  Prior  to  Ba.^s's  discovery  Tas- 
mania was  thought  to  be  part  of  Australia,  and  so  appears 
in  Capt.  Cook's  charts.  The  navigation  of  this  strait  is  ob- 
structed by  small  islands  and  coral  reef's. 

Bast,  or  Bass  [O.  E.  ba-nl.  Germ.  Bast,  inner  bark  of  lin- 
den] :  the  fibrous  inner  bark  of  dicotyledonous  plants  (called 
also  liber  and  endo/ihlo'iim).  consists  mostly  of  fibers  and 
sieve  vessels.  It  is  sometimes  valuable  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, and  is  often  used  in  the  faVirication  of  cloths,  ropes, 
mats,  sacks, etc.  The  Russians  ai)ply  thenamebastesiiecially 
to  the  inner  bark  of  the  linden  tree  (IHlia  europa-u).  which 
is  extensively  used  iov  making  ropes,  mats,  anil  shoes.  The 
trees  are  cut  down  in  spring  when  the  sap  abounds.  This 
matting  is  extensively  imported,  and  used  in  packing  fur- 
nil  ure  and  other  articles,  for  covering  tender  plants  in  gar- 
dens, etc.    See  Fiber. 

Bast,  baast.  Friedrich  Jacob  (1771-1811):  Hessian  ain- 
bas.sador  in  Vienna  and  Paris.  Noted  author  of  a  work  on 
(iregorius  Corinthius.  with  a  learned  and  still  valuable  pa- 
heographical  commentary. 

Bas'tard  [O.  Fr.  bastard.  Mod.  Fr.  hatard.  deriv.  of  O. 
Fr.  bast  (also  M.  Eng.),  pack-saddle  (used  as  bed  by  mule- 


528 


BASTIA 


BASTIEX-LEPAGE 


teers  in  inns) ;  ef.  proverb  fils  de  bast,  illegitimate  child] : 
in  liiw,  a  iierson  liorn  of  parents  not  married  to  each  other. 
It  inchules  several  distiriel  cases,  as  wliere  tlie  mother  is  un- 
married, or  she  is  a  married  woman,  or  where  slie  was  mar- 
ried at  the  time  of  conception,  but  not  married  at  the  time 
of  birth — e.g.  Ijeing  then  divorced  from  tlie bonds  of  matri- 
mony or  a  widow.  By  the  rules  of  the  common  law  tlie 
fact  "of  the  marriage  of  the  parents  at  tlie  time  of  birth  is 
the  test  of  li^gitiinacy,  even  tliough  such  marriage  may  have 
immediately  ]iivceded  the  birth.  By  the  civil  or  Konian 
law,  intermarriage  after  birtli  luis  a  retroactive  effect,  and 
makes  the  child  legitimate.  This  rule  prevaUs  in  Seodand. 
This  dilference  preseuls  frequently  an  interesting  question 
ill  private  inlernational  law.  Thus  if  a  person  owning 
both  land  and  personal  property  in  England  should  become 
domiciled  in  Scotland,  and  tliere  marry  the  mother  of  liis 
bastard  cliild,  tlie  marriage  would  make  tlie  child  legiti- 
mate, so  tliat  lie  could  succeed  to  tlie  personal  property  in 
England.  Imt  he  would  not  inherit  the  land  there  situated. 
Some  of  the  Slates  in  this  country  follow  the  common-law 
rule,  while  others  liy  statute  have  adopted  the  Scotch,  so 
that  the  same  point  may  arise  in  our  interstate  jurispru- 
dence. In  the  case  where  the  mother  is  a  married  woman, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  a  child  is  the  offspring  of  an  adulter- 
ous connection,  it  will  not  lie  enough  that  the  adulterer  may 
have  been  the  father.  It  must  Ixi  proved  tliat  the  husliand 
could  not  have  lieen,  either  by  aliseuee  from  the  country  or 
other  sullicieut  reason.  The  presumptions  of  law  favor  legit- 
imacy, and  pulilic  policy  requires  that  these  should  only  be 
overcome  by  the  most  satisfactory  proof.  (For  the  details 
of  this  branch  of  the  law,  see  Nicholas,  Law  of  Adnllerine 
Basliii-di/.)  Public  ])olicy  also  requires  that  the  mother 
should  not  be  allowed,  for  the  purpose  of  bastardizing  the 
issue,  to  lie  a-  witness  to  prove  want  of  access  on  the  part  of 
the  husband,  in  the  S|iecial  case  where  the  mother  is  at 
the  time  of  the  child's  birtli  a  widow,  a  question  may  arise 
as  to  the  etfei't  of  the  time  intervening  between  the  death 
of  the  husband  and  the  birth  of  the  child  in  raising  a  pre- 
sumption of  illegitimacy.  No  precise  time  is  fixed  by  law, 
and  the  testimony  of  experts  must  be  resorted  to.  Statute's 
sometimes  fix  a  period  after  which  the  presumption  of  ille- 
gitimacy will  arise.  A  similar  question  may  arise  after  a 
divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony  for  the  husband's 
fault.  In  the  case  of  a  divorce  from  bed  and  board,  where 
a  child  is  subsequently  conceived  it  is  presumed  to  bo  ille- 
gitimate, as  it  will  he  sup]iosed  that  the  parties  have  obeyed 
the  decree  of  the  court,  and  h.-ive  lived  apart.  This  pre- 
sumption may  be  reliufteel  l)y  satisfactory  evidence. 

I5y  the  common  law,  a  parent  is  not  bound  to  sustain  an 
illegitimate  child.  By  a  series  of  statutes  in  England,  com- 
mencing in  the  reign  of  (|)ueen  Elizabeth,  the  duty  of  sup- 
I)ort  is  imposed  on  the  sui)posed  father  as  well  as  the  moth- 
er. This  legislation  proceeds  upon  the  theory  that  it  is  a 
criminal  act  to  bring  such  a  child  into  the  world  and  to  cast 
its  support  upon  tlie  public.  Accordingly,  an  inquiry  is 
had  before  magistrates  into  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  if 
|iarentage  is  established  an  order  is  made  lor  a  periodical 
allowance  tor  the  child's  support.  Should  the  parent  ab- 
scond, his  or  her  pro[ierly  may  be  sequestered.  Due  pro- 
vision is  made  for  a  review  of  the  order  of  the  magistrates. 
These  statutes  Jirc  substantially  re-enacted  in  this  country. 
This  class  of  children  do  not  have  the  same  civil  rights  in 
all  respects  as  tliose  who  are  legitimate.  Tliey  can  not  iii- 
lierit  land  from  either  father,  mother,  or  collateral  relatives, 
or  trausmil  laud  to  them.  Natui'al  ties  are,  however,  re- 
g.'U'ded,  it  being  the  same  crime  for  bastard  relatives  to  in- 
termarry a.s  for  those  who  are  legitimate.  Such  a  child  has 
no  name  excejit  as  it  may  acquire  it  by  reputation.  It  is 
deemed  to  have  its  ilomicile  of  origin  at  the  place  of  its 
birth.  'I'hese  disabilities  in  this  country  arc  to  some  extent 
mollified  by  statutes  in  the  respective  States.  Thus  ill  Xew 
York  an  illegiliMiatcM'hild  may  inherit  from  its  mother,  in 
default  of  h'gitimato  descendants;  so  the  mother  may  in 
like  circumstances  inherit  from  the  child.  A  bastard  child 
may  be  made  legitimate  by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature 
both  in  I'lnglaud  and  in  this  country.  Such  an  act  can 
not,  however,  in  the  U.  S.  interfere  with  vested  rights  of 
others.  It  could  not  divest  |)roperty  wliicli  liad  been  pre- 
viously transmitted  to  legitimate  relatives, 

T.  W.  DwmiiT. 

Bastia,  biiiis-tce'a :  a  fortified  seaport  of  Corsica  ;  on  the 
northeast  coast  ;  75  miles  N.  E.  of  Ajaccio;  lat.  43°  43'  N., 
Ion.  U   27'  E.  (see  iii«|i  of  Prance,  rcf,  3-K).     It  is  the  rich- 


est and  most  populous  town  in  the  island,  of  which  it  was 
formerly  the  caiiital.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  which  rises  in  the  form  of  an  am])hitheater. 
It  has  a  liarljor  which  admits  small  vessels,  and  lias  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  leather,  wine,  oil,  coral,  etc.  Here  are 
numerous  tanneries.  Bastia  dates  from  1383.  Pop.  (1891) 
33,:!iir. 

liastiaii.  baas'tec-an,  Adolf:  German  traveler  and  .an- 
thropologist ;  b.  June  36,  1836,  in  Bremen ;  made  an  exten- 
sive journey  to  Australia,  America,  Asia,  and  West  Africa 
18.51-59;  traveled  in  the  East  1861-65;  in  North  and 
South  America  1875-76;  traveled  through  Asia,  Pacific 
Ocean,   North    America,    and    the    ^^'est    Indies   1878-80; 


through  Turkestan,  Zanzibar  and  Australia  188!)-!)!  ;   pro- 
president  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Anthropology :  president  of  the  GeogTaphical  So- 


fessor  in  tlie  University  of  Berlin  and  president  of  the 


ciety;  joint  editor  of  the  Zeitsclirift  fur  EthnuJugie  1869. 
His  most  important  writings  are :  !)<■)■  Ilctmrli,  in  der  Oe- 
sc/iic/iti'  (3  vols.,  1860):  Die  Milker  dex  ijullirhen  Asien  (6 
vols.,  1866-71);  EHinohigisehe  Forsrhunyen  (3  vols.,  1871- 
73);  Schi'iffiimj  oder  Eii/xfehutig  (1875);  Die  Vorafelliingen 
von  der  ,See/e  (1875);  Vuryeneliichte  der  Efhnologie  (1881); 
AUc/eineine  Grundziige  der  Etlinologie  (1884);  lieiigionit- 
p/n/ijsopliif!che  Probhme  (188i):  Der  Fetisch.  tin  der  Kiinte 
lliiineax  (1885) ;  Indonexien  oder  die  Iitsein  des  Meilciilschen 
yl;v7///y('/-s  (1884-89);  Allerlei  uus  VoJks  mid  Menxrlien/iunde 
(3  vols.,  1888).  No  ecpially  well-equi|)i)ed  ethnologist  has 
ever  traveleil  so  extensively,  and  it  is  difficult  to  overesti- 
mate his  services  to  science.  C  II.  Tui'RBER. 

BasUaii,  Henky  Chablton,  51.  D..  F.  R.  S. ;  h.  at  Truro, 
England,  Aiir.  26.  1837;  was  noted  for  a  time  as  an  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrine  of  the  spontaneous  generation  of  living 
organisms.  He  early  gained  fame  as  a  pathologist.  He 
has  since  his  twenty-third  year  been  officially  connected 
with  the  London  University,  and  in  1871  became  Professor 
of  Pathological  Anatomy,  and  in  1887  of  Clinical  iMedicine, 
in  University  College.  He  has  published  Modes  of  Origin 
of  LoH'e.tt  'Orijdiiltiiiis  (1871);  The  Beginnings  of  Life 
(i.S73);  Erohiilon  imd  the  Origin  of  Life  (1874);  The 
Brain  ax  an  Organ  of  31  ind  (1880),  translated  into  French 
and  German  ;  ParaJysis  (1886) ;  and  iniiiortant  monographs 
on  free  and  parasitic  nematoids.  He  su])plied  many  arti- 
cles on  nervous  diseases  to  Quain's  Dictionary  of  J-lcdIeine. 

Bastiat,  ba"iis'ti"e-aa'.  Frederic  :  French  political  econ- 
omist ami  advocate  of  free  trade  ;  li.  at  Bayomie  on  June 
29,  1801.  He,wrote  against  the  protective  "system  in  the 
Jon  mat  dex  L'eononilxtes.  During  a  visit  to  England  he 
became  acquainted  with  Colxlen,  and  on  his  return  (184.5) 
he  pniduced  translations  of  the  speeches  of  British  free- 
trailers  ;  was  chosen  a  meniberof  the  Constituent  and  Legis- 
lative Assemblies  of  1848  and  1849,  His  chief  work  is 
Harmonies  Economiques  (1849),  in  which  he  made  unac- 
knowledged use  of  the  siieculations  of  llenrv  C.  Carev.  I>. 
Dec.  24.  1S.50. 

Bastido.  balis'teed',  Jules:  a  French  rcjiublican  and 
journalist  ;  1).  in  Paris,  Nov.  22.  1800.  He  became  chief 
editor  of  the  National  about  1836.  and  founded  the  Revue 
Nationate  in  1S46.  He  was  Sliuisfer  of  Foreign  Affairs 
under  Ciivaignac  in  1848.  He  pulilished  iniporfani  educa- 
tiomil  .•iiid  Instorical  works.     D.  Mar.  3,  1879. 

Basticn-IiCpage.  ba1is'ti-a"an'  Ic-paash',  Jm.Es  :  painter; 
b.  at  Damvillers^  Meiise,  France,  Nov.  1,  1848  ;  d.  at  Paris, 
Dec.  10.  1884.  lie  was  a  pu|iil  of  Cabaiiel  and  one  of  the 
ablest  men  in  the  Goveriinieiit  School  of  Fine  Arts,  but 
though  he  entered  the  competition  for  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  many  artists  and  critics,  was 
jilaiuly  the  candidate  with  the  best  claim  for  the  ju-ize.  his 
work  was  not  considered  quite  conventional  and  academic 
enough  by  the  classic-loving  mendiers  of  the  Institute  who 
made  fheaw.'irds.  and  he  received  only  a  secniid  prize.  He 
created  a  genuine  sensation  at  the  Salon  of  1874  by  the  ex- 
hibition of  the  Portrait  of  My  (1  rand  father,  a  ]>icturo  of 
an  elderly  man  painted  in  'out-of-doors  eflfect,  and  following 
it  in  suci'eeding  Salons  with  su<4i  works  as  The  llayniah'rs. 
Portrait  of  My  Parents.  The  J'olato  Oathererx.  and  deanne. 
rf'.I/T,  he  was  soon  recognized  as  a  clief  d'ietde.  His  in- 
fluence on  niiiilern  jiaintiug  was  far-reaching  and  bene- 
ficiid.  Hismcllioils  have  been  imitated  by  a  host  of  men. 
Bast ieu's  small  ])ortraits— the  marvelous  one  of  his  brother 
Euiile,  the  arcliitect,  seated  at  a  table  with  his  drawing  in- 
struments, and  those  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  Sarah  Bern- 
hardt and  Albert  Wolf— Iiave  had  the  effect  of  stimulating  this 


HASTIIiE 


BASTION 


529 


stylo  of  portniiture,  ami  the  work  of  such  excellent  pninters 
in  tills  lii'ld  as  Chartran  and  Friant  is  directly  traceable  to 
him.  In  his  pictures  of  outdoor  life,  those  remarkahle  ef- 
fects in  pkiii.  air,  he  no  doubt  drew  soinethin;i:  from  t'ourbct 
and  from  Manet ;  but  ho  is  decidedly  ori^'inal,  and  his  work 
is  dislin<ruished  from  theii-s  by  infinitely  better  drawing, 
and  l)y  a  research  for  color  that  ^o's  beyoml  t'ourliet  and 
that  Slanet  never  apiuoached.  In  the  portrait  of  his  par- 
ents, a^ain.  Mastien,  witli  the  most  exijuisitely  sensitive 
drawing  and  an  abundant  sense  of  color,  reaches  a  very 
high  level,  in  the  portrait  of  his  mother,  particularly, 
there  is  an  exactness  that  is  worthy  of  llolliein.  with  an  uii- 
atlccted  sentiment  that  we  find  nowhere  outside  of  the  work 
of  the  great  Dutch  masters.  Painted  out  of  doors,  as  these 
portraits  were,  in  the  dillused  light,  there  is  an  original  side 
to  them  that  is  found  in  noljody  else's  work.  The  Portrait 
of  My  Oriindfatliir  is  eipially  reniarkalile,  and  indeed  says 
the  la-st  word  in  sincerity  and  truth  in  llie  outdoor  school 
of  painting.  In  The  Jfaymakers,  The  Potato  Gatherers, 
The  M'ooilmaii.  and  other  pictures  of  peasant  life,  while 
there  is  a  diirerent  sort  of  sentiment  from  that  which 
makes  Millet "s  interpretations  of  similar  themes  such  beau- 
tiful works  of  art.  tliere  is  a  symi>athctic  comprehen- 
sion of  the  poetry  of  the  life  of  the  fields,  and  the  most 
healthful,  robust  methods  in  repri'senting  it  in  pictorial 
form.  In  the  picture  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,  wliere  the  young 
^irl  is  seen  standing  under  an  apple-tree  in  a  garden,  listen- 
ing to  the  voices  of  vision-like  figures  in  armor,  indi- 
cated lus  tloating  in  the  air  beliind  her,  Hastien  attempted 
something  more  than  truthful  rendering  of  peasant  charac- 
ter, and  the  figure  of  .leaime  il'Arc  is  a  beautiful  creation. 
This  picture  was  purchased  by  ICrwin  Davis,  of  New  York, 
and  presented  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  that  city, 
where  it  may  now  be  seen.  It  is  the  work  of  a  master,  and 
one  in  which  the  painter's  surpassing  (puilities  may  l)e 
studied  in  one  of  the  most  complete  manifestations  of  his 
talent.  Hastien  received  medals  at  the  Salons  of  1874  and 
1875  and  at  the  Paris  Kxposition  of  1878,  and  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  187!t;  but  the  full  recognition  of  his  ability  did 
not  come  until  the  latter  <lays  of  his  short  caret'r.  lie  is 
now  considered  one  of  the  great  [lainters  of  the  century, 
and  his  advent  really  marked  an  nuportant  "  movenu'nt  " 
in  the  progress  of  modern  art.  .See  'I'heuriet's  Life  (Paris, 
1892).  William  A.  ('offi.v. 

Bnslile,  bils-teel' or  ba.s'twl  [Vr.  ba.ttille,  from  Late  Lat. 
bastiri',  build):  a  Uioue  at  first  applied  to  fortified  buildings 
forming  part  of  a  system  of  defense,  and  once  in  general  use 
in  Paris.  In  IHtii),  by  order  of  Charles  V.,  llugues  Aubriot, 
provost  of  Paris,  began  to  convert  the  two  towers  which 
flanked  the  gate  of  .St.  Antoine  into  a  fortress  of  eight 
towers,  connected  by  thick-curtained  walls,  the  whole  be- 
ing sui-rounded  by 
a  moat  2V)  feet 
wide.  Later  al- 
terations left  the 
nmin  features  of 
the  structure  still 
dominant,  and  to 
this  fortress  the 
name  ■'  baslile  " 
gradually  became 
restricted.  For 
many  years  its 
principal  use  wils 
for  military  pur- 
poses, although  state  prisonei-s  were  occasionally  confined 
here,  according  to  a  general  French  use  of  foi-t  ifications.  The 
Frondcurs  held  possession  of  it  for  three  years  from  1G49, 
and  it  was  here  that  the  great  Conde  t<Iok  refuge  when 
Tnrenne  attacked  Paris  in  lf).T3.  Henry  IV.  had  used  the 
edifice  as  a  royal  treasury, and  given  itscommand  to  the  Due 
de  Sully.  Anuing  the  "early  traditions  of  the  place  is  the 
story  that  its  architect,  .\nl)riot,  was  incarcerated  for  heresy 
within  its  walls.  Tlu!  Due  de  Nemours  was  confined  hero 
thirteen  years  in  an  iron  cage.  During  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIII.  it  V)ecam(>  the  receptacle  for  state  prisoners.  It  had 
accommodations  for  about  eighty  pei-sons  in  its  cells  and 
dungeons,  ami  it  was  often  overcrowded  during  the  reigns 
of  Louis  XIV.  and  XV.  The  stories  of  the  cruelties  prac- 
ticed here  are  not  well  borne  out  by  recent  investigation. 
There  were  two  classes  of  prisoners  committed  here  by  sum- 
mary process:  those  detained  as  a  prei'aution  or  for  disci- 
{)lino  in  loyalty,  and  those  against  whom  specific  but  untried 
34 


Plan  of  Bastile. 


charges  wore  laid.  The  term  of  incarceration  which  might 
elapse  before  a  prisoner  was  released,  cither  by  royal  com- 
mand or  liy  trial  and  acquittal,  was  nndetcrniined,  and  occa- 
sionally some  poor  fellows  grew  old  in  the  cells  without  learn- 


FiG.  2.— The  Bastile. 

ing  why  t  hey  were  detained.  Convicts  were  treated  with  the 
strictness  and  brutality  of  the  times.  The  better  class  of 
prisoners,  except  in  cases  of  state  importance,  had  consider- 
able comfort,  could  receive  visitors  under  certain  regula- 
tions, played  games,  and  had  open  air  exercise  on  the  galler- 
ies and  in  the  courts  of  the  building.  Among  the  famous 
inmates  of  this  prison  during  the  reigns  of  the  two  Louises 
named  were  the  "Man  of  the  Iron  Mask,"  Fouquct,  the 
Marshal  Kichelieu,  De  Sacy,  Voltaire,  Labourdonnais,  Car- 
dinal Rohan,  and  La  Chalotais.  There  were  incarcerations 
of  al)le  and  upright  men  under  arbilraryrule  which  were 
cruel  and  unjust,  and  in  this  way  the  Bastile  became  a  sym- 
bol of  despotic  government  in  the  revolutionary  year  of  1789. 
It  was  attacked  by  the  Paris  insurgents  July  14,  who  killed 
Delannay,  the  governor,  and  several  officei's,  and  captured 
the  place.  Three  uid<nown  prisoners  and  four  forgers  were 
set  free.  The  next  day  the  demolition  of  the  fortress  by  the 
mob  began.  A  bronze  column  on  the  site  commemorates 
the  destruction,  while  the  day  of  its  fall  has  become  a  na- 
tional fi'le  day.  The  historical  doennu'iits  of  the  prison 
which  escaped  destruction  were  stored  in  the  Arsenal  lil)rary, 
and  have  to  some  extent  been  elucidated  by  Frani;ois  Ravais- 
soii  in  Jjea  Archives  de  la  Baatille  (Paris,  6  vols.,  1866-73). 
Carlyle  has  graphically  described  the  downfall  of  thisjjrison 
in  his  Frenrli  Uerolntion. 

Bastilia'do  [from  Span.  A«.w^oHnf/o,  deriv.  of  .Span.6rt*7(Mi: 
Ital.  ba.flmie:  I'r.  baton,  stick]:  a  name  given  by  Europeans 
to  a  form  of  punishment  whieli  is  common  in  Turkey  and 
several  Oriental  countries,  and  was  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Kgyptians.  It  consists  of  blows  inflicted  with  a  stick  on  the 
soles  of  the  feet. 

nns'tioii  [Fr.  dciiv.  of  bnslir.hutir.  buildj :  a  bulwark;  a 

projecting  tower  erected  to  defend  the  wall  of  a  town  or 
fortification.  An  unbroken  wall  enveloping  a  city  or  other 
place  for  its  defense  woidd  be  unseen  at  its  foot ;  hence  dur- 
ing ancient  times  and  the  Middle  Ages  towers  of  various 
kinds  projected  at  intervals,  from  which  the  intermeiliate 
portions  of  the  wall  could  be  observed  and  reached  by  de- 
fensive projectiles  (i.  c.  flanked).  The  invention  of  gun- 
powder nuidc  it  necessary  to  cover  enveloping  walls  (the 
enceinte)  by  earth  in  the  form  of  a  glacis  ni  front  of  tho 
ditch,  and  to  enlarge  these  fianking  towers  to  receive  artil- 
lery. Thus  enlarged,  their  own  walls  would  have  been  un- 
defended had  not  their  outline  been  so  contrived  that  they 
should /i«nX-  each  other.  Hence  arises  the  bastion,  the  two 
faces  of  which,  directed  upon  the  inner  extremities  of  the 
fianks  of  the  adjoining  bastions,  are  flanked  (that  is,  de- 
fended) by  them ;  henco  a  bastion  has  two  faces  and  two 


53U 


BASTROP 


BATEMAN^ 


flanks  ;  the  fifth  side  of  the  flsure,  called  the  gorge  (between 
the  extremities  of  the  curtain  and  toward  tlie  interior  of  the 
place),  is  usually  open.  That  portion  of  the  enceinte  wOiich 
fills  the  interval  between  two  bastions,  tiniting  with  the  in- 
ner extremities  of  their  flanks,  is  called  the  curtain.  The 
ensemble  of  a  curtain  and  two  half-bastions  is  caUed  a 
bastioned  front.    See  Fortification'. 

Bastrop :  town  ;  capital  of  Bastrop  co..  Tex.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  .T-H) :  on  Colorado  river ; 
S5  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Austin  Citv.  It  is  in  a  corn  and  cotton 
growing  district.     Pop.  (1S80)  1..546:  (1800)  1.6:J4. 

Basiitolaud.  ba-soo  tfj-liind  :  a  British  crown  colony  near 
the  east  coast  of  South  Africa;  on  the  N.  E.  of  Cape  Col- 
ony. It  is  an  irregular  oval,  about  160  miles  long  Ijy  100 
broad,  on  both  sides  of  the  JIaluti  Mountains,  inclosing  the 
head-waters  of  tlie  south  branch  of  the  Orange  river,  with 
Orange  Free  State  on  the  W.  and  X.  W..  Natal  on  the  N,  E„ 
Kaffraria  on  the  S.  E.,  and  Cape  Colony  on  the  S.  W.  Area. 
9.7'20  sq.  miles.  The  country  is  elevated  and  rough,  has  a 
fine  climate,  is  well  watered,  produces  abundant  grass  for 
its  immense  herds  of  cattle,  and  is  capable  of  great  produc- 
tion of  grain.  The  productions  are  wool,  wheat,  mealies, 
and  Kaffre  com.  Coal  is  produced  for  local  supidy.  The 
colony  was  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in  18T1.  but  placed  di- 
rectlv  under  authority  of  the  crown  in  1884.  The  revenue 
in  18fl0-91  was  .f  208.000.  the  expenditure  about  .f  .5.000  less. 
Pop.  (1891)  European.  .178;  native.  218,334.  European  set- 
tlement is  now  pri.hiliilc'il.  In  1891  the  colony  possessed 
81,000  horses,  321.0(li»  laltle,  10,000  plows  and  800  wagons. 

M.  W.  H. 
Bas'yle  [from  Gr.  pduns.  base  4-  u\7).  wood,  stuff  (as  in  ben- 
zoyl)] :  "the  name  given  by  Graham  to  a  substance,  whether 
siiiiple  or  compound,  which  can  unite  with  oxygen  to  produce 
a  base.     Thus  all  the  metals  are  examples  of  simple  basyles. 
while  annuonium.  ethyl,  methyl,  etc.,  are  compound  basyles. 
Bat  (in   Lat.  respertilio) :   an   animal  belonging  to  the 
order  Cheiroptera.  rantaruaXs  possessing  a  fold  of  skin  which 
commences  at  the  neck  and  extends 
on  each  side  between  the  fore  legs 
or  arms  and  the   posterior  limbs, 
serving  as  wings  which  enable  the 
aninuil  to  fly.     Bats  are  the  only 
mammals  which  have  the  [lower  of 
flight.      The    anterior   extremities 
and  digits   are  usually  very  long, 
the  eyes  small,  ears  large,  thumbs 
short  and  armed  witli  a  hook-like 
nail,  as  are  each  of  the  toes  of  tlie 
hind  feet.     The  clavicle  is  gener- 
ally long.      Some  species    have   a 
spur  on  the  heel.     Bats  fly  for  the 
most  part  only  in  the  night,  living 
by  day  in  hollow  trees,  caves,  and 
dark  buildings.     Even  when  their  eyes  have  been  destroyed 
they  can  fly  through  narrow  and  tortuous  passages  without 

hitting.  Tliis  is  probably 
owing  to  their  delicate  sen.se 
of  hearing  and  touch.  Ex- 
ce)it  in  tropical  climates  they 
hibernate  in  cold  weather. 

Bats  are  divided  into  two 
groups:  the  so-called  frugiv- 
orous  and  the  insectivorous 
bats.  The  former  are  found 
only  in  the  Old  World  tropi- 
cal regions.  They  feed  chiefly  on  fruits,  but  also  eat  birds, 
small  iiiainmals,  etc.     They  nnmber  forty  or  more  .species, 

and    include     the     rousetles, 

kalongs,  ■■  flying   foxes,"  etc. 

Some    of    tlieni    can    spread 

their  wings  5  I'eet    from  tip 

to  tip.     Tlie  princiiial  genus 

~    f'ti-ropu.i.  and    its  species 

Ml'    remarkable    as     having 

"Illy    twi'iity-fdur    vertebrie, 

a   smaller  numlier  than    iiny 

ilher   known    mammal    pos- 

'  sses.       The     insectivorous 

i.its    are    by  far    tlie    most 

numerous,  some  300   species 

being  described,     Tlic  most 

formidable  of  these  are  the  vampires — tropical  American 

)f  the  genus  Desniodns.  having  a  leaf-like  membrane 


Flying  tox  bal. 


jsmai^/i'^ 


Vampire  In 


Long-eared  bat. 


bats 


on  the  end  of  the  nose.  They  are  famous  for  their  habit  of 
fastening  upon  sleeping  animals  and  men  for  the  purpose  of 
sucking  their  blood.  Such  witnesses  as  D'Azara,  Tsehudi, 
Waterton,  and  Darwin  confirm  this  disputed  statement. 
The  bats  of  the  U.  S.  are  not  very  numerous  in  species, 
though  abundant  in  indi^•iduals.  They  are  of  the  genera 
Vespertilio.  Atatapha.  Plecvtus.  etc.  Europe  is  inticli  more 
rich  in  species,  the  "long-eared  bat,"  Plecotus  communis, 
being  one  of  the  most  common.  Bats  are  extremely  u-seful 
in  destroying  inseets,  and  their  excrement  so  accumulates 
in  certain  caves,  as  in  Farther  India,  in  Tennessee,  Arkan- 
sas, etc.,  as  to  promise  to  become  an  important  source  of 
guano.     See  Vespertilioxid.e.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Bata'tas  E'diilis:  See  Sweet  Potato. 
Bata'vi :  an  ancient  German  tribe  or  nation  who  inhab- 
ited the  country  now  called  Holland,  especially  an  island 
called  Batariu  or  Insula  Batarunim.  which  was  inclosed  by 
the  Rhine,  the  Waal  (Vahalis).  the  Jleuse  (Mosa),  and  the 
ocean.  They  weie  concpiered  by  Germanicus.  and  became 
loyal  subjects  of  the  Roman  empire.  They  were  exempted 
from  the  payment  <if  taxes.  The  Batavian  cavalry  served 
in  the  Roman  armies,  and  had  a  high  reputation. 

Bata'yia  (formerly  Jacatra) :  a  city  in  the  proWnce  of 
that  name,  and  a  seaport  of  Java;  capital  of  the  Dutch  pos- 
sessions in  the  East  Indies;  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
island  and  on  the  Java  Sea ;  lat.  6°  8'  S..  Ion.  106^  50'  E.  (see 
map  of  East  Indies,  ref.  8-C).  It  consists  of  the  old  and  new 
towns.  The  latter  is  about  3  miles  inland,  and  contains  the 
government  offices  and  residences  of  the  merchants,  and  is 
beautifully  and  healthfully  situated  among  groves  and  ave- 
nues of  trees.  The  former  is  flat  and  marshy,  intersected  by 
canals,  and  was  formerly  very  unhealthy,  but  has  been  im- 
proved by  draining.  Tlie  temperature  is  almost  uniform 
throughout  the  year,  the  average  being  78'  F.  It  has  a  fair 
harbor,  and  is  the  greatest  commercial  emporium  of  the  Ma- 
lay Archipelago,  t  hough  Singapore  is  a  powerful  rival.  It  has 
a  stadt-hoiise.  an  exchange,  numerous  churches,  several  Chi- 
nese temples,  banks,  a  school  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  a  botanic 
garden.  A  telegraphic  cable  connects  it  with  Singapore, 
about  600  miles  distant.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
coffee,  sugar,  pepper,  indigo,  hides,  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace, 
tin,  rice,  and  rattans.  Among  the  imports  are  various  arti- 
cles of  European  manufacture.  Pop.  96.000,  of  whom  8.000 
are  Europeans.  This  city  was  founded  by  the  Dutch  in  1619. 
Batavia:  town;  Kane  co..  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-F);  on  branch  lines  of  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  and  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  R,  Rs., 
and  on  Fox  river ;  38  miles  W.  of  Chicago.  Batavia  has  8 
churches.  6  public  schools,  an  institute  for  the  insane,  city- 
hall,  windmill-factories,  wagon-factories,  stone-quarries,  and 
electric  lights.  Founded  in  1834;  incorporated  as  a  village 
in  1856.    'Pop.  (1880)  2.639  ;  (1890)  3,54;3. 

Editor  of  "  News." 
Batavia  :  railroad  center  and  capital  of  Genesee  co..  N.  Y. 
(for  location  of  ccmnty.  see  map  of  New  York.  ref.  4-D) ;  on 
the  Tonawanda  creek',  36  miles  E.  of  Buffalo  and  32  miles 
W.  of  Rochester;  on  the  main  line  of  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River  R.  R.    The  Lehigh  Yalley  and  New  York, 
Lake  Erie  and  Western  R.  Rs.  also  pass  through  Batavia, 
while  it  is  the  terminus  of  the  Canandaigua,  Niagara  Falls, 
and  Attica  branches  of  the  Central,     It  contains  several  im- 
portant   manufactories,    including    harvester-work.s,    gun- 
works,    carriage-wlieel    and    wood-working   factories,  shoe-       , 
factories,  plow -works,  and  a  canning-factcuy.  and  has  a  high      ■ 
school,    four   handsome    ward   schools,   public    library,  the      1 
buildiiig  for  which  was  donated  by  the  widow  of  the  late 
Dean  Richmond,  and  the  State  in.stitution  for  the  blind. 
Pop.  (1870)  3,890;  (1880)  4,845:  (1890)  7.221. 

Editor  of  -  The  Daily  News." 

Batavian  Roi»iililie:  Holland  liaviug  been  conquered 
by  the  French  in  17'.to.  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  deposed 
aiid  a  new  governnieiit  was  established,  with  the  title  of  the 
Batavian  Re|iublic.  This  was  an  ally  or  tributary  to  the 
French  repulilic.  and  as  such  was  involved  in  a  war  against 
the  British,  who  nearly  ruined  the  Dutch  navy.  In  June, 
1806.  this  republic  was"  converted  into  a  kingdom,  of  which 
Louis  Boiuqparte  became  king. 

Bate'man.  Kate  Josephine:  actress;  b.  in  Baltimore, 
Md..  Oct.  7.  1842;  daughter  of  H.  L.  Bateman  and  Mrs. 
Bateman,  both  well  known  in  theatrical  circles.  Her  sister 
Ellen  (Mrs.  Greppo)  was  also  an  actress  before  her  marriage. 
The  sisters  were  brought  up  almost  from  infancy  upon  the 


he     I 

i 


BATEMAX 


BATH 


531 


stage.  In  1862  Kate  Bateinaii  appeared  at  Boston  as  Leali, 
her  greatest  cliaracter,  and  won  great  applause  in  the  U.  S. 
and  Great  Britain.  In  1866  she  was  married  to  George 
Crowe,  a  former  editor  of  tlie  l^oiulon  Neips. 

Keviscd  by  B.  B.  Vallentixe. 

Itiltoinail.  Xewtox,  LL.  D.  :  h.  July  27.  1822.  in  Fairfield. 
N'.  .J.;  removed  to  Illinois  with  his  parents  in  1833;  entered 
Illinois  College  in  1840,  and  gniiluated  in  1843;  studied  at 
Ijane  Theological  Seminary  a  short  time;  traveled  exten- 
sively in  the  l'.  S. ;  taught  private  school  in  St.  Louis;  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  1847-.51  in  St.  Charles  College,  Mis- 
souri, and  then  became  principal  of  public  free  school  of 
Jacksonville,  111.;  was  at  the  same  time  superintendent  of 
schools  for  the  city  and  commissioner  of  schools  for  the 
county;  became  principal  of  Jacksonville  Female  Academy 
in  18.58,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  was  elected  State 
superintendent  of  jiublic  instruction.  He  served  five  terms 
of  two  yeai-s  each,  and  was  actively  engaged  in  establishing 
the  Xonnal  rniversily.  He  published  a  valuable  report  each 
term.  In  I8ti2-64  lie  had  charge  of  the  correspondence  of  the 
provost-miirshal-general  of  the  State,  and  then  resumed  the 
State  superintendency  of  public  instruction.  From  1875  to 
1892  he  was  president  of  Knox  College,  Illinois. 

Bates.  Aklo;  author;  b.  in  East  Machias,  Jle.,  Dec.  16, 
1850:  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1S76;  editor  Boston 
Sunday  Courier  (1880);  author  of  I'lillifs  PerveraH ies 
(1881);  The  Pagans  (\mi)  \  A  Wheel  of  Fire  (laSS);  Ber- 
ries of  the  /i/vVr  (poems,  1886):  A  Lad's  Lore  (18ST);  Son- 
nets in  Shadow  (poems,  1887);  The  Philistines  (,IB8S); 
Prince  Vance  (with  Eleanor  Putnam,  1888);  Albrecht 
(1890);  A  Booh  o'  Nine  Tales  (\%^\);  The  Poet  and  His 
Self  (poems,  1891) ;  Told  in  the  Gate  (1892),  Oriental  stories 
in  verse. 

Bates,  CvRUS  Stear.ns,  D.  D. :  clergyman  and  educator; 
li.  al  Chester,  O.,  Dec.  31,  1840;  graduated  at  Cincinnati 
Law  College  1865.  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the 
Diocese  of  Ohio  at  (iambier  1873;  onlained  1873,  and  be- 
came rector  X^ewark.  O..  1873;  Professor  of  Systematic  Di- 
vinitv  in  the  Theological  Scniinarv  of  the  Diocese  of  Ohio 
1878^;  rector  St.  Paul's,  Clevelaiid,  1884. 

Bates.  Edward.  IjL.  D.  :  lawyer  and  attorney-general  of 
the  I'.  .S. ;  b.  at  Belmont.  Goochland  CO..  Va.,  Sept.  4,  1793  ; 
'■migrated  to  Missouri  in  his  youth.  He  became  a  political 
friend  of  Henry  Clay,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1K27.  He  presided  at  the  national  convention  of  the 
friends  of  internal  improvement  which  met  at  Chicago  in 
1847;  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com]>romise  in 
18.54;  Mar.,  1861,  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  Attorney- 
(feneral  of  the  U.  S. ;  resigned  in  1864.  D.  in  St.  Louis,  Mar. 
25,  1869. 

Bates,  JosiiiA :  b.  in  Weymouth.  .Mass.,  in  1788.  He  re- 
moved to  London  in  1826,  and  became  a  partner  and  event- 
ually the  head  of  the  banking-house  of  Baring  Brothers  & 
Co.;  was  umpire  in  the  contested  international  claims  arbi- 
tration growing  out  of  the  war  of  1812-15.  He  was  the 
principal  founder  of  the  Boston  Free  Library,  to  estidilish 
which  he  gave  .•j.lO.OOn.  on  the  condition  that  it  should  be 
"  perfectly  free  to  all.  with  no  other  restrictions  than  may  be 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  books."  Bates  Hall  in 
the  librarv  perpetuates  his  name.  He  afterward  contributed 
l)ooks  to  the  value  of  ^50.000.  D.  Sept.  24,  1864.  See 
Memorial  of  Joshua  Bates  (1865). 

Bates,  JosiiiA.  D.  D. :  h.  at  Coha.sset.  Mass.,  Mar.  20, 1776  ; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1800;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  Dedliam,  Mass..  in  180:!;  was  presi- 
dent of  .Midillel)ury  College,  Vt.  (1818-39);  was  for  a  time 
chanlamof  the  V.  S.  Senate ;  and  past(pr  in  Dudley.  Mas.s. 
(18*i-54).  He  publisheil  various  discourses,  .sermons,  and 
other  writings.     I),  in  Dudley.  Mass.,  Jan.  14,  1854. 

Bates.  Samiiu,  Pennimax,  LL.  D.  ;  b.  at  Mendon.  Mass., 
Jan.  29,  1S27:  graduateil  at  Brown  University  in  1851 :  prin- 
cipal of  .Meadville  Academy,  Pa.  (1852-57),"  where  he  did 
much  to  stimulate  the  cause  of  education.  In  1857  he  be- 
came superintendent  of  schools  in  Crawford  eo..  Pa. ;  in  18(i0 
ch'puty  State  superintendent:  in  1866  State  historian  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  has  publishi'd  various  works,  among 
which  are  a  nislurt/  of  Pennsi/lvania  Volunteers  (5  vols., 
1873);  Ilistorij  of  the  Colleges  of  Pennsi/lvania;  School 
Laws  of  Pennnglvania.  He  also  prepared  Armor's  Lives  of 
the  Governors  of  Pennsylvania  (1873) ;  Battle  of  Getti/shurg 
(1878);  Life  of  Gen.  0.  B.  A'nowles  (181S) ;  Battle  of'Chan- 
eelhrsville  (1882). 


Bales.  Wii.LiA.v.  D.  D. :  one  of  the  most  ornate  and  learned 
of  the  English  Xonconformist  writers;  was  b.  Xov.,  1625, 
and  d.  in  Hackney,  July  14,  1699.  lie  assisted  at  the 
Savoy  C'onference  for  reviewing  the  Liturgy.  Soon  after 
the  restoration  of  Charles  11.  he  wius  made  one  of  His  Maj- 
esty's chaplains,  and  but  for  his  Xonconformity  might  have 
become  a  bishop.  His  contemporaries  called  him  the  "sil- 
ver-tongued.'' In  1681  he  published  (anonymously)  Vitm 
Selectorum  Aliijuut  Viroruni.  His  nu)st  valuable  treatise 
is  The  Harmony  of  the  Divine  Attributes  in  the  Contri- 
vance and  Accomplishment  of  Man's  Redemption.  His  col- 
lected works  were  |)ublislied  in  17(X).  again  in  1723,  and 
again  in  1815,  the  last  time  by  Farmer,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

Batesville:  capital  of  Independence  co..  Ark.  (for  loca- 
tion of  countv.  sec  map  of  Arkansas,  ref.  2-E) ;  (m  railroad 
aiul  White  river;  90  miles  X.  X.  E.  of  Little  Hock.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Arkansas  College.  The  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  this  jioint,  and  part  of  the  year  for  200  miles 
above.  Batesville  has  woolen  manufactures,  flouring-mills. 
furniture-factory,  and  lumber-mills.  Pop.  (1880)  1,264 ;  (1890) 
2,150;  (1892)  town  census,  2,700.         Editor  of  "  Guard." 

Batesville :  town ;  Riplev  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  countv, 
sec  map  of  Indiana.  ref.8-(>):  on  C,  (".,  C.  and  St.  L.  R.  R'.; 
50  miles  W.  of  Cincinnati.  0. ;  has  a  graded  school  and  2 
parochial  schools.  7  furniture-factories,  and  a  candv-factorv. 
Pop.  (1«90)  1,169;  (1892)  estinuited.  2.000. 

EdHOR  of  •'  I.NUEI'EXDEXT  RECORD." 

Batflsll  (Malihe  vespertilio) :  a  fish  of  the  West  Indies 
and  Flori<la  waters,  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  shape.  Its 
pectoral  and  ventral  fins  resemble  the  legs  of  a  frog.  Its 
mouth  is  snudl,  and  its  skin  rough,  with  bony  tubercles.  It 
is  of  no  value. 

Bath:  the  application  of  water  or  other  liriuid,  or  of 
spray  or  vapor,  to  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  the 
surface  or  of  preserving  or  restoring  health.  Water  em- 
ployed in  the  bath  is  an  important  agent  in  the  treatment 
and  prevention  of  disease.  In  ancient  Greece,  Ronu>,  Ger- 
many, and  Judea.  in  Mohammedan  lands  (by  religious  pre- 
cept), as  in  modern  Finland  and  some  other  comilries,  bath- 
ing nuiy  be  regarded  as  almost  universal,  though  in  desert 
countries  the  Moslems  use  sand  instead  of  the  water  which  is 
there  so  precious.  Some  of  the  American  Indians,  though 
not  otherwise  remarkably  clean,  practiced  bathing  in  water  or 
steam  even  to  excess.  Surf-bat  lung  is  a  nearly  universal  pas- 
time on  many  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  ancient  Ronnuis 
had  extensive  public  baths — institutions  which  of  late  have 
been  revived  in  Eiu'ope  and  .Vnun'ica  on  a  smaller  scale,  but 
in  a  manner  not  liable  to  tlie  serious  abuses  which  disgraced 
the  Roman  baths.     Sec  Roman  ARcn.TJOLOoy. 

'J'he  "  hot"  bath  and  vapor  bath  are  above  99  F..  the  nor- 
mal heat  of  the  blood:  warm,  tepid,  ami  cold  baths  being  of 
lower  tem[ierature.  The  vapor  bath  of  water  or  alcohol 
accelerates  the  heart's  action,  softens  the  skin,  and  produces 
profuse  sweating,  and  is  useful  in  various  skin  diseases,  in 
chroni<'  rheumatism,  and  in  some  diseases  of  the  kidneys, 
etc.  The  hot  liath  is  also  .-itimulant.  Locally  applied,  it  re- 
lieves pain  and  allays  inflammation.  The  hot  bath  is  often 
employed  in  the  convulsive  <li.sea.ses  of  children,  but  its  effect 
may  be  a  ]irofound  one:  and  the  tepid  orwarm  bath  ismuch 
safer,  since  the  skin  of  a  child  is  extremely  sensitive  to  heat 
and  cold.  The  hot  bath  sometimes  causes  a  sense  as  of 
choking,  and  a  degree  of  giddiness  or  headache.  When  its 
action  is  favorable,  profuse  sweating  results,  and  on  this  ac- 
count it  is  sometimes  a  most  valuable  adjunct  in  the  treat- 
ment of  kidney  disease  when  the  excretion  of  urine  fails. 
The  warm  bath  is  a  sedative,  usually  inclining  one  to  inac- 
tivity or  sleep.  It  is  useful  in  feverish  or  restless  conditions 
and  in  eruptive  disea.ses.  but  is  not  to  be  reconunendcd  in 
acute  diseases  of  the  chest,  which  may  be  aggravated  by  it. 
The  cold  ami  tepid  baths  arc  those  most  generally  to  be  cm- 
ployed.  Cold  bathing  ought  never  to  be  praetiei'd  while  the 
person  is  exhausted  or  perspiring  freely  ;  and  there  are  many 
nervous,  thin,  and  sensitive  jiersons  who  can  not  safely  en- 
dure the  shock  and  loss  of  heat  which  it  occasions.  It  is  also 
dangerous  in  old  people,  in  whom  the  sudden  shock  with  re- 
vulsion of  the  blood  to  the  interior  frorn  contraction  of  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  skin  may  cause  rupture  of  fragile  vessels 
of  the  brain.  In  a  healthy  person  with  good  powers  of  re- 
action, and  followed  by  vigorous  friction,  there  is  jirobably 
no  greater  general  stimulant  to  healthy  nutrition,  no  better 
tonic  than  the  cold  bath.  In  disease  it  has  in  recent  years 
assumed  a  j)lace  of  most  positive  value,  and  especially  is  this 
true  of  typnoid  fever.     Its  general  tonic  influence,  its  effect 


J32 


15ATU 


BATON  ROUGE 


on  terapc^rature  and  on  Ww  nutritive  processes,  rob  this  dis- 
ease of  many  of  its  untoward  symptoms  and  of  much  of  its 
(hmsor.  Thy  mortality  from  tliis  disease  has  been  reduced 
from  15  to  20  per  cent,  to  5  per  cent.,  and  in  one  series  of 
over  a  thousand  cases  less  than  1  per  cent,  dieii.  The  ap- 
jiarent  cruelty  of  plunging  a  fevered  patient  in  a  cold  bath, 
and  the  involuntary  groaning  of  the  patient  while  being 
biitlied,  have  militated  against  the  acceptance  of  the  bath 
by  the  public  and  some  physicians ;  but  those  who  have 
compared  the  method  with  tlie  old  plan  of  treatment,  and 
statistics,  give  evidence  to  the  relief  of  bad  symptoms  and 
the  great  decrease  of  mortality  secured.  Ten  per  cent,  of 
all  cases  of  typhoid  fever  now  die  who  might  be  saved  could 
physicians  have  the  entire  co-operation  of  the  public  in  in- 
stituting this  plan  of  treatment  with  cold  baths.  Wliat  has 
been  said  of  typhoid  fever  applies  also  to  other  fevers,  not 
excepting  pneumonia.  In  cases  of  great  prostration  or 
other  conditions  rendering  cold  baths  imprsicticable,  cold 
sponging  or  the  "  cold  pack  "  may  be  employed.  The  "  cold 
pack"  is  given  by  wrapping  the  patient  in  wet  sheets,  and 
then  covering  him  with  a  bhmket. 

Ilip  baths,  foot  baths,  and  other  local  baths  are  occasion- 
ally required.  The  hot  foot  bath  especially  has  received 
[lopular  and  scientific  sanction  in  "  colds."  Various  sulphur 
and  other  springs  have  a  direct  effect  in  skin  diseases,  and 
useful  saline  and  other  principles  are  no  doubt  capable  of 
absorption  into  the  system  by  the  skin.  Various  drugs  arc 
used  in  vai)or  baths,  and  act  upon  the  patient  after  alj- 
sorption.  Sea-bathing  has  a  peculiar  tonic  effect  upon 
some  patients.  Hesides  the  above,  the  "Turkish"  and 
••  Russian  "  baths  have  been  devised,  which  combine  a  thor- 
ough and  direct  detergent  effect  upon  the  skin  with  tlie 
various  advantages  of  the  warm  and  tepid  bath,  adding 
thereto  the  often  invaluable  results  of  manipulation  or 
"  kneading  "  the  patient,  a  process  the  importance  of  which 
in  selected  cases  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  "  Wine 
baths,"  "  nuul  baths,"  and  other  devices  have  been  tried  in 
different  diseases,  often  with  more  or  less  benefit  to  the 
patient.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Bath  (anc.  Aqum  Solis) :  a  city  of  England ;  capital  of 
Somersetsliire ;  beautifully  situated  in  a  valley  on  the  river 
Avon  ;  30  miles  from  its  mouth  and  103  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W. 
of  London;  lat.  51°  33'  N.,  Ion.  3°  33'  W.  (.see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  13-G).  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  white  free- 
stone, "  Bath  oolite,"  quarried  in  the  vicinity.  Bath  pre- 
sents perhaps  a  finer  appearance  than  any  other  city  of 
England,  which  is  jiartly  a  consequence  of  the  configuration 
of  its  site.  This  is  in  tlie  form  of  an  amphitheater,  on  the 
declivity  of  which  the  finest  streets  extend  in  successive 
terraces.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  Abbey 
church,  in  the  latest  Gothic  style,  310  feet  long;  St.  Mi- 
chael's church,  the  guild-hall,  an  elegant  theater,  a  masonic 
tem|ile.  and  the  assembly  and  concert  rooms.  The  beauty 
of  the  situation,  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  and  the  cura- 
tive elficacy  of  its  hot  saline  springs  render  Bath  a  fashion- 
able place  of  resort.  The  tem|")erature  of  the  springs,  four  in 
number,  varies  from  97°  to  117°  F.  They  rise  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  and  discharge  184.330  gal.  daily.  This  water  is 
recommended  for  scrofula,  palsy,  gout,  cutaneous  diseases,  etc. 
This  city  sends  two  members  to  Parliament.  The  Romans 
erected  baths  at  this  place  in  the  first  century,  and  called  it 
Aqam  Solis.  Numerous  Roman  antiquities  have  been  found 
in  and  near  Bath.     Pop.  (1801)  51,843. 

Bath :  city  and  railroad  center;  capital  of  Sagad.ahoe  co., 
Me.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  10-t') ;  on 
the  riglit  (west)  Ijank  of  the  Kennel lec  river;  13  miles  from  the 
ocean,  30  miles  .S.  of  Augusta,  and  36  miles  N.  E.  of  Port- 
land. It  is  built  on  uneven  ground,  is  lighted  with  gas  and 
electricity,  is  advantageously  situated  for  navigation,  and 
has  steamboat  communication  with  Boston  and  Poitland. 
The  principal  business  of  Bath  is  ship-building,  and  a  large 
iron  ship-building  jilant  has  been  estaltlished  and  has  re- 
ceived several  (iovi'i'innent  contracts.  There  are  also  many 
extensive  manuractnries  of  lumber,  a  large  one  of  oil-cloth, 
a  lar^e  iron-loumlry,  l)rass-foun<iry,  cordage-factory,  and 
machine  and  boiler  shops.  Bath  has  long  been  noted  for 
the  excellence  of  its  .schools,  and  has  a  fine  svstem  of  water- 
works.    Pop.  (1890)  8,733.  EniToii  of  ■'  Times." 

Bath  :  railroail  junction  and  capital  of  Steuben  co.,  N.  Y. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  ma|)  of  New  York,  ret.  6-Fi) ;  on 
the  Cohoclon  creek,  and  the  main  line  of  the  D.,  L.  and  W. 
H.  R.,  on  the  Rochester  branch  of  the  N.  Y.,  L.  E.  and  W. 
R.  R.;  99  miles  K.  of  Buffalo,  74  miles  S.S.E.of  Rochester, 


36  miles  W.  of  Elmira,  and  310  miles  from  New  York.  It 
has  a  jail  and  court-house,  six  churches,  a  free  library  and 
reading-room,  a  soldiers'  home,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  shoe, 
sash,  lilind,  door,  harness,  and  other  factories.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,18:i ;  (1890)  3,361.         Editor  of  "  Farmers'  Advocate." 

Bath  Brick  :  See  Bristol  Brick. 

Batll,  Knights  of  the  :  a  military  order  in  Great  Britain 
deriving  its  name  from  the  ceremony  of  bathing  which  was 
performed  at  the  initiation  of  the  knights.  The  earliest 
authentic  instance  of  this  ceremony  was  at  the  coronation  of 
Ilenry  IV.  (1399).  Tl;e  last  occasion  on  which  this  cere- 
mony was  u.sed  was  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.  in  1660, 
after  which  the  order  fell  into  oblivion  until  it  was  revived 
by  George  I.  in  1735.  It  is  second  in  rank  among  the  orders 
of  England,  the  order  of  the  Garter  being  first. 

Batlioin'eter  [from  Gr.  /3d9os,  depth  +  /ierpoi/,  measure] : 
any  apparatus  for  the  measurement  of  depths  of  water.  In 
many  cases  it  consists  of  a  very  elaborate  system  of  sound- 
ing machinery  and  apparatus,  and  depths  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  of  4,655  fathoms  and  over  have  been  determined  by 
such  instruments  with  what  is  thought  to  be  very  consider- 
able precision.  The  depth  is  indicated  in  some  cases  by  the 
compression  of  a  mass  of  air  within  a  clo.sed  chamber, 
reached  only  by  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  water 
through  a  narrow  passage  filled  with  oil,  mercury,  or  water ; 
in  other  instances  by  the  use  of  other  equivalent  devices. 
The  pressure-gauge  thus  made  is  sunk  to  the  bottom  by  a 
souudiug-line,  and  is  again  brought  to  the  surface  either  by 
the  line  by  which  it  is  let  down  or  it  is  detached  at  the  bot- 
tom by  contact  with  the  earth  and  floats  to  the  surface  by 
its  own  levity.  For  considerable  depths  the  sounding-line 
is  of  fine  steel  wire,  and  a  steam-engine  is  employed  to 
drive  the  windlass  by  means  of  which  it  is  lowered  and 
raised.     See  Deep-sea  Exploration. 

Bathori,  baa'to-ree  :  name  of  a  noble  family  of  Ilungary. 
• — Elizabeth,  wife  of  Count  Nadasdy,  is  infamous  on  ac- 
count of  her  cruelty.  She  was  shown  to  have  murdered 
no  less  than  650  maidens  for  the  purjmse  of  renewing  her 
youth  from  time  to  time  by  bathing  in  their  warm  blood. 
She  w.as  condemned  in  1610"  to  imprisonment  for  life,  and 
shut  up  in  her  fortress  of  Csej,  where  slie  died  1614.  See 
Baring-Gould's  Book  of  Wereivolves  (1865). 

Bath'iirst :  a  thriving  town  of  New  South  Wales ;  capital 
of  Bathurst  County;  on  the  Macquarie  river;  98  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Sydney  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  7-1).  It  is 
connected  with  Sydney  by  a  fine  road  leading  over  the 
mountains.  It  is  in  a  mining  as  well  as  a  [lastoral  district 
of  New  South  Wales.  j\lr.  llargreaves,  a  California  digger, 
first  discovered  gold  on  Bathurst  PlaiiLS,  Feb.  13,  1851.  The 
diocese  includes  130,000  sq.  miles  of  New  South  Wales.  Pop. 
(1891)  9.069. 

Baths:  See  Thermos. 

Bathurst :  a  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Gloucester  co.,  New 
Brunswick;  on  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs ;  175  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
St.  John  ;  has  a  good  harbor  and  an  extensive  trade  in  lum- 
lier,  trout,  and  salmon.     Pop.  3,000. 

Bathyh'ins  [mod.  from  Gr.  $aBis,  deep  +  ;8/os,  life]:  a 
name  gi\en  by  Huxley  to  a  granular  gelatinous  substance  of 
supposed  alliuminous  or  protoplasmic  nature,  which  is  be- 
lieved to  cover  large  areas  of  the  ocean's  bed,  and  to  repre- 
sent a  very  low  form  of  animal  life.  Its  existence  is  now 
generally  denied. 

Baton  Rouge,  biitun-roojh:  capital  of  Louisiana  and  of 
the  parish  of  East  Baton  Rouge  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Louisiana,  ref.  10-E);  on  the  left  (east)  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  130  miles  above  New  Orleans  by  river  (89  by 
rail  and  73  as  the  crow  flics):  on  the  Louisville,  New  Or- 
leans and  Texas  and  the  Texas  and  P.icilic  K.  Ks. ;  lat.  30° 
38'  N.,  Ion.  91°  11'  W.  It  stands  on  a  blutf  which  rises 
about  35  feet  above  the  highest  inundations.  The  river  be- 
low the  city  is  bordered  by  plantations  of  sugar-cane,  groves 
ol^  tro[)ical  fruit-trees,  and  handsome  villas  and  gardens. 
The  seat  of  government  was  established  here  in  1847.  The 
Capitol  was  completed  in  1853  at  a  cost  of  .f346,()00.  It 
contains  a  State-house,  which  was  burned  by  Federal  troops 
during  the  (.'ivil  war,  but  rebuilt  in  1883  and  now  occupied 
by  the  officers  of  the  State  government,  a  Stale  university, 
a' collegiate  institute,  a  seminary  for  young  ladies,  public 
and  private  schools,  an  institute  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  a 
school  and  industrial  liome  for  the  bliml.  two  orphans' 
homes,  a  Catliolic  academy  for  young  ladies,  and  a  peni- 
tentiary, in  which  are  about  800  convicts.     A  convention, 


BATOO   KUAN 


BATTERY 


533 


which  met  here  Jan.  21.  ISfil,  on  the  26lh  ailojitetl  the  onli- 
imncp  of  secession.  The  ell y  was  taken  by  ttie  U.  S.  forces 
May  7,  1S62.  On  Ang.  5.  IHCi,  a  ('ont'(<lerate  force,  niunber- 
ing  n.OOO,  under  (ten.  .lohu  V.  HrcckeMrid^e,  attacked  the 
garrison  under  (ien.  Tlionias  Williams,  but  was  repulsed 
after  a  fierce  contest  of  two  hours'  duration,  in  which  lien. 
Williams  was  killed.  The  place  was  shortly  after  evacuated 
bv  the  Union  forces,  but  about  a  month  afterward  was  re- 
occupied,  and  held  by  Federal  troops  to  the  do.sc  of  the 
war.  The  arsenal  has  been  broken  up.  For  several  years 
from  the  close  of  the  civil  war  New  Orleans  was  the  seat  of 
the  State  government.  Pop.  (1870)  (U'JB;  (IS.'^O)  7,197; 
(IXiiO)  10,47H.  Editor  "Cai'IToi.ia.n-Advocatk." 

Bntno  Khan  :  See  Batu. 

liatnom.  or  Batoiim  :  See  Bati;m. 

liatra'ehin  [from  Or.  0dTpaxos.  frog]:  one  of  the  classes 
of  vertebrati^  animals,  incluiling  salamanders,  frogs,  toads, 


Hatching  and  progress  of  the  frog  (from  1  to  10). 


etc.  Used  in  this  sense,  the  name  is  synonymous  with  Am- 
phibia (q.  v.).  Batraeliians  are  cold-blooded  and  oviparous, 
and  in  most  living  species  are  without  scales,  and  the  blood 
is  partly  ai^rated  through  the  skin.  The  young,  for  the  most 
part,  l)reathe  by  gills  like  those  of  fishes.  They  generally 
nave  limlis,  but  not  always.  The  young  assume  a  fish-like 
form  (as  llie  tadpole),  and  finally,  when  adult,  with  few  ex- 
ce])tions,  lose  their  gills  and  commence  breathing  by  lungs. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Katraeliido; :  See  Toad-fish. 

Bat'nielioniyonnrchia  [from  Or.  ;8aTpaxor.  frog  +  fiOs. 
mouse  +  fiaxi.  Iiallle|:  the  nauu>  of  a  mock-heroic  poem, 
tlie  subject  of  which  was  llie  battles  of  the  frogs  and  mice. 

Battaks,  called  also  Rnttas:  a  native  race  in  the  interior 
of  Northern  Sunnitra.  They  are  oidy  partly  subjugated  by 
the  Dutch,  an  in<lependent  territory  still  remaining  Ijetween 
the  parallels  3^  X.  and  4°  N'.  They  claim  to  be  the  aliorigine-;, 
arc  brave  but  peaceful,  and  numlier  in  all  aliovit  8()().0()0. 
They  are  cainiibals,  but  those  under  the  Dutch  are  easily 
dissuaded  from  this  practice.  They  have  little  knowledge 
of  the  arts,  but  can  usually  read  aiul  write  and  have  a  lit- 
eralurc.  The  books  are  written  on  bark  or  baml)oo  staves, 
are  generally  in  pro.se,  and  relate  l<i  witchcraft  and  incanta- 
I  ions,  or  consist  of  stories,  riddles,  etc.  The  languag(!  is 
poor  in  general  terms  l)ut  very  rich  in  inflections,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  most  nearlv  rclatecl  to  the  old  Javanese 
or  t.)  the  JIalay.  '  M.  W.  H. 

Battal'ioii  (Fr.  I)(i/iiil/i»i):  a  tactical  unit  of  infantry;  a 
body  of  infantry  amounting  to  nearly  l,0()t)  nu>n.  In  the 
-Vmerican  cavidry  and  artillery  service  eight  (in  infantry 
ten)  companies  constitute  a  battalion.  The  full  complement 
of  a  battalion  of  British  troops  is  usually  ten  companies. 
The  British  infantry  regin\ents  in  lime  of  peace  have  each 
one  battalion,  but  the  regirniMit  of  the  continental  powers  is 
mostly  so  large  as  to  comprise  several  biilttdions.  In  the 
V.  S.  army  an  infantry  regiuuMil  has  one  battalion,  whili' 
regiments  in  the  other  arms  of  the  service  have  two.     A  de- 


tachment of  infantry  of  ?nore  than  one  company,  and  less 
than  one  regiment,  is  sometimes  called  a  battiilion. 

Bat'tcl  [orthographical  variant  of  liat/lf]:  an  ancient 
mode  of  trial  by  single  condiat,  usually  called  "wager  of 
battle."  It  had  its  origin  among  the  Gern\an  tribes,  and 
was  introduced  into  England  by  William  the  t'ompieror  at 
the  time  of  the  Xorman  ('on(iuest.  It  was  used,  however,  in 
only  three  cases — in  the  court  of  chivalry,  in  appeals  of 
Felony,  and  in  the  issue  joined  in  a  writ  of  right  to  deter- 
mine the  title  to  real  property.  In  criminal  cases  the  ac- 
cuser and  the  accu.sed  fought  in  person ;  in  civil  ca.ses,  by 
cham]iions.  The  lea<ling  reason  for  requiring  a  champion 
in  civil  ca.ses  was  that  if  the  piu'ties  should  engage  in  com- 
bat, and  one  of  them  slioidil  lie  killed,  the  proceeding  would 
terminate  by  his  death,  and  the  object  of  the  contest  would 
be  frustrated.  This  barbarous  mode  of  trial,  which  was 
based  on  the  idea  that  heaven  would  give  the  victory  to  the 
injured  or  innocent  party,  though  for  a  long  time  |iractically 
disused,  continued  to  be  recognized  as  \mr\.  of  the  law  of 
England  till  the  year  1819,  when  it  was  abolished  by  statute. 
The  details  of  the  method  of  proceeding  in  the  case  of  a 
writ  of  right  will  be  found  in  the  third  book  of  lilackst(me"s 
Commentaries,  p.  337. 

Bnttt'i'iiig-rani  (in  Ijiit.  (iriea):  an  engine  of  war  used 
by  tlir  aucirul  (iii-cks  and  Konums  to  nud<e  a  breach  in  the 
wall  of  a  town  or  fortress.  It  consisted  of  a  heavy  beam  of 
wood  nearly  100  feel  long,  one  end  of  which  was  anned 
with  a  mass'  of  iron  or  lironze  in  the  form  of  a  I'am's  head. 
It  was  suspended  by  a  chain  or  rope  from  a  crane  or  trivet, 
and  was  made  to  swing  backward  and  forward  in  a  direction 
nearly  horizontal.  Sometinuis  a  huge  mass  of  stone,  armed 
with  a  ram's  head  and  placed  on  wheels,  was  driven  against 
the  walls  with  great  rorc<\  ,\bout  100  nu'U  were  employed 
in  inipi'lling  it  against  the  wall.  To  protect  these  men  a 
woollen  roof  {tishiilii)  was  constructed,  and  the  whole  nni- 
chine  was  mounted  on  wheels.  The  blows  of  the  ram  were 
directc^d  against  the  same  point  with  gradually  increasing 
momentum,  which,  if  continued  long,  hardly  any  wall 
could  resist.  These  engines  continued  to  be  used  in  the 
Midillr  Altcs  until  superseded  by  cannon. 

Biit'tershiill.  Jksse  Pahk.  Ph.  D. :  b.  in  Troy,  X.  Y.,  Jlay 
'.20,  ly.")!  :  began  his  chemical  education  I8()7  at  School  of 
Mines,  Columliia  College,  Xi'W  York;  studied  under  Prof. 
Wc'ihler  at  the  University  of  (iiitlingen,  (iennany,  for  a  year, 
passed  a  seniesler  at  the  University  of  Leipzig  with  Prof. 
Kollie;  spent  two  years  under  I'rof.  Kittig  at  the  University 
of  Tiiliingen.  WiiricMuberg,  where  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  natural  sciences;  his  inaugural  dissertation  is  a 
description  of  several  new  derivatives  of  naphthalene,  in- 
cluding the  aldehyde  of  isonaiihthoio  acid  (('hUbO),  its 
anudo-coni pound,  hydroisonaphtliamide  (t'aalUiXj).  sul]iho- 
naplilhoic  and  isosulphonaphtlioic  acids({',,lI.j(lsS)and  salts, 
and  several  isomeric  o.Kynaphthoic  acids  (('nlUOs).  .\fter 
attending  the  chemical  course  of  Prof.  Marignac  in  Geneva 
he  returned  to  the  U.  S.,  where  he  was  engaged  jus  anahlic 
ami  consulting  chemist;  an  English  translation  by  him  of 
Xaquet's  Legal  C/iemistn/  has  been  published.  I).  Jan.  Vi, 
1891. 

Batl«rson,  IIkkmon  Griswoi.d.  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Marbledaie. 
Conn.,  May  '28,  1827;  ordaiiu'il  18('>1  :  has  held  charges  in 
Texas,  Minnesota,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York;  jmblislied 
T/ie  Mixxionarti  Tuiie-hmh  (18(57:  lOth  ed.  1870);  Tlie 
C/iurc/iman'a  J/i/mn-lmok-  (1870):  Sketrli-himk  of  the  Amer- 
iran  J'Spixrnpate  {\S1S;  'M  ed..  enlarged,  1891) ;  Christman 
Carol.1,  and  other  Verses  (1878);  The  Pathway  of  Faith 
(188r) ;  2il  ed.  1880). 

Battory  [Er.  tiatterie:  from  liattre.  beat,  from  L.  batu'ere, 
beat]:  a  military  term  used  in  various  senses.  A  battery 
employed  in  the  defense  of  a  fortress  is  a  row  of  heavy 
guns  moinited  on  an  eart  hwork  or  other  plat  form  ;  any  one 
of  the  lines  of  a  fortress  which  is  armed  with  siege-guns. 
If  they  have  a  bomb-proof  cover,  tlu'y  are  casemated  bat- 
teries.' A  battery  used  in  attacking  a  fortifieil  place  is  a 
nundier  of  siege-guns  or  mortars  placed  in  a  line  and  cov- 
ered with  a  parapet.  These  batteries  receive  various  luimes, 
expressing  their  design,  position,  etc.  In  field  operations  n 
battery  is  a  number  of  guns,  with  the  necessary  horses,  gun- 
carriages,  arlillerynu'ii,  and  odicers  to  manage  the  guns. 
The  Austrians  and  Italians  have  eight  pieces  to  a  battery, 
and  .so  likewise  do  the  llu.ssians,  except  for  their  hoi-se-bat- 
teries,  in  which  six  are  used.  All  other  natiims  have  six  pieces 
lo  a  batterv.     In  refi'rence  to  the  weight  of  the  ordnance, 


534 


BATTERY 


BATUM 


tlier  are  divided  iiilci  /imri/  hiitti'ries  and  liyht  batteries. 
The  term  battery  is  also  applied  in  a  narrower  sense  to  the 
persoimel  or  complement  of  men  and  ollieers  who  serve  a 

set  of  t,'iins. 

Battery,  in  law :  See  Assault  and  Battery. 

Battery,  Voltaic  or  Galvanic  :  a  device  for  the  genera- 
tion of  the  electric  cnrrent  by  chemical  action.  The  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  voltaic  cell  are:  (1)  A  litjuid  capable  of 
electrolytic  conduction:  (2)  two  metal  terminals,  submerged 
in  the  liquid  and  not  in  contact  with  each  other  below  the 
surface.  One  of  the  metals  must  be  acted  upon  chemically 
by  the  liquid. 

Under  these  conditions  there  will  lie  a  difference  of  poten- 
tial between  the  metals,  and  when  they  are  connected  with 
each  other  a  current  will  flow  through  the  circuit  thus 
formed.  In  spite  of  this  flow  of  electricity,  the  difference  of 
potential  between  the  terminals  of  the  cell  will  be  maintained 
by  the  cliemical  action  going  cm  within  the  cell,  the  activity 
of  which  will  continue  until  the  materials  are  exhausted. 

A  typical  case  is  that  of  zinc  and  copjier  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  When  tlie  external  circuit  of  a  cell  of  which 
these  are  the  acti\'e  parts  is  closed,  the  following  reactions 
occur : 

Zn  4-  HjSO,  -I-  Cu  =  ZnSO,  -I-  3H  -I-  Cu. 

The  zinc  is  thus  converted  into  zinc  sulphate,  and  liydro- 
gen  is  set  free  at  the  copper  pole.  The  result  of  this  reaction 
is  to  give  the  copper  a  positive  charge,  with  respect  to  the 
zinc,  and  to  send  a  current  through  the  outside  circuit  from 
copper  to  zinc.  This  is  the  simplest  of  voltaic  cell  reactions. 
In  practice  it  is  necessary  to  modify  it.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  zinc  must  he  protected  from  attack  during  such  times 
as  the  cell  is  resting.  This  is  done  by  amalgamating  it.  t)n 
the  other  hand,  the  presence  of  free  hydrogen  at  the  copper 
pole  creates  a  counter  electro-motive  force,  which  soon  over- 
comes the  proper  voltaic  action.  To  prevent  this  "  polari- 
zation of  the  cell"  some  substance  rich  in  oxygen  and  capa- 
ble of  giving  up  its  oxygen  to  the  nascent  hydrogen  is 
introduced.  Nitric  and  chromic  aciils  are  excellent;  "de- 
polarizers." Dioxide  of  manganese  and  tlie  black  oxide  of 
copper  are  also  used.  The  depolarizer  is  frec|uently  jilaced 
in  a  porous  cup,  with  the  positive  terminal  of  the  cell  sur- 
rounded by  it  or  submerged  in  it.  Platiniun  or  carljon  is 
substituted  for  copper  wlienever  the  latter  metal  is  liable  to 
be  attacked  l>y  the  ilepolarizer.  The  number  of  combinations 
in  use  for  the  produclion  of  voltaic  electricity  are  too  nu- 
merous to  lie  mentioned  in  detail  here. 

Voltaic  cells  are  divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  Open- 
circuit  cells,  which  are  designed  to  furnish  a  current  for 
a  moment  only  at  a  time,  as  in  ringing  electric  bells,  etc.. 
but  which  should  remain  in  working  condition  for  a  long 
time  without  attention  or  replenishing;  (2)  closed  circuit 
cells,  whicli  are  intended  to  rurnisli  a  current  continuously 
for  long  intervals  of  tinu> :  ('i)  standard  cells,  which  are  not 
constructed  for  the  generation  of  ajipreciable  currents,  but 
are  used  as  standards  of  electro-motive  force.  Accunudators 
or  storage  batteries  are  "secondary"  voltaic  batteries,  in 
which  the  chemical  conditions  nec(^ssary  to  the  production 
of  curn'ut.  have  been  olitained  by  previous  electrolytic  action 
within  the  cell  itself.     See  Accumulator. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  term  battery  should  not  lie  applied 
to  a  single  voltaic  cell,  but  to  a  immlier  of  such  cells  used 
in  comliination.  See  Electku'ity  .nuil  Kli;ctr()LYsis  ;  also 
Carhart,  Primary  Batterien  (Boston,  1891). 

E.  L.  NionoLs. 

Bat'tey.  HoBtiitT,  M.  D. :  b.  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  Nov.  26, 
1828;  tdok  his  degr(!e  in  medicine  at  the  .Ii^fferson  Medical 
College;  practiced  his  profession  in  Rome,  Ga.,  and  by  his 
contributions  to  the  journals  (oiui  t<i  the  London  Lancet  on 
vesico-vaginal  fistula)  .soon  acqiiireil  ri'iiutation;  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  (Jlistetrics  in  the  Atlanta  Medical  College; 
claimed  to  have  first  performed  .strict  ovariotomy  or  ofipho- 
rectomy  (1M72).  an  ojieration  confined  to  ovarian  tissue.  I). 
at  Rome,  (ia.,  Nov.  8,  1895. 

Battliyiiiiyi.  liaat'vaan-vee,  Louis.  Count :  a  Hungarian 
Iiatriot;  li.  at  Presburg  in  1806.  He  favored  the  lilieral 
cause,  and  was  ajipointed  president  of  the  ministry  formed 
in  JIar..  1848.  Finding  his  position  untenable.  he"resigned 
about  six  months  later.  After  his  friends  had  been  defeated 
in  battle  )iy  the  Austrians,  he  was  tried  by  a  court  martial, 
and.  though  his  conduct  had  been  moderate,  he  was  shot 
<  )ct.  6. 1  H4!l.  See  Ilorvath,  Louin  Batihydnyi.  eiii  poUtischer 
Mnrtyrvr(\mi)). 


Battle :  .See  Tactics. 

Battle  :  a  town  of  Sussex.  England  :  about  7  miles  N.  W. 
of  Hastings  (see  map  of  Englaml,  ref.  13-K);  in  a  valley  in- 
closed on  three  sides  by  wooded  hills.  It  is  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  Pop.  3,.500.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  great  battle  (usually  called  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  and  sometimes  the  battle  of  Senlac)  which  was 
fought  near  it  on  Oct.  14,  1066.  between  William  the  Con- 
queror and  the  Saxon  King  Harold.  The  victorioiis  Norman 
erected  here  a  large  abbey,  called  B.-ittle  Abbey,  now  in 
ruins. 

Battle-axe:  weapon  used  in  warfare  fi-om  the  earliest 
times,  but  not  by  all  peoples  or  at  all  epochs.  The  early 
Greeks  used  a  double-axe  (Ijipennis),  which  they  seem  to 
have  borrowed  from  the  Asiatics.  Among  the  northern 
nations  of  Eurojie  the  single-bladed  axe  was  used  from  the 
earliest  times ;  this  was  at  fii'st  made  with  a  stone  head,  then 
with  one  of  bronze,  and  finally  witli  a  head  of  iron  or  steel; 
the  weapon  being,  in  tact,  merely  the  utensil  modified.  The 
Ijattle-axe  as  used  by  foot-soldiers  had  naturally  a  long 
handle  of  wood,  and  was  called  pole-axe  ;  that  used  by  horse- 
men, requiring  to  be  swayed  by  one  hand  alone,  was,  later, 
shorter  and  sometimes  made  entirely  of  metal. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Battle  Creek :  city  and  i-ailroad  center ;  Calhoun  co., 
Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  ma]i  of  Michigan,  ref. 
8-1);  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kalamazoo  and  Battle  Creek 
rivers,  120  miles  W.  of  Detroit.  It  contains  Battle  Creek 
College,  controlled  by  the  Seventh-day  Advcntists,  whose 
headquarters  are  here.  It  has  also  a  large  sanitarium,  and 
its  manufactures  are  extensive,  especially  in  threshing-ma- 
chines and  farm  implements.  It  has  good  water-power  and 
several  flouring-mills,  etc.  Pop.  (1880)  7,068;  (1890)  13.197; 
(1894)  15.222.  EuiTOR  of  "  Daily  Moo.n." 

BattletUmr.  or  Battledore  [probably  from  Sp.  hatidor, 
an  instrument  of  the  same  shajie  used  in  beating  clothes  in 
washing]:  an  instrument  with  a  handle  and  a  flat  board,  or 
piece  of  leather  or  network  stretched  tightly  on  a  frame, 
and  used  to  strike  a  ball  or  shuttlecock.  Battledoor  and 
shuttlecock,  played  with  the  above  instrument,  has  been  a 
favorite  amusement  in  Eurojie  since  the  fourteenth  century 
or  earlier. 

Battlelbrd :  important  trading-post  in  Saskatchewan, 
Northwest  Territories  of  Canada;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Battle  river  with  the  Saskatchewan:  70  miles  N.  of .  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (see  map  of  Canada,  ref.  8-F) ; 
1876-83.  capital  Northwest  Territory.  The  insurrection  of 
1885.  headed  by  Louis  Riel,  who  was  executed  for  his  part 
in  it,  occurred  near  Battleford. 

Battle-ground:  on  railroad.  Tippecanoe  co.,  Ind.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  ma|i  of  Indiana,  ref.  o-C);  where  the 
celebrated  battle  of  Tii.ipecanoe  was  fought  between  Gen. 
Hairison  and  the  Indians  under  Tecumseh  and  his  brother, 
the."  Projihet,"  Nov.  7,  1811. 

Batn  (Baton  or  Batoo)  Klian.  lia'a-too'kaan :  nephew 
of  ( >gdai  Khan  and  grandson  of  Gengis  Khan  :  a  Mongolian 
chief  and  governor  in  Kipchak.  He  was  put  in  command, 
1235.  of  the  Mongol  army  ordered  to  advance  into  Europe. 
Crossing  the  Volga  river,  he  a]ii)eared  liefore  Riazan,  took  it 
by  assault,  Dec.  2 1.  ls:!7.  and  sacked  it  with  sav.age  slaughter; 
then  he  laid  waste  JIoscow:  at  Kozelsk,  near  Kaluga,  he 
held  a  "  carnival  of  death  "  ;  razed  Kiell  to  the  ground.  He 
now  led  his  troo]is  into  Hungary  as  far  as  Pesth  and  Gran, 
inflicting  a  terrilile  defeat  on  the  Hungarians  near  Tokay, 
Dec,  1241.  Here  he  was  recalled  by  the  death  of  his  uncle 
into  Jlongolia.  lie  w,-is  rewaivled  with  the  government  of 
the  vast  ]ilains  fi'om  the  Cai'patlii,-m  Mountains  to  Balkash 
Lake.  He  establislied  his  headi|uartei's  on  tlie  Volga,  and 
from  his  embroidered  and  gilded  tent  arose  the  Golden 
Horde.     D.  in  1255. 

Bat'tne  [Fr.  fcmin.  of  partic.  of  hattre ;  used  subst.,  a 
bciiting]:  a  mode  of  hunting  wild  animals  or  killing  game 
on  a  large  scale.  A  number  of  men,  arranged  at  equal  dis- 
tances, liy  beating  the  bushes  drive  the  animals  toward  a 
stationary  party  of  hunters,  who  are  waiting  to  shoot  them. 
Sometimes  the  array  of  beaters  is  circular,  and  they  drive 
the  game  from  dilTerent  (larts  of  a  large  tract  of  forest  to  a 
common  center.  Battues  in  (ireat  Ih-itaiu  are  chiefly  prac- 
ticed in  extensive  jirescrves  of  pheasants,  raliliits.  and  hares. 

Batnni.  baVtoom'.  or  Batonni :  im|)ortant  seaport  on 
the  southeast  coast   of  the  Black  Sea  ;  110  miles  N.  E.  of 


BACDELAIKE 


15Ar(iHKH 


535 


Trebizond,  4  miles  N.  of  tlie  mouth  of  the  Tehoruk  river 
see  map  of  Kussia.  rcf.  li-E).  It  formerlv  li('loiii;c(l  to 
Asiiitic  Turkey,  hut  by  the  treatv  ol'  I5,rliii.  .July  1:!.  lH78.it 
liccaine  a  Uvr  Kiissian  port.  U  was  t-ln.-ied  by  Russia  iu 
18H6.  It  has  (■i>nsi<lcral)k'  traili'  and  the  best  harbor  on  the 
east  eoast  of  the  Mlack  Sea.  Ininieiise  quantities  of  Russian 
petroleum  are  exported.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to 
the  Caspian,  and  is  provided  with  enormous  storaj^e  aceom- 
niudatii.ns  fur  the  oil.     I'op.  about  25,000. 

Biiiiilclaire.  bmllar,  Charles  Pierkk:  French  poet:  b. 
in  Paris.  Apr.  !),  1H21.  In  IK.'iT  his  volume  of  poems  I'/eiir.s 
•  III  Mill  raused  a  eonimotion  by  its  entire  disregard  of  moral 
distinctions  and  its  extreme  frankness  of  style.  In  the  .sec- 
ond edilion  (18(11)  seviM'al  po<!nis  had  to  be  suppressed. 
Other  ]iri)ductions  were  T/ii'up/ii/i'  (raiitii'r(\SoO):  Lrxpani- 
dix  arlHiriils,  opium  ef  haxrfiich  (1800):  liirliaiil  \\  iii/tier 
fl  TaHH/i/n/.sc;- (1861),  etc.  His  translation  of  the  works  of 
Edgar  Allan  Poe  into  French  (:^  t..  18.J6-.")8)  introduced  this 
.\merican  authnr  to  his  now  numerous  circle  of  French  ad- 
ndrers.  lli'  is  at  his  lu'st  iu  PelitK  Pnhiwx  eii,  /-"/asp.  while 
his  fj'Art  mmaiilii/iie  is  a  collection  of  essays  in  subtle-  and 
niffiii^  criticism.  Since  Baudelaire's  death,  his  Si/iirynirti 
('orrfx/jiiiiiliiiiceit,  e/r.  (1872),  and  his  CKiims  cumplPti's  (4  t., 
1860)  have  appeared.  He  is  still  worshiped  by  the  so-called 
naturalist  anil  decadent  schools  of  French  writei-s.  I),  in 
I'aris.  Aug.  :il.  1867.  See  t'h.  Asselineau.  ('/hiiIi:i  Bciude- 
tain-.  sii  rir  ft  mm  wuvre,  Paris,  186'J.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Biliulcloc-qiie.  bod'lok'.  .Ieax  Loi-ts:  a  skillful  French 
surgeon;  b.  in  lleilly.  Picardy.  in  1746.  lie  was  selected 
by  Na|)oleon  to  attend  the  Empress  Marie  Louise  a.s  tirst 
accoucheur.  He  wrote  an  aljle  work  on  the  Art  des  Ac- 
euucliemeitla  (2  vols.,  1781).     D.  in  Paris.  May  1,  1810. 

Rniidissin.  Iiow'dis-sin.  Woi.k  Heinrich  Frikdricii 
Karl.  Count  :  (ierman  author:  b.  in  lianl/au.  .Ian.  :>0, 
17.'^!l.  He  translali'd.  together  with  Tieck,  a  nimdier  of 
Sliaks|ieare"s  works.  Under  the  title  of  /iin  .Joiixiin  niid 
nriiii'  Scliule,  (2  vols..  18:16)  he  published  translations  of  the 
works  of  other  English  authors.  He  also  made  translations 
of  Moliere's  comeilies  (18H.5-67).  D.  in  Dresden,  Apr.  4, 
1878. 

Baiidissiii.  Woi.k  Wii.helm  Friedrich,  Graf  von:  Ger- 
man theulogian  :  li.  in  Sophii'nhof.  Holstein,  Sept.  26,  1847: 
studied  at  lOrlangen.  Kcrlin.  l,ei|izig.  and  Kiel:  became 
iirofessDr  extraordinary  in  Ilie  theological  faculty  at  Strass- 
tiurg  1876:  onlinary  1880;  at  Marburg  1881  :  known  chielly 
by  his  Sfiidii'ii  ziir  semitischen  Heligii>iiiijcxrliivliti'{\A-'mzi'^, 
2  vols..  1876-78):  ixniXDie  (ie-schirlile  di-s  AZ/ffx/iinii'iitlir/ii'ii 
J'rien/i'rhims  iintirsueht  (1889).  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Bniidrillart.  Imdn^^Vanr'.  Henri  Joseph  Leo.n  :  French 
political  econiimisi  ;  b.  in  Paris.  Nov.  28,  1821  :  liecame  pro- 
fessor in  College  de  France  18o2  :  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Political  Economv  1866:  i-iWym  -lunnKd  dca  Ei-iiiKiinislis 
lH.")-!r2  ;  <1.  .Ian.  24, '1802.  Author  (in  French)  of  I'hUosophij 
iif  I'lilllirid  l-'i-Diioniji  (2d  ed.  188:!) :  llixlnnj  of  I'rimti-  tiiid. 
/'»////>  //i/.ci(;-i/ (1878-80):  '/'//('  Ai/n'rid/iinil  I'opiiliilliin  iif 
/•'™/»Y- (1X80-88). 

Baudry.  bodree  ,  Pail  .lArtjiEs  Aime:  b.  at  La  Iviche- 
sur-Yoii.  France,  Nov.  7,  1828:  d.  in  Paris.  Jan.  17,  18.86: 
one  of  the  great  artists  of  the  modern  French  school :  pnjiil 
of  Drolling:  Grand  Prix  de  Bome  18.j0:  tirst-class  medal. 
Salon  18.')7:  coinm.nnder  of  Legion  of  Honor  187."):  medal 
of  Imnor,  Salon  1881;  mendier  of  the  Institute  1870.  Han- 
dry  is  pre-eminently  11  stylist,  and  his  work  shows  his  love 
of  the  classic.  It  may  be  said  of  him  thai  he  was  inspired 
chielly  by  the  great  mastei-s  of  the  Italian  liemiissance.  and 
was  faithful  to  the  precepts  upheld  by  M.  Ingres,  though, 
like  mo.st  arlisis  of  his  tune,  he  also  felt  the  inlluence  of 
Delacroix.  His  greatest  decorative  works  are  those  in  the 
foyer  of  the  Grand  Opera-house  in  Paris,  on  which  he  spent 
sonu' of  the  best  ye.'irs  of  his  I if<'  (1866-74).  He  painted  a 
nundier  of  beauliful  pictures  of  nude  ligures  and  composi- 
tions, one  of  the  tiuest  (18.")7)  of  which  \^  Fmiiiiii'  mid  llii' 
Child,  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery.  St.. John  (1861)  and 
The  Wiiiv.  and  the  /-VrtW  (186:1)  are  two  of  his  most  beauti- 
ful works.  His  ceiling  (llorijinitiim  of  the  Lhic  is  in  the 
Palace  of  Justice,  Paris.  Baudry  was  a  portrait-painter  of 
elegant  tiuste  and  a  technician  of  wonderful  brilliancy.  His 
full-length  ymrtrait  of  Gen.  Cousin  Monlauban.  Comit  of 
Palikao  (1877).  standing  besiile  his  horse,  with  his  right  arm 
resting  on  the  saddle  and  his  sword  helil  with  the  butt  of  the 
scabbard  resting  on  the  ground,  is  such  a  work  as  can  only 
be  eompareil  with  the  masterpieces  of  Vehisquez  or  Van 


Dyke.    Baudry  was  a  eolorist  of  great  distinction,  and  his 
drawing  is  subtile  and  refined,  William  A.  Coffin'. 

Baili'r.  bowVr.  Bruno:  a  German  ratioiuilistic  theologian 
and  biblical  critic:  b.  in  Eisenbcrg  in  Saxe-AItenberg, Sept. 
6,  180!);  was  the  son  of  a  painter  on  porcelain,  ami  studied 
theology  and  philosophy  m  the  University  of  Berlin,  in 
whose  theological  faculty  he  became  privat-docent  18:i4 ; 
professor  extraordinary  at  Honn  18:10.  He  was  a  i)Uj)il  of 
Hegel,  and  at  first  belonged  to  the  right  wing  of  the  Hegel- 
ians, holding  to  the  iilea  that  science  and  revelation,  philos- 
ophy and  theology,  could  be  brought  into  perfect  harmony 
with  each  other.  His  Kritixrhe  Ikirxtelliini/  der  Jiilif/ton 
di;i  tillm  'J'exfiimi'iil.s  (Berlin.  18:i8,  2  vols.)  was  based  on 
this  view.  But  his  critical  studies  of  the  Bible  led  rapidly 
to  a  rupture,  as  shown  by  his  Die  evangelische  Liaidexkirche 
PreuKxeiis  mid  die  Wixxeiixchiift  (Leipzig,  1840);  Kriiik 
der  ernnf/elixche?!  Oeschic/ife  Johannes  (Hnnnen.  1840):  and 
Krltik  der  eningeji.selien  (le.wliielile  iler  Si/iiii/iliker{\A'\]y/.ig, 
1841—12.;!  vols.).  Then  followed  an  e(pially  boisterous  break- 
ing away  from  Hegel  :  I'uxdiine  di;ijiiiii/.slrn  (reriehts  iiber 
lleijel.  den  Alheixfen  (1841). an<I  lleiiel'.s  helirr  ron  Kiinxt  iind 
Reliijioii  (1842).  The  personal  result  of  his  extremely  free 
biblical  criticism  was  his  deposition  from  his  professorship 
in  1842.  He  then  removed  to  Berlin,  anil  produced  book 
after  book  full  of  learning  and  full  of  speculation,  but  those 
on  religious  matters  are  almost  worthless.  He  became  a  by- 
word for  learned  trilling  carried  to  the  verge  of  insanity. 
In  184:!  lie  wrote  Ihix  enfderkie  Chri-itenfhiim.  which  was 
suppressed  before  its  publication,  and  ))ublished  a  general 
critical  review  of  the  German  railicalisin  of  the  |ieriod.  In 
connection  with  Jungwitz  and  his  brother  Edgar  he  pub- 
lished (fexrliirhte  lieittxehliindx  iind  der  Fninzoxixche/i 
I{evi>/iifioji  iinter  der  Herrxchnft  Xapoleons  (Charlotten- 
biirg,  1846.  2  vols.).  But  after  spending  several  veal's  on 
political  and  historical  researches,  producing,  beside  the 
book  named,  (lexehirlde  der  Politil;.  Ciilliir  und  AiifklCir- 
iniji  dex  JS  Jiihr/iiindertx  (184:^-4."),  4  vols.):  Die  hiin/erliche 
Nem/ii/ion  {Hi'rVm,  1840):  />('/•  I'nfergirni/  dex  Frankfurter 
Piirlementx  (1849),  etc.,  he  returned  to  the  field  of  biblical 
criticisiu  ;  if  f)ossible,  still  more  antagonistic  to  the  reigning 
views  than  formerly  he  had  been.  In  his  Kritik  der  paiilin- 
ischen  Briefe  (Berlin,  18.")0),  he  attempted  to  show  that  the 
four  leading  E|iislles.  which  had  never  before  been  ques- 
tioned, were  the  production  of  the  second  century.  Accord- 
ing to  his  l;iler  works  (e.g.  Chrixtiix  iinddie  fVcsrtn>».  Berlin, 
1877:  2d  ed.  1879.  etc.)  Seneca  was  the  real  founder  of 
Christianity!     I),  in  Kixdorf,  near  Berlin,  Apr.  1:^,  1882. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bauer,  CiEORii  I^orexz:  a  German  theologian  and  lin- 
guist; b.  in  Hilpoltstein,  near  Nuremberg,  Aug.  14,  1755. 
He  became  Professor  of  Oriental  Ijanguages  at  Altdorf  in 
1780.  and  in  Heidelberg  in  1805.  Among  his  w(u-ks  are 
Jlermenenlira  Surra  Veferix  Texliinienli  (Leipzig.  1 707),  and 
liiblixrlie  Tlieoliifiie  dex  neneii  Textiiinentx  (4  vols.,  1800-02). 
He  was  a  rationalist,  and  maintained  that  the  Bible  should 
be  interpreted  by  grammatical  and  hislorical  principles,  as 
the  ancient  classics  are.     I),  in  Heidelberg,  Jan.  12.  1806. 

Bauer.  W'ii.iielm  :  a  German  inventor:  b.  at  Dillingen, 
Dec.  2:3,  1822.  He  constructed  a  diving-boat  for  submarine 
operations,  with  which  several  successful  experiments  have  ' 
been  made.  He  also  made  improveineiils  in  torpedoes  for 
the  de.struclion  of  ships  and  in  the  firing  of  guns  under 
water.  Hauer  served  with  distinclion  in  the  Schleswig-nol- 
stein  war  of  18.J0,  and  aflerwaid  engaged  in  the  service  of 
Russia.     D.  in  .Menicli.  .lime  18,  187.'). 

Haiieriifeld.  bowVrn-felt.  Eduard,  von:  Austrian  poet 
and  diamalisl;  b.  in  Vienna.  .Ian.  1:3,  1802;  perhaps  the 
most  prolific  playwright  of  modern  Germany.  As  a  young 
man  he  took  pari  in  tlie  political  agitations,  culminating  in 
1848.  for  a  reform  of  the  Austrian  administration.  Of  his 
wiu'ks  we  may  cib^  Vennixrhte  Oediehte  (1852):  Gexrimmelten 
Srhriften  (12  vols..  1871-7:3):  Die  Verlassenen,  a  romance 
(1875).     D.  in  Vienna,  Aug.  0.  1890.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Baii'gher.  IIkxrv  Loiis.  D.  D. :  Lutheran  divine;  b.  at 
AbiKil>|,iwn.  Pa.,  about  180:3:  Professor  of  Greek  and  Belles- 
Let  Ires  (1.h;!2-oO)  at  Pennsvlvania  College.  Getlvsburg.  and 
its  president  (18.50-08).    D.'in  Gettysburg,  Aiir.  14.  1868. 

Itaiisrlier.  Hexrv  Loris.  Jr..  I).  D. :  Lutheran  divine  :  b. 
in  GettVsbnrg.  Pa.,  .\ug.  6.  1840;  educated  at  Pennsylvania 
College,  and  its  seminary  in  Gettysburg,  I'a.,  and  at  An- 
dover,  JIass. :  pa.stor  in  Wheeling,  West  Va.,  Xorri.stown, 
Pa..  Indianapolis.  Iml.,  an<l  Omaha.  Neb.;  Professor  of  Greek 


53G 


BAUHIN 


BAVARIA 


Language  and  Literature  in  Pennsylvania  College  1869  to 
the  present,  with  the  exce|ition  of  three  years  in  the  pastor- 
ate, and  as  Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  in  llowaril  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.  V.  He  supplied  teniporarilv  the 
chairs' of  Greek  Exegesis  (1870-74)  and  of  Systenuitiu  Theol- 
ology  (1883-84)  in  the  seminary  at  Gettysburg.  jMeinbcr  of 
international  committee  on  Suiulay-sehool  lessons  since  187i(, 
and  from  1875  to  the  present  lias  been  editor  of  7'hi'  Aiii/.t- 
biiiy  Tif(i<iiei;  Philadelphia.  Hexry  E.  Jacobs. 

Baiiliiii,  bo'au',  Gaspard:  a  Swiss  botanist  and  anato- 
mist; b.  in  Basel,  Jan.  17,  1.560.  He  became  Professor  oE 
Anatomy  and  Botany  in  his  native  city  in  1.588.  He  wrote 
vidualile'  medical  and  l>olanic-:d  work.s,  among  which  were 
Priidniiau.t  Thmiri  Bofaiiiri  (16'.30).  and  I'inax  Tlteatri 
Botauiri  (1623).  D.  in  16:24.  His  brother  Jolin  was  col- 
laborator with  him,  and  the  Bauhinia  genus  of  plants  with 
its  two-lobed  leaves  was  named  for  them. 

Baiiin.  Henry  Mason,  D.  C.  L.  :  editor  of  T/ie  Chiu-rh 
liffii-ii'  since  1881;  b.  at  Earl  Schuyler.  Herkimer  co.,  N.Y., 
Feb.  24, 1848  ;  ordained  1870 ;  held  pastoral  charges  in  West- 
ern New  York,  Wyoming.  New  .Jersey,  Central  Pennsyl- 
vania; pulilished  Tlii'  Righlf!  (tnd  Dutiesof  Rectors,  Cliurch- 
wardens,  and  Vestri/nwii  in  fhe.  American  Church  (1870); 
edit<ir  of  Church  lii'iinion  Discussed  on  fhe  Basis  of  /he 
Lambeth  Propositions  of  JS-'ifl.  Reprinted  from  the  Chiirr/i 
Heriew  for  Apr.  and  Oct.,  18H0. 

Biliim^,  bo'may',  Antoink  :  French  chemist ;  b.  at  Senlis, 
Fel).  36,  1728.  He  improved  the  manufacture  of  porcelain, 
made  several  inventions,  and  simplified  several  processes  in 
industrial  chemistry.  Baume's  hydrometer  is  in  general  use 
among  chemists.  Among  his  works  is  a  3Ianuid  of  Chem- 
istry (1763).  D.  Oct.  1."),  1804.  See  Cadet  de  Gassieourt, 
Elogc  de  Bourne,  1806. 

Baiinigrarteii,  bowmgalu-tcn,  Alexander  Gottlieb  ;  a 
German  pliilosopher ;  b.  in  Berlin,  July  17,  1714;  a  disciple 
of  Wolf.  He  became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Frankfort- 
on-tlie-Oder  in  1740 ;  was  one  of  the  first  of  moderns  to  give 
scientific  form  and  place  to  aesthetics.  He  pulilished,  be- 
sides other  works.  JIe/aj)hi/sieo  (1730)  ami  .'Esthelica  (2 
vols.,  17.)0,  unfinished).  I),  in  Fraukfort-ou-the-Oder,  May 
26,  1762.  See  G.  P.  Meyer,  Lel)en  A.  <f.  Baitmgarlen's 
(Halle,  1763),  and  J.  Schmidt,  Leibnitz  und  Baumytirten 
(Halle.  1S7.5). 

Baiiiiiffarten.  Michael:  a  German  theologian;  b.  in 
Hascldorf,  Holstein.  3Iar.  25,  1812 ;  became  Professor  of 
'riieology  in  Rostock  in  1850.  He  publislied  many  books 
and  periodicals  in  opposition  to  the  State  Church  of  Jleck- 
leuburg,  in  consequence  of  whic'h  he  was  removed  from  his 
profcs-sorsliip  in  1858,  and,  afterward  continuing  his  attacks, 
was  imprisoned  and  fined.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  Prot- 
estantenverein  (1865),  which,  however,  lie  left  in  1877,  and 
an  earnest  advocate  of  disestablishment.  He  sat  in  the 
Reichstag  in  1874,  1877,  and  1878.  He  publislied  many 
polemical  writings  and  popular  appeals  in  behalf  of  a  peo- 
ple's Clmreh;  but  of  more  account  are  his  Apostelr/eschichte 
(Halle,  1852,  2  vols.;  2d  ed.  Brunswick,  1850;  Eng.  trans. 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Edinburgh.  1854.  3  vols.),  and 
Selileiermaclierals  Tlieolo(ie  fiir  die  (iemeinde  der  Oeqenirort 
(Berlin,  1862).  D.  at  Rostock.  Jnlv  21,  1880.  See  liis  Life, 
■  by  II.  II.  Studt,  Kiel,  1801. 

Baiinigartner,  Andreas,  von :  a  German  savant  and 
minister  of  state  ;  li.  at  Friedlierg,  in  Bohemia,  Nov.  23, 
179;i.  He  became  Professor  of  Physics  at  Vienna  in  1823, 
and  Austrian  minister  of  trade  and  pulilie  works  in  1851. 
Aliout  tliis  date  he  was  chosen  jiresident  of  the  .\ca(h'iny  of 
Sciences  in  Vienna.  He  pulilislicd  a  work  called  Satur- 
tehre  (l,S2:i).     T).  near  Vienna,  July  ;]0,  1865. 

Bainiigartner.  CiALi.rs  Jacob:  a  Swiss  politician  of  the 
liberal  party;  li.  in  Altstiitten,  Zurich,  Oct.  18,  1707.  He 
took  part  in  the  revision  of  the  constitution  of  St.  Gall,  and 
promotiid  tiie  separation  of  the  canton  into  Basel  country 
and  Basel  city,  lie  founded, Oct..  1842,  the  JVeue  Sehirei-er 
Zeitunfi,  and  published,  among  other  works.  Die  Sriiireiz  In 
ihren  Kampfen  und  I'mijestaifungen,  18S0-50  (4  vols.,  1853). 
1).  in  St.  Gall,  July  12,  l'860. 

Baiiiiigarton-Cnisins.  Lrnwin  PuiEDRicn  Otto:  a  Ger- 
man tlicologian  ;  li.  in  Mi'i-scliurg,  July  31.  1788:  became 
Professor  lO.xtraordinary  of  Theology  at  Jena  1812,  and 
ordinary  1817.  He  played  a  prominent  part  a.s  the  de- 
fender of  Schleiermaciier's  supernaturalism.  Of  his  books 
may  lie  mentioned  Leiirbuch  der  christlichen  Sittenlelire 
(Leipzig,    1827);    Leiirbuch    der    Dogmenyescliiclde   (Jena, 


1831-32,  2  vols.),  and  Kumj)endium  der  ch ristliehe.n  Doq- 
meniieschicltte  (ed.  bv  Hase,  Leipzig,  1840^6,  2  vols.).  1). 
in  Jena,  May  IJl,  1843. 

Baiir.  bowr,  Ferdinand  Christian  :  Protestant  the9logian 
and  historian  ;  b.  in  Sehmiden.  near  Cannstadt.  Wiirtem- 
berg,  June  21,  1792.  He  studied  theology  in  the  Blaubeuren 
Theological  Seminary  1805-00,  and  in  tlie  LTiiiversity  of 
Tiibingen  1800-17;  became  Professor  of  Theology  in  the 
former  1817.  and  in  the  latter  1826.  With  the  latter  insti- 
tution his  fame  is  bound  up,  for  fiiere  he  produced  those 
works  in  New  Testament  interpretation  which  for  a  timefiro- 
duced  consternation  in  the  conservative  ranks,  and  created 
the  Tiibingen  school  of  destructive  criticism,  which  had  its 
day.  He  had  been  a  disciple  of  Schreierniacher.  but  became  a 
Hegelian  and  amilied  Hegel's  philosophy  to  Church  history. 
The  most  striking  statement  of  the  school  is  that  in  the 
primitive  ('hristian  Church  there  was  a  feud  between  the 
followers  of  Peter  (Judaic  Christianity)  and  those  of  Paul 
(|irogressive  Christianity),  but  it  was  not  till  the  second 
century  that  there  arose  the  Catholic  Church,  the  resultant 
of  the  opjiosing  forces.  The  New  Testament,  he  claimed, 
bears  witness  to  this  struggle.  The  only  portions  of  it  pro- 
duced before  70  a.  D.  were  the  four  cliief  Pauline  Epistles 
(Romans.  1  and  2  Corinthians,  and  Galatians) — the  only  ones 
whose  Pauline  origin  he  granted — and  the  Revelation,  in 
which  this  alleged  antagonism  showed  itself.  The  rest  of 
the  New  Testament  dates  from  the  second  century,  and  is 
"  tendency-writing  " — i.  e.  intended  to  promote  unity.  To 
tills  end  the  Acts  and  the  Gospel  of  John  especially  were 
written.  Even  Matthew  and  Luke  betray,  he  claims,  the 
liand  of  partisans,  while  Jlark  is  the  bridge  between  them 
in  the  interest  of  peace.  This  theory  is  worked  out  with 
great  learning  and  acuteness  in  Baur's  Paul  (Stuttgart, 
1845 ;  2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1866-67,  2  vols. ;  Eng.  trans.  Lond., 
187:^-75,  2  vols.)  and  Church  Jlistory  (Eng.  trans,  covei-s 
only  the  fii-st,  three  centuries,  1878-70.  2  vols. ;  the  orig., 
Tiibingen,  1853-62.  5  vols.,  goes  down  to  1848).  Of  his  un- 
translated works  (he  chief  are  Die  christliche  Lehre  von 
der  Dreieinigkeit  nnd  Meiisrhirerdunii  fioltes  (Tiibingen, 
1841-43,  3  vols.);  I^elirhuch  der  christtichen  Dogmenge- 
schichte  (Stuttgart,  1847;  3d  ed.  Lei]izig,  1867);  and  the 
posthumous  Vorlesuvgen  uber  die  c/iristtielien  Dogmenge- 
sehichte  (186.5-67.3  vols.).  See  Baur  himself.  Die  li'ibingen 
Schiile  (Le.ijizig,  1850);  R.  W.  Mackav,  The  Tubingen  Scltuol 
(London.  1863).     D.  at  Tiibingen.  Dec.  2,  1860. 

S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bantaiii.  bo'tan'.  Loris  Ei'oJ;nf.  Marie:  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic philosopher  and  theologian;  b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  17,  1706. 
He  liecame  Professor  of  Philosojihy  at  Strassburg  1810  ; 
suspended  in  1822  on  account  of  his  advocacy  of  Fichte's 
views;  turned  priest  1828;  ultimately  was  a  pojmlar  preacher 
at  Paris;  liecame  director  of  the  College  of  Juilly  in  1840, 
and  Professor  of  Moral  Theology  in  the  Sorbonne  1853.  Ho 
published  numerous  discourses  and  Philosophie  du  chris- 
tianisme  (Paris,  1835,2  vols.);  La phl/osophie  morale  (1840, 
2  vols.) ;  and  especiallv  JCt-ude  sur  I'art  dc  parler  en  public 
(1856;  2d  ed.  1863;  Eng.  trans..  The  Art  of  Extempore. 
Speaking.  London.  1858 ;  6th  ed.  1878  ;  rejir.  New  York.  1850  ; 
London  ed.  1874).  D.  in  ViroHav,  near  Versailles,  Oct.  18, 
1867. 

Bautzen,  bowt'scn.  or  Biulissin,  lioo'di.s-sin  :  a  town  of 
Saxony;  on  the  S[iree;  and  on  the  railway  from  Dresden  to 
Gorlitz;  35  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Dresden  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  .5-G).  It  has  a  royal  palace,  a  cathedral,  two 
public  libraries ;  also  manufactures  of^  woolens,  linens,  leatlier, 
hosierv.  paper,  etc.  Pop.  (1800)  21.517.  Here  occurred  a. 
great  iiattli-  (:\t.-iv  20  and  21,  1813)  between  Napoleon  and  tho 
allies,  who  finall'v  retreated.  The  loss  of  the  allies  is  esti- 
mated at  13,000.  and  that  of  Napoleon  at  20,000  men. 

Bava'ria  [New  Lat.  from  Med.  Lsit.  Boiaria,  i.  e.  t  ho  coun- 
try of  the  flol  i  or  Boia'rii :  in  Ger.  Bay  em  or  Bai'ern]:  a 
kingdiim  forming  part  of  the  German  empire.  It  is,  next  to 
Prussia,  f  lu'  largest  German  state. 

Geography.— \i  consists  of  two  isolated  portions;  the  east- 
ern aiid  larger  iiortion  is  bounded  N.  by  Prussia.  Saxe-Mein- 
ingen,  Saxe-Coliurg-Gotha,  Reuss.  and  Saxony;  E.  and  S.  by 
.\ustria;  W.  by  Wiirtemberg.  Baden,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  ; 
the  western  and  smaller  jiortiou,  known  as  Rhenish  Bavaria 
or  the  Palatinate,  is  bounded  bv  Prussia.  Alsace,  Ile-sse-Darm- 
stadt,  and  Baden.  Area,  20,282  sq.  miles.  The  larger  portion 
of  the  countrv  is  mountainous,  the  principal  mountains  being 
the  Algiiu  and  Bavsirian  Aljis  in  the  S.,  t  he  former  of  which 
reach  an  elevation  of  0,000  feet ;  the  Bohemian  and  Bavarian 


BAVARIA 


537 


niiie  iillliRiits,  ami  Ilw  Main  In  llu'  X.    'I'lio  Kliiiie  [(irnis  part 
of  the  frontierof  the  Palalinale.    The  Daimlie  and  the  Alain 


Mouiittiin  forests  on  the  enstorii  frontier;  the  Pichtel  Moun- 
tains in  the  N.  K. ;  the  Franeoiiia.  Jura,  and  the  llanlt.  Tlie 
main  rivt'rsari'  llic  Dannlic,  wliidi  ri'<-eivi'.s  in  ISavaria  thirty 

le  forms  pa 
n(i  the  Ala 

arc  eonneoted  \>y  the  IjUilwifi's  Canal.  Tile  innutuT  of  lakes, 
n»)sl  of  which  are  alpine,  aniounls  to  atiout  fifty.  Thecliniale 
is,  on  the  whole,  temperate  anil  healthy,  lint  roush  anil  severe 
in  the  mountains.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  ri<'li  in  produets, 
parlieularly  in  corn  and  eatlle.  There  are  celeliraleil  mineral 
spring's  in  Lower  Franconiu  and  Upper  ISavaria  (Kissingen 
and  Hriiekenau). 

Popiilittiun. — The  total  popidalion,  aceonlinj;  to  census  of 
Dec,  ISiM).  was  5,.iy!),383,"of  whom  rather  more  than  seven- 
teuths  are  Uoinaii  Catholics,  and  aliout  one-fourth  are  I'rot- 
I'Stunts.  The  .lews  nuiubered  r):!,till7  in  18(^5.  U  is  divided 
into  eiiiht  jirovinies,  which,  according  to  census  of  1H!M),  had 
the  following  po|iulal ion  :  I'pper  Havaria,  l.lOi.OtJT;  Lower 
Havaria.  664.1  :il;  I'alatiuate,  T-.'S,42->;  Cpper  I'alalinate,  .W7,- 
217:  Upper  Franconia,  .ITJ.IHK:  Middle  Francouia.  6!I!),!)2S ; 
Lower  Franconia,  617.680;  Sualiia.  667,788,  .\s  regards  the 
descent  of  the  inhabitants,  about  1,820,(100  are  Havarians  (Old 
liavarians  or  Havarians  proper),  2,;5.'{O,000  Fianconians,  and 
tMO.(KH)  Suabians. 

Kil trillion. —  Mavaria  has  3  uiuversities — at  Jlunich.  Wi'irz- 
linrg,  iiud  Krlangen — !t  Ivceums,  28  gymnasia  (colleges).  10 
normal  schools,  polytechnical  institutions  at  Munich  and 
Nuremberg,  and  about  7,200  public  schools  (school  attendance 
is  compulsory  here  from  six  to  fourteen);  also  Latin,  tech- 
nical, and  special  schools.  .\ll  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  have 
been  liberal  patrons  of  science  and  art.  There  is  an  academy 
of  .science  and  an  academy  of  |ilastic  arts  in  Jlunieh.  whicli 
is  also  eclebrateil  for  its  rich  collections  of  works  of  art. 

Indit.sfn'e.t. — The  principal  occupations  of  tlie  inhabitants 
are  agriculture  and  the  breeding  of  eatlle;  the  latter  chiefly 
in  the  mountainous ilistrict,  the  former  in  the  plains,  ,\iuoug 
Havaria's  chief  products  arc  cereals,  fodder,  potatoes,  hops, 
tobacco,  wine  (in  the  Palatinate  and  in  the  region  of  the 
Jlain).  About  lO.OtK)  sq.  miles  are  covered  with  woorl.  one- 
half  of  wliic-h  belongs  either  to  the  state  or  to  the  commnui- 
ties.  The  culture  of  the  forests  is  well  regulated  and  jirofit- 
able.  The  most  active  industry  is  found  in  the  proviuci's  of 
Middle  Franconia.  Suabia,  and  the  Palalinale,  Prominent 
among  the  industrial  cities  are  .\ugsburg.  Keui|iten.  Xureiii- 
berg.  Flirt  li,  Schwabach,  Baireuth,  Wiirzbnrg,  Bamberg,  Kr- 
langen, and  llof.  The  most  celebrated  braniOi  of  Bavarian 
industry  is  the  brewing  of  beer.  The  average  quantity  manu- 
factured annually  is  278,000.000  gal.:  of  this,  however,  only 
about  27,300,000  gal.  are  exported.  Bavaria  has  ;ilso  flourish- 
ing manufactures  of  linen,  woolen,  iron,  and  wooden  ware, 
numerous  glas,s-works,  mannf.actorics  of  paper,  chinaware, 
and  gnus,  and  celebrated  iiielling-jiouscs  at  Oberzell.  The 
manufactories  of  tobacco  produce  annually  large  quantities 
of  tobacco  and  cigars.  The  total  value  of  its  leacliug  mining 
products  in  1880  was  6..')48..-)77  marks. 

Commen-i'. — The  most  ini|«)rlanl  commercial  cities  are  Xu- 
remberg  and  .Vugsburg  (bills  of  exchange),  llof,  Bamberg. 
Scliweinrurl.  Wiirzbnrg.  Speicr,  Munic-h,  Katisboii,  I'assau 
(navigation  of  the  Danube).  Bavaria  in  18!)1  had  8.(8.j  miles 
of  railroad,  of  which  2,',)82  miles  belonged  to  the  state.  The 
navigation  of  the  Danube,  the  Kliiue,  and  the  Inn  employs 
large  numbei-s  of  vessels,  including  numerous  steamboats. 
especially  on  the  Danube  and  the  Hhine.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  beer,  corn,  wood,  cattle,  wine,  and  hops. 

Wfiijlits  and  Mi'fi.iiirex. — The  metric  system  has  been  es- 
tablished in  Bavaria,  as  in  other  iiarts  of  (lermanv,  since 
•lau.  1,  1872. 

Government. — Bavaria  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the 
fumlaineiital  law  of  the  state  bearing  date  of  iMay  26,1818, 
and  the  electoral  law  now  in  force  having  been  adopted  on 
.liine  4, 1848.  The  crown  is  hereilitaiy  in  the  male  line  only, 
a<cording  to  the  right  of  primogeniture.  The  king  exercises 
the  administrative  fiower;  the  legislative  he  shares  with  a 
legislature  consisting  of  two  chamiiers.  The  upper  chamber, 
or  chamber  of  the  Iteichsratlie  (counseloi-s  of  the  empire), 
had,  in  1889,  71  members,  of  whom  4(J  were  entitled  to  a  seat 
as  being  chiefs  of  noble  families,  and  7  by  their  otRce,  while 
15  were  life-members  appointed  by  the  crown.  The  lower 
chamber,  or  chamber  of  represenfatives,  had,  in  188i),  1.59 
members,  who  are  elected  for  a  term  of  six  yeai-s.  The  cham- 
bers must  be  convoked  at  least  once  every  three  yeai-s.  Tliiie 
are  eight  courts  of  appeal,  and  one  siqireme  court  of  appeal  in 
Munich.  The  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  state  amoiinl- 
eil  in  1891  to  2«0,ayl,C42  marks;  the  public  debt  to  l,:iy:i,- 


189,6!)0  marks;  the  civil  list  and  appanages  to  5,404,850 
marks.  The  Bavarian  army,  according  to  the  treaty  of  Nov, 
2:>,  1870,  forius  two  army-corps  of  the  imperial  army  of  Ger- 
many undi'r  the  independent  military  administration  of  the 
King  of  Bavaria,  though  undi^r  the  chief  command  of  the 
emperor.  The  capital  is  Munich  ;  the  most  im])ortaiit  towns 
next  to  it  are  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  Wurzburg,  Katisbon, 
and  Bamberg. 

Ilixliiry. — Old  Bavaria,  or  Bavaria  pro]ier,  was  originally 
inhabited  by  the  lioii.  a  Celtic  Iribe.  Under  .\iigusliis  it  con- 
stituted the  Koman  province  of  Xiu-icum.  During  the  great 
migration  of  nations  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the 
country  was  occupied  by  Germanic  tribes,  from  which  the 
confederation  of  the  Boioari  arose,  which,  though  governed 
by  its  own  princes,  was  dependenl  u|ion  the  Kings  of  Aus- 
trasia.  At  the  head  of  the  <'oiifederation  was  the  family  of 
Agilollingians.  who  are  nienlioneil  for  the  fii-st  time  in  .').")6, 
and  were  dcprivi'd  of  the  ducal  dignity  by  Charlemagne  in 
777.  From  this  time  until  911,  when  tlieCarlovingian  house 
died  out,  Bavaria  belonged  to  the  Franconian  empire.  Dur- 
ing the  following  2.")0  yi'ai-s  Bavaria  was  disturbed  by  endless 
civil  wars.  In  1180  the  Count  Palatine,  Otto  von  Witt  els- 
bach,  was  invested  with  Havaria.  His  descendants,  with  but 
short  iiiterruiitions.  have  remained  the  ruleix  of  the  country 
to  this  day.  Two  of  them  were  I'lcctcd  German  emperors — 
Louis  the  Bavarian  (as  Fniperor  Louis  IV..  l:il4— 17)  and  the 
Elector  Charles  (as  Kmpcror  Charles  VII. ,  1742-45).  From 
Vi^M  the  conntry  was  generally  divided  between  two  lines — 
the  Counts  of  the  Hlieiiish  Palatinate  and  the  Diikcs  of  Ba- 
varia. The  electoral  dignity  repeatedly  jia.ssed  from  one 
branch  to  the  other,  until  the  jieacc  of  Westphalia  (1648)  con- 
ferred the  fifth  electoral  dignity  permanently  upon  the  Dukes 
of  Bavaria,  while  an  eighth  electoral  dignity  was  expressly 
created  for  the  Palatine  line.  In  1777  the  line  of  the  electors 
of  liavaria  became  extinct,  and  the  elector  of  the  Khenish 
Palatinate,  Charles  Theodore,  became  ruler  of  Bavaria. 
.\iistria,  howeviT,  claimed  a  large  portion  of  the  country, 
and  the  weak  elector  was  willing  to  concede  this  claim;  but 
Frcilerick  the  Great  suppoi'teil  the  protest  of  the  next  agnate 
the  Duke  Charles  of  Zweibriicken,  against  this  arrangement, 
and  thus  the  bloodless  "  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession" 
arose,  which  was  ended  M,-iy  Ki,  1779,  by  the  treaty  of  Tcsch- 
en,  which  gave  to  Austria  the  region  of  the  Inn,  with  the 
town  of  Hrauiiau.  and  guaranteeil  the  succession  in  the  re- 
iiiaiiuh'r  of  the  dominions  of  Charles  Theodore  to  the  Duke 
Charles  of  Zwcibriickeii.  In  1784  the  Fmiieror.Ioseph  I.  made 
a  new  allem|it  lo  obtain  the  whole  of  Havaria.  by  olfi'i'ing  to 
the  Klcclor  Charles  Theodore,  in  exchange  for  Bavaria,  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  with  the  title  of  king;  but  again  the 
l)lau  was  foiled  liy  ihe  o|>posil  ion  of  the  Diike  of  Zweibriicken 
and  Frederick  tiie  Great.  Charles  Theodore  died  Feb.  16, 
17!t9.  and.  as  in  the  meanwhile  the  Duke  Charles  of  Zwei- 
briicken  had  died  childless,  his  brother  (Maximilian  IV,) 
.losepli,  Duke  of  the  Palatinate-Zweibrlicken,  became  Elector 
of  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate.  In  the  history  of  Germany 
the  Duki's  of  Havaria  are  chielly  noted  for  the  leading  part 
which  they  look  ill  theih'fense  of  the  Catholic  Church  against 
the  Heforuiation.  Tliroughout  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth, 
and  eighteenth  centuries  they  were  the  headsof  the  Catholic 
[larty  among  the  princes  and  states  of  the  empire.  The  Elec- 
tor Maximilian  lost  in  the  peace  of  Luiieville  the  Zweibrilcken 
Palatinate,  but  in  place  of  these  districts  received  a  number 
of  secularized  bishoprics,  the  change  adding  to  his  dominions 
2,100  .s(i.  miles,  with  iieariy  20().()t)b  inhabitants.  In  the  war 
of  180.5  the  elector  joined  France  against  the  Emperor  of 
Gcrmanv,  anil  received  a  further  increase  of  about  8,000  sq, 
miles  and  800.000  inhabitants.  On  ,lan.  1,  1806,  the  elector 
assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year  he 
joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  wiiich  he  left  again  in 
18Ki,  in  order  lo  unite  with  the  allies  against  Napoleon.  The 
peace  of  Paris  and  that  of  Vienna  regulated  the  territory  of 
Bavaria  as  it  has  remained  since,  with  Ihe  exception  of  ifvery 
small  district  which  in  1866  was  ceded  to  Prussia.  In  181S 
t  he  const  itut  ional  form  of  goveriiiucnt  was  introduced.  Louis 
I.  (182.")— 18),  the  successor  of  Jlaxiinilian.  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  the  arts,  and  at  the  same  time  greatly  favored  the  interests 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  llis  relation  to  the  notorious  Lola 
Jlontez  led  in  1848  to  disturbances,  in  consequence  of  which 
he  alidicated.  The  support  which  he  had  given  to  the  in- 
surrection of  the  Greeks  against  the  rule  of  the  Turks  had 
secured  the  election  of  his  second  son.  Otho.  as  Kingof  (irceeo. 
In  Bavaria  he  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Maximilian  II. 
(184S-64),  who.  like  his  father,  liberally  patronized  science  and 
art,  but  in  politics  had  throughout  his  reign  anti-liberal  cabi- 


538 


\ 


BAXTKK 


BAYAED 


nets.  In  the  Schleswig-Holsteiu  question  the  Bavarian  Gov- 
ernment iicted  as  an  ardent  champion  of  the  r-ausc  of  German 
nationality.  Maximilian,  who  died  Mar.  10.  1SG4.  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Louis  II.,  who  in  1866,  in  the  war  between 
Austria  and  Prussia,  sided  with  Austria,  and  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  had  to  pay  30,000,000  florins  as  expenses  of  war, 
and  to  cede  a  small  district  to  Prussia.  At  the  same  time  an 
oifensive  and  defensive  alliance  was  concluded  with  Prussia. 
The  Catholic  party  was  jjreatly  op|iosed  to  the  foreign  policy 
<if  the  Prime  Min'ister,  Prince  llohenlohe  (a])poiuted  at  the 
close  of  1866),  and  still  more  to  the  educational  and  other  re- 
forms which  he  endeavored  to  introduce.  When  the  new 
elections  in  1860  gave  to  the  Catholic  party  (the  "  Patriots  ") 
a  majoritv  in  the  second  chamlier.  Prince  lloheidohe  resigned 
(Jan.,  1870).  The  new  Prime  .Minister.  Bray,  remained,  how- 
ever, faithful  to  the  treaties  with  Prussia,  and  after  the  out- 
break of  the  war  between  Prance  and  Prussia.  Bavaria  at 
once  joined  Prussia,  and  ])laced  two  army-corps  under  the 
coraniand  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia.  In  Nov.,  1870, 
the  Bavarian  Government  concluded  a  treaty  providing  for 
the  entrance  of  Bavaria  into  the  German  empire,  and  in  Jan., 
1871.  the  treaty  was  ratified  by  both  chambers.  King  Louis 
II.  died  June  13,  1886.  Prince  Luitpold  was  made  regent 
during  the  occupation  of  the  throne  liy  King  Gtto,  the  in- 
sane successor  of  Louis  II.  Revised  by  C,  K.  Adams. 

Bax'ter,  De  Witt  Clinton  :  volunteer  soldier ;  b.  in 
Dorchester.  JSIass.,  JIar.  9.  1829 ;  entered  the  army  in  1861 
iis  lieutenant,  and  pa-ssed  through  the  successive  grades  to 
that  of  colonel  of  "  Baxter's  Fire  Zouaves  "  (brevet  brigadier- 
general  U.  S.  volunteers).  Wrote  Baxter's  Manual  and 
Compami  Tactics,  anCL  was  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  Phila- 
delphia 1869-71.     D.  May  9,  1881. 

Baxter.  Richard:  Nonconformist  theologian  :  b.  in  Row- 
ton.  Shropshire.  England.  Nov.  13.  1615.  He  was  not  edu- 
cated at  any  college.  Having  been  ordained  in  1638,  he 
liecanie  Vicar  of  Kidderminster  in  1641,  and  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  was  the  means  of  working 
there  a  moral  reformation  of  a  most  thorough  and  per- 
manent character.  He  was  neutr.al  or  moderate  in  the  civil 
war.  being  friendly  to  the  Puritans,  lint  favoraltle  to  a  mon- 
archy. In  16.50  he  produced  the  Saint's  Ecerlasting  Rest. 
which  is  highly  esteemed.  He  took  up  his  residence  in  Lon- 
don in  1660,  jnst  jirior  to  the  Restoration,  Charles  II.  ap- 
pointed him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  Clarendon  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  but  he  declined  it.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1663,  he 
seceded  from  the  Anglican  Church.  He  continued  to  preach 
to  the  Nonconformists,  and  several  times  was  persecuted  and 
arrested.  The  notorious  Judge  Jeffries  in  1685  fined  him 
500  marks  on  a  charge  of  sedition,  which  was  founded  on  a 
psissage  in  his  writings,  which  was  construed  into  a  lilael  on 
theCiuirch  of  England.  For  failure  to  pay  the  fine  he  was 
im[irisoned  nearly  eighteen  months.  D.  in  London.  Dec.  8, 
1691.  He  was  a  vi)himinous  writer,  having  publislied  168 
treatises.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  a  Catl  to  the  ?'«- 
converted (imid);  Met/todas  Tlieoloi/ice  {UM-i):  and  Catholic 
Theology.  See  his  Autobiograpliij:  Beliiiniir  Ba.rterian(e 
(London,  1696):  and  the  biographies  bvE.  Calamv (1713):  W. 
Orme  (1830) :  G.  D.  Boyle  (1883).    Revised  by  S.  Mi  Jackso.v. 

Baxte'riaiis :  the  term  formerly  applied  to  the  adherents 
of  Baxter's  theological  system,  the  doctrines  of  which  were — 
1,  that  though  Christ  died  in  a  special  sense  for  the  elect,  yet 
lie  also  died  in  a  general  sense  for  all ;  2,  the  rejection  of  the 
dogma  of  reiiroliation  :  3,  that  it  is  possible  for  even  saints 
to  fall  away  from  saving  grace.  Dr.  Isiuic  Watts  and  Dr. 
Philip  Doddridge  were  noted  Baxtcrians, 

Baxter  Springs:  cily:  on  railroad:  Cherokee  co..  Kan. 
(for  locaticm.  si-i-  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  8-K):  l.")9  miles  S.  of 
Kansas  City.  .Mo. ;  U  miles  trom  the  State  line.  It  has  lead- 
smelting  works,  and  is  a  shipping-point  for  Texas  cattle. 
The  principal  minerals  are  lead.  zinc,  and  coal.  On  Oct.  G. 
1863,  C^uanli-ell,  with  600  guerillas,  attacked  a  U,  S,  escort 
and  encampment  o!  three  companies  at  this  place.  The 
escort  was  dispersed  jiikI  all  the  wounded  inunlered:  the  at- 
tack on  the  eneami)ment  was  repulsed.  Pi>|i.  (188(1)  1.177: 
(1890)  1.2-18;  (1895)  1,.506.  Editok  of  "Nkws." 

Bay  (Fr.  hale):  in  geography,  an  inlet  of  the  sea.  or  a 
portion  of  the  sea  extending  into  the  land.  The  terms  ioy 
and  gnlf  are  vaguely  and  ]iromiscuously  apjJied  to  bodies  of 
water  of  various  forms  and  dimensions.  Ilndson's  Bay.  for 
example,  might  properly  lie  calleil  a  gulf.  The  word  haii  is 
iplied  to  smaller  p      ' 


generally  ajipl 


'  portions  than  gulf. 


Bay.  or  Bay-tree  :  the  laurel-tree  (Laurus  nobilis) ;  some- 
times called  sweet  bay.  The  Priinns  laiirocerasus  is  some- 
times called  bay-laurel.  Several  other  trees  are  popularly 
called  bag.  The  "  sweet  bay  "  of  the  U.  S.  is  the  3Iagnolia 
glauca,  which  has  fragrant  flowers.  The  "red  bay"  of  the 
South  is  the  Persea  carolinien-ns,  an  evergreen  laurel-tree 
with  fine  red  timber.  The  "'  loliloUy  bay  "  (Gordonia  lasian- 
th  !i-i)  is  a  fine  tree  of  the  Southern  States,  with  mahogany-col- 
ored wood.  A  smaller  species  (Gordonia  piibescens)  is  cidti- 
vated  at  the  North  as  a  shrub,  and  has  large  and  fragrant 
white  blossoms.  Some  of  the  rhododendrons  and  azaleas  are 
called  rose  bays.  The  leaves  of  the  bay  have  long  been  sub- 
jects of  popular  superstition,  and  have  been  used  with  other 
evergi'eens  to  decorate  churches  at  Christmas.  Bays  in  the 
plural  signifies  an  honorary  garland  or  crown,  bestowed  as  a 
prize  for  victory  or  meritorious  action.  It  is  not  known 
what  kind  of  tree  is  meant  by  the  word  in  the  Bible  trans- 
lated "  bay-tree." 

Ba'ya  (Plo'cens  philippi'nns) :  a  small  East  Indian  bird 
of  the  family  of  Ploceidic.  and  allied  to  the  weaver-bird.  It 
has  a  large  conical  beak.  Its  color  is  yellow,  spotted  with 
brown.  It  builds  a  curious  nest,  shaped  like  a  Florence 
flask,  and  suspended  from  a  small  twig  of  a  high  branch. 
The  entrance  is  in  the  lower  part  of  the  nest.  The  baya 
can  be  easily  tamed  and  trained  to  obey  commands. 

Bayadere'  [Fr.  from  Port,  bailadeira.  danseuse,  from 
bailar,  dance ;  akin  to  E.  hall,  a  dance] :  a  name  given  to 
the  dancing-girls  of  India.  The  nautch  (Sanskrit  natya, 
pantomimic  dance),  as  an  adjunct  of  social  entertainment, 
is  of  great  antiquity,  being  mentioned  in  the  early  legends 
of  Buddha.  The  nautch-girls  go  about  in  small  troujis 
from  place  to  place.  Their  "  dance  "  consists  in  slow,  legato 
movements  of  hands,  arms,  head,  body,  and  feet,  which  are 
said  to  require  great  technical  skill  and  suppleness  of  joint, 
and  remind  one  somewhat  of  tlie  results  of  the  modern  Del- 
sarte  system,  but  whose  general  effect  is,  to  Occidental  taste, 
very  dull  indeed.  Their  pantomime,  and  the  accompanying 
songs,  portray  despondent  or  exultant  love  and  the  like.  In 
Southern  India  especially  are  found  Dera-ddsts  (slaves  of 
the  god),  who  are  regularly  attached  to  some  temple  to  sing 
and  dance  before  the  idol,  and  who  correspoml  to  the  tem- 
ple prostitutes  of  antiquity,  Phenician  Kedeslioth  and  Greek 
Ilierodules.  C.  R.  Lanman, 

Bayard,  Ward,  Gen,  George  Dashiell  :  b,  in  Seneca  Falls, 
N.  Y..  Dec.  18.  1835:  removed  in  boyhood  to  Iowa;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1856.  He  entered  the  U.  S.  cavalry, 
and  became,  after  the  civil  war  broke  out.  colonel  of  the 
First  Pennsylvania  Cavalry.  In  1862  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  served  with  the  liighest  honor  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Fredericksburg,  Dec.  14.  1862,  where  he  fought  with  the  left 
wing,  under  Franklin. 

Bayard.  Jajies  Asheton  :  U.  S.  Senator  and  lawver ;  b.  in 
Philadelphia.  July  28,  1767:  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1784. 
He  liegan  to  practice  law  in  Delaware,  and  in  1796  became 
a  Federalist  member  of  Congress,  in  which  he  attained  emi- 
nence as  an  orator.  Tlie  contest  between  Jefferson  and 
Burr  in  1801  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  former  by  the 
votes  of  the  Federalists,  acting  under  the  influence  of  Jlr. 
Bayard.  He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  for  Delaware  in  1804, 
and  remained  in  that  bodv  until  1813.  He  wjis  one  of  the 
commissioners  that  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814. 
D.  in  Wilmington.  Del..  Aug.  6,  1815. 

Bayard,  James  Ashetox,  second :  h.  in  Wilmington, 
Del..  Nov.  15,  1799:  graduated  at  Princeton:  was  U,  S. 
Senator  from  Delaware  (1851-64  and  1867-69),  twice  resign- 
ing this  office,  to  which  he  was  four  times  elected,  and  once 
appointed  to  fill  a  vacancy,  D.  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  June 
13,  1880. 

Bayard,  bali  yaar  ,  Jean  Francois  Alfred:  French  litte- 
rateur; b.  in  CharoUes.  Mar.  17,  1796;  wrote  over  200  popu- 
lar comedies  and  vaudevilles,  among  which  were  La  reine     J 
dc  seize   ans,  and  Les  gamins  de  Paris,  wliich  was  per-     I 
formed  with  great  success  463  times  in  succession.     D.  Feb. 
19,  18.53. 

Bayard.  Pierre  du  Terkail.  Chevalier:  an  heroic  French 
knight:  calleil  "  le  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche  " 
(the  knight  without  fear  and  without  reproach);  was  b.  at 
Castle  Bayard.  ne;ir  Gri'Uoble.  in  1475.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  modesty,  i)iety.  magiianiniity,  and  his  various  ac- 
coinplishments.  lie  served  under  Charles  VIII.  in  his  expe- 
dition against  NajJes  in  1494,  and  distinguished  himself  at 


I'.AVAUI) 


BAYLEY 


539 


llie  battle  of  Tornovo.  After  tlie  accession  of  Louis  XII.  of 
l''iiiiicc,  Bayiiril  pcrfDiiiu'd  several  rcinarkalile  exploits  in 
war  afjainst  the  SpanianU  and  English.  In  the  service 
<if  Francis  1.  he  touk  Pnisper  Cdlonna  prisoner,  anil  piiiicd 
11  victciry  at  Jlari^rniino  in  1.51.").  He  delended  .Mezieres 
with  success  apiiiist  the  invadiTif;  army  of  the  Emiieror 
I'harles  V.  in  1.522,  and  fortius  important  service  was  sa- 
luted as  the  saviour  of  the  countrv.  lie  was  killeil  in  battle 
at  the  river  Sesia.  .Vpr.  ;!((.  l.")24.  liavinj;  won  the  reputation 
of  bein-r  a  model  of  nearly  every  virtue.  See  .Symphorien 
('ham|)i('r,  IjU  IVc  et  les  (regies  de  Bai/iiifl  {\'>2't) ;  \V.  (ril- 
nmre  Sinims,  Life  of  Chevalier  Jidi/tiid  (New  York,  1847). 

Bayard,  la  aid.  Kicii.vrd  Hexhv  :  son  of  .lames  A.  Bay- 
ard ;  li.  at  \VilMiiiij;loii.  Del.,  in  17!)(>:  i^raduuted  at  Priiu-eton 
in  1811.  Iieeanie  a  lawyer,  was  l'.  S.  .Senalcir  from  Delaware 
4l83(>-;ii)  and  1.S41-1."))'.  and  V.  S.  charye  il'afl'aires  at  Brus- 
sels in  18.-)0.     I),  iu  I'hiladelphia,  Mar.  4,  1868. 

Kavard.  'I'noMAS  Francis,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Wilminfjton, 
Del.  "(let.  •>!).  1828:  in  1869  succeedeil  his  father  (J.  A. 
Bayard)  iu  the  V.  S.  .Senate,  and  w-jis  re-elected  for  a  second 
jind  a  tliird  term:  and  in  1876-77  was  otic  of  the  Klectoral 
Commission  to  determine  who  wius  elected  President.  Was 
elected  president  pro  /nil.  of  I'.  8.  Senate  Oct.,  1881.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  during  Clevelaucrs  first  ailniinistra- 
tion.  1885-)Si(.  and  was  one  nf  the  commi.ssioiu'rs  a|)pointed 
by  the  President  to  confer  with  a  connnission  sent  to  Wa.-cli- 
iufitou  for  the  settlement  of  the  Canadian  fisheries  dis- 
pute. In  18U3  he  was  appointed  first  anibasi^ador  to  Great 
Itritaiii. 

Baynzid,  baa-yai-zeed'  (often  called  Bajazet')  I. :  Stiltan 
of  the  Turks  or  Ottomans,  suriuimed  Ii,I)i;ki.m  (i.  e.  the  li.Lrht- 
niuir);  b.  in  |:!47.  lie  sui'ceeiled  his  f.-il  her.  .\mnrath  (or 
.Murad)  I.,  in  bSS!),  and  soon  coni[uered  Buli;ari;i.  the  t;reater 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  |)art  of  (ireece.  In  l:i!)6  he  ,i;'>ine<l 
a  victory  at  Xicopolis  over  Sisismund,  King  of  Hungary 
(afterward  emperor),  and  his  allies,  the  Poles  and  French. 
His  career  of  conqui'st  was  arrested  by  Tamerlane  (or  Tinnir), 
who  invaded  .\sia  Minor,  and  defeated  Bayazid  near  Angora 
iu  .luue,  1402.  Bayazid  was  taken  prisoner  licre.  and  con- 
fined until  he  died.  Mar.  !),  140;J.  See  Von  Haumu'r,  Oe- 
achichfe  dcs  omnanitn'lteJl  lii'ichs. 

Bayazid  II.:  Sultan  of  the  Turks:  b.  in  1447.  He  a.s- 
<'ended  the  Ottoman  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Ma- 
homet II..  in  1481.  He  built  nnniy  mosques  in  ('onslanti- 
nople,  his  capital.  He  was  involved  in  almost  continual 
war  against  the  Hungarians,  Poles,  Persians,  and  Venetijins. 
D.  near  .\drianople.  May  26,  1512. 

IJay'herry :  the  fruit  of  the  bay  tree:  also  the  fruited' 
the  wax-myrtle  (Jfi/rica  cerif  era),  a  shi-ub  which  produces 
«  kind  of  wax.  ,'iometimes  called  "  bayberry  tidli>w,"  and 
used  in  pharnuiey.  It  is  also  called  candleberrv,  as  it  has 
also  been  eiuployed  in  making  candles.  The  bayberry  grows 
<h;elly  along  the  l*.  S.  Atlantic  coast,  becoming  an  ever- 
green tree  in  the  South.  It  has  active  medicinal  qualities. 
The  wax  is  found  on  the  outside  of  the  berries,  and  is  ob- 
taineil  by  boiling. 

Bay  Bulls:  a  port  of  entrv  and  post-town  of  Xewl'ound- 
lajul  :"  1!)  ndles  S.  of  .St.  .lohiVs:  lat.  47"  18'  N..  Ion.  .52  47' 
\V.  (see  map  of  Canada,  ref.  8-0).  It  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, which  is  uuich  frequented  as  a  port  of  refuge.  Fishing 
and  agriculture  are  carried  on.     Pop.  734. 

Bav  City  :  an  important  railroad  center:  capital  of  Bay 
CO..  ^lieh.  (for  location  of  counly.  see  map  of  Mu-higan.  ref. 
."i-Ji;  on  the  right  (east)  bank  of  the  Saginaw  river:  4  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  at  the  head  of  navigation.  Its  princi- 
pal trade  is  in  lumber  and  salt,  immense  (luautities  of  which 
are  proiluce<l.  It  has  excellent  s<'hools.  four  parks.  Holly 
water-works,  and  im])ortant  unumfacturing  inti'resls.  Sev- 
eral lilies  of  steauuTs  connect  it  with  all  lake  points.  The 
census  of  1800  showed  2!l!)  manufactories:  capital.  $8,903.- 
X70;  average  number  of  ]iersons  emploved,  4,3.56;  wages 
liaid  during  the  year,  $1,870,036 ;  value  of  products.  18,600,- 
380.  Pop.  (1880)  20,603:  (1800)  27,830:  (1802)  estimated, 
31,678 :  (1804)  30.039,  Editor  of  "  Times." 

Bayer,  bi  <r,  .Toiiaxx:  b.  in  Rhain,  Bavaria,  1.572:  a  zeal- 
ous Protestant  pa,stor.  but  chiefly  noted  as  the  author  of  the 
excellent  work  ['rrnionielria.  containing  fifty-one  astronom- 
ical charts,  and  followed  by  explanations  i«  his  E.rplirdtio 
('(irttrleniiit  ..TJiieia  Tnhidis  Iiixeiilptiinim.  He  introduced 
the  method  of  desigiuiting  the  stars  of  a  constellation  by 
ineansof  li'itci-s.  naming  the  largest  star  of  the  constellation 
by  the  first  letter  of  the  (Ireek  aljihabct,  and  the  othei-s,  in 


t  he  order  of  i  heir  brilliancy,  by  t  he  succeeding  letters.     D.  in 
Augsburg.  1660. 

BaytMix,  baa'yii  (anc.  lidica.i'.'^if):  a  city  of  Prance;  in 
Xormandy,  and  in  the  department  of  Calvados ;  is  on  the 
river  Aure,  21  miles  by  rail  W.  X.  W.  of  Caen  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  3-D).  It  has  luanufactnres  of  ])orcelain.  lace, 
damasks,  calico,  and  leather.  Pop.  (1891)  8,102.  Here  is  a 
majestic  cathedral  which  is  s.-iid  to  be  the  oldest  in  Xor- 
mandy, in  which  was  preserveil  for  a  long  time  the  famous 
Bayeux  tapestry. 

BaycHx  Tapestry  :  a  web  of  canvas  or  linen  cloth  214 
feet  long  by  20  inches  wide,  on  which  is  embroidered,  with 
woolen  threads  of  various  colors,  a  representation  of  the 
invasion  and  comiuesl  of  England  by  the  Normans.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  it  was  embroidered  by  Matilda,  the 
wife  of  Williiuu  the  Coni|ueror.  Somi'  persons  Ijclievc  that 
she  <liiected  the  work,  which  was  performed  by  her  maids  or 
the  ladies  of  her  court.  It  is  con.sidered  a  valuable  histori- 
cal document,  as  it  gives  a  correct  and  minute  ixirtraitnre 
of  the  inannei-s  and  customs  of  that  age  and  of  the  X'or- 
nian  costumes.  It  contains  the  figures  of  62.5  men.  200 
hoi-ses.  ;55  dogs,  40  ships  and  boats,  and  numerous  (pi.-idni- 
peds,  birds,  elc.  Tile  tapestry  w.-is  discoveri'd  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Bayeux  about  1730.  and  is  n(^w  preserved  in  the 
hotel  de  ville  of  that  place.  .See  Bruce.  Bayeux  Tapes- 
inj  Ehieidiileil  (London,  18.5.5):  Ducarel,  Anglo-Xorman 
Anfii/iiiliex  (1767). 

Bayfleid  :  city  and  township  ;  formerly  capital  of  Bayfield 
CO..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref. 
2-C) :  oil  an  arm  of  Lakt^  Superior,  200  miles  X,  K.  of  St. 
Paul.  Minn.,  and  2H1  miles  X.  X.  W.  cjf  Madison,  Wis.;  is 
terminus  of  Chicago.  St.  Paul.  Minneapolis,  and  Omaha  and 
liayfiekl  Harbor,  and  Great  Western  1\.  Us.  It  has  one  of 
the  best  harbors  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Pop.  of  city  (1880) 
495;  (1890)  1,373;  (1895)  1.368. 

EuiTOR  OK  ••  Bayfield  Couxtv  Press." 

Bayfield,  Hexrv  Woolsky:  rear-admiral  of  the  British 
navy;  entered  the  service  in  1806:  served  against  the  U.  S. 
in  1814  on  the  Great  Lakes;  snrveyed  the  lakes.  the.St.  Law- 
rence river  and  gulf  (181.5-27).  of  which  lu^  published  valu- 
able charts.     D.  in  England,  Feb.  12,  188.5. 

Bay  Islands :  a  group  of  small  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Hon- 
duras. Kualan.the  largest,  is  about  30  miles  from  the  north 
coast  of  Honduras.  The  other  islands  are  named  Bonacca, 
Utila,  Barbaretta.  and  Helena.  This  group  became  a  Brit- 
ish colony  in  1X54,  but  in  conseiiuence  of  a  protest  of  the 
U.  S.  they  were  restored  to  Honduras  in  1856. 

Bayle,  bayl.  Pikrrk:  a  celebrated  French  philosopher 
and  critic:  b.  at  Carlat.  now  in  .Ariege,  Xov,  18,  1647;  son 
of  a  Protestant  preacher.  He  studied  at  the  College  of 
Toulouse,  and  was  employed  for  somi'  years  as  a  private 
tutor  at  Geneva  and  Rouen,  In  1675  he  obtained  the  chair 
of  Philosophy  in  the  ProtestanI  College  of  .Sedan,  which  was 
closed  or  sup]iressed  by  the  Government  in  11)81.  He  then 
became  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  History  at  Rotterdam, 
and  commenced  in  1684  a  critical  monthly  review  called 
J\'0)irelle.<i  de  la  Repiibliijiie  rfcf  Lettre.'<.  which  he  continued 
to  edit  until  1687.  Instigated  by  .lurieu.  who  accused  Bayle 
of  heretical  or  unsound  ojiinions.  and  of  being  a  secret  agent 


of  France.  Hie  magistrates  of  Rotterdam  deprived  him  of  his 
!93.  and   (■veu   of  his  right   to  teach  pri- 
vately.    Bayle  was  a  skeptic,  an  ekx|Uent  advocate  of  relig- 


professorship  in    169 


ions  liberty,  and  a  very  independent  thinker.  His  most 
iin|iort ant  Work  is  a  Didiotiiiry,  Iliatorical  and  Critical 
(Diclioniiaire  /ii'.s/o;'/(/«e  e/ (tZ/h/kp.  Rotterdam.  2  vols,  folio, 
1606;  mil  ed.  Paris.  1820-24.16  vols.;  Eng.  trans.  London, 
1710, 4  vols. ;  3d  ed.  1734-38.  5  vols.),  which  exercised  a  great 
influence  over  literature  and  |ihilosophy.  and  had  a  Euro- 
pean re|mtatioii.  Bayle  was  fond  of  paradox,  was  a  subtle 
reasoner.  a  witty  writer,  and  an  excelleni  ilialcctician.  He 
was  amiable,  courageous,  and  disinterested.  According  to 
Warbiirton,  he  had  "a  soul  sujierior  to  the  sharpest  attacks 
of  fortune,  and  a  heart  practiced  to  the  best  philosophy." 
D.  in  Rotterdam.  Dec.  28,  1706. 

Bayleii.  bl-len',  or  Bailoii' :  a  town  of  Spain  :  province 
of  .laen;  22  miles  X.  X.  E.  of  .Jaen  (.see  map  of  Spain,  ref. 
18-F).  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  gla.s.«.  soap,  bricks,  etc. 
The  Spanish  general  De  Ca.slaflos  here  gained  a  victory  in 
.lulv,  1808,  over  the  French  general  Dupont,  and  took  18,000 
prisoners.     Pop.  (1887)  8.580. 

Bay'ley.  Most  Rev.  James  Roosevelt.  D.  D.  :  a  grandson 
of  Dr".  Richard  Bayley  and  nephew  of  Mother  Seton  (who 


540 


BAYLEY 


BAYONNE 


founded  the  original  American  Congregation  of  Sisters  of 
Charity) ;  h.  in  New  York  city,  Aug.  28,  1814 ;  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1835 ;  was  tor  a  short 
time  a  clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  Ijut 
became  a  lioman  C!atholic  1842;  studied  theology  in  Paris 
and  Home,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1844.  lie  liecanie 
Professor  of  Helles-Lettres  at  St.  John's  College,  Fordham, 
and  was  its  president  (1845-46).  In  1853  he  became  Bishop 
of  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  in  1872  Arehliishop  of  Baltimore,  M<1. 
He  published  S/,-(tc/i  uf  the  Jlistnr!/  iif  the  Calhulic  Church 
on  /he  1x1(1 11(1  of  yeic  York  (Xew  York,  1853;  rev.  ed.  1869) ; 
Memnir.t  uf  lii'iihop  Bnite  (1860);  and  other  works.  D.  in 
Newark,  N.  .1.,  Oct.  3,  1877. 

Bnyloy,  IticHARD:  physician;  b.  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  in 
1745;  began  the  practice  of  medicine  in  1772.  He  intro- 
duced a  new  method  of  treating  the  croup,  which  was  ex- 
tensively used.  He  became  in  1793  Professor  of  Surgery 
in  Columbia  College,  N'ew  York,  and  was  the  first  health 
oflHcer  of  New  York.  D.  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  17, 
1801. 

Bay'lies,  William,  M.  D.  ;  b.  in  XJxbridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  5, 
1743;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1760;  practiced  medicine 
many  years  at  Dighton.  Mass..  of  which  town  he  was  a  rep- 
resentative in  \\k  (ieneral  Court;  member  of  the  three  Pro- 
vincial Congresses  of  Massachusetts  and  of  the  State  con- 
vention which  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution ;  State 
Senator  1783;  was  for  a  number  of  years  a  judge  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas  for  Bristol  co.,  Mass.,  and  register 
of  probate  for  that  county;  member  of  Congress  1805-09; 
memlier  of  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Medical  Society.  I),  at  Dighton,  Mass.,  June  17, 
1826. 

Bay'liss.  Jkremiah  Hkxhv,  A.  M..  D.  D..  LL.  D. :  minister 
of  the  M.  E.  Church ;  1).  at  Wedncsbury,  England,  Dec.  20. 
1835;  educated  at  Genesee  College,  New  York;  .served  with 
distinguished  success  in  pa-storates  at  Park  Avenue  and 
Trinity  churches,  Chicago;  Rulierts  Park  and  Trinity 
churches,  Indianapolis;  Central  church,  Detroit;  and  \V,-il- 
nut  Hills  cluirch,  Cincinnati;  elected  editor  of  Western 
Christian  Adcoc.otc.  in  1884  and  1888.  D.  at  Bay  View, 
Mich.,  Aug.  14,  1889. 

Bay'lor  UnivtM-'sity  :  chartered  by  the  republic  of  Texas 
in  1845 ;  named  in  honor  of  Hon.  Robert  Emmett  Bledsoe 
Baylor,  LL.  D.  (1793-1874),  former  member  of  Congress  from 
Alabama  and  for  twenty-five  years  a  judge  in  Texas.  It 
was  situated  in  Independence,  Tex.  A  university  curriculum 
and  classes  were  established  in  1851  by  Rev.  Rufus  C.  Bur- 
leson, D.  I).,  who  presided  over  it  from  1851  to  1861,  when 
lie  and  the  entire  faculty  resigned  and  inaugurated  \Vaco 
University  at  Waco,  Tex.  In  1882  the  two  universities  were 
consolidated  at  Waco  under  the  name  Baylor  University, 
with  Dr.  Burleson  as  president.  Tlie  university  is  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Baptist  denomination.  The  total  number 
of  students  is  (1893)  aliout  600,  and  of  instructors  25.  Large 
additions  have  recently  been  made  to  the  endowment. 

Bay'ly,  Miss  Ada  Ellen:  See  Lvall,  Edna. 

Bayly,  fiHWis:  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  Wales;  worthy  of 
mention  as  the  author  of  The  Prartice  of  Pietij,  oni^  ot  t\u- 
inost  popular  religious  books  ever  wrlKi'ii.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Bunyan  as  one  of  the  boolis  owned  by  his  wife.  In  1714 
it  had  passed  through  fil'ly-one  editions  in  England,  besides 
several  translations  jiublished  in  foreign  lands.  Eliot,  the 
Indian  ai)ostle  of  Natick,  Jlass.,  translated  The  Practice  of 
Piety  into  the  Indian  language,  and  it  was  published  for 
circulation  among  his  converts.  Bayly  was  born  at  Caer- 
marlhen ;  educated  at  Oxford,  and  consecrate<l  as  bishop  in 
1616.  D.  iu  Bangor,  Oct.  2(),  1631.  He  must  not  l>e  con- 
founded with  Thomas  Bayly,  Anglican  Bishop  of  Kilhila  in 
Ireland,  who  died  in  1070. — Bishop  Lewis  Bayly  had  a  son 
Tilo.MAS,  who  became  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic,  and  p\d)- 
lished  The  End  of  Controversy  (UiiwM,  1654),  besides  other 
works. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Havxes  :  litterateur;  b.  near  Bath.  Eng- 
land, Oct.  13, 1797;  wa,s  the  son  of  a  wealthy  solicitor,  and  was 
eihicated  at  Oxford.  He  is  best  known  by  his  very  numer- 
ous songs,  some  of  which  will  always  lie  popular,  though  few 
are  of  a  verv  high  literary  order.  Among  them  are  Oil  no, 
ve  Nerer  Mention  Iter,  the  Soldier'n  Tear,  Win/  Don't  the 
Men  Propose  ?  and  I'd  he  a  Butterjiy.  D.  Apr.  22.  is:!!l.  Sec 
his  Sont/s,  Ballads,  and  Other  Poems,  with  a  memoir,  Lon- 
ilon,  1844. 


Bay  lie,  Peter,  LL.  D.  ;  journalist  and  author;  b.  at  Fod- 
derty",  Koss-shire.  Scotland,  Oct.  19, 1830;  educated  at  Mari- 
sclia'l  College,  Aberdeen;  was  successively  editor  of  the 
Glasgow  Cummomcealth,  Edinburgh  Witness,  London  Dial, 
and  Weekly  Reviexv;  author  of  The  Christian  Life  in  the 
Present  Time  (1855);  Life  and  Letters  of  Hugh  Miller 
(1871);  The  Chief  Actors'in  the  Puritan  Revolution  (1878); 
Life  of  Martin  Luther  (1887);  besides  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  current  jieriodicals.  D.  at  Upper  Norwood,  London, 
Feb.  10,  1896. 

BaviiPS,  Robert  Hall:  b.  in  Wellington.  Somersetshire, 
England,  JIar.  10, 1831.  He  was  educated  at  Bath  and  at  St. 
Edmond's  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  master's  degree 
in  1859.  He  received  a  nundjer  of  English  church  prefer- 
ments. He  is  the  author  of  numerous  religious  works, 
among  which  are  Li/ra  Anglieana  (1862) ;  Autumn  Memories 
and  Other  Verses  (1868),  etc. 

Baynes,  Thomas  Spencer.LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Wellington,  Som- 
ersetshire, England,  Mar.  24,  1823.  He  was  educated  at  a 
private  school  in  Bath,  at  Bristol  College,  and  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh ;  was  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  latter 
institution  1851-55;  assistant  editor  of  the  l^ondon  Daily 
Keics  1857-64;  contributed  numy  articles  on  the  civil  war 
in  the  U.  S.  to  the  Daily  jVeivs,  and  was  also  a  contribu- 
tor to  the  Literary  Gazette,  the  Athena'uni,  etc.;  l^ecame 
Professor  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  Metai)hysics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  St.  Andrews  1864;  published  a  translation  of 
Part  'Royal  Logic  in  1851,  and  an  Essay  on  the  New  Ana- 
lytic of  L(jgieal  Eornis  {lSo2).  He  was  editor  of  the  ninth 
edition  of  the  Encyclopeedia  Britannica.  for  which  he  wrcjte 
the  article  on  Shaks]ieare.  He  contributed  regularly  to  the 
Edinburgh  7iVr(>((' (1869-75).  and  was  also  a  contributor  to 
the  North  British  Review,  Eraser's  Magazine,  Pall  Mall 
Gazette,  and  the  Satvrday  Review.  D.  at  St.  Andrews,  May 
29,  1887. 

Bay  of  Islands:  a  large  bay  on  the  west  coast  of  New- 
lomuihind.  It  aliounds'in  islands,  and  its  scenery  is  very 
fine.  Good  timlier,  gypsum,  and  marble  abound.  About 
30,000  liarrels  of  herring  are  annually  taken  here,  besides 
cod  and  other  fish.  Agriculture  is  ]iursued  to  some  extent. 
Pop.  of  settlements,  947. 

Bayonet  [Fr.  hawnnette.  also  formerly  bayonnette;  so 
called",  it  is  said,  because  invented  or  first  used  at  Bayonne, 
in  France,  ahout  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  ceidury]:  a 
thru-sting  weapon  attached  to  the  muzzle  of  a  musket  or 
rifle.  The  bayonet,  first  used  in  France,  A.  n.  1671,  had  a 
solid  handle  wliich  was  inserted  in  the  boi-e  of  the  gun.  This 
was  succeeded  by  that  with  a  hollow  handle  fitting  over  the 
barrel,  and  which  allowed  the  gun  to  be  fired  without  remov- 
ing it.  The  introduction  of  the  bayonet  enaliled  the  nuisket 
to" be  used  as  a  pike  also,  and  led  to  the  abandomncnt  of  the 
latter.  The  blade  of  tlie  connnon  bayonet  is  of  triangular 
cross  section,  and  about  16  to  20  inches  long;  but  various 
otlier  forms  have  been  and  are  now  used,  such  as  the  "sword" 
or  "saber  liayonet,"  in  the  form  of  a  sh(U-t,  straight  sword, 
ctTecliveeither  as  asword  or  liayonet;  the  "trowel  bayonet," 
designed  to  lie  used  as  a  bayonet  when  fixed,  and  as  an  in- 
trenching tool  when  unfixed;  the  "ramrod  biiyonet  "or"  rod 
bayonet,"  made  by  sharpening  the  end  of  the  wiping-rod  of 
(he  modern  bivecli-loader,  and  fitting  it  with  a  catch  which 
liolds  it  in  place  when  drawn  out  so  as  to  [u-oject  8  to  10 
inches.  Many  modern  military  writers  have  recominended 
the  entire  abandonment  of  the  bayonet,  considering  it  a  use- 
less addition  to  the  modern  rifle;" but  the  great  moral  effect 
of  a  liayonet  ch,-irge  (whicli  is  still  looked  forward  to  as  the 
culmination  of  an  infantry  attack)  is  urged  by  its  atlvocates 
as  suflicicnt  reas<in  for  its'  retention,  and  it  is  an  important 
feature  in  the  arms  of  those  nations  which  have  been  in- 
volved in  the  most  recent  great  wars.     See  Pike. 

Jas.  Merci'R. 

Bnyoiine.  lufiivun'  [Basque  bayon,  bayona,  a  port]:  a 
fortifi"ed  city  of  l<>aiice  (anc.  Lapurdum).  near  its  southwest 
extremitv;  "department  of  Basses- Pyrenees ;  on  the  river 
Adonr;  idiout  3  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  (>6  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Pan;  hit.  43°  29'  N.,  Ion.  1"  29'  W.  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  !)-(').  It  is  pleasantly  situated  near  the  foot  of 
1  he  Pyrenees,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Nive,  and  is  well 
built."  It  has  a»  old  cathedral,  a  citadel  liuilt  by  \'auban,  a 
mint,  a  theater,  and  .schools  of  commerce  and  navigation. 
Here  are  shipvards,  glass-works,  sugar-refineries,  and  dis- 
tilleries. The"chicf  articles  of  exjiort  are  timber,  tar,  corks, 
lii|ueiirs,  liains,  etc.     Here  occurred  an  interview  between 


BAYONNE 


BAZARD 


541 


Charles  IV.  of  Spain  and  Napoleon  I.,  wlio  extorted  from 
the  fonner  and  his  son  a  ronimciation  of  tlie  crown  in  1808. 
I'op.  (l«ll)   27,1!)2. 

BnjoiiiK",  ba-yon' :  city;  on  railroad,  Hudson  CO.,  X.J. 
(for  liication  of  county,  see  man  of  New  .lersey,  ref.  3-K) ; 
formed  by  the  consolidation  of  the  villages  S.  of  Jersey  City 
on  the  peninsula  between  the  Haritan  and  New  York  upffcr 
bays;  has  large  Standard  oil  refineries  on  New  York  Hay, 
with  pij/e-lines  to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Pitts- 
burg, Cleveland,  etc.  Pop.  (1885)  l:!,0SO:  (18!M))  l!l,U:j3 ; 
(18!J5)  19,8.J(5.  EunoK  of  "Heralo." 

Itnyoil,  bioo  [corrup.  of  Vr-bnt/au,  gut]:  strictly,  a  stream 
which  is  not  fed  by  springs,  but  flows  from  a  lake  or  other 
stream.  It  is  very  often  used  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  as 
synonymous  with  "creek,"  and  for  tidal  channels. 

Hayrcutli:  .See  Baireuth. 

15av  Holi'erts :  a  port  of  entry  of  Newfoundland  ;  8  miles 
S.  of  llarbor  Grace,  on  Conception  Bay.  Its  iuhabitanti  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  Labrador  fisheries.  It  is  visited  by 
regular  lines  of  coasting  steamei's,  and  has  considerable  im- 
ports.    Pop.  2,G0O. 

Bay  Rum  [Spirtfnn  myrcue  of  U.  S.  Pliarraacopoeia] :  a 
fragrant, liipiid  obtained  by  distilling  with  rum  the  leaves  of 
the  Jlyrria  acris,  and  probably  of  other  trees  of  the  genus. 
These  are  large  trees  growing  in  Jamaica  and  other  West 
India  islands,  and  belonging  to  the  JUi/rtacetn.  Buy  rum  is 
imjiorted  in  large  quantities,  and  is  used  as  a  perfume  and 
as  a  cosmct  ic. 

Baza,  baa'thaa  (media>val  liasliana):  a  city  of  Spain; 
province  of  Granada;  about  53  miles  N.  E.  of  Granada;  in 
a  fertile  plain  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  li)-G).  It  is  famous 
lor  its  red  wine.  In  1489  it  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by 
the  Spaniards  after  a  long  siege.  The  French  marshal 
Soult  here  defeated  the  Spaniards,  Aug.  1(J,  1810.  The 
princiijal  trade  of  the  place  at  present  is  in  hemp.  Under 
the  Mooi-s  it  was  an  important  citv  with  a  population  of 
50,000— now  13,000. 

Bazaar",  or  Bazar  [Pers.  bazar,  market]:  an  Oriental 
market-place,  either  o|)en  or  covered  with  a  roof;  an  Oriental 
assemblage  of  shops  in  which  goods  of  various  kinds  are  ex- 
posed to  sale.  Each  bazaar  is  occupied  by  a  number  of 
retail  traders,  and  is  often  divided  into  streets  or  pa-ssages 
having  on  each  side  a  row  of  small  shops,  stands,  or  coun- 
ters. The  term  is  also  applied  in  European  an<l  Weslein 
cities  to  a  hall  or  suite  of  rooms  fitted  up  with  counters  or 
stands  for  the  sale  of  goods  (mostly  fancy  articles). 

Bay  Saint  Louis:  cajiital  of  Hancock  co..  Miss. (for  loca- 
tion of  couMly.  see  map  of  Mississippi,  ref.  lO-ti);  on  L.  and 
N.  K.  K.,  and  on  iMississippi  Sound,  (iulf  of  Mexico ;  ~>'i  miles 
from  New  Orleans;  has  an  academy  and  a  tiusiness  college, 
three  churches,  custom-house,  oyster  and  shrimp  cainiing 
factory,  woolen-factory,  and  fruit  and  vegetable  farms.  The 
city  is  a  popular  summer  resort,  and  has  a  shell  road  on  the 
lieach  8  nnles  long.  It  wius  founded  about  1790  by  the 
French.  Pop.  (1880)  1,978;  (1890)  1,974,  including  suburbs, 
2,100;  summer  population  al)out  8,000. 

EiiiToit  OF  "Gulf  Coast  Progress." 

Bay  Shore.  'U-  Bayshitre:  village;  Suffolk  co..  Long  Isl- 
and, N.  Y.  (for  luialiun  c)l'  countv,  see  map  of  New  York, 
ref.  8-D);  oji  Montauk  Div.  of  L.  1.  K.  K..  and  on  Great 
South  Bay;  41  miles  from  New  York  city;  has  graded 
schools,  five  churches,  large  hotels,  a  bank,  electric  light.s, 
)tnd  water-Works.  Here  are  the  South  Side  Field  Club 
(athletic).  Bay  Shore  Y'acht  Club,  Great  South  Bay  Yacht 
Club,  and  the  Olympic  Club.  Bay  Shore  is  a  summer  resort, 
and  is  the  n<'arest  village  to  Fire  island  and  its  fishing- 
grounds  for  liluelish.  Pop.  (1880)  l.fil.j  ;  (1890)  2.290 ;  (1892) 
<stin\ated,  2,800.  Kditor  of  •'  Bay  Shore  Jolrxal." 

Bazaiut'.  biuizayn',  Francois  Achii.i.e:  b.  in  Versailles, 
I'l  b.  1:1,  iMll ;  iiu<l,  after  passing  through  all  the  intermediate 
grades,  marshal  of  France,  Sept.  .5,  18t)4.  The  son  of  a 
prominent  and  wealthy  ollicer.  he  could  have  readily  obtained 
an  ollicer's  commission,  but  he  declared  it  his  pride  to  seek 
his  marshal's  baton  from  the  knapsack,  in  which  for  "every 
French  soldier"  the  proverb  potentially  places  one;  and 
that  baton,  when  found,  bore  the  inscripiion  "Simple  soldat 
«n  1831,  Marechal  de  France  en  1804." 

He  served  with  distinction  in  Algeria,  Spain,  the  Crimea, 
Italy,  and  in  setting  up  the  Maximilian  empire  in  Mexico. 
He  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1836;  was 
I>romoted  to  connuander  of  the  Legion  in  185C;  received 


the  Grand  Cross  in  1863 ;  and  in  1869  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  imperial  guard. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Prussia,  Marshal 
Bazaine  was  at  first  in  command  of  a  single  corps,  but  after 
the  disasters  of  W'oerth  and  Forbach,  compelling  the  em- 
peror to  relinquish  the  command,  he  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine.  Reorgaidzalion  and  con- 
centration compelied  a  falling  back  upon  Metz,  and  thence 
upon  Venlun,  where  the  shattered  commands  of  JIacJIahon's 
corps  and  the  reserves  of  Prance  were  concentrating.  His 
army  was  ilelayed  in  its  movements  by  the  battles  of  Borny 
(Aug.  14,  1870)  and  Mars-la-Tour  (Aiig.  16),  and  finally,  iii 
the  battle  of  Gravelotte  (Aug.  18)  suffered  a  serious  defeat, 
and  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Metz,  which  was  immediately 
invested  by  the  Gernnins  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 
Failing  in  all  attempts  to  break  the  line  of  the  besiegers, 
the  marshal  surrendered,  on  t)it.  27,  1870,  an  army  of  160,- 
000  men,  Metz, "la  Pucelle,"and  its  fortifications, and  1,800 
pieces  of  artillery. 

He  was  arraigned  Oct.  10, 1873,  before  a  court  consisting 
of  the  Due  d"Aur(uile  (president).  General  de  la  JNIotle  Rouge, 
Baron  de  Chabaud-Latour,  Generals  'J'ripier,  Martimprey, 
Princetcau.  and  Martinez-Decliesncz,  charged: 

Fir.it — With  having  capitulated  to  the  enemy,  and  surren- 
dereil  the  fortress  of  Jletz,  of  which  he  had  the  superior  com- 
mand, without  having  exhausted  all  the  means  of  defense. 

iSecond — WUh  having,  as  the  head  of  the  army  before 
Metz,  signed  a  capitulation  in  the  open  field,  the  result  of 
which  was  to  cause  his  troops  to  lay  domi  their  arms;  and 
with  not  having  done  everything  which  he  was  bound  by 
duty  and  honor  to  do  befoi'e  treating  vertialiy  and  by  writ- 
ing— offenses  punishable  by  articles  209  and  210  of  the  Code 
of  Jlililary  .lustice. 

After  a  trial  of  two  months'  duration  he  was  unanimously 
pronomiced  guilty,  sentenced  to  be  degraded  and  shot.  His 
sentence  was  promptly  comnmted  by  President  MacMahon 
to  twenty  years'  imprisonment  in  a  fortress,  without  military 
degradation. 

On  Aug.  9,  1874,  Bazaine,  aided  by  his  wife,  escaped  from 
his  fortress  prison,  lie  Ste.  Marguerite,  pleading  in  justifica- 
tion (Li-iter  addvcsx^d  to  the  Minniter  of  War),  while  alleging 
that  "  respect  for  the  military  uniform  which  he  has  very 
honorably  worn  for  nearly  half  a  century,"  woidd  have  de- 
terred him  from  this  step  l)ut  for  the  "humiliating  regime 
to  which  he  was  subjected,  from  which  his  past  career  ought 
to  have  saved  him,"  that  maxim  of  public  law,  that  "no 
sentence  is  legal  unless  pronoiuu'ed  by  the  peel's  of  the  ac- 
cused." Gen.  Bazaine  resided  in  Madrid,  Spain,  from  Nov., 
1874,  till  his  death,  Sept.  23,  1888. 

That  his  conduct  of  the  military  operations  from  Aug.  13 
to  Aug.  18  was  ineflicient;  that  his  so-called  sorties  had 
scarce  the  energy  in  them  to  reveal  a  serious  intention  to  go 
out ;  that  he  allowed  himself  to  waste  the  last  precious  days 
of  his  army's  ellieiency  in  what  were  futile — and  some  would 
call  tri'asonable — attempts  to  negotiate  with  the  empress; 
and  finally  <'rushed  the  rising  and  the /fwMiopes  of  France 
by  a  [iremature  surrender  at  the  very  moment  when  a  pro- 
traction might  have  modified  the  history  of  the  war,  must 
be  the  conviction  of  all  who  have  impartially  studied  his 
career. 

Bazalirette'.  sir  Joseph  William.  C.  B.  :  an  English  civil 
engineer  of  French  descent;  b.  in  Knfiehl.  Middlesex,  1819. 
He  won  great  fame  in  the  construction  of  sewei-s.  street  alter- 
ations, and  other  departments  of  city  engineering.  As  en- 
gineer-in-cliiet  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  London, 
he  constructed  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  sewei-s  and  river 
embankments,  ami  introduced  subterranean  passages  for  the 
carrying  of  gas  and  water  pipes  and  telegl'aph  wires,  so  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  break  up  the  pavements  for  repairs.  He 
planned  and  executed  the  Thames  embankments  of  liondon, 
and  bridged  that  river  in  three  places  with  granite  or  iron 
structures.     D.  in  London,  Mar.  1,  1891. 

Bazan.  Emilia  Pardo:  See  Pardo-Bazax,  Emilia. 

Bazancourt,  ba"ii'za"!inkoor',  Cesar.  Baron  de:  a  French 
historian;  b.  in  1810;  wrote  a  Ilistorij  of  Sicili/  inider  tlie 
KoniKiit  Rule  (2  vols.,  1846);  histories  of  the  Crimean.  Ital- 
ian, Chinese,  and  Cochin-t'hinese  wars  of  Napoleon  III. 
Under  Louis  Philippe,  De  Bazancourt  was  a  director  of  the 
lilirary  of  Compicgne,  and  under  Napoleon  111.  he  was  otlicial 
historiographer.     D.  at  Paris,  Jan.  25.  1865. 

Baznrd.  Saixt-Amaxd;  founder  of  French  Carbonarism  ; 
b.  in  Paris,  Sept.  19,  1791.  He  organized  societies  of  Car- 
bonari about  1820,  ami  afterward  became  a  disciple  of  Saint- 


542 


BAZIGARS 


BEACOXSFIELD 


Simon  the  Socialist,  and  editor  of  the  Prodiicti-ur,  a  Saint- 
Simonian  journal.  After  the  death  of  Saint-Simon  (1S25) 
Bazard  and  Knfautin  were  the  chief  priests  of  the  sect, 
and  they  pulilished  an  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  Snint- 
Simon  (1828-30).  Bazard  became  disgusted  with  the  ex- 
treme innovations  of  Enfanlin  (who  advocated  a  community 
of  wives),  and  he  .seceded  from  the  sect  in  1881.  D.  in  Courtry. 
near  Montfernieil,  July  29,  1832.  See  Michaud  et  Villenave, 
Histoire  da  I'iaiut-Simonisme  (1847). 

Bazisrars,  ba~a-zee'garz :  the  gypsies  of  India ;  usually 
nomadic,  and  ch-arly  distinct  from  the  Hindus,  with  whom 
they  do  not  intermi.x.  Tlicy  are  scattered  throughout  the 
whole  of  India.  Their  cliiei'  occupation  is  the  performance 
of  feats  of  address  and  agility  to  amuse  the  public,  tlie  men 
as  athletes,  tlie  women  as  dancers.  Many  are  Mohannuedans, 
some  profess  no  religious  faith,  and  a  particular  association 
among  tliem  has  the  fame  of  making  human  sacrifices.  Their 
reptitation  is  generally  liad.  They  present  many  features 
analogous  to  tlie  Western  gypsies.  Keeping  themselves  dis- 
tinct from  the  people  among  whom  they  dwell,  they  have 
their  ovm  chiefs  or  kings,  and  a  peculiar  language  whicli 
has  a  decided  analogy  to  that  of  the  gypsies.  There  are 
several  gi'oups  of  them  known  under  different  names,  but 
the  Bazigare  are  the  best  known  and  most  civilized. 

M.  W.  H. 

Bazin,  Antoine  Pierre  Louis:  b.  Mar.  26,  1799;  was  a 
professor  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  published  in  1856  a 
grammar  of  the  Mandarin  dialect.  He  also  made  many 
translations  from  the  Chinese.     D.  in  Jan.,  1863. 

Bazin.  Henri:  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads, 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  b.  Oct.  20.  1829;  graduated 
from  the  School  of  Bridges  and  Roads  in  1851 ;  was  assigneil 
to  the  railway  from  Tours  to  Bordeaux,  in  the  department 
of  Charente.  In  1856  he  was  engineer  in  the  department  of 
Cote  d'Or,  on  the  Burgundy  Canal,  and  matters  connected 
with  the  inundations  of  the  Saone,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
made  assistant  to  Darcy  in  his  experiments  upon  the  flow  of 
water  in  ojien  chainiels.  Henri  Darcy  first,  in  the  water- 
works of  Dijon,  discovered  and  pulilislicd  tlie  fact  that  the 
velocity  of  flowing  water  was  affected  by  the  degree  of  rough- 
ness of  the  bed  and  sides  of  the  channel,  which  up  to  that 
time  had  not  been  admitted.  Extensive  experiments  were 
made  by  him  upon  the  water-pipes  of  Paris,  and  pulilislied 
by  him  in  1854.  Those  upon  the  flow  of  water  in  open  chan- 
nels were  commenced  in  1856,  with  Bazin  as  his  assistant. 
The  preparations  were  made,  the  channels  constructed,  and 
some  experiments  connnenced  when  in  1858  Darcy  died. 
The  work  was  continued  by  Bazin,  and  completed  by  an 
analysis  and  discussion  of  the  experiments  in  a  memoir  pre- 
sented to  the  Academy,  and  published  in  1865  with  a  n'smne 
by  Gen.  Morin.  who  characterizes  it  as  most  valuable  to  the 
engineer,  and  which  can  not  fail  to  be  appreciated  Ijy  tlie 
Academy.  It  is.  indeed,  the  most  valuable  contribution  to 
the  science  of  the  flow  of  water.  The  second  part  of  the 
Experiments  was  published  by  the  Academy  in  1865.  It 
treats  of  the  "  propagation  of  waves."'  Since  1886  he  has 
been  inspector-general  of  the  fifth  inspection  department 
and  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Bridges  and  Roads. 

His  published  works  are  Experiences  sur  I'ecoulement  des 
eaux  dans  les  cnnaux  derouvertes;  Sur  la  propagation  des 
ondes;  and  numerous  papers  on  kindred  subjects  in  the 
Annalen  des  Fonts  et  C'/inusshs.  W.  R.  Hutton, 

Bazley,  Sir  Tiiosias,  Bart. :  li.  at  Crilnow,  Lancashire, 
England,  in  1797.  He  learned  cotton-spinning  in  liis  youtli ; 
went  into  business  on  his  own  account  at  Bolton  in  1818; 
removed  in  1826  to  JIanchester,  where  his  manufactory  of 
fine  cotton  and  hice  thread  was  the  largest  in  the  world, 
employing  more  than  1,000  persons,  for  whom  he  established 
schools,  free  lectures,  and  reading-rooms.  An  early  anti- 
corn-lawman  an<l  free-trader,  he  became  a  prominent  Liberal 
politician,  fiisl  entering  Parliament  in  1858.  In  1862  he 
retired  from  business,  and  in  1869  became  a  baronet.  D. 
Mar.  18,  188,5. 

Bderiillin  (fir.  pStWiov) :  a  gum-re.sin  resembling  myrrh, 
but  weaker  ami  more  acrid  ;  esteemed  by  the  ancients  [or  its 
supposed  medicinal  virtues.  It  is  not  often  used  by  modern 
physicians.  Two  varieties  of  bdellium  are  obtained  from 
the  Ami/ris  commiphora  ot  \tnl'ui  and  the  Jleiiilelotia  afri- 
cana,  a  tree  or  shrub  of  Senegal.  It  is  used  in  both  human 
and  veterinary  |iharmaey  in  India,  and  for  incense  in  temples. 

Bpach  :  the  sIo]iing  surface  of  the  land  above  low-water 
mark  ;  covered  with  stones  and  sand  brought  by  waves  and 


currents  from  neighboring  cliffs  or  ledges,  or  from  the  bot- 
tom off-shore.  A  beach  begins  on  a  wave-cut  bench  under 
a  cliff  or  ledge  and  extends  along  shore  in  the  direction  of 
the  controlling  current,  often  swinging  in  a  smooth  curve 
around  the  head  of  a  bay  or  cove  between  two  rocky  points. 
As  a  headland  is  cut  back  into  an  even  line,  its  beach  may 
be  jirolunged  as  an  embankment  across  the  adjoining  bay, 
thus  simplifying  the  shore-line,  as  on  the  south  side  of 
Martha's  Vineyard.  The  embankment  is  called  a  spit,  or 
bar.  Beach  is  also  applied  to  the  long  off-shore  bars  or  bar- 
riers now  used  as  summer  resorts  on  the  coast  of  New  Jer- 
sey, built  of  sand  raised  by  storm  waves  from  the  shallow 
bottom,  and  now  receiving  additions  on  the  outer  side, 
while  the  inclosed  lagoons  and  mainland  are  jiroteeted 
from  the  sea.  Bars  of  the  same  kind  on  the  coast  of  Caro- 
lina are  loeallv  called  "banks."    See  Coast,  Dune. 

W.  M.  Davis. 

Beach,  Abraham,  D.  D.  :  a  Protestant  Episcopal  divine  ; 
b.  at  Cheshire,  Conn.,  Sept.  9,  1740;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1757,  and  ordained  by  the  Bishop  of  London  in 
1767.  He  was  tintil  1783  rector  of  a  church  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  and  afterward  an  assistant  minister  of  Trinity 
church,  New  York,  for  thirtv  vears  (1783-1813).  D.  near 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Sept.  14, '1828. 

Beach.  John  :  Protestant  Episcopal  divine;  b.  in  1700; 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1721 ;  and  was  for  some  years  Congre- 
gational minister  of  Newtown.  Conn.  He  joined  the  Angli- 
can Church  in  1732  :  was  ordained  by  the  Bishop  of  London, 
and  was  for  fifty  years  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, at  Newtown  and  Reading,  in  Connecticut.  He  pub- 
lished sermons  and  polemical  tracts.  D.  Mar.  8,  1782.  In 
the  church  recently  erected  at  Newtown  a  handsome  tablet 
commemorates  his  half-century's  service. 

Beach.  John  Wesley,  D.  D.,  LIj.  D.  :  preacher  of  the 
Methodist  Ejiiscopal  Church :  b.  at  Trumbull,  Conn.,  Dec. 
26. 1825  :  graduated  in  1845  at  Wesleyan  l''niversity.  Middle- 
town.  Conn.;  was  for  nine  years  a  teacher:  and  in  1854 
entered  the  ministry.  His  labors  have  been  mostly  in  New 
York  city  and  vicinity.  In  1872  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.  D.  from  his  atma  mater;  in  1873  became  pastor  of  a 
church  in  New  Haven,  Conn,  ;  and  was  president  of  the 
Wesleyan  University,  Connecticut,  1880-87. 

Beach,  Moses  Yale:  an  inventor  and  publisher;  b.  at 
^\  allinglord.  Conn..  Jan.  7.  1800.  He  learned  the  trade  of 
a  cabinet-maker  in  youth,  and  afterward  experimented  in 
machines  for  propelling  balloons.  He  invented  a  rag-oit- 
ting  machine,  now  in  general  use  in  pajxT-mills.  In  1835 
he  became  interested  in  the  J\>«'  YorJt  Sun.  and  is  regarded 
a.s  a  pioneer  in  the  penny  newspaper  business.  In  1857  he 
left  his  profession  and  retired  to  his  native  town,  where  he 
died  July  18,  1868. 

Beach  Pliiiii  :  .See  Plum. 

Beacliy  Head  :  the  highest  headland  on  the  south  coast 
of  England  ;  2+  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Eastbourne,  Sussex.  It 
consists  of  j)er|)endicular  chalk  cliffs  564  feet  high,  forming 
the  east  end  of  the  South  Downs.  Here  is  a  lighthouse  285 
feet  high.  The  French  fleet  defeated  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish near  this  point  in  1690. 

Beacon  [JI.  Eng.  hel-ene  <  0.  Eng.  beacn.  a  sign ;  akin 
to  Eng.  iierfion]  :  Before  other  means  of  rapid  telegraphy 
were  invented,  fres,  kindled  on  the  tops  of  mountains  or 
pi-ominent  points  of  the  coast,  were  an  obvious  resort  as 
alarm-signals,  giving  warning  of  the  approach  of  hostile 
fleets  or  armies.  So,  too,  as  a  guide  to  mariners,  for  whom 
the  dangers  of  a  contiguous  coast  are  enhanced  by  darkness, 
blazing  fires  or  "  lights  "  of  some  kind  (see  Lighthouse)  were 
ever  the  most  olivious  heacons ;  hence  a  "  fiery  signal  "  is  as- 
sociated wit  li  the  classic  signification  of  the  word.  The  word 
liearoii  (in  a  special  signification)  is  now  almost  exclusively 
restricted  to  the  last  mentioned  uses,  denoting  a  mark  or 
sign  erected  on  coasts  for  guiding  an<l  preserving  vessels  at 
sea  by  night  or  by  day.  Practically,  it  is  still  further  re- 
stricted bv  being  divested,  almost  entirelv.  of  reference  to 
"  light  "  or  "  fire,"  and  applied  to  fixed  structures  or  mate- 
rial marks  erected  on  rocks  or  shoals  in  harbors  or  narrow 
channels;  nevertheless,  a  small  light-tower  erected  for  no 
other  than  this  limited  purpose  is  sometimes  called  a  lea- 
con-light  (as  distinct  from  the  lighthouse  proper);  while 
fixed  ««-illuminaled  signal  structures  are  called  "  daij- 
beacons." 

Beaconsdeld,  bek  unz-fwld:  small  town  in  Buckingham- 
shire ;    10  miles  N.  of  Windsor  (see  map  of  England,  ref. 


BEACONSFIELD 


BEAR 


543 


12-1) ;  notable  as  the  home  and  burial-place  of  the  poet  Wal- 
ler and  of  Eilinund  Biirkc,  and  as  having  given  his  earl's 
title  to  lienjiiiiiin  Disraeli.     Pop.  about  1,500. 

Hcaconsfield.  Lord:  See  Disr.\ku. 

Bead  [.M.  Kni;.  //cr/c,  prayer,  prajer-bead ;  O.  Eng.  bed-, 
gehed.  prayer] :  in  Old  hnj;iish,  a  prayer,  and  henee  one  of 
the  small  perforated  balls,  of  whatever  material,  used  for 
keeyiing  an  aerount  of  the  number  of  prayers  repeated. 
Beads  are  small  ijerforated  globular  bodies  worn  as  orna- 
ments by  women  and  ihihlren  aroiinil  the  neek  and  on  other 
parts  of  the  i)ersoii,  for  which  purpose  they  are  arranged  on 
strings.  Thev  are  made  of  various  imiterials — gold,  amber, 
coral,  pearl,  crystal,  glass,  etc.  More  beails  are  made  of  glass 
than  of  any  other  nuiterial.  They  are  often  used  in  the  or- 
namentation of  slippers,  purses,  and  other  articles.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  understood  the  art  of  making  glass  beads, 
which  are  now  extensively  manufactured  at  Murano,  near 
Venice,  and  in  China. 

Bea'dle,  Wii.i.iam  II.  11.,  LL.  1). :  b.  at  Liberty.  Parke 
CO.,  liid..  .Ian.  1,  1N38;  educated  at  Uockville  and  in  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan;  entered  the  army  in  l.stil  as  first  lieu- 
tenant of  the  Thirty-first  regiment  of  Indiana  infantry; 
served  throughout  the  whole  war,  and  was  in  1S()4  bre- 
veted a  brigadier-general.  After  the  war  he  studied  law 
and  began  to  practice  in  Wisconsin,  when,  in  1869.  he  was 
appointed  U.  S.  surveyor-general  over  the  Territory  of 
Dakota.  From  that  tinu>  he  devoted  his  whole  energy  to 
the  development,  material  as  well  as  moral,  of  the  Terri- 
tory, as  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  more  especially  as 
superintendent-general  o[  public  instruction  (1879-8")),  in 
which  liust  position  he  succeeded  in  organizing  the  whole 
school  system  of  the  Territory, 

Bead-tree:  See  CnixA,  Pride  of. 

Bca'jfle:  a  snuill  variety  of  hound,  formerly  employed  in 
Great  Britain  for  hunting  hares  but  now  nearly  supplanted 
by  the  harrier.  The  beagle  is  about  10  inches"  high  at  the 
shoulder,  is  compactly  fornu'd,  and  has  long  pendidous  ears 
and  smooth  hair.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  keeiniess  of  scent 
and  perseverance.  During  the  chase  it  utters  a  musical 
cry.     A  small  variety  is  used  as  a  lap-dog. 

Beak,  or  Rostrum  [from  Vr.hi'c:  Ital.  if  ceo,  a  wonl  of 
Celtic  origin,  hnrr-.  hook] :  the  bill  of  u  bird  :  in  other  words, 
the  hard,  horny  mouth  of  a  bird,  consisting  of  two  ])arts, 
called  the  upper  and  lower  mandible.  (See  Bll.L.)  The 
terin  is  also  applied  to  the  sharp  projecting  part  of  tlic  bow 
of  modern  ships  of  war  used  for  ramming,  and  to  the  similar 
construction  on  the  prows  of  ancient  war-galleys. 

Beal,  WiLLi.vM  James,  M,  A.,  Ph.  D. :  botanist;  b.  in 
Adrian,  Mich.,  :\Iar.  11,  183;^;  educated  in  I'niversity  of 
Michigan  and  Harvard  University.  He  was  for  two  years 
Professorof  Natural  History  in  Chicago  University,  until  he 
became  Professorof  Bot;iuy  (in  18T0)  in  the  Michigan  .\gri- 
cultural  College.  He  has  written  many  |iapers  on  economic 
botany.  His  principal  publications  are  The  New  Bnlany 
(1881)  and  Tlie  Gnw^e.t  of  Xorth  America  (vol.  i.,  1887). 

CiiAitLEs  E.  Bessey. 

Benle,  Lio.vel  .Smitu,  P,  R. S.  :  an  aecomplishc<l  micro- 
•scopist  and  jihysiologist ;  b.  in  London,  1828;  graduated 
M.  B.  at  the  University  of  London  in  18.51,  in  which  insti- 
tution he  was  art<>r\vard  appointed  [irofessor.  Many  re- 
markable books  and  monographs  upon  histology  and  biology 
have  been  published  by  Dr.  Heale.  His  papers,  written 
agaiiLst  the  Darwinian'  hypothesis  (1870),  have  attracted 
much  attention.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  How  to 
Work  with  the  Mirrnwope  (18.58);  The  Structure  of  the  Tis- 
suesoflheIimli/{\m\):  I'rotopimm  (1870);  Li fe' Theories, 
their  Injluenre  nil  UeliyiiiiiK  Thiiitr/hl  (1871) ;  Our  Miirn/ili/ 
and  the  Mnrnl  l^ueMion  (1887);  inCollaboration  with  others 
The  I'hi/xintiiyiml  Aiiiitii/iii/  mid  the  Phi/Kiologi/  of  Man, 
besides  treatises  on  urinary  and  hepatic  disordei-s. 

Beam  :  any  large  piece  of  timber;  the  principal  piece  of 
timber  ifi  a  Imildiiig.  that  lies  across  the  walls  and  serves  to 
sumiort  the  rafti'i-s;  also  a  collection  of  luminous  rays  emit- 
ted from  the  sun  or  other  luminary.  The  word  has  several 
technical  a|)plications.  The  part  of  a  balance  from  the 
ends  of  which  the  scales  are  suspended  is  called  a  beam  ;  a 
weaver's  beam  is  a  wooden  cylinder  on  which  the  web  is 
wound.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  part  of  a  steam- 
engine  to  which  the  piston  is  sometimes  attached  to  trans- 
fer niot  ion  to  the  crank  shaft.  In  ships,  a  bc>am  is  a  great 
main  cross-timber,  extending  across  the  hull,  supporting  the 
deck,  and  preventing  the  sides  from  collapsing.     Each  of 


these  beams  is  made  of  one  solid  piece  of  good  timber,  if 
possible,  and  is  upheld  at  or  near  the  middle  by  a  pillar  or 
j>illars.  In  large  steamships  iron  beams  are  often  used 
instead  of  wood.  A  ship  is  said  to  be  "  on  her  beam  ends  " 
when  so  much  inclined  to  one  side  that  the  beams  become 
nearly  vertical.  The  word  also  occurs  in  tin;  iihrase"on 
the  starboard  beam,"  which  is  applied  to  the  position  of  an 
object  at  sea  which  is  seen  toward  the  right  by  a  pei-s<jn 
whose  face  is  turned  toward  the  bow.  See  Flexure  and 
Bridge-s, 

Beamsville  :  a  (lost-village  of  Clinton  township;  Lincoln 
CO.,  Ontario.  ('ana<la;  on  the  (ircat  Western  Uaihvay  ;  11 
miles  W.of  .Si.  Catharines  (see  map  of  Ontario,  rcf.  .5-E) :  has 
manufactures  of  farming  tools,  carriages,  etc.     Pop.  1,000. 

Beam-tree,  White  (Pi/'nin  aria):  a  tree  which  is  a 
native  of  Europe  and  .\sia,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  from 
2.5  to  40  feel.  It  has  ovate  and  serrate  leaves,  which  are 
white  and  downy  beneath,  flowers  in  terminal  corymbs, 
and  beai-s  a  .scarlet  fruit  about  as  large  as  a  pea.  Thisfruit, 
which  is  sometimes  called  sorb  or  service-berry,  is  acid  and 
astringent,  and  is  use<l  to  make  beer.  The  hard,  fine- 
grained wood  is  useful  for  cog-wheels. 

Bean :  a  plant  of  the  family  Leguminosip.  The  true 
bean  of  Europe  is  an  upright  |ilant  with  still  and  nearly 
straight  stems,  white  black-eyed  flowers  in  thick  clusters 
and  large  broad  ])ods.  The  beans  are  large  and  more  or 
less  flattened,  often  angular  or  even  nearly  scpiare.  This 
plant  is  the  Viciii  falia  (or  Falia  fiilr/ari/i}.  It  is  sometimes 
grown  in  this  country  under  the  name  of  English  bean, 
most  fremieiitly  as  the  liroad  Windsor  and  Mazagan  varie- 
ties. It  does  not  succeed  in  the  hot  and  dry  summers  of 
.\incrica.  The  common  garden  and  field  beans  of  America 
belong  to  the  species  PhiiKeoliix  riilr/firitt.  although  some 
bolanisls  think  that  they  re]iresent  several  confused  species. 
In  Europe  they  are  known  as  kidney-beans  or  haricots. 
About  150  varieties  of  these  beans  are  now  grown  in  this 
country,  a  few  being  grown  for  field  crop  and  the  jiroduct 
sold  as  dry  beans,  but  the  greater  part  being  grown  in  the 
garden  for  "string"  or  "shell"  beans.  Beans  demand  a 
warm  loose  soil,  and  they  are  very  susceptible  to  injury 
from  frost.  In  1890  12.607  acres  were  devoted  to  beans  in 
the  U.S.  as  a  truck-garden  crop,  and  12.905  acres  were  de- 
voted to  beans  for  seed.  The  original  home  of  the  common 
bean  is  unknown.  It  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  times. 
The  Lima  bean  (Phaxeolus  lima  tux)  is  a  climbing  species 
which  is  s])aringly  cultivated  in  the  northernmost  States, 
but  which  succeeds  well  from  New  .lersey  southward,  jmd 
is  grown  in  great  (luaiilities  in  California,  whence  most  of 
the  seed  now  conu's.  The  species  is  supposed  to  be  native 
to  South  America.  The  soy-bean  (Soja  tiixpida)  is  tlie  pop- 
ular bean  of  China  an<l  .lupan,  and  is  somewhat  known  in 
the  U.  S..  especially  in  some  parts  of  the  Southern  States. 
See  Soy-bean. 

Several  beans  are  grown  for  ornament,  as  the  scarlet-run- 
ner {Phasenlus  m  ulliflo'rus)  and  species  of  doliehos,  especially 
Do'lichos  laUab.  .Some  species  (Tf  doliehos  are  grown  for 
culinary  uses,  especially  the  asparagus-bean  {Diitichos  sesijui- 
peda  lis).  The  cow-pea  also  belongs  to  this  genus  (D.  chi- 
nensis).    See  Legumixosjc.  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Beaii.TARi.ETON  IIoffmax,  M.  D.,  M.S. ;  ichthyologist;  b. 
at  Bainbriilge.  Lancaster  co..  Pa..  Oct.  8.  184(! ;  graduated 
at  Columbian  University.  Washington.  D.  C. ;  was  principal 
of  .Smyrna  Seminary.  Del.,  and  of  the  high  school  of  Wilkes- 
barre.  Pa.  In  1874  he  accepted  a  position  in  the  U.  S.  Pish 
Commission,  and  has  been  actively  associated  with  its  work 
ever  since.  In  1884  vi.sited  Alaska  to  investigate  the  shore 
fisheries,  and  again  in  1889  to  study  and  report  on  the  .sal- 
mon fishery.  Dr.  Bean  is  curator  of  the  department  of 
fishes.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  ichthyologist  and  assistant 
in  charge  of  the  division  of  fish  culture,  U.  S.  Pish  Com- 
mission, and  editor  of  its  publications.  He  has  published 
numerous  papers  on  fishes  in  the  publications  of  the  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission  and  U.  S.  National  Museum;  a  Report  on 
the  Fishes  of  Peiiiixi/lraiiia :  and.  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  G. 
Brown  (loode,  an  important  memoir  on  t]\e  Deep-xea  Fishes 
of  the  Atlantic  Basin.  He  has  also  contributed  many  arti- 
cles to  Forest  and  Stream,  of  which  h<'  is  editor  of  sea  and 
river  fishing.  Frederic  A.  Luc.vs. 

Bear  [in  Lat.  «»•'.<».«.  female  ur'sa] :  a  quadruped  of  the 
genus  L'rsus  and  order  Carnivora  ;  the  type  of  the  family  of 
UrsidiF.  Bears  walk  on  the  soles  of  their  feet,  have  five  toes 
on  each  foot,  and  have  claws  which  are  not  retractile,  but  are 


544 


BEAR 


BEARD 


adapted  for  digging  in  the  earth  or  cJimbing  trees.  Their 
tails  are  very  short.  They  have  si.\  cutting  teetli  in  eacli 
jaw,  and  one  canine  tootli  on  each  side;  in  eacli  jaw.  Bears 
are  found  botli  in  warm  and  cold  climates  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America,  but  are  scarce  in  Africa.  The  Helarcios  crow- 
theri  occurs  in  tlie  Atlas  Mountains.  The  species  that  in- 
liabit  cold  climates  are  generally  more  fierce  and  carnivorous 
than  those  of  tropical  regions.  Some  species  pass  tlie  winter 
in  a  state  of  torpidity  and  liibernation,  during  which  they 
eat  nothing  and  remain  stationary  in  lioUow  trees  or  holes 
in  the  ground. 

The  brown  bear  ( Ursiis  arctos)  is  widely  distributed  over 
the  continents  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  it  has  been  extir- 

Eated  from  the  British  islands.  It  is  generally  believed  to 
c  the  only  Emopean  species.  It  is  solitary,  infests  moun- 
tains and  forest.s,  eats  fish  and  otlier  aniuuils.  and  subsists 
partly  on  fruits  and  vegetable  food.  The  Jlcsh  of  (his  bear 
is  eaten  by  the  people  of  Kanitcliatka  and  oilier  regions. 

The  black  bear  (Crstts  ameiicunii)i)  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
North  America.  Its  total  length  is  about  5  feet.  It  prefers 
vegetable  food,  but  when  pressed  by  hunger  will  kill  and  eat 
snnill  animals.  It  kills  its  prey  by  hugging  or  squeezing 
with  its  fore  paws,  (jreat  numbers  of  black  bears  are  killed 
for  their  skins,  which  hiive  a  smooth,  glossy  fur,  and  are 
valuable  for  cloaks,  caps,  etc.  This  animal  is  an  expert 
climber,  is  very  fond  of  honey  and  gi-een  corn  (uniize),  and 
is  less  fierce  and  dangerous  to  nuiu  than  the  Ijruwn  bear. 

The  Rocky  Jlonntains  and  adjacent  parts  of  North  Amer- 
ica are  infested  by  the  grizzly  bear((7-.s««  li(irrihilis),  which 


Grizzly  bear. 

is  much  larger  and  irioi'e  carnivorous  than  the  black  bear. 
It  sometimes  measures  fl  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  tail,  which 
is  very  short.  The  liair  is  long,  and  its  color  is  a  mixture  of 
brown,  white,  and  black.  This  liear.  which  is  very  tenacious 
of  life,  is  tlie  most  formidable  beast  of  preyon  the  continent 
of  America.     It  is  able  to  master  a  bison  and  cai'ry  awav  its 


<<S^S^ 


/ 


^ 


Polar  bear. 


huge  carciuss.     It  is  stated  that,  it,  hunts  for  prey  both  by  day 
and  night.     It  can  run  swiftly,  but  does  not  climb  trees. 


The  largest  of  all  the  family  of  UrsidcB  is  the  polar  bear 
(Tlialurctos  maritimus).  called  akso  the  white  bear,  the  fur 
of  which  is  an  impure  white.  It  sometimes  measures  nearly 
10  feet  long  and  5  feet  high.  It  is  strictly  marine  in  its 
habits,  is  never  found  far  from  the  sea,  and  inhabits  the 
most  northern  shores  of  Greenland,  Asia,  etc.  It  subsists 
chiefly  on  animal  food,  and  pursues  seals  and  fishes  both  on 
the  ice  and  in  the  water.  These  bears  disjilay  a  remarkable 
att'ection  for  their  cubs. 

The  bear  mentioned  in  the  Bible  was  probably  the  Syrian 
bear  ( f''r.s'»6"  si/riucus).  which  resembles  the  brown  bear  in 
its  habits,  and  has  a  stiff  mane  of  ei-ect  hairs  between  the 
shoulders.  The  color  of  its  hair  is  mostly  dingy  white  or 
brown.  Among  the  other  species  is  the  Ursus  labiatus,  or 
long-lipped  bear  of  the  East  Indies,  an  inoffensive  and  gentle 
animal,  which  is  often  led  about  liy  Indian  jugglers  for  ex- 
hibition. Among  the  Andes  of  t'liili  occurs  the  Ursus  or- 
nafits,  called  spectacled  bear,  which  is  black  except  two  semi- 
circular yellow  marks  above  its  eyes.  Remains  of  several 
extinct  species  of  bears  have  been  found  in  caves  in  England 
and  Germany.  Of  these,  Ursus  spdceus,  called  the  cave  bear, 
is  the  best  known.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Bear-baiting  :  A  custom  was  formerly  prevalent  in  many 
countries  of  baiting  bears  with  dogs.  The  place  in  which 
the  bears  wei'e  kept  was  called  a  "  bear-garden."  Bear-bait- 
ing was  a  favorite  sport  in  England,  not  only  for  the  com- 
mon people,  but  also  for  the  higher  classes.  Queen  Elizabeth 
is  said  to  liave  enjoyed  it.  It  Wiis  hated  by  the  Puritans, 
Macaulay  wittily  says,  "not  because  it  gave  pain  to  the  bear, 
but  because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectators."  This  coarse 
and  inhuman  entertainment  gradually  died  out,  and  was 
finally  pi'ohibited  by  act  of  Parliament,  Sept.  9,  1835. 

Bear'lierry  (Arctnstapliylos  uva-ursi):  a  trailing  shrub, 
with  elliptical,  evergreen  leaves  and  red  berries,  found  in 
the  Northern  U.  S.,  Europe,  and  Asia,  It  is  a  member  of 
the  Iieath  family,  and  is  closely  related  to  the  madi'ona  and 
still  nuire  closely  to  the  manzanita  of  California. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Beard  :  a  name  applied  to  the  hair  which  grows  upon  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  of  a  man.  and  in  exceptional  cases 
upon  tlie  faces  of  women,  or  even  children.  Tlic  wearing  of 
the  beard  is  universal  in  the  East,  where  it  has  long  been  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  honor  and  dignity.  Some  races  of  men, 
like  the  American  Indians,  carefully  pluck  out  the  beard, 
which  with  them  and  others,  such  as  the  Mongolians  and 
Bedouins,  is  scanty.  Most  white  races  have  beards  witli 
hairs  differing  decidedly  in  structure  and  appearance  from 
those  of  the  scalp.  The  wearing  of  beards  in  European  na- 
tions has  been  regulated  partly  by  fashion  and  partly  by 
legal  enactments  for  or  against  the  practice.  The  beard  is 
believed  to  protect  the  throat  and  chest  from  colds. 

Beard.  Chahles,  B.  A.,  LL.  P.  :  Unitarian  minister  and 
scholar :  b.  in  JIanchester,  England.  July  27,  1837  ;  educated 
at  Manchester  New  College  and  Berlin  University;  minister 
of  Gee  Cross  chapel,  Cheshire,  and  Ren,shaw  Street  chapel, 
Liverpool;  editor  of  'J'/tc  ThfuUijiical  7A/iv'f((' 1804— 79:  au- 
thor of  Oiiflincs  of  Cliristirm  Doctrine  (1859) ;  The  SouVs 
Wuii  to  God(Win):  T/if  llihtiert  Lectitri'.i  (1883):  The  Uni- 
versal Christ  (1888);  31<trtia  Liitlier  (1889).  His  I/ilihert 
Lectures  are  one  of  tin;  most  important  courses  given  on  a 
foundation  that  has  been  productive  of  J/he  highest  things. 
D.  in  Liverpool,  Apr.  9,  1888. 

Beard,  Georce  Mii.ler,  JI.  D.  :  physician  ;  b.  at  Mont- 
ville.  Conn.,  May  8,  18;!!);  was  educated  at  Phillips  Acad- 
emy, Andover,  and  at  Yale,  where  he  graduated  1862;  at- 
tended one  year  at  medical  department  of  Yale,  and,  coming 
to  New  York,  graduated  from  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  180ifi.  having  for  eighteen  months  (18G:S-(54)  been 
assistant-siu'geon  on  the  gunboat  New  London  in  the  West- 
ern (iulf  hlockailing  scpiadron;  commenced  iiraclice  at  once 
in  New  York,  and' with  Dr.  A.  I).  Rockwell  made  eleetro- 
thera|)eutics  and  nervous  diseases  his  sjiecialty  ;  wiote  many 
works,  among  them  American  JVerroiisness,  with  its  Causes 
and  Consequences;  The  Scientific  Basis  of  Delusions,  be- 
ing a  New  Theory  of  Trance  and  its  Bearing  on  Human 
Testimoni/ :  Clinical  Besearrlies  in  Electro-surgery  (to- 
gether with  Dr.  Kockwell);  J/i'(lir((l  Uses  of  Electricity  ; 
and  The  Phi/siology  of  iViiid-redding;  1863-64  was  acting 
assistant-surgi'on  in  U.  S.  navy ;  in  1868  became  lecturer  in 
New  York  University  on  nervous  diseases ;  gave  special  at- 
tention to  mesmeri.s'm,  and  lectured  in  1881  on  ^Irtiliciat 
Trance.     D.  in  New  York,  Jan.  23,  1883. 


BEARD 


BEAST-FABLES 


54? 


Beard,  James  Henry  :  animal,  grenre, and  portrait  painter ; 
b.  in  i'.ulfiilo,  X.  v.,  in  1814 ;  scttleit  in  Cincinnati  and  jiainted 
portraits  in  tlie  curlitT  part  ot  his  carciT,  iiicludini;  tliosc  of 
llenry  Clay,  Julin  yunic-y  Adams,  and  Presidents  \V.  11. 
Harrison  and  Tavlor.  National  Academician  1872,  D.  in 
Flushin;;,  X.  Y.,  Apr.  4,  18U3.  W.  A.  C. 

Board,  Kichard.  D.  I>.  :  a  derfryman  of  the  Cund)erland 
Pnsbytiriaii  Chnrch;  I),  in  Sumiu'r  co.,  Tcnn.,  Nov.  27, 
1709.  Ilis  early  education  was  not  without  care,  yet  limited. 
Ills  education  preparatory  to  the  ministry  was  conducted 
liottcr  than  usual  for  the  time  in  his  church.  He  was  li- 
censed anil  ciimuicuced  preachini;  in  1820,  and  was  several 
years  exclusively  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  ndnistry.  His 
health  failin-;,  he  spent  two  or  three  years  teaching.  He 
was  two  and  a  half  years  at  Cundierland  CoUcjic,  Princeton, 
Ky.,  and  <;raduated  (18:i2).  He  was  immediately  ajipointid 
Professor  of  Lansinajri'S  in  that  college.  He  afterward 
spent  five  years  at  Sharon,  Miss.,  in  connection  with  Sharon 
College  (18:>8— t:!).  In  ls4:J  he  became  president  of  Cund)er- 
land  College,  Ky.,  an<l  remained  there  ten  years  and  a  half, 
giving  a  great  impetus  to  the  classii'  training  of  young  men, 
especially  those  seeking  the  ministry.  In  18r)4,  when  the 
Cumberland  Presljvterian  Chunh  established  a  chair  of  Sys- 
tematic Theology  in  Cundjcrland  University,  Lebanon,  Tcnn., 
his  high  chara<-ter  as  a  scholar  and  eilucator  at  once  called 
him  to  tliat  position,  whi(Oi  he  hehl  till  his  death.  He  gave 
to  the  Church  an  able  and  standard  work  on  Syti-mnfic 
T!n'u/ii(/!/.  in -i  \ I <U.  S\o.  It  is  regarded  as  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  Cumberland  Presbyterian  thought  and  faith.  He 
pultlished  two  o(  tavo  volumes  of  biographical  sketches  of 
miinsters.  Also  Win/  am  la  C'umbcrlntiil  I'ri'slii//en'an  ?  (1 
vol.).  His  contributions  to  the  Qiiarlirbj  and  general  liter- 
ature of  the  Church  were  constant  and  most  viduablc.  He 
was  the  leading  theologian  of  the  denomimition.  His  great 
dignity,  purity,  and  gentleness  of  character  marked  him  as 
a  representative  man,  calling  him  freijuently  to  the  modera- 
tor's chair.  His  books  were  published  at  ^s'ashville,  Tenn. 
1).  at  Lebanon,  Tcnn.,  Dec.  2.  1880. 

Beard,  Wii.i.iAM  Hoi.bkook:  animal-painter;  b.at  Paines- 
ville,(».,  Apr.  l:j,  1825.  He  visited  Kurope  in  18r)7 and  studied 
and  painteil  in  tiermany,  Italy,  ami  France.  X'ational  .\ca- 
dcmician  1862.  His  work  is  principally  of  a  humorous  char- 
acter representing  animals,  such  jis  beai's,  rabbits,  and  mon- 
keys ilressed  as  men  ami  women,  and  depicted  as  acting 
under  human  impulses.     .Studio  in  Xew  York. 

\VlI.l.IAM  A.  CoKKIN. 

Beards' ley.  Ell  EN  Edwards,  D.  D..  LL.  1).:  b.  in  Fair- 
field CO.,  Coini..  1808;  gra<luated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1832,  where  he  was  for  two  years  a  tutor.  He  was 
for  a  tinu'  principal  of  the  academy  at  Cheshire,  Conn. ;  took 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  183,»,  and  be- 
came rector  of  a  church  in  Xew  Haven  in  1848.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  ninlory  of  the  Epixrnpnl  Chiirrh  in  Connee- 
licut;  a  Life  of  Siimiie/  Jolnison,  I).  /).:  a  Life  itf  Srimiiel 
Seni)in-ij,  D.  I)..  FiiKl  lii.sliiipof  Ciniiiectinil ;  and  a  Ijife  of 
William  Samuel  Juhnxim,  LL.  D.,  ^/™«.,all  valuable  works. 
1>.  in  Xew  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  21,  1891. 

Beardsley,  Saml-el,  LL.  D. :  jurist;  b.  in  Hoosac,  Kens- 
selaer  en.,  X.  V.,  Feb.  9.  1790;  practiced  law  in  Home  and 
Utica,  X.  v.;  Iiekl  various  State  olfices,  as  district-attorney 
of  Oneida  County  1821-2.),  as  Slate  Senator  182:!,  as  U.  S. 
district-attorney  for  the  northern  district  of  Xew  York  ;  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  Xew  York  (18:!l-:36  and  1843- 
4.'));  attorney-general  of  the  State  (18:!7) ;  became  a  judge  of 
the  State  .Suju-eme  Court  in  1844,  and  its  chief  justice  in 
1847.     D.  in  Utica,  May  6,  1860. 

Bcard.sley,  Sin.vEY  Bi-rh  ;  jurist;  b.  in  Monroe,  Conn., 
Aug.  20.  1822.  In  1874  he  became  a  judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Connecticut,  and  in  1877  a  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Errors  of  that  State,  resigning  in  1889  on  account 
of  ill  health.     D.  in  Bridgeport.  Coiui..  Apr.  24,  1890. 

Hkxrv  Waue  KociERS. 

Beards'town  ;  city  ;  Cass  co..  HI.  (for  location  of  county, 
sec  map  of  lllirinis,  ref.  6-C) :  .situated  on  the  bank  of  tlie 
Illinois  river:  !M)  nules  S.  of  Peoria,  and  111  miles  X'.  of  St. 
Louis;  is  the  ofiicial  head(puirtei-s  of  St.  liouis  Div.of  ('.,  B. 
and  O.  H.  U.,  and  terminus  of  0.  and  M.  R.  R. ;  has  6 
churches,  3  large  schools,  inclmling  a  high  school,  2  banks, 
2  flouring-mills.  saw-mill,  cooperage- works,  bakiug-jHuvder 
fartory,  screen-factory,  feed-cultcr  factory,  large  nnichine- 
shops,  shops  of  St.  L.  Div.  of  C..  B.  and  (^.  R.  R.,  and 
water-w<irks.  The  celcljrated  "Ivithia  Springs"  are  here. 
35 


There  is  a  fine  park  near  the  business  portion  of  the  city. 
A  railroad-bridge,  with  iron  pici-s,  crosses  the  river  at  this 
jioint,  anil  is  a  line  structure,  costing  some  ^30(1.000.  Pop. 
U8S0)  3,13") ;  (1890)  4,226  ;  (1892)  estimated,  5,000. 

EonoR  OF  "  Illinoiax." 

Bear  River :  a  port  of  entry  of  Digby  co.  and  township, 
Xova  Scotia ;  at  tlie  head  of  navigat  ion  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  3-A) ;  has  quite  extensive 
manufactures  of  lumber,  leather,  etc.;  ship-building  is  also 
carried  on.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  firewood  and  himber, 
which  are  sent  to  the  U.  S.  and  West  Indies.  I'op.  about 
900. 

Bear  River ;  a  river  of  the  U.  S. ;  rises  in  tlie  X\  part  of 
Utah,  flows  northward  into  Idaho,  and  changes  its  course 
abruptly  toward  the  S.  Having  again  crossed  the  south 
boundary  of  Idaho  into  Utah,  it  flows  southwest  ward,  and 
entei-s  Great  Salt  Lake  about  25  miles  X',  W.  of  Ogden. 
The  total  length  is  about  400  miles. 

Bears  and  Bulls:  a  phrase  often  used  in  connection 
with  the  purchase  and  sale  of  stocks;  and  applied  to  per- 
sons who  speculate  in  Government  securities  and  in  the 
stocks  of  railroads  and  other  corporations.  The  "bears" 
are  those  who  wish  to  depress  the  value  of  stocks,  and  the 
'•  bulls  "  are  those  whose  interest  promjits  them  to  act  in  the 
other  direction.  If  two  men  have  contracted,  the  one  to 
deliver  and  the  other  to  take  a  certain  stock  at  a  si)ecified 
price  on  an  appointed  future  day,  the  former  will  naturally 
iielong  to  the  besii-s  and  the  latter  to  the  bulls.    Sec  Stock- 

EXIIIANGE. 

Bear's  (Jrease.  or  Bear's  Oil:  saiil  to  be  efficacious  in 
Iiromoting  the  growth  of  human  hair.  The  genuine  .irliele 
iieing  insuflicient  to  supply  the  demand,  perfumers  and 
others  sell  under  the  name  of  bear's  oil  large  (piantitics  of 
beef-marrow,  hog's  lard,  spermaceti,  etc. 

Beas'ley,  Frederick,  D.  1). :  a  clergyman  of  (he  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church;  b.  near  Edenlon,  X.  ('.,  in  1777; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1797;  and  was  [irovost  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  from  1813  to  1828.  Among  his 
works,  which  iitli-iu-ted  attention  in  Europe,  arc  A  Search 
of  Truth  in  the  Science  of  the  Unman  Mind  and  a  Jieply 
to  the  Views  (if  Dr.  Channinij.  D.  at  Elizabethtown,  X.  J., 
Xov.  2,  184.5. 

Beasley,  Gen.  X'athaniei.  :  b.  in  1751  :  was  a  pioneer  of 
Ohio,  and  a  noted  Indian-tighter  and  scout  ;  was  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  St.  Clair  and  Wayne,  and  aiterward  settled  in 
('liillieothe,  (>. :  iiRMuber  of  tiliio  Legislature,  a  canal  com- 
missioner, and  for  numv  years  major-general  of  militia,  D, 
in  Knox  co.,  O..  Mar.  2'7,'l835. 

Beast-l'ahles :  the  general  name  given  to  short  stories, 
whether  of  popular  or  learned  origin,  in  which  the  lower 
animals  appear  (usually  by  themselves,  btit  sometimes  in 
connection  with  men)  associating  with  ejich  other  as  reason- 
able beings  endowed  with  the  virtues  and  vices  of  humanity. 
Such  stories  are  found  everywhere,  in  all  ages,  and  among 
races  of  all  degrees  of  civilization.  Their  rationale  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  "animislie"  philosophy  of  savage  man,  who 
makes  no  essential  distinction  between  his  own  mental  and 
moral  faculties  and  those  which  he  a.scribes  to  other  living 
creatures — not  lower  animals  to  him.  (See  Animism  ;  Tyh)r, 
Primitive  Culture,  i.  422  ff. ;  (>.  A.  Wilkcn,  Ilet  Animi.wie 
hij  de  Volken  van  den  Tndixchen  Archipcl.  1884-85.)  In  this 
stage  of  thought  the  savage,  of  course,  feels  no  improba- 
bility in  such  a  story  about  beasts  as  would  seem  to  him 
credible  if  told  about  men. 

Of  the  considerable  number  of  beast -tales  that  have  been 
collecteil,  some  may  no  doubt  be  myths  in  embryo  or  the 
detritus  of  myths  ;'but  any  general  application  of  the  hy- 
potheses of  solar  or  meteorologiial  mythology  to  this cla.ss of 
stories  is  now  thoroughly  discredited.  Countless  examples 
of  this  learned  trilling  maybe  seen  in  the  Zooloyical  J/y- 
tholoyy  of  .\.  de  (iubcrnatis  (2  vols.,  London,  1872),  where  a 
day-and-night  interpretation  is  devised  for  many  stories 
wliich  arc  obviously  post-"  mythopii'ic."  Others  of  these 
beast-tales  are  clearly  totemistic,  owing  their  origin  or  their 
point  to  a  supposed  relation  of  descent  between  tlie  tribe  or 
family  ot  the  narrator  and  the  animal  that  formed  the 
tribal  or  gentile  cognizance.  (See  J.  G.  Frazer,  Talemism, 
Edinburgh,  1887;  examples  in  Chamberlain,  i\V(Hi7/o^/H/  in 
Sinuan  Mythology. Jnurnal  of  American  Folk-lore,  v.  293  ff.) 
I5ut  a  larger  number  fall  into  the  two  eliusses  of  (1)  tales  told 
merely  for  amusement, and  (2)  tales  told  to  explain  phenom- 
ena of  the  animal  world. 


546 


BEAST-FABLES 


(1)  To  the  former  class  belong  the  exploits  of  the  jackal 
(in  Bleek.  Koelle,  Tlieal,  Basset,  etc.).  the  hare  (in  Casalis, 
Harris.  Jones,  Baissac,  Steere,  etc.),  the  tortoise  (in  Bleek, 
Hartt,  Romero,  Harris,  etc.),  the  spider  (in  Dasent,  Sclilenker, 
Milne-Home).  These  narratives  are  not  properly  moral  (ex- 
cept that  they  celebrate  the  savage  virtue  of  subtlety),  nor 
are  they  in  any  just  sense  satirical.  They  chiefly  aim  to 
amuse,  but  are  also  meant  to  appeal  in  some  sort  to  tlie  in- 
tellect. Thus  Tlic  Lion  and  the  Jackal,  we  are  informed,  is 
often  told  by  tlie  Hottentots  "  to  show  how  clever  and  wily 
the  jackal  is''  {Folk-lore  Journal,  Cape  Town,  ii.  53).  Sucii 
stories  easily  pass  into  satire  :  the  narrator  has  but  to  call 
up  in  his  hearers,  by  a  tone  or  a  turn  of  phrase,  the  reflec- 
tion, "And  this  is  the  way  of  the  world."  But  the  very 
easiness  of  the  transition  makes  the  category  beast-satire. 
hard  to  define  or  establish.  Tlie  great  niedia;val  "  beast- 
e]iic"  Rejiiiard  the  Fox  is  commonly  regarded  as  satirical, 
but  many  of  the  adventures  that  compose  it  do  not  differ  in 
kind  from  the  jackal  and  tortoise  tales  of  Africa  and  Brazil, 
which  a|)parently  have  no  such  purpose. 

(2)  Tales  of  the  second  class,  les  pourquoi.  are  very  nu- 
merous. Thus  Georgia  Negroes  explain  wliy  the  alligator 
never  sleeps  far  from  the  river-bank  (Jones,  No.  1,  p.  1), 
and  why  lie  does  not  molest  the  moor-lieii  (ib.,  Xo.  11,  p. 
24) ;  the  Iroquois,  why  the  chipmunk  has  a  Ijlack  stripe  on 
his  back  (Sjuith,  p.  80) ;  the  Eskimo,  why  tlie  raven  is  all 
black  (Boas,  Report  of  Biireiiu  nf  EtJiiiolog;/  for  1SS4-S5.  p. 
641) ;  the  Pawnees,  why  the  deer  has  no  gall  and  the  ante- 
lope no  dew-claws  (G.  fi.  Grinnell.  Pawnee  Hero  Stories  and 
Folk-tates,  New  York,  188!),  p.  204) :  the  Hottentots,  why 
the  hya'na's  left  hind  leg  appears  to  be  shorter  than  his 
right  (Bleek,  No.  7,  p.  14);  Madagascar  natives,  why  there 
is  a  deadly  feud  between  tlie  snake  and  the  frog  (Anfanand- 
rivo  AiiniKtl,  1877,  p.  118),  and  so  on.  Like  tales  of  the 
first  class,  les  pourquoi  do  not  die  out  with  the  animistic 
stage  of  thought.  The  folk-lore  of  civilized  countries  is 
full  of  them  (see,  for  example,  Les  pourquoi  du  coucou, 
Revue  des  Traditions  Populaires.  iii.  262  ff. ;  cf.  iii.  267,  vi. 
314),  and  they  show  an  interesting  tendency  to  become 
legends,  explaining  the  u-lii/  of  this  or  that  phenomenon  by 
reference  to  a  miracle  of  Christ  or  some  saint  (see  examples 
in  Ralston,  Russian  Folk-tales,  pp.  330  fl. ;  and  cf.  Melu- 
sine,  ii.  43). 

So  far  the  term  beast-fable  has  been  used  in  its  popular 
acceptation  as  equivalent  to  beast-tale.  \n  a  narrower 
sense  tlie  terra  is  restricted  to  such  beast-tales  as  are  in 
some  measure  allegorical  or  at  least  have  a  moral  purpose, 
tacit  or  outspoken.  The  step  from  the  beast -talc  pure  and 
simple  to  the  beast-apologue  is  the  easy,  jierhaps  tlie  inevit- 
able, result  of  the  growth  of  reflection.  It  is  difficult  to 
conceive  a  beast-tale,  of  whatever  origin,  that  might  not 
lend  itself  to  moralizing.  The  process  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  anecdote  of  the  wife  who  contradicted  her  husband, 
as  told  by  the  Knight  de  la  Tour-Landrv  (ed.  by  T.  Wright 
for  the  Karly  English  Text  Society,  1868).  We  might  im- 
agine the  knight's  daughters  asking  him  why  a  certain  lady 
has  a  bi-oken  nose  and  getting  in  reply  a  bare  statement  of 
facts :  how  the  lady  had  made  herself  so  troublesome  by  her 
bad  habit  that  at  hist  her  husliand,  finding  expostulation  use- 
less, knocked  her  down,  inflicting  the  injury  in  question.  This 
answer  would  be  ]iaralleled,  in  the  realm  of  beast-fable,  by 
the  story  of  the  ja<'kars  neglecting  to  break  the  fall  of  the 
liya'ua.  tnlil  to  satisfy  an  inquiry  aliout  the  livama's  limping 
with  his  left  hind  leg  (Bleek,  No.  7,  p.  14).  Instead  of  such 
a  report  of  facts,  however,  the  knight  reads  his  daughters  a 
Icctnre  on  the  enormity  of  insubordination  on  the  part  of  a 
wife,  and  uses  the  unfortunate  lady  as  a  deterrent.  This 
would  be  paralleled  if  the  mishap  of  the  hyaena  were  told  to 
exemplify  the  dangers  of  bad  company  or  to  enforce  the 
thesis  that  tliere  is  no  honor  among  thieves.  The  remark 
that  liya'iias  still  limp  might  then  be  omitted.  If  retained, 
it  would  si'rve  merely  as  a  means  of  heighlening  the  effect : 
the  victim  of  liad  company  received  an  iucuralile  injury 
which  he  has  handed  down  to  all  his  posterity.  Once  estab- 
lished, the  allegorical  or  moralizing  beast-fable  would,  of 
course,  tend  to  draw  into  its  circle  othei'  lieast-tales,  what- 
ever their  origin,  and  would,  in  addition,  propagate  its 
kind.  On  the  completion  of  this  process  we  have  the  didac- 
tic faille,  as  known  to  ancient  and  modern  literature,  firmly 
estalilished. 

The  importance  of  this  distinction  between  tale  and  fable 
is  insisted  on  with  much  cogency  by  Jlr.  Josejih  Jacobs  in 
his  brilliant  Ilistor;/  of  the  JEsopIr' Fable  (vol.  i.  of  his  edi- 
tion of  Caxton's  JEso'p.  London,  1889,  pp.  204  ft.) ;  but  Mr. 


Jacobs,  in  his  desire  to  restrict  as  far  as  possible  to  Greece 
and  India  all  claim  to  fable  literature,  is  too  much  inclined 
to  rule  all  savage  beast-tales  out  of  the  category  of  fable. 
The  line  can  seldom  be  drawn  with  certainty.  The  Vm-le 
Remus  stories,  for  instance,  appear  in  many  eases  to  be 
purely  beast-tales ;  yet  they  sometimes  lend  themselves,  in 
the  niiiKl  of  the  narrator,  to  a  more  or  less  distinctly  uttered 
didactic  purpose.  Mr.  Harris,  who  collected  them  and  who 
knows  the  ^egro  so  well,  will  not  venture  to  say  how  far 
they  were  all  felt  as  embodying  a  moral,  but  suspects  some 
such  tendency.  To  some  of  Col.  Jones's  Negro  Myths  a 
rudimentary  moral  is  aiipended :  "  Careless  man  like  Buh 
Turkey  Buzzard "  (No.  2,  p.  4) ;  "  Bad  plan  to  hunt  for 
trouble"  (No.  18.  \>.  40).  The  application  of  the  Zulu  story 
that  the  hyrax  has  no  tail  liecause  he  sent  for  one  instead 
of  going  himself  is  hard  to  miss  (Callaway,  i.  355  ;  the  same 
fable  amon^  the  Basutos.  Jacottet,  Rente  des  Traditions 
Populaires.  iv.  110).  It  is  difficult  to  escape  the  moral  of 
the  Brazilian  (Indian)  story  of  The  Opossum  and  the  Man 
(Romero,  Oontos  populares  do  Brazil,  p.  191);  or  the  North 
American  Indian  story  of  The  Eagle  and  the  Owl  (Petitot, 
Traditions  Indiennes  du  Canada  Nord-Oiiest.  Paris,  1886, 
p.  276).  It  is,  then,  unsafe  to  assert  that  the  beast-tales  of 
any  given  people  have  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  fables 
merely  because  they  have  no  formal  moral,  or  because  no 
traveler  has  ever  heard  them  told  except  for  amusement. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  tale  and  the  fable  may  exist  side  by 
side,  the  tale  sometimes  being  used  as  a  fable,  the  fable 
sometimes  losing  its  moral  and  being  told  as  a  tale,  as  boys 
read  .lEsop  and  as  the  mediaeval  congregations  often  took 
the  '■  examples  "  in  their  preachers'  sermons.  Further,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  beast-tales  of  one  race  should  not  be- 
come the  beast-fables  of  another. 

The  diffusion  of  beast-tales  is  a  complicated  subject. 
Wlien  we  examine  such  of  these  stories  as  have  been  taken 
down  from  the  lips  of  savage  or  half-civilized  races,  we  ob- 
serve at  once  two  distinct  classes:  those  that  are  apparently 
indigenous,  and  those  that  are  identical  with  European 
tales,  popular  or  literary.  The  latter  class  are  in  almost 
every  instance  certainly  borroweil  directly  or  indirectly 
from  the  whites,  and  such  Ijorrowing  is  easily  accounted 
for.  Nothing  travels  farther  or  faster  than  a  good  story. 
The  white  man  has  carried  his  jEsop  and  his  Reynard  the 
Fox  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  by  means  of  the  slave- 
trade  has  brought  the  ends  of  the  earth  to  his  own  door. 
A  few  examples  will  illustrate  these  points.  The  diverting 
story  of  how  the  fox  stole  the  butter,  of  which  Col.  Jones 
gives  an  excellent  version  from  Georgia  (No.  24,  p.  53),  oc- 
curs in  Meyrac,  Traditions  des  Ardennes,  ji.  458 :  in  Blade, 
Contes  populaires  de  la  Gaseogne.  iii.  195;  in  Gittee  and 
Lenioiiie,  Contes  populaires  du  Pays  Walton,  p.  159 ;  in 
Radlotf,  Proben  der  Volksliteratur.  der  liirkischen.  Slumme 
Siid-Siberiens.  iii.  369,  and  elsewhere.  The  details  are  too 
remarkable  to  admit  of  accidental  coincidence.  The  J5sop- 
ic  faille  of  the  Fox  and  the  Crane  turns  up  among  Negroes 
in  Brazil  (Romero,  ji.  159).  Reynard's  device  for  stealing 
fish  from  the  wagon  is  found  in  South  Africa  (Bleek,  No.  8, 
p.  16),  and,  eonilnned  with  the  trick  by  which  tlie  bear  lost 
his  tail,  among  the  Iroquois  (Smith,  ]>.  77).  In  the  thirty- 
second  of  Col.  Jones's  Negro  31yths  (p.  73)  we  actually  recog- 
nize the  Herodotean  romance  of  the  Pjgyptian  king's  treas- 
ure-chamber transmogrified  into  a  tale  concerning  "  Bnh 
Lion,  Buh  Kalibit,  Bull  Fox,  and  Buh  Koecoon."  The  fa- 
cility with  which  literary  matter  liccomes  a  part  of  popular 
tradition  when  once  made  known,  in  whatever  way,  to  a  talc- 
telling  ]ieople.  has  been  a  fruitful  source  of  perplexity  to 
stmlcnts  of  folk-lore.  Besides  this  borrowing  from  civilized 
masters  or  visitors,  savage  or  half-civilized  races  have,  of 
course,  biu'roweil  largely  from  each  other.  This  exclumge 
may  be  observed  in  those  countries  in  which  an  African 
slave  population  has  been  brought  in  contact  with  the  abor- 
igines. On  the  composite  character  of  the  folk-lore  of  sucli 
countries  the  Portuguese  scholar  Theophilo  Braga  has  made 
many  excellent  observations  in  his  essay  Sobre  a  Novellis- 
tie.a  Brazileira,  prefixed  to  Romero's  Cantos  populares  do 
Brazil  (Lisbon,  1885).  For  a  discussion  of  the  beast-ejiic 
and  of  the  theories  relating  to  a  Northern  and  a  Southern 
cycle  of  beast-talcs,  see  article  Revxard  the  Fox  in  this 
encyclopa'dia. 

'I'lie  oral  literature  of  modern  Europe  abounds  in  unmor- 
alized  beast-tales  differing  in  no  essential  from  those  of 
uncivilized  races.  Some  of  these  are  (dearly  wild-shoots 
from  ^^sop  or  Reynard  the  Fox:  others  are  survivals  or 
modern  representatives  of  the  indigenous  European  stories 


TiKASI'-I'AMLES 


547 


(o  which  Reynard  unci  |iriil)al)ly  miioh  of  JEsop  owe  their 
rxistfiice;  others  arc  ilmilille.<n  imitiitions  of  old  models. 
The  lieast-tales  inehided  in  Asl>jiiriiscii  and  Moe's  yiirnke 
Fdllci'cri'ntyr  (2d  ed.,  (.'opeiiliaj;en,  1N")2),  in  Hladii's  Coiites 
popitlairex  de  la  Gaseogne  (Paris.  IHHK),  in  (,'rane's  Italian 
I'oititlar  Talex  (Roston.  1885),  in  Coelho's  Contos  popiilari's 
Porluijuezes  (Ushon,  1879).  and  in  tliat  eorpns  of  zoolog- 
ieal  supers!  il  inns.  Holland's  Faiine  populah-i' de,  la  France 
(I'aris.  1877  IT.),  will  serve  as  examples.  Uussia  is  partieu- 
larly  rich  in  such  narratives:  sec  A.  (ierber,  (treat  Ifuxsian 
Animal  Tiilex.  in  {\w  PiiMirationti  of  /lie  Modern  Language 
AsKiiriatiun  of  Amerira,  1885  (eliiefly  from  Afanasiev's  col- 
lection). SiM'ciniens  of  irypsy  stories  may  lie  seen  in  II.  von 
Wlislocki.  Vidkudiclitnnr/en  der  siebenburgisciien  uuil  siid- 
nngarinrhen  Zigenner  (Vienna.  1890). 

Clearly,  then,  a  pcopli^  may  outlives  the  animistic  stage 
of  mental  dcvclnpnient  without  ejeclinir  unmoralized  licast- 
tali's  from  its  oral  lili'rature.  T$nt  in  written  literature  it  is 
oidy  in  the  form  of  the  apologue  thai  such  tales  can  win  or 
maintain  a  place.  In  this  form,  in  the  collection  known  as 
the  Fables  of  .Ksop.  they  have  had  no  small  influence  on 
the  mental  and  moral  life  of  ancient,  mediicval,  and  modern 
Eunijie.  The  history  of  this  collection  is  inextricably  bound 
up  with  the  history  of  Hindu  tables,  and  the  two  nuiy  be 
briefly  sketched  togethi'r. 

Stainhiiwers  Latin  and  German  JEmp  (jdjont  1480),  of 
which  Caxton's  ^F-ta/)  is  an  Knglish  translation  made 
through  the  medium  of  Machaidfs  French  version,  goes 
back  in  general,  though  not  witliout  intermediaries,  to  the 
Latin  fal)les  of  Pluedrus  (about  35  a.  u.  ;  sec  I'n.finRfs)  and 
the  Greek  mylhiandii  of  the  Roman  lialirius  (about  230  .i.  u. : 
see  Baurii's).  The  Greek  prose  fables  of  .iTIsop  are  merely 
paraphrases  of  Babrins.  The  history  of  Greek  fable  before 
Phii'drus  and  Babrius  is  obscure.  Of  the  date  and  nation- 
ality of  ^llsop  we  have  no  satisfactory  information.  \Ve 
can  n(;t  even  lie  sure  that  he  is  an  historical  jierson,  though 
that  is  proliable.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  from  the  lime 
of  Aristo|ihanes  the  Greeks  regularly  referrcil  to  him  the 
fables  which  they  used  in  writing  and  conversation,  .\biiut 
300  B.  c.  Demetrius  Phalereus  made  a  collection  (Kiyuf  AiVto- 
vflaiy  (rvvaywycd,  Diogenes  Lacrtius.  v.  SO),  now  lost,  of  these 
tlcialing  stories,  ami  it  is  not  im|irobalilc  that  lliis,  in  a  later 
recension,  was  the  original  of  our  Pha'drus  {.]-M-obs,  Ilixturg 
of  the  JEiwpic  Faille.  p.'dTi).  The  innnediate  .source  of  Ba- 
brius  was  perha[is  the  Aeica/iufli'a  of  Xicostratus  (second 
century  of  our  era),  doubtless  a  handbook  for  rhetorical 
teaching  (Rutherford,  Baliriii.%  p.  xl.).  What  relation  this 
bore  to  the  compilation  of  Demetrius  is  purely  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

The  ([uestion  whether  the  ..I'Isopic  fables  of  Ph.i'drus  and 
Babrius  (which  show  many  correspondences)  are  native 
(treek  or  borrowed  from  India  has  been  much  discussed. 
The  Indian  documents  most  concerned  are  the  Pali  Jata- 
kas,  or  birlh-talcs  (about  400  is.  c,  though  not  put  into  their 
present  frame  till  perhaps  .500  a.  d.  ;  see  P.^i.i  Literatl'Ri:). 
and  the  so-called  Falilex  of  liid/iai.  In  the  Jatakas  various 
bca.st-fables  (in  the  narrower  sense)  are  strung  together  as 
accounis  of  the  incartuttions  of  the  Buddha.  In  the  Falites 
of  Jiidpai  On<.[  in  its  origin.-il  form,  but  preserved  in  whole 
or  in  part  in  several  translations,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Tibetan, 
etc..  and  in  the  Sanskrit  abridgment  entitled  Paxchatantka, 
(/.  !'.)  similar,  and  in  some  cases  identical,  stories  are  used 
io  nnike  up  a  ISuddliislic  De  liegimine  I'rinripnm.  The  date 
of  the  original  work  is  unknown,  but  may  be  put  at  about 
300  A.  D.  .\  considerable  porlinu  (pf  its  contents  reapjiears 
in  the  IIitopadei;a  and  the  Kathd-xarit-xCigara  (see  Sa.v- 
sKRrr  Litkratl'rk).  The  many  correspondences  between 
Pha'(lrus-Babrius  and  the  Bidpai  collection  make  borrowing 
certain.  Benfev  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  Indians  had 
borrowed  largely  from  the  Greeks:  but  the  early  date  of 
the  .latakas  proves  that  the  former  had  a  large  slock  of 
bea.st-fables  of  their  own,  and  the  appearance  of  several  of 
the  Jatakas  among  the  ^Ksnpic  fables  suggests  an  Indian 
s<iurce  for  such  other  of  tlu'  Plh-cdrus-Babrius  apologues  as 
are  found  in  the  Bidpai  collection.  It  is  therefore' pretty 
certain  that  not  a  few  of  ..-Esop's  fables  came  from  the  East. 
That  all  of  them  are  of  Oriental  origin  is,  however,  improb- 
able. Unless  the  Greeks  were  dilTerent  from  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, they  must  have  had  their  nwn  ]irimitive  beast-tales, 
and  some  of  these  they  would  inevitably  have  moralized. 
Bi'sides,  we  have  a  few  specimens  of  Greek  fable  (in  the 
narrower  sense)  that  date  fnun  a  time  so  earlv  as  to  nnikc 
borrowing  unreasonable.  The  Ilesiodie  apologue  of  the 
hawk  and  the  nightingale  (  Works  and  Dagx,  203  If.)  is  an 


example  (sec  Rutherford's  Sahrius.  p.  xxvii.,  and  cf.  Joseph 
Jacobs.  ^Fxopir  Fable,  pp.  2(5-29).  Except  the  Indians  and 
the  Greeks,  no  ancient  naliim  can  be  said  to  have  made 
important  original  contributions  to  fable  literature. 

The  history  of  the  .^Esopic  fable  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  full 
of  dillieulties.  A  tenth-century  version  of  eighty-three 
fables  of  Plnedrus,  which  is  ascribed  in  the  manuscripts  to 
"  UomiUus,"  was  tiie  medium  through  which  the  Latin  fabu- 
list became  known  to  a  large  part  of  Western  Europe.  Most 
of  the  Old  French  "  Ysopets,''  for  example,  go  back  to  it, 
though  not  immediately.  Babrius  became  known  through 
the  incomplete  Latin  translation  by  Avianus  (about  380 
A.  D. ;  see  Aviaxu.s).  The  celebrated  jiarie  de  France  trans- 
lated into  Norman  French  of  the  twelfth  century  more  than 
a  hundred  fables,  which  she  ascribed  to  King  Alfred,  For 
a  very  ingenious  conjectural  genealogy  of  her  collection  the 
reader  may  consult  Mr.  Joseph  iiwohti's.  Ilistorii  of  t  he  .^E.topic 
Fable  (vol.  i.  of  his  edition  of  Caxton's  ^Fxoj).  London.  1889). 
This  is  a  work  which  goes  overall  the  i|ucsli(ins  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  Oriental  falile  afresh  (w'ilh  abundant  references 
to  the  investigations  of  Benfey,  Ilervieux, Rutherford,  Mall, 
and  other  scholars),  and  contributes  to  the  subject  many 
facts  and  much  interesting  theory. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  oral  traditions  of  modern 
Europe  possess  many  tales  which  may  be  recognized  as 
^Esop's  fables  without  their  morals.  ,\  fruitful  source  for 
the  inlroiluction  of  these  stories  from  written  literafure 
into  oral  literature  was  certainly  the  erempla  oi  mediieval 
sermons  (see  T.  P.  Crane,  The  Exempla  of  Jacque.'t  de  Vitry, 
Lond<in,  ISDO;  and  the  article  Exampi.k-books).  The  jieople 
have  kept  the  tales  but  discarded  the  hwc  fabiila  docet. 

'V\w  Fablex  of  Bidpai  wnf-  translated  into  Latin  (from  a 
Hebrew  version  of  the  Arabic)  by  John  of  Capua  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  under  the  title  of  Di- 
rectorium  Vita'  Iliiniiina'  (cditeil  by  Dcreiibourg,  Paris, 
1889),  and  this  version  (flrst  printed  in  1483)  did  not  fail 
of  its  influence  on  the  literature  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  Spanish  Calyla  e  Dymna 
(about  1250;  edited  by  Gayangos,  18()0)  is  an  independent 
rendering  from  the  .\rabic.  The  Directoriiim.  however, 
never  became  popular  in  the  sense  in  which  the  fables  of 
..Esop  were  popular.  Sir  Thomas  .Norlh's  version  (The 
Jlorall  J'hilotiujiliie  of  l)oni.  1570:  excellently  edited  by 
Joseph  Jacobs,  London,  1888)  has  special  interest  for  the 
student  of  English  letters. 

The  oidy  great  fabulist  of  modern  times  is  La  Fontaine 
(1021-95).  whose  exipiisite  art  nuidc  the  xEsopic  jipologiie 
ills  own.  without  rolibing  it  of  its  individualily.  The  J^a- 
beiii  of  Lessing  (]iublished  1759)  are  still  read  with  pleasure, 
but  can  not  be  conqiared  with  the  master]iicces  of  La  Fon- 
taine. Of  other  fabulists  only  tin'  Englislnuan  Gay,  the 
German  (icllert  and  the  Russian  Krilof  need  be  mentioned. 
The  fable  is  still  used  to  some  extent  for  ephemeral  pur- 
poses, as,  for  example,  in  political  campaigns,  but  can  hardly 
lie  expected  ever  to  regain  a  place  in  literature. 

BinLiooRAPUiCAi,  XoTE. — Materials  for  the  study  of  the 
boast-tales  of  savage  or  semi-civilized  races  may  be  found 
scattered  u|i  and  down  in  llie  anthropological,  ethnological, 
and  folk-lore  journals.  (.See  Foi.k-lork.)  The  following 
books  and  articles  will  also  l)e  of  .service:  fimile  Allain, 
Conlex  Indienti  dii  Bresil.  recueillis  par  51.  le  General  Couto 
de  Megalhaes  (Rio.  1883);  II.  N.  Allen,  Korean  Tales  (New 
York,  1889) ;  C.  Baissac,  Le  Folk-lore  de  I' tie  Maurice  (Paris, 
1888):  Rene  Basset,  Conieit  populairex  /JecAi're.s (Paris,  1887); 
L.J.  B.  Bcrengar-I'^crand,  Contes  ile  la  Senik/ambie  (Paris, 
1885);  W.  11.  I.  Bleek,  Reynard  the  Fox  in' South  Africa 
(Lond.,  1804;  in  German,  Weimar.  1870);  the  same,  ,4  lirief 
Arrount  of  Buxhman  Folk-lore  (London  and  Cape  Town, 
1875):  T>.  Unnina.  Japanixche  Mdrchen  und  Sagen  (I-eipzig, 
1885);  II.  VaWiwsny.  Nursery  Tales  of  the  Zulus  (Natal  and 
TiOndon,  18(i8) ;  E.'Casalis,  Les  Ba.tsoulos  (Paris,  1859);  Sir 
G.  W.  Dasent,  Ananxi  Talex,  appended  to  his  Popular  Tales 
from  the  JS'orxe  (2d  cd.,  London,  1859);  G.  Dumoutier.  Les 
Chants  et  les  Traditionx  populairex  dex  Annamitex  (Paris, 
1890);  Alcee  Fortier,  Bits  of  Louixiana  Folk-lore,  in  Tran-i- 
actions  of  the  Modern  Language  Axxociation  of  America, 
iii.  100  IT.) ;  W.  E.  Gi'iffis.  Japanese  Fairy  World  (Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y..  1850) ;  J.  C.  Harris.  Uncle  Remus,  his  Songx  and 
Sayings  (New  York,  1880);  the  same,  A^'ights  with  I'ncle 
^Vw«,s  (Boston,  1883);  the  same.  Daddy  Jake  (New  York, 
1S89):  the  same,  L'ncle  Remus  and  his  Friends  (Boston, 
1892):  C.  F.  Hartt,  Amazonian  Tortoise  Myths  (Rio,  1875); 
C.  C.  Jonfs,  Jr.,  Sei/rn  Mi/lhs  from  the  Cfeore/ia  Coast  (Bos- 
ton. 1888) :  S.  W.  l\oelle.'.4.frif«a  Natire  Literature  (Lon- 


548 


BEAT 


BEArFORT 


don,  1854);  C.  G.  Leland.  Algonquin  Legends  of  Ne.w  Eng- 
land (Boston,  1884) ;  L.  C.  Lloyd,  A  SItorl  Account  of  further 
Bushman  Material  (London.  188il) :  M.  V.  Jlilnc'-Honie. 
Mamma's  Black  Xurse  Stories:  West  Inilian  i^olk-lore 
(Edinburgh,  1890);  A.  B.  Jlitford,  Tales  of  Old  Japan 
(London,  1881) ;  l^imile  Putitot,  Traditions  Indiennes  du 
Canada  Nord-Ouest  (Paris,  188G) ;  J.  C.  Poestion,  Lapp- 
landische  Mdrchen  (Vienna,  1886)  ;  J.  Riviere,  Recueil  de 
Contes  populnires  de  la  Kaliijlic  du  Djurdjura  (Paris,  1882); 
S.  Romero,  Cantos  popuhtres  do  Brazil  (Lisbon,  1885) ;  F. 
J.  de  Santa-Anna  \erv.  Folk-lore  Bresilien  (Paris,  1889); 
('.  F.  Sc-hlenlier,  ^-1  Coilection  of  Temme  Traditions  (Lon- 
don, 1861);  J.  F.  Sclidn.  African  Proverlis.  etc.  (London, 
1886);  H.  R.  Schooleraft,  Algic  Researches  (New  York, 
1889);  the  same.  The  Myth  of  Jliaicatha  and  other  Oral 
Legends  (Phihiilelphia,  1856);  Erminnie  A.  Smitli.  Mi/ths 
of  the  Iroquois,  \n  Report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Ethnologij  for  ISSO-Sl  ;  Edward  Steere,  Swaliili  Tales 
(London,  1870);  Karl  von  den  .Steinen.  Die  Bnkalri-Sprache 
(Leipzig.  1892):  (i.  McC.  Theal,  Kaffir  Folk-lore  (London, 
1882  ;  3d  cd.  1886).  See  also  Animism,  Folk-tales,  and 
Reymard  the  Fox.  George  Lymax  Kittredge. 

Beat:  in  Alabama  and  Jlississipiii,  a  primary  division  of 
a  eountry  ;  a  iirecinet. 

Beast.  Xiimber  of  the:  See  Apocalyptic  Number. 

BeatiUca'tion  [Lat.  heatitica'tio:  bea'tus,  blessed  +  fa  cere, 
make] :  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  solemn  act  Ijy 
which  the  pope  declares  "  blessed  "  a  deceased  pereon  who 
lived  and  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity  as  proved  by  the  tes- 
timony for  his  virtues,  or  by  his  martyrdom,  and  confirmed 
by  miracles  wrouglit  after  his  death  through  his  interces- 
sion.    Beatification  is  a  step  toward  Canonization  {q.  v.). 

John  J.  Keane. 

Beatific  Vision:  or  the  direct  vision  of  God;  a  Chris- 
tian doctrine  directly  founded  oii  Scripture  (1  Cor.  xiii.  13; 
1  John  iii.  2 :  Rev.  xxii.  3,  4).  and  universally  accepted  by 
the  Churches.  The  time,  however,  at  which  the  beatific 
vision  is  to  take  place  has  been  the  subject  of  some  dispute. 
The  Greek  Church  puts  it  after  the  day  of  judgment,  and 
among  the  Protestant  Churches  this  view  lias  been  adopted 
by  both  the  Calvinists  and  the  Lutlieraus.  But  it  was  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Florence,  1439,  which  determined 
that  "  the  souls  of  those  who  have  remained  pure  and  spot- 
less after  baptism,  and  of  those  whose  sins  after  baptism 
have  Vieen  pardoned,  cither  in  this  life  or  in  the  next,  are 
immediately  received  into  heaven,  and  behold  plainly  the 
triune  God  as  He  is";  which  decision  was  confirmed  by  the 
Council  of  Trent. 

Beating-  the  Bounds:  a  popular  phrase  used  in  Eng- 
land to  denote  the  periodical  survey  or  perambulation  by 
whicli  the  Ijoundarics  of  parishes  are  preserved.  It  is  the 
custom  that  the  clergyman  of  the  parish,  with  the  parochial 
officci-s  and  the  boys  of  tiie  parish  school,  should  march  to 
the  boundaries,  which  the  boys  strike  with  willow  rods. 
The  boys  themselves  were  sometimes  whipped  in  proximity 
to  an  important  landmark,  in  order  to  impress  the  subject 
durably  on  their  memories. 

Bea'ton.  Beatonn.  or  Bethnne.  David:  Scottish  cardi- 
nal :  b.  in  Fife.  Scotland.  1494:  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation.  He  w;vs  appointed  Lord  Privy 
Seal  in  1528,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  F'rance  in  1533. 
He  became  a  cardinal  in  1538.  and  succeeded  his  uncle  as 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1539.  On  the  death  of  James 
^'.,  in  1542,  Beaton  produced  a  forged  will  of  that  king,  ap- 
pointing himself,  with  three  others,  regent  of  the  kingdom; 
but  his  artifice  faihnl,  and  the  Earl  of  Arran  became  the  re- 
gent. Cardinal  Beaton  was  acniel  persecutor  of  the  Protest- 
ants, and  caused  George  Wisliart  to  be  burned  at  the  stake. 
ile  wiis  a.«sa.ssinated  in  his  own  ca.stle  in  St.  Andrews  by 
Norman  Leslie  and  others.  M.iy  29,  1.546.  See  Knox.  His- 
torg  of  the  Reformation  in  Sciilland;  Vrinuh:  J/istory  of 
England,  vol.  iv. ;  Robertaon,  History  of  Scotland. 

Be'atrice :  city  and  railroad  junction;  cajiital  of  Gage 
CO..  Neb.  (for  h)cation  of  couiitv,  .see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref. 
7-K) :  on  Big  Blue  river  ;  90  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Omaha.  It  hits 
a  public  lilirary,  2  opera-houses,  7  fine  schools,  13  churches. 
Holly  svstein  of  water-works,  extensive  manufactures,  etc. : 
|100.000  court-Mouse,  new  .$60,000  Government  building, 
7  miles  of  brick-jiaved  streets,  electric  light.s,  electric  motor 
street  railway;  7  lines  of  railway,  inchnling  Rock  Island 
main  line,  I'liion  Pacific.  ("..  B.  and  Q..  and  minor  lines;  is 
the  third  city  in  the  .Stale  in  population,  second  in  manu- 


factures :  has  2  daily  and  5  weekly  newspapers.  It  is 
noted  for  its  fine  water-power  and  excellent  building-stone. 
Pop.  (1890)  13.836.  Editor  op  "  Express." 

Beatrice  Portinari,  bay-aa-tree  chay  por-te"e-naa'ree  : 
See  Dante. 

Beat'tie,  James.  LL.  D..D.  C.  L. :  poet ;  b.  in  Laurence- 
kirk. Kincardine,  Scotland,  Oct.  25, 1735.  In  1760  he  became  ■ 
Professor  of  Jloral  Philosophy  in  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen. To  refute  the  doctrines  of  Hume  he  published  liis 
Essay  on  Truth  (1770),  which  was  extremely  successful. 
His  most  popular  poem  is  The  Minstrel  (1771-74).  D.  in 
Aberdeen,  Aug.  18,  1803.  See  Sir  William  Forbes's  Life  of 
James  Beattie  (2  vols.,  1806) ;  Alexander  Bowers  Life  of 
James  Beattie  (1804). 

Beatty.  John,  M.D.:  b.  in  Bucks  eo..  Pa.,  Dee.  10,  1749; 
graduated  at  New  Jersey  College  in  1769 ;  studied  medicine 
with  Dr.  Rush,  but  entered  the  army  early  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  and  became  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Pennsvl- 
vania  line  in  Sept..  1776;  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  captiire 
of  Fort  Wasliington,  and,  having  been  exchanged,  Wiis  ap- 
pointed commissary-general  of  jirisoners  in  1778,  with  rank 
of  colonel;  resigned  in  1780,  and  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
medicine  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  was  delegate  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  1783-85;  often  a  member  of  the  State  Leg- 
islature ;  was  Speaker  of  the  House ;  member  of  convention 
which  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution :  member  of  C'on- 
gress  1793-95 :  Secretiiry  of  State  for  New  Jersey  1795-1805 ; 
president  of  Trenton  bank  1815-26.  1).  in  Treiitou,  May  30, 
1836.  J 

Beatus  Rhcnaniis;  See  Rhexaxus  Beatus.  ■ 

Beancaire,  bo  kar'  (i.  e.  Bellum  Qiiadrum,  the  beautiful 
square) :  a  town  of  France ;  department  of  Gard ;  on  the 
right  (west)  bank  of  the  Rhone,  and  on  a  railway  from  Cette 
to  Tarascon ;  15  miles  liy  rail  E.  of  Nimes  (see  map  of  France, 
ref.  8-G).  A  bridge  nearly  one  mile  long  here  crosses  the 
Rhone.  It  has  an  active  trade,  which  is  facilitated  by  a 
canal  extending  to  the  Jlediterranean.  Here  is  held  an-  M 
nually  a  great  fair  (July  25-38),  which  was  formerly  perhaps  I 
the  largest  in  Europe.  It  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Count  Raymond  11.  of  Toulouse  in  1217.  although  we  do  not 
find  it  mentioned  until  1315.  It  has  declined  in  modern 
times,  but  it  is  still  frerjuented  by  merchants  from  all  parts 
of  Europe  and  the  Levant.  The  number  of  annual  visitors 
was  formerly  estimated  at  100.000.  but  has  greatly  declined. 
The  chief  articles  sold  at  this  fair  are  silks,  wine,  oil,  drugs, 
wool,  leather,  and  spices.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

Beanchaui]),  bo  shaaiV,  Alproxse.  de  :  a  French  historian 
and  publicist;  b.  at  Monaco,  in  Italy,  in  1767;  resided  in 
Paris.  He  contributed  to  the  Monile.ur  and  the  Gazette  de 
France,  and  puWished  many  works,  among  which  are  a 
History  of  La  Vendee  (3  vols.,  1806);  a  History  of  Brazil 
(1815) ;  and  a  Life  of  General  Moreau  (1814).  D.  in  Paris, 
June  1,  1832. 

Beanchamp,  beecham.  Earls  or:  Viscounts  Elmley 
(1815) :  Barons  Beauchamp  (1806.  in  the  United  Kingdom),  a 
noble  family  of  Great  Britain. — Frederick  Lygon,  the  sixth 
earl,  was  born  Nov.  10.  1830,  and  succeeded  his  brother  in 
1866.  He  was  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1859,  member  of 
Parliament  for  Tcwkesburv  1857-63,  and  for  West  Worcester- 
shire 1863-66.  He  died  Feb.  19.  1891.  and  was  succeeded 
by  William  Lygon,  the  seventh  earl,  b.  1873. 

Beanchamp.  Richard:  Earl  of  Warwick;  b.  about  1380; 
served  as  general  of  the  English  army  in  France  under  Henry 
v.,  and  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Bedford  as  regent  in  France. 
D.  at  Rouen  in  14:^9. 

Beanclerk.  bo klaark,  ToPHAM  :  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson; 
b.  Dec,  1739;  only  son  of  Lord  Sydney  Beanclerk.  D.  in 
London,  Mar.  11.  1780.  After  his  death  Johnson  wrote  to 
Boswell :  "  Poor  dear  Beanclerk.  his  wit,  his  folly,  liis  acute- 
ness  and  mali(^iousness,  his  merriment  and  rca.soning  are 
now  over.  Such  another  will  not  often  be  found  among 
mankind." 

Beanfort.  bo  fort :  a  port  of  entry :  ca]iital  of  Carteret 
CO.,  N.  C.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  North  Carolina, 
ref.  4-.I);  at  the  mouth  of  Newport  river,  about  4  miles 
from  the  ocean  and  168  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Raleigh.  Its  har- 
bor is  the  best  in  the  State,  and  is  defended  by  Fort  Macon. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  156  feet  high  at  Cape  Lookout,  11 
miles  S.  E.  of  Beaufort,  in  lat.  34'  37'  16'  N.,  Ion.  76°  31'  07' 
\V.     Pop.  (1880)  2,009 ;  (1890)  2,007. 


BEAUFORT 


BEAUMARCHAIS 


54!) 


Bcaiirort,  byu'fort:  on  railroad;  a  port  of  entry;  capital 
of  Bcaufuit  CO.,  S.  C.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
South  Carolina,  ref.  8-E) ;  on  Port  Koyal  Lslaiul,  and  on  an 
arm  of  the  sea  called  Poit  Koyal  river,  alM)ut  55  miles  \V.  S. 
W.  of  Charleston,  It  has  a  good  harbor,  with  nearly  16  feet 
of  water  over  the  bar  at  the  entrance.  Lumber,  rice,  and 
cotton  are  exported.     Pop.  (1880)  2,.")4"J :  (18!)0)  3.587. 

Beaufort,  IIexky,  Cardinal :  an  Knjilish  prelate ;  b.  about 
1375;  was  a  natural  son  of  .John  of  (iaunt  and  half-brother 
of  King  Henry  IV.  He  became  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  KHftS, 
Bishop  of  Winchester  in  1405,  Lord  Chancellor  in  1403, 
again  in  1413,  and  a  third  time  in  1424.  He  acted  a  promi- 
nent part  in  political  affairs,  for  which  he  had  superior  abili- 
ties. During  the  minority  of  Henry  VL  he  was  very  power- 
ful, and  W!LS  a  rival  of  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester. 
He  was  suspected  of  com|)li<ity  in  the  murder  of  that  rival, 
but  the  insinuation  is  bitseless.  He  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constance,  and  voted  for  Martin  \'.,  who,  in  re- 
t\irn  for  his  services,  made  him  a  cardinal  (1417),  but  the 
king  (Henry  V.)  would  not  allow  him  to  accept  the  position. 
In  1426  he  was  again  nominated,  and,  Henry  VI.  not  oppos- 
ing this  time,  he  realized  his  and)ition.  He  was  extremely 
wealthy.  D.  in  Winchester,  Apr.  11, 1447.  See  Lord  Camp- 
bell, Lives  of  the  Lord  ChatieeUorn. 

Beanfort,  bS'l'or',  Fkax(;ois  de  Ve.vdome,  Due  de:  b.  in 
Paris  in  KilO;  a  grandson  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  a 
son  of  Cesar  de  Vendume.  Ho  wa.s  a  leader  of  the  nudcon- 
tents  or  opponents  of  the  court  in  the  civil  warof  the  Fronde. 
Having  returned  to  his  allegiance,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  fleet  by  Louis  XIV.  about  1662.  He  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Candia  in  1669. 

Beaufort,  Dukes  of  (1682) :  Marquesses  of  Worcester 
(1G42) ;  Earls  of  Worcester  (1514) ;  Earls  of  Glamorgan,  Vis- 
counts Grosraont,  and  Barons  Beaufort  (1642) ;  Barons  Her- 
bert (1461);  Barons  Herbert  of  Hagland,  Chepstow,  and 
Gower  (1.506) ;  Barons  Bottetourt  (1308,  in  England),  an  old 
and  prominent  family  of  Great  Britain. — Henry  Charles 
FiTZROY  Somerset,  the  eighth  didic,  was  born  Feb.  1,  1824, 
and  succeeded  his  father  in  18.53.  He  was  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  East  Gloucestei-sh ire  1846-53;  master  of  the  horse 
1858-5!)  and  1866-68:  and  lieutenant  of  Monmouthshire. 

Bcaiii^eucy,  bo'zhaan-see' :  an  old  town  of  Frane^e ;  de- 
partment of  Loiret;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  and  on 
the  railway  from  Paris  to  Bordeaux,  16  miles  S.  W.  of  Or- 
leans (see  map  of  France,  ref.  4— K).  It  hius  numufactures  of 
woolen  and  leather  goods,  and  a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  and 
wool.  In  the  fighting  here,  Dec.  7  to  10,  1870,  tlie  Grand 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg  was  victorious  over  the  French  army 
of  the  Loire.     Poi).  (18'Jl)  4,313. 

Beauhariiais,  boiiar nay',  Alexandre,  Vieomte  de : 
French  soldier  and  statesman;  b.  on  the  island  of  Marti- 
nique, May  28, 1760 ;  fought  under  Itochambeau  in  America ; 
married  (177!))  Jt>sephine  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  afterward 
wife  of  Napoleon  I. ;  member  of  the  Xational  Assendjiy  1789. 
and  twice  its  president;  general  in  the  Army  of  the  Xorth 
1791 ;  general  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine  1783;  accused  of 
participation  in  the  surremler  of  Mainz  ;  executed  in  Paris, 
July  23,  17!)4. 

Beaiiliarnais.  ErcflXE,  de:  son  of  Vieomte  Alexandre  de 
Beaidiarnais;  b.  in  Paris,  Sept.  3,  1781.  His  mother,  .Toseph- 
ine,  became  the  wife  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Egypt  in  17!)8.  He  wjis  rapidly  promoted  in  tlu;  army, 
wius  appointcil  Viceroy  of  Italy  in  1805,  and  married  the 
Princess  Anuilie  Augusta,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Ba- 
varia, in  1806.  His  fuiutions  as  viceroy  were  [)erformed 
with  ability,  prudence,  and  moderation.  Ho  al.so  ilisplayed 
superior  military  talents  in  the  campaign  against  Austria  in 
1809  and  in  the  invasion  of  Russia  in  1812.  Having  ob- 
tained command  of  the  army  in  Russia  after  it  had  sulTered 
great  disasters,  he  acted  with  remarkable  firmness  and  con- 
stancy, and  made  a  masterly  retreat.  After  the  battle  of 
Liitzen,  May,  1813,  in  which  he  took  part,  he  went  to  Italy, 
which  he  defended  against  the  Au.strians  until  the  deposi- 
tion of  Napoleon.  He  afterward  resided  at  Munich,  ami 
obtained  from  the  King  of  Bavaria  the  title  and  estate  of 
Duke  of  Leuchtenberg.  D.  in  Munich,  Feb.  21,  1824.  One 
of  his  sons  married  Dona  Maria,  (^ueen  of  Portugal,  in  1835. 
See  Leonaril  Gallois,  IHMoire  du  Prince  £ugene  de  Beau- 
finniais  (1821)  ;■  A.  Aubriet,  Vie  de  Engine  de  Beauharnaia 
(1824). 

Beaiiliarnais.  Hortexse:  See  Hortense. 
Beaiiharnais,  Josephine:  See  Josepuine. 


Boniiliarnois,  bo  luir  nwaa' :  capital  of  Beauhamois  co., 
Quebec;  on  l)ianch  of  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  and  on  St. 
Lawrence  river;  27  miles  S.  W.  of  ."Montreal  (see  map  of 
Quebec,  ref.  5-B).  It  has  flax-miUs,  potteries,  and  facLoriis. 
Pop.  (1881)  1,499;  (1891)  1..590. 

Beanjoiir,  bo'jhoor',  Louis  Fei.ix  :  b.  in  Provence, 
France,  in  1765;  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1788, and 
in  1804  became  consul-general  and  chari/e  d'affaires  to  the 
U.  S. ;  wrote  A  Sketch  of  tlie  United  States  at  t/ie  Com- 
mencement of  tlie  Nineteenth  Century ;  returned  to  France 
in  1814;  became  con.sul-general  at  Smyrna  in  1816,  and  in- 
spector-general for  all  the  Levant  in  1817;  was  made  baron 
in  1819.    D.July  1,  1836. 

Boaniiiarohais.  bo'maar'shay',  PreRRE  Augustis  Caron, 
de :  a  Fn-nch  dramatist  remarkable  for  his  wit  and  verea- 
tility,  whose  adventurous  .career  and  vicissitudes  of  fortune 
obtained  for  him  great  celebrity:  b.  at  Paris,  Jan.  24,  1732; 
was  the  son  of  a  clockmaker.  Although  sent  to  the  college 
(Anglice,  school)  at  Alfort,  he  was  at  the  early  age  of  thir- 
teen apprenticed  to  his  father.  He  soon  discovered  a  de- 
cided taste  for  literature  and  an  excessive  fondness  for 
music,  in  which  art  he  became  so  proficient  that  he  was  en- 
abled to  procure  an  introduction  to  the  court  of  Louis  XV., 
and  was  emiiloyed  to  teach  the  princesses,  his  daughtei-s,  to 
play  upon  the  harp,  in  the  performance  upon  which  he  was 
skilled,  and  in  the  pedals  of  which  he  introduced  an  im- 
provement. At  the  concerts  given  at  the  court  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Duvcrney.  the  celebrated  financier  of  that 
period,  whom  he  was  enabled  to  aid,  by  his  influence  with 
the  princesses,  in  the  accomplishnu'iit  of  certain  firojects  in 
which  the  banker  was  at  that  tinui  engaged.  In  return, 
Duvcrney  instructed  him  in  the  affairs  of  finance,  and  aided 
him  with  funds  and  credit.  The  lirst  literary  production 
which  attracted  attention  to  Beaunuirchais  was  his  drama 
of  Eugenie,  published  in  1767,  which,  however, did  not  meet 
with  success.  In  Nov.,  1768,  Beaumarchais's  second  wife 
died,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year  Duverney.  Although 
one-half  of  his  wife's  fortune  was  in  a  life-annuity,  and  tlie 
settlement  of  Duverney"s  affairs  discovered  a  balance  in 
favor  of  Beaumarchais,  a  rumor  prevailed  that  he  had  pois- 
oned his  wife,  and  he  was  accused  by  Conite  dc  la  Blaehe, 
Diiveniey's  heir,  of  embezzlement,  fraud,  and  forgery.  A 
.seven  yeare'  litigation  in  securing  the  amount  due  him  from 
Duverney  was  the  occasion  of  his  masterly  Menioires  in  his 
defense,  which  obtained  for  him  great  notoriety.  These  pro- 
ductions are  admitted  to  be  masterpieces  in  their  way,  and 
the  interest  and  excitement  ]iroduced  by  them  is  described 
as  nuigical  and  electrical.  Although  thus  occupied  in  the 
law  and  in  his  favorite  literary  pursuits.  Beaumarchais  was 
still  actively  engaged  in  various  business  speculations.  He 
was  prompt  to  foresee  the  success  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, and  engaged  by  connivance  with,  though  unaided  by, 
the  French  Government  in  supplying  the  Americans  with 
arms  and  amuiunilioii. 

In  the  midst  of  his  manifold  laboi-s  he  undertook  at  this 
time  an  expensive  reproduction  of  the  works  of  Voltaire, 
one  edition  of  whi<-h  was  to  be  in  seventy-two  volumes,  by 
which  he  sustained  a  very  heavy  less.  Notwithstanding  he 
gave  his  support  to  the  f>riiiciples  of  the  French  Revolution, 
and  imported  firearms  for  the  use  of  the  French,  his  prop- 
erty wa-s  confiscated, and  he  was  for  a  time  an  exile  Irom  his 
native  land.  After  iindergning  per.secution  and  accusa- 
tion, he  returned  to  France  whi'U  the  Revolution  was  over. 
His  sulfcrings  during  this  period  were  described  by  him 
in  a  published  work  entitled  Mes  Six  Epoqfii's.  He  re- 
covered pos.session  of  his  beautiful  villa  at  Faubourg  St. 
Antoine,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  The  evening 
of  May  17,  1799,  he  jiassed  with  his  family  and  a  few 
friends;  on  the  morning  of  the  18th  he  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  was  also  the  au- 
thor of  various  dramatic  productions.  Le  Ilariage  de 
Figaro,  his  master|neee,  produced  the  greatest  excitement 
in  Paris,  and  his  liarhier  de  Seville,  which  preceded  it,  was 
also  a  great  .success.  Tlie  first  formed  an  epoch  in  the  dra- 
matic, social,  and  jiolitical  annals  of  France,  and  was  styled 
by  Napoleon  "the  Revolution  already  in  action."  It  is  but 
proper  to  add  that  no  conception  of  its  wit.  vivacity,  and 
telling  social  and  political  allusions  and  sarcasms  can  be  had 
at  the  present  day,  especially  from  the  opera  lil)rettos  with 
which  we  are  familiar.  See  L.  de  Lomcnie's  Beamnarchais, 
sa  Vie  et  son  Temps  (1852):  .St.-Marc  (iirardin.  Notice  siir 
la  Vie  de  Beaumarchais  (1835);  E.  Bergcr,  Eisfni  siir  la 


550 


BEAUMARIS 


BEAVER 


Vie  et  hs  Ouvrai/es  tie  Bfaumnrcliais  (1847) :  E.  Lintilhac, 
Beaumairlitiis  et  ses  CEinres  (1887). 

Beauma'rls :  a  seaport  of  Wales :  capital  of  the  island 
and  county  of  Anglesea ;  on  tlie  east  coast  of  the  island ;  3 
miles  X.  of  Bangor,  and  about  3  miles  from  the  north  end 
of  Menai  Strait  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  a 
favorite  place  of  resort  for  sea-bathing.  The  Bay  of  Beau- 
maris affords  safe  anchorage.  Here  is  a  ruined  castle  built 
by  Edward  I.     Pop.  (1891)  2.203. 

Beau'raont :  city  and  railroad  junction;  capital  of  Jeffer- 
son CO..  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref. 
5-K) ;  83  miles  E.  by  X.  of  Houston,  and  68  miles  X.  E.  of 
Galveston,  and  at  liead  of  tide-water  navigation  on  Xeches 
river,  which  is  navigable  for  331  miles  from  the  sea  by 
steamers.  The  yellow  pine  and  cypress  lumber  and  shingles 
manufactured  oh  the  Xeches  river  (which  has  four  mills)  are 
shipped  by  Soutliern  Pacific  R.  R.  and  in  steamers  and 
schooners  "from  Beaumont  via  Sabine  Pass.  An  average  of 
1,730  car-loads  a  month  is  shipped  liy  rail  through  Texas, 
etc.  Beaumont  lias  fine  water-works,  electric-liglit,  ice- 
works,  refrigerating  company,  furniture-factory,  foundry, 
steam-laundry,  street-cars,  etc.,  and  is  one  of  the  most,  pro- 
gressive lumber  and  shingle  manufacturing  towns  in  the 
South.     Pop.  (1890)  3,296;  (1892)  4,928. 

Editor  of  "  Enterprise.'' 

Bpaiiraont.  Praxcis  :  dramatic  poet ;  b.  at  Grace  Dieu, 
in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1.584;  educated  at  Oxford. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  John  Fletcher,  in  partnership 
witli  wliom  lie  wrote  about  a  third  of  the  fifty-two  plays 
whicli  |)ass  under  their  joint  names,  among  whicli  are  the  ex- 
cellent tragedies  and  tragi-comedies,  P/i i/a>ifei:  The  Jliiiil'ti 
Trar/pilij.  and  A  King  and  iVo  King.  I).  Mar.  6.  1616.  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Bpauiiioiit.  boinoiV,  Gcstave  de  l.\  Boxxiniere.  de : 
French  publicist;  b.  in  Beaumont  la  Chartre,  Feb.  16.  1803  ; 
sent  to  America  with  De  Toqueville  in  1831  to  study  the 
U.  S.  prison  system  ;  member  of  the  Chamber  1840 ;  ambas- 
sador to  London  under  Cavaignac.  D.  in  Tours.  A]U-.  3, 
1866.  He  was  autlior  of  Traifedu  systeme peniteniiaire  aii.v 
Etnfs-Unis  nt  dr^mn  application  en  France;  JIarie,  on 
Vesclavage  aax  Etats-Unis;  L'Irlande  sociale, politique  et 
religieiise. 

Beaiimoiif .  Wilijam.  M.  D.  :  surgeon ;  b.  at  Lebanon. 
Conn.,  in  178").  While  in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1835  a  young 
man  (Alexis  St.-JIartin)  was  lirought  to  him  who  had  re- 
ceived a  wound  from  a  musket  discliarged  at  tlie  distance 
of  only  a  few  feet.  The  wound  liealed,  and  left  an  aperture 
about  2i  inclies  in  diameter,  tlirougli  which  the  process  of 
digestion  could  be  seen.  Dr.  Beaumont  availed  liimselt  of 
this  to  make  various  exjieriments  on  digestion,  the  results 
of  wliicli  are  extremely  interesting  and  of  great  importance 
to  physiological  science.  Tliey  were  published  in  1838.  D. 
in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Apr.  25,  1853. 

Beauiie,  bon  (anc.  Vellaunodu' num) :  an  old  town  of 
France ;  department  of  Cote  d"Or ;  on  the  river  Bouzoise, 
and  on  the  Paris  and  Lyons  Railway ;  23  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W. 
of  Dijon  (sei^  map  of  France,  ref.  o-G).  It  has  the  lieau- 
tiful  Church  of  Xotre  Dame,  and  a  splendid  hospital  founded 
in  1443,  which  retains  nearly  unchanged  its  original  Gothic 
buildings.  Here  are  nuuiufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  cutlery, 
leather,  etc.  Good  liurgundy  wine  is  produced  in  this  vicin- 
ity.    Pop.  (1891)  12,470. 

Beauport' :  a  post -village  and  parish  of  Quebec  co.,  Que- 
bec. C.'inada,  3J^  miles  X.  E.  of  Queliec ;  on  north  shore  of  St. 
Lawrence  river  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Quebec, 
ref.  4-1)).  It  has  extensive  manufactures  and  trade  in  flour, 
hnnlier,  nails,  etc.,  and  is  the  seat  of  Beauport  Lunatic  Asy- 
lum, a  hirge  an<l  well-conducted  institution.     Pop.  4,800, 

Beaiiraili,  bonXiV,  Jeax,  de:  b.  at  Aix-cn-Essart  in  1696; 
a[ipoiiited  royal  geographer  in  1721,  His  l)est  workis  TajMi- 
graphicdl  and  Military  Description  of  the  Campaigns  of 
Marshal  Ln.remlmurg  from  1690  to  109^.     D,  1771. 

Bcan'rcg'ard,  Pierre  Gvstavf,  Tovtaxt:  soldier  and  en- 
gineer: b,  near  Xew  Orleans,  May  28,1818;  graduated  at 
r..S.  Military  Academy  July  1, 1838;  second  lieutenant  of  en- 
gineers July  7,  18:J8  ;  was  distinguished  at  tlie  siege  of  Vera 
Cruz,  in  reconnoissances  before  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
and  in  battles  in  thi?  valley  of  Jlexico,  for  which  twice  bre- 
veted ;  wounded  in  assault  on  Belen  Gate,  Sept.  13,  1847; 
captain  of  engineers  Mar.  3,  185:i ;  in  charge  of  defenses  in 
Lfpuisiana  lH5:}-60:  appointed  sujierintendent  of  U.  S.  Mili- 


tary Academy  Xov.,  1860,  but  lield  this  position  a  few  days 
only.  Resigned  Feb.  20,  1861,  and  was  made  brigadier- 
general  in  Confederate  army,  in  which  capacity  he  directed 
the  operations  against  Fort  Sumter  wliich  opened  the  civil 
war.  He  commanded  subsequentlv  tlie  forces  wliieh  de- 
feated Gen.  McDowell  at  Bull's  Run.  July  21. 1861.  for  which 
victory  he  was  next  day  made  general ;  was  second  in  com- 
mand at  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  A]ir.  6.  but  opjiosed  the  plan 
of  advance,  and  on  Jolinston's  death  assumed  chief  com- 
mand, holding  his  ground  until  2  p,  M.  next  day  against  the 
Federal  forces,  re-enforced  by  the  army  of  Gen.  Buell ;  he 
then  withdrew  to  Corinth,  which  place  lie  held  against  the 
forces  of  Gen,  Halleck  till  May  30,  when  he  evacuated  it, 
retreating  to  Tupelo.  He  suljsequently  commanded,  with 
headquartei-s  at  Charleston,  the  defense  of  the  Soutliern 
coast,  signalized  by  the  unsuccessful  attack,  Apr.  7,  1863,  of 
Admiral  DuPont's  squadron,  and  by  the  combined  opera- 
tions of  sea  and  land  forces  under  Admiral  Dahlgren  and 
Gen.  Gillmore.  In  1864  he  commanded  in  Virginia,  suc- 
cessfully resisting  Gen.  Butler's  forces  at  Drury's  Bluff,  and 
later,  with  a  force  of  5,700  men.  increased  to  1(1,500,  resisted 
Gen.  Grant's  front  attack  ujioii  Petersburg,  holding  that 
place  till  re-enforced  by  part  of  Lee's  army,  thus  compelling 
the  long-jjrotracted  siege.  Was  subsequently  charged  with 
resisting  Gen.  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea,  having  but  5,000 
men,  partly  militia.  The  skillful  withdrawal  of  Gen.  Har- 
dee's army  from  Savannah,  invested  by  Sherman,  to  Pocata- 
ligo,  was  due  to  Beauregard,  At  the  time  of  the  surrender 
of  Gen.  Johnston's  army  Beauregard  was  vohintarlly  a.ssist- 
iiig  him.  After  tlie  war  lie  was  engaged  in  railroad  manage- 
ment. In  1866  the  chief  command  of  the  Roumanian  army 
was  tendered  him,  and  in  1869  that  of  tlie  army  of  the  KJie- 
diTe  of  Egypt,  both  of  whicli  he  declined.  Became  adjutant- 
general  of  Louisiana  1878,  and  eventuallv  served  tlie  Louisi- 
ana State  Lottery,     D.  in  Xew  Orleans,  Feb.  20.  1893. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 
Beauvais.  bovay'  (anc.  Bellovacum) :  an  old  city  of 
France ;  capital  of  the  department  of  Oise;  situated  on  the 
river  Tlierain.  and  in  a  rich  valley  inclosed  by  wooded  hills ; 
64  miles  by  rail  X.  X.  W.  of  Paris  (see  niaj)  of  Fr;mce.  ref. 
3-F).  It  has  a  fine  large  but  unfinished  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
public  library,  a  museum,  and  a  college.  Here  are  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  woolen  cloths,  flannels,  shawls.  Gobelin 
tapestry,  printed  cottons,  and  carpets.  Pop.  (1891)  19.382, 
It  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Bellovaci  in  the  time  of  Ca?sar. 
In  1443  it  was  besieged  in  vain  by  tlie  English.  The  citi- 
zens of  Beauvais.  aided  by  the  heroine  Jeanne  Laine,  sur- 
nanied  La  Hachette  for  her  daring,  and  other  women,  re- 
inilsed  Charles  tlie  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundv,  who  besieged 
the  city  in  1473  with  80,000  men. 

Bea'ver  (in  Lat.  castor):  a  remarkable  quadruped  (Cas- 
tor Jilter)  ot  the  order  liodentia:  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Xorth  America.  Beavei-s  were  once  abundant  in  the 
U.  S.,  but  they  have  gradually  disappeared  before  the  ad- 
vance of  civilization.  They  are  characterized  by  industry, 
sagacity,  and  instinctive  skill  in  l)uildiiig  dams  and  liouses. 
They  have  strong  incisors  or  cutting  teeth,  in  which  a  sliarp, 
chisel-like  edge  is  always  preseiTed  by  the  une(iual  abrasion 
of  the  liard  enamel  and  the  other  jiart,  which  is  softer,  Tlie 
body  of  the  beaver  is  about  2  feet  long.  The  toes  of  the 
Iiiiiil  feet   are  long,  spreading,  and   webbed  to   the  nails. 


Beaver. 

Among  its  remarkalile  characteristics  is  a  tail  of  an  oval 
form,  about  10  inches  long,  horizontally  flattened,  and  about 
3  inches  wide.     This  is  covered  witli  horny  scales,  but  the 


BEAVKU 


BKCCARIA 


551 


Ijody  is  clothed  with  a  very  fine  uiul  vahial)lc  fur,  the  color 
of  which  is  sornotiiiips  fhi'stnut-lirown :  this  fur  is  used  for 
making  liats  and  caps.  Tlic  food  nt  the  licavcr  consists  of 
bark  of  trees,  leaves,  roots,  and  lierries.  Its  favorite  liaunts 
are  rivers  and  lakes  whieli  are  bordered  by  forests.  "  Their 
work  is  all  performed  in  the  night,"  says  I)r,  Godniaii, 
When  I  hey  find  a  stream  that  is  not  suHieiently  deep  for 
their  purpose,  they  build  a  dam  across  it  witli  wonderful  in- 
genuity and  industry.  The  dam,  which  is  formed  of  stiek.s, 
roots,  stones,  and  muil  strangely  ciimliined,  is  water-tight, 
and  presents  a  convex  surface  toward  the  curri-nt.  To  ob- 
tain material  for  it  they  cut  down  the  trees  growing  on  the 
margin  of  the  stream  above  the  dam,  and  float  them  down. 
They  prefer  small  trees,  but  sometimes  fell  those  that  are  10 
inches  or  more  in  diameter.  It  is  stated  that  they  have 
built  dams  nearly  ;!()()  yards  long.  The  sides  of  the  dam  in- 
cline toward  each  otIuT,  so  that  the  bottom  of  it  is  much 
thicker  than  the  toi).  There  is  a  popular  opinion  that  bea- 
vers use  tlieir  tails  as  trowels  in  pla-sternig.  II  is  more 
probalile  that  the  tail  serves  as  a  prop  or  support  when  they 
work  with  their  fore  feet  or  carry  burdens  with  them.  They 
pass  the  winter  in  houses  or  lodges  whicli  are  3  to  3  feet 
high,  are  built  on  the  edge  of  the  water,  and  afford  them 
protection  from  wolves  and  other  wild  beasts.  They  also 
have  holes  or  burrows  in  tile  ground  (adjacent  to  their 
lodges),  with  entrances  under  the  water,  in  which  they  take 
"refuge  if  their  lodges  are  destrnyed  or  become  uuteiialile. 

The  houses  or  huts  of  beavers  are  not  built  of  sticks  first 
and  then  plastered,  but  all  the  materials,  .sticks,  mud,  and 
stones,  are  mixed  together,  and  this  composition  is  employed 
from  the  foundation  to  the  suininit.  "The  tops  of  the 
houses,"  says  (lodmaii,  "are  generally  from  4  to  G  I'eet  thick 
at  the  ape.x  of  the  cone."  "  The  outside  of  the  hut  is  covered 
or  plastered  with  mud  late  in  I  lie  autumn,  and  after  frosi 
has  begun  to  appear.  By  freezing  it  soon  becomes  almost 
i\shard  as  stone,  elfectually  excluding  their  great  enemy,  the 
wolverine,  iluring  the  winter.  The  door  or  hole  leading  inli> 
the  beaver-liiit  is  always  on  the  side  farthest  from  the  land. 
and  is  near  the  foundation  of  the  hut  or  at  a  considerable 
depth  uiuler  water."  When  they  are  much  disturbed  by 
the  presence  of  hunlei-s  and  settlers,  beavers  reiKiunce  their 
original  piMgramiue,  cease  to  build  <l;uns  and  houses,  and, 
adapting  themselves  to  their  altered  circumstances,  excavate 
in  the  banks  of  rivers  holes  for  their  residence — a  signal 
manifestation  of  sagacity. 

Beavers  are  easily  tamed,  but  no  wooden  cage  will  keep 
them  confined,  because  they  gnaw  through.  Many  of  them 
are  caught  in  trajis  bv  the  Indians  and  other  trappers.  In 
1820  liO.IHH)  beaver  skins  were  suld  by  the  lludsoirs  Bay 
Company.  Their  numbers  are  rajiidly  diminishing  in  con- 
sequence of  the  exterminating  warfare  waged  against  them 
by  hunters,  who  often  kill  the  young  before  tliey  have  at- 
tained half  their  gniwth.  The  bait  which  is  used  to  entice 
beavere  is  prepared  from  the  substance  called  castor  (rusfo- 
reuin),  obtained  from  glandular  pouches  conneeteil  with  the 
reproiluelive  organs  of  the  male  beavers.  "  The  only  species 
of  beaver  known,"  says  Dr.  (jodman,  "  is  the  one  we  have 
described,"  but  others  believe  the  Old  Worhl  and  New  World 
beavers  to  be  distinct  species.  The  so-called  extinct  giant 
beaver,  known  as  the  Ca/iloruidea  ohioensU.  is  not  related  to 
the  beaver,  but  to  the  South  .\nierican  octodonts,  a  group  rep- 
resented by  the  Covi'i;  (<y.  c).  It  was  first  described  by  Col.  J. 
W.  Foster,  and  by  him  was  called  Ciintoroides.  See  Morgan, 
The  American  Bainr  (ISHl). 

Beaver :  borough  ;  on  railroad ;  capital  of  Beaver  co.,  Pa. 
(fur  liii-.-itiiin  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-.\); 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  i  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Beaver  river,  and  27  miles  N.  W.  of  Pitts- 
lairg.  It  is  the  seat  of  Beaver  College,  a  female  semin;iry, 
an  academy,  and  has  good  union  schools:  has  water-power 
anil  natural  ga-s.  There  is  a  line  park  in  the  center  of  the 
village.      Pop.  (ISSO)  1,178  :  (ISIIO)  1,."m2. 

Beiivor:  city;  capital  of  Beaver  eo.,  Utah  (for  location  of 
count  V.  see  map  of  Utah,  ref.  (i-L);  on  Heaver  river;  about 
•")()  miles  .S,  by  W,  of  Fillmore.  The  chief  productions  are 
the  cereals  and  wool.  Copper  and  lead  are  found  in  the 
viiinity.  Pop.  of  pri'cinct,  including  Beaver  citv  (1880) 
l.!ll  1 :  (IS'.IO)  l,7r.2  ;  (1895)  2,043. 

Ucavcr  Dam  :  on  railroad  ;  a  city  of  Dodge  co„  Wis.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref,  G-K):  on  Hea- 
ver Dam  creek  ;  til  miles  N.  W.  of  .Milwaukee.  Heaver  Dam 
is  the  seat  of  Wayland  University,  and  has  a  fine  water- 
power,  two  woolen   factories,  a  large  seeder  establishment, 


etc.  It  is  situated  in  an  agricultural  district,  and  is  a  place 
of  summer  resort.  Pop.  (1880)  WIS:  (1890)  4,222,  to  which 
the  enveloping  township  added  1,341 ;  (1895)  5,042. 

Beaver  Falls:  borough  ;  on  railroad  :  Beaver  eo..  Pa.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-A) ;  on 
Beaver  river,  4  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Ohio;  31 
miles  X.  W.  of  Pittsburg.  It  has  Geneva  College,  important 
manufactures,  natural  gas,  pleiitvof  coal,  and  water-power. 
Pop.  (1S80)  ."),104:  (189(5)  9,735.     "    Editor  of  "Tkiblxe." 

Beaver  Islands:  a  group  of  islands  in  the  north  part  of 
Lake  Michigan;  a  part  of  JIanilou  co.,  Mich,  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Michigan,  ref,  :i-ll).  St,  .lame.s,  on  Big 
Beaver  island,  is  the  cliief  town.  Here  a  brancli  of  the 
Mormons  under  Joseph  Strong  settled  in  1846. 

Bebber,  bebber.  Wii.iii:i-.M  .Iakop,  van,  Ph.D.:  German 
meteorologist  anil  author:  forecaster  for  tin;  Seewarte 
meteorological  service;  b.  at  Grietli-am-is'iederrhein,  Rhine 
Province.  Prussia.  .luly  10,  1841;  educated  at  the  gymna- 
sium at  Kmmerieh,  the  academy  at  Miinster,  and  tli(^  uni- 
vei'sity  at  Bonn.  After  teaching  for  some  years  he  became 
in  18t5  rector  of  the  Kealschule  at  Weisseiiburg-am-Sand. 
an<l  in  1879  chief  of  the  division  of  weather-telegraphing  of 
the  German  Seewarte  at  Hamburg,  which  positiim  he  still 
holds.  Prof,  van  Heblier  issues  daily  the  weather  fore- 
casts for  the  Germ.'Ui  and  other  K.iiro]iean  coasts,  and  jiart  of 
the  interior.  Ue  has  also  found  time  to  prepare  130  or  more 
publicat  iiais  of  some  length,  besides  very  many  briefer  not  ices. 
Among  these  are  two  well-known  and  valuable  books :  Iland- 
buch  dt'i-  auxubeiide  Witienmgxkuiide  (3  vols.,  1885  and  1886) 
and  Lehrbuch  der  Meteorolnyie  (18!K)). 

jr.  W.  IIarrin'otox. 

Bebee'ria,  or  Bebee'riiie  (CioHjiXOa) :  a  vegetable  alkali 
or  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  bebeeru,  or  green- 
heart,  a  tree  of  Hrilish  Guiana.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 
substitute  for  qniniiu',  which  it  resembles  in  propci-ties. 

Bebee'ni.  Bihirii.  or  Bibisi  (Xfdandra  rodiai):  a  tree 
of  British  (iuiaiia :  the  timber  is  known  in  commerce  by  the 
name  of  green-heart.     It  is  of  the  family  Lauracece.    See 

(iREKN-llKART. 

Bebel.  baybfl,  Ferdinand  .\rnfST:  German  socialist;  b. 
in  (.'ologne.  t^eb.  22,  1840;  learned  the  turner's  trade  ;  settled 
in  Leipzig;  became  prominent  in  labor  organizations;  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  Vol/issfaat,  and  later  of  Vonmrfs;  mem- 
ber of  the  North  German  Parliament  18G7.  of  the  German 
Parliament  1871-81  an<i  1883-  ;  inemlicr  of  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Saxony  from  1881  to  1894;  frequently  sentenced  to 
imprisonment;  a  gifted  orator;  author  of  Our  Aims  (10th 
ed.);  T/ie  German  I'riisant  ir(n-(lS76);  Wunutn  (lOtli  ed. 
1891),  etc.  C.  H.  Thurrer. 

Bebel.  IlEixRirii:  German  humanist;  b.  in  Ingstetten, 
1472  ;  Professor  of  Oratory  and  Poetry  at  Tubingen  in  1497 ; 
poet-laureate  by  the  Emperor  Jlaximilian  in  1.501.  lie  is 
the  author  of  numerous  poems,  mostly  written  in  Latin  and 
in  praise  of  the  German  emperiir.  His  love  for  popular 
traditions  and  poetry  is  shown  by  his  collections  of  (iernian 
))roverbs  (Pniri'rbiii  (iiriiia)iir(i).nnd  of  popular  jokes  and 
.stories  which  he  published  under  the  title  Vitceliie,  and 
which  were  reail  extensively,  being  directed  ehiefiy  against 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy."  D.  in  Tiibingen.  1518.  See  his 
Jjifi  by  G.  W.  /.apr  (Augsburg.  1802).         .Iri.urs  GoEBEL. 

Beeeafleo,  lu-k-ka-IVe  k'J  [Ital.,  fig-pecker]:  anyone  of 
several  small  European  birds  which  feed  or  are  suppo.sed  to 
feed  on  figs,  as  the  Hi.ve-throat  (</.  c.)  and  especially  Ciir- 
ruca  hortensis;  a  small  bird  of  the  family  of  Si/lviidip  or 
warblei-s,  sometimes  called  the  gardeii-warljlcr.  It  is  abun- 
dant in  Southern  Europe  as  a  summer  bird  of  passage.  The 
flesh  of  it  is  esteemed  as  a  delicate  food  by  the  Italians.  It 
has  an  agreeabU'  song. 

Beccaria.  bek-kali-rceaa.  Cesark  Bo.xesaxa,  Marquis  di : 
an  eminent  Italian  economist  and  writer  on  jicnal  laws;  b.  in 
Milan,  Mar.  15,  1738,  His  principles  were  fijrmed  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Montesquieu.  His  most  imiiortant  work  is  a 
Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Piinis/imeitis  {Tratlnto  dei Delittie 
delle  Peiie.  1764),  ill  which  he  advanced  elo([uent  arguments 
against  the  severitii's  an<l  abuses  of  criminal  law.  It  oli- 
taiiied  great  popularity,  and  was  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages. Voltaire  admired  it.  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  it. 
In  17G8  he  was  a|i|iointed  Professor  of  Politicid  Philosophy 
at  Milan.  D.  in  Milan.  Nov.  28, 1794.  .See  C.  P.  Villa.  Ml'a 
del  Murchese  C.  Beccaria  (1821):  P.  Cuslodi.  Vila  di  C. 
lieccuria. 


552 


BECnE-DE-MER 


BECKET 


Beehe.-de-Mer, bayshdf-mar'  [Fr., sea-spade] :  also  called 
Trepaiig :  a  name  given  to  the  dried  'oodles  of  several  species 
of  Moloihu'ria,  or  sea-cucumber,  which  are  abundant  in 
shallow  lagoons  and  on  reefs  between  Australia,  tlie  Fiji 
islands,  and  the  soutlieast  coasts  of  Asia.  They  are  esteemed 
as  an  article  of  food  by  the  C'liinese.  The  Malay  divei-s  catch 
them  and  prepare  them  in  large  quantities  for  the  Chinese 
market.  This  animal  is  usually  about  0  inches  long,  but  some- 
times measures  2  feet.  It  is  stated  that  8,000  cwt.  of  the 
trepang  are  annually  exported  from  Macassar  to  China.     See 

HOLOTUURID.E. 

Berber,  befhVr,  .TonA.vx  Joaohim  :  a  German  chemist:  b. 
at  Speyer  in  163.5  ;  is  called  the  author  of  the  fii-st  theory  of 
chemistry.  He  became  aulie  councilor  at  Vienna,  but  soon 
fell  into  disgrace,  and  removed  to  Mayence.  He  was  addicted 
to  speculation,  and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  Physica  Suh- 
terranea  (l(i(i!)).  11  is  theory  was  the  basis  of  that  which  was 
developed  by  .Stahl.    D.  in  London,  Oct.,  1683. 

Beelier,  Siegfried:  political  economist;  b.  at  Plan,  in 
Bohemia,  Feb.  28,  1806 :  became  Professor  of  History  and 
Geography  in  the  Polytechnic  Institute  in  Vienna  in  183.5. 
D.  in  Vienna,  Mar.  4,  1873.  Among  his  works  are  Das 
Oesterreichiiiche  Munzswesen  r07i  1534-1833  (%  vols.,  Vienna, 
1838) :  Organization  des  Oeiverbwesens  (Vienna,  1851) ;  and 
Die  YoJkswirthscUaft  (Vienna,  1853). 

Bechnian,  Georges:  civil  engineer;  in  charge  of  the  water- 
supply  and  sewerage  of  the  city  of  Paris ;  b.  in  Paris.  Jan.  1, 
1848."  In  1869  he  finished  his  studies  at  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  entered  the  School  of  Bridges  and  Roads.  Here 
he  graduated  in  1873.  having  lost  one  year  by  serving  a  term 
in  the  army  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  After  varieil 
service  on  harbors  and  other  works,  he  was  attached  to  the 
water-supply  of  Paris.  In  1886  he  reached  the  grade  of 
engineer-in-chief  of  bridges  and  roads,  remaining  still  con- 
nected with  the  works  of  the  city  of  Paris  under  jf.  Alphand. 
He  designed  the  new  water-supply  of  the  city,  to  be  brought 
from  the  department  of  tlie  Eure.  During  the  exposition 
of  188i)  he  constructed  the  illuminated  fountains  of  the 
Champ  de  Mars.  Since  the  death  of  Durand-Claye  he  has 
had  charge  also  of  the  sewei-age  of  Paris,  and  is  the  author 
of  the  great  works  for  utilizing  the  sewage  on  the  plain  of 
Asnieres,  whicli  are  an  extension  of  those  of  Gennevilliers, 
and  those  of  the  plain  of  Jlery,  which  are  now  in  course  of 
execution.  He  has  been  often  consulted  upon  the  sewerage 
of  other  cities,  among  them  Jlessina,  Turin,  Toulon,  etc. 
He  is  an  otfic'er  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  member  of 
many  foreign  orders.  W.  R.  Hutton. 

Bechnnna.  bet-shwaana:  an  African  race  occupying  the 
interior  of  South  Africa,  between  the  parallels  22'  S.  and  28" 
S.,  and  the  meridians 22'  E.  and  29'  E.,  a  nearly  treele.ss  area, 
including  a  large  part  of  the  Kalahari  desert.  The  race  num- 
bei-s  aljout  200,000.  They  are  not  nomadic,  but  live  in  towns 
of  considerable  size.  They  are  industrious  and  bright,  alive 
to  whatever  will  increase  their  property  or  comfort,  and 
many  migrate  for  a  time  to  Cape  Colony,  where  they  are 
highly  prized  as  servants.  While  not  exactly  warlike,  they 
are  inured  to  warfare,  but  they  have  been  unable  to  with- 
stand the  more  savage  Kalfres,  Zulus,  and  Matabele  on  the  E. 
They  are  well  formed,  dark  brown  or  bronze :  the  lips  are 
thicker  and  nostrils  wider  than  with  the  Europeans,  but  they 
are  not  of  a  marked  African  type,  and  are  often  handsome. 
The  hair  is  frizzled,  but  not  kinky.  They  possess  some  of 
the  arts,  and  the  women  practice  agriculture  to  some  extent. 
They  have  no  particular  religious  system,  but  believe  in 
witchcraft  and  practice  circumcision.  Rain  is  scanty  with 
them,  and  the  rainmaker  is  an  important  personage,  whose 
commaiuls  are  implicitly  obeyed,  but  sometimes,  when  he 
fails,  he  is  sacrificed  to  their  wrath.  The  language  is  cojii- 
ous,  and,  like  the  KafTre  and  Zulu,  belongs  to  the  Bantu 
family.  Theodore  Bent  suggests  that  their  name  may  be  a 
corruption  of  Baqnaitia  (i.  c.  children  of  the  rjiiaiita,  or 
crocodile),  the  native  name  of  one  of  the  most  powerful 
trilies,  whose  tutiMn  is  the  crocodile.  M.  W.  H. 

Beclliiaiinlaiid  :  a  British  protectorate  in  the  interior  of 
South  Africa,  extending  (since  Nov.,  1895)  from  the  Molopo 
river,  the  present  northern  boundary  of  Cape  Colony,  north- 
ward over  the  Kalahari  desert  as  far  as  the  Zambesi,  and 
having  Matabelcland  and  the  Transvaal  on  the  K.  and  Ger- 
man boutliwest  Africa  on  tlio  W..  the  twentieth  meridian 
(E.)  being  for  the  iiK^st  part  the  dividing  line;  area,  ahout 
386,200  sq.  miles.  The  British  crown  colony  of  the  same 
name  which  lay  S.  of  the  Molopo  river,  and  had  an  area  of 


51,574  sq.  miles  and  a  population  (1891)  of  72,736,  was  in- 
corporated into  Cape  Colony  on  Nov.,  189.5.  Within  the 
limits  of  the  protectorate  are  included  the  domains  of  the 
native  chiefs  Khama,  Sebele,  and  Bathoen,  each  of  whom 
rules  his  own  people  under  the  protection  of  the  Queen, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  a  resident,  and  continues  to  en- 
joy the  hunting  privileges  he  has  hitherto  possessed.  With 
these  exceptions  the  whole  region  is  administered  by  the 
British  South  Africa  Company.  A  railway  extending  from 
Capetown,  through  Kimberley,  Vryburg,  and  Mafeking,  has 
now  (1897)  reached  Palapye.  the  capital  of  Khaina's  country 
(pop.  25,000),  and  is  being  pushed  on  to  Buluwayo  and  Fort 
Salisbury  in  Mashonaland.  A  telegraph  line  has  already 
been  established  as  far  as  Fort  Salisbury.  A  tax  of  .$2.50 
is  levied  on  each  native  hut.  Cattle-rearing  and  agriculture 
are  the  chief  industries,  and  the  natives  are  peaceable. 

Befk,  James  B.  :  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land. Feb.  13,  1822 ;  emigrated  with  his  parents  to  Lexing- 
ton, Ky. ;  admitted  to  the  bai-  1846 ;  served  in  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  1867-75 ;  elected  to  U.  S.  Senate  1877 ;  re-elected 
1882  and  1888.     D.  in  Washington  suddenly,  May  4,  1890. 

Becker :  See  Braize. 

Becker,  bek'ar',  Georges  :  French  figure-painter  of  note  ; 
b.  in  Paris  in  1845 :  pupil  of  Gerome :  second-class  medal, 
Paris  Salon,  1872;  Legion  of  Honor  1889;  well  known  in 
the  U.  S.  as  the  painter  of  a  large  picture.  Rizpah  Protecting 
the  Bodies  of  Tier  Sons,  exhibited  at  the  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion, Philadelphia,  1876.    Studio  in  Pari.s.  W.  A.  C. 

Becker,  bek'tr,  Hermaxx  Eeixrich:  a  German  politician, 
called  Der  rothe  Becker  (i.e.  the  Red  Becker,  on  account 
of  his  extreme  radical  views  in  politics);  was  b.  in  Elberfeld, 
Sept.  15,  1820;  took  part  in  the  revolutionary  movement  in 
1848,  and  was  imprisoned  for  several  years.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies,  and  in 
1867  and  1868  of  the  North  German  Parliament ;  became  a 
recognized  leader  of  the  Liberal  partv  ;  mavor  of  Dortmund 
1870 ;  of  Cologne  1875.     D.  Dec.  9,  1885. 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrich:  b.  at  Berlin  in  1777;  studied 
pliilosoiihy  and  history  at  Halle  ;  was  a  teacher  in  Berlin,  but 
gave  up  all  kinds  of  business  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  d. 
Mar.  15,  1806.  From  1801  to  1805  he  published  his  W'ettge- 
scliic/tte  fiirKinderund Kinderletirer(S  vols..  Berlin,  1801-05), 
which  has  been  often  reiirinted  and  translated  into  other 
languages.  On  account  of  a  singidar  felicity  both  in  arrange- 
ment and  style,  it  was  to  young  readers  a  very  pleasant  and 
useful  book,  but  since  the  death  of  the  author  it  has  been  so 
much  augmented,  continued,  corrected,  and  changed  as  to 
become  nearly  valueless. 

Becker,  Max  J. :  civil  engineer ;  b.  in  Coblentz  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  June  1,  1827:  came'to  the  U.  S.  in  1850.  Pi-om  1856 
to  1858  he  was  engineer  of  the  board  of  public  works  of  Ohio, 
and  later  engaged  in  railroad  construction.  Since  1867  he 
has  been  chief  engineer  of  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati  and  St. 
Louis  R.  R.  During  1889  he  was  president  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Becker,  Thomas  A. :  first  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  the 
diocese  of  Wilmington.  Del. ;  b.  of  (ierman  Protestant  parents 
in  Pittsburg  in  1832:  studied  in  Munich,  where  he  joined  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  at  the  Propaganda  in  Rome;  was  or- 
dained 18.59.  After  serving  as  professor  in  St.  JIary's  College, 
Eramitsburg,  Md..  he  was  consecrated  jis  Bishop  of  Wilming- 
ton, Aug.  23,  1868  ;  transferred  to  the  sec  of  Savannah,  May, 
1886. 

Becker,  Wilhelm  Adolf:  German  author;  b.  at  Dres- 
den in  1796.  lie  attempted  to  rejjroduce  the  social  life  of  an- 
cient Rome  in  Galliis  (1838),  and  that  of  ancient  Greece  in 
his  Cliarichx  (1840).  both  of  which  were  translated  into  Eng- 
lish bv  Jletcalfe.  His  chief  work  is  Handbiich  der  rOm.  Al- 
tertlilinier  (184:j-46).     D.  in  Weissen,  Sept.  30,  1846. 

Beckerath,  bek  ke-raat,  Hermaxx,  von:  Prussian  states- 
man; b.  Dec.  13,  1801,  m  Crefcld ;  nuide  a  fortune  as  a 
banker;  advocated  German  unitv  ;  ineml)er  of  National  As- 
send)Iv  at  Frankfort  1848;  Minister  of  Finance  1848-49.  D. 
in  Crefcld,  Jlay  12,  1870. 

Becket,  Tiio.mas  A':  Archbishop  of  Canterbury:  b.  in 
London,  Dec.  21,  1118;  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  High  Chancellor  in  1155,  Ijcing  the  first  native 
Knglishnian  after  the  Conquest  who  tilled  a  high  office.  His 
style  of  living  was  sumptuous  in  this  part  of  his  life,  but 
when  he  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1162  a  remark- 
able change  took  place  in  his  habits  anil  deportment.    Ho 


BECKFORD 


BEDK 


553 


practiced  or  affected  great  austerity,  and  appeared  as  a  zeal- 
ous chamj)ion  of  the  Churcli  against  the  aggressions  of  the 
king,  whose  policy  tended  to  keeii  the  clergy  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  civil  power.  Hecket  having  been  involved" in  a 
conllict  with  Henry  II.,  escaped  in  1164  to  France,  and  ap- 
pealed to  the  pope.  Ijy  whom  he  was  supported.  Henry  con- 
fiscated his  property  and  sequestere<i  the  revenues  of  his  see, 
and  received  in  return  a  menace  of  a  papal  interdict.  In 
1170  a  formal  l>ut  hollow  reconciliation  Wius  made  between 
the  king  and  the  obstinate  and  haughty  prelate,  who  returned 
to  Enghtnd  and  resumed  his  ollice.  He  also  renewed  his  de- 
fiance of  the  royal  authority,  but  on  Dee.  29,  1170,  at  the 
altar,  in  the  cathedral  in  Canterburv,  was  assassinated  by 
four  knights,  servants  of  the  king,  lie  was  regarded  as  a 
nnirtyr  by  nuuiy  patriotic  Saxons,  as  well  as  by  the  zealous 
votaries  of  the  Church.  lie  Wfis  canonized  by  the  pope  in 
117;X  and  his  bones  were  deposited  in  a  splendid  shrine  at 
CanterbiH'y,  which  became  the  object  of  one  of  the  great  pil- 
grimages of  Christendom.  Henry  VIII.  destroyed  the  shrine 
and  scattereil  Becket's  ashes.  See  Lives  by  J.  C.  liobertson 
(London,  18.59):  U.  A.  Thompson  (1«88) ;  and  Materials  for 
l/ie.  History  of  Thomas  Deckel  (1875,  sqq.,  8  vols.) ;  and 
CItronieles  and  Memorials  of  Becket  (1880). 

Beckford,  William  :  an  Kngli.sh  author;  b.  at  FonthiU, 
Wilt.shire,  Sept.  29,  IT-jO.  He  inherited  from  hisralheran 
immense  fortune.  imhulinL;  the  estate  of  Fonthill.  His  an- 
nual income  was  about  .£100,000.  He  maixied  in  178;i  Lady 
.Margaret  (ionU)n,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Aboyne.  In 
1784  he  published  his  principal  work,  Valhe.k,  an  Eastern 
tale  (written  in  French),  whic-li  was  highly  commended  by 
Lord  Byron.  He  wa^i  elected  to  Parliament  in  1790,  resided 
some  years  in  Portugal,  and  expemleil  an  enornu)us  sum  in 
the  erection  of  Fonthill  Abbey,  which  he  filled  with  rare  and 
expensive  works  of  art.  In  1823  he  sold  this  palace  and  the 
estate  of  Fonthill.  with  all  its  collections,  to  Col.  Farquhar  for 
£;i;50.000,  aiul  built  another  palace  at  Hath.  lie  published 
in  1834  a  series  of  letters  entitl(;d  Itali/,  wilh  Sfcetcfies  of 
Spiitn  and  Portugal  (3  vols.,  1834),  and  Memoirs  of  JCxtraor- 
(/luary  I-'ainlers(l)i3^).  lie  was  a  wittv  ami  graijhic  writer, 
and  had  much  talent  for  sarcasm.  .1).  Jlay  3,  1844.  See 
Memoirs  of  William  Beckford.  bv  Cvrus  Redding  (London, 
2  vols.,  18.59);  Quarterly  Jieriew  (for  Mar.  and  June,  1834). 

Befkwitli,  .Tames  Carroll:  portrait  and  genre  painter; 
b.  at  Harmilial,  Mo..  Sept.  23.  18.")2;  pupil  of  Carohis-Uuran. 
Paris;  honorable  mention,  Paris  Salon,  1887;  third-class 
medal,  Paris  Ex|)osition,  1889  ;  associate  mendjerof  National 
Academy  of  Design,  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  (1881),  and  American  Water-color  Society.  He  began 
his  studies  in  the  school  of  the  Academy  of  Design  in  Chicago 
about  1809,  studied  two  years  in  New  Vork  in  the  academy 
schools,  and  went  to  Paris  in  1873.  Hi'  returned  to  New 
York  in  1.S78,  and  has  been  a  regular  (!xliil)itor  at  the  Acad- 
emy, the  Society  of  American  .Vrtists,  and  other  jjlaees  ever 
since,  sending  pictures  also  from  time  to  time  to  the  Salon. 
lie  exhibited  also  at  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1893. 
He  is  a  draughtsman  of  great  skill,  and  a  painter  of  nuich 
more  than  ordinary  cleveriu\ss.  His  portraits  aje  notable  for 
sound  construction  as  well  !is  truth  of  line.  Stuilio  in  New 
Vork.  William  A.  Cokfin. 

Bei'kivith,  John  Watrus,  D.  D.  :  second  Bisho[)  of  Geor- 
gia ;  b.  in  Raleigh,  X.  C,  Feb.  9.  1831  ;  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartfonl.  Conn.,  in  1853:  ordained  ileacon  in  \X.ii, 
and  priest  in  18.55.  He  ministered  in  North  Carolina,  Mary- 
land. Mississippi,  Alabama,  ami  Louisiana,  and  was  cimse- 
erated  Apr.  2, 1808.  I>.  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov.  33. 1890.  Bishop 
Beckwith  was  distinguished  for  the  brilliancy  of  his  rhet- 
oric, the  splendor  of  his  eloquence,  and  for  his  simplicity  of 
character. 

B«'CC|ii('rel,  bek'rel',  Antoixe  C^sar:  French  savant ;  b. 
at  ChaliUoM-sur-Loing,  Loiret,  Mar.  8,  1788.  He  served  in 
the  army  as  an  officer  of  engineei-s  from  1810  till  1815, 
after  which  he  gave  special  attention  to  the  study  of  elec- 
tricity, and  UKiile  discoveries  in  electro-chemistry.  He 
refuted  and  ex|)loded  Volta's  theory  of  contact,  and  con- 
structed the  first  constant  pile.  In  1837  he  received  the 
Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  invented 
a  method  of  electrotyping.  He  publisheil,  besides  other 
works,  Triiite  crperimcxtal  de  V elect ricili  el  du  mat/netixme 
(7  vols.,  18:54-40).  He  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1.S29.  1).  .Ian.  19.  1878. — His  s<ms.  Alkxaxduk 
Edmono  (b.  Mar.  24,  1830:  d.  May  12,  1891),  a  physicist, 
and  Louis  .Xlkkkd, a  physician  (b.  in  1814;  d.  in  18C3),  both 
attained  dLstinction  as  scientific  men. 


Becse,  bech'e,  Old  (Ilun.  0' Becse):  a  market-town  of 
Huiig.irv;  in  the  county  of  Bacs:  48  miles  .S.  of  Szegedin  ; 
on  the  'fheiss  (see  mapof  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-11).  Pop. 
1(5,8.50.  Kew  Becse,  which  has  a  popidation  of  7,193,  is  in 
the  county  of  Toroidal ;  on  the  Theiss ;  8  miles  E.  of  Old 
Becse. 

Becskerek.  N'agy.  noj'bech-k^i-rek'  (Great  Beeskerek):  a 
town  of  Hungary;  county  of  Torontal;  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Bega;  59  miles  S.  \Y.  of  Temcsviir.  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  canal  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-1). 
It  has  a  considerable  trade.     Pop.  (1890),  21,934. 

Bed  :  in  geology,  a  stratum,  or  layer  of  stratified  sediment- 
ary rock  of  variable  thickness.  A  bed  often  consists  of 
numerous  thin  laiiiina>  or  plates,  resulting  from  intermi.s- 
sions  in  the  supply  of  the  materials,  produced  by  such 
causes  as  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  and  variable  degrees 
of  the  turbidne.ss  of  the  water  under  which  they  were 
deposited.  A  thin  bed.  if  different  in  kind  from  its  neigh- 
bors, is  sometimes  called  a  seam.  For  an  aggregate  of  sev- 
eral beds  of  the  same  kind  of  rock  the  term  formation  is 
used. 

Bod-bllg:  a  well-known  hemipteroiis  insect,  the  Acanthia 
lectiilaria,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  iciipis.  infesting  be<ls  and 
houses,  and  it  is  sjiid  also  dove-cotes,  and  the  nests  of  swal- 
lows, bats,  etc.  The  eggs  are  oval  and  white ;  the  young 
vermin  flat  and  transparent.  In  eleven  weeks  the  insect 
reaches  its  full  size.  It  is  tenacious  of  lite,  and  has  been 
kept  alive  more  than  a  year  in  a  sealed  bottle  without  food. 
Cockroaches  devour  t  hem  in  large  numbers.  Mercurial  solu- 
tions, benzine,  etc..  will  extirpate  these  vermin,  but  preven- 
tion by  cleanliness  is  best. 

Bed('hanil>er.  Lords   of  the  :    twelve   ofBcers   of   the 

British  royal  hou.si'liold  who  in  the  reign  of  a  king  wait  in 
turn  on  the  person  of  the  sovereign.  They  are  under  the 
groom  of  the  stole,  who  attends  his  majesty  only  in  [)ublic 
ceremonies  and  on  occasions  of  state.  During  the  reign  of  a 
queen  these  offices  are  performed  by  ladies  of  the  bedcham- 
ber and  the  mistress  of  the  robes,  who  is  substituted  for  the 
groom  of  t  he  stole,  t^ueen  Victoria  has  about  eleven  ladies 
and  extra  ladies  of  the  bedchamber.  These  ollices  are 
usually  filled  by  the  "  prime  nobility  "  of  the  kingdom,  who 
are  ap|)ointed  by  the  sovereign, and  are  not  removed  on  each 
change  of  the  ministry. 

Bed'does,  Tmomas,  M.  D.  :  an  eminent  English  physician 
and  writer;  b.  at  ShitTnal,  in  Shropshire,  Apr.  13,  1760.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  well  versed  in  the  Latin 
and  other  languages.  lie  married  -Anna,  a  sister  of  Maria 
Edgeworth,  and  in  1788  was  appointed  to  the  chemical  lec- 
tureship in  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  1792  he  resigned 
this  position.  He  wrote  for  the  benefit  of  the  working- 
classes  a  popular  Wf>rk  called  Ttic  History  of  Isaac  Jenkins. 
In  the  year  1798  he  opened  at  Clifton  a  hospital  for  the 
cure  of  disease  by  medicated  gases,  in  which  Humphry 
Davy  was  his  assistant.  Among  his  works  is  Hyijeia,  or 
Essays.  Moral  and  Medical  (3  vols..  1802).  D.  Dec.  24, 
1808.     See  E.  Stock,  Life  of  T.  Beddoes  (London,  1811). 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell.  M.  D.  :  poet;  .son  of  Thomas 
Beddoes  and  nephew  of  Jlaria  Edgeworth  ;  b.  at  Clifton, 
England,  July  20,  1803.  He  stii<lied  medicine  and  anatomy 
at  Grittingen,  and  resided  many  years  in  Germany.  In  1823 
he  ]iroduced  Tlie  Bri<le's  Tragedy.  Among  his  iioeins  is  a 
trai;edy  called  Dealli's  Jest-hook  (1S51).  which  displays  great 
richness  of  imagery  and  pa.ssionate  eloquence.  lie  died  at 
Basel,  Jan.  26,  1849,  in  consequence  of  a  dissection-wound 
received  in  1848. 

Bedc  (in  Lat.  Bc'da) :  snrnamed  The  Venerable  ;  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  monk ;  b.  in  Wcarmoutli,  county  of  Dur- 
ham, in  073  a.  D.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  at  the  age  of 
thirty,  and  devoted  much  time  to  study  and  literary  pur- 
suits. His  name  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  in  the  ancient 
literature  of  Britain.  He  wrote  on  astronomy,  grammar, 
music,  etc.  His  most  important  work  is  an  Jicrlesiastical 
History  of  the  English  Nation  (Histnria  Ecclesiastica  Oen- 
lis  Anyloriim),  which  King  Alfred  translated  into  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  which  ha,s  often  been  reprinted.  D.  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Paul's,  in  Jarrow,  May  20,  735  A.  D.  His  whole 
works  were  published  by  Dr.  Giles  (London,  6  vols.,  1844), 
including  an  English  translati(m  of  his  Kcclesiastical  His- 
tory; a  iietter  one  is  that  by  L.  Giiiley.  1870.  See  Gehle,  De 
BediB  Venerabilis  Vila  et  jScriptis  (1838);  J.  A.  Giles.  Life 
of  Bede,  prefixed  to  his  complete  works  (1844) :  and  G.  F. 
Browne  (1879). 


554 


BEDEAU 


BEDFORD   CITY 


Bedeau.  be-do ,  Marie  Alphonse  :  general :  b.  in  Vertou. 
near  Xantes.  Aug.  10,  180-1.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
Algeria  (1836-47),  and  became  a  general  of  division  in  Sept., 
1844.  He  had  the  command  (under  Bugeaud)  of  the  troops 
in  Paris  when  the  Parisians  revolted  in  Feb..  1848,  and 
TUider  the  new  republican  nghne  he  became  commander-in- 
chief  of  that  city.  Asa  member  of  the  National  Assembly 
(1849-51)  he  acted  with  the  republicans;  opposed  Louis  >>a- 
]ioleon.  and  went  for  a  time  into  exile.  D.  in  Xantes,  Oct. 
•-'!).  1863. 

Bed'egar,  or  Bedeg'iiar  [via  Fr.  from  Pers.  haddwar, 
wind-brouglit] :  a  gall  (sometimes  called  sweet-brier  sponge) ; 
found  on  the  branches  of  the  sweet-brier  and  other  species  of 
rose.  It  is  produced  by  the  Rhoditea  rosie  and  other  insects, 
and  is  often  one  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  It  was  once  used 
in  medicine.    See  Gall  Insects. 

Be'del.  Timothy  :  a  Revolutionary  patriot  ;  b.  in  Salem, 
X.  H. :  removed  to  Haverhill.  X".  H..  and  was  a  lieutenant 
in  1760,  serving  in  Canada.  He  Ijecame  in  1775  a  ca])taiu 
<if  rangers,  and  in  1776  colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  X'ew 
Hampshire  troops;  served  at  Montreal  and  under  Schuy- 
ler, and  afterward  was  major-general  of  X'ew  Hampsliire 
militia.     D.  at  Haverhill,  X.  H.,  in  Feb.,  1787. 

Bedeir,  (treoory  Thurstox,  D.  U.  :  the  third  Bishop  of 
Ohio;  b.  in  Hudson,  X.  Y.,  Aug.  27.  1817  ;  was  educated  at 
Flushing,  L.  I.,  and  Bristol  College,  Pennsylvania.  After  a 
rectorate  at  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,  X'ew  York  city, 
he  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Ohio, 
Oct.  1859  ;  bishop  in  1873 :  resigned  his  see  in  1889.  from 
which  the  diocese  of  Southern  Ohio  was  set  off  in  1875.  D. 
in  city  of  Xew  York.  JIar.  11,  1892.  Author  of  T/ie  Di- 
vinity of  Christ ;  T/ie  Profit  of  Oodliness;  Sacrtdness  of 
the  Grave;  The  Principles  of  Pastorship;  The  Aye  of  In- 
difference ;  Episcopacy — Fact  and  Law;  A  Canterbiiri/  Pil- 
grimage; A  Votive  Pillar;  Memorial  of  Bishop  Jlrl/- 
vaine ;  and  Pastoral  Theology.  Some  of  his  sermons  were 
published  in  Scotland  as  well  as  in  the  U.  S. 

Bedell,  Orec.ory  Townsexd,  D.  D.  :  an  Ejiiscopal  clergv- 
man;  1).  <in  Staten  Island,  X.  Y..  Oct.  28,  1793.  He  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1811,  was  greatly  admired  as 
a  pulpit  orator,  and  wrote,  among  other  religious  works,  On- 
irard,  or  Christian  Progression;  Renunciation;  and  two 
volumes  of  sermons.  He  was  the  father  of  the  bishop 
named  above.  D.  in  Baltimore,  Aug.  30,  1834.  See  his 
Life,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Tyng,  1836. 

Bedell,  William  :  a  prelate  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  ;  dis- 
tinguished for  his  wisdom  and  virtue;  b.  in  Essex.  England, 
in  1571.  He  went  to  Venice  in  1604  as  chaplain  to  .Sir 
Henry  Wotton,  the  English  ambassador,  and  remaiMe<l  there 
eight  years.  In  1627  he  was  elected  provost  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  and  in  1639  became  Bishop  of  Kilmore  and 
Ardagh.  He  reformed  abuses  in  his  diocese,  and  acquired 
much  influence  by  his  acts  of  charity  and  his  other  virtues. 
He  procured  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
Irish.  I),  at  Drumlor.  Fel).  7.  1642.  See  Burnet,  Life  of 
Bishop  Bi-dell  (16S5) :  H.  .J.  Jlonck  Mason,  Life  of  W.  Bedell 
(1842);  Life  published  by  the  Camden  Society  (1872). 

Bedford :  an  old  market-town  of  England :  capital  of 
Bedfordshire ;  on  the  river  Ouse,  here  crossed  by  two 
bridges;  48  miles  by  rail  X^.  X.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  10^1).  Several  railroads  pass  here.  It  has 
more  charitable  institutions  and  jinlilic  endowments,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size,  than  any  town  in  England.  It  lias  several 
iind  Gothiit  churclies,  a  public  liljrary,  a  famous  grammar 
sclinol,  a  lunatic  asylum,  a  jail,  a  penitentiary,  numerous 
schools  and  charities,  including  aliout  sixty  almshouses. 
Bedford  has  manuf,HCtures  of  farming  implements,  lace,  and 
straw  hats,  and  a  trade  in  corn,  malt,  and  timber.  .lohn 
Bunvan  wrote  Pilgrim's  Progress  in  Beilford  jail.  Pop. 
(189i)  28.023. 

Bedford;  town;  Missisquoi  co.,  Quebec,  Canada  (for  lo- 
cation. se(?  map  of  tiuebe<^  ref.  6-B);  on  Can.  Pac.  Ky. ;  18 
miles  from  St.  Johns;  has  inanufactories  of  knitting-machine 
ni'edles,  ])aints,  gloves,  and  farming  implements.  It  has  ex- 
cellent waler-imwer.     Pop.  (1881)  1.080;  (1891)  1.571. 

Bedford  ;  railroad  junction ;  capital  of  Lawrence  co.,  lud. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  9-D) ;  76 
miles  X.  of  Louisville.  Ky. ;  has  3  pulilic  scliools,  an  opera- 
house,  24  stone-iiuanies  emploviiig  over  1,000  men,  and  a 
stone  court-lunise.  Pop.  (1880)"  2.198;  (1890)  3,351;  (1892) 
estimated,  inchidlng  suburbs,  7,000. 

Editor  of  "  Democrat." 


Bedford  :  town  ;  on  railroad  ;  capital  of  Taylor  co.,  la. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  inaii  of  Iowa,  ref.  7-E) ;  is  on  a 
prairie  and  on  the  river  One-Hundred-and-Two,  about  100 
miles  S.  W.  of  Des  Moines,  and  has  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,763 ;  (1885)  1,742 ;  (1890)  1,643  ;  (1895)  2,070. 

Bedford :  village  :  Cuyahoga  co.,  O.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-11) ;  on  the  C.  and  P.  and  C.  C.  and  S. 
R.  Rs.,  5  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleveland.  Bedford  has  graded 
schools,  3  churches,  a  tine  public  liall,  6  chair-factories,  a 
grist-mill,  feed-mill,  saw-mill,  and  lumber-yard.  Dairying  is 
a  thriving  industrv.  The  to'ivn  was  first  settled  in  1813,  and 
organized  as  a  municipality  in  1823.  Pop.  (1880)  766 ;  (1890) 
1,045;  (1892)  school-census,  1,200. 

Editor  of  '•  X'ews  Register." 

Bedford:  railroad  junction;  capital x>f  Bedford  co..  Pa. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-D) ; 
on  the  Raystown  Branch  of  the  .luniata,  and  on  Bedford 
Division  of  Pennsylvania  R.  R. ;  94  miles  \V.  S.  W.  from 
Ilarrisburg.  Has  8  schools,  including  a  high  school,  and  8 
churches.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  of  the  com- 
munity. Bedford  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1766.  It  con- 
tains several  historic  houses — the  residence  of  Gen.  Arthur 
St.  Clair  when  he  was  prothouotary  of  the  county ;  the  house 
in  which  Gen.  Wasliington,  Gen.  Knox,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
and  others  stopped  when  on  the  march  to  suppress  the 
Whisky  Rebellion  of  1794  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  Bed- 
ford Springs,  about  a  mile  distant,  is  a  fashionable  place  of 
summer  resort.  Iron  ores  abound,  and  iron  is  here  manu- 
factured.   Pop.  (1880)  2.011  ;  (1890)  2.242. 

Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Bedford.  Dl-kes  of  (1694) ;  Earls  of  Bedford  (1550) ;  Mar- 
quess of  Tavistock  (1694) ;  Barons  Russell  of  Cheneys  (1539) ; 
Barons  Russell  of  Thoriiaugh  (1603);  Barons  Ilowland 
(1695,  in  England),  a  prominent  family  of  Great  Britain. — 
Georce  William  Fraxcis  Sackville  Russell,  the  tenth 
duke  (of  this  familv),  was  b.  Apr.  16. 18.52.  and  .succeeded  his 
father  Jan.  14,  lS9'l  ;  was  M.  P.  for  Bedfonl  187.5-85;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother.  Lord  Herbrand  Arthur,  Mar.  24, 1893. 

Bedford,  Gunning  :  a  patriot  of  Delaware;  b.  in  Phila- 
deljihia,  about  1730  ;  served  against  the  French  in  1755  :  an 
oflBcer  of  the  Revolutionary  army  ;  wounded  at  White  Plains ; 
became  mustermaster-general  in  1776;  was  a  member  of 
Congi-es5  (1783-85) ;  Governor  of  Delaware  (1796-97).  D.  in 
X'ewca-stle,  Del.,  Sept.  7,  1797. 

Bedford.  Gunning  :  cousin  of  the  preceding  ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1747;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1771;  member 
of  Congress  from  Delaware  (1785-86),  and  of  the  convention 
(1789)  that  formed  the  U.  S.  Coustitntioii.  He  was  U.  S. 
district  judge  (1789-1812).  D.  in  Wilmineton,  JIar.  30. 
1812. 

Bedford,  Gunning  S..  M.  I). :  physician  ;  b.  in  Baltimore  in 
1806,  and  graduated  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College  in  1825.  After 
serving  as  professor  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  .nud  at  Albany  Medi- 
cal College,  he  settled  in  1836  in  Xew  Yt>rk  city,  where  he 
was  Professor  of  Jlidwifery  in  the  Univei'sity  of  Xew  York 
(1840-42).  He  published  an  excellent  treatise  on  obstetrics 
and  Ijectures  on  the  Disni.tes  of  Wom^n.  liesides  valuable 
translations  from  the  French.  1).  in  Xew  York,  Sept.  5, 
1870. 

Bedford.  John  Plaxtagenet.  Duke  of:  third  son  of  King 
Henry  IV.  of  England ;  b.  in  1389.  He  was  created  Duke 
of  Bedford  in  1414;  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces 
in  England  during  the  alisence  of  Henry  \'.,  who  was  his 
brother.  After  tlie  death  of  Henry  V.  (1422)  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  was  regent  of  Fiance,  and  waged  war  with  success 
against  the  French  dauphin.  He  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Frencli  at  Verneuil  in  1424,  but  his  conquests  were  soon 
checked  by  Joan  of  Arv.  D,  in  Rouen,  Sept.  19,  1435.  See 
Hume.  Ifistori/  of  England. 

Bedford  City  (formerly  Liberty):  the  county-seat  of 
Bedford  co..  Va."(ror  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Virginia, 
ref.  6-E).  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  rolling  country,  at  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  at  an  elevation 
of  1,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  a  regular  mar- 
ket for  leaf  tobacco  raised  in  the  surrounding  country:  liiis 
a  iinmber  of  factories  for  the  niannfacture  of  plug  and  smok- 
ing tob.'icco  and  cigars;  a  successful  woi>len-miIl,  a  knitting- 
mill,  foundry,  planing-mills,  two  tlouring-mills.  and  other 
industries.  In  recent  years  it  has  assumed  iin]iortance  as 
an  educational  center.  In  it  are  located  Randolpli  Macon 
Academy  (under  control  of  the  Jlethodist.s).  Belmont  .Semi- 
nary for"  young  ladies  (Presbrterian),  St.  John's  (Kiiiscopal) 


BEDFOKlt   I.KVKL 


bp:e 


000 


Institute  for  girls,  anil  the  Jeter  Female  Institute  (Baptist) 
fur  young  ladies.     Pop.  (1«80)  2,191 ;  (1890)  2,897. 

ivDiroR  of"Bedkoiii>  Uemocr.^t."' 
Bedford  Level,  or  The  Fens:  a  tract  of  flat  land  in  the 
eastern  pari  of  Kn^'land:  houndeil  on  llic  K.  Iiytlif  (icnnan 
Ocean;  comprises  ]iarts  of  Huntingdon,  Xorthanipton,  t'ani- 
briilgc,  Lincoln,  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk.  Its  inland  boundary 
is  a  range  of  highlamls  in  the  form  of  a  horse-sluic.  Nearly 
all  the  marshy  district  called  The  Fens  is  included  in  the 
Bedford  Level,  which  is  intersected  by  the  Cam,  Ouse,  Nene, 
and  Wetland  rivci-s.  It  Wiis  formerly  a  vast  inora.ss,  and 
was  iiaiiiiMl  in  honor  of  Francis.  Duke  of  Bedford,  who  in 
1G;!4  ujidi-rlook  to  reclaim  it,  and  expciide<l  £100,000  in 
draining  it.  The  work  was  completed  bv  his  son.  William, 
Duke  of  Beilford,  who  spent  f:JOO,000  on  it.  This  tract  now 
proiluces  good  crops  of  grain  and  flax,  and  gra.ss  for  pasture. 
Its  drainage  has  been  improved  in  the  present  century. 

Redlani.  or  Retlllelieiii  (of  which  hi'dhim  is  a  corruption): 
a  hospital  for  the  insane  in  London,  which  was  originally 
the  priory  of  St.  Mary  of  Bethlehem.  When  Henry  VIlI. 
suppressed  the  religious  houses,  this  one,  coming  into  the  con- 
trol of  the  corporation  of  London,  was  converted  in  1547  into 
an  asyluiTi  for  the  insane.  In  1814  the  insane  patients  wen: 
removed  to  a  new  asylum  in  St.  tieorge's  Fields,  Southwark, 
which  lia-s  good  accommodations  for  almost  500  patients,  and 
is  managed  in  an  excellent  manner.  Bedlam  is  sometimes 
used  as  synonymous  willi  a  mad-house,  or  a  place  of  ujiroar. 

Bedloe's  Island:  an  island  in  New  York  harbor;  in  the 
city  of  New  York;  li  miles  S.  W.  of  the  Battery.  It  was 
named  from  a  former  owner.  In  1800  it  wius  ceded  to  the 
U.  S.  Government,  and  in  1841  Fort  Wood,  moiuiting  sev- 
enty-seven guns.  Wius  erected  upon  it.  Bart  holdi's  colossal 
statue  of  Liibfrlij  Enliglitvnixg  tht  World,  presented  to  the 
U.  S.  by  the  French  people,  now  .stands  within  the  fort,  the 
U.  S.  Government  having  allowed  this  island  to  be  used  for 
the  erection  of  the  statue.     See  Xkw  York  Citv. 

Bediiiar.  bdd-maar',  Alfonso  de  i,a  Ct'EV.t.  Marquis  de: 
a  Spaniard ;  b.  in  1573.  He  was  sent  as  and)assador  to 
Venice  by  Philip  II.  in  1607,  and  formed  a  daring  and  ne- 
farious plot  to  betray  the  Venetian  city  and  state  into  t!ie 
power  of  the  King  of  Spain.  The  plot  was  detected  one  day 
Ijefore  that  a[>pointed  for  its  execution,  and  Beilmar  was 
expelled  from  Venice.  He  became  a  cardinal  in  1622.  and 
died  in  165.5.  His  eonsriiraey  is  the  subject  of  Otway's 
lV«icf  Preserved.  See  Dani,  Histoire  da  V^enise:  Saint- 
Keal,  Conspiration  contre  Venise. 

Bed  of  Justice  (in  Fr.  lit  df  justice) :  a  term  a|)i)lied  to 
the  seat  or  throne  occupied  by  the  King  of  France  when  he 
was  present  at  a  session  of  Parliament ;  also  to  such  a  session, 
or  the  conference  of  the  Parlianu'nt  with  the  king,  who 
came  to  oveiTule  the  decisions  of  Parlianu'iit  and  enforce 
edicts  or  ordinances  to  which  tliat  body  was  op])osed.  De- 
crees promulgated  at  such  a  session  were  more  authoritative 
than  the  ordinary  decisions  of  Parliament.  The  ceremony 
became  synonymous  with  an  act  of  arbitrary  j)ower.  The 
liust  ••  bed  of  justice  "  was  held  by  Louis  XVI.,  ni  1787. 

Bedos  de  Celles,  Im  ihls  dc-sel',  Jean  Frax(;ois  :  a  French 
Benedictine  monk;  b.  at  Caux  in  1706.  He  made  several 
good  organs  at  Toulouse,  and  wrote  a  work  called  L'Art  da 
Fdcteiir  d'f)ryui:s  (4  voLs..  1766-78),  which  is  highly  com- 
mended. He  wrote  also  L'Art  du  relieiir  et  du  doreur  des 
lirri:i.  and  an  excellent  (fiionioiii(jUf  (1760).     I).  1779. 

Bed'ouiii.  or  Bediiiii.  written  also  Bedatveeii  and  Bed- 
awee  (inluibilants  of  the  desert):  nomailic  .Xralis;  according 
to  tradition,  the  descendants  of  Ishm.'iel  and  the  aborigines 
of  Arabia.  They  are  a  j)astoral  inxiple.  having  no  housi's 
but  tents,  and  no  permanent  places  of  residence.  They  form 
the  greater  [lortion  of  tlu'  population  of  Arabia,  but  are  not 
eonfineil  to  that  country.  Though  they  are  not  uidted  by  a 
strong  national  organization,  they  have  never  been  entirely 
subjugated  by  any  foreign  con(|ueror,  as  the  ilesert  into 
which  they  can  retreat  forms  an  almost  ins\iperable  obsta<-le 
lo  an  invading  army.  They  are  now  widely  distributed  over 
Xorthern  .\frica,  Syria,  etc.  As  they  have  no  general  gov- 
ernment or  i)olitical  institutions,  religious  traditions  and 
customs  form  the  only  bond  of  onler  and  union  among  Ihein. 
They  are  divided  into  tribes,  each  of  which  is  ruled  by  a 
sheik,  whose  authority  is  patriarchal.  Their  riches  consist 
chiefly  in  flocks  of  sheep,  camels,  horses,  goats,  etc.  They 
are  ignorant,  fierce,  depraved,  addicted  to  robbery  and  fight- 
ing, and  reckless  of  the  rights  of  property.  They  jirofess 
the  Mohamnu'dan  religion,  but  are   not  verv  strict  in  the 


practice  of  its  discipline.  Their  complexion  is  brown  of 
various  shades.  They  are  generally  lean,  sinewy,  and  active. 
An  adniiralile  picture  of  Bedouin  life  and  character  may  be 
found  in  Palmer's  Desert  of  the  E^-odus  (1871),  and  in  Selah 
Merrill's  East  of  the  Jordan. 

Bedstraw  (Galium) :  name  of  a  genus  of  herljaceons  plants 
of  the  family  Uuhiacew,  distinguished  by  a  wheel-snapcd 
corolla,  and  a  fnut  which  is  dry  or  fleshy,  two-lobed,  separat- 
ing when  ripe  into  two  seed-like,  indehiscent,  one-seeded  car- 
pels. It  comprises  numerous  species,  natives  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  the  U.  S.  The  roots  of  several  species,  as  Galium  venim, 
Giilium  tinctorium,  etc.,  contain  a  red  coloring-matter  which 
is  said  to  be  equal  to  madder.  The  Oalinm  rerum,  which  is 
a  connnon  weed  in  England,  is  sometimes  called  cheese 
rennet,  because  it  has  the  jiroperty  of  curdling  milk.  It  is 
naturalized  to  some  extent  in  the  U.  S,  The  Galium  tu- 
berosum is  cultivated  by  the  t'liinese,  who  eat  its  farimiceous 
roots.     Galium  aparine,  or  cleavei-s,  is  a  vahialile  diuretic. 

Bee  (Gr.  ^(Mo-o-a;  Lat.  apis;  Yr.abeille;  Germ,  liiene): 
an  insect  of  the  order  Ilymeiioiitera,  which  feeds  its  helpless 
larva?  on  pollen,  honey,  or  food  digested  or  secreted  by  the 
adult.  Tiiere  are  t  wo  large  families,  Andren idiF  anil  Apidce. 
To  the  former  of  these  belong  all  those  which  live  .solitary, 
tunneling  out  galleries  in  the  soil  or  boring  out  the  dead 
stalks  of  pithy  plants,  as  the  sumac  or  blackberry.  These 
they  divide  into  several  distinct  (■om|)artments,  placing  in 
each  a  small  ball  of  pollen,  on  which  the  egg  is  laid  aial  on 
which  the  larva  feeds.  The  species  belonging  to  this  family 
consist  of  two  classes,  nudes  and  females.  The  solitary  bees 
can  be  distinginshed  from  the  social  bees  by  their  shorter 
tongiu!  or  labium.  They  are  fre(|uently  called  miner-bees 
or  carpenter-bees.  To  the  Apida'  belong  the  social  bees,  or 
those  in  which  the  tongue  or  labium  is  greatly  ehmgated. 
It  includes  the  parasitic  and  true  honey-producing  bees. 
The  former  are  not  ]]arasites  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
l)ut  they  intrude  themselves  in  the  nests  of  other  bees, being 
protected  by  their  form  and  protective  coloring.  They  are 
better  known  as  Inquinales.  Of  these,  as  of  the  Andrenida, 
then:  are  but  two  classes,  males  and  females.  The  honey- 
producing  bees,  to  which  the  common  honey-bee  belongs, 
live  in  immense  colonies,  in  holes  in  the  ground,  hollow 
trees,  old  stumps,  or  Iiolloxv  logs.  There  are  three  classes, 
males,  females,  an<l  workers  or  sterile  females. 

Liniueus  included  all  bees  in  the  genus  vl/ji'.s. but  system- 
atists  are  now  agreed  in  restricting  this  term  to  the  honey- 
bee. There  is  still  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
all  of  the  varieties  should  be  recognizeil  as  a  single  species 
or  as  several  species.  If  naturalists  were  to  find  all  the 
forms  of  pigeons  that  have  been  produced  by  breeding  in 
nature,  they  certainly  would  recognize  them  as  distinct  spe- 
cies. As  a  species  is  only  an  idea,  it  seems  best  to  recognize 
the  .several  races  as  distinct  species.  Some  excellent  author- 
ities consider  them  all  as  varieties  of  mellifica,  the  black-bee ; 
others  recognize  as  many  as  sixteen  species.  The  genus 
Apis  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has  become,  through  the 
agency  of  man,  almost  cosmo])olitan. 

We  should  pnjbably  look  for  the  type  form  in  Apis  melli- 
fica. the  black,  brown,  or  German  bee,  which  is  found  in  its 
original  condition  in  Middle  and  Xorthern  Europe.  This 
species  is  recognized  by  its  brownish-black  body,  pilose  with 
lighter  hairs,  together  with  its  much  shorter  tongue.  Under 
domestication  it  is  known  for  its  irritable  temper,  making  it 
dangerous  to  handle ;  it  is  quarrelsome  with  neighlioring 
bees  and  does  not  otTer  a  good  barrier  against  robbers  ;  but 
it  is  a  good  honey-gatherer,  excels  as  a  comb-builder,  and  is 
less  liable  to  swarm  out,  leaving  unfinished  .sections. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  German  bee,  of  which 
probably  the  t'arniolan,  Krainer,  or  Hungarian  is  the  best. 
Its  distinctive  character  is  the  lighter  rows  of  hairs,  to  be 
considered,  perhaps,  as  a  kind  of  albino.  The  qiieens  are  a 
little  larger  than  those  of  typical  mellificii.  They  winter 
well,  having  strong  constitutions,  are  nnld-tempiued,  good 
honey-]>ro(lueers,  but  free  swarmers.  They  are  natives  of 
Southwestern  Austria.  Another  variety,  not  differing  in 
marking  from  the  German  bees,  is  found  in  Xorthern  Ger- 
many, and  is  known  as  the  heath-bee.  It  differs  only  in  its 
swarming  more  frequently. 

The  Ligurian.  Italian  or  yellow  Alp  bee,  Apis  ligustica, 
is  easily  recognize(l  by  the  yellow-banded  abdomen.  This 
species  is  a  native  of  SoutluTn  lOiirope.  and  is  found  as  far 
h.  as  Asia  Elinor.  There  are  two  varieties  of  the  Italian, 
but  the  difTerences  shade  insensibly  into  each  other.  In 
the  Italians  the  abdominal  segments  two  to  five  are  trans- 


550 


BEE 


versely  banded  with  yellow  hairs,  while  the  iiret  three  rings 
beneath  the  hairs  are  yellow.  In  mellifica  the  black  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen  are  banileil  with  hairs  not  ((iiiti'  as 
liglit  as  in  liyudica.  The  Italians  are  smaller  than  iiiel/t- 
fwa,  the  tongue  is  longei',  the  abdomen  flatter  and  more 
pointed.  The  drones  are  not  so  yellow  above  astlie  workers, 
but  are  almost  wholly  yellow  beneath.  The  queens  vary 
from  very  light  to  almost  as  dark  as  those  of  mellifica. 
The  Italians  excel  in  their  milder  temper,  making  them 
much  easier  to  handle;  in  the  fruitfulness  of  the  queens; 
in  being  excellent  defenders  of  their  stores;  in  their  excel- 
lence as  honey-gatherers,  and  in  their  industry.  They  are 
not  so  able  to  withstand  severe  winters  as  mellifica;  the 
comb  honey  is  not  so  fine  in  appearance  ;  unless  watched 
they  are  liable  to  convert  great  quantities  of  their  stores 
into  inirsery  food,  and  on  slight  encouragement  to  become 
robbers.  It  certainly  produces  a  superior  race  to  cross  them 
with  the  Germans. 

Another  race,  probably  equaling  either  of  the  others  in 
importance,  is  tlic  Cyprians.  They  are  natives  of  the  island 
of  Cyprus ;  are  noted  for  their  activity,  the  fertility  of  the 
queens,  their  industry  as  honey-gatlicrers,  the  production 
of  queen-cells,  and  as  rapid  coTnb-builders.  The  serious  ob- 
jection to  the  Cyprians  is  their  demortiacal  temper  when 
aroused  ;  but  with  practical  beekee|iers  they  seem  to  be  in 
favor.  The  Cyprians  are  smaller  than  the  Italians,  with 
more  intense  or  brighter  colors,  though  the  arrangement  of 
the  markings  is  the  same.  Tliie  dorsum  of  the  thorax  and 
the  sentellum  is  a  brighter  yellow.  A  variety  found  in  the 
Holy  Land  and  Syria,  and  claimed  by  some  to  be  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  Italians  and  Cyprians,  does  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  the  Cyprians,  although  the  colors  are  not  so 
bright,  and  they  are  a  little  larger.  Their  tempers  vary,  liut 
they  are  excellent  foragers.  Like  the  Cyprians  tliey  pro- 
duce a  great  number  of  queens,  one  author  recording  over 
150  queens  from  a  single  colony. 

The  Egyptian  bees.  Apis  fasciafa,  date  the  time  of  their 
domestication  before  tiie  building  of  the  Pyramids,  there 
being  hieroglypliie  writings  concerning  them  near  this  time. 
They  are  in  all  probability  the  species  kept  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians  on  their  floating  apiaries  or  boats,  in  which  tliey 
ascended  the  Nile,  and,  Slowly  drifting  down,  followed  the 
growth  of  melliferous  flowers  produced  by  the  annual  inun- 
dations. They  are  blackish  brown,  witli  an  abundance  of 
whitish  hairs.  The  wings  are  infuscated,  the  second  and 
third  abdominal  segments  in  part  dark  orange.  They  are 
excessively  vicious,  and  frequently  produce  fertile  workers. 
Besides  the  aljove-named  species  or  varieties  there  are  sev- 
eral others  wliich  are  not  so  well  known.  In  Southern  Af- 
rica there  are  two  species.  Apis  cnjfra  and  Apis  sciUidlata. 
The  former  is  black,  the  second  alxlominal  segment  red  at 
base ;  the  latter  has  the  abdomen  brown,  with  the  base  of 
the  segments  grayish  pubescent.  They  have  a  serious  fault 
of  producing  many  fertile  workers,  which  are  liable  to  flnd 
their  way  into  other  colonies.  Apis  nigritarum  is  found  in 
the  Congo  region.  It  has  the  anteniiie  black,  at  base  yel- 
low ;  alidomen  black,  grayish  pilose,  flrst  abdominal  segment 
and  the  second  in  part  yellowish.  In  Senegal  is  found  Apis 
aihmsoiiii.  The  natives,  when  they  collect  the  honey,  stifle 
the  bees,  and  hang  the  emptied  hives  in  the  trees,  awaiting 
the  arrival  of  a  new  swarm.  They  are  simil.ar  to  the  Ital- 
ians, but  smaller.  Apis  unicolor,  in  which  the  abdomen  is 
shining  black,  unifasciate,  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  where 
it  is  domesticated,  and  has  been  introduced  in  the  isle  of 
Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  also  the  Canary  islands.  The  honey 
is  unwholesome.  Apis  iiulica  is  indigenous  to  Hindustan 
!in<l  t.he  East  Indian  Archijjclago.  It  is  small,  black,  pilose 
with  grayish  luiirs,  two  basal  segments  of  abdomen  reddish 
brown,  ft  has  been  cultivated  by  Europeans ;  the  natives 
make  rude  hives  of  bamboo  which  are  placed  under  the 
eav(!S  of  the  houses.  Although  iitdica  is  generally  a  poor 
honey-produci'i'  in  nature,  it  increases  remarkalily  liy  domes- 
tication. 'J'he  Iihootan  bee  is  larger  than  intllcii  and  prob- 
ably distinct.  It  is  very  dark,  witli  light-colored  hairs,  and 
has  an  exceedingly  mild  temper.  Apis  darsafa,  found  in 
India,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  is  the  largest  species  of  tlic  genus, 
the  smallest  of  the  workers  being  larger  than  tin,'  largest  of 
tlie  It.alians  or  Germans.  The  thorax  is  yellowish  above, 
with  brownish  triangular  spots;  black  beneath,  with  reddish 
hairs.  In  nature  they  build  nmler  the  boughs  of  trees,  fre- 
quently in  caves.  Ail  attempts  at  colonizing  liave  been  fu- 
tile. Apis  florea,  on  the  ot  her  hand,  is  t  he  snuillest  species  ; 
the  drones  are  strongly  differentiated  from  the  queen  and 
workers. 


As  has  been  already  stated,  each  colony  is  composed  of 
three  classes:  the  drones,  or  males;  the  queen,  or  fertile 
female ;  the  workers,  neuters  or  sterile  females. 


Fig.  l,~(t,  worlier  ;  fc.  queen  ;  c.  drone. 

The  males  are  usually  present  in  the  hive  from  Slay  to 
November,  but  may  be  found  at  any  time  of  the  year. 
They  are  sh6rtcr  than  the  cmeen,  longer  than  the  worker, 
and  stouter  than  either.  Their  wings  are  larger,  their 
flight  more  awkward,  producing  a  loiul,  buzzing  noise. 
The  labium  and  maxilhe  are  shortened,  the  mandibles  have 
a  rudimentary  tooth,  the  posterior  tibia  and  metatarsus  are 
convex,  the  pollen-basket  being  absent.  The  webbed  hairs 
and  the  sting  are  wanting.  The  eyes  are  large  and  prominent. 
The  antenna?  are  long  and  broad,  and  well  supplied  with 
olfactory  cavities  and  sensory  hairs.  The  wax  glands  and 
the  pollen-digesting  glands  are  wanting.  The  drones, 
thougli  surrounded  by  an  abundance  of  honey,  would  starve 
to  death  unless  fed  by  the  workers.  The  sole  object  of  the 
drone  is  the  fertilization  of  the  queen.  This  always  takes 
place  on  the  wing  outside  the  hive,  and  always  results  in  the 
death  of  the  male.  When  the  supplies  of  the  colony  get 
low,  or  nectar  is  scarce,  or  just  before  winter  sets  in,  the 
workers,  either  by  constantly  biting  and  worrying  them  or 
by  withholding  their  food,  kill  off  the  drones.  Neither  the 
eggs,  young  larva^,  nor  the  chrysalis  escape  extermination. 
The  longevity  of  the  male,  with  the  exceptions  just  stated, 
depends  on  accident.  The  eggs  intended  to  produce  drones 
are  always  unimpregnated,  and  ai'e  laid  in  cells  that  are 
deeper  and  broader  than  those  of  the  workers.  These  are 
callcil  drone-cells,  and  when  not  filled  with  young  are  used 
for  storing  honey. 

The  queen  is  a  fully  developed  female  and  the  mother  of 
the  colony.  She  is  larger  than  either  the  drones  or  the 
workers ;  her  abdomen  is  long  and  slender ;  wings  short, 
reaching  but  little  beyond  the  third  abdominal  segment. 
The  labium  and  niaxilhe  are  similar  to  those  of  the  male. 
Although  the  posterior  tibia  is  bi'oad  and  flattened,  it  does 
not  have  the  cavity  and  surrounding  hairs,  as  in  the  workers. 
The  webbed  hairs  are  also  wanting.  The  sting  is  longer 
than  that  of  the  worker,  and  is  curved.  It  is  very  rarely 
used,  except  in  contests  with  rival  queens.  The  eyes  are  not 
as  lai-ge  as  those  of  the  drones,  and  do  not  meet  above.  She 
is  followed,  guarded,  and  fed  by  the  workers.  The  function 
of  the  queen  is  the  ]iroduction  of  eggs  for  the  perpetuation 
of  the  colony.  During  the  sunuiicr  a  queen  nuiy  lay  over 
3,000  eggs  in  a  day,  or  over  1,000,000  din-ing  a  lifetime. 
An  egg  is  about  ^g  of  an  inch  in  length ;  and  if  all  the 
eggs  produced  by  a  queen  were  placed  end  to  end,  they 
would  reach  over  a  mde.  Queens  are  developed  only  from 
impregnated  eggs,  and  in  cells  prepared  especially  for 
them,  which  are  iisually  on  the  edge  of  the  comb  or  around 
an  opening  in  it,  extending  vertically  or  diagonally  down- 
wai'd.  These  cells  are  constructed  of  ])ieces  of  wax  cut 
from  old  cells,  and  are  very  rough,  mucli  resembling  a  pea- 
nut. There  are  several  things  that  may  induce  a  colony  to 
build  queen-ceUs,  as  the  loss  of  a  queen,  crowded  quarters, 
poor  ventilation,  or  inability  of  the  queen  to  lay  impregnat- 
ed eggs.  There  is  no  difference  in  the  eggs  from  which 
workers  and  queens  are  developed  ;  the  difference  is  wholly 
in  the  food.  A  queen  can  be  produced  from  an  egg  or  from 
a  worker  larva  not  more  than  four  days  old.  To  do  this 
the  workers  remove  the  partitions  of  the  adjoining  cells, 
surround  the  larva  by  a  royal  cell,  and  feed  it  an  abun- 
dance of  rich  food,  called  royal  jelly.  It  usually  takes  fi-om 
ten  to  twelve  days  to  produce  a  (jiu'en  fi-om  a  worker  larva ; 
three  to  six  days  later  she  goes  forth,  if  the  day  be  sunny,  on 
her  marriage  flight.  The  success  of  th<'  (|ueen  is  marked  by 
llu'  ajipendages  of  the  drone  which  will  lie  hanging  to  her. 
If  the  queen  fails  to  mate  the  first  day,  she  will  go  forth 
again  and  again ;  l)ut  if  impi'egnation  does  not  take  place 
before  tli(^  fifteenth  day,  she  is  likely  to  renuiin  a  virgin 
queen,  and  will  lay  only  luiimpregnated  eggs  which  will 
produce  oidy  ch-oncs  or  males.     After  this  the  queen  never 


I 


BEE 


t.0. 


k-aves  the  hive  except  with  a  swarm.  Two  or  three  days 
after  iiiipregiiatinn  tile  queen  bejrins  to  lay  worker  eggs. 
The  queen  is  longer  lived  than  either  drones  or  workers, 
living  from  three  to  five  years.  If  the  queen  ceases  to 
lay  fertile  eggs,  tlie  workers,  before  all  the  worker  eggs  are 
gone,  raise  a  new  ijueen  and  destrov  the  old  one.  If  from 
some  accident,  liowever,  a  colony  lose  its  queen  and  does 
not  have  any  worker  iarva'  of  the  proper  age,  it  will  dwindle 
and  die  out,  if  another  queen  is  not  introduced. 

The  workers  are  the  most  numerous  individuals  of  the 
liive,  a  good  colony  having  from  l.j.UOO  to  40,000.  They 
are  developed  only  i'rom  inijiregnated  eggs,  which  are  usu- 
ally laid  in  the  suuill  horizontal  cells.  The  egg  hatches  in 
three  days  into  a  snndl,  white,  footless  maggot.  After  this 
has  been  fed  grudgingly  for  five  days  by  the  workers,  the 
cill  is  capped  over.  The  adult  larva,  having  lapped  up  all 
Ihe  food  placed  before  it,  spins  a  sdken  cocoon,  changes  to  a 
pupa,  and  emerges  in  about  twenty-one  days  as  an  adidt 
bee.  The  workers  never  attain  an  old  age,  their  age  de- 
pen<ling  on  the  sea.son  of  the  year  in  which  they  emerge: 
those  emerging  at  the  most  active  honey-gathering  jjeriod 
wear  out  in  about  a  nionlh.  As  already  stated,  the  workers 
are  imdeveloped  females.  When  a  colony  becomes  hope- 
lessly (pieenle.ss  (and  occiusionally  at  other  times),  there  ap- 
pear workers  that  have  the  ovaries  somewhat  developed  and 
are  able  to  lay  eggs.  These  eggs,  of  course,  always  ])ro- 
duce  drones,  and  such  workers  are  called  "  fertile  workers." 
No  tenable  expl.'iuation  has  yet  been  made  of  this  fact, 
though  many  theories  have  ))een  advanced.  Upon  the 
workei's  fall  all  the  labor  of  the  colony.  The  young  bees 
do  not  go  forth  for  a  week  or  more  after  emerging  as 
imagoes,  but  build  the  comb,  feed  the  larviP,  drones,  and 
queens,  cap  the  cells,  and  ventilate  the  hive.  Upon  the 
old  bees  devolve  the  duties  of  collecting  the  lioney,  the 
pollen,  and  the  propolis,  defending  Ihe  hive  against  in- 
truders, destroying  the  drones  and  worthless  (jueens,  and 
leading  forth  a  portion  of  the  bees  when  circumstances  im- 
pel them  to  swarm. 

Nature  never  iiroduces  new  organs  for  new  functions  she 
wishes  iierl'orined,  but  modifies  an  already  existing  organ 
so  as  to  perform  the  new  function.  So  it  is  with  the  honey- 
bee. The  work  il  does  is  varied,  yet  it  does  not  differ  from 
insects  in  general  in  the  plan  of  its  structure.  In  a  grass- 
hopper the  mandibles  are  stout  and  toothed,  the  labium 


rio. 


Longitudinal  .section  throuRli  head,  right  uju.\illa  reuiovfd.  n,  auten- 
na  ;  6.  spoon  of  ligiila  ;  c,  cardo  ;  cij,  cephalic  ganglion  or  hrain  ;  cl.  clypeus  ; 
/,  limila;  Ih.  Inliinin  ;  Ibr.  lahrnm  ;  lo,  subnienluin  :  (/),  lal)ial  pnlpi  ;  ml, 
uieriluin  :  m.r,  iiiaxilln  :  n.  neck  ;  No.  1,  chyle  gland  ;  n.  opening  of  chvle 
gland  ;  «c,  ocellus  ;  u;  (jusophagns  ;  ph,  pliaryux  ;  sd  S  3,  .salivary  duets : 
»u,  opening  of  salivary  duct ;  th,  thorax. 


short,  the  maxill.T  short  and  fitted  for  biting  and  tearing. 
In  the  moulh-oarts  of  Ihe  honey-bee  we  find  the  same 
identical  parts,  but  here  they  are  modified  so  as  to  serve  asa 
sucking  organ,  and  have  been  specialized  into  a  long  tube 
for  sipping  various  saccharine  juices,  such  as  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  the  juices  of  riiie  fruit.s,  the  sap  of  trees,  or  the 
honey-dew  of  aphid.s.  The  form  of  this  tube  is  very  com- 
plex. The  apex  of  the  epipharvnx  projects  beneath  the 
labium,  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth  opening. 
The  labium,  or  under  lip,  forming  Ihe  underside,  is  com- 
jiosed  of  a  number  of  pieces.  The  largest  part  is  the  men- 
tiini.  which  is  at  tlie  ba.se  and  beai-s  at  its  apex  the  four- 
jointed  labial  palpi,  and  the  ligula,  which  is  a  long,  slender 
loiigiu'  |ilaceii  belween  the  |ialpi.  On  each  side  of  the 
ligula  and  attached  lo  Ihe  nieiilmn  is  the  paraglossa.  The 
menluni  lies  a  little  behind  and  luiiealh  the  head,  and  can 
bii  moved  liackward  and  forward.  At  its  base  thi're  is  a 
small  triangular  sclerite,  the  siibmentuin,  by  which  il  is 
attached  lo  the  lieiul.     In  the  mentuni  are  located  the  strong 


muscles  which  move  the  ligula.  and  the  salivary  duct, 
which  opens  by  a  valve  at  its  base.  Other  than  this  the 
inentum  has  no  opening  and  is  not  tubular.  At  eaidi  side 
of  the  mentum  are  the  maxilhe,  which  are  attached  lo  Ihe 
head  by  slender  |)ieces,  the  stipes  and  the  lacinia.  At  the 
ba.se  of  the  lacinia  are  the  rudimenlary  nuixillary  palpi. 
The  stipes  and  lacinia  are  hollowed  (JUt,  fitting  close  against 
the  sides  of  the  labimn,  while  the  labial  palpi  embrace  the 
tongue  or  ligula  before  anil  behind  respectively,  forming 
with  the  maxilhe  a  tube  in  which  is  situated  the  ligula  ami 
which  has  the  ])ower  of  moving  from  side  to  side.  The 
ligula  is  covered  with  transverse  rows  of  liaii-s  and  spines, 
while  scatlered  among  these  hairs  are  sensory  ban's  or 
papilhe.  When  u  bee  desii^es  to  feed  on  honey  or  other 
liipiids  the  apical  jiart  of  the  epipharvnx  closes  down  on 
the  opening  left  belween  the  bases  of  the  maxilhe;  the 
labial  palpi  lie  close  together  beneath  and  between  the  over- 
folding  nuixilhe  :  the  maxilla'  are  allernately  anrhed  and 
flattened,  ciiusing  the  palpi  to  recede  fi'om  and  ap|iroach  to 
the  nuixilhe.  The  nectar  flows  into  Ihe  space  thus  made, 
and  w  hen  the  maxilhe  contract  flows  on  into  the  pharjTix. 

The  ininierous  hairs  on  the  ligula  are  a  great  aid  to  the 
bee  in  sucking  up  liipiids  when  I  hey  are  present  in  abun- 
dance; but  when  it  desires  to  collect  I  hem  in  much  smaller 
(plant ilies,  as  in  sipping  the  neclar  of  flowers,  it  must  have 
recourse  to  another  method,  else  Ihe  neclar  would  be  evap- 
orated before  reaching  Ihe  ])h»rynx.  cementing  together 
the  parts  and  clogging  up  the  tidie.  If  we  examine  a  trans- 
section  of  the  ligula,  we  will  find  on  Ihe  inider  side  a  slit  or 
opening  which  is  continuous,  extending  the  entire  length  of 
the  ligula  and  opening  at  its  base.  There  extend  on  each 
side  of  this  slit  within  the  walls  of  Ihe  ligula  two  lateral 
jiouches  or  side  ducts,  which  are  convoluted  and  covered 
will)  minute  hairs.  Immeilialely  above  the  slil  and  above 
llu'  side  ducts  there  is  a  small,  rouiKled.  I  rough-like  hollow, 
its  lower  ai)proximatcil  eilgcs  being  lined  witli  a  row  of  stiff 
bristles,  forming  a  false  tube.  The  bee  in  feeding  on  the 
neclar  of  flowers  takes  up  the  smaller  drops  by  means  of  the 
subdivided  hairs  on  the  ai)ex  of  the  tongue,  transferring 
them  to  the  side  ducts  or  the  central  duet,  according  to  the 
amount  of  the  liijuid  for  Iransporlation  to  the  jiharynx.  It 
is  claimed  by  .some  authorities  that  the  ligula  contains  a 
clo.sed  duct.  That  tliero  is  no  such  duel  can  be  easily  dem- 
onstrated by  taking  a  woi-ker  bee  and  squeezing  ils  thorax 
so  as  to  force  the  blood  into  the  tongue,  thus  dis- 
tending it.  The  two  margins  of  the  ventral  slit 
will  be  sju-ead  apart,  Ihe  side  ducts  forced  out  be- 
tween them,  and  the  central  duct  drawn  down  to 
the  lower  edge,  where  it  can  lie  seen  to  be  composed 
of  a  groove  eilged  with  bristles.  I?y  the  above 
operation  the  ligula  lias  not  been  subjected  to  un- 
natural melhods.  as  it  is  in  this  way  tliat  the 
worker  bee  is  enabled  to  clean  these  ducts  of  grains 
of  pollen :  while  if  it  had  been  a  closed  tube  the 
grains  would  entirely  clog  it  up. 

When  the  food  reaches  the  pharynx  it  is  there 
mixed  with  saliva,  which  is  secreted  by  salivary 
glands  located  in  the  head  and  thorax,  and  open- 
ing by  duels  at  the  base  of  Ihe  mentum  and  in  the 
pharynx.  This  changes  the  cane-sugar  to  the 
grape-sugar  of  honey.  The  liquid  on  leaving  the 
mouth  is  carried  by  a  long  slender  o'sophagus 
through  the  head  and  thorax  into  the  abdomen, 
where  it  is  stored  in  a  mu.scular  sac  or  pouch,  the 
"honey-stomach"  or  "sucking-stomach."  While 
this  sac  the  liquids  are  not  changed  except  by  being 
mixed  with  the  saliva.  The  honey  is  kept  from  pa.sslnginlo 
the  chyle  stomach  by  the  stomach-mouth,  which  is  a  small 
cylindrical  organ  at  Ihe  end  or  bottom  of  the  honey-sac. 
Its  upiier  surface  is  divided  into  four  triangular  lips,  which 
close  the  opening  and  separate  Ihe  pollen  from  the  honey. 
When  the  bee  returns  lo  the  hive,  it  goes  to  the  enqity  honey- 
cells,  the  strong  nius(  les  of  the  honey-sac  contract,  and  it 
regurgitates  the  honey  into  the  cell. 

In  the  legs  we  find  many  interesting  developments.  Situ- 
ated here  are  the  organs  lised  in  cleaning  Ihe  antenna?  and 
in  collecting  and  carrying  the  pollen.  On  the  outer  edge  of 
the  anterior  metatarsus  there  is  a  row  of  long  stiff  bristles, 
which  are  used  to  comb  out  of  the  hairs  placed  belween  tlic 
facets  of  the  eyes  any  grains  of  iiollcn  or  foreign  substance 
that  would  inqiede  vision.  At  tlie  base  of  the  metatarsus 
and  on  the  opposite  side  is  I  he  antenna-cleaner.  'I'h is  con- 
sists of  a  deep,  curved  recess  in  the  metatarsus,  and  an  espe- 
cially adapted  spine  or  velum  attached  to  the  ajiex  of  the 


III 


558 


BEE 


tibia.  This  mechanism  is  found  not  only  in  tlio  workers, 
but  also  in  the  queen  and  drones.  If  theeurveii  reeess  be 
examined  carefully,  tiiere  will  l)e  found  many  slender  teeth 
in  each  comb.  At  the  base  of  the  middle  tibia  there  is  a 
long  slender  spine,  by  means  of  which  the  pollen  mass  is  re- 
moved.    The  middle  legs  are  brought  back  over  the  pos- 


■/■•Hit-y'i' 


terior  ones,  and  the  spine,  enter- 
ing at  the  top.  passes  down  be- 
hind the  mass  and  turns  it  out. 
It  is  also  used  in  cleaning  the 
wings,  and  is  present  in  the 
queen  and  drones.  The  posteri- 
or legs  are  the  most  specialized. 
The  femora,  as  well  as  the  ante- 
rior pairs  of  legs  and  the  body. 
are  covered  with  ciliate  hairs 
which  are  useful  in  collecting 
the  grains  of  pollen.  The  tibia 
is  triangular,  and  meets  the  ob- 
long metatarsus  in  a  right  an; 
On  the  apical  outer  edge  tliere  is 
a  row  ot  strong  spines,  which 
fasten  the  metatarsus  to  the  tibia 
by  shutting  <lown  over  a  flat- 
tened plate  in  the  former.  On 
the  under  side  of  the  nu-tatarsi 
there  are  stiff  coudis,  the  teeth 
of  which  are  straight,  horny 
spines  arranged  in  transverse 
rows.  By  means  of  these  combs 
the  pollen  collected  by  the  cili- 
ated hairs  is  combed  out,  and 
when  the  comlis  are  filled  the 
pollen  is  transferreil  to  the  hol- 
low side  of  the  tibia.  This  cav- 
ity is  glabrous;  while  the  sides  and  bottom  are  lined  with 
two  rows  of  stiff  bristles,  a  third  bends  over  the  front.  This 
is  the  corbicular  or  pollen-basket.  The  pollen  on  the  right 
metatai-sus  is  transferred  to  the  left  tibia,  and  vice  versa. 

Propolis  or  bee-glue  is  carried  in  the  same  way  as  pollen. 
It  is  collected  liy  the  liees  from  resinous  liuds,  such  as  the 
hickory  and  horse-cheslinit,  and  is  used  to  glue  the  combs 
to  their  supports,  to  till  all  cracks,  and  to  les.sen  the  place  of 
exit.     Alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform  dissolve  it. 

If  tlie  abdomen  of  a  worker  be  elongated  by  gently  sepa- 
rating the  segments,  and  examined,  there  will  be  found  at 


Fig.  .3.— Under  side  of  rigbt 
posterior  leg.  r,  eoxa  ;  /, 
lenuir  with  ciliate  hairs  ; 
p,  metatarsus  ;  ^  tarsus; 
ti,  tibia  with  lateral  spines  ; 
try  trochanter  ;  wp,  wa.x 
pincers. 


f  worker  i-arrying  wax-scales. 


the  ba.se  of  abdominal  segments  two  to  five,  two  smoolh 
plates,,  called  tlie  wax-plates.  These  ])l;iles  are  smoolh, 
anil  are  strengthened  by  rims  (d'  cliitine,  which  also  give 
them  a  definite  outline.  The  apex  of  each  segment  projects 
over  the  wax  plates  of  the  next  [losterior  segment,  and  is 


covered  with  webbed  hairs.  The  true  wax  glands  are  situ- 
ated liencath,  the  wax  [lassing  through  bv  osmosis.  A 
marked  [)eculiarity  of  these  glands  is  the  great  abundance 
of  trachea'  or  air-tubes  witli  which  they  are'supplieil.  Wax 
is  like  all  animal  secretion.s — the  silk  of  spidei-s,  for  exam- 
ple—liqiad  at  first.     It  is  derived  from  the  blood  bv  cell 


Fig.  .5.-^ Third  ventral  abdominal  segment  of  worker,    s.  strengthen- 
ing carina  ;  w.  wax-plates  ;  wh,  ciliated  hairs. 

action,  solidifying  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  air.  If 
a  colony  is  placed  in  an  empty  hive,  they  climb  the  sides, 
the  upper  ones  firmly  secviring  themselves  to  the  sides  of  the 
hive  by  means  of  their  claws,  and  the  next  liec  hooking  its 
front  claws  into  the  hind  claws  of  the  one  above,  until  the 
ladders  of  bees  reach  tlie  bottom  of  the  hive.  Before  leav- 
ing its  old  home  the  bee  gorged  itself  with  honey;  this  is 
now  used  in  producing  the  wax.  When  the  above  arrange- 
ment is  comjilete  the  bees  remain  perfectly  still,  and  the 
wax  flows  over  the  thin  membrane  of  the  pocket.  The  wax 
liaving  been  secreted,  a  single  bee  starts  the  comb.  The 
scales  are  removed  by  means  of  the  stiff  bristles  at  the  apex 
of  the  posterior  tibia,  which  are  passed  beneath  the  wax 
scales,  scooping  them  out.  By  prolonged  chewing  it  is 
made  into  plastic  material,  which  is  attached  to  a  middle 
wall  or  the  midrib,  forming  the  base  or  end  of  the  layer  of 
cells  covering  it  on  each  side.  Wax  can  be  produced  only 
at  the  expense  of  many  times  the  weight  of  the  bee  in 
honey  or  sugar.  The  bees,  realizing  this,  econoiuize,  35,000 
or  moi'e  worker  cells  being  molded  from  a  single  pound  of 
wax.  The  siiles  of  the  cells  are  liipiid  proof.  If  water 
mixed  with  dyes  be  placed  in  worker  or  drone  cells  adjacent 
to  those  containing  clear  water,  they  will  not  intermingle. 

Swarming  is  the  result  of  natural  increase.  The  queen, 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  begins  making  preijarations 
by  the  laying  of  drone  eggs.  When  the  drone  brood  is 
well  under  way  queen-cells  afc  started,  the  number  varying 
with  the  race  or  variety  of  bees  from  three  to  fifteen,  and  in 
some  varieties  to  over  100.  When  the  (|ueens  begin  to  ma- 
ture they  are  gvuirded  liy  the  workers,  as  the  old  queen  woulil 
.sting  them  to  death.  If  the  colony  is  crowded,  the  ventila- 
tion insnificient,  or  the  hives  unshaded,  some  sunny  day, 
generally  abotd  eleven  o'clock,  there  is  a  great  uproar  in  the 
hive,  the  workers  fill  their  honey-.sacs,  and  the  bees — queen, 
workers,  and  drones — come  out  with  a  rush.  The  swarm 
usually  cluster  u)ion  the  limb  of  a  tree,  or  on  a  fence-post 
near,  where  they  remain  a  short  time.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  that  the  workers  look  out  a  new  home  the  day  before 
swarming,  by  others  wdiile  they  are  clustered.  It  is  always 
the  old  (piceu  that  goes  with  the  first  swarm,  and  if  the 
swarm  ini.ss  the  queen  after  leaving  the  hive  they  will  re- 
turn. In  about  one  week  the  fir.st  queen  will  emerge;  in 
two  or  three  days  she  will  or  may  lead  a  new  colony  fortli. 
This  is  preceded  by  tlie  jieculiar  note  of  the  queen,  known 
as  the  •■pi]iiiig  of  the  qiu'cn."  This  noise  is  thouglit  by 
some  to  be  ]iroduced  by  rubbing  the  abdominal  segments 
together,  and  is  made  sometimes  before  the  queen  is  out  of 
the  cell.  Swarms  will  issue  in  periods  of  from  one  to  two 
days.  As  many  as  eight  after-swarms  have  been  recorded  as 
issuing  from  the  old  houu'.  If  the  swarming  is  not  inter- 
I'cred  with  by  man.  the  workers  may  destroy  the  queen-cells 
and  (li-ive  the  drones  from  the  hive.     See  Aputlture. 

Alex.  D.  MacGillivray. 

Bee,  B.^RXARD  E. :  Confederate  general ;  b.  in  South  Caro- 
lina lH2-t:  graduated  at  West  Point  1K45  in  the  artillery; 
serve<l  with  distinction  throughout  the  Mexican  war  (wound- 


BKKHK 


BEECriER 


559 


■  il  at  CVrro  Gordo),  liis  galliiiit  fonduet  being  i-ecognized  in 
Ills  native  State  l)_v  the  present  at  ion  of  a  ssvord  of  honor, 
lie  was  on  frontier  duly  prinei|ially  from  1S4.S  to  Mar.  3. 
1H61.  wlien  he  vesij^ned,  and  was  appointed  a  liriKiulier-fjcn- 
erid  in  the  (  on  federate  army.  At  the  first  battle  of  Hull 
Klin.  July  21,  ISIil.  he  was  killed. 

Bee'lie.  Bkz.vi.kki.:  b.  at  Litchfield.  Conn..  .\pr.  2H.  1741  ; 
a  Revolutionary  offieer ;  joined  the  Ko<;ei-s  Raii<;ei-s  in  17")8; 
beeaiiu'  a  eaptain  .Jan.,  1770;  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
capture  of  Fori  \\'ashinf;ton  ;  was  cxehansed,  and  beeanie 
niaior  in  1777,  lii'iitenaiil-eoloiiel  in  1780.  eolonel  in  1781, 
anil  afterward  eommaudeil  the  C'onneetieut  troops  raised 
to  ilefeiid  tlie  seacoast ;  was  often  a  member  of  llie  Con- 
nect lent  l.e^'islature  between  1781  and  1705.  I),  in  Litch- 
fieUl.  May  i'.K  1824. 

Beech  (<).  En;;,  hi'cr.  a  deriv.  from  word  a]ipearinir  in  (). 
Eiifr.ioc:  O.X./m/l-:  ().  II.  (i.  iHo/i/i«  O(.iorm.  Biir/ii):  c.  f. 
Lat.  t'dgux.  (ir.  tpny6s]:  a  tree  of  the  genus  Fagm.  and 
family  Cupiilifenv.  natives  of  Euro()e,  America,  and  Aus- 
tralasia. The  sterile  flowers  have  a  bell-shaped  calyx  live 
to  .seven  cleft,  with  eight  to  sixteen  stamens.  The  fertile 
flowei-s  srow  on  the  same  tree.  tli<'  fruit  of  which  is  a  trian- 
gular <ir  sliarpiv  three-si<led  nut.  two  of  which  are  inclosed 
in  an  uru-shaiied,  coriaceous  involucre  or  husk.  These  nuts, 
called  beechmast.  are  edible,  and  are  valuable  as  food  for 
swine.  They  yield  a  large  proportion  of  a  bland  fixed  oil 
which  is  used  a.s  food  and  burned  in  lamps  by  Kuropeaiis : 
the  husks  contain  a  volatile,  narcotic,  poisonous  principle 
called  fii'/ine.  The  genus  comprises  several  sjiecics  of 
beautiful  forest  trees,  with  a  close  and  smooth  ash-gray 
bark  and  a  light  horizontal  spray.  The  Fiii/iis  si/lra/ird. 
or  couinion  beech  of  Kurojie,  forms  whole  forests  in  many 
parts  of  that  continent.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  about 
100  feet,  and  sometimes  has  a  diameter  of  4  feet,  and  is 
a  very  ornamental  tree,  esiiecially  when  it  stands  alone. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  valuable  for  fuel,  and,  being  dura- 
ble under  wati'i-.  is  employed  in  the  erection  of  mills.  The 
French  use  it  extensively  in  tlie  manufacture  of  aahols  or 
wooden  siloes.  The  Fdf/iin  frrnu/iiii'ii  (.\iiiericaii  beecli) 
is  abundant  in  the  Xiu-thern  l'.  S.,  .sometimes  growing  gre- 
gariously in  forests  which  contain  few  other  trees.  Its 
leaves  are  oblong-ovate,  taper-iiointcd,  distinctly  anil  often 
coarsely  toothed  or  serrate.  Phis  is  ail  ornaineiital  tree, 
which  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  surimsses 
most  trees  in  the  depth  of  shade  ))roduced  by  its  rich  green 
and  .shining  foliage.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  good  for  fuel, 
plane-stocks,  shoe-lasts,  tool-haudlcs,  and  other  purposes. 
The  color  of  the  wood  is  a  light  brown  or  reddisli.  Among 
the  other  species  is  the  myrtle-tree  of  Tasmania  (Fafpifi  ritn- 
H('H(7/irt/nn)  a  very  large  and  ornamental  tree,  with  evergreen 
and  coriaceous  leaves,  which  resemble  birch  leaves  in  form. 
Fiuiutt  proi-em.  which  attains  a  lofty  .stature  in  the  Andes  of 
Chili,  is  a  valuable  liinlier  tree.  The  Fa(/iii  anfarc/ira  is  a 
characteristic  tree  or  shrub  of  far  antarctic  regions,  and  is 
said  to  be  found  farther  south  than  any  other  shrub. 

Revised  by  Cuahlks  E.  Biisstv. 

Beecli  Drops :  See  Cancer-root  and  Epiphegus. 

Beeclier,  C.vrinuixK  Kstiikk:  eldest  daughter  of  Lv- 
rnan:lF.  at  Ivisl  1 1.Minptou.  Loui;  Island.  Sepl.  (i.  1800.  .She 
conducted  a  female  seminary  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1822-:!2, 
and  for  two  years  afterward  was  at  the  head  of  an  insti- 
tution in  Cincinnati.  ()..  for  female  education.  For  many 
years  afterward  she  was  einploved  in  developing  a  plan  for 
female  Christian  education,  wliich  included  the  training 
and  subsequent  employment  of  teachei's.  She  published, 
besides  other  works,  DiimcKfic,  Sirriri-;  Tri'ah'si-  on  Domi'x- 
lir  Krimomy;  True  Hpini'dji  for  the  M'miij/x  of  Wdiiioi; 
Hnniinl  of  An'/limi-fir;  hit'/iii'nfiiri/  Bonk  of  Inslnivtivi' 
Tlieologi/;  ]'/ii/.iioloyi/  iiiiil  ('oh>iflii'iiir.i:  and  Common  Sense 
A/iplieil  to  liiliyion.     I),  in  Elmira,  May  12,  1878. 

Beeclier,  Cii.vRLF.s:  preacher  and  writer:  b.  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Oct.  7,  181.5:  was  ordained  in  184-t  pa.stor  of  a  church 
at  Xewark,  N.  .1.,  and  was  settled  at  Georgetown,  Ma.ss.,  in 
1837:  from  1870-77  he  resided  in  Florida:  became  slated 
supply  at  Wysox,  Pa.,  188.5.  Among  his  works  is  Pin  Pic- 
tures of  llie  liilile  (New  York  18.5o).  lie  edited  the  Autol/i- 
vyrnpliij  of  his  father,  Lyman  Beechcr  (1864,  2  vols.). 

Beecher.  Edward.  D.  D.  :  brother  of  Charles  Beeclier: 
b.  at  Hast  llamptun,  L.  I..  Aug.  27, 180:^:  graduated  at  Vale 
in  1S22;  was  pastor  of  Park  Street  church,  Boston  (1826- 
30):  i.resident  of  Illinois  College  from  18;{1  to  1844  ;  pastor 
of  Salem  Street  church,  Boston,  from  1840  to  18.")6 ;  editor 


of  The  Congregatinnalisl  (1849-.53) ;  pastor  in  Galesburg,  111., 
1856-71.  and  of  Parkville  Congregational  Church  1885-89. 
D.  in  Brooklyn.  .July  20.  18!I5.  He  published  The  ConJUct 
of  Ayes  (Boston,  18.").'J ;  5lli  ed.  185.5)  and  other  works,  in- 
cluding an  able  work  on  Baptism  (New  York,  1849);  History 
of  Opinions  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Hetribution  (1878). 

Beeclier.  IIakiukt  F.i.izahiotii  :  See  Uakrikt  Beecher 
Stowi:. 

Beeclier.  IIkxrv  Ward:  author  and  divine;  son  of  Dr. 
Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn..  .Iiiiie  24,  1813.  At 
an  early  age  he  had  a  strong  predilection  for  a  seafaring 
life,  which,  however,  he  renounced  in  eonse(]iieiiee  of  the 
deep  religions  impressions  which  he  experienced  during  a 
revival.  Having  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1834,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theology  at  Lane  Seminary 
under  the  tuition  of  his  father,  who  was  then  president  of 
that  institution.  He  was  pastor  at  Lawrenceljiirg.  Ind., 
1837-39;  then  at  Indianapolis.  Ind..  until  1847,  when  he  was 
installed  as  pastor  of  Plymouth  (Congregational)  church  in 
Brooklyn,  where  his  genius  and  remarkable  eloquence  con- 
tinued to  attract  one  of  the  largest  congregations  in  the 
L'.  S.  He  was  equally  successful  as  a  lecturer  and  a  popular 
orator.  He  was  editor  of  the  Jndepeiulent  from  1861  to 
1863.  when  he  visited  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health. 
His  earnest  add resses  to  large  audiences  on  the  subject  of 
the  civil  war  in  llie  V.  S.  ap|iear  to  have  had  considerable 
influence  in  turning  the  current  of  public  opinion  in  Great 
Britain  in  favor  of  the  Union  cause.  Mr.  Beecher  was  also 
long  a  prominent  advocate  of  anti-slavery  and  of  temper- 
ance reform,  and  at  a  later  period  of  the  rights  of  women. 
He  delivered  three  courses  of  lectures  on  I'reochiny  {WTZ- 
74)  at  the  Vale  Divinity  School,  on  the  "Lyman  Beecher" 
foundation.  .Among  his  principal  works  are  Lectures  to 
Yoiinij  J/en  (18.50);  Star  Papers  (1855);  Life  Thouqhts 
(18.58);  H<iiial  Truths  (1864):  a  novel.  Norwood' (\iHU):  Life 
of  Christ  (vol.  i.  1871):  Evolution  and  lievolution  (1884); 
Sermons  on  Evolutitm  and  Peligion  (1885);  and  about 
tweiitv  other  volumes  of  sermons.  He  was  founder  and  ed- 
itor of  the  Christian  I'niun  (1870-81).  1).  in  Brouklyn.  X.  V.. 
Mar.  8.  1887.  See  his  liioyraphy  by  William  C.  Beecher 
and  Uev.  Samuel  Scoville,  assisted  "by  Mrs.  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  (1888).  His  widow.  Eunice  White  Billiard  Beecher 
(b.  Aug.  26.  1812),  d.  at  Stamford,  Conn.,  Mar.  8,  1897. 

Beeclier.  LvMAX,  I).  I). :  theologian:  b.  at  New  Haven, 
Conn..  Oct.  12,  1775;  graduated  at  Vale  College  in  1797; 
studied  theology  under  President  Dwiglit ;  and  became  in 
1810  minister  of  the  Congregational  church  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.  He  was  a  po|)iilar  i>reachcr.  and  acquired  great  in- 
fluence anidiig  the  orthodox  churches.  To  oppose  the  rapid 
progress  of  rnitarian  doctrines  he  removed  to  Boston  about 
1826,  and  preached  in  the  Hanover  Street  church.  He  was 
president  of  Lane  Seminary  at  Cincinnati  18:!2-51.  Here 
he  was  brought  to  a  stormy  trial  for  heresy,  and,  although 
not  condemned  by  the  jiresbytery.  this  event  was  one  of  the 
great  factors  in  "the  separation  of  the  New  from  the  Old 
School  Presbyterians  in  1837.  He  published,  beside  other 
works.  Views  in  Thcoloyy  and  Sermons  on  Temperance. 
which  had  a  great  circulation.  He  wa.s  a  man  of  very  ener- 
getic character.  D.  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  .Ian.  10,  1803.  His 
works  were  published  in  3  volumes  (Boston,  18.52).  See 
hiii  Autoltioi/raphi/  and  Correspondence,  vdHvd  by  his  son, 
Charles  Beecher  (2  vols.,  1864-6.5). 

Beeclier,  Thomas  KENXicrrr:  Congregational  minister: 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher:  b.  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Feb.  10, 
1824;  graduated  at  Illinois  College  (.Jacksonville.  III.)  in 
1843.  He  is  the  author  of  Our  Seren  Churches,  a  volume  of 
discourses  (1870).  He  liecame  (1854)  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Elmira,  X.  V. 

Beecher.  Wii.i.is  .Tidson.  H.  I). :  Professor  of  Hebrew 
Language  and  Literature  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  ; 
b.  in  Hampden.  O..  .\pr.  29.  1838:  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  (18.58)  and  .\ubiirii  .Seminary  (1864).  Before  enter- 
ing upon  his  iiresent  work,  in  1871,  he  had  lu'ld  two  brief 
jiastorates.  and  had  been  for  three  years  teacher  in  Whites- 
town  Seminary.  X.  Y..  and  for  four  yeai-s  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophv  and  Belles-Lettres  in  Knox  College.  Illi- 
nois (180.5-09).  lie  published  many  pamphlets  and  articles, 
mostly  on  .sociological,  statistical,  and  exegelical  .subjects; 
the  most  important  being  the  series  of  Old  Testament  arti- 
cles in  the  American  Supplement  to  tlie  Fnct/clopa-dia 
Jiritannica  (188:i-«9).  and  Hiree  series  of  articles  in  the  Old 
and  Sew  Testament  Student  (1885-90). 


jGO 


BEECHEY 


I5EER 


Beech'ey.  Frederick  William  :  Kuglish  navigator  ;  b.  in 
London,  Feb.  17,  17!t6.  ilo  acoompniiied  Sir  Edward  Parry 
in  an  Arctic  expedition  in  1819,  and  explored  tlie  noitliern 
coasts  of  Africa  in  1821.  lie  coininanded  an  e-'cploring  ex- 
pedition to  the  Polar  Sea  via  Iferiiig  Strait ;  discovered  Port 
Clarence  and  Port  Grantley  ;  returned  in  1828,  and  published 
a  narrative  of  his  voyage  in  1831.  Me  became  a  rear-ad- 
miral of  the  blue  in  1854.     D.  Nov.  29, 1856. 

IJeecIiey,  Sir  William,  K.  A. :  an  P^nglisli  port  rait-painter ; 
father  of  Frederick  William  Beechey,  the  navigator;  b.  in 
liurford,  Oxfordshire,  Dec.  12,  1753.  He  became  a  pupil  at 
tlie  Royal  Academy  in  1772;  was  employed  by  the  nobility; 
and  in "1793  was  made  portrait-painter  to  Queen  Charlotte 
and  associate  of  the  Academy.  D.  in  Hampstead,  Jan.  38, 
1839. 

Beeder  :  same  as  Bidar. 

Bee-eater :  a  bird  of  the  family  Meropidif  allied  to  the 
kingfishei-s.  The  genus  J/e/-ops"  comprises  numerous  spe- 
cies, found  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  whicli  feed  on  bees 
and  other  hymenopterous  insects.  '1  he  common  bee-eater 
{Mcrnps  iipiaster)  abounds  in  the  south  of  Europe  as  a 
sunnncr  bird  of  pa,ssage.     It  seizes  bees  as  they  fly  in  the 


The  Naniaqua  bee-eater. 

air,  and  watches  for  them  near  their  hives.  It  breeds  in 
holes  wliich  it  excavates  in  the  l)anks  of  rivers.  Tliere  are 
several  other  genera  called  bee-eaters.  The  Xamaqua  bee- 
eater  {Rhiiiopnmades  c.ijtmomelas)  is  a  West  and  South 
African  binl. 

Beef-eater:  a  bird  of  the  genus  Biiphngvs,  belonging  to 
the  family  of  starlings;  sometimes  called  ox-pecker.  The 
beef-eaters  are  exclusively  African,  and  have  a  remarkable 
habit  of  running  over  the  backs  of  oxen,  buffaloes,  camels, 
etc.,  in  order  to  feed  on  the  Iarv;p  of  flies  which  they  find 
ill  their  hides,  and  which  is  said  to  be  their  jirincipal  food. 
This  genus  inclu<les  the  Soutli  African  species  called  buf- 
falo-bird. 

Beef-eaters  [the  common  derivation  from  a  sui)posed 
*/)H.^'(V/V/-( bullet,  sidelioard)  is  groundless]  :  ji>culiirly.  one  of 
certain  Hrilisli  functionaries  belonging  to  the  yeomen  of 
the  guard,  who  form  part  of  the  train  of  royalty,  and  at- 
tend the  sovereign  at  royal  banquets,  coronations,  etc. 

Beef  Tea:  an  article  of  diet  important  in  the  treatment 
of  the  sick  and  the  nurture  of  infants.  To  prepare  jialat- 
al)lc  beef  tea  is  a  matter  of  some  difTiculty,  but  tlie  following 
rules  are  excellent  and  easy  to  follow  :  Take  1  lb.  of  juicy, 
lean  beef  from  tlie  shoulder  or  the  round,  and  miuec  it  witli 
a  sharp  knife  on  a  board  or  a  minciiig-liloek.  I'ut  it  with  its 
juice  into  an  earlhen  vessel  containing  a  pint  of  tepid  wati'r, 
anil  let  it  stand  for  two  hoiii-s.  Si  rain  otf  tlie  liciuid  through 
a  clean  cloth,  s<ineezirig  well  the  meal,  and  add  a  little  salt. 


Place  the  whole  of  the  juice  thus  olitained  over  the  fire,  but 
remove  it  as  soon  as  it  has  become  In-owned.  Xever  let  it 
boil,  otherwise  most  of  the  nutritious  matter  of  the  beef  will 
be  thrown  down  as  a  sediment.  A  little  jiepper  or  allspice 
may  be  added  if  preferred. 

Beefwoods  {Caxiiarinrirpw):  a  family  of  trees  numbering 
twenty-three  species,  all  of  one  genus  {Cii>iu<irinu):  natives 
mostly  of  the  Australasian  region.  Treub's  recent  studies  of 
the  ovules  of  C.  suberoaa  appear  to  indicate  that  beefwoods 
are  related  to  tlie  gyiniios]ierius.  although  they  have  usually 
been  associated  witii  the  oaks,  gallworts,  etc. 

Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Beelzebub  [i.  e.  the  god  of  dung  or  of  flies;  Gr.  BmA^c- 
$LvK.  Bi'ihi'buiil,  or  Bfelzebiif] :  properly  Baalzebub ;  a  god 
worshiped  by  the  people  of  Ekron,  in  Philistia  (2  Kings  i.  3). 
Tlie  name  of  Beelzebub  came  in  course  of  time  to  lie  com- 
monly ajiplied  to  a  prince  or  chief  of  evil  spirits,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  employed  in  the  Gospels  (JIatt.  x.  25.  xii.  24.  37; 
Mk.  iii.  22 ;  Luke  xi.  15.  18, 19).  This  name  is  found  only  in 
the  New  I'cstament.  The  original  and  autliorized  spelling 
is  Beelzebul,  which  appears  to  have  been  afterward  changed 
so  as  to  resemble  Baalzebuli,  whicli  was  the  propicr  name  of 
the  heathen  divinity. 

Beer  [0.  Eng.  hear;  Germ.  Bii-r;  ]irobably  connected  ul- 
timately with  name  for  barley;  et.  0.  Kng.  ira] :  the  fer- 
mented infusion  of  malted  barley,  flavored  with  hops.  In  a 
wider  sense  the  term  beer  is  ajiplieil  to  beverages  prepared 
from  cereals,  barley,  rj'e,  wheat.  Indian  corn,  millet,  etc.,  the 
chief  constituent  of  which  is  starch.  The  treatment  involves 
the  preliminary  operations  of  malting  and  mashing,  or 
changing  the  starch  to  gum  (dextrin)  and  sugar  (glucose)  by 
the  aid  of  the  natural  jirocess  of  germination.  Tlie  term 
wine,  on  the  other  hand,  is  restricted  to  alcoholic  liquids 
olitained  by  fermenting  the  saecharine  juices  of  fruits,  as 
the  gra|ie,  apple,  piear,  currant,  and  gooseberry,  or  the  sap  of 
such  jilants  as  the  sugar-cane,  palm.  American  aloe,  etc. 
There  are.  however,  many  beverages  of  inferior  quality  called 
beer,  wliic-h  consist  of  saccharine  liquors  more  or  less  com- 
pletely fermented,  and  flavored  with  various  substances, 
such  as  spnice  beer,  ginger  beer,  root  beer.  etc. 

Tlie  manufacture  of  beer  from  barley  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  processes — malting  and  brewing — which  are  con- 
ducted in  diifereiit  establishments,  the  ninlt-house  and  the 
breireri/  ;  the  brewer  often  purcliasing  his  malt  from  the 
maltster. 

Malting  consists  of  four  successive  operations:  (1)  Steep- 
ing. The  liarley  is  placed  in  wooden  cisterns,  covered  with 
cold  water,  anil  allowed  to  soak  for  two  or  three  days,  when 
the  water  is  drained  off.  By  this  operation  the  barley  ab- 
sorbs from  10  til  5(1  per  cent,  of  wtiter.  softening  and  swell- 
ing up  at  the  same  time.  (3)  Coiieliing.  The  softened  barley 
is  thrown  out  uiion  the  floor  of  the  malt-house  in  heaps  or 
couches,  where  it  heats  spontaneously  and  begins  to  germi- 
nate, throwing  out  rootlets  or  radicles,  and  shoots  or  acro- 
spires.  At  the  same  lime  it  evolves  a  portion  of  its  water, 
the  operation  bi'ing called  .s^tiy//?)!/.  (3)  Flooring  is  resorted 
to  in  order  to  check  tlic  germination  by  reducing  the  tem- 
perature. It  consists  in  s]ireading  the  barley  over  the  floor, 
and  repeatedly  turning  and  respreading  it  over  a  constantly 
widening  area  in  layers  of  diminishing  tliickncss.  When 
tiie  process  of  germinal  ion  has  proceeded  as  far  as  is  desir- 
able, it  is  completely  stopped  by  (4)  Kiln-drying.  This  is 
effected  in  a  large  roinu  with  lirick  or  tile  floors,  the  kiln, 
which  is  heated  to  the  desired  temperature.  Here  the  ger- 
minated barley  is  rendered  )ierfeetly  dry  and  crisp.  It  is 
then  nhtlt.  The  appearance  of  the  malt,  and  the  color  of  the 
beer  made  from  it.  depend  upon  the  temperalure  of  thekiln. 
At  between  90"  and  100'  P.  pale  malt  results;  at  120°  to  125  , 
amber  malt;  150  to  170\  lirown  malt  for  jiorter  and  stout. 
Black  malt  is  prepared  by  roasting  the  malt  in  cylinders,  at 
3()0  to  400  F.,  such  as  are  used  for  roasting  cofl'ce.  It  is 
used  as  a  coloring  for  purler.  During  the  priK-ess  of  malting 
the  liarlev  increases  ill  volume  and  diiniiiislies  in  we'ighl  ; 
100  meas'ures  of  barley  yield  101  to  109  of  malt,  but  100  lb. 
yield  only  about  80  lb.  of  malt.  The  loss  in  weight  is  due 
largely  to  (he  perfect  ilrying  in  the  kiln,  fresh  barley  con- 
taining 10  to  l(j  ]ier  cent,  of  water. 

The  object  of  changing  the  barley  to  malt  is  to  render  its 
constituents  soluble,  and  bring  them  into  a  condition  suit- 
able for  ferineulat  ion.  During  gcriuination  the  albuminous 
substances  are  changed  to  diastase,  a  body  which  exerts  a 
wonderful  action  uiion  starch.  One  ]iart  of  diastase  is  said 
to  change  2,000  parts  of  starch  (which  is  insoluble)  to  de.x- 


BEER 


561 


trill  (jnini),  mill  then  to  glucose  (grape-sugar),  both  of  wliioh 
arc  soluble  in  water. 

Tlie  (liiistiiso  of  malt  is  capable  of  ohanf;inj;  to  glucose  a 
much  larger  ()uantity  of  starch  than  exists  in  the  barley: 
hence  unmalteil  grain  is  sometimes  added  to  the  malt  dnring 
the  subsequent  operation  of  mashing.  In  Helgiura  potato- 
starch  is  largely  employed. 

Brewing. — The  fii'sl  operation  of  the  brewer  is  the  hruis- 
iiiff  or  crushing  of  tlie  malt,  which  is  accomplished  by  pass- 
ing it  between  iron  rollers.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  mash- 
tub  with  warm  water,  and  raised  gradually  to  about  1C7  F. 
It  is  here  tliat  the  .starch  is  transformed  into  dextrin  and 
glucose,  which,  with  the  solul)le  albuminous  and  saline  con- 
stituents, are  taken  into  solution  liy  the  water.  From  1  to 
4  bush,  of  malt  are  used  for  each  barrel  of  beer.  When  the 
price  of  malt  is  high,  a  portion  of  it  is  rejilaced  by  cheaper 
amylaceous  or  saccharine  substances,  such  jis  ])Otato  .starch, 
or  gluco.se  prepared  from  it  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid. 
The  insoluble  residuum  from  the  malt  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  brewer's  grains  for  feeding  cows.  The  infusion  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours  to  clarify  or  set,  and  the 
sweet  clear  irurl  is  then  drawn  otT  into  a  copper  boiler,  when 
it  is  boiled  with  the  hops.  From  1  to  .5  lb.  of  hops  are  addi'd 
for  each  barrel  of  l>eer,  the  quantity  varying  with  the 
strength  of  the  beer,  the  lengtli  of  time  it  is  to  be  kejjt,  aiul 
the  climate  to  which  it  is  going.  The  hops  are  the  female 
flowers  of  the  Ilumulus  Inpulus;  they  contain  a  peculiar 
essential  aromatic  oil,  a  bitter  principle,  lupulini',  tannic 
acid,  resin,  etc.  They  conimunicatc  an  agreeable  flavor  to 
the  beer,  add  to  its  tonic  and  stimulating  properties,  aid  in 
clearini;  it  by  the  action  of  thi^  tannic  acid  on  the  albumin, 
and  diminish  its  liability  to  spoil  on  keeping.     See  Hops. 

The  Ixjiled  wort  is  cooled  as  quickly  lus  possible,  either  by 
)il»cing  it  in  sludlow  vessels  or  passing  it  over  a  series  of 
tulws  through  which  cohl  water  circulates.  It  is  then  run 
into  the  fermenting  vats  or  tuns,  which  in  large  breweries 
sometimes  have  a  capacity  of  1,200  or  1,000  barrels.  The 
temperature  of  the  wort  best  suited  to  successful  fermenta- 
tion depends  upon  the  .season.  In  summer,  with  the  atmos- 
phere at  ?.■)  I' .,  il  should  stand  at  about  ").■)  ;  with  air  at 
5.>  ,  at  t!0  :  while  in  the  winter  it  should  havea  temperature 
of  at  least  64'.  If  a  very  quick  fermentation  is  desired,  it 
may  tie  considerably  higher.  For  every  100  gal,  of  wort 
about  1  gal.  of  yciist  Ls  ailded,  which  h!i:>  been  produced  in  a 
previous  brewing  of  the  same  kirul  of  beer.  The  yea.st  is 
usually  mixed  with  a  little  wort,  and  left  in  a  warm  place 
till  it  begins  to  ferment.  This  lohb.  lUS  it  is  called,  is  then 
added  to  the  tun.  .More  yciust  is  employed  in  winter  than 
in  summer;  twice  a.s  much  at  .50'  F.  as  at  68°.  In  six  or 
eight  houi-s  fermentation  becomes  active;  the  wort  begins 
to  work,  the  glucose,  under  the  influence  of  the  active  fer- 
ment, yeaxt,  undergoes  decomposition,  yielding  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid,  the  latter  escaping  in  bubble.s,  and  bearing 
to  the  surface  particles  of  yeast,  which  form  a  scum.  The 
yeiust  itself,  being  a  plant,  develops  rapidly,  largely  at  the 
expense  of  the  nitrogenous  alliuminous  matters  of  the  wort, 
which  are  thus  withdrawn.  The  temperature  rajjidly  in- 
creases, rising  many  degrees.  This  fermentation  continues 
for  six  or  eight  days.  When  it  has  reached  the  proper 
point,  the  beer  is  separated  from  the  yeast,  and  transferred 
to  the  cleansing  butts.  Here  a  slow,  almost  impercepti- 
ble, fermentation  takes  place.  The  .solid  particles  of  the 
yeast  rise  to  the  surface  and  escape  tlirough  the  bung- 
Iioles  of  the  casks.  Finings  are  sometimes  added  to  clear 
the  beer;  they  generally  consist  of  isingla.ss  dissolved  in  a 
little  sour  beer.  The  beer  is  then  transferred  to  store-casks. 
where  a  slow  fermentation  occurs,  which  [iroduces  no  per- 
ceptible quantity  of  yeiust ;  the  beer  develops  its  finer  quali- 
ties, and  IS  here  finished  for  use.     See  FEitMiiJJTATlox. 

The  composition  of  the  water  u.sed  in  brewing  is  believed 
to  exert  an  important  intluence  on  the  successof  the  process. 
Mine  salts  are  said  to  aid  in  clearing  the  beer,  as  they  form 
insoluble  compounds  with  .some  of  the  aciils  present,  Sul- 
jihate  of  lime,  or  gypsum,  is  sometimes  adiled  to  the  water, 
I'lie  spring  water  at  Hurton-on-Treut  is  said  to  contain  con- 
siderable sulphate  of  lime.  The  strength  and  ta.ste  of  beer 
ilepend  upon  the  ipiantities  of  malt  and  hops  employed  and 
the  inode  of  conducting  each  of  the  several  operations.es- 
iK'cially  the  fermentation.  .Strong  beers  contain  much  alco- 
hol;  sulmtfintiri/  beei-s  are  those  which  have  not  been  fer- 
mented so  thoroughly,  and  which  consequently  contain  more 
of  the  extractive  mattei-s  of  the  malt,  JJitter  beers  contain 
more  of  the  hop  extract. 

Ale  is  prepared  from  jiale  mall,  and  the  active  fernienta- 
36 


tion  is  checked  while  there  still  remains  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  sugar  unchanged.  This,  by  subsequent  fermentation 
in  the  barrel  or  bottle,  keeps  up  the  briskness,  J'ale  ale  is 
made  from  malt  dried  in  tlie  sun  or  by  steam.  It  is  not  al- 
lowed to  rise  above  72°  during  the  fermentation.  The  for- 
mation of  acetic  acid  is  thus  prevented,  and  the  unpleasant 
flavor  due  to  the  solution  of  the  yeast  by  the  alcohol  is 
avoided,  Scofcli  ate  is  a  sweet  strong  ale,  "  Stndll  beer  is  a, 
weak  li(pior  made  by  using  little  malt,  or  by  nmshing  with 
fresh  water  the  malt  residuum  left  after  the  wort  for  ale  or 
porter  has  been  drawn  olf.  Porter  is  a  dark-colored  beer 
made  from  a  mixture  of  pale,  amber,  brown, and  black  malt, 
Stout  is  strong  jjorter,  Berlin  white  beer  {wei.sK  beer)  is  pre- 
pared by  quick  fermentation  from  a  mixture  of  1  part  of 
l)arley  malt  and  5  parts  of  wheat  malt  witii  half  a  pound  of 
hops  per  bushel. 

Lager  Beer. — The  beer  of  Bavaria,  which  has  of  late  yeai-s 
been  so  extensively  manufactured  in  the  U.  S.  under  the 
name  of  lager  beer,  owes  its  name  (from  lager,  a  store- 
house) to  the  fact  that  it  is  stored  in  cool  cellars  or  vaidts 
for  several  months  before  it  is  used,  and  its  remarkable  keep- 
ing qualities  anil  highly  prized  properties  to  the  j)eculiar 
kind  of  fermentation  by  which  it  is  prodticed.  The  fermen- 
tation of  ordinary  beer  and  ale  takes  place  at  high  temper- 
atures; it  is  conseipiently  rapid,  and  the  carbonic  acid, 
evolved  in  bubbles,  carries  a  portion  of  the  yeast  to  the  sur- 
face, forming  a  thick  scum.  This  scum  protects  the  beer 
from  the  oxvgcn  of  the  air.  The  fermentation  of  lager  beer 
is  conducted  at  a.low  temperature — between  40'  and  50"  P. 
It  proceeds  more  slowly,  and  the  carbonic  aci<l  does  not 
carry  tlu^  yeast  to  the  surface.  Consequently  the  air  has  a 
freer  access,  and  the  gluten  is  more  completely  converted. 
This  beer  is  usually  fermented  in  t  he  winter,  or,  if  in  snniiner, 
in  rooms  cooled  by  ice.  This  is  called  sedimentary  orunder- 
fermeiitation,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  ordinary  .surface 
fermentation.  The  yeast,  called  bottom  yeast,  is  cpiite  dif- 
ferent from  ordinary  yeast,  and  has  a  tendency  to  induce  the 
kind  of  fermentation  by  which  it  was  produced.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  brief  outline  of  the  process  emjiloycd  at  one  of 
the  largest  lager-beer  breweries  in  New  York,  The  barley 
is  soaked  two  or  three  days,  changing  the  waters  ;  it  germi- 
nates six  toten  days,  till  the  radicles  are  brownish  ;  it  is  then 
kiln-dried.  It  is  crushed  between  rollers,  ma.shed  at  120°  to 
140°  F.,  the  temperature  being  raised  by  the  addition  of 
boiling  water  to  160°  or  170.  By  adding  hot  water  to  the 
residue  a  second  wort  is  obtained.  The  first  wort  is  boiled 
with  the  hops;  the  second  wort  is  let  in,  and  the  whole  is 
boiled  three  or  four  hours.  After  cooling  to  between  44° 
and  .50'  F.,  it  is  run  into  open  fermenting  tuns.  One  gallon 
of  yeast  is  added  for  every  twenty  to  twenty-five  barrels. 
Fermentation  continues  from  ten  to  twenty  days.  There  is 
a  heavy  Iroth  at  fii'st,  which  subsides,  leaving  the  surface 
clear.  It  is  racked  off  into  hogsheads,  when  the  yeast  is 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  tuns.  It  stands  in  these  hogs- 
heads with  the  bung  open.  A  few  days  before  it  is  to  be  put 
in  liai  Ills  for  use  tlie  bung  is  driven  in  to  accumulate  car- 
bonic acid  for  life. 

Three  varieties  of  this  beer  are  made:  (1)  " Lager "  or 
summer  beer,  for  which  3  bush,  of  malt  and  H  to  3  lb.  of 
hops  are  used  per  barrel,  and  which  is  not  ready  for  use  in 
less  than  from  four  to  six  months.  (2)  "Sc/iphA","' winter 
or  present-use  beer;  2  to  3  bush,  malt  and  1  lb.  hops  per 
barrel ;  ready  in  tVuir  to  six  weeks.  (3)  Bocic  beer.  whuOi 
is  an  extra  strong  liecr,  made  in  small  quantity  and  served 
to  customers  in  the  spring,  during  the  interval  between  the 
giving  (mt  of  the  schenk  beer  and  the  tapping  of  the  lager. 
In  its  inanufacture  3i  Inish,  of  malt  and  1  lb.  of  hops  per 
barrel  are  used,  and  it  requires  two  months  for  its  prepara- 
tion. 

The  barrels  for  lager  are  coated  with  pitch  on  the  inside, 
to  prevent  the  beer  soaking  into  the  wood  and  giving  rise 
to  acetic  acid  when  they  are  empty.  Lager  is  therefore  the 
product  of  a  peculiar  slow  under-ferinentation,  which  takes 
place  at  low  temperatures, 

Cliica,  or  maize  beer,  was  used  by  the  South  American 
Indians  before  the  .Spanish  conquest.  Bourza,  or  millet 
beer,  is  made  by  the  C'riiii  Tartars.  Qiiass,  or  rye  beer,  is  a 
sharp  acid  beverage  i)rized  by  the  Russians.  Koumiss,  or 
milk  beer,  is  ]iiepaied  by  the  Tartars  from  marc's  milk, 
which  they  dilute  an<l  ferment. 

Composition  of  Beer. — The  st  imulant  and  tonic  properties 
of  beer  are  due  to  the  alcohol  and  the  bitter  principle  of 
the  hop.  while  its  nutritive  value  is  ascribed  to  the  extrac- 
tive  matters   derived  chicflv  from  the   malt.     The  exact 


502 


BEERS 


character  of  manv  of  the  constituents  of  beer  is  not  known. 
Besides  water,  alcohol,  dextrin,  and  grape-suf;ar,  the  fol- 
lowing substances  have  been  identified:  glycerni,  succinic, 
acetic,  lactic,  propionic,  glucic.  and  carbonic  acids,  albumen 
and  albuminous  principles,  bitter  and  resinous  matters  and 
essential  oil  from  the  hop.  and  alkaline  and  earthy  salts. 
The  latter,  which  amount  to  from  O-lo  to  0-28  per  cent,  of 
the  beer,  are  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  alkaline  and  earthy 
phosphates.  Tlie  unrecognized  constituents  of  beer  are 
o-rouped  under  the  term  extractive  matters.  In  the  follow- 
mo-  table  the  terra  extract  includes  all  the  substances  left 
when  the  alcohol  and  water  are  removed  by  evaporation  : 

AXALYSIS  OF   BEER. 


Burton  ale  (Allsopp's) 

Bass's  barley  wine 

Edinburgh  ale 

Guinness's  stout 

Truman,  Hanburj-  &  Co.'s  porter. 

Whithread's  porter 

Hoares  porter 

Perry's  ale 

Munich  lager 

New  York  lager 

Munich  schenk 

Munich  bock 


CONTENTS  PER 


PERCENTAGES. 

IMPERIAL  PINT. 

Alcohol, 

Extract, 

Alcohol. 

Extract. 

fl.  ounces. 

ounces. 

825 

13.32 

2  16 

2-77 

8-41 

11-7.5 

2-18 

2-42 

4-41 

3-58 

112 

0-72 

6-81 

6-17 

1  74 

1-2.5 

402 

.5  12 

103 

101 

488 

515 

1-09 

1-03 

4-18 

504 

106 

1-03 

3-87 

3-65 

0-98 

0-73 

4-70 

6- 10 

119 

1-22 

5-86 

4-32 

1-48 

0-88 

3-90 

6-7 

1-00 

1-16 

4-60 

9-2 

117 

1-90 

Adulteration  of  Beer.— There  is  a  popular  impression 
that  beer  is  extensively  and  injuriously  adulterated:  tliat 
potato-starch,  grape-sugar,  glycerin,  and  molasses  are  add- 
ed as  substitutes  for  malt ;  pine  bark,  quassia,  walnut  leaf, 
wormwood,  bitter  clover,  aloes,  picric  acid,  cocculus  in- 
dicus.  and  strychnine  as  substitutes  for  hops:  and  various 
chemicals  to  neutralize  acidity  or  conceal  dilution.  A  few 
of  the  first  mentioned  would  not  Ije  unwholesome,  and  it  is 
not  probable  that  many,  if  any,  of  the  others  are  ever  used. 
Glucose,  or  grape-sugar,  made  from  corn-starch,  is  exten- 
sively used  whenever  the  relative  prices  of  barley  and  grape- 
sugar  make  it  profitable  to  do  so.  Grape-sugar  is  in  no 
way  uuwiiolesome,  Ijut  it  is  a  very  poor  substitute  for 
barley.  It  yields  alcohol  by  fermentation,  but  does  not 
contain  the  albumen,  extractive  substances,  and  inorganic 
salts  which  are  contained  in  barley :  consequently  the  beer 
is  poor.  It  has  been  customary  of  late  to  omit  the  storage 
of  beer  before  it  is  sold ;  the  beer  Ls  sent  to  the  consumers 
without  waiting  for  the  after-fermentation  in  the  barrels: 
and  to  produce  the  effervescence  wliich  formerly  came  from 
fermentation  compressed  disks  of  sodium  Viicarbnnate  are 
introduced  into  the  kegs  and  liarrcls  tlirough  tlie  Inmg-hole. 

Revised  by  Ira  Re.msen. 
Beers,  Hexrv  Auoustin:  b.  at  Buffalo.  X.  Y.,  July  2, 
1847:  graduateil  at  Yale  College  1869;  spent  two  years  in 
New  York  in  the  studv  of  law:  was  appointed  tutor  in 
Yale  in  1S71,  and  Professor  of  English  in  1875.  Besides 
stories,  essays,  and  sketches  in  the  magazines,  and  s]5ecial 
contributions  to  dictionaries,  encyclopaedias,  and  other  ref- 
erence books,  has  published  the  following  books:  Odds  and 
Enda  (verse,  1878);  edited  A  Centuri/  of  Amerirnn  Lit- 
erature (1878):  Life  of  X.  P.  Willie  (l«8o);  cilited  Pms-e 
Writincjn  of  X  P.  Willis  (188o):  The  Thankless  Muse. 
a  volume  of  poems  (1885);  An  Outline  Sketch  of  English 
Literature  (1886):  this  was  reprinted,  with  appendix,  as 
From  Chaucer  to  Tenni/son  (1890):  An  Outline  Sketch  of 
American  Literature  (i887):  this  was  reprinted  as  Initial 
Studies  in  American  Letters  (1891). 

Beer'slieba  (i.e.  the  well  of  the  oath,  or  well  of  the 
seven):  an  ancient  frontier  place  of  Palestine,  situated 
about  50  miles  S.  S.  ^Y.  of  Jerusalem,  and  near  the  border 
of  the  desert.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacol)  often  dwelt 
there.  The  phrase  "  from  Dan  to  Beershelja  "  was  used 
proverbially  to  express  the  whole  extent  of  the  land  of 
Israel.  There  are  still  to  be  seen  seven  wells  of  ancient 
masonry,  from  5  to  12i  feet  in  diameter;  but  only  two 
of  them  now  contain  water. 
Beestings:  Sec  CoLOSTBrM. 

Beeswax:  a  substance  manufactured  or  secreted  by  the 
honey-bee;  the  material  of  which  ils  cells  and  combs  are 
constructed,  and  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Pn/i- 
fied  Tieeswax  is  tasteless,  odorless,  and  colorless.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  •!t60.     It  fuses  at  145'  F.,  is  insoluble  in 


BEETnO"\'EX 

water,  and  partly  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol.  Beeswax  is 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  tapers, 
and  for  other  purposes.  It  consists  of  (1)  myricin,  which  is 
insoluble  in  lioiliiu;  alcoliol,  and  is  chiefly  myricyl  palmitate. 
t'soHBi.CicHsiO^;  (2)  ccrotic  acid.  C'stIUiOq,  which  dissolves 
in  boiling  alcohol,  but  crystallizes  out  on  cooling;  (3)  cero- 
lein.  whicli  remains  dissolved  in  the  cold  alcohol. 

Beet  {Beta  rulga'ris) :  a  plant  allied  to  spinach,  and  be- 
longing to  the  familv  Chenopodiaceie.     It  is  native  to  the 
Mediterranean  basin  'and  western  temperate  Asia,  and  has 
lieen  in  cultivation  for  two  thousand  years  or  more.    The 
beet  is  cultivated  in  five  forms:  (1)  As  an  ornamental  plant, 
it  is  grown  for  the  rich  markings  of  tlie  leaves.    A  number 
of  varieties  have  been  produced  for  this  purpose,  with  large 
leaves  markeil  with  several  shades  of  red.  orange,  and  silver- 
white.     (2)  As  a  leaf-vegetalile  in  the  form  of  Swiss  chard. 
The  leaf -stalks  have  been  much  broadened  by  selection,  until, 
in  rich  soil,  thev  reach  a  width  of  3  or  3  inches.    These  thick- 
ened petioles  are  used  a.s  a  boiled  or  pot  yegetable.     The 
young  leaves  of  various  kinds  of  beets  are  also  much  used 
for  •'  greens."     (3)  As  a  root -vegetable,  and  this  is  probably 
its  best-known  form.     It  runs  into  several  types,  character- 
ized by  the  shape  and  color  of  the  root,  but  the  commonest 
classification  of  the  garden  varieties  is  into  the  turnip-beets, 
which  are  comparatively  small,  roundeil.  and  early,  and  the 
long-beets,  which  are  usually  late.     About  fifty  varieties  of 
garden  beets  are  grown  in  the  U.  S.     The  beet  demands  a 
loose,  rich  soil.     It  can  be  sown  early,  even  before  the  latest 
frosts  are  past.     (4)  As  mangolds  or  mangel-wurzels.  which 
are  very  large  beets  grown  for  cattle-feeding  purposes.  Tliey 
demand  the  same  culture  as  the  ruta-bagas  or  Swedish  tur- 
nips, although  they  are  usually  sown  earlier.     (5)  As  sugar- 
beets,  an  important  source  of  cane-sugar.  (See  Sugar.)  These 
are  very  extensively  grown  in  Central  Europe,  and  the  in- 
dustry "is  now  assuming  some  importance  in  many  parts  of 
the  IJ.  S..  as  Califoniia,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas.     It  is  prob- 
able that  the  ranee  of  adaptability  of  the  sugar-beet  in  the 
r.  S.  is  greater  tlian  has  been  supposed.     Dr.  Wiley  writes  : 
"  It  has  been  found  in  general  that  the  coast  valleys  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  ijrobablv  large  areas  near  the  coast  in  Oregon 
and  Washington,  certain  parts  of  the  Dakotas  and  Nebraska, 
localities   in   Minnesota.  Iowa,  Wisconsin,   and   Michigan, 
parts  of  Northern  Illinois.  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  New  \  lu-k, 
present  favorable  conditions  for  sugar-beet  culture,  but  in 
the  localities  thus  broadly  intimated  there  are  certain  re- 
stricted area-s  most  suitable  to  the  sugar-beet,  and  it  is  only 
these  restricted  areas  to  which  we  must  look  for  success." 
See  W\e  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States  Dept.  of  Agr.  ,- 
Special  Pep.  i/S  (V.  S.  Dept.  Agi-.);  Bulletrns  5,  i'7.  30,  Di- 
vision of  Chemistry  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.);  and  the  bulletins  of 
the  experiment  stations  of  California.  Utah.  Colorado,  Ne- 
braska. Kansas.  Missouri.  Iowa.  Soutli  Dakota.  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin.  Indiana.  Michigan.  New  York  (Cornell). 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

Beet  JosEiMi  Agar.  I).  D. :  English  Wesleyan  theologian ; 
h  in  Sheffield.  Seyit.  27,  1840;  graduate.l  in  Wesley  College, 
Sheifield.  and  Weslevan  Theological  College.  Riclimond, 
near  London:  entered  the  ministry,  and  in  1885  became 
Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  in  his  theological  alma 
mater  He  wrote  tiie  excellent  commentaries  upon  Romans 
(London,  18771,  Corinthians  (1882).  Galatians  (1885).  Ephe- 
sian«  Philippians.  Colossians  to  Philemon  (1890).  and  other 
work's  inchiding  llirouqh  Christ  to  God :  A  Stud;/  m  Scien- 
tific Theoloi/y.  1892.      '  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Beethoven,  bay'to-ven,  Ludwio,  van:  musical  composer; 
b.  at  Bonn.  Dec.  17.  1770.  He  was  the  second  of  four  chil- 
dren, of  whom  the  first  died  an  infant,  llis  father,  Johann 
van  Bcetlioven,  tenor  singer  in  the  chanel  of  the  elector, 
bein'3-  poor,  mainlv  in  consequence  of  bad  halnts.  discerned 
the  remarkable  musical  talents  of  his  son,  and  prepared 
early  to  press  them  into  service  by  teadiing  liim  to  jday 
the  liarpsichord  before  he  was  five  ycai-s  old.  Having  out- 
gi-own  his  father's  instruction,  the  lad  was  put  under  the 
tuition  of  Pfeiffcr.  olioist  in  the  chaiiel.  and  tlien  under  tliflt 
of  Yan  der  Eder.  reputed  tlie  best  organist  m  Bcim  At 
the  age  of  eleven  he  was  transferred  from  Yan  der  Eder  to 
his  successor  in  the  chaiiel.  Neefe.  who  sjjokc  warndv  of  the 
boy's  proficiency  and  nia.sterv  of  the  music  adapted  to  the 
harpsichord.  The  master  himself  seems  to  liave  given  hira 
speci.al  instruction  in  the  science  of  composition,  and  even 
had  published  some  of  his  compositions.  At  this  period  the 
lad  dedicateii  to  the  elector  three  pianoforte  sonatas,  which 
also  were  printed.    From  this  time  his  reputation  increased. 


BEETHOVKX 


BEG 


563 


anil  his  |irosppril y,  vindcr  the  auspices  of  eiiiinent  patrons, 
hrightened.  When  but  fourteen  he  was  iiiaile  assistant 
(•()urt-or;iaiiist,  and  three  years  later  was  sent  to  Vienna,  at 
the  elcitor's  expense,  to  pursue  liis  studies  under  the  direc- 
tiim  of  Mozart,  then  at  the  heif,'ht  of  liis  fame.  In  Vienna 
he  finally  nuidi^  iiis  home,  after  an  incidental  residence  of 
several  years  in  Kome.  where  his  efforts  were  requireil  to 
support  his  two  younger  l)rothei-s.  On  his  return  to  Vienna 
he  studied  hard  with  Haydn  and  All>reehtsher{;er,  the  cele- 
brated contrapuntist,  nnikiuf;  himself  perfect  nnister  of  the 
science  of  musical  composition.  His  favorite  instrument  at 
this  time  was  thi>  pianoforlc,  on  which  he  soon  rivaled  the 
best  pi'rforniers.  liis  technical  education  beinj;  com)>lelcd, 
his  powers  trained,  his  nu'thod  formed,  works  came  from 
his  hand  with  astonishinj;  rapidity.  There  is  dilliculty  in 
fixing  tlie  datesof  his  compositions,  but  before  he  was  thirty 
years  old  he  had  published  as  many  as  20  sonatas  for  the 
pianoforte,  9  for  piano  and  instruments,  2  concertos  for 
piano  and  orchestra,  trios,  qnartetts,  ((uinletts,  septetts,  a 
iiallet,  Y'/ic  iJ/frt  iif  Pmmf/lu'ii.i,  and  two  orchestral  sym- 
phonies. At  this  period  he  moved  in  the  best  society,  was 
noticed  by  persons  of  rank,  and  recogni/ed  by  all  as  a  genius 
of  the  fii"sl  order.  These  were  his  happy,  hopeful  days,  but 
they  did  not  last  long:  they  were  soon  clouded  by  the  one 
great  calamity  of  his  life — a  misfortune  that  to  a  musician 
would  seem  almost  fatal  to  achievement.  Already  in  IHOO 
he  speaks  sadly  of  a  defect  in  his  hearing  which  occasioned 
serious  inconvenience.  It  increased  so  rapidly  that  before 
long,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  ycai-s.  during  which  he 
had  a  violent  sickness,  he  became  totally  di'af.  This  afllic- 
tion  clouiled  his  inner  life,  made  him  distrustful,  restless, 
sus|]icious,  melancholy,  and  unsocial.  From  this  time  books, 
meditation,  and  solitary  walks  in  the  country  were  his  sole 
recreation.  His  society  was  limited  to  a  few  select  friend.s, 
with  whom  he  could  forget  him.self.  He  lived  in  his  work, 
and  his  work  went  on  increasing  in  volume,  gaining  in 
ix)wer,  and  deepening  in  intensity  from  year  to  year.  The 
achievements  of  his  genius  can  not  be  ilcscril)c(l  in  a  few 
wonls.  In  less  than  five  years  were  jn'odnced  the  Heroic 
Si/mph(ini/  ;  Fiilrlio;  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Si.rth  Sijm/)hi)Hii'x ; 
with  the  grand  muss  in  C.  In  18i:i  came  the  Seventh  Si/m- 
jilionij;  three  years  later  the  Eiijtitlt  ;  in  1824  the  Ninth  or 
Chorul  Symphonij.  by  many  thought  the  most  won<lerful  of 
all — by  HeethoveTi  himself  regarded  jis  the  most  significant ; 
anil  in  the  inti'rvals  between  these  gigantic  creations  was 
produced  some  of  his  most  perfect  music.  To  give  here  any 
account  of  these  works  is  impossible;  they  can  not  so  much 
as  be  named,  for  they  cover  nearly  every  species  of  compo- 
sition, and  are  .so  remarkable  that  nearly  every  one  merits 
special  notice.  They  are  as  extraordinary  for  their  wealth 
of  thought  and  feeling  ji-s  for  their  niiLstcry  of  the  laws  of 
coinp<isition.  They  constitute  a  musical  library  by  them- 
selves. The  niiu'  symphonies  and  the  grand  sonatas  for  the 
pianoforte  are  monuiui'uts  nf  genius  which  alone  would  give 
immortality  to  their  creator. 

Beethoven  died  Mar.  20.  1827,  of  dropsy,  following  a  vio- 
lent intlammation  of  the  lungs.  His  c<mslitution,  naturally 
strong,  ha<l  been  tried  by  .severe  shocks  of  illness.  His  life 
was  solitiiry  :  he  was  never  married.  His  strongest  natural 
atlachiiu'nt  was  for  a  nephew  who  jiroved  unworthy  of  his 
mu'le's  devotion.  Though  his  deafness  made  hiiu  a  recluse, 
he  was  not  scUi>h,  .sordid,  or  narrow-soulcd.  On  the  con- 
trary, his  hinuan  feeling  was  of  the  deejiesl.  and,  though  he 
cmdd  never  have  been  rich,  he  showed  himself  capalile  of 
generosity.  An  enthusiastic  republican  in  his  behef.  and 
tin  ardent  sympathizer  with  his  countrymen  in  their  strug- 
gles for  |)olilical  liberty.  IJeethoven  suffered  bitterly  for  the 
woe.s  of  Ids  Falherlanil.  and  poured  out  through  his  music 
the  passion  of  his  proud,  agonizeil  heart.  There  are  worlds 
of  sorrow  in  his  com|iosil  ions.  They  are.  in  every  sense  of 
the  words,  modern  and  living.  Though  so  thoroughly  ac- 
complished in  nnisieal  .science,  Beethoven  was  never  scho- 
lastic; though  so  deeply  charged  with  emotion,  he  was 
never  sentimenlal.  His  works  convey  the  profoinul,  vari- 
04^.  comprehensive  feeling  which  was  natural  to  a  sensitive 
spirit,  keeidy  responsive  to  all  the  jov  and  sorrow  of  the 
new  age.  To  this  is  due  their  cxtraoriliiiary  hold  on  |>eople 
who  are  quite  umtble  to  apjireciale  their  leehnical  excellence. 

That  Beethoven  was  a  nnm  of  va.st  intellect  his  compo- 
sitions testify.  But  he  wa.s  something  besides  a  musician. 
He  rea<l  nnuh  and  thought  much;  lie  was  by  no  means  un- 
familiar with  the  lileralure  of  (lermany,  and  even  with 
Italian  letters.  When  iuleresti'd.  his  conversation  was  ani- 
mated, brilliant,  and  inslrnctive. 


In  person  Beethoven  is  said  to  have  been  of  middle  size, 
stout,  and  ajiparently  strong.  His  statues,  bust.s.  and  por- 
traits represent  him  with  a  massive  head,  broad  brow,  a 
dignified,  somber  expression  of  countenance,  and  features 
of  harsh  but  heroic  cast.  The  bronze  statue  erected  in  the 
public  square  of  his  native  city  in  lH4o  is  of  majestic 
aspect.  Ills  latest  and  nio.st  careful  l)iograi)her,  however, 
Mr.  A.  W.  Thayer  (1876-79).  describes  him  as  liMiking 
much  like  a  mulatto,  short  and  sallow,  with  wide  nostrils 
and  projecting  teeth,  heavy  lips,  and  high  cheek-bones.  A 
great  deal  has  been  written  about  him.  Until  the  biography 
of  Mr.  Thayer  the  authorities  were  his  contemporary,  Jlos- 
elielcs.  and  Schiudler.  See  Grove's  Dictiimnrij  of  Music 
and  MiiKicidna. 

B<M'tle :  a  common  name  given  to  insects  of  the  order 
Coleonterd.  They  may  be  recognized  by  the  much  tliiek- 
ciumI  horny  anterior  pair  of  wings  (elytra),  which  meet  in  a 
straight  line  down  the  back  and  conceal  the  second  mem- 
branous pair  of  wings,  the  true  organs  of  flight.  The 
young  hatch  as  grubs,  and  undergo  a  complete  metamor- 
phosis, and  the  month  parts  are  in  the  form  of  jaws,  fitted 
for  biting.  Many  beetles  are  remarkable  for  their  singular 
forms  and  the  brilliant  coloi's  and  ornamental  markings  of 
their  eljlra.     Sec  Coleoptkra  and  Scakah. 

Beet-root  Siigai" :  sugar  made  esjiecially  in  Fraiici'  and 
Germany  from  liccts.  The  bei't-root  contains  about  10  per 
cent,  of  .saccharine  matter,  which  is  only  about  two-thirds 
that  of  the  cane,  and  the  juice  is  highly  charged  with  im- 
[lurities.  The  Pru.ssiaii  cliemist  Achard  was  the  first  who 
succeeded  in  extracting  sugar  from  beet.s.  Beet-sugar  is 
extensively  manufactured  in  Europe.  Chemically  it  is  the 
same  as  ordinary  cane-sugar.     See  Sugar. 

Beets,  XicoLAAs:  Dutch  poet  and  writer;  b.  in  Haarlem. 
Se|it.  Vi.  1814.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  became  in  1840 
pastor  at  Hecmstec;  in  1854  he  was  established  as  pastor  in 
Utrecht,  and  in  1875  hi;  became  Professor  of  Theology  in  the 
University  of  Utrecht.  Happy  in  his  married  life,  in  his 
success  as  a  [lastor,  and  in  the  respect  of  his  count rymen, 
his  career  has  been  on  the  whole  (|uiet  and  uneventful.  As 
a  writer  he  has  passed  through  three  somewhat  different 
phases.  As  a  youth  he  felt  powerfully  the  influence  of  Sir 
Waller  Scott. and  his  first  publications  show  this.  He  made 
his  jioetical  debut  in  1881  in  the  Museti-AImiiniik.  with  a 
poem  on  the  death  of  a  lady  named  Bildcrdijk-Schweick- 
nardl.  This  was  followed  by  other  (jocius.  anil  by  transla- 
tions from  Scott.  Soon,  however,  he  fell  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Byron,  though  in  a  somewhat  superficial  fashion. 
Beginning  with  slight  translations  of  Byron,  in  1884  he 
published  his  Joxe,  een  Spaanscli  ver/iaal,  in  which  he  at- 
tempted (o  give  expression  to  his  admiration  for  Childn 
Iliirold  and  Manfred  by  imitating  them.  In  the  same  vein 
were  his  Kuser  (18:i5).  (iiiji  de  Vtaniiiig  (1837).  and  Ada 
ran  ffolland  {\8i0).  The  last  poem,  however,  was  his  last  By- 
roiiic  experiment.  .M  ready  the  influence  of  flie  Knglish  poet 
had  begun  lo  pass,  and  already  he  had  won  wide  reputation 
in  another  line  In  18:!7  he  had  begun  to  write,  over  the 
name  "  Ilildcbrand."  striking  .■ikelches  of  Dutch  life  in 
])rose.  In  18:i!»  these  sketches  were  jmblished  in  a  volume 
entitled  Camera  (Hi.tntra.  and  were  at  once  felt  by  the  pub- 
lic to  be  original  and  powerful.  To  them  Beets's  fame  is 
chiefly  due.  He  continued,  however,  to  write  verse.  In 
18:i8  had  appeared  a  volume  called  dedirhteii :  in  1853  he 
issued  a  new  volume  of  jMienis.  Korenbloemen ;  in  1857. 
Nieuwe  Oedichten;  in  18(i;i.  Ver-itrooida  (iedichten;  in  1869, 
Madelieven.  His  collected  poems  appeared  in  three  vol- 
umes, Amsterdam.  1873-76.  He  has  achieved  success  as  a 
critic  also  ill  his  Vcrpoozinyen  op  lettertiundiii  t/ebied  (1856) 
and  Verscheidenheden  nteent  op  letterKiindii/  r/ebied  {\S^)i)). 
Kiually,  a  work  on  religious  history  has  gone  through  sev- 
eral cilitions,  Paulas  in  de.  geirichtigste  ooyenblilclien  ran. 
zijn  /even  en  werkzaamheid  roorgesteld,  1853  (51  h  ed.  1887). 

A.  R.  Marsu. 

Beeville  :  town  ;  capital  of  Bee  co.,  Tex.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  (S-W) ;  on  San  .Vn.  and  .Vran- 
sas  Pass  and  a  branch  of  Southern  Pac.  R.  Ks. ;  96  miles  S. 
of  San  Antonio,  and  56  miles  from  tli<'  coast;  has  five 
churche.s,  graded  .schools,  and  high  school.  Beeville  is  situ- 
ated in  Hie  same  latitude  as  Tampa.  Fla.,  in  a  region  where 
oranges  and  liananas  mav  be  grown,  and  well  adapted  to 
market-gardening.  Pop.  (1880)  208  ;  (1890)1.311  ;  (I892)_es- 
liinated,  1,954.  PruLisiiKK  ok  "  Bek." 

Beg :  Sec  Bev. 


564 


BEGAS 


BEHISTUN 


Begras.  bay'galis.  Karl  :  German  painter ;  b.  at  Heins- 
l)erg.  Sejit.  ::ibri794.  He  became  about  1818  a  resident  of 
Berlin  and  court-painter  to  tlie  King  of  Prussia.  He 
painted  The  Finding  of  Hoses  and  many  otlier  scriptural 
subjects  ;  also  excellent  portraits  of  eminent  authors  and  ar- 
tists, including  Humboldt  and  Sclielling.     D.  Xov.  23,  1854. 

Beggar :  a  person  who  solicits  cliaritalile  aid  from  the 
public  at  large.  In  all  ages  and  countries  persons  liave 
practiced  various  arts  in  order  to  enlist  tlie  sympathies  of 
tlie  benevolent.  Severe  enactments  have  from  time  to  time 
been  made  against  them.  By  a  law  of  Richard  II.  (1.388) 
able-bodied  beggars  were  punished  and  compelled  to  labor, 
and  provision  was  made  for  the  helpless.  By  an  act  of 
Henry  VIII.  (1.580)  licenses  were  given  to  poor  persons 
to  beg  within  fixed  limits,  but  unlicensed  beggars  were 
whipped,  and  all  persons  giving  alms  to  such  forfeited  ten 
times  the  amount  given.  By  an  act  of  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth (rejiealed  in  1593)  beggars  were  grievously  whipped, 
burned  through  the  ear  with  a  hot  iron,  and  for  the  third 
offense  put  to  death.  The  best  method  of  regulating  and 
suppressing  the  practice  of  begging  is  a  matter  much  dis- 
cussed and  still  unsettled.        See  Charity  Organization. 

Begging  Friars:  See  Friars,  Dominicans,  etc. 

Beg'hanls  [O.  P.  hegard;  M.  W.G.beghart,  derived  from 
name  of  Lambert  le  Begue ;  cf.  Beguine]:  name  ajiplied  to 
semi-monastic  societies  of  men,  originating  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  dating  from  tlie  early  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  or  not  very  long  after  similar  societies  of  women 
(tiie  Beguines)  had  been  formed,  and  spreading  over  Ger- 
many, Prance,  and  Italy.  At  first  distinguished  for  piety 
and  works  of  beneficence,  they  quickly  degenerated  into 
mere  pious  beggars.  They  were  also  joined  by  heretics  of 
every  description,  and  so  fell  under  the  ban  of  the  church  in 
the  fourteenth  centm-y.  and  were  severely  handled  by  the 
Inquisition,  but  continued  down  to  the  fteforination.  See 
Mosheim.  De  Beghardis  ei  Begninahus  Commcntnriiis  (Leip- 
zig, 1790);  Hallmann.  (Jesrhichte  d.  Urspniiigt  il.  lulgisrhen 
Beghiiifii  (Berlin,  1843);  L.  Keller,  Die  liefoniialiun  iiiid 
die  altereii  Refurmparteien  (Leipzig,  1885). 

Begharinl :  same  as  Baoirmi.    . 

Bego'iiia  :  a,  genus  of  lierhaceous  ornamental  plants, 
comprising  between  300  and  400  species.  The  genus  con- 
tains several  well-marked  sections.  A  rough  classification 
of  the  garden  kinds  grou|is  them  into  the  "  foliage  "  bego- 
nias (as  shown  in  Begonia  rex),  the  small-leaved  flowering 
nou-tuberous  sorts  and  the  tuberous  species.  The  rex  or 
foliage  section  comprises  some  of  the  choicest  of  ornamental- 
leaved  plants.  Some  of  the  dark-leaved  varieties  are  known 
as  "  beefsteak  geraniums."  They  all  demand  a  shaded  situ- 
ation in  the  greenhouse  or  window-garden.  They  are  prop- 
agated by  seeds  and  stem-cuttings,  and  many  of  them  grow 
readily  from  leaf -cuttings.  The  tuberous-rooted  section  is 
gaining  rapidly  in  public  favor.  The  species  are  adapted 
both  for  indoor  and  outdoor  cultivation.  They  profit  by  a 
partially  shaded  location.  The  flowers  are  very  variable  in 
size,  shape,  and  color,  sometimes  attaining  a  diameter  of  over 
4  inches.  The  tuberous  begonias  are  grown  from  the  tubers, 
from  seeds,  and  from  stem-cuttings,  although  the  last  method 
is  perhaps  not  generally  advisable  with  amateurs. 

L.  II.  Bailey. 

Bogoiiia'cea)  [so  named  from  Begonia,  one  of  the  gen- 
era] :  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  mostly  lierbace- 
ous ;  have  alternate  leaves,  oblique  at  the  l)ase,  and  cymes 
of  unisexual  pink  flowers,  with  a  colored  perianth  and  nu- 
merous stamens.  There  are  also  white  and  deep  scarlet 
varieties.  They  are  nearly  all  tropical  plants,  but  one  spe- 
cies of  ii('j7o/u'tt  grows  on  the  Himalayas  11,500  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  order  comprises  about  160  species.  Some  of 
the  Mexican  species  are  n.sed  as  drastic  purgatives. 

B^giiines,  bay'geen'  [Pr.  Beguine. n  deriv.  from  the  name 
of  Lambert  le  Begue,  a  i>riest  of  Liege  in  the  twelflli  cen- 
tury, founder  of  the  order] :  the  name  given  to  semi-monas- 
tic^ societies  of  women  originating  in  IJelgium,  ]ierhaps  at 
Liege,  aliout  1180  a.  d.  These  societies  grew  in  part  out  of 
the  numerical  iue(|uality  l)etween  the  se.Kes  caused  by  the 
crusades.  The  women,  without  assuming  monastic  vows.'lived 
in  houses  by  themselves,  labored  for  their  own  support,  and 
took  care  of  the  sick.  They  had  similar  fortunes  with  the 
BnnnARDS  {q.  v.),  but  being  worthier  survived  their  perse- 
cutions. There  are  now  in  Belgium  twenty  of  lliese  estab- 
lishments, with  about  1.50  members.  For  literature,  see 
Begiiaros. 


Begum,  be-giim'  [from  Turk,  hegim,  princess ;  cf.  Eng. 
6f//] :  a  title  of  honor  given  in  the  East  Indies  to  princesses 
and  the  sultanas  of  seraglios.  Among  the  charges  against 
Warren  Hastings  was  his  cruelty  to  two  rich  begums  of 
(Jude,  the  mother  and  the  wife  of  Sujah  Dowlah.  In  order 
to  extort  money  from  them,  Hastings  or  his  agents  invaded 
the  privacy  of  their  zenanas,  and  reduced  them  to  the  alter- 
native of  delivering  their  treasures  or  exposing  their  faces 
to  tlie  view  of  strange  men.  They  preferred  the  former  of 
these  two  evils. 

Beliaini,  Ijayhim,  or  Behein,  bay'hem,  Martin  :  an 
eminent  cosmographer  and  navigator ;  b.  at  Nuremberg 
about  1459.  He  became  a  merchant,  and  visited  foreign 
countries  in  that  capacity.  In  1484  and  1485  he  accom- 
panied the  navigator  Diego  Cam  in  a  voyage  of  exploration 
along  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  He  gained  distinction  as  a 
maker  of  maps  and  glolies.  A  large  globe  which  he  made 
in  1492  is  still  preserved  by  his  descendants  in  Nuremberg, 
and  is  prized  as  a  monument  and  record  of  the  progress  of 
geography.  D.  in  Payal,  July  29,  1506.  See  Ghillany,  Oe- 
schichte  des  Seefahrers  Bitter  Martin  Behaim  (1853) ;  C.  G. 
von  Murr,  Diploma fische  Oeschichte  des  Ritters  M.  Behaim 
(1778). 

Behaim,  Michael  :  mastersinger  ;  b.  at  Sulzbach,  1416  ; 
a  weaver  liy  trade  ;  burgomaster  of  his  native  village,  where 
he  was  murdered  in  1474.  Though  he  wrote  numerous 
poems  of  all  descri]>tions,  he  must  be  considered  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  greatest  decline  of  the  art  of  poetry  in  Ger- 
many during  the  fifteenth  century.  Julius  Goebel. 

Beliaiil.  bay  ham,  Barthel,  or  Bartholomew;  a  Ger- 
man jiortrait-painter  and  engraver;  b.  in  Nuremberg  in 
1502  ;  a  ]Hipil  of  Dilrer.  D.  in  Italy  in  1540.  He  was  a 
master  of  copjjer-plate  engraving,  of  which  his  Emperor 
Charles  T.  is  a  fine  specimen. — His  nephew,  Hans  Sebald 
Beham  ;  b.  in  Nuremberg,  1.500  ;  one  of  the  best  of  the  Nu- 
remlierg  engravers,  chose  grotesque,  sometimes  coarse  sub- 
jects.    I),  in  Frankfort,  Nov.  22,  1550. 

Beliar':  a  division  of  Bengal,  British  India;  between 
the  )iarallels  24°  and  28 '  N.,  and  the  meridians  83 '  and  89° 
E.,  S.  of  Nepal  and  E.  of  the  Northwestern  Provinces. 
It  is  a  generally  flat  country,  divided  by  the  Ganges  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts.  Area,  44.163  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1891) 
24,284,370,  of  whom  84  percent,  were  Hindus  and  13  per 
cent.  Mohammedans.  The  population  is  rapidly  increasing, 
and  is  now  nearly  550  per  sq.  mile.  Rice  is  the  main  staple 
of  food  ;  in  elevated  and  drier  localities,  wheat,  maize,  mil- 
lot,  and  pease  are  sulistituted.  Potatoes  and  cabbages  have 
lieen  introduced  by  Europeans  and  are  now  largely  grown. 
The  commercial  staples  are  oil-seeds,  opium,  indigo,  sugar, 
cotton,  and  saltpeter,  the  opium  being  a  government  mo- 
nopoly. The  East  Indian  Railway  runs  through  the  division 
along  the  Ganges,  and  it  is  entered  or  crossed  in  part,  by 
several  others.  The  climate  is  vei-y  hot  from  March  to 
June,  when  the  rains  set  in  and  last  till  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber. The  rainfall  is  about  .50  inches.  The  cool  season  lasts 
from  October  to  Jlarch,  and  is  the  pleasantest  part  of  the 
year. 

Behar  is  the  cradle  of  Buddhism.  Fi'oni  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  our  era  to  the  fifth  after,  it  was  a  jiart  of  the 
splendid  kingdom  of  Magadha.  In  1202  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  In  1765  it  was  acquired  by 
the  East  India  Company.  It  is  now  divided  into  twelve 
districts,  and  contains  many  inqiorlant  cities,  as  Patna  and 
Chapra.  Behar  city  is  in  25°  10'  N.  lat..  85°  35'  E.  Ion.  It 
was  formerly  the  residence  of  a  governor,  and  is  now  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  the  same  name.    Pop.  about  53,000. 

Mark  W,  Harrinuton. 

Beheading  :  See  Capital  Punishment. 

Behem.  Martin  ;  See  Behaim,  Martin. 

Be'hemoth  :  a  huge  animal  described  in  the  book  of  Job 
(xl.  1.5-24).  Some  critics  consider  the  Hebrew  term  a  plural 
noun  for  cattle  in  general.  Others  tliink  some  extinct  spe- 
cies of  animal  is  referred  to.  Others  think  the  elephanti  is 
meant.  But  most  writers,  including  English  commentators 
generally,  say  the  hippopotamus. 

Behistiiii.  ba"y-his-toon'  [Lat.  liagistn'mis.  Pers.  Baghi- 
stan'.  i.  e.  place  of  gardens] :  an  ancient  and  ruined  town  of 
Persia;  in  Irak-Ajemi,  21  miles  E.  of  Kermanshidi  (see  map 
of  Persia  and  Araliia,  rcf.  .5-P).  Here  is  a  remarkable  lime- 
stone mountain  (the  ancient  Mons  Bagistanus.  on  the  con- 
fines of  Media),  which  rises  to  the  height  of  1,700  feet,  and 
is  almost   pei'iiendicular  on  one  side.     According  to  Dio- 


BEUM 


BKL   AXD  THK   DRAGON',   HISTORY  OF    565 


(lonis,  till!  fiimous  Semiramis,  on  her  march  from  Hiihylmi 
to  Ecbatumi,  I'mainpcil  here  ami  jirepareil  a  rosiiieiife,  and 
having  cut  away  the  lower  part  of  the  rock  of  Bagistanus, 
caused  her  ]iorl rail  to  he  carved  or  sciilpliired  there.  The 
jjcojjrapliy  of  this  lo<-ality  has  been  carefully  investigated 
by  Rawlinson  and  Masson.  A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to 
the  rock  of  Beliistun  on  account  of  its  (uineiform  inscrip- 
tions, which  were  made  by  order  of  Darius  I..  King  of  Per- 
sia, abo\it  ulo  B.  c,  and  have  been  deciphered  by  Sir  II. 
Kawlinson.  (lose  to  these  inscriptions  are  tliirteen  human 
figures,  one  of  which  represents  Darius.  "  Tlie  labor,"  says 
Rawlinson,  "  bestowed  on  the  whole  work  must  have  been 
enormous.  .  .  .  But  the  real  wonder  of  the  work  consists  in 
the  inscriptions.  For  extent,  for  beauty  of  execution,  for 
unifornnty  and  correctnes.s,  tlicy  are  perhaps  unecpuiled  in 
the  world.  It  is  evident  tjiat  after  the  engraving  of  the 
ro<;k  had  been  accomplished,  a  coating  of  silicious  varnish 
had  been  laid  on  to  give  a  clearnes.s  of  outline  to  each  indi- 
vidual letter,  and  to  protect  the  surfac'e  against  the  action 
of  the  elements.  The  varnish  is  of  infinitely  greater  hard- 
ness than  the  liniestotui  rock  beneath  it.  It  has  been 
washed  down  in  several  |ilaces  by  the  trickling  of  water  for 
three-and-twenty  centuries,  and  it  lies  in  flakes  upon  the 
foot-ledge  like  thin  layei-s  of  lava."  (Jounuil  of  the,  Asiatic 
Society,  vol.  x.)  The  Persian  inscriptions  wliicli  Rawlinson 
deciphered  are  eontjiined  in  five  columns,  one  of  which  has 
ninety-six  lines,  and  each  of  the  others  nearly  as  numy. 
There  are  on  the  sjune  rock  inscriptions  in  the  Meilian  and 
Baliyloniiin  languages.  See  Rawhnson's  Ihrodotii.i,  vols.  I. 
and  ii. 

Bell  in,  baym,  Ernst:  geographer;  b.in  Gotha,.Ian.4, 181)0; 
founded  IMt)  the  (rmtjrapltinc/iea  Jatirbiieh;  began  in  co- 
operation with  11.  Wagner  the  pufjlicatiou  oi  Die  BeiSlk- 
erung  der  Erde  (IHT2);  succeeded  Dr.  Petermann  as  editor 
of  the  Mitteihmgen  (1878);  statistician  of  tlie  Atmanach  de 
Gotha  (1876).    D.  in  Gotha,  JIar.  16,  1884 

liohli,  ben,  Apn.\RA,  or  Apura  {Johnxon):  an  English 
dramatist;  b.  at  Wye,  Kent,  in  1640;  daughter  of  a  barber. 
She  was  married  (al)ont  1658)  to  an  English  mercliant  of 
Dutch  descent,  luimed  Behii,  who  died  before  1666,  and 
she  was  emjdoyed  lus  a  spy  at  .Vntwerp  by  Charles  II.  She 
wrote  under  tile  name  of  "Asfra'a"  some  seventei^n  plays 
and  a  number  of  i)oems,  epistles,  and  novels,  the  most  note- 
worthy of  which  is  Surinam,  the  story  of  a  native  prince  of 
Oroonoki).  in  South  America,  whose  acijuaintinice  she  had 
made  during  a  short  residence  in  that  province  in  her 
vouth.  Her  writings  are  witty,  lint  immoral:  latest  reprint 
London,  ISTl,  6  vols.  D.  in  London,  .Apr.  11!.  168i),  ami  was 
buried  in  the  Poets'  Corner  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Behrciuls,  Adolphus  Jui^ius  Frederick,  D.  D.  :  Con- 
gregationalist  minister;  b.  at  Xvmwegen  in  Ilolland,  Dcc- 
IS.'lSSO;  graduated  at  Denison  University,  Ohio,  1863; 
studied  theology  at  Rochester  Theological  Seminary;  be- 
came pa.stor  of  the  Baptist  church  at  Youkei-s,  N.  Y.,  1868; 
of  the  First  Baptist  church,  Cleveland,  O.,  1873  ;  then  piis- 
tor  of  the  Union  Congregational  church.  Providence,  R.  I., 
1876;  and  of  the  Central  Congregational  church,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  188.5.  He  is  the  author  of  Socialism  ami  t'hristian- 
ily  (18.S6)  an<l  the  Pliilo.soplii/  uf  Pmwiiiiig  (1890),  and  is 
a  frcipient  contributor  to  theological  journals. 

George  P.  Fisuer. 

Beliring:  See  Bering. 

Bciluii,  ba'y-laan' :  a  town  and  pass  of  Xorthcrn  Syria;  on 
the  caM  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderoon ;  one  of  only  two 
passes  between  Cilicia  and  Syria.  It  is  thought  by  some  to 
OK  the  same  as  the  ancient  Amanian  Gates.  The  town  of 
Bcilan  is  situated  on  a  hill-crest  l,f)00  feet  above  the  sea. 
Pop.  about  5,000.     It  has  numerous  aiiueducts. 

Beilstciii.  bilstln',  Frikdrkii  Conrad:  chemist:  h.  in 
St.  Petei-sliurg,  18o8;  professor  in  the  Technological  Insti- 
tute in  that  city  since  1866.  He  has  done  much  valuable 
work  in  the  held  of  organic  chemistry.  He  is  proliably  best 
known  by  his  llandlmch  der  organise/ten  Cheniie  (3d  ed. 
1891),  a  work  highly  prized  l)y  all  engaged  in  higher  work 
on  the  compouiuls  of  carbon. 

Beira,  bay'rali,  or  Beyra:  a  province  of  Portugal; 
bouiKled  N.  by  Entre-Douro-e-Minlio  and  Tra.s-os-Moutes, 
E.  by  Spain,  S.  by  Eslremadura  and  Alemtejo,  and  W.  Iiy 
the  Atlantic.  Area,  i),244  sq.  miles.  Besides  the  D(mro, 
which  flows  along  its  north  boumlary.  and  iheTagus,  which 
touches  it  in  the  southciusl  corner.  Hcira  is  also  drained  by 
the  Moudegos.     The  surface  is  mountainous ;  the  soil  is  gen- 


erally poor.  Among  the  staple  productions  are  wine,  grain, 
and  olives.  Marble,  iron,  and  coal  are  found  here.  Capital, 
Coimbra.     Pop.  (1881)  l,377,4;ia. 

Beirut,  or  Hairiit :  See  Bevroi:t. 

Bcit-el-Fa'kih.  b.-iyt'cl-faa  kee  (i.  c.  house  of  a  saint):  a 
town  of  .\ral)ia;  in  Yemen;  on  the  Red  Sea;  90  miles  N.  of 
Mocha  (see  map  of  Persiii  and  Arabia,  ref.  10-1)).  The  heat 
here  is  very  great,  the  therniomeler  rising  to  104'  F.  in  the 
shade,  anil  14.5  in  the  sun.  It  has  a  citadel  and  a  mosque. 
Pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  marts  in  Arabia 
for  coffee. 

Beja,  bay'jhaa  (anc.  Pnx  Julia) :  a  town  of  Portugal ;  in 
Alemtejo;  57  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Kvora  (see  map  of  Si)ain, 
ref.  18-B).  It  has  a  cnstle,  a  cathedral,  and  manufactures 
of  earthenware  and  leather.  If  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic bishop.  Two  annual  fairs  are  held  here  in  the  fall. 
Pop.  8,500. 

Be'jail :  name  of  the  fresliman  class  in  universities  of  St. 
Andrews  and  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  and  in  earlier  times  in 
many  of  the  contimuital  universities. 

Bcjapoor :  same  as  Bijapoor. 

Bejar.  ba'S-A-haar' :  a  Spanish  town  romantically  situated 
on  the  Cuerpo  de  llombre;  48  miles  S.  of  Salamanca  (see 
map  of  Sj)ain,  ref.  1.5-1)).  It  has  manufactures  of  wool,  and 
is  luited  for  hani.s.  There  are  tln'rmal  silicate  springs  in  the 
vicinity  which  are  much  frequented.     Pop.  (1887)  12,120. 

Beke.  Ciiari-ks  Tixstone  :  English  traveler;  b.in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  10,  1800.  He  early  attracted  attention  by  his  bib- 
lical and  archaeological  writings,  and  in  consequence  re- 
ceived an  honorarv  Ph.  I),  from  the  Univei-sitv  of  Tiibingeu 
(1834).  He  explored  Abyssinia  (1840-13).  and  after  his  re- 
turn published,  besides  other  works,  an  JCxsay  on  the  Sile 
audits  Tributaries  (London,  1847),  and  Oil,  the  Sources  of 
tlie  Kile  in  the  Jlountaitis  of  the  Moon  (1848).  He  has 
since  made  other  visits  to  Africa  and  Asia,  and  performed 
many  eminent  public  services,  especially  in  Abyssinia.  Ho 
claimed  (Discoveries  of  Sinai  in  Aral/ia  and  of  JI  id  inn, 
1878)  to  have  discovered  that  Mt.  Sinai  was  Jebel-el-Nur, 
a  grand  mountain  with  a  broad  plain  at  its  base,  near  the 
Gulf  of  Akiibah,  on  the  E.  D.  in  Bromley,  Kent,  July  31, 
1874. 

Bekcs,  ba'v-kesh  :  a  county  of  Central  Hungary:  hounded 
X.  by  the  county  of  Szabolcs,  E.  by  Bihar,  S.  by  Csanad, 
and  \V.  by  Csongrad.  Area,  1,321  sq.  miles.  The  country 
consists  of  a  plain,  and  is  watered  by  the  Black,  White,  and 
Rapid  Koriis.  The  climate  is  unhealthful.  but  the  .soil  is 
extremely  fertile,  yielding  large  quantities  of  wheat  of  the 
first  quality.     Pop'.  (1890)  257,888. 

Bekes,  or  Bekesvi'ir.  -vaar' :  a  town  of  Hungary ;  capital 
of  county  of  same  name  ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  White  and 
Black  Kc'iriis;  62  miles  S.  W.  of  Debreczin  (see  map  of  Aus- 
tria-lli 
24,-561. 


tria-llungary,  ref.  7-1).     It   has  considerable 


•e  map  o 
,e  trade. 


op. 


Bek'ker,  AuorsT  Immanit.i,  :  philologist;  b.  in  Berlin, 
Jlay  21,  1785 ;  was  a  inipil  of  F.  A.  Wolf  at  Halle.  He  be- 
caiue  I'rofes.sor  of  Philology  at  Berlin  in  1810,  ami  pub- 
lished Anecdota  Gra-ca  (3  "vols..  1814-21).  He  produced 
good  editions  of  many  classics,  among  which  are  Plato  (10 
vols.,  1814-21);  The 'Attic  Orators  (5  vols.,  1823-24);  and 
Aristotle  (4  vols.,  1831-36).     D.  in  Berlin,  June  7,  1871. 

Bel :  See  Baal. 

Bola.  bay  hfii :  name  of  four  Hungarian  kings  of  the 
Arpad  dynasty.  B.  I.  (1061-63)  regulated  the  systems  of 
measures,  weights,  and  coinage,  and  introduced  the  repre- 
.sentatlve  system  into  the  Diet.— B.  II..  The  Blind  (1131-41); 
addicted  to  drink:  entirely  dominated  by  his  bloodthirsty 
wife,  Helena. — B.  III.  (1174-96)  introduced  Byzantine  cus- 
toms anil  culture  into  the  court. — B.  IV.  (123.5-70);  son  of 
Andreas  II. ;  fled  before  the  Mongols  to  Austria  1241 :  after- 
ward fostered  the  development  of  the  country  by  the  en- 
couragement of  colonists. 

Bolaia  :  .same  as  Bielava. 

Bel  Air:  capital  of  Harford  Co..  ^Id.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Maryland,  ref.  1-F);  on  Bait,  and  Le- 
high k.  R. ;  22^  miles  N.  of  Baltimore.  It  is  a  manufactur- 
ing town,  and  trade-center  of  an  agricultural  district.  Pop. 
(1890)  1,416. 

Bel  and  the  Drnjjon.  History  of:  an  apocryjOial  book 
of  the  Bilile;  regarded  as  a  fable  by  Sl..Ierome  ami  many 
eminent  theologians.     It  is  canonical  in  the  Roman  Catholic 


506 


BELCHER 


BELGAUM 


Clmrch,  being  i>urt  o{  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Daniel  in 
the  Vulgate.  By  the  Anglican  Church  it  is  recommended 
to  be  read  for  edification.  It  was  written  in  Greek,  proba- 
bly in  Alexandria,  in  the  tliird  century  B.  c.  It  has  no  his- 
torical value.  Its  object  seems  to  have  been  to  give  a  warn- 
ing against  idolatry.     See  Pskudepigrapha. 

Bordier,  Sir  Edward,  P.  R.  S. :  an  English  vice-admiral ; 
b.  in  Halifax,  X.  S.,  1799.  As  commander  of  the  Sulphur, 
he  sailed  on  a  voyage  around  the  world  in  1836,  and  ex- 
plored the  western  coasts  of  America,  During  this  voyage 
he  served  in  the  naval  operations  against  the  Chinese  in 
1841.  He  became  a  post-captain  in  1843,  and  commanded 
an  expedition  sent  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  in  1852. 
Returning  witliout  any  success,  and  having  lost  his  vessels, 
he  was  placed  licfiu-e  acourt  martial,  but  acquitted.  In  1864 
he  became  rear-admiral  of  the  red.  He  published,  besides 
other  works,  a  Xarmliiv  of  a  Vuyage  round  the  World  in 
the  Sulphur.     I).  Mar.  18,  1877. 

Belcher.  JoxATH ax:  merchant:  li.  in  Camljridge,  Mass., 
Jan.  8,  1681  :  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1699.  He  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts  and  Xew  Hampshire  fronr  1730  to 
1741.  Having  been  removed  from  office,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land to  vindicate  himself,  and  was  ap|5ointed  Governor  of 
Xew  Jersey  in  1747.     D.  in  Elizabeth,  Aug.  11,  1757. 

Belelier,  Joxatitas:  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Boston, 
Mass..  Julv  28,  1710:  studied  law  at  the  Temple,  London; 
was  one  of  the  first  settlei-s  in  Chebucto.  Xova  Scotia :  became 
lieutenant-governor  of  Xova  Scotia  in  1760,  and  chief  jus- 
tice in  1761.     D.  in  Halifax,  N.  S..  JIar.  29,  1776. 

BeI'diiig  :  city ;  Ionia  co.,  Mich,  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  7-1) ;  on  the  D.,  L.  and  X.  R.  R.  ; 
l;38  miles  X.  W.  from  Detroit.  It  is  the  seat  of  extensive 
manufacturing  industries,  the  first  silk-mill  built  in  the  West 
being  phiced  here.  There  are  now  two  silk-mills,  emjiloy- 
ing  over  600  operatives,  mostly  girls :  a  large  refrigerator- 
factory,  casket-factory,  furniture-factory,  basket-factory, 
washing-machine  factory,  a  clieniical  fire-extinguisher  fac- 
tory, paper-box  factory,  besides  other  smaller  concerns. 
Pop.  (1880)  562  ;  (1890)  1,730 ;  (1894)  3,006. 

Publishers  of  "  Banner." 

Bel'ed-el-Jereed'  (i.  e.  the  country  of  dates) :  an  exten- 
sive region  of  Xortliern  Africa;  bordering  on  the  Desert  of 
Sahara";  is  bomided  on  the  X.  by  Algeria,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Morocco.  The  soil  is  mostly  arid  and  sterile,  except  some 
oases  which  produce  the  date-palm,  which  affords  the  inhab- 
itants their  principal  and  often  their  only  food. 

Beleiii,  bay-len' ;  a  city  of  Brazil.    See  Para. 

Belein'nite  [from  Gr.  ^iKtixvov.  dart] :  the  common  name 
of  the  internal  guard  of  an  extinct  type  of  diliranchiatc 
cephalopoda,  of  which  tlic  genus  Belemnites  is  the  main 
re|iresenlative.     See  Belemxitid.-e. 

Belemiiitida>:  a  family  of  extinct  cephalopods  of  the 
sub-order  Di-citpodd,  of  which  Belemnites  is  the  typical 
genus.  Tile  parts  gi'uerally  preserved  in  the  fossil  state  are 
(1)  the  guard,  a  cylindro-conical,  elongated  calcareous  shell, 
mainly  solid,  but  with  a  sliallow  conical  cavity  in  the  larger 
end  in  wliich  is  inserted  the  phragmacone,  (2)  which  is 
chambered  and  traversed  by  a  marginal  siphon  on  the  ven- 
tral side;  on  the  dorsal  side  the  phragmacone  is  extended 
in  a  thin,  extremely  delicate  plate  (3)  expanded  and  rounded 
in  front,  which  is  rarely  preserved,  representing  the  "  pen  " 
of  t lie  Loligo.  This  is  called  {\w pni-ostracum.  Occasionally 
traces  of  tlie  "  ink-bag "  and  impressions  of  the  arms  are 
preserved,  showing  the  animal  to  have  been  constructed  on 
the  plan  of  the  recent  Loligo.  In  the  latter  genus  the 
"  pen,"  represi^nting  the  pro-ostracum  of  the  Belemnites,  is  the 
only  i)arl  of  the  inlernal  skeleton  developed. 

The  lielemnitida'  include  tlie  f;enera. Belemnites.  Belemni- 
lella,  Xiphnteuthis,  Beliiptera.  Spirulorostra.  and  others,  all 
of  wliich  are  confined  to  the  Jlesozoic  (Triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
Cretaceous)  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Tertiary. 

n.  S.  Williams. 

Belfast' :  an  important  city  and  seaport  of  Ireland  ;  in  the 
county  of  Antrim  and  province  of  Ulster;  situated  on  Belfast 
Lough  (an  arm  of  the  sea),  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lagan, 
101  miles  l)y  rail  X.  of  Dublin,  and  118  miles  S.  W.  of  Glas- 
gow;  lat.  .'i4"  35'  X.,  Ion.  5  57'  W.  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref. 
5-J).  The  river  is  crossed  by  three  bridges,  the  finest  of 
which  is  the  t^ueen's  bridge.  Railways  extend  from  this 
point  to  Dublin,  Armagh,  and  Londonderry.  Tlie  site  of 
the  city  is  low  and  level,  but  is  partly  inclosed  by  the  ridge 


of  Divis  and  Cave  Hill,  the  former  of  which  rises  to  the 
height  of  1.567  feet.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  brick  and  are 
well  built ;  the  streets  are  regidar,  spacious,  well-lighted,  and 
macadamized.  Belfast  is  the  most  prosperous  commercial 
town  of  Ireland,  except  Dublin.  The  principal  public  edifices 
are  (Queen's  College,  a  beautiful  structure  in  the  Tudor  style 
(opened  in  1849) :  a  Preslij-terian  and  a  Jlethodist  college ;  the 
Royal  Academical  Institution,  affiliated  to  the  London  Uni- 
versity;  the  museum,  the  theater.  Linen  Hall,  the  Corji  Ex- 
change, etc.  It  has  about  80  churches,  of  which  28  are  Pres- 
b^-teriaii.  Although  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
of  Down  aiui  Connor,  it  is  mostly  Protestant,  having  only  five 
Roman  Catholic  churches.  The  botanic  garden  of  the  Xatu- 
ral  History  Society  occupies  about  17  acres.  Belfast  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  Irish  manufactures  of  linen  and  cotton,  and 
is  the  great  depot  of  the  linen  trade.  The  linen  manufacture 
was  established  here  in  1637.  The  other  chief  branches  of 
industry  are  weaving  of  linen  and  cotton,  bleaching,  dyeing, 
calico-printing,  and  iron-founding.  Xumerous  steamers,  en- 
gaged in  the  Channel  trade,  ply  regularly  between  Belfast 
and  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  London,  etc.  The  chief 
articles  of  exjjort  arc  linens,  cotton  goods,  grain,  flax,  cattle, 
and  provisions.  This  city  has  also  a  large  foreign  trade.  The 
adjacent  country  is  extremely  beautiful.  Belfast  returns  four 
mcnibei-s  to  Parliament.  It  first  became  an  important  place 
about  1604,  and  was  chartered  in  1611.  Pop.  (1881)  207,671 ; 
(1891)  255,896. 

Belfast:  city  and  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Waldo  co.,  Me. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  9-D).  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Belfast  and  Moosehead  Lake  R.  R.,  and  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  West  Penobscot  Bay,  2  miles  W.  of 
Penobscot  river,  and  about  30  miles  S.  l)y  W.  from  Bangor. 
It  has  a  spacious  harbor,  which  is  safe  and  sufilcicntly  deep 
for  large  ships.  Belfast  has  a  good  school  system,  including 
high  school,  public  library  of  over  5,000  volumes  in  a  hand- 
some stone  Iniilding.  and  churches  of  six  denominations. 
The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  patent 
medicines,  doors,  iron,  and  the  ciuarrying  of  granite,  and 
ship-building.  It  was  first  settled  in  1770;  was  invested  by 
the  British  m  1815;  adopted  a  city  charter  in  1853.  Pop. 
(1880)  5,308;  (1890)  5,294  :  (1892)  estimated.  5,500. 

Editor  ok  "  Age." 

Belford.  James  B.  :  b.  in  Lcwistown,  Pa.,  Sept.  28,1837; 
educated  at  Dickinson  College;  studied  law  ;  was  appointed 
one  of  tlie  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Colorado  (1870-75). 
Since  the  admission  of  Colorado  as  a  State  he  has  been  elected 
its  representative  in  the  44th,  45th.  46th,  47th,  and  48th  Con- 
gresses, but  was  refused  his  seat  by  the  Democratic  majority 
in  the  45th. 

Belfort,  bel'for' :  an  important  fortified  town  of  France : 
at  t  lie  foot  of  the  Vosges  and  on  the  river  Savoureuse ;  60 
miles  by  rail  X.  E.  of  Besan^on  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  4-1). 
Pop.  (1891)  25,455.  It  has  a  citadel  constructed  liy  Vaubaii. 
a  fine  church,  and  a  public  library;  also  manufactures  of 
iron,  jiaper,  and  calico.  It  was  ceded  to  France  by  Austria 
in  1648.  In  the  winter  of  1870-71  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Germans,  and  capitulated  Feb.  16  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Government,  but  was  aftei-ward  evacuated  by  the  Germans. 
It  once  belonged  to  the  department  of  Haut-Rhin  ;  is  now 
in  the  small  territory  of  Belfort.  Area.  235  sq.  miles;  pop. 
(1891)  83,670. 

Bel'ga^ :  the  name  given  by  Ca>sar  to  the  warlike  tribes 
which  In  ancient  times  occupied  one  of  the  three  great  di- 
visions of  Gaul  (Gallia).  Their  country,  which  was  bounded 
on  the  X.  W.  liy  the  ocean  and  on  the  F.  by  the  Rhine.  C'om- 
prised  the  modern  Belgium,  part  of  Holland,  and  tlie  north- 
east |iart  of  France.  This  region  was  sometimes  called  i^c/- 
gicn  or  Gallia  Belgiea.  It  was  separated  from  the  territory 
of  the  Ci'ltM'  bv  the  river  6>(?'/o?i«  (Seine)  and  itsaffluent  the 
Matrnna  (Mar'iie).  Ca>sar  represents  the  Belga>  as  distinct 
from  t  hi'  Celta'  jiioper  and  the  Aquitani  in  language,  usages, 
and  jiolilical  institutions.  A  part  of  the  Belga'  were  proba- 
bly Ciermans  or  of  German  origin,  and  a  part  are  believed  to 
have  been  Cymric  Celts.  Some^rtf  the  Bclga>  had  crossed  the 
Channel  and  settled  in  the  southern  maritime  |iarts  of  Brit- 
ain, and  wi-re  found  there  by  Ca-sar  when  he  invaded  the 
island.  The  I'>elu'a' were  a  brave,  warlike  peojile.  See  C:rsar, 
(\iniinentaries  on  tlie  Gallic  ^Yar\  Smith,  Diet,  of  Ancient 
Gfog. 

Belgaiiiii.  bel-gawm' :  a  district  and  city  of  the  Bombay 
Presidciiev.  Brit  ish  India.  The  district  is  near  the  west  coast, 
in  hit.  16  'X.,  northeast  of  Goa.    Area,  4,657  sq.  miles.   The 


HKLGIOJOSO 


BELGIUM 


561 


chief  occupation  is  agricultuio,  Imt  there  are  considerable 
inanufactinvs  of  clotli,  wood,  metals,  and  shoes.  Among  tlie 
nf;ricultural  products  are  rice,  wlicat,  sufjar-cane,  liarley,  and 
tol)acco.  Tlio  population  is  about  ST(),()t)0.  "tT  per  cent,  of 
whom  are  Hindus,  7  per  cent.  Moluimmedans,  and  5  per 
cent.  Huddliisls.  Tile  citv  of  lielgaum  is  in  about  lat. 
1.")  .'50  \..  ion.  74  40'  K.  It  is  the  "capital  of  the  district. 
Pop.  :ir>,000. 

Hcl^riojoso,  bel-jo-yo  .so,  Cristixa,  Princess  of :  b.  at 
MihiTi,  .Iiine  28,  1808;  a  daughter  of  Marquis  Oeronimo  Isi- 
doro  Trivulzio;  married  on  Sept.  14,  1824,  I'rince  Kmilio 
Karbian  e  ISelgiojoso.  She  embraced  the  Italian  cause  with 
great  enthusiasm;  was  expelled  from  Italy  by  the  .\ustrian 
Government  in  ISJSO,  and  settled  in  Paris,  where  her  salon 
soon  became  the  center  of  a  nuist  brilliant  ]iolitical  and 
literary  circle.  In  1848  she  relumed  to  Italy,  ecjuipped  a 
corjis  of  volunteei-s  at  her  own  expense,  and  took  jiai't  most 
actively  in  the  revolulion  in  Jlilan  and  Kome,  Hut  in  185() 
she  was  once  more  exiled ;  visited  Greece  and  Turkey,  and 
settled  in  bS.j5  once  mon'  in  Paris,  slill  working  indefati- 
gably  for  the  cause  of  her  country.  In  18()1  she  finally  re- 
turni'd  to  Italy,  and  d.  in  Milan. .luly  .").  1871.  Besides  being 
a  fn'(|Uont  contril)Ut(U'  to  various  French  and  Italian  jour- 
nals, she  published  /,'.««/  sur  In  Fdniuitiim  (In  Ciilti'  dotjiiut- 
tiqiie  (1846);  Smivenirs  iV E.ril  (XUTA)) ;  Eminit,  Recits  liirro- 
(iKialiqiies  (3  vols.,  1856) ;  Ante  mineure  et  Si/rie;  and  Sci^iirx 
(If  la  Vie  iiirfjiie  {1S5S);  Hialoire  <le  In  Mainon  ile  Sfiniie 
(1860);  and  UeflexioHS  sur  VKtal  acttiel  de  I'l/alie,  etc. 
(18()!t). 

Bcl^inm  :  a  kingdom  of  Europe ;  on  the  German  Sea  be- 
tween Holl:ind.  Prussia,  and  France;  has  an  area- of  11,;!73 
sq.  miles,  and  (in  1800)  a  population  of  (i.147.041  inhabitants 
(see  map  of  Ilolliind  and  Helgium.  imdi'r  HoIImuiI).  It  is 
the  most  densely  jieopli'd  couini'v  of  Kurope.  having  540  in- 
habitants to  the  sipiare  mile.  The  .soil  is  )iartly  fertile,  partly 
(inthe  K.)  .sandy  and  marshy.  The  only  nuaintains  are  some 
offshoots  of  the  Ardennes  in  the  S.  The  coast  has  a  length 
of  46  miles,  and  is  flat  and  undiversifi<>d.  The  country  is 
well  watered  by  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt,  and  their  afflu- 
ents, the  Sarnbri',  Ourtlie,  Werze,  Lys,  Dender,  and  Hnpel. 
There  are  no  lakes  of  importance.  i)ul  many  canals.  The 
climate  in  general  is  temperate.  Among  the  chief  [iroducts 
of  lielgium  belong  cattle,  fish,  corn,  fruit,  wood;  among 
those  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  iron  and  coal,  A  coal  region 
covering  an  area  of  476  sq,  miles  traverses  all  Belgium,  anil 
embraces  two  large  ba.sins,  one  of  which  extends  into  Prance 
and  the  other  into  Prussia,  Celebrated  mineral  springs  are 
found  at  Spji,  The  [leople  belong,  in  almost  Cfiual  propor- 
tion, to  two  dilTerent  nationalities,  the  Flemish  (German) 
and  the  Walloon  (French).  The  Flemish  language,  which  is 
spoken  by  aliout  2, .500,000,  prevails  in  the  provinces  of  Ea.st 
I'landi'i's,  .\nlwerp.  Ijiinburg,  West  Flanders,  and  Brabant, 
while  the  Walloon  is  the  predominant  language  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Lieg<',  Ilainaut,  Xamur,  and  Luxemburg,  and  is 
spoken  by  a  |)o|)ulalion  of  about  2.000,000.  The  French, 
lliough  the  language  of  the  minority,  has  since  17!t4  been 
the  ollicial  language  of  the  slate  authorities  and  the  court  ; 
of  l.'ile,  however,  the  Flemings  have  begun  an  active  agita- 
tion for  the  recovery  of  equal  rights  for  their  idiom.  .\ 
considerable  number  of  jieriodicals  are  published  in  the 
Flemish  language.  With  the  exception  of  about  15,000 
Protestants  and  ::i,000  Jews,  the  entire  population  belongs  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  has  in  Belgium  one  arch- 
bishop at  .Malines.  anil  live  bishops  at  Xamur,  (ilient,  Bruges, 
Tournay,  and  Liege, 

There  are  four  universities — at  Ghent,  Liege.  Louvain.  and 
Brussels;  the  two  first  named  are  controlled  by  the  stale; 
the  third  by  the  Catholic  bishops,  and  the  last  named  by  the 
Liberal  party.  Prominent  among  the  other  educational 
institutions  of  the  country  are  the  Academies  of  Fine 
.\rts  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  the  Museum  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture  at  Brussels,  the  Conservatories  of  Music  at 
Brussi'ls,  I /lege,  and  Ghent.  The  people  are  chiefly  oc- 
cupied with  agrieullure,  and  in  this  respect  excel  most 
nations  of  Kurope,  The  working  of  mines  is  also  a  most 
importanl  part  of  the  national  industry.  First  in  order  are 
the  coal  mines  (with  lliive  great  i-entei-s  at  Jlons,  Charleroi, 
and  the  city  of  Liege),  which  produced  in  1890  20,:!66,000 
tons.  The  annual  produce  of  the  iron  mines  amounts  to 
aliout  787,s:!(J  Ions;  l,;i02,147  tons  of  pig  and  wrought  iron 
Were  produced  in  18!K),  exclusive  of  the  production  of  (he 
foundries.  Wool  is  the  object  of  an  immense  industry,  and 
the  Belgian  woolen  cloths  are  superior  in  quality.    The  linen 


cloths  of  Belgium  have  long  been  highly  valued ;  and  the 
manufacture  of  lace,  though  now  less  prosperous  than  for- 
merly, has  nothing  to  fear  from  foreign  competition.  The 
breweries  are  very  numerous,  and  beer  is  the  common  bever- 
age of  all  classes.  The  commerce  of  the  country  is  also  in  a 
very  prosperous  condition,  being  greatly  promoted  by  a 
dense  net  of  railroads,  which  in  18!)1  had  an  aggregate  lengtli 
of  2,880  miles.  It  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  France,  Holland, 
Fngland,  Prussia,  North  America,  and  Russia.  The  exports 
amount  to  about  ^610.000.000.  and  the  imjiorts  to  a  trifle 
more.  The  commercial  fled,  in  1801,  consisted  of  56  vesseLs 
(46  steamers),  with  an  aggregate  of  75,046  tons.  The  aggre- 
gate length  of  the  telegraph  lines  was,  in  1801,  4,265  miles. 
The  most  important  jjorts  are  those  of  Antwerp  and  O.stende ; 
(he  most  important  centers  of  the  commerce  of  the  interior 
are  Brussels,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Liege,  Namur,  Courtray. 

Government. — According  to  the  constitution  of  Mar.  3, 
18;il,  Belgium  is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  The  crown  is 
heredil.'iry,  according  to  the  right  of  jirimogeniture,  in  the 
male  line  only.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king 
alone ;  tlie  legislative  he  shares  with  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Uepresentativcs.  The  Court  of  Cassation  at  Brus- 
sels is  the  supreme  court  of  the  ciaintry;  besides  it  there  are 
three  courts  of  appeal  (Brussels.  Ghent,  iind  Liege).  The 
jury  has  been  introduced  since  ls;^l.  The  Code  Napoleon  is 
regarded  as  the  judicial  .standard.  The  |iublic  budget  for 
1802  was,  revenue,  !j!68,50<J,2:!8 ;  expenditure,  $67,000,5;iO ; 
public  deb(,  .^414.712,000.  The  army  on  the  war  footing 
numbered  (without  officers)  154,780  men,  14,000  horses,  and 
240  pieces  of  ordnance ;  besides,  the  count  ry  has  a  civil  guard 
consisting  of  44.:>;!0  active  and  00,000  non-active  men.  The 
navy  is  unimporlant.  The  most  importanl  fortresses  are 
.Vntwer)),  Alons.  Charleroi.  Philippeville.  Marienbourg,  Ath, 
Tournay,  Menai,  Vpres,  Ghi'iit,  Namur.  Th<'  measures  and 
coins  have  been  since  1817  Hie  same  as  in  France.  In  point 
of  administration  the  country  is  divided  into  nine  provinces; 
South  Brabant,  .\ntwerp,  I'last  and  West  Flanders,  Ilainaut, 
Namur,  Liege,  Limburg,  Luxemburg.  Brussels  is  the  capital 
and  residence  of  the  king;  during  the  summer  months  the 
king  resides  at  Ijaeken.  The  national  colors  are  red,  yellow, 
and  black,  placed  perpendicularly  beside  each  other;  the  es- 
cutcheon, the  lion  of  Brabant  witli  the  inscription,  "  L'union 
fail  la  force." 

J/i.sfuri/. — In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  present  Belgiutn, 
which  w-as  then  inhabited  liy  Celtic  and  Germanic  tribes, 
formed,  under  the  name  of  Gallia  Belgica.  a  part  of  Gtml. 
The  treaty  of  Verdun  in  84;i  united  the  southern  districts  with 
France,  the  norlliern  with  (iermany.  After  the  termination 
of  the  Carlovingian  rule,  the  French  districts  were  gradually 
(■■onvcrted  into  duchies  and  counties.  In  Ki85  the  county  of 
Flanders  fell  to  the  House  of  Burgundy,  which  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century  graduaUy  obtained  possession 
of  all  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  The  marriage  of 
Maria  ol  Burgundy,  the  hust  scion  of  her  house,  with  the 
Enqieror  Maximilian  I.,  incorporated  (he  Netherlands  with 
the  extensive  dominions  of  the  House  of  llabsburg.  and,  under 
the  name  of  the  "Circle  of  Burgundy"  (Jhir</iin<li.irlier 
AVc/.s),  wi(h  the  German  empire.  When,  after  the  abdica- 
tion of  Charles  V.  (1555).  his  slates  were  divided.  Belgium 
remained  united  with  Spain,  and  this  union  c<mtinued  after 
the  northern  jiroviiu'es  ha<l  successfully  established  their  in- 
dependence. Only  fnun  1-508  to  1621,  Belgium  constituted 
an  iiidejiendent  state  under  the  rule  of  Isabel,  daughter  of 
Philip  II.,  and  her  husband,  the  Archduke  Albert,  In  the 
course  of  the  seventeenth  century  Spain  had  reiieateiUy  to 
cede  portions  of  Belgian  territory  to  France.  The  jieace  of 
Utrecht  in  171:^  gave  Belgium  to  Austria. 

In  the  Austrian  war  of  succession  the  whole  country  was 
conquenMl  by  the  French,  but  it  was  restored  to  Austria  in 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (t)ct.  18, 1748).  In  consequence 
of  tlie  unpopular  reforms  and  innovations  which  Joseph  II. 
undertook  to  introduce,  an  insurrection  broke  out  against 
Austrian  rule  in  Dee.  1780.  and  on  Jan.  11.  1700.  the  Belgian 
iirovinces(with  theexception  of  Luxemburg) proclaimed  their 
independence^  under  the  name  of  "  United  lielgium,"  but  in 
Nov,,  1700,  the  rule  of  the  Austrians  was  re-established. 
After  the  battle  of  Jemapnes  (Nov.  7,  1702),  Belgium  was 
occupied  by  the  French,  and  in  1704  (he  country  was  oeded 
by  .Vuslria  to  France.  It  was  then  divided  into  nine  depart- 
ments, and  the  administration  wholly  assimilated  to  that  of 
France.  In  1S14  the  first  treaty  of  Paris  united  Belgium 
with  Holland  into  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
union  lasted  until  Aug..  18:i0,  when  the  whole  country  rose 
in  revolution  against  the  Dutch  Government.     On  Sept.  20, 


568 


BELGOROD 


BELKNAP 


a  provisional  government  was  formed,  which,  on  Oct.  4,  after 
the  evacuation  of  tlie  capital  by  the  Dutch,  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  lielgiuui.  On  June  4,  lb;31.  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Saxe-Cobui-g  was  elected  king.  The  preliminary 
treaty  of  lUH'i  between  England,  France,  and  Holland  put 
an  end  to  tlie  efforts  of  tlie  Dutch  Governuient  for  tlie  re- 
covery of  Belgium,  but  the  definite  acceptance  of  the  articles 
drawn  up  by  the  London  Conference  in  1831  for  the  regula- 
tion of  tlie  frontier  between  Holland  and  Belgium  did  not 
take  place  until  Ib^iS.  Tlie  subsequent  history  of  Belgium 
under  Leopold  L  (d.  Dec.  10,  1863)  and  his  son  Leopold  IL 
has  been  one  of  quiet  and  steady  development.  Tlie  admin- 
istration has  been  sometimes  in  the  hands  of  the  Catliolic 
and  sometimes  in  those  of  the  Liljeral  party,  but  the  peace 
of  the  country  has  never  seriously  been  disturbed,  not  even 
by  tlie  European  revolution  of  1848.  See  Juste,  Ilistoire  de 
Belgiqne  (2  vols.,  4th  ed.  1868).     Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Belgorod  :  a  town  of  Russia.    See  Bielgorod. 

Belgrade,  bel-grayd'  (anc.  Singidu'num  ;  Servian  Biel- 
gorod, white  town):  an  important  fortified  town;  capital  of 
Servia;  on  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Save,  43  miles  S.  E.  of  Peterwardein,  315  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Pesth,  and  234  N.  N.  W.  of  Vranja  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  9-1).  The  citadel,  which  is  very  strong,  is 
situated  on  a  point  of  land  between  the  rivers,  behind  which 
rises  the  city  with  antique  German  edifices,  a  cathedral,  and 
a  palace.  Belgrade  had  formerly  an  Oriental  appearance, 
but  it  has  been  abandoned  by  many  wealthy  Turks,  and 
mosques  are  partly  superseded  by  churches.  Here  are  manu- 
factures of  arms,  cutlery,  silk  gootls,  saddlery,  and  carpets. 
It  has  a  good  port  and  an  active  trade,  being  the  entrepot  of 
the  commerce  between  Austria  and  Turkey.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  chief  authorities  of  Servia.  In  consequence  of  its 
importance  as  a  strategical  point,  Belgrade  has  been  the 
scene  of  many  famous  sieges  and  battles.  It  was  besieged 
without  success  by  the  Turks  in  1456,  and  taken  by  the  Sul- 
tan Solyman  in  1532.  In  1688  it  was  stormed  and  captured 
by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  but  it  Wiis  recovered  by  the  Turks 
in  1G90.  Prince  Eugene  here  defeated  300.000  Turks  in 
1717,  after  which  it  changed  owners  several  times.  Taken 
by  Austria  in  1789.  it  was  given  up  to  Turkey  in  1891.  In- 
surgent Servians  held  it  from  1806-13 ;  the  Turks  bom- 
barded the  town  from  the  citadel  in  1862;  made  capital  of 
Servia  same  year.  The  princi|>alitv  became  independent  on 
July  13,  1878.     Pop.  (1884)  35,726  ;' (1891)  54,458. 

Belgraiid,  belgra'aiV,  Eugene  :  civil  engineer :  constructor 

of  the  new  water-supply  and  sewers  of  Paris ;  b.  at  Eiwy,  Aube, 
April  33,  1810.  Prom  the  Polytechnic  School  he  entered 
the  Pouts  et  Chaussees.  being  made  engineer  in  1836,  chief 
engineer  in  1853,  inspector-general  firet  class  in  1875,  member 
of  the  Institute  of  Prance,  director  of  water-supply  and 
sewers  of  Paris,  and  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
The  system  of  sewers  designed  and  executed  by  him  is  a  truly 
gigantic  work.  So  also  are  the  water-works,  supplying  Paris 
with  spring  water  from  points  distant  80  and  100  miles. 
He  has  publislied  La  Seine;  Tlie  Basin  of  Paris  in  Pre- 
historic Times;  Tlie  Subterranean  Works  of  Paris,  etc.  D. 
April  8,  1878,  in  the  midst  of  his  most  important  work,  the 
sewerage  of  Paris,  a  work  to  cost  |8.000,000.         W.  R,  H. 

Be'lial  [Heb.,  worthlessness] :  a  term  used  in  the  Bible: 
frequently  occuring  in  the  phrase  "a  son  of  Beliid,"  which, 
by  a  common  Hebrew  idiom,  signifies  merely  a  worthless  or 
very  bad  person ;  but  in  3  Cor.  vi.  15,  the  only  New  Testa- 
ment occurrence,  it  is  used  as  a  proper  name  of  Satan.  \c- 
cording  to  Westcott  and  Ilort  and  other  critical  texts  the 
reading  is  Beliar. 

Bfilidor,  baylcu'-ddr',  Bern.\rd  Forest,  de :  French  mili- 
tary engineer  and  writer ;  b.  in  Catalonia  in  1697.  He  .served 
in  the  German  campaign  of  1743,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Aca<lemy  of  Sciences.  Among  his  works  may  bo  men- 
tioned his  Uiidraulic  Architecture  (Paris,  1737);  a  JVew 
Course  of  Mathimatirs  for  the  Use  of  Artillery  (KS");  '' 
Traites  (les  Fortifications;  and  La  Science  des  Inginieurs. 
D.  in  Paris,  Sept.' 8,  1761. 

Belisa'riiis  [Slavic,  white  tsar  or  chief] :  a  celebrated 
general  to  whom  .histinian  was  chiefly  indebted  for  the  mili- 
tary glory  (it  his  reign;  b.  in  Germania,  in  lllyri.-i,  about 
505  A.  D.  Having  been  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  East,  he  defeated  the  Persians  at  Dara  in  ,530, 
and  su[)pressed  a  formidalile  rising  of  the  Green  or  anti- 
royal  faction  at  Constantinople  in  532.  He  gained  two  vic- 
tories over  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  and  took  their  king,  Goli- 


raer,  a  prisoner,  in  534  a.  d.,  for  which  he  obtained  a  triumphal 
procession,  the  first  accorded  to  a  subject  since  the  reign  of 
Tiberius.  He  obtained  tlie  office  of  consul  in  535.  He  also 
commanded  the  army  of  Justinian  in  a  long  war  against  the 
Ostrogoths,  who  had  made  themselves  masters  of  Italy.  He 
occupied  Rome  in  Dec,  536,  and  gained  some  other  advan- 
tages, but  was  recalled  in  540 ;  after  which  he  suffered  ad- 
verse fortune  through  the  enmity  of  the  Empress  Theodora. 
In  544  A.  D.  ho  was  again  sent  to  Italy  to  oppose  the  Gothic 
King  Totila,  but  his  army  was  so  inferior  in  numbers  that 
he  could  not  gain  a  decisive  victory,  although  he  maintained 
the  war  for  five  years  and  reoccupied  Rome.  He  resigned 
the  command  in  548,  and  passed  nearlv  ten  years  in  inaction. 
He  served  with  success  against  the  Bulgarians  in  559,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  563  on  a  charge  of  treason.  D.  Mar.  13, 
565  A.  D.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  loyalty,  humanity, 
and  other  virtues.  The  tradition  that  he  died  poor  and  blind 
is  without  sufficient  support,  for  after  six  months'  incarcera- 
tion he  was  restored  to  all  his  honors.  See  Lord  IMahon,  Life 
of  Belisarius  {182d);  Gihhon,  Decline  and  Pall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire ;  C.  P.  Zeller,  Belisariiis  (Tiibingen,  1809) ; 
C.  L.  Roth,  Ueber  Belisars  Vngnade  (1846). 

Belize,  bel-eez'  [a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  Vi'allis,  itself 
a  corriqition  of  the  English  Wallace,  the  name  of  an  English 
pirate  who  infested  that  region] :  .See  Honduras,  British. 

Belize:  the  capital  of  British  Honduras;  on  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Belize  river;  lat.  17°  29'  N., 
Ion.  88°  8'  W.  There  is  no  port  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  as  vessels  have  to  lie  tar  off  from  shore,  and  the  only 
protection  seaward  is  formed  by  the  numerous  cays  which 
render  navigation  dangerous.  The  town  is  backed  by  swamps, 
and  the  land  on  which  it  is  Vmilt  is  made  from  ballast  and 
other  like  sources.  The  town,  consisting  of  a  principal  street 
along  the  shore,  with  small  offshoots,  is  generally  well  built, 
and,  notwithstanding  its  surrounding,  is  healthful  for  the 
latituile.     It  has  a  considerable  trade.     Pop.  about  6.000. 

Belknaj).  bclnap,  George  Eugene  :  rear-admiral  U.  S.  N". : 
b.  in  Xew]iiirt.  N.  11..  Jan.  22. 1832  ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman Oct.  7.  1847.  In  1856,  while  attached  to  the  sloop 
of  war  Plymouth,  he  took  part  in  the  assault  and  capture  of 
the  Barrier  Forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  river,  China; 
was  executive  officer  of  the  ironclad  New  Ironsides  from 
1863  to  1864  in  her  numerous  engagements  with  the  forts 
and  batteries  of  Charleston  harbor.  He  commanded  the  iron- 
clad C'anonicus  in  lioth  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  In  1874  he 
commanded  the  Tuscarora  while  surveying  the  bed  of  the 
Nortli  Pacific  to  find  a  submarine  cable  roitte  to  Japan,  and 
he  invented  improvements  in  the  apparatus  for  deep-sound- 
ings. In  1885  he  became  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Observatory,  and  later  president  of  the  Board  of  Inspection 
and  Survey. 

Belknap.  Jeremy,  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Boston,  JIass.,  June  4, 
1744  ;  graduated  at  Harvard  1763  ;  taught  school  four  years ; 
studi<'(l  theolosy ;  was  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church 
at  Dover,  N.  H..  from  Feb.  18.  1767.  until  1786,  and  of  the 
Federal  Street  church  at  Boston  from  Apr.  4,  1787,  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life ;  ke]it  a  diary  in  interleaved  almanacs 
from  his  fifteenth  year,  and  a  series  of  JMS.  books  called 
Quotidiana  iliscellanea,  in  which  he  -jotted  down  abstracts 
of  his  reading;  was  an  active  ]>atriot  cUiring  the  Revolution, 
but  declined  the  chaplaincy  of  the  New  Hampshire  troops 
at  Cambridge  1775 ;  projected  in  1790  the  Massacliusetts  His- 
torical Society,  which  recognizes  him  as  its  founder;  deliv- 
ered before  it,  Oct.  23.  1792,  a  tercentennial  discourse  on 
the  discovery  of  America:  devoted  much  of  his  life  to  his- 
torical and  biographical  labors,  making  good  use  of  the 
library  left  by  his  early  pastor.  Rev.  Thomiis  Prince,  to  the 
Old  South  church  at  Boston;  received  from  the  Legislature 
of  New  Hanqishire  a  grant  of  .£50  in  aid  ol  his  jiublications, 
and  liecame  in  1792  an  overseer  of  Harvard  College.  D.  in 
Boston,  of  paralysis.  June  20,  1798.  Author  of  a  liistorg  of 
New  Jfani/isliire  (ii  vols.,  1784-92  ;  new  ed.  1813),  which  "  has 
long  rankrd  at  the  head  of  the  local  State  histories  of  the 
country";  A  Discourse  Intended  to  Commemorate  the  Dis- 
covery' of  America  by  Columbus,  with  Four  Dissertations 
(1793);  An  Historical  Account  of  those  Persons  who  have 
beeti  Distinguished  in  America,  etc.  (vol.  i.  1793;  vol.  ii. 
1798),  generally  known  as  the  American  Biography  (new 
ed.  3  vols.);  and  of  a  Collection  of  Ps<tlms  and  Hymns 
(1795),  etc.  To  him  was  attributed  by  Mr.  Bryant  "the  high 
merit  of  being  the  first  to  make  American  history  attractive."' 
A  Life,  v'ilh  Selections  from  his  Correspondence,  v/as  iiub- 
lished  by  a  gramldaughter  (New  York,  1847). 


BELKNAP 


BELL 


569 


Belknap,  William  Goldsmith:  soldier;  b.  in  Ncwburg, 
N:  Y.,  Sept.  7,  17!I4;  cnterod  the  service  of  the  U.  S.  in  1813 
as  thinl  liiuteiiaiit  of  inlaiitrv,  and  ruse  lhmiij,'h  successive 
ffriides  to  be  lieutenaut-coluiicl  (jf  llic  fiftli  Infantry  in  1847. 
Tie  served  with  marked  },'allantry  in  the  war  with  Great 
Hritain  (1813-15),  in  the  Flurichi  war  ajjaiust  hostile  Seini- 
noles.  and  in  the  war  witli  Mexico.  For  his  services  in 
Florida  he  was  lireveted  lieutenant-colonel,  and  for  gallant 
conduct  in  Mexico  he  won  the  brevets  of  colonel  and  briga- 
dier-f;cncnil :  served  on  fmntier  duty  from  1848  to  1851.  D. 
near  Fort  Washita,  Nov.  10,  1851. 

Itclknnp,  William  Worth  :  son  of  Gen.  William  G.  Bel- 
knap: l>.  in  Newl)urif,  X.  Y..  Sept.  'i'i.  1829:  Kra<luated  at 
I'rincct.in  1848;  studied  law;  settled  at  Keokuk,  la..  18.11; 
elect  eil  to  the  Le;;islatnre  as  a  "  Doufjlas  Democrat"  1857; 
entered  the  army  as  major  of  Fifteenth  Iowa  18(il;  served 
under  Grant  at  .Shiloh,  t'oriiith,  and  Vick-sburi;;  and  was  in 
Sherman's  ■' march  to  the  sea.'  At  the  liattle  of  Atlanta, 
untler  McPhei-son,  he  so  distiiiffuished  himself  that  he  was 
promoted  over  his  superior  officers  to  be  brigadicr-jieneral  of 
volunteers;  breveted  major-Dfeneral  18U5;  collector  of  rev- 
enue in  Iowa  1800-6!);  and  Secretary  of  War  umler  Grant 
from  1809  to  1870,  when  he  resigned,  having  been  impeached 
in  Congress  on  a  charge  of  corruption,  but  the  Senate  held 
that  its  jurisdiction  ceased  with  his  resignation.  His  case  in 
the  civil  court  was  dismissed.  Committed  suicide  in  Wash- 
ington, Oct.  l;i,  1890. 

Bell  [0.  Eng.  and  Low  Germ,  belle.  Etyra.  uncertain,  per- 
haps connected  witli  E.  hell,  0.  Eng.  helldii,  roar]:  a  hollow 
percussion  instrument,  usually  metallic,  and  cup-like  in  form  ; 
so  constructed  as  to  yield  a  snigle  dominant  note.  The  his- 
tory of  bells  is  involved  in  obscurity.  In  tlie  time  of  Moses 
(Kxod.  xxviii.  ;?2,  ;!.5)  bells  of  gold  were  used;  and  Layard 
discovered  small  bronze  bells  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  The 
Hindu  and  Burmese  i)riests.  sis  well  lus  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, made  use  of  bells  in  their  temples.  It  is  probable, 
liowever.  that  all  the  bells  so  used  were  insignificant  in  size. 
The  large  bells  used  in  clnirehes  are  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  by  I'auliinis,  Bishop  of  Nola,  about  the  year  A.  D. 
400.  We  infer  that  they  were  introduced  into  England 
soon  after,  as  they  are  mentioned  liy  Bede  in  the  seventh 
century,  and  as  the  .\bbot  of  Croyland  gave  a  largo  bell  to 
the  abbey  in  870.  Pope  .lohn  Xlll.  consecrated  a  very  large 
new  bell  in  the  Lateran  Church  in  9()8.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury bell-founding  tlourisheil  in  the  monasteries,  and,  as  the 
badness  of  tlii>  roads  interfered  with  the  transportation  of 
the  completed  bells,  traveling  bell-founders  went  about  cast- 
ing bells  wherever  they  were  needed.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  bells  first  began  to  reach  a  large  size.  The  famous 
bell  at  Rouen.  ca,st  in  1.501,  weighed  :ifi.:{(i4  lb.,  and  one 
at  Toulouse,  cast  a  little  later,  weighed  06,000  lb.  The 
largest  bi'll  in  tlw  world  was  cast  in  1734  at  Moscow,  and  is 
no  less  than  448.000  lb.  in  weight.  Though  the  mo.st  cele- 
brated bells  an<l  chimes  are  in  Belgium  and  the  Nether- 
lands, excellent  examples  of  the  bell-maker's  art  are  to  be 
found  in  large  numbers  in  France  anil  in  Great  Britain. 
Bells  cast  in  the  U.  S.  are  usually  shorter  than  those  of  the 
.same  weight  cast  in  F,uropi>.  and  consenuently  are  charac- 
terized Ijy  a  somewhat  dilferent  quality  of  tone.  In  the 
American  bell  the  dominant  overtone  is  a  major  sixth  above 
the  teiKu-  not(%  instead  of  the  minor  sixth,  as  is  usually  the 
I'ase  in  Europe.  The  major  sixth  gives  to  the  bell  a  louiler 
and  more  penetrating  t<uie,  but  it  generally  lacks  the  soft- 
ness and  sweetness  so  often  noticeable  in  the  best  bells  of 
Europe. 

The  art  of  bell-making  seems  not  to  be  a  progressive  art. 
It  is  impossible  at  the  [iresent  day  to  make  better  bells  than 
those  cast  one,  two,  or  even  three  centuries  ago.  This  in- 
aliility  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  tone  of  a  bell 
IS  dependent  in  part  at  least  upon  certain  conditions  that 
can  not  be  controlled  or  even  fully  understood.  The  mean- 
ing of  this  statement  will  be  comprehende<l  if  it  is  realizeil 
that  th(!  i|nalily  of  a  bi-ll  depends  not  oidy  upon  the  per- 
fection of  its  materials  and  workmanship,  but  also  upon  the 
exact  relations  of  the  numerous  harmonics  that  go  to  make 
up  the  dominant  note.  A  sensitive  musical  ear  can  detect 
in  an  ordinary  church  bell  seven  and  sometimes  as  many  as 
ten  or  more  distinct  tones,  all  of  which  in  tlieir  blending  go 
to  make  up  the  quality  of  the  bell.  When  these  harmonies 
seem  to  have  been  perfectly  adjusted  the  result  is  tliat  rich, 
soft,  and  perfe<-l  tone  whicli  is  so  delightful  to  the  ear.  But 
the  conditions  on  which  the  relations  of  the  harmonics  de- 
pend are  for  the  most  part  unknown.   After  every  technical  re- 


quirement is  satisfied  in  the  making  of  a  bell,  there  is  still  a 
large  element  of  uncertainty  in  the  result.  If  a  bell  once  cast 
utters  a  jangling  sound,  indicating  that  the  harmonics  are 
wildly  discordant,  it  is  conceded  at  present  that  the  fault  is 
irreparable.  There  are,  however,  certain  conditions  that  are 
considered  indispensable  to  succ«s  in  the  making  of  a  bell. 
The  metal  should  consist  of  about  four  parts  of  copper  to 
one  of  tin,  and  the  thickness  at  the  bow  should  be  about  one- 
thirteenth  of  its  diameter.  There  is  a  fullness  and  .softness 
in  the  sound  of  a  thick  bell  which  is  never  characteristic  of 
a  thin  one.  If  the  propiT  form  and  thickness  are  maintained, 
the  weight  of  l)ells  varies  as  the  cube  of  their  diameters.  In 
a  peal  or  chime  an  individual  bell  can  be  tuned  so  as  to  lower 
or  raise  the  pitch  of  its  note,  though,  as  above  stated,  the 
quality  of  its  tone  can  not  be  materially  changed.  The  tone 
will  be  flattened  by  turning  or  filing  olf  a  small  portion  of 
the  metal  from  the  inside  of  the  soundboard  or  thickest 
part,  and  will  be  sharpened  by  a  filing  from  the  outer  edge 
so  as  to  reduce  the  diameter  of  the  mouth.  A  very  excellent 
authority  on  this  subject  is  Sir  Edmund  Beckett's  treatise  on 
Ulof-ks,  \Valches,  aiiA  Bells.  See  also  numerous  works  by 
II,  T.  Ellacombe.  In  his  book  entitled  Chiniing  Mr.  Ella- 
combe  has  given  an  exhaustive  catalogue  of  bell  literature. 
See  Beli.-ringixo.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bell,  Alkxandkr  Graham  :  inventor  of  the  speaking  tele- 
phone; son  of  Alexander  Melville  Bell;  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  'Mar.  3,  1847:  educated  at  the  high  school  and  the 
university,  and  specially  traineil  to  follow  liis  father's  and 
grandfather's  profession  for  the  removal  of  impediments  of 
speech.  In  1872  he  look  up  his  residence  in  the  U.  S.,  and 
intro<luced  his  father's  invention  of  visible  speech  in  institu- 
tions for  deaf  mutes,  and  was  snljsequently  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Vocal  Physiology  in  Boston  University.  He  occu- 
pied his  leisure  during  many  years  in  working  out  bis 
telephonic  discovery,  and  first  exhibited  it  publicly,  but  in 
an  imperfect  form,  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876. 
Its  success  is  now  established  thnaighout  the  civilized  world. 
He  received  in  1882  diploma  and  decoration  of  National  Le- 
gion of  Honor  of  France. 

Bell,  Alkxander  Melville:  inventor  of  visible  speech,  a 
system  of  universal  aljihabetics  which  has  been  successfully 
used  for  teaching  the  (leaf  (and  duml))  to  sjieak ;  b.  at  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  Mar.  1, 1819,  and  educated  under  his  father, 
Alexander  Bell,  author  of  a  method  for  the  removal  of  im- 
pediments of  speech.  From  1843  to  1865  he  held  classes  in 
connection  with  the  Edinluirgh  colleges,  and  in  1865  was 
appointed  lecturer  in  Universily  College,  London.  In  1870 
he  removed  to  Canada,  and  w.-is  appointed  register  in  (Queen's 
College,  Kingston,  in  1877,  but  settleil  finally  in  Washing- 
ton, 1).  C,  iiri881. 

Bell,  Andrew:  a  Scottish  teacher;  noted  as  the  founder 
of  the  monitorial  system  (or  Madras  system)  of  education; 
b.  at  St.  Andrews,  Mar.  27,  1753.  and  studied  at  that  uni- 
versity, from  which  in  1787  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  U., 
and  after  1800  LL.  1).  from  the  same.  He  took  orders  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  sailed  for  India  in  1787,  and  in  ten 
years  obtained  eight  lucrative  army  chaplaiiiships,  all  of 
which  he  held  at  the  same  time.  Being  appointed  in  1789 
superintendent  of  the  Madras  Male  Orphan  Asylum  for  the 
sons  of  military  men,  he  employed  the  scholars  in  mutual 
instruction,  and  after  his  return  to  Britain  published  a 
treatise  on  his  new  method  in  1797.  He  became  rector  of 
Swanage,  Dorset,  1801 ;  master  of  Sherburne  Hospital,  Dur- 
ham. 1809  ;  prebendary  of  Hereford  1818,  and  of  Westminster 
1819.  His  great  rival  was  Joseph  Lancastkr  ((/.?•.),  who  had 
introduced  a  somewhat  analogous  system  among  the  Dis- 
sentei-s,  the  success  of  which  was  the  occasion  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  National  Society  for  Promoting  the  Education  of 
the  Poor  in  the  Principles  of  the  Established  Church  t  hrough- 
out  England  and  Wales,  of  which  Bell  was  the  first  super- 
inten.leiit.  D.  in  Cheltenham.  Jan.  27, 18:^3  ;  and  left  1'120,- 
000  for  educational  purposes.  See  his  Life  by  R.  Soulhey 
(London,  1844,  3  vols.) ;  belter  by  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn  (1881). 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  P.  R.  S. :  British  anatomist  and  physi- 
ologist; the  youngest  brother  of  Andrew  BeQ;  b.  in  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.,  1774.  He  removed  in  1804  to  London,  where 
he  lectured  on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and  published  a  Sys- 
tem of  Operative.  Suryerij  (1807).  In  1814  he  was  elected 
one  of  the  surgeons  of  the  Jliddlesex  Hospital.  He  gained 
distinction  as  a  surgical  O]iei'ator,  and  excelled  in  the  treat- 
ment of  nervous  atlections.  He  made  the  important  dis- 
covery that  the  nerve  filaments  of  sensation  are  distinct 
from  those  of  motion,  which  is  expounded  in  his  Anatomy 


ro 


BELL 


BELLAMY 


of  the  Brain  (1811)  and  Nervous  Systems  (1830),  his  greatest 
contrilmtions  to  physiolofry.  In  1836  he  became  Professor 
of  Surgery  in  the  University  of  Eclinburgli.  Among  liis 
works  are  an  Exposition  of  flif  y^itfiiral  System  of  the 
Neri'es  of  the  Iliimiin  Body  (1824),  and  The  Hand,  its 
Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments  as  Evincing  Design 
(1834).  Tlie  last  is  one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treatises.  I),  at 
Hallow  Park,  near  Worcester,  Apr.  28,  1842. 

Bell,  Claiborne  IIawley,  D.  I). :  president  of  the  Board 
of  Missions  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Clnirch  ;  b.  near 
the  present  site  of  Aberdeen.  Miss.  He  graduated  from  the 
Cumberland  University  in  1853 ;  had  three  pastorates,  com- 
bining with  the  first  the  principalship  of  an  academy,  and 
with  the  second  the  presidency  of  Union  Female  College  at 
Oxford,  Jliss.  Since  1881  he  has  given  his  time  to  the  mis- 
sion work  of  his  Church,  filling  also  the  chair  of  Homiletics 
and  Missions  in  Cumberland  University,  and  being  active  in 
the  general  work  of  the  Church.  W.  J.  B. 

Bell,  Rev.  George  Charles,  M.  A. :  educator  and  scholar ; 
b.  in  Streathani,  England,  July  9,  1832 :  educated  at  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford,  1851 :  mathenuitical  lecturer  of  Worcester 
College  1857-65;  head  master  of  Christ's  Hospital  1868-76; 
master  of  Marlborough  College  1876,  succeeding  Archdeacon 
Farrjir;  has  published  two  sermons.  Increase  of  Faith  and 
Confidence  in  Christ. 

Bell,  Henry;  Scottish  engineer;  b.  in  Linlithgowshire, 
Apr.  7,  1767;  was  the  first  who  obtained  success  in  steam 
navigation  in  Eurojie.  He  worked  in  London  under  Rennie. 
A  small  vessel  called  The  Comet,  with  an  engine  constructed 
bv  himself,  was  launched  on  the  Clyde  in  1812.  D.  in  Hel- 
ensburgh, Nov.  14,  1830. 

Bell,  Henry  Haywood  ;  rear-admiral  U.  S.  N. ;  b.  in  Orange 
CO..  North  Carolina,  Nov.  17,  1807;  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman  Sejjt.  1,  1823;  commanded  a  vessel  in  the 
attack  on  the  Barrier  Forts,  Canton,  in  1856.  In  1861  he 
commanded  the  steamer  Brooklyn,  West  Gulf  blockading 
squadron.  In  1862  he  was  selected  as  fleet  captain  by  Rear- 
Adrairal  Farragut,  and  while  acting  in  this  capacity  led  the 
second  division  of  gunboats  at  the  attack  upon  Forts  St. 
Philip  and  Jackson,  and  was  deputed  to  take  possession  of 
New  Orleans,  where  his  sound  judgment  and  coolness  were 
conspicuously  shown  and  highly  connuended  by  tlie  whole 
fleet.  In  1863  he  coranumded,  during  the  temporary  absence 
of  Admiral  Farragut,  the  West  Gulf  blockading  squadron. 
In  1865  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  squadron 
in  the  East  Indies.  In  18G6  he  became  rear-admiral,  and  was 
retii'ed  in  1867,  but  was  drowned,  Apr.  12, 1867.  in  an  attempt 
to  pass,  in  his  barge,  over  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Osaka 
river.  Japan,  before  the  arrival  of  Rear-Admiral  Rowan,  who 
was  to  succeed  him.     His  death  was  much  lamented. 

Bell,  John:  surgeon:  b.  in  Edinburgh,  May  12,  1763; 
elder  brother  of  Sir  Charles  Bell.  He  began  in  1786  to  lec- 
ture on  surgery,  wliich  he  also  practiced  with  success  in  his 
native  city,  lie  published,  besides  other  works,  a  Si/stem 
of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body  (2  vols.,  1793-98),  to 
which  his  brother  Charles  added  two  more  volumes;  and 
The  Principles  of  Surgery  (3  vols..  1801-07).  He  was  a  good 
(■lassical  scholar,  and  one  of  the  most  skillful  operators  of  his 
time.  I),  in  Rome.  Apr.  15,  1S20.  leaving  ( )hsfrvations  on 
Italy,  whicli  was  puljlislied  by  his  widow  in  1825. 

Bell.  John  ;  statesman  ;  b.  near  Nashville,  Tenn..  Feb.  15, 
1797.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Nashville  in  1814. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1827,  and  by  succes- 
sive re-elections  continued  in  that  body  about  fourteen 
years.  lie  su|)ported  Gen.  Jackson  for  the  presidency  in 
1832,  but  joined  the  Wliig  party  in  1833.  and  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  I  lie  House  of  Representatives  in  1834.  He  was 
an  earnest  advocate  of  a  protective  tariff.  lu  !\Iar..  1S41.  he 
was  ap])ointed  Secretary  of  War  l)y  President  Harrison  :  re- 
signed tlijit  oflice  with  the  most  of  the  cabinet  in  Sept..  1841. 
liecause  he  ilisapproved  the  policy  of  Mr.  Tyler.  He  was 
elected  a  Senator  of  the  U.  S.  for  Tennessee  in  1847;  re- 
elected in  1H53  ;  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise in  ls.")4,  and  the  Kansas  Lecompton  constitution  in 
185H.  He  was  iiomimitcil  in  lh60  for  President  of  the  U.  S. 
by  the  Const il  111  ioiial  Union  party,  having  Lincoln,  Douglas, 
and  Breckenridge  as  his  coiiipeiitors.  He  received  thirty- 
nine  electoral  votes.  I),  at  Cumlierland  Iron  Works.  Tenn., 
Sept.  10,  l«6!t. 

Bell,  Robert:  journalist;  b.  iit  Cork,  in  Ireland.  Jan. 
10,  1800;  pas.sed  his  mature  life  in  London.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Sir  E.  Buhver  and  Dr.  Lardner  he  founded  in 


1841  The  Monthly  Chronicle,  which  he  edited.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  History  of  Russia  (3  vols.,  1886- 
38):  Lives  of  the  English  Poets  (2' vols..  1839);  a  Life  of 
George  Canning  (1846) :  and  several  dramas  and  tales.  I). 
in  London,  Apr.  12,  1867. 

Bell,  Robert,  LL.  D.  :  Canadian  surveyor ;  b.  in  the  town- 
ship of  Toronto,  June  3,  1841 :  graduated  at  McGiU  Uni- 
versity as  a  civil  engineer  in  1861 ;  received  the  degrees  of 
M.  D.,  C.  JI.,  from  that  university  in  1878 ;  and  was  Professor 
of  Chemistry  and  Natural  Science  in  Queen's  LTniversity, 
Kingston,  1863-68.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  assistant 
director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada.  His  surveys 
and  explorations  have  extended  from  Newfoundland  to  the 
Western  plains,  and  from  Lake  Erie  to  Baflin's  Bay.  His 
reports  to  the  Government  have  lieen  published  almost  every 
year  since  1857.  about  which  time  lie  was  engaged  as  an 
assistant  by  Sir  W.  E.  Logan.  He  acted  as  scientist  and 
medical  ofiicer  to  the  Hudson  Bay  expeditions  of  the  Nep- 
tune in  1884.  and  of  the  Alert  i'n  1885.  In  1886  he  went 
overland  to  Hudson  Bay,  lieing  his  ninth  visit  there,  and 
made  extensive  surveys  in  the  Albany  and  Severn  districts. 
He  is  the  author  of  numerous  papei's  and  essays  in  scientific 
journals;  also  annual  reviews  of  mining  in  Canada  from 
1862.  and  of  annual  reviews  of  the  progress  of  science  in 
Canada,  published  in  the  Dominion  Annual  Register  fvoui 
1878  to  1884.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Bellaeoo'la  Indians:  See  Salishan  Indians. 

Belladoii'ua  [llul..  literally,  beautiful  lady,  possibly  from 
the  use  of  the  plant  as  a  cosmetic]:  an  lierbaceous  perennial 
\>\ant  (Atropn  belladrmna)  of  the  natural  order  »So?anac«p  ; 
sometimes  called  Deadly  Nigrht-sliade.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  has  ovate  leaves,  liell-shaped  flowers  of  a  lurid,  pur- 
ple color,  and  berries  which  when  ripe  are  black,  shining, 
and  sweetish  in  taste.  A\\  [jarts  of  the  plant  are  narcotic 
and  very  poisonous,  and  contain  an  alkaloid  called  atropia 
or  atropine,  on  which  its  active  properties  depend.  The 
belladonna  is  considered  a  valuable  medicine  and  a  powerful 
remedy  for  certain  nervous  diseases,  neuralgia,  paralysis, 
etc.  It  is  administered  both  internally  and  externally.  There 
is  an  antagonism  lietween  atropia  and  morphia.  When  ap- 
plied to  the  eye  it  has  the  remarkable  property  of  greatly 
dilating  the  pupil,  and  it  is  often  used  by  oculists  both  in 
examinations  and  operations.  The  medicinal  ])reparation  of 
belladonna  commonly  used  in  the  U.  S.  is  an  extract  from 
the  leaves. 

Belladonna  Lily  {Amaryllis  belladonna):  a  beautiful 
rose-colored  flower  which  grows  wild  about  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  drooping  flowers 
are  clustered  at  the  top  of  a  leafless  stem,  which  is  about  18 
inches  high,  and  which  springs  from  an  elongated  bulb.  It 
may  Ije  grown  either  in  the  window  garden  or  in  the  open. 

Bellaire':  city  and  railroad  center;  Belmont  co.,  0.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-1):  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  the  Bellaire,  Zanesville  and  Cincinnati,  the 
Cleveland  and  Pittsburg,  the  Cleveland,  Lorain  and  Wheel- 
ing R.  Rs..  and  the  Ohio  river;  5  miles  S.  of  Wheeling  and 
137  miles  E.  of  Columbus.  It  has  water,  gas-works,  and 
electric  lights,  and  manufactures  of  glass,  steel,  iron,  nails, 
etc.  Coal,  iron,  cement,  paving-brick  clays,  and  limestone 
are  abundant.     Pop.  (1880)  8,025;  (1890)  9.934. 

Editor  of  "  Tribune." 

Bellanii.!.  liel'hra-mi.  Jacobus:  Dutch  poet;  b.  in  Flush- 
ing, Nov.  !'2.  1757.  He  jniblished  a  collection  of  verses  in 
1782,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  war  of  1785  a  volume  of 
patriotic  poems  ( Vaderlandsche  Oezangen).  Among  his  most 
])0].nilar  works  is  Ronsje.  a  ]ioem.  He  had  good  taste  and  a 
glowing  fancy,  and  coiitribuled  largely  to  the  imjirovement 
ofthenatioiiid  literature.  D.  Jlar.  11, 1786.  See  (j.  Knipers, 
Notice  sur  Bellamy. 

Bel'lamy.  Edward:  journalist  and  romancer;  b.  at  Chi- 
copce  Falls.  Mass..  Mar.  26.  1850 :  educated  at  Union  Col- 
lege and  in  Germany :  engaged  in  newspaper  work  in  New 
York  and  in  Springfield.  Mass.,  from  1871  to  1876.  Among 
his  romances,  which  arc  ingeniously  psychological  and  some- 
what resemble  Hawthorne's,  arc  Dr.  Heide/ilioff's  Process 
(1879):  Miss  Lndington's  Sister  (WM):  Looking  Backward 
(1888).  a  kind  of  socialistic  Utopia,  wliicli  had  a  sale  of  some 
lialf  a  million  copies  and  has  been  translati'd  into  many  lan- 
guages. It  led  to  the  establishment  of -Nationalist "  soci- 
eties and  "Bellamy"  conununities.  to  the  propagation  of 
which,  by  periodicals  and  lectures,  the  author  devoted  him- 


l'.Kl,l,AMV 


BELLEAU 


571 


fclf.     The  liook  was  wriltpii  as  a  literary  venture  and  with 
no  anticipation  of  originatinj;  a  soeialistie  afritalion. 

Henky  a.  Heers. 
Bellamy.  Josia-n.  1).  D. :  1).  in  North  Cheshire,  Conn., 
Fell. 'JO,  17 111;  irrailuati'il  at  Yak>  Colkge  (17:!."));  and  W!is 
jjiustor  of  tlu'  C'oiiiirojcational  church  at  Ik-thlchem,  Conn. 
(1740-90).  lie  wjLs  a  powerful  preacher  and  a  renowned 
teacher  of  theology.  Anionj;  his  published  works  are  True 
Heliyiim  De/iiifaied  (a  refutation  of  Antiuoniinnisni,  pref- 
aced Ijv  Jonathan  Edwards,  Ho.stou,  17.'J0;  repub.  by  Con- 
;;re;;ational  I'ublication  Society.  Boston);  Tlieioii,  I'aiiliiius, 
and  Axpasiu  ;  or,  Leltfrs  ttiid  dldliiijiii-.i  upon  Ihn  nature  of 
lure  lo  Ood,  faith  in  (7iri/it,  anfiiiranre  of  a  title  to  eternal 
life  (17.59);  An  e-inay  on  the  nature  and  glory  of  the  Gospel 
of  Jesus  Christ  {II  supplement  to  prccedinj;,  1702);  Letters 
and  Dialoyues  (ITBl).  D.  in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  Mar.  ti.  1790. 
Ilis  Complete  Works  were  published  in  3  vols.  (New  York, 
1811);  also  in  2  vols.  (Boston,  ItiiiO),  with  a  uuiuoir  bv  Kuv. 
Dr.  T.  Edwards. 

Itcll-aniinaU'iilo:  a  mieroseopic  animal;  a  pcritrichous 
eilialcd  iufusoriau,  bcloiifjiuf;  to  family  VorticellidcB.  The 
most  conimiin  form  consists  of  a  bell-shapeil  portion  at- 
tached to  a  stalk  by  the  api^x  of  tlie  liell,  the  mouth  of  the 
bell  beinfj  j;enendly  turned  upward.  When  the  bell  is  ex- 
panded its  mouth  is  occupied  by  a  broad  ilisk,  around  the 
margin  of  which  is  a  row  of  c-ilia.  At  the  edge  of  the  disk 
on  one  side  is  a  funnid-shaped  opeiunjr,  by  which  food  passes 
into  the  interior.  The  slalk  can  contract  quickly,  throwinj; 
it.self  iutoaspiral.  thereby  retracting  the  whole  animal.  The 
bell  can  so  ccmtracl  as  to  form  a  ball,  the  cilia  being  drawn 
in.  When  the  bell  is  expanded  the  cilia  keep  up  a  ra])id 
motion,  by  means  of  which  currents  of  water  are  formed 
wliicli  drive  particles  of  food  into  tlic  funnel,  from  which 
from  lime  to  \\nw  they  pa.ss  into  the  body.  As  complicated 
a.s  is  the  animal,  it  consists  of  a  single  cell,  which  possesses  a 
nucleus,  a  contractile  vacuole,  and  reproduces  it.self  by  di- 
vision. It  is  connnonly  found  in  water  in  which  are  decay- 
ing sulistances,  and  is  freuuently  made  use  of  in  biological 
studies  for  illu.st ration  and  experiments.        D.  S.  .Iord.vn. 

Boriarillilio.  Robert  (in  It.  Roherto  BeUarmino):  a  theo- 
logian and  cardinal ;  b.  at  Monte  I'ulciano.  near  Florence, 
Oct.  -1.  l.-)!-*.  Ill'  entercil  the  ordcM-  of  .Jesuits  in  l.JOO,  and 
became  Professor  of  Theology  at  Ivouvain  in  b"i7().  and  in 
Home  1.570.  lie  was  a  zealous  cliampion  of  ortliodoxy,  and 
wius  highly  distinguished  as  an  able  controversial  writer 
against  heretics.  His  principal  work  is  Disputatio  de  Con- 
troversiis  rhristlance  Pidei  adrersus  hujus  Temporis  Ihi're- 
ticos  (Ingolsladt.  3  vols..  1.581-92).  He  became  a  cardinal 
in  1.599;  Archbishop  of  Capua  in  1002;  resigned  100.5.  and 
became  librarian  of  tlie  Vatican.  D.in  Ronu>.  Sept.  17.  1021. 
Complete  eilitions  of  his  works  appeared  in  Cologne,  1019 
(7  vols.),  and  in  Xaplcs  (18?2,  8  vols.),  and  Paris  (187:}- 74, 
12  vols.).  He  was  a  nnm  of  mild  and  piicific  disposition. 
"The  Church  of  Uonu>,"  says  Hallam,  "  brought  forward  lu'r 
most,  renowned  and  formidable  champion,  BcUarmine.  .  .  . 
His  abilities  are  best  tested  by  Protestant  theologians,  not 
onlv  in  their  terms  of  eulogy,  but  indirectly  in  the  peculiar 
zeal  with  which  they  chose  lum  as  their  wort liiest  adver- 
sary." (Introduction  to  the  Ijiterature  of  Europe.)  See  G. 
Puligatti,  Vita  del  Cardinal R.  liellarmino  (.Vntwcni,  1621  ; 
Rome.  1624),  a  work  based  nijon  an  autobiography  ;  T)aniello 
Bartoli,  Delia  Vita  di  R.  BeUarmino  (Rome,  1678);  P. 
Frizon.  Vie  du  Cardinal  Bellarmin  (Xancy,  1708).  Bellar- 
raine"s  autobiography,  which  had  been  su]iprcssed  by  the.Icsu- 
its,  an<l  had  become  very  .scarce,  was  republished  bv  Dollinger 
and  Reusch,  with  a  German  translation  (Bonn,  1887). 

Bellnry,  Iwl-laarw.  or  Balla'ri':  a  town  of  India;  capi- 
tal of  a  district  of  the  same  name;  province  of  Madras;  270 
miles  X.  \V.  of  Madras  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  ,5-1)) ;  oiu'  of 
the  chief  military  stations  in  the  provin<-c.and  has  a  furl  on 
an  abrupt  rock"450  feet  high.  The  cliuuitc  is  one  of  the 
worst  in  India.     Pop.  (1891)  59,770. 

_Bella}',.IoArniM,dn:  French  noet;  b.at  Lyre,  near  Angers, 
1.52.5;  d.  ni  Paris, .Jan.  1. 1.500,  anil  was  buriod'in  thc.cathedral 
of  Xotre  Dame,  of  which  he  had  been  a  canon.  Though  an 
interesting  poet,  he  is  chielly  famous  as  having  issued  the 
manifesto  of  the  so-called  Pleiade,  the  poetical  school  of 
which  Ronsard  was  the  chief.  The  title  of  the  manifesto 
was;  La  Deffenre  et  illustration  de  la  lanque  franfoi/se 
(1.54n,oldstyle  ;  Fel).,  1550,  new  style).  Thetreatiseisaviolent 
onslaught  upon  the  nu-ilia'valisin  of  the  foUowei-s  of  Mahot 
(g.  '•.),  and  a  recommendation  to  French  poets  to  turn  to  the 


Greeks  and  Latins  for  guidance  (Li/  dongues,  et  rely  pre- 
mierement  (o  Poete  futur),  feutlletede  main  nocturne  etjour- 
nelle,  les  ejemplaires  Oree.Z  et  Latins,  puis  me  taisse  toutes 
(•e.f  vieilles  poesies  franijoises  aux  Jeux  Floraux de  Toulouse, 
et  au  Buy  de  Rouan).  Evidently  this  marks  the  triumph  of 
the  Renaissance  in  French  literature.  The  application  of 
the  principle,  however,  both  by  l)u  Bellay  and  by  Ronsard, 
was  crude  and  often  ridiculous,  aflording  amjile  oppoi-lunity 
for  the  later  satire  of  Boileau.  Du  liellay  made  his  debut 
as  poet,  in  the  same  year  in  which  his  Defence  appeared, 
with  a  volunu"  eiilitled  Recueil  rfc yjoi'.siV.i.  in  which  the  most 
notable  things  are  certain  odes  in  attempled  illustration  of 
the  poet's  doctrine  as  stated  above.  In  1.551  he  went,  with 
his  cousin,  Cardinal  du  Bellay,  then  French  Amba-ssador  at 
the  Papal  court,  to  Rome.  His  tirst  pleasure  at  the  sightof 
the  renuiins  of  ancient  Rome  led  to  the  composition  of  his 
Premier  Here  des  antiquitez  de  Rome  (publ.  1.558;  trans, 
into  Knglish  by  Kdmund  Spenser,  1.591,  under  the  title  of 
The  Jii'iiis  of  Rome).  .Soon,  however,  the  intrigues  he  saw 
about  him  turned  his  pleasin'e  into  sorrow,  and  he  eom- 
po.sed  a  series  of  satiric  sonnets,  entitled  7i'(Y/;-e/.!i(lirst  printed 
1558),  of  real  power.  As  if  in  contrast  with  this  sad  picture, 
he  published  in  the  same  vear  (1.558)  his  Jeux  rusti(jues.  full 
of  the  charm  of  country  things  as  seen  by  the  poet.  In  1.5.55 
Du  Bellay  had  returned  to  France,  but  toward  15.57.  rather 
than  curry  fav(U-  with  the  great,  he  consigned  him.self  to 
poverty  and  study.  His  contempt  for  the  opposite  course 
appeared  in  his  Poete  courtisan,  a  sharp  satire  upon  court- 
poets.  Already  his  own  health  was  broken,  and  he  soon 
died. 

Biiii.iooRAPnv. — CFnire.f  de  J.  du  Bellay.  ed.  by  Marty- 
Laveaux  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1806-67);  P.  de  Nolhac,  Lettres  de 
J.  du  Bellay  (Paris,  188;^);  Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau  de  la 
poesie  franijaise  au  X  )'/"  >Siiele,  edile<l  by  .1.  Trobat  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1870);  E.  Lafargue,  Joachim  du  Bellaij,  etc.  (Angere, 
1804):   Leon  Scche,  Joachim  du  Bellay  (Paris,  1880). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bell-bird  :  a  bird  of  the  genus  Chasmorhynchus,ntili\'e.  to 
the  West  liulies  and  South  Anu'rica.  The  bell-birds  belong 
to  the  family  Cotini/ida\  and  are  allied  lo  the  fly-catchers. 
Their  voice  has  a  nu'tallic  .sound,  resembling  the  tolling  of  a 
bell,  aiul  can  be  heard,  it  is  .said,  at  a  distance  of  ;!  miles. 
It  is  distinguished  by  a  broad  and  depressed  bill,  which  is 
soft  and  flexible  at  the  base.  One  of  the  species,  the  "Cam- 
pancro  "  {('.  nireu.i).  has  on  its  forehead  a  curious  horn-like 
and  tubular  ap])endage,  which  when  empty  is  pendulous,  but 
when  tlic  bird  is  excited  is  tilled  with  air  and  rises  to  the 
height  of  :3  inches.  The  Australian  hell-bird  (Myzanlha 
melanoph ry.t),  "  onv  of  the  honey-eaters,"  produces  a  jieculiar 
tinkling  sound;  it  is  an  entirely  different  sjjecies  from  the 
above. 

BeU.  Book,  and  Candle:  a  form  of  greater  excommuni- 
cation from  the  Churcli.or  which  the  first  recorded  instances 
occurred  about  1 190.  The  syndiolism  was  much  elaborated 
and  of  appalling  significance.  It  was  formerly  used  in  the 
Western  Church.  The  priest  or  ordimiry  read  from  a  book 
the  anathema  which  was  largely  founded  on  Deut.  xviii.  15. 
.•ieq.,  with  numkisli  additions  which  transcended  the  princi- 
ples of  canon  law'  as  to  the  efTect  of  excommunications. 
The  book  being  closed,  attendants  threw  lighted  candles  to 
the  ground,  thus  extinguishing  them,  to  denote  the  going 
out  of  graee  in  the  sold,  and  bells  were  iangled  as  a  token  of 
the  disorder  fallen  upon  the  excommunicated.  The  practice 
has  long  been  discontinued  as  a  customary  mode  of  disci- 
pliiu'. 

Bellean.  bello.  Remi:  French  poet  of  tlie  school  of  Ron- 
sard; one  of  the  Pleiade;  b.  at  J»ogent-le-Rotrou,  1528;  d. 
1577.  He  was  tutor  of  Charles,  son  of  Remi  deliorraine; 
and  when  his  pupil  became  Ducd'Elbeuf  and  grand  equerry 
of  France,  he  continiH>d  to  live  with  him — a  s]ilendid  but; 
quiet  life.  He  was  called  "/<■(/?«/// Bclleau,"  and  by  Ron- 
sard " /cjuc/"/re  rfe /«  Hn/»rc."  His  merit  is  to  have  intro- 
duced into  French  literal in-e  charming,  jewel-like  descrip- 
tions of  the  external  world.  His  first  collection  of  poems, 
entitled  Pelites  Inventions,  appeared  in  1557.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  Beri/erie  (1.565,  and  2d  part  1572),  modeled  upon 
the  Arcadia  of  SanazaiTO.  His  most  original  work,  however, 
is  his  Amour.'!  et  noureaux  Eschanges  des pierres precieuses, 
vertus  et  nroprictes  d'icelles  (1576),  based  upon  the  jioems  of 
the  pseudo-Orpheus  and  the  Lapidarius  of  Marbodius.  Be- 
sides translations  of  little  merit,  Belleau  wrote  a  comedy. 
La  Reconnue  (1577).  . 

Bilti.iooKAiMiv. — (Euvres  de  R.  Belleau.  ed.  by  Gouvcrneur 


572 


BELLEPONTAINE 


BELLEVUE 


(3  vols.  (Bibl.  Elzev.),  Paris,  1867) ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau 
de  la  poesie  frarifaise  au  XVI'  Steele  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1876). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bellefon'taine  :  railroad  junction  ;  capital  of  Logan  co., 
0.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Oliio.  ref.  4— D) ;  aljout 
110  miles  N.  of  Cincinnati,  and  55  miles  N.  W.  of  Columbus. 
The  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.  Co. 
has  graded  a  tract  of  about  70  acres  for  car-shops,  round- 
house, switch-yard,  etc.  It  has  the  highest  elevation  of 
any  town  in  the  State,  has  a  good  trade,  a  fine  court-house, 
and  is  noted  for  its  healthfulness  and  beauty.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,998 ;  (1890)  4,345.  Editor  of  "  R'epublican." 

Bellefonte' :  borough ;  capital  of  Center  co.,  Pa.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-E) ;  is 
beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  Bald  Eagle  Mountain,  87 
miles  N.  W.  of  Ilarrisburg.  It  has  a  celebrated  spring,  and 
the  surrounding  scenery  is  very  fine,  and  is  a  place  of  sum- 
mer resort.  It  has  3  furnaces,  3  rolling-mills,  3  foundries, 
an  axe-factory,  car-works,  glass-works,  a  number  of  suuiller 
manufactories,  and  7  newspapers.  It  is  the  starting-point  of 
the  BufEalo  Bun  K.  R.,  and  the  tei-minus  of  the  Lewisburg 
R.  R.    Pop.  (1880)  3,036 ;  (1890)  3,946. 

Editor  op  "  News." 

Belle-Isle,  bd'ecr,  Charles  Louis  Augusts  Fouquet, 
Duke  of:  marslial  of  France;  b.  in  Villefranche,  Aveyron, 
Sept.  33,  1084:  conducted  the  celebrated  retreat  of  the 
French  from  Bohemia  1743 ;  commander  of  the  army  of 
Italy  1748;  Minister  of  War  1757.  D.  Jan.  36.  1761.  He 
negotiated  (1735)  the  treaty  by  which  Lorraine  was  united 
to  France. 

Belle-Isle-en-Mer,  ber-eel'a'an-mar' :  an  island  in  the 
Atlantic  belonging  to  the  French  department  of  Morbilian. 
It  is  8  miles  from  the  shore,  and  has  an  area  of  33  scj.  miles. 
Pop.  10,000,  mostly  engaged  in  the  pilchard-fishery.  Ex- 
cellent liorses  and  grain  are  raised  here.  Here  is  a  fortified 
seaport  named  Le  Palais. 

Belle  Isle :  a  fertile  island.  0  miles  long  and  3  broad,  in 
Conception  Bay,  Nevvfoundhmd.  It  has  considerable  fish- 
ing interests.  Pop.  500.  Belle  Isle,  North  :  An  island  in 
the  strait  of  the  same  name,  between  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador ;  is  31  miles  in  circuit,  and  has  a  small  harbor ; 
lat.  53°  13'  N.,  Ion.  55'  19-1' W.  Belle  Isle,  South:  an 
island  at  the  entrance  of  White  Bay,  on  the  northeast  side 
of  Newfoundland;  lat.  50'  49'  N.,  Ion.  55=  39'  W.  It  is  a 
fishing-station.     Pop.  53. 

Belle  Isle,  Strait  of;  between  Labrador  and  Newfound- 
land ;  is  80  miles  long,  13  miles  wide,  and  dangerous  of  navi- 
gation. 

Bel'leiiden.  or  Ballaiityiie,  John:  Scotch  poet,  whose 
personal  history  is  obscure  ;  b.  near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  D.  about  1550;  became  Archdeacon  of  Moray 
about  1536 ;  translated  Boece's  Ilistory  of  Scotland  and  the 
first  five  books  of  Livy  fi'ora  the  Latin  into  Scotch  prose, 
prefixing  poetical  prologues  to  both  works.  His  works  are 
interesting  as  specimens  of  the  prose  of  the  time. 

Bellenden,  William  :  a  Scottish  author  of  whose  per- 
sonal history  little  is  known.  He  was  born  probably  in  Liiss- 
wade,  near  Edinburgh,  about  1.555,  and  died  about  1633  ;  went 
to  France  in  the  train  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  where  he  be- 
came a  professor  in  tlic^  University  of  Paris,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  the  elegance  of  his  Latinity.  He  published  in 
1608  at  Paris  a  compilation  from  the  works  of  Cicero, 
entitled  Cieitronin  Princeps.  Among  his  other  works  are 
/><;  Sfalu  Prisci  Orhi.t  (On  the  Condition  of  the  Primitive 
World,  1615),  and  De  Tribis  Luminibus  Roynanorum  (1634), 
his  master-work,  trcil  ing  of  Seneca,  Cicero,  and  Pliny.  Mid- 
dleton  plagiai'izrd  from  him  for  his  Life  of  Cicero,  was  ac- 
cused of  il  by  Warton,  and  convicted  by  Parr.  Hallam  re- 
garded him  as  among  the  earlie-st  of  philosophical  historians. 
His  three  ]>rincipal  works  were  reprinted  in  1787,  with  a 
Latin  prefa(-o  by  Dr.  Parr.  The  preface  was  noted  for  its 
elegant  Latinity  and  its  allusions  to  contemporary  politics. 

Belle  riaiiie;  Benton  co.,  la.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  l(jwa,  ref.  5-1) ;  on  C.  and  N.  W.  R.  R.  Division 
and  terminus  ot  O.  C.  F.  and  JI.  R.  R.,  and  on  Iowa  river; 
116  miles  VV.  of  Mississippi  river,  357  miles  W.  of  Chi- 
cago. Hero  are  3  school-buildings,  6  churches,  3  opera- 
houses,  a  city  liall,  numerous  flowing  wells  (one  the  noted 
"gusher"  "Juml)o"),  njund-house  and  machine-shops,  fur- 
niture-factory, grist-mill,  large  creamery,  foundry,  house- 
healing  manufactory,  and   broom-works.     Founded  1863, 


and  named  after  the  Indian  trapper's  name  for  the  valley. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,689  ;  (1890)  3,633  ;  (1895)  3,356. 

Editor  of  "  Union." 
Beller'oi)lioii  [dr.  BfK\epo<p6vTris,  slayer  of  Bellerus] : 
originally  called  Hippoiious,  liip-pon'o-us;  a  personage  of 
the  Greek  mythology;  son  of  (jhiueus.  King  of  Corinth. 
Having  killed  Bellerus  by  accident,  he  fled  to  Proctus,  King 
of  Argos,  who  was  instigated  by  his  wife  in  revenge  for  the 
rejection  of  her  advances  to  send  him  to  lobates.  King  of 
Lycia.  He  carried  a  sealed  letter  requesting  lobates  to  kill 
him,  but  that  king  imposed  on  him  the  dangerous  mission 
of  fighting  with  theChimsra.  Mounted  on  the  winged  Peg- 
asus, he  slew  the  monster  in  mid-air,  defeated  the  Ama- 
zons, and  destroyed  an  ambuscade  of  Lycians,  thus  escaping 
three  plotted  snares.  He  figures  in  Homer  and  in  Pindar, 
who  tell  the  story  ot  his  attempted  ascent  to  Olympus  on 
Pegasus,  his  fall  to  the  earth,  and  blindne-ss.  The  myth  of 
Bellerophon  was  worked  over  in  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles 
and  Euripides. 

Bellerophon :  a  genus  of  fossil  univalve  gasteropod  mol- 
lusks.  The  shell  is  symmetrically  convolute,  with  few  and 
occasionally  sculptured  whorls,  globular  or  discoidal,  and 
having  a  dorsal  keel,  which  terminates  in  a  deep  notch. 
JIany  sjiecies  ot  it  have  been  found  in  the  Silurian,  Devo- 
nian, and  carboniferous  rocks  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

Bellerose,  Joseph  Hyacinthe  :  Canadian  senator ;  b.  at 
Three  Rivers,  P.  Q.,  July  13,  1830,  and  educated  at  the  col- 
leges of  Nicolet  and  St.  Hyacinthe.  He  held  for  a  short 
time  a  captaincy  in  the  100th  regiment ;  was  connuander  of 
the  whole  militia  force  in  military  district  No.  8  in  1859; 
subsequently  commanded  the  Laval  reserve  militia.  He 
represented  "Laval  in  the  Canadian  Assembly  1863-67,  and 
the  same  const  ituencv  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  from  that 
date  until  called  to  the  Senate  in  1873.  He  was  member  for 
Liival  in  Quebec  Assembly  1867-75 ;  on  two  occasions  de- 
clined important  appointments  under  the  Government  of 
Clanada  ;  refused  a  cabinet  office  after  the  death  of  Sir  George 
L.  Cartier.  He  was  president  of  the  Union  Navigation  Com- 
pany, and  was  prominently  connected  with  financial  and 
other  institutions.  Neil  Macdonald. 

Belle  Yernoii :  borough ;  Fayette  ec,  Pa.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-B);  on  Pa.  R.  R., 
and  on  Slonongahela  river,  42  miles  from  PittsViurg.  It  has 
extensive  manufactures,  and  is  situated  in  an  extensive  nat- 
ural gas  region.     Pop.  (1880)  1,164;  (1890)  1,147. 

Belleville,  bel'veel' ;  eastern  suburb  of  Paris,  now  inclosed 
by  the  line  of  fortifications.  Largely  inhabited  by  the  poorer 
classes,  it  is  a  center  of  communistic  activity. 

Belle'ville :  a  port  of  entry ;  the  capital  of  Hastings  co., 
Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  and  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway,  113  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Toronto,  and  in  the 
heart  of  the  dairying  interests  of  Canada  (see  map  of  On- 
tario, ref.  3-F).  "It 'is  a  beautiful  city,  and  has  fine  public 
buildings,  including  a  court-house,  a"jail,  numerous  public 
and  private  schools,  churches,  and  a  custom-house.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Albert  University  (Methodist  Episcopal),  which 
consists  of  Albert  College  for  young  men  and  Alexandra 
College  for  women.  Orie  mile  W.  of  the  town  is  the  deaf 
and  dumb  asylum,  a  fine  building  opened  in  1870.  The 
river  Moira  furnishes  water-power,  and  the  lumber-trade  is 
very  extensive.  There  are  various  other  manufactories.  Pop. 
(1881)  9,516 ;  (1891)  9,914.      Editor  of  "  Intelligencer." 

Belleville:  city  and  railroad  center;  capital  of  St.  Clair 
CO.,  111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  9-D) ; 
14  miles  S.  E.  of  St.  Louis.  It  contains  numerous  manufac- 
tories of  almost  every  description,  and  one  of  the  largest 
rolling-mills  in  the  West ;  also  a  fine  convent,  many  churches, 
and  splendid  school-ho\ises.  It  is  in  a  region  abounding  in 
coal.     Pop.  (1880)  10,683  ;  (1890)  15,361. 

Editor  of  '•  News  Democrat." 

Belleville:  city;  capital  of  Republic  co..  Kan.  (for  loca- 
tion of  comity,  se"e  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  4-G) ;  on  Chicago 
and  R.  1.  H.  R..  306  miles  from  Kansas  City  ;  has  7  churches, 
9  schools,  and  a  court-house.  The  surrounding  region  is 
agricultural.   Pop.  (1880)  238 ;  (1890)1,868;  (1895)  1.445. 

Editor  of  "  Freeman.' 

Bellevne' :  citv  and  railroad  junction ;  Jackson  co.,  la. 
(for  liication  of  county,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  4-L) ;  beauti- 
fully situated  on  a  liigh,  gravelly  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  34  miles  beU)W  Dubuque,  aiid  13  miles  S.  of  Galena; 


BELLEVUE 


BELLMAN 


573 


lias  beautiful  high  school  building,  five  church  buildings, 
iiian\il';ictorirs  of  lumber,  pumps.  tli>ur,  wagons,  baskets,  but- 
tiT,  an<l  irnn-woi-ks.  Water-works  are  now  (18!Ki)  in  course 
of  const  ruci  ion.  Founded  in  ISSO.  Pop.  (1880)  1,581 ;  (18'J0) 
l,;i94;  (1803)  1,533.  Editor  of  "Leader." 

Bi'lleviU':  borough;  Allegheny  co.,  Pa.  (for  location  of 
eoiuity.  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  rcf.  5-B):  on  Pa.  K.  R.,  6 
miles  X.  \V.  of  Pittsburg  ;  is  iu  a  mining  region.  Pop.  (1880) 
!I15:  (I8!M>)  1,418. 

IlellcviU':  village;  Huron  co..  0.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  <  )liio.  ref.  2-F).  It  is  situated  at  junction  of  thr<'e 
railroads,  45  miles  S.  E.  of  Toledo ;  is  a  manufacturing  town, 
and  a  sliipping-point  for  an  extensive  fruit  and  grain  re- 
gion.    Pop.  (1880)  2,169;  (1890)  3.052. 

Bellig'creiioy :  the  state  of  being  actually  engaged  in 
war.  As  reganls  its  recognition  by  neutral  slates,  no  ques- 
tion will  arise  here  in  case  of  war  between  two  sovereign 
powers;  l)ul  when  reijellion  breaks  out  within  a  country,  or 
a  colony  revolts  against  its  mother  country,  every  other 
power  which  regards  the  interests  and  trade  of  its  sul)jects 
must  dcline  the  new  state  of  things.  This  stale  is  somewhat 
indefinite.  For  this  is  a  contest  between  a  sovereign  state, 
a  friend  of  the  neutral,  anil  a  revolutionary  body  which  is 
not  yet  a  state,  but  only  trying  to  lieeome  one.  It  has  there- 
fore no  international  standing.  Now,  as  has  bi'cn  said,  the 
first  <luty  of  the  neutral  is  to  his  own  traile;  to  <leliiie  on 
what  terms  it  shall  contimie.  It  next  owes  the  duties  which 
humanity  jjrescribes  to  both  combatants.  It  will  also  possi- 
bly have  to  lay  down  the  rules  it  intends  to  observe  regard- 
ing the  war  operations  of  the  non-sovereign  comliatant,  how 
its  ships  shall  be  received,  how  its  flag  shall  be  regardeil, 
whether  or  not  the  rights  of  war  shall  be  accorded  to  it. 

All  such  i|ue}tioiis  are  settled  l)y  a  proclamation  which  rec- 
ognizes its  Ijelligereiiey.  The  expediency  of  this  act  must  be 
govcrne<l  by  the  siTiousness  of  the  struggle.  The  test  is 
whether  an  actual  state  of  hostilities  exists,  not  trifling  or 
l(K'ali/.ed,  or  likely  to  be  temporary,  but  serious  enough  to 
allect  the  interests  of  other  states.  It  thus  becomes  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  a  question  of  probability,  while  the  recognition 
of  independence  involves  purely  a  question  of  fact,  whether 
the  alleni]it  of  the  parent  state  to  coerce  its  rebellious  mem- 
ber lias  ceased. 

The  recognition  of  belligerency  is  ))y  no  means  one-sided 
in  its  operation.  It  gives  rights  to  lu»th  combatants.  To 
the  insurgent  it  grants  the  rights  of  belligerents,  the  rec- 
ognition of  its  flag,  a  right  to  raise  loans,  a  quasi-political 
status  without  diplomatic  standing.  The  parent  state,  on  the 
other  hand. can  no  longer  be  held  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
its  rebellicjus  subjects.  It  can  employ  the  rights  of  lilock- 
ade,  of  capture  for  carrying  contraband,  of  search  against 
its  enemy,  thus  affecting  neutral  commerce.  In  short,  all 
parties  recognize  as  a  fact  that  a  war  exists  between  two 
combatants,  the  subsequent  (piestion  of  independence  being 
yet  in  alieyancc.  Judged  by  these  tests,  the  recognition  of 
the  belli":erency  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  by  (ireat  Brit- 
ain and  France  in  1861  was  proper  and  necessary.  'I'he  rec- 
ognition of  its  independence  was  at  no  lime  justifiable. 

TllKODOKK  S.   W'OOLSEY. 

lieriiiigliiini.  RirnARD:  lawyer:  b.  in  England  in  1593; 
emigrated  to  -\nierica  in  1634.  lie  was  Lieutenant-Ciovernor 
of  jlassachusetts  for  thirteen  yeare.  and  Governor  for  ten 
years,  first  elected  in  1641,  in  opposition  to  (Jov.  Win- 
thnip;  thi'ii  in  1665  as  successor  to  Endicott,  continuing  in 
olliee  tiy  annual  elections  until  his  death;  refused  in  1664  to 
oliey  a  suinrnons  to  England  to  give  a<'cownl  of  his  adminis- 
tration; left  his  property  to  the  support  of  a  Congregatifmal 
minister,  l>ut  in  the  interests  of  his  family  the  will  was  set 
asiile.  A  widowed  sister  was  hanged  as  a  -witch  in  1650. 
I).  Dec.  7.  1672. 

Bellinirlitini  I5ay:  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of 
Wasliiiigton,  Whatcom  co. ;  is  14  miles  long,  3  miles  wvle, 
with  a  depth  of  from  3  to  20  fathoms.  Great  qnantities  of 
lignitic  coal  are  mined  here,  the  shaft  being  only  a  ijuarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  harbor.  It  is  generally  considered  the 
liest  coal  on  the  Pacific  <()ast.  Whatcom  is  the  chief  point 
of  this  coal-lrade. 

Itcllini.  bel-lce'nce.  Gentile:  painter;  1).  in  Venice  in 
1421;  d.  I.j07;  elder  son  of  .lacopo.  Tie  wius  a  pupil  of  his 
falliiT  and  of  fieiilile  da  Falirlaiio.  for  whom  he  was  named. 
He  was  employed  by  the  Venetian  (iovcnimcnt  in  company 
Willi  his  brother,  lie  went  to  t'onstantinople  in  1479  on  the 
invitation  of  the  sultan,  Mohammed  II.,  and  at  the  wish  of 


the  Venetian  authorities  he  returned  to  Venice  bringing 
pieturesof  men  and  scenes  in  the  Turkish  empire  of  great,  and 
at  that  time  unique,  interest.  Some  of  these  remain  ni  toler- 
able preservation.  We  have  also  of  his  work  several  imjior- 
tant  scenes  in  Venice.  Costume,  splendid  architecture,  and 
stately  ceremonies  had  great  attractions  for  him.  Pei'spec- 
tive  drawing,  too,  then  a  newly  invented  jirocess,  he  liad 
studied  carefully,  and  excelled  in.  His  paintings,  though 
less  lofty  in  character  than  his  brothers,  and  marked  with 
some  of' the  stiffness  of  drawing  of  an  immature  style,  are 
full  of  interest  and  beauty  of  composition  and  color.  His 
most  noted  picture  was  The  Preaching  of  SI.  Murk;  in  the 
duomo  of  Venice.  Russeli.  Sturois. 

Bellini.  (iioVANNi ;  painter;  b.  in  Venice  about  1428; 
il.  1516.  He  worked  under  his  father  Jacopo  and  his  brother 
Gentile.  During  Gentile's  absence  in  Turkey  he  continued 
the  work  in  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice,  which  the  two 
brothers  had  undertaken  together,  all  of  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  fire  in  1577.  Giovanni  was  especially  a  student 
of  the  art  of  oil-|]aiiiling  on  canvas,  which  lie  was  of  the  first 
to  master  completely.  Moreover,  he  w.hs  a  iiainter  of  relig- 
ious subjects  of  till"  slalelii'r  and  more  monumental  kind,  in 
which  he  preserved  a  gentle  and  refined  feeling,  while  com- 
bining it  with  splendor  of  color  and  grace  of  composition 
beyond  his  time.  He  was  in  this  way  the  true  forerunner 
of  the  still  more  powerful  artists  of  the  next  generation, 
Titian.  Paul  Veronese,  and  Giorgione,  and  yet  he  kept  much 
of  tlie  simple  and  frank  religious  concentration  of  earlier 
work,  whiili  those  great  men  nearly  abandoned.  He  is  one 
of  the  small  class  of  entirely  great  painters,  an  unsurpas.sed 
master  of  the  art.  I'^xamples  of  his  work  may  still  be  seen 
in  Venice  and  Na]iles;  his  Blood  of  the  Redeemer  is  in  the 
London  National  Gallery.  Russell  Sturois. 

BeHilli.  .Tac'oi'o  :  jiainter:  b.  in  Venice,  1395;  d.  1470; 
he  was  a  jiupil  of  (ieiitile  du  Fabriano,  who  came  to  Venice 
when  he  was  very  young,  and  went  thence  to  Florence  in 
1422.  taking  Bellini  with  him.  During  the  fii-st  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  art  of  jiainting  was  backward  in  Ven- 
ice, and  it  seems  clear  that  liellini  was  a  powerful  aid  in  its 
advance  from  about  1430  until  his  old  age,  although  he  can 
hardly  have  reached  the  skill  of  either  of  his  sons.  Gentile 
and  Giovanni.  Almost  nothing  of  his  larger  work  remains 
to  us.  but  his  style  can  be  jiulged  from  tlie  drawings  con- 
tained in  a  book  ]ireserved  in  the  British  JIuseum,  and  ad- 
mitted to  be  his  own  handiwork.  Russell  Sturgis. 

Bellini.  Vincknzo:  Italian  composer;  son  and  grandson 
of  musicians  of  moderate  ability;  b.  at  Catania,  Sicily.  Nov. 
3,  1802.  He  was  a  |iupil  of  Zingarelli.  In  1827  he  produced 
II  Piraia,  an  opera  which  was  performed  at  Milan  with 
great  success.  His  fame  was  widely  extended  by  La  Stra- 
niira  (1828) :  La  Snnnamhiila  (1831)";  and  Ln  Sohna  (1831); 
which  latter  two  works  were  reju-esented  on  every  opera- 
stage  in  Europe.  He  afterward  went  to  Paris  and  London, 
where  he  was  warmlv  applauded,  and  composed  /  Ptiritavi 
(1834).  D.  in  Paris.  Seiit.  24.  1835.  See  A.  Pougin.  liellini, 
m  vie,  sea  witrres  (Paris,  1868),  and  Hiller's  Kiinsllerleben 
(Cologne,  1880). 

BelHnzo'na  (Germ.  Bellenz)  ■  a  town  of  Switzerland ;  one 
of  the  capitals  of  the  <-anton  of  Ticino  ;  on  the  river  Ticino, 
here  crossed  bv  a  bridge;  16  miles  N.  of  Lugano  (see  map 
of  Switzerland!  ref.  7-II).  II  is  defended  by  several  old 
caslles.  and  liius  an  active  transit  trade.    Pop.  (1882)  3,302. 

Bellman,  bel  nuiiiii.  Karl  Michael:  b.  in  Stockholm, 
Fel).  4  (15  N.  S.)  1740  ;  received  a  rather  desultory  education ; 
vacillated  for  .several  years  between  business  and  literature; 
received  in  1775  a  .small  ofiice  in  the  state  lottery  from 
Gustavus  III.,  but  hired  another  to  perform  its  duties,  and 
gave  himself  up  to  his  pa.ssion  for  gay  company  and  poetry. 
D.  in  Stockholm  in  jiovcrty  and  melancholy,  Feb.  11,  1795. 
His  works  consist  for  the  most  part  of  songs,  many  of  them 
set  to  music  by  Bellman  himself.  In  some  of  these  he  gives 
a  burlesque  representation  of  the  companions  of  his  nightly 
revelries,  and  of  their  exploits.  But  these  characters  are 
drawn  with  the  most  exquisite  elegance  ;  their  extravagances 
are  blended  with  .something  which  is  exceedingly  sweet  and 
innwent ;  and  the  whole  is  remarkable  for  its  joyous  melody, 
in  which, however, a  peculiar  undertone  of  romantic  sadness 
now  and  then  becomes  very  i)erceptible.  These  .songs  have 
made  his  name  one  of  the  most  celebrated  within  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries.  They  have  been  printed  over  and  over 
again,  and  are  sung  at  the  courts  and  by  the  peasants.  In 
Sweden  they  liave  given  rise  to  a  very  rich  song-literature  of 


574 


BELL   METAL 


BELLO   Y   LOPEZ 


considerable  merit,  lioth  poetically  anil  mu.sieally.  ami  to  in- 
numerable and  generally  exeellently  trained  singling  associa- 
tions which  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Swedish  social 
life.  His  statue  has  been  raised  in  DjurgArden.  near  Stock- 
holm, and  July  26  is  celebrated  there  with  an  annual  festival 
in  his  honor.  Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Bell  Metal :  a  hard,  dense,  brittle,  and  sonorous  alloy  of 
cojipcr  with  tin.  zinc,  or  some  other  metal.  The  proportion 
in  English  bells  is  usually  75  per  cent,  of  copper  and  25  of 
tin.  The  bell  metal  of  commerce  usually  contains  80  of 
to|iper  to  20  of  tin,  or  else  78  of  copper  to  23  of  tin. 

Bello'iia :  the  goddess  of  war  in  the  ancient  Roman 
mythology  ;  was  represented  a.s  the  companion  and  sister  or 
wife  of  Mars.  She  was  described  by  ]ioets  as  armed  with  a 
scourge  and  hohling  a  torch  in  her  hand.  lier  priests  were 
called  Bellonarii. 

Bellot.  bel'lo,  Joseph  Rexe  :  Arctic  explorer :  b.  in  Paris, 
JIar.  18. 1826;  lieutenant  in  tlie  French  navy;  Joined  expe- 
rlition  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  sent  out  by  Lady 
Franklin.  May,  1851 ;  afterward  joined  Inglcfield's  expe- 
dition, and  perished  in  a  storm  near  ('a]ie  Bowden,  Mar.  21, 
1853.  He  discovered  Bellot's  Strait  on  the  Udi-th  coast  of 
North  America,  1852. 

Bellotto,  Ber.varuo  ;  See  Canai^  or  Caxaletto. 

Bel'lows  [M.  Eng.  heln,  plur.  belurx ;  since  the  sixteenth 
century  only  the  plural  in  use ;  the  word  is  really  an  abbre- 
viation of  0.  Eng.  bkesfbelig.  cf.  Germ.  Blasebalg] :  a  very 
ancient  contrivance  for  producing  a  blast  of  air.  It  consist- 
ed in  its  rudest  form  of  a  bag  which  was  compressed,  allowed 
to  become  full,  compressed  again,  and  so  on.  Representations 
of  bellows  have  been  found  in  some  of  the  earliest  Egyptian 
sculptures,  and  Sir  Gardiner  Wilkinson  believes  he  has  found 
a  valve  a-s  early  as  the  time  of  Moses.  The  natives  of  India 
and  China  have  employed  the  bellows  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Rude  forms  of  the  bellows  are  found  in-numy  of  the 
lowest  tribes  of  Africa.  Ordinary  bellows,  as  now  used,  are 
practically  leather  bags  which  are  compressed  and  then  ex- 
panded so  a-s  to  allow  air  to  enter  through  a  valve  opening 
inward,  which  on  compression  of  the  bellows  allows  no  air 
to  escape,  except  through  the  nozzle.  The  Chinese  bellows 
consists  of  a  rectangular  chamber  in  which  a  close-fitting 
piston  moves,  and  as  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  nozzle,  valves 
open  in  the  front  of  the  chamber,  ailmitting  the  air.  The 
blacksmith's  bellows  supplies  a  continuous  current.  It  cnn- 
sists  of  a  top,  center,  and  lower  boards,  the  two  latter  being 
pierced  witli  valves.  The  lower  board  is  weighted,  and  auto- 
matically takes  in  air  as  it  falls.  The  lever  is  attached  to 
the  lower  board,  and  as  it  is  raised  the  air  is  forced  into  the 
upper  chamber,  and  the  delivery  continues  while  the  lower 
chamber  is  again  being  replenished.   See  Blowixcj-machlnes. 

Bellows.  Albert  F.  :  genre  and  landscape  ]>ainter  ;  b.  at 
Milford,  >lass.,  Xov.  29.  1829.  D.  in  Auburndale,  Mass., 
Nov.  24,  1883  ;  pu]iil  of  the  Antwerp  Academy  ;  also  studied 
in  Paris  aiul  in  England.  National  Academician  1861 ; 
honorary  member.  Royal  Belgian  Water-color  Society,  1868. 
His  pictures  in  oil  are  mediocre  productions  technically  con- 
sidered, though  interesting  in  their  subjects,  wliich  are 
mostly  drawn  from  scenes  of  New  England  life.  His  water- 
color  painting  was  of  better  rpiality,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
first  American  artists  who  successfullv  practiced  that  branch 
of  art.  '  W.  A.  C. 

Bellows.  Hi-XRV  Whitney.  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Unitarian 
minister:  b.  in  Walpole,  X.  IL.  June  11,  1814:  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1832;  in  1838  became  pastor  of  tlie  Fii-st 
Unitarian  church  in  the  city  of  New  York,  miw  called  the 
Church  of  All  .Souls.  He  gained  distinction  as  an  eloquent 
public  speaker,  and  leeture<l  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  espe- 
cially social,  educational,  and  patriotic  enterprises.  In  1846 
he  was  one  of  the  foundei-s  of  the  Cbristian  Inquirer,  and 
he  was  one  of  its  editors  for  many  yeai-s.  .\mong  his  works 
are  Lcrlures  un  thi:  Trfatmcnt  of  Sneial  Di.wK.srs  (New- 
York,  1857)  and  Tbc  Old  World'  in  ila  Xi'ir  Facf  (1868). 
He  was  the  principal  promoter  and  first  president  of  the 
U.  S.  Sanitary  Conimission,  established  in  1862;  was  the 
prime  mover  in  the  organization  of  the  '■  National  Confer- 
ence of  Unitarian  and  otlier  Christian  Chun'hes"  in  1865, 
and  later  of  the  Unitarian  Ministei-s'  Institute.  He  had 
great  organizing  genius,  and  was  an  extemporaneous  speaker 
of  most  brilliant  jiowrr.  Tliere  is  a  posthumous  volume  of 
his  sermons  (New  York.  1880),  ami  an  earlier  one,  Kaslute- 
mmtof  Christian  Doctrine  (Boston,  1860).  I),  in  New  York 
city,  Jan.  30,  1883.  Revised  Ijv  Joux  W.  Chadwick. 


Bellows   Falls :   railroad  junction ;   Windham  Co..  Vt. 

(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  9-C) ;  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Connecticut  river;  53  miles  S.  E.  of  Rutland. 
114  miles  N.  W.  of  Boston.  Mass.  The  location  is  pictu- 
resque and  furnishes  excellent  water-power.  Paper  manu- 
facturing is  the  chief  industry,  but  there  are  here  a  very 
large  dairy-utensil  manufactory  and  a  very  fidly  equipped 
machine-shop.  Communication  by  direct  lines  to  important 
points  gives  good  shipping  facilities.  Pop.  (1880)  2,329  ; 
(1890)  3,092  ;  (1891)  local  census,  over  3.400. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 
Bellows-flsli.  or  Truiu]»et-flsh  {JIacrorhampliosus  scoln- 
pa.r) :  a  spiny-finned  fish  of  the  family  CentriscidcB ;  feeds 
upon  small  animals  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  chiefly 


Bellows-fish. 

in  the  Jlediterranean  and  on  the  west  coasts  of  Europe.  It 
is  good  eating,  though  small,  seldom  exceeding  5  inches  in 
lengt  h. 

Bello  y  Lopez,  belyo-ee-lopeth.AxDREs;  Spanish  Amer- 
ican poet  and  writer ;  b.  in  Caracas.  Venezuela.  Nov.  29, 
1781  ;  undoubtedly  the  most  important  author  Spanish 
America  has  ha<l  in  the  nineteenth  century.  His  intel- 
lectual career  dated  from  his  acquaintance  with  Alexander 
von  Humboldt  during  the  latter's  famous  journey  through 
South  America  in  1799.  Bello  shared  several  of  Humboldt's 
expeditions  in  Venezuela,  and  through  him  his  interest  was 
aroused  in  the  literary  and  scientific  movements  of  Europe. 
He  acquired  tlie  French.  German,  and  English  tongues,  and 
was  thus  enabled  in  1808  to  serve  as  secretary  and  inter- 
preter for  the  Governor  and  Council  of  Venezuela,  then 
still  under  the  control  of  Spain.  In  1810  he  took  part  in 
the  revolt  of  Venezuela  fmm  Spain,  along  with  liis  friend 
and  former  pupil.  Bolivar.  In  the  end  of  1810  Bolivar  w-as 
sent  as  representative  of  the  country  to  Great  Britain,  and 
took  Bello  with  him  as  secretary  of  legation.  The  next 
nineteen  years  of  the  latter"s  life  were  spent  in  Europe, 
chiefly  in  London.  He  endured  great  hardships,  owing  to 
the  varying  fortunes  of  his  country's  cause.  At  one  time 
he  was  obliged  to  earn  a  living  liy  giving  lessons;  at  an- 
other he  was  employed  by  James  Mill  t<j  deci|)her  the  MSS. 
left  by  Bentham.  lie  made  many  interesting  friends,  how- 
ever, among  them  Blanco  Wliite,  Olmedo,  and  Fernandez 
Madrid,  and  especially  became  known  to  the  more  influen- 
tial of  the  large  group  of  Spanish  Americans  then  living  in 
exile  or  ipiasi-exile  in  England.  He  was  connected  witli 
.several  periodicals  designed  for  these  persons  and  to  ad- 
vance the  cause  of  South  American  freedom,  and  thus  he 
became  a  recognized  leader  of  the  Spanish  American  patri- 
ots. At  the  same  time  he  was  training  himself  to  be  a  poet 
and  scholar,  studying  the  ancient  literature  of  Spain  and 
the  new  romantic  literature  of  Europe.  In  1829,  after  many 
hesitations.  Bello  decided  to  accept  an  offer  made  him  by 
the  Government  of  Cliili.  and  thenceforth  his  career  was 
indissolubly  connected  with  that  republic.  He  soon  be- 
came a  power  in  his  new  liome,  especially  in  everj-thing 
connected  with  higher  education.  W  hen  the  LTniversity  of 
Chili  was  f(ninde<l  in  1843  he  became  its  first  rector — a  posi- 
tion he  held  many  years.  lie  wrote  extensively  and  on 
many  different  subjects,  yet  valuably  upon  all.  As  a  lover 
and  defender  of  the  use  of  pure  Castilian,  he  wrote  his 
Pri)tcijtiiis  df  la  Ortolog'ta  i/  Metriat  dc  la  Lengna  castelhi- 
na  (1835)  ;  his  Ant'ilisi.'i  ideulof/ira  de  Ins  Tieitipos  de  la  i  'ttn- 
Jiii/riciuii  ciisli.llanii  (1841) ;  and  his  Urammdtica  caslelln/ia, 
recognized  in  Spain  itself  as  the  best  (1847).  As  jurist  he 
published  Prinripios  de  Dereclio  de  Gentes  (1832).  and  pra<'- 
tically  wrote  the  Clidign  Civil  adopted  by  Chili  in  1855. 
His  Filosof'iii  del  Etitendimienin  (published  after  his  death, 
1881)  showed  him  to  have  reflected  long  an<l  deeply  upon 
philosophical  questions.  Finally,  as  poet  (and  this  is  his 
best  title  to  fame)  he  has  left  a  considerable  body  of  work 
pure  in  style,  elevated  in  manner,  and  full  of  a  certain 
American  spirit  very  distinct  from  anything  to  be  found 


BELLOY 


BELLWORTS 


ill  the  poets  of  S]}ain  or  even  in  those  roniantio  poets  of 
Kriincc  (Andre  Chenier  and  Victor  Hugo)  whom  Bello  most 
IovimI  Hiid  admired. 

When  Hillu  died  the  whole  Chilian  people  mourned  for 
him.  In  1»T2  the  Chilian  Congress  voted  the  publication 
of  an  edition  of  his  works  at  the  national  expense  {Obran 
compMitx.  H  vols..  Santiajjo  de  Chili.  18H1-8")).  In  1881  the 
hundredth  annivei-sarv  of  his  birth  was  eelibrated.  especially 
in  Santiago,  with  great  splendor.  A  statue  of  him  hiLS  been 
erected  by  po[>ular  subscription  before  I  fie  main  eiil  ranee 
of  the  Cciiigri'so  in  Santiago.  See  Vida  rfc  D.  Jwrfccs  licllii, 
por  Miguel  Luis  .Vmuiiategui  (Santiago  de  Chili,  1882).  The 
poems  and  several  prose  works  of  Bello  are  also  published 
in  Madriil  in  the  Coleccion  de  EHcritores  catitellaiios  (1882, 
seq.).    D.  Oct.  1"),  186").  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Belloy,  belwaa',  Pierre  rj.\iRK.\T  Hiirette,  de  :  French 
dramatist;  b.  at  St.-Flour  1727 ;  went  on  the  stage  in  St. 
Petersburg;  returned  to  France  and  produced  his  tragedy 
Titu.i  17o8;  returned  to  St.  Petersburg;  again  visited 
France  1762;  wrote  several  successful  tragedies.  D.  at 
Paris,  Mar.  5,  1775. 

Bell-riiisrinsr :  There  are  two  ways  to  ring  a  bell  or  a  set 
of  bells.  In  one  the  liclls  are  stationary,  and  are  struck  either 
on  the  inside  or  outside  near  the  rim  witli  a  hammer.  In 
the  other  the  bells  are  in  motion,  being  swung  with  roijc 
and  wheel,  or  other  contrivances,  or  being  shaken  by  the 
hand.  The  desirable  thing  in  ringing  bells  is  to  get  a  clear 
tone  and  a  vibration  that  shall  be  resonant  and  shall  reveal 
the  full  tone-qualities  of  these  most  common  and  most  use- 
ful musical  instruments.  To  obtain  this  lone  circumstances 
alone  must  decide  whether  the  bdl  shall  be  fixed  or  in  mot  ion. 
Bell-ringing  reiiuires  a  skill  that  comes  only  from  long 
practice.  It  is  an  art  also.  The  latter  consists  of  making 
the  vibrations  constant  and  regular.  This  is  especially 
sought  for  in  ringing  carillons,  or  peals  of  bells,  known  in 
the  L'^.  8.  as  chimes.  In  ringing  one  bell  il  is  probable  that 
a  clearer  note  may  be  obtained  by  swinging  it.  Whether 
stationary  or  fixed",  it  is  ih'sirable  that  the  hammer  shall  re- 
main in  contact  with  the  bell  for  only  the  shortest  sjiaee  of 
time,  an<l  shall  drop  aw;iy  or  be  lifted  almost  instantly  after 
the  .sharp  blow  is  given,  so  as  not  to  dull  or  interfere  with 
the  vibrations  that  result.  In  ringing  chimes  it  is  therefore 
preferable  that  there  shall  be  no  long  notes,  or  intervals  be- 
tween the  notes,  and  it  is  belter  that  a  long  note  should  be 
broken  up  into  two  or  more  shorter  ones  than  thiit  the  vi- 
braticms  should  strike  the  ear  of  the  listener  at  irregular  in- 
tervals. The  most  successful  bell-ringei-s  employ  this 
method,  knowing  that  the  finest  effect  is  pnxlueed  thereby. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe  bells  in  sots  are  almost  en- 
tirely stationary,  and  are  called  carillons,  from  the  Italian 
guadriglio.  or  (luadrille,  "  a  dreamy  kind  of  dance  musics  " 
hrst  played  upon  them.  A  carillon  consists  of  from  twelve 
to  forty  bells  arranged  in  the  diatonic  scale.  They  are  usu- 
ally rung  by  one  man.  To  ring  them  an  instrument  called 
the  clavecin  is  often  useil.  It  is  a  sort  of  rough  keyboard 
fashioned  somewhat  like  that  of  a  piano.  The  player  strikes 
the  keys  with  a  gloved  fist,  anil  by  a  mechanical  contrivance 
the  hammer  falls  on  the  rim  of  the  bell  and  at  once  is  lifted 
away.  In  the  IT,  S.,  where  bells  in  sets  are  usually  station- 
ary, a  series  of  levci-s  is  used.  By  pusliin«:  down  the  levers 
sharply  the  chqiper  or  hammer  inside  tlu;  bell  is  drawn 
against  the  rim,  and  it  drops  away  (luiekly  of  its  own 
weight. 

Another  instrument  in  ringing  carillons  in  general  use  on 
the  Continent,  and  being  developed  greatly  in  England 
where  the  carillons  rarely  consist  of  more  than  twenty  bells, 
is  what  is  calleil  the  tanilxiur.  or  "  barrel."  It  is  a  contriv- 
ance on  the  principle  of  the  cylinder  of  the  well-known  mu- 
sic-box. A  large  number  of  wooilen  pegs  are  fixed  on  a  re- 
volving drum,  which  loosens  the  hammers  and  drops  each 
one  on  its  b<'ll  at  the  proper  time.  This  device  is  automatic. 
of  course,  and,  although  the  resulting  notes  are  not  as  clear 
as  when  struck  by  hand,  it  is  possible  to  arrange  more  dilli- 
cult  music  for  it  than  one  man  can  pro<luce  by  the  method 
of  hand  striking.  The  carillon,  whether  played  by  the  clave- 
cin or  by  the  barrel,  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
eighteenth  icntury.  in  Belgium — still  the  liome  of  the  best 
hells — aii<l  probably  the  best  performer  that  ever  lived  was 
the  famous  ^[atthias  van  den  (ilieyn.  whose  original  music, 
found  in  Louvain  hmg  after  his  death,  rivals  in  subtlety 
that  or  Hach,  Mozart,  and  others,  and  which  no  one  has  since 
been  able  to  play  upon  Viells. 

In  England  for  several  centuries  the  swinging  method  has 


been  used  in  ringing  chimes,  or  peals,  as  they  are  known 
there.  In  the  V.  S.  a  peal  would  be  a  set  of  three  or  more 
bells,  each  bell  tuned  to  itself  and  to  the  others.  Eight  or 
more  bells  similarly  tuned  would  be  lalled  a  chime.  In 
England,  with  one  man  to  each  beU  and  a  leader  to  give  the 
signals  for  swinging,  the  development  of  that  [leculiar  kind 
of  bell-music  calle<l  "  changes "  resulted.  Changes  (or 
change-ringing)  consist  of  striking  a  set  of  bells  in  every 
possible  order.  Thus  three  bells  may  be  struck  in  six  ways 
without  any  repeat.  Four  bells  may  be  struck  in  24  ways 
without  repetition;  five  hells  in  120  ways,  and  so  on  until 
with  ten  bells  we  have  8,628,800  changes.  To  ring  all  these 
changes  at  the  usual  rale  of  speed  would  require  one  year  and 
105  diiys  of  constant  iierformance.  With  twelve  bells  in  the 
peal,  to  ring  all  the  possible  changes  would  require  ;i7  years. 
These  changes  are  based  on  that  simple  branch  of  mathe- 
matics known  as  comliinations. 

To  many  of  1  hese  changes  names  have  been  given,  and  ex- 
pert individual  bell-ringcre  know  just  when  and  how  often 
to  strike  their  bells  when  any  one  of  these  figures  is  an- 
nounced to  be  |)layed.  The  most  common  of  these  changes 
are  known  as  "  plain-boVjs,''  "  bob-tri])les."  "  bob-majors," 
"bob-minors,"  '"  grandsire-triplcs,"  "  grandsire  bob-cators," 
and  so  on.  In  ringing  the  bells  such  methods  as"  hunting," 
"dodging,"  and  "  snapping  "are  us<'d.  Each  man  must  not 
only  ring  his  liell  at  the  right  time,  but  he  must  get  the 
right  expression  and  best  tone  from  it. 

In  Great  Britain  the  clavecin  method  of  ringing  bells.with 
electricity  as  the  striking  power,  is  now  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Willi  this  contrivance  perfected  any  ordinary 
piano  iierformcr  may  sit  down  at  a  keyboard,  and  by  touch- 
ing the  keys  ring  the  bells  in  the  belfry  and  produce  a  high 
order  of  music. 

In  the  U.  S.,  a.s  ha.s  been  explained,  (he  chimes  are  almost 
univei-sally  stationary,  the  usual  nnmlier  of  bells  being  ten 
or  twelve.  When  the  levers  connecting  with  the  inside 
liammei-s  of  the  bells  are  pu.shed  down  with  skill,  it  is  prob- 
able thiit  better  result.s  follow  than  by  any  oilier  method  of 
ringing,  exc<'pl  when  there  is  a  man  to  each  bell. 

In  selecting  a  chime  I  he  fundamental  bell,  or  key-note  Viell, 
must  be  first  chosen.  This  must  be  true  to  itself  first — that 
is  to  .say,  the  note  that  results  from  striking  it  on  the  rim 
must  lie  exactly  an  octave  lower  than  the  note  obtained  by 
striking  it  at  the  top  at  the  center  of  the  curve.  The  third 
and  fifth  octave  tones,  found  by  striking  the  bell  at  the  re- 
((iiired  jilace  along  its  length,  must  be  true  also.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  eomliinatiou  of  all  these  tones,  the  "drone"  note 
or  hum  of  the  bell,  a  tone  one-third  lower  usmilly  than  the 
key-note,  and  one  usually  overlooked,  must  be  in  harmony 
with  the  douiimmt  note  of  the  bell.  Each  of  the  other  bells 
must  be  in  harmony  with  the  key-note  bell  and  thus  an  ap- 
proximately con-ect  chime,  peal,  or  carillon  is  secured. 

Albert  F.  Matthews. 

Bells  :  in  nautical  language  has  a  peculiar  meaning,  and 
is  used  as  a  substitute  for  those  expressions  by  which  peo]ile 
on  land  indicate  the  hour.  The  .sailor's  day  or  night  is  di- 
vided into  watches  or  periods,  each  of  four  hours'  duration, 
except  the  two  "dog  watches,"  which  are  two  houi-s  each, 
viz.,  from  4  to  0  and  from  6  to  8  p.  M.,  and  the  bell  is  struck 
<mce  at  the  expiration  of  each  half  hour.  The  number  of 
strokes  denotes  the  number  of  half  hours  that  have  elapsed 
in  that  particular  watch.  If  the  walch  cominences  at  8 
P.  M.,  eight  bells  would  be  a  signal  for  the  end  of  the  watch 
at  midnight. 

BcIIiiiio,  bel-loono  (anc.  Bellii'num) :  a  city  of  Italy; 
capital  of  province  of  same  name ;  on  th(^  Piave  ;  49  miles  N. 
of  Venice  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  2-l>).  It  is  a  bishop's  .see  ; 
has  a  cathedral  designe<l  by  Palladio.  a  rich  hospital,  a  pub- 
lic library,  a  handsome  aqueduct,  and  a  beautiful  triumphal 
arch  ;  also  mauufaclnres  of  silk  stuffs,  hats,  leather,  and 
earthenware.     Pop.  16.000. 

BcUwood  :  borough  (organized  in  1888) ;  Blair  Co..  Pa. 
(for  location  of  count  v,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-D) ; 
on  Penn.  R.  R.  and  iVnn.  and  X.  W.  R.!!.;  6  miles  E.  of 
Altoona ;  has  a  good  school,  six  chun'hes.  and  an  opera- 
house.  The  chief  industrial  establishments  are  railroad-car 
ri'pair-shops,  foundries,  etc.  Poj).  (1880)  366  ;  (1890)  1,146  ; 
(1892)  estimated,  with  suburbs,  3,500. 

Editor  of  "  Bulletin." 

BpHwoHs  (f'nmpnnuJnreip):  a  family  of  mostly  herba- 
ceous dicotvledons.  with  inferior  ovaries  and  gauiopetalous 
corollas.  'I'hey  are  related  to  the  cucurbits,  composites, 
honeysuckles,  etc.     There  are  about  1,000  species,  very  wide- 


576 


BELMONT 


BELUGA 


ly  distributed.  As  here  considered,  this  family  includes  the 
lobelias,  often  separated  as  a  distinct  family  {Lobeliacece). 
Campanula,  the  principal  genus,  contains  230  species. 

Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Bel'moiit :  a  post-village  of  Mississippi  co.,  'Mo.  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Missouri,  rcf.  7-K) ;  on  railroad  and  the 
Jlississippi  river,  opposite  Columbus,  Ky.,  197  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  St.  Louis.  In  1861  this  place  was  occupied  as  a  Confed- 
erate camp.  On  Xov.  6  Gen.  Grant,  in  command  at  Cairo, 
descended  the  river  with  about  4,000  troo[5S,  remaining  over 
night  about  10  miles  above  Columbus,  Ky.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  7th  this  force  was  debarked  on  the  Missouri  shore 
a  short  distance  above  Belmont,  and  at  once  moved  forward 
to  the  capture  of  the  Confederate  camp,  supposed  to  con- 
tain about  3,000  men.  After  several  hours'  severe  fighting, 
the  Federal  troops  forced  their  way  through  the  obstruc- 
tions on  either  side.  An  irresistible  charge  carried  the 
camp,  drove  the  Confederates  in  all  directions,  and  left  the 
field  in  possession  of  the  Federals.  The  Confederate  camp, 
with  all  its  supplies,  ammunition,  and  baggage,  was  fired 
and  destroyed.  The  defeated  Confederates  were,  however, 
strongly  re-enforced  by  Maj.-Gen.  Polk  from  Columbus, 
and  in' turn  drove  the  Federal  troops  back  to  their  boats, 
fighting  all  the  way  against  a  now  vastly  superior  force, 
while  the  batteries  on  the  Kentucky  side  kept  up  a  damag- 
ing fire  which  could  not  be  returned.  By  5  p.  si.  the 
troops  were  all  on  boanl  their  boats,  without  the  loss  of  a 
gun,  while  they  had  with  them  two  guns  captured  from 
the  Confederates.  The  Federal  loss  was  120  killed,  383 
wounded,  and  104  captured  or  missing ;  total,  607.  The 
Confederate  loss  is  stated  at  from  500  to  600,  killed  and 
wounded. 

Belmont :  capital  of  Allegany  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  6-D):  on  the  Genesee 
river  and  on  Erie  R.  K.,  93  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Elmira, 
and  94  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Dunkirk.  It  contains  a  fine  union 
school  building,  6  churches,  county  court-house,  3  fiouring- 
mills,  machine-shop,  and  foundry.  The  surrounding  coun- 
trv  is  principally  agricultural.  Pop.  (1870)  79.1 :  (1880)  804; 
(1890)  9.50.         "  EuiTOB  of  '•  Dispatch." 

Belolt' :  city  and  railroad  junction ;  capital  of  Mitchell 
CO..  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref. 
4-F) ;  on  Mo.  Pac.  and  Union  Pac.  R.  Rs.,  and  on  the  north 
bank  of  Solomon  river,  184  miles  W.  of  Missouri  river ;  has 
State  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  excellent  graded  and  high 
schools,  extensive  mills  and  manufactures,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant business  center.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,793,  includ- 
ing 1,83.3  in  city;  of  city  (1885)  2,003;  (1890)  2,455;  (1895) 
2,039.  Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Beloit :  city ;  Rock  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-E) ;  on  Northwestern  and  C.,  M. 
and  .St.  P.  R.  Rs.,  and  on  Rock  river,  91  miles  N.  W.  of 
Chicago  and  47  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Madison ;  is  on  the  south 
boundary  of  the  .State.  It  is  partly  Imilt  on  a  pl.ain  which 
is  about  70  feet  higher  than  the  river,  and  is  the  seat  of 
Beloit  College.  It  has  considerable  manufactures  of  paper, 
paper-machinery,  windmills,  steam-engines,  shoes,  plows, 
water-wheels,  etc.  Founded  in  1836  bv  settlers  from  Cole- 
brook,  N.  H.     Pop.  (1880)  4,790  :  (1890)'6,315  ;  (1895)  7,786. 

Editor  of  "  Free  Press." 

Beloit  College  :  Beloit,  Wis. ;  founded  by  the  Congrega- 
tionalists  and  Presbyterians  of  Wisconsin  and  Northern  Illi- 
nois; received  charter  from  Territorial  Legislature  of  Wis- 
consin 1846.  First  building  erected  and  first  college  class 
entered  1847.  .lackson  J.  Bushnell  (Yale,  "41)  and  Joseph 
Emerson  (Yale,  '41)  appointed  professors  1848;  Rev.  Aaron 
L.  Chapin  (Yale,  "37)  elected  president  1849;  succeeded  in 
1886  liy  Rev.  Edward  I).  Eaton  (Beloit,  "73). 

Tlie  institution  is  of  the  New  England  t\ye.  and  has  from 
the  first  maintained  a  high  standanl  of  scholarship.  About 
3.500  young  men  have  received  education  here,"  443  having 
grailuated. 

The  faculty  numbers  20  members,  besides  lecturers.  There 
arc  about  400  students.  The  college  has  a  beautiful  campus 
of  25  acres  overlooking  Rock  river;  also  an  athletic  field  of 
16  acres.  Of  the  ten  buildings  the  most  important  are: 
Memorial  Hall  Library  (erected  186H.  containing  IS.OOO  vol- 
umes); gymiiasipim  (1874);  Smith  Observatory  (18M1);  .Sco- 
ville  llali  (1889.  for  preparatory  dei)artment);  Chajiel  (1H91); 
Chapin  Hall  (1891.  dormitory);  and  Pearsons  Hall  (1893), 
containing  extensive  and  well-equipoed  laboratories  for 
physical  science.  Edward  D.  Eato.n. 


Belon,  bay'loiV,  Pierre  :  French  naturalist ;  b.  at  Soulle- 
tiere,  JIaine,  1518 ;  traveled  extensively ;  murdered  by  rob- 
bers, April,  1564,  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne;  established  ho- 
mologies of  vertebrate  skeletons.  He  formed  two  botanical 
gardens  more  than  a  century  before  the  establishment  of  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.  and  planted  the  first  cedar  in  France. 

Beloochistan :  See  Baluchistan. 

Belot,  bay'16',  Adolphe  :  French  dramatist  and  novelist ; 
b.  in  Ponte  a  Pitre  Nov.  6,  1829.  Among  his  very  numerous 
novels  may  be  mentioned  :  Jlademoiselle  Giraud,  ma  femme 
(1870) ;  La  Heine  de  Beaute  (1883) ;  La  Princesse  Sophie 
(1883) ;  Alphonsine  (1887).  Of  his  plays,  Le  Testament  de 
Cesar  Girodot  (1859)  has  been  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
modem  plays,  more  than  800  representations  having  been 
given  of  it  at  the  Odeon  and  the  Comedie  Fran^aise.  Most 
of  his  novels  have  also  been  dramatized.  D.  in  Paris,  Dec. 
18,  1889. 

Bel'per:  a  market -town  of  Derbyshire,  England;  on  the 
Jlidland  Railway;  10  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Derby  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  8-11).  It  has  several  churches,  a  public  library, 
and  a  stone  bridge  over  the  river  Derwent.  It  has  large 
manufactures  of  sUk  and  cotton  hosiery.   Pop.  (1891)  10,430. 

Belpre' :  village ;  Washington  co.,  0.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  7-H) ;  on  B.  and  0.  S.  W.  R.  R., 
194  miles  from  Cincinnati.  36  miles  from  Athens.  It  has 
good  schools,  and  manufactures  of  wool,  flour,  etc.  Pop. 
(1880)901;  (1890)  1,007. 

Belsliaz'zar  [Bel-shar-uzur:  Fr.  BaUhasar]  :  son  of 
Nabonidus  (Lab\nietus),  the  sixth  and  last  king  of  the 
second  Babylonian  jieriod.  His  mother  w:is  a  daughter  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  prol)al>ly  the  widow  of  Neriglissar, 
the  fourth  king  of  the  period.  When  of  sufficient  age  lie 
was  associated  with  his  father  on  the  throne,  and  in  the 
Book  of  Daniel  is  therefore  called  king.  At  the  fall  of 
Babylon  in  538  n.  c.  he  was  slain,  and  his  father,  Nabonidus, 
then  at  Borsippa,  was  taken  prisoner. 

Bel'taiie.  or  Belteiii  [Scottish  from  Gaelic  healltainn. 
May-day] :  heatlien  festival  once  common  to  all  Celtic  na- 
tions, traces  of  which  have  survived  to  the  present  day. 
The  great  ceremony  of  this  cult  Avas  held  in  the  beginning 
of  May,  and  a  somewhat  similar  one  apparently  early  in 
November,  that  is,  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  summer. 
The  ceremony  was  marked  by  the  extinguishing  of  all  the 
fires  in  the  district,  after  which  the  need  fire  was  kindled 
with  great  solemnity,  and  from  it  the  domestic  fires  were 
relighted.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  Beltane  is  made  by 
Cormac,  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  early  in  the  tenth  century. 
Two  fires  were  lighted  side  by  side.  Men  and  cattle  then 
passed  between  the  fires,  which  were  supposed  to  give  them 
protection  from  accident  and  disease.  Domestic  animals 
are  driven  through  the  flames  at  Cornac  in  Brittany,  and 
in  the  Irish  South  islands  of  Arran.  at  the  present  date  with 
the  same  object.  This  woi'ship  of  Beil  is  connected  with  j 
similar  worship  among  the  Slavs,  Scandinavians,  and  Teu-  I 
tons.  Indeed,  worship  of  the  personification  of  the  sun  and  1 
light  by  kindling  fires  in  similar  ways  was  universal  over 
all  Europe  in  heathen  times.  The  survival  of  tliis  fire- 
worship  is  seen  in  the  periodical  lighting  of  bonfires. 

C.  H.  Thurber. 

Bel'ton  :  city  ;  on  R.  R. ;  capital  of  BeU  co.,  Tex.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  4-H) ;  situated  on  Leon 
river,  60  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Austin  City  ;  has  cottonseed  oil- 
mill,  cotton  compress,  roller  flouring-mills,  and  several  small 
manufactories;  also  fine  public  and  private  schools.  Bay- 
lor Female  College,  the  oldest  in  the  State,  is  here.  Pop. 
(1880)  1.797;  (1890)  3,000.  Editor  of  "  Journal." 

Belts.  Great  and  Little:  two  straits  which  connect  the 
Baltic  with  the  Cattegat.  The  former  separates  the  island 
of  Fijnen  from  Seeland,  is  36  miles  long,  and  has  an  average 
width  of  about  18  miles.  The  depth  ranges  between  6  and 
36  fathoms,  and  the  current  is  so  strong  that  the  Belt  is 
seldom  frozen  oyer.  Tlie  navigation  of  botli  Belts  is  dan- 
gerous or  ditficidt.  The  Little  Belt  separates  Funen  from 
Jutland.  It  is  32  miles  long.  The  widest  part  of  it  is  about 
10  miles,  and  the  narrowest  about  2.500  feet.  From  these 
Belts  (Lat.  haltei)  the  Baltic  Sea  is  supposed  to  take  its  name. 

Beliichiistan :  See  Baluchistan. 

Belu'g'a :  a  generic  name  formerly  applied  to  dolphins 
of  the  genus  Delphinapterus.  distinguished  by  a  blunt  and 
broad  head  and  the  absence  of  a  dorsal  fin.  They  abound 
in  the  Arctic  sea<,  arc  gregarious,  and  afford  to  the  Green- 


BELUS 


BENAKES 


577 


landers  an  important  article  of  food.  The  white  whale  of  the 
St.  Lawri-nce  (iJelpliinaptenis  lencas)  is  comnion  in  iiortliern 
waters.  It  is  caiijjlit  in  llir  St.  liawrciu-e  and  the  Saj;iiL-iiay, 
is  from  10  to  I.')  fitt  loiif,',  and  is  (irized  for  its  cxouiient  oil 
and  its  .skin,  which  inake.s  a  very  fine  leather. 

Tlie  name  Beluga  is  often  applied  to  a  large  stnrgeon  of 
Southern  Russia  (Aci/jen«tr  liiisu),  which  alTonls  great 
ijuanlities  of  isingliLss  and  caviare.     See  Stiugeox. 

Be'lllS  (in  Or.  B/jAor):  in  chussic  mythology  a  King  of 
Phienieia;  said  to  l)e  a  >un  of  Neptune,  a  brother  of  Agenor, 
and  the  father  of  Egypt  us.  lie  is  considered  by  some  per- 
sons a.s  identical  with  B.vAI,  (f/.  r.). 

Bcllis  [in  (ir.  BrjAot,  now  called  ^ahr  Xttaman  ;  perhaps 
the  lii'dliith  of  the  llclirew  text  of  tile  Bible] :  a  small  stream 
of  Palestine,  which  eiitel-s  the  sea  near  Acre.  On  its  banks 
it  is  said  that  the  art  of  glass-making  was  invented  by  the 
Phu'iiieians. 

lii'liis.  Temple  of:  a  famous  temjile  of  enormous  size  in 
the  city  of  It.ibylun:  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar  shortly 
after  (!()4  n.  c.  According  to  Some  authorities,  it  was  de- 
.stroyed  by  Xerxes,  King  of  Pei'sia.  Some  writei-s  identify 
its  ruins  with  liira-yiiiiriKl  (a  huge  mound  (!  miles  S.  W. 
of  llillah),  which  .■ip]>cai's  In  have  been  originally  alHiut  1.56 
feet  high.  Others  identify  its  ruins  with  linbil  (another 
mound  some  (J  miles  X.  of  llillah),  whose  height  is  about 
140  feet. 

Ilclvoloro,  bel-V("e-deer',  Ital.  pron.  bel-va'v-day'ray  (i.  e. 
fair  view):  an  Italian  word  applied  to  a  |)avilion  on  liie  top 
of  a  house,  or  a  structure  designed  to  atfi>rd  a  line  prospect 
of  the  surrounding  country;  also  an  arlilicial  eminence  in  a 
garden  if  so  arranged  as  to  command  a  prospect.  In  France 
and  other  countries  of  Europe  the  term  is  olleri  used  lus  the 
name  of  a  palace,  villa,  or  summer-house,  but  always  with 
the  general  idea  of  something  which  commands  a  fine  view. 
The  famous  statue  called  the  .Vpnllo  Uelvedcre.  also  the 
Belve<lere  Torso,  and  other  works  of  sculpture,  derived  their 
appellative  from  a  court  in  the  Vatican  surrounded  by  gal- 
leries and  bearing  that  name.  Ki'ssELL  Sturois. 

Bel'videre  :  city  and  railroad  junction:  cajiital  of  Boone 
CO.,  111.  (for  local  inn  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  1-E) ; 
on  {."hieago  and  N.  W.  H.  K.,  and  on  the  Kishwaukee  river, 
78  miles  \V,  N.  \V.  of  Chicago.  It  has  elegant  <hurclies,  and 
fine  schools,  lluuring-mills,  and  manuractories  of  butter, 
cheese,  sewing-macliincs.  woven-wire  mattresses  and  springs, 
shoes,  etc.  Pop.  (18S0)  2,!Jr)l ;  (18!)0)  :j,8f)7 :  (1H!);{)  estimated, 
5,300.  Editor  ok  "  NoRrii-W'KSTERN." 

Belvldcro :  town  and  railroad  junction;  capital  of  War- 
ren CO..  X.  .1.  (for  location  of  county, see  map  of  New  .Ici'sey, 
ref.  2-C');  on  the  Delaware  river,  VA  miles  above  Easton, 
and  9.5  miles  N.  of  Philadelphia.  The  Pe(|uesl  creek  enters 
the  river  here,  and  alfonls  a  valuable  water-power.  Belvi- 
dere  has  an  academv.  several  mills,  and  a  cotton-factory. 
Pop(lssi))  l,77:i;  (18!W),  17(58;  (ISUo)  1,834. 

Uelvisia:  .See  Nai>oleo.\a. 

Belzo'ni,  (iIovaxxi  Battista  :  Italian  traveler;  b.  at 
Padua.  Nov.  ."i.  1 778 :  emigrated  lo  Kngland  in  lHO:i.  and 
gained  a  subsistence  as  an  athlete.  In  IHl.")  he  visited  Kgypl 
at  the  invitation  of  Jlehemet  .\li.  who  desired  him  to  con- 
struct a  hydraulic  machine.  He  soon  directed  his  attention 
to  the  exploration  of  Egyptian  anli(|uitics.  lie  removed  to 
Englanil  the  colossal  bust  callc<l  Vdiitifi  Munnnn  which  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  He  ojieiied  the  temple  of  Ip- 
sambool  and  llie  pyramid  of  Ccphren  (or  the  second  pyramid 
of  (iizeh).  He  published  in  b'^il  a  very  inleresting  AV(;va- 
tire  of  flie  Opi-ratlniix  anil  Jii-cfiif  Dixrnrcrii'.s  within  the 
Pjirnmidt,  Tiniplm,  T'im/i.i.  etc..  in  Kijiifil  iinil  yithin.  He 
underlook  a  journev  In  Tiuibuclii.  Imt  died  near  Benin,  Dec. 
3,  lS'j:i. 

Beni,  JosKPH  :  a  Polish  general  ;  b.  at  Tarnov.  in  Cialicia, 
in  17!r>.  He  served  in  the  Polish  army  in  the  revolution  of 
18;!0.  after  which  he  pa.ssed  some  years  in  France.  In  1H48 
he  joined  Ihe  Hungarian  patriots,  and  obtained  command 
of  the  army  of  Transylvania.  He  defealed  Ihe  .\uslrians  in 
several  ai-lioiis,  ami  look  part  in  the  battle  of  Temesviir 
(184!(),  which  was  disa,s|rous  to  Hungary.  Having  fled  to 
Turkev  and  conformed  to  islamism,  lu'  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  pasha.  I>.  Pec.  10,  1850.  .See  Patakv,  Bim  in  Rieh- 
enbi'in/rn  (1S.50);  N.  N.  Liijos,  Le  Oiniral  Bern  (Paris,  1851). 

Bpm'ba:  African  lake.    See  Banoweoi.o. 

Bt'ml>ecidH>,  bem-besi-de'e  [from  Or.  /3(V6'£-  »  topi:   a 
familv  of  hvmi'iioplerous  insects,  the  popular  name  of  wliich 
37 


is  "  sand-wasps  " ;  mostly  natives  of  warm  climates.  They 
resemble  wasps  or  bees  in  appearance,  and  the  females  make 
burrows  in  sandy  bank.s,  in  which  they  deposit  their  eggs. 
Some  of  them  emit  an  odor  like  that  of  roses.  The  U.  S. 
have  several  species. 

Bera'bo,  Pietro  :  Italian  scholar  and  cardinal ;  b.  in 
Venice,  May  20,  M70.  He  removed  to  Kome  in  1512,  and 
became  secretary  to  Pojjc  Leo  X.  15i;5.  'I'here  he  met  Mo- 
rosina  (d.  1535),  who  bore  him  two  sons  and  a  daughter.  In 
1.520  he  removed  to  Padua,  and  lived  in  princely  style.  In 
153!)  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  He  then 
entered  the  priest  hooil,  radically  altered  his  mode  of  life,  and 
studied  the  Fathere  and  not  the  classics.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Gubbio  (1541)  and  of  Bergamo,  but  he  did  not 
leave  Kome.  He  wrt>te,  besides  other  works,  a  Latin  Jlia- 
toi-ji  of  Veuirtt  (1.551).  I),  in  Home.  .Ian.  18,  1547.  As  a 
humani.st  he  is  famed  for  his  pure  Lalinitv.  His  collected 
works  were  jmblished  at  \'eiiice  in  4  vols.,  172!).  See  L. 
Beccadelli,  \  ila  di  P.  Hunho  (Venice,  1718);  .1.  delle  Casa, 
Vita  Bi-mhi  (same  vol.);  cf.  .1.  A.  Symonds,  licnaissance  in 
Italy,  ii.  [ip.  4()i)-15. 

Beineiit':  village  (located  in  1854);  PiatI  co..  111.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  .see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  6-F);  on  Wabash 
R.  R.,  21  miles  W.  of  Decatur.  Bcmenl  has  three  large 
school-buildings,  electric  lights,  creamery,  brick,  and  tile 
works.  The  surrounding  region  is  devoted  to  the  raising  of 
whi-at,  corn,  oats,  and  broom-corn.  Pop.  (1880)  !)G3  ;  (18!)0) 
1,12!).  Editor  of  "  RE(iisTER." 

Be'inis.  Edward  Webster,  Ph.D.:  economist;  b.  at 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Apr.  7.  ISGO ;  A.  B.,  Amherst  College, 
1880.  Ph.  D.,  .lohns  Hopkins  University,  1883;  gave  at 
Buffalo,  St.  Louis,  and  Canton,  O.,  the  first  courses  in  the 
U.  S.  to  which  the  tiM-m  University  Extension  was  applied, 
1887-88;  Professor  of  Economics  and  History.  Vanderbilt 
University,  Niushville,  Tenn.,  188i)-92  :  .Associate  Professorof 
Economics,  University  of  Chicago.  18!)2-!)5.  Author  of  His- 
lori/  of  Co-iipiratidn  in  the  I'niled  Sfalex{\SSH);  Munieipal 
Oirnerxhi/iK  rif  (lax  in  the  United  .S7«/f.s  (1891) ;  lieliition 
of  Labor  Ori/anizufimi  to  Ihe  American  Boy  and  to  Trade 
inntruction  (Philadelphia,  18!)4),  etc. 

Be'mis's  or  Romiis  Heights*:  a  post-village  of  Stillwater 
township.  Saratoga  co.,  N.  V.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  New  York,  ref.  4-.I);  on  the  Champl;iin  Canal,  and  near 
the  Hudson  river;  was  Ihe  scene  of  the  first  bailie  of  Still- 
water with  Burgoyne,  Sept.  19,  1777. 

Ben  :  a  term  derived  from  (iaelic  beiinn.  "  peak,"  prefixed 
to  the  names  of  many  mountains  of  Scotland,  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are:  Bex  Laweks  in  Perthshire;  flanking  the 
northwest  shore  of  Loch  Tay  ;  easy  of  ascent  :  rich  in  Al- 
pine plants:  hcighl.  :!.9S4  feet. — Bex  Leiu  in  I'crlhshire  ;  4^ 
miles  N.  W.  of  Callendi'r  ;  celebrated  in  Scott's  Lady  of  the 
Lalce;  height,  2,875  feet. —  Hex  Lomoxd  in  the  northwest  of 
.Stirlingshire;  on  the  east  side  of  Loch  Lomond;  the  most 
famous  of  the  Scotch  mountains:  summit  commands  a 
magnificent  view,  including  the  Lothians.  (he  Firlhof  Clyde, 
the  islands  of  Arran  and  Bute,  the  Irish  coast,  and  Hens 
Lawers.  Voirlich.  Ledi,  Nevis, and  others;  height.  3.192  feet. 
— Hex  Maciuui;  fine  of  Ihe  Cairngorms,  in  the  S.  W.  of 
.Mierdeenshire  :  hi'iglit.  4.2!)(>  I'l'ct  :  formerly  supposed  to  be 
higher  than  Ben  Nevis. —  Hex  Nevis;  Ihe  highest  point  in 
Great  Hritain;  in  the  county  of  Inverness;  formerly  very 
dilficult  of  a.sccnt ;  summit  commands  a  magnificent  view  ; 
height.  4,4()(i  feet.  A  roiul  was  built  in  1883  to  the  top,  where 
a  meteorological  observatory  was  then  erected.  There  is 
also  at  present  a  shelter  for  travelei-.s.  C.  H,  TlllRBER. 

Ben:  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  "son";  equivalent  to 
till'  .\rabic  Jbn  :  forms  the  first  syllable  of  many  scriptural 
names,  as  Ben-h.-idad.  Benjamin,  etc.  lieni.  the  plural  of 
Hell,  occurs  in  the  names  of  many  .Arabian  tribes. 

Ben.  Oil.  OF  :  a  fixed  oil  extracted  by  pressure  from  the 
fruits  of  Morinyn  aptern  and  other  species;  leguminous 
trees  growing  in  the  Levant  and  the  East  anil  West  Indies. 
It  is  colorless  or  slightly  yellow,  and  odorless.  It  is  used  to 
extract  Ihe  odoriferous  princi])lcs  of  fragrant  plants. 

Benares,  lien-aarcz  (anc.  Varnnaahi  and  Nasi) :  a  fa- 
mous anrl  populous  city  of  Hinduslan  ;  ca|>ital  of  a  division 
and  district  of  the  same  name,  and  the  most  populous  city 
in  Ihe  Northwestern  Provinces  of  British  India  ;  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Gauges  :  ab(.nt  428  mih's  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Cal- 
cutta, and  477  miles  by  rail  .S.  E.  of  Delhi  (see  map  of  N.  India, 
ref.  7-0).  It  is  the  holy  city  of  the  Brahmans,  the  chief  seat 
of  their  science,  and  may  be  called  (he  Hindu  capital  of 


578 


BEXBOW 


BENEDICT 


India.  Flights  of  stone  steps  called  glials  lead  down  the  steep 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  here  about  half  a  mile  wide. 
The  external  appearance  of  the  city,  as  seen  from  the  river, 
is  rendered  very  imposing  by  the  minarets  of  about  300 
mosques  an<l  the  pinnacles  of  nearly  1.000  pagodas.  The 
streets  are  very  narrow,  and  the  houses,  which  are  mostly 
built  of  stone,  are  generally  lofty,  some  of  them  six  stories 
high.  Among  the  remarkable  pulilic  edifices  are  the  great 
mosque  of  Aurungzebe.  232  feet  high,  many  Hindu  temples. 
a  vast  and  old  astronomical  observat<iry,  and  the  Hindu 
Sanskrit  College,  the  chief  seat  of  native  learning  in  India. 
As  the  holy  city  of  the  Hindus  ami  the  central  seat  of  Brah- 
manical  learning.  Benares  attracts  on  the  occasion  of  certain 
festivals  an  immense  multituile  of  pilgrims,  estimated  at 
100,000.  Benares  is  a  wealthy  and  industrious  city,  liaving 
extensive  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  stuffs. 
It  is  a  great  emporium  for  the  shawls  of  the  north  and  the 
diamonils  of  the  south,  and.  when  they  were  produced,  it  was 
tlie  chief  nuirket  for  the  famous  native  muslins  of  Dacca 
and  tlie  eastern  provinces.  Tlie  HinduSanskrit  College  was 
founded  here  in  1T91.  and  an  English  department  was  added 
to  it  about  1827.  The  residences  of  the  Europeans  are 
mostly  at  Secrole,  which  is  3  miles  from  Benares,  and  con- 
tains niany  fine  mansions.  It  is  connected  Ijy  a  railway 
with  Calcutta  and  Delhi.  A  mutiny  of  Sepoys  broke  out 
here  in  .Tune.  IS.jT,  but  was  soon  quelled.  Pop.  (1881)  207,- 
570;  (1891)  222,520. 

Beiibow.  .ToHS  :  an  English  admiral :  b.  in  Shrewsbury, 
England,  in  1653:  entered  the  navy  in  1678  as  master's  mate. 
He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  tlie  reign  of  William  III.,  wlio 
reposed  great  confidence  in  him.  ()n  Aug.  1!),  1702,  he  en- 
countered a  superior  force  under  the  French  admiral  Du 
Oasse,  near  .Jamaica.  He  maintained  a  running  fight  for 
four  days  with  his  own  ship  alone,  the  captains  of  the  rest 
of  the  squadnm  refusing  to  support  him.  for  which  two  of 
them  were  shot.  He  w;is  mortally  wounded,  and  died  at  Port 
Royal,  .lamaica,  Nov.  4,  1703.  See  Campbell,  Lives  of  the 
British  Admirals. 

Bench  [O.  Eng.  henc :  0.  II.  Germ,  lianeh  >  Mod.  Germ. 
Bank;  .appears  as  loan-word  in  the  Romance  language;  Ital. 
banco,  banca;  Fr.  banc,  bangue]  :  in  law — 1.  A  court  or  tri- 
bunal for  the  administration  of  justice.  The  word  origi- 
nally meant  the  seat  occupied  by  the  judges  in  court.  In 
England  two  of  the  leading  courts  are  termed  the  king's  or 
queen's  bench  and  common  bench.  The  latter  tribunal  is 
also  called  the  court  of  common  pleas.  (See  Court.)  The 
word  is  also  used  to  designate  tlie  judges  as  contrasted  with 
the  practitioners  in  their  court,  as  in  the  phrase  "the  bench 
and  the  bar."  Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Beiifli  Warrant:  an  order  issued  by  or  from  a  bench 
for  the  arrest  of  a  person,  either  in  case  of  contempt  or  after 
an  indictment  has  been  found,  or  from  a  judge  to  appre- 
hend a  person  charged  with  an  offense. 

Bench'ers :  princi[ial  ofhcei-s  of  the  English  inns  of 
court,  intnisted  with  their  government  and  with  the  power 
of  admitting  persons  to  tlie  bar,  and  of  disbarring  practi- 
tionei-s,  thougli  the  exercise  of  these  powers  is  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  the  judges  of  the  higher  courts. 

Beiipoo'leii :  a  Dutch  seaport-town  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Sumatra:  lat.  3'  48  S..  Ion.  102°  3'  E.  (see  map  of 
East  Indies,  ref.  8-B).  Pop.  estimated  at  5.000.  It  was 
founded  by  the  English  in  1685.  but  was  ceded  to  Holland 
in  1825  in  exchange  for  Malacca.  The  climate  of  the  city 
is  exceedingly  unliealthful.  Pepper  is  the  chief  article  of 
export. 

Bt'ii'dcr.  or  Ben'dery :  a  fortified  town  of  Ru.ssia ;  in  Bes- 
sarabia ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dniester:  65  miles  N.  W. 
of  Odessa  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-C).  liender  has  sev- 
eral paper-mills,  forges,  and  tanneries.  It  was  cajitured  in 
1770  by  the  Russian.s,  who  massacred  the  population  :  was 
restored  to  the  Turks  in  1774;  stormed  again  and  again  by 
the  Russians,  into  whose  possession  it  permanently  passed 
with  Bessarabia  in  181-2.     Pop.  (1892)  46,408. 

Beixligo:  See  Saxdhckst. 

Beiulirc  Charlks  FJmil:  captain  U.  S.  army:  ornithol- 
ogist; b.  near  Darmstadt,  Germany.  Apr.  27.  1836;  removed 
to  the  U.  S.  in  18.52  ;  entered  the  army  in  1854  as  private  in 
the  First  Dragoons.  He  remaine<l  in  the  army  throughout 
the  civil  war.  and  during  this  time  recei%-ed  his  commission 
in  the  First  Cavalry.  .\t  I  lie  close  of  the  war  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  West,  where  he  passed  a  great  portion  of  the 
time  until  his  retirement  as  captain,  Apr.  24,  1886.    During 


this  period  he  devoted  much  time  to  natural  history,  espe- 
cially ornithology,  and  collected  a  large  amount  of  material 
in  various  branches  of  natural  history,  most  tif  whieh  was 
presented  to  the  U.  S.  National  Museum.  In  1870  he  began 
the  formation  of  a  collection  of  eggs  of  North  American 
birds,  which  ultimately  contained  over  8,000  sjiccimens,  and 
this  unrivaled  collection  he  presented  to  the  U.  S.  National 
Museum,  the  only  condition  being  that  it  should  remain  in- 
tact. Capt.  Bendire  is  the  leading  authority  on  North 
American  oology,  and  honorary  cui'ator  of  the  section  of 
oology  U.  S.  National  Museum.  He  has  published  many 
ornitliological  papers,  and  since  his  retirement  from  service 
has  devoted  his  time  to  the  preparation  of  a  comprehensive 
work  entitled  The  Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds, 
with  tSjji'cial  Reference  to  tlieir  Breeding  Habits  and  Eggs. 
The  first  volume,  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
and  U.  S.  National  Jlnscuni,  appeared  in  1892. 

Frederic  A.  LrcAS. 
Beiidix.  .John  E.  :  b.  on  board  the  steamer  Sarah  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  river,  Aug.  28,  1818;  learned  the  trade  of  a 
machinist  in  New  York ;  joined  the  Ninth  regiment.  State 
militia,  in  1847;  organized  the  Seventh  regiment  of  volunteers 
in  1860 ;  took  part  in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness.  Antietam, 
Fredericksburg,  etc..  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in 
1865.     D.  in  New  York,  Oct.  8.  1877. 

Bend  Siii'ister :  a  heraldic  bearing,  like  the  bend,  but  re- 
veised,  and  reaching  from  the  sinister  chief  to  the  dexter 
base.  It  is  the  most  common  mark  of  illegitimate  descent, 
and  as  such  is  the  only  ubaleminit  in  use.  .See  Abatement 
and  Heraldry. 

Benedek.  bay  ne-dek,  LtDWio,  von  :  an  Austrian  general ; 
b.  at  Odenburg.  Hungary,  in  18t)4:  fought  with  the  rank  of 
colonel  against  the  Italians  in  1848  ;  became  a  major-general 
in  April.  1849 ;  after  which  he  served  with  distinction  against 
the  Hungarian  patriots.  He  directed  a  corps  in  the  Italian 
cam]iaign  of  1859  and  at  SoLferino.  In  June.  1866.  he  took 
the  command  of  the  operations  of  the  grand  Austrian  army 
in  Bohemia,  and  was  defeated  bv  the  Prussians  at  the  deci- 
sive battle  of  Sadowa,  July  3,  1866.     D.  Apr.  27,  1881. 

Beiiedetti.  bay-nf-det  te-e,  Yixcext,  Count:  a  French 
diplomatist ;  b.  in  B.astia.  Cor.iica.  Apr.  29.  1817;  entered  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  held  consulates  in  Cairo.  Palermo, 
Malta,  and  Tunis.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy  in  1861.  and  to  Berlin  1864.  In  1870  he  was 
employed  by  Napoleon  III.  in  secret  negotiations  with  the 
court  of  Prussia,  and  it  was  an  alleged  affront  from  William 
I.  of  Prussia,  offered  him  at  Ems,  which  Napoleon  made  a 
pretext  for  declaring  war. 

Benedicite,  bcn-c-dis  i-tc:  the  Latin  title  of  the  hymn 
which  is  found  in  tlie  Septuagint  version  of  the  Book  of 
Dan'cl  and  also  in  the  Aiiocry])ha.  anil  is  said  to  have  been 
sung  by  Ananias,  Azarias.  anil  Misliael  (called  in  Daniel, 
Shadracli,  Meshach.  and  Abednego),  when  they  were  cast  into 
the  furnace  of  fire  (Dun,  iii.).  The  Benedicite  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  148tli  Psalm,  and  is  considered  by  some 
to  be  its  expansion.  It  was  probably  used  in  the  Jewish 
worship,  and  so  pa.ssed  into  use  in  the  early  Church.  It  was 
liturgically  used  in  the  days  of  St.  Athanasius  (A.  D.  325-60) ; 
and  St.  Clirysostom  (a.  D.  425)  calls  it  "that  admirable  and 
marvelous  song,  which  from  that  day  to  this  has  been  sung 
everywhere  throughout  the  world,  and  shall  yet  be  sung  by 
future  generations."  It  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  of  1549,  with  the  following  rubric  |)refixed:  "After 
the  first  le.«son  shall  follow  7V  ZJeww  faHrfnmi/.s  in  English 
daily  throughout  the  year,  except  in  Lent,  all  the  wliieh 
time  in  the  place  of  7'e  Deuni  shall  be  used  Benedicite  omnia 
opera  Domini  in  English,  as  followeth."  In  the  first  Prayer- 
book  of  King  Edward  VI.  tlie  hymn  ran  thus:  "0  all  ye 
works  of  the  Lord,  speak  good  of  the  Lord ;  praise  Him  and 
set  Him  up  forever.'  In  the  second  Prayer-book  of  King 
Edward  VI.  (a.  d.  1552)  it  was  changed  to  its  present  form, 
and  the  restriction  as  to  its  use  removed.  It  is  generally 
sung  from  Septuagesima  to  Easter,  and  also  during  Advent. 

W.  S.  Perry. 

Ben'edict  (in  Lat.  Benedic'tiis),  Saint  :  an  Italian  a.scetic ; 
called  the  founder  of  monachism  in  the  West :  b.  in  Nursia, 
LTmbria,  in  480  a.  d.  He  ri'iiounced  the  world  in  early  youth 
(494).  jw.^sed  three  years  in  solitude  in  a  cave,  hence  called 
The  Iloly  Grollo.  near  Snbiaco.  His  hiding-place  was  dis- 
covered, and  he  acquired  a  wide  reputation  for  sanctity.  He 
was  compelled  to  undertake  the  spiritual  direction  of  hun- 
dreds, whom  he  organized  into  separate  societies  of  twelve. 


BKNEDICT   I. 


BENEDICTION 


579 


each  with  an  alilidt.  In  ol.j  he  composed  as  a  substitute  for 
the  Oriental  rule  of  Basil  a  system  of  monastic  rules,  which 
was  largely  ailojited  by  the  Western  monks,  and  wius  known 
as  the  Rule  of  St.  Henedid.  Under  this  system  the  monks 
wereeiupliiyed  in  manual  labor  and  in  the  instruction  of  the 
vounff.  In  ")"J!)  he  founded  the  famous  monastery  of  Monte 
bassino,  near  Naples,  and  died  there  JIar.  21.  5W  A.  I).  His 
life  was  written  by  tirefiory  the  (ireat  (Knt;.  trans,  by  P.  W. 
X/uck,  London,  1880).  His  liuh  has  been  several  times  trans- 
lated (e.g..  London.  18SG).  Cf.  V.  C.  Doyle.  The  Tmcliiiii/s 
of  St.  Benedict  (18«T).  and  .1.  (i.  Waitzmann,  Ijeben  iind 
Wirken  den  lieiligm  lienediit  (Augsburg,  1*35).  .See  Bene- 
dictines. 

Bencdiet  I.  became  I'npe  of  Rome  in  .574  a.  d.  1).  in 
578. —  Benedict  II..  a  native  of  Rome;  was  elected  pope  in 
683  A.  1).  1).  in  tiS5. — Benedict  III.  succeeiled  Pope  Leo  IV. 
in  85").  I),  in  858,  leaving  a  good  reputation  for  piety. — 
Benedict  IV.  was  eleclc<l  pope  in  !  101),  as  the  successor  of 
John  IX.  J),  in  !K):!. —  Benedict  V.  was  chosen  pope  in  964, 
but  was  banished  from  Rome  by  tht^  Emperor  Otho  I.  Leo 
VIII.  wiLS  pope  at  the  same  time  with  him.  and  both  are 
recognized  by  Itoiium  Catholic  historians.  D.  in  Ofiti. — Be.n- 
EDICT  VI.  was  elected  pope  in  !)7'i  and  was  killed  l)y  the  re- 
bellious Romans  in  !)74. — -Benedict  VII.  succeeiled  Popi; 
Beneilict  VI.  in  !I74.  He  is  said  to  have  ruled  with  ability. 
D.  in  983. — Benedict  VI 1 1.,  a  son  of  the  Count  i>f  Tusculum, 
became  pope  in  1013.  He  crowned  the  Emperor  Henry  II. 
in  1013,  and  defeated  the  Saracens,  who  had  invaded  the 
papal  states.  D.  in  10"24. — Benedict  I.\.  (Tiieopiii.actus  op 
Tusculum).  sometimes  called  the  "  boy-pope."  was  chosen  pope 
in  1033.  He  was  extremely  licentious,  and  was  expelled  by 
the  Romans.  .Sylvester  III.  became  anti-pope.  Benedict 
was  deposed  bv  the  Emperor  Henry  III.  about  1048.  I).  1055. 
— Benedict  X..  called  The  Sti'IMD.  was  chosen  pope  in  1058. 
removed  through  the  influence  of  Hildebrand  in  1059,  and 
died  in  prison  in  the  same  year. — Benedict  XI.  (Saint),  b. 
in  1240;  native  of  Treviso ;  succeeded  Boniface  VIII.  in 
1303;  noted  for  humility.  D.  in  1304.— Benedict  XII. 
(originally  .Tacqces  Kournier).  native  of  France;  chosen 
pope  in  1334.  He  was  the  third  pope  who  reigned  at  Avi- 
gnon, and  was  eminent  as  a  canonist  ami  llu'ologian.  He 
wrote  several  works.  I),  in  1342,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  VI.  Pope  Benedict  XII.  was  an  excellent  man. — 
Benedict  .\ II I.  succeeded  Innoci'iit  Xlll.  in  1724.  He  was 
distinguished  for  moderation  and  other  virtues,  and  promoted 
the  pesKM'  of  Europe.  I),  in  1730.  (See  Cleuu-iite  da  Cruz, 
Vidade lienedii-ln  XIII..  1739.) — Benedict  .\lII.(anti-popei 
(Pedro  de  Luna),  b.  in  .\ragon;  elected  pope  by  certain 
cardinals  at  .\vignon  in  1394.  Another  party  elect eil  Boni- 
face IX.  at  Rome,  and  a  schism  of  the  Cluirch  ensued.  This 
Benedict  was  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1417. 
D.  in  1424.— Benedict  XIV.  (Prospeko  Lambertini);  b.  at 
Bologna  in  1075;  was  a  man  of  superior  tiileiits.  He  was 
well  versed  in  historv.  theology,  and  cljLssical  learning.  He 
succeeded  Clement  \\\.  in  1740.  and  showed  himself  a  lib- 
eral patron  of  literat\ii-e  and  sciiTice.  He  was  also  distin- 
guislied  for  his  moder.ition  and  eulighleued  piety,  and  wa-s 
the  author  of  several  esteemeil  religious  works,  anil  especially 
of  the  standard  authority  on  beatilication.  I)e  henlitlcalione 
(Bologna.  1734-38;  Eng.  trans,  in  parts.  Hemic.  Virtue,  Lon- 
don, 1850,  3  vols.).  D.  in  1758.  See  Eabroni,  Vita  di  liene- 
detto  XIV..  1787. 

Benodict.  Sir  .Tt-Lifs  :  musician  ;  b.  at  Stuttgart,  Nov.  27, 
1804;  studied  under  Hummel  at  Weimar,  and  also  under 
Wcl;er.  When  nineteen  yeare  old  conducted  a  series  of  opera 
performances  at  Vienna,  and  next  at  Naples,  where  his  first 
work,  (fincitito  ed  Knirxlo.  was  |iroiluceil  in  1827.  His  second 
opera,  /  Portni/liesi  in  l!im,  was  produced  in  Stuttgart  in 
1830.  In  1830.  on  the  advice  of  Malibran,  visited  London, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  as  conductor,  composer, 
piani.st,  and  teacher.  When  .lenny  Lind  came  to  the  U.  S., 
Benedict  came  with  her  a.s  iiianist  and  accompanist.  As  a 
composer  he  was  prolific  and  successful.  His  principal  works 
are  ,1  Year  and  a  />«//(18:i6);  The  Giinaijx  HrtrH  1/17 (1838); 
Ttie  Hride  of  Venice,  Tlie  ('rn.i'iders.  The  lAlij  tif  KiUarney 
(1862).  The  Bride  of  Song  (18(i4),  all  operas  produced  in 
England ;  Undine,  a  cantata  for  the  Norwich  festival  (1860) ; 
Richard  Co'ur  de  Lion,  cantata  for  the  Norwich  festival 
(1863);  St.  Cecilia,  cantata  for  the  Norwich  festival  (1866); 
St.  Peterf  oratorio  for  the  Birmingham  festival  (1870); 
Oraziella.  cantata  for  the  Birmingham  festival  (1882);  be- 
sides several  symplmnies  and  overtures,  many  songs,  part 
songs,  and  mu<h  piano  nuisic.     lie  was  knighted  Mar.  24. 


1871.     He  also  received  numerous  orders  and  decorations 
from  European  sovereigns.     I),  in  London.  .June  5,  1885. 

1).  E.  Hervev. 
Benedict.  Lewis:  lawyer  and  general  of  volunteers;  b. 
in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  2,  1817;  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege; studied  law, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He 
was  actively  engaged  in  politics  for  many  years  and  held 
various  inip<irtant  local  oflices.  He  entered  the  army  as 
lieuteiiant-cohmel  Seventy-third  New  York  volunteers;' en- 
gaged at  Yorktown;  captureil  at  Williamsburg;  exchanged 
Sept..  1862;  appointed  colonel  162d  New  York  volunteers, 
and  was  attached  to  the  Army  of  the  Gnlf.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Porf  Hudson  and  during 
the  Red  river  expedition,  where  he  greatlv  distinguished 
himself.  Killed  at  battle  of  Plea.sant  Hill,  La.,  Apr.  9,  1864, 
while  lea<ling  his  brigade  to  a  charge.  Brevet  brigadier- 
general  \j .  S.  volunteers  for  gallant  conduct. 

Benetlict,  Mokiz;  German  neurologist:  b.  at  Eisenstadt, 
Hungary,  .July  6,  18;!5;  M.  I)..  University  of  Vienna,  1859; 
Professor  of  Nervous  Pathology.  University  of  Vienna.  1868; 
author  of  Ktektrotherapie  (1868);  Xeruenpathnloc/ie  (1874); 
Anatomi.'iche  Stiidien  au  Verbrecheryehirnen  (\8Sl);  and  a 
large  number  of  monographs  and  articles  on  neurological 
subjects. 

Benedic'tine  Kditions  of  the  Fathers:  The  following 
is  a  com|)lete  list  of  these  highly  esteemed  and  now  very 
costlv  works :  1,  lianiabax  (Menard).  4to,  1642  ;  2,  Lanfraiic 
(D'Achery),  fol.,  1648;  3,  liernaid  Olabillon),  2  vols,  fol., 
1667;  4,  An.te/m  ((ierberon).  fol..  1075;  .5.  .\iiiiiixline  (Delfan 
and  other.s),  11  vols,  fol.,  1G79-1700;  6,  r((.s.s/w/(«-».<  (Garet), 
2  vols.  fol..  1679 :  7,  .liiibni.te  (Du  Frische  and  Le  Nourri),  2 
vols.,  1086-90;  8,  Ifilari/  (Constant),  fol..  1693;  9,  Jerome 
(Martially  and  othei's),  5  vols,  fol.,  1693-1706;  10,  Athanasius 
(Moiitfaucon).  3  vols,  fol.,  1698;  11,  Orei/ori/  of  Tonr.-i  (Rui- 
nart),  fol..  16!I9;  12.  (Ireqory  the  Great  (De  Sainte-Marthe), 
4  vols,  fol.,  1705;  13.  'llildehert  (Beaugendre).  fol.,  1708; 
14, //•(-«(C!(.s  (Massuet),  fol..  1710;  15.  Luriii,s  ('wcillun  (Le 
Nourri),  8vo,  1710;  16,  Proaper  Aipiitann^  (Marette  and 
Mangeant),  fol.,  1711;  17,  ('hr>/.wxlom  (Moiitfaucon),  13 
vols,  fol.,  1718-38;  18,  Ci/ril  of  Jerusalem  (Toultee  and 
Maran),  fol.,  1720;  19,  Ba.'iil  (Gamier  and  Alaran),  3  vols, 
fol.,  1721-30;  20.  Gi/prian  (Maran).  fol..  1726;  31,  Justin 
J/oc/y;- (Maran),  fol..  1742;  22.  Origen  (De  la  Rue).  4  vols, 
fol.,  i73:}-59;23,  (ireqori/  Xazianzen  (Clcmeiicet).  1  vol. 
fol.,  1778;  2d  vol.,  1842. 

Benedictines,  or  Benedictine  Order;  monks  who  ob- 
servi' the  rule  of  SI.  Bcncdu't.  This  order  was  one  of  the 
most  aiK'ient  and  learned  religious  orders  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. Till'  first  Beneilict ine  monastery  was  that  founded  by 
St.  Benedict  on  Monte  Ca.ssino,  near  Na|iles.  in  .529  a.  d. 
The  order  sjiread  rapidly  and  widely  in  several  countries  of 
Europe,  and  it  is  said  had  at  one  [leriod  37.000  monasteries. 
The  Benedictines  boasted  that  their  order  had  iiroduced  24 
popes,  200  cardinals.  4,000  bishops.  1.500  saints.  The  rule 
of  St.  Benedict  was  less  severe  than  that  which  the  Eastern 
a.scetics  practiced.  It  rcfjuin  il  that  the  monks  should  live 
frugally,  avoid  laughter,  hold  no  private  property,  and  be 
industrious.  To  them  we  are  especially  indebted  for  the 
preservation  and  transmission  of  maiiy  of  the  ancient  classics 
through  the  Dark  Ages  liown  to  the  "present  time.  Among 
file  most  celebrated  houses  or  societies  of  this  order  was  the 
Congregation  of  Saint-Jfaur  (dating  from  1631),  on  the  river 
Loire,  to  which  all  the  Benedictine  houses  in  France  were 
alTiliated.  Connected  with  it  were  many  learned  men, 
including  JIaliilloii.  Montfaiicoii.  and  Saiiite-JIarthe.  They 
liublished  good  editions  of  the  Fathers  (see  aliove).  and  nu- 
merous valuable  works,  among  which  are  L'Antiquite  Kx- 
ptii/uee  (15  vols.  fol..  1719-34);  Veterum  Scriplnrum  Spici- 
legium  (13  vols..  1653-77);  Ada  Sanctorum  S.  lienedicti 
(9  vols.,  1688-1703);  and  Iliatoire  Lilteraire  de  la  France 
(9  vols.  4to.  1733-49).  The  Cistercians.  Cartliusians.  Camal- 
dules.  Clunians.  Celestines.  and  Trappists  were  branches  of 
the  Benedictine  order.  There  are  also  licnedicline  nuns, 
with  twelve  convents,  in  the  U.  S.  See  Annalex  Ordini/i  S. 
Benedicti  (6  vols..  1713-39) ;  Tassin,  IliK/oire  de  la  Congre- 
gation dc  Saint-Maur  {I'llO);  Montalembert,  The  .Monks  of 
tlie  We.ft  (5  vols.,  1860). 

Benediction  [from  Lat.  benedic'fio,  deriv.  of  benedi'cere, 
praise  wish  well,  bless ;  bene,  well  -I-  ili'eere.  speak.  Benison 
is  from  the  same  Lat.  source  viii  O.  Fr.  beneis.ioH] :  a  .solemn 
invocation  of  the  divine  blessing  upon  men  or  things;  the 
ceremonv  is  as  ancient  as   religious  feeling.     Tin    custom 


580 


BENEDIX 


BENGAL 


was  sanctioned  by  Clirist,  and  in  (lie  primitive  Cliurch  was 
greatly  developed  in  various  forms.  In  Protestant  cliurches 
some  form  of  benediction  usually  closes  religious  services. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  ceremony  is  more  elab- 
orate, and  generally  accompanied  with  the  sprinkling  of 
holy  water,  use  of  incense,  and  making  the  sign  of  the 
cross.  On  Easter  Sunday  in  Rome  the  Pope  pronounces  after 
mass  a  solemn  benediction  urbi  et  orhi  (on  the  city  and  the 
world).  The  papal  benediction  conveyed  to  a  dying  person 
carries  with  it  a  plenary  indulgence.  The  name  is  also 
given  in  some  countries  to  a  brief  and  popular  service  of 
comparatively  modern  origin  in  the  Roman  Catliolic  Church. 

C.  II.  TllUKBKK. 

Ben'edix,  Julius  Roderick  :  a  (iennan  author;  b.  in  Leip- 
zig, .Ian.  21,  1811.  He  wrote  very  many  successful  plays, 
mostly  humorous,  among  them  Semoosfes  Huupt  \  Der 
Steckbrief;  Dtr  Storenfried;  Mathilde,  etc.,  and  a  novel, 
Bilder  aus  dem  Schauspielerleben.  D.  in  Leipzig,  Sept.  26, 
1873. 

Beii'eflce  [<).  Pr..  from  Lat.  benefi'rium,  favor] :  origi- 
nally a  bounty  in  land  given  to  a  meritorious  Roman  sol- 
dier. In  mediseval  history  the  term  denoted  an  estate  in 
land  conferred  by  a  superior  by  way  of  recompense  for  ser- 
vice. As  late  as  the  twelfth  century  the  word  was  used 
s\TionymousIy  with  fmduiii.  The  earlier  historians  of  the 
Middle  Ages  adopted  the  view  tliat  benefices  were  given 
successively,  as  revocable,  as  temporary,  as  estates  for  life, 
and  finally  as  estates  in  perpetuity.  This  view  has  been  re- 
futed by  Guizot  (see  Civilizatinn  in  France.,  vol.  iii.).  In 
the  canon  law  the  word  "  benefice "  designates  a  right  in- 
hering in  a  clergyman  of  sharing  the  income  of  church 
property  in  return  for  the  performance  of  spiritual  duties. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  includes  all  clerical  offices, 
even  the  papal,  among  benefices ;  but  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  long  made  the  term  include  all  preferments  ex- 
cept bishoprics,  now  excludes  also  all  cathedral  preferments, 
such  as  deaneries,  canonries,  archdeaconries,  etc.  The  term 
"  dignity  "  is  applied  to  bislioprics,  deaneries,  archdeaconries, 
and  prebends;  the  term  "  benefice"  to  parsonages,  vicarages, 
and  donatives.  For  the  right  of  presentation  to  benefices, 
see  Advowson. 

Benefit  of  Clergy :  in  English  crimiiud  law  the  privi- 
lege (jf  the  clergy,  a  clerk's  privilege.  During  the  Jliddlc 
Ages  benefit  of  clergy  in  various  European  countries  ex- 
tended to  a  total  exemption  in  favor  of  clergymen  from  the 
process  of  a  secular  judge  in  criminal  cases."  In  England, 
however,  it  was  not  carried  beyond  an  exemption  from  capi- 
tal punislnncnt  in  felony  and  petit  treason.  It  was  never 
granted  in  cases  of  high  treason  or  offenses  below  felonies. 
Offenses  were  thus  divided  into  those  wliich  were  clergyable 
and  not  clergyable.  This  exemption,  at  fii-st  allowed  only 
to  clergymen,  soon  was  extended  to  all  the  officers  anii 
clerks  of  the  church,  and  then  to  every  one  who  could  read, 
an  ability  to  read  being  confined  almost  wholly  to  those  in 
the  service  of  the  church.  But  when  learning" became  more 
generally  diffused,  a  distinction  was  ma<le  between  those  in 
ordei-s  and  laymen  who  could  read,  the  latter  being  allowed 
the  privilege  only  once,  and  then  (unless  they  were  peers  or 
peeresses)  being  branded  in  the  left  thuiiili.  "  A  woman,  un- 
less she  was  a  peeress,  could  not  claim  this  exemption,  though 
this  inequality  was  rectified  by  statute.  At  first,  the  crimi- 
nals who  were  allowed  this  privilege  were  handed  over  to 
the  ordinary  or  bishop  lo  be  dealt  with  according  to  the 
canons  of  the  Church  ;  liul  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  was 
enacleil  th.at  they  should  be  discharged  from  |)rison,  with 
the  proviso  that  the  court  might  in  its  disi-rction  keep  the 
otTender  in  prison  feu-  a  year;  and  l)y  subsequent  statutes 
various  i)unishments,  such  as  whipping,  fine,  and  imprison- 
ment, were  imposed  on  criminals  entilleil  to  benefit  of  clergy, 
who  were  )>ractically  all  convicts.  Whenever  Parliament  de- 
sired to  make  an  olTense  .strictly  capital,  the  practice  was  to 
introduce  into  the  enactment  the  words  '■  without  beiu'fit  of 
clergy."  My  statute  of  7  (ieo.  IV'.,  c.  28,  s.  G,  benefit  of 
clergy  was  abolished.  Its  retention  for  so  long  a  time  was 
plainly  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  could  be  used  to  mitigate 
the  rigor  of  the  English  criminal  law.  For  (U'tails  as  to 
this  exemption,  consult  4  Blackstone's  Vomnicnteines,  365. 

T.  W.  DwiuuT. 

Benefit   Societies:   See   Co-oi>kk.\tivk    Ixsirance    So- 

riETIKS. 

Beneke,  bay  nc-kc,  Frikokich  Kocaiu):  a(ierm:in  philoso- 
pher ;  b.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  17, 17U8.     He  became  Exlraordinarv 


Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1833. 
Among  his  works  are  I'xi/clioliji/ical  Sketches  (2  vols.,  182^ 
27);  a  Sysfein  of  Logic  (2  vols.,  1842);  and  Pragmatic  Psy- 
chology (18.")0).  His  system  of  psychology  is  called  "em- 
pirical." Ra,ue"s  Elements  of  Psychology  gives  a  good  view 
of  his  system.  He  disaijpeared  Mar.  1,  1854,  and  his  body 
was  found  in  a  canal  in  June  of  the  same  year. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Ben#t,  ben-ay',  Stephen  Vincent:  b.  at  St.  Augustine, 
Fla.,  Jan.  22,  1837:  educated  in  Alexandria,  Va., at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia,  and  the  U.  S.  Militarv  Academv  at  West 
Point;  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  graduated  July"  1, 1849.  In  18.53  he 
published  a  translation  of  Jomini's  Political  and  Military 
History  of  the  CamjMiii/ii  of  Waterloo;  assistant  Professor 
of  Ethics  and  Law  at  West  Point  (1859-61) ;  instructor  of 
ordnance  (1861-64);  inspector  of  ordnance  (1864);  com- 
mander of  Frankford  arsenal ;  major  of  ordnance  corps 
(1866);  chief  in  1874;  retired  Jan.  22,  1891.  Published 
3Jilitary  Law  and  the  Practice  of  Courts  Martial  (1862), 
a  text-book  at  West  Point ;  and  Electro-ballistic  Machines 
and  the  Schultze  Chronoscope  (1866). 

Beuevento,  ba"y-na'y-ven't5  :  a  province  of  Italy :  bounded 
N.  by  Campobasso,  E.  by  Foggia,  S.  by  Avellino.  W.  by 
Caserta.  Area,  688  sq.  miles.  Tlie  country  is  level,  andth'e 
soil  generally  fertile.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  cattle, 
grain,  wine,  oil,  etc.  It  has  changed  masters  very  often, 
and  was  annexed  bv  Italv  at  the  same  time  as  Naples.  Pop. 
(1890)  244,464. 

Benevento  (Lat.  Beneven'tum) :  a  walled  city  of  Southern 
Italy  ;  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name ;  situated  on 
a  hill  or  declivitv  bv  the  river  Calore ;  33  miles  N.  E.  of 
Najiles  (see  map  "of  Italy,  ref.  6-F).  Pop.  22,700.  It  has  a 
citadel  or  c'astle,  a  fine  old  cathedral,  several  palaces,  and 
churches.  It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  several 
annual  fairs.  Among  the  many  ancient  i-emains  found  here 
is  the  magnificent  Arch  of  Trajan,  erected  in  114  a.  d.,  now 
nearly  perfect.  Benevento  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  hav- 
ing become  a  Roman  town  as  early  as  274  B.  c,  and  it  was 
an  important  city  during  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  con- 
quered in  the  sixth  century  by  the  Lombards,  under  whom 
it  continued  to  flourish,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  pow- 
erful duchy  of  Benevento.  The  city,  with  some  adjacent 
territory,  was  given  to  the  pope  in  1053,  and  governed  by  a 
cardinal-legate  with  but  small  intermissions  until  I860, 
when  it  was  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  1806  it  was 
erected  into  a  principality  by  Napoleon,  who  gave  Talley- 
rand the  title  of  Prince  of  Benevento. 

Benezet',  Anthony  :  a  philanthropist ;  b.  in  St.-Quentin, 
France.  Jan.  31,  1713.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  emigrated  in  1731  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  taught 
school  for  many  years.  He  was  eminent  as  an  opponent  of 
the  slave-trade  and  slave-holding,  and  as  a  benefactor  of 
the  Negroes.  He  wrote  several  tracts  on  the  subjects.  D.  in 
Philadelphia,  May  3, 1784.  See  Vaux,  Memoir  of  A.  Benezet 
(1817). 

Ben'fey,  Tiieodor  :  Sanskrit  scholar  ;  b.  at  Niirti'ii.  near 
Gottingen,  of  Jewish  parents,  Jan.  28,  1809  ;  became  ))rivat- 
docent  of  Sanskrit  at  Gottingen  in  1834,  and  in  1848  extraor- 
dinary professor;  full  professor  in  1862.  He  published  77(e 
Hymns  of  the  Sdma-Veda  (1848);  a  Sanskrit  reader  and 
grammar ;  Pantschatantra  (Leipzig,  1859),  a  work  of  jirime 
importance  for  the  origin  and  spread  of  the  tallies  and  tales 
of  India  ;  a  great  Sanskrit-English  Dictioiitiry  (London, 
1866);  a  History  of  Philology  (especially  Oriental)  in  Ger- 
many (Munich,  1869) ;  and  other  books ;  also  very  many  minor 
treatises.  Slaiiy  of  the  last,  selected  and  edited  by  Bezzen- 
berger,  have  been  repulilished  (Berlin,  1890-92)  as  Kleinere 
Sc.hriften  (with  biography).  He  was  a  nuui  of  vast  learning; 
but  a  lack  of  terse,  lucid,  and  orderly  statement  lessens  the 
usefulness  of  much  pf  his  work.  D.  in  Gottingen.  June  26, 
1881.  C.  R.  Lanman. 

Bengal,  ben-gawl' :  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the 
local  goveninients  of  British  India;  bounded  N.  by  Nepal      . 
and  Bhutan.   K.   by  Assam   and    Burma,   S.  by  the  Bay  of    ■ 
Bengal  and  Madras,  and  W.  by  the  Northwestern  and  theCcn-    ^ 
I  nil  Provinces.     Area,  149,725  si|.  miles.     The  greater  iiart  of 
Bengal  consists  of  the  alluvial  plain  or  valley  of  the  Ganges 
and  Brahinapulra.    Thecoudiined  lU'lta  of  llicse  great  rivers 
commences  280  miles  from   the  .-^ea,  iwar  which   the   delta 
islands,  here  calleil  Sunderbunds,  are  covered  with  a  very 
dense  vegetation,  and  infested  by  serpents,  crocodiles,  and 
tigers.     Farther  N.  the  country  is  marvelously  jirolific  ol 


nd    I 

i 


BEXCiAL,   BAY   OF 


BENICIA 


581 


rice,  cotton,  opium,  supar.  iiidipi.  ami  a  jjri'at  variety  of 
tropical  fruits.  Tlie  chief  exports  are  opium,  saltpeter, 
rice,  liiiles,  anil  iudijro.  The  climate  of  Bengal  is  subject  to 
great  extremes  of  heat.  ati<i  is  viTy  di'structive  to  the  health 
of  both  Europeansalid  luitives;  but  in  this  respect  great  iin- 
jmiveuu'ut  is  reported  in  the  last  few  years.  Pop.  (18U1) 
66,o8y..").");{.    See  F.\.mine. 

Among  the  most  important  cities  of  Bengal  province  are 
Calcutta,  the  capital,  Delhi,  Benares,  I'atna.  .\gra.and  Mur- 
shidabad.  The  people  are  Hindus.  Mohammedans,  Sikhs, 
and  various  wiM  tribes  in  the  hill-country.  Thi^  native 
ISengalese  are  a  facile,  deceitful,  cowardly  race.  Their  mor- 
als are  much  dcluiscd.  The  Kiigli>h  first  estalilishi'd  them- 
selves in  Bengal  in  U!o(!.  From  the  smallc■^l  lieginuings 
their  great  empire  of  the  Fast  has  grown  u|i.  The  liengalese 
lang'uage  has  a  basis  of  Sanskrit,  l)Ut  is  modified  by  words  of 
Arabic. Malay,  and  I'ei-siau  origin.  Its  literature  has  been 
nnu-h  neglected  till  of  late.  Since  18.")8  the  history  of  Ben- 
gal has  been  one  of  steady  and  peaceful  progress.  Us  ex- 
ternal trade  is  practically  confined  to  Calcutta.  C'hittagong 
is  the  rice  port. 

Bpnifill.  Bay  of  (ane.  fra/it/i'f  ims  Si  iiu>:):  apart  nf  the 
Indian  Ocean  extending  between  Hindustan  and  Farther 
India.  Its  southern  boundary  is  vai'iously  placed  liy  geog- 
raphers. According  to  some  it  is  a  line  about  1,200  miles 
long  drawn  from  Coromandel  to  the  peninsula  of  Malacca. 
Others  assign  as  its  southern  limit  a  line  drawn  from  the 
delta  of  the  Oodavery  to  Cape  Negrais.  Its  chief  aflluents 
are  the  Ganges,  the  Hrahmaputra.  and  the  Trrawaddy.  There 
are  no  good  harbors  on  the  western  coast,  but  several  safe 
ports  occur  on  the  east  side,  as  .\racan,  Cliediiba,  Negrais, 
etc.  The  tide  sometimes  rises  to  the  height  of  TO  feet  in 
this  bay.  The  northeast  monsoon  prevails  here  in  summer 
and  the  southwest  monsoon  in  winter.  In  this  bay  are  the 
Amhunan  and  the  Nicobar  islaiuls. 

Bengali.  b(>ii-gaw'lce,  Lan'sriiajre:  the  Aryan  language 
of  Fastern  Bengal,  the  district  about  the  mouths  of  the 
Gauges,  of  which  Calcutta  is  the  metropolis.  B  belongs  to 
that  group  of  neo-Sanskrit  languages  now  spoken  in  Northern 
and  Central  lliTiilustan,  which  Ix-ar  a  relation  to  the  Sanskrit 
quite  similar  to  that  of  the  liomance  languages  to  Latin. 
These  languages  are :  1.  The  I'engali  (or  Baugali).  2.  The 
llin<li.  occupying  a  vast  territory  in  Northern  lliridustan. 
stret<;hing  from  the  Himalayas  south  to  the  Nerbudda  and 
from  the  lower  Ganges  westward  nearly  1,200  miles  to  the 
valley  of  the  Inilus,  estimated  in  all  at  about  248.000  sq. 
miles.  Hindustani  is  a  lini/na  franca  based  largely  on 
Hindi.  :l  The  Criya,  the  language  of  Orissa,  to  the  south 
of  Calcutta.  4.  The  .Marathi.  the  language  of  ten  million 
people  in  the  province  of  Bombay,  anil  to  the  eastward  in 
the  Nizam"s  Dominions  and  the  Central  Provinces.  5.  The 
GujariXti  of  Gujerat,  on  the  west  coast,  north  of  Bombay.  6. 
The  Sindhi  along  the  lower  Indus.  7.  The  Panjilbi  in  the 
Punjab,  the  district  of  the  "live  rivers."  8.  The  Cashmiri 
of  Cashmere.  U.  The  Sinhalese  oC  Southern  Ceylon.  01hi>r 
divisionsare  of  secondary  importance,  or  niay  lie  like  Xepfdi 
and  Assamese,  subdivisions  merely.  Among  all  these  the 
BcngiXli  ranks  next  to  Hindi  in  extent  and  imjiortiuice.  It 
is  spoken  Ijy  about  seventeen  million  people.  Its  colloquial 
form  appears  in  many  rather  ill-delined  dialects,  from  which 
the  literary  language  of  Calcutta  luus  widely  departed  under 
the  influence  of  a  strong  archaizing  tendency.  The  neces- 
sities of  its  vocalndary  in  meeting  the  demands  of  modern 
life  have  been  supplied  by  free  recourse  to  the  .Sanskrit,  which 
hu-s  also  exercised  an  influence  upon  inflexion  and  syntax. 

Bim.ioouAl'iiv. — S/iiiina  Clniniit  .Sir/^'ar,  draiiimar  of 
Benr/dli  (2il  ed.  Calcutta.  18(il) ;  Vates-Wengler.  Iiitnxlui-- 
tion  to  Benr/ali  Ijaiiffiiaf/e  (2  vols.,  Calcutta,  1874) :  Beaines, 
J.,  Grammar  nf  Uik  liciu/dU  /ja>iiliifif/i>  (London,  1891); 
Ilaughlon,  (J.  ('.,  liengnli.  Sanskrit, and  Ent/tisk  Dirfionar// 
(London.  18:!;^);  cf.  also  Beanies..!.,  Cnmparatire  CIranunar 
of  the  Modern  Ari/aii  f/anguai/i-n  of  [n<ti<t  (London,  187o); 
Cust,  U.  N.,  77ii'  Mddirn  Jjant/iun/r-x  nf  the  Edxl  Indies 
(Ijondon,  1878);  Blumhardt,  J.  P.,  Cntaloyut  of  the  lien- 
yali  Books  in  the  British  Museum  (1886). 

Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler. 

Ben&ral  Light,  or  Blue  Light :  a  brilliant  signal-light 
used  at  sea  during  shipwreck,  and  in  ordimiry  pyrotechny 
for  illuminating  a  tract  of  country.  It  is  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  a  mixture  of  niter,  sulphur,  and  trisulphide 
of  antimony.  These  materials  are  first  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  then  dried  and  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  0  lb.  of 
niter,  2  of  sulphur,  and  1  of  the  trisulphide. 


Bengel.    beng'el,     Joiiann   Alukf.cht.    1).  D. :   German 

Lutheran  theologian  ;  b.  at  Winncndeii,  in  WUrtendmrg, 
.lune  24,  1687.  Ho  was  proliably  the  first  Protestant  who 
treated  the  exegesis  of  the  New-  Testament  in  a  thoroughly 
critical  spirit.  His  eililion  of  the  (ireek  Testament  (1734) 
is  the  foundation  of  nuidern  criticism  of  the  New  Testament 
text.  He  wrote  the  celebrated  Gnomon  Non  Testamenti 
( 1 742)  and  an  £j//osilion  of  the  lievelation  of  St.  John 
(1740).  etc.     1).  in  Stuttgart,  Nov.  2,  1752. 

Benghazi,  ben-gaa  zee  (anc.  Bereni'ce) :  a  seaport-town 
of  Northern  Afriia:  capital  of  Barca ;  on  the  ea.st  coast  of 
the  (iulf  of  Sidra  ;  420  miles  E.  S.  F.  of  Tripoli  (see  map  of 
.\frica,  ref.  2-K).  The  port  is  shallow,  and  nearly  filled 
with  sand.  It  has  some  trade  in  oxen,  sheep,  corn,  and 
wool.  It  is  sup|ioseiI  by  some  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Ilesperis  and  the  Gardens  of  the  Uesperidcs.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  from  6,000  to  7,000. 

Boiiglipla,  ben-gay'hiii :  a  district  of  the  Portuguese 
West  African  province  of  Angola.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  ("oanza  river,  which  separates  it  from  Angola  |)roper, 
S.  by  Jlossamedes, and  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  east- 
ern limit  is  not  definitely  fixed.  II  is  watered  by  numerous 
small  rivers,  which  How  westward  into  the  Atlantii'.  The 
surface  is  mountainous.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  a 
very  luxuriant  and  varied  vegetation.  The  climate  is  hot, 
humid,  and  unhealthy,  especially  near  the  coast.  The  for- 
ests are  infested  by  lions  and  other  beiust.s  of  prey.  Capital. 
Bcngiiela  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  7-D). 

Beilhani,  Henry  W.  :  military  engineer  ;  Ii.  at  Cheshire. 
Ciinu.,  1816:  graduated  at  West  Point  in  18;i7;  cohmel  of 
engineers,  brevet,  major-general  U.  .S.  A. ;  has  had  charge 
of  the  principal  engineer  works  on  the  Atlantic  coa.st, 
of  the  Potonuic  aqueduct,  and  of  the  coast  survey  office" 
member  of  commission  for  New  York  docks  1855;  engineer 
of  New  York  quarantine  commission  1859;  was  wounded 
and  breveted  captain  at  Buena  Vista  1847  ;  breveted  colonel 
as  commanding  at  the  rout  of  Garnett,  Carrick's  Ford,  .luly. 
1861 ;  as  brigadier-general  volunteers  commanding  leading 
brigade  at  Carnifex  Ferry,  Sept.,  and  at  rout,  of  Floyd 
through  Fayetteville  Nov.,  1861  :  comiuanding  district  and 
troop.s  at  capture  of  Fort  Pulaski.  .\pr..  1862  ;  cimimanding 
engineer  brigade,  laid  .several  jionlon-bridges  under  fire 
during  Chancellorsville  battles,  his  horse  being  shot  under 
him  ;  constructed  and  commanded  defenses  at  City  Point, 

1864  ;  breveted  major-general  volunteers  and  brigadier  and 
nuijor-general  U.  S.  army  for  gallant  <-onduct,  etc..  Mar., 

1865  ;  senior  engineer  Boston  ;  president  of  engineer  lioards ; 
devised  picket  shovel  and  rapid  construction  of  ponton- 
bridges  by  "simultaneous  bays."  Ketired  1882.  D.  in  New- 
York,  .lune  1,  1884. 

Belli,  bay  ni'e:  a  river  of  Sonth  America;  in  Bolivia;  rises 
on  the  eastsloiie  of  the  .Andes,  and  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Chuqueapo  aiul  Mapiri.  It  flow-s  northward  into  the 
Madeira  or  Mamore  after  a  course  of  about  650  miles. 

Beni  :  a  department  of  Bolivia;  bounded  N.  ami  K.  by 
Brazil,  S.  by  La  Paz.  Cocliab.-nnba,  and  Santa  Cruz,  and  \V . 
by  Peru.  Area.  100,551  sq.  miles.  It  comprises  the  whole 
rmrtliern  part  of  the  republic,  and  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  |iart  in  the  southwest  corner,  and  a  jiart  of  the  |)rov- 
ince  of  Mcnos  in  the  K.,  is  entirely  an  unknown  region, 
inhabited  only  bv  wild  Indians.  Chief  town,  Trinidad. 
Pop.  (1888)  16.744 "whites,  and  about  100.000  Indians. 

Beilicarlo.  ba^y-nee-kaarlo :  a  seaport-town  of  Spain ; 
province  of  Valencia;  on  the  Mediterranean;  about  82 
miles  N.  N.  F.  of  Valencia  (see  nuip  of  Sjiain.  ref.  15—1).  It 
is  nu'aniy  built,  and  has  a  ruined  castle  and  a  fishing-port. 
A  strong  wine  is  made  here  and  exported  to  Bordeaux, 
where  it  is  used  to  adulterate  claret.     Pop.  (1887)  7,916. 

Benicia,  bw-nis'i-a  :  city;  on  railroail ;  Solano  co.,  Cal. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  "map  of  California,  ref.  7-C);  on 
the  noi-th  side  of  the  Strait  of  Carquiiu'z  (which  coiniects 
San  Pablo  and  Sinsun  bays) ;  ;!0  miles  by  rail  and  28  miles 
bv  w-ater  N.  R.  of  San  Francisco.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1850.  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  thi>  State.  The  strait 
is  nearly  2  miles  wide,  and  is  navigable  for  large  ve.s,sels. 
Benicia  has  a  law-  school,  a  girl's  .semiiuiry,  a  convent,  a  U.  S. 
arsenal  and  barracks,  ship-yards,  two  very  large  tanneries, 
fruit  aiul  fish  packing  establishments,  pottery  and  cement 
works,  gas  and  electric  lights.  It  is  the  seat  "of  St.  Augus- 
tine College  (Kpiscopalian).  The  land  in  the  vicinity  is 
adapti'd  to  the  growing  of  almonds  and  grapes.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,794;  (1890)2,301.  EunoB  ok  "New  Kka." 


582 


MEXUiX   GKOWTHS 


BENNETT 


Beiiigrn  Growths,  or  Tumors  :  See  Tumors. 

Beni-Hivssaii,  Imv  nee-hrtiissan :  a  village  of  Central 
Kgypt;  on  the  ri^lil  bank  of  the  Nile;  33  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Miiiieh.  Here  are  twenty-two  !.rottoes  or  catacombs  ex- 
cavated in  a  calcareous  lia'nk  or  liill.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  as  tondis  by  the  jieoplc  of  llermopolis, 
which  stood  on  the  opposite'  side  of  the  river.  Here  are 
apartments  60  feet  long  and  40  feet  wide,  in  which  are  pillare 
of  the  native  rock  16  ft.  8i  in.  in  height  and  5  feet  in  dianieter. 
The  sides  of  the  grottoes  are  covered  with  paintings  designed 
with  skill  and  good  taste.  These  tombs  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  in  Eg\i)t.  The  earliest  bears  the  date  of  the  forty- 
thiril  year  of  Ositarsen  I.,  not  far  from  1800  B.  c.  Says  J. 
1".  Tliompson :  "I  found  one  tomb,  some  300  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  river,  almost  a  Doric  temple  hewn  from  the 
solid  rock.  .  .  .  This  chamber  was  cut  from  the  solid  rock 
with  ])erfect  precision  ;  no  modern  square  or  line  or  plum- 
met could  nuike  it  more  true." 

Beiii-Israel  (sons  of  Israel):  remarkable  people,  appar- 
ently of  Jewish  origin,  in  the  W.  of  India,  chiefly  in  Bom- 
bay "and  some  coast  towns.  They  acknowledge  tlie  law  of 
Moses  and  retain  numy  of  tlii^  "Jewish  customs,  altliough 
conforming  to  sonu'  of  tlie  idohdrous  practices  of  the  Hin- 
dus. .Some  of  them  know  llel)rew,  but  Marathi  is  their 
ordinary  language,  and  in  it  they  have  some  literature. 
Thev  rarely  intermarrv  with  ordinary  Jews  or  with  the 
Hindus. 

Heni  Khaibir':  a  trilie  in  Arabia,  supposed  by  some,  but 
without  sufficient  reason,  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  ancient 
ascetic  Rechabites.  They  number  about  60,000.  See  Ke- 
chabites. 

Benin,  ben-een' :  a  maritime  district  of  Western  Africa ; 
in  Upper  Guinea ;  W.  of  the  river  Niger,  N.  E.  of  the  Bay  of 
Hi-uin  :  in  the  territory  of  the  Royal  Niger  Company.  Its 
limits  in  some  directions  are  not  well  defined  or  ascertained. 
The  interior  is  elevated  and  hilly,  and  mostly  covered  with 
forests.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  supports  a  dense  popula- 
tion. Sugar,  rice,  yams,  palm  oil,  and  cotton  are  the  staple 
productions. 

Benin  :  a  town  of  Africa  ;  on  a  river  of  the  same  name  ; 
73  miles  from  the  ocean  (see  map  of  Africa,  i-ef.  5-C).  The 
houses  are  built  of  clay.  Pop.  estinuited  at  15,000.  Belzoni 
died  near  tliis  towu  in  1833. 

Benin,  Big'lit  of:  jjortion  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  (</.  v.), 
bordering  on  the  above  district. 

Beni-Soiief,  ben'ee-swef :  a  town  of  Central  Egypt :  on 
the  Nile;  63  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Cairo.  It  has  cotf;on-mills 
and  ipiarries  of  alabaster,  and  is  the  entrepot  of  the  produce 
of  the  fert-ile  valley  of  Fayoom.     Pop.  7,000. 

Ben'jamin:  youngest  son  of  the  jiatriarch  Jacob  and  of 
Rachel  (wlu)  calleil  him  Bp:noxi).  He  was  his  father's 
favorite  child,  and  the  head  of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel.  The  territory  of  this  tribe  was  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  that  of  Ephraim,  on  the  E.  Ijy  the  Jordan,  on  the  S.  by 
the  land  of  Judah,  ami  on  the  W.  by  that  of  Dan.  Its  sol- 
diers were  distinguished  as  archers  ,and  noted  for  left- 
handed  slingers.  The  tribe  was  nearly  extirpated  in  the 
days  of  Phinehas,  son  of  Aaron,  by  the  other  confederate 
tribes,  for  a  gross  breach  of  liospilality,  but  600  men  who 
had  escaiied  were  supplied  with  wives,  partly  by  rapine  at 
Shiloh.  and  thus  it  was  re-established  (Juilges  xix.-xxi).  The 
first  King  of  Israel,  Saul,  was  a  Benjamite.  After  the  death 
of  SoloMiou  the  tribes  of  Bciijannu  and  Judah  remained 
loyal  to  hi>  ilynasty  when  the  other  ten  tribes  revolted. 

Benjamin,  .liin.tu  Philip:  a  jurist  and  politician  of 
Jewish  extraction  ;  li.  in  St.  Croix,  West  Indies,  Aug.  11, 
1811.  He  practiced  law  in  New  Orleans ;  was  elected  a  .Sena- 
tor of  the  U.  S.  for  Ijouisiana  in  1853 ;  and  re-elected  in 
1859.  He  acted  with  the  Democrats,  and  became  a  seces- 
sionist. He  was  Si'cretary  of  War  (1861),  anil  .Secretary  of 
Slate  of  the  Confederate  States  from  Feb.,  1863,  until' the 
collapse  of  that  power  in  1865.  At  the  close  of  the  civil  war 
he  (led  to  Kiiglaud  and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  liondoii. 
Kiigland,  where  he  rose  to  great  fame  and  fortune.  His 
Lnw  (if  Sale.  (1883)  is  an  autlioritv  in  Englisli  courts.  I),  in 
Paris,  'May  7,  1884. 

Benjamin.  Pauk:  poet,  journalist,  and  lecturer;  b.  at 
Di'iiierara,  in  (iiiiaiia,  Aug.  14.  1800.  He  graduiited  at 
Trinity  (Jolh'ge,  Hart  ford.  Coiiii..  in  1830;  and  in  11S40  be- 
I'aine  lussociated  with  R.  VV.  (iriswold  as  editor  of  the  Nem 
World,  a   literary  journal  published  in  New   York.      He 


wrote,  besides  many  lyrical  poems,  a  Pontn  on  the  Medita- 
tion of  Xa tare..  I),  in  New  York,  Sept.  13,  1864. — His  son, 
Park:  b.  in  New  York,  May  11,  1849;  entered  the  navy 
(1867);  became  a  lawyer  (1870);  then  a  patent  expert.  Be- 
sides some  tales  and  slight  humorous  essays,  he  edited  Apple- 
tun's  Cijclopa'dia  of  Ap/jtied  Jleehanics  (1880). 

Benjamin,  Samuel  Greene  Wheeler:  traveler,  artist, 
and  author;  b.  at  Argos,  Greece,  Feb.  13,  1837.  He  was 
educated  at  Williams  College  ;  was  for  some  time  assistant 
librarian  in  the  State  Liljrary,  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  and  from 
1883  to  1885  U.  S.  minister  to  Persia.  ILas  published  a 
number  of  works  on  art,  including  Art  in  America  and  Con- 
temporary Art  in  Europe  (1877),  as  well  as  poetry;  Con- 
stantinople (1860);  Persia  and  the  Persians  (1886),  etc. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Benjamin-Constant.  Ixian  jha-man'  kr/iVsta'aiV,  Jean  Jo- 
seph :  jiainter  of  portraits  and  of  Oriental  sulijects ;  b.  in 
Paris,  June  10,  1845;  pupil  of  Cabanel ;  officer  Legion  of 
Honor  1884 ;  awarded  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position of  1889,  but  refused  to  accept  it.  He  has  visited 
the  U.  S.  several  times,  and  has  painted  portraits  in  New 
York  and  other  cities.  He  is  an  artist  with  a  strong  sense 
of  color  and  a  brilliant  technician.  The  Cherifas,  exhib- 
ited at  the  Salon  of  1885,  is  one  of  the  best  of  his  pictures 
of  life  in  the  East,  and  is  in  the  museum  at  Carcassonne.  He 
painted  three  large  decorative  panels  for  tlie  New  Sorbonne 
in  Paris,  viz..  Literature,  The  Academy  of  Paris,  and  Sci- 
ence, which  show  intelligent  artistic  intention  and  a  desire 
to  obtain  color-harmony  in  painting  on  a  large  scale  with- 
out sacrificing  local  tints.  He  has  ]iainted  a  large  niimlier 
of  pictures,  and  in  some  of  tliein  has  not  attained  the  level 
that  made  his  earlier  works  so  notable.  Many  of  his  pictures 
are  owned  in  the  U.  S.     Studio  in  Paris. 

William  A.  Cokkin. 

Benjamin  Gum:  Sec  Benzoin  Gum. 

Benjamin  of  Tiidela  :  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  traveler;  com- 
menced about  1159  a  journey  through  Palestine,  Persia,  and 
Egy|it,  in  which  he  pas.seil  fourteen  years.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  travels,  which  was  translated  into  Latin,  Eng- 
lish (London,  1840).  and  French.  I),  in  1173.  See  E.  Car- 
inolv.  Notice  sur  B.  de  Tudele  el  ses  Voyages  (Brussels,  1837, 
3d  eil,  1853,  3  iiarts).    ■ 

Benjamin-tree:  See  Benzoin  odoriferum. 

Ben'kelman :  capital  of  Dundy  co..  Neb.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  11-C);  situated  in  a  rich 
agricultural  district:  on  Bur.  and  JIo.  R.  R..  and  on  Repub- 
lican river:  89  miles  from  Akron,  Col;  has  fine  school- 
building,  and  three  churches.  Was  first  settled  about  1880. 
Pop.  (1890)  357;  (1893)  estimated,  600. 

Benloew,  Louis :  philologist ;  b.  in  Erfurt,  Germany, 
Nov.  1.5, 1818  ;  studied  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Leipzig, 
and  Gdttingen.  Most  of  his  life  was,  however,  spent  in 
France,  and  from  1847  he  was  connected  with  tlie  Faculty 
of  Letters  of  Dijon,  becoming  later  the  dean  of  the  faculty. 
D.  in  1884.  His  works  are  numerous.  Among  them  may 
be  mentioned  De  I'accentuation  dans  les  la-iigues  indo-euro- 
peennes.  tant  anciennes  que  modernes  (1847);  Theorie  de 
I'accentuation  latine  (with  Weil,  1855);  Aperfu  genhal  de 
la  science  comparatire  des  langues  (1858) ;  Precis  d'wie 
theorie  des  rhythmes  (1863) ;  De  quelques  caracteres  du 
monde  primitif  (1863);  Les  Semites  a  Ilion  (1863);  La 
(rri'ce  avant  les  (Jrecs,  etude  liHqiiistique  et  etlmographique 
(1877) ;  Les  lois  de  Vhistoire  (1881).  B.  I.  W. 

Benne-plant :  See  Sesame. 

Bennett,  Charles  Wesley,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister  and  educator  ;  b.  at  East  Bethany,  N.  \'., 
July  18,  1S38;  eiiucated  at  Wesleyan  University,  where  he 
graduated  in  1853;  was  teacher  and  principal  in  several 
schools  1H53-61  ;  joined  East  Genesee  Conference  1862; 
studied  in  Berlin  1866-69;  principal  for  the  second  time  of 
Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  1869-71 ;  Professor  of  History 
and  Logic  in  Syracuse  University  1871-85;  and  Profes-sorof 
Historical  Theology  in  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evanston, 
III.,  1885-91.  He  imblished  National  Lducation  in  Italy. 
France,  (lermany.  England,  and  Wales,  Popularly  Consid- 
ered (Syracuse.  1S7S),  and  Christian  Art  and  Archwology  of 
the  First  Six  Centuries  (New  N'ork,  1888).  D.  at  Evanston, 
Apr.  17,  bS91.  Albert  Osdorn. 

Bennett,  Edmund  Hatch,  LL.  D.  :  jurist;  b.  at  Man- 
chester, Vt.,  Apr.  6,  1834;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Vermont  1843  ;  admitted  to  the  bar  1847  ;  resided  at  Taun- 


BEXNETT 


BENOlT   DE  SAINTE-MORE 


583 


ton.  Mass.,  1848-84;  jiul;;''  of  prolmte  and  insolvency  for 
Bristol  County  18.58-8;i;  mayor  of  Taunton  181)5  anil  1887; 
lecturer  in  Ilarvanl  Law  School  1870-72;  since  1876  pro- 
fessor in  an<l  dean  of  the  Boston  University  Law  School ; 
has  puhlishcd  BiiKj/tam  on  liifancn;  Oreenleafs  lieports 
(it  vols.);  KiKilixh  Ijiiw  diiii  L'</uily  Uepuits  (3  vols.);  seven 
editions  of  .lustin  .Story's  works;  JJnssdchiisells  Digest  uf 
Derixionti  (S  \oh.);  J'tif  IiixiiidiKi'  ( '((.w.s  (.5  vols.);  Jilack- 
xeetlon  Tux  Titles;  Oiiddard  on  Kasemenls:  I'omeruy's  (.'ou- 
st itutioiKtl  Law;  Jnderniiiner's  I'riiuiples  of  l/ie  Common 
Law,  Citsliini/'s  Reports  of  Massiicliiisetis  Decisions  (3 
vols.);  lienjamin  on  Sales;  Story  on  Sales;  Leading  Cases 
in  Criminal  Laii;  etc. 

Ilt'lini'tt. 'Tamks  (ioRDoN  :  journalist;  li.  near  Keith,  Scot- 
land. .Sept.  1,  17!)5;  educated  for  tlie  Kouian  t'atliolic  priest- 
hood; endgrated  to  the  U.S.  in  1819;  took  to  lu'wspaper 
work,  and  was  for  several  years  conne<-ted  with  several  join-- 
nals  puhlishcd  in  the  city  of  Xew  Vork  ;  liecauu'  chief  editor 
in  1833  of  the  I'riiii.si//riiiu'iiii.  a  <laily  paper  of  I'liiladrl- 
phia.  In  183.')  he  ro\[nded  the  Xeir  Yaik  iternld  as  a  penny 
paper,  into  wliich  lie  introiluced  the  features  of  news-i;ather- 
in;r,  special  correspondence.  tele{;raphic  reporting,  and  dis- 
triliution  by  carrici's,  suliseipiently  common  features  of  jour- 
nalism. D!  in  New  York.  .June  1,  1872. —  His  only  son,  of 
the  sauu>  name,  b.  in  New  York.  May  10.  1841.  who  resides 
childly  in  Paris,  is  rlistinguishcd  f(jr  titling  out  the  Jftauctte 
polarexpedilion,  for  sending  II.  M,  Stanley  to  search  in 
Africa  for  Livingstone,  and  for  cstalilishiug  in  connection 
with  .L  \V.  Mackay  a  new  line  of  siilnnariue  calile  between 
Enn>i)o  and  the  U.  .S. 

Iteunett,  Sir  J.\mes  Kisdox,  JI.  \^..  V.  I!.  S.,  LL.  1). :  ex- 

f resident  of  the  Koyal  ("ollege  of  Physicians;  b.  at  Uouisey, 
lampshire.  Knglaud,  in  1809:  iM.  I)..  Tnivei-sity  of  Edin- 
burgh, 1833;  appointed  as.sistant  jihysician  to  St.  Thonuis's 
Hospital.  London,  1843;  elected  president  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  in  187(),  and  annually  re-elected  until  1881  ; 
knighted  in  issi ;  has  (lublishiMl  translations  from  the  (icr- 
nuin  of  Kramer  on  Diseu-ies  of  the  L'ar;  An  Essay  on  Acute 
Jlydrocephdliis,  etc.  C.  11.  Thurber. 

IJpiiiictt.  .loiix  HroHKS,  M.  D. ;  physician  and  medical 
writer  of  Edinburgh;  b.  in  London,  Aug.  31,  1812;  took  his 
degree  at  Eilinburgh  in  1837,  and  in  1848  was  maile  I'ro- 
fes.sor  of  the  Instituli-s  of  Medicitie  in  that  city.  Dr.  Ben- 
nett wjus  especially  distinguished  for  his  .studies  in  histology 
and  thcrapeuti<'s,  and  his  advocacy  of  the  expectant  treat- 
mi'iit  of  <lisease.  .\nioiig  his  works  are  Clinical  Medieine 
(18r)());  Pracfire  of  Medicine;  Treatment  of  Pulmonary 
Consiuiiption;  Tr.rl-hnok  of  Physioluijy  (Edinburgh,  1871). 
I),  at  Norwich,  Sept.  25,  1875. 

Bpiinoft.  .Joseph  :  journalist  and  music-critic;  b.  in 
Berkel<'y,  Gloucestershire.  England,  Nov.  29,  1831  ;  studied 
music  in  early  life,  espi'cially  I  he  organ,  violin,  viola,  and  vio- 
loncello; went  to  London  in  1855,  and  wrote  for  the  Sunday 
Times,  thi'  Musical  Standard,  and  since  1870  to  the  present 
for  the  Daily  'J'eleyra/j/i.  He  edited  Novidlo's  Concordia 
(May  1,  1875,  to  Apr.  22,  187f)),  aiul  has  for  years  written 
largely  for  Novello  s  Musical  Times.  He  has  furnished  the 
librettos  for  Barnett's  (rood  Shepherd;  Mackenzie's  Ruse  nf 
Sharon,  Slory  of  Sayid,  Dream  of  .Jubal ;  Cowen's  Ruth, 
Thoryriui, ii]\d  .St.  .Jnhn's  Ere;  Bottesini's  (larilen  of  Olivet; 
Maihuue  Saiidon-Dolby's  Thalassa;  Williams's  Gethsem- 
ane  and  Last  Xiyht  at  Bethany;  and  Sullivan's  Golden  Le- 
gend, adapted  from  Longfellow.  Some  of  his  studies  of  The 
Great  Composers  in  tlu;  Musical  Times  have  been  put  in 
book  form.  In  1885  he  visited  the  U.  .S.,  and  made  a  nmsico- 
literary  tour,  afterward  publishing  his  impressions  in  Lon- 
don. I).  E.  Hkbvkv. 

Beiiiiptt.  Sir  Wim.iam  Ster.nuai.e  :  musician;  b.  in  Shef- 
field, England.  Apr.  13,  1816.  When  eight  yeai-s  old  he  be- 
came a  choir-boy  at  King's  College.  ('ambri<lge,  and  two 
yeai-s  later  was  taken  to  London  tostudy  in  the  Koyal  .\cad- 
cmy  of  .Music,  remaining  there  from  1826  to  183().  He  was 
then  sent  to  Leipzig,  and  associated  with  Jlendelssohn, 
Schumann,  and  Ferdinand  1  tiller.  While  there  he  com- 
po.sed  considerabh;  music,  including  his  very  beautiful 
Naiades  o\-vr\m-i:  In  ls5(i  he  was  appointeil  conductor  of 
the  London  I'hilharnioinc  Society,  bul  soon  ri'limpiished  the 
post.  In  the  sann'  yi'ar  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music 
in  Cambridge  I'niversity.  from  which  h<'  received  the  Bach- 
elor and  Musical  Doctor's  degrees.  Oxford  nnule  him  a 
f).  C.  L.  In  18.58  he  produced  his  cantata  The  May  (^neen, 
for  the  Leeds  festival,  and  in  1867  his  Women  of  Samaria 


was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  festival.  In  1871  he  was 
knighted,  and  on  Feb.  1,  1875,  he  died  in  London  at  the 
early  age  of  fifty-nine.  lie  composed  much,  mostly  in  the 
instrumental  field.  His  two  cantatas  mentioned,  four  church 
anthems,  and  a  setting  of  Tenny.son's  (Jde  on  the  Death  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellingtun,  and  Charles  Kingsley's  Ode  on  the 
Duke  of  iJeninshire,  coiuiinsi-  mi>:it  of  his  vocal  music,  but 
his  works  for  orclicst?'ii  and  solo  instnnnents  are  in  the  front 
rank.  From  isun  till  his  death  he  was  the  principal  of  the 
Koyal  Academy  of  Music.  1).  E.  IIervey. 

Bell  Ni'vis:  a  mountain  of  Scotland.     See  Be.v. 

Beii'nigson.  or  Benningseii.  Levin  Augist  Tiieopil, 
Count:  Kussian  tield-niarshal  ;  .scion  of  a  noble  Hanover 
family;  b.  in  Brunswick  {Liineburg)  in  1745;  brought  up  at 
court;  married  an  Austrian  and  lost  his  em])loyinent ;  be- 
came an  adventurer,  and  obtained  a  commission  in  the  Kus- 
sian army  in  1773.  Cathi-rinc  II.  employed  him  in  Poland 
and  promoted  him.  He  joined  the  Pahleii  conspiracy  against 
Paul  1..  ami  actually  strangled  him.  He  (lislinguishc<l  him- 
self at  the  head  of  an  army-corps  at  Pultusk  (1800) ;  was 
given  the  commaiul  of  the  army  opposing  Napoleon  in  the 
following  winter,  broke  through  the  French  lines,  separating 
his  foe.s.  and  forcing  Napoleon  to  take  the  field  with  re-en- 
forcements. He  chose  the  jiosition  at  Eylau.  and  at  night, 
after  the  desperate  battle  of  Feb.  8,  1807.  held  his  position. 
lie  retired  for  the  sake  of  supplies.  He  fought  as  a  subordi- 
nate commander  at  Friedlanil  and  Boroilino;  beat  Mnrat  at 
Taruntino,  ('it.  12.  1812;  coninuuuled  the  Kussian  army  of 
reserve  at  Leijizig.  and  for  Ins  iin|ietuosity  and  skill  in  the 
great  battle  was  made  a  count  on  the  field.  In  1818  he  re- 
tired to  his  Hanover  eslate.s.     I),  in  1826. 

Bcniiingiuii :  on  railroad  ;  capital  of  Bennington  co.,  Yt. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  9-B) ;  55 
miles  S.  W.  of  Kutland,  and  36  miles  from  the  Hudson  river 
at  Troy.  The  town  contains  three  villages — Bennington, 
North  Bennington,  and  liciniington  Centre — the  latter  being 
Station  A  of  the  Beninni:ton  jiost-ollice.  Gen.  Stark,  at  the 
head  of  a  column  of  "Green  Mountain  Boys"  (New  Hamp- 
shire and  Massachusetts  troops),  defeated  a  British  detacli- 
ment  in  force,  commanded  by  Lieut. -Col.  Baum,  sent  from 
Gen.  Burgoyne's  army  to  cajituivthe  public  stores  near  North 
Bennington,  Aug.  10,  1777;  600  British  prisoners  were  cap- 
tured. The  dedication  ceremonies  of  the  Bennington  Battle 
Monument  CM)\  ft.  lOj  in.  high)  and  centennial  of  the  ad- 
mission of  Vermi>nt  into  the  Union  were  celebrated  Aug.  19, 
18i)l.  The  town  contains  extensive  graded  schools,  large 
manufactories  of  knit  goods,  and  one  of  the  largest  woolen- 
factories  in  the  country.  Bennington  is  one  of  the  largest 
manufacturing  villages  in  the  State,  and  hasa  soldiers'  home. 
Pop.  of  townshiji,  including  village  (1880)6.333  ;  (1890)  6,391 ; 
of  village  (U.  S.  census)  3,971 :  local  census,  4,125. 

Editor  of  the  "  Banner." 

Bciioit.  ba'j'nwiia',  Pierre  Leopold  Leonard:  musician; 
b.  in  llarelbekc.  West  Flanders,  Belgium,  Aug.  17,  1834; 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  extreme  modern  .school 
composers.  F]ducated  at  the  Brussels  Conservatorv,  study- 
ing under  Fetis ;  composed  his  first  ojiera  in  1857.  Produced 
his  opera  Le  Roi  des  Aulnes  in  Paris  1861 ;  returned  to  Bel- 
gium, and  has  since  produced  many  important  and  remark- 
able works,  both  sacred  and  operatic;  was  appointed  in  1867 
director  of  the  Flemish  .Sc1kk)I  of  JMusic  in  Antwerj),  which 
position  he  .still  retains.  llisZy«c//e;-(1866);  L'Eseauf  (\Hm); 
Drama  Cltristi  (1871);  IjU  Guerre  (1873),  are  among  his 
greatest  oratorios;  besides  which  he  has  composed  several 
cantatas  and  ojieras.  He  is  a  strong  advocate  of  a  strictly 
national  l''lcmish  school  of  nuisic.  I).  E.  Hervey. 

Bcnoit  «lt'  Saintc-More,  or  Sainte-Mnuro:  media>val 
French  ])oet.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  He  was  probably 
a  Norman  by  birth,  although  attempts  have  been  nunle  to 
prove  him  a  native  of  Sainte-More  in  Champagne,  and  also 
of  .Sainte-.More  in  Touraine.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
court  of  Henry  II.  of  England;  and  he  is  probably  the 
Beneeit  of  whom  Wace  somewhat  enviously  speaks  (Roman 
de  Rou,  vv.  16526-31)  as  having  at  Henry's  command  written 
the  long  versified  historv,  of  some  4;MHlb  lines,  known  as  the 
Chrunique  des  dues  de  JS'ormandie — being  preferred  for  the 
task  to  his  older  contemporary  and  rival,  Wace  himself 
(o.  r.).  He  is  chiefly  famous,  however,  for  his  Roman  de 
Troie,  one  of  the  most  i)opular  poems  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Though  Bcnoit  in  this  work  speaks  admiringlv  of  Homer, 
he  really  found  his  material  in  the  De  crcidio  Trojae  of 
Dares  («.  r.)  and  the  Ephemerides  belli  Trojani  of  DicTVS 
(q.  v.).     He  by  no  means,  however,  followed  closely  even 


584 


BENOUVILLE 


BENTHAM 


these  authorities.  He  gave  to  the  whole  story  a  frankly 
mediieval  ami  thivalric  cliaracter :  and  he  enlarged,  or  even 
added,  wherever  his  fancy  suggested.  Some  of  these  addi- 
tions proved  the  most  attractive  parts  of  his  poem — e.  g.  the 
episode  of  Troilus  and  Uriseida  (vv.  13235,  seq.) — and  were 
subsequently  used  by  famous  writers.  Boccaccio  told  the 
tale  of  Troilus  in  his  Filoxtrato  (Briseida  becoming  Grisei- 
da);  Chaucer  also  in  his  Trdijlus  and-Cristyde.  Shakspeare 
made,  or  helped  make,  a  play  on  the  subject.  But  the  whole 
Roman  de.  Troie  was  also  imitated  and  translated  into  other 
languages.  The  German  pjoet.  llerbort  von  Fritzlar,  made 
it  the  basis  of  his  Lied  von  Truie  (twelfth  century);  the 
Sicilian  Guido  delle  Colonne  (thirteenth  century)  retidered 
it  into  poor  Latin,  but  witliout  naming  his  original,  and 
succeeded  in  passing  tor  many  centuries  as  the  true  author; 
Binduccio  dello  Scelto  turned"  it  into  Italian  (thirteenth  cen- 
tury); and  there  were  at  least  two  Italian  versions  of  Guido's 
Latin.  A  Dutch  version  was  made  by  Jacob  van  Maerlant 
(thirtecntli  century),  ami  it  was  even  "translated  into  Greek 
(fonrteentli  centii'ry).  In  the  fifteenth  century,  perhaps 
earlier,  it  was  turned  into  French  prose,  and  supplied  ma- 
terial for  dramatic  compositions — e.  g.  Le  Uydire  de  la 
destruction  de  Troie  la  Grant,  by  Jacques  Millet. 

Another  poem  of  10,000  verses,  the  Roman  d'Eneas, 
though  anonymous  in  the  MSS.,  is  so  similar  in  language, 
style,  and  execution  to  the  Chanson  de  Troie  that  it  is  com- 
monly attributed  to  Benoit.  It  is  based  upon  the  JEneid  of 
Vergil,  but  again  freely  media^valized.  This  work  also  had 
grejit  popularity,  and  was  translated  into  German  (1175-84) 
by  Heinrich  vim  Vcldeke,  the  first  poet  of  courtesy  {cour- 
toisie)  north  of  the  Rhine. 

The  Roman  de  Thebes,  based  upon  the  Thebais  of  Statins, 
has  also  been  assigned  to  Benoit.  In  all  probability,  how- 
ever, it  was  written  by  some  poet  eager  to  win  fame  by  imi- 
tating the  assured  su"ecess  of  the  Roman  de  Troie.  Nor  is 
it  correct  to  attribute  to  Benoit.  as  has  sometimes  been 
done,  the  metrical  Life  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury, 

BiBLiooRAPHY. — La  Clironique  des  dues  de  JS'ormandie, 
par  Benoit,  etc.,  ed.  by  Fr.  Jlicliel  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1836-44) ; 
Benoit  de  Sainte-Mor'e  et  la  Roman  de  Troie,  etc.,  ed.  bv  A. 
Joly  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1870-71);  Fr.  Settegast,  Benoit  de 
Sainte-Mnre.  etc.  (Brcslau,  1876);  G.  Paris,  in  Romania,  v. 
p.  389,  and  viii.  p.  301);  K.  Frohmann,  Herhort  von  Fritzlar 
und  Benoit  de  Sainte-More,  in  Germania,  ii.  (1857);  Hertz- 
berg,  Der  Troitn.'i-Fahel  von  Homer  bis  zu  Shahe-yyeare,  in 
Shakespeare  Jalirbuch,  bd.  vi.  (1871)  pp.  169-225;  W.  Greif, 
Die  mittetalterlichen  Btarbeitungen  der  Trojnnersaye  (Jlar- 
bm-g,  1886).  A.  K.  JIarsh. 

Beiiouville,  ba'y'noo'veel',  Jeax  Achille:  French  land- 
scape-painter; pupil  of  Picot ;  b.  in  Paris,  July  15,1815; 
celebrated  for  his  pictures  of  views  of  the  Campagna.  FirAt- 
class  medal.  Paris  Salon,  1863;  Legion  of  Honor  1863.  D. 
in  Paris,  Feb.  6.  1891.  W.  A.  C. 

Bonozzu  GozzoH  :  See  GozzoLi. 

Benseler,  bense-ler.  Gustav  Eduard:  Greek  scholar  and 
lexicograplier ;  b.  in  Freiberg,  Saxony,  Feb.  28.  1806 ;  d.  in 
Leipzig,  Feb.  1,  1868.  Best  known  by  his  work  on  the  Attic 
orators  (especially  Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  and  ^Eschines), 
and  as  the  author  of  Hiatus  in  the  Attic  Orators  (1841), 

Beii'son,  Euward  White,  I).  D. :  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ami  Primate  of  all  Englan<i  ;  b.  near  Birmingham, 
England,  July  14,  1829;  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1852; 
■wa-s  for  several  years  assistant  in  Rugby  School ;  head-master 
of  Wellington  College  from  its  establishment  in  1858  to  1872  ; 
chancellor  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  1872  ;  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Truro  1877,  where  he  raised  nearly  ^500,000  for  tlie  erec- 
tion of  his  cathedral;  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
England,  Dec.  1882  ;  aut  hor  of  various  sermons  and  essays : 
^York,  Friendship.  Worship  (1871) ;  Boy  Life,  or  Sundays 
at  WeUington  College  (IHli);  Single-heart  (VSTiy,  The  Ca- 
thedral, its  XeccHsary  Flace  in  the  Life  and  Work  of  the 
Church  (1879);  The  Seven  Gifts  (1885);  Communings  of  a 
Day  (1886) ;  Christ  and  His  Times  (1889).  D.  at  Hawar- 
den,  while  on  a  visit  to  Gladstone,  Oct.  11,  1896. 

Benson,  Eobert,  TiL.  I). :  born  in  New  York  city,  June 21, 
1746;  grailuated  at  Columbia  College  in  1765;  was  an  emi- 
nent lawver;  a  member  of  Congress  (1784-88,  1789-93.  and 
1813-15)';  a  regent  of  the  universitv  (1789-1802) ;  jmlge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York  (1794-1801);  and  of  the  U.  S. 
Circuit  Court.  He  published  a  Vindication  oi  the  captors 
of  Andre  (1817),  and  a  Memoir  on  Dutch  Names.  D.  in 
Jamaica,  L.  1.,  Aug.  24,  1833. 


Benson.  Frank  Weston  :  genre  and  portrait  painter ;  b. 
at  Salem,  Mass.,  Mar.  24, 1862  :  pupiil  of  the  Museum  of  Pine 
Arts,  Boston,  and  of  Bonlanger  and  of  Lefcbvre,  Paris :  third 
Hallgarten  prize.  National  Academy  (1889);  Clarke  prize. 
National  Academy  (1891) ;  member  of  the  Society  of  Ameri- 
can Artists  (1888).  His  pictures,  which  are  principally  of 
figures  painted  in  out-of-doors  etTects,  are  marked  by  good 
qualities  of  color,  and  show  truth  of  observation  in  the  study 
of  nature;  his  portraits  are  good  in  drawing  and  refined  in 
character.     Studio  in  Salem.  W.  A.  C. 

Benson.  Henry  C.  D.  D.  :  preacher  ami  writer  in  the 
Jletliodist  Episcopal  Clnux-h ;  b.  near  Xenia,  0.,  in  1815; 
joined  the  Indiana  Conference  in  1842 ;  was  elected  Professor 
of  Greek  in  Indiana  Asbury  University  in  1850 ;  went  to  Cali- 
fornia in  1852 ;  w;is  editor  of  the  Pacific  Christian  Advocate 
at  Portland,  Or.,  from  1864  to  1868;  elected  editor  of  the 
California  Advocate  in  1868,  in  which  office  he  long  con- 
tinued. He  is  author  of  Life  among  the  Choctaws,  nmong 
whom  he  labored  for  some  time  as  a  missionary. 

Benson.  Joseph  :  Methodist  minister:  b.  in  Cumberland, 
England,  Jan.  25,  1748 ;  acquired  much  influence  in  the 
Church.  He  was  a  popular  )ire,acher.  and  author  of  numerous 
works,  among  which  are  an  Apology  for  the  JLthodists  {1801) ; 
a  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Fletcher;  and  a  Commentary  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (5  vols.,  1811-18),  which  is  highly  esteemed. 
D.  in  Loudon,  Feb.  16,  1821. 

Bent-grass :  any  grass  of  the  genus  Agro.stis,  whicli  com- 
prises numerous  species,  natives  of  Europe,  the  U.  S.,  and 
many  other  countries.  The  Agrostis  vulgaris  or  A.  alba, 
forms  a  principal  part  of  the  pasture  in  the  more  elevated 
districts  of  England,  and  resists  drought  better  than  some 
other  grasses.  It  is  (.-ailed  "  florin  "  or  "  redtop  "  in  the  U.  S., 
where  it  is  an  important  meadow  grass. 

Bentliam.  ben  tam  or  ben  tham.  George.  F.  L.S..  F.K.S.: 
English  liiitanist,  and  nephew  of  Jeremy;  b.  in  what  is 
now  a  ]iart  of  Portsmouth.  Sept.  22,  1800;  educated  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe;  secretary  to  his  uncle  (182()-32); 
wrote  a  Xew  System  of  Logic  (1827),  in  which  he  clearly  an- 
ticipated Hamilton's  doctrine  of  the  "quantiflcation  of  the 
predicate,''  but  the  publishers  failed,  and  the  credit  of  the 
discovery  was  delayed  until  1850.  He  abandoned  law  for 
botany  ;  catalogued  the  flora  of  the  Pyrenees,  of  Hongkong, 
and  of  Australia.  Gave  his  collections  to  the  Kew  Gardens, 
and  passed  his  later  years  there.  The  Genera  Plantanim 
(1862-83)  was  the  joint  work  of  Bentham  and  Sir  Joseph 
Hooker,  and  is  an  exhaustive  summary  of  botanical  science 
to  its  date.  His  most  important  publications  are  Labia- 
taruin  Genera  et  Species  (1832-36) :  Flora  Hongkongensis 
(1861):  Flora  Australiensis  (1863-70).  D.  in  London,  Sept. 
10.  1884. 

Bentham,  Jeremy:  philosopher  and  reformer;  apostle  of 
the  modern  school  of  utilitarianism  :  b.  in  London,  Feb.  15, 
1748.  He  graduated  at  Queen's  College.  Oxford,  in  1766; 
studied  law  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1772.  but  he  never 
practiced  that  profession.  Ho  published  in  1776  an  acute 
and  critical  Fragment  on  Government,  which  abounds  in 
sound  and  original  ideas,  and  in  1787  an  exhaustive  argu- 
ment entitled  a  Defense  of  Usury.  His  next  important 
work  was  his  Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legi.tlation  {\18^).  He  adopted  the  theory  that  -'titilityis 
the  test  and  measure  of  virtue,"  and  that  laws  should  jiro- 
mote  "the  greatest  haiqiincss  of  the  greatest  inimber."  He 
devoted  liis'tinie  and  talents  chiefly  to  the  reform  of  legisla- 
tion and  government,  and  advocated  universal  suffrage,  the 
vote  by  ballot,  etc.  He  inherited  from  his  father  an  easy 
fortune.  About  1792  he  formed  a  friendship  and  literary 
partnership  with  M.  Dumont.  who  translated  into  French 
several  of  Bent  ham's  works — namely.  Treatise  on  Civil  and 
Penal  Legislation  (3  vols..  1802)  and  Theory  of  Penalties 
and  Rewards  (1811).  Among  his  other  works  are  Panopticon 
(1791).  which  treats  on  (irison  discipline,  and  The  Rationale 
of  Judicial  Evidence  (5  vols.,  1827).  By  habitual  temperance, 
activitv,  and  self-control  he  prolonged  his  life  to  tlie  age  of 
eightv-four.  D.  in  London,  June  6,  1832.  He  has  great 
nu'rits  in  the  English  jurisprudence,  "which."  as  Maeaulay 
savs.  "  he  found  a  gil)berish  and  left  a  science."  But  on  tho 
public  in  general  liis  influence  was  small,  on  account  of  the 
unreadableness  of  his  writings.  He  rejiresents  French  ideas, 
especially  those  of  the  French  Revolution.  His  works  were 
more  admired  on  the  Continent  than  in  England.  See  Me- 
moirs of  Jeremy  Bentham.  prefixed  to  his  works  by  Dr. 
Bowring;    John   Hill   Burton,   Benthamiana;    Sir    James 


BENTINCK 


BENTONSVILLE 


585 


Mackintosh,  Vieie  of  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy; 
Ediiilinnik  Review  lor  Oct.,  184:?. 

IJeii'tiiH'k  :  Knj,'lish  nolile  fainilv ;  the  most  notable  mem- 
bers weio  :  William,  first  Ivirl  of  "t'ortland ;  I),  in  Holland, 
1649,  of  a  nol)K^  family  wliicli  lunl  niigrali'il  from  tlie  I'ala- 
tiiiatc' to  (ielilorlaiiil  in  llic  fourleentli  century,  wlicrc  it  is 
still  ri'iiresciilfd  hy  a  youni;cr  line.  lie  was  the  favorite  and 
friend  of  William  111.,  by  wliom  he  wa.s  constantly  employed 
in  military  and  diplomatic  .services.  I).  1709. — William 
IIknrv  Cavk.ndish,  third  Dnke  of  Portland;  b.  Apr.  14, 
XTiH;  became  I'riine  Minister  and  First  Lord  of  the  Trea.s- 
iiry  \Wi\  ilistinjruishiil  as  l'itt"s  Home  Secretary,  and  as 
chari;ed  with  Irish  alTairs  in  the  turbulent  times  of  1704- 
1801;  a;;ain  I'riine  Minister  in  succession  to  (irenville,  and 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  18U7  ;  d.  Oct.  80,  1809.— William 
IIknry  Cavknuisii,  son  of  the  preceiiing;  h.  Sept.  14,  1774; 
served  with  di-stinction  as  an  army  otlicer  in  Flanders,  Egypt, 
Italy,  Portugal,  and  Sicily;  (iovernor  of  Madras  (1803-07), 
of  lieiigal  (18'.;7-:!:!),  when  he  was  made  (iovernor-General  of 
India,  and  served  till  IS:!.");  distinguished  in  India  for  su]i- 
pressing  suttee  and  lliug:;ism.  for  developing  systems  of  in- 
ternal transportation,  aud  for  engaging  luttives  in  (.Tovern- 
ment  service;  d.  in  Paris,  .lune  17.  1889. — William  Georgk 
Frkukru'K  Cavkndish,  iie|)hew  of  the  preceding;  b.  Feb.  37, 
1802;  entered  the  army;  private  secretary  to  his  uncle, 
George  Canning;  meinlier  of  Parliament  1826;  was  greatly 
engrossed  in  horse-ra<'ing,  which  he  ilid  mucli  to  maUe  re- 
spectable, and  to  other  field-sport.s.  He  joined  the  party  of 
country  sipiiri's,  who  were  Conservative,  during  Peel's  ad- 
ministration, and  was  olfcred  a  .seat  in  his  cabinet,  but  de- 
clined. On  the  repeal  agitation  (1845)  of  the  corn-laws  he 
was  nui<Ie  the  leader  of  the  protectionists,  and  suddenly  as- 
sumed great  importance.  As  a  parliamentaiy  leader  he 
struc-k  hanl,  evinced  a  mastery  of  details  unexpected  in  a 
man  of  his  ta.sles,  kept  his  party  compact,  and  contril)uteiI 
materially  to  Pei'l's  overthrow  in  184('>.  In  religious  politics 
he  advocated  the  removal  of  disabilities  from  .lews,  .and  an 
endowment  of  the  Irish  Catholic  Church.  D.  suddenly  near 
Welbeck  Al)bev,  Nottinghamshire.  Sept.  21, 1848.  Earl  Bea- 
conslield  wrote  a  life  of  him  (8th  ed.  1872). 

lli'iit'lcy.  Richard.  1).  1). :  critic  and  chussieal  scholar  ;  b. 
atOtdlon,  in  Yorkshire,  England,  Jan.  27,  1062.  He  entered 
St.  .lohn's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1676,  and  having  taken  the 
degree  of  bacheU)r  became  in  168;i  tutor  to  Dr.  Stillingfleet's 
Sf)n,  with  whom  he  went  to  Oxfonl.  He  Wits  ordained  a 
priest  in  lt>!(0.  In  1092  he  was  appointed  to  deliver  the 
Boyle  lecture  on  the  evidences  of  religion,  and  in  1694  be- 
came keeper  of  the  Royal  Library.  He  published  in  1699  a 
celebrated  Dissertation  on  t/ie  Epintlea  of  Fli(il<iri.i.  which 
procured  for  him  a  European  reputation.  He  maintained 
that  these  Epistles  were  spurious,  which  involved  him  in  a 
conlrovei-sy  with  Atlerbiiry,  Charles  Boyle,  Pope,  and  other 
writers,  who  resorted  to  sarcasm  and  personality.  Bentley 
defended  himself  in  another  DIx.ierlalioii  tin  tlie  Epistles  of 
I'lialiiri.t  (1699)  to  the  confusion  of  his  adversaries,  and  by  it 
he  estaldished  his  ])lace  as  the  tii'st  in  time  and  learning  of 
English  historical  critics.  He  was  appointed  ma-ster  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1700,  and  married  Joanna 
Bernard  in  1701.  In  1711  he  [)ul)lished  a  good  edition  of 
Horace.  His  arrogance  and  their  traditionalism  provoked  a 
scries  of  ((uarrels  and  litigations  with  the  fellows  of  Trinity 
College.  He  was  appoinli'd  Regius  Pnifcssor  of  Divinity  in 
1717,  and  wils  deprived  of  all  his  academic  degrees  and 
honoi-s  by  the  senate  of  the  univei-sity  in  1718,  but  he  was 
reinstated  by  a  mandamus  of  the  court  of  king's  bench  in 
1724.  Among  his  productions  was  an  edition  of  Homer, 
which  he  left  unlinished.  lie  proposed  to  revise  and  correct 
the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament  by  comparing  it  with  all 
the  manuscripts.  He  failed  to  perforin  this  task,  but  his 
Iiriuei[iles  of  criticism  have  since  been  adojitecl,  and  have 
triumphed  over  all  opposition.  He  died  in  Cambridge.  July 
14,  1742.  His  daughter  was  the  mother  of  Richard  Cumber- 
land, the  dramatist.  See  his  Life  by  J.  H.  Jlonk  (London, 
18;J0)  and  R.  C.  Jebb  (1882). 

Bciillcy,  Rohkrt,  F.  L.  S.  :  medical  botanist;  b.  at 
llitchin,  lOiigland,  Mar.  25,  1821;  member  of  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  1847;  president  of  the  Britisli  Pharmaceutical 
conferi'iices  1866-67;  was  member  of  nniny  English  and 
American  jiharmaeeutieal  and  botanical  societies.  Author 
of  Mnnittil  of  liiildiii/ ;  Tcxt-hiiuk  of  llic  Organic  Materia 
Medirn.  etc.  D.  in  London,  Dee.  28,"  180:!. 
.  Beiidtii,  Jamks  Gii.riiRisT  :  soldier;  b.  in  Lebanon,  X.  II., 
Sept.  15,  1820;  gradimted  at  West  Point  in  1842;  major  of 


ordnance,  Sept.  15,  186:!.  He  served  at  various  arsenals  and 
on  special  (luties  1842-57 ;  as  member  of  the  ordnance 
boar(l  1854-56 ;  at  Military  Academy  as  instructor  of  ord- 
nance and  gunnery  1857-61.  In  the  civil  war  he  was  an  as- 
sistant in  the  ordnance  bureau  at  Wa.shington  1861-63;  in 
command  of  Washington  arsenal  till  June  14,  1864,  and 
since  of  Springfield  armory,  Mass.  Brevet  lieutenant-col- 
onel and  colonel  Mar.  i:?,  186.5,  for  faithful  and  meritorious 
services  in  the  ordnance  department.  He  made  great  im- 
provements in  the  S))ringtield  rifle,  seacoa.st  gun-carriages, 
and  the  system  of  loading  barbette  guns  undercover;  also 
invented  "the  Benton  electro-ballistic  pendulum,  a  veloci- 
meter,  a  spring-dynamometer,  and  minor  devices  in  the  use 
of  arms.  His  reports  to  the  Government  on  his  experiments 
were  valuable  in  their  time.  He  was  author  of  A  Course 
of  Instruetivn  in  Ordnance  and  Giinnertj  for  the  nse  of  the 
('adets  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  (1860).  D. 
in  Springfielrl,  Ma.ss.,  Aug.  2:3,  1881. 

licnlon,  Thomas  Hart:  Senator;  b.  near  Hillsborough, 
N'.  ('.,  Mar.  14.  1782.  He  removed  to  Tennessee,  where  his 
father,  tlu-n  dead,  had  ac(|uireil  a  vast  tract  of  land  ;  studied 
law,  and  began  to  practice  at  Nashville  about  1810.  In  the 
war  of  1812  he  served  as  colonel  under  Gen.  Jackson.  He 
became  a  resident  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1815,  and  was  elected 
a  Senator  of  the  U.  S.  for  Missouri  in  1820.  Having  been  re- 
elected in  1826,  he  sup|)orte(l  (ieii.  Jackson,  opposed  the 
V.  S.  liank,  and  advocated  a  gold  and  silver  currency,  for 
which  n>a.son  he  was  often  calh'd  "  Old  Bullion."  Formanj' 
years  he  was  the  most  prominent  public  man  of  Missouri. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Senate  for  thirty  years, 
and  opposed  the  extreme  State  Rights  nolicy  of  Calhoun. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  in 
which  he  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Mi.ssouri  Compromise. 
He  was  opposed  by  a  powerful  [larly  of  State  Bights  Demo- 
crats in  Missouri,  who  defeated  him  as  a  candidate  for  Gov- 
ernor in  18.56.  His  life  in  Tennessee  was  turbulent  with 
liot-l)lood.  and  involved  c  bitter  quarrel  with  Gen.  Jackson. 
In  the  Senate  he  was  a  pLi-sislent  advocate  of  opening  the 
public  lands  of  the  West  to  actual  settlers;  promoted  sur- 
veying and  exi>loring  expeditions,  foreseeing  a  great  empire 
to 'grow  up  even  to  the  Pacific.  He  introduced  the  "ex- 
punging resolutions  "  which  removed  from  the  Senate  record 
its  censure  of  President  Jackson  ;  op])osed  Polk's  54°  40'  N. 
boundary  line  for  Oregon,  and  facilitated  the  settlement  on 
the  existing  line;  resisted  Calhoun's  influence,  and  the  two 
contended  bitterly  in  the  forum  and  in  political  combina- 
tion. He  was  the  father-in-law  of  J.  C.  Fremont,  but  op- 
posed his  candidacv  for  the  presidency  in  1856  as  promoting 
sectional  politics.  "He  published  a  Thirty  Years'  View,  or 
a  llisttini  of  the  Working  of  the  American  Government  for 
Thirty  Years,  lf<:M-5U  (2  vols.,  1854-56).  D.  in  Washington, 
I).  C..  Ajir.  10,  1858.  See  his  life  by  Theodore  Roosevelt  in 
American  Statesman  Series,  1887. 

Benton  Harbor:  city  and  railroad  junction  ;  Berrien 
CO.,  Mich,  (for  location  of  couiitv,  .see  map  of  Michigan,  ref. 
8-(<) ;  on  Ch.  and  W.  Mich.  and"Cl.,  Cin.,  Ch.  and  St.  Louis 
R.  Ks.,  and  on  the  east  side  of  St.  Jo.seph's  river,  and  the  Ben- 
ton Harbor  ship-canal ;  li  miles  from  Lake  Michigan,  and 
about  60  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Chicago.  It  has  a  large  trade 
in  grain  and  lumber,  and  an  immense  one  in  fruit,  large 
manufactories  of  fruit  packages,  wood  and  iron  machinery, 
furniture,  flour,  barrels,  vinegar,  pickles,  cider,  vehicles,  and 
canned  fruit,  and  an  undeveloiicd  water-power.  Kegular 
lines  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  connect  it  with  Chicago 
and  Jlilwaukee.  Pop.  (1880)  1.230:  (1890)  3.602;  (1894) 
5_:il  (.  Editor  of  "  Palladium." 

Benlonville:  town;  cimnected  by  a  branch  road  with 
St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  R.  R. ;"  capital  of  Benton  i«.. 
Ark.  (for  location  of  county,  see  mapof  Arkansas,  ref.  1-A); 
170  miles  N.  W.  of  Little  Rock.  It  is  the  center  of  a  fruit- 
•;rowing  country;  has  an  active  trade  in  tobacco,  etc.,  and 
has  a  large  fruit-evaporating  industry.  Here  are  nine 
churches  (two  colored)  and  a  public  school.  Pop.  (1880) 
696  ;  (1890)  1,677;  (1892)  cstimateil  with  suburbs,  2.500. 

Editor  ok  "  Democrat." 

Bentoiisville:  a  post-village  of  Johnston  co.,  N.  C  in  a 
townshij)  of  its  own  name;  about  17  miles  W.  of  Goldsboro. 
After  the  battle  of  Averysboro  (Mar.  16,  1865)  the  army  of 
Gen.  Shernum  advanced  toward  Goldsboro.  but  Gen.  John- 
ston, who  had  been  concentrating  at  Smithlicld,  N.C..  slipped 
out  at  night  in  light  marching  order,  expecting  to  crush  the 
left  wing  of  Sherman's  army,  under  Gen.  Slocum,  before 
support  could  reach  him.     Gen.  Slocum,  marching  toward 


586 


BENUE 


BEOWULF 


Goldsboro,  struck  Johnston  at  about  6  a.  .m..  Mar.  19,  and 
was  at  first  driven  back,  but  throwing  uyi  rifle-pits,  assumed 
tlie  defensive,  Kilpatriek  witli  his  eavalry  supporting  his 
left.  Johnston  failed  to  dislodge  tlie  veterans  of  Slocum 
from  their  position,  while  the  artillery  fire  upon  the  Confed- 
erates was  very  damaging.  By  morning  re-enforcements  had 
aiTived  to  Slocum's  aid.  and  iluring  the  day  the  original  line 
was  reoccupied  and  strengtheneil.  The  Confederates  spent 
the  day  in  fortifying  tlieir  position.  On  tlie  morning  of  the 
'21st  the  right  wing  arrivi'd.  and  the  day  was  spent  in  placing 
it  in  positifin  tJU  three  sides  of  Johnston  and  pressing  the 
troops  close  to  his  works,  but  Johnston  hastily  retreatetl  dur- 
ing the  night  of  JIar.  21  on  Sniithfield  and  Kaleigh.  The 
Federal  loss  was  upward  of  1,600.  killed  and  wounded ;  the 
Confederate  loss  is  reported  as  23it  killed,  1.694  wounded, 
and  678  jirisoners;  total  2,696.  Pop.  of  township  (1880) 
1,076  :  (1890)  1,004.  Revised  by  Jas.  Wekcl-r. 

Beiiu'e  (i.  e.  the  mother  of  waters) :  a  large  river  of  Cen- 
tral Africa  ;  the  princiiial  tril)utary  of  the  Niger  or  yuorra. 
It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Adaniawaand  flows  nearly  west- 
ward, making  the  southern  boundary  of  Sokoto.  and  enters 
the  Niger  at  Lokoya,  about  800  miles  from  its  mouth.  Dr. 
Barth  in  18.51  crossed  it  near  Ion.  12°  30'  E.,  and  found  it 
there  about  800  yards  wide.  Dr.  Baikie  in  18.i0  ascended 
the  Benue  to  Dulti  or  Dolti,  which  is  about  400  miles  from 
its  mouth.  A  second  expedition  to  explore  this  river  was 
undertaken  by  Dr.  Baikie  in  1861.  In  1867  Gerhard  Rohlfs 
traveled  ui)  this  river  from  Dagbo  to  its  entrance  into  the 
Niger  at  Lokoya.  a  distance  of  about  150  miles. 

Beiiwood  :  town  :  JIarshall  eo.,  W.  Va.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  West  Virginia,  ref.  4-G) ;  on  B.  and  0. 
and  O.  River  R.  Rs. ;  4  miles  S.  of  Wheeling,  in  the  midst 
of  an  iron-mining  region.     Pop.  (1890)  2,934. 

Beuyowsky,  bay-nee-ov'ske"e,  Maurice  Augusti-s,  Count 
de  :  Hungarian  adventurer;  b.  at  Werbo,  1741:  taken  pris- 
oner 1761  while  fighting  for  the  Polish  confederation  ;  ban- 
ished to  Kamtehatka:  tutor  in  the  family  of  the  governor; 
gained  tlie  affections  of  the  governor's  daugliter,  who  assisted 
him  to  escajie  after  a  struggle  in  which  the  governor  was 
killed  ;  with  ninety-six  companions  sailed  in  a  ship  well 
armed  and  provisioned,  and  reached  France  in  1772 ;  invited 
by  the  French  Government,  he  sailed  to  Madagascar  to  found 
a  colony,  and  was  there  made  king  in  1776,  adopting  the 
native  costume;  becoming  involved  in  diflicullies  with  the 
French,  he  was  killed  in  battle.  May  28, 1786.  See  Memoirs 
and  Travels  of  Beni/owsk;/,  written' by  himself  (1790). 

Ben'zene,  or  Bpu'zoI  :  CsIU;  the  first  member  of  an  im- 
portant series  of  ci impounds  containing  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen (hydrocarbons),  other  members  being  toluene,  (Mle, 
xylene,  CeH,o,  niesitylene,  C'sHu,  etc.  It  was  first  founcl 
in  iron  vessels  in  which  coal-gas  was  kept  under  pressure. 
It  was  afterward  made  by  distilling  benzoic  acid  with  lime, 
but  is  now  obtained  in  enormous  quantities  from  coal-tar, 
an  extremely  comjilex  mixtureof  organic  compounds  formed 
in  the  distillation  of  coal  for  the  manufacture  of  gas.  When 
coal-tar  is  distilled,  the  oil  that  first  passes  over  floats  on 
water  and  is  hence  called  "  light  oil."  It  is  from  this  that 
benzene  is  obtained. 

Benzene  is  a  colorless  liquid,  of  pleasant  odor,  that  boils  at 
85"  C.  When  cooled  down  to  about  the  freezing-point  of 
water  it  solirlifies,  forming  a  mass  of  crystals.  It  burns 
easily  with  a  l)right  flame.  It  is  a  good  solvent  for  caout- 
chouc, gutla-|)ercha,  wax,  and  fatty  substances.  With  nitric 
acid  it  forms  nitrobenzene,  from  which  in  turn  aniline  is 
made.     All  aniline  used  in  the  arts  is  made  in  this  way. 

Ira  Remsex. 

Benzert :  See  Bizerta. 

Benzidine:  a  ba.se  made  by  heating  Nitrobenzene  {q.  v.) 
with  caustic  soda  and  zinc-dust.  The  nitrobenzene  is  thus 
converted  into  hydrazobenzene.  When  this  is  treated  with 
strong  hyilrochloric  acid  it  is  transformed  into  benzidine. 
There  is  a  close  relalionsliip  l)etween  this  coni)iouiid  and 
A.MLI.VE  ((/.  c).  The  hitler  is  an  amido  derivative  of  P,i;n- 
ZE.NE  («.  c),  and  is  renresented  bv  the  formula  CelU.NII,. 
Benzidine  is  an  amido  derivative  of  the  hydrocarbon  dijiheny  I, 
C-'dHs         ,  .  ■       ('.II.  Ml, 

,1       ,  and  IS  rejiresented  bv  the  formula  i  .    \n\- 

<-»ns  ■  C,H..NIIa 

uable  ilyes  are  obtained  by  converting  it  into  a  diazo  com- 
pound, and  treating  this  with  phenols  and  amido  compounds. 
See  Bexzidixe  Dyes.  ]ra  Re.mse.x. 

Benzidine  Dyes:  products  of  the  action  of  various  Phe- 
nols (</.  r.)  and  amido  compounds  on  the  diazo  compounds 


obtained  from  Benzidine  (q.  v.)  and  Tolidine  {q.  i\).  The 
first  important  dye  of  this  class  known  was  Congo-red,  wliich 
is  prepared  by  the  action  of  diazotized  benzidine  on  naph- 
thionic  acid.  (See  Naphthalene.)  Congo-red  and  the  other 
benzidine  dyes  dye  cotton  without  the  aid  of  a  mordant,  and 
are  known  as  subsfantire  'dyes.  Other  dyes  belonging  to 
this  class  are  chrysamine.  formed  from  diazotized  benzidine 
and  salicylic  acid;  and  henzopnrpnrin,  formed  from  diazot- 
ized Tolvidixe  (5.  c.)  and  naphthionic  acid.  (See  Naphtha- 
lene.)    This  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  used  dyes. 

Ika  Re.msen. 

Benzine :  See  Petroleum. 

Benzo'ic  Acid :  a  substance.  CHeOj,  first  olitained  from 
gum  benzoin.  It  occurs  also  in  a  number  of  natural  resins, 
and  in  some  sweet-.sinelling  flowers.  It  is  now  prepared 
from  gum  benzoin,  from  the  urine  of  the  cow  or  horse,  and 
from  t(ihiene.  In  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals  there  is 
a  compound  known  as  hippuric  acid,  which  breaks  down 
easily  liy  putrefaction  or  by  treatment  with  hydrochloric 
acid  into  benzoic  acid  and  glycocoll  or  glycine.  Toluene 
(q.  V.)  is  a  hydrocarbon  closely  allied  to  benzene,  and  obtained 
like  it  from  coal-tar.  By  oxidation,  or,  better,  by  treatment 
with  chlorine  and  sulisequent  oxidation,  toluene  yields  ben- 
zoic acid,  and  most  of  the  acid  that  comes  into  the  market 
at  the  present  time  is  obtained  from  toluene.  Benzoic  acid 
crystallizes  in  lustrous  leafiets  ;  it  is  easily  sublimed.  It  is 
used  in  medicine,  the  natural  product  from  gum  benzoin 
being  alone  suitable  for  this  i)urpose.  The  artificially  pre- 
pared acid  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  blue. 

Ira  Remsen. 

Benzoin',  or  Gum  Ben',ianiin  (Lat.  henzoi'num) :  a  fra- 
grant resinous  substance  :  is  the  concrete  juice  of  a  tree  called 
Sfyrax  hemoin,  which  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  Siam,  and 
Borneo,  and  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Styracack*:  (9.  ?;.). 
The  resin  is  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark  of 
trees  which  are  cultivated  for  that  [inrpose.  It  is  extensive- 
ly used  as  incense  in  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  churches  ; 
is  also  used  in  perfumery,  and  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant, 
emetic,  and  styptic.  A"  tincture  of  benzoin  is  sometimes 
applied  to  wounds,  and  is  einjiloyed  in  making  a  cosmetic 
called  virgin's  milk. 

Benzo'in  odoriPeruni :  a  shrub  more  correctly  called 
Lindera  benzoin,  of  the  family  Lmiracece,  a  native  of  the 
V.  S.,  popularly  called  benjamin-tree,  spice-bush,  etc.  Its 
bark  is  aromatic,  stimulant,  and  tonic,  and  has  been  used 
as  a  remedy  for  intermittent  fevers. 

Benzol :  See  Benzene. 

Benzopurpnrin :  See  Benzidine  Dyes. 

Beothnkan  Indians:  the  Beothuks;  a  linguistic  stock 
or  family  of  North  American  Indians  which,  so  far  as  is 
known,  consisted  of  a  single  tribe.  Their  only  known  habi- 
tat was  the  valley  of  the  Exploits  river  in  Newfoundland. 
It  is,  however,  probable  that  the  entire  area  of  Newfound- 
land was  in  their  iiossession  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
Cabot  in  1497.  Ihe  name  Beothuk,  or  Beothik,  is  derived 
from  a  native  word  meaning  "  men,"  or  perhajis  "  human 
beings";  but  King  reported  that  Shmvnfharotf  was  the 
name  which  these  Indians  claimed  for  themselves.  They 
were  also  called  by  Latham  the  "  Good-night "  Indians, 
from  a  mistranslated  word  which  resemWed  the  term  Beo- 
thuk in  sound.  The  term  "Red  Indians,"  or,  better,  "  Red- 
men,"  is  a  literal  rendering  of  a  Micmac  name  for  them, 
bestowed  from  the  fact  that  the  Beothuks  painted  their 
bodies  and  their  property  with  red  ochre. 

Before  the  examination  by  Mr.  Gatschet,  of  the  V.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Ethnology,  of  the  scanty  accessible  material  of  their 
language  established  its  position  as  constituting  a  distinct 
linguistic  stock,  it  had  been  considered  as  distantly  related 
either  to  the  Eskimauan  or  to  the  Algonquian  family,  al- 
though the  appearance,  maimers  and  customs,  lodges  and 
canoes  of  the  people  as  described  distinguished  them  from 
the  tribes  of  either  of  the  families  mentioned. 

Owing  to  wars  with  tile  Micinacs,  and  to  famine,  the  Beo- 
thuks became  extinct,  or  were  absorbed  liy  other  tribes, 
within  the  decade  ending  with  1830.  See  Ixdiaxs  of  North 
America.  Garrick  Mallery. 

Berabera :  See  Barabra. 

Be'ownir  :  the  title  of  a  celebrated  Anglo-Saxon  poem, 
written  not  later  than  the  eighth  century,  and  having  for  its 
subject  a  semi-fabulous  hero  of  Denmark.  There  is  only 
one  MS.  of  it  in  existence :  this  belongs  to  the  tenth  century, 
and  is  in  the  British  Museum,     It  was  first  edited  bv  Thor- 


BfiHAXORR 


BEKDITCHEF 


587 


kelin  (Copenhafjeii,  1815) ;  l)v  Harrison  and  Sharp  (Boston, 
188;!;  3(1  I'd.  1888):  En?,  trans,  first  bv  Komhle  (1833):  other 
trans,  l.v  11.  W.  I-nnisdcn  (London.  1881  ;  2d  ed.  1883);  J. 
M.  tianiott  (Bnsl!)n,  188-.>). 

IJf  rniiircr.  bu'v  raaiV^hay',  Je.\x  I'ierrk,  de  :  French  lyric 
pod:  1).  in  I'aris,  Auj^.  li),  1780.  He  passed  about  three 
years  as  an  ai)prentiee  to  a  printer,  and  never  received  a 
very  liberal  edu<-atioii.  He  was  ncjfleeted  by  his  father,  and 
speiit  many  of  his  early  yeais  wilh  an  annl.  who  imbued  his 
mind  wilh  virtuous  and  repulilican  princi])les.  His  first 
essays  in  vei-se,  which  wcri'  writleii  under  the  press\ire  of 
poverty,  olilained  for  him  in  lS{l4ihe  palronaLreof  Lucien 
Bonaparte.  He  was  employed  for  nearly  twelve  years  as  a 
clerk  or  subordinate  secretary  in  the  University  of  Paris. 
He  published  in  ISl.l  a  volume  of  soiiufs  (C'hannoiis  morales 
et  aii/re.t)  whicli  becanu'  very  popular.  Some  of  his  verses 
were  political,  an<l  contained  satirical  pa.ssages  which  were 
ofTensive  to  the  royalists,  then  the  party  in  power.  HiiviiiLC 
produced  another  volume  of  poems  in  IS'.'l.  he  was  prose- 
cuted and  sentenced  to  an  im]irisoinuent  for  tlirce  months. 
This  increased  the  popularity  of  his  sonjjs,  but  tailed  to  re- 
strain the  freedom  of  his  .sal  ire  or  abate  the  ardor  of  his  re- 
publicainsm.  He  jiublished  a  third  volume  in  182"),  and  in 
1H28  a  fonrlh  volume,  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  pay  a 
line  of  10.000  francs  aii<l  to  be  imprisoned  for  nine  monlhs. 
In  lH:iO.  however,  convinced  that  the  time  had  not  yet  come 
for  a  republic,  he  did  miu-h  by  his  .advice  to  his  friends,  the 
leaders  of  the  revolution  of  -Inly,  toward  eslablishini;  Louis 
Philippe  on  the  throne.  He  refused  to  accept,  royal  favor 
as  a  reward,  nevertheless:  and,  with  the  exce]ilion  of  the 
brief  episoile  of  his  iinwillini;  election  to  the  Assembly  in 
1S4H,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement,  revising;  his 
poems,  preparini;  his  memoirs,  and  corrcspondint;  with  numy 
of  the  best  spirits  in  France.  His  son^s,  which  had  so  re- 
markable an  inlluence  over  his  countrymen,  are  wonderful 
for  the  clearness  and  perfi'ction  of  their  .style,  at  the  same 
lime  that  they  are  beautifully  various  with  g-i.^''''.'''  ''"'' 
withpathos.  I). in  Pari.s.  .Inly  Ki.  1857.  See  his  inemoir.s,  jl/ra 
Himjraphit  (18.58):  his  l-Drrespondance  (1800):  P.  Boiteau, 
Vii'  lie  Hn-anyer  (1861);  A.  Arnould,  Bi'ranger.  .ses  amix, 
xes  e/i)ii-mis,  et  nes  rriliques  (18ti4):  .1.  Jimin,  Bi'miiijer  et 
xdH  Tempa  (180(5);  Sainte-Beuve.  Por/nilfs  ('untemponiins 
(vol.  i.).  Revised  by  A.  K.  M.tRsii. 

Kerar.  ba"S'-raar',  or  The  IJcrar.s' :  a  commissionership  of 
<'entral  India:  between  hits.  l!l  30'  N.  and  21  40'  X..  and 
loiif^s.  7f>  anil  TO  13'  E. :  bounded  on  the  N.  and  K.  by  llie 
<'enlral  Provinces,  on  the  S.  by  Ilaideraliad.  on  tlie  W.  by 
llaiderabad  and  the  Bombay  Presidency.  Area,  17,714  sq. 
miles.  It  falls  into  two  dislinct  sections — the  lowlandsof  the 
north  anil  the  Bahifihat  or  highlands  of  the  south :  the  first 
are  fertile,  l)ut  unattractive  and  nearly  treeless;  the  second 
l>icturesipie  and  wilh  forests,  liul  not  so  suitable  for  culliva- 
tion.  Cotlon  is  Ihi'  <-hief  crop,  and  is  of  line  i|ualily  ;  millet, 
wheat,  rice,  linseed,  the  castor-plant,  and  the  su>;ar-caiu'  are 
jdso  cultivateil.  There  is  little  manufacturin-jf — chiefly  cot- 
ton-cloth of  poor  (pialily.  carpets,  and  saddlery.  The  Xas- 
pnr  brancli  of  the  (ireat  Indian  Peninsular  Railway  travei'ses 
the  province  from  east  to  west.  The  Berars  were  ceded 
111  the  British  by  the  Xi/.am  of  llaiderabad  in  IS.53  as  jiav- 
menl  for  a  ilelil.  Poji.  |  IH'.d)  2.S!lt;.()7(l.  of  whom  about  86 
jier  cent,  are  Hindus.  The  principal  towns  are  I'llichjiur,  a 
former  c;ipital,  Amraoti,  Akat,  Akola,  and  Karinja. 

.M.  W.  II. 

Bt'rat' :  a  town  of  Europi'an  Turkey  ;  in  Albania  ;  on  the 
river  Eri;ent,  here  crosseil  by  a  bridge :  ;!()  miles  N.  E.  of 
-Vvlona  (see  ma])  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-B).  It  contains  a  citadel, 
M'Veral  Greek  churches,  and  a  number  of  mosques.  It  is  the 
se.'it  of  a  (Ireek  archbishop.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
12.000,  a  majority  of  whom  are  (ireeks. 

Itt'i'and.  ba'y  ro .  .Ii;an:  genre-pidnter  of  subjects  taken 
jiimosi  exclusively  from  I'arisiini  life,  and  an  artist  of  mui'h 
talent,  who.sc  work  is  notable  for  good  drawing  and  great 
truth  of  observation:  b.  at  St.  P>-lersburg  of  French  parents 
al)oiit  1H45  :  piipil  of  Bonmit ;  tii-st-class  medal,  Paris  Exi)o- 
sition.  188!) ;  Legion  of  Honor  1H87.  His  latest  works  (1800- 
1(2)  have  been  moderidzed  conce|)lions  of  scenes  in  the  life 
of  Christ.  Lit  Miidelehie  represents  a  woman  in  the  costume 
of  to-day  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  who  sits  at  a  tabh^  in  a  sup- 
per-room in  a  Paris  restaurant,  anil  the  scene  of  'J'lte  l>e- 
neent  fmiii  the  ( 'ni.in  is  phiced  on  Montnuirtre  overlooking 
the  city  of  I'aris,  with  a  group  of  people  who  are  working 
men  and  women  of  the  vicinity.    Studio  in  Paris. 

^VlI,LIAM  A.  CoKfix. 


Ber'ber,  or  El  Mesherif :  a  town  of  Nubia,  on  the  Nile 
(see  majj  of  Afriira,  ref.  :{-G).  Roads  lead  from  here  to 
Egvpt  and  Khartum.  It  has  considerable  tra<le.  Pop. 
8,000. 

Bcr'bcra  :  a  seaport  station  of  Eastern  Africa,  in  Somali ; 
on  the  (_iulf  of  Aden,  160  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Zeyla  (see  map  of 
Africa,  ref.  4-H).  Here  is  held  jin  annual  fair,  which  is  at- 
tended by  10,000  to  20,000  pel-sons  from  various  foreign 
countries.  They  bring  cotfee,  gold-dust,  ivory,  slaves,  cat- 
tle, etc.,  to  exchange  for  cotton,  rice,  and  Indian  piece- 
goods.  The  fair  begins  in  Xovember,  and  continues  nearly 
six  months.     It  has  an  excellent  and  ca|)acious  harbor. 

Iterhcrida'ccu' :  See  B.\KiiEitKV  Family. 

Her'ljcrs  [frmii  the  Arabic  name.  irtj-Jar.  AeWx-r] :  a  name 
given  to  the  uncivilized,  nomadic  tribes  of  aborigines  who 
inhabit  the  mountainous  regions  of  Barbary  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Desert  of  SaJiara.  They  inchid(>  the  Kabyles, 
Tuaregs,  and  other  .Sdiaraii  ])i'oples.  They  are  the  desci'iid- 
ants  of  the  alioriginal  or  ancient  inhabitants  of  Xorthern 
Africa,  who  occui)ied  the  country  before  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Arabs,  aiul  they  are  the  most  numerous  part  of  the 
])resent  ]iopnlation.  the  Berbers  vary  in  coin|)lexion  with 
situation.  Those  who  inhabit  the  high  valleys  of  the  Atlas 
have  light  hair  and  eyes,  while  those  who  occupy  the  oa.ses 
of  the  Sahara  iire  dark.  a]ipro!iching  the  Xegroes  in  com- 
I)lexion.  though  their  features  are  entirely  unlike  theirs. 
Their  language  is  allied  to  the  Semitic  in  type,  and  has  re- 
ceived from  F.  W.  Newman  the  name  of  snb-Seniitic.  Lan- 
guage, customs,  and  [ihysieal  type  seem  to  indicate  affiliation 
with  the  Semitic  races  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Africa.  They 
are  warlike,  cruel,  and  very  tenacious  of  their  independence. 
In  religion  they  are  bigoted  Mohammedans.  They  keep  cat- 
tle and  sheeij,  cultivate  fruit-trees,  and  practice  agriculture 
in  a  rude  majiner.  Many  of  them  live  in  tents  or  in  clay 
huts. 

Bcrhice,  ber-bees'  :  the  eastern  division  of  British  Gui- 
ana.    See  tJriANA. 

Bcrchta.  Iiarchta  :  name  given  in  south  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland  to  a  spiritual  being  apparently  the  same  as  the 
Ilulila  of  Northern  Germany.  This  being  represented  orig- 
inally one  of  the  kindly  aspects  of  the  unseen  powers,  and 
Ilulila  is  still  so  traditionally  represented ;  but  Bcrchta  de- 
vclopinl  rather  into  an  object  of  terror  used  frequently  to 
frighten  children.  She  has  the  oversight  of  spinners.  The 
last  day  of  Ihe  year  is  sacred  to  her.  and  if  on  that  <lay  she 
finds  any  fliix  left  on  the  di-stall  she  spoils  it.  ,Slie  is  repre- 
sented as  having  a  long  iron  nose  and  an  immensely  large 
foot.    She  is  the  original  of  all  the  myths  of  the  White  Lady. 

('.  H.  TlIURBER. 

Beri'lltesgadeii.  bairh  tcz-gaaibn:  county  in  the  Salz- 
burg Alps  in  the  S.  E.  of  Bavaria.  Area.  155  sq.  miles.  The 
country  is  mountainous  and  unproductive,  but  extremely 
picturesque.  Formerly  an  ecclesiastical  territory.it  became 
in  1803  a  princi[i!dity  of  the  Electorate  of  Salzburg,  and 
since  1810  has  belonged  to  Bavaria.  The  capital,  of  the 
same  name,  much  visited  liy  travelers,  has  a  royal  chateau, 
interesting  salt  mines,  and  is  celebrated  tor  the  manufacture 
of  toys  and  articlesof  wood.  iron,  and  ivory,  and  other  things 
famous  as  Berc/ilefigaden  wares.     Pop.  of  town  (1800)  2.300. 

V.  H.  TlllRBEK. 

Berck'mans.  Prosper  .Iilks  Alpiioxsi:,  A.JI. :  one  of 
the  leading  horticulturists  of  the  I'.  S.  and  president  of  the 
American  I'omological  Societv ;  was  born  at  Aerschot,  Bel- 
gium, Oct.  13.  1830.  His  father  wjis  author  of  Altitun  r/e 
Bamiiliiiiie.  a  leading  Belgian  work.  He  removed  to  the  U.  S. 
in  1850,  and  in  1857  moved  to  Georgia,  where  he  has  since 
resided.  He  was  one  of  the  coinmissionei-s  of  the  World's 
Exjjosition  at  New  Orleans  in  1884. 

BeriHansk.  bar-dee-aansk' :  a  seaport-town  of  Russia; 
government  of  Taurida:  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Sea  of 
Azof:  184  miles  N.  PI  of  Simferopol  (see  nnip  of  Russia,  ref. 
lO-D).  It  has  a  good  roadstead  and  an  active  trade,  and  has 
been  remarkable  for  its  rapid  growth.  It  was  founded  in 
1827,  was  recognized  as  a  town  in  183.5,  and  became  capital 
of  a  circle  in  1842.  Its  principal  industries  are  Ihe  boiling 
of  tallow  and  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles,  and  macaroni. 
It  derives  its  prosperitv  partly  from  the  coal  mines  and  salt 
hd<es  of  111,'  vicinity.    'Pop.  (1882)  20,849. 

BerditclK'f :  a  town  of  Russia;  province  of  Kiev;  194 
miles  N.  W.  of  l'",lisabet,grad  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  9-C). 
It  is  meanly  built,  but  is  an  important  commercial  town. 


588 


BEREA 


BERGAMOT 


having  four  annual  fairs,  held  between  Aug.  15  and  Sept. 
15.  The  value  of  the  goods,  cattle,  com,  wine,  etc.,  sold  here 
annually  is  estiuuited  at  |3,000,000.  Pop.  (1883)  52,563: 
(1889)  7"7,2S7,  mostly  Jews. 

Bere'a :  village  (founded  in  1829) ;  Cuyahoga  eo..  0.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-H):  on  CI.,  Ciu., 
Chi.  and  St.  Louis  and  Lake  Sh.  and  Mich.  S.  R.  Rs. ;  12 
miles  S.  W.  of  Cleveland,  to  which  an  electric  street-railroad 
is  now  (1893)  being  constructed.  Berea  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive quarries  of  sandstone,  18,000  carloads  having  been 
shipped  in  a  year.  It  is  the  seat  of  Baldwin  University  and 
German  Wallace  College,  both  Methodist  Episcopal ;  has  ex- 
cellent public  schools  and  seven  churches;  is  lighted  by 
natural  gas  and  electricity.  Pop.  (1880)  1,682 ;  (1890)  2,533  ; 
(1893)  including  sul)urbs,  estimated  3,500. 

Editor  of  "  Advertiser." 

Berea  Colleg'e:  in  the  southern  part  of  JIadison  co., 
Kv. ;  40  miles  S.  of  Lexington.  Its  founders  and  promoters 
were  Rev.  J«lm  G.  Fee  and  Rev.  J.  A.  R.  Rogers,  natives,  re- 
spectively, of  Kentucky  and  Connecticut.  It  long  enjoyed 
the  fostering  care  of  the  American  Missionary  Association. 
For  twenty  years  from  1869  Rev.  E.  H.  Fairchild  was  presi- 
dent. Always  ant  i-shiv<Ty  in  character,  its  leading  friends 
were  driven  from  the  State  just  before  the  war.  At  its  close 
some  returned.  A  college  charter  was  obtained,  and  since 
1873  classes  luive  been  graduated  yearly.  There  are  three 
courses :  chissical,  phi losophical,  and  scientific  (for  males  and 
females).  White  and  colored  are  admitted,  the  colored 
slightly  predominating.  In  1892  about  400  students  were  on 
the  roll,  with  18  professors  and  teachers,  of  whom  11  are 
women.  Endowment,  |100,000 ;  value  of  buildings,  about  the 
same.  L.  V.  Dodge. 

Bere'ans  :  an  obscure  sect  seceding  from  the  Established 
Church  in  Scotland ;  founded  bv  Rev.  John  Barclay  (b.  in 
Muthill,  Perthshire,  1734;  d.  in  "Edinburgh,  July  29,  1798) 
in  1773.  They  take  their  name  from  Acts  xvii.  11 ;  deny 
natural  theology ;  make  all  the  Psalms  Messianic ;  hold  as- 
surance to  be  of  the  essence  of  faith,  and  unbelief  the  un- 
pardonable sin.  Their  numbers  are  small  and  diminishing. 
Barclay's  Works,  with  memoir,  were  published,  Glasgow, 
1852.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Beregh,  biiy-reg' :  a  county  of  Hungary :  bounded  N".  E. 
by  Galicia,  E.  by  the  county  of  JIarmaras,  .S.  by  the  coun- 
ties of  Ugocsa  and  Szatmar.  W.  by  the  county  of  Szabolcs, 
and  N.  W.  by  the  county  of  Ungvear.  Area,  1.440  sq.  miles. 
The  country  is  mostly  mountainous,  and  produces  wine. 
Pop.  (ISKlj)  179,208.     Oilier  town,  ilunkacs. 

Berenga'rius  of  Tours:  a  mediicval  theologian:  b.  at 
Tours  about  1000 ;  d.  in  the  neighboring  island  of  St.  Cosme, 
1088:  a  pupil  of  Fulbert  of  Chartres;  became  in  1031  the 
director  of  the  cathedral  school  in  his  native  place,  and  in 
1040  Archdeacon  of  Angers.  He  was  a  man  of  both  talent 
and  learning,  and  he  soon  brought  the  school  into  a  most 
flourishing  condition.  But  he  was  an  independent  charac- 
ter, of  a  somewhat  rationalistic  turn  of  mind.  Concerning 
the  Lord's  Supper  he  held  views  very  dilferont  from  those 
which,  since  the  days  of  Paschasius  Radbertus  (ninth  cen- 
tury), had  become  generally  adopted  by  the  Church,  prefer- 
ring the  older  view  advocated  in  the  same  century  by  Rat- 
ramnus.  He  ascribed  to  this  sacrament  only  tlic  character 
of  a  commemorative  act,  decidedly  rejecting  the  idea  of  its 
being  a  constantly  renewed  sacrifice  :  and  the  change  which 
the  elements  were  believed  to  undergo  during  the  celebra- 
tion he  considered  to  be  merely  symbolical,  declaring  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  an  absurdity.  People  soon 
became  aware  tluit  the  great  teacher  of  Tours  deviated  from 
the  commonly  accepted  course  of  the  Church,  and  Beren- 
garius  himself  contributed  much  to  call  forth  a  conflict  by 
his  letter  to  Lanfranc.  His  view  was  condemned  by  the 
synods  of  Rome  and  Vercelli,  botli  in  1050,  and  he  was  for  a 
time  imprisoned.  Hildebrand  (later  Gregory  VII.)  came  to 
his  aid,  and  persuaded  the  Council  of  Tours  (1054)  to  accept 
a  general  statement  that  the  elements  after  consecration 
were  the  Hoily  and  Blood  of  Christ.  In  1059  he  was  forced 
in  a  synod  in  Rome  to  retract  his  real  views,  but  on  his  re- 
turn to  Tours  renewed  their  advocacy.  In  1079  he  was  by 
another  syui id  in  Rome  compelled  to  retract  a  second  time. 
Again  when  safe  home  he  repented  of  his  recantation,  and 
recalled  it,  but,  eoiivinced  that  he  could  not  make  headway 
against  the  reigning  theory,  he  retired  to  the  island  of  St.. 
Cosme,  aiul  lived  in  solitude,  but  he  had,  nevertheless,  many 
followers.    His  works  are  in  Migtie,  Pat.  Lot.,  VLXX  VIII., 


Sep.  ed.  by  A.  P.  and  P.  T.  Vischer  of  his  chief  book  De 
sacra  crena  (Berlin.  1834).  See  H.  Sundendorf,  Bereiigarius 
Tiironntsis.  oder  eine  Sammlung  ihre  hetreffe7ider  Briefe 
(Berlin,  1850);  cf.  Hefele,  KinwiUenyei^chichte  (vol.  5,  2d  ed. 
1886).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bereni'ce :  a  daughter  of  Magas,  King  of  Cyrene ;  mar- 
ried to  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  King  of  Egypt.  During  his  al)- 
sence  on  a  military  expedition  she  made  a  vow  to  sacrifice 
her  hair  to  Venus  for  his  safe  return,  which  vow  she  per- 
formed. The  hair  having  disajjpeared  over  night,  the  as- 
tronomer Conon  reported  that  Juijiter  had  transformed  it 
into  the  constellation  now  called  Cuina  Berenices  (Berenice's 
Hair).  She  was  put  to  death  by  her  son,  Ptolemy  Philopa- 
tor,  in  222  B.  c.  See  Carl  W.  Raniler's  I'tolemdus  und  Be- 
renice (1765). 

Berenice  (called  Beriiice  in  the  Xew  Testament):  a 
daughter  of  Agrippa  I..  King  of  Judea ;  b.  in  28  A.  D.  She 
was  married  to  her  uncle.  Herod,  King  of  Chalcis,  and.  after 
his  death,  to  Polemon,  King  of  Cilicia.  During  a  visit  to 
Rome  she  captivated  Titus,  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Ves- 
pasian, as  she  had  done  Vespasian  liimself.  She  was  a  sister 
of  King  Agrippa,  before  whom  .St.  Paul  spoke  in  his  own 
defense.     See  Acts  xxv.  13,  23  ;  xxvi.  30. 

Berenice :  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt ;  on  the  Red  Sea ;  20 
miles  S.  W.  of  Ras  Bernass.  It  was  founded  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  named  it  after  his  mother,  and  was  a 
great  emporium  of  the  trade  with  India.  The  modern  name 
is  Sakayf-el-KuJilee.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Serapis  and  other  interesting  antiquities. 

Beresford.ber'fs-furd,  William  Carr. Viscount :  general ; 
b.  in  Ireland,  Oct.  2,  1768  ;  a  natural  son  of  the  first  Marquis 
of  Waterford.  He  took  comnumd  of  tlie  Portuguese  army 
in  Feb..  1809,  and  fought  against  the  French  in  the  Penin- 
sula. In  May,  1811,  he  defeated  Soult  at  Albuera.  He  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Duke  of  Elvas  in  Spain;  was  created  a 
viscount  in  1823,  and  was  master-general  of  the  ordnance  in 
1828-30.     D.  Jan.  8,  1854. 

Berezina,  ba-y-re-zeenali.  or  Beresina :  a  river  of  Russia ; 
rises  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  flows  southward,  and  en- 
tei-s  the  Dnieper  aljove  Rechitza.  Its  length  is  about  325 
miles.  It  is  navigable,  and  is  connected  with  the  Dlina  by  a 
canal  which  opens  a  communication  between  the  Baltic  and 
Black  seas.  The  French  army,  retreating  from  Moscow  in 
Nov.,  1812,  suffered  a  great  disaster  in  the  passage  of  this 
river.  The  French  constructed  hastily  two  bridges  over  the 
river,  but  while  they  were  crossing  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Russians,  who  took  about  16,000  prisoners.  The  French  loss, 
besides  the  prisoners,  amounted  to  nearly  12,000,  many  of 
whom  were  drowned  in  the  river. 

Bergaigne.  Abel  :  Orientalist ;  b.  at  Vimy,  Pas-de-Calais, 

Aug.  31, 1838 :  became  Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  the  Sorbonne. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  criticism  and  exegesis  of  the 
Vedas.  and  published  La  religion  vedique  (Paris,  1883).  D. 
Aug.  6,  1888.  C.  R.  Lanmajj. 

Ber'gaiua  (anc.  Pergamum  or  Pergamu.'i) :  a  ruined  city 
of  Asia  Minor  :  in  Anatolia;  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
on  the  river  Caicus ;  46  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Smyrna  (see  map 
of  Turkey,  ref.  5-1)).  Pop.  about  6,000.  The  ancient  city 
was  the  caiiital  of  the  kingdom  of  Pergaums,  and  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  .seven  churches  of  the  Apocalypse.  Here  are 
extensive  ruins  of  a  palace,  temple-,  amphitheater,  and  other 
edifices. 

Bergamo,  bargati-mo  :  a  province  of  Italy  ;  in  Lombardy ; 
bounded  N.  by  Sondrio,  E.  by  Brescia,  S.  by  Cremona,  and 
W.  by  Coino  and  Milan.  Area,  1.088  sq.  miles.  The  north- 
ern jjart  is  mountainous.  The  soil  of  the  plains  and  valleys 
is  fertile.  Silk  is  among  the  products.  Pop.  (1890)  412,- 
393.     Capital,  Bergamo. 

Bergamo  (anc.  Bergommn):  a  city  of  Italy;  capital  of 
province  of  sjuue  name;  on  several  low  hills,  39  miles  by 
rail  N.  E.  of  Milan  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  2-C).  It  presents 
a  very  picturesque  appearance,  and  is  well  built.  It  has  a 
castle,  a  cathedral,  a  college,  a  library,  a  theater,  many 
convents  and  churches;  also  extensive  manufactures  of  silk, 
cotton,  liiu'n,  and  woolen  fabrics.  Bergonuiin  was  de- 
stroyed by  Attila  in  452  a.  d.,  after  which  it  became  an  im- 
portant city  of  the  Lond^ard  kings.     Vo\>.  39,000. 

Ber'gainot :  the  fruit  of  a  tree  which  is  a  species  or  va- 
rietyof  tlie  gemis  Citrus;  also  called  Bergnmot  Orangre, 
or  Mellaro'sa.  According  to  most  botanists,  it  is  a  variety 
of  the  orange  (Citrus  aurantium).     It  is  cultivated  in  the 


BERGE 


BEIIGMANN 


589 


south  ol'  Eurupr.  'I'lif  fruit  is  pear-shaped,  of  a  pnlo  yoUow 
or  "refn  color,  and  has  a  tirecn,  suli-aeia.  and  frasrani  jiulp. 
From  its  rind  is  obtaiuecl  by  distillation  the  oil  of  licrfiamot, 
which  has  a  very  aj;recable'o(ior.  is  extensively  used  in  jht- 
fuinery,  ami  is  an  in;;redient  ineau-<le-eiiliii;neand  several  fra- 
Uraiit  Cssences.  W'i/d  berijamot  is  a  name  api)lied  to  the 
Moititrilajishdoxu.  a  common  wild  mint,  because  of  its  odor. 

Berpe,  bar'.ijc,  William  :  organist ;  b.  in  Witzeuhausen, 
llesse-t'assel,  (iennaiiy,  in  1824;  studied  \inder  his  father, 
Spohr.  and  Volckinar.  When  seven  years  old  he  played 
the  organ  in  church.  Studied  fii-st  for  the  ministry  in  the 
Reformed  Church,  but  afterward  became  a  Homan  Catholic. 
.Moved  to  New  York  in  IS46.  and  was  appointed  organist  of 
several  churches,  linally  becoming  organist  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier  church  in  Sixteenth  Street,  remaining  there  till 
wilhin  twovears  of  his  death,  which  occurred  on  A])!-.  6, 
lH,s:i.  In  18-17  aiipointed  Professor  of  llusic  in  the  College 
of  the  Sacred  lleart  ;  founded  and  conducted  the  Berge 
Choral  Union,  which  produced  Beethoven's  Nivlh  .Si/in- 
/ilioiii/  with  Thoma.s's  orchestra  in  18(i().  He  coiuiiosed 
some  organ  |)ieces  and  several  masses.  Ilis  playing  was 
brilliant,  ([Uiek,  and  accurate,  and  his  sight-reading  re- 
mark.ible.  D.  E.  Uervkv. 

Borfroil.  biirgen  :  an  important  city  ami  seaport  of  Nor- 
way :  capital  of  province  of  liergen  :  at  the  head  of  a  deep 
bav  (liord)  of  the  Atlantic;  184  uules  \V.  N.  W.  of  Cliris- 
tiania;  lat.  01)  24  X.,  Ion.  5"  18'  B.  (see  map  of  Norway 
and  Sweden,  ref.  10- .V).  It  is  picturesquely  .situated  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain,  and  inclosed  on  nearly  all  sides  by 
water.  The  harbor  is  deep  and  safe,  and  is  defended  by 
several  fort.s.  Bergen  is  well  built,  has  a  cathedral,  several 
hospitals,  a  theater,  a  public  library,  a  national  museum, 
and  a  college.  It  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  three  public 
treasuries,  and  is  probably  the  mo.st  commercial  town  of 
Norway.  .\  large  portion  of  the  population  is  em]iloyed  in 
the  fisheries,  and  lish  and  cod-liver  oil  form  the  chief  iirti- 
<-les  of  export.  It  is  stati'd  that  in  the  spring  (iDO  fisliiiig- 
vessels  may  be  seen  at  once  in  the  harbor.  These  vessels 
liring  cargoes  of  lish.  caught  in  the  preceding  winter  on  the 
northern  shores.  Bergen  was  founded  in  1070,  and  was 
once  a  llanse  town.     Pop.  (1891)  r):i,(i8(). 

B('r!rcii-oi)-/ooin.  liar'gen-op-zom'.  ur  Borg-op-Zooiii : 
aslninglv  bu-titieil  tnwn  of  Holland  :  in  .\orlh  I'.raliant;  on 
tlu'  river' Zoom,  at  its  junction  with  the  Ka-^t  Scheldt;  27 
miles  by  rail  \V.  S.  W.  of  Breda  (see  map  of  Holland  and 
Uelgiuiu,  ref.  8-1)).  It  is  important  as  a  military  position. 
and  has  often  been  besieged.  The  Spaniards  made  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  take  it  in  l.")88,  in  ItiO.").  and  in  1022. 
In  the  last-named  year  General  Spiuola  lost  about  10.000 
men  in  the  siege.  It  was  taken  by  tlu'  French  in  1747.  and 
again  in  17!*4.  A  British  arinv  att.ackeil  it  without  success 
in  .Mar.,  1814.     Pop.  (1890)  12,ti67. 

Ilcrpcr,  bar'zhay'.  (ikorges:  French  <ivil  engineer  and 
administrator;  b.  in  Paris,  1884:  began  life  jis  a  mining 
ongineer,  but  sixui  left  that  career  to  devote  himself  to  the 
fine  arts,  develooing  his  tastes  by  many  travels  in  KgypI 
and  the  East.  His  erudition  was  both  varied  and  profound, 
anil  so  great  that  he  was  selected  to  organize  the  foreign 
section  of  the  Exposition  of  18H7.  In  the  Kx])ositioii  of 
1878  he  was  in  charge  of  the  same  section  :  and  was  direct- 
or-general of  the  I'^xposition  of  lfS89.  He  has  also  organ- 
ized other  ex|iosilions.  He  was  in  1870-77  adjoint  pro- 
fessor at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts.  He  has  published  his 
views  on  the  Kj-pimiliim  inlernnfinnah'  oi  18t)9;  Proji't 
d'orijiininiiliitn  ni/i>iiiiislrfifif(\Hi^ii) ;  and  rKcitle  fr/iiii;ni.ii'  de 
peiiilim  ilrpiiis  srx  oriqi iii'x  jiinqii'n  In  tin  dii  n'gnede  Louis 
A'^/F.  (1879).  ■  W.  R.  II. 

Berccr.  Piiimim-e:  French  Semitic  scholar;  b.  in  Beau- 
court.  Sept.  l.">.  1840:  sludied  theology  under  the  Protestant 
faculty  at  St rassburg;  became  Prnfessor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
I'acnliy  of  Proteslant  Theology  at  Paris  1877.  He  has 
taken  part  in  the  editing  of  the  Corpus  In.irriptionnm  Sem- 
ilirnnini,  and  is  the  author  of  various  articles  and  books,  of 
which  may  be  mentioned  J/ Arnhit  (iritii/  Muhomi't  d'tiprcs 
/c.s  insn-ipfion.i  (Paris,  188.')).  C.  II.  Toy. 

Bcraror,  S.^MiKi, :  limther  of  the  preceding;  b.  in  Beau- 
cuart.  .May  2,  I84:i;  sludied  at  Strassburg  and  Ti'ibingen  ; 
bei'anu' assistant  preacher  in  the  liUtheran  Church  in  Paris 
1807;  librarian  to  the  Faculty  of  Protestant  Theology  there 
1877.  Of  his  works  may  bi>  mi'ut'umvd  Ln  Bible  ««  .VciS- 
iV^Hic  .S'lVr/c  (Paris.  I.S79):  /,/(  /lilili-  fnnnaise  an  moi/en-dge 
(1884);  J.e  pahmps(f.sfe  df  Fleury  (i^d). 


Bergerac,  bar'zhay'raak' :  a  town  of  France ;  in  Dor- 
dogne  :  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  en  the  right  Ijaiik  of  the 
river  Dordogue,  here  cro.ssed  by  a  fine  bridge  of  live  arches ; 
27  miles  S.  W.  of  Perigueux.  and  51  miles  E.  of  Bordeaux 
(see  maj)  of  France,  ref.  7-E).  It  has  a  college,  a  public 
library,  and  manufactures  of  paper,  hosiery,  serges,  and 
copper-ware.  The  Bergerac  wine  produced  in  this  vicinity 
is  highly  esteemed.     Pop.  (1891)  14.735. 

BerseriU".  S.vvixien  Cyiuno,  de  :  French  dramatist ;  b.  in 
Perigord  about  1020:  served  in  the  army;  a  celebrated  duel- 
ist: author  of  Ayrijipina,  Le  Pedant  join'.  I),  in  Pari.s, 
1655. 

Berarll,  Henkv:  iihilanthropist  ;  b.  in  New  York.  1833; 
educated  at  Columbia  College;  author  of  Love's  Alternative, 
a  drama;  ilnrried  OfT,  ii  \<wm:  The  Portentotis  Telef/ram; 
The  Ocean  J'ar(((/(in';  The  ,Slreetn  of  Nen'  )'ork,  etc.  In 
1863  Mr.  Bergli  was  made  secretary  of  legation  to  Russia, 
and  also  acted  as  vice-consul  there.  He  was  the  founder 
ami  first  president  of  the  American  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Aninuils.  The  .'iociety  was  incorporateil 
Apr.  10.  1866."  and  there  are  in  all  thirty-eight  States  and 
Territories  of  the  U.  S.  and  Canada  which  have  followed  the 
example  of  New  York.  The  crowning  act  of  Mr.  Bergh's 
life  was  the  establishment  of  the  Society  lor  the  Prevention 
of  Cnu'ltv  to  Children,  which  has  its  iluiilicatc  in  every 
State  and'Tcrriloi-v  of  the  I'.S.  I),  in  New  York  city.  Mar. 
12.  1888. 

Bersrliaiis.  bairh  hows,  Heinrich:  German  geographer; 
b.  at  Cleves.  May  3,  1797;  geographical  engineer  in  the  War 
Department  at"  Berlin  1816;  Professor  of  Mathematics, 
Academy  of  Architecture,  1824;  published  Elements  of 
Geographi/  (1842);  Ethnography  (1840);  Nations  of  the 
Glohe  (1845);  German  edition  of  Catlin's  Indians  of  North 
America.     D.  in  Stettin,  Feb.  17,  1884. 

Bprg-liaiis.  Herman:  cartographer;  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding; b.  at  1 1  erford,  Westphalia.  Germany,  Nov.  10,  1828; 
entered  the  Geographical  Institute  of  Justus  Perthes  at 
Gotha  in  1850.  Among  his  numerous  publications  may  be 
mentioned  his  Karte  des  Oetzthales  Oletschergelneten  (1801); 
Chart  of  the  World  (1803),  which  has  gone  through  many 
editions;  Phi/silcalisrhe  \Vandlcarte  von  Europa  (1875); 
Karte  der  Alpen  (1878) :  Phi/sikalisrhe  Wandkarte  von 
Afrika  (1881):  Berghaus's  P'hy.tikalischer  Atlax  (still  in 
process  of  publication  1893).  In  the  last  he  \va.s  aided  by 
all  the  best  scientific  men  of  German  speech.  I),  at  Gotha, 
Dec.  3,  1890. 

Bprjrliein,  barchhem,  Nikolaas:  Dutch  landscape-paint- 
er; original  name  Van  Ilnerlem;  b.  in  Haarlem,  1025 ;  pupil 
of  \'an  (ioycn.  .Ian  Wils,  ami  Weeninx  ;  painted  with  great 
facilitv  and  on  a  great  variety  of  sul>jects.  Ilis  ))icturcs  are 
noted  for  graceful  tiaich,  harmonious  coloring,  ami  natural 
composition.     I),  in  Haarlem,  1083. 

Bergk.  bairh,  Theodor:  classical  scholar  and  critic;  b. 
in  Leipzig,  May  22,  1813.  He  studied  in  his  native  city 
from  18:10-35.  "and  took  his  degree  in  Rostock  in  1836. 
Called  in  1842  as  Professor  of  Classical  Literature  to  Mar- 
bin-g.  and  in  1857  to  Halle.  Continued  illness  compelled 
him  to  resign  his  ])osition  in  1807.  He  died  in  Ragatz,  .Iidy 
20.1881.  Aimmg  his  most  noteworthy  publications  are  his 
work  on  .\ristophaues.  his  edition  of  t'hc  Greek  lyric  poets, 
and  an  unliuished  historv  of  Greek  literature  (4  V(j1s.).  See 
A.  Schiifer.  Bioyr.  Jahrb.,  iv.,  pp.  105-110  (1881). 

Bprgnianii,  bilirh  malm.  Carl:  musician;  b.  at  Ebers- 
bach.  Saxony.  .Xjir.  II.  1M21.  and  when  six  years  old  wius 
iilaced  under  the  instruction  of  Adolf  Zimmermann.  His 
parents  inovc'd  to  Hesse,  and  there  he  continued  his  studies, 
i)ec<iining  a  ))roticient  performer  on  the  viohmcello.  and 
afterward  a  leader  of  the  orchestra.  Having  taken  part  in 
the  rebellion  of  1848.  he  was  forced  to  liMve  (iermany.  and 
came  to  New  Yorl;  in  the  autumn  of  1849.  He  became 
leader  of  ( he  GcTinania  Society,  and  a  few  yeai-s  later  was 
chosen  conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  which  posi- 
tion he  retained  until  his  death  in  Aug..  1876.  He  was 
also  electeil  li'ader  of  the  .^rion  Society  in  185.5,  and  in  the 
season  of  1865  he  conducted  the  o|iera  in  the  Academy  of 
Music.  He  also  conducted  several  singing  festivals.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  advocates  of  Wagner's  music  in  this 
country.  He  composed  an  opera,  a  symiihony,  and  some 
concert  pieires  before  he  had  attained  his  twenty-seventh 
year,  but  it  is  as  a  conductor  of  eminence  that  his  fame  is 
secure.  D-  K-  HeRvey. 


590 


BERGMAXN 


BERING  SEA  CONTRO\'ERSY 


Berg'niann,  Ernst,  toii:  German  surgeon;  li.  in  Riga, 
Dee.  16. 1836:  studied  in  Dorpat.  Vienna,  and  Berlin:  served 
with  the  armies  of  Prussia  and  Baden  in  the  wars  of  1866 
and  1870 ;  Profes.«or  of  Surgery  in  University  of  Wurzburg 
18T8-82:  appointed  Professor  of  Surgery  and  director  of 
the  surgical  clinic,  Univei^ity  of  Berlin,  1882.  Ajnong  his 
more  important  wTit ings  are  t'tber  Fetleinbolie;  Dax  piilride 
Gift:  Das  Sepsin;  Zur  Lehre  von  der  putriden  Intoxica- 
tion, etc. 

Bersrmann,  Torberx  Olof,  Ph.  D. :  a  Swedish  chemist ; 
b.  at  Catherinberg.  West  Gothland.  Mar.  20.  1735.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Upsal.  and  devoted  himself  to 
natural  historv.  phvsies.  and  mathematics.  He  obtained 
the  chair  of  Chemistni-  at  Upsal  in  1767.  He  discovered 
sulphuretted  hydrogen."  and  first  olitained  important  results 
from  the  use  of  the  blowpipe.  He  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  science  of  crystallography.  Among  his  works  are  an 
Essay  on  Electric  AHinities  (1775)  and  Opiisciila  Physica 
et  Chemiea  (6  vols..  17'79-90).  I),  in  MedeW,  on  the  VTettern- 
see.  July  8. 1784.  See  P.  F.  AuriviUius,  Aminnehe-Tal  ofver 
T.  0.  Bergmann  (1785) ;  Biot,  article  in  the  Biographie  Uni- 
verseUe. 

Bergrnielll.  Vwirchniayl  [Germ.,  mountain-meal] :  an  ex- 
tremely tine  powder  found  in  geological  strata  of  recent 
(Eocene)  formation,  and  composed  of  effete  and  indestructi- 
ble siUcious  frustules  of  Diafomacete.  which  are  microscopic 
plants  of  the  class  Algce.  Vast  beds  of  these  fossils  occur 
in  Germany,  Lapland.  Virginia,  Maryland,  Vermont,  New 
Hampshire!  and  other  regions.  This  powder  is  mixed  with 
flour,  and  used  as  food  by  the  peo|)le  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way in  seasons  of  scarcity.  It  is  used  in  making  water-glass 
and  the  floating  bricks  of  Southern  Europe,  and  as  polish- 
ing powder. 

Bergslien.  bitrgsleen.  Bryx.ti'LF  :  a  Norwegian  sculptor; 
b.  in  ^'ors.  Norway.  Nov.  11.  1830;  a  pupil  of  Jerichau  and 
Bissen.  Ilis  best-known  work  is  his  bronze  statue  of  Karl 
Johan  in  t'hristiania.  R.  B.  Axdersox. 

BergsHen.  Knut:  a  Norwegian  painter;  brother  of  the 
sculptor;  b.  in  Vors,  May  15, 1827.  His  pictures  of  the  early 
history  of  Norway  have  given  him  a  wide  reputation. 

R.  B.  AXDERSON". 

Ber^sae.  barg'so,  .Toroex  Vilhelm  :  Danish  author ;  b.  in 
Copenhagen.  Feb.  8,  1835 :  w,<is  in  youth  a  zoologist,  and  as 
such  attained  distinction.  But  in  consequence  of  the  failure 
of  his  eyesight,  and  of  a  long  and  severe  illness,  he  was  dis- 
qualified for  his  favorite  study,  and  went  to  Italy  for  liis 
health.  He  became  a  successful  wTiter  of  romances.  His 
first  venture.  Fra  Piazza  del  Popolo  (1866).  had  great  suc- 
cess. He  has  also  published  Fra  den  gamfe  Fabrik  (The 
Old  Factory.  1869);  I  Sabinerbjergene  (la  the  Sabine  HiUs, 
1871) ;  Bruden  fra  Bun-ig  (The  Bride  of  Rarvig,  1872) ; 
Gjengangirforltellinger  ((ihost  Stories.  1872) ;  Italienske 
jVoveller  (Italian  Tales.  1874):  Fra  gamle  Dage  (From  Old 
Days,  1885) ;  Fra  sollyse  Strande  (From  Siuniy  Shores,  1886) ; 
and  other  volumes,  including  several  collections  of  poems. 
His  most  ambitious  work  is  Rome  under  Pius  IX.  (1874-77). 
Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Bprhaiu|>nr.  bcr-ara-poor' :  a  town  of  British  India :  in  the 
prusidency  of  Bengal,  on  the  Bhagirathi  river;  6  miles  S.  of 
Jlurshidabad.and  118  miles  by  land  N.  of  Calcutta  (see  map 
of  N.  India,  ref.  7-1).  It  is  one  of  the  principal  British  mili- 
tary stations  in  India,  and  has  an  appearance  of  grandeur 
and  importance.  Sanitary  improvcmenis  have  rendered  it 
one  of  the  most  healthy  places  in  Bengal.     Pop.  24,000. 

Berinar,  bay  ring  (commonly  but  incorrectly  spelled  Behr- 
ing).  Vitus;  a  Danish  navigator;  b.  in  Jutland  in  1680.  He 
entered  the  RiLssian  navy  at  an  early  age.  and  fought  with 
distinction  against  the  Swedes.  In  1725  he  was  appointed 
the  commander  of  an  ex|K'dition  .sent  to  explore  the  .Sea  of 
Kamtchatka,  During  this  voyage,  wliich  occupied  several 
years,  he  discovered  Bering  Strait  (1728),  and  ascertained 
that  Asia  was  not  joined  to  America.  In  a  subsequent  vovage 
he  was  wrecked  on  Bering's  island,  where  he  died  Dec.  8, 
1741.     See  his  Life  by  P.  Lauridsen  (Chicago,  1889). 

Bering:  (or  Behring).  bayring.  Sea  (also  called  Sea  of 
Kamtchatkn):  the  most  norlhern  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
extending  l>etween  the  peninsulas  of  Alaska  and  Kam- 
tchatka. It  is  connected  by  Bering  Strait  with  the  Arctic 
Ocean. 

Bering  (or  Behring)  Strait:  connects  the  P.acific  Ocean 
witli  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  separates  Asia  from  America. 


It  was  discovered  by  Vitus  Bering  in  1728.  Its  width  is 
about  45  miles  at  the  narrowest  part,  between  East  Cape 
(Asia)  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  (America).  The  depth  of 
this  strait  near  the  middle  is  about  30  fathoms. 

Bering  Sea  Controrersy :  a  question  in  dispute  be- 
tween the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain  in  regaixl  to  certain 
rights  connected  with  seal-fishing  in  Bering  Sea.  An  un- 
derstanding of  the  controversy  requires  a  brief  description 
of  the  points  at  issue.  The  seal-fisheries  of  the  Alaskan 
coast  fonn  the  most  important  item  in  the  commercial  activi- 
ties of  that  Territory.  It  was  largely  in  consideration  of 
this  fact  that  the  Government  of  the  U.  S.  acquired 
possession  of  Alaska  by  purchase  from  Russia  in  1867.  and 
since  the  acquisition  of  the  Alaskan  territory  the  seal-fish- 
eries have  afforded  a  very  considerable  revenue  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. But  in  order  that  this  revenue  may  be  continued 
the  fishing  industries  must  be  protected ;  and  such  pro- 
tection, owing  to  the  peculiar  habits  of  seals,  came  to  in- 
volve the  international  question  at  issue.  The  home  of  the 
seals  is  upon  the  Alaskan  coast,  which  is  unmistakably 
within  the  domain  of  the  U.  .S.  At  a  certain  sea.son  of  the 
year,  however,  the  seals  are  in  the  habit  of  going  in  great 
niuubers  to  the  Pribyloff  islands  for  the  purpose  of  breed- 
ing. These  islands  also  belong  to  the  I .  S..  having  been 
ceded  as  a  part  of  Akiska  by  Russia.  But  in  crossing  from 
the  mainland  to  the  islands  the  seals  are  obliged  to  cross 
Bering  Sea,  when  they  are  subject  to  interception  by  fishing 
vessels  from  Canada  and  elsewhere.  In  this  way  great 
de]iredations  have  been  committed.  Many  of  the  seals 
killed  at  this  season  of  the  year  sink  in  tlie  sea  and  are  lost, 
whUe  many  of  those  recovered  are  of  inferior  value.  The.se 
depredations  very  greatly  reduced  the  value  of  tlie  industry 
to  the  U.  S.  The  Secretary  of  State,  in  a  dispatch  pub- 
lished in  1890.  made  the  statement:  "From  1870  to  1885 
the  seal-fisheries,  carefully  guarded  and  preserved,  yielded 
100.000  skins  a  year.  The  Canadian  intrusions  began  in 
1886.  and  so  great  has  been  the  damage  resulting  from  the 
destruction  of  seal  life  in  the  open  sea  surrounding  the 
Pribyloff  islands  tliat  in  1890  the  U.  S.  limited  the  Alaska 
Company  to  60.000  skins,  but  the  company  was  able  to  se- 
cure only  21,000  skins." 

The  question  presented  was  whether  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment had  a  right  to  protect  its  property  in  waters  that 
would  orilinarily  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  open  sea, 
where,  according  to  international  usage,  every  nation  and 
people  ordinarily  has  the  right  to  hunt  and  fish  according 
to  its  own  free  will.  The  claim  of  the  U.  S.  to  this  right 
was  asserted  in  1887;  but  in  order  to  avoiil  a  diplomatic 
issue  a  proposal  was  made  to  Great  Britain  that  a  conven- 
tion should  lie  entered  into  between  the  two  nations,  in 
which  Russia  should  be  invited  to  join,  limiting  the  periods 
in  the  year  in  which  seals  might  be  taken,  and  presc-ribing  a 
time  covering  the  period  of  breeding  during  which  they 
shoidd  not  be  molested.  The  expediency  of  the  convention 
was  at  once  conceded  by  Great  Britain,  and  tlie  U.  S.  was 
invited  to  prepare  and  furnish  a  draft  of  sudi  regulations 
as  were  deemed  necessary  to  accomplish  the  object.  Such  a 
draft  was  prepared  and  transmitted,  and  no  question  arose 
as  to  details.  The  Russian  Government  accepte<l  the  in- 
vitation to  join  in  the  convention,  and  there  was  every 
reason  to  anticipate  that  the  whole  question  would  be  satis- 
factorily adjusted.  But  an  unexpected  obstacle  arose.  It 
came  to  be  understood  that  Canada,  whose  people  were  profit- 
ing by  tlie  depredations,  dec  lined  to  assent  to  the  proposed 
restrictions.  As  the  objections  of  Canada  could  not  be 
overcome,  the  attempt  to  secure  a  convention  came  to  an 
end.  The  U.  .S.  Government  was  thus  driven  to  assert  its 
rights  under  international  law  or  to  al>andon  its  claim.s. 

The  claim  set  forth  by  the  U.  S.  Wii.s  that  the  waters  in 
which  the  depredations  were  coinmitled  are  not  a  part  of 
the  open  sea  but  are  within  the  jurisdiction  <if  the  U.  S.  It 
was  evident,  however,  that  this  claim  must  be  established, 
if  at  all,  on  unusual  grounds:  for  Bering  Sea  is  more  than 
half  as  large  as  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  accessible  through 
Bering  Straits  by  a  p.issage  more  than  30  miles  in  width  and 
by  still  wider  passages  from  the  S.  By  ordinary  interna- 
tional usage,  therefore,  Bering  Sea.  except  within  a  3-miIe 
line  from  the  shore,  would  be  open  to  the  fishermen  of  all 
nations.  But  the  question  was  complicated  by  claims  set 
up  by  Russia,  and  to  some  extent  admitted  in  the  early  part 
of  this  century.  By  general  consent  all  the  rights  of  Russia 
passed  to  the  U.  S.  at  the  time  of  the  ])urcha.sp.  As  early 
as   1799   the    Russian   Government   issued   a   ukase   which 


BERING   SEA  CONTROVERSY 


BERKELEY 


591 


claimed  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  Bering  Sea  down  to  the 
tifly-fiftli  (Icffree  of  north  Iiilitude,  and  under  the  protection 
of  this  ukase  the  Russian  American  Company  was  formed. 
It  docs  not  appear  that  any  powi'r  entered  a  protest  against 
ttiis  claim.  But  in  INil  the  edict  of  17!»i)  was  reallirnied  l)y 
Rws.sia,  and  was  so  far  enlarged  as  to  extend  the  claim 
down  to  the  till y-(irst  ilejfree.  Against  this  uka.se  of  1821 
b«th  (ireat  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  entered  formal  protest; 
hut  wiu-ther  the  protest  related  to  the  general  claim  nuiin- 
tained  l>y  Russia,  or  nu'rely  to  an  extension  of  the  limit 
from  the  fifty-tifth  to  the  fifty-fii-st  degree,  is  one  of  the 
ipiesl inns  ill volvi'd  in  the  colli rovei"sy  which  can  not  he  de- 
termined l>y  documentary  evidence.  As  a  consequence  of 
these  protests  Russia  made  important  concessions  in  the 
treaties  of  Apr.  IT,  1824,  ami  Feb.  28,  1825.  It  was  agreeil 
that  for  ten  years  the  contracting  powers  should  have 
the  right  to  visit  the  "interior  sea-s,  gulfs,  harbors,  and 
creeks  for  the  purpose  of  tishing  and  trading."  .\l  the  end 
of  ten  veal's,  however,  Russia  refused  to  renew  the  agree- 
ment, and  conseciuenlly,  since  \X'M.  the  owners  of  the  region 
have  rested  upnu  the  rights  maintaineil  prior  to  the  treaties 
of  18-,>4  and  ISi.").  In  the  treaties  ol  lS4:i  and  18.^!)  between 
Russia  and  (rreat  Britain  the  privileges  of  tlie  Russian 
.Vinerican  Company  were  specilicaUy  recognized,  but  noth- 
ing in  the  treaties  throws  any  light  on  the  ipiestion  as  to  the 
geograplii<'al  limits  of  Russia's  claim.  In  1870,  three  years 
after  the  purchase  of  .\laska  by  th<>  U.  S.,  the  ("iovernmeiit 
gave  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Coiu]iaiiv  the  privilege  of 
killing  annually  lOO.bOO  seal  on  the  Pribylotf  islands.  It 
wiLS  suliseiiuently  found,  however,  that  the  seal  in  their 
|ias.sage  to  and  from  the  islands  were  interfered  with  by 
poachers.  Accordingly.  Congress,  by  s[)ecial  enactment,  de- 
clared that  the  U.  S.  had  jurisdiction  over  all  the  "  main- 
land, islands,  and  watei-s"  ceded  by  Russia  to  the  U.  S.,  and 
that  "no  person  shall  kill  any  otler,  mink,  niarlen.  or  fur 
seal,  or  other  fur-bearing  animal  within  the  limits  of  AIa.skan 
territory  or  the  waters  thereof."  In  this  law  there  was  no 
statement  its  to  whether  the  waters  refcrreil  to  included  the 
whole  of  the  region  lying  between  the  Pribylotf  islands  and 
the  mainland.  While  the  IT.  S.  has  never  formally  claimed 
that  the  whole  of  the  waters  involved  are  a  part  of  a  "closed 
sea,"  (ireat  Britain  has  maintained  that  the  special  rights  of 
the  L'.  S.  are  liiuilid  by  the  8-iiiile  line  prescribed  by  ordi- 
nary iiilernational  law.  If  this  position  is  admitteil,  tli<' 
cluiiii  of  the  V.  .S.  must  rest  upon  the  question  whether  seal 
in  pa.ssing  through  open  watere  from  one  part  of  U.  S.  terri- 
tory to  another  are  entitled  to  exeiii[)tion  from  molestation. 
The  contention  of  the  U.  S.  might  be  thus  stated.  The 
right  to  fish  in  the  open  sea  is  not  disputed.  But  the  seal 
is  not  a  fish.  On  the  conlrary.it  liiis  its  abiding-place  on 
the  land,  to  which  il  regularly  resorts  and  where  it  may  be 
said  to  belong.  It  thus  liecomes  the  property  of  the  owner 
of  the  land  on  which  it  lives,  and  in  psissing  to  the  open  sea 
it  is  entitled  to  the  same  protection  as  any  other  properly. 
.Moreover,  even  if  the  si'al  were  to  lie  regarded  jis  a  tisli,  it 
would  be  entitled  to  exemption  from  pureuit  by  any  method 
that  would  result  in  its  extermination.  The  methods  re- 
sorted to  by  the  poachers  between  188G  and  IHm  threaten 
such  extermination.  In  preventing  such  a  disaster  (ireat 
Britain  is  as  iiiucli  intcresled  as  the  V.  S..  inasmuch  as  all 
sejilskins.  though  belonging  to  people  of  the  U.  S..  are 
laken  lo  London  to  be  dressed  and  ilyed.  It  was  further 
urged  that  the  sea  is  not  and  never  has  been  absolutely  free 
for  any  pnr|)ose  whatever  that  is  injurious  to  the  rights,  the 
proiiei-ly,  anil  the  honor  of  a  nation  that  is  able  to  defend 
itself.  It  is  held  that  no  nation  has  more  freipieiitly  or  more 
resolutely  as.serted  this  principle  than  (ireat  Britain,  and  in- 
staJices  are  citeil  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  she  has 
never  ]ieriiiitted  any  abstract  theory  of  free(lom  on  the  high 
sea  to  become  a  justilication  for  inflicting  serious  injuries 
upon  her  interests  or  her  property  for  the  sake  of  the  profits 
to  be  realized  by  the  lussailant.  In  answer  to  these  conten- 
tions the  (iovernineiit  of  (ireat  Britain  expressed  a  willing- 
ness in  18!H  to  submit  several  of  the  ((uestions  at  i.s,sue  to 
arbitralioii  by  other  friendly  governments.  There  was 
much  diplomatic  iliscussioii  over  the  questions  t(>  lie  sub- 
mitted, but  the  terms  of  arbitration  were  finally  agreed 
upon.  The  Government  of  (ireat  Britain  agreed  to  a  modus 
11  rend i  for  one  year  to  prevent  depredations  upon  the  seals. 
.\t  the  end  of  the  year,  the  matter  in  arbitration  not  yet 
having  been  settled,  she  declined  to  renew  the  mntliis  i-i- 
iritili.  .\fter  some  correspondence,  however,  the  Britisli 
(ioverMineiit  consented  lo  a  renewal  in  modified  form  afler 
the   L'.  S.  Senate  should  have  ratified  the  treaty  providing 


for  submitting  the  questions  involved  to  arbitration.  The 
treaty  ratified  by  the  Seiiatit  Mar.  29, 1892,  provided  for  sub- 
mitting the  ipiesl ions  in  dispute  to  a  commission  of  seven 
persons,  two  a|ipointed  by  the  President  of  the  U.  S.,  two  ap- 
pointed by  the  tjuecn  of  England,  one  by  the  King  of  Sweden, 
one  by  the  President  of  the  French  Republic,  and  one  by  the 
King  of  Italy.  For  the  outcome  of  the  whole  matter,  see  Fish- 
ery Relations  ok  the  United  States.  The  subject  is  best 
studied  in  the  di|iloniatic  correspondence;  in  JIdrjiti's  Week- 
Ijl  for  .Mar.  7,  1891  ;  in  Tlte  Fonim  for  Nov.,  1889  ;  and  in  Har- 
per's Monllily  Magazine  for  Apr.,  1891.         C.  K.  Adams. 

Berja :  a  town  of  Spain;  province  of  Almeria;  on  the 
south  slope  of  the  Sierra  de  Gador  :  22  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Almeria  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  20-F).  Il  is  in  the  midst 
of  lead  mines,  and  has  manufactures  of  linen,  liat.s,  hard- 
ware, etc.     Pop.  16,000. 

Berke'ley  :  town  ;  on  railroad ;  Alameda  co.,  t'al.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  7-C) ;  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  California,  five  preparatory  schools,  the 
State  Agricultural  College,  and  the  California  Institution 
for  the  Deaf,  Diiiiib,  and  Blind;  is  9  miles  E.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, across  San  Francisco  Bav.  and  5  miles  X.  of  Oakland. 
Pop.  (1880)  not  given  in  census;  (1890)  .5.101;  (1893)  esti- 
mated, 9,000  (increase  partly  due  to  annexation  of  territory). 

Editor  of  "  Advocate." 

Berkelpy,  baar'klc,  GI'Oroe  :  philosopher  iiiid  bishop;  b. 
at  Killerin.'lrehiii.l.  .Mar.  12.  I(i84.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  where  he  forined  a  friendshi]i  with  Dean  Swift, 
and  became  a  fellow  of  that  college  in  1707.  He  iniblished 
in  1709  his  Exsaij  /awards  a  New  Theory  of  Visio?),  a  work 
of  wide  reputation.  He  propounded  his  celebrated  theory 
of  idealism  in  a  Trenlixe.  Concerning  the  Principlen  of  Hu- 
man Knowledge  (1710).  in  which  he  anirnied  that  there  is 
no  proof  of  the  existence  of  a  material  world.  The  objects 
of  which  we  are  conscious  in  perception  he  called  "  ideas." 
Their  presence  he  held  to  lie  due  to  the  constant  agency  of 
the  Almighty,  who  causes  them  to  pass  in  a  real  and  order- 
ly succession  liefore  the  mind.  His  views  are  the  result  of 
the  application  of  rigid  logic  to  the  principles  which  Locke 
and  his  school  had  adopted  from  Descartes.  His  method 
was  allied  to  that  of  Malebrauche,  though  his  conclusions 
were  drawn  with  a  boldness  from  which  the  French  philos- 
opher recoiled.  As  distinguished  from  the  egoislic  system 
of  Ficlite,  Berkeley's  views  have  been  called  theistic  ideal- 
ism. His  object  was  to  umlermine  materialism  and  coun- 
teract .skepticism,  and  he  laid  the  liasis  of  that  intuitional 
philosophy  which  has  ever  since  been  the  basis  from  which 
Christian  metaphysics  have  opposc^l  the  reasoning  of  in- 
ductive skepticism.  In  17l:{  he  removed  to  London,  and 
wrote  several  es.says  for  the  Guardian.  Uv  accom|ianied 
Lord  Peterborough  as  chaplain  to  Italy,  and  returned  to 
London  in  1720.  and  to  Inland  in  the  autumn  of  1721.  In 
1724  he  became  Dean  of  Deny,  worlh  f  l.oOO  a  year.  His 
alnindant  charity  and  zeal  induced  him  to  engage  in  an  en- 
terprise for  the  conversion  of  the  American  savage.s,  for 
which  purpose  he  projiosed  to  found  a  college  in  America 
for  the  education  of  missionaries.  Having  receive<l  a  prom- 
ise of  pecuniary  aid  from  the  Governuunl.  he  married  Anna. 
a  daughter  of  joiin  Foist I'l-.  Speaker  of  the  Irish  House  of 
Commons,  in  1728,  and  saileil  to  Rhode  Island.  He  pur- 
chased a  country  seat  and  estate  about  S  miles  N.  E.  from 
the  State-house,' Newport,  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
town  of  ^liddletown.  Naming  his  place  Whitehall,  he  re- 
sided here  for  two  years  and  a  half.  About  a  mile  and  a 
half  from  his  house  he  had  his  chair  and  wriliiig  apparatus 
placed  in  a  natural  alcove  among  the  hanging  rocks  on  the 
beach,  and  in  this  natural  retreat  he  wrote  the  greater  part 
of  Tlie  Minute  I'liitosorilier.  During  his  residence  in  Rhode 
Island  he  ofiiciated  in  Trinily  church,  Newport,  and  on  his 
return  to  England  in  17:!:i  he  sent  to  the  parish  an  organ, 
still  preserved.  His  library  was  distributed  among  the 
neighboring  clergy.  He  gave  to  Yale  College  a  thousand 
volumes  of  valuable  works  and  the  deed  of  his  farm,  the 
rents  of  which  were  to  be  appropriated  to  the  support  of 
three  post-graduate  .students.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his 
enterprise   because   the   ministers   failed  to  perform   their 

Sromisc,  and  he  returned  to  London  17:12,  and  was  appointed 
ishop  of  Clovnc  in  1734.  Among  his  works  are  Alciphron, 
or  the  Minute  Philosopher  (1732);  The  Analyst  (1734);  a 
Word  to  the  ^\'ise  (1749);  and  several  books  on  the  virtues 
of  tar  water,  in  whose  curative  qualities  he  had  great  faith, 
lie  died  at  Oxford.  .Ian.  23.  17">3,  leaving  an  excellent  repu- 
tation as  a  model  of  virtue.     See  Dr.  Stoek's  I, if'  of  Berke- 


592 


BERKELEY 


BERLIN 


ley,  prefixed  to  his  works  (3  vols.  4to,  1784) ;  G.  M.  Wright's 
Life  of  George  Berkeley  (prefixeil  to  his  works,  1843).  Berke- 
ley's works  have  been  editeil.  with  a  life  annexed,  by 
Pi-oJf.  A.  C.  Eraser,  in  4  vols  (Oxford,  1871). 

Revised  by  William  Stevens  Perry. 

Berkeley,  Rev.  Miles  Joseph.  F.  L.  S.  :  English  bot- 
anist; b.  in  Ovindle.  Leicestershire,  in  1H03 ;  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  He  obtained  sev- 
eral Church  preferments,  but  his  cliief  distinction  was  won 
in  science.  lie  pnl)lished  Gleanings  of  BrilUh  Algm  (1833) : 
the  last  volume  of  tlie  English  Fiord  (183());  Ihindbnol-  of 
Cryplogamic  iJo/rtH// (1857) ;  British  Fii>u/olog;/(lS(H)):  Brit- 
ish Mosses  (1863) ;  besides  many  minor  papers  uii  fungi.  D. 
in  his  rectory.  Sibbertoft,  .July  30,  1889. 

Berkeley.  Sir  William  :  cohmial  governor  and  proprie- 
tor; b.  near  London  about  IGIO.  He  was  appointed  tiov- 
ernor  of  Virginia  in  Ifill,  ami  held  that  ofiice  for  many 
years.  He  was  a  royalist  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  re- 
moved from  power  in  16.51  by  Cromwell,  but  became  Gov- 
ernor again  in  1660.  He  rendered  himself  unpopular  by 
his  crueltv  in  putting  to  death  the  adherents  of  ^athaniel 
Bacon.     D.  in  England.  .July  13,  1677.     See  Bacon's  Re- 

BELLIO.V. 

Berkeley.  Eari.s  ok.  and  Viscounts  Dursley  (1679) : 
Barons  Herkeley  (1416.  in  England):  a  prominent  family  of 
Great  Britain.— Thomas  Moreton  Fitz-Hardixoe  Berke- 
ley, the  sixth  earl,  b.  Oct.  IS),  1796;  d.  Aug.  27,  1822:  his 
tatlier  died  in  1810,  leaving  his  estates  to  his  oldest  son.  liorn 
Ix'fore  the  marriage  (1796)  of  the  countess.  The  title  was 
adjudged  to  Thonuis  Moreton,  first  cliild  born  in  weiUock; 
but  he  did  not  assume  it  until  1881.  I),  in  1882,  and  was 
succeedeil  by  1{axi)al  Mowbray  Thomas  Berkeley,  b,  1865. 

Berkley,  Sir  George  :  civil  engineer;  b.  in  London,  Apr. 
26,  1821:  educated  in  private  schools;  in  1835  apprenticed 
to  Sainuda  Brothers,  with  whom  he  worked  in  the  shops 
and  on  designs  of  atmospheric  railways,  steam-engines,  etc. 
Prom  1841  to  1849  he  was  assistant  to  Robert  Stephenson, 
during  which  time  he  was  engaged  on  experiments  with  lo- 
comotives, change  of  gauge,  ajid  rolling-stock  of  the  Eastern 
Counties  and  Northeastern  Railways.  Fnnu  1849  to  1859  he 
was  engaged  on  examinations  for  the  water-supply  of  Liver- 
pool for  Robert  Stephenson,  the  engineer  to  the  London  and 
JSlackwall,  the  North  and  the  SouthwestHrn  .Junction,  and 
other  railways.  In  1851  he  represented  Robert  Stephenson  as 
engineer  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway,  and  ujion 
the  death  of  Stephenson  in  1859  took  his  place.  In  1874  he 
was  made  one  of  the  consulting  engineers  to  the  Colonial  Of- 
fice for  Railways  in  Natal,  and  for  viaducts  in  Cape  Colony, 
in  1885  consulting  engineer  to  the  Indian  Midland  Railway, 
and  in  1887,  with  his  son,  became  engineer  to  the  Argentine 
Northeastern  Railway.  He  entered  the  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers  as  an  associate  in  184.5,  was  made  full  member  in 
1H61,  and  president  in  1892.  He  was  one  of  the  managers 
of  the  Koyal  Institution.  lie  wrote  for  the  institution  upon 
atmospheric  railways  in  1845,  and  upon  the  strength  of  iron 
and  steel  in  1870.  bridges  founded  upon  brick  walls,  commu- 
nications in  Brazil,  etc.  Kniglited  in  Jlay,  1893;  d.  Dec.  20 
same  year.  "  "W.  R.  Huttox. 

Berkley  :  town;  Norfolk  co.,  Va.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  ruaj)  of  Virginia,  ret.  7-J) :  on  Nor.  Soutlieru  R.  R..  and 
on  Elizabeth  river;  has  ship-building,  cotton,  and  lumber 
iiulustries,  and  is  connected  with  Norfolk,  a  mile  distant,  bv 
ferry.      Pop.  (1890)  :i.S99. 

Berkley  Springs:  a  village  of  Morgan  co..  W.  Va. :  2+ 
miles  S.  of  the  Potomac  river  and  the  B.altimore  and  I  >liio 
K.  R.,  at  Sir.lohn's  Uun:  12S  miles  \V.  N.  W.  of  I5altim..re 
(for  location,  see  map  of  West  Virginia,  ref.  .5-M).  Here 
are  medicinal  springs,  which  are  much  frequented,  and  have 
a  temperature  of  74  F.  They  are  useful  in  rheumatic,  cal- 
culous, nervous,  and  catarrhal  di.scases.  It  has  a  large  tan- 
nery. Poi).  (1«80)  .534;  (1890)  not  separatelv  returned,  be- 
ing included  in  that  of  the  district  of  Bath,"  which  in  1.S90 
was  1..529. 

Berkshire:  an  inland  county  of  England;  bounded  N. 
bv  Oxlorcl  and  Bucks.  E.  liy  Surrey,  S.  by  Hampshire,  and 
\V.  by  Wiltshire;  area.  722  si),  miles.  'I'he  river  Thames 
f(U-ms  its  I'litire  boundary  on  thi'  N.  and  \.  E.  The  sur- 
face is  beautifully  diversified  by  liills  and  vallevs.  In  the 
S.  E.  is  Windsor  Forest  and  Park.  Wheat,  oats. "horses,  and 
swine  are  the  stajile  pnrducts.  Poii.  (1881)  218.363;  (1891) 
238,446.     Capital,  Heading. 


Berlad.  bar'laaf  ;  a  town  in  Rournania;  on  the  Berlad; 

63  miles  S.  of  Jassy  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  7-H). 
It  is  an  entrepot  for  grain.     Pop.  26,568. 

Berlichingen,  bar  lich-ing-en,  Giixz  or  Gottfried,  von : 
famous  (German  kniglit  ;  surnamed  of  the  Iron  Hand;  b. 
in  1480  at  Fasthausen,  in  A\'lirtemlierg.  He  lost  a  hand  at 
the  siege  of  Landshut,  and  supplied  its  place  by  an  iron 
hand.  He  was  a  daring  and  turbulent  subject,  was  involved 
in  several  feuds  with  neighboring  barons,  ami  fought  for 
the  insurgent  peasants  against  the  nobles  in  the  Peasants' 
war.  which  closed  in  1525.  For  this  offense  he  was  placed 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire  by  JIaximilian  I.  He  died  in 
1562,  and  left  an  autobiography  (1731).  His  exploits  form 
the  subject  of  Goethe's  drama  of  Gotz  von  Berlichingen. 

Berlin,  ber-lin' ;  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  monarchy 
and  of  the  German  empire;  the  third  largest  city  of  Eu- 
rope; on  the  river  Spree,  in  hit.  .52°  30'  N.,  Ion.  13°  24'  E. 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  3-G).  The  city  during  the 
Middle  Ages  was  the  capital  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenliurg, 
and  became  chief  city  of  the  consolidated  territory  of  Bran- 
denburg and  Prussia  when  these  were  united  into  a  king- 
dom. The  city  received  an  important  inqiulse  from  its  con- 
nection with  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  from  the  remarkable 
political  and  military  activity  of  the  Great  Elector.  Under 
Frederick  the  Great  the  jjopulation  increased,  until  at  his 
death  it  numbered  alio\it  115,000.  In  1817  it  had  grown  to 
188.000;  in  1.844  to  311.000  ;  in  1851  to 436.000;  and  in  1867 
to  702.000.  The  greatest  imjiulse.  however,  was  given  to 
the  city  when,  in  consequence  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870-71.  it  became  the  capital  of  the  new  German  em- 
pire. In  the  next  twenty  years  its  growth  was  so  rapid  that 
in  1891  the  population  was"  1,579,244.  Of  these,  about  13.5,- 
000  were  Roman  Catholics  and  80,000  Jews.  The  others 
were  Protestants,  and,  for  the  most  part,  members  of  the 
United  Evangelical  State  Church.  Pop.  (1895)  1,674,1 12.  The 
principal  streets  are  the  Unter  den  Linden,  with  its  four  rows 
of  lime-trees  and  stately  Brandenburg  gate,  the  Wilhelras- 
stras.se.  the  Kiinigsstrasse,  and  the  Leipzigerstrasse.  The  city 
abounds  in  public  places  of  unusual  interest,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  Opera-house,  the  Old  Palace,  known 
as  the  Schloss,  the  Lustgarten,  the  Gensdarmenplatz,  the 
Wilhelmplatz,  the  Thiergarten,  the  Belle  Alliance  Platz,  the 
Leipziger  Platz,  the  Pariser  Platz,  and  the  Charlottenburg 
Mausoleum.  Tlie  statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  Rauch, 
at  the  head  of  Unter  den  Linden,  is  one  of  the  most  impos- 
ing ever  erected.  In  other  parts  of  the  city  are  to  be  seen 
statues  of  Schwerin,  Winterfeld,  Seidlitz,  Keith,  Zieten, 
Von  Bulow,  Leopold  of  Dessau,  and  the  Great  Elector. 
The  Castle  Bridge,  liuilt  in  1824  upon  two  massive  stone 
arches,  is  decorated  with  eight  interesting  allegorical  groups 
in  marble.  The  Old  and  the  New  Museums  have  many 
features  that  are  unsurpassed  in  the  world.  What  is  known 
as  the  ()ld  Museum  was  built  in  1828  by  Schinkcl,  and  con- 
tains tlu'  celebrated  picture  gallery,  which  is  rich,  not  only 
in  early  Italian  and  German  masters,  but  also  in  collections 
of  ancient  sculpture  and  other  antiquities.  The  New  Mu- 
seum, erected  nearly  twenty  years  later,  contains  a  remark- 
able collection  of  Egyptian  anticpdties  lirought  together  by 
Lepsius.  J 

Inxti/iifions  of  Leartiinr/. — The  most  renowned  of  the  I 
institutions  of  Berlin  is  the  University,  which  was  estal>- 
lished  in  1810.  under  tlie  direction  of  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt, and  an  account  of  which  is  given  below.  The  Royal 
Liiirary  numbei'cd  in  1890  about  900.000  volumes  and  more 
than  18.000  niaiiiiscripts ;  and  the  liiirary  of  the  Univer- 
sity has  about  300.000  volumes.  The  Polytechnicum,  erect- 
ed with  a  part  of  the  indemnity  money  received  from 
France  after  the  war  of  1870,  is  one  of  the  mo.st  elaborate 
and  imposing  educational  structures  in  the  world.  Other 
important  institutions  of  learning  are  the  Academy  of 
Science,  the  liiiildiiig  .Xcadi'iny.  the  Naval  Academy,  the 
Mining  .\cadeniy.  the  Pharmaceutical  School,  the  Artillery 
School,  the  .Singing  School,  and  several  institutions  for  the 
deaf,  dumb,  and  blind.  The  city  contains  ten  colleges  of 
the  rank  of  gymnasia  and  Real  schools  for  tlie  preparation 
of  students  for  \\w.  University  and  Polytechnicum. 

.Vi'fhoils  of  Ailniinisfra/ion. — The  government  of  Berlin  is 
republican,  but  with  a  method  of  organization  wdiicli  places 
virtual  control  of  the  city  in  the  hands  of  those  who  own 
the  property.  Every  male  inhabitant  of  Berlin  who  is  a 
Prussiiin  and  twenty-four  years  of  age  is  a  voter,  provided: 
(1)  he  has  lived  in  the  city  for  one  year:  (2)  is  not  depend- 
ent u|ion  a  father  or  guardian,  and  enjoys  i-ontrol  over  his 


TnTRTTTN 

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F..-nl.r»^  V\  ,      .s,„;/„, 

3:>  /-  "  ■"':'^ 


■:.^--^-:- ■",'■%  T''''^S:=^4;^X|\^v^^i«'  /"s;>W>  t^^-U„  14--:'/  /'•,. 


/^ 


BERLIN 


BERLIN  CONGRESS 


593 


own  hoiiseliolil  ami  property;  (3)  has  for  b  year  rcceivej  no 
alms  from  public  funds ;  (4)  has  paid  all  his  municipal  taxes 
(Uiriiifi  tlie  last  yesir;  (">)  («)  possesses  a  house,  or  (6)  pursues 
a  trade  with  two  cniijloyees,  or  (c)  pays  nil  income  lax,  or 
((/)  pays  a  class  tax.  The  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  who 
under  the.sc  regulations  have  the  ri;;ht  to  vole  in  the  city  is 
about  one  in  seven,  or  l;i  per  cent,  less  than  those  who  have 
tlie  riijlit  to  Vole  lit  Ihe  impcriiil  elections.  The  most  uole- 
wortliy  ciiiiracterislic  of  the  {;overnnu'iit  of  Berlin,  however, 
is  the  method  by  which  the  void's  are  divided  into  cla.sses 
in  such  a  way  as  to  pve  to  the  men  of  wealth  a  predominant 
influence  in  the  frovernment.  The  voters  are  divided  into 
three  {{roups  or  classes,  aceordiiiff  to  the  amount  of  their 
taxes.  The  hii^hest  laxpuyers.  be;;inniii;;  with  the  citizen 
who  pays  the  highest  tax,  include  so  many  of  the  richest  men 
a.s  pay  a  sum  total  eiiual  to  one-third  of  all  the  taxes  paid  by 
Ihe  citizens  of  the  nninicipality.  The  secorul  class  be^jins 
where  the  first  Icavesolf.  and  j;oes  far  enou;;h  down  the  list  to 
include  those  who  pay  the  second  third  of  the  entire  lax. 
The  remaining  citizens  form  the  third  cla.ss.  The  lirst  cla.s.s 
embrucesalM)ut  2^  per  cent,  of  the  voters  and  the  seconil  about 
T^  per  cent.  The  renniininj;  90  per  cent,  constitute  the  third 
class.  Each  class  elects  one-thircl  of  the  city  coMiuil.  In 
other  words.  -^  per  cent,  of  the  citizens  elect  one-third  of  the 
city  Kovernnwnt.  the  next  7i  per  cent,  elect  one-third,  while 
the  yo  per  cent,  belonfjinfr  to  the  third  class  elect  one-third. 
The  city  a.sscml>ly.  consistins;  of  U).S  members,  is  elected  for 
six  years,  I  he  term  of  one-third  expirint,'  every  two  yeai^s.  The 
oltice  of  city  assemblyman  or  councilman  is  considered  one 
of  honor,  and  no  salary  is  received.  The  assembly  meets 
every  Thursday  afternoon,  and  its  meetiiij;s  are  pul)lic.  The 
executive  branch  of  the  government  is  in  the  hands  of  Ihe 
mayor  and  a  body  of  thirty-four  magistrates.  One-half  of 
the  magistrates  receive  salaries,  and  are  expected  to  give 
their  whole  time  to  the  work.  The  mayor  and  paid  magis- 
trates are  elected  for  twelve  years,  and  have  the  right  to  a 
pension  in  ca.se  they  are  not  re-elected.  The  other  members  of 
the  magistracy  are  elected  for  six  years.  'J'he  municipal  as- 
■sembly  has  the  ordimiry  functions  of  u  legislative  body.  It 
discusses  mailers  pertaining  to  ailminislralion.  but  is  not 
allowed  to  enter  upon  execulive  work,  this  being  left  exclu- 
sively to  the  mayor  and  magistrates.  The  higher  city  offi- 
cers are  appointeil  for  life.  invarial)ly  after  a  long  term  of 
service  in  suliordinale  positions.  The  mayor  himself  must 
have  graduated  in  law  from  aderman  university.  The  sys- 
tem of  civil  service  in  the  various  buri'aus  provides  for  per- 
manence of  tenure,  and  for  [lunisliing  and  even  dismissing 
ollicers  who  do  not  discharge  their  duty  in  every  res|)ect. 
Umler  such  a  system  of  civil  service,  leading  as  it  does  to 
promotion,  it  is  manifestly  not  for  the  interest  of  an  ofiice- 
hr)lder  to  be  dishonest.  The  salaries  paid  in  the  bureaus 
and  the  city  tre.isury  range  from  .^ 1. 2Ti)  to  ^1, ■■)()<),  while  sev- 
eral hundred  sicretaries  and  assistants  receive  no  more  than 
from  ^^oll  to  ijil.tMMI.  But  the  oIKces  are  considered  de- 
sirable on  account  of  their  permanciK^y. 

Vondilidii  of  Ihe  Streets  and  Driiimiffe. — The  excellence 
and  thoroughness  of  the  governnu'nt  of  lierlin  is  in  no  way 
more  conspicuously  shown  than  in  the  habitual  cleaidiness 
of  the  streets,  and  in  the  adndrable  system  of  drainage. 
The  stri'els  are  every  day  cleaned  l)etween  mi<lniglit  and 
daybreak:  and  the  stranger  Ls  everywhere  impressed  with 
the  thoroughness  with  which  the  worl<  isdone.  Berlin  is  less 
ailvantageou>ly  provided  with  natural  drainage  llian  .-dmost 
anyotiierof  I'he  world's  great  cities.  Paris  is  drained  by 
the  .'^eine:  London  by  the  Thames;  Vienmiby  the  Danube; 
and  New  Ycu-k  is  surrounded  by  deep  water.  Jn  Chicago 
alone  of  the  world's  large  cilies  is  the  draiuiige  question  so 
uwkwaril  a.s  it  is  in  Berlin.  So  long  as  Ihe  city  was  small, 
Ihe  diminutive  and  sluggish  river  Spree  sutHced  fairly  well 
to  carry  olf  refuse  nnitter.  Underground  sesverage  wa.s  not 
well  developed,  and  the  houses  were  provided  with  cess- 
|iools  and  underground  vaults,  rather  than  with  modern 
plundiing  and  .sewer  connections.  But  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  Ihe  capital  of  Ihe  new  German  empire  made  it  im- 
peratively nci-essury  that  something  should  be  done  that 
should  Ix'  adei|uate  to  Ihe  situation.  Obviously  the  removal 
of  waste  water  i)y  a  large  swift-flowing  channel  to  disin- 
fection and  disappearance  in  salt  water  was  quite  out  of  the 
question.  .S'W.-iire  farms  had  Ix'cn  tried  experimentally  and 
with  some  sui'i'ess  elsewhere,  particularly  at  one  or  two 
places  in  England.  The  Berlin  immicipal  council  gave  the 
matter  much  scienlifie  consideration. and  at  length  hit  upon 
a  giMieral  plan  embodying  the  foll<;wing  essential  features: 
The  citv  should  be  provided  with  a  complete  modern  system 
38 


of  undergi'ound  sewers,  with  which  all  the  hous(>s  sliould  bo 
brought  into  direct  connection.  The  city  should  be  divided 
into  some  twelve  drainage  districts,  regard  being  had  to  the 
minor  topogra|)hy  of  Berlin.  Each  of  these  districts  should 
have  a  complete  sewer  system  of  its  own,  which  should  be 
called  Radial  System  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  so  on.  The  sewers 
of  each  radial  system  or  district  should  be  ma<li'  to  converge 
to  Ihe  district  pumping  station,  so  that  each  district  should 
be  wholly  independent  of  all  the  rest.  At  the  lowest  point 
in  a  given  drainage  tlistrict  it  was  decidi'd  to  locale  a  large 
receiving  station  for  the  reception  and  partial  filtration  of 
sewage,  and  at  some  point  to  locate  powerful  pumping  ma- 
chinery. From  eiich  one  of  these  pumping  stations  there 
shouhl  be  a  large  tunnel  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  oif  the 
regular  s<'wage  of  the  entiri'  district,  anil  through  this  tun- 
nel the  pumjiing  nuichiiiery  should  force  Ihe  .sewage  out  of 
Ihe  city  into  receiving  and  subsidence  tanks  located  upon 
tracts  of  land  purchased  by  the  authorities  as  sewage  farms. 
These  farms  are  considerable  areas  of  what  was  almost  waste 
aiul  worthless  laiul,  lying  at  different  distances  but  at  an 
average  perhaps  of  from  7  to  10  miles  out  of  Berlin  in  sev- 
eral diffeient  directions.  As  rapidly  as  a  district  of  the  city 
was  jirepared,  ihe  system  was  put  into  operation  for  that 
[larlicidar  district.  It  is  only  since  181)0  that  the  entire 
system  has  been  in  ojicration,  after  pcrlia])s  ten  years  spent 
in  making  the  great  transformation.  It  is  lunv  the  com- 
iilctest  and  most  satisfactory  system  for  the  disposition  of 
liipiid  waste  that  any  great  city  possesses.  A  scientific  agri- 
culture is  practiced  upon  the  farms, and  by  a  system  of  irri- 
gation— a  description  of  which  would  involve  merely  tech- 
nical considerations — it  is  found  jiossible  to  make  the  soil 
swallow  up  and  disinfect  without  offen.se  to  surrounding 
farms  and  villages  the  entire  sewage  product  of  the  great 
metropolis.  The  sy.stem  is  capable  of  expansion  at  both 
ends  to  meet  the  ciUarg(id  requirements  of  the  future. 
From  an  engineering  point  of  view  it  is  highly  successful, 
while  from  an  economic-  jjoint  of  view  it  has  carried  with  it 
as  little  cost  as  any  system  that  could  be  devised  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  necessary  service.  From  the  sanitary 
point  of  view  it  is  abov<'  all  praise.  It  is  a<lnnnistered  as  a 
distinct  dei)artm<'nt  of  the  municipal  governnu'nt  with 
gieat  thrift  and  success.  The  waste  lands  have  been  made 
highly  productive,  and  the  municipality  of  Berlin  puts  upon 
the  market  a  very  large  quantify  of  garden  iiroducts.  Even 
(he  water  of  the  sewage,  after  it  has  lieeii  (lisinfecled.  is  so 
])erfectly  jiure  as  to  be  brought  back  to  Ihe  city  for  ordinary 
usi'.  The  l)est  account,  in  English,  of  the  govermnent  of 
Berlin  will  be  found  in  an  article  in  the  Cimtimjmrary  Re- 
I'iew  for  1884.  p.  Tlii).  by  I'rof.  Rudolph  (jneist,  who  has  been  a 
member  of  the  Berlin  city  government  more  than  forty 
years.  A  more  elaborate  account  will  be  found  in  the 
regular  reports  annually  published  by  Ihe  Berlin  city  magis- 
tracy.    See  also  Von  Mollcr's  Preussisches  titadtrecht. 

C.  K.  Adams. 

Ber'liii:  the  capitid  of  Waterloo  co..  Ontario.  Dominion 
of  Canada:  on  the  (irand  Trunk  U.  K.:  (12  miles  \V.  of 
Toronto,  at  thi'  junction  of  the  (iait.  Waterloo,  and  Eliuira 
branches  (see  nuip  of  Ontario,  ref.  4-C).  It  has  many  im- 
portant numufacturing  interests,  including  (i  furnilvire  and 
chair  factories,  3  immcn.se  tanneries,  3  boot  and  shoe  fac- 
tories, 2  shirt-factories,  piano,  button,  suspender,  glue,  and 
box  factories,  5  printing  establishments,  water-works,  elec- 
tric light,  street-cars,  a  Catholic  college,  14  churches,  elegant 
business  blocks,  aiul  splendid  hotels.  Pop.  (1881)  4.056; 
(181)1)  7.425;  (18!)2)  about  8.000.  Editor  of  "News." 

Berlin  :  city ;  on  r.Milroad  :  Green  Lake  co..  Wis.  (for  loca- 
tion of  comity,  see  niaii  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  6-E) :  on  Fox  river ; 
94  miles  N.  W.  of  Jlihvaukee.  Steamboats  iily  between 
this  point  and  Green  Bay,  etc.  Berlin  has  eiglit  churches, 
and  good  graded  s<'hools.  Its  indu.slries  are  diversified,  and 
include  llouring-mills,  foundry,  and  manufactures  of  tur- 
bine-wheels, woolen  goods,  the  manufacture  of  gloves,  whips, 
w.'ishboards,  brooms,  shoes,  the  quarrying  of  granite,  can- 
ning of  fruit,  marketing  of  produce,  etc. ;  and  it  has  water- 
works and  electric  lights.  The  vicinitv  produces  largely 
cranberries  aii<l  dairy  products.  Pop.  ("1880)  3,353 ;  (1890) 
4,149;  (1895)  4,279.  Editor  of  "Evkni.ng  Jouk.val." 

ncrliii  Blue:  See  Phissia.v  Bli'K. 

Berlin  Cinigrcss:  the  meeting  in  Berlin  in  1878  of  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe  to  decide 
certain  impoi'tant  questions  growing  out  of  the  Kusso-Turk- 
ish  war  of  the  preceding  year.  The  occasion  of  the  congress 
was  what  was  regardetl  as  the  threatening  attitude  of  Russia 


o[t-t 


BERLIN  C'OXGRESS 


BERLIN.   UNIVERSITY  OF 


in  the  East,  in  eonsequenee  of  hei"  victory  and  the  Treaty  of 
San  Stefann.  The  general  fear  was  that  Russia  had  acquired 
a  preponderance  of  [lower  over  tlie  Northern  Turkish  prov- 
inces, which  might  ultimately  threaten  Constantinople  and 
the  approaches  to  the  Black  Sea.  As  this  fear  involved  also 
the  question  of  controlling  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  the 
nation  most  immediately  interested  was  Austria.  But  the 
interests  of  Great  Britain,  though  more  indirect,  were  not 
less  positive  and  important,  inasmuch  as.  since  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  1856.  Great  Britain  had  maintained  such  relations 
with  Turkey  as  enabled  the  British  Government  to  have 
very  large  influence,  and  in  some  respects  even  control,  over 
Turkish  affairs.  Wliile  the  preliminary  arrangements  for 
the  congress  were  progressing.  Lord  Carnarvon  probably 
gave  expression  to  British  ojnnion  and  feeling  when  he 
pointed  out  to  the  House  of  Lords  "  how  convenient  tor  a 
time  it  had  been  to  have  a  )jower  commanding  the  Danla- 
nelles  and  the  Bosphorus  which  was  not  strong  enough  to 
stand  alone,  but  was  strong  enough  to  stand  by  the  aid  of 
Great  Britain,  and  how  hojieless  it  would  be  to  find  any 
exact  equivalent  for  such  an  arrangement."'  He  further 
said  that  the  only  substitute  would  grow  up  gradually  in 
the  general  inifirovement  and  increasing  power  of  the  sub- 
ject races  of  Turkey,  and  it  was  their  interest  whicli  Great 
Britain  ought  to  go  into  the  congi-ess  to  guard.  These  two 
sentences  well  expressed  the  spirit  of  Great  Britain  in  going 
into  the  congress.  The  initiative  suggestion  of  the  congress 
was  made  by  Austria.  The  place  indicated  was  Berlin  and 
the  president  Prince  Bismarck.  Those  responding  to  the 
suggestion  generally  recognized  the  fact  that  the  interests 
of  Europe  were  so  involved  in  the  condition  of  Turkey  and 
the  dependent  provinces  that  all  the  details  of  the  Treaty  of 
San  Stefano  (ilar.  3,  1878)  might  properly  come  before  the 
congress  for  review.  But  at  first  there  were  difficulties  in 
the  way.  At  length,  however.  Russia,  owing  to  the  urgent 
representations  of  Count  Schouvaloff.  agreed  that  the  whole 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano  might  be  submitted  for  consideration. 
Accordingly,  Germany,  acting  upon  Austria's  suggestion,  in- 
vited the  Euro]iean  powers  to  a  congress  at  Berlin  for  June 
13.  On  the  lotli  of  tliat  month  the  plenijiotentiaries  of  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain.  Austria.  Russia,  Prance,  Italy,  and 
Turkey  met  at  the  palace  of  Prince  Bismarck,  and  organized 
by  the  appointment  of  Prince  Bismarck  a.s  president.  The 
congress  was  made  up  of  the  most  distinguished  officials  of 
the  several  governments.  Great  Britain  was  represented  by 
Lords  Beaconsfield  and  Salisbury,  and  Mr.  Odo  Russell 
(afterward  Baron  Ampthill) :  Russia  by  Prince  Gortschakoff. 
Count  Schouvaloff.  and  Baron  d'Oubril;  (termanyby  Prince 
Bismarck.  Prince  Hohenlohe.  and  Gen.  Von  Billow ;  Austria 
by  Count  Andrassy.  Count  Karolyi.  and  Baron  Ilaymerlin : 
Prance  by  51.  Waddington  and  tlie  Comte  de  Saint- Vallier ; 
Italy  by  Counts  Corti  and  Launay:  and  Turkey  by  Cara- 
theodori  Pasha.  SadoulUdi  Bey.  ami  Jlehemet  A li  Pasha. 

It  was  evident  from  the  fii-st  that  the  eoiigress  would 
work  toward  peace.  A  sensation  was  produced  when  it 
came  out  that  in  .May  a  treaty  had  been  signed  between 
Rus.sia  and  England  agreeing  to  a  settlement  of  one  of  the 
most  important  questions  in  disjMite.  By  this  treaty  Bul- 
garia was  to  be  divided  into  two  provinces,  the  northern  of 
which  should  be  independent,  and  the  southern  should  be 
governed  like  a  British  colony,  the  governor  being  appointed 
for  five  or  ten  years  with  the  consent  of  Europe.  Southern 
Bulgaria  was  not  to  reach  the  ^Egean.  ticu-  were  Turkish 
troops  to  enter  Bulgaria  except  in  case  of  war  or  threatened 
insurrection.  In  consideration  of  Russia's  assent  to  these 
articles.  Great  Britain  agreed  "not  to  dispute  the  articles  of 
the  preliminary  Treaty  of  San  Stefano."  When  the  Bulga- 
rian question,  which  touched  so  closely  the  interests  of  Aus- 
tria and  Turkey,  as  well  as  those  of  Russia,  came  before  the 
congress,  it  was  finally  settled  bv  the  formation  of  an  inde- 
nendent  Bulgaria  extending  fr'om  the  Danube  to  the  Bal- 
kans, with  an  elective  priiu-e  and  an  armv  of  its  own.  and 
with  the  control  <if  all  (lie  fortifications,  turkev  was  given 
the  control  of  the  Balkans,  with  as  manv  fortifications  as 
she  desired.  In  the  regi..n  .south  of  the  lialkans.  "  Ea-sfern 
Roumelia"  was  established,  to  be  governed  by  a  hosjiodar, 
to  be  appointed  fi.r  five  or  ten  years,  and  to  be  nduiinated 
by  the  sultan  and  lh<'  powers,  "it  was  decided  to  intrust 
Austria  with  the  task  of  occupying  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
in  the  interests  of  European"  neace ;  but  the  duration  of 
.\ustrian  occupation  was  not  determined.  This  plan  for 
Austrian  occupation  was  reluctantly  accepted  by  It^dy  and 
Turkey.  Servia  received  independence  with  a  territorial 
extension.    The  Montenegrin  question  was  settled  by  giving 


to  the  little  state  a  considerable  increase  of  territory  and 
access  to  the  sea.  The  Gi-eek  question  evoked  much  interest 
and  discussion,  but  the  congress  limited  itself  to  passing  a 
resolution  recommending  an  extension  of  Hellenic  territory, 
inviting  the  Porte  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the 
Greek  Government  in  regard  to  the  frontiers,  and  tendering 
the  good  offices  of  the  powers  in  case  of  disagreement.  In 
the  course  of  the  meetings  of  the  congress  a  second  great 
sensation  was  created  by  the  revelation  that  on  June  4  Great 
Britain  had  signed  a  secret  treaty  with  Turkey  by  which  the 
two  contracting  powers  entered  into  mutual  obligations. 
Great  Britain,  on  the  one  hand,  agreed  for  all  future  time  to 
defend  the  Asiatic  dominions  of  the  Ottoman  empire  "by 
force  of  arms."  while  Turkey,  on  the  other,  promised,  first, 
to  introduce  all  necessary  reforms,  as  agreeil  upon  with  its 
ally,  and,  secondly,  to  assign  the  island  of  Cyprus  to  be  oc- 
cupied and  administered  by  Great  Britain,  so  long  as  Russia 
should  occupy  Batum.  Ardahan.  ami  Kars. 

It  was  universally  conceded  that  the  jiart  of  Great  Britain 
in  the  congress  was  played  with  great  skill  and  brilliancy. 
By  the  terms  finally  adopted  the  Dardanelles  were  restored 
to  their  condition  before  the  recent  war :  the  stability  and 
ultiuuite  independence  of  the  Northern  Turkish  provinces 
were  secm'ed :  Russia  was  required  to  destroy  her  fortifica- 
tions at  Batum  ;  Turkey  was  required  to  reform  her  govern- 
ment ;  while  Great  Britain,  by  establishing  herself  in  Cypnis, 
assumed  virtual  control  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Many  of  the  most  influential  newspapers  of 
Europe  regarded  the  results  of  the  congress  as  henceforth 
securing  the  ]ireponderance  of  British  influence  in  Asia.  At 
the  final  sitting  of  the  congress  it  was  determined,  on  mo- 
tion of  Prince  Bismarck,  that  each  power  should  watch  over 
the  execution  of  the  clauses  agreed  upon  affecting  itself,  and 
should  be  at  liberty  to  addi'ess  the  Porte  such  personal  ob- 
servations as  it  might  deem  advisable.  The  congress  con- 
cluded its  work  on  July  13.  just  one  month  from  the  date 
for  which  it  was  called.  The  treaty,  which  is  said  to  be  the 
longest  ever  written,  was  signed  by  a  larger  number  of  pleiii- 
]iotcntiaries  than  had  ever  before  fixed  their  names  to  a 
treaty.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Berlin.  Treaty  of:  See  Bi^rlin  Congress. 

Berlin,  I'uiversity  of:  founded  soon  after  the  crushing 
defeat  of  Pnissia  by  Napoleon  at  Jena,  at  a  time  when  it 
seemed  as  though  the  national  life  and  spirit  were  at  their 
lowest  ebli.  Under  the  inspiring  leadership  of  men  like 
Pichte  and  Humboldt,  howevei'.  the  country  set  about  re- 
covering its  lost  prestige  with  a  wisdom  and  determination 
that  has  perhaps  never  been  equaled  in  history.  The  in- 
auguration of  the  great  Prussian  school-system  dates  from 
this  period,  and  of  this  system  the  University  of  Berlin  may 
very  properly  be  considered  the  crown.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1809  and  opened  in  1810.  The  faculty  was  re- 
cruited from  the  most  eminent  scholai"s  of  Germany,  and 
.such  leaders  as  Nieliuhr.  Wilhelm  von  Hinnbuldt,  Ritter, 
Pichte,  Hegel,  Neander,  and  Schleiermacher  soon  attracted 
the  attention  of  Europe  to  the  young  institution.  The  repu- 
tation thus  established  has  been  maintained  by  men  like 
Ranke,  Mommsen,  Curtius,  DuBois-Raymond,  Ilelndioltz. 
Virchow,  Droysen.  Von  Sybel.  and  Koch.  The  main  build- 
ing of  the  university  is  the  old  palace  of  Prince  Henry, 
brother  of  Frederick  II..  erected  in  1754-64.  and  apiirojiriated 
to  the  use  of  the  university  in  180!).  It  stands  on  Unter  den 
Linden.  op])Osite  the  Royal  Lilu'ary  and  the  0]iera-hou,se. 
This  building  contains  some  of  the  museums  and  scientific 
collections.  The  garden  in  front  is  adorned  with  statues  of 
Wilhelm  and  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  The  university 
also  occupies  some  seven  or  eight  other  buildings  in  ad- 
jacent parts  of  the  city.  The  iniiversity  library,  containing 
300.000  volumes,  is  supplemented  by  tlie  Royal  Liljrary  of 
000,000  volumes,  just  across  the  street,  to  which  students 
have  easy  access. 

Insfnicfinn. — Instruction  is  given  mainly  by  lectures  and 
in  the  laboratories.  There  are  also  several  seminaries.  There 
are  four  faculties:  Tlieo/ogi/.  with  17  jirofcssors:  Jurispru- 
dence. v;\th  26  professors ;  J/erfiV/Hf.  with  112  professors; 
and  Phihi.toplnj,  which  includes  all  branches  of  learning 
pertaining  to  general  culture  and  not  to  professional  train- 
ing, with  181  professors.  Using  the  word  professor  to  indi- 
cate instructor  of  whatever  (U'der,  there  are  then  336  profes- 
sors in  these  four  faculties.  No  fewer  than  757  courses  of 
instruction  were  offered  during  the  year  1890-91.  Of  these, 
30  were  in  the  Oriental  languages.  The  year  is  divided  into 
two  terms  or  semesters,  the  winter  semester  extending  from 


BERLIOZ 


BERNARD 


595 


the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  Jriireli.  and  the  sum- 
mer semester  from  tlie  middle  of  Ajtril  to  the  middle  of 
August. 

iitudfiifs. — The  number  of  matriculated  students  in  1891 
was  5,527.  Of  the  total  numher.  some  400  are  usually  from 
the  U.  S.  The  expenses  are  not  hijili.  Many  of  the  courses 
arc  free.  For  the  otliers.  the  fees  average  about  five  dollars 
for  a  coui-se  of  fi>ur  hours  a  week  through  one  term.  In 
medicine  and  in  the  laburatorics  they  are  sonu-what  higher. 
The  use  of  the  acaili'mic  n-ailing-room,  with  250  news|)ai)ers, 
200  magazines,  and  y,OUO  volumes,  costs  seventy-live  cents  a 
semester. 

Oraduation. — The  German  term  is  "promotion"'  (to  the 
doctorate),  not  graduation.  The  degree  conferred  is  that  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  Philosophy,  etc.  The  candidate  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  I'hilosophy  must  present  a  thesis  that 
shows  satisfactory  original  investigation,  must  midcrgo  an 
oral  examination!  and  must  maintain  his  thesis  in  an  open 
disputation.  Wiih  liis  ajipliealiou  for  a  degree  the  candi- 
date must  present  a  petition  to  the  faculty  for  admission  to 
this  honor,  and  a  short  history  of  his  life,  botii  in  Latin,  a 
certificate  of  ripeness  for  admission  to  the  university  from  a 
gymnasium,  a  cerlitieate  of  honorable  dismissal  from  the 
univei-sity,  a  certificate  of  three  years'  attendance  upon  a 
miiversit'y.  and  his  ilissertation,  whicli,  in  cases  wliere  it 
would  be  proper,  nnist  l)e  in  Latin.  The  oral  examinalion 
is  public.  Certain  professors  are  designated  l)y  I  lie  faculty 
to  conduct  it.  l)nt  anyone  present  may  put  a  (piestion  to  the 
candidate.  The  dis])utation  is  also  open,  an<l  the  candidate 
has  to  maintain  his  position  against  at  least  three  opponents. 
There  are  four  degrees  of  success,  designated  as  siimiiia  cum 
laiidi',  mrii/iiii  rum  /riiiite,  rum  liiude,  and  simply  aiisfiniiit. 
Two  hinidred  and  lifty  copies  of  the  thesis  or  disscrlalion 
and  100  copies  of  llie  diploma  are  printed  at  llie  ex^iense  of 
the  candiilale.  Tlie  total  cost  of  a  "  pronuition  "  is  about 
ninety  dollars.  The  regulations  in  regard  to  the  degree  of 
Doctor  are  mori!  strict  at  Herlin  than  anywhere  else,  and  are 
more  rigidly  enforced.  Consequently,  a  degree  from  Berlin 
is  highly  esteemed.  "  C.  11.  Thl-rbke. 

Berlioz,  bar'li-o/.',  IIectou  Louis:  French  mnsical  com- 
poser; b.  at  Cote-Saint- Andre.  Isere,  Dec.  11,  1803;  a  physi- 
cian's .son  :  sent  to  Paris  to  stuily  medicine ;  entered  the  Con- 
servatory, following  a  passionate  bent  for  niiisie.  Tie  com- 
posed Siimphiiini'  t'liiifdxfii/Ki';  overtures  to  Wrin'r/fi/  and 
Kiiiy  Lmr;  Harold  (W:j:i)  and  Romeo  ft  .Julifltc  (l>s;i!l), 
symphonies;  lii'.nvi'niilo  Cellini,  an  ojiera  in  two  act.s  ;  Sijm- 
phonie  Fitnebreet  Triinnpltide  (IHiO) ;  Damnatioti  de  Fanst 
(1840),  a  symphony:  h'lifance.  de,  Chi-iM,  a  trilogy  (1854); 
and //t'*  7';v(i/c»s-,  agrand  five-act  opera,  played  witliout  suc- 
cess in  18():J.  His  works  bespeak  an  ardent  anil  independent 
genius,  anil  have  elicited  diverse  criticism.  So  far  as  purely 
musical  invention  is  concerned,  Berlioz  can  scarcely  be 
ranked  with  the  great  tone-poets.  But  in  the  science  of 
orchestration,  more  especially  in  novel  combinations  and 
effects,  he  remains  a  supremo  master  and  worthy  colleague 
of  Wagner  in  this  specific  sense.  lie  was  also  a  talented 
author  and  critic,  and  has  published  Traile  d' instrumenta- 
tion el  d'orcliesi  nit  ion  »i</(/i;™b  (1844) ;  Voi/af/e,  musirah  en 
Allemaiine  et  en  Italie;  Etudes  aur  Beet/ioren,  (lluek,  et 
VTeher  (XHA't);  Siiin'es  de  t'orcliestre  {iH'hi);  Leu  (rr(itexque>< 
de  la  munii/iie  (185!));  and  Mnnoires  (1870).  D.  in  Pari.s, 
JIar.  8,  18li'.».  Revised  by  DuDLKY  Buck. 

Bcrmu'dii  (iruss  {('i/nodon  dacti/lon) :  a  grass  extensively 
cultivated  in  India  (where  it  is  called  dliid)).  and  which  has 
been  introduceil  into  the  West  Indies,  Eurojie,  the  Southern 
U.  S.,  and  the  Sandwich  islands.  It  is  valuable  both  for 
pasture-grass  and  for  hay,  and  is  especially  prized  in  warm 
climates,  where  the  grass  croji  is  generallv  poor;  but  in  light 
soils,  espeeially  iiorlhward,  its  perennial  roots  cause  great 
trouble  to  the  farmer. 

Bermiidii  Hundred:  in  Chesterfield  co.,  Va. :  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  .lames  river,  just  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Appomattox,  and  U  miles  above  City  Point  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  6-11).  The  tortuous  course 
of  the  James  river  here  incloses  a  neck  of  laiiil  whieh  Oen. 
Butler  occupied  and  fortified  in  MayG.  18(i4. and  from  which 
he  was  toco-operate  with  Cien.  Grant  by  menac-ing  Iiiehinond 
and  Petersburg.  On  the  morning  of  May  \(i.  Is(i4,  Gen. 
Butler,  who  had  moved  out  of  his  works,  was  fiercely  .attacked 
by  the  Confederate  force  under  Beauregaril,  and  ;ifler  a  se- 
vere struggle,  which  lasted  till  noon,  driven  back  into  his 
iutrenchments  with  severe  loss.  Beauregard  erected  a  lino 
of  works  across  the  peninsula  in  front  of  Butler's.     Subse- 


quent expeditions  were  made  from  thes"  works,  and  the  lin(> 
finally  formed  a  part  of  the  investment  lines  of  the  combined 
armies  against  IVtersbm-cr. 

Bei'iniulii  Islands,  or  Brrinndas;  also  called  Soincrs's 
Islands :  a  group  of  small,  low  islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
belonging  to  (ireal  liritain  (see  map  of  North  America,  ref. 
7-1).  They  take  their  name  from  .Juan  Bermudez,  who  dis- 
covered them  in  1.522.  They  are  about  024  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
t^'ape  llaltenis.  which  is  the  nearest  land,  and  are  in  hit.  32° 
20  N..  and  loll.  (i4  50  W.  The  extent  of  the  group  is  only 
1!)  miles  by  (i  miles,  although  the  number  of  islets  is  nearly 
400.  Area,"  20  sq.  miles.  They  derive  importance  from  the 
commanding  position  which  they  occupy  between  the  West 
Indies  and  the  other  parts  of  British  America.  They  are  in- 
closed on  several  sides  by  formidable  coral-reefs,  which  are 
said  to  be  the  only  coral-reefs  occurring  in  the  centra!  ex- 
panse of  the  Atlantic.  The  climate  is  so  mild  ami  delight  ful 
that  these  islands  are  covered  with  perpetual  verdure.  Be- 
tween December  and  March  the  teiiiperalure  ranges  from 
60"  to  66"  F.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  potatoes, 
onions,  and  arrowroot.  The  largest  of  these  islands  are 
Bermuda,  15  miles  long;  St.  George's,  3A  miles;  Somerset, 
3  miles;  and  Ireland,  3  miles.  Capital,  Hamilton,  on  the 
isle  of  lieriuuda.  St.  George's  isle  has  a  good,  landlocked 
harbor,  which  is  di'fended  by  strong  batteries.  These  isles 
are  separated  by  narrow  and  intricate  channels,  and  have  no 
streams,  and  but  few  pools  of  fresh  water.  Many  ol  the  in- 
hiibitants  are  emploved  in  building  cedar  vessels,  which  are 
durable  and  swift.    "Pop.  (1891)  1.5,884. 

Bermndez.  bar-moo'da'yth :  a  maritime  state  of  Vene- 
zuela; extending  from  the  peninsula  of  Paria  to  the  Orinoco 
river;  bounded  N.  liy  the  Caribbean  Sea.  E.  by  the  Gulf  of 
Paria  and  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  S.  by  Bolivar,  and  W. 
by  the  state  of  Ciuzman  Blanco.  It  is  also  called  the  Estado 
de  Oriente,  or  Eastern  State.  Its  eastern  boundary  is  the  Rio 
Maiiamo.  the  westernmost  month  of  the  Orinoco,  and  on  the 
latter  river  it  extends  westward  to  the  Rio  Siiata.  It  in- 
cludes the  former  provinces  of  Cuniaua  and  Barcelona.  Chief 
towns,  Cumana  and  Barcelona  (poi'ts),  and  Maturin.  Area, 
33,343  sq.  miles.     Pop.  397,466.  M.  W.  H. 

Bernadotte.  Charles  XIV.,  John:  King  of  Sweden;  a 
French  iiiaishal:  b.  at  Pan,  Jan.  26,  1764.  His  original 
name  was  Je.vx  B.u'TISte  Jules  Bek.nadotte.  He  enlisted 
as  a  private  in  the  army  in  1780 ;  served  as  general  of  di- 
vision under  Klcber  and  Jourdan  in  Flanders  in  1794.  and 
under  Hoiiaparle  in  1797.  lu  1798  he  was  French  niinister 
at  Vienna,  and  married  Mademoiselle  Clary,  a  sister  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte's  wife.  He  was  Minister  of  War  for  a 
short  time  in  1799.  Napoleon  created  him  a  marshal  of 
France  in  1804,  and  in  June,  1800,  Prince  of  Pontecorvo. 
He  fought  at  Auslerlitz  in  1805.  and  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Ilalie  in  Oct..  1806.  He  quarreled  with  Napoleon,  who 
censured  his  conduct  at  Wagram  (1809).  and  he  resigned  his 
command  just  after  that  battle.  In  Aug..  1810.  the  Swedish 
Diet  elected  Bernadotte  as  heir  to  the  tlinme  of  Sweden, 
then  occujiied  by  Charles  Xlll.,  who  had  no  son,  and  he  was 
immediately  associated  witli  the  old  king  in  the  exercise  of 
royal  power.  Early  in  1812  Bernadotte,  who  took  the  name 
of"  Charles  John,  n'cgotiated  with  Russia  a  secret  treaty  of 
alliance  against  Napoleon.  lie  openly  joined  the  coalition 
of  the  allies  in  the  spring  of  1813,  and  led  an  army  of  aliout 
38.000  men  into  (ieriiiany.  His  army  defeated  (iudinol  at 
Gross-Beeren  in  Aug.,  1813,  but  his  conduct  was  considered 
equivocal  and  lukewarm  by  the  allies.  He  forced  Prince 
Christian  of  Denmark,  wholiad  proclaimed  himself  King  of 
Norway,  to  resign,  and  on  Nov.  4,  1814,  Charles  XIII.  was 
proclaimed  king,  and  Bernadotte  crown  prince.  When  the 
allies  entered  France  in  1814.  he  led  his  army  back  to  Swe- 
den and  conquered  Norway.  He  began  to  reign  alone 
on  the  death  of  Charles  Xl'll.  in  Feb.,  1818,  after  which 
a  long  peace  ensued.  D.  in  Stockholm,  Mar.  8,  1844,  and 
left  the  thnme  to  his  son,  Oscar  I.  .See  Erik  G.  Geijer, 
Konunej  h'arlx  XIV.  Jolian  IliMoria  (1844);  W.  G.  Mere- 
dith, S/emorialx  of  Cliarles  {XI^'.)  Joint.  King  of  Sweden 
(1829). 

Bernard,  Ci.ArnE :  French  physiologist ;  b.  at  Saint-Ju- 
lien.  in  dept.  of  Rhone.  July  12. 1813.  He  wrote  Researches 
on  the  Vtex  of  tlie  /V(»c)w(s,  which  gained  the  grand  prize  of 
the  Institute'in  1849.  He  was  admitted  into' the  Institute 
in  18.54,  and  became  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  College 
of  France  in  185.5.  P.ernard  discovereir'the  glycogenic 
function  of  the  liver.  He  was  created  grand  oflicer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1863.    Among  his  works  arc  Lefonsde 


39G 


BERNAKD 


BERNE 


Phi/sioloqie  (1855)  ami  Jlemoire  sur  la   Chaleur  animale 
(1856).     1).  in  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1878. 

Bci-'iiard,  Sir  Francis:  lawyer;  b.  in  Nettlehain.  Lin- 
colnshire, England,  1714;  became  Governor  of  New  Jersey 
in  1758,  and  of  Massachusetts  in  1760.  After  nine  years 
of  successful  administration,  during  which  he  acquired  JMt. 
Desert  island,  he  became  unpopular  in  Massachusetts  be- 
cause he  brought  troops  into  Boston  and  opposed  liberal 
measures.  He  was  accused  of  misconduct,  recalled,  and 
made  a  baronet  in  176!).  I),  in  Aylesbury.  Ensland,  June 
16,  1770.     His  Letter-books  are  in  Harvard  Library. 

Bernard,  barnaar',  Saixt :  Abbot  of  Clairvaux ;  mediae- 
val theologian,  and  a  doctor  of  the  Western  Church  ;  b.  in 
his  father's  castle  at  Fontaines,  near  Dijon,  in  1001.  He 
became  an  inmate  of  tlie  monastery  of  Citeaux  in  1113,  and 
founded  in  1115  a  community  of  the  Cistercian  order  at 
Clairvaux,  in  Cluinipagne.  of  which  he  was  the  first  abbot. 
His  ascetic  life  and  eloquence  and  combination  of  piety, 
mysticism,  and  sound  practical  sense  rendered  him  a  very 
influential  and  powerful  person  in  the  Church.  He  was  re- 
garded as  an  oracle  by  all  Christendom,  and  was  consulted 
and  obeyed  in  politics  as  well  as  in  Church  affairs.  He  did 
much  to'  encoiu'ago  monastieism,  and  founded  many  monas- 
teries. Yet  intensity  of  conviction  made  him  a  persecutor  ; 
so  he  appears  as  an  implacable  adversary  of  Abelard,  whose 
condemnation  at  the  Synod  of  Paris  (li40)  was  eljected  by 
his  influence ;  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  a  pupil  of  Abelard.  whom 
he  drove  out  of  France  ami  Switzerland ;  of  the  Cathari ;  and 
of  Gilbert  of  Portiers.  In  1128  he  drew  up  the  rule  for  the 
new  order  of  Knights  Templars.  The  same  intensity  led  him 
to  arouse  Europe  to  the  second  crusade,  that  of  1146.  which 
failed  disastrously.  Bernard  in  consequence  was  ilenounced, 
and  his  disappointment  and  chagrin  hastened  his  death  at 
Clairvaux,  Aug.  20,  1153.  He  was  canonized  1173.  His 
works  are  numerous.  He  wrote  five  famous  and  beauti- 
ful Latin  hymns,  including  the  Jesu  dulcis  memoria  and 
the  Salve  mundi  m/iil<ire.  portions  of  whicli  appear  in  all 
hymn-books — in  English  as,  Jesus,  the  Very  Thought  of  Thee, 
and  0  Sacred  Uead  !  Now  Wounded,  respectively.  See  his 
complete  works  (ed.  ]\tabillon,  repr.  bv  Migne.  Pat.  Lnt. 
CLXXXIII.-CLXXXV.  Eng.  ti-aus.  by  S.  J.  Eales,  Lon- 
don. 1889,  seq.).  The  best  modern  lives  are  by  A.  Xeander 
(Berlin,  1813:  3d  ed.  1865;  n.  e.  Gotha,  1880:  a  classic  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1843) :  J.  C.  Morison  (London,  1863 ;  3d  ed. 
1877);  M.  T.  Katisbonne  (Paris,  1841 ;  9th  ed.  1883;  Eng. 
trans.,  New  York.  1S78);  S.  J.  Eales  (London.  1890);  R.  S. 
Storrs  (Xew  York,  1892).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bernard,  Simon:  French  engineer;  b.  at  Dole,  Apr.  28, 
1770;  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  I.:  employed  by  liim  in 
important  duties  incidental  to  his  branch  of  the  service.  lie 
was  invited  to  this  country  by  President  Madison  in  1816  to 
assist  in  the  organization  of  a  system  of  seacoast  defense  by 
fortification.  The  chief  engineer.  Gen.  Swift,  and  another 
officer.  Col.  JIcRee,  sent  in  their  resignations,  and  Col.  W.  K. 
Armistea<l  succeeded  as  chief  engineer.  As  "  assistant  en- 
gineer," Gen.  Bernard  was  associated  with  Col.  (subsequently 
general  and  chief  engineer)  J.  G.  Totten,  constituting  a  •'  per- 
manent board,"  upon  which  the  labor  of  working  out  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  system  and  of  elaborating  the 
projects  of  defense  for  tlie  great  seaports  devolved.  Bernard 
also  had  part  in  the  inauguration  of  some  of  our  earlier 
works  of  civil  engineering,  e.  g.  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Canal,  the  Delaware  breakwater,  etc.  He  resigned  in  1831, 
and  relumed  to  France ;  became  aide-de-camp  to  Louis 
Phili|)pe,  and  subsequently  Minister  of  War  of  France.  D. 
in  I'ans,  Nov.  .5,  1839. 

Bernard.  Thom.is  Deh.ujy:  clergyman  and  author;  b. 
in  Clifton,  Bristol,  England,  Nov.  11,  "1815  ;  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  ordained  1840;  select  prejicher  at  Oxford  1856, 
1862.  1882.  and  Hampton  lecturer  1864.  Became  canon  resi- 
dentiary at  Wells  CatluMlral  in  1868,  and  chancellor  in  1880. 
Author  of  The  Witness  of  Ood,  Linivcrsity  sermons  (1863); 
The  Progress  of  Doctrine  in  the  Xew  Testament,  Bampton 
lectures  (1864;  4th  ed.  1878);  Before  His  Presence  with  a 
Song  (1885);  Central  Teaching  of  Jesus  Christ  (1802). 

Bernard,  (ireat  St. :  a  famous  mountain-pass  of  the 
Pennine  Alps;  ui)Ward  of  8,000  feet  in  height;  between  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Vaud  niul  the  valley  of  Aosta.  Near  tlie 
summit  is  the  celebrated  hos|)ice,  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  902  by  St.  Bernard  of  Meuthon  in  Savoy  for  the  succor 
of  travelers  crossing  the  nuamtain.  In  the  humane  efforts 
of  the  monks  of  this  hospice  the  valuable  dogs  known  as  the 


St.  Bernard  breed,  and  noted  for  their  size  and  sagacity, 
were  valuable  assistants.  In  1800  Napoleon  crossed  the  Alps 
here  with  an  army  of  30,000  men,  with  cavalry  and  artillery. 

Bernard  of  Clnny  :  not  to  be  confounded  with  his  more 
celebrated  countrymen  and  contemporary,  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux ;  b.  at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany,  of  English  parents,  proba- 
bly not  far  from  the  year  1100.  He  was  a  mf)nk  at  Cluny 
under  Peter  the  Venerable,  who  was  abbot  there  from  1122 
to  11.56.  He  wrote  a  poem,  De  Contenvptu  Mundi,  in  about 
3.000  lines,  portions  of  which  were  translated  bv  the  Rev. 
John  Mason  Neale  (1818-66)  in  1851  and  1862.  "  Dr.  Neale 
pronounces  these  verses  of  Bernard  "the  most  lovely,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  Dies  Irce  is  the  most  snl)lime,  and  the 
Stahat  Jfater  the  most  pathetic,  of  nu'<lia'val  poems." 
Hymns  taken  from  this  poem,  such  as  The  "World  is  Very 
Ecil,  Brief  Life  is  Here  Our  Portion,  and  Jerusalem  the 
Golden,  are  among  the  finest  gems  in  recent  English  and 
American  collections. 

Bernardo  del  Carpio,  biir-naar'dti-del-kaar'pt'e-o :  Span- 
ish hero  of  the  ninth  century ;  nephew  of  Alfonso  the 
Chaste ;  displayed  brilliant  courage  in  the  war  against  the 
Moors ;  according  to  tradition,  defeated  Roland  at  Ronces- 
valles ;  and  the  hero  of  several  dramas  by  Lojie  de  Vega  and 
of  many  Spanish  ballads. 

Bernay,  bsir'nay':  a  town  of  France:  department  of 
Eui'c  ;  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Caen  ;  25  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Evrcux  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  3-E).  It  has  a  college, 
and  manufactures  of  woolen  cloths,  linens.  pa])er.  and  leath- 
er. A  horse-fair,  the  largest  in  France,  is  held  here  annu- 
ally.    Po|i.  (1891)  8,016. 

Bemardin,  bar  nalir'dah'.  Saint,  of  Siena  :  b.  at  Massa, 
near  Siena,  Sept.  8,  1380 :  entered  the  order  of  St.  Francis 
in  1402 ;  visited  the  Holy  Land,  and  became  famous  through- 
out Italy  as  a  preacher ;  was  made  viear-general  of  his  order 
in  1437.  D.  May  20,  1444,  and  was  canoni;ced  in  1450.  His 
woi'ks,  strongly  mystical,  appeared  last  at  Venice  (1745.  4 
vols.);  his  biogi-apliy  by  J.  P.  Toussaint  (Regensburg,  1873) 
and  by  L.  Bianchi  (3  vols.,  Siena,  1888). 

Bernays,  Albert  James.  Ph.  D. :  chemist :  b.  in  London, 
Nov.  8,  1823  ;  educated  at  King's  College  School  and  Uni- 
versity of  Gicsscn ;  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  St.  Marv's 
Hos]ii'tal  ]\Iedical  School  1854-60;  since  that  time  at  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital ;  author  oi Household  Chemistry ;  Science 
of  Home  i('fe(1862);  Notes  on  Anali/tical  Chemistry  for 
Students  in  Medicine  (3d  ed.  1889) ;  Food  (1876). 

Bernays.  barnls.  Jacob  ;  classical  jihilologian  and  brill- 
iant stylist;  b.  in  Hamburg.  Sept.  18.  1824.  of  Jewish  par- 
ents, ile  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1848.  and  began  his 
academic  career  as  privat-docent  in  Bonn  at  the  urgent  re- 
quest of  his  teacher,  Fr.  Ritschl.  In  1854  lie  was  appointed 
professor  extraordinary  and  librarian,  which  positions  he 
retained  till  his  death  there.  May  26.  1881.  Bernays's  work 
was  chiefly  confined  to  ancient  Greek  i)hiloso|iliy,  and  pos- 
sesses permanent  value.  His  most  noted  publications  are  his 
treatises  on  Aristotle's  theory  of  the  drama,  on  the  Dialogues 
of  Aristotle,  on  Phocylides,  Theophrastus,  the  apocn-phal 
letters  of  Ileraclitus.  and  a  masterly  biography  of  Scaliger. 
His  opuscula  have  lieen  collected  and  edited  by  Uscner 
(1885).  For  an  account  of  his  life  and  a  full  list  of  his  writ- 
ings, sec  C.  Schaarschmidt,  Biogr.  Jahrh.  IV..  p.  65-83  (1881). 

Alkrhd  Gudeman. 

Bernbui-g,  barn'boorJ-h :  a  to\vn  of  Germany ;  fonnerly 
cafiital  of  1  he  duchy  of  Anhalt-Bcrnburg  ;  on  t  he  river  Saale, 
here  cros-sed  by  a  bridge;  24  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Magdeburg. 
It  is  connected  liy  railway  with  Bci-lin  and  Dresden.  It  has 
a  gymnasium,  a  Realschule.  a  valuatile  lil>rary,  a  ducal  castle, 
ami  numufactures  of  porcelain,  pajier,  and  starch.  Poji. 
(1880)  18,.593;  (1885)  21,464;  (1890)  28.257. 

Berne,  barn  (Fr.  Berne  ;  Germ.  Bern  :  L.at.  Ber'nii) :  the 
most  populous  canton  of  Switzerland,  and  the  most  ext  ensive 
except  the  Grisons.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Alsace,  E.  by  Basel, 
Soleure,  Aargau,  Lucerne,  Fntcrwalden,  and  Fri.  S.  by 
Valais,  and  W.  by  Vaud,  Fribourg,  Neid'chiitel,  and  France. 
Area,  2.657  English  sq.  miles.  If  is  traversed  by  the  river 
Aar,  and  alscj  drained  by  the  Emmcii.  The  Aar  expands 
into  two  lakes  called  Brienz  and  Thun.  The  surface  is 
mountainou.s,  and  the  northern  part  is  occupied  by  i\w.  Jura 
Mountains.  Si;veral  liigh  peaks  of  the  Alps — namely,  the 
Finsteraarhorn,  14.032  feet,  the  Jungfrau,  13.514  feet, 
Sclireckhorn,  13,393  feet— are  in  Berne.  The  valleys  of  the 
Simmenthal.  Lauterhrunnen,  and  Grindelwald  in  the  Ber- 
nese Oberland  are  celebrated  for  their  beauty.     Tlie  valleys 


BERXE 


BERNOULLI 


597 


of  the  Aar  ami  Emmon  aro  fertile  and  adapted  to  pasturage. 
Anions  the  mineral  re.soiirc-esuf  the  canton  are  copper,  lead, 
iron,  marlile,  and  granite.  It  ha.s  important  inaiuifaetinvs 
of  watches,  paper,  woolen  goods,  linens,  etc.  It  is  inter- 
sected bv  several  railroads.  Capital,  Berne.  I'op.  (1880) 
530,411,  of  whom  (56,01.)  were  Roman  Catholics  ;  (1888)  .WO,- 
6T!t. 

Berne,  or  Bern  [saiil  to  be  derived  from  the  Germ.  Buren, 
"  bears,"  figures  of  which  are  on  the  armorial  bearings  of 
the  city] :  a  city  of  Switzerland;  capital  of  the  canton  of 
Berne:"  situated  on  the  river  Aar,  which  incloses  it  on  three 
sides :  (55  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Basel  and  92  niiles  by  rail  X.  E. 
of  Geneva  (si-e  map  of  Switzerland,  ret  4-D).  Berne  is  the 
seat  of  the  feiUral  gcjverrnnent  of  the  republic,  and  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  finest  city  in  Switzerland.  It  is  built  of 
freestone,  and  I  lie  houses  are  massive  structures,  resting  on 
arcailes  which  fuiin  covered  promenades  on  both  sides  of  the 
streets.  Magnitieent  Alpine  scenery  is  visilile  from  this 
point.  Berne  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a  public  library,  a 
university,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  mint,  and  an  ar- 
senal, due  of  the  finest  buildings  is  the  new  federal  palace. 
The  river  is  here  crossed  by  four  large  bridges.  Several 
railroails  connect  it  with  Geneva.  Basel,  and  other  towns. 
Berne  was  founded  in  11!)1,  and  became  a  free  town  of  the 
.lupire  in  1318.  It  joined  the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1353. 
In  1849  it  became  the  permanent  capital  of  the  whole  re- 
public.    Puji.  (18801  44.087  ;  (1885)  47,793  ;  (1888)  46,009. 

Berne-Hellecour.biirn'berkoor'.ETiENN'E Prosper:  genre 
and  military  painter;  b.  at  Boulogne.  June  39,  ]8;!8.  Pupil 
of  Picot  and  Barriius;  first<'lass  medal.  Paris  Salon.  1873; 
Legion  of  Honor  1878;  second-class  medal.  Paris  Exposi- 
tion. 1889.  llis  pictures  of  episodes  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  have  gained  him  an  excellent  reputation,  second  only  to 
such  mastei-s  ius  De  Xeuville  and  Detaille,  and  a  consideralile 
number  of  his  works  are  in  American  collections.  .Studio  in 
Paris.  William  A.  Cop-fix. 

Bcrncrs,  Juliaxa:  reputed  author  of  the  Bole  of  S/. 
vl/A«H.s  (1486);  a  collection  of  treatises  on  hawking,  hunting, 
and  heraldry.  To  the  edition  of  1496,  printed  by  Wynkyn 
de  Worde,  was  added  a  Treatyse  on  Pi/sshi/nyi!  with  tin 
A»i//i'.  During  the  sixteenth  century  the  Boke  was  very 
popular,  and  was  often  reprinted.  The  authorship  of  it  is 
uncertain,  and  the  traditioniiry  life  of  Dame  .Juliana  is  proli- 
ably  mythical.  Henry  A.  Beeks. 

Bernliard,  barn  ha'jirt,  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar:  German 
eeneral ;  b.  in  Weimar.  Aug.  6,  1604  :  was  a  younger  son  of 
John  III.  of  Saxe-Wciniar.  He  fought  for  the  Protestant 
cause  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war;  distinguished  himself  at 
Wiiupfen  in  1633;  became  a  colonel  in  the  army  of  Den- 
mark, which  he  quitted  in  1638.  In  16:U  he  joined  the 
standard  of  Gusta\nis  Adolphus.  The  victory  which  the 
Swedes  gained  at  Liitzen  in  1633  is  attributed  to  the  skill 
and  energy  of  Bernhard.  who  in  1633  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Swedish  army.  Having  made  a  personal 
treaty  of  alliance  with  France  in  103.5,  he  afterward  com- 
manded a  French  army  and  defeated  the  imperialists.  I), 
in  Xeuburg-on-the-Rliine,  Julv  8,  16:39.  See  S<liiller,  JHh- 
torij  of  the  Thirty  Years  Wiir\  J.  A.  C.  von  Hellfeld,  Ge- 
sehichte  des  Bernhard  dcs  GroHsen,  etc.  (1797);  Bernhard 
Roese,  Ilerzoq  Bernhard  der  Grosse  von  Sachsen-Weimar  (3 
vols.,  1838-3!)). 

Bernhardt,  barn  haart.  RostsE,  better  knowni  as  Sarah  : 
French  actress;  b.  in  Pari.s,  Oct.  'i-i.  18-U.  Her  Jewish 
parents,  afti'r  she  had  passed  some  yeai"s  with  her  grand- 
father, an  Amsterdam  optician,  placed  her  in  a  convent  at 
Versailles,  where  her  ambitions  fluctuated  from  theatrical 
prominence  to  the  nun's  veil.  At  fourteen,  however,  she 
entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  took  prizes  in  tragedy  and 
comedy,  nuidc  her  di'l/iit  in  1863  as  Iphigenie  in  Racine's 
tragi'dy  at  the  Theatre  Franeais,  and  acted  the  leading  role 
in  Scribe's  Vah'rie.  Received  without  interest,  she  with- 
drew for  study,  but  acted  in  burlesque  in  the  comic  thea- 
tei-s.  In  Jan.,  1867,  she  took  up  legitimate  c<jmedy,  and  by 
the  impei-sonation  of  the  Queen  in  Bny  Bias  at  the  Oileoii 
gained  such  renown  that  she  was  recalle<l  to  the  Fran<;ais, 
and  began  a  career  recogiuzed  as  foiemost  in  French  trag- 
edy. In  1879  a  company  from  the  Franf;ais,  of  which  she 
was  a  member,  jJayed  with  brilliant  results  in  London. 
Bernhardt  soon  after  withdrew  from  the  Theatre  Fram/ai.s, 
for  wliicli  lireach  of  contract  she  was  mulcted  in  the  courts 
ill  :f 30.0(11):  but  her  tours  in  Italy.  Russia,  and  the  Americas 
replenished  her  purse.     She  played  in  X'ew  York  in  1880, 


1887,  and  1891,  and  went  in  the  latter  year  to  Australia.  In 
1883  she  married  in  London  M.  Damala,  a  Greek  stock- 
actor,  from  whom  she  was  sikiu  divorced.  She  has  exhib- 
ited pictures  and  statues  by  her  own  hand  in  the  Paris 
Salon,  and  written  a  play.  L'Aven  (prcxluced  in  1888).  She 
has  impersonated  the  title  roles  of  Racine's  great  plays, 
acted  Shakspearean  characters,  and  plays  have  been  writ- 
ten to  elicit  her  highest  i>owers. 

Bernliardy.  biirn-haar  <h'e,  (toitfkieo:  German  classical 
scholar  of  eiicyclopa>dic  erudition  ;  b.  Mar.  30, 1800  ;  privat- 
docent  and  professor  extraordinary  at  Berlin  1833-35.  In 
18'39  he  was  called  to  Halle  as  the  successor  of  Reisig, 
where  lie  remained  till  his  death.  May  14,  1875.  Author  of 
a  History  of  Greek  Literature  ;  of  Homan  Literature  ;  Era- 
tostheuica;  Wissensi-haflliche  Syntax  der  gnech.  Sprache; 
and  of  a  monumental  edition  of  Suidas.  Cf.  R.  Volkraann, 
G.  B.  (Halle,  1887). 

Berni.  bar  nee,  Francesco  :  Italian  satiric  poet ;  b.  about 
1496;  known  cliieHy  by  his  satiric  rifacimento  of  Boiardo's 
Orlando  Jnnaniorato.  (See  Boiaruo.)  This  was  fii-st  pub- 
lished in  1541,  and  soon  quite  eclipsed  the  fame  of  the  origi- 
nal, llis  Biine  Bitrlesche  (Venice,  1538)  were  very  famous 
in  their  time.  From  him  a  burlesque  style  is  called  by  the 
Italians  "  Beines(]ue."  See  Antonio  Virgili,  Francesco  Ber- 
ni, con  documenti  inediti,  Florence.  1881  ;  Gpere  di  F.  Ber- 
nf.Svols..  Milan,  1806.    D.  May  26, 1535.       A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bern  ice  :  See  Berenice. 

Bernier,  bar  ni-ay',CA5iiLLE:  landscape-painter;  b.at  Col- 
mar,  France,  1833 ;  pupil  of  Leon  Fleury  ;  Legion  of  Honor 
1873  ;  medal  of  honor,  Paris  Kxjiosition,"  1889.  An  artist  of 
real  merit,  who  has  painted  numerous  excellent  pictures. 
One  of  the  best  of  his  works  is  The  Abandoned  Lane  (1879), 
in  the  niiiseuni  at  La  Rochelle.   Studio  in  Paris.     W.  A.  C. 

Bernina.  bar-nee'naa:  an  imposing  mountain-group  in 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons;  rises  13.407  feel  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  and  has  a  remarkable  glacier.  The  Pass  of 
Bernina,  the  altitude  of  which  is  6,671  feet,  affords  a  com- 
munication between  the  Upper  Engadine  and  the  Valtel- 
line. 

Bf^rnini.  bai--nee'nTO.  Giovanni  Lorenzo:  an  Italian 
architect  and  sculptor;  b.  in  Naples,  Dee.  7.  1508:  lived  at 
Rome.  His  works,  the  best  among  which  arc  the  colonnade 
to  St.  Peter's  church,  the  Scala  Regia  of  the  Vatican,  and 
the  Barberini  Palace  at  \'enice.  jiossess  some  excellences,  but 
show  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  art  into  llie  l/iiroijue  or 
Jesuit  stvle,  to  which  his  influence  greatly  contributed.  D. 
in  Rome",  Xov.  38,  1680. 

BernonHi.  Imr'noo  he.'  or  Bernonilli.  Daniel,  F.  R.  S.  : 
mathematician  and  j>hilos(.plicr ;  b.  in  Groniiigen.  Feb.  9, 
1700;  son  of  Jean  (1667-1748).  He  became  in  1733  Pro- 
fessor of  Anatomy  and  Botany  at  Basel,  where  he  afterward 
obtained  the  chair  of  Physics  and  Speculative  Philosophy. 
He  gainetl  many  [irizes  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  wrote  in  Latin  and  French  many  scientific  works.  He 
was  one  of  the  three  greatest  members  of  this  famous  family. 
D.  in  Basel.  Mar.  17,  1783.  See  Condorcct,  Floge  de  Daniel 
Beriumlli  (1783). 

Bernoulli,  Jacc^ies:  a  mathematician;  uncle  of  the 
preceding;  b.  in  Basel.  Dec.  27. 1654.  He  became  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  that  city  in  1687.  He  solved  Leibnitz's 
problem  of  the  isochronous  curve,  discovered  the  properties 
of  the  logarithmic  spiral,  and  wrote  several  treatise*  on 
mathematics,  etc.  D.  in  Basel,  Aug.  16,  1705.  See  Battier, 
Vila  Juriilii  Bernoulli  (1705). 

Bernoulli.  Jean  or  John  :  one  of  the  mathematicians  of 
the  Bernoulli  family;  b.  in  Basel.  July  37.  1667.  He  was 
the  father  of  Daniel  and  brother  of  Jacques  (1654-1705). 
He  <lis(rovereil  the  ex|)onential  calculus,  and  ascertained  the 
c\a-ve  of  swiftest  descent.  In  1705  he  succeeded  his  brother 
Jacques  as  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Basel.  His  works 
were  published  in  4  vols.,  1743.     D.  in  Ba.sel,  Jan.  1,  1748. 

Bernonlli.  Jean:  son  of  the  preceding:  b.  in  Basel,  May 
18,  1710.  He  became  Professor  of  JIathematics  at  Basel  in 
1748,  anil  wrote  several  treatises.  D.  July  11.  1790.— Ber- 
noulli, Jean  :  b,  in  Basel,  Xov.  4,  1744  :  sJm  of  the  preced- 
ing. He  became  astronomer  royal  at  Berlin  in  1764,  and 
wrote  various  works.  I).  Julv  13.  1807. — Bernoi-llt.  Je- 
rome: naluralist  ;  b.  in  Basel, '1745:  d.  in  1829.--BERNorL- 
Li,  X'icolas  :  son  of  Jean  and  a  brother  of  Daniel,  noticed 
alKive;  b.  in  Basel,  Jan.  39,  1695.  He  was  Professor  of 
JIalhematics  at   St.   Petei-sburg.  where   he   died.  July  26, 


598 


BERXSTORFF 


BERT 


1  "36.— Bernoulli.  Nicolas,  LL.  D..  V.  R.  S. :  cousin  of  the 
precediiifr :  b.  in  Basel.  Oft.  10.  1687.  He  made  several  dis- 
coveries in  mathematics.     1).  in  Basel,  Kov.  29,  1759. 

Beriistorff.  barnstSrf.  Albkkcht,  Count  :  a  Prussian 
diplomatist  and  statesman:  b.  Mar.  22,  1809;  became  in 
1857  Prussian  amliassador  in  London  :  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affaii-s  fi-om  1861  to  1862  :  returned  to  London  in  1862,  and 
represented  the  German  empire  in  the  London  Conference 
of  1871.     D.  in  London.  Mar.  26.  1873. 

Beriistorff.  .Joii.txN  IIautwio  Erxst.  Count  von :  states- 
man: b.  in  Hanover.  May  Vi.  1712.  Having  entered  the 
civil  service  of  Denmark,  lie  was  ajipointed  Minister  of  For- 
eign AITaii-s  (prime  minister)  in  1761.  He  was  a  liVieral 
patron  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  he  promoted  the  com- 
merce and  manufactures  of  Denmark.  He  retained  [lower 
till  1770.  D.  in  Hamburg.  Feb.  19,  1772.  See  G.  H.  Ahle- 
inann.  Ueher  das  Lehrn  utul  den  Chamlier  dfS  (friifeii  von 
Beru«torif  (lTi~):  G.  Xavarro.  Vie  du  Comte  J.  II.  E.  Beni- 
xffjrjf  (1822). 

Beroaldo,  ba'v-ro-aal'dr).  Filippo  (14.53-1516):  professor 
at  Boloirna,  his  "native  city.  Editor  and  commentator  of 
Plant  us,  Cicero,  and  of  numerous  post-classical  Latin  writers. 
See  Roscoe's  Life  of  Leo  X. ;  Burckhardt's  Die  Cultur  del- 
lienaifsaiice. 

Ber'oe :  a  genus  of  jellyfishes  belonging  to  the  class 
Ctenophorn,  and  notable  for  the  absence  of  tentacles.  They 
are  phosphorescent  marine  animals,  with  an  oval  or  nearly 
globular  body  of  a  delicate  jelly-like  substance,  the  whole 
bodv  cavitv  serving  as  a  stomach.  As  in  all  the  other  niem- 
liers  of  the  class,  the  sides  of  the  body  are  provided  with 
eight  rows  of  vibratile  plates,  by  which  the  animal  is  pro- 
pelled through  the  water.  "  David  S.  Jordan. 

Beroe'a,  or  Berea  :  a  large  and  ancient  city  of  Jfacedo- 
nia :  situated  at  the  foot  of  ^It.  Bermius:  about  30  miles 
from  Pella.  It  was  attacked  by  the  Athenians  in  the  war 
which  began  about  430  B.  c.  St.  Paul  visited  Bercea,  and 
jireached "there.  (See  Acts  xvii.  10.)  Its  site  is  occupied 
by  the  modern  town  of  Veria,  35  miles  W.  of  Salonica.  See 
Veria. 

Bero'sns  (in  Or.  Bripaitris) :  historian  ;  priest  of  Bel  in 
Babvlon  :  I),  under  Alexander  the  Great :  dedicated  his  his- 
tory' of  Chakhca  {XaKZalKa)  in  three  books  to  Antiochus 
Soter.  who  reigned  2S0-261  n.  r.  His  accounts  have  been 
largely  confirmed  by  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Fragments 
in  Miillers  Fragmenta  Ilistoricorum  Grcecorum,  ii.  495- 
510. 

Bpri|iiiii.  liarkaiV.  Louis,  de:  b.  at  Passy.  France,  about 
149U:  studied  law  and  became  a  counselor  of  Francis  I.: 
was  a  friend  of  Erasmus  and  active  in  circulating  his  works : 
accu.sed  of  Lntheranism  and  imprisoned  in  1523,  1526,  and 
1520  :  condemned  first  to  imprisonment  for  life,  then  to  be 
burned  alive  :  the  last  sentence  was  executed  in  Paris,  Apr. 
17, 1529,and  he  became  the  first  Protestant  martyr  in  France. 

Berrl :  See  Berrv. 

Berrien,  berri-^n.  .Ton.v  McPhersox,  LL.  D. :  lawyer 
and  ]iolitician:  1).  in  Xew  .lersey.  Aug.  23.  1781.  He  re- 
moved to  Georgia,  and  was  elected  a  Senator  of  the  U.  S.  in 
1824.  He  was  Attorney-General  under  President  Jackson 
in  1829-31.  and  was  again  chosen  Senator  in  1840  an<l  1846. 
D.  in  Savannah.  Jan.  1.  1856. 

Berry:  a  fruit  wliich  consists  of  a  pulpy  pericar])  with- 
out valves,  containing  seeds,  which  have  no  covering  excejit 
the  pulj)  or  rind;  as  the  grape,  gooseberry,  currant,  bar- 
berry, service-berry,  and  craid^erry.  Some  of  them  have  the 
calyx  adherent  to  the  ovary  and  the  placenta  parietal,  as 
the  gooseberry.  Others  have  the  ovary  free  and  I  he  placenta 
in  the  center,  as  the  grape.  The  term  berry  is  popularly 
ajiplied  to  several  small  fruits  which  are  not  berries  in  the 
scientific  sense,  as  the  strawberry,  which  bears  seeds  (ache- 
nia)  on  the  external  surface  of  an  enlarged  and  imlpy  re- 
ceptacle. The  orange  is  a  berry  with  a  leathery  rinil.  and 
is  also  called  a  hexperidium. 

Berry,  or  Berri :  a  toi-mer  [irovince  of  France,  near  its 
center;  now  forms  the  (le|iartinentsof  Cher  and  Indre.  Cap- 
ital. Bourges.  Berry  was  erected  into  a  dnchy  abimt  1300, 
after  which  it  was  helil  by  many  princes  of  the  royal  family 
of  P'ranc'c.  Tlie  last  I)\ike  of  Berrv  was  the  vomiger  son  of 
Charles  X. 

Berry,  or  Berri.  Charles  Ferdixaxt).  Due  dc :  b.  at 
Versailles,  Jan.  24.  1778;  the  second  son  of  Charles  X.  He 
emigrated  witli  his  father  in  1793;  returned  to  France  in 


1814.  and  married  in  1816  Caroline  Ferdinande  Louise,  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Naples.  He  was  assassinated  by 
Louvel.  in  Paris.  Feb.  14.  1820.  He  was  the  father  of  the 
Count  de  Chambord  (Henry  V.).  who  was  recognized  by  the 
Legitimist  party  as  the  heir  to  the  French  throne.  See  Cha- 
teaubriand. Memoires  touchant  la  Vie  et  la  Mart  du  Luc  de 
Birry  (1820). 

Berry.  Hiram  G.  :  major-general  of  V.  S.  volunteers;  b. 
at  Rockland.  Mc.  Aug. '27.  1824:  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Chaneellorsville.  Va..  Jlay  2.  1863.  He  was  a  niemlier  of 
the  Maine  Legislature  several  times,  mayor  of  his  native 
city,  and  president  of  Lime  Rock  bank.  At  the  first  call 
for  troops  to  suppress  the  Confederate  movement  he  raised 
three  full  companies,  and  himself  entered  the  service  as 
colonel  of  the  Fourth  Jlaine  volunteers.  He  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  jMar.  17.  1862.  and  major-general  Nov.  29, 
1862.  Killed  at  the  liead  of  his  division  by  a  shot  while 
leading  a  bayonet  charge  on  the  morning  of  May  2,  1863. 

Berryer.  biir  i-ay',  Axtoixe  Pierre  :  French  orator  and 
lawyer:  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  4.  1790.  He  defended  Gen.  Cam- 
bronne  about  1815,  gained  distinction  as  an  advocate  of  de- 
fendants in  political  trials,  and  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1830,  After  Charles  X.  had  been  dethroned 
(July.  1830),  he  remained  in  the  Chamber  as  the  orator  of 
the  Legitimist  i)arty,  although  the  other  members  of  that 
party  all  retired.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech  against  the 
abolition  of  hereditary  nobility  in  1831.  During  the  fli-st 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philiijpe  he  was  regarded  as  the 
foremost  orator  in  the  Chamber.  In  1840  he  defended  Louis 
Napoleon,  who  was  tried  for  his  attempt  to  excite  a  revolu- 
tion at  Boulogne.  He  was  elected  to  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly in  1848.  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849.  In 
18.50  lie  went  to  'Wiesbaden  to  offer  homage  to  the  Count  de 
Chambord.  He  o]i]iosed  the  reiiublic.  and  protested  against 
the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  1851.  after  which  he  retired  from 
political  life.  In  18.52  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  D.  in  Paris.  Nov.  29.  1868.  See  Louis 
Marie  de  la  Have  de  Cormenin,  Biugruphie  parlementaire 
de  M.  Benip'v  (1837). 

Ber'ryviHe:  on  railroad;  capital  of  Clarke  co.,  Va.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  3-G):  is  situ- 
ated 5  miles  W.  of  the  Shenandoah  river  and  lOA  E.  of  Win- 
chester. It  contains  an  academy,  and  is  often  called  "Bat- 
tletown."  owing  to  the  many  contests  there  of  Gen.  Morgan 
of  Revolutionary  fame.  Washington,  in  surveying  the  lands 
of  this  county  when  it  was  a  part  of  Frederick,  had  his 
headquarters  at  a  beautiful  spring  just  beyond  the  town. 
Pop.  (1870)  .580:  not  given  in  census  later. 

Bersagrlieri,  bar-sa"jd-ya're"e :  the  Italian  name  of  the 
riflemen  or  sharpshooters  who  served  in  the  army  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  when  he  was  King  of  Sardinia.  They  took  part 
in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-55,  and  fought  against  Austria  in 
1859.     They  wear  a  dark-green  uniform. 

Ber'serker  [leel.  berserkr.  probably  meaning  bear-coat] : 
a  hero  of  Scandinavian  mythology,  who  fought  without  coat 
of  mail.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Starkader,  and  overcame 
all  opponents  by  his  irresistible  valor.  The  name  has  also 
been  given  to  a  class  of  warriors  who  fought  naked  and  per- 
formed extraordinary  feats  under  the  influence  of  a  kind  of 
demoniac  possession. 

Bert,  bar,  Paul;   b.  at  Auxerre,  in  the  department  of 
Yonne,  France,  t)ct.  17,  1833;  studied  medicine  in  Paris;         , 
was  apjioiuted  professor  in  the  faculty  of  .sciences  at  Bor-        ■ 
deaux  1866.  and  Pi-olessor  of  Physiology  in  College  de  France        1 
1869 ;  achieved  a  great  reputation  by  his  interesting  physio- 
logical researches,  and  more  especially  by  his  bold  experi- 
ments for  a.scert.niuiiig  the  conditions  of  human  existence  at 
different  altitudes,  for  which  he  received  in  1875  the  grand 
biennial  prize  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences  (20,000  francs). 
See  his  Sali's  d'Ajuitintiie  et  de  Pliysiologie  comparees  (1867- 
70) :  liicliercliet.  siir  Ic  Jlouvemeiit  de  la  Setisitire  (1867-70); 
liecheirlies  experimetitales  sur  riittliience  que  les  modijica-       m 
tionen  buromi'triques  exercent  sur  les  phhionienes  de  la  vie       ^ 
(1874);  La  Pressinn  haromelrique  (1874).     He  also  took  a 
part  in  politics;  was  prefect  of  the  department  of  IjC  Nord 
in  1871;  elected  a  member  of  tlie  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1872:  joined  tlie  I'liiaii  lepullicaiiie;  spoke  with  great  ardor 
in  favor  of  making  elementary  instruction  compulsory  and 
.secular;  was  .Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  Gambetta's 
cabinet.     See  his  La  Morale  des  Jesuites  (6th  ed.  1880):  La 
premiere  antiee  d'eiiseignement  scientitiijue  et  instriiclioti 
civique  a  l^cule  (1882).    D.  in  Hanoi,  Nov.  11,  1886. 


I'.ERTIIKLOT 


BKRZELIUS 


599 


BcrtllPlol,  biXr'tc-li")',  >t.\R(ELi,iN  Pierre:  choniist :  b.  in 
I'aiis,  Out.  25,  1827:  Professor  of  Chemistrv  in  the  College 
(le  France  in  liis  native  city.  lie  has  contrilnileil  largely  to 
(iiir  knowledge  of  syntlietieal  processes,  ami  es|jeelally  of  the 
relations  between  the  phenomena  of  heat  antl  of  eheniistry. 
Jlis  principal  larger  works  are:  Cliimie  organi(/ue  foiidee 
siir  la  xijnihisi'  (liSUO):  Jtli'ciinique  chimitjue  foiiilee  stir  la 
Ihermocliimii!  (1879):  Leu  on'yines  ih  ralchimie  {18S5};  Chi- 
mie  dfs  anciena  (1889). 

Berth icr,  bitr'ti-ay,  Louis  Alexandre:   Prince  of  Wa- 

gram:  general:  b.  at  Versailles,  Nov.  30.  17.53.  lie  served  as 
captain  under  La  Fayette  in  the  V.  .S.  1778-82.  In  17!ir)  he 
became  general  of  division,  and  chief  of  the  staff  of  Bona- 
parte's army  of  Italy.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  the  gen- 
eral-in-chief,  retained  for  many  years  tlie  position  of  chief 
of  the  stall,  and  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Kgypt  in  1798. 
About  the  end  of  1799  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  War. 
He  became  a  mai'shal  of  France  in  1804,  and  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  the  campaign  against  Austria.  18(1.5.  He 
usually  rode  in  the  carriage  of  Napoleon,  whose  plans  he 
•iligested,  and  whose  orders  he  dispatched  with  remarkable 
raj)idity  and  precision.  For  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of 
Wagram  (1809)  he  received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wagram. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814,  but  when 
Napoleon  returned  from  Klba,  Berthier  preferred  neutrality 
.and  retired  to  Bamberg,  where  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from 
a  window,  Jan.  1,  1815. 

Bcr'tliierite,   or   HanliiigcriU':    a  steel-gray,   bronzy 

mineral  I'outaining  Fe.S  +  .Sh^Sj. 

Bertliold,  bar  twit,  vou  Regeiisbiirar :  the  greatest  Ger- 
juan  [ireachcr  of  the  Middle  Ages;  li.  probably  in  Regens- 
liurg  about  1220;  d.  there  Dec.  i;i,  1272.  His  sermons  are 
valuable  not  only  as  specimens  of  early  (ierman  |iulpit  ora- 
tory which  he  created,  but  also  as  documents  of  early  Gor- 
man prose.  See  Franz  Pfeiffer.  lierthuld  von  Jipr/i-nshiirg 
I'redigten  (Vienna.  18(i2) :  l''ranz  Giibel,  B.  v.  R.  Misaions- 
prediytett  (187;i);  Unkel,  li.  r.  R.  (Cologne,  1882).      J.  G. 

Bortliollpt,  bar  to-lay',  Claude  Louis,  M.  D.,  Count : 
chemlsi  ;  b.  in  'ralloire.  Savoy,  Nov.  9,  1748.  He  discovered 
the  composition  of  ammonia,  and  invented  the  jirocess  of 
bleaching  by  chlin'inc.  that  of  tillialion  through  charcoal, 
and  several  fulminating  (xiwders.  Author  of  T/ie  Klfinenis 
of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  (1790),  and  Ei.iai  de  xtatique  chiniiijue 
(1803).  lie  was  associated  with  Lavoisier  in  forming  a  new 
chemical  nomenclature,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  originators 
of  modern  chemistry.     I),  near  Paris,  Nov.  6,  1822. 

Berlliollc'tia  :  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  family  Mgrtace(E. 
It  contains  li.  yjcelsa.  which  produces  Brazil- .NU'rs  {tj.  v.). 

Bertilloii.  Alphoxsk:  anthropologist;  b.  in  Paris.  18.5:J. 
In  1880,  as  chief  of  the  identification  bureau  of  the  jiolice 
.service  of  Paris,  he  established  a  system  of  measurements 
that  made  the  recognition  of  recidivists  or  lapsed  crim- 
inals practically  a  certainty,  of  the  700  idciitlRcations, 
which  had  been  transmilted  by  him  to  the  examining  mag- 
istrate during  the  i)receding  six  year.s,  not  a  single  error 
had  been  found.  His  method  was  adojited  throughout 
France,  with  a  central  bureau  in  Paris,  where  tliere  occurred 
a  speedy  and  most  marked  decrease  in  the  number  of  pro- 
fessional criminals,  who  by  various  disguises  had  hilhcrto 
been  able  to  elude  identification  by  photograpli.  Helginm 
and  adjacent  countries  soon  adopt<Ml  llie  method  in  self- 
tlefense,  ami  it  is  now  general  in  F.urope.  It  was  adopted 
in  Chicago  during  the  World's  Fair  in  1898  with  good  re- 
sults. The  principles  upon  which  in  practice  the  system 
rests  take  a  threefold  form  ;  (1)  AntlirDjximetric  (see  Ax- 
thropomktry),  consisting  of  measurements  of  the  bony  and 
least  changing  parts  of  the  adult — e.  g.  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  head,  length  of  the  spine,  forearm,  finger,  nose,  ear, 
etc.;  Vi)  <lescrij>live,  giving  color  and  other  characteristics 
of  the  eye,  color  and  quality  of  the  hair,  etc. ;  and  (3)  patho- 
logical, giving  marks  resulting  from  disea.se.  wounds,  or 
tattooing,  warts,  moles,  etc.  The.se  are  recorded  in  a  regu- 
lar order,  and  by  clever  abbreviations  written  on  cards  and 
filed  away  in  groups  according  to  some  prominent  measure- 
ments. The  chances  of  error  in  identification  are  one  in 
13,000,000.  The  system  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  the 
U.  S.,  but  a  central  bureau  is  nee<led  where  iluplicates  of 
every  case  may  be  kept.  The  advantages  are  self-evident: 
[iholographs  are  uiUM-rlain,  as  all  men  are  subject  to  change 
in  face  and  a]ipearance  whereas  the  bony  parts  and  iris  of 
the  ailult  never  change;  photographs  can  not  be  sent  by 
telegraph,  while  these  measurements  can  be  sent  cheaply  and 


correctly,  the  order  of  facts  being  the  same  everywhere. 
Bertillon  has  written  several  works  on  the  subject  of  crimi- 
nal anthropology.  Sec  his  Identification  Antluopometrique 
(1893);  anil  The  Ttieorg  and  Practice  of  Anthropometric 
Identification,  bv  1!.  \V.  .McClaughey  (Chicago  and  New 
York,  "1896).         "  W.  M.'F.  Round. 

Bprtin.  bilrtiXn,  Louis  Fkan(;ois;  called  Berlin  PAiiif, 
hfy  nay' :  journalist;  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  14,  1700.  He  foundeil 
in  1800,  together  with  his  brother  (IjOUIS  Frani/ois,  siir- 
named  he  \'eaix),  the  chiily  .loiiriial  des  Di'lials,  a  literary 
and  political  journal,  which  obtained  great  infiuence  anil 
success.  He  was  hostile  to  Napoleon,  who  banished  him. 
On  Napoleon's  fall  he  returned  and  revived  his  journal  in 
1814,  and  continued  to  edit  it  until  his  death,  Sept.  13, 1841. 
— His  son  Louis  iMarie  Armanu,  b.  Aug.  22,  1801,  suc- 
ceedid  him  as  editor.     D.  in  Paris,  .Ian.  12,  1854. 

Bertraniiis:  Sec  Hatra.mnus. 

Bert  riind.  bar  traaii',  Henri  (i  rati  en,  Count  de  :  a  French 
gcner.'d  :  h.  at  Chateauroux,  Mar.  18,  1773.  He  followed 
Napol(>oii  to  St.  Helena  in  1815.  D.  in  Chlaeauroux,  .Jan. 
31,  1844,  leaving  J/('w«(';'.s  of  the  Campaigns  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  Dictated  by  yajmleon  at  St.  Helena  (2  vols.,  1847). 

BerHick-oii-Tweed  (often  called  simply  Berwick) :  a 
fortified  seiiporl-town  of  Knghind  ;  in  Northumberland  ;  on 
the  left  (north)  bank  of  the  Tweed,  at  its  entraiH'e  into  the 
North  Sea  :  58  miles  bv  rail  K.  S.  K.  of  Kdinbnrgh ;  lat.  55° 
40'  N..  Ion.  r  ,59'  W.  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  2-G).  The 
river  is  here  crossed  by  an  ohl  stoiu^  bridge  of  fifteen  arches, 
924  feet  long,  and  by  a.  magnificent  viaduct,  over  which  the 
trains  of  the  North  British  Railway  pass.  It  is  crossed  by 
the  Northeaslern,  the  Jlidland,  and  the  Great  Northern 
Railways.  It  has  a  Gothic  church,  a  thealer.  a  public  li- 
brary, a  town-hall,  also  large  manuractures  of  steam-engines, 
mill-machinerv.  etc.  Coal  mines  are  worked  in  the  vicinity. 
Po]).  (1891)  i:!;378.  The  history  of  Berwick  is  full  of  inter- 
est. It  was  one  of  the  chief  seaports  of  Scotland  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  and  in  the  border  wars  was  often  taken  and  re- 
taken by  the  Knglish  and  Scotch,  who  regarded  it  as  an 
important  mililary  position.  It  was  finally  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1.502,  and  became  by  treaty  a  free  town,  independent 
of  both  stales.  These  privileges  were  confirmed  on  the  ac- 
cession of  James  I.  to  the  English  thnuie.  Down  to  the  time 
of  George  II.  it  was  customary  in  )iarliamentary  statutes  to 
mention  speciticallv  their  ap|ilication  to  "  Berwick-oii-t he- 
Tweed." 

Berwickshire:  a  county  of  Scotland;  forming  its  south- 
east extremity  :  bounded  N.  by  Haddington,  N.  E.  by  the  Ger- 
niati  Ocean,  and  S.  E.  by  the  river  Tweed,  which  separates  it 
from  England,  S.  bv  Koxburgli,  and  W.  liv  Kilinburgh.  Area, 
4()3,s(|.  miles.  It  is  drained  by  the  Blaek'adder.  the  Wliilead- 
dcr.  and  the  Eye.  The  surface  is  jiartly  hilly  in  the  northern 
part,  occupied  bv  the  T,ammerniuir  llills.  The  Merse  dis- 
trict in  the  soutli  part,  and  near  the  Tweed,  is  nearly  level, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  well-cultivateil  tracts  in 
(ircat  Brilain.  Carboniferous  limestone,  porphvrv,  and  old 
red  sandstone  cic,  iir  here.  Pop.  (1891)  32,398.'  Capital, 
Gn'eidaw. 

Ber'yl  ((ir.  SripuAAos) :  a  iiiim-ral  (silicate  of  beryllia) 
which  crystallizes  in  six-sided  prisms,  generally  green,  vary- 
ing to  blue,  yellow,  or  even  colorless.  The  sides  of  the 
prisms  are  often  striated  longitudinally,  but  I  he  terminating 
or  truncating  jdanes  are  generally  smooth.  The  hardness  is 
7'5  to  8.  tTiosc  that  h;ivc  clear  tints  of  sky-blue  or  sea- 
green  form,  when  transjiareiit,  beautiful  gems,  called  bv 
jewelers  a(|ua  marine.  The  clear  yellow  ones  are  also  usei'l 
as  gems,  under  the  name  of  golden  beryl.  The  dee])  rich 
green  variety  is  the  Emerald  (</.  i\).  Meryls  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  regions  of  metamorphic  rock  (gneiss,  mica-slate, 
etc.).  such  as  New  England.  Gigantic  crystals  occur  at  Ac- 
wort  h  and  Grafton,  N.  H. — in  one  case  4  feet  long  and  weigh- 
ing over  a  ton,  but  rough  and  opaque.  Beryls  of  fine  quality 
occur  in  Brazil,  the  L'raJ.s,  North  Carolina,  Maine.  Colorado, 
and  at  other  localities.    See  E.merald.      Georoe  F.  Kuxz. 

Ber'yx  :  name  of  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Ben/ce- 
da'.  of  which  few  species  are  living  in  the  jireseiit  sea.s,  wliile 
a  large  number  are  found  fossil.  It  begins  with  the  first  of 
the  teleosts  in  the  chalk.  Three  species  are  found  in  the 
chalk  of  Kngland,  and  several  in  tlie  tertiary,  especially  in 
the  fish-beds  of  Monte  Bolca,  near  Verona  in  Italy.  This  is 
theri'fore  one  of  the  oldest  genera  of  living  fishes. 

Berze'liiis.  .Ioiian  .JAcon.  M.D.,  F.  R.  .S.,  Baron:  Swed- 
ish chemist:  b.  in  East  Gothland,  Ang.  20.  1779.     He  stud- 


600 


BESA 


BESSEMER 


ied  medicine  and  chemistry  at  the  I^nivereity  of  Upsal,  and 
published  in  1606  a  Trvutise  on  Animal  Chemi-itri/  (2  vols.). 
He  acquired  great  excellence  as  hu  analyst,  and  mad(^  im- 
portant discoveries  in  chemistry,  ilc  was  the  autlior  of  the 
system  of  chemical  symbols,  and  he  discovered  the  elements 
selenium  and  tliorium.  Ilis  most  important  work  is  a  Si/.s- 
tem  of  Chemixlri)  (Larcbok  i  Kemien,  3  vols.,  1808-18). 
■which  was  translated  into  every  European  language.  He 
was  Professor  of  Jledicine  and  Pharmacy  at  Stockholm 
1807-33.  He  contributed  largely  to  Memoirs  of  Plnjsics, 
Chemisfry,  and  Miwraloyi/  (6'  vols.,  1806-18),  a  work 
founded  by  lierzelius  find  Hisinger.  D.  Aug.  T,  1848.  See 
G.  Forchhammer,  J.  J.  Bcrzelius  (1849). 

Besa:  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  site  of  which  the 
city  of  Antinoopolis  was  built  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  in 
honor  of  Antinous.  It  was  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  tlie 
Nile,  near  the  modern  village  of  Ababde. 

Bosanijoii,  ba'v'zalm-soiV  (anc.  Vesnntio) :  a  city  of  Prance ; 
capital  of  the  department  of  Doubs  :  on  the  river  Uoubs  ;  .58 
miles  liv  rail  E.  of  Dijon  (see  nuip  of  Prance,  ref.  5-H).  It 
is  connected  with  Paris  ami  Lyons  by  several  railways,  is 
well  built  and  strongly  fortified,  having  a  citadel  which  is 
considered  impregnable.  It  wiis  formerly  the  capital  of 
Pranche-C'omte.  The  most  remarkable  edifices  are  a  (iothic 
cathedral,  a  town-hall,  a  theater,  the  palace  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  and  the  prefeetiu'e.  It  has  also  a  college,  a  puli- 
lic  library,  a  mnseum.  an  academy  of  sciences  and  arts,  and 
extensive  manufactures  of  watches,  jewelry,  porcelain,  car- 
pets, etc.  Vesontio  was  an  important  town  in  the  time  of 
CiEsar.  who  in  58  B.  c.  expelled  the  Sequani  from  it.  It 
has  Roman  antiquities  and  the  remains  of  an  amphitheater 
and  aiiueduct.     Pop-  (1801)  06,060. 

Besaut,  the  coin:  See  Bezant. 

Besaiit,  Walter:  novelist;  b.  at  Portsmouth,  England, 
in  1838 ;  graduated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge ;  was 
chosen  to  a  professorship  in  tlie  Royal  College  of  Mauritius, 
and  afterward  served  as  secretary  to  the  Palestine  Explcjra- 
tion  Funil.  In  conjunction  with  .lames  Rice  he  ])ublished 
between  1871  and  1883  some  dozen  novels,  including  Read// 
Moneu  ilortihoy  (1871);  Tlw  Monkst  of  Thdema  (1878);  By 
Celia's  Arbour  (1878);  and  The  Seamy  Side  (1880).  Since 
the  death  of  his  collaborator  in  1883  he  has  published  a 
number  of  novels,  some  of  which  htive  dealt  with  social 
problems  and  others  with  English  life  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  Among  the  most  |)opidar  of  these 
are  All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men  (1883),  which  dealt 
with  the  social  problems  of  cities  and  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  pul)lie  hall  modeled  on  descriptions  contained  in 
the  book.  It  was  erected  in  the  East  End  of  London  to 
commemorate  the  Queen's  .Jnliilee.  He  also  published  Doro- 
thy Foster  (1884)  and  Cliihlrea  of  Giheon  (1886).  He  was 
founder  and  first  president  of  the  Societv  of  Authors. 
Knighted  May  34,  1895.  He-nry  A.  Beers. 

Besnard.  bcs'naar'.  Pai'i.  Albert:  contemporary  figure- 
painter  of  the  French  school ;  pupil  of  Cabanel.  and  winner 
of  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in  1874.  He  is  identified  with 
the  most  advanced  "impressionists"  in  his  methods,  and  is 
an  artist  of  great  individuality  and  surpassing  technical 
skill.  His  portraits  are  rennirkable  for  beauty  and  harmony 
of  color,  and  he  luis  done  notable  work  in  decoration.  He 
is  one  of  the  most  original  figures  in  modi'rn  art.  and  is  con- 
sidered a  master  by  those  must  in  sympathy  willi  iiis  artistic 
purposes.  Second-class  mcilal.  Salon,  1880 ;  Legion  of  Honor 
1888.     Stu<lio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Bes8ara'l)ia  (after  Prince  Bessaraba) :  a  province  in  the 
southwest  ])art  of  Russia:  bounded  >f.  by  Podolia,  E.  by  Po- 
dolia,  Cherson.  and  the  lilack  Sea,  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Roinna- 
nia  and  Galicia.  Area,  17.619  si|.  miles.  By  tlie  Ireaty  of 
Paris  (18.56)  )iart  of  Bessarabia  adjjicent  to  the  Black  Sea 
was  ceiled  to  Turkey,  but  \>y  the  treaty  of  l$erlin  in  1S78  it 
was  ceded  to  Russia  again.  The  surface  is  moslly  low  and 
fiat;  the  soil  is  fertile,  producing  wheat,  barley,  maize,  to- 
bacco, etc.  The  chief  articdcs  of  export  are  cattle,  wool,  tal- 
low, and  salt.  The  most  of  the  land  is  in  pasturage.  The 
population  is  composeil  of  Russians,  Gernuins,  Bulgarians, 
Moldavians,  (ireeks,  .lews,  Poles,  etc.  Pop.  (1887)  1,588,329. 
Capilal.  Ki^liincf. 

Bcssa'rioii.  .lonx:  Greek  cardinal:  b.  in  Trcbizoiul  in 
1403;  was  a  disciple  of  Geuiisthus  Plelhon  in  philosophy. 
He  favored  ( lii'  union  of  tlie  Latin  and  Greek  Churches:  ac- 
companied the  (ireek  Emperor  .John  IL  to  the  Council  of 
Perrara  (1438-39) ;  was  appointed  a  cardinal  in  1439  by  Popo 


Eugenins  IT.,  and  Bishop  of  Frascati  by  Nicholas  V. ;  re- 
ceived in  1463  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
partihxs.  He  wrote  several  works  in  defense  of  the  philoso- 
phy of  Plato,  translated  the  Metaphysics  of  Aristotle,  into 
Latin,  and  was  an  efficient  promoter  of  Greek  learning  in 
Italy.  At  his  death  he  left  Ids  lilirary  to  Venice,  and  it 
became  the  basis  of  tlie  Library  of  St.  Mark.  H.  in  Havenna, 
Nov.  19,  1472.  See  A.  Bandini,  De  Vita  et  Behus  gestis 
Bessariunis  Cardinal  is  (1777):  also  O.  Yoigt.  Die  Wieder- 
helehnng  des  dassischen  Alterfhiinis  (2d  ed.  1880);  V,ast,  Le 
Cardinal  Bessarion  (1878);  E.  Legrand,  Bihlioyraphie  hel- 
lenique  (2  t.,  1883). 

Bess'boroilgll,  Earls  of  (1739):  Viscounts  Huncannon 
(1723),  Barons  of  Bessborough  (1723,  in  Ireland),  Barons 
Ponsonby  (1749,  in  Great  Britain).  Barons  Duncannon  (1834, 
in  the  LTiiited  Kingdom),  a  prominent  family  of  Great  Brit- 
ain.— .John  George  Brabazon  Ponsonby.  the  fifth  earl;  b. 
Oct.  14,  1809;  succeeded  his  father  in  1847.  He  was  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Bletclunglev  in  1831,  for  Iligham 
Ferrers  in  1831,  and  for  Derby  1834^37.     D.  Jan.  28,  1880. 

Bes' seiner:  town;  Jefferson  co..  Ala.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Alaliama,  ref.  3-Q;  on  Queen  and  Cres- 
cent Route,  and  Louis,  and  Nash.  R.  Rs. ;  11  miles  from 
Birmingham.  Bessemer  is  in  an  iron  and  coal  mining  dis- 
trict, and  its  princijial  industry  is  iron-working:  it  has  also 
Iprick-making  and  wood-working  industries.  Pop.  (1890) 
4,544. 

Bessemer;  city  (founded  in  1880);  Pueblo  co..  Col.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Colorado,  ref.  .5-E) ;  on  Rio 
Grande  R.  R.  and  on  Arkansas  river,  joining  Pueblo  on  the 
south.  The  city  has  4  public  schools  and  5  churches;  its 
principal  industry  is  furnished  by  a  great  steel-works,  em- 
ploying 1.300  men,  with  a  monthly  pay-roll  of  .$100,000. 
Pop.  (1890)  3,317;  (1893)  estimated.  .5.000'. 

FIdITOR  ok  '•  IxDirATOR." 

Bessemer:  city  (founded  in  1884);  cajiital  of  Gogebic 
CO..  Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref. 
2-1));  on  Du..  So.  Sh.  and  At.,  ^lil..  L.  S.  and  W..  and  Wis. 
Central  R.  Rs. :  47  miles  from  Ashland.  Wis.,  in  a  district 
noted  for  its  beautiful  sceiu'iT.  Bessemer  has  a  fine  high 
school,  six  churches,  and  a  stone  court-house  costing  )J;.50.000. 
Its  industries  are  chiefly  manufacturing  and  iron-mining. 
Pop.  (1890)3,566;  (1894)  2..538. 

Editor  of  "  PirK  and  Axe." 

Bessemer.  Sir  Henry  :  an  English  inventor,  whose  name 
is  coupled  with  a  revolution  in  the  manufacture  of  steel. 
lie  was  born  at  Charlton,  in  Hertfordshire.  Jan.  13.  1813;  the 
youngest  son  of  Antliony  Bessemer,  a  French  refugee.  Be- 
ginning life  in  London  at  the  age  of  eighteen  as  a  modeler 
anil  designer,  he  turned  his  attention  first  to  inqiroving  the 
method  of  stamping  deeds,  wliieli  was  adoj)ted  without  com- 
pensation to  Bessemer  by  the  English  .Stamp  Office.  He 
successively  turned  his  inventive  skill  to  devising  machinery 
for  making  figured  L^tredit  vi'lvet.  to  working  out  a  type- 
casting machine,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  bronze  powder. 
The  latter  proved  a  conspicuous  commercial  success,  and  is 
still  ]ii'oduced  by  his  successors.  Between  1844  and  1853 
a  series  of  other  inventions  occupied  his  attention.  In  1854 
he  brought  before  Emperor  Najioleon  an  invention  relating 
to  projectiles.  This  brought  him  into  contact  with  the 
manufacture  of  steel,  and  led  him  to  make  a  series  of  experi- 
ments at  an  old  factory  at  .St.  Pancras,  which  led  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  pneumatic  process  bearing  his  name.  The 
first  public  announcement  of  it  was  made  on  Aug.  11.  1856, 
at  the  Cheltenliam  meeting  of  the  British  Association.  It 
was  received  with  skepticism  and  ridicule  by  the  majority 
of  iron-makers.  Experiments  which  iiroved  successful  in 
some  localities  were  discredited  by  disastrous  failures  in 
others.  A  series  of  laboriiais  and  costly  investigations  fol- 
lowed, which  jiroved  that  the  pig  iron  to  be  used  must  be 
low  in  (ihosphorus,  and  that  a  manganese  carbon  alloy 
must  be  added  at  the  end  of  the  openilion,  the  latter  discov- 
ery liaving  been  made  by  Robert  Musliet.  Again  Bessemer 
came  before  the  ]iulilic,  reading  a  jiajier  on  Jlay  34,  1859, 
before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  It  was  not  until 
he  had  established  works  at  .Sheflield,  and  had  become  an 
actiyc  and  dangerous  com]jetitor,  thai  other  makers  availed 
themselves  of  the  process.  It  made  such  rapid  jirogress  that 
fen  years  after  the  first  announcement  Bessemer  was  deriv- 
ing from  it  an  income  of  t' 1011.000  pi-r  year,  his  total  revc- 
nne  from  the  patents  having  been  £1,057,748.  The  Sheffield 
works  yielded  in  fouiteen  years  eighty-one  times  the  origi- 


BESSEMER'S  PROCESS  FOR  REFINIXG   IRON 


BETHLEHEM 


601 


nal  investment.  In  1869  he  entered  a  new  field  of  inven- 
tion, aiming  to  clieck  the  rolling  motion  of  vessels  and  pre- 
vent scasiL-kiu'Ss.  A  vessel  witli  a  swinging  saloon  was 
laiineheil  in  1874,  but  after  a  few  voyages  she  was  aban- 
doned. Later  he  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of 
leleseopes.        •  C.  KiRCHHOFF. 

Hesspiiier's  Process  for  Refining'  Iron :  Sec  Bessemer, 
IIkxkv.  and  Sit.kl. 

Bes'ser.  William  Fredf.rick.  I).  D. :  Lutheran  preacher 
and  commentator:  b.  at  Warustedt.  in  the  llarz.  Sept.  27. 
l.sKi.  He  was  a  |iupil  of  Tholuck,  Hengstenberg.  and  von 
(ierlach.  The  most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the  jiastorate  in 
I'omeraTiia  and  Silesia,  From  18.5:i-.')7  he  was  as.sociate  di- 
rector of  the  Leipzig  Society  for  Foreign  .Missions.  He  was 
a  preacher  of  great  power  who  sought  to  faithfully  expound 
the  meaning  of  the  text  of  the  Hilile.  and  whose  expository 
lect  iires  (Bibelatiindi'H)  cover  nearly  all  the  books  of  t  he  Xew 
Testament.  They  are  extensively  rcjul  in  devotional  meet- 
ings in  tiermany.  Several  volumes  have  been  translated 
into  PInglish:  Clin's/  the  Li<//it  of  t lie  World:  C/irint  tin- 
Liff  of  llir  Woi-UI,  an  exposilion  of  the  Gospel  of  .b>hn 
(Edinburgh,  1861);  an  admirable  translation  by  Mrs.  llux- 
table.     D.  in  NiederlOssnitz,  near  Dresden.  Sept.  26,  1884. 

Henry  E.  Jacobs. 

Bes'sey.  Charles  Rnwix,  Ph.D.:  botanist;  b.  in  Mil- 
ton. Wayne  co..  ().,  May  21.  184.5:  educated  in  the  common 
schools  and  academies  of  Ohio,  in  Michigan  Agricullm'al 
College,  and  in  Harvard  University  ;  Professor  of  ISotany  in 
Iowa  Agricultural  College  1870-84;  Professor  of  l!otany  in 
Univereity  of  Nebraska  1884;  associate  editor  (liotany)  of 
Aiiicricail  Xotiiralixt  1880;  president  of  Iowa  Academy  of 
Scieiu-es  1875-84;  president  of  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Agricultural  Science  188;i-85  ;  president  of  Nebraska  .\cad- 
einy  of  Sciences  1891 ;  acting  chancellor  of  University  of 
Nebraska  1888-91 :  fellow  of  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science;  principal  |>ublications  are  lit/ports 
on  Inmcts  (1873-74);  Oeographii  of  Joiva  (\>i~S):  TIik  Kry- 
siphei  of  Xorth  yl/wcc/crt  (1877) ;  liotaivj  for  Ilii/li  Schools 
aiul  Co'lli-fji-ii  (1880);  Eswntials  of  liolon'ii  tlHH4);  lirporls 
of  thi;  Stole  liutanist  uf  Nebraska  (1887  to  1S92) ;  Prelimi- 
nary Report  oil  the  Natire  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Nebraska 
(1891);  associate  editor  ot  John-wn^s  Universal  Cyclopa'diu, 
in  charge  of  the  department  of  Botany,  1893. 

Bessifires,  bessi-iir',  Jean  Baptists :  Duke  of  Istria; 
French  marshal  ;  li.  near  Cahors,  Lot,  Aug.  .5.  1768.  He 
entered  the  army  as  a  private  in  1792.  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  Italy  and  Egypt,  l)ccame  a  general  of  division  in 
1802,  and  marshal  of  France  in  1804.  He  rendered  impor- 
tant services  at  Anstcrlitz.  Jena.  Friedland.  and  Eylau. 
Having  obtaineil  in  1S0.S  command  of  an  army  in  Spain,  he 
gained  a  victory  at  Medina  del  Kio  Scco.  He  luid  the  chief 
eomnumd  of  the  cavalry  of  the  grand  armv  in  1813,  ami 
was  killed  on  the  day  before  the  battle  of  Liitzcn,  ]\Iay  1, 
1813.  See  >Iiramont,  Vie  de  J.  B.  Bessieres;  Victoires  el 
Voiii/ui'tes  des  Fran(;ais. 

Best.  William  Thomas:  organist;  b.  in  Carlisle,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  13.  lS2t) ;  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
organ,  and  reiiived  his  first  aiipointinent  in  1840  in  Liver- 
pool, where  with  lew  intervals  he  ha.s  since  remained. 
Since  Ls.").")  he  has  been  organist  of  St.  George's  Hall  there. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  organists  of  the  century. 
His  compositions  include  a  few  church  services  and  aiuhems, 
and  an  immense  number  of  organ  pieces,  original  and  ar- 
ranged, a  few  pieces  for  pianoforte,  and  two  or  three  orches- 
tral pieces.  D.  E.  Hervev. 

Bcstia'ris:  books  treating  of  beasts.    Sec  PnvsioLoiius. 

Betanziis,  ba'y-taanthos  (ano.  Fla'vium  Brigan'lium) :  a 
town  of  Spain  ;  province  of  Corunna ;  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Co- 
ruima  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  12-U).  It  is  said  to  be  the 
oldest  town  in  Galicia.  ami  has  remains  of  ancient  fortifi- 
cations. Here  are  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  and  pot- 
tery.    Pop.  (ls,87)  H.Vii. 

Be'tel.  or  Pawn  :  a  narcotic  stimulant  extensively  used 
lus  a  masticatory  bv  Oriental  peoples,  especially  by  tribes  of 
the  Malay  race,  it  consists  of  a  portion  of  the  nut  of  the 
Arecd  ralechu  (called  the  betel-nut  or  pinany),  rolled  up 
with  lime  in  the  leaf  of  the  Piper  betel  or  other  species  of 
pepper.  The  leaf  is  pluckeil  green,  and  is  smeared  with 
moistened  ipiicklime  before  the  slice  of  areca  nut  is  wrapiu'd 
in  it.  This  mixture  is  chewed  continually  by  men,  womi'U, 
and  children,  and  the  use  of  it  is  so  general  that  a  Jlalay 
presents  his  betel-box  as  a  European  offers  his  snull-box. 


This  practice  appeai-s  to  be  very  ancient,  having  prevailed 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  betel  causes  giddiness  in 
those  wlio  are  not  accustomed  to  chewing  it.  The  habitual 
use  of  it  blackens  the  teeth,  and  perhaps  destroys  them. 
According  to  Sir  James  E.  Tennent.  the  betel  is  beneficial, 
acting  a-s  a  tonic,  antacid,  and  earndiuitive. 

Beth;  a  Hebrew   noun,  meaning  "house"  or  "habita- 
tion"; employed  some  fifty  times  in  the  Scriptures  as  » 
iirefix   in  naming  places,  such  as  Bethel,  Bethlehem,  and 
5ethany. 

Betliani-E(l wards.  Jliss  JIatilda  1?arbara:  author;  b. 
at  Weslrrlicld,  England,  1836;  has  contributed  to  Punch, 
(iro/ihie.  Moeiiiilliin's  Moyazine.  and  other  periodicals,  and 
[lulilishcd  numerous  novels  which  have  been  reprinted  in 
other  hinguages.  The  While  House  by  the  Sen  appearing  in 
18.5.5.  In  188.5  she  iiublished  a  volume  of  poems,  and  in 
18H9  edited  Arthur  Young's  Travels  in  France. 

Beth'any  [Heb.,  house  of  dates]:  a  village  of  Palestine  ; 
on  the  cast  slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  nearly  2  miles  (1.5 
stadia)  E.  of  Jerusalem.  As  the  honu?  of  Mary,  Jlartha,  aiul 
Lazailis,  it  was  the  sceiu'  of  interesting  events  in  sacred 
history.  (See  INIatthcw  xxi.  17;  xxvi.  6;  John  xi.  and  xii.  ; 
Luke  xix.  29.)  From  .some  point  near  the  vill.-ige  Christ 
a.scended  into  heaveiL  (Luke  xxiv.  .50.)  Here  is  a  cave  or 
excavation  in  a  rock,  which,  according  to  a  worthless  tra- 
dition, is  the  grave  of  Lazarus.  The  descent  into  it  is 
effected  by  twenty-six  steps  cut  into  the  solid  rock.  The 
modern  village  contains  about  forty  families  of  Jlosloms. 

Bethany:  town;  capital  of  llarriscm  co..  ilo.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  1-E) ;  on  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  I!.  H, ;  62  miles  N.  K.  of  St.  Joseph  ; 
is  in  an  agricultui'al  and  stock-raising  district,  and  has 
wagon,  broom,  and  canning  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  994; 
(1890)  1,105. 

Bethany:  a  village  of  Brooke  Co.,  West  Va.  (for  location 
of  comity,  see  mai>  of  West  Virginia,  ref,  3-n) ;  on  Buffalo 
Creek ;  7  miles  from  the  Ohio  river,  and  16  miles  N.  E.  of 
Wheeling.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  region, 
and  is  the  seat  of  Helliany  College,  established  in  1841  by 
Alexander  CamiJiell.  (See  Discii-les  of  Christ.)  Pop. 
(1880)  335;  (1890)  al)OUt  400. 

Beth'el  (Arab.  Beit  in  or  Beiteen):  an  ancient  town  of 
Palestine;  noted  as  the  .scene  of  the  dream  of  the  patriarch 
Jacob;  was  10  cu'  12  ndles  N.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  near 
the  boundary  lictween  Judca  and  Sanuiria.  Here  are  ruins 
of  ancient  churches  and  other  buildings. 

Bethel:  borough:  Fairfield  co..  Conn,  (for  location  of 
county,  .see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  11-D);  on  branch  of 
Housatonic  U.  R.;  62  miles  from  New  York  city;  has  large 
hat-shops,  farming  iiulustries,  and  .street  railroad  to  Dan- 
bury,  3  miles  distant.     Poj).  (1880)  1,767;  (1890)  2,33.5. 

Betliel  :  on  railroad ;  Windsor  co..  Vt.  (for  location  of 
cotnity.  see  map  of  Vermont,  rid'.  7-C);  "25  miles  N.  W.  of 
White  River  jmiction;  has  uumufactures  of  hnnber,  leather, 
flour,  shoes,  meal,  etc.  Pop.  of  townshij)  (1880)  1,693;  (1890) 
1,448.  Editor  of  "  Courier." 

Bethel  College:  in  M<  Kenzie.  Teiui. :  an  institution  of 
leariung  foiMidcd.  with  a  liberal  charter,  in  1850.  Obliged 
to  close  its  doors  during  the  civil  war.il  was  successfully 
i-eorganized  at  its  close,  and  has  since  luul  a  successful 
career.  The  college  is  under  the  control  of  the  Synod  of 
West  Tennessee  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church. 
A  liberal  Christianity  and  a  high  standard  of  nmral  char- 
acter are  inculcated,  yet  no  |ieculiar  sectarian  or  political 
principles  arc  allowed  in  the  literary  department.  Candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  of  all  denominations  receive  tuition 
free  of  charge.  Both  sexes  are  adnutted.  The  course  of 
studv  is  thorough  and.of  an  eminentlv  practical  character. 
The  'Rev.  J.  L.  Dickens  is  president.  At  present  (1893)  there 
are  6  teachers  in  all  <lepartments,  3  permanent  lecturers,  and 
306  students. 

Bethes'da  [Heb..  house  of  mercy]:  a  pool  or  tank  at  Je- 
rusalem where  the  lame  man  was  nuraculously  healed  (John 
v.  1-9).  .Some  identify  it  with  Birket  Israil,  a  large  ri'ser- 
voir  inside  the  city  walls,  near  St.  Stephen's  tiate:  others 
with  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  (intermittent),  about  300 
yards  S.  of  the  Temple  area;  and  others  with  the  pool  of 
Siloam,  aliout  300  yards  farther  S. 

Beth'lehein  [Heb..  hou.se  of  bread;  so  called  from  its 
fertile  soil] :  a  town  fre(|uently  mentioned  in  both  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  especially  distingidshed  as  the 


6(12 


BETHLEHEM 


BETTS 


birthplace  of  our  Saviour,  as  well  as  of  his  ancestor.  King 
David  (see  map  of  Palestine,  ref.  10-D).  Anciently  it  was 
called  ■•Bethlehem  Jiulah,"  to  distinguish  it  from  another 
Bethlehem  in  the  northern  part  of  Palestine  (.Josh.  six.  15). 
It  is  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  time  of  Jacob,  but  was 
probably  never  very  large  or  coiimiercially  important.  It 
has  at  present  about  o.OtiO  inhabitants,  all  Chri-stians.  The 
principal  trade  of  tlie  place  is  in  crosses,  beads,  and  relies. 
Here  are  Greek,  Latin,  and  Armenian  convents;  and  the 
monks  show  a  cave  which  they  claim  to  have  been  the 
stable  where  our  Lord  was  born.  See  Robinson's  Biblical 
Rfsedrches;  H^ckeXX's.  Tllust rations  of  Scripture;  Ritter's 
Oeoyraphy  of  Palestine. 

Bethlehem  :  borough  and  railroad  junction  :  Xorthamp- 
ton  CO..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania, 
ref.  -i-.)) :  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lehigh  river,  57  miles  X. 
•of  Philadelpliia  ami  5  miles  E.  of  AUentown.  It  is  pleas- 
antly situated  on  the  slopes  of  several  hills.  Two  bridges 
across  the  river  connect  it  with  South  Bethlehem,  tlie  seat 
of  Lehigh  University,  founded  by  Asa  Packer  in  1866,  and 
richly  endowed,  having  fine  stone  edifices  on  a  high  and 
commanding  position.  Bethlehem  was  founded  in  1741  by 
the  Moravians,  who  have  here  a  large  stone  church  142  feet 
long,  a  theological  seminary,  an  ancient  cliapel,  a  young 
ladies'  seminary,  and  an  extensive  parochial  scliool.  There 
are  a  large  number  of  manufactories,  chiefly  in  South  Beth- 
lehem, including  three  silk-mills,  several  foundries,  the  Beth- 
lehem Iron  Company's  rolling-mills,  machine-shops,  etc. — 
one  of  the  largest  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the  U.  S. ; 
Lehigh  Zinc  Company's  rolling-mill,  zinc  oxide  and  spelter 
works :  Lehigh  Brass-works,  gas-works  in  both  boroughs, 
etc.  .South  Bethlehem  also  contains  the  main  offices  of  the 
Lehigh  Vallev  Kailroad  fom|ianv.  Pop.  (1880)  5,1!)3 :  (1890) 
6,762;  of  South  Bethlehem  liorough  (1880)  4,925;  (1890) 
10,302.  Editor  of  "  Times." 

Bethlehemites:  an  order  of  monks  established  at  Cam- 
bridge, England,  in  1257  ;  also  an  order  of  monks  and  nuns 
instituted  at  Guatemala  about  1665.  They  are  found  in 
Central  and  South  America  and  the  Canary  islands. 

Betlllen-Gabor,  bet'kn-gaa'bor:  Jlagyar  general  and 
ruler;  b.  1.580:  through  aid  of  the  Turks  was  chosen  Prince 
of  Transylvania  1613  ;  aided  the  Bohemians  in  defense  of 
their  religious  and  political  rights  against  Austria  1619  ; 
King  of  Hungary  1620,  but  soon  abdicated,  receiving  im- 
portant concessions  from  Ferdinand  II,  of  Austria ;  took 
part  in  the  Thirty  Years  war.  He  did  much  to  advance 
the  cause  of  learning.     D.  1629. 

Bethnianii-HoUweg',  bat'maltn-hrd'vfTrh,  JIoritz  Au- 
OUST :  jurist  and  statesman;  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Apr.  8,  1795.  He  was  Professor  of  Civil  I^aw  at  Berlin,  and 
subsequently  at  Bonn,  and  was  Prussian  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  from  1858  to  1862.  He  published  several  valu- 
able legal  works.  1).  in  his  castle.  Rheineck,  on  the  Rhine, 
near  Andernacli,  July  14,  1877, 

Beth'lihage  [Ileb.,  house  of  figs] :  a  locality  in  Pales- 
tine, near  Jerusalem ;  appears  to  have  been  on  or  near  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  The  name  occurs  in  Luke  xix.  29  and 
JIatthew  xxi.  1.  Its  site  has  not  been  exactly  ascer- 
laineil. 

Betlisa'ida  [Ileb.,  fish-houses]:  an  ancient  town  in  Pales- 
tine ;  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Lake  of  (jalilee,  the  home  of 
Andrew,  Peter,  and  Phili]j  (John  i.  44).  Dr.  Koliinson  iden- 
tifies it  wilh  Ain-et-Tabigbah.  in  a  little  l)ay  or  cove  be- 
tween Khan  Minyeh  (Capernaum  ()  and  Tell  Hum  (Chora- 
zinf).  Another  Bethsaida,  afterward  callcil  Julias,  was 
situated  near  the  head  of  the  lake,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan,  alMiut  2  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  was  near  this 
Bethsaida  that  Christ  fed  the  5,000,     (Luke  ix.  10-17.) 

Beth'shemesh  [Ileb.,  house  of  the  sun]:  the  name  of 
four  places  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  a  sacerdotal  city  of  Judah.  about  15  miles 
\V.  S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  and  about  2  miles  from  the  great 
Philistine  plain.  It  was  here  the  ark  rested  on  its  way 
home  from  I'lkron  (7  miles).  It  was  here  that  Anuiziah, 
King  of  Judah.  was  worsted  and  taken  prisoner  l)v  Jehoash, 
King  of  Israel  (2  Kings  xiv.  11-13).  In  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
it  was  captured  by  the  Philistines  (3  Chron.  xxviii.  18),  and 
is  not  again  mentioned  in  sacred  history.  It  stood  on  a 
low  ridge.  Only  ruins  now  nmrk  the  .spot,  which  bears  the 
name  of  Ain-S/iems  (fountain  of  the  sun).  The  greater 
iiart  of  Samson's  exploits  were  in  its  immediate  neighbor- 
hood. 


Bethune.  bay  ti'in  :  a  fortified  town  of  France  ;  depart- 
ment of  Pas-de-Calais;  near  the  river  Lave  and  the  canal 
of  Aire ;  23  miles  by  raO  N.  X".  W.  of  Arras  (see  map  of 
France,  ref,  2-F),  It  has  a  fine  castle,  a  college,  and  a 
Gothic  church  :  also  maiuifactures  of  oil.  soap,  and  woolen 
goods.  It  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  in  1645,  retaken 
bv  Prince  Eugene  in  1710,  and  restored  to  France  in  1713, 
Pop.  (1891)  11,098. 

Bethniie,  George  W.^shixoton.  D.  D.  :  divine  and  poet; 
b.  in  the  city  of  Xew  York.  Mar.  18.  1805;  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  1823.  and  studied  at  the  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1823-25.  In  1827  he  became  pastor  of 
a  Dutch  Reformed  church  in  Rhinebeck,  X.  Y.  He  was 
afterward  settled  in  Utiea.  and  still  later  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1851  he  removed  to  Brooklyn.  X.  Y..  and  1859  to  Xew 
York  as  associate  pastor  of  the  Twenty-first  Street  church. 
He  was  a  distinguished  orator  and  mo.st  lovalile  man,  a  poet 
and  a  wit.  In  1861  he  went  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of 
his  health,  but  died  at  Florence,  Ajir.  27,  1862.  He  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  ^yaltoll\1  Complete  Ani/hr  (X.  Y.,  1846); 
A  Comtiienlarfi  on  tlie  ISOlli  Psalm  (1847);  and  Lai/s  of  Love 
and  Faitli  (1847).  Several  of  his  hvmns  are  widely  used. 
See  his  life  by  A.  R.  Van  Xest  (Xew  York.  1867). 

S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Betlis :  See  BiTLis. 

B#tou.  iKfy'ton' :  an  artificial  stone  made  by  the  thorough 
mixing  of  sand  and  hydraidic  cement.  It  was  invented  by 
Francois  Coignet,  and  is  hence  often  called  Beton-Coignet. 
The  word  has  been  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  con- 
crete, but  this  designation  is  now  mostly  abandoned.  See 
Cement,  C'oxcrete.  and  Stoxe. 

Betterments :  improvements  put  on  real  estate  which 
enhance  its  value  more  than  mere  repairs.  According  to 
the  common  law,  if  a  bona  tide  holder  of  real  estate  under  a 
defeasilile  title  made  imiirovements  while  in  possession  of 
the  land,  they  liecame  a  part  of  the  realty,  and  cotild  not  be 
removed  therefrom  without  the  consent  of  the  lawful  owner, 
neither  could  any  compensation  be  had  therefor.  ^Vhere  the 
true  owner,  in  an  ejectment  suit,  asked  judgment  for  mesne 
profits,  the  hona-fide  disseisor  was  allowed  to  offset  the  same 
liy  a  claim  for  his  improvements.  In  some  States  statutes 
have  been  passed  under  which  the  disseisor  is  now  allowed 
to  liring  an  original  action  to  recover  the  value  of  his  im- 
provements. Statutes  will  be  found  in  the  several  States 
which  provide  that  after  recovery  in  ejectment,  if  the  im- 
provements were  made  in  good  faith,  the  defendant  shall  be 
entitled  to  recover  of  the  plaintift'  the  value  of  the  same; 
but  the  plaintiff  is  given  the  right  to  elect  to  have  the  vahu' 
of  the  land  witliout  the  improvements  assessed,  and  the  de- 
fendant must  then  purchase  the  same  at  the  price  assessed 
within  a  given  time  or  lose  the  benefit  of  his  claim  for  im- 
provements. Hexry  ^VADE  Rogers. 

Bet'terton.  Thomas  :  English  actor ;  b.  in  London  in 
Aug..  1635.  He  performe<l  with  great  success  the  jiarts  of 
Hamlet,  Macbeth,  and  Othello.  He  was  the  chief  ornament 
of  the  English  stage  for  nearly  fifty  years.  His  wife  was  a 
])opidar  actress.  D.  in  London.  Apr.  2H.  1710.  See  Charles 
Gildon,  Life  of  T.  Betterton  (1710). 

Betting,  or  Wasreriiig::  the  laying  or  making  of  a  bet 
or  wager.  (See  Wager.)  This  is  a  vicious  (iractice  which 
[irevails  more  or  k'ss  in  all  countries.  The  English  are  ad- 
dicted to  betting  on  horse-races  to  a  ruinous  extent.  The 
British  Parliament  passed  an  act.  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  119.  to 
suppress  the  haunts  of  betters,  called  betting-houses,  which 
it  <leclares  to  be  a  <'onnnon  nuisance  and  contrary  to  law. 
But  it  provides  that  its  enactments  shall  not  extend  to  stakes 
or  deposits  dne  to  the  wiimer  of  any  race  or  lawful  sport. 
The  U.  S.  laws  prohibit  betting  on  elections. 

Betts.  Beverley  Ronixsox.  A.  JL:  b.  in  the  city  of  Xew 
York.  Aug.  3.  1827;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1846, 
and  at  the  General  Theological  .Seminary  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Clmrch  in  that  city  in  18.")l);  ordained  in  1850. 
.After  a  short  charge  of  Trinity  chunli.  Rockaway.  he  was 
in  1855  made  rector  of  St.  Saviour's  ehm'ch.  ^laspeth.  Long 
Island,  which  position  he  held  for  nearly  fourteen  years;  in 
1865  he  was  ai>pointed  librarian  of  Columbia  College:  pre- 
pared for  the  press  a  full  catalogue  of  the  library  of  the  col- 
lege (1874);  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  Church  re- 
view and  journals.  He  retired  from  the  librarianship  in 
1883. 

Betts,  Samiel  Rossiter,  LL.  D.  :  jurist :  b.  in  Richmond, 
Mass.,  June  8, 1787;  gi-aduated  at  Williams  College  in  1S06; 


BETUL 


BEVKOUT 


603 


prac'ticetl  law  in  Sullivan  co.,  N.  Y. ;  served  in  Ihe  war  of 
1812:  bccaiiie  jmlffe  ailvoeutc;  was  a  member  of  ("onjjress 
(1H15-17).  lie  was  a  jiidjre  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  State 
(182:J-36).  and  V.  S.  district  jud^'c  (18-.'(i-(i7).  I),  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  2.  1808.  He  published  a  treatise  on 
A(lmiralli)  I'raciicn  (1838). 

lietill.  lia-y-tool' :  a  district  of  Nerbuddu,  Central  Prov- 
inces, British  Inilia:  tiie  westernmosr  part  of  the  great  Sat- 
pnra  plateau:  between  llu>  jiarallels  21°  20'  N.  and  22°  H/i' 
N.,  and  nieri<lians  77  20  K.  and  78  :15'  K.  It  is  a  hilly 
highland  tract,  avcrairini;  2.000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
northern  and  soulhcni  )iarls  are  spaiscly  settled  and  coni- 
|>aratively  sterile,  while  the  central  portion  has  a  very  rich 
.soil,  is  well  watered,  and  densely  populated.  Wheat  and 
pulses  form  the  principal  crops,  while  cotton,  rice,  sugar- 
cane, and  opium  are  raised  to  some  extent.  Coal  occurs  in 
nniny  parts,  but  is  not  worked.  Kxtensive  forests  occupy 
about  one-filth  of  the  area,  ami  yield  much  good  timber. 
Area,  S.ilO.j  S(|.  miles.  The  climate  is  comparatively  salu- 
brious, but  fevci-s  of  a  severe  type  prevail  in  the  jungles. 
The  rainfall  is  aliout  40  inches  (ler  year.  Pop.  ;J0(),000. 
The  aboriginal  Gonds  can  still  be  found  in  the  .jungle 
towns.  M.  W.  H. 

Iteiig'not.  bfinyo .  .VitTiiiii  .Vi-gi'stk.  Comte  de:  writer 
and  liberal  statesnuin :  b.  at  Mar-sur-.\ube,  Mar.  25,  1707. 
Ili^  wrote  an  Exsnij  im  l/ie  InxfifiilionH  of  Sainl  I.oiiIh  (Paris, 
8vo.  1821):  The  Jcirs  of  tlif  W'l.sf  (Pans.  Svo.  1824):  ami  a 
JfinlDry  of  llie  Dfx/riicfioii  of  Piiffiiiiixm  in  the  Wfst  (2 
vols.,  IS'i'i).  lie  became  a  jieer  of  France  in  1841.  As  a 
nuMuber  of  the  Legislative  .\ssembly  of  1840  he  promoted 
freeilom  in  jiublie  instruction.     1).  in  Paris,  JIar.  15.  18(55. 

BeiiU',  bii  lay  .  CnARLKS  Hrxkst:  a  French  arclueologist ; 
b.  in  .Saumur.  June  20,  1826:  took  part  in  1840-5:!  in  the 
excavations  of  the  Acropolis  in  .\thens,  and  Ijccame  in  18.54 
Professor  of  Areha'ology  in  the  Imperial  Library  in  Paris. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  L'Acropoh:  d'Aflit-iieti  |2  vols., 
1854);  Eludes  siir  le  Peloponne-ie.  (1855):  Fouil/eK  dp,  Ciir- 
f/idffe  (the  results  of  his  excavations  in  Carthage  in  1858); 
and  Auj/ttsfe,  *a  Famille,  etc.  (18G7).  I),  ill  Paris,  Aiir.  4, 
1874. 

ISeiirinanii.  bnirmaan.  Kviu,  Mohitz,  von:  explorer:  b. 
in  Potsdam,  .Inly  28,  bs:j5.  In  |8()0  lie  attempted  to  explore 
the  country  of  the  Hogos,  but  did  not  succeed  in  reaching  it 
until  Mar..'  1861.  In  i)ec..  1861,  he  was  engaged  to  hiok  for 
A'ogel,  who,  it  wa.s  supposed,  had  been  murdered  in  Wadai. 
Heurmann  was  to  start  from  Trijioli.  while  at  the  same  tinu- 
lleuglin  should  atteuiiit  to  reach  Wailai  from  Abyssinia, 
lie  reached  Kuka  in  Bornu  in  Aug..  1862.  As  it  was  im- 
possible to  reach  Wadai  at  that  time,  lie  made  a  trip  lo.Ta- 
coba  in  Baiitchi,  from  which  he  returned  to  Kuka  Dec.  l:i. 
Soon  after  he  attemjili'd  the  voyage  to  Wadai.  and.  having 
succeeded  after  several  futile  attempts,  he  was  murdered  in 
Feb..  186;i,  in  Moa,  in  the  most  western  province  of  Wadai, 
by  the  command  of  the  governor. 

Beiist,  boisi,  FiiiKDKicu  Fkrdixa.no,  Count  von:  b.  in 
Dresrlen,  .lune  18.  1800.  He  studied  law  and  political 
economy  at  Leipzig  and  Giittingen:  enlered  the  diplomatic 
service  of  Saxony  in  18:51 ;  was  made  minister  of  foreign 
alfairs  in  1840.  In  this  position  he  made  himself  noticed 
by  his  opposition  to  Pru.ssia,  which  often  assumed  the  aspect 
of  mere  rivalry  with  Bismarck.  After  the  battle  of  Sadowa 
he  resigned  his  position,  and  removed  to  Vienna;  in  1867 
he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  Austrian  empire,  notwith- 
standing his  Protestant  faith.  The  complete  reorganization 
of  the  empire — political,  financial,  military,  etc. — was  the 
|>roblem  placed  Ix'fore  him.  and  the  prescMit  coiisliliition. 
which  made  great  concessions  to  the  Magyars,  placing 
them  on  an  e(pial  footing  with  the  Germans,  but  paying 
little  regard  to  the  Slavs,  was  his  work.  Following  his  ad- 
vice. Austria  simply  canceled  the  concordat  with  the  Pope 
in  spite  of  the  protest  of  Hie  Curia,  removed  .Jewish  disabili- 
ties, and  authorized  civil  marriages.  In  1871  he  went  to 
I^mdon  as  Austrian  ambassador:  he  remained  till  1876. 
when  he  was  appointed  Austrian  ambassador  at  I'aris:  hehl 
the  olFiee  till  1882.  I),  in  Vienna.  Oct.  24.  1886.  See  his  J/c- 
miiini  (Kiig.  trans,  by  II.  de  Worms,  London,  2  vols..  1887). 

Itciitlieii.  boi  ten :  a  town  of  Prussia;  in  Silesia;  50  miles 
K.  S.  K.  of  Oppein  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-.I); 
has  manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  zinc-ware,  and  potterv. 
Pop.  (1880)22,82:$;  (18!)0)  ;i0.82:S. 

Bov'oridsre,  William:  Orientalist  and  bishop:  b.  at  Bar- 
row,   Leicestershire,    England,   early    in    16;i6-;!7   (baptized 


Feb.  21),  and  wius  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  learning,  and  of  jirofoundly  religious  character. 
He  publislu'd  a  Treat ine  on  C'ltroiioloi/y  (1660);  a  work  On 
the  Ciinoii.i  of  tlie  Greek  Church  (1672);  and  several  devo- 
tional treatises.  In  1704  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph.  1).  in  London,  Mar.  5,  1707-08.  See  Thomas  H. 
Home's  Memoir  of  Biihop  Beveridjie.  jirefbced  to  an  edition 
of  his  Works  (0  vols.,  London,  1824) ;  another  edition  was 
published  in  twelve  volumes  of  the  Anglo-Catholic  Lilirary 
at  Oxford  (1842-48).  His  favorite  la-oduction.  Prinde 
Thoughl.i  upon  UeUgion.  appeared  jiosthuiuously  (1700); 
often  reprinted  (e.  g.  1871). 

Bevt'l'land,  bev>r-la"ant.  Aukiaan:  a  Dutch  classical 
.scholar  and  heterodox  writer:  b.  at  Middelburg  aljont  1654; 
was  a  friend  of  Isaac  ^'ossius.  He  wrote  Pecralitm  Oriyinnle 
(place  of  publication  called  "Eleulheropolis  in  Porto  Iles- 
peridum."  1678;  2(1  eil.  Leyden.  1670;  French  translation  in 
I'aris.  1714:  6lh  ed.  1774):  J>e  fvniicalione  carenda  (Auiis- 
burg.  1607:  2d  ed.  Amsterdam.  1608);  and  other  works 
which  were  censured  for  imiiiety.  He  wrote  also  fJe  stotolce 
ririjinitalis  jure  (Leyden,  1680).  He  was  banished  from 
Utrecht,  and  removed  to  Kngland,  where  he  died  insane  in 
1712.  S.  M.  .Tackson. 

Bev'erloj:  a  market-lown  of  Yorkshire,  England;  1  mile 
W.  of  the  river  Hull,  and  10  miles  X.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Hull  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  6-,l).  It  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  Fast  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  is  handsomely  built. 
The  <irigin  of  tlie  name  is  said  to  be  liererlnc,  a  "  lake  or 
dam  of  beavers."  It  has  an  ancient  and  beautiful  (iotliic 
minster,  called  the  Church  of  St.  tlohii.  which  exhiliils  sev- 
eral styles  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  ranks  next  to  York 
Minster  among  the  ecclesiastical  structures  of  Kngland. 
The  oldest,  part  of  this  was  erected  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. -V  priory  was  founded  here  about  700  A.  D.  Beverley 
has  an  active  trade  in  corn,  coals,  and  leather,  and  is  on  the 
railwav  from  Hull  to  York.  It  was  made  a  suffragan  epis- 
copal see  in  1880.     Pop.  (1801)  12,5:50. 

Beverly  :  city:  on  main  line  of  B.  and  M.  R.  R,,  Essex 
CO.,  Mass.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  l-I) ; 
is  on  a  small  inlet  of  the  ocean,  2  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Salem 
and  18  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Boston.  A  bridge  across  the  inlet 
connects  it  with  Salem.  It  derives  its  prosperity  chiefly 
from  manufactures  of  shoes,  oiled  clothing,  leather  belling, 
carriages,  and  other  staple  merchandise.  Has  a  high  school, 
fine  system  of  water-works,  a  well-equipped  lire  department, 
and  two  street-raihvav  svslems.  lis  tax  valualion  in  1801 
was  .'^1:5.168.15.5.  Pop",  of  township  (1880)  8.456  :  (1800)  10,- 
821 ;  (180.5)  11.806.  Editor  of  "Citizen." 

Beverly:  a  city  of  Burlington  co.,  N.  .J.  (for  location  of 
connly,  .see  ma|)  of  New  .lersey,  ref.  .5-1));  on  railro.ad  and 
the  Delaware  river;  15  miles  above  Philadelphia.  It  has  a 
woolen  mill,  an  oil-cloth  fairlory,  a  very  extensive  rope-walk, 
and  is  a  phaee  of  summer  resort.  Pop.  (1880)  1,750 ;  (1800) 
1,057;  (181)5)  1,024. 

Bewick,  liyu  ik.  Thomas  :  English  engraver  :  b.  near 
Newcastle-ou-Tyne.  .\ug.  12.175:5:  a  pupil  of  Beilby.  He 
was  the  founder  of  lln>  modern  Knglish  school  of  wood- 
engraving,  and  none  of  his  numerous  pnpils  has  excelled 
him.  He  illustrated  Gay's  /^rt6/e.s(1770).  Beilby  and  Bewick 
published  in  1700  a  Hixtory  of  Britixh  Quddnipeda.  with 
engravings,  which  iiroeured  for  Bewick  a  high  reputation. 
He  Wits  assisted  by  Ids  lirof  her  John  in  tiie  designs  of  Gold- 
smith's Traveller  and  JJexerled  Vittage.  .\ni<iiig  his  best 
works  are  ^-EKojt'x  Fables  and  a  Ilislori/  of  British  Birds 
(2  vol.s.,  1804).  D.  at  Gateshead,  Nov.  8."l828.  See  Dobson, 
Bewick  and  his  Pupils  (1884). 

Bey.  or  Besr  ITurk.,  prince,  governor] :  a  title  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire.  The  ruling  oHicers  of  Tripoli  and  Tunis  are 
lievs,  and  the  same  title  is  given  to  some  local  magistrates, 
to  colonels  and  generals  of  the  army,  and  to  the  sons  of 
pashas.     In  other  cases  it  is  a  merely  lionorary  title. 

Beyle,  bavl.  JIakie  Hkxri  :  French  litterateur,  who  wrote 
under  the  assumed  name  of  Stendhal:  b.  at  Grenolile.  Jan. 
2:5.  178:5.  He  held  .several  high  civil  oflices  under  Najioleon. 
Among  his  chief  work^  iiw  n  Ilislori/  of  Painliiig  in  Hah/ 
(2  vols..  1817) ;  Le  Bouge  el  le  Xoir.  a  novel ;  a  A/'/c  of  Bos- 
siiii  (1824):  Memoirs  of  a  Tourist  (1838):  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Florence;  and  a  novel  calle<l  The  Carthusian  -\«/i  of 
Pnnna  (18:50).  He  passed  many  yeai-s  in  Italy.  D.  in  Paris 
Mar.  2;{,  1842.     See  Honore  de  Biilzac.  Etudes  sur  M.  Beyle, 

Bevroiit,  or  Beyriit.  Beirut,  or  Bairiit.  pronounced  in 
Arable  bayioot  ,  but  in  Turkish  bi  root   [sujiposed  by  some 


604 


BEZA 


BEZZEXBERGER 


to  be  identical  with  the  Bernlliai  of  3  Sam.  viii.  8.  and  the 
Bernthah  of  Ezek.  xMi.  16:  (ir.  BTjpwriis:  Lat.  Bui/tu.i]:  a 
flourishing  commercial  town  and  seaport  of  Syria  :  finely 
situated  on  tlie  Mediterranean,  at  tlie  foot  of  Mt.  Lebanon, 
58  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  Damascus  (see  map  of  Palestine,  ref. 
2-E).  The  harbor  admits  only  small  vessels,  but  in  tlie  bay 
about  3  miles  from  the  city  there  is  good  anchorage  for  large 
ships.  This  is  the  chief  seaport  of  Uaraaseus  and  Syi'ia,  and 
has  an  extensive  commerce,  which  is  increasing.  French 
steamers  ply  weekly  between  Beyrout  and  Jlarseilles.  and 
British  steamers  ply  regularly  between  this  city  and  Liver- 
pool. The  chief  articles  of  "export  ai-e  madder,  silk.  wool. 
oUve  oil,  and  gums.  Here  are  important  manufactures  of 
silk  stuffs.  Pop.  about  85.000.  Btrytus  was  besieged  and 
taken  bv  Baldwin.  King  of  Jerusalem,  about  1110,  and  re- 
taken bv  the  Saracens  in  1187.  American  missionaries  have 
been  tliere  since  1833.  The  Protestant  Syrian  College  was 
opened  in  1866. 

Be'za  (Fr. /)e  J5f^e),  Theodore :  Calvinistic  theologian: 
b.  in  his  father's  castle  in  Vezelay.  Burgmidy.  June  24.  1519. 
In  his  youth  he  enjoyed  two  benefices  in  tlie  Catholic  Church, 
ami  lived  in  Paris  the  careless  life  of  a  Humanist  and  poet ; 
but  he  was  converted  in  1548  and  went  to  Geneva,  wliere  he 
avowed  himself  a  Protestant.  He  became  Professor  of  Greek 
at  Lausanne  1549.  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Calvin.  In 
1554  he  published  a  treatise.  I))-  Iltereticis  a  Civili,  Jlagis- 
tralu  PuiiienJi-%  in  which  lie  defended  the  burning  of  Ser- 
vetus.  Hb  removed  to  Geneva  in  1558,  and  became  Cal- 
vin's ablest  coadjutor,  and  his  successor  as  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  1564.  He  afterward  ruled  the  Genevan  Church 
with  energy  for  forty  years.  At  the  same  time  he  played  a 
very  prominent  part  in  French  religious  history,  for  which 
his  aristocratic  birth,  courtly  bearing,  aud  rare  learning 
fitted  him.  He  was  the  chosen  spokesman  of  the  Huguenot 
party,  and  freiiuently  appeared  in  tlieir  behalf  before  kings 
and  other  potentates.  After  Calvin's  death  lie  wjis  recog- 
nized more  than  ever  as  the  great  Reformed  theologian. 
But  he  lacked  Calvin's  genius,  and  made  his  system  too  in- 
flexible. Thus  he  prepared  tlie  way  for  the  reaction  which 
Arrainius.  one  of  his  pupils,  lirougiit  alxiut.  The  Calvinistic 
party  in  tlie  Cliurch  of  England  revered  Beza  and  sat  at  his 
feet.  One  of  his  great  services  was  the  completion  of  Clem- 
ent Marot's  French  translation  of  the  Psalms  (1560),  which 
furnished  the  Huguenots  witli  their  song-book;  another  was 
his  editions  of  Stephen's  Greek  Testament  (Geneva,  1565,  sqq.), 
with  a  superior  Latin  translation,  first  issued  separately  1557, 
and  notes;  all  of  which  were  popular  and  affected  King 
James's  revisers.  He  also  presented  to  tiie  University  of 
Cambridge  the  imcial  codex  I)  (1581).  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  Life  of  Calvin,  the  best  of  the  contemporary 
biographies  of  the  Reformers  (Eng.  trans.  Eilin.  1844).  The 
nistnry  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  France  from  1521  to 
1563  (3  vols.,  1.580),  attributed  to  Beza.  is  his  only  in  the 
sense  that  he  suggested  it.  edited  and  supplied  matter  for 
it  anonymously;  but  he  was  not  the  writer  of  the  greater 
I>art  of  it  (best  ed.  by  Baum.  Cunitz.  and  R.  Reuss.  Paris, 
1883-89,  3  vols. :  there  is  no  Eng.  trans.).  I),  in  Geneva, 
Oct.  13. 1605.  See  Baum,  Th.  Hi-zaCi  vols..  184:i-.')I):  Ileppe, 
Tk.  Beza  (1861).  Sajiuel  Macavley  Jackso.n. 

Bezant',  or  lip.saiit  [0.  Fr.  l/exan,  phir.  hesanz.  from  Lat. 
hyzandiis,  sc.  yiaminiis,  coin,  Byzantine] :  a  gold  coin  struck 
at  Byzantium,  or  a  circular  jiiece  of  gold  or  silver  without 
any  impression  ;  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  the  old  coinage  of 
Byzantnun.  Some  of  these  were  brought  home  liy  the  cru- 
saders, and  were  current  in  England.  Their  value  was  10s. 
-Sterling,  but  some  gold  bezants  were  worth  i'lo  sterling. 
They  occur  in  lieraldic  charges,  especially  dirnish  coat- 
armor,  and  in  the  arms  of  banks  or  bankei-s  (hence  the 
"three  balls"  of  the  p.awnbroker's  shop).  Bezant  in  her- 
aldry is  a  globe  or,  or  a  circle  argent. 

Beziers,  b.-rvzhay'  (anc.  Bwler'rcB):  a  city  of  France;  in 
the  department  of  Herault :  on  the  river  Orb  and  the  Canal 
du  Jlidi ;  27  miles  by  rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Cette  (see  map  of 
Prance,  ref.  9-F).  It  is  on  the  railway  which  connects  Mont- 
pelicr  with  Toulouse,  and  has  a  delightful  situation,  with  a 
mild  cliiiiale.  .Vniong  its  antii|Ue  and  interesting  edifices 
are  a  noble>  Gothic  cathedral  and  tlie  cliurch  of  La  Madeleine. 
It  has  a  college,  a  [uiblic  library,  a  theater ;  also  manufactures 
of  silk,  hosiery,  glove.s.  glass,  soap,  brandy,  and  leatlu'r.  Be- 
ziers has  some  Roman  remains.  It  wa.s  the  scene  of  a  massacre 
of  the  Albigenses  in  1209.    Pop.  (1886)  42,785 ;  (1891)  45.475. 

Beziqiio.  be-zeek'  ffrom  Fr.  hesiguf.;  etymot.  unknown]: 
game  at  cards;  played  l)y  two  pei-sons  with  a  double  pack. 


containing  only  the  aces,  tens,  kings,  queens,  knaves,  nines, 
eights,  and  sevens,  which  rank  in  the  order  named.  Eight 
cards  are  dealt  each  player,  and  sifter  each  trick  each  player 
draws  one  from  the  top  of  the  stock,  the  winner  of  the  trick 
drawing  first.  Trump  is  determined  either  by  the  suit  of 
the  first  marriage  or  sequence  scored,  or  by  turning  the  top 
card  of  the  stock,  which  is  then  placed  right  side  up  beside 
the  stock  and  constitutes  its  bottom  card.  The  lead  belongs 
to  the  non-dealer  for  the  first  trick :  thereafter  to  the  win- 
ner of  the  ]irevious  trick.  The  leader  wins  the  trick  unless 
his  opponent  plays  a  higher  card  of  the  same  suit  or  (when 
trump  is  not  led)  a  trump.  After  the  stock  is  exhausted, 
the  second  player  must  follow  suit  if  possible  and  take  the 
trick  if  possiljle;  before  this  he  is  under  no  restriction  what- 
ever as  to  what  card  to  play. 

He  who  first  scores  1,000  points  wins  the  game;  if  his  op- 
ponent has  scored  less  than  500  the  game  counts  doulile  ;  a 
partie  is  the  best  three  games  of  five.  The  winner  of  the 
last  trick  of  each  hand  scores  10 ;  each  brisque  (ace  or  ten) 
taken  in  a  trick  counts  10;  and  if  trump  is  turned,  10  each 
is  scored  for  turning  the  seven,  for  exchanging  from  one's 
hand  a  seven  of  trumps  for  a  turned  trump  not  a  seven,  and 
for  declaring  the  second  seven  of  trumps.  Besides  this,  cer- 
tain combinations  of  cards  when  declared  count  as  follows: 
Class  I. — Marriage  (king  and  queen  of  the  same  suit).  20; 
royal  marriage  (same  for  trump  suit),  40;  sequence  of  five 
highest  trumps  (i.  e.  ace,  teni  king,  queen,  and  knave),  250. 
Class  II. — Bezique  (queen  of  spades  and  knave  of  diamonds), 
40 ;  double  bezique  (both  queens  of  spades  and  knaves  of 
diamonds),  500.  Class  III. — Any  four  aces,  100;  any  four 
kings,  80 ;  any  four  queens.  60 ;  any  four  knaves,  40.  Except 
for  the  seven  of  trumps,  a  declaratiim  is  made  by  placing  the 
declared  cards  (which  still  form  part  of  the  player's  hand) 
face  up  on  the  talile.  where  they  remain  until  played,  or 
until  the  stock  is  exhausted.  A  declaration  (or  exchange  of 
the  seven  of  trumps)  can  be  scored  only  after  winning  a  ttick 
and  before  drawing,  and  only  one  can  be  scored  at  a  time.  It 
can  not  be  scored  after  the  stock  is  exhausted.  After  a  card 
has  scored  in  one  comliination,  it  may  form  a  part  of  other 
combinations,  with  the  restriction  that  it  can  not  be  used  in 
an  equal  or  inferior  one  of  the  same  class.  A  player  is  not 
obliged  to  declare  or  score  any  combination  he  may  hold, 
but  after  each  trick  he  should"  repeat  what  he  has  to  score 
for  new  coniliinations  of  declared  cards. 

Rubicon  Bezique  is  a  modification  of  the  above  game 
played  with  four  packs  instead  of  two,  and  differing  some- 
what in  its  method  of  counting. 

Be'zoar  [viii  Span,  and  Arab,  from  Vers.  pSiJzahr.  anti- 
dote]: a  calculous  concretion  found  in  the  stomachs  or  in- 
testines of  goats,  deer,  and  other  ruminant  animals :  formerly 
prized  for  its  supposed  medicinal  virtues  and  as  an  antidote 
to  poisons.  That  of  the  antelope  was  especially  prized.  Tlie 
bezoar  is  usually  composed  of  phosphates  of  lime.  It  is  quite 
worthless  as  a  medicine. 

Bezold,  bay'tsolt,  Johaxn  Friederich  TTilhelm,  von. 
Ph.  D. :  meteorologist ;  director  of  the  Genuan  ^Meteorological 
Institute  and  professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin ;  li.  at 
Munich.  Bavaria.  June  21. 1837 :  educated  'at  the  Gymnasium 
in  3Iunii-h  and  at  the  universities  of  Munich  and  Gi'ittingen  ; 
became  j>riv.'it-docent.  then  professor  at  the  former  univer- 
sity, from  which  station  he  was  called  to  Berlin  as  ]ii-ofessor 
in  the  university  there  and  director  of  the  official  meteoro- 
logical instil  life.  Dr.  von  Bezold  is  a  physicist  as  well  as  a 
meteorologist,  and  he  holds  an  eminent  position  as  a  student 
of  the  more  abstruse  proljleius  of  meteorology.  His  [lubli- 
cations  have  been  very  numerous ;  among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned Die  Farhenlehre  im  Hinhlick  anf  Kinixt  un<I  Kiinxt- 
geirerl/e  (Branswick,  1874;  Boston,  1876);  Beohgn.  dir  met. 
'Stalinnen  im  Konigr.  Bayern  (6  vols.,  1879-84;  with  Dr. 
Lang);  Frgelini.sxe  der  met.  Benlign.  in  Prussia  (1885-91); 
many  publications  in  Poggendorff's  and  Wiedenmann's  ,1?;- 
nate'n.  more  especially  on  electricity  and  physiological  optics; 
Beoharhlungen  filler  die  Dammeriinq  (Pogg.  Annahn.  1864); 
Ein  Beitrag  ziir  Gen-ittcrkunde  (il>..  1S69);  Die  A'dllrn- 
riick-fdllf  im  Mai.  Abhan<Hiingen  d.  bayer.  Akad.(1883);  four 
papei-s  ^h;-  'J'hermodi/iiamik  der  Almosphdre,  in  the  Sitz- 
iinnslii-richle  der  lierlincr  Akad.  (1888-92):  Ziir  Thearie  der 
Vijklonen  (ib..  1890).  Mark  \V.  Harrington. 

Bozzonborger,  bet'scn-biirdi-pr,  AnAi.nERT:  philologist: 
b.  in  Casscl.  Germany,  Apr.  14.  1851  :  educated  at  gymna- 
sium in  Ca.ssel  and  universities  of  G;ittingen  ami  JIunich  : 
tutor  and  lu-isistant  professor  in  Univeisity  of  Giitlingen  : 
professor  in  University  of  Konigsberg.     -\uthor  of  Beitrage, 


BHAGALPUB 


BIARRITZ 


605 


ziir  Oeschichte  der  Utauischen  Sprache  (1877) ;  Liiauinche 
FurKcluiiineii  (ms-i):  Le/li.iche  Dmiek-lsfudien  {\8S5) ;  tber 
die  Spriitlie  der  preiissischen  Letten  (lbt*8) ;  Die  nurische 
JS'ehniity  iiiul  Hire  Beifohiter  (lHHi». 

Itliiiirailiiiir.  l>n\v-};rtl-]H«)r'.  or  ltliaiiu:ul]Mir  (also  Sopli- 
po(/r) :  !i  city  of  IiiJifi;  capital  oT  a  di.sliict  ol  the  same 
name ;  in  Bengal;  on  the  rij;ht  bank  of  the  Ganj;es.  here 
several  miles  wide  in  the  rainy  season  (see  map  of  \.  India, 
ref.  7-11).  It  is  about  265  miles  by  rail  \.  W  .  of  Calcutta. 
It  has  several  mosi|nesand  an  Knglish  seminary;  also  maiui- 
fu<-tures  of  coarse  silk  falirics.  Here  are  two  curious  round 
towei-s,  the  origin  of  which  is  unknown.  Pop.  (lS»l)(i8,2;W; 
(ISill)  GH.TKO. 

I{|iil!j:iirsul-(<Ttii.  bha'ga-vad-jre"e-taa'  (song  of  the  E.Kalt- 
ed  One.  i.  e.  ol'  Ivrishiui  or  Vishnu) :  a  Sanskrit  theosni>hic 
poem,  very  celebrated  in  India,  which  is  loosely  interpolated 
into  the  Maiia-hiiakata  (</.  c).  Its  authorsliip  is  niikuown  : 
its  date  is  perhaps  not  veiy  far  cither  way  from  tlie  time  of 
Christ.  It  teaches  the  unity  of  the  Suijreme  Spirit;  and 
inculcates  devotion  thereto  by  i-enunciation  of  all  worldly 
attaclimi'iits  and  avei-sioiis.  It  has  much  that  is  lofty  and 
spiritual;  but  is  in  nowise  a  coherent  system.  Its  correspond- 
ences with  the  Xew  Testament  are  indeed  strikinir,  liul  of 
no  necessary  signific.-ince.  Edited  by  Schlegid  ami  Lassen 
(1846).  Englisii  translations  by  Davies  (Triibner's  Oriental 
Series)  and  by  Edwin  Arnold  (metrical,  Boston,  1885).  See 
Savkiiva  Karika.  C.  K.  Lanman. 

Itliaiiio.  li"-mo,  or  Uliannio:  a  decayed  city  of  Burma; 
on  the  Irawadi:  in  lat.  24  l(i  N..  ;!00  miles  aliove  Jlanda- 
lay  (see  map  of  X.  India,  ref.  7-M).  It  is  still  a  local  capital 
and  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade.  Large  carav.-ins  laden 
with  silk  and  other  goods  arrive  here  from  October  to  .May. 
Large  quantities  of  raw  cotton  are  also  exported  from  this 
place.  It  wa.s  formerly  the  chief  town  of  a  Shan  principal- 
ity. Pop.  2.500.  See  Anderson's  J<).rpiidilion  to  WesU't-n 
Viiiitiiiii  (IHTl). 

IShniiilara.  bun-d.m-raa':  a  district  ami  town  of  Xagpur, 
Central  Provinces,  British  India;  about  midway  across  the 
peninsula,  between  ]iarallels  20°  and.  22°  N.,  and  meridians 
7!*'  and  8L  K.  It  aliouiids  in  small  lakes  and  tanks,  and 
hence  is  called  the  lake  region  of  Nagpur.  It  is  not  well 
watered  otherwise,  but  these  alTord  means  of  irrigation. 
Area.  :!.l)22  sq.  miles,  one-third  of  which  is  under  jungle  and 
uncultivated.  The  agricultural  products  are  rice,  vvlieat, 
pulses,  pea.se,  sugar-cane,  oil-seeds,  and  cotton.  Native  cloth, 
iiaskets,  ami  l)rass-ware  are  the  chief  manufacliires.  The 
climate  is  unhealthy;  fever,  smalliiox,  and  cholera  are  com- 
mon. Pop.  about  700.000, of  whom  84  per  cent,  arc  Hindus. 
The  inhaliitants  are  rude,  unpolished,  and  iiuthril'ty.  The 
aboriginal  (ionds  are  common.  The  chief  town  is  lihandara, 
38  miles  K.  of  Nagpur  city;  pop.  12,000.  M.  \V.  11. 

Uliartpnr,  burt-poor',  or  BhiiHporc:  a  "protected" 
stale  of  British  India;  between  26  30  and  37'  50'  N.  lat., 
and  between  77°  and  78'  E.  Ion.  Area,  1.974  so.  miles.  Good 
crops  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  grain  arc  ])roduced.  The  heat  in 
summer  is  extreme.     Pop.  about  800,(X)0. 

Itiiartiiiir,  or  Iiliurt|)ore  ;  a  large  towni  of  India :  capital 
of  state  of  same  name;  in  a  plain  i'-i  miles  W.  of  Agra;  lat. 
27'  12'  N.,  Ion.  77'  3:i  E.  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  (i-D). 
Pop.  (1891)  67,560.  It  was  formerly  fortified  by  a  mud  wall, 
and  a  ditch  which  could  be  fiUed  with  water  from  a  lake. 
Lord  Luke,  having  assaulted  this  town  in  1.805,  lost  :i,000 
men.     It  was  bc^sieged  and  taken  by  the  British  in  1826. 

IJhar'tri-lia'ri ;  Hindu  poet,  referred  doubt  fully  to  the 
first  century  a.  d.:  reputed  author  of  the  Three  Cintiiries  or 
J/iiiidreilx  of  .Sanskrit  apothegms  upon  love,  wise  conduct 
of  life,  and  renunciation  of  the  world,  the  concern  respec- 
tively of  youth,  nninhood,  and  old  age.  Best  edition  by 
K.  T.  Telang,  in  the  Bombay  Sanskrit  .Series  (see  HIMilkr). 
Translations  by  C.  H.  TawneV.  metrical  (Calcutta,  1877),  and 
B.  II.  Wort  ham  (London,  1886). 

Khaiigiilpiir :  See  BiiAOAi.PfK. 

Itliaunagar';  feudatory  state  and  citv  of  Kathiawar, 
Bombay,  British  India.  The  stale  lies  just  W.  of  the  (iulf 
of  Camt)ay,  and  is  the  most  important  of  the  i)eninsula  of 
Kathiawar  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  2-B).  Area,  2,860  scp 
miles.  Pop.  400,000.  The  citv  of  Bhaunagar  lie.s  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Cauibav,  in  about  lat.  21°  40'  N. 
I'op.  (18!ll)  55.640. 

lilinnalpnr.  baw-alil-poor' :  a  feudatory  state  of  the  West- 
ern riains   <listrict,   Punjaub.  British    In<lia;  S.  of  the  In- 


dus and  Sutlej  rivei-s;  from  69°  30'  to  73°  58'  E.  Ion.,  and 
from  27°  41'  to  30°  2,')'  N.  lar.  It  is  remarkably  level,  except 
for  numerous  sandhills  .50  or  60  feet  high.  The  cultivable 
part  is  confined  to  a  strip  along  the  above-named  rivei-s, 
about  10  miles  wide.  Beyond  this  is  a  desert  of  hxjse,  mov- 
ing sands,  almost  devoid  of  vegetation,  though  the  emjity 
beds  of  great  rivers  can  still  be  traceil.  Total  area,  17,285 
sq.  miles ;  only  one-sixth  ])art  cultivable.  The  principal  prod- 
ucts are  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  cloths,  indigo,  cereals,  alum, 
and  saltpeter.  The  rains  are  very  .scanty  aiul  the  wells  deep. 
The  state  has  prosjiered  grcatlv  under  British  management. 
Pop.  (1881)  573.494;  (bSiil)  (i4,s.!ilii),  mostly  Mohammedans, 
consistingof  .lats  of  Hindu  descent,  Baluchis,  and  Afghans. 
The  city  of  Bhawalpur.  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  branch 
of,  and  not  far  from,  the  river  Sutlej  (see  map  of  N.  India, 
ref.  5-B);  pop.  14.000.  Other  principal  towns  are  Ahmad- 
pur,  Uch,  and  Khaiqiur.  M.  W.  H, 

liliilsa  ;  .same  as  Bii.sa. 

liliooj  :  same  as  Biiuj. 

liliopal :  a  British  political  agency,  native  state,  and  city 
of  Central  India.  The  agency  comprises  31  native  adminis- 
trations, with  a  total  poj,ulat"ion  of  l.ilOO.OOO.  The  state  is 
one  of  the  dependencies  under  this  agency,  ill  lat.  22  32'  N. 
to  lat.  23°  46'  N.,  and  between  Ujiis.  76  25  and  78  50'  E., 
north  of  the  Ncrbudda  river.  Area,  6,764  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  being  traversed  by  the  Vindhya 
range,  and  inclines  to  the  N.  The  population  is  about  700,- 
000,  including  many  of  an  aboriginal  tribe  called  the  Gonds. 
The  jirincipal  crops  are  wheat,  maize,  oil-seeds,  pulses,  and 
opium.  Bhopal  was  founded  in  1723  by  Dost  Mohammed 
Khan,  an  Afghan  invader.  Since  1818  it  has  been  steadily 
loyal  to  the  British.  The  city  of  Bhopal,  cajiital  of  the  state, 
ill  lat.  23  20  N.,  Ion.  77  20  E..  is  inclosed  by  a  dilapidated 
stone  wall,  outside  of  which  are  some  liirge  pools  and  a  fort. 
Poj).  (1891)  70,630.  M.  W.  H. 

lUliij.  booj :  a  fortified  town  of  Hindustan;  capital  of 
Cutch;  170  miles  S.  E.  of  Ha.idaraba<l  (see  map  of  N.  India, 
ref.  7-A).  It  has  numerous  temples  or  pagodas,  moscpies, 
and  a  beautiful  mausoleum  of  Hao  Lakka,  a  former  ruler  of 
Cutch.  Its  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  are  widely  cele- 
brated.    Pop.  25,000. 

Itliiirlporc;  Sec  BnARXPUR. 

lihiilan.  boo-taan',  or  Blinlnii  (also  Bootan):  a  state  in 
the  Easlcru  llinialayas.  India;  bouudeil  N.  by  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  wln<'h  sejiarate  it  from  Tibet.  E.  by  Tibet,  and 
S.  and  VV.  by  Bengal.  Area  about  16,800  sq.  miles.  The 
Peak  of  Shumalari  on  the  north  border  rises  about  27,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Wheal,  liarley,  rice,  and  maize  are  culti- 
vated here.  The  religion  of  Bhutan  is  Buddhism.  The  peo- 
ple i>ractice  polyandry  and  i)olygamy.     Pop.  al>out  200.000. 

Hi  [Lat.  hi-,  bin.  twice,  doubly] :  a  |)rcfix  which  occurs  in 
many  chemical  and  other  scientific  terms,  and  denotes  dual- 
ity or  the  number  2. as  hiriili'e,  ■"having  two  valves";  hicar- 
OoiKifr.  a  salt  in  which  two  equivalents  of  carbonic  acid  are 
combined  witli  a  base;  hiieps,  "double-headed." 

Biafra,  Bight  of:  a  bay  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa;  is  the  ('astern  portion  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  and  lies  between  Cajie  Eormosa  and  Cape  Lopez.  It 
incloses  the  island  of  Fernando  Po  and  other  smaller  isles. 
The  largest  rivers  which  How  into  the  bight  are  the  Kiger 
(or  (^uorra),  the  Calabar,  and  the  Cameroon. 

Bialystoji  ;  same  as  Biklostok  (q.  v.). 

Blancavilla,  bw-aan'ka'i-vcel  la  (i.e.  white  town):  a 
town  of  .Sicily ;  province  of  Catania;  on  the  southwest  de- 
clivity of  Mt.  Etna;  13  miles  N.  W.  of  Catania  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  10-F).  (jrain,  cotton,  and  silk  are  exported  from 
it.    "Pop.  14.000. 

BiaiU'liiiii.  Ixn^-alin-kee  nee,  Francesco;  Italian  a.strono- 
mer  and  anticpiary;  b.  at  Verona,  Dec.  13,  1662.  He  lived 
mostly  at  Home,  an<l  enjoyed  a  rich  benefice,  the  gift  of 
Pope  .Alexander  VIII.  He  iiiiblishcd,  besides  other  works, 
a  Vniversdl  llislnrij.  Proved  hi/  Monuments  and  Jlliistraled 
with  iSi/mbols  o)  the  Antique  (1694).  He  spent  several  yeai-s 
in  an  effort  to  draw  a  meridian  line  from  the  Adriatic  to  the 
Mediterranean,  but  failed  to  complete  it.  He  succeeded  in 
drawing  a  meridian  line  through  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria 
dcgli  Angeli.  I),  in  Koine,  Mar.  2,  1729.  See  Fontenclle, 
£toije  lie  liiimchini  (1757);  A.  Mazzoleni,  Vita  di  F.  Bi- 
ancliini  (1735). 

Biarrilz.  bin'a'iir'reets':  a  village  and  fashionable  water- 
ing-place of  France;  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  department  of 


606 


BIAS 


BIBLE 


Basses-Pyi'enees ;  5  miles  S.  W.  of  Bayonne  (see  map  of 
France,  "ref.  9-C).  Here  are  sevei'al  curious  grottoes  and 
mineral  springs.  The  situation  is  pleasant  and  liealtlit'ul. 
This  was  once  the  summer  residence  of  Napoleon  III.  Pop. 
(1891)  9,177. 

Bi'as:  one  of  the  Seven  Sages  of  Greece:  a  native  of 
Priene,  and  a  contemporary  of  Criesus.  King  of  Lyilia.  He 
lived  about  .570-550  B.  c.  He  was  distinguished  for  eloquence 
as  well  as  wisdom,  and  was  employed  as  a  legal  and  political 
adviser  or  advocate.  Besides  other  pithy  sayings  is  ascribed 
to  him  this:  "I  carry  all  my  goods  (or  riches)  with  me." 

Bib,  called  also  Pout  or  Wliiting  Pout  (Gaclus  luscus) : 
a  fish  allied  to  tlie  cod  and  liaddociv :  is  found  on  many 
parts  of  the  British  coasts  and  farther  X.    It  is  seldom  more 


than  a  foot  long,  and  is  remarkalile  for  tlie  deptli  of  its 
body,  which  equals  one-fourtli  of  its  length.  It  is  esteemed 
for  food. 

Biband,  bee'bo',  Pras^'ois  Marie  Uxcas  Maximilien  : 
Canadian  author;  b.  in  Montreal  in  Nov.,  1824;  son  of 
Michel  Biliaud.  the  liistorian.  He  has  been  for  many  years 
Professor  of  Law  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  Montreal.  Among 
his  works  are  Discniirs  historiquK  siir  les  races  saumt/es  de 
VAmerique  (Montreal,  1846) ;  Dictionnaire  liistoriqne  des 
hommes  illustres  du  Canada  i4  de  V Amerique  (1857);  Tab- 
leau historique  des  pruc/res  Diateriida  et  intellectuels  du  Can- 
ada (1858);  and  Pantheon  Canadien  (1858). 

Neil  Macdoxalu. 

Bibaud.  Miciiel  :  1).  at  Cote  des  Neiges,  near  Montreal, 
Canada,  Jan,  20,  1782 ;  was  educated  at  College  of  St. 
Raphael,  and  wrote  much  in  defense  of  the  nationality  of 
Canada  and  for  tlie  conservation  of  the  French  language. 
He  wrote  the  first  French  history  of  Canada  since  its  British 
conquest.     D.  in  Montreal,  Aug.  3,  1857. 

Bibb,  George  M.  :  b.  in  Virginia  in  1772;  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1792  :  became  a  prominent  h^wyev  of  Kentucky  ; 
was  several  times  chosen  chief  justice  of  tliut  State,  and  once 
chancellor;  was  U.  S.  Senator  (1811-14  and  1829-35);  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  under  Tyler.  He  puljlished  four  vol- 
umes of  Kentucky  Law  liepurts  (181-5-17).  I),  in  George- 
town, D.  C,  Apr.  14,  1859. 

Bibb,  William  Wyatt,  M.  D.  :  b.  in  Virginia.  Oct.  1, 1780 ; 
member  of  Congress  from  Georgia  (1806-13);  IT.  S.  Senator 
(1813-14);  Governor  of  Alabaiiia  Territorv  (1817-19);  and 
fii-st  Governor  of  the  State  of  Alaliauia  (1819-20).  D.  near 
Fort  Jackson,  Ala.,  July  9,  1820. 

Biber,  bee'bpr,  George  Edward,  \Aj.  D.  :  a  clergyman  of 
the  Churcli  of  England ;  b.  at  Ludwigsburg,  Wurtemberg, 
Sept.  4,  1801,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  : 
formerly  associated  with  I'esfaloz/.i  in  educational  enter- 
prises; was  autlior  of  several  pedagogic  works.  He  look  an 
active  part  in  t'hurch  controversies,  publishing  a  number  of 
volumes,  the  most  important  of  wliicli  were  The  Standard 
of  Catholicitji  (1840);  Kne/lish  Chiireh  on  the  Continent 
(1846);  Sermons,  Oecam'onal  and  for  Saints'  Dai/s  (1846); 
The  Seven  Voices  of  the  Spirit  (\HTu);  The  ('<ini'ni  union  of 
tlie  Faith  Essential  to  the  Celihration  of  the  IIolii  Eucharist 
(186-3);  2Vte  Veraeltii  and  Dieine  Aul'lioriti/  of  the  J'enta- 
teucli  Vindicated  (1863);  The  Supreniacij  (Question  (1865); 
On  the  Unit;/  of  the  Church  (1871).  This  last  work  was  an 
Englisli  version  of  a  Latin  corn^spondencewitli  Dr.  Jlichaelis, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement,  previously 
published  in  the  original.  T).  at  his  rectory  of  West  Alling"- 
ti>M,  near  Grantham,  Jan.  19,  1874.  W.  S.  Perry. 

Itibcrach,  bee  bcr-a5i/.h :  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg;  in  a 
ch.-a-ming   valley,  and  on  the  river  Riss;  23  miles  by  rail 


S.  S.  W.  of  Ulm  (see  map  of  German  f]mpire,  ref.  8-E).  It 
has  a  Realschule,  a  beautiful  church,  built  in  1110,  manufae- 
tiu'es  of  paper,  linen  goods,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  8,263.  The 
French  general  Moreau  here  defeated  the  Austrians  under 
Latour  in  Oct.,  1796,  and  tlie  Austrian  general  Kray  in  1800. 
In  1803  it  was  deprived  of  its  imperial  freedom,  and  it  was 
transferred  to  Wiirtemberg  in  1806.  The  poet  Wieland  was 
born  near  Biberacli. 

Biberich.  bee'l)pr-i(h.  or  Biebricll,  bee'bricli :  a  village 
of  Prussia  ;  province  of  Hesse-Nassau  ;  on  the  right  liank  of 
tlie  Rhine:  3  miles  S.  of  Wiesbaden  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  6-1)).  It  has  a  ducal  residence  which  is  said  to 
be  the  finest  palace  on  the  Rhine.  The  river-scenery  here 
visible  is  almost  unrivaled.  Pop.,  including  Mosbach  (1890). 
11,023. 

Bibiru:  See  Bebeeru. 

Bible  [from  Fr.  bible  <  Late  I..at.  biblia.  fern.  sing.  < 
Class.  Lat.  biblia,  neut.  ]il.  =  Gr.  to  /3i/3a/o.  tlie  books],  popu- 
larly known  also  as  the  Holy  Bible  tiiul  Holy  Scriptures 
in  (Gr.  ii  7po</>i'i,  ai  ■ypa(pal ;  Lut.  Seri/ilura  saera) :  a  collection 
of  ancient  writings,  from  the  age  of  Moses  down  to  the  death 
of  the  apostle  John  at  the  close  of  tlie  first  century,  thus  em- 
lii-acing  fourteen  centuries.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
(^)ld  and  New  Testaments;  the  first  is  regarded  by  the  Jew- 
ish Church,  and  both  are  regarded  by  the  Christian  Church, 
as  the  inspired  record  of  divine  revelation.  With  respect  to 
the  more  precise  definition  and  character  of  the  Bible,  the 
views  are  diverse  in  the  different  Churches.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  Catholic  Churches  juit  ecclesiastical  tradition,  as  de- 
termined by  general  councils  and  creeds,  on  a  par  with  the 
Bible  as  a  rule  of  faith  and  conduct,  and  claim  the  sole  right 
of  authoritative  explanation.  The  Protestant  Churches 
make  the  Bible  the  only  and  sufficient  rule  of  faith,  and  give 
to  tradition  a  subordinate  place.  They  are  generally  agreed 
in  regarding  the  Scriptures — 1,  as  of  divine  authority;  2,  as 
containing  all  knowledge  necessary  to  salvation ;  3,  as  the 
appropriate  form  of  a  divine  revelation  (as  opposed  to  tra- 
dition or  the  inner  light):  4,  as  the  heritage  of  all  Chris- 
tians— i.  e.  it  is  the  right  and  duty  of  all  to  read  and  bi'come 
acquainted  with  the  teachings  of  the  Bible.  As  regards  in- 
spiration, opinions  are  divided  between  the  theories  of  ver- 
bal or  literal,  plenary,  and  dynamic  inspiration.  The  creeds 
and  confessions  of  faith  teach  or  imjily  the  fact  of  inspira- 
tion, but  do  not  define  the  mode  and  the  degrees.  Tlie  first 
theory  was  prevalent  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  is  now 
abandoned  by  the  great  majority  of  Protestant  divines;  the 
last  is  advocated  by  most  German  divines. 

Old  Testament. 

The  Olil  Testament  was  originally  written  in  Hetirew 
(some  portions  in  Aramaic),  but  of  course  the  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts which  we  possess  are  separated  by  a  long  interval 
anil  many  vicissitudes  from  the  original  liandiwork  of  the 
authors.  The  oldest  complete  codex  dates  from  the  Year 
1009. 

The  History  of  the  Hebrew  text  ishrieRy  as  iottov/s:  I.  First 
Period  (.536-180  B.  c.)— The  Babylonian  captivity  (from  586, 
the  chief  deportation,  to  536.  the  first  return)  forms  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  It  is  a  gulf  dividing  the  inde- 
pendent from  the  subject  position  of  the  nation.  It  was  un- 
der the  former  that  they  had  original  and  productive  power 
and  a  living  revelation.  After  the  captivity,  when  the  Jew- 
ish nation  had  been  purified  liy  adversity,  they  turned  back 
to  them  with  new  interest.  They  were  able  to  see  that  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah  had  been  the  only  men  of  their  times  who  had 
truly  had  ■'  the  mind  of  the  Spirit."  They  desired  to  restore 
the  ancient  law,  worship,  and  traditions.  To  this  end  the 
collection  and  preservation  of  the  ancient  writings,  which 
served  as  the  authority  for,  or  bore  witness  to,  the  former 
oliservances.  became  an  object  of  great  interest  and  im- 
portance. With  this  movement,  however,  the  nation  en- 
tered on  a  new  stage.  Its  work  was  not  original  and  crea- 
tive, but  ])reservatlve  and  reconstructive. 

In  the  work  which  now  began  Ezra  had  a  ]ironiinent  part. 
lie  is  (-ailed  a  second  Moses  and  the  restorer  of  the  law.  He 
was  the  first  "  scribe,"  and  raised  the  scribe  aliovethe  priest. 
He  collected  and  arranged  the  ancient  writings,  au<l  so  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  canon  (see  below,  section  on  the  Canon); 
and  from  this  point  the  history  of  the  written  codex  begins. 
The  books  were  at  this  time  written  in  the  ancient  Phivni- 
ciaii  characters  which  appear  on  some  ancient  Pha'niciau 
inscriptions,  on  the  Moaliite  Stone,  on  some  coins  of  the 
Asmoncan.s,  and  in  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.     The  letters 


BIBLE 


6or 


had  no  variation  of  form  or  shape  for  capitals  and  small 
letters,  and  neither  words,  verses,  nor  chapters  were  marked 
off  in  any  way.  Some  of  the  books  wliieh  now  ai>pear  sepa- 
rately were  I  hen  united,  and  a  few  wliieh  are  now  found  in 
the  canon  had  not  yet  heen  written.  The  work,  however, 
which  was  now  to  be  dime  extendeil  beyond  the  collection, 
arrangement,  and  ])reservation  of  the  ancient  Scriptures. 
The  Hebrew  lanfjuajre  was  already  a  dead  language.     The 

tHipular  dialect  was  tlw  .\raniaic,  and  the  Hebrew  of  Jloses, 
)avi(l,  and  the  prophets  hail  become  a  sort  of  classical  and 
sacred  lau^uajfe.  known  only  to  the  oldest  and  to  the  learned. 
It  was  an  object  of  acadeniii'al  acquisition.  It  was  therefore 
necessary  to  explain  and  translate  or  expound  the  writinj;:*. 
This  task  naturally  devolved  upon  such  as  possessed  the 
requisite  knowledge,  and  they  constituted  an  infornud  body 
for  this  purpose.  So  much  is  no  doubt  true,  and  it  forms 
the  historical  basis  of  the  rabbinical  traililion  about  the 
"  Great  Synagogue "  which  was  said  to  have  done  this 
work. 

When  this  much  is  said  of  the  eonimcncemcnt  of  this 
period,  we  have  in  fact  told  nearly  all  which  is  known  about 
it.  We  can  only  infer,  from  what  we  know  of  its  beginning 
and  what  we  find  at  its  close,  that  the  following  movements 
were  in  progress  :  1.  The  college  of  interpreters,  though  not 
a  formally  or  legally  constituted  body,  and  though  their 
business  was  primarily  literary  or  academical,  were  gaining 
in  authority  and  dignity,  and  acquiring  a  certain  otliciiil  char- 
acter from  general  consent.  The  "elders"  came  to  have 
civil  and  judicial  authority  from  the  lack  of  others  to  fill 
these  functions.  Possibly  the  Sanhedrin  wa.s  an  outgrowth 
of  this  body.  2.  The  canon  (see  below)  was  being  formed: 
the  idea  of  Iliil;/  Scripture  was  being  elaborated  and  formu- 
lated: till' respect  for  the  traditional  writings,  and  the  dis- 
position to  set  them  by  themselves,  were  gaining  ground  ; 
the  doctrine  of  in.«piration  took  its  rise.  At  thecloseof  this 
period  the  canon  is  formed  and  these  doctrines  are  estab- 
lished dogmas.  3.  The  foi-m  of  the  lettei's  was  untlergoing 
a  change.  At  the  period  referred  to.  the  square  letters  which 
are  represented  in  our  printed  texts  had  become  established 
in  use. 

II.  Serotxl  Period  (180  B.  c.  to  500  A.  D.).— The  "  schools  " 
begin  with  Simon  the  .lust,  in  180  u.  r.  These  schools  pro- 
duced the  Talmud  (i.  e.  body  of  doctrine,  from  liimail.  to 
teach),  an  iinmen.se  work  in  a  dozen  folio  volumes,  contain- 
ing a  commentary  on  the  Mishna,  which  is  itself  a  "  n^peti- 
tion  "  of  the  "  Law."  It  was  completed  in  the  lift  h  century. 
The  Talmudie  seholai-s  developed  intense  zeal  fort  hit  text 
of  the  Scriptures — a  zeal  which,  though  frivolous  and  fanat- 
ical inmiuiyof  its  maidfeslations.  h.>is  been  of  immense  value 
to  biblical  scholai-ship.  They  spent  iinwe.'irying  labor  in  the 
establishment  of  the  consonant  text;  they  separated  the 
words  by  spaces  (but  characteristically  ordained  just  how 
great  the  space  should  be).  They  probalily  also  introduced 
the  verse-mark  (:).  and  Iherefore  the  division  into  verses. 
The  preservation  of  the  text  from  c<irrnption  in  copying  was 
secured  by  counting  the  lettei-s  or  by  other  devii-i's,  and  by 
crabbed,  rigid,  and  minute  rules.  This  work  exercised  its 
legitimate  inllueiice  oti  the  characters  of  those  who  diil  it; 
it  made  them  punctilious  about  tritles  and  negligent  of 
"the  weightier  matters";  but  it  preserved  the  Ohi  Testa- 
ment text  from  corruption,  and  handed  it  down  to  us  in  a 
comparatively  pure  and  trustworthy  form.  In  their  exegesis 
the  Talmudi.sts  were  generally  guided  by  arbitrarv  rules,  by 
dogmatic  prepossessions,  by  a  view  of  the  Mible  wliich  made 
it  a  storehouse  of  occult  wisdom,  only  to  be  unlocked  by 
cabalistic  and  alli'gorical  treatment.  It  is  asserted  by  .some 
who  arc  well  acquainted  with  the  Talmud  that  it  contains 
valuable  geographical,  ethnological,  historical,  and  exeget- 
ical  information  for  the  elucidation  of  the  Bible,  but  the 
commentaries  of  .Jews  and  Christians  alike  fail  to  bear  wit- 
ness to  the  truth  of  the  assertion. 

The  Tiin/i/iiiK. — One  i-esult  of  the  zeal  of  the  Jews  for  the 
original  llel)rew  was  the  pnl)lication  of  paraphra.ses  in  the 
.Vraniaic  or  popular  dialect,  which  were  called  Tiiri/iimim 
(from  a  root  signifying  to  "interpret).  They  iiresent  the 
rabbinical  and  traditional  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 
Their  origin  is  verv  ol)scure.     See  Takoi'M. 

III.  Tliinl  Peri'od  (.^00-1488  a.  d.).— The  Talmud,  having 
grown  by  the  work  of  successive  generations  for  three  or 
four  centuries,  closed  aluait  the  year  500 — i.  e.  the  last  of 
the  comnientaloi-s  whose  sjiyings  are  included  in  it  lived  at 
that  time.  Then  a  new  work  began.  The  .lewish  nation 
liad  long  lieen  broken  up  and  dispersed.  Christianity  had 
grown  into  a  powerful  opiKHient.     The  latter  fact  luid  led 


the  Jews  to  abandon  the  Septuagint  Greek  vei-sion  of  the 
Old  Testament  (see  below,  on  the  Versions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
mi'iil).  and  the  former  fact  made  it  necessary  to  provide  still 
further  for  the  preservation  of  the  Hebrew  text.  The  pro- 
nunciation of  a  language  written  only  with  consonants  must, 
of  course,  be  very  uncertain  ;  that  of  tlic  Ileliiew  had  been 
preserved  in  the  rabbinical  schools  by  tradition.  There 
seemed  to  be  danger  that  it  would  now  be  lost  if  no  means 
of  ri'cording  it  were  devised.  The  Syriac  language  had 
shortly  before  been  provided  with  points  to  designate  the 
vowel  sounds,  and  to  make  the  written  language  a  complete 
rejiresentation  of  the  s|)okcn.  The  chief  seats  of  rabbinical 
learning  at  this  period  were  Tiberias,  in  Galilee,  and  Sora, 
in  the  Euphrates  valley,  and  the  scholars  are  known  as  the 
Slassoretes.  The  JIassorah  was  a  mass  of  notes,  comments, 
emendations,  and  corrections  of  various  kinds,  which  the 
Talmudi^ls  had  a<lopted,  committed  to  memory,  and  handed 
down  by  tradition,  but  which  they  ha<l  not  ventureil  to 
mark  in  any  way  upon  the  pages  of  the  sacred  test.  The 
Ma.ssoretes  now  undertook  to  do  this.  They  marked  in  the 
text — 1,  the  vowels,  the  shades  of  pronunciation  of  the  con- 
sonants, and  the  diacritical  jioints  which  distinguish  two 
sounds  expressed  by  one  cluiracter:  2.  the  accents,  which 
are  partly  marks  of  ])ronuiiciation,  and  partly  serve  the  pur- 
|)ose  of  musical  notes,  marking  the  intonations  of  the  chant  ; 
A.  the  emendations  and  c(irrei-tions  w  liich  the  Talmudists  had 
adopted.  'I'hese  they  mark  on  the  margin  by  a  peculiar  de- 
vice, which  leaves  the  consonants  as  they  were,  but  suggests 
those  wliich  should  be  read.  Here,  again,  the  superstitious 
reverence  of  the  rabbis  for  the  text  served  the  |iurpose  of  a 
true  biblical  science,  since  their  propo.sed  aiuendments  are 
still  o]>en  to  criticism  and  review.  It  is  ditlicult  to  pass  a 
summary  judgment  on  their  emendations,  but  perhaps  in  a 
majority  of  ca.ses  modern  scholars  retain  the  original  read- 
ing and  reject  the  j\Ia.s.sorah. 

The  work  of  the  JIas,soretes  did  not  begin  before  the  sixth 
century,  and  it  was  finished  before  1109,  the  date  of  thi> 
oldest  manuscript  now  known  to  exist.  This  manuscript 
presents  the  JIassoretic  text.  The  work  certainly  covered  a 
long  period,  and  was  done  by  many  different  hands.  It  was 
not  possilile.  even  with  the  minute  and  string<'iit  rules  wlii<'li 
were  adopted,  to  prevent  errors  in  copying,  and  our  luami- 
scripts.  all  of  which  belong  to  the  period  between  1100  and 
1488.  olTcr  many  variants.  The  .Tews  continued  to  use  in 
the  synagogues  cojiies  of  the  Scriptures  containing  only  the 
consonant  text. 

W .  After  tlie  art  of  printing  was  invented  some  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  printed  separately.  In  1488  the 
first  edition  of  the  whole  Hebrew  Bibl<'  was  printed  at  Soii- 
cino.  The  .second,  based  on  the  first,  was  iiublishe<l  at 
Brescia  in  1404.  This  was  the  one  used  by  Luther.  An  in- 
dependeut  text  appeared  in  the  Compliitensian  Polygh>t, 
1520.  A  collection  of  variants  was  made  from  615  iiiann- 
scripts  by  Kenuicott.  Oxford.  1780,  and  a  better  one  by  I)e 
Rossi,  1788.  The  Hebrew  Bibles  in  use  are  scarcely  more 
than  reproductions  of  the  two  first  printed  editions.  They 
possess  sojne  critical  advantages,  but  generally  the  excellence 
of  a  subsequent  edition  over  the  formei'  consists  in  typo- 
gra|)liical  accuracy  and  neatness.  A  satisfactory  critical 
edition,  with  a  full  account  taken  of  the  variants,  is  yet  to 
be  jjiepared.  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Hahn,  Tlieile,. 
and  especially  Baer  (with  preface  by  Delitzscli,  Leipzig, 
1869,  .iqq.).  The  most  complete  collection  of  Massoretic  ma- 
teriiil  is  by  Ginslairg,  The  J/rissorah,  Conipileil  from  MSS.^ 
Alpliiilieticallii  and  Lexically  Arranged  (London,  1880-86, 
4  vols.). 

V.  The  Old  Texlninent  in  the  Christian  Church. — The 
Church  of  the  fii-st  and  second  centuries  ba.sed  the  authority 
aiul  truth  of  its  doctrines  on  the  Old  Testament,  just  as  it  is 
useil  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Church  of  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries  wavered  between  ac(|iiiesccnce  in  the  au- 
thority a.scribed  to  the  Old  Testament  by  our  Lord  and  his 
apostles,  and  hatred  and  suspicion  of  all  things  Jewish. 
No  Christians  Siive  converted  Jews  knew  Hebrew,  and  of 
these  very  few  were  of  the  cla.ss  who  "  knew  the  Law."  The 
Septuagint  Greek  vei-sion  (see  below)  was  the  form  in  which 
the  Christians  became  acquainted  with  the  Old  Testament. 
The  first  Christian  scholar  who  undertook  to  learn  Hebrew 
was  Origen  (d.  254  A.  D.).  He  prepared  a  llerapln.  contain- 
ing the  Hebrew  and  five  versions,  which  unfortunately  is 
lost,  except  some  fragments.  \\'e  possess,  however,  his  com- 
mentaries, whiih  show  that  he  had  liorrowed  from  the  rab- 
bis, but  especially  from  Philo  of  Alexandria,  the  allegorical 
and   mystical   methods  of  interpretation.     Ho  is  counted 


608 


BIBLE 


among  tlie  Fathers  of  the  Eastern  Church,  aiij  is  tlie  first 
biblical  scholar  of  whom  tliut  Church  can  boast. 

Jerome  (d.  419  A.  D.)  endeavored  to  learn  Hebrew  of  a  Jew, 
and  did  learn  as  much  as  his  teacher  could  or  would  teach 
him.  His  method  of  treating  the  Old  Testament  shows  the 
influence  of  his  teaclier.  Thi'ough  him  the  ralibinical  ideas 
of  inspiration,  etc.,  found  their  way  into  the  Western  Church. 
His  translation  of  the  Scriptures  (see  Vulgate,  in  the  secticm 
below  on  the  Verslrms)  was  regarded  as  a  liiudity.  and  all 
interest  in  tlie  origiiud  text  died  out.  In  1811  Clement  V. 
ordered  that  Hebrew  should  be  studied  at  the  imiversities, 
but  no  results  followed.  Nicliolas  de  Lyra  (1340)  was,  per- 
haps, a  converted  Jew.  At  all  events,  he  knew  Hebrew  and 
used  the  Jewish  commentators.  His  commentaries  carried 
great  authority  among  Christians,  and  influenced  Luther  so 
much  that  a  popular  saying  arose  :  "  If  Lyra  ha<l  not  played 
the  lyre,  Luther  would  not  have  danced."  (.SV  Ljira  iion 
It/raiset,  Liifhenis  iion  mltaiisef.)  But  the  father  of  Hebrew 
lejirning  among  Christians  is  Reuchlin  (d.  1522),  who  wrote 
the  first  Hebrew  grammar  and  dictionary,  1506  (on  the  basis 
of  Kimchi).  The  Reformers  returned  with  zeal  to  the  study 
of  the  Hebrew.  That  pursuit  participated  in  the  general 
revival  of  learning,  and  in  the  most  recent  times  it  has  been 
wonderfully  advanced  by  the  develiipment  of  philological 
and  historical  science.  It  is  probably  not  too  nmcli  to  say 
that  the  Helirew  language  is  more  at  tiie  connnand  of  tliis 
generation  than  of  any  other  since  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

It  follows  from  the  above — 1.  That  the  only  text  we  can 
hope  to  establish  on  manuscript  authority  is  that  of  the 
Miissoretes.  Init  it  can  be  greatly  improved  from  the  Septua- 
gint.  2.  We  have  no  manuscript,  even  of  this  text,  older 
than  1009.  W^e  sluiU  see  below,  under  Versions,  what  means 
we  have  of  learning  what  the  text  was  at  an  ejirlier  date. 
3.  The  vowel-points,  accents,  word,  verse,  and  chapter  divi- 
sions are  all  many  centuries  more  recent  than  the  original 
writings.  Even  the  consonant  text  has  been  transliterated. 
The  chapter  divisions  were  made  in  the  thii'tecntli  century, 
and  applied  to  the  Vulgate.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it 
was  assi-rted  that  tlie  vowels,  etc.,  were  of  later  origin  than 
the  text.  This  assertion  was  considered  heterodox,  as  it 
was  inconsistent  with  the  prevailing  tlieory  of  inspiration. 
It  is  only  in  the  most  recent  times  that  this  fact  has  been 
admitted,  and  it  is  now  uiulisputed.  4.  The  crude  and 
superstitious  theories  of  iiis]iiration  which  have  prevailed 
to  some  extent  in  the  Christian  Church  are  of  rabliinical 
manufacture.  They  were  introdui'cd  into  the  Christian 
Church  first  as  attaching  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  tlicn 
extended  over  both  in  their  purest  and  most  original  form. 
See  W.  Robertson  .Smith.  The  Old  Tcatament  in  the  Jewish 
Church  (London  and  New  York,  1881 :  2d  ed.  1892),  and  es- 
pecially Ludwig  Uiestel,  Gexchichte  ile.s  Alien  Testaments 
in  der  Christlichen  Kirche  (Jena,  1869). 

VI.  Tlie  (.'anon  and  the  Apocryphal  Books. — As  we  said 
above  (A,  I.),  wlien  the  period  of  creation  and  ])roduction 
was  ended,  and  the  period  of  conservation  and  reflection  and 
application  liegan.oneof  the  first  ideaswhich  was  elaborated 
from  the  crude  into  the  dogmatic  form  was  that  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ill  their  sacred  character  and  divine  authority.  Hence 
the  terms  Holy  Scripture,  Word  of  God,  etc.  \Vhen  this 
doctrine  was  established,  the  necessity  of  defining  and  limit- 
ing its  application  at  once  made  itself  felt.  What  Ijooks 
come  under  this  designation?  What  is  the  .standard  by 
which  they  must  l)e  tested  in  order  to  answer  this  iiuestion  t 
It  is  certain  that  these  questions  never  reeeive<l  any  authori- 
tative answer.  Ezra  made  a  collection  of  books,  but  he  did 
not  include  those  books  which  were  not  yet  written.  The 
Hebrew  Bible  as  we  now  possess  it  is  divided  into  three  parts : 
1,  the  Torah  (i.e.  Law — Pentateuch);  2.  the  Nebiim  (I'roph- 
cts,  including  .loshua,  Judges,  First  and  Second  Samuel,  and 
First  aiirl  Second  Kings);  :!,  tlie  Chetubim  ("Writings," 
"  Hagiou'rapha."  including  the  poetical  and  all  the  other 
books  in  the  Kiii,dish  Version  of  the  Old  Testament).  The 
addition  of  the  third  part  can  not  be  historically  accounted 
for.  The  form  of  the  collection,  as  a  whole,  bears  witness 
to  successive  collections  and  su('cessive  gradations  of  au- 
thority. This  gradation  may  be  traced  still  further.  Be- 
sides and  beyond  the  (!hetul)im  were  a  number  of  books 
which  were  on  the  line,  not  accepted  and  not  definitely  re- 
jected. Still  again,  beyond  these  were  otliers  which  were 
positively  set  aside.  The  translators  of  the  .Septuagint  in- 
cluded in  their  collection  a  number  which  ilo  not  appear  in 
the  Hebrew  collection  (they  rorm  the  Apocryfiha  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible).  The  Kthiopic  version  contains  others  which  be- 
long even  to  the  class  of  the  totally  rejected.     Thus  one 


who  knew  only  the  Se]ituagint  version  would  find  the  book 
of  Exodus  and  the  book  of  Tobit  side  by  side,  ijreseuted  to 
him  as  of  equal  autliority.  Ethiopian  Christianity  would 
give  the  same  authority  to  the  book  of  Adam  as  to  the  book 
of  Genesis.  Thus  it  is  certain  that,  when  these  versions  were 
made,  the  strict  definition  of  the  books  to  which  standard 
authority  belonged  was  not  yet  established.  Piirst  has  even 
shown  from  the  Talmud  (Kanon  des  Allen  Teslanienl.  ]t.  25) 
that  this  idea  of  the  canon  was  not  so  definitely  estalilished 
at  the  time  of  our  Lord  but  that  the  rabbis  ventui'ed  to  pi'o- 
pose  to  exclude  the  book  of  Ezekiel  from  the  canon,  on  ac- 
count of  its  contradiction  to  the  Pentateuch.  Here,  then, 
we  have  the  idea  of  the  canon.  It  is  the  limited  collection 
to  which,  and  to  which  only,  authority  as  the  inspired  word 
of  God  ap|iertains.  The  works  which  were  in  circulation, 
and  t(i  which  tliis  authority  was  denied,  were  called  apoc- 
ri/phal.  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  "  to  withdraw,"  because 
they  were  withdrawn  from  use  for  public  instruction.  The 
tliird  class,  the  pseudepigruj>hs.  were  so  called  because  many 
of  them  bore  names  which  were  forged.  In  2  Maccabees  ii.  13 
we  read  :  "  The  same  things  are  narrated  in  the  writings  and 
memoirs  of  Nehemiah.  and  how  he  collected  the  books  about 
the  kings  and  pro])liets.  and  those  of  David,  and  the  letters 
of  the  kings  in  regard  to  offerings."  The  Pentateuch  had 
been  restored  to  authority  and  use  by  Ezra  in  444  B.C.  (Ne- 
hemiah viii).  Nehemiah  added  the  "  Nebiim,"  which  are 
distinctly  described  in  this  passage  ("kings  and  prophets"), 
and  the  Psalms,  which  are  the  nucleus  of  the  Chetubim. 
The  "letters"  are  those  of  the  Persian  kings,  such  as  we 
find  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Daniel.  The  subsequent  omis- 
sion of  these  letters  from  the  canon  bears  witness  to  the 
soundness  of  the  standard  by  which  its  formation  was  gov- 
erned. The  Massoretes  were  finally  called  upon  to  decide 
what  books  they  would  recognize  as  canonical,  but  in  this, 
as  in  other  things,  they  no  doubt  confined  themselves  to  the 
establishment  of  the  tradition  which  they  had  received.  In 
the  Christian  Church  the  influence  of  the  Sejituagint  secured 
the  introduction  of  the  Apocrypha  with  full  canonical  au- 
thority. Jerome  translated  all  into  the  Latin  Vulgate.  They 
thus  remain  in  antlKirity  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches. 
Luther  ado|)ted  tlie  Hebrew  canon,  tmt  translated  the  apoc- 
ryphal books,  setting  them  by  themselves,  and  giving  them 
a  heading  which  recommended  tliem  for  edification,  though 
not  for  dogmatic  definition.  The  English  translators  fol- 
lowed the  same  policy.  Of  late,  however,  the  Apocrypha 
have  been  omitted  from  the  popular  editions  of  the  English 
Bible,  because  the  presence  in  the  volume  of  works  which 
formed  a  grade  between  it  and  ordinary  works  seemed  to 
detract  from  the  supreme  and  isolated  position  of  Holy 
Scripture. 

The  Apocr\;pha  and  Pseudepigrapha  are  both  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament.  See  Jude  9  (Translation  of  Jloses) ;  Jude 
14  (Book  of  Enoch) ;  1  Corinthians  ii.  9  (said  liy  Origen  to  be 
from  a  lost  apocry])lial  writing  under  the  name  of  Elijah). 
Compare  also  James  iv.  .5.  John  vii.  38,  and  Luke  xi.  40 — 
citations  which  we  can  not  identify  with  passages  in  any 
known  book. 

It  appears  from  the  above — 1.  That  the  canon  was  fixed 
only  after  long  ex])erience,  and  by  the  general  consent  of 
succcs.sive  generations,  who  bore  testimony,  by  their  esteem 
and  veneration  for  particular  books,  lo  their  intrinsic  au- 
thority and  ]irofitableness.  2,  There  is  no  broad  and  dis- 
tinct line  of  demarkation  between  the  canon  and  the  A]joc-  ; 
rypha.  If  we  allow  ourselves  to  form  estimates  of  the  c-oni- 
)iarativc  value  of  various  books  we  shall  find  that  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees  compares  very  favorably,  as  an  edifying 
religious  history,  witli  the  book  of  Esther,  and  that  the  book 
of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach  compares  favorably  with  Ec- 
clesiasti'S  as  n  book  of  religious  instruction,  On  the  Jewish 
canon  see  the  works  of  Fiirst  (180T);  S.Miiiuel  Davidson  (1877); 
Wildeboer(1889);  Buhl  (1891);  and  H.  E.  Ryle  (The  Canon 
of  the  Old  Testament.  London.  1892). 

VII.  'The  Order  of  the  liooKs  of  the  Old  Testament.— ]n 
the  arrangement  which  has  been  ado|vted  there  ajipears  to 
have  been  an  effort  to  conform  as  far  as  possible  to  chro- 
nology, not  only  in  regard  to  the  historical,  but  also  the 
legal  and  iirophetic  portions.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal divisions: 

1.  Law  (iu  Hebrew,  iTlin,  Torah;  (ir.  yiifios)  or  Pentateuch 
(Gr.  irfvraTivxos).  because  it  consisted  <if  five  parts. 

2.  J'rophets  (Hell.  CK'SJ;  (ir.  l\i>o<prir(ii). 

3.  Holy  Writings  or  Hagiogra]>ha  ((ir.  ayi6yptt<l>a\  called 
in  Hell.  D'3inD,  Clietuhim — i.  e.  the  "writings,"  par  excel- 
lence. 


BIBLE 


609 


The  Law  ineliuled — 1,  Genesis  ov  "orinrin";  2,  Exodus, 
or  the  "goinj;  out":  'i.  Leviticus,  or  the  book  relating  to 
the  Levites;  4,  Numljei-s,  so  ealleil  because  Moses  was  com- 
Miantled  to  "take  the  sum  of  all  the  con]rrreKation  of  the 
children  n(  Israel"  (Xumbers  i.  2) ;  5,  Deuteronomy  (from 
the  (ir.  itvTepos.  "  second,"  and  r6tioi.  "  law  "),  because  it  was 
the  second  layin;;  down  (or  the  refielition)  of  the  Law. 

The  I'roph<'ts  were  divided  into  the  Former  or  Earlier 
(Priiirex),  mcludinj;  .Joshua,  Judj^es,  First  and  Second 
Sauniel,  First  and  Second  Kings:  and  Later  (Pos^en'ores), 
comjirising  the  "reater  prophets  (except  Daniel),  viz.,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  and  Lzekiel,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  Ho- 
sea,  .loel,  .\mos,  etc. 

The  Holy  Writings,  or  ITagiographa,  included  the  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  .lol).  The  .Song  of  Songs,  Kuth,  Ijaiiirntations,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Ncheiiiiah,  First  and  Second 
Chronicles.  For  a  more  particular  notice  of  the  different 
books  the  reader  is  referred  lo  their  respective  heads. 

VIII.  Versions  of  the  (lid  Testa  men  I. — As  we  saw  above, 
the  oldest  manuscript  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  which  we 

fossess dates  from  1009  \.  L).,aiid  presents  the  Massoretic  text. 
t  we  wish  to  go  back  of  this  to  re.ich  something  nearer  to 
the  orlgiiuil  work  of  the  authors,  and  to  eliminate  errors 
which  may  have  crept  in,  we  have  one  means  of  doing  so — 
viz.,  the  ancient  translations  which  were  nuule  from  the  text 
at  a  remote  date. 

1.  The  first  and  most  important  of  these  is  the  Greek  ver- 
sion, called  the  Septiia(/i>if  {LXX.). — Passing  over  the  fables 
of  the  Jews  and  early  Christians  in  reg-ard  to  this  version 
(such  as  that  it  was  made  on  a  set  occasion  by  seventy-two 
men.  six  from  a  tribe,  chosen  by  the  high  jirii'st,  and  sent  to 
Egypt  for  the  purpose — that  they  each  separately  translated 
the  whole,  but  that,  by  virtue  of  divine  inspiration,  the 
seventy-two  translations  were  identical),  we  state  only  the 
best-assured  facts  in  regard  to  it.  The  Pentateuch  was  trans- 
lated by  Alexandrian  (not  Palestinian)  Jews,  but  by  how 
many  is  unknown.  If  was  a  result  of  the  enlightened  inter- 
est of  the  Ptolemies  (Lagus  and  Philadel]>hiis)  in  all  literary 
and  scientific  i)n)gi'ess.  It  was  made  about  28.^  ».  c.  The 
work  thus  begun  was  carried  on  tiy  various  pei'sons  at  vari- 
ous times  until  all  the  canonical  and  apocryphal  books  were 
translated.  Some  originally  written  in  (ireek  were  added. 
The  parts  vary  in  fidelity  to  the  original  ami  in  literary  ex- 
cellence. .Job  and  Isaiah  are  so  poorly  translated  that  one 
must  know  Ilelirew  to  sec  the  sense  of  t  he  (ireek  ;  Ecclesiastes 
is  faithfully  and  correctly  rendered.  At  this  time  Greek  was 
the  lan<ruage  of  popular  intercouise.  The  Jews  of  the  tinu- 
of  Christ  ncglecteil  the  Hebrew,  and  generally  relied  on  the 
Septuagint  version.  It  is  the  form  in  wliich  the  Old  Testament 
is  quoted  by  Mark,  Luke,  Peter,  and,  for  the  most  part,  by 
Paul.  Matthew,  John,  and  Paul  show  acquaintance  with  the 
Hebrew,  but  they  also  use  the  Septuagint.  Its  influence  was 
at  this  time  paramount.  It  passed  into  the  Christian  Church  as 
the  authoritative  form  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  soon  began 
to  be  asserted,  however,  by  the  Jews,  when  the  Septnagint 
was  qnoted  in  controversy  by  the  Christians,  that  it  was 
not  a  faithful  rendering  of  the  original.  Hence  the  Jews 
abandoned  it  and  returned  to  the  Hebrew,  and  the  most 
scholarly  of  the  Christians  attempted  to  acquire  that  lan- 
guage. Xevertheless,  the  Septuagint  remains  the  author- 
itv  of  the  Greek  Church  to  this  day.  Other  Greek  versions 
which  need  only  be  mentioned  arc  those  of  Aquila,  Theo- 
dotion,  and  Symmachiis.  The  best  eilitions  of  the  Septna- 
gint are  by  Tischemiorf,  Lagarde,  and  Swete :  l)ut  a  thor- 
oughly critical  edition  with  textual  apparatus  is  still  a  de- 
sideratum. 

2.  T/iP,  Pishilo  is  a  Syriac  version,  whose  name  signifies 
"simple  "or  "faithful,"  because  it  is  a  literal  translation, 
not  a  paraphrase.  It  includes  the  New  Testament.  Its 
origin  is  obscure.  It  was  in  use  in  the  time  of  Ephraim 
Syrus  (378  A.  n.). 

3.  The  Vulgate. — Augustine  says  {De  Dorlr.  Cliris..  ^i.  11), 
in  regard  to  the  early  Latin  versions,  that  "  in  the  first  days 
of  the  faith,  if  any  one  obtained  a  copv  of  the  Greek  Scrip- 
tures, and  gave  himself  credit  for  any  knowledge  of  the  two 
languages,  he  ventured  to  translate,"  He  recommends  only 
one  of  the  versions  existing  at  the  time — viz..  the  Itida. 
This  is  now  lost,  except  in  fragments  as  (pioled  by  the  earlier 
Latin  fathei-s,  but  seems  to  h.-ive  been  m.-nle  from  the  Septu- 
agint. Jerome  (d.  410)  undertook  to  learn  Hebrew,  in  order 
to  make  a  new  translation  from  the  original.  History  re- 
peats itself  with  regard  to  all  new  translations  of  the  Bible. 
This  one  was  made  avowedly  in  order  to  meet  the  wants  of 
the  common  people,  aiul  it  was  called  the  '"Vulgate"  be- 

39 


cause  written  in  the  popidar  Latin.  It  was  met  by  the  most 
violent  opposition,  by  all  the  arguments  of  traditi<m  and 
lirescriptiou,  and  by  all  the  considerations  of  policy  and  ex- 
pediency, which  suggest  themselves  in  such  a  case.  It  was 
finally  adopte<l,  an<l  now  it  has  itself  become  sacred  in  the 
Latin  Church.  The  Council  of  Trent  (1.54G)  put  it  on  a  par 
with  the  origiinil.  The  text  of  the  Vulgate  became  so  cor- 
rupt by  repealed  c<ipvings  that,  on  the  invention  of  printing, 
the  true  text  seemed  lost  in  a  chaos  of  variants.  An  at- 
tempt to  revise  it  resulted  in  an  aibitrary  decree  of  Sixtus 
V.  (1.598)  deciding  what  it  should  be,  and  this  text  is  now 
the  "received  text"  in  the  Koman  Church.  A  text  having 
critical  and  scientific  authority  is  still  a  desideratum. 

New  Testament. 

With  the  advent  of  our  Lord  the  fountain  of  divine 
revelation  once  more  began  lo  flow.  Mankin<l  once  more 
received  an  original  and  creative^  revelation,  not  whimsical 
traditions  or  weary  reflections  on  the  record  of  past  thought 
and  life.  The  Greek  language,  which,  as  we  saw  above, 
was  at  this  time  the  medium  of  jiopular  and  literary  inter- 
course, liecamc  the  vehicle  of  the  new  revelation.  The  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew  was  probably  originally  written  in  Aranuuc, 
but  the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  was  certainly  Greek 
from  the  very  haiuls  of  the  authors. 

I.  History  of  the  Greek  Text. — The  original  handiwork  of 
the  writers  soon  perished.  We  have  no  record  or  tradition 
of  the  original  uumuscripts.  and  no  tradition  to  bear  witness 
to  any  care  tor  them.  Copies  wei'e  made  from  them,  and  by 
the  ndddle  of  the  second  century  the  interest  in  them  had 
become  so  great  as  to  lead  to  extensive  multiplication  of 
copies.  Tlu'  oldest  maiMi.scrii)ts  which  we  possess  date  from 
the  fourth  century.  (See  articles  Codex  Bez.e.  Codex  Sina- 
iTicus,  etc.)  From  that  time  on  the  number  of  manu- 
scrijits  which  we  possess  increases  as  we  come  down,  but  as 
the  copies  increase  in  number  so  also  do  the  variants. 
When  printing  w.-is  invented  one  of  the  first  uses  to  which 
it  was  ])ut  was  the  printing  of  the  Greek  Testament.  This 
art  gave  ground  to  hope  that  the  1ext-co])ies  might  be  mul- 
tiplied for  the  future  without  the  errors  inseparable  from 
manual  copying.  The  fii-st  printed  text  was  contained  in 
the  Complnlensian  Polyglot,  prepared  under  the  patronage 
of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  at  Alcala  (the  ancient  Complutum).  in 
Spain,  in  1.T14,  but  not  published  till  1.V20.  It  is  not  known 
wliat  manuseri]it  served  as  copy  for  this  edition.  Erasmus 
prepared  a  very  faulty  text,  pulilished  at  Basel  in  l.'ilB. 
These  two  editions  from  late  nuinuseripts  taken  at  hazard 
served  as  the  basis  of  succeeding  ones  (Stephanus,  1.546; 
Beza,  1.565;  Elzevir,  1624,  1633).  The  last  of  these  (chiefly 
on  account  of  its  convenience  of  form  and  typograj)hical 
beauty)  became  the  "received  text."  The  doubt  between 
various  authorities  was  settled  in  this  ca.se,  as  in  so  many 
othei-s,  not  by  thoroughly  investigating  the  matter,  but  by 
giving  arliitrary  sanction  to  one.  The  Klzevir  renuiined  su- 
preme until  the  linu'  of  Griesliaeh  (1812).  Here  again  we 
come  to  a  department  in  which  the  credit  for  what  has  been 
done  belongs  chiefly  to  German  scholars.  Griesbach,  and 
after  him  Lachimuin  (1854),  and  Tischendorf  have  prose- 
cuted the  tedious  labor  of  comparing  the  variants  and 
weighing  the  authorities.  They  were  followed  in  England 
by  Tregellei.  .Scrivener.  Wcstcott  and  Ilort.  The  effort 
can  not  be  defined  as  one  to  re-establish  the  text  of  the 
apostles,  for  that  mav  be  pronounced  hopeless,  but  to  re- 
cover the  text  to  which  the  oldest  and  best  manuscripts 
bear  witness.  The  scholars  menti(UU'd  form  a  succession  in 
which  this  aim  has  been  prosecuted  with  intelligence,  zeal, 
and  consistency.  The  best  attainable  text  is  presented  by 
Tischendorf's  eighth  critical  edition  (with  apparatus  and 
the  Prolegomena  of  Gregory),  and  by  Wcstcott  and  llort 
(the  Harper  ed.,  with  introduction  by  ik'hnff,  1881 ;  third  re- 
vision 1892). 

The  diiilect  of  Greek  in  which  the  New  Te.stament  is 
written  is  what  is  called  the  Hellenistic.  It  was  based  upon 
the  Attic  dialect,  and  was  spoken  liy  the  Jews  with  a  strong 
infusion  of  a  Hel)rew  spirit  and  Hebrew  modes  of  speech. 
Hence  the  Hebraistic  character  of  the  .Septuagint  and  the 
Greek  Testauuuit.  Though  differing  from  chissical  Greek 
in  gramnuitical  purity  and  accuracy,  this  dialect  was  best 
adapted  to  exjiress  the  ideas  of  the  Christian  revelation  to 
the  primitive  Christians,  and  has  an  undying  beauty  and 
force  of  its  own. 

The  order  of  the  books  in  the  Greek  differs  from  that  in 
the  English  version,  in  that  the  catholic  Epistles  follow  the 
Acts. 


610 


BIBLE 


II.  Respecting  the  Separate  Books  of  the  Xeu<  Testament. 
— The  following  account  includes  such  facts  as  can  be  re- 
lied on.  omitting  questions  involved  in  controversy. 

The  Gospels. — We  possess  a  fourfokl  record  of  the  life  and 
teachings  of  our  Lord.  It  strikes  the  attention  of  the  reader 
at  once  that  the  first  three  contain  many  passages  which  are 
ahnost  identical.  On  the  other  hand,  each  diffei-s  from  each 
in  a  manner  equally  remarkable.  From  the  earliest  times 
efforts  have  been  made,  without  much  success,  to  harmonize 
them  into  one  consistent  narrative.  Within  a  century  these 
phenomena  have  again  been  examined  with  great  zeal.  The 
question  is  raised  :  Do  not  these  resemblances  point  to  an 
interdependence  between  the  synoptical  Gospels  i  If  so, 
■which  is  tiie  original  i  If  one  served  as  the  original,  how  is 
it  that  the  authoi-s  of  the  others,  in  using  it,  failed  to  trans- 
fer passages  of  high  interest  Y  In  fact,  the  phenomena  of 
identity  and  difference  are  so  perplexing  that  these  questions 
seem  unsolvable.  The  prevailing  opinion  of  scholars  at  the 
present  time  appears  to  be  that  the  Gospel  of  Mark  presents 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  original  of  the  synoptical  Gos- 
pels ;  that  Matthew  was  originally  written  in  Arami'.ic. 
That  Luke  is  a  subsequent  compilation  of  the  gospel-mate- 
rial is  certain.  It  was  written  before  the  year  70  or  80.  Be- 
fore the  historic  interest  in  the  Gospels  arose,  and  before  the 
movement  toward  a  New  Testament  canon  began,  the  Gos- 
pels no  doubt  exerted  great  influence  on  each  other. 

The  Gospel  of  John  is  clearly  independent  of  the  others  in 
its  material,  scope,  and  purpose.  It  takes  up  the  life  of  our 
Lord  not  so  much  pragmatically  as  philosophically  and 
mystically — in  its  religious  rather  than  its  historical  aspect. 
It  has  been  vigorously  attacked  by  the  negative  and  ration- 
alistic school  of  critics  (especially  by  Baur  and  his  follow- 
ers), and  is  held  by  them  to  be  the  product  of  an  anony- 
mous Christian  Plato  after  tlie  middle  of  the  second  century. 
These  opinions,  however,  rest  chiefly  on  philosophical  and 
historical  dogmas  which  are  set  up  as  postulates ;  and  one 
who  refuses  to  admit  the  necessary  a  priori  truth  of  these 
postulates  finds  that  the  true  critical  grounds  on  which  this 
opinion  rests  are  me,iger  and  insufficient.  The  recent  dis- 
coveries of  Tatian's  Diate.ssaro>i  (1888)  and  of  a  fragment  of 
the  Gnostic  Gospel  of  Peter  (1893)  prove  the  existence  and 
use  of  John's  Gospel  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 
Conservative  seholai-s  of  every  grade  (Meyer.  Lauge,  Weiss, 
Beyschlag,  Godet,  Lightfoot,  Westcott,  Salmon,  Sanday, 
Qloag,  and  many  others)  admit  the  authenticity  of  the  book. 
One  of  the  ablest  defenses  is  Ezra  Abbot's  Authorship  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel  (1880,  republished  in  his  Critical  Essays, 
Boston.  1888). 

III.  The  Canon. — The  first  century  of  the  Christian  era 
produced  a  large  number  of  literary  works  lieyoml  those 
contained  in  the  New  Testament.  The  idea  of  the  canon 
therefore  came  to  be  applied  here  once  more  (see  above, 
Canon  of  the  Old  Testament).  Such  of  these  works  as  were 
of  genuine  apostolic  origin,  or  were  faithful  representatives 
of  Christian  truth,  must  be  separated  and  recognized  apart 
from  all  othei-s.  Here  once  more  the  same  phenomenon  ap- 
peared as  in  the  Old  Testament.  There  was  no  distinct  (li- 
viding  line  to  Ije  drawn.  The  division  did  not  make  or 
suggest  itself.  The  whole  body  of  works  might  be  graded 
from  the  (iospel  of  JIatthew  down  to  the  most  gross  and 
contemptible  product  of  superstition,  but  the  stages  were 
gradual  all  the  way.  Different  persons  differed  in  their 
comparative  estimate  of  a  few  (e.  g.  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas 
and  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  the  Shephard  of  Hennas  and  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),  though  they  agreed  in  the  general 
range  of  estimate.  Down  to  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury the  Christians  used  the  Old  Testament  for  their  apolo- 
getics and  their  polemics.  JNIoreover,  the  tradition  was  still 
so  fresh  that  literary  authority  wius  not  needed.  We  do  not 
find  in  any  writers  earlier  than  Iremvus  (d.  202)  references  to 
the  New  Testament  writings  as  authoritative,  or  as  inspired 
in  any  such  sense  as  the  Old  Testament  was  believed  to  be 
inspired.  l<'rom  this  time  on  the  chief  interest  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  is  rapidly  transferreil  to  the  New  Testament. 
The  books  are  collected  and  studied  and  comi)ared.  Their 
respective  authority  is  determine(l.  The  informal  verdict 
of  the  Church  accepted  certain  books  and  rejected  othei'S, 
but  there  were  a  luunlier  which  were  on  the  line  or  in  doubt. 
These  wen-  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  the  Second  of  Peter, 
Second  and  Third  of  John,  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
Shepherd  of  Hcrmas,  and  tlie  Epistle  of  Bariialias.  In  the 
third  century  considerable  disfavcir  to  the  lionk  of  Kevela- 
tion  was  manifested  in  the  Western  Church,  though  earlier 
it  had  been  very  popidar.     To  go  into  details  of  various  au- 


thorities would  lead  us  too  far.  Eusebius  (d.  340  A.  D.)  bears 
witness  that  the  matter  stood,  in  his  time,  in  just  about  the 
position  above  described,  Xot  only  the  above-mentioned 
doubtful  books,  but  othere  also  which  had  become  familiar 
and  gained  a  footing  in  popular  affection,  were  retained,  as 
tlie  Apocrypha  is  still  sometimes  retained  in  our  Bibles, 
The  Synod  of  Laodicea  (3(30)  made  the  first  official  list 
(omitting  the  Apocalypse),  and  forbade  the  public  reading 
of  uncanonical  books.  The  Councils  of  Hippo  (398)  and 
Carthage  (397)  under  the  influence  of  St.  Augustine  fixed  the 
canon  as  it  now  stands  and  is  accepted  by  all  the  Churches. 
On  the  canon  of  the  \ew  Testament,  see  the  works  of  Reuss, 
Westcott  (6th  ed.  1889),  and  Zahn  (1890). 

Literature. — The  literature  on  the  Bible  is  immense.  On 
the  general  questions  discussed  in  this  article,  see  the  his- 
torico-critical  introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  bv  De 
Wctte  (8th  ed.  bv  Schrader,  1869) ;  Bleek  (revised  bv  Well- 
hausen.  ytli  ed.  1885):  Keuss  (2d  ed.  1890):  Keil  "(Sd  ed. 
1873):  Riehm(1869):  Reusch  (1875):  Kuenen  (Dutch,  1885): 
Cornill  (2d  ed.  1892) :  Wright  (2d  ed.  1892) ;  and  Driver  (3d 
ed.  1892).  On  the  yew  Testametit.  Hug  (Rom.  Cath.,  1820); 
De  Wette  (8th  ed.  bv  Schrader,  1869) :  Bleek  (4th  ed.  bv  Man- 
gold, 1860) :  Reuss  (6th  ed.  1887 ;  Eng.  trans.  1884) :  and  Sal- 
mon (7th  ed.  1894):  and  especiallv  Weiss  (2d  ed.  1889:  Eng. 
trans.  1888)  and  Holtzmann  (3d"  ed.  1893).  The  last  two 
represent  the  latest  state  of  New  Testament  criticism — Weiss 
on  the  conservative,  Holtzmann  on  the  other  side.  Prof. 
F.  Godet,  of  Neuchatel,  issued  in  French  an  Introduction 
to  the  New  Testament  (1893,  seq.,  3  vols. ;  Eng.  trans.  1894. 
seq.).  See  also  Schaff,  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testametit 
and  the  English  Version  and  Rerisioti  (New  York.  4th  rev. 
ed.  1892),  and  the  articles  Hexateuch  and  Higher  Criti- 
cism. Revised  by  Philip  Schaff. 

Modern-  Versioxs  of  the  Bible. 
Engli-ih. — The  earliest  known  vereion  in  a  Teutonic  lan- 
guage is  the  Mceso-Gothic  of  Ulphilas,  made  from  the  Greek 
in  trie  fourth  century ;  extant  portions  are  the  Gosjiels  and 
various  fragments.  The  English  have  a  better  right  than 
the  Germans,  the  Dutch  a  better  right  than  either,  to  claim 
this  as  the  first  version  in  their  language.  The  early  Eng- 
lish or  Anglo-Saxon  versions  are  from  the  Vulgate,  the  earli- 
est extant  lieing  the  paraphrase  of  Ca?dmon.  The  earliest 
recorded  translators  are  Aldhelni  and  Guthlac,  each  of  whom 
made  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  probably  now  lost ;  Bedc,  who  i 
translated  the  Gosjiel  of  John,  and  King  Alfred,  who  pre-  | 
fixed  to  his  laws  an  abridged  translation  of  the  Ten  Coni- 
niandnients,  and  is  said  to  have  been  engaged  on  the  Psalter 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  In  the  tenth  century  or  a  little  later 
a  large  number  of  books  were  translated,  the  Gospels  appar- 
ently in  three  distinct  versions.  In  the  ages  following  the 
Norman  Conquest  considerable  portions  were  translated  into 
Norman  French.  The  most  memorable  and  conspicuous  is 
the  version  completed  by  John  de  Wycliffe  in  1383,  with  the 
subsequent  aid  and  revision  of  several  others.  Many  manu- 
scripts remain  exhibiting  great  variations.  It  was  not  print- 
ed till  1850,  when  an  edition  was  published  at  Oxford  pre- 
senting two  texts  in  parallel  columns  with  variants  from 
some  sixty  manuscripts.  The  first  English  translation  from 
the  Greek  and  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  ones  was  the  New 
Testament  of  William  Tyndale  (martyred  in  1536).  This 
was  printed  in  1526  at  Cologne.  The  books  were  burned  at 
Oxford  and  London,  and  six  editions  were  dispersed  before 
1530.  In  1535  the  fii-st  complete  English  Bible,  by  Miles 
Coverdale,  was  yjrinted.  proliably  at  Antwerp.  Next  followed 
Matthew's  Bible  (Thomas  Matthew  a  iiseudonyiii  for  Jolin 
Rogers) :  then  in  1539  Richard  Taveruer's  Tin-  Great  Bibh-, 
so  called  from  its  size,  was  revised  mainly  by  Coverdale  from 
preceding  versions,  sometimes  called  Cranmer's  Bible,  and 
sometimes  The  Chained  Bible,  because  chained  in  churches 
for  public  reading.  The  Genevan  Bible,  the  sweetest  of  all 
English  versions,  was  produced  at  Geneva  by  the  exiles  sent 
over  bv  "  Bloodv  Jlarv"  in  1557.  Its  expense  was  defrayed 
1)V  John  Bodley,  father  of  the  founder  of  the  Bodleian  Li- 
bi-arv.  It  was  the  most  popular  Bible  till  superseded  by 
the  authorized  version,  and  was  that  brought  to  America 
by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers;  sometimes  called  the  Breeches 
Bible  because  of  the  rendering  of  Genesis  iii,  7,  which  says 
that  Adam  and  Eve  "  sewed  figge-tree  leaves  together,  and 
made  themselves  breeches."  Tliis  rendering,  however,  oc- 
cui-s  in  several  earlier  versions.  The  Bishops'  Bible,  m\- 
der  (jueen  Elizalu'th's  license,  was  printed  in  1568,  favored 
and  in  part  made  bv  the  bishops.  Some  editions  of  it  are 
called  the  Treacle  i}i'6?p.  reading  "treacle"  for  "  balm  "  in 


BIBLE 


611 


.reretiiiah  viii.  22.  Another  name.  The  Bug  Bible,  from 
Psiilin  xei.  5,  belongs  to  several  versions.  The  Ihiiay  liibte 
(1609)  was  translated  by  the  Roman  Catholics  from  tlie  Vul- 
pite,  anil  owes  much  to  Tyndale  anil  other  versions,  often 
ealled  the  Rosin  Jiible,  from  Jeremiah  viii.  22.  In  Kill  the 
Authorized  Version,  or  King  James's,  appeared,  pre|iared  liy 
various  companies  under  the  king's  instructions,  in  two  edi- 
tions, better  known  as  the  "lie"  and  "She"  HibUs  from 
tiie  dilTerent  renderings  in  Kuth  iii.  15.  Various  editions 
have  been  termed  The  Viiteijar  Bible  from  the  misiirint 
vinegar  for  vineyard  in  the  page-heading  at  Luke  .\.\. ;  the 
Wicked  Bible,  which  omitted  tlie  not  in  the  Seventh  Com- 
mandment. Since  the  issue  of  the  authorized  version  a 
largi'  number  of  versions  have  been  printed,  anu)iig  which 
the  most  notable  are  The  Becised  Version  of  the  Seir  Tes- 
tiiment.  published  in  1881,  the  whole  Bible  in  188.5  (see  BiBLK 
Kkvisiox  below),  jiiid  the  Baptists"  vei-sions,  using  the  word 
immersed  instead  of  hiiptized.  Among  otlier  versions  used 
in  (ireat  Uritaiu  may  be  mentioned  the  Welsh,  dating  back 
to  b527,  tlie  staiiihud  version  being  completed  in  l(i04.  It 
was  the  demand  for  this  Bible  that  occasioned  the  institu- 
tion of  the  lirilish  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1804.  The 
Gaelic  version  for  the  Ilighlandei-s  of  Scotland  dates  back 
to  1707:  a  Roman  Catholic  translation  in  17!tO.  The  first 
New  Testament  in  Erse  was  early  in  the  fourteenth  centiUT: 
a  number  of  later  versions  have  been  published.  A  Manx  ver- 
sion was  published  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

French. — There  have  been  a  great  niunber  of  French  ver- 
sions, all  (Protestant  as  well  as  Roman  Catholic)  based  on 
one  nnide  from  the  Vulgate  by  .lacob  Faber  Stapulensis,  at 
Antwerp,  1512-30.  The  most  important  versions  are  Olive- 
tan's,  of  which  the  most  ]irominenf  eilition  was  calle<l  the 
(ieiierit  Bilile;  Martin's  version  and  Osterwald's  revision. 
Of  Roman  Catholic  versions  the  most  important  are  l)c 
Sacy's.  Orsini's,  and  Lassere's.  The  last,  pnblislied  in  1887. 
under  the  authority  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  has  reached 
more  than  twenty  editions.  These  are  all  in  the  standard 
FreiK'h  ;  other  versions  are  in  the  Vau<lois,  Provencal,  and 
Mauritius  dialects.  Akin  also  to  the  Freiudi  are  the  liretoii 
and  Bascpie  versions,  the  last  in  three  forms — Freneli.  Span- 
ish, and  (tuipuzcoan.  The  Flemish  version  used  in  Belgium 
dates  back  to  the  year  1477.  Later  revisions  and  editions 
have  been  ]iublished  at  Louvain.  Cologne,  and  The  Hague. 

Dutch. — The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Seri|)lures  in 
Dutch  WJLS  nul)lished  in  1526.  Lutherans  of  Ilollantl  still 
use  a  translation  according  to  Luther's  version,  published 
in  164H.  Otheis  have  followed,  including  a  revised  edition 
circulated  at  the  present  tinu'. 

(fernuni. — In  (iermany.  after  theversiim  of  Ulphihus.  there 
were  a  large  luimber  of  glosses  and  translations  of  single 
books.  The  earliest  translation  of  the  whole  Bil)le  was 
probably  al«>ut  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century  fourteen  different  editions 
hiulbeen  puljlished.  These  were  all  replaced  by  Luther's 
version,  1522-;i2,  which  has  remaineil  the  standard  until  the 
present  day.  a  revisiDii  of  it  having  been  completed  in  1S!)2. 

Other  Burojjedu  Versions. — Akin  to  the  German  also  are 
Danish,  Icelandic,  an<l  Swedish  versions.  There  is  also  a 
Gospel  of  Matthew  in  Finnish.  The  Wends  have  the  Scrip- 
tures in  the  Upper,  Lower,  and  Hungarian  dialects,  and  in 
Eastern  Switzerland  there  are  three  versions  of  the  Ro- 
mansch  Scriptures,  the  l'|i]ier  and  Lower  Kngadine  and 
the  Obcrlan<i.  In  Ha.stern  Kuro]!!'  there  are  numerous  Slav 
versions  based  entirely  upon  the  Slavonic  version  of  Cyril's 
translation,  the  most  ancient  manuscri]it  of  which  is  the 
Ostromirov's  Gospel,  written  in  105:5  for  a  Russian  prince. 
The  various  dialects  in  which  these  have  been  supplied  are 
the  Czech  or  Bohemian,  dating  to  the  latter  iiart  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  ;  the  Slovak.  Servian,  Croat,  Slovenian,  Ru- 
thenian,  Russian,  and  Bidgarian.  The  present  Russian  ver- 
sions are  one  completed  early  in  the  present  century  under 
the  auspices  of  tile  Holy  Synod,  anil  one  prepareil  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  coniiileted  in  1876.  The 
best  of  Slavonic  vei-sions  is  the  Bulgarian,  iireiiared  by 
Dr.  E.  Riggs,  missionary  of  the  .Vmerican  Board  in  Constan- 
tinople, Turkey.  The  Magyars. or  Hungarians. and  the  Rou- 
manians each  have  versions  in  their  own  language,  as  have 
also  the  Lithuanians.  Letts,  anil  other  members  of  the  Fin- 
nish race,  one  of  the  most  prominent  being  the  Ksthonian, 
recently  prepared  l>y  the  .\mericaii  Bible  Society.  There 
arc  also  versions  in  .Ubanian.  Vei-sions  of  the  Bible  in  the 
modern  Greek  or  Romaic  date  back  to  16:!8.  Several  revi- 
sions have  foUoweil.  the  latest  having  been  completed  early 
in  the  nineteenth  centurv. 


In  Southern  and  Southwestern  Europe  there  are  versions 
in  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Gitano.  That  hi  Ital- 
ian dates  from  1471.  The  most  inii>ortant  translation  was 
that  of  Diodati,  published  at  Geneva  in  lt)07,  and  which  has 
been  the  biu-^is  of  all  subsequent  revisions.  The  Spanish 
vei'sions  also  date  from  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
ill  the  Ca-stilian  and  Lemosinian  dialects:  the  most  impor- 
tant vei-sions  are  those  of  De  Reyiia,  Valera,  and  .Scio.  There 
have  been  revisions,  especially  with  reference  to  use  in  Span- 
ish America,  and  one  is  now  {18!)3)  being  completed  under 
the  auspices  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

Asia. — In  Western  Asia  the  three  most  important  versions 
for  Moslems  are  the  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish.  The 
earliest  .Vrabic  version  was  made  by  John,  Bishop  of  Seville, 
in  750:  then  followed  that  of  Ralibi  Saailia  and  others.  The 
most  important  was  that  begun  in  Beyrout  by  Dr.  Eli 
Smith,  of  the  American  Hoard,  in  18:i7,  and  completed  by 
Dr.  (;.  V.  A.  Van  I)yck  in  1864:  jiublished  by  the  Ameri- 
can Hible  Society,  and  circulated  wherever  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage is  known  in  Asia  or  .Vfrica.  There  is  another  vei-sion 
prepared  by  the  French  Roman  Catholic  priests,  published 
ill  Beyrout!  and  said  to  be  excellent.  The  earliest  Persian 
version  known  was  jmblished  in  Constantinople  for  Pei-sian 
Jews,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Different  translations 
have  been"  made,  one  of  the  New  'restament  by  Henry  Mar- 
tyn,  and  of  the  Old  Testament  by  .\rcliileacon  Robinson  and 
tile  Rev.  W.  Glen.  A  revision  of  Henry  Martyn's  version, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  Jlissionary  .Society  and 
the  American  Presbjierian  Board,  has  been  made.  There 
are  a  large  number  of  Turkish  versions  in  dialects  used  in 
Russia.  Siberia,  and  Central  and  Western  Asia.  In  Os- 
iiianli  Turkish,  spoken  by  the  Turks  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
there  were  two  translations  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  by  Seaman  and  Ali  Hey  respectively.  The 
latter  wius  revised  early  in  the  present  century  by  >ir.  Red- 
house,  the  Turkish  scholar  and  lexicographer.  A  practically 
new  translation  has  been  prepared  by  the  missionaries  under 
the  auspices  of  the  British  and  .\meriran  liilile  Societies.  The 
work  was  begun  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  \V.  G.  Scliauftler,  and  com- 
pleted I ly  a  committee.  There  are  also  editions  in  the  Ar- 
menian character,  called  Arineiio-Turkish,  and  in  the  Greek 
character  called  Gneco-Tiirkish  or  Caramanlija,  from  the 
province  of  Asiatic  Turkey  where  it  is  chiefly  used.  A  com- 
plete translation  into  Azerbaijan-Turkish,  the  dialect  used  in 
the  Caucasus  and  Northern  Pei-sia,  has  also  lieen  ])repared. 
The  .\riiieniaiis  use  an  ancient  version  prepared  by  Mesrop  in 
the  fifth  century.  Various  editions  of  this  have  been  issued, 
and  a  revision  is  now  (IS!);!)  in  |ireparation  under  the  au- 
siiices  of  the  American  Hilile  Society.  The  first  edition  in 
the  moilern  language  was  published  in  Paris  in  1825  :  an- 
other iMlition  by  Dr.  E.  Riggs,  at  Constantinople  in  184.5, 
subsequently  revised  by  him.  Portions  have  been  translated 
into  the  Kurdish,  used  by  the  mountaineers  between  Turkey 
and  Pei-sia.  A  Georgian  version  dates  from  the  eighth  cen- 
turv. It  was  revised  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  now 
priiiteil  in  the  common  character  by  the  Moscow  and  the 
British  Hilile  Societies.  The  Nestorians  and  Syrians  of 
Mesopotamia  still  use  the  ancient  Pesliito  in  their  churches. 
A  modern  Syriac  version  wasjirepared  by  Dr.  Justin  Per- 
kins, revised  later  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Benjamin  Labaree. 

In  British  India  the  Bible  has  been  translated  in  whole  or 
in  part  into  almost  all  the  languages  and  di^dects  of  the 
empire,  the  impulse  toward  tr.-iiishitioii  being  chiefly  given 
by  the  laliors  of  Carey  at  the  beginning  of  ilie  nineteenth 
centurv  at  the  Danisli  settlement  of  .Serampore,  His  early 
editions  have  been  largely  set  aside  by  subsequent  revision 
ami  translation.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  can  be 
noticed.  A  Sanskrit  vei-sion  was  published  at  .Serampore  in 
1818.  an  imiiroved  translation  in  187;i.  It  is  in  three  forms 
— Bengali.  l)evaiiagari.  and  Criya.  There  are  versions  in 
Punjabi,  or  Sikh,  and  some  of  the  associated  dialects.  The 
Hindi  Scriptures  include  the  Standard — those  in  the  Hindi 
language — prepared  originally  by  Carey  and  sub.sequently 
revised  in  188:i  by  a  large  committee.  Allied  to  this  are  the 
vei-sions  in  the  Hindustani  or  I'rdu,  originally  by  Schullze. 
There  are  also  several  other  dialects  allied  to  the  Hindi- 
Bengali.  A  vei-sion  in  the  Stanilard  was  prepared  by  Dr. 
Carev,  subsequently  revised,  and  now  (1803)  in  the  hands  of 
a  revision  committee.  The  Mussulman-Bengali  version  was 
begun  in  18.55,  but  not  completed  for  several  years.  There 
are  important  versions  also  in  JIarathi.  Gujarallii.  Sindhi, 
Telugu,  Tamil,  Santal,  and  a  large  number  of  other  dialects. 
For  the  Burmans  there  are  vei-sions  in  the  Burnian  and 
Karen  languages,  prepared  by  the  Baptist  ini.ssionaries.   The 


612 


BIBLE 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


Karen  versions  arc  in  four  forms — Bgliai.  Sjrau.  Pwo.  anil 
I'aku.  There  are  also  versions  in  Siamese.  Lao,  Slian,  and 
Annamcse,  all  prepared  by  the  missionaries.  In  Ceylon 
there  are  the  Sinhalese  and  Pali  vei-sions.  In  the  Indian 
Archipelago  there  are  versions  in  the  various  Malayan  dia- 
lects— the  standard  and  low  JIalay,  the  Batta.  Java.  Sunda, 
and  other  dijilects.  There  are  also  two  versions  for  the 
Dyaks. 

Xo  translations  of  the  Scriptures  have  required  more  schol- 
arship or  been  a  more  eloquent  tribute  to  the  work  of  missions 
tlian  tliose  for  the  Chinese.  While  portions  seem  to  have 
been  translated  by  the  earlier  Koman  Catholic  missionaries, 
ail  of  those  now  existing  belong  to  the  nineteenth  century. 
Tiie  classical  versions  "are  Dr.  ilai-slmian"s.  180t>-22,  pub- 
lished at  Serampore:  Morrison's  and  Milne's.  180~-2;i.  i)ub- 
lished  at  Malacca :  the  Delegates'  version,  by  a  committee  of 
delegates  from  the  several  missions  in  China,  and  published 
at  Shanghai  in  1H52.  Unfortunately  unanimity  in  regard 
to  the  terms  for  God  and  Spirit  could  not  be  secured ; 
soon  after  the  completion  of  tlie  Delegates'  version,  what  is 
known  as  the  Bridginan-Culbertson  version  was  begun  by 
the  Rev.  E.  C.  Briilgman  and  M.  S.  Culbertson  and  others, 
and  completed  in  1863.  These  different  versions  are  in 
what  is  ciilled  Wen-li.  or  the  "  book-style,"  and  can  be 
understood  only  by  pei-s.)ns  of  fair  education.  A  version 
of  the  Xew  Testament  in  "  Easy  'ft^en-li "  has  been  pre- 
pared for  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  by  Dr. 
Griffith  John,  of  Hankow,  and  now  committees  have  been 
appointed  to  select  three  corps  of  revisers  to  make  a  stand- 
ard version  for  China  (1)  in  the  Wcn-li  or  ordinary  book- 
style,  (2)  in  Easy  Wen-li.  a  simplified  book-style,  and  (3) 
in  the  Mandarin  colloquial,  the  every-day  speech  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  people  of  China  proper.  These  versions  are 
to  take  the  place  of  all  existing  versions  that  are  not  mere 
dialectal  versions,  of  which  there  are  many  both  in  the  Chi- 
nese characters  and  in  Roman  letters.  There  are  also  two 
Mandarin  versions  of  the  New  Testament,  one  by  Dr.  !Mcd- 
hurst.  called  the  Nanking  or  Southern  Mandarin,  and  another 
by  the  late  Bishop  Schereschewsky.  called  the  Pekingese  or 
Northern  version.  There  is  also  a  Manchu  version,  and  in  Cen- 
tral Asia  there  are  several  Mongol  versions — tlie  Literary,  pre- 
pared by  tlie  missionaries  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  ; 
the  Northern  or  Buriat :  the  Southern  or  Kalkha,s  ;  and  the 
Western  or  Kalniuk.  The  only  complete  and  usable  Japa- 
nese version  is  that  |irepared  by  a  committee  of  missionaries, 
chieflv  from  the  U.  S.,  completed  in  1888.  tlie  exjjense  being 
sharei  by  the  American  Bible  Society,  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  and  the  National  hible  Society  of  Scot- 
land. Dr.  Bettelheim,  a  missionary  who  had  settled  in  tlie 
Loo  Choo  islands,  had  previously  prepared  a  Ja])anese  ver- 
sion of  tlie  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  was 
printed  at  Vienna,  but  it  proved  to  be  of  little  value. 

In  tlie  Pacific,  translations  of  the  Scrijitures  have  been 
made  for  most  of  the  islands — PohTiesia.  Melanesia,  and  Mi- 
cronesia— by  the  missionaries  of  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S. 
Among  the  most  [ii-ominent  are  the  Hawaiian.  .Samoan. 
Tahiti.  Tonga.  Maori,  Aneitvum,  Tanna,  Eromanga,  the 
Gilbert  islands,  tlic  Kuk.  and  many  others. 

Africa. — In  Africa  the  .\rabic  versions  of  the  Scriptures 
are  very  largely  used.  The  Copts  of  Egypt  have  their  an- 
cient version  used  in  their  churches,  made  probably  in  tlie 
second  or  tliird  century.  The  .Vliyssinians  use  tlie  Amharic. 
A  "Jesuit"  version  is  spoken  of  in  the  seventeenth  centurv. 
but  the  one  in  use  now  wa.s  piil)lishrd  early  in  the  present 
century  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  revised  bv 
Dr.  Krajif.  There  are  also  versions  in  Tigre,  IJogos.  and 
Falasha-Kara.  and  the  Galla.  The  latter  is  in  tliree  forms. 
Portions  have  also  been  [irepared  in  a  number  of  Central 
African  dialects.  In  the  South  there  are  the  Zulu,  Kaffir, 
Tonga.  Hottentot,  and  olher  dialects,  all  pro|iarcd  l)v  mis- 
sionaries, many  of  them  requiring  the  reduction  ot  tlie  lan- 
guage to  written  eharat^tcrs.  The  same  is  true  of  the  dia- 
lects of  Western  Africa.  Among  the  more  im|iortant  are 
the  Congo.  Vorulia.  and  Benga.  While  there  is  no  com- 
pletely lueurate  list,  there  are  certainly  sixty  vei-sions  in 
these  -African  dialects,  and  the  number  is  being  increased 
everj'  year. 

Ameriin. — On  this  continent  the  work  of  translating  the 
Scriptures  and  of  providing  the  Hibh'  for  the  Indian  tribes 
began  with  the  laboi-s  of  Eliot,  "the  .\postle  to  the  Indians.'' 
and  has  been  carried  on  liy  various  missionaries  engaged  in 
the  work.  Twenty-six  diflerent  versions  arc  in  use  in  the 
U.  S.  and  Canada,  and  eleven  in  .South  America,  all  pro- 
duced by  the  missionaries,  and  jiublished  liy  the  Bilile  socie- 


ties of  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  There  are  also  three 
versions  for  tlie  Esiiuimaux  of  Greenland,  Labrador,  and 
Hudson's  Bay,  the  first  having  been  prepared  originally  by 
Hans  Egede  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
since  revised  and  published  by  both  the  Danish  and  the 
British  Bible  Societies.  E.  M.  Bliss. 

Bible  Christians,  or  Bryanites:  a  Christian  sect,  fol- 
lowers of  AVilliain  t)'Bryan,  of  Cornwall.  England,  a  Wes- 
leyan  local  preacher,  who  on  account  of  his  being  a  married 
man  could  not  be  received  as  an  itinerant  minister  among 
them,  and  seceded  about  1815.  The  first  society  formed 
was  in  a  farm-house  in  Shebbear,  Devon,  when  twenty-two 
gave  in  their  names:  these  all  had  hitherto  been  constant 
attendants  at  the  parish  church.  The  first  conference  was 
held  at  Baddash,  Launceston,  Cornwall,  Aug.  17-26,  1819, 
and  was  attended  by  twelve  preachers.  Their  doctrines  are 
identical  with  those  of  the  Wesleyan  body;  their  government 
and  methods  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Primitive  Metho- 
dists, and.  like  them,  they  license  women  to  preach.  They 
had  in  Great  Britain  in  1891, 180  ministers.  1,463  lay  preach- 
ers, .584  chapels,  and  27,121  communicants:  besides  scores 
of  churches  and  thousands  of  members  in  Australia,  Cana- 
da, Prince  Edward  Island,  and  in  Ohio  and  Wisconsin. 

Bible  Comuinuists,  or  Perfectionists :   See   Oseida 

COMIIIXITV. 

Bible  Revision :  such  changes  in  any  version  of  the 
Bible  as  may  be  called  for  by  changes  in  the  language  of  the 
version  itself,  or  by  the  advance  of  scholai'ship.  The  great- 
est nuidern  revision  of  the  pjiiglish  Bible  was  inaugurated 
on  Mav  6.  1870.  when  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury  ap- 
pointed a  committee  of  eminent  bililical  scholars  and  digni- 
taries of  the  Church  of  England  to  revise  the  Authorized 
English  Vei"sion  of  1611.  and  to  as.sociate  with  them  repre- 
sentati^•e  bililical  scholars  of  other  Christian  denominations 
using  that  version.  This  committee  was  divided  into  two 
companies — one  for  the  Old  Testament  and  one  for  the  New 
— wliidi  held  regular  meetings  in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber 
in  the  deanery  of  Westminster,  London.  t)n  the  invitation 
of  the  British  committee,  a  committee  of  I'.  S.  scholars 
and  divines  was  organized  in  1871.  and  began  active  work 
in  Oct.,  1872.  This  was  likewise  selected  from  different 
denominations,  and  divided  into  two  companies,  which  met 
once  a  month  for  several  days  in  their  own  rooms  in  the 
Bible  House  at  New  York.  A'irtually.  these  two  committees 
formed  one  organization,  with  the  same  principles  and  ob- 
jects, and  were  in  constant  correspondence  with  each  other. 
The  intention  was  not  to  furnish  a  new  vei-sion.  but  simply 
to  adapt  King  James's  version  to  tlie  present  state  of  the 
?>nglish  language,  without  changing  the  idiom  and  vocabu- 
lary, and  to  the  present  standard  of  bililical  scholarship, 
wliich,  since  1611.  has  made  vei-y  great  advances  in  textual 
criticism,  in  Greek  and  Hebrew  i)hilology,  in  biblical  geog- 
rajihy.  and  in  archieology.  The  two  committees  consisted  of 
79  members — 52  in  Great  Britain,  and  27  in  the  V.  S.  The 
first  result  of  their  labor,  the  revised  New  Testament,  was 
imblishcd  in  1881.  The  revised  Old  Testament  was  pub- 
lished in  1885.     See  Bible  and  Re\iskd  Versiox. 

Revised  by  R.  Lillet. 

Bible  Societies:  societies  for  the  dissemination  of  the 
Holy  Sci'i]itures.  While  the  sixteenth  century  is  distin- 
guished for  the  labor  spent  upon  numerous  translations  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures  into  the  languages  of  Christian  nations, 
the  nineteenth  is  no  less  memorable  for  the  multijilication 
of  Bible  societies  as  a  means  of  securing  the  widest  diffusion 
of  the  Bible,  not  only  in  civilized  lands  and  among  Chris- 
tian communities,  but  throughout  the  world.  Priority  of 
date  belongs  to  the  Canstein  Bible  Institute  in  the  Orphans' 
Home  in  Halle,  which  was  founded  in  1710  by  Karl  Ililde- 
lirand.  M.-irc|uis  of  Canstein.  for  the  jiurpose  of  ]mtling  the 
Word  nf  God  into  the  hands  of  the  poor  at  a  low  price.  Be- 
fore the  death  in  1719  of  the  founder.  40.000  Bibles  and  1(X),- 
000  Testaments  had  been  printed.  During  the  first  century 
of  its  existence  more  than  3.000.(M)0  copies  of  the  ."x-riptures, 
in  different  languages,  had  been  distributed,  and  its  total 
circulation  iqi  to  the  year  1879  was  reported  to  be  fi.100.000. 
The  British  ami  Foreign  Bilile  Society  was  established  in 
Lonilon.  Mar.  7,  1804,  Previous  to  that  time  eight  societies 
in  Great  Britain  had  been  engaged  in  publishing  or  distrib- 
uting Bibles,  though  onlv  three,  the  Naval  and  Military 
Bible  Society  (1780).  the  Dublin  Association  (1792),  ami  the 
French  Bilil'e  Society  (1792),  had  made  this  their  princi|ial 
work,  and  these,  it  is  believed,  di<l  not  long  survive.  The 
great  destitution  which  was  found  to  prevail  in  the  princi- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


613 


palitv  of  Wales  in  1802,  and  the  utter  inability  of  existing 

siK-ieties  to  supply  tlio  iloiniiiid  for  liihios,  led  to  the  orffani- 
zation  of  tlic  IJritish  and  Fort'i<jn  Bible  Society,  with  the 
sole  objict  of  eneoiiniiriiif;  H  wider  dispei"sion  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, first  in  tlie  Britisli  dominions,  and  iheii.  according  to 
its  ability,  in  otlier  countries,  t'hristiau,  Moiiatnine<lan,  and 
liay:an.  Three  hundred  persons  of  different  religious  de- 
nominations united  in  organizing  it,  and  t'T(X)  were  at  once 
subscribed.  Its  entire  receipts  the  fii'st  year  fell  a  little 
short  of  i:r),«lM). 

The  American  Bible  Society  was  fonn<led  in  the  city  of 
N'ew  York.  May  11,  1!S1(3,  with  the  sole  object,  as  jinuounced 
in  its  ci>u>tilution,  of  encouraging  "a  wider  circ'ulation  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures  without  note  or  comment."  This  so- 
ciety had.  however,  been  [)receded  by  tifty  or  sixty  others, 
whi<h  ha<l  come  into  being  at  one  point  and  anotlier  in  the 
r.  S.  after  the  organization  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  The  first  of  these  was  founded  at  I'hiladcl- 
iihla  in  IWis ;  the  second  at  Hartford.  Conn.,  in  1(^09. 
Next  came  the  Massiichusetts  Bible  Society,  at  Boston,  the 
\ew  York  Bible  Society,  and  the  New  .Jei-sey  Bible  Soinety, 
at  Princeton.  Such  local  societies  accomplisluMl  much  good 
within  their  own  bounds;  but,  having  no  bond  of  imion, 
their  operations  lacki^d  etlicieney  and  economy,  and  it  soon 
became  apparent  that  a  combination  of  etlort  \yas  essential 
for  thorough  work.  Thirty-live  local  organizations  sent 
delegates  to  the  convention  which  founded  the  American 
Bible  Society,  and  eighty-four  became  auxiliary  to  it  during 
the  first  year  of  its  existence.  Among  the  delegates  were 
representative  men  of  the  leading  denonnnations — Baptist, 
(Congregational,  llefornied  Dutch,  Jlethodi.^t  Episco])al,  I'rot- 
estant  Kpi.scopal.  Presbyterian,  and  the  Soci(^ty  of  Friends  ; 
but.  every  sectarian  jealousy  and  party  prejudice  being  laid 
aside,  all  united  with  perfect  harmony  and  cordiality  in  the 
single  object  of  "disseminating  the  Scriptures  in  the  received 
versions  where  they  exist,  and  in  the  most  I'aithlul  where  tliey 
may  be  reipiired."  The  announcement  of  this  organization 
lirought  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  the  ex- 
pression of  their  warmest  congratulations,  and  the  offer  of 
a  gift  of  tTiOO.  At  an  early  date  Bible  societies  wen^  formed 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  as  at  BiLsel  (1804)  and  Berlin  and 
Ii.ilisbon  (bSOri).  and  nearly  fifty  othei-s,  chiefly  in  the  north 
of  Europe,  before  ISIG.  At  that  time,  also,  two  had  been 
established  in  .Vfrica,  live  in  .Vsia.  and  others  in  N'ova  Scotia, 
Canada,  and  tlu^  West  Indies.  About  seventy  principal  so- 
cieties may  lie  named  jis  having  been  actually  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  and  publication  of  Bibles.  Auxiliary  and 
branch  Bible  societies  and  a,-iSociations  have  been  very  ex- 
tensively formed,  with  a  view  of  enlisting  loijal  sympathies, 
collecting  funds  from  churches  and  individuals,  maintain- 
ing depositories,  and  looking  after  the  circulation  of  the 
Scriptures  among  the  needy.  Tlie  American  Bible  Society 
luis  more  than  2.000  auxilijiry  societies,  and  with  them  are 
connected  nearly  5,000  l)ranches.  Such  societies  are  ex- 
pected to  sup]ily  the  wants  of  their  field  from  their  own  re- 
sources, if  possible,  tliough  receiving  aid  from  the  national 
society  when  necessary,  and  panng  over  their  surplus  funds 
annually  into  its  treasury.  The  British  ami  Foreign  Bilile 
Society  has  also  not  far  from  1,200  auxiliaries  and  branches, 
as  well  as  ;!.i:i4  Bible  associations,  in  the  management  of 
which  women  have  a  principal  t)art.  Besides  these  home 
institutions  it  has  many  colonial  auxiliaries,  and  also  for- 
eign agencies  superintending  its  depositories  of  Bibles  in 
the  chief  cities  of  Kurojie.  Not  far  from  10.000  smaller  or- 
ganizations are  thus  connected  with  the  two  principal  Bible 
societies  of  the  world:  and  when  it  is  rememliered  that 
many  of  the  continental  societies  also  have  adopteil  the 
auxiliary  system,  it  is  very  clear  that  this  multiplication  of 
associations  for  the  distrii)Utiou  of  the  Scriptures  is  one  of 
the  phenomena  of  the  age. 

The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland,  the  third  in  im- 
portance, was  formed  in  1M61  by  the  union  of  Eilinburgh 
Bible  Society  with  the  leailing  Scottish  societies  of  the  time. 
It  has  issued  nearly  ten  million  copies  or  portions  of  the 
Bible, 

The  .\iiierican  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  founded  in 
New  York  in  lH:i(i  by  representatives  of  the  Baptist  denomi- 
nation, owing  to  tlie  refusid  of  the  .American  Bible  Society 
to  apply  its  funds  to  print  and  circulate  versions  of  the  New 
Te.>t!iiiieiit  made  by  American  Baptist  missionaries,  in  which 
Pajrrt(eiv  and  its  cognate  terms  were  literally  translated,  not 
transterreil.  The  American  and  Foreign  Bilde  Society,  thus 
inaugurated,  instructed  its  translators  "  to  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain tiie  exact  meaning  of  the  original  text,  to  express  that 


meaning  as  literally  as  the  nature  of  the  languages  into 
which  ihey  should  translate  the  Bible  would  permit,  and  to 
transfer  no  words  which  were  capable  of  being  literally 
translated."'  Some  of  the  members  of  this  .sjeiety  were  earn- 
est advocates  of  the  publieatitui  of  a  new  version  of  the 
English  Scriptures  on  the  same  principle  as  that  which  gov- 
erned its  translations  into  foreign  tongues :  ami  on  its  refiLsal 
to  authorize  such  a  revision  the  American  Bible  Union 
was  formed  (18o0) — a  society  which  has  published  a  revised 
versiim  of  the  New  Testamen;,  Psjilms,  Job.  (ienesis.  and 
other  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  conformity  with  the 
principle  indicated — translating  fia-rrrl^dv  liy  "to  Lmmerse." 
etc.  Although  some  of  the  iiKjst  eminent  scholars  among 
the  Baptists  have  been  employed  on  the  versions  of  this  so- 
ciety, it  has  never  received  the  support  of  the  great  body  of 
American  Baptist.s. 

In  general,  several  characteristics  of  Bible  societies  are 
to  be  noted.  They  are  voluntary  associations,  being  neitluT 
close  corporations  nor  under  ecclesia.~^tical  direction,  and  the 
privileges  of  membership  are  secured  by  the  payment  of 
money.  They  are  nnsectarian.  inviting  all  men  to  common 
efforts  on  the  simple  basis  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  without  note  or  comment.  They  are  Prot- 
estant organizations,  however,  because  the  rules  of  the 
Komaii  Catholic  Church  are  ojiposed  to  the  free  circulaticm 
of  the  Scriptures  without  admixture  of  comment.  They  are 
strictly  benevolent  .societies,  ]iublishing  not  for  profit,  but 
at  prices  as  low  as  possible,  and  making  large  grants,  as 
their  receipts  may  allow,  for  the  supply  of  the  destitute. 
Their  work  is  exceedingly  helpful  to  Sunday-schools  and  to 
various  forms  of  missionaiT  elTort  at  home  and  aliroad ;  and 
their  influence  has  been  most  happy  in  promoting  Christian 
union,  and  presenting  a  form  of  religious  activity  in  which 
all  denominations  might  participate  without  the  sacrifice  of 
principle. 

The  w  ork  of  Bible  societies  has  constantly  encountered  difli- 
cnlties  of  one  sort  and  another.  The  circulation  of  the  Bible 
in  all  laniis  creates  a  demand  for  new  versions,  the  prepara- 
tion of  which  involves  many  nice  points,  while  the  revision 
of  existing  versions  can  hardly  fail  to  occasion  complaint. 
Even  the  (letermination  of  the  canon  of  the  Scripture  is  not 
uiiivei'sally  agreed  on.  The  most  violent  controversy  in 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  turned  upon  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  Apocrypha  should  lie  published  and  circu- 
lated. The  controvei-sy  continued  for  yeai-s;  and  when  in 
1826  it  was  Anally  decided  to  withhold  all  aid  from  a.<socia- 
tioiis  circulating  the  iincanonical  books,  fifty  auxiliaries  oU 
the  Continent  wit  lidiew"  from  the  jiarent  society.  The  Edin- 
burgh society,  which  had  earnestly  opposed  the  circulatiim 
of  the  Apocrypha,  also  withdrew  and  stood  aloof.  The  pro- 
posal to  coml'iiH'  men  of  dilTerent  persuasions  in  Bible 
elTort,  and  to  circulate  the  Bible  without  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  encountered  some  opposition  in  P>ngland  at 
an  early  date,  which  after  a  few  years  died  away.  The 
Russian"  Bible  Society  at  St.  Petei'sburg  (founded  181:5) 
flourished  until  1.S26,  when  its  operations  were  summarily 
suspended  by  the  f;m])eror  Nichola.s,  on  the  ground  that  it 
belonged  to  the  Church,  rather  than  to  a  secular  society,  to 
fiirnisli  Hie  ])eople  with  the  Word  of  God. 

In  the  American  Bible  Society  differences  of  opinion  con- 
eeniing  the  principles  which  should  govern  translations  into 
foreign  tongues  led  to  the  tormaliou  of  the  American  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  18;f():  and  at  a  later  period  (18o8) 
its  harmony  was  again  imperiled  for  a  lime  in  eoiiseqiience 
of  dissatisfaction  at  .some  attempted  modifications  (numer- 
ous though  generally  slight)  in  tlie  English  editions  of  the 
society — a  dissatisfaction  which  was  allayed  by  abandoning 
the  proposed  cluinges. 

The  workaecompli.<;hed  by  Bible  societies  in  the  nineteenth 
century  is  vast  in  extent  and  of  unspeakable  uscfuhiess.  In 
18'J2  l"he  receipts  of  the  American  Bible  Society  for  the 
year  ending  Jlar.  31.  applicable  to  its  general  purposes,  were 
ii!o56.r)2T.29.  The  same  year  it  had  issued  1.298.196  volumes, 
including  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  integral  port  ions  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  reported  its 
issues  for  1892  as  3.989.215  volumes,  of  which"  823.ai;{  were 
Billies.  Its  total  issues  from  1804  to  1892  are  13 1.844. 7!)6 
volumes,  anil  the  total  issues  of  the  American  Bible  .Society 
from  1816  to  1892  are  55.,531.908.  It  is  a  low  estimate  that 
23.J.000.O0O  volumes  of  the  Bible  or  separate  IhxiUs  of  the 
Bible  have  been  issued  by  Bible  societies  since  the  tears  of 
a  little  girl  in  Wales  in  1802  led  Thomas  Charles  to  ask 
what  could  be  done  to  secure  Welsh  Bibles  for  his  congre- 
gation.   The  aggregate  number  of  volumes  issued  by  no 


614 


BIBLIA   PAUPERUM 


BICE 


means  measures  the  results  of  Bible  society  work.  From 
motives  of  bencvolcnee  the  prices  of  Bibles  have  been  de- 
termined liy  tlie  cost  of  nuiterials  and  of  manufacture,  witli- 
out  regard  to  profit.  Tlie  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
has  its  work  done  by  contract;  the  American  Bible  Society 
manufactures  its  publications  on  its  own  premises,  and  in 
so  doing  gives  constant  employment  to  about  250  persons. 
Besides  the  books  wliicli  are  sold  at  unremunerative  prices 
a  large  part  of  tlie  pulilications  each  year  are  given  away  to 
destitute  families  and  individuals,  to  charitable  institutions. 
Sunday-schools,  missionary  societies,  soldiers,  seamen,  im- 
migrants, travelei-s,  prisoners,  and  other  classes  of  persons. 
Pour  times  in  seventy-six  years  the  American  Bible  Society 
and  its  auxiliaries  have  made  an  extensive  canvass  of  all 
parts  of  the  U.  S.,  in  the  effort  to  reach  every  destitute 
family  in  the  land  with  the  offer  of  a  Bible,  and  they  are 
now  engaged  in  a  similar  effort  to  supply  every  Sunday- 
school  scholar  with  a  Bil)le.  It  also  has  twelve  agents  in 
foreign  lands,  under  whose  direction  323  persons  were  em- 
ployed in  18!»1  to  distribute  the  Scriptures.  It  has  dis- 
tributed the  Scriptures  in  about  eighty  different  languages 
and  dialects,  and  in  many  new  versions  which  have  been 
made  in  the  present  century.  The  circulation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures has  been  promoteil  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  in  aliout  300  hmguages  and  dialects. 

For'further  information  respecting  Bible  societies  refer- 
ence mav  be  had  to  tlie  following  works :  Owen's  History  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (1817) ;  Browne's  His- 
tory of  same  (1859) :  Dudley's  Analysis  of  the  System  of 
Bible  Societies  (1821);  Jubilee  Memorial  of  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  (1854) ;  Jubilee  Commemoration  at 
Bombai/  (18.54):  Strickland's  History  of  American  Bible 
<S'ofiV/'/(185(i);  Jiibili'c  J/)-/«o/-t(/Z  (1866):  Manual  of  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society  (1887) :  ilemoirs  of  S.  II.  Turner,  Gardiner 
Spring,  and  .John  C  Brigham ;  numerous  controversial 
pamphlets;  Bible  Society  Record,  and  Annual, Beports  of 
each  Bible  society.  E.  W.  Gilman. 

Bib'lla  PaH'peruiii  [a  Latin  term  signifying  "  the  Bible 
of  the  poor  "] :  the  work  known  to  bililiographers  under  this 
name  is  one  of  tlie  earliest  "  block  books  "  printed  before  the 
use  of  movable  type,  probably  about  1420.  The  work  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  thirty-four  to  fifty  cuts  illustrating  tlie 
history  of  our  Lord,  each  with  representations  of  those  (_»ld 
Testament  events  which  were  considered  to  have  been  their 
tyjies.  The  descriptive  text  is  in  abbreviated  Latin.  It  has 
different  titles,  but  Heineken  gave  it  the  name  which  he 
found  attached  to  a  copy  which  he  described.  It  would  seem 
ill  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  ignorant  laity  of  that  time, 
when  few  among  them  were  equal  to  the  task  of  deciphering 
the  letterpress,  and  without  this  the  engravings  would  have 
been  meaningless,  Tliere  seems  good  reason  for  the  opinion 
of  Jackson  and  Chatto  (History  of  Wood-engraving)  that 
the  work  was  prepared  to  aid  the  mendicant  friars  in  their 
preaching — the  text  forming  the  topic  for  their  sermons, 
and  the  pictures  an  excitement  for  their  imaginations.  Fac- 
simile reprints  have  apiieared,  London,  1859,  1877,  1884 ; 
and  from  a  German  original,  Vienna,  1890. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  .Iackso.n. 

Biblical  Arclia'ology  :  See  Arc ileology,  Biultcal. 

Bibliog'rapliy  |troni  Gr.  0ifl\ioypa(t>la:  Si^Klov.  book -I- 
ypiipeiv.  write] :  tlie  science  wliicli  treats  of  books  in  all  their 
aspects;  therefore  peculiarly  the  science  of  booksellers  and 
librarians.  Pure  bibIiogra]iliy  concerns  itself  with  the  ex- 
ternal features  of  books;  applied  bililiography  takes  cog- 
nizance of  their  contents,  .V  bililiography  is  also  a  clas.sified 
list  of  the  works  in  some  particular  department  of  knowl- 
edge, as  a  bibliography  of  political  economy.  The  first  book 
|iublished  on  t  his  subject  wa.s  the  Bibliothern  bibtiothecarum. 
by  the  .Icsuit  P.  Labbe  (Paris,  1664).  t'onrad  von  Gesner 
cimipileil  the  Bibliotheca  Vniversalis  {-i  vols.,  Zurich,  1545- 
55):  to-day,  so  far  from  any  one  attempting  a  "  universal  " 
bibliography,  it  is  sometimes  the  work  of  a  lifetime  to  trace 
the  history  of  a  single  book  or  series  of  books.  Of  general 
l)ibliiigraphies,  some  of  the  most  important  are  Brunei's 
Manuel  (9  vols.,  inch  supplement,  Paris,  1860-80);  Graesse, 
Tre.ior  (7  vols..  l)resden.  lK.5'.)-69):  Kbert.  Allgemeineshibli- 
of/raphisrhes  [je.rikon  (2  vols.,  Leipzi;;-,  1821-30;  Eiig.  trans- 
lation by  A.  Brown,  4  vols.,  Oxford,  ikiT):  Wait,  Bibliotheca 
liritannica  (4  vols.,  Edinlnirgh,  1824).  The  American  Cata- 
logue (3  vols.,  N.  Y.,  1890-91)  gives  under  an  author  and  a 
title  index  the  titles  of  all  liooks  published  in  the  U,  S.  on 
sale  in  1H76.  and  which  appeared  up  to  June  30,  1890,  and 
is  supplemented  by  an  annual  volume.     The  new  books  are 


noted  as  they  come  out  in  the  Publishers'  Weekly  (N.  Y.), 
from  which  the  Catalogue  is  made  up.  Works  published  in 
Great  Britain  are  found  in  the  English  Catalogue  (1835-89), 
with  annual  supplements,  and  in  the  weekly  Publishers'  Cir- 
cular; for  French  literature  the  Catalogue  de  la  libraire 
fran  false,  by  Lorenz,  is  the  standard.  It  extends  from  1840 
to  the  present  time,  and  the  periodical  Bibliograph  ie  de  la 
France  has  been  published  since  1811,  German  authorities 
are  Ilinrichs,  ^'er■f■icbniss■.  Heinsius. /^I'ic/ieWcr/Aoji  (1700- 
8!));  Kayser,  Votl-'^/ihidigts  Biichcrli.rihin  {1150-iSdO);  and 
the  Gesammt  Verlags  h'afalog  des  deutschen  Buchhandeles. 
Dutch  literature  has  been  catalogued  in  the  periodical  Ne- 
derlandische  Bibliographic  since  1854,  the  best  catalogues 
being  those  by  Brinkmann ;  Belgium  has  had  the  periodical 
Bibliographie  de  Belgique  since  1875;  the  Bibliographie 
Nationale  covers  the  ground  since  1830.  There  are  also 
special  catalogues  in  all  the  other  leading  modern  tongues. 
English  periodical  literature  is  catalogued  in  the  great  In- 
dex of  W.  F.  Poole  (first  published  in  1853 ;  new  ed.  Boston, 
1882;  supplements  published  every  five  years,  first  in  1888). 
This  is  supplemented  by  the  Co-operative  Index  to  Period- 
icals, edited  by  W.  I.  Fletcher,  published  quarterly  in  New 
York  since  1885.  Every  department  of  learning,  as  well  as 
every  nation,  has  its  special  bililiogra]ihy.  In  this  cyclopa'- 
dia  a  brief  bibliography  is  apjiended  to  all  the  leading  arti- 
cles. Pure  bibliography  is  closely  related  to  library  man- 
agement. (See  Library.)  An  index  society  was  founded 
in  London  in  Dec,  1877,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  indexes 
to  rare  and  important  books,  and  a  bibliographical  society 
in  1892.  Petzholdt's  Bibliotheca  Bibliiii/ra/ihira  (1864); 
Vallee's  Bibliographie  des  Bibliographies  {\XK',).  with  sup- 
plement (1887):  British  Museum  Hand-list  (}f  Bibliographies 
(1881);  Wheatley's  How  to  Form  a  Library  {\Sf<(i). 

L'.  H.  Thurber. 

Biblioniancy  [from  Gr.  3'/3a.i'o>'.  book  +  iiavrela.  divina- 
tion] :  a  mode  of  divination  used  in  both  ancient  and  modern 
times  by  ojiening  the  Bible  and  observing  the  first  passage 
which  occurred,  or  by  entering  a  church  and  taking  note  of 
the  first  words  of  the  Bible  heard  after  entering.  It  seems 
to  have  originated  with  the  pagans,  who  employed  Homer 
or  Vergil  in  like  manner,  and  to  have  been  adoiited  from 
them  by  the  Eastern  Christians.  The  apiiliraticm  either  de- 
l)ended'uiion  the  sound  of  the  words  or  upon  the  significa- 
tion of  the  passage.  Prayer  and  fasting  were  used  as  a 
preparation  for  consulting  the  divine  oracles.  Biblioraancy 
was  prohiliited,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  liy  the 
Council  of  Vannes,  465  A.  D.,  and  by  succeeding  councils.  It 
continued,  however,  to  prevail  for  many  centuries  thereafter. 
It  came  into  use  in  the  Galilean  and  Greek  Churches  in  the 
choice  of  bishops,  and  prevailed  in  some  places  for  centuries, 
JIany  eminent  Protestant  Christians  have  made  use  of  this 
practiee  in  times  of  perplexity,  for  instance  John  Bunyan 
and  Jiilin  Wesley. 

Bibliomania  [from  Gr.  $t$\lov.  bocik -i- luarlo,  madness]: 
the  passion  for  accpiiring  and  possessing  books.  Biblioma- 
niacs are  governed  in  their  selection  by  all  sorts  of  curious 
fancies,  for  books  of  a  certain  binder,  of  a  certain  press, 
early  and  rare  editions,  editions  de  luxe,  uncut  cojiies,  illus- 
trated copies,  etc.  Extraordinary  prices  are  often  paid; 
lieriiaril  (juaritch  paid  what  is  said  to  be  the  largest  sum 
recorded  for  a  single  volume,  £4,950  for  the  Psalmorum 
Codex.  Over  $10,000  was  paid  for  a  copy  of  the  first  dated 
Decameron.  In  1884  a  Mazarin  Bible  (one  of  the  twenty-five 
copies  of  the  first  printed  Bible,  date  1450,  known  to  have 
belonged  to  Cardinal  Mazarin)  brought  .£3,900.  High  prices 
are  often  jiaid  fur  liooks  containing  certain  faults  or  mis- 
prints. The  bililiomaniae  is  governed  in  his  choice  mainly 
l)v  incidiMital  and  often  trifiing  considerations:  whereas  the 
bibliophile,  or  book-lover,  collects  books  with  some  specific 
literary  or  scientific  purpose,  seeking  to  bring  together 
evervtliing  pertaining  to  a  given  author  or  subject.  Dibdin, 
Bibliomania  (1811):  Andrew  Lang's  Books  and  Bookmen 
(1887).  C.  11.  Thvrber. 

BibHotheVa  |Lat.  from  Gr.  $iPKio0iiKri:  /3i(8a.£oi'.  book -i- 
»T)Kj).  chest.  rejM.sitory]:  the  Latin  word  signifying  lilirary, 
acolleetiiin  of  books;  often  used,  like  our  word  "library," 
as  a  name  for  publications  of  various  kinils,  as  Bibliotheca 
llispana.  Bibliollieca,  Sacra,  etc. 

Bice  [from  Fr.  bis.  dark-colored,  brown;  Ital.  Iiigio  <^a 
deriv.  of  Lat.  bombyx  =  Gr.  /3iJ;U|8u|.  silkwcu-ni] :  the  name  of 
two  lilue  an<l  green  pigments;  native  carbonates  of  copper, 
used  by  [lainters  from  very  early  times.  The  blue  bice  is 
sometimes  called   mountain-blue  and  ongaro.     The  syno- 


BICEPS 


BIDDLE 


615 


I 


nyms  of  green  bice  are  lliinjrariaii  green,  verdetto,  mala- 
chite green,  jnountain  green,  etc. 

Bi'ceps  [Lai.,  double-headed  :  bi-,  twice  -I-  caput,  head]  : 
the  large  round  muscle  lying  ujioii  the  front  of  the  arm. 
Above,  it  consists  of  two  ]jortii)ns  or  heads — whence  its 
name — one  lieing  attached  to  the  coracoid  process  of  the 
scapula,  the  <ilhi'r  to  the  margin  of  the  shallow  socket  for 
the  head  of  the  humerus.  The  former  i.s  the  sliort,  the  lat- 
ter the  long,  head  of  the  biceps.  They  unite  to  form  a 
fleshy  belly,  wliich  terminates  in  a  rounded  tendon  inserted 
into  the  tubercle  of  the  radius.  The  action  of  the  biceps  is 
to  bend  the  forearm.  Another  biceps  is  found  on  the  outer 
and  posterior  aspect  of  the  (high.  Its  long  head  arises 
from  the  lubi'rosity  of  the  ischium  ;  its  short  head,  from  the 
linea  a.ijnra  of  the  thigh-bmie.  Its  tendon  is  the  outer  ham- 
string. 

Bicetre :  the  name  of  an  old  castle,  a  hospital,  and  a 
fort  in  the  department  of  Seine,  in  the  southern  environs  of 
Paris.  The  castle,  which  is  very  large,  has  been  converted 
into  a  liospital  for  old  men   ai'ul    for   lunatics.     Here   the 

isoners  sentenced  to  death  or  to  the  galleys  were  formerly 

pt  until  the  sentence  was  executed.  But  in  1837  this 
prison  was  transferred  to  La  Kcujuette.  Situated  on  an  emi- 
nence, it  commands  a  fine  view  of  Paris  and  the  Seine.  Here 
are  accommodations  for  about  000  male  lunatii-s,  who  receive 
gentle  treatment.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  corrupt iim  of 
Winrliexfrr.  Its  eastle  was  founded  in  li!)0  by  .lohn.  Bishop 
of  Winchester. 

Itielint,  M.iRiE  FraN(;ois  Xavikr:  Frencli  anatomist  and 
physiologist;  b.  at  Thoirette,  in  .lura,  Nov.  11,  ITTl.  In 
1797  he  began  to  lecture  cm  anatomy,  surgery,  etc..  in  i^aris. 
lie  ])ublished  lifsearches  on  Lift'  unit  JJenlli  (ISOO),  and  an 
excellent  and  profound  work  entitled  (rnifnil  Aniitomij  Ap- 
plifd  Id  I'hijsiohjyti  rinil  Mi'tlicine  (4  vols..  IHOl).  He  sim- 
|)lified  anatomy  and  physiology  by  reducing  the  complex 
structures  of  the  organs  to  the  simple  or  elenfcntary  tissues, 
and  he  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  importance  of  the 
distinction  between  the  organic  functions  and  tlu'  animal 
or  vital  functions.  Having  impaired  his  healtli  by  close 
application,  he  died  before  the  age  of  thirtv-one,  .Iulv23, 

Bickanppr:  same  iis  Bikaxik. 

Hick'crstaff".  Isaac:  Irish  drannvtist;  b.  in  Ireland  about 
17:i."):  was  ill  his  early  life  an  ollicer  of  marines.  He  pro- 
duced several  popular  comedies  and  comic  operas,  among 
which  are  The  Maid  of  tlir  Mill;  'The  Padlock;  Lore  in  a 
Village  (176:!):  and  The  Caplirc  D.  after  17«7.  Steele's 
Taller  was  published  under  tile  lussumed  name  of  Isaac  Bick- 
ei-staff,  whiih  often  occurs  in  the  papers  of  that  work. 

Bick'erstt'fli,  Edward:  an  English  theologian:  b.  in 
Kirkby  Lonsdale,  Westmoreland.  .Mar.  10,  178(i.  He  took 
orders  in  the  Anglican  Church  (181.5),  and  was  sent  by  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  to  Africa  in  18I(J  to  reorganize 
their  mission  stations.  On  his  return  the  same  year  he  Wius 
chosen  secretary  to  that  society,  an<l  ably  si^rved  it  until  1880, 
when  he  became  rector  of  Watlon.  in  Hertfordshire,  lb;  was 
one  of  the  leiulers  of  the  Evangelical  party  in  the  Church  of 
England,  and  one  of  the  founilersot  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
in  184.5.  Among  his  works,  which  are  highly  csteemeil.  are  a 
IMp  to  the  Study  of  the  Script iiren  {IS\4);  The  Christian 
Student;  A  Treatise  on  Baptism;  and  The  Promised  Olory 
of  the  Church  of  Christ.  I),  at  Watton,  Feb.  28,  18.50.  His 
collected  works  were  publishid  in  Hi  vols.,  18-5:{.  See  T.  R. 
Birks.  Memoir  of  the  Per.  A",  liickerstelh  (2  vols.,  1851). 

Bickcrstetll,  Edward  Hkxrv.  D.  D.  :  a  poet  and  bishop 
of  the  Cliurcli  of  England;  b.  at  Islington, .Jan. 25,  1825,and 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Camliridge.  Ordained  dea- 
con in  1H4M.  imd  priest  the  following  vear.  He  was  conse- 
crated Lord  Bishop  of  Kxeter,  Aor.  2'5,  1885,  in  St.  Paul's 
I'athedral,  Lombm.  He  has  pulmshed,  besides  numerous 
f>t her  works.  /Wm.<  (1840);  The  h'ock  of  Ai/es  Hm));  )V.<- 
terdai/.  To-da;i,and  For  Kcer  (IHW<;  ISth  ed.  1880).  which 
has  had  a  great  success ;  The  Two  Brothers,  and  Other 
Poems;  and  The  Ifi/mnnl  Companion  to  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  of  which  numerous  editions  Inive  appeared. 

Bick'niore,  Ai-rf-rt  Smith,  Ph.  D. :  naturalist;  b.  in  St. 
(ieorge's.  Me.,  Mar.  1.  1830,  aii<l  graduated  at  Darlinoulh  in 
1800.  He  studied  under  Agassiz  at  Cambridge,  and  in  18G5 
saileil  for  the  I)ut<h  East  Indies  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing shells.  He  also  traveled  in  China.  Japan.  Manchuria. 
Silieria.  and  Kussia.  He  liecame  in  1^70  Prol'issor  of  Xalu- 
ral  History  in  JIadison  (now  Colgate)  L'nivei'sity,  and  has 


devoted  much  time  to  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  found- 
ed by  him  at  the  Central  Park.  New  York,  and  of  w'hich  he 
is  superintendent.  He  has  published  Travels  in  the  Eaal 
India II  Arcliipetayo  (1800). 

Bick'neH.  Ceorck  AtorsTUs:  iurist ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Feb.  ti,  1815:  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  from  the  Yale  Law  School.  In  1876  and  1878  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  from  Indiana.  In  1881 
he  wiUs  appointed  commissioner  of  appeals  in  the  Sujireme 
Court  of  Indiana.  From  1801  to  1870  he  was  Professor  of 
Law  in  the  Indiana  State  University.  D.  in  New  Albany, 
Ind.,  Apr.  U,  1801.  HV.xry  Wade  Kooers.  " 

Bicycle  [from  Lat.  prefix  hi-,  having  two  -t-  Gr.  KiK\os, 
wheel]:  ii  form  of  velocipede  whicli  lu-gan  to  appear  in  Eng- 
land in  1807  wil  li  two  wheels  arranged  one  in  front  of  the 
other,  anil  which  is  kept  u]>right  by  its  own  motion.  The 
wheels  dilfer  in  diameter  from  the  earlier  forms,  when  the 
trailing-wheel  had  less  than  a  third  of  the  diameter  of  the 
driving-wheel,  to  the  safety  with  both  wheels  of  like  dimen- 
sion. They  are  propelled  by  jiedals  moved  liy  the  feet,  and 
acting  sometimes  directly  upon  a  crank,  and  again  by  gear- 
ing. They  have  rubber  lires  of  varied  character,  and  are 
very  light,  strong,  and  swift.    See  Cycling  and  Velocipede. 

Bidar,  beedar:  a  fortified  city  of  Hindustan:  capital  of 
a  nativi'  state  of  the  same  name:  near  the  Jlaiijira  river  and 
in  the  Ni/am's  Dominions:  about  75  miles  X.  W.  of  Ilai- 
derabad  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  3-D).  It  was  formerly 
an  important  ]ilace,  but  is  now  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
manufacture  of  tutenag  wares  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper. 

Bidasson,  lie'e-da'as-sf)  liii :  a  small  river  forming  part  of 
the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain.  It  rises  in  Spain, 
and  enters  thi'  Bay  of  Biscay  at  Fuentarabia.  On  the  Isle 
of  Pheasants,  in  ibis  river,  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  was 
concluded  in  10.50.  In  Aug.,  181:!,  Wellington  <lefeated  the 
French  marshal  Soult  at  San  jMarcial  on  the  Bidassoa. 

Bid'dcford :  a  city  and  railroad  center,  York  co..  Me. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  ll-B);  on 
Saco  river,  0  miles  from  its  month.  It  was  named  from  the 
city  of  liideford,  England.  The  first  sett  lenient  was  made 
at  "the  ■•  Pool  "  (at  the  mouth  of  the  river)  by  Richard  Vines 
in  1616-17.  It  was  settled  by  a  patent  to  John  Oldham  and 
Vines  in  16:30.  York  County  originally  embraced  all  of  the 
province  of  Maine,  and  while  settlements  were  made  at  a 
very  early  date  along  the  seacoast  (none  earlier  than  this) 
to  the  Piscata(|ua  river.  Bideford  or  Biddel'ord  bir  a  long 
series  of  yeai-s  was  the  chief  settlement  and  center.  Here 
are  inexhaustible  ledges  of  granite,  which  ranks  among  the 
best  in  the  world,  and  is  largely  exported.  The  business  of 
the  place. is  principally  the  manufacturing  of  cotton  cloth. 
A  large  amount  of  lumber  is  also  manufactured.  Pop.  (1880) 
12.651  :  (1800)  14,443.  Editor  ok  "  Jol-kxal." 

Bidding-prayer  |tli(?  original  meaning  of  bidding  was 
••praying":  vf.'beads— bidding;  cf.  0.  Eng.  biddan,  beg; 
Germ.  Bitten ;  (ioth.  bid/an,  now  confuse<l  with  descend- 
ants of  O.  Kng.  beodan;  ("ierin.  liieten;  (ioth.  biiidan.  offer, 
proclaim,  command] :  a  formula  of  public  prayer  found  in 
the  ancient  Greek  liturgies,  in  the  Galilean  liturgy,  and  in 
the  l-^nglish  service-books,  in  which  the  priest  recites  in  de- 
tail what  the  people  are  to  pray  for,  and  closes  with  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  in  which  all  the  previous  petitions  are  con- 
sidered to  be  summed  up.  Canon  .55  of  1003  (the  Church  of 
England)  direcis  that  lieforo  all  .sermons,  lectures,  and 
homilies,  not  delivered   in  the  course  of  divine  service,  the 

E readier  shall  move  the  people  to  devotion  by  the  use  of  the 
idding-prayer,  a  fcnin  of  which  is  given.  In  Dr.  Hender- 
son's Manuale  ct  I'roeessionale  ad  i'sum  Insiynis  Ecclesim 
Elioracensis,  App.  x.  (Surtees  Soc,  1874-75).  are  forms  of 
bidding-])rayei-s  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  centuries, 
and  a  sixteenth-centurv  form  is  given  among  the  Preces  in 
Dominicis  dicendiv  (}ianiiale.  etc..  p.  123).  Notes  and  illus- 
trations of  the  York  bidding-iirayers  are  fouml  in  Canon 
Siiumons's  Lai/  Folks'  Mass-book  (Early  Eng.  Text  Soc, 
1870).  See  Rock,  Church  of  our  Fathers,  ii.  35^2-378  ;  Mas- 
kel's  Mon.  KituaUa,  iii.;  and  Wheatley  on  Bidding  of 
Prayers  before  Sermons  .  .  .  an  Ilist.  Yind.  of  the  55tli 
Canon  (new  ed.  1845).  William  Stevexs  Perry. 

Bid'dle.  Clemkxt:  a  soldier:  b.  in  Philadelphia,  ;\Iay  10, 
1740.  He  was  appointed  deputy  quartermaster-general  of 
the  militia  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey:  fought  with 
the  rank  of  colonel  at  the  battles  of  Trenton,  Princeton, 
Brandy  wine,  and  .Monmouth;  quitted  the  army  in  1780; 
became  quarleriiiasii-r-geiieral  of  the  State  Sipt.  11.  1781. 


616 


BIDDLE 


BIELAYA  TSERKOV 


He  was  a  friend  and  con-espondent  of  Gen.  Washington,  who 
appointed  liira  marshal  of  Pennsylvania.  I),  in  Pliiladel- 
phia,  July  U,  18U 

Biddle.  Edward  :  biotherof  Nicholas  Biddlc  :  b.  in  1739 ; 
was  an  officer  in  the  French  war  {1756-63),  and  hccame  a 
noted  lawyer  of  Reading,  Pa. ;  was  member  and  sjieaker  of 
the  Assembly,  and  was  a  delegate  from  Pennsylvania  to  the 
Continental  Congress  1774-76  and  1778-79.  He  was  a  lead- 
ing advocate  of  independence.  D.  in  Baltimore,  JId.,  Sept. 
5,  1779. 

Biddle.  James:  a  naval  officer;  b.  in  Philadelphia.  Feb. 
28.  1783;  educated  at  tlie  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
entereil  the  navy  in  1800.  He  served  against  Tripoli,  where 
he  was  a  prisoner  nineteen  months.  In  the  war  of  1813  he 
served  with  distinction  in  several  engagements,  and  while 
commanding  the  Hornet  captured  the  lirig  Penguin,  receiv- 
ing a  wound  in  tlie  action  Jlar.  33,  1813.  For  his  services 
he  received  a  gold  medal  from  Congress,  besides  other  hon- 
oi's.  He  became  a  captain  in  1815.  He  was  afterward  com- 
missioner to  Turkey.  China,  etc.,  and  held  other  important 
positions.     D.  in  Philadelphia.  Oct.  1.  1848. 

Biddle,  John  :  an  early  English  Unitarian  :  b.  at  Wotton- 
undcr-Edge,  in  Gloucestershire,  in  1615  (baptized  Jan.  14) : 
graduated  at  Oxford,  and  became  an  eminent  tut(5r  there  : 
then  in  1641  a  schoolmaster  in  Gloucester.  He  was  prose- 
cuted about  1645  for  the  expression  of  heterodox  opinions 
respecting  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  after  a 
formal  trial  by  Parliament  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  five  years.  Wliile  in  prison  he  ])ulilished  in  1648  a  Cuii- 
fession  of  Faith  Concerning  the  Holy  Trinitij.  He  was 
liberated  about  1652,  and  gathered  a  congregation  of  his 
fellow-believers.  He  was  subsefpiently  persecuted  and  im- 
prisoned twice  during  the  Commonwealth.  He  was  pro- 
tected by  the  friendliness  of  Cromwell,  whose  toleration  was 
equal  to  the  widest  differences  of  belief.  At  the  Restoration 
his  persecution  was  renewed,  and  he  died  in  prison  in  Lon- 
don, .Sept.  32, 1663.  See  his  Life  by  Joshua  Toidmin,  London, 
1789. 

Biddle,  Nicholas  :  a  naval  officer ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  10, 1750.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  in  1770,  .and  once 
served  in  a  ship  of  wiiieh  tlie  famous  Nelson  was  mate.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1776,  and 
took  several  |irizes  from  tlie  British.  Early  in  1777  he  took 
command  of  the  Randolpli.  a  frigate,  which  encountered  the 
Yarmouth,  a  64-gun  shi|j.  Mar.  7,  1778,  near  Charleston,  S.  C. 
During  the  action  that  ensued  tlie  magazine  of  the  Randolph 
exploded,  and  killed  Capt.  Biddle,  with  nearly  all  his  crew. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  LL.  D.  :  financier ;  a  nepliew  of  Nicho- 
las Biddle  :  li.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  8,  1786.  He  was  a  son 
of  Charles  Biddle,  who  was  vice-president  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1786-87:  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1801  ;  was  elected  to 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1810;  appointed  a  direc- 
tor of  the  U.  S.  Bank  by  "President  Monroe  in  1819.  In  1833 
he  became  president  of  that  bank,  the  affairs  of  which  he 
managed  with  great  ability  and  success  for  many  yeai-s.  so 
that  it  supplied  the  country  with  a  sound  and  uniform  cur- 
rency. Tlie  bill  to  recharter  (lie  bank  having  been  vetoed 
by  President  Jackson  in  1833,  the  bank  was  closed  in  1836 
by  the  limitation  of  its  charter.  He  was  soon  elected  presi- 
dent of  a  new  State  b.ank,  called  "  The  United  States  Bank," 
which  W!us  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  bank  became  insolvent  in  the  financial  crisis  of  1841. 
He  was  president  of  the  trustees  of  the  fund  (If;3.n00,000) 
which  Stephen  (Hrard  left  to  found  a  college  for  orphans. 
"To  his  exertions  alone,"  says  Judge  R.  T.  Conrad,  "the 
country  owes  one  of  the  most  beautiful  structures  of  modern 
times,  the  Girnrd  College.  He  proposed  the  present  plan, 
and  in  the  midst  of  wild  political  excitement  and  opposition 
pci-sisted  firmly,  and  secured  a  building  which  every  citizen 
now  not  only  approves,  hut  applauds."  D.  in  Philadelphia, 
Feb.  37,  1.S44.  See  a  Memoir  of  N.  Biddle.  bv  R.  T.  Con- 
rad, in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  vol.  iv.,  1839. 

Biddle,  Richard :  lawyer  and  writer;  a  brother  of  the 
preceding;  li.  in  Philadel])hia.  Mar.  25.  1790:  practiced  law 
at  Pittsburg:  a  member ol' Cousri'ss  (1837-41),  and  wrote  a 
Memoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  with  a  Keiiiew  of  the  Ifi.stiini 
of  Maritime  Discovery  (1831).  D.  in  Pittsbui-g,  July  7, 
1847. 

Bid'eford  :  a  .seajiorl-town  of  Devonshire.  England;  on 
the  rivi  rTnnidge;  \\  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  estu- 
ary ot  the  Taw;  30  miles  X.  W.  of  Exeter  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  13-D).    It  has  a  stone  bridge  of  twenty-four  arches, 


about  680  feet  long,  a  town-hall,  a  hospital,  and  manufac- 
tures of  ropes,  sails,  earthenware,  and  leather.  Among  the 
articles  of  export  are  linen  and  woolen  goods,  iron,  sails,  and 
naval  stores.  Vessels  of  500  tons  can  go  up  to  the  center 
of  the  town.  It  had  a  great  trade  in  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries.     Pop.  (1891)  7,918. 

Bidpai.  bid  jm  :  See  Paxchatantra. 

Bidwell,  Daxiel  D.  ;  general  of  volunteers:  b.  at  Black 
Rock,  now  part  of  Buffalo,  N,  Y..  Aug.  13.  1816;  held  im- 
portant local  offices;  identified  with  the  militia  organiza- 
tions of  the  city  for  many  years.  On  the  outbreak"  of  the 
civil  war  he  enlisted  as  a  private  roldier;  promoted  to  be 
captain  in  the  Sixty-fifth,  and  sulisequently  colonel  of  the 
Forty-ninth  New  York  volunteei'S.  He  wals  engaged  in  the 
various  actions  of  the  Peninsula  campaign,  in  the  liattles  of 
South  Jlountain  and  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  and  Clian- 
cellorsville,  and  before  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  being 
most  of  the  time  in  command  of  a  brigade.  In  July.  1864, 
he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
assigned  to  a  command  under  Gen.  Sheridan  in  the  Slienan- 
doah  Valley,  particiiiating  in  the  battle  ot  Cedar  Creek.  Oct. 
19,  1864,  where  he  was  mortally  wounded  while  leading  his 
brigade. 

Biebrieh :  See  Biberich. 

Bie'dernianii,  Aloys  Emanuel  :  a  German  rationalistic 
theologian ;  li.  at  OlieiTieden,  Jlar.  3,  1819.  He  studied  at 
Basel  and  Berlin ;  became  professor  extraordinary  of  The- 
ology at  Zurich  185U:  ord.inarv  1864.  D.  at  Zurich,  Jan. 
35,  1883.  He  wrote  Die  freie  'Theologie  (Tiibingen.  1844) ; 
founded  the  Kirche  der  Gegenwart  (1845 :  3d  ed.  Berlin, 
1884-85.  3  vols.):  published  in  1869  at  Zurich  his  Chrixt- 
liehe  Dugmalik  (2d  ed.  2  vols.  Berlin,  1884-85).  one  of  the 
most  important  emanations  of  recent  rationalistic  theology. 

Biedennann.  Friedrich  Karl:  German  journalist  and 
.author:  b.  at  J^eipzig.  Sept.  25,  1812;  became  Professor  of 
Philoso|)hy  tiKM'e  in  1838.  but  was  dismissed  in  1845  on  ac- 
count ot  his  advanced  political  opinions;  played  a  conspicu- 
ous role  in  the  Parliament  at  Frankfort  1849  ;  was  rein- 
stated as  professor,  but  was  again  dismissed  in  1853  for 
I)olitical  reasons.  From  1863-66  he  edited  the  Deutsche 
Atlgemeine  Zeitung;  also  founded  and  edited  several  other 
liberal  ])apers.  Among  his  works  are  Wissenschnft  und 
Unicersitat  (Leipzig,  1838) :  Die  deutsche  Pliilosophie  von 
Kant  his  aiif  iinsere  Tage  (1842-43,  2.  vols.) ;  Vorlesungen 
iiber  Social iKni'HS  nnd  socinle  Fragen  (Leipzig,  1847) ;  Frin- 
neruiiyen,  alls  der  Paul's  Kirche  (Leipzig,  1849). 

Biel,  Gabriel  :  erroneously  called  "  the  last  of  the  School- 
men "  ;  b.  at  Spire,  in  Germany,  after  1442;  studied  at  Hei- 
delberg and  Erfurt  :  became  catliedral  jireacher  in  Mainz  ; 
provost  of  Uracil  1477:  was  ad\iser  in  the  establishment  of 
the  University  of  Tubingen  which  occurred  al)out  this  time  : 
became  Professor  of  Theology  tliere  1484.  I>.  in  Tubingen. 
1495.  Although  a  devout  and  earnest  Catholic,  he  sided 
with  the  Council  of  Basel  against  the  ]iope.  and  deplored  tiie 
corruptions  and  abuses  of  liis  time.  He  is  worthy  of  note  as 
Iiaving  rejected  the  doctrine  of  sensible  and  intelligible  spe- 
cies so  widely  prevalent  among  the  Sehoolnieii. 

Revised  by  \V.  T.  Harris. 

Biel :  See  Bienne. 

Bie'la,  Wilhelm,  Baron  von  :  German  astronomer:  b.  at 
Roslau,  Prussia,  IMar.  19,  I'^'i:  discovered  in  .losephstadt, 
in  Boheujia.  in  1826,  the  comet  known  bv  his  name.  D.  in 
Venice,  Feb.  18,  1856. 

Biela's  Comet :  a  comet  of  short  period  (Oj  years) ;  dis- 
covered Ijy  Baron  von  Biela  in  1826.  It  was  observed  aji- 
parently  unchanged  at  various  returns,  but  at  its  return  in 
1845-46  it  was  found  to  have  separated  into  two  parts, 
both  of  which  were  oliserved  in  1852.  It  was  due  in  1865, 
and  again  in  1873,  but  no  trace  of  it  could  be  found  ;  in 
November  of  the  latter  year  the  earth  crossed  its  path,  and  a 
sliower  of  meteors  was  ob.served,  which  is  now  supposed  to 
have  been  due  to  fragments  of  the  lost  comet. 
Bielail:  See  Laxgexbielau. 

Bii'lava.  bi"e-a''y-lia,  or  Bielaia:  a  river  of  Russia;  rises 
in  the  Ural  Jlountains ;  flows  through  Orenburg,  and,  after 
a  very  tortuous  course  of  about  050  miles,  enters  the  river 
Kama. 

Bielaya  Tserlvov ;  a  village  of  Russia  ;  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal cummiicial  centers  of  the  government  of  Kiev;  44 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Kiev.  It  has  eleven  annual 
fairs,  three  of  which  hu^l  i'or  ten  days.      Great  quantities  of 


BIELEFELD 


BIG  BETHEL 


617 


grain  and  cattle  are  disposed  ol  by  these  fairs.      Pop.  about 

Ble'lt'Md  :  a  town  nf  Prussia  ;  in  Westphalia  ;  finely  situ- 
ated on  the  Mindeu  and  Coloirne  lUihvay;  20  miles  S.  W.  of 
Winden  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-1)).  It  lias 
manufaetiircs  of  woolen  stuffs,  leather,  soap,  and  meerschaum 
pipe's.  Its  principal  industry,  however,  is  liiien-weavins:.  It 
IS,  inileed,  the  renter  of  the  whole  Westphalian  linen-trade. 
The  oriirin  of  this  industry  dates  back  to  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, but  it  wjis  <;rcatly  extended  during  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  by  refujiees  from  Holland.  Hero  is 
the  old  castle  of  Sparrenbers,  now  used  as  a  prison.  Pop. 
(lHsn):i(M)7»:  (1890)  39,'J42.  ^ 

Uielirorod.  bee-el'sy-rod  (i.  e.  White  Town) :  a  Russian 
town  :  in  thv  soverninent  of  Kui-sk  :  on  the  Donetz  ;  HO  miles 
S.  of  Kui-sk  (see  man  of  Russia,  ref.  O-D).  There  are  three 
aiHHial  faii-s  here.     Pop.  22.000. 

Uie'liti!:  a  town  of  Avistrian  Silesia:  on  the  river  Biala, 
and  opposite  the  Galician  town  Biala ;  4f*  miles  S.  W.  of 
Cracow,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (sec  maj)  of 
Austria-llun^'ary,  ref.  3-11).  It  lias  an  active  trade  in  woolen 
cloths  and  cassimeres.  Here  is  a  castle  of  Prince  Sulkowsky. 
A  bridge  across  the  river  connects  Bielili!  with  Bialia,  in 
Gali<-ia.     Pop.  (1880)  13,060  ;  (1890)  14,499. 

Biella,  bw-ella:  a  town  of  Italy:  in  the  province  of 
Novara;  on  the  Ccrvo:  ;!8  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Turin  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-B).  It  has  manufactures  of  paper,  hats, 
am!  woolen  goods.     Pop.  1.5,000. 

Bielopoli,  bee-a'y-lo  po-lee :  a  towm  of  Russia;  govern- 
ment of  Kharkof ;  on  the  Vira;  118  miles  N.  W.  of  Kliar- 
kot  (see  ina[)  of  Russia,  ref.  9-D).  It  is  on  the  railway  from 
Orel  to  Kiev.  It  has  a  considerable  traile  and  several  distil- 
leries.    Pop.  12,256. 

Biclostok.  bee-ay '-lo-stok  (in  Pol.  Biali/stoh-) :  a  fortified 
town  of  Russia;  government  of  Gro(bio;  on  the  river  lUaly  ; 
52  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Grodno  (sec  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
7-H).  It  is  well  built  and  handsome,  has  several  churches, 
and  a  palace  with  a  park,  which  have  been  called  the  "  \'er- 
sailles  of  Poland "'  Here  are  a  gymnasium  and  manufac- 
tures of  woolen  goods,  hats,  leather,  and  soap.  It  is  on  a 
railway  from  Warsaw  to  Grodno.  Pop.  (1882)  36,352,  a  large 
proportion  being  .lews. 

Bielozpro,  bi'e-aylo-zay'ro  (the  White  Lake) :  a  lake 
about  25  miles  long  and  2t)  miles  broad  in  the  government 
of  Novgorod.  Russia;  lat.  60°  10'  N.,  Ion.  37' "30  E.  Its 
bottom  of  white  clay  gives  to  the  water  during  stormy 
weather  a  milky  aiiiiearaiice  which  was  doubtless  the  cause 
of  its  name.  While  Lake.  It  receives  many  small  .streams; 
is  of  considi'rablc  depth  ;  abounds  with  fish.  It  is  connected 
by  the  Sheksua  river  with  the  Volga  and  united  by  canals 
with  the  Onega.  Sukona.  and  Dwina.  The  old  town  of 
Bielozersk,  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  the  lake,  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  an  ancient  pi-incipality  bearing  the 
same  name,  ami  has  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  corn,  and 
pitch,  also  manufactures  of  candles.     Pop.  (1882)  5,982. 

Bioiiiio.  bi'c  ii(?  (Germ.  Biel) :  a  town  of  Switzerland  ;  in 
till'  eanloM  of  Berne-  at  the  northeast  extremity  of  the  Lake 
of  Bienne ;  13  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Soleure  (see  map  of  Switz- 
erland, ivl.  't-D).  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  Jura  ;  is  inclosed  by  old  walls,  and  is  connected  by  rail- 
ways with  IJerne  and  Lausanne.  Here  are  manufactures  of 
watches,  cotton  goods,  etc.  Many  Roman  coins  have  been 
found  at  Bienne,  which  is  a  place  of  great  antiqiutv.  Pop. 
(1888)  15,407. 

Bionno,  Luke  of:  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Berne.  It  is  10 
miles  long.  '■',  miles  wide,  and  2.50  feet  deep:  is  near  the  base 
of  the  .Jura  Mountains,  and  has  an  elevation  of  1.419  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  Thiele  passes  through  it  before  joining 
the  Aar.  It  incloses  the  island  of  St.  Pierre,  which  was  the 
residence  of  .1.  .1.  Rousseau  in  1765.  In  digging  ]ieat,  which 
is  extensively  procured  from  its  marshy  border,  the  remains 
of  a  ])reliisloric  village  of  lake-dwellings  have  been  found  on 
the  southeast  side  of  the  lake. 

Rieiiniiil  Plants;  all  plants  which  live  longer  than  an- 
nuals, and  not  so  long  as  perennials.  They  grow  the  first 
season  without  flowering,  and  produce  flowers  in  the  second 
sea,son,  at  the  end  of  which  they  die.  Such  arc  the  turnip, 
parsnip,  lieet,  and  many  other  plants  which  are  cultivated. 
Miiny  liiennials,  if  sown  early  in  the  spring,  will  flower  in 
the  summer  or  autumn  of  that  year,  and  become  annuals. 


BieiiYillc,  bi-ahvecl',  Jeax  Baptiste  Lemoine,  de:  a 
French  otlicer  and  pioneer;  li.  in  Montreal,  Feb.  23,  1680 ; 
was  a  brother  of  Lemoine  d'Ibcrville.  He  accompanied  the 
latter  in  an  expedition  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in 
1699,  and  was  three  times  appointed  colonial  governor  of 
Louisiana.  He  founded  New  Orleans  in  1718.  I),  in  France 
in  1768. 

Biersfadt.  beer'staat,  Al.Rr.nT;  landscape-jiainter;  b.  in 
DusseUiorf,  Germany,  .Jan.  7,  1830.  He  was  brought  by  his 
parents  when  he  was  only  a  year  old  to  New  Bedford,  Mass., 
where  he  lived  until  he  went  to  Diisscldorf  in  18.53,  to  con- 
tinue the  study  of  painting,  which  he  had  taken  up  by  him- 
self at  home.  He  visited  Rome  also,  and  returned  to  the 
U.S.  in  1857.  He  then  began  to  paint  pictures  of  Rocky 
Mountain  scenery,  making  frecjuent  visits  to  the  West,  and 
has  returned  to  Kurojie  for  short  visits  a  number  of  times. 
His  name  is  widely  known,  and  his  pictures  have  been  ex- 
hibited in  all  the  imtxirtant  cities  of  the  U.  S.  His  Discov- 
er;/of  tlie  Hudson  A'iri/r  is  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Mo.st  of  his  works  are  of  large  size  and  are  often  ^lanoramie 
in  style.  He  has  received  various  medals  at  exhibitions  in 
Austria.  Germany,  and  Belgium,  and  the  Legion  of  Honor 
at  the  time  of  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1S67.  He  was  elected 
a  National  Acailemician  in  18U0.     Studio  in  New  York. 

William  A.  Coffix. 

Bies-Boseh:  a  marshy  lake  of  the  Netherlands:  between 
the  provinces  of  North  Braliant  and  South  Holland,  and 
formed  in  1421  by  an  inundation  which  destroyed  73  vil- 
lages and  lOO.OOOpeople.  It  forms  the  part  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Maas  which  is  called  Holland's  Diji,  and  contains  a 
number  of  islands. 

Bi'frost :  in  Scandinavian  mj-thology,  the  trembling 
way;  the  beautiful  many-colored  bridge  which  the  asas 
built  between  heaven  anil  earth.  It  is  the  rainbow.  The 
red  in  it.  says  the  Younger  Edda,  is  fire,  which  keeps  the 
frost-giants  away  from  it.     In  Ragnarok  it  breaks. 

Bi'ga  (or  Bigse.  a  plural  form  with  the  same  .significa- 
tion);  a  term  ap|)lie<l  by  the  ancient  Uomans  to  a  vehicle 
drawn  by  two  horses  abreast;  a  two-horse  chariot  used  in 
processions  and  games.  Like  the  Grec^k  war-chariot,  it  had 
two  wheels,  was  low  and  ojien  behind,  and  higher  and  closed 
in  front.  Figures  of  the  bigie  are  often  found  upon  ancient 
coins. 

Bigamy  [Vi:  lif/nmic,  dfviv.  of  hii/amc,  from  Lat.  bi'ga- 
mns-^bi-.  twice  -I-  Gr. -70^105,  wedded] :  the  offense  of  contract- 
ing a  marriage  while  a  former  marriage  is  still  subsisting. 
The  more  proper  term  for  this  offense  is  "  jiolygamy."  It  is 
governed  by  statute.  It  is  usual  to  iirovide  that  if  a  hus- 
band or  wife  shall  remain  absent  for  a  specified  number  of 
vears  (generally  seven)  without  being  heard  from  or  being 
known  to  be  living,  and  the  other  party  shall  marry  again, 
no  crime  will  be  committed,  though  the  absent  party  be  alive. 
A  party  who  has  obtained  a  divorce  from  the  lionds  of  mat- 
rimony is  free  to  marry  again  as  if  no  iirevious  marriage 
had  existed  ;  the  conditions  upon  which  the  divorcee  may 
remarry  vary  in  diflerent  Stales.  Bigamy,  it  is  generally 
held,  consists  in  the  act  of  marrying;  so  that  if  the  parties 
marry  in  one  State  and  cohabit  in  another,  the  crime  is 
conimilted  solely  in  the  place  of  the  marriage,  and  can  only 
be  prosecuted  there;  but  the  State  laws  ililfer  on  this  point. 
In  a  prosecution  for  bigamy,  an  actual  marriage  must  be 
e.slablished.  Evidence  of  reputation,  or  even  of  cohabita- 
tion, will  not  suffice.  It  does  not  follow  that  proof  of  a 
ceremonial  marriage  is  necessary.  The  laws  of  the  States 
differ  upon  that  point,  some  holding  that  a  case  may  be  es- 
tablished by  proof  of  consent  before  witnesses,  without  any 
ceremony.     Such  is  the  law  in  New  York. 

GnoRClE  CUASE. 

Big  Bctlicl:  the  name  given  to  the  action  of  June  10, 
1S61.  (o'li.  liutler,  who  had  taken  possession  of  and  for- 
tified Newport  News  a  few  days  jireviously,  found  the  Cor.- 
federatcs  under  Gen.  Magruder  in  possession  of  all  the  com- 
manding |ioints  in  his  front  ;  he  accordingly  directed  a 
rceonnoissance  in  force  to  be  made,  with  the  object  of  sur- 
prising and  capturing  the  jiositiou  called  Little  Bethel; 
and  to  make  the  expedition  more  certain  of  success  two 
regiments,  Duryea's  Zouaves  and  the  Third  New  York  under 
Col.  Townseiid.  were  to  start  about  midniglit  of  the  9th, 
and  gain  the  rear  of  the  position  to  prevent  retreat,  while 
a  battalion  of  Vermont  troops.  Col.  Phelps,  and  a  New  York 
regiment.  Col.  Benilix.  were  to  be  ready  to  attack  in  front 
by  daybreak  of  the  10th.     Though  various  precautions  had 


618 


BIG   BLACK 


BIGNON 


been  taken  against  mistake,  the  commands  of  Cols.  Bendix 
and  Townsend  approaching  each  other  near  daybreak.  Col. 
Bendix's  command  opened  fire  on  the  Third  New  York, 
killing  two  men  and  wounding  a  considerable  number,  and 
throwing  the  whole  command  into  confusion  before  the  mis- 
take was  discovered.  The  Confederates,  being  thus  noti- 
fied, retreated  to  Big  Bethel,  where  they  ha.stily  threw  up 
breastworks  behind  a  deep  creek.  Gen.  Pierce,  who  was  in 
command  of  the  Federal  expedition,  after  being  re-en- 
forced, and  iinding  Little  Bethel  deserted,  advanced  toward 
Big  Bethel,  a  few  miles  to  the  X.,  where  he  found  a  Con- 
federate force,  estimated  at  1,800,  under  the  command  of 
Col.  J.  B.  Magruder,  a  graduate  of  West  Point,  protected  by 
the  hastily  constnicted  earthworks.  Gen.  Pierce  ordered 
an  attack, Which  was  continued  nearly  four  hours,  during 
■which  time  the  Federal  troops  were  exposed  to  a  deadly 
fire,  while  the  Confederates  were  almost  entirely  protected. 
Later  in  the  day  a  more  general  assault  was  made,  led  by 
Maj.  Theodore  Winthrop,  in  which  he  was  instantly  killed 
while  encouraging  his  men  to  the  assault.  Gen.  Pierce 
finally  ordered  a  retreat,  which  was  effected  in  good  order, 
the  Confederates  following  at  some  distance  with  cavalry. 
Lieut.  John  T.  Greble,  of  the  Second  U,  S.  Artillery,  was 
killed  while  covering  the  defeated  troops.  The  Confeder- 
ates, fearing  re-enforcements  of  the  Federals  from  Fortress 
Slonroe,  fell  back  that  night  to  Yorktown.  The  Federal 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  about  100  men;  the  Con- 
federate loss  was  said  to  be  only  1  killed  and  7  wounded. 

Big  Black  :  a  river  of  JMississippi ;  rises  in  Choctaw  co., 
flows  south  west  ward,  and  enters  the  Mississippi  at  Grand 
Gulf.  Length  about  200  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats for  50  miles.  Gen.  Grant's  army,  moving  to  the 
scene  of  Vicksburg,  defeated  the  Confederates  on  the  Big 
Black,  nearly  15  miles  E.  of  that  town.  May  IT,  1863.  The 
morning  after  the  battle  of  Champion  Hills.  May  16.  1863. 
found  the  Confederate  forces  under  Pemberton  strongly 
posted  on  both  banks  of  the  Big  Black  river.  The  works 
were  successfully  assaulted,  and  all  the  troops  on  the  east 
bank,  with  seventeen  pieces  of  artillery,  captured,  the  re- 
mainder of  Pemberton's  army  retreating  to  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Vicksburg. 

Bigr  BLaek  River :  See  Black  River. 

Big  Bone  Lick :  a  salt  "  lick  "  or  spring  in  Boone  co.. 
Ky.,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  fossil  bones  of  the  mas- 
todon and  other  animals  which  are  thought  to  have  re- 
sorted to  this  place  to  "  lick "'  the  .salt  earth,  and  to  have 
perished  in  the  marshy  soil,  where  their  bones  are  now 
tound. 

Big'l'low.  Erastvs  Brigham,  LL.  D.  :  inventor;  b.  in 
West  Boylston,  Mass.,  Apr,  3,  1814.  While  a  mere  boy,  he 
invented  a  loom  for  suspender-weaving  and  other  machines. 
and  wrote  a  book  on  shorthand  writing.  He  subsequently 
invented  looms  for  counterpanes  (1838^0).  another  for 
coach-lace,  and  in  1839  brought  out  his  well-known  carpet- 
loom,  lie  was  one  of  the  principal  manufacturers  in  Clin- 
ton, Mass.  He  published  The  Tariff  Question  (1863)  and 
other  works.  D.  in  Boston,  Dec.  6,  1870.  Memorial  sketch 
by  R.  C.  Winthrop  in  1886. 

Bigrelon-,  Frank  Hagar,  A.  ^f.,  B.  T>. :  student  of  terres- 
trial magnetism  and  allied  sulijects;  b.  at  Concord,  Mass., 
Aug.  28.  1851  :  educated  at  the'  Boston  Latin  School,  Har- 
vard College,  and  Episcopal  Theological  School  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  has  taken  orders  as  a  clergyman.  He 
was  for  some  years  assistant  astronomer  at  the  Argentine 
National  01)servatory  at  Cordoba,  then  Professor  of  Mathe- 
inalios  at  Racine  College,  Wisconsin,  then  assistant  in  the 
Nautical  Almanac  office  in  Washington,  and  finally  (1801) 
Professor  of  Meteorology  in  tlie  U.  S.  Weatlu'r  Bureau, 
which  position  he  now  (18!);!)  holds.  His  name  is  especially 
assof'iated  with  an  instrument  for  the  photographic  re<-ord 
of  the  transit  of  stars  ami  with  some  novel  studies  by  which 
the  solar  corona,  the  aurora,  anil  terrestrial  magnetism  are 
shown  to  be  associated.  The  theory  involved,  thougli  still 
(1893)  new.  has  met  with  a  favorable  reception  in  scientific 
circles.  He  has  published  many  articles  on  the  solar  co- 
rona, terrestrial  magnetism,  (he  aurora,  and  astronomii'al 
instruments  and  iihotognijihy.  The  most  important  is  a 
inonogra|ih  on  the  solar  corona,  pulilished  by  tlie  Smith- 
soni.in  Instil  ul ion  in  1SH9.  M.  W.  Harrinoto.n. 

Bigelow,  Jacob,  M.  I).,  TJj.  D.  :  physician  and  botanist; 
b.  in  Sudbury,  Mass..  I'Vli.  37, 17H7;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1806.     He  became  Professor  of  Materia  Jledica  and  Clinic 


Medicine  at  Harvard,  and  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Jledical  Society.  He  practiced  medicine  in  Boston  many 
years,  founded  the  Mt.  Atiburn  Cemetery,  and  laid  out  the 
grounds  with  much  taste.  Among  his  works  are  American 
Medical  Botany  (3  vols.  8vo.  1817-31);  an  able  Discourse 
on  Self-limited  Diseases  {lli35);  Xature  in  Disease  (XHoi) ; 
and  History  of  Mt.  Auburn  (1860).  D.  in  Boston,  Jan.  10, 
1879. 

Bigelow.  John.  LL.  D. :  an  author  and  di]ilomatist ;  b.  in 
JIalden,  X.  Y,.  Xov.  25.  1817;  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1835.  He  contributed  many  articles  to  the  Democratic 
Heview.  and  in  1850  l)ccame  managing  editor  of  William  C. 
Bryant's  journal,  the  J\>«'  York  Evening  Post.  Having 
visited  Jamaica  in  that  year,  he  published  Jamaica  in.  ISoU, 
or  the  Effects  of  Sixteen  Years  of  Freedom  on  a  Slave  Coloivy. 
He  was  appointed  IT.  S.  consul  at  Paris  in  1861,  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  that  court  in  Apr.,  1865.  He  resigned  his 
position  in  18(56,  and  was  Secretary  of  State  for  New  Y'ork 
1867-68.  He  published  in  Vaxia Les  Etats-Unis  d' Amerique 
en  1S6S.  He  has  also  edited  the  Autobiography  of  Frank- 
lin (1868),  from  the  original  mannscrij>t  which  he  found  in 
France.  Among  his  other  works  are  Some  Recollections  of 
Antoine  Pierre  Berryer  (1869);  France  and  Hereditary 
J/onarchy  (IStl):  The  Wit  imd  Wisdom-  of  the  Haytians 
{\H");Jiolinos  the  Quieti.'it  (1882) ;  and  a  Life  of  William 
Cullen  Bryant  (1890).  In  1885  he  published  The  Writings 
and  Speeches  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden;  and  in  1888  The  Com- 
plete M'urks  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Biarelow,  IMelville  M.,  Ph.  D. :  legal  author  and  teacher ; 
b.  in  Eaton  Rapids,  Mich.,  Aug.  2,  1846.  He  received  his 
education  at  the  University  of  Michigan  and  at  Ilan-ard. 
For  a  nmnber  of  years  he  has  been  a  lecturer  on  law  in  the 
Boston.  Northwestern,  and  Michigan  University  law  schools. 
He  has  written  a  number  of  legal  treatises,  the  more  im- 
portant of  which  are  those  on  estopjiel,  fraud,  and  torts, 
lie  is  the  American  editor  of  Jarman  on  Wills. 

Bigelow,  Timothy  :  b.  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Aug.  12, 1739  ; 
a  blacksmith  who  became  a  memlier  of  the  Provincial  Con- 
gress of  1774-75  ;  entered  the  Revolutionary  army  as  captain 
of  minute-men  in  1775;  was  captured  at  Quebec,  became  a 
colonel  of  Massachusetts  troops,  serving  at  Stillwater,  Valley 
Forge,  etc.     D.  in  Worcester,  Mar.  31,  1790, 

Big'ger,  Samuel:  b.  in  Warren  co.,  0.,  about  1800;  edu- 
cated at  Athens  University;  studied  law  at  Lebanon,  and 
commenced  practice  in  Indiana ;  was  member  of  Congress 
1834-35 :  and  sulisequently  judge  of  the  circuit  court ;  elected 
Governor  of  Indiana  for  1840-43  bv  the  Whigs.  D.  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  1845. 

Big-liorn,  or  Rocky  Mountain  Slieep  (Oris  montana) :  a 
large  sheep  native  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  has  enormous 
horns  about  4  feet  long  and  from  18  to  20  inches  in  circum- 
ference. It  is  about  4  feet  high,  has  coarse  hair,  and  moves 
with  great  agility. 

Big  Horn :  a  river  of  the  U.  S. ;  the  largest  affluent  of  the 
Yellowstone.  It  rises  in  the  State  of  Wyoming,  among  the 
Wind  River  ;\Iountains;  fiows  in  a  generally  northward  di- 
rection ;  crosses  the  southern  boundary  of  Montana ;  enters  the 
Yellowstone  at  Big  Horn  City,  in  Montana.  Entire  length, 
estimated  at  450  or  500  miles.  The  upper  part  or  head  stream 
of  it  is  called  Wind  river. 

Bigars.  Asa  :  b.  at  Williamston,  Martin  co,,  X.  C,  Feb.  4, 
1811 ;  educated  at  an  academy;  studied  law  ;  Wfus  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1831 :  was  elected  member  of  the  constitution- 
al convention  of  North  Carolina  in  1835,  and  of  the  State 
Legislature  in  1840,  1842,  and  1844.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Twenty-ninth  Congress,  and  in  1850  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners"ap|)ointed  to  revise  the  statutes  of  the  State.  In 
1854  he  again  became  a  member  of  the  State  Senate;  elected 
a  Senator  in  CVmgress  in  1854  for  six  years ;  resigned  in  May, 
1858.  and  was  appointed  judge  of  the  U.  S.  district  court  of 
Xortli  Carolina.     I),  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  March  6,  1878, 

Bisr'ler.  Jon.v :  b.  in  Cumberland  co..  Pa.,  Jan.  8. 1804 ;  a 
brother  of  Gov.  AVilliain  Rigler  <if  Pennsylvania;  Viecame  a 
printer,  a  journalist,  and  sulisei|uently  a  lawyer.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  in  1846.  and  to  California  in  1849,  where  he  was  a 
prominent  Democratic  ]ioIitician,  and  was  knowni  as  ■'Honest 
John  liigler."'  lie  was  Governor  of  California  (1852-56).  D. 
Xov.  13,  1871. 

Bignon.  Ixxm  ywiV,  Loris  Pierre  ^feDoi'ARD:  a  French 
statesman  and  historian;  b.  at  La  Meilleraye,  Jan.  3.  1771. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1817,  and  be- 


BIGNOXIA 


BILDERDIJK 


619 


came  a  jhut  <if  France  in  1S:J7.  11<'  wrote  a  History  of 
France  from  Mie  JSIh  Briiniairi-  lo  tlif  Peace  of  Tilsit  (7  vols., 
1827-38),  and  other  works.  Xapoleon  I.  bequeathed  liim 
100,000  francs.     1).  in  Paris.  Jan.  .5,  1841. 

Bi^no'nia  [named  liy  'I'onrnofort  in  honor  of  the  Abbe 
Bignon.  tlie  lilmiriaii  of  Louis  .\1  V.] :  a  genus  of  phmts,  the 
tv|>e  of  the  faniily  lii()iii>iiiaera\  natives  of  the  tro|>ieal  an<i 
s"ni)-tro|)iial  parts  of  .Vmcriea.  31any  of  them  are  elimbiiiK 
plants,  with  ciinipound  leaves  terminating  in  a  tendril,  and 
nandsome  trumpet-shaped  or  bell-shaped  flowers,  which  are 
five-lol>ed,  or  rather  two-lipped.  The  Bignonius  are  ])rol)- 
ably  the  handsomest  twining  plants  known.  The  trumpet- 
creeper  or  trumpet-tlower  of  the  L'.  S.  is  the  liiynonia  radi- 
caiis  (or  Tecoiiia  radicaux).  It  has  a  large  and  showy  orange 
and  scarlet  corolla,  funnel-shaped  and  five-lobed,  with  four 
stamens. 

Bi^nonia  Fain  i  I y  ( Bignon  iacece) :  mostly  trees  and  shrubs 
{often  climbing),  dicotyledonous,  gamopetalous,  with  superior 
ovaries.  They  are  related  to  the  Acanthus  faniily,  the  fig- 
worts,  bladderworts,  etc.  There  are  about  460  species  known, 
natives,  mostly,  of  warm  climates.  Bignonin,  Tfcuma,  and 
Catalpa  are  rcjiresentative  genera.       Charles  E.  Hkssey. 

Big  Rapids:  city  and  railroad  center:  capital  of  Mecos- 
ta CO.,  Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan, 
ref.  6-1) :  on  the  Muskegon  river,'  .56  miles  X.  of  Grand 
Kapids  and  5.5  miles  X.  of  Muskegon.  It  has  Holly  water- 
works, extensive  water-power  (the  river  being  dammed  in 
two  places),  a  heavy  lumber  trade,  and  manufactories  of 
furniture,  coiled  elm  hoops,  and  sash,  doors  and  blinds. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,552  ;  (1890)  5,303  ;  (1894)  5,202. 

Editor  of  "  Pioneek." 

Big  Sandv  River:  an  affluent  of  the  Ohio;  the  bound- 
ary between  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  It  is  navigable 
for  more  than  100  miles  for  steamboats.  Its  main  stream,  or 
Tug  Fork,  rises  in  tile  S.  of  West  Virginia.  Its  West  Pork 
flows  through  Kastern  Kentucky.  Its  valley  abounds  in  coal, 
timber,  and  mineral  wealth. 

Big  Spring:  town  (founded  in  1882);  capital  of  Howard 
CO.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  count v,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  3-K); 
on  Texas  and  Pacific  K.  K.,  270  miles  W.  of  Fort  W'orth ; 
has  churches  of  live  denominations,  graded  public  school,  pri- 
vate school,  and  shoiis  of  Tex.  and  Pac.  K.  R.  The  indus- 
tries of  the  town  are  prineipallv  farming,  sheep-raising,  and 
cattle-raising.     Pop.  (1890)  1,1.18;  (1893)  estimated,  1.500. 

Editor  of  •'Pantagrapu." 

Big  Trees  of  ralifoniia:  See  SEQtroiA. 

Big  Vennilion  Itiver:  See  Vermiliox  River. 

Big  Wood  (Boise  or  Boisfe)  River:  of  Idaho;  rises  in 
or  near  the  Salmon  .Moinitains;  flows  westward,  and  enters 
the  Lewis  or  .Snake  river  on  the  line  between  Idaho  and  Ore- 
gon.    Gold  is  found  near  this  river. 

Bihar.  bi"e-huar' :  a  county  of  Hungary;  bounded  X.  by  the 
counties  of  Ilajilukcn,  S/abolcs,  and  Szatmar.  E.  by  Szilagy 
and  Klauseiiburg,  S.  by  Arad.  and  W.  by  Beke.s.  Area,  4,279 
s(|.  miles.  The  eastern  part  is  mountainous,  while  the  west- 
ern is  a  plain,  consisting  alternately  of  swam[)S,  sandy  j)lains, 
and  fertile  ground,  traversed  by  numerous  small  rivers.  All 
kinds  of  grain  abounil,  esficcially  wheat  of  an  excellent  qual- 
ity. Wine  and  tobacco  an-  also  raised  in  great  quantities. 
Pop.  (IS'.IO)  516,IS.5;S.     Chief  town,  Grosswardein. 

Biisli,  beesk :  a  fortified  town  of  Siberia,  in  (he  govern- 
ment of  Tomsk ;  3()()  miles  S.  of  Tomsk  (see  map  of  Asia, 
ref.  3-F).     Pop.  17.500. 

Bijapnr,  bee-ja-poor',  or  Beja)>oor  (i.  e.  the  victorious  or 
uncoiKjuerable  city):  a  city  of  India;  in  the  presidency  of 
Hombay;  245  miles  S.  E.  of  Bondiay  (see  map  of  S.  Imlia,  4-^1)). 
It  wius  formerly  the  populous  capital  of  the  powei-ful  Hindu 
kingdom  of  the  same  name,  which  was  founded  by  Tusnef 
(d.  1510):  conquered  by  Aurungzcbe  in  1686;  and  afterward 
a  part  of  the  empire  of  the  Grand  Mogul.  According  to  tra- 
dition, it  contained  100.000  houses,  but  is  at  present  in  ruins. 
It  presents  a  magnificent  external  show  of  (Tomes  and  mina- 
rets, temples  and  mausoleums,  some  of  which  display  exqui- 
site workmanship  ;  and  lofty  walls  of  he\m  stone  inclose  this 
scene  of  splen<lid  desolation.  Among  the  ruins,  which  are 
of  great  extent,  is  n  mausoleum  of  Mahmud  Shah,  the  dome 
of  which  is  visible  at  a  distance  of  14  miles.  Here  are  several 
brass  cannon  of  enormous  size, 

Bikanir.  bik-a-nei'r',  or  Biokaiieer:  a  native  state  of 
Rajjiutana,  British  India;  situated  between  lat.  27°  30  and 
29°  55'  X.,  and  between  Ion.  72   30'  and  75'  40'  E.     Area, 


23,340  sq.  miles.    The  soil  is  poor,  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  deserts.   The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Rajputs.  Pop.  510,000. 

Bikanir.  or  Biekaiieer :  a  fortified  town ;  capital  of  state 
of  same  name ;  in  an  arid  and  desolate  tract  240  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Delhi ;  lat.  28'  X.,  Ion.  73"  22'  E.  (sec  map  of  X. 
India,  ref.  .5-C).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  battlcmented  wall  Si- 
miles in  circuit,  and  has  a  citadel,  several  temples,  and  lofty 
buildings,  but  the  streets  are  dirty  and  most  of  the  houses 
mean.     Pop.  (1891)  55,640. 

Bikelas,  Demetrios:  modern  Greek  poet  and  translator; 
b.  in  1835:  has  translated  into  modern  Greek  Shakspeare's 
liomro  and  Juliet,  J/iiiidet,  Macbetli.  Othello,  Merchant  of 
Venice,  and  Lear.  He  has  published  a  romance,  Loukis 
Laras.  1879.  and  hius  written  much  upon  mediieval  Greek 
historv  and  literature.  ^  His  best-known  historical  work  is 
Les  Greci  au  Moyen  Aye  (French  translation,  1878).  A  col- 
lection of  his  poems  appeared  in  1862 ;  another  in  188.5. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bilaspur,  be"e-las-poor' :  a  district  of  Chhatisgarh  di- 
vision. Central  Provinces.  British  ln<lia;  between  parallels 
21  45'  and  23'  16  X..  and  meridians  81'  30  and  83°  15  E., 
forming  the  upper  half  of  the  basin  of  the  Jlahanadi  river. 
Area,  7,798  sq.  miles.  It  is  inclosed  by  ranges  of  hills,  except 
on  the  south,  where  it  is  open  and  easily  accessible.  It  has 
abundant  natural  waters,  and  also  abounds  in  tanks.  Rice, 
wheat,  oil-seeds,  and  cotton  are  the  chief  agricultural  staples, 
and  it  is  so  productive  that  it  is  popularly  called  the  "land 
of  |ilenty."  Cotton  and  silk  cloths  are  manufactured  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  The  climate  is  relaxing,  but  not  op- 
pressive. Cholera,  fever,  and  smallpox  [irevail.  Pop.  1,000,- 
0(K).  of  whom  61  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  and  38  are  members  of 
aboriginal  tribes.  Among  the  Hindus  the  Chamars,  or  shoe- 
making  caste,  here  form  a  sejiarate  religious  body.  A  similar 
religious  body  is  that  of  the  Pankas,  or  weaver  caste.  Both 
have  customs  which  now  distinguish  them  from  the  Hindus. 
Bilaspur  is  also  the  name  of  a  native  hill  state  in  the  Punjaub. 
Area,  448  sej.  miles.     Pop.  90,000.     Mark  W.  Harri-ngtos. 

Bilbao,  lu'el-baao  (often  written  in  English  Bilbo'a) :  a 
seaiiort-town  of  Spain;  capital  of  the  province  of  Biscay; 
on  the  river  Xervion.  near  the  Bav  of  Biscav,  and  28  miles 
X.  W.  of  Vitoria;  lat.  43°  15'  X.,  Ion.  2"  54  W.  (see  map  of 
Spain,  ref.  13-G).  It  is  partly  inclosed  by  high  mountains, 
and  is  well  built.  Small  vessels  can  ascend  the  river  to  this 
point,  which  is  here  crossed  by  several  bridges.  Bilbao  has 
a  cathedral  and  a  number  of  convents;  also  manufactures 
of  harihvare.  hats,  leather,  paper,  and  earthenware.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  arc  grain  anil  flour,  iron.  oil.  and  fruits. 
This  town  was  founded  in  KiOO.  and  was  first  called  Belvao, 
and  aoout  1.500  was  the  seat  of  a  fanious  commercial  tribunal. 
It  has  steam  communication  with  London  and  Liverpool. 
Was  besieged  bv  the  Carlists  in  1835  and  1874.  Pop.  (1887) 
50.772. 

Bilberry,  cu- Wliortlelierry:  the  fruit  of  various  small 
shrubs  of  the  genera  Varriiiiiun  and  Gaylussncia.  and  of  the 
nat  in-al  c >rder  Ericai-ew.  nat ives  of  N'ort  h  America  and  Xorth- 
ern  F.uropc.  These  fruits,  under  the  name  of  huckleberries 
and  blueberries,  are  extensively  used  in  the  Xorthern  U,  S. 
and  Canada. 

Bilderdijk.  bil'der-dik.  Willem  :  Dntch.poet  and  philolo- 
gist ;  b.  in  Amsterdam.  Sept.  7,  1750 ;  a  man  of  great  erudi- 
tion and  vei-sed  in  many  languages  and  sciences.  He  studied 
law  and  pr.ieticed  as  an  advocate  at  The  Hague.  About 
1805  Louis  Bonaparte  appointed  him  secretary  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Holland.  He  was  the  author  of  many  poems,  trage- 
dies, and  prose  works,  which  had  a  high  reputation  and  dis- 
plav  a  remarkable  mastery  of  form.  Among  his  poetical 
works  are  //(•/  lii/ileiileren  (ISti:!);;  Holland's  verlossing 
(1813);  Vaderlandsrhe  nilhoezemiiiyen  {\S\'y);  and  the  frag- 
ment of  an  epic  entitled  I)e  ondc'rgang  der  eerxte  irareld. 
Among  his  plulological  works,  his  Toal-  en  dichtkundige 
versrheidenheden  (4  vols..  1820-23)  and  Nieuire  taal-  en 
dichth:  verscheidenheden  (4  vols..  1824-25)  are  of  value.  His 
Oeschiedenis  de.<<  vaderlnnds  (13  vols.,  1832-!)3)  has  consid- 
erable importance,  though  written  from  the  absolutist  point 
of  view.  Bilderdijk"s  works  appeared  in  Ilaaileni,  15  vols., 
1850-59.  See  Isaac  da  Costa.  iJe  mensch  en  de  dichter  Bil- 
derdijk. 1859.  I),  in  Haarlem.  Dec.  18.  1831.— W.  Bilder- 
dijk'.s  wife.  Katuarina  Wii,iit:i,mixa  Bii.derdijk.  b.  in  The 
Hague.  .Tuly  3.  1777,  d.  in  Haarlem.  Aiir.  16.  18.30,  was  also 
a  well-known  poet.  See  her  Dichtirerken  (3  vols.,  1858-60). 
For  further  details,  see  Gorter.  Bilderdijk  (Amsterdam, 
1871).  Revised  by  A.  R.  JIaksh. 


620 


BILE 


BILLIARDS 


Bile  (Lat.  bilis) :  the  secretion  of  the  liver  in  animals. 
In  all  vt'i'tebrates  it  is  formed  chiefly  from  the  blood  of  the 
portal  vein,  which  is  mingled,  however,  U)  some  extent  with 
that  of  the  hepatic  artery.  It  is  secreted  slowly  during  the 
intervals  of  digestion,  attaining  its  maximum  (acconling  to 
Dalton)  about  an  hour  after  eating.  It  is  in  man  a  golden- 
red,  viscid  fluid,  with  a  bitter  taste  and  a  peculiar  smell.  In 
carnivorous  animals  it  is  brownish  yellow ;  in  herbivorous, 
gi'eenish.  From  20  to  .50  ounces  of  it  are  secreted  daily  in 
a  man.  A  portion  of  liile  is  commonly  detained  in  the  gall- 
bladder, where  it  becomes  more  dense  by  the  loss  of  water 
and  the  addition  of  mucus. 

Bile  contains  certain  coloring  and  saline  and  other  con- 
stituents. The  '■  bile  salts  "  consist  of  cholic  (glycocholic) 
and  taurocholio  acids,  combined  in  man  with  soda.  These 
acids  are  formed  in  the  liver,  not  being  present  in  the  blood, 
unless  from  absorption  after  their  elaboration  in  the  liver. 
C'holesterin,  the  only  alcohol  existing  free  in  the  body,  is 
present  in  notable  quantity.  It  is  found  in  the  blood  in 
small  quantity.  Of  the  bile  pigments,  bilirubin  and  6j7i- 
verdin  are  the  principal,  and  are  derived  from  the  coloring- 
matter  of  the  blood. 

Entering  by  tlie  common  biliary  duct  into  the  duodenum, 
the  bile  aids  in  the  digestion  of  food,  especially  of  tat,  and 
the  greater  part  of  it  is  then  reabsorbed  from  tlie  small  in- 
testine. A  [lortion,  however,  is  excreted  with  the  fu'cal  dis- 
charge. Bile  stimulates  the  peristaltic  muscular  action  of 
the  bowels,  being  the  natm'al  laxative.  It  acts  also  as  an 
antiseptic  to  the  almost  putrescent  contents  of  the  large  in- 
testine. Solidification  of  the  components  of  the  bile  (espe- 
cially of  cholesterin)  causes  gall-stones,  the  passage  of  which 
through  the  duet  often  produces  e:<treme  pain. 

The  bile  of  salt-water  tishes  contains  potash  in  place  of 
soda,  although  from  their  being  surrounded  by  nuich  com- 
mon salt  (cldoride  of  soditnu)  in  the  sea-water,  we  should 
naturally  expect  to  find  soda  in  abun<lauce ;  and  the  bile  of 
land  and  fresh-water  animals  contains  soda,  while,  consider- 
ing diet  and  habitat,  potash  might  more  naturally  be  looked 
for.  Revised  by  Wili-iam  Pepper. 

Bilin,  bw-leen'  (in  Lat.  Bdina) :  a  town  of  Bohemia ;  beau- 
tifully situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Biela ;  IT  miles  W.  of  Leit- 
meritz  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  2-D).  Near  it  are 
the  celebrated  mineral  springs  which  are  much  frequented, 
and  from  which  abciut  2.0(llt,00ll  bottles  of  the  well-known 
Sauerlirunneu  water  are  annually  exported.  The  well-known 
polishing-powder  of  Bilin  is  Bergmehl.     Pop.  (1890)  6,493. 

Bilious  Colic :  See  Liver,  Diseases  of. 

Bilious  Fever :  See  Fevee. 

Bill,  or  Beak  (in  Lat.  ros'trmn ;  Fr.  ber) :  the  hard,  homy 
moulh  of  birds,  consisting  of  two  i)arts  called  the  upper  and 
lower  mandibles,  which  may  be  regarded  as  mere  extensions 
of  the  ujipi'r  and  lowei'  jaws.  Among  existing  liirds  the  bill 
is  never  furnished  with  teet  h,  but  in  a  number  of  fossil  forms 
teeth  are  present.  The  bill  is  the  prini^iiial  weapon  of  offense 
and  defense  of  many  birds,  and  is  an  important  character  in 
the  classification  of  the  group.  The  forms  of  bills  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  food  on  which  the  bird 
subsists,  ami  to  the  operations  by  which  that  food  must  be 
procaired.  In  liirds  of  prey  (U(tpti)i-i's)  the  upper  mandible 
is  hooked  and  sharp,  and  the  whole  bill  is  adai>ted  for  seizing 
animals  and  tearing  their  flesh:  birds  that  feed  on  seeds 
have  short,  strong,  and  conic-al  bills:  while  humming-birds 
have  long,  straight,  and  slender  bills,  fitted  to  insert  into 
long,  tubular  corollas.  Many  aquatic  liirds,  as  ducks  ami 
geese,  have  broad,  oblTise.  and  comparatively  soft  ami  sensi- 
tive bills,  wit  h  lamina'  on  t  lie  inner  margin  in  order  to  strain 
the  mud  in  which  they  find  their  food. 

Bill:  in  law,  a  formal  statement  or  declaration  in  writ- 
ing. It  is  commonly  used  in  coniUHtion  with  some  descrip- 
tive word,  as  in  tlie  'phiMses  bill  in  iM|uitv,  bill  of  cn-dit,  bill 
of  exchange,  liill  of  rights,  bUl  of  sale,  etc.  (</.  r).  The  prin- 
cipal uses  of  the  word  without  other  word.s 'of  dc-icrijition 
are  iis  applied  to  (a)  a  draft  of  a  proposed  law  pending 
before  a  legislature,  as  •' bills  for  raising  revenue.'^  After 
such  a  bill  beconu's  a  law,  it  is  usually  termed  an  "act"  or 
"statute."  (/;)  One  of  the  forms  of  pleadings  by  which  a 
common-law  action  was  anciently  commenced,  answering  to 
the  modern  declaration  or  comjihiint.  Also  the  statement 
of  facts  and  iirayer  for  relief  of  tin;  complainant  in  a  suit  in 
equity,  usually  called  a  bill  in  equity  (q.  v.).  (c)  An  itemized 
statement  of  the  claims  of  a  creditor. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Alle.n. 


Bil'lerica :  town  (founded  about  1650) ;  Middlesex  co., 
Mass.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-H); 
beautifully  situated  20  miles  from  Boston ;  on  B.  and  M.  R.  R. 
Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,000;  (1890)  2,380  ;  (1895)  2,577. 

Billet,  bw'/a'.  Pierre  :  contemporary  French  painter  of 
landscape  and  figures,  and  of  the  life  of  fisher-folk,  whose 
work  is  marked  by  simplicity  of  drawing,  good  color  quality, 
and  virile  technique:  b.  at  Cantin,  Nord:  pupil  of  Jides 
Breton  :  second-class  medal,  Paris  Salon,  1874:  second-class 
medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889.     Studio  at  Cantin. 

W.  A.  C. 

Billflsh  :  any  one  of  several  fishes  with  jaws  elongated 
into  a  bill  or  beak.  Among  these  are  species  of  the  genus 
Ti/!osunis.  known  also  as  "'garfish"  and  "needlefish,"  very 
common  along  the  Atlantic  ctiast  of  America :  also  tlie  fresh- 
water garfishes  of  the  genus  Litpidosteus.  common  in  the 
larger  streams  of  North  America,  and  the  spearfish,  I'etrap- 
funis  a/bidi(S,  allied  to  the  common  swordfish. 

Bil'liards  [Fr.  bilkii-cl :  Norman  French,  bilUarf;  the 
stick  or  statt'  with  wliich  the  ball  is  stnick,  from  Fr.  i/Z/c,  a 
block  of  wood,  hence  billet]  :  an  indoor  game  played  by  driv- 
ing balls,  usually  of  solid  ivory,  according  to  certain  rules 
over  the  surface  of  a  specially  adapted  table,  called  a  billiard- 
table. 

Origin  ntid  Early  DereJopmenf. — This  game,  which  is  now 
practiced  by  the  people  of  all  civilized  countries,  was  de- 
veloped out  of  an  outdoor  game  played  upon  the  grass  or 
ground  with  two  round  stones;  later  with  balls  of  lignum 
vit;c  or  other  hard,  heavy  substance.  A  cone  and  port  were 
also  used,  and  afterward  a  cone  and  an  iron  or  ivory  loop, 
arch,  or  port,  the  balls  being  driven  with  a  mace  through 
the  loop,  arch,  or  port,  and  around  the  ccme  and  port,  in  a 
way  similar  to  the  game  of  croquet.  Afterward  the  game 
was  played  indoors  in  a  similar  form  upon  a  table.  The 
outdoor  game  was  probably  a  modification  of  the  ancient 
game  of  "bowls,"  which  was  played  upon  the  ground  with 
round  stones  thrown  from  the  hand. 

Billiards  was  known  in  England  in  the  Middle  Ages,  liav- 
ing  been  introduced  by  the  Knights  Templars  on  their  return 
from  the  second  crusade,  and  the  game  was  common  in  the 
monasteries  of  Europe.  It  was  introduced  into  France  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  XI.  (1461),  and  into  America  by  the 
Spaniards  who  settled  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  in  1565. 

The  earliest  authentic  mention  of  the  game  appeal's  in 
Reilly"s  English  translation  of  the  Alibe  McGeoghegan's 
Jlislnrij  of  Irfltind,  in  which  is  given  the  substance  of  the 
will  ot  Cathire  More,  a  sidvking  of  Ireland,  who  ruled  the 
district  of  licinster  in  the  early  ]iart  of  the  second  century 
A.  D.  The  following  is  a  quotation  from  his  wiU:  "To  Dri- 
moth  I  bequeath  fifty  billiarcl-lialls  of  brass,  with  the  pools 
and  cues  of  the  same  material." 

In  (ireat  Britain  there  were  added  to  the  loop,  arch,  or 
port,  and  the  post  and  king,  three  pockets  of  netting,  all  on 
one  side  of  the  table,  two  at  the  corners  and  one  midway. 
Then  to  the  square  table  was  added  a  fourth  pocket,  and  the 
jioekets  were  placed  one  in  each  corner.  Later  the  table  was 
made  oblong,  and  an  additional  pocket  (or  sometimes  more 
than  one)  was  placed  midway  of  each  long  or  side  cushion- 
rail,  making  six  jjockets,  as  in  the  pool-tables  of  the  present 
day.  During  the  eighteenth  century  the  loop,  arch,  or  port, 
and  the  post  and  king  were  discarded,  and  the  game  was 
played  wholly  by  pocketing  the  object-ball,  each  player  play- 
ing in  turn  and  taking  but  one  stroke.  The  practice  of  each 
playing  until  he  fails  to  score  is  an  innovation  of  more  mod- 
ern times. 

In  France  a  hole  was  cut  through  the  center  of  the  bed  of 
the  table  and  the  object-ball  was  driven  into  it  by  causing 
the  ball  to  rebound  from  a  cushion  orby  "  banking"  the  cue- 
ball  to  a  cushion,  so  that  on  the  rebound  it  would  strike  the 
object-ball  and  drive  it  into  the  hole,  from  which  a  groove 
eondiuted  the  ball  undrr  the  table  loan  opening  at  the  side. 
Later  no  hole  was  cut  in  the  center  of  I  lie  bed  of  the  table, 
but  six  holes  were  cut  in  the  bed,  one  at  each  corner  and  one 
midway  of  each  of  the  long  or  side  cushions.  These  holes 
were  cut  immediately  in  fr<mt  of  the  cushions,  but  did 
not  extend  through  the  cushions,  as  do  the  pockets  in  the 
present  style  of  pool-table.  The  game  as  played  upon  these 
tables  was  called  "doublet."  and  long  continued  to  be  its 
most  popular  form  in  France. 

Two  while  balls  were  generally  used  in  all  countries,  the 
object  in  (ilayiiig  being  to  pocket  or  "kill"  the  ball  of  the 
opposing  player.  Each  ]ilayer  had  three  "lives,"  and  to  the 
player  who  remained  in  the  game  the  longest  was  awarded 


I'.II.MARDS 


621 


the  victory.    In  the  U.  S.  this  game  was  known  in  liitcr 
times  iw  ••  two-ball  pool." 

A  fiirlhii-  iiii|jniviinent  in  the  eame  was  made  by  the 
Frencli  shortly  after  the  miildle  of  the  eij;htcenth  century 
by  the  introduction  of  a  third  or  red  ball  called  the  caram- 
boler.  thus  inventing;  the  carom  same.  In  France  with  the 
introduction  of  the  third  ball  the  (ilay  was  called  a  rnnim- 
bote  or  rdriimbiihuje  :  in  Great  Britain  cannrin.  am\  in  the 
V.a.  caram.  I'pon  the  introduction  of  the  third  ball,  the 
game  consisted  of'-bnth  hazards"  (i.  e.  |ioeketiuf;  the  balls 
and  making  caroms  on  both  object-balls),  and  was  at  that 
period  the  jiopul.ir  jiame  in  Prance.  Soon  afterward  it  be- 
came the  iiame  of  winninjr  and  losing  hazards  and  caroms  in 
Great  Uritain.  and  this  game  now  (1893)  remains  the  stand- 
ard there. 

Cues  and  Ciie-planincj. — Tn  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  cu<'-|ilaying  was  first  introduced  into  France  anrl 
Englaiid.  the  ball  being  struck  with  the  flat  end  of  the  cue. 
With  the  flat-pointed  cues,  however,  the  cue-ball  had  to  be 
struck  exactly  in  the  center,  or  a  "miscue  "  would  result. 
The  first  departure  from  the  flat-pointed  cues  was  tlie  use 
of  cues  having  a  lievcled  en<l  for  striking  the  cue-liall  below 
the  center.  Soon,  however  (about  17!K)).  the  end  of  the  cue 
was  rounded  off.  as  it  wsus  found  that  so  there  was  less  ehauc-e 
for  a  miscue,  and  that  certain  extraordinary  elfects  coidd  be 
[iroiluced  by  striking  the  ball  with  a  roinided  cue-point. 

From  thus  rounijing  the  cue-point  the  side-stroke,  twist, 
or  '•  English  "  was  developed,  and  soon  chalk  wa.s  apjdied  to 
the  rounded  wooden  ends  of  the  cues,  thus  lessennig  the 
chance  of  the  cue-point  sliiiping,  and  the  players  were  able 
to  accomplish  better  and  more  remarkable  effects. 

About  ISOT  cue-tips  were  invented  by  a  Capt,  Mingaud,  a 
Frenchman  who  h.-id  been  iuiprisoned  on  account  of  some 
political  otfense.  During  Jlingaud's  imprisonment  he  was 
allowed  the  use  of  a  billiard-table,  and  he  experimented  for 
the  purpose  of  devising  a  covering,  or  tip,  for  the  end  of  his 
cue  to  obviate  the  frei]uent  disappointment  caused  by  the 
wooden  point  of  the  old-fa«hioned  cue  slipping  from  the 
ball,  and  he  soon  invented  a  cue-til)  "''"'  ^^hiih  lie  coidil 
twist  and  "draw"  the  cue-ball  ill  an  astonishing  iiiMMner.  so 
that  it  seemcil  to  defy  all  laws  of  motion.  When  lilierated 
from  prison,  .Ming.'iud  visiteil  the  cafes  of  Paris  and  aston- 
ished the  frequenters  of  those  places  with  his  marvelous 
execution.  Thus  was  the  game  of  billiards  revolutionized, 
and  (_'a[)t.  Jlingaud's  cue-tijis  soon  .superseded  the  old-fash- 
ioned implements  pre\iousIy  used,  and  rapid  improvement 
in  the  game  soon  followed.  These  cue-tips  were  introduced 
into  the  I'.  S.  about  1S3:1  but  as  their  fame  had  long  pre- 
ceded them,  some  of  domestic  make  were  ;ilready  in  use. 

Soon  after  the  intnxbiction  of  cue-tips  in  France  the 
carom-game  became  popular,  and  the  scoring  of  hazards  or 
pockets  was  gradually  abolished,  and  carom-tiibles  were 
there  introduced.  These  have  the  carom-rail  continuous  on 
the  sides  and  ends,  and  are  without  pockets. 

The  game  nf  billiards  is  played  in  the  U.  S.  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  the  carom-table,  while  tallies  with  six  pockets, 
oni-  at  each  corner  and  one  at  the  center  of  each  siiU",  and 
those  with  four  pockets,  one  at  each  corner,  are  used  for  fif- 
teen-ball ]iuol,  , 

Billiard-tiihlcH. — The  present  shape  and  construction  of 
billiard-tables  are  the  result  of  much  experiment  and  observa- 
tion. They  have  been  made  square,  round,  oval,  octagonal, 
and  hust  and  best  in  the  shape  of  an  oblong  rectangle,  'J'lie 
frames  are  made  of  hard  wood,  as  rosewood,  Widnut,  maple, 
oak.  etc. 

The  beds  were  at  first  made  of  wood,  soft  pine  being  used, 
then  oak  and  other  hard  woods,  the  lieds  being  made  in 
small  [lanels  to  prevent  warping.  When  they  became  in- 
dented after  considerable  use  the  cloths  were  taken  off  and 
the  beds  planed  down.  About  18"27  marble  beds  were  intro- 
duced, but  marlile  was  soon  superseded  by  slate,  wliicli,  not 
being  porous,  does  not  gather  moi.sture  and  rot  the  clolli, 
and  is  also  not  so  brittle  as  marble,  and  therefore  not  as 
liable  to  be  broken. 

Generally  tliree  or  four  slabs,  an  inch  in  tliickness,  arc 
u.sed,  and  over  this  bed  is  stretched  fine,  green  Simonis 
broadcloth.  The  table  being  made  perfectlv  level,  this  gives 
a  smooth,  even  surface  for  the  balls  to  roll  upon.  Around 
this  bed,  and  rising  about  2  inches  above  it,  are  rails  bearing 
the  cushions,  the  top  surface  of  which  is  :J4  inches  above  the 
floor.  The  edge  of  the  cushion  where  the  ball  comes  in  con- 
tact with  it  is  1^,;  inches  above  the  slate,  anil  is,  or  should 
be,  slightly  pitched  to  prevent  the  ball  from  jumping  and 
to  permit  ihe  cue  to  strike  the  ball  at  the  proper  point.    This 


height  is  adapted  to  the  liilliard-ball  of  regulation  size.  For 
balls  of  a  dirt'erent  size  the  elevation  of  the  cushions  should 
1)0  changed  so  that  they  come  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
above  the  center  of  the  ball. 

Upon  the  cushion  much  of  the  success  of  the  stroke  de- 
pends, and  to  insure  the  best  results  it  .should  be  made  as 
nearly  perfect  as  possible,  combining  qualities  that  will  as- 
sure durability  and  accuracy:  it  should  ]iossess  that  nice 
degree  of  elasticity,  the  exactness  of  wliicli  rciiuires  long  ex- 
perience to  learn,  that  will  insure  a  proper  angle  when  the 
ball  rc'bounds;  it  must  be  unafTected  cither  by  damp  or  di-y 
weather  or  by  changes  of  temperature. 

In  183.5  cushions  of  india-ruliber  were  introiluced  into 
both  (ireat  Britain  and  the  U.  .S.,  which,  on  account  of  their 
elasticity,  created  great  enthusiasm. 

No  other  notable  improvements  were  made  until  about 
thirty  ycais  later,  when  a  vulcanized  cushion  (which  was  a 
combination  of  luire  elastic  and  hard  rublier)  was  intro- 
duced, the  hard  rubber  being  set  on  the  front  of  the  cushion 
to  stifl'en  its  face  against  the  impingement  of  the  balls. 
These  cushions,  on  account  of  the  correctness  of  the  angles 
at  which  the  balls  rebounded  anil  their  elastic  and  wearing 
qualities,  became  a  complete  success,  and  are  now  in  general 
use. 

Since  ]8o.5  numerous  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
construction  of  billiard-tables;  and  the  skill  of  the  manu- 
facturers of  the  I'.  S.  now  leaves  little  further  to  be  desired. 

For  a  .5  by  10  table  Ihe  cross-arms  of  the  gas-pendant 
should  measure  from  light  to  light  28  inches,  and  the  long 
arms  .")6  inches.  The  standard  size  of  the  billiard-table  used 
by  the  experts  of  the  U.  S.  for  all  match  games  is  o  feet  wide 
by  10  feet  long,  but  for  private  houses  and  pulilic  billiard- 
rooms  the  snialler  table,  4^  by  !l  fci't,  has  become  more  popu- 
lar and  the  4  by  8  feet  table  is  frequently  used.  In  Great 
Britain  the  standard  size  of  table  is  6  by  12  feet,  the  balls 
used  on  them  are  2(^  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  pockets 
are  3f  iiuOies  wide  where  the  slate  is  cut  away, 

Hilliiird-nxims. — .\n  apai'lmcnt  to  accommodate  a  bil- 
liard-taiile  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  afford  space  for  the 
free  exercise  of  the  cue.  For  tables  o  feet  by  10  feet  the 
room  should  lie  at  least  1.5  feet  by  20  feet.  Architects  in 
their  plans  for  modem  mansions  now  make  suitable  provi- 
sion for  this  amu.sement.  The  light,  if  possilile,  should  come 
from  above,  so  as  to  prevent  any  shadow  being  thrown  from 
the  balls  or  cushions.  The  gaslight  should  be  raised  about 
3  ft.  2  in,  from  the  tied  of  the  table  and  supplied  with  hori- 
zontal burners,  as  by  such  an  arrangement  no  shadow  is 
thrown  from  the  |)ipe. 

Mofli'iii  BiUinrdx. — As  a  game  for  both  sexes  billiards,  as 
now  played,  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  indoor  iiastimes.  Its 
attractions  are  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  it  may  be  played 
by  more  than  two  jiersons,  for  liilliard-games  are  varied,  and 
several  have  been  invented  to  accommodate  party-playing. 
The  use  of  the  cue  brings  into  gentle  action  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body,  and  it  is  s.iid  that  an  active  ]ilayer  will  walk  a 
mile  or  two  ilnriug  the  playing  of  a  single  game. 

Proficiency  in  playing  billiards  calls  for  a  quick  eye,  a 
steady  hainl,  an  exact  measurement  of  distance  and  angles 
upon  "the  table:  it  requires  a  deft  and  delicate  touch  in  order 
to  maniinilate  the  cue  and  the  cue-ball;  great  judgment  is 
required  in  properly  estimating  the  strength  of  stroke  to  be 
delivered  to  acconiplish  the  iliffcrent  shots  which  iiresent 
themselves,  and  correct  judgment  in  this  respect  is  as  im- 
portant as  is  correctness  in  the  aim.  The  necessary  force  of 
stroke  also  dejicnds  upon  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere, 
as  in  damp  days  the  cloth  absorbs  moist  lire  and  offers  greater 
resistance  to  the  ball.  Scholars  may  in  jilaying  the  game 
find  mathematical,  geometrical,  and  algebraic  problems eon- 
stantlv  arising  before  them  for  their  solution. 

'I'lie  original  .\nicrican  game  was  known  as  the  American 
four-ball  game  of  caroms  and  hazards,  and  was  played  on  a 
(!  bv  12  six-pocket  talile.  This  game  was  played  in  France 
befiire  it  was  known  in  the  l',  S„  and  was  called  "The 
pime  of  the  Hevolution."'  Variety  was  probably  the  aim  of 
thosi^  who  devised  the  game  and  it  was  a  combination  of  the 
French  game  and  the  Kussian  game  of  "  Carline,"  The 
former  was  composed  of  cai'onis  and  hazards  and  was  played 
with  three  balls,  while  the  Kussian  game  was  composoil  of 
hazards  and  caroms  and  was  phiyeil  with  five  balls:  a  clear 
wliite  ball,  a  spotted  white,  a  yellow  or  black  ball,  which 
was  called  the  "  Carline  "  and  which  was  spotted  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  table;  a  red  ball,  whicli  was  spotted  at  the  foot  of 
the  tabli',  as  in  the  .\nieriean  and  French  games,  and  a  blue 
ball  which  was  spotted  at  the  head  of  the  table. 


622 


BILLIARDS 


BILLINGS 


The  American  four-ball  game  of  caroms  and  hazards  is 
played  with  two  white  lialls  (one  of  which  has  a  small  lilack 
spot  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  white  ball),  a  light-red 
and  a  dark-red  ball.  The  light -red  is  "  spotted  "  at  the  head 
of  the  table  and  the  dark-reil  liall  at  the  foot  of  the  tal)le. 
The  game  is  opened  by  "stringing"  for  the  lead  and  choice 
of  cue-balls.  The  jilayer  who  strikes  his  ball  from  within  tlie 
string-line,  i.e.  all  that  jiart  of  tlie  talile  beliind  the  spot  at 
the  head  of  the  tal.>le.  causes  it  to  hit  the  cushion  at  the  foot 
of  the  table,  and  lands  it  nearest  the  cushion  at  the  head  of 
the  table,  wins  the  lead  and  the  choice  of  balls,  and  can 
choose  the  first  shot  or  compel  his  opponent  to  play  first. 
The  white  ball  of  the  non-striker  can  be  rolled  down  the 
table,  through  a  stroke  with  the  cue,  past  the  dark-reil  liall 
at  the  foot  of  the  table,  and  must  cinne  to  a  rest  below  that 
ball,  or  the  non-striker  may  place  his  ball  upon  the  wliite- 
ball  spot  at  the  foot  of  the  table,  5  inches  from  the  foot 
cushion  and  directly  on  a  line  with  the  other  spots.  In  open- 
ing the  game  the  'plaver  must  strike  his  opponent's  white 
ball  before  striking  aiiy  other  ball  with  his  own.  In  the 
early  American  game  a  carom  from  white  to  red  or  from  red 
to  white  counted  two ;  from  red  to  red  three :  from  white 
to  red,  then  to  the  other  red,  five,  or  vice  verm;  pocketing 
the  opponent's  white  two;  pocketing  the  red  three;  pocket- 
ing both  reds  sis ;  pocketing  the  white  and  both  reds  eight ; 
pocketing  the  three  oliject-balls,  after  nuiking  a  carom  on  all 
three,  scored  thirteen  for  the  striker.  Should  the  white  cue- 
ball  go  to  pocket  from  the  white  object-baU,  or  either  before 
or  after  striking  a  red  baU,  the  striker  forfeited  two ;  should 
the  white  eue-liall  go  to  pocket  off  a  red  ball,  the  striker  for- 
feited three.  The  game  consists  of  100  points.  Playing  the 
"  spot-ball,"  i.  e,  scoring  a  succession  of  pockets  without  a 
miss,  or  without  resorting  to  a  carom,  had  been  so  perfected 
by  the  experts  of  the  time  (previous  to  1854)  that  runs  in 
the  hundreds  were  common,  and  Lynn  Highani,  of  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  professionally  known  as  tlie  "Albany  Pony,"  was  cred- 
ited with  a  run  of  2,400  points  off  the  si)ot-ball,  scored  with- 
out resorting  to  a  carom  and  counting  three  tor  each  poc-ket. 
In  the  fifties  it  became  popular  to  make  it  conditional  in  re- 
gard to  pocketing  the  red  Ijall  off  the  spot,  and  the  play  was 
limited  to  three  strokes  off  the  spot ;  then  a  carom  was  re- 
quired. Later  once  off  the  "  spot "  became  a  common  re- 
quirement among  the  better  class  of  players.  About  this 
time  the  expert  amateur  and  jirofessional  players  abolished 
the  pocketing  of  balls  from  the  Ami'rican  four-ball  ga.mc 
and  resorted  to  caroms  altogether,  and  in  1861  6  by  12  foot 
four-pocket  tables  were  introduced,  and  the  American  four- 
ball  carom  game  continued  to  be  the  common  game  of  bil- 
liards in  the  U.  S.  until  1876.  In  April  of  that  year  the 
final  public  championship  contest  was  played  at  that  }iar- 
ticular  game. 

As  an  offset  to  spot-ball  play,  the  nursing  of  balls  became 
so  perfeeteil  by  the  great  experts  of  the  sixties  and  the  early 
seventies,  and  such  extraordinary  runs  were  scored,  that  a 
game  of  1,500  points  was  never  Iield  safe  by  a  player  who 
might,  perhaps,  be  in  the  lead  by  several  hundred  ]ioints. 
In  April,  1869,  the  American  four-ball,  bar-)nisli  game  was 
inaugurated  through  a  tournament  which  was  held  in  Irving 
Hall,  New  York.  Four  changes  were  made  in  the  rides  in 
this  tournament :  The  "  pusli  "  .shot  was  officially  excluded  ; 
tlie  table  was  reduced  in  size  from  6  l)y  12  to  .")^  by  11.  The 
table  was,  as  before,  a  four-pocket,  but  the  size  of  the  jaws 
of  the  pockets  was  made  to  measure  4  inches,  and  not  more 
than  three  successive  caroms  could  be  made  with  tlu'  balls 
in  the  jaw.  The  system  of  counting  and  scoring  tlie  game 
was  so  changed  that  each  single  carom  counted  three  and 
each  doulile  carom  six,  where  formerly  from  white  to  red 
had  counted  two  and  from  red  to  red  three,  and  what  was 
known  as  the  "Diamond  ('ue  Championship"  was  estab- 
lished through  this  tournament. 

Further  changes  in  the  playing  of  the  game  occurred  in 
1873.  The  expi^rt  amateur  and  professional  players  had 
been  favoring  and  griwlually  in  their  practice-playing  drift- 
ing toward  the  three-ball  carom  game,  and  match  contests 
at  three-ball  carom  liiUiards, j)laycd  on  5  liy  10  laliles,  had 
become  matters  of  ri'cord.  In  June,  lH7:i,  the  lirst  tourna- 
ment for  tile  championslijp  at  regular  three-liall  billiards  on 
5  by  10  tal)le  was  inaugurated  in  Irving  Midi,  Xew  York, 
and  what  became  the  "('hallenge  Cup  Cham)iionship  of  the 
World"  was  inaugurated,  A  new  set  of  rules  to  govern 
three-ball  l)illiards  was  ap]iroved  of  by  practical  critics  and 
experts,  whicli,  upon  being  submitted  to  a  congress  of  ex- 
perts and  the  playei's  who  were  to  participate  in  the  tourna- 
ment, were  adopted  as  the  standard  rules  to  govern  contests 


for  the  cup  trophy  which  was  to  become  emblematic  of  the 
championship  of  the  world  at  regular  three-ball  liilliards. 
All  games  were  to  be  played  on  a  5  by  10  table.  Each  carom 
was  made  to  count  one  ;  the  crotching  of  balls  was  barred, 
and  object-balls  whose  centers  were  both  within  a  square  of 
4i  inches  at  either  comer  of  the  table  were  considered  to  be 
within  the  line.  When  the  object-balls  were  so  within  a 
scpiare  three  counts  only  would  be  allowed,  unless  at  least 
one  of  the  object-balls  was  forced  out  of  it.  In  case  of  fail- 
ure by  a  player  to  dislodge  an  object-ball  from  the  square, 
his  hand  was  out  and  the  next  player  played  with  the  balls 
as  he  found  them. 

Kegular  three-ball  billiards  was  so  mastered  by  the  great 
experts  that  in  1880  a  record  at  run-getting  was  established 
by  Vignaux,  in  a  match  contest  in  Paris,  of  1,581,  In  1879 
restrictions  were  placed  ujion  the  rail-nui'sing  of  balls, 
tlirough  the  introduction  of  triangular  spaces  in  each  cor- 
ner of  tlie  table,  through  a  line  drawn  upon  the  surface  of 
the  cloth  from  a  point  on  the  face  of  the  end  cushions  meas- 
uring 14  inches  out  from  the  corner  of  the  cushions  to  a 
point  on  the  face  of  the  side  cushion  measuring  28  inches 
out  from  the  corners.  But  three  strokes  were  permitted 
with  both  object-balls  within  any  of  these  triangular  spaces 
without  driving  at  least  one  ball  out.  These  spaces  were 
first  used,  but  in  a  diminutive  form,  in  the  Vignaux  (New 
York)  tournament  of  1874,  they  measuring  in  that  tourna- 
ment 5i  inches  out  on  each  cushion  rail  from  the  corners  of 
the  cushions.  The  games  in  the  tournament  with  the  larger 
triangular  spaces  (14  by  28)  established  a  chanipionshiii  at 
"  The  Champions'  Game,"  as  it  was  called,  but  the  game 
was  short-lived,  and  there  were  but  four  public  contests  for 
the  trophy  emblematic  of  the  championship  of  that  game. 

Meantime  the  amateurs  of  the  world  continued  to  jirac- 
tice  the  regular  game  of  three-ball  billiards,  and  mostly 
upon  4i  by  9  tables,  and  amateurs  left  to  the  professional 
experts  the  restricted  games  of  billiards  where  lines  and 
spaces  were  marked  out  on  the  cloth. 

In  18So  I  lie  balk-line  game  came  to  the  front  through  a 
professional  tournament  in  Chicago.  The  lines  in  this  tourna- 
ment were  made  8  inches  from  the  cushions,  and  were  drawn 
lengthwise  of  the  table  and  across  the  talile  at  the  ends. 
Eight  restricted  spaces  were  thus  formed,  four  lieing  in  the 
corners  of  the  table  and  four  along  the  side  and  end  cushions. 
But  two  counting-strokes  were  allowed  with  both  object- 
balls  within  any  of  these  restricted  spaces.  The  8-inch 
balk-line  game  was,  however,  soon  mastered  by  the  great 
experts  of  the  day,  and  in  order  to  bring  the  non-nursing 
experts,  who  were  known  as  "  cushion-carom  "  players,  and 
the  nursing  experts  of  the  time  together  on  equitalile  terms 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  inaugurate  a  tournament  at  14- 
inch  balk-line  billiards,  and  in  Aiir..  1885.  the  14-inch  balk- 
line  game  was  formally  introduced  to  the  )iublic.  It  was 
not  until  Dec,  18!)0,  that  a  championship  was  established  at 
14-iiicli  balk-line  billiards,  and  this  special  restricted  game 
of  billiards  remains  the  standard  game  for  the  expert  "  pro- 
fessional "  players.  Amateurs  practice  the  regular  three- 
ball  carom  game  throughout  the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  France, 
and  some  other  countries,  and  without  regard  to  the  re- 
.stricted  lialk-lines. 

For  the  rules  of  billiards  and  pool  in  all  games,  and  for 
instructions  how  to  ])lay  the  games,  see  Mnihrii  Bil/iarcis, 
published  by  the  Iirunswick-lJalke-Collender  Comiiany,  New 
York.  Mortimer  T.  Humphrey. 

Bin  ill  Equity  :  a  statement  of  the  plaintiff's  case  in  a 
suit  in  court  of  equity,  corres]ii>nding  to  the  "  declaraliou  "  or 
"compl.-iint  "  in  the  common  law.  The  defendant's  reply  is 
called  the  "  answer."  It  is  not  necessary  to  adhere  to  a  pre- 
scribed form  in  drawing  up  a  bill  in  eipiity,  as  it  is  in  the 
case  of  a  common-law  complaint ;  and  the  essence  of  a  bill 
in  equity  is  the  statement  of  the  fscts  and  the  prayer  for 
relief  or'otherwise.  (See  Pleauixg.)  A  bill  is  either  origi- 
nal or  not  original.  An  original  bill  initiates  the  suit;  a 
bill  not  original,  as  a  cross-bill,  a  siqqilemcntary  bill,  etc., 
is  used  to  controvert  or  suspend  or  revise  a  ^iroceeding  in 
the  cause,  as  a  decree  or  order,  or  for  cross-litigation.  In 
particular  suits  the  bill  receives  special  names,  such  as  "bill 
of  peace,"  "bill  of  interpleader,"  "bill  of  discovery,"  "cross- 
bill." Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

liiUiiigH:  city;  capital  of  Yellowstone  co.,  Mon,  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Montana,  ref.  6-II) ;  on 
Northern  Pacific  R,  R.,  and  Y\-llowstone  river,  which  fur- 
nishes water-power  :  chief  distributing  and  shipping  jioint 
tor  the  great  stock-ranges  of  Eastern  Montana  and  Northern 


BILLINGS 


BILL  OF   EXCHANGE 


623 


Wyoming,  and  the  wool-marki-t  of  Montana.  It  is  llie  ter- 
minus of  a  railroad  to  the  largest  and  best  coal-field  in  Mon- 
tana, and  has  line  stone-quarries.     Pop.  (18'J0)  8^6. 

Killings,  JouN  Shaw,  M.  I)..  LL.  D.,  1).  C.  L. :  surgeon  ;  1). 
in  Switzerland  co.,  ln<l..  Apr.  12,  1838;  graduated  at  Miami 
University  18.57;  at  the  Ohio  Medieal  College  181)0;  appointed 
acting  assistant  surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  army  1861 :  served 
through  the  war,  being  with  the  Fifth  Corps  at  the  battles  of 
Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg;  from  Dec..  18(i4.conneftpd 
with  the  surgeon-general's  otlice  in  Washington;  appointed 
surgeon,  with  the  rank  of  major,  in  the  regular  army  Dec, 
187tj;  retired  in  18i)5  ;  in  the  same  year  became  Pepper  Pro- 
fessor of  Hygiene  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in 
1896  was  appointed  director  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 
(Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden  foundation).  He  is  the  author  of 
Report  un  Ili/f/iene  of  the  i'nited  States  Army  (187o);  I'rin- 
ciple.sof  \'ent  Hat  ion  and  Ileal  i?ig  [ISS4);  Mortality  and  Vital 
Statixticsof  the  i'nited  States  (2  vols.,  188.5);  Index  Catalogue 
of  the  Ltbrari/  of  the  Surgeon-General's  Offiee  (12  vols,  royal 
8vo,  1880-92);  T/ie  Xational  Medical  jiicliojiari/  (2  vols., 
1889) ;  Description  of  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  ( ISflO) ;  and 
of  numerous  papers  in  scientific  and  medical  periodicals. 

Itniiiigs.  .losii  :  See  Shaw,  Henhv  Wheeler. 

Itiriingsgafo :  a  wharf  and  fisli-nuirket  of  London;  be- 
low Ijondoii  bridge  ;  was  mailer  a  "  free  and  open  market  for 
all  sorts  of  fish"  in  1699.  It  is  the  only  wholesale  fish- 
market  in  London,  and  all  fish,  fresh  or  cured,  if  imjiorted 
in  Uritish  vessels,  are  admiltcil  free  of  duty.  All  fish  are 
sold  here  by  tale,  except  salmon  and  eels,  which  are  sold  by 
weight ;  oysters  are  sold  by  nu>asurc.  No  fish  are  sold  on 
Sunday,  exce|)t  mackerel.  The  women  who  vended  fish  here 
were  formerly  notorious  for  ribaldry  aiul  vituperativi^  per- 
sonalities, so  that  "  Hillingsgate  "  became  a  synonym  of  vul- 
gar and  foul  expressions. 

BilUoii:  in  the  French  system  of  enumeration,  in  use  in 
the  U.  S..  a  thousand  millions.  In  (ireat  Britain  a  billion 
is  a  million  millions— 1,00(),0(H),000,()0(), 

nnntoii,  bl-lee-tou',  or  BiHptnii  :  a  Dutch  island  in  the 
KasI  Indies  ;  situated  between  Borni'o  an<l  llu'  southeast  end 
of  Sumatra,  and  separateil  from  Banca  by  Clement's  (or 
(iaspar)  Sirail.  It  is  .-iboul  ;^  S.  hit.,  and  I'OS  E.  Ion.  (see 
null)  "f  '''"■'^'^  Indies,  ref.  7-D).  Area,  estinuited  at  1.860  sq. 
miles.  Iron  ore  aiul  good  timber  abound  here.  Trepang, 
tin,  birds'  nests,  and  tortoise-shells  an'  exported  from  it. 
Pop.  (IsitO)  ;i7.80:i,  of  whicli  about  10,000  are  Chinese  and 
100  Europeans. 

Bill  of  .VttailHlcr :  a  legislative  enactment  declaring 
the  atlaiiiiler  of  one  or  more  poi-sons.  (See  Attai.ndek.) 
Formerly  |iersiins  were  often  attainted  of  high  treason  in 
Kiigland  liy  act  of  Parliament,  and  during  tlie  war  of  the 
Revolution  bills  of  attainder  were  freipiently  passed  in  this 
country.  The  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  providi-s  that 
neither  a  State  nor  Congress  shall  pass  bills  of  attainder. 
Such  a  bill  is  usually  opposed  to  sound  legislation  in  four 
principal  respects:  It  is  adopted  liy  the  legislature,  instead 
of  being  a  seiiteuee  by  the  judiciary:  it  departs  from  judi- 
cial rules  in  establishing  the  commission  of  the  allegect 
criminal  act.  having  no  regular  methods  of  trial  or  rules  of 
evidence;  it  may  declare  an  act  to  be  a  crime  which  was  not 
so  when  committed  :  and  it  admits  of  the  infliction  of  cruel 
and  unusual  punishments.  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of 
Strafford,  was  allaiiited  in  Ifi-tl,  but,  the  matter  ceased  to 
be  imiiorlant  in  (ireat  Britain  by  Acts  of  Parliament,  1870, 

Bill  of  Credit  :  iu  law.  (1)  In  mercantile  law,  a  letter 
written  by  one  pi'rson  to  another  authorizing  or  requesting 
him  to  give  credit  to  a  third  or  his  order,  or  to  bearer. 
Such  a  letter  is  general  when  adilressi'd  to  anyone  who  may 
see  fit  to  give  the  [iroposed  credit,  and  who  on  giving  credit 
nuiy  have  recourse  to  the  writer  of  the  letter.  On  such  a 
letter  several  |)ersons  may  successively  give  credit.  The 
letter  is  s])ecial  when  addressed  to  specified  persons,  so  that 
they  alone  can  give  the  credit.  (2)  The  U.  S,  Constitution 
provides  that  no  State  shall  "emit  bills  of  credit."  This 
expression  is  construed  by  the  courts  to  mean  instruments 
issued  for  the  payment  of  money — issued  on  the  credit  of 
the  Slates  us  such,  payable  at  a  future  day,  and  intended  to 
circulate  as  moiiev.  The  clause  does  not  prevent  a  Static 
from  is.suing  bonds  for  the  payment  of  its  indebtedness, 
payable  at  a  future  day;  nor  does  it  prohibit  the  creation 
.^f  banks  which  issue  currency.  The  provision  aims  at  the 
use  of  the  credit  of  the  States  in  their  corporate  character, 
and  was  nuidc  in  pursuance  of  the  general  policy  which 


took   from  them  the  power  to  coin  money,  and  restricted 
their  power  over  the  legal  ti'uder. 

Revised  by  F.  Stirges  Allex. 

Bill  of  Exceptions:  a  formal  statement  in  writing  of 
exceptions  taken  to  the  ju<lge's  opinion,  decision,  or  direction 
uiion  matters  of  law  dui-iug  a  trial.  It  sets  forth  the  pro- 
ceedings at  such  trial,  the  decision  or  ruling  made,  and  the 
exception  thereto,  signed  ami  sealed  by  the  judge  in  testi- 
mony of  its  correctness.  The  object  of  a  bill  of  exceptions 
is  to  bring  the  alleged  error  of  the  judgi'  before  the  proper 
cnurt  for  review,  and  it  usually  contains  oidy  such  portion 
of  ( he  proceedings  and  eviilence  taken  at  the  trial  as  is  neces- 
sary for  that  ]]urpose.  Formerly  the  right  to  a  bill  of  ex- 
ceptions did  not  exist  in  ca.ses  of  treason  or  felony,  but  now 
the  (lefeiulant  has  this  right  in  most  of  the  United  States. 
Kevised  by  P.  Sturoes  Au.en. 

Bill  of  Exchangee:  an  open  letter  of  request,  whereby 
one  pei-son  re(|uests  another  to  pay  a  third  or  his  order,  or  to 
bearer,  a  sum  of  money,  absolutely  and  at  all  events.  The 
person  who  writes  the  letter  is  called  the  drawer:  the  one 
to  whom  it  is  addressecl  is  lermeil  the  drawee  ;  and  the  per- 
.son  who  is  to  receive  the  money  is  the  payee.  A  bill  of  ex- 
chaiigi'  is  either  inland  or  foreign.  W  here  the  parties  are 
in  the  same  State.it  is  inland;  where  the  drawee  resides 
in  a  State  or  country  dilTerent  from  that  of  the  drawer,  or 
in  any  case  where  the  bill  is  drawn  in  one  State  upon  a 
jiersoii  in  another,  it  is  foreign.  .V  bill  may  be  considered 
under  the  following  heads:  1,  its  nature;  2,  indorsement ; 
:i.  acceptance;  4.  presentment  for  [layment,  and  steps  to 
be  taken  to  charge  drawer  and  indoi'sers. 

1.  A  bill  of  exchange  having  all  the  requisites  referred 
to  in  the  definition  as  above  given  is  negotiable,  unless 
some  other  requisite  is  prescribed  by  statute,  as  is  some- 
times the  case.  Thus  in  souu'  of  the  U.  S.  the  receipt  of 
a  valuable  consideration  must  b<^  expressed.  By  this  word 
is  meant  that  a  transfer  of  it  in  good  faith  before  matur- 
ity will  give  the  purchaser  a  light  of  action  in  his  own 
name  in  a  court  of  law,  as  distinguished  from  a  court  of 
eipiity ;  and  he  accordingly  takes  a  title  free  from  defenses 
that  may  have  existed  liefvveen  the  original  parties.  But 
if  any  of  the  qualities  referred  to  in  the  definition  are 
wanting,  H(7/'//mi//(7(/ does  not  exist.  The  paper  becomes 
assignable,  and  the  defenses  between  the 'original  parties 
are  let  in.  Negotiability,  however,  assumes  that  the  in- 
strument has  a  legal  existence  as  to  its  outward  form,  and 
is  accordingly  executed  by  a  person  competenl  to  contract. 
A  bill  of  exchange  drawn  by  or  iijion  a  married  woman  or 
an  infant  would  not  create  a  valiii  obligation  even  a.s  to  a 
purchaser  in  good  faith;  nor  if  the  iiislriiment  were  declared 
void  by  statute,  ti-s  is  sometimes  the  case  when  infected 
with  usury  or  given  for  a  gaming  consideration.  L'nder 
these  rules,  if  an  instrument  otherwise  in  the  form  of  a 
bill  of  exchange  were  payable  in  something  other  than 
money,  or  uixm  a  contingency,  or  from  a  special  fund,  or 
to  a  particular  person,  without  the  addition  of  the  words 
"order"  or  "bearer,"  it  woiihl  not  be  negotiable.  The 
law  ])resiimes  that  a  bill  is  given  for  a  valuable  considera- 
tion. Evidence  may  be  offered  as  between  the  original 
parlies.  ;ind  as  to  all  who  can  not  insist  upon  the  protection 
of  negotiability,  that  there  is  no  consideration.  An  inipor- 
la.nl  dislinclioii  thus  arises  between  what  may  be  called 
business  j)aper  and  a^'comiiiodal  ion  [taper.  The  former  is  / 
given  for  a  valuable  considiM'al ion  as  belwi'cn  the  original  ' 
])arties,  such  a.s  for  money  lent  or  goods  sold.  In  accom- 
modation paper  there  is  no  such  consideration,  but  the 
[lerson  who  makes  it  intends  to  lend  his  credit  to  some 
person.  Every  party  to  a  bill  may  hold  this  relation  to  it. 
Thus  there  m.ay  be  an  accommodation  acceptor,  drawer,  or 
indoi'ser.  This  kind  of  iiaper  niiisl  be  distinguisln'd  from 
that  which  is  simply  without  consideration,  in  which  there 
is  no  intent  to  have  the  credit  of  the  party  who  makes  it 
used.  A  single  illustration  will  show  the  dislinclion.  If 
a  person  should  draw  a  bill  in  favor  of  his  friend  on  ac- 
count of  his  atleclion.  if  would  be  simply  without  consider- 
ation; if  under  the  .same  circumstances  it  was  drawn  with 
intent  to  have  it  discounted  by  a  bank.it  would  be  "  ac- 
comiiio<lalion  jiaper."  In  the  one  case,  if  a  purcluLser 
should  ac(iiiire  it  with  knowledge  of  all  the  circumstances, 
hi' could  not  enforce  it,  while  in  the  other  case  he  could, 
by  rea.son  of  the  intent.  When  accommodation  paper  ha-s 
lieen  acipiired  for  value,  it  is  substantially  equivalent,  as 
far  as  tlu' holder  is  concerned,  to  business  pajier.  Between 
the  original  parties  it  would  have  no  validity,  and  could 


624 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE 


not  supply  the  basis  of  an  action.  On  the  contrary,  if  an 
accommodation  party  to  the  bill  is  obliged  to  pay,  he  has 
his  remedy  against  the  party  in  whose  favor  he  acted, 
either  on  the  bill  or  on  an  implied  contract,  ixs  the  case  may 
be.  Thus  an  accommodation  acceptor  could  not  bring  an 
action  tipim  the  bill  against  the  drawer  whom  he  had  ac- 
commodated, but  woidd  be  driven  to  an  action  on  an  im- 
plied contract  on  the  part  of  the  drawer  to  repay  money 
which  had  been  paid  for  the  drawer's  use  and  lienefit.  When 
one  party  gives  his  acceptance  to  another  in  return  for  the 
other's  acceptance,  it  is  not  a  true  case  of  an  accommoda- 
tion acceptance,  though  sometimes  so  cj-Ued.  These  "cross" 
acceptances  ai-e  based  upon  a  consideration,  the  one  promise 
being  a  consideration  for  the  other.  They  are  certainly 
dangerous  contracts,  as  either  party  may  be  called  on  to 
pay  to  a  holder  not  only  his  own  acceptance,  but  that  of  the 
other  party.  Without  further  pursuing  this  distinction, 
attention  should  be  called  to  a  peculiarity  in  this  branch 
of  the  law  which  shows  its  close  connection  with  the  subject 
of  currency.  It  is  a  well-settled  general  rule  of  the  connnon 
law  that  a  person  having  no  title  to  goods  can  transfer  none, 
even  to  a  purchaser  in  good  faith.  A  thief  or  a  tinder,  for 
example,  can  create  no  better  title  than  he  possesses.  There 
is  a  marked  exception  to  this  rule  in  the  case  of  money. 
One  who  has  stolen  money  may  give  a  perfect  title  to  one 
who  takes  it  in  good  faith  and  for  value.  This  exception  is 
demanded  by  the  necessities  of  commerce.  The  rule  is  ex- 
tended to  negotiable  paper,  payable  to  bearer,  or  even  to 
order,  when  so  indorsed  as  to  pass  from  hand  to  hand  with- 
out further  indorsement. 

It  is  plain  that  a  bill  when  drawni  imjioses  no  obligation 
upon  the  drawee.  It  is  necessary  that  he  should  assent  to 
it  in  some  legal  form  before  he  becomes  liable.  This  act 
is  termed  "  acceptance."  Before  acceptance  the  only  per- 
son liable  to  the  payee  is  the  drawer.  His  liability  is  a 
contingent  one.  and  implied  by  law.  There  is  thus  a 
marked  distinction  lietween  the  liability  of  a  drawer  and 
acceptor — one  is  implied,  and  the  other  is  express  and  cre- 
ated by  contract.  The  implied  obligation  of  the  drawer  is 
created  by  the  custom  of  merchants,  and  is  conditional.  It 
requires  certain  acts  to  be  performed  as  a  condition  prece- 
dent to  recovery  of  the  amount  of  the  bill,  such  as  present- 
ment either  for  acceptance  or  payment,  and  due  notice  to 
be  given  of  a  failure  to  accept  or  pay,  as  the  case  may  be. 
This  distinction  between  the  implied  liability  of  the  drawer 
and  the  e.rpri'ss  contract  of  an  acceptor  is  of  great  conse- 
quence, and  must  be  carefully  attended  to.  The  same  re- 
mark may  l)e  nuide  as  to  the  liability  of  an  indorser.  This 
is  also  implied  and  conditional.  The  nature  of  a  check 
upon  a  bank  should  be  referred  to.  It  resembles  a  bill  of 
exchange,  though  it  is  not  precisely  equivalent  to  it.  The 
check,  according  to  the  better  opinion,  creates  no  obligation 
against  the  bank  in  favor  of  the  holder  without  acceptance. 
In  mercantile  phrase,  a  check  when  accepted  by  the  act  of 
an  officer,  such  as  a  teller,  is  said  to  be  "  certified,''  The 
bank  after  such  an  act  is  liable  to  the  holder.  The  drawer 
of  a  check  having  funds  on  deposit  has  an  action  against 
the  bank  for  damages  for  a  refusal  to  honor  his  check,  on 
the  ground  of  an  implied  obligation  to  pay  checks  according 
to  the  usual  course  of  business.  While  checks  are  usually 
drawn  ]iay:iljle  immediately,  they  may  be  nuide  payable  at 
a  future  day  (being  then  called  "post-dated  checks"'),  when 
their  resemblance  to  a  bill  of  exchange  is  still  more  close. 

2.  Indorsement. — The  payee  of  a  bill  may  transfer  it  by 
writing  liis  name  upon  the  back  of  it.  He  is  then  termed 
an  indorser.  When  the  name  is  simply  written  the  in- 
dorsement is  said  to  be  "  in  blank  " ;  when  some  person  is 
{jointed  out  to  whom  payment  is  to  l)c  made,  it  is  said  to 
)e  "  in  full."  When  a'  l>ill  is  indorsed  in  blank,  it  will 
pass  from  hand  to  hand,  as  though  payibh-  to  bearer; 
when  indorsed  in  full,  an  inchu-sement  by  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  tranfcrred  will  be  necessary  to  its  further  trans- 
fer. There  maybe  a  scries  of  indoi-sers. called  first,  secoiul. 
third,  etc.,  indorsers.  Under  these  rules  no  holder  can 
claim  a  title  to  a  bill  payable  to  order  except  through  an 
indorsement  maile  by  the  very  person  to  whom  it  is  payable, 
or  some  one  holding  undir  lum.  such  as  his  exi  cutor,  ad- 
ministrator, or  assignee  in  bankruptcy.  Accordingly,  if  it 
should  come  into  the  possession  of  another  persoii  of  the 
same  name  as  the  owner,  but  acting  without  authority,  he 
could  give  no  title  to  one  acting  in  good  faith.  When  im 
owner  of  a  bill  indorses  it  for  value,  he  can  impose  upon 
the  purchaser  no  valid  restriction  preventing  its  further 
transfer.     The  right  of  sale  is  an  insejiarable  incident  to 


ownership.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  person  indorse  a  bill 
to  an  agent,  he  may  place  valid  restrictions  upon  the 
agent's  authority  to  sell.  These,  if  incorporated  in  the  in- 
dorsement, win  bind  all  ptirchascrs.  Where  a  bill  is  pay- 
able to  several  persons,  all  must,  in  general,  unite  in  an 
indorsement.  The  regular  effect  of  an  indorsement  is  two- 
told  :  one  consequence  is  to  transfer  the  indorser's  interest, 
and  the  other  is  to  create  an  imiilied  obligation  on  his  part 
to  pay  the  bill  in  case  that  the  drawee  does  not  accept  or 
pay  at  maturity,  and  proper  steps  are  taken  to  charge  him. 
In  an  accommodation  indorsement,  as  there  would  be  no 
ownership,  the  sole  effect  would  be  to  create  an  obligation 
to  pay.  This  obligation  closely  resembles  that  of  surety- 
ship. Thus  when  a  bill  is  accepted  the  acceptor  is  pri- 
marily liable,  and  the  indorser  is.  as  it  were,  a  surety.  The 
rules  governing  suretyship  may  in  the  main  be  invoked  in 
his  favor.  An  iiuloi-ser  may  avoid  this  liability  by  making 
use  of  suitable  words  in  his  indorsement,  such  as  •'  without 
recourse."  The  indorsement  woukl  then  simply  oiierate  as 
a  transfer  of  such  interest  as  he  might  have,  Indorsers 
are  commonly  hable  in  the  order  of  time  of  their  indorse- 
ments. Thus  if  there  were  three  indorsers,  if  the  third 
(or  last)  was  compelled  to  pay,  he  would  be  entitled  to  sue 
the  second  or  first,  and  recover  in  full.  A  holder  need  not 
pursue  any  prescribed  order  as  between  the  indorsers. 
lie  may  select  any  one,  who.  if  he  pays,  will  be  entitled 
to  proceed  in  the  same  way  as  to  any  one  preceding  him. 
If,  however,  the  bill  is  made  payable  to  several  payees,  who 
indorse,  they  are  liable  jointly  and  not  successively,  and 
each,  as  between  themselves,  would  be  liable  only  for  their 
respective  shares.  Every  indorsement  is  a  new  contract. 
One  of  the  consequences  of  this  nile  is.  that  though  the 
original  bill  may  be  void,  the  indorser  will  still  be  liable, 
as  if  the  bill  be  void  for  usury  or  be  made  by  a  married 
woman.  Another  consequence  is  that  the  rules  of  private 
internatioiud  law  may  cause  a  different  effect  to  be  given 
to  the  respective  indorsements.  Thus  if  A  should  indorse 
in  one  State  or  country,  and  B  should  indoi-se  the  same  bill 
in  anotlier,  each  indorsement  would  be  governed  as  to  its 
eilect  by  the  law  of  the  State  or  country  where  it  was  made. 
The  mere  act  of  writing  one's  name  is  not  an  indorsement ; 
there  must  also  be  a  delivery.  Accordingly,  if  one  should 
write  his  name  and  die  before  delivery,  an  executor  could 
not  deliver  the  bill  so  as  to  make  a  valid  "  indorsement." 
The  proper  course  would  be  for  the  executor  to  indorse  it 
in  his  representative  character. 

3.  Acceptance. — The  object  of  acceptance  is  to  show  the 
assent  of  the  drawee  of  the  bill  to  pav  it  according  to  its 
terms.  Without  such  assent  he  would  not  be  liable.  He 
is  allowed  a  reasonable  time  after  the  presentment  of  a 
bill  within  which  to  decide  whether  to  accept  it  or  not, 
which  time  has  been  held  to  be  twenty-four  hours.  The 
regular  and  formal  methoil  of  acceptance  is  to  write  the 
name  of  the  drawee  upon  the  front  of  the  bill.  Bvit  no  par- 
ticular mode  of  acceptance  is  necessary.  It  may  be  made 
by  a  writing  separate  from  the  bill  or  orally.  It  may  some- 
times be  implied,  a.s.  for  example,  by  a  detention  on  the  part 
of  the  drawee  beyond  a  reasonable  time.  It  may  be  either 
absolute  or  conditional.  A  conditional  acceptance  maybe 
illustrated  by  one  purporting  to  be  made  "on  the  consign- 
ment of  goods  to  the  drawee."  A  holder  coidd  not  collect 
in  such  a  case  if  there  was  no  such  consigiuuent.  An  ac- 
ceptance should  not  differ  from  the  terms  of  the  bill.  A 
holder  may  decline  to  take  such  an  acceptance,  and  treat  the 
case  as  though  there  was  no  acceptance,  Shoidd  he  assent 
to  it,  he  would  thereby  discharge  the  drawer  and  existing 
indorsers.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  there  shovdil  be 
]irescntment  for  acceptance  as  distinct  from  one  for  pay- 
ment, though  in  some  cases  it  is  requisite.  When'  a  bill  is 
payable  a  fixed  number  of  days  "after  sight,"  the  word 
"sight"'  means  acceptance,  and  it  would  be  neci'ssary  to 
present  it  once  for  acceptance,  and,  if  that  act  took  place, 
again  for  payment.  If.  on  the  other  hand,  the  bill  were 
payable  a  certain  number  of  days  "after  date."  it  would 
only  be  lux'cssary  to  ]iresent  it  once  for  all  for  payment, 
thoiigli  it  would  usually  hi'  an  act  of  prudence  to  present  it 
for  acce|itMiu-c.  .-IS  the  jmldi'r  would,  m  case  of  acceptance, 
have  an  additional  person  to  whom  he  eouhl  have  recourse, 
and  in  case  of  non-a<-ce|)tance  he  could  lake  immediate  steps 
to  charge  the  other  parlies  to  the  bill.  There  has  been  great 
controversy  on  the  question  whether  bills  payable  "at 
sight"  must  Vie  presented  for  acceptance  as  well  as  pay- 
ment. In  some  of  the  States  the  doubt  is  settled  by  legisla- 
tion.    Tlie  effect  of  acceptance  is  to  make  the  drawee  the 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE 


BILL  OP  PAINS  AND  PENALTIES 


625 


principal  debtor.  The  other  parties  stand  in  reliition  of 
sureties,  and  if  they  are  eomiielled  to  [lay,  they  have  ttieir 
remedy  over  ajjainst  the  aeceptors.  'J'liis  is  clearly  the  case 
in  Imsiness  pH])er;  in  the  case  of  an  acconunodation  bill  the 
position  of  the  parties  is  of  course  reversed,  so  tliat  tlie  ac- 
ceptor, as  already  explained,  luis  his  remedy  on  an  implied 
contract  against  tlie  [lei-son  to  whom  he  lent  his  credit, 
thoui;h   as  to  Ilie  liolder  of  tlie  bill  he  holds  the  place  of  a 

[(rincijial  debtor.  I'nder  I  hese  rub's  an  acceptor  is  bound  to 
mow  the  haiidwritinf;  of  the  drawer,  and  if  that  be  forged 
lie  is  still  liable  to  the  orijiiruil  holder.  If  acceptance  is  re- 
fused, the  proper  course,  in  the  case  of  foreiiin  bills,  is  to 
have  a  protest  made,  and  promjit  notice  sent  to  the  tlrawer 
and  indoi-sers.  In  ca.se  of  inland  bills,  protest  is  not  essen- 
tial. tlioui;li  jprcsentmciit  an<l  notice  are.  .Statutes  usuidly 
allow  protest  in  ca.se  of  inland  bills  as  a  convenient  medium 
of  proof  that  the  necessary  steps  have  lieen  taken  to  eliargc 
the  [larties  to  the  bill.  Tlic  term  "  protest  "  is  ap[)lied  to  an 
olVicial  act  by  an  authorized  pel-son  (notary  public),  whereby 
he  atlirnis  in  a  formal  or  prescribed  manner,  in  writing,  that 
the  bill  has  been  regularly  presented  for  acceptance  or  pay- 
ment, as  the  case  may  be,  and  that  it  has  been  refused.  It 
is  used  as  presumjilive  I'vidence  at  a  trial  to  cstablisli  the 
facts  in  ipiestioii.  The  ollice  of  a  ••notice"  is  to  give  imnie- 
diatp  information  to  the  drawer  or  indorsers  of  failure  of 
acceptance,  so  that  they  may  take  such  steps  as  they  deem 
necessary  for  their  proli'clion.  The  protest  and  notice  are 
thus  entirely  distinct  acts  for  ditferent  purposes,  and  must 
not  be  conl'ouiKled.  Assuming  that  acceptance  has  been 
refused  and  due  protest  made,  mercantile  law  allows  any 
person  to  intervene  and  accept  ;i  liill  ■•  for  the  honor"  of  a 
drawer  or  indoi-ser.  A  holder  is  not  bound  to  take  such  an 
acceptance,  though  it  Is  valid  if  assented  to.  It  takes  place 
before  a  notary  ]iul)lic,  and  is  termed  an  acceptance  "  Kiipra 
protest."  The  person  thus  intervening  states  for  whose 
honor  he  accejits.  In  ca.se  he  pays,  he  becomes  the  creditor 
of  that  party,  and  may  also  have  recourse  to  all  who  precede 
him  on  the  bill,  in  opjiosition  to  the  general  rule  of  law  that 
one  can  not  beeoinc  the  ci'eilitor  of  allot hi'r  without  his  con- 
sent. \Vli(Ui  the  bill  matures  it  is  again  presented  to  the 
original  drawee  for  payment,  who  may  in  the  meantime 
have  been  placeil  in  funds.  an<l  may  now  be  willing  to  take 
up  the  bill.  Should  he  again  refuse,  it  is  protesteil  ami  pre- 
sented to  the  acceptor  .siiprn  priiti'xt  for  jiayment,  and  if 
he  then  refuses  to  make  payment,  anotlier  and  final  protest 
will  be  necessary  io  charge  drawer  or  indorsers. 

4.  Prexeiilmi-iit  fur  Piii/mi-iit. — It  is  a  general  rule  that  a.s 
between  debtor  and  creditor  no  present iiient  for  payment 
is  necessary.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  debtor  to  seek  tlic  cred- 
itor, and  if  the  day  for  payinenl  elapses  without  it  there 
is  an  immediate  remedy  by  action.  The  better  opinion 
in  the  U.  .S.  is  that  this  rule  a]iplies  to  an  acceptor  of  a 
bill  of  exchange,  even  where  it  is  payalile  at  a  particular 
iilace.  such  as  a  specitieil  bank.  On  this  view  it  would  not 
be  necessary  for  the  holdiT  to  [irove  a  ))resentnieiit,  but  the 
acceptor  might  show  in  his  defense  any  facts  that  would  re- 
lieve him  or  diminish  lialiility.  such  as  that  he  had  left 
funds  with  the  bank,  which  had  failed.  Hut  to  charge 
drawer  and  indoi^sei^s  the  ca.se  is  entirely  different.  These 
enter  into  no  absolute  engagement,  but  only  into  an  obliga- 
ti(m  implied  by  law.  It  is  a  jiart  of  the  iiniilied  contract 
that  pres<-iitnient  for  jiayment  shall  be  made,  and  protest, 
where  that  is  necessary,  .'iiid  notice  given.  Tlii'se  acts  must 
be  alleged  in  the  pleadings,  and  proved  at  the  trial  as  con- 
ditions precedent  to  a  right  of  recovery.  The  modes  of  per- 
forming these  various  acts  branch  out  into  mnch  detail,  and 
only  the  leading  ones  can  be  lirought  within  the  compa.ss  of 
this  article.  The  general  rule  is  that  the  bill,  when  imyable 
without  designation  of  place,  must  be  iuvsente<l,  when  it 
matures,  to  the  acceptor.  iMt her  at  his  residence  or  place  of 
business,  an<l,  if  at  the  place  of  business,  within  business 
hours.  If  a  particular  |ilaee.  as  a  bank,  is  designated,  pre- 
.sentment  must  be  made  lliere  within  the  usual  hoursdevoted 
to  lianking  business.  This  duty  continues,  though  the  jilace 
of  busini'ss  be  closed  or  the  acceptor  be  notoriously  insol- 
vent. In  the  case  of  an  accommodation  acceptance  no  ]ire- 
sentment  is  necessary  in  bi-lialf  of  the  pel-son  to  whom  the 
accommoilalion  is  given,  siii<c  he  could  have  no  action 
against  such  an  acceptor.  The  duty  of  |iieseiitiiieiit.  as  well 
as  of  the  performance  of  the  succeeding  acts,  may  be  waived 
by  a  party  to  the  bill  by  appropriate  acts.  Thiswaiver  may 
take  place  either  before  or  after  maturity  of  the  bill.  An 
instance  would  be  a  writing  on  the  bill,  "  I  hereby  waive  de- 
mand of  the  within  bill,"  or  "•  I  herebv  waive  notice  of  de- 
40 


mand."  The  latter  expression  wonld  be  imperfect,  since  a 
waiver  of  notice  does  not  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  pre- 
sentment, while  a  waiver  of  demand  is,  from  the  nature  of 
the  case,  a  waiver  of  notice. 

A  bill  docs  not  ordinarily  actually  mature  on  the  day  on 
which  it  apparently  falls  due.  Three  days  arc  allowed, 
termed  •'days  of  grace."  These  have  liecoine  so  fully  a  part 
of  the  contract  that  the  prescntineiit  before  the  last  dav  of 
grace  is  nugatory.  Should  tlie  last  day  fall  on  Snndav  or  a 
public  holiday,  the  bill  matures  <ui  the  preceding  day,  except 
in  New  .lei-sey,  where  it  falls  due  the  day  after.  This  matter 
is  sometimes  regulated  by  statute.  If  presentment  is  made 
and  refused,  protest  should  take  place  in  the  case  of  foreign 
bills,  as  already  explained  in  reference  to  non-acceptance, 
and  notice  given  to  the  parties  to  be  charge<l.  The  subject 
of  notice  requires  a  fuller  explanation  than  what  has  been 
given  in  connection  witli  non-acceptance.  The  object  of 
notice  is  to  give  information  to  the  respective  parties,  to  the 
end  that  they  may  protect  themselves  from  loss.  The  test 
of  its  suflicieiicy  is  whether  it  gives  the  re(|uisite  informa- 
tion. No  particular  form  is  neces.sary.  It  maybe  cither 
oral  or  written.  It  is  a  coinmon  practice  to  rednce  it  to 
writing,  and  either  to  give  it  to  a  party  personally,  or  to 
send  it  to  him  by  mail.  By  the  general  rule  of  law  the  mail 
can  only  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  transmission,  and.  ac- 
cordingly, can  not  be  resorted  to  where  the  holder  and  the 
person  to  be  notified  obtain  their  letters  from  the  same  post- 
oflice,  though  it  is  in  .some  instances  otherwise  by  statute. 
The  law  rerjuires  extreme  diligence  in  dispatching  the 
notice.  It  should  be  sent  as  early  as  the  next  day,  and  some 
authorities  rcMjuire  by  the  first  convenient  mail  on  the  next 
day.  If  the  notice  is  ]iroperly  sent  by  the  mail,  it  will  suf- 
fice, though  never  receive(i.  Any  indorser  receiving  notice 
has  a  day  to  send  it  to  one  preceding  him.  .'Vftcr  notice  the 
rights  of  the  holder  are  fixed,  and  it  is  not  necessary  for  him 
to  bring  his  action  any  earlier  than  he  wonld  be  rcqnired  to 
do  by  the  statute  of  limitations.  Delay  to  collect  the  bill 
from  the  accei)tor  does  not  of  itself  discharge  the  drawer 
and  indorsei-s.  If.  however,  a  bargain  (ba,sed  upon  a  consid- 
eration) is  made  bet  ween  the  holder  and  acceptor,  whereby 
the  time  of  payment  is  extended,  the  drawer  and  indorsci's 
are  discharged,  unless  their  consent  is  obtained.  The 
drawi^r  is  not  only  liable  for  the  face  of  the  bill,  but  for 
damages  incidental  to  noii-|iayment.  These  damages  are  in 
some  cases  fixed  by  statute.  It  is  sometimes  neces.sary  to 
take  into  account  the  ditference  in  exchange  between  two 
countries:  as,  if  a  bill  drawn  in  New  York  were  payable  in 
London,  exchange  being  in  its  lavor.  and  tlu'  action  on  the 
bill  were  lu-oiight  in  New  'N'ork,  and  it  cost  a  certain  per 
cent,  to  place  the  funds  in  Londfui,  that  amount  should  be 
included  in  the  recovery.     See  I'komissokv  Note  and  Ex- 

CHAXCiK.  T.  W.  DwiGHT. 

Bill  of  Latlins::  the  written  evidence  of  a  contract  for 
the  carriage  of  goods  by  water.  It  is  usually  signed  by  the 
master  of  the  vessel,  either  in  duplicate  or  triplicate,  ac- 
knowledges the  receipt  of  the  goods  from  a  [lerson  (called 
the  <'onsignor),  and  undertakes  to  deliver  them  to  a  desig- 
nated jierson  (the  consignee)  or  his  assigns  at  a  siiecilied 
place,  for  the  com]iensatioii  and  on  the  conditions  therein 
s])ecilie<l.  An  indorsement  of  the  bill  of  lading  transfers 
tlie  title  to  the  goods,  and.  if  made  in  good  faith  and  for  a 
valuable  consideration,  cuts  ofT  the  right  of  stoppage  in 
troiixitii.  I'\)r  most  purposes,  a  bill  of  lading  is  assignable, 
and  an  assignee  takes  it  subject  to  any  defense  existing  be- 
tween the  original  parties.  Kor  the  single  purpose  of  shut- 
ting out  the  right  of  stoppage  in  tratmitii  it  is  negotiable. 
(Sec  Stoppaok  i.n  Transiti'.)  This  instrument  consists  of 
two  jiarts — a  receipt  and  a  contract.  That  portion  of  it 
which  is  a  receipt  can  be  contradicted,  as  between  the  orig- 
inal parties,  by  parol  evidence.  For  example,  if  it  were 
staleil  that  the  goods  were  in  good  order,  evidence  may  be 
adduced  to  show  the  contrary.  This  proposition  would  not 
extend  to  a  |ierson  who  had  made  advances  on  the  faith  of 
the  staleinent.  a.s  he  could  invoke  the  doctrine  of  estoppel. 
(Si'c  EsTOPPi-;!,.)  The  part  of  the  bill  which  is  a  <-ontract 
can  not  be  contradicted  by  parol  evidence,  even  as  between 
the  original  parties.  Although  the  term  was  originally  ap- 
plied only  to  a  memoranilum  of  a  contract  for  transporta- 
tion by  water,  it  is  now  fre(|ucntly  used  to  denote  the  memo- 
rundiim  given  by  tinif  carrier  of  the  terms  on  which  he 
agrees  to  carry  the  goixls  received.  T.  W.  DwioUT. 

Hill  of  Pains  and  Ponaltips  :  a  special  act  of  the  legis- 
lature declaring  a   person  guilty  of  some  offense,  without 


626 


BILL   OF   PARTICULARS 


BINARY   SYSTEM 


any  conviction  in  tlie  regular  coui'se  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and  inflicting  upon  him  some  punishment  less  tlian 
death.  It  differs  from  a  strict  hill  of  attainder  in  that  the 
punishment  inflicted  by  the  latter  is  death.  Bills  of  pains 
and  penalties  are  within  the  provision  of  the  U.  S.  Constitu- 
tion that  neither  Congress  nor  a  State  shall  pass  a  bill  of 
attainder  or  an  e.r  post  facto  law.  Thus  a  law  of  Congress 
disqualifying  all  attorneys  of  the  Supreme  Court  who  re- 
fused to  take  an  oath  that  they  had  not  been  engaged  in 
rebellion  was  accordingly  held  to  be  void.  Ex  parte  (Tar- 
land.  4  Wallace,  R.,  333.      Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Bill  of  Particulars :  a  written  statement  of  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  demand  forwhich  an  actional  law  isbrought, 
or  of  a  tlefendanfs  set-off  against  such  a  demand. 

Bill  of  Peaee :  a  bill  in  equity  by  which  a  pei-son  seeks 
to  prevent  a  multiplicity  of  suits  involving  the  same  point, 
brought  by  a  numerous  class  insisting  upon  the  same  right 
or  by  an  individual  attempting  to  establish  an  unsuccessful 
claim.  An  injunction  is  granted  on  the  principle  that 
equity  will  grant  relief  to  prevent  useless  or  oppressive  liti- 
gation or  irreparable  mischief.  A  l>ill  of  peace  is  analogous 
to  a  bill  quia  timet,  but  is  generally  distinguished  from  it 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  brought  only  after  the  commencement 
of  adverse  proceedings.  "         F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Bill  of  Rlarhts  :  an  English  statute  enacted  at  the  time 
of  the  accession  of  William  and  JIary  to  the  throne.  It  de- 
clared, among  other  things,  the  right  of  the  subject  to  peti- 
tion the  king,  freedom  in  the  election  of  members  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  freedom  of  speech  in  Parliament.  It  aflirmed 
that  standing  armies  without  the  consent  of  Pai'liament  are 
illegal,  that  the  king  had  no  power  of  suspending  or  dis- 
pensing with  laws,  nor  of  levying  taxes  without  the  consent 
of  Parliament.  It  provided  that  excessive  bail  should  not 
be  required.  n<ir  excessive  fines  imjiosed,  nor  cruel  and  un- 
usual punishments  inflicted,  and  for  the  right  of  Protestant 
subjects  to  bear  arms  for  their  defense.  The  provisions  of 
this  act  have  had  great  influence  in  the  U.  S.,  and  are 
deemed  of  high  consequence,  as  securing  liberty  to  the  indi- 
vidual. A  number  of  them  are  literally  inserted  among  the 
amendments  to  the  IT.  8.  Constitution,  and  are  also  found 
in  State  constitutions.  Bills  of  rights  were  favorite  enact- 
ments of  the  conventions  in  France  following  the  revoluti(jn 
of  1789.  The  phrase  "bill  of  rights"  is  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  U.  S.  to  designate  all  those  portions  of  a  con- 
stitution. State  or  national,  designed  to  secure  liberty  to  the 
individual. 

Bill  of  Sale:  a  writing  under  seal  conveying  the  title  to 
goods  and  chattels.  The -seal  by  the  common  law  is  conclu- 
sive evidence  of  consideration.  Accordingly,  a  bill  of  sale 
formally  executed  passes  the  title  without  any  consideration 
or  delivery  of  the  property.  Where  there  is  no  seal,  there 
must  be  a  consideration  or  deliv<'ry.  A  delivery  without 
consideration  would  amount  to  a  gii't.  A  bill  of  sale  uuiy 
pass  a  title  which  would  be  valid  as  between  the  parties, 
and  yet  not  of  force  as  to  cri'ditoi-s  or  purchasei-s,  as  if  one 
who  was  indebted  should  make  a  l>ill  of  sale  without  actual 
consideration,  or  should  sell,  even  with  consideration,  and 
still  retain  jjossessiou  of  the  gooils.  The  transaction  might 
be  regariled  as  infected  with  fraud. even  though  there  were 
no  fraudulent  intent  actually  embodied  in  it.  (See  Fraud.) 
English  cases  speak  of  the  transfer  of  the  ownership  of 
a  ship  at  .sea  by  the  assigunu'nt  of  the  "grand  bill  of 
sale,"  but  uo  distinction  is  made  in  the  U.  iS.  As  to  the 
general  law  concerning  sales  of  chattels  and  the  requisites 
to  their  validity,  see  .Sale.  In  a  more  popular  sense,  a  bill 
of  sale  is  any  written  instrument,  though  not  under  seal, 
executeil  as  evidence  of  a  sale. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Billroth,  bilivit.  Christian  Albert  Theoijor:  German 
surgeon;  b.  in  Riigen.  Apr.  26.  1S29;  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  (ireifsw.-dd.  (iottingeu,  and  Berlin,  taking  the 
degree  of  M.  I),  at  tlu'  latter  in  IH"i2:  professor  and  diriclor 
of  the  surgical  clinic.  University  of  Zurich,  18G0-67:  after 
1867  he  held  the  corresponding  chair  in  the  University  of 
Vienna.  His  contriluuions  to  i)rofessional  literature  are 
very  numerous  and  important,  and  have  been  translated 
into  all  the  leading  modern  languages.    D.  Feb.  6,  1894. 

Bil'ney.  Thomas:  English  inart\T:  b.  about  149."):  or- 
dained 1519.  He  was  a  fidlow  of  Trinity  Hall.  Cambridge, 
and  preached  there  au<l  in  London  and  many  other  places. 
He  opposed  the  Schoolmen's  formal  "good  works"  and  the 
worship  of  saints  and  relics,  and  he  converted  Hugh  Lati- 


mer and  others  to  these  views.  Arraigned  in  1527,  he  re- 
canted aiul  escaped  with  a  year's  imprisonment  in  the  Tower; 
but  having  begun  to  preach  again  in  the  fields  of  Norfolk, 
he  was  condemned  and  burned  at  Norwich,  Aug.  19,  1531. 

Bilox'i :  city  ;  on  railroad;  Harrison  co..  Miss,  {for  loca- 
tion of  eountv.  see  map  of  Jlississippi.  ref.  9-II):  79  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  New  Orleans,  and  on  Biloxi  Bay:  lat.  :»^  23-8' 
N..  Ion.  88  oS'l  W. :  is  a  place  of  summer  and  wiTiter  re- 
sort. It  has  an  iron  lighthouse,  with  a  fixed  white  light  62 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Biloxi  is  a  manufacturing 
and  shipping  point,  and,  besides  fruit  and  vegetable  canning 
industries,  has  an  oyster-packing  business  seconil  in  extent 
only  to  that  of  Baltimore.  Fine  schools,  numerous  churches, 
electric  lights,  artesian  water-works,  and  over  25  miles  of 
shell-roails  are  among  the  advantages  of  the  city.  The  fii'st 
settlement  nuide  upon  the  Jlississippi  by  white  men  was 
made  here  in  1699  bv  Pierre  Lemovne  dTberville.  Pop. 
(1880)  1..540;  (1890)  3.234;  (1893)  estimated.  5,000. 

Editor  of  "  Herald." 

Biloxi  Indians  ;  See  Siouax  Indians. 

Bilqula  Indians:  See  Salishan  Indians. 

Bil'son.  Thomas  ;  English  prelate ;  b.  in  Winchester  in 
1546-^7  ;  studied  at  Oxford :  became  a  prebendary  of  Win- 
chester 1576:  Bishop  of  Worcester  1596  :  translated  to  Win- 
chester the  year  following.  Bilson  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  and  a  zealous  defender  of  the  Church  of  England 
against  the  Puritans.  He  was,  along  with  Miles  Smith,  the 
final  reviser  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible,  and 
prepared  the  chapter  headings.  He  wrote,  among  other 
works.  The  True  Difference  betireen  Christian  ,SiiljJection 
and  Uncliristian  BebelJion  (Oxford,  1585),  prepared  at 
Elizabetli's  command  in  answer  to  W.  Allen's  Defense  of 
Eiiylisli.  Catliolics.  and  llie  Perpetual  Government  of 
Christ's  Churcli  (London.  1593;  n.  e.  Oxford,  1842),  which 
is  considered  an  alile  defense  of  the  doctrine  of  ajiostolic 
succession:  but  his  niai/niiin  opus  was  The  iSurrey  of 
Christ's  sufferings  for  Man's  redemption  and  of  his  de- 
scent to  Hades  or  Hell  for  our  deliverance  (1604).  D.  in 
London,  .lune  18.  1616. 

Bils'ton :  a  uuirket-town  of  Staffordshire,  England ;  2 
miles  by  i-ail  S.  E.  of  Wolverhampton  (see  map  of  England, 
ref.  9-G).  It  forms  part  of  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Wolverhampton,  and  is  an  important  center  of  the  hard- 
ware trade.  It  is  situated  between  numerous  iron  and  coal 
mines,  and  has  large  manufactures  of  japanned  ware.  Pop. 
(1891)  23,453. 

Bilnchistan ;  See  Baluchistan. 

Bi'niana  [quasi-Lat.,  from  Lat.  b'l-.  double  +  ntanus, 
hand] :  an  order  of  mammals  proposed  for  the  reception  of 
man  (see  Hominid^e)  as  distinguished  from  the  ajies  and 
lemurs  [Quadrumana).    See  Quadrumana  and  Man. 

Bimetallism  :  See  Monetary  Standards. 

Bin,  ban.  .Jean  Baptiste  Philippe  Emile  :  historical  and 
decorative  painter:  b.  in  Paris.  Feb.  10.  1825:  pupil  of 
Gosse  and  of  Leon  Cogniet  :  Legion  of  Honor  1878.  His 
Prometheus  Chained  (1867)  is  in  the  museum  at  Marseilles. 
Decorated  the  Polyteehnicon  in  Zurich  (1865-70).  Style 
academic  and  formal.  Bin  has  taken  an  active  jiart  in  Paris 
politics,  and  has  been  mayor  of  the  Eighteenth  (Jlontmartre) 
Arrondissement.  "  William  A.  CoKFrs. 

Binary  Stars :  See  Binary  Systeji  and  Double  Stars. 

Binary  System  ;  a  pair  of  stars  revolving  around  a  com- 
mon cenl"er  of  gravity.  The  only  distinction  we  can  make 
between  an  ordinary  double  star  and  a  binary  system  is 
that  motion  has  been  <letected  in  the  ca.se  of  the  latter, 
whereas  in  the  case  of  the  former  the  relative  position  of  the 
two  bodies  ajjpeai's  to  remain  invariable.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  all  double  stars,  properly  so  called — 
that  is  to  say,  all  stai-s  which  are  actually  very  near  to- 
gether— revolve  around  each  other;  tlieir  mutual  attraction 
idone  would  necessarily  change  their  relative  position.  But 
the  jieriod  of  revolution  is  usually  many  centuries,  fre- 
(piently  several  thousand  yeai-s.  Hence  when  first  discovered 
no  change  can  be  observed,  but  the  longer  observations  arc 
continued  the  greater  are  the  number  of  ca.ses  in  which 
some  change  is  found  to  be  going  on. 

The  first  exact  estimates  of  the  relative  posilions  of  such 
objects  were  made  by  Sir  William  Herschel  toward  the 
cl(i.se  of  the  last  century,  and  the  next  by  Stru\e,  of  Dorpat. 
about  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  cent  ury.     As  ob- 


BINARY   TIIKORY 


BINCIIAMTOX 


62'i 


serviitions  of  the  bodies  notcil  l)y  Ilfrschol  and  Stnive  are 
continued,  more  and  more  of  them  are  found  to  be  in  motion. 
The  most  riniiirkalile  binary  systems  are  those  whieh  are 
diseovend  liy  the  spectroscope,  in  cases  where  the  motion  is 
too  small  to  be  detected  by  any  other  means.  Thus  it  is 
found  that  the  star  Algol  has  an  invisible  companion  revolv- 
ing arcjund  it,  which  partially  eclipses  it  at  every  levolution. 
See  Aluol.  '  S.'Xewcomb. 

Binary  Theory:  See  Chemistry. 

It  i  ml  I'M  hn  ml :  same  as  Brixuabrax. 

Biiuhveed  Family  (Convolrulace(e):  herbaceous,  shrub- 
by, or  rarely  arbureous  dicotyledons,  gamopetalous,  with  su- 
perior ovaries.  They  are  related  to  the  nightshades,  borages, 
pldoxes,  etc.  There  are  800  species,  mostly  natives  of  warm 
climates.  Ipumieii.  the  morning-glories,  and  Conmlnilus, 
the  bindweeds,  are  representative  genera.  Cuscuta,  the  dod- 
ders, is  a  genus  of  ilegraded  parasitic  species. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Billet,  bw  nay'.  Victor  .Ieax  Baptiste  Barthklemy  : 
contemporarv  laiidscape-jminter:  b.  at  Uouen,  March  17, 
1849.  First-class  medal.  Paris  E.xposition,  1889.  A  realistic 
imintcr,  whose  work  is  notable  for  good  drawing  and  truth 
of  atmospheric  effect,  but  is  lacking  in  color  (piality.  Tlie 
Plain  (it  i>7.  Aubin-Mir-Q)iilh'bu!ut  (188fi)  is  one  of  the  best 
of  his  pictures,  and  is  in  the  museujn  at  .\miens.  Studio  in 
Paris.  William  A.  Cokkix. 

Binar'en  (anc  Vin'eum  or  Bin'gium) :  a  town  of  (Jermany ; 
in  Hesse;  finely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine;  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Xahe:  20  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Ment/.  (see 
map  of  (ierman  Empire,  ref.  6-1)).  The  Xahe  is  here  crossed 
bv  an  olil  bridge  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Romans. 
\Vine  of  superior  ([uality  is  produced  in  the  vicinity.  Xear 
Bingen  the  Rhine  passes  through  a  narrow  channel  called 
Bini/erloch  (i.  e.  the  hole  of  Bingen),  in  which  the  rocks 
anil  rapid  current  once  rendered  th(r  navigation  dangerous, 
but  in  18;i4  the  obstruction  was  mostly  removed.  Bingen  is 
opposite  Rudesheim.  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Rhine.  It  has  manufactures  of  llannel.  fustian,  and  leather. 
Here  are  interesting  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  Klopp,  originally 
founded  by  Drusus,  ami  of  the  celebrated  chapel  of  St.  Roch 
on  the  Rochu>berg.  A  little  farther  to  the  south,  between 
Bingen  ami  Bingerloch,  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  stream  a 
high  rock,  the  so-called  tower  of  Bisho[)  Hatto.  An  heroic 
statue  of  Oennania  in  tlie  Xiederwald  commemorates  the 
German  victories  of  1870-71.  The  surrounding  scenery  is 
highly  picturesque.     Pop.  (1890)  7,C-J4. 

Biiigr'liaiU,  Rev.  IIiram:  b.  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  Oct.  80, 
1789;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1816:  at  Andover 
in  1819  ;  and  was  one  of  the  first  Congregational  missionaries 
sent  to  the  Sandwich  islands,  where  he  long  exercised  a 
powerful  influence.  He  returned  to  the  I'.  S.  in  1841.  D. 
in  Xew  Haven.  Conn.,  Xov.  11.  1869. 

Bili^llslin.  .loHX  A. :  politician :  b.  in  Mercer.  Pa.,  in  181.5 ; 
removed  lo  Ohio.  lie  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  by 
the  Re|>ul>licans  of  the  Western  Reserve  in  18-54,  and  was 
often  re-electt^d.  lie  was  chairman  of  the;  managers  who 
conducted  the  impeachment  of  Andrew  .lohnson  in  Apr. 
and  May,  18()S.  lie  was  again  elected  to  Congress  in  1870. 
Was  V.  S.  minister  lo  .lapan  (1873-8.5). 

Bingham.  .losEPH  :  Church  of  England  antiquary  :  b.  in 
Wakefield.  Yorkshire,  in  Sept.,  1668;  d.  at  Havaiit,  near 
Portsmoulli,  .\ug.  17.  172:^:  studied  at  Oxford  ami  became 
a  fellow  of  University  College  (1689).  but  in  1695  was  <'om- 
pelled  to  give  up  his  fellowship  and  leave  the  university  on 
account  of  a  sermon  he  preached  on  the  meaning  of  the 
word  ■■  [)ers<)n  "  when  used  l)y  t  he  Fat  hers,  and  which  brought 
upon  him  the  false  charge  of  heresy.  In  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, he  was  maile  rector  of  HeaiUxmrn  Worthy,  whence  he 
was  transferred  lo  Havant  in  1712.  Ilis  great  work  Origini'.i 
£cclcxiii.sfic(i' ;  or.  The  Aiitiquitienof  thr  Christian  Church, 
first  appeared  in  English  (l^ondon,"  1708-23,  10  vols.).  It 
has  often  Iwen  reprinted,  and  hji-s  not  yet  been  superseded. 
The  best  editinn  is  that  included  in  the  complete  edition  of 
his  works  bv  Richard  Bingham  (Ijondon,  1821-29,  9  vols. ; 
n.  e.  by  .1.  R".  Pitman.  1838-40:  rei.rinted  Oxford,  18.55,  10 
vols.).  The  AiifiqiiifieKiuv  separatelv  publishecl  in  the  liohn 
Series  (184.5,  1852,  2  veils.).  II  was  Ir'anslated  into  Latin  by 
(iriscovius  (Halle.  172-1-:W.  10  vols.),  and  into  (ierman,  but 
in  the  interest  of  the-Roman  Catlmlic  Cliiireh  (.Vugsburg, 
1788-96,  4  vols.).  Sec  his  Life  by  Richard  Bingham.  .Ir.,  in 
his  complete  works.  Revised  by  S.  M.  .Iaiksox. 


Biiigliain.  Kixslev  S.  :  b.  at  Camillus,  Onondaga  co., 
X.  v.,  lire.  16,  1801;  studied  law;  went  to  Michigan  in 
18:5:t ;  was  a  judge  of  probate,  S|)eaker  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, member  of  Congress  (1849—51),  Governor  (18.55- 
59),  and  L'.  S.  Senator  (18.59-61).  1).  at  Green  Oak,  Living- 
ston CO..  Mich.,  Oct.  .5,  1861. 

Uiiig'lianituii :  city  and  railroad  center;  capital  of  Broome 
CO..  X.  V.  (fur  loealiim  of  ciniuty.  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref. 
C-ti):  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1867.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  in  a  hilly,  agricultural  eoniitry,  devoted  principally 
to  the  dairy  industries.  The  altitude  of  the  city  at  the  riv- 
ers is  8.59  feet  above  tide-water.  The  Susquehanna  and 
Chenango  rivers  form  a  junction  within  the  city.  The  Sus- 
(luehanna  is  spanned  by  two  iron  carriage  bridges  and  a  foot 
bridge;  the  Chenango  is  spanned  by  a  handsome  and  wide 
full-ilerk  wagon  bridge,  which  unites  sections  of  the  prin- 
ci|)al  business  street,  and  by  a  susjiension  bridge.  All  the 
carriage  bridges  are  crossed  by  electrical  street  railroads. 
The  rivers,  and  the  land  slo^iiii'g  gently  toward  them  from 
all  directions,  are  objects  ol  natural  beauty  and  are  deco-  . 
rated  by  works  of  art,  so  that  Binghamton  has  acquired 
the  name  of  "  Parlor  City." 

The  natioiuil  census  of  1890  showed  702  establishments 
carrving  on  9:5  industries,  including  the  manufacture  of 
leather,  boots,  shoes,  clothing,  cigai-s.  chairs,  wagons,  car- 
riages, cutters,  children's  carriages  and  sleighs,  scales,  furni- 
ture, glass,  combs,  buttons,  brushes,  engines,  machinery, 
carriage  and  harness  trimmings,  barrels,  doors,  Siish,  blinds, 
flexible  shafts,  soap,  and  refined  oils.  The  capital  invested 
in  manufacturing  indnstries  was  in  1890  ^9,022,851,  and 
.f4.:!06.862  was  paid  to  10.077  emiiloyecs.  The  cost  of  ma- 
terials used  was  $7,58:3,413,  and  the  finished  products  were 
worth  |;14,9:«.O01. 

Among  the  conspicuous  buildings,  besides  the  business 
blocks,  are  8  large  churches.  Central  High  School,  county 
court-house.  Federal  (iovernmeiit  court-house  and  post-office. 
Slate  armory.  State  insane  hospital,  9  large  ward-school 
buildings,  o]iera-house,  and  2  orphans'  homes.  The  new 
Stone  opera-house  is  one  of  the  finest  theaters  in  the  State, 
having  a  front  of  70  feet  width,  of  brown-stone,  and  a  depth 
of  200  feet.  The  insane  hospital  consists  of  t he  very  large 
building  erected  for  an  inebriate  asylum,  and  a  cluster  of 
smaller  buildings,  all  capable  of  accommodating  about  2,000 
patients.     The  city  is  well  equipped  with  first-class  hotels. 

Binghamtun  is  at  the  intei-section  of  two  trunk  lines  (Xew 
Yoik.  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  and  the  Delaware.  Lacka- 
wanna and  Western).  The  I)..  L.  and  W.  has  branches  lo 
Syracuse  and  to  I'liea.  The  Albany  auil  Su.sqiiehanna  R.R., 
owned  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company,  con- 
nects here  with  the  other  roads. 

The  incorporated  limits  of  the  city  contains  6.400  acres. 
There  are  83  miles  of  streets,  lighted  by  a  private  electric 
plant.  The  bonded  debt  is  $:ilO.OOO.  The  total  proi)erty 
valuation  for  1892  was  ?;18.792.240.  and  the  city  taxes  were 
.^268.719. 

There  is  a  very  efficient  volunteer  fire  department,  having 
2  steamers,  2  eliemical  engines,  an  aerial  truck,  and  6  hose- 
carriages  and  t  rucks. 

There  are  17  public  schools,  good  private  schools.  Protesl- 
ant  and  Catholic,  and  a  fund  of  !?80.0()0  has  been  left  liy  will 
for  the  eslablisliment  of  an  industrial  school.  The  public 
library  contains  7.827  volumes. 

The  cily  contains  26  churches  and  5  chapels,  making  31 
houses  of  woi-sliiii. 

Water  is  supplied  bv  the  Ilollv  system.  The  capacity  of 
the  works  is  18.000.(100  gal.  in"  24  hoiii-s.  There  are  50 
miles  of  water-pipes.     The  works  are  valued  at  f  1..50().tK)0. 

The  financial  institutions  consist  of  3  national  bank.s.  2 
State  banks.  1  trust  company,  2  savings  banks,  and  3  bank- 
ing houses.  There  are  also  1  safe  deposit  company.  2  build- 
ing and  loan  fund  associations,  and  an  a.ssociated  bank. 

Ros.s  Park,  containing  about  100  acres,  is  equipped  with 
driveways  and  summer  imildings.  Bennett  Grove,  of  about 
.50  acres,  owned  by  jirivate  parlies,  is  thrown  open  to  the 
imblic  for  a  park!  The  Binghamton  Association  Driving 
Park  and  the  Slow  Park  and  Exposition  ground  are  also 
private  property  devoted  to  public  use.  Annual  fairs  are 
lield  n|iiin  Ihe  Exposition  ground. 

Thi'i-e  are  20  miles  of  street-car  lines,  running  out  I o  13 
suburbs.  All  but  one  line  of  about  5  miles  is  consolidated 
under  the  Binghamton  Railroad  Conqiany.  and  operated  by 
elect ricily.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  city  between  1880  and 
1890  is  aitributable  largely  to  rapid-transit  facilities  as  well 


628 


BINGLEY 


BIOGENESIS 


as  to  tlic  prosperity  of  loc-al  industries.     The  workiiipnen 
live  largely  in  cottages  of  their  own,  built  upon  lots  50  feet 
front  and  from  100  to  200  feet  deep. 
Pop.  (1870)  13,692;  (1880)  17,317:  (1890)  35,005. 

Associate  editor  of  "  Daily  Republican." 

IJiiig'ley :  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land ;  situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  river  Aire  ;  15  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Leeds  (see  nia|)  of  England,  ref.  6-G).  The 
Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal  [jasses  bv  it.  Ilei'e  are  niaiuifac- 
turesof  worsted  goods,  paper,  etc.    "Pop.  (1891)  10,023. 

Biii'liey.  Amos,  M.  I).  :  naturalist;  b.  in  Boston,  Oct.  18, 
1803;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1821;  was  the 
owner  of  an  ample  fortune,  lie  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
artists  and  men  of  science,  and  was  president  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History.  He  wrote  Terrestnal  mid  Air- 
hreafliing  J/allii-skx  af  tlie  Uniled  Sfates  (finely  illustrated). 
I),  at  Rome,  Feb.  18,  1847. — His  son,  W.  G.  Binney,  is  also  a 
distinguished  eoncliologist. 

Biuiiey,  Hibhekt,  I).  D.  :  b.  in  Nova  Scotia.  Aug.  12, 
1819 ;  educated  in  London  and  Oxford,  graduating  at  the 
latter  university  in  1842.  In  1851  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
(Anglican)  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  which 
was  the  fiist  bishopric  founded  by  England  in  her  colonial 
dependencies,  originally  including  not  only  Nova  Scotia  ami 
Prince  Edward  Island,  but  also  New  Brunswick  and  parts  of 
Lower  Canada.  Bishop  Binney  Wiis  a  visitor  at  the  General 
Convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  held  at  Chi- 
cago in  1886,     D.  in  1887. 

Binney.  Horace,  LL.  D.  ;  lawyer;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  .Jan. 
4,  1780.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1797,  and 
divided  the  first  honors  with  his  classmate,  tlie  late  .Judge 
White,  of  Salem,  Mass.  Having  studied  law  with  Jareil  In- 
gersoll  in  Philadelphia,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1800, 
and  rose  in  a  few  years  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  ju-otession. 
He  declined  high  judicial  positions  which  were  offered  him, 
but  as  a  lawyer  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  important  cases 
in  the  higher  courts  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  several  times 
called  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.  Elected  to  Con- 
gress in  the  latter  part  of  .Jackson's  first  administration,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  and  ability.  In  1843 
he  made  his  celebrated  argument  in  tlie  Supreme  Court  of 
the  U.  S.  in  the  case  of  Vidal  rersiis  the  mayor  of  Philadel- 
phia. This  admirable  argument  is  often  cited  by  the  bench 
and  bar  of  the  U.  S.  as  authority  on  questions  involving  tlie 
law  of  charitable  uses,  and  has  been  referred  to  by  eminent 
English  jurists  in  the  highest  terms  of  praise.  Mr.  Binney 
appeared  for  the  last  time  before  his  legal  brethren  on  the 
occasion  of  the  death  of  his  friend,  the  Ilon.  John  Sergeant, 
whose  character  he  delineated  in  terms  of  tleeii  feeling  and 
eloquence.  Mr.  Binney's  principal  works,  besides  the  argu- 
ment in  the  Vidal  case,  are  An  tnquirij  into  the  Formnfiim 
of  Washington's  Farewell  Address  (1859);  eulogiums  on 
Chief  Justice  Tilghman  (1827),  and  Chief  Justice  Marshall 
(1836) ;  and  Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  I'enn- 
sylrania  (6  vols.).     D.  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  12,  187.5. 

Binney,  Thomas,  I),  D.,  LL.  D. ;  an  English  Dissenting 
minister;  1).  at  Newcastle-uiion-Tyne,  Apr..  1798;  educated 
at  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Wymondley,  Hertfordshire  ; 
became  pastor  in  New))ort',  Isle  <i'f  Wight',  1824;  pa.stor  of 
King's  Weigh-house  chapel,  London  (1829-69) ;  wrote  many 
controversial  papers.  Conscientious  Clerical  Sonconformity, 
Service  of  Soiu/  ;  and  several  books  for  young  men,  besides 
several  volumes  the  jiroducts  of  a  controversy  with  the 
Bisliop  of  Adelaide,  and  the  familiar  \\ymn  Eternal  liglit! 
eternal  light!    D.  in  Ijondon,  Feb,  24,  1874, 

Binnie,  Ale.xander  R.,  P.  G.  S..  F.  R.  M.  S. :  engineer 
to  the  London  County  Council:  b.  in  London  in  1839;  edu- 
cated at  private  academies;  pupil  and  assistant  to  the  «■!<■- 
brated  .1.  F.  La  Trobe  Hatenuin.  F.  K.  S. ;  in  early  life 
wasengage<i  in  railway  construction  in  Knglaud  and  Wales. 
By  public  compel  it  ion' he  entered  th.>  Public  Works  Depart- 
ment of  India  in  1808,  where  he  renuiined  six  years,  discov- 
ering coal  in  the  Central  Provinces,  lie  designed  and  con- 
structed the  works  for  supjilying  Nagpur  with  water,  and 
for  a  short  time  was  acting' secretarv  of  the  deparlnu^nt. 
lie  was  engineer  to  the  liradford  Corporation  in  Hnglaud 
for  fifteen  years,  designing  and  const rucliiig  many  large 
work.s,  among  them  a  reservoir  embankment  125  feet  in 
height.  He  also  designed  a  large  extension  of  the  water- 
works in  the  Nedd  valley.  He  designed  and  is  now  con- 
structing a  tunnel  under  tlie  Thames  at  Blackwall.  to  be 
built  by  means  of  a  shield  through  water  bearing  ballast, 


and  lined  with  brick  inside  of  a  heavy  cast-iron  shell.  Au- 
thor of  a  paper  on  Nagpur  water-works,  which  obtained 
from  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  the  Telford  medal; 
lectures  on  water-works  at  Chatham  ;  and  Heat  in  its  liela- 
tion  to  Coal,  an  address  as  president  to  the  Bradford  Philo- 
sophical Society.  William  R.  Hutton. 

Binoenlar  Telescoj)?  {binocular  is  from  Lat.  bini,  two 
each  +  0  cuius,  eye]  :  a  combination  of  two  telescopes  the 
distance  of  wliose  parallel  central  axes  is  equal  to  that  be- 
tween the  eyes,  so  that  both  eyes  may  be  applied  at  once. 
An  object  may  then  be  observed  with  both  eyes  at  the  same 
time,  one  looking  through  each  tube,  Thereare  also  binoc- 
ular microscopes,  having  two  tubes,  one  for  each  eye.  In 
some  kinds  of  work  they  possess  superior  defining  power. 

Binomial  [formed  from  Lat.  hi-,  having  two  +  no'men, 
name,  term] :  in  algebra,  an  exiircssion  having  two  terms 
joined  by  the  sign  +  or—.  Tlie  "  binomial  theorem''  has 
for  its  object  the  expression  of  the  law  for  the  formation  of 
any  power  of  a  binomial.  By  means  of  this  theorem  any 
power  of  .r  -f-  a  can  be  at  once  written  down  without  going 
through  the  actual  multiplication.  The  older  mathemati- 
cians were  acquainted  with  this  method  of  finding  such  pow- 
ers, but  Newton  first  demonstrated  the  universality  of  its 
application.  This  is  considered  one  of  his  greatest  discov- 
eries, and  the  formula  was  placed  upon  his  tomb.  It  is 
usually  written  thus: 


(x  +  af  =  x^  +  - 
X  aV"-',  etc. 


max"  ~ '     m(m  —  1\ 

-. 1-     '     - — >  I 


1 


1.2 


ni{m—l)(m — 2) 

Binomial  coefficients:  the  coefficients  of  the  powers  of 
quantities  which  occur  in  the  binomial  theorem,  as 
m{m  —  1)     mjm  —  l)(m  —  2) 
1.2       ' 


'-I- 


,  etc. 


1.2.3 

Binomial  Nomenelatnre;  the  system  of  naming  ani- 
mals and  plants  introduced  by  LinUi-eus  near  the  middle  of 
the  last  century,  and  now  in  universal  use  among  scientific 
men.  In  this  system  the  s|iecies  or  dift'erent  kinds  of  ani- 
mals or  plants  are  gathered  together  in  larger  groups  or 
genera.  The  name  of  the  genus  is  a  Latin  substantive,  that 
of  the  species  is  adjective  or  a  noun  having  the  force  of  an 
adjective. 

The  genus  may  contain  one  or  many  species,  and  with  the 
progress  of  exact  knowledge  of  species  the  tendency  has 
been  to  split  the  genera  into  smaller  and  smallet  groups  by 
more  rigorous  definition. 

lOxamples  of  binomial  nomenclature  are  Quercns  alha, 
the  white  oak  ;  Felis  ten.  the  lion  ;  Sparisoma  abildgaardi, 
Abildgaard's  parrot-fish;  Abies peciinata,  the  balsam-fir  of 
Eastern  North  America.  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Bintang''  (Malay  7ip«^i7H, called  by  Marco  Vo\oPentam  and 
bv  Camoens  Biiiiao):  an  island  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Straits  of  Singajiore  ;  central  lat.  0  52'  N.,  long.  104'  26'  E. ; 
surrounded  by  rocks  and  small  islands,  making  navigation 
dangerous.  Area.  440  sq.  miles.  It  is  low  and  swampy,  and 
produces  much  ganilpir.  for  which  it  is  visited  by  ]\Iatay  and 
Chinese  traders.  It  was  formerly  a  nest  of  pirates,  but  is 
now  claimed  liy  the  Dutch,  who  founded  on  it  a  port,  Rhio 
or  Riouw,  intended  to  have  been  a  rival  for  Singapore. 

Binturoiig'  (Arctictis  bintnrovg):  one  of  the  largest  of 
the  Virerridrp.  or  civet-cat  family ;  a  native  of  Borneo, 
Java.  Sumatra,  and  Jlalacca.  Its  body  and  tail  are  covered 
with  harsh,  bristlv,  black  fur.  It  possesses  a  long,  tapering 
prehensile  taO,  w'liich  exceeds  in  length  that  of  any  other 
of  the  ^Fluroids  (cats,  civets,  and  hyamas)  excejit  the  tiger. 

D.  S.  Jordan. 

Bio-Bio.  bee'o-bee'o :  the  largest  river  of  Chili ;  rises  in  the 
Andes,  and  eutei-s  the  sea  at  Concejicion,  after  a  course  of 
200  miles. 

Bio-Bio:  an  interior  province  of  Chili;  in  lat.  37°  S. ; 
on  a  river  of  the  siuue  name:  between  Argentina  and 
Arauco.  with  Concepcion  and  Nuble  on  the  N,  and  Malleco 
on  the  S.  Area,  4,158  sq.  niil<>s.  It  is  traversed  bv  a  north 
and  south  railroad.     Capital.  Angeles.     Poji.  (1891')  122,729. 

Biogen'esis  Ifrom  Gr.  $ios.  life  -I-  yenea-is.  birth]:  the  ori- 
gin of  living  organisms  from  living  organisms  by  some  form 
of  n-proiluclioii  either  asexual  or  sexual;  a  term  used  in 
o]>positioi!  to  ahiogenesis.  or  the  origination  of  liviugtliings 
from  non-living  matter.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  that 
body  of  doctrine  pertaining  to  the  reproduction  and  devel- 
opnient  of  living  things,  both  with  reference  to  the  individ- 
ual and  with  reference  to  the  race,  of  which  the  fundamental 
doctrine  is  held  to  be  that  •'ontogeny,"  the  history  of  the 


BIOGKAPIIICAL  DICTIONAltlES 


BIOLOGY 


629 


development  of  the  inilividual,  is  a  short  recai)itulation  of 
tlie  liistory  of  the  race,  wliieh  is  calleil  in  turn  "  |)hylo,i,'eny." 
In  other  wonls,  the  individual  in  coniinj;  from  the  ovum  to 
the  adult  stage  passes  through  a  series  of  forms  wliich  iiuli- 
cate  in  a  inoro  or  less  atibreviated  way  the  ancestral  forms 
along  the  line  of  its  descent.  Biogenesis  includes  investiga- 
tions of  the  development  of  organisms  from  this  doctrine  as 
a  basis.  U.  S.  Jokuan. 

Biograitli'ical  Dictioiiurios :  The  earliest  known  book 
at  all  resiMiililing  our  modern  biographical  dictionaries  is 
the  J-Jh(ii(liiriu.ii-<iniii)nim  et  hislorianim,  comjjiled  by  Her- 
man Torrent  inns  (Van  Ueeok),  and  published  in  Deventer  in 
the  vear  14!)8.  Its  [lopularity  during  the  sixteenth  century 
is  attcstecl  by  more  than  forty  editions.  Meanwhile  im- 
proved dictionaries,  likewise  containing  geographical  and 
other  articles,  as  well  as  biographies,  were  made  by  Rob- 
ert Kstienne  (1st  edition  1.541),  by  Charles  Kstienne  (b"):i), 
and  by  Louis  Moreri  ( Ui74).  SloreriV  book  passed  through 
more  ihan  twenty  revised  editions,  and  reuuiined  the  stand- 
ard work  for  iK^arly  a  century,  the  volumes  of  Uayle  (lfi9T), 
Chaufepie  (17r)0-.5G').  and  Mjirchand  (1758-i>i))  being  avowedly 
but  sui)plements  to  it.  The  lii-st  comprehensive  dictionary 
exclusively  biographical  was  a  meager  and  inaccurate  com- 
pilation liy  the  Abbe  1/Avocat.  published  in  1753.  It  was 
soon  superseded  by  the  Notiveait  Dirfioiiiiairc  Ilhtorique 
Portalif.  purport  ing  to  be  compiled  by  "  une  societe  des  gens 
de  lottres,"  and  to  be  published  at  Amstenlaiu.  In  tact,  its 
sole  author  was  the  French  Benedictine  Doui  Chaudou,  wdio 
wished  to  avoid  the  press-censoi-ship,  and  tlu>  book  was 
actually  printed  at  .\vign(m  in  1766.  Cliaudon"s  work,  fre- 
quently revised,  maintained  its  position  as  the  biographical 
dictionary  \nitil  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The 
earliest  important  lOnglish  work  was  Tlif  Xcw  nnil  dvniTitl 
hioiirnphirdl  J)ii-liiiniiri/  <>{  I'^l  in  11  volumes  Hvo.  Upon 
a  later  edition  of  this  book  was  founded  The  (iiniral  liin- 
grapliieal  IJiclionnri/.  edited  by  Thomas  Chalmers  (lyl'3-17, 
32  vols.  Svo),  which,  in  spite  of  the  publication  in  1840— 47 
of  A  New  (fpni'ral  Binyraphical  DictioHiiry.  by  H.  J.  Rose 
(in  13  vols.  8vo),  remains  to  this  day  one  of  the  best  com- 
prehensive biographical  dictionaries  in  English.  Among  its 
chief  rivals  .are  The  Tinpi>rial  Dicfionari/  t>f  I'liiforsul  Biog- 
rnpln/  ((ilasgow,  I860,  8  vols.  8vo),  and  Dr.  .1.  Thomas's 
Univer.vil  Prniifninfing  Dicfionari/  of  liior/mplii/  (Philadel- 
phia, 1886,  3  vols.  4to),  which  are  later  and  more  concise 
than  Chahners.  But  none  of  these  books  ap|)roach  in  merit 
either  the  liinfiraphie  UniverseUe  Ancienne,  et  Moderns, 
published  by  l\li<'haud  (fii'st  edition  181 1-.5I^,  7!)  vols, ;  second, 
greatly  improved  edition,  1843-0.5,  45  vols.  8vo),  or  the  Nou- 
velle.  iiioi/rop/u'e  fii'nrra/f.  (1853-77,  46  vols.  8vo),  edited  by 
I)r,  Hoefer.  but  frequently  called  by  the  name  of  its  pub- 
lisher, Uidot.  The  more  important  of  the  above  mentioned 
books  are  indexed  in  Phillips's  Dicfionari/  of  liiograpfiical 
Reference  (tliinl  edition,  Philadelphia,  188'.)),  which  ccmtains 
10l),()00  names.  ICven  more  comprehensive,  but  likewise  ex- 
ceedingly brief,  is  Oettinger's  Monifeiir  ilex  /?«/c.s  (Leipzig, 
186!)-83,  3  vols.  4to).  Extensive  and  valuable  biographical 
dictionaries  are  also  included  in  the  chief  cncyclopicdias,  as 
JohuKoiis  Universal  Cyclopcfdia  ;  likewise  Knight  s  Enr/liuli 
Ci/clop(edi(i  (1861-63):  Applefonn'  American  Ci/cfopwdia 
(1881):  Chamherts's  Encycfopo'dia  (1S88-!I:!):  Larousse's 
Orand  Dirfionnaire  Cniversel  dii  XIX'  Siecle  (1866-78); 
and  in  the  ConrerKaf ions-Lexica o'[Tir(ic\i\u\\\9.  and  of  Meyer. 

In  addition  to  the  general  biographical  dictionaries  there 
are  numerous  excellent  books  confined  to  biographies  of 
persons:  (1)  of  a  single  nation,  e.g.  Knglishmen :  (3)  of  a 
single  period,  e.  g.  the  present  century ;  or  ('■'<)  of  a  single 
class,  e.g.  musicians.  Among  the  more  important  books  of 
the  fii"st  (dass  are  the  following:  For  Americans,  Applefons' 
Ciiclopipdin  of  American  Biograpliij,  edited  by.T,  G,  Wilson 
anil  ,1,  Fiske  '(18H(i-S!),  6  vols.  8vo),  whi(rli  has  almost  com- 
pletely snpersed<'d  the  earlier  l)ooks  by  Drake  (1872)  and 
Allen  (third  edition,  1857).  For  Great  Britain,  the  Dicfion- 
ari/of  Nafional  fiioi/rapfii/Aii'!i>in  in  1S85  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Leslie  Stephen,  and  to  lie  completed  in  about  60 
volumes.  For  Scotchmen,  see  J.  Irving's  Book  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen  (1881);  for  Irishmen,  A.  Webb's  Compendium  of 
Irish.  Biof/rap/ii/  (1878);  for  Germans,  the  Atlf/emeine 
deutsche  Bioffrap/iie,  begnn  in  1875,  and  now  (18!)3)  extend- 
ing in  34  vols.  8vo  to  the  letters  "Spa";  and  for  .-Xustriaiis, 
Wurzba<,'h's  Bior/rapliisclies  Lexikon  des  luiisertfiinns  Oes- 
terreicfi  (18.5{>-!ti,  61  vols.  8vo).  The  following  are  the  edi- 
tors of  the  chier  bingniphieal  dictionaries  for  the  countries 
mentioned :    fur  Holland,  Van  der  Aa :    for  Belgium,  the 


Brussels  Royal  Academy ;  for  Denmark,  Brieka ;  for  Sweden, 
Pambald;  for  Russia,  Vengerov,  also  Gennadi;  for  Spain, 
Ant(uiio.  For  Frenchmen  the  l>est  books  are  Midland  and 
Ditlot.  There  is  no  satisfactory  book  for  Italians  of  all  the 
provinces. 

Of  books  about  persons  of  a  single  period  the  most  useful 
are:  Dr.  William  Smith's  Dicfionari/  of  Greek  ami  Roman 
Biograpfii/  anil  Mi/ffioiogi/  {1844-Ai),  3  vols.  8vo) :  .Smith  and 
Waee's  Dicfionari/  of  Clirisfian  Biogra/ilii/  (1877-84,  4  vols. 
8vo),  reaching  to  800  A.  i). :  and  Chevalier's  Ri'/>erfoire  des 
Sources  Ilisforiques  dii  Moi/en  Age  :  liio-UHiliograpliie 
(1877-88,  2  vols.  8vo),  which  gives  no  biogra|ihies  itself,  biit 
indexes  the  biographical  material  ccmlained  in  several 
thousand  volumes  in  various  languages  so  far  as  it  refei's  to 
persons  living  in  the  Middle  Ages.  For  contemporary  and 
recent  biography  the  best  works  are:  L.  ('.  Sandci's's  Celeb- 
rities of  file  (,'eniiin/  {\SS7,8\o);  3Ien  and  Women  of  the 
Time  (thirteenth  edition,  by  G.  W,  Jloon,  1801);  Vapereau's 
Dicfioiiniiire  <les  Coufenijmrains  (sixth  e<l,  1803-1)3) :  and 
Boase's  Modern  English  Biography  (1st  vol.  1803).  The 
biographical  reference  books  for  persons  of  single  classes 
are  extremcdy  numerous.     Among  the  more  important  are  : 

For  authoi-s.  S.  .V.  Allibonc's  Critical  Dieiionary  of  Brit- 
ish atid  American  ^r» //iocs  (1858-73,  3  vols.  8vo,  and  sup- 
plement by  J,  F.  Kirk,  1801,  3  vols.);  De  Gubernatis,  Dic- 
tionnaire  Infernafional  des  Ecrivains  dii  Jour  (1888-00.  2 
vols.  8vo) :  and  Brummer's  Deufsches Dichter-Lex ikon  (1876- 
77.  3  vols.  8vo). 

For  artists,  Champlin  and  Perkins's  Cyclopedia  of  Paint- 
ers and  Paintings  (1887,  4  vols.  8vo).  and  51.  Bryan's  Dic- 
tionari/  of  Painters  and  Engravers  (new  edition  bv  Graves, 
1888,  3  vols.  8vo). 

For  musicians.  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Mu- 
sicians (1870-80,  4  vols.  8vo) ;  Champlin  and  Ajithorp's  Dic- 
tioniiry  of  Mnsic  and  Musicians  (1800,  3  vols.  8vo):  and 
Fctis's  BiograpJiie  Vniverselle  des  Musiciens  (second  edi- 
tion, 1860-65,  8  vols.  8vo,  with  supplement  by  Pongin, 
1878-81,  3  vols.  8vo). 

For  medical  men,  Thatcher's..!  merican  Medical  Biography 
(1833.  2  vols.  8vo,  with  supplement  by  S.W.Williams,  184.5); 
Atkinson's  (Contemporary  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  the 
United  States  (1878) ;  and  IIir.sch's  Biographisches  Lexikon 
der  hervorrar/enden  Aerzte  alter  Zeiteii  und  Volker  (1880- 
80.  0  vols.  4to). 

For  theologians,  W.  B.  Sprague's  Annals  of  the  American 
Pul/nf  (180.5-73, 1 1  vols.  8vo) ;  Philip  ScliafT  and  S.  JI.  .Tack- 
son's  Encyclop/edi/i'  of  Living  Divines  (1887,  4to,  being  a 
supplement  to  the  Schaff-Ilerzog  Cyclopiedia  of  Religious 
Knoicfedge.  1882-85.  3  vols.  4to,  which  also  contains  biogra- 
phies); F.  Lichtcnbcrger's  Encyclopedie  des  Sciences  Re- 
liijiruses.  tome  13,  containing  a  Dictionnaire  des  Contem- 
porains  (1882,  8vo).      . 

In  general  those  biograjihical  dictionaries  are  most  satis- 
factory which  contain  signed  articles,  and  itulicate  sources 
of  further  information.  Consult  on  biographical  diction- 
aries Quarterly  Revietv.  vol.  clvii.,  pp.  187-2iiO,  and  Ijilirary 
Journal,  vol.  xiv..  pp.  7-20.  C.  II.  Ht'LL. 

lli<igra|»liy  [from  Late  Gr.  Bioypaipla,  or  formed  from 
Gr.  fiios,  Wlc  +  ypi'P^ii',  writel :  literature  which  treats  of 
the  lives  of  individual  persons.  Anciently,  the  leading  inci- 
dents of  a  man's  life  were  narrated  in  their  historical  .se- 
quence, without  elaborate  attempts  to  analyze  character. 
Ancient  biography  was  possessed  of  a  stately  dignity,  col- 
ored but  sparingly  with  eulogy  or  censure.  Modern  biog- 
raphy, on  the  oliier  hand,  like  modern  history,  is  often 
full  (if  criticism  and  dis(|uisition.  Of  strictly  biograi>liical 
works,  the  most  valualile  that  have  come  to  us  from  the 
ancient  Greeks  are  the  Menioriahilia  of  Xenopliou  and  the 
i/cp.s- of  Plutarch.  Roman  literature  also  possesses  an  ad- 
miraljle  IJfe  of  Agricola.  by  his  son-in-law,  Tacitus.  Bo- 
sides  these  nuiy  be  mentioned  the  Lives  ascribed  to  Corne- 
lius Xepos;  the  writings  of  Suetonius;  the  Life  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great  bvCurtius;  Lives  of  the  .S'o/j/i/^s/s  by  Philo- 
stratus;  ami  a  Life  of  Plato  by  Olympiodorus.  Ijater.  we 
encounter  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers  by  St.  Jerome  and  others, 
while  biographies  of  saints,  nuirtyrs,  etc,  are  scattered  pro- 
fusely through  ecclesiastical  literature.  The  monks  of  the 
Middle  Ages  worked  at  the  manufacture  of  biographies  in 
which  the  hunger  for  the  marvelous  was  gratified.  For 
modern  compilations,  see  the  article  on  Biouiiaiuiuai,  1)ic- 

TIOXAKIES. 

Biol'oary  [from  Gr.  ;8/o$.  life  +  \6yos.  discourse.  -Xoyla. 
doctrine,  science] :  that  branch  of  the  study  of  nature  which 


63U 


BIOLOGY 


treats  of  organized  beings  under  their  diverse  relations,  in 
contradistinction  to  mineralogy,  which  relates  to  the  inor- 
ganic or  mineral  substances  :  its  suVijects  are  therefore 
animals  (zoology)  and  plants  (botany  or  jihytology).  living 
and  extinct.  These  agree  with  each  other,  and  differ  from 
minerals  in  (1)  the  pliysical  and  chemical  cliaracteristics  of 
their  primitive  constituents  or  cells,  and  the  concomitant 
phenomena  of  life  cxliihited  under  certain  conditions  ; 
in  (2)  the  perpetual  cliange  during  life  in  tlie  organism  by 
loss  of  substance  proportioned  to  the  demands  on  the  system 
of  exertion  or  existence,  and  the  renewal  of  substance  by 
derivation  and  assimilation  of  nutriment  from  without;  in 
(3)  tJie  segregation  and  specialization,  when  the  demand  for 
rapid  growth  has  been  fidfUled.  of  certain  portions  of  the 
organism  as  reproductive  organs,  differentiated  as  receptive 
and  proereative  (female),  and  impregnating  and  vivifying 
(male):  from  the  former  of  which  (after  the  conjunction  of 
the  two  under  certain  conditions)  an  organism  originates 
essentially  like  that  from  whicli  it  proceeds ;  in  (4)  the  ex- 
istence, for  a  vaguely  determinate  period,  of  the  organism, 
and  finally  a  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  or  conditions 
of  existence,  death  and  dissolution  ;  and  in  that  (5)  originat- 
ing as  abi.>ve  indicated,  the  offs]iring  repeats  the  same  cycle 
of  phenomena  as  the  parent,  and  in  turn  contributes  to  the 
perpetuation  of  the  race.  Our  limits  will  only  allow  us  to 
briefly  consider,  in  the  order  indicated,  these  characteristic 
features  of  the  great  empire  of  organic  nature. 

(1)  The  animal  or  vegetable  organism  is  in  the  main  con- 
stituted of  four  elements,  three  of  wliich  are  separately 
known  in  a  gaseous  state — o.i:i/(/en.  Jii/droi/i-n,  and  nitrogen 
— and  one — carbon — in  a  simjile  condition  is  only  known 
in  a  solid  form.  From  this  i)rcdominance  of  gaseous  ele- 
ments results  the  degree  of  molecular  mobility  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  organism,  and,  according  to  Rerbert  Spen- 
cer, "  that  comparative  readiness  displayed  by  organic 
matters  to  undergo  those  changes  in  the  arrangement  of 
parts  which  we  call  development,  and  those  transformations 
of  motion  wliich  we  call  function."  The  same  author  has 
also  insisted  on  facts  that  (1)  the  elements  in  question  (ex- 
cept oxygen)  liave  athnitics  whicli  are  narrow  in  their  range, 
Iiut  low  in  their  intensity;  (2)  that  in  all  allotropisin  (or 
the  ability  to  assume  different  states)  is  inherent;  and  (3) 
that  they  all  present  certain  extreme  antitheses  (as,  for  ex- 
anqile.  lietween  oxygen  and  nitrogen  as  to  chemical  affinity, 
and  between  carbon  and  the  gases  as  to  molecular  moliility); 
and  that  tliese  extreme  contrasts  ■•  fulfill,  in  tlie  highest  de- 
gree, a  certain  further  condition  to  facility  of  differentiation 
and  integration."  The  primary  form  into  which  these  ele- 
ments enter  is  a  fluid  substance  called  protoplasm,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  nucleated,  but  in  most  organisms  as- 
sumes tlie  nucleated  condition  (that  is,  of  cells) ;  of  such 
elements,  more  or  less  modified  aii<l  disguised  according  to 
circumstances  (i,e,  specialization  and  complexity  of  parts), 
the  entire  organism  is  built  up. 

(2)  By  the  absorption  or  ingestion  of  extraneous  sub- 
stances tlie  organism  derives  a  nutriment  which  is  assimi- 
lated and  converted  into  its  own  sul)stance,  and  supplies 
the  material  (1)  for  the  power  for  work,  (2)  the  rejiair  of 
the  system,  and  (3)  for  ilirect  growth.  Every  action  and 
exertion  is  attended  with  a  loss  of  substance,  and  hence 
exists  the  necessity  for  a  corresponding  supply  of  nutri- 
ment. For  a  certain  length  of  time  (according  to  the  spe- 
<'ies  or  race),  in  adilition  to  the  preservation  of  an  unstable 
equilibrium,  there  is  also  a  demand  for  supjily  for  increase 
of  bulk,  or  growth,  of  the  organism.  The  ]ierioil  and  extent 
to  which  this  is  carried  is.  within  certain  limits,  constant 
for  eacli  species. 

(3)  When  the  full  stature  or  |)hase  of  develo])ment  has 
been  more  or  less  nearly  attained,  the  organs  of  re|iroiluction 
become  functionally  developed,  and  provision  for  the  per- 
petuation of  the  race  is  made.  In  plants,  the  female  ele- 
ment is  termed  a  seed  ;  in  animals,  an  ovum  or  egg.  The 
male  and  female  elements  may  be  united  in  the  same  iudi- 
viduiil,  as  in  most  plants  and  many  animals,  but  in  the 
higliest  animals  the  sexes  are  always  differentiated  in  dis- 
tinct individuals.  In  mollusks.  hermaphroditism  is  almost 
of  ordinal  value,  but  not  more,  and  in  at  least  one  case 
(  \'<ilr(itlil(i')  licrma|)hroditisin  occurs  in  an  oi-der  of  which 
the  other  mein1)eiv.  are  diiveious.  Among  vertelirates.  true 
lieriiia])hroditism  is  oidy  known  (as  an  exceptional  develop- 
ment) in  certain  fishes  (Si-rranidtF);  it  is  entirely  unknown 
in  the  higher  forms  (mammals,  etc.),  nil  the  n-ported  cases 
to  the  contrary  being  referable  to  males  with  the  genitalia 
in  an  embryonic  condition,  or  females  with  the  clitoris  hy- 


pertrophied.  The  homologies  of  the  male  and  female  or- 
gans render  it  impossilile  that  there  shall  be  a  union  of  the 
sexes  ill  the  same  individual  in  the  mammals.  Actual 
fecundation  of  individual  germs  (seeds  or  eggs)  by  the  male 
element  is  necessaiy,  in  most  cases,  for  their  development, 
but  in  exceptional  cases  (c.  g.  certain  insects,  crustaceous 
mollusks),  females  produce  broods  of  young  without  having 
had  direct  previous  intercourse  with  the  male.  This  pecul- 
iar capability  has  been  designated  jxirthenngenesis;  the 
unimpregnated  eggs  (in  some  forms)  produce  only  females. 
The  question  of  the  determination  of  sex  is  still  involved  in 
obscurity. 

(4)  After  a  certain  period,  if  the  individual  has  escaped 
all  the  liabilities  to  death  that  occur  from  enemies,  acci- 
dents, and  disease,  there  is  a  decline  in  the  activity  of  the 
functions,  the  system  becomes  disordered,  and  death' ensues. 
This  period,  like  those  of  growth  and  development  of  the 
reproductive  power,  is  also,  within  certain  limits,  a  constant 
term,  and  all  reports  of  extreme  longevity — such  as  the 
reputed  ages  of  H.  Jenkins  (169  years),  T,  Parr  (1.50  years), 
the  Countess  Desmond  (140  years),  and  others — are  either 
based  on  very  unsatisfactory  evidence  or  demonstrably  false. 

(o)  The  offspring,  although  as  a  mle  very  similar  to  the 
parent,  is  never  exactly  like  it.  being  always  distinguishable 
by  some  more  or  less  oljvious  difference  or  individuaUty  of 
character.  Occasionally,  however,  the  offspring  differs 
very  markedly  in  some  one  character,  which  may  or  may 
not  be  co-ordinated  with  other  correspondingly  important 
differences.  The  newly  developed  peculiarity  is  apt  to  be 
transmitted  either  to  the  immediate  offspring  or  to  a  sne- 
ceeding  generation,  and  sometimes  in  an  exaggerated  de- 
gree. But  such  peculiarities,  if  the  individuals  so  distin- 
guished pair  with  those  not  exhibiting  them,  generally 
disappear  in  their  descenilants  after  a  longer  or  shorter 
course.  If.  however,  the  individuals  thus  characterized  are 
set  aside,  and  their  immediate  and  remote  descendants 
selected  in  i-atio  to  their  possession  of  some  peculiarity,  that 
peculiarity  will  be  indefinitely  perpetuated,  and  a  new  race 
distinguished  thereby  will  be  thus  originated.  By  means 
of  such  artificial  selection,  uniiitentioiial  or  studied,  the 
various  races  of  domesticated  animals  have  lieeii  |iroduced. 
And  as.  in  most  cases,  there  is  an  obvious  fitness  of  organ- 
ized beings  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  found, 
it  has  been  assumed  that  such  relations  are  the  result  of  the 
survival  of  beings  po.ssessing  characteristics  which  may 
liave  s]iontaneously  arisen,  and  which  liave  gradually  be- 
come (relatively)  perpetuated  in  the  "struggle  for  existence  " ; 
and  hence  the  hypothesisof  natural  selection  has  originated. 
Inasmuch,  also,  as  no  offspring  is  exactly  like  the  parents, 
it  follows  that  no  generation  is  exactly  like  the  preceding; 
and  although  there  must  be  a  certain  unstable  equilibrium, 
resulting  from  constant  interbreeding,  in  the  incessant  surge 
of  variations,  the  descendants  must  necessarily  dei)art  more 
and  more  from  their  progenitors.  While  in  an  historical 
epoch  no  very  obvious  changes  may  be  perceptible,  eventu- 
ally (unless  by  the  interposition  of  miraeulous  agency)  there 
must  be  a  contrast  between  the  extremes  of  a  lineage,  and 
the  exhibition  of  such  must  be  merely  a  question  of  time,  de- 
termined to  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  changes  of  con- 
dition. The  assum|)tion  of  this  h\-pothesis.  and  the  induct- 
ive evidence  furnished  by  various  departments  of  science, 
have  culminated  in  tlie  theory  of  emlntion.  and  for  an  ex- 
planation of  the  modns  ()/>erandi  of  evolution,  natural  se- 
lection (or  Darwinism)  has  been  evoked.  The  evidence 
relied  u|)on  is  cliiefiy  derived  from  morphology  (and  the 
contrast  between  it  and  teleology),  embryology,  the  geo- 
logical succession,  and  the  geographical  distribution  of 
organisms. 

While  animals  and  ])lants  differ  from  minerals,  and  agree 
with  each  other  in  all  the  characters  thus  specified,  there 
are  no  such  salient  differences  lietween  themselves.  It  is, 
indeed,  easy  to  distinguish  the  higher  animals  and  plants, 
and  they  are.  to  a  certain  extent,  antetypes  and  complemen- 
tary to  each  other.  On  the  one  hand,  plants  derive  their 
nourishment  by  al)sorption  from  the  inorganic  world  through 
the  external  surfaces  of  their  roots  and  leaves,  and  (under 
most  conditions)  decomiiose  carbonic  acid  gas,  assimilate 
carbon  (and  nitrogen),  and  eliminate  oxygen.  On  the  other 
liau<l,  animals  derive  their  nutriment,  immediately  or  medi- 
ately, from  plants,  and  ingest  it  either  through  a  provision- 
al or  specialized  alimentary  cavity,  imliibe  oxygen,  and  ex- 
hale carbonic  acid  ga.s.  The  mode  of  taking  nutriment 
is  the  most  characteristic  feature,  and  specialization  espe- 
cially temls  to  that  end,  but  sniiplemented,  in  the  animal, 


BION 


HIKCU 


631 


by  a  specialization  of  other  systems  to  gruide  i1  in  tlic  selec- 
tion anit  niii'suit  of  its  foixl.  Some  rather  hisrh  animals 
(e. R.  eertain  Kntozoa)  take  their  nutriment  throuKli  their 
external  surfaces,  but  this  is  rather  a  teleolojiical  mollifica- 
tion co-onlinateil  with  atrophy  of  the  intestinjil  lube,  su- 
periniluceil  by  peculiar  conditions  of  life.  In  view  of  the 
slifrht  ililfereiices  between  animals  and  plants,  and  their 
contrast  with  minerals,  it  is  evident  that  the  ternary  divi- 
sion of  natural  objecl.s  into  animals,  plants,  and  minerals 
does  not  express  the  dejrree  of  I  hi'  relations  between  them; 
and  hence  the  animal  and  plant  kinjrdoms  have  l)een  com- 
bined in  an  «(;/rt;i(r  <»(/«/■(•  or  realm  on  tlie  one  hand,  and 
on  the  other  minerals  have  been  denominated  an  iiKjn/fuiic 
empire.  The  impossibility  or  <;reat  dillioultyof  discriminat- 
inj;  the  lowest  plants  and  animals  has  also  led  sonu'  nat- 
uralists to  separate  them  from  the  aniimil  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  and  cond)ine  them  m  a  peculiar  one,  which  has 
received,  with  some  varying  limits,  numerous  nanu's — e.g. 
Infusory  world  (Infusori'enwelt).  regiu'  de  Znciphytes,  regnes 
Psvcliodaire.  regne  chaotique,  regne  I'lanlanimal.  regnum 
Aiiiphorganicorum.  regne  orgauiijue  Primitive,  kingdom  of 
Protozoa,  regnuiu  Primigenium.  kingdom  of  Primalia,  and 
Protistenreichs.  Such  propositions,  however,  do  not  re- 
move the  difficulty,  but  only  shift  and  complicate  the 
<|uestioiis,  and  obscure  the  recognition  of  the  tendencies 
of  the  two  antitypically  functional  divisions  of  luitiirc.  It 
need  imly  be  added  thai  there  is  also,  to  some  extent,  a  cou- 
tnist  in  respect  to  individuality  in  the  respe<-tive  kingdoms. 
numerous  individiuils  (flowers)  being  developeil  from  tlie 
outgrowth  of  the  contents  of  a  single  seed,  while  in  all  ex- 
cent  some  of  the  lower  animals  a  single  individual  only 
originates  from  one  egg.  The  subject  of  individuality,  how- 
ever, is  a  somewhat  obscure  one.  and  hius  provoked  nnieh 
discussion  ;  and  the  question  has  been  involved  by  the  con- 
fusion of  ))otenlial  and  lu-tual  individuality.  For  more  <le- 
tailed  information  respecting  the  various  subjects  of  biology 
consult  Hvoi.uTioN,  IIermaphkoditism,  Loxoevitv,  iMor- 
PUOLOOV,  Palkoxtology,  Partiiexogexksis,  Tkleoloov, 
ZoiU.odicAL  Qeouraphy,  and  Zoology  and  Botany,  and 
their  respective  subdivisions.  Theodore  (!ii,l. 

Bi'oii  (of  SmjTna) :  Greek  bucolic  [met  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  c. :  contemporary  anil  imitator  of  Theocritus.  The 
longest  and  most  ailmiivil  of  his  poems  is  the  Laincnf  for 
Adiinis  (■E7riTa((>ios  'ASwi-iSos).  The  language  is  beautiful,  the 
tone  tender.  Kellexes  of  it  are  to  be  seen  in  the  AiIdiku'x  of 
Shelley.  Ed.  with  Theocritus  hikI  Moschus  bv  (iaisford 
(1821);  Ahrens  (IH.-),"));  .Meineke  (1S56) ;  Iranslateil  with  the 
same  by  Andrew  Lang  (1889). 

Bioildo.  bi-e-ondS.  Flavio  (1388-146:^):  the  greatest 
archipologist  of  the  Italian  Renaissance:  author  of  Noma 
in.ftiiurata.  Roma  triumphant,  and  Italia  illuatrata.  three 
liulky  encyclopa'diits  of  archieological  information  which 
have  constituted  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  dictionaries  of 
Koman  antiquities.  Contemporary  critics  severely  censured 
his  careless  style  ("  probitas  laudatiu'  ct  algct "').  See  Alfred 
Masius,  JfVacio  Biondo  und  .sp/hc  Werkc  (Leipzig,  187!));  J, 
A,  Synionds,  liriiai/iiiance  in  Halij.  \.  (Jidemax. 

Biot.  bt"e  6,  Edouard  CoxsTAXT :  Chinese  scholar;  srm  of 
Jean  Bapt iste  Biot ;  !>.  in  Paris.  .July  2.  1803 ;  wa.s  first  inter- 
ested in  the  introduction  of  raih'oads  in  France,  but  retired 
from  public  service  on  account  of  poor  health,  and  devoted 
himself  to  study  of  the  Chinese:  member  of  the  Academy 
1847:  author  of  articles  on  Chinese  subjects  in  the  Journal 
Aniatii/iii' ;  I)i-  I'Aliolition  di-  /'/•Jxrlaraf/i'  Ancienni'  I'n  Orri- 
dint  (1840);  and  I)ictionnaire  des  Villi's,  c/c.  di:  I'Empire 
r/NHo/.y  (1842).     D.  Mar.  12.  1850. 

Biot,  Jeax  Baptiste:  mitnral  philosopher  and  astrono- 
mer; b.  in  Paris,  Apr.  21,  1774.  lli^  became  in  18(XI  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1803  he  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute,  and  in  1803  published  .1«  Eh- 
mrnlanj  Tmiti.fe  on  Physical  Astronomi/  (2  vols.).  An  en- 
larged edition  of  this  a|ipeared  in  5  vols.,  1841-57.  Having 
been  appointed  a  member  of  the  bureau  of  longilndes.  he 
was  sent  to  Spain  with  Arago  to  measure  the  arc  of  the  me- 
ridian. He  contributed  nnmy  able  articles  to  the  Bioi/rapliie 
I'nirerselle  and  the  Annates  de  Chimie,  et  de  Phi/siqiie; 
published,  besides  other  works,  a  Treatise  on  E.rperimental 
Plii/sics  ami  Mathemalict  (4  vols..  1816).  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed ;  nw\  Researches  in  Ancient  Astronomi/  (182!)).  In 
1840  he  received  the  Kumford  medal  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Ijondon  for  his  researches  on  the  circidar  polarization  of 
light.  He  was  admitted  into  the  French  Academy  in  1856. 
1).  in  Paris,  Fell.  :i.  isr,2. 


Bi'otite.  called  also  riiiax'ial.  or  .Miisne'slan  Mi'ca 

[nauu'd  for  liiot.  ii  French  physicist.  1774-18(i2]:  a  mineral 
occurring  in  six-sided  tubular  prisms,  having  a  perfect  basal 
cleavage :  generally  dark  green,  brown,  or  nearly  black  in 
color.  It  has  a  vitreous  luster,  varies  from  transparent  to 
opaque,  is  sectile,  flexible,  and  elastic  when  reduced- to  thin 
lamina-.  It  consists  chiefly  of  silica,  alumina,  magnesia,  and 
oxide  of  iron,  with  some  potassa, 

Bi'pont  Kdi'tinns:  certain  editions  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics,  the  publication  of  which  was  begun  in  1779 
at  the  (Jerman  town  of  /.weibriicken  (I)eux-Ponts).  called  in 
Latin  liipontiiim. 

Bin.  beer  (anc.  liirtlia  ;  Turk.  liireh-Jik):  a  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey ;  on  the  left  (east)  bank  of  the  Euphrates;  74 
miles  X.  E.  of  Aleppo  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  (>-II).  It  has 
about  2.(K)0  houses,  a  citadel  or  castle  on  a  sleep  rock,  and 
several  mosques.  Caravans  from  Aleppo  to  Biarbekir  and 
Bagdad  cross  the  Euphrates  at  this  point.  Pop.  about 
6,000. 

Birch :  a  tree  or  shrub  of  the  genus  Betula  and  family 
C'Hy;H/(/e;-«' :  native  of  temperate  and  cold  regions  in  Asia, 
Europe,  anil  America  (several  species  are  found  among  the 
Himalayas),  The  genus  lietula  is  distinguished  by  ten  to 
twelve  stamens  and  winged  seeds  (acheiiia);  has  alternate, 
simple  leaves,  and  flowei-s  in  scaly  catkins.  The  common 
birch  of  Europe  and  .\sia  {lietula  alha)  is  a  handsome  tree 
with  triangular  or  deltoid  leaves,  which  are  doubly  serrate. 
The  bark  is  smooth  and  chalky  while,  and  separable  in  thin 
sheets  or  layei-s.  This  bark  is  very  durable,  and  is  used  for 
tanning,  dyeing  yellow,  ami  other  |)urposes.  In  some  coun- 
tries hats,  shoes,  and  boots  are  made  of  it.  The  wood  is 
firm,  tough,  and  valuable,  and  is  much  used  by  coopers, 
turners,  and  wheelwrights.  The  sap  is  esteemed  a.s  a  bever- 
age in  Scotland,  both  in  a  fresh  state  and  fermented.  Eu- 
rope produces  a  graceful  variety  called  wecfiing-birch  (B. 
pcudiila  of  some  botanists),  which  attains  a  height  of  60 
feet,  and  has  very  slender  ami  pendulous  branches.  The 
American  white  )nn-\\  (Ii. popiilifolia)  is  a  small,  graceful 
tree  with  Iremnlous,  deltoid,  and  shining  leaves,  but  is  not 
valuable  for  limber.  Among  the  other  .species  indigenous 
in  the  I*.  S.  arc  the  B.  tenia  (sweet  or  black  birch),  and  B. 
liilea  (yellow  birch)  and  B.  p(rpi/racea  (cnuoo  iir  ]ni]ic-yhiych). 
The  B.  lento  is  a  rather  large  tree,  the  bark  of  which  is  aro- 
matic, yielding  an  essential  oil  identical  with  that  of  Gaul- 
theria.  and  the  timber  is  fine-grained  and  valuable  for  cabi- 
net-work. Thv  B.  jiiipi/racea  grown  in  ihv  Northern  Slates 
to  the  height  of  about  70  feet,  lias  a  fine-grained  wood,  and  a 
very  lougli,  durable  while  bark,  splitting  freely  into  thin  lay- 
ers, which  have  been  used  as  paper.  The  Indians  make  ca- 
noes of  this  bark.  The  B.  liilea  sometimes  attains  a  height 
of  80  feet,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  brilliant  yellow  tint  of 
ilsbark  ore|iiderinis.  The  leaves  arc  from  3  too  inches  long. 
Besides  the  above  and  several  less  important  .sjiecies,  the  U.  S. 
have  the  B.  nigra,  or  river  liirch.  which  grows  on  the  banks 
of  streams  and  has  remarkably  tough  wood.  Russia  leather 
is  tanned  with  birch  bark.  "Russian  oil"  is  a  tar-like,  ein- 
pyrenmalic  substance  obtained  from  birch-wood  in  Russia, 
and  is  useful  in  certain  skin  diseases. 

Birch.  CiiARLKS  Bell,  A.  R.  A.:  sculptor ;  b.  at  Brixton, 
England.  Sept.  28.  1832  :  educated  at  Somerset  House  School 
of  Design  and  Herlin  Royal  Academy  ;  won  ]irize  of  £600 
for  his  group  .1  Wood  Sjimph  (1864):  exhiliited  The  Last 
(^V(//  (1870) :  and  executed  many  busts  and  statues.  He  con- 
tributed drawings  on  wood  and  stone  to  various  publications, 
especially  the  Illustrated  London  Sews.  D.  in  Loudon,  Oct. 
16,  1893.' 

Birch.  SAMfEL.  LL.  D. :  b.  in  London,  Xov.  3,  1813;  was 
educated  at  Greenwich  and  Blackheath;  afterward  at  Mer- 
chant Taylors'  School,  which  he  left  in  1834,  and  was  first 
em|)loyed  under  the  commissioners  of  public  records.  In 
1830  lie  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  department  of  an- 
(iqiiilies  of  the  British  Museum,  from  which  he  rose  to  be 
assistant  keeper  in  1844.  (Uid  in  1861  keeper  of  the  Oriental 
and  Egyptian  aniitiuities  and  ethnographical  collections. 
He  was  considered  one  of  the  best  modern  Egyptologists; 
was  the  author  of  nearly  all  the  last  volume  of  Bunscn"s 
work  on  Egypt,  which  contains  the  only  Engli.sh  translation 
of  (he  Bookofthe  Dead:  published  a  treatise  on  Ilirroghiph- 
i>.s(1857);  the  Rhind  J'lipi/ri  (1S66).  etc.  In  1878  he  edited 
Wilkinson's  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Eijyp- 
tiaiis.  and  was  editor  of  The  Records  of  the  Past  from  1873 
to  1880.     1).  in  London,  Dec.  27,  1885. 


632 


BIRCU 


BIRD   OF   PARADISE 


Birch,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  :  biographer  an<1  historian ; 
b.  in  Luiidou,  England,  Nov.  23,  1705.  He  toolv  orders  in 
the  Anglican  Church  (1730),  and  became  rector  of  parishes 
in  London  (1744)  and  in  Dcpdeu,  Essex  (1761) ;  was  fellow 
of  the  Roytd  Society  from  1785  and  its  secretary  1753-65. 
Among,  his  numerous  works,  besides  editions  of  Cudworth, 
Robert  Boyle,  Spenser,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  the  prose  works 
of  Milton,  and  Bacon's  Letters  and  Spueches.  are  Tlie  General 
Didionani.  Historical  and  Critical  (10  vols.,  1734-41);  a 
Life  of  Arc/ihisliop  Tillotson  (1753);  Memoirs  of  the  Ridgn 
of  Qiieeu  Elizabeth  (3  vols.,  1754);  and  a  History  of  the 
iioyal  Society  (4  vols.,  1757).     D.  in  London,  Jan.  9,  1766. 

Birch,  Thomas:  portrait  and  marine  painter:  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  177!) :  d.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  3, 1851.  He 
removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1703  and  pa.inted  portraits  in  Phila- 
delphia until  about  1807,  when  he  took  up  marine-painting. 
A  number  of  his  works  represent  naval  battles  of  the  war  of 
1812.  W.  A.  C. 

Blrch-Pfciffor. Charlotte:  actress  and  dramatic  writer; 
b.  at  Stuttgart.  June  3,  1800;  married  Dr.  Birch,  of  Copen- 
hagen, in  1835.  She  attained  success  as  a  performer  and  a 
writer.  Among  her  dramas  are  Die  Ounstlinge;  Hiiikn; 
Dorf  und  Stadt  (1848);  and  Anna  of  Austria  (Anna  von 
Oestreicli,  1850).     D.  in  Berlin,  Aug.  25,  1868. 

Bird.  Edward:  genre-painter;  b.  in  Wolverhampton, 
England,  in  1772;  apprenticed  to  a  maker  of  Japanware; 
became  a  (Irawing-teacher  in  Bristol ;  in  1800  lie  exhibited 
Good  News  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  soon  after  The 
Choristers  Rehearsing ;  in  1814  was  appointed  ■  painter  to 
Princess  Charlotte:  the  next  year  became  a  Royal  Academi- 
cian. D.  in  Bristol  in  1810.  His  most  famous  canvas  was 
The  Day  after  the  Battle  of  Chevy  Chase.  He  painted 
some  historical  and  scriptural  pictures,  among  which  was 
The  Death  of  Eli;  but  his  reputation  rests  on  his  genre 
work,  as  Tlie  Village  Politicians  and  The  Blacksmith's 
Shop. 

Bird,  Frederic  Mayer:  hymnologi.st ;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia, June  38,  1838;  graduated" at  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia 1857,  and  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
1860;  Lutheran  minister  1860-67;  chaplain  in  the  U.  S. 
army  1863-63 ;  ordained  deacon  Oct.  35,  1868 ;  some  time  a 
rector  in  Iowa  City  and  in  Waterloo,  la.  In  Feb.,  1881,  was 
appointed  chanlaiii  and  Professor  of  Psychology,  Christian 
Evidences,  and  Rhetoric  in  Lehigh  University,  South  Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1886.  He  edited 
Charles  Wesley  seen  in  his  Finer  and  Less  Familiar  J'oems 
(1867);  with  Rev.  Dr.  B.  M.  Smueker,  The  Lutheran  Minis- 
terium  Hymns  (1865;  revised  1868  as  General  Council's 
Church  Book) ;  revised,  with  Bishop  Odenheimer,  Songs  of 
the  Spirit  (1871).  He  contributed  a  monograph  on  the 
Hymnody  of  the  Church  to  Bishop  Perry's  History  of  the 
American  Episcopal  Cliurch.  Editor  of  Lippincott's  Maga- 
zine (1891-  ).  He  is  a  contributor  to  encyclopajdias  and 
magazines,  and  engaged  in  literary  pursuits. 

Bird,  Robert  JIontgomery  :  father  of  P.  M.  Bird  ;  novelist 
and  Journalist;  b.  in  Newcastle,  Del., in  1805;  studied  medi- 
cine in  University  of  Pennsylvania  ;  wrote  dramas  Oraloosa  ; 
The  Broker  of  Bogota.;  and  The  Gladiator,  in  which  Edwin 
Forrest  won  distinction.  Ilis  first  novels  were  concerned 
with  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Jlexico,  and  W.  H.  Prescott 
connnende([  them  Inr  their  anti(|iiarian  ae<niraey.  They 
were  CV(/»fw;'(1834)  and  Tlie  Lijidel  (1835).  All  his  books 
were  puljlished  in  Philadelphia.  Ilis  most  popular  novel 
v/as  j\ick  of  the  H'oori.s  (1837),  a  tale  of  frontier  Kentucky. 
Peter  Pilgrim  is  a  collection  of  tales.  In  1847  he  became 
an  editor  and  joint  proprietor  with  Morton  McMichael  of 
the  Philadelphia  North  American  and  i'niteil  States  Ga- 
zette.    D.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  33,  1854. 

Bird,  IsABKM.A  L.  {3[rs.  /yt-sAoiU,  of  Edinburgh) :  traveler; 
b.  in  Kngland  ;  has  undertaken  many  long  and  advenlurons 
journeys  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  of  which  her  grapliie 
publisherl  accounts  have  been  very  po])ular ;  aulhor  of  The 
Engtisliiroiiiaii  in  yl7«i'/'jr«  (1858) :  Si.c  Months  among  the 
Palm  Graces  of  the  Sicndwicli  Islands  (1875);  ^1  Lady's 
Life  in  tlie  Rocky  Mountains  (XSli}};  Unbeaten  Tracks  in 
Japan  (1881)) ;  The  Golden  Chersonese  (1883). 

Bird-calching  Spider  {Hfygale  avicula.ria);  a  large  spi- 
dci';  nal  ive  ul'  Suiiiiain.  Its  body  is  nearly  2  inches  long,  and 
its  legs  when  stretched  out  occupy  a  space  almost  a  foot  in  di- 
ameter. Its  nnmdibles  work  vertically  instead  of  laterally, 
and  are  very  sti'ong.  It  does  not  construct  a  net  or  web  for 
the  capture  of  its  prey,  but  it  obtains  it  by  the  chase,  and 


hunts  only  in  the  night.     This  spider  and  other  species  of 
Mygale  are  said  to  attack  and  kill  small  birds.   It  is  asserted 


Bird-catcliinf^  spider. 


spiiler 


which  feed 


that  in  some  tropical  countries  thei'e  are 
upon  tiirds  caught  in  their  webs. 

Bird  Cherry:  in  England  the  Prii'nus  pa'diis;  a  small 
tree  growing  wild  in  Europe,  and  called  hagberry  in  Scot- 
laiul.  It  bears  racemes  of  small  drupes  of  a  sweetish  and 
bitterish  taste,  which  are  used  in  the  north  of  Europe  to 
make  sjiirituous  liquors.  In  the  U.  S.  {\\e\ii\A  Prunus penn- 
sylcanica  also  is  called  bird  cherry. 

Birde,  or  Byrd,  Williaji  :  English  composer  of  church 
music;  b.  pi'obalily  at  Lincoln,  about  1538;  and  was  ap- 
pointed orgaidst  of  Lincoln  about  1563,  and  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  London,  1560,  in  conjunction  with  Thonuis  Tallis, 
to  whom  with  him  yueen  Elizabeth  in  1575  granted  a  mo- 
nopoly to  print  and  sell  music.  He  produced,  among  other 
works,  Cantiones  Sacrie  (Sacred  Songs)  and  a  nuignificent 
canon  entitled  Non  Nobis.  Doniine.  L).  probablv  at  London, 
July  4,  1633. 

Birdlime  (in  Lat.  vis'cus);  a  viscous  adhesive  substance 
placed  on  the  branches  of  trees  to  catch  birds  which  may 
pcri'li  there.  It  is  prepared  by  boiling  the  nii<ldle  bark  of 
the  holly  (Ilex),  the  mistletoe  (Visciim  album),  or  other 
glutinous  plants,  and  concentrating  the  decoction  by  evap- 
oration. The  gluten  of  wheat  flour  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
substitute  for  birdlime.  A  tame  bird  in  a  cage  is  some- 
times em]iloyed  to  decoy  the  birds  to  the  tree  on  which  the 
liirdlime  is  smeaivd. 

Bird  of  I'nradisc  :  any  one  of  several  species  of  birds  of 
the  genus  I'liradisea  and  kindred  genera,  of  the  order  Pa.s- 
seres;  natives  of  I'apua  and  I  he  neighboring  islands,  re- 
markable for  the  beautiful  I'orm  and  splendor  of  their  plu- 
mage. The  name  was  originally  applied  to  the  Paradisea 
apoda,  which  wa.s  suppcwed  to  be  destitute  of  feet,  because 
the  skins,  which  are  exported  to  Euroi)e,  are  usually  deprived 
of  wings  and  feet.  The  older  naturalists  imagined  that  they 
passed  all  I  heir  lives  tlo.-iling  in  the  air  and  feeding  on  ethe- 
real food  or  nectar.  K(U' these  fabulous  .'ind  fanciful  ideas 
science  svib.stitutes  the  pro.saic  truth  that  they  are  nearly 
allied  t,o  the  Corvidw  (crow  family),  and  are  omnivorous. 
The  value  of  these  birds  ari.ses chiefly  from  the  extraordinary 
development  and  light  and  beautiful  .structure  of  the  ])lumes 
which  grow  from  the  scapular  and  lateral  portions  of  the 
Iwdy.  The  ])lumage  of  the  nuiles  is  renuirkable  not  only  for 
brightness  of  tints,  but  also  for  a  velvety  texture  and  brilliant 


BIRD   OF  PARADISE 


BIRDS 


633 


metallic  reflections.     Tufts  of  feathei-s  growint;  from  the 
shoulders  are  so  prolonged  that  they  extend  even  beyond  the 


Bii'd  of  paradise. 

tail,  and  tlicy  constitute  the  most  boaiitiful  partof  the  plumes 
of  the  bird  of  paradise,  which  are  a  hiijldy  prized  article  of 
commerce.    Tlic  princiiMil  species  of  tlii-  Lriim^  are  the  com- 


^,\y^>^A^ 


Red  bird  of  paradise. 


mon  bird  of  paradise  {Paradisea  apoda),  the  royal  bird  of 
paradise  {CiciitiiHrus  reffiux).  the  red  binl  of  paradise  {I'ara- 
disea  nibm).  the  uiajruificent  bird  of  paratlisc  (l)ijilnjUudes 
magnifica  or  xpecioxa),  and  the  six-threatled  (or  f;uldcii)  bird 
of  paradise  {I'urofia  fiexfilata),  from  the  head  of  whicli  prow 
six  long  and  thread-like  feathers,  each  ornamented  with  an 
ovate  black  racket,  three  on  each  side.  The  common  bird  of 
paradise  is  about  as  laraje  as  a  jay,  and  is  mostly  of  a  cinna- 
mon color,  with  a  throat  of  emerald  green,  whence  it  is  some- 
times called  the  enieiald  bird  of  paradise.  The  royal  bird  of 
paradise  has  two  long  feathers  or  filaments,  which  extend 
behind  the  tail  and  terminate  in  disks,  like  the  tail-feathers 
of  a  peacock.  The  red  bird  of  paradise  has  two  very  long 
filaments,  extending  far  beyond  its  rich  and  beautifid  lail- 
fealhers.  Birds  of  paradi.se  are  generally  gregariou.s,  and 
they  sonietimes  fly  in  flocks  from  one  island  to  anothur.  It 
is  stated  that  they  can  flv  more  easily  against  than  with  the 
wind.  In  confinenient  tliey  are  lively  and  bold,  and  bestow 
great  care  on  their  plumage.  About  twenty-five  specimens 
are  now  known. 

A  writer,  referring  to  what  he  calls  "the  supremely  glorious 
members  of  the  feathered  tribe  which  have  by  common  consent 
been  termed  birds  of  paradise,''  observes  that  "the  plumage 
of  these  birds  is  wonderfully  rich  and  varied,  and  not  even 
the  humming-birds  themselves  pre.sent  such  an  inexhaustible 
treasury  of  form  and  color  as  is  found  among  the  compara- 
tively few  species  of  Llie  birds  of  paradise."  See  Wallace, 
Malay  Arcliipelago.       Revised  by  Chakles  H.  Gilbbut. 

Birds  (Ai-es):  a  class  of  oviparous  verteln-ate  animals;  de- 
finable as  air-breathing  vertebrates  with  a  coating  of  feathers, 
with  the  two  anterior  limbs  or  wings  adapted  for  flying  or 
swimming,  the  two  [losterior  limbs  or  legs  uda])ted  for  walk- 
ing or  swimming;  respiration  never  effected  by  gills  or 
branchi.-c,  but  after  leaving  the  egg  by  lungs  which  are  con- 
nected with  air-cavities  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  Re- 
production by  eggs  fertilized  within  the  body,  and  hatched 
externally  either  by  incubation  or  by  exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun ;  the  shell  calcareous,  hard,  and  brittle.  The  sole 
really  diagnostic  character  is  this:  all  birds  have  feathers, 
and  no  other  animal  has  feathers.  No  other  character  can 
be  fimud  by  which  the  birds  as  a  whole,  living  and  (•xtinct, 
can  be  sejiarated  from  the  reptiles.  The  phunage  serves  as 
clothing,  and  assists  in  motion  through  the  air.  The  feathers 
entangle  among  their  fibers  a  considerable  quantity  of  air, 
and  are  well  adapted  to  protect  the  bird  from  extremes  of 
colli  and  heat.  The  internal  temperature  of  birds  is  from 
105'  to  11^'  F..  much  higher  than  that  of  man  or  mammals 
generally.  Their  buoyancy  and  muscular  energy  are  in- 
creased by  numerous  air-cells  which  are  counectcil  with  the 
lungs.  (See  Air-cklls.)  The  general  form  of  birds  is  adapted 
to  aerial  navigation,  and  the  body  is  somewhat  boat-shaped. 
The  number  of  vertebne  in  the  neck  vai-ics  from  ten  to 
twenty-six,  and  is  always  greater  than  is  found  in  any  mam- 
mal. Anuiiig  their  peculiar  organs  are  the  toothless  jaws, 
covered  with  a  hard,  horny  sheatli.  forming  the  beak  or  bill. 
(See  liii.L.)  The  head  is  articulated  to  the  neck  by  a  single 
condyle.  The  number  of  toes  of  each  foot  is  generally  four, 
of  which  three  extend  forward  and  one  backward;  but  the 
climbing  birds  have  two  before  and  two  behind.  The  -sterimm 
or  breast-b(  me  is  very  large  and  strong,  with  a  prominent  keel, 
except  in  the  ostrich  and  its  relatives,  serving  for  the  alta('h- 
nient  of  the  jiowerful  muscles  which  move  the  expanded 
wings.  The  wing  of  a  bird  is  the  homologue  of  the  arm  of 
a  man,  and  is  composed  of  bones  which  correspond  to  those 
of  a  human  arm  or  the  fore  leg  of  a  quadruped.  The  wing 
is  furnished  with  numerous  feathers,  called  quills,  w-hich 
dis[)lay  an  admirable  combination  of  strength  and  lightness. 
The  names  of  the  several  varieties  of  wing-feathers  are  pri- 
maries, spconrfixn'p.f,  ie.rtiaries.  and  coivr/s.  The  jirimaries 
are  qiull-fealhers  arising  from  the  firet  or  terminal  joint — i.  e. 
the  part  of  the  wing  which  corresponds  to  the  hand  and 
fingei-s  of  a  man.  The  form  of  these  indicates  the  bird's 
capacity  of  ilight,  and  birds  of  powerful  flight  have  long 
and  firm  primaries.  Next  to  these  arc  the  secondaries,  which 
are  attached  to  the  middle  bone,  the  homologue  of  nntn"s  fore- 
arm. The  tertiaries  grow  from  the  part  of  the  wing  between 
the  elbow  and  the  shoulder.  The  leg  of  a  bird  is  formed  of 
bones  which  are  homologous  to  those  of  mammalia,  but  are 
subject  to  modifications.  The  thigh-bone  is  very  short,  and 
is  so  concealed  within  the  skin  that  it  is  not  apparent  as  a 
part  of  the  leg  on  a  superficial  view.  The  next  divisiim,  often 
mistaken  for  t  he  thigh,  is  the  tibia  or  proper  leg-bone,  which 
is  always  the  largest  bone  of  the  liinb,  i\\e  Jibula  being  rudi- 


634 


BIKDS 


BIRDS   OF  PASSAGE 


raentary.  This  joint  is  followed  by  one  usually  called  the 
"  tarsus,"  composed  of  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones  fused  to- 
gether. The  "tarsus'"  is  covered  with  scale-like  plates,  the 
arrangement  of  which  furnishes  important  characters  in 
classification.  The  feet  vary  according  to  the  habits  of  the 
birds,  some  of  which  have  strong,  hooked  claws,  fitted  for 
seizing  prey ;  others  are  adapted  for  swimming  by  a  mem- 
brane which  unites  their  toes :  still  others  for  climbing.  The 
perching  of  birds  is  facilitated  by  an  interesting  adaptation 
in  the  structure  of  the  legs,  the  tendons  connected  with  the 
toes  passing  over  the  leg-joint,  so  tliat  the  binVs  weiglit,  by 
bending  the  latter,  mechanically  closes  the  toes. 

The  digestive  apparatus  is  liiodified  in  accordance  with 
the  nature  of  the  food.  Birds  do  not  masticate  their  food, 
which  passes  from  the  mouth  into  tlic  crop  or  craw,  which 
is  mrt-ely  an  enlargenu'iit  of  the  gullet.  The  crnp.  or  first 
stomach,  is  present  in  l)ii-ds  of  prey,  and  also  in  tlie  larger 
birds  which  feed  on  grain  and  seeds.  It  serves  to  soften  the 
food,  and  in  the  pigeons  secretes  a  cheesy  substance  with 
which  the  young  are  fed.  The  second  stomach,  or  prove iitri- 
cuius.  is  largest  in  those  birds  in  which  the  crop  is  small  or 
wanting.  The  third  and  principal  stomach  is  the  gizzard, 
which  IS  a  powerful  grinding  apparatus,  especially  in  those 
birds  which  feed  on  grain  and  swallow  gravel  and  jiebbles, 
as  the  common  domestic  fowl.  The  sense  of  sight  in  this 
class  is  exceedingly  keen,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  perfect 
adaptation  to  near  or  distant  olijects.  The  swallow,  when 
darting  through  the  air  with  a  swiftness  which  has  become 
proverbial,  is  capable  of  accommodating  its  sight  to  the 
insect  whicli  it  pursues,  even  in  the  short  time  which  is 
occupied  by  its  swoop  at  its  victim.  Some  birds  of  prey 
have  an  acute  sense  of  smell,  and  nocturnal  birds,  such  as 
owls,  have  sensitive  organs  of  hearing.  Birds  are  distin- 
guished among  all  dumb  animals  for  tlii.'ir  nni^ical  jjowers, 
and  song-birds  are  doubtless  sensitive  to  sound  and  differ- 
ences of  pitch.  All  the  best  singing-lurds  belong  to  the 
Passere.%. 

Among  the  most  interesting  subjects  connected  with  birds 
are  their  migrations  and  the  instincts  and  ingenuity  which 
they  exhibit  in  l)uilding  nests.  (See  Nests  of  Bums.)  The 
numVier  of  eggs  in  a.  state  of  nature  varies  from  one  to  twenty, 
and  Ijinls  generally  breed  only  once  a  year,  which  is  in  spring. 
JIany  species  of  birds  are  gregarious,  but  large  rapacious 
birds  are  quite  solitary  in  their  mode  of  life.  They  all 
moult — i.  e.  change  their  feathers  once  a  year — and  the 
summer  plumage  of  many  birds  is  very  different  from  the 
winter  dress.  The  jiluniage  of  tlie  uiales  is  generally  richei' 
and  more  brilliant  than  that  of  the  females.  Their  flesh  and 
eggs  arc  valuable  as  food  for  man.  and  many  species  render 
him  great  service  by  checking  the  increase  of  insects. 

The  earliest  traces  of  the  existence  of  birds  on  the  globe 
have  been  supposed  to  be  the  so-called  birds"  tracks  in  the 
Triassic  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut  valley ;  but  it  is  now 
generally  conceded  that  most  if  not  all  these  tracks  were 
made  by  rejitiles  and  ami)hibians.  It  is  especially  noteworthy 
that  the  earlier  birds  (.hn'assic  and  Cretaceous)  had  true  teeth 
in  their  jaws.  In  the  lithographic  slates  of  Solenhofen  {.lu- 
rassic)  have  been  found  a  feather  and  two  nearly  complete 
bodies  of  birds  exhibiting  some  remarkable  features,  and 
representing  a  peculiar  order  {Sauriint')  that  is  supposed  to 
form  a  kind  of  coiniecting  link  between  birds  and  reptiles. 
(See  Aroh.eoptervx.)  The  remains  of  birds  have  been  found 
in  the  greensand  of  I'lnglaml,  tlie  Kocene  of  the  island  of 
8hc|ipy,  and  the  Paris  liasin,  as  well  as  in  tlie  more  recent 
Teriiaries  at  various  Euro|iean  localities.  In  America  fossil 
birds  were  unknown  until  quite  recently:  they  have  now  been 
found,  however,  in  the  greensand  of  Xew  Jersey,  the  creta- 
ceous beds  of  Kansas,  and  tlie  Tertiary  deposits  of  Wyoming 
and  Iilalio.  The  Cretaceous  birds,  according  to  Prof.  0.  C. 
Marsh,  belong  to  two  distinct  orders  named  (hhiiilurmw  and 
Odoiitolriv,  The  most  import.-iiit  of  his  discoveries  in  this 
branch  of  ])ala'ontology  is  that  of  birds  with  teeth  in  the 
Cretaceous  beds.  In  the  supeificial  deposits  of  >>cw  Zealand 
and  Madagascar  the  remains  of  several  kinds  of  extinct  birds 
have  been  met  with,  some  of  which  far  exceed  in  dimensions 
the  largest  now  living.  The  great  bird  of  Madagascar  is 
called  ^Epioniis  mii.rimiiK.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  at 
least  13  feet  in  lieiglit,  and  very  massive.  The  egg  of  tiiis 
bird  was  over  a  foot  in  length.  The  contents  of  one  of  these 
eggs  were  equal  to  those  of  six  ostrichs"  eggs  or  148  hens' 
egg.s.  The  largest  extinct  birils  of  Xew  Zealaml  have  been 
described  under  the  natiie  of  DinoriiiK  by  Prof.  Owen.  They 
were  from  (i  to  10  feet  in  height.     See  ORNlTlloLOdV. 

Revised  by  Charlks  11.  Uiijikrt. 


Birdsall.  William  Ranliall,  M.  I). :  b.  at  Greene,  Che- 
nango CO,  X.  Y.,  .Jan.  1,  185S!;  pursued  special  scientific 
studies  at  the  University  of  Michigan  ;  entered  the  nicdi<-al 
dejiartment  of  that  institution,  and  in  1876  graduated  M.  I). ; 
removed  to  New  York  city  the  same  year  ;  began  jiractice 
with  Dr.  Seguin  ;  prosecuted  neurological  studies  in  Europe; 
engaged  as  a  clinical  teacher  on  diseases  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem at  different  medical  colleges  and  hospitals  in  New  York  ; 
for  two  years  lecturer  on  liclminthology  at  the  American 
Veterinary  College,  New  York.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
work  on  Elecfro-therapeiifics  and  Electro-diagnosis,  and  is 
a  contributor  to  several  medical  journals,  principally  on 
neurological  subjects.     D.  in  New  York,  .June  7,  1892. 

Blrdsboro :  borough  ;  Berks  co.,  Pa.  (for  location  of  coun- 
ty, see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  .5-1);  on  Schuylkill  river 
and  Pliila.  and  Reading.  Wilmington  and  Northern,  and 
Pennsylvania  Railroads:  9  miles  S.  E.  of  Reading.  Prin- 
cipal industrv,  iron  manufactures.  Pop.  (1880)  1,705;  (1890) 
2  261. 

Bird's-eye  Limestone:  a  compact,  dove-colored  stone, 
with  whitisli  crystalline  points,  belonging  to  the  lower  divi- 
sion of  the  Trenton  grou])  of  the  lower  Silurian  strata  of 
North  America,  apiiarently  corresponding  to  the  Llandeilo 
Hags  of  Wales.  It  contains  many  orthoceratites  of  enormous 
size,  and  fossil  brachioiiods. 

Bird's-eye  View:  a  term  used  in  the  fine  arts  to  denote 
a  picture  or  view  arranged  according  to  the  laws  of  jier- 
spective.  in  which  the  [loint  of  sight  or  situation  of  the  eye 
is  placed  at  a  considerable  height  above  the  object.  If  the 
eye  is  considered  as  looking  )ierpendicularly  down  while  it 
sweeps  over  each  point  of  the  scene  in  succession,  we  have 
an  exact  ground-plan,  no  object  covering  another,  and  hori- 
zontal angles  being  exactly  delineated.  This  is  a  con- 
venient method  of  representing  battles,  or  of  depicting  a 
large  city  or  a  small  tract  of  country.  In  sketching  a 
locality  for  military  purposes  this  kind  of  perspective  is 
used.  The  common  kind  of  bird's-eye  view  differs  from 
ordinary  pers]/ective  only  in  that  the  horizontal  line  is 
placed  considerably  above  the  picture. 

Bird's-foot :  a  plant  of  the  genus  Ornithopns  and  ta,m- 
'\\y  Leguminosfv,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  resem- 
blance of  the  curved  pods  to  Ijirds'  claws.  One  species,  the 
Oritiihopus  sa/iviis.  an  annual  plant,  a  native  of  Portugal, 
is  cultivated  in  that  country,  and  affords  a  nutritious  green 
fodder  for  cattle. 

Bird's-l'ont  Trefoil:  a  ]ilaiit  of  the  genus  Lotus  and 
family  Legiiiniiiosd' :  native  of  the  temiierate  and  cold  re- 
gions of  the  Old  World:  so  called  because  a  cluster  of  its 
pods  resembles  a  bird's  foot.  The  Lotus  corniculalus,  com- 
mon in  the  pastures  of  Great  Britain  and  introduced  into 
tlie  U.  S..  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle.  It  bears  yellow 
flowers,  which  have  a  honey-like  smell,  and  leaves  which  are 
trifoliate,  like  those  of  clover.  A  larger  species  or  variety, 
called  Lotus  tiiojor.  is  also  a  native  of  England. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Birds'  Nests:  See  Nests  of  Birds. 

Birds'  Nests.  Eoible  :  the  nest  of  the  sea-swift  (Cotloratia 
esculenta).  of  the  Malay  Arclii])elago.  a  bird  of  tlie  size  of  a 
common  martin.  It  liuilds  its  nest  of  a  glutinous  substance 
which  it  is  said  to  derive  from  a  seaweed.  This  weed  is 
swallowed  and  ]iartly  digested,  and  then  disgorged  and 
fashioned  into  a  nest  as  large  as  a  common  cofTce-cup. 
When  fresh  these  nests  are  of  a  waxy  white  color,  and  are 
said  to  be  worth  twice  their  weight  in  silvi-r  in  the  markets 
of  China,  where  alone  they  arc  sold.  The  poorer  sorts 
bring  $5  or  more  a  pound,  according  to  the  age  of  the  nests. 
The  taste  of  dishes  prepared  from  these  nests  is  said  to  be 
insijiid.  but  the  Chinese  ])rize  them,  not  |ierhaps  so  much 
for  their  tasti'  as  for  their  siqiposed  tonic  and  ajihrodisiac 
powers. 

Birds  of  passng'e:  iiirds  which  are  migratory,  passing 
instinctively  and  haliitually  from  one  country  or  latitude  to 
another,  following  the  change  of  the  seasons.  The  migra- 
tion of  birds  is  in  general  along  north  and  south  lines. 
Spending  the  summer  in  the  temperate  or  polar  regions, 
they  leave  on  tlie  approach  of  cold  we.-ither  for  the  south, 
when'  they  )iass  tlic  winter.  I\ligratory  binls  which  liri'cd  in 
the  V.  S.  are  called  summer  birds  of  jiassagi'  with  reference 
to  those  Stales.  They  return  in  autumn  to  warmer  regions, 
and  are  winter  birds  of  jiassage  in  the  countries  where  they 
pass  the  winter.  Wild  geese  and  other  waterfowl  that  breed 
in  the  Arctic  regions  in  summer  annually  vi.sit  the  U.  S.  and 


BIKD-TICK 


HIKMINC.IIAM 


635 


Great  Hritain  in  aiituimi.  and  ii'luiii  northwarfl  in  the  sm-ins- 
Several  otlier  s|ieiies  that  are  not  aciuatic,  as  the  woodcoek. 
fieUlfan'.  and  snowliinl.  jiass  the  winter  in  the  temperate 
iiurts  of  Europe  or  llie  L.  S..  and  spend  the  summer  in  a 
more  nortliern  latitude. 

Bird-tick  :  a  small  insect,  regarded  as  a  dejtraded  fly ; 
parasitic  on  numerous  species  of  birds.  Olfersia  amerieuna 
IS  a  common  species. 

Itirdtvoud.  Sir  George  Christopher  Moleswortii.  >r.D., 
LL.  I). :  h.  in  Belj;aum.  Bombay,  Dec.  8,  18;i2  ;  JI.  D.,  I'ni- 
versily  of  Edinburj;h.  18.J4 ;  aj/pointed  to  the  medical  staff 
of  the  Kast  India  Company  the  sjime  year;  appointed  act- 
ing Professor  of  Anatomy' and  Physiolo','y  in  Grant  Jled- 
ical  College,  Homliay,  18.JT,  and  retained  his  connection 
with  the  college  in  "various  chairs  until  he  left  India  in 
186!l :  a|)pointcd  to  tlie  companionship  of  the  Star  of  India 
Jan.  1.  1H7T;  knijrhtcil  in  1881  :  was  nuiiuly  instrumental_  in 
establishins  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  and  the  Vic- 
toria (iarilens  in  Bombav.  Author  of  very  many  articles  on 
India.  t'-  •••  TiiuRiiER. 

Biron.  liec n^n.  Birun.  bee  ron.  or  Biireii,  boo  rpu.  Kr- 
.NEST  JouN  :  Duke  of  Courland  :  I),  in  Kalnzeem,  Nov.  12  (22), 
16!tO.  He  piincd  the  favor  of  .\nna  {a  niece  of  Peter  the 
Great),  who  Ijccaine  Empress  of  Russia  in  loiO,  and  Rave  him 
the  title  of  duke.  He  abused  his  power  duriuj;  licr  reign  by 
tlie  e.xecution  of  many  innocent  persons.  (_)n  the  death  of 
Anna  in  17411  he  bccHUie  regent,  but  he  was  exiled  to  Siberia 
in  1741.  When  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne  in  1741  she 
perniitti'd  him  to  return  to  Russia. and  in  17G3  the  duchy  of 
Courland  was  restored  to  him.  D.  Dec.  28, 1772.  See  Ruehl, 
Ot'fcliic/ile  K.  J.  roll  Jiiroii  (17t)4). 

Birettii.  or  Birretta  :  a  cap  worn  by  some  Western  eccle- 
siastics. T\w  ordinary  Roman  biretta  is  a  square  still-sided 
cap,  with  curved  ridges,  and  a  tassel  at  the  top,  commonly 
made  of  the  same  material  as  the  cas-sock.  It  is  usually  of 
black  for  priests,  violet  for  bishops,  and  scarlet  for  cardinals. 
There  are  also  academic  forms  of  it  to  be  seen  in  use  in  some 
[larls  of  Kurope.  W.  8.  Perry. 

Biraritta,  Brigitla.  or  Bridget,  Saint:  a  Swedish  mys- 
tic and  n^ligious  reformer  ;  b.  at  Finstad.  l:J02  or  180:i.  Iler 
father,  Birger  Persson,  was  ■■  lawnum  "  of  Cpland,  and  her 
mother,  lugeborg.  was  related  to  the  royal  family.  At  the 
age  of  fourteen  Birgitta  married  a  young  nobleman,  Ulf 
Gudnuirsson,  by  whom  she  had  eight  children.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  1344  she  retired  to  the  convent  of 
Alva-stra  and  gave  herself  up  to  a  life  of  devotion,  though 
she  appears  never  to  have  joined  any  religious  order.  From 
this  time  till  her  death  she  regulated  her  conduct  entirely 
according  to  revelations  which  (as  slie  lielieved)  were  at  fre- 
tpient  intervals  vouchsafed  her  from  on  high.  In  one  of 
her  trances  she  received  from  Christ  directions  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  new  monastic  order.  Securing  large  gifts 
from  the  king  aiul  (lueen.  as  well  as  from  the  Swedish  no- 
bility, she  made  arrangements  for  the  erection  of  a  monas- 
tery at  Vadstena,  and  in  l:i49  set  out  for  Rome  with  her 
confessor,  her  chh'sl  sou.  and  a  few  other  companions.  Ar- 
riving in  the  juliilee  year.  1350,  she  opened  a  hosjiice  for 
Swedish  pilgrims  and  students.  Henceforth  she  devoted 
all  her  energies  to  attacking  the  corruption  of  the  Church, 
to  tirging  the  restoration  of  the  papal  residence  from  -Vvi- 
gnon  to  Rome,  and  to  securing  the  pope's  authorization  for 
the  new  onler.  The  influence  that  she  exerted  by  means  of 
her  revelations,  which  were  published  from  lime  to  time, 
and  in  which  she  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  higliest  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries,  was  very  great,  and  no  doubt  hail  its 
jiart  in  inducing  I'rlian  V.  (pope  1362-70)  to  take  uji  his 
resi<lence  in  Rome  in  1367.  Aug.  5,  1370,  just  a  month  be- 
fore Urban  wa.s  forced  to  return  to  Avignon,  she  obtaiiu'd  a 
bull  authorizing  her  order  and  the  foundation  at  Vadsteini. 
This  fouiulation  consisted  of  sixty  sistei's  and  twenty-five 
brothers,  living  in  different  V)uililin,gs  but  under  the  same 
rule  (a  modilicalion  of  the  Augustinian).  In  1372-73  Mir- 
gitta  performed  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  Soon  after  hi'r 
return  to  Rome  she  died  (July  23,  1373)  in  the  convent  of 
the  nuns  of  St.  Clare  at  Panisperna.  Her  bones  were  car- 
ried to  Vadstena  in  1374.  In  1391  she  was  canonized  by 
Boniface  IX. 

The  Hi'Vflntiiins  of  Sf.  liirgiflo  occupy  an  important 
place  in  the  mysticism  of  the  later  Jliddle  Ages.  They 
were  written  down  by  her  from  lime  to  lime  in  Swedish. 
but  only  two  leaves  of  the  original  version  have  bciMi  |)ri'- 
served.    Her  conlcssor,  Peter  Alvastra,  turned  them  into 


Latin,  and  they  were  edited  by  Alfonso  the  hermit  (previ- 
ouslv  Bishop  of  Jaen),  and  in  part  also  V)y  Mathias,  Canon 
of  Mnkiiping.  Before  1400  they  were  translated  back  into 
Swedish  (Jlelif/ii  Jiiryiltiis  I'pntnbtiinlstr,  efter  gamla 
IIiiiHliikrifter  utgifrn  nf  U.  K.  KUmminy,  5  vols.,  Stock- 
holm. 18.'57-84),  and  from  this  version  into  Danish.  The 
Latin  text  was  first  printed  at  Liibeck  in  1402,  and  has  been 
often  reissueil.  From  the  Latin  entire  or  partial  transla- 
tions Were  made  into  Low  (ierman  (printed  l)ctwecn  1484 
and  1404).  Dutch  (printed  1401).  High  Gernuin  (printed 
l.")02),  French  (prinlcrl  1(>24),  Italian  (printed  1518),  Spanish 
(printi'd  11)76).  and  Englisli  (printed  about  1530;  another 
.selection  London.  1873).  X  Polish  and  a  Bohemian  version 
exist  in  MSS.  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Though  vehement- 
ly attacked  from  many  (luarters.  the  genuinene.ss  and  ortho- 
doxy of  the  Hfrdationn  were  confirmed  by  the  Councils  of 
(.'onstance  and  Basel. 

The  monastic  order  founded  by  St.  Birgitta.  known  offi- 
cially as  the  Onh-r  of  tin'  Ifoli/  Sariour.  but  popularly  as 
the  'liirgittinf  Order,  \k\A  great  success  in  the  North,  espe- 
cially in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and,  from  its  ])rinciple  of 
circulating  works  of  devotion  in  the  vernacular,  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  on  mediaeval  .Swedish  and  Danish  litera- 
ture ((/.  r.).  The  rule  spread  to  other  Euro])can  countries 
till  there  were  at  one  time  in  all  no  h'.ss  than  seventy-four 
establishments  professing  it  (among  them  several  in  Spain, 
and  one,  Sion  House,  in  Kngland),  but  it  is  now  almost  ex- 
tinct. The  first  abbess  of  the  Vadstena  convent  was  the 
daughter  of  .St.  Birgitta.  SI.  Catherine  (Kalarina)  of  Sweden, 
b.  about  1335:  d.  1381  ;  canonized  1489. 

Refekexces. — C.  Annerstedt.  Scriptoren  Rerwn  Sveci- 
carum  Medii  ^l£ri,  vol.  iii..  sect.  ii..  pp.  188  IT.  (Fjjsala. 
1871-76),  coulaining  the  oldest  life  of  St.  Birgitta  (by  her 
confessors)  and  other  docnmcuts  concerning  her  and  her 
daughter.  .St.  Catherine:  Aeto  Sonclonnii,  Oct.  9.  vol.  iv..  ])p. 
48.5^93,  containing  tlie  \'itii  S.  liiryittct'  by  her  conteiu- 
iiorary,  Birger.  Archbishop  of  U|isala,  to  which  is  prefixed  a 
leai-ned  editorial  commentary:  F.  Ilannnerich,  i>ra.  Iiellii/e 
Birgitia  og  Kirknn  ;' J\'on/cH"(Copenliagen.  1863);  C.  Rostai- 
berg,  NoriWoe.rncs  Adnd.slir  fra  Oldtidentil  rare  Dftge,  vol. 
ii.  (Copenliagen,  1880),  pp.  634-651 ;  G.  E.  Kleniniing,  Jiir- 
giltii-fjilir<itiir.ii]i\n-UiV'i\  to  his  edit  ion  of  IJillga  Birgittas 
L'ppeubarrlsi'r,  vol.  v.  (Stockholm,  1884),  pji.  179-275. 

G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Birgrittine  Order :  See  Birgitta,  Saint. 

Birli'beoli,  George,  ^I.  D.  :  English  edurational  reform- 
er: b.  in  Settle,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  10,  1776  :  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh ;  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Andersonian 
Insiitution  at  Glasgow  1779:  gave  free  courses  of  lectures  to 
the  mechanics  of  Glasgow  1801-O4  :  prominent  in  founding 
the  London  Mechanics"  Institute,  of  which  he  was  made 
president  for  life.  1823:  <1.  in  LoikIoii,  Dee.  1,  1841.  The 
I5ii-kbeck  Institution  was  rebuilt  1883-84.  See  his  Life  by  J. 
(i.  (ioddanl  (London,  1884). 

Birli'oilhoad  :  a  seaport-town  of  Cheshire,  England;  on 
the  lift  bank  and  near  the  month  of  the  Jlersey  :  opposite 
Liverpool,  and  15  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Chester,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  railway  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-F).  It 
is  about  1^  miles  S.  W.'of  Liver|iool.  and  is  the  residence  of 
maiiv  merchants  who  do  business  in  that  city.  Steamers 
cross  the  river  between  these  jilaces  every  few  minutes,  and 
a  railway  tunnel  to  conned  them,  1.23()  yards  long,  was 
oiiened  in  1886.  Birkenhead  was  only  a  small  fishing-vil- 
lage as  recently  as  1824  :  it  has  since  increased  rapidly  in 
consei|uence  of  the  construction  of  extensive  docks  and  im- 
portant public  works.  It  has  wide  streets,  a  fine  public 
|. ark,  a  college  called  St.  Aidan"s  (designed  for  the  educa- 
tion of  young  men  for  the  Anglican  ministry),  and  many 
handsome  villa.s.  t)ne  of  the  docks  occupies  120  acres. 
Ship-building  is  extensively  carried  on.  and  here  the  Con- 
federate cruiser  ,\labama  was  built,  There  are  vast  works 
here  for  turning  out  iron  bridges  and  other  heavv  con- 
structions for  engineers.     Pop.  (1881)  83.324;  (1891)  99,184. 

Bir'min&rlinin  :  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of 
f'ngland;  in  the  county  of  Warwick  ;  on  the  river  Rea  ;  79 
miles  bv  rail  S.  E.  of  Liverpool,  and  1.30  miles  by  rail  N.  W. 
of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  built  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  three  undulating  hills,  and  has  a  gravcl- 
Iv  foundation.  Its  suburbs  extend  into  Staffordshire  anil 
Worcestershire.  It  returns  seven  membei's  to  Parliament, 
liirmingham  is  the  chief  town  of  Great  Britain  for  the  manu- 
facture of  hardware  and  metallic  products  made  of  gold, 
silver,  brass,  iron,  steel,  and  mixed  metal,  including  fire- 


636 


BIRMINGHAM 


BISCEGLIA 


arms,  swords,  jewelry,  buttons,  tools,  steel  pens,  locks,  steam- 
engines,  and  all  sorts  of  machinerv.  From  a  very  early 
period  Birmingham  lias  been  a  seat  of  manufactures  in 
metal,  and  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  be- 
came one  of  the  principal  centers  of  that  industry,  partly 
on  account  of  its  easy  access  to  cheap  coal  and  iron,  and 
partly  on  account  of  its  freedom,  there  being  no  guilds  or 
companies,  or  restrictions  of  any  kind.  The  cliief  variety 
is  the  brass-working  trade,  in  which  more  than  10.000 
people  are  engaged,  and  which  annually  consumes  more 
than  .50,000  tons  of  motal.  Next  comes  Jewelry,  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  gilt.  Then  foUow  small-arms  of  all  kinds,  some  of 
the  larger  factories  being  able  to  turn  out  2.000  stand  per 
week.  Further  specialties  are  buttons,  hooks  and  eyes, 
pins,  and  other  articles  of  dress  ;  screws  and  nails,  of  which 
trade  Birmingham  has  a  kind  of  monopoly ;  steel  pens,  of 
which  there  are  produced  about  30.000.000  a  week;  electro- 
plating, which  was  first  establislied  there  in  1848;  bell- 
founding,  the  making  of  steel  toys,  etc.  Here  are  also  ex- 
tensive maimfaci  ures  of  glass  anil  papier-mache.  The  city 
of  Birmingham  contains  about  1(X)  churches ;  Queen's  Col- 
lege, connected  with  the  London  University  :  a  free  public 
library ;  the  schools  of  Edward  VI. ;  a  botanic  garden ;  a 
Roman  Catliolic  cathedral ;  and  a  town-hall,  which  is  a 
handsome  edifice  of  the  classic  style,  with  a  very  fine  or- 
gan. A  musical  festival  is  held  in  tiiis  hall  once  in  three 
years.  In  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham  are  the  famous  Soho 
and  Smethwick  works,  founded  by  Watt  and  Boulton,  who 
there  manufactured  their  first  steam-engines.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  an. asvlum  tor  the  de.af  and  dumb 
and  an  asvlum  for  the  blind.  "Pop.  (1881)  400,757;  (1891) 
429.171. 

Birmingfhani :  city;  capital  of  Jefferson  co.,  Ala.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  Alaliama,  ref.  3-C);  one  of  the 
most  important  manufacturing  cities  of  the  "  New  South." 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  "  Red  Mountain,"  a  formation 
holding,  besides  vast  limestone  deposits,  an  iron  hematite  ore 
vein  of  remarkable  extent  and  easily  accessible  to  miners, 
and  almost  touching  the  great  Warrior  coal-field  of  7,800 
sq.  miles,  the  Cahawba  coal-field,  400  sq.  miles,  and  the 
Coosa  coal-field,  also  about  400  sq.  miles.  Iron  and  steel 
are  manufiictured  here  under  the  most  favorable  conditions. 
Six  trunk  railway  lines  ( Louisville  and  Na.shville ;  Queen 
and  Crescent;  Richmond  and  Danville;  Georgia  Central; 
Kansas  City,  Memphis  and  Birmingham  :  and  Eaist  Tennes- 
see, Virginia  and  Georgia)  cross  each  other  in  this  city, 
giving  it  as  good  railway  facilities  as  any  interior  Southern 
city. 

Birmingham  has  23  churches  (18  for  white  and  4  for  col- 
ored people);  11  public  schools  (7  for  white,  4  for  colored 
children),  with  school  property  valued  at  ^275,000;  an  ex- 
tensive water-work  system,  the  reservoir  on  Shade's  Moim- 
tain,  225  feet  above  the  city,  having  a  capacity  of  28,500,000 
gal.  Birmingham  has  adopted  the  Waring  system  of  sewer- 
age, and  has  about  12  miles  of  storm-water  and  28  miles  of 
sanitary  sewers.  Suburbs  are  made  accessible  by  93  miles 
of  street  railroads,  2  miles  of  which  are  operated  by  horses, 
75  miles  by  steam-power,  and  15  miles  by  electricity.  Coal, 
iron,  cotton,  and  lumber  industries  are  the  foundation  of 
Birmingham's  prosperity.  In  1890  there  were  223  establish- 
ments, employing  2,869  hands  and  $3,401,835  capital,  and 
producing  goods  valued  at  ^5,336,609.  Of  this  output,  the 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  employed  1,020  luuids  and 
turned  out  goods  valued  at  ^1.618,201,  to  which  the  found- 
ries and  machine-shoos  added  5:385,229.  Area  of  eit  v  proj)er, 
3-19  sq.  miles.  Pop."(1871)  800;  (1880)  3,086;  (1890)  26,178, 
including  suburbs  about  44,700.  '         Editor  of  "  Nkws." 

Birmingham :  manufacturitig  borough  of  New  Haven 
CO.,  Conn,  (for  location  of  counly.  see  map  of  Connecticut, 
ref.  1 1-K) ;  on  railroad  and  the  liousatonic  river ;  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Naugatuck ;  9  miles  W.  of  New  Haven.  A 
bridge  acro-s  the  Naugatuck  coimects  it  with  the  village  of 
Old  Derby,  on  raih-oad.  It  has  several  rolling-mills,  and 
manufactures  of  augers,  chains,  pins,  and  carriage-axles  and 
springs,  pianos  and  organs.  Here  is  the  first  pin-factory 
established  in  the  U.  S.  Pop.  (1880)  3,026;  (1890)  4,413. 
See  Dkrbv.  Editor  of  "  Tra.nscript." 

Birminglinm  :  a  former  borough  of  Alleghany  co..  Pa.; 
on  the  left  (west)  bank  of  the  Jlonongahela  river ;"  1  mile  S. 
of  Pittsburg,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  1,500 
feet  long.  It  derives  its  prosperity  chiefly  from  manufac- 
tures of  glass  and  iron.  In  1872'  it  was'  united  to  Pitts- 
burg. 


Bir'nam  :  a  hill  of  Scotland ;  in  Perthshire ;  12  miles 
N.  W.  of  Perth  ;  1.580  feet  high,  and  commanding  a  fine 
view  of  the  valley  of  the  Tay.  It  was  formerly  covered  by 
part  of  a  royal  forest,  to  which  Shakspeare  has  given  celeb- 
rity in  his  tragedy  of  Mnchetlt. 

Bir'ney,  David  Bell  :  general ;  b.  in  Huntsville,  Ala., 
May  29,  1825 ;  son  of  James  G.,  the  Free-soiler ;  practiced 
law  in  Philadelphia.  He  became  a  brigadier-general  of 
Union  volimteers  in  1861 ;  served  at  Fredericksburg,  Dec, 
1863.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
commanded  a  division  at  Gettysburg  in  July,  1863,  and 
Gen.  Sickles's  corps  after  that  officer  was  wounded,  and  was 
at  the  head  of  the  Tenth  Army  Corps  in  several  battles  in 
Virginia  in  1864.  D.  in  Philadelphia,  from  disease  con- 
tracted in  the  service.  Oct.  18,  1864. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie:  an  anti-slaveiT  leader;  b.  in 
Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,  1793 ;  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1813.  and  became  a  lawyer  in  Danville,  and  then  a  planter 
in  Huntsville,  Ala.  In  the  Kentucky  and  Alabama  Legis- 
latures he  endeavored  to  obtain  constitutional  enactments 
restricting  the  slave-trade  ami  providing  for  emancipation. 
He  served  the  Colonization  Society  until  the  Texaj  policy 
of  Andrew  Jackson  convinced  him  that  the  methods  of 
that  society  were  inadequate.  Then  he  resolved  to  attempt 
to  array  Kentucky  on  the  anti-slavery  side.  He  had  eman- 
cipated twenty-one  inherited  slaves,  when  he  returned  to 
Danville  to  publish  a  paper,  which  he  was  compelled  to 
]irint  in  Cincinnati.  Violence  led  him  to  remove  to  the 
latter  city,  where  he  continued  his  anti-slavery  paper,  called 
TIte  Phiianthroiiisi.  His  office  was  several  times  attacked 
by  a  mob,  which  threw  his  press  into  the  river,  but  he  main- 
tained his  ground  and  secured  toleration  for  free  speech 
there.  Having  become  secretary  of  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  he  removed  to  New  York  city  abont  the 
year  1836.  He  was  nominated  in  1840  for  the  presidency 
of  the  U.  S.  by  the  Liberty  party,  which  also  supported  him 
in  the  election  of  1844.  D.  in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  24, 
1857. 

Biroii.  be'e'rori'.  Charles  de  Goxtaut,  Duke  de  :  French 
general ;  b.  in  1561 :  a  son  of  Armand  (d.  1593).  He  served 
with  distinction  at  Ivry  1.590;  became  a  favorite  of  Henry 
IV.  ;  marshal  of  France  in  1595 ;  appointed  governor  of 
Burgundy.  He  was  ambitious,  and  was  convicted  of  form- 
ing a  treasonable  plot  with  the  Duke  of  .Savoy,  for  which  he 
was  beheaded  in  the  Bastile,  July  31,  1603.  See  De  Thou, 
Ilistoria  siii  Temporix:  Martir-Rizo,  Historia  de  la  Vida 
del  Dtigice  de  Biron  (1639). 

Birthmarlis:  See  N^vus. 

Birtliworts  (ArislolochiacerF):  a  small  family  of  20O 
species  of  herbaceous  (rarely  shiiibby),  mostly  climbing  di- 
cotyledonous flowering  plants.  They  have  inferior  ovaries, 
and  a  single,  often  gamophyllous,  perianth.  Their  affinities 
are  difficult  to  m.ake  out.  and  it  is  at  present  impossible  to 
assign  them  definitely  to  their  proper  position  among  di- 
cotyledons. Many  species  of  Arisfolochia  are  cultivated 
for  their  odd  flowers.  Several  species  of  AristoJochia  and 
Asarum  are  natives  of  the  U.  S.  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Bis'cay,  or  Biscaya,  bis-kl'a  (Sp.  Yizeaya) :  one  of  the 
fom'  Basque  provinces  of  Spain;  bounded  N.  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  E.  by  Guipiizcoa,  S.  by  Alava,  and  W.  by  Santander. 
Area,  849  sq.  miles.  It  consists  partly  of  mountains  and 
partly  of  level  plains.  The  chief  jiroducts  are  wine,  fruits, 
walnuts,  <-licstnuts,  figs,  anil  grain.  Pop.  (1887)  235,659. 
Capital,  Bilbao. 

Biscay.  Bay  of  (in  Fr.  Oolfe  de  Gascotine  ;  anc.  Oallicus 
Occ  aims,  or  Ai/uitim  irus  Siniif) :  a  portion  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  bordering  on  France  and  Spain ;  extends  from  the 
French  island  of  Ushant  to  Cape  Orlegal.  The  depth,  which 
is  greatest  near  the  coast  of  Sjiain,  varies  from  30  to  200 
fathoms.  The  southern  or  Spanish  coast  is  bold  and  rocky, 
but  the  east  coast,  from  the  Adour  to  the  mouth  of  the  Gi- 
ronde,  is  low  and  sandy.  The  largest  rivers  that  flow  into 
this  bay  are  th(!  Loire  and  the  Gironde.  The  principal 
ports  on  it  are  Nantes,  Bordeaux,  Bayonne,  La  Ruchelle, 
the  new  port  La  Pallice.  and  Uochefort  in  France,  and  Bil- 
bao and  Sanlatider  in  Spain.  Violent  currents  and  winds 
render  the  navigation  of  this  bay  difficult. 

Bisccglia,  bec'-sharya"a  (Lat.  Vigiliw) :  a  fortified  sea- 
port-tow-ii  of  Italy;  province  of  Terra  di  Bari ;  on  the  Ad- 
riatic; 25  miles  \V.  N.  W.  of  Bari  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref, 
6-fi).  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  and  several  churches 
ami  e(mvents.     Excellent  currants  and  olives  are  raised  ia 


BISCHOP 


BISHOPS  SUFFRAGAN 


637 


the  viciiiity.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Fojjsia  and  all 
the  points  along  the  coast  S.  of  Barletta  to  Brinilisi.  Bop. 
25,127. 

Bisfhof.  Karl  Gustav:  German  chemist  and  geolo- 
gist: I),  ill  Word,  near  Xuremherg,  .Tan.  IS,  ll'.fi;  iilu- 
c.ateil  at  Krlaiigen  :  Brofissor  of  Clu'inistry  in  IViiin  in  1819 ; 
<i.  there  Nov.  SO,  1870.  In  1840  he  pul)li.slied  a  iirize-cssay 
on  the  means  of  avoiding  explosions  in  mines,  exiierimentod 
on  inflammable  jases.  and  improved  sjifety-lamps.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  mineralogy,  ilynamic  geology,  and  chemistry, 
his  principal  work  being  ^/empn/."!  of  Chemical  and  Phys- 
ical Geology  (Bonn,  1847-i)4;  <!d  ed.  in  1866,  and  supplement 
in  1871). 

Bisi-holT.  Theodor  Li'Dwig  'WiLnKLJi :  a  German  physi- 
ologist and  anatomist:  b.  in  Hanover,  Oct.  28,  1807.  He 
became  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Hcidellicrg  in  lH;i6,  at 
Giessen  in  184:5,  and  obtained  a  chair  at  Munich  in  1854.  He 
gained  distinction  by  his  researches  in  endjryology,  on  which 
he  wrote  several  treatises,     D,  in  Munich,  Dec.  5,  1882. 

IJiscJMVPiler,  bish  cilT:  a  town  of  Alsace:  on  the  nver 
Moihr:  14  miles  by  rail  E.  X.  E.  of  .Strassburg.  It  has 
manufactures  of  linens,  coarse  woolen  cloths,  gloves,  and 
earthenware.  It  is  the  center  of  the  hop-trade  in  Lower 
Alsace.  Xear  it  is  a  rich  mine  of  iron.  It  was  formerlv 
fortified.     Pop.  (1890)  7.00.5. 

Biscuit  [French  spelling  of  older  hisltef  (seventeenth 
century),  O.  Fr.  heacoit :  Ital.  biscolto.  as  if  from  Lat.  *i/.s- 
coc  turn  (sc.  pnnem) ;  bix,  twice  -I-  rn  i/iiere,  cook] :  a  hard 
kind  of  unfin'mentcd  bread  formed  into  small  cakes  or  flat 
pieces,  and  sometimes  called  ship-bread  or  sea-biscuit.  It  is 
composed  of  wheat  flour,  water,  and  salt,  and  is  rendered 
hard  and  dry  by  baking,  in  order  that  it  may  be  preserved 
for  a  long  iime.  Biscuits  are  exposed  to  the  heat  of  an 
oven  for  about  twelve  minutes,  and  afterward  dried  in  a 
warm  room  for  two  or  three  days.  "Captain's  biscuit"  is 
prepared  with  butler,  in  addition  to  tlic  ingredients  men- 
tioned above,  and  somctime,s  contains  milk.  Water  or  hard 
biscuits  are  n\ade  of  flour,  water,  with  variable  quantities  of 
butter,  eggs,  and  sugar.  Soft  biscuits  contain  increa.sed 
proportions  of  butter  and  sugar.  Several  varieties  of  fer- 
mented biscuits  are  manufactured.  Meat  biscuit  consists 
of  wheat  flour,  combined  with  the  essential  or  soluble  ])art 
of  beef,  so  that  the  nutritive  qualitiosof  the  meat  may  be  pre- 
served for  a  long  time.  To  |)rcpare  this  biscuit  large  pieces 
of  beet,  with  water  sufficient  to  cover  them,  are  subjected 
to  slow  ebidlition.  The  fat  is  skimmed  off,  the  liquor  is  re- 
duced by  evaporation  to  the  consistency  of  sirup,  and  is 
then  mixed  with  wheat  flour,  rolled  out  to  the  thickness  of 
ordinary  ship-biscuit,  and  cut,  baked,  and  dried  in  thesanu' 
manner  as  common  biscuits.  One  poun<l  of  meat  liiscuit 
contains  about  one-half  |)onnd  of  flour  and  the  soluble  part 
of  r>  lb.  of  meat.  It  is  usi'd  in  the  form  of  sou)),  which  is 
made  by  boiling  the  biscuit  in  twenty  times  its  weight  of 
water  lor  half  an  hour.    See  Pemmicax. 

Biscurr,  in  pottery,  is  applied  to  porcelain  and  earthen- 
ware after  it  has  been  hardened  in  the  fire,  and  before  it  has 
received  the  glaze.  In  this  state  it  is  jiorous  and  permeable 
to  waler.  Biscuit  in  sculpture  is  a  species  of  porcelain,  of 
which  groups  and  figures  in  miniature  are  formed,  which 
are  twice  passed  through  the  furnace  or  oven. 

]tisli()|)  [0.  Eng.  hiscop  =  O.  H.  G.  biscof,  an  early  loan- 
word from  vulg.  fjaf.  form  of  Lat.  epixropiis  ^=  Gr.  ^jrf- 
iritoiroj,  overseer.  Adopted  in  Kom.  langs.  as  llal.  vescoro, 
O.  Fr.  rexijue.  Jlod.  Fr.  evetiiie.  etc.] :  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
highest  rank  in  the  Christian  Church — all  patriarchs,  arch- 
bishops, nu'lro|iolitans,  and  the  pope  himself  belonging  to 
the  order  of  bishops.  In  many  Protestant  denominations 
the  order  of  bishop  is  held  to  be  identical  with  that  of 
presbyters  or  elilers:  and  in  such  sects  these  names  are  used 
in  preference  to  that  of  bishop.  The  Kaslcrn.  l{oman.  and 
Anglican  Churches,  with  some  minor  sects,  claim  for  their 
bishops,  by  direct  succession,  an  authority  derived  from  the 
twelve  ai>ostles.  Lutherans,  Presbyterians,  and  other  de- 
nominations also  claim  a  tactual  succession  for  their  orders, 
but  do  not  draw  the  same  dogmatic  inferences  from  it. 
The  principal  churches  recognizing  the  superior  rank  of 
bishops  are  Ihe  (ireek.  the  lionuin  Catholic,  the  Armenian. 
Coptic,  Abyssinian,  Xestorian,  and  .Jacobite,  the  chnrclies  of 
the  Ani;li<'an  comnnniion,  the  ^loravian,  the  Catholic  .Apos- 
tolic (I  rvingite),  theOUl  Catholics,  and  a  part  of  Ihe  Luthi-ran 
churches.  The  Methodist  Episco|ml  churches  and  some  ol  hers 
give  their  bishops  a  superiority  of  office,  but  not  of  order. 


In  the  Boman  Catholic  and  Anglican  Churches  bishops  have 
the  title  of  "right  reverend,"  wliilc  archbishops  and  metro- 
politans are  addressed  as  "  most  reverend,"  In  (ireat  Britain 
bishops  of  the  Church  of  England  are  called  hml  bishops. 
In  England  and  Wales  the  two  archbishops  and  twenty- 
four  diocesan  bishops  have  scats  and  a  vote  in  the  House  of 
Lords:  but  the  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man,  the  bishops  of 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  of  newly  created  dioceses  and  suf- 
fragan bisliojis,  do  not  have  seats  with  the  peers  or  court 
Ijrccedence,  but  are  called  lords  by  courtesy.  See  Vicar 
ArosToi.ic. 

The  bisho]!  is  required  by  the  ancient  canons  to  be  conse- 
crsiled  by  three  bishops.  Consecrations  by  a  single  bishop, 
though  Valid,  are  deenu-d  irregular.  It  jiertains  to  the 
office  of  a  bishop  to  adnnnister,  ordain,  confirm,  consecrate 
cluirches,  etc.,  and  to  share  in  legislating  for  the  church  in 
conjunction  with  convocations,  councils,  ami  conventions,  as 
the  canons  of  the  respective  churches  may  direct.  His  vcst- 
nu'iits  are  properly  cassock,  alb,  girdle,  rochet,  amice,  tunic, 
dahualic,  cha.sid)le,  cope,  mozzelta,  chimerc,  greiTiial,  and 
buskins.  Anglican  bishops  use  only  a  portion  of  these  vest- 
nu'nts.  The  bishop's  distinctive  oniainenla  are  the  miter, 
ring,  and  pastoral  staff.  The  black  or  pur]ile  chimeric  (red 
for"  convocation)  and  the  white  ro<het.  which  with  the 
s(|uare  cap  form  the  usual  ejiiscopal  robes  of  Anglican  prel- 
ates, were,  it  is  probable,  the  walking-attire  of  the  bishops 
during  the  reign  of  the  Tudors.  See  Vestments,  Ecclesias- 
tical; also  Apostolic,  Arciihishoi',  Ixvestiture,  Ordina- 
tiox,  etc.  W.  S.  Perry. 

Bishop.  AxxA  :  singer;  b.  in  London  in  1814  :  daughter 
of  :\lr.  Riviere,  an  artist.  In  1831  she  married  Sir  Henry 
Rowley  Bishop  (see  below),  who  was  a  widower,  Imt  eloped 
from  him  in  18:!9willi  Robert  Xieholas  Charles  Bochsa.  an 
Italian  harpist  (b.  in  Jlontnu'dy.  France,  1789;  d  in  Austra- 
lia, 18r)5).  Wer  debut  was  made  in  lS:i7.  She  won  the  high- 
est distinction  in  Europe,  the  Americas,  and  Australasia,  as 
a  singer  in  classical  music  aiul  modern  o])era.  She  married 
Martin  Sehultz,  of  New  York,  in  1858.  In  1868  she  lost  her 
voice.     D.  in  New  York,  Mar.  19,  1884. 

Bisliop.  Sir  Hexry  Rowlkv.  JIus.  1). :  English  composer; 
b.  in  London,  Nov.  18,  1786.  He  jiroduced  innnerous  popu- 
lar operas,  which  are  commended  for  their  long  flowing 
nu>lodies  and  animated  style.  Among  them  are  (luy  Jlaii- 
iieriiii/:  Miiid  Jlnrian;  'Aatire  Land;  and  TlieVirgin  of 
the  Sun.  His  glees  are  very  fine.  He  was  knighted  in 
1842.  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Jliisic  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1848.     I),  in  liomlon,  Apr.  30,  18.55. 

Bisliop.  William  IlEXTtv:  novelist;  b.  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  .Ian.  7.  1847:  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1867: 
.studic<l  architecture  in  New  York  and  Washington:  edited 
a  newspaper  at  ^Milwaukee.  Resided  in  New  York  from 
1877  to  1888.  since  which  time  he  has  been  in  Europe. 
Anionij  his  novels  are  'I'he  J/oi'se  of  a  Merchant  Prince 
(188:i)  and  The  Uolden  Juntice  (1886).  A  book  of  travel. 
Old  Mexico  and  her  Lost  Provinces,  was  iiublished  in  1884. 

Henry  -V.  Beers. 

Bishops  SiifTragaii  Ois  distinguished  from  suft'ragan 
bishops,  every  diocesan  bislioj)  being  a  "  suffragan  "  of  his 
metropolitan' where  "  i)rovinces"  are  established):  bishops 
consecrated  in  Englanil  under  the  Act  26,  Hen.  VIII.,  en- 
acted to  supjilv  the  jilace  of  the  earlier  bishops  in  parlibiis 
who  fornuM-ly'  assisted  the  inemnbeiits  of  English  sees. 
Under  this  act  twentv-six  places  are  named  as  "llie  sees  of 
bishops  suffragan."  to  these  ihe  Act  50  and  52  Vict,  per- 
mits additions  to  be  made  under  orders  in  council.  I'he 
diocesan  presents  two  spiritual  persons  to  the  crown.  The 
crown  .selects  one  of  the  two  to  be  bishop  of  a  sufl'ragan  see, 
and  presents  him  by  lettci's  patent  under  the  great  seal  to 
the  archbishop  of  the  |irovince  for  consecration.  Until  the 
jiresent  generation  eighteen  consecrations  ajipear  to  have 
taken  place  under  the  act  of  Henry  VIII.  The  present 
liishop  of  Dover,  consecrated  in  1890.  is  the  fifth  of^that 
title,  his  predecessor  of  the  Reformation  period  lieing  Rich- 
ard l\ogei-s.  Dean  of  Cant erbury,anil  sulfragan  to  Archbishop 
Parker.  A  suffragan  holds  his  commission  at  the  will  of  the 
diocesan,  at  whose  ileath  it  lapses.  But  the  lapse  or  volun- 
tarv  resignation  of  such  commission  does  not  affect  the 
"St vie.  title,  or  dignity"  of  the  suffragan  .see.  James 
Keinii.  D.I).,  was  consecrated  suffragan  to  Bishop  Clagcett, 
of  Marvland,  with  jurisdiction  of  "Ihe  Eastern  Shore,"  Sept, 
11,  1814.  On  Bishop  Claggetfs  death  he  succeeded  him  as 
Bishop  of  Marvland.  Sulfragans  are  not  allowed  in  the 
Protestant   Episcopal  Churches  in  the   U.  S,     Dr.   Brett's 


63S 


BISMAKCK 


BISMARCK-SCIIONHAUSEX 


treatise   on   Siifriiijan    Bishopa  ond   Rm-ul  Dean--!   (1711) 
has  been  republished  witli  notes  by  James  Pemlall  (1858). 

William  Stevens  Perky. 
Bismarck:  fity;  capital  of  N.  Dakota  and  Burleigh.co. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xorth  Dakota,  ref.  3-D): 
very  advantageously  situated  on  Nortliern  Pac.  R.  R.  and 
on  east  bank  of  Missouri  river.  The  Jfissouri  is  navigable  for 
boats  of  250  to  TOO  tons  for  1.200  miles  above  Bismarck, 
which  contains  an  inimi'iisc  i-iM'r-warcliouse  :  15.000.0(X)  to 


State  Capitol,  Bisuiai 


25,000,000  lb.  of  freight  sliijiped  via  river  annually.  Bis- 
marck contains  the  Capitol,  which  cost  over  .^500.000 ;  the 
penitentiary,  flue  court-house,  high-scliool  building,  water- 
works, electric  light, a  large  flonring-mill,  extensive  brewery, 
etc.  The  bridge  across  tlie  Missouri  river  cost  .f  1,500,000. 
Pop.  (1880)  l,7o8 ;  (1890)  2,186.        Editor  of  "  Tribune." 

Bisiiiiirc'k  Art'liipelaaro:  a  group  of  islands  otf  the 
north  coast  of  the  eastern  end  of  New  Guinea,  including 
islands  furnicrly  called  New  Britain.  New  Ireland,  New  llau- 
over,  and  Duke  of  York  group.  It  was  appi'oiu-iated  by 
Germany  in  1884  and  1885  and  assigned  to  tlie  New  Guinea 
Company.  Area,  18,200  scj.  miles.  Pop.  estimated  at  188.- 
000,  of  whom  only  61  were  Europeans,  in  1891.  New  Britain 
was  in  188.')  rel)a]itized  as  New  Pomerania;  New  Ireland  as 
New  Mecklcnijurg,  and  the  Duke  of  York  grouii  as  New 
Lauenburg. 

Bisniarc-k-Sclionlianseii.  bis'maark-shon-how  z^n,  Count 
Herbkut,  von:  German  diplomat;  son  of  Prince  Bis- 
marck: li.  at  Berlin,  Dec.  28.  1849.  Count  Bismarck  is  a 
major  in  the  German  army  :  has  served  as  secretary  to  the 
embassy  in  London  and  as  minister  at  The  Hague.  He  sits 
in  the  Reichstag  for  .Schleswig-Holstein,  and  was  (1886-90) 
at  the  head  of  the  German  Foreign  Gffice,  but  retired  u])on 
the  resignation  of  his  father.  His  marriage.  June  21,  1892, 
to  Countess  Margaret  Iloyos.  in  Vienna,  was  the  occasion 
of  a  great  popular  demonstration  in  favor  of  his  father,  who 
attended  the  wedding. 

Bisinarck-SchonliaiiNeii.  Otto  Eduard  Leopold,  Prince 
von:  Prussian  statesman  and  I  lie  unifier  of  Gi?rmany ;  b. 
on  the  knighfs  estate  of  Schoidiausen,  near  JStendal,  in 
Prussian  Saxony.  Apr.  1,  1815.  His  fallier's  family  be- 
longed to  the  lower  order  of  Prussian  nobility,  and  sev- 
eral of  his  paternal  ancestors  distinguished  themselves  in 
war  and  di|>lomacy.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Lud- 
wig  Menken,  a  liberal-minded  pi'ivy  counselor  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  A  year  after  l>isiuarck"s  liirth  his  father  moved 
to  one  of  his  estates  near  .Stettin  in  Ponu'rania.  and  it  was 
there  that  the  future  statesman  received  his  first  impressions 
of  life.  At  the  early  age  of  six  hi^  was  sent  to  the  boarding- 
school  of  Herr  Plamann  at  Berlin,  where,  as  he  afterward 
said,  he  had  '■ela.stic  meat  with  ]iarsnips  as  the  invari- 
able dish,"  and  where  in  matters  of  discipline  "  a  spurious' 
Spartanism  was  the  rul<'."  At  twelve  lie  went  to  a  gymna- 
sium, where  he  fell  under  the  intlueiU'e  of  Dr.  Prevost  and 
Dr.  Bonneil.  both  of  whom  .seem  to  have  had  much  iiiilu- 
cnce  on  his  methods  of  thought  and  life.  History  was  his 
favorite  study,  though  he  ••iciiuirecl  at  this  time  sui'h  i  borough 
knowledge  of  the  clenients  of  English  and  French  that  he 
ever  afterward  used  these  languages  with  ease,  and  sur- 
prised both  Najioleon  III.  and  Beaconsfield  with  his  mastery 
over  them.     During  this  period,  and  especially  in  his  vaca- 


tions, he  devoted  himself  to  all  kinds  of  manly  sports,  and 
thus  develojied  those  remarkable  physical  powers  for  which 
lie  was  afterward  so  famous.  In  1832.  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, he  was  entered  as  a  student  of  law  at  the  University  of 
Gottingen.  That  he  did  not  devote  himself  very  assiduously 
to  study  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in  the  course  of 
three  semesters  he  fought  twenty-eiglit  duels,  in  all  of  which 
he  drew  blood  from  his  oijponent.  wliile  in  one  only  did  he 
receive  a  .scar,  the  one  observable  on  his  left  cheek.  "  In  1833 
lie  went  to  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  a  little  later  he 
passed  the  reciuisite  examinations  for  professional  life.  But 
instead  of  entering  upon  the  practice  of  law  he  returned  to 
Pomerania,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  care  of  his  estates 
and  the  life  of  an  energetic  country  squire.  It  was  not  until 
1847  that  he  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  House  of  Burgesses. 
He  remained  a  member  until  1851.  when  he  was  cho.sen  a 
representative  of  the  Germanic  Diet.  It  was  here  that  his 
remarkable  public  career  began,  for  immediately  after  he 
appeared  in  the  Diet  he  outlined  the  characteristics  of  all 
the  most  important  of  his  political  doctrines. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was 
about  as  little  representative  government  in  (xermany  as  in 
Asia.  The  Napoleonic  campaign  which  shattered  Prussia  at 
Jena,  however,  led  to  many  rcrorms  under  the  ius]iiring 
leadership  of  Von  Stein.  Frederick  William  III.  not  only 
issued  an  edict  of  emancipation,  but  a  little  later  he  also 
promulgated  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  an  t)rdinance  prom- 
ising his  people  a  written  (.'onstitution  and  a  representative 
Assembly.  It  was  largely  from  the  inspiration  of  these 
edicts  that  Germany  aroused  herself  to  throw  otf  the  Napo- 
leonic yoke.  But  a  reaction  soon  came  on  under  the  baleful 
influence  of  Metternich.  In. all  the  German  states  the  pros- 
pect of  constitutional  government  grew  less  and  less  as  the 
years  went  on.  In  Pru.ssia  the  reign  of  Frederick  William 
IV.  seemed  to  give  no  hope  wliatever.  It  was  owing  to  the 
general  feeling  residting  from  the  faithless  [iromi-ses  of  roy- 
alty that  the  Revolution  of  1848  took  so  strong  a  hold  in 
(iermany.  Thougli  Bismarck  entered  the  Prussian  Par- 
liament in  1847,  it  was  not  till  he  entered  the  Germanic 
Diet  in  1851  that  he  exerted  strong  influence.  From  the 
first,  however,  he  not  only  opposed  all  revolutionary  meas- 
ures, but  demanded  that  in  the  Diet  Prussia  should  have 
the  same  rights  as  Austria.  He  remained  at  Frankfort  till 
1859.  when  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  St.  Petersburg.  His 
diplomatic  experience,  begun  in  Russia,  was  continued  in 
France,  whither  he  was  sent  in  1862  in  order  that  he  might 
obtain  an  iiiMght  into  the  jiolitics  of  the  Tuileries.  In 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  was  recalled  to  take  the 
portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  and  became  president  of  the 
cabinet.  A  )icriod  of  turbulent  parliamentary  disagreements 
ensued.  The  Government  was  unalile  to  induce  parliament 
to  make  the  needed  aiipropriations  for  a  reorganization  of 
the  army,  wliercuiion  parliament  was  re]icaledly  dissolved, 
after  being  told  tliat  tlie  king  would  be  oliliged  to  act  with- 
out its  sanction.  In  this  way  the  reorganization  of  the 
army  went  on  in  spite  of  parliament.  The  death  of  the 
King  of  Denmark  soon  afforded  tlieop])ortunity  for  showing 
Prussian  strength.  Tlie  Schleswig-Holstein  duchies  were 
claimed  for  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  by  Prussia,  with  a 
view  to  detach  them  from  Denmark  and  incorporate  them 
with  Germany,  and  Bismarck  was  adroit  enough  to  enlist  in 
behalf  of  the  claim  the  general  sympathy  of  the  em])ire. 
Austria  and  Prussia  soon  came  to  dissension  over  the  occu- 
pation of  these  duchies,  with  the  result  that  the  conflict 
was  brought  to  a  crisis  at  the  battle  of  Kiiniggriitz  in  1866, 
where  Atistria  was  so  disastrously  defeatecl  that  Prussia 
was  alile  to  ]ilace  herself  at  the  head  of  the  North  (ier- 
man  Confeder.rtion.  from  which  Austria  was  excluded.  The 
war  had  can-ied  Prussia  to  the  very  front  of  military  na- 
tions, and  liisiuarck  was  universally  recognized  as  the  lead- 
ing spirit  in  the  movement.  The  result  of  the  war  was  dis- 
astrous, however,  to  the  friendly  relations  of  France  and 
Prussia.  'I'he  French  people  saw  the  aggrandizement  of 
their  old  foe  with  great  alarm,  and  seized  upon  the  first  pre- 
text for  declaring  war.  The  events  of  1870-71  afforded  Bis- 
marck the  opportunity  he  desired.  The  military  prestigcof 
France  was  liiimbled,  it  not  broken:  but.  wliat  to  him  was 
doubtless  of  far  more  coii.sei|iience.  the  ivsult  intensiHed 
the  national  feeling  among  the  (iermans  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  new  German  einiiire  was  established,  with  the 
King  of  Prussia  at  its  liea(l.  Bismarck  himself  was  given 
the  rank  of  ju'ince,  and  made  chancellor  of  the  empire. 
At  his  dictation  France  was  obliged,  at  the  Treaty  of 
Fi-ankfort,  May  10.  1871,  to  cede  to  Germany  the  greater 


BISMUTH 


BISSELL 


639 


part  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  anil  pay  ail  imliMnnilv  of  ^1.000,- 
000,000. 

At  the  close  of  tlu-  war  Bismarck  entered  iijion  what  was 
in  many  respects  the  most  remarkable  pari  of  his  career. 
Havinj;  aecouiplisheil  the  consolidation  of  the  German 
stales  into  a  federal  union,  he  saw  that  the  welfare  of  the 
country  deniandi'd  that  development  of  (lerman  ri'sources 
which  <<)ulil  only  come  from  a  lonir  term  of  peace.  He  held 
that  llie  sentimeni  of  France  was  such  that  there  coidd  be 
no  security  air.-iinst  another  outbreak  of  war  except  the  fjen- 
eral  belief  that  an  attack  by  France  could  have  no  chaiu'e 
of  success.  In  order  to  secure  this  end  he  sought,  on  the 
one  hand,  by  all  the  means  at  the  command  of  diplomacy 
to  isolate  France,  and  on  the  other  to  form  strong;  alliances 
between  Gernumy  and  other  Kuropean  powers.  In  both  of 
these  elTorts  he  was  sij;n;illy  successful.  While  he  made  it 
impossible  fiU'  France  to  form  any  advantaj^eous  union,  he 
succeeded  in  uniting  Germany  witli  .Viistria  and  Italy  in  the 
firm  bond  of  a  triple  alliance.  He  also  strengthened  the 
Gerimin  army  so  far  as  to  make  it  obvious  that  even  a  hos- 
tile alliance  between  France  and  Ku.ssia  would  not  be  able 
to  cope  with  the  comliined  forces  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy.  Meanwhile,  for  the  purpose  of  developing  home  in- 
dustries, he  secured  the  adoption  of  a  law  cstalilishing  a 
high  protective  tariff  on  foreign  goods.  In  this  and  in  many 
other  ways  he  fostered  the  German  spirit  of  .solidarity  and 
independence.  This  was  done,  however,  at  the  expense  of 
much  opposition.  He  <lesired  to  make  every  party  and 
]iower  in  the  state  subordinate  to  the  general  interest,  and 
therefore  incurred  the  violent  oj)]iositionof  the  Liberal  party 
on  the  one  hand  and  of  the  Ultramontanes  on  the  other. 
But  his  )iarliaiuentary  skill  was  equal  to  the  task  of  iilaying 
one  party  against  another,  and  thus  defeating  all  his  ene- 
mies. \Vhen  it  became  apparent  that  the  reign  of  William 
L  was  near  its  end,  the  hopes  of  the  Liberals  were  very 
much  encourage<i  by  the  political  attitude  and  sympathies 
of  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick.  But  the  prince,  when  Ik; 
ascended  to  the  throne,  was  too  ill  to  urge  his  policy  with 
success,  and  his  death,  which  soon  occurred,  h'ft  the  power 
of  Bisnuirck  apparently  unshaken.  The  turmoils  of  Freder- 
ick's short  reign,  however,  rnaih;  a  deep  impression  on  t  he  vig- 
orous minil  of  the  crown  prince  unfavorable  to  the  chancel- 
lor, and  wdieii  William  II.  succeeded  his  father  it  became 
apparent  that  the  emperor  and  the  chancellor  were  not  in 
harmony,  so  tlie  latter  resigned  Mar.  18.  1890.  On  his  re- 
tirement he  received  many  honors  at  the  hands  of  the  em- 
peror, among  them  the  dukeiloin  of  liauenburg.  See  I'l-iiiri' 
liixiiitiicK;  bv  Charles  Lowe  (2  vols.,  Loixlon,  188.")) ;  Our 
ClKtiK-i'ltor.  by  Morit/  Husch  (i  vols..  New  York,  1884):  liix- 
nutrrk  (uiil  the  Fiiiiiro-Prn-'ssian  War.  bv  Morit/  Busch(New 
York,  1878):  Tlu-  Tim  Cliarice!lor.<i  (Gortschakoff  and  Bis- 
imirck),  by  .lulian  Klaczko  (London,  1876).     C.  Iv.  Adams. 

liisiiiiith  [loan-word  from  Germ.,  which  has  also  the  form 
M'ixiiiiif/i]:  a  brittle  metal  (symbol  Bi :  specific  gravity 
about  !)'8 :  atomic  weight  208)  of  a  crystalline  texture  and 
of  a  grayish-white  color,  with  a  red  tinge:  occurs  native  in 
Australia,  liernumy.  France.  Cornwall,  California,  Texa.s, 
and  Sweden,  It  is  also  found  in  eombin.'it  ion  with  oxygen, 
sulphur,  and  arsenic.  It  fuses  at  aliout  ."itJO  F.  When 
strongly  heati'd  it  burns  with  a  bluish-white  flame,  and  is 
rapidly  oxidi/.i'd.  This  metal  is  not  often  used  in  the  arts 
in  a  [)ure  state,  but  its  alloys  are  of  considerable  importance. 
Some  of  them  are  extremely  fusible.  A  compouml  of  8 
parts  of  bisnuith.  ~t  of  lead,  and  3  of  tin  midts  in  boiling 
water,  ami  is  called  fiixih/p  melal.  Other  alloys  arc  even 
more  fusibU>.  Bismuth  is  an  ingredient  of  some  kinds  of 
stereotype  metal.  The  most  important  of  several  <Miinpounils 
it  forms  with  oxygen  is  the  trioxide  (Bi^Oj),  which  is  em- 
ployed in  the  maiuifacture  of  porcelain  as  an  agent  for  fixing 
the  gilding  and  for  increasing  the  fusibility  of  fluxes.  The 
sub-nitrate  is  a  tasteless,  heavy  powder  of  pure  white  color, 
called  pearl  white,  pearl  powder,  blanc  de  fard.  etc.  This 
is  used  as  a  cosmetic.  As  a  medicine  it  acts  as  a  tonic  and 
antispasmodic.  Revised  by  Ira  Rkmskx. 

Itisillllltllilie :  a  trisniphide  of  bismuth,  composed  of 
81-(i  per  cent,  of  liisnnilli  and  18'4  of  sulphur.  It  occurs  in 
lodes  and  beils  in  t  he  older  rocks  with  ores  of  arsenic,  copper, 
iron,  anil  lead,  either  crystallized  in  acicular  prisms  or  mas- 
sive with  a  foliated  structure.     It  is  a  rare  mineral. 

Bison  :  a  genus  of  aninuils  of  the  order  liiiminaiitid  and 
family  Hiiriihp;  nearly  allied  to  the  ox:  mitivesof  Europe 
and  N'orth  .\merica.  The  bisons  have  short  horns,  which 
are  curveil  inward  at  the  point.     They  are  distinguished 


Bisun. 


from  the  ox  by  an  additional  pair  of  ribs  (having  fourteen 
pairs),  and  by  long  woolly  or  shaggy  hair,  which  covers  the 
neck  and  shoulders  of  the  males.  They  differ  from  the 
true  bulTaloes  in  having  a 
hump  upon  the  back,  ami  in 
the  absence  of  the  dewlaj>. 
The  buffaloes  liave  cavities  m 
their  horns  co[nmunicating 
with  the  nasal  ]iassages — bi- 
sons have  not ;  the  horns  turn 
outward  in  the  true  buffaloes 
and  inward  in  the  bisons.  (See 
BfKKALO.)  At  least  three  spe- 
cies of  fossil  bison  have  been 
discovered.  (For  the  Furop^ 
an  bison,  see  Aritocns.)  The 
Anu'rican  \nsim{liisoii  (inirri- 
rnniix)  is  known  in  the  U.  S.  by  the  incorrec-t  name  of  buffalo. 
This  is  the  oidy  species  of  the  ox  family  imligenous  to  Amer- 
ica, except  the'musk  ox.  It  is  similar  to  the  Kuro|iean  bison, 
but  the  fore  parts  are  more  shaggy,  and  it  is  a  |iowerful  and 
ferocious-looking  animal.  The  color  of  its  hair  is  mostly 
brown.  Vast  herds  of  bisons  formerly  roaine<l  over  the 
[plains  and  prairies  between  the  Mississippi  river  and  the 
Ixocky  Mountains,  feeding  on  grass  and  brushwood.  They 
were  "generally  inoffensive  and  would  not  attack  men.  but 
])referred  to  riin  rather  than  to  fight.  During  their  migra- 
tion they  moved  in  herds,  which  were  inninuerable  .'ind  irre- 
sist  ibie.  Great  nnmbers  of  them  weic>  killed  by  Indians,  wha 
pursued  them  on  horseback  and  subsisted  on  their  flesh. 
Their  hides  were  idso  valuable,  and  under  the  name  of  buf- 
falo robes  were  an  importani  article  of  connnerce.  The  flesh 
of  the  cows  was  highly  esteemed  anil  sindlar  to  beef,  beings 
very  .juicy  and  savory.  The  bisons  are  swift  in  miming,  and 
have  so  keen  a  sense  of  smell  that,  t  he  hunter  found  dilliculty 
in  a]>proaching  them.  The  Indians somel lines circ'umvented 
thi'in  by  setting  fire  to  the  ]}raii-ie grass  on  several  sides,  and 
thus  drove  them  in  confusion  toward  a  central  position. 
They  also  drove  them  over  jirecipices  in  large  herds,  the, 
moinentuin  of  which  was  such  that  the  leaders  could  not 
stop  or  retreat,  being  forced  forward  by  the  mass  behind 
them.  The  chase  of  bisons  was  altended  with  sonu^  danger, 
as  they  soiiu'times  turned  upon  an  assailant,  who  was  li.-d>le 
to  be  tVainplcd  under  the  feet  of  the  herd.  Numerous  tribes 
of  aborigines  were  mainly  dependent  on  bisons  for  their 
food  and  clothing.  The  skins,  which  are  covered  with  soft 
hair  or  fur.  were  much  used  for  blankets,  and  their  flesh  and 
fat  were  converted  into  pemmican.  the  favorite  food  of  the 
fur-hnnters  and  vojittijeiirs  of  North  America.  Bisons  are 
nearly  extinct,  anil  only  a  few  small  herds  now  exist  in 
Xorth  America.  The  largest  of  these  occurs  within  the 
limits  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Experiments  are 
now  being  made  in  crossing  the  bison  with  the  domesti- 
cated cattle.  kevised  by  David  S.  .Iordax. 

Uissasros.  bis-saa'giis.  Islands:  a  group  of  small  volcanic 
islands  in  the  Atlantic;  near  the  west  coa.st  of  Africa,  between 
lat.  10  and  12  N,.  and  between  Ion.  1.")°  and  17°  W.  (see- 
maji  of  .Africa,  ref.  4-.\).  They  have  several  good  ports. 
Some  of  them  are  densely  peopled  with  a  savage  Negro  race, 
who  cultivate  maize,  bananas,  etc.,  and  raise  cattle.  Bissao,. 
an  island  of  the  above  group,  is  a  settlement  of  Portuguese 
who  formerly  traded  in  slaves,  and  who  export  hides,  wax. 
and  rice.     il"has  about  8.000  inhabitants. 

Itissoll.  Kiiwix  Conk,  I).  D.  :  Congregationalist ;  b.  at 
S<-lioiiaric,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  2, 1832 ;  graduated  at  Amhei-st  Col- 
lege 18r).'i,  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary  185!):  pastor 
suceessivelv  at  Westhainpton.  .Mass.  (18.")!M!4),  San  Francisco, 
Cal.  (18(i4-^(i!)),  Winclu'sfer.  Mass.  (1870-7:i) :  missionary  in 
Austria,  sent  by  the  .\.  li,  C,  F,  M.  (187:i-78);  professor  in 
Hartford  (Congregational)  Theological  Seminary  from  1881 
until  1802.  when  he  became  professor  in  the  McCormick 
(Presbyterian)  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago.  III.  He  com- 
manded company  K.  Fifty-second  JIassachusetts,  in  the  civil 
war,  1862-6;i.  lie  was  tlie  anthor  of  77ie  Historic  Origin  of 
tlic  liilile  (New  York,  1871!),  a  critical  work  ;  revised  transla- 
tion  and  coinmentarv,  in  the  Laiige.Serii'S, on  The  Apncri//i/(ii 
of  the  Old  Testami'iit  (1880) :  The  I'enlateiteh.  ilx  Origin  mid 
Slriirliire  (\m'))\  Jiil)liml  Antiiiiiities  (Philadelphia,  1888; 
2d  ed,  1802);  .1  Practical  Introductory  Jfel/reir  Orammar 
(1801) ;  Geneiiiit  printed  in  colorx.  s/iowing  the  original' 
murres  from  which  it  /.s  mipposed  to  have  been  compiled,, 
with  an' introduction  (Hartford.  1892).  D.  in  Chicago,  111.,. 
Apr.  !),  1804.  Gkokge  P.  Fisher. 


GiO 


BISSBLL 


BITTERN 


Bissell,  William  Henry  Augustus,  D.  D.  :  second  Bishop 
of  Vermont ;  b.  at  Randolph,  Vt.,  Nov.  10, 1814 ;  graduated  at 
the  university  of  liis  native  state  in  1836.  He  was  ordained 
deaeon  18;i9,  })riest  1840,  and  lield  cliarges  at  West  Troy, 
Lyons,  and  for  nearly  twenty  years  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.  lie 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Vermont  June  3. 
1868.    D.  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  May  14,  1893. 

Bissell,  Wilson  Sihnnon:  lawyer;  b.  in  New  London, 
Oneida  CO..  N.  V.,  in  1847;  at  five  years  of  age  accompanied  liis 
parents  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  has  since  resided.  (Iradu- 
ating  at  Yale  in  186!),  he  took  up  the  study  of  law  in  tlie 
office  of  Laning,  Cleveland  &  Folsom,  in  ButTalo :  was  ad- 
milted  to  the  bar  in  1871,  and  in  tlie  following  year  entered 
into  partnership  with  Lyman  K.  Bass.  jMr.  Grover  Cleve- 
land joined  the  firm  in  1874,  and  remained  senior  partner 
until  his  election  as  Governor  of  New  York  State  in  1882. 
Jlr.  Bass  retiring  in  1876.  After  Mr.  Cleveland's  withdrawal 
Mr.  Bissell  headed  the  firm.  He  was  chiefly  interested  in  rail- 
road litigation,  and  became  president  of  some  of  the  smaller 
branchesof  the  Leliigh  Valley  system.  Li  1893  he  was  appoint- 
ed Postmaster-General  in  Mr.  Cleveland's  second  administra- 
tion, but  resigned  in  Feb.,  1895,  and  resumed  his  law  practice. 

Bis'sen.  Herman  Vilhelm:  a  Danish  sculptor;  b.  in 
Schleswig,  Oct.  13.  1798.  He  went  to  Copenhagen  in  1816, 
where  he  made  such  wonderful  progress  in  his  studies  that 
he  took  the  great  gold  medal  in  1823,  and  was  sent  to  Tlior- 
waldsen  in  Rome.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  he  ranks 
second  only  to  Thorwaldsen  in  Denmark,  and,  inasmuch  as 
he  devoted  all  his  time  and  talents  to  his  native  country,  his 
influence  upon  Danish  art  has  been  even  greater  than  that 
of  Thorwaldsen.  In  1850  he  l)ecaine  director  of  the  Academy 
in  Copenhagen,  and  there  died  Mar.  10,  1868. 

R.  B.  Anderson. 

Bissextile  [from  Lat.  bis{s)e..r'ti!is.derh-.  of  btKisyxtiis; 
bis.  twice  -t-  se.iiiis.  sixth] :  the  year  which  contains  366  days ; 
usually  called  in  English  Leap-year  (q.  v.).  In  the  Julian 
calendar  the  length  of  the  year  was  fixed  at  365i  days,  about 
11  minutes  more  than  the  actual  length.  In  order  that  the 
year  should  always  begin  with  the  beginning  of  a  day,  it 
was  directed  that  every  fourth  year  should  contain  366  days, 
and  the  other  years  365.  The  additional  day  was  given  "to 
February,  and  "was  inserted  next  after  the  24th,  which  the 
Romans  called  Sexto  Kulendus  Ilartii.  Tliis  was  reckoned 
twice,  and  the  repeated  day  was  Bis  Sexto  Katendns;  hence 
the  name  bissextile.     See  Calendar. 

Blstineau,  bis-te-no' :  a  lake  in  the  northwest  part  of  Lou- 
isiana ;  forms  tlie  boundary  between  Bienville  and  Bossier 
parishes.  It  is  about  25  miles  long,  and  has  a  mean  width 
of  nearly  2  miles.  Its  water  is  discharged  through  a  short 
outlet  into  Red  river.     It  is  navigable  by  steamboats. 

Bistort  (I'oltjynnum  bistorta) :  a  perennial  herbaceous 
plant  of  the  family  Polijgoiiacew ;  a  native  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  bears  flowers  in  a  dense  terminal  spike.  The  whole 
plant  is  astringent,  containing  much  tannin.  The  tortuous 
root  is  one  of  tlie  most  powerful  vegetable  astringents,  and 
is  used  both  internally  and  externally. 

Bister,  or  Bistre:  a  jiigment  of  a  warm  brown  color, 
or  reddish  brown  ;  used  by  painters  in  waler-colors.  It  is 
)jrepared  from  the  soot  of  wood,  especially  the  beech. 

Bistritz,  bis'treets :  a  town  of  Transylvania ;  situid.ed  in 
a  beautiful  valley  on  the  Bistritz  river ;  52  miles  N.  E.  of 
Klauseiiburg  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  6-L).  It 
has  two  monasteries,  a  gyninasium,  and  several  large  cattle- 
fairs  every  year.  Near  it  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle, 
the  former  residence  of  the  family  of  Huniades.  It  was  of 
great  commercial  importance  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.     Pop.  9,150. 

Bit.  or  Bitts;  two  short  Init  strong  vertical  timbers  fixi-d 
upon  the  deck  of  a  ship.  They  are  used  for  fastening  the 
cable  when  the  ship  rides  at  anchor,  and  for  "  leading  "  the 
principal  ropes  of  the  rigging.  'I'o  "bit  the  cable"  is  to 
fasten  it  round  tlie  bit.  '•  Topsail-sheet-bits  "  are  for  bi^- 
laying  or  fastening  the  topsail-.shects.  To  resist  strains,  the 
bits  are  strongly  bolted  to  the  beams  that  support  the  deck. 

Bithiir,  bw-f  hoor' :  a  town  of  India ;  in  the  Northwestern 
Provinces;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  about  12  nnles 
N.  W.  of  Cawnpore  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  6-F).  It  has 
numerous  pagodas,  and  is  visited  by  multitiKles  of  jiilgrims. 
During  the  mutiny  of  1857  it  was  i"i  stronghold  of  Nana  Sa- 


liib,  and  was  taken  bv  Gen.  Havelock  in  Aug.,  1857. 
about  8,000. 


Pi>p. 


Blthyn'la:  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Minor;  bounded 
N.  by  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (Black  Sea),  E.  by  Pa])hlagonia, 
S.  by  Galatia  and  Phrygia.  and  W.  by  the  Propontis  (Sea  of 
Marmora),  which  separated  it  from  Europe.  The  chief 
towns  were  Niconiedia,  Chalcedon,  Niea^a,  Prusa.  and  Ilerac- 
lea.  Bithynia  was  annexed  to  the  Persian  em|iire  in  543 
B.  c,  but  afterward  became  an  independent  kingdom.  Nioo- 
medes  I.  began  to  reign  over  it  in  278  b.  c,  and  d.  in  246. 
Prusias  II.  was  King  of  Bithynia  in  the  time  of  Hannibal, 
who  sought  refuge  at  his  court.  In  74  b.  c.  Bithynia  became 
a  province  of  the  Roman  empire.  Niconiedia  was  for  a 
long  time  the  cajiital  of  the  kingdom.  In  1298  the  Turks 
con(iuered  the  country,  and  in  1328  made  Prusa  the  capital 
of  their  whole  empire. 

Bitlls'.  or  Betlls':  a  town  of  Turkish  Armenia;  on  the 
Bitlis  river:  a  sulj-tributary  of  the  Tigris;  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Armenian  Taurus,  a  few  miles  southwest  of 
Lake  Van.  It  is  on  very  rough  ground,  and  the  houses  are 
scattered  and  surroundetl  by  gardens  and  orchards.  In  the 
center  is  a  very  steep  eminence,  on  which  stands  an  ancient 
fortress,  now  in  ruins.  The  dancing  dervishes  have  twelve 
monasteries  in  the  place.  Gold  and  silver  ware,  cotton 
cloth,  carpets,  and  tobacco  are  manufactured  here.  The 
town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great; 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  Turkey  in  1514,  and  for  about 
three  centuries  has  been  held  as  a  fief  of  a  powei-ful  Kurd- 
ish family.     Pop.  about  25,000,  one-fourth  Armenian. 

M.  W.  H. 

Bltonto,  bi'e-ton'to  (aiic.  Bi/tiintum,  or  Biluntiim):  a, 
town  of  Italy;  in  the  province  of  Bari,  11  miles  W.  of  Bari 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  fine 
cathedral  and  several  monasteries.  Good  wine  is  made  in 
the  vicinity.  The  Spaniards  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Austrianshere  May  25.  1734.     Pop.  27,000. 

Bltscll,  beech  (in  Fr.  Bitche ;  Lat.  Bicina)  :  a  small  forti- 
fied town  of  Lorraine;  in  a  pass  of  the  Vosges,  about  36 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Strassburg.  and  64  miles  E.  of  Metz  (see 
mail  of  German  Empire,  ref.  6-C).  Here  is  a  citadel  that  is 
nearly  impregnable,  on  a  steep  isolal  ed  rock.  The  town  was 
originally  a  countship  held  by  the  ('ouiits  of  Al.sace  and 
Flanders,  but  was  given  to  the  Duke  t>f  Lorraine  by  Fred- 
erick III.,  and  finally  passed  to  Prance  with  the  duchy  of 
Lorraine  in  1738.  It  was  in  the  French  deiiartment  of  Mo- 
selle until  1870,  when  possession  was  taken  of  it  by  the  Ger- 
mans at  the  general  cession  of  the  country;  for,  in  spite  of 
a  long  siege  and  bombardment,  it  was  not  surrendered. 
Pop.  (1890)  2,764,  one-quarter  military. 

Blttenfeld,  Herwarth  von:  See  Herwaktii  von  Bit- 

TENFELD. 

Bifterfeld,  bit'tfr-felt:  a  town  of  Pnissia ;  province  of 
Saxony;  on  the  Midde  river;  20  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Leip- 
zig. It  is  on  the  railway  from  Berlin  to  Leipzig,  with 
branches  to  Halle  and  other  places.  It  has  important  manu- 
factures of  cloth,  iron,  machines,  etc.     Pop.  (1890)  9.047. 

Bitter-king'  (Soulaiirea  amnra)  :  a  shrub  or  small  tree  of 
the  family  Polygalacew :  derives  its  name  from  its  intense 
bitterness.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Iniliau  islands,  has 
large  oval  leaves  and  axillary  racemes  of  regular  flowers.  It 
is  used  as  a  remedy  for  fevers  and  other  diseases. 

Bittern  [from  same  .source  as  bitter,  adj.]  ;  the  mother- 
liquid  remaiiung  after  the  removal  of  common  salt  from 
brines  which  have  been  partially  evaporated.  The  bitter 
taste  is  due  to  the  magnesium  salts  present.  Sea-water  and 
many  salt- wells  yield  a  bittern  which  is  valuable  in  the  pro- 
duction o[  Epsom  salts  (sulphate  of  magnesia),  and  espe- 
cially of  bromine. 

Bittern  [from  0.  Pr.  biitor ; 
of  uncertain  origin]:  a  w.'uling- 
bird  allied  to  the  heron  :  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  liotauriis  and 
family  ArJeidis.  It  has  a  long, 
straight,  and  sharp  bill,  long  legs, 
an<l  a  long  neck ;  frequents  marshy 
feus  and  reedy  shores  of  i-ivers 
and  lakes,  where  it  lies  hid  dur- 
ing the  day.  and  feeds  by  night 
on  frogs,  fish.  etc.  The  common 
bittern  of  England  is  widely  dif- 
fused in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Af  ri<'a. 
It  utters  a  peculiar  hollow  and 
booming  sound,  wliich  is  noticed  in  Goldsmith's  line,  "The 
hollow-sounding  bittern  guards  its  nest."     When  assailed  it 


Bittern. 


BITTER  ROOT   RIVER 


BITUMEN 


641 


(lefcmls  itself  bravely  with  its  slmip  l>ill.  wliicli  is  about  4 
iiiclu's  long.  In  the  U.  S.  are  foiinil  two  t>iltorns  siiiiihir  in 
habits  to  fiu/diinm  sfellaris — viz.,  Boffiiiniii  lentiginusus 
(liittern  or  bog  bull)  and  Ardeita  eiilis  (least  bittern). 

Revised  l)y  D.  S.  .Jordan. 

Bitter  Root  River:  in  the  State  of  Montana;  rises  in 
the  Uoekv -Mountains:  flows  northward,  and  enters  Clark's 
river  in  >iissiiula  County.  Length,  estimated  at  110  miles. 
Gold  is  found  near  it. 

Bitter-rot :  See  Rot. 

Bitters:  eertain  medicines,  simple  or  compound  ;  chiefly 
<if  vegetable  origin,  characterized  by  a  bitter  taste,  and  for 
tlie  most  part  having  tonic  virtues.  Tliere  are  two  chisses: 
(iromntichiiters.  having  a  fragrant  odor,  due  to  volatile  oils, 
and  simple  billcrs.  which  possess  no  peculiar  properties  be- 
voml  their  bitterness.  "  Bittei-s,"  as  jiopularly  used,  are 
generally  compounds  of  dilute  alcohol  with  various  drugs, 
as  aloes  if  a  cathartic  elTect  be  desired;  if  a  tonic  elfect 
is  sought,  the  bittei-s  used  are  calisaya  bark,  gentian,  quassia, 
eolumlx),  and  othei-s.     An  aromatic  is  often  added. 

Bitter  S|<ar :  a  variety  of  Dolomite  (q.  v.)  of  easy  cleav- 
age. It  usually  occui-s  in  obtuse  rhombohedrons,  and  con- 
sists of  about  ~ht  i)er  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  45  of 
carbonate  of  nuiguesia.  Fine  transparent  crvstals  of  it  are 
found  at  Gap  in  France  and  Travci'sella  in  tiedmont. 

Bitter-sweet,  or  Woody  Nightshade  (Sohinum  dii/ra- 
iiuirit) :  a  perennial  plant  with  a  shrubby  stem,  lu'arly  allied 
to  the  potato;  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  natu- 
ralized in  the  V.  S.  It  has  ovate,  heart-sha])inl  leaves,  the 
upper  ones  halbenl-shaped  or  with  two  ear-like  lobes  at  the 
liase,  and  purple  flowers.  The  fruit  is  a  poisonous  red  berry. 
The  stems  or  twigs  gathered  in  autumn  are  sometimes  used 
in  medicine  in  ciiorea  and  some  cutaneous  disorders. 

The  name  bitter-sweet  is  f reijuently  given  in  this  count  ry  to 
a  climl)ing  woody  vine,  the  Celastrus  acande.iix  of  the  family 
( 'elfwlracert',  which  grows  wild  in  the  Northern  and  Atlantic 
States.  This  vine  is  also  called  wax-work  and  staff  tree.  It 
has  been  used  in  medicine,  and  is  popularly  believed  to  have 
great  virtues  as  an  alterative. 

Bitter-sweet  Family :  See  Spindle-tree  Family. 

Bitterwood :  a  nanu'  given  to  several  trees  and  shrubs 
(.f  the  genus  Xi/lo/>iit  an(l  the  family  Arionnri'(p;  natives  of 
Mrazil  and  the  West  Indies.  They  are  reuuirkable  for  the 
bitterness  of  their  wood.  The  fruit  of  Xi/lopia  sericea  is 
aronuitic  ami  pungent  like  pepi)er.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  Picriena  excelsa  and  Quassia  excelsa,  the  wood 
I'f  which  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic.     See  Quassia. 

Bit'tle,  David  Frederick.  D.  D.  :  founder  of  Roanoke 
College:  1).  in  Frederick  co..  Md.,  Nov.  19,  1811  ;  grmhuited 
at  Pennsylvania  College  18;!o  ;  studied  theology  at  the  sem- 
inary of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Gettysburg.  Pa. ;  pastor  in 
the  valley  of  Virginia,  and  afterward  in  Middletown,  Md.  : 
jiresidi'iii  of  Roanoke  College,  Salem,  Va.,  from  18.53  until 
his  death.  Sept.  2-5,  1876. 

Bitii'ineii  (Lat.  hilu'men):  generically,  a  term  applied  to 
a  variety  of  substances,  from  natural  gas  through  naphtha, 
petroleum,  and  mineral  tar,  to  solid  asphaltum,  containing 
for  the  most  part  carbon  and  hydrogen,  with  more  rarely 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  No  general  chemical  formula 
can  lie  assigned  to  it. 

Hitumen  has  been  known  to  man  in  all  its  varied  forms 
from  the  (hiwn  of  history.  The  Hebrew  wonl  translated 
■■slime"  in  Gen.  xi.  :^  is  rendered  aa<f>aKTos  in  tlie  Septuagint 
and  bitumen  in  the  Vulgate. 

fleographicul  Dislribution. — Xcarly  all  forms  of  bitumen 
are  very  widely  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
On  the  Western  continent  a  basin  in  the  central  and  north- 
ern portion  of  the  Mississippi  valley, saiil  to  endirace  200,0(M) 
.sq.  miles,  yields  natural  gius  and  petroleum  in  enormous 
((uantities.  In  the  central  valleys  of  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie  river 
to  Mexico,  outcrops  of  maltha  and  asphalt  occur  at  inter- 
vals. They  occur  in  the  valley  of  the  Niaekenzie  for  a  dis- 
tance of  l,.50O  miles.  Along  the  Athabasca  river  a  mass  of 
asplmltic  sand  outcrops  in  bluds  1.50  feet  high  for  (!()  miles. 
In  Western  Louisiana  and  Northeastern  and  other  jiarts  of 
Texas  maltha  and  asphalt  are  frecpiently  met.  In  Southern 
Central  'I'exas  an  extensive  deposit  of  calcareous  asphalt  has 
lately  been  reported  similar  to  that  of  Val  <k'  Travel's.  In 
Rastern  ^Mexico  asphalt  and  maltha  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. In  Utah  extensive  depositsof  ozokerite  and  gilsonilxj 
41 


occur.  On  the  Pacific  coast  of  California,  from  San  Luis 
Obispo  to  San  Diego,  but  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Santa 
Clara  river,  springs  of  asphaltum,  maltha,  and  petroleum 
arc  very  numerous. 

In  the  islands  of  Cuba,  Barbadocs,  and  Trinidad  asphaltum 
and  petroleum  in  commercial  quantities  have  long  been 
kiu)wn  as  Cuban  asphalt,  Barbailoes  tar,  and  Trinidad  as- 
phalt, from  the  celebrated  pitch  lake.  On  the  mainland  in 
Venezuela  another  and  larger  "  pitch  lake"  is  known,  and 
in  Peru  and  Bolivia  petroleum  occurs  in  large  quantities. 

On  the  Eastern  continent  a  line  of  bituminous  outcrops 
occur  from  Hanover  on  the  North  Sea  through  the  Car- 
pathians, the  peninsula  of  Tanuin,  the  Caucasus,  the  penin- 
sula of  Apsheron  at  Baku,  the  table-lands  of  Armenia  and 
Persia,  the  environs  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  valleysof  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  the  mountains  of  Baluchistan  and  Hindu- 
stan, liurma,  and  (he  islands  of  .lava  and  Sumatra,  Petro- 
leum occurs  in  China  and  .lapan.  Egy|>t,  Italy,  the  Ionian 
islands,  Sicily,  and  the  I'yreiu'es.  Asphalt  and  maltha  occur 
in  Dahnalia.  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  and  in 
many  localities  in  France.  In  the  Val  de  Travers,  in  Switz- 
erland, and  in  the  Tyrol  and  Sicily  a  peculiar  limestone  oc- 
cults impregnated  with  asphalt,  which  is  widely  used  for 
pavement  under  the  name  of  asphalte.  The  magnificent 
avenues  of  the  city  of  Washington  are  covered  with  this 
niat<'rial  and  asphaltum  from  the  island  of  Trinidad.  In 
Kugland  jielroleum  springs  have  been  observed  yielding 
small  quantities  of  oil,  but  not  in  commercial  quantity. 

(ii'iildijintJ  Ocrurrcncf. — There  are  two  well-marked  geo- 
logical eras  noted  for  the  occurrence  of  bitumen,  although 
it  may  be  ssiid  to  occur  from  the  Silurian  up  to  the  Tertiary. 
On  the  North  American  continent,  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  the  Devonian  in  Pennsvlvania,  the  sub-carlioniferons 
in  Eastern  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  the  upper  Silurian  in 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  the  Trenton  limestone  in 
Western  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Canada,  foi-m  an 
ellipse  aroiuid  the  Cincinnati  anticlinal,  from  which  these 
newer  formations  slope  upon  all  sides.  In  this  ellipse  occur 
the  great  petroleum  and  natural-gas  regions  of  Canada  and 
the  U.  S.  At  Great  Manitoidin  island,  in  the  northern  part 
of  Lake  Huron,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Ontario,  lying  be- 
tween Lakes  Huron  and  Erie,  petroleum  has  been  observed. 
In  Western  New  York,  from  Lake  Ki'ie  as  far  east  as  Canan- 
daigua  Lake,  natural  gas  is  abundant,  especially  at  Fredonia, 
where  it  has  been  usecl  to  light  the  town  since  La  Fayette's 
visit  in  18'24.  Near  the  boundary  line  between  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  the  oil  regions  of  Pennsylvania  commence, 
and  exteiul  through  the  western  counties  of  that  State,  reach- 
ing into  the  eastern  counties  of  Ohio,  and  extending  south- 
westward  into  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  At  one  [ilaee 
in  Wood  CO..  West  Va.,  a  sort  of  as]ihall  called  grahaniite,  that 
has  been  described  as  har(lene<l  jietroleum,  was  mined  until 
the  de])osit  was  exhausted.  A  similar  mineral  called  gilson- 
ite  has  lately  been  fouiul  in  Utah.  The  formations  through- 
out this  region,  inclosing  the  oil  and  gas,  range  from  the  De- 
vonian in  the  northern  portion  to  the  sub-carboniferous  in 
the  sinithern  portion,  everywhere  lying  beneath  the  coal  or 
coal-measures,  if  they  aiv  jiresent.  Through  all  the  eastern 
counties  of  Kentucky  into  Tennessee  petroleum  ami  gas  are 
fre(pient.  asalso  along  a  line  extending  through  Central  and 
Western  Kentucky  into  Indiana,  Although  both  oil  and  gas 
occur  at  numy  points  throughout  these  last-nameil  regions, 
the  developments  are  as  yet  unimportant,  the  oil  and  gas 
issuing  for  llie  most  part  from  the  upper  Silurian.  Asphalt 
also  occui-s  in  Tennessee  in  small  (pianlity.  In  Northwestern 
Ohio  and  Northeastern  Indiana,  around  Ijima,  a  very  pro- 
lific oil  and  gas  field  has  been  developed  within  the  last  ten 
veai-s  from  the  Trenton  limestone.  Limestone  impregnated 
with  petroleum  oceui-s  near  t'hicago,  111.,  and  throughout  the 
southern  peninsula  of  Michigan  oil  in  small  quantities  is  of 
frequent  occurrence.  Natural  gas  everywhere  accompanies 
the  petroleum,  and  many  localities,  boih  within  and  along 
the  bordei-s  of  this  area,  yield  gas  without  oil,  usuallv  under 
an  enormous  pressure,  at  which  no  doubt  the  gas  exists  in  a 
liquid  state  in  the  containing  rocks.  So  far  as  is  known, 
the  depositsof  the  central  valleys  arc  cretaceous,  the  asphalt 
deposit,  of  Texas  lying  in  the  Permian.  The  dejiosits  of 
California,  the  West,  Iiulia  islands,  and  South  America  are, 
so  far  as  is  known,  in  the  Tertiary, 

Ou  the  Pacific  coast  of  Califoriiia  all  forms  of  bitumen, 
from  petroleum  to  half-decaved  asphalt,  oecin-,  issuing  from 
Miocene  rocks,  and  gradually  passing  from  the  liquid  to 
solid  forms  under  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  rain.  On  the 
coast  near  Santa  Barbara  veins  of  asphalt  mixed  with  very 


642 


BITUMEN 


fine  sand  occur  in  the  Qiuiternary,  apparently  injected  from 
below  into  crevices  formed  by  some  upheaval. 

In  Cuba  asphalt  is  mined  from  veins  in  rocks  supposed  to 
be  cretaceous.  The  great  pitch  lakes  of  Trinidad  and  Vene- 
zuela lie  in  the  Tertiary,  and  the  petroleum  of  South  Amer- 
ica issues  from  rocks  of  that  age. 

The  small  amount  of  petroleum  observed  in  England  has 
sprung  from  the  coal-measures.  In  PraiU'c  tlie  extensive 
deposits  of  asphalt  occur  in  relation  to  what  has  been  called 
by  the  French  geologists  an  epoque  asphaUupie,  which  has 
been  assigned  to  the  cretaceous.  The  vast  region  embracing 
the  Carpathians,  the  Caucasus,  and  tlie  table-lands  of  Persia 
yields  every  known  form  of  bituifien  from  Tertiary  forma- 
tions. The  petroleum  of  Italy  ami  asphalt  of  Dalmatiaand 
Albania  also  proceed  from  the  Tertiary.  But  little  is  known 
of  the  geology  of  tlie  occurrence  of  bitumen  in  other  and 
less  important  localities. 

Chemifitri/. — Bitumens  consist  of  various  mixtures  of  hy- 
drocarbons, usually  of  very  complex  nature.  A  few  are 
simple  substances,  having  a  definite  chemical  composition, 
and  for  the  most  part  contain  oxygen.  Natural  gas  consists 
largely  of  marsh  gas.  With  this  are  mixed  in  various  pro- 
portion free  hydrogen,  and  the  members  of  tiie  series  next 
below  mai'sh  gas  with  traces  of  carbonic  acid  and  car- 
bonic oxide.  The  petroleums  of  the  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  and  West  Virginia  regions  consist  of  the  marsh 
gas  or  paraffine  series,  ranging  from  marsh  gas  in  the 
dissolved  gas  to  the  solid  paraflines.  The  lightest  of  these 
oils  are  yellow  or  red  in  color  (amber  oils),  tlirough  brown 
and  dark  green  to  black.  The  more  dense  and  dark  oils 
hold  in  solution  in  small  iiuantity  solid  substances,  contain- 
ing but  little  hydrogen,  of  high  boiling-point  and  coloring 
power,  only  a  few  drops  of  which  added  to  a  colorless  oil 
suffice  to  give  the  oil  a  high  fluorescence.  The  Burmese 
oils  contain  in  addition  notable  portions  of  the  benzole 
series.  The  Russian  oils  contain  the  additive  compounds 
of  the  benzole  series.  All  of  these  varieties  contam  also 
more  or  less  of  tlie  olefiiie  series.  The  initial  members  of 
these  several  series  are  as  follows : 

Marsh  gas CH4  —  C„nj„  +  3. 

Olefiant  gas 0,11,  -  C„II„. 

Benzole CjII,,  —  C„Hj„  _  a. 

Hexa  benzoic Celli,  —  C„Il3„_«  +  lit. 

Many  varieties  of  petroleum  have  been  studied  very  little, 
if  at  all.  It  is  observed,  liowever,  that  some  are  very  per- 
manent in  the  air,  undergoing  no  change  when  exposed  in 
masses  or  flowing  upon  the  ground  or  water,  while  others 
soon  liecome  dark-colored  and  viscid,  passing  into  maltha, 
and  finally  into  asphaltum.  The  jietroleunis  from  Tertiary 
formations  are  mainly  of  this  character.  Those  from  the 
cretaceous  are  of  uncertain  composition,  and,  while  very 
widely  distriljuted,  are  of  minor  importance.  The  Tertiary 
petroleums  that  form  asphaltum  I'arely  contain  paralBne, 
except  in  the  Cariiathians,  where  immense  quantities  of  na- 
tive paraSine,  called  ozokerite,  occur  in  masses  in  the  rocks. 
In  Utah  ozokerites  occur,  not  associated  with  other  forms 
of  bitumen.  Asphaltum  usually  occui's  in  beds,  where 
petroleum  or  maltha  has  flowed  over  the  surface,  and 
gradually  gives  up  hydrogen  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  until 
the  aspludiaim,  with  a  large  excess  of  carbon,  becomes  solid 
and  firm,  in  many  instances  resemliling  splint  coal.  Other 
forms  of  asphalt  occur  in  veins,  where  they  have  a]>i)arcntly 
been  intruded  in  a  pasty  or  semi-fluid  form  at  a  high  tem- 
perature and  have  become  solid  upon  cooling.  The  material 
contained  in  these  veins  is  identical  only  in  a  general  man- 
ner. The  albertite  of  New  Brunswick,  the  grahamite  of 
West  Virginia,  and  gilsonite  of  Utah  yield  on  distillation 
the  paralline  series;  but  veins  occurring  in  the  region  of 
Tertiary  bitumens  yield  products,  and  jiartake  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  those  substances.  As  a  rule,  asphalts  of  all 
kinds  are  soluble  in  benzoic,  but  there  are  a  few  exceptions. 
The  as])haltic  sands  of  the  Athabasca  river  are  really  petro- 
leum sands,  as  the  mass  is  not  solid,  but  maybe  cut  like 
marmalade.  These  natural  mixtures  of  bitumen  and  sand 
arc  more  complete  than  can  be  made  by  any  artificial 
means,  and  for  that  reason  arc  iircl'crrcd  to  artificial  mix- 
tures tor  some  |)uqioses.  When  subjected  to  the  action  of 
chlorine.  California  petroleum  may  be  converted  into  as- 
phalt with  liberation  of  hydrochloric  acid.  California  pe- 
troleum contains  a  notable  ipiantity  of  nitrogen,  which 
appears  to  be  a  constituent  element.  Other  petroleums 
contain  sulphur,  but  it  a|)pears  to  be  an  accidental  impurity 
rather  than  a  constituent.     Such  petroleums  are  often  very 


difficult  to  refine,  as  the  sulphur  forms  substitution  com- 
pounds at  high  temperatures. 

The  word  naphtha  is  of  Arabic  origin,  and  in  Persia 
the  native  name  is  used  to  designate  the  most  fluid  vari- 
ety of  petroleum,  often  nearly  colorless.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
word  has  no  similar  meaning,  but  is  always  applied  to  some 
artificial  product,  usually  the  most  volatile  products  of  the 
distillation  of  petroleum. 

Tlie  Origin  of  Bit u mm. — This  is  a  subject  of  pure  specu- 
lation, but  a  careful  study  of  the  occurrence  of  bitumen  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  leads  to  conclusions  well-nigh 
final. 

Some  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists  of  recent  years 
have  succeeded  by  very  elaborate  and  ingenious  experiments 
in  producing  from  materials  entirely  inorganic  oily  fluids 
resembling  petroleum.  Reasoning  from  these  results,  they 
have  assumed  that  nature's  laboratories  furnish  the  alkali 
metals,  metallic  iron,  spiegel  eisen.  fluoborates,  etc.,  and 
that  the  reaction  of  steam  and  carbonic  acid  at  a  white 
heat  upon  these  produces  the  forms  of  bitumen  as  they  ap- 
pear at  the  earth's  surface.  Too  much  is  required  of  na- 
ture's laboratories  not  sustained  by  observed  phenomena  to 
warrant  the  acceptance  of  such  theories. 

The  occurrence  of  geodes  filled  with  petroleum  or  other 
forms  of  bitumen,  including  antliracitic  residues,  in  strata 
filled  with  fossil  remains  of  animals,  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  some  instances  the  bitumen  is  the  product  of  the 
decomposition  of  animal  remains  in  situ,  jirobably  under 
great  pressure  and  at  a  comparatively  high  temperature, 
perhaps  beneath  a  deep  sea.  Large  orthoceratites  (an  ani- 
mal that  may  be  compared  to  an  uncoiled  nautilus)  have 
been  observed  with  the  cavities  filled  with  fa'tid  i)etroleum. 
Many  facts  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pitch  lake  of 
Trinidad  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  bitumen  there  is 
tlie  product  of  the  decomposition  of  wood  or  other  vegetable 
matter  under  conditions  that  render  the  product  wholly 
different  from  that  of  ordinary  decay. 

An  examination  of  those  regions  that  furnish  bitumen  in 
its  various  forms  in  greatest  abundance,  and  particularly 
petroleum,  leads  irresistibly  to  the  conclusion  that  by  far 
the  larger  portion  of  the  petroleum  of  the  world  is  a  dis- 
tillate produced  by  natural  causes.  The  Pennsylvania  oil 
regions  furnish  oil  from  deposits  of  coarse  sandstone  and 
quartz  conglomerate  often  consisting  of  water-worn  pebbles 
of  white  quartz,  of  a  lenticular  or  nearly  spherical  form, 
connected  only  at  their  points  of  contact,  leaving  the  inter- 
stitial spaces  open.  The  surrounding  rock  does  not  contain 
petroleum,  and  the  rocks  overlying  these  deposits  are  very 
hard  silicious  shells  that  hermetically  seal  the  petroleum 
beneath  them.  It  is  impossible  that  the  oil  should  have 
passed  downward  or  laterally  against  such  pressure,  nor 
could  it  have  )ieiietrat.ed  the  shells.  The  pebble  sand  is 
entirely  destitute  of  organic  remains,  or  of  anything  that 
would  suggest  them.  The  coarse  sandstone  of  the  Bradford 
field  contains  a  few  fossil  shells.  In  seeking  a  source  for 
the  petroleum,  it  is  found  below  in  the  immense  deposits  of 
shale  that  underlie  that  entire  region,  from  1.000  to  1,500 
feet  ill  thickness.  At  Erie,  Pa.,  the  shales  come  to  the  sur- 
face, and  are  there  found  to  contain  enormous  quantities  of 
fossil  seaweeds.  They  have  been  made  to  yiekl  50  gal.  to 
the  ton  of  an  oil  resembling  crude  petroleum,  and  also  hold 
petroleum  in  small  quantities  in  their  deeper  layers.  The 
cubic  miles  of  this  formation  that  underlie  the  oil  region 
in  Northern  Pennsylvania  and  Southern  New  York  and  the 
black  shales  of  Kentucky  furnish  a  (lerfectly  adequate  source 
from  which  the  vast  sujijily  of  this  material  might  be  drawn. 
This  theory  is  further  strengthened  by  all  of  the  facts  ob- 
served in  the  destructive  distillation  of  organic  material  in 
the  arts.  The  hydrocarbons  I'ouikI  in  the  more  liquid  forms 
of  bituiucu  have  also  been  found  in  artificial  distillates  from 
wood,  bituminous  coal,  11  lime  soap  made  witli  menhaden 
oil,  peat,  shale,  and  other  substances  of  organic  origin.  The 
lower  the  temperature  at  which  such  distillation  is  made, 
especially  when  steam  is  injected  into  the  still,  the  closer  is 
the  reseinblance  between  the  distillate  and  the  forms  of 
bitumen.  It  is  iin])ossiblc  th.at  distillation  could  proceed 
fi'oni  any  uatui'al  cause,  except  it  be  at  the  lowest  ])ossible 
temperature  and  accompanied  by  all  the  possible  effects  of 
tlie  presence  of  steam.  As  is  the"  case  when  artificial  distil- 
lates are  produced  from  various  organic  materials  and  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures,  we  find  that  the  various  bitumens  found 
in  different  format  ions  and  at  different  geological  epochs  par- 
take in  many  respects  of  the  peculiar  composition  of  the  or- 
ganic remains  from  which  the  distillation  proceeded.     In 


I 


BITIMIXOL'S  COAL 


bjOrnsox 


6-kS 


illustration  it  may  be  mentioned  tliat  the  simple  vegetable 
iviiiains  (/i/fo/rff)  found  in  the  shale  <in  the  western  slope 
of  the  Alioslianies  have  fui-nislu-d  a  distillate  made  up  of 
the  pure  hydnnarlions  of  the  paralliiie  series,  rich  in  hy- 
drogen and  almost  entirely  free  from  nitrogen  and  sulphur. 
On  the  other  hanil,  the  Miocene  formations  of  Southern 
California,  inclosing  remains  of  animals,  furnish  a  liilumen 
consisting  of  compounds  rich  in  carbon  and  containing  ni- 
trogi'ii  and  sulphur.  Again,  the  petroleum  of  (iaiicia,  which 
i>siii>s  from  tormalions  lying  upon  the  slopes  «!  the  Car- 
pathians, where  the  rocks  contain  both  aninuil  and  vege- 
table remains,  possesses  the  characteristics  of  both  the  Pahe- 
ozoie  and  Tertiary  jietroleums  of  the  American  continent. 

Bitumen  is  one  of  the  most  permanent  substances  in 
nature.  It  resists  decay  in  nearly  all  its  forms,  and  has 
remaineil  unchanged  in  its  natural  deposits  often  throvigh 
countless  cycles  of  geological  time.  In  the  constructions  of 
mankind  in  various  parts  of  theworlil  it  forms  a  part  of  the 
oldest  existim;  monuments.  It  was  used  to  cement  in  their 
places  the  nuigniticent  sculptured  slabs  of  alabaster  that 
adorned  the  temples  and  palaces  of  Babylon  and  Xineveh. 
The  cisterns  in  the  rock-hewn  city  of  I'etra'aof  unknown 
anti(piity  (perhaps  three  tliousjind  yeai-s)  are  still  intact. 
Cisterns"  and  silos  in  Egypt,  perhaps  ohler  than  Petra^a, 
might  still  be  used.  It  was  employed  in  the  vineyards  of 
the  Levant,  in  building  boats  on  ihr  Tigris  and  Kuphrates, 
in  the  perpetual  lires  of  the  Guebres  and  I'ai'sis,  and  for 
other  purposes;  and  the  "fire  wells"  (natural  gas)  of  China 
are  mentioned  in  the  oldest  records  of  that  ancient  country. 
In  the  -Middle  Ages  it  was  of  considt'rable  importance  in 
Persia.  Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  nearly  all  travelei-s  overland 
to  India  from  Kurope  mention  the  fire-worshii)ers  of  Baku. 
Peruviini  nuinimies  prepared  before  the  conquest  also  attest 
the  univcrsjility  and  antiquity  of  its  use. 

In  modern  times  all  forms  of  bitumen  have  become  of 
great  imi>ortance  in  ministering  to  the  wants  of  man,  and 
have  assumeil  an  influence  scarcely  to  be  estimated  upon  the 
civilization  of  the  last  half  century. 

The  amount  of  luitural  gas  produce<l  in  ISOO  in  the  U.  S. 
could  not  be  measured;  its  value  is  estimated  at  .s;'.'0.(l()0.()()(). 
The  production  of  petroleum  reached  4."),000.(l()l)  bbl.,  valued 
at  .$:j(),()(IO,()()();  of  asphaltum.  40,841  short  tons,  valued  at 
$190,411) :  of  ozokerite,  :J.50,0(JO  ll>.,  valued  at  .s;26.2r)0.  Total 
value  of  bituminous  minerals  for  1800,  ^.O0.21t).66t). 

See  Ai.DKRTiTK,  Asphalt,  X.vtir.al  C.is,  (iiLsoNHTE, 
CiR.\HAMrrK,  IIvokocabbons,  JIaltiia,  Xai'iitha,  Ozoke- 
RiTK,  Paraffink,  and  Petroleim.  S.  F.  Peckuam. 

Bltnniiiioiis  Coal :  See  Coal,  Coke,  and  Gas. 

ISitzins.  bit  si-oos,  Albert  (Jeremias  Oolfltelf):  Swiss 
author;  b.  in  Murten,  canton  of  Freiburg,  Oct.  4.  1797: 
educated  for  the  church  at  Bern,  and  from  18:52  till  his 
death,  Oct.  22.  1854.  pastor  of  Liitzeltliih  in  Kmmenthal. 
He  is  very  popular  among  the  Swiss  for  his  masterly  tales 
of  Swiss  life,  among  which  are  Kdtlii  die  Gronnmulti'r  (1847) ; 
Uli  der  luicclif  (1841);  Uli  der  Pachter  (1849);  and  Erzahl- 
ungen  uiid  fiilder  aus  dem  Volksleben  der  Schweiz  (1833-5.1.) 
Translated  is  his  Joi/x  and  Sorrnim  of  a  Schoolnidsfer  (Ijoii- 
don,  18(i4 ;  2d  ed.  1807).  See  his  Life  bv  C.  Manuel  (Berlin, 
1857). 

Bivalve  [formed  from  Lat.  bi-,  double  +  vnlvw.  double 
or  folding  dooi-s] :  a  shell  which  consists  of  two  concave 
calcareous  plates  or  valves  joined  together  by  a  hinge  and 
an  elastic  ligament,  as  the  oyster. 

Bivalve  Shells,  or  Bivalves,  are  those  coverings  of 
mollusks  which  consist  of  two  concnve  plates  or  valves, 
united  by  a  hinge.  (See  Coxchologv.)  A  majority  of  re- 
cent bivalve  shells  belong  to  the  acephalous  or  lamelli- 
branchiale  Mollusca.  There  are  also  worm-like  animals  of 
the  class  Brachiopoda  which  possess  bivalve  shells.  The 
structure  and  chemical  composition  of  tlu'  shell,  however,  is 
ditTerent  in  the  two  classes.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the 
bivalve  .shells  of  the  ohler  fossiliferous  rocks  belong  to  the 
class  Brachio|ioda.  In  tiie  Biachiop<ida  one  valve  is  ventral 
and  the  other  dorsjd ;  in  the  Lamellibranchiata  both  are 
lateral. 

Bivoiinc,  bivwilk  [Fr.  bivouac, xtroh.  originally  loan-word 
from  Swiss  Germ.  Beiintcht.  sup|ilemenlary  night-watch] :  a 
French  word  signifying  an  encampment  of  soldiers  t)y  night 
in  the  open  air.  wilhout  tents,  or  the  svsicm  by  which  sol- 
diers on  a  march,  or  in  expectation  of  a  battle,  remain  all 
night  in  the  open  air,  resting  with  their  arms  by  their  side 
and  ready  for  action.  This  practice  is  said  to  have  been 
common  among  the  crusaders.     The  generals  of  the  French 


Republic  or  the  Fii-st  Empire  introduced  the  plan  of  dis- 
pensing with  the  use  of  tents  and  passing  the  night  en 
bivouac.    The  same  system  was  adopted  by  the  other  great 

Eowers  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  In  recent  times  it  has 
een  common  for  soldiers  on  the  march  to  u-se  the  lente  d'abri, 
or  shelter-tent. 

Bixby,  .Iames  Thompson,  Ph.D.:  Unitarian  minister; 
b.  at  Barre,  JIass.,  .July  :iO,  184;i;  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege and  Harvard  Divinilv  School;  held  various  charges  in 
the  Unitarian  ('hur<'h  in  .Alassachusetts  and  Maine  1870-79; 
Professor  of  Religious  Philosophy  in  Meadville  Thi'ological 
Sch<«)l  1879-.'<;!:  traveli'd  in  Euroiie  1888-85;  be<-aiiie  pastor 
of  the  Unllarian  church  at  Yonkers,  N.  V.,  1885;  received 
degree  of  Ph.  1).  at  Leipzig,  1885;  author  of  SimilaritieKof 
Physical  and  Reli(/ious  Knowledge  (1876) ;  second  edition 
under  the  title  Religion  and  Science  as  Allies  (Chicago, 
1889);  and  T/ie  Crisis  in  Morals  (Boston,  1891). 

Bixili:  the  coloring  principle  of  annotto.  the  paste  ob- 
taineil  by  bruising  the  seeds  of  Bij-a  orellana. 

Bizerta,  bw-zarta,  or  Benzert.  ben-ziirt'  (aiic.  Hippo 
Zarytus):  a  fortified  seaport  of  Tunis,  and  the  most  north- 
ern town  of  .\frica  :  about  88  miles  X.  \V.  of  Tunis  (see  man 
of  Africa,  ref.  l-D).  The  port,  which  was  formerly  good, 
has  been  filled  up.  so  thai  it  will  now  admit  only  small  ves- 
sels. It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  defended  by  two  castles, 
but  is  commanded  bv  the  adjacent  heights.  This  place  was 
fortified  by  Agathocles  about  808  n.  c.     Pop.  8,000. 

Bizet.  iKvzav'.  Alexandre  Cesar  Leopold:  commonlr 
called  Georges  'liizet;  b.  Paris,  Oct.  25.  1888;  best  known  as 
the  composer  of  the  popular  opera  Carmen;  stu(lie<l  under 
Ilalevy.  whose  daughter  he  married  in  18C9.  He  gained  the 
Prix  fie  Home  for  composition,  and  was  a  brilliant  ]nipil  of 
the  Paris  Conservatory  from  1848  to  1857.  His  operas  in- 
clude Vasco  da  Gama  (1868):  Les  Pecheurs  des  Perles 
(1863);  La  Jolie  Fille  de  Perth  (1867);  Djamileh  m~'2)\ 
Carmen  (1875),  his  last  work.  He  also  com|)leted  Halevj's 
opera  JS'oe.    He  died  ([uite  suddenlv  near  Paris.  June  8, 1875. 

I).  E.  Hervev. 

BjerregaiinL  byarrp-gaard,  Hexuik  .Vxker:  a  Xorwc- 
giaii  |joel  :  b.  .Ian.  1,  1792.  His  national  songs  represent  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  new-born  nation  in  the  early  part  of  the 
centurv.  His  drama  l-'jeld-eventyrel  is  still  verv  jiopular. 
D.  Apr.  7,  1842. 

B.jornel)Or!r.  byornc-borg,  or  Biorilborgr.  bydrn  borg:  a 
seaport  of  Finland:  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kumo;  115  miles 
S.  of  Vasa;  lat.  61°  29  X.,  Ion.  89°  28  E.  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  4-B).  It  has  various  manufactures  and  a  considerable 
trade.     Poji.  (1888)  9.682. 

Bjitrnsoii.  byorn'son.  B.iorxstjerne:  dramatist  and  nov- 
elisi  ;  b.  Dec.  8,  1882,  in  a  lonesome  and  dreary  parsonage  in 
Kvikne,  Xortiiwestern  X^orway,  where  his  fatlier  was  a  min- 
ister, lie  was  educated  in  the  Latin  School  at  Molde.  from 
which  he  went  to  the  University  of  Christ  iania  in  1851.  But 
in  the  next  year  he  broke  off  his  scientific  cducalion  and 
turni'd  his  attention  to  literature.  His  first  book,  published 
in  1857,  was  a  littU'  novel,  Synnffve  .S'o/if/A-AcH,  descriptive 
of  peasant  life  in  Xorway.  It  made  a  very  deep  impression. 
The  plot  was  simple,  but  at  every  movement  it  touched  the 
deepest  laws  of  life.  The  charactei-s  were  jjure  psychologi- 
cal develo])ments,  never  marred  by  explanations  or  comments 
from  a  merely  individual  moral  point  of  view.  The  style 
was  the  short.' |)itliy  sentence  of  the  .saga,  with  all  its  power 
of  signification,  all  its  strength  of  passion,  and  all  its  sweet- 
ness of  feeling.  The  etfect  of  this  book  was  wonderful,  and 
the  impression  it  made  was  both  deeiiened  and  widened  by 
the  novels  which  followed,  Arne  (1858) ;  En  c/lad  gut  (A 
Happv  Boy,  1859);  Fiskerjenten  (The  Fisher  Las.s,  1868), 
etc.  tn  spite  of  the  great  variety  of  charactei-s  and  situa- 
tions which  they  depict,  they  are  all  so  singularly  alike  that 
in  the  reader's"  mind  they  melt  into  one  book,  into  one 
charming  picture  of  life  in  X'orway.  Alferiiating  with  the 
novels  he  wrote  dranuis.  and  in  this  field  he  experienced 
some  opi)ositioii.  When  his  first  tragedy.  Ilaltc-Ilulda.wAS, 
published  in  1858,there  were  people  who  felt  that  a  dramatic 
genius  had  arisen,  but  the  Scamlinavian  theaters  were  at 
first  singularly  unwilling  to  try  the  new  author.  Jloreover, 
the  young  poet  had  not  yet  learnt  to  sjiy  unimportant  things 
in  an  unassuming  manner.  His  next  drama.  Kong  Srerre 
(1861).  was  better  in  this  respect,  but  it  was  not  until  he 
published  his  great  trilogv,  Sigurd  Slembe  (1862),  that  the 
public  thoroughly  felt  tlie  greatness  of  his  ilramatical 
powere.     Sigurd  Slembe  is  a  grand  conception,  executed  in 


C44 


bjOrnstjebna 


BLACKBERRY 


a  masterly  way ;  and  when  in  1865  the  Royal  theater  in 
Copenhagen  presenteil  liis  lovely  little  comedy.  De  Ni/ffiffe 
(The  Newly  Married),  and  in  1867  Ids  tragedy,  Marin  Sliifirt 
(pnblislied  1864,  translated  in  Sraiirliiiarin,  t'liicngo.  18S;i- 
84),  the  impression  was  irresistible.  With  1870  the  first 
period  of  his  litei'ary  activity  may  be  said  to  have  closed. 
Between  this  year  and  1875  he  nnderwent  a  great  mental 
and  spiritual  change,  due  in  tlie  main  to  the  influence  of 
foreign  literature  ami  thought,  to  the  study  of  which  he  de- 
voted himself  with  ardor.  He  was  particularly  affieeted  by 
tlie  works  of  Darwin,  John  Stuart  Mill,  and  Taine,  as  well 
as  by  the  "  modern  "  movement  in  Danish  letters.  In  his 
second  period,  which  l)egins  with  1874,  he  appears  as  the 
foremost  Norwegian  advocate  of  republicanism  in  politics, 
and  of  free  thought  in  religion.  His  principles  have  found 
expression  not  oidy  in  a  succession  of  pamphlets,  newspaper 
articles,  and  public  addresses,  but  in  a  series  of  remarkable 
dramas  dealing  with  social,  religious,  and  political  problems. 
These  are  Redakftfren  (The  Editor,  1874) ;  En  Fallit  (Bank- 
ruptcy, 1875);  IM  »//  System  (The  New  System,  1879); 
Kong'en  (The  King,  1879);  Leonarda  (1879);  En  Ilanske 
(A  Glove,  1883) ;  Orer  Erne  (Overstrained.  1883).  Bjornson's 
activity  as  editor  and  political  leader  has  been  of  much  ini- 
portauce.  He  has  .-dways  been  an  earnest  advocate  of  Nor- 
wegian independence,  and  his  influence  as  the  greatest  popu- 
lar orator  of  Norway  has  been  especially  marked  since  his 
American  tour  in  1880-81.  Of  the  non-dranuitic  works  of 
his  second  period  I  he  following  deserve  mention  :  3Iagnhild 
(1877);  Kaptejn  JIaii.saiia  (1879):  Del  flager  i  Bi/cn  og  pcia 
//oc«PH  (1884);  Pun  (tikIs  IVX1889)."  See  Georg  Brandes, 
Jloilenie  Oeister  (1882,  pp.  389-436). 

B.jornstjerna,  byorn-styar'na,  Magni's  Fredrik  Ferdi- 
nand, Count:  Swedish  general  and  author;  b.  in  Dresden, 
Oct.  10,  1779.  He  fought  against  the  French  in  1809-13, 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  by  which  Sweden  and  Norway 
were  united.  He  was  ambassador  at  London  for  many 
years  (1838-46).  Among  his  works  is  77ie  Tlieogonij,  Philoso- 
phy, and  Cosmoqnni/  of  the  Hindoos  (1843).  D.  in  Stock- 
holm, Oct.  6,  1847. 

Blacas,  blaa'kaa',  Pierre  Louis  .Jean  Casimir,  Duke  of: 
a  French  statesman  ;  b.  at  Aups,  in  the  department  of  Var, 
Jan.  13.  1771 ;  a  faithful  adherent  of  the  Bourbons.  He 
negotiated  tlie  concordat  of  1817,  and  was  employed  on 
various  imjiortant  embassies.  He  founded  the  Egyptian  Mu- 
seum in  Paris,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  D. 
in  the  castle  of  Kirchberg,  Lower  Austria,  Nov.  17,  1839. 

Black  :  color.     See  Dyestuffs  and  Paints. 

Black,  Adam;  publisher;  b.  in  Edinlrargh,  Feb.  20, 1784; 
with  his  nephew,  Charles  Black,  established  tlie  publishing- 
hou.se  in  Edinburgli  which  gained  control  of  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Britiuinica  in  1829,  and  of  Scott's  novels  in  1851. 
Jlr.  Black  was  provost  of  Edinburgh  1843-48,  declining  the 
honor  of  knighthood  ;  Liberal  M.  P.  for  his  city  1856-65.  D. 
in  Edinburgh.  Jan.  24,  1874. 

Black,  Jerf,.miah  Sullivan:  jurist  and  Democratic  poli- 
tician ;  1).  in  Somerset  co..  Pa,,  Jan.  10, 1810  ;  became  a  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania  in  1851  ;  Attorney- 
General  in  the  cabinet  of  Buchanan  in  1857;  and  Secretary 
of  State  in  1860,  where  he  exerted  himself  to  keeji  the  Gov- 
ernment from  disrniition  by  the  secessionists.  He  was  re- 
tained in  many  celebrated  cases.  D.  in  York,  Pa.,  Aug.  19, 
1883. 

Black,  .TosEPii :  chemist:  of  Scottish  extr.action;  b.  at 
Bordeaux  in  1738.  He  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  at 
Edinburgh  in  1754,  and  became  Professor  of  Anatomy  at 
Glasgow  in  1756.  His  reputation  is  founded  chiefly  on  the 
theory  of  latent  heal,  which  he  propounded  lii^tween  1759 
and  1763.  He  obtained  in  1766  the  chair  of  Chemistry  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  lectured  for  thirty 
vears.  and  acquired  great  jiopularity.  D.  in  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  6,  1799.  Ills  Lectures  on  C/ietnistry  were  published  in 
1803  (2  vols.  4to). 

Black,  Warren  Columbus,  D.  I). ;  minister  of  JI.  E. 
Church  South;  b.  in  Copiah  co..  Miss.,  May  34,  1843;  edu- 
cated at  Centenary  Colli'ge.  J.-K'kson,  La. ;  .iipined  the  Mis- 
sissippi Conference  in  1871:  has  filled  pastorates  at  Ray- 
mond, Madison,  Camden,  Natchez,  Meridian,  and  Jackson; 
author  of  Temperance  and  Teetotal  ism  (1886);  Christ  inn 
\V<imnnho(id  (1888), 

Black,  William:  Wesleyan  divine;  b.  in  England  in 
1760;  removcil  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1775;  ftninded  there  the 
Wesleyan  Church,     He  was  subseijuently  general  superin- 


tendent of  the  Wesleyan  missions  in  British  America.  His 
purity  of  life  and  eminent  services  to  his  denomination 
made  him  one  of  its  most  memoi'able  characters.    D.  Sept. 

8.  1834. 

Black,  William  :  novelist ;  b.  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in 
1841 ;  educated  at  private  schools;  studied  for  a  short  time 
in  the  Government  .school  of  art,  Glasgow,  but  soon  engaged 
in  journalism  for  the  Glasgow  Weekly  Citizen\  in  1864 
went  to  London  and  wrote  for  magazines ;  in  1865  was  at- 
tached to  the  staff  of  the  Jlorning  Star,  and  was  its  special 
correspondent  in  Prusso-Austrian  war  of  1866;  afterward 
wrote  numerous  novels,  among  which  are  In  Silk  Attire 
(1869),  descriptive  of  peasant  lite  in  the  Black  Forest;  Mon- 
arch of  Minci7ig  Lane;  A  Daughter  of  Ileth  (1871);  The 
Strange  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton  (1873);  A  Princess  of 
Thule  (tSTi);  Macleod  of  En  re  {1S7S) ;  White  Wings{1881); 
In  Far  Lochaher  (1888);  New  Prince  Fortunatus  (1890). 
His  books  range  from  Bohemian  art  life  in  Ijondon  to  out- 
door sporting  life,  Scotch  scenes  and  characters,  and  de- 
scriptions of  scenery  strung  on  a  mere  thread  of  incident. 
He  was  for  several  years  assistant  editor  of  the  Daily  News. 

Black,  William  Henry,  D.  D,  :  minister  in  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian  Church ;  jiresident  of  Missouri  Valley 
College,  Marshall,  Mo.;  b.  in  Centreville,  Ind.,  Mar.  19, 1854; 
educated  at  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  and  the  Western  Theological 
Seminary,  Pittsburg;  pastor  in  Pittsburg  and  in  St.  Louis. 
He  was  moderator  of  General  Assembly  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
four.  He  has  published  6od  our  Father  (Nashville,  Tenn., 
1889);  Womanhood  (1890);  Sermons  for  the  Sabbath  School 
(1892).  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Black  Acts:  the  acts  of  the  Scottish  Parliaments  passed 
between  1435  and  1.586 — so  callcil  liecause  they  were  printed 
in  the  characters  known  as  black  letter.  In  English  law 
books  the  term  "  black  act "  is  applied  to  the  9  Geo.  I.  c.  33 
(1732),  because  it  was  occasioned  by  the  outrages  committed 
by  persons  whose  faces  were  blackened.  They  destroyed 
the  deer  in  Epping  Forest,  and  committed  other  offenses. 
The  act  was  repealed  in  1827. 

Black  Art :  See  Magic. 

Black  Band  :  a  variety  of  (day  ironstone  or  compact  car- 
bonate of  iron,  containing  25  or  30  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous 
matter.  It  occurs  abundantly  in  the  coal-fields  of  Scotland, 
and  is  the  ore  almost  exclusively  used  for  the  production  of 
certain  grades  of  iron  in  that  country.  It  is  not  veiy  rich, 
but  it  is  easily  reduced.  Black  band  also  occurs  in  the  coal- 
measures  of  Ohio,  and  is  used  to  a  moderate  extent  for  the 
production  of  iron. 

Black-bass :  a  common  name  for  two  American  fishes  of 
the  genus  J/icro/iteriis ;  highly  esteemed  as  game-fishes.  The 
small-mouthed  species  is  now  known  as  JL  dolomieu,  and 
the  large-mouthed  one  as  2L  salmoides.  The  two  species 
are  well  known  to  anglers,  and  are  found  in  almost  all 
streams  of  the  U.  S.  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
small-mouthed  sjiecies  abounds  in  clear  or  swift  streams; 
the  other  in  sluggish  waters  or  lakes.     See  Bass. 

Black'berry :  one  of  several  brambles  belonging  to  the 
family  ^o.wcffp;  the  drupelets  adhere  to  the  receptacle  or 
"core."  The  comiuon  blackberry  of  America,  which  is  the 
most  important  commercial  species,  is  Rn'bii.'i  rillos'us,  a 
native  over  a  large  )iart  of  the  country.  In  a  wild  state  it 
is  exceedingly  variable,  and  many  of  the  cultivated  varieties 
are  simply  selected  wild  variations.  The  greater  part  of  the 
garden  sorts  belong  to  the  variety  Sati'inis  sativus ;  certain 
early  and  lower  growing  small-leaved  varieties,  as  the  Early 
Harvest,  belong  to  the  var.  f rondo. fiis:  while  the  "white'' 
blackberry  is  the  var.  alhi'nns.  The  blackberry  first  began 
to  attract  attention  as  a  market  fruit  about  fifty  years  ago. 
The  New  lioclicUe  (or  Lawi:.on)  ami  Dorchester  were  the 
first  prominent  sorts  introduced.  The  latter  was  brought  to 
notice  in  1841.     F(U'  the  trailing  blackberry,  see  Dewberry. 

HIackbcrries  bear  their  fruit  upon  the  canes  or  stems  of 
the  preceiliiig  year's  growth,  ami  these  canes  bear  but  one 
crop.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  cut  them  out  after  they 
have  liorne,  either  immediately  after  the  fruit  is  picked  or 
sometime  before  growth  begins  the  following  spring.  In 
the  meantime  new  canes  for  the  next  crop  are  growing  from 
the  ci'own  or  root  of  the  |dant,  and  their  tops  are  cut  off 
when  they  reach  a  lieighl  of  3  or  4  feet,  in  order  to  increase 
their  strength  and  proiluctiveness.  This  heading-in  induces 
the  formation  of  lateral  branches,  which  are  usually  cut  off 
to  a  length  of  a  foot  or  18  inches  the  following  fall  or  spring. 
Blackberries  grow  readily  from  root-cuttings  (see  Cuttings), 


BLACKBIRD 


BLACK  FLAGS 


645 


or  the  sprouts  which  spring  naturally  from  old  plants 
be  used.     The  plants  are  set  in  rows  8  or  !)  by  4  to  5 


may 
1  5  feet 
apart.  A  frond  blackberry  plantation  will  Uust  from  eight 
to  twelve  years.  The  greatest  drawbacks  to  blackberry  (cul- 
ture are  borer  insects  which  attack  the  canes,  drouth  at 
fniiting-tinie,  and  the  orange-rust.  The  latter  is  a  fungus 
iCcKoma  lumimi'tum  or  C.  ni'tens).  This  appears  as  an 
orange-red  toatiiig  upon  the  leaves.  There  is  no  remedy 
but  to  destroy  tlic  plants.  Leading  varieties  of  blackberry 
are  Wilson,  Snyder,  Taylor,  Kittatinny,  Agawani,  Ancient 
Briton.  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Bhu'kbiril.  or  Merle:  a  popular  name  in  the  British 
islands  nf  the  Merula  mcruta;  a  species  of  thrush  which 
iiliounds  in  Europe.  In  size  it  is  interniediale  lietweeii  the 
song-thrush,  or  mavis,  and  the  missel-thrush.  The  plumage 
of  the  male  is  all  <lee|)  black,  but  that  of  the  female  is 
brown.  It  has  a  powerful  voice,  and  its  song  is  more  mel- 
low than  that  of  the  .song-thnish,  but  inferior  in  compass 
and  variety.     Tlie  blackbird  is  often  kept  in  cages,  and  is 


The  rusty  crow-blacltbird. 


very  easily  trained.  It  feeds  on  worms,  insects,  and  fruits, 
and  frequents  hedges,  woods,  and  thickets.  Its  nearest 
American  relative  is  the  common  robin,  from  which  it  dif- 
fers little  except  in  color.  Quite  distinct  from  this  bird 
is  the  blackbird  of  the  U.  S.  (Qnincalus  qui,icii/(i),  some- 
times called  "crow-blackbird,'"  or  purple  grackle.  The 
"rusty  crow-blnckbird  "  (Sfolncnphagiin  ferruginetis)  is  a 
rather  less  coiiiinou  bird  of  the  U.  S.  It  is  a  groat  depreda- 
tor of  corn-fields.  The  swamps  and  meadows  of  the  U.  S. 
are  fre(iiieiited  by  the  Agtlaius  plimniceus,  or  red-winged 
blackbird.  It  is  gregarious,  and  feeds  on  insects  and  grain. 
Several  other  related  species  are  also  called  blackbird  in 
America.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan*. 

Blark'biirn  :  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
laml;  situatcrl  in  a  barren  district  on  a  small  stream  called 
"  The  Hrook  "  ;  24  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  W.  of  Manchester  (see 
map  of  England,  ref.  7-F).  It  has  a  beautiful  Gothic  par- 
ish church,  a  line  new  e.vchange,  also  in  the  (iotliic  .style, 
and  nnmerous  chapels  of  the  Dissenters,  a  gramnuir  school 
founded  by  (^ueen  Elizabeth,  a  hosintal,  a  theological  acad- 
emy, and  a  theater.  The  principal  business  of  the  town  is 
the  manufacture  of  cotton  stuffs,  chielly  coarse  calicoes  and 
muslins,  in  which  KJ.OUO  or  more  persoiis  are  employed. 
Coal  and  lime  are  abiindatit  in  the  vicinity.  James  Ilar- 
greaves,  who  invented  the  spinning-jenny  in  17G7,  was  born 
here.  Railways  exteiul  from  this  point  in  various  direc- 
tions. Hlackburn  sends  two  members  to  Parliament.  It 
has  a  jiublic  park  which  is  700  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.     Pop.  (18.S1)  104,013 ;  (1891)  120,064. 

Blarkhiirn,  .Iosepii  Clay  Styles:  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  in 
WoiKlford  CO.,  Ivy.,  Oct.  1,  1838;  graduated  at  Center  Col- 
lege, Danville;  a<bnitted  to  the  bar  in  IH.'JS;  served  through 
the  war  in  the  ('oufedcrato  army;  entered  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  in  1875 ;  four  times  re-elected ;  elected  Senator 
from  Kentucky  Feb.  4,  1884. 

Blackliiirn,  William  JLixw^ell,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Carlisle, 
Ind.,  l),c.  :il,  1828:  graduated  at  Hanover  College.  Ind.,  in 
18.50,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  1854     lie  was 


Professor  of  Biblical  and  Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Theological  Seminary  at  Chicago  1808-81,  when 
he  became  a  pastor  in  Cincinnati,  O.  President  of  Univer- 
sity of  North  Dakotn  1884-85;  from  1885  president  of  Pierre 
University,  North  Dakota.  He  has  published  William  Farel, 
or  The  Sivisa  JieJ'ormiitioii  (Philadelphia,  1805) ;  Aonio  I'a- 
leai-io  (1866);  Ulrich  Zwinyli  (1868):  Admiral  Coligny  and 
the  June  of  the  Jlugtteiiots  (2  vols.,  1869) ;  St.  Patrick  and  the 
Early  Irish  CViHrc/t  (1869);  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
from  its  Origin  to  the  Present  I'ime  (New  York,  1879). 

Blackburn's  Pendulum:  a  device  for  tracing  the  curves 
resulting  from  the  composition  at  right  angles  of  two  simple 
harmonic  motions.  (See  Wave-motiox.)  It  is  a  pendulum 
the  rates  of  vibration  of  which  in  two  planes  at  right  angles 
to  each  other  are  independent  and  variable  within  certain 
limits  at  the  will  of  the  exi)erimenter.  When  these  rates  are 
adjusted  to  any  exact  rat  io,  the  Lissajous  figure  for  t  hat  rat  io 
is  traced  by  the  bob,  which  carries  a  pencil  or  jioint. 

Blackcap.  Blackcajt  Warbler,  or  Faiivette  (Curnica 
atricapilla):  a  European  binl  of  the  family  Sylviidw,  near- 
ly allied  to  the  nightingale,  which  it  rivals  in  sweetness  of 
song.  Its  note  is  rich  in  tone,  and  has  a  great  variety  of 
sweet  and  gentle  modulations.  It  is  a  summer  bird  of  pas- 
sage in  Great  Britain,  which  it  enters  in  early  spring,  and 
from  which  it  migrates  in  September.  It  is  highly  prized 
as  a  cage-bird,  not  only  for  its  song,  but  for  its  pleasant 
manners  and  temper. 

IJLAfKCAi'  is  also  the  name  applied  to  a  species  of  rasp- 
berry (the  linbus  occidentalis).  of  which  several  varieties 
hav(!  recentlv  been  introduced  for  cultivation  into  gardens 
in  the  U.  S. ' 

Blackcock.  Ilcath-foivl.  or  Black  Grouse  {Lyrurus 
tetrix):  a  bird  of  the  family  Tflraonidw,  abundant  in  Scot- 
lant  and  the  norl  h  of  England.  It  alsooceiirs  in  the  mountains 
and  marshy  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  abounds 
in  Scandinavia  and  Russia.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  moors, 
bogs,  and  morasses  covered  with  rank  herbage.  The  male, 
which  weighs  nearly  4  II).,  is  of  a  shining  bhnsh-black  color, 
with  a  conspicuous  white  Ijar  on  the  wings  below  the  ends 
of  the  great  wing-covers.  The  female  is  of  a  nisi  color,  and 
is  called  t  he  '•  gray  hen."  This  species  of  grouse  is  gregari- 
ous, but  in  winter  the  males  and  females  form  se])arate 
flocks.  They  build  nests  of  very  simple  construction  on  the 
ground,  and  lay  in  each  six  or  eight  eggs,  which  are  about 
2  inches  long.  Their  food  consists  of  s(!eds,  berries,  insects, 
and  the  young  shoots  of  the  pine,  fir,  and  birch.  Their 
ficsh  is  highly  esteemed  tor  food. 

Black  Beatli :  See  Plague. 

Black  Buck  (Anas  nbsciira):  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  liighly  prized  of  American  wild  ducks;  breeds  abun- 
dantly throughout  the  Eastern  V .  S.  from  Texas  to  Labrador. 
Its  range  is  known  to  extend  wei-twanl  to  Kansas  and  Iowa. 
It  is  of  a  generally  blackish-brown  color,  with  white  linin" 
to  the  wings,  the  speculum  or  wing-patch  violet  bordered 
with  velvety  black. 

Blackfeet  Indians:  See  Algonqiian  Iniuaxs.  Siovan 

IXDIAXS. 

Blackflsli:  (1)  the  blackfish  or  tautog  of  the  Northern 
U.  .'^.  (Taatoga  onitis);  a  species  of  the  family  Lahrida;  of 
an  oblong  form,  with  smooth  .scaly  skin.  It  is  one  of  the 
chief  market-fishes  of  New  York.  '  (2)  In  Great  Britain  the 


European  blackfish. 


Centrnlnphus  pompiliis.  a  species  of  the  family  StromateidcB\ 
found  most  abundantly  in  the  Mediterranean  and  eontiguou.s 
watei-s.  The  mime  biackiish  is  also  applied  to  cetaceans  of 
the  genus  Globicephahts — e.  g.  G.  melas  of  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  f/.  scammoni  of  the  Pacific  coast,  of  the  U.  S. 

Black  Flairs:  a  name  given  to  the  more  desperate  sur- 
vivors of  the  Taiping  reliel  army  who,  on  its  defeat,  took 
refuge  in  Tonnuiu.  In  lyCkS  they  were  in  possession  of  the 
valley  of  the  Red  river  as  far  as'llanoi,  but  soon  after  were 


64rC 


BLACK  FLUX 


repressed  to  the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  where  they  have 
settlements  and  chiefs  of  their  own.  They  have  usually 
promoted  Chinese  interests  in  Ton(|inn.  The  Black  Hag* 
were  called  upon  bv  the  Tonquinose  m  IS.o  to  aid  in  ex- 
Belline  tlie  French  from  Hanoi,  and  under  their  leader.  Ijiu 
Yung^Fu,  thev  defeated  a  sortie  under  Garnier.  and  killed 
that  commander.  In  1882  t  hey  inflicte.l  a  1  ike  disaster  upon 
Riviere  in  the  same  locality  and  under  similar  circumstances 
In  1885,  China  having  become  engaged  in  he  war  tor  the 
expulsion  of  the  Frendi  from  Tontiuin.  the  Black  Flags,  with 
Chinese  troops  from  Yunnan,  held  the  passes  above  fuyen- 
Kivan  for  nearly  a  montli  against  repeated  assaults  and 
until  negotiations  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  preMuns 
vear  the  Black  Flags  became  notorious  everywhere  because 
;,f  their  destruction  of  French  mission  stations  and  the  ap- 
palling massac-re  of  priests  and  native  Christians  of  whom 
t  was  estimated  that' nearly  10.000  fell  victims.  The  Black 
Flags  number  about  5,000,  and  the  Yellow  Flags  are  regarded 
as  twice  as  numerous.  The  latter  are  peace  ully  disposed ; 
the  former  comprise  many  desperadoes,  and  are  given  to 
pillage.  ,        ,  1 

Black  Flux :  a  mixture  of  potassium  carbonate  ana 
Hiielv  divided  carbon  or  powdered  charcoal.  It  is  prepared 
bv  nlixin--  in  a  crucible  one  part  of  niter  with  two  or  tliree 
pkrts  of  crude  cream  of  tartar,  an.l  deflagrating  the  mix- 
ture by  ignited  charcoal:  or  by  heating  in  a  covered  cruci- 
ble cream  of  tartar  or  potassium  Ijilartrate,  when  the  tar- 
taric acid  is  decomposed  and  cliarred,  forming  carbonic 
acid  which  remains  in  coniliination  with  the  potash.  It  is 
a  valuable  flux  in  reducing  ores.  Tlie  metal  potassium  can 
be  obtained  liy  lieating  tliis  flux  in  iron  vessels 


Black  Forest  (Germ.  Schwarzwald:  anc.  Ili/irinia  Sylra): 
a  mountainous  and  wooded  region  in  Baden  and  VVurtcm- 
berg  with  a  chain  of  mountains  which  extends  about  8o 
miles  and  separates  the  basin  of  tlie  Rhine  fromthat^ot  the 
Xeckar  It  was  a  part  of  the  ancient  Hercynian  torest. 
Tins  region  is  remarkable  for  its  extensive  forests  and  its 
mines  of  silver,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  and  iron.  The  liigliest 
point  of  this  cliain  is  the  Feldberg,  winch  rises  i,d06  feet 
aliovc  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Danube,  Neekar,  Ivinzig 
Mur-  and  Elz  rise  in  the  Black  Forest.  A  number  of 
smaU'lakes  are  found  here  at  elevations  of  2.500  to  3,500  feet. 
Granite  and  gneiss  form  the  foundations  of  these  mountains 
and  porphyry  occurs  on  their  sides,  which  are  also  covered 
with  abundance  of  flr-trees.  The  descent  is  precipitous  on 
the  western  side,  but  the  eastern  slope  is  very  gentle.  A 
vallev  called  Murgthal,  situated  in  this  forest,  is  famous  for 
its  beautiful  scenery.  In  the  vicinity  of  Neustadt  is  the 
mountain-pass  of  HOUe,  which  was  celebrated  in  connection 
with  Moreau's  retreat  in  1706.  The  soil  of  these  highlands 
is  not  adapted  to  tillage.  The  inhabitants  are  extensively 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wooden  clocks  and  toys. 

Blackfriars  :  a  term  applied,  on  account  of  the  color  of 
their  garments,  to  the  Dominican  order  of  monks,  who  first 
went  to  England  aliout  A.  v.  1220,  and  settled  at  Oxford. 
Their  second  house  was  the  Blackfnars  hi  London,  and 
from  it  the  district  still  bears  the  name  of  the  order,  which 
had  nearly  sixtv  houses  in  England  and  Wales  at  the  time 
of  the  abolition"  of  monasteries.     See  Dominican. 

Black  Fmigi  {Pijrpiwmi/cpJefE):  an  order  of  degraded 
plants  of  the  class  Ascoiin/r'i'li's  {</.  v.),  often  of  a  black  color 
(whence  the  name)  and  usually  of  a  hard  texture.  They  are 
essentially  parasitic  plants,  although  many  arc  saprophytic. 
They  number  fuUv  7.000  species,  which  an^  distributed 
among  a  number  of" families,  viz. :  (1)  Sphtvrinme.  of  which 
Vatm  and  Hi/po.ri/lon  are  common  genera  ;  (2)  ni/pocmiceip, 
represented  i)V  Ckirirepx  purpuri'ii.  the  ergot  of  rye:  (3) 
J)„th„/i,im,',',>(  which  the  best-known  representative  is 
I'lowrlqhiia  morliom,  the  black  knot  of  plum-trees;  (4) 
Microtliijriacem,  minute  parasitic  fungi,  scarcely  represented 
in  U.  S. :  (5)  Lophios/omiirca',  minute  parasitic  fungi,  with 
few  representatives  in  U.  S. :  (6)  ITijxteridn-iv,  rei.resenl(Ml  in 
U.  S.  by  many  species  of  Ili/.tlrriiim  and  nii>itiT(i<inilihiiiiii  : 
(T)  Lahnnlhi-uiwcw.  microscopic,  greatly  degraded  bhu.'k  fun- 
gi, which  are  parasitic  upon  insects.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 
Black  (ii-oiisc:  See  Blackcock. 

Blackguard  :  It  is  said  that  when  the  Kings  of  England 
maile  a  progri'ss  with  the  court  from  one  royal  residence  to 
another,  it  was  customary  for  the  scullions  and  other  meni- 
als to  follow  with  loads  (if  kitchen  utensils,  aud  even  coals: 
and  from  their  dirty  appearance  they  reeeiveil  the  derisive 
name  of  hluckymird,  which  has  come  to  be  ajiphed  to  any 


BLACKIE 

person  of  a  vile  character,  or  one  who  uses  vulgar  or  ruflBan- 
ly  language.     See  Trench,  Enylish,  Past  and  Present. 

Black -gum:  a  popular  name  of  the  Nyssa  multiflora; 
an  American  tree,  sometimes  called  pei>peridge,  hornpipe, 
tupelo,  and  sour  gum.  It  has  oval  or  obovate  leaves,  com- 
monly' acuminate,""  which  turn  bright  crimson  in  autumn. 
The  fruit  is  a  bluish-black  drupe,  the  wood  close-grained, 
tou'di,  and  very  dillieiilt  to  split.  It  is  used  for  cog-wheels, 
hatter's  blocks,"  and  wheel-naves.  It  belongs  to  the  family 
Cornacem. 

Black  Hawk  :  citv:  on  Union  Pacific  R.  R. ;  Gilpin  co.. 
Col  •  36  miles  W.  o"f  Denver  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map'of  Colorado,  ref.  2-D).  It  contains,  and  is  adjacent  to, 
rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  It  has  numerous  quartz- 
mills  aud  also  "^smelting-works.  Pop.  (1880)  1,540 ;  (1890) 
1.067. 

Black  Hawk :  an  American  Indian :  chief  of  the  Sac 
tribe;  b.  in  Kaskaskia,  111.,  1767.  He  waged  war  against  the 
U  S.  in  1832  for  the  recovery  of  lands  which  certain  chiefs 
of' the  Sacs  and  Foxes  had  ceded  to  the  whites.  D.  on  the 
Des  Jloines  river.  Oct.  3,  1838.  See  J.  B.  Patterson,  Life  of 
Black  11(1  wk  (1834) :  also  one  by  W.  J.  Snelling. 

Black'licath  :  an  elevated  open  common  in  the  county 
of  Kent,  England:  5  miles  S.  E.  of  London,  adjoining 
Greenwich  Park ;  a  favorite  holiday  resort  for  Londoners. 
It  commands  an  extensive  view,  and  is  bordered  by  numer- 
ous handsome  villas.  The  Roman  Watling  Street  crosses 
this  heath,  which  is  the  site  of  IMorden  College.  This  heath 
was  the  scene  of  the  insurrections  of  Wat  Tyler  and  Jack 
Cade,  and  was  formerly  infested  by  highway  robbers. 

Black  Hills:  an  oval  group  of  low  mountains  lying 
chiefly  in  South  Dakota,  but  partly  in  Wyoming.  The 
sumniits  rise  from  2.000  to  3,000  feet  atiove  the  surrounding 
i)lains  and  the  culminating  point,  JNIt.  Harney,  has  an  alti- 
tude of  7,400  feet.  The  hills  are  due  to  a  local  uplift  in  the 
form  of  a  flat  dome,  from  which  erosion  has  removed  the 
cretaceous  strata  of  the  plains  and  laid  bare  in  successive 
riii°-s  carboniferous  and  Cambrian  rocks,  with  a  nucleus  of 
crystalline  schists.  In  1875  the  hills  were  ceded  to  the  U.  b. 
by  the  Dakota  Indians,  and  an  important  mining  industry 
immediately  sprang  up.  Since  that  time  the  district  has 
produced  (1891)  gold  to  the  value  of  $45,000,000,  and  silver 
to  the  value  of  over  |2,000,000.  Deposits  of  tin  have  been 
discovered.  "• 

Black  Hole :  the  name  of  a  small  dungeon  or  cell  in 
Calcutta,  which  was  the  scene  of  a  nefarious  crime  com- 
mitted by  the  nabob  Suraja  Dowlah  in  June,  1756.  Having 
captured'  the  English  garrison  of  a  fort  at  Calcutta,  he  con- 
fined the  iirisoners,  146  in  number,  in  a  cell  20  teet 
square,  with  only  two  windows.  They  suffered  great  ago- 
nies from  thirst,"heat.  and  foul  air,  and  123  died  from  suffo- 
cation in  the  first  night.  The  twenty-three  survivors  were 
taken  out  the  next  morning.  One  of  them,  John  /,.  Hol- 
well.  published  a  narrative  of  their  sufferings. 

Black'ie,  Georoe  Stodart,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D. :  b.  at 
Aberdeen.  Scotland.  Apr.  10,  1834;  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Bonn.  Paris,  and  Edinburgh,  graduating  A.M. 
and  M  D  at  the  last  in  1855;  obtained  the  gold  medals  tor 
botany  and  his  thesis:  removed  to  the  U.  S.,  and  became 
Professor  of  Natural  History  at  the  University  of  Nash- 
ville 1856-61 ;  served  in  the  civil  war  as  surgeon,  medical 
inspector,  etc. ;  has  been  Professor  of  Botany  in  Tennessee 
Colleo-e  of  Pharmacy,  and  of  Chemistry  in  Nashville  Medical 
College  since  1875;  "held  prominent  positions  in  Masonry, 
amonl'them  that  of  grand  commander  of  the  State ;  has 
published  Crrtuix  and  Crelinism  (Ediiiljurgh,  \H.,.,);Bolani/ 
the  Atbi  of  Medicine  (Nashville,  1859);  Medical  Flora  of 
K/MW.sipe  "(Nashville,  1859) ;  History  of  the  Knights  lem- 
ntar  (Nashville,  1871) ;  besides  numerous  other  works  ;  and 
edited  the  Nashville  Medical  Journcd  1858-70,  and  the  Ma- 
sonic Record  1870-71. 

Blackie  John  Stuart:  Scottish  classical  scholar;  b.  in 
Glasgow  July.  1809;  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  Gottingcn; 
Professor  of  "Greek  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  18o2- 
82  He  translated  Goethe's  Fanst  into  English  verse 
(1S34)  and  produced  in  1850  an  able  translation  of  tlie 
work-s  of  .Eschvlus.  He  contributed  to  the  Fncyclopwdia 
Jiritannica  jind  the  Imperial  Dictionary  of  Biocjrapliy 
Among  his  other  works  are  Lays  and  Legends  of  Ancient 
Greece  (\>^^^:  2<1  ed.  1880):  L.irical  P«.m.9  (1860) ;  Homer 
and  tlie  J  Had.  v.'\i\i  a  trauslation  in  ballad  met<ir  (4  vols., 
1866) ;  War  Songs  of  the  Germans  (1870) ;  Lays  of  the  High- 


BLACK-JACK 


BLACK  SEA 


64* 


lands  and  Islands  (1872);  The  Wise  Men  of  Greece  (1877); 
Natural  History  of  Atheism  (1877).  a  pica  against  Afrnosti- 
cisin ;  Lay  Sermons  (18SI):  Altarona  {18S^);  The  \\'ixdom 
of  Goethe  (1883) ;  Life  of  Robert  Burns  (1887)  ;  and  Essays 
on  Subjects  of  Moral  and  Social  Interest  {18^0).  Through 
his  efforts  a  chair  of  Celtic  was  established  in  the  I'liiver- 
sitv  of  Edinburgh,  and  endowed.  D.  in  Edinburgh,  Jlar.  2, 
18t>5. 

Black-jack :  the  name  given  by  miners  to  blende  (sul- 
pliiilc  of  zinc).  It  is  also  a  |X)pular  name  of  a  small  species 
of  Aiiii'riian  oak  {Quercus  nigra),  sometimes  called  barren 
oak  anil  iron  oak.  Its  wood  is  very  hard  and  makes  a  good 
firewood,  but  is  rather  perishable. 

lilack  Lead  :  See  Graphite. 

Black  Log :  See  I3l.\ck  Quarter. 

Black  Letter :  a  term  applied  to  the  Gothic  or  Old  Eng- 
lish ly]KS  or  letters,  which  were  used  in  the  typography  of 
the  first  liooks  ever  printed  in  England.  Books  jiririted  be- 
fore l.j(JO  are  generally  in  this  character,  which  was  com- 
monly n.sed  in  manuscripts  by  Europeans  long  before  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  printing.  A  form  of  type  similar  to 
this  is  still  used  by  the  Germans. 

Black-letter  Days :  (1)  Holy  days  recorded  in  the  cal- 
endars of  the  service-books  in  "  black-letter  "  type,  rather 
than  in  the  same  type  printed  in  red,  consequently  holy 
days  of  an  inferior  dignity.  (2)  In  the  English  Prayer-book 
the  black-letter  days  are  days  of  obsen'ance  for  which  no 
special  collects  or  services  arc  provided. 

Black  List :  the  name  familiarly  applied  in  Great  Britain 
to  ])rinted  lists  of  bankruptcies,  assignmenis,  dissolution  of 
partnei-ship,  decrees  in  absence,  judgments  for  debt,  pro- 
tested bills,  and  other  matters  affecting  the  credit  of  firms 
and  individuals,  issued  weekly  and  circulated  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  mercantile  community.  These  lists,  which  serve 
an  important  purpose,  are  well  known  by  commercial  men 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  Similar  information  is  furnished 
in  the  U.  .S.  and  Canada  by  commercial  agencies  in  the  "  Re- 
ports" and  "  Weekly  Correction  Sheets."  See  MERCAUTrLE 
Agencies. 

Blackmail:  an  impost  formerly  submitted  to  in  parts 
of  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England  as  a  compromise  with 
robbers.  A  class  of  men.  often  belonging  to  families  in 
good  standing,  levied  a  tax  upon  their  neighbors  (generally 
about  4  per  cent,  of  the  rental  of  their  property),  on  the  pre- 
text of  protecting  them  from  cattle-thieves.  The  celebrated 
Kob  Roy  was  one  of  these  blackmailers.  The  practice  cciiscd 
in  Seotlanil  after  the  rebellion  of  174.").  It  had  already  been 
long  extinct  in  England.  In  modern  usage,  blackmail  sig- 
nifies money  extorted  from  a  person  by  threats  of  accusjition 
or  exposure  in  the  public  prints.  Those  who  practice  this 
extortion  are  said  to  "  levy  blackmail." 

Blackiiiore.  SirRiciiARU:  a  court-physician  of  William 
III.  and  of  Queen  Anne  :  a  voluminous  writer  of  prose  and 
verse ;  b.  in  Corshaiu.  Wiltshire,  about  1G.50.  He  was  the 
object  of  the  satire  of  Pope  and  of  the  ridicule  of  the  witsof 
his  time.  His  chief  works  are  Priiire  Arthur  (1606)  and  The 
Crmtlim  (1712).     1).  in  Boxted,  Essex,  Oct.  8,  1729. 

Blackniore.  Kiciiard  Doddridge  :  novelist  and  poet;  b, 
jit  Longworlh,  Berkshire,  England,  in  182.'5.  He  graduated 
at  E.xeter  College.  Oxford,  in  1847.  and  practiced  law  in 
London.  Liirna  Doone  (1869),  a  romance  of  Exmoor  in  the 
-eventeenth  centurv,  is  the  most  successfid  of  his  novels, 
.imong  which  are  Tlie  Maid  of  Steer  (1872) ;  Crippsthe  Car- 
rier (\81^):  Erema  (1877);  Springharen  (ISIT),  and  others. 
Besi<les  several  volumes  of  original  verse,  he  has  published  a 
translation  of  Vergil's  Georgics  (1871).     Henry  A.  Beers. 

Black  .Voiintains  :  a  group  of  mountains  in  Yancey  co., 
N'.  ('..  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  forests  of  dark  balsam  firs  wliieh  crown  its 
sunnnits.  It  has  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe.  The  highest  of 
its  peaks  rises  to  6.688  feet,  an<l  is  called  the  Black  Doiiu-, 
Mt.  Mitchell,  or  Mitchell's  High  Peak,  in  honor  of  Dr. 
.Mitchell  of  the  University  of  Xorth  Carolina,  who  perished 
while  exi)loring  this  inhospitable  region,  and  was  buried  on 
its  top.  This  is  the  highest  point  of  the  U.  S.  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Black  Oak:  a  large  tree  of  the  U.S.;  common  E.  of 
the  Mississippi;  now  considered  a  variety  (tinclnria)  of  the 
scarlet  oak  {(^)iiercus  coccinea).  It  is  a  handsome  tree,  af- 
fording useful  timber,  but  is  best  known  for  its  thick  yel- 
low bark,  which  is  prized  for  tanning  purposes,  and  yields 


quercitron,  a  valuable  yellow  dye.    It  is  also  called  yellow 
oak  and  dyer's  oak. 

BlackiKxil':  a  municipal  borough  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land; incorporated  in  1875  and  extended  in  1879  (see  map 
of  England,  ref.  6-F).  It  is  situated  on  the  Irish  Sea;  20 
miles  by  railroad  W.  of  Preston  ;  has  an  electric  railway,  and 
is  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing.     Pop.  (1891)  2;i,846. 

Black  Quarter,  (Juarter  Evil,  or  Black  Le^ :  a  disease 
which  attacks  animals,  especially  thrifty  young  neat  cattle, 
which  are  kept  on  fertile  but  undrained  land.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  swelling  of  a  joint,  leg.  or  quarter,  diarrhoea,  ex- 
travasation of  blood,  and  formation  of  ah.sce.sses.  It  is 
usually  fatal.  It  is  probably  the  same  disease  which  is 
known  in  man  as  malignant  pustule.  Its  causes  arc  not 
well  imderstood.  It  is  a  disease  hard  to  cure,  but  stimu- 
lants, free  incision  in  the  affected  part,  with  the  application 
of  weak  solutions  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  carbolic  acid,  may 
prove  useful.  The  best  preventive  is  thorough  underdrain- 
age  of  pastures. 

Black  River  of  Louisiana  :  that  jrart  of  Washita  river 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Tensas  river,  and  between  it  and 
Red  river,  is  sometimes  called  Black  river. 

Black  River,  or  Big  Black  River :  in  Missouri  and  Ar- 
kansas; rises  in  Iron  co..  Mo. :  flows  nearly  southward  to 
the  north  line  of  Arkansas.  It  afterward  nins  southwest- 
ward,  and  enters  the  White  river  at  .laeksonport.  Ark. 
Length  about  S.IO  miles.  It  is  navigable  by  steamboats  100 
miles,  except  when  the  water  is  low. 

Black  River  of  New  York:  rises  in  Herkimer  County; 
flows  in  a  general  N.  W.  direction,  and  enters  Lake  Ontario 
about  6  miles  below  Watertown.  The  whole  length  is  about 
125  miles.     It  falls  63  feet  near  Turin,  in  Lewis  County. 

Black  River  of  Wisconsin:  rises  in  Marathon  County; 
flows  southward  and  soutlnvcslward  through  Clarke  and 
Jackson  Counties,  and  enters  the  Jlississippi  about  15  miles 
above  La  Crosse.     Its  length  is  about  225  miles. 

Black  River  of  Vermont  (Indian  name  Kaslcatuac): 
ri.ses  in  ponds  in  the  town  of  Plymcjuth.  Windsor  co. ;  flows 
S.  by  E.,  and  empties  into  the  Connecticut  river.  It  fur- 
nishes abundant  water-power,  which  is  employed  in  numer- 
ous manufactories. 

Black  River  Falls:  city;  capital  of  .Jackson  co..  Wis. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  o-C) ;  on 
railroad  and  on  Black  river,  50  miles  X.  of  La  Crosse.  It  has 
a  large  flouring-mill,  wagon-factory,  sash  and  door  factory, 
water-works,  and  electric  lights ;  has  one  of  the  best  water- 
powers  in  the  U.  S.  Iron-ore  deposits  have  been  found  in 
the  vicinitv.  but  with  the  veins  badlv  faulted.  There  are 
inanv  sawmills  in  the  vicinitv.  Pop.  (ISSO)  1.427;  (1890) 
2,261 ;  (189.5)  2.068.    Editor  of  "  Badger  St.vfe  B.vnxer." 

Black  Rock  (Conn.) :  See  Bridgeport  (Conn.). 

Black  Rood  (of  Scotland)  :  a  cross  of  gold  which  was 
alleged  to  contain  a  piece  of  the  true  cross ;  brought  into 
Scotland  in  1067  by  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  AUieling, 
queen  of  Malcolm  III.  It  was  regarded  as  a  national  palla- 
dium. It  was  taken  twice,  at  least,  by  the  English,  who 
after  1346  kept  it  in  Durham  Cathedral.  It  disappeared  at 
the  Reformation. 

Blackslinrg:  town  (founded  in  1879);  York  co.,  S.  C.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref.  4-D); 
situated  at  junction  of  Rich,  and  Dan.  and  Chas..  Cin.  and 
Ch.  R.  Rs. ;  1,500  feet  above  the  sea-level.  221  miles  N.  of 
Atlanta.  It  has  a  hcathful.  invigorating  climate,  and  is 
sheltered  from  severe  north  winds  by  the  mountains.  There 
are  here  deposits  of  magnetic  and  hematite  iron  ores,  baryta, 
plumbago,  and  silver;  and  sulphur,  lithia,  and  magnesia 
mineral  springs.  The  iiulustrial  establishments  of  the  town 
are  mostly  connected  with  the  development  of  its  natural 
resources,  anil  include  iron-works,  furnace,  foundry,  ma- 
chine-shops, railroad  repair-sliojis.  cotton-mill,  wood-work- 
ing factory,  brick-yard,  etc.  There  are  here  4  churches,  2 
graded  schools,  and  4  hotels.  The  surrounding  country  is 
one  of  the  best  developed  agricultural  regions  of  the  State. 
Pop.  (1880)  14.5;  (1890)  1,245;  (1893)  estimated,  2.700. 

Editor  of  "  News." 

Black  Sea.  or  Eiix'ine  (anc.  Pontus  Euxinus:  Turk. 
Kara  Dinjis):  a  large  inland  sea  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
It  extends  from  lat.  40"  45'  to  46"  45'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  27° 
30'  to  41  50  E.  The  extreme  length  is  about  700  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  about  380  miles.  Area,  estimated 
at  185,000  sq.  miles.    It  communicates  with  the  Sea  of  Mar- 


648 


BLACK-SNAKE 


BLADDER-NUT 


mora  by  the  Bospliorus,  and  with  the  Sea  of  Azof  by  the 
Strait  of  Kertch.  The  shores  of  tliis  sea  are  high  and  bold 
on  all  sides  except  the  N.  W.,  between  the  Crimea  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube.  In  the  middle  of  it  no  soundings 
were  obtained  at  160  fathoms.  It  incloses  no  islands  except 
a  few  small  ones  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
Symplegades,  near  tlic  Bosphorus.  The  largest  rivers  tliat 
flow  into  it  are  the  Danube,  Dniester,  Bug,  Don,  Dnieper, 
Kuban,  and  Kizil  Irmak.  This  sea  has  no  tide,  but  strong 
currents  are  produced  by  the  influx  of  the  large  rivers,  in 
consequence  of  wliich  the  water  is  fresher  than  that  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  navigation  of  the  Euxiue  is  not  dan- 
gerous, except  during  violent  storms.  It  is  supposed  that 
this  sea  once  extended  much  farther  E.  than  it  does  now. 
In  ancient  times  it  was  an  important  highway  of  commerce. 
The  Turks  excluded  the  ships  of  all  foreign  powers  from  it 
until  1774,  when  the  Russians  obtained  the  right  to  navigate 
its  waters.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1856,  this  sea  was  neu- 
tralized— that  is,  the  Russians  and  Turks  were  not  permitted 
to  keep  ships  of  war  in  it.  In  1871  the  Russians  again  were 
jjermitted  to  have  men-of-war  on  this  sea. 

Black-snake,  or  Blue-racer :  a  species  of  snake  {Bas- 
canion  constrictor)  common  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  \].  S. 
Its  length  varies  from  4  to  0  or  7  feet.  It  is  remarkable  for 
agility,  climbs  trees  with  ease,  and  moves  along  the 
ground  very  swiftly.  It  feeds  on  frogs,  mice,  lizards, 
eggs,  birds,  etc.     Although  it  is  harmless  and  has  no  poi- 


Blackstone,  Sir  William  :  jurist  and  eminent  commen- 
tator on  law';  1).  in  London, .July  10.173:1  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1746,  but  obtained  little  practice.  In  1758  he 
became  Vinerian  professor  of  law  at  Oxford,  of  which  he 
was  a  graduate  :  in  1761  was  elected  to  Parliament.  He 
was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1761^,  and  a  Justice  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas  in  1770.  His  principal  work  is 
Conimeyitaries  on  the  Laws  of  England  (4  vols.,  1765-69), 
which  acquired  a  high  reputation  and  is  extensively  used  by 
students  of  law.  His  style  is  clear,  ornate,  and  graceful, 
but  his  method  is  not  scientific,  and  he  was  not  well  quali- 
fied to  judge  of  the  law  from  a  legislator's  point  of  view. 
D.  Feb.  14,  1780.  His  Commentaries  were  severely  criti- 
cised by  Bentham.  According  to  Home  Tooke,  his  work  is 
" a  good  gentleman's  law-book — clear,  but  not  deep."  See 
Clitheroe,  Life  of  Sir  W.  Blackstone  (1780);  Poss,  The 
Judges  uf  England. 

Blackstone,  or  Blaxton,  William  :  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England;  the  first  white  inhaliitant  of  Boston, 
Mass. ;  settled  at  Shawmut,  now  Boston,  in  1623,  but  left 
the  place  in  1634,  not  liking  his  Puritan  neighbors.  An  ac- 
count of  Blackstone's  sale  of  the  land  on  which  the  city  of 
Boston  now  stands  will  be  found  in  the  3Iass.  Hist.  Soc. 
Coll.,  3d  series,  iv.  203.  See  also  The  3Iemorial  History 
of  Boston,  vol.  i.,  and  Perry's  History  of  the  American  Epis- 
copal Church.     D.  in  Rehoboth,  Mass.,  M.ay  26,  1675. 

Blackstone  River  of  Massachusetts:  rises  in  Worces- 
ter County;  tlows southeastward  into  Rhode  Island,  and  en- 
ters through  Providence  river  into  Narragansett  Bay.  The 
name  Pawtucket  river  is  given  to  that  part  of  it  which  is 
below  the  town  of  Pawtucket.  It  affords  abundant  water- 
power,  and  flows  through  several  manufacturing  villages. 

Blackthorn :  See  Sloe. 

Black  Tin :  tin  ore  ready  for  the  process  of  smelting. 

Black  Vomit :  the  ha»morrhagic  discharge  from  the  stom- 
aeli  peculiar  to  Vellow  Fever  (q.  v.) 

Black  Wad  :  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  native  black 
oxide  of  manganese.     See  Manoanese. 

Black  Walnut  {the  Juglans  nigra):  a  valuable  tiudier 
tree  of  iIk^  I'.S. ;  belonging  to  the  family  Jnglandacew; 
growing  from  Florida  nin-tlnvard,  and  especially  westward, 
being  ran^  at  present  in  New  England.  It  is  a  handsome 
tree;  [produces  a  nut  which,  though  edible,  is  less  so  than 
that  ot  the  European  walnut,  while  its  timber  is  even  more 
valuable.  The  wood  is  employed  for  gunstocks,  furni- 
ture, the  finishing  and  flooring  of  rooms,  and  a  great  vari- 
ety of  piirpdsi's. 

Black  Warrior:  a  river  of  Alabama;  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Locust  Fork  and  IMuUierry  Fork,  wliicli 
unite  near  the  S.  extremity  of  Walker  County.  It  flows 
southwestward,  and  enters  the  Tombigbee  about  3  miles 
above  Demopolis.    Its  length  is  estimated  at   175  miles. 


Steamboats  ascend  this  river  from  its  mouth  to  Tuscaloosa. 
Bituminous  coal  is  found  on  this  river. 

Black  Water  :  See  Red  Water. 

Blackwell,  Antoinette  Louisa  (Brown) :  preacher  and 
reformer;  b.  in  Henrietta,  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.,  Slay  20,  1835 ; 
graduated  at  Oberlin  1847 ;  preached  on  her  own  orders ;  in 
1853  became  pastor  of  orthodox  Congregational  churches 
in  Wayne  co.,  N.  Y. ;  became  a  L^nitarian ;  champion  of 
women's  rights ;  married  Samuel  ('.,  a  brother  of  Dr.  Eliza- 
beth Blackwell.  in  18.56.  Among  her  jniblished  books  are 
Shadows  of  our  Social  System  (New  York,  1855) ;  Studies 
in  General  Science  (New  York,  1869) ;  2'he  Markei-woman 
(1871);  The  Island  Neighbors  {IHll) ;  Sexes  Throughout 
Nature  (1875);  Ehysical  Basis  of  Immortality  (1876). 

Blackwell.  Elizabeth,  M.  D.  :  b.  in   Bristol,  England, 

1831 ;  the  first  woman  who  ever  obtained  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  in  the  LT.  S.  She  came  to  the  U.  S.  with  her  parents 
in  1831,  and  taught  school  at  Cincinnati  from  1838  to  1847. 
Having  studied  medicine  in  private,  she  applied  for  admis- 
sion to  the  medical  colleges  of  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
and  Boston,  without  success.  She  was  at  last  admitted  by 
a  unanimous  vote  into  the  College  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1847, 
and  graduated  as  M.  D.  with  honor  in  1849.  She  afterward 
studied  midwifery  in  Paris,  and  began  to  practice  in  New 
York  city  in  1851.  In  1854,  with  her  sister  Emily,  .she 
opened  the  New  York  Infirmary  for  Women  and  Children. 
In  1859  she  delivered  a  course  of  medical  lectures  in  London, 
and  in  1868  settled  there  in  connection  with  the  Women's 
IMedical  College.  She  wrote  io(ra  »/ i//e  (18.53):  Counsel 
to  Parents  on  the  3Ioral  Education,  of  their  Children  (1879). 

Blackwell's  Island:  in  the  East  river:  a  part  of  New 
York  city;  has  a  lunatic  asylum,  workhouse,  almshouse, 
penitentiary,  smallpox,  charity,  and  fever  hospitals,  one  for 
incurables,  one  for  epileptics  and  paralytics,  and  an  asylum 
for  the  blind,  all  city  institutions.  The  island  has  an  area 
of  130  acres,  and  was  named  from  a  family  which  long 
owned  it.  At  its  north  end  is  a  stone  lighthouse,  with  a 
fixed  red  light,  wliich  is  54  feet  .above  the  sea ;  lat.  40°  46' 
15"  N.,  Ion.  73°  56'  08"  W. 

Blackwood,  William:  Scottish  publisher;  b.  in  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  20,  1776;  was  the  founder  of  Blackwood's 
3Iagazine.  He  began  business  as  a  bookseller  in  1804,  and 
issued  the  first  number  of  his  magazine  in  1817.  It  ob- 
tained speedy  success  and  a  high  reputation,  to  which  the 
writings  of  Scott,  John  Wilson,  and  J.  G.  Lockhart  greatly 
contributed.  Its  editors  advocated  the  political  creed  of 
the  Tories  with  powerful  sarcasm  and  considerable  virulence. 
Jlr.  Blackwood  was  chief  manager  of  the  magazine  until  his 
death,  Sept.  16,  1834,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sons,  under 
whom  it  maintained  its  reputation,  and  received  contribu- 
tions from  many  eminent  authors,  including  Bulwer,  W.  S. 
Landor,  and  De"  tjuincey. — His  son  John,  b.  in  1818,  d.  Oct. 
29,  1879,  succeeded  him  in  the  business. 

Bladder:  a  muscnlo-membranous  sac  contained  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  pelvis,  containing  the  urine  or  secre- 
tions from  the  kidneys.  It  is  absent  in  all  invertebrate 
animals.  A  few  cartilaginous  fishes  possess  it ;  so  do  Ba- 
trachia  (frogs,  etc.)  and  C/it?OOTj'a  (turtles).  No  birds  have 
it,  although  the  ostrich  and  cassowary  have  a  dilatation  of 
the  cloaca  somewhat  resembling  it.  It  is  present  in  all 
mammalia.  In  man  the  bladder  is  nearly  triangular  when 
empty,  oval  when  full.  The  ureters  (one  on  each  side)  con- 
vey the  urine  to  it  from  the  kidneys ;  and  this  is  voided,  by 
the  contraction  of  the  bladder,  through  the  urethra.  The 
entrance  to  the  latter  is  guarded  by  a  valve,  partly  muscu- 
lar, called  by  some  anatomists  the  .sphincter  vesica'.  Disten- 
sion of  the  bladder  (retention  of  urine)  from  any  obstruction 
of  the  urethra  is  a  very  painful  and  sometimes  dangerous 
affection.  It  may  be  spasmodic,  but  it  is  more  often  the 
effect  of  a  stricture  or  contraction  of  the  passage  from  local 
disease.  In  low  fevers  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  kind  of 
paral)-tic  distension  of  the  bladder  to  occur.  In  either  of 
these  cases  the  removal  of  the  urine  by  means  of  a  catheter 
is  of  great  importance.  The  Idadder  is  also  liable  to  inflam- 
mation (cystitis)  and  to  chronic  irritability,  either  of  which 
may  cause  great  distress.  For  stone  iii  the  bladder,  see 
Calculus. 

Bladder-nut:  a  jiopular  name  of  several  plants  of  the 
genus  Staphylea  and  family  Sapindacea>.  They  are  so 
called  because  the  fruit  is  a  l)laddery,  membi-anous,  and  in- 
flated capsule,  inclosing  hard,  bony  seeds.  They  are  shrubs 
or  small  trees  with  pinnate  leaves,  five  stamens,  and  five 


BLADDERWOaT 


BLAINa 


Gi'J 


petals.  Tlic  Staphylea  pinnafa  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is 
planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  British  shrubberies.  An- 
other species,  the  iil<i/)lii/lea  frifolia,  or  American  bladder- 
nut,  is  a  native  of  the  I'.  S.  It  is  a  shrub  about  10  feet 
higli,  having  three  ovate  leallets.  The  seed  of  these  species 
is  aperient,  and  the  wood  is  suitable  for  turning. 

Bladdcrivort :  an  ucpiatic  phint  of  the  nenus  Uiricularia 
and  family  LenlihitliiriacKr.  which  coinprist^s  numerous  .spe- 
cies abouudinfj  in  tropical  and  temperate  parts  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. Their  flowers  adorn  tlie  surface  of  lakes,  ponds, 
and  stairnaiil  or  shallow  waters.  Seventeen  species  are 
found  ill  the  U.  S.  Thev  are  remarkalile  for  a  provision  by 
which  the  plant,  which  is  ordinarily  submerged  in  water,  is 
raised  to  the  surface,  in  order  that  the  flowers  may  expand 
in  the  air.  The  leaves  and  stems  are  furnished  with  little 
bladders  or  vesicles,  wliieh  become  filled  with  air  at  the  time 
of  flowerinjr.  The  air  is  afterward  removed,  so  that  the 
plant  sinks  ajrain.  and  ripens  its  seeds  at  the  bottom.  A  few 
species  whicii  ilo  not  grow  in  the  water  have  no  bladders. 
It  has  been  discovered  recently  that  these  bladders  act  as 
traps  for  minute  water  animals,  and  it  appears  i>robable 
that  the  plants  arc  benefited  by  absorbing  the  juices  of  the 
decaying  organic  matter.    See  Insectivohous  Plants. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bkssey. 

Blasrowpsjitshcnsk.blii'a-go-ves-chensk'  (i.e. good  news) : 
the  cajiital  nf  the  province  of  Amoor,  in  Siberia  (see  map  of 
Asia,  ref.  3-11).  It  was  founded  in  1858,  and  consists  mostly 
of  government  buildings.  Some  trade  is  carried  on  here 
between  the  Chinese  and  the  Russians.     Pop.  (1888)  30,213. 

Blai'kie,  William  Garden,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.  ;  a 
minister  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  .Aberdeen, 
Feb.  a.,  1820 :  graduated  at  Aberdeen  ;  ordained  in  the 
Scotch  Kirk,  but  came  out  at  the  I)isru]jtion  in  184:1  and  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Free  Church  at  Pilrig.  lvliiil)urgh.  1844  ; 
Professor  of  Apologetics  and  Pastoral  Theology.  New  Col- 
lege, in  18(58:  president  of  the  meeting  of  the  Alliance  of 
Churches  of  the  Presbyterian  order,  Toronto,  18i)3.  Be- 
tween 184!)  an<l  1883  he  was  editor  successively  of  the  Free 
Church  Jffij/iizine,  the  North  British  Review,  the  Sundai/ 
Magazine,  and  the  Catholic  Prexhi/lerian.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  Bible  History  in  Connection  witti 
General  Nislori/  [London,  18.50;  rev.  ed.  1882);  Better  Days 
for  Working  People  (1863,  1882) ;  Heads  and  Hands  in  the 
World  of  Labor  (186.')) ;  Coansel  and  Cheer  for  tlie  Battle  of 
Life  (1867)  •  For  tlie  Wor/c  of  the  Ministry  (1873 ;  4th  ed. 
1885);  Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone.  {19S0:  4th  ed. 
1884);  Public  Ministry  and  Pastoral  Methods  of  Our  Lord 
(1883);  Leaders  in  Modern  Philanthropy  {\HS-i}:  The  First 
Book  of  Samuel ;  Tlie  Second  Book  of  Samuel ;  The  Preach- 
ers of  Scotland,  from  the  Sixth  to  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(1888),  etc. 

Blaine :  city ;  Whatcom  co.,  Wash,  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  ot  Washington,  ref.  1-C);  on  Gt.  Nor.  R.  R.  and  on 
Gulf  of  Georgia;  24  miles  S.  E.  of  Xew  Westminster,  British 
Columbia;  has  fishing  industrv,  sawmills,  and  a  canning- 
factory.     Pop.  (18!)0)  1,563. 

Blaiiio.  James  Gillespie,  LL.  D. :  statesman  ;  b.  in  Wash- 
ington, Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830;  graduated  at  Washington  Col- 
lege in  1847;  and  soon  after  removed  to  Maine,  where  he 
became  editor  of  the  Portland  Advertiser.  Chosen  to  Con- 
gress in  1862,  he  imiiu'diatelv  achieved  distinction  as  a  de- 
bater, and  wius  five  times  re-elected.  His  position  and  influ- 
ence in  the  House  are  imlicated  by  the  fact  that  he  wjis  chosen 
Speaker  in  186!),  1871,  and  1873.  During  all  this  period  he 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the  legislation  of 
Congress.  The  encouragement  of  railroads  in  the  West  bv 
governmental  ap[)ropriations  was  one  of  the  means  by  whicli 
he  Itelieved  Hk;  country  was  to  be  most  successfully  devel- 
oped ;  anil  his  interest  in  this  method  ot  internal  improve- 
ment brought  him  into  intimate  relations  with  many  of  the 
great  railroad  enterprises  of  the  time.  His  vigorous  methods 
aroused  many  animosities.  In  1876  he  was  charged  with 
having  received  !!;64,00U  from  the  Union  Pacific  Railway 
Company  for  legislative  services  rendered;  but  he  produced 
letters  from  ollicers  of  the  company  declaring  that  he 
had  never  leceivetl  a  dollar  from  the  company  for  any  pur- 
pose whatever.  lie  was  accused  of  having  received  bonds 
from  the  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  R.  U.  as  a  gnitiiitv, 
and  that  lands  had  been  sold  through  the  Union  Pacific 
Railway  Company  for  his  benefit.  To  this  he  replied  that 
all  the  bonds  of  that  company  he  ever  possessed  he  had 
bought  at   the  market  price,  and   had  held  at  a  pecuui- 


ary  lo.ss.  He  was  charged  with  having  received  a  cer- 
tain gift  of  bonds  of  the  Kansas  Pacific  1{.  R.,  and  that 
he  had  been  party  to  a  suit  concerning  them  in  one  of  the 
courts  of  KansjLS.  To  this  charge  he  replied  that  his  name 
had  been  confounded  with  that  of  a  brother  who  had  held 
stock  in  that  railroad  for  many  years.  A  resolution  was 
adopted  in  the  House  of  Repre.sentjitives  to  authorize  a 
committee  to  investigate  the  alleged  sale  of  certain  bonds 
of  the  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  R.  R.  to  the  Union 
Pacific.  Evidently  the  investigation  was  aimed  at  Mr. 
Blaine.  The  committee  ascertained  that  an  extended  busi- 
ness correspondence  had  for  many  years  been  curried  on  be- 
tween Mr.  Blaine  and  Mr.  Warren  Fisher,  of  Boston,  and 
that  a  tiumber  of  important  letters,  constituting  a  part  of 
this  correspondence,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  clerk  by 
the  name  of  Mulligan.  This  clerk  was  siimmoned  to  Wash- 
ington ;  but  on  his  arrival  Mr.  Blaine  olitaiiied  possession  of 
the  letters,  and  on  June  .5, 1876,  produced  them  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  A  memorable  scene  followed.  Assert- 
ing that  the  letters  were  private,  and  that  the  House  had  no 
right  to  them,  he  held  them  up  and  exclaimed:  "Thank 
God,  I  am  not  ashamed  to  show  them.  There  is  the  very  orig- 
inal pai'kage ;  and  with  some  sense  of  humiliation,  with  a 
mortification  I  do  not  attempt  to  conceal,  with  a  sense  of 
outrage  which  I  think  any  man  in  my  position  would  feel, 
I  invite  the  confidence  of  forty-four  millions  of  my  country- 
men, while  I  read  these  letters  from  this  desk."  After 
reading  the  letters  Mr.  Blaine  asked  the  Speaker  if  he  had 
received  a  dispatch  from  Josiah  Caldwell,  one  of  the  origi- 
nators ot  the  Fort  .Smith  R.  R.,  who  wa-s  familiar  with 
the  whole  transaction.  The  Speaker  gave  an  answer 
which  was  considered  evasive.  Mr.  Blaine  then  exclaimed: 
"Within  my  positive  knowledge  you  received  such  a  dis- 
patch, completely  and  absolutely  exonerating  me  from  this 
charge,  and  you  hare  suppressed  it.^'  The  effect  of  this 
charge  was  electric.  Seldom  in  the  history  of  the  House  has 
so  tumultuous  a  scene  been  witnessed.  This  event  occurred 
on  June  5,  1876.  On  the  following  Sunday,  just  as  Mr. 
Blaine  was  entering  church,  he  was  prostrated  with  extreme 
heat,  and  his  condition  for  a  time  created  serious  alarm. 
At  the  Natiimal  Republican  Convention,  held  during  the 
same  week,  he  was  earnestly  supported  by  his  friends  as  can- 
didate for  the  presidency,  and  up  to  the  eighth  ballot  led  all 
other  candidates.  On  the  seventh  ballot  he  lacked  only- 
twenty-eight  votes  of  a  majority.  But  at  that  point  his  op- 
ponents united,  and  gave  the  nomination  to  Gov.  Hayes,  of 
Ohio. 

Soon  after  the  convention,  Senator  Morrill,  of  Maine,  re- 
signed his  place  in  the  Senate  to  accept  the  secretaryship  of 
the  Treasury,  and  Mr.  Blaine  received  the  appointment  as 
his  successor.  In  the  Senate  his  power  as  a  debater  gave 
him  great  prominence.  He  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  the 
Republican  policy  in  the  South;  and  there,  as  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  he  advocated  with  great  power  the  policy 
of  generous  a[)propriations  for  the  assistance  of  railroads 
and  other  means  of  internal  improvements.  As  the  presi- 
dential conveiitiiin  of  1880  approached,  he  was  once  more  a 
prominent  candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination.  His 
most  formidable  oppcment  seemed  to  be  (Sen.  (iraiit,  who 
was  now  put  forward  for  a  third  term.  On  the  first  ballot 
Grant  received  304  votes,  Blaine  284.  The  convention  con- 
tinued through 'six  days.  On  the  thirty-sixth  ballot  the 
friends  of  Blame  and  the  other  opponents  of  Grant  united 
on  Gen.  Garfield,  and  gave  him  a  majority. 

On  the  election  of  (iarfield.  Blaine  took  the  position  of 
Secretary  of  State.  It  immediately  became  evident  that  his 
administration  of  this  department  of  the  Government  would 
be  characterized  by  two  important  lines  of  policy.  He  en- 
deavored in  the  first  place  to  secure  and  preserve  peace 
throughout  this  continent.  His  second  purpose  was  to  ex- 
tend commercial  relat  ions,  and  cultivate  close  habits  of  trade 
and  intercourse  between  all  the  nations  and  peoples  of  the 
Xew  World.  For  the  accomplishment  of  these  ends  he  pro- 
posed the  assembling  of  a  Universal  Peace  Congress  at 
Washington.  The  project  met  with  great  favor.  Tlie  letter 
ot  invitation,  issued  Nov.  29,  1881,  called  for  a  meeting  on 
Nov.  24,  1882.  But  the  assassination  of  President  Garfield 
interrupted  all  plans  for  the  meeting,  and  on  Dec.  19  Mr. 
Blaine  resigned  his  position.  His  successor  reversed  his 
policy  after  nearly  all  the  powers  had  accepted  the  invita- 
tion, and  the  congress  had  to  be  abanihmed. 

The  leisure  afforded  Mr.  Blaine  by  his  retirement  from 
the  cabinet  gave  him  opportunity  for  liferary  work.  He 
now  entered  upon  an  elaborate  historical  composition,  which 


650 


BLAIXVILLE 


BLAKE 


was  published  in  two  volumes  in  1884  and  1886,  under  the 
title  Twenty  Years  of  Congress.  The  work  was  lirilliantly 
written  and  had  a  wide  sale.  As  the  time  of  the  National 
Republiean  Convention  of  1884  approached  it  lieeanie  evi- 
dent that  he  would  once  more  be  ji  popular  and  powerful 
candidate.  On  the  first  ballot  he  received  3344  votes,  only 
about  70  less  than  a  majority.  On  the  fourth  vote  he  re- 
ceived 541  out  of  813.  But  the  canvass  that  followed  was 
one  of  peculiar  bitterness.  The  "Mulligan  letters"  played 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  campaign.  Mr.  Blaine  entered 
personally  into  the  canvass,  speaking  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
New  York.  The  result  depended  upon  the  vote  in  New 
York,  and  New  York  voted  for  .Mr.  Cleveland  by  a  majority 
of  1,047.  In  1888  Mr.  Blaine  declined  to  be  a  candidate  for 
the  presidency  and  took  no  active  part  in  the  campaign,  but 
on  the  election  of  President  Harrison  he  once  more  became 
Secretary  of  State.  He  now  had  the  opportunity  of  devel- 
oping the  policy  he  had  advocated  in  tlie  first  months  of 
the  presidency  of  Garfield.  He  pursued  a  vigorous  policy 
in  regard  to  the  "  Fisheries  Question,"  and  also  to  the  pro- 
tection of  the  sealing  industry  off  the  coast  of  Alaska. 
(See  Bering  Sea  Controversy.)  In  accordance  with  his 
former  purpose,  lie  brought  about  a  congress  at  Washing- 
ton of  all  the  American  powers,  for  tlie  purpose  of  encour- 
aging a  more  friendly  commercial  intercourse.  But  the 
most  important  of  his  measures  was  his  advocacy  of  the 
doctrine  of  commercial  reciprocity.  When  the  JIcKinley 
Tariff  Bill  was  before  Congress,  Mr.  Blaine  took  the  ground 
that,  although  he  was  earnestly  in  favor  of  fostering  the 
industries  of  the  IT.  S.  by  means  of  a  protective  tariff,  yet 
he  believed  the  interests  of  those  industries  would  be  best 
subserved  by  a  policy  of  reciprocity,  by  which  it  should 
be  in  the  power  of  the  Government  to  admit  free  of  duty 
staple  goods  of  those  nations  which  made  equivalent  con- 
cessions in  imposts  upon  the  products  of  the  U.  .S.  In  con- 
sequence of  Mr.  Blaine"s  advocacy  a  provision  was  adopt- 
ed in  the  McKinley  Tariff  Bill  a'uthorizing  the  President, 
under  certain  restricted  comlitious,  to  waive  the  operations 
of  the  protective  measures  of  the  statute.  (See  Heciprocity.) 
Mr.  Blaine's  administration  of  the  affairs  of  state  increased 
his  popularity  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1890  and  1891  it 
seemed  certain  that  he  would  be  nominated  by  the  liepub- 
lican  party  in  1892.  In  the  autumn  of  1891",  however,  he 
published  a  letter  positively  withdrawing  his  name  from 
consideration.  Whether  this  withdrawal  was  due  to  a  sense 
of  loyalty  to  President  Harrison,  or  whether  it  was  owing 
to  the  precarious  state  of  Jlr.  Blaine's  health,  was  the  sub- 
ject of  much  speculation  during  the  winter  and  spring  before 
the  convention  of  June,  1893.  On  June  3  he  unexpectedly 
resigned,  in  order,  it  was  alleged,  that  he  might  be  free  to 
accept  the  ]iresidential  nomination  if  offered  to  hun,  as  his 
friends  confidently  expected  it  would  be.  Unquestionably 
lie  could  have  received  the  nomination  if  he  had  not  posi- 
tively declined  to  be  a  candidate.  His  subseipient  resigna- 
tion subjected  him  to  the  charge  of  finesse  and  insincerity. 
The  nominaticin,  after  a  short  contest,  was  given  to  Presi- 
dent Harrison.  During  the  summer  Mr.  Blaine's  health 
was  precarious,  and  he  abstained  from  active  participation 
in  the  political  canvass.  It  was  popularly  supposed  that 
his  relations  with  President  Harrison  were  not  friendly ;  but 
this  supposition  seems  to  have  had  very  little  foundation. 
At  the  end  of  the  summer  he  returned"  from  his  summer 
home  in  JIaine  to  Washington,  where,  after  many  weeks  of 
severe  illness,  he  died  on  Jan.  27.  1893. 

Mr.  Blaine  throughout  his  political  career  was  remarkable 
for  the  personal  charm  of  his  maimers,  the  breadth  and 
readiness  of  his  knowledge,  and  the  magnetic  fascination 
which  he  exercised  over  those  with  wliom  he  was  associated. 

C.  K.  Adams. 

^  IJIaillvillc,  bliXuveel',  IIe.n'Ri  Marie  Ducrotay,  de,  M.  T>.. 
F.  R.  S. :  Freiicli  zoologist  and  anatomist ;  b.at  .\rques,near 
Dieppe,  Sept.  13,  1777.  He  studied  comparative  anatomy 
under  Cuvier,  who  employed  him  as  his  assistant :  in  I80'8 
received  the  degree  of  d<)ctor  of  medicine ;  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Analcimy  anil  Zoiilogv  in  the  Facultv  of  Sciences 
of_  Paris  in  1813:  a<lniltted  into"  the  Institute  "in  183.i.  In 
1832  he  succeeded  Cnvieras  Professor  of  Comparalive  An- 
atomy in  the  Musi-mn  of  Natural  History.  He  ac(|uired  a 
high  reputation  as  a  teacher  and  writer.  Among  his  works 
are  Lectures  on  General  and  Comparative  Fliysiology  and 
Osteof/rapliy,  or  a  ('omparatire  Iconoyraphic  IJescription  of 
the  SIcdeton  and  Dentary  System  of  the  Fire  Classes  of 

Vertebrated  Animals  (unfinislied).     1).  May  1,  1850. 


Blair :  city  and  railroad  junction ;  capital  of  Washing- 
ton CO.,  Neb.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Nebraska, 
ret.  10-H);  2  miles  from  the  Missouri  river  and  about  25 
miles  N.  of  Omaha;  in  a  beef,  pork,  and  grain  raising  dis- 
trict.    Pop.  (1880)  1,317;  (1890)  2,069. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  Jr.  :  lawyer;  b.  at  Lexington, 
Ky.,  Feb.  19, 1821.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1841  ;  was 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Free-soil  Party  of  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  in  1856,  after  which  lie  acted  and  voted  with  the 
Republicans  for  several  years.  He  joined  the  Union  army 
in  1861,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  1864 
he  commanded  a  corps  of  Sherman's  army  in  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Atlanta.  Having  joined 
the  Democratic  party,  he  was  selected  as  a  candidate  for  the 
vice-presidency  by  the  convention  which  nominated  Horatio 
Seymour  for  the  presidency  in  1868.  He  was  chosen  a  U.  S. 
Senator  for  Missouri  in  Jan.,  1871.  D.  at  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
July  8,  1875. 

Blair.  Hugh,  D. D.  :  Scottish  divine;  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Apr.  7,  1718;  licensed  as  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land in  1741.  In  1743  he  became  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Canongate  churcli,  Edinburgh,  and  in  lf58  was  transferred 
to  the  High  church  of  Edinburgh.  His  sermons  were  ad- 
mired for  their  polished  style,  but  were  not  remarkable  for 
originality  or  profoundness.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Rhetoric  and  Belles-Ijettres  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  (regius  professor  1763).  He  published  five  vol- 
umes of  sermons  (1777-1800).  which  were  once  very  popular, 
but  their  reputation  has  declined.  His  Lectures  on  Rhetoric 
were  published  in  London  1783  (2  vols.),  on  his  retirement 
from  his  professorship,  and  were  used  in  many  schools.  D. 
in  Edinliurgh,  Dec.  27, 1800.  See  his  Life  bv  James  Pinlay- 
son  (1801). 

Blair.  James.  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Scotland,  probably  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1656;  entered  tlie  Anglican  ministry;  removed  to 
America  in  1685  ;  in  1689  became  commissary  of  the  Bishop 
of  London  for  Virginia  and  Maryland ;  was  founder  and 
first  president  of  William  and  Mary  College  (charter  granted 
Feb.  14,  1692,  but  he  did  not  enter  formally  on  his  duties  as 
president  till  1729),  and  rector  of  \Mlliamsburg,  holding  all 
these  and  other  important  offices  till  his  death,  in  Williams- 
burg, Va..  Aug.  1,  1743.  Another  account  gives  the  date  of 
the  commissary's  death  as  Apr.  18.  Besides  other  works,  he 
publislicd  a  commentary  on  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (4 
vols.,  1722).  highly  commended  by  Waterland,  Doddridge, 
and  Bickersteth.     A  second  edition  was  issued  in  1732. 

Blair,  John  :  jurist ;  b.  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  in  1732.  He 
graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  studied  law  in 
London.  Having  previously  filled  several  high  oflices,  he 
was  ap]>ointed  bv  Washington  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  U.  S.  (1789);  resigned  in  17%.  D.  in  Williamsburg, 
Va.,  Aug.  31,  1800. 

Blair,  Montgomery  :  la\v\'er  and  politician  ;  b.  in  Frank- 
lin CO.,  Ky.,  May  10, 1813  :  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835, 
serving  in  artillery  in  Florida  war  till  he  resigned.  May  20, 
1836;  counselor-at-law  in  St.  Louis,  and  U.  S.  attorney  for 
the  district  of  Jlissouri  1839-43  :  judge  of  the  St.  Louis  court 
of  common  pleas  1848-49;  solicitor  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  court 
of  claims  1855-58;  counselor-at-law  in  j\Iontgoniery  co.,  Md., 
1853-61,  and  since  1863,  being  counsel  for  plaintiff  in  the 
famous  Dred  Scott  case ;  presiilent  of  the  Republican  com- 
mittee of  Maryland  1860;  and  Postmaster-General  of  the 
U.  S.  1861-64.  D.  in  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  near  Washington, 
D.  C,  July  26,  1883. 

Blair,  Robert:  Scottish  poet;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  169!);  a 
relative  of  Hugh  Blair,  lie  was  ordained  minister  of  Athel- 
staneford  in  1731.  He  wrote  a  poem  of  undoubted  merit, 
entitled  The  Grave,  v/hich  was  not  printed  until  after  his 
death.     D.  in  Athelstaneford,  Feb.  4,  1746. 

Blairsville:  borough  and  railroad  junction:  Indiana 
CO..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania, 
ri'f.  5-C) :  on  the  Coneinaugh  river,  56  miles  E.  of  Pittsburg. 
Grain,  pork,  luinlier,  and  coal  in  givnt  quantities  are  shipped 
here.     Pop.  (1880)  1,162;  (1890)  3,126. 

Blake,  Edward,  M.  A.  :  Canadian  statesman ;  b.  in  town- 
sliip  of  Adelaide.  Middlesex,  Out.,  Oct.  13.  1833.  He  was 
educated  at  Upper  Canada  College  and  University  of  Toronto, 
where  he  took  first-class  honors  in  classics,  and  received  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  in  1858.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856 ; 
appointed  queen's  counsel  in  1864  ;  was  for  a  short  time  an 
examiner  and  lecturer  on  eipiity  law  for  the  Upper  Canada 
Law  Society.   He  was  elected  for  South  Bruce,  in  the  Liberal 


BLAKE 


BLANC 


651 


interest,  for  the  Ontario  Legislative  Assembly  in  1868:  was 
leailcr  nf  the  opnosition  in  that  body  from  1867  till  1871. 
wiii'ii  he  lu'canii'  rreiiiiiT  of  Ontario  :  resijriii'il  that  olllco  ami 
his  si'al  in  the  Assembly  in  I87"i.  lie  was  a  member  of  the 
Maekenzie  eabinet  1873-74;  Jlinister  of  Justice  1875-77; 
and  president  of  the  Council  1877-78.  all  of  which  portfolios 
he  resigned  before  the  ex|)iry  of  his  term  of  office.  He  was 
elected  leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  1880;  represented 
South  liruce  and  West  Durham  in  the  Dominion  Parliament ; 
and  in  .lulv.  |S1)-J.  was  elected  to  represent  youtli  Lonj;ford, 
Ireland,  in  the  Ibitish  Parliament.  He  was  elected  chancel- 
lor of  'I'oronlo  rniversity  in  1876.  His  father,  the  late  Hon. 
William  Hume  Pdake,  .iurist,  was  solicitor-general  of  Upper 
Caruida.  and  subsequently  chancellor  of  that  province. 

XeIL  JlAtDONALD. 

Blnko.  Ki.i  WiitTXEY.  LL.  D. :  manufacturer  and  inventor ; 
b.  in  Westlioro.  Mass..  .Jan.  27,  Kilo;  graduated  at  Vale  in 
1816:  liecame  associated  with  his  uncle,  Kli  Wliitney,  in  the 
manufacture  of  arms  on  the  |)lan  of  uuichine-made  ami  in- 
terchangeal)le  parts,  which  revolutionized  the  art  of  manu- 
facturing complex  const  met  ions.  (See  Kl,i  Wuitxkv.)  Ks- 
tahlished  a  pioneer  factory  of  domestic  hardware  near  New 
Haven.  Conn.,  1834.  and  introduced  many  of  those  improve- 
ments in  metallic  house-furnishings  which  have  given  to 
Anu'rican  hardware  its  acknowledged  superiority;  invented 
(18.57)  the  "Blake  crusher,"  his  most  important  invention, 
now  in  general  use  throughout  the  world.  In  this  machine 
for  reducing  stone  and  ores  to  small  fragments,  he  devised  a 
new  mechanical  principle,  that  of  crushing  between  upright 
convergent  jaws,  having  a  short  and  quick  vibration.  The 
nnu-hine  may  lie  said  to  have  introduced  a  new  era  in  road- 
making  and  mining  industries.  >Ir.  Ulake  was  the  author 
of  nnmenais  scientific  papers.  Keceived  the  degree  of 
LL.  I),  from  Vale  in  ISTll.  I),  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Aug. 
17,  1886.  C.  H.  TnuRBER. 

Blitkc  CiKouoE  S.Mmi :  commodore,  U.  S.  navy;  b.  in 
Worcesler.  Mass..  in  1S0:{.  He  .served  in  the  Mexican  war. 
Was  superinlen<lent  of  the  I'.S.  Xaval  Academy  at  Annapo- 
lis and  at  New|iort,  R.  I.,  from  1857  to  1865.  D.  in  Long- 
wood,  near  Boston,  June  24,  1877. 

lilako.  Kobebt:  b.  in  Bridgewater,  .Somensetshire,  Eng- 
land, in  1.5!I!»:  elected  to  Parliament  in  1640:  when  the  civil 
war  Ijegan  in  1643  raise<l  a  troop  with  whic-h  he  tought 
against  the  royalists.  He  gained  distinction  liy  his  defense 
of  Tannton  in  1645.  In  1649  he  was  appointed  "general  of 
the  sea."  He  destroyed  or  captured  nearly  all  of  Prince 
Rupert's  fleet  in  the  Tagns  in  1651.  In  16.52  he  became  chief 
admiral,  and  in  .May  of  that  year  gained  a  victory  over  Van 
Tromj).  who  attacked  ISlake  in  the  ensuing  Xovendier  near 
Goodwin  Sands.  Blake  was  defeated,  but  in  Fell..  1653.  he 
attackeil  Van  Trompand  gaiiu'cl  a  victory  in  a  running  fight 
of  three  davs.  In  1654  he  chastised  the  Dey  of  Tunis.  He 
destroyed  tlie  Spanish  plate-fleet  at  Santa  Cruz  in  1657.  D. 
at  Plymouth.  Aug.  17,  1657. 

Blakp.  William  :  poet  and  artist ;  b.  in  London,  England, 
Nov.  2S.  1757.  In  1783  apjK'ared  Puvtiail  Sk-ftcUn^  bij  W.  B. 
This  was  printcil  and  published  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  was 
without  illustrations.  In  1789  came  «SV;«(/.s-  nf  Innocence;  in 
1793  The  (rates  of  Pariidise;  in  1794  Sonr/n  of  K.rperience; 
and  later  several  volumes  of  jioetic  rha|isody.  All  these  were 
published  by  the  author.  an(l  all  wiM'e  dlust rated.  Both  text 
and  illustrations  were  engraved,  and  when  printed  oti  Blake 
tinted  both  text  and  border  in  a  style  of  his  own,  making 
each  [lage  a  picture.  Mnch  of  his  loveliest  and  sublimest 
work  is  in  tliese  illustrations.  But  he  produced  so  much 
that  a  mere  list  of  his  engravings,  water-colors,  and  drawings 
in  distemper  woidd  fill  a  page  of  this  work.  He  is  best  known 
to  the  public  by  his  i'anterhurj/  Pilgrims,  his  Inventions  to 
tile  Jiook  of  Job,  amX  his  designs  to  Blair's  Grave.  D.  in 
London,  .\ng.  12,  1827.  Life  by  Alexander  Gilchrist;  Cun- 
ningham's Lives  ;  William  Blake,  by  A.  C.  Swinburne.  Tlie 
Poetical  Skelclies  and  'I'lie  Son//s  of  Innocence  and  Experi- 
ence were  reprinted  in  1874.  7/ie  Inventions  to  the  Book  of 
Job  liave  been  reproduced  by  hehotvpy  by  James  Osgood 
(Boston,  :Mass.). 

Bliiko,  William  Phipps,  .V.  M..  P)l  B.  :  b.  in  New  York 
city.  June  1. 1S26:  graduated  at  the  Shellield  Scientific  .School. 
New  Haven.  Conn.,  in  18.52.  In  1853  he  was  mineralogist  and 
geologist  for  the  I'.  S.  Pacific  K.  |{.  exploring  expedition  in 
California,  in  connection  with  which  he  wrote  several  reporls; 
was  editor  of  I  he  .Mining  Magazine  18.59-60 ;  he  was.  1861-63, 
mining  engineer_for  the  Japanese  Government,  and  with  his 


associate,  Mr.  Raphael  Pumpelly,  organized  the  first  school 
of  science  in  Japan  under  the  auspices  of  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment. Keturning  (o  America  by  the  way  of  China,  the 
Aleutian  islands,  and  Sitka,  he  accompanied  a  Russian  ex- 
pedition up  the  Stickeen  river,  anil  described  a  series  of  gla- 
ciers not  before  known.  In  1863  he  engaged  in  explorations 
in  California  and  Neva<la;  became  1'rofes.sor  of  Mineralogy, 
Geology, etc,  in  the  College  of  California,  and  geologi.st  to  tile 
State  board  of  agriculture  ;  in  1867  was  commissioner  of  Cali- 
fornia to  the  Paris  Exposition ;  removed  in  1867  to  New 
Haven,  Conn. :  was  chosen  executive  commissioner  of  the 
Centennial  Commission,  and  in  1873  went  as  special  agent 
to  the  Vienna  Exhibition:  made  a  series  of  reports  to  the 
U.  .S.  commission  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition :  was  the 
chainnan  of  tlie  committee  on  classification  and  member  of 
the  special  commiltee  for  the  selection  of  judges.  He  was 
also  appointed  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  director  of 
the  U.  S.  nuneral  collection  in  1876.  In  1878  he  attended 
the  Paris  Univei'sal  Kxposit  ion  as  commissioner  of  the  U.  S., 
as  secretary  of  the  additional  commissioners,  and  as  one  of 
the  jurors,  receiving  from  the  French  Government  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  He  also  co-operateil  in  the  exhibi- 
tion of  1889  by  securing  an  official  and  representative  series 
of  minerals  and  ores  from  the  U.  S.  He  was  called  to  Chicago 
to  advise  in  regard  to  the  system  of  classification  for  the 
Columbian  Exposition,  and  drafted  the  grouping  which  was 
a<loptcd  by  the  commission.  He  has  been  actively  engaged 
in  the  exploration  of  the  chief  mining  regions  of  the  U.  S., 
and  is  the  author  of  numerous  professional  reports  and  opin- 
ions, and  of  jiapers  of  general  scientific  and  practical  inter- 
est, which  may  be  found  in  the  pages  of  the  American  Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  in  the  Trans(tctions  of  like  American  In- 
stitute of  Mining  Engineers.  He  is  the  inventor  of  an  auto- 
matic roasting  furnace,  which  has  been  successfully  applied 
in  mi'tallurgical  oiieralions.  Among  his  published  works 
are  Silver  Ores  and  Silver  Mines  (1861);  ('alifornia  Miner- 
als (1863):  Production  of  the  Precious  Metal's  {1867):  Iron 
and  Steel  (1873) ;  Ceramic  Art  and  Glass  (1878) ;  Hisfor;/  of 
the  Town  ofHamden,  Conn. ;  Life  of  Captain  Jonathan  Mix, 
etc.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Blake.  William  Rrpus:  b.  at  Halifax.  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1805:  studied  medicine,  but  in  1825  (after  playing  some 
time  in  the  theater  at  Halifax)  he  appeared  at  the  old  Chat- 
ham Street  theater.  New  York.  He  s<ion  attained  the  first 
rank  as  a  comedian,  excelling  particularly  in  eccentric  char- 
acters.    D.  in  Boston,  Apr.  22,  1863. 

Blake'ley.  Joiixston:  naval  officer:  b.  near  Seaford, 
County  Down.  Ireland.  Oct..  1781.  He  removed  with  his  par- 
ents to  the  v.  S. :  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1800;  entered  the  U.  S.  na\7  Feb.  .5,  1800.  and 
obtained  command  of  the  sloop  Wasp  in  1813.  In  June, 
1814.  he  cajitured  the  British  sloop-of-war  Reindeer,  and  in 
the  ensuing  Septendier  defeated  and  sunk  the  .sloop  Avon. 
The  Wasp  never  returned  to  port,  and  the  fate  of  Capt. 
Blakeley  and  his  crew  was  never  a.scertained. 

Blakelock.  Ralph  Albert:  landscape-painter:  b.  in  New 
York.  Oct.  15,  1S47.  His  father  was  a  physician  and  he  was 
destined  for  the  same  profession,  but  his  strong  taste  for 
music  and  the  arts  induced  him  to  take  up  painting,  and  he 
began  without  instruction  from  a  master.  His  work  is  not- 
able for  its  general  aspect,  which  is  striking  on  account  of 
strong  color-schemes  which  he  sometimes  .succeeds  in  har- 
monizing with  considerable  truth  to  nature's  forms.  Studio 
in  New  York.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Blakos'lpy.  Joseph  Williams,  I).  D.  :  Dean  of  Lincoln; 
li.  in  London.  Mar.  6.  1808:  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  l.'^31 ;  fellow  of  Trinity  College  1831^5;  select 
preacher  1840-43:  Canon  of  Canterbury  1863:  member  of 
the  New  Testament  Company  of  the  Bible  Revision  Com- 
mittee 1870;  Dean  of  Lincoln  1872.  Authorof  Thoughts  or. 
the  Recommendations  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission 
(1837);  Life  of  Aristotle  (IKH));  Condones  academlcxB 
(184:^) ;  Four  Months  in  Algeria  (1R59) ;  and  edited  Herodo- 
tus in  3  vols.  (1852-54).     D.  at  Lincoln.  Apr.  18.  1885. 

Blanc,  blaahk,  Auouste  Alexandre  Philippe  Charles: 
critic  of  the  fine  arts;  b.  at  Castres.  France,  Nov.  15. 1813. 
He  was  a  brother  of  Louis  Blanc.  Besides  many  valuable 
contributicms  on  subjects  connected  with  the  fine  arts  to 
various  French  journals,  and  the  text  of  seveial  important 
books  of  art  illustration,  he  was  the  most  important  con- 
tributor t<i  the  Ilistorg  of  the  Painters  of  all  tlie  Scliools,  a 
very  complete  and  extensive  work  begun  in  1849  by  Armen- 


652 


BLANC 


BLANQUI 


gaud,  and  continued  till  its  completion  in  1859,  under  the 
editorship  of  Blanc,  witli  the  assistance  of  able  writers,  such 
as  Delaborde,  JIantz,  Silvestre,  and  P.  Chasles.  Blanc  was 
twice  director  of  fine  arts  in  France — once  in  1848,  when 
he  replaced  M.  Garrauii,  and  again  in  1871.  D.  in  Paris, 
Jan.  18,  1883.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Loms :  a  French  historian  and  rad- 
ical;  b.  in  Madrid,  Oct.  28,  1813:  educated  in  France.  He 
founded  in  Paris  in  1839  the  Meviie  du  Progris,  which  ad- 
vocated social  and  political  reform.  In  1840  lie  published 
an  able  work  on  the  Oryanization  of  Lnhor.  His  next  im- 
portant work  was  a  IliMory  of  Ten  Years — ISJO-40,  which 
had  a  very  damaging  influence  on  the  popularity  of  Louis 
Philippe.  He  was  a  member  of  the  provisional  government 
formed  in  Feb.,  1848,  and  was  very  popular  witli  the  social- 
ists and  workingmen  of  Paris,  who  revolted  and  were  de- 
feated in  June,  1848.  He  then  went  into  exile,  and  resided 
in  England  for  many  years.  Early  in  1871  he  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  by  tlie  voters  of  Paris.  Among 
his  works  is  a  History  of  the  Frencti  Revolution  (13  vols. 
8vo,  1847-63),  the  style  of  which  is  eloquent  and  dignified. 
D.  at  Cannes,  Dec.  6,  1883. 

Blanc,  Paul  Joseph  :  genre-painter;  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  25, 
1846  ;  pupil  of  Bin  and  Cabanel ;  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  1867 ; 
first-class  medal,  Paris  Salon,  1873 ;  Legion  of  Honor  1878  ; 
first-class  medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889.  One  of  his  most 
celebrated  works  is  a  decorative  composition  depicting  the 
consecration,  baptism,  and  triumph  of  Clovi.s.  Style  aca- 
demic.    Studio  in  Paris.  W.  A.  C. 

Blancliard,  blaah'shaar',  Francois  :  French  aeronaut;  b. 
in  Andeleys  in  1753 ;  noted  for  his  mechanical  ingenuity. 
He  constructed  a  balloon  with  wings  and  a  rudder,  with 
which  he  ascended  in  Mar.,  1784.  In  1785  he  crossed  the 
Channel  in  this  balloon  and  landed  in  England,  for  which 
exploit  the  King  of  France  gave  him  a  pension.  He  made 
many  other  ascents.  1).  Mar.  7,  1809.  His  wife,  who  had 
been  liis  companion  in  several  aerial  voyages,  was  killed  in 
consequence  of  the  burning  of  lier  balloon  in  1819. 

Blanche  of  Castile :  Queen  of  France  ;  daughter  of  Al- 
phonso  IX.  of  Castile ;  b.  in  1187.  She  was  married  in  1300 
to  the  dauphin  of  Prance,  wlio  became  King  Louis  VIII., 
and  she  acquired  much  influence  in  atl'airs  of  state.  When 
Louis  died  in  1226,  she  became  regent  of  the  kingdom, 
which  she  governed  with  ability  during  the  minority  of 
her  son,  St.  Louis.  She  was  eminent  for  virtue  and  wis- 
dom. D.  Dee.  1,  1353.  See  Macheco.  Vie  df  BUinclie  de 
Castile  (1830);  T.  Nisard,  Histoire  de  la  Heine  Blanche 
(1842). 

Blanching  [from  Fr.  blanche,  white] :  a  process  by 
which  gardeners  arrest  the  ])r()gress  ot  secretions  in  the 
leaves  of  plants,  in  order  to  render  them  more  wholesome 
and  palpable  as  food.  Celery,  sea-kale,  and  other  plants 
are  usually  blanched  by  the  exclusion  of  liglit  from  them, 
which  deprives  them  of  their  natural  green  color  and  of  cer- 
tain bitter  properties.  The  blanching  is  effected  in  various 
modes,  as  heaping  up  the  eartli  against  the  growing  plants, 
or  covering  them  with  boxes  or  l)lancliing-pots  made  of 
earthenware  and  perforated  with  many  holes. 

Bland,  Richard  Parks:  Congressman  ;  b.  near  Hartford, 
Ky.,  Aug.  19,  1835.  By  working  during  the  summer  and 
attending  school  in  winters  he  finished  his  academic  educa- 
tion; studied  law;  moved  West,  and  in  1860  became  treas- 
urer of  Carson  co.,  Nev. ;  returned  to  Missouri  in  1865  and 
settled  at  Kolla ;  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat  in  1873  ; 
has  been  regularly  re-elected.  In  1875  he  became  cliairman 
of  the  committee  on  mines  and  mining.  Silver  coinage 
having  been  discontinued  in  1S73.  lie  introduced  into  Con- 
gress in  1878  the  famous  "  I51aiid  iiill,"  which  provided  that 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  purchase  sufficient  bul- 
lion to  coin  tlie  minimum  amount  of  $3,000,000  a  month  in 
silver  dollars  ot  41 3.^  grains  eacli,  and  that  these  dollars 
shall  be  legal  tender.  He  has  since  been  a  champion  of  the 
free  coinage  of  silver.  C.  II.  'I  uurher. 

Bland,  Col.  TiiKODOKH',  M.  D. :  b.  in  Prince  George  co., 
Va.,  in  1743;  was  an  uncle  of  John  Handolph,  of  Roanoke; 
studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland;  opposed  Gov. 
Dunmore  uiiiler  the  pen-name  of  (.'iissius.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1777,  ami  gained  the  confidi^nce  of  Washing- 
ton, who  employed  him  in  several  important  affairs.  In 
1780  he  was  elected  a  member  ot  Congress,  in  which  he  re- 
mained till  1783,  and  was  again  chosen  a  member  of  that 
body  in  1789.     D.  in  Now  York,  June  1,  1790.     The  Bland 


Papers  were  collected  and  pulilished  bv  Charles  Campbell 
(Petei-sbm-g,  1840). 

Bland,  Theodoric  :  b.  in  1777;  was  for  twenty-two  years 
chancellor  of  Maryland.  He  commenced  his  judicial  life  as 
judge  of  the  county  court  of  Baltimore,  and  afterward  be- 
came judge  of  the  U.  S.  district  court  of  Maryland ;  pub- 
lished Reports  of  Cases  Decided  in  the  High  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, Maryland.    D.  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  Nov.  16,  1846. 

Blane,  Sir  Gilbert,  P.  R.S. :  physician  ;  b.  in  Blanefield, 
Ayrshire,  Aug.  34,  1749.  He  became  private  physician  to 
Lord  Rodney,  who  took  command  of  the  fleet  in  the  West 
Indies  in  1780.  Dr.  Blane  served  as  chief  physician  to  that 
fleet  during  the  war,  and  published  in  1783  Observations  on 
the  Diseases  of  Seamen.  He  was  physician  to  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital,  London,  from  1785  to  1795,  and  became  first  phy- 
sician to  ^^'illiam  IV.  in  1830.  Among  his  works  is  Hl'e- 
ments  of  3Iedical  Logic  (1819).  D.  in  London,  June  26, 
1834. 

Blank  Verse :  the  heroic  verse  of  five  iambic  feet  without 
rhymes.  Blank  verse  is  peculiar  to  the  Italian,  English, 
and  German  languages,  having  been  imported  into  the  two 
latter  from  the  first.  In  Italian  the  line  is  of  eleven  sylla- 
bles, and  is  used  invariably  in  the  drama,  and  frequently  in 
serious  poetry,  e])ic  or  didactic.  In  England  it  was  first 
adopted  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey  in  his  translation  of  the 
fourth  book  ot  the  ^neid  (1547) ;  first  applied  to  dramatic 
uses  by  Lord  Buckhurst  in  his  tragedy  of  Gorbodue  (1561); 
popularized  by  Christopher  Marlowe  in  his  tragedy  of  Tam- 
burtaine  (1585).  It  has  since  been  the  accepted  meter  of 
English  dramatic  and  heroic  verse.  The  Miltonic  verse  is 
constructed  with  closer  attention  to  the  melody  of  the 
cadence  and  ca'sura  than  the  dramatic;  it  admits  also  less 
frequently  of  the  eleventh  syllal>le,  which  in  English  poetry 
must  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  license ;  while  Shakspeare  and 
other  dramatists  occasionally  double  the  short  syllable  at 
the  end,  and  thus  extend  the  number  to  twelve.  Blank 
verse  fell  into  comparative  disuse  in  England  after  the 
Restoration  (1660),  and  was  revived  by  John  Philips  in  his 
Splendid  Shilling  (1703)  and  Cider  (1706),  and  by  James 
Tliomson  in  his  Seasons  (1736-30).  Among  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  modern  writers  of  blank  verse  are  Bryant  in 
Thanatopsis;  Tennyson  in  his  Idyls  of  the  King,  V7ysses,a,nd 
Tithonus ;  and  Aldrieh  in  Wyyidhani  Towers. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Blanqni,  blaaiVkee',  Jerome  Adolphe:  French  politi- 
cal economist;  b.  at  Nice,  Nov.  30,  1798.  He  became  in 
1833  Professor  of  Economy  in  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and 
Trades  in  Paris.  He  advocated  free  trade.  Among  his 
works  arc  a  Summary  of  the  History  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustry (1836)  and  a  Hixfory  of  Political  Economy  in  Eu- 
rope from  the  Ancients  to  the  Present  Time  (3  vols.,  1837- 
38),  which  is  highly  esteemed.     D.  in  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1854. 

61an(|ui.  Louis  Auguste  :  communist :  a  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding:  b.  in  Paris,  Fell.  7.  180.5.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  of  Politic.il  and  Moral  Sciences.  He 
studied  for  the  law;  affiliated  with  the  rabid  members  of 
French  revolutionary  societies;  underwent  his  first  impris- 
onment at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  A  year  later  he  took 
part  in  the  insurrection  of  Rue  St.-Denis,  receiving  liis 
fir.st  wound.  In  the  revolution  of  1830  he  took  up  arms 
against  Charles  X. ;  was  again  wounded  ;  received  the  dec- 
oration of  July:  became  an  active  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends  of  the  People;  tried  for  participating  in  the 
"  conspiracy  of  the  Nineteen,"  and  incarcerated  for  a  year ; 
accused  in  1835  of  a  conspiracy  to  manufacture  gunpowder 
for  revolutionary  uses;  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  two 
Tears  and  to  p.'iy  a  fine  of  3.000  francs,  but  was  amnestied 
in  1837.  The  insurrection  of  the  Jlontagnards,  with  Blan- 
qni and  Barbes  at  their  head.  fuUowed,  and  upon  its  prompt 
suppression  Blani|ui  was  condemned  to  death.  The  sen- 
tence was,  however,  commuted  to  jierpetual  imprisonment. 
The  revolution  of  1848  set  him  free,  and  he  immediately  or- 
ganized the  Central  Republican  Society,  productive  of  the 
great  popular  agitation  resulting  in  the  three  days' insurrec- 
tion and  an  attempt  to  di.ssolve  the  National  Assembly,  May 
15. 1848.  Blanqiii  was  sentenced  to  ten  years'  imprisonment 
at  Belle  Isle.  At  the  age  of  fifty-three  he  returned  to  France, 
but  in  less  than  a  month  he  was  in  exile  again.  He  ven- 
tured back  to  Paris,  and  his  incarceration  followed ;  upon 
his  release  was  conveyed  to  the  frontier.  Again  he  was  an 
exile  for  a  period  of  eight  years.  In  1870  Blanqui  was 
once  more  in  Paris,  the  editor  of  a  journal  whose  influence 


liLANTYRE 


I5LAST   FUliNACE 


653 


ciilminiili'cl  in  the  Commune.  He  was  captured  by  the  Ver- 
siiillists;  the  communists  offered  in  exchange  for  liim  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  but  he  was  considered  too  daufjerous  a 
man  to  be  released.  Me  was  sentenceil  to  transportation 
for  life  to  New  Caledonia,  but  in  consideraticm  of  his  old 
as;e  and  his  feeble  health  he  was  imprisoneil  at  Clairvaux 
instead.  In  1880,  while  still  a  prisoner,  Hlanqui  was  re- 
turned to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  the  radical  Republi- 
cans of  Bordeaux,  l)ut  the  cnamber  refused  to  ratify  this 
eletrtion.  He  was  soon  afterward  released,  and  lived  in  se- 
clusion till  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Paris,  Jan.  1,  1881. 

Blaiityre.  blaant'r:  a  mission  station  in  Kast  Africa;  in 
the  valley  of  the  Shire  river,  S.  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and  about 
10  miles'. S.  W.  of  Lake  Shirwa;  lat.  l(i'  S'.,  Ion.  IJ")  K  (ap- 
]>roximate).  It  was  founded  in  18TG  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and  has  become  a 
center  for  British  colonization  and  trade,  though  it  is  close 
to  the  boundary  of  Portu":ueso  East  Africa.  It  is  named 
after  Blantyre,  in  Lanarksliire,  Scotland,  the  birthplace  of 
David  Livingstone. 

Blar'ney :  a  village  and  castle  of  Ireland ;  in  Munster ; 
on  a  rivulet  of  its  own  name;  4  miles  X.  \V.  of  Cork,  and 
surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery.  The  cfistle  and  groves  of 
Blartu'y  are  celebrated  in  song.  The  castle,  which  once  be- 
longed to  the  Earls  of  Clancarty,  stands  on  a  steep  rock,  at 
the  base  of  which  is  a  deep  valley.  Among  the  relics  of 
this  ruined  castle  is  the  famous  "  Blarney  stone,"  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  popular  opinion,  imparts  to  those  who  kiss  it 
a  peculiar  style  of  eloquence,  or  great  skill  in  the  use  of 
complimentary  speech. 

Rlash'Ueld.   I'^dwix    Howland  :    genre,  historical,  and 

iiortrail  painter;  b.  in  Xew  York,  Dec.  lo,  1848;  pupil  of 
ji'ou  Bonnat,  Paris;  Xational  Acatlemician  ;  member  of  the 
Society  of  American  Artists  (1883);  of  the  American  Water- 
color  Society  ami  the  Architectural  League,  New  Voi-k  ; 
third-class  medal,  Paris  Kxposition,  1889.  He  lia.s  done  ex- 
cellent work  in  decorative  painting,  and  is  well  known  as  an 
illustrator  and  writer  of  descri])tive  articles  for  SrrihnKr's 
and  other  magazines.  His  works,  such  as  7'/ie  Emperor 
Commoiliis  Leafing  the  Amphitheater  at  the  Head  of  the 
Glndintorx  (1878)  and  Homnn  Ladies — a  Leanon  in  the 
Gladiators'  School  (1879),  are  scholarly  and  well  painted. 
His  color-schemes  are  harmonious,  and  his  work  in  general 
is  remarkable  for  good  drawing  and  i)leasing  arrangement. 
He  spent  eleven  years  in  Paris,  from  1867  to  1878,  and  jiassed 
three  years  in  Paris  and  Italy  (1889-92),  when  he  painted, 
among  other  works,  a  large  composition  called  Christmas 
Bells.     Studio  in  Xew  York.  William  A.  Coffim. 

lilusplli'iiiy  [via  Fr.  and  Lat.  from  Or.  3Aair</>7)^/a.  slander. 
Blaxjihiiiie  and  blame  are  donl>lets.  the  former  representing 
the  learned,  the  latter  the  popular,  adoption  into  Freiu'h  of 
Lat.  blasphema  rey.  an  imiignity  offered  to  the  Deity  or  to 
religion.  According  to  Blackstone,  it  is  denying  the  being 
and  providence  of  God,  contumelious  reproaclies  of  our 
.Saviour  Christ,  and  profane  scoffing  at  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
or  exposing  it  to  contempt  and  ridicule.  It  has  been  other- 
wise defined  to  be  the  act  of  wantonly  uttering  or  publish- 
ing words  casting  contumelious  reproach  or  profane  ridicule 
upon  (iod,  Jesus  Christ,  the  Holv  Ghost,  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, or  the  Christian  religion.  If  the  wor<ls  were  written 
or  printed,  there  might  be  a  case  of  blasphemous  libel.  If 
oral,  the  case  would  be  one  simply  of  blasphemy.  The  law 
does  not  brand  as  a  crime  serious  discussion  or  tlie  promul- 
gation in  a  temperate  manner  of  opinions  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianity. Bhtsphemy  is  an  offense  punishable  as  a  misde- 
meanor at  common  law.  In  many  of  the  States  the  crime 
is  punishable  by  statute. 

Christianity  is  declared  by  the  courts  to  be  a  part  of  the 
common  law,  which  recognizes  that  the  good  morals  and 
<irderly  conduct  of  the  comnninily  are  closely  connected 
with  a  rcs|)ect  for  religion,  and  that  insults  to  the  Author 
of  Christianity  ami  malicious  attacks  on  his  religion  tend  to 
the  dissolution  of  civil  government. 

Blass,  bhuis,  Friedrich  Wilhelm:  Greek  scholar;  b.  in 
OsnabriUk,  Jan.  22,  1843;  professor  at  the  University  of 
Kiel ;  called  to  Halle  in  1892  :  author  of  Die  Oeschichte  der 
altischen  Beredsumkcit  (3  vols.) ;  Die  A  iissprnche  des  Griech- 
ischen  (ICng.  trans,  by  W.  J.  Pnrton,  1S90);  Criticism.  Her- 
meneutics,  and  I'alivographi/  (in  .1.  j\Ii'iller"s  Ilaiidliuch  il. 
cla«3.  Alterth.  (vol.  i.  2);  editor  of  Antiphon,  Andocides, 
Jli/pereides,  Demosthenes.  Aristotle's  no\iTeia  'Pi^T^vaimy.  and 
some  of  the  Licta  of  Plutarch.  Alfred  Gude.man. 


Blast  Furnace  (Germ.  ITochofen;  Ft.  haul  foumeau) :  In 
its  primary  signiticat ion  the  term  bhust  furnace  implies  an 
elevated  shaft  lined  with  a  refractory  material,  designed  for 
the  reduction  of  nuMals  from  their  ores.  The  shaft  is  open 
at  the  top.  where  the  ore,  fuel,  and  tluxes  are  charged,  and 
supplied  with  a  blast  of  air  near  the  bottom,  where  open- 
ings are  nroviilcd  for  removing  the  metal  and  cinder.  In 
its  essential  details  a  blast  furnace  consists  of  a  stack  in 
whole  or  in  ])art  of  masonry,  surrounding  a  vertical  cham- 
ber or  shaft  of  circular  section.  'J'he  diameter  of  the  shaft 
usually  increases  from  the  top  downward  and  from  the  bot- 
tom upwanl.  The  lower  ))art  of  the  furnace  is  called  the 
hearth,  and  has  th(^  smallest  diameter.  At  its  upjier  part 
are  one  or  more  openings  through  which  the  blast  of  air  is 
introduced,  and  in  the  lower  part,  or  crucible,  the  molten 
iron  and  cinder  collect.  The  liearth  is  prolonged  toward 
the  front  of  the  furnace,  and  is  closed  by  the  dam,  and  cov- 
ered in  on  top  by  the  ti/nip- 

nrch.      The  dam   is  funned       r       51^——. 

of  firebrick  or  other  refrac- 
tory material.  It  slopes  in- 
ward toward  the  interior  of 
the  furnace,  and  has  its  outer 
vertical  face  covered  with  a 
cast-iron  plate,  <'alled  the 
dam-plate.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  dam  is  a  channel  com- 
municating  with  the  interior 
of  the  furnace,  through 
which  the  molten  iron  is 
tapped  olf.  and  on  its  ujiper 
edge  is  a  notch,  called  the 
cinder-notch,  owr  which  the 
cinder  flows.  The  lymp- 
arch  is  covered  by  the  ti/mp. 
a  long,  hollow  casting, 
through  which  water  con- 
stant ly  circulates.  The  blast 
is  supplied  through  tuyeres. 
from  one  to  eight  in  num- 
ber, which  are  set  into  the 
masonry  of  the  furnace. 
They  are  hollow  truncated 
cones,  supplied  with  a  con- 
stant current  of  water  to 
prevent  the  bronze  or  iron 
of  which  they  are  composed 
from  melting.  Into  these 
icater-tui/eres  are  fitted  the 
nozzles  of  bla.st-pipes,  which  are  connected  with  the  blast 
»(»/«  which  encircles  the  furniu-e.  The  sloping  walls  con- 
necting the  hearth  with  the  widest  part  of  the  furnace  are 
called  the  boshes.  This  term  is  very  generally,  though  in- 
correctly, used  to  express  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  fur- 
nace. In  many  cases  there  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarkalion 
between  the  hearth  and  the  boshes,  the  former  being  simply 
a  continuation  of  the  curved  walls  of  the  boshes. 

In  constructing  a  blast  furnace,  the  u|iper  portion  is  built 
on  iron  pillars,  and  is  entirely  independent  of  the  boshes 
and  hearth,  which  can  be  removed  and  reconstructed  with- 
out interfering  with  the  body  of  the  .stack.  The  top  or 
mouth  of  the  furnace,  where  the  materials  are  charged,  is 
provided  with  an  arrangement  wliieh  closes  the  furnace  ex- 
cept during  charging,  when  it  is  opened  by  some  simple 
mechanism.  The  gases  of  the  furnace,  which  were  formerly 
allowed  to  escape  and  burn  at  the  mouth,  are  now  almost 
nnivei-sallv  utilized.  This  is  effected  by  making  openings 
in  the  wafts  near  the  to|)  of  the  furnace,  and  conducting  the 
gases  by  suitable  channels  to  the  boilers  and  hot -blast  stoves, 
where  they  are  burned. 

The  essential  accessories  of  a  blast  furnace  are  the  blow- 
ing-engine, hot-blast  stoves,  and  hoist.  There  are  three 
varieties  of  blast-engines  in  use:  the  vertical-beam  engine, 
the  horizontal,  and  the  upright.  The  latter  have  the  steam 
cylinder  either  directly  above  or  below  the  blast  cylinder. 
'I'hey  are  rai)idly  gaining  in  favor,  owing  to  their  compact- 
ness and  eflicieney.  The  blast,  on  leaving  the  blowing 
cylinder,  passes  to  the  hot-blast  stoves.  These  consist  of  a 
series  of  cast-iron  pipes,  through  which  the  blast  passes, 
healed  on  the  outside  ny  the  comlnistion  of  the  gases  of  the 
furnace.  The  gases  are  usually  burnt  in  n  combustion 
chamber  under  the  cliand)er  containing  the  pipes.  In  this 
way  the  heat  is  more  uniformly  distributed,  and  there  is 
less  danger  of  the  pipes  being  injured  by  the  heat.     Re- 


Edgar  Thomson  furnace 

lbS6. 


6o.t 


BLAST  FUKXACE 


eently  Siemens's  system  of  regenerative  heating  in  many 
different  forms  is  generally  superseding  the  cast-iron  pipe 
stoves.  In  this  system  the  gases  are  burned  in  a  chamber, 
and  the  products  of  combustion  pass  through  a  network  of 
firebrick,  which  becomes  intensely  lieated.  The  gases  are 
then  caused,  by  means  of  valves,  to  pass  into  a  second  stove 
like  the  first,  and  burned  as  before,  while  the  blast  is  eon- 
-  ducted  tlirougli  the  first  stove.  The  Ijlast  and  gases  are 
made  to  alternate  in  this  way  at  regular  intei-vals.  The 
temperature  of  the  blast  as  it  enters  the  furnace  varies 
within  wide  limits.  There  are  very  few  furnaces  at  the 
present  dav  driven  with  cold  blast,  the  tenioerature  em- 
ployed varying  from  800'  to  1..500  P.  Witli  the  firebrick 
stove  above  mentioned  a  temperature  of  from  1,.500'  to 
1,600°  P.  has  been  attained.  The  blast  on  leaving  the  stoves 
passes  through  the  main  to  the  furnace,  and  is  there  dis- 
tributed to  the  tuyeres.  The  pressure  employed  varies  with 
the  kind  of  fuel  used.  Charcoal  furnaces  usually  are  blown 
with  -}  to  lA  lb-  though  sometimes  as  high  as  4  lb.  are  used. 
Coke  furnaces  are  blown  with  6  to  10  lb.,  while  anthracite 
furnaces  require  7  to  10  lb. 

Hoists  or  lifts  serve  to  raise  the  ore,  fuel,  etc.,  from  the 
ground  to  the  level  of  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  where 
they  are  charged.  There  are  many  varieties,  as  the  pneu- 
matic, hydraulic,  and  steam  hoist. 

The  illustration  shows  a  section  of  a  modern  furnace  at 
Pittsburg.  Its  height  is  79'  9" ;  greatest  diameter,  23  feet ; 
yield,  3,000  tons  iron  per  week.  The  gases  are  taken  off  at 
the  top  of  the  furnace,  and  descend  by  a  vertical  flue,  then 
by  an  underground  channel  to  the  lioilers  and  hot-blast 
stoves.  The  contrivance  for  closing  the  mouth  of  the  fur- 
nace is  known  as  the  cup  and  cone,  or  bell  and  hopper.  This 
arrangement  is  one  of  the  simplest,  and  the  one  most  gen- 
erally adopted. 

Tlie  blast  furnace  of  the  present  day  is  an  outgrowth  of 
the  small  primitive  furnaces  still  to  be  met  with  in  Eastern 
countries  for  reducing  iron  ores.  It  differs  from  them,  how- 
ever, in  three  essential  particulars.  The  low  furnaces  pro- 
duce an  nnmelted  mass  of  soft  iron,  and  a  cinder  rich  in 
oxide  of  iron,  and  the  process  is  intermittent.  A  blast 
furnace  produces  a  compound  of  iron  and  otiier  substances, 
principally  carbon,  which  is  fluid  at  the  temperature  of  the 
furnace ;  the  cinder  is  composed  of  earthy  ingredients,  and 
is  almost  entirely  free  from  iron,  and  the  process  is  contin- 
uous. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  blast-furnace  construc- 
tion for  the  last  half  century  is  almost  entirely  a  record  of 
increasing  dimensions,  both  in  height  and  diameter,  having 
for  a  consequence  greater  yield,  and,  within  certain  limits, 
greater  economy  of  fuel.  During  the  past  decade  pi'ogress 
in  blast-furnace  practice  has  developed  in  tlie  direction  of 
faster  work,  closer  watclifvUness  of  details,  and  more  careful 
study,  chemically,  of  stock  and  of  product.  The  flat  boshes 
of  tiie  older  furnaces  and  the  rapid  narrowing  upward 
toward  the  mouth  have  been  generally  replaced  by  steeper 
boshes  and  wider  mouths.  Tliere  have  been,  however,  no 
universally  accepted  principles  of  blast-furnace  construc- 
tion developed,  as  far  as  regards  the  interior  outline.  The 
Cleveland  district  of  England  affords  a  striking  instance 
of  the  growth  of  furnaces  in  height  and  capacity.  Fur- 
naces were  built 

In  1851,  42  feet  high,  15  feet  diameter,  capacity  4.506  cubic  feet. 
"   ISIil,  63    "        "     20    "  "  '•        13,778      " 

"   1870,  90     "         "      30    "  "  "        41,149      " 

Since  then  a  reaction  has  taken  place  against  an  increase  in 
the  dimensions,  and  furnaces  75  to  8.5  feet  high  are  now  the 
standard. 

The  Blast-furnace  Process. — The  charge  introduced  into 
the  mouth  of  a  Ijlast  furnace  consists  of  iron  ore,  which 
varies  greatly  in  richness  and  purity  in  different  regions; 
fuel,  either  anlliracitc,  raw  bituminous  coal,  coke,  or  char- 
coal, and,  ordinarily,  limestone,  the  latter  serving  to  unite 
with  the  cai'thy  matters  of  the  ore  and  form  a  fluid  slag  or 
cinder.  The  action  of  the  furnace,  expressed  in  its  simplest 
form,  is  as  follows :  Air  is  lilown  through  the  tuyeres,  and 
comes  in  contact  with  incandescent  fuel.  Tlie  o.xygen  of 
the  air  is  sjieedily  convert (^d  into  carbonic  oxide  gas,  which, 
together  with  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  rises  through  the  de- 
scending charge.  The  reaction  of  the  carbonic  oxide  and 
oxide  of  iron  of  the  ore  results  in  tlic  formation  of  metallic 
iron  and  carljonic  acid  gas;  the  latter,  ascending,  escapes 
at  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  while  the  former  descends  to 
the  hottest  part  of  tlie  rurnace,  where  it  melts  and  drops 
into  the  hearth.     'Phe  earthy  matters  of  tlie  charge  fuse 


likewise,  and  collect  in  the  hearth,  floating  on  top  of  the 
molten  iron.  At  regular  intervals  the  slag  and  iron  are 
tapped  off:  the  former  is  thrown  away,  and  the  latter  is 
cast  in  molds  of  sand  or  iron,  and  forms  "  pigs,"  or  is  con- 
veyed in  large  ladle  cars,  in  a  fluid  .state,  to  adjoining 
steel-works.  Although  this  simple  statement  ^of  the  blast- 
furnace process  is  correct  as  far  as  the  end  result  is  con- 
cerned, yet  the  reactions  which  occur  in  the  furnace  are,  in 
reality,  very  complex  and  dependent  on  many  conditions. 
The  reducibility  of  different  varieties  of  ore  is  very  dissimi- 
lar :  while  some  varieties  require  a  high  temperature  and 
long  exposure  to  an  atmosphere  rich  in  carbonic  oxide  gas, 
other  varieties  yield  up  their  oxygen  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature  and  short  exposure  to  an  atmosphere  relatively 
poor  in  carbonic  oxide.  According  to  Sir  Lowthian  Bell,  a 
gaseous  mixture  of  40  to  45  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  to  100 
of  carbonic  oxide  fails  to  exert  any  appreciable  effect  on 
Cleveland  ironstone  at  a  temperature  of  melting  zinc  (782° 
F.),  but  the  same  mixture  possesses  decided  reducing  power 
at  a  red  heat.  Again,  some  ores  are  rapidly  reduced  witli 
the  above  gaseous  mixture  at  a  temperature  at  which  Cleve- 
land ironstone  is  unaffected. 

The  reduction  of  iron  ores,  or  the  removal  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  oxide  of  iron,  does  not  simply  consist  in  the  ab- 
straction of  oxygen  by  carbonic  oxide.  The  investigations 
of  Bell  prove  that  reaction  of  carbonic  oxide  and  oxide 
of  iron  is  a  very  complex  one.  The  first  eft'ect  is  the  for- 
mation of  some  carbonic  acid  and  some  metallic  iron.  The 
further  action  of  carbonic  oxide  on  the  metallic  iron  thus 
formed  causes  the  carbonic  oxide  to  break  u]i  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  carbon,  the  latter  being  deposited  in  the 
form  of  a  black  powder  on  the  reduced  metal.  This  com- 
bined process  of  reduction  and  carbon  deposition  continues 
until  the  iron  is  nearly  all  in  the  metallic  state ;  but  abso- 
lute reduction  is  never  attained  by  the  action  of  the  carbonic 
oxide  alone.  As  this  product,  composed  of  iron  and  carbon 
and  some  oxide  of  iron,  descends  into  the  hotter  regions  of 
the  furnace,  the  carbon  thus  deposited  is  partially  removed 
by  the  carbonic  acid,  but  it  is  not  until  the  [loint  of  fusion 
is  reached  that  the  last  traces  of  oxygen  are  removed.  It  is 
probable  that  the  carbon  found  in  the  pig  iron  is  a  part  of 
the  carbon  deposited  in  the  ore.  The  amount  and  rate  of 
carbon  deposition  depend  on  the  temperature  and  the  rel- 
ative amount  of  carbonic  acid  present  in  the  gases.  It 
may  begin  as  low  as  392'  P.,  but  decreases  rapidly  as  soon 
as  a  red  heat  is  reached.  Tlie  most  favorable  tempera- 
ture is  between  752°  P.  and  842  F".  The  temperature  of 
incipient  reduction  of  sesquioxide  of  iron  by  carbonic  oxide 
is  variously  given  by  different  observers.  Bell's  determina- 
tion is  the  lowest  by  far — viz..  284°  P. — while  the  oxidation 
of  metallic  iron,  according  to  the  same  observer,  does  not 
begin  lielow  752°  P. 

It  is  evident  that  the  economical  production  ot  iron  in  the 
blast  furnace  is  mainly  a  matter  of  the  amount  of  fuel  used. 
A  saving  of  the  fuel  in  the  process  can  be  effected  in  two 
ways :  first,  by  increasing  the  heat  of  the  descending  charge  ; 
and,  second,  liy  increasing  the  heat  of  the  ascending  blast. 
The  first  of  these  conditions  is  realized  by  adding  to  the 
height  or  diameter  of  the  furnace;  in  other  words,  increas- 
ing its  capacity,  so  as  more  effectually  to  intercept  the  heat 
of  the  escaping  gases ;  and  the  second  condition  is  accom- 
plished by  direct  heating  of  the  air  forced  into  the  furnace. 
It  was  long  considered  that  there  was  no  limit  to  the  saving 
that  could  be  effected  by  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  fur- 
nace and  temperature  of  the  blast,  but  Bell  has  shown  that 
the  profitable  limit  has  probably  been  attained  in  both  in- 
stances, at  least  in  so  far  as  the  smelting  of  Cleveland  ore  is 
concerned.  The  practical  limit  of  capacity  in  a  blast  fur- 
nace is  reached  when  the  gases  which  are  given  off  at  the 
mouth  no  longer  h;i\'e  the  powi'r  to  abstract  oxygen  from  the 
ore — a  condiliim  de|jendeiit  on  the  temperature  of  the  gases 
and  the  relative  amount  of  carbonic  oxide  they  contain. 
But  gases  which  are  inactive  on  one  ore  at  a  given  tempera- 
ture may  still  have  power  to  reduce  another  ore  at  the 
same  temperature ;  consequently  the  height  and  capacity 
of  a  blast  furnace  are  dependent  on  the  kind  of  ore  smelted 
in  it. 

The  cause  of  the  great  economy  of  fuel  effected  by  the 
hot  blast — say.  on  an  average,  10  to  11  cwt.  per  ton  of  iron 
— has  long  puzzled  metallurgists,  and  the  subject  can  not 
be  said  to  be  yet  entirely  removed  from  the  sphere  of  specu- 
lation. The  researches  of  15ell  in  England  and  Akerman  in 
Sweden  have,  however,  thrown  great  light  on  the  subject. 
The   following  considerations  show   where    the    principal 


BLASTING 


655 


sources  of  economy  lie ;  in  other  words,  why  the  combustion 
of  ii  given  amount  of  fuel,  outside  of  the  furnace  and  con- 
veyed tlirough  tlie  blast,  is  more  than  ei|uivalent  to  tiie 
same  amount  of  fuel  burnt  in  the  furnace  itself.  The  fuel 
burnt  before  the  tuyeres  is  oxidized  merely  to  carbonic  ox- 
i(h>,  and  gives  per  unit  of  carbon  only  2.400  lieat-units; 
wlule  the  fuel  in  the  hot-blast  stoves  is  l)urnt  to  carbonic 
acid,  and  gives,  per  unit  of  carbon.  8,000  heat-units,  or 
more  than  three  times  the  amount  in  the  first  instance. 
Although  not  more  than  one-half  of  this  heat  is  available, 
owing  to  loss  by  the  chimney  and  l)y  radiation,  yet  there  is 
still  a  gain  from  this  source.  The  |)rincipal. source  of  saving. 
however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  heat  brought 
into  the  furnace  by  the  blast  is  unaccompanied  by  any  in- 
crease in  the  bulk  of  the  gases  in  the  furnace;  whereas  the 
same  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the 
fuel  before  the  tuyeres  would  have  been  accompanied  by 
the  amount  of  air  necessary  for  its  combustion.  This  de- 
crease in  the  bulk  of  the  gases,  consecjuent  upon  the  use  of 
hot  blast,  acts,  first,  by  diminishing  the  rapidity  of  the  up- 
ward current,  thus  allowing  longer  contact  of  the  gases  with 
the  ore;  and,  second,  as  there  is  less  gas  escaping  from  the 
furnace,  less  heat  will  be  carried  off  in  this  way. 

As  the  reduction  of  the  ore  is  dependent  upon  the  tem- 
perature and  composition  of  the  gases,  it  is  evident  that  the 
amount  of  heat  which  we  may  supply  by  the  blast  has  a 
limit,  for  this  heat  is  unaccompanied  by  the  production  of 
carbonic  oxiile.  When,  therefore,  the  fuel  used  in  the  fur- 
nace has  been  so  far  reduced  in  amount  as  only  to  supply 
the  mirnmum  amount  of  carbonic  oxide  needed  for  tlie  re- 
duction of  any  given  ore,  further  increase  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  blast  can  be  of  no  advantage,  as  the  heat  thus 
conveyed  to  the  furnace  will  either  escape  at  the  mouth,  or 
it  will,  by  increasing  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  cause  a  loss  of 
fuel  by  enabling  the  escaping  carbonic  acid  to  take  off  an- 
other equivalent  of  carbon. 

The  product  of  the  blast  furnace  is  pig  or  cast  iron.  Its 
composition  is  dependent  on  the  ores  and  fuel  used,  the 
principal  constituents  being  carbon,  silicon,  manganese, 
sulphur,  ])hosphorns,  co])per,  and  titanium.  It  always 
ciiutains  '.i  to  4  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  in  some  varieties  as 
high  as  'i  per  cent.  The  carbon  exists  in  two  forms  in  pig 
iron — <'liemically  combined,  and  in  the  form  of  graphite. 
The  darker  and  more  highly  graphitic  varieties  are  formed 
at  the  highest  temperatures.  The  higher  the  temperature 
the  more  silicon  w^iU  be  reduced  and  unite  with  the  iron, 
and  its  presence  induces  the  segregation  of  carbon  in  its 
graphitic  form. 

Sidphur  is  more  readily  removed  in  the  cinder  at  an  ele- 
vated temperature,  while  the  total  phosphorus  of  the  charge 
goes  almost  entirely  into  the  pig  iron,  wliatever  the  tem- 
perature may  be.  The  presence  of  manganese,  copper,  and 
titanium  depends  upon  their  occurrence  in  the  ore. 

The.  product  ion  of  a  blast  furnace  depends  on  its  capacity, 
the  richness  and  redneibility  of  its  ores,  the  nature  of  the 
fuel,  and  the  volume  and  temperature  of  blast.  While 
some  small  furnaces  yield  but  3  tons  daily,  the  production 
of  some  of  the  modern  furnaces  of  \\n:  U.S.  is  400  tons 
daily,  Auierican  practice  having  in  this  respect  far  out- 
stripped the  records  of  iron-makers  in  other  countries.  The 
composition  and  diaracter  of  the  cinder  or  slag  from  a  blast 
furnace  ih-pends  on  the  nature  of  the  ore  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  furnace.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  double  silicate 
of  lime  and  aluudna.  T.  M.  Drowx. 

Revised  by  C.  Kikchhoff. 

Blasting:  The  use  of  gunpowder  in  quarrying  stone 
probably  dates  back  almost  to  the  invention  of  that  explo- 
sive. In  ordinary  practice  the  blocks  of  stone  are  separated 
from  the  nuiss  in  the  quariy  by  means  of  one  or  more 
blasts,  eacli  blast  being  made  by  first  drilling  a  hole  into 
the  rock  by  the  use  of  a  drill,  operated  eitherliy  hand  or — as 
is  now  the  general  practice  in  large  works — by  machinery 
driven  Ijy  steam  or  compressed  air. 

In  removing  very  large  nuisses  of  ro<'k  quickly,  to  imiko 
way  for  a  railroad,  to  furnish  stone  in  suflicient  quantities 
for  the  ra|)id  construction  of  an  important  breakwater,  or 
to  prepare  the  site  for  a  fi^rl.  it  has  become  the  custom  to 
run  galleries  into  the  rock.  an<l  to  place  in  chaml)ers  pre- 
pared fdr  the  |iurpose  very  large  charges  of  powder  of  suf- 
ficient power  to  bring  down  the  whole  face  of  a  cliff  or  side 
of  a  mountain,  as  was  the  case  at  Dover  and  Holyhead  in 
England,  at  Lime  Point,  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Buy, 
Cal.,  and  at  Hell  Gate,  New  York  harbor. 


In  hand-drilling  the  ofieration  is  performed  by  means  of 
a  drill  i)V  Jumper,  which  is  formed  from  a  bar  of  steel,  or  of 
iron  tipiK'd  with  steel  at  one  etid,  which  is  flattened  out  into 
a  fan  shape,  with  a  sharp  cutting  edge  extending  on  each 
side  a  little  beyond  the  l)ody  of  the  drill,  so  that  the  drill 
may  have  free  play  in  working.  The  drills  are  of  lengths 
suited  to  the  depths  of  the  holes  to  be  drilleil.  it  being  cus- 
tomary to  use  a  short  drill  in  commencing  a  hole,  and 
longer  ones  in  succession  as  the  hole  is  deepened.  Their 
diameters  also  vary,  generally  with  the  depths  of  the  hole, 
but  are  also  much  modified  l)y  the  kind  of  explosive  used, 
blasting  powder  recparing  much  more  space  for  the  charge 
than  nitro-glycerine  and  its  compounds.  To  prevent  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  drill  becoming  healed,  and  thereby  soft- 
ened, water  is  fre(|Ueutly  i)oured  into  the  hole.  Prom  time 
to  time  the  fragments  an(l  powdered  stone  have  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  drill-hole  by  means  of  a  n/xKin  or  ncraper. 

The  next  step,  after  finishing  the  drilling  and  remoTOig 
the  chips,  [jowdered  stone,  etc..  from  the  bottom  of  the 
drill-hole,  is  to  determine  the  ttfrenijlk  uf  llii;  charge.  In 
former  times  an  inferior  kind  of  gunpowder,  called  blast- 
ing powder,  was  generally  used,  and  is  .still  employed  in 
many  quarries  in  preference  to  the  quicker  and  stronger  ex- 
plosives. 

The  necessity  for  a  more  active  agent  for  use  in  ndning, 
and  in  excavating  railroad  tumiels  and  large  cuttings  in 
solid  rock,  has  brought  into  use  more  powerfid  explosives. 
Nitro-glyceriiu'.  first  invented  and  used  in  Kurope,  was  In- 
troduced at  the  Iloosiic  tunnel  by  I'rof.  Jlowbray.  in  1868. 

Nitro-glycerine.  chemically  known  as  tri-nitro-cellulose,  is 
glonoin  oil.  ('elUNsOie.  made  by  treating  glycerine  with 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  at  a  low  temperature.  It  is  very 
rarely  used  in  the  pure  stale,  the  general  practice  being  to 
mix  it  with  an  inert  or  with  a  chemical  absorlient  material, 
which  renders  it  ]icrreclly  harmless  so  long  as  exudation  of 
the  oil  does  not  lake  iilace.  The  generic  term  for  these  mix- 
tures is  dijiiamite.  altliough  originally  that  term  was  applied 
to  the  nitro-glyceriue  powder  in  whicli  infusorial  earth  was 
em])loyed  as  the  absorbent.  When  increased  strength  is 
required,  explosive  bases,  notably  guncotton,  are  added. 
Alias,  Dualine,  Forcite,  Tonite.  Hendrock.  Ilerenles,  Racka- 
rock,  and  Vulcanite  are  dilfereiit  dynamites  largely  in  use. 

After  the  strength  of  the  charge  has  been  determined. and 
all  moisture  removed  from  the  bottom  of  the  drill-hole  by 
means  of  wisps  of  straw,  hay,  or  bits  of  rags,  the  powder  is 
either  poured  in  from  a  can",  or  inserted  as  a  cartridge.  A 
wooden  rod  is  used  to  press  down  the  powder  and  to  dis- 
lodge any  grains  that  may  have  attached  themselves  to  the 
sides  of  I  lie  hole. 

The  ihcIIkkI  now  genenally  practiced  is  to  use  the  car- 
tridge, from  which  projects  the  copper  priming-needle. 
Above  the  i)owder.  around  the  needle.  an<l  filling  up  the 
hole,  a  very  soft.dayc^y  material,  called  tamping,  is  ramme<l 
gas-tight  i>y  a  copper-tipped  " tamping-bar."  After  the 
needle  has  been  withdrawn  a  "fii.'ie"  is  inserted,  which, 
when  ignited,  fires  down  into  the  powder.  The  •'/«.■>•«"  or 
".s-yi//^"  is  a  thread  of  ]iowder  wrapped  in  tarred  hemp  or 
in  cotlon.  and  waterproofed  outside.  'I'hough  not  essential, 
it  is  tlie  practice  in  many  localities  to  have  the  end  of  the 
fuse  in  the  cartridge  fitted  with  a  fulminating  cap,  which 
fires  the  powder  by  detonation.  Dynamite  is  charged  in 
cartridges  with  a  safety  fuse  or  electric  wire  aiul  cap  slightly 
taiu|)ed.  All  high  explosives  are  now  fired  with  the  use  of 
strong  detonators,  and  it  is  the  general  practice  to  arrange 
several  holes  for  simultaneous  firing.  This  .synchronous 
firing  can  only  be  well  attained  by  electricity.  The  holes 
are  charged,  the  fulminating  cap  is  inserted,  two  wires  take 
the  place  of  the  fuse,  and  slitiht  lamping  is  done.  The  dif- 
ferent holes  are  connected  in  series,  and  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity is  sent  through  the  wire  l)v  means  of  a  small,  portable 
hand-power  dynamo  or  frictional  machine. 

Steam  Drilling-madiiues. — The;  length  of  time  required, 
as  well  as  the  great  labor  and  exnense  of  drilling  by  hand, 
has  led  to  the  introduction,  in  large  private  and  public 
works,  of  drilling-nnicliiues  driven  by  steam  or  coinpres.sed 
air.  Sommeiller  invented  a  machine  which  was  used  with 
success  at  the  Mont  ("enis  tunnel.  This  was  driven  by  com- 
pressed air  conveyed  into  the  headings  in  pipes,  the  com- 
|)res.si)rs  being  situated  near  the  east  and  west  entrances  to 
the  tunnel.  Subsetuiently  the  Burleigh  drill,  similar  to  the 
above,  was  patented  in  the  U.  S..  followed  by  the  Rand.  In- 
gersoll. and  Sergeant,  which  are  the  types  tli.'il  have  survived 
the  active  competition  in  this  country.  Broadly,  the  mech- 
anism consists  of  a  power  cvlinder.  sliding  in  a  guide  bed- 


656 


BLASTODERM 


BLEACHING 


plate,  mounted  on  a  tripod  6r  column,  and  a  cxitting  tool 
clamped  as  an  extension  of  the  piston  rod.  The  apparatus 
must  possess  the  mechanical  provisions  for  carrying  out  these 
movements:  the  blow  of  the  cutting  tool,  the  rotation  of  the 
cutting  tool  through  a  small  arc  to  produce  a  round  hole,  so 
as  to  prevent  rilling  and  jamming,  and  the  udvanceineiit  of 
the  cylinder  and  boring  tool  to  follow  the  growing  depth  of 
the  drill-hole,  and  to  admit  of  withdrawing  it.  The  prin- 
cipal distinguishing  feature  between  the  ditferent  drills  in 
use  is  the  method  of  moving  the  valve  of  the  power  cylinder. 
The  older  system  is  that  of  causing  the  valve  to  oscillate  by 
means  of  tappets,  which  being  a  positive  movement  is  con- 
sidered safer  in  the  hands  of  unskilled  labor.  The  other 
system  is  that  of  a  steam-moved  valve,  which  admits  of  a 
higher  rate  of  speed.  Tlie  rotation  of  the  drilling  tool, 
which  usually  has  an  X-shaped  bit,  is  in  nearly  all  modern 
American  machines  accouiplished  by  a  fluted  bar  and  nut, 
constituting  a  ratchet.  The  feed  is  done  by  hand,  the 
power  cylinder  and  the  drilling  tool  sliding  in  a  guide-way, 
the  movement  being  controlled  by  a  screw.  Usually  steam 
is  employed  above  ground,  while  compressed  air,  which  pos- 
sesses incidental  advantages  as  concerns  ventilation,  is  adopt- 
ed for  underground  work,  the  pressure  ranging  between  50 
and  80  lb.  per  sq.  inch,  wliile  the  average  speed  is  200 
blows  per  minute.  The  conditions  under  which  di'illing  is 
done  vary  so  widely  tliat  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  spe- 
cific statement  concerning  the  work  performed.  It  is  a  fact 
acknowledged  by  all  authorities  that  high  explosives  and 
power-drilling  have  led  to  a  marked  lowering  in  the  cost  of 
mining  and  tuimeling,  and  have  greatly  increased  the  rapid- 
ity of  working. 

The  diamond  drill  has  been  used  very  little  in  mining  and 
tunneling  for  drilling  blasting  holes,  being  employed  chiefly 
in  prospecting.     See  JIining. 

Efforts  have  been  made  recently,  chiefly  by  the  late  C.  Van 
Depoele  and  by  H.  N.  Marvin,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  to  intro- 
duce electric  percussion  drills,  the  reciprocating  motion  be- 
ing produced  by  the  solenoid.  There  is  still  a  good  deal  of 
uncertainty  concerning  their  successful  introduction,  from 
an  economical  point  of  view. 

Revised  by  Charles  Kirchhoff. 

Blastoderm :  See  Embryology. 

Blastoi'dea  [from  Gr.  $\a(Tr6s.  sprout  4-  €?5os,  form] :  an 
order  of  extinct  Crinoids.  in  wliicli  tlie  liead  is  annless,  on  a 
short  stalk,  its  general  form  like  that  of  a  closed  lily-bud. 
The  chief  genus  is  Pentremites,  which  occurs  in  the  Upper 
Silurian.  The  blastoids  are  most  abundant  in  the  Carbon- 
iferous measures. 

Blatcliford,  Samuel,  LL.  D.  :  son  of  Richard  M. ;  b.  in 
New  York  city,  Mar.  9,  1820;  graduated  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York  city,  in  1837;  in  1839  became  private  secre- 
tary of  Gov.  William  II.  Seward,  of  New  York;  in  184.5 
practiced  hiw  in  Auburn,  N.  Y. :  in  1854  removed  to  New 
York  city;  practiced  law  and  continued  the  publication  of 
reports  oif  cases  in  the  cii-cuit  courts  of  the  U.  S.  in  the  sec- 
ond circuit,  which  he  had  commenced  publishing  in  1852; 
in  May,  1867,  became  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the  U.  S. 
for  the  southern  district  of  New  York  ;  in  Apr.,  1878,  became 
circuit  judge  of  the  second  judicial  circuit;  and  on  Mar. 27, 
1882,  was  appointed  by  President  Arthur  an  associate  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court'of  the  U.  S.    D.  July  7,  1893. 

Blatlnvayt,  or  Blaflnvayte,  William:  politician:  b.  at 
St.  Martin-in-the-Fields,  London,  about  1649.  He  was  in 
the  English  diplomatic  service  as  early  as  1668.  was  clerk  of 
the  privy  council,  and  an  important  witness  in  the  libel  trial 
of  the  seven  bishops  in  the  reign  of  James  II.  in  1688.  Under 
William  III.  he  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  commissioners 
of  trade  and  plantations,  created  by  tlie  king  in  May,  1696. 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  colonies  "niost  useful  and 
lienelicial  to  Kngland,"  and  to  aid  in  "diverting  them  (the 
colonies)  from  trades  which  may  prove  prejudicial  to  Eng- 
land." Blathwayt  drafted  a  lunv  charter  for  Massachusetts. 
Many  of  his  manuscripts  have  been  preserved  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  and  elsewhere.     D.  in  August,  1717. 

Blau'vcit,  Charles  V.:  genre-painter;  b.  in  New  York 
in  1824;  pupil  of  the  National  Academy  and  of  Charles  L. 
Elliot;  National  Academician  1859;  made  Professor  of  Draw- 
ing at  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis  in  1878.    W.  A.  C. 

Blainv-boc,  blow  bok  [Dutch,  blue  buck;  so  named  from 
its  bluc'-l>lack  color]:  the  Antilope  leurophd'a:  an  exceeil- 
ingly  swift  antelope  whose  habitat  extends  from  Cape  Col- 
ony to  Senegambia.     It  is  6  feet  long  and  3i  feet  high.     It 


fights  when  at  bay,  and  is  then  dangerous.    Its  flesh  is  poor. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  the  pygmy  antelope  {Cephalophns 


Thti  l)lauw-boc. 


pygmcea),  which  is  only  a  foot  high.  It  is  found  in  South 
Africa,  and  is  of  a  bluish  slate  color. 

Blavatsky.  Madame  Helena  Petrovna  :  founder  of  the 
Tlicosophical  Society;  b.  in  Ekaterinoslaw.  Russia,  in  1831  ; 
daughter  of  Col.  Peter  Halin,  and  of  noble  descent  on  both 
her  father's  and  her  mother's  side ;  married  when  seventeen 
Nicephore  Blavatsky,  forty-three  years  her  senior,  a  coun- 
cilor of  state;  separated  from  him  after  three  months  by 
mutual  agreement.  An  ardent  love  of  travel  and  a  thirst 
for  curious  knowledge  then  led  her  to  travel  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  the  course  of  her  travels  she  succeeded  in 
1855  in  entering  Thibet.  In  1858  she  met  with  an  accident 
in  wliich  she  sustained  a  fracture  of  the  spine  by  being 
thrown  from  her  horse,  which  caused  a  strange  psychological 
experience,  and  for  eighteen  months  she  led  a  complete  dual 
existence.  In  1873  she  visited  New  York,  where  she  re- 
mained for  six  years,  and  founded  in  1875  the  Theosophical 
Society,  with  which  her  name  has  since  been  closely  asso- 
ciated. Author  of  The  Secret  Doctrini'.  the  Sunthexis  of  Sci- 
ence,Religion,  eind  Philosophy;  'Hie  Key  to  llieosoptiy;  Tlie 
Voice  of  Silence;  Isis  Unveiled,  a  blaster  Key  to  the  Mys- 
teries of  Ancient  and  Modem  Science.  I),  in  London,  May 
8, 1891.  C.  11.  TniRBER. 

Blazonry :  See  Heraldry. 

Bleacliing:  [deriv.  of  vb.  bleach  ;  0.  Eng.  hltecrin  ;  Germ. 
Meichen] ;  the  process  by  which  the  natural  colors  of  various 
substances  are  discharged,  so  as  to  whiten  them.  Bleaching 
is  extensively  applied  to  the  textile  fibers;  linen,  cotton, 
wool,  and  silk;  and  to  straw,  paper-stock,  ivory,  wax.  animal 
and  vegetable  oils,  etc.  Until  the  close  of  (he  eighteenth 
century  the  agents  employed  were  air,  light,  and  moisture, 
aided  by  weak  alkalies  and  acids.  More  recently  the  process 
has  been  wonderfully  hastened  by  the  use  of  such  powerful 
agents  as  chlorine  and  sulphurous  acid.  Numerous  other 
agents  possessing  bleaching  pro|]erties  have  been  from  time 
to  time  recommended,  but  they  have  not  as  yet  been  used  to 
any  extent.  Such  are  bromine,  ozone,  permanganates,  chro- 
mates,  etc.  The  selection  of  the  bleaching  agent  depends  as 
much  upon  the  pro])erties  of  the  article  to  be  bleached  as 
u]pon  the  coloring-matters  to  be  removed.  Cotton,  flax,  and 
many  other  vegetable  fibers,  being  composed  of  cellulose,  one 
of  the  most  pi'rinanent  of  all  organic  bodies,  are  capable  of 
wit hstanding  the  action  of  acids,  alkalies,  and  chlorine,  while 
the  animal  fibers,  silk  and  wool,  being  of  very  different  com- 
position, are  destroyed  by  these  agents,  and  must  be  bleached 
by  the  milder  sulphurous  ac'id. 

Modern  l>lcac-hing  includes  much  more  than  the  mere  aji- 
plication  of  chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid.  The  goods  are  sub- 
jected to  certain  preliminary  cleansing  processes,  such  as 
washing  in  cold  or  hot  water,  boiling  with  alkaline  lyes  or 
.soaps,  and  treatment  with  acids.  By  these  ojierations  many 
resinous,  fatty,  and  other  impurities,  either  natural  or  in- 


BLEACHING 


BLEAK 


657 


troduced  (luring  the  preparation  of  the  yarn,  clolli.  etc.,  are 
removed  from  the  filler.  The  more  powerful  iij;eiils  are 
then  used  for  removing  the  last  traces  of  eoloring-nuitter. 

Special  Methods. 

B/eac/iiii;/  Linen. — This  is  a  vcrv  ancient  ait.  We  read 
in  the  Scriptures  of  "tine  linen,  white  and  clean."  The  old 
method,  still  practiced  in  some  localities,  consisted  in  the 
alternate  treatment  of  the  cloth  with  alkaline  and  acid  liq- 
uids, anil  exposure  on  the  grass  to  air,  light,  and  moisture, 
llcillanil  Iniig  I'lijoyeii  the  reputation  of  pdssi'ssing  the  best 
lileaclicrics.  The  bniwn  linen  of  Scdtland  was  sent  nver  early 
every  spring  to  be  bleached,  and  on  its  return  in  the  late  au- 
tumn was  sulci  under  the  name  of  "Hollands,"  a  name  still 
retained  in  the  trade  for  certain  kinds  of  bleached  linen. 
The  word  "  lawn  "  is  another  name  of  similar  origin,  having 
been  applieil  to  a  finer  (piality  of  linen  cloth  Ijlcached  on 
better  grass-plots,  or  lawns.  The  Dutch  (irocess  lasted  from 
March  till  .September,  and  consisted  of  the  following  distinct 
operations,  often  repeated  :  (1)  Steeping  in  water  four  or  five 
days,  (ir  in  an  alkaline  lye  forty-eight  hours,  (i)  Uuckiiig  or 
liawking,  builiiig  in  an  alkaline  lye.  (li)  Crofting,  or  expos- 
ing on  the  grass  for  several  weeks,  and  sprinkling  from  time 
to  time  with  water.  (4)  Souring  with  buttermilk.  After 
every  dipping  the  cloth  was  washed  with  soap,  then  with 
water.  The  process  was  necessarily  very  exjx'nsive  and  la- 
borious. In  174!)  the  Dutch  method  was  introduced  into 
Si-iil  land,  where  it  was  considerably  shortened  by  the  em- 
ploynieiit  of  dilute  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  in  jilace  of 
buttermilk.  In  1784  Berthollet  investigated  chlorine,  pub- 
lishing his  results  in  1787,  and  announcing  the  bleaching 
pro|)erties  of  this  element.  Prof,  Copeland  introduced  this 
agent  at  Aberdeen.  Chlorine  was  first  used  in  ai|Ueoiis  solu- 
lioii,  then  ill  alkaline  solution,  and  finally,  in  I7iW.  Charles 
Teiinant,  of  (ilasgow.  introduced  chloriile  of  lime,  which  has 
been  almost  e.\clusively  used  ever  since.  Bleaching  linen  is 
still  a  tedious  operation,  as  the  fibers  are  heavily  inciiisted 
with  im]iurities;  the  actual  loss  during  the  operations  of 
bleaching  being  one-third  the  original  weight,  while  cotton 
loses  only  one-twentieth.  Steeping,  washing,  hawking  and 
c'l-ofting  are  still  found  necessary,  and  are  several  times  re- 
peated. Souring  is  eflected  with  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 
aeiil.  The  goods  are  then  chlorinated  with  hy|iochlorite  of 
potash,  made  liy  mixing  chloride  of  lime  with  i-arboiiale  of 
potash.  Washing,  souring,  soaping,  scalding  in  soap-suds  and 
weak  lye,  and  crofting  complete  the  operation.  A  f<n-tniglit 
is  the  shortest  time  in  which  the  bleaching  can  be  effected, 
and  often  a  much  longer  time  is  neccssjiry. 

Bleac/iint/  Cotlnn. — Cotton  is  either  bleached  in  the  yam 
or  in  the  clot  li.  The  following  description  of  the  process  em- 
ployed in  .Vmerican  print-works  will  sutliiiently  illustrate 
the  methods  in  common  use:  The  cloth  is  (1)  "singed"  by  a 
shearing-machine  or  by  passing  over  a  red-hot  roll  or  over  a 
series  of  gas-flames;  (2)  it  is  "  limed."  boiled  for  a  night  with 
milk  of  lime:  (:i)  washed ;  (4)  soured  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  :  (."))  washed  :  (6)  bawked,  boiled  for  a  night  with  soda- 
ash  and  rosin  ;  (7)  washeil ;  (8)  bawked  with  a  weak  soda-ash 
lye  for  seven  or  eight  hours:  (!))  washed  :  (10)  cheniicked 
with  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime:  (11)  waslieil  :  (12) 
soured  with  ililute  sulphuric  acid:  (l:i)  washed — the  entire 
series  of  operations  lieing  completed  in  three  or  four  days. 

lihuchiiKi  H  «o/.— Wool  is  (1)  washed  on  the  sheeji,  to  re- 
move sweat  and  much  of  the  dirt,  including  a  peculiar  sub- 
stance called  suint.  which  is  a  neutral  salt  of  potash  with  a 
peculiar  organic  acid.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of  potash, 
this  suint  has  recently  attracted  consideralile  attention,  and 
a  special  industry  has  been  established  in  the  French  woo! 
districts  for  its  preservation  and  utilization.  The  wool 
<ontains  from  1.5  to  33  per  cent,  of  snint,  a  9  lb.  fleece 
containing  20  oz.  of  suint,  or  6  to7<iz.  of  jiotash.  This 
can  be  recovered  from  the  water  in  which  the  sheep  are 
washed.  It  is  estimated  that  :i,0(H),0()0  lb.  of  potash  can  be 
manufactured  annually  in  the  French  districts  alone.  (2)  The 
Wool  is  stecpcil  in  soap  and  water,  weak  alkaline  lye.  or  jiu- 
Irid  urine  to  remove  a  peculiar  lime-soap  which  it  contains, 
and  other  inipurities.  It  is  then  oiled  for  spinning,  .'lud 
finally  cleansed  and  bleached,  either  in  the  yarn  or  in  the 
doth.  The  operations  consist  in  passing  it  (3)  through  a 
weak  warm  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  soap :  (4)  wash- 
ing with  lukewarm  water;  (o)  exposing  to  suljihurons  acid 
gas.  Operations  3.  4,  and  5  are  sometimes  repeated  once  or 
twice.  The  goods  may  then  be  blued  with  carmine  of  indigo 
in  a  weak  solution  of  soap  containing  a  little  hydrate  of 
alumina. 

42 


Silk  Bleaching. — Raw  silk  contains  about  40  per  cent,  of 

gummy  matter,  consistingof  albumen, gelatinous  substances, 
wax,  fat,  resin,  and  yellow  coloring-matter.  This  is  removed 
by  boiling  the  silk  in  a  solution  of  soap,  and  washing  with 
jiu re  water.  Bran  is  sometimes  added  to  the  soap  to  neu- 
tralize by  the  lactic  acid  it  yields  any  free  alkali  present. 
When  the  silk  is  to  be  left  white,  or  dyed  or  printed  with 
verv  light  colors,  it  is  exposed  for  a  few  hours  to  sulplmrous 
acid  gas, 

Bli'iic/i  ing  Paper-stock. — Cotton  and  linen  ragsare  bleached 
in  the  same  manner  as  cotton  yarn  and  cloth.  Old  paper  is 
treated  with  caustic  soda  to  loosen  the  ink,  then  with  soap- 
suds, and  finally  with  chloride  of  lime.  Tow  and  straw  are 
treated  with  caustic  soda  and  lime,  and  finally  bleached  with 
chloride  of  lime. 

Bleaching  Straw. — P\)r  the  manufacture  of  hats,  bonnets, 
etc.,  straw  is  bleached  by  (1)  exposing  it  on  a  meadow  to  air, 
sunlight,  and  dew.  with  occasional  turning;  (2)  steaming ;  (3) 
fnmigaliiig  with  sulphurous  acid  gas. 

Jiili-  is  bleached  by  caustic  soda  ami  a  chlorine  bath  made 
by  mixing  chloride  of  lime  anil  sulphate  of  magnesia  in 
eijuivalent  proportions,  and  dissolving  them  in  cold  water. 
Human  hair  is  said  to  be  bleached  on  the  head  to  a  blonde 
by  the  action  of  hydrogen  dioxide,  or  peroxide.  Feathers  &r:& 
blcache(l  by  immersion  (1)  in  a  dilute  solution  of  jiotassium 
bichrcjiiiate  containing  a  little  nitric  acid,  and  (2)  in  a  weak 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid.  Spungex  are  bleached  by  im- 
mersion in  a  warm  solution  of  caustic  soda,  followed  by  wash- 
ing in  water  and  treatment  with  a  hyposul]ihite  of  soda  so- 
lution, to  which  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  has  been  added. 
Imrt/  is  bleached  by  rubbing  it  with  jmmice-stone  and  water, 
and  placing  it  under  a  glass  shade  in  the  sun.  It  may  also 
be  bleached  by  immersion  (1)  in  a  solution  of  sodiuin  carbon- 
ate, (2)  in  ]iure  water,  (3)  in  a  solution  of  sodium  sulphite; 
(4)  to  the  sulphite  is  ailded  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (ri)  in 
pure  water.  Biisini.r  is  bleached  by  exposure  to  air,  sun- 
light, and  moisture  in  thin  ribbons.  Animal  and  vegetable 
o(7.s  are  often  bleachetl  by  heating  them  with  a  little  caustic 
alkali,  by  which  a  small  cpiaiitity  of  soap  is  formed,  which 
settles  to  the  bottom,  carrying  with  it  .some  of  the  coloring- 
matter.  They  are  also  bleached  by  ex)iosiire  in  shallow 
vessels  to  the  sun  under  glass.  Old  engrarini/.i  which  have 
turned  yellow  may  be  cleansed  or  bleached  by  exposure  to 
ozone,  generated  in  a  cajiacions  vessel,  by  a  slick  of  phos- 
phorus partly  immersed  in  water.  Immersion  for  a  minute 
in  Javelle  water,  hypochlorite  of  soda,  is  said  to  answer 
equally  well,  though,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  paper,  it  must 
be  subsequently  dipped  in  water  containing  hyposulphite 
of  soda. 

The  Chemistrji  of  Bleaching. — Tlie  exact  chemical  char- 
acter of  the  clumges  which  occur  ill  bleaching  is  not  fully 
established.  When  the  coloring-matter  is  alisolutely  de- 
stroyed, it  is  jirobable  that  it  is  generally  due  to  the  action 
of  active  oxygen,  ozone,  formed  by  the  agents  employed.  In 
some  cases,  however,  sulphurous  acid  unites  with  the  color- 
ing-matter, forming  a  colorless  compound,  the  color  of 
which  can  be  restored  again.  .\  red  rose  bleached  by  this 
agent  returns  to  its  original  color  when  placed  in  dilute  stil- 
pliurie  acid. 

Anticli/ore. — If  free  chlorine  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
articles  bleached,  it  is  liable  to  injure  their  strength  and 
damaged  the  metallic  parts  of  machinery.  To  prevent  this, 
sulistances  such  as  hyposulphite  lU'  sulphite  of  soda,  stannous 
chloride,  coal-gas.  etc.,  are  employed,  but  t  he  first  mentioned 
is  generally  used.     These  are  called  Axticui.oke  (</,  i:). 

Kevised  by  Ika  Kemsen. 

Bleneliiiig-powder:  See  IIvi'ochlorites. 
Itlenk  (Alhurnim  all/iirnii.t):  a  small  and  beautiful  fresh- 
water fish  of  the  family  Cgprinidw  ;  allied  to  the  minnow  and 


The  bleak, 

dace.    It  is  about  6  inches  long,  is  found  in  many  European 
rivers,  and  is  esteemed  as  a  delicate  article  of  food. 


658 


BLEDSOE 


BLENNORRHCEA 


Bled'soe,  Albert  Ta^xor,  LL.  D.  :  metaphysician  and 
teacher:  b.  in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  \ov.  9,  1809;  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  18^0 ;  served  as  lieutenant  of  infantry  at  Fort 
Gibson  till  he  resigned  Aug.  'SI,  1835.  He  was  Adjunct  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  and  teacher  of  French  in  Kenyon 
College,  0.,  1833-^34;  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Miami 
University,  0.,  1835-36 ;  counselor-at-law  in  Springfleld, 
111.,  1840-48  ;  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in 
University  of  Mississippi  1848-.i3:  Professor  of  Mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Virginia  1853-61 :  and  during  the  civil 
war  Assistant  Secretary  of  War  of  the  Southern  Confeder- 
acy. He  was  author  of  an  Examiiuition  of  Edwards  on 
the  Will  (1845);  A  Theodicy,  or  Vindication  of  the  DiHne 
Glory  (1856);  Philosophy  of  Mathematics  (Philadelphia, 
1862).  and  other  works;  contributor  to  the  principal  literary, 
scientific,  and  theological  reviews  of  the  C  8.:  principal  of 
a  female  academy  at  Baltimore.  Mil.,  and  editor  of  the 
Southern  ii'ei'iVH' "(Methodist).  D.  in  Alexandria,  Va..  Dec. 
1. 1877. — His  daughter.  Sophia  McIlvaine,  b.  in  Gambler,  O., 
liar.  26. 1837.  married  James  Burton  Ilerrick,  of  New  York, 
in  1860,  and  became  distinguished  as  a  writer  for  magazines 
on  microscopical  botany. 

Bleeder:  See  ILemophilia. 

Bleeding,  nr  Haemorrhage  [hcemorrhage  is  from  Gr. 
of/ta,  lilood  +  ^ery.  flow] :  in  surgery,  the  escape  of  blood  from 
the  vessels  which  normally  contain  it.  When  the  esc-ape  takes 
place  into  the  tissues  it  is  called  "extravasation."  Ha'm- 
orrhage  into  an  internal  cavity  is  said  to  be  "concealed." 
A  slight  cut  through  the  integument  is  usually  followed  by 
loss  of  blood,  chiefly  from  the  capillaries.  Capillary  bleed- 
ing will  in  many  cases  cease  spontaneously,  or  it  may  re- 
quire compression  or  the  application  of  medicines,  such  as 
persulphate  of  iron  or  tannic  acid.  These  medicines  are 
called  hii?mostatics  or  styptics.  Arterial  bleeding  is  recog- 
nized by  the  fact  that  the  blood  escapes  in  jets,  and  is  of  a 
bright-red  color.  Arterial  bleeding  tends  s[)ontaiieously  to 
grow  less,  lioth  from  the  feel)leness  of  the  heart's  action 
which  naturally  follows,  and  from  the  retraction  and  eon- 
traction  of  the  arterial  waUs,  and  the  consequent  formation 
of  a  clot  of  blood,  which  plugs  the  wound ;  but  it  may  Ije 
necessary  to  resort  to  ligation  or  tying,  to  acupressure  or 
compression  of  the  artery  by  needles,  or  to  pressure,  me- 
chanical or  by  hand,  upon  the  course  of  the  artery  between 
the  heart  and  the  wound.  A  handkerchief  may  be  tied 
around  and  then  twisted  with  a  stick.  The  wounded  part 
should  be  elevated  if  possible.  Venous  bleeding  is  not  gen- 
erally very  formidable.  It  may  be  recognized  by  the  steady 
flow  of  dark  blood.  A  great  source  of  danger  when  large 
veins  are  cut  is  that  air  may  enter  the  circulation  ;  in  which 
case  death  may  immediately  follow. 

H;emorrhage  from  an  internal  and  inaccessible  surface 
may  be  treated  by  astringents,  as  gallic  acid,  or  by  ergot, 
which  is  especially  imp(n-tant  in  lupinorrhage  after  child- 
birth. Some  individuals  have  what  is  known  as  the  haMn- 
orrhagic  diathesis — a  disposition  to  bleed  excessively  even 
after  a  slight  injury.  (See  H.bmophilia.)  A  tendency  to 
haemorrhage  from  the  nuieous  surfaces  is  characteristic  of 
some  diseases,  sudi  as  typhoid  fever. 

Bleeding,  or  Blood-letting:  the  abstraction  of  blood 
from  the  circulation  as  a  means  of  curing  or  preventing  dis- 
ease. This  operation  is  [)erfornu'd  cither  by  opening  a  vein 
(venesection  or  phli'l)otomy).  by  alistraction  from  the  ca])il- 
laries  by  means  of  leeches  or  ciqis.  or  more  rarely  liy  open- 
ing an  artery  (arteriotomy).  Bleeding  was  formerly  in  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  treatment  of  many  diseases,  and  no  doubt 
was  greatly  ovemsed.  The  striking  results  obtained  in 
certain  cases  and  ignorance  concerning  many  physiological 
and  i)alhological  processes  led  to  this  abuse  of  an  agent 
which  in  cases,  now  much  better  discriminated,  is  capable  of 
the  greatest  good.  Thus  in  the  early  stage  of  a  pneumonia, 
when  the  lungs  are  .surcharged  with  blood,  the  right  heart 
distended,  the  general  venous  system  overfilled,  judicious 
letting  of  blood  may  alter  materially  the  jirogress  of  the 
ease.  The  reaction  which  set  in  wJien  attention  was  first 
directed  to  the  evils  of  bleeding  has.  however,  overshot  the 
]]roper  mark,  and  ]ihysicians  are  still  loatli  to  [iracticea  pro- 
ci-dure  which  thev  feel  is  callecl  for  but  wliicli  popular  opin- 
ion condemns.  ^Cew  proceilures,  as  also  popidar  opinion 
concerning  them,  always  thus  overslioot  the  level  on  the 
side  of  the  sanguine,  oiily  to  swing  back,  peiididum-like.  to 
the  oi)posite  extreme  when  doubt  is  raised:  but  always  at 
the  end  judicious  afterthought  establishes  the  place  of  rest. 

William  Pepper. 


Bleek,  lilayk,  Wilhelm  TIeixrich  Immanuel  :  philologist ; 
son  of  Friedrich  (1793-1859),  the  New  Testament  commen- 
tator :  b.  in  Berlin,  Jlar.  8,  1837 ;  settled  in  Cape  Town  in 
1856,  where  he  became  librarian  of  Sir  George  Grey's  valua- 
ble library.  lie  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  vocabulary  of 
the  Mozambique  languages  (1856):  a  Handbook  of  African, 
Australian,  and  Polynesian  Philology  (London,  1858); 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  South  African  Lanyuages 
(vol.  i..  1862) ;  Reynard  the  Fox  in  South  Africa,  or  Hot- 
tentot Fatiles  and  7V(/f«  (1864);  and  Vrspruncj  der  Sprache 
(1868).  Bleek  was  probably  the  first  to  suggest  a  rational 
explanation  of  grammatical  gender.  D.  in  Cape  Town,  Aug, 
17,  1875. 

Blende  [loan-word  from  a  deriv.  of  Germ,  hlenden,  deceive]: 
the  native  sulphide  of  zinc,  which  British  miners  call  black- 
jack. It  abounds  in  (irimary  and  in  secondaiT  rocks,  and  oc- 
curs both  massive  and  crystallized  in  octahedrons  and  rhom- 
boidal  dodecahedrons.  Pure  blende  is  composed  of  67  per 
cent,  of  zinc  and  33  of  sul])hur.  It  is  a  valuable  ore,  but  is 
more  ditficult  to  reduce  than  calamine.  This  is  the  chief  ore 
employed  in  the  important  zinc  industi"y  of  Illinois.  Missouri, 
and  Kansas.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  sulphides  of 
antimony  and  of  inauganese,  the  former  of  which  is  a  rare 
mineral  called  red  antimony.     Revised  by  C.  Kirchhoff. 

Blenean:  a  village  in  the  department  of  Yonne,  France; 
about  2!)  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Auxerre:  famous  as  the  place 
where  Turenne  defeated  the  Prince  of  Condc  in  1652.  Pop. 
(1891)  2,084. 

Blenheim,  lilenim.  Germ,  ju-on.  blen  him,  or  Blindheini, 
blint  hini :  the  name  of  a  small  village  of  Bavaria,  near 
the  Danidie ;  23  miles  X.  N.  W.  of  Augsburg.  From  it  the 
English  have  named  the  famous  battle  which  occurred  at 
the  neighboring  village  of  Ilochstiidt.  Aug.  13.  1704.  Here 
the  allied  armies,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
and  Prince  Eugene  (who  had  about  52.000  men),  attacked 
the  French  and  Bavarians  (about  56,000  men),  who  were 
commanded  by  Tallard  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  The 
Duke  of  Jlarlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  gained  a  decisive 
victory,  and  look  about  13.000  jirisoners,  including  Tallard. 
The  French  and  Bavarians  also  lost  nearly  10.000  killed  and 
wounded,  besides  many  that  were  drowned  in  the  Danube. 
The  French  and  Germans  call  this  the  battle  of  Hochstadt. 
The  name  Blenheim  is  also  given  to  the  estate  at  Woodstock, 
Oxfordshire,  and  the  palace,  eonferreil  by  Parliament  on 
John  Churchill,  fii-st  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Blenheim,  blen  im :  village  of  Harwich  township.  Kent 
CO..  Ontario.  Canada  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ontario,  ref. 
6-B) :  12  miles  from  Chatham  and  75  from  Ijondon.  Has 
churches  of  seven  denominations,  large  public  school,  a 
mechanics'  institute,  large  flour-mills,  bending  and  planing 
.  mills,  fire  department,  good  streets,  electric  lights,  and 
water-works.  There  is  a  large  sujiiily  of  natural  gas  3 
miles  away,  which  is  now  (1893)  being  piped  to  the  village. 
The  surrounding  country  is  settled  by  wealthy  farmers,  and 
Blenheim  is  the  chief  bean-inarket  in  Canada.  Pop.  (1881) 
1,212 :  (1891)  1.708.  Editor  of  "  News." 

Blenheiin-dog.  or  Marlborongh-dog :  a  small  and  beau- 
tiful variety  of  spaniel.  It  closely  resembles  the  cocker  in 
form  and  appearance,  but  is  generally  white,  with  spots  and 
markings  of  a  red  color.  The  muzzle  is  also  fuller.  It  de- 
rives its  English  name  from  Blenheim  Palace,  in  Oxford- 
shire, where  the  breed  has  Ijeen  preserved  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Blennerhassett.  IIarmax:  a  victim  of  Aaron  Burr;  b.  in 
Ham])shire.  England.  Oct.  8. 1764  or  1765;  educated  in  Lon- 
don and  Dulilin:  settled  on  an  islaiul  in  the  Ohio  river,  be- 
low Parkersbui-g:  gave  his  time  to  scientific  recreation  and 
luxurv ;  sujiplied  Burr  with  a  rendezvous  and  equipment 
for  his  Southern  schemes;  involved  in  litigation  and  confis- 
cations: tried  in  vain  to  recover  liis  fortunes  in  Canada  and 
England:  d.  in  Guernsey.  Feb.  1,  1831.  His  wife  wrote 
some  books,  and  died  in  the  U.  S.  while  endeavoring  to  re- 
cover losses  from  the  Government.  See  Blennerhassett  Pa- 
pers (New  York,  1864). 

Blennorrhoea  [from  Gr.  0\4i/ms.  mucous -|- ^o(a,  -ppoia, 
flux]:  an  aliiKirmally  cojiious  discharge  from  any  uuicous 
niendirane.  In  discharges  termed  Idennoriha'al  there  is  a 
mixture  of  e)iitlielial  .scales  in  large  quantities  from  the  mu- 
cous mend)rane.  with  numerous  pus-cells.  After  inflamma- 
tion of  the  uriiuiry  mucous  membrane  a  gleety  discharge 
frequentlv  continues  for  a  long  period.  The  treatment  con- 
sists in  es'talilishing  health  bv  tonics,  fresh  air,  and  careful 


BLENNY 


BLIXI),   EDUCATION  OF   THE 


659 


regimen,  with  astringent  lotions  to  lessen  the  secretion,  and 
occiisioniil  local  stiimilants  to  alter  the  depraved  condition 
of  the  nuicous  nienibninu. 

Blpniiv  [from  Lat.  blfiiiiiiiK.  mime  of  a  fish;  Gr.  $\fy- 
voi.  sliiiul :  a  fish  of  the  genus  B/f/iiiiiis.  (inler  Aruiilliu/t- 
Ifii.  and  family  BlenniiiUe.  The  true  blennies  are  small. 
naketl  fishes,  often  gayly  colored,  aliounding  in  seaweeds, 

tide  pools,  and  among  rooks 
near  the  shore,  especially  in 
warm  regions.  They  are  sel- 
ilom  used  as  an  article  of 
food,  liut  are  in  riMjuest  for 
the  aquariuui,  on  account  of 
tlu'ir  tenacity  of  life  and 
their  activity.  Tlu'y  feed 
chiefly  on  small  crustaceans. 
The  eycd-blennv  {Blenniiis 
ucfUdria),  called  also  the 
liutterfly  -  fish,  has  a  large 
and  ])roniincnt  dorsal  fin,  in  whii-li  is  a  s])ot  resembling  an 
eye.  This  fish  is  common  in  tlie  Jlediterranean. 
'  Sonu'  (if  the  hlenny  family  retain  their  eggs  within  the 
oviduct  until  they  are  hatched,  so  tliat  the  young  are  pro- 
duced alive,  and  capalile  of  seeking  food  for  themselves. 
Scvirid  lilennies  arc  found  on  the  .\merican  coasts. 

Itlepll'iiris  [(ir.  3AeiJ)op(s.  eyelash]:  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  family  Carangidoe;  with  a  short,  deep  body,  and  long 


Eyed-blenny. 


Blephai-is  criuitus. 


streamers  on  the  fins.  The  American  spcvies  (B.  cn'iiifiix) 
reaches  the  length  of  a  foot  or  more,  and  is  found  in  warmer 
parts  of  the  Atlantic. 

Bl^rf,  blay'riiy'  (fjat.  lilin'acum):  a  town  of  France :  de- 
partment of  Indre-et-Loire :  on  the  river  C'lier:  IG  miles 
K.  .S.  E.  of  Toui-s.  It  has  a  bridge  built  aljout  1150.  Pop. 
(18!)1)  :i,272.  N'ear  it  is  the  chateau  of  C'hcnoMccaux,  which 
llenry  II.  of  France  gave  in  1.535  to  Diana  of  I'oiticrs.  wlio, 
having  sumptLmusly  eudiellished  it,  was  compcUeil  to  trans- 
fer it  to  Catherine  de  Medicis.  In  1733  it  was  purchased  liy 
M.  Dupin,  the  wit  and  beauty  of  whoso  widow  oau.sod  it  to 
be  fro([Ui'ntod  by  Fontenelle,  Voltaire.  Huffon,  Rousseau,  and 
othei-s.     Tlie  castle  is  in  good  preservation. 

Bli'S-bok  (Dumalla  alliifronx) :  an  antelope  of  South 
Africa.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  blaze  (Dutch,  bits)  of 
white  in  its  face. 

Blessed  Thistle  (Citicufibi'netlirliis):  a  plant  of  the  fam- 
ily Coin^itisilii'  \  a  milive  of  Europe,  sparingly  naturalized 
in  the  I .  .S.  It  was  formerly  rogardoil  with  great  venera- 
tion on  account  of  its  supposed  nic<li(inal  virtues,  which  are 
celebrateil  by  Burton  in  his  Anatomi/  of  Melaiichoh/,  and 
by  Shakspeaio.  under  the  name  of  Carduus  henedictiis.  It 
is  tonic  and  diaphoretic. 

Bles'singfoii,  Maroahkt  Gardixkr,  Countess  of:  an  ac- 
complished and  beautiful  Irish  lady:  b.  near  Clonmel.  in 
Tipperary  County,  Sept.  1,  1789.  ller  maiden  name  was 
Power.  She  was  married  in  1818  to  the  Earl  of  Ulessing- 
ton,  who  was  her  second  husband.  She  traveled  willi  him 
extensively  on  the  Continenl,  and  after  he  died  in  18'20  she 
lived  in  (lore  House,  Londmi,  where  her  soiivos  were  at- 
tende<l  by  many  literati  and  otlicr  eminent  persons,  Slie 
published  Conversations  with  Lord  Bijrou  (1834) ;  The  Idler 


j'n /'ranrp :  and  other  works.  I ).  in  Paris,  June  4, 1849.  See 
R.  R.  JIadden's  The  Lilerari/  Life  and  Correspondence  of 
Lady  Blesnington  (3  vols.,  1855). 

Blic'lier.  blee  rlwr,  Sti:i:n"  Stkknskx  :  Danish  poet  and 
writ<T  of  tales;  b.  Oct.  11.  178L'.  His  tales,  the  first  of 
wliich  appeareil  in  1824,  deal  chiefly  with  life  in  ,Iutland, 
where  he  was  pastor  for  many  years.  They  are  rcmarkalily 
true  to  life,  and  have  had  no  small  influence  on  Danish  lit- 
erature. A  collected  edition  was  published  in  \>i^-2  (Snmlede 
Koreller  og  Sl'izzer.  ordnede  efler  Tidafelyeti  af  P.  Hansen, 
4  vols.),  lie  translated  ^Iaci)hoi-son"s  Ossian  into  Danish. 
He  wrote  also  in  t)ie  Jutland  dialect.     D.  Mar.  2(1.  1H48. 

G.  Ij.  Kittrkihie. 

Blida,  blee'da"a:  a  town  of  Algeria;  province  of  Algeria; 
about  30  miles  S.  W.  of  .Mgiei-s.  It  is  plea.santly  situated 
on  the  border  of  tlie  ^lotidjali.  is  a  station  on  a  railway,  and 
is  said  to  be  verv  flourishing.  It  ha-s  lieen  oocuiiied  bv  the 
French  since  18:38.     Pop.  (1891)  23,086. 

Bligll.  bli.  WillIjVM:  an  English  navid  ollicer;  b.  of  a 
Cornish  family  in  1753.  He  commanded  the  shi|i  Himnty, 
witli  wliich  he' was  sent,  to  Tahiti  in  Dec,  1787,  to  procure 
plants  of  the  breadfruit  tree,  in  order  to  jilant  them  in  the 
West  Indies.  During  his  voyage  for  Jamaica  with  a  cargo 
of  these  plants  a  part  of  his  crew  mutinied,  A]ir.  28.  1789, 
on  acc<iunt  of  his  harsh  troatmeiil.  The  captain  and 
eighteen  of  his  men  were  sent  adrift  in  the  launch,  and  after 
much  sutToring  arrived  at  the  island  of  Timor  in  June,  hav- 
ing traversed  3.600  nautical  miles  in  an  open  boat.  The 
mutineers  settled  on,  Piloaini's  island.  Bligh  was  appointed 
governor  of  New  South  Wales  in  1M06.  but  his  oonduot  was 
so  tvrannical  thai  ho  was  expelled  in  1808.  D.  in  London, 
Dec".  7,  1817. 

Blight:  a  name  given  to  many  parasitic  fungi  and  to 
the  diseases  which  I liey  produce.  It  has  been  ])arlicularly 
applied  to  the  Erijsi/iliea'.  a  family  of  AftciiDiyrcfiK,  which 
are  in  some  publications  called  "the  lilights."  but  latterly 
these  have  borne  the  mucli  better  name  of  powdery  mil- 
dews. (1)  Apple  blii/hl  is  a  disease  of  apple-trees  affecting 
the  twigs,  leaves,  branches,  and  even  the  trunk.  When  the 
twigs  are  affected  the  leaves  suddenly  turn  brown  and  die, 
and  a  gummy  exudation  appeal's  here  and  there  upon  the 
bark.  On  the  larger  branches  and  the  tnnik  the  blight  ap- 
ni'ars  in  the  form  of  dead  and  sunken  patches  of  bark.  It 
has  lieen  demonstrated  within  the  past  few  years  that  this 
blight  is  due  to  the  presence  of  bacteria.  Bacillus  ami/loforu.% 
or.  accoriling  to  some.  Micrococcus  aini/loronis.  Inoculations, 
made  by  inserting  these  bacteria  into  tlie  living  tissues  of 
apjile  twigs,  are  followed  by  the  <levelopment  of  bliglit.  The 
bacteria  live  upon  the  celi-substances.  and.  by  robbing  the 
cells,  finallv  cause  their  death.  (2)  I'ear  blii/lil  is  identical 
with  apple'  blight.  (3)  Pear-leaf  blii/ht  ap|iears  uiion  the 
leaves,  jiroducing  yellowish  or  reddish  spots,  marked  in  the 
center  by  minute  Islack  pimiiles.  It  attacks  the  fruit  also, 
causing  it  to  crack  open  and  become  stunted.  This  disease 
is  due  to  Entcjmosporiiim  maciilatiim.  one  of  the  .so-called 
•■  imiicrfect  fungi,"  of  the  order  Spba'rop.iidew.  The  fungus 
appears  to  pa.ss  the  winter  upon  the  talh-ii  leaves.  (4)  Quince- 
leaf  blif/lif  is  identical  with  pear-loaf  blight.  (5)  Straw- 
berry-leaf blii/hl  produces  upon  the  leaves  red  spots,  which 
develop  later  into  larger  iliseaseil,  whitish  area.s,  bordered 
with  red.  This  is  caused  by  Sphierellafraffariw.  one  of  the 
black  fungi  (Pi/renoini/cetecr)  of  the  family  Sphieriacere. 
Here  again  the  fungus  appeai-s  to  ])ass  the  winter  in  the 
dead  leaves.  (6)  Tomato  bliiilit  forms  rusty  brown  patches 
on  the  under  side  of  the  loaves,  followed  by  willing  and  death. 
It  is  caused  by  Cladosrioriinn  fiitnnn.^uv  of  tin-  "ini]iorfect 
fungi"'  of  the  order  i/yphonn/celea'.  Most  of  these  I'ungns 
diseases  are  prevented  liy  spraying  with  solutions  of  cop- 
per sulphates  or  carbonates.  (7)  (irape  blif/ht.  see  JIn.DEW. 
(8)  /'otafo  blii/bt.  soi>  UoT.  CllARLES  E.  BeSSEV. 

Blini'hiiig,  or  Bilintbi  (variously  written  also  blimbi 
and  hHimli/):  the  native  name  for  the  berries  of  an  East 
Indian  tree  {Arerrhoa  bilimbi)  belonging  to  the  Oxalidew- 
or  Soriel  family.  They  are  extremely  acid,  but  are  esteemed 
and  much  used  as  a  preserve  and  a  pickle.  The  juice  is 
used  as  a  remedy  for  certain  diseases  of  the  skin.  Arerrhoa. 
bilimbi  nm\  its  congener  Arerrhoa  carambolii  have  been  ili- 
troduced  into  cultivation  in  the  West  Indies.  They  exhibit 
to  a  moderate  degree  the  phenomena  of  "sleeping"  and 
"waking,"  exhibited  by  other  membei-s  of  the  same  order. 

Blind.  Education  of  the:  Previous  to  the  eighteenth 
centurv  no  svstomalie  ell'orl  was  made  to  educate  the  blind 


660 


BLIND,  EDUCATION  OP  THE 


as  a  class.  In  1646  an  Italian  published  a  book  drawing  at- 
tention to  their  condition,  and  in  1670  Lana  Terzi.  a  Jesuit 
of  Brescia,  discussed  tlie  possibility  of  their  education.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  and  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  centuries  two  causes  tended  especially  to  awaken 
thought  on  this  subject — viz.,  the  philosophical  discussions 
of  Locke,  Leibnitz,  and  Reid  concerning  blindness  and  the 
appearance  of  a  few  blind  persons  of  remarkable  talent, 
whose  achievements  were  greatly  admired,  of  whom  Saun- 
derson,  Blacklock,  and  Theresa  von  Paradis  are  illustrations. 
The  first  school  for  the  blind  was  organized  and  taught  by 
Valentine  Haiiy  in  1784  at  Paris;  similar  schools  were  soon 
instituted  in  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  other  European  coun- 
tries. The  first  in  the  U.  S.  was  established  by  legislative  en- 
actment of  Massachusetts  at  Boston  in  1829,  and  schools  of 
this  character  are  now  in  operation  in  most  of  the  principal 
States  in  the  Union.  They  are  essentially  a  part  of  the 
school  system  of  the  respective  States  in  which  they  are  situ- 
ated. Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe  was  the  pioneer  in  the  work  in 
this  country.  Others  who  have  labored  in  this  field  are 
Messrs.  Chapin,  Williams,  Wait,  Lord,  Little,  Morrison, 
Huntoon,  and  Anagnos,  the  son-in-law  of  Dr.  Howe. 

The  U.  S.  Governmeut  hiis  shown  interest  in  this  work ; 
and  Congress  in  March,  1879,  passed  an  act  to  promote  the 
education  of  the  blind,  by  virtue  of  which  $2.50,000  was  set 
apart  as  a  perpetual  fund,  the  interest  of  which  should  be 
appropriated  to  the  purchase  of  suitable  books  and  apparatus 
to  be  distributed  annually  among  the  various  institutions 
for  the  blind  in  the  U.  S".  The  American  Printing-house 
for  the  Blind,  situated  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  has  charge  of  this 
fund,  and  is  constantly  sending  forth  excellent  books  and 
maps  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  blind.  Prescott's  Conquest 
o/Pfr».  Motley's  Peter  fhe  Great,  Steele's  Chemistry,  Perry's 
Political  Economy,  and  other  similar  works,  are  among  the 
books  made  available  by  this  admirable  institution.  Music 
adapted  to  the  use  of  the  blind  is  also  published  by  this 
house.  The  Perkins  Institution  publishes  books  from  the 
Howe  Memorial  Press,  and  a  few  books  are  printed  by  vari- 
ous other  institutions  in  the  country. 

An  organization  known  as  the  American  Association  of 
Instructors  for  the  Blind  holds  a  meeting  biennially  in  some 
part  of  the  U.  S.  to  discuss  methods  of  teaching,  and  to  con- 
sider other  questions  connected  with  their  work.  The  most 
noted  schools  for  this  cla.ss  in  foreign  countries  are  at  Paris, 
Amsterdam,  Vienna,  Berlin.  Copenhagen,  and  London.  At 
London  is  the  Royal  Normal  College  for  the  Blind,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  a  blind  man  who  was  born  and  educated 
in  the  U.  S. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  many  societies  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  alleviating  the  condition  of  those  devoid  of 
sight.  .  The  Association  for  Promoting  the  General  'Welfare 
of  the  Blind,  founded  in  London  by  Miss  Gilbert  in  1856, 
has  for  one  of  its  objects  the  teaching  and  training  of  blind 
persons  who  on  account  of  age  or  other  cause  are  not  eligible 
for  admission  to  the  schools.  Outside  of  schools  more  is 
done  for  the  sightless  in  Great  Britain  through  the  medium 
of  this  and  similar  societies  than  in  other  countries. 

Beginning  with  the  little  school  of  Haiiy  at  Paris,  the 
idea  of  educating  the  blind  has  become  cosmopolitan.  In 
most  of  the  schools  there  are  three  departments — viz.,  liter- 
ary, musical,  and  industrial.  The  education  in  the  liter- 
ary department  is  aliout  equal  to  the  English  course  in 
academies.  In  teaching  reading  various  alphabets  have 
been  used.  In  Edinburgh  two  blind  men  invented  and  used 
a  string  alphal)et,  by  which  the  different  letters  were  desig- 
nated by  the  form  and  distance  of  knots  on  a  cord,  on  which 
events  coiUd  be  recorded  or  letters  written  and  the  manu- 
script rolled  into  a  ball  and  preserved  or  sent  to  a  friend, 
as  the  occasion  might  demand.  The  alphabets  commonly 
used,  however,  consist  of  letters,  or  characters  representing 
letters,  raised  about  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  above  the 
level  of  the  page  and  read  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 
Stenographic  sy.stems  have  lieen  invented,  but  not  exten- 
sively use<l.  The  Moon  type — so  called  from  the  name  of 
the  inventor.  Dr.  Moon,  of  Brighton,  England — is  exten- 
sively used,  especially  in  Great  Britain.  The  alphabet  con- 
sists of  six  Roman  letters  unaltered  and  twelve  with  parts 
left  out ;  the  others  are  (lesigiiate<l  by  new  but  simple  forms. 
The  Scriptures  and  many  vohimes  of  history,  science,  jioetry, 
and  biography  have  been  issued  in  this  type.  The  I'ollow- 
ing  large  shaded  characters  are  the  Moox  Alphabet  for  the 
blind.  The  dotted  marks  of  the  letters  i)rinted  over  this 
alphaVjet  show  what  portions  of  the  common  letter  are  taken 
away  in  order  to  lay  the  characters  open  and  clear  to  ihe 


touch.    The  large  shaded  characters  when  printed  for  the 
use  of  the  blind  are  in  relief  (embossed),  without  ink : 

A         b        C         D  E 

A  (L  C    3  r 

-F  G        H  I  J 

f    1   ®     [     J 

K  L        m  N  0 

<   (L  1    js^    @ 

G_         _a        R  •/>  T 


U  V       W         X 


J 


Z  S'(&) 

n   r 


The  Roman  letter  and  the  point  or  dot  system  are  the  most 
popular.  There  are  two  methods  of  distinguishing  letters 
by  points,  the  Braille  and  the  New  York,  in  use  both  for 
literary  and  musical  composition.  In  ISoston  only  the 
Roman  letter  is  employed  in  printing.  At  the  American 
Printing-house  for  the'  Blind  the  Roman  letter  and  the 
New  York  point  are  used.  In  foreigri  countries  both  books 
and  music  are  embossed  in  the  Braille  point.  The  Braille 
svstem  has  also  been  successfully  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  bhnd  of  China  by  the  Rev.  William  H.  Murray,  of  the 
National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland.  Peking,  China.  In 
.Japan  the  katakana  form  of  the  forty-eight  letters  of  the 
.Japanese  syllabary  has  been  modified  somewhat  in  the  Moon 
fashion,  but  in  a  less  degree,  and  introduced  successfully  by 
Dr.  Henry  Faulds  and  another,  and  portions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  other  books  have  been  produced. 

The  following  is  the  Braille  Alphabet  as  employed  in 
France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  other  foreign  countries : 

a  b  c  d  e 


• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

f 

h 

i 

J 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

k 

m 

n 

0 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

P 

r 

s 

t 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

u 

X 

y 

z 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 
•  • 

• 
•  • 

9 

a 

e 

il 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 
•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 
•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

BLIND,  EDUCATION   OF  THE 


BLINDNESS 


661 


1 


T 

ii 

a> 

w 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

jit'fix  for  numbers. 


The  characters  for  the  first  ten  numerals  in  this  system 
are  tlie  same  us  tliose  for  the  first  ten  lettere  of  the  alphabet. 
The  New  York  Point  Alphabet  is  as  follows: 


a 

b 

c 

(1 

e 

•  • 

•  •  • 
• 

•  • 
• 

•  • 
• 

• 

f 
•  •  • 

g 

• 
•  •  • 

h 

•  • 
•  •  • 

i 

• 
• 

•  •  • 
• 

k 

I 

m 

n 

0 

•  •  • 
• 

• 
•  • 

•  • 
• 

•  • 

• 
• 

P 

• 
•  • 

q 

• 
•  •  • 

r 

• 
•  • 

s 

• 
• 

t 

• 

u 

V 

\v 

X 

y 

•  •  • 

•     • 
• 

• 

•  • 

z 

•  •  • 

•  • 

•  •  • 

• 
•     • 

Word  and  Part-word  Signs. 


the 

and 

of 

that 

i'lg 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•      • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

•      • 

•  • 

•  • 

ch 

ou 

sh 

th 

wli 

•  • 

•  •  • 

• 

•  • 

•      • 

•     • 

•      • 

•  •  • 
Xumerals. 

•  • 

•  • 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

0 


•  • 


Prefix  indicating  that  the  characters  which  follow  are  nu- 
merals :  ?  ?  ?  The  decimal  point  is  Tlic  capital  let- 
ters are  derived  from  the  small  letters  by  suffixing  to  each 
of  them  an  many  points  as  will  form  a  new  character  four 
points  in  length,  in  tlie  following  manner:  1st.  When  tlie 
.small  letter  ends  witli  a  point  in  the  ujiper  row,  us  in  tlie 
letter  ••  a."  add  the  suffix  in  the  lower  row;  2d.  When  the 
small  letter  ends  with  a  point  in  the  lower  row.  as  in  "c." 
or  in  both  ujiper  and  lower  rows,  as  in  "  d,"  add  the  suffix 
in  the  upper  row. 

Hoth  methods  are  used  by  pupils  in  the  schools  of  the 
U.  S.  in  taking  notes  and  for  the  purpose  of  correspondence. 
The  Braille,  as  used  in  the  U.  .'^..  is.  however,  somewnat  modi- 
fied. The  apparatus  for  writing  the  point-system  consists 
of  a  board  witli  a  grooved  surface,  over  whi<'h  a  frame  is 
fitted.  Sheets  of  paper  are  placi'd  over  the  board,  and  the 
points  are  made  with  a  stiletto  through  a  iiile  of  perforated 
metal.      The  writing  is  done  from  right  to  left,  as  the 


sheets  are  reversed  when  read.  An  improvement  on  the 
form  of  stiletto  which  was  originally  used  has  facilitated 
this  iiietliod  of  writing.  It  attaclies  a  sliiling-bar  supjdied 
witli  small  keys  to  the  rule,  which  ujxjn  being  pressed  marks 
the  points  ou  the  paper  below.  An  instrument  has  been  in- 
vented by  M.  Pephan.  director  of  a  school  in  Paris,  which 
is  of  us<"  io  blind  people.  It  is  a  snudl  press  which  enables 
them  not  only  to  print  the  raised  characters  which  they 
read  with  their  fingers,  liut  also  the  ordinary  ink  characters, 
on  the  same  sheet  of  ]>api'r,  at  the  same  time.  Hy  its  use 
they  are  able  to  comniunicale  by  letter  with  their  friends 
without  asking  the  assistance  of  others.  Several  instru- 
ments for  writing  point  print,  which  are  similar  in  con- 
struction to  typewriters,  have  been  invented  in  the  United 
States,  and  will  be  of  invaluable  service  to  the  blind  in  ac- 
quiring their  education. 

Kvery  well-equipped  school  for  the  blind  contains  a  great 
variety' of  articles  for  object-teaching:  the  propriety  of 
having  such  a  collection  is  apparent  when  it  is  considered 
that  the  blind  ac<|uire  a  great  deal  of  knowU'dge  through 
the  sense  of  touch,  and  many  quite  comnujn  objects  will  es- 
cape their  attention  unless  tiiey  are  allowed  to  handle  them. 
Mbnd  persons  who  are  endowed  with  musical  capacity  are 
tauglit  to  become  organists,  teachers  of  singing,  instructors 
on  the  pianoforte,  cornet,  or  other  instruments.  They  are 
taught  to  tune  pianos,  in  which  they  are  especially  success- 
ful. The  pianos  of  the  public  schools  in  Hostoii  are  tuned 
by  pupils  of  the  Perkins  Institution.  The  industries  taught 
the  blnid  are  basket-making,  broom-making,  mattress-mak- 
ing, carpet-weaving,  sewing,  knitting,  and  crochet  ing.  There 
are  individual  cases  on  record  where  blind  men  have  learned 
the  trades  of  clockmaker,  wagonniaker,  and  other  mechan- 
ical pursuits. 

The  educati(m  of  blind  children  is  often  seriously  neg- 
lected at  their  homes  before  they  attain  an  age  (usually 
about  nine  years)  suitable  to  begin  their  study  in  an  institu- 
tion especially  adapted  to  their  wants,  .sonu'times  not  even 
being  taught  to  wash,  dress,  aiul  feed  themselves. 

At  Hubertsburgh.  in  Saxony,  tlu're  is  a  preparatory 
school  for  young  bliiul  children  i'rom  which  the  institution 
at  Dresileu  receives  them,  having  been  pro])erly  cared  for 
and  taught  in  early  childhood.  There  is  a  school  of  similar 
character  in  Copenhagen.  In  18S0  a  kindergarten  with  a 
like  purpose  was  opened  in  Boston.  Mass.,  where  children 
receive  training  before  they  enter  the  Perkins  Institution. 
This  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  U.  S..  and  its  estab- 
lishnuMit  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  Mr.  .\nagnos.  It  is  hoped 
that  more  such  schools  may  soon  be  oiganizcd.  In  the 
U.  S.  there  are  about  ;3.000  blind  pujiils  in  the  schools  cstab- 
lislied  for  their  education.  Artiil-r  (t.  Clement. 

Blind,  blint.  Karl:  a  German  liberal  politician:  b.  at 
Mannheim.  Se(it.  4.  1H20;  hail  a  prominent  part  in  the  revo- 
hitions  of  1S4S  and  1H4!I.  and  in  1.S.53  took  refuge  in  Lon- 
don. Having  been  pardoned  by  the  (iovernnu>nt  of  Baden 
in  1.S67,  he  returned  to  Oermany.  where  he  has  since  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  policy  of 
Hismarck.  Besides  writing  biographies  of  Ledru-Kollin, 
Dcak.  and  Preiligrath.  he  has  been  a  .student  of  the  sjigas 
and  jiublished  many  articles  <in  Scandinavian  folk-lore. 

Blindage,  in  fortification  :  a  term  apiilied  to  a  screen 
made  of  timber  and  earth,  or  any  (ixlure  clesigned  to  shelter 
the  garrison  or  conceal  their  operations  from  the  enemy. 
Thi^  blindage  is  sometimes  formed  of  fascines,  placed  on 
the  inner  crest  of  a  battery  and  continued  over  the  top  of 
the  end)rasures.  Other  blindages,  used  to  protect  the  gun- 
ners of  a  battery  from  a  vertical  fire,  consist  of  plain  and 
strong  timliers,  one  end  of  which  is  placed  on  the  inner 
crest  of  the  parajiet  and  the  other  end  on  the  ground. 

Bliiidfisli :  any  fish  of  the  genus  Amrlyopsis  (q.  v.). 

Blindhcini:  Sec  Blenhei.m. 

Blindness:  the  absence  of  the  sense  of  sight,  caused  by 
disease,  defect,  or  injury  of  the  eye.  of  the  optic  nerve,  of 
the  optic  tracts,  or  of  the  cortical  centers  of  vision  in  the 
lirain.  Blindness  may  be  congenital  or  acquired,  complete 
or  incomplete,  and  transient  or  permanent.  Congenital 
blindness  may  be  due  to  absence  of  the  globes  (anophtlial- 
nios).  deficient  development  of  the  globes  (microphthalmos), 
excessive  development  of  the  globes  (megalophthalmos), 
complicated  cataract,  iiiilamiiiation  of  the  choroid  coat,  atro- 
]iliy  of  the  optic  nerve,  degeneration  of  the  retina,  anomalies 
of  the  cornea,  tumoi-s.  and  undetermined  conditions.  Among 
the  last  are  classed  those  eases  of  blindness  wliich  occur 


662 


BLINDSTORY 


BLIZZARD 


from  deficient  develn|jmeiit  of  the  nervous  apparatus.  The 
most  important  idiopatiiic  diseases  of  the  eye  whicli  may 
produce  permanent  blindness  are  ophthalmia  of  the  newly 
born,  granular  lids,  inflammations  of  the  cornea,  iris,  cho- 
roid, and  retina,  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve,  glaucoma,  and 
tumors  of  the  eye  ancl  its  vicinity.  Blindness  the  result  of 
injuries  may  lie  due  to  a  wound  of  the  eye,  to  unsuccessful 
operations,  to  injuries  of  tlie  head,  and  to  sympathetic  inflam- 
mation. Blindnvss  may  Ijc  produced  by  general  diseases — 
for  example,  scrofula,  syphilis,  inflammation  of  the  brain 
and  its  membranes  (including  insanity  and  epilepsy),  disease 
of  the  spinal  cord,  the  various  eruptive  fevers,  intermittent 
fever,  heart  disease,  Brighfs  disease,  and  toxic  influences 
(lead,  tobacco,  alcohol). 

Amblyopia  axu  Amaurosis. — Both  of  these  terms  signify 
dimness  of  vision,  the  former  being  used  to  describe  obscur- 
ity of  sight,  and  the  latter  the  more  advanced  condition  of 
loss  of  vision.  Modern  methods  of  examination  have  greatly 
lessened  the  number  of  instances  to  which  older  writers  ap- 
plied the  words  amblyopia  and  amaurosis.  Amblyopia  is  a 
symptom,  and  describes  the  defective  vision  from  which  the 
patient  suffers.  This  may  be  due  to  functional  disturbance, 
or  to  disease  of  the  visual  apparatus  (retina,  optic  nerve, 
or  visual  centers),  and  may  be  unassociated  with  changes 
in  the  eye ;  or  tliere  may  be  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve. 
Amblyopia  and  anuuii'osis  may  be  congenital  or  acc(uired, 
temporary  or  [jermanent,  and  symmetrical  or  non-symmetri- 
cal. Congenital  amblyopia  is  a  terra  generally  applied  to 
instances  of  defective  vision  uncomplicated  by  evident  dis- 
ease of  the  coats  of  the  eyes.  The  faulty  vision  has  always 
existed,  and  often  there  are  higli  grades  of  farsightedness 
and  astigmatism,  and  clear  images  have  never  been  focused 
on  the  retina.  Squint  is  usually  present  in  eyes  of  this 
character.  Sometimes  the  amblyopia  is  present  only  for 
colors,  and  is  then  known  as  color-blindness.  Other  causes 
for  amblyopia  are  injuries,  the  toxic  action  of  certain  drugs 
(alcoliol,  tobacco,  quinine,  sulphide  of  carbon),  and  various 
iliseases — for  examijle,  Briglit's  disease,  diabetes,  and  malaria. 
A  curious  form  of  amaurosis  occurs  in  connection  with  hys- 
teria. Blindness  is  sometimes  simulated  by  those  who  desire 
to  escape  distasteful  duties  (malingering). 

Night-blindness  (Nyctalopia,  often  incorrectly  termed 
hemeralopia). — Tliis  is  a  fum-tional  complaint  consisting  in 
an  imperfect  adaptive  power  of  the  retina,  due  to  ex|)osure 
of  the  eye  to  strong  light,  together  with  a  debilitated  and 
often  scorbutic  state  of  the  system.  It  affects  residents  in 
tropical  cfiuntries,  often  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  has  been 
occasionally  oljservcil  in  large  schools,  usually  in  the  early 
spring  or  .summer.  It  prevails  as  an  endemic  in  certain 
countries,  especially  in  Russia  during  the  Lenten  fasts. 
The  patients  are  unable  to  see  well  in  the  dusk,  or  even  on 
dull  days,  although  th('ir  vision  is  good  enough  in  a  bright 
light.  Niglit-blindness  is  also  a  symptom  of  a  very  serious 
disease  of  the  retina  which  is  called  pigmentary  degenera- 
tion, quite  tlistinct  from  the  functional  disorder  which  has 
just  been  described. 

Day-blindnkss  (Hemeralopia,  often  incorrectly  termed 
nyctalopia). — This  is  an  affection  characterized  by  the  fact 
that  its  subjects  see  better  on  dull  days  and  in  the  dark 
than  in  a  briglil  liglit.  Sometimes  it  is  a  symptom  of  dis- 
eases of  tlie  relina  and  of  tlie  optic  nerve;  sometimes  it  is 
found  in  certain  coMgeiiital  faults  of  the  eye,  particularly 
albinism,  and  sometimes  it  is  an  idiopathic  atfeetion,  and 
may  dcvelojj  in  those  who  have  long  been  excluded  from 
the  light.  Among  nocturnal  animals,  as  owls,  bats,  etc.,  it 
is  the  normal  condition.  Cteorge  E.  ue  Schweinitz. 

ISIindslory :  See  Triforium. 

liliiiihvoriii :  a  popular  name  of  the  lizard  Anyins  frri- 
giliii,  which,  however,  is  not  blind,  nor  is  it  a  worm.  It 
is  a  lizard,  closely  related  to  typical  forms,  differing,  liow- 
ever,  in  the  siuikc-likc^  body,  and  in  the  absence  of  exienud 
limbs,  but  the  bones  of  the  shoulder  and  pelvis  exist  in  a 
rudimentary  slate.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rojie.  is  inoffensive  and  timid,  and  moves  very  slowly :  heiu'c 
it  IS  sometimes  called  slowworm.  Its  length  varies  from  10 
to  1 .')  inches.  Its  eyes  are  small  but  well  developed,  and  with 
movable  lids.  As  in  most  lizards,  its  tail  is  very  brittle, 
hence  the  popular  name  of  glass-snake  for  the  Anii'rican 
.species  oC  Anijaiddi.     See  Glass-snake. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Uli.'48.  1'iiilkmon:  jurist:  b.  in  Canton,  Conn.,  July  28, 
1814;  educated  at  Ilamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.  In 
1861  he  became  chief  Justice  of  Dakota,  and  afterward  a 


judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Missouri.  For  a  number  of 
years  he  was  dean  of  the  Law  School  of  the  State  University 
of  Missouri.  He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  code  pleading. 
I),  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Aug.  25,  1889. 

Henry  Wade  Rogers. 
Bliss,  Philip  Paul  :  b.  at  Clearfield,  Pa.,  July  9,  1838 ; 
received  instruction  in  music  from  George  W.  Root;  became 
the  chorister  of  the  First  Congregational  church  of  Chicago, 
and  superintendent  of  the  Sunday-school;  joined  afterward 
in  the  lay  evangelistic  labors  of  Maj.  Whittle,  and  [lerished 
at  tlie  Ashtabula.  0..  railway  accident,  Dec.  29.  1876.  His 
hymns  Hold  the  Fort,  Hallitujnh.  'tis  done  .',  More  to  Fol- 
low, etc. — of  which  he  generally  composed  both  text  and 
melody — became  very  widely  used. 

Bliss,  Porter  Cornelius;  journalist  and  diplomat:  b. 
on  the  Cattaraugus  reservation  of  Seneca  Indians.  Erie  eo., 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  28,  1838 ;  studied  at  Hamilton  and  Yale  Col- 
leges; traveled  in  Maine,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia 
1860-61.  investigating  the  condition  of  the  Indian  tribes  in 
belialf  of  societies  at  Boston ;  was  emjiloyed  for  some  months 
as  clerk  in  the  Indian  bureau,  and  subsequently  in  the  post- 
office  department  at  Washington  1861 ;  took  part  in  volun- 
teer organizations  for  the  defense  of  the  capital;  visited 
England  the  same  year;  accompanied  Gen.  J.  W.  Webb  as 
ju'ivate  secretary  on  his  mission  to  Brazil  1861-62 ;  was  com- 
missioner of  the  Government  of  the  Argentine  Republic  for 
the  exploration  of  the  Indian  country  called  the  Gran  Chaco 
1863 ;  edited  at  Buenos  Ayres  a  monthly  periodical.  The 
River  Plate  Magazine  (1864) ;  was  appointed  by  President 
Lopez  historiographer  of  Paraguay ;  became  secretary  to 
Hon.  C.  A.  Washburne,  U.  S.  minister  to  Paraguay,  1866 ; 
aided  him  in  collecting  materials  for  his  History  of  Para- 
l/iia//  (2  vols.,  1871) ;  was  imprisoned  by  command  of  Lopez 
on  a  charge  of  treason  and  conspiracv  for  his  assassination 
Sept.  10.  1868;  rescued  by  a  U.  S.  sci'uadron  Dec.  10.  1868; 
appointed  translator  to  the  State  department  at  Washing- 
ton, Mar.,  1869;  editor  of  the  Washington  Chronicle  1869- 
70  ;  secretary  of  legation  in  Mexico  1870-74,  and  acting  min- 
ister several  months  1872-73.  He  afterward  resided  in  New 
York,  and  was  vice-president  of  the  American  Philological 
Society  and  an  editor  of  the  New  York  JJerald.  D.  in 
New  York,  Feb.  1,  1885. 

Bliss,  William  Wallace  Smith,  A.M.;  soldier:  b.  in 
Whitehall,  N.  Y.,  Aug.,  1815 ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1833;  assistant  adjutant-general  (rank  of  major)  July  7, 
1846.  He  served  in  the  Cherokee  nation,  1833-34;  assistant 
professor  at  the  JMilitary  Academy  1834-40;  in  the  Florida 
war  1840-41,  lieing  chief  of  staff  to  commanding  general ; 
assistant  adjutant-general  at  headquarters  of  Western  mili- 
tary deiiartmcnts  1842-45;  chief  of  staff  of  Jlaj.-Gen.  Tay- 
lor in  the  military  occupation  of  Texas  1845-46;  in  the  war 
with  Jlcxico  1846-48;  in  command  of  the  Western  division 
1848-49  :  engineer  at  Palo  Alto.  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (brevet 
major),  Monterey,  and  Buena  Vista  (brevet  lieutenant-col- 
onel); private  secretary  of  President  Taylor,  IMar.  4  to  July  9, 
1850;  assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  Western  division, 
headquarters  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  1850-53.  D.  in  East 
Pascagoula,  Miss.,  Aug.  5,  1853. 

Bliss'flt'ld :  village  (founded  in  1825);  Lenawee  co., 
Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref. 
8-J);  on  L.  S.  and  M.S.  R.  R.  (old  line);  23  miles  W.  of 
Toledo;  has  2  graded  schools,  6  churches.  Its  onlv  indus- 
trv  is  farming.    Pop.  (1880)  1,222;  (1890)  1,132;  (1894)  1,236. 

Editor  of  "  Advance." 

Blistered  Steel :  See  Steel. 

Blisters  [in  Early  Jlodern  English  also  ili/ster  and 
Muster;  from  Middle  English  blister;  perhaps  from  Old 
French  hlestre,  blosire,  a  swelling] :  a  term  applied  in  medi- 
cine eh]i('r  (1)  to  thin  vesicles  filled  with  serum  produced 
upon  the  skin  by  certain  applications,  or  (2)  to  the  ap- 
plications themselves.  The  material  most  frequently  em- 
ployed is  cantharides  or  Spanish-fly  (Cantliaris  resicatoria), 
which  may  be  mixeil  with  oily  svdistaiices,  or.  incorporated 
in  colloilion,  painted  upon  the  surface.  (_)rdinarily  from 
four  to  six  hours  are  required  for  a  satisfactory  blister,  but 
in  persons  with  delicate  skin  a  shorter  time  may  suffice,  and 
it  is  well  in  such  cases  to  have  a  thin  sheet  of  gauze  between 
the  skin  and  the,  ap]ilication.  Poultices  over  the  blister 
hastens  its  action.  Ammonia  is  also  usei'ul  in  some  cases, 
but  the  resulting  blisters  are  more  severe. 

Blizzard  [of  doubtful  etymology]  :  a  storm  characterized 
by  a  high  wind,  extreme  cold,  and  an  air  filled  with  fine, 


BLOCK 


BLOCKADE 


663 


haril.  sharp  crystals  of  snow.  Blizzurds  p-nerally  follow  an 
unusually  deep  "low"  or  stonn-area  of  winter  when  the  pres- 
sure rises  raoiilly.  They  ap|iear  first  in  the  plains  of  Can- 
ada K.  of  tne  koeky  Mountains  and  pass  into  the  V.  S. 
throujjh  Kastern  Wyoniinj;,  North  Dnkola,  and  Minnesota, 
and  rarely  pass  K.  of  the  ri'jfion  of  the  Ureal  Lakes,  urdc'ss 
the  ground  has  a  continuous  covering:  of  snow.  They  are 
very  destructive  to  nnoroteeted  slock,  and  arc  dani^erous  to 
human  beings  exposi'U  to  llieui.  The  line  snow  tills  tli<'  air 
and  prevents  the  traveler  from  .seeing  his  way  an<l  stings  the 
skin,  the  mind  becomes  confu.sed.  and  the  sufferer  may  i)er- 
ish  even  within  the  hearing  of  a  call  from  his  own  door. 
Fortunately,  .severe  blizzartls  are  rare,  and  when  they  occur 
they  seldom  continue  more  than  a  day  or  two.     M.  W.  II. 

Block  :  a  heavy  ])iccc  of  tiud>er;  a  massy  body,  solid  and 
heavv  ;  the  piece  of  wood  on  which  criminals  are  beheaded  ; 
the  wooden  mold  on  which  a  hat  is  Idrmed  :  any  obsta- 
cle or  obst  ruction  ;  also  a  continuous  row  of  buildings.  The 
term  is  aiiplied  in  New  York  and  other  cities  to  the  space 
and  buildings  between  two  consecutive  .streets. 

Block  :  in  the  rigging  of  a  ship,  is  the  part  of  the  apna- 
ratus  for  raising  sails  an<l  yards,  tightening  ropes, etc.  '1  he 
uses  of  blocks  are  veiy  numerous  on  shipboarci,  an<l  to  sub- 
serve these  uses  they  are  distributed  about  the  masts  and 
vards.  The  block  comprises  a  s/ii'll  or  exterior,  a  ulieare  or 
wheel  on  which  the  rope  runs,  a  ////;  on  whicli  the  .sheave 
turns,  and  a  xini/)  to  fasten  the  block  in  its  ]ilace.  A  single 
block  contains  only  one  sheave :  a  <louble  block,  two ;  and 
so  on.  Besides  the  designation  of  blocks  according  to  the 
number  of  sheaves  they  contain  (as  single,  double),  they  re- 
ceive fither  naines — such  as  cheek  block,  clew-garnet  block, 
clew-line  block,  etc.  Elm  is  used  for  blocks,  and  lignum  vita; 
for  sheaves. 

Until  17H1  ship's  blocks  were  made  by  hand.  But  it  re- 
quired unusual  skill  and  [iracticc  to  fashion  the  pieces  and 
put  theiu  together  so  as  to  possess  the  requisite  strength 
and  facility  in  working.  More  than  1.400  blocks  were  re- 
quired for  one  of  the  old  seventy-fours,  and  a  proportionate 
nundier  for  other  vessels.  In  ITSl  a  Mr.  Taylor  began  to 
make  the  sheaves  and  shells  of  blocks  by  machinery  for 
the  British  luivy.  Sir  M.  1.  Mruncl  in  ISOl  invetited  ma- 
chinerv  for  making  blocks,  which  was  put  into  successful 
operation  in  bSOS.  Thonuis  Blanchard,  an  American  me- 
chanician, invented  most  ingenious  machines  for  block- 
making.  For  his  invention  and  superintending  the  work, 
Brunei  received  from  the  British  Governnu'nt  €20,000. 

Block.  MoRiTZ  :  a  Fren<li  writer  on  statistics  and  politi- 
cal economy  :  b.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1S16.  Among  his  works 
are  Stdtis/icn  of  France  (2  vols.,  1800);  Europe,  Political 
and  Social  (18tii),  both  in  French);  Die  licvolkcniiu/  ilcs 
Fraiizi/nisc/icn  Kaiscrrcichx  (1801);  and  Die  Bccdlkcnnui 
Spaiiienx  itiid  Portuyah  (IStil).  Since  18")6  he  has  published 
the  Annuaire  de  riconomie  poliligiie  el  de  la  sladxtiquK. 

Blockade':  the  act  of  shutting  out  all  trade  by  sea  with 
certain  specilied  ports  or  coasts  of  one  belligerent  by  an- 
other. It  is  a  war  right  only,  arising  not  from  the  theory 
that  one  state  by  occupation  of  certain  waters  of  another 
has  acquired  sovereignty  over  them,  but  from  the  right 
which  either  party  in  a  war  has  of  weakening  his  enemy's 
jiower  of  resistance  by  cutting  off  his  neutral  trade.  Being 
a  recognized  belligerent  right,  there  exists  a  corresponding 
duty  on  the  part  of  the  neutral  to  observe  it.  This  duty, 
however,  the  neutral  goverinnent  is  not  bound  to  enforce 
through  its  municipal  law,  for  this  burden  is  held  to  lie 
up<ui  the  shoulders  of  the  blockading  power,  the  neutral 
merely  warning  its  sulijects  of  the  fact  of  blockade  and  its 
penally.  Blockade,  unlike  siege,  imiilies  no  attempt  to  gain 
possession  of  a  port  or  town  ;  it  is  rather  an  act  of  preven- 
tion, restriclitig  trade  from  within  as  well  as  from  without 
the  blockaded  walei-s.  By  comity,  at  the  commencement  ofa 
blockade  a  certain  delay  is  usually  granted  to  enable  ships 
inside  either  already  loaded  or  in  ballast  to  leave  the  coun- 
try. In  the  U.  S.Civil  War  this  delay  was  fifteen  days. 
Neutral  men-of-war  on  a  diplomatic  errand  and  ships 
driven  in  by  stress  of  weather  nniy  also  be  granted  the  priv- 
ilege of  entrance  in  spite  of  blockade.  When  a  navigable 
river  like  the  Uio  Gran<Ie  is  a  boundary  between  two  states. 
the  eiU'Uiy  of  one  of  them  can  only  apply  his  blockade  to 
the  trade  of  that  one;  vessels  bound  for  a  neutral  port  up 
river  must  be  allowed  passage.  Declaration  of  blockade 
is  an  net  of  sovereignty  which  is  rarely  delegated  to  the  sub- 
ordinate officers  of  a  slate.  Being  a  .-^erious  limilalion  of 
the  neutral's  right  to  trade  freely  with  his  friends,  that  neu- 


tral has  insisted  that  due  noticeof  it  shall  be  given  him.  and 
that  the  declaration  of  blockade  shall  be  substantiated  by  the 
stationing  of  a  suitable  force  at  the  blockaded  point.  There 
are  then  three  essentials  to  a  valid  capture  for  breach  of 
blockade.  (1)  Due  notification  must  have  been  given.  (2) 
The  blockade  must  be  effective.  (3)  There  must  be  an  at- 
tempt to  break  it. 

I.  JVofifica/ion  of  Blockade. — This  may  b(^  given  in  two 
ways:  by  diplomatic  announcement  to  all  neutral  powers, 
or  by  a  warning  at  the  blockaded  port  inscribed  iqjon  the 
register  of  the  ship  trying  to  enter.  The  diplomatic  notice 
aftera  reasonable  length  of  time  implies  presumptive  knowl- 
edge of  the  blockade  on  the  part  of  all  shi|i-ownci's,  par- 
ticularly now  when  the  telegraiih  is  so  freely  used  in  com- 
merce. The  notice  at  the  blockaded  |iort  uuiy  precede  the 
other  or  supplement  it,  as  when  the  blockade  of  Southern 
ports  was  instituted  by  the  Northern  fieet  dnringthe  war  of 
rebellion  in  the  U.  S.  By  prochimation  all  ports  of  the 
Confederacy  from  Ijonth  Carolina  to  Texas  were  put  under 
blockade  Apr.  19,  1801.  aiul  a  week  later  the  ports  of  Vir- 
ginia. But  since  there  was  not  at  first  force  enough  to 
uuike  this  efrective,  the  special  notice  at  the  harbor's  en- 
trance was  allowed  for  a  while  also.  This  was  loose  practice, 
savoring  of  paper  blockades,  and  an  injustice  to  the  neutral 
sliipiier,  who  was  wai'ncd  awav  from  a/l  Southern  ports, 
while  some  only  were  actually  clo.sed.  He  did  not  lose  his 
ship,  it  is  true,  since  she  was  granted  the  special  notice,  but 
he  was  likely  to  lose  his  voyage,  because  he  could  not  know 
for  a  while  which  ports  w^re  still  open. 

The  French  rule  is  to  give  both  these  notifications — the 
diplomatic  one  and  lliat  communicated  to  the  vessel  at  the 
mouth  of  the  harbor — and  at  no  stage  of  •the  operation  to 
neglect  the  latter.  M.  Mole,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
wrote  in  18;^8  to  another  French  minister  of  state  :  ■'  I  will 
not  recall  here  the  reasons  why,  independently  of  the  offi- 
cial and  diplomatic  notice  of  a  blockade,  every  ship  showing 
itself  before  tlie  blockaded  port  ought  to  receive  the  warn- 
ing from  the  conimaniling  squadron."  The  French,  how- 
ever, liolil,  if  we  are  not  mistaken,  that  at  the  outset  of  a 
war,  before  notice  has  had  time  to  travel  over  the  commer- 
cial world,  a  simple  warning  to  a  shij)  is  sufficient,  and  that 
an  attempt  to  break  through  into  the  jiort  after  this  would 
expose  the  vessel  to  seizure  and  trial.  The  Knglish  and  our 
own  nile  does  not  re(|uire  the  double  notice.  It  is  enough 
to  send  the  diplomatic  notice  to  all  neutral.s.  and  only  at 
the  very  ciuumencement  of  a  war,  especially  before  notice 
has  had  time  to  flv  alu'oad.  to  warn  off  any  approaching 
vessel.  If.  uu-anwliile,  a  vessel  should  seek  to  enter  the 
blockaded  harbor  under  the  plea  of  ignorance,  the  length 
of  its  voyage  and  other  circumstances  must  decide  whether 
the  plea'is  just.  The  di])loraatic  notice  must  be  sent  eveiy- 
where.  and  if  only  common  tame  has  carried  it  to  a  partic- 
ular country,  thai  is  not  sufficient  to  involve  in  guilt  a  ves- 
sel of  that  country  when  seeking  the  blockaded  port.  If 
we  compare  the  two  rules,  we  shall  give  the  ]ireference  to 
the  English.  The  diplomatic  notice  is  intended  to  prevent 
voyages,  which  may  be  useless  or  losing,  to  places  in  an 
actual  condition  of  siege.  Should  a  ves,sel  now  api)ear  at 
the  harbor's  mouth  with  the  claim  of  not  knowing  the  state 
of  facts,  the  presumption  is  against  the  story,  and  she  must 
prove  her  words  as  she  can.  But  why  give  a  new  warning 
here,  any  more  than  to  a  burglar  at  your  door  <  It  is 
highly  criminal  to  break  blockade ;  the  puriiose  to  do  it  is  a 
hostile  purpose,  and  no  indulgence  is  called  for  by  such 
traffic. 

If  a  blockade  is  rai.sed  even  temporarily  by  the  ajiproach 
of  the  enemy's  fleet,  for  instance,  or  by  any  cause  except 
stress  of  weather,  and  then  resumed,  a  new  diplomatic  no- 
tice is  necessary,  and  no  captures  are  valid  at  that  point 
until  such  notice  can  have  been  received  aiul  spread.  Here 
again  we  notice  loo.se  practice  in  the  blockade  of  1861,  for 
on  certain  occasions  several  days  elapsed  between  the  de- 
|)arture  of  the  blockading  ship  from  its  post  and  the  arrival 
of  the  relieving  one,  but  no  new  notice  was  given.  In  case 
a  blockade  is  ai)andone<I.  notification  of  the  fact  should  bo 
given  as  widely  and  publicly  as  of  its  commencement. 

II.  Effecdvc  Blockade. — The  amount  of  force  necessary 
to  make  blockaile  legal  and  effective  is  somewhat  indefinite. 
The  fourth  rule  of  the  Declaration  of  I'aris  of  1856  is  that 
"  blockailes.  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective  ;  that 
is  to  Siiy,  maintained  by  a  force  sufficient  really  to  prevent 
access  to  the  coast  of  the  enemy." 

This  definition  of  "  effective  blockade  "  is  a  little  mislead- 
ing.   It  does  not  mean  that  occasional  evasions  of  a  block- 


661 


BLOCKADE 


BLOCK  SYSTEM 


ade  will  vitiate  it.  It  is  enough  if  there  is  so  great  risk  of 
capture  as  to  make  Ijlockade-running  very  dangerous.  Tlic 
rule  of  the  Declaration  of  Paris  was  aimed  at  those  abuses 
of  the  right  which  are  called  cabinet  or  paper  blockades,  of 
which  the  best  known  examples  occurred  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century.  Prussia  had  treacherously  seized 
Hanover,  and  closed  her  ports  against  Great  Britain.  Great 
Britain  soon  after  declared  the  coast  from  the  Elbe  to  Brest 
under  blockade.  This  was  not,  and  could  not  be,  made  ef- 
fective by  force.  Napoleon  in  reply,  by  a  decree  dated  Nov. 
21.  1806,  at  Berlin,  laid  the  whole  British  coast  under  block- 
ade. Then  by  a  British  order  in  council  the  European 
coast  from  the  Ellie  to  Italy  was  put  under  blockade,  and 
France  in  t\irn  renewed  the'Berlin  decree  with  fresh  penal- 
ties. Such  a  blockade  on  Napoleon's  part  was  ridiculous, 
except  for  the  fact  that  occasionally  the  penalty  could  be 
exacted  for  its  breach  from  a  neutral  ship  touching  at  some 
British  port  and  then  trading  with  the  continent ;  and  the 
blockade  of  all  the  European  seaports  jvas  far  beyond  the 
power  of  the  English  fleet.  Both  sets  of  orders  bore  very 
hard  upon  the  neutral,  wlio  saw  his  legitimate  trade  ruined, 
not  by  the  exercise  of  a  belligerent  right,  bat  by  the  mere 
threat  of  it,  a  threat  impossible  of  execution.  The  growth 
of  the  neutral  interest  secured  the  abrogation  of  such  a 
species  of  blockade  in  1856,  and  as  the  U.  S.  has  consistently 
professed  the  same  doctrine,  it  may  be  considered  maritime 
law  to-day. 

in.  Breach  of  Blockade. — Lastly,  there  must  appear  an 
attemi^t  to  break  the  blockade  after  it  has  been  announced 
and  made  effective.  This  may  be  inferred  by  the  court  from 
the  lading-papers,  course  of  the  ship,  the  owner's  instruc- 
tions, any  attendant  circumstances,  even  at  the  outset  of  the 
voyage.  By  the  doctrine  of  continuous  voyages,  even  if  a 
ship  is  bound  for  a  neutral  port,  in  case  her  real  eventual 
destination  is  clearly  proven  to  be  a  blockaded  port,  it  may 
be  considered  one  continuous  voyage  and  the  penalty  attach. 
But  on  account  of  the  extreme  difficulty  of  inferring  this 
eventual  destination,  great  fault  has  been  found  with  courts 
applying  this  principle. 

The  penalty  for  breach  of  blockade  is  confiscation  of  the 
ship  first  and  then  of  the  cargo,  unless  it  can  be  removed 
from  com])licity  in  the  act  of  the  ship. 

The  presumption  is  against  the  innocence  of  the  cargo, 
for  it  will  probably  be  for  the  sake  of  the  cargo  that  the 
ship  makes  the  venture.  If  both  belong  to  the  same  owner, 
the  guilt  of  the  cargo  is  conclusive.  This  penalty  rests  on 
the  vessel  until  the  end  of  the  return  voyage.  No  punish- 
ment can  be  visited  upon  the  crews  of  blockade-runners. 
The  restrictions  of  a  blockade  are  paramount  to  the  rights 
acquired  under  a  license  to  trade  granted  by  the  same  gov- 
ernment. 

On  the  proclamation  of  peace,  or  from  any  political  or 
belligerent  cause,  the  continuance  of  the  investment  may 
cease  to  be  necessary,  and  the  blockade  is  then  said  to  be 
raised.  The  blockading  force  then  retires,  and  the  port  is 
open  as  before  to  all  other  nations. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Blockade :  in  military  art,  an  operation  and  an  effort  to 
reduce  and  capture  a  fort  or  town  without  a  bombardment 
or  regular  siege,  relying  solely  upon  the  stoppage  of  supplies. 
The  attacking  party  throws  up  redoubts  or  other  works  on 
the  neighboring  heights  and  roads.  A  part  of  the  investing 
army  sometimes  retnains  in  a  temiwrary  camp,  ready  to  re- 
pel a  sortie  of  the  garrison.  Ports  built  on  steep  and  rocky 
eminences  may  be  reduced  more  easily  by  blockade,  because 
the  roads  or  paths  by  which  sujiplies  can  be  received  are 
few,  and  I'an  be  guarded  by  a  small  force. 

Block  Books :  books  printed  from  blocks  of  wood  on 
which  the  letters  have  been  cut  in  relief.  Previous  to  the 
invention  of  printing,  besides  the  calligraphists  and  illumi- 
nators who  ])re]iared  and  adorned  the  l)Ooks  of  scholars  and 
clerics,  there  existed  a  se|)arate  guild  for  the  fabrication  of 
school-books  and  books  of  devotion,  as  well  as  calendars  and 
popular  medical  books  for  the  lay  public.  These  were  orna- 
mented with  rude  ]ialntlngs.  The  card-painters  were  iden- 
tical with  this  craft  until  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  As  the  deuuind  for  the  products  of  their  art  in- 
creased, they  invented  the  process  of  block-printing,  cutting 
into  blocks  of  wood,  and  sonu'times  plates  of  metal,  so  as  to 
leave  the  letters  and  pictures  standing  out,  and  applying 
colors  to  these  and  taking  Impressions.  In  those  xylogra|)hlc 
books  .sometimes  one,  sometimes  both  sides  of  the  sheet  were 
prlnteil 


Block -liouse :  a  wooden  redoubt  or  temporary  fort ;  it 
is  always  covered.  It  is  usually  rectangular,  is  Ijuilt  of  logs, 
and  has  two  stories,  one  of  which  is  sunk  several  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  upper  story  projects  a  few 
feet  beyond  the  lower  on  all  sides.  It  is  loopholed  for  the 
use  of  muskets.  Block-houses  have  been  much  employed 
in  the  U.  S.  as  a  defense  against  Indians.  If  exposed  to 
the  fire  of  artillery  they  should  be  formed  of  double  rows 
of  logs,  3  feet  apart,  with  well-rammed  earth  between  them. 

Block  Island  :  an  island  belonging  to  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island;  situated  between  Montauk  Point,  the  east  extremity 
of  Long  Island,  and  Point  Judith  (see  map  of  Rhode  Island, 
ref.  li-M).  It  constitutes  the  township  of  New  Shoreham 
in  New]iort  County.  It  is  8  miles  long  and  from  2  to  5  miles 
wide.  Block  island  light,  at  the  north  extremity,  is  in  lat. 
41°  13'  46"  N.,  Ion.  71°  34'  17"  W.  Pop.  (1880)  1,203 ;  (1890) 
1,320. 

Blockley :  a  former  township  of  Philadelphia  co..  Pa. ; 
on  tlie  west  side  of  the  Schuylkill  river ;  Is  now  included  in 
the  city  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  site  of  the  Blockley  In- 
sane Asylum,  and  of  a  large  almshouse  occupied  by  the 
paupers  of  the  city. 

Block-printing :  See  Block  Books  and  Printing. 

Block  System :  a  method  of  controlling  railway  trains 
which  are  moving  in  the  same  tlirection  on  the  same  track, 
so  as  to  prevent  rear  collisions.  The  name  originated  either 
from  the  blocking  of  the  track  by  stopping  the  trains,  or 
from  the  fastening  or  blocking  of  the  handle  of  the  signal 
which  was  used  when  the  system  was  first  introduced.  The 
system,  however,  does  not  depend  upon  any  iiarticular  kind 
of  signals,  or  upon  any  especial  mode  of  transmitting  mes- 
sages. It  can  indeed  be  operated  by  men  using  flags  and 
lanterns  alone,  although  this  would  require  numerous  block 
stations  and  hence  be  very  expensive.  Usually  the  block 
stations  are  several  miles  apart,  and  communication  between 
them  is  made  by  the  electric  telegraph. 

To  operate  the  block  system  a  railroad  is  divided  into 
sections  AB,  BC,  CD,  etc.,  of  equal  or  unequal  length,  as 
may  be  most  convenient,  and  a  signalman  is  stationed  at 


each  of  the  signal  stations  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  who  is  able  to  com- 
municate with  the  signalmen  at  the  two  adjacent  stations. 
If  a  train  is  on  the  section  BC  a  danger  signal  remains  dis- 
played at  B  until  the  train  has  passed  C.  The  signalman 
at  C  then  informs  the  signalmen  at  B  and  D,  the  danger 
signal  is  lowered  at  B.  and  one  is  displayed  at  C,  and  so  on 
in  succession ;  thus  only  one  train  can  be  upon  one  section 
at  the  same  time.  If  a  train  should  lie  derailed  between  C 
and  I)  the  train  next  following  would  be  stoijped  at  C,  and 
tills  would  cause  the  danger  signal  to  be  put  out  at  B,  so 
that  the  third  train  would  stop  there.  The  system,  there- 
fore, keeps  a  certain  space  interval  between  all  trains  on  the 
track,  and  thus  prevents  rear  collisions  if  its  rules  and  regu- 
lations are  observed  by  the  signalmen  and  enginemen. 

The  block  system  as  just  described  is  often  confounded 
with  the  automatic  block  system.  The  latter  may  be  defined 
as  an  attempt  to  perfect  the  former  by  the  use  of  signals 
electrically  controlled  and  working  automatically,  so  as  to 
remove  as  far  as  possible  the  danger  due  to  the  falliliility  of 
human  agencies.  For  instance,  in  the  simple  block  system 
a  train  might  be  derailed  between  C  and  D,  and  the  signal- 
man at  C  might  turn  his  danger  signal  to  safety,  dreaming 
perhaps  that' 7>  had  given  this  order;  then  the  following 
train  would  go  on  and  collide  with  the  derailed  one.  In 
the  antomatie  svstem.  however,  the  signals  are  so  connected 
or  interlocked  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  danger  signal  at 
C  to  move  until  the  track  is  clear  between  C  and  TJ.  This 
system,  moreover,  by  passing  the  electric  current  through 
the  rails,  can  lie  made  to  display  a  danger  signal  at  C  if  a 
rail  should  be  broken  or  a  switch  be  o])ened  between  C 
and  D. 

The  principles  of  the  block  svstem  were  enunciated  by  Sir 
W.  F.Cooke  ill  1842,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Teleyraphic 
Bnilirai/,  but  it  was  first  pi-actically  apjillc'd  in  1851  on  the 
South  Eastern  Railway  of  England,'and  II  Is  now  extensively 
used  on  European  railways.  In  the  U.  S.  the  block  system 
is  still  In  its  Infancy,  and  is  used  only  on  a  few  leading  rail- 
roads, but  every  rear  collision  emphasizes  its  importance,  so 
lliat    its  iiilrod'uctiou  is  now  rapidly  going  on.     The"abso- 


1  emphasizes 

_   __  _    __.      rapidly  going 

lute  block  system  "  is  that  where  tlie  rules  absolutely  forbid 
more  trains'than  one  on  the  same  section  at  the  same  time. 


BLOCK-TIN 


BLOOD 


665 


as  described  above.  The  "  permissive  block  system  "  is  that 
wlicri'  a  second  train  is  permitted  to  enter  upon  the  secti(m, 
with  a  wurninf;  that  it  is  already  occupied  ami  with  instruc- 
tions to  go  cautiously.  '['Iw  permissive  system  is  manifestly 
far  less  secure  than  the  absolute,  hut  is  still  often  used,  par- 
ticularlv  under  the  pressure  of  extra  tratlic. 

Accordinj:  to  the  statistics  kept  by  the  liailrnad  Gazette, 
the  onlv  ones  obtainable  for  the  C  S.,  there  occurred  during 
the  year  ls!t2  a  total  of  2.327  train  accidents,  of  which  1.062 
were  collisions.  The  latter  are  da-ssified  a.s  4t*.i  rear  colli- 
sions. 2.5  butting  collisions,  and  32G  crossing  ami  miscella- 
neous. In  these  train  accidents  (i72  jiersons  were  killed,  of 
which  number  362  iierished  in  the  collisions.  As  the  rail- 
way mileage  is  constantly  increasing,  the  total  number  of 
train  accidents  per  annum  also  increases  (the  number  of 
collisions  alone  having  doubled  since  1885),  so  that  the  at- 
tention of  the  traveling  public  is  every  year  more  forcibly 
directed  to  the  necessity  of  insisting  upon  an  efficient  sy.steiu 
of  protection  by  means  of  the  block  system.  See  American 
Practice  in  Block  Signaling  (New  York.  1892)  and  Railtvay 
Equipment  under  Railways.  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Block-till :  a  name  of  a  variety  of  tin  which  is  inferior 
in  (piality  to  gi-aiu-tin.  During  the  process  of  melting  or 
reduction  in  a  reverbcratory  furnace  the  purest  tin  first 
fuses,  and  is  withdrawn.  The  residue,  being  melted  at  a 
higher  temperature,  is  poured  into  mollis,  and  is  called  block- 
tin. 

Blode'et.  Lorix  :  scientist  and  writer ;  b.  in  Chautauqua 
CO.,  X.  \ ..  May  23.  1823.  In  1851  he  became  assistant  i)ro- 
fessor  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington.  He 
may  be  s^iid  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  American  clima- 
tology. In  18.55  he  ]>ul]lishe(l  a  <|uarto  viilume  of  cliMuito- 
logical  observations,  and  in  1857  Clitnat<iliM/y  in  the  L'nited 
States,  a  work  extensively  circulated  and  verv  favorably 
received  in  Europe.  He  was  editor  of  the  Korth  American, 
published  in  PhUadelphia,  and  secretary  of  the  l^liiladel- 
phia  Hoard  of  Trade  from  1858  to  1864.  He  contributed 
articles  on  finance  to  the  North  American  Review  in  1866 
and  1867,  besides  making  contributions  to  various  otlier 
publications. 

Blodgett,  Hexry  Williams,  LL.  D. :  jurist;  b.  in  Am- 
herst, Mass.,  .Julv  21,  1821.  His  parents  removed  with  him 
to  the  State  of  fllinois  in  1838.  He  studied  for  a  time  in 
the  Amherst  .\caileruy.  In  1842  he  began  the  study  of  law 
in  Chicago,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845.  In  1853 
he  was  a  nu'inber  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
Illinois  Legislature,  and  in  1858  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Senate.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  U.  S. 
district  court  for  the  northern  district  of  Illinois.  In 
June,  1802,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  counsel  to  repre- 
sent the  U.  S.  before  the  lioard  of  arbitrators  lietween  the 
U.  S.  and  Great  Uritairi  in  regard  to  llir  fur-seal  interests  in 
the  Bering  Sea.  He  is  1'rofes.sor  of  Admiralty  and  Patent 
Law  in  Xoilhwestern  Cniversity  Law  School,  and  dean  of 
its  law  faculty. 

Bloeillfoiitoili.  bloom-fontin :  the  capital  of  the  Orange 
Free  .State,  in  South  .Vfrica;  on  a  tributary  of  the  Modder, 
in  about  lat.  2!)  10  S..  Ion.  26  40'  K.  (see  map  of  Africa, 
ref.  9-F).  It  is  the  see  of  a  large  diocese  of  the  Church  of 
England.     Pop.  (1890)  3,459  white,  about  1,000  blacks. 

Blois.  blwa'a  (anc.  Ble'Ktp) :  a  town  of  France :  capital  of 
the  department  of  Loir-et-Cher :  finely  situated  on  high 
ground  im  bnth  sides  of  the  Loire,  and  on  the  railway  from 
Orleans  to  Tours;  36  miles  l)y  rail  S.  \V.  of  Orleans,  and 
112  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Paris  (see  map  of  France,  ref. 
4-E).  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  college,  a  public  library,  a 
botanic  garden,  an  episcopal  palace,  and  a  town-hall.  Here 
is  the  celebrated  castle  of  Hlois,  the  scene  of  many  inter- 
esting historical  events,  and  once  the  favorite  residence 
of  the  Kings  of  France.  Francis  I.,  Henry  II..  and  Charles 
IX.  helil  their  courts  in  this  castle,  which  has  been  inhab- 
ited by  many  princes.  Blois  is  a  place  of  great  anli(|uity. 
and  was  once  more  important  than  it  is  now.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  gloves  and  porcelain,  and  a  trade  in  brandy, 
wine,  and  timber.  Here  is  an  acjueduct  cut  in  the  rock  bv 
the  ancient  li(.uians.     Poj).  (1891)  23.457. 

Blonitleld.  blum  feeld.  .\lfred,  I).  D. :  Bishop  Suffragan 
of  Colchester.  Fngland  ;  voungest  son  of  Dr.  Charles  .lames 
Blomfield,  HishoM  of  I.ondcm;  b.  at  Fulham,  Aug.  31,  18:i3: 
educated  at  Halliol  College.  Oxford  :  ordained  1858:  fellow 
of  All  So\ds  College.  Oxford,  18.56-69;  Archdeacon  of  Essex 
1878-82;  Archdeacon  of  Colchester,  and  consecrated  bishop 


suffragan  June  24,  1882.  Author  of  Memoirs  of  Bishop 
Blomfielil  (2  vols.,  1863);  Sermons  in  Town  and  Country 
(1871).     D.  Xov.  5,  1894. 

RIoiiiflclil.  Charles  James,  D.  T).  :  a  learned  Engli.sh 
prelate:  b.  at  Bury  St.  Etlmunds.  in  Suffolk.  May  29,  1786; 
graduateil  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  B.  A.  1808.  and 
was  elected  a  fellow.  He  edited  several  dranuis  of  .lEschy- 
lus  and  the  works  of  Callimachus  (181.5),  and  of  Euripides 
(1821).  He  became  Bishop  of  Chester  in  1824.  and  Bishop 
of  London  in  1828.  He  was  an  efficient  promoter  of  the 
erection  of  new  cjiurches  in  Lon<lon.  I),  at  Fulham,  Aug. 
5.  1857.  See  (i.  E.  Biber,  Bishop  Blotnjield  and  his  Times 
(Lou.li>M.  1S57) ;  A.  Blomfield,  Life  of  C.  J.  Blomfield  (1863). 

Bldiii'iiiaert.  Philipi'is:  Belgian  author  and  philolo- 
gist ;  li.  in  Ohent.  .\ug.  27.  1808;  an  eager  advocate  of  the 
revival  of  the  Flemish  language  .md  of  a  Flemish  national 
life.  He  published  editions  of  old  Flemish  poems  ('J'heophi- 
liis,  18:i6:  (hide  vidmische  gedichten.  3  vols..  1838-51).  and 
translated  parts  of  the  yibelunyen  into  Flemish  iambics. 
His  most  important  work  is  a  history  of  the  Belgians,  Aloude 
geschiedenis  der  Bel  gen  of  Sederduitschers  (1849).  D.  in 
Ghent.  Aug.  14,  1871.  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Itlood  :  the  principal  nutritive  fluid  of  the  body.  It  con- 
sists of  a  clear  liquid,  the  plasma  or  li(juor  sanguinis,  and 
nunu'rous  small  bodies,  the  corpuscles,  also  nearlv  transpar- 
ent, but  of  different  refractive  power  from  the  plasma,  and 
therefore  the  two  comuunglec!  make  an  opaqvie  mixture. 
In  most  of  the  invertebrates  and  in  the  amphioxus.  a  fish  of 
low  type,  the  blood  is  clear  and  transparent.  In  many  in- 
vertebrates it  is  colored,  red,  green,  or  yellowish.  The  red 
fluid  seen  when  the  head  of  a  fly  is  torn  off  or  crushed  is 
not  blood,  but  comes  from  the  eyes.  In  vertebrates  only 
are  corpuscles  found.  There  is  usually  a  faint  odor  char- 
acteristic of  the  animal. 

In  man  tlie  blood  is  light  red  in  the  arteries,  and  is  desig- 
nated as  arterial:  in  the  veins  it  becomes  dark  bluish  or 
even  l)lue-black.  and  is  called  i-enotis.  The  color  is  due  to 
an  organic  suljstance,  hcemogluhiii,  which  is  contained  in 
the  red  corpuscles.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  entering  at  the 
lungs  combines  with  this  substance,  and  gives  rise  to  the 
bright  red  color  of  arterial  blood.  In  the  ti.ssues  the  oxygen 
is  consumed,  the  ha>moglobin  becoming  "  reduced  " — that 
is.  deprived  of  oxygen — and  the  bluish  color  of  the  venous 
blood  results.  The  temperature  of  the  blood  is  about  100' 
F.  in  the  deep-seated  vessels,  but  becomes  rapidly  cooled  in 
those  of  the  exterior.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  I'Ooo, 
but  varies  in  different  conditions  of  health  and  disease. 

The  plasma  is  an  albuminous  fluid  containing  various 
substaiu'cs.  including  carbonates,  phosphates,  sulphates, 
and  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium,  sulphates  and  phos- 
phates of  lime  and  magnesium,  certain  organic  salts,  and 
undetiM-inined  "extractives."'  Sugar  occurs  in  small  pro- 
iiortion  in  the  venous  blood,  especially  that  leaving  the 
liver.  Urea,  urates,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  various  other 
substances  meant  for  excretion  are  also  found  in  the  blood 
in  small  quantities. 

The  corpuscles  are  the  red,  the  white  and  the  blood  plaques 
or  plates.  The  red  corpuscles  are  small  bi-concavc  disks 
about  sVoTT  ff  ""  inch  in  diameter,  of  andier  color  when 
seen  separately,  but  when  in  mass  of  the  red  color  charac- 
teristic of  the  blood.  In  the  lower  vertebrates  they  are  of 
oval  or  elliptical  outline,  and  often  nucleated ;  in  man 
and  the  mammals,  excepting  the  camel  tribe,  the  outline  is 
circular.  The  while  corpuscles  or  leucocytes  varv  in  size, 
but  arc  generally  somewhat  larger  than  the  red.  'I  he  leuco- 
cyte consists  of  a  protoplasmic  mass,  possessed  of  ama'boid 
motion,  and  containing  one  or  more  nuclei.  They  are  much 
less  numerous  than  the  red,  the  proportion  being  variously 
stated  at  from  1  :  2.50  to  1  ;  7(H).  Besides  these  two  well-de- 
fined corpuscles  there  is  a  thinl  form,  the  blood  plagues  or 
plates,  small  circular  disks,  i>ale  andier  in  color,  and  about 
half  the  size  of  the  red  corpuscles.  They  are  by  some  cou- 
siderecl  young  red  corpuscles,  but  their  true  nature  is  much 
in  doubt. 

The  blood  is  a  peculiar  tissue  in  that  its  cells  are  not  re- 
jirod need  from  the  pre-existing  ones,  but  supplied  by  cer- 
tain blood-making  organs,  among  which  the  bone  marrow, 
the  spleen,  and  the  lymphatic  glands  are  important.  At 
the  same  time  destruction  of  corpuscles  also  occure  in  vari- 
ous jilaces,  but  principally  in  the  spleen  and  liver. 

The  functions  of  the  blood  are  distributed  among  its  dif- 
ferent elenu'Uts.  The  plasnui.  aside  from  the  mechanical 
purpose  of  furnishing  a  circulating  medium,  serves  to  con- 


666 


BLOODBIRD 


BLOOMARY 


vey  to  the  tissues  the  various  nutritive  substances  derived 
from  digestion,  and  from  them  the  excrementitious  prod- 
ucts of  tissue  waste  and  oxidation.  Tlie  red  corpuscles  con- 
sist largely  of  the  substance  called  Jtwmoi/lohiii.  tlie  col- 
oring-matter of  the  blood.  This  substance,  chemically  al- 
buminous and  containing  iron,  has  the  property  of  readily 
uniting  with  oxygen  and  setting  this  free  again.  It  thus 
accomplishes  the  chief  purpose  of  the  red  corpuscle,  that  of 
carrying  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  the  tissues.  The  func- 
tions of  the  white  corpuscles  are  more  obscure,  but  they 
doubtless  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  processes  of  growth 
and  tissue  repair. 

When  blood  is  let  it  rapidly  undergoes  clotting  or  co- 
agulation, certain  chemical  substances  uniting  to  produce 
fibrin  which  catches  red  and  white  corpuscles  in  its  meshes 
to  produce  a  clot  or  crassamenfum. 

The  so-called  diseases  of  the  blood  are  not  such,  strictly 
speaking,  but  rather  diseases  of  the  blood-making  organs  or 
other  structures,  whereby  the  blood  becomes  tleteriorated 
secondarily.  The  general  terra  ancemia  includes  a  number 
of  such  conditions.  (See  Ax.emia,  Chlorosis,  and  Leucae- 
mia.) Excessive  amount  of  blood  or  jjlethora  was  formerly 
regarded  as  of  great  importance  and  very  common  in  those 
of  full  habit ;  but  we  are  at  present  inclined  to  attach  much 
less  significance  to  the  amount  of  blood  in  these  cases.  See 
Histology.  William  Pepper. 

Bloodbird  (Myzomela  sanguinolenta):  a  beautiful  little 
species  of  honeysucker  which  receives  its  name  from  the 
rich  scarlet  color  of  the  head,  breast,  and  back  of  the  male. 
It  inhabits  the  thickets  of  Xew  South  Wales. 

Bloodflower :  a  bulbous  plant  of  the  genus  IT(f man- 
thus  and  family  Amaryllidacew;  native  of  South  Africa; 
so  called  from  the  red  color  of  the  flowers.  Bloodflowers  are 
cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers, 
which  grow  in  heads  or  clusters.  The  leaves  of  some  species 
are  linear,  and  those  of  others  nearly  round.  The  inspissated 
juice  of  Hwmanthus  toxicarius  is  used  by  the  natives  of 
South  America  to  poison  their  arrows. 

Bloodliouiid  [so  called  because  formerly  employed  to 
track  wounded  game  by  their  blood] :  one  of  several  varie- 
ties of  dog,  tlistinguished  for  the  keenness  of  their  scent  and 
the  persistency  with  which  they  will  follow  the  track  of 
game.  They  have  been  employed  in  many  petty  wars  to 
track  small  forces  of  partisans,  also  to  follow  escaped  pris- 
oners, etc.,  as  in  time  of  peace  they  have  been  trained  to 
hunt  felons,  poachers,  and  fugitive  slaves.  When  kept  for 
these  purposes  they  acquire  a  peculiarly  ferocious  and  blood- 
thirsty character,  but  when  employed  for  the  chase  they  are 
sagacious  and  trusty.  The  Cuban  and  Russian  hounds  are 
celebrated  for  their  ferocity.  They  differ  much  from  the 
English  hounds,  but  like  them  have  pendulous  ears  and  lips 
and  a  compact  and  muscular  build. 

Blood-letting :  See  Bleedixg. 

Blood-money:  the  reward  for  betraying  a  criminal  to 
justice.  More  commonly,  however,  the  compensation  by  a 
slayer  to  i\w  slain  person's  next  of  kin.  With  primitive 
peoples,  who  can  not  understand  how  taking  a  life  is  com- 
pensation for  lite,  the  practice  prevails  of  paying  a  fine  to 
surviving  relatives  in  cases  of  homicide.  The  amount  is 
fixed  by  custom  or  law.  The  laws  of  the  ancient  Germanic 
races  which  settled  in  the  various  countries  of  Europe  elabo- 
rately fix  the  fines  for  homicide  of  different  degrees. 

Blood-poisoniug::  the  condition  produced  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  injurious  substances  from  a  wound,  from  a  local 
disease,  or  from  an  intact  mucous  membrane.  Using  the 
word  in  its  broadest  sense  the  condition  occurs  in  almost 
every  disease,  certainly  in  all  infectious  diseases.  In  every 
disease  and  in  every  wound  there  are  substances  prcxluced 
which  are  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  which,  when  jiresent 
in  suflieient  amount,  or  when  sutheiently  virulent,  numifest 
their  action  by  the  production  of  fever  and  other  disturb- 
ances of  till!  general  constitution.  The  substances  which 
are  absorbed  may  bo  of  the  most  varied  character.  They 
may  be  living  micro-organisms  which  are  capable  of  multi- 
plying in  the  l)lood.  or  thi'y  mav  be  chemical  subsliinces 
which  are  produced  by  the  bacteria  or  by  tlie  local  inflam- 
raatoiT  or  degenerative  processes.  Ordinarily  the  word  is 
not  used  in  sucdi  a  general  sense,  but  only  to  denote  tlie  con- 
stitulioTial  disturbances  which  result  from  the  absorption  of 
injurious  substances  from  wounds.  A  number  of  terms  have 
been  used  to  designate  the  various  diseases  so  produced, 
wliidi  have  reference  cliietlv  to  the  nature  of  the  substances 


absorbed.  They  have  been  divided  into  two  groups,  with 
the  distinction  that  in  one,  sepficcemia,  no  abscesses  are  pro- 
duced in  distant  localities,  in  the  other,  pycemia,  abscesses 
are  produced. 

Under  septicemia  three  conditions  have  been  distin- 
guished, (a)  Fermentative  fever.  This  is  the  simplest  of 
the  wound  complications.  It  is  due  to  the  absorption  of 
fibrin  or  other  ferments  from  effused  blood  or  from  the  prod- 
ucts of  dead  tissue.  It  is  seen  in  perfectly  aseptic,  non- 
suppurating  wounds,  as  after  a  simple  fracture  of  a  bone. 
It  is  present  in  every  wound  if  it  is  sufliciently  large  and  if 
the  conditions  favor  absorption.  Open  wounds,  where  the 
products  can  easily  escape,  are  naturally  not  so  liable  to  be 
followed  by  fever  as  wounds  in  which  the  jjroducts  are  re- 
tained. The  fever  is  of  greater  or  less  intensity  and  tlie 
constitutional  disturbance  is  slight,  (b)  Saprcemia,  or 
putrid  ititoxicntiun.  This  is  the  condition  produced  by  the 
absorption  of  the  chemical  products  of  bacteria.  They  may 
be  the  chemical  substances  known  as  ptomaines,  which  are 
produced  by  the  vital  activity  of  the  bacteria  in  the  same 
way  as  alcohol  is  producd  by  the  yeast  fungus,  or  they  may 
be  albuminous  substances  (toxic  albumen)  resulting  from  the 
action  or  degeneration  of  the  bacteria  themselves.  There  are 
numerous  examples  of  poisoning  by  the  absorption  of  such 
substances  when  taken  in  with  the  food :  ice-cream  poisoning, 
meat  poisoning,  etc.  The  products  of  the  difllercnt  bacteria 
vary  greatly  in  vinilence.  The  violence  of  the  symptoms  is 
in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  the  material  absorbed  and 
its  virulence.  There  are  usually  severe  chills  at  the  onset, 
followed  by  fever  reaching  10^°  or  more,  (c)  Progressive 
septicwmia.  The  condition  produced  by  the  entry  of  bac- 
teria into  the  blood  and  their  multiplication  there.  The 
bacteria  may  enter  the  blood  either  through  the  walls  of 
the  blood-vessels  or  by  the  lymphatics.  They  midt  iply  in  the 
blood,  and  after  death  are  found  in  the  various  organs. 
The  symptoms  resemble  those  of  saprcemia.  (d)  Pt/(pmia. 
In  this  abscesses  are  produced  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  manner  of  their  production  is  as  follows :  In  a  sup- 
purating wound  the  blood-vessels  become  filled  with  clots 
which  contain  bacteria.  When  portions  of  these  clots  break 
off  they  get  into  the  general  circulation,  and  if  they  are  too 
large  to  pass  through  the  capillaries  they  become  lodged  in 
various  organs,  and  produce  suppuration.  These  abscesses 
are  called  metastatic,  or  secondary.  The  difference  between 
progressive  septica?mia  and  pyaemia  is  probably  due  to  tlie 
association  of  the  bacteria  with  the  blood  clot.  There  is 
marked  constitutional  disturbance,  and  the  onset  is  noted 
by  severe  rigors.  W.  T.  Councilman. 

Blood-root  (Sanguinaria  canadensis):  a  plant  of  the 
family  Pupaveracece :  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  Xorth 
America.  It  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  early  spring  flow- 
ers. It  takes  its  name  from  the  orange-colored  sap  of  the 
root,  which  contains  the  alkaloid  sanguinaria,  remarkable 
for  the  fine  red  color  of  its  salts.  The  root  of  this  plant  is 
a  valuable  stimulant  expectorant,  but  its  use  requires  cau- 
tion, for  its  administration  has  been  followed  by  the  symp- 
toms of  acro-narcotic  poisoning. 

Blood-stone :  See  Jasper. 

Blood-sucker :  See  Leech. 

Bloom :  waxy  or  resinous  matter  frequently  developed 

on  the  surfaces  of  leaves  and  other  parts  of  higher  plants. 
It  may  consist  of  (1)  a  continuous  layer,  or  (2)  of  multitudes 
of  vertical  rods,  or  (.3)  of  minute  rounded  grains,  or  (4)  of 
needles  scattered  irregularly  over  the  surface.  Bloom  is 
common  uptm  many  fruits,  as  grapes  and  plums;  it  is 
abundant  upon  the  leaves  of  the  cabbage,  and  is  well  de- 
veloped upon  the  young  stems  of  blackcap  raspberries 
(Ruhus  occidentulis).  Its  use  is  not  certainly  known.  In 
some  oases  it  ajipears  to  preserve  the  surface  from  wetting, 
and  pfissibly  may  prevent  too  great  a  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  underlying  tissues.  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Bloomary,  bloom'a-ri,  Blooinery,  or  Blomary  [dcriv. 
of  hhiiini.  mass  of  iron  <  0.  Eng.  liloma:  \iru\>.  same  as 
word  for  flower;  but  history  of  the  signification  unknown]; 
a  furnace  for  converting  pig  or  cast  iron  into  mallealile  or 
"  wrouglit  "  iron,  or  for  producing  malleable  iron  from  iron 
ore  directly.  In  the  latter  case  it  differs  from  the  Blast 
Furnace  (q.  v.).  in  reducing  the  ore  and  producing  the  iron 
in  a  mass  or  "  bloom  "  without  melting  it,  while  the  blast 
furnace  produces  an  impure  molten  iron,  which  is  tapped 
off  and  cast  into  ]iigs;  the  blast  furnace  working  continu- 
ously, the   bloomary  (in   many  eases)   interniptedly.     The 


I 


BLOOMER 


BLOWIXG-MACIIINES 


667 


change  of  cast  into  malleable  iron  by  the  bloomary  process 
is  generally  superseded  by  puddling,  but  the  former  is  used 
to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the  U.  8.  and  Sweden  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  bet'er  kinds  of  metal.  Bloomaries  for  the 
direct  production  of  iron  are  of  various  forms.  The  process 
is  one  of  the  oldest  known  in  inetulhirgy,  and  rude  forms  of 
it  are  at  present  used  in  many  barbarous  countries.  The 
two  best  known  modern  forms  of  the  bloomary  (the  Catalan 
furntice  and  the  German  bloomary)  are  at  present  used  in 
Spain,  Sweden.  Russia,  and  parts  of  the  U.  S.  for  the  re<luc- 
tion  of  ores,  chiefly  by  means  of  charcoal.  Only  the  richest 
ores  can  be  pnifitalily  used,  and  tlie  loss  of  iron  is  much 
greater  than  by  the  blast  furnace.  In  the  true  Catalan  forge 
the  charcoal,  with  a  great  part  of  the  charge  of  iron  ore.  is 
heaped  on  the  small  sipiare  hearth  oi)posite  to  the  tuyere, 
fine  ore  and  charcoal  l)eing  thrown  in  from  time  to  time.  A 
moderate  blast  is  maintained,  and  the  whole  is  stirred  at 
proper  times;  and  in  about  six  hours  the  iron  is  removed, 
and  forged  at  once  into  a  bloom.  In  the  ordinary  or  Ger- 
man bloomary  the  ore  is  first  made  fine,  and  then  thrown  in 
small  (piantilies  upon  a  charcoal  fire  with  a  blast.  See  Iron 
(ilanufiicturf).  Revised  by  C.  KiRrniioKK. 

Illoom'cr,  Amei.i.v:  a  dress  reformer  whose  maiden  name 
was  Jenk.i ;  b.  in  Homer,  X.  Y.,  May  27,  1818  ;  married  Dex- 
ter C.  Bloomer  in  1840,  and  settled  at  .Seneca  Falls,  X.  Y. ; 
Jan.  1,  1849,  established  The  Lily,  a  semi-monthly  publica- 
tion, which  attained  a  circulation  of  over  4.000.  From  1855 
until  her  death,  Uec.  SO,  1894,  she  resided  in  Council  Blutfs, 
la.,  where  she  tonk  part  in  the  woman's  suffrage  work  of 
that  State.  Mrs.  Bloomer  did  not  originate  the  costume 
which  bears  her  name,  but  after  seeing  it  worn  by  Elizabeth 
.Smith  Miller,  daughter  of  Hon.  Gerrit  Smith,  she.  with 
Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  Lucy  Stone,  and  others,  adopted  it. 

SusAS  B.  Anthony. 

Bloom'ileld  :  town  (founded  in  1834);  capital  of  Greene 
CO.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  rcf. 
9-C) ;  on  branch  of  L.,  X.,  A.  and  C.  li.  K.  and  E.  and  I. 
R.  R.,  80  miles  S.  W.  of  Indianapolis.  Bloorafield  has  a 
higli  sch(X)l.  four  churches,  steam  nouring-mill.  and  a  saw- 
mill. It  is  situated  in  an  agricultural  district,  10  miles  W. 
of  the  mining  district  of  Greene  County,  and  has  an  active 
trade.  There  are  hereabouts  abundant  unworked  deposits  of 
iron  and  coal.  Pop.  (1880)  988;  (1890)  1,229;  (1892)  esti- 
mated, 1.400.  Editor  OF  "  Xews." 

Itlooni field  :  city ;  railroad  junction,  and  capital  of  Da^is 
Co.,  la.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Iowa.  ref.  7-1); 
has  maiuifactures  of  plows,  wagons,  and  furniture.  It  has 
a  high-school  building  costing  |!;i0.000,  and  is  the  center  of 
a  rich  farming  district ;  has  a  puVilic  library  and  a  large 
trade.     Pop.  (1880)  1,531 ;  (1890)  1,913;  (1895)  2,047. 

Bloomflcld  :  township;  Essex  co.,  X^.  .1.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Xew  Jersey,  ref.  2-D) :  4  miles  X.  X.  W. 
of  Xewark ;  on  branch  of  I).,  L.  and  \V.  R.  R.  and  N.  Y. 
and  Greenwood  Lake  Ry. ;  has  su|)erior  high  school,  nine 
churches,  a  German  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary,  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  tissue  and  photo- 
graphic paper,  hats,  shoes,  safety-pins,  saddlery  hardware, 
rubber  goods,  church  pipe-organs,  cabinet-organs,  mantels, 
and  perfumery ;  here  are  also  brass  rolling-mills.  Bloom- 
field  was  founded  as  early  as  lti85.  under  the  name  of  Wat- 
ses.son  ;  named  Bloomfield  in  1796  from  Gen.  Jo.seph  Bloom- 
field.     Pop.  (1880)  5,748 ;  (1890)  7,708  ;  (1895)  8.093. 

Editor  of  '•  Record.'' 

Bloom  Hold.  .Toseph;  b.  at  Woodbridgc,  X.  J.;  studied 
law:  eiiti  led  the  Revolutionary  army  in  the  Third  Regiment 
of  Xew  Jersey  troops  as  captain,  serving  bravely  through- 
out the  war:  i)ecami>  attorney-general  of  Xew  Jersey;  Gov- 
ernor of  Xew  .lersey  (1801-12);  brigadier-general  in  the  war 
with  Great  Britain  (1812-15) :  and  an  influential  Jeffersonian 
member  of  Congress  (1817-21).  I),  in  Bui'lington,  X.  J.,  Oct. 
3,  1823. 

Bloomflcld,  ."ifAfUKE.  Ph.D.:  philologist:  b.  at  Biclitz, 
Austrian  Silesia,  Feb.  23,  1855;  removed  to  the  U.  .S.  with 
his  parents  18(57:  studied  at  the  University  of  Chicago; 
A.  M.,  Fiirnnm  University.  Greenville.  S.  C,  1877;  studied 
Sanskrit  and  couiparalive  philology  at  Yale  1877-78  ;  fellow 
of  Johns  Ib.pkins  University  1878^79;  Ph.  I).  1879;  studied 
iirBerlin  and  Leipzig  1879-,sl ;  as.sociate  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University  1881.  where  he  now  is  professor  of  Sanskrit  and 
<omi>anitive  philology.  He  has  edited  from  the  MSS.  the 
ritual  book  of  ihe  Alharva- Veda,  the  Kdufika-Sutra,  mu\ 


published  some  forty  Contribufiong  to  the  Interpretation  of 
the  Veda,  besides  numerous  grammatical  and  jihilological 
papers.  C.  H.  Tiiurber. 

Bloomfleld,  Robert:  English  pastoral  poet;  b.  at  Hon- 
ington.  in  Suffolk,  Dec.  3,  170(i:  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. He  worked  at  that  trade  in  London,  and  wrote  in  a 
garret  The  Fnrmer'n  lioi/  (1798),  a  rural  poem  which  ob- 
tained great  popularity,  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Latin,  and  Italian.  Among  his  other  works  arc  VTild  Flow- 
ers and  lidlldds  and  Suiii/s.  D.  in  Shefford,  Bedfordshire, 
Aug.  19,  1823.  See  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties, 
vol.  ii. :  Blackwood's  Magazine  for  June,  1822 ;  W.  H.  Hart, 
Select  ions  from  Correspondence  (1871). 

]tlooni'iiigtoii :  a  city  and  railroad  center;  capital  of 
McLean  co..  III.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois, 
ref.  5-E);  60  miles  X.  X.  E.  of  Springfield.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  stoves,  furnaces,  grain-separators,  ice,  flour,  and 
plows;  car-works  and  repair-shops  (employing  some  1.200 
hands),  a  coal  mine,  elevators,  tile-factorie.s.  brick-yards,  and 
several  furnaces.  Ten  nurseries  and  twenty-five  firms  of  hoi-se 
importers  are  located  in  Bloomington  and  Xormal.  Ten 
miles  of  electric  street  railway  are  in  operation,  and  15 
miles  of  the  streets  are  paved  witli  brick.  It  is  connected 
by  a  street  railroad  with  Xormal.  2  miles  distant,  which  is 
the  seat  of  the  State  Xormal  University  and  the  Soldiei-s' 
Orphans'  Home.  Bloonungton  is  the  seat  of  the  Illinois 
Weslevan  University  and  a  Roman  Catholic  college.  Pop. 
(1880) '17.180;  (1890)  20,4»4.  Editor  of  "  Bulletin." 

Bloomington:  city:  railroad  junction,  and  capital  of 
Mtairoe  co..  Ind.  (for  location  of  coimty.  see  map  of  Indiana, 
ref.  8-D);  51  miles  S.  \V.  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  University  :  has  important-  limestone  quarries  and 
manufactures  of  hard  wood,  and  contains  large  tauneiues. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,756;  (1890)  4.018. 

Bloonis'bnrg:  town  (incorporated  as  such  in  1870):  capi- 
tal of  Columbia  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-H) ;  on  Del.,  Lack,  and  \V.  and  Phil,  and 
Reading  R.  Rs.,  and  on  north  branch  of  Susquehanna  river, 
56  miles  S.  \V.  of  Scranton.  Iron  and  limestone  abound  in 
the  vicinity.  The  town  has  a  State  normal  school,  3  public 
schools,  8  churches,  iron  funuices  and  foundries,  silk-mill, 
carpet-factorv,  brass  and  copper  tube-works,  furniture  and 
desk  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  3,702;  (1890)  4,635;  (1893)  esti- 
mated, 5,500. 

Editor  of  "  Columbia  County  REPfBLicAX." 

Blossbnrgh :  borough :  Tioga  co..  Pa,  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  2-F) ;  on  railroad  and 
Tioixa" river.  41  miles  S.  of  Corning,  X.  Y. ;  has  mines  of  semi- 
bituminous  coal  and  of  iron.     Pop.  (1880)  2,140 ;  (1890)  2.568. 

Bloiict.  bloo  av',  Paiil  (Max  O'Rell) :  author ;  b.  in  Brit- 
tany, France,  Mar.  2,  1848;  educated  in  Paris  (A.  B.  1864; 
B.  iS(^  1865);  commissioned  in  French  army  1869;  taken 
prisoner  at  Sedan  in  Franco-Prussian  war  1870 ;  was  badly 
wounded  in  fighting  again.st  the  Commune:  newspaper  cor- 
responilent  in  England  1873;  head  French  master  in  St. 
Paul's  School  187G-84:  lectured  much  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  S.  1887-90.  Author  of  J<ilin  Bull  and  his  Island  (1883) ; 
John  Bull's  Daughters  (1884);  Drat  the  Boys  (1886):  Jona- 
flian  and  his  Continent  (1889).  C.  II.  Thurber. 

Blonni,  blunt. 'William  :  Senator;  b.  in  X'oith  Carolina 
in  1744;  member  of  the  Continental  Congress;  in  1790  be- 
came governor  of  territory  south  of  the  Ohio.  In  1796  he 
was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator  for  Tennessee,  and  in  1797  was 
expelled  from  the  Semite  on  a  charge  that  he  was  imiilicated 
in  a  jilot  to  snrremler  a  (>art  of  Louisiana  to  the  British. 
D.  in  Knoxville.  Tenn.,  Jlar.  21,  1800. 

Blow,  IIi;xRY  T. :  legislator:  b.  in  Southampton  CO.,  Va., 
July  15,  1817;  graduated  at  the  University  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo";  prominent  Unionist  and  anti-slavery  man  before  the 
civil  war:  U^.  S.  minister  to  Venezuela  (1861-62);  member 
of  Congress  (1863-67);  minister  to  Brazil  (1869-71).  D.  in 
Saratoga,  X.  \'.,  Sept.  11.  1875. 

Blow-fly:  a  large  fly:  black  and  steel-blue  in  color:  at- 
tracts attention  by  its  loud  buzzing;  is  readily  attracted  bv 
the  smell  of  meat,  on  which  it  lays  its  eggs  or  "fly-blows. ' 
CallipJioravomiloria  is  the  common  species.     See  Flesh  fly. 

Blowing-mai'hines:  machines  for  producing  blasts  of 
air,  as  f(jr  a  fire  or  furnace,  or  for  exhausting  air  or  other 
gases,  as  for  ventilation. 

Proljably  the  earliest  form  was  a  bag  of  skin  or  leather. 
From  this  was  developed  the  common  blacksmith's  bellows. 


668 


BLOWING-MACHINES 


(See  Bellows.)  A  form  of  bag-blower,  in  which  the  bag  is 
inclosed  in  a  cylinder  and  operated  by  a  piston,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  a  form  of  bellows  in  Pig.  2,  and  a  double-acting 
piston-blower  in  Pig.  3.  These  are  shown  in  an  elementary 
form  without  valves. 


Figs.  1  to  4. 

It  is  stated  liy  Reuleanx  in  his  Konsfrucfeur  that,  con- 
trary to  Wilkinson  and  Ewbank,  the  bellows  shown  in  the 
Egyptian  wall-paintings  have  not  flap-valves,  but  the  inlet 
is  closed  Ijy  the  heel  of  the  workman,  and  in  the  bellows 
used  in  India  to-day  the  heel  or  thumb  of  the  operator  serves 
for  an  inlet  valve. 

Pisfon-bloivers. — The  modern  piston  blowing-machine  is 
essentially  a  pump,  with  inlet  and  outlet  valves,  as  in  Pig.  4. 
Such  machines  arc  commonly  called  blowing-engines,  and 
they  may,  like  pumps,  be  driven  by  a  crank  ami  pitman  from 
a  rotating  shaft  or  wheel,  such  as  an  overshot  water-wheel, 
or  by  a  steam-cylinder,  either  directly  or  through  the  me- 
dium of  gearing.  When  designed  to  furnish  air  at  high 
pressures,  as  for  pneumatic  transmission  to  drive  rock  drills 
or  other  machineiy,  the  blowing-machine  becomes  an  "air- 
compressor."  The  construction  of  a  blowing-engine  and  of 
a  comfjressor  is  practically  identical,  except  that  the  latter 
is  provided  with  a  water-jacket  or  with  a  spraying  apparatus 
in  the  air-cylinder  for  cooling  the  air  heated  by  the  com- 
pression. 

Prior  to  about  1870  the  cylinders  of  blowing-engines  for 
blast  furnaces  were  made  of  great  size,  and  run  at  a  low 
speed,  say  ten  to  fifteen  double  strokes  per  minute.  When 
driven  by  a  steam-engine  they  were  either  horizontal,  in 
which  ease  they  were  driven  through  cog-wheel  gearing,  the 
steam-cylinder  having  a  higher  speed  than  the  blowing- 
cylinder,  or  vertical,  in  which  case  the  engine  was  a  beam- 
engine,  witli  the  steam-cylinder  at  one  end  and  the  blowing- 
engine  at  the  other  end  of  a  huge  walking-beam.  The  valves 
were  usually  large  flap-valves  of  leather,  backed  with  wood 
or  metal.  Since  1876,  however,  the  direct-acting  vertical 
blowing-engine  has  come  into  almost  universal  use,  with 
smaller  valves,  allowing  the  use  of  much  higher  speeds,  fifty 
double  strokes  per  minute  for  an  engine  of  4-feet  stroke  being 
not  uncommon.  It  is  customary  to  place  the  blowing-cylin- 
der above  the  steam-cylinder. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  modern  blowing-engine  of  this  type,  built 
by  the  Weiiner  machine  works,  Lebanon,  Pa.  The  valves 
are  of  sheet  rubber,  perforated  with  slots,  and  rest  upon  iron 
seats  having  alternating  slots.  They  lift  against  iron  guards 
having  slots  corresponding  to  those  in  the  valves.  As  these 
valves  work  equally  well  on  any  plane,  they  may  be  ])laced 
horizontally,  vertically,  or  obliquely,  and  may  therefore  be 
so  disposed  as  to  secure  the  maximum  area  of  opening.  The 
blowing  cylinder-heads  are  devoted  to  the  inlet  valves  placed 
in  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  recessed  segmental  boxes.  The 
outlet  valves  are  placed  in  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder,  and 
work  against  vertical  slots  in  its  shell  "of  such  "length  as  to 
give  the  desired  area  of  opening  into  the  air-jacket  surround- 
ing the  cylinder. 

Engines  of  the  type  shown  in  Pig.  5  are  built  as  large  as 
48  inches  stroke,  with  steam-cylinder  43  inches  and  air-cylin- 
der 84  inches  in  diameter,  discharging  307  culnc  feet  per  rev- 
olution, or  l.'j.H.'jO  feet  per  minute,  at  a  speed  of  50  revolu- 
tions'per  minute,  and  an  air-pressure  as  high  as  14  lb.  per 
square  inch. 

In  the  ordinary  form  of  vertical  blowing-engine  the  air 
nnd  the  steam  piston  are  on  the  same  rod.  In  the  steam- 
cylinder,  wlicu  the  steam  is  cut  off  before  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  in  order  to  realize  the  economy  due  to  expansion,  the 
pressure  on  tlie  .steani-pi.ston  is  higliest  during  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  stroke,  and  lowest  at  the  end  of  the  stroke: 
while  in  the  air-cylinder  the  jiressure  increases  from  the 
pressure  of  tlie  atmosphere  at  the  beginning  up  to  a  maxi- 


mum at  that  portion  of  the  stroke  at  which  the  air-discharge 
valves  open,  that  is  at  the  pressure  in  the  air-receiver  or 
main,  and  continues  constant  during  the  remainder  of  the 
stroke.  The  fluctuations  of  energy  during  a  stroke,  due  to 
the  differences  in  pressure  upon  the  air  and  steam  pistons. 


Fig.  5. — Direct-acting  piston-blower. 

are  absorbed  and  then  given  out  by  two  large  and  heavy  fly- 
wheels, which  alternately  receive  force  from  and  give  it  back 
to  the  reciprocating  piston-rod  through  two  pitmans  con- 
nected with  a  hea^'y  cross-head,  which  is  rigidly  attached  to 
the  piston-rod.  The  massive  fly-wheels  and  their  connec- 
tions make  this  form  of  blowing-engine  a  very  heavy  and 
costly  piece  of  apparatus  relatively  to  the  horse-power  de- 
veloped by  it.  although  not  so  heavy  or  costly  as  tne  earlier 
forms  of  engines  which  it  has  displaced.  It  is  likely  ere  long 
to  be  displaced  by  a  compound  engine,  with  cranks  at  90  or 
130  degrees,  carrying  the  initial  steam-pressure  to  a  greater 
distance  in  each  cylinder,  thus  more  nearly  equalizing  the 
strains,  lialaneing  the  fluctuations  in  energy  through  the 
crank-shaft  instead  of  storing  and  restoring  it  by  means  of 
heavy  fly-wheels,  and  at  the  same  time  realizing  the  economy 
of  steam  due  to  compounding. 

Roiary  Blou'ing-machines. — The  blowing-machines  above 
described  may  be  classed  as  reciprocating  machines,  being 
driven  by  the  to-and-fro  motion  of  a  piston  or  of  a  bellows- 
frame.  Another  class  is  that  of  rotary  machines  in  which 
the  apparatus  is  driven  directly  by  a  rotating  shaft.  Of  this 
type  there  are  three  sub-classes,  viz.,  disk-blowers,  fans,  and 
positive  blowers.  Disk-blowers  are  used  for  moving  large 
quantities  of  air  at  the  lowest  pressures,  as  for  exhausting 
air  from  heated  rooms  or  for  ventilation.  A  form  of  such 
blower  is  shown  in  Pig.  6.  It  is  built  in  various  sizes,  from 
13  to  96  inches  in  diameter.  A  12-inch  fan.  driven  at^l.OOO 
to  2,000  revolutions  per  minute,  will  ab.surli  ^^  to  \  horse- 
power, and  will  exhaust  froni  l,.~)(tO  tn  :S,000  culiic  feet  of  air 
per  minute,  while  a  96-incli  fan,  driven  frum  300  to  300  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  will  re(|nire  from  4  to  10  horse-power,  and 
will  exhaust  from  60.000  to  90,000  cubic  feet  ])er  minute.  The 
operation  of  a  disk-blower  in  air  is  similar  to  that  of  a  screw 
propeller  iu  water. 

A  fan  is  somewliat  .similar  to  a  rotary  disk-blower,  but  the 
wings  or  vanes  are  parallel  with  tlie  shaft,  and  are  inclosed 
in  a  sheet-metal  box  or  ease,  which  lias  an  ojieniiig  at  the 
axis  to  receive  the  air  and  another  at  the  periphery  of  the 
case  to  discharge  it.    For  a  further  description,  see  Pans. 

Root's  rotary  positive  blower  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  7. 
It  consists  of  an  oblong  metal  case  closed  at  the  ends,  con- 


BLOWING-MACHINES 


BLOWPIPE 


669 


tainine  two  parallel  shafts  geared  together  at  each  end  out- 
side of  the  case,  and  each  cam'iiifr  what  is  known  as  "  re- 
volvers." The  aetiuii  of  these  revolvers,  in  takiiif;  air  from 
the  lower  half  of  the  case  and  pushing  it  outward  and  up- 
ward through  the  exit,  is  clearly  shown  in  the  cut. 


Fio.  6. — Exhaust  disk-wheel. 

The  Baker  positive  blower  is  composed  of  three  drums, 
each  of  which  is  a  single  casting,  turned  and  balanced.  The 
upper  drum  to  which  the  pulley  or  engine  is  attached  does 
all  the  work  of  blowing  or  exhausting.  The  two  lower 
drums  an'  merely  valves  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
air  from  escaping  or  returning. 

Both  fans  and  positive  blowers  are  used  for  blowing  cu- 
polas for  nu'lting  iron.  Positive  blowers  are  capable  of 
giving  much  higher  pressures  than  fans,  while  tlie  fans, 
being  run  at  higher  rotative  speeds,  are  cheaper  in  first  cost 
for  a  given  (piantity  of  blast. 

S/eam-Jet   Blowers. — Steam   escaping  at    high    pressure 
through  a  small  nozzle  creates  induced  currents  in  the  sur- 
rounding atmos- 
iSsLJ  phere,     on      the 

principle  of  the 
injector,  and  a 
steam  -  pijie  of 
small  diameter 
inserted  in  an 
air-pipe  of  coii- 
siileralily  larger 
diameter,  which 
is  open  at  both 
ends,  makes  a 
siniiile  form  of 
liiower.  Such  an 
apparatus  is  oc- 
casionally used 
to  increase  the 
draft  in  steam- 
boilers  by  blow- 
A  steam-pipe  in- 


Fio.  7— Root's  positive  blower. 


ing  a  forced  blast  uiiiler  the  grate-bars, 
serted  into  a  chimney,  and  <lischarging  steam  in  a  vertica 
direction, constitutes  the  steam-jet  lilower  commonlv  usimI  in 
locomotives  and  steam  lire-engines  for  proilnciug  a  jiowerful 
draft.  For  this  purpose  the  sleam-nozzlc  rcipiires  to  be 
given  a  [iroper  shape  and  dimensions,  depemling  upon  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  chimney  pipe  and  tlie  (juantity  of  the 
chiinnev  gases.  For  blowing  air  into  furnaces  certain  shapes 
of  nozzles  and  of  air-pipes  liave  been  found  lulvantageous. 
A  furnace-blower  of  the  steam-jet  type,  known  as  the  Kort- 
ing,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

Vi'nti-r-hlaxt  Bloii'i'r.i. — A  jet  or  falling  stream  of  water 
may  also  lie  used  to  create  a  lilast  of  air  by  means  of  induced 
currents.  The  Trompe,  described  in  early  works  on  metal- 
lurgy of  iron,  is  an  apparatus  based  on  this  principle.  In 
it  a  stream  of  water  falls  through  a  vertical  wooden  tube 


into  a  largo  air-tight  chamber  below.  Numerous  small  holes 
are  cut  in  the  tube,  through  which  air  is  drawn  by  the  de- 
scending stream,  which  air  is 
set  free  in  the  chamlier.  whence 
it  is  led  by  a  pipe  to  the  fur- 
nace. The  efliciency  of  this 
apparatus  is  much  lower  than 
that  of  a  blowing  -  machine 
driven  by  a  water-whed. 

A  more  efficient  form  of  wa- 
ter-blower, applicable  in  situa- 
tions where  tlie  quantity  and 
fall  of  water  bear  [jroper  rela- 
tions to  tile  quantity  and  pres- 
sure of  air  to  be  supplied,  con- 
sists of  two  air-tight  tanks 
placed  at  the  level  of  tlie  tail- 
race,  which  are  altenialcly 
filled  through  tubes  from  the 
head-race.  While  being  filled 
tlie  air  displaced  in  them  is 
forced  into  the  blast  main,  and 
while  being  emptied  a  valve 
admits  air  from  the  external 
atmosphere. 

The  T/Aiihisson  OsciUati/u/ 
CijIhiihT  is  a  jieculiar  form  of 
blowing-machine  of  limited  ap- 
plication. It  com|irises  a  bar- 
rel with  a  diaphragm,  central 
through  the  entire  length  and 
of  nearly  the  whole  diameter, 
and  two  valves  alternately  as- 
piring and  expiring.  In  its 
normal  position  the  diaphragm 
is  vertical ;  the  barrel  is  filled 
half  full  of  water,  and  is  then 
set  in  slow  oscillation  by  means 
of  a  crank  and  pitman.  Dur- 
ing each  oscillation  the  water 
passes  from  one  half  of  the 
barrel  to  the  other,  drawing 
air  into  the  emptying  half  and  exjielling  it  from  the  other. 

William  Kent. 


Fio.  8.— Steam-jet  blower. 


Blowpipe  (in  Fr.  chalumean;  Germ.  Luthrohr):  a  tube 
bent  at  right  angles  and  terminating  in  a  fine  nozzle,  for 
directing  a  current  of  air  from  the  mouth  acro-ss  the  flame 
of  a  lamp,  candle,  or  gas-jet.  It  jiroduccs  a  conical-pointed 
fiaiiie.  intensely  hot,  which  can  be  readily  directed  upon 
small  objects  by  the  operator.  It  is  constantly  used  by  the 
jeweler  in  soldering,  but  in  the  hands  of  the  chemist  and 
mineralogist  it  is  the  basis  of  a  di.stinct  and  comiireheiisive 
system  of  analysis,  both  qualitative  and  quantitative.  By 
using  a  gentle  current  of  air,  and  not  permitting  the  nozzle 
to  enter  the  flame,  the  entire  llame  is  linnight  into  a  hori- 
zontal position,  but  its  chemical  character  is  not  changed; 
it  is  still  composed  of  comlnistiiile  gases  rich  in  carbon; 
and  as  these,  when  directed  upon  many  metallic  oxides,  re- 
duce or  liberate  the  metals,  this  flame  i's  called  the  reducing 
flame.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  more  powerful  current  of 
air  is  blown  into  the  interior  of  the  flame,  a  sharp-pointed 
jet  of  a  blue  tint  is  the  result.  Many  metals,  placed  just 
beyond  the  point  of  this  Hame,  are  ra|iidly  oxidized:  hence 
it  is  calle(l  llie  (i.ridishu/  flame.  The  chemist  is  thus  en- 
abled by  the  aid  of  the  blowpipe  to  expose  small  quantities 
of  minerals  or  other  substances  either  to  a  reducing  or  an 
oxiilizing  influence.  IJy  holding  the  substance  in  platinum- 
pointed  forceiis  its  fusibility  can  be  determined,  or  it  may 
communicate  to  the  flame  some  characteristic  color.  By 
iilacing  it  upon  charcoal  many  important  facts  can  be 
learned  with  regard  to  it:  i.  e.  it  may  produce  white  or 
colore<l  deiRisits  upon  the  coal,  or  evolve  a  characteristic 
odor.  etc.  By  sulijecting  it  at  the  same  time  to  the  action 
of  carbonate  of  soda  it  may  yield  metallic  gloliules  or 
powder,  with  or  without  a  coating.  By  the  aid  of  a  loop 
of  platinum  wire  the  body  under  examination  may  be  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  borax  or  salt  of  phosphorus,  when 
glassy  beads  of  characteristic  cohirs  may  result.  Thus  with 
the  aid  of  the  blowpipe  the  analyst  subjects  the  substance 
to  a  .series  of  tests,  by  which  its  exact  character  is  revealed. 
Hy  the  use  of  the  balance,  clay  crucibles,  cupels  of  bone- 
ash,  and  a  great  variety  of  reagents,  the  percfentages  of  cer- 
tain metals  can  be  determined,  such  as  copper,  cobalt,  nickel, 


670 


BLOWPIPE-AND-ARROW 


BLUEBIRD 


gold,  and  especially  silver.  The  art  of  keeping  up  an  unin- 
terrupted current  of  air  through  the  blowpipe  is  easily  ac- 
quired. See  Eldeshorst's  Manual  of  Blowpipe  Analysis, 
and  Planner's  JIantial  of  Qualilatire  and  Quantitative 
Analysis  with  tlie  Blowpipe;  also  Oxyhydbogen  Blow- 
pipe. 

Blowpipe-aiid-AiTOiv.  called  also  firavnta'na-aiid-Po- 
Cll'lia:  a  weaimu  used  by  some  of  the  Indians  of  South 
America,  lioth  in  war  and  for  killing  game.  It  is  a  straight 
tube,  in  which  a  i>oisoned  arrow  is  placed  and  forcibly  ex- 
pelled by  the  breath.  The  tulie,  etc..  is  from  2  to  12  feet 
long,  the  bore  not  large  enough  to  admit  the  little  finger. 
It  is  made  of  reed  or  of  the  stem  of  a  palm.  The  arrows 
are  from  1  or  2  to  18  inches  long,  made  of  the  spines  of  a 
palm,  sharp,  notched  so  as  to  break  off  in  the  wound,  and 
their  points  covered  with  curare  or  other  poison.  A  little 
down  is  twisted  round  each  arrow,  to  fit  the  tube.  In  the 
hand  of  a  practiced  Indi;in  it  is  a  very  deadly  weapon.  As 
his  weapon  makes  no  noise,  the  hunter  often  does  wonderful 
execution. 

Blubber:  the  cellular  membrane  in  which  the  oil  or  fat 
of  the  whale  is  inclosed ;  the  layer  of  fat  which  lies  just  be- 
neath the  skin  of  the  whale.  A  single  whale  often  contains 
30  tons  of  ljlul)ber.  from  wliieh  about  20  tons  of  oil  are  ex- 
tracted. The  blublier  serves  to  protect  the  wliale  from  cold 
and  to  diminish  its  specific  gravity.  It  is  an  important 
article  of  food  to  the  Esqxiiuuiux. 

Bliicber,  bUi'cher,  Gebhard  Leberecht,  von :  Prince  of 
Wahlstadt ;  Prussian  general;  1).  at  Rostock,  Dec.  16,  1742. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Prussia  in  1760;  became  a  cairtain 
in  1771,  and  a  colonel  in  1790.  In  1794  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  war  against  the  French, 
and  was  raised  to  Ihe  rank  of  major-general.  He  led  the 
vanguard  at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt  (1806).  from  which  he 
retreated  to  Lllbeck.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
near  LUbeck  in  Nov.,  1806.  When  the  war  between  the 
allies  and  Napoleon  was  renewed  in  Mar..  1818.  Bliicher  was 
appointed  coramander-in-cliief  of  tlie  Prussian  army,  which 
he  led  at  Liitzen  and  Bautzen.  He  defeated  Macdonald  at 
tlie  Katsbaeh  in  August,  and  took  many  prisoners.  On  Oct. 
16  he  gained  a  victory  over  JIarslial  Jtarmont  at  Mockern, 
and  then  formed  a  junction  with  the  allied  armies,  which, 
with  his  co-ojieration,  defeated  Napoleon  at  the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  Oct.  17-19,  lHl;j.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
field-marshal  in  1818,  and  led  the  Prussian  army,  about 
60,000  strong,  which  invaded  France  early  in  1814.  Be- 
tween Feb.  10  aiul  15  he  was  defeated  by  Napoleon  at 
C'hampaubert,  Jlontmirail,  Veauchamps,  etc.,' and  lost  about 
15,000  men,  but  he  defeated  the  same  enemy  at  Laon,  Mar. 
9,  entered  Paris  at  the  end  of  that  month,  and  here  received 
from  his  king  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wahlstadt.  On  the  re- 
newal of  the  war  in  1815  he  took  command  of  the  Prussian 
army,  and  was  defeated  at  Ligny,  June  16,  but  reached 
Waterloo  in  time  to  decide  the  victory.  .lune  18,  1815.  D. 
in  Krieblowitz,  Silesia.  Sept.  12, 1819.  "lie  was  noted  for  his 
energy  and  rajiid  movements,  and  was  surnamed  Marshal 
Vorwiirts  (Forward).  In  1826  a  large  bronze  statue  by  Ranch 
was  erected  to  him  in  Berlin,  and  another  in  Brcslau  in 
1827.  See  Foerster,  Bluclier  und  Sfine  UnKjclning  (1821); 
Pischon,  Bliichers  Leben,  T/iaten,  tind  Eiide  (ls42);  Varn- 
hagen  von  Ense,  Bluchers  Lebenslieschreibting  (1827):  Life 
and  Campaiyns  of  Bliicher  (London,  1815);  Scherr,  Bliicher, 
seine  Zeit  und  sein  Leben  (2  vols..  1862) ;  Bieske,  G.  L. 
Blucher  ron  Wahlstadt  (1862) ;  and  Chesnev,  Waterloo  Lec- 
tures (1874). 

Blue:  one  of  the  three  primary  colors,  and  one  of  the 
.seven  prismatic  colors,  of  which  the  complementary  is  or- 
ange. The  blue  coloriny-miitler  of  flowers  Una  been"  called 
anthokyan  or  cyanine:  little  is  kiiown  of  its  chemical  con- 
stitutiou.  The  blue  piyments  are  (1)  ultramarine,  obtained 
originally  from  lapis-lazuli,  now  mainifaetured  artificiallv; 

(2)  Prussian  or  Berlin  blue,  the  sescpiiferro-cyanide  of  iron; 

(3)  smalt,  gla.ss  colored  blue  by  oxide  of  cobalt  ;  modifica- 
tions of  this  pigment  are  called  azure  h\\u'.  cerulean  blue, 
indigo  blue,  ih-ep  blue,  king's  blue,  etc.:  (4)  'I'hetiiird's  or 
cobalt  bluis  a  coiuirouiid  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  cobalt; 
(5)  verditer  or  Uremen  blue,  mountain  blue,  etc.,  a  basic 
carbonate  of  copper;  (6)  blue  ochre  or  iron  blue,  native 
Prussian  blue,  is  a  phosphate  of  iirotoxide  of  iron  found  in 
nuiny  places. 

The  tilue  dyes  are  (1)  indigo.  This  is  applied  as  Saxon 
blue,  or  indigo  extract,  a  solution  tii  indigo  in  fuming  sul- 
phuric acid.     C'hemic,  or  chemic  blue,  is  the  <erv  acid  solu- 


tion ;  indigo  carmine  is  the  extract  neutralized  by  an  alkali, 
as  the  indigo  vat,  indigo  reduced  to  a  colorless  solution  by 
jirotoxide  of  iron  or  grape-sugar,  which  becomes  blue  again 
in  the  air.  (2)  Prussian  blue,  already  mentioned  as  a  pig- 
ment. (3)  Logwood  blue,  produced  by  logwood  extract  on 
goods  mordanted  with  alum  and  cream  of  tartar.  (4)  Azu- 
line,  or  phenol  blue,  prepared  from  jihcnol  or  carliolic  acid. 
(5)  Aniline  blues,  (a)  bleu  de  Lyons,  triplienylrosaniline  ; 
(h)  Nicliolson's,  or  alkali  blue,  etc.  (6)  Toluidiiie  blue.  (7) 
Diphenylamine  blue.     (8)  yuinoline  blue,  etc.        C.  F.  C. 

Blue-Beard  (Pr.  Barbe-bleu;  Germ.  Blauhart):  the  epi- 
thet applied  to  the  central  figui'e  of  a  famous  popular  tale, 
first  given  literary  form  by  Charles  Perrault  in  his  Contes 
de  ma  mere  Voye  (1697).  The  story  runs  that  a  certain  rich 
nolileman,  named  Raoul,  distinguished  by  a  blue  (i.  e.  blue- 
black)  beard,  married  a  young  and  innocent  wife.  Soon 
after,  going  away  for  a  time,  he  left  with  her  the  key  to  a 
chamber,  which  he  forbade  her  to  enter.  Curiosity  made 
her  disobey,  and  she  found  in  the  room  evidences  of  the 
murder  of  his  six  previous  wives.  Raoul  returns,  discovers 
what  she  has  done,  and  is  about  to  slay  her  also,  when  her 
two  brothers  arrive  upon  the  scene,  kill  the  husband,  and 
save  her  life.  Since  Perrault  this  tale  has  had  universal 
currency,  both  as  a  nursery  tale  and  as  a  literary  theme.  Its 
origin  has  been  sought  in  very  different  places.  Perrault 
seems  to  have  obtained  his  material  from  local  Low  Breton 
sources.  Hence  attempts  to  find  the  original  theme  among 
Celtic  traditions.  K.  Hofraann  thinks  he  has  found  it  in  the 
tale  of  Aristor  and  the  sister  of  Percival  in  the  prose  Grail. 
Others  point  to  the  story  of  Comor,  a  Breton  king  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  St.  Triphine.  The  most  elaborate  theory, 
however,  identifies  Bhie-Beard  with  Gilles  de  Laval,  Marshal 
de  Rais  Retz  {q,  v.),  who,  after  winning  great  renown  as  a 
soldier  and  comrade-in-arms  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,  fell  into  the 
depths  of  depravity,  and  enticed  into  his  power  a  great  num- 
ber of  young  boys  and  girls,  whom  he  debauched  and  then 
murdered.  See  the  Abbe  Bossard's  work,  Oilles  de  liais  dit 
Barbe-Bleue  (Paris,  1886).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bluebell :  the  name  in  Great  Britain  of  two  widely  dif- 
ferent wild  flowers:  (1)  the  Ilyacinthus  non-seriptus,  a  hya- 
cinth with  beautiful  lilue  flowers,  and  a  root  which  was 
formerly  gathered  for  the  starch  it  contains;  (2)  the  Cam- 
panula rotundifolia,  tlie  harebell,  very  common  throughout 
Europe,  and  having  a  wide  range  in  Asia  and  North  Amer- 
ica. This  and  other  blue-flowered  species  of  Campanula 
are  sometimes  called  "bluebell"  in  the  U.  S.,  where  the 
name  is  also  in  some  places  incorrectly  given  to  the  blue- 
fringed  gentian. 

Bluebird  (Sialia  siidis) :  a  bird  of  the  family  Tvrdidcs ; 
a  general  favorite  in  tlie  U.  S.,  wliicli  it  visits  as  a  summer 
bird  of  passage,  and  is  welcomed  as  a  harbinger  of  spring. 
It   prefers  the   vicinity   of  human   habitations,  and   often 


The  liluebird. 


builds  in  orcharils  and  gardens.  The  upper  part  of  it  is  a 
rich  sky-lihie  color;  the  lireast  and  throat  are  a  reddish 
chestnut.  Its  song  is  a  mellow,  .sweet-1(med,  and  agreeable 
warble.  This  bird  lays  about  five  pale-blue  eggs.  The 
male  and  female  both  defend  their  nest  and  young  with 
remarkable  courage  when  attacked  by  serpents  or  other 
animals.  They  generally  build  their  nest  in  the  hollow 
limb  of  a  tree  or  in  a  box  about  the  house  or  garden  kindly 
provided  by  the  farmer,  whom  they  repay  partly  by  tlio 


I 


BLUE-BOOKS 


BLUE   ITLL 


671 


cheerfulness  of  their  song,  partly  by  the  uiultitude  of  inju- 
rious insects  which  they  Uaily  destniy.  In  the  suninicr 
tlieir  foDil  consists  of  insects  and  spiders;  in  the  winter,  of 
lii-rries.  In  tlie  month  of  October  their  song  changes,  and 
the  pleasant  warble  shrinks  into  one  single  plaintive  note. 
Kven  after  the  trees  are  stripped  of  their  leaves  they  still 
linger  for  a  short  time  over  their  native  fields.  Two  other 
species  occur  in  the  U.  S.,  S.  ardiea  in  the  northwest  and 
H.  meximna  in  the  southwest. 

Blnebooks:  the  term  applied  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  S.  to  certain  otlicial  government  publications,  the  name 
alluding  to  the  fact  of  such  books  in  Great  Britain  usually 
have  blue  paper  covers.  In  Great  Britain  the  bluebooks  are 
reports  anil  other  papers  printed  and  issueii  under  the  au- 
thority of  Parliament,  or  the  Privy  Council,  or  other  chief 
department  of  government,  primarily  for  the  information 
of  Parliament,  As  applied  to  the  official  publications  of  the 
U.  S.,  the  term  is  generally  restricted  in  meaning  to  (n)  the 
publications  containing  the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  U,  S.  navy,  and  (//)  to  the  published 
ollicial  list  of  the  luimes  and  salaries  of  all  the  government 
employees.  The  term  is  therefore  i)opularly  used  also  as 
the  name  for  any  list  of  names  of  an  exclusive  character, 
either  financially  or  socially.  The  official  publications  con- 
taining the  reports  of  the  heads  of  departments,  etc.,  in 
France  have  yellow  and  blue  covers,  in  Italy  green,  ami  in 
other  countries  various  other  eoloi-s,  but  they  are  all  popu- 
larly designated  as  bluebooks. 

Bluchrcast :  .See  Blietiiroat. 

Blue  Karth  City  :  village ;  capital  of  Faribault  co..  Minn, 
(for  location  of  couiitv.  see  map  of  Jlinnesota,  ref.  11-E); 
on  C.  M.,  .St.  P.  and  O.  K.  K.,  and  on  Blue  Earth  river.  120 
ndles  S.  S.  \V.  of  .St.  Paul :  has  a  fine  sehocil,  seven  churches, 
and  an  opera-house.  There  are  manufacturing,  milling,  and 
extensive  farming  industries.  Pop.  (1880)  1,066 : '(18!)0) 
1,509 ;  (1895)  2,432.  Euitoks  ok  "  Post." 

Bluo-eye  (Entomiza  cyannfin):  sometimes  called  Blue- 
chi-ehi-(l  lioneij-eafer  \  a  beautiful  biril  aljuudant  in  New 
.South  Wales.  It  is  a  species  of  honey-sucker,  and  feeds  on 
insects  anil  honey,  which  it  obtains  chiefly  from  the  blos- 
soms fif  the  Ei(cal;/p/iix.  It  is  gregarious,  and  remarkalile 
fur  its  gi-aceful  movements. 

Bllicfield  :  village  ;  Jlercer  co.,  West  Va.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  West  Virgitua.  ref.  11-F);  on  Xorf.  and 
West.  U.  K. ;  100  miles  W.  of  Koanoke  ;  has  3  graded  schools, 
6  churches,  machine-shops,  electric  lights,  and  water-works. 
A  street-railway  company  has  now  (1893)  been  organized. 
Bluetield  is  a  center  of  trade  for  the  soft-coal  region  of  the 
Virginiiis.     Pop,  (1890)  1,775;  (1893)  estimated,  .5,000. 

Editor  ok  "Journal."' 

Bliioflolds.  or  Blonfleltls:  a  river  of  Nicaragua,  in  the 
Musipiitii  TcTrltury ;  flows  eastward,  and  enters  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  at  the  town  of  Bluefields.  which  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  is  in  lat,  12'  X.,  Ion.  83  W.  (see  map  of  Central  Ami'rica, 
ref.  (;-.I). 

Bliioflsh  (Pnmainmu.i  sallalrix):  a  fish  of  the  family 
Poiiititiimidtp;  allied  to  the  mackerels.  It  derives  its  spe- 
cific name  from  a  habit  of  leaping  out  of  the  water.  It  fre- 
i|Uents  the  coasts  of  the  U.  S.  in  spring  and  summer.  Is  very 
swirt  and  voracious,  and  preys  on  the  weaklish  and  other 
fishes.  It  weighs  fi-om  5  to  10  lli.,  and  Is  a  line  fish  for  the 
table. 

Blue  Gowns:  an  order  of  paupers  formerly  existing  in 
Scotland.  They  received  animally  from  the  king  a  largess 
of  alms  on  condition  that  they  prayed  for  his  welfare  ;  hence 
also  called  the  king's  bedesmen,  or  beadsmen.  Every  year 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne  the  king  elected  a  member 
of  the  order.  The  alms  consisted  chiefly  of  a  blue  gown 
or  cloak  (hence  the  name),  and  a  purse  containing  as  many 
Scoti'h  shillings,  equivalent  to  pennies  sterling,  as  the  years 
of  the  king's  life,  besides  a  jiewter  badge  bearing  the  words 
"pass  and  repa.ss,"  which  gave  them  protection  against  the 
laws  interdicting  mendicity,  and  gained  them  among  stran- 
gers alms  or  a  night's  lodging.  They  continued  to  be  ap- 
pointed up  to  18:33,  but  the  order  did  not  become  finally 
extinct  until  1803. 

Blue  (irass.  called  also  Green  Meadow  (Jrnss  and  June 
(•rass:  a  species  of  grass  (I'on  /tni/i'iisin)  which  Is  a  unlive 
of  both  Europe  and  America;  illstinguished  fiom  other 
.species  of  its  geinis  by  Its  flat  panicles,  smooth  culms  and 
sneaths,  and  slnut,  blunt  ligules.    Though  connnou  in  many 


regions,  this  grass  attains  its  chief  value  in  that  part  of 
Central  Kentucky  which  is  called  the  "blue-grass  region," 
where  It  is  considered  to  afford  the  most  important  crop 
that  can  be  raised  by  farmer.s.  It  Is  chiefly  cultivated  for 
pasturage  and  lawns,  though  on  certain  soils  it  makes  ex- 
cellent iiav.  To  this  grass  Kentucky  owes  her  great  repu- 
tation as  a  stock-raising  State. 
Blne-giim:  See  Eucalyi'ti-s. 

Blue  Laws:  laws  of  puritanical  strictness  in  religious  or 
smnpluarv  matters;  in  particular,  certain  fanatical  and 
nu'ildlesoine  laws  said  to  have  once  existed  in  the  colonv  of 
New  Haven,  now  a  |)art  of  the  State  of  Connecticut,  'fhey 
are  tile  fabrication  of  Samuel  Peters,  an  E)iiscopal  clergy- 
man, and  are  found  In  .1  (ietienil  JJistori/  of  Connec/icuf, 
from  itx  Jird  Si-ltlement  hi/  llemije  Fenifick,  Eaq.,  which 
was  written  by  Peters,  and  published  in  London  in  1781. 
(See  Pktkks,  Samuki..)  The  book  was  not  generally  well  re- 
ceived at  the  tlme.aud  a  review  of  it  said:  "We  .  .  .  observe 
in  It  so  many  marks  of  party  spleen  and  Idle  credulity  that  we 
do  not  liesitate  to  ]ironoiince  It  altogether  unworthy  of  pub- 
lie  attention."  It  has.  however,  been  quoted  as  authentic  by 
numerous  writers,  not  witliout  prominence,  even  so  late  as 
1870.  Blue  was  a  svmbol  of  constancy  In  Chaucer's  time, 
and  In  his  Cuurt  of  Love  he  speaks  of  "  folke  that  knele  in 
blew  ...  in  signc  they  ever  were  and  ever  will  be  true." 
Later  the  phrase  true  blue  came  to  be  applied  to  rigid  ad- 
herence to  one's  convietlons.  and  then  to  bigotry  and  fanati- 
cism. The  laws  of  the  New  Haven  colony  had  been  called 
"blue  laws"  In  New  York  early  In  the  eighteenth  century, 
uniioubtedly  in  allusion  to  the  strictness  of  Its  religious  and 
moral  laws." and  to  the  fact  that  only  chiireh-niembers  could 
vote  or  hold  offices.  By  the  laws  of  the  first  con.stitutiim 
and  code  of  Connecticut  the  penalty  of  death  was  inflicted 
for  witchcraft,  blasphemy,  idolatry!  adultery,  rape,  kidnap- 
ing, and  cursing  and  smiting  one's  iiarciits ;  and  it  was  a 
penalty  ]ninishable  liy  fine  to  play  at  sliuffle-board,  to  be  an 
idler.  Ill  He.  to  iiululge  In  profane  swearing,  to  fake  tobacco 
in  public  places,  to  tarry  in  a  tavern  longer  than  half  an 
hour,  or  later  than  9  o"crock  p.  M.  According  to  the  alleged 
laws  of  Peters,  "No  one  shall  run  upon  the  .Sabbath  day,  or 
walk  in  the  garden  or  elsewhere,  except  reverently  to  aiul 
from  meeting."'  "No  woman  shall  kiss  her  child  on  the 
Sabbath  or  fasting  days."  "  No  minister  shall  keeji  a  .school." 
"No  one  shall  read  Com luou-Prayer.  keep  Christmas  or 
Saints'  days,  make  mince  pies,  dance,  iihiy  cards,  or  play  on 
anv  Instrument  of  music,  except  the  drum,  trumpet,  and 
jew's-harp."  "Eicry  male  shall  have  his  hair  cut  round, 
according  to  a  caji,'"'  etc.  This  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
characler  of  the  real  and  the  fictitious  blue  laws.  See  J. 
Hammond  Trumbuirs  Tnie  Blue  Lairg  of  Coiinecfieut  and 
Xeir  Ihtren.  and  the  Fa/tie  Blue  Lau's  invented  hi/  Samuel 
I'i'/er.-i  (Svo.  Hartford.  1876).  F.  Sti-roes  Allen. 

Blue  Light :  See  Bengal  Liout. 

BlueMouday :  so  named  from  an  ancient  custom  in  some 
parts  of  Europe'  of  decorating  churches  with  blue  on  the 
Mondav  before  Lent,  this  particular  Jloiiday.  and  after- 
ward all  Moiidavs.  being  considered  holidays  for  men  whose 
buslue.ss  obllgeil' them  to  work  on  Sundays.  This  practice 
led  to  riotous  excesses  still  traditionally  remenibered,  and  it 
was  generally  suppressed  by  legal  enactments. 

Bine  .Monnlaiu.  Pennsylvania:  See  Kittatixnv. 

Blue  .Mountains:  a  range  In  the  eastern  part  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  N.  of  the  Australian  Alps.  It  is  nearly 
parallel  with  the  seacoast.  from  wliich  it  is  about  100  miles 
distant.  The  highest  peaks  of  this  range  rise  over  4,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  range  long  formed  a 
barrier  lietween  the  settlements  on  the  coast  and  the  inte- 
rior. In  1S15  a  road  was  opened  through  tliese  mountains 
to  the  rich  pastures  of  Batliurst  Plains;  and  now  a  railroad 
connects  Sydney  and  Bat liur.st,  crossing  the  Blue  Mountains 
at  an  elevation  of  over  3,000  feet. 

Blue  Nile:  See  liAiiR-ia.-AzRKK. 

Blue  I'ill  (called  also  Tilue  Mass,  or  Massaffydrargi/ri): 
a  drug  made  by  rubbing  up  metallic  mercury  with  liquorice 
and  other  exciiiients.  Each  grain  of  the  mass  contains  one- 
third  grain  of  mercury,  and  the  dose  of  tlie  mass  is  from 
one  to  twenty  grains.'  It  Is  used  in  medicine  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stimiiiatlug  the  liver  to  greater  secretion,  and  so  in- 
creases the  flow  of  bile.  In  Great  Britain,  the  mass  Is  mixed 
with  both  liquorice  and  confection  of  roses.  In  the  U.  S., 
the  use  of  a  saccharine  fluid,  such  as  honey.  Is  recommended 
in  place  of  the  confection  of  roses. 


672 


BLUE   RIDGE 


BLUMENTHAL 


Blue  Ridgre :  tlie  range  of  the  Appalachians  which  is 
nearest  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends  in  a  N.  E.  and 
S.  \V.  direction  through  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia. 
North  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  "  The  part  of  this  ridge  in 
Pennsylvania  is  called  the  South  Mountain.  In  Virginia 
it  forms  the  S.  E.  boundary  of  the  Great  A'alley.  and  is  re- 
markable for  beautiful  scenery.  The  Peaks  of  Otter,  which 
are  the  highest  points  of  this  ridge  in  Virginia,  rise  about 
3,993  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Prom  North  Carolina 
southward  the  name  of  Blue  Kidge  is  invariably  applied 
to  the  watershed  which  divides  the  waters  flowing  into  the 
Atlantic  from  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Blue  River,  Africa:  See  Bahr-el-Azrek. 

Blue  River,  Col. :  See  Bunkara  River. 

Blue  River :  of  Indiana :  rises  in  Henry  County,  in  the 
east  part  of  the  State,  and  flows  southwestward.  After  it 
has  united  with  several  streams  it  receives  the  name  of 
Driftwood  or  East  Fork  of  White  River. 

Bluestocking  (in  Fr.  bas  bleu) :  a  term  applied  to  liter- 
ary ladies,  and  generally  with  the  imputation  of  pedantry. 
It  originated  in  England  in  Dr.  Johnson's  time,  when  there 
existed  bluestocking  clubs,  at  which  literary  ladies  met  to 
converse  with  distinguished  literati.  Accorciing  to  Boswell, 
they  were  so  called  because  Mr.  Stillingfleet,  one  of  the 
prominent  members,  always  wore  blue  hose. 

Blue  Sulphur  Springs:  a  post-village  of  Greenbrier 
CO.,  West  Va. ;  23  miles  W.  of  the  famous  Wliite  Sulphur 
Springs.  The  springs  afford  a  copious  supply  of  valuable 
saline  chalybeate  waters,  useful  in  the  treatment  of  many 
diseases. 

Bluetliroat.  sometimes  called  Bluebreast,  or  Blue- 
throated  Rob'iu  (Fliwnicura  siie^iea):  a  beautiful  liird 
of  the  family  Si/lridie :  is  common  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope as  a  summer  bird  of  passage,  and  is  supposed  to  pass 
the  winter  in  Africa.  It  resembles  a  redbreast  in  form,  but 
is  rather  larger,  and  has  a  brilliant  sky-blue  plumage  on  its 
throat,  below  which  is  a  black  bar.  '  It  sings  sweetly,  anil 
imitates  the  notes  of  many  other  birds.  This  is  one  of  the 
birds  which  tlie  Italians  calls  Beccafico  {q.  v.). 

Blue  Vitriol:  the  sulphate  of  copper.    See  Copper. 

Bluewing-duck,  or  Bluewing-teal :  a  species  of  duck 
{Anas  difsiyjrs) ;  an  abundant  game-bird  of  America.  Vast 
numbers  speml  the  winter  in  the  marshes  near  the  mouths 
of  the  ilississippi,  to  which  they  congregate  both  from  the 
North  and  the  East;  the  summer  migrations  of  the  species 
extend  as  far  X.  as  the  .57th  parallel,  and  it  is  plentiful  on 
the  Saskatchewan  in  the  breeding-season.  It  bi-eeds  also  in 
the  marshes  of  the  South,  and  is  common  in  .Jamaica,  where 
it  is  a  permanent  resident.  No  duck  is  in  higher  esteem  for 
the  table.  In  the  summer  plumage  of  the  male  the  upper 
part  of  the  head  is  I)lack  ;  the  other  parts  of  the  head  are  of 
a  deep  purplish  blue,  except  a  patch  of  pure  white  before 
each  eye;  the  plumage  on  the  upper  part  is  brown  mixed 
and  glossed  with  green,  except  that  the  wings  exhibit  vari- 
ous shades  of  blue,  the  lesser  wing-covers  being  of  a  rich 
ultramarine,  with  an  almost  metallic  luster;  the  lower  parts 
are  reddish  orange  spotted  with  black:  the  tail-feathers  are 
short  and  pointeil.  It  is  a  bird  of  extremely  rapid  and  well- 
sustained  flight. 

Bluff:  a  high  bank  or  cliff  presenting  a  steep  or  abrupt 
front  toward  a  river,  lake,  or  sea.  The  term  is  often  ap- 
plied to  the  high  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  other  West- 
ern rivers.  Between  the  bluff  and  the  river  sometimes 
occurs  a  flat  tract  of  considerable  width  called  a  bottom. 
On  the  Mississippi  below  Lake  Pepin  the  bluffs  of  mag- 
nesian  limestone  rise  about  3-50  feet  above  the  river. 

Bluff'ton :  city  and  railroad  junction ;  capital  of  Wells 
CO.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  countv,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref. 
4-G) ;  on  L.  E.  and  W.  and  T..  St.  L.  and  K.  C.  R.  Rs..  and  on 
Wabash  river;  2.5  miles  S.  of  Fort  Wayne.  Blufftou  has  3 
schools,  7  churches,  city  water-works,  natural  gas,  electric 
light.s,  and  macadamized  streets.  It  has  planing-nulls,  corn- 
planter  maniifactory  (steam),  barrel  manufactories,  foundries 
and  machine-shops,  stave  and  heading  factories,  flouring- 
mills,  furniture-frame  factory,  furniture-factory,  boot  and 
shoe  factorv,  washing-machine  faclorv,  and  a  large  grain, 
lumber,  and  slock  trade.  Pop.  (18W))  2,3.j4 ;  (1800)  .3,.589 ; 
(1892)  est  inuited,  3,800.  Editor  ok  "  Bugle." 

BInffton  :  village;  Allen  oo..  O.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-D) :  situated  at  junction  of  Lake 
Erie  and  West.,  and  Pitts..  Akron  and  West.  R.  Rs.     Bluff- 


ton  has  flouring  and  saw  mills  and  lime-kilns,  and  horse- 
breeding  and  poultry-raising  farms.  There  are  outcropping 
magnesium-limestone  formations,  and  extensive  and  valuable 
quaiTies  have  been  developed.  The  surrounding  farming 
region  is  populated  by  one  of  the  largest  exclusivelv  German 
settlements  in  the  U.  S.  Pop.  (1890)  1.290 ;  (1893)  estimated 
1.500.  Editor  of  "  News." 

Bluhme,  bloo'me,  Friedrich:  German  jurisconsult;  b, 
in  Hamburg,  June  29,  1797;  d.  at  Bonn,  Nov.  5.  1874.  He 
studieii  law  at  Halle,  Gottingen.and  Jena,  and  made  in  1821 
an  extensive  tour  in  Italy,  the  results  of  which  are  found  in 
his  essay.  Die  Ordnung  der  Fragmente  in  den  Pandekten- 
titlen,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  geschichtliehe  Rechtswissen- 
sehaft.  vol.  iv..  in  his  edition  of  Gains,  his  Iter  Italicum 
(Berlin,  1824-37,  4  vols.),  etc.  He  successively  filled  the 
chairs  of  Jurispnidence  at  Halle,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  and 
published  Das  KirchenrecJit  der  Juden  mid  Christen  (Halle, 
1826;  2d  ed.  1851);  Grundnss  der  Pandektenreehts  (Halle, 
1829;  2d  ed.  1843),  and  Encyclopadie  iind  System  der  in 
Deiitscliland  geltende  Reclde  (Bonn,  1847-58,  3  vols.),  his 
chief  work. 

Blum,  bloom,  Robert:  democrat  and  popular  orator;  b. 
of  poor  parents  at  dilognc.  Nov.  10,  1807.  He  founded 
the  Schiller-Verein  (Schiller  Society)  at  Leipzig  in  1840, 
and  the  German  Catholic  Church  at  Leipzig  in  1845.  In 
184S  he  was  the  mastei'-spirit  of  the  Saxon  lilierals  or  demo- 
crats, and  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  parliament,  in  which 
he  was  the  leader  of  the  Left  or  moderate  opposition.  Hav- 
ing been  sent  by  this  party  to  Vienna,  he  joined  the  insur- 
gents of  that  city,  which  was  soon  captured  by  the  Austrian 
army.  Blum  was  arrested  and  shot  at  Vienna.  Nov.  9,  1848, 
SeeEduard  Duller,  R.  Blums  Leben  und  Tod,  1848;  E. 
Franke,  Leben  des  R.  Blum,  1848. 

Blum.  Robert  Frederick  :  figure-painter ;  b.  in  Cincin- 
nati. O.,  July.  1857;  studied  in  New  York.  Italy.  Holland, 
and  Spain.  MemVier  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
(1882)  and  of  the  American  Water-color  Society ;  associate 
National  Academy,  New  York :  third-class  medal,  Paris  Ex- 
position, 1889.  He  first  exhibited  in  New  York  in  1879,  is 
well  known  as  a  water-color  and  pastel  painter,  and  is 
a  talented  American  illustrator.  Aside  from  various  single 
fig\ires  and  compositions  painted  in  oil,  the  most  notable 
feature  of  which  is  harmonious  and  delicate  color,  he  has 
painted  a  number  of  pictures  of  Venice  and  of  life  in  Italy 
and  Spain.  His  picture  of  Venetian  Bead  Stringers  was 
awarded  a  prize  of  12.500  at  an  exhibition  held  under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Art  Association  at  New  York  in 
1889.  He  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  technicians  among 
American  water-color  painters.     Studio  in  New  York. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Bluiuenbach,  bloo'men-baai-h,  Johaxx  Friedrich,  M.D.  : 
naturalist:  b.  at  Gotha.  May  11.  1752.  He  graduated  as 
M.  D.  at  Gottingen  in  1775,  and  wrote  for  that  occasion  a 
remarkable  thesis  On  tlie  Varieties  of  the  Hximan  Race.  In 
1778  he  became  Professor  of  Medicine  and  Anatomy  in  the 
L^niversity  of  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured  for  fifty  years. 
He  published  a  Manual  of  Natural  History  (1780),  often 
reprinted.  He  may  be  said  to  have  first  placed  natural  his- 
tory on  the  scientific  basis  of  comparative  anatomy.  Among 
his  works  is  a  3Ianual  of  Comparafire  Anatomy  (1805), 
which  was  translated  into  many  languages.  He  advocated 
the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  human  species,  which  he 
divided  into  five  races — the  Caucasian,  Mongolian.  Jlalay, 
American,  and  Ethiopian.  D.  Jan.  22.  1840.  See  C.  F.  ll. 
Marx,  2um  Andenken  an  J.  F.  Blumenbach  (1840). 

Blumeiithal.  bloomcn-taal,  Jacob,  von :  composer;  b,  at 
Hamburg,  Germany,  Oct.  4,  1829 ;  studied  music  there  and 
at  Paris  and  Vienna;  became  an  excellent  pianist.  In  1848 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  London,  where  he  has  since  re- 
mained and  is  known  as  Jacques  Blumenthal.  His  comjio- 
sitions  arc  entirely  of  a  light  class,  and  include  brilliant  and 
effective  parlor  piano  [lieces  and  many  songs  which  have 
become  extremely  po])ular.  D.  E.  Hervey. 

BInnieuthal.  Leonard,  von :  b.  in  Schwedt,  July  30, 
1810;  educated  at  the  military  academies  of  Culm  and 
Berlin  ;  entered  the  Prussian  army  as  second  lieutenant  at 
seventeen:  became  first  lieutenant  in  1846;  captain  in  the 
general  staff  in  1849.  and  in  the  same  year  captain  in 
the  general  staff  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army;  was  made 
colonel  in  1860;  was  distinguished  in  the  war  against  Den- 
mark :  became  major-general  in  1864,  serving  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  war  with  Austria,  and  was  appointed  chief  of 


J 


BLUMDARDT 


BOARD 


673 


the  general  staff  of  the  crown  prince  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  wilh  Franco.  lie  was  appointed  field-niai-shal  in 
1888.     1).  at  CusscI,  May  IS,  lba2. 

Bliinihanlt.  liloom  haart,  CnRisTi.\N  Gottlieb  :  b.  in 
Stutti,'art.  .\pr.  2i).  177!);  il.  in  Basel.  Dec.  1!),  1«;!8.  He 
stuilii'd  tlu'oloLiy  at  Tiihingen ;  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  tierriiaii  Missionary  Society  in  Basel  in  1803;  pastor  of 
Biirg  180!t.  and  director  of  the  missionary  school  in  Basel 
in  1816.  Since  1816  he  edited  the  .V issionsmagaz in,  from 
1828  also  the //etrfcHio/?,  and  published  Vemnch  einer  alt- 
gemeiiien  Misxiimsijeachichte  der  Kirche  Chrisli  (Basel, 
1828-;{7,  5  vols.). 

Blunt,  (Jkoroe  WiLLUM  :  hydrographer ;  b.  in  Xewbury- 
piirt,  Ma-s.,  Mar.  11.  1S()2;  educated  in  New  York  city.  He 
was  the  author  of  various  charts,  ,-i//o;i/('c  J/emof'r;  S/ieet 
Anchor;  Ilailior  Laws  of  New  York;  Plan  to  Avoid  the 
Center  of  Violent  Gales;  and  compiler  of  the  American 
Coastl  I'tlol.  He  was  a  commissioner  of  emigi'ation  (18.52- 
54).  a  pilot  commissioner  in  1845,  and  became  a  harbor  com- 
missioner in  1867.     D.  in  New  York,  Apr.  19,  1878. 

Blunt.  .Iamks  G.,  M.  D.  :  general ;  b.  in  Trenton.  Jfe.,  July 
20,  1S26;  took  degree  of  M.  D.  in  1840.  and  practiced  in 
Ohio  till  1S.~)U,  when  he  removed  to  Kansas;  was  appointed 
in  1IS61  brigadier-general  and  commander  of  the  deparliuent 
of  Kansas;  major-general  in  1862.  In  186:S  he  cuminanded 
the  army  of  the  frontier.     D.  in  Washington,  D.  ('..  in  1881. 

Blunt,  .loii.N  IlE.vRy,  M.  A..  D.  D.,  P. S.  A.:  a  clereyuian 
of  the  Church  of  Hugland  ;  b.  in  Chelsea.  Kngland,  Aug.  25, 
182:5;  educated  at  University  College,  Durham;  filled  vari- 
ous curacies  in  the  diocesus  of  Durham,  Oxford,  Exeter,  and 
Ely;  appointed  Rector  of  Beverton,  Gloucestershire,  in  1873. 
lie  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  especially  of  books  of  an  en- 
cyclo|)a"dic  character.  Jlost  widely  known  perhaps  are  .1 
Diclioiiiirii  of  DoclriiHil  and  Historical  Iheoloijij  (1870) 
and  .1  Diclionarij  of  Sects,  Heresies.  Ecclesias/icat  Parlies, 
and  Schools  of  Religious  Thought  (1874).  Among  his  other 
wcn'ks  are  Directorium  Pastorale  (1864),  a  volume  on  tlie 
principles  and  practice  of  pastoral  work  in  the  Church  of 
England  ;  Household  Theoloijt)  (1865),  a  handbook  of  relig- 
ions information;  The  Annotated  Bible  (1878),  in  three 
large  8vo  vols.;  The  Annotated  Hook  of  Common  Pratjer 
(1866),  an  historical,  ritual,  and  theological  commentary  on 
the  devotional  system  of  the  Church  of  England ;  The 
Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England,  its  Histori/,  Prin- 
ciples, and  Results  (2  vols.),  the  sixth  edition  of  which  aj)- 
peared  in  1885,     D.  in  London,  Apr.  11,  1884. 

Bhintselili.  bldbnt  shire.  Jon.^XN  Kaspar:  b.  in  Zurich, 
Mar.  7.  ISOS  ;  d.  at  Carlsruhe,  Oct.  21,  1881.  lie  studied 
jurisprudence  in  his  native  city,  and  in  Berlin  under  Sa- 
vigny,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Law  at  Zurich  in 
WSi  and  at  Heidelberg  in  18.59.  He  took  a  very  active 
part  in  the  politics  of  both  Switzerland  and  15aden,  but 
iilwavs  as  a  conservative.  His  writings  are  partlv  liistori- 
cal :  'The  Historg  of  Zurich  (18;J8,  2  vols.);  Ttie  l/istorg  of 
Uri,  Schwgz.  and  Unterwald  (1847).  etc.,  pai-tly  juridical; 
Geschichte  des  algemeinen  Rechfs  (1864);  Das  moderne 
Kriegsrechl  (1866)';  Das  moderne  Volkerreclit  (1868) ;  Die 
Lehre  com  Staat  (1875),  etc.  He  presided  over  the  congress 
of  jurists  in  Dresden  in  1861.  and  enjoyed  a  great  reputa- 
tion in  the  juridical  world. 

Blyllie,  Samukl:  a  British  naval  olTjoer ;  b.  in  1784;  com- 
manilcd  the  brig  Boxer  in  an  engagement  off  Portland,  Me., 
with  the  I'.  S.  Iirig  Enterprise,  Sept.  4,  1814,  during  which 
he  was  killed  by  a  caunon-liall.  His  remains  wore  interred 
in  Portland  with  the  honoi's  of  war  by  the  side  of  Lieut. 
Burrows,  who  commanded  the  Enterprise,  and  was  also 
killed. 

Bo'a  :  a  genus  of  large  non-venomous  serpents  ;~'devoid  of 
poison-l'angs,  they  kill  their  prey  by  constriction.  They  are 
all  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  America,  the  similar  largo 
serpents  of  .Asia  and  Africa  forming  the  genus  Pglhon, 
though  formerly  the  name  was  appliiMl  without  any  dislinc- 
ti<ni  to  both  genera.  'Wvf  family  Bo'nUv  (containing  the 
Ptjlhons,  etc.,  of  the  Old  \Vorld,  as  well  as  the  true  Hoas. 
anacondas,  etc.,  of  the  New)  is  almost  exclusively  troi>ical, 
and  nearly  all  the  species  are  of  great  size  and  strength.  It 
is  related  by  Livy  that  a  serpent  120  feet  in  length  devoured 
several  soldiers  and  caused  alarm  to  a  Roman  army  in  Af- 
rica; the  skill  is  said  to  have  been  long  preserved  at  Rome. 
Their  teeth  are  long  and  directed  backward,  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  prey,  which  is  first  seized  by  the  mouth,  and 
then  the  serpent,  with  a  rajiidity  of  motion  which  the  eye  of 
43 


the  observer  fails  to  follow,  coils  itself  around  it ;  the  mus- 
cles of  the  body  afterward  compress  it,  so  that  in  a  few  min- 
utes life  is  extinct.  Deglutition  then  takes  place,  aecoin- 
i)anied  wilh  a  flow  of  saliva,  not  only  for  lubrication,  but  to 
hasten  the  process  of  digestion.  The  foo<i  is  always  swal- 
lowed entire,  and  the  jjrocess  sce/ns  to  retjuire  no  small  ef- 
fort. The  neck  is  distended  to  an  enornuius  degree  as  the 
prey  passes  through.  After  a  rejiast  these  serpents  spend  a 
considerable  time  in  a  state  of  torpidity — several  weeks 
elapsing  before  they  require  a  new  supply — and  in  this  state 
thev  are  easily  killed. 

The  lungs  consist  of  two  lobes,  one  much  larger  than  the 
other,  and  at  the  extremity  of  the  larger  is  a  capacious  air- 
bag,  supposed  to  serve  for  the  aiiration  of  the  blood  during 
deglutition.  There  are  two  claws,  one  on  each  siile  of  the 
aims,  which  are  the  representatives  of  the  hinder  limbs  of 
the  superior  vertebrate  aninuds,  and  which,  on  dissection, 
are  found  to  be  connected  not  only  with  strong  uuiscles, 
but  with  bones  entirely  concealed  within  the  serpent.  The 
head,  which  has  great  prehensile  power,  is  thick  and  some- 
what elongated;  the  eyes  snuiU ;  the  tail  blunt;  the  scales 
inimerous  and  rather  small;  the  colors  in  many  species 
bright  and  elegantly  disposed.  The  true  boas  have  the 
plates  under  the  tail  single,  while  in  the  pythons  they  are 
double.  They  are  of  four  species.  The  Boa  constrictor  is 
far  friini  being  one  of  the  largest,  seldom  olitainiug  a  length 
of  more  than  12  feet.  It  is  common  in  parts  of  South 
America,  where  its  skin  is  vised  for  making  boots  and  sad- 
dles. Uric  acid  is  prepared  in  Europe  from  the  excrement 
of  the  boa.  The  name  boa  constrictor  is,  however,  popularly 
extended  to  any  very  large  non-venomous  serpent.  The 
only  members  of  the  boa  family  in  the  U.  S.  are  two  or  three 
small  species  found  in  Arizona  and  neighboring  regions. 
Revised  by  David  S.  Jordan. 

Boabdil,  bo-alib-deel' (properly  Yli»-^li</n/?«/() :  last  Moor- 
ish King  of  Granada;  wrested  the  throne  from  his  father 
1481;  defeated  by  the  Castilians  and  made  to  pay  tribute 
1483;  weakened  by  contest  with  his  father  and  uncle; 
finally  surrendered  Granada  to  Ferdinan<l  of  Aragon  1491 ; 
soon  after  crossed  to  Africa,  where  he  died  in  battle. 

Boadice'a,  written  also  Voadica:  a  warlike  British 
r|Ueen  ;  wife  of  Prasutagus,  King  of  tlie  Iceui,  who  died 
about  60  A.  D.  Soon  after  this  date  she  and  her  subjects,  ex- 
asperated by  the  rapacity  and  outrages  of  the  Rouum  sol- 
diers, took  arms  against  them.  The  Britons  took  the  IJoinan 
colonies  of  Camalodunuui  and  l.oniliuium  (London),  and 
killed  about  70.000  Romans.  She  was  defeated  in  62  A.  D. 
by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  and  then  killed  herself.  See  Tacitus, 
Annates. 

Boar:  the  male  of  the  Sus  scrofa,  or  swine.  \Yhen  ap- 
plied to  the  wild  stock  of  swine  found  in  various  countries, 
the  term  is  used  without  particular  reference  to  the  sex  of 
the  animals.  The  native  country  of  this  species  is  in  the 
Old  World,  where  the  wild  stock  abounds  in  parts  of  Europe, 
in  Asia,  and  in  Africa.  The  wild  boars  found  in  the  Scuith- 
ern  States  (especially  in  Florida)  are  descended  from  the 
domestic  swine;  but  have  reverted  quite  to  the  wild  type  in 
respect  to  the  form  of  the  body,  ears,  and  tusks,  the  bristly 
crest  on  the  back,  the  black  or  red  color,  and  the  striped 
young.  Most  writers  nuike  all  the  douu'stic  breeds  of  swine 
descendants  of  I  lie  wild  stock.  Others  think  the  small  na- 
tive pig  of  the  Pacific  islands  is  of  a,  separate  species;  but  it 
is  assorted  by  some  that  no  swine  were  known  on  these  islands 
till  after  thev  were  visited  by  European  ships,  which  cer- 
tainly left  swine  and  other  domestic  animals  in  many  parts 
of  Polynesia.  A  few  writers  regard  the  East  Indian  boar 
as  of  a  distinct  species.  Swine  with  solid  hoofs  have  been 
long  known,  the  variety  being  produced  through  the  coales- 
cence of  the  last  joint  of  the  foot  with  the  hoofs  of  the  mid- 
dle toe.  No  true  swine  are  native  to  .Vmerica  or  Australia. 
Hoar-hunting  has  long  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  nu>st 
exciting  sports  of  the  cha,se.  It  is  practiced  in  Europe,  In- 
dia, and  Syria — in  some  places  with  toils  or  nets,  in  others 
wilh  dogs,  which  bring  the  boar  to  bay,  when  he  is  dis- 
patched with  a  sjiear  or  long  knife.  In  India  he  is  hunted 
on  horseback  and  killed  with  a  boar-spear.  It  is  held  un- 
sportsmanlike to  shoot  the  boar.  When  at  bay  the  wild  boar 
is  a  very  dangerous  animal. 

Board:  a  piece  of  timber  sawed  (hin;  if  more  than  1^ 
inches  thick,  it  is  called  a  plank.  The  word  hoard  has  many 
other  meanings,  e.  g.,  a  talile;  entertainment  or  food;  the 
dock  of  a  ship  or  vessel ;  a  talile  at  which  a  council  or  court 
is  held;   a  body  of  public  men  constituting  a  (juorum  in 


67-t 


BOARDMAN 


BOAT 


session.  Board  is  a  general  term  applied  to  persons  in  a 
collective  capacity  who  have  the  management  of  some  pub- 
lic ofiice  or  department,  bank,  etc. :  thus  the  directors  of  a 
bank  or  railroad  are  called  the  board  of  directors :  the  Brit- 
ish lords  of  the  treasury,  the  board  of  treasury.  In  nautical 
language,  board  is  the  space  or  portion  of  sea  over  which  a 
ship  passes  on  one  tack  when  beating. 

To  go  aboard  or  on  board  is  to  enter  a  vessel,  to  embark 
in  it.  The  mast  is  said  to  go  by  the  board  when  it  carries 
away  and  falls  into  the  water. 

To  board,  in  naval  warfare,  signifies  to  enter  a  ship  by 
force  in  order  to  capture  it.  The  assjiilants  sometimes  throw 
on  the  enemv's  deck  combustibles,  etc.,  in  order  to  confuse 
the  crew,  and  then  board  the  ship,  armed  with  boarding- 
pikes,  pistols,  and  cutlasses.  Some  of  the  most  desperate 
naval  conflicts  have  been  determined  by  boarding,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  Serapis. 

Board'inaii.  George  Dana:  Baptist  missionary:  b.  in 
Livoriiiore.  Jle..  Feb.  8.  ISOl :  graduated  at  WaterviUe  Col- 
lege (now  Colbv  University)  in  1822,  and  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  182.5."  He  sailed  for  Burma  July  16. 
1825.  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  and  devotion  to 
the  work  among  the  Karens,  being  practically  the  founder 
of  the  Karen  mission.  D.  near  Tavoy.  Feb.  11,  1831.  His 
widow.  Sarah  Ilall.  married  Adoniram  judson.  June  10, 1834. 

Boardniau.  George  Dana.  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Baptist  minis- 
ter and  author:  son  of  the  preceding:  b.  at  Tavoy.  in  Bur- 
uui.  .Aug.  18,  1823;  graduated  at  Brown  I^niversity  (1852), 
and  at  Xewton  Theological  Institution  (1853).  He  has  been 
the  pastor  of  the  First'Baptist  church  in  Philadelphia  since 
1864.  Dr.  Boardman  has  held  positions  as  president  of  the 
American  Baptist  Jlissionary  Union,  president  of  the  Chris- 
tian Institution  and  Peace  Society  of  America,  secretary  of 
the  Society  for  Providing  Christian  Literature  for  the  Blind, 
chaplain  "of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  overseer  of 
Columbian  University,  and  trustee  or  manager  of  numerous 
other  corporations,  institutions,  and  societies.  He  has  pub- 
lished Ler/iire.-i  on  the  Cri'ii/ion  Week  (ISIS);  Shiclies  in  the 
Mode!  Prnj/er  (1879) ;  Epiphanies  of  the  Bi.'<en  Lord  (187!») : 
Studies  in  the  Mountain  Instruction  (IHSO) :  Tlie  Divine  Man 
(firet  volume  of  expected  Life  of  our  Lord,  1887);  Univer- 
siiy  Lectures  on  tJie  Ten  Commandments  (1889);  besides 
numerous  sermons  and  articles  in  reviews. 

Boardman.  RiiHARE) :  one  of  Wesley's  first  missionaries 
to  America:  b.  in  England  in  1738:  joined  Wesley's  con- 
ference in  1763:  volunteered  for  .Vmerica  in  1769;  preached 
in  Xew  York  and  generally  through  tlie  Middle  States  till 
1774.  when  he  returned  to  England,  and  continued  his 
itinerant  ministry  till  Ids  death  at  Cork,  Ireland,  Oct.  4. 
1782.  He  is  esteemed  as  one  of  the  founders  of  Methodism 
in  the  U.  S. 

Board  of  .\dniiralty :  the  commissioners  for  executing 
the  oHice  of  Lord  High  Admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom  ot 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  James  II.  declared  himself  Lord 
High  Admiral,  and  took  the  management  of  the  navy  in  liis 
own  hands.  But  by  Act  2.  William  and  Mary.  1690,  his  Maj- 
esty was  moved  "  to  constitute  a  commission  of  admiralty  of 
persons  of  known  experience  in  maritime  aflairs,  that  for 
the  future  all  orders  for  the  management  of  the  fleet  do  pass 
through  the  admiralty  that  shall  be  so  constituted." 

The  board  as  now  constituted  consists  of  six  members  and 
throe  secretaries,  as  follows :  First  lord,  a  civilian,  member 
of  the  cabinet,  and  responsible  to  the  crown  and  to  Parlia- 
ment for  the  nuinagement  of  the  navy.  His  assistants  are: 
First  naval  (or  sea)  lord,  who  has  general  supervision  of 
maritime  defenses,  mobilization  of  llect.  and  the  direction 
of  its  military  movements,  etc.  Second  naval  lord, /(crAOH- 
nel,  mobilization  of  luival  reserves,  etc.  Third  naval  lord 
and  controller,  general  supervision  of  materiel.  Junior 
naval  lord,  transport  service,  victualing,  etc.  Civil  lord, 
Works  Department,  buildings,  etc.    See  Admiralty. 

S.  B.  Luce. 

Board  or  Ordnance:  Sec  Ordnance  Department. 

Board  of  Trade:  in  the  U.  S.  a  voluntary  association  of 
business  men  of  a  city  to  [jromote  the  commercial  interests  of 
the  place;  also  called  chamber  of  commen-e.  In  1868  a  na- 
tional board  of  trade  was  organized,  consisting  of  delegates 
from  the  local  boards,  holding  annual  meetings  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  questions  of  general  interest.  Local  boards  of 
trade  or  chambers  of  commerce  have  even  more  iniportance 
and  more  legal  recognition  in  Europe  than  in  the  L.  S.  See 
Cuamisers  ok  Commerce. 


In  Great  Britain  the  Board  of  Trade  is  a  branch  of  the 
Government  dealing  with  commerce  and  statistics.  It  is 
controlled  by  a  president,  who  is  an  important  member  of 
the  cabinet,  and  two  general  secretaries.  One  of  its  depart- 
ments deals  with  general  trade  questions;  another  with 
railway  appliances,  accidents,  and,  since  1888,  with  railway 
rates; "a  third,  and  most  important,  with  harbors,  shipping, 
officers"  certificates,  and  nuirine  accidents:  a  fourth  with 
financial  and  commercial  statistics.  A.  T.  Hadley. 

Boarflsll :  a  fish  of  the  genus  Capros  and  dory  family, 
or  ZeldcE  ;   differing  from  fishes  of  the  genus  Zeus  in  the 


^ 


-  s. 


Tin-  boarflsh. 

still  more  protractile  mouth  (the  resemblance  of  which  to 
the  snout  of  a  hog  is  supposed  to  have  given  origin  to  the 
name),  in  the  want  of  spines  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins,  and  of  long  filaments  to  the  doi-sal  spines.  The 
body  has  the  usual  oval,  much-comjiressed  form  of  the  fam- 
ily. The  common  boarfish  {Capros  aper)  is  a  well-known 
inhabitant  of  the  Jlediterranean.  rarely  caught  on  the  coasts 
of  England.     The  flesh  is  little  esteemed. 

Boas,  bd  a-as.  Franz.  Ph.  D. :  ethnologist  :  b.  in  Minden, 
Westphalia,  Germany,  July  9.  18.58:  pursued  his  education 
from  1877  to  1882  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Bonn, 
and  Kiel,  and  in  the  latter  year  prepared  at  Berlin  for  an 
Arctic  voyage.  In  June,  1883,  he  sailed  to  Cumberland 
Sound,  Baffin  Land ;  traveled  in  that  region  until  Sept.. 
1884.  and  retiirncd  by  way  of  St.  John's.  Ne-n-foundland.  to 
Xew  York.  Assistant  in  the  Royal  Ethnographical  Museum 
at  Berlin,  and  jjrivat-docent  of  geography  at  the  University 
of  Berlin  188.5-86,  making,  however,  a  journey  to  British 
Columbia  in  the  winter  of  188.5-*I6  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  Indians  of  that  region  ;  assistant  editor  of  Science 
1886-88:  an(f  teacher  of  anthropology  at  Clark  University, 
Worcester,  JIass..  1889-92.  During  these  years  he  ma<le  re- 
peated journeys  among  the  Indian  tribes.  His  principal 
pulilications  are  Baffin  Land  (Gotha.  1885);  The  Central 
Eskimo,  in  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology (Washington.  1888) ;  Indians  of  British  Columbia. 
Reports  to  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  (London.  1888-92);  Volkssagen  aus  Britisch  Colum- 
hien.  Verb,  der  Ges.  fi'ir  Anthropologic,  Ethnologic  und  Ur- 
geschichte  in  Berlin  (Berlin.  1891). 

Boat:  any  kind  of  water  craft,  but,  in  a  particular  sense, 
a  small  open  vessel  propelled  by  oars,  sails,  steam,  or  elec- 
tricity. The  name  is  variously  compounded,  as  steamboat, 
canal-boat.  etc.  The  boats  used  on  board  ship  are  the  launch 
(both  sailing  and  steam),  longboat,  barge,  pinnace,  cutter, 
yawl,  jollyboat,  dinghy,  gig,  lifeboat,  whaleboat.  There  are 
also  quarter-boats,  waist-boats,  and  stern-boats,  according  to 
the  place  where  the  boat  is  habitually  carried.  A  cnj'i'fZ-built 
boat  ha-s  the  planking  running  fore  and  aft,  with  flush  joints ; 
clinker-hm\{,  the  planking  running  fore  and  aft,  and  lap- 
jointed.  The  diai/onal  built  has'  the  planking  running  di- 
agonally, the  direction  of  the  inside  plankiug  crossing  that 
of  the  outside,  and  flush-jointed.  The  seats  for  the  crew  of 
a  boat  are  called  the  thwarts;  a  sinyle-banked  boat  has  one 
rower  or  oarsman  to  a  thwart ;  a  double-hanked  boat  has  two. 
The  strips  running  fore  and  aft  on  which  the  thwarts  rest 
is  the  rising.  The  stern-sheets  is  the  space  abaft  the  after 
thwart ;  the  fore-sheels,  the  space  forward  of  foremost 
thwart.    The  spaces  in  the  wash-streak  for  the  oars  are  the 


BOATBILL 


BOBRUISK 


675 


rowlocks.  The  frames,  knees,  hooks,  stem,  and  stern-posts 
of  wooden  boats  are  generally  of  oak ;  the  planking  of  cedar. 
Oars  are  made  of  asli.  The  blade  of  the  oar  is  the  flat  [larl 
that  goes  in  the  water:  the  loom  is  the  rounded  part,  at  the 
inner  cstreniity  of  which  is  the  handle.  The  rigs  for  boats 
are  the  sloop-rig.  sliding-gxtnttr,  sprit,  and  lug.  In  the 
U.  S.  navy  the  barge  is  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief;  the  gig  for  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
ship.  All  other  boats  are  for  general  service  of  the  ship, 
sucu  as  conveying  passengers  to  and  fro,  bringing  off  stores, 
etc.  For  military  operations  all  the  boats  of  a  ship  arc 
put  in  reiiuisition  for  landing  the  naval  brigade  formed  of 
the  ship's  company  :  also,  as  many  as  may  be  necessary,  for 
"cutting  out  "expeditions;  and,  organized  as  a  fleet,  for  the 
practice  of  naval  tactics.  In  these  and  sinular  operations 
the  sailing  launch  carries  a  Howitzer,  and  the  entire  flotilla 
is  often  taken  in  tow  by  the  steam-launch.  It  is  now  the 
practice  to  allow  an  admiral  a  steam-barge ;  when  that  is  not 
the  case  his  barge  is  a  large  double-banked  IW-fmit  boat,  with 
twelve  or  fourteen  oars.  The  gig  is  a  light,  narrow,  single- 
banked  boat,  about  30  feet  long,  built  for  speed.  In  addition 
to  the  foregoing  is  the  barge,  a  large  flat-bottom  boat  for 
carrying  freight ;  the  racing  shell,  built  of  veneering  or  paper ; 
the  gondola,  dory,  %vherry,  .skiff,  the  Sam-pan  of  China,  etc. 
For  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  boats,  their  uses,  and  manage- 
ment, see  Luce's  Seamanship  (New  York,  1891).     S.  B.  L. 

Boatbill :  the  Cancroma  cochlearia,  a  bird  of  the  order 
Gratlatores  and  of  the  heron  family.  It  differs  from  the 
heron  chiefly  in  the  form  of  its  bill,  which  is  very  broad, 
and  .somewhat  similar  in  shape  to  a  boat.  The  mandibles 
have  been  compared  to  the  bowls  of  two  spoons  placed  one 
upon  the  other.  It  is  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  South 
America,  and  feeds  on  fish. 

Boat-fly,  or  Wafer-boatman:  an  aquatic  insect  of  the 
genus  yutnnecta  aiul  order  Ilemiptera  and  sub-order  Heter- 
optera.  It  derives  its  name  from  tlu^  form  of  the  body,  which 
resembles  a  boat,  and  is  well  adapted  to  movement  in  the 
water.  The  boat-flies  have  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  al- 
ways swimming  on  their  backs.  The  yotonectaghnicn,i.-AW'A 
water-boatmen,  is  common  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  about 
half  an  inch  long.     It  can  fly  well,  but  seldom  uses  its  wings. 

Boating::  See  Rowing  and  Sculling. 

Boat-racinsT :  See  Rowing  and  Scullixo. 

Boatswain,  connnonly  pronounced  by  sailors  bo'sn  [strain 
here  means  lad,  servant,  and  is  a  Scaudin.  loan-word,  Icel. 
»i7'i7i«] :  an  officer  on  a  ship  of  war  whcj  has  charge  of  the 
sjiils,  rigging,  cables,  anchors,  and  cordage.  He  unisl  fre- 
quently examine  the  masts,  yards,  sails,  and  ropes,  and  re- 
port, tlieir  condition.  It  is  also  his  duty  to  summon  the  crew 
to  their  work,  and  to  assist  in  the  necessary  business  of  the 
ship  and  in  relieving  the  watch.  In  the  perforuuince  of  his 
duties  he  is  assisted  by  a  boatswain's  mate. 

Boatswai  n :  a  name  applied  to  the  tropic-birds  {Phaethmi) 
and  to  the  jagers  {Stercorariiis).  in  both  cases  in  allusion  to 
the  elongated  tail-feathers,  rescmhling  marline-spikes,  "the 
emblem  of  the  boatswain."    See  Tropu-biud  and  Jaeger. 

Bdhadilla.  bfy-binnleerya'a.  Fkancisco,  de  :  agovernor  of 
Ilispiiiiiola  mid  knight  of  t'alatrava:  sent  in  l.')(K)  by  Perdi- 
iwvnd  and  Isabella  with  plenary  powers  to  investigate  the 
affairs  of  thai  colony,  lie  immediately  Jiut  Coliimlius,  wlio 
was  then  governor,  in  irons,  and  sent  him  to  Spain,  t'olum- 
bus  was.  however,  well  received  at  court  and  by  the  nation, 
and  was  sent  back  on  his  fourth  voyage,  arriving  there  on 
the  day  when  Bobadilla  started  to  return  to  Siiain,  for  he 
liad  been  recalled.  Bobadilla's  government  had  been  very 
disorderly  and  unfortunate,  and  hardly  had  he  left  the  port 
when  his  ship  was  lost  in  a  hurricane,  and  he  was  drowned, 
June  2!!.  l.")02. 

Bobbin :  a  cylindrical  piece  of  wood,  or  a  wooden  roller, 
flanged  at  each  end,  used  to  hold  yarn,  which  is  wound  on 
it,  pre|iaratory  to  wariiing,  in  the  weaving  of  cloth.  In 
throstle-spinning  bobbins,  are  an  essential  part  of  the  nni- 
chinery,  as  they  receive  the  thread  from  the  rollers.  The 
number  of  bobbins  uspd  in  the  various  branches  of  business 
is  enormous.  In  the  thread  manufacture  alone  in  Great 
Britain  it  is  statt'd  that  2,000,0t)0  gross  are  used  annually. 
Thread-bobbins  art'  turned  by  a  self-acting  lathe,  which 
turns  out  100  gross  in  ten  hours,  a  saving  of  sixteenfold  as 
compared  with  hand-turning:  the  attendant  has  to  feed  the 
machine  bv  dropping  blocks  into  a  hopper,  from  which  they 
pass  into  tlie  lathe,  where  they  are  finished. 


KohhineV  {i.  e.  bobbin-net) :  a  sort  of  lace  or  net-fabric 
woven  by  machinery,  and  usually  made  of  cotton.  It  is  a  fine 
and  elegant  textile  fabric  of  a  peculiar  texture,  which  con- 
sists in  the  interlacing  of  a  .set  of  long  threads,  representing 
the  warp  in  common  weaving  with  a  set  of  cross  ones,  in  such 
a  mannei-  as  to  form  a  mesh  texture.  Bobbinet  is  nnide  at 
Xottingham,  Englan<l,  and  in  France. 

Bobcay^eou,  bob-kayjun:  a  post-village  of  Vendam 
township,  Victoria  co.,  Ontario,  Canada;  on  an  island  in 
Sturgeon  and  Pigeon  Lakes,  IS  miles  from  Lindsjiy  (sec  map 
of  Ontario,  ref.  :i-E).  The  town  is  divided  by  a  canal  which, 
with  its  lucks,  cost  ^1.50,1100.  11  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber, 
and  lias  dailv  lines  of  steamboats,  except  in  winter.  Pop. 
1,000. 

Bobolink,  bobu-lingk',  Rppdbird,  or  Riccbird  [Doli- 
chonyx  ori/zivorus):  a  lieauliful  American  migratory  bird 
of  the  order  Passeres  and  family  Ir/eridie.  It  passes  the 
winter  in  the  West  Indies  or  in  .Sout  hern  lowlands.  It  comes 
northward  early  in  spring,  and  arrives  in  May  in  the  latitude 
of  New  York  State,  in  which  latitude  it  breeds.  It  builds  its 
nest  in  meadows  among  the  grass,  and  renders  service  to 
fanners  by  the  destruction  of  insects  and  worms.     In  May 


The  boljolinli. 

and.Iune  the  male  is  very  musical,  singing  in  the  air  nith 
great  volubility  and  hilarity,  and  rising  and  falling  as  if  by 
a  series  of  jerks,  "lie  chants  out,"  says  Wilson,  "such  a 
jingling  medlev  of  short  variable  notes,  uttered  with  such 
seeming  confusion  and  rapidity,  that  it  appears  as  if  half  a 
dozen  birds  of  diffi'reiit  kinds  were  singing  all  together." 
The  summer  plumage  of  the  male  is  nl(^stly  black,  varie- 
gated with  white  on  the  scapularies  and  tail-coverts,  and 
yellow,  which  it  exchanges  in  .Inly  or  August  for  a  plumage 
like  that  of  the  female.  This  is  marked  with  several  shades 
of  brown  or  dull  yellow\  Its  length  is  7^  inches.  About  the 
end  of  June  the  birds cea.si;  to  sing,  become  gregarious,  and 
move  in  large  flocks  to  the  Middle  Slates.  They  are  called 
rcedbirds  in  Pennsylvania,  where  many  of  them  are  shot 
for  the  table  in  autumn.  Inllie  latterpart  of  autumn  im- 
mense flocks  of  them  attack  the  rice-crops  of  South  Caro- 
lina, where  t  hey  receive  the  name  of  ricebird.  Many  of  them 
are  kept  in  cages  for  their  song,  but  they  do  not  sing  in  au- 
tumn or  winter. 

Bol)rnisk.  bS-broo-iM'sk' :  a  town  of  Russia;  on  the  Bere- 
zina ;  ill  the  government   of   Minsk,  and   110  miles  S.  K.  of 


676 


BOB-WHITE 


BODENSTEDT 


Minsk ;  was  formerly  fortified  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-C). 
It  is  connected  br  steamboat  with  the  towns  on  the  river. 
Pop.  (1887)  58,356. 

Bob-white  {Colinus  viryinianuf:):  a  very  common  small 
game-bird  of  the  U.  S.,  belonging  to  the  family  Ti-lraonidie, 
and  hence  allied  to  the  European  partridge.  The  species  is 
usually  known  as  quail  in  tlie  Northern  States  and  as  part- 
ridge in  the  South.  The  name  bob-white  is  given  for  its  pe- 
culiar eaU.    See  Quail. 

Boca  del  Rio:  See  Bagdad. 

Bocage.  bw-kaa  zha"v,  Maxoel  Maria  Barbosa,  du  :  Por- 
tuguese poet;  1).  in  Setubal,  Sept.  1.5,  1765;  gave  his  early 
youth  to  military  service;  in  1790  settled  in  Lisbon  and  as- 
sociated himself  with  the  jioets  of  the  so-called  Xova  Ar- 
cadia, with  the  name  Elmano  Sadino.  In  1701  his  Rimas 
won  a])plause.  and  from  this  time  on  he  produced  continu- 
ally, much  of  his  work  being  purely  occasional,  but  all  hav- 
ing the  traces  of  that  poetic  talent  wliich  nuule  him  the 
tnie  foreruimer  of  Almeida-Garrett  ami  Castilho.  In  opin- 
ion he  was  an  adherent  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  1797  he 
was  imprisoned  for  so-called  atheistical  and  seditious  utter- 
ances. The  best  edition  of  Boeage's  works  is  that  edited 
by  Th.  Braga  (7  vols.,  Porto,  1876).  See  Th.  Braga,  Vida 
de  Bocage  e  sua  epoca  litteraria  (1876,  seq.).   D.  Dec.  21. 1805. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Boca  Tig:ris,  bok'a-tee'gris  (in  Chinese,  Hu-nun  or  ILu- 
mun.  i.  e.  mouth  of  the  tiger):  the  entrance  of  the  Canton 
river  into  the  Outer  Waters,  or  Liutin  Bay.  called  also  the 
Bogue.  On  A-nung-hoy  Point,  on  .S.  Waug-tong  and  Tiger 
islands,  are  the  remains  of  a  number  of  forts  and  l)atteries 
called  "  Bogue  forts,"  which  guard  the  entrance  to  the  river, 
and  were  stormed  by  the  British  in  1841  and  1857. 

Boccaccio,    bok-kaat'cho,   Giovanni,  or   Boccaccio   da 

Certaldo:  celebrated  Italian  poet,  novelist,  and  scholar; 
b.  in  Paris,  1313  ;  the  illegitimate  son  of  an  Italian  merchant 
and  a  French  mother.  His  father  wished  to  make  a  mer- 
chant of  him,  and  about  1330  he  went  as  such  to  Naples. 
He  wasted  six  years  thus,  as  he  used  to  say;  then  was  per- 
mitted to  study  canon  law.  on  which  he  wasted  other  sis 
years.  His  call  was  to  poetry  and  to  learning.  In  Naples 
he  felt  the  full  force  of  two  impulses  which  were  to  make 
him  famous — the  one,  that  of  admiration  for  the  ancients 
and  longing  to  know  tlieir  works ;  the  other,  that  of  imagina- 
tive creation.  His  importance  to  the  world  is  in  these"  two 
directions;  he  wa.s.  with  Petrarch,  a  founder  of  humanistic 
studies  and  of  modern  classical  learning ;  as  poet  and  nov- 
elist he  was  one  of  the  great  creative  influences  of  early 
modern  literature.  Before  he  left  Naples  he  had  carried 
far  his  studies  in  classical  mythology,  and  lie  had  besides 
written  several  works  of  importance  in  the  Italian  tongue. 
The  immediate  occasion  for  the  latter  was  his  passion  for 
Maria,  natural  daughter  of  King  Robert  of  Naples  (the 
Fiammdta  of  his  works).  In  her  honor  he  wrote  //  FiJn- 
cnlo  (wrongly  called  Filocnpo).  a  prose  romance  upon  the 
story  of  Ploire  and  Blanchefleur ;  also  i?  J'cseiV/e,  used  by 
Chaucer  for  his  Knight's  Tide,  i\m\  probablv  the  first  impor- 
tant \tocm  in  ottave'rime ;  II  Filoxfraln.  the  tale  of  Troilus 
and  Gri.seida ;  //  Sinfale  Fiexolaiio.  In  1341  he  left  Naples 
for  a  time  and  went  to  Florence.  There,  under  the  melan- 
choly of  absence  from  his  mistress,  he  wrote  the  Amelo,  or 
in  full  II  Ninfale  d'Ameto,  in  prose  alternating  with  lyrics; 
L'Amorosa  Visions,  a  dream  in  which  the  poet,  led  by  his 
lady,  sees  the  lovers  and  heroes  of  the  past  ;  the  Fiammctta, 
a  romance  in  prose.  In  1344  he  returned  to  Najilcs.  and  be- 
gan writing  those  tales  in  prose  which  were  afterward  jiul 
into  the  mouths  of  Florentine  ladies  and  gentlemen,  and 
called  the  iJecamerone.  Most  of  these  were  probably  writ- 
fen  between  1344  aiul  13.50.  In  1:149  or  l:i.50  Boccaccio 
was  called  back  to  Florence  by  the  dcalli  of  his  father,  and 
was  received  with  great  distinction  liv  the  Florentines.  In 
Florence  prohal)ly,  in  i:!54  or  1355,  he  wrote  his  Corbiiccin. 
or  Lnbirinto  d'amore.  The  rest  of  his  life,  however,  was  de- 
voted for  the  most  part  to  classical  studies.  He  eagerly 
a<lmired  Petrarch,  and  wished  to  imitate  him.  He  longed 
to  study  Greek,  and  did  actually  take  lessons  of  a  Greek, 
Leonzio  Pilato,  who  at  his  re(|u"est  franslateil  Homer  into 
bad  Latin,  so  that  Boccaccio  probably  first  of  moderns  read 
that  poet.  He  himself  toiled  laboriously  at  works  ofencyclo- 
pipdic  scholarship:  De  Gemalogia  De'nnim  Lihri  XV.\  l)e 
Montium,  Silvnrum,  Lacuum,  et  Marlum  nominibtis  liber: 
De  Casibus  Viroriim  et  Feminarum  llliistriuin  libri  IX.; 
and  De  Claris  Mulieribus.    These  works  are  now  unread- 


able, but  the  impulse  given  by  them  to  European  scholarship 
was  very  great,  and  they  were  much  drawn  upon  (especially 
the  De  Casibus)  by  later  writers  for  their  imaginative  ma- 
terial. In  1373  the  Florentines  appointed  Boccaccio  to  the 
new  chair  established  by  them  for  the  exposition  of  Dante. 
He  had  already  written  a  Life  of  Dante,  and  now  he  pre- 
pared a  commentary  u]ion  a  little  more  than  sixteen  cantos 
of  the  Inferno.  In  1374,  however,  he  went  to  Certaldo,  the 
home  of  his  father's  family,  to  live,  and  there  he  died  Dee. 
21,  1375.  The  literature  about  Boccaccio  is  very  extensive. 
The  following  works,  however,  will  suffice,  the  more  so  since 
they  contain  further  bibliographical  information:  M.  Lan- 
ilau,  (f.  Boccaccio,  sein  Leben  v.  sei7>e  Werke  (1877);  G. 
Koerting,  Boccaccio's  Leben  vnd  Werke  (Leipzig,  1880);  A. 
Hortis,  UtiidJ  snlle  Opere  Laline  del  Boccaccio  (Trieste, 
1879);  'SI.  Landau,  Die  Quellen  d.Decamerone  (2d  ed.  Stutt- 
gart, 1884) ;  A.  Bartoli,  I  Frecursori  del  Boccaccio  e  alcnne 
delle  sue  Fonti  (Florence.  1876);  G.  Voigt.  Die  Wiederbele- 
bu7ig  des  classischen  Altertlmms  (2d  ed.  1880) ;  A.  Gaspary, 
Gescliiclite  der  lialienischen  Literatur  (vol.  ii.  1888). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bocliart,  bo'shaar'.  Samuel:  Protestant  Orientalist  and 
theologian  ;  b.  at  Rouen.  France.  iMay  30, 1599 ;  studied  Ara- 
bic, Chaldee,  and  Syriac  under  Erpenius  at  Leyden,  and  ex- 
celled in  philology.  He  became  in  1625  pastor  of  the  Prot- 
estant church  at  Caen,  where  he  remained  forty-two  years, 
and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  writer.  Ilia 
)nost  important  works  are  a  Sacred  Geography,  in  Ijatin 
(Caen,  1646),  and  Ilierozoicon,  or  an  account  of  the  animals 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  (London.  1663).  D.  at  Caen,  May 
16,  1667.  His  Geographia  Sacra  displays  great  learning 
and  sagacity.  His  complete  works  appeared  Leyden,  1675, 
2  vols. ;  3d  ed.  1712.  3  vols.  See  Etienne  Morin,  De  Vita  el 
Scriplis  S.  Bocharti.  prefixed  to  edition  of  his  works  (1692) ; 
Edward  H.Smith.  S.  Bochart:  Becherches snr la  Vie  decet 
Auteur  iltustre  (1833). 

Bochnia.  bo/ih'nee-a:  a  to^vn  of  Austria;  in  Gsilicia  :  23 
miles  by  rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Cracow  (see  map  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, ref.  3-1).  It  has  several  churches.  Here  are  mines  of 
salt  which  yield  about  15,000  tons  annually.     Pop.  9,000. 

Bocliold,  bo/,h  olt,  or  Bocholt:  a  town  of  Prussia;  in 
Westphalia,  on  the  Aa;  42  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Minister  (sea 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-D).  It  has  a  castle,  and 
manufactures  of  silk  fabrics,  hosiery,  and  cotton  stuffs. 
Pop.  (1890)  13,034. 

Bochiiin,  boAh'oom  :  a  Prussian  town  in  Westphalia;  31 
miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Diisseldorf  (see  map  of  German  Em- 
pire, reif.  4-C) :  has  manufactures  of  woolens,  paper-hang- 
ings, hardware,  iron,  and  tobacco,  and  important  mines  of 
coal.     Pop.  (1880)  33,440 ;  (1890)  47,618. 

Bockeiilieim,  bok >n-hlm  :  a  town  in  Prussia ;  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau :  3  miles  N.  W.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  (see 
map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-D).  It  has  manufactures  of 
ironware.  Jewelry,  and  pianos,  and  a  large  cattle-market. 
Pop-  (1^90)  18.675. 

B()ckh.  bok.  or  Boeckli,  Philipp  August;  jihilologist  and 
classical  antiquary;  b.  at  Carlsruhc,  Nov.  24, 1785:  educated 
at  Halle;  became  in  1809  professor  in  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  and  obtained  in  1810  the  chair  of  Eloquence  and 
Ancient  (or  Greek)  Literature  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
where  he  taught  for  forty  years  or  more.  His  lectures  com- 
prised archa'ology  and  the  history  of  ancient  literature, 
philosophy,  politics,  etc.  Among  his  greatest  works,  which 
have  formed  an  era  in  archaeology  and  philology,  are  Th« 
Political  Economy  cif  the  Athenians  (2  vols.,  1817),  which 
.Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  translated  into  English  ;  Inves- 
tigations Concerning  the  Weight.s,  Coins,  and  Jlcasures  of 
Antiquity  (Berlin,  18:W);  and  Records  of  the  Maritime  Af- 
fairs of  Attica  (1840).  He  commenced  in  1824  the  great 
work  calk'il  Corpus  Inscri/)tionum  Grircanim  (4tli  vol., 
1867),  which  he  destineil  to  conqirise  all  existing  Greek  iii- 
scription.s,  whether  printed  or  not.  I).  Aug.  3,  1807.  Cf. 
Bursian,  Gesch.  d.  cla.ts.  Philol.  in  Deutseliland,  jij).  687- 
705. 

Bodenstedt,  bo  dcn-stet,  Friedrich  Martin,  vtm ;  Ger- 
man poet  and  translator:  b.  in  Peine.  Hanover.  Aug.  23, 
1819:  through  resi<lence  in  Moscow  as  tutor  (1840,  .•<cq.)  be- 
came an  enthusiastic  lover  of  Slavic  literature.  lu  1844  he 
went  to  Tiflis,  where  he  remained  t\vo  years,  devoting  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  and  of  Ori- 
ental languages.  In  1848  his  work  Z*;'?  Vi'ilker  des  Kaukas^ia 
showed  the  outcome  of  this  study.     In  1845  his  translationB 


i 


BODE 


BODY'S  ISLAND 


67Y 


of  poetic  tales  in  the  Little  Russian  diiilcct,  Die  poetische 
Ukraine,  made  some  stir  in  Germany.  In  1849  appeared  his 
TauKtiid  uiid  ein  Ta<j  im  Orient ;  in  1851  liis  most  famous 
book.  Die  Lieder  des  Mirza  Svhaffy,  whicli  in  1887  had 
reached  its  126th  edition, and  waswululy  translated  in  other 
countries.  At  first  these  poems  were  taken  to  be  transla- 
tions, but  eventually  it  appeared  that  Mirza  Sehatly  had 
been  the  poet's  friend  and  teaeher  in  Tiflis,  to  whom  the 

foems  were  simply  dedicated  out  of  grati-rul  remembrance. 
'rom  tlie  year  18.j1  Hodcnstedt  has  pulilislicd  incessjintly 
both  original  works  and  translations  from  the  Oriental 
tongues.  His  Gesammelte  Scliriflen  appeared  186.5-6!)  in 
twelve  volumes.  Since  1869  have  been  published  Einkehr 
und  UiiiHchau  (\STi):  Versclwllmes  uiid  Seues  (1877):  Aiis 
Morgenland  und  Ahendland  (1883);  Neues  Leben  (1866); 
Snkiiiifnla  (1S88).  In  1881  he  traveled  in  the  V.  S.,  and  in 
1882  descrilicd  wliat  lie  had  seen  in  his  low  Alhtntixehen 
zum  Stillen  Ocean.  In  IS,"),!  he  publislied  a  translation  of 
the  poems  of  Piisclikin  ;  in  1877  one  of  the  poems  of  Ilafiz; 
in  1881  one  of  Omar  Khayyam.  He  also  busied  himself  nuich 
with  the  Elizabethan  period  of  English  literature :  .S'/inA- 
speare'n  Zeityenossen  u.  ihre  Werke,  in  his  Cliarakteristiken 
u.  Uehersefzum/eii  (:i  vols.,  18.58-60) ;  Shakspeare's  Sonnette 
(4th  ed.  1S7S) ;  Shokspeare's  Frauencharaktere  (1874).  More 
recently  his  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben  (2d  ed.  1888) 
have  excited  great  interest.    D.  in  Wiesbaden,  Apr.  19,  1892. 

A.  K.  JIarsii. 

IJikIc.  bcj'de,  .lonAXN  Eiilert  :  astronomer ;  b.  at  Hamburg, 
Jan.  19,  1747;  d.  in  Berlin,  Nov.  2;i,  1826.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-five  he  became  astronomer  of  the  Hi-rlin  Academy, 
a  position  which  he  held  for  more  tluin  fifty  years.  He 
shortly  afterward  connnenced  the  celebrated  cphemeris 
afterw'ard  known  as  the  Berliner  Astrunomi.iclwfi  Jii/irbtich, 
the  publication  of  which  he  conducted  for  more  tlian  fifty 
years.  He  was  the  author  of  several  astronomical  works  of 
a  more  or  less  popular  character,  but  his  name  is  best  known 
from  his  aujiouncement  of  the  law  which,  before  the  discov- 
ery of  Neptune,  was  supposed  to  govern  the  distances  of  the 
planets  from  the  sun.  (See  Bode's  Law.)  It  is  founil,  h(}W- 
ever,  that  this  law  should  really  be  ascribed  to  Titius,  an- 
other German  astronomer,  who  published  it  in  1766. 

Simon  Newcomb. 

Bode's  Law :  an  empirical  formula  which  marks  quite 
closely  the  relative  distances  of  the  planets,  Neptune  ex- 
ce|)ted,  from  the  sun.     See  AsTEiioins. 

The  law  may  be  thus  exhibited  :  Under  the  names  of  the 
several  planets  in  the  order  of  their  distance  set  the  number 
4.  'I'hen  below  this  row  of  fours  write  in  order  the  numbers 
0,  3, 6,  12,  24,  48.  and  so  on,  the  0  falling  under  Mercury,  the 
3  uiiiier  Venus,  and  so  on.  Adding  the  .several  columns 
thus  obtained,  we  have  the  following  result : 


Mercury. 

Vmu. 

Eutli. 

Man. 

AiUroldi. 

Jupiter. 

Ssuirn. 

Urantu. 

Neptune. 

4 

0 

4 

3 

4 

6 

4 
18 

4 

4 
48 

4 

9« 

4 

198 

4 
384 

4 

7 

10 

16 

88 

52 

100 

190 

•.388 

The  numbers  thus  obtained  correspond  closely  with  the 
relative  distances  of  the  planets,  except  only  in  the  case  of 
Neptune.  The  real  distances,  calling  the  earth's  distance 
10,  are  as  follows : 


Meitury. 

Veiitu. 

Eartb.     M>r>. 

Ailtrold^ 

Jupiter. 

Sutuin. 

UrADue- 

Neptune. 

3-9 

78 

10          1.5          8? -5 

58 

95 

198 

.■iOO 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  of  Neptune  falls  far  short 
of  that  which  Botle's  law  woidd  assign  to  a  trans-Uranian 
planet.  It  does  not  therefore  express  any  general  law  of 
nature,  and  fails  entirely  in  the  eases  of  the  satellites. 

IJo'iIIp:  Jlono  co..  C'al.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  t'alitiirnia,  ref.  7-F).  Here  are  the  noted  "  Bodie  "  and 
"Standard  "  gold  mines.     Pop.  (1880)  2,712  ;  (185)0)  595. 

Itoilin.  bodiXn,  Jean:  French  political  writer;  b.  in  An- 
gers ill  l.'i^iO.  He  published  in  1576  a  treatise  on  govern- 
ment entitled  /)e  la  Ji'epublii/iie,  and  in  1.586  a  Latin  ver- 
sion of  the  same.  He  advocated  a  limited  monarchy  as  the 
best  form  of  government.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
he  was  an  adherent  of  Henry  IV.  D.  in  Laon  in  1.596. 
His  Ueplaplomeres  de  abdilis  rerum  siibliminm  arcanix 
is  considereil  one  of  the  most  interesting  books  of  that 
age. 


Itodle'iitii  Libr.iry:  the  principal  library  of  Oxford  Uni- 
versily:  was  fniunled  by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  (see  below),  who 
in  1597-98  offered  to  restore  to  its  former  use  the  old  room 
which  once  had  held  a  colleetion  of  books.  He  expended 
some  €10.f)00  of  his  own  money  in  the  purchase  of  books  on 
the  Continent,  and  secured  the  co-operation  of  his  inimerous 
friends;  and  so  as  the  idea  of  making  the  library  worthy  of 
the  university  found  favor,  the  collection  was  already  quite 
large  when  the  buililiiig  was  thrown  open  to  the  public  by 
James  I.,  Nov.  8,  160;!,  who  gave  the  library  Bodley's  name. 
Since  1010  it  has  been  entitled  to  receive  a  copy  of  every 
book  published  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Private  donors 
liave  added  to  its  stores.  It  contains  now  550,000  printed 
volumes  and  over  30,000  manuscripts.  The  building  con- 
tains also  art  treasures — e.g.  the  Pomfret  and  Arundt^l  mar- 
bles, the  Hope  collection  of  portraits  (200.000  engravings), 
and  is  connected  with  the  "Camera  Bodleiana"  or  "  Rad- 
elitfe,"  a  circular  structure  where  the  more  modern  books 
are  kept.  The  first  catalogue  was  [uiblished  in  1605.  Bodley 
left  a  large  amount  of  money  for  the  endowment  of  the  li- 
brary. See  W.  D.  Macrav.  Annalu  of  the  Bodleian  Library 
(Oxford  and  New  York,  1868:  2d  ed.  1890). 

IJnd'U'y,  Sir  Thomas  :  an  English  diplomatist  ;  b.  in  Exe- 
ter, Mar.'2,  1544;  graduated  at  Oxf<ird  in  1566.  He  was 
sent  by  Queen  Elizabeth  on  diplomatic  missions  to  France, 
Denmark,  and  Holland.  lie  expended  much  money  in  col- 
lecting rare  and  valuable  books,  and  endowed  the  great 
Bodleian  Library  (q.  v.).     D.  in  Oxford,  Jan.  28,  1612. 

Bodmer,  bofmcr.  JoiiANX  Jakob  :  Swiss  critic  and  poet; 
b.  near  Zurich.  July  19,  1688.  He  founded  in  1721,  after 
the  mcidel  of  the  Sptctator,  a  literary  .iournal  called  Dis- 
burse der  Jlaler,  which  ])romoled  a  reform  in  German  litera- 
ture, and  waged  a  litei-ary  war  against  Gottsched.  A  great 
admirer  of  English  poetry  and  especially  of  Milton,  he  revo- 
lut  ionized  literary  criticism  in  Germany  by  a-sthetic  doc- 
trines derived  from  his  English  models.  His  w-ritings  had 
great  influence  upon  the  rising  genei'ation  of  (ierniaii  poets 
like  Klopstock  and  Wieland.  lie  was  also  among  the  first 
who  appreciated  the  poetry  of  the  G(!rman  Minnesong. 
Even  Goethe  paid  homage  to  the  old  patriarch  on  one  of  his 
early  visits  to  Switzerland.  Among  his  numerous  works 
(which  lack  originality)  is  the  JS'oaehide  (17iJ2).  He  was 
Professor  of  History  at  Zurich  for  fifty  years.  He  trans- 
lated Paradise  Lost  into  German.  1).  in  Zurich,  Jan.  2, 
1783.  See  IVldrikofer,  Die  srhweiz.  IM.  des  IS  Jalirh.  (Leip- 
zig, 1861) ;  Servaes,  Die  I'oe.Hk  Gottscheds  (Strassburg,  1887) : 
Brail niaier,  Gesehiehle  der  poet.  Theorie,  vie.  (Frauenfeld, 
1889).  Revised  by  Julius  Goebel. 

Bod'niin:  a  town  of  England;  capital  of  Cornwall;  26 
miles  \V.  N.  W.  of  Plymouth  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  14-C). 
It  consists  eliiefly  ofone  long  street  in  a  valley  between  two 
hills:  it  was  once  an  imiiortant  place.  It  now  contains  a 
court-house,  a  jail,  an  ancient  priory,  and  a  grammar  school 
founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  is  one  of  the  stannary 
towns  of  Cornwall.     Pop.  (1891)  5,151. 

Bod  rum  :  See  BuDRtJN. 

Badtcher.  botcher,  Lunvio  Adolf:  Danish  Ivric  poet; 
b.  in  Copenhagen,  Apr.  22,  1793;  d.  there  Oct.  1,  1874. 
Bodtcher  wrote  little,  but  his  poetry,  much  of  which  is 
erotic,  is  remarkable  for  beauty  ot  form  and  exquisite  finish. 
See  Gosse's  jS'orthern  Studies  (1879). 

Body.  George.  D.  D.  :  canon  niis.sioner  of  Durhiim;  b.  at 
Clierilon.  Fitzpaine.  Devonshire,  Jan.  7.  1840;  graduated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1862  ;  ordained  1863.  Author 
of  T/ie  Life  of  Justification  (1870 ;  6th  ed.  1884) ;  Lije  of 
Temptation  (1870;  7lh  ed.  18!M);  Mission  Tracts;  The 
School  of  Calvary  (1890;  2d  ed.  1891). 

Body  Color :  in  painting,  color  which  is  so  mixed  for  ap- 
plication as  to  be  thick  ami  to  form  a  coating  upon  the  sur- 
face to  be  painted.  The  term  is  esiiecially  used  in  water 
color  to  distinguish  color  made  opaque  by  the  mixture  with 
it  of  while,  from  transparent  or  translucent  color,  which 
merely  stains  the  surface.    See  Water-color  Painting. 

Body's  Island:  the  long,  low,  siindy  strip  of  land  be- 
tween Roanoke  and  Albemarle  Sounds  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  N.  of  Oregon  inlet.  Body's  island  lighthouse,  2  miles 
N.  of  Oregon  inlet  (hit.  35'  48'  47"  N.,  Ion.  75°  33'  20 "  W.),  is  a 
brick  low-er  with  a  granite  foundation  and  an  iron  top,  150 
feet  high,  showing  a  first-order  dioptric  white  fixed  light, 
150  feet  above  the  sea.  The  island  is  here  2  miles  wide,  and 
is  in  Dare  eo.,  N.  C. 


678 


BOECE 


BOETHIUS 


Boece,  bois.  or  Boyce,  or  Boetbiiis.  Hector  :  historian  ; 
h.  at  Dundee  aliout  1465.  He  .studied  and  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  wliere  he  became  in  1492  Professor  of 
Philosophy.  In  1498  he  went  to  Aberdeen,  wliere  he  be- 
came later  principal  of  King's  College.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Erasmus.  His  chief  work  is  a  History  nf  Scntlnnd  (in  Latin, 
Paris,  1.526;  Eng.  trans,  reprinted  Edinburgh,  1821),  which 
is  highly  esteemed.     D.  in  Aberdeen,  1536. 

B(Phlue'ria  [from  G.  R.  Bdlimcr,  a  German  savant] :  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  family  L'rticaciiv  :  formerly  included 
in  the  genus  Urtic/i  (nettle).  The  fillers  of  several  species 
of  this  genus  are  used  to  make  ropes,  twine,  nets,  and  cloth. 
The  beautiful  fabric  called  China  grass-cloth  is  made  of  the 
fibers  of  Bcehmeria  nivea,  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant,  with 
broad  ovate  leaves,  without  stings,  cultivated  by  the  Chi- 
nese, who  call  it  choo-ma.  It  can  be  propagated  by  seeds, 
and  thrives  best  in  shade  and  moisture.  It  grows  naturally 
in  China.  Sumatra,  and  Burma,  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  Malays  call  it  ramie.  The  cultivation  of  ramie 
has  been  tried  in  some  of  the  Southern  U.  S.,  with  decided 
success.  Jfepaul  produces  an  important  species,  Bcehmeria 
frtitescens,  which  grows  from  6  to  8  feet  liigli,  the  fiber 
of  which  is  said  to  be  equal  to  flax.  The  natives  call  it 
pooee.  yenki,  or  kienki.  This  fiber  also  makes  excellent 
paper,  and  will  probably  become  an  important  commercial 
product.  There  is  one  native  species  in  the  U.  S.  See 
Ram  IK. 

Boeo,  Cape :  See  Cape  Boeo. 

Bopo'tia  (in  6r.  Bouerta) :  a  country  or  state  of  ancient 
Greece;  bounded  X.  by  Locris.  X.  E.  and  E. by  the  Eubivan 
Channel,  S.  by  Attica  and  Megaris,  S.  W.  by  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  and  W.  by  Phocis.  Area,  estimated  at  1,100  sq.  miles. 
It  may  be  described  as  a  hollow  basin,  inclosed,  on  the  N. 
by  Jit.  Parnassus  and  the  Opuiitian  Mountains,  on  the  E. 
by  a  continuation  of  the  Opuntian  range,  on  the  S.  by  Mt. 
Citha'rou  and  Mt.  Parnes,  and  on  the  W.  by  jNIt.  Heli- 
con. The  surface  is  diversified  by  other  mountains  and 
several  valleys  and  plains.  It  contained  a  large  lake  named 
Copais  (now  Topolias)  which  had  no  outlet  except  subter- 
ranean channels  in  the  limestone  mountains.  These  chan- 
nels, now  called  Katabothra,  were  not  sufficient  to  carry  off 
the  water  of  the  lake,  which  sometimes  inundateil  the  sur- 
rounding plain.  To  obviate  this  evil  the  ancient  BtBotians 
constructed  two  tunnels  through  the  rock.  One  of  these 
tunnels  was  nearly  4  miles  long,  with  twenty  vertical  shafts 
let  down  into  it.  These  two  great  works  are  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  of  what  is  called  the  heroic 
age.  The  largest  rivers  of  Bceotia  were  the  Asopus  and  the 
Cephissus,  the  latter  of  which  rises  in  Phocis  and  enters 
Lake  Copais.  The  Asopus  flowed  eastward  through  the 
southern  part,  and  entered  the  Euripus.  Instead  of  the  pure 
and  transparent  air  of  Attica,  the  air  of  Boeotia  is  rendered 
damp  and  heavy  by  vapors  rising  from  lakes  and  marshes. 
The  winters  were  very  severe,  and  the  snow  sometimes  lay 
on  the  mountains  for  many  days.  The  soil,  which  is  mostly 
a  rich  mould,  was  very  fertile  and  produced  in  ancient  times, 
as  well  as  in  the  present,  abundant  crops  of  grain.  The 
plain  of  the  Copais  is  especially  remarkable  for  its  fertility. 
Boeotia  was  famous  for  meadow  and  pasture  land,  on  which 
were  raised  the  excellent  horses  of  the  Banitian  cavalry. 
The  grape  and  other  fruits  flourished  in  this  region.  Among 
the  other  i)roductions  was  the  auletic  or  flute  reed,  which 
grew  in  the  marshes  of  Lake  Copais,  and  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  development  of  Greek  music. 

The  most  remarkable  tribes  that  inhabited  Boeotia  in  the 
heroic  age  were  the  Minyae,  who  lived  at  Orchomenus,  and 
the  Cadmeans,  or  Cadmeones,  who  lived  at  Thebes.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  historical  period  the  Minyans 
and  other  tribes  had  nearly  disappeared,  and  the  country 
was  occupied  by  the  Boeotians,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
come  from  Thessaly.  The  princiiial  cities  formed  a  confed- 
eracy under  the  presidency  of  Tliebos.  Orchomenus  was 
the  second  city  in  importance.  Among  the  other  towns 
were  Coroiieia,  llaliartus,  Thespia>,  Tanagra,  Plata^a,  and 
Anthcdon.  The  Bicotians  were  regarded  as  a  dull,  unin- 
tcUectual  people,  and  less  refined  and  polished  flian  most 
of  the  Hellenic  tribes.  Their  natural  dullness  was  ascribed 
to  the  dampness  and  ungenial quality  of  their  climate.  Ac- 
cording to  Cornelius  X'epos,  thev  paid  more  attention  to 
the  development  of  their  physical  ]iowers  than  the  cultiva- 
tion of  their  minds.  Vet  this  state  produced  a  few  great 
men — Epaniinondus,  Hesioil,  Pinihir,  and  Plutanli.  See 
Forchhammer,  Ildlenika  (1837);  Leake,  Tmveh  in  Xorlh- 


ern  Greece  (1835);  KlnXz.  De  Fcedere  Bmoi ieo  (\8%\) ;  Mure, 
Tnivels  in  Greece.     See  also  Attica. 

Boerhaave,  boorhaa-ve,  Herman  :  Ph.  I)..  M.  D.,  P.  R.  S.; 

a  Dutch  jihysician ;  b.  at  'S'oorhout,  near  Leydeu,  Dec.  31, 
1668.  He  studied  the  ancient  languages  and  history  at  Ley- 
den,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in 
1689.  He  began  the  study  of  medicine  in  1690.  and  gradu- 
ated as  M.  D.  at  Harderwick  in  1693,  after  which  he  prac- 
ticed at  Leyden.  In  ITOl  he  was  appointed  Lecturer  on  the 
Theory  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  adopt- 
ed the  method  of  Hiiijiocrates.  lie  afterward  deviated 
from  that  method,  and  substituted  mechanical  and  chemical 
hypotheses  to  explain  diseases.  He  published  in  1708  an 
excellent  systematic  work  called  Medical  Institutes  (Insti- 
tutiones  Medico  in  Usus  annute  Exercitationis  Domesticos). 
He  became  in  1709  Professor  of  Medicine  and  Botany  at 
Leyden,  where  he  acquired  great  popularity  as  a  teacher. 
Among  his  important  works  are  Aphorisms  on  the  Diag- 
nosis and  Cure  of  Diseases  (Aphorismi  de  Cognoscendis  et 
Curandis  Morbis.  1709),  which  is  a  model  for  style  and  other 
merits,  and  Elements  of  Chemistri/  (1724),  wliich  some  per- 
sons consider  his  capital  work.  His  reputation  extended  to 
every  part  of  Christendom,  and  patients  came  to  consult 
him  from  every  country  of  Europe.  He  received,  it  is  said, 
a  letter  from  a  Chinese  mandarin,  addressed  "  To  Boer- 
haave, physician  in  Europe."     D.  Sept.  23.  1738. 

Boers,  boorz  [recent  loan-word  from  Dutch,  but  closelv 
connected  with  boor  and  (ii-rm.  Bauer,  peasant] :  the  farmers 
in  South  Africa  of  Dutch  descent.  After  the  annexation 
of  Cape  Colony  by  Great  Britain,  troubles  arose  between  the 
Government  and  the  Boers,  and  in  1836  many  of  them  left 
the  colony  and  founded  the  Orange  Free  State  and  also  the 
Transvaal  Republic.  In  1858  they  gave  themselves  a  con- 
stitution, and  after  a  time  the  commonwealth  was  recog- 
nized. But  in  1877  the  Cape  Government,  fearing  an  out- 
break which  might  lead  to  a  general  rising  of  the  natives, 
took  possession  of  and  annexed  the  territory.  In  Dec,  1880, 
the  Bod's  took  up  arms,  but  a  treaty  of  peace  ensued  in 
1881  under  wliich  British  suzerainty  was  recognized  as  to 
foreign  affaire.  In  1884  this  treaty  was  modified,  and  the 
suzerainty  was  practically  given  up  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment. The  Boers  are  sturdy,  independent,  and  mostly  fann- 
ers :  they  use  an  antiquated  Dutch  and  are  little  given  to 
refinements. 

Boe'thins,  or  Boetins.  Axicirs  JIa.nlivs  Torqiatus 
Severint'S  :  Roman  philosopher  and  statesman  ;  b.  in  Rome, 
after  475  a.  d.  He  was  liberally  educated  ;  became  a  good 
Greek  scholar;  vi-as  chosen  consul  in  510,  and  gained  the 
confidence  of  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Goths,  who  reigned  at 
Rome,  and  appointed  Boethiiis  magister  nfficionim  in  his 
court.  His  political  influence  was  exerted  for  the  benefit  of 
the  country,  but  his  jirobity  and  virtues  provoked  the  en- 
mity of  iiowerful  courtiers  whose  corrupt  or  oppressive 
conduct  lie  had  opposed.  He  was  accused  of  treasonable 
designs,  was  confined  in  prison,  and  finally  executed  by  the 
sword  by  order  of  Theodoric  in  525  A.  D.  Whether  he  was 
a  Christian  or  not  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  He  was  con- 
sidered such  in  the  IMiddle  Ages,  and  the  Bollandists  gave 
him  the  position  of  a  saint,  and  his  works  are  included  in 
Migne's  edition  of  the  Latin  ecclesiastical  writers  (vols.  Ixiii., 
Ixiv.).  Several  theological  tracts  are  attributed  to  him,  and 
were  included  in  the  Leyden  edition  (1671)  of  his  Consola- 
tion of  I'hilosophy.  But  there  is  a  jiredominance  of  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  oiiinion  that  he  was  not,  in  any  proper 
sense,  a  Christian,  and  that  the  tract  on  the  Trinity  was 
from  another  hand,  proliably  from  a  monk  of  the  same 
name,  although  Peiper  maintains  that  it  was  a  work  of  the 
early  years  of  Boethius.  Bocthius  holds  a  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  scholastic  philosophy  from  the  fact  that  a  passage 
from  his  commentary  on  the  Isaguge  of  Porphyry  gave  rise 
to  the  long-continued  discussions  between  the  Realists  and 
the  Nominalists.  While  he  was  in  prison  he  wrote,  partly 
in  verse,  De  Consolatione  Philosophies  (On  the  Consolation 
of  Philosophy),  which  is  his  greatest  work,  and  was  very 
popular  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  translated  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  by  Alfred  the  Great  and  into  English  by  Chaucer. 
It  contains  no  allusions  to  Christianity — a  fact  which  can 
hardly  be  reconciled  with  the  hypothesis  of  his  being  a 
Christian,  considering  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was 
written.  See  Barberini,  Exposizione  delta  Vita  de  Boezio 
(178.3);  Dom  Gervaise,  Uistoire  de  Boece  (1715);  Heyne, 
Censura  Ingenii  Boethii  (1806) ;  Life  of  Boethius,  jirefixed 
to  Ridpath's  translation  of  the  De  Consolatione  Phitosuphiw 


BOETIIIL'S 


BOGOSLOF 


G79 


(1785),  English  translation  in  Holm's  Library  ;  Rudolphus 
Peiper's  edition  of  the  Consn/dtio  (Leip^g.  1871).  The 
matlu'iniitical  and  musical  treatises  of  Boelhius  have  been 
edited  by  J.  Friedlein  (Leipzig,  18(57). 

Kevised  by  \V.  T.  IIarris. 

ItortliiiiB,  Hector  :  See  Boece. 

Bceiif.  Bayou,  bi  oo-bef :  a  river  or  ereek  of  Arkansas  and 
Louisiana:  fed  by  water  which  it  receives  from  the  Missis- 
sip|)i  river  lUirin;;  inumlations.  II  exteixls  from  Chicot 
CO..  .\rk..  soutliwisl ward  into  Louisiana,  and  unites  with 
the  Wasliita  river  at  the  suutli  e.Ktreinity  of  Franklin  pari.sh. 
Steamboats. can  ascend  it  100  miles  or  more  during  high 
water. 

Bofariill  y  Broca.lw-faaroo-lee-liroka'ji,  Antonio:  Span- 
ish and  Catalan  historian  and  |ihilolof;ist ;  b.  Dec.  4,  1821; 
director  of  the  archives  of  Bafcelona.  tie  has  been  an 
ardent  participator  in  the  new  Catalan  literary  movement, 
and  has  published  many  poems  in  the  revived  tongue  \uider 
the  pseudonyin  of  A7  Cdlilcjadiir  th  Miiiicddd.  He  is  best 
known,  however,  for  his  Uixtoriii  cri/ira  ciril  ij  eclcnidsfica 
tie  Ctilnluiid  (9  vols.,  1876-78),  and  his  Ilistoria  eritica  de  la 
Guerrii  de  la  Independencia  en  ('ataiiirin  (1886-87).  Worth 
mentioning  also  is  his  L'.ihidiu.i,  xi sterna  gramaticid  y  crea- 
tomatia  de  la  lenyua  catalana  (1864).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Boir  [Gael,  hng,  soft :  in  compos.,  bog] :  a  swamp  or  tract 
of  wet  land,  covered  in  many  cases  with  Peat  (7.  c).  Bogs, 
<-alled  mosses  in  Scotland  and  swamps  in  America,  often 
contain  the  well-preserved  trunks  of  trees.  es|iccially  of  the 
oak  in  I  inland,  and  of  the  cypress  iu  AmiTica.  In  many 
cases  these  tracts  are  higher  than  the  surrounding  country, 
and  may  thus  be  <'asily  drained,  when  they  often  beconu' 
very  fertile  land.     See  Hrainaoe. 

B(»g::  Kiver  of  Russia.     See  Bi:(!. 

Boptr'diis,  KvKKARi) :  second  minister  of  New  York 
(then  New  .Vmsterdaui) ;  b.  in  Holland:  came  to  America 
in  1633,  and  obtained  by  iuarriag<'  in  16:W  with  Annetje  .Jan- 
si>n  (or,  as  she  is  coiumoniy  called,  Anneke  .Jans)  a  farm  (the 
•■  Dominie's  liouwcrie  ")  of  6'2  acres,  now  owned  by  the  Trin- 
ity chur<'h  corporal  ion.  an  estate  in  nnich  litigation,  but  with 
the  tille  conlirmeil  to  Trinity  church.  Havingmuch  trouble 
with  the  uuigistrati's  and  peopli',  he  resigned  iu  1647.  in  an- 
swer lo  charges  against  him  before  the  classis  of  Amster- 
<lani,  and  sailed  for  Hollatid,  but  was  wrecked  on  the  English 
coast,  and  with  Gov.  Kieft  and  nianv  others  was  drowned, 
Sept.  27.  1647. 

Bitgatzky.  bo-gaat'skce.  Kaki,  IIkinrich.  von:  a  German 
<Ievotional  writer  and  pietist ;  b.  at  Jankowe,  Silesia,  Sept.  7, 
1090:  studied  at  .leua  and  Halle:  lived  in  literary  retire- 
ment, on  Franke's  iiivital  ion.  in  the  famous  orphanage  in  the 
latter  city  from  174()  until  his  death,  .luiu'  1.").  1774.  He 
wrote  The  (/olden  Treiisitnj  (orig.  Breslau,  1718:  58th  ed. 
Halle.  1885;  Eng.  trans,  n'.  e.  1888).  See  his  Life,  bv  J. 
Kelly  (London,  1889). 

Bogiir'diis.  .Ia.mi:s:  b.  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  JIar.  14,  1800. 
In  1S14  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker.  He  made 
important  improvements  in  cotton-spiiniing  in  1828;  in- 
vented a  gas-meter  (18:^2) :  a  machine  for  engraving  (1831!) ; 
a  I)yroineter.  and  many  other  mechanical  improvements. 
In  1847  he  built  in  New  York  the  first  iron  building  in  the 
C.  S.     1).  in  New  York  city.  Apr.  13,  1874. 

Bo'gart.  .lonx  :  civil  engineer  :  b.  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
8,  1836;  educated  at  Albany  Academy  an<l  at"  Rutgers  Col- 
lege, N.  .J.  During  the  civil  war  he  was  attached  to  the  en- 
gineer corps.  Later  he  had  charge  of  the  Brooklyn  jiark 
system,  designed  the  Albany  park,  the  State  grotiiuls  at 
Na.shville,  Tenn.,  and  the  im|irovements  in  New  Orleans 
park.  From  1870  to  1877  he  was  chief  engineer  of  t  he  depart- 
ment of  parks  of  New  York.  From  1877  to  1890  he  was 
secretary  and  librarian  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers.  In  ISHS  he  was  electe(l  State  engineer  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  held  the  office  for  four  years.  He  is 
now  consulting  engineer  of  the  Cataract  Const I'nction  Com- 
pany, engaged  in  developing  the  water-power  of  the  Niagara 
river. 

Bog-blltfcr :  a  substance  which  is  fonnil  in  peaty  earth 
in  .some  of  the  bogs  of  Irelaixl.  In  composition  and  (jnal- 
ities  it  exhibits  the  general  jiroperties  of  a  fat,  and  melts  at 
134    F.     It  is  |)robably  fossil  butter. 

Bogcniiaiiseil,  bo  gen-how-zcn  :  a  village  of  Bavaria;  on 
the  l.ser.  2  miles  N.  E.  of  Munich.  Pop.  1,000.  Here  is  the 
royal  observatory  of   Munich,  which  was  erected  in  1817, 


and  is  one  of  the  best  in  Europe  ;  lat.  48°  8'  54'  N.,  Ion.  11 ' 
36  22"  E. 

Hoir^s.  Charles  Stiart  :  V.  S.  admiral :  b.  in  New  Bruns- 
wick. N.  J.,  .Ian.  28,  1811  ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshiji- 
man  Nov.  1,  182(i,  became  a  pas.s(;d  midshii)man  in  18;i2,  a 
lieutenant  in  1837,  a  connnander  in  18.5,5,  a  captain  in  1862, 
a  commodore  in  1866,  a  rear-admiral  in  1870.  and  retired 
from  a<-tive  service  in  1873.  He  comnuimled  the  Yaruna 
at  the  passage  of  Forts  St.  Philip  and  Jackson  anil  cajjlure 
of  N<'w  Orleans.     D.  at  New  Brunswick,  .\.  .L,  Apr.  22,  1888. 

Be&ril.  borh,  Erik:  Danish  man  of  letters:  b.  Jan.  17, 
1822.  He  is  a  jioimlar  [loet  and  play-writer,  but  is  most  re- 
markable for  his  short  stories  and  humorous  sketches.  Be- 
sides several  volumes  of  jilays,  Uramatiske  Arhejder  (7  vols., 
1858-71);  I'drali/te  Dramatixke  Arbejder  (1885  ff.) ;  and  of 
poems,  he  has  [lublished,  among  other  works,  Syo  Furela's- 
wi/ic/cr  (Seven  Lectures,  1858);  Jatiax  7'e(('rmo.ses  JErgrelaer 
(J.  r.'s  Troubles.  1864-75);  I'dralgle  Fi>rla-l/i7igej-  {'^eU'cterl 
Tales.  1876) ;  liilleder  paa  Vers  (k/  I'msa  (Pictures  in  V'erso 
and  Prose.  1891):  and  a.seriesof  fe'nilletons  (1860,  etc.)  called 
Dil  iig  Dill  (Odds  and  Ends).  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

HoghciKl  I'oal  :  a  highly  bituminous  variety  of  the 
ca  unci  coal  of  Scotland:  from  Boghead,  in  Linlithgowshire. 
The  varieties  of  cannel  pass  into  shale  by  insensible  grada- 
tions, so  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a  line  which  shall 
properly  limit  the  use  of  the  term  coal.  The  boghead  is 
one  of  these  substances,  more  vahuible  for  gas-making,  and 
for  the  oils  and  paratline  obtained  from  it  by  dislillation, 
than  for  fuel.  Dr.  Fife  found  a  picked  siiecinieii  to  yield 
on  analysis  70  per  cent,  of  volatile  iriatter  and  30  percent. 
of  ash. 

Bog  Iron  Ore:  a  mineral  of  variable  coniiwsition,  in 
which  the  ))eroxi<le  of  iron  often  amounts  to  60  per  cent., 
the  water  to  20,  phosphoric  acid  from  2  to  11  per  cent., 
while  silica,  clay,  and  other  substances  make  up  the  rest. 
Bog  iron  ore  occurs  in  alluvial  soils,  in  bog.s.  lakes,  etc.  It 
isof  a  yellowish  orblackish-lirown  color.  Some  varieties  are 
earthly  and  friable;  some  are  in  nuisses  of  an  earthy  char- 
acter, and  some  compact,  with  conchoidal  fracture.  It  is 
abundant  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe' generally ; 
also  in  various  parts  of  the  U.  S. 

Revised  by  C.  KiRrnnoFF. 

Boglipoor  ;  same  as  Bhagalpur. 

Bogoiniles  [so  named  from  their  leader,  the  Bulga- 
rian priest  /iogmiiil,  middle  of  tenth  ceuturyj:  a  dualistic- 
manicha'anistic  sect  of  Thrace.  Macedonia,  and  Bulgaria, 
originating  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  ci'iilury.  It  spread 
over  Servia,  Bosnia,  Dalmatia,  and  (.'roatia.  In  the  latter 
countries  it  was  called  Patarenes,  but  by  itself  the  Bosnia 
Church,  and  had  many  adherents  among  the  aristocracy. 
It  survivcil  iiersecution.  but  when  the  Turks  overran  tlie 
country  (1463)  its  nu'inbers  almost  (oa  man  became  Moham- 
medans. Its  principal  doctriiu's  were  the  origin  of  evil  in 
the  declension  from  God.  the  good  jirincipal;  docetic  views 
of  the  ])erson  of  Christ  in  that  they  aHiriued  that  Christ 
saved  nu'ii  by  his  leaching:  the  rejection  of  the  sacraments; 
and  the  us(<  of  images  in  wcu-ship. and  all  theOhl  Testament 
except  the  Psalm.s.  ami  to  the  New  Testament  they  added 
certain  apocryjiha. 

Bo'gos  :  a  Negro  tribe  :  inhabiting  the  highlands  N.  of 
Tigre,  Abyssinia :  have  become  known  by  the  explorations 
of  Werner,  Jlunziuger,  and  Th.  Ili'ugliu.  The  flora  and 
the  fauna  of  the  countfy  of  the  Bogos  are  excee<lingly  rich. 
Jlighty  sycamores  and  tamarind  trees,  and  lions,  elephants, 
bufl'aloe.s,  and  antelopes,  as  widl  as  the  rhinoceros  and  many 
varieties  of  beasts  of  prey,  ari'  found  here.  The  total  popu- 
lation is  estimated  by  .Mun/.inger  at  lO.O(K)  persons,  of  whom 
only  one-third  are  true  Bogo.s,  who  speak  the  Belcn  lan- 
guage. The  rest  are  tribes  subject  to  them,  who  .speak  the 
Tigre.  The  Bogos  are  well  formed,  and  profess  Christianity, 
but  have  very  little  religious  knowledge.  For  several  yeare 
they  have  paid  a  small  annual  tribute  to  Aby.ssinia.  "  The 
Bogos  have  sulTered  iiuich  from  the  invasions  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Barla. 

Bogoslol'.  bS-go-sIof  :  a  small  volcanic  island  of  the  AIcu- 
lian  Arcliipelago  :  lat.  53°  .58'  N..  Ion.  168  W.  Previous  to 
1795  its  sill"  was  occupied  by  a  group  of  reefsand  low  rocks. 
In  that  year  began  a  j)eriod  of  eruption  resulting  in  a  craggy 
peak  alioul  450  feet  Iiigh.  In  1883  a  broader  peak  of  the 
same  height.  Grewinck,  was  thrown  up  from  the  sea  at  a  dis- 
tance of  a  mile,  and  the  two  wiie  connected  bv  a  spit. 

G.  K.  G. 


680 


BOGOTl 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN' 


Bo^ot^.  bo-go-taa'  (formerly  Santa  Fe  de  BogotI)  :  a 
city  of  South  America  ;  capital  of  the  republic  of  Colombia ; 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  San  Francisco  river,  whicli  heie 
joins  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  and  at  the  foot  of  two  mountains 
(see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  3-B).  It  is  on  an  extensive 
plateau,  which  is  about  8,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  enjoys  a  mild  and  genial  climate  like  a  perpetual  au- 
tumn. L"at.  4°  35' 48"  N.,  Ion.  74°  13'.45"  W.  The  adjacent 
table-land  is  very  fertile,  and  is  inclosed  on  several  siiles  by 
high  peaks  of  the  Andes.  Bogota  is  well  built,  but,  as  it  is 
subject  to  earthquakes,  the  houses  are  generally  only  two 
stories  higli.  No  vehicles  are  used  in  the  streets,  which  are 
all  narrow.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  contains  a 
cathedral  and  numerous  churches, a  palace  of  the  president, 
a  university,  a  national  academy,  a  public  library,  and  a 
theater.  It  has  several  public  squares  adorned  with  foun- 
tains, and  some  very  good  institutions  for  higlier  education. 
Mines  of  coal,  salt,  and  precious  stones  occur  in  the  vicinity. 
A  few  miles  below  the  city  is  the  great  Cataract  of  Tequen- 
daraa,  where  the  Bogota  river  has  a  perpendicular  tall  of 
475  feet.  Bogota  was  founded  in  1537.  It  has  several 
times  suffered  considerably  from  earthquakes.  Pop.  (1886) 
120,000. 

Bogra,  bog-raa' :  a  district  of  Bengal,  British  India;  be- 
tween lat.  34°  20'  and  23°  20'  N.,  and  meridians  88°  56'  and 
89'  49  E. ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra  river. 
Area,  1,498  sq.  mUes.  Pop.  750,000,  80  per  cent,  of  whom 
are  ^loluunmedans  and  19  per  cent.  Hindus.  It  is  a  level 
plain  intersected  with  streams  and  dotted  with  jungles.  It 
is  nearly  all  cultivated ;  the  eastern  portion  is  low,  subject 
to  inundations,  and  yielding  heavy  crops  of  rice.  The 
western  portion  is  higher,  and  is  also  devoted  to  rice,  but  of 
a  finer  quality.  Fishing  is  also  an  important  industry. 
The  climate  is  oppressive,  except  in  winter.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  about  80  inches. 

Bog'iie.  David,  D.  D.  :  a  Scottish  preacher ;  called  the 
founder  of  the  London  Missionary  Society;  b.  in  Ilallydown, 
in  Berwickshire,  Feb.  18,  1750 ;  educated  at  Edinburgh  ; 
after  teaching  he  became  pastor  in  Gosport  to  an  Independ- 
ent church  ;  was  the  first  editor  of  the  Evangi'lical  Maga- 
zine, and  wrote  an  Essay  on  the  Divine  Authority  of  the 
New  Testament  (London,  1801).  He  was  author,  in  con- 
junction with  James  Bennett,  of  a  History  of  Dissenters 
from  16S9  to  ISOS  (1808-12,  4  vols. ;  2il  ed.  1833).  He  and 
others  founded  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1795. 
Yale  College  gave  him  a  D.  D.  in  1815.  D.  in  Brighton, 
Oct.  25,  1825. 

Bnhe'mia  (in  Lat.  Bohemia;GQ\-m.  Bohmen  and  Boheim) : 
a  former  kingdom  of  Europe,  now  a  part  of  Austria-Hungary. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  Saxony  and  Prussian  Silesia,  E.  by  Mo- 
ravia and  Prussia,  S.  by  Lower  Austria,  and  W.  by  Bavaria. 
It  is  between  lat.  48°  33'  and  51°  3  N.,  and  between  Ion.  12° 
and  16°  46'  E.  Its  area  is  20,060  sq.  miles.  It  is  inclosed  on 
aU  sides  by  four  chains  of  mountains,  which  constitute  its 
natural  boundaries — namely,  the  Erzgebirge  (Ore  Mountains), 
which  separate  it  from  Saxony  on  the  N.  and  N.  W. ;  the 
Riesengebirge  (Giant  Mountains),  which  extend  along  the 
N.  E.  frontier :  the  Moravian  Mountains,  which  separate  it 
from  Moravia  on  the  S.  E. ;  and  tlie  Bolimerwald  (Bohemian 
Forest),  wliich  extends  along  the  S.  W.  border.  The  Sehnee- 
koppe,  which  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  Riesengebirge,  rises 
5,275  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tlie  surface  of  Bohemia 
is  mostly  undulating,  and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe, 
which  rises  in  the  northeast  part.  The  other  principal 
rivers  are  the  Moldau.  wliich  rises  in  the  Bohmerwald,  flows 
northward,  and  enters  the  Elbe;  and  the  Eger,  which  flows 
through  the  northwest  part  into  the  E1I)p.  The  Moldau  and 
Elbe  are  navigable  for  steamboats.  Tlie  climate  is  healthy, 
and  mild  in  the  valleys  or  lowlands.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Prague  is  49°  F.  The  soil  isgenerallv  fertile. 
The  staple  productions  are  rye,  oats,  barley,  Hax.and  wheat. 
The  grapevine  is  also  extensively  cultivated.  Nearly  one- 
third  of  the  country  is  covered  with  f(n-ests.  Large  num- 
bers of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  some  iiarts  of  the 
country.  Bohemia  is  rich  in  minerals,  whicli  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  mountains.  Among  its  mineral  resources  are 
copper,  tin,  iron,  lead,  cobalt,  silver,  nickel,  zinc,  arsenic, 
sulphur,  coal,  cinnal)ar,  alum,  antl  precious  stones.  Here 
are  also  (|uarries  of  niarlile,  granite,  an<l  sandstone.  Famous 
mineral  springs  occur  at  Marienbad,  Carlsbad,  and  Tiiplitz. 
The  nianuracturcs  of  Bohemia  are  very  important  and 
varied,  the  principal  products  being  linens,  cotton  goods, 
woolens,  glass,  and  i)aper.     The  manufacture  of  damask. 


cambric,  lawn,  and  other  linen  goods  emijloys  about  400,000 
flax-spinners  and  50.000  weavers.  Over  500,000  spindles  are 
employed  in  the  i)rofluction  of  cotton  yarn.  Beet-sugar  is 
extensively  manufactured.  The  number  of  paper-mills  is 
over  120.  Bohemia  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  glass- 
works, which  employ  about  30,000  persons.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  iron  is  manufactured  here.  Railways  extend 
from  Prague  in  several  directions,  connecting  it  with  Dres- 
den, the  cities  of  Bavaria,  and  those  of  Moravia.  The  chief 
towns  are  Prague.  Pilsen,  r.nd  Budweis.  Bohemia  has  one 
university  (Prague),  twenty-three  gymnasia,  as  well  as  nu- 
merous Realschulen,  and  other  institutions  of  learning.  A 
large  majority  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  ihat  being  the  established  religion,  but  other 
churches  are  tolerated.  The  number  of  Protestants  in  Bo- 
hemia in  1880  was  120.120.  Pop.  (1890)  5.843,094,  of  whom 
about  three-fifths  are  Czechs,  and  two-fifths  Germans. 

Bohemia  derives  its  name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  people 
who  settled  here  before  the  Christian  era,  and  were  expelled 
by  the  Marcomanni  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  Enqieror  Au- 
gustus. It  was  conquered  by  the  Cechi  (or  Czechs),  a  Slavic 
race,  wdio  first  established  themselves  in  Bohemia  in  the 
second  half  of  the  sixth  century,  and  in  630  A.  D.  made 
themselves  independent.  For  several  centuries  the  family 
of  the  Przemyslides  ruled  with  varying  success  until  in  1310 
the  kings  of  the  House  of  Luxemburg  ascended  the  throne, 
and  ruled  until  1437.  John  Huss  ettected  a  religious  refor- 
mation in  this  country  (1400-14),  and  was  burned  by  the 
Catholics.  The  consequence  was  the  sixteen  years'  war  of 
the  Hussites.  In  1526  Bohemia  was  annexed  to  the  domin- 
ions of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria.  The  majority  of  the  Bo- 
hemians in  the  sixteenth  century  were  Protestants,  who, 
for  the  assert  i(m  of  their  religious  liberty,  revolted  against 
the  Emperor  of  Austria,  an<l  in  1619  elected  as  their  king 
Frederick,  the  elector  palatine.  He  was  defeated  near 
Prague  in  1620  by  the  Au,strians.  who  then  commenced  a 
cruel  persecution  of  the  Protestants,  and  almost  extei-mi- 
nated  them.  The  population  was  reduced  in  twentv  years 
(1G17-37)  from  3,000,000  to  780,000.  In  recent  tiiues  the 
country  has  been  agitated  by  a  strong  political  antagonism 
between  the  Czechs  and  the  Germans,  the  former  demand- 
ing the  re-establishmcnt  of  a  kingdom  embracing  Bohemia 
and  Jloravia.  and  enjoying  the  same  autonomy  in  point  of 
administration  which  has  been  conceded  to  Hungary.  See 
Austria-Hungary.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  or  Moravian  Brethren  :  the  name 

of  a  sect  of  Christians.  The  followers  of  Huss  {q.  v.)  were 
divided  into  Calixtines  and  Taboritos ;  the  former  approached 
the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Church,  but  the  latter  rejected 
all  the  distinctive  ones,  but  at  first  united  with  the  Calixtines 
in  opposing  the  invasion  by  the  Roman  Church.  But  later 
the  Calixtines,  through  the  Compactata  of  Basel  (1433),  made 
peace  with  the  Church  ;  and  so  the  Taborites  were  defeated. 
Ruined  as  a  political  power,  they  still  lived  as  a  sect.  Under 
the  name  of  '•  The  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Law  of  Christ " 
they  put  themselves  under  the  leadershi])  of  Gregory,  the 
nephew  of  Rokyzana,  the  great  Calixtine  chief,  and  lived 
in  apostolic  simplicity  at  Lititz,  in  Bohemia.  Later  they 
changed  their  name  to  •'  The  Unity  of  the  Brethren  "  (Unitaa 
Fratrum).  Briefiy,  they  hekl  to  these  views:  The  three 
orders  of  the  ministry  :  diocesan  synods  for  local  affairs;  as- 
sociation of  all  the  bishops  in  a  general  council  for  general 
affairs;  permission  of  marriage  to  the  clergy;  rejection  of 
purgatory,  IMariolatry,  and  saint-worship  ;  accejitancc  of 
only  two  sacraments  and  of  infant  baptism;  church  disci- 
pline of  the  most  rigorous  character.  They  found  many 
sympathizersaiul  converts,  but  were  persecuted  by  the  Roman 
Church  and  their  former  brethren,  the  Calixtines.  When 
the  Protestant  movement  began  they  numbered  in  Bohemia 
and  Moravia  about  200.000.  They  corresjiondod  with  the 
Reformers,  learned  much  from  them,  but  did  not  coalesce. 
In  1549  |.erscculiou  drove  them  in  large  numliers  to  Poland, 
where  tliey  flourished.  In  1620  the  fate  of  the  Brethren 
was  .sealed  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Monr.tain,  and  they 
well-nigh  vanished.  Many  were  killed,  many  became  mem- 
bers of  the  Roman  Church,  and  many  joined  either  the 
Lutheran  or  the  Reformed  bodies.  In  1656  the  Polish  branch 
was  similarly  destroyed  and  absolved;  but  in  1722  the  rem- 
nants of  the  sect,  which  had  secretly  and  v<'ry  obscurely  ex- 
isted all  these  years,  came  together  on  the  domain  of  Count 
Zinzeudorf  at  ISerllielsdorf,  near  Zittau.  about  60  milesS.  E. 
of  Dresden,  on  I  he  border  Vietweeii  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  and 
then  arose  the  renewed  Moravian  Bii-thren  (</.  v.).    See  t'.  A. 


BOHEMIAN  FOREST 


BOHUN   UPAS 


681 


Pesc-hcck,  Reform  and  Anti-reform  in  Bohemia  (liondon, 
1845, 2  vols.) ;  A.  Gindoly,  (feschichte  derBn/imisc/n-n  Jiruder 
(I'm;;,  lHoT) :  E.  I)c  Schwoinitz,  Uistori/  of  Hit  i'liilas  Fra- 
trum  (BetlileliLMii,  Pa.,  18S.5).    S.\mukl  MAfAiLUV  Jackson, 

Koliciiiiilll  Fort'St,  or  Bohiiiornald,  l)i)  incr-raalt :  a 
chain  of  riKiiiiUaiiis  in  Gernumy,  wliicli  forms  the  boundary 
bi'twccii  Hoheniia  and  Bavaria,  and  separates  the  basin  of 
the  Danube  from  tluit  of  the  Hllie.  It  extends  in  a  S.  E. 
and  N.  \V.  direetion,  and  is  about  VSO  miles  long.  The 
rocks  of  which  it  is  formed  are  <;ranite  and  gneiss.  The 
iiighest  summits  of  this  chain  are  the  Aber,  4,fS48  feet,  and 
(he  Kaehell)erjr,  4,74:!  feet,  above  the  li^vel  of  the  sea,  A 
large  portion  of  thest?  mountains  is  covered  with  dense  for- 
ests, A  railway  extending  from  Bavaria  to  Prague  crosses 
this  range  through  the  valley  of  the  Chain, 

15()1 ian  Laiiguiige:  See  Slavic  Languaoes, 

Hcdieiuiaii  lyileniturc:  See  Czech  Literature, 
Ko'heniond  (Lat,  Bohemundiis)  1,:  a  famous  leader  of 
the  tirst  cnisade:  b.  about  1056;  son  of  Robert  Guiseard, 
Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calaliria,  He  joined  the  crusade  with 
a  large  army  in  I()!l."),  and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Anti- 
oeh  in  lOitS,  He  remained  at  Antioch  while  the  other  cru- 
saders Muirched  to  Jerusalem,  and  he  reigned  there  as 
Prince  of  Antioch.  He  waged  war  with  varying  success 
against  the  Greek  Emperor  Alexis,  and  married  a  daughter 
of  Philip  I.  of  France.     D.  in  Italy  in  1111, 

IColieiiioiid  II :  a  son  of  the  preceding ;  was  a  minor  at 
his  father's  death.  lie  became  Prince  of  Antioch  in  1126, 
and  fought  against  the  Saracens  as  an  ally  of  Baldwin, 
King  of  Jerusalem.     He  was  killed  in  battle  in  llliO, 

liitiil.  Uil,  Eduard,  Ph,  T),,  D,  D.:  Professor  of  Rc- 
fornied  Dogmatics  and  Symbolics,  and  of  Pedagogics,  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion,  and  Apologetics,  in  the  Protestant 
faculty  of  Theology  at  Vienna,  Austria;  b.  at  Handnirg, 
Nov,  18,  18;J6;  educated  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Halle, 
and  Erlangen,  taking  his  present  position  in  18(14.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  large  number  of  exegetical,  critical,  and 
theological  works  in  Latin  and  German,  and  has  contributed 
in  English  to  .American  reviews  and  periodicals.  His  posi- 
tion is  extremely  conservative,  especially  in  the  line  of  de- 
precaliug  all  revision  of  existing  creeds.     W.  J.  Beecuer. 

Itolilpii,  bo'h-n,  Peter,  van :  German  Orientalist;  b,  in 
Oldenburg,  Mar.  !»,  1796.  He  became  Professor  of  Oriental 
Ijanguages  at  Konigsberg  in  1826;  published,  besides  other 
works,  an  able  treatise  on  Indian  antiquities  entitled  Das 
(lite  Indien  (2  vols.,  1830),  D,  Feb.  6,  l840.  See  his  Anlo- 
biuyraphij  (1841). 

Kolilcn  Lectures,  The:  a  series  of  lectures  established 
hv  .Inhu  Bolilen,  a  lavman  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  (d'.  Apr.  26.  1874).  who  bequeathed  to 
trustees  .'JJIOIKOIIO  to  be  distributed  to  religious  cliarities  in 
acconlance  with  the  testator's  wi,shes.  On  .Tune  "2.  187~>, 
the  trustees  paid  over  to  "the  rector,  churchwardens,  and 
vestrymen  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  Philadel- 
phia," a  sum  of  uujuey  for  certain  designated  purposes,  out 
of  which  fund  iJlO.OOl)  was  set  apart  for  the  endowment  of 
The  John  liolden  Lecturetililp,  for  the  delivery  and  publi- 
cation of  at  least  100  copies  of  two  or  more  lectures  on  sub- 
jects within  the  terms  of  the  will  of  the  founder  of  iIh; 
Bampton  Lectures,  "or  on  any  ollu'r  subject  distinctively 
connected  with  or  relating  to  the  Christian  religion,"  Thi'se 
lectures  have  been  delivered  as  follows:  Rev,  .\lexander  II, 
Vinton,  I),  D.,  Inaugured  Series;  Bishop  Fred,  D.  Hunt- 
ington, Tlte  Fitness  of  Christianity  to  Mrm;  Rev.  Phillips 
Brooks,  Tlie  Intlaence  of  Jesits;  Rev.  John  S,  Ilowsou, 
Dean  of  Chester,  England,  The  Eridential  Value  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apiislles;  Bishop  Thomas  U,  Dudley,  of  Ken- 
tucky, The  Church's  Seed;  Bishop  Sanniel  S,  Harris,  of 
Michigan,  The  Relation  of  Christ ianily  to  Ciril  Societi/; 
Rev,  Alexander  V,  G,  Allen,  Cambridge,  Mass,,  The  Con- 
tinuitij  of  Cliristian  Thought;  Rev,  Joseph  F,  Garrison, 
The  American  Prai/er-book;  Bishop  William  Stevens  Perry, 
of  Iowa,  (Constitutional  Ilistori/  of  the  American  Church; 
licv,  \V.  R.  Huntington,  The  Peace  of  the  Church. 

W.  S,  Perry, 

Iliililer,  bokr,  Peter  :  a  theologian  and  Moravian  bishop; 
b,  in  I'^raukfort-on-l  he-Main,  Dec.  31,  1712,  He  is  recog- 
nized in  Methodist  histru'v  as  having  given  a  decisive  im- 
pulse to  W'eslev's  opinions  and  career.  He  removed  to 
Anu'rica  in  17;i8,  and  in  1740  founded  the  town  of  Naza- 
reth, Pa,    D,  in  London,  Apr,  27,  1775. 


Bolim,  bom,  Theobald:  musician;  b,  in  Jlunich,  Apr,  9, 
1794;  d,  there,  Nov,  25,  1881 ;  luited  for  an  improvement  in 
the  construct  ion  of  the  flute.  The  Bi'ihm  flute  is  mere  accu- 
rate and  even  in  tone,  and  more  easily  fingered,  than  those 
formerly  in  u.se.  He  also  introiluced  improvements  in  other 
instruments,  and  composed  musical  pieces, 

Itolimo,  bo  me,  or  Biiliiii,  biim.  or  Uclimen,  bayinen, 
Jakoh:  German  mystic;  b,  near  (iijrlitz,  in  Ipper  Lusatia, 
in  1575,  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  shoemaker,  worked  at 
his  trade  at  Giirlitz,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  He  had  a  very  fertile  imagination  and  a  remark- 
able faculty  of  intuition,  and  profes.sed  to  be  divinely  in- 
spired aiu!  illuminated.  His  fii'sl  work  was  entitled  j4Hroco, 
or  the  Morniiif/  Redness  (about  1612),  This  was  coiuU-mned 
by  the  ecclesijistical  authorities  of  (iiirlitz.  He  published 
several  other  works,  which  were  adniiied  by  some  eminent 
men,  but  they  appear  visionary  and  unintelligible  to  the 
generality  of  persons.  I),  at  (iorlitz,  Nov,  24,  1624,  His 
works  (10  vols.,  1682)  were  translate<l  into  English  (2  vols, 
4to,  1864)  by  William  Law,  who  was  an  admirer  of  Bohine. 
He  was  a  religious  genius  of  great  depth,  and  can  be  under- 
stood only  by  people  of  strong  religious  feeling  and  some 
religious  experience:  to  them  he  is  as  sublime  as  he  is  ob- 
scui'e  to  otliers.  See  La  Motte-Foutjue,  Notice  sur  J. 
Boehiii  (1831) ;  Fechner,  Jakob  Bohme.  sein  Leben  vnd  seine 
Schriften  (Gorlitz,  1857);  Gehi^.-Ja/iob  Bulime.der  Deutsche 
Philosoph  (Lei|pzig,  1860);  also  Rhys  Evans's  translation  of 
Jlarlensen's  Jacob  Boehme.        Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Holiiiit'r>vnl(l :  See  Bohe.mia.n  Forest, 

Boh'iiii.scli-Lei'pa :  town  of  Bohemia;  on  the  Polzen ; 
56  miles  X,  of  Prague  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref, 
3-D).  It  has  a  gymnasium,  and  manufactures  of  woolen 
and  cotton  cloths,  glass,  and  hardware.     Pop,  (1890)  10,406. 

Bolin,  Hexrv  (jeoroe  :  bookseller,  of  (iennan  extraction  ; 
b.  in  London.  Jan,  4,  1796;  promoted  the  popularization  of 
good  literature  by  publishing  translations  from  ancient  and 
modern  l.inguages :  nuide  several  useful  compilations,  and 
wrote  a  Handbook  of  Pottery.  D.  at  Twi<'keidiam,  London, 
Aug.  24,  1884. 

Boliras:  See  Ismaeeliah. 

Bolitliiigk,  bot  lingk.  Otto:  Russian  Orientalist  of  Ger- 
nuin  extraction;  b.  at  St.  Petersburg,  May  30,  1815.  After 
studying  at  Bonn  he  returned  to  St.  Peler.sburg  in  1842,aiul 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  in  1845.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-five  he  published  an  edition  of  one  of  the 
most  dillicult  books  of  all  literature,  the  Sanskrit  grammar 
of  Paxini  (q.  v.).  There  followed  the  (Jakuntala  of  Kali- 
DASA  (q.  v.).  text  and  translation  (1842);  Sanskrit  Chre.sto- 
mathy  (184.5) ;  Vopadeva's  6V«wwn;-  (1847) ;  Hemachandra's 
Dictionary  (1847);  a  volume  On  the  Jjaiiytiaye  of  the  Ya- 
kuts (1851);  a  collection  of  over  7.(i00  Sanskrit  proverbs 
(Didische  Spriiche.  }i  vols.,  2d  ed.  1870-73).  witli  critically 
edited  text  and  Gernum  translation.  In  1852  h<'  began 
with  licDoi.F  Rotii  ((/.  r.)  the  j.ubliealion  of  the  Sanskrit- 
German  dictionary  of  the  Imperial  Academy,  a  great  seven- 
volume  folio,  which  they  brought  to  a  successful  comple- 
tion after  twenty-three  years  in  1875,  This  dictionary 
gives  the  historical  development  of  the  meanings  of  the 
words,  and  illustrates  them  by  citations  excerpted  often 
from  works  existing  at  the  time  in  manuscript  only.  It  is 
(he  greatest  single  contribution  to  Indology  that  has  ever 
been  made,  and  also  the  most  tumhunental.  In  1879  Biiht- 
lingk  began  to  publish  alone  a  Sanskrit  Worterbuch  in 
kTirserer  F<issung.  which  is  an  abridgment  of  the  firet, 
but  is  also  a  supplement  thereto.  This  he  completed  in 
seven  folio  volumes  in  Jan.,  1889,  In  188(}-87  he  published 
a  new  edition  of  Panini,  with  translation,  etc.;  in  1889  the 
Chandoyya  Upauishad  and  the  Briliad  Aranyaka  Vpani- 
shad ;  and  in  1890  Dandin's  Poetics,  all  three  works  in  text 
and  translation.  Besides  the  above  he  has  published  some 
other  l)ooks  an<l  many  minor  treatises.  He  is  remarkable 
for  having  left  none  of  his  great  undertakings  unfinished, 
lie  is  a  text-critic  of  the  first  rank.  Every  one  of  his  works 
marks  a  distinct  advance  of  science.  C.  R.  Lanman. 

Bo'linn  L"|ins  [Malay,  imison-tree]:  the  Antiaris  toxi- 
caria.  a  tree  of  the  Malay  and  Philippine  archipelagoes,  ot 
the  family  Arlocarpacew.  Many  grossly  exaggerated  re- 
ports of  its  fatal  qualities  have  been  published.  Its  poison 
appears  to  be  of  an  acrid,  not  a  narcotic,  character.  The 
stories  of  the  upas  valley  in  Java,  where  nothing  can  grow 
but  the  upas-tree,  probably  arose  from  the  now  well-a-scer- 
tained   fact  that  certain  close   mountain-ravines   in  that 


682 


BOIARDO 


BOILING-POINT 


island  so  abound  in  poisonous  volcanic  gases  that  no  plant, 
not  even  the  upas,  can  live  there.  Besides  the  above,  an- 
other bohun  upas,  tlie  Stryclinos  tieiite.  is  found  in  that 
region.  It  abounds  in  strychnine,  and  is  even  more  deadly 
than  the  other. 

Boiardo,  bo-yaardo.  Matted  M.\ria :  Count  of  Scandi- 
ano;  Itidian  poet;  b.  at  Seandiano  about  1434.  He  was 
patronized  by  Borso  and  Ercole  d'Este.  and  became  governor 
of  Modena  in  1481.  His  chief  work  is  the  romantic  chival- 
rous poem  Orlando  Jnnainorato,  which  he  left  unfinished, 
and  which  was  published  in  1495.  After  his  deatli,  Niccolo 
degli  Agostini,  a  poor  poet,  continued  it,  publishing  three 
additional  books  (1506-14-24).  Boiardo  treated  hi?  material 
in  a  somewhat  burlesque  and  satirical  style;  b\it  in  1541 
Francesco  Bern'I  (q.  v.)  published  his  Rifachnento  of  the 
poem,  in  which,  by  means  of  exquisite  polish  and  point,  the 
satiric  effect  is  greatly  heightened.  The  liifacimetifo  was 
so  popular  tliat  it  nearly  supplanted  the  original,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  was  also  continued  by  Ariosto  {q.  t:)  in  his 
Orlando  Furioso.  Curiously  enough  a  second  Rifaciiiiento, 
by  Lodovico  Domenichi  (1545),  later  superseded  that  of 
Berni. 

Bibliography. — A.  Panizzi,  Boiardo,  Orlando  Innamo- 
rnto ;  An'osfo,  Orlando  Furioso,  with  an  essay  on  the  Ro- 
inantic  Narraiive  Poetry  of  the  Italians,  Memoirs,  and 
yofes  (9  vols.,  London,  Pickering,  1830):  J.  Boghen,  Mntteo 
Gloria  Boiardo  e  I'Orlando  Innamorato  (Ferrara,  1879).  1i. 
in  Reggio,  Dee.  20,  1494.  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Boies.  Horace  ;  politician ;  b.  on  a  farm  near  Aurora, 
Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  7,  1827 ;  educated  in  the  common  school 
and  academy  of  the  county ;  studied  law ;  member  of  New 
York  Assembly  1858;  removed  to  Waterloo,  la.,  1867;  hav- 
ing been  a  Republican  in  politics,  he  left  that  party  in  1883 
on  account  of  objections  to  its  attitude  on  the  tariff  and 
prohibition,  and  became  a  leader  of  tlie  Democratic  party 
in  that  State.  Elected  Governor  of  Iowa  1889 ;  re-elected 
1891.  Candidate  of  the  Iowa  delegation  tor  the  presidency 
in  the  National  Democratic  Convention  at  Chicago  1892. 

C.  H.  Thueber. 

Boi'i :  an  ancient  Celtic  people  ;  emigrated  across  the  Po 
and  occupied  LTmljria,  where  they  waged  war  for  several 
centuries  against  the  Romans.  They  were  defeated  by  tlie 
Romans  in  283  n.  c.  and  became  allies  of  Hanniljal  wlien  he 
invaded  Italy  in  218  B.C.  Manv  years  later  the  Romans 
expelled  tliera  from  L^mbria  and  drove  them  beyond  the 
Alps.  A  portion  of  the  Boii  migrated  to  the  country  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Danube  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Boio- 
lieraura  (Bohemia),  from  which  they  were  expelled  by  tlie 
Marcomanni  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  From  them  also  Ba- 
varia takes  its  name. 

Boil  (in  hsit.  furunciiliis):  a  hard,  painful,  inflammatory 
swelling  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  which  begins  as  a  point 
of  a  dusky  red  color,  and  is  hot.  aching,  and  throbbing. 
These  symptoms  increase  in  severity  for  several  days,  when 
the  swelling  is  of  a  conical  form,  with  a  Viroad,  firm  base, 
and  has  on  the  apex  a  whitish  point,  wliich  contains  a  little 
matter;  this  opens,  and  after  a  few  days  more  there  is  dis- 
charged a  slough  of  cellular  tissue,  and  "the  cavity  left  heals, 
leaving  a  depressed  sear.  Boils  often  attack  young  and 
plethoric  persons,  and  their  appearance  is  not  incompatible 
with  robust  health,  altliough  they  may  be  so  numerous  as  to 
greatly  reduce  the  strength.  Men  in  training  for  athletic 
exercises,  or  others  who  have  suddenly  changed  their  habits, 
are  subject  to  tliem.  Sometimes  lioils  continue  to  succeed 
each  other  for  a  length  of  time.  The  treatment  of  boils  is 
simple.  The  intestinal  canal  should  be  cleared  by  laxative 
inetticines  and  the  digestive  powers  improved  liy  tonics  and 
antacids.  'I'lie  tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron  is  often  a  use- 
ful remedy.  'Phe  skin  sliould  be  kejit  healtliy  by  frequent 
washing,  while  tlie  inflamed  |>oint  should  be  poulticed.  Wet 
lint  is  a  sufficient  a])p!ication  after  the  core  has  been  thrown 
off.     Free  incision  of  the  boil  greatly  hastens  its  course. 

Bolldicn,  bo'eel'dyo',  or  Bo'ieldieii.  boye'eldyo',  Adrien 
Francois  :  a  French  composer ;  b.  at  Rouen,  Dec.  15.  1775. 
He  went  to  Russia  in  1803.  and  w'as  there  appointe<i  chapel- 
master  to  the  Emperor  Alexander;  but  he  returned  to  Paris 
in  1811.  Among  his  works  are  the  operas  La  Dame  Blanche, 
Jean  de  Paris,  and  My  Aunt  Aurora.  D.  Oct.  8.  1834.  See 
Refuveille,  Boieldieu,  sa  Vie  et  ses  CEuvres  (1851). 

Boileaii.  or.  mi>re  fully,  Boileaii-l)esi>r<'aux.  Nicolas; 
poet  and  satirist  :  b.  near  Paris,  Nov.  1.  1636.  He  was  lib- 
erally educated,  antl  followed  no  jirofession  but  that  of  an 


author.  He  began  his  literary  career  in  1660  or  1661  by 
composing  a  satire  for  recitation  to  his  friends,  among  whom 
were  Racine,  Moliere,  and  La  Fontaine.  Tliis  satire  (sub- 
sequently cut  in  two,  Adie-ux  d'un  poete  a.  Paris  and  Leg 
Embarras  de  Paris)  was  so  successful  that  the  young  author 
composed  others,  five  in  number,  between  1661  and  1665. 
In  1666.  moved  by  a  surreptitious  publieatiim  of  them  in 
Holland,  he  issued  them  himself  in  a  volume.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  Lutrin  (Reading-desk,  1674)  and  the  Art 
of  Poetry  (L'Art  Poetique,  1674),  which  is  an  extiuisite  per- 
formance, and  is  considered  by  some  French  critics  as  equal 
to  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry.  Hardly  less  successful  were  the 
Retle.rions  sur  Longin  (1693).  the  outcome  of  the  famous 
quarrels  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  the 
moderns,  in  which  Perrault  was  Boileau's  chief  antagonist. 
The  Epitres.  written  at  long  inten-als  between  1669  and 
1701.  show  us  the  poet  maturer,  calmer,  but  also  colder  than 
in  the  Satires.  His  extensive  Correspondance  with  his 
friends  is  full  of  interesting  material  for  the  literary  history 
of  his  time.  Boileau  was  admitted  into  the  French  Acad- 
emy in  1684.  He  had  an  immense  influence  on  French  lit- 
erature, being  for  many  yeare  the  literary  legislator  of 
France.  He  made  war  on  the  survivors  of  the  tedious  and 
pedantic  school  of  Ronsard.  upon  the  one  hand,  on  the  fol- 
lowers of  Malherbe,  now  declining  into  Marinism  and  other 
puerilities,  on  the  other.  He  laid  down  the  following  as  the 
basis  of  all  sound  poetic  doctrine ; 

Aimez  done  la  raison ;  que  tou jours  vos  Merits 
Empruntent  d'elle  seule  et  leur  lustre  et  leur  prix. 
Rieu  n'est  beau  que  le  vrai,  le  vrai  seul  est  aimable. 

This  doctrine,  however,  confirmed  the  French  in  a  tendency 
already  visible  in  them — the  tendency  to  prose  in  preference 
to  poetry.  D.  in  Paris,  Mar.  13,  1711.  See  D'Alembert, 
Eloge  de  Boileau;  Desraaizeaux,  Vie  de  Boileau  {ViVZ); 
Daunou,  Eloge  de  Boileau ^{1787);  L.  S.  Auger,  Eloge  de 
Boileau-Despreauj:  (1805) ;  E.  Deschanel,  Boileau  et  Charles 
Perrault  (1888).  A.  Ch.  Gidel,  (Eurres  completes  de  Boileau 
(with  Life),  4  vols.,  Paris,  1870-73. 

Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Boiler:  See  Steam-boiler. 

Boiling-point:  the  temperature  at  which  the  elastic 
force  of  the  vapor  of  any  liquid  is  equal  to  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  When  a  vessel  containing  water  is  heated, 
the  temperature  rises  and  vapor  silently  passes  off  from  the 
surface;  but  at  212°  P.  or  100'  C.  (the  barometric  column 
standing  at  30  inches  at  the  sea-level)  steam  begins  to  be 
formed  in  bubbles  at  the  bottom,  and  rising  through  the 
liquid  throws  it  into  commotion.  If  the  steam  is  allowed 
freely  to  escape,  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises  no  higher. 
The  water  is  then  said  to  ioit,  and  the  temperature  at  which 
it  remains  is  its  boiling-point.  Every  liquid  has  a  boiling- 
point  of  its  own. 

TABLE  OP  BOIUNG-POIXTS  AT   76    CENTIMETERS   PRESSURE. 


LIQUID. 


Nitrogen 

Carbon  mouoxide . . . 

Oxygen 

Methane 

NitroKen  dioxide 

Ethylene 

Nitrogen  monoxide . 

Carbonic  acid 

Ammonia 

Chlorine 

Sulphur  dioxide 

Ether 

Carbon  disulphide. . . 

Chloroform 

Alcohol 

Water 

(.)il  of  turpentine  .*. . . 

Phosphorus 

Mercury 

Sulphur 


I>egi«eE 
(eentignde). 


—  194-4 

-IWO 
-l«l-4 

-laio 

-l.W-6 
-102-5 
-87  9 
-78-8 
-38  5 
-M'6 
-100 
+  :m-9 
+  46-3 

+m-i 

+  78-3 
+  100 
+  1.-)91 

+  :B7 -35 
+  448-5 


Authority. 


Olszewski. 


Regnault. 


PLsati. 
Regnault. 


The  boiling-point  of  liquids  depends  upon  the  pressure  to 
which  they  are  subjectcci.  When  the  barometer  stands  at 
30  inches,  showing  an  atmosjiheric  pressure  of  15  lb.  on  the 
sq.  inch,  the  boiling-point  of  water  is  212°  F.  (100°  C). 
When  part  of  the  pressure  is  removed  it  boils  before  coming 
to  212  ,  and  when  the  pressure  is  increased  the  boiling-point 
rises.  Thus  in  elevated  positions,  where  there  is  less  air 
above  the  li(|uid  to  press  on  it.  the  boiling-point  is  lower 
than  at  the  level  of  the  sea.  An  elevation  of  510  feet  makes 
a  diminution  of  1°  F. ;  at  higher  levels  the  difference  of 


BOIS  U'ARC 


BOITO 


683 


elevation  forrespondiii;,'  to  a  lU'gree  of  temperature  in  the 
bf>ilinK-pi)int  increases,  and  a  nu-tlioil  is  thus  furnished  of 
measu'rinf;  the  heights  of  mountains.  At  tlie  citv  of  Mexico, 
7471  feet  ahove  the  sea.  water  boils  at  lUSl  1'.  i'.fi-i'  C); 
at  Quito.  il.541  feet,  at  li)4  F.  (!M)  (.'.);  in  the  lliMiiiUiyas,  at 
the  hfiKht  of  18,0()0  feet,  at  IHO'  F.  (»i-2'  C).  Boilin;,'  water 
is  thus  not  always  ei|iially  hot.  and  in  elevated  places  many 
substances  can  not  be  cooked  bv  boilinj;.  Lnder  the  receiver 
of  an  air-pump  water  boils  at  lower  and  lower  temperatures 
us  the  pressure  diminishes,  until  at  last,  if  proper  precautions 
lie  taken  to  dispose  of  the  vapor  as  rapiiUy  as  it  appears,  the 
liquid  mav  be  converteil  into  ice  by  the  cold  d\ie  to  its  own 
evBiMiration.  It  will  freeze  while  still  in  a  state  of  violent 
ebullition. 

This  effect  of  iliminished  pressure  is  largely  turned  to  ac- 
count in  suKar-boilin;;.  in  preparing  extracts,  in  distilling 
vegetable  oils,  and  in  other  proces.scs  where  the  substances 
are  apt  to  l>e  injureil  by  high  temperature.  By  increasing 
the  pressure,  on  the  other  hand,  water  may  be  heated  to  any 
decree  without  boiling.  Papin's  digester  is  formed  on  this 
principle.  L'mler  a  pres.sure  of  two  atino.spheres  the  boiling- 
point  rises  to  120'  C.  (248"  F.).  at  three  atmospheres  to  180'  C. 
(:}.">6'  F.).  See  the  articles  Hkat,  Steam,  and  Lk^lius;  also 
Balfour  Stewart's  Eletitentary  Treatise  on  Heal;  Tait,  (M 
Heal ;  and  Maxwell's  Theory  of  Heat. 

Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Bols  d'Arc.  popularly  i)ronounccd  bo  dock ;  Fr.  pron. 
bwiiadaark  (Fr..  bow-wood):  t he  Osiige orange-tree (J/(«/»r(» 
aurantiaca  or  Tojylon  pomifenim,  family  Artocarpaceie). 
It  is  often  us»'d  for  a  hedge-plant.  As  a  tree  its  limber  is 
tough,  ela.stic.  and  extremely  usi'ful.  It  is  a  near  relative  of 
the  fustic-tree,  and  its  wood  yields  a  yellow  dye.  It  was 
used  bv  the  Indians  for  making  bows  and  arrows.  For  its 
usi'  in  hedge-fences,  see  Osaoe  oraxoe. 

Bois  de  Boulogrne,  bwa"ii'd«-boo'loi\' :  a  grove  or  public 
park  in  the  environs  of  Paris;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine, 
ulMUt  ;J  miles  \V.  of  the  city.     It  is  nearly  3  miles  long  and 

1  mile  wide.  It  was  the  finest  promenade  in  the  vicinity  of 
I'aris,  but  many  of  the  trees  were  cut  <lown  and  burned  when 
that  citv  was  besieged  by  the  Germans  in  1870.  It  is  during 
the  afternoon  the  rendezvous  of  the  elegant  society  of  Paris, 
and  in  the  height  of  the  season  presents  a  sight  of  unequalcd 
S|)leiid»r. 

Bois-Dlival.  hwa"!i'd('i-vaar,  .Ieax  Alphoxse:  b.  at  Tiche- 
ville,  department  of  Orne.  France.  .lune  17,  1801:  studied 
medicine  and  natural  history  al  Uoiien  and  Paris,  and  did 
excellent  service  as  a  physician  during  the  first  invasion 
of  cholera  in  18:55.  He  wrote  several  valuable  works  on 
botany  and  entomology:  Flore  fnnnaixe  (1828.  3  vols.),  in 
which  the  plants  are  arranged  according  to  natural  families : 
HUloire  (hx  Irpidoplerex  ei  (lex  chenilles  de  I'Amerique  sep- 
tenlriomile  (lS2!)-47);  Lex  chenilles  d' Europe  (18:52.  et  neq., 

2  vols.) :  Ilixlnire  de  lepidopteres  de  la  Californie  (1852), 
written  in  conjunction  with  JI.  A.  ttucnee  ;  Essai  sur  Venlo- 
moloyie  horliciile  (IHGO):  Ilixlnire  natiirelle  des  inxectes 
(1874).     I),  in  Ticheville.  Dec.  :50.  1879. 

BoLse.  James  Honixso.v,  Ph.D..  LL.  D. :  b.  in  Blandford, 
IIum|xlen  CO..  Mas.s.,  .Ian.  27.  1815;  graduated  at  Brown 
Universitv  in  1840;  tutor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  that  college 
from  184li  to  184:i.  and  Professor  of  Greek  till  1850.  From 
1852  till  IstiM  he  was  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  Univei-sity  of 
Michigan.  Thereafter  he  filled  the  same  position  in  the 
Univei-sity  of  (,'hieago.  D.  in  Chicago,  Feb.  9,  1895.  Prof. 
Boise  published  several  classical  text-books,  among  which 
are  editions,  with  English  notes,  of  Xcnophon's  Anabasis 
and  the  first  six  books  of  Homer's  Iliad. 

Boise,  Otis  B.  :  musician:  b.  in  Cleveland.  0.,  in  1844; 
and  Very  early  showed  great  inclination  toward  music.  Sent 
abroad  by  his  father,  he  entend  the  ConservRtory  at  Ijcinzig. 
remaining  t  here  three  years,  si  udying  uixler  Wenzel,  Kicnter, 
and  Ilaiiplmann.  and  then  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  stu<lied 
the  piano  under  Kiillak.  After  his  return  to  the  U.  S.  he 
busied  his  leisuri'  lioni-s  in  composing,  and  he  completed  In 
Memoriam,  a  motet  on  the  Thirteenth  /'.■<alm,  a  large  work 
for  organ  anil  orchestra,  played  in  Trinity  church.  New  York ; 
&< 'once rtxl nek.  for  piano  and  orchestra,  fierformed  by  Hame- 
rik's  orchestra  in  Baltimore;  a  piano  concerto  in  Cf  minor; 
»  festival  overture,  and  a  trio  for  violin,  piano,  and  violon- 
cello, etc.  He  has  given  up  the  musical  profession  and 
gone  into  business.  D.  E.  Hekvev. 

Bois<'  City:  capital  of  Idaho  and  of  Ada  co.  (for  location 
of  county.  >ie  map  of  Idaho,  ref.  9-A);  in  the  southern 


portion  of  the  State;  on  Union  Pac.  R.  R.  and  on  Boise 
river.  50  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  .Snake,  in  the 
Great  Snake  river  valley  ;  lat.  43  :54'  N.,  Ion.  about  116°  W. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  agricidtural  and  grazing ccmntry, 
and  derives  large' support  from  the  rich  placer  and  quartz 
mines  in  the  mountain  districts  within  50  miles  N.,  S.,  and 
E.  The  principal  business  houses  are  fire-proof  brick.  The 
city  has  a  U.  S.  a.ssav-office,  a  penitentiary,  high  school,  and 
various  mechanical  industries.  Two  large  ditches,  bringing 
the  water  from  Boise  river,  give  an  abundance  of  water- 
power,  and  side  ditches  for  irrigating  purposes  carry  the 
water  to  everv  lot  in  the  city.  Po]).  (1880)  1,899;  (1890) 
2,311 ;  (1891)  estimated  with  suburbs,  5,300. 

Editor  of  "Statesman." 

Boise  River:  See  Big  Wood  River. 

Boisgobey.  bwa'a  go-bay  .  Forti'XE.  du  :  French  novelist ; 
b.  in  Normaiiilv.  1824 ;  army  imvmaster  in  Algeria ;  began 
to  write  in  18(58.  Author  of  L' Homme  .snws  A'om  (1872) ; 
IjA.i  de  Camr  (1875);  Ee  Crime  de  l'02>era  (1880):  Le 
Secret  de  Berthe  (1884). 

Bois-le-dlic.  bwaa  le-diik  (in  Dutch  ' S Hertogenboxch.  i.e. 
duke's  wood):  town  of  Holland:  capital  of  North  Brabant; 
at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Aaand  Doinmel:  30  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Utrecht  (see  ma[)  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  7-F).  It 
is  a  clean  and  well-built  town,  intersected  by  several  canals 
and  defended  by  a  citadel  and  two  forts.  It  has  a  fine  ca- 
tlie(lnd.  a  college,  an  academy  of  art.  an  arsenal,  and  a 
grammar  school  in  which  the  celebrated  Erasmus  studied. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  cutlery,  riblKnis.  woolen  goods, 
linen  thread,  etc.  It  was  founded  in  1184  by  the  Duke  of 
Brabant  in  a  wood  while  hunting;  hence  its  name.  Pop. 
(1891)  27.302. 

Boisserfe.  bwaa'st-ray  .  Sri.Piz  :  architect  and  antiquary 
of  French  extraction  ;  b.  at  Cologne.  Aug.  2,  1783.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  collection  of  specimens  of  early  German 
art.  in  which  he  was  aided  by  his  brother  Jlelchior  (1786- 
1851).  They  collected  about  200  pictures,  which  were  pur- 
chased by  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and  are  called  the  "Boisse- 
rean  Coliection."  He  published  Monumentx  of  Architecture 
on  the  Lower  Rhine  from  the  Serenth  to  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
turij  (1830-;!3),  and  Views.  Plans,  and  Details  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  (  oloyne,  etc.  (1823).     I),  in  Bonn,  May  2,  1841. 

Boissier.  bwiia'si-ay',  Marie  Loris  Gaston:  French 
.scholar;  b.  in  Nimes,' Aug.  15.  1823;  Professor  of  Latin 
Oratory  in  College  de  France  1861 ;  elected  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  June  8.  1876.  Author  of  Vne  etude 
sur  Terenlius  Varron  :  Cieeron  et  sex  Amis;  I^a  Religion 
Romaine  d'Auguste  aux  Anloninx;  and  many  papers  in  the 
Rei'ue  des  Deux  Mondes  and  the  Revue  de  I'Inslruction  Puh- 
liijue. 

Boissonado.  bwa")i'so-na"iul'.  Jean  FKAXfois :  classical 
scholar;  b.  in  Paris,  Aug.  12,  1774.  He  became  Professor 
of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  1812;  admitted  into 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  18l:i :  became  Professor  of 
Greek  in  the  College  de  France  in  1828,  which  position  he 
held  until  a  few  days  before  his  death.  He  edited  several 
Greek  jirose  authors,  and  published  Si/lloge  Poetarum  Grm- 
corum  (24  vols..  1823-26).  He  acipiired  a  high  reputation 
as  a  Hellenist,  and  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  study  of 
classical  literature.     D.  Sei)t.  8,  1857. 

Boissy  d'A  iiglus.  bwaa  see'  da'anglaa',  Pranqois  Antoine, 
Count  de :  a  French  statesman  ;  b.  in  Saint-.Iean  Chambre, 
Ardeehe,  Dec.  8.  1750.  He  be<ame  a  moderate  member  of 
the  States-General  in  1789  ;  of  the  Convention  in  1792.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  in  1794; 
chosen  president  of  the  Tribunate  in  1802;  created  a  sena- 
tor and  count  by  Napoleon  in  1805,  and  a  peer  of  France 
bv  Louis  XVIII.  He  wrote  several  political  essuvs  and  a 
Life  of  Malesherbes  (1819).     D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  20.  1826. 

Boitn.  bo-ee'to,  Arrioo:  poet  and  composer;  b.  in  Padua, 
Italy,  Feb.  24,  1842 ;  early  acquired  a  taste  for  poetry, 
music,  and  art  :  studied  at  the  Milan  Conservatory,  and 
during  this  time  composed  several  numbers  of  his  opera 
Melistofele.  of  which  he  wrote  his  own  libretto.  During 
the  years  which  followed  up  to  1867  he  busied  himself  with 
literature,  and  wrote  poems  and  novels.  In  the  Garibal- 
dian  insurrection  Boito  took  part,  and  after  it  was  over 
went  to  Paris  to  become  a  French  journalist.  In  the  mean- 
time, however,  he  continued  to  work  leisurely  on  his  ]\Iefis- 
tofele.  The  manager  of  La  Seala.  Milan,  hearing  of  this,  in- 
duce<l  him  to  complete  it.  and  anTii>unced  it  for  production 
in  the  season  ol  1867-68,  and  the  first  performance  took  place 


684 


BOIVIX 


BOLE 


on  Mar.  5,  1868.  Although  the  performance  lasted  nearly 
six  hours,  the  work  was  a  success,  though  it  aroused  sueli  a 
furious  opposition  that  it  was  withdrawn.  He  revised  and 
largely  rewrote  it,  and  the  new  version  was  produced  on 
Oct.  4,  1875.  He  wrote  the  librettos  of  Ero  e  Leandro  and 
Nerone,  and  composed  tlie  music,  but  not  being  siitisfied 
with  them  gave  the  former  to  Bottesini,  who  composed  and 
produced  it,  and  locked  the  latter  up  in  bis  desk.  He  has 
also  composed  and  written  another  opera.  Oresfiade,  which 
likewise  he  retains  unproiluced.  He  has  written  numerous 
librettos  for  other  composers,  including  Amido  (Faccio), 
Gioconda  (Ponchielli),  Alessandi-o  Farnese.  (Palumbo),  Tram 
(Dominiceto),  Ofello  and  FaUtaff  (Verdi),  besides  trans- 
lating several  of  Wagner's  opera-texts  into  Italian.  His 
poems,  found  in  7/  Libra  dei  Versi,  are  very  highly  praised. 
Since  1867  he  has  lived  in  Milan,  and  is  one  of  Verdi's  most 
cherished  friends.  He  is  a  great  admirer  of  Bach,  Beet- 
hoven and  Wagner.  He  married  Erminia  Borghi-Mamo, 
who  sang  in  the  1875  production  of  Mefistofele. 

D.  B.  Hervey. 

Boirin,  bwa'ji'van',  Marie  Anne  Victoire  Gillaix,  M.  D.  : 
French  midwife:  I).  Ai)r.  9,  1773;  educated  in  a  nunnery, 
and  afterward  studied  the  elements  of  medicine.  She  mar- 
ried in  1797,  but  was  soon  left  a  widow  with  one  child.  To 
gain  a  living  she  worked  in  the  Maternite  Hospital,  in 
Paris,  of  which  she  became  superintendent  in  ISUl.  The 
King  of  Prussia  gave  her  the  civil  order  of  merit,  and  the 
University  of  Marburg  the  degree  of  M.  D.  She  wrote 
valuable  professional  works.     D.  May  16,  1841. 

Bojador,  Cape:  See  Cape  Bojador. 

Bo'ker.  George  Henry  :  poet ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  6, 
18'33 ;  graduated  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1842.  He  published 
The  Lesson  of  Life  and  oilier  Poems  (1847):  Calaijnos,  a. 
tragedy  (1848),  which  was  performed  with  great  success  in 
England ;  Plays  and  Poems  (1856) ;  Poems  of  the  War 
(1«64):  Konigsmark  (1869);  Book  of  the  Dead  (1882);  and 
Sonnets  (1886).  He  was  minister  to  Turkey  1871-73,  and 
to  Russia  1875-79.     D.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  2,  1890. 

Bokha'ra  (Lat.  Bucharia  ;  anc.  Sogdiana  and  Transoxi- 
ana) :  also  called  Uzebekistan ;  a  Russian  vassal  state  of 
Central  Asia :  N.  of  the  upper  Oxus  river  ;  between  Russian 
Turkestan  ami  Afghanistan,  between  the  meridians  62'  and 
72°  E.  and  parallels  'il '  and  41  °  X.  Area,  estiniated  at  92,254 
sq.  miles.  The  high  mountain-range  of  Hindu  Kush  extends 
along  the  southern  border  of  Bokhara,  the  east  part  of  which 
is  occupied  by  offsets  from  the  Bolor  Tagh,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  is  level.  This  level  tract  resejnbles  the 
dry  steppes  and  sandy  wastes  of  the  basin  of  the  Cas|)ian.  The 
largest  rivers  of  Bokhara  are  the  Amu  (Oxus),  the  Jihun,  and 
the  Saraarcand  river,  or  Kohik.  Along  tlie  banks  of  these 
rivers  there  is  arable  and  fertile  land,  which  is  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  whole  country.  The  climate  is  moderate.  Gold 
is  found  in  the  sands  of  the  Oxus.  but  Bokhara  is  deficient 
in  metals  and  timber.  Among  the  products  of  the  soil  are 
cotton,  rice,  wlieat,  barley,  silk,  tobacco,  and  abundant 
fruits.  The  inhabitants  raise  great  numbers  of  camels, 
sheep,  goats,  and  horses.  They  manufacture  silk  stuffs,  fire- 
arms, cutlery,  shagreen,  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  sabers, 
etc.  This  country  derives  commercial  advantage  and  im- 
portance from  its  position  between  Russia  and  the  south  of 
Asia.  The  population  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  races, 
who  mostly  profess  the  Jlohauimedan  religion.  Bokhara 
partly  corresponds  to  the  ancient  Bactria.  It  was  conquered 
by  Jengis  Khan  in  1219.  The  tjzbegs  became  masters  of  it  in 
1505.  In  1861  the  Russians  moved  up  tlie  Syr-Darya,  cap- 
tured several  important  cities,  together  with  the  northern 
half  of  Bokhara,  and  formed  the  government  of  Turkestan. 
Between  1866-68  the  Russians  conquered  the  cities  of  Sam- 
arcand  and  Katty  Kurgan,  with  the  territory  belonging  to 
them.  Since  then  Bokhsira  has  become  more  and  more  de- 
pen.lent  upon  Russia.  In  1870  Russia  con(|viered  Badak- 
shan  an  1  gave  it  to  Bokhara,  and  in  1873,  owing  to  tlie  vic- 
tory of  the  Uussians  over  Khiva,  the  Amu  was  made  the 
boundary  between  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  The  Transcas- 
pian  railway  to  Saiiiarcand  nows  runs  through  Bokhara. 
Tra  le  is  rapidly  passing  into  Russian  hands.  The  Amir 
Savid  .Vlidn!  .Vliad.  b.  in  1860  and  educated  in  Russia,  suc- 
ceeded his  fatlier  in  1885.  He  gave  100,000  roulili's  tor  the 
relief  of  the  distress  by  famine  in  S.  E.  Russia  in  1892.  The 
capital  is  the  eitv  of  Bokhara.  The  other  chief  towns  are 
Karshi  (pop.  25,(300),  Ilissar  (10,000).  Total  i)op.  estimated 
at  2.500,000. 

References. — Burnes,  Travels  in  Bokhara  (1839);  Vam- 


bery.  History  of  Bokhara  (1878):  Curzon,  Russia  in  Cen- 
tral Asia  (1889).  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Bokhara  (i.  e.  treasury  of  sciences) :  a  city  of  Central 
Asia :  capital  of  Bokhara ;  situated  on  a  plain  near  the  river 
Sogd  or  Zerafshan  ;  138  miles  W.  S.  W  of  Samarcand  (see 
map  of  Asia,  i-ef.  4-D).  The  streets  are  very  narrow  and 
ill  paved,  the  houses  are  small,  have  flat  roofs,  and  are  built 
of  sun-dried  bricks.  Bokhara  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  town  of  Central  Asia,  and  has  numerous 
extensive  bazaars,  in  which  nearly  all  kinds  of  goods  can  be 
procured.  Among  the  articles  exported  from  it  are  silks, 
cotton,  wool,  coarse  chintzes,  lapis-lazuli,  and  dried  fraits. 
This  city  is  said  to  have  360  mosques,  some  of  which  are 
beautiful  structures.  It  has  long  been  famous  as  a  scat  of 
Mohammedan  learning,  and  is  said  to  contain  over  100  col- 
leges, with  about  10.000  students.  Among  the  principal 
edifices  i^  the  palace  of  the  khan,  which  is  inclosed  by  a 
wall  about  65  feet  high.  Bokhara  was  ruined  by  Jengis 
Khan  in  1220,  and  was  rebuilt  at  the  end  of  his  reign.  It 
was  pillaged  again  by  his  successors  in  1273  anil  1276.  The 
raUway  station  for  the  Transcaspian  road  is  at  New  Bok- 
hara, about  10  miles  from  the  old  citv.  Pop.  70,000  to 
100,000. 

Bokhara  Laiignasres  :  See  Iranian  Languages. 

Bo'lan  (bo-laan)  Pass  :  a  pass  in  the  mountains  of  Balu- 
chistan ;  is  50  miles  long,  and  is  on  the  route  from  Sind  to 
Kandahar  and  Kdat.  The  highest  part  of  the  pass  is  5,793 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  average  ascent  is  90 
feet  in  a  mile.  The  Bolan  river  rises  here.  In  1839  a  small 
British  army  with  heavy  artillery  marched  through  this 
pass  from  Sind  to  Afghanistan. 

Bo'las  [Span.,  plur.  of  hola,  ball] :  a  Spanish-American     , 
name  for  a  missile  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  S*)uth  Amer-     j 
ican  plains,  and  borrowed  from  them  liy  the  gauchos.     It     ' 
consists  of  a  pair  of  balls  (formerly  made  of  clay  by  the 
Indians,  but  now  often  of  iron)  fastened  together  by  a  thong 
of  hide.     The  bolas  are  hurled  with  great  precision  at  the 
OS,  horse,  guanaeo,  or  ostrich,  and,  entangling  the  legs  of 
the  animal,  detain  it  till  it  can  be  captured  or  killed.     Sixty 
feet  or  more  is  a  moderate  range  for  the  bolas,  which  are 
thrown  from  the  saddle. 

Bolbec' :  a  town  of  France ;  department  of  Seine-Infe- 
rieure ;  on  a  small  river  of  its  own  name  ;  20  miles  by  raQ 
E.  N.  E.  of  Havre ;  on  the  railway  which  connects  Paris 
with  the  latter  place  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  2-D).  It  is 
well  built,  and  is  adorned  with  fonntains.  Here  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  fabrics,  and  chem- 
icals, and  three  annual  fairs  doing  considerable  busine-ss. 
Pop.  (1891)  12,028. 

Boldiiii,  b(;l-dee'ne"e,  Giovanni:  contemporary  painter  of 
genre  and  of  jiortraits,  who,  though  born  at  Ferrara.  Italy, 
has  long  resided  in  Paris,  and  is  identified  witli  the  French 
school.  Pie  is  an  artist  of  the  rarest  talent.  an<l  one  of  the 
most  wonderful  technicians  in  modern  art.  His  pictures 
are  generally  of  small  size  and  of  minute  finish,  but  possess 
a  breadth  of  handling  that  gives  them  extraordinary  value 
in  the  eyes  of  artists  and  connoisseurs.  His  portraits  are 
treated  much  more  synthetically  than  his  small  pictures,  and 
some  of  them,  notably  those  painted  in  pastel,  are  remark- 
able for  their  elegance  of  aspect  and  beauty  of  style.  His 
pictures  are  well  known  in  the  U.  S.,  and  two  exquisite  ex- 
amples of  his  work.  Ladies  of  the  First  Empire  and  The 
Parisians,  are  in  the  collection  of  Jlrs.  W.  H.  Vanderbilt, 
New  York.  lie  was  awarded  a  medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris 
Exposition.  1880.     Studio  in  Paris.     William  A.  Coffin. 

Bole  [from  Lat.  tiolus,  from  Gr.  pUKos.  clod] :  a  hydrous 
silicate  of  aluminium,  classified  by  Dana  as  one  of  the  varie- 
ties of  halloysite  (so  called  in  honor  of  the  Belgian  geologist 
J.  B.  J.  d'Oniali'us  d'Halloy,  1783-1875).  Dana's  classifica- 
tion was  made  with  some  reserve,  however,  for  he  states  that 
more  investigation  is  needed  before  it  can  be  definitely  deter- 
mined that  bole  is  not  a  mere  mixture.  It  is  a  soft,  colored, 
unctuous,  compact,  claylike  substance,  occurring  in  amor- 
phous masses,  has  a  conchoidal  fracture  and  a  greasy  luster,  is 
highly  absorbent,  and  carries  more  or  less  oxide  of  iron  and 
about  24  percent,  of  water.  The  iron  gives  it  a  brownish,  yel- 
lowish, or  reddish  color.  It  is  found  in  Armenia,  Italy,  Ja>'a, 
France,  Scot  land.  Ireland,  and  Germany.  Savage  tribes  in 
South  America  eat  bole  when  starving.  It  was  at  one  time 
used  in  medicine,  and  the  Armenian  bole  has  been  employed 
in  veterinary  practice.  Under  the  names  of  English  red  and 
Berlin  red  it  is  used  in  Germany  asapigment.  French  bole  and 


BOLERO 


BOLIVAR 


685 


Lemnian  bole  arc  of  n  iiale  red  color ;  Bohemian  bole  is  red- 
dish yellow ;  Silesian  bole,  pale  yellow ;  and  Blois  bole  is  yellow. 

Bolero,  bo-lay  TO :  a  Spanish  national  dance;  generally  in 
the  tinif  nf  a  iiiiimet,  and  with  a  peculiar  rhythm.  It  isac- 
companiiMl  with  the  music  of  the  fjuitar  and  Castanet,  and 
with  son;^.  'J'lio  ilanccr  seeks  to  represent  by  pantomime 
the  successive  symptoms  and  emotions  of  amorous  atlcction. 
with  its  various  moods  of  jealousy,  despair,  triumph,  etc. 
Adopted  by  the  ballet-masters,  it  made  its  tour  all  over  the 
world. 

Bole'tus  [Lat.,  from<ir.  /StuAfrTjs] :  a  fjenusof  fungi  of  the 
order  J/i/mi'ni)>ii!/rrle(e  and  family  Pi)/i//)i>>(ice(p.  It  com- 
prises several  species,  which  resemble  the  niMsliroom  (^-l^ari- 
«««)  in  form,  but  instead  of  having  frills  the  under  sitle  of 
the  cap  (pilens)  is  occupied  by  a  layer  (lii/menium)  quite 
distinct  from  the  body  of  the  ])ileus  in  substance,  and 
pierced  by  pores,  so  as  to  be  com[)osed  of  numerous  snuUl 
tubes  united  together.  Boletus  I'dii/is  is  used  as  food  in 
France  and  (ierinany,  where  it  grows  on  the  ground  in 
wtKxls  and  Miossy  i>laces.  In  moist,  warm  summers  it  is 
very  abundant,  ancl  sometimes  very  large  (a  foot  in  diam- 
«ter).  The  jiart  which  is  eaten  is  the  flesh  of  the  cap,  which 
is  firm,  white,  and  delicate.  .Several  other  species  are 
edible. 

Bolpyii,  bcTolVn,  or  Biil'Icn,  Axne:  Queen  of  England: 
b.  in  1  "i07 ;  daughter  of  .Sir  Thomas  UuUen.  afterward  Earl  of 
Wiltshire.  Her  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk. She  was  cihicated  at  the  French  court,  and  became 
about  IW.")  one  of  the  maids  of  honor  to  the  English  queen, 
Catherine.  Henry  \'11I..  attracted  by  her  beauty,  applied 
to  the  pope  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  Catherine,  and  uuir- 
ried  .\nne  privately  early  in  liiHH.  She  became  the  mother 
of  the  Princess  Klizabeth  in  September  of  that  year.  She 
showed  favor  to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  Having  been 
suj>planted  in  the  favor  of  the  king,  she  was  accu.sed  of 
cnminal  intercoui'se  with  several  men,  was  conilemned  by  a 
jury  of  peers,  and  beheaded  in  the  Tower  of  London  Mav 
19,  l.We.  Some  writers  think  that  her  crime  was  not 
proven.  See  I'roude,  Hisfori/  of  England,  vol.  ii. ;  Miss 
I5«'nger,  iltmuim  of  Anne.  Boleyn;  Miss  Stricldand,  Queens 
of  Enfilinid. 

Bol^rnd.  b«l-graad' :  a  town  of  Russia;  on  Lake  Yal- 
pukh :  ;iO  miles  X.  of  Ismail,  and  n<'ar  the  frontier  between 
Russia  and  Koumauia  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-B).  In 
18.5(>  it  was  ceded  by  Russia  to  Turkey,  but  in  1878  it  was 
<,'e<led  ti>  Russia.  It  is  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Galatz 
to  Koshiriel',  and  has  excellent  professional  schools.  Pop. 
«,000. 

Boli,  bo'ln' :  a  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey  ;  in  Kastamuni ;  S.? 
miles  N.  W.  of  Angora  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-F);  in- 
habited l)y  Turks  and  .Armenians.  The  manufactures  are 
gold  ornaments  and  leather.     Pop.  about  10.000. 

Bolingbroke,  boling-brook,  Hkxiiy  St.  .lonx.  Viscount: 
Author  and  statesman  :  b.  at  Battersea,  England.  Oct.  1, 1G78. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  was  extremely 
dissipated  in  his  youth.  Having  entered  Parliament  in  1701, 
he  sfH)n  became  a  prominent  orator  of  the  Tory  party,  and 
was  appoinle<l  Secretary  of  War  In  1704.  lie  lost  thisollh'e 
when  the  Whigs  obtained  power  in  1708.  but  he  continued 
to  be  a  favcu'ite  counselor  of  (jueen  .\nne.  who  dismissed  the 
Wliigs  in  1710,  and  placed  JIarley  at  the  head  of  a  ministry 
in  which  St..Iolin  was  Secretary  for  Foreign  .\ffairs.  He  re- 
ceived in  1712  the  title  of  Viscount  liolingbroke,  and  in  171:! 
ooneludeil  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  ended  a  long  war  be- 
tween England  and  France.  He  quarreled  with  Harley 
(Eiirl  of  tlxford),  ami  supplanted  him  as  prime  minister  In 
July,  1714.  His  ambitious  hopes  were  blasted  by  the  death 
of  Queen  .\nne  (.\ug.,  1714).  which  also  frustrated  his  de- 
signs anil  schemes  to  restoi'e  the  Stuart  dynasty.  He  was 
attainted  in  171.5,  but  he  had  escaped  to  Fiance,  and  entered 
the  s<<rvice  of  the  Pretender  as  his  prime  minister.  In  1724 
he  wiis  permitted  to  return  to  England,  but  not  to  enter  Par- 
liament. He  wrote  for  the  Crnfl.iiiHin  many  articles  against 
Walpnlr.  and  publlsjicd.  liesides  other  works,  a  Disserliitiiin 
«»  y'((;-/(c.s  (17o!l)  and  liimiirks  iin  Ihe  Ilisloni  of  Knqltind 
(1743).  I),  at  Battei-sea,  Dec.  12,  17.51.  He  was  brilliant  and 
versatile,  but  not  profound.  His  collecteil  works,  which 
have  little  merit  except  style,  wei'c>  published  by  Davi<l 
Mallet  in  five  volumes  (London,  1754).  See  Goldsmith, 
Life  of  Lord  Hot  in  (/broke;  G.  W.  Cooke,  Memoirs  of  Lord 
Bolini/liro/ce  (London.  18:35);  J.  C.  Collins,  liolingbroke,  an 
Historical  Study  (1886). 


Bolintinoanii,  Dimitbip;:  poet  and  journalist;  b.  at 
Bolintina,  Wallachia,  in  1826;  educated  at  Bucharest; 
studied  in  Paris;  e<liteil  in  1848  a  revolutionary  pajier,  and 
was  banished  by  Priiu'e  Stirbey ;  settled  once  more  in  Pari.s,. 
but  returned  home  under  Prince  Cuza;  edited  another  jour- 
nal, and  receiveil  a  high  governmental  position  after  the 
coup  d'etat.  May  3,  1864.  A  French  translation  by  himself 
of  some  of  his  poems  was  published  under  the  title  Brisea 
d'Orirnt  (Paris,  1866).  1).  in  Bucharest,  Sept.  1,  1872.  An 
edition  of  a  part  of  his  works  (Poesil)  appeared  in  1877  in 
two  volumes  at  Bucharest,  with  a  preface  by  G.  Sion. 

Revised  by  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Bolivar:  city;  capital  of  Polk  co..  JIo.  (for  location  of 
couniy.  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  6-F) :  110  miles  S.  W.  of 
.lell'erson  City.  It  has  a  fine  liigli-school  building,  a  woolen- 
mill,  cotton-gin,  fiouring-mill,  and  other  manufactories. 
Pop.  (1880)  516  ;  (18!tO)  l.'4»<5. 

Bolivar,  bol-i-vmir' :  capital  of  Hardeman  co.,  Tenn.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  7-B) :  1  milo 
S.  of  Hatchie  river;  28  miles  S.  of  Jackson,  and  68  miles  B. 
of  Memphis;  in  an  excellent  cotton  region,  with  fine  water- 
power  and  plenty  of  timber.  It  has  a  foundry,  steam  saw 
and  grist  mill,  four  academics,  and  tlicAVest  Tennessee  Hos- 
pital of  the  Insane.     Poji.  (1880)  1,04:3  ;  (1890)  1,100. 

Editors  of  " Billetin." 

Bolivar,  bji-lee'var:  a  colony  of  Venezuela:  near  to  and 
E.  of  Caracas;  in  the  state  of  fniznian  Blanco.  Jn  1881 
it  obtained  independent  political  rights.  Area,  8  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (18!I0)855. 

Bolivar:  a  state  of  Venezuela,  the  northern  boundary  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  rivers  Orinoco  and  Apure  from  the 
Caroni  river  (Ion.  about  6:3'  W.)  to  Ion.  70  W.  The  eastern 
boundary  is  the  river  Caroni ;  on  the  S.  are  Brazilian  Gui- 
ana and  Alto  Orinoco;  on  the  W.  the  latter,  with  Colombia 
an<l  .\rmisticio.  The  name  has  been  applied  to  several  dif- 
ferent territories  in  Venezuela,  but  the  [)resent  outlines  were 
established  in  1884.  Area,  88,701  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1890) 
60,097.  M.  W.  H. 

Bolivar,  or  Cindad  (tliM'-oo-daad)  Bolivar  (formerly 
Angostura):  a  town  of  Venezuela;  largest  in  the  state  of 
Bolivar;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orinoco;  240  miles  from 
its  mouth  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  1-D).  It  is  situ- 
ated near  a  pass  or  narrows  of  the  river,  hence  the  last 
name.  It  can  bc!  reached  by  vessels  of  300  tons,  and  consid- 
erable trade  is  carried  on  here,  chiefly  in  cocoa,  sug,ar,  cot- 
ton, jerked  meat,  hides,  and  a  medicinal  bark  called  angos- 
lura.     Pop.  11,686.  JI.  W.  II. 

Bolivar :  a  central-plateau  province  of  Ecuador ;  perhaps 
the  smallest  of  the  sixteen  provinces  of  the  republic.  Pop. 
4:!.000. 

Bolivar:  one  of  nine  departments  of  the  South  American 
repulilir  of  Colomliia ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea.  E. 
bv  Magdalena  and  Santander,  S.  by  Antioquia,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Cauca.  Area,  21,:i45  sq.  miles.  Besides  the  Magda- 
lena. which  flow.s  along  its  entire  west  boundary,  the  only 
river  of  importance  is  the  Cauca.  The  principal  towns  are 
Cartagena,  the  cai)ital,  and  Mompos.     Pop.  280,000. 

Bolivar  (Sp.  pron.  b«-!ee'var),  Simon,  or  Bolivar  y 
Ponle,  b<j-lee  var-ee-p»nta''y :  surnamed  The  Lirebatob:  a 
South  American  patriot ;  b.  at  Caracas.  July  25,  178:3;  in- 
herited an  ample  fortune.  He  studied  law  at  Madrid,  and 
afterward  joined  the  patriots  who  revolted  against  .Spain  in 
1810.  lie  served  as  an  oflicer  under  Miranda  in  several 
battles.  Having  obtained  the  command  of  a  separate  army, 
he  defeated  the  .Sjianiards  and  entered  Caracas  in  triumph 
in  .\ug..  18i:i,  soon  after  which  he  was  appointed  ilictator. 
He  was  defeated  and  driven  out  of  \'eiiezuela  in  1814.  but 
again  rallied  to  the  standard  of  liberty  near  the  end  of 
1816,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the  Spanish  general 
Morillo  in  1817.  In  Feb.,  1819.  a  congress  was  opened  at 
.\ngoslura,  and  ]3olivar  was  chosen  president.  In  Dec, 
1819.  Venezuela  and  Xew  Granada  were  united  to  form  the 
republic  of  Coloinbia.  of  which  Bolivar  was  elected  the  first 
president.  He  gained  a  victory  af  Caral>obo  in  June,  1821, 
and  in  1822  led  an  army  into  Peru,  which  lie  liberated  from 
the  Spaniards.  He  became  dictator  of  Peru  in  182:!,  and 
made  a  tour  through  that  country,  in  which  he  was  re- 
ceived with  triumphal  dennmstrations.  In  honor  of  him 
the  southern  part  of  I'eru  was  named  Bolivi.'i,  and  erected 
in  1825  into  a  separate  state,  of  which  he  became  president 
for  life.  He  was  also  re-elected  ]ircsident  of  Colondiia  in 
1826.     In  1829  Venezuela  seceded  from  the  republic  of  Co- 


686 


BOLIVAR   POINT 


BOLmA 


lombia,  which  was  much  ilisturbed  by  faction.  D.  in  San 
Pedro,  near  Santa  JIartha,  Dec.  17,  1830.  See  Ducouclray- 
Holstein,  Jlemoires  de  H.  Bulicar  (1829). 

Bolivar  Point  is  at  the  north  side  of  the  entrance  to 
Galveston  Bar,  Tex. :  in  Chambers  co. :  lat.  29^  22'  02"  N., 
Ion.  94'  45'  84""  W.  It  has  an  iron  lighthouse  110  feet  high, 
with  a  white  fixed  light  117  feet  above  the  sea. 

Boliv'ia  (Sp.  pron.  biVlee've'e-a):  a  central  country  of 
South  America,  between  Brazil  and  Argentina  on  the  X.,  E.. 
and  .S.,  and  Chili  and  Peru  on  the  W. ;  extending  from  about 
lat.  8  to  23'  15'  S.,  and  from  Ion.  57'  20'  to  about  73°  \V. 
Area  aV)out  567.240  sq.  miles.  The  Atacama  region  of  the 
Pacific  coast  was  ceded  to  Chili  after  the  war  of  1879.  Pop. 
2,019,549.  besides  wilil  Indians. 

Topography. — Primarily.  Bolivia  is  divided  into  the  high 
or  Andean  region,  occupying  the  southwestern  half,  and  the 
lowlands  of  the  east  and  north,  which  lie  in  the  great  de- 
pressions of  tlie  Paraguay  and  Madeira,  The  Andean  por- 
tion, taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  highest  region  of  its  size  in 
America,  averaging  13,000  feet  or  more.  It  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  table-land  capped  by  mountain-chains,  of  which 
the  principal  are  the  Andes  and  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  each 
with  an  average  elevation  of  about  15,000  feet,  and  with 
peaks  rising  above  20,000  feet.  The  Andes  skirt  the  west- 
ern frontier;  the  Eastern  Cordillera  (called  Cordillera  Real 
toward  the  north)  is  roughly  parallel  to  the  Andes,  and 
about  125  miles  farther  inland.  The  space  between  these 
ranges  is  occupied  by  two  gi-eat  elevated  basins,  separated 
by  a  cross  range  of  mountains  about  lat.  19'  50'  S.  The 
northern  basin  is  that  of  Lake  Titicaca  and  the  Desagua- 
dero  river,  and  extends  a  little  way  into  Peru.  (See  Titica- 
ca.) The  southern  basin,  partly  in  Argentina,  is  a  little- 
known  region  of  arid  lands,  salt  marshes,  and  isolated  moun- 
tains, called  the  Desertos  de  Lipes.  The  average  height  of 
these  basins  is  not  less  than  12,000  feet.  The  highest  moun- 
tains of  Bolivia  are  in  the  Cordillera.  Real  (Eastern  Cor- 
dillera). Tlie  Nevado  de  Sorata,  or  lUampu,  in  that  range, 
is  an  imposing  ma.ss,  formerly  supposed  to  he  the  highest  in 
America,  but  recent  estimates  make  it  under  22,000  feet. 
The  twin  peak  of  Illimani,  near  it,  is  almost  as  high.  East- 
ward from  the  Eastern  Cordillera  a  great  number  of  branches 
or  spurs  spread  over  the  highlands,  inclosing  valleys  which 
are  the  finest  parts  of  Bolivia.  As  the  mountains  subside 
eastward  a  kind  of  terrace  is  reached  which  drops  abruptly 
to  the  lowlands.  This  terrace  and  the  outlying  Llanos  de 
los  Chiquitos  in  Eastern  Bolivia  resemble  the  Brazilian 
table-land,  and  probably  were  once  a  part  of  "it.  The  east- 
ern lowlands  include  a  portion  of  the  Gran  Chaco  (see  Gran 
Chaco),  passing  northward  into  plains  which  are  partly  cov- 
ered witti  forest ;  some  isolated  low  mountains  are  found 
here,  and  the  region  is  hardly  separated  from  the  great  Ma- 
deira depression  of  the  north  (see  Paraguay  River  and 
Madeira),  a  vast  expanse  of  damp  tropical  forests  and 
plains  which  are  very  imperfectly  explored.  The  forests 
extend  for  some  distance  up  the  eastern  mountain-slopes 
and  valleys :  but  except  on  this  border  the  highlands  of 
Bolivia  are  without  forest  growth. 

Climate. — Tlie  lowlamls  are  hot,  with  heavy  rains,  espe- 
cially from  Octiiljer  to  April ;  there  is  a  marked  dry  season 
only  in  the  Paraguayan  basin.  Above  these  there  is  every 
gradation  to  the  snow-limit,  which  in  Bolivia  is  at  about 
15,000  feet.  Five  zones  of  climate  are  commonly  distin- 
guished :  Yunga,  the  plains  and  vallevs  to  5,000  feet ;  Valle, 
or  Medio  Yuikjii,  5.000  to  9,000  feet ;  Cabezera  de  Valle. 
high  valleys  from  9,000  to  11,000  feet:  Puna  and  P)ina 
brava  above,  the  latter  cold  and  sterile.  Some  parts  of  the 
great  elevated  basins  southward  are  almost  rainless. 

Lakes  and  liirers. — I'iticaca,  on  the  borders  of  Peru,  is 
the  largest  lake  in  South  America,  and  the  highest  large  body 
of  water  in  tlie  world;  it  <lischarges  southward  by  the  deep 
and  rapid  Dcsaguadero  river,  1.50  miles  long;  this  flows  into 
the  Aullagas  lake  or  swamp,  where  it  is  lost.  (See  Titica- 
ca.) The  great  rivers  are  in  the  lowlands,  the  Pileonia- 
yo  flowing  S.  E.  to  the  I'aragu.Hy.  and  the  Maniore,  Beni, 
and  Madre  de  Dios  northward  to  the  Madeira;  the  head- 
waters of  the  Puriis  are  in  the  northern  forests  of  Bolivia, 
but  the  river  has  been  explored  only  from  the  Amazon, 
The  branches  of  the  Madeira  offer  the  most  promising  outlet 
for  tlie  future  conimerce  of  Bolivia. 

Oeologg. — Very  imperfectly  known.  Portions  of  the 
Eastern  ("ordillera  nwA  the  Titicaca  basin  contain  pahvozoic 
rocks,  and  there  are  tertiary  beds  bordering  the  Gran  Chaco. 
The  Andes  range  is  largely  volcanic  and  several  of  the  peaks 


are  active.  Earthciuakes  are  frequent  in  the  mountain  re- 
gions, but  there  have  been  few  severe  ones. 

Minerals. — In  minerals  Bolivia  is  probably  the  richest 
country  in  South  America,  and  heretofore  they  have  formed 
the  chief  product.  Silver  is  the  most  important  metal,  still 
constituting  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  exports.  Tlie  for- 
mer output  of  the  Potosi  and  Porcos  mines  would  seem 
fabulous  were  it  not  well  attested  (see  PoTosi).  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  it  may  be  equaled  or  exceeded  with  proper 
management.  There  are  rich  mines  of  gold  and  copper; 
tin.  lead,  ami  mercury  are  extracted  from  some  of  the  silver 
ores,  and  beds  of  coal  and  iron  are  known. 

Ploitfx. — The  richest  rublier  region  of  the  world  is  prob- 
ably about  the  river  plains  of  Northern  Bolivia.  The  cin- 
chona trees  of  the  mountain-slope  forests  are  said  to  be 
nearly  exhausted;  but  the  other  forest  riches  of  Bolivia  are 
untouched.  Coca  grows  wild  on  the  highlands,  but  is  also 
cultivated  and  exported  ;  wheat  is  exported,  principally 
from  Cochabamba,  and  cofEee-raising  is  growing  in  impor- 
tance in  the  medio  yunga  region.  The  soil  of  Bolivia  is 
everywhere  rich  except  in  the  puna-bra ra  zone,  and  almost 
any  temiierate  or  tropical  plant  can  be  grown  in  some  part. 
Among  crops  raised  for  home  consumption  arc  mandioca, 
plantains,  tropical  fniits,  and  maize  in  the  lower  lands,  and 
potatoes,  quinoa,  and  barley  in  the  puna  zone. 

Animals. — The  lowlands  have  the  usual  forest  and  prairie 
animals  of  the  neotropical  region  (see  America,  South),  in- 
cluding tapirs,  jaguars,  pumas,  ant-eaters,  armadillos,  sloths, 
American  monkeys,  ostriches,  and  a  great  variety  of  birds, 
insects,  etc.  Among  the  animals  peculiar  to  the  highlands 
are  bears,  condors,  and  the  wild  llamas  called  guanacus 
and  vicunas.  Tame  llamas  are  raised  as  beasts  of  burden, 
and  alpacas  for  their  fleece.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising  is 
growing  in  importance. 

Inhabitants. — Nearly  all  the  civilized  population  is  in  the 
highlands,  and  three-fourths  are  [uire  Ayuiani  Indians, 
siieaking  their  own  language  and  retaining  some  of  their 
customs ;  they  are  nominally  Catholics  and  form  tlie  best 
portion  of  the  laboring  class,  besides  being  excellent  sol- 
diers. Spanish  is  spoken  in  the  towns.  The  largest  city  is 
La  Paz  (40.000  inliabitants).  Other  towns  are  Sucre  or 
Chuquisaea.  the  capital  (20,000),  Cochabamba  (20,000),  Po- 
tosi (12,000),  Santa  Cruz  (10.288),  Oruro  (10.000).  The  prin- 
cipal settlements  of  the  lowland  are  mission  villages  of  Ind- 
ians, formed  by  the  Jesuits,  and  now  (1894)  in  a  state  of  de- 
cadence. Large  portions  of  these  plains  are  unexplored, 
and  peopled  only  by  small  tribes  of  wiUl  Indians.  The 
total  number  of  these  Indians  probably  does  not  exceed 
150,000. 

Government,  etc. — The  executive  power  is  invested  in  a 
president,  who  is  now  elected  for  four  years  ;  Congress  con- 
sists of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  chosen,  like 
the  iiresident,  by  universal  suffrage.  There  is  a  small 
standing  army,  and  the  national  guard  includes  all  able- 
bodied  men.  Primary  education  is  free  and  obligatory,  but 
there  are  few  good  schools  :  four  universities  are  well  patron- 
ized. The  recognized  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but 
other  sects  are  tolerated.  The  public  debt  is  about  1^5,000,- 
000,  and  is  sai<l  to  lie  diminishing. 

Railways,  etc. — The  great  want  of  Bolivia  has  been  good 
means  of  external  communication,  by  whicli  her  magnifl- 
cent  resources  can  be  made  available.  Atteni]its  to  use  the 
natural  highways  of  the  northern  rivers  have  failed  through 
bad  managcnient  or  lack  of  capital,  and  tradi!  is  mainly 
through  Chili  and  Peru  to  the  Pacific.  A  railway  from  the 
Chilian  port  of  Antofagasta  is  now  (1893)  completed  to 
Oruro.  5t)0  miles  of  the  line  being  in  Bolivia  :  it  will  be  con- 
tinued to  La  Paz,  thus  opening  up  the  great  elevated  basins. 
Allot lier  railway  runs  from  La  Paz  to  Lake  Titicaca,  and 
many  more  are  projected.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  common  roads.  The  telcgrajili  system  is  very 
incomplete,  generally  following  the  railways. 

Ili.'itory. — Prolialily  the  oldest  civilized  empire  in  Amer- 
ica existed  in  the  Titicaca  basin,  but  we  know  of  it  only  by 
vague  tradition  ami  by  the  ruins  at  Tialuianacu  and  other 
places.  (See  Ixcax  Antiquities.)  It  appears  to  have  been 
broken  up  about  the  eighth  century:  the  CoUas  or  so-called 
Aymaras  remained  in  the  Bolivian  highlands  and  retained 
some  civilization.  They  were  subdued  in  the  fourteenth 
century  by  the  Incas  of  Cuzco.  (See  Incas.)  Afti'r  the 
Inca  empire  hail  lieeii  overturned  by  Franci.sco  Pizarro,  he 
sent  his  lirother  llnnando  to  annex  this  southern  region 
(1538),  and  in  1559  it  was  formed  into  the  audiencia  of 
Charcas,  or  Upper  Peru.    It  was  governed  by  judges  who 


BOLIVIAN   LITERATURE 


BOLOMETER 


687 


resided  at  Chuquisaca  (the  modern  Sucre),  and  at  first  were 
subject  to  the  Viceniy  of  Peru;  but  in  1770  Charcius  was 
made  a  jirovinco  of  the  new  vieeroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  rich  silver  mines  gave  this  region  a  special  impor- 
tance with  Spain ;  but  here  lus  elsewhere  the  colonists,  and 
especially  I  lie  Indians,  had  much  cause  for  discontent.  A 
revolt  in  18(11)  was  speedily  crushed,  and  patriot  invading 
armies  from  Buenos  Ayres  (1,S11-181.^)  and  from  Peru  (1821) 
were  repulsed  by  the  Spaniards.  Thus  t'harcas  was  the 
last  region  in  Snulli  America  to  be  freed  from  Spanish 
troops.  This  was  elTected  aftiT  the  great  victory  of  Aya- 
cuclio  in  Peru  ;  early  in  IH'i'i  liolivar  sent  .Sucre  into  Cliarcas, 
and  the  reuuiiuing  Sjianiards  were  speedily  subdued:  Boli- 
var himself  followed  a  little  later,  formed  or  approved  a 
constitution,  and  the  sjime  year  the  old  province  of  Char- 
cas  was  declared  an  independent  country,  taking  the  name 
of  Bolivia  in  honor  of  its  founder.  Sucre,  the  first  presi- 
ident.  was  obliged  to  resign  in  Sept.,  18"-38.  His  successor, 
JIarshal  Andres  Siiiita  Cruz,  interfered  in  the  affairs  of 
Peru  (18:^5),  and  in  18:36  a  federal  republic  was  formecl,  con- 
sisting of  three  states.  North  Peru,  South  Peru,  and  Uolivia, 
each  governed  by  a  president  aiul  Congress,  with  Santa  Cruz 
a-s  supreme  protector.  Malcontents  from  Peru,  aided  by 
an  invading  army  from  Chili,  overthrew  Santa  Cruz  in  18;i!J, 
and  the  confederation  Wivs  dissolved.  In  1841  (lainaiui, 
presiilent  of  IVru.  made  war  on  Bolivia,  but  was  defeated 
and  l;il!ed  at  the  battle  of  Yngavi  (Nov.  20,  1841),  aiul  peace 
was  made  next  year.  After  184.")  most  of  the  presidents 
weri'  military  adventurers  who  held  their  ])laces  by  force  of 
revolutions  ;  but  there  were  exceptions,  as  Dr.  Linares,  elect- 
ed in  18.58,  and  Col.  Adolfo  Ballivian,  wliosi;  election  in 
187o  promised  to  put  a  stop  to  the  disorders,  but  who  die<l 
shortly  after.  Chili  declared  war  on  Bolivia  in  187!)  to  up- 
hold her  seizure  of  the  nitrate  regions  of  At aciinia;  Bolivia 
and  her  ally,  Peru,  were  beati'U  in  the  war.  and  .\tacaina  was 
given  up,  leaving  Bolivia  without  a  seacoast.  During  this 
war  the  president  of  Bolivia,  Gen.  llilarion  Daza,  was  de- 
posed by  liisown  troops  on  account  of  cowardice,  and  was 
suceeede<i  by  Canipcro.  Since  the  war  Bolivia  has  been 
quiet,  and  the  period  of  military  revolutions  seems  to  be 
past  :  but  lack  of  external  communications  has  retarded  the 
natural  development  of  the  country. 

BiiiLioGK.vi'iiv. — Dolence,  lioHijUfjo  Estadiftir.o  de  Bo- 
livia (1851);  Cortes,  Ensayii  sobre  la  Hittoria  dp  linlivia 
(18(51) ;  Moreno,  A'ociones  dr  Ofograf'ia  de  Bolivia  (Sucre, 
18.8'J) ;  Re<k,  (ieoyrapliii'  niid  .Statist  ik  der  lirpiiblilc  Bu- 
livia,  in  Pelermann's  Mittlifiliinffen  (1866  and  1867);  Bou- 
clli.  Travels  in  Bolivia  (London,  18.54);  Weddell,  Voi/ai/e 
dans  le  Xord  de  la  Bolivie  (Paris,  185;i);  Wiener,  Peroii  el 
Bolivie  (Paris,  1880) ;  Castelnaii,  Kxphlition  dans  les  parties 
centrales  de  I'Amerique  du  Sad,  vols,  iii.,  iv.,  and  vi.  (Paris, 
1851);  Mathews,  i'p  the  Amazon  and  Madeira  Rivers  (Lon- 
don, 18711) ;  Wappaus,  Millet  und  Siid  Amerika  (1871);  the 
works  of  Aramago,  Cortes,  and  Von  TscIukU  ;  Markhani, 
The  War  l>etween  Peru  and  Chili  (London,  1888).  There  is 
a  good  map  in  Markhani 's  Ilislory  of  Pern  (Chicago,  1892), 
and  reports  by  Minister  Anderson  on  the  Bolivian  gold  and 
silver  mines  may  be  found  in  U.  S.  Consular  Hi  purls.  Feb. 
and  Mar.,  18i)2.  IIkbbert  11.  Smitu. 

Boliviau  Literature:  See  Spanish-America.n  Liteba- 

TIKK. 

Bolkhoff.  bol-Ahoff' :  a  town  of  Rus.sia;  government  of 
Orel ;  on  the  Nugra  ;  30  miles  N.  of  (3rel  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  8-D).  It  is  built  mostly  of  wood,  and  has  about  twenty 
churches;  al.so  manufactures  of  gloves,  hoisery,  hats,  and 
leather.  Hemp,  hides,  oils,  and  tallow  are  exported.  Pop. 
(188:i)  26.:i!t.5. 

Bol'laiidists :  certain  .Jesuits  who  compiled,  and  are 
compiling,  a  voluminous  work  called  Acta  Sanctorum,  or 
Lives  of  the  Saints  (')'.)  vols.,  lG4:i-17!)4).  They  derived  their 
name  from  .lohn  Bollandus.  (See  Bolla.ndis.)  .Vfter  his 
ileath  the  work  was  continued  by  a  number  of  men,  among 
whom  were  Daniel  Papebroi'k.  Conrad  .lanning,  1'.  van  den 
liosche,  Suyskens,  and  Hubeiis.  In  1837  a  new  Bollandist 
association  was  formed  by  the  .Jesuits  in  Belgium,  who  have 
eontiinieil  the  work  of  publication.  The  sixty-first  volume, 
published  in  1887,  comes  down  to  the  saints  of  Nov.  3.  The 
earlier  volumes  were  reprinted  in  Paris  1863-8;i.  See  J<.  P. 
(Ta<-liaril,  Memnire  historii/ue  sur  les  Bollandisles  (tjhent, 
1835). 

BoHniiMllS,  or  Itol'Iaiid,  .loiix:  a  Flemish  Jesuit ;  b.  in 
.Tulemont,  near  Liege.  Belgium.  .\ug.  13,  1.5!)6.  In  eonjunc- 
with  (rodfrey  Ilensi'hen.  he  published  in  1643-5S  five  vol- 


umes of  the  Acta  Sanctorum.    D.  in  Antwerp,  Sept.  12. 
1665,    See  Bollandists, 

Bol'Ier,  Alfred  Pancoast,  A.M.,  C.E. :  civil  engineer; 
b.  in  Philadeli)hia,  Pa.,  Feb.  23,  1840 ;  graduated  at  Uni- 
versitv  of  J'ennsylvania  in  18,58,  and  from  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute,  Troy,  N.  V.,  in  1861.  He  has  been  en- 
gaged in  many  railroad  and  bridge  constructions  as  chief  and 
consulting  engineer,  among  which  are  the  Hudson  River 
R.  R.  ;  West  Side  and  Vonkers  R.  R. ;  .Manhattan  Elevated 
R.  R. ;  the  Arthur  Kill  bridge,  Staten  Island;  the  Thames 
River  bridge  at  New  London,  Conn. :  and  the  department 
of  public  works,  New  York  city.  He  is  the  author  of  Iron 
IFiqh  wa y  Bridr/es  (1876)  and  Report  on  Thames  River  Bridge 
(1890).    '.See  BRiDiiES. 

Bologna,  bo-lon'ya1i :  a  province  of  Emilia,  Italy  ;  was  pre- 
vious to  1860  a  legation,  that  is,  was  ruled  by  a  cardinal.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  Ferrara,  K.  l>y  Ravenna,  S.  by  Florence,  and 
W.  by  Miidena ;  area,  1,393  sq.  miles.  The  southern  ])art 
is  mountainous;  the  .soil  is  mostly  very  fertile.  Among  the 
staple  products  are  silk,  wine,  grain,  olive  oil,  hemp,  flax, 
and  rice.     Pop.  (1890)  482,219.     Capital,  Bologna. 

Bologna  (anc.  Felsina  and  Bononia)  :  a  famous  city  of 
Italy  ;  capital  of  province  of  same  name  :  situated  in  a  fertile 
jilain  near  the  iKJi'thern  foot  of  the  Apennines;  23  miles  by 
rail  S.  K.  (if  Modcna  and  83  miles  bv  rail  N.  of  Florence; 
lat.  44  30  N..  Ion.  11  21'  E.  (see  niap  of  Italy,  ref.  4-D). 
Several  railways  extend  from  this  point  to  Ferrara,  Ancona, 
Modena,  and  f'lorer.ce :  that  which  connects  it  with  Flor- 
ence crosses  the  Apennines  by  numerous  tunnels.  Bologna 
is  a  handsome  city  with  weil-paved  streets,  lined  with  rich 
and  varied  colonnades,  which  afford  shelter  from  the  rain 
and  sun.  and  it  is  adorned  with  many  beautiful  churches 
and  fine  palaces  of  tlie  nobility,  richly  furnished  with  paint- 
ings of  the  old  masters.  Among  the  remarkable  edifices  are 
tlie  Palazzo  del  Podesta  ;  the  Pidazzo  Maggiore  del  Publico; 
the  leaning  tower  of  Asinclli.  built  about  1110,  and  256  feet 
high  ;  the  cathedral,  rich  in  works  of  art ;  the  Church  of  San 
Stefano,  one  of  the  oldest  in  Italy,  and  containing  Greek 
frescoes  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  the  Church  of  San  Petronio, 
a  noble  specimen  of  the  Italian  Gothi<-  style,  adorned  with 
many  masterpieces  of  painters  and  sculptors;  ami  the 
Church  of  San  Domenico.  in  which  may  be  seen  sculptures 
by  Michael  Angelo  and  paintings  by  Giiido,  L.  Caracci,  and 
Colonna.  The  number  of  churches  in  Bologna  is  about 
seventy-four. 

Bologna  is  one  of  the  great  centers  of  learning  in  Italy. 
Its  university,  said  to  have  been  founded  as  early  as  425,  is 
the  oldest  in  the  peninsula.  This  school  attained  great 
celebrity,  and  was  attended  by  thousands  of  students  from 
all  jiarts  of  Europe.  The  number  of  its  students  about  the 
vear  1260  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  10.000.  Several 
women  have  occupied  chaii's  as  iirofessors  in  this  institution. 
The  library  of  the  university  lias  about  160.000  volumes 
and  1,000  valuable  MSS.  Bologna  has  an  academy  of  fine 
arts  and  several  theaters.  Here  are  important  manufac- 
tures of  silk  goods,  velvet.  cra|ie,  chemicals,  jiaper.  musical 
instruments,  and  sausages.  This  city  was  the  nati\e  place 
of  many  eminent  iiainters.  including  Albaiio,  the  three  Ca- 
racci, and  Guido;  also  of  Po]ie  Benedict  XIV.,  (ialvani,  and 
Mal|)ighi.  A  town  called  Felsitia,  founded  here  by  the 
Etruscans,  was  perhaps  as  ancient  as  the  city  of  Rome,  The 
Ixomans,  who  obtained  possession  of  it  in  189  b,  c,  changed 
its  name  to  Bononia.  It  was  taken  by  Charlemagne  in  800 
a.  I).,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  most  ])Owcrful  Italian  re- 
public from  1118  to  1274.  It  was  annexed  to  the  Pajjal 
States  in  1514,  and  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1859, 
Pop.  120.000  (147.000  in  the  commune  in  1891). 

Bologna,  GiovAXXt  :  sculptor  ;  b.  in  Douai,  1.524.  His  real 
name  was  .Jean  Boulogne,  afterward  Italianized,  The  eques- 
trian statue  of  Cosimo  I. ;  the  well-known  grou]i  the  Rape 
of  the  Sabines.  in  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  ;  and  the  Flying 
Mercury,  so  called,  in  the  Cllizi  Museum,  all  in  Florence,  are 
among  his  more  important  works.     D.  in  Florence  in  1608. 

Bologna  Stone:  a  railiated,  globular  variety  of  barite  or 
heavy  spar,  sulphate  of  baryta,  found  in  a  bed  of  clay  in 
Mt.  I'aterno,  near  Bologna,  Italy.  In  1602  a  shoemaker,  V. 
Casciorolus,  noticed  that  it  possessed  the  property  of  becom- 
ing phosphorescent  when  heated  with  charcoal.  It,  is  also 
known  as  Bologuian  or  Bononian  phosphorus, 

Bolom'eter  [from  (ir,  fioKii,  stroke,  ray  +  /ifrpor,  meas- 
ure|;  an  instrument  for  the  mea.surement  of  radiant  en- 
ergy by  moans  of  the  change  in  electrical  resistance  of  a 


688 


BOLSENA 


BOMBARDMENT 


metallic  strip  or  wire.  It  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  instru- 
ments used  in  aetinometiy.  The  strip,  which  sliould  be  of 
Tery  small  mass,  is  exposed  to  the  rays  to  be  measured.  It 
forms  one  arm  of  a  Wheatstone's  bridge,  the  balance  of 
which  is  determined  l)y  a  galvanometer  of  great  sensitive- 
ness. The  metal  employed  is  usually  iron  or  platinum.  By 
means  of  this  instrument  in  the  hands  of  its  inventor.  Prof. 
S.  P.  Langley,  heat-measurements  previously  considered  to 
be  entirely  below  the  range  of  direct  experiment  have  been 
made.  The  most  striking  instances  are  the  determination 
of  the  heat  of  the  moon's  direct  and  reflected  rays  and  the 
exploration  of  the  spectrum  of  the  light  of  the  Cuban  fire- 
fly. Prof.  Knut  Angstrom,  of  Upsala,  with  a  similar  in- 
stniment  lias  determined  the  radiant  etficiency  of  sudi  fee- 
ble sources  of  illumination  as  the  electric  glow  in  vacuum 
tubes,  wliile  Prof.  B.  W.  Snow  lias  explored  tlie  bright  line 
spectra  in  various  metals,  and  of  the  voltaic  arc.  See  W  heat- 
stone's  Bridge,  Electric  Discharge,  Galvanometer,  and 
Heat:  also  the  Proceedings  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  \o\.  xvi.  (1881);  Professional  Papers  of  the 
Siynal  Service.  No.  15  (Washington,  1883) ;  Transactions  of 
Acudemi/  (jf  Sciences  of  Upsala  (Sweden,  1892),  or  Physical 
Review  (vol.  i.,  18!);:!).    '  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Bulseiin.  bol-say  na'a  (itncVolsinii  orVolsinium):  a  town 
of  Italy :  on  the  nortli  shore  of  Lake  Bolsena ;  about  20 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Viterbo  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  5-D).  It  is 
now  a  small  and  mean  village,  but  in  ancient  times  it  was 
an  important  Etruscan  city  and  the  capital  of  the  Volsci. 
It  was  taken  and  destroyed  in  280  B.  c.  by  tlie  Romans,  who 
built  here  another  city.  This  was  the  native  place  of  Se- 
janus.  Pop.  3.000.  The  lake  was  celebrated  in  tlie  Mid<lle 
Ages  for  its  eels.  Pope  Leo  X.  was  accustomed  to  visit  the 
island  in  this  lake,  on  whicli  ruins  of  beautiful  castles,  built 
by  the  Farnese.  are  still  visible. 

Bolt :  a  dart  or  pointeil  shaft,  a  thunderbolt ;  also  a 
strong  cylindrical  pin  of  iron  or  other  metal.  Iron  bolts 
are  often  used  to  fasten  dooi-s  and  protect  dwelling-houses 
and  warehouses  against  robbers.  Metallic  bolts,  with  a  head 
at  one  end  and  a  screw-thread  and  nut  at  the  other,  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  building  ships  and  houses,  in  order  to  bind 
together  timber  or  masonry.  Bolts  in  ship-building  are 
usually  either  iron  or  copper,  and  are  of  various  forms  and 
sizes,  some  being  many  feet  long. 

Bol'toii-le-Moors' :  an  important  manufacturing  town 
of  Lancasliire,  England ;  on  the  Croal :  11  miles  by  rail  N.  W. 
of  Manchester  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-G).  Several 
railways  extend  from  this  place  to  Liverpool,  Manchester, 
and  Blacklnirn.  Bolton  returns  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment. It  is  one  of  tlie  principal  seats  of  the  cotton  manu- 
facture, anil  is  tlie  birthplace  of  the  inventors  Arkwright 
and  Crcjmpton.  The  cliief  products  of  its  manufactories 
are  muslins,  fine  calii-oes,  counterpanes,  dimities,  cotton 
shawls,  and  fustians.  Here  are  also  paper-mills,  foundries, 
and  machine-shops.  Numerous  coal  mines  are  worked  in 
the  parish  of  Bolton.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  and  wool 
was  introduced  into  tliis  place  by  the  Flemings  about  1337. 
Pop.  (1881)  10.'),422:  (181)1)  115.002. 

Bolns  [Lat.  bolus,  from  Gr.  PwKos,  clod]:  a  dose  of  medi- 
cine given  in  a  mass  lai-ger  than  a  pill,  yet  small  enough  to 
be  swallowed.     The  bolus  is  now  seldom  used. 

Bolzano.  bSl-zaa  no.  Bernhard:  b.  in  Prague,  Ort.  .5, 
1781 ;  d.  there  Dec.  18,  1848  :  studied  theology  and  philoso- 
phy ;  took  holy  orders,  and  vvjis  in  180.5  appointed  professor  in 
the  univci-sity  of  his  native  city.  Somewhat  inftucnced  by 
Hermes,  he  tried,  like  him,  to  represent  the  dogmas  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Churdi  as  a  complete  and  consistent  system 
perfectly  in  liarmony  with  human  reason.  He  maile  a 
great  imi)ression  on  the  students:  but  the  curia  suspected 
him,  and.  though  protected  by  his  archliishop,  he  was  in 
1820  deposed,  and  even  .suspended  from  his  priestly  func- 
tions, ills  principal  work  is  Wisse.nsclta fisleli re  (Sulzliach. 
1837),  besides  a  number  of  minor  essiiys  on  muthomatic-al 
subjects. 

Bo'llia :  capital  of  the  Congo  Free  State  {q.  v.) ;  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Congo  river :  has  considerable  trade  (see 
map  of  Africa,  ref.  (i-D). 

Boniarsiind,  bo  mar-soond  :  a  fortress  of  Russia  ;  on  tlie 
soullieasl  side  of  tlie  island  of  Aland,  which  forms  one  of 
the  priucijial  links  in  that  chain  of  fortifications  which 
guard  St.  Petersburg  from  the  sea  side,  and  mav  be  called 
an  outwork  of  Cionstadt ;  lat.  60  12  40'  N.,  Ion".  20  15'  E. 
This  important  fortress  was  taken  by  the  allied  English  and 


French  fleets  in  Aug.,  1854,  and  was  afterward  blown  up  hj 
the  allies. 

Bomb,  bom  or  bum,  or  Bonib'shell  [via  Fr.  and  Span, 
from  Lat.  bombus,  Gr.  p6ij.$os,  a  humming,  buzzing] :  a  kind 
of  shell ;  a  hollow  baU  of  cast  iron  which,  filled  with  powder 
or  other  explosive  substance,  is  discharged  from  a  mortar 
or  heavy  ordnance,  and  explodes  when  it  strikes  the  ground 
or  before  it  falls.  The  powder  in  it  is  usually  exjjloded  by 
a  fuse  or  hoUow  tube  tilled  with  a  slow-burning  compound, 
which  is  ignited  by  the  discharge  of  the  mortar.  The 
largest  bomb  in  ordinary  use  is  13  inches  in  diameter 
weighs  about  195  lb.,  and  is  charged  witli  7  or  8  lb.  of 
powder.  Bombs  are  thrown  at  angles  varying  from  twenty 
to  forty-five  tlegrees.    See  SIortar. 

Boiii'ba  :  a  surname  or  nickname  given  to  Ferdinand  II., 
King  of  tlie  Two  Sicilies,  in  consequence  of  his  cruel  bom- 
bardment of  Messina,  Sept.  2-7,  184y. 

Bom'hard  :  a  name  applied  iluring  the  Middle  Ages  to  a 
war-engine  resembling  the  ballista.  After  the  invention  of 
gunpowder  the  name  was  applied  to  all  kimls  of  firearms; 
but  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  restricted 
to  short  pieces  of  large  caliber,  firing  stone  projectiles. 

Boiiibard'meiit :  the  firing  from  mortars  of  bombs  (that 
is,  shells  or  incendiaiy  projectiles)  into  a  fortress  or  place 
to  coinrie),  or  aid  in  compelling,  its  surrender.  "Bombard- 
ments, says  Bardin  (i>('c/.  (/e  rArmee),^'&ve  an  impolitic 
and  barbarous  means,  since  it  attacks  non-combatants,  and 
is  rather  a  warfare  against  the  inhaliitants  than  against  the 
armed  defenders,  exasperating  the  people  and  nationalizing 
the  strife."  Among  recoi'ded  bombardments  may  be  men- 
tioned that  of  Genoa  in  1684  ;  of  Tripoli  in  168.5,  1728,  and 
1747;  Barcelona,  1691.  Brussels  was  bombarded  in  1694  by 
Louis  XIV.  ("3.000  bombs  and  three  times  as  many  red-hot 
shot"  were  thrown  in);  Prague  was  bombarded  in  1759; 
Breda,  Lille,  Lyons.  Maestricht,  Mayence,  in  1793  ;  and  Me- 
nin,  Valenciennes,  Le  Quesnoy,  Ostende,  Nieuwpoort,  and 
Lecluse  in  1794.  Some  resisted — as  Lille  and  Mayence — 
others  succumbed.  That  of  Lille  is  most  noted,  this  small 
place  being  subjected  for  140  hours  (six  days  and  nights)  to 
the  fire  of  12  mortars  and  24  cannons.  During  the  siege  in 
1832  of  Antwerp  31.689  shells  were  thrown  into  the  cita- 
del without  material  effect  in  accelerating  the  surrender. 
Glogau,  Breslau,  and  Schweidnitz  were  bombarded  by  the 
■French  in  1806  and  1807.  During  the  long  two  years'  liloek- 
ade,  1809-10,  of  Cadiz,  by  the  French  under  Marshal  Victor 
it  was  found  impossible  to  reach  the  city  from  the  lines 
with  sliells  from  ordinary  mortars :  long  bronze  howitzers 
of  10  inches  caliber  were  cast  at  Seville  (one  of  which  is  now 
to  be  seen  as  a  trophy  (see  Fig.  1)  in  St.  James's  Park  near 
the  Horse  Guards,  London),  and  called  </  la  Villaiitroya, 
from  the  French  colonel  of  artillery  who  had  projiosed  them. 
These,  elevated  45  degrees,  threw  their  projectiles  5.000 
meters  (3  miles)  into  the  heart  of  the  city  ;  but  to  attain  this 
range  it  was  found  necessary  to  load  the  shells  (already 
weighing  95  lb.)  with  lead,  to  the  exclusion  of  most  of  the 
bursting-charge.  In  bursting  they  produced  no  effect,  and 
it  is  stated  that  the  inhaliitants  were  "scarcely  aware  of  the 
bombardment." 


At  the  siege  of  Antwerp  a  mortar  of  60  cm.  (24  inches) 
caliber,  weighing  7,000  kilog.  and  throwing  a  shell  of  .500 
kilog.  (1.100  lb.),  designeil  by  Col.  I'aixhans.  was  used.  It 
threw  fifteen  shells  in  the  last  two  davs  of  the  siege.     It 


BOMBARDMENT 


689 


wiis  thouRlit  that  if  oin>  fell  on  a  inii^^aziiie  it  wimlil  destroy 
it;  but  the  slii'Us  !n-tiially  thiowii  causcil  no  serious  dam- 
age. {Spiclti/Kiir  Mi/.,  is:!;!.)  It  was  lired  with  8  kiloi,'.  of 
powder.  Imt  its  full  eliarsje  was  i:J  kilog.  Fired  subsequently 
with  this  charu'c  it  liui-st. 

At  the  sie^e  of  Vera  Cnii;  by  Gen.  Scott  in  Mar.,  1847, 
three  mortar  liatleries,  each  eontainiuf;  tour  (10-inch)  mor- 
tars, and  a  battery  of  eijiht  larfie  (S-inch)  howitzers  were 
establislied  bearinj;  upon  the  (piarter  called  "  La  Merced." 
On  the  2:i(l  lien.  Scott  sunnnoneil  llie  place  and  a  confer- 
ence was  had:  it  jirovini;  fruitless,  the  twelve  mortars 
opened  on  that  day  ami  the  howitzer  battery  the  day  fuUow- 
iiiK.  The  lire  continued  llirou^'hout  the  2.5th,  26th,  and 
2Tth.  The  La  Merced  ([uarter  soon  became  ruinous — 200 
persons  are  s;iid  to  have  been  injured.  The  fears  of  an  as- 
sault caused  Gen.  .Morales  to  surrender  on  the  27tli.  A  shot 
from  the  Fort  St.  .luan  entered  one  of  the  mortar  batteries 
on  the  22d,  killintj  by  its  "wind"  (for  thou;;h  knocking;  off 
his  cap,  the  skin  was  not  broken)  (_'apt.  .John  K.  Vinton. 
Third  Artillery.*  Durin;;  the  bombardment  our  lleet  kept 
up  a  cannonade  on  the  fort,  which,  though  intact,  surren- 
dered a  few  honi-s  after  the  city. 

I)e  Bli>is  (('(i/ji/aine  d'Arlillerii)  published  in  1848  a 
Trnile  din  Bunthdnlemenfn  to  maintain  that  this  means  has 
not,  as  a.sserted,  fallen  into  disuse;  that  bombardnuMits  re- 
duce places  with  much  less  h)ss  of  tinu',  munitions,  aiul 
blood  than  rejjular  sieves;  and,  tinally.  to  defend  the  system 
■•  against  the  unjust  reprobation  cast  u|)on  it  in  character- 
izing  its  employnu'Ut  as  an  act  of  barbarity." 

The  cases  cited  by  him,  nearly  all  of  which  Iiave  Ijeen  re- 
ferred to  in  thisartiele, scarcely  sustain  his  thesis;  still  very 
recent  e.\am|iles  go  to  prove  that  it  is  an  agent  which  will 
continue,  uiuler  certain  circumstances,  to  be  resorted  to. 
Grivel  {Lu  Murine  i/iinx  r.\ff<ii/iii'  dis  Fortifications  et 
le  Bomliiirdmeiit  ili-.t  \'jl/i:i.  Paris.  18.~)(!)  maintains  that  in 
the  use  of  fiirri'd  fires,  combined  with  direct  ones,  naval 
arnuiments  will  in  future  fiiul  the  most  effective  method  of 
attacking  fortified  places.  By  the  term  curved  fires  he  in- 
cludes fire  by  which  projectiles  from  rifleil  guns  (or  even 
smoothbores)  can,  by  elevating  the  |)iece,  be  sent,  at  long 
ranges,  into  the  interior  of  a  place.  The  incretise  of  caliber 
of  moilern  artillery,  and  more  especially  the  introduction  of 
the  rilled  principle,  has  maile  .such  fires  as  effective  as  that 
from  mortars,  and  the  term  "bombardment"  is  now  ex- 
tended to  such. 

At  Odes.sa  this  .species  of  liombardment  was  first  effect- 
ively employed  in  18.54.  The  results  attained  there  sug- 
gested to  the  allies  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this 
application  of  floating  artillery,  and  the  subsequent  bom- 
barilmeut  of  Sweaborg  was  provided  for,  in  IH.5.1,  by  adding 
to  the  fleet  twiMity-one  mortar  vessels  which  were  towed  to 
within  about  2  miles  (:!,-100  meters)  of  the  center  of  the 
Kussian  arsemtl.  while  the  gunboats  of  the  squadron,  keep- 
ing in  constant  motion,  apiiroached  to  distances  of  2,000  or 
i!,(KX)  meters.  'I'lio  fire  was  maintained  forty-five  hours, 
during  which  4.1.50  projectiles  (2,828  of  which  were  mortar 
shells)  were  thrown  into  the  place,  killing  ami  wounding  2,000 
men  and  destroying  magazines,  sup|ilies.  and  shipping. 

At  an  early  period  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  the  proj- 
ect of  capturing  New  Orleans  was  nu)oted.  The  reduction 
of  Forts  Ja<k.son  ana  St,  I'hilip  seemed  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary. For  this  object  a  fleet  of  twenty  mortar  vessels. 
each  bearing  one  of  the  new  model  i:i-inch  mortars,  weigh- 
ing 11..500  lb..  wa.s  prepared,  and.  under  command  of  Com- 
mander (afterwaril  Admiral)  David  I).  Porter,  added  to  Ad- 
miral Farragut"s  fleet.  These  ves.sels  were  moored  to  the 
right  baidc  of  the  river  at  distances  of  :!.000  to  4,000  yards 
from  the  forts,  their  positions  being  screened  from  view  by 
the  woods.  The  bombardment  began  on  Apr.  18,  1862,  con- 
tinued si.K  days  and  six  nights,  during  which  time  7,.500 
bombs  well'  lired,  of  which  1,080  exploded  in  the  air  and 
l,li;i  were  afterward  counted  a,s  having  fallen  upon  the 
fort  and  solid  ground  of  glacis  and  levees,  and  ;i,:3;3S)  were 
computed  to  have  fallen  in  the  wet  ditches  and  overflowed 
laiuls  surrr)nndiug  the  fort  (for  the  levees  being  broken  by 
the  shells  the  site  was  overflowed).  At  the  end  of  this  bom- 
bardment .\diniral  Farragnt  forced  the  pa.ssjige  with  his 
fleet,  aiul,  destroying  the  t'onfederate  flotilla  of  ironclads 
ami  gunboats,  the  forts  surreiulered. 

Fort  .lai-kson  has  a  iiortion  of  its  guns  in  casemates  of 
the  curtains;  the  arches  were  of  brick  of  very  moderate 

•  Tho  facts  are  iindoul)teilI.v  as  stated.  Wliether  deatli  resulted 
from  tlie  "  wind."  fnim  tieart  disease,  or  from  other  orguuic  ir4>nt>te, 
■nay  be  an  open  question.  J.  M. 

•14 


thickness,  roofed  with  concrete,  affording  at  the  crown  a 
thickness  of  S  feet  of  masonry.  These  were  covered  by  the 
earthen  parapet  atid  terreplein.  In  the  flanks  of  the  bas- 
tions were  flanking  casemates,  the  brick  arches  of  which 
were  not  only  destitute  of  earth  covering  but  of  the  usual 
concrete  covering.  All  the  guns  of  Foit  St.  Philip  were 
"  en  barbette."  An  engineer  officer  (Gen.  Weitzel)  examined 
the  work  immediately  after  its  capture,  and  states: 

"Fort  St.  Phili|)  stands  with  one  or  two  slight  exceptions 
to-day  without  a  strat<-h.  Fort  .Jackson  was  subjected  to  a 
torrent  of  i;!-inch  and  1 1-inch  shells  during  144  hours.  To 
an  iiU'XperieiU'cd  eye  it  seems  as  if  this  work  were  badly 
cut  up.  It  is  as  strong  to-day  as  when  the  first  shell  was 
H red  at  it.  The  garrison  did  not  boml)-|)roof  the  citadel" 
(i.  e.  had  not  phiced  earth  over  the  heavy  timber  blindage 
spanning  the  walls  for  that  purpose)  "conse(|uently  the  roof 
and  furring  caught  fire.  Tliis  fire,  with  sulisecjuent  shells, 
ruiiu'd  the  walls  so  much  that  1  am  tearing  it  down  and  re- 
moving the  (/<7y(v'.s  to  the  outside  of  the  work.  Three  shot 
furnaces  and  three  cistertis  were  destroyed.  At  several 
points  the  breast  Height  walls  were  knocked  down.  One 
angle  of  the  nuigazine  on  the  north  side  of  the  postern  was 
knocked  off.  Several  shells  went  through  the  flank  case- 
mate arches  (which  were  not  coveri'd  with  earth),  and  a  few 
through  the  other  casemate  arches  (where  two  or  more 
struck  in  the  same  place).  At  several  points  in  the  case- 
mates the  i:!-inch  shell  would  penetrate  through  the  earth 
over  the  arches,  be  stop])ed  by  tiie  latter,  then  explode  and 
loosen  a  patch  of  brickwork  in  the  soffit  of  the  arch  about 
;l  feet  in  diameter  and  three-((uarters  of  a  brick  deep,  at  its 
greatest  depth.  .  .  .  To  resist  an  assault,  and  even  regular 
approaches,  it  is  as  strong  to-dav  as  it  ever  was."  Gen. 
Abbott  subsequently  examined  Fort  .Jackson,  and  reports 
that  in  one  case  a  curtain  casemate  arch  was  broken  through 
where  there  wa.s  ;i  feet  of  masonry  and  6i  feet  of  earth  (the 
earth  being  a  very  pervious  river  fornuilion).  It  does  not 
a[)pearthat  otherwise  the  forts  were  much  injured  or  that 
the  efficieiU'V  of  their  fire  upon  the  fleet  was  seriously  im- 
paired. Doubtless,  however,  the  loss  of  morale  in  the  gar- 
rison which  induced  the  surrender  was  due  not  merely  to 
the  successful  passage  and  the  destruction  of  the  floating 
defenses,  lint  to  the  ]iliysical  exhaustion  arising  from  the  six 
days'  bombardment  and  subsecjuent  furious  artillery  contest 
with  our  fleet :  and  tin?  bombardnu-nt  is  not  therefore  to  be 
reckoned  as  without  influence  in  the  final  result.  This  con- 
clusion has  an  inqiortant  bearing;  for  the  writer,  in  calling 
for  the  use  of  mortars,  in  a  memoir  prepared  for  the  Xa^-y 
Department,  did  not  maintain  that  the  passage  could  not  be 
forced,  but  contendeil  that  "to/«(.s.s  these  works  with  a  fleet 
ami  a]ipear  before  New  Orleans  is  merely  a  raid — no  cap- 
ture. New  Orleans  and  the  river  can  not  be  held  until 
comnninications  are  perfectly  established." 

Mortar  vessels  as  wi-U  as  ini]irovised  ironclads  were  at 
an  early  date  iirovided  for  our  fleet  in  the  tqiper  Missis.sippi. 
After  the  fall  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  and  the  evacua- 
tion of  Columbus,  the  agency  of  bondjardment  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  till'  fire  of  the  cannon  of  the  fleet)  was  first 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  fortified  position  of  Island  \o.  10 
in  the  Jlissi.ssippi,  a  short  distance  below  New  Madrid 
(Missouri).  The  bombardment  was  kept  up  from  Mar.  16  to 
Apr.  8  (18(>2),  the  mortar  vessels  at  one  time  numbering  six- 
teen. The  works  and  troops  being  disseminated  over  an 
extensive  area  (the  island  being  over  a  mill'  long  and  li  miles 


,«  ,1,. 


^ 


*J», 


fc 


Fig.  ;; 

wide),  neither  the  cannonade  nor  the  bombs  appear  to  have 
had  much  influence  in  causing  the  surrender.  A  similar  re- 
mark is  applicable  to  Fort  Pillow,  situated  on  the  Mississippi, 
ab.nit  100  miles  aliove  ^I^'uiphis, 


090 


BOMBARDMENT 


When  the  course  of  events  decided  the  establishment  of  a 
siese  before  Yorktown,  in  xVpr..  1862,  the  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  Mr.  Fox,  notitied  Gen.  McClellan  that  ten 
of  "the  new  13-incli  mortars  wliich  had  been  provided  for 
naval  purposes  would  be  placed  at  his  disposal.  As  easy 
water  connuunication  made  their  application  practicable, 
they  were  accepted  :tnd  ]iut  in  battery  on  the  margin  of  a 
navigable  arm  of  Wormlcy  creek,  at  about  2,500  yards  dis- 
tance from  the  ramparts  of  the  town. 

Besides  the  above  there  were  established  a  battery  of  ten 
10-inch  siege  mortars  at  2.000  yards,  another  of  five  10-inch 
seaeoast  mortars  at  2,.500  vards,  and  another  of  five  10  and 
five  8  inch  siege  mortars  at  1.600  yards.  The  place  was 
evacuated  before  our  siege  and  mortar  batteries  opened. 

Fort,  Pulaski,  situated' on  Cockspur  island,  mouth  of  Sa- 
vannah river,  Ga.,  ami  defending  the  river  approach  to  Sa- 
vannah, was  captured  by  bombardment  and  breaching  Ajjr. 
11,  1802,  l-iy  the  U.  S.  forces  under  command  of  Gen.  Gill- 
more.  The  fort  is  pentagonal  in  form,  with  brick  casemates 
on  all  sides  and  brick  scarp-waU.  It  mounted  one  tier  of 
guns  in  embrasure  and  one  en  barbette. 

The  artilleiy  of  the  besiegers  consisted  of  thirty-six  pieces, 
distributed  in  eleven  batteries  along  the  shore  of  Tybee  isl- 
and, at  various  distances  from  the  work,  as  follows  (see 
Fig.  3): 

1.  3  heavy  13  inch  mortars 3.400  yards  distant. 

2.  3      "         ■■              '■       3.200  " 

3.  3  lO-inch  coUirabiads 3.100  " 

4.  3  8-inth             "           3.045  " 

5.  1  heavy  13-inch  mortar 2,T90  '" 

6.  3  heavy  13-inch  mortars 2.600  " 

7.  2      •■         ■■              ■•         2.400  • 

o  I  3  10-inch  columbiads  I                                      i  rjn  '• 

'*-(l  8-inch  "  I • 

„  i  5  30-pdr.  Parrott  rifles i 

/ 1  48-pdr.  James  rifle  (old  34-pdr.)  \ 
,„(a84-pdr.      ••          "     (old  42-pdr.)  I 
'"■  1  2  64-pdr.      "         "     (old  32-pdr.) )  ' '  ■  ' 
11.    4  10-inch  siege  mortars 1,650 

Batteries  8,  9,  and  10  were  designed  to  breach  the  scarp- 
wall  of  the  work,  and  all  the  other  batteries  to  keep  down 
its  fire  and  destrov  its  barbette  armament.  Some  of  the 
13-inch  mortars  we're  served  with  the  view  of  breaching  the 
casemate  arches. 

The  bombardment  began  about  8  o'clock  on  the  morning 
of  Apr.  10,  1862.  By  9.30  a.  m.  all  the  batteries  were  in  ac- 
tive operation,  and  were  so  maintained  until  the  dusk  of 


1,670 

1,6.50 


magazine,  which  would  be  exposed  to  direct  fire  as  soon  as- 
the  breach  should  be  effected  in  the  scarp-wall.  During  the 
first  day's  firing  the  breach  was  fairly  begun  in  the  pan- 
coupe  connecting  the  south  and  southeast  faces.  On  the 
morning  of  the  11th,  a  little  after  sunrise,  all  the  Viatteries 
were  again  opened,  the  breach  was  rapidly  enlarged,  and  by 


Fio.  3.— Map  showing  the  position  of  the  batteries  used  by  the  U,  S 

Apr.  10  and  11,  1862. 

evening,  a  period  of  abotit  ten  hours.  Throughout  the 
night  firing  was  kept  u[)  with  two  13-inch  mortars,  one  10- 
inch  mortar,  and  one  30-pounder  Parrott  rifle,  the  object 
being  to  prevent  the  garrison's  making  any  arrangement 
for  their  protection  by  piling  sandbags  behind  th.it  portion 
of  the  wall  selected  for  orcaching  or  against  the  wall  of  tlie 


Fig.  4,  — Fi;,rt  Pulaski :  fr'.-iit  vitw  r,f  breach,  from  opposite  side  of 
ditch. 

2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  the  scarp-wall  for  a  length  of 
about  45  feet  had  fallen  into  the  ditch.  The  fire  from  the- 
breaching  batteries  passed  freely  through  two  of  the  case- 
mates, endangering  the  safety  of  the  powder-magazine  on 
the  opposite  side  of  tlic  work.  At  2  o'clock  the  fort  raised 
a  white  flag  and  surrendered. 

The  wall  was  found  to  be  greatly  shattered,  much  beyond 
the  limits  of  actual  breach,  so  that"  100  feet  of  its  length  had 
to  be  replaced  by  new  brickwork. 

The  number  of  shots  fired  is  shown  below  : 

From  mortars  :  1,144  13-inch  shells  and  588  10- inch  shells. 
10-inch  columbiads  :  203  shots  and  321  shells. 
8-inch  ■'  298     "        ■'    428      " 

&4-pdr.  James  rifles  (old  42-pdr.  rifled) :  190  shots  and  207  shells. 
64-pdr.       '•  "     (  "   32-pdr.      "     ) :  380     "        '■      16      " 

48-pdr.      ■'         "     (  "   24-pdr.     "    ):  133     "       "    116      " 
-30-pdr.  Parrott  rifles :  150  shots  and  1,101  shells. 

It  was  estimated  that  110.643  lb.  of  metal  thrown  from 
the  breaching  batteries  struck  the  breached  portion  of  the 
wall,  equal  to  2,458  lb.  per  lineal  foot  of  wall,  the  average- 
distance  of  the  breaching  gun  from  the  work  licing  1,687 
yards.     With  small  smooth-bore  guns  at  500  yards  distance, 

used  during  the  Pen- 
insular war  in  Spain, 
it  was  estimated  by 
Sir  W.  Dcnnison  that 
2..544  lb.  of  metal  was 
expended  per  lineal 
foot  of  wall,  in  breach- 
ing good  rubble  ma- 
sonrj'  backed  by  earth. 
The  barbette  arma- 
ment of  Fort  Pulaski 
was  so  much  injured 
during  the  first  day  as 
to  render  it  unserv- 
iceable. No  injury  was- 
inflicted  upon  the 
arches  by  mortar 
shells.  Not" more  than 
one-tenth  of  the  13- 
inch  shells  fired  fell 
inside  the  work. 

Only  twenty  pieces, 
of  ordnance  of  I  he  fort 
bore  on  the  besiegers' 
batteries  on  Tybee  isl- 
and. 

The  recapture  of 
Fort  Sumter  and  the 
occupation  of  Charles- 
ton were  from  the  fii-st 
deemed  by  the  Federal 
Government  as  of  ur- 


forces  in  the  reduction  of  Fort  Pulaski, 


gent  importance. 
Fort  Sumter  was  a  strong  cascmated  brickwork  _of  five 
faces,  designed  to  mount  a.  total  armament  of  13;)  gun.s, 
two  tiers  in  embrasure  and  one  en  barbette,  located  on  a 
shoal  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  inner  harbors 
at  its  narrowest  jioint.  and  3|  miles  from  the  nearest  part 
of  Charleston  city.     The  scarp-wall  was  ~\  feel  thick  ana 


BOMBARDMENT 


691 


40  feet  high  above  the  eiiroc-kiiient  froin  which  it  rose. 
The  embrasures  of  the  second  tier  had  never  been  finished, 
and  before  the  siej;e  lie^an  had  l)ecn  walled  up  with  brick. 
The  fort  never  received  its  full  armament.  The  nearest  land 
is  the  north  end  of  Morris  island,  nearly  due  S.  about  1.400 
yards  (listant  from  the  fort,  and  from  this  ]>oint  the  island 
—a  narrow  strip  of  sand — stretches  across  the  coast  in  a 
southerly  direction  for  a  little  more  than  3A  miles.  When 
siege  operations  began  the  Confederates  had  possession  of 
the  whole  of  Jlorris  island,  and  had  erected  a  strong  and 
heavilv  arnie<l  earthwork — Kort  Wagner — l.:iOO  yards  from 
the  north  end  of  it.  and  3,700  yards  from  Fort  Sumter,  with 
the  object  of  holding  at  least  the  northern  halt  of  the 
island,  in  order  to  prevent  the  e.stjiblisliment  of  bujteries 
thereon,  within  etTectivc  breaching  distance  of  Fort  Sumter. 
They  also  hail  (h'fenses  on  the  south  end  of  the  island  to 
prevent  its  capture.  The  plan  of  attack  agreed  upon  com- 
prised : 

1.  The  capture  of  the  south  end  of  Morris  island  by 
assjiult. 

2.  The  siege  ami  capture  of  Port  Wagner. 

:i.  The  demolition  of  Fort  Sumter  by  batteries  estab- 
lished on  the  north  end  of  Morris  island ;  and 

4.  The  entrance  of  the  monitors  into  the  inner  harbor, 
and  their  passjige  up  to  the  city  of  Charleston. 

This  programme  was  carried  out  with  the  following  re- 
sult.- : 

On  July  10.  186:{,  the  south  end  of  Morris  island  and  the 
several  batteries  erected  for  its  defense  were  captured  by  a 
brigiide  of  infantry,  which  approached  in  small  boats  and 
landed  under  fire. 

Two  open  assaults  of  Fort  Wagner — on  .July  11  and  18 
respectively — demonstrated  the  impracticability  of  carrying 
the  position  by  that  method  of  attack. 

The  plan  of  operations  was  then  changed  so  as  to  give  the 
demolition  <jf  I'ort  Sumter  precedence,  in  point  of  time, 
over  the  capture  of  Fort  Wagner,  in  order  not  to  delay  un- 
neces.sarily  the  entrance  of  the  fleet  and  the  capture  of 
Charleston,  for  although  Fort  Wagner,  in  the  hands  of  the 
besieged,  was  intended  to  prevent  the  erection  of  cffeetive 
batteries  against  Fort  Sumter,  it  di<l  not  protect  the  chan- 
nel ot  approach  by  Fort  .Sumter  to  the  inner  harbor,  or  any 
of  the  channel  obstructions  erroneously  supposed  to  e.\ist 
there. 

Fir.'^l  Biimhnrdment  of  Fort  Sumter. — The  demolition  of 
Fort  Sumter  over  the  heads  of  the  gjirrison  of  Port  Wagner 
was  then  the  next  step  in  the  modified  plan. 

The  arniainent  placed  in  position  for  this  purpose,  and 
their  several  distances  from  Fort  Sumter,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

1.  2  fi-incli  Parrott  rifles .3..')tfi  yards  dist,ant. 

2.  3  6-4ineIl      "  "     :i,4t7      " 

3.  2  G-4-iucll       ••  •'     3.428      " 

.   ( 2  S-ineli         ..         ..              ^  ^ 

'•  I  2  SO-pdr.  Whitwortli  rifles  I  ^'*"' 

5.    1  S-ineli  rurrutt  ritle 4,172      " 

-   S  X  8-incll        ..... 

••■(2  6  4.iueh     "         ••       I *-^^ 

7.  2  64ineli     "  "      4.278      " 

8.  1  lOiueh      ••         "     4,290      " 

Firing  from  these  batteries  commenced  on  .\iig.  17,  ISG."?. 
Its  first  stage  eniled  Aug.  2:1  The  firing  from  the  most 
ail  valued  of  these  batteries,  which  were  less  than  900  yards 
distant  from  Fort  Wagner,  was  sei'iousiy  interfered  with 
and  at  times  partially  suspemleil,  by  the  galling  fire  from 
that  work  to  which  the  cannoniers  were  almost  constantly 
exnosed.  The  combined  fire  of  mortars  and  light  nieces, 
allied  l)y  the  gunboats  anil  ironclads,  failed  to  suliiuie  it, 
and  it  was  necessary  occasionally  to  turn  the  breaching 
batteries  u|)on  it.  The  result  of  this  seven  days'  bombard- 
ment is  thus  given  in  the  oflicial  report  of  the  chief  of  artil- 
lery of  I  he  siege. 

The  fire  from  the  breaching  batteries  upon  Sumter  was 
incessant,  and  kept  up  continuously  from  daylight  fill  daij<. 
until  the  evening  of  the  'i'-'A.  For  five  days  all  the  guns 
were  directed  upon  the  gorge  w.ill,  and  had  resulted  in 
bringing  it  down  to  such  an  extent  that  on  the  evening  of 
the  21st  a  practicable  breach  hail  been  accomjilished.  On 
the  morning  of  the  22d  the  fire  from  Batteries  Nos.  1,  2, 
and  3  was  directed  upon  the  southeasterly  face  or  right 
flank  of  the  work,  with  the  view  of  dismounting  the  guns 
on  the  liarbette  of  this  face,  which  commanded  tlie  entrance 
to  the  harbor,  .'is  well  as  to  destroy  the  guns  on  the  north- 
easterly face,  which  this  fire  would  take  in  reverse.  The 
fiix"  upon  the  gorge  had,  by  the  morning  of  the  23d,  suc- 


ceeded in  destroying  every  gun  upon  the  parapet  of  it,  and, 
as  far  as  could  be  observed,  had  ilisabled  or  dismounted  all 
the  guns  upon  the  jiaiapet  of  the  two  faces  looking  toward 
the  city,  which  it  had  taken  in  reverse.  The  parapet  and 
ramparts  of  the  gorge  were,  for  nearly  the  entire  length  of 
the  face,  completely  demolished,  and  in  places  everything 
was  swept  olT  down  to  the  arches,  the  debris  forming  an 
accessible  ramp  to  the  top  of  the  ruins. 

There  being  nothing  further  to  gain  by  a  longer  fire 
upon  this  face,  all  the  guns  were  directed  this  day  upon 
the  southeasterly  think,  and  continued  an  incessant  fire 
throughout  the  day.  The  ileniolilion  of  the  fort  at  the 
close  of  this  day's  tiring  wascoiupU'te.  so  far  as  its  offensive 
powers  were  considered.  Kvery  gun  upon  the  parapet  was 
either  dismounted  or  seriously  damaged  ;  the  terrcpleiu 
for  the  entire  circuit  of  the  place  must  have  been  shattered 
and  plowed  u|)  by  our  projectiles,  hundreds  of  which  had 
been  seen  to  strike  upon  it.  The  paraju't  crould  be  seen  in 
many  i>laces.  both  on  the  sea  and  channel  fronts,  completely 
torn  away  down  to  the  terreplein.  The  ])lace.  in  fine,  wa.s 
a  ruin,  and  etTectuallv  disabled  for  any  immediate  defense 
of  the  harbor  of  Charleston. 

llaving  accomjilished  the  end  jirojiosed.  orders  were  ac- 
cordingly i.ssued  on  the  evening  of  the  23il  for  the  firing  to 
cease,  having  been  continuously  sustained  for  seven  days. 
There  had  been  thrown  .^,00!)  iirojectiles,  of  which  about 
one-half  had  .struck  the  fort.  '1  he  weight  of  metal  thrown 
during  the  seven  days  ending  -Aug.  23  was  28!l.!).Sfi  lb.,  omit- 
ting that  exjiended  by  the  four  rifles  in  the  naval  battery 
(No.  4),  say  20.0(X)  lb.  The  enemy  remained  in  possession 
of  the  work,  having  constructed  a  system  of  subterranean 
galleries  within  the  ruined  casemates  of  the  fort. 

Serond  Jiomlxirdmetit  iif  Fort  Sumter. — Fort  Wagner  was 
captured  on  the  morning  ot  Sept.  7.  thus  giving  the  be- 
siegers pos.session  of  the  wliole  of  Morris  island.  Heavy 
guns  bearing  upon  Fort  Sumter  were  at  once  cstablishei 
in  Fort  Wagner  and  on  the  north  end  of  the  island.  Up 
to  this  time  the  gorge  wall  only  had  been  breached.  The 
southeast  face,  the  only  one  seen  from  Morris  island  ex- 
cept the  gorge,  remained  standing,  altlunigh  badly  shat- 
tert^d  in  many  places.  Reports  having  been  made  by  recon- 
noitering  parties  that  the  garrisim  were  attem|)ting  to 
remount  guns  on  this  face,  it  was  determined  to  cut  (town 
that  face  with  the  riHed  guns  established  in  Fort  Wagner 
and  on  the  north  end  of  this  island,  so  that  the  fire  of  the 
besiegers  passing  over  the  di'1/ri.t  of  the  gorge  and  northeast 
face  would  take  the  casemates  of  the  opposite  or  channel 
fronts  in  reverse,  and  i)revent  the  mounting  of  guns  there. 

Fire  was  opened  on  the  southeast  face  on  Oct.  26.  The 
arniainent  used  for  this  purpose  comiiriscd  one  10-inch,  two 
H-inch,  and  nine  (i|i)-incn  rifles,  one  10-incli  coliinibiad,  and 
four  lO-inch  .seacoast  mortars.  The  distances  of  these  sev- 
eral guns  from  Port  Sumter  varied  from  2,500  to  1,300 
yards. 

In  a  few  days  the  southeast  face  was  more  completely  a 
ruin  than  the  gorge  wall.  The  debria  formed  a  continuous 
and  |iracticalile  ramp,  reaching  from  the  water  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  breach.  The  two  faces  of  the  work  seen  from 
Morris  island  were  both  in  ruins,  many  of  the  ctusemate 
arches  of  the  channel  fronts  had  fallen  in  from  the  reverse 
fire,  and  the  entire  armament  of  the  work  had  been  de- 
stroyed or  removed  to  prevent  destruction. 


Flo.  5.— Fort  Sumter,  Nov.  1,  18(i3,  after  the  second  bombardment. 

The  Franco-l'russian  war  of  1S70  furnished  numerous  ex- 
amples of  a  resort  to  bonibardnieiit  as  an  auxiliary  to  siege 
or  blockade,  of  which  the  most  consi)iciioiis  are  the  sieges 
of  Striissbiirg  and  Paris.  The  former  city,  fully  invested  on 
Aug.  8,  was  attacked  by  reiiular  sieije  ■•ippioaihes  and  sur- 


692 


BOMBARDMENT 


BOMBAX 


rendered  (Sept.  27)  only  after,  its  walls  breac-hed.  it  became 
exposed  (according  to  Gen.  Ulrich)  to  the  "  doubtful  chances 
of  sustaining  an  assault."  But  a  bombardment  from  Krupp 
guns,  howitzei-s,  and  mortars  commenced  Aug.  18,  and 
threw  shells  into  the  streets  of  the  city,  to  the  serious  injury 
of  the  venerable  and  magnificent  cathedral. 

Paris  was  invested  soon  after  the  surrender  at  Sedan  :  and 
it  was  doubtless  believed  that  its  surrender  would  follow. 
No  attempt  at  regular  siege  was  ever  made,  and  it  was  not 
until  late  in  December  (probably  owing  to  the  diiiieulty  of 
collecting  siege  artillery,  the  Strassburg  and  numerous  minor 
sieges  employing  all  available)  that  from  the  heights  of 
C'hatillon  a  cainionaile  was  opened  upon  the  southern  forts. 
Early  in  the  following  January  shells  commenced  to  be 
thrown  from  the  same  point  into  the  southern  quarters  of 


1871)  that  from  a  military  point  of  view  the  bombardment 
by  itself  was  wholly  inefficacious. 

Nevertheless,  though  a  city  so  extensive  as  Paris  may  en- 
dure a  protracted  bombardment,  the  destruction  of  life  and 
property  is  something  serious,  and  it  must  especially  be  so 
in  small  fortified  towns  ;  hence  the  increased  range  and  ac- 
curacy of  hollow  projectiles  have  rendered  the  old  system 
of  closely  surrounding  a  town  with  a  continuous  ramjiait  or 
enceinte  both  useless  and  dangerous  unless  supplemented 
by  a  system  of  detached  forts  sufficiently  in  advance  to 
keep  an  enemy's  artillery  beyond  that  distance,  from  which 
he  might  destroy  the  place  by  his  shells.  The  fortifications 
of  Paris  are  now  supplemented  by  a  second  and  much  far- 
ther removed  cordon  of  detached  forts. 

Small  forts,  by  themselves,  may,  however,  very  safely  defy 

bombardment,  if  rea- 
sonably provided  with 
casemates  or  bomb- 
proofs.  Fort  Jackson, 
subjected  to  vertical 
fire  only,  was  material- 
ly intact  after  a  six- 
days  bombardment, 
though  doubtless  the 
surrender  was  in  some 
degree  due  to  it.  Fort 
Pulaski  surrendered  be- 
cause its  walls  were 
thrown  down  and  its 
magazines  exposed,  by 
the  agency  of  direct 
fire.  Fort  Sumter  was 
reduced  to  a  ruin  by 
breaching  fire  directed 
against  its  exposed  ver- 
tical walls,  but  it  never 
surrendered ;  while  the 
little  sand  work.  Fort 
\\'agner,  defied  both  di- 

Fin.  6.— Fort  Sumter,  Dec.  9,  1S63.     Interior  view  from  tlir  s.nitliufst  II  li  i^         ii  i  le  t  ^  tlie  (     n      rect  and  curved  fire  for 

federates.  The  original  liears  the  autograph  approval  of  the  Cciiifcilerate  treiieral  comiiiandma:  the  Depart-  two  months,  and  was 
ment  of  Soutli  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  may  therefore  be  assumed  to  be  correct.  Morris  island  finally  evacuated  An 
and  the  U.  S.  fleet  are  seen  on  the  right,  and  Sullivan's  island  and  Fort  Jloultrie  on  the  left.  The  right  of  ^^  '  i  *  ^  ,1  -.^trn-a  U-a 
view  shows  the  gorge  face  and  the  top  of  the  adjoining  face  looking  down  tlie  harbor.  Both  were  breached  ,  ,,  P\  ''"  "Cbiioy  uy 
by  the  Morris  island  batteries,  although  oblique  to  the  line  of  fire.  The  dihria  formed  an  ea.sy  ascent  from  shells  the  bomb-proof 
the  water  to  the  crest.  The  left  and  foreground  show  the  other  faces,  in  ruins  from  the  reverse  tire  from  qj-  timber  blindage  cov- 
Worris  island.  The  interior  slopes  were  subsequentlv  made  much  steeper  bv  the  besieged  than  shown  in  the  p..„,i  ,i-ith  sand  which 
view,  and  were  revetted  with  gabions.     Bomb-proof  quarters  were  also  constiiicted  under  the  ruins  for  the     t^"^"  ^uuu    n  uicu 

garrison.  These  quarters  consisted  of  a  continuous  gallery  all  aroimd  in  the  ruins.  i»rotected  on  top  and  on 
the  side  next  Morris  island  by  thick  embankments  of  earth.  Throughout  the  autumn  of  1863  the  ruins  con- 
tained no  motmted  guns.  It  was  simplv  an  infantry  outpost.  It  repulsed  a  naval  assault  from  small  boats 
Sept.  8.  IS03,  and  wa.s  held  until  Feb.,  1S(».  On  Apr"  14.  ISIB,  the  fourth  anniversary  of  its  capture  by  the 
Confederates,  the  U.  S.  flag  was  again  raised  over  the  ruins  with  imposing  ceremonies. 


Paris,  and  this  was  continued  till  the  27th.  On  Jan.  21  a 
violent  cannonade  and  liombardment  was  opened  njion  the 
dctaclieil  forts  of  St.-Denis  and  also  upon  the  town.  120 
shells  falling  there  in  one  hour  (22d),  and  many  hitting  the 
ancient  catlieiiral.  The  population  took  refuge  in  Paris. 
At  the  time  (18-10-48)  the  defenses  of  Paris  were  constructed 
the  extreme  range  of  projectiles  did  not  exceed  2^  miles: 
and  it  was  in  relation  to  the  artillery  .service  of  the  day  that 
the  forts  were  located.  Hence  they  did  not  perfectly  pro- 
tect Paris  from  borabardincnt.  which,  however,  had  no  im- 
poilant  elTccl.  The  tlistance  from  the  Prussian  batteries 
on  the  heights  of  Chatillon  to  the  nearest  fort  (Vanvres)  was 
alxiut  a  mile — to  the  nearest  part  of  the  enceinte.  2i  miles; 
to  the  populous  regions  of  the  southern  cjuarters,  3  miles : 
to  the  Palace  of  Ijuxembourg,  Pantheon,  Hotel  des  Inva- 
lides,  and  the  "monumental"  portions  of  Southern  Paris, 
8i  miles.  Hence  tlic  modern  HHe  (Krupp's  guns  of  the 
I'rnssian.':)  extended  its  range  (with  high  elevation)  to  all 
these  regions. 

It  is  computed  that  in  thirteen  days,  from  Jan.  5  to  18. 
at" Hit  .500  shells  a  day  fell  in  Paris,  hitting  and  wounding 
308  persons,  a  fourth  of  them  mortally,  i.  e.  an  average  of 
2.")  persons  each  day  and  2.')  shells  for  each  perj^on  hit.  The 
number  of  private  edifices  hit  averaged  50  a  day.  double  the 
imiiiber  of  |ier.sons  hit.  The  surface  over  which  the  lioni- 
bai-dment  extended  was  alioiit  2,000  hectares  (.VWO  acres),  or- 
one-fourth  the  total  area  of  Pari.s,  chiefly  on  the  left  or 
south  bank  of  the  Seine.  The  ])opulation  of  this  ]iortion 
may  be  estimated  at  about  .500.000.  The  Pantheon,  the 
Museum,  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  (with  its  church  and  tomb 
of  Napoleon)  are  among  the  monumental  structures  of  this 
portion  of  the  city.     All  were  more  or  less  injured. 

It  Is  a.s.serted  (Ij.  SImonin,  Revue  des  Deux  Monties,  Feb., 


in   quite  as  fast  as  it 


sheltered  its  garrison — 
the  exposed  end  of 
which  could  be  seen 
over  the  parapet — sig- 
nally failed,  the  sand 
could  be  blown  away  by 


running 
shells. 

Hence  though  the  fortification  of  capitals,  great  naval  or 
military  depots,  must,  if  attempted  at  all,  be  undei-taken  on 
an  iminense  scale,  yet  the  applicability  of  modern  rifled 
guns  (in  iilace  of  mortars)  to  tne  purposes  of  bombardment, 
and  the  increased  range  of  their  cun-ed  fire,  has  not  de- 
stroved  the  utility  of  small  forts  as  elements  of  the  outer 
cordon  of  great  fortified  places:  or,  used  isol.atedly,  for  the 
special  purposes  of  guarding  great  military  routes,  i-ailroads, 
or  water  approaches.*    See  the  article  Fortificatiom. 

Revised  by  James  Mercub. 

Bnin'bax  [Late  Lat..  corruption  of  Lat.  homhyx,  silk- 
worm, silk,  cotton]:  a  genus  of  large  soft-wooded  trees  of 
the  family  StercuUacete  :  nearly  related  to  the  baoViab-tree. 
They  are  natives  of  tropical  climates,  especially  America. 
They  yield  great  quantities  of  cotton,  but  the  fiher  is  short, 
does  not  spin  well,  ami  is  not  durable.  Nevertheless,  in 
India  cloth  is  made  of  It  to  a  small  extent.  It  would  prob- 
ably make  good  paper. 

*  The  development  of  rifled  mortars  and  howitzers,  with  an  effect- 
ive range  for  the  larger  calibers  of  nearly  8  miles  and  extreme  accu- 
racv  of  lire,  with  a  eapaeitv  to  throw  torpedo-shells  containing  large 
charges  of  lligh  explosives,  has  materially  increased  the  strength  of 
arch  and  thickness  of  cover  required  by  bomb-proofs  to  withstand 
their  effects.  .     ,  ,      . 

This  increased  protection  for  men  and  materials  is  attainable  at  a 
reasonable  expense  bv  the  use  of  concrete  and  sand.  For  the  heavier 
guns  it  presents  a  more  difficult  problem,  the  only  practicable  solu- 
tion seeming  to  be  the  use  of  iron  and  steel,  at  great  cost. 

The  same  problem  is.  however,  presented  to  tiie  attack,  since  the 
heavy  artillery  of  the  defense  has  advanced  pari  pdsxu  with  that  of 
thea'ttack.  and  is  correspondingly  efticient  against  the  siege-works, 
etc.  The  rapid  lire  and  machine  guns  of  the  defense  can  be  pro- 
tected against  the  liombanlment  in  the  bomb-proofs,  and  will  retain 
their  full  efllciency  against  a  subsequent  assault.  J.  M. 


BOMBAY 


liON'A    FIDl': 


093 


Uoinlmy' :  a  presulency  of  British  Imlia  ;  lioiimlcil  W. 
bv  tlio  liicliau  Ocean  anil  Baliu'liistan.  Area,  incliiilinji 
Sinci,  13"),:i'.l4  sii.  niilos.  A  large  part  of  the  surface  is 
mountaimnis.  The  long  rttu;t;e  of  the  Western  Ghats  ex- 
tends parallel  to  the  seacoast  in  a  direction  nearly  X.  andS. 
Between  this  ran«re  and  the  sea  is  a  narrow  tract  called 
the  North  and  South  Konkans,  the  clinuite  of  which  is  very 
hot  and  moist.  Tlu'  annual  rainfall  in  the  Konkans  is 
more  than  100  inches,  in  const'(|uence  of  the  vapors  of 
the  southwest  monsoon  beinjc  intercepted  l>v  the  Ghats. 
This  province  is  intersected  by  the  Nerbudda  and  Tapti 
rivers,  which  How  westwanl  into  the  Gulf  of  t'anibay,  and 
is  also  ilrained  l>y  the  sources  of  the  Godavari  and  the 
Krishna,  which  run  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  Indus 
crosses  the  western  part.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  plains 
is  fertile.  Cotton  and  rice  are  tlie  staple  i>roduclions  of 
this  res;ion,  which  contains  the  richest  cutton-tields  of  India. 
Snpir  and  indi.s<o  are  also  raised  here.  Among  the  iniligo- 
nous  plants  are  the  cocoa-pahn  and  the  teak-tree.  Bombay 
has  important  numufactures  of  silk  stuffs  and  of  woolen  and 
cotton  cloths.  In  18.S0  it  had  over  1.800  miles  of  railway  in 
operation.  The  administration  of  this  country  is  vested  in 
a  governor  and  three  councilors,  subject  to  the  superin- 
tendence, direction,  ami  control  of  the  Governor-Geneni,!  of 
India  in  council.  It  is  divided  into  the  northern  division 
with  10  districts,  the  southern  divisions  with  i)  districts,  and 
Sind  with  4  districts,  and  contains  within  its  limits  many 
feudatory  states,  the  most  of  them  very  small.  To  this 
province  Indongs  the  naval  force  for  all  the  presidencies. 
The  annual  revenue  for  the  fiscal  vear  1890  amounted  to 
13,086,288  rniiees,  or  ^4,700,000 :  expenditures,  8,888,731  ru- 
pees, or  |:i,'.;00,000.    Pop.  (1891)  18,826,820.    Capital,  Bombay. 

Itoinbay  [Eng.form  of  native  name  Mambni  w  Bamhni] : 
a  city  and  seaport  of  British  Intlia ;  capital  of  pi'csidency  of 
same  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  end  of  the  island  of 
Bombay  and  on  the  Indian  Ocean;  lat.  18'  56  N.,  Ion. 
73'  54'  E.  (see  map  of  S.  Intlia,  ref.  3-C).  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  affording  good  anchorage  for  ships  of  the  largest 
size,  and  is  favorably  situated  for  commerce,  lieing  in  a  di- 
rect line  between  Calcutta  and  Aden.  It  is  the  west  terminus 
of  railway  systems  connecting  it  with  Delhi  and  Peshawar. 
Calcutta,  and  Madras.  The  mean  temperature  is  83'  F. 
At  the  southern  end  of  the  island,  which  is  8  miles  long 
and  3  miles  wide,  is  the  fortified  F.uropean  town,  and  a 
mile  north  of  that  is  the  Black  Town,  in  which  the  Hin- 
dus and  Mohammedans  reside.  The  density  of  the  popu- 
lation of  this  part  of  the  city  is  more  than  three  times 
that  of  the  most  populous  districts  of  Lcmdon^namcly. 
75!)  |HM-sons  on  an  acre  (according  to  the  census  of  1882), 
while  the  extreme  ever  reached  in  London  is  222.  Be- 
tween these  two  towns  is  the  esplanade  and  the  barracks. 
Among  the  most  rennirkable  buildings  are  the  town-hall, 
mint,  cathedral,  the  custom-house,  the  library  of  the  Asiatic 
Society,  the  KIpliiustone  Institution,  tlu'  missionary  houses, 
the  (irant  Medical  College,  the  g?-eat  Hindu  temi>le  of 
ilnmha  Di'ri.  and  the  .lamsetjee  Hospital.  The  Bombay 
water-works,  among  the  largest  in  the  world,  were  formally 
opened  by  the  Viceroy  of  India  in  1893.  These  are  capable 
of  supplying  3 1,01)0,000  gal.  of  water  daily,  and  cost  15.000,000 
nipee.s.  TIk!  dam  which  forms  the  reservoir  is  3  miles  long. 
and  there  are  61  miles  of  tunneling,  ducts,  and  pipes.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  raw  cot  ton.  shawls,  opium,  coffee. 
pepper,  ivory,  and  gums.  Bombay  imjiorts  raw  silk,  sugar, 
and  silk  stulTs  from  China,  and  cotton  yarn,  cotton  cloth, 
hanhvare,  glass,  copper,  etc.,  from  England.  The  sum  of 
foreign  imi)ort.s  for  the  fiscal  year  1891  was  653.716.000 
nifHU's,  or  about  $335,000,000.  Bomliay,  excepting  Calcutta 
and  Canton,  is  the  greatest  commercial  emporium  of  Asia, 
and  is  the  idiief  Indian  port  connected  with  the  establish- 
ment of  steam-navigation  between  India  and  the  British 
islands.  There  is  now  a  regular  communication  by  steam- 
ers between  Bombay  and  Europe  through  the  lied  Sea  and 
tho  Mediterranean.  Steamers  also  ply  between  this  port 
ami  Point  de  (ialle  in  Ceylon.  Among  the  races  that  com- 
pose the  population  of  Bombay  the  Parsis.  descended  from 
the  Persian  tire-worshipers,  are  ilistinguishcd  for  their  re- 
spectability, wealth,  and  commercial  enterprise.  They  are 
extensively  engaged  in  ship-building,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  important  interests  of  the  city.  The  most  flourishing 
and  important  industry  in  Bombay  is  the  manufacture  of 
yarn  and  cotton  cloth,  for  which  it  ha.s  numerous  large 
steam  spinning  and  weaving  mills.  Area,  22  so.  miles.  Pop. 
(1881)  753,000;  (1891)  821,764, 


Itnnihiiy  Hook  Island:  Delaware;  a  part  of  Duck  creek 
hunilred,  Kent  Countv,  .separated  from  the  mainland  by 
Duck  creek.  Its  nortli  end  (lat.  39  21'  46"  N.,  Ion.  75°  30' 
19"  W.)  hits  a  brick  lighthouse  36  feet  high,  with  a  fixed 
while  light  46  feet  above  the  water. 

IJoin'hprarer.  .loux  Hknky  AuiirsTfs,  D.I)..  LL.  D.: 
writer  on  tliiMilogieal  and  biblical  subjects;  b.  in  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  ,Ian.  13,  1817:  graduated  from  Marshall  College  and 
from  the  Theological  .Seminary  at  Mei<-eisburg,  Pa.  He 
served  in  the  pastorate  in  .several  churches  from  1838  to 
1884.  lie  was  president  of  I'rsinus  College,  Collegevilie, 
Pa.,  from  1870  till  his  death  there  Aug.  19.  1890.  He  was 
editor  of  a  condensjition  of  the  Ilerzog  Jviiri/c/opfedia,  o( 
which  the  tii'st  volume  appearrtl  in  1858  and  the  second  in 
1S60.  He  edited  the  Rrfdniwd  Church  Mdiithhj  18(i8-75. 
Other  works  are  a  translation  of  llie  llaiidhook  vf  CImrch 
llintiini.  bv  Kurtz  (3  vols.,  1860-62) ;  liifuid  Salvation  and 
Ba/,lis„i  (1860);  Revised  ],iturijy  (1867):  Reformed  not 
Ritualistic  (1867).  W.  J.  Beecher. 

IJonib-laiU'O :  an  cxjilosive  missile  used  in  the  whale- 
fishery :  consists  of  a  cylindrical  shell  of  iron  armed  with  a 
sharp"and  heavy  point  of  a  triangular  form.  It  is  charged 
with  powiler.  introduced  through  an  opening  at  the  rear 
end  of  the  shell,  and  the  opening  is  afterward  stopped  by 

melted  lea<l.     The  lance  is  di.scharged  fi i  the  barrel  of  a 

musket,  and  is  exi)loded  by  a  fuse  after  it  has  penetrated 
tli(^  body  of  the  whale. 

Uoiii'lVird,  Geohoe:  soldier:  b.  in  New  York  in  1780; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S05;  chief  of  ordnance.  L^.  S.  A., 
iMay  30.  1.S32.  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  was  engaged  as 
an  engineer  upon  the  construction  of  fortifications  till  1812. 
when  he  was  placed  on  ordnance  duty.  To  the  skill  and 
inventive  talent  of  this  ofTicer  the  country  was  largely  in- 
debted preceding  and  during  the  war  of  1812-15  with  Great 
Britain,  he  being  almost  the  only  one  well  informed  as  to 
the  manul'arl lire  of  ordnance  and  onlnaiiee  stores ;  he  also 
introduced  the  bomb-cannon  under  the  name  of  "colum- 
biads."  Breveted  lieutenant-colonel  Dee.  22.  1814,  for 
meritorious  services  in  the  ordnance  department.  After 
1842  h(^  was  on  inspection  duty,  and  made  many  ingenious 
and  valuable  experiments  on  the  best  forms  for  heavy  artil- 
lery.    1).  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  25.  1848. 

Bn'iin  [in  Fr.  Hi')iii>:  ane.  Hippo  Reffiiis;  called  by  the 
i\\-ah^  Beled-el-Arah]:  a  fortified  seaport-town  of  Algeria; 
province  of  Constantine;  on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean; 
74  miles  X.  E.  of  Constantine:  lat.  36  .54'  N..  Icm.  7°  48' 
E.  (see  map  of  .\frica,  ref.  l-D).  It  is  finely  situated  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Seibous  or  Sebus; 
and  is  defended  by  Fort  Cigogne.  which  is  on  the  top  of  the 
hill.  Bona  was  occupied  by  the  French  in  1833.  since  which 
it  has  been  much  improved'.  It  has  new  markets,  bazaars, 
and  reading-rooms;  also  manuracturcs  of  tajiestry,  saddles, 
and  native  clothing.  Wool,  hides,  grain,  and  coral  are  es- 
porteil  from  it  liy  steamboats.  Near  Bona  are  the  ruins  of 
the  great  city  of  Hippo  licgiii.t.  once  the  see  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. It  was"  destroyed  bv  the  Arabs  ill  646  A.  1).  Pop.  (1881) 
19.687;  (1891)30,806. 

Iloim.  Giovanni:  a  cardinal  of  the  Boman  Church  ;  b.  at 
.Mondovi,  Piedmont,  Oct.  10,  1609;  made  cardinal  in  1669; 
d.  at  Home,  Oct.  35,  1674.  His  principal  works  arc  De 
Dirina  Psalmodia  (1663)  and  Jics  Litnrgica!  (1671).  He 
was  ei|iially  ilistinguishcd  for  |)iety  and  learning. 

lln'nil  Dc'a  (i.  e.  good  godiless):  a  Roman  divinity ;  ~the 
sister  or  wile  of  Faunus;  was  worshijied  only  by  the  Ko- 
man  women,  who  concealed  her  name  from  the  men.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  she  was  iileiililied  with  Ops. 
Her  annual  festival  was  celebrated  on  May  1.  in  the  house 
of  the  consul,  with  mysterious  rites,  from  which  all  males 
were  strictly  excluded.     Her  symbol  was  a  serpent. 

Bo'iia  Fi'de  [Lat. ;  a  legal  term  derived  from  the  civil 
law,  and  meaning  in  good  faith,  without  fraud  or  deceit, 
innocently] :  A  bona  fide  purchaser  is  one  who  purchases  for 
a  valuable  consideration,  without  notice  of  opposing  inter- 
ests of  third  parties.  This  subject  is  of  great  importance  in 
ci|nity  jurisprudence.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  a  court  of 
erpiity  will  grant  no  relief  against  a  purchaser  in  good  faith. 
If,  on"  the  other  hand,  the  |)urchaser  has  notice,  actual  or 
construct  ive,  of  the  equitable  rights  of  otlu^rs,  he  will 
stand  in  no  better  jiosition  than  the  person  from  whom  he 
lUfpiired  his  title.  Thus  if  a  mortgage  of  land  were  can- 
celed through  mistake  by  a  mortgagee,  a  purchaser  in  good 
faith  from  the  mortgagor  would  hold  free  from  the  mort- 


694 


BONAIRE 


BONAPARTE 


gage.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  had  notice  of  the  facts,  a 
court  would  set  up  the  mortgage  against  liim  as  well  as 
against  the  mortgagor.  (See  Notice.)  The  same  question  is 
presented  in  the  case  of  bills  of  exchange,  promissory  notes, 
and  other  commercial  paper.  If  the  acceptor  or  maker  has 
a  defense  to  it  as  to  the  payee,  it  will  in  general  be  shut  off 
as  to  a  purchaser  in  good  faith  before  maturity.  But  if  the 
purchaser  had  notice  of  the  defense  before  the  purchase,  he 
would  stand  in  the  same  position  as  the  payee.  A  contract 
nt)t  entered  into  in  goo<l  faith  is  voidable  at  the  option  of 
the  innocent  party.  The  question  of  good  faith  is  often  of 
importance  in  actions  for  slander  or  libel,  where  it  is  fre- 
ipiently  the  case  that  certain  acts  if  done  buna  fide,  or  in 
good  faith,  are  not  actionalile,  but  are  if  done  with  nuili- 
eious  intent.  Kevised  by  F.  .Sturges  Allen. 

Bonaire,  bo  nar ,  or  Bueu-Ayre,  bwen  i  raV  (i.  e.  good 
air) :  one  cif  the  Dutcli  West  Indian  islands :  N.  of  Vene- 
zuela anil  E.  of  Cura^oa ;  hit.  12°  20'  N..  Ion.  68°  27'  W.  (see 
map  of  West  Indies,  ref.  9-1).  It  is  20  miles  long  by  (J 
broad.  Area.  129  sq.  miles.  Pop.  4.700 :  about  400  white. 
The  climate  is  dry  and  the  soil  poor.  Salt  and  charcoal  are 
manufactured.  Aloes,  divi-divi,  guaiacum.  Brazil-wood, 
and  live  stock  (donkeys  and  cattle)  are  exported. 

M.  W.  H. 

Bouald.  bonaal',  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  Vicomte  do : 
an  eminent  French  publicist  and  ultra-royalist ;  b.  near  Mil- 
hau,  Oct.  2,  1754.  He  emigrated  in  1791,  and  published  a 
Theory  of  Political  and  Religious  Poiver-  (3  vols.,  1796). 
Having  returned  to  France  about  1806.  he  was  elected  to 
the  Chamber  of  Dei)uties  in  181.5,  and  acquired  much  influ- 
ence under  the  Bonapartes  and  the  Bourbons.  He  advo- 
cated absolutism  and  the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  In  1833 
he  became  a  peer  of  France.  Among  his  works  is  La  Ligis- 
lafion  Primitive.  I),  in  his  castle  near  Jlilhau,  Nov.  23, 
1840.  See  Henri  de  Bonald,  Xotice  sur  h  Vicomte  de  Buiiald 
(1841). 

Boiiaii'za  [Span.,  fair  weather,  prosperity :  Ital.  bonaccia : 
Fr.  bonuce}:  in  the  mining  districts  of  California  and 
Northern  Mexico,  an  alnmdauce  of  metal  or  an  ore-body. 
Tlie  mines  of  Northern  Mexico  are  principally  what  are 
called  "pocket-mines,"  with  thin  veins  of  poor  metal  con- 
necting the  pockets.  When  a  pocket  of  rich  ore  is  struck 
the  mine  is  said  to  be  in  bonanza.  When  the  veins  run  out 
without  leading  to  pockets,  the  mine  is  said  to  be  in  borra 
(i.  e.  useless  words),  from  the  verb  borrar,  to  rub  out  or  to 
blot  out. 

Bonaparte.  Carlo:  a  Corsican  lawyer;  b.  in  Ajaccio, 
]Mar.  2'.l,  1746:  the  father  of  Napole<m  I.  lie  married  in 
1767  ilaria  Letitia  (Letizia)  Kamolino,  and  had  five  sons  and 
three  daughters.  He  became  counselor  and  assessor  of  Ajac- 
cio in  1773.     D.  in  Montpellier,  Feb.  24,  1785. 

Bonaparte.  Caroline  Marie  Axnonciade  :  Queen  of  Na- 
ples :  a  daughter  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Ajaccio,  Mar.  26, 
1782.  She  was  married  in  1800  to  Joachim  Murat,  who  be- 
came King  of  Naples  in  1808.  She  was  the  mother  of  two 
sons  and  two  daughters.  After  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  took  the  title  of  Countess  of  Lipona.  D.  in  Florence, 
May  18,  1839. 

Bonaparte,  Charles  Luciek  Jules  Laurent:  Prince  of 
Canino:  a  son  of  Lucicn  Bonaparte;  b.  in  Paris,  Jlay  24, 
1803.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  ornithologist,  and  took 
little  part  in  political  att'airs.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  resided  in  Philadelpliia  (i822-2S) 
and  Italy. and  publisheil  vlmf;-(V«;i  Ornit/iotuyi/.iir  a  Ilixturi/ 
of  the  Birds  of  the  United  States.    I),  in  Paris',  July  30.  18.5t. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome:  Kin^  of  Westphalia;  a  brotlicr  of 
Napoleon  I.;  b.  at  Ajaccio.  Nov.  1.5,  1784.  He  entered  the 
French  army  in  1800,  and  during  a  visit  to  the  U.  S.  mar- 
ried, in  1803,  Miss  Patterson,  of  Baltimore,  without  the  con- 
sent of  Napoleon.  This  nuirriage  was  annulled  by  order  of 
Nancjleon  in  1805.  (Madame  Jerome  Bonaparte,  nee  Eliza- 
beth Patterson,  b.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  F'eb.  6.  1785:  d.  there 
Apr.  4,  1879.)  Jerome  served  as  general  of  brigade  against 
1  he  Prussians  in  1806.  and  was  crowned  King  of  Westjihalia 
in  1807.  In  the  .same  year  lie  married  a  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Wiirtemborg.  'lie  lost  his  throne  in  Oct..  1813.  and 
led  a  division  al  Waterloo  in  Jmie,  1815.  After  many  years 
in  exile  he  liecame  a  marshal  of  France  in  18-50.  1).  in 
Villegcnis.  near  Paris,  June  24.  1860. 

Bonaparte.  Jerome  Napoleon:  a  son  of  Ihe  jjreceding 
by  his  first  wife;  b.  in  Canilierwell.  England,  July  7,  1805; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826.     He  greatly  resembled  Na- 


]ioleon  I.  in   appearance.     He  left  two  sons.  Jerome  and 
Charles  Joseph.     D.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  June  17,  1870, 

Bonaparte.  Jerome  Napoleon  :  soldier ;  grandson  of  .Te- 
rome  Bonaparte,  King  of  Westphalia :  grand-nejihew  of  Na- 
poleon I.:  b.  in  Baltimore.  Md..  1830;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1852 ;  and  till  his  resignation  of  his  lieutenancy  in 
the  Mounted  Riflemen,  Aug.  16.  1854.  served  on  frontier 
duty.  He  entered  the  French  imperial  army  Sept.  5,  1854, 
as  second  lieutenant  of  the  Seventh  Dragoons,  became  chef 
d'eseadron  Third  Cuirassiers  Aug.  15.  1855,  and  was  trans- 
ferred Mar.  16,  1857,  to  the  Dragons  de  rim]jeratrice.  He 
served  in  the  Crimean  war  against  Russia  (1854-55);  engi- 
neer at  Balaklava,  Inkerinan,  Tchernaia,  and  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol;  for  aU  of  which  active  and  distinguished  seiT- 
ices  he  was  decorated  liy  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  with  the 
;Medjidie  Order,  made  knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of 
France,  and  received  the  Crimean  medal  from  the  Queen  of 
England.  He  was  in  the  Algerian  campaign  in  185(>-57; 
engaged  in  several  actions  with  the  Kabyles;  in  Italian 
campaign  against  Austria  1859  ;  engaged  at  i\Io]itebello,  Sol- 
ferino,  and  various  outpost  affairs,  receiving  for  his  gallan- 
try the  French  "niedaille  d'ltalie  "  and  the  decoration  of 
"Military  Valor"  from  the  King  of  Sardinia;  in  garrison 
at  various  posts  1859-67,  and  in  tlie  guard  of  the  Empress 
of  France  1867-72.  On  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  with  diffi- 
cultv  escaped  from  the  hands  of  the  Commune  in  Paris.  He 
was  "exiled  in  1886.     D.  Sept.  3,  1893. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph  :  King  of  Spain ;  the  eldest  brother  of 
Napoleon  1. ;  was  born  in  Corte,  Corsica,  Jan.  7,  1768.  He 
studied  law,  married  Julie  Jlarie  Clary,  and  was  elected  to 
the  French  Council  of  Five  Hundred  in  1797.  He  negotiated 
the  treaty  of  Luncville  with  Austria  in  1801,  and  that  of 
Amiens  with  England  in  Jlar..  1802.  On  these  and  other 
occasions  he  showed  considerable  talents  for  diplomacy. 
Urged  by  the  imperious  will  of  Napoleon,  he  accepted  tlie 
throne  of  Naples  in  1806.  though  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  ambitious  of  such  a  ]iosition.  He  was  transferred  in 
May,  1808,  to  the  throne  of  Sjiain.  against  the  will  of  the 
majority  of  the  Spanish  poo]ile.  who  obstinately  resisted  the 
domination  of  the  French.  During  his  nominal  reign  many 
battles  were  fought  between  the  French  and  the  allied  Eng'- 
lish  and  Spanish  armies,  who  expelled  him  from  Spain  in 
June,  1813.  In  1815  he  emigrated  to  the  U.  S..  and  lived  at 
Bordentown.  N.  J.,  under  the  name  of  the  Count  de  Snrvil- 
liers.  D.  in  Florence.  Italy.  July  28.  1844.  See  A.  du  Cas.se, 
Jlenioires  ef  Corre-yjondance  dii  lioi  Joseph  (10  vols.,  1854); 
Thiers,  Ilistonj  of  the  Consulate  and  tlie  Empire. 

Bonaparte,  Louis:  a  brother  of  Napoleon  I.;  b.  at  Ajac- 
cio, Sept.  2,  1778.  He  entered  the  army  in  youth,  and 
served  at  Areola  and  Rivoli  (1797).  In  compliance  with 
Napoleon's  will,  he  married  Hortense  de  Beauharnais  in 
1802,  and  became  King  of  Holland  in  June,  1808.  He  and 
his  wife  separated  al)out  1807.  in  consequence  of  their  in- 
compatibility. As  nominal  King  of  Holland  he  was  not 
able  to  pursue  the  policy  whicli  lie  preferred,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  Napoleon  to  sarritire  the  interests  of  the  Dutch  to 
the  designs  of  the  emperor,  who  was  ottVuded  because  Louis 
was  not  suiRciently  subservient.  Louis  abdicated  the  throne 
in  1810,  after  which  he  resided  in  Italy.  He  was  the  puta- 
tive father  of  Napoleon  III.  D.  at  Florence.  June  29.  1846. 
.See  Thierii,  History  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;  also 
his  Jli'moires  sur  la  Cour  de  Louis  Xapoleon  et  sur  la  Ilul- 
lande  (Paris.  1828). 

Bonaparte.  Louis  Napoleon  :  See  Napoleon  III. 

Bonaparte.  Louis  Luciex  :  a  son  of  Lueien  and  a  nephew 
of  Napoleon  I. ;  b.  in  Jlongrove,  Worcestershire,  England, 
Jan.  4. 1813.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  National  Assem- 
lily  in  1849.  became  a  senator  in  18.52,  and  grand  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1855.  He  is  distinguished  for  his 
labors  in  philology  and  chemistry.  D,  in  Fano,  Italy,  Nov. 
3,  1891. 

Bonai)arte.  Lucien  :  Piince  of  Canino ;  a  brother  of  Na- 
poleon 1.;  li.  at  Ajaccio.  May  21,  1775.  He  was  an  active 
and  energetic  republican  in  the  French  Revolution.  In 
1795  he  married  Christ iiui  Boyer,  a  woman  of  obscure  birth. 
He  was  chosen  in  1798  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  in  which  be  opjiosed  the  Directory.  On  the  18th 
Brumaire  (Nov.,  1799)  he  displayed  great  rcsoluticm,  and 
ediciently  ]iromoti'd  the  su<'ci'ss  of  Napoleon.  Lucien  be- 
came Ministfr  of  the  Interior  in  Dec.  1799.  ambassador  to 
.Spain  in  1800.  and  a  Iriliune  in  18t12.  Having  lost  his  finst 
wife,  he  married  in  1803  a  widow  named  Joulierthon  with- 


BONAPARTE 


BOND 


695 


out  the  consent  of  Napoleon,  wlio  was  angry  at  tlic  match. 
Lucii'U  went  into  exile,  and  refused  (lie  tliroiu'  of  Italy, 
which  Napoleon  offered  liira  on  condition  tlial  lie  shcmld 
divorce  his  wife.  He  was  in  France  diuiiig  the  Hundred 
Kays.  1815.  and  actively  supported  Xapolcoii  in  that  crisis, 
lie' passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Italy,  and  died  at  Vi- 
terbo,  June  2!).  1840,  leaving  five  sons  and  six  daughters. 
With  the  exception  of  his  brother  Napoleon,  he  was  un- 
doubtedly the  most  eminent  and  talented  member  of  his 
familv.  See  Lucien  Honaiiarte's  Autobiographic  Memoirs 
(1830). 

Bunapurte,  Lcciex  Loi-is  Joseph  Napoleon  :  second  son 
of  Charles  Lucien  ;  b.  at  Rome,  Nov.  15,  1828.  He  entered 
the  priesthood,  and  on  Mar.  13.  1808.  was  made  a  cardinal 
priest.     D.  in  Koine,  Italy,  Nov.  It),  1895. 

Bonaparte,  Marik  Ann  Elise:  Princess  de  Piombino;  a 
sister  iif  Xapoli'on  I.:  b.  in  Corsica,  Jan.  3,  1777.  She  was 
married  in  17'J7  to  Felix  Bacciochi,  a  Corsican  ofliccr,  and 
received  in  1805  the  title  of  Princess  of  Lucca  and  Piom- 
bino. She  was  for  about  six  years  (180!)-14)  Grand  Duchess 
of  Tuscany,  wliic'h  she  ruled  with  ability.     1).  Aug.  7,  1820. 

Bonapartt*.  Maria  Letizia  Ramolixo:  mother  of  Na- 
piiliMiu  1.:  b.  in  Aj.Hccio.  Corsica.  Aug.  24,  1750.  She  was 
vonsidered  a  beauty,  and  had  an  uncommon  intellect.  Ac- 
cording to  her  son  Najiolcon.  "she  had  a  great  character, 
with  much  energy,  elevation,  iiiid  pride."  She  was  married 
to  Carlo  Hoiiaparte  in  1767.  In  1.S04  she  received  the  title 
of  Madame  Mere  on  the  establishinent  of  the  empire.  D. 
Feb.  2.  ls:iO. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon:  See  Napoleox  I. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleox  .Iosepu  Charles  Pavl  :  prince ;  a 
son  of  Jerome.  King  of  Westphalia;  b.  at  Trieste,  .Sept.  9, 
1822.  His  mother  was  a  daugiiter  of  the  King  of  Wiirtcm- 
berg.  As  a  professed  democrat  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
Constituent  Assembly  in  1848.  In  1852  he  received  the  title 
of  prince,  and  was  recognized  as  the  heir  of  his  cousin.  Na- 
poleon III.,  in  case  the  latter  should  die  without  issue.  He 
married  Clotilde,  a  daughter  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel. 
His  features  rescmbU'il  those  of  his  uncle.  Napoleon  I.  He 
was  called  Ploii-Plon.  He  was  banished  from  France  in 
1873  and  again  in  18«0.     1).  in  Rome.  Mar.  17,  1891. 

Bonaparte,  Pailine :  Princess  Boi-ghese ;  b.  at  Ajaccio, 
Oct.  20,  1 780  ;  was  the  most  beaut  if  ul  of  Napoleon's  sisters. 
In  1801  she  became  the  wife  of  Gen.  Leclerc.  who  died  in 
1802.  She  was  married  in  1803  to  Prince  Cainille  Borghese, 
all  Italian,  from  whom  she  soon  separated.  A  statue  of 
Pauline,  executed  by  Canova,  is  said  to  resemble  the  Venus 
of  Praxiteles.     I),  in  Fhirencc,  June  9,  1825. 

Bon'ar.  IIoratius,  D.  D.  :  hvmnologist  and  religious 
writer:  li.  in  Kdinburgh.  Scotland.  Dec.  1!).  1808.  He  grad- 
uated at  Edinliurgh  L'liivcrsity  :  was  minister  at  Kelso  from 
1838  to  1800.  and  afterward  of  the  Grange  Free  church,  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  a  prolific  author  of  tracts,  sermons,  and 
other  religious  literature,  but  is  most  generally  known  as  a 
hvmnologist.  Among  his  publications  in  iliis  kind  are 
Ihjiniis  of  Faith  and  Ilopi'  (3  vols..  1857-71):  JJi/mns  of  the 
Xatirili/  (1878);  and  Seltcfecl  Jli/miis  (1879).  I),  in  Edin- 
burgh, .'July  31,  1889.     See  his  M'tinorial  (New  York,  1889). 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Bona'sa:  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Te- 
traunidie,  and  one  of  the  genera  included  in  the  popular  term 
'•grouse."  It  comprises  the  bazel-gnmse,  a  Eui'cppeaii  bird, 
the  Jioiiam  honasa.  This  bird,  which  is  about  as  large  as 
the  common  partridge,  is  prettily  mottled  with  gray  and 
reddish  brown.  It  prefers  the  deep  solitiule  of  the  forests. 
Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  Another  species  of  this  genus 
is  the  .Vniericaii  ruffed  grouse  (/}oh«.s«  «/hAc7/m.'*).  which  is 
about  18  inches  long,  and  is  called  the  pheasant  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  partridge  in  New  York  and  New  I'lngland. 
The  male  has  on  each  side  a  large  shoulder  tuft  or  riilf.  In 
the  breeding  season  it  struts  with  erected  ruff  and  tail  likiMi 
turkey-cock.  The  loud  thumping  or  ••drumming"  sound 
heard  in  the  localities  frequented  by  this  bird  is  produced 
by  the  bird  beating  on  its  sides  with  its  wings.  It  is  heard 
most  often  in  the  morning  and  evening.  This  bird  makes 
its  nest  on  the  ground  in  the  forests.  Its  flesh  is  excellent 
as  food. 

Bonaventn'ra,  Saint  Giovaxxi  Fidaxza  :  .schola.stic  theo- 
logian :  called  The  Seraphic  Doctor  ;  b.  in  Bagnorea, 
States  of  the  Church,  1221.  He  became  a  Franciscan  monk, 
studied  and   afterward  taught  theology  in  Paris,  became 


general  of  the  order  of  Franciscans  in  1256  and  a  cardinal 
in  1273.  He  had  great  influence  in  the  Church,  and  was 
venerated  for  his  ascetic  piety  and  the  miracles  ascribed  to 
him.  Bonavcntura  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  School- 
men. "  His  great  mind,"  says  Neaiuler,  ••  grasiied  the  whole 
conipa.ss  of  learning  as  it  existed  in  his  time.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  Jireriloquium  ;  Biblia  Pauperum  (Poor 
plan's  Bible);  and  If iiierariiim  Mentis  in  Deum  (Progress  of 
the  Mind  toward  God;  Fug.  Ir.  in  vol.  w\.  Jour.  Spec.  PIdlos.). 
D.  in  liyoiis,  July  15.  1274;  was  canonized  in  1482.  and  was 
made  a  doctor  of  the  Church  in  1587.  His  complete  works 
have  been  often  rci)riiitcd;  best  ed.  Florence.  1,S44,  .sf/c/.,  15 
vols.;  Fug.  trans,  of  his  Life  of  St.  Francis  of  A.'isisi  (Lon- 
don, 1868);  ami  Life  of  Clirisi  (1881).  See  his  life  Ijy  A.  U. 
da  Vicenza ;  Germ,  trans,  from  the  Italian.  Paderborn  ( 1874) ; 
also  Scholasticism.  Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Bonavis'ta:  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Bonavista  dis- 
trict. Newfounilland,  and  one  of  the  oldc.t  towns  on  the 
island.  It  has  rather  a  poor  harbor,  a  jail,  and  a  fine  An- 
glican church.  Its  people  are  mostly  fishermen,  but  agri- 
culture is  also  carried  on.  Po]).  3,500.  The  liirhthouse  on 
Cape  Bonavista  (lat.  48  41'  56  N.,  Ion.  .53=  5'  20"  W.)  is  a 
catoptric  revolving  white  and  red  light,  150  feet  above  the 
sea. 

Bonchanip.  byh'sluiJuV.  Charles  Melchior  Artus,  Mar- 
quis de :  li.  at  Jouverih'il.  France.  May  10,  1700;  was  one  of 
the  most  distingiushed  royalist  generals  in  the  Vcndean  war 
in  Prance,  in  which  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  Chollet, 
Oct.  17,  1793.  His  soldiers  were  about  to  massacre  5,000  re- 
publican prisoners  to  avenge  him,  but  at  his  dying  request 
they  were  spared. 

Bonchiit.  boh  shiV.  Ernest  :  French  specialist  in  children's 
diseases;  b.  May  16.  1818;  M.  D.  1842;  member  of  the  Med- 
ical Faculty  of  Paris  1842;  number  of  his  published  works 
exceeds  100,  among  them  being  I'raite  rles  maladies  desnou- 
reau.r-nes,  des  enfanfs  d  la  mamelle  et  de  la  seconde  enfance 
(7th  c'd.  Paris.  1879) ;  Ili/niene  de  la  premiere  enfance, ;  Noii- 
veaux  elements  de  patlioloyie  generate  (4th  ed.  1882) ;  Traite 
de  diagnostic  et  de  semeiologie  (1883).     D.  in  1892. 

Bond  [s,nme  word  as  Imnd,  and  from  the  root  of  the  verb 
bind] :  in  law,  an  instniment  in  writing,  .sealed  and  delivered, 
wheri'by  a  jxTson  binds  himself  to  pay  a  sum  of  money.  It 
is  also  calleil  a  deed.  It  is  cither  simiile  or  with  a  conditi<m. 
A  bond  is  said  to  Ijc  simple  when  the  engagement  to  pay  is 
absolute.  An  instrument  in  the  form  of  an  ordinary  prom- 
issoi'y  note  becomes  a  simple  bond  if  executed  under  seal. 
The  most  conimon  form  of  bond  is  one  executed,  under  a 
condition.  The  instrument  in  this  case  consists  of  two  parts 
— the  engagement  to  ]iay.  and  the  condition  upon  which  the 
engagement  to  ]iay  will  become  inoperative  and  void.  The 
condition  may  be  cither  for  the  payment  of  money  or  the 
performance  of  an  act.  such  as  the  faithful  execution  of  the 
duties  of  a  public  ofllce  or  of  agency  or  othi'r  authority. 
When  for  the  payment  of  money,  it  is  usually  called  a 
••  money  bond."  In  this  case  it  is  common  to  make  the  en- 
gagement to  pay.  called  the  penalty,  double  the  amount  ex- 
pressed in  the  conditiim  of  the  bond.  The  penalty  will  not, 
however,  neeessiirily  limit  the  ainoiiiit  of  tlie  recovery.  In 
other  words,  in  certain  cases  more  may  be  recovered  than 
the  amount  named  in  penalty  of  the  bond  :  as,  for  example, 
the  real  debt  and  the  interest  accruing  from  delay  in  pay- 
ment. At  an  early  day,  if  the  nnmey  named  in  the  condition 
was  not  paid  punctually,  the  wdiole  penalty  could  be  recov- 
ered. Courts  of  ecpiity.  however,  regarded  this  result  as  in 
the  nature  of  a  forfeiture,  and  confined  the  recovery  to  the 
debt  and  the  interest.  When  the  bond  is  given  for  the  per- 
formance of  an  act.  th<'  recovery  is  limited  to  the  damages 
sustained  by  iioii-perfiU'man<-e.  The  iierson  who  enters  into 
the  bcmd  is  called  the  obligor:  the  person  to  whom  Hie  en- 
gagement is  made  is  termed  [hi'  obligee.  AVhen  it  is  executed 
by  two  or  more  persons,  they  may  be  either  '•joint "'  obligors  or 
••joint  and  several  ";  that  is.  they  may  either  bind  themselves 
collectively,  or  both  collectively  and  separately.  An  execu- 
tion of  the  instrument  by  two  persons  simply  would  be  joint. 
Fjxpress  words  should  be  used  to  create  a  ■•joint  and  several" 
obligation.  This  is  an  important  distinction  where  some  of 
the  obligors  are  sureties,  as  is  usual  in  bonds  executed  by  in- 
cumbents of  a  public  office.  In  the  case  of  a  joint  bond,  if 
one  of  the  sureties  should  ilie.  his  estate  would  be  discharged 
both  in  law  and  equity.  This  would  not  be  the  case  had  it 
been  both  Joint  and  -lereral.  since  the  individual  obligation 
would  remain,  though  that  which  is  joint  would  be  at  an 
end.     A  boiiil   is  otherwise  termed  a  specialty.     It  is  <if  a 


696 


BOXD 


BONE-BLACK 


higher  prraile  than  an  ordinary  contract,  which  is  termed  a 
simple  contract.  Accordingly,  if  A  slioiild  owe  money  to  B 
for  goods  sold  or  services  rendered,  and  should  give  his  bond 
for  the  amount,  the  original  claim  would  be  merged  in  the 
l>oMd.  and  if  the  debt  were  not  paid  an  action  could  be  brought 
oidy  on  the  Viond.  This  woidd  not  be  the  case  if  A  liad  given 
B  his  promissory  note,  or  other  engagement  not  muler  seal, 
for  the  amount  of  the  claim.  If  the  note  were  not  paid  at 
nudurity,  the  original  cause  of  action  would  remain.  A  bond, 
as  a  general  rule,  is  not  negotiable,  but  assignable.  A  pur- 
chaser would  take  it  subject  to  the  equities  between  the  orig- 
inal parties.  (See  As.sui.N.MEXT.)  Tlie  obligor  of  the  bond 
couinionly  |irofesses  not  only  to  bind  himself,  but  his  heirs, 
executors',  administrators,  etc.  However,  if  these  words  were 
omitti'il,  his  obligation  would  be  transferred  to  these  succes- 
sors in  interest  to  the  extent  of  the  assets  received  from  the 
obligor,  it  being  a  general  rule  in  tlie  U.  S.  that  a  debtor's 

{)roperty,  both  real  and  personal,  is  liable  for  liis  debts  in  the 
lands  of  heirs  and  other  successors  in  interest. 

T.  W.  DWIGHT. 

Boud.  Kdward  Aurustt'S,  C.  B.,  LL.  D.,  F.  S.  A. :  English 
scholar:  b.  at  Hanwell,  Middlesex.  England,  Dec.  31,  1815; 
entered  the  British  Jluseum  as  assistant  in  the  department 
of  nnmuscripts  in  1838;  lil)rarian  of  the  Edgerton  MSS.  in 
18.53 ;  assistant  keeper  of  the  MSS.  in  18.54 ;  kee|>er  of  the 
department  in  1866;  princi|)al  Librarian  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum in  1878;  resigned  in  1888;  in  18T0  founded  thePalaxv 
graphical  Society,  of  which  lie  is  president.  Edited  many 
scholarly  works  for  the  library  and  the  Government. 

Bond.  George  Phillips:  astronomer;  b.  at  Dorchester, 
Jlass.,  May  20.  1825;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1845.  He 
aideil  his  father.  W.  C.  Bonil.  in  tlie  observatory  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1859  succeeded  him  in  the  directorship  of  the 
observatory.  He  wrote  several  wcu-ks,  among  which  is  an 
article  (y«  the  Consfruetiun  of  the  Eiitys  of  Saturn,  and  a 
work  on  Donati's  comet.  I),  in  Candjridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  17, 
1805. 

Bond,  Thomas  Emersox.  D.  D..  M.  D.  :  physician  and  Meth- 
odist writer ;  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  iu  Fel).,  1782.  He  became 
a  professor  in  the  Medical  C'oUege  of  Maryl;iiul,  and  afterward 
a  local  Methodist  preacher.  He  edited  the  Christian  Aclro- 
cate  and  Journal  for  twelve  years,  ami  wrote  important 
pamphlets  in  defense  of  his  Church.  D.  in  New  York  city, 
Slar.  14,  1856. 

Bond.  William  Craxch  :  astronomer ;  b.  at  Portland,  Me., 
Sept.  9.  178it.  and  bec^ame  a  watchmaker.  He  was  the  fir.st 
director  of  the  observatory  of  Harvard  University.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  oljservations  on  Saturn,  and  dis- 
covered a  satellite  of  that  planet.  D.  in  Cambridge,  Jan. 
29,  185!). 

Bondag:e :  originally,  the  villeinage  or  basest  form  of  ten- 
ure of  the  Old  English  feudal  law.  The  terra  is  now  used 
for  a  species  of  tenure  existing  in  Scotland  and  the  north 
of  England,  by  which  the  tenant  of  a  cottage  on  a  farm  is 
bound  to  work  at  certain  seasons  for  the  farmer  under  whom 
he  holds  the  cottage.     Such  a  tenant  is  called  a  bondager. 

Bonded  Warehouse :  See  Warehousing  System. 

Biin'der :  the  yeomanry  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  bon- 
der often  claim  an  aristocratic  origin.  They  have  many  virtues 
as  a  class,  and  constitute  a  large  majority  of  the  population. 

Bondu'.  or  Bondon:  a  small  district  or  kingdom  of 
Westeru  Africa;  iu  Senegal:  about  lat.  14'  to  15"  N.,  and 
Ion.  11"  to  13'  W.  It  is  bouniled  on  the  E.  by  the  river 
Falenu',  wliicli  separates  it  from  Kaiubuk.  The  surface  is 
mostly  level;  the  soil  is  fertile,  well  watered,  and  extensively 
covered  with  forests.  The  sta]ile  productions  are  cotton,  in- 
digo, maize,  tobacco,  and  millet,  .\mong  the  forest  trees 
are  the  baobali  and  acacia.  lion  is  almndant  here,  and  wild 
animals  jire  numenius.  The  Kulahs  are  the  most  numerous 
of  the  tribes  which  inhabil  li.mdu.  It  is  now  under  French 
proteclion.  Capital,  I'.uliliani,  a  mean  town  <iu  the  Faleme. 
Pop.  estimated  at  1.5()(l,()()(). 

Bone,  a  town  of  Algeria:  See  Bo.na. 

Bone  [O.  Eng.  Ix'tn:  Oerm.Bein:  Swed.  A(>/i1:  the  sub- 
stance of  which  the  hard  internal  skelotoii  or  framework  of 
most  vc^rtebrate  animals  is  formed.  In  the  embryo  the 
bones,  witli  few  exttept  ions,  are  preceded  by  masses  of  car- 
tilage, or  gristle,  which  in  the  course  of  developmi'tit  are 
replaced  by  tnie  osseous  tissue  forming  the  skeleton:  in 
some  of  the  low  fishes  no  such  substitution  takes  place,  the 
cartilage  persisting  as  the  adult  skeleton.     In  addition  to 


contributing  the  supporting  framework,  in  many  animals 
bone  occurs  in  other  localities;  thus  bony  plates  are  found 
in  the  integument  of  armadillos,  turtles,  lizards,  and  certain 
fishes,  in  the  heart  of  ruminants,  in  the  diaphragm  of  cam- 
els, in  the  eye  of  many  animals,  in  the  tongue  of  certain 
birds  and  fishes,  and  in  other  organs.  In  animals  below  the 
vertelirates  there  is  no  true  bone,  osseous  tissue  here  being 
substituted  by  amorjihcnis  incrustations  and  hardened  ex- 
cretions, composed  jirincipally  of  calcium  carbonate. 

Bone  consists  of  two  parts:  {\)  a,n  organic  portion,  com- 
posed of  a  "  matrix  "  of  closely  interwoven  connective-tissue 
fibers,  united  by  a  homogeneous  '■  ground-substance,"  con- 
taining cellular  elements,  the  "  bone-cells,"  within  inter- 
fibrillar  spaces,  and  yielding  gelatin  on  boiling;  and  (2) 
earfhij  niaftrr.  v^hit'h  impregnates  the  ground-substaiice  and 
produces  the  characteristic  hardness  of  the  tissue.  If  a  bone 
be  soaked  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  for  a  sufficiently  long 
time,  the  organic  matter,  called  "  os.sein,"  or  "  bone-cartil- 
age," alone  remains,  retaining  the  form  of  the  original  bone, 
and  being  flexible,  tough,  and  translucent.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  bone  be  burned  in  a  hot  fire  with  a  strong  blast  of 
air,  the  animal  matter  is  all  lnirned  away,  leaving  the  earthy 
or  inorganic  matter  a  white,  brittle  mass,  with  just  the  form 
of  tlie  original  bone.  It  consists  of  calcium  pho-sphate 
(which  constitutes  more  than  half  the  weight  of  the  whole 
bone),  together  with  calcium  carbonate  and  fluoride,  mag- 
nesium phosiihate  and  sodium  chloride,  with  traces  of  other 
elements.  The  proportions  vary  in  dilferent  pails  of  the 
skeleton,  in  the  same  bone  at  dilferent  ages,  in  various  dis- 
eases, and  in  the  corresponding  bones  of  ditterent  sjiecies. 
Living  bone  is  of  a  reddish-white  tint  externally,  and  is  of 
a  much  deeper  red  within.  Its  physical  properties  include 
a  specific  gravity  of  1'87-1'97.  toughness  and  some  elasticity, 
with  a  strength  equal  to  twice  that  of  oak;  a  cidiic  inch  of 
lione  will  siqijiort  5.000  lb.  Bones  are  usually  covered  at 
their  ends  or  in  some  other  part  by  cartilage;  but  the  sur- 
face, with  the  exception  of  portions  forming  joints,  is  cov- 
ered by  a  tough,  fibrous  memlirane.  the  "  periosteum  "  ;  hol- 
low bones  have  a  similar  membrane  wit  bin,  the  "  endosteum." 
These  memliranes  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
growth,  nourishment,  and  repair  of  bones.  The  endosteum 
also  nourishes  the  marrow,  a  substance  filling  the  cavities  of 
bones,  and  f)ccurring  in  the  adult  in  two  forms — red  and 
yellow  marrow.  (See  Histology.)  In  the  young  bones  all 
marrow  is  red,  but  in  after  life  the  red  marrow  is  confined 
to  the  vertebra',  ribs,  certain  small  and  flat  bones,  and  the 
ends  of  the  larger  U)iig  bones.  These  forms  of  marrow  dif- 
fer principally  in  the  lessened  vascularity  ami  increased 
quantity  of  fatty  tissue  contained  in  the  yellow  variety. 
The  red  marrow  is  of  especial  consequence  as  an  important 
source  of  new  red  blood-cells  throughout  life. 

From  the  periosteum,  arteries  and  nerves  enter  the  bone, 
traversing  the  longitudinal  "  Haversian  canals,"  which  are 


from 


to  tAiit  "f  ""  inch   in  diameter,  and  lined  with  a 


delicate  menibraiie  resembling  periosteum.  Each  canal  is 
surrounded  by  concentric  layers  of  bone,  constituting  an 
"Haversian  system,"  between  the  concentric  lamella  of 
which  lie  connective-tissue  cells,  the  "bone-cells,"  each  oc- 
cupying a  cavity  called  a  "lacuna."  The  lacuiur  send  out 
lateral  branching,  freely  communicating  canals,  the  "canalic- 
uli,"  Tjfiinr  to  YTSoTtn  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Osseous  tissue 
is  arranged  to  form  compact  and  cancelous  bone,  but  the 
two  differ  only  in  relative  density  and  the  relalive  size  of 
the  contained  cavities.  F(U'  full  account  of  structure  of 
bone,  .see  Histology. 

Osseous  tissue  is  liable  to  several  diseases.  su<'h  as  caries, 
necrosis,  rachitis  (rickets),  osteomalacia,  periostitis,  osteo- 
myelitis, cancer,  exostosis,  elc,  each  descriljed  under  its  own 
name.  For  descriptions  of  the  several  bones  and  of  their 
relations  to  each  other,  see  OsTEOi.ociV  and  the  names  of 
particular  bones,  .such  as  Clavicle,  Hi'MERVs,  etc. 

Kevised  by  George  A.  Piersol. 

Bone-ilKll :  the  residue  of  burnt  bones;  it  amounts  to. 
about  66  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  original  bones.  It 
consists  of  the  earthy  salts  of  the  bone.  Bone-a.sh  is  largely 
exported  from  South  America.  It  is  used  as  manure,  for  t  he 
manufacture  of  superphosphates,  phosphorus,  and  cupels, 
and  is  an  important  constituent  of  English  china.  Also 
called  BoxE-E.utTH. 

Bone-bliu-k,  or  Animal  CliaiToal :  the  residue  left  on 
calcining  bones  in  close  vessels.  The  bones  are  placed  either 
in  retorts,  like  those  used  iu  making  coal-gas,  or  in  iron 
pots.     On  the  application  of  lieat  destructive  distillation 


BOXK-UL'ST 


BOKIPACE 


G97 


takes  place.  Combustible  gases  escape,  accompanied  by  va- 
pors wliith  condense  to  ammoniai'ul  water  and  offensive 
oils.  Ii(jne  or  Dipiiel's  oil  is  thus  produced.  The  residue  in 
the  vessels  amounts  to  about  .JO  per  cent,  in  weight  of  the 
original  bones.  It  is  passed  between  rollers,  and  separated 
by  sieves  into  dilfi-reiit  sizes.  Bone-black  usually  contains, 
after  exiiosure  to  the  air.  from  1  to  (i  or  T  per  cent.  i'(  moist- 
ure. The  average  composition  of  dry  bone-black,  in  100.  is 
carbon,  containing  nitrogen,  10;  i)hospliate  of  lime,  includ- 
ing a  little  phosphate  of  nuignesia.  88:  carbonate  of  lime,  8  ; 
sulphate  of  lime,  0'2;  alkaline  salts,  0-8;  oxide  of  iron,  O'l; 
and  silica,  0'3. 

Aninuil  charcoal  posses.ses  to  a  high  degree  the  property 
of  absorbing  gases,  and  also  of  absorbing  various  substances 
from  solutions.  Its  action  is  not  lindted  to  any  one  class  of 
substances.  It  absorbs  vegetable  bases,  bitter  princijiles, 
astringent  bodies,  coloring-matters,  iodine,  metallic  oxides, 
salts,  etc.  Its  chief  application  in  the  arts  is  for  the  purifi- 
cation of  sugar.  The  raw  sugar  is  dissolved  in  water,  more 
or  less  completely  freed  from  suspende<l  impurities  by  the 
aid  of  blood,  and  filtered  through  bags  of  cotton  cloth,  and 
then  passed  through  high  cylinders  of  inm  containing  the 
bone-black.  It  is  thus  almost  com]>letely  decolorized,  and 
at  the  same  time  freed  from  lime  and  other  salts,  and  from 
rertain  organic  substances  which  interfere  with  crystalliza- 
tion. On  subseqiuMitly  concentrating  the  solution  in  the 
vacimm-pan  it  readily  yields  i)erfectly  white  loaf  sugar. 
(See  Si'GAR.)  By  washing  with  warm  water,  and  subjecting 
to  a  red  heat  in  suitable  retorts,  the  black  is  rerivilica,  when 
it  mav  l)e  used  again.  Sometimes  it  is  also  purified  by  fer- 
mentation and  treatment  with  small  quantities  of  dilute 
a<'ids  or  alkalies.  By  repeated  reheatings,  however,  the 
black  becomes  greatly  condensed,  owing  to  the  semi-fusion 
of  the  phosphate  of  lime,  and  its  decolorizing  and  purifying 
power  is  reduced  to  such  a  degree  that  it  mus-t  be  replaced 
liy  fresh  black.  This  exhausted  black,  as  well  as  the  fine 
dust  which  is  not  suited  for  sugar-refining,  finds  a  ready 
market  for  the  manufacture  of  superphos|ihates  to  be  useil 
as  fertilizers,  for  the  manufacture  of  phosphorus,  etc.  In 
France,  pulverized  bone-black  in  fine  powiler  is  often  boiled 
with  the  raw  sugar  beffire  it  goes  to  tlu^  bag  filters. 

When  boiu'-black  is  to  be  used  for  decolorizing  acid  solu- 
tions, the  phosphate  of  lime  is  first  removed  from  it  by  dilute 
hydrochloric  aciil.  Bone-black  is  sometimes  employed  to 
remove  lime  from  highly  calcareous  waters.  Jlany  other 
forms  of  charcoal  pussess  these  |irii|ierties,  but  none  of  them 
have  been  found  so  well  adajiterl  fnr  the  use  ofsugar-rcHners 
as  bone-black.  Irider  the  name  of  ivory-black  animal  char- 
coal is  used  as  a  pigment,  especially  for  the  preparation  of 
shoe-blacking. 

Bone-dnst:  a  name  api>lied  to  various  bone  fertilizers 
characterized  by  very  fine  division  of  the  particles.  The 
terra  is  used  for  the  finely  ground  product  of  dry  and  clean 
bimes,  or  for  the  product  of  fresh  or  soft  bone,  meal,  and 
other  animal  material,  which  are  by-])roducts  in  other  indus- 
tries or  the  refuse  of  slaughter-houses.  If  the  bone  has  l)eeu 
heated  before  grinding,  much  of  the  nitrogen  may  be  lost. 
In  common  with  all  bone  fertilizers,  the  particular  value 
of  bone-dust  lies  in  its  phosphorus,  although  the  nitrogen 
contents  may  run  from  2  to  6  per  cent. 

Buneflsh  :  a  name  applied  to  the  ladylish.  Alhula  vulpes. 

Bdue-gelatiii:  See  (itL.\Tix. 

Boner.  Joii.v  Hkxry:  poet;  b.  in  Salem,  N.  C.  .Ian.  31. 
184.J;  educated  privately.  In  1867  edited  Siilem  f>hxerrer 
and  AHheville  Pioiieer.  In  the  following  year  he  was  ap- 
poinU'd  assistant  secretary  to  the  N'orth  Carolina  C(mstitu- 
tional  Convention,  and  was  made  chief  clerk  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  for  lK(i!»-70;  was  for  sixteen  years  in  the 
civil  service  at  Washington.  In  1887  removed  to  New  York, 
where  he  served  on  thee^torial  staff  of  the  Onfiiri/  Dir- 
li'jiiari/.  Subse(juently  became  literary  editor  of  the  J\V;r 
lV(/7i-  U'orA/,  which  position  he  resigned'  1o  join  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Slnnitttnl  I)irliim(ir]i.  In  1888  he  published  a 
volume  of  poems,  ent it leil  Wlnxpiring  Pine«.  He  is  a  con- 
tributor to  the  masazines  and  is  a  member  of  the  Authors' 
Club. 

Boneset:  the  Eupatorium  pprfolialum  {iiim.  Composilce), 
an  herbaceous  plant,  a  native  of  the  V.  .S..  growing  in  low 
or  moist  places.  It  is  a  bitter  weed,  having  haiiy  leaves, 
which  are  united  at  the  base  around  the  stem,  and  are  serrate, 
very  veiny,and  wrinkled.  An  infusion  of  the  leaves  is  used 
as  a  tnoii'.  diaphoretic,  etc. 


Boii'gar :  the  native  name  for  Btmga/rus  fagciatus,  a 
poisonous  snake  of  the  East  Indies,  related  to  the  famous 
cobra,  but  having  the  neck  less  dilatable.  It  is  of  a  light 
color,  banded  with  black,  and  attains  a  length  of  4  or  5  feet. 

P.  A.  L. 
Boiiarhi,  bon'gee.  EuGGiERO:  Italian  scholar  and  states- 
nuiii :  b.  at  Naples,  Jlar.  21.  1820:  l^rofessor  of  Philosophy, 
.\cademy  of  Jlilan.  1859;  entered  Italian  Parliament  1860; 
Professor  of  Greek  Literature  at  Turin  18(i4;  of  Latin  at 
Florence  1865;  and  later  of  Ancient  History  at  University 
of  Koine  ;  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  inMinghetti  cabi- 
net 1874-76:  founded  La  Cultiiro  (1881).  E<iit(ir  and  trans- 
lator of  classics,  and  author  of  Frali,  Ptipi  e  lie  (1873); 
Leone  X 11 1,  e  V Italia  (1878):  Francesco  f/'.-l&sm  (1884); 
Vita  di  Geisii  (1890).    D.  near  Naples,  Oct.  22,  1895. 

Buii'haiu :  town :  capital  of  Fannin  co..  Tex.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  2-1) :  on  railroad  ;  has 
numerous  churches.  Carlton  College,  Bonham  Masonic  Fe- 
male Institute,  and  several  handsonui  public  school-build- 
ings, etc. ;  also  very  fine  flouring-niills,  railroad  machine- 
shops,  manufactures  of  carriages,  wagons,  tobacco,  brooms, 
mattresses,  etc.  In  the  cotton  season  1890-91,  26.200  bales 
of  cotton,  and  large  quantities  of  flour,  oats,  corn,  cotton- 
seed, etc.,  were  shiiiped.     Pop.  (1880)  1.880 :  (1890)  :^,861. 

Editor  of  "  News." 
Boiihain.  Mili.edge  L.  :  statesman  and  soldier:  b.  in 
South  Carolina,  May  6.  1815;  graduated  at  South  Carolina 
College  in  1884;  became  a  lawyer;  and  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war.  He  was  solicitor  for  the  southern  circuit  1848-50, 
and  a  member  of  Congress  froral856to  1800;  wasap))ointed 
major-general  of  South  Carolina  trooiis,  and  afterward 
brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army.  Ilaving  been 
elected  to  the  Confederate  Senate  he  withdrew  from  the 
armv,  and  became  Governor  of  Soul  h  Carolina  1862-64,  after 
which  he  resumed  his  position  in  the  army,  and  held  it  at 
the  time  of  Lee"s  surrender.     D.  Aug.  27,  1890. 

Bouheiir.  bo-ntu- .  Frax^ois  Auguste  :  painter  of  animals 
and  landscaiie  ;  b.  at  Bordeaux,  Nov.  4, 1824.  D.  in  Bellevue, 
Feb.  22.  1884.  Though  less  famous  than  his  sister,  Rosa 
Bonhcur.  he  achieved  a  high  reputation  in  the  artistic  world, 
and  his  work  is  marked  by  most  serious  and  meritorious 
qualities.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  Raymond  Bonheur, 
and  received  a  first-class  mediU  at  the  Paris  Salon  1861  ; 
Legion  of  Honor  1867.  One  of  his  very  best  works,  a  fine 
landscape  with  cattle.  Environa  of  Fontainebleau,  is  in  the 
Jletro[iolitan  Museum.  New  York.       William  A.  Coffin. 

Bonheur,  Marie  Kosa  :  eminent  painter  of  animals, 
wh<ise  pictures  are  widelv  known  in  Eurojie  and  America; 
b.  at  Bordeaux.  Mar.  22,  1822.  She  was  a  pupil  of  her 
father.  Raymond  Bonheur,  and  began  her  studies  by  copy- 
ing pictures  in  the  Louvre.  She  first  attracted  public  no- 
tice by  the  exhibition  of  two  pictures  at  Bordeaux  in  1841, 
and  has  since  then  jiroduced  a  large  number  of  works  which 
have  placed  her  in  the  front  rank  of  artists  in  the  field  to 
which  she  devoted  herself.  She  received  a  first-class  medal 
at  the  Paris  Salon  in  1848:  was  exempted  by  a  special  de- 
cree in  1858  from  having  her  works  passe<l  uoon  by  the  Salon 
jury;  received  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
1855.  and  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1865.  The  Horse  Fair, 
painted  in  1858,  is  perhaps  the  best,  and  is  the  most  cele- 
brated of  her  pictures.  It  was  sold  in  the  A.T.Stewart 
coUection  in  New  York  in  1887.  and  ijresented  by  the  pur- 
chaser. Cornelius  V.anderbilt.  to  the  Jletropolitan  Mu.seum, 
New  York,  where  it  now  is.  A  reolica  of  this  pictiue,  of 
smaller  size,  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  and  a  fine 
work.  Plowing  in  tJie  Kirernais.  is  in  the  Luxembourg 
Gidlery,  Paris.  Her  painting  is  exeeeilingly  robust  and 
vigorous  in  style  ;  and,  as  may  be  seen  in  T/ie  Jlorse  Fair, 
which  was  painted  when  the  artist  was  in  her  best  period, 
she  possesses  a  fine  talent  for  composition. 

\ViLLiAM  A.  Coffin. 

Bo'ni :  a  state  in  the  southwest  peninsula  of  the  island  of 
Celebes:  on  the  west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Boni.  It  is  abcmt 
80  miles  long,  and  produces  rice,  sago,  and  cassia.  The  na- 
tives manufacture  cotton  cloth  and  articles  of  gold  and  iron. 
Area.  450  s(|.  miles.   Pop.  estimated  at  200.000.  Capital,  Boni. 

Boni.  GilH"  of.  called  also  Buirhis  (boogws)  Bay:  sepa- 
rates the  two  southern  peninsulas  of  Celebes.  It  is  nearly 
200  miles  long,  and  from  40  to  80  miles  wide.  It  is  dangerous 
to  navigation  from  its  numerous  reefs. 

Bon'iface  (Ijat.  Bonifaciiis):  several  popes  have  borne 
this  name:    (1)  St.  Boxiface  I.:   elected  in  418  a.d.    St. 


698 


BONIFACE 


BONNAT 


Augustine  dedicated  several  works  to  him.  T>.  in  433. 
<2)  Boniface  II.,  a  Goth  :  b.  at  Rome ;  succeeded  Pope  Felix 
IV.  in  580.  1).  in  .M3  a.  u.  (3)  Boxiface  III.  was  chosen 
pope  in  607,  and  died  tlie  same  year.  He  was  the  first  to 
whom  the  title  of  "  universal  bishop  "  was  given  by  the  Greek 
emperor  (Phocas).  (4)  Boniface  iV.,  pope;  b.  at  Valeria  in 
Italy;  succeeded  Boniface  III.  in  60S.  He  converted  thi- 
pagan  Pantheon  of  Rome  into  a  church.  D.  in  615.  (.">) 
Boxiface  V.,  a  native  of  Naples;  became  pope  in  619.  lb- 
died  in  635, and  was  succeeded  by  Honorius  I.  (6)  BoxiFAii. 
VI.. a  native  of  Rome;  succeeded  Formosus  in  S*J6. and  died 
fifteen  days  after  his  election.  He  was  an  abandoned  char- 
acter. (7)  Boniface  VII.,  considered  by  some  authors  an 
anti-pope ;  was  elected  in  974  as  a  rival  of  Benedict  VI.  He 
was  driven  out  of  Rome  in  975.  and  was  starved  to  death  in 
prison  in  985.  (8)  Boniface  VIII. ,  Cardinal  (Benedetto 
Gaetani)  ;  was  born  at  Anagni  about  1328.  He  liecame  pope 
in  1394.  He  issued  a  bull  forbidding  all  the  clergy  to  pay 
any  tax  on  ecclesiastical  property,  by  which  he  was  involved 
in  a  contest  with  Philip  the  Fair  of  France.  He  excom- 
municated Philip,  who  accused  the  pope  of  heresy  and 
simony,  and  liesieged  him  in  his  own  palace.  Boniface  was 
skilled  in  both  civil  and  canon  law.  and  published  the  sixth 
book  of  Papal  Decretals.  He  died  Oct.  11, 1303.  (See  Dante, 
Jiiferno.  canto  xxvii. ;  W.  Drumann.  Oeschielife  des  Papstes 
Bonifariiix  VIIL.  2  vols.,  1852;  Luigi  Tosti,  Storia  di 
Bontfazio  VJJI.,  1847.)  (9)  Boniface  IX.  (Pietro  Toma- 
<-elli)  succeeded  Urban  VI.  in  1389.  He  was  a  des[)otic 
niler,  and  was  accused  of  selling  benefices  and  indulgences. 
He  died  Oct.  1,  1404,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  VII. 

Boniface.  .Saint  W'infkid:  called  The  Apostle  of  Ger- 
.many;  b.  in  Kirtou,  near  Exeter,  England,  680.  He  began 
in  716  to  preach  in  Germany;  converted  a  great  number 
<it  ]ie(i))le  and  founded  schools  and  monasteries.  He  was 
made  bishop  liy  Pope  Gregory  11.  in  733.  and  in  733  Gregory 
III.  made  him  archbishop  and  primate  of  all  Germany.  In 
718,  in  733,  and  again  in  738,  he  visited  Rome.  He  became 
Archbishop  of  Mainz  745.  June  5,  755,  he  was  assassinated 
l-iy  a  pagan  mob  at  Dokkura  in  West  Friesland,  and  his  re- 
mains were  finally  taken  to  the  famous  abbey  of  Fulda, 
founded  bv  him.  See  his  works,  edited  by  .1.  A.  Giles,  Lon- 
don. 1844,  3  vols.,  and  in  Migne,  Paf.  Laf.  LXXXIX.:  the 
original  life  is  in  Latin.  Ijy  his  pu])il,  Willibald,  Germ,  trans. 
Berlin,  1856 ;  modern  lives  by  (}.  W.  Coxe,  18.53 ;  A.  Werner, 
Leipzig,  1875;  G.  Pfaliler,  Regensburg,  1880;  O.  Fischer, 
Leipzig,  1881 ;  A.  Ebrard,  Gutersloh,  1883. 

Bonifacio,  Jose  :  See  Andraua  e  Silva. 

Bonifacio,  bo-m'e-faa'chw.  Strait  of  (anc.  Fretum  GaUi- 
ciim) ;  the  channel  which  separates  Corsica  and  Sardinia. 
The  narrowest  part  is  only  7  miles  wide.  On  the  top  of  a 
white  calcareous  rock  on  the  north  stands  the  town  of  Boni- 
facio, which  has  a  good  harbor. 

Bo'niu  (or  Uninliabited)  Islands  [from  Chinese  Wiih 
nin,  witliout  men]:  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean;  about  500 
miles  S.  of  .Japan.  They  extend  from  lat.  26'  30'  to  37°  44' 
N.,  and  are  about  Ion.  142'  E.  (see  map  of  World,  ref.  .5-C). 
They  are  divisible  into  three  groups,  the  most  northern  of 
which  are  called  Parry  islands,  and  the  most  southern  Baily 
islands.  Area,  38  sq.  miles.  Peel  island,  wjiich  is  one  o"f 
the  middle  grou|i,  is  occupied  by  a  small  numlier  of  Euro- 
pean and  Polynesian  colonists,  the  only  inhabitants  of  the 
group.  Japan  now  owns  the  group,  and  calls  it  Bonin- 
shinia,  i.  e.  Bonin  islands. 

Bon'inf,'t()n,  RiruARU  Pahkes:  painter;  b.  at  Arnold, 
near  Xotliiighaiu,  Fugland,  Oct.  25,  1801;  d.  in  London, 
Sc]>t.  23,  1828,  Pu|iil  of  Banin  Gros,  though  he  began  his 
studies  by  copying  pictures  in  the  Louvre,  having  been 
taken  to  Paris  ))y  Ins  father,  who  was  a  portrait-painter, 
about  1816.  Bonington  painted  landscapes  chietly,  but 
also  essayed  figure  subjects  and  marine  views.  He  was  in 
sympathy  with  the  new  movement  in  landscape  painting 
originated  by  Constable,  and  his  work  was  highly  appreciated 
by  French  artists  and  critics.  His  influence' on  the  new 
school  forming  in  P.iris.  headed  bv  the  "  men  of  1830,"  was 
considerable.  His  w.irk  is  uol.able'for  great  truth  of  obser- 
vation and  refined  ((uality  of  color.  "His  CoJiimn  of  HI. 
Mark's,  Venire,  is  in  the  .National  Gallery,  lj<indoii",  and 
Francis  I.  and  Duchei^x  d'E/ampes  and  T/ie  Park  iif  Ver- 
sailles are  in  the  Louvre.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Bonito,  br/-nee'to:  one  of  several  fishes  of  the  family 
Scombrida;  allied  to  the  mackerel.  One  of  these,  Oi/niiio- 
sarda  pelamys,  is  a  native  of  warm  seas.     It  is  a  beautiful 


fish,  about  2i  feet  long,  and  resembles  a  mackerel  in  form. 
The  color  of  its  back  and  sides  is  a  brilliant  steel-blue. 


Tlie  bonito. 

Four  dark  lines  extend  along  each  side  of  the  belly,  from 
the  throat  to  the  tail.  Its  flesh,  though  rather  dry,  is  eaten 
and  relished  by  many.  The  term  bonito  is  still  more  fre- 
quently applied  to  a  related  species  {Sarda  sarda)  found  on 
both  shores  of  the  North  Atlantic,  and  distinguished  from 
the  preceding  species  by  its  strong  teeth.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  is  another  bonito  (Sarda  chilensis). 

Revisecl  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Bo'nitz,  Hermann;  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  scholar, 
and  a  high  authority  in  educational  matters;  b.  in  Langen- 
salza,  Jrdy  29,  1814.  Professor  in  the  University  of  Vienna 
1849-67;  reorganizer  of  the  Austrian  school  system;  pro- 
fessor in  Berlin  till  his  death  in  that  city,  Jiily  25,  1888. 
Wrote  Platonische  Studien;  Index  AristotelioiK;  Latin 
Commentary  on  Aristotle's  lletapliysics  (Bonn,  1849),  with 
a  German  translation  j5ublished  after  his  death  by  E.  Well- 
mann  ;  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  homerisrhen  Oedichte  (1881, 
5th  ed.) ;  and  numerous  critical  contributions.  See  Th. 
Gomperz,  Biogr.  Jahrb.,  vii.  (1888),  pp.  53-100. 

Alfred  Gudeman. 

Bonn  (a.\\p.  Bonna):  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia;  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine;  19  miles  by 
rail  >S.  S.  E.  of  Cologne  (see  map  of  (iernian  Empire,  ref.  5-C). 
It  is  on  the  railway  which  connects  Cologne  with  Coblentz. 
It  has  an  ancient  cathedral,  which  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
Romanesque  style.  Here  arc  manufactures  of  cott(in  goods, 
earthenware,  and  soap.  Bonn  is  the  seat  of  a  celelirated 
university  founded  in  1818,  which  has  a  library  of  350,000 
volumes  and  is  attended  by  over  1,300  students.  Connected 
with  it  are  an  oliservatory,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  museum 
of  natural  history.  The  buildings  of  this  institution  are 
excellent  and  very  extensive.  Xiebuhr.  A.  W.  Schlegel, 
Hermes.  Simrock,  and  other  eminent  men  have  been  profes- 
sois  in  this  university.  Here  are  several  large  and  elegant 
hotels  for  the  accommodation  of  tourists,  who  are  attracted 
by  the  picturesque  scenery  of  the  vicinity.  Bonn  is  a  very 
ancient  town.  i?onMo,  which  was  an  important  Roman  sta- 
tion, is  said  to  have  Ijcen  rebuilt  by  the  Emperor  Julian  in 
the  fourth  century.  It  was  conquered  by  the  French  in 
1803.  and  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1814.  It  is  the  native  place 
of  Beethoven,  and  a  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  the  jliin- 
sterplatz  in  1845.  Niebuhr  is  buried  in  the  cemetery  outside 
of  the  Sternthor,  wliere  there  is  a  monument  to  him,  erected 
by  Frederick  William  IV.     Pop.  (1890)  39,805. 

Bonnat.  lion'naa',  Leon  Joseph  Plorentin:  one  of  the 
most  eminent  jiainters  of  the  contemporary  French  school ;  b. 
at  Bayonne,  June  20, 1833 ;  pupil  of  Federico  dc  Madrazo  and 
Leon  Coguiet.  He  is  highly  esteemed  by  his  fellow-artists, 
and  since  tlic  death  of  Meissonier  is  the  recognized  head  of 
the  art  world  of  Paris,  President  of  the  Society  of  French 
Artists.  He  is  most  famous  as  a  painter  of  portraits,  but 
has  also  [lainted  a  number  of  historical  and  religious  com- 
liosilions,  and  numerous  genre-pictures  of  Italian  peasants. 
As  a  young  man  he  spent  several  years  in  S])ain  and  Italy, 
first  gaining  recognition  at  the  Paris  Salou  in  1861.  when  he 
received  a  second-class  medal.  The  list  of  his  honors  is  a 
long  one,  inchiiling  the  medal  of  honor  at  the  Salon  of  1869. 
In  the  Legion  of  Honor  he  was  made  chevalier  in  1867, 
otlicer  in  1874,  and  commander  in  1882.  Member  of  the 
Institute  and  one  of  the  three  professors  of  painting  at  the 
Government  ficolc  des  Beaux-Arts.  He  has  painted  the  por- 
traits of  many  distinguished  persons,  ini'ludiug  those  of 
Thiers,  Victor  Hugo,  Presidents  Grew  and  Carnot,  Cardinal 
Lavigerie,  Renan,  and  Alexandre  I)umas.  He  has  also 
painted  numerous  Americans,  and  his  portrait  work  is  wtdl 
known  in  the  U.  S.  Some  of  his  principal  works  are  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  taking  the  place  of  a  Galley  Slave  (1866); 


BONNKK 


BONXYCASTLE 


699 


Cliritit  on  the  Crosn  (1H74).  in  tlio  Palais  do  Justice,  Paris; 
./„c<ih  Wrestlimj  with  tlie  Aiiyd  {lH7ti);  -/o4(I880);  The 
yuiith  of  Sammii  (W.n);  and  .Varti/rdum  of  SI.  Den  is  (ISH^), 
ill  the  Pantheon,  Paris.  His  Jo/}  anil  the  portrait  of  his 
master,  Leon  Cojrniel,  are  in  tlie  Luxembourg  (iallerv.  At 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  is  a  portrait  by  liim 
lil"  .lohn  'I'aylor  .lohnston,  a  founiler  ami  at  tlie  time  of  his 
ileath  (Mar.  24,  1M!)8)  honorary  president  of  that  institution. 
/la/inn  Girt  is  in  the  collection  of  Mrs.  August  Belmont, 
jirid  Arab  Ptiirkiiu)  a  Thorn  from  his  Foot  in  that  of  Mrs, 
W.  II.  Vanderl>ilt,  lioth  in  New  York.  BonnatV  portraits  are 
iliaraeterized  Ijy  ^reat  truthfulness  to  the  sitter  and  line 
drawiiij^  and  modelinj;.     lie  is  not  remarkable  as  a  colorist. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Bon'lior.  EnMrxn:  an  En<jlish  prelate  notorious  as  a  per- 
secutor: b.  in  llanley  aljout  l.")00.  lie  was  educated  at  Ox- 
fonl:  gained  the  favor  of  Henry  VI 11..  wlioaliout  1.582  sent 
him  on  a  mission  to  tlie  pope,  and  appointed  him  Bishop  of 
Hereford  in  lo^S  aiul  Bisho])  of  London  in  lo;i!).  Having 
showeil  himself  hostile  to  the  Protestant  cause,  he  was  de- 
jirived  of  his  bishopri<'  in  l.')4!l  and  imprisoned  in  the  Mar- 
shalsea  prison  in  London  until  the  iU'cession  of  t^ueen  Mary 
in  loo;',  when  he  was  restored  to  his  office.  He  was  the 
princiiial  instigator  of  the  bloody  persecutions  which  dis- 
gra<eil  the  reign  of  JIary.  l{efusing  to  take  the  oath  of  su- 
liremacy  on  the  ac(!ession  of  Klizabeth  in  lo.oS,  he  was  impris- 
oned in  the  Marshalsea,  London,  where  he  died  Sept.  5,  loti9. 

Uoiliiet:  in  fortification  of  the  old  school  a  small  de- 
fense-wfirk  constructed  at  salient  angles  of  the  glacis  or 
larger  works.  It  has  only  two  faces,  with  a  parapet  3  feet 
high  and  10  or  12  broad.  A  larger  kind,  with  three  salient 
angles,  is  called  a  priest's  bounef. 

Boiliiot.  l)on  na  ,  Charles,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  :  Swiss  natu- 
ralist and  iihilosopher:  b.  at  Geneva,  Mar.  13,  1720.  He 
Muide  discoveries  in  the  reproductive  and  other  functions  of 
insects,  etc.,  which  he  aunouuced  in  his  Treatise  on  Iiisect- 
oloyii  (2  vols.,  1745).  He  publislied  in  17o4  a  valuable  work 
thi  the  Cse  of  the  Leaves  of  Plants.  His  sight  having  be- 
come impaired  by  the  use  of  the  microscope,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  philosophy.  Among  his  other  works  (all  in 
French)  are  Considrrations  on  Oryani^ed  Bodies  (1762)  and 
I'liilosopliical  I'ltlingenesis  (:i  vols.,  17(5!!),  in  which  he  ar- 
gued that  the  Christian  revelation  is  true.  D.  at  Genthod, 
oil  Lake  Geneva,  Jlay  20,  1 7!KJ.  The  geuus_i^o/(«e/(a  was 
named  in  his  honor.  See  H.  B.  de  Saussure,  Elo;ie  liistoriqne 
ilf  ('.  lidtiiiel  (1787):  J.  Tremblev,  Memoire  de  la  Vie  de  C. 
Bonnet  (1794):  A.  Lemoine,  C.  Jionnet  de  Geneve,  Philoso- 
phe  el  Naturalisle  (18o0). 

Roinic  Torre:  village:  St.  Francois co..  Mo.  (for  location 
"■r  count  v.  see  map  of  iMissouri,  ref.  5-.I) ;  on  Miss.  Riv.  and 
Bonne  Tcrre  K.  H.:  32  miles  S.  by  W.  of  St.  Louis.  Its 
principal  industries  are  lead-mining  and  smelting.  Pop. 
U8!»())  3.7UI. 

lioiiiiot-llPilil :  a  shark  (Sphyrna  tihuro).  allied  to  the 
hammer-head,  but  with  the  head  rather  kidney-shapeil  than 
hammer-shaped.  It  reaches  a  length  of  6  feet,  anil  is  found 
in  tropical  seas. 

ItoiiiK-val,  bon'viial',  Claude  Alexandre,  Count  de :  a 
French  adventurer:  b.  in  Limousin,  July  14,  1675.  He  de- 
.-erled  from  the  French  army  and  entere<l  the  service  of 
Austria,  in  which  he  distinguisheil  himself  by  several  dar- 
ing exploits,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  general.  Having 
<iuarreled  with  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries,  he  was 
condemned  to  death  by  a  court  martial  about  1724,  but  the 
penalty  was  C4immuted  to  exile.  He  entered  the  Turkish 
army,  took  the  name  of  Aehmed.  and  became  a  pasha  of 
three  tails.  I),  in  Constantinople,  Mar.  27.  1745.  See  I). 
Fassmann.  Li'lieii  <lrs  Graf  en  von  ISonneviil  (1740):  Memoirs 
of  tlie  Bar/shaiv  ( 'oiinl  Bonnevul  (London,  1750). 

Roiiiieville,  Lake  :  an  extinct  Pleistocene  lake  that 
twice  ficcupied  the  now  desert  interior  basin  of  Utah.  Its 
shore-lines,  contouring  around  the  inclosing  mountain- 
slopes,  have  been  noticed  by  inanv  explorers.  Its  history 
has  been  deciphered  by  Gilbert  (Monograph  I,  U.  S.  (ieol. 
Survey).  Thi'  area  and  depth  of  the  lake  at  its  various 
Icvi-ls  are  indicatecl  by  the  shore-lines  above  mentioned. 
When  at  its  greatest  expansion  its  surface  measured  almost 
20,000  SI),  miles,  and  its  depth  was  nearly  1,000  feet.  The 
sediments  corresponding  to  the  shore-lines  are  found  to  lie 
on  gravels,  thus  indicating  that  before  the  lake  existed  its 
basin  was  a  dry  interior  depression  as  now.  Moreover,  the 
literal  and   bottom   deposits  are    separated   by   a  series   of 


gravel  beds,  indicating  an  ari<i  period  between  two  periods 
of  high  water.  When  at  its  highest  level  in  the  second 
period,  forming  what  is  called  the  Bonneville  shore-line,  the 
waters  of  the  lake  overflowed  northward  acros.s  Red  Rock 
pass  to  a  branch  of  the  Shoshone  river,  and  thus  reached 
the  Pacific.  The  pass  was  cut  down  about  370  feet,  and  at 
this  level  the  waters  lingered  long  enough  to  cut  a  second 
series  of  shore-lines,  called  the  I'rovo  shore.  Tlien  loss  by 
evaporation  overcame  rainfall  supply:  overflow  ceased,  and 
the  lake  dwindled  away,  revealing  its  bottom  as  a  desert 
plain.  The  variation  in  the  area  of  the  ancient  lake  indi- 
cates climatic  changes  from  drier  to  moister  comlitions; 
and  these  alternations  are  ai»parently  coincident  with  the 
alternations  of  glacial  climates  oi  Northeastern  North 
America.  Since  the  waters  of  the  lake  have  dried  away 
the  shore-lines  have  been  slightly  warped  out  of  level,  as  it 
owing  to  the  relief  of  the  weight  of  the  water  on  the  land. 
See  (jKEAT  Salt  Lake  and  Lahontan.  W.  JI.  Davis. 

Boii'ney.  Charles  Carroll:  president  of  the  World's 

Congress  Auxiliary  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition; 
b.  in  1831  in  Hamilton,  N.  Y. ;  removed  to  Peoria.  111., 
1850;  admitted  to  the  bar  18.52;  removed  to  Chicago  1860; 
president  of  the  Illinois  State  Bar  Association  1882;  has 
been  president  of  the  International  Law  and  Order  League, 
which  he  helped  to  found,  since  1885 :  has  been  active  in 
works  of  practical  reform  ;  author  of  the  scheme  for  a  series 
of  worlil's  congresses  in  connection  with  the  World's  Co- 
lumbian Exposition  of  1893  "to  promote  future  progress  by 
the  fraternal  co-operation  of  the  enlightened  minds  of  all 
countries.''  C.  H.  Tuurber. 

Boiiliey,  Thomas  George,  LL.  P. :  author,  scientist,  and 
divine  ;  b.  in  Rugeley,  July  27,  1833  ;  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  B.  A.  degree  in  1856 ; 
fellow  St.  John's  College,  Cambriilge.  1859;  elected  Pro- 
fessor of  Geologj-  at  University  College,  London,  1877; 
president  Geological  Society  1884-86.  He  has  translated 
Pierotti's  Jerusalem  Explored  (2  vols.,  1864);  Pierotti's 
Customs  and  Traditions  of  Palestine.  Author  The  Holy 
Places  of  Jerusalem  (1864);  Ontline  Sketches  in  the  High 
Alps  of  Daiiphine  (1865)  :  Testimony  of  the  Primitive 
Father's  to  tlie  Truth  of  the  Gospel  History  (1867);  Four 
Sermons  preached  liefore  the  University  of  Cambridge 
(1868);  Tlie  Alpine  Regions  of  Switzerland  and  the  Seiqh- 
boring  (,'ov////;-('e.s  (1868);  The  Const  of  jVorway  (ISIO) ;  Vi- 
gneftes,  Alpine  and  Eastern  (1873);  The  Bernese  Oberland 
(1874) ;  Lake  and  Mountain  Scenery  of  the  Swiss  Alps 
(1874);  Elementary  Geology  (1874);  Wehh  Scenery  (1875- 
76);  Sketch  of  the  Geology  of  Cambridgeshire  (1875);  Eng- 
lisli  Lake  Scenery  (1876);  Elementary  Physical  Geography 
(1877) ;  Sermons  on  -lome  Questions  of  the  Pay  (1878) :  The 
Influence  of  Science  on  Theology,  llulsean  Lectures  (1885); 
contributor  to  the  Transactions  of  tlie  Royal  Society,  the 
Journal  of  the  Geological  Society,  and  other  scientific  pub- 
lications. W.  S.  Perry. 

Boiillirard.  bonnc'evaar.  Francois,  de:  writer  and  poli- 
tician of  Geneva  ;  b.  in  France,  1406;  educated  at  Turin ; 
succeeded  to  the  priory  of  St.  Victor,  near  Geneva,  1510; 
sided  with  Geneva  against  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  by  whose 
agents  he  was  arrested  juid  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
Chillon  1530:  was  liberated  1536,  when  his  countrymen 
captured  Chillon:  wnjtethc  chronicles  of  Geneva  (1.546—52); 
left  several  works  in  JISS.  His  books,  given  to  the  city, 
formeil  the  nucleus  of  tlie  public  library  of  Geneva.  His 
imprisonment  is  the  foundation  of  Byron's  poem.  The 
Prisoner  of  Chillon.     D.  in  Geneva,  about  1571. 

C.  H.  Thi'RBER. 

Boii'iiycastlp.  Charles:  b.  at  Woolwich,  England,  in 
1792:  son  of  John,  noticed  below.  He  was  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors brought  over  by  Mr.  Jefferson  for  the  University  of 
Virginia  in  1825.  He  at  first  occupied  the  chair  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  and  afterward  that  of  Mathematics.  He  pub- 
lished a  tri'atise  on  Algebra,  one  on  Inductive  Geometry, 
and  various  scientific  papei-s.  D.  at  Charlottesville,  Va., 
Oct.,  1840. 

Boiinycastlp,  John  :  mathematician;  b.  in  Whitchurch, 
Buckiugliamshire.  probably  about  1750.  He  was  Professor 
of  Mathematics  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Wool- 
wich from  1782  to  1785,  and  published,  liesides  other  works. 
Elements  of  Geometri/  (1789)  and  Elements  of  Algebra  (3 
vols.,  18i;i)."  which  were  higlily  esteemed.     D.  May  15,  1821. 

BoniiycastU',  Sir  Richard  Hi;xrv:  son  of  the  forego- 
ing; b.  in  1791 ;  served  in  Flanders  and  afterward  in  Caua- 


roo 


BOXPLAND 


BOOKBINDING 


da  against  the  U.  S.  (1813-15);  became  in  1848  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  British  engineers.  Most  of  his  life  was  passed  in 
British  Xortli  Anierica.  He  was  knighted  for  services  in 
defense  of  Kingston,  Canada,  in  183T,  and  published  Cana- 
da as  if  Was,  is,  and  May  Jif.  and  other  works  on  Canada, 
and  also  one  on  Spanis/i  America  (1818).     D.  in  1848. 

Bonplaiid,  boiVplaaiV,  Aime:  French  botanist:  b.  at  La 
Rochelle,  Aug.  22,  177^^.  He  studied  medicine  and  botanr 
at  Paris,  and  formed  a  friendship  with  Humboldt.  In  1799 
he  accompanied  llumlioldt  in  a  scientific  expedition  to 
South  America,  where  they  traveled  about  five  years.  After 
their  return  to  France  he  published  a  splendid  work  en- 
titled Equinoctial  Plants  colli-cf^d  in  Mexico  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1808-16,  with  140  plates).  He  had  collected  6.000  species  of 
plants,  of  which  8,.")()0  were  entirely  new.  He  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  1816,  and  de- 
parted in  1821  on  an  excui-sion  to  the  Andes,  but  as  he  was 
passing  through  Paraguay  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  I>r. 
Francia,  who  detained  him  as  a  prisoner  nearly  ten  years. 
After  his  release  in  1881  he  resided  for  many  years  in  Uru- 
guay. D.  in  Santa  Anna,  May  11,  1858.  Humboldt.  Bon- 
pland,  and  Kunth  published  a  work  called  ^s'ora  Genera  et 
Species  Plantarum  (7  vols.,  1815-25,  with  700  plates). 

Bo'nns  [orig.  a  jocularly  inaccurate  use  of  the  Lat.  adjec. 
good,  as  if  meaning  "a  good  thing"]  :  a  sum  or  consideration 
given  or  paid  beyond  what  is  statedly  or  properly  due.  Spe- 
cifically :  (a)  an  extra  dividend  or  allowance  paid  to  the  share- 
holders of  a  stock  company,  holders  of  insurance  policies, 
etc.,  out  of  accumulated  profits ;  (J)  a  premium  for  a  loan  dis- 
tinct from  the  interest,  and  hence  a  premium  paid  for  a  char- 
ter or  other  privilege  granted  to  a  corporation  or  individual. 

Bouy  Fishes :  See  Fish. 

Boiivin,  bon  vaii',  Fraxcois  Saixt-  :  French  genre-painter, 
whose  pictures  are  highly  appreciated  by  artists  ami  ama- 
teui-s  of  art;  b.  at  Vaugirard,  near  Paris,  Sept.  22,  1817. 
He  was  self-taught,  and  began  his  art  studies  by  copying 
the  works  of  the  Dutch  masters  in  the  Louvre.  He  exhib- 
ited frequently  at  the  Paris  .Salon,  and  received  a  second- 
class  medal  in  1851  and  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1870;  but 
his  works  did  not  gain  for  him  a  po]iular  reputation.  His 
pictures  are  now  much  sought  for  by  collectors,  and  are 
justly  valued  for  their  sobriety  but  richness  anil  depth  of 
color,  and  their  quiet,  unobtrusive  technique.  His  work  has 
much  in  common  with  that  of  the  great  Dutch  painters 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  is  distinguished  by  marked 
personal  qualities.  D.  at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye,"  Dec.  18, 
1887.  Willia:!!  A.  Coffin. 

Bony-pike :  a  ganoid  fish  of  the  genus  Lepidosteus  (orig- 
inally spelled  Lepisosteus);  found  in  America;  especially 
remarkable  as  being  examples  of  a  type  of  fishes  now  almost 
extinct,  but  which  in  the  old  red  sandstone  period  were  ex- 
tremely numerous.  To  the  same  genus  belong  the  gar-pike 
and  the  alhgator-gar  of  the  U.  S.  The  latter  is  sometimes 
6  feet  in  length,  ami  derives  its  name  from  its  wide  flattened 
head,  which  suggests  that  of  an  alligator.     See  Lepisosteid.e. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Bonze,  bonz :  a  name  sometimes  applied  by  foreignei-s  to 
the  Buddhist  monks  of  China  and  Japan.  The  word  may 
be  a  corruption  of  the  Japanese  bozu,  a  Buddhist  monk,  or 
of  the  Chinese /a«  sUng  (pronounced  in  Japan  hon  (or  bon) 
zo),  "an  ordinary  member  of  the  a-ssemblv,"  i.e.  of  the 
monastic  order  founded  by  the  Buddha.  'See  Buddhism 
and  Gautajia. 

Booby:  one  of  several  species  of  aquatic  birds  of  the 
same  genus  as  the  gannet  {Snla)  and  family  Sulidw.  Thev 
are  found  on  the  coasts  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries. 
They  seldom  swim,  but  are  birds  of  powerful  wing,  and 
feed  on  fish,  whicli  are  caught  near  the  surface  of  the" water 
by  a  sudden  plunge.  Tliey  are  remarkable  for  stupiditv 
and  .slow  movement  on  the  land,  and  will  remain  motion- 
less when  aijproached.  The  boobies  are  persecuted  by  the 
frigate-bird,  which  sometimes  compels  them  to  give  up  the 
fishes  they  have  cauglit,  and  even  to  disgorge  those  they 
have  devoured.  The  name  is  more  commonly  applied  to 
the  darker  species  of  the  genus,  the  white  ones  being  known 
as  gannets.  The  commonest  species  in  the  V.  S.  is  Sida 
leiicogastra,  which  is  very  abundant  along  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  coasts.  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Booddlia:  See  BCddha. 

Boofarik,  boo-fu~a-reek',  or  Boiifarik  :  a  town  of  Algeria. 
See  BuFARiK, 


Book  :  a  treatise  written  or  printed  on  any  material  and 
put  together  in  any  convenient  form.  The"  materials  and 
torm  have  varied  greatly  among  different  nations  and  at 
dijfercnt  periods.  The  ordinary  writing  material  of  the 
ancients  was  papyrus.  Parchment,  thin  leaves  of  lead  and 
copper,  ivory  tablets,  linen,  etc.,  were  also  used.  Leaves 
joined  end  to  end  and  rolled  up  on  a  small  roller  made  a 
■•  volume  "  (Lat.  vohimen.  from  votvere.  to  roll).  Books  in 
a  square  form  came  in  later.  Such  a  book  was  called  a 
codex.  Books  were  copied  by  hand  down  to  the  invention 
of  printing,  were  frequently  illuminated — i.e.  adorned  with 
sketches  and  miniatures  in  colors — and  were  rare  and  ex- 
pensive. From  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  centuries  books 
were  so  sc-arce  that  often  not  one  could  be  found  in  an  en- 
tire city,  and  even  rich  monasteries  possessed  only  a  single 
mass-book.  The  introduction  of  paper  into  Europe  about 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  invention  of  printing  in  the 
fifteenth  centurj',  maiie  possible  the  great  accomplishments 
of  modern  bookmaking.  Books  printed  before  1500  are 
known  .as  incunabula  (Lat.  incunahuhim,  cradle).  Scarcity 
of  parchment  led  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  practice  of  wash- 
ing or  scraping  off  one  writing  to  make  room  for  another. 
A  manuscript  so  treated  wa-s  caUed  a  Palimpsest  {q.  v.). 
The  terms  folio  (fol.),  quarto  (4to),  octavo  (8vo),  duodecimo 
(12mo),  etc.,  applied  to  books,  indicate  in  a  general  wav  the 
size,  folio  being  the  largest.  Books  are  printed  on  large 
sheets  of  paper :  when  these  sheets  are  folded  once,  making 
each  two  leaves  and  four  pages,  the  book  is  a  folio ;  when 
folded  twice,  so  as  to  make  each  four  leaves  and  eight 
pages,  the  book  is  a  quarto :  folded  so  as  to  make  eight 
leaves  and  sixteen  pages,  octavo,  etc.  See  Bibliography, 
Bookbinding,  Copyright,  and  Paleography. 

Bookbinding :  the  art  of  fastening  together  and  in- 
closing the  leaves  of  a  book  for  preservation  and  use; 
practiced  for  many  centuries.  Long  before  the  invention 
of  printing  the  written  leaves  of  missals  and  other  books 
were  united  together,  and  inclosed  in  covers  of  wood,  parch- 
ment, and  other  materials.  Much  labor  and  expense  was 
bestowed  on  a  single  volume,  and  the  covers  were  frequently 
decorated  with  jewels  and  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver. 
Some  of  these  volumes  are  still  preser\-ed  in  the  monasteries 
and  museums  of  the  Old  World,  and  are  objects  of  interest 
and  study. 

Since  the  invention  of  printing,  and  especially  from  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  the  rapid  advancement  of  the 
mechanical  arts,  the  extension  of  education,  and  the  general 
ditfusion  of  knowledge  have  made  books  a*  much  a  neces- 
sity of  life  as  food  and  clothing,  and  their  preservation  is 
therefore  an  object  of  importance. 

The  niotlern  operations  of  bookbinding  may  lie  grouped 
in  two  main  divisions — "forwarding"  and  "Hiiishing."  the 
first  comprehending  what  is  necessaiT  for  the  presen-ation 
of  books,  the  latter  pertaining  to  their  embellishment.  In 
each  of  these  departments  tiiere  are  various  subdivisions, 
which  may  be  noted.  The  sheets  are  generally  received 
from  the  printer  in  bundles  containing  a  thousand,  more  or 
less,  of  one  kind. 

The  first  operation  is  to  fold  the  sheet,  by  means  of  a 
thin  piece  of  ivory  or  bone,  about  9  inches  long,  called 
a  '■  folder."  The  object  of  this  is  to  bring  the  pages  to- 
gether in  regidar  order,  and  on  the  care  with  which  the 
folding  is  done  much  of  the  appearance  of  the  book  depends. 
The  next  process  is  "  gathering  "  and  "  collating."  Gather- 
ing consists  in  putting  together  one  each  of  the  various 
sheets  of  whicli  the  book  is  made,  and  collating  is  the  ex- 
amination ot  the  numbers  1,  2,  3.  etc.,  which  are  placed  at 
the  foot  of  the  outside  page  of  the  folded  sections,  and 
which  are  called  "  signatures." 

The  next  thing  required  is  to  make  the  book  solid.  This 
is  done  by  placing  it  either  in  a  hydraulic  press  or  under 
some  other  form  of  pressure,  such  as  the  nature  and  size  of 
the  book  may  require.  After  being  pressed  the  book  is 
prepared  for  sewing  by  having  indentations  made  in  the 
back  of  the  sheets  by  passing  them  over  rapidly  revolving 
circular  saws.  They  are  now  sewed  on  a  frame  called  a 
"  sewing-bench,"  each  sheet  being  sewed  around  twine 
bands,  which  are  afterward  fastened  to  the  boards.  Much 
of  its  durability  depends  on  the  sewing  being  well  done, 
and  all  large  work  is  improved  by  having  the  sections  at 
the  bcginuiMg  ami  end  of  the  book  cross  or  "  whip  stitched." 

Tlie  greater  part  of  the  labor  lias  so  far  been  done  by 
women,  who  by  practice  acquire  great  dexterity  in  the  per- 
formance of  the  various  processes  involved.     Machinery  is 


BOOKUIXDIXG 


BOONE 


roi 


used  w'iili  considerable  success  in  foldiu!,',  and  a  inacliine 
has  been  introduced  for  sewin<;,  but  all  tlie  worli  in  the 
early  stai^es  is  still  in  great  measure  done  by  hand-labor. 
In  the  more  advanced  stages  of  bindin;,'  machinery  is  iise<l 
extensively,  and  our  description  will  be  in  accordance 
with  the'  methods  pursued  where  larjje  quantities  are 
constantly  being  bound,  and  wliere  machinery  is  used  to 
facilitate  production.  The  booli,  after  being  removed  from 
the  sewing-bench,  and  having  about  an  inch  of  the  twine 
left  on  either  side  to  fasten  to  the  jjasteboard  cover,  has 
the  end  leaves  applied.  These  are  of  colored,  white,  or 
marble  j)aiier,  as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  require. 
The  book  is  now  "cut"  by  l)eing  fastened  tightly  in  a  cut- 
ting-machine, and  a  viliruling  knife  is  brought  down  on 
tlie  edge,  which  is  cut  oil  smoothly  at  the  point  desired. 
The  edges  are  eillu'r  left  white,  are  colored  by  being  sprin- 
kled with  color  thrown  on  finely  witli  a  brush,  or  are 
marbled,  which  is  done  by  dipping  the  edge  on  colors 
whicli  float  on  tlie  surface  of  guni-waler.  The  "  comb 
edge "  so  much  used  is  made  by  a  comb  being  drawn 
tlirough  the  coUirs  on  the  surface  of  the  gum-water  before 
tlie  bonk  is  dipjied.  If  tlie  liook  is  to  have  gilt  edges,  it  is 
placed  in  a  press  and  a  coating  of  red  color  applied.  The 
edges  are  then  sized  with  white  of  egg,  and  gold-leaf  laid 
over  the  size.  When  the  sizing  is  thoroughly  dried  the  gold 
is  burnished  with  agate  or  bloodstone. 

A  coating  of  glue  is  now  applied  to  the  back,  and  when 
partially  dry  a  round  is  formed  in  the  front  and  back  by  a 
slight  hainmering  on  the  back.  Tlie  book  is  then  fastened 
tirmly  between  iron  clamps  in  a  backing-machine,  and  a 
roller  is  then  [iressed  heavily  across  the  back,  which  turns 
part  of  the  back  over  cither  side  of  the  clamps,  making 
a  groove  to  hold  the  board  of  which  the  inside  of  the 
cover  is  made.  The  piece  of  silk  braid  or  colored  cloth 
'  which  projects  over  the  leaves  of  the  back  inside  the  cover, 
and  is  called  the  "head-band,"  is  now  fastened  with  glue, 
and  the  whole  back  has  a  lining  of  cloth  or  strong  rope 
paper  firmly  applied  to  it  with  glue  and  paste.  The  open 
or  spring  back  is  now  made  by  ap|ilying  two  thicknesses 
of  paper,  open  in  the  center,  but  fastened  at  the  edges — 
one  thickness  of  the  paper  being  attached  to  the  back  of 
the  book,  and  the  other  thickness  to  the  leather  or  other 
material  of  which  the  outside  cover  may  be  made.  The 
book  is  now  ready  for  the  cover,  the  outside  of  which  may 
be  of  muslin,  sheepskin,  calf.  Turkev  morocco,  or  such 
other  materials  as  may  be  desired.  'I'he  cover,  or  ''case." 
is  made  by  boards  being  cut  larger  than  the  leaves  of  the 
book,  over  which  the  outside  material  is  fastened  by  glue 
or  paste,  a  space  being  left  between  the  two  boards  large 
enough  to  tit  the  back  of  the  book  in.  the  boards  being  re- 
<|uired  to  fit  nicely  into  the  grooves  made  in  baf:king. 
Much  of  the  material  used  for  boards  of  common  books  is 
straw,  but  all  good  work  should  have  a  hard,  smooth  board 
made  of  rope.  The  edge  of  the  board  is  frequently  ground 
•  iff  on  a  rapidly  revolving  emery  wheel,  which  makes  a 
beveled  edge,  now  much  used. 

After  the  cover  is  dry  the  embellishment  is  done  by 
stamping  in  gold,  blank,  and  colors.  If  in  gold,  the  leather 
or  doth  is  sized  with  albumin,  and  gold-leaf  laiil  on  with 
oil.  The  ornamental  die  or  lettering  being  fastened  in  an 
"embossing-press  "  and  heated,  it  is  brought  with  sufficient 
jiressure  on  the  cover  to  make  the  gold-leaf  adhere.  The 
sur|)lus  gold  being  brushed  olf,  leaves  the  impresi^ion  of  the 
<lie.  The  dies  are  cut  in  brass  or  steel,  and  very  elaborate 
and  beautiful  designs,  which  formerly  would  have  taken 
many  weeks  to  execute  by  hand-labor,  are  now  produced 
jiliuost  instantly  Viy  the  embossing-press. 

The  cover  having  received  all  intended  ornament,  the 
back  of  the  book  is  glued  and  fitted  into  it.  the  end-papers 
are  jiik-ited  to  the  inside  of  the  cover,  and  the  book  is  placed 
in  a  press  to  remain  till  dry.  Wlien  removed  from  the 
jiress  it  is  ready  for  the  publisher  and  the  public. 

"  Half  binding."  much   used   for  library  and   reference 
'      books,  is  that  style  of  binding  where  the  back  and  corners 
aire    covered   with    leather,   and    the   sides   with   cloth  or 
jiaper. 

The  old  process  of  "  forwarding  "  by  hand,  in  which  each 
book  is  ba<'ked  by  a  hammer  and  cut  singly  by  press  and 
plow,  and  the  book  finished  by  the  slow  method  of  for- 
mer yeai-s.  is  still  followed  to  some  extent  in  small  bind- 
eries, but  requires  no  minute  description,  as  the  system  is 
almost  obsolete  for  books  in  quantities. 

Machinery  is  now  much  used  in  bookbinding,  and  large 
editions  are  produced  in  a  style  of  great  elegance  and  dura- 


bility, and  at  prices  so  moderate  as  to  be  within  reach  of  all 
classes  of  the  community.  James  Somkrville. 

liookkeepin!^:  the  art  of  recording,  in  a  regular  and 
systematic  manner,  the  transactions  of  merchants  or  other 
persons  engaged  in  pursuits  connected  with  money.  There 
are  two  modes  of  keeping  books  of  account — the  one  by 
what  is  terme<l  nint/lf:,  and  the  other  by  double  entry.  IJoth 
are  in  gc^ncral  use.  'J'he  system  of  single  entry  is  the  sim- 
pler mode  of  bookkeeping,  and  consists  of  only  a  dav-book 
and  a  ledger.  Jn  the  day-book  the  dealer  enters  his  sales 
and  purchases,  and  in  his  ledger  he  carries  the  former  to  the 
deljit  of  his  customers,  and  ilie  latter  to  the  credit  of  the 
merchants  who  supply  him  whh  goods.  By  making  at  any 
time  a  list  of  the  suras  due  to  him  by  his  customers,  and  of 
those  due  by  him  to  oth<5rs.  the  deaha'  may,  after  adding  to 
the  debts  due  to  him  the  value  of  his  stock  on  hand,  arrive 
at  an  approximation  to  the  real  state  of  his  debts  and  assets. 
This,  however,  is  but  an  imperfect  method  of  bookkeeping, 
and  in  the  case  of  wholesale  mercantile  business,  where  ex- 
tensive and  multifarious  transactions  have  to  be  recorded, 
recourse  is  had  to  the  system  of  double  entry.  This  system 
possesses  all  the  advantages  of  single  entry,  besides  being  so 
complete  and  (comprehensive  in  its  iirinciples, and  so  certain 
in  its  results,  as  to  admit  of  uiiivers;il  a]i])lication. 

No  authentic  accounts  exist  of  the  origin  of  bookkeeping. 
The  double-entry  system  apfiearsto  have  been  first  practiced 
in  Italy  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  objects  of  bookkeeping  are  to  exhibit  transactions  in 
the  most  minute  detail  and  in  the  most  condensed  form; 
advancing  from  the  earliest  stage  to  the  latest  by  such  clear 
and  lucicl  steps  as  to  admit  of  every  fact  being  traced  in  its 
progress,  so  as  to  be  secured  at  ev(!ry  step  against  error. 

The  three  principal  books  required  under  the  system  of 
double  entry  are  a  cash-book,  jom-nal,  and  ledger.  In  the 
first  of  these  every  transaction  is  recorded  where  money  is 
one  of  the  elements.  The  journal  foniis  a  most  important 
part  of  the  system.  It  exhibits  a  narrative  of  every  trans- 
action of  which  an  actual  transfer  of  money  does  not  form 
one  of  the  elements,  arranging  the  facts  in  as  simple  a  form 
as  correctness  and  intelligibility  will  admit  of:  and  the  re- 
sults of  these  entries  in  the  journal  are  afterward  introduced 
into  the  ledger,  which  thereby  becomes  a  key  to  the  history 
of  every  transaction.  In  like  manner  cash  transactions  are 
often  introduced  into  the  journal,  and  are  at  stated  periods 
classed  and  arranged  in  a  condensed  form  and  transferred 
to  the  ledger.  The  journal  is  advantageously  ruled  with 
four  columns — two  for  entries  debtor,  and  two  for  entries 
creditor:  and  all  the  transjictions  being  connecte<l  either 
with  pei-sonal  and  property  accounts  or  with  nominal  ac- 
counts, such  as  charges,  profit  and  loss,  and  so  forth,  they 
are  classed  accordingly  in  the  columns  on  the  debtor  or 
creditor  side  of  the  journal  respectively:  and  as  the  debit 
entries  are  at  all  times  equal  to  the  credit  entries,  the  ag- 
gregate of  the  two  columns  on  the  debtor  side  must  tally 
with  the  aggregate  of  the  two  on  the  creditor  side  of  the 
journal.  Experience  and  jiractiee  are  occasionally  suggest- 
ing minor  improvements  upon  the  forms  of  the  cash-book, 
journal,  and  le<lger  to  suit  particular  cases:  and  indeed  an 
intelligent  bookkeeper  may  accomplish  much  by  a  judicious 
classification  of  the  facts  in  auxiliary  books:  but  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  double-entry  system  of  bookkeep- 
ing remain  perfect  and  unchanged,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
the  best  hitlierto  discovered. 

Book  of  the  Dead :  See  Ritual  of  tde  Dead. 

Boole.  Geoboe  :  b.  in  Lincoln.  England,  Nov.  2.  1815; 
Professor  of  Mathematics.  Queen's  t'ollege,  Cork,  Ireland, 
and  iniblished,  besides  treatises  on  mathemat ics. -In /nres/i- 
ijatiun  into  the  Laws  of  Tliouyht.on  u-ttirh  are  Founded  the 
'Mathematical  Theories  of  Logic  and  Probabilities  (London, 
1854).     1).  in  Cork,  Dec.  8,  1864. 

Boolgarin:  See  Uui.oarin. 

Boom,  bom :  a  town  of  Belgium:  province  of  Antwerp; 
on  the  river  Kupel.  at  its  junction  with  the  Brussels  Canal, 
i)  miles  S.  of  Antwerp  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
ref.  9-K).  It  hsus  a  gymnasium  and  extensive  brick  an(l 
tile  works,  tanneries,  ropewalks,  and  manufactures  of  sail- 
cloth.    Pop.  (1890)  14,080. 

Boondee:  feudatory  state  and  town  of  Rajputana,  India. 
See  Bi:.\ui. 

Boone  :  on  railroad  ;  a  city :  ciipital  of  Boone  eo..  la.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map"  of  Iowa.  ref.  5-G).     Immense 


ro3 


BOONE 


BOOTH 


quantities  of  coal  are  shipped  from  here,  and  the  adjacent 
timber  lands  are  among  the  best  in  the  State.  The  river 
affords  a  good  water-power.  The  town  of  Boonsboro  was 
annexed  to  Boone  citv  before  the  census  of  1890.  Pop. 
(1880)  3,.330 ;  (18U0)  6,520;  (1895)8,845. 

Boone,  Daniel:  a  pioneer  and  hunter:  b.  in  Berks  co.. 
Pa.,  Feb.  11,  1735.  He  emigrated  to  Xorth  Carolina,  where 
he  married.  In  1769,  with  five  companions,  he  penetrated 
into  the  forests  of  Kentucl;y,  which  were  then  uuinhaljited 
by  white  men.  He  was  captured  by  Indians,  but  escaped, 
and  continued  to  hunt  in  that  region  for  more  than  a  year. 
Having  returned  home  earlv  in  1771.  he  moved  with  his  own 
and  five  other  I'amiUes  to  Kentucky  in  the  autumn  of  1773. 
To  defend  liis  colony  against  the  savages,  he  built,  in  1775, 
a  fort  at  Boonesborougli,  on  tlie  Kentucky  river.  The  Ind- 
ians attacked  this  fort  several  times  in  1777.  but  were  re- 
pulsed. Boone  was  surprised  and  captured  by  them  in  Feb., 
1778.  Tliey  took  Iiim  to  Detroit,  and  treated  him  with 
lenity,  but  he  soon  es(^aped,  and  returned  to  )iis  fort,  wliicli 
he  defended  with  success  against  450  Indians  in  Aug.,  1778. 
He  removed  in  1795  to  a  place  wliich  is  nearly  45  miles  W. 
of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  found  thei'e  a  new  field  for  his  favor- 
ite pursuits.  Hi'  ha.d  received  large  land  grants  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Jlissouri  which  involved  him  in  litigation,  and 
most  of  Ills  property  was  wrested  from  him.  D.  on  his 
Missouri  farm,  Srjit.  26,  1830,  but  Ids  remains  were  removed 
in  1845  by  tlic  State  of  Kentucky  and  interred  near  Frank- 
fort. Se(!  Sparks,  Amirican  Biography,  vol.  xiii.,  second 
series  ;  W.  H.  Bogart,  Life  of  Daniel  Boone  (1857). 

Boone,  William  .Ioxes,  D.  D.  :  first  missionary  bisliop  of 
the  Proteslant  Episcopal  Church  to  China:  b.  at  Walter- 
borough,  S.  ('..  July  1,  1811 ;  graduated  at  College  of  South 
Carolina  1839  ;  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1833,  but  relin(|uished  tlie  practice  of  this  profession  to  take 
holy  orders.  Having  devoted  himself  to  foreign  missions, 
he  took  a  course  in  medicine,  receiving  the  degree  of  M.  I). 
from  the  South  Carolina  Medical  College.  He  was  ordained 
Sept.  18.  1836.  sailing  for  China  July  8,  1837 ;  consecrated 
bishop  to  China  Oct."  36,  1844.  I),  at '.Shanghai,  China,  July 
17,  1864.  His  published  writings  were  mainly  connected 
witli  tlie  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Cliinese. — His  son, 
William  Jo.nes  Boo.ve,  I).  D. ;  b.  in  Shangliai,  China,  May 
17,  1846;  graduated  at-  Princeton  1865,  and  ordained  iii 
1868 ;  became  himself  missionary  bishop  in  Cliina,  after  many 
years  of  service  there,  succeeding  Bishop  Schereschewsky, 
who  liad  resigned  on  account  of  failing  health.  He  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Shanghai,  having  Jurisdiction  in 
China,  Oct.  28,  1884.     I),  at  his  post  Oct.  5,  1891. 

W.  S.  Perry. 

Boonesborong:li,  Iowa:  See  Boonsboro. 

Booni'ville:  See  Boonville. 

Boon  Island  :  10  miles  E.  of  the  harbor  of  York.  Me. ; 
is  in  lat.  48''  07'  16"  X..  Ion.  70'  28  16"  W.  It  has  a  granite 
lighthouse  133  feet  liiglu  showing  a  fixed  white  dioptric 
light  of  the  second  order,  133  feet  above  the  sea. 

Boonsboro,  or  Boonsborong:Ii,  la. :  See  Boone. 

Boon'ton  :  Jlorris  co.,  X.  J.  (tor  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Xcw  Jersey,  ref.  3-D):  on  railroad  and  the  Rock- 
away  river ;  aliout  30  miles  from  New  York  city.  It  has 
iron-works  among  the  largest  in  the  U.  S. ;  the  rolling-mills, 
nut-mills,  plate-mills,  miil-inills,  and  blast  furnaces  covering 
at  least  50  acres  of  land.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  2,682 ; 
(1890)  3,307  ;  (1895)  3,276. 

Boou'ville:  town  ;  capital  of  Warrick  co.,  Ind.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  ma|)  of  Indiana,  ref.  11-B);  on  L.  E.  and 
St.  L.  U.K.;  9  miles  from  Ohio  river  and  17  miles  from 
Evansville.  It  has  8  churches  (2  for  colored  people),  3 
schools  (1  for  colorcil  people):  agriculture  is  the  chief  occu- 

Eation,  but  coal  is  almndant  and  mined  everywhere.  Tim- 
er is  abundant  in  the  surrounding  countrv.  "The  town  was 
founded  about  1818.  Pop.  (1880)  1,183  ;  (1890)  1,881 ;  (1893) 
estimated  wilh  suburbs.  3,000.       Editor  of  "Stanuaru."' 

BoonviUe,  or  Booneville:  a  city  and  river  port:  capital 
of  Cooper  co.,  Mo.  (lor  location,  see  map  of  ]\Ii,ssouri,  ref. 
4-G);  on  J.  C.  B.  and  L.  branch  of  JIo.  Pac.  R.  R.,  and  M. 
K.  and  T.  R.  R.,  and  on  the  right  (S.)  bank  of  the  Jlissouri 
river;  227  miles  by  watrr  .'ind  1N7  nules  by  railroad  \V.  by 
N.  of  St.  Louis,  it  stands  on  a  blulT  abcnit  100  feet  aliov'e 
the  river,  is  very  healthy,  and  has  an  advantageous  position 
for  tra<le.  The  railroad  bridge  which  here  crosses  tlic  river 
is  one  of  the  most  costly  that  s]mus  the  Missouri.  Boonville 
has  excellent  schools,  public  and  private;  its  manufactures 


are  few,  the  inhabitants  being  generally  well  to  do.  The 
town  was  founded  in  1818.  During  thecivil  war  a  Confed- 
erate camp  was  established  at  this  place.  On  June  16, 186U 
Gen.  Lyon  reached  Rockport,  opposite  Boonville,  and  on 
the  following  day  attacked  the  forces  in  camp  at  I5oonvillc 
under  Col.  Marmaduke.  The  Confederate  force,  amounting 
to  only  idiout  2,500  poorly  armed  raw  troops,  was  routed, 
aliandoning  two  guns  and  a  large  quantity  of  clothing,  camp 
equipage,  etc.     Pop.  (1880)  3,854;  (1890)  4,141. 

Editor  of  "  Star." 

Boonville:  village:  Oneida  co.,  X.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Xew  York,  ref.  4-H);  35  miles  X.  of 
LTfica,  on  the  Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdcnsburg  R.  R., 
and  on  Black  River  Canal.  Here  are  6  churches,  an  acad- 
emy, Erwin  Library  and  Institute,  chair-factory,  foundry, 
and  3  grist-mills.  This  neighborhood  is  a  popular  jilace  of 
summer  resort.     Pop.  (1880)  1,677;  (1890)  1,613. 

Editor  of  "Herald." 

Booiiiiinpoor  :  city  of  the  Central  Provinces,  India.   See 

BURIIANPUR. 

Booro  :  a  large  island  in  the  Bast  Indies.     See  Burl-. 
Booroogird  :  a  city  of  Persia.     See  Buruoird. 
Boossa  :  African  town  on  the  Central  Xiger.   See  BfssANo. 
Bootan  :  native  slate  in  the  Himalaya  Jlountains.     See 
BniTAX. 

Boo'tes  [Gr.  BotiTTjs,  i.  e.  plowman] :  a  name  of  Philo- 
melus;  son  of  Ceres  and  a  brother  of  Plutus.  He  is  said  to 
hiive  invented  the  plow,  and  used  it  in  cultivation  of  the 
soil.  To  reward  him  for  this  service  he  was  translated  into 
a  constellation,  under  the  name  of  Bootes. 

Bootes :  a  northern  constellation  ;  represented  on  celestial 
globes  as  a  man  holding  in  one  hand  a  club,  and  in  the  other 
a  leash  by  wliicli  lie  leads  two  hunting-dogs.  This  constella- 
tion comprises  A  returns,  a  star  of  the  lirst  imignitude.  Bootes 
is  bounded  N.  by  Draco,  E.  by  Corona  Borealis  and  Serpens, 
S.  ))y  Virgo,  and  W.  by  Canes  Venatici  and  Coma  Berenices. 

Bootll.  Abraham  :  b.  at  Blackwell,  Derbvshire,  England, 
May  20,  1734:  from  1769  till  his  death  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
church  in  Goodman's  Fields,  London.  He  wasnuthor  of  The 
Reiqn  of  Gnire  (London,  1768)  and  Pa'dohaptium  Examined 
1784:  3d  ed.  3  vols.,  1787).  The  latter  work  was  repub- 
lished in  4  vols.  8vo  in  1839.  and  is  regarded  by  the  Bap- 
tists as  an  able  argument  in  defense  of  their  opinions.  1). 
Jan.  37,  1806. 

Bootll,  Barton  :  actor  and  dramatist ;  b.  in  1681.  He  first 
ap]ieiircd  in  1698  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  Thomas  Southern's 
Oriiiiniiko.  In  1701  he  first  acted  in  London  as  Maximus  in 
Lord  Rochester's  Vahntinian.  Thenceforward  his  career 
was  prosperous  and  distinguished.  He  left  the  .stage  in  1728. 
I),  in  IIam]istead,  May  10, 1733.  He  was  deemed  excellent  in 
such  various  parts  as  Hotspur,  Antonv,  Othello,  and  Ileniy 
Vlll.  He  wi-ote  a  masque  entitled  Xhe'Death  of  Dido  (1716). 
He  was  twice  married,  but  left  no  children.  He  was  an  Eng- 
lishman of  go(jd  family,  a  good  classical  scholar,  a  quaint 
[loet,  and  a  notably  handsome  person.  His  grave  is  at  Cowley, 
near  Uxbridge,  England. 

Bootll,  Edwin  :  actor ;  son  of  J.  B.  Booth  ;  b.  in  Baltimore, 
Nov.  15,  1833 ;  first  appeared  on  the  stage  Sept.  10.  1849,  at 
the  Boston  Museum,  as  Tressel  in  Hirhard  III.  After  sev- 
eral years  of  "strolling"  in  California  and  Australia,  he  re- 
turned t()  N^ewYork  and  other  Northern  cities,  and  speedily 
aciiuircd  a.  high  ]irofessional  rank,  lie  o|ieniMl  Hool  h  s  thea- 
ter. New  York,  Feb.  3,  1869,  and  made  a  highly  successful 
professional  tour  in  Europe  in  1882-83.  His  name,  as  an 
actor,  is  identified  with  Hamlet,  Richelieu,  lago,  Bertuccio, 
and  Lucius  Brutus.  His  acting  was  remarkaljle  for  intel- 
lect ual  iiower,  refinement,  and  gleams  of  passionate  fire.  He 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1891  on  the  death  of  Lawrence 
Barrett,  wilh  whom  he  had  been  acting.  See  his  iy?'/e,  by 
Winter  (1886).     D.  June  7,  1893. 

Bootll.  Henry  SIatthias,  D.  P. :  Presbyterian  minister  and 
writer  on  praclical  religious  subjects:  b.  in  New  York  city, 
Oct.  3.  1843  :  grailuatei'l  at  Williams  College  (1864)  and  at 
the  Fnion  Thenlogical  Seminary  (1867).  From  1867  to  1891 
he  was  pastor  in  Englewood,  X.  J.  He  jaililished  llie  Ilear- 
enhj  Vixion  and  other  Sermons  (New  Vork.  1885):  Ttie  Sun- 
rise, Noonday,  and  Sunael  of  /he  Day  of  (/rare  (1888). 

W.  J.  Beecher. 

Bootll,  John  Wilkes  :  assassin  of  Abraham  Lincoln  :  b.  in 
Harford  co.,  Md.,  in  1838;  brother  of  Edwin  Booth,  the  actor. 


BOOTH 


BOKA 


703 


He  became  an  actor,  ami  in  (lie  civil  war  sideil  witli  the  Con- 
federates. To  avenjre  the  "lost  cause,"  he  I'lirnied  a  con- 
.spiraey  with  Suratt,  Powell,  and  othei-s.  On  Apr.  14,  ISGo, 
he  entered  Ford's  theater,  Washinfrton.  and  shot  PresiiU'nt 
Jjineoln,  who  was  sittin;;  in  a  private  liox.  Exclainiin).',  "  jS'/c 
Kemper  ti/rai)i)it< .'"  he  leaped  down  to  the  stai,'e  and  broke 
his  U%  but  he  mounted  a  horse  that  was  standing;  ready  and 
escaped  to  Virginia.  He  concealed  himself  in  a  barn  near 
Bowlinfi  Green,  where  he  was  discovered  by  his  pursuers, 
and,  rctusinj;  to  surrender,  he  was  shot,  April  2G.  lyOo. 

Booth. -Uxns  UinTis:  actor;  b.  near  London,  Knjfland. 
Mi.y  1.  17!Mi;  first  appeared  on  the  sla>;e,  Dec.  13,  1813,  at 
Deptford,  Kngland,  as  Canipillo,  in  'Vohin'^i  IIi)iiei/mooii.  and 
within  four  years  became  famous  in  London  as  Hichard  III. 
and  .Sir  (iiles  Overreach.  These  and  I'escara  were  his  great 
parts.  He  tirst  acleil  in  the  V.  S..  July  13,  IS'21,  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  as  Kicharil  III.  Jlis  career  on  the  IT.  S.  stafje 
was  one  long  triumph — marred,  however,  by  intemperance 
aiul  incipient  insanity.  He  died  on  a  Mississippi  river  steam- 
boat, Nov.  3.  1S52,  and  was  buried  at  Haltiiuore,  Md.  His 
wife  was  a  Miss  Holmes,  of  Keadinj;,  En;j;land.  His  children 
were  .lunius  Brutus.  Rosalie  ,\nne,  Kdwin  Thomas,  Antiii^ 
Sydney,  .Joseph  Addison,  Henry  Kymn,  .Mary.  Fredeiick, 
Klizabeth,  and  .John  Wilkes.  See  T/ie  Elder  aiul  the  I'ouuyer 
Biiotli  (1883)  in  the  American  Actor  Series. 

Booth,  J[.\RY  liOi'isK:  writer  and  journalist:  b.  at  Yap- 
hank,  X.  Y.,  Apr.  lit.  1831  :  published  a  Uistonj  of  the.  City 
of  Sew  )'o;-A- (18.-)!M;7:  id  .'d.  Xew  York,  1880),"  and  over 
thirty  volumes  of  French  translations,  amonj;  which  are  the 
works  of  De  Gasparin,  Cochin,  and  Laboulaye  on  the  Amer- 
ican civil  war,  and  Henri  Martin's  aliridged  Ilistury  i>f 
.France  (1880).  From  its  befjinninj;  in  1867  until  her  death 
in  Xew  York,  Mar.  5, 1880,  she  was  editor  of  Harper  s  Bazar. 

Booth,  X'ewtox  :  b.  in  Salem.  Washington  co.,  Ind.,  Dec. 
25.  182.');  graduated  at  Asbury  University  in  1846;  studied 
law  in  Terre  Haute,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  18o0; 
went  to  California  soon  afterward,  and  engageil  in  business 
in  Sacramento;  returned  in  1857  to  Terre  Haute,  and  prac- 
ticed law  till  1860,  when  he  went  back  to  California.  \xi  1863 
he  was  elected  to  the  California  State  Senate;  in  1871  was 
elected  Governor  of  California,  but  resigned  in  JIar.,  1874, 
when  elected  l'.  S.  Senator.  He  .served  from  Mar.  it.  1875, 
till  Mar.  3,  1881.     D.  in  Sacramento,  July  14,  18iJ3. 

Booth,  RoBKRT  RvssEi.L.  I).  D. :  Presbrterian  minister;  b. 
in  Xew  York  city.  May  10,  1830;  graduated  at  Williams  V<A- 
lege  (lS4i)),  and  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  (1852). 
Previous  to  his  present  pastorate  in  Rutgei-s  Riverside  Pres- 
byterian church  in  Xew  York  city,  he  was  pastor  succes-sively 
in  Troy,  X'.  Y.,  Stamford,  Conn.,  and  of  the  Mercer  Street 
and  University  Place  churches,  Xew  York  city.  He  has  pub- 
lished many  pamphlets  an<l  discourses,  and  is  a  trustee  of 
Williams  College,  a  director  of  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, a  member  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, etc.  W.  J.  Beecher. 

Booth,  William:  general  of  the  Salvation  .\rmy;  b.  in 
Nottingham,  Fugland,  Apr.  10,  182!t:  eilucated  at  a  privates 
school  in  that  town:  became  a  minister  of  the  Jlethodist 
New  Connection  in  18.50 ;  resigned  from  the  Conferenco  in 
1861  to  enter  upon  evangelistic  work.  Tn  July,  186.5,  he 
started  "  The  Christian  Mission  "  in  the  East  End  of  London. 
This  mission  grew  rapiillv,  and  was  organized  on  military 
lines.  In  187.8  Mr.  Booth' gave  to  it  the  name  of  "  The  Sal- 
vation Army,"  of  which  he  became  general  and  absolute 
comnninder.  His  entire  family  have  shareil  with  him  in  this 
work.  He  has  published  several  hvnm-books;  Sedvatian 
Snlilieri/;  Traiiinuj  of  Children;  ijetlers  to  Soldier.t;  In 
Darkent  Enr/land,  the  latter  containing  a  scheme,  subse- 
cpiently  put  in  operation  at  great  expense,  for  the  enlighten- 
ment and  industrial  sujiport  i>f  the  lowest  classes.  In  1880 
Gen.  Booth  established  the  War  Cry  as  the  weekly  gazette 
of  the  army.  This  is  now  (1897)  put)lishcd  in  some  twenty- 
eight  (litTerent  languages,  with  a  total  circulation  of  about 
600,000.     See  Salvation  Aii.my.  C.  II.  Tulkbek. 

Boothhiiy  Harbor:  town;  Lincoln  co..  Me.  (for  location 
of  County,  see  niaji  of  Maine,  ref.  lO-D) ;  on  Atlantic  Ocean  ; 
14  miles  from  Knox  ami  Lincoln  R.  B..  and  U!  miles  from 
Bath,  from  which  it  is  reached  by  steamer.  The  town  has 
two  churches,  a  high  school,  bone-phosphate,  cainiing,  and 
cold-storage  industries,  two  marine  railways,  steam  lumber- 
mill,  and  a  boat-manufactory.  The  fine  bathing,  sailing, 
and  fishing  to  be  had  here,  and  the  romantic  sceiu'ry  in  the 
neighborhood,  have   made   this   place  a  popular  summer- 


resort.  This  town  was  separated  from  Boothbay  Feb.  16, 
188i).  Pop.  of  Boothbav  township  (1880)  3.57.5,' including 
Boothbay  Harbor;  (18i)0)  1,718,  of  Boothbay  Harbor  (1890) 
l.Oiti).  Editok  ok'  "  Registek." 

Boo'thia  Fo'lix  :  a  peninsula  or  island  of  X'orth  America ; 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean;  extends  from  lat.  6!)°  to  75°  X.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  Boothia  Gulf.  It  was  discovered  by 
Sir  John  Ross,  and  named  in  honor  of  Sir  Felix  Booth,  tt 
contains  the  north  magnetic  pole. 

Boots:  articles  of  dress  worn  on  the  feet,  and  reaching 
up  the  legs  sometimes  above  th(>  knees.  They  were  devel- 
ojied  from  the  sandal  by  slow  stjiges,  and  appeared  in  Eng- 
land during  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  as  part  of  a  knight's 
ctistume.  The  Greek  cothiirnu.^  or  buskin  was  sometimes  a 
boot  reaching  to  near  the  knee,  and  made  with  thick  soles 
to  increase  the  stature  of  actors.  The  Roman  patricians 
wore  leather  shoes,  the  color  of  which  indicated  rank.  A 
seiuitor's  shoes  were  red.  In  the  time  of  Charles  I.  a  wide- 
topped  boot  of  Spanish  leather  came  into  use.  and  this  in 
turn  was  superseded  l>y  an  claliorately  adorned  French  boot. 
In  the  cavalry  service  this  article  of  apparel  became  a  matter 
of  regulation  by  the  government,  and  was  known  as  the 
jack-boot,  a  high-topped  heavy  boot  worn  with  spurs.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  a  yellow-top])ed  boot  was  fashionable 
in  Great  Britain,  and'cop'icd  theiu-e  in  France.  The  Hessian 
boot  followed;  was  worn  over  the  trousers,  and  was  <leco- 
rated  with  a  tassel.  This  gave  way  to  modifications  known 
as  the  Bliicher  and  the  Wellington  boots.  These  forms  are 
giving  place  to  the  modern  Suoe  (g.  v.  for  the  processes  of 
manufacture). 

In  Scotland  the  name  hoot  was  applied  to  an  instniment 
of  torture  in  use  until  late  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
consisted  of  a  wooden  or  iron  case,  was  placed  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  leg.  and  then  tightened  by  driving  in  wedges 
with  repeated  blows  of  a  mallet,  and  at  times  witli  such  force 
as  to  crush  I  he  bones  and  muscles.  It  was  employed  by  the 
privy  council  in  putting  a  man  to  the  question,  and  "espe- 
cially used  upon  the  Covenanters.  A  milder  form  of  the 
bo(jt  consisted  of  a  wet  leather  or  parchment  envelope  bound 
closely  on  the  leg,  and  then  shrunk  by  drying. 

The  boot  of  a  carriage  is  a  covered  receptacle,  placed 
cither  beside  the  driver  or  behind  the  body  of  the  coach,  in 
which  baggage  is  carried;  also  a  leather  apron  attached  to 
the  dash-board,  and  used  as  a  protection  against  stormy 
weather. 

Booty  [deriv.  of  boot,  jirofit  <  O.  Eng.  hot :  Germ.  Busse]  : 
in  international  law.  |)evsonal  jiroperty  captured  on  land  by 
a  public  enemy  in  time  of  war.  It  differs  from  prize,  which 
is  captured  at  sea.  (See  Prize.)  In  the  case  of  prize  the 
ownership  of  the  property  does  not  pass  to  the  ca])tor  until 
condemnation  by  a  prize  court.  Booty  belongs  to  the  captor 
after  an  undisturbed  possession  of  twenty-four  hours,  and 
the  rij^ht  of  po-it  Uminium  is  at  an  end.  (See  Postliminy.) 
In  strictness  of  law.  booty  belongs  to  the  sovereign,  and  not 
to  the  individual  soldier  who  captures  it.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon for  the  sovereign  power  to  bestow  a  portion  or  the 
whole  of  it  ujion  its  subjects.  This  matter,  however,  is  not 
governed  by  international  rules,  but  by  the  municipal  law 
of  the  captor. 

Bopp.  Franz:  German  philologist;  b.  at  Mentz,  Sept.  14, 
17itl.  lie  studied  languages  in  Paris  and  Gottingen,  and 
bi'came  in  1821  Profess(n-  of  Philology  at  Berlin.  He  pub- 
lished a  Glos-'^aritim  Sanscritnm  and  a  (.'ritical  Grammar 
of  the  San.ikril  I'onr/ue.  lie  was  an  efficient  promoter  of 
the  study  of  Sanskrit,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  comparative  philology.  His  most  important  work 
is  a  Comparatire  Grammar  of  the  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Greek, 
Latin,  Lithuanian,  Old  Slaronian,  Gothic,  and  German 
Lanf/iiai/e.<!  (1833 ;  2d  edit  ion,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1857-61).  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  and  published  at  Oxford 
(3  vols.,  184.5-.5()).  D.  in  Berlin,  Oct.  23.  1867.  Sei>  Preface 
to  the  French  translation  of  Bopp's  Comparative  Grammar, 
by  Breal  (Paris,  1.86(>-72. 4  vols.),  and  Lefman's  Franz  Jiopp, 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Wissenschaft  (Berlin,  1891). 

Bo'ra.  or  Boli'roii,  Kathrixa,  von :  a  German  nun,  who 
became  the  wife  of  Martin  Luther;  b.  in  Bit terfi'ld,  .Saxony, 
Jan.  20,  1409.  She  was  converted  to  the  Lutheran  doctrines, 
au<l  escaped  from  her  convent  in  1523.  She  was  married  to 
Luther,  .June  13,  1.52.5,  and  bore  him  three  sons  and  three 
daughtei-s.  After  Luther's  death  (Feb.  18,  1.546)  she  con- 
tinued to  live  at  Wittenberg,  but  in  1.5.52  the  plague  drove 
her  to  Torgau,  where  she  died  Dec.  20,  1552.     See  her  Life 


704 


BORAgiC 


BORE 


bv  C.  W.  F.  Walch  (HaUe,  1751-54,  3  vols.) :  F.  G.  Hofmaim 
(Leipzig,  1845) :  A.  Sleiii  (Halle,  1878 ;  3d  ed.  1886). 

Bora^/ic  (or  Bo'ric)  Acid  ooours  native  in  oertain  lasroons 
of  Tuscany,  and  in  a  eratei-  in  the  island  of  \'ulcano  (Vol- 
cano), N.  of  Sicily.  It  is  of  great  commercial  importance 
for  tlie  manufacture  of  borax.  The  acid  has  the  composi- 
tion B(0H)3.  When  heated  it  loses  the  elements  of  water  and 
forms  tlie  oside  BjOa,  which  is  frequently  called  boracic 
acid.  I.  R. 

Bo'rage :  a  short-lived  annual  or  biennial  herb  (Borago 
offirinalis),  a  font  or  two  high,  native  of  Europe,  long  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  and  now  escaped  to  waste  ground  and 
rubbish  heaps.  Its  pretty  blue  flowers  are  quite  ornamental, 
and  yield  nectar  to  bees,  and  are  thus  of  value  to  bee-keep- 
ers. "It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine  as  a  demulcent,  re- 
frigerant, and  diaphoretic,  but  it  is  now  regarded  as  of  sec- 
ondary value  only,  and  has  fallen  into  disuse.        C.  E.  B. 

Borag'e  Family  (Buraginaceee):  mostly  rough,  hairy  her- 
baceous dicotyledons,  with  gamopetalous  corollas  and  supe- 
rior four-lobed  ovaries.  There  are  about  600  sjieoies,  which 
are  widely  distributed  in  temperate  climates. 

Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Bo'rax  [from  Arab,  horaq,  hurag,  borax]  (also  called  sodl- 
um  tetraborate):  a  compound  (NajBjOT-l-lOHjO)  of  boracic 
acid  and  soda;  found  native  as  a  saline  incrustation  on  the 
shores  of  lakes  in  Persia,  Thibet,  and  India.  The  impure 
borax  collected  on  these  shores  is  called  tincal  or  crude 
borax,  which  is  also  found  in  Peru,  Chili.  California,  Neva- 
da, and  other  regiotis.  Borax  is  also  prepared  from  boracic 
acid  by  solution  in  boiling  water,  and  the  addition  of  a 
boiling  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  (XaaCOa).  It  is  also 
prepared  from  borate  of  lime,  a  salt  largely  procured  from 
Chili,  Peru,  etc.  Borax  is  a  white  salt  of  a  sweetish  taste, 
soluble  in  twice  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It  is  useful  as 
a  flux  in  promoting  the  fusion  of  metallic  mixtures  and 
producing  fusible  silicates  in  assaying  and  in  welding  iron. 
As  an  agent  in  experimenting  with  the  blowpipe  it  is  valu- 
able for  the  readiness  with  which  it  forms  colored  glasses 
with  various  metallic  oxides.  It  is  also  used  in  medicine, 
and  as  a  detergent  in  the  laundry.  More  than  4.000.000  lb. 
are  annually  produced  from  native  boracic  acid  in  Italy, 
hot  springs  affording  the  licat  necessary  in  the  manufac- 
ture. The  annual  production  on  the  Pacific  coast  has 
varied  widely,  declining  from  5,180,810  lb.  in  1876  to  1,584,- 
966  lb.  in  1879,  but  rising  again  to  11,000,0(10  II).  in  1887. 
In  1888  the  product  was  7,589,000  lb.,  valued  at  *455,340. 
See  Boracic  Acid.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Borax  Lake:  a  small  lake  in  Lake  co.,  Cal.,  the  water  of 
which  is  a  strong  sohition  of  borax.  Crystals  of  borax  are 
also  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  muddy  sediment  at  tlie 
bottom.  Many  hundreils  of  tons  of  these  have  lieen  col- 
lected and  sent  to  San  Francisco. 

Borda,  bor'daa',  Jean  Charles,  de:  French  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer;  b.  at  Dax,  department  of  Landes, 
May  4,  1733.  He  served  as  an  engineer  in  the  army,  and 
became  a  captain  in  the  navy.  As  a  naval  officer  he  fought 
for  the  U.  S.  in  1778-82.  He  wrote  several  scientific  works, 
contributed  much  to  tlie  progress  of  nautical  science,  and 
invented  or  improved  the  retlecting  circle.  Aided  by  l)e- 
lambre  and  Mechain,  he  measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian 
from  Dunkirk  to  the  Balearic  isles,  D.  in  Paris,  Feb.  20, 
1799. 

Borde,  or  Boordp,  biird,  Andrew  :  English  physician 
and  writer;  b.  at  Boord"s  Ilill,  near  Cuckfield,  in  Sussex, 
about  1490.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  became  a  Carthusian 
monk  in  L<mdon ;  became  suffragan  bishop  of  Chichester, 
1531 ;  but,  finding  the  order  too  severe,  he  obtained  a  dis- 
pensation from  his  vow  in  1538  and  studied  medicine  on  the 
Continent  ami  at  Ghisgow;  traveled  much,  and  was  for  a 
time  patronized  by  Henry  VIII. ;  d.  in  1549,  after  siumding 
a  little  time  in  the  Fleet  prison.  Author  of  a  Diji-tar;/ :  the 
Fi/mf  Jioke  of  the  Introduction  of  Knowledge  (edited  liy  Dr. 
Furnivall,  1870) ;  and  various  books  of  travel,  including  an 
Itinerary  of  England. 

Bordeaux.  Imr'do' :  a  city  and  seajiort  of  France ;  capital 
of  the  depart  incnt  of  Gironde;  finely  situated  on  a  plain  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Craronne;  58  niilesfrom  its  mouth 
and  304  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W.  of  Paris  ;  lat.  44"  50'  N..  Ion, 
0'  34'  W.  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  7-D).  It  has  a  capacious 
harbor,  and  is  accessible  by  vessels  of  600  tuns  at  all  stages 
of  the  tide.  The  river,  which  is  hero  about  6.50  yards  wide, 
is  crossed  by  a  noble  briilge  of  seventeen  arches."   Bordeaux 


is  an  archbishop's  see.  It  is  connected  by  several  railways 
with  Paris,  Toulouse,  Marseilles,  and  other  towns.  It  "is 
probably  the  most  commercial  city  of  France,  except  Mar- 
seilles. The  harbor  is  large  enough  to  admit  1,200  vessels 
of  the  largest  size.  Its  commerce  extends  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  newer  portions  of  the  city  have  wide  streets 
and  pleasant  promenades  lined  with  trees.  Among  its  re- 
markable edifices  are  the  Gothic  cathedral,  consecrated  in 
1096;  the  church  of  St.  Croix,  which  belongs  to  the  tenth 
century;  the  town-hall;  the  Hotel  de  la  Marino  ;  the  bridge, 
which  cost  about  |1,300,000;  and  the  Great  theater,  which 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe,  and  was  built  by  Louis  XVI. 
Bordeaux  contains  a  mint,  a  college,  a  university  or  Acnde- 
mie  Universitaire,  a  normal  school,  a  school  of  "navigation, 
and  a  public  library  of  190,000  volumes.  Here  are  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  wine,  brandy,  chemicals,  printed  cali- 
coes, woolen  goods,  carpets,  hats,  pajier,  etc.  The  chief 
articles  of  export  are  wine,  brandy,  vinegar,  dried  fruits, 
turpentine,  and  glass  bottles.  Wine  of  superior  (piality, 
called  Medoc,  claret,  or  Bordeaux  wine,  is  produced  in  this 
vicinity.  The  principal  merchants  of  Bordeaux  are  en- 
gaged in  the  wine-trade.  The  Canal  du  Midi  affords  a 
communication  with  the  Mediterranean.  Pop.  (1886)  240,- 
583;  (1891)  253,415.  Bordeaux,  called  in  ancient  times 
Biirdigahi.  was  founded  before  the  Christian  era,  and  was 
the  capital  of  the  Bituriges  Vivisci.  It  became  the  capital 
of  Aquitania  Secunda  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  In  1152  it 
was  transferred  to  the  crown  of  the  English  kings  by  the 
marriage  of  Henry  of  Anjou  (afterward  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land) with  Eleanor  of  Guienne.  It  received  important  lib- 
erties and  privileges  from  the  English.  The  famous  Black 
Prince  held  his  court  here.  It  has  belonged  to  France  since 
1451.  Among  the  remains  of  the  ancient  city  is  a  palace  of 
Gallienus.  During  the  revolution  of  1789  this  city  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  Girondists,  and  suffered  terribly  at  the 
hands  of  the  Terrorists.  In  consequence  of  the  damage  to 
its  commerce  by  the  continental  system  of  Napoleon,  Bor- 
ileaux  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  declare  for  the  Bourbons. 
On  Dee.  10.  1870.  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to 
Bordeaux,  while  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Gei'inan  armies 
anil  several  members  of  the  provisional  government  were 
sliut  up  in  the  metropolis.  The  provinces  were  then  subject 
to  the  authority  of  Gambetta  and  his  colleagues,  who,  after 
they  liad  been  driven  from  Tours  by  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  removed  to  Bordeaux.  The  National  Assembly, 
elected  in  Feb.,  1871,  met  first  in  this  city,  but  removed  to 
Versailles  in  March  of  that  year. 

Revised  by  51.  W.  Harringtox. 

Bordeaux  Wines:  a  general  name  for  several  sorts  of 
French  wine  ]>roduced  in  the  department  of  Gironde.  The 
red  wines  of  Bordeaux  are  commonly  called  claret  in  the 
U.  S.,  to  which  they  are  largely  exported.  The  average 
quantity  produced  annually  in  the  Gironde  is  about  31,- 
500,000  gal.,  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera  having  dimin- 
ished the  vintage.  Among  the  best  of  the.se  wines  are  the 
Medoc,  which  is  red,  and  the  Gi-aves,  which  is  white.  No 
French  wines  except  cliamiiagne  are  so  largely  exported. 

Bordeiitown  :  borough  :  Burlington  co.,  N.  J.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  .5-1)) ;  on  Amboy 
I)ivision  of  Pa.  K.  R.,  and  on  Delaware  river;  30  miles  N.  B. 
of  Philadelphia  and  6  miles  S.  E.  of  Trenton.  Two  passen- 
ger steamboats  run  daily  to  Philadelpliia.  Bordentown  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  and  is 
about  60  feet  above  the  river.  It  has  three  female  colleges, 
a  military  institute,  a  park,  water  and  gas  works,  an  opera- 
house,  a  very  large  steam-forge,  and  several  foundries  and 
manufactories.  Bordentown  was  the  home  of  Francis  IIop- 
kinson,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  is 
the  seat  of  a  mansion  built  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  ex-King 
of  Spain.     Pop.  (1880)  4,358  ;  (1890)  4,232  ;  (189.5)  4,185. 

Publisher  of  "  Register."' 

Bordes,  bord.  Ernest:  contemporary  ])ainter  of  history 
and  figure  subjects;  b.  at  Pau;  pupii  of  Bonnat  and  of 
Cornio'ii :  second-class  medal,  Salon,  1886:  second-class 
medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889.  Obtained  a  solid  reputation 
as  a  ])ainter  of  serious  merit  bv  the  exhibition  of  a  jiicture, 
Tlie  Death  of  Bishop  Proetextatiis,  at  the  Salon  of  1886, 
now  in  the  museum  at  Reims.    Studio  in  Paris.    W.  A.  C. 

Bore,  called  also  Ea'gre  [etymology  unknown] :  In  estu- 
aries into  whicli  large  rivers  flow,  the  .struggle  between  the 
asceniling  tidal  wave  and  the  opposing  current  of  the  stream 
jiroduces  the  im]M)sing  phenomenon  of  a  huge  wave,  which, 
like  a  moving  wall  of  water,  advances  with  great  rapiility 


BOREAS 


BORN 


roi 


anil  a  ileep  roarinj;  noise  up  the  river,  often  Idr  hundreds  of 
miles,  to  llio  limit  of  tide-water.  This  is  called  the  bore. 
In  the  lluirli  river,  one  of  the  main  mouths  of  the  Ganges, 
the  bore  rushes  up  the  river  with  jrreat  impetuosity.  In  the 
Ciiinese  river  Tsientaus  it  rises  to  ;J()  feet  in  height,  and 
travels  at  the  rate  of  25  miles  an  hour,  swee])inf;  everylhinj^ 
hetore  it.  In  the  Auui/on  river.at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes, 
liores  of  15  feel  in  heiifht  follow  each  other  in  (piick  succes- 
sion, and  within  the  space  of  200  miles  five  such  mighty 
waves  may  be  seen  traveling  simultaneously  up  the  river. 
'I'he  Indians  call  it  pororocu. 

IJit'rcas:  in  Grecian  mytholosy,  the  personification  of 
the  north  wind,  the  brother  of  Hesperus,  Zephynis,  and 
Notus;  was  imagined  to  dwell  in  the  caves  of  Thrace,  and 
repres<nle(l  with  snow-covered  wings,  hair,  and  beard. 

Borecole :  Sec  Kalk. 

Borel'li  (in  ]j»t.  Borel/u>i).Gio\Ay:\t  .\i,roxs():  physician 
and  a>lronomer;  b.  at  Naples,  Italy.  .Jan.  2H,  l(i(W.  He  is 
called  the  founder  of  the  iatro-malheMialical  school,  which 
proposed  to  apply  matheuudies  to  medicine.  He  resided 
for  many  yi'ars  in  Rome,  and  was  |iatrouizcd  by  yueen 
Christina  of  Sweden.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  JJe 
Molii  Aniinalium  (1680).     D.  in  Rome,  Dec.  .'il,  1679. 

Borers:  a  name  applied  to  the  larva'  of  many  insects 
which  feed  upon  trees  and  vegetables,  in  which  they  eat 
holes.  Their  ravages  are  very  great.  The  peach-tree  borer 
is  the  lai'va  of  ^Eijeriii  fxifiomi,  a  le|)idoplc'rous  insect ;  and 
species  kindred  to  the  last  named  attacK  the  pear-tree,  the 
currant  bush,  and  many  other  useful  plants.  The  locust- 
tree  borer  is  the  larva  of  a  coleopterous  insect,  the  ('lijtiix 
/lirliix.  which,  with  other  larvje.  has  seriously  diminished 
the  sujiply  of  this  valuable  timber  tree.  The  apple-tree  is 
1  specially  attacked  by  the  grub  of  the  Stipirda  bififtitfa. 
llorers  are  most  easily  destroyed  by  a  wire  or  gouge  while 
they  are  in  their  holes;  and  though  many  plans  have  been 
<ievised  for  preventing  their  ravages,  none  as  yet  are  very 
successful. 

Bor'gerliouf :  a  flourishing  town  of  Belgium  :  a  suburlj 
of  -Vntwerp.  It  has  bleachfield.s.  dve-works,  woolen  facto- 
ries, and  corn-mills.     Pop.  (1891)  29.818. 

Borghesp.  bor-gfi  Zfj,  t'AMii.i.o.  I'rinie:  b.  in  Home,  .luly 
19,  1775,  lie  served  in  the  French  army  in  his  youth,  and 
married  in  180;i  Pauline,  a  sister  of  Napoleon.  He  was  in 
180t)  creali'd  Duke  of  Guastalla.  lie  sold  the  Borghese  col- 
lection of  .■uitiquilies  and  artistic  treasures  to  Najioleon  for 
1:{.0(K).000  francs,  but  some  of  them  were  restored  to  him 
after  the  fall  of  the  emperor.  These  had  been  collected  by 
his  fathiT.  !\larc  Antonio.     D.  in  Florence,  Apr.  9,  1833. 

Borgliesi,  lirir-gazee,  Bartoi.ommko,  Count:  an  Italian 
aiMiipiary  an<l  numismatist:  b.  at  Savignano,  .Tune  11, 1781. 
He  forini'il  a  ric'h  collection  of  meihds  and  coins,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  successful  efforts  to  illustrate  the 
military,  political,  and  nuniicipal  institulious  of  ancient 
Rome.  His  chief  work  is  Xmifi  Fraininniti  ilvi  Fn--iti  Con- 
solari  Capitolini  (3  vols.,  1818-20).  D.  in  .San  .Marino.  .\pr. 
16,  I860. 

Bori^ia,  bor  .ja'^i,  Cksare.  Due  dc^  Valentinois :  Italian  car- 
dinal and  soldier;  a  natural  son  of  I'ope  Alexander  VI. ; 
b.  in  .\pr.,  147G.  lie  was  raised  to  the  raid;  of  cardinal  in 
1  192,  and  received  from  Louis  .VII.  of  France  the  title  of 
Due  de  Valentinois  in  1498.  lie  married  a  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Navarre  in  1499.  With  the  connivance  of  the  pope, 
his  father,  he  waged  with  success  an  aggressive  war  against 

V  eral  princes  of  the  Romagna  who  were  feudatories  of  the 
KiMian  see.     He  was  guilty  of  numy  acts  of  cruelty  and 

lehery,  and   procured   the  death   of  several   persons  by 

ison.  lie  made  himself  nuister  of  the  duchy  of  Urbino, 
iiut  his  jirosperity  was  ruined  by  the  death  of  Pope  Ale.x- 
auder  \  I.  in  loIKi,  and  the  accession  of  .lulins  II.,  who  was 
an  enemy  of  Cesare  Borgia.  The  latter  was  arrested  and 
im[irisoned  in  1504,  but  he  escaped  in  1.501!  and  joined  the 
army  of  the  King  of  Navarre.  He  was  killed  in  battle,  at 
Jlendavia,  Spain,  Mar.  12,  1.507.  See  Tonuisi,  Vita  d'4  JJiica 
dt   V'dli'ti/iiiii  (1G5.5);  Lchcit  di'.i  C.  Boiyia  (Berlin,  1782). 

Borgiii,  Lucbezia:  b.  in  Rome,  1480;  reno'vned  for 
be.iuiy.  t.ilents,  and  vices;  a  si.ster  of  Cesare  Borgia,  noticed 
above.  She  was  married  in  149:1  to  Giovanni  Sf<n;'a,  Lord 
<if  Pcsaro;  was  separated  from  him,  ami  given  in  1498  to 
the  Duke  of  I'isceglia,  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Fcrrara.  who 
was  lussassinaled  I  wo  yi'ars  later;  and  I  lien  she  married  in 
1501  Alfonso,  Duke  oi'  Fcrrara,  of  the  house  of  Kste.  She 
45 


patronized  Bcmbo  and  other  literati,  who  complimented  her 
in  their  works.  She  was  accused  by  contemporaries  of  in- 
cest and  poi.soning,  but  several  modern  writers  maintain 
that  the  charges  against  her  character  are  greatly  exagger- 
ated. D.  Ill  Fcrrara,  .Tune  24,  1519.  See  Gilbert.  Liicretia 
Jiiiryia,  iJucliess  of  Fcrrara  (2  vols.,  London,  1869);  F. 
Gregorovius,  Life  of  L.  Borgia  (Stuttgart,  1874,  2  vols, ;  3d 
ed,  1875). 

Borgiif",  b(5rfl:  a  lake  or  bay  in  the  southeast  part  of 
Louisiana;  12  miles  V,.  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  60  miles  long, 
and  25  miles  wide  at  the  broadest  part.  It  communicates 
with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  E.,  and  is  connected  with 
Lake  Ponlchartrain  by  the  Rigolets  Pass,  which  is  10  miles 
long.  The  lake  is  surrounded  to  a  great  extent  by  marshes 
ami  cane-brakes,  separated  from  il  by  a  narrow  ridge  of 
shells.  Steauu'rs  plying  between  New  Orleans  and  Mobile 
traverse  this  lake. 

Itorgli':  a  kingdom  in  Central  .Vfrica;  W.  of  the  Niger; 
in  about  lat.  10°  N'.,  now  in  part  in  the  British  Niger  pro- 
tectorate (see  map  of  .Africa,  ref.  4-C).  The  banks  of  the 
Niger  are  fertile  and  thickly  populated,  producing  rice,  in- 
digo, grain,  cotton,  yams,  lemons,  banana.s,  honey,  and  game 
in  abundance.  The  sorghum-tields  yield  live  hundred-fold. 
The  forests  arc  full  of  elephants  of  immense  si/e.  The 
(Hipulation  consists  of  the  original  iidialiil.'ints  and  Fulahs, 
and  a  JMohammedaii  coni|uering  tribe  .speaking  a  language 
eogiiiite  with  the  Yoruba  tongues.  The  government  is  an 
hereditary  monarchy. 

BorissolT' ;  a  town  of  Russia:  on  the  Berezina;  govcm- 
ment  of  .Minsk  :  46  miles  N.  K.  of  Minsk  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  7-C).  Near  this  place  the  army  of  Napoleon  suffered  a 
great  disaster  in  its  passage  of  the  Beivzina  in  Nov..  1812. 
Po|i.  6,500. 

Itor'lnild,  SoLOM :  general  in  Hie  Confederate  army.  .mikI 
former  V.  S.  Senator  from  .\rkansas;  b.  in  Virginia,  stud- 
ic<l  medicine  and  settled  in  .\rkansas.  In  the  Jlexican  war 
he  served  as  major  of  vohinteers,  and  was  taken  prisoner. 
He  was  elected  to  the  U.S.  Senate  IS.J9.  appointed  U.S. 
minister  to  Central  .\merica  185:i :  and  it  was  on  his  return 
home  that  the  inhabitants  of  Greytown  attempted  to  arrest 
him  for  having  given  asylum  to  an  accused  [lerson,  and  for 
which  the  town  was  destroyed  by  Com.  IIolliiLS,  U.  S.  N., 
a<-ting  under  instructions  of  his  Government.  In  Apr., 
1861.  and  previous  to  the  secession  of  .Arkansas,  he  organ- 
ized a  force  iind  captured  I'^irt  Smith  :  was  apjiointed  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Confederate  armv.  I),  in  Texas,  .Ian. 
31,  1864. 

Borlase,  borlas.  William,  F.  I!.  S.  :  English  antiquary: 
b.  ill  Cornwall.  Feb.  2.  1695;  educated  ai  Oxford;  became 
vicar  of  Ludgvan,  near  Penzance,  1722,  to  whi<'h  he  added 
the  vicarage  of  St.  Just  1732  ;  was  a  friend  and  corresponil- 
ent  of  Pope.  Author  of  Olitn'rvalioits  on  the.  Antiquities 
of  Corn  wall  (I7i>i):  Ka  tural  llixto  ri/  of  Cornwall  {I'iiH):  and 
several  religious  treatises.     1).  in  Ludgvan,  Aug.  31,  1772. 

Born,  born,  Bertrax,  de;  Count  of  Hautefort ;  b.  before 
1140:  one  of  the  most  renowned  Provencal  poets  of  the 
Middle  .Ages,  called  by  Dante  (de  ViiUj.  FJoij.  ii.  2)  the  poet 
of  arms  in  the  great  triumvirate  of  troubadours,  of  which 
.Ariiaut  Daniel  and  Guiraut  de  liorneil  are  the  other  mem- 
bers. He  was,  however,  a  poet  of  love  as  well,  and  his  songs 
in  honor,  first,  of  Mathilde  ("  Maeuz"  of  the  poeni.s),  wife  of 
Talairand  of  Montignac.  and  later  of  a  far  more  famous 
Mathilde,  sister  of  Richard  Lion-heart,  wife  of  Henry  the 
Lion  and  mother  of  the  Emperor  Otto,  are  not  below  the 
best  level  of  such  verse.  In  his  war  poetry,  however,  we 
undoubtedly  get  him  at  his  best — an  euliri'ly  inedia>val 
characler.  passionate  for  war  and  arms  an<l  blood.  Fortune 
enabled  him  to  use  his  poetic  art  in  alTaii-s  of  great  iuqior- 
taiice.  He  had  a  large  and, on  the  whole,  harmful  influence 
in  the  struggles  of  the  sons  of  Henry  II.  of  England — Henry, 
Geoffrey,  and  Richard  Lion-heart — against  their  father  and 
then  among  themselvi's.  Dante  in  a  famous  jiassage  (/«- 
ferno.  xxviii.  118.  ••-■"(/.)  depicts  the  poet  as  com|)elled  to 
carry  in  his  haml  his  own  head  separated  from  his  body,  as 
he  had  himseir  si'paiated  a  .son  (young  Henry)  from  his 
father  (Henry  II.).  J^ater,  Bertran  was  for  a  time  a  violent 
adherent  of  Philippe  Augnste  in  his  struggles  wi(h  Henrv  11. 
and  Richard  Lion-heart.  .Still  later,  however,  he  is  found 
full  of  admiration  for  Richard  and  of  scorn  for  I'hilippe 
.\ugusle.  His  sirventeses.  or  political  poems,  are  therefore 
iiidis])ensable  for  the  student  of  the  social  and  poliiical  con- 
dition of  the  twelfth  cenlury.     In  his  old  age  the  poet  en- 


706 


bOrne 


BORNU 


tered  the  monastery  of  Dalon.  D.  circ.  1215.  See  B.  de  Born, 
sein  Leben  unci  seine  Werke,  hcnitisgegeht-n  r.  A.  iS/innniiig 
(187!)):  B.  de  Burn, poesies  eomplMe.-i  (\m\A.  Iiv  A.  Thoiiiaf^, 
1888) ;  Diez,  Lehen  iind  Werke  der  'J'roiibadoKrsCM.ed.  1882) ; 
L..  Cledat,  Du  rule  historique  de  Bertrand  de  Born  (1878). 

A.  R.  JIarsh. 

Biir'ne,  Ludwig  :  satirical  writer;  b.  of  Jewish  parents  at 
Frankfort-on-the-JIain,  May  18,  1786;  stu<licil  at  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg;  adopted  the  trotestaiit  faitli  in  1817;  edited 
the  liberal  M^aye  and  Zeitschwingen ;  published  in  1836  his 
celebrated  Denkrede  anf  Jetm  Paul.  After  1830  he  lived 
in  Paris,  was  correspondent  of  the  Allgenieine  Zeitung.  and 
edited  La  Balance.  Ilis  Briefe  (rus  Paris  and  other  writ- 
ings OH  political  and  a'sthetieal  sul)jeets  are  eloquent  and 
witty,  and  display  a  singularly  ilelicate  critical  sense,  but 
are  marked  witli  bitterness  of  political  feeling,  tidmmlliche 
Werke  (12  vols.,  1802-6:i).  D.  in  Paris,  Fel).  13,  1837.  See 
biographies  by  Beurmann  (1841),  and  Uutzow  (1840),  and 
Heine  ither  Boerne. 

Boriieil,  bor'na/',  Guiraut.  de  :  Provencal  poet ;  reck- 
oned by  Dante  (de  Vulg.  Eloq.  ii.  3)  one  of  the  three  great 
troubadours,  Arnaut  Daniel  and  Bertran  de  Born  being 
the  other  two.  Dante  also  calls  hiin  the  jioet  of  upriglit- 
ness,  "rectitudineui."  The  precise  dates  of  his  career  are 
not  known,  hut  it  certainly  fell  between  1175  and  circ. 
1230.  He  was  chiefly  remarkable  as  a  poet  because  of  his 
profound  belief  in  the  art  of  poetry  and  in  the  chivali'ic 
ideals  of  his  time.  See  F.  Diez,  Lehen  unci  Werke  tier  Trouba- 
dours (Zwickau.  1829 ;  2d  ed.  Leipzig.  1883) ;  also  the  Pro- 
ven9al  life  of  the  poet  from  the  Cheltenham  JIS.  1!)10,  printed 
in  tlie  Revue  des  langucs  romanes  (3"  serie,  v.  275). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bor'iieo  (called  liy  tlie  natives  Pulo-Kalamantin):  an 
island  in  the  Jlalay  Archipelago ;  extends  from  lat.  7"  1'  N. 
to  4  10'  S.,  and  fn)m  Ion.  108''  50'  to  119°  3'  E.  (see  map  of 
East  Indies,  ref.  6-E).  Its  length  is  807  miles,  and  it  is 
about  600  miles  wide.  The  area  of  the  island  proper  is  383,- 
400  SI),  miles ;  witli  the  small  islands  adjacent,  384,500  sq. 
miles.  Nest  to  Xew  Guinea  (303,000  sq.  miles),  it  is  the 
largest  island  on  the  globe.  The  interim-  is  traversed  by 
chains  of  mountains  not  yet  fully  exploreil  by  Europeans. 
Near  the  nnrlhcrn  extremity  of  tlie  island  is  a"  peak  called 
Ivinibalu,  whicli  rises  13.680  feet  above  the  sea.  The  mari- 
time parts  of  the  island  are  mostly  niarsiies  or  low  plains 
covered  with  dense  forests.  It  is  probable  tliat  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  interior  consists  of  fertile  valleys  and  plains. 
The  outline  is  nowhere  deeply  indented  by  inlets.  It  is 
thought  by  many  that  the  form  of  Borneo  was  formerlv 
similar  to  that  of  Celebes,  but  that  the  bays  have  been  filled 
up  in  the  course  of  time,  arid  now  form  those  mai-shy 
districts  on  the  coasts  so  unhealthy  to  the  inhabitant's. 
Borneo  is  watered  by  numerous  navigable  rivers — viz..  the 
Kapuas,  Barito,  Mahakkara,  Redjang,  and  others.  These 
mostly  enter  the  sea  through  extensive  deltas,  and  their 
mouths  are  so  olistrueted  that  large  vessels  can  not  enter 
them  ;  but  they  afford  facilities  for  inland  navigation.  The 
climate  in  the  low  grounds  is  hot.  The  I'ainy  season  begins 
about  October,  and  continues  till  April,  during  which  pe- 
riod heavy  rains  faU.  In  the  higher  lands  of  (he  interior 
the  climate  is  moderate  and  healthy.  The  mountains  are 
chiefly  formed  of  granite,  .syenite,  limestone,  and  quartz. 
Among  the  mineral  resources  are  gold,  tin,  antimony,  zinc, 
diamonds,  iron  of  fine  quality,  and  coal,  which  latter  is  very 
abundant  and  is  excellent  and  easily  mined.  The  principal 
commercial  supply  of  antimony  is  at  presrnt  from  Borneo. 
Diamonds  are  widely  disseminated  in  the  soil,  at  a  depth  of 
several  feel.  One  diamond  found  in  Borneo  weiglied  367 
carats.  The  vegetation  of  Borneo  is  exceeilingly  luxuriant. 
Among  the  forest  trees  are  the  teak,  the  ironwoo(i.  the  gntta- 
percha-tree,  the  ebony,  the  cocoa-palm,  and  v.-irious  sago- 
trees.  The  i.sland  produces  also  cinnamon,  camphor,  betel, 
pepper,  ginger,  cotton,  rice,  and  yams.  Tlie  forests  and 
jungles  ;ire  Infcsled  with  tigers,  l/ears,  leopards,  bulfaloes. 
and  orang-outangs.  The  elejiliant  also  is  found  here.  The 
population  (estimated  at  1,734,000)  is  cliieHy  of  four  races- 
Malays,  Dyaks,  Bugis,  and  Chinese.  TIk'  IMalays,  who 
nioslly  occupy  the  maritime  parts, are  partly  Mohammedans 
and  partly  pagans.  The  Dyaks.  who  live  farther  inland, 
are  the  aboriginal  inhabitanbs,  and  are  the  most  numerous 
of  all  the  races  in  t lie  island.  They  are  divided  into  many 
tribes,  and  subsist  mostly  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  piracy. 
"They  are  not  all,"'  .says  Craufnrd,  "in  an  e(|ually  abject 
condition  ;  for  while  some  arc  mere  naked  Inmfcrs.'the  ma- 


jority have  fixed  abodes,  and  have  made  some  progress  in 
the  useful  arts.  .  .  .  With  respect  to  religion,  they  havo 
neither  priests  nor  temples,  nor  do  they  pray  or  fast." 

Borneo  was  in  1893  divided  into  the  following  govern- 
ments:  (1)  British  jVorl/i  Borneo,  the  northern  end  of  the 
island  from  the  Padas  river  on  the  west  coast  to  the  Sibuco 
river  on  the  east  coast.  Area,  31.106  sq.  miles,  with  a  coast- 
line of  over  900  miles.  Pop.  300,000,  consisting  of  the  abori- 
ginal tribes  inland  and  Mohammedan  and  Chinese  settlers 
on  the  coast.  The  interior  is  mountainous ;  the  most  of  the 
surface  is  covered  by  jungles.  The  territory  is  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  North  BtJi-neo  Conqiany. "  The  laws  are 
based  on  the  Indian  code  and  the  Jlohammedan  law.  The 
Government  issues  its  own  copper  and  paper  money,  which 
is  in  American  dollars.  Tobacco  is  jilanfed  on  a  large  scale, 
and  there  is  a  flourishing  timljcr-trade.  C'hief  town,  Kudat 
in  the  extreme  north.  (3)  Brunei,  a  native  sultanate,  un- 
der British  protection,  on  the  west  coast  from  British  North 
Borneo  to  the  Ban-am  river.  Area,  8,100  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
50,000.  It  is  similar  to  the  territory  to  the  north.  Chief 
town,  Brunei  or  Borneo.  (3)  Sarawak,  a  sultanate  occupy- 
ing the  west  coast  from  Brunei  to  Cape  Datu  and  extending 
inland  to  the  central  mountain  chain.  It  is  under  British 
protection.  Area,  41,000  s(|.  miles.  Pop.  320,000.  It  re- 
sembles North  Borneo.  Coal  exists  in  large  quantities,  as 
well  as  gold,  silver,  and  otlicr  metals.  An  Englishman,  Sir 
James  Brooke,  obtained  control  of  Sarawak  as  rajah  in 
1841.  He  was  succeeded  l)y  his  nephew,  Sir  Charles  John- 
son Brooke,  in  1868.  (4)  Dutcli  West  Borneo  includes  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  island  S.  of  Sarawak  and  W.  of 
about  Ion.  117°  E.,  with  allot  the  basin  of  the  Kapuas  river. 
Area,  59,700  sq.  miles.  Pop.  414.000.  (5)  Dulcli  South  and 
East  Borneo,  including  the  jjarts  of  the  island  S.  of  North 
Borneo  and  E.  of  Brunei,  Sarawak,  and  West  Boi-neo. 
Area,  143,500  sq.  miles,  or  more  than  all  tlie  rest  put  to- 
gether. Pop.  750,000.  The  chief  towns  of  Dutch  Borneo 
are  Pontianak  (west  coast,  on  the  Kapuas  river)  and  Ban- 
jcrmassin  (South  Borneo,  on  the  Barito  river). 

Historij. — Borneo  was  discovered  in  1518  by  the  Portu- 
guese, who  formed  a  settlement  at  Bandjermassin  in  1690. 
The  Dutch,  who  first  visited  the  islaml  in  1.598,  made  a 
treaty  of  commerce  with  the  Sultan  of  Sambas  in  160!). 
They  ereeted  a  fort  and  a  factory  at  Talis  in  1643,  and  an- 
other at  Pontianak  in  1778.  'I'lie  first  British  settlement  was 
at  the  northeast  angle  in  1756.  Sir  James  Brooke  first  vis- 
ited the  island  in  1838.  The  island  has  never,  since  known 
to  geograiihers,  had  any  political  unity,  and  has,  therefore, 
no  proper  history. 

References. — Handbook  to  British  North  Borneo  (18!)0); 
Temple.  Prirate  Letters  of  Sir  J.  Brooke  (1853) ;  Wallace, 
Mithii/  Arrliijjelayo  (1865);  Posewitz.  Borneo,  its  Geology 
aiid  jliiwrat  Be-sources  (translated  frcjui  the  German,  1892). 

31.  W.  Habringtox. 

Boriiii',  or  Boriiou  (native  Kanowra) :  a  state  of  Central 
Africa;  in  tlie  Sudan:  bounded  N.  by  the  Sahara  Desert, 
N.  E.  by  Lake  Chad,  E.  by  Bagirini,  on  the  S.  by  Adamawa, 
and  on  the  W.  by  Sokoto  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  4-D).  Area 
about  50.(100  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  level :  the  soil 
is  fertile.  ]iroducing  maize,  millet,  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  ]iulse, 
etc.  Cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  form  a  large  [lart  of  the  riches 
of  the  Bornuese.  The  climate  is  excessively  hot,  the  ther- 
mometer often  rising  to  105°  F.  in  the  shade.  The  rainy 
season  lasts  from  October  to  April.  The  princi|ial  rivers  of 
Bornu  are  the  Shari  iind  Yeou,  which  flow  into  Lake  Chad. 
A  large  portion  of  the  country  is  inundated  in  (he  rainy 
season.  Lions,  panthers,  and  other  beasts  infest  the  forests, 
which  occur  onlv  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers.  Minerals  are 
said  to  be  rare  in  Bornu.  The  natives  manufacture  cotton 
cloth  and  coats-of-mail,  which  they  use  in  warfare.  The 
chief  exports  formeily  w^ere  slaves  and  gold-dust.  The 
dominant  race,  called  Shouas.  are  of  Arab  descent  and  are 
bigoted  Mohamniedans.  Chief  town,  Ngornu.  Poji.  about 
5,000,000. 

History. — Bornu  was  formerly  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Kanem,  which,  founded  in  the  ninth  century,  rose  to  its 
highest  ]ioint  <if  power  in  the  twelfth.  At  the  end  of  the 
nfteenth  century.  King  .Mi-Dnnaiuaiii  founded  Bornu.  It 
attained  its  greatest  power  under  Edriss  Alaoma  (1571- 
1603),  who  conquered  all  the  snrrouudin.g  tribes,  and  even 
exten<led  his  territory  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Under 
his  peaceful  and  extravagant  successors  the  power  of  Bor- 
nu again  declined,  until  in  1808  it  could  no  longer  resi.st 
the  continued  attacks  of  the  Fellatah,  who  took  and  do- 


BORO   BUDUIi 


BORSIPPA 


70.7 


stroyeil  the  old  capital.  Birni.  The  king  tlien  established 
himself  at  Kuka.  An  Aral)  from  Kezzan,  however,  soon 
defeated  the  Fellatah  at  Xffornu.  Ills  son  Omar  removed 
the  old  dynasty,  and  ascended  the  throne  himself  in  IHSo. 
Although  not  as  St ronj;  and  determined  against  his  neigh- 
bors as  his  father,  his  rule  has  been  extremely  beneficial 
for  the  country,  as  he  has  encouraged  trade  and  industry. 
lie  also  assisted,  as  nnich  as  was  in  his  power,  the  Kuro- 
ijean  travelers  who  visited  his  country,  among  them  Dcn- 
liam,  C'lapperton,  Beurmann,  and  Uohlls,  the  last  of  whom 
says  in  his  account,  "  Xo  European  prince  could  have  as- 
sisted a  traveler  more  than  Omar,  the  Negro  prince  of 
Sudan,  assisted  me,  the  white  Christian."' 

Revised  by  JI.  W.  IIarrixotox. 

Bo'ro  Biid'iir.  or  Bo'ro  BoMo:  an  ancient  Buddhistic 
temple  of  .Java;  on  the  river  l'r<il)o:  '25  miles  N.  \V.  of  Yug- 
vakarta;  believed  to  be  the  moM  elaborate  specimen  of  Bud- 
dhist architecture  now  existing,  and  to  have  been  built  in 
1350  A.  D.  It  is  a  square  pyramid,  with  nine  terraces  or 
stories  (116  feet  high,  in  all)  and  400  feet  square  at  the  base, 
each  terrace  covered  with  cells  or  small  houses  tor  monas- 
tics, and  the  whole  covered  with  jjrofuse  carvings. 

Borodino,  bfi-ro-dee'no :  a  village  of  Kus.sia  :  government 
of  Moscow  ;  on  the  Kolocza  river;  TO  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Mos- 
cow (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  i-D).  It  is  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  a  great  battle  between  the  army  of  Napol(M>n  (125,- 
000  strong)  an.l  the  Russian  army,  of  'about  biO.OOO  men, 
commanded  by  (Jen.  Kutusof,  Sept.  7,  1812.  The  French 
remained  masters  of  the  field  anil  claimed  the  victory,  but 
thev  lost  nearly  30,000  men.  The  loss  of  the  Russians  was 
slili  greater;  some  say  50,000  killed  and  wounded.  The 
French  took  Moscow  a  few  days  afterthis  battle,  which  they 
call  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa;  this  is  the  name  of  a  river 
near  the  battle-field. 

Bo'ron  [Mod.  Lat.,  formed  from  horn.r] :  an  element  which 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  discovered  about  1.S08  by  exposing  bo- 
racic  acid  to  the  action  of  a  galvanic  battery.  Its  chemical 
syml)ol  is  B ;  atomic  weight  1 1  ;  and  specific  gravity  about  2. 
Combined  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  it  forms  boracic  acid, 
and  it  occurs  in  nature  only  in  condiination  with  o.xygen, 
generally  in  the  form  of  thai  acid  or  of  Borax  (</.  r.).  Boron 
is  oljtained  in  the  form  of  an  olive-lirown  powder,  which  is 
infusible,  and  has  neither  taste  nor  smell.  It  is  not  used  in 
the  arts  in  a  separate  state.  It  may  also  be  obtained  in  a 
graphitoidal  form  in  six-siiled  crvstals.  Crystallizi'd  Ixiron 
is  one  of  the  most  unalteralile  aiul  indestructible  of  all  sim- 
ple substances.  Wohlcr  and  Deville  have  obtained  boron 
by  heating  in  a  crucible  a  mixture  of  pure  dry  l)oracic  acid 
with  the  metal  aluminium,  when  the  latter  unites  with  the 
oxygen,  leaving  the  bomn  as  minute  quadratic  octahedral 
crystals,  called  boron  diamonds.  These  rival  the  real  dia- 
mond in  luster  and  refractive  power,  and  are  scarcely  infe- 
rior to  it  in  hardness.  They  scratch  glass  and  the  corundum. 
Xo  acids,  pure  or  mixed,  have  any  effect  upon  the  boron 
diamonil,  nor  can  it  be  oxidized  even  when  raised  to  a  high 
temperature.  Revised  by  Ira  Kkmse.n. 

Borough  :  in  England,  formerly,  a  fortified  town  ;  an  in- 
corporated town  ;  any  populous  place  or  a  town  in  general. 
By  a  grailual  restriction  of  sense  the  term  borough  has 
come  to  be  used  only  to  designate  a  town  possessing  a  mu- 
nicipal corporation,  and  a  town  which  returns  one  or  more 
members  to  Parliament.  There  are  often  municipal  and 
parlianu'ulary  boroughs  of  the  sann?  name,  but  ditli'ring  in 
territorial  extent.  In  Scotlaiul  the  borough  is  called  a 
burgh,  which  term  is  now  used  to  desiginite  a  town  having 
a  charter  of  incorporation.  There  are  royal  burghs,  with  a 
charter  from  the  king,  burghs  of  regality,  with  a  charter 
from  a  lord  of  regality,  and  l)urglis  of  barony,  with  a  char- 
ter from  a  baron.  Of  these  formerly  only  royal  burghs  sent 
members  to  Parliament.  The  citizc'Us  or  freemen  of  a  bor- 
ough (calli^d  burges.ses)  formerly  might  become  such  by  birth, 
marriage,  apprenticeship,  and  vai'ious  other  ways,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  borough.  The  privileges  of  the  bur- 
gesses, which  were  of  very  considerable  value,  and  varied 
with  the  locality,  included  such  as  the  right  of  participation 
in  the  income  of  the  corporation,  the  exclusive  right  of 
trading,  etc.  The  possession  of  these  |>rivileges,  tlie  restric- 
tions upon  the  right  of  citizenship,  and  the  power  acquired 
by  the  guilds  gave  rise  to  corru|ition  and  flagrant  abuse  in 
government,  and  they  have  been  swept  away  l)y  the  Reform 
.\ct  of  1832,  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  of  1833,  and 
other  sulisequent  acts.  Burges.ses  are  now  simply  the  elect- 
ors of  municipal  ciu'porations,  and  the  statutory  qualifica- 


tions necessary  to  entitle  a  person  of  age  to  become  a  bur- 
gess are,  in  general,  the  occupation  of  a  house  or  other  build- 
ing and  residence  within  the  borough  for  a  stated  time,  and 
the  payment  of  poor  and  borough  rates.  The  representa- 
tives of  a  borough  in  Parliament  are  often  called  burgesses, 
and  by  analogy  in  some  of  the  American  coh)nies  the  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature  were  calletl  bur- 
gesses. In  the  U.  .S.  the  term  borough  has  no  technical 
meaning  except  in  the  States  of  Connecticut,  Jlinnesota, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  which  it  is  used  to  desig- 
nate an  incoij5orated  town  or  village  of  a  lower  gi-adc  than 
a  city.  In  Xew  Jereey  and  Connecticut  the  borough  is  a 
part  of  the  township  in  which  it  is  situated,  but  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Minnesota  the  boroughs  have  independent  mu- 
nicijial  organizations.  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Boroiigii  English  :  a  custom  existing  in  some  boroughs 
in  Englaiul  liy  force  of  which  the  youngest  son  of  a  pei-son 
dying  intestate  inherits  all  the  realty  which  belonged  to  his 
father  within  the  borough.  A  special  modilication  exists  in 
some  boroughs  by  whicji  land  descends  to  the  younger  son 
if  he  be  not  of  the  half-blood,  and  if  he  be,  then  "to  the  eldest 
son.  This  custom  obtains  in  the  manor  of  Lambeth,  Surrey, 
in  Hackney,  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  Islington,  Hestoii, 
and  Edmonton,  and  in  Middlesex,  and  in  other  counties. 

Borroine'an  I.slnnd!^:  a  group  of  four  small  islands  of 
Xortherii  Italy;  in  Lago  Maggiore.  They  derive  their  name 
from  the  family  of  Borronu'o.  In  16T1  Count  Borromeo 
covereil  them  with  soil,  and  converted  them  from  barren 
rocks  into  gardens.  Their  beauty  is  such  that  they  are 
sometimes  called  the '■  Enchanted  Islands."  The  largest  of 
them  is  named  Isola  JIadre,  and  is  covered  with  orange- 
trees  and  exotic  plants.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  group 
is  the  Isola  Bella,  occupied  by  a  beautiful  jialace  of  the  Bor- 
romeo family,  and  a  garden  which  rises  in  ten  terraces,  pre- 
senting the  form  of  a  truncated  jiyramid.  Many  tropical 
flowers  are  cultivated  here. 

Borromeo,  bor-ro-may'o  (in  Ijat.  Horromwus),  Carlo, 
Saint:  b.  at  Arona,  on  Lago  JIaggiorc,  Oct.  2,  1538;  a 
nephew  of  Pope  Pius  IV.;  appointed  a  cardinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Milan  in  1360.  His  diocese  was  hatnited  by  all 
the  vices  of  tin;  Chui-eh  of  Rome  and  vehemently  stirred  up 
by  the  invasion  of  the  Reformation,  whose  ideas  were  poured 
into  the  country  from  Switzerland  and  found  ready  accejit- 
ance  among  the  excited  population,  but.  ])lacing  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Roman  Catnolic  reaction  and  supported  by 
the  Jesuits,  he  succeeded  in  reforming  his  clergy  and  s'.ip- 
pressing  the  Reformation.  He  also  distinguished  himself 
by  the  pui'ity  and  devoutness  of  his  personal  life,  and  was 
in  1610  canonized  by  the  pope.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works  (5  vols,  fol.,  Slilan,  1747).  I),  in  Milan,  Xov.  3,  1584. 
See  his  biography  by  G.  P.  Giussano  (Rome,  1610;  Germ, 
trans.  Regeiisburg,  3  vols.,  1837) ;  C.  A.  Jones  (London.  1877) ; 
Charles  Sylvain  (Milan,  3  vols.,  1884). 

Bor'row,  George  Henry  :  author ;  b.  in  East  Dereham, 
near  Norwich,  England,  July  17,  1803.  He;  became  nuister 
of  several  modern  languages,  for  learning  which  he  had  re- 
markable talents.  In  his  youlh  he  associated  with  the  gyp- 
sies. As  an  agent  of  the  British  an<l  I'oreign  Bible  Society 
he  traveled  through  many  countries  of  Ivurope.  He  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1841  The  Ziiiat/i.  or  an  Account  of  the 
Gtjpsies  in  Spain,  and  in  1843  The  Bible  in  Sptiiii.  or  Joiir- 
nei/a.  Adventures,  and  Iniprimnment  of  an  Enylixhman  in 
an  Attempt  to  Circulate  the  IScripliire.i  in  the  I'eninsula, 
which  is  a  graphic  and  interesting  work  (n.  e.  1802).  His 
next  work.  Larenyro,  the  Scholar,  the  (fi/pxt/,  and  the  Priest 
(3  vols.,  1831).  is  regarded  as  an  autobiography,  and  to  it  as 
sequel  he  added  The  Ji'omani/  Bi/e  (1857):  Wild  Wales 
(1802).  etc.  D.  at  Oulton.  July' 30.  1881.  See  Theo.  Watts, 
Reminiscences  of  Geonje  Borrow  (Alheua'um,  Sept.,  1881). 

Bor'rowstonnness',  or  Bonoss':  a  seaport-town  of  Scot- 
lanil ;  in  Liidithgowshire ;  on  a  low  |ieninsula  in  the  Frith  of 
Forth;  17  niiles'W.  X.  W.  of  Ediid)urgh  (see  map  of  Scot- 
land, ref.  11-11).  It  has  a  safe  harbor,  and  numufactures  of 
soap,  salt,  nudt,  vitriol,  and  earthi'uware.  Here  are  coal 
mines  which  extend  under  the  bed  of  the  Forth.  Lime- 
stone and  ironstone  are  found  in  the  parish,  which  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Roman  wall  of  Antoninus.     Pop.  (1801)  4,579. 

Borsip'pa  (in  Gr.  Bdpo-iinra) :  an  ancient  city  of  Babylonia 
(according  to  Strabo),  but  there  has  been  mu<-h  doubt  as  to 
its  exact  situation.  Slenhanus  calls  it  a  city  of  the  Chal- 
da?ans.  It  was  probably  situated  near  Babylon.  Strabo 
states  that  it  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  Diana.     Some  mod- 


70S 


BORSOD 


BOSNIA 


cm  writers  believe  that  Borsippa  is  represented  by  the  re- 
iiiarliable  mound  called  Birs-Nimrud,  5  miles  S.  W.  of  Hil- 
lali,  tlie  site  of  Babylon  proijor.     See  Babylon  and  Babkl. 

Borsod.  borshod  :  a  county  of  Hungary ;  bounded  X.  by 
the  counties  of  Torna  and  ('iiiuior,  E.  by  Alia-UJvar  an<l 
Szabolcs.  and  S.  and  W.  by  llcvcs.  Area.  1,^70  sq.  miles. 
The  county  consists  chiefly  of  vineyards  and  wooded  hills, 
except  in  the  S.  K.,  which  is  a  jjlain  traversed  by  several 
small  rivers,  while  the  Tlieiss  forms  the  eastern  bounchiry. 
The  cliief  products  are  fruit,  hemp,  toliacco.  and  wine,  tliat 
of  Miskolcz  being  tlie  best  in  Hungary.  Copper,  iron,  and 
coal  are  found  in  the  mountains.  Pop.  (1890)  217.160.  Chief 
town.  Jliskolcz. 

Bory  (le  Saint-Tiiicent,  bo'ree'de-saii'van'sailii'.  Jean 
Baptiste  George  Marie.  Baron:  French  naturalist  and 
traveler;  b.  at  Agcn  in  1780.  He  explored  the  island  of 
Mauritius  about  1800.  and  published  a  Voyage  amonij  the 
Afriran  Islands  (8  vols.,  1804).  He  afterward  served  as  a 
cajilain  in  the  army  at  Auslerlitz  and  in  other  battles,  and 
became  an  exile  in  1815.  With  the  aid  of  Van  Mons  he 
edited  at  Brussels  the  Antia/es  lies  Sciences  Physiqfies,  8 
vols.  He  had  the  chief  command  of  a  scientific  expedition 
which  the  French  (Tovernment  sent  to  Algeria  in  188!).  D. 
in  I'aris.  Dec.  22,  1846.  See  Hericart  de  Thury,  Xutice  sur 
le  Jiuri/n  Bory  de  Saint-  Vincent  (1848). 

Bos  [Lat.  ox,  cow]  :  the  systematic  name  for  the  genus  of 
ruminant  animals  which  comprises  the  ox,  buffalo,  etc.  See 
BoviD.E  and  Ux. 

Bo'sa :  a  seaport -town  of  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  on  the 
west  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Termo ;  in  the  province  of 
C'agUari ;  30  miles  S.  of  Sassari  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-B). 
Its  harbor  is  safe,  but  admits  only  small  vessels.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  lias  a  cathedral,  an  old  castle,  and  sev- 
eral churches.     Pop.  6,706. 

Bosc.  Louis  Augitstine  Gi'illai'.me  :  naturalist ;  b.  in 
Paris,  Jan.  29,  1739;  educated  at  Dijon;  was  an  earnest 
student  of  botany;  held  office  for  a  time,  but  shortly  after 
the  fall  of  Robespierre  set  out  to  explore  the  natural  riches 
of  America.  He  edited  the  Diet ionn<cire  raisoniie  ct  inii- 
versel  d'agricuUure,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  An- 
nales  de  ragricultare  frungaise.     D.  in  Paris,  July  10,  1828. 

Boscail,  bos-kaan',  Juan  :  poet ;  b.  at  Barcelona  about  the 
year  1493.  Of  his  early  life  little  is  known,  except  that  he 
first  followed  the  military  career  and  afterward  traveled  for 
several  years,  spending  a  considerable  part  of  his  time  in 
Italy,  devoted  to  the  study  of  literature  and  the  hunuinities. 
In  his  early  poetical  efforts  he  used  the  Caslilian  meter,  Imt 
after  1526,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend  Andrea  Xa- 
vagero,  then  Venetian  ambassatlor  to  Spain,  he  began  to  use 
the  measures  of  l^etrarca,  the  sonnet  and  the  can/.one,  and 
thus  introduced  the  Italian  measures  in  Spanish  poetry.  His 
poetical  works  were  puldished  by  him  in  1543,  and  embrace 
his  verse  in  Castilian  measure  written  before  1526,  his  son- 
nets and  canciones  dating  from  1527-37,  and  his  larger  com- 
positions, such  as  Le(tniln)  y  Hero,  in  Italian  blaidv  verse, 
[m  Allegoria,  in  the  octave  stanza.  Navagero  also  induced 
Boscan  to  translate  into  Spanish  Castiglione's  important 
didactic  prose  work  T/ie  Courtier  (II  Cortegiano).  Boscan 
died  in  Apr.,  1542.  The  best  edition  of  his  poetical  works, 
with  a  good  biographical  account,  is  by  \V.  T.  Knapp,  Las 
Obras  de  Juan  Boscan  (Madrid,  1875).      Henry  R.  Lang. 

Bos'cawcii,  KmvARU :  English  admiral;  son  of  Viscount 
Falmouth:  b.  Aug.  19.  1711.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  .Vnson  at  Cape  Finisterre,  May,  1747,  and  comnumdcd 
an  expedition  to  the  East  Indies  in  l'748.  He  became  a  vice- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1756,  was  sent  to  Xorlh  America,  and 
gained  several  victories  over  thc^  French  in  1758.  In  Aug., 
1759,  he  defeated  the  French  fh'ct  in  the  Bay  of  Lagos.  He 
received  for  this  service  an  annual  pension  of  £3,000.  D. 
in  Ilatchlands  Park,  Surrey,  Jan.  10,  1761.  See  Camjibell, 
Lires  of  the  British  Admirals. 

Boscll-bok  [Dutch,  bush-buck;  bosch,  wood.  l)usli]:  the 
Trayeta/jhus  sylfaticus,  a  >>ou\h  African  antelope:  almost 
always  found  in  thick  underljrnsh  wdiich  is  not  easilv  pene- 
trated by  man.  When  surprised  in  the  open  countrv  it  is 
easily  caught,  and  is  ori/.ed  for  its  fine  venison.  It  is  about 
4  or  5  Uti'.t  long,  and  has  a  voic'e  like  tlie  barking  of  a  dog. 
Several  other  African  antelopes  have  this  name. 

Bosoh-vark  [Dutch,  bush-pig;  vark:  O.  H.  O.farh:  Eng. 
farrow:  cf.  ]jat. /w;-ch.s]  :  a  wild  hog  of  Soul liern  and  West- 
ern Africa ;  in  size  and  habits  much  resembling  the  common 


hog.     It  has  long,  pointed  ears,  a  long  tail,  and  is  of  a  dull 
red  color,  with  wlule  marks.    It  goes  in  herds,  and  the  stroke 


Boscli-vart:,  or  Guinea  hog. 

of  the  boar's  tusks  is  much  dreaded.  It  is  the  I'otauujrha'rus 
africanus. 

Bos'cobel :  city ;  Grant  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-C) ;  on  railroad  and  Wisconsin 
river;  70  miles  W.  of  Madison.  Pop.  (1880)  1,428;  (1890) 
1.570;  (1895)  1,479. 

Bos'eoYicIi.  KuGGiERo  Giuseppe,  F.  R.  S.  :  astronomer 
and  natural  philosopher:  b.  at  Ragusa.  in  Dalmatia,  May 
18,  1701.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1725;  became 
Professor  of  JIathematics  and  Philosophy  in  the  Roman 
College  in  1740.  He  was  one  of  the  first  on  the  Continent 
who  adojited  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  His  Latin  poem 
On  the  Eclipses  of  the  Sim  and  Jloon  (1764)  was  much  ad- 
mired. He  wrote  various  scientific  work.s,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  I'liilosophia'  Naturalis  Theoria  (1758)  and 
Opera  Pertinentia  ad  Opticam  ei  Asfronomiam  (5  vols.,  1785). 
The  latter  is  a  collection  of  treatises  on  opticsand  astronomy. 
D.  in  Milan,  Felj.  12,  1787.  See  Fabroni,  ^'ille  Italorum 
doctritia  eseellentiuni :  Ricea,  Eloijio  storico  dell'  Abate 
R.  G.  Boscorich  (1789). 

Bosio.  bo'zw-o.  Fran(;'ois  Joseph.  Baron  :  sculptor:  b.  at 
Monaco.  Mar,  19. 1767.  He  worked  in  Paris,  and  was  patron- 
ized by  Napoleon  I.,  for  whom  he  executed  Inists  of  Josephine 
and  her  daughter  Ilortense;  also  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  col- 
umn of  the  Place  Vendome.  Among  his  masterpieces  are 
the  Hyacinth,  in  the  Luxembourg,  Ctipid  iJartiny  Arroirs, 
and  the  Nymph  Salmacis.  His  works  are  ri'markable  for 
gi-ace  ami  iDtrmony.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute and  directcir  of  the  Academv  of  Fine  Arts.  D.  in 
Paris.  July  29,  1845. 

Bosjesmans:  See  Bushmen. 

Bosiia-Serai :  Sec  Sera.jevo. 

Bos'iiia:  a  ]irovincc  of  Turkey  in  Europe;  inhabited  by 
a  Slavonic  trilje  akin  to  the  Servians ;  formerly  an  independ- 
ent kingdom :  from  1522  to  1878  a  province  of  Turkey, 
and  since  that  time  under  the  administratinn  of  Austria- 
Hungary  ;  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Save,  K,  by  the  Drin,  S. 
by  Albania,  and  \V.  by  Dalmatia.  Area  oi'  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  23,262  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  for  tlie  most 
part  mountainous,  and  the  Dinaric  Alps  extend  along  the 
western  border.  Some  peaks  of  this  range  rise  about  7.000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  largest  rivers,  besides 
the  Save,  .-ire  the  Bosna,  the  Verbas,  the  Narenta,  and  the 
Drin  (or  Drina).  The  mountain-slopes  are  covered  with 
forests  of  oak.  beech,  chestnut,  and  other  trees.  The  soil  of 
the  plains  ami  valleys  is  fertile,  ami  pi-oduces  good  crops  of 
maize,  wheat.  henq>,  and  various  fruits.  Cattle-grazing  is 
an  important  industry.  Bosnia  is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  lead, 
and  other  metals,  but  the  mines  arc  not  worked  to  a  great 
extent.  This  province  has  few  manufactures  except  fire- 
arms, sabers,  and  knives.  There  are  342  miles  of  railway 
and  l,74;i  miles  of  telegriqih  lines.  The  population  is  a  mix- 
ture of  Bosnians,  Croats,  Jlorlaks,  Turks.  lUyrians,  Jews, 
gypsies,  etc.,  the  majority  being  of  the  Shivic  race.    Capital, 


BOSPHORUS 


BOSTON 


709 


Sarajevo:  other  important  towns,  Mostar  ami  Baniitluka. 
Pop.  in  lyso,  1.148.517,  ami  of  Horzi'govina,  which  is  jrener- 
ally  a.'isociattvl  with  it,  1ST.5T4,  niakinjr  a  total  of  l,8:J6.0!il, 
of  whom  41»^'.T10  were  Moliamnu'ilans  (not  Turks,  but  Bos- 
niacs,  or  of  Slavonic  race).  .tTI.'JIO  Hosnijics  of  the  Oreek 
Ortliodox  Church,  26o,7S8  Konian  Catholics,  ami  5,80")  .Jews. 
Jan.  1,  1888,  the  population  was  cstiinateil  at  1,404,000. 

Ilislonj. — Settled  by  Slavs  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  century,  it 
was  under  the  sway  of  the  Byzantine  empire  for  several 
centuries;  at  one  time  a  powerful  kingdom,  it  was,  both 
before  and  after,  in  turn  the  prey  of  Hungary,  Servia, 
the  tierman  emi)irc.  an<l  Ihc  po|n-s;  its  inhabitants,  largely 
Protestants,  i-epelleJ  the  attemijts  of  all  to  convert  thcin, 
and  maintained  their  own  faith  amid  terrible  persecutions, 
till  at  last,  in  sheer  despair,  they  surrendered  to  the  Turks 
in  146:!  to  148:5,  and  their  chihlrcn  were  made  Jlohammedans 
liv  force.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78  they  opposed 
'I'urkey,  ami  were  finally  annexed  to  .Vustria.  See  Through 
Jiosnia  and  the  Unrzeijui-ina,  by  A.  ,1.  Evans. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

lios'plioriisi.  or  Bos'porus  [Gr.  'B6aitopos ;  popularly,  if 
not  properlv,  interpreted  as  ox-tord] :  the  strait  which  con- 
nects the  Black  Sea  (Hontus  Euxinus)  witli  tlie  Sea  of  ^lar- 
nuira  (Propontis);  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  about  16  miles  long,  and  varies  in 
width  from  -J-  a  mile  to  3  miles.  The  Bosphorus  is  deep, 
and  flows  between  high  .shores  and  cliffs  which  present 
much  picturesrpie  scenery,  the  beauty  of  which  is  enhanced 
by  uuiny  ancient  ruins.  Constantinople  stands  at  the  south- 
west enil  of  the  B()Si)horus,  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
Strait  of  Constantinople.  It  was  also  called  the  Thracian 
liiisphorus.  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus, 
the  modern  name  of  which  is  the  Strait  of  Yenikalc. 

Bos'plionis.  Ciinnie'rian  (Gr.  Bc^o-iropos  Ki;U;utpios) :  the 
ancient  nauie  of  the  Strait  of  Venikale  (or  .Strait  of  KafTa); 
coinu>cts  the  Black  Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Azov  (Palus  Ma'otis). 
The  width  of  the  narrowest  part  is  about  'A\  miles.  Gn  llie 
west  side  of  it  was  a  .Milesian  colony  and  the  city  of  Paiiti- 
eapa'um,  whieli  was  tlie  capital  of  a  kingdom  founded  by 
the  Archa>auaclid;p  in  480  H.  c.  This  kingdom  endured  sev- 
eral centuries  under  various  dynasties,  whose  dominions 
were  on  both  sides  of  the  strait.  A  bridge  across  the  Bos- 
pliorus  from  Scutari  to  Stamboul  was  projected  in  1893. 

Bosquet,  bos'ka,  Pierre  Praxi;ois  Josei'ii  :  French  gen- 
1  ral ;  b.  at  Mont  de  jlarsan,  Nov.  8,  1810.  lie  served  in  many 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  became  a  general  of  brigade  in  1848 
an<l  a  general  of  division  in  1853.  In  the  Crimean  war  he 
connnauded  a  division  at  Alma,  and  rendered  important 
services  at  Inkermanii  1854,  for  which  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  British  Parliament.  He  was  disabled  by  a 
wound  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  Sept.,  1855,  but  was,  on 
account  of  his  great  merits,  made  a  senator  and  marshal  of 
France  in  1856.  He  took,  however,  no  part  in  politics.  D. 
Feb.  5,  1801. 

Boss.  Lewis:  astronomer:  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct. 
26,  1846;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1870:  in  1872 
became  astronomer  of  the  U.  S.  northern  boundary  com- 
mission, a  position  whii'h  he  held  during  four  years.  His 
duty  was  to  prepare  the  data  for  a  very  accurate  determina- 
tion of  th(^  latitudes  of  the  various  points  of  observation  on 
the  boundary  line,  and  in  order  to  do  this  he  prepared  a 
catalogue  of  tlie  declinations  of  500  of  the  principal  fixed 
stars.  This  work  was  done  with  sucli  tlioroiighness  and 
ability  that  it  at  once  gave  the  autlior,  wlio  was  previously 
unknown,  a  European  reputation,  and  has  since  been  adopt  id 
as  tlie  .standard  by  the  office  of  the  American  Ephemeri.s. 
lu  1870  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Dudley  Observa- 
tory, Albany,  X.  Y.,  where  he  undertook  the  preparation  of 
one  of  the  catalogues  of  stars  which  were  being  prejiared  by 
co-operation  among  several  of  the  leading  observatories  of 
Europe.  He  |)U.shed  this  work  with  such  energy  that,  al- 
though he  was  the  last  to  enter  the  field,  his  completed 
work  was  the  first  to  \k  published.  In  1882  he  went  to 
Santiago,  t^hili,  as  chief  of  the  U.S.  party  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus.  In  1889  he  wa.s  elected  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  ]8'.IOan  honorary  for- 
eign associate  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

S.  Xewcomb. 

Bossi,  bos'sefe,  LuiGi :  Italian  antiqnarr  and  historian  :  b. 
in  Milan,  Feb.  28,  1785.  He  was  anpoiiited  prefect  of  the 
archives  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  W  Napoleon.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  a  Ilistunj  of  Itali/  (19  vols.,  1819- 


23)  and  an  Introdnction  to  the  Study  of  the  Arts  of  Design. 
D.  in  Milan,  Apr.  10.  1835.  See  G.  B.  Carta,  Cenni  hiogra- 
Jici  inlurno  al  Cuvatiere  L.  Bossi  (1835). 

Bossnet.  bos  siVay ,  Jacques  Bexioxe,  D.  D.  :  French 
pulpit  orator  and  theologian ;  b.  al  Dijcm,  Sept.  27,  1027. 
lie  enti'ied  in  1642  the  College  of  Navarre  in  Paris,  where 
he  studied  Greek,  Latin,  ])hilosophy,  and  theolojjy.  In  1053 
he  was  ordained  a  priest,  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity, and  became  Cant>n  of  Metz.  I  laving  become  renowned 
as  a  pulpit  orator,  he  was  appointed  to  preach  the  Advent 
sermons  before  the  king  and  court  in  1661.  In  the  ensuing 
years  he  preached  in  many  churches  of  Paris,  and  converted 
Marshal  rurenne  to  the  Catholic  communion.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Bishopof  Condom  in  1669;  |ireceptor  to  the  dauphin 
in  1670:  and  liishop  of  Jlcaux  in  1081.  For  the  dauphin 
he  wrote  a  Discourse  on  Unii-ersal  Ilislor;/  (Paris,  1681  ; 
latest  Eng.  trans.  London,  1810),  which  marks  a  new  stage 
in  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of  histor)-.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  four  articles  which  were  adopted  by  an  assembly 
of  French  clergy  in  1683,  and  which  secured  the  liberties  of 
the  Galilean  Church  against  pajial  aggression.  Against  the 
Protestants  he  wrote  his  cloi|uent  Exposition  of  the  Doc- 
trines of  the  Catholic  Churcli  on  Suhjccts  of  Controversy 
(1671  ;  latest  Eng.  trans.  London,  1841),  but"  his  principal 
jiolemical  work  against  the  Protestants  is  his  History  of 
the  Variations  of  the  Protestant  Churches  (3  vols.,  1688; 
latest  P-ng.  trans.  Dublin,  18.'i6,  2  vols.).  It  is  an  attempt  to 
argue  from  the  alleged  contradictory  teachings  of  Protest- 
antism, as  shown  in  the  various  confessions  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  in  favor  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  which  has  doctrinal  staliility.  But  the  polemic  is 
often  ]iartisan.  He  was  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
Fenelon,  whom  he  censnivd  for  his  defense  of  Madame 
Guyon  and  her  quietism,  and  whom  he  treated  in  an  arro 
gant  and  supercilious  way  without  understanding  him.  He 
applauded  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685). 
lie  was  very  learned,  and  particularly  well  read  in  the 
Bible.  1).  in  Paris,  Apr.  12.  1704.  Among  his  most  ad- 
mired compositions  are  his  Futieral  Orations  on  the  Prince 
of  CoikIc,  on  the  two  Henriettas  of  England,  and  other 
eminent  persons  (Eng.  trans.).  His  complete  works  were 
published  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  10  vols.,  4to,  1877;  and  some 
recently  discovered  at  Paris,  1883,  3  vols.  See  L.  F.  de 
Bausset,  Histoire  de  Bossuet  (4  vols.,  Versjiilles,  1814 ;  2d 
cd.  I$e.san(;on,  1840,3  vols.);  I'Abbe  Fran(;ois  le  Dieu,  31e- 
moires  et  Journal  sur  la  Vie  et  lesOurrages  de  Bossuet 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  185(>-o7) ;  A.  Floquet,  Etudes  sur  la  Vie  de 
Bossuet,  jusqu  a  son  entree  en  foncfions  en  qualite  de  pre- 
cepteur  du  dauphin  1027-1070  (3  vols..  1855);  same  author, 
Bossuet prrcepteur  du  Dauphin  et  Evi-gue  a  la  Cour  1070- 
lOS.i  (1804) ;  ILL.  Farrer  [Lear].  Bossuet  and  his  Contempo- 
raries (London,  1874;  2d  ed.  1877);  G.Lanson,Boss?/f'/ (1891). 

Revised  by  S.  31.  Jacksox. 

Bossiit.  bossii'.  Charles  :  French  geometer:  b.  near  Lyons, 
.\iig.  11, 1730  ;  was  a  friend  of  Fontenelle.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1768.  Among  his  works 
area  Treatise  on  Mechanics  and  Dynamics  (1763);  a  Com- 
plete Course  of  Matiiemntirs  (7  vols.,  1795-1801);  and  an  Es- 
say on  the  General  History  of  Mathematics  (2  vols.,  1802).  . 
He  published  an  edition  of  Pascafs  works.  D.  Jan.  14, 
1814.     See  J.  B.  J.  Dclambre.  iCtoge  de  Bossut. 

Bostaii.  Al :  See  Ai.histax. 

Boston  :  a  complex  but  exceeilingly  interesting  game  of 
cards,  played  with  two  jiacks,  which  count  as  in  whi.st.  The 
players  bid  in  turn  for  the  privilege  of  undertaking  to  do 
any  one  of  fifteen  dilTerent  things,  which  rank  in  the  order 
of  dilliculty,  and  vary  from  taking  all  the  tricks  to  playing 
with  hand  open  on  the  table  and  taking  no  tricks.  There 
are,  conserpicntly,  no  poor  hands,  as  in  whist.  For  the 
somewhat  compiicated  details  of  the  game,  see  Boyle's 
(James. 

Boston  [perhaps  degenerated  from  Botolph's  Town]: 
an  ancient  borough  and  seaport  of  Lincolnshire,  England ;  is 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  Witham  (sec  map  of  England, ref. 
8-J).  It  is  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway;  107  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  London.  Vessels  of  300  tons  can  ascend  the  river 
to  this  place,  which  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  Ican- 
hoe,  where  St.  Botolph  founded  an  abbey  in  654  A.  d.  About 
1200  Boston  was  one  of  the  chief  seaports  of  England. 
Ilere  is  the  parish  church  of  St.  Botolph,  built  in  1309, 
245  feet  long,  with  a  tower  290  feet  high,  surmounted  bv  a 
lantern  which  is  visible  nearlv  40  miles  at  sea.    Boston  has 


no 


BOSTON 


manufactures  of  canvas,  iron,  brass,  ropes,  hats,  leather,  etc. 
Pop.  (1891)  14,593. 

Boston  :  the  capital  of  ]Mas.sachusetts,  in  Suffolk  eo.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  JIassaehusetts,  ref.  3-1),  and  tlie  metrop- 
olis of  New  England  ;  situated  at  the  west  extremity  of  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay,  about  450  miles  bv  railroad  X,  E.  of  Wash- 
ington, and  232  miles  N.  E.  of  Kew  York ;  the  State-house 
is 'in  lat.  42'  21'  27-6"  N.,  Ion.  71'  3'  30'  W.  Founded  in 
1630  by  Puritan  colonists  from  England  under  the  lead  of 
John  Winthrop  and  Thomas  Dudley. 

Original  Site. — The  site  was  originally  a  pear-shaped 
peninsula,  in  its  extreme  length  less  than  2  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  a  little  more  than  1,  bounded  N.  and  W. 
by  the  Charles  river,  expanded  into  a  broad  estuary  in  its 
northwest  sweep  into  the  deep  water  of  the  harbor.  It  was 
attached  to  the  mainland  at,  Roxbury  by  a  slender  stem  or 
neck  a  mile  in  length,  so  low  and  narrow  Ix'tween  tide-washed 
flats  that  it  was  often  submerged.  The  water  on  the  N.  of 
this  isthmus  was  an  inlet  of  tiie  Cliarles  nearly  a  mile  wide, 
called  the  Back  Bay,  and  that  on  the  S.  was  an  inlet  of  the 
harbor,  named  the"  South  Bay.  The  peninsula  was  deeply 
indented  by  coves  and  bordered  by  salt-marshes,  and  its 
surface  was  abrupt,  irregular,  and  diversified  by  three  hills. 
Such  essentially  were  tlie  natural  features  of  Boston  of  a 
hundred  years  ago.  with  its  narrow,  crooked  streets,  lanes, 
alleys,  and  its  detached  buildings,  only  four  being  of  stone, 
of  which  King's  chapel  alone  remains,  and  comparatively 
few  of  brick,  including  Faneuil  Hall,  the  Town  (now  Old 
State)  liouse,  Christ  church,  and  the  Old  South  meeting- 
house, still  preserved  as  historic  lanilmarks.  At  the  time 
of  the  Hevolution  it  was  the  richest  and  most  po])ulous  city 
in  the  U.  S.,  vet  it  contained  only  2,(K)0  buildings  and  less 
than  20.000  i'uhabitants. 

Jlodcrn  C/idiiges. — Excepting  three  ancient  buiying- 
grounds  and  a  dozen  or  so  old  buildings,  not  a  vestige 
of  the  town  as  it  appeared  a  century  ago  remains.  The 
original  site  has  been  completely  transformed.  Every  part 
has  been  graded,  the  steep  hills  having  been  reduced  or 
wholly  removed.  The  highest  remaining  eminence.  Beacon 
Hill,  crowneil  by  the  State-house  (built  in  1T95),  the  loftiest 
peak  of  whicli  once  rose  138  feet,  is  now  Ijut  110  feet  high. 


^^rtiiiy— 


State  Capitol,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  coves,  inlets,  creeks,  and  marslies  of  the  northerly  bor- 
ders have  been  converted  into  solid  land  covered  with  thor- 
oughfares and  business  blocks,  and  fringed  with  wliarves 
ami  docks;  the  broad  bays  on  the  op))osite  side  have  been 
filled,  and  thousands  of  acres  and  (lats  on  the  E.,  W„  and 
S.  have  been  reclaimed  and  covereil  by  streets,  squares, 
warehouses,  and  dwellings,  so  that  where  tile  area  was  the 
narrowest  it  has  become  the  widest:  and  tlms  the  original 
783  acres  of  solid  land  comprised  in  the  old  [leninsula  have 
become  1,829.  This  constitutes  the  present  city  i)roper,  so 
called.  In  the  meantime  additional  territory  has  been  ac- 
quireil  by  tlie  annexation  of  neiglilMU-ing  cities  and  towns, 
and  through  the  reclamation  of  the  flaisofwhat  are  now 
South  Boston  and  East  Boston,  earlier  absorbed,  increasing 
the  aggregate  area  within  the  city  limits  to  23,707  acres 
(37-04  so.  miles) — more  th.m  30  times  as  great  !is  the  original 
area.  Ihe  extreme  length  of  Boston  from  N.  to  S.  is  now 
11  miles,  and  the  breadth  E.  lo  W.  !)  miles.  South  Boston 
was  formerly  Dorchester  Xeck,  a  |)art  of  Dorchester,  an- 
nexed to  Boston  in  1804,  and  East  Boston  was  Noddle's 


island.  The  other  territorial  acquisitions,  called  districts, 
are  Koxbnry,  annexed  in  1868 ;  Dorchester  in  1870 ;  and 
Charlestown,  West  Roxbury,  and  Brighton,  in  1874. 

Streets  and  Buildings. — The  watercourses  around  Boston 
proper  are  spanned  by  numerous  bridges.  East  Boston  only 
being  reached  by  ferry,  that  the  harbor  may  be  open  to  the 
navy-yard  in  Charlestown.  Washington  Street  (originally 
a  series  of  streets  bearing  different  names),  now  extending 
from  Haymarket  Square  to  and  through  the  Roxbury  dis- 


Tlie  City  Hall. 

trict,  has  always  been  the  main  thoroughfare.  Tremont 
Street,  from  Scollay  Square  also  to  Roxbury,  is  another  im- 
portant artery.  State  Street  is  the  financial  center.  At- 
lantic Avenue,  100  feet  wide,  extends  along  a  portion  of  the 
water-front  at  the  head  of  the  principal  wharves,  Jlany  of 
the  old  streets  have  been  straightened,  widened,  and  ex- 
tended at  enormous  expense  :  and  in  place  of  the  waters  of 
the  Back  Bay  has  grown  uii  the  "  New  \^'est  End,"  a  region 
of  broad  streets  and  stately  avenues,  lined  with  costly  and 
often  elegant  dwellings,  nolile  churches,  fine  public  and 
private  buildings,  famous  institutions,  great  hotels  and 
apartment-houses;  remarkable  especially  for  the  taste  dis- 
played in  its  embellisliment  and  the  richness  and  variety 
of  its  architecture.  Beacon  Street,  sweeping  over  Beacon 
Hill,  for  years  the  finest  residential  quarter,  is  now  contin- 
ued across  the  Back  Bay  into  the  Brighton  district.  Com- 
monwealth Avenue,  250  feet  wide,  with  a  mall  in  the  center, 
also  extending  through  the  Back  Bay  section,  is  one  of  the 
finest  boulevards  in  the  world.  Near  the  heart  of  Boston 
proper  is  the  Common,  set  ajKirt  for  public  use  by  the  first 
settlers,  a  rare  old  park  (43f  acres),  with  broad  malls  and 
pleasant  by-paths  shaded  )iy  elms,  lindens,  and  other  grace- 
ful trees;  and  lieyond.  sep.arated  from  it  by  a  single  street, 
is  the  (■X(|uisitc  Public  (iarden  (24  acres),  tlie  gateway  to 
the  Back  Bay  quarter.  In  these  and  other  ]iulilic  places 
are  numerous  statues  and  monuments,  of  which  the  most 
noted  is  the  equestrian  statue  of  Washington,  by  Thomas 
Ball,  in  the  Public  Garden.  The  greater  public-park  system 
consists  of  a  chain  of  parks  beginning  with  the  Back  Bay 
Pens,  extending  through  ))arkways  to  Franklin  Park  (520 
acres)  in  the  West  Roxl)ury  district,  and  along  the  shores 
of  Dorchester  Bay  to  the  Marine  Park  at  South  Boston. 
The  system  also  includes  an  embankment  with  a  series  of 
parks  anil  boulevards  along  the  city  shore  of  the  Charles 
river,  and  independent  parks  in  East  B<iston  and  Charles- 
town. The  city  has  thus  far  expended  in  this  enterprise  up- 
ward of  s;7,(H)0,000.  The  street  railway  system  is  extensive, 
and  electric  cars  are  employed.  The  five  great  trunk-lines 
radiating  from  tlie  city  connect  it  with  all  parts  of  New 
England,  and  the  far  West,  South,  and  East. 

Public  Free  Schools  and  Libraries. — The  system  of  pub- 
lic free  schools  lias  long  been  the  special  pride  of  the  city. 
It  comprises  kindergarten,  primary,  grammar,  high,  Latin, 
normal,  and  special  schools,  in  which  67.023  pupils  are 
taught  by  1,577  teachers.     The  188  school-houses,  contain- 


I 


m 


b 


• 


i 


BOSTON 


BOSWELLIA 


fll 


ill"  1,427  school-rooms,  are  valued  by  tlie  assessors  at  $8,- 
574,500.  The  total  school  exj.eiises  for  1891-92  were  about 
it2,00().000.  The  system  is  wholly  supported  by  money 
I'lriiwii  from  tlie  general  tax  levy  of  the  city.  The  school 
board  is  comitosed  of  the  mayor,  who  is  president,  and  24 
mombers  chosen  by  the  citizens  for  three  years.  The  super- 
vision of  tlie  schoiils  is  exercised  by  a  superintendent  ami  6 
supervisors,  salaried  otlicials.  In  the  loMnber  and  extent  of 
its  libraries  Boston  stands  at  the  head  of  American  cities. 
The  Hoston  Public  Library,  opened  in  l><r)4,  is  wholly  free, 
and  is  supported  by  the  city  at  an  annual  exjiense  of  about 
$12."),00().  It  is  the  largest  library  in  the  world  for  free 
circulation.  With  its  10  branches' it  contains  o,i6,280  vol- 
umes, and  the  annual  circulation  is  over  1.000.000  volumes. 
Its  executive  force  consists  of  140  persons.  .\  new  public 
library  buildinir  im  Coplev  Square.  Back  Hay,  costing  up- 
ward "of  .■!;2.2-.'.">.000,  has  "lieen  provided.  It  is  a  momi- 
inental  structure,  of  elegant  proportions,  the  interior  espe- 
ciallv  enriclied  by  some  of  the  best  of  modern  decora- 
tive work.  Among  other  notable  libraries  are  tho.sc  of  the 
lioston  Alhena'um  (founded  in  1807),  the  Massachusetts 
Uiiitorical  Society  (founded  in  17i)l).  X.  K.  Historic-Genea- 
logical Socielv.  Boston  Society  of  Natural  Uistory.and  Mas- 
sachusetts Horticultural  Society.  The  literary,  scientilic. 
and  other  learned  societies  id'  the  city  are  numerous;  and 
conspicuous  among  the  higher  instittdious  for  instruction 
are  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  the  Boston 
Tniversity,  the  Boston  College  (Uoman  Catholic),  the  medi- 
i  al  and  dental  schools  connected  with  Harvard  Uinversity, 
the  .Massiichusetts  Normal  Art  .School,  and  the  New  Kiig- 
land  Conservatory  of  Music.  The  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
.\rts  (organized  1870)  raidcs  among  the  most  important  in 
tlie  world. 

Cunuiierce  and  Finance. — Boston  has  been  from  the  first 
a  leading  commercial  city.  Its  advantageous  situation 
upon  a  harbor,  deep,  secure,  unobstructed  by  sand-bars, 
and  contaiinng  nearly  60  sij.  miles  of  am-horage,  was  early 
appreciated  by  the  peo])le,  and  the  shipping  interests  were 
rapidly  extended.  There  are  nine  dilVerent  steamship  lines 
to  Kurope  and  several  important  coastwise  lines.  Hoston 
is  the  principal  uuirt  of  the  country  for  the  sale  of  wool, 
shoes,  and  leather,  and  it  is  the  busiru'ss  and  financial  cen- 
ter of  most  of  the  manufacturing  establishments  of  New 
England.  The  first  bank  in  America  was  established  here 
in  l()S(i,  and  the  first  sjivings  institution  in  1816.  There 
were  in  1S!C^  in  the  city  60  national  baidvs  with  a  cash  capi- 
tal of  .*.");!.  100,000,  anda  surplus  amounting  to  .•^OO.Kll.lT."). 
The  clearing-house  business  aiiu)unls  to  ^.l.OOO.OOO.OOO 
vearly.  The  valuation  of  taxable  propertv  in  1800  was 
$l.j,()!).-,,700  and  the  tax  lew  .$80,000;  in  18!)2  the  valuation 
was  ii;!»ll,6:W,8.ST  and  the  ta'x  levy  !? 1 4.:i(;0,48i)..50 ;  the  valu- 
ation in  IM'.C!  was$1.0ii;i.l4.">,!>8!).  "The  total  net  funded  debt. 
.Ian.  1,  1803,  was  $30,.5;i!l,2.S!).«7.  The  works  for  the  water- 
supply  are  elaborate  and  extensive.  Cochituate  Lake  works 
were  comi>lcled  in  184S ;  thirty  years  later  Ihv  Sudbury  river 
works  were  added,  which  more'  than  ilouliieil  the  original 
capacity  of  the  system  ;  and  with  the  ainiexatiou  of  Charles- 
town  ciime  the  Jlystic  Lake  works,  constructed  in  1864. 
The  cost  of  construction  of  these  combined  works  was  up- 
ward of  $23,000,000. 

Manufact II res.— The  State  census  of  1885  reported  5,19!) 
manufacturing  establishments,  embracing  a  great  variety 
of  articles;  capital,  $715,340,258;  hands  eruployed,  57,01)7; 
wages  paid,  ;j!27,0:35,571  ;  value  of  products,  .^144,37(1.202. 
.Vecording  to  the  L'.  S.  census  of  18',»0,  Boston  had  in  that 
year  7.!tl5  manufacturing  establishments,  with  a  capital  of 
i*ll(i.(!44,-J'.»0,  employing  O0,l!l8  persons;  wages  paid,  $54,- 
(J3U.6!>5;  value  of  product,  $208,104,683. 

Jli.itiirii. — Boston  remained  for  nearly  two  centuries  un- 
der the  simple  form  of  a  town  government  liy  all  the  citi- 
zens asseudiled  in  "town-meeting."  The  city  charter  was 
granted  in  1S'^',J.  The  present  governmeid  is  composed  of  a 
mayor.  12  alderuien.  and  a  eonnnon  council  of  72  members 
animally  elected.  There  are  ci>inmi.ssi<)ni'rs  for  fire,  water, 
lieallh,  streets,  parks,  public  institutions,  'nd  police,  and 
boards  for  various  other  departments  of  the  public  service. 
1  n  and  near  IJostoii  were  einicted  t  he  first  scenes  of  the  drama 
of  the  Revolution.  From  the  old  town  the  British  troo])s 
went  out  to  meet  the  "eiulialtlcd  farmers"  at  Lexington 
and  Concord,  and  to  fight  the  battle  id'  Bmiker  Hill,  the  site 
of  which  is  now  within  the  city  limits;  then  followed  the 
".siege  of  Bo.slon"  and  the  evacuation  by  the  British, 
forced  by  Washington,  Mar,  17,  1776.  On  the  evening  of 
Nov.  9,  1872,  the  great  Boston  fire  broke  out  and  destroyed 


the  most  substantial  business  portion  of  the  city,  sweeping 
over  65  acres,  covered  mostly  with  wholesale  warehouses, 
nearly  all  being  of  brick  or  granite,  involving  a  loss  of  over 
$75,000,000.  In  a  little  more  than  two  years  afterward  the 
whole  "burnt  district,"  with  widened  and  improved  thor- 
oughfares, was  again  covered  with  solid  business  edifices. 
Top.  (1800)  24,937;  (1880)  362,839;  (1890)  448.477;  (1895) 
496,920.  lieviscd  by  Edwin  M.  Bacon. 

Boston  University:  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of 
Massjichusctts  in.  1869,  is  in  orgaiuzation  and  in  its  affili- 
ations iini(iue.  There  are  two  departments,  admission  to 
which  does  not  presuppose  a,  j)relindnary  collegiate  educa- 
tion, and  these  are  called  the  Colleges  of  Liberal  Arts  and 
.Vgriculture  respectively.  There  are  three  for  stvidents  who 
have  coni|)letedacourse  in  the  liberal  arts — viz.,  the  Sehoolsof 
Theology,  Law.  and  Jledicine.  All  these  colleges  and  schools 
have  .separate  faculties  and  separate  administrations.  There 
is  also  a  department  of  general  po.^-graduate  study  in  lan- 
guage, philosophy,  and  science,  known  as  the  School  of  All 
Sciences.  The  university  council  consists  of  the  president 
of  the  university  and  the  deans  of  all  the  colleges  and 
schools.  The  uiiiversity  senate  consists  of  all  members  of 
the  university  council. "together  with  all  regular  professors 
in  the  dilfereiit  faculties.  The  corporation  consists  of  not 
less  than  ten  nor  more  than  thirty  trustees,  each  elected  for 
a  term  of  live  years.  Properly  to  the  amount  of  $1,492,000 
is  held  by  this"  body.  The  three  original  corporators  were 
Isaac  Rich,  Esq.,  the  Hon.  Lee  Claflin,  and  the  lion.  Jacob 
Sleeper,  all  of  whom  had  held  responsible  positions  in  the 
government  of  one  or  more  of  the  older  New  England  col- 
leges. an<l  the  last  of  whom  had  served  as  a  State-appointed 
overseer  of  Harvard  ITniversity  for  twelve  years.  The  gov- 
ernor of  the  commonwealth  who  oflicially  approved  and 
signed  the  charter  was  a  son  of  the  second  of  the  original 
(torporators.  Sixty-four  free  scholarships  in  the  College  of 
Liberal  jVrts  have  been  established  in  honiu-  of  Isaac  Rich, 
first  founder  and  the  chief  benefactor  of  the  university. 
Two  fellowshiiis  and  more  than  200  other  scholarships  have 
been  founded  in  the  university.  The  place  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  is  supplied  by  tlii;  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College,  at  Amherst,  .Mass.  "  By  virtue  of  a  special  arrange- 
mentrthe  faculties  of  the  Na"tional  University,  at  Athens, 
and  of  the  Royal  University,  at  Rome,  are  so  associated 
with  the  School  of  All  Sciences  that  students  in  the  latter 
can  receive  instruction  in  those  universities  without  charge, 
and  on  returning  and  passing  the  rerpiisite  examination  be 
promoted  to  advanced  degrees  in  Boston  University.  The 
number  of  instructors  in  1892  was  118  and  of  students  1,069. 

WiLi.i.vM  F.  Warren. 
Bos'tra,  or  Bots'rali,  sometimes  spelled  Boz'rali :  for- 
merly a  great  city  of  Arabia,  now  in  ruins;  in  an  oasis  of 
the  Syrian  desert,  "about  75  miles  S.  of  Damascus,  and  about 
40  miles  E.  of  the  .Jordan.  It  was  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  district  of  Anranitis,  the  modern  Ilauran,  of  which  it 
was  the  capital  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  la'autified  by 
Traj.-m,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Arabia  about  105  A.  D.  The  Roman  Emperor  Philip  gave  it 
the  title  of  J/f/co/mZ/.s-,  probably  because  it  was  his  native 
place.  It  was  described  as  a  great  and  populous  city  about 
300  A.  i>.  TIk'  important  ruins  of  Rostra  are  described  by 
Burckhardt  in  his  Traivh  and  Robinson  in  his  Biblical  Re- 
.searc/iea  (vol.  iii.).  Buxlra,  though  sometimes  called  Bozrah, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Idumean  city  of  tliat 
name      Se<>  Bozrah. 

Bos'wi'll.  -Iames,  of  Atichiideck :  biographer  of  Dr.  John- 
son; b.  at  Edinburgh.  Oct.  29,  1740.  He  studied  law,  and 
in  1703  became  acquainted  with  Dr.  .lohnson  ;  in  1773  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  literary  club  establi^lled  by  the  lat- 
ter in  London.  He  diligently  iioted  and  recorded  the  say- 
ings, opinions,  and  actions  of  Dr.  Johnsim,  of  wdiom  he  was 
an  int iinate  a.ssoeiatc.  1 1  is  Life  of  Nam iiel  Johnson  (3  vols., 
London,  1791)  is  a  remarkable,  and  in  many  respects  an  ad- 
mirable, biography;  best  ed.  by  George  Birkbeck  Hill,  1887, 
6  vols.  1).  in  Loiidon,  May  19,  1795.  See  Maeaulay's  review 
of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  in  the  Killnburgh  Jieview  for 
1831,  and  Life  by  Percy  Fitzgerakl,  1891,  3  vols. 

Boswcl'lin  (named  in  honor  of  John  Boswell,  a  phy- 
sician): a  genus  of  trees  of  the  family  liiirseracem,  natives  of 
India,  Persia,  and  Arabia.  'J'he  fiowers  have  five  petals  and 
a  crenulated  granular  disk.  The  fruit  is  a  triangular  cap- 
sule with  three  valves,  three  cells,  and  one  seed  in  each  cell. 
The  number  of  known  species  is  small.  The  BosweUia  ser- 
rata  is  a  large  tree  with  pinnate  leaves,  each  of  which  has 


712 


BOSWORTH 


BOTANY 


about  ten  pairs  of  hairy,  serrate  leaflets  and  one  odd  leaflet. 
It  has  small  pink  flowers  in  axillary  racemes.  This  tree 
yields  the  fragrant  resin  called  ulibunum.  wliich  is  believed 
to  lie  iilcntical  with  the  frankincense  of  the  ancients.  See 
Olibanum. 

Bos'«  orf  ll :  a  market-town  of  Leicestershire,  England ; 
on  an  eminence  10  miles  VV.  of  Leicester  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  9-H).  On  a  moor  near  this  town  wiis  fo\ight  in 
Aug..  1485,  the  battle  of  Boswortli,  or  Bosworth  Field,  in 
which  Hichard  III.  was  defeated  and  killed.  This  battle 
terminated  tlie  civil  war  of  the  Roses,  and  raised  lieniy 
VII.  to  the  throne. 

Bosworth.  .Joseph,  D.  D..  F.  R.  S.  :  philologist ;  b.  in 
Derbvshire.  England,  1780 :  took  ilegree  of  M.  A.,  and  later 
LL.  f)..  at  Aberdeen  :  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Candiridge ; 
was  orilained  priest  1815;  became  vicar  of  Tlorwood  Parva, 
in  Buckinghamshire.  1817;  resided  in  Holland  as  British 
chaplain  1829-40;  became  vicar  of  Waith.  Lincolnshire, 
1840:  rector  of  Water  Shelford,  Buckinghamshire,  1857; 
Rawlinson  Professor  of  Anglo-Saxon,  Oxford,  1858.  D.  at 
Water  Shelford,  Jlay  27,  1876.  He  devoted  much  time  to 
the  stu<lv  of  Anglo-Saxon,  and  published  a  Dictionary  of  the 
Angln-f^nrim  Lunijuage  {18:i8).  an  enlarged  edition  of  which, 
bv  T.  N.  Toller,  is  now  being  published  at  Oxford  (1883- 
1893). 

Botanic  Garden :  a  garden  in  which  collections  of  grow- 
ing plants  are  reared  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  or  .sci- 
entific study.  Such  collections  have  been  made  and  tem- 
porarily maintained  from  time  to  time  in  the  past.  It  is 
said  that  Mithridates  and  Attalus  established  botanic  gardens 
in  Pontus  and  Pargaraus  more  than  2.000  years  ago,  in  which 
poisonous  plants  were  reared  and  experiments  made  with 
others  as  antidotes  to  poisons.  Modern  botanic  gardens  are 
usually  connected  with  universities,  or  are  under  govern- 
ment control  for  economic  purposes.  The  most  noted  are 
the  Royal  Gardens,  at  Kew,  near  London,  wiiich  originated 
about  200  years  ago  on  a  private  estate,  afterward  becoming 
a  royal  property,  wliich  was  transferred  to  the  Government 
in  1841  with  the  present  title.  Other  botanic  gardens  are 
now  maintained  in  Cambridge.  Oxford,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  the  whole  number  in  Great  Britain  being  II.  In 
France  there  are  19  botanic  gardens,  of  which  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes  in  Paris  is  the  most  noteworthy.  Germany  has 
25,  nearly  every  important  city  or  university  town  main- 
taining one.  Austria-Hungary  has  14;  Switzerland,  Bel- 
gium, Ilolland,  and  Scandinavia,  4  each;  Italy,  31;  Russia, 
3 ;  Roumania  and  Portugal,  2  each  ;  Greece,  Servia,  Spain, 
and  Denmark,  1  each.  The  total  nuiuber  in  Europe  is  about 
135.  In  many  of  the  British  colonies  botanic  gardens  are 
maintained  by  the  Government,  there  being  in  the  West 
Indian  region  8;  in  the  ("ape  region,  8;  Australian,  6;  East 
Indian,  8;  Canada,  1.  The  Dutch  (^Jardens  at  Buitcnzorg, 
in  Java,  are  noted.  There  are  5  botanic  gardens  in  South 
America — viz.,  in  Rio  dc  Janeiro,  Quito,  Lima,  Santiago, 
and  Buenos  Ayres. 

In  the  U.  S.  there  are  many  considerable  collections  of 
plants  grown  for  instruction  and  study,  but  few  bear  the 
name  of  botanic  gardens.  Many  of  the  larger  universities, 
and  usually  all  of  the  .agricultural  colleges,  have  such  col- 
lections, which  are,  in  fact,  botanic  gardens  in  everj"thing 
but  the  name.  Some  of  the  pubUc  parks,  e.  g.  in  Boston.  New 
York,  and  Chicago,  contain  excelli'nt  botanic  gardens,  al- 
though they  do  not  bear  that  name  in  pidtlished  reports. 
The  botanic  garden  and  the  Arnold  .\rboretum  of  Harvard 
University,  the  botiiuie  gardens  of  tlie  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington,  and  the  Missouri  Botanic  Gar- 
den in  St.  Louis  are  the  most  extensive  plant  collections  in 
this  country.  Cihiiles  K.  Bessev. 

Bolnny  [formed  from  Gr.  j3ot:{>t).  plant] ;  the  science  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  includes  all  inciuiries  as  to  the 
structure,  physiology,  development,  classification,  and  dis- 
tribution of  all  those  living  (or  once  living)  things  which  wc 
call  plants. 

Pinnt  Defined. — It  is  no  easy  task  to  trace  the  line  which 
separates  plants  from  anim.als.'  They  are  unlike  enough  in 
their  higher  forms,  but  many  of  the  lower  ]ilants  and  ani- 
mals are  so  much  alike  that  naturalists  are  by  no  means 
agreed  as  to  whether  they  are  to  be  placed  in  this  or  that 
kingdom.  We  can  not  at  present  frame  n  definition  which 
will  certainly  include  all  plants  and  exclu<le  all  animals. 
The  most  we  can  do  is  to  ))ring  together  those  chara<'ters 
which  separate  the  greater  mimhir  of  plants  from  animals, 
and  then  to  associate  with  the  plants  so  set  off  such  of  the 


remaining  organisms  as  appear  to  be  more  plant-like  than 
animal-like.  Accordingly,  we  may  say  that,  for  the  most 
part,  plants  arc  cells  inclosed  in  walls  of  cellulose,  or  aggre- 
gates of  such  cells,  all  or  part  of  which  contain  chlorophyll, 
by  means  of  which  they  are  alile  to  appropriate  carbon 
from  inorganic  matter  (carlion  dioxide).  The  organisms  so 
set  off  constitute  the  bulk  anil  mark  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

There  are.  however,  many  plants  which  hiive  suffered 
more  or  less  degeneration  through  having  become  parasitic 
or  saprophytic  ;  these  are  colorless,  and  are  incapable  of  ap- 
propriating carbon  from  carbon  dioxide ;  they  are  often 
greatly  reduced  as  to  their  vegetative  organs,  and  in  many 
cases  even  their  reproductive  orgatis  have  sufl'ered  great  de- 
generation. These  degraded  plants  must  be  ns.signed  to 
such  positions  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  as  will  best  show 
their  relationships.  It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  in 
many  attempts  to  define  plants  the  true  relation  of  these 
degenerated  ones  has  been  overlooked,  and  they  have  been 
treated  as  though  they  represented  sejiarate  types  instead  of 
degradations  from  chlorophyll-bearing  types,  thus  leading 
to  no  little  confusion  of  ideas,  and  to  a  serious  misunder- 
standing of  the  true  nature  of  plants. 

Anatomi/  and  PhyfsioliMiy. — If  we  examine  under  a  micro- 
scope some  of  the  green  slimy  coating  growing  on  the  north 
side  of  a  tree  or  wall,  we  find  it  to  be  composed  of  minute 
balls  of  soft  matter  (here  colored  green),  each  surrounded 
by  a  harder  coat.  Tiie  soft  matter  is  known  as  protoplasm 
and  its  cover  as  the  cell-wall;  the  protoplasm  and  wall  are 
called  a  cell.  Similar  examination  of  a  bit  of  compressed 
yeast  will  show  similar  roundish  balls  of  soft  matter,  each 
surrounded  by  a  cell-wall.  Here,  however,  the  protoplasm 
is  not  green,  and  we  find  on  further  investigation  that  plant 
protoplasm  is  itself  not  green,  and  that  the  green  color  is  im- 
parted by  a  stain  to  which  the  name  chlorophyll  has  been 
given.  These  cells,  whether  green  or  not.  freely  absorb 
watery  solutions,  which  are  transformed  into  cell-matter  by 
the  protoplasm.  Green  cells  supplied  with  water  and  car- 
bon dioxide  make  the  carbon  compound,  starch,  (CsHjoOs) 
when  in  the  sunlight,  and  this  is  afterward  transformed  into 
cell-matter.  Colorless  plants  can  not  make  starch,  and  are 
dependent  upon  other  organisms  for  their  supply  of  carbon. 
Thus  while  the  green  cell  supplies  itself  with  carbon  in  the 
starch  which  it  makes,  the  yeast  cell  is  dependent  upon  the 
starch  in  flour  (made  by  some  cereal).     See  Cell  and  Pko- 

TOPL.\SM. 

Now,  all  plants  are  made  up  of  cells  having  essentially  the 
structure  of  tliose  here  described.  In  many  plants  all  the 
cells  are  green,  and  able  to  make  starch  ;  in  many  others 
some  of  the  cells  are  green,  while  the  remainder  are  colorless, 
in  which  case  the  latter  are  dcjicndent  upon  the  former  for 
their  carbon ;  in  still  others  all  the  cells  of  the  jilaiit  are 
colorless,  resulting  in  the  complete  dependence  of  tlie  plant 
upon  some  other  organism  (parasitically  or  saprophytically). 

In  few-celled  plants  the  cells  may  be  alike  in  form  and 
function,  but  as  the  number  of  cells  is  increased  there  is  al- 
ways a  differentiation  both  inform  and  function.  In  the 
higher  plants  we  have  masses  of  similar  cells  occupying  par- 
ticular portions  of  the  plant  body,  and  having  similar  func- 
tions. Such  cell-masses  are  known  as  tissues,  and  may  be 
briefly  designated  as  follows  ; 

I.  Soft  tissue  (parenc/iynia),  of  short,  thin-walled  cells. 

II.  Thick-angleil  tissue  (colhnchyma),  of  elongated  cells 
whose  angles  are  thickened. 

III.  Stony  tissue  (sehrenchyma),  of  short,  thick-walled 
cells. 

IV.  Fibrous  tissue,  of  elongated,  usually  pointed,  thick- 
walled  cells. 

V.  Milk  tissue  (laticiferoux  tissue),  of  elongated  cells,  or 
rows  of  cells,  containing  a  milky  fluid. 

VI.  Sieve  tissue,  of  rows  of  enlarged  and  elongated  cells, 
connected  by  perforated  walls. 

VII.  Tracheat-y  tissue,  of  enlarged  and  elongated  cells 
with  their  walls  thickened  in  rings,  spirals  or  reticulations. 

Soft  tissue  may  be  regarded  as  ty]iical  plant-tissue,  inas- 
much as  it  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  every  plant.  All 
assimilat  ing.  growing,  and  reproduct  ive  organs  are  composed 
of  pareucliyuuiious  cells.  The  other  tissues  are  accessory, 
and  serve  to  protect,  strengthen,  or  connect  the  masses  of 
soft  tissue. 

The  simplest  plants  are  composed  entirely  of  soft  tissue, 
although  even  here  the  cells  may  show  some  differentiation. 
In  larse  plant-s  there  must  be  some  means  for  supjiorting 
and  strengthening  the  plant-body.     This  is  accomplished  by 


BOTANY 


713 


the  development  of  filirnus  or  stony  cells,  that  is,  by  thiek- 
waUed  cells,  which  may  be  long  or  short.     These  may  de- 


FiG.  1. -Illustrations  of  tissues,  highly  magnified  :  I.  Soft  tissue  from 


tissue  from  squash  stem  ; 
forms. 


lU.  Stony  tissue  from  hickory 

ougituilinal  sectiou  ;  VI.  Sieve 

VII.    Tracheary  tissue   of   various 


a  leaf  :  II.  Thick-angled  tissue  ;  lU.  Stony  tiss 

nut :  IV.  and  V.  Fibrous  tissue  in  lougituduial  sectiou  ;  VI.  Sn 


velop  in  the  boundary  region,  or  in  the  axial.  In  the  sim- 
plest cases  these  strenetheniiig  cells  form  noorly  defined 
bundles  oT  elongated  cells  with  thickened  walls,  as  in  many 

Ill-own  seaweeds,  red  sea- 
weeds, liverworts, and  moss- 
es ;  but  in  most  ferns  and 
flowering  jilanls  the  well- 
developed  tillers  are  .associ- 
ated with  tracheary  and 
sieve  vessels,  where  they 
constitute  the  fbro-vascu- 
lar  bundles.  A  st ill  higher 
structure  is  exhibited  in 
those  plants  in  which  the 
bundles  join  one  another 
at  regular  intervals,  thus 
constituting  a  Jibro-raxni- 
lar  x)/nlem  :  and  this  union 
of  the  bundles  may  become 
so  perfect  as  to  form  a  solid 
woody-vascidar  cylinder,  as 
in  large,  strong  hcrlis,  and 
in  shrubs  and  trce.s.  See 
IIlSTOLOOY,  Vkoet.mslk. 
The  planl-hodj/  in  the  simplest  plants  is  the  cell  itself. 
Where  the  plant  con.sists  of  a  row  of  cells,  there  is  very  com- 
monly a  distinct  ba.se  which  is  prolonged  into  root-like 
"  hold-fasts,"' while  the  opposite  end  of  the  cell-row  is  as 
distinctly  apical  in  structure.  The  cell-layers  or  masses 
(IholliimfK).  branched  or  not.  so  common  iiMhe  lower  water- 
plants,  and  in  some  terrestrial  jilants.  e.  g.  liverworts,  have  a 
marked  axial  [lohiritv.  and  usually  are  distinctly  bilateral. 
The  plant-body  in  higher  plants  (slidot  and  rnol)  exhibits 
axial  polarity,  and  is  usually  polysynnnetrical. 

The  plant-body  is  thus  either  (1)  a  cell,  (2)  a,  filament,  (3)  a 
thallume,  or  (4)  a  shuut  (with  root). 


Flo.  2.— Illustrations  of  fibro-vascu- 
lar  systems  ;  I.  Diagrammatic 
ligure  showing  the  courses  of  the 
iiuiuiles  in  un  herbaceous  stem  ; 
II.  and  III.  Fibro-va-seular  sys- 
tem in  a  woody  plant,  consisting 
of  a  woody  cylinder  with  pith  in 
the  center,  and  surrounded  by 
bark. 


lobing  (forming  leaves)  may  approach  and  gradually  merge 
into  the  shoot. 

Temiiiiotot/)/. — In  the  accurate  description  of  plants  it  is 
necessary  that  many  terms  shouhi  be  used  with  fixed  and 
exact  meanings.  This  has  given  rise  to  a  myriad  of  techni- 
cal terms  which  constitute  the  glossology  or  terminology 
of  the  science.  It  is  unfortunate  that  these  terms  have 
been  needlessly  multiplied,  each  tiranch  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom  having,  to  a  great  extent,  its  special  terminol- 
ogy. It  would  be  out  of  place  in  this  article  to  attempt  to 
give  a  complete  account  of  the  terms  used  in  all  depart- 
ments of  botany.  Nor  is  it  desirable  to  take  up  those  only 
which  relate  to  the  flowering  planls.  as  is  so  frequently  done, 
inasmuch  as  it  would  tend  to  confirm  the  loo  common  im- 
pression that  botany  is  essentially  the  study  of  flowering 
plants. 

BraHching. — In  the  branching  of  the  plant -body  there 
are  two  types,  viz.,  terminal  anil  lateral.     In  the  first  the 


Fio.  3.— Illustrations  of  the  plant-body:  I.  Simple  cell  of  Protocoe- 
eus.  maiiiilied  ;  II  .-V  filament,  or  chain  of  cells  of  T.dogonium, 
ijiagnitied  ;  III.  A  tliullume  of  Marchantia,  natural  size;  IV.  A 
shoot  of  a  moss,  slightly  reduced. 

All  these  types  of  plant-body  may  remain  simple,  or  they 
may  become  more  or  less  bninehed.  Moreover,  the  line  of 
demarkation  between  one  an<l  the  other  is  very  poorly  de- 
fined. Thus  a  few  cells  maybe  feebly  connected,  forming 
a  weak  filament  which  very  easily  breaks  up  into  separate 
cells.  Ill  like  manner  a  number  of  lilaments  may  cohere 
into  a  kind  of  weak  thallome.  and   the  thallome  bv   lateral 


% 


\/u 


Fig.  4.— Dlustrationsof  branching:  I. Terminal (di<-hotomous^ branch- 
ing ;  II.  and  III.  Lateral  (monopodia!  i  branching;  II.  ludefiiiite 
(or  racemo.se  I  ;  III.  Definite  (or  cymo.se  I. 

branches  arise  at  the  growing  apex  of  the  body,  usually  in 
twos  (dichotoinous  branching),  or  occasionally  in  threes 
(trichotomous),  or  even  in  fours  (tetrachotomous).  In  the 
second  (monopodial)  the  branches  always  arise  on  the  sides 
of  the  body, but  even  here  they  usually  originate  netir  to  the 
growing  a);ex.  In  a  scries  of  branches  on  the  side  of  the 
plant-liodv  those  toward  the  base  are  usually  the  oldest, 
while  those  nearest  the  apex  arc  the  youngest.  Occsisionally 
a  branch  originates,  and  after  a  short  growth  ceases  to  de- 


Fig  5 —Illustrations  of  the  branching  of  flat  structures:  I.  Entire 
margin  ;  U.  Serrate  ;  III.  Dentate  ;  IV.  Incised  ;  V.  Lobed  ;  VI, 
Parted. 

velop  further  for  a  considerable  period,  even  after  the 
neighboring  branches  have  become  well  grown.  When  such 
"  latent  "  branches  renew  their  growth  they  are  apparent, 
but  not  real,  exceptionsto  the  rule  that  branches  arise  acrop- 

etallv.  .        ,  . 

In"  many  plants  where  lateral  branches  arise,  the  apex  of 
the  original  plant-bod v,  or  axis,  continues  to  grow,  thus  pro- 
ducing an  indefinite  branching  system  (a  racemone  system) ; 
in  other  cases  "the  apex  soon  ceases  to  grow,  producing  a 


4    .„,.  -4    ,   ^ 


Fig  6— Illustrations  of  compound  leaves  ;  I  Palmntely  compound 
(three  leaflets) ;  II  Falniately  compound  (seven  leaflet-s) ;  III. 
Pinnately  compound,  with  terminal  leaflet  ;  IV.  I'innately  com- 
pound, with  tendril  at  the  end. 

definite  branching  system  (a  ri/mnne  system).  All  forms  of 
both  terminal  and  lateral  branching  are  subject  to  unsym- 
metrical  development,  thus  partially  obscuring  the  plan  of 
growth.  • 

The  branching  of  flat  structures,  as  thallomes  and  leaves, 


714 


BOTANY 


has  given  rise  to  a  multitude  of  terms.  When  such  struc- 
tures have  made  no  beginning  in  tiranching.  the  margins 
iiave  an  entire,  outline.  When  braiu-liing  has  barely  begun, 
the  margin  maybe  sinuate,  ov  ■'ierrale;  wlien  tlie  branches 
have  grown  further,  the  margins  may  lie  dentnte;  or  still 
f urtlier,  incised ;  or  more  still,  lobed,  then  jjarted,  and  di- 
vided. 

In  leaves  where  the  branching  has  gone  so  far  that  the 
leaf-branches  are  distinct  and  separable,  we  use  the  term 
coiiijjoiiiid.  Where  tlie  leaf-branclies  arise  very  near  to- 
gether, the  leaf  is  said  to  be  poliiuttely  compound;  wliore 
they  arise  at  considerable  intervals,  it  hpinnotely  compound. 

.S'«r/nces. — In  plants  consisting  of  cell-masses  the  external 
cells  are  always  more  or  less  modified  by  contact  with  the 
surrounding  medium.  They  usually  contain  less  protoidasm, 
and  quite  commonly  have  thicker  walls:  tliis  is  especially 
true  of  terrestrial  plants,  altliougli  it  may  be  seen  in  aquat- 
ics to  a  less  degree.  Tiiis  outer  layer  is  known  as  the  ei)i- 
dcrmis.  It  is  frequently  smooth  externally,  the  outer  walls 
of  the  contiguous  cells  forming  an  even  surface.  In  otlier 
cases  the  cells  may  project  more  or  less,  or  they  may  develop 
short  points  which  project  above  the  surface  and  make  it 
roiii/h.  These  projections  may  be  so  extended  as  to  form  a 
hairy  surface. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  mass  of  cells  in  or  beneath 
the  epidermis  grows  out  into  a  sharp,  broad-tiased  point,  a 
prickle,  as  in  the  roses  and  raspberries,  whose  stems  are 


Fio.  7. —I.  Prickles  on  a  rose-stem,  superficial,  not  connected  with 
the  woody  part  of  the  stem  ;  II.  A  thorn  ou  a  plum-stem,  evi- 
dently a  reduced  branch. 

prickly.  Prickles  arc  to  be  distinginshed  from  spines  and 
thorns,  the  former  of  which  are  allied  to  hair.s,  being  essen- 
tially superficial  in  structure,  wliile  the  latter  are  stunted 
stem-branches,  pointed  and  usually  leafless. 

Shoof.s. — The  stem  witli  its  leaves  is  the  shoot.  It  is  clearly 
derived  from,  and  in  its  simplest  cases  merges  into,  tlie 
thallome.  In  higher  plants  the  stem  {axis  or  caulome)  and 
the  leaves  {phyllomes)  are  distinct,  but  among  mosses  and 
scale-mosses,  as  well  as  in  still  lower  plants,  this  is  not  always 
the  case.  Where  the  leaves  are  distinct  from  the  stem  they 
arise  as  lateral  outgrowths  upon  its  growing  apex,  observing 
the  law  of  acropetal  development.  As  the  axis  elongates, 
leaves  grow  upon  its  newest  portions.  The  youngest  leaves 
are  at  the  summit  of  the  stem,  simply  because  that  part  of 
tlie  stem  is  the  youngest. 

When  the  stem  grows  rapidly  in  length  at  the  same  time 
that  the  leaves  are  growing,  the  latter  are  soon  separated  by 
considerable  distances,  but  when  the  stem-growth  is  slow 
the  leaves  are  more  or  less  crowded.  Most  "stems  elongate 
rapidly  during  a  part  of  the  growing  season,  in  which  case 
the  leaves  are  I'artlicr  apart,  but  wlien  the  stem-growth  is 
retarded,  as  it  is  later  in  the  season,  the  leaves  meanwhile 
continuing  to  grow,  the  result  is  \\n-  formation  of  a  more 
or  less  compact  cluster  of  leaves,  termed  a  bud.  A  bud  is 
thus  a  condition  of  a  slioot,  lirouglit  alicnil  liv  a  retardation 
of  stem-growth.  Wlien  tlie  stem-growth  is  resumed,  the  bud 
gradually  disai>pears.     See  Bud. 

It  remains  to  sjieak  briefly  of  the  analomv  of  leaves  wliich 
grow  in  the  air.  The  greater  part  of  the  leaf  is  comiiost'd 
of  cells  of  soft  (issue  (parenchyma)  containing  chlorophvll. 
These  are  loosely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  manv  inter- 
cellular spaces  between  them.  The  outer  cells  constitute  a 
close  sheet  (the  epidermis)  in  which  occur  many  pores 
(stomata).  These  pores  may  clo.se  entirely,  when  "the  in- 
terior cells  of  the  leaf  are  completely  cut  off  from  the  ex- 
ternal air,  or  they  may  oiicn,  allowing  free  communication 
between  the  interior  ami  exterior.  The  framework,  which 
gives  stiffness  to  the  leal',  is  cdmposcd  of  fibro-vascular 
bundles,  which  an;  conliuuous  with  the  bundles  in  the  sU'iu. 
In  the  leaf  the  bundles  are  variously  disposeil,  dc]>cndcnl 
mainly  upon  its  shape  and  mode  of  gn)wlh.  The  details  of 
the  bundle-arrangement   (called  veuation,  from  vein  (Lat. 


vena),  which  name  the  bundles  usually  have)  need  not  be 
taken  up  here.     See  Leaf  and  Venation. 

Boots. — True  roots  exist  only  in  tile  flowering  plants  and 
the  fernworts.  In  the  mosses,  the  lower  part  of  the  stem 
produces  hairs  which  have  the  function,  but  not  the  struc- 
ture, of  roots.  Some  of  the  algie  have  hold-fasts  which  ap- 
proach roots  in  structure,  and  possibly  are  to  be  regarded  as 
the  foreshadowings  of  them. 

A  root  is  an  axial  structure  closely  allied  to  the  stem,  of 
which  it  is  often  the  downward  extension.  It  is  always  of  a 
simpler  structure  than  the  stem,  and  its  tissues  are  usually 


Fig.  8.— Illustrations  of  roots  :  I.  Root  and  rootlets  of  voims  castor- 
oil  plant  ;  II.  Roots  of  melon  ;  III.  Root  of  turnip  ;  IV.  Diagram- 
matic section  of  the  tip  of  the  root  of  the  screw-pine  i.Punduniis). 
showing  the  root-caps  in  several  layers. 

less  well  marked.  The  boundary  layer  of  cells  (epidermis) 
is  not  as  well  marked  as  is  usually  the  case  in  the  stem.  The 
absence  of  leaves  and  the  rarity  of  shoot-buds  are  also  note- 
worthy. The  development  of  a  mass  of  cells,  the  root-cap, 
in  advance  of  the  growing  tip,  is  })crhaps  the  most  charac- 
teristic structure  of  the  root. 

PliysivJogy  of  Larger  Plants. — Enough  has  been  said  of 
the  mode  of  life  of  single-celled  or  few-celled  plants.  In 
larger  plants,  where  there  are  masses  of  cells,  the  physio- 
logical processes  arc  somewhat  more  complicated.  Food  is 
absorbed  by  the  cells  in  contact  with  it.  In  aquatics,  all 
(or  nearly  all)  external  cells  absorb  wateiy  solutions.  In 
terrestrial  plants  the  external  root-cells  absorb  the  watery 
solutions  in  the  soil.  Cells  in  contact  with  the  air  may  ab- 
sorlj  gases.  In  all  cases  the  active  agent  in  absorption  is  the 
living  protoplasm.  Some  food-matter  is  converti'd  into  cell- 
matter  in  the  cell  which  absorbs  it  from  without,  but  much 
more  is  absorbed  by  neighboring  cells.  Thus  cell  No.  1  may 
absorli  food  matter  from  the  surrounding  medium  (water  or 
air) ;  cell  No.  3  may  absorb  nearly  all  of  it  from  No.  1 ;  so 
cell  No.  3  may  take  from  No.  2,  and  so  on.  In  this  way 
food-matter  may  be  transferred  rapidly  from  the  cells  in 
Contact  with  the  food-supply  to  those  a  long  distance  from 
it,  and  in  this  way  cells  obtain  much  of  the  material  which 
they  need  for  their  sustenance  and  growth.  It  is  pretty 
certain  that  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  cells  are  ob- 
tained by  the  protoplasm  directly  from  various  nitrates  and 
the  .salts  of  ammonia  dissolved  in  the  water.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  lime,  potash,  sulphur,  etc.,  are  appropriated  directly 
by  the  proto)ilasm  of  the  cells. 

There  is  one  process,  however,  viz.,  the  assimilation  of 
carbon  (starch-making),  which  can  lie  )ierformed  only  in  those 
cells  of  the  [ilant  which  contain  chlorophyll.  To  such  cells 
water  and  carbon  dioxide  must  be  transfcri'ed  from  the 
points  where  they  are  absorlied.  In  a  common  land  plant, 
as  a  tree,  for  exjimple.  the  chlorophyll-bearing  cells  arc  con- 
fined to  the  leaves  and  young  liranclies ;  tlie  water  is  ab- 
sorlied by  the  roots,  wliile  the  carbon  dioxide  is  absorbed 
directly  by  the  green  cells  of  the  leaves.  AYhen  a  molecule 
of  starch  is  made,  the  water  is  taken  from  the  supply  at 
hand  in  the  cell,  and  this  loss  is  made  up  by  absorption 
from  the  neighboring  cells;  these  again  absorb  from  others, 
until  finally  the  root-supply  is  reached.  This  hydrocarbon 
(starch)  is  now  a  food-nialler  for  the  cells  of  tlie  plant.  It 
is  Iransrormed  iiilo  a  soluble  substance  (often  sugar),  and  is 
absorbed  from  cell  to  cell  until  all  parts  of  the  plant  arc 
supjilied.     See  Assimilatiox. 

The  total  food-supply  for  the  cells  of  a  plant  is  thus: 
(1)  water,  (2)  solutions  which  are  used  dii'ectiy  Ijy  the  cells, 
(3)  the  hydrocarbon  maile  by  the  green  cells,  to  wliich  may 
be  added  (4)  oxygen,  which  is  freely  absorbed  by  the  active 
cells.  On  this  food-matter  the  cells  live  and  grow  as  so 
many  little  organisms,  each  with  its  own  wants  and  needs. 
When  a  cell  has  made  a  sullicient  growth  it  may  divide  (see 
Ci:i,i,),  and  when  this  takes  place  in  a  considerable  number 
of  the  cells  of  a  plant  we  say  that  it  grows.     The  growth  of 


BOTANY 


715 


the  jiliiiit  is  but  the  aggregate  of  the  growth  anil  division  of 
its  coll;-. 

It  is  a  oonimon  opcurrenee  that  cells  do  not  themselves 
use  the  foml-inatter  which  they  absorb,  but  store  it  for  fu- 
ture usi>.  Thus  they  often  store  starch,  as  in  many  seeds 
and  tuliers,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  eventually  used  by  growiiig 
cells  (of  the  young  plant,  in  the  seed;  of  the  new  shoots,  in 
the  tuber). 

It  may  be  noted  in  iiassing  that  "sa]i"  as  coniinonly  un- 
derstood (i.  e.  as  a  kiml  of  vegetable  blood)  has  no  existence 
exce|it  iTi  imagination.  Likewise  the  "circulation  of  sap" 
in  ]ilants.  especially  in  trees,  has  no  existence.  It  follows 
that  the  terms  '•crude  sap"  and  "elaborated  sap"  are 
founded  upon  error.  There  is  water  in  every  living  eell; 
when  active  it  nwiy  contain  from  75  to  95  percent,  of  water, 
or  even  more  in  sonui  cases.  So  a  living  plant  is  a  watery 
thing,  and  this  water  contains  food-matters  in  solution. 
These  are  absorlied  from  cell  to  cell  as  llu're  may  be  demand. 
So  there  are  nuivc>nients  of  food-mailers  in  plants,  but  they 
are  not  of  the  nature  of  currents  streaming  through  particu- 
lar tracts. 

The  evapoialii>n  of  water  from  the  exposed  surfaces  of 
plants  gives  rise  to  a  movement  (usually  upward)  of  the 
water  in  the  roots  and  stems.  While  the  leaves  and  young 
stems  are  covered  with  an  epidermis  for  checking  evapora- 
tion, much  water  escapes  through  the  stomata  when  they 
are  open  to  allow  an  interchange  of  gases.  This  water-Uiss 
from  the  exposeil  cells  is  followeil  by  absorption  of  water 
from  deeper-lving  cells,  an<l  these  again  draw  from  others, 
and  so  on.  This  movement  of  the  water,  which  is  purely  a 
physical  phenomenon,  has  doubtless  been  taken  for  a  "  sap 
circulation." 

lii'liroiliir/ion. — The  lowest  plants  merely  divide  tliem- 
selves  into  two  or  more  parts,  each  of  which  becomes  a  new 
individual.  This  is  the  non-sexual  (asexual)  method,  and 
there  are  few  (if  any)  plants  which  do  not  at  some  lime  give 
rise  to  new  intlividuals  in  essentially  this  way.  In  many  of 
the  sin\pler  plants  single  cells  are  s|)ontaiieously  separated 
from  the  plant-body,  which  on  germination  produce  new 
plants.  Tliese  are  the  asesually  formed  spores,  commonly 
called  conidia.  sumnu-r  spores,  tetraspores,  etc.  In  higher 
jilants  single  cells  do  not  separate  in  this  way,  but  masses  of 
cells,  bulls,  leaves,  and  shoots  sometimes  spontaneously  fall 
away  and  give  rise  to  new  plants. 

SkciKil  nprDihirliiiH,  in  which  the  new  individual  is  pro- 
duced lusa  result  of  the  union  of  two  cells  (male  and  female), 
is  pretty  general  throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The 
lowest  plants,  the  water  slimes,  re|iroiluce  asexually  only. 
In  those  a  litlle  higher,  confervas,  water  flannels,  etc.,  two 
similar  cells  (similar  in  size,  shape,  and  activity  at  least) 
unite  tlu'ir  prolojilasms.  the  residtiug  mass  forining  a  sjjore. 
From  this  sexually  proiluced  spore  a  new  plant  arises  upon 
germinatiiin.  In  the  green  felts  the  two  uniting  cells  are 
manifestly  ditferent,  the  larger  being  the  female  and  the 
smaller  the  male.  In  red  seaweeds  the  union  of  the  male 
and  female  prol<i|ilasms  no  longer  results  in  the  jiroduction 
of  (me  spore;  here  the  female  cell  after  fertilization  sends 
out  branches,  each  of  which  jiroduces  one  or  more  spores. 
In  the  mosses  (he  female  cell  is  inclosed  withiti  a  flask- 
shaped  org.'iii,  the  arcliegone;  after  fertilization  it  produces 
a  nuiny-cellcd  growth,  which  eventually  develops  spores  from 
some  of  its  internal  cells,  thus  constituting  the  spore  cap- 
sules. Ferns  have  archegones  similar  to  those  in  mosses; 
after  fertilization  these  give  rise  to  leafy  shoots,  which 
eventually  produce  spores.  The  germination  of  the  spores 
gives  rise  again  to  the  sexual  jilanLthe  so-called  prothallium. 
The  archegones  of  flowering  plants  are  feebly  developed,  in 
most  cases  consisting  of  little  more  than  the  female  cell,  hi 
pines  and  their  allies,  where  they  are  best  developed,  they 
are  produceil  in  minute  dependent  plants  (prolhalba)  in  the 
interior  of  the  ovule.  Fertdization  is  followed  by  the  growth 
(as  in  ferns)  of  a  leafy  shoot  (the  new  |ilant)  for  a  time  inside 
of  the  ovule  (seed  state),  and  aftr^rwanl  in  the  earl li  and  air. 
In  the  higher  ilowering  plants  the  reduction  of  the  arche- 
gones and  prothallia  is  carried  still  further.  See  Rki'Roulc- 
TioN  (in  plants). 

The  Chtxxitkrttiim  of  Plants. — There  are  so  many  kinds 
of  plants  in  the  world  that  it  becomes  necessary  for  us  to 
classify  them  in  order  that  we  may  he  able  to  study  them 
intelligently,  anil  comnnmicate  our  results  to  others.  For 
this  purpose  alone  any  system  will  sullice  which  enumerates 
all  plants  and  designates  each  kinil  with  ease  and  certainty. 
Such  a  svstem  was  that  devised  by  Linna'us  a  litlle  more 
than  onel\uudred  and  lifty  years  ago,  and  used  for  a  century 


or  more  in  Europe  and  America,  although  it  brought  to- 
gether plants  of  very  uidike  characters.  That  it  served  the 
general  purpose  of  classification  referred  to  aliove  is  (jroved 
by  the  fact  of  its  long  use  during  a  period  in  which  the  study 
of  plants  made  great  progress. 

But  it  is  not  enough  to  arrange  plants  for  our  convenience; 
we  wish  to  make  our  cla.ssification  show  also  the  natural  re- 
lationships which  exist  between  plants  and  gnnips  of  plants 
In  such  a  classification  the  kinds  of  plants  "are  arranged 
•according  to  the  totality  of  their  morphological  resem- 
blances" (Huxley),  and  not  upon  resemblances  in  single  and 
relatively  unimportant  structures.  Moreover,  these  resem- 
blances are  iu)t  confined  to  the  adult  plant,  but  include  also 
those  observed  in  its  early  (embryonic)  life.  To  tliese  we 
nm.st  bring  such  aid  (all  too  little  as  yet)  as  we  nuiy  obtain 
from  a  study  of  the  ancestral  vegetation  of  the  globe.  Such 
a  natural  system,  when  perfected,  will  not  only  show  present 
resemlilanc'es,  but  it  will  indicate  genetic  relationships.  It 
is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  no  system  yet  jiroposed  ap- 
proaches this  ideal.  It  will  be  long  before  vegetable  embry- 
ology will  have  supplied  us  with  all  the  embryonic  charac- 
ters," and  it  will  be  still  longer  before  iihytopahcontology 
(fossil  botany)  will  have  traced  for  us  the  lines  of  descent 
for  the  vegetation  of  to-day.     See  Plaxts  (Fossil). 

Species. — In  the  examination  of  living  things  in  any  par- 
ticular locality  it  is  readily  seen  that  there  an'  different 
kinds,  whose  individuals  resemble  one  another  iiioie  than 
they  do  the  individuals  of  other  kinds.  It  is  ol)served.  more- 
over, that  in  reproduction  the  individuals  of  a  particular 
kind  alwavs  give  rise  to  new  ones  of  the  same  kind.  Thus 
seeds  of  purslane  always  produce  purslane  plants,  and  while 
they  may  not  be  (and  "generally  are  not)  exactly  alike,  they 
areunqiiestionably  (lurslanes.  By  the  observ;itioii  of  many 
such  cases  we  arrive  at  the  ordinary  conce|ilion  of  kinds  of 
plants,  that  is,  of  .species.  This  appears  to  have  been  the 
conception  of  species  held  by  Linna'us  and  many  of  his  fol- 
lowers down  to  about  the  middle  of  the  present  century. 

With  the  advent  of  the  idea  of  evolution  came  a  change 
in  our  conception  of  species.  We  no  longer  conceive  species 
as  a  fixed  group  of  essentially  similar  organisms  running 
back  ill  time  unchanged  to  a  definite  beginning,  and  forward 
as  unclianged  to  a  definite  end  only  in  extinction.  The  his- 
tory of  the  past  shows  us  that  species  have  come  into  exist- 
ence and  after  a  time  have  disaiipeared.  but  it  suggests  that 
they  have  arisen  by  modifications  (variations)  of  pre-existing 
species,  and  that  o"ften  they  have  disappeared,  not  by  extinc- 
tion, but  by  undergoing  considerable  modifications.  There 
may  have  been,  and  probably  was.  much  of  actual  extinction 
of  "species,  but  it  is  equally'certain  thai  in  many  a  case  the 
species  disappeared  in  name  only,  and  that  the  succession 
of  organisms  continued  in  unbroken  lines.  The  modern 
conception  of  species  is  that  it  is  composed  of  similar  but 
not  identical  organisms,  forming  many  adjacent  or  contigu- 
ous genetic  lines,  in  which  the  individuals  are  the  .successive 
points.  This  living  stream  does  not  necessarily  maintain  a 
fixed  position  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  may  drift  more 
or  less  in  this  or  that  direction. 

Genera. — Thei-e  are  few  species  which  do  not  resemble 
other  siH'cies.  Observation  lias  shown  us  that  this  resem- 
blance is  often  so  close  as  to  make  a  natural  group  of  species. 
Thus  all  the  kinds  of  violets  are  readily  recojjnized  as  violet.s, 
while  they  are  also  as  readily  recognized  as  different  species. 
Such  groupings  of  species  are  genera. 

Fannlie.i  and  Orrfers.— Related  genera  arc  gro\iped  into 
families,  and  related  families  into  orders.  In  most  Knglish 
'and  .\merican  works  on  .systematic  botany  "family"  and 
"order"  have  been  made  synonymous,  or  perhaps  it  may  be 
better  to  say  that  families  have  been  called  orders,  while  the 
onlei-s  have  been  called  cohorts.  In  zoology  families  and 
orders  stand  svs  separate  groups,  and  no  good  reason  luis 
been  assigned  for  a  ditferent  practice  in  liotany. 

Cla.ises. — Related  orders  are  grouped  into  chisse.%  wliich 
thus  usually  include  great  numbers  of  sjiecies.  It  is  possible 
now  to  group  all  known  plants  into  about  fifteen  classes, 
viz.:  (\)  Schi-ojihi/cea:  (2)  Clilnrophi/cea',  (^i)  Phaoj>hyce(e, 
(4)  Coleocha'tew.  (5)  jUcomijcete.%  (6)  liasidiomyceles,  (7) 
Floridecp  (or  lihodophi/cete).  (8)  Charojyhi/rea;  (i»)  Jlepaticte, 
(10)  Miisci,  (11)  Filici'iia:  (12)  Equisetinw,  (13)  Li/copodinw, 
(14)  Gijmnosperma'.  and  (15)  A)ii/iosperma:  Two  of  these, 
viz.,  Ascoinijcetes  and  fiasidiomi/cetes,  are  composed  of  de- 
graded plants  only,  and  are  doubtfully  entitleil  to  class  rank. 
Branches  or  iJivisions. — The  foregoing  classes  may  be 
grouped  into  branches  or  divisions  in  various  ways,  accord- 
ing to  the  views  of  the  student.    There  is  little  question 


ri6 


BOTANr 


nowadays  as  to  the  disposition  of  the  higher  classes  (ninth  to 
fiftcentli  inclusive),  nor  is  tliere  any  doubt  that  the  first  class 
constitutes  the  lowest  branch  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
There  is,  howc\-er,  nmoli  douljt  as  to  the  proper  disposal  of 
the  second  to  Iho  eighth  classes.     See  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

The  Disfributiun  of  Planfx. — Ordinary  observation  shows 
us  that  the  spores  and  seeds  of  plants  are  readily  distributed 
over  the  earth's  surface.  They  are  blown  by  tlie  winds  and 
carried  by  the  water,  and  often  by  animals  of  various  kinds. 
Seeds  are  especially  provided  in  many  cases  with  structural 
devices  for  wind  carriage,  as  in  the  milkweed  and  cotton- 
wood,  where  a  spreading  tuft  of  long  hairs  enables  the  seed 
to  be  floated  in  the  air  for  many  miles.  Many  fruits  are 
winged  or  ]iroviiled  with  hair  tufts,  so  that  as  they  are  car- 
ried awav  by  winds  tlieir  contained  seeds  are  carried  also. 
Again,  niany  seeds  serve  as  food  for  various  animals,  as 
squirrels,  rat"s,  mice,  and  some  birds,  which  often  make  great 
stores  of  edible  seeds  for  their  winter  food-supply.  Still 
again  manv  fleshy  fruits  are  eaten  by  animals,  the  seeds 
often  being  rejected  or  ]3assed  tlirough'the  alimentary  canal 
uninjured.  SiHiie  seeds  and  fruits  attach  themselves  to  pass- 
ing animals  by  lueans  of  hooks  or  other  devices,  and  are 
carried  to  con'sidci'able  distances.  On  the  Western  plains 
the  whole  plant,  in  some  cases,  separates  from  the  root,  and 
is  rolled  and  tumbled  over  the  prairies  for  many  miles,  drop- 
ping here  and  there-  its  burden  of  seeils.  Similar  "  tunilile- 
weeds"  are  to  be  found  upon  the  plains  of  South  America 
and  Southeastern  Europe. 

These,  in  brief,  ai-e  the  ways  in  which  the  spores  and  seeds 
of  plants  become  distributed  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 
They  may  spring  up  into  plants  which  may  become  perma- 
nent residents  in  the  new  localities,  or  they  may  fail  to  find 
the  proper  conditions  for  growth  and  so  disappear.  The 
discussion  of  these  conditions  belongs  to  Geographical 
Botany  (ly.  c). 

History  ov  Botany. — The  following  summary  by  Mr.  Ros- 
eoe  Pound  gives  in  one  view  the  main  facts  in  the  history  of 
botany.  Theoplirastus  (b.  c.  300),  Dioscorides  (cir.  A.  D.  64), 
and  Pliny  (a  little  h'ter)  were  the  principal  writers  on  botany 
in  ancient  times.  They  enumerated  and  described  medicinal 
and  useful  jilants,  and  explained  their  supposed  properties. 
Little  or  nothing  more  was  done  for  over  a  thousand  years. 
The  first  after  the  ancients  is  Otto  Brunfels,  a  German  monk 
(d.  1534).  Fuchsius  (l.)01-(iO)  and  Clusius  (de  rEcluse— 1526- 
1609)  are  some  of  the  greater  names  in  mediieval  botany. 
These  men  and  their  contemporaries  collected  extensively, 
and  published  drawings  and  descriptions  of  plants,  with 
notes  of  tlieir  properties.  They  did  not  classify,  but  some 
sort  of  conscious  arrangement  is  to  be  seen  in  their  works. 

The  first  classification  was  made  by  Andrea  Cesalpino 
(Cffisalpinus).  an  Italian  physician  (d.  '1603).  His  system 
contains  fifteen  classes  based  on  the  fruit.  Cesalpino  was 
strongly  imbued  with  scholasticism,  and  founded  his  system 
on  pi-edetermined  inark.s  obtained  by  reasoning  from  the 
supposed  nature  of  plants.  Classification  down  to  .lussieu 
was  based  on  single  characters  after  Cesalpino.  Of  later 
botanists,  Caspar  Uauliin  (ir)00-16'34)  and  John  Ray  (1628- 
1705)  deserve  especial  mention.  Many  terms  in  common 
use  were  first  used  by  tliem  or  their  contemporaries;  e.g. 
monocotyledons,  umbel] ifera>,  polypetaUe. 

Marcejlo  Maljiiglii,  au  Italian' (1628-94),  and  Nchemiah 
Grew,  an  Englishman  (1628-1711),  founded  vegetable  anat- 
omy. Marriotte,  a  Pronchman  (il.  1684),  and  Stephen  Hales, 
an  Englishman  (1677-1761),  founded  vegetable  physiology. 
R.  J.  Camerarius,  a  OcniKui  (1665-1721),  demonstrated  by 
experiment  the  sexuality  of  plants.  Camerarius  approached 
the  subject  in  true  scieidific  manner,  as  would  be  done  to- 
day. His  contemporaries  and  botanists  long  after  him  at- 
tempted to  prove  sexuality  by  abstract  reasoning  without 
experiment. 

Joseph  Pitton  de  Tournefort  is  the  founder  of  genera.  He 
was  the  last  to  classify  plants  as  IktIis,  trees,  and  shrubs. 
Johann  Jacob  Dillenius,  a  (Jerman,  afterward  professor  at 
Oxford  (1684-1747),  and  Pieiro  Anlouio  Midieli,  an  Italian 
gardener  (167i)-17'>6).  are  the  ]>ioiieers  of  cryjitogamic  botany. 

Carl  von  Linne  (Linnanis,  1707-78)  invented  the  binomial 
nomenclature,  reorganized  nomenclature,  revised  the  genera 
of  flowering  plants,  and  fixed  species  about  in  their  present 
form.  He  was  no  ex|jerimenter,  relied  on  abstract  reasoning 
more  than  on  observation,  and  fastened  scholasticism  on 
systematic  botany.  He  was  an  admirer  of  Cesalpino,  and 
foundeil  a  system  b.ased  on  the  stamens.  At  the  same  time 
he  made  a  provisional  n;ilural  system.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  century  A.  L.  de  Jussicu  look  it  up  and  greatly  develoju'd 


it.  He  is  called  the  founder  of  tlie  natural  system.  A.  P. 
De  Candolle  (1778-1841)  put  Jussieu's  system  on  a  permanent 
basis. 

Robert  Brown,  between  1800  and  1830,  discovered  the 
nature  of  the  gymnospermous  flower,  and  calle<l  attention  t(i 
the  cell  content's.  C.  H.  Persoon  (Synopsis  Fungoruiii,  1801) 
put  mycology  on  a  lasting  basis.  Von  JIolil  and  Naegeli, 
between  1820  and  1860,  made  vegetable  anatomy  what  it 
now  is.  Hofmeister  about  the  same  time  workeil  out  the 
development  and  embryology  of  pteridophytes  and  gymno- 
sperms.  Tulasnc  and  De  T5ary,  before  1860,  studied  the 
development  of  fungi,  and  caused  their  classification  to  be 
remodeled.  Schwendener  discovered  the  true  nature  of  the 
lichens  about  1868. 

About  1860  the  Darwinian  theory  put  the  natural  system 
on  a  sure  foundation  by  explaining  tiie  relationships  on 
which  it  was  based.  Systematic  botany  is,  however,  very 
conservative,  and  the  full  effect  of  this  has  not  yet  been 
felt. 

In  1874  Sachs  discarded  fungi  and  algjp  as  definite  groujis, 
and  co-ordinated  the  subdivisions  of  the  cryptogams  with 
the  phanerogams.  Henceforth  cryptogam,  like  invertebrate, 
is  a  word  of  convenience  only. 

The  Study  of  Botany. — Some  knowledge  of  plants  should 
be  possessed  by  every  one.  Aside  from  its  purely  utilitarian 
importance  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  medicine, botany 
when  properly  studied  may  become  an  important  part  of 
the  general  culture  of  the  educated  man.  It  shouhl  there- 
fore occupy  a  proper  place  in  the  course  of  study  pursued 
by  pupils  in  the  schools,  and  the  teacher  should  be  prepared 
to  give  instruction  in  accordance  with  the  present  state  of 
the  .science.  It  is  unfortunately  true,  however,  that  much 
of  the  study  (and  teaching)  of  botany  is  a  full  century  behind 
the  modern  science,  and  the  culture  which  it  should  give  is 
wanting. 

In  lieginning  the  study  of  botany  it  must  be  clearly  under- 
.stood  that  it  is  only  by  the  study  ai plants  that  we  can  know 
plants.  It  is  not  a  "book  study,"  but  rather  a  laboratory 
study,  in  which  much  of  the  laboratory  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fields  and  forests.  The  beginner  should  first  of  all  make 
the  acquaintance  of  a  good  number  of  representative  plants. 
This  he  should  accomplish  by  actual  exiimination  himself, 
with  not  too  much  in  the  way  of  suggestion  from  teacher  or 
books.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  beginner  to  early  set  about 
the  making  of  a  collection  of  the  plants  in  his  neighborhood. 
In  so  doing  he  will  learn  much  about  their  structure,  haliits, 
and  reproduction.  When  he  has  acquired  some  familiarity 
witii  the  general  structure  and  physiology  of  plants  in  the 
jirincipal  groups  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  he  may  profit- 
ably spend  a  little  time  in  learning  the  details  of  descrijitive 
and  systematic  botany  in  some  group,  commonly  the  fiower- 
iug  plants.  Should  he  have  access  to  descri]itive  manuals 
of  other  groups,  it  will  be  well  for  him  to  use  these  enough 
to  give  him  some  familiarity  with  them. 

This  accomplished,  he  should  take  up  the  deerier  study  of 
structure,  using  a  compound  microscope  capable  of  magni- 
fving  fully  600  diameters.  He  should  become  acquainted 
with  protoplasm,  and  the  various  cells  and  tissues  it  builds 
in  simple  and  complex  plants.  He  is  then  prepared  to  take 
up  the  study  of  the  particular  structure  of  repi-esentative 
plants  in  the  principal  classes  and  orders  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Should  he  desire  to  pursue  the  subject  further, 
there  open  to  him  now  many  lines  of  work.  Thus  he  may 
take  up  the  structure  and  [ihysiology  of  a  single  plant,  or 
he  may  undertake  some  physiological  investigation,  or  he 
may  tiirn  to  some  department  of  systematic  botany,  etc. 

See  Alternation  of  Generations,  Ancestry  of  Plants, 
Assimilation,  EMniiY-oLOGY  (in  plants).  Geographical  Bot- 
any, Fertilization  (in  plants).  Herbarium,  Histology, 
Vegetable;  Leaf,  Morphology,  Vegetable ;  Reproduc- 
tion (in  plants),  Physiolouy,  Vegetable  ;  Vegetable  King- 
DO.M  ;  and  Vi;natiox. 

Bnu.ioGRAPUv. — Only  general  works  on  botany  wiU  be 
noli'd  here.  See  the  bibliographies  under  llu'  special  topics. 
\V.\\\\tm.  Dirlloiiiiaire  de  jintaiiiijiie  (3  vols..  187(i-'.l2);  Bal- 
four, Maiiital  of  liotany  (5th  ed.  1875);  Beiitley,  Maiiiiid  of 
/io/anij  (4th  ed.  1882);  liessey. Botany  ftir  Iliyfi  School  sanil 
Collei/es  (7th  ed.  1892);  Duchartre,  Kli'menls  de  Botani</iie 
(3d  ed  1885) ;  (ioebel.  Outlines  of  C/assification  anil  Special 
Morpholoqiiof  Plants {\»H7):  Goodale,  Physioloyical  liotany 
(1885);  Ci'mw' Stnictin-at  Ilotani/  {IX'i'.n:  J.'U'kson,  f/iiiitc  to 
the  Literat'iire  of  Botany  (1881);  Le  Maoul  and  De<'aisne, 
(leneral  Si/steni  of  fiotani/  (1876);  Luerssen,  IJnndbuch  de.r 
Systemati'schcn  liotanik  (2  vols.,  1879-82);  Mohl,  The  Vege- 


BOTANY   BAY 


BOTRYCUIUM 


IVi 


table  Cell  {l8o2);  Pi'itzel,  Tliesaurus  hiteraturm  Biitanicce 
(1872);  Saclis,  Text-book  of  Bolanij  (1882);  Sachs,  Lectures 
on  tfin  PIti/xioloi/i/  «/ /V<(n<s  (1887);  ViuKU,  Lectures  on  the 
J'lii/.siii/(/yi/  uf  I'lonts  (1880).  C'iiarlks  E.  Bicssiiy. 

liotiiiiy  Bay:  a  bay  of  Australia;  in  Xcw  Soiilh  Wales. 
ll  was  tlistovercd  by  C'apt.  Cook  in  1770.  ami  received  its 
name  from  .Ios('|ili  Banks,  the  l)otanist  of  the  oxpeilition,  in 
allusion  to  the  great  number  of  new  jdants  found  there.  It. 
is  5  miles  S.  of  Sydney,  in  lat.  iU  2'  S.  and  Ion.  l."il°  13'  E. 
A  colony  of  British  convicts  was  planted  here  in  1787,  and 
was  removed  to  Port  .lackson  in  1788,  but  the  penal  colony 
Ions  contiinu'd  to  retain  the  name  of  Botany  J5ay.  The 
transportation  of  criminals  to  New  South  Wales  was  discon- 
timied  in  1840,  on  account  of  the  often-repeated  protests  of 
the  colonists. 

liotflho  dp  Olivcira,  Iio-trdyo-dfT-o-leevn-ee'raU,  5[a- 
xoKi, :  Brazilian  pott :  b.  at  Baliia  in  10;!6  ;  d.  Jan.  5,  1711. 
lie  was  educated  in  Portugal,  in  the  University  of  Coimbra, 
and  there  became  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  Spanish 
poet  (iongora,  whose  works  were  the  rage  in  both  S]>ani  and 
Portugal,  lie  returned  to  Bahia  and  there  followed  the 
career  of  ailvocate.  In  170.5  his  poems  were  published  in 
Lisbon  by  the  printer  of  the  Inquisition,  Maneseal,  under 
the  titli;:  Jliiaicn  do  Piirnusso,  tlicidida  em  quatro  coros  de 
rima.s  portuquezas,  castel/ianas,  itiilianas  e  latinas,  com  sea 
descante  cot/iico  reduzido  em  duas  comedias. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 
Bntcro,  bo-ta'ro,  Giovaxxi,  surnamcd  Bexishts:  Italian 
ecclesiastic  anil  writer;  b.  at  Bone.  Piedmont,  in  1540.  lie 
was  secretary  to  St.  Carlo  Borronieo,  and  became  in  1.509 
tutor  to  Charles  Emnianncl's  children.  Lie  wrote  a  noted 
pnlitii-.-iI  treatise,  Delia  liayione  di  Stato.     D.  in  1617. 

Bot'cfoiirt,  XoBBo.NNK  Berkki.ev,  Lord:  b.  in  England 
about  17:W.  lie  was  appointed  royal  Goveriuir  of  Virginia 
in  17G8.  and  dissolved  the  Assembly  of  Burgesses  in  1769 
because  thev  pa.ssed  a  remonslnince  agilinst  some  acts  of  the 
British  Parliament.  I),  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Oct.  1.5,  1770. 
B(>t-fly  :  any  dipterous  insect  of  the  family  (Estriilip.  but 
in  the  r.  S.  g<>nerally  restricted  to  the  horse  bot-Hy.  (//in- 
truphiliits  eqiii.     The  ily  lays  her  eggs  upon  the  hairs  of  the 

liorse.  and  after  lay- 
ing her  eggs  almost 
immediately       dies. 
^^^^    .  M  The  eggs,  conveyeil 

^^^^P^///  K  ^'^  '^'"''  '""°^''°^  stom- 

flH^^lilli  W  ach.  are  hatched,  and 

^^1,      Y  "I"  "I  the    larvae   are    j>ro- 

^     *  "  vided    with    mouth- 

hooks,  liy  which  they 
II mg  on  to  the  coats 
'I  the  stomach.  In 
about  a  year's  time 
they  are  discharged 
Milh  the  excrement, 
and  in  one  month 
they  are  changed 
into  jierfect  flies. 
\\  hen  very  numerous  there  is  reiison  to  believe  that  bots  are 
very  injurious  to  the  horse  ;  but  there  is  sonu!  dispute  among 
horse-breeders  as  to  the  extent  of  the  injury  done  by  theim 
Both'iiia  (in  Swed.  liotten) :  formerlv  a  countrv  of  North- 
ern Europe,  which  belonged  to  Sweden,"  and  was  situated  on 
both  sides  (jf  the  (Julf  of  Bothnia.  The  eastern  portion  is 
now  comprised  in  Finland,  aiul  the  western  forms  the  Swed- 
ish [irovinces  of  Pitca  and  Lmeil. 

Bothnia.  (;iiir  of:  the  northern   portion   of  the  Baltic 

Sea  :  extends  Iroin  TorneA  southward  to  the  island  of  Aland  : 
is  about  4(10  miles  long  and  from  GO  to  l:!0  miles  wide.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  E.  iiy  Einland  and  on  the  W.  by  Sweden. 
Its  greatest  depth  is  about  .50  fathoms.  The  luivigation  of 
it  is  rendered  diflicnlt  br  manv  small  islands  and  sand- 
baid<s  near  the  shores.  The  gnlf'is  usuallv  frozen  in  winter 
-SO  that  sleilges  can  cross  it. 

Botlirioceph'aliis  [from  Or.  Boepior.  little  trench  -i-  «- 
^oA^,  head  ;  in  allusion  to  the  depressions  on  each  side  of 
Its  head] :  ii  genus  of  cestoid  intestinal  worms,  formerly  con- 
founded with  the  7\riii<i.  or  common  taiieworm.  Two  spe- 
cies occur  in  man,  Bolhriocepludiis  liitux  and  liotb  rioceplialiis 
cordatiis.  The  former  is  common  only  in  Switzerland, 
Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  Finfaiul,  and  Poland. 
It  is  from  6  to  20  feet  in  length;  composed  of  numerous 
flat  and  wide  segments,  and  an  elongated,  compressed,  ob- 


I'^^sLi 


Bot-Hy. 


tusc  head,  having  an  elongated  slit-like  sucker  on  each  side. 
The  eggs  are  oval,  with  a  hood-shaped  lid  at  one  end,  and 
are  found  numerously  in  the  stools  of  infected  jiei-sons. 
They  develop  in  fresh  water  into  an  embryo  having  six 
hooklets  and  a  ciliated  covering.  These  enter  certain  irslies, 
especially  the  pike  and  eel-pout,  where  they  become  en- 
cysted in  the  tissue  as  cysticerci.  Jlan  is  infected  bv  eating 
the  diseased  fish.  The  symptoms  produced  are  those  of 
tapeworm  in  general,  but  occasionally  a  severe  form  of 
ana-inia,  •'  progressive  pernicious  anaiuia."  result.s.  Botli- 
nocepltulut!  cordaliis  has  been  found  to  inhabit  the  human 
intestines  only  in  North  Greenland.  In  that  country  it  is 
quite  common  in  <logs.  It  is  al)out  a  foot  in  lengl'li.  and 
receives  its  name  from  (he  cordate  or  heart-shaped  head. 
(Cobliold,  Proceedinys  of  the  Xoolof/icnl  Society.  London, 
1862.)  The  means  of  destroying  or  expelling  the  "broad 
tapeworm."  as  this  parasite  "is  sometimes  called,  are  the 
sjime  as  in  the  case  of  Toenia.     See  Tapkworm. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Botll'nell :  a  small  village  of  Bothwell  parish,  Lanark- 
shire, Scotland;  situated  near  the  river  Clyde:  about  8^ 
miles  S.  E.  of  Gla.sgow  (see  map  of  Scotland,  i-ef.  12-G).  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  Bothwell  Ca.stle.  The  Coven- 
antei-s  were  utterly  routed  by  the  troops  of  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
nuaith.  .lune  22,  167!),  at  Bothwell  Bridge.     Pop.  2.600. 

Botlnvcll  :  a  post-town  of  Zone  township,  Bothwell  elec- 
toral district.  Ontario,  Canada:  on  the  Great  Western  Rail- 
way ;  23  miles  N.  K.  of  Chatham  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref. 
6-B).  It  has  numerous  petroleum-wells,  and  a  trade  in  cat- 
tle, grain,  and  lumber,  the  latter  being  extensively  manu- 
factured here.     Poj).  1.000. 

Bothwell,  .Tajies  IlF.pniRX,  Earl  of:  b.  about  1.536; 
inherited  the  title  and  large  est,ite  of  his  father  in  1.556. 
In  1.562  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  consi)iracy  to  seize  the 
queen's  person,  but  he  escaped  to  France,  alter  which  he 
was  outlawed.  He  returned  in  1565.  and  became  an  enemy 
of  RegeiU,  Murray  and  a  favorite  adviser  of  Queen  Mary. 
The  murder  of  Lord  Daniley  (1567)  is  generally  imputed  to 
him.  He  was  indicted  for  this  crime,  but  as"  he  came  to 
court  with  4.000  followers  he  was  acipiitted.  In  Apr.,  1.567, 
many  nobles  signed  a  bond  or  document  in  which  thev  com- 
mended Bothwell  as  a  fit  husband  to  the  queen,  whom  he 
carried  to  Dunbar  Castle.  He  married  her  in  May  of  the 
same  year.  A  strong  party  soon  took  arms  again"st  Both- 
well,  who  fled  to  Denmark,  where  he  was  imjjri.-^oned.  I). 
in  the  prison  at  Draugholin.  Zeelaud,  Apr.  14,  1578.  See 
Burton.  History  of  Scotland  (vol.  iv.) ;  Robertson.  Ilintory 
of  Scotland;  and  the  dramasof  Sw^inburneand  Bjornstjerne 
Bj(5rnson. 

Botocii'dos.  or  .\ynio'ros:  a  native  tribe  of  Brazil. 
They  live  in  the  lonsis  on  the  Rio  Doce,  along  the  boundary 
of  the  provinces  of  Kspirito  Santo  an(i  Minas  Geraes,  ani 
are  said  to  resemble  the  Chinese.  They  are  brave,  but 
treacherous,  and  have  caused  the  Governineiit  considerable 
trouble.  They  number  about  4,000.  and  are  rajiidly  dying 
out.  They  |iierce  the  lower  lip  and  insert  a  block  of  wood 
in  t  he  hole,  from  which  comes  their  Portuguese  unme{botogne, 
a  block  of  wood). 

Botoshaiii.  bo-t</-shaa'nK>:  a  town  in  Roumania;  on  the 
Schiska  :  60  miles  N.  W.  of  Ja.ssy  (see  map  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, ref.  6-M);  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Ger- 
many in  cattle,  wine,  wool,  tobai-co,  etc.    Pop.  40,000. 

Bo-troo,  or  Peo'pill :  the  Ficiis  reliyiosa,  or  .sjicred  fig- 
tree  of  Hindustan  and  Ceylon  ;  greatly  venerated  bv  the 
followei-s  of  Vishnu  (who  was  born  under  this  tree),  and  es- 
pecially by  the  Buddhists.  It  is  a  large  tree,  whose  sap 
abounds  in  caoutchouc.  an<l  w  Inch  yields  a  small  edible  fig, 
not  much  valued,  (ireat  amounts  of  lac  arc  gathered  from 
its  branches,  for  it  is  one  of  the  favorite  abodes  of  the  lac 
insect.  The  famous  bo-tree  of  Anarajapura  in  Ceylon  is 
believed,  on  apparentlv  good  ground.s.  to  have  been  planted 
in  288  li.  c. 

Botrychimn,bo-trik'i-ura[Gr.(8(iTpuxoj,  vine-stalk  :/S<(Tpi;j, 
cluster  of  grapes,  in  allusion  to  the  appearance  of  the  spore- 
bearing  leaves]:  a  genus  of  adder-tongue  iarna  {O/diioqlos- 
sace(e)  represented  in  the  V.  S.  by  seven  species  and  several 
additioind  varieties.  The  most  common  species  is  B.  vir- 
f/uiianiim.  which  occurs  also  in  Europe  and  .\sia.  Other 
species — e.  g.  B.  Innaria  and  B.  tirnatum — are  widelv  dis- 
tributed, occurring  in  North  and  South  America,  Kurope, 
Asia,  and  .Vustralia.    See  Fernwokts  and  YEOErAHi.E  KiNo- 

UO.M.  t:iIARLES  E.  BkSSEV. 


718 


BOTRYTIS 


BOTTOMRY 


Botry'tis:  See  Mildew. 

Bots'ford,  Amos  Edwix:  Canadian  Senator;  1).  at  St. 
John,  N.  B..  Sept.  25.  1804.  and  eduoatod  at  Sackville.  X^  B. 
He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Exeeutive  Council  of  New 
Brunswick :  a  member  of  the  Legishitive  Council  of  tliat 
province  1833-67;  and  in  1S67  was  called  to  tlie  Canadian 
benate  and  has  been  its  speaker.  He  lias  been  for  fifty-nine 
consecutive  years  a  meml)er  of  the  legislature  of  his  coun- 
try ;  has  been  prominent  in  military  and  judi<-ial  affairs ;  and, 
in  addition  to  various  other  important  missions  as.signed  to 
him,  was  a  delegate  to  Wa.shington  respecting  a  reciprocity 
treatv  in  1852.  He  was  appointed  a  privv  councilor  of  Can- 
ada May  30,  1891.  N'eil  Macdoxald. 

Botsrali :  See  Bostra. 

Bot'ta,  AxxE  Charlotte  Lynch  :  _poet :  b.  at  Bennington. 
Vt.,  in  1820.  She  was  married  to  \  incenzo  Botta  in  18.5.5. 
She  publislied  a  volume  of  poems  (1848-84)  and  a  Handbook 
of  Universal  Literature  (1860-87).  D.  in  New  York  city. 
Mar.  28,  1891. 

Botta,  Carlo  GrusEPPE  Guglielmo,  M.  D.  :  an  eminent 
Italian  historian;  b.  at  San  Giorgio,  in  Piedmont,  Xov.  6, 
1766.  He  studied  medicine,  and  served  as  surgeon  in  tlie 
French  army  in  179.5-96.  In  1803  he  was  elected  to  the 
French  legi.'^lative  body.  He  published  in  1809  a  History 
of  the  American  War  of  Independence,  and  in  1825  a  His- 
tory of  the  Nations  of  Italy  from  Consfantine  to  Napoleon 
(3  vols.).  His  most  important  works  are  a  History  of  Italy 
from  1789  to  ISU  (Storia  d'ltalia  dal  1789  al  1814,"4  vols., 
1824)  and  Ids  Conlinuation  of  Guicciardiiii's  History  of 
Italy  to  17S9  (10  vols.,  1832).  He  died  in  Paris.  Aug.  10, 
1837.     See  F.  Becchi,  Elogia  storico  di  C.  Botta  (1839). 

Botta.  Paul  Emile;  arclueologist  and  traveler;  a  son  of 
the  preceding ;  b.  in  Turin.  Dec.  2,  1802 ;  d.  in  Acheres, 
near  Poissy,  Mar.  29,  1870.  He  entered  tlie  service  of 
Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt  as  a  ])liysieian  about  1830,  and  be- 
came French  consul  at  Alexandria.  Having  visited  Arabia 
in  1837,  he  published  in  French  a  Narratire  of  a  Journey 
to  Yemen,  etc.  (1844).  He  was  next  sent  as  consul  to  Mosul, 
and  in  1843  began  to  excavate  the  mound  at  Khorsabad 
near  the  Tigris  for  n;onuments  of  ancient  Assyria,  and 
there  discovered  the  ):ialace  of  Sargon  (King  of  Assyria, 
722-705  B.  c.)  with  statues  and  cuneiform  inscriptions.  With 
the  aid  of  the  artist  Flandin.  he  published  in  French  a 
magnificent  work  entitled  Jloniiinenfs  of  Ninereh,  DLfCor- 
ered  and  Described  by  31.  Botta,  with  Hesigns  by  Flandin 
(5  vols,  folio,  1847-50).  Revised  by  D.  G.  Lyox. 

Botta.  VixcEXZO,.  Ph.  D. :  b.  near  Turin,  Italy,  Xov.  11, 
1818;  became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Cuiico,  and  after- 
ward Jit  Turin;  a  member  of  the  parliament  in  1849;  in 
1850  inspected  the  educational  system  of  Germany,  and  in 
1853  that  of  the  U.  S.,  and  became  Professor  of  Italian  Lit- 
erature in  tlie  Univereity  of  the  City  of  Xew  York.  Among 
his  works  are  a  Life  of  Caroiir  (Xew  York,  1862) ;  Dante  as 
Philosopher,  Patriot,  and  Poet  (186.5) ;  and  a  history  of  mod- 
ern ]>hilosophy  in  Italy.     D.  in  Xew  York,  Oct.  5,  1894. 

Bottesini,  bot-l(i-see'ne"e,  Giovaxxi  :  musician  ;  celebrated 
not  only  as  a  composer  but  also  as  the  most  remarkable  per- 
former on  the  double-bass  ever  known ;  b.  at  Creina,  in 
Lombardy,  Dec.  24,  1822;  admitted  to  the  Milan  Conserv- 
atory when  eleven  years  old,  and  took  up  the  double-bass  as 
a  solo  instrument;  visited  the  IT.  S.  with  Arditi,  and  made 
a  successful  tour.  His  first  opera,  Christophe  Cot om be.  was 
produced  in  Havana  in  1846.  Visited  England  in  1849, 
and  conducted  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris  185.5-57,  and  after- 
ward conductor  at  the  Italian  opera,  Cairo,  Egypt.  His 
opera  IjAssedio  di  Firenze  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1856  ; 
Ali  Baba,  London,  1871  ;  Ero  e  Leandro.  Turin,  1879;  and 
at  the  Xorwicli  festival  of  1887  his  oratorio  The  Garden  of 
Olivet,  lilirctto  bv  Josejih  Bennett,  was  successfullv  sung. 
He  died  in  1889.  "  I).  E.  Hervkv. 

Biitt'ger,  written  also  Bott'eher,  or  Bot'tiger,  Johaxn 
Friedricii  :  a  German  alchemist ;  noted  as  the  inventor  of 
Meis.scn  porcelain ;  b.  at  Schleiz,  Feb.  4,  1682.  He  spent 
much  time  and  money  in  the  search  for  tlii>  philosopher's 
stone.     D.  in  Dres<len,'  I\lar.  13,  1719. 

HofticeUi.  Saxdro;  See  Filipepl 

IJiittifher.  Paul;  See  Lararde,  Paul  de. 

Bottle  (ioiird.  or  CaPnbasli :  a  plant  of  the  genus  La- 

genaria  and   order   ('ucurliltaceie  ;    nearly   allied   to  plants 

of  the  genus  ('iiciirbita.  in  wliicli  it  was  formerly  included. 

The  Lagenaria   vulgaris,  or  common   bottle   gourd,  is  a 


native  of  India,  but  is  cultivated  in  many  warm  climates. 
It  is  a  climbing  annual,  having  white  flowers,  and  a  large 
bottle-shaped  fruit  with  a  hard  rind,  which  is  called  a 
calabash,  and  is  used  for  holding  or  dipping  water.  This 
fruit  is  sometimes  several  feet  long.  Some  varieties  of  La- 
genaria have  an  edible  jjulp,  which  is  an  important  article 
of  food, 

Bottle-iiose  Whale,  .sometimes  called  Bottlehead  (Hy- 
peroodon  rosfrafiis):  a  cetaceous  mammal  of  the  family 
Ziphiidie.  It  inhabits  the  X'orth  Atlantic  and  sometimes 
ascends  rivers.  It  reaches  a  length  of  aViout  25  feet,  and 
is  reinarkalile  for  its  bottle-shaped  head.  The  name  of 
Bottle-xose  Dolphix  is  applied  to  another  maiiimal,  the 
Tiirsiops  tursio.  abundant  in  the  Xorth  Atlantic. 

Bottom  Heat :  a  term  applied  in  horticulture  to  the 
temperature  communicated  to  certain  soils,  either  by  fer- 
menting and  decomposing  substances  placed  underneath 
them,  for  which  purpose  leaves,  fresh  dung,  and  the  refuse 
bark  of  the  tanyard  are  often  used,  or  by  means  of  flues  or 
hot-water  apparatus.  The  system  is  applied  to  the  culti- 
vation of  pineajiples,  grapes,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  other 
plants  grown  in  hotliouses,  pits,  or  frames.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  important  agents  in  the  artificial  cultivation  of 
tender  [ilants  of  whatever  kind,  whether  flower  or  fruit 
bearing. 

Bottomry  [dcriv.  of  hotlom.  lower  part  of  hull,  hull; 
imitation  of  Dutch  bodmerij.!>o  Germ.  Bodmerei,  Fr.  borne- 
rie] :  the  act  of  lending  money  on  the  pledge  of  a  ship  or  on 
the  bottom  of  a  ship.  It  may  be  considered  under  the  fol- 
lowing divisions;  1.  the  nature  of  the  contract ;  2.  its  form  ; 
3,  by  whom  made ;  4,  the  mode  of  its  enforcement. 

1.  Tlie  Nature  of  the  Contract. — It  is  a  maritime  contract, 
and  in  the  nature  of  a  wager.  The  substance  of  the  con- 
tract is  that  if  the  shiji  returns,  the  loan  is  to  be  rejiaid  with 
interest.  If  it  is  lost  in  the  course  of  navigation,  the  debt 
is  discharged,  though  the  borrower  may  liave  abundant 
means  for  repayment.  The  principal  of  the  loan  being  thus 
put  at  risk,  the  case  does  not  come  within  the  operation  of 
the  usury  laws.  Large  interest  is  sometimes  exacted — 15  or 
20  per  cent.,  or  even  a  larger  rate.  The  proper  court,  how- 
ever, has  power,  in  extreme  cases  of  excessive  interest,  to 
grant  relief.  Should  the  ship  deviate  from  her  voyage  and 
be  lost,  the  lender  would  not  take  that  risk  upon  himself, 
but  the  Ijorrower  would  still  be  liable.  So  if  the  ship  be 
lost  by  the  wrongful  act  of  the  borrower  or  the  master,  in- 
stead of  the  perils  of  the  sea.  It  has  been  decided  that  the 
doctrine  of  constructive  loss  which  applies  in  insurance  law 
does  not  extend  to  a  bottomry  loan.  This  loan  is  not  with- 
in the  act  of  Congress,  which  requires  mortgages  and  con- 
veyances of  vessels  to  be  registered  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
notice  to  subsequent  grantors  or  to  creditors.  Should  the 
ship  return,  the  loan  becomes  due.  and  the  principal  anil 
maritime  interest  together  form  a  new  principal,  on  which 
ordinary  interest  will  be  calculated  until  payment.  A  bot- 
tomry loan  is  strictly  on  the  ship.  A  corresponding  loan  on 
the  cargo  is  termed  respondentia.  It  is  governed  Ijy  rules 
closely  resembling  those  aiiplicable  to  bottomry.  A  bot- 
tomry loan  has  this  marked  ]ieculiarity,  applicable,  how- 
ever,"to  other  maritime  liens:  that  where  there  are  two  or 
more  in  succession,  the  latest  may  have  the  preference,  as  it 
may  lie  the  price  of  the  safety  of  the  slii]i.  In  liens  created 
regul.-irly  upon  i)roperty  on  land  it  is  a  well-known  general 
rule  that  the  earliest  has  the  preference. 

2.  Tlic  Form  of  tlie  Transaction. — There  is  usually  exe- 
cuted a  bottomry  liond.  Tliis  is  not,  however,  absolutely 
essential.  The  courts  do  not  look  so  much  at  the  technical 
forms  as  at  the  intent  of  the  parties.  Even  if  there  were  a 
sale  intended  as  a  security  for  a  loan,  evidence  to  show  the 
true  nature  of  the  transaction  could  be  adduced,  and  it 
would  be  enforced  accordingly. 

3.  By  Whom  Given. — A  bottomry  bond  may  be  executed 
either  by  the  owner  or  the  master  of  the  ship  in  the  owner's 
absence."  The  owner  can  execute  it,  in  general,  whenever 
he  sees  fit,  so  long  as  the  transaction  is  in  its  nature  mari- 
time. A  master  of  a  ship,  on  the  other  hand,  is  governcil 
by  special  rules.  His  leading  duty  is  to  navigate  the  ship, 
not  to  pledge  nor  to  .sell  it.  These  latter  powers  are  con- 
ferred upon  him  in  extraordinary  emergencies,  where  the 
exigencies  require  it.  The  lender  must  lie  prepared  to  show 
that  the  case  is  one  which  justifies  the  loan,  sucli  as  stress 
of  weather,  necessity  of  repairs,  and  the  like.  Due  meas- 
ures must  be  taken  to  communicate  with  the  owner  where 
such  communication  is  feasible.     At  the  present  time  the 


BOTTS 


BOUCICAULT 


no 


telofjrapli  must  he  losortod  to  where  it  is  acccssilile.  Tlie 
power  of  llio  master  may  in  like  iiianiier  in  extraordinary 
cases  extend  to  a  iile<lf;e.  or  even  a  sale,  of  (he  eargo.  The 
general  test  of  Ins  aulliority  in  all  these  eases  is  that  he 
must  exercise  the  dili;;ence  of  a  prudent  owner,  an<l  lliat 
there  must  be  an  ajijiarent  neecssity  for  the  pledge  or  sale. 

4.  Enforcement. — A  liottomry  bond  is  enforceable  in  a 
court  of  admiralty — in  this  country  in  tlie  district  courts  of 
the  U.  S.  A  proceeding  is  instituted  against  the  ship,  or, 
in  technical  language,  in  rem.  If  neeessaiy,  the  ship  may 
be  sold,  and  tlie  I'laim  paid  out  of  its  iiroceeds.  The  bor- 
rower is  also  personally  responsilile.  I'lie  lien  of  seamen 
for  subsequent  wages  is  superior  to  that  of  the  bottomry 
lender.  Should  the  latter,  in  onler  to  preserve  his  own 
claim,  discharge  that  of  the  seamen,  he  could  have  a  lien 
upon  the  proceeds  of  the  ship  for  his  reimbursement,  as 
well  as  u  pci-soiud  claim  against  the  owners;  or,  in  other 
words,  he  would  be  alloweil  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the 
seamen. 

It  may  be  addeil  that  if  a  ship,  having  incurred  a  bot- 
tomry loan,  does  not  set  out  on  her  intended  voyage,  the 
property  will  not  have  incurred  any  maritime  risk,  and  con- 
secruentlv  the  maritime  interest  can  not  be  exacted,  but  only 
ordiuary  interest.  T.  W.  DwiiiiiT. 

Itotfs,  John  JIixor  :  statesman:  b.  at  Dumfries,  Prince 
William  Co.,  Va.,  Sept.  16,  18U3:  lost  both  [larents  by  a  the- 
ater lire  in  Richmond  ISII.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  as 
a  Whig  in  l>>:!i),  and  re-elected  several  times,  and  denounced 
Mr.  Tyler's  breach  with  the  party  which  had  elected  him 
Vice-l''residenl:.  In  1844  he  supported  Mr.  t'lay  for  the 
presidency.  lie  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise in  1804,  was  a  firm  adherent  of  the  Union  during 
tlie  civil  war,  .nnd  afterward  favored  the  Kepublican  party, 
having  suffered  much  inconvenience  and  a  short  imprison- 
uiunt  for  his  opinions  at  the  hands  of  the  Confederates.  He 
wrote  The  Great  liebellion  (lyOli).  I),  in  Culiiejier,  ^'a., 
Jan.  8,  1869. 

Bot'zen,  or  Itozoil  (Tt.  Botsano) :  a  trading  town  of  the 
Austrian  Tyrol;  at  the  junction  of  the  river  Talf  with  the 
Kisach ;  33  miles  liy  rail  X.  X.  I'',  of  Trent  (see  map  of 
Austria-Hungary,  ref.  7-B).  It  is  situated  in  a  hilly  or 
mountainous  district,  is  well  built,  and  contains  a  gyniiia- 
sium.  a  (iothic  cathedral,  and  a  ca.stle ;  also  manufactures 
of  silk,  linen,  hosiery,  etc.  It  has  four  annual  fairs,  and  is 
an  entrepot  of  the  trade  between  Italy,  Gerinanv,  and 
Switzerland.     Pop.  (1890)  11,655. 

Boiicliard.  boo  shaar,  nKXHi  Desire  Abel  :  French  pliv- 
sici;ui;  b.  Dec.  IS,  IS;« ;  M.  I)..  University  of  Strassburg, 
1S56;  a|i|)oinled  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  the  Medical  P'ac- 
ulty  of  ISorileaux  1878;  author  of  IC-i-icii  -iiir  le.s  f/atnes si/no- 
vidles  ten/lini'iisex  (lu  pied:  I)n  ti.'ixu  eonnectif;  jVoiweanx 
elements  d'anrilnmie  descriptive  et  d'embryologie  ;  Precis 
d'analnmie  descriptive  el  d'emliri/ologie. 

Boucher,  bowchcr,  Joxathax :  philologist ;  b.  in  Blen- 
cow,  Cuiuberland,  England,  Mar.  12,  1738.  He  removed  to 
Virginia  in  1756,  when  but  sixteen  years  old.  Nominated 
to  the  rectorship  of  Hanover  parish  before  he  was  in  orders, 
he  was  ordained  in  England  March  26.  1762.  In  1768  he 
was  appointed  by  Gov.  Eden  to  St.  Anne's,  Annapolis,  and 
afterward  to  (^ueen  Anne's,  Prince  (leorge  County,  Sym- 
pathizing with  the  motherlanil  at  the  bi-eaking  out  of  the 
Revolution,  he  returned  to  England  in  1775,  and  com]iiled  a 
Olossnrji  of  Archaic  and  Provincial  Words.  In  1797  he 
published  A  View  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the 
American  Revolution.  This  work  was  dedicated  to  Wash- 
ington, with  whom  he  hail  been  jiersonally  acnuainted,  D. 
in  Epsom,  England,  Apr.  27,  18()4. 

]{evi.sed  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Boiiplipr  do  Crf'vocceur  dft  PeHIies,  boo'shay  ch-krev- 
kiir  d'-perl,  Jaii^I'Ks  :  a  French  arclneologist  and  natural- 
ist; b.  at  Helhel,  Sept.  10.  1788.  His  jirincioal  works  are 
The  Creation  (5  vols.,  1839—41),  his  principal  publication; 
Celtic  and  Antediluvian  Antit/uities  {\H47) :  and  Anteditu- 
vinn  Man  and  his  Works  (18(i()).  He  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  science  of  arclueo-anthropologv.  D.  in  Abbe- 
ville. Aug.  9.  ISCS. 

Biiiiclu's-<lii-HliuiiC  booshdii-n'm' :  a  department  in 
the  southeast  part  of  France;  formerly  included  in  Pro- 
vence, Its  area  is  1,971  sq,  miles.  It  is  boumled  X.  by  the 
Durance,  which  separates  it  from  Vaucluse,  E.  by  Var,  S. 
by  the  Mediterranean,  and  W.  by  Gard.  It  is  intersected 
bvtlie  Klione.  whicli  enters  the  sea   bv  sevi'ral  mouths,  •■iiid 


forms  a  delta  called  the  "  lie  do  la  Camargne."  The  surface 
in  the  east  ]iart  is  hilly.  an<l  is  elsewhere  diversified  by 
plains,  heaths,  forests,  and  saline  lakes.  The  grapevine 
and  olive  fhairish  here,  and  large  niiinbers  of  silkworms 
and  sheep  are  raised  in  this  dc))artment.  Among  the  pnl>lie 
works  are  several  canals,  a  railway  connecting  Mai'seilles 
with  Lyons,  and  an  acpieduct,  50  miles  long,  from  the  Dur- 
ance to  Marseilles,  which  is  the  capital.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  hats,  iierfumes,  Avine,  brandy,  sugar,  salt, 
soap,  olive  oil,  and  chemical  products.  It  is  divided  into  three 
arrondissements.     Pop.  (1881)  589,028;  (1891)  630,622. 

Boiicliettc,  Joseph  :  b.  in  Canada  in  1774,  In  1790  he 
entered  the  surveyor-general's  ofhce  for  British  America, 
and  afterward  served  in  the  volunteers  and  in  the  navy  of 
the  lakes.  In  1804  he  became  surveyor-general.  He  served 
against  the  U.  S.  in  the  war  of  1812.  As  surveyor-general  he 
was  afterward  employed  in  establishing  the  .southern  bound- 
ary of  Canada.  IK'  [)ublislied  (1816)  a  to|)ogra[>hical  and 
geographical  description  of  Canada;  7'he  British  Domin- 
ions of  Korth  America  (1831);  and  a  Topoi/raphieal  Uic- 
tionary  of  Lower  Canada  (1832).  D.  at  Jlonlrcal,  Apr.  9, 
1841, 

Boiicipaiilt,  boo'se"e-ko',  Diox  :  playwright ;  b.  in  Dublin, 
Ireland.  Dec  26.  1822;  educated  by  his  guarilian,  Dr,  Di- 
onysiiis  I,ardner,  and  at  the  Lniidon  University,  as  Univer- 
sity Colli'ge  was  then  calleil.  His  first  successful  play  w:is 
Jjondon  A.isnnince,  which  he  wrote  in  conjunclion  with  John 
Bronghani,  and  whicli  was  acted  in  1S41  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  He  was  married  to  Miss  Agnes  liobertson  ;  removed 
to  the  U,  S.  in  1853,  and  remained  till  1860,  when  he  returned 
to  London  and  brought  out,  at  the  Adelphi  theater,  his  first, 
and  still  famous,  Irish  play.  The  Colleen  Bawn.  This  is 
founded  oil  Gerald  GrilRu's  novel  of  llie  Colleyians.  In 
1861  was  lUTiduced  at  the  same  theater  his  play  of  The 
Octoroon,  whicli  vigorously  illustrated,  ami  by  implication 
denounced,  the  evils  of  slavery  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  He  re- 
mained in  Great  Britain  till  1872,  and  furnished  to  the  Lon- 
don stage  a  number  of  plavs,  among  which  were  The  Belief 
of  Lvcknow  (1863);  The  .Streets  of  London  (1865):  Arrah- 
nd-Poque;  Pip  Van  Winlcle;  The  Fhjinq  Scud;  The  Lonq 
Strike  (1867) ;  How  She  Loves  Hi  in  ! ;'  FiiiiJ  Platj  (writt  en  iii 
collaboration  with  the  novelist  Charles  Heade,  1868);  After 
Dart;  (1869);  Formosa:  and  Kerry.  In  the  autumn  of 
1872  he  appeared  at  liooth's  theater,  Xew  York,  as  Shaun 
in  Arrah-'iia-Pogne.  In  1873  he  produced,  at  Booth's 
theater,  his  beautiful  Irish  play  of  Daddy  O'Dowd;  al 
Wallack's  theater,  his  Mora  and  his  J/imi.  On  Dec.  25, 
1873.  he  oj'cned.  in  con.jiinctioii  with  Mr.  William  Stuart, 
the  New  Park  theater,  on  Broadway,  near  Twenty-second 
Street,  Xew  York.  The  Shauyhraun.  produced  at  Wal- 
lack's theater  in  1876,  was  one  of  his  most  successful 
dramas.  He  went  on  a  professional  tour  to  Australia,  ami 
married  in  1889  l,ouisa  Thorndyke.  a  young  American  act- 
ress. The  question  of  the  validity  of  the  divorce  proceed- 
ings with  Agnes  Koberl.son  Boncicaull  was  undetermined 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  Among  his  earlier  works,  iirior  to 
liis  first  visit  to  America,  were  Old  I/cads  and  Youny 
Hearts:  Tlie  Irish  Ileire.ss:  The  Willow  Coj).se:  and  The 
Vampire.  The  dramas  of  Boncicaull  are  seldom,  if  ever, 
original  in  ])lot,  but  they  are  often  original  in  action,  treat- 
ment oi  incidents,  and  are  bright  in  dialogue.  He  has 
been  the  means  of  great  improvement  and  elevation  to  the 
Irish  drama,  having  replaced  the  "ranting,  roaring  Irish- 
man," with  stuffed  stick  and  black  bottle,  by  genuine  men 
of  the  Emerald  Isle,  such  as  Jlyles-iia-Coppaleen,  Shaun  the 
Post.  Kerry,  and  Daddy  O'Dowd.  As  an  actor,  Mr.  Bouci- 
caull's  best  successes  were  won  in  pei'sonating  eccentric 
charactei"s.  such  as  Mantilini,  and  rustic  old  Irishmen,  such 
as  Daddy  O'Dowd,  He  will  also  be  remembered  for  having 
made  drani.-ilic  authorship  a  remunerative  profession  to 
authors  in  (ireat  Britain,  This  he  did  by  as.«erting,  niain- 
tainiug,  and  finally  establishing  the  principle  that  among 
the.-itrical  attractions  the  play  sjiould  be  made  predominant, 
and  shoulil  be  suitably  recompensed.  The  change  in  prac- 
tice that  ensued  may  be  inferred  from  the  fad  that  whereas, 
in  the  earlier  |mrt  oi'  his  career,  Mr,  Boucicault  received  but/ 
l?300  for  his  Corsiran  Brothers,  he  obtained,  in  1866,  for  his 
Flyiny  Scud.  .$32,500,  Boncicaull  was  educaled  as  an  archi- 
tect and  civil  engineer.  As  a  manager  he  established  a 
theater  in  Washington,  D,  C,  in  1858;  reconstructed  the 
Metropolitan  theater,  Xew  York,  and  converted  it  into  the 
Winter  Garden  in  1859;  remodeled  A.stley's  circus  and 
built  the  Westmiusli'r  theater — lioth  in  Loiidon — in  1862. 


720 


BOUDIXOT 


BOULDER 


He  was  the  author  of  numerous  newspaper  essays  and  letters 
on  dramatic  subjects.     D.  in  New  York,  Sept.  18.  1890. 

Kevised  by  B.  B.  Vallbxtixe. 

Bondinot,  boo'di-not.  Elms.  LL.  D.  :  philanthropist ;  b.  in 
Philadelphia.  May  ~.  1740.  He  practiced  law  in  Xwv  Jersey, 
and  supported  the  popular  cause  in  the  Revolution.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Continental  (later  U.  S.)  Congress  in  1778- 
79,  1781-84:  its  ])resident  in  1782.  in  which  capacity  he 
signed  the  treatv  of  iieace  with  Great  Britain,  and  was  direc- 
tor of  the  mint  at  Philadelphia  from  179.5  to  1805.  In  1813 
he  was  a  foutnler  of  tlie  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
of  Foreign  Missions.  In  IS16  lie  became  the  first  president  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  and  so  remained  till  his  death. 
He  wrote  several  works,  and  gave  large  sums  of  money  for 
charitable  purposes.  His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Richaid  Stock- 
ton.    1).  in  Burlington,  X.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1821. 

Bonflers,  Ijoo  flar',  Louis  Frax^ois,  Duke  de :  French 
general;  b.  Jan.  10,  1644.  He  served  under  Turenne  and 
Catinat ;  distinguislicd  luraself  at  Steeukerke  in  1692,  and 
became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1693.  He  commanded  at 
Xamur  \v]iL-n  it  was  liesieged  by  William  IIL  of  England  in 
169.5,  and  defended  Lille  with  success  in  1708  against  Prince 
Eugene.  He  commanded  a  wing  at  Malplaquet  (1709).  from 
which  he  made  a  masterly  retreat.  D.  in  Fontainelileau, 
Aug.  20,  1711.  See  Vie  du  Marechal  de  Bouflers  (Lille. 
1852). 

Bongaiuvillfi.  boo'gan'veel'.  Loris  Axtoixe,  de:  naviga- 
tor :  b.  in  Paris.  Nov.  11, 1729.  He  was  aide-de-camp  to  Jlont- 
calm  in  America  in  1756;  served  with  distinction  in  Ger- 
many in  1761 ;  founded  a  colony  in  the  Falkland  islands, 
which  was  sold  in  1766  to  Spain ;  performed  a  voyage  round 
the  world  in  1767-69,  and  discovered  several  islands  in  the 
South  Sea,  being  the  first  Frenchman  who  had  circumnavi- 
gated the  globe.  In  1771  he  publislied  a  narrative  of  that 
voyage.  During  the  American  Revolution  he  had  a  Iiigh 
command  in  several  naval  battles  between  the  Frencli  and 
British.     D.  Aug.  31,  1811. 

Bongll.  bo,  Samuel.  R.  S.  .\.:  landscape-painter:  b.  at 
Carlisle,  England,  Jan.  8.  1822;  at  first  a  scene-painter; 
learned  to  work  in  oil  and  water-colors  chiefly  by  self-in- 
struction. Among  his  oil  |)aintings  are  Boi/al  Volunteer 
Beview  (ISm) :  Edinhuryh  fmm  the  Canal  (1S62):  The  Vale 
of  Leiih  (1866).  Glasgow  Institute  possesses  over  200  of  his 
works.     D.  at  Edinburgh,  Xov.  19,  1878. 

Bong'lit  Note :  a  memorandum  given  by  a  broker  who 
effects  a  sale  to  the  purchaser,  in  which  the  latter  is  notified 
that  the  property  tlierein  described  has  been  bought  for 
him  of  the  seller,  the  price  and  terms  lieing  stated.  A  simi- 
lar memorandum  given  t<i  the  seller  is  called  the  sold  note. 
Both  these  memoranda  and  the  liroker's  book  entiy  should 
be  signed,  in  order  tliat  they  may  not  be  excluded  as  evi- 
dence under  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  In  case  of  a  discrep- 
ancy among  them  it  V)ecomes  a  tjuestion  of  fact  what  the 
real  contract  was.  If  the  notes  agree  they  will  lie  taken  to 
represent  the  contract:  if  they  disjigree,  but  one  agrees  with 
the  entry,  the  contract  will  be  presumed  to  be  represented 
by  the  entry  and  the  agreeing  note. 

Reviseil  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Bongliton.  bawton,  George  Uexrv:  genre-painter;  b. 
near  Xorwich,  England,  in  1834.  When  he  wjis  three  years 
of  age  his  parents  went  to  Albany,  X.  Y. ;  he  early  took  up  the 
study  of  art  without  a  master.  In  1853  he  made  a  sketching 
trip  in  Great  Britain ;  returned  to  the  V.  S.,  and  removed 
from  Albany  to  X^ew  York  in  18.58.  In  1860  lie  went  to 
Paris,  and  thence  to  London  in  1861,  where  he  has  since  re- 
sided. X'ational  Academician  1871  ;  associate  Royal  Acad- 
emy, London,  1879.  His  sulijccts  are  taken  from  the  Puritan 
days  in  X'ew  Eriglaud,  "Knickerbocker"  life  in  the  early 
history  of  X'ew  York,  and  modern  P^nglish  scenes.  His  work 
is  extremely  popular  both  in  the  V.  S.  and  iu  Great  Britain, 
and  a  cousideralile  number  of  his  pictures  are  well  known 
by  engravings.  The  J-Jdict  of  William  the  Texti/  (1877)  is  in 
the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington.     Studio  in  London. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Boii^rie,  boo^hee'  [Fr.,  wax-candle:  ef.  Ital.  hug'ia.  Span. 
biijia,  so  named  from  Jiiif/la.  Arab.  Jil/li/ah,  an  Algerian 
port  from  which  wax  was  lornicrly  exported  in  large  quan- 
tities]: a  slender  surgical  instrument  designed  to  be  intro- 
duced into  the  male  urethra.  It  is  usually  made  of  gum- 
elastic  or  gutta-percha,  but  may  lie  maile  of  other  flexible 
.substances.  Bougies  are  often  medicaleil,  but  more  com- 
monly they  are  designed  to  act  mechanically  upon  a  con- 


tracted passage.     They  are  sometimes  made  of  a  larger  size 
for  the  rectum  or  for  the  oesophagus. 

Boiignerean,  boo'gay-ro',  Adolphe  William  :  one  of  the 
most  famous  contemporary  French  painters:  b.inLa  Kocliolle. 
Xov.  30.  1825;  pupil  of  Picot  and  winner  of  the  (Jrand  Prix 
de  Home  in  1850.  Member  of  the  Institute;  commander  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  1885 ;  medal  of  honor,  Paris  Exposi- 
tion. 1878  :  medal  of  honor.  Paris  Salon,  1885.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Meissonier  and  Gerome,  his  work  is  probably  more 
widely  known  than  that  of  any  painter  of  the  modern  French 
school,  ^lany  of  his  pictures  are  owned  in  the  U.  ,S..  and  a 
number  of  them  have  become  poptdar  thrnugh  engravings 
and  other  reproductive  processes.  He  is  cliiefly  celebrated 
as  a  painter  of  the  nude  figure,  is  a  most  skillful  draughts- 
man, a  delicate,  but  not  forceful  colorist.  His  Youth  of 
Bacchus  (.ISS4)  is  one  of  the  best  of  his  compositions,  anil 
his  Madonna  of  Consolat ion  (1874)  and  liis  Birth  of  Venus 
(1879)  are  in  the  Luxembourg  gallery.  A  picture  called 
Xijinphs  and  ,S'a/^r.jjainted  in  1873,  a  fine  example,  is  in 
the  Hoffman  House,  Xew  York.  Most  of  the  pictures  by  him 
in  tlie  U.S.,  however,  are  weakly  sentimental  figures  of  women 
and  children,  which  detract  from  the  reputation  he  achieved 
by  his  serious  work.  His  abilities  have  been  the  subject  of 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  among  artists,  the  ma- 
jority conceding  hira  only  powers  of  the  second  order. 
Studio  in  Paris.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Bonill€,  boo7ay',  FKAXfois  Claude  Amour,  Marquis  de  : 
general ;  b.  in  Auvergne,  France,  X'ov.  19, 1739 ;  served  in  the 
Seven  Years  war:  governor  of  Guadeloupe  1768;  during  Amer- 
ican Revolution  captured  several  British  islands  in  the  West 
Indies;  member  of  Assembly  of  Notables  1787-88;  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  of  the  Meuse,  Saar,  and  Moselle 
1790;  aided  Louis  XYI.  in  his  attempt  to  escape  from  Paris; 
served  under  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden  1791 ;  later  under 
Prince  of  Conde:  d.  in  London,  N^ov.  14,  1800.  Author  of 
Mihnoires  sur  la  Bemlution  Fran^aise. 

Bouillon,  Godefrol  de:  See  Godfrey  of  Bouillo.n. 

Boiilae :  See  Bulak. 

Boiilaii^er.  -laaiV^hay'.  Georges  Erxest  Jean  Marie: 
French  soldier  and  politician;  li.  at  Rennes,  April  29.  1837; 
api>ointed  sub-lieutenant  in  First  Regiment  of  Algerian  Ti- 
raillcui-s  in  1856;  received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  1859;  chief  of  battalion  in  the  army  of  Paris  dur- 
ing the  Franco-Pnissian  war;  appointed  brigadier-general 
in  1880:  sent  to  the  U.  S.  as  head  of  the  mission  to  the  Cen- 
tennial Celebration  in  1876:  appointed  French  Minister  of 
War  .Ian.  7.  1886.  An  energetic  and  capalile  organizer,  he 
became  the  idol  of  the  populace  and  the  rising  hope  of  the 
radical.s,  but  eventually  he  brought  forward  measures  for 
the  reorganization  of  France  which  were  accepted  by  Bona- 
partists,  monarchists,  clericals,  and  socialists.  The  move- 
ment known  as  Boidangism  attracted  all  the  malcontents, 
who  elected  him  deputy  for  X'ord  by  100,000  majority,  and 
for  a  time  seriously  disturbed  political  affairs  in  France.  He 
fought  a  duel  with  Prime  Minister  Floquet.  and  was  severely 
wounded,  in  1888.  Accused  of  violating  his  parole  and  con- 
spiring to  overturn  the  republic,  he  fled  to  Great  Britain  in 
order  to  avoid  ari-est.  His  trial  pi-oceeded  in  his  absence, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life.  It  was 
sliriwn  that  the  Duchess  d'Uzes  had  supplied  him  witli 
3.0(10,0(10  francs  for  liis  political  ourposes.  On  Sei>t.  30. 1S91, 
he  .-hoi  himself  on  the  grave  of  his  mistress,  JIme.  de  Bunne- 
maiii.  wiio  had  followed  him  in  exile  and  had  siip|iorted 
him  on  her  bounty  during  two  years.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bonlder :  same  as  Bowlder  {q.  v.). 

Boulder:  a  city  and  railroad  center:  capital  of  Boulder 
CO..  ( 'ol.  (fcir  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Cnlorado.  ref.  2-E) ; 
situated  at  the  east  l>a.se  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  twth 
sides  of  IJoulder  creek,  which  flows  through  the  famous 
Boulder  Canon.  The  State  University  is  located  here.  Boul- 
der has  flouring-mills.  smelting  and  sampling  works,  excel- 
lent public-  scjiools,  and  a  complete  system  of  water-works 
(the  reservoir  of  which  is  fed  liy  imre  mountain-streams). 
and  electric  lights;  is  the  center  of  both  the  agricullural 
anil  mining  interests  of  the  county,  the  great  telluridc  belt 
of  mines  being  only  6  to  8  miles  distant,  the  free  gold  mines 
only  8  to  14  niile.s, 'and  the  famous  silver  mines  of  Caribou 
only  22  miles  away.  Coal  and  iron  mines  abound  in  the 
vallev  within  4  to  6  miles.  This  is  a  a  favorite  resort  for 
tourists  anil  invalids.     Pop.  (1880)  3.069:  (1890)  3.:i30. 

Editor  of  "  Herald." 


BOULDER-CLAY 


BOUQUET  DE  LA  GRYE 


721 


Boulder-clay  :  same  as  Bowlder-clay  {q.  v.). 

Boil'le  [Or.  $ov\ii.  coiiiuil] :  tho  iiamo  of  the  aneient  Athe- 
nian senate  :  institnteil  by  Sulun  as  a  cheek  (in  the  ecc/cs/o 
{iKKli-ria-la),  whieli  was  an  assenilily  uf  the  vvliole  |ie<i|iU^.  The 
lionle  was  at  lirst  e()in|u>sed  of  4(M)  ineniliers.  liul  (.'leisthenes 
inereaseil  the  nunilier  to  .WO  when  he  divicled  the  Athenians 
into  ten  tribes.  The  number  was  snbse<)uently  raised  to  600. 
All  free-born  Athenian  citizens  above  thirty  years  of  ago 
were  elii;ilile  to  this  eonncil. 

Boiilo,  or  IJoiili'-work  :  See  Bihl,  or  1!iiil-\v<)KK. 

Itoillcviinl'  [Fr..  loan-word  from  (ierm.  Bn/lircrk;  Eiij;. 
hulwdrk.  So.  |{u?s.  holriTk] :  orijjinally  a  kind  of  fortification 
introduced  in  France  by  the  Normans  after  their  eomjuest 
of  Normandy.  In  France  and  (iermany  these  defensive 
works  have  been  i;enerally  leveled  anil  turned  into  pub- 
lie  proniciuiiles  or  avenues  lined  with  trci's.  Tlie  Inner  Boule- 
vards of  J'aris  form  a  ma.t,'nifU'ent  central  thoroughfare, 
lined  on  each  side  by  a  dwuble  row  of  trees,  under  which  is  a 
wide  and  clevale<l  pathway,  and  bordered  by  elejfant  shops 
and  mansions,  the  whole  presenting  a  scene  of  gayety  and 
splendor  which  no  other  capital  can  eqmil. 

lioillognc  boo  Ion',  or  BoulojriiP-siir-SoiiiP,  boolon  silr- 
sayn  :  a  town  of  Franc(^:  de|mrtment  of  the  Seine:  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Seini^;  '>  miles  W.  of  I'aris,  from 
which  it  is  se]iarated  by  the  Bois  in.;  Hoi'looxk  {(/.  v.).  A 
tine  stone  bridge  connects  it  witli  the  ruined  palace  of  ,St.- 
(io\iil.  It  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery.  Pop.  (1886) 
;«),()84;  (18itn  ;i2.ri«!). 

Boiilogiic.  or  BiMilogno-siir-Mcr.  -siir-iniir' :  a  seaport  of 
Franci-:  department  of  Pa>-de-l'alais;  on  the  English  Chan- 
nel ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lianne ;  108  miles  Ijy  rail  N.  N.  W. 
of  Paris  and  'il  miles  by  rail  S.  VV.  of  Calais;  lat.  .iO  44  N., 
loll.  1'  iJT'  E.  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  1-E).  The  railway 
which  connects  Calais  with  Amiens  passes  through  it.  It  is 
ilivided  into  two  parts — the  upper  and  lower  town,  from  the 
former  of  which  the  English  coast  is  visible.  The  upjier 
ti>wn  has  beautiful  promenades,  an  old  Gothic  cathedral,  an 
hotel  de  ville,  and  an  epi.scopal  palace.  The  lower  town  is 
newer,  more  regular,  and  more  poijulous.  It  contains  a 
hospital,  a  theater,  a  museum,  a  inidlic  library,  and  an  ex- 
change. Boulogne  derives  nnich  of  its  prosijcrity  from  Eng- 
lish residents  and  visitors,  who  are  very  numerous.  Steamers 
jily  twice  a  day  lietween  this  port  and  Folkestone.  The  har- 
iior  will  admit  large  vessels  during  high  water,  and  has  been 
im])roved  by  the  construction  of  vast  moles  at  a  cost  of 
^5,000,000.  Here  are  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen 
goods,  sailcloth,  cordage,  bottles,  etc.  It  occupies  the  site 
nf  the  ancient  Oemriacum,  which  after  the  time  of  Con- 
-laiitine  the  (ireat  was  called  Bonoiiia  Ori'(ineii.fi>i.  Sevi'i'al 
centuries  later  the  name  was  changed  to  fio/oiu'ri.  At  this 
place  Napoleon  assembled  in  1804  an  army  of  180,000  men 
and  a  flotilla  of  2,400  transports  for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
lan<l.  To  commemorate  this  design,  which,  however,  was 
never  executed,  a  colunin  164  feet  high  was  erected.  Po]i. 
(18iH)  4r),->0"). 

Boulogne.  Ktiexxe  Axtoink:  French  prelate:  b.  in  Avi- 
gnon, Dei.  i6.  1747:  edited  during  the  Revolution  the  A71- 
iind'fi  ri'lif/ii'iixi's,  which  was  several  times  suppressed  and 
revived  with  altered  title.  Under  the  empire  he,  as  Bishop 
of  Troyes,  was  imprisoned  with  two  other  bishops  for  de- 
claring that  the  emperor  had  no  Jiuthority  to  coiltine  a 
bishop  without  the  apjiroval  of  the  pope.  He  was  maile  an 
archbishoj)  in  1822.  Ilis  works  appeared  in  1826-28,  8  vols. 
1).  in  I'aris,  .May  l:i,  182o. 

Bniirtoii,  Matthew:  inventor;  b.  in  Biriningham,  Eng- 
land. .Sipi.  :i,  1728,  He  was  noted  for  his  energy  and  en- 
terjirise  iis  a  maiuifacturer,  and  he  became  a  friend  and 
|iartiier  of  .lames  Watt.  He  established  at  Soho.  near  Bir- 
mingham, a  manufactory  of  steam-engines  in  176.').  Boul- 
ton  invented  an  improved  ajiparatus  for  coining  money  and 
a  new  mode  of  inlaying  steel.  He  was  a  man  of  generous 
disposition.  I),  in  Soho,  Aug.  18,  180!».  See  Life  of  M. 
/l(ii(l/i)ii  (Birmiturham,  1800),  and  S.  Smiles.  Lins  of  Boul- 
lun  ,1,,,/  W'n/t  (186.")). 

Boii-Miizil,  surnanied  Si  iMonAMMEi)  hex  Ardallaii:  an 
.\rab  chief:  b,  about  1820:  followed  for  three  years  the  aus- 
tere life  of  a  dervish:  then,  proclaiming  that  he  wa-s  an 
emissary  of  heaven,  he  stirred  up  the  Kabyles,  the  warlike 
inhaliitanis  of  D.'ihra  in  Algiers;  preached  the  extermina- 
tion iif  Christians,  and  waged  war  upon  the  allies  of  France, 
Iladj-Achmed  and  Sidi-Darrilii.  He  surrendered  after  a 
]irotraeted  condiet  with  (ieii.  Herbillon,  .)an.  1:3.  1847.  and 
46 


was  conveyed  to  Paris.     He  afterward  entered  the  service 
of  the  Porte,  and  attained  the  rank  of  colonel. 

Bound,  or  Bownde,  Nicholas,  D.  I). :  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England:  educated  at  Cambridge;  fellow  of 
Peterhouse  l.")70;  became  rector  of  Norton,  Suffolk,  l.W."); 
minister  of  Church  of  St.  Andrew  the  Apostle,  Norwich,  and 
there  he  was  buried  Dec.  26,  161:!,  He  published  his  famous 
work  The.  Doctrini'  of  the  Sabbath  (fjondon,  l.'SHo);  enlarged 
edition  with  partial  fjatin  title,  Stdiliatiiiim  Veferis  et  A'ovi 
Testament i ;  or  the  True  Doctrine  of  the  Sabbath  (1606), 
in  which  the  Puritan  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Day  was  for 
the  first  time  liroadly  and  prominently  asserted.  He  also 
was  an  advocate  of  'I'lie  JIolij  Exercise  of  Fasting  (Cam- 
bridge. 1006). 

Boiind-llililifl':  See  Bailh-f. 

Bound  Brook:  borough;  in  Bridgewater  township, 
Somerset  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New 
Jersey,  ref.  :J-C);  31  miles  \\'.  S.  W.  of 'New  York.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  Raritan  river  and  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal.  It  has  seven  churches  and  important 
woolen,  engine,  brass,  and  paint  manufactures,  and  its  trade 
in  lumber  is  very  extensive.  Washington's  array  was  en- 
camped here  for  two  winters.  Pop.  (1880)  9:34  :  (1890)  1,462 ; 
(189,1)  2,0o0.  Editok  of  "  Cheoxicle." 

Bounty  [from  Fr.  bonte,  goodness,  kindness ;  <  Lat. 
bo  iiitas] :  a  |iremium  given  by  a  government  to  foster  some 
branch  of  industry,  or  to  encourage  enterprises  which  are 
believed  to  be  of  national  importance  and  conducive  to  the 
public  interests.  The  British  Government  formerly  gave 
Ijounties  to  enconrage  the  herring  fisheries  and  the  exporta- 
tion of  grain  and  Irish  linen,  and  for  other  purposes.  The 
modern  political  economists  reject  tliis  factitious  method  of 
fostering  commerce,  agriculture,  etc.,  and  argue  that  it  pro- 
motes a  misdirection  of  capital,  talent,  and  industry.  The 
impolicy  of  giving  bounties  for  such  puTjioses  appears  to  be 
now  generally  admitted,  but  they  are  still  continued  in 
France  to  promote  ship-building  and  the  production  of 
sugar.  They  are  often  given,  [larticularly  in  new  countries, 
for  the  destruction  of  ferocious  animals,  as  wolves,  bears, 
etc.  The  general  Government  and  some  of  the  U.  S,  give 
bounties  for  tree-planting.  Subsidies  to  sugar-])laiitcrs, 
steamship  companies,  and  land  grants  to  railways  are  coui- 
miiii  in  the  V.  S. 

A  bounty  in  money  is  also  often  given  to  induce  men  to 
enlist  in  tlie  army  and  navy.  The  amount  of  this  money 
varies  according  to  the  exigency  and  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing recruits.  In  1812  the  British  Government  offered  a 
nominal  bounty  of  £23  17.s-.  Gel.,  but  this  was  subject  to  large 
deductions  anil  drawbacks.  The  bounty  given  in  Great 
Britain  at  present  is  about  one  pound  sterling.  In  the 
American  civil  war  the  recruits  of  the  Union  army  re- 
ceived in  some  cases  a  bounty  of  f.'JOO  or  more.  Many  of 
these  recruits  deserted  soon  after  they  had  received  the 
bounty;  these  were  called  •'bounty-jum)iers." 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty  is  a  fund  applied  in  England  by  a 
corjioration  of  ex-officio  governors  to  the  augmentation  of 
tlie  incomes  of  the  poorer  clergy  of  the  Church  of  Kngland. 
Ilenrv  VIII.  annexed  to  the  crown  the  first  fruits  or  the 
first  vear's  income  to  a  new  incumbent  of  a  benefice,  and 
the  tenths,  which  had  previously  gone  to  the  pope.  In  1703 
Parliament,  with  the  consent  of  tiueeii  Anne,  set  aside  the 
revenues  from  these  sources  for  the  increase  of  poor  livings. 
In  1890  these  aiuountcd  to  ^884,480,  and  the  board  of  gov- 
ernors appropriate  the  revenue  under  a  long  series  of  stat- 
utes to  promote  private  benefactions  or  endowments,  or 
building  of  parsonages,  by  giving  an  equal  sum  not  exceed- 
ing $1,000  to  benefices  havinga  yearly  income  of  this  amount 
or  less. 

Bounty,  JlfTixv  ok  the:  See  Bliou,  William,  and  Pit- 

CAIHN   Isl.AXl), 

Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  boo'kay'  dc-la-gree',  Jeax  JA(yii-:s 
Axatoi.k:  hydrogniphical  engineer;  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute :  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  b.  in  Thiers,  Puy- 
de-l)6me.  May  20,  1827;  studied  at  the  Polytechnic  School, 
graduating  in  1847  in  the  hydrographical  engineers,  of 
which  he  became  engineer-in-chief  in  1886.  He  is  member 
of  the  bureau  of  longitudes :  vice-president  of  the  commit- 
tee on  hydrography ;  elected  member  of  the  Academy  in 
1884  in  (ilace  of  Yvon  Villarcean.  He  is  the  ardent  pro- 
moter of  the  project  to  make  Paris  a  seaport  by  means  of  a 
ship-canal  and  the  improvement  of  the  Seine.  Author  of 
Filote  ties  Cutes  Quest  de  la  France ;  ^^oles  sur  la  Sondage 


•>•> 


BOUQUETIN 


BOURBON 


fi  la  mer  ;  Etude  hydrographique  sur  la  bate  de  la  Roclielle  ; 
Regime  de  la  Loire  maritime  \  Paris,  Port  de  mer. 

AV.  R.  H. 

Bonqiietiii,  bookf-taiV,  or  Ibex  of  the  Alps  (in  Germ. 
Steiiibock) :  a  species  of  wilil  goat  (Copra  ihex)  formerly 
found  on  the  Alps,  and  whieh  ascends  to  the  limit  of  per- 
petual snow.  It  is  larger  than  the  common  goat,  and  has 
large  horns  wliich  curve  backward.  The  horns  of  the  male 
are  sometimes  20  inches  long  or  more.  It  has  no  beard  ex- 
cept a  few  haii-s  in  winter.  The  color  of  the  hair  is  mostly 
brown.  This  animal  feeds  on  shrubs,  lichens,  and  the  scanty 
herbage  which  is  found  on  the  confines  of  vegetation.  It 
has  an  extraordinary  power  of  bounding  from  crag  to  crag, 
and  of  climbing  precipices  which  are  almost  perpendicular. 
The  bouquet  in  can  be  tamed  if  it  is  taken  young,  and  it  will 
breed  with  the  common  goat.  The  bouquetin  is  now  extinct 
in  the  Alps,  excejit  possil)ly  near  Courmayeur.  There  are 
still  probalily  forty  or  fifty  on  the  mountains  8.  of  the  Dora 
Baltea.     The  bouquetin  is  presented  by  law. 

Bonrbaki.  boor  balvkee',  Charles  Denis  Sauter:  French 
general;  1).  in  Pan.  Apr.  2'2,  1816;  took  part  in  the  wars  in 
the  Crimea  and  in  Italy ;  and  in  the  German-French  war  of 
1870  he  commanded  the  imperial  guards  before  Metz.  After 
the  deposition  of  Xapoleon  he  organized  the  Army  of  the 
Xorth  under  Gambetta  ;  then  tried  with  disastrous  results  to 
break  the  German  line  at  BeLfort.  He  attempted  suicide, 
and  gave  up  the  command  to  Clinchant.  who  crossed  the 
Swiss  frontier  with  84.000  men.  Feb.  1.  1871.  In  1873  he 
commanded  an  ,irniv-corps  at  Lvons;  was  retired  from  ac- 
tive duty  in  1881. 

Bonrbon ;  a  French  island.    See  Reuxiox. 

Bonrboii :  town  ;  on  railroad,  Marshall  co..  Ind.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  2-E) ;  .53  miles  from 
Port  Wayne  and  95  from  Chicago.  It  has  three  churches,  a 
graded  school,  including  high-school  department,  wagon 
manufactories,  a  large  roller  flouring-mill,  several  boot  and 
shoe  manufactories,  and  various  other  mechanical  enter- 
prises. The  surrounding  country  is  very  fertile,  and  some 
valuable  timber,  such  as  walnut,  poplar,  oak.  maple,  beech, 
etc..  is  yet  standing.  Large  quantities  of  butter,  eggs,  poul- 
try, wool,  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  wheat,  oats,  clover-seed, 
lumber,  etc.,  are  annually  exported.  Pop.  (1880)  1.056 ; 
(18i»0)  1.064.  '  Editor  OF  "Mirror." 

Bourbon  (Fr.  pron.  boorbon'):  the  name  of  a  family 
which  reigned  over  France  from  1589  to  1792.  and  from 
1815  to  1848.  A  prince  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  also  ob- 
tained the  throne  of  Spain  in  1700.  and  another  tliat  of  Xa- 
)jles  and  Sicily  in  1735.  The  Bourbons  derive  their  name 
from  the  castle  of  Bourbon,  which  was  built  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  was  situated  in  the  old  province  of  Bourbon- 
nais.  16  miles  W.  of  Moulins.  The  heiress  of  the  seigniory 
was  married  in  1272  to  Roltert.  a  younger  son  of  King  Louis 
IX.  The  seigniory  was  erected  into  a  duchy,  and  Louis,  a 
son  of  Robert,  became  about  1327  the  first  Duke  of  Bour- 
bon. He  died  in  1341.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pierre, 
who  was  killed  at  Poitiers  in  18.56.  Louis,  a  son  of  Pierre, 
became  the  tliird  Duke  of  Bourbon.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  vassals  of  the  crown  of  France,  and  made 
large  additions  to  the  duchy  by  his  marriages.  D.  in  1410. 
His  son  .lean.  b.  in  1381,  was  the  fourth  duke.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  English  at  Agincourt.  and  detained 
until  his  death  (1434).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles. 
b.  in  1401.  He  died  in  1456.  leaving  a  son  Jean,  who  be- 
came the  sixtli  Duke  of  Bourbon  and  constable  of  Prance. 
See  BouRBOx,  Charles  de. 

Among  the  collateral  branches  of  the  Bourbon  family 
were  those  of  Vendome,  Conde.  Montpensier.  Orleans.  Conti. 
and  Soissons.  Antoine  de  Bourlion.  Duke  of  Vendonu-,  be- 
came by  marriage  King  of  Xavarre.  His  son.  Henry  of 
Xavarre,  was  the  first  French  king  oi  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
and  began  to  reign  as  Henry  IV.  in  1589.  He  had  two  sons, 
Louis  XIH.  and  Gaston.  Duke  of  Orleans;  a  daughter.  Eliz- 
abeth, who  was  married  to  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  and  Henri- 
etta, who  became  the  (pieen  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  Louis 
XIH..  who  died  in  1643.  left  two  sons.  Louis  XIV.  and  Phil- 
ip. Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  the  ancestor  of  King  Louis 
Philippe.  The  dauphin,  tlie  eldest  .son  of  Louis  XIV..  d.  in 
1711.  leaving  three  sons — 1.  Louis,  Duke  of  Hurgundy;  2. 
Philip,  Duke  of  .\iijou.  who  became  King  of  Spain  as  Philip 
V. ;  3,  Charles,  Duke  of  Berry.  Louis  of  Burgundv.  who 
died  in  1712.  wa.s  the  father  of  Louis  XV.,  who  succeeded  his 
great-grandfather,  Louis  XIV..  in  1715.     Louis  XV.  had  one 


son,  Louis,  who  died  before  his  father,  leaving  three  sons, 
who  aU  reigned  successively — namely,  Louis  XVI..  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  Louis  XVI.  left  one  son,  who  by 
the  royalists  was  recognized  as  Louis  X^'II.,  but  perished  as 
a  child  during  the  French  Revolution.  As  the  circum- 
stances of  his  death  remained  unknowji.  many  adventurers 
claimed  to  be  Louis  XVII.  Louis  XVIII.  had  no  issue. 
Charles  X.  had  two  sons — Louis  Antoine.  who  died  without 
issue  in  1844.  and  Charles  Ferdinand.  Duke  of  Beriy.  His 
only  son,  Henri.  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  styled  Count  de  C'ham- 
bord,  was  the  heir  to  the  throne,  according  to  the  Legiti- 
mists, who  gave  him  the  title  of  Henry  V.     See  Chambord. 

The  House  of  Orleans  is  called  the  younger  branch  of  the 
royal  family  of  Bourlion.  and  is  descended  from  Philip  of 
Orleans,  a  younger  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  His  son  Philip 
was  regent  of  France  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XV., 
and  left  a  son.  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans.  This  last 
was  the  grandfather  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  who  figured  in 
the  Revolution  as  Citizen  Egalite.  and  was  father  of  Louis 
Philippe,  who  became  King  of  the  French  in  1830.  This 
king  had  five  sons — the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Duke  of  Xe- 
mours,  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  the  Duke  of  Aumale,  and  the 
Duke  of  Montpensier.  The  Count  of  Paris,  the  son  of  the 
eldest  of  these  five,  is  regarded  as  the  heir  to  the  tlirone  bv 
the  Orleanist  party. 

PhiUp,  Duke  of  Anjou.  who  was  placed  on  the  throne  of 
Spain  in  1700.  was  the  founder  of  a  Spanish  dynasty,  which 
reigned  in  Spain  until  the  dethronement  of  yuecn  Isjibella 
in  1868.  and  regained  the  crown  in  1875  through  Alfonsa 
XII.  Philip  of  Anjou  was  also  the  ancestor  of  the  Bourbon 
dynasties  of  X^aples  and  Parma.  Francis  II.,  who  was  de- 
throned in  Sept..  1860.  was  the  last  Bourbon  monarch  of 
X^aples  (or  the  Two  Sicilies).  The  Bourbons  have  also  ceased 
to  reign  in  Parma,  which  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  in  1859.  Louise  of  Bourbon,  a  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Berry  and  sister  to  the  Count  of  Chanilwrd.  b.  in  1819,  d. 
in  1864,  was  married  in  1845  at  Frohsdorf  to  Charles  III. 
of  Parma,  who  descended  from  the  Spanish  line  of  the  Bour- 
bons. Charles  III.  was  violently  reactionary  in  his  policy, 
and  was  assassinated  Mar.  26. 1854.  Louise  immediately  as- 
sumed the  regency  in  the  name  of  her  minor  son.  Robert  I., 
and  she  developed  extraordinani'  energ)'  and  made  great 
personal  sacrifices  in  order  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the 
Italians  and  bring  back  order  and  peace.  She  was  not  al- 
together unsuccessful  in  her  endeavors,  but  the  tendency  of 
the  time  pointed  another  way.  See  Achaintre.  Ilistoire 
Clironohigiijiie  et  Geiiealogique  de  la  JJai-iou  lim/ale  de 
Buurhtiii  (2  vols.,  1825);  Coxe,  Memoirs  uf  the  Kings  of 
Spain  of  tlie  House  of  Bourbon  (3  vols.,  1813). 

Bourbon,  Charles.  Due  de,  usually  styled  Constable 
BoLRBON  (Connetable  de  Bourbon) ;  French  general ;  b. 
Feb.  17.  1489 :  son  of  Gilbert  Bourbon.  Count  of  Montpen- 
sier. He  married  the  heiress  of  the  Duke  of  Bourl)on — 
Suzanne,  a  daughter  of  Pierre  de  Bourbon,  who  died  in 
1.50:3 — and  became  the  owner  of  the  vast  estates  of  both 
branches  of  the  Bourbons.  But  his  brilliant  military  suc- 
ces.ses  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Louis  XII.,  who  refused  to 
make  him  commander-in-chief.  Francis  I.,  however,  fol- 
lowed another  policy.  Charles  was  appointed  constable  of 
France  in  1515.  and  was  one  of  the  generals  who  gained  a 
victory  at  Marignano  in  that  year.  He  was  very  popular 
with  ihe  soldiers  and  with  the  court,  but  his  popularity 
caused  his  fall.  The  mother  of  Francis  I.  was  enamored  of 
him,  but  her  overtures  having  been  rejecte<I,  she  became  his 
enemy.  At  her  instigation,  the  estates  which  he  had  ac- 
quired by  marriage  were  seized  by  the  king  after  the  death 
of  Suzanne.  Other  insults  were  heaped  upon  him.  In  the 
cam|iaign  against  Charles  V.  the  command  of  the  vanguard 
was  given  to  the  Due  de  Alen^'on.  His  official  salaries  and 
the  sums  he  had  borrowed  for  his  war  ox|)enses  were  not 
paid,  aiul  he,  the  richest  man  in  France,  was  actually  re- 
duced to  beggary.  Bourlwn  deeply  resented  this  injury, 
renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  King  of  Prance  in  1.523,  and 
became  the  ally  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V..  for  who,se  ser\'- 
ices  he  raised  about  6.000  tJermans.  He  contriliuted  largely 
to  the  victory  which  the  imperial  army  gained  over  the 
French  at  Pavia  in  1525.  It  appears  that  he  was  distrusted 
by  Charles  V..  who  neglected  to  pay  BouHxm's  German 
mercenaries,  and  these  consequently  became  mutinous. 
However,  the  emperor  made  him  Duke  of  Milan  and  com- 
mander of  his  mercenaries  in  Xorthern  Italy  in  1.526.  and 
with  them  he  conducted  a  daring  enteri)rise  against  Rome, 
in  which  he  displayed  great   military   talent.     His  army 


BOURDALOrE 


BOURNE 


723 


took  Rome  by  assault  May  5,  1527,  but  he  was  killed  as 
lie  mouiitcfl  tlic  wall  by  a  pistol-shot,  fired,  it  is  said,  by 
Hciivciiuto  Ci'lliiii.  In  German  there  is  a  biography  by 
Schwarlzenau  (Berlin.  18.12).  The  Constable  Bourljon  is  a 
nriiminent  character  in  Bynni's  ilramu  '/Vie  Defurmed 
Trdii.sfdrmed. 

Itoiiriluloilo,  boordaa'loo,  Loi'is:  French  pulpit  orator; 
b.  in  r.ourires,  Auj;.  20,  1(W2.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  i(i4S,  and  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and  the 
hunianilii'S.  In  lt)<i!*  he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  preached 
fur  numy  years  bel'iire  Louis  XIV.  and  the  court.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  dignity  of  his  manner,  the  wisdom  of 
his  words,  and  the  earnestness  of  his  |iiety.  His  style  of 
eloquence  was  less  inflated  and  nujre  direct  than  that  which 
then  prevailed  in  France.  He  was  a  genend  favorite  with 
the  common  i)eople.  as  well  as  the  learned  and  hifrher  classes. 
I),  in  Paris.  .May  Ki.  1J04.  His  sermons  were  iiid)lished  in 
1()  vols.,  1707-^!4.  I'erhaps  the  most  famous  among  them 
are  the  sermon  of  the  Passion  :  that  nn  the  t'onccpliiin  ;  and 
that  on  the  Last  .ludgment.  Eng.  trans,  of  select  sermons 
(n.  e.  London,  1884).  See  A.  Feugere,  lioiirdalutir,  na  pre- 
dication e.t  son  letups  (Paris,  1874 :  5th  ed.  1889) ;  M.  Lauras, 
liuurdaloue,  sa  vie  et  sets  ceuvres  (Paris.  1881). 

Revised  by  A.  K.  Marsh. 

Itoiinlon  [Pr..  pilgrim's  staff]:  in  music,  the  hnnnning 
.sound  produced  by  blowing  through  a  long  h(dlow  staff. 
Hence  the  name  given  to  the  stop  of  low  pitch  found  in 
all  pipe-organs. 

Boiirg:  a  jdace  of  refuge  or  fortified  place;  the  name  of 
aliout  forty  villagi's  aiel  towns  in  Fi'ance.  The  Tuost  impor- 
tant is  Uoiirg'.or  Hoiirg-en-Bresse,  boorgaah-bres' :  atown 
of  France  ;  capital  of  the  department  of  Ain  ;  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  the  Reyssouse  ;  57  miles  by  rail  X.  N.  E.  of  Lyons 
(see  map  of  France,  ref.  fi-H).  Several  railways  connect  it 
with  Lyons.  Macon,  and  Besan(;on.  It  is  well  built,  has  a 
college,  a  museum,  a  large  hos]iital.  and  a  public  library  of 
about  2(I,(MI0  voluuu's.  Here  are  manufactures  of  linen, 
cotton  slujTs.  liosiery.  etc.     Pop.  (1801)  18,i»t)8. 

Bourgeois,  bur-jois' :  the  name  of  a  type  used  in  print- 
ing. Il  is  one  size  larger  than  brevier,  and  one  size  smaller 
than  long  prinu'r.     See  Prixtixo. 

Bourgeois,  boor>hwa1i  ;  a  French  word  signifying  a 
citizen  or  resident  of  a  city;  a  commoner,  as  distinguished 
from  a  nobleman  ;  a  civilian,  as  distinginshed  from  a  sol- 
dier.    .V  citizen  of  the  state  or  republic  is  called  citoyen. 

Boursfpoisie,  boorXiwaazee' :  a  French  term;  is  also 
much  used  in  English,  defined  in  dictionaries  as  "citizens," 
"citizenship,"  "commonalty."  It  is  applied  to  the  great 
miihile  class  of  French  society,  composed  mostly  of  mer- 
chants, manufacturers,  master  mechanics,  lawyei's,  etc.,  who 
live  in  towns  and  cities.  Tliey  are  inferior  in  rank  to  the 
aristocracy,  and  superior  to  the  peasantry  and  to  the  pro- 
lilaires  of  the  towns. 

Boiirg:('S.  boor^h'  (anc.  Aiiariciim,  afterward  Biluriffes)  : 
u  city  of  l'''rance;  near  its  center;  capital  of  the  department 
of  Cher;  is  situated  in  a  fertile  |)lain  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Auron  and  the  Eure,  14(i  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Paris  (see  ma]) 
of  France,  ref.  .5-P).  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Paris, 
Orleans,  Moulins,  aiul  other  cities.  It  was  inclosed  by  ram- 
parts now  converted  into  pronuMiades  or  boulevards  bor- 
dered with  chi'stnut  and  walnut  trees.  The  streets  are 
crooked  and  the  houses  mostly  antirjue.  Bourges  has  a  col- 
lege, a  normal  school,  a  public  library  of  about  25.000 
volumes,  a  line  hotel  de  ville,  and  a  magnificeid  Gothic 
cathedral,  which  is  considered  om^  of  the  finest  in  Europe. 
It  is  the  .see  of  an  archbishop.  This  town  was  formerly  the 
seat  of  a  celebrated  university  founded  in  14(58  and  sup- 
pressed in  178!).  It  hius  nunnifactures  of  cutlery,  woolen 
stuffs,  etc.  Ariirinim,  which  occupied  this  site,  was  a  very 
ancient  town,  and  was  the  eapit.-d  of  Celtic  Gaul  about  .500 
B.  c.  It  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Biluriges  in  the  time  of 
.Julius  Ca'sar,  wlio  besieged  and  took  it  in  52  n.  c,  after 
which  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Aipii- 
tania.  During  the  Middle  Ages  seven  councils  of  the 
Church  were  held  here,  and  in  1438  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion of  the  Galliean  Church  was  established  here.  Pop. 
(188G)  42.S2!):  (18!M)  45,4;i2. 

Bon rgct.  boor 'hay  ,  P.vul:  French  novelist  anil  critic; 
b.  at  Amiens,  Sept.  2,  18.52;  devoted  himself  early  to  jour- 
nalism and  lilerature.  He  has  attracted  much  attention,  on 
the  one  hand,  by  his  work  in  criticism,  Jiliides  de  Psyclio- 
togie  contempuraine  (2  series,  1883-85) ;  Etudes  et  Portraits 


(1880) ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  by  his  novels,  in  which  the 
sad  conclusions  of  so-called  realist  or  naturalist  psychology 
and  the  pessimism  of  the  fin  du  siicle  are  embodied  in 
delicate  and  sulrtle  art.  Among  the.se  novels  the  following 
have  perhaps  had  most  repute  ;  Cruelle  Knigme  (1885) ;  Vn 
Crime  d'ammir  (188(i) ;  Andre  Cornetis  (1887) ;  Mensonges 
(1887);  Le  Disriph  (1880).  He  has  pid>lished  also  several 
vohimesofver.se;  Ln  vie  inquiete  (1875);  iV<7(1878);  Les 
acen.r  (1882) ;  .1  ii  bord  de  la  mer,  etc.  (188.')).   A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bourjroing',  boorgwitiV.  .Ikan  Fraxvois,  Baron  de:  French 
diplomatist  ;  h.  in  Nevers,  Nov.  20,  1748;  was  ambassador  at 
dilTereiit  courts.  During  a  nine  yeai's"  residence  in  Spain 
he  wrote,  among  other.s,  a  thcu'ough  book  upon  it,  ^'oiireau 
voi/ai/i-  en  Espiiiine,  etc.     D.  ill  Carlsbad,  July  20,  1811. 

Boiirigpnoii,  boor<"enyyn.  Axtoixktte:  a  Flemish  vi- 
sionary; b.  at  Lille.  Jan.  13,  1(516;  professed  that  she  re- 
ceived special  revelations;  found  asylum  in  a  convent. 
Having  left  the  convent  and  renounced  Catholicism,  she 
traveled  in  foreign  countries;  wrote  several  religious  works; 
gained  many  converts  to  her  sect  ;  it  especially  ]irospered  in 
Scotland.  She  was  an  eloqueul  speaker  and  writer.  D.  in 
Fraueker,  Frieslaud.  Oct.  30,  1(580.  See  a  Life  of  Antoinette 
lionrignon,  prefixed  to  her  works  (Ain.sterdam,  25  vols., 
167(5-84).  Peter  Poiret  was  the  chief  espounder  of  her 
ray.sticism.  Some  of  her  writings  appeared  in  English  with- 
in thirty  years  of  her  death.    See  Labadie,  Jean,  de. 

Boil'rin<tf..IonxGi:oRr,K,  C.  M.  G.,  LL.  D. :  Canadian  pub- 
licist; b.  at  Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  Oct.  24,  1838;  educati'd  at 
Trinity  College,  Toronto ;  engaged  in  .iournalism  ;  established 
the  Jliilifnx  Jiej/ortrr,  and  was  its  editor  for  many  years. 
Afti'r  holding  various  appointments  in  the  senate,  he  became 
clerk  of  the  l)ominion  Parliament  in  1880;  created  by  the 
Queen  a  comjianion  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George  in  1800;  and  in  1892  was  elected  president  of  the 
Royal  Society,  Canada.  He  has  contributed  extensively  to 
the  magaziiV'S  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean.  Among  his  works 
are:  Jntellicliial  Development  of  Canadian  Fe<jple  (Toronto, 
1880):  PaHitiiiientarij  Practice  and  Procedure  (Montreal, 
1884);  Const  it  III  loiiii'l  History  (if  Canada  (1887);  a.m\  Par- 
liamentary Government  in  Canada  (1802). 

Neil  Macdox-ild. 

Boiirmout,  boor'mon',Loris  Auouste Victor, de;  Comte 
de  Ghai.sne ;  a  French  general;  b.  in  Anjou,  Sept.  2.  1773; 
was  a  royalist  in  the  Revolution :  fought  against  the  repub- 
lic in  1704-06 ;  entered  the  service  of  Napoleon  about  1809. 
Having  served  with  di.stinction  in  Russia,  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1814.  During  the  Hun- 
dred Days.  1815,  lu'  deserted  Lovns  XVIII.  and  Napoleon  by 
turns.  He  became  Minister  of  War  in  1820,  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  sent  again.st  Algiers  in  1830.  He  con- 
quered Algiers,  and  was  rewarded  in  July.  1830.  with  the 
baton  of  a  marshal  of  France.  Being  devoted  to  Charles  X., 
he  was  deprived  of  his  command  by  the  revolution  of  \HtiO, 
and  went  into  exile,  and  fought  for  Dom  Jliguel  in  Portu- 
gal. D.  in  .\njou.  Oct.  27.1846.  See  De  Lansac,  3'o/('ce  ,s«r 
le  Comte  de  Bourmont  (1847). 

Bourne:  town  (incorporated  Apr.  2.  1884);  Barnstable 
CO.,  INIass.  (for  location  of  countv,  see  map  of  Massachusetts, 
ref.  ,5-K);  on  Old  Col.  R.  K.  (Cape  Cod  Div.) ;  .56  miles  from 
Boston.  The  town  has  6  churcOies  and  11  school.s.  including 
a  high  school ;  its  principal  industries  are  freight-car  manu- 
factiMT,  iron  foundry,  art-works,  oystering,  and  line-fishing. 
Bourne  was  set  off  from  Sandwich,  and  a  large  part  of  its 
territory  borders  on  Buzzard's  Bay.  It  is  a  popular  sum- 
mer-resort, and  has  manv  elegant  summer  residences.  Pop. 
of  township,  including  8" villages  (1800)  1.442;  (1805)  1,.580. 

Daviu  D.  Nye. 

Bonnie,  Htmn :  preacher ;  b.  at  Fordhavs  Farm,  in  the 
parish  of  Stoke-on-Trent,  Staffordshire,  I^ngland,  Ajir.  3, 
1772:  w^as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  seel  of  Primitive 
Methodists.  He  was  bv  trade  a  wheelwright;  joined  the 
Wesleyans  1700;  started  camp-meetings  in  imitation  of  the 
American  practice  1807;  was  in  consequence  "cut  off  "  from 
the  Wcslevan  connection  in  1808.  His  new  sect  w-as  organ- 
ized in  1810.  He  visited  the  V.  S.  1844-46.  D.  in  Bem- 
erslev,  Staffordshire,  Oct.  11,  1852.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
the  I''rimitive  Methodists  (Bemersley,  1825).  See  liis  X(/e,  by 
J.  Walforil  (London,  18.55),  and  Methodism. 

Bourne.  Vincent;  English  .scholar  and  Latin  ])oet ;  b. 
about  1(505.  He  was  an  usher  of  Westminster  School; 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
fellow  in  1720;  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  master  in 


724 


BOURNEMOUTH 


BOVID.E 


Westminster  School.  He  wrote  several  short  original  Latin 
poems,  which  are  remarkably  graceful,  and  produced  Latin 
versions  of  English  ballads,  which  are  felicitous.  These 
were  published  under  tlie  title  Poemafa  (1T34:  another 
edition,  with  a  memoir  by  Mitford,  1840).  C'owper  trans- 
lated some  of  his  original  Latin  ])oenis.  I).  Dec.  2.  174T. 
Kevised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Boiirneinoutli :  a  health-resort  of  JIampshire,  England  : 
on  Poole  Bay,  English  Channel.  It  is  in  the  borough  of 
Christchurch";  37  miles  S.  W.  from  .Southampton  (see  map 
of  England,  ref.  14-G).  The  suburbs  in  Bourne  Brook  val- 
ley are  ]ai<l  out  in  pine  groves  and  parks ;  tliere  are  here  a 
national  sanitarium,  homes  for  consumptives  and  incura- 
bles, and  other  health  establisliments,  a  town-hall,  and  St. 
Peter's  cluirch,  with  a  memorial  to  Keble.  It  was  a  coast- 
guard statiim  until  about  1840.  when  it  began  to  grow  rap- 
idly on  account  of  its  benign  climate.     Pop.  (1891)  37,650. 

Bour'iioiilte,  or  Elidel'Honite:  a  triple  sulphide  of 
cojiper.  anlimony,  and  lead;  composed  of  4l'8  per  cent,  of 
lead,  26  of  antiniony,  19-4  of  sulphur,  and  12-8  of  copper.  It 
occurs  in  crystals,  and  massive. 

Boiiro :  See  Buru. 

Bonrricnne,  boor'ri-en',  Louis  Antoine  Pauvelet,  de:  a 
French  diiilomatist :  b.  at  Sens,  July  9,  1769.  He  was  a  fel- 
low-student and  friend  of  Bonaparte  at  the  school  of  Brienne. 
They  met  at  Paris  in  1792,  and  renewed  their  intimacy.  In 
1796  Bourrienne  became  private  secretary  to  General  Bona- 
parte, whom  he  followed  to  Egypt.  In  1804  he  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Hamburg,  but  he  was  accused  of  peculation,  and 
was  recalled  in  1811  and  forced  to  refund  1.000,000  francs. 
Having  deserted  Napoleon  in  1814,  he  was  apijointed  Minis- 
ter of  State  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1815.  He  published  an  in- 
teresting work  entitled  Ileinoirs  upon  Ntipolerm,  (10  vols., 
1829-31).  which  is  an  important  contribution  to  the  history 
of  the  times.  Died  in  an  asylum  in  Caen,  Feb.  7,  1834.  See 
Boulay  de  la  Menrthe,  Boarrienne  et  sen  Erreurs  (2  vols., 
1830)." 

Bourse :  See  Exchange. 

Boiisbecq,  AuGiER  Ghislen  :  See  Busbeoq,  Augier  Gnis- 

LEX. 

Boussiiiganlt,  boos'sah'go',  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph  Dieu- 
UONNE :  chemist ;  b .  in  _Paris,  Feb.  2,  1802 ;  educated  at 
the  mining  school  of  St.  Etienne  ;  was  an  officer  under  Boli- 
var in  South  America  in  his  youth.  Returning  to  France, 
he  was  made  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Lyons,  and  in  1839 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and 
given  the  chair  of  Agriculture  in  the  Paris  Conservatory  of 
Arts  and  Trades.  He  was  made  commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1857,  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  grand  officer 
of  that  order  in  1876.  In  1844  he  published  a  valuable  woi-k. 
Treatise  on  Rural  Economy  (2  vols.).  xVmong  other  works, 
he  wrote  Annals  of  Physics  and  Chemistry.  He  was  a  mod- 
erate repulilican  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1848. 
D.  in  Paris,  May  12,  1887. 

Boiistroplie'don  [Gr.  0ova-Tpo(priS6y.  turning  like  oxen  in 
plowing;  /Sous,  ox  +  a-Tpe<pfiy,  turn]:  a  mode  of  writing 
practiced  by  tlie  ancient  Greeks  until  about  450  B.C. — 
namely,  in  alternate  lines  from  right  to  left  and  from  left 
to  right,  as  fitdds  are  plowed  in  furrows,  having  an  alter- 
nate direction. 

BoiitpHo,  Charles  Addison  :  Congressman  ;  b.  at  Damar- 

iscotta.  Me.,  Feb.  9,  1839;  educated  at  Yarmouth  Academy: 
entered  the  sliipping  business;  volunteered  in  the  navy  in 
1862,  and  serveil  with  distinction  to  tlu-  close  of  tlie  war: 
assunu'd  tlie  management  of  llic  Bangor  Wliiy  and  Courier 
in  1870;  unanimously  nominated  for  Congress  in  1880,  and 
since  renominated  and  elected  seven  times;  represented 
Maine  on  the  Republican  national  committee  in  1884 ;  chair- 
man of  the  committ-ee  on  naval  affairs  in  the  Fifty-first  Con- 
gre.ss,  and  in  tliis  capacity  di'afled  the  bill  i)roviding  for  the 
first  heavy  battle-ships  for  the  new  navy. 

C.  II.  TnriiitKK. 

Boilterwok,  Ijoo'tcr-rek,  Friedricii  :  pliilosophcr  and 
critic:  b.  near  Goslar,  in  Hanover,  Apr.  15,  1766.  He  wrote 
several  poems  and  a  romance  called  Connt  J)<inaninr  (.iwAs., 
1791).  He  became  Extraonlinary  Professor  of  Pliilosoiihy 
at  Giittingen  in  1797  and  ordinary  professor  in  1802.  He 
published  several  works  on  iihilosophy  anil  a  Treatise  on 
^Esthetics  (1800).  His  reputation  is  founded  on  his  excellent 
Jliston/  of  Modern  I'oetn/  and  Eloquence  (12  vols.,  1801-19). 
1).  in  GJitfingen,  Aug.  9.  'l828. 


Boutiiiy, boot'mee'.EMiLE :  publicist ;  b. at  Paris,  April  13, 
1835  ;  director  of  the  Ecole  libre  des  Sciences  politiques,  and 
since  1880  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political 
Sciences.  M.  Boutmy'schief  works  are:  Quelgnes  observations 
sur  la  reforme  de  V enseicjnement  snperieur  (\S77) ;  Etudes  de 
droit  const itutionel;  France,  Angleterre,  Ktats-Vnis  (1885), 
an  original  and  highly  suggestive  book,  of  wliich  an  English 
translation  by  E.  51.  Dicey  was  published  at  New  York  in 
1891 ;  and  Le  dereloppement  de  la  constitution  en  Angleterre 
(1886 ;  English  translation  by  J.  M.  Eaden,  New  York,  1891). 

C.  H.  T. 

Bou'toii,  Nathaniel,  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Norwalk,  Conn..  June 
29.  1799;  graduated  from  Yale  College  1821,  and  from  An- 
dover  Tlieological  Seminary  1824;  settled  as  pastor  of  tlie 
Congregational  church  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  Mar.  23,  1825, 
and  so  remained  till  1867;  received  the  honoraiy  appoint- 
ment of  State  historian  of  Newllam]ishire  ;  was  correspond- 
ing secretary  of  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society  and  one 
of  its  most  prominent  members.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  History  of  Concord,  New  Hampshire  (Concord,  1856), 
and  10  volumes  of  Prorincial  Records  (of  New  Hampshire). 
D.  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  June  6,  1878. 

Bout'wi'H.  George  Sewall,  LL.  D.  :  lawyer  and  cabinet 
officer;  1).  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1818.  His  education 
was  partly  obtained  in  the  puljlic  schools  and  by  a  course 
of  prolonged  private  study.  He  taught  school  in  his  youth; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight ;  entered 
political  life  in  1840  as  a  disciple  of  Van  Buren  ;  was  thrice 
defeated  for  Congress  and  twice  for  Governor  of  his  native 
State;  but  in  1851  and  1852  was  chosen  chief  executive  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  long  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education,  of  which  he  was  secretary  for  five  years. 
He  organized  the  internal  revenue  department  of  the'U.  S. 
Government,  and  in  1862  became  its  first  commissioner.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  JIassachusetts  1863-69.  and 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1869-73  under  President  Grant. 
In  1873  he  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator  from  Massachusetts 
for  tlie  term  ending  1877  in  place  of  Hon.  Henry  Wilson, 
Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.  Wrote  treatises  on  education 
and  taxation  in  a  conservative  spirit. 

BoHvar'dia  [named  in  honor  of  Bouvard,  physician  of 
Louis  XI II.]:  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Rubiacece ; 
allied  to  the  trees  from  which  Peruvian  bark  is  obtained. 
The  corolla  is  tubular,  four-lobed,  and  has  four  stamens  in- 
cluded in  it.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  two-celled.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  natives  of  Mexico.  Many  species  are  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  for  their  beautiful  flowers. 

Bouvier,  John  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Codogno,  province  of 
Milan,  Italy,  in  1787;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  in  1802,  and 
practiced  law  in  Phihidelphia.  In  1838  he  became  a  Judge 
of  the  criminal  court  of  that  city.  He  jiublished  a  Law 
Dictionary  (1839),  and  Institutes  of  American  Law  (4  vols., 
1851).  which  were  long  standard  reference-books.  D.  in 
Pliihidel]>liia,  Nov.  18,  i851. — His  daughter  Hannah,  b.  in 
181 1.  pulilished  Familiar  Astronomy  (1857),  which  won  enco- 
miums from  eminent  men. 

Bovia'num  :  an  ancient  city  of  Italy;  founded  by  the 
Samnites  on  or  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Bojano ;  sur- 
rounded by  high  mountains.  According  to  Livy  it  was  a 
wealthy  anil  powerful  city.  It  was  besieged  anil  taken  by 
the  Romans  in  311  B.  c.  In  the  second  Punic  war  it  was 
several  times  headquarters  of  the  Roman  army.  During 
the  Social  war  it  was  capital  of  the  confederates. 

Bo'vida)  [from  hsiX.hos.  hovis,  ox];  the  ox  family;  an 
im]iortant  family  of  ruminant  mammals ;  rich  in  species,  and 
including  a  large  number  of  those  most  useful  to  man. 
They  vary  greatly  in  form,  the  average  type,  or  that  repre- 
sented liy  the  greatest  number  of  species,  being  exemplified 
in  the  antelopes,  while  extremes  are  represented  by  the  oxen, 
the  sheep,  and  tlie  goats.  The  head  is  narrowed  forward, 
the  nose  generally  naked,  and  the  nostrils  large  and  open. 
The  teeth  are  of  the  ty|)ical  niminant  t.vpe,  no  incisors  be- 
ing present  in  the  up]ier  jaw  ;  and  the  upper  canines  also  are 
usually  lackintr.  though  sometimes  well  developed.  In  the 
lower  jaw  are  three  incisors  on  each  side,  am!  in  contact 
with  tliein  a  canine  shaped  like  an  incisor  and  often  mis- 
taken for  one.  Tlie  horns  are  always  developed  in  the  males, 
and  frequently  in  females.  They  are  of  the  "hollow"  type, 
each  horn  consisting  of  a  sf>Iid  process  of  the  frontal  bone, 
the  "core,"  enveloped  in  a  fibrous  sheath  of  true  horn;  and 
they  are  not  periodically  shed  as  in  the  related  deer  family. 
The  latter  grows  slowly,  but  continuously,  from  the  base 


BO  VINO 


BOWEN 


725 


anil  wi'ars  away  at  tho  lip.  The  family  inchnles  all  Hip 
hollow-horned  niniinants  except  the  prons-horri of  America 
and  S(ilf/a  of  the  [ilains  of  Western  Asia,  each  of  which 
represeiiis  ap|iareiitly  a  distinct  family.  The  ;;e]icra  still 
enihnvced  are  (piile  numerous,  and  are  susceptible  of  heing 
grouped  into  several  sections  or  sub-families.  See  Cattle, 
and  .\nn.\.x,  Anoa,  .Vrnkk,  Bison".  Bi,Ai:\v-n()c.  Bles-boc,  Buf- 
falo, Chamois,  Klasd,  Gaval,  Gazkllk.  Gnu,  Goat,  Ibk.x, 
Kooiioo,  Musk-ox,  Sheep,  Si'Rini;-bok,.Stei.\-hok,  Urus,  Yak, 
and  Zehu.  Revised  by  David  .S.  .Jordan. 

Roviiio.  h5-vee'no  (aiic.  Vibiniim):  a  fortified  town  of 
Italy  :  province  of  Foggia  ;  14  miles  S.  .S.  W.  of  Foggia  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-(t).  It  has  a  cathedral  and  several 
cluMches.  The  imperialists  defeated  the  S|>aniards  here  in 
17:!4.     I'op.  1^.000. 

Bow  1111(1  arrow:  oiu>  of  the  oldest  of  missile  weapons. 
Bows  have  been  nuide  of  various  materials  and  different  sizes 
and  powers  from  prehistoric  times,  and  were  the  favorite 
and  generally  used  |irojectile  weapon  until  the  introduction 
of  small  arms. 

The  Knglish  long-bow,  which  accomplished  such  remark- 
able results  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  was 
usually  about  5i  feet  long  and  was  nuide  of  yew.  although 
elm  and  wyeh-hazel  were  also  used.  The  arrow  was  :j  fi>et 
long,  feathered,  and  furnished  with  a  steel  head.  In  the 
hands  of  a  good  archer  it  was  accurate,  and  had  sullicient 
penetration  to  inllicl  fatal  wounds  up  to  240  or  2.50  yards, 
with  an  extreme  range  of  :i()()to  400  yards,  and  a  capacity  of 
from  eight  to  twelve  shots  per  minute. 

The  cross-bow,  which  was  a  bow  attached  to  a  stock  re- 
sembling a  musket,  was  shorter  and  stiffer.  and  was  .some- 
times drawn  by  a  small  windlass  attached  to  the  stock.  It 
ilischarged  a  shorter  and  stouter  arrow,  called  a  '"  quarrel," 
and  was  of  slower  fire  than  the  long-bow. 

The  shorter  bows  in  ditTerent  ages  have  been  made  of 
steel,  horn,  and  other  elastic  materials,  and  the  arrows  have 
sometimes  been  |)oisoned,  particularly  by  savages.  See 
Ar< HERS  and  .\riherv.  .James  Mercur. 

BoH'tlk'li.  Thomas  Kdward:  an  English  linguist  and 
traveler;  b.  in  Bristol.  .lune  20.  lT!)f.  Having  visited 
Ashanti  in  1816.  he  published  a  .l/('.<.s-iV)?j /ro/»  Cape  ('oast 
Ciixftf  to  Ashiinti  (ISlit).  He  undertook  an  exploring  expe- 
dition into  the  interior  of  .\frica  in  1S2'2.  but  he  died  of 
fever  on  the  river  Gambia,  near  its  mouth,  .Jan.  16, 1824.  Of 
this  exploration  his  wife  edited  his  account  (1825). 

Uowditch,  He.nry  I.vgersoll:  physician;  son  of  \a- 
thaniel,  nami'd  below;  b.  in  Salem,  Jfass.,  .Vug.  0.  1808;  d. 
in  Boston,  Jan.  14. 18!)2;  gradual edat  Harvard  18:i8;  studied 
medicine  in  Cambridge;  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine  in 
Harvard  IS.jlMJT:  announce<l  a  law  of  soil-moisture  as  a 
cause  of  pulmonary  disease  :  first  practiced  [luncturing  the 
chest  cavity  to  remove  jileural  effusions;  was  an  active 
abolitionist;  translatecl  from  the  French  the  treatises  of 
Louis  on  Tiijihaid  (Boston,  1886)  and  on  I'htliixix  (1886). 
and  of  M.-uiuoir  (m  Catiirorl  (1887);  wrote  papers  for  medi- 
cal societies  anil  journals. 

Bdwditfll,  He.nry  Pukkrino.  M.  I).:  b.  in  Boston.  Mass., 
Apr.  4.1840;  grandson  of  Nathaniel;  graduated  from  Har- 
vard College  1861;  entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant 
in  November  of  the  same  year;  rose  to  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain ;  was  discharged  Feb.,  1864;  in  March  coinmissioiu'd 
major,  and  served  at  the  front  through  the  rest  of  the  war. 
entering  Uichmond  at  itsevacualion  :  attended  the  Harvard 
Medical  .School  18().'5-66;  M.  I)..  Harvard,  18(i8;  studied  sev- 
eral years  in  (iermany,  and  during  the  winter  of  186S-()!)  in 
France;  devoted  himself  especially  to  physiology  under  Prof. 
Ludwigat  Leipzig;  assistant  Professor  of  Physiology,  Har- 
vard .Medical  School,  1871;  full  professor  1876  ;  dean  of  the 
fa<ulty.  Harvard  Medical  School',  1888;  author  of  numerous 
p;ipers  and  reports  on  physiological  subjects.  See  Fif//i  Hif- 
ptirl.  Jliirrard  ('Inns  of  ISi.l.  C.  H.  Tuurher. 

Howilitcli.  Natiiamkl,  LL.  D..  F.  R.  S.  :  mathematician  ; 
b.  in  Sidem,  Mass.,  ^lar.  2fi.  1778.  He  made  several  long 
voyages  as  an  ollicer  or  supercargo  of  a  merchant  vessel, 
and  Uarned  Greek  and  Latin  without  a  teacher.  He  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work  called  The  Pmclieitl  Xarit/a/or. 
which  renuiined  the  .standard  among  American  seamen  for 
eighty  years.  His  greatest  \vork  was  a  translation  of  the 
celebrated  Merniilque  CeleHle  of  Laplace,  which  he  enriched 
with  a  connnentarv  explaining  the  complicated  mathemali- 
cal  operations  of  tlic  work.  lie  also  published  many  jiapers 
on  mathematical   astronomy  in  the  Memoini  of  the  Ameri- 


can Academy  and  elsewhere.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of  a  large  number  of  the 
learned  societies  of  Europe  and  America.  1).  in  Boston, 
Jlar.  16,  1888.  See  a  Memoir  of  A'.  Bowditch,\)\  his  .son, 
N.  I.  Bowditch  (1880). 

Bowdifch.  Natiiaxiel  Txgersoi.l  :  b.  in  Salem,  ifa.ss., 
Jan.  17.  isd.");  grailuateil  at  Harvard  in  1822.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  182.5.  but  lieeame  a  convey- 
ancer, acquiring  great  reputation  for  accuracy  and  industry. 
He  wrote  much  for  periodicals,  and  published  a  Memoir  of 
X.  Boicditrh  (1840) :  a  I/istori/  vftlie  Massachiiset/s  General 
Iloxpilal  (18.J1)  ;  and  tiiiffoik  Surnames.  Gave  1^70,000  to 
Harvard  College  for  the  endowment  of  scholarships.  D.  in 
Brookline.  Apr.  16,  1861. 

Bowd'U'r.  Thomas:  English  expurgator;  b.  near  Bath, 
Julv  II.  17o4;  educated  at  St.  .Andrews  and  at  Kdinbiirgh 
(M.'l).  1776).  He  is  cliielly  noted  for  T/ie  Family  Slin'lce- 
Kpeare  (10  vols..  1818).  in  which  he  omitted  from  the  original 
text  "those  words  and  expressions  ....  which  can  not 
with  propriety  be  read  aloud  in  a  family."  Ho  also  pre- 
pared an  edition  of  Gibbon's  liislori/  "  with  t  he  careful  omis- 
.sions  of  all  passages  of  an  irreligious  or  immoral  tendency." 
published  bv  his  nephew  (6  vols.,  1826).  D.  in  Rhyddings, 
Feb.  24.  182.K 

Bowdoiii.  bod'n,  James,  LL.D.  ;  a  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts; b.  in  Boston.  Aug.  8,  1727;  graduated  at  HaiTard 
in  1745.  He  was  president  of  the  convention  which  in  1778 
formed  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts;  was  chosen  Gov- 
ernor of  that  State  in  1785.  and  again  in  1786.  He  sup- 
pressed Shay"s  rebellion  in  1786.   D.'in  Boston.  Nov.  6.  1790. 

Bowdoiii.  James:  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  in  Boston, 
Sept.  22.  1752.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1771 :  was  sent 
in  1805  on  a  mission  to  Spain,  to  procure  the  cession  of 
Florida  to  the  V.  S..  and  to  obtain  indemnity  for  injuries  to 
commerce  of  the  U.S.  He  was  a  benefactor  of  Bowdoin 
College,  to  which  he  gave  6.000  acres  of  land  and  €1.100, 
besides  bequeathing  to  it  his  collections  of  books,  minerals, 
and  paintings,  and  the  island  of  Naushon,  in  Buzzard's  Bay, 
his  summer  residence,  where  he  died  Oct.  11,  1811. 

Bowdoin  College:  the  oldest  college  in  Maine;  char- 
tereil  in  17!l4:  opened  in  1802  at  Brunswick.  Cumberland 
County.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Gov.  .James  Bowdoin,  of 
Massachusetts,  whose  son  gave  to  the  college,  with  gifts  of 
land  and  money,  his  valuable  library  and  colleetion  of 
paintings.  Connected  with  the  college  is  the  Medical 
School  of  JIaine,  founded  in  1820.  The  college  buildings, 
eleven  in  number,  include  a  finely  equip])ed  gymnasium, 
and  offer  accoinmodalion  for  varioiis  scientific  collections 
and  a  libi-ary  of  .50.000  volumes.  The  faculty  consists  of  25 
persons — 17  professors,  including  the  president,  6  instruc- 
tors, a  librarian,  and  a  director  of  the  gvmnasiunu  The 
ininiberof  students  in  1802  was  270.  Rev.  William  De  Witt 
Hyde,  D.  I).,  has  been  ])resident  since  1885.  Its  graduates, 
among  whom  may  be  nu'ntioned  Longfellow  and  Hawthorne, 
Chief  Justice  Fuller,  and  ex-Speaker  Reed,  luimber  U])ward 
of  4.000.  Revised  by  George  T.  Little. 

Bow'ell.  Mackexzie  :  Canadian  statesman  ;  b.  at  Ricking- 
hall.  Suffolk.  England.  Dec.  27, 1828.  He  removed  to  Canada 
with  his[)arents  in  18:W;  engaged  in  journalism,  and  was 
editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Belleville  Daily  and  Weekly 
Iiilelligenrer  for  a  long  period.  He  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1867.  and  re-elected  to  every  succeeding  Parliament 
up  to  and  including  that  following  the  general  election  of 
1801.  He  became  a  member  of  the  privy  council  and  Jlin- 
ister  of  Customs  Oct.  10,  1878,  a  portfolio  which  he  held 
continuously  till  Jan.  25,  1892,  when  he  was  appointed  Min- 
ister of  Militia  and  Defense.  In  Jan.,  189.5.  upon  the  death 
of  Sir  John  Thompson  at  Windsor  Castle,  he  became  Prime 
Minister.  Neil  Macuoxalu. 

Boweii.  boen,  Bt.  Hon.  Sir  Charles  Syxge  Christopher. 
I).  C.  L..  LL.  I)..  F.  H.  S. ;  judge  ;  b.  in  Wollaston.  Glouces- 
tei-shire,  England.  1885;  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Balliol 
College.  Oxford,  taking  three  of  the  great  university  prizes; 
called  to  the  bar  1861 ;  judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  Division 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  1879;  Lord  Justice  in  the 
Court  of  Appeal  and  privy  councilor  1882.     D.  Apr.  9, 1894. 

Bowen.  Fraxcis,  LL,  D.  :  writer;  b.  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  Sept.  8.  1811;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1838.  He 
edited  the  North  American  lierieiv  about  eleven  years 
(1848-54);  opposed  Kossuth's  mission  in  the  U.  S.,  which 
delayed  his  confirmalion  as  professor  for  four  years,  and 
became  in  1858  Professor  of  Natural  Religion.  Moral  Phi- 


r20 


BO  WEN 


BOWLS 


losophy.  etc..  iil  Ilavvanl  University.  Among  his  works  are 
Lives  of  Baron  ,Stnibe>i.  JnmfS  Otis,  and  Benjamin  Lin- 
coln, wliifh  were  pviblished  in  Sparks's  American  Biog- 
raphy, and  a  treatise  on  Political  Economy  :  assailed  the 
speculative  systems  of  Kant.  Fiehte.  Comte.  ,T.  S.  Mill :  also 
|jul)Iished  a  Treafine  on  7>0(/(c  (1864);  Modern  Fhilnsojihy 
from  Descartes  to  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann  (1877);  and 
Gleanings  from  a  Literary  Life  (1880).  D.  in  Cambridge, 
Jan.  21.  1S<)0. 

Bowen.  Kt.  Hon.  Sir  George  Fergusox,  T).  C.  L..  LL.  D.  : 
English  colonial  statesman  ;  b.  1821 ;  educated  at  the  Char- 
terhouse and  at  Trinity  College.  Oxford;  chief  secretary 
to  the  Government  of  Ionian  islands  18.54-.59;  appointed 
governor  of  Queensland  I8.1O:  of  Xew  Zealand  1868:  of 
Victoria  1873 ;  of  Mauritius  187.5;  of  Hongkong  1883 ;  royal 
commissioner  to  establish  a  new  constitution  for  Malta  1888. 
Author  of  Murray's  Handbook  for  Trarelers  in  Greece ; 
Mount  Athos.  Thessaly.  and  Epirus  (1852) ;  Ithaca  in  1S50 ; 
Imperial  Federation  (1886).  In  S.  Lane-Poole"s  Thirty  Years 
of  Colonial  Government  (London,  1890)  a  biography  of  him 
may  V)e  found. 

Boweii.  Nathamel.  I).  D. ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  .June  29, 
1779;  graduated  at  Charleston  College.  South  Carolina,  in 
1794;  held  pastorates  in  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  at 
Providence,  R.  I..  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  New  York  city  ;  Oct. 
18,  1818,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  South  Carolina.  D.  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Aug.  25,  1839.  He  wrote  Christian  Con- 
solation (Charleston,  S.  C,  1831);  Private  Prayers  (1837); 
and  two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published  after  his 
death. 

Bon'er.  ARcniBALn;  writer;  of  Roman  Catholic  parent- 
age; b.  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  Jan,  17,  168.5-86;  educated  at 
Douay;  joined  the  Jesuits  1706;  became  counselor  in  the 
court  of  the  Inquisitional  Macerata;  in  alleged  horror  re- 
nounced in  England  the  Roman  Church  1726;  rejoined  the 
Jesuits  174.5  ;  and  again  became  a  Protestant  1747.  His  His- 
tory of  the  Popes,  in  seven  quarto  volumes  (1748-66;  ed.  S.  H. 
Coxe,  Philadelphia,  1844-4.5,  3  vols.),  is  characterized  by 
great  partisan  bitterne,s.s.     D.  in  London,  Sept.  3,  1766. 

Bo«er-l)inI :  a  name  given  by  Gould  to  certain  birds 
which  construct  bowers  wherein  the  males  disport  them- 
selves to  attract  the  females.  These  structures  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  nests,  and  are  built  by  the  males  alone.  The 
bowers  or  "  runs  "  are  made  of  small  twigs  or  pieces  of  stiff 
grass,  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  walk  from  1  to  3  feet  long 
and  7  or  8  inches  wide.  The  spotted  bower-bird  {Chlamy- 
de.ra  maculata)  decorates  both  interior  and  exterior  with 
pebbles,  bits  of  bone,  shell,  etc, ;  the  satin  bower-bird  {Pti- 
lorhynch  us  violaceu-f)  uses  parrot  feathers,  and  the  regent  bird 
(Sericulus  melinus)  confines  itself  almost  entirely  to  snail 
shells.  With  two  excei_)tions,  the  fourteen  species  of  bower- 
birds  are  confined  to  Eitstern  Australia,  and  are  partial  to 
the  thick  woods.  They  are  birds  of  moderate  size,  8  to  10 
inches  long,  and  the  males  are  usually  nmch  gaver  in  plum- 
age than  the  females.  "  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Bow'ers,  Theodore  .S.  :  soldier;  b.  in  Pennsylvania.  Oct. 
10,  1832.  A  printer  by  trade,  he  subsequently  edited  a  paper 
in  Illinois  ;  entered  the  service  in  Oct..  1861."  He  served  con- 
tinuously in  the  field  and  afterward  at  Washington,  on  the 
staff  of  Gen.  Grant,  from  A]>r..  1862,  to  Mar.  6,  1866,  when 
he  was  accidentally  killed  by  being  thrown  under  a  train  at 
Garrison's  station.  New  York,  Brevet  lieutenant-colonel, 
colonel,  and  brigadier-general  U,  S,  army  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services  during  the  war. 

Bowie  :  town  (incorporated  in  1884) ;  Montague  co.,  Tex. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  maii  of  Texas,  ref,  2-H) ;  on  Fort 
Worth  and  Den.  City!  and  Chi..  R.  I.,  and  Tex.  railways;  68 
miles  from  Fort  Worth  ;  ha.s  .5  churches  and  4  schools.  Bowie 
is  situ.ated  in  the  mi<lst  of  the  fruit-belt  of  Texas,  and  is  the 
trading  center  ftjr  ^lontague  and  adjacent  counties.  Pop. 
of  judicial  district,  inclui'ling  Howie  (1890)  1,486;  (189.3)  es- 
timated, 3,200,  Editor  of  "Cross  Tlmbers,'" 

Bowie,  James:  soldier:  b.  in  Burke  co.,  Ga„  aliout  1790; 
settled  in  Chatahoula  parish.  La.,  in  1802;  in  1827  was  in- 
volved in  a  melee  which  grew  out  of  a  duel  opposite  Nat- 
chez, and  res\dted  in  the  death  of  six  ])crsons  and  the  wound- 
ing of  fiftei'ii,  Bowie  having  killed  Norris  Wright  with  a 
rude  knife  after  he  himself  had  been  shot.  This  knife  was 
remodeleil  liy  a  Philadelphia  cutler,  and  became  the  nmr- 
derous  bowie  knife  of  frontier  fame.  Howie  removed  to 
Texas,  and  engage<l  in  the  revolt  of  that  State  from  Mexico 
in  1835,  attaining  the  rank  of  colonel.     In  Jan.,  1836,  he 


was  ordered  to  Bexar,  and  three  montlis  later  was  at  Alamo 
with  Crockett  and  Travis,  and  perished  Mar.  6,  1836,  in  the 
massiicre  which  Santa  Anna  inflicted  on  the  garrison  of 
that  |iost. 

Bowlder,  bol'der,  or  Bonlder ;  a  large,  rounded  mass  or 
fragment  of  rock.  Bowlders  are  usually  rounded  by  at- 
trition. In  many  cases  they  have  been  "transported  hun- 
dreds of  miles  by  the  action  of  icebergs  or  glaciers.  Large 
masses  of  Scandinavian  rocks  are  scattered  over  the  plains 
of  Denmark  and  Northern  Germany.  The  pedestal  of  the 
statue  of  Peter  the  Great  at  St.  Petersburg  was  hewn  out 
of  an  erratic  granite  bowlder  42  feet  long.  27  feet  liroad,  and 
21  feet  high.  In  the  Western  States  occur  many  granite 
bowlders  which  probably  came  from  Canada.  They  abound 
along  the  coast  of  New  England,  where  they  often  are  so 
large  as  to  form  a  prominent  feature  in  the  landscape.  The 
famous  Plymouth  Rock  is  a  bowlder  of  syenite.    See  Drift. 

Bowlder-clay :  See  Drfft  and  Geology. 

Bowles,  bolz,  Francis  Tiffaxy  :  naval  architect ;  b,  in 
Springfield,  Jlass,,  Oct.  7.  1858;  entered  the  navy  as  a  cadet 
engineer  in  1875;  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  of  An- 
napolis with  distinction :  entered  the  school  of  naval  archi- 
tecture at  the  Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  England; 
on  his  return  from  England,  Nov.  1,  1881,  was  appointed 
assistant  naval  constructor  in  the  V.  S.  navy,  and  assigned 
to  duty  as  secretarv'  to  the  naval  advisory  board  at  Wash- 
ington 1882-86 ;  since  has  been  six  years  in  charge  of  con- 
struction and  repair  department  of  Na-i-y-yard  at  Norfolk, 
Va. ;  promoted  to  naval  constructor  1888 ;  "is  member  of  In- 
stitution of  Naval  Architects,  England. 

Bowles.  Samuel  ;  journalist ;  b.  in  Springfield.  Mass., 
Feb.  9.  1826.  From  'l844  to  1878  he  was  principal  con- 
ductor of  the  Springfield  Republican,  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful newspapers  in  the  U.  S..  and  which  lie  made  a  type 
of  independent  journalism.  He  iiublished  Across  the  Con- 
tinent (1865) ;  Tlie  Switzerland  of  America  (1869) ;  and  other 
works.  I),  in  Springfield.  Mass..  Jan.  16,  1878.  See  his  Life 
and  Times.  Viy  George  S.  Jlerriam  (1885). 

Bowles.  William  Lisle  :  English  clergyman  and  poet ; 
b.  at  King's  Sutton.  Northamptonshire,  Sept.  24.  1762.  He 
was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
f(jrd  ;  was  rector  of  several  parishes  and  canon  residentiary 
of  Salislniry  Cathedral  (1828).  D.  in  Salisbury,  A]ir.  7, 
1850.  He  wrote  much  on  antiquarian  and  ecclesiastical 
themes,  but  his  most  memorable  publications  were  a  volume 
of  Sovnefs  (1789),  which  had  great  influence  on  Coleridge, 
and  his  edition  of  Pope  (1806),  that  led  to  a  controversy  in 
which  Byron,  Campbell,  and  others  took  part.  His  sister, 
Caroline  Bowles,  was  married  to  Robert  Soutliey. 

Hexrt'A.  Beers. 

Bowling'  Green  :  capital  of  Warren  co.,  Ky,  (for  local  ion 
of  county,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref,  5-F) ;  on  L.  and  N. 
R.  R..  and  on  Barren  river:  113  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Loiusville 
and  72  miles  from  Nashville.  It  is  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, and  lias  an  active  trade  in  pork,  toliacco,  lumber,  etc. 
Here  are  Ogden  College,  Potter  Female  College,  and  several 
mills  and  factories.  Steamboats  navigate  the  river.  Pop. 
(1880)  5,114;  (1890)  7,803,  local  estimate  9,794. 

Editor  of  ••  Park  City  Times." 

Bowling:  Green :  town :  capital  of  Pike  co..  Mo.  (for 
location  of  county,  see"  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  3-1):  on  C.  and 
A.  and  St.  L.  and  H.  R.  Rs. ;  12  miles  W.  of  Louisiana;  has 
mining  and  agricultural  industries.  Pop.  (1880)  1,067; 
(1890)  1,.564;  (1893)  local  estimate,  2.138. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 

Bowling  Green;  town;  capital  of  Wood  co..  O.  (for 
location  of  countv.  see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  2-1));  on  Western 
Division  of  the  T.  and  O.  C.  R.  R.,  and  a  branch  of  the  C, 
II,  and  I).  R.  R. :  2(1  miles  from  Toledo ;  has  3  schools  and  6 
churches;  iirincipal  industry  of  the  county  is  .agriculture 
an<l  the  production  of  oil  and  natural  gas.  the  Wood  County 
oil-tielil  being  one  of  the  largest  in  the  worhl.  First  settle- 
ment, at  I'errvsl)urg,  about  1812.  Pop.  (1880)  1,539;  (1890) 
3,467;  (1893)  estimated,  4,'200. 

Publishers  of  "  Sextixel." 

Bowls  and  Bowlinsr :  Two  games  are  known  as  bowls, 
one  an  indoor  game  [ilaycd  on  a  long  wooden  alley,  and  the 
other  an  outdoor  game  played  on  a  level  grass-pl;tt  or  bowl- 
ing-green. The  indoor  game  (called  also  tenpins  and  .s7ri7- 
tle.'i)  is  played  with  lignutn-vita^  lialls  rolled  on  a  long  alley 
floored  with  ash  or  majile  boards  1  inch  in  thickness  laid  on 


BOWLS   AND   BOWLING 


BOWMAN 


72; 


their  edges.  The  reftulation  alley  of  the  present  time  is  re- 
<luirod  to  inoasurc  not  lesslhan  Tofoct  in  lensth  (])prniittin'; 
a  run  of  1.")  fci't  for  (lie  bowler  lii'foi-c  he  rojiclics  tlic  ilcliv- 
ery-liiic)  and  not  loss  than  41  nor  more  than  42  inches  in 
width.  In  the  best  alleys  the  boards  arc  bolted  throngh  and 
through  at  each  ',i  feet  of  their  length,  and  are  laid  on  cross- 
ties  set  in  a  bed  of  conciete.  and  the  surface  nuide  by  their 
exposed  edges  is  sniootlicil  with  a  plane.  The  object  of  the 
game  is  to  knock  down  a  number  of  woodi'ii  pins  arranged 
jit  one  end  of  tin'  alley  in  a  triangular  form,  the  apex  of 
which  is  toward  the  player,  who  stands  at  the  other  end  of 
the  alley.  The  game  of  bowling  at  |)inswas  formerly  played 
with  nine  pins,  set  in  the  shape  of  a  diamond,  and  was  called 
ninepins,  but  to  evade  a  law  prohibiting  the  playing  at  nine- 
i)ins  a  tenth  pin  was  added,  and  they  were  set  in  a  triangu- 
lar frame,  and  the  game  became  known  as  tenpins. 

At  the  sides  of  the  alley  are  gutters,  which  at  the  corner 
pin  must  be  4  inches  deep,  jnio  which  unskillfully  bowled 
balls  drop  when  they  leave  the  alley  before  reaching  the 
pins.  The  balls  are  returned  to  the  players'  end  from  the 
pit  into  which  they  and  the  pins  drop  by  an  elevated  run 
or  trough  directly  above  the  gutter,  sloping  slightly  down- 
ward. The  score  ^s  recorded  on  a  blackboard  ruled  off 
into  squares.  'l"he  pins  now  used  in  the  regulation  game  as 
played  in  the  U.  S.  ;ire  ten  in  nund)cr.  are  made  of  maple- 
woixl,  are  15  inches  in  height,  l.")  inches  in  circumference  at 
a  [loint  4i  inches  from  their  base,  and  2i  inches  across  at 
the  ha^e.  and  are  placed  \2  inches  apart.  Regulation  balls 
•do  not  exceed  a  cin'umferencB  of  37  inches.  This  size 
weighs  about  l.ij  lb.  The  game  as  played  in  the  U.  S.  con- 
sists of  10  frames  of  10  pins  each;  8  balls  of  any  size  within 
the  regulation  limits  are  allotted  for  each  frame.  Should 
the  player  bowl  down  all  the  [lins  with  a  single,  ball,  the 
j>lay  is  called  a  "  ten  strike."  or  double  spare,  meaning  that 
the  player  is  entitled  to  roll  two  spare  balls  at  a  new  frame 
in  order  to  complete  the  frame  and  his  aggregate  score  for 
the  inning  when  he  secured  the  strike.  Should  the  player 
continue  to  make  "ten  strikes"  to  the  end  of  the  game,  he 
will  secure  the  maximum  score  of  300  pins.  .Sliould  the 
player  bowl  down  all  the  pins  with  two  balls,  such  ]ilay  is 
called  a  "siiare."  which  means  that  the  i)layer  is  entitleil  to 
roll  one  ailditional  ball  to  complete  the  frame  in  which  he 
secured  the  spare.  Each  pin  bowled  <lo\vn  counts  one  for 
the  player.  Each  "  strike  '  and  "  spare  '"  counts  ten,  with 
the  addition  that  to  the  "strike"  is  added  all  the  pins  which 
the  player  bowls  down  with  two  spare  balls,  and  to  the 
"spare  "is  added  all  the  pins  which  he  bowls  down  with 
oiii'  spare  ball. 

The  games  which  gave  origin  to  the  modern  bowling  at 
pins  have  been  tniceil  back  to  the  Jliddle  .Ages.  The  open- 
air  game  is  the  more  ancient,  and  was  early  known  under 
various  names,  such  as  "ca.sting  the  stone,"  "  bowles,"  French 
boiilm,  carri'riii,  etc.  Stone  bowls  were  iised,  and  as  these 
were  not  perfect  spheres  they  described  a  curve<l  line  as 
they  speeded  down  the  "  green  "  toward  the  mark  bowled 
at.  which  was  a  cone.  Two  cones  were  used,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  rink,  and  bowled  at  alternately.  The  object  of 
the  playi'r  was  to  roll  his  bowl  so  that  when  it  came  to  rest 
it  woul<l  lie  as  near  as  possible  to  the  cone.  The  object  of 
the  opposite  side  \va.s  to  strike  their  opponents"  bowls  away 
from  the  cone  and  interpose  their  own  bowls,  or  roll  theiii 
nearer  to  the  cone  than  the  a<lvei-sary.  lie  whose  bowl 
rested  nearest  the  cone  scored  one  point.  Later  stone  bowls 
were  supplanted  by  lignuni-vita'  btdls.  the  wood  being  cut 
from  the  outside  of  the  trei':  the  heart,  heavier  than  the 
outside,  gave  the  desired  bias  to  the  bowl.  Later  the  ball 
was  loaded  with  lead  to  give  it  the  required  bias;  or  one 
side  was  cut  a  perfect  half  sphere,  and  the  ojiposite  side  oval. 
The  skill  ri'(|nisile  in  playing  at  bowls  was  that  of  the  art 
of  ma.stering  the  bias  of  each  |)articular  bowl.  The  cones 
were  suiiersi'ded  by  a  stone  or  earthen  ball  about  ;U 
inches  in  diameter,  called  the  "jack."  this  ball  being  rolled 
ilown  the  "green"  at  least  a  distance  of  21  feet  by  the 
player  who  had  won  the  toss,  as  a  mark  to  bowl  at.  The 
bowling-green  on  which  this  game  is  played  must  be  deail- 
level.  It  usually  measures  from  !)0  to  I'M  feet  on  a  side, 
according  to  the  limits  of  the  ground,  and  is  kept  smooth  by 
frefpient  rolling  and  the  use  of  a  scythe  or  lawn-mower. 

Bowling  on  a  "green  "  seems  to  have  been  in  considerable 
vo!;ue  in  New  York  and  elsewhere  in  coloniid  days.  In  an 
old  map  of  the  city  of  New  York,  jirepared  about  172H,  a 
"  bowling-green"  is  shown  on  the  north  side  of  the  public  gar- 
den situated  on  "the  King's  Farm  "  (near  (he  foot  of  Mur- 
ray and  Warren  Streets)."    We  also  find  that  in   1732  the 


locality  called  '•  Bowling  Green,"  at  the  foot  of  Broadway, 

was  leased  at  a  yearly  rental  of  a  pepper-eorn,  by  John 
ChamlHis,  Pester  Bayard,  and  Peter  .lay,  and  by  them  in- 
closed and  laid  out  as  a  bowling-green. 

Bowls  as  ail  indoor  game  had  its  origin  in  several  game.*, 
variously  styled  club-kayles,  cayles,  kayle,  keiles  (French 
(juilIeK),  skittles,  loggats,  atid  skayles.  In  the  kayle  games 
and  at  loggats  conical  pins  niad(!  of  bone  were  useil. 
These  were  set  up  in  rows  of  six  and  eight,  and  were  struck 
down  by  hurling  clubsor"slieepes-joyntes"  at  them.  Bowl- 
ing down  ]iiiis  with  a  bowl  or  ball  was  the  invention  of 
a  later  period.  In  the  French  games  of  Pttm^H  the  bowls 
were  rolled  at  a  fixed  mark,  while  in  the  games  called  kayle. 
kayles, cayles,  keiles  (French  (/iiilles), closh, cloish, clossynge, 
kettles,  kittles,  skittles,  Dutch-pins,  four  corners,  half-bowl, 
roUy-polly,  and  ninepins,  the  bowls  were  rolled  at  [lins. 
The  earliest  mention  of  bowls  being  ])layed  on  an  alley  and 
iiiKler  cover  occurs  in  William  Fitz-Stephen"s  Surrin/  of 
L(j)iihiii.  ahi,u{  the  twelfth  <'eiitury.  The  game  was  intro- 
duced into  America  by  the  English  colonists.  It  is  on 
record  that  a  match  was  plaved  on  the  "  Knickerbocker 
Alley"  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  1,  1840.  Down  to  1875, 
while  clubs  were  numerous,  there  was  great  diversity  as 
regards  the  length  of  the  alley  ;  the  pins  were  of  great  size, 
and  were  set  so  close  together  that,  the  falling  of  a  single 
pin  often  caused  the  entire  frame  to  collapse,  and  it  was  ea.sy 
to  run  up  a  score  of  300  in  a  very  short  time.  In  that  year 
delegates  representing  nine  clubs  in  New  York  and  its  vicin- 
ity foi'ined  a  national  bowling  association,  and  framed  laws 
for  the  regulation  of  the  game.  These  related  (1)  to  the  size 
of  the  bowls,  which  were  restricted  in  circumference  to  27 
inches  ;  (2)  tothc  distance  from  the  ]iins  at  which  the  player 
was  to  halt  and  deliver  liis  bowl  ((iO  feet);  and  (3)  to  "dead- 
wood  "  or  fallen  pins,  which  were  directed  to  be  removed 
from  the  alley  and  gutters.  Fifteen  years  later  the  Ameri- 
can Amateur  Bowling  League  was  organized,  afterward 
called  "  LTnion  "  instead  of  league.  See  T/ie  American 
Li'iiijiip  Biiwh'tHj  Guide  (Brunswick-Balke-Collender  Com- 
pany. New  York).  Mortimer  T.  IIi'mphrey. 

ISoivnian.  bo'man.  Alex,\nder  Hamilton';  soldier;  b. 
in  Wilkesbarre.  Pa..  May  15,  1803.  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1825;  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers  Jlar.  3,  1863.  He 
served  as  assistant  professor  at  the  Military  Academy  1825- 
26;  in  buililing  defenses  and  imi)roving  rivers  and  harbors 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  1826-34;  in  constructing  Memphis 
and  St.  Francis  military  road  1834-39  ;  in  the  improvement 
of  t'uinberland  and  Tennessee  rivers  1834-38;  on  the  de- 
fenses of  Charleston  Harbor.  S.  C,  1838-53  ;  as  instructor 
of  practical  military  engineering  at  the  Military  Academy 
1851-52  ;  in  charge  of  improvement  of  Charleston  harbor 
1852-53 ;  chief  engineer  V.  S.  treasury  de|iartment  and 
treasury  building  extension  1853-61  ;  iiiembi'r  of  lighthouse 
board  1857-5!);  superintendent  of  Military  ,\cademy  1861- 
64:  menilier  of  <'ngineer  boards  1847-65.  1).  at  Wilkes- 
barre. I'a..  Nov.  11, '1865. 

Bo^vmaii.  Edward  Morris  :  musician  ;  b.  in  Barnard, 
Vt.,  July  18,  1848,  receiving  his  first  musical  instruction  in 
the  village  where  he  went  to  school.  In  1863  he  went  to 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  as  a  teacher  and  organist.  In  1866  he 
studied  under  William  Mason  and  the  late  John  P.  Morgan 
in  N<'W  York  ;  in  1S72  went  to  Europe  and  studied  in  Ber- 
lin and  Paris;  on  his  return  setllivl  in  St.  Louis  and  began 
his  career  as  a  professional  musician  ;  again  visited  Europe 
in  1S81.  and  while  in  London  was  made  an  associate  of  the 
Ccjllege  of  Organists.  In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency of  tli(^  Music  Teachers'  National  .Association,  and 
again  in  18(12.  He  was  the  founder  in  1884,  and  from  the 
beginning  has  been  the  president,  of  the  .American  Collegia 
of  Jliisiciaiis;  has  been  organist  of  churches  in  .S|.  Louis, 
JIo..  and  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  lu'  organized  the  Ca'cilian 
Choir  of  UK)  voices  ;  Professor  of  Jlusic  in  Yassar  College, 
suc:ceeding  the  late  Dr.  1'".  L.  Ritler,  ami  from  185)2  in 
Evelyn  Cnllege,  Princeton,  N,  J,  D.  E.  IIervey. 

Hon  man,  Samuel,  I>.  D, ;  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop; 
b.  in  Wilkesbarre.  Pa..  May  21,  1800:  studied  law,  but  was 
ordained  a  deacon  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
1823,  and  a  priest  in  1824.  He  was  long  settled  in  Lancas- 
ter. Pa..  1827-58.  Ill  1847  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Indiana, 
but  declined.  In  18.58  he  was  consecrated  as.sistant  Bishop 
of  Pennsvlvania.  Died  suddenly  when  on  a  visitation,  near 
Butler,  Pa.,  Aug  3,  1861. 

BoiYilinil.  Thomas,  D.I).,  LL.  D. ;  bishop  in  the  >L  E. 
Church;  b.  at    Berwick.  Pa.,  Julv,  15.  1817;  graduated  at 


■28 


BOWJIAX 


Dickinson  College  1837;  organized  and  was  president  of 
Dickinson  Seminary,  Williamsport.  Pa..  1848-58  ;  president 
of  Indiana  Asbury  (now  I)e  Pauw)  University  18.58-72 : 
chaplain  IJ.  S.  Senate  1804-0.5  ;  elected  bishop  of  the  JI.  E. 
Church  1872 ;  retired  18!)C. 

Bowniaii,  Sir  William  Paget.  JI.  D..  LI-.  !»..  F.  U.  S. : 
ophthalmologist;  b.  at  Xantnich,  England,  July  20,  1810 ; 
studieil  in  Leyden,  Amsterdam,  Bonn,  Heidelberg,  Munich, 
Vienna,  and  Berlin  ;  became  Denionslrator  of  Anatomy  and 
Curatin-  of  the  Anatomical  Museum  in  London  ly38  ;  hon- 
orary M.  D.,  Dublin,  1807;  LL.  I).,  Cambridge,  1880,  and 
Edinburgh,  1881  ;  member  of  a  large  number  of  learned 
societies  in  various  parts  of  I'^iUrope:  author  of  Lectures  on 
the  Parts  Concerned  in  tlie  Operations  of  the  Eyes  ;  Observa- 
tions on  Artiftcinl  Pupil;  The  Physiological  Anatomy  and 
Phi/siology  of  Man  (with  Dr.  Todd),  etc.  He  was  made  a 
baronet  in  1884.     I),  in  London,  Mar.  29,  18'J2. 

Bowiuaiiville  :  a  port  of  entry;  Darlington  townsliiji. 
Durham  co..  Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Kail- 
way,  4^!  miles  N.  E.  of  Toronto  (see  map  of  (Jntario,  ref. 
4-E).  It  has  good  water-power,  and  manufactures  of  fur- 
niture, pianos,  organs,  agricuHural  machinery,  and  flour. 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  daily  visited  by  steamers  during 
the  season  of  navigation.     Pop.  "(1881)  3,504  ;  (1891)  3,377.     ■ 

Boviie,  Borden  Parker,  LL.  I). :  professor  of  philoso- 
[ihy  ;  b.  in  Leonardville,  N.  J..  Jan.  14,  1847 ;  A.  B.,  Uni- 
versity of  City  of  Xew  York.  1871  ;  studied  at  universities 
of  Ilalle,  G5ttingen.  and  Paris  1873-75;  religious  editor 
Xew  York  Independent  1875-76 ;  Professor  of  Philosophy, 
Boston  Universitv,  since  1876;  author  of  27ie  Philosophy  of 
Herbert  ,S'p«cer"(N.  Y.,  1874) ;  .Studies  in  Theism  (1879)'; 
Jh'taphi/sics  (ISS2);  Introduction  to  Psycholoe/ical  Theory 
(\Si^(>) -/J'hilosophy  of  Theism  (1887);  Principles  of  Ethics 
(1892).  "  C.  II.  Tiii'RHER. 

Bon'ring',  Sir  Jonx  :  author  and  linguist ;  b.  in  Exeter. 
England,  Oct.  17,  1792.  He  was,  an  intimale  friend  of  Jer- 
emy Bentliam,  and  was  well  versed  in  modei'u  languages, 
especially  the  Slavonic.  In  1825  he  became  editor  of  the 
U  estniiusler  Periew.  He  collected  and  translated  into  verse 
the  ancient  and  popular  poems  of  almost  all  the  countriesof 
Europe.  In  1835  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  :  in  1854  be- 
I'ame  governor  of  Hongkong,  China :  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  in  1854:  in  1856  ordered  the  bondiardmeiit  of 
Canton  in  consequence  of  the  Arrow  .atfair.  In  1)S.59  he 
retired  on  a  pension.  Among  his  works  is  The  Kinydiim 
and  People  of  Siam  (3  vols.,  1857).  He  wrote  a  description 
of  his  visit  to  the  Philiiipine  islands  (18.59).  lie  also  wrolc 
some  excellent  hymns,  including  In  the  cross  of  Christ  I 
glory.  D.  in  Exeter,  Xov.  23, 1872.  See  his  Aufobiograjih- 
ical  Reminiscences  (1877). 

Bowsprit,  bo'si)rit,  or  bow'sprit :  a  large  spar  which 
projects  over  the  stem  or  bow  of  a  ship.  It  serves  to  sup- 
port the  foremast,  which  is  fastened  to  it  by  large  stays  or 
ro|ies;  also  to  carry  Siul  forward,  as  a  means  of  counteract- 
ing the  effect  of  tlie  after  sails  and  keeping  the  sail  power 
well  balanced.  In  many  eases  the  bowsprit  rises  at  an  angle 
of  aliout  45  degrees.     It  s\ipports  the  jib  and  flying-Jibbooms. 

Bowstriiigr-lieinp  :  the  fil)er  of  the  Snnseriera  zeylanica. 
a  plant  of  the  laiuily  //(eniodoracere  ;  native  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  Hindu  nam<'  is  moorva.  This  tiber,  which  is 
white,  silky,  and  elastic,  is  u.sed  to  make  bowstrings.  A 
similar  fiber  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  Sanseviera  rox- 
Inirgliiana,  a  perennial  Indian  plant  which  has  leaves  about 
3  feet  long,  and  from  other  Asiatic  and  African  species. 

Box  :  an  evergreen  shrub  or  small  tree  of  the  genus  Tiu.r- 
1IX  and  f.-iniily  Enphorbiacecp,  with  ()p|)Osite  leaves  entire  at 
the  nuii'gins.  It  has  stamin.atc  and  |iislilliite  flowers  grow- 
ing on  the  same  plant.  Tlie  staunuate  Howi'r  is  a  iierianth 
with  four  stamens,  and  the  pistillate  flower  is  a  iicrianlh 
with  an  ovary  surmounted  liy  three  styles.  The  most  im- 
portant: species  is  the  liu.rns  semperrirens  (common  liox), 
which  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  has  oval,  shining, 
and  deep-green  leaves,  ami  is  rennirkable  for  its  compact 
habit  of  growth.  In  So\ithern  Europe  it  grows  20  feet  high 
or  more.  A  variety  called  dwarf  box,  wlii<'h  is  only  2  or  3 
leet  high,  is  exleiisiY<4y  cultivated  in  garden.s,  and  is  used 
to  form  edgings  of  flower-beds  and  gravel-walks,  being  re- 
duced by  clipping  to  the  height  of  a  few  inches.  The  wood 
of  the  box,  which  is  very  hard,  heavy,  compact,  and  fine- 
grained, is  the  best  of  all  materials  for  wood-engraving,  and 
is  highly  prized  by  turners.  It  is  also  commonly  useil  to 
make  flutes  and  other  wind  inslrunient.s.    It  is  of  a  pale- 


BOY-BISHOP 

yellow  color,  admits  of  a  beautiful  polish,  and  is  not  liable 
to  l)e  worm-eaten.  Large  quantities  of  boxwood  are  ex- 
[lorted  from  Spain  and  Turkey.     See  Spurgewokts. 

Kevised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Box-elder,  or  Ash-leaved  Maple:  a  small  tree  of  the 
family  Sapindaeew.  the  Acer  nn/undo  or  Kegundo  ace- 
roides,  which  grows  from  Florida  to  Pennsylvania  and 
westward,  especially  along  tlie  banks  of  streams.  It  is  very 
beautiful,  and  is  one  of  the  characteristic  trees  of  the  far 
West.  In  Minnesota,  Xebraska,  etc.,  it  is  tapjied  like  the 
sugar-maple,  for  its  sap,  which  affords  sugar  of  good  qual- 
ity. 

Box-lianlin^  :  a  method  of  working  a  ship  from  one  tack 
to  the  other,  characterized  by  the  bracing  of  the  head  yards 
abo.r,  or  aback,  either  after  luffing  into  the  wind  as  in  "tack- 
ing, or  at  once  without  deadening  the  headway.  The  latter 
is  sometimes  called  wearing  sliort  roiend.  See  Tacking  and 
Wearing. 

Boxing:  the  Compass:  a  nautical  phrase,  meaning  an 
enumeration  of  the  thirty-two  points  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass in  their  (jroper  order,  as  north,  iiorth  by  east,  north- 
northeast,  and  so  on  around  till  north  is  reached  by  way  of 
the  south  aiul  west  ()uadrants.  This  enumeration  may  be 
consideraljly  varied  by  beginning  at  any  other  point  and  go- 
ing around  both  ways  in  turn.  S.  B.  Luce. 

Box'tel :  a  village  of  Holland  ;  in  Xorth  Brabant:  on  the 
i-iver  Domincl :  6  miles  S.  of  Bois-le-Duc  (see  map  of  Hol- 
land and  Belgium,  ref.  7-G).  The  river  flows  through  the 
streets  and  affords  passage  for  boats.  Fine  diaper  is  manu- 
factured here.     Pop.  5.700. 

Box-tortoise,  or  Box-turtle  :  popular  names  of  the  Cis- 
tudo  Carolina:  an  American  tortoise,  characterized  by  the 
division  of  tlie  jilastnin  into  two  parts  by  a  crosswise  divi- 


Box-tortoise. 

sion,  united,  however,  bv  a  ligament  which  serves  as  a  hinge 
on  which  the  jiarts  of  the  jilastron  turn,  thus  enabling  the 
animal  to  shut  himsi-lf  entirely  uji  in  his  shell.  These  tor- 
toises are  very  timid  and  of  gentle  disj>osition.  Their  legs 
are  longer  and  their  speed  greater  than  is  usual  among  tor- 
toises. Kevised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Boyaea.  bo-yali-kaa' :  one  of  the  states  of  Colombia  ; 
bouiuled  X.  E.  and  E.  by  Venezuela,  S.  and  S.  W.  by  Cun- 
dinamarca,  and  X.  W.  by  Santander.  Area,  33.351  sq.  miles. 
While  in  the  west  the  state  is  exceedingly  mountainous,  the 
east  consists  of  a  hot.  dry  plain.  Copper  and  precious  stones 
are  found  in  the  mountains.    Capital,  Tunja.    Pop.  702,000. 

Boyaea  ;  a  small  village  in  the  state  of  Boyaea,  Colombia; 
about  20  miles  S.  of  Tunja.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  (Aug. 
7, 1819)  in  which  BoliviLr,  with  about  2,000  patriots,  defeated 
the  superior  Spanish  force  of  Barreiro,  took  him  prisoner, 
with  most  of  his  army,  and  forced  the  Sijaniards  to  leave 
the  country,  then  called  Xew  Gren.'ida.  II.  H.  S. 

Boyar.  boi'.-iiir,  or  bo-yaar'  [from  Kiiss.  bnyarin.  Uu-d] ;  a 
title  given  in  ancient,  Kussia  to  those  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  war.  This  afterward  canu^  to  be  the  title  of 
the  nobility,  who  under  the  Oranil  Duke  of  Moscow  formed 
an  aristoerMcy  with  powers  differing  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  monarch,  but  which  were  so  consideraldc  that 
even  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  his  ukases  added  to  the  words 
"  The  czar  has  commanded,"  also  "  Tlie  boyars  have  ap- 
proved."    The  last  l)oyar  died  in  1750. 

Boy-I)ishop  :  During  the  Jliddic  Ages  the  cusloni  grew 
up  of  allowing  the  elioristers  of  cathedrals  to  choose  yearly 
one  of  their  number  to  act  the  |iart  of  the  bisho]).  Tlic  elec- 
tion generally  took  place  on  Dec.  6.  St.  X'icholas's  Day,  after 
which  the  boy-bishop  was  vested  in  the  episcopal  attire,  with 


BOYCE 


BOYLE 


r29 


inilii-,  line:,  and  pastoral /itiiff.  ]Ie  held  ofTicp  till  Dee.  28 
(lluly  liiiioofnts"  Day).  Tin'  pniclico  was  peniiittod  prob- 
ably froiii  the  same  innlives  whii-li  siifFered  tin-  imiiiiimrii'S 
of  the  .\bbot  of  rnrcason  (a  {jrapliic  account  of  which  ii.ay 
be  fduiwl  in  Sir  W.  Scott's  romance  of  Thi'  Moiitisteri/).  If 
the  bov-liishop  died  witliin  his  short  period  of  office,  he  was 
burieil  in  his  episcopal  robes.  A  tomb  with  llic  effijjy  of  a 
bov  so  clothed  may  be  scon  in  Salisbiirv  Cathedral.  Kn^dand. 

\\'.  S.  I'KKKV. 

Boyce,  Hector:  See  Boece,  Hector. 

BoyfC.  James  PETioitr,  D.  D..  1,1,.  I).  :  l>.  in  Charleston. 
S.  ('.,  .Ian.  11,  1827:  graduated  at  Hrnwn  University  1847, 
and  at  the  Theoloj,'ical  Seminary  in  I'rinceton,  X.  ,J..  1849- 
51  ;  became  pitstor  of  a  Baptist  Church  at  (ireenville,  S.  C, 
IS.")! ;  Professor  of  Theolo_i;y  in  Fnrnian  Uidvei'sity,  (ireen- 
ville, S.  C,  IH'trt ;  Professor  of  Theolog)-  in  the  Southern 
Baiitist  Theolofjical  Seminary  (formerly  Greenville,  S.  C, 
now  Louisville.  Ky.)  XH'tU.  He  published  .several  sermons, 
aildrcsses,  and  articles,  which  have  largely  contributed  to 
mold  the  opinions  of  the  Southern  Haptist.s.  and  ludd,  as 
president  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention,  a  position  of 
commaiuUnf;  inlluence.     D.  in  Pan.  France,  Dec.  28,  1888. 

Boyce.  Wii.mam  :  F,n<;lish  composer:  b.  in  London.  1710; 
in  17H()  appointed  composer  and  in  1758  orKaiiLst  to  the 
Chapel  Koyal ;  composed  a  number  of  anthems;  the  sero- 
nata  Solomon  {I'-i'i) :  ami  published  71tii  Cntlipdral  Mimic 
of  the  English  Mastern  of  the.  Laxt  Tin  ( 'mturivs  (:J  vols., 
1760).     D.  in  Kensington,  London,  Feb.  7,  1779. 

Boy't'ottinsr  :  a  combining  of  pei-sons  or  a  concerted  ac- 
tion to  restrain  from  oi'  prevent  social  or  business  inter- 
course with  another.  The  term  was  coined  from  the  name 
of  a  Capt.  Boycott,  an  agent  in  Ireland  of  Lonl  Im-uc's 
Lough  Mask  estate,  who  in  1880  evicted  a  large  nund)er  of 
tenants.  These  and  their  neighbors  refused  all  intercourse 
with  him  and  his  fandly.  and  would  not  work  for  1dm  or 
trade  with  him.  or  allow  othcK  to  do  so.  He  was  aided  in 
the  harvesting  of  his  crops  by  the  Orangemen,  and  was 
obliged  to  work  under  military  protection.  When  the  com- 
bination amounts  to  a  conspiracy  to  wnmgfully  prevent  or 
restrain  another  from  carrying  on  a  legitimate  busines.s.  or 
to  accomplish  any  unlawful  purpose,  it  is  a  criminal  offense. 
Sec  CoNspiRAiv.  Revised  l>y  P.  Sturues  Allen. 

Boyd,  Andrew  Kennedy  Hitchiso.v,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  (whose 
pen-name  was  for  some  time  A.  K.  11.  B.) :  miidster  of  the 
C'hurch  of  Scotland  :  b.  at  Auchinlech.  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
Nov.  :i,  1.82.5,  where  his  father  was  iiarish  nunister.  He  was 
educated  at  King's  College.  London,  and  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity ;  B.  A.  1840.  He  was  ordained  in  1851  :  after  having 
charge  of  several  jiarishes.  became  nuni.sler  of  .SI.  Andrews 
1865.  He  has  published  over  twenty  volumes  of  contempla- 
tive es.says  and  sermons,  of  which  the  Jiecrcufions  of  a 
Vountrji  Pnr.ton  (1859-78.  'i  series)  has  been  es])ecially  pop- 
ular, lie  published  his  renuniscences.  Tifenti/-fire  Venrn  of 
SI.  Andrews,  Sept.,  1S05,  to  Sept.,  IS'M  (London.  1892,  2 
vols.).  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Boyd,  .TonN  Parker  :  general  ;  b.  in  Xewburyport.  Mass., 
Dec.  21.  1764:  entered  the  V.  S.  army  as  ensign  in  1786.  X 
spirit  of  adventure  led  him  to  India  in  1789.  where  he  com- 
manded mercenaries,  raised  by  himself  and  other.s,  in  the 
Mahratta  service  of  native  princes,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
commander.  He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  1808,  and  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  the  Fourth  U.  S.  Infantry.  In  the 
W!ir  with  (ireat  Britain  he  was  a  brigadier-general;  dis- 
tinguishe<l  himseU'  at  Tippecanoe,  at  the  capture  of  Fort 
George.  Canada,  and  Chrysler's  Fiidd.  In  1830  President 
Jackson  appointed  him  naval  ollicer  of  the  port  of  Boston, 
Mass.     D.  in  IJoston,  Oct.  4,  1830. 

Boyd.  Linn  :  .statesman  ;  b.  in  Xnshrille.  Tcnn.,  Xov.  22, 
1800  :  mendier  of  Congress  from  Kentucky  for  twenty  years, 
being  first  elected  in  18;i5.  During  his  last  term  he  served 
as  Speakerof  the  llouseof  Representatives.  1).  in  Padueah, 
Ky..  Dec.  18,  1859. 

Boy'dell,  John  :  en";raver  and  patron  of  art  ;  b.  in  Dnr- 
rington,  Shropshire,  England,  Jan.  19,  1719;  became  a 
print-seller  in  London,  and  amas.sed  a  large  fortune.  He 
promoted  the  improvement  of  British  art  by  his  liberal  pat- 
ronage of  native  engravers  and  paintei-s.  He  employed 
t)pie,  Reynolds,  X'ortheote,  West.  an<l  other  paintci's  to  il- 
lustrate Shakspeare's  works.  The  result  was  the  Shalc- 
spenre  Oalleri/,  from  which  was  engraved  a  volume  of  ad- 
mirable plates  (1803).  He  was  lonl  nuivor  of  London  in 
1790.     D.  there  Dec.  11,  1804. 


Bojrer,  bwa'aya',  Alexis,  Baron  de :  surgeon ;  b.  in  Limou- 
sin, France,  Mar.  1,  1757:  son  of  a  tailor;  acquired  his  pro- 
fession under  great  drawbacks.  He  was  surgeon  to  Xapo- 
leon  I.  and  Chirnrgical  Professor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
His  main  works  are  Truite  complet  d'atiatomi'e  (4  vols., 
1797-99)  and  Trititi  des  maladies  chirurgieales  et  dea  oper- 
ations qui  lenr  conviennent  (8  vols.,  1814-22).  D.  Xov  25 
1833. 

Beyer.  Jean  Pierre  :  president  of  Hayti ;  b.  at  Port-au- 
Prince,  Feb.  28.  1776;  was  a  mulatto."  He  entered  the 
French  armv  in  his  youth,  and  as  an  officer  in  the  army  of 
Petion  fougld  against  Dessalines  and  Christo|>lie  when'  he 
declared  himself  emiieror.  On  the  death  of  Petion  he  w'as 
elected  president  of  the  republic  in  1818.  By  partiality  to 
the  mulattoes  and  arbitrary  measures  he  offended  the  Xe- 
groes,  who  revolted  and  expelled  him  from  the  i.sland  in 
1843.     D.  in  Paris.  July  9,  18.)0. 

Boy'oHowii :  borough  (founded  in  1800,  incoriiorated  as 
a  borough  in  1SG6):  Berks  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  ma[)  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  .5-1);  on  branch  of  Phil,  and 
Rea<ling  R.  R. :  17  miles  from  Reading,  48  miles  from  Phila- 
delphia. Cig.'ir-nuiking  and  iron-mining  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries of  lioyertown.  over  .500  persons  being  emidoved  in 
the  former  industry.  There  are  6  graded  schools  and  6 
churches.  The  pojiidation  is  largely  American-born  Ger- 
man.s.  Poj..  (1880)  1.099;  (1890)  1.436;  (1893)  with  suburbs, 
o\er  3.00(t.  Editor  of  "  Dejiokrat." 

Boy'osoii.  ll.iALMAU  1I.IOKTH:  Xorse-.Vmerican  author  and 
scholar ;  1).  at  Fredericksva'm.  N^onvay.  Sept.  23,  1848.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzigand  the  university  in  Christ iania ;  re- 
moved to  the  U.  S.  in  1868  ;  edited  The  Femad.  a  Xorwegian 
paper,  in  Chicago;  was  Professor  of  German  in  Cornell  Uni- 
versity (1874-80)  and  in  Columbia  College,  Xew  York,  from 
1880  till  his  ileath,  Oct.  4,  1895.  He  published,  among  other 
things,  Gunnar,  a  SVor.ie  Romance  (1874);  A  ^'orsvman's 
Pilgrimage  (1875) ;  Falmnberg  (1878) ;  Goethe  and  Sch  iller, 
their  Lives  and  Works  (1878);  Jlica  on  the  Jlill-top  (\SS1), 
which  has  been  dramatized;  Queen  Titania  (1882);  A 
Daughter  of  tlie  Philistiiies  (Boston.  1883),  which  had  great 
vogue  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S. ;  Essays  on  German  Liter- 
ature (1892) :  and  Ilnghood  in,  Nonray  (1892).  Several  of 
his  books  have  been  translated  into  German  and  Norwegian. 
His  fictions  have  usually  a  social  or  political  bearing. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Boyl.  Boil,  oi-  BiipH.  Antonio:  Si)anish  Benedictine 
monk:  b.  in  Catalonia  about  14.50.  He  was  an  inmate  of 
the  Convent  of  Jlonlserrat  when,  in  1493,  the  |iope  appointed 
him  apostolical  vicar  of  the  New  World.  With  eleven  other 
monks  he  accompanie<l  Columbus  to  llispaniola.  where  ho 
acted  as  official  councilor  as  well  as  religious  leader.  He 
showed  a  bigoted  and  unrelenting  s[]irit  toward  the  Indian.s, 
advising  Columbus  1o  put  the  chief  Guacanagari  lo  death; 
later  he  joined  the  malcontents  again.st  the  admiral  and  his 
brothers,  and  in  1494  went  to  Sjiain  to  prefer  charges  against 
them  ;  he  was  long  one  of  the  oitteresl  and  most  dangerous 
enendes  of  Columbus.  He  di<I  not  return  to  Ilis|)ainola, 
but  was  made  abbot  of  the  Cu.xa  convent,  where  he  died  in 
1520.  Herbert  II.  S.mith. 

Boyle.  Robert  :  celebrated  experimental  philosopher ;  b. 
in  Li'snujiv  Castle.  Ireland.  Jan.  25.  1627;  seventh  son  of 
Richard,  the  first  Earl  of  Cork.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  (jeneva  :  took  no  |iart  in  political  contests,  but  devoted 
himself  to  the  cvdtivalion  of  science,  especially  chemistry 
and  natural  philosophy.  He  became  a  resident  of  O.xford  in 
1654.  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society. 
To  qualify  himself  lo  defend  the  Christian  religion,  he 
learned  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages.  He  improved 
the  air-pump,  and  made  important  discoveries  in  pneumat- 
ics. Among  his  works  are  a  Di.tiprisition  on  Final  Causes; 
a  Discourse  of  Things  abore  Reason  ;  Ejrcellency  of^  Theol- 
ogy ;  and  Uydroslatical  Parudo.res.  He  declined  a  peerage 
which  was  repeatedly  offered  to  him.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  l)enevolence  and  charity.  It  was  through  his  Chris- 
tian liberality  that  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  was  published  :  and 
it  W'as  by  his  exertions  that  the  funds  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  X'ew  England,  originally  a 
Puritan  organization,  were  [ireseryed  at  the  Restoration  for 
their  sacred  uses.  By  his  last  will  he  endowed  the  Botle 
Lecti-res  (^.  ('.).  D."  in  London.  Dec.  30,  1691.  His  com- 
plete works,  with  a  Life,  in  5  vols,  fol.),  were  published  by 
Thomas  Birch  (London,  1744). 

Reviseil  by  William  Stevens  Perry. 


r30 


BOYLE   LECTURES 


BRACHET 


Boyle  Lectures :  called  from  Robert  Boyle,  who  be- 
queatlied  an  annual  salary  to  be  paid  to  some  clergyman  for 
preaching  eight  sermons  in  a  year  in  order  "  to  prove  tlie 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion  against  Atheists.  Deists,  Pa- 
gans, Jews,  and  Mohammedans,  not  descending  to  any  con- 
troversies among  Christians  themselves."  The  first  person 
selected  to  deliver  the  "  Boyle  Lectures"  was  the  celebrated 
Richard  Bentley  (16!>1).  who  directed  his  arguments  against 
atheism.  In  ifS!)  three  vohimes  of  the  lectures  were  pub- 
lished, and  nearly  sixty  volumes  since  then.  The  "Boyle 
Ijectures  "  are  still  maintained. 

Boyle's  Law  :  a  statement  of  the  fact  that  "the  volume 
of  a  gas  is  inversely  as  the  pressure  " ;  that  is  to  say.  if  we 
double  the  pressure  upon  a  gas  we  reduce  its  volume  to  one- 
half  :  if  we  make  the  pressure  three  times  what  it  was  at 
first,  the  bidkof  the  gas  i.s  reduced  to  one-third.  Morecom- 
monly  c^dled  JJauiotte's  Law  (q.  v.). 

Boyne :  the  most  important  river  in  the  K.  of  Ireland ; 
rises  fn  the  Bog  of  Allen :  flows  northeastward  through  Kil- 
dare.  King's  County.  Meatli.  and  Loutli :  enters  the  Irish 
Sea  after  a  course  of  65  miles.  Jlany  ruins  of  monasteries 
and  castles  are  found  on  its  banks.  An  obelisk  150  feet 
high,  nearly  3  miles  from  Drogheda.  commemorates  the 
great  battle"  of  the  Bovne,  in  which  WilUam  III.  defeated 
James  II..  July  1.  1600." 

Boyn'ton,  Edward  Carlisle  :  b.  in  Vermont  about  1825  ; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  lie  entered  the  artillery  ; 
was  severely  wounded  at  Churubusco ;  breveted  captain  ; 
assistant  Professor  of  Chemistry,  etc..  at  West  Point  (1848- 
5.5) ;  Professor  of  Chemistry,  etc.,  in  the  University  of  JNIis- 
sissippi  (1856-61);  and  breveted  major  in  1865.  He  pub- 
lished a  Ilistoni  of  Went  Piiiiif  (186:!)  and  a  History  of  the 
United  States  IVoV^.     D.  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  May  13,  1893. 

Boyiiton.  James  Stoddard:  b.  in  Henry  co.,  Ga.,  May  7. 
1833;"  practiced  law;  served  as  colonel  in  the  civil  war;  re- 
sumed the  profession  of  tlie  law ;  was  elected  to  the  Legis- 
lature and  became  president  of  the  Senate,  which  office  he 
held  at  the  death  of  Gov.  Alexander  H.  Steijhens,  Mar.  4, 
1883;  became  acting  Governor  of  Georgia  Mar.  5.  1883. 
His  successor,  llenrv  D.  McDaniel,  was  elected  Apr.  24. 
1883,  antl  inaugtirate"d  May  9,  1883. 

Boze'mnii:  city;  capital  of  Gallatin  co..  Mon.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  ma]i  of  Montana,  ref.  7-F);  on  Nortliern 
Pacific  R.  K.  and  an  affluent  of  Gallatin  Fork  of  Mis.souri 
river;  98  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Helena  and  65  miles  N.  of  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park.  It  lias  several  banks,  and  its  coal 
mines  supply  the  Northern  Pacific  R.  R.  from  Billings, 
Mon.,  to  Portland.  Or. — over  1.200  miles.  It  is  the  center 
of  an  agricidtural  community  whose  products  for  1892  were 
valued  at  |3,000.0()0;  has  grazing  and  stock  interests  yield- 
ing over  !j!500,000  annually ;  and  gold  and  silver  mining  in- 
terests. ^300.000  per  annum.  It  has  graded  schools,  an 
academy,  a  university  school,  flouring  and  planing  mills, 
.sash  and  door  factf)rv.  numerous  churches,  etc.  Pop.  (1880) 
894;  (1890)  2,143,  local  census,  2,796. 

Editor  ok  "Avaxt  Courier." 

Bozen ;  See  Botzex. 

Boz'rall :  an  ancient  city  of  Iduma'a  (Edom).  often  men- 
tioned in  tlie  Bilile.  (See  Genesis  xxxvi. ;  Isaiah  xxxiv.  and 
liii.)  It  was  situated  to  the  S.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  about 
halfway  betwe<'M  1  he  latti'r  and  Petra.  Its  site  is  probal>ly 
occupieil  by  tlie  modern  Buseireli.  a  poor  village  of  about 
fifty  wretched  huts. 

Buzzaris.  bot'sa-ris.  or  Botzaris.  Marco  :  a  Greek  pa- 
triot ;  b.  at  Suli.  in  .\lbania.  aliout  1788.  He  enlisted  in  tlie 
French  army  about  ISOM.  and  scrvctl  several  campaigns. 
When  the  Greeks  took  arms  against  the  Turks  in  1820, 
Bozzaris  liecame  the  leader  of  a  banil  of  Suliotes,  and  gained 
several  victories.  He  defended  Missolimirlii  against  the 
Turks  in  1822.  Aug.  20,  1823,  he  attacked  and  ilefeated  a 
superior  force  at  Carpenisi,  near  where  the  battle  of  Plata^a 
was  fought,  liiit  was  killed  in  the  action. 

Bra:  a  lown  of  Italy;  province  of  Cuneo;  on  tlie  river 
Stnra;  38  miles  S.  ,S. 'E.  of  Turin  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
3-15).  It  has  nianut'actures  of  silk  and  metal-foundries: 
also  a  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  wine.  Pop.  of  commune, 
15,(KI0. 

Bralian<;oiis.  bra'i  baliu'sfin' ;  a  class  of  mercenaiT  sol- 
diers rliiilly  from  Uraliaiit.  whence  they'took  their  name. 
They  served  principally  in  the  armies  of  England  and 
France    from    X\w   eleventh   to   the    thirteenth    centuries. 


They  had  little  discipline,  and  were  not  much  better  than 
robbers. 

Brabant,  braa'bant.  or  braa-bSnt'  (Pr.  pron.  bniabaan) : 
a  former  duchy  of  the  Low  Countries.  In  the  sixth  century 
it  was  eoncpu'red  by  the  i'ranks.  During  the  ^liddle  Ages 
it  clianged  masters  very  often,  until  in  the  fifteenth  century 
it  came  to  tiie  House  of  Hapsliurg.  Charles  V.  left  it  to  his 
son.  Philip  II..  under  whom  the  provinces  revolted,  but  only 
the  northern  part  succeeded  in  gaining  its  independence, 
and  joined  the  Netherlands  in  1648,  while  .South  Brabant 
remained  with  the  Spanish-Austrian  line  until  1714,  when 
it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  imjierial  line  of  Austria. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  French  in  1794.  and  divided  into 
two  provinces;  in  1810  Napoleon  also  conquered  the  Dutch 
part  of  Brabant.  In  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1814  Brabant 
became  a  part  of  the  Netherlands,  and  was  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  North  Brabrant.  Antwerp,  and  South  Brabant. 
In  consequence  of  the  Belgian  revolution  of  1830.  Antwerp 
and  South  Brabant  passed  to  Belgium,  while  North  Brabant 
remained  with  Holland.  The  inhabitants  in  the  N.  are 
Dutch,  in  the  center  Flemish,  and  in  the  S.  Walloons.  The 
boundary-line  between  the  Germanic  and  French  idioms 
runs  .S.  of  Brussels,  past  the  villages  of  Braine  rAlleml. 
Waterloo.  Wavre,  and  Sodoigne. 

Brabant:  a  province  of  Belgium;  bounded  N.  by  Ant- 
wcrj).  E.  bv  Liinburg  and  Liege.  S.  bv  Namur  and  Hainaut, 
and  W.  by"  East  Fhinders.  Area.  1.268  sq.  miles.  Capital. 
Bi-ussels.  The  princijial  rivers  are  the  Dyle.  Demer.  and 
Senne.  The  surface  is  partly  hilly  and  partly  level ;  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile  and  highly  cultivated.  This  prov- 
ince contains  extensive  forests,  mines  of  iron,  and  quarries 
of  stone.  It  is  intersected  by  several  railways  and  canals. 
It  has  important  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woolen  fab- 
rics, fine  laces,  hats,  leather,  jewelry,  fine  linens,  ribbons, 
paper,  machinerv,  etc.  This  is  one  of  the  most  denselv 
peopled  districts 'in  Europe.     Pop.  (1891)  1.128,728. 

Brabant.  North :  a  province  of  Holland ;  bounded  N. 
by  the  river  Jleuse  (or  Maas).  Holland,  and  Gelderland,  E. 
by  Limburg.  .S.  by  Belgium,  and  W.  by  Zeeland.  Area. 
1.980  sq.  miles;  Capital,  Bois-lc-Duc.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Dommel.  the  Aa.  and  the  Lintel.  The  surface  is  flat ;  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  province  is  deficient  in  miner- 
als and  timber.  Many  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  here.  It 
has  manufai-tures  of  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods.  Pop. 
(1891)  574.075. 

Brabourne.  bray  burn.  Edward  Hugessen  Kxatchbvll- 
Hugessex,  Lord :  b.  at  Jlersham  Hatch,  Kent.  England. 
Apr.  29.  1829;  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  ^Magdalen  College. 
Oxford ;  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1857  as  a  Lib- 
eral ;  joined  the  Conservatives  in  1885  through  disaffection 
toward  Gladstone's  Irish  and  Transvaal  policv;  was  a  Lord 
of  the  Treasury  18.59-66;  Under  Secretary  of"  State  for  the 
Home  Department  1868-71;  for  the  colonies  1871-74: 
sworn  of  the  jn'ivy  council  Mai'.  24.  1873 :  elevated  to  the 
jieerage  in  1880;  author  of  many  tales  tor  children,  among 
which  are  Stories  for  my  C/iilftreti  (1869);  Crncliers  for 
C/irisfmas  (1870);  'Vnele  Joe's  Stories  (1878);  Tlie  Tnitli 
about  tlie  Transvaal  (1881):  Friends  and  Foes  from  Fairy- 
tand  (1885).  etc.  He  edited  the  Letters  of  Jane  Austen  (188.1), 
his  grand-aunt.     D.  Feb.  6,  1893.  "     C.  H.  Tuirber. 

Brace.  Charles  Loring  :  philanthropist  and  writer;  b. 

in  Litchfield.  Conn..  June  19.  1826;  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1846.  Having  traveled  in  Europe,  he  imblished  Ilinii/ari/  in 
IS'it:  Home  Life  in  Oermani/  {ISo'S):  Xorse  Folk:  Racesnf 
the  Old  World  (1863);  Oesta' Christi  (1882);  The  Unknown 
God.  or  Inspinition  among  the  Pre-Christian  /?(7ccs  (1890); 
and  other  works.  He  was  the  jirincipal  founder  and  first 
secretary  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society  of  New  York  (1853), 
which  lias  iilaeed  over  80,000  homeless  children  in  rural 
Western  homes  and  jirovided  industrial  schools,  saving  socie- 
ties, and  lodges  for  street  children  of  the  city.  D.  in  Camp- 
fer.  in  the  Engadin,  Switzerland.  Aug.  11.  1890. 

Revised  by  Hexrv  A.  Beers. 

Braehet.  braii'shay',  AuGrsTE;  French  Romance  ^ihilolo- 
gist  ;  li.  in  Tours.  .Inly  29.  1845;  studied  under  Diez ;  be- 
came ill  1870_  I'l-ofessor  of  Romance  Philology  in  the  Eeole 
des  Hautes  Etudes  at  I'aris;  but  since  1873  he  has  h.ad  no 
official  position.  Among  his  works  are  Dictionnaire  des 
donhlets  {IS67):  Grammaire  historique  de  la  lani/ite  frmi- 
i;aise  (1867);  Dietionnaire  eti/mntoqiqiie  de  la  lani/iie  fran- 
(;aise  (1870);   a   translation,  with  G.  Paris  and   A.  !Morel 


BI!A(  IllAI,    AUTKRY 


BRADBURY 


731 


Patio,  of  Fr.  Diez's  Orammaire  comparee  des  langues  ro- 
mani-s  {\Hr■^-'f<).  A.  R.  JIahsh. 

Bra'fliial  Ar'tery  \hrnrhinl  is  frmii  I.iit.  hmrrliid  li.t. 
(Icriv.  Ill'  brucellin  III,  jirm] :  tlu'  main  iirterv  of  tlie  arm,  a 
continuation  of  Ilir  axillary,  as  the  latter  is  of  tlic  sub- 
clavian trunk.  Till'  liracliial  vessel  lies  upon  the  inside  of 
the /iHOTcn/.s  or  arm-bone,  just  back  of  the  biceps  nuiscle; 
near  the  elbow  il  jiasses  forward  anil  divides  into  the  radial 
and  uliuir  arteries.  Before  this  it  {jives  off  four  smaller 
branches.  The  position  of  the  brachial  artery  makes  it 
quite  practicable  to  compress  it  firmly  against  the  bone  in 
case  of  serious  bleeding  from  a  wouAil  of  the  arm,  forearm, 
or  hand. 

Bril<'lli*>])'<>(Ia  [from  Gr.  Spaxifv.  arm  -l-  iroi5j,  itoSis.  foot; 
in  allusinn  tn  the  ciliated  arnisj :  a  group  of  marine  animals 
provided  with  liivalve  shells,  wliieli  in  the  fossil  state  form 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  I'abcozoic 
rocks.  They  are  represented  by  com])aratively  few  living 
forms.  The  shells  resemble  somewhat  those  of  the  bivalve 
mollusks,  with  which  these  animals  have  usually  been  asso- 
ciated, but  the  two  halves,  or  valves,  of  the  shell  are  dorsal 
and  ventral  instead  of  lateral,  and  each  valve  is  ilivisil)le 
into  symmetrical  h.alves.  The  ventral  valve  is  usually  the 
larger  and  more  convex,  and  often  serves  directly  for  at- 
tachment of  the  animal  to  foreign  bodies.  In  otlier  cases 
attachment  is  l)rought  about  by  means  of  a  short  stalk  or 
pedmiele,  which  passes  either  through  a  perforation  in  the 
ventral  valve,  or  between  the  valves.  Two  long  s|iirally 
coiled  arms  spring  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  and  are 
usually  supported  by  a  calearerms  framework  attached  to 
the  dorsal  valve  of  tlie  shell.  These  arms  are  grooved  and 
ciliated,  and  serve  to  produce  currents  in  the  water,  and 
thus  bring  food-part ii-les  to  the  mouth.  Researches  in  the 
emliryology  of  the  I5rachiopods  have  indicated  their  rela- 
tionship with  the  Brfinzna,  and  have  shown  that  their  allin- 
ity  is  rather  with  the  annulate  worms  than  with  the  mol- 
lusks, David  S.  Jordan, 

BrncIlis'tochroilP  [from  Gr.  $pdxi<rTos,  shortest  +  xp^""!. 
time];  I  hi'  plane  curve  down  which  a  material  |iartiele  nuist 
slide  wilhoiil  friction  in  order  to  pass  in  the  shortest  possi- 
ble time  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  of  two  given  points 
not  in  the  sanu' vertical  line.  It  is  the  common  cycloid.  The 
problem  of  the  liraehistochrone  is  celebrated  in  the  history 
of  mathematics.  It  was  first  proposed  by  John  Bernoulli 
in  Ki'.M),  and  was  solved  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  James 
Bernoulli.    It  is  often  called  "the  curve  of  ijnickest  descent." 

Revised  by  S.  Xkwcomb. 

Braclivo^cl,  braAIi  fo-gf'l,  K.MiL  Ai.hkrt:  German  novel- 
ist and  dramatist ;  li.  in  Breslau,  .\pr.  29,  1824.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  the  novels  entitled  ,1  A'ch'  Fii/xfaf 
(1862) ;  Bmnmarcluiis  (18G4) ;  The.  (ifntum  Michael  (1868) ; 
and  iinrcisxim.  a  drama,     I),  in  Berlin,  Nov,  37,  1878. 

Bracliyccpliaric:  See  I)oT.icnotEi>iiAi-ic. 

Bracliyu'ra  [from  Gr.  ^paxus.  short  -(- oipit,  tail]:  the 
crabs;  a  Irilic  of  decapod  Crustacea  with  the  abdomen  or 
tail  short,  without  caudal  fin,  and  folded  beneath  the  thora.x. 
See  Crab. 

Brack'cnbury.  IIi;xry:  soldier;  b.  at  Bolingbroke.  Lin- 
colnshire, Knglaiid,  Sej)t.  1,  1837;  served  in  the  suppression 
of  the  Indian  mutiny  \n  18.)T-.")8:  in  the  .\shanti  campaign 
in  187:!-74;  as  chief  of  slalV  in  the  Zulu  war;  deputy  ad- 
jutant-general of  the  Nile  expeditionary  force  in  1884;  suc- 
ceeded Gen.  Harle  in  command  of  the  river  column  ;  made 
major-general  June  l.^i,  ISHo;  lieutenant-general  1888.  Au- 
thor of  Fiiiiti  rind  As/iaiifi ;  Xiin-itfiiv.  of  llif  As/innii  War ; 
T/u-  Hiri-r  Ciiliiinii ;  and  of  pamphlets.       ('.  II.  Thi'RHer. 

Bnick'ciiridgc.  Hknrv  Marie:  judge  and  writer;  b.  in 
Pittsliurg.  I'a..  ~^Iay  11.  1780;  son  of  Hugh  Henry,  named 
below.  He  held  judgeships  in  Ijiiuisiana  anil  Flnrida  ;  was 
U.  S.  commissioner  to  the  South  .\nierican  republics  (1817- 
1!)).  Among  his  numerous  writings  are  Jfisfori/  iif  tlm  Lale 
War  hftifn-n  the.  United  States  mid  Great  Britain  (about 
1816);  a  Voi/ai/e  to  Simtli  America  (\S20);  and  Beriillections 
of  J'erxoitK  and  Blares  in  tlie  West  (18:i4).  He  was  elected 
to  Congress  from  Pennsylvania  in  1840.  T).  in  I'ensacola, 
Fla.,  Jan.  18,  1871.  '       Revised  by  IIi-;nhy  A.  Bker.s. 

Braokoiiridffo,  Iliiiii  IIi;xry:  the  father  of  Henry 
Marie;  b.  nrar  Campbellun,  Scotland,  in  1748,  He  emi- 
grated to  the  r.  .S.  in  childhood;  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  1771  :  liccame  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in    17!l!).     He  wrote  a  satirical  work  called  Modern 


Chiralnj.  or  Adventures  of  Captain   Farrago  (1796-1806). 
I),  in  Carlisle,  Pa.,  June  25,  1816, 

Bracket:  a  projecting  arm  of  wood  or  metal  employed 
to  sujiport  a  shelf  or  gallery.  Also  one  of  two  marks  [  ] 
used  m  printing  to  inclose  a  word,  remark,  explanation,  etc. 
When  a  word  in  a  classical  work  is  included  in  brackets  it 
implies  that  the  word  so  inclosed  does  not  projierly  belong 
to  the  original  text,  but  has  been  either  introduced  by  a 
mistake  of  the  copyist,  or  lias  lieen  inserted  to  suiijilyan 
omission,  correction,  or  explanation. 

Brack'ott.  Albert  Gai.latix;  soldier;  b.  in  Cherry  Val- 
ley. .\.  v..  l''eb.  14,  1829.  He  served  during  the  Mexican 
war  as  first  lieutenant  Fourlh  Indiana  Volunteers;  ap- 
pointed captain  Second  V.  S.  Cavalry  Mar.,  185.5;  engaged 
princi[)ally  on  frontier  duty  against  hostile  Indians  in  Texas 
prior  to  1861,  when,  on  Twiggs's  surrender,  he  effected  his 
escape,  and  was  in  command  of  cavalry  at  Blackburn's 
Ford,  Va.,  July  18,  1861 ;  commissioned  colonel  Ninth  Illi- 
nois N'olunteer  Cavalry  Aug.,  1861 ;  served  during  the  civil 
war  in  the  Western  and  Southwestern  armies.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major  First  Cavalry.  IJ.  .S.  army.  July  17,  1862; 
lieutenant-colonel  Second  Cavalrv  June  9,  1868;  colonel 
Third  Cavalry  Mar.  20. 1879.  Sini-e  the  close  of  the  war  he 
has  been  in  command  of  various  departments,  and  actively 
engaged  in  operating  against  ho.stile  Indians.  He  is  author 
of  Lane's  Brigade  in  Mexico  and  llistorg  of  the  United 
States  Cantlry. 

Brackett,  Anna  C.  ;  American  educator;  li.  at  Boston, 
1836;  educated  at  Fraininghani  Normal  School,  Framing- 
ham, Mass.;  taught  with  great  success  in  large  cities;  tran,s- 
lated  the  Badiigogikats  System  of  Rosenkranz;  author  of 
The  Education  iif  American  Girls  (IH'i);  Poetry  for  Home 
and  School  (1876). 

Brackettvllle :  capital  of  Kinney  co.,  Tex.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref,  5-F) ;  in  the  southwest 
part  of  the  State,  about  80  miles  from  the  Rio  Grande.  Pop, 
(1880)  1,126  ;  (1890)  1,649. 

Bract  [from  Lat.  brac'tea,  a  thin  leaf  of  metal] :  a  floral 
leaf,  or  an  altered  leaf,  placed  at  the  base  of  a  flower  on  the 
outside  of  the  calyx.  It  is  a  leaf  from  the  axil  of  which  a 
flower  or  floral  axis  is  produced,  instead  of  an  ordinary 
leaf-bud  or  branch,  and  is  regarded  as  the  first  attempt 
made  liy  the  leaves  to  change  into  floral  organs.  The  bract 
is  sometimes  large  and  brightly  colored.  In  several  species 
of  Arum  it  constitutes  the  large  eiiveloping-leaf  called  a 
s])athe.  An  involucre  is  a  collection  of  bracts  arranged  in 
a  whorl. 

Brae'toii  (properly  Bratton),  Hexhy.  de :  a  distinguished 
English  ecclesiastic  and  jurist,  of  whose  life  little  is  known. 
He  was  made  archdeacon  of  Barnstajile  in  12(>4.  and  later  in  the 
same  year  chancellor  of  the  cathedral,  which  othce  he  proba- 
bly held  till  some  time  in  1268,  when  he  is  supposed  to  have 
died.  For  many  years  he  was  a  justice  in  eyre  and  a  justice 
of  assize.  His  principal  work.  De  Legibiis  Angliie  et  Con- 
suetiidiniljiis,  is  a  systematic  treatise  on  jurisprudence  and 
legislation,  the  ]ilan  or  framework  of  which  isliorrowed  from 
the  Institutes  of  Justinian.  The  subject  matter  also  in  those 
branches  of  the  law  (e.  g.  the  laws  of  personal  pro|ierty) 
which  were  still  undeveloped  in  the  common  law  were  taken 
almost  verbally  from  the  Institutes  or  the  Digest.  Though 
this  work  is  a  landmark  in  the  history  of  English  law.  no 
even  tiilerably  reliable  edition  exists.  In  156!l  Kichard  Tot- 
tell  edited  an  edition  which  is  full  of  corruptions  and  mis- 
translal  ions,  and  Sir  Travers  Twiss's  edition  is  practically 
a  reprint  of  this.  'Phe  work  was  ]irobably  completed  about 
the  year  1258.  See  F.  W.  Maitland's  Braeton  s  Note-book 
(London,  1887) ;  and  T.  E.  Scrutton's  York  prize  essay  of 
Cambridge  I'liiversity  on  the  Iiiflnence  of  the  Roman  Law 
OH  the  Late  of  England  (Cambridge,  1885), 

F.  Sturges  Alles, 

Brad'bliry,  Wii.t.iam  Batcuelder  :  musician  and  com- 
poser; b.  in  York.  .Me.,  (let.  6.  1816;  received  musical  in- 
struction from  Sumner  Hill,  of  Boston,  while  still  working 
at  his  trade  as  a  shoemaker.  In  1833  lie  attended  Dr. 
Lowell  Mason's  singing-school  and  the  Boston  Academy  of 
Music  ;  was  organist  in  several  churches,  and  taught  a  sing- 
ing-school in  Machias,  Me,,  for  about  a  year  and  a  half; 
traveled  considerably,  and  in  1841  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York  city,  teaching  singing,  organizing  and  conducting 
juvenile  musical  festivals,  and  composing  and  writing  music 
for  Sunday-schools,  In  1847  he  went  to  Lei[izig,  and  studied 
there  for  two  years.     In  1849  he  hidd  his  lirst  musical  con- 


732 


BRADDOCK 


BRADFORD 


vention  in  Somerville,  N.  J.,  and  in  1854  was  associated  in 

the  Normal  Musical  Institute,  North  Reading,  Pa. ;  in  the 
same  year  became  a  partner  in  the  piano  manufaeturins 
firm  of  Liijhte,  Newton  &  liradl)urv.  His  priueipal  books 
are  The  Oriola  (ISnO);  The  Golden  Chain.  (1861):  The 
Ooldni  Shower  (1862);  The  Oalden  Censer  (1864);  Fresh 
Lunreh;  The  Shawm;  The  Jubilee;  a.nA  The  Kei/nate.  D. 
in  ilontclair.  N.  J.,  Jan.  7,  1868.  D.  E.  IIbrvey. 

Brad'dock  :  borou.sh  (founded  in  1867);  Allegheny  eo., 
Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
5-A) ;  on  B.  and  ()..  Pa.  and  Pittsburg  and  Lake' Erie  li.  Rs., 
and  on  Jlonongahela  river ;  10  miles  from  Pittslnirg;  has  2 
public  schools,  4  parochial  .schools,  steel-works,  wire-mill.s,  a 
furnace,  and  a  forge.  Pop.  (1880)  3,810 ;  (1890)  8,561  :  (18!)3) 
estimated,  11,000.  Editor  of  "News." 

Braddofk,  Emwabu:  British  general;  b.  in  Pertlfsliire, 
Scotland,  about  lfi!).5.  He  connnanded  in  a  war  against  the 
French  and  Indians  in  North  America.  As  he  was  march- 
ing to  attack  Fort  Dutinesne  he  was  surprised  by  the  Indians 
near  Pittsburg,  and  was  defeated  and  mortally  wounded.  I). 
at  Great  Meadows.  60  miles  from  the  battle-field,  July  13,1755. 

Braddoii.  Mary  Elizabeth  :  See  Maxwell. 

Brad'ford :  an  important  manufacturing  town  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Vorkshire,  England  ;  on  a  small  branch  of 
the  Aire,  and  on  the  Leeds  liailwiiy;  9  miles  by  rail  W.  of 
Leeds  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  (i-IT).  It  is  situated  at  the 
meeting  of  three  vales,  and  is  built  of  stone.  It  I'eturns 
three  members  to  Parliament.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings are  a  handsome  exchange,  an  elegant  public  hall,  the 
parish  church,  erected  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  a 
cloth-hall.  The  Saltaire  alpaca  and  mohair  mills,  which 
are  3  miles  from  Bradfor<l,  were  said  to  be  the  most  splendid 
manufactories  in  England,  but  the  industry  lias  fallen 
away.  Bradford  is  the  chii'f  seat  in  England  of  the  manu- 
facture of  worsted  fabrics,  alpaca,  mohair,  etc.  Broail- 
cloths  and  cotton  goods  are  also  made.  Mines  of  coal  and 
iron  are  worked  in  this  vicinity.  Baptist.  Independent,  and 
Wesleyan  colleges  are  near  this  city.     Pop.  (1891)  216,361. 

Bradford :  town ;  Essex  co.,  Mass. ;  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Merrimack  river,  32  miles  N.  of  Boston  (see  map  of 
Massachusetts,  ref.  l-I).  A  bridge  and  a  railway  viaduct 
connect  it  with  Haverhill.  It  is  the  seat  of  Bradford  Female 
Academy.     Pop.  (1890)  3,720;  (1895)4,736. 

Bradford:  village  (1861);  in  Darke  and  iMiami  counties, 
O.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-C) ;  situated  at  ter- 
minus of  three  branches  of  Pa.  R.  R. :  83  miles  W.  of  Co- 
lumbus ;  has  high  school,  railroad  repair-shops,  printing  and 
shoe  factories.  The  contiguous  territory  is  settled  with 
Dunkards.     Pop.  (1890)  1,338.        Editor  op  "Sentinel." 

Bradford  :  city  (settled  1823 ;  incorporated  1879) ;  JIc- 
Kean  co.,  Pa. ;  on  tributary  of  the  Allegheny  river,  11  miles 
distant ;  and  on  the  Erie,  Buffalo,  Roch.  and  Pitts.,  Brad. 
Bord.  and  Kinzua,  Allegheny  and  Kinz.,  West  N.  Y.  and 
Penn.,  and  other  railways,  and  connected  by  electric  rail- 
way (21  miles)  with  Olean,  N.  Y. ;  79  miles  S.  of  Buffalo  (see 
map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  2-1)).  It  stands  in  the  center  of 
the  most  productive  oil-field  in  the  U.  S.  (1,550  to  2,550  feet 
above  sea-level),  and  has  large  oil-refineries,  oil-well  supply 
shops,  railroad  shops,  glass-works,  extensive  lumber  interests 
and  immense  wood-working  establishments,  and  vitrified, 
pressed,  and  enameled  brick,  and  acid  and  wood  alcohol 
works  near  the  city  ;  paved  streets,  electric  lights,  natural  gas 
for  light  and  fuel  (domestic  and  manufacturing),  fire  depart- 
ment with  7  companies,  gravity  water  system  (springs,  arte- 
sian wells,  and  watershed  owned  by  the  city);  19  cinn-chcs, 
8  large  school  buildings  and  a  parochial  school,  and  3  daily,  3 
Sunday,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1890)  10.514;  (JIar., 
1897)  16.663.  F.  A.  Cuurcuill,  ed.  "  Evening  Star." 

Bradford  :  village;  Orange  co.,  Vt. ;  on  railroad  and  the 
Coiniecticut  river;  29  miles  S.  E.  of  Montpelier  (see  map  of 
Vermont,  ref.  5-C).  It  has  an  academy  and  several  fac- 
tories.    Pop.  (1880)  619;  (1890)  1,103. 

Editor  oe  "  L^'nited  Opinion." 

Bradford,  Alden,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Duxbury,  Mass.,  Nov. 
19,  1765;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1786,  was  a  tutor  there 
1791-93;  was  successively  a  Congregational  minister  in 
Wiscasset  (now  in  Maine),  a  clerk  of  the  JIassachusetts 
Supreme  Court,  a  bookseller,  .secretary  of  State  for  I\Ias- 
sachusetts  (1812-24),  and  a  journalist.  Author  of  a  Ilis- 
tori/  of  Jfassaehiise/ls  from  JTG^  till  AVJ'O  { Boston,  1822-29), 
and  other  works.    D.  in  Boston,  Oct.  26,  1843. 


Bradford,  Amorv  Howe,  D.  D.  :  Congregationalist ;  b.  at 

Granby,  Oswego  CO.,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  14,  1846;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  1867;  studieil  at  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary,  and  finished  his  coarse  at  Andovcr  Theological 
Seminary  1870 ;  has  been  pastor  at  Montclair,  N.  J.,  since 
1870.  lie  is  the  author  of  Spirit  and  Life  (1888);  Old 
Wine  :  New  Bottles  (1892) ;  and  of  numerous 'articles  in  vari- 
ous reviews.  He  is  an  editorial  writer  in  The  Christian 
Union ;  also  secretary  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chris- 
tian Philosophy,  lie  was  Southworth  lecturer  on  Con- 
gregationalism at  Andover  for  1892  and  1893. 

George  P.  Fisher. 
Bradford,  Augusti-s  W.  :  b.  in  Maryland  about  1805; 
studied  law  ;  entered  politics  as  a  Whig  ;  was  a  firm  Union- 
ist ;  a  delegate  to  the  peace  congress  1861,  and  was  chosen 
Governor  of  Maryland,  holding  the  ofiice  until  1866.  He 
was  largely  infiuential  in  securing  the  new  constitution  of 
JIaryland  (1864),  by  which  slavery" was  abolished.     In  July, 

1864,  his  house  was  burned  by  Confederate  raiders.  He  was 
sur\eyor  of  Baltimore  under  President  Johnson,  and  de- 
clined a  position  in  the  custom-house  offered  to  liim  by 
President  Grant.     1).  Mar.  1,  1881. 

Bradford,  Earls  of,  and  Viscounts  Newport  (1815,  in 
the  United  Kingdom) :  Barons  Bradford  (1794,  in  Groat 
Britain),  and  baronets  (1660) ;  a  prondnent  family  of  (_in>at 
Britain. — Orlando  George  Charles  Bridgman,  'the  third 
eai-1,  was  born  Apr.  24,  1819,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 

1865.  He  was  member  of  Parliament  for  South  Shropshire 
1842-65. 

Bradford,  .John  :  a  distinguished  preacher  and  martyr  of 
the  Church  of  England  ;  li.  in  Manchester,  England,  about 
1500  ;  entered  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  1548 ;  was  or- 
dained 1550.  He  became  a  chaplain  to  Edward  VI„  and 
after  the  accession  of  Mary  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Smith- 
field,  London,  July  1,  1555.  He  wrote  many  theological 
treatises  which  are  publislied  in  the  collections  of  the 
Parker  Society.  See  William  Stevens's  Life  of  John  Brad- 
ford (1832).    "  ■  W.  S.  Perry. 

Bradford,  Joseph  51. :  captain  U.  S.  N. ;  b.  in  Sumner  co., 
Tenii.,  Nov.  4,  1824;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
Jan.  10,  1840.  From  Nov.,  1863,  to  June,  1865,  he  served  as 
fleet-captain  of  the  South  Atlantic  blockading  squadron, 
during  which  period  he  was  frequently  in  battle,  and  was 
highly  commended  by  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren,  in  his  "gen- 
eral order"  of  June'l6,  1865.  D.  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  Apr.  14, 
1872. 

Bradford.  William:  one  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers;  b.  in 
Austerfleld,  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1589  (was  baptized  Mar. 
19.  1589-90).  He  emigrated  to  New  England  in  the  May- 
flower in  1620.  and  was  elected  governor  of  Plymouth  Col- 
ony in  1621.  Having  been  re-elected  annually,  he  held  the 
ollice  till  his  death,  except  five  years,  when  he  declined  the 
election.  A  patent  or  charter  for  the  colony  was  granted  in 
1630  to  William  Bradford,  his  heirs  and  associates.  I), 
in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  May  9,  1657.  He  left  a  Ilistony  of 
l'li/iiioi(th  Colony,  which  was  [irinted  in  1856. 

Bradford,  William  :  the  first  printer  in  Pennsylvania ; 
li.  in  Leicester,  England.  May  20,  1660;  d.  in  New  York, 
May  23,  1752.  Being  a  Quaker  he  emigrated  in  1682,  and 
landed  on  the  spot  where  Philadelphia  was  afterward  built. 
In  1685  he  began  printing  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Friends.  His  first  work  was  the  publication  of  an  almanac  in 
16S6.  the  Kalendariiim  Pennsilraniese.  In  1692  he  incuri-ed 
the  displeasure  of  the  dondnant  party  in  Philadelphia, 
thi'ough  his  sym|iathy  with  George  Keith,  and  was  impris- 
oneil  for  liljol.  In  1693  he  was  induced  by  Gov.  Beujaiiun 
Fletcher  to  remove  to  New  York  to  became  printer  to  their 
Majesties  King  William  and  Queen  Blary.  In  that  year  he 
printed  (1)  ^1  Journal  of  the  tale  actions  of  the  French  at 
Canada,  with  the  manner  of  their  lieing  repulsed  hi/  Ilis 
K.rccllenci/  lienjaniin  Fletcher;  (2)  the  laws  of  the  c(]hiiiy, 
commoidy  known  as  "  BradfiU'd's  Laws."  On  Oct.  16,  1725, 
he  began  the  publication  of  the  New  York  (iazctlc.  the 
first  newspaper  printed  in  New  York  city.  In  1728  he  cstab- 
lisheil  a  paper-ndll  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  .1.  He  was  printer 
to  the  government  of  New  York  for  more  than  fifty  years, 
and  for  more  than  thirty  years  the  only  one  in  the  province, 
lb'  WMS  a  warden  of  Trinity  Church,  in  whose  churchyard  he 
lies  buried.  He  had  two  sons,  tlie  younger  of  whdin.  An- 
drew, made  a  comfortable  fortune  as  a  ]irinterand  publisher 
in  Philadelphia,  where  for  a  time  he  was  a  com|ietitin'  of 
Benjamin  l"raid<Iin.  A.  Growoll. 


BRADFORD 


BRADSHAW 


733 


Itradford,  William  :  marine-painter;  b.  in  Xew  Bedford, 
Muss.,  ulidiit  1830:  <1.  in  Xow  York,  Apr.  25,1802.  Boj,'an 
painting;  witliout  instnu-lion  at  I''jiirliavon  and  Lynn,  and 
afterward  on  tlie  t'oa^ts  of  Labrador  and  Nova  Seotia.  He 
ncoompanicd  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Aretie  explorer,  on  several  of 
ills  vovagcs  and  painted  pictnres  of  tlie  icy  scenery  of  tliose 
rcfiions.  Ue  e.xhibited  a  iinnd)er  of  his  works  in  London, 
and  liis  SIfamer  Panther  in  Melrilli'  Jioi/  under  tlie  Liglii 
of  tlie  Miilnij/lit  Sun  was  exhiliitcd  at  the  Royal  Academy 
in  llSTo  by  order  of  the  (|)nccii,  who  purchased  it.  Ue  dis- 
jiosed  of  (Itlicr  pictures  at  liisli  prices,  and  soon  became  well 
kni>wn  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  His  works  are  inter- 
cstinj;  principally  fmni  tlie  novelty  of  their  subjects,  and 
arc  not  remarkable  technically  considered.  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy,  New  York,  in  1874. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Bradford,  Great:  a  market-town  of  Wiltshire,  Kn<rland  : 
on  tlie  river  Avon  ;  on  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal :  U)  miles 
by  rail  E.  S.  E.  of  Batli  (see  mai)  of  England,  ret.  12-fJ).  It 
hius  a  fine  old  church,  and  manufactures  of  broadcloth,  ker- 
seymeres, and  india-rubber  goods.     Pop.  5,000. 

Brad'ke,  Pkter,  von,  Ph.D.:  German  philologist;  b. 
in  llie  Russian  province  of  l^ivonia.  June  27,  1853;  stud- 
ied at  Dorpat  and  Tiibingen  ;  is  Professor  of  Sanskrit  and 
Comparative  Philology  in  the  University  of  Giessen,  Hesse, 
Germany.  Besides  minor  essays  in  periodicals,  he  has 
published  Sfuilien  und  Vemuche  auf  dem  Gebiete  ult- 
indo-f/erinanischer  MeligionxyeficliicliiK  (1885) ;  Seitrai/e 
ziir  Kenntniss  der  vorhifituriiichen  Eiitivicketung  unaeres 
Spraehxtnmmes  (1888);  Ueber  die  nrische  Altertliumsirix- 
seiischaft  und  die  Eigenart  unseres  Spraclistammes  (1888); 
L'eljer  Methode  und  Ergehniase  der  arischen  Alterthums- 
iC(.s,seH.ic/(o/<  (1890). 

Brad'ish,  Lithkr,  LFj.  D.  :  b.  in  Cummington,  Mass.. 
Sept.  15.  1788;  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1804.  He 
studied  law  ;  was  employed  as  a  Government  agent  in  affairs 
relating  to  Levantine  commerce;  settled  in  Franklin  co., 
N.  Y. ;  became  prominent  in  State  politics;  was  Lieutenant- 
Governor  (1829-43).  and  under  Fillmore  was  assistant  U.  S. 
treasurer  at  New  York.  He  was  prominent  in  religious, 
educational,  and  other  charitable  and  benevolent  enterprises. 
I),  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Aug.  30,  1803. 

Brad'laiiirli,  Crahlf-s  :  republican  reformer  and  anti- 
socialist;  b.  in  the  East  End  of  London.  Sept.  26.  1833; 
educated  at  Bethnal  (ireen  and  Hackney  Road  elementary 
schools  until  he  was  eleven  ;  afterward  successively  errand- 
boy,  coal-dealer,  and  free-thought  lectui-or ;  began  to  speak 
before  street  audiences  at  the  age  of  fifteen  ;  enlisted  in  1850 
in  the  army,  and  served  for  some  time  in  Ireland ;  became 
clerk  in  a  solicitors  office  in  1853,  and  began  to  write  under 
the  pseudonym  "Iconoclast"';  edited  successively  the  Jn- 
i'c.i(/iV/((/y;-(1858-5!l).  and  the  Xiitioniil  Reformer;  in  18fi8  be- 
gan ids  efforts  to  enter  Parliament,  being  then  widely  known 
througliout  the  country  ;  contested  Northampton  three  times 
ill  vain,  but  was  finally  returned  for  that  borough  in  1880. 
his  colleague  being  Mr.  Labouchere;  his  refusal  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  his  demand  to  be  permitted  to  aflirni 
instead,  led  to  several  exciting  scenes  in  Parliament;  thrice 
he  lost  his  seat  on  this  account,  ami  was  as  many  times  re- 
elected, and  in  the  new  Parliament  of  1885  he  was  allowed 
to  take  his  scat.  In  1888  he  carried  a  Ijill  through  Parlia- 
ment allowing  all  persons  to  allirm  instead  of  taking  the 
oath.  He  was  also  sueeessful  in  moving  to  establish  a  labor 
bureau,  and  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  best  informed  men 
on  East  Indian  affairs  in  Parliament.  His  personal  influ- 
ence grew'  in  Parliament,  where  he  became  greatly  res]iected 
by  all  parties  for  his  good  sense,  clo(picnce,  and  kind  dispo- 
sition. In  1873  Mr.  Hradlaui;h  lectured  in  the  U.  S.,  and 
was  warmly  received.  In  1870  hi'  joined  with  Annie  Besant 
ill  republishing  an  olil  pamphlet  on  population,  for  which 
they  were  brought  to  trial  and  sentenced  to  a  fine  and  im- 
prisonment— a  judgment  overruled  on  appeal.  In  his  Im- 
peiicliment  of  the,  Houxe  of  liriinxwirli  he  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  Hanoverian  seltlenienl  of  the  crown  as  soon  as 
the  (jueon  should  cease  to  reign.     1).  in  London,  Jan.  29, 18!)1. 

Brad'ley,  Edward  (better  known  as"Cuthbert  Bcde"): 
novelist  and  humorist;  b.  in  Kidderminster,  England,  in 
1827;  was  educated  at  Durham  University;  15.  A.  1848; 
entered  the  Anglican  ministry,  and  received  a  number  of 
church  preferments ;  at  the  time  of  liis  death  had  been  rec- 
tor of  Lenton,  near  Grantham,  since  1883,  He  was  the 
author  of  many  volumes  of  prose  and  verse,  ehielly  novels, 


of  which  his  first  venture,  Verdant  Green,  a  humorous  story 
of  Oxford  life  (London,  1853-57,  3  parts),  is  the  best  known. 
Hecontributed  largely  to  periodical  literature.  D.inLeiiton, 
Dec.  12,  18«9. 

Bradley,  Georgk  Gra.wille,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Dean  of 
Westminster;  b.  in  High  Wycombe,  Dec.  11, 1821  ;  educated 
under  Dr.  Arnold  at  Rugby,  and  at  University  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Dean  Stanley;  B.  A.  1844; 
fellow  of  University  College  1844-50;  became  assistant 
ma.sterof  Riigbvl846;  head-master  of  Marlborough  College 
1858;  master  of  University  College,  Oxford,  Doc.  1870; 
appointed  to  succeed  Dean  Stanley  in  the  Deanery  of  West- 
minster Aug.,  1881.  Has  published  lieroUection.s  of  Arthur 
Penrhijn  Stanley  (London,  1882),  and  lectures  on  Ecclesiastes 
(1885)  and  on  Job  (1887). 

Bradley,  James,  D.D.,  F.  R.  S.:  astronomer;  b.  in  Sher- 
bourn,  (iloucestershire,  England.  Mar.,  1093;  excelled  as  an 
obs(n-ver  and  as  a  theorist.  He  graduate<l  at  Oxford  ;  B.  A. 
1714;  was  ordained  as  a  priest,  and  olitained  several  livings, 
but  resigned  them  when  lie  became  Savilian  Professor  of 
Astronomy  at  Oxford  in  1721.  In  1729  he  announced  the 
important  discovery  of  the  alierration  of  light,  which  serves 
to  demonstrate  the  earth's  motion  around  the  sun.  In  1742 
he  was  a|)pointed  astronomer-royal,  and  began  to  make  ob- 
servations at  Greenwich.  His  next  discovery,  announced 
1748,  w^as  that  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  eclip- 
tic is  not  constant,  a  fact  which  explained  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes  and  the  nutation  of  the  earth  s  axis.  This 
discovery  forms  an  important  epoch  in  astronomy.  D.  at 
Chalford.  July  13.  1702.  leaving  in  manuscript  thirteen  vol- 
umes of  observations,  which  were  published  in  1798-1805. 
See  his  Miscellaneonfs  Workx  and  Correspondence,  with 
memoir  ed.  by  L.  P.  Rigaud  (Oxford,  1832). 

Bradloy,  Joseph  P.,  LL.  D. :  associate  justice  of  the  V.  S. 
Suiirenie  ('ourt;  b.  at  Berne.  Albany  co.,  N.  Y'.,  Mar.  14, 
1813  ;  graduateci  at  Rutgers  College.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
with  honors,  in  1836 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839  at  Newark, 
N.  J.  lie  married  in  1844  a  daughter  of  Chief  Justice  Horn- 
blower.  Besides  his  labors  in  cveiT  branch  of  his  profession, 
he  devoted  much  attention  to  mathematics  and  the  study 
of  lavs'  as  a  science,  extending  his  researches  to  the  civil  law 
— researches  which  have  been  of  great  service  in  his  judicial 
duties  ill  Louisi.-ina  and  Texas.  Engaged  in  many  important 
causes  in  the  State  and  U.  S.  courts,  he  took  but  slight  part 
in  politics.  He  was  formerly  a  Whig ;  warmly  sustained 
the  national  cause  in  the  civil  war;  lieadeil  the  electoral 
ticket  for  (Jrant  in  1808;  ranked  as  a  moderate  Rei>iiblican. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  bench  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
Mar.  21,  1870.  He  was  a  member  of  the  electoral  commis- 
sion which  seated  Hayes  in  the  presidential  chair,  and  it  was 
his  vote  tliat  decided  the  issue.  I),  in  Wasliington,  D.  C, 
Jan.  22,  1892, 

Bradshaw,  Hentsv  :  English  scholar ;  b.  in  T.ondon,  Feb.  3, 
1831  ;  entered  King's  College,  ( 'ambridge.  1850 :  fellow  1853  ; 
H.  A.  1854 ;  dean  1857-65  ;  iiradector  1868.  :Mar.  8,  1867,  he 
was  apiiointed  librarian  of  tlie  Camliridge  University  library, 
with  which  he  had  been  connected  in  one  or  another  ca- 
pacitv  for  over  ten  vears.  and  he  held  this  oflice  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  Feb.  10.  1886.  His  unsurpassed  knowledge  of 
manuscripts  and  early  printed  books  and  his  stores  of  gen- 
eral and  special  information— literary,  bibliographical,  and 
antiiiuarian — were  always  at  the  service  of  students  and  in- 
vestigators, in  assisting  whom  he  spent  his  time  without 
stint.  His  studies  in  Cluiucer,  of  whom  he  projected  an 
edition,  were  of  much  importance:  but  only  his  Skeleton 
of  the  Canterhunj  Tales  (printed  1868.  issued" in  1871  as  No. 
4  of  his  Memoranda)  anil  two  short  notes  were  published. 
His  most  elaborate  bibliograjihical  work  is  a  list  of  the  edi- 
tions of  the  Saniin  Breviary,  etc.,  in  Procter  and  Words- 
worth's Breriarum  secundum  tisum  Sarum  (1886).  He  also 
issued  a  series  of  bibliographical  Memoranda  (1868-85)  and 
contributed  many  short  [.ajiers  to  the  Communieafions  of 
the  Camliridge  .\ntiquarian  Society,  etc.;  but  the  amount 
of  his  iinblication  bears  no  proportion  to  his  learning  and 
his  intlurnce  on  contemporary  scholarshi]).  His  edition  of 
the  Liber  Niger  of  Lincoln'  Cathedral,  unfinished  at  his 
death,  was  coiiipleted  bv  C.  Wordsworth  (Statutes  of  Lin- 
coln Cathedral,  part  i., "Cambridge,  1892).  His  services  to 
lilurgiologv  were  commemorated  in  18i)0  by  the  founding 
of  the  Heiirv  Bradshaw  Societv  "for  the  editing  of  rare 
liturgical  texts."  See  G.  W.  Prothero.  A  Memoir  of  Henry 
liradshau-  (Cambridge,  1888);  Collected  Papers  of  Henry 
Bradshaw  (Cambridge,  1889).  G.  L.  Kittredue. 


73-i 


BRADSHAW 


BRAGE 


Bradshaw,  John  :  one  of  the  Eiijilish  regicides :  b.  at 
Wibersley  Hall,  Cheshire,  1602  (baptized  at  Stockport  church, 
Dec.  10,  i602);  became  in  1627  a  barrister;  chief  justice  of 
Chester  in  1647 ;  sergeant-at-law  in  1648  ;  and  in  1649  presi- 
dent of  the  High  Court  which  condemned  Charles  I.  He 
conducted  that  cause  with  unfeeling  sternness  and  severity, 
but  with  dignity,  and  probably  with  a  conscientious  desire 
to  do  justice  to  the  king  and  the  country.  He  afterward 
opposed  Cromwell's  ambitious  designs,  and  the  latter  unsuc- 
cessfully tried  to  remove  him  from  his  chief  justiceship.  He 
later  held  various  important  positions.  D.  in  London,  Oct. 
31,  16.59,  and  was  buried  with  great  pomp.  At  the  Restora- 
tion his  body  was  exhumed  from  Westminster  Abbey,  along 
with  those  of  Cromwell  and  Ireton,  and  the  three  bodies 
were  hanged  at  Tyburn  in  their  coffins  (Jan.  30,  1660-61) ; 
the  heads  were  then  cut  off  and  exposed  in  Westminster 
Hall,  while  their  bodies  were  buried  beneath  the  gallows. 

Bradstreet,  Axxe:  first  American  versifier;  wife  of  Simon 
Bradstreet;  daughter  of  Thomas  Dudley;  b.  in  Xorthamp- 
ton,  England,  in  1612 ;  removed  to  Massachusetts  probably  in 
1630.  Her  father  and  her  husband  were  both  governors  of 
the  colony.  She  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  London  in 
1650  entitled  The  Tenth  Muse  Lately  Sprung  Up  in  Amer- 
ica. These  poems  and  her  other  writings  have  been  several 
times  reprinted  (the  last  and  best  edition  in  1867).  D.  Sept. 
16,  1672.  See  her  complete  works  edited  by  J.  H.  Ellis 
(Charlestown.  Mass.,  1868).      Revised  by  Hexry  A.  Beers. 

Bradstreet,  John:  major-general;  b.  in  Horbling,  Eng- 
land, in  1711;  d.  in  New  York  city,  Sept.  25,  1774.  When 
a  young  man  he  removed  to  America  and  entered  the  colo- 
nial army ;  in  1745,  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  Pepperell's  (York, 
Me.)  regiment,  he  figured  prominently  in  the  expedition 
against  Louisburg.  In  the  fall  of  the  same  year  he  was 
made  a  captain  in  the  regular  army,  and  on  Se|)t.  16,  1746. 
was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  St.  John's.  Xewfi>und- 
land.  In  the  French  and  Indian  war  he  fought  at  Ticon- 
deroga.  Port  Frontenae,  and  Crown  Point ;  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  the  Western  Indians  at  Detroit  in  1764.  Was 
commissioned  a  major-general  in  1772. 

Bradstreet,  Simon  :  colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts ; 
b.  at  Horbling,  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  Mar.,  1603.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  was  for  a  time  the  steward  of  the 
Countess  of  Warwick ;  removed  to  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1630.  as 
an  assistant  judge ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Cambridge 
and  Andover,  and  resided  also  at  Iiiswich  and  Boston.  Be- 
sides holding  other  important  positions,  he  was  Governor 
(1679-86  and  1689-92).     D.  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Mar.  27,  1697. 

Bradwardine.  Thomas  :  English  prelate  and  scholastic 
theologian  ;  called  The  Profound  Doctor  ;  b.  in  Chichester 
in  1290;  educated  at  Oxford,  and  attained  high  rank  as  a 
scholar.  He  became  confessor  to  Edward  III.  1338;  was 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  Avignon,  July  19, 
1349.  His  principal  work,  De  causa  Dei  contra  Pelaginm 
et  de  tnrtxiie  cansarum,  is  a  masterly  argument  for  the  doe- 
trine  of  Augustine.  He  was  an  al)le  mathematician  of  Ox- 
ford University.  D.  in  London,  Aug.  26, 1349,  of  the  plague. 
See  notice  of  his  Life  by  Sir  Henry  Savile  in  his  edition  of 
Bradwardine's  De  causa  Dei,  etc.  (London,  1618). 

Brady,  John  Riker:  jurist;  b.  in  1822  in  New  York 
city.  In  1856  he  was  elected  a  justice  of  the  New  York 
court  of  common  pleas,  and  in  1869  was  made  a  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State,  and  in  1H77  was  unani- 
mously re-elected  to  the  position.     I).  JIar.  16,  1891. 

Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Brady,  Nicholas,  D.  D.  ;  1).  at  Bandon,  Ireland,  Oct.  28, 
1659;  educated  at  Oxford  an<l  I)ul)liu;  sided  with  King 
William  against  .lames  II.,  and  in  consemience  was  made 
chaplain  to  the  king.  He  received  several  Kiiglisli  church 
preferments,  but  is  liest  known  for  his  share  in  tlie  metrical 
version  of  the  I'satms  (London,  1695).  which  he  made  in  con- 
junction with  Nahum  Tate  (1652-1715),  the  poet  laureate. 
Tale  and  Brady's  Psalms,  thougli  justly  ridiculed  for  their 
clumsiness,  quaintness,  and  liomliast.,  have  some  noble  pas- 
sages. Brady  also  publisheil  a  Trauslalian  of  the  ^neiil 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1726).     I),  in  Richmond,  Surrey,  Jlay  20,  1726. 

Brady.  William  Maziekk,  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Dul)lin,  Ireland, 
in  1H25,  of  a  prominent  family;  grail u at eil  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege with  honor.  Entering  the  Irish  State  Church,  he  re- 
ceived lucrative  ai)pointmeuts,  which  he  hazarded,  and  in 
part  lost,  by  his  many  bold  and  atile  attacks  upon  tlie 
Church  establishment  to  which  he  himself  belonged.  He 
was  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  of  the  movement  which  re- 


sulted in  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  In  1873 
he  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  is  the  author 
of  several  works,  chiefly  upon  the  ecclesiastical  history  and 
antiquities  of  Ireland  and  Great  Britain,  and  has  written  a 
learned  work  on  The  Episcopal  Succession  in  Enijland, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  a  d.  iJfUO  to  1S75  (Rome,  1876-77, 
3  vols.);  also  Annals  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  (London,  1883) ;  Anglo-Roman  Papers 
(1890). 

Braga,  braa'gaa  (anc.  Bracara  Augusta):  a  town  of 
Portugal ;  capital  of  the  province  of  Minho ;  on  an  emi- 
nence near  the  river  Cavado;  39  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Oporto 
(see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  14^B).  It  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bisho|).  It  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral  and  a  college.  Braga 
is  inclosed  by  old  walls  and  defended  by  a  castle.  Here 
are  manufactures  of  linen,  cutlery,  firearms,  jewelry,  etc. 
It  is  a  very  ancient  town,  and  has  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
temple  and  amphitheater.  It  was  the  capital  of  Lusitania 
after  the  latter  had  been  conquered  liy  the  .Suevi.  Its  arch- 
bishop is  titular  primate  of  Portugal.  Church  councils 
were  held  at  Braga  in  563,  572,  and  672  a.  d.     Pop.  19,755. 

Braga,  Theophilo  :  Portuguese  critic  and  philologist ; 
b.  in  San  Miguel  (St,  Michael),  Azores,  Feb.  24,  1843  ;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Coimbra,  and  since  1872  Pro- 
fessor of  Literature  in  the  Curso  Superior  de  Letras  at  Lis- 
bon. He  has  been  one  of  the  most  voluminous  and  at  the 
same  time  influential  (at  least  in  his  own  country)  of  mod- 
ern authors.  A  recent  list  of  his  productions  embraces 
over  ninety  titles.  In  Portugal,  Braga  has  been  mainly  in- 
fluential as  a  democrat  in  politics  and  a  positivist  in  phi- 
loso)ihy.  Among  his  works  in  the  capacity  of  leader  of 
tlie  Portuguese  Republicans  are  Solugoes  positivas  da  Po- 
litica  portugueza  (1879) ;  Dissoluijao  do  Systema  coristitu- 
cional  (1881).  As  positivist,  Braga  has  jmblished  Trafos 
geraes  de  Philosophia  positiva  (1877);  0  Positivisnio  (a 
review.  1878-79-80);  Historia  unirersal,  esho(os  de  Socio- 
logia  descriptira  (1879-82);  besides  great  numbers  of  iso- 
lated articles  and  addresses.  Outside  of  Portugal,  however, 
Braga  is  chiefly  known  as  philologist  and  historian  of  Portu- 
guese literature.  In  this  field  his  activity  has  been  almost 
incredilile ;  and,  if  his  work  suffers  often  from  haste  and 
im])etuosity,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  his  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  origins  and  development  of  the  literature 
of  the  S|)anish  peninsula  have  been  very  important.  Only  a 
few  of  his  works  in  this  field  can  be  mentioned  here  :  His- 
toria da  Poesia  popular  portugueza  (1867);  Historia  da 
Poesia  moderna  em  Portugal  (1869) ;  Historia  do  Theatro 
portitguez  (1870-71);  Historia  dos  Quinhentislas  (1871); 
Theoria  da  Historia-  da  Litteratura  portugueza  (1872); 
Troradores  fiallecio-portuguezes  (1871);  Jlanual  da  His- 
toria da  Litteratura  jiorliii/ueza  (1875) ;  Borage,  sua  Vida 
e  Epoca  litteraria  (1877);  Cancioneiro  da>  Vaticana  (1878); 
Historia  do  Romantismo  (1880);  lietralo  e  Biographia  de 
Camoes  (1880).  Braga  is  also  a  poet,  and  several  volumes  of 
his  verse  have  ap|)eared.  Eolhas  verdes  (1858)  and  Visao 
dos  Tempos  (1864)  are  perhaps  the  most  remarkable. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Bragamja,  brali-gaan'sa'a :  a  seaport-town  of  Brazil ;  jirov- 
ince  of  Para;  on  the  river  Caite,  near  its  mouth;  106  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  Para  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  3-G).  It 
has  a  trade  in  sugar.     Pop.  10,000. 

Bragaiiza,  bivfii-gaanzaii:  a  fortified  town  of  Portugal; 

province  of  Tras-os-Montes;  on  a  small  stream  35  miles 
N.  W.  of  Mirandi  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  13-C).  It  lias  a 
citadel,  a  college,  and  a  castle  partly  ruined,  which  was  the 
seat  of  the  Dukes  of  Braganza.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic 
bishop.  The  name  of  the  reigning  family  of  Portugal,  the 
house  of  Braganza,  is  derived  from  this  town,  whicli  has 
manufactures  of  velvet  and  other  silk  fabrics.     Pop.  5,495. 

Bragaiiza.  or  Bragaiicja:  the  name  of  the  royal  family 
of  Pcirtugal  and  tlie  late  iuqierial  family  of  Brazil,  which  is 
descendecl  from  Affonso,  Duke  of  Braganza,  a  natural  son 
of  John  I..  King  of  PortugaL  He  died  in  1461.  The  first 
member  of  this  family  that  became  King  of  Portugal  was 
the  eii^lith  duke,  who'  liegan  to  reign  as  .Idlin  IV.  in  l(i40. 
The  first  Euqwror  of  Brazil  was  Dom  Pedro  I.,  the  eldest 
son  of  King  John  VI. 

Brage,  braa'gc  [derivation  urii'crtairi,  l^ut  cf.  O.  Eng. 
hregu,  princeps] :  in  Scandinavian  mythology  a  son  of  Odin. 
He  is  the  god  of  poetry  and  eloquence,  and  is  one  of  the 
twelve  chief  gods  in  Asgard.  lie  is  not  only  eminently 
skilled  in  poetry,  but  the  art  itself  is  from  his  name  called 


BRAGG 


BRAIIMANISM 


735 


Brage,  which  epithet  is  also  used  to  denote  a  great  poet. 
He  is  represented  a.s  an  old  man  with  a  long  flowiiif;  beard, 
and  persons  with  heavy  lizard  are  called  after  him  heard- 
bragc  (skegg-hragi).  His  wife,  Idun,  keeps  in  a  box  the 
apples  which  the  gods,  when  they  feel  old  age  approaching, 
have  only  to  taste  of  to  become  young  again.  In  this  man- 
ner they  preserve  their  youth  until  Kagnarok.  The  giant 
Til jasse  once  captured  Idun  with  her  api>les  and  carried  her 
to  Jotuidieim.  This  made  the  gods  turn  wrinkled  and  gray, 
but  they  comp<'lled  Loke  to  bring  her  back  to  Asgard.  (See 
linx.)  '  Brayiinnliir.  in  the  Younger  Kdda,  gives  a  de- 
scriptiim  of  a  bancput  to  ^llger,  the  god  of  the  sea,  in  As- 
gard, where  Brage  at  the  request  of  ..l-'ger  tells  how  Idun 
was  captured  by  Thjasse,  At  feasts  given  after  the  death 
of  a  king  or  jarl  it  was  customary  among  the  old  Scandi- 
navians lor  the  heir  of  the  deceased  to  occupy  a  lower  bench 
in  front  of  the  high-seat  until  Brage's  bowl  wjis  brought  in. 
Then  he  arose,  maile  a  pledge,  and  drank  the  cup  of  Brage 
(Imif/nfiill). — BitAoK  -niK  (tLU  is  occasionally  quoted  in  Old 
Xorse  literature  as  an  ancient  skald,  but  his  existence  is 
doiil>ted.  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  god  Brage  has  been 
changed  into  an  historical  person,  and  that  poetry  of  which 
the  authorship  was  unknown  was  ascribed  to  him.  See 
Thorpe's  yort/teni  Mijf/i(ihi(/i/ :  Keyser's  lieliyiuii  of  the 
Nnrtlimen:  AiKlerson's  Xnrsi-  Myfhologi/;  and  Biigge,  Der 
(ioti  Brmji,  in  Paid  and  Hraune"s  Biitruge,  xiii.  187  ff. 
Bkaue  is  .sometimes  spelled  Bkaui  (q.  v.). 

Ras.mis  B.  Axuersox. 

Bra^tr.  Br.\xtox:  soldier:  b.  in  Warren  co..  X.  C,  Mar. 
22.  ISIT:  graduated  at  West  Point  in  lH:i7;  Ijecame captain 
Juni'  18.  1846.  in  the  Third  Artillery:  and  served  with  di.s- 
tinction  at  various  posts  until  Jan.  3, 18.iG,  when  he  resigned 
with  the  rank  of  brevet  lieutenant-coloiud.  In  the  civil 
war  he  was  in  command  of  the  forces  of  the  Southern  array 
at  I'ensacola  operating  against  Kort  Pickens  1S61  :  of  Sec- 
ond Corps  at  Shiloh  18f)2,  being  promoted  to  general  on  the 
death  of  Cien.  A.  S.  .Jolmston;  moved  against  Buell  into 
Kentucky  1S62.  whence  he  was  compelled  to  retire  after  de- 
feat at  Perrysville  Oct.  8,  1862;  defeated  at  Murfreesboro 
Jan.  2,  1863 ;  after  a  brief  arre.st  overthrew  Rosecrans  at 
Chickainauga  Sept.  20.  1,S63 :  relieved  from  command  Dec. 
2.  1863.  for  lo.ss  of  IMission  Kidge  in  the  battle  of  Chatta- 
nooga Nov.  2-5,  1863;  led  a  small  force  from  North  Caro- 
lina to  Georgia  in  1864:  became  chief  engineer  to  State  of 
Alabama,  and  made  improvements  in  Mobile  harbor.  D.  in 
Galveston,  Tex..  Sept.  27,  1876. 

lirngg:,  Walter  Ij.  :  lawyer;  b.  in  Lowndes  co.,  Ala..  Feb. 
2.5.  1838  :  gradiuited  at  Harvard  in  18.18.  He  was  a  captain 
in  the  Confederate  army.  .Vt  the  close  of  the  war  he  .settled 
in  Alabama  and  practiced  law,  and  was  the  first  [iresident 
of  its  State  bar  association.  He  was  president  of  tlie  \\&- 
bama  railroad  commission  and  in  1877  was  appointed  a 
meml)er  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  Ijeintr  re- 
iH)pointe(l  in  1889.     U.  at  Spring  Lake.  N.  J..  Aug.  21,  1891. 

Hexry  Wade  Rogers. 

Bra'gi :  god  of  jioetryin  the  northern  m\-tho!ogy.  See 
esi)ecially  Bngge.  Der  (Intt  Bragi  (in  Paul  and  Braune's 
Beifniyi;  xiii.  187  If.);  and  the  article  BRA(iE. 

Bra^i  the  Old.  or  Bra:;!  Boddasoii :  Xorwegian  poet ; 
celebrated  as  the  most  ancient  skald  wliose  name  is  known. 
He  is  commonly  thought  to  have  lived  al)oiit  770-8.)(),  thougli 
sonu' regard  this  date  as  too  early.  The  meager  fragments 
of  his  verse  that  have  come  down  to  us  have  been  edited  by 
H.  Gering  (Halle,  1886).  See  also  Vigfiisson.  Cnrpiis  Poeti- 
cum  Borfdli',  ii.  2  IT.  G.  L.  Kittredoe. 

Bra'lie.  Tvnio  (Han.  pron.  braaV):  astronomer;  b.  in 
Knudstrup.  Scania,  Sweden,  Dec.  14.  1.546.  which  at  that 
time  was  a  province  of  I )einnark.  He  studied  at  Copeidui- 
gen.  Leipzig,  and  Wittenberg,  where  his  face  was  dishgured 
in  a  duel ;  was  early  fascinated  with  astronomy,  and  in  1.563 
began  the  correction  of  the  Alp/ioii.iiiii'  Ttihha.  The  king. 
Frederic  II..  gave  him  the  island  of  Hoeiu\  in  the  Sound, 
about  1.57.5.  where  he  built  the  finest  observatory  (rranien- 
borg)  which  ever  had  been  erected  in  Kurope.  He  enriched 
the  .science  of  astronomy  very  much,  partly  by  his  very  nu- 
merous observations,  partly  by  inventing  new  instruments. 
He  formed  a  catalogue  of  777  stars,  inerea.sed  by  his  pni)il 
Kepler  to  1,000  from  (he  records  which  he  left  behind,  and 
his  recorded  observations  of  the  planet  Mars  furnished  to 
the  same  distinguished  successor  the  nuiterial  from  which  he 
deduced  his  famous  "  Laws."  An  uncle  who  died  in  1.56.5 
left  him  an  estate.     Having  passed  several  years  in  Augs- 


burg, he  returned  to  his  native  country  in  1570.  He  re- 
jected the  Copernican  system,  which  in  his  time  was  not 
supported  by  the  conclusive  evidence  we  now  have  in  its 
favor.  In  fact.  Tycho's  theory,  which  made  the  sun  move 
round  the  earth,  and  all  the  other  planets  round  the  sun, 
explained  all  the  phenomena  then  known  equally  well. 
After  the  death  of  his  royal  patron  in  1588  he  wsis  first  neg- 
lected, and  then  so  persecuted  by  the  court  that  he  emi- 
grated to  Germany  in  1.597,  and  was  induced  by  the  Emperor 
Hinlolph  to  settle"  at  Prague,  where  he  died  Oct.  24  (>.  S.), 
1601.  He  jiublished,  besides  other  works,  yl.s7TOHom(Ve  In- 
stanratm  Progymnamuita  (1587-89).  "As  a  practical  as- 
tronomer." says  Sir  David  Brewster,  "  Tyeho  has  not  been 
surpiLssed  by  any  observer  of  ancieid  or  modern  times.  The 
splendor  and  nund)er  of  his  instruments,  the  ingenuity 
which  he  exhibited  in  inventing  new  ones,  and  his  skill  and 
a.ssiduity  as  an  observer,  have  given  a  cliaract<'r  to  his  laboi-s 
and  a  value  to  his  observations  which  will  be  ap|)reciated  to 
the  latest  jiosteritv."  See  Brewster's  Martyrs  of  SciencK 
(1841),  anil  his  Life  by  Frijs  (Danish,  1871).  Cf.  J.  L.  E. 
Dreyer,  Tycho  Brake,  Scientific  Life  and  Work  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century  (London,  1890). 

Brahma  [occurs  in  Hindi  in  two  forms:  (1)  Brahma, 
nom.  sing.  neut..  and  (2)  Bralima.  nom.  sing,  ma.sc.  of  a 
Sanskrit  crude  form  brahman,  meaning  growth,  increase, 
or  expansion ;  probably  from  a  root  lirih.  or  rrih,  to  grow 
or  increase,  'flic  form  Bralnnd  is  not  found  in  the  Vedas 
or  Brahinanas] ;  In  philosophical  Brahmanism  the  form 
Brahmil  is  used  to  designate  the  supreme,  self -existent,  and 
all-pervadin";  soul  of" the  universe,  from  which  all  things 
emanate,  and  to  which  they  return.  Brahmii  is  the  Supreme 
Spirit,  regarded  as  impersomd,  aiul  divested  of  all  quality 
and  action.  It  is  described  as  absolute,  eternal,  without  be- 
giniung  or  end,  immaterial,  invisible,  and  iiuippreciable  by 
the  .senses  until  "the  film  of  mental  lilindness  has  been  re- 
moved.'' It  receives  no  worship,  but  is  an  object  of  abstract 
meditation,  the  only  means  by  which  absorption  into  it  can 
be  attained.  (See  Brahmanism.)  In  Hindu  mythology  this 
imiiersonal  Supreme  Being,  when  dominated  by  Activity 
(one  of  the  three  eternal  principles  or  binding  qualities  by 
the  eijuipoise  of  which,  according  to  the  Sankhya  philoso- 
])hy,  nature  exists),  becomes  Brahma,  the  Creator,  the  first 
memljer  of  the  Hindu  triad  of  gods  (the  others  being  Vishnu 
jind  Siva),  and  the  lord  anil  father  of  all  creatures.  (See 
VisHXf.  Siva,  and  Trimurti.)  He  is  said  to  live  for  one 
hundred  divine  years  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  divine 
days  and  nights.'  A  dav  and  a  night  make  a  kal|)a.  which 
is  ecpial  to  4.320.000.000  mortal  years.  When  created  by 
Brahma,  the  world  remains  unaltered  for  one  of  his  days 
(2.160.000.000  mortal  years).  It  is  then  consmned  by  fii'e. 
only  the  elements,  the  gods,  and  the  sages  surviving.  When 
he  wakes  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  kalpa.  the  proc- 
ess of  creation  is  repeated,  followed  by  a  night  of  decay: 
and  this  takes  jilace  36.000  times,  when  he  expires  and 
evervthing  comes  to  an  end.  Brahma  is  represented  as  of 
a  red  color,  and  with  four  heads  and  four  arms.  His  vehicle 
is  a  swan.  He  is  never  worshiped  by  the  people,  and  only 
one  temple  is  known  to  have  been  erected  in  his  honor. 
His  consort  is  Saraswati,  the  goddess  of  learning,  who  is 
also  known  as  Brdhmi.  R.  LiLLEY. 

Brahman :  a  member  of  the  sacerdotal  caste  among  the 
Ilinilus.     See  Brahmanism  and  Caste. 

Brahmanism.  braaman-izm:  the  religion  of  the  Hindus, 
established  bv  the  Brahman  priests  upon  the  basis  of  the 
Veitas. 

.Ml  Brahinanical  beliefs  are  founded  upon  the  Vedax,  the 
earliest  literary  productions  of  India.  The  literature  of  the 
IVf/tt.s  consists  of  various  strata.  The  lyric  parts,  the  so- 
called  Manlrax.  are  prayers  or  hymns  addressed  to  the  per- 
sonified forces  of  nature.  .Vgni.'the  fire  iiynix).  the  heaven- 
ly nu'ssenger.  the  heaveidv  guest,  the  carrier  of  the  .sacrifice 
tl>the  gods;  Indra.  the  llercules,  the  demiurge,  who  is  in- 
spired iiv  the  intoxicating  drink  noma  to  give  tight  and  slay 
the  cloud-demons;  Sfiryaand  L^shas  (.-(o/and  «»TOr«) :  Dyaus 
(Zeus)  and  Prithivi.  the  shiiung  sky  and  the  earth:  Rudra 
aiul  the  Maruts.  the  storm-god  and  hiscom|ianions  :  Varuna 
(Uranos).  the  encompassing,  all-seeing  sky.  he  who  has  his 
spies  everywhere  to  ferret  out  the  wrongs  doiu'  by  nu'ii.  etc. 

In  cotniection  with  the  worship  of  these  divinities  thei-e 
grew  up  Ji  vast  syslem  of  sacrificial  ritualism  and  theosophic 
speculation  laid  down  in  texts  called  Bruhmanna.  Sutras, 
and  i'pani shads.  The  Unanishads  especially  have  re- 
nuiined  the  foundation  of  all  the  higher  thought  in  Brah- 


736 


BRAHMAPUTRA 


URAIN 


manism  up  to  our  day.  They  arc  the  fii-st  exponents  of 
Hinilu  pantheism.  Nothing  really  exists,  they  affirm  again 
and  again,  but  tlie  one  Universal  Spirit  (called  iilman,  the 
self,  or  brahma,  the  spiritual  essence),  and  whatever  appears 
to  exist  independently  is  identical  with  that  spirit.  Even 
the  earlier  gods  of  the  Vedic  hymns  are  but  manifestations 
of  this  all-power.  No  real  self  can  exist  separately  from  the 
one  self-existent  su])remc  self,  and  when  by  an  act  of  that 
self  the  individualized  spirits  of  men  are  allowed  for  a  time 
an  apparent  separate  existence,  the  ultimate  end  and  aim  of 
such  spirits  should  be  to  attain  complete  reunion  with  the 
one  eternal  self  in  entire  self-anniliilation.  Coupled  with 
this  is  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls  (metempsycho- 
sis), which  seems  to  rest  upon  a  more  popular  foundation 
than  pantheism,  but  which  fused  very  readily  with  it.  Me- 
tempsychosis implies  tlie  belief  that  every  creature  is  born 
again  and  again  in  any  of  the  countless  possil)le  forms 
which  lie  between  the  great  self-existent  and  the  most  in- 
significant living  atom  in  the  universe.  Every  creature  is 
again  and  again  the  prey  of  death  until  he  accomplishes  the 
union  with  Brahma.  And  the  Hindus  assign  a  reason  for 
this  distressing  indestructibleness  of  individual  existence. 
It  is  desire  during  life.  Desire,  they  say,  produces  deeds  or 
action,  and  action,  wliether  good  or  bad,  is  by  its  very  na- 
tui'e  finite,  and  holds  the  actor  witliin  the  chains  of  finite 
existence.  Only  he  who  knows  this  and  acting  upon  this 
knowledge  eradicates  every  desire  by  separation  from  the 
world  attains  to  Brahma — that  is,  to  release  from  tlie  chain 
of  finite  existences. 

Brahmanieal  pantheism  is  necessarily  the  special  property 
of  the  spiritually  enlightened,  the  Brahmans.  Prior  to  the 
appearance  of  Buddha  these  ideas  remained  the  property  of 
learned  schools  solely.  To  the  people  the  Brahman  philoso- 
phers gave  notliing  but  a  polytheistic  worship,  which  kept 
on  changing  the  attractive  early  Vedic  beliefs  into  an  idol- 
atry growing  more  and  more  grotesque  at  every  stage  of  its 
development.  The  Brahmanieal  priests,  holding  in  their 
hands  the  knowledge  of  the  sacrifice,  grew  into  a  hierarchy 
whose  power  has  never  been  exceeded.  They  kept  oil 
strengthening  the  system  of  castes  which  even  to-day  is  the 
most  significant  social  factor  in  Hindu  life.  A  disjointed 
mass  of  sacred  writings  full  of  heterogeneous  doctrines  has 
grown  up,  based  in  a  large  measure  upon  Vedic  beliefs,  but 
absorbing  also  at  the  same  time  much  of  the  fetishism  of 
the  aborigines  of  India ;  it  has  stoo])ed  to  appropriate  and 
naturalize  the  adoration  of  the  fish,  the  boar,  the  serpent, 
the  monkey,  rocks,  stones,  and  trees.  At  present  the  essen- 
tials of  Brahmanieal  belief  may  be  sunimed  up  in  two  con- 
ditions :  the  admission  of  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  Brah- 
mans, and  obedience  to  the  caste-rules  concerning  food,  in- 
termarriage, and  professional  pursuits.  One  may  say  that 
the  practical  religion  of  the  1.5().00U,000  or  more  IJrahmani- 
eal  Hindus  now  living  is  the  law  of  caste.  The  more  gen- 
eral and  abstract  laws  of  religion  and  v  jrship  of  the  gods 
and  idols  are  not  ignored,  but  they  taki  a  distinctively  sec- 
ondary place.  The  highest  law  which  concerns  tlie  Hindu 
is  to  eat  correctly,  to  drink  correctly,  to  marry  correctly — 
that  is,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  that  obtain  in  his  caste. 
See  Barth,  The  R<-H(/inm  of  India  (Boston,  1882) :  Monier- 
Williiims,  Brahmiutism  and  I[iniliiism  (4th  ed.  New  York, 
Macmillan  &  Co.).     See  also  Saxkiiva  and  Caste. 

Mal'rice  Bloomfield. 

Brnlimapu'tra.  also  written  Biirrampootpr  (anc.  Di/ar- 
danen  or  CEdanfs) :  a  great  river  of  Asia.  It  rises  in  Tibet, 
where  it  first  has  a  southerly  course,  and  is  known  as  the 
Kharta:  then  it  has  a  long  course  eastward  as  the  Sanpu, 
flowing  in  the  valley  between  the  Himalava  and  (Jangri 
Mountains.  Opposite  Eastern  Bhutan  it  tiirns  S.  E.,  and 
is  known  a-s  the  Dihong  river.  In  Northea.st  Assam  it  re- 
ceives its  largest  tributary,  the  Burang  river,  when  it  be- 
comes the  Bralimaputra.  Its  general  ilirectinn  is  then  nearlv 
W.  S.  W.  until  it  passes  through  Assam  and  enters  Bengaj. 
It  flows  southward  through  Bengal,  and  enters  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  willi  the  flanges.  It  is  connected  with  the  (ranges 
not  oidy  by  a  common  delta,  but  by  a  large  branch  or  chan- 
nel called  the  .lenna.  which  leaves  the  Brahmaputra  about 
lat.  25'  N.  After  receiving  the  tributary  called  the  Meghna 
on  the  eiustern  side,  it  takes  the  name  of' that  stre;iin,  and  so 
remains  to  its  mouth.  It  thus  has  five  dilfereiit  n.-unes  in 
its  course.  The  identity  of  the  Sanpu  and  Brahmaputra 
Wfis  long  (loul)ted  by  geographers,  but  is  now  settled.  Its 
entire  course  is  estimated  at  1,800  miles.  It  inundates  the 
level  tnu'ts  of  Bengal  from  Ajjril  to  Sei)tember,  and  is  said 


to  discharge  into  the  sea  more  water  than  the  Ganges.  The 
violence  of  its  current  and  its  bore  (an  upward  wave  caused 
bv  the  sudden  influence  of  the  tide)  render  navigation  dif- 
fi'cult. 

Brallinin:  a  member  of  the  sacred  or  sacerdotal  caste 
among  the  Hindus.     See  Caste. 

Brah'ino  So'niaj  [the  Bengali  form  of  Sanskr.  Irnhma- 
samdja.  meeting  or  society  for  worship] :  a  society  of  Theists 
in  India.  Founded  in  1830  by  Rammohun  Roy,  it  increased 
in  numbers  aiul  activity  after  1843,  under  the  leadership  of 
Debendro  Nath  Tagore,  who  succeeded  in  emaneijiating  it 
from  Vedantism.  In  18.59  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  it  liy 
the  ability  and  enthusiasm  of  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  who  ef- 
fected the  separation  of  those  who  were  willing  to  abolish 
caste  in  their  communion,  as  the  "Brahmo  Somaj  of  India." 
The  more  conservative  members  remained  in  the  Somaj  or 
Church  of  Calcutta.  Many  of  them  are  young  Hindus  edu- 
cated at  the  English  colleges.  The  first  building  for  public 
worship  of  the  progressive  Brahmos  was  opened  at  Cal- 
cutta in  1869.  The  number  of  avowed  Brahmos  is  prob- 
ably not  more  than  between  4.000  and  .5.000.  Ijut  large  num- 
bers of  the  educated  natives  sympatliize  with  the  movement. 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  in  his  sermons  and  published  tracts, 
avowed  a  belief  in  the  unity  of  God,  in  immediate  revela- 
tion, in  the  necessity  of  a  new  birth,  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer.  His  moralitv  was 
]iure.  and  he  inculcated  reverence  for  the  character  of  Jesus 
Christ,  but  repudiated  the  doctrines  of  his  divinity,  media- 
tion, and  atonement  as  taught  in  the  New  Testament.  This 
•■  Unitarian  Theism "  is  said  to  resemble  the  theological 
rationalism  of  Theodore  Parker.  See  Si:r  3I(jnfhs  in.  India, 
by  Miss  Mary  Carpenter;  Hours  of  Wnrk  and  Play,  by 
Miss  P.  P.  Cobbe:  an  article  in  the  Conteniporari/ Befiew 
on  Indian  Theism,  etc.  (1869) ;  Dr.  Janiin's  paper  in  Pro- 
ceed inqs  of  the  AUahubud  Conference  (1872):  IMozoom- 
dar's  Life  and  Teachinffs  of  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  (1888); 
the  English  work  of  Rainmohun  Roy  {q.  v.)  (1888). 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Bralinis.  braams,  .Johaxnes  :  musician ;  b.  in  Hamburg, 
Germany,  ,May  7,  1833 ;  studied  first  under  his  father,  and, 
being  encouraged  by  Schumann  in  18.53,  resolved  to  devote 
himself  to  a  musical  career.  In  1861  left  Hamburg  for 
Vienna,  where  he  made  his  residence,  and  died  there  Apr. 
3,  1897.  His  principal  works  are  four  symphonies  for  full 
orchestra,  several  overtures,  and  other  orchestral  works; 
Rinaldo,  a  cantata  (for  male  voices);  Xoenia;  Song  of 
Destini/:  German  Requiem;  Song  of  the  Fates  (for  six- 
]iart  chorus) ;  Rhapsodic  (for  alto  solo  and  male  chorus) ; 
Song  of  Triumph  ;  Ave  Maria  (for  female  voices) ;  Funeral 
Hymn:  Thirteenth  Psa/m  (for  female  voices).  These  choral 
works  are  all  exceedingly  difficult,  but  very  efi'ective  when 
well  sung.  The  admirers  of  Brahms  consider  him  the  true 
successor  to  Beethoven,  and  his  first  symphony  was  consid- 
ered so  fine  by  some  critics  as  to  rank  after  Beethoven's 
yinth,  and  was  called  the  Tenth  Symphony.  His  orches- 
tral works  are  much  more  frequently  heard  than  his  choral 
compositions,  owing  to  the  great  dillieullies  in  the  latter. 
He  also  wrote  many  songs,  ballads,  and  small  choruses. 

D.  E.  Hervet. 

Braidwood;  city  (founded  in  1860);  Will  eo..  III.  (for 
location  of  countv.  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  3-G);  on  Chi- 
cago and  Alton  R.li. ;  58 miles  from  Chicago;  has 5 churches, 
5  public  schools,  coal-mining  and  agricultural  industries. 
Pop.  (1880)  5,524;  (1890)  4,641.     Editor  of  '-Bulletin." 

Braila.  braa-ee'la  (Turk.  Ihraila):  a  fortified  town  of 
Roumaiiia:  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube;  about  100 
miles  from  its  mouth  and  102  miles  N.  E.  of  Bucharest  (see 
map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  8-N).  Ijarge  quantities  of 
grain  and  other  produce  are  shipped  at  this  place,  which  is 
the  chief  pon  of  Honmania.     Pop.  29.000. 

BraiHi>  Alphabet:  See  Blind,  EurcATiox  of  the. 

Brain:  the  encephalon  or  contents  of  the  craniinu  :  the 
material  in.strument  of  thought,  impulse,  and  perception  in 
man  and  the  higher  animals.  Only  vertebrates  have  a  true 
brain  ;  in  othei-s  ganglia  or  nerve-centers  exist,  but  the 
"cephalic  ganglia"  of  insects  and  other  invertebrate  ani- 
mals arc  not  strictly  homologous  with  the  lirjiin. 

The  central  nervous  system  of  vertebrated  animals  con- 
sists of  the  .ipina!  corf/ "(see  Medulla  Spinalis),  contained 
within  the  spinal  canal  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  the  ex- 
l)amled  and  highly  differentiated  enrephalon,  lying  within 
its  protecting  bony  case,  the  cranium.     Disregarding  the 


BRAIN 


737 


exceptions  presented  by  certain  species  and  individuals,  the 
development  of  the  brain  advances  from  the  lowest  class  of 
vertcliratfs.  Ihc  fishes.  Ihrouiih  aiiiphiliiaiis,  reptiles,  birils, 
to  mamiiuils.  reaehin;;  its  ciilminatioii  in  man.  On  llie  one 
hand,  the  nmphi(j.ru>s — a  peculiar  fish,  refjarded  as  tlie  lowest 
vertebrate,  and  remarkable  for  the  rudimentary  condition  of 
its  orpin.s — nosses-ses  the  least  developed  brain,  t Ids  impor- 
tant ori;an  neinj;  represented  by  an  nnperfectly  dilferenti- 
ated  ceri'bral  vcsiele  m  wineli  the  anterior  end  of  the  spinal 
icird  ends:  so  immature  is  tlie  brain  in  tliis  animal  that  it 
was  foniiiTly  refrariled  as  entirely  absent.  In  man.  on  the 
lit  her  hand,  ihe  lirain  attains  its  highest  developnu-nt,  espe- 
( ially  in  tliose  peeuliarities  iiulicative  of  intellect  vial  power. 

The  ratio  between  tlie  weight  of  the  cncephalon  to  that 
of  tlie  entire  bodv  increases  as  the  zoiilogieal  seale  is  as- 
eended ;  thus  in  fishes  the  average  ratio  is  (according  to 
licuret)  aliout  as  1  to  o,()()8 ;  in  reptiles,  1  to  l.'Ml  ;  liirds,  1 
to  212  :  mammals,  1  to  186;  in  man.  1  to  ;5(i.  The  elephant 
has  the  largest  brain,  in  actual  weight,  of  all  animals,  some- 
times reaching  9  or  10  lb.;  next  is  that  of  the  whale, 
about  5  lb.  Tlie  heaviest  human  brains  have  never  weighed 
so  much  as  this,  yet  the  proportion  of  weight  of  the  brain 
to  the  whole  body  of  the  elephant  is  but  as  1  to  300.  In 
some  small  animals  and  birds  the  ratio  is  relatively  high; 
as  ill  the  marmoscl.  1  lo22:  field-mouse,  1  to  :il  ;  linnet  and 
laiiary-liird.  1  to  20;  and  the  lilue-headed  tit.  1  to  12.  But 
it  must,  lie  remembered  tliat  the  kind  of  brain  varies  also; 
while  the  sensory-motor  portions  of  tlie  brain  are  of  much 
greater  relative  size  in  tlie  lower  animals  than  in  man,  those 
parts  associated  with  the  highest  intelligence,  as  the  cere- 
liriil  hemispheres,  are  especially  conspicuous  in  the  human 
brain.  There  is  an  obvious  connection  between  the  degree 
of  eerebral  development  in  the  different  groups  of  animals 
and  their  intelligence  ;  the  brain  of  man  is  greatly  superior 
to  any  other  in  its  development.  As  Huxley  has  pointed 
out,  tile  ditTerence  in  the  a/riiclure.  of  the  brains  of  men  and 
of  the  higher  apes  is  not  very  marked,  anil  the  disjiarity  in 
size  is  less  than  between  the  highest  and  the  lowest  of  the 
quadrumana.  But  the  gap  is  a,  wide  one.  since  an  average 
European  child  of  four  yiairs  old  has  a  brain  twice  as  large 
as  an  adult  gorilla,  whose  weight  is  perhaps  four  times  as 
great. 

An  appreciation  of  the  plan  upon  which  the  primitive 
nervous  system  is  formed  is  essential  to  a  correct  under- 
standing of  the  adult  brain.  The  earliest  representative  of 
the  cerebro-spinal  axis  is  the  neural  tithe.,  lormed  by  the 
folding  in  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  embryo  along  its  dorsal 
surface.  Later,  the  anterior  end  of  thenciural  tube  expands 
into  three  primary  cerebral  vesicles — anterior,  inidtlle,  and 
posterior;  the  anterior  and  posterior  of  tliese  subsequently 
subdivide,  live  partially  eoiistrieted  sars,  known  as  fore- 
brain,  inter-brain,  mid-brain,  hind-brain  and  after- brain, 
now  representing  the  future  enocphalon.  These  vesicles, 
together  with  the  neural  canal,  constitute  a  single  thin- 
walled  tube,  whose  relatively  large  original  lumen  becomes 
proportionately  reduced  by  the  growth,  thickening,  and 
dilTerentiation  of  its  walls,  being  represented  in  later  lite  by 
t  lie  vi'iitrieles  of  the  brain  and  the  central  canal  of  the 
sjiinal  cord. 

In  the  typical  vertebrate  brain  certain  divisions  ai'e 
recognized,  which  correspond  to  its  primitive  condition; 
these  are  : 

(1)  I'msencephaJon.  comprising  the  structures  of  the 
cerebral  hemispheres,  together  witli  the  olfactory  lobes; 

(2)  Thalamenceiihaliin.  including  the  thalami  optici  and 
the  otlier  parts  about  the  third  ventricle; 

(3)  MesenceplialDii,  embracing  the  structures  around  the 
Sylvian  acpieduct,  with  the  crura  cerebri  below  and  the 
optic  lobes,  or  corpora  r|iiadrigemina,  above; 

(4)  Epenrephuton,  corresponding  to  the  cerebellum  and 
pons  Varolii ; 

(5)  Milencephahm,  consisting  principally  of  the  medulla 
oblongata. 

In  lislies.  those  parts  which  represent  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres are  generally  no  larger  than  the  optic  lobes  ;  a  con- 
dition to  which,  at  a  certain  stage  of  development,  the  brain 
of  the  human  embryo  presents  a  near  resemblance.  In  am- 
phibia and  reptiles  there  is  not  much  advancement,  but  the 
•■ureliral  hemispheres  are  larger  and  the  cerebellum  smaller. 
Birds  have  a  considerable  increase  in  the  size  of  the  hemi- 
splirres.  wliich,  in  them,  cover  the  olfactory  ganglia  in  front 
and  the  optic  hibes  behind;  the  cerebellum  in  them  is 
large.  To  each  of  these  the  embryonic  human  brain  has,  at 
certain  stages,  a  resemblance. 
47 


Mammals  present  great  diversity,  from  the  smooth-brained 
(Lissencephala  of  Owen)  Monotremata,  Marsupialia,  and 
Kodeiitia,  up  through  the  other  groups  to  the  highly  convo- 
luted ((iyreneephala)  and  olherwise  complex  brains  of  the 
anthropoid  apes,  as  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee.  In  the 
higher  apes  the  cerebral  hemispheres  roof  over  and  partly 
conceal,  when  looked  at  from  above,  the  cerebellum  behind, 
as  well  as  the  olfactory  bulbs  in  front;  in  the  lemurs,  how- 
ever, the  cerebellum  is  uncovered,  and  the  surface  of  the 
cerebrum  is  almost  devoid  of  coinoUitions. 

In  the  human  brain,  the  arrangement  of  its  parts  is  so 
profoundly  modified  by  the  excessive  development  of  the 
cereliral  hemispheres  that  the  correspondence  between  the 
typical  vertebrate  brain  and  the  adult  human  organ  becomes 
masked. 

The  average  weight  of  the  adult  human  brain  in  the 
male  is  about  49^  oz.  (1.400  grammes),  or  slightly  more  than 
3  lb.  avoirdupois ;  in  the  female,  about  44  oz.  The  u.sual 
difference  of  4  to  6  oz.  between  the  two  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  lesser  general  body-wi'ight  in  the  female,  and  not  to 
inferiority  of  eerebral  development,  since  the  ratio  of  the 
brain-weight  to  that  of  the  entire  body  has  been  shown  to  be 
practically  identical  in  both  sexes.  The  iiroportionate  weight 
of  the  brain  to  that  of  the  body  is  greatest  at  birth,  being  then 
about  as  1  :  (i  (Ticdcmann).  diminishing  gradually  to  the  tenth 
year,  when  the  ratio  is  1  :  14;  at  the  twentieth  year,  1  ::)0; 
after  that  period.  1  ;  3C'.').  The  brain  attains  its  greatest 
weight  at  about  the  fortieth  year;  after  that  time  a  diminu- 
tion is  said  to  take  jilace  at  the  rate  of  about  1  oz.  for  each 
decade. 

The  relation  between  brain-weight  and  intelligence  also 
must  be  admitted  witli  reservations.  While  it  may  be  ac- 
cejited  that  in  general  lieavy  brains  are  associated  with  high 
intelligenee.  as  in  the  comiiarison  of  nations  and  races,  yet 
brain-weight  can  not  be  relied  upon  as  the  index  of  mental 
capacity  in  individuals,  notwithstanding  the  consiiicuous 
correspondence  between  intellectual  endowment  and  high 
brain-weight  in  the  well-known  examples:  Cnvier.  1,861 
grammes  (65-7  oz.  avoir.);  Byron,  1,807  grammes  (6;i'8  oz.) ; 
Schiller,  l,.i80  grammes  (55'8  oz.) ;  Gauss.  1,492  grammes 
(52'7  oz.) ;  Dante.  1,420  grammes  (.'50-2  oz.).  and  others.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  brains  of  men  of  acknowledged  intellect- 
ual su]ieriority  have  weighed  less  than  the  average,  while 
some  of  the  heavii-st  brains  recorded  have  belonged  to  igno- 
rant and  illiterate  individuals.  Weight  alone,  thei-efore,  may 
be  regarded  as  suggestive,  Init  by  no  means  conclusive,  evi- 
dence of  intelligence ;  the  development  of  the  cerebral  con- 
volutions, the  amount  of  cortical  gray  matter,  and  the  num- 
ber of  ganglion  nerve-cells  are  all  factors  to  be  considered 
in  drawing  accurate  eomiiarisons  between  brains. 

The  capacity  of  the  cranium  closely  corresponds  with  the 
central  development;  the  average  capacity  of  the  normal 
cranium  is  about  1.400  cubic  cm.  (85  cubic  inches).  Skulls 
have  been  divided  into  three  classes ;  those  belonging  to  a 
middle  group,  or  mesoeephalic.  with  a  caiiacity  of  from  l,:i,iO 
cubic  cm.  (82  cubic  inches)  to  1 ,4.)0  cubic  cm.  (88  cubic  inches) ; 
tho.se  below  1.350  culiic  cm.  capacity  being  mirrorep/ialic; 
those  above  1,450  cubic  vm-.r/iei/nrep/iafir.  The  Eskimo  and 
Euro])ean  po.ssess  the  largest  cranial  capacity ;  llie  Hindu  the 
smallest.  The  cranium  of  idiots  may  be  reduced  to  corre- 
spond to  a  brain-weight  of  only  23  oz. 

It  is  usual  to  describe  the  human  encephalon  as  composed  of 
four  chief  divisions — cerelinim,  cerehellum.pons,  and  medulla 
(ihUintjala.  These  are  enveloped  within  the  skull  by  protect- 
ing membranes,  which,  from  without  inward,  are  the  dura, 
arachnoid,  and  pia.  The  dura  (mater)  is  the  onterden.se 
fibrous  investment,  closely  adhering  to  the  cranial  bones  in 
many  places,  and  sending  vertii-'al  partitions  between  the 
hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum,  and  support- 
ing and  separating  the  hind  part  of  the  former  from  the 
latter  by  a  horizontal  septum.  The  arachnoid  is  an  ex- 
tremely delicate,  web-like  structure,  usually  so  closely  ajiplied 
to  the  dura  that  it  is  frequently  overlooked.  The  pia  (mater) 
is  the  viuscular  tunic  of  the  brain,  sniiporting  and  conveying 
the  blood-vessels  supplying  the  nervous  ti.ssiie.  lying  closely 
applied  and  following  all  the  irregularities  of  its  surface. 

The  cerebrum  in  the  human  brain  greatly  exceeds  the 
other  parts  both  in  volume  and  weight,  constituting  about 
•87  of  the  entire  brain-weight.  It  consists  of  two  Item  i.iplieres 
(Fig.  1.  a  and  i)  divided  by  a  deep  median  cleft,  the  loniyi- 
tuilitial  fi.ixnre  (r).  in  which  the  sickle-like  fol<l  of  dura,  the 
falx.  projects;  the  separation  of  the  hemispheres  in  front 
and  behind  is  complete,  the  two  halves,  however,  being  con- 
nected by  a  transverse  bridge,  the  corpus  callosum,  situated 


738 


BRAIN 


at  the  bottom  of  the  fissure,  and  occupjing  a  little  more  than 
half  its  length. 

The  surfaces  of  the  hemispheres  in  the  adult  human  brain 
present  a  eompUeated  arrangement  of  coni-olutions  mid  in- 


Fio.  1.— Brain  viewed  frorn  abuve.  ehuwiug  svnie  of  the  principal 
fissures  and  convolutions  :  a,  6,  cerebral  hemispheres,  separated 
by  c,  the  longitudinal  fissure  ;  d.  placed  at  the  anterior  border  of 
the  central  fissure  ;  e,  part  of  parieto-occipital  fissure  ;  F,  P,  O, 
frontal,  parietal,  and  occipital  lobes. 

terrening  fissures  (Fig.  1),  resulting  from  the  extensive  fold- 
ing of  the  cerebral  surface  taking  place  during  the  growth 
of  the  organ,  greatly  increased  superficial  area  being  thereby 
secured  without  undue  augmentation  of  volume.  While  on 
cursory  examination  the  convolutions  seem  disposed  without 
order,  comparison  shows  that  they  are  grouped  according  to 
definite  plans  for  each  class  of  animal. 

Tlie  under  and  outer  surface  of  each  hemisphere  of  the 
cerebrum  of  man  presents  a  deep  oblique  incision,  the  fissure 


Fio.  8.— Median  section  through  the  brain,  exposing  mesial  surfaces, 
f  •  ^.  T,  and  O,  the  frontal,  parietal,  temporal,  and  occipital 
lobes ;  C,  cerebellum  ;  cc.  connis  callosum  ;  th.  thalmus  itlie 
letters  are  placed  in  third  ventricle,  seen  in  longitudinal  section) ; 
the  Sylvian  aqueduct,  shown  leading  from  third  to  fourth  ven- 
tricle ;  /.  M,  foramen  of  .Monro,  the  communication  between  the 
lateral  and  third  ventricles. 

of  Sylniis  (Fig.  3,  «),  which  begins  on  the  base  of  the  brain 
and  pa.s.ses  outward,  upward.  an<l  backward,  to  become  a  eon- 
yiieuous  landmark  on  the  lateral  aspect  of  the  cerebrum. 
The  less  marked  liut  important  central  or  Rolando's  fissure 
runs  more  nearly  vertical,  extending  from  close  to  the'fissurc 
of  Sylvius  almost  to  the  superior  margin  of  the  hemisphere 
(rig.  1,  d).  A  third  important  incision,  the  parieto-occipital 
fissure  (Fig.  1,  e),  is  scarcely  seen  on  the  hiteral  oi-  external 
surface,  but  appears  on  the  inner  or  mesial  as  a  cleft  extend- 
ing from  the  upper  margin  of  the  hemisiihere,  about  midway 
between  (he  central  fissure  and  tlie  jiosterior  end  of  the  braiii, 
downward  and  forward  for  a  variable  distance. 
These  cardinal  fissures  divide  each  hemisphere  into  five 


principal  divisions — the  frontal,  parietal,  occipital,  tem- 
poro-sphenoidal ,  and  central  lobes.  The  frontal  lobe  (Fig. 
1,  F;  Fig.  3,  e)  includes  the  anterior  part  of  the  hemisphere, 
its  posterior  boundary  being  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  and  the 
central  fissure.  The  parietal  lobe  (Fig.  1,  jP)  lies  between  the 
central  fissure  in  front,  the  parieto-occipital  fissure  behind. 


Fio.  3. — The  base  of  the  brain  :  a.  opposite  Sylvian  fissure  :  h.  hemi- 
spheres of  cerebellum  :  c.  pons  ;  d.  medulla  (the  latter  is  on  the 
anterior  pyramids)  ;  e.  /.  frontal  and  temporo-sphen<»idal  lobes  ; 
g,  crura  of  cerebrum  ;  1.  olfactory  bulb  ;  2.  optic  chiasm.  Cra- 
nial nerves  seen  emerging  from  sides  of  pons  and  medulla. 

and  the  .Sylvian  fissure  below.  The  occipital  lobe  (Fig.  1,  0} 
includes  the  part  of  the  hemisphere  lying  behind  the  parieto- 
occipital fissure.  Ijeing  separated  by  the  latter  from  the  pari- 
etal lobe  above,  but  fusing  with  this  and  the  temporo-sphe- 
noidal  lobe  below  ami  in  front.  The  most  dependent  portion 
of  the  hemisphere,  limited  in  front  and  above  by  the  fissure 
of  Sylvius  and  fusing  behind  with  the  parietal  and  occipital 
lobes,  constitutes  the  temporo-sphenoidal  lobe  (Fig.  3,  /).  At 
the  bottom  of  the  Sylvian  fissure,  covered  in  and  masked  by 
the  overhanging  parts  of  the  frontal  and  parietal  lobes,  lie's 
the  central  lobe  or  island  of  Reil.  Each  of  these  lobes  is  sub- 
divided by  secondary  fissures  into  a  number  of  convolutions. 
The  convolutions  bordering  the  central  fissure  (Fig.  1,  d) — 
ascending  frontal  (precentral)  and  ascending  parietal  (post- 
central)— are  of  especial  interest  as  being  the  areas  presiding 
over  the  motion  of  certain  important  regions  of  the  body,  as. 
will  be  presently  described. 


Fig.  4. — Lateral  view  of  brain,  showing  the  principal  fissures  and 
convolutions  of  the  cerebral  hemisphere,  the  cerebellum,  pons, 
and  oblongata  in  outline. 

Without  here  considering  the  minute  structure  of  the 
organ  under  consideration  (lor  which  see  IIistoloov).  it  must 
be  remembered  tliat  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  composed 
of  two  kinds  of  nervous  tissue — gray  and  white  mattei'.  The- 
gray  matter  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  ganglionic  nerve- 


BRAIN 


739 


cells,  lienec  its  importanoe  for  the  origination  of  impulses; 
the  white  matter,  on  the  contrary,  is  chiefly  composed  of 
tracts  of  nerve  filjei-s.  In  the  cereUriim  and  cereliellum,  the 
pray  matter  forms  a  continuous  external  or  nirticril  layer, 
usually  some  3  to  4  mm.  thick,  in  which  the  nerve  fibers,  es- 
tahlishinj;  communication  with  more  or  less  remote  parts  of 
the  liody,  en<l.  In  addition  to  the  gray  matter  of  the  cortex, 
other  larfjc  masses  of  this  tissue,  aa  the  corpus  striatum  and 
optic  thalamus,  lie  within  in  cerebrum,  where  they  form  the 
so-calleil  ■■  basal  f;anfrlia." 

In  order  to  examine  the  interior  of  the  cerebrum,  succes- 
sive horizontal  slices  may  be  removed  from  thi'  upper  part 
ot  the  hemispheres.  Above  the  level  of  the  transverse  bridge, 
or  corpus  cuUoainn  (Fij;.  5,  «),  the  sections  show  large  solid 
areas  of  white  nuitter  bordereil  by  the  gray  cortical  layer. 
On  removing  the  corpus  callosum,  two  large  intracerebral 
cavities,  the  lateral  reiifricli's.  are  exposed  (Figs.  5  and  6), 
one  in  either  hemisphere.  These  are  irregular  cavities,  pro- 
longed by  their  anterior,  posterior,  and  lateral  horns  or 
coniiia,  respectively,  into  the  frontal,  occipital,  and  temporo- 
sphenoidal  lobes.  The  ventricles,  of  which  there  are  four 
true  ones — the  tiro  latrral,  the  tliiril  and  the  fourth,  together 
with  the  so-called  fifth  ventricle,  which  does  not  correspond 
with  a  true  ventricle,  being  a  sjiac'c  really  without  the  neural 
tul)i — represent  the  remains  of  the  cephalic  divisions  of  the 
primitive  neural  caiud. 

Certain  irregularities  project  into  the  sides  and  floor  of 
the  lateral  ventricles.  The  must  important  and  conspicuous 
are  the  carpus  striatum  (Fig.  fi,  h).  occupying  the  sides  and 
floor  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  cavity,  and  the  ojitic 
Mn/(nH«.<  (Fig.  6,  rt).  situated  behind  and  to  the  inner  side 
of  the  former.  The  striatum  comprises  masses  of  white  and 
gray  matter:  of  the  latter  are  the  intra-ventricular  portion, 
or  caudatf  nucli-us.  appearing  within  the  lateral  ventricle, 
and  the  extra-ventrii-ular  jiart, or /(•«/«•(//»/■  «((<7e!(s  ;  these 
two  are  separated  by  a  conspicuous  tract  of  white  matter, 
the  internal  capsule,  coiuposed  of  buiKlles  of  nerve  fibers 
pa.ssing  from  the  cerebral  cortex  to  the  deeper  basal  ganglia 
and  to  the  tracts  connecting  the  cerebrum  with  the  subja- 
cent divisions  of  the  brain. 

The  third  ventricle  is  a  T-shapeil  cavity,  the  vertical  arm 
being  a  narrow  cleft  (Fig.  (i,  il)  between  the  mesial  surfaces 
of  the  thalarai  (Fig.  (i.  a),  while  the  horizontal  limb  extends 
nver  the  U|)per  surface  of  the  latter,  being  roofed  in  by  the 
delicate  vascular  membrane,   the   velum    interpositum,  an 


Fio.  5.— Horizontal  section  of  the  l)rain,  about  at  the  level  of  the 
corpus  callcistun  la),  which  has  been  partly  removed  to  expose 
the  nniierlyiiij;  lateral  ventricles,  whose  anterior  and  posterior 
horns  extend  into  the  frontal  and  occipital  lobes. 

extension  of  the  pia.  Three  connecting  bands — anterior, 
middle,  and  posterior  commissures — bridge  the  cleft  of  the 
ventricle  and  <'oniU'ct  the  two  thalami ;  the  middle  commis- 
sure is  composed  of  gray  matter,  the  other  two  of  white. 
The  thalami  are  composed  largely  of  gray  matter  inter- 
spersed with  bundles  of  fibers.  At  the  extreme  anterior  enil 
of  the  third  ventricle  a  Y'-slia]ied  opening,  the  foramen  of 
Monro,  establishes  communication  between  the  lateral  and 


third  ventricles,  while  at  its  posterior  extremity  the  narrow 
aqueduct  of  Sylvius  leads  from  the  third  to  the  fourth  ven- 
tricles. The  so-called  fifth  ventricle  (Fig.  6,  f)  is  a  narrow 
slit,  included  within  the  septum  lucidum,  separating  the 
lateral  ventricles  and  roofed  in  by  the  corpus  callosum 
above ;  it  does  not  correspond  to  a  true  ventricular  cavity, 
having  no  eomnniiiic  ntion  and  being  really  a  cut  off  portion 
of  the  great  longitudinal  fissure. 

Immediately  behind  the  third  ventricle  and  above  the 
aqueduct  of  .Sylvius  four  tuberosities  are  seen  (Fig.  6,  g),  ar- 
ranged as  upper  and  lower  pairs;  these  are  the  corpora 
(juadrigemina  of  the  hunuin  brain,  and  correspond  to  the 
singly  paired  optic  lobes,  which  in  other  classes,  especially 
in  fishes  and  amphibia,  constitute  very  conspicuous  parts  of 
the  brain,  soiiu-times  even  exceeding  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres. Above  the  corpora  quadrigemina  is  situated  a  pe- 
culiar cone-shaped  organ,  the /;('«*>«/  l/odi/{Vig.  6,  h),  whose 
significance  was  for  centuries  a  riddle.  Among  other  the- 
ories as  to  its  function.  Desi'artes  reganled  it  as  the  seat  of 
the  soul.  Recent  comparative  researches  justify  the  belief 
that  this  body  represents  in  man  and  the  higher  animals 
the  degenerate  remainsof  what,  in  past  ages,  in  lower  classes 
was  a  functioiuiting  third  organ  of  sight-^the  pineal  eye. 

The  cerel/etlum.  or  little  brain,  weighing  about  one-eighth 
a*!  much  as  the  cerebrum  and  contributing  about  one-tenth 
of  the  weight  of  the  entire  brain,  occupies  the  posterior  fossa 
of  the  cranium.  In  man  it  is  completely  covered  in  above 
by  the  highly  developed  cerebral  mantle,  being  separated 
from  the  cerebrum  by  the  great  transverse  (Bichal's)  fis- 
sure, and  the  horizontal  partition  of  dura,  the  tentorium. 


FiQ.  6.— Horizontal  seeiic  m  i  •(  t  he  brain  below  the  level  of  corpus  callo- 
sum, exposing  lateral  ib.  b),  third  u/i.  and  fourth  (e)  ventricles  ; 
/,  cleft  within  septum  liieidiuii  called  fifth  ventricle  ;  b.  b,  inter- 
ventricular surface  of  striatum,  corresponding  to  nucleus  cauda- 
tus  ;  (I.  a.  upper  surface  of  thalamus  ;  y.  corpora  quadrigemina  ; 
h.  pineal  body.  Posterior  parts  of  hemispheres  nave  Ijeen  re- 
moved to  show  cerebellnm  ic).  the  median  portion  of  the  latter 
cut  away  to  expose  fourth  ventricle  (e)  and  medulla  ii). 

The  cerebellum  consists  of  two  hemispheres  (Fig,  8,  h.  b), 
partially  seiiarated  by  a  deep  valley  traversed  by  various 
commissural  tracts.  In  addition  to  tlii^  separation  into  an 
upper  and  lower  portion  elTectcd  by  the  great  horizontal  fis- 
sure, each  hemisphere  is  divided  into  a  number  of  lobes  by 
secondary  fissures,  on  the  upper  surface  there  being  two.  on 
the  lower  five,  such  lobes.  The  exterior  of  the  cerebelhnn 
presents  numerous  thin  folds  or  lamina',  which,  on  tran.s- 
verse  section,  exhibit  a  characteristic  foliated  appearance — 
the  art/or  vita'  of  the  older  anatomists — of  the  cortical  layer 
of  gray  matter  covering  in  thi'  central  while  stems  of  nerve 
fibers.'  liy  means  of  a  pair  ot  anterior  stalks,  or  peduncles, 
the  cerebellum  directly  communicates  with  the  anterior  divi- 
sion of  the  ence|>halon,  through  the  |iosterior  peduncles, 
with  the  subjacent  medulla,  while  the  transverse  fibers  of 
the  pons  constitute  the  commissure  uniting  the  hemispheres. 
The  remaining  divisions  of  the  brain — the  jions  and 
medulla — contain  chielly  white  matter,  being  ntiule  up 
largely  of  bundles  of  nerve  fibers  passing  from  the  spinal 


740 


BRAIX 


BRAIN-CORAL 


cord  to  higher  portions  of  the  nervous  axis.  The  pons  ( Var- 
oliC)  (Fig.  3,  c)  unites  the  vurious  segments  of  the  eneepha- 
lou,  connecting  the  cerebrum  above,  the  cerebellum  be- 
hind, and  the  medulla  below.  It  appears  as  a  quadrate 
bodv  lying  almve  the  medulla,  between  the  hemispheres 
of  the  cerebellum,  and  beneath  those  of  the  cerebrum.  Al- 
ternate layers  of  transverse  and  longitudinal  fibers,  together 
with  a  limited  amount  of  gray  matter,  constitute  its  mass ; 
the  transvei-se  bundles  connect  the  cerebellar  hemispheres, 
while  the  longitudinal  contain  the  libers  passing  to  and 
from  the  higher  centers.  At  the  ujiper  border  of  the  pons 
the  longitudinal  fibers  are  collected  into  two  rounded  stalks, 
the  cerebral  crura  (Fig.  3,  g).  which  diverge  and  enter  the 
base  of  the  hemispheres,  forming  the  immediate  bond  of 
union  between  the  cerebrum  and  pons,  and  constituting  the 
great  highway  for  the  conveyance  of  nervous  impressions  to 
and  from  the  cerebrum. 

The  meiluUa  ohlongala  (Fig.  3,  d).  the  most  dependent 
division  of  tlie  lirain,  extends  from  the  lower  border  of  the 
pons  to  become  continuous  with  the  spinal  cord  below.  It 
is  composed  principally  of  the  tracts  of  nerve  fibers  of  the 
spinal  cord  (see  Medulla  Spdjalis),  which  are  continued 
into  the  medulla  to  l)ecome  rearranged  as  the  anterior  pyr- 
amids, laferal  tracts,  resfiform  bodies,  and  posterior  pyr- 
amids. The  most  conspicuous  of  these  are  the  auterior 
pyramids  (d),  wliich  include  the  fibers  derived  from  the  an- 
terior and  lateral  columns  of  the  cord;  at  the  lower  end  of 
these  pjTamids  a  crossing  or  decussation  of  part  of  the  bun- 
dles takes  place,  by  which  arrangement  fibers  connected  with 
one  hemisphere  pass  to  the  opposite  half  of  the  cord  and  body, 
a  fact  of  importance  in  explaining  the  phenomena  of  palsy. 
On  the  posterior  surface  of  the  medulla  the  resfiform  bodies 
are  the  largest  tracts,  collecting  the  fibers  from  the  posterior 
and  lateral  columns  of  the  cord,  and  becoming  the  posterior 
peduncles  of  the  cerebellum.  The  olivary  bodies  are  two 
prominent  oval  masses  situated  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
medulla,  near  its  upper  part,  between  the  anterior  pyramids 
and  the  lateral  tracts.  The  space  included  between  the 
upper  surface  of  the  pons  and  medulla  below,  and  the 
cerebellum  and  its  attachments  above,  is  the  fourth  ventricle 
(Pig.  6.  e),  continuous  with  the  third  through  the  Sylvian 
aqueduct  in  front,  and  with  the  central  canal  of  the  spinal 
cord  behind.  Tlie  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  contains  a 
layer  of  gray  matter,  derived  practically  as  the  continuation 
of  that  of  the  cord  from  below ;  this  sheet  of  gray  sub- 
stance is  of  especial  interest  and  importance  on  account  of 
its  relation  to  the  deep  origin  of  many  important  cranial 
nerves. 

On  examining  the  exterior  of  the  base  of  the  brain  (Fig. 
3).  in  addition  to  the  lobes,  convolutions,  fissures,  pituitary 
and  mammillary  bodies,  and  otiier  details  of  its  surface,  there 
is  seen  the  superficial  origin  of  the  twelve  pairs  of  cranial 
nerves,  named  in  the  order,  from  before  backward,  in  which 
they  emerge  from  the  surface  of  the  encephalon.  The  first 
or  olfactory  nerves  extend  along  the  under  surface  of  the 
frontal  lobe,  ])ar,Hllel  with  the  median  fissure,  terminating 
in  bulbovis  expansions  (Fig.  3,  1),  and  represent  the  olfac- 
tory lobes  of  many  animals.  The  second  or  optic  nerves 
diverge  outward  and  forward  from  the  point  of  their  junc- 
tion and  decussion,  the  c/iiasni  (Pig.  3,  2),  the  widely  ex- 
panded optic  tracJs  winding  backward  across  the  crui-a  to 
end  in  the  thalami  and  corpora  quadrigemina.  The  third 
or  motor  ocnli  nerves  appear  at  the  inner  borders  of  the 
crura,  while  the  fourth  or  pathetic  wind  round  the  crura 
from  without  in,  usu;dly  lying  close  to  the  anterior  border 
of  the  pons,  'i'he  fifth  or  trifacial  nerves,  among  the  most 
important  of  tho.se  given  off  from  the  brain,  are  seen  emerg- 
ing on  either  side  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  pons.  The 
aij-th  or  abducent  nerves  appear  at  the  lower  border  of  the 
pons  in  the  depression  between  the  pons  and  medulla.  Be- 
ginning at  the  upper  end  of  the  latter,  groups  of  fibers,  com- 
posing the  seventh  (facial),  eighth  (auditory),  ninth  (glosso- 
pharyngeal), tenth  (pneumngastric),  and  eleventh  (spinal 
acce-isory)  nerves,  escape  from  the  group  between  the  resfi- 
form body  liehind  and  tlie  olivary  body  and  lateral  tract  in 
front.  The  twelfth  or  h ypoglossnl  nerve  arises  superficially 
from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  oblongata  between  the  pyra- 
mids and  olivary  boilies.  For  many  other  details  ot  the 
complex  strui'turc  of  the  brain,  which  must  be  here  omit- 
teil.  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  on  anatomy. 

As  has  been  stated  already,  the  central  masses  of  white 
matter,  contribuliiig  so  large  a  portion  of  the  bulk  of  the 
brain,  are  comiiosed  of  bundles  of  nerve  fibers.  Tlie  ar- 
rangement of  these  fibers  is  very  complex,  and  the  accurate 


determination  of  their  course  is  a  subject  of  great  difHeidty. 
Only  a  brief  outline  of  the  general  plan  of  their  distributiiju 
is  here  possible.  The  nerve  fibers  of  the  cerelirum  are  ar- 
ranged in  four  principal  groups:  (1)  those  uniting  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  same  hemisphere ;  (2)  those  connecting 
identical  areas  of  the  two  hemispheres,  being  the  fibers  com- 
posing the  callosum  and  the  anterior  commis.sure;  (3)  fibers 
passing  between  dissimilar  points  of  the  two  hemispheres; 
(4)  those  extending  from  the  cortex  directly  or  through  the 
basal  ganglia,  into  the  crura,  and  I'ice  versa,  by  their  diverg- 
ing course  forming  the  corona  radiata.  Numerous  fiber- 
tracts  are  found  within  the  cerebellum,  the  principal  ones 
affording  connections  with  the  adjacent  parts,  as  well  as 
uniting  the  various  points  of  the  cerebellum  itself. 

Regarding  the  functions  of  the  structures  constituting  the 
encephalon,  much  uncertainty  still  exists;  it  may  be  as- 
sumed, liowever,  that,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge, the  cerebral  hemispheres  are  the  seat  of  all  psychical 
acti\'ities  involved  in  the  processes  of  thinking,  feeling,  and 
willing.  After  destruction  of  these  parts,  the  functions  es- 
sential to  the  maintenance  of  life  are  carried  on  uninter- 
ruptedly, but  without  the  accustomed  guidance  of  intelli- 
gent volition.  Both  hemispheres  participate  in  these 
psychical  activities,  so  that  impairment  of  one  may  be  over- 
come by  the  other.  From  the  anatomical  peculiarities  al- 
ready described,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  the  con- 
nection of  the  cerebral  cortex  with  the  other  parts  of  the  brain 
is  essential  for  the  exercise  of  will  power  and  intelligence. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  highly  probable  that  every  voluntary 
act  influencing  a  given  part  of  the  body  is  under  the  control 
of  some  definite  area  of  the  cerebral  cortex.  Such  areas  have 
been  determined  with  accuracy  by  experiment  and  disease 
for  some  few  functions:  among  these,  that  the  movements  of 
the  lower  extremity,  upper  limb,  and  face  are  controlled  re- 
spectively l)y  the  upi>er.  middle,  and  lower  thirds  of  the 
cortical  substance  bounding  the  central  fissui-e — that  is.  of 
the  ascending  frontal  and  parietal  convolutions.  The  area 
for  speech  is  situated  chiefly  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  in- 
ferior frontal  convolution  of  the  left  hemisphere,  the  central 
lobe,  or  the  island  of  Reil,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Sylvian 
fissure,  being  also  probably  involved.  Hearing  is  attrilnitrd 
to  the  u)iiier  temporal  convolution,  while  sight  is  jirobably 
connectcil  with  a  center  situated  within  the  occipital  lobe 
(cunevs},  cudjracing  possibly  the  neighboring  part  of  the 
parietal.  Smell  and  taste  seem  to  be  associated  in  their 
areas,  their  joint  center  Vjeing  ascribed  a  position  on  the 
inner  and  under  side  of  the  temporal  lobe.  Integrity  of  the 
paths  conducting  impidses  from  the  cortical  centers  is,  of 
course,  essential  for  the  performance  of  function  :  when  the 
uniting  tract  of  nerve  fibers  is  damaged,  as  by  an  ajiopleetic 
clot,  the  stimulus  is  interrupted,  and  those  parts  beyond  the 
obstruction,  supplied  by  the  affected  fibers,  remain  unre- 
sponsive to  volition,  or  jiaralyzed.  Regarding  the  functions 
of  the  striatum  and  thalamus  very  little  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty. The  corpora  quadrigemina  are  lielieved  to  be  in- 
timately concerned  in  m.iintaining  co-ordiiiation  of  move- 
ment and  equilibrium,  as  well  as  connected  with  the  deep 
origin  of  the  nerves  of  sight.  The  cerebellum  apparently 
exercises  gi-cat  control  over  exact  co-ordination  of  movement ; 
neither  jjsychical  activity,  volition,  nor  consciousness  is 
disturbed  by  injuries  limited  to  this  part  of  the  brain.  The 
medulla  contains  the  areas  presiding  over  many  reflex  acts, 
among  these  being  the  centers  controlling  respiration,  cough- 
ing, sneezing,  swallowing,  vomiting,  and  others.  In  conclu- 
sicin,  it  may  be  repeated  that  every  part  of  the  body  influenced 
by  will  Jirobably  is  supplied  by  nerves,  which,  in  addition  to 
the  communication  with  ganglion-cells  of  the  basal  ganglia 
or  spinal  cord,  are  connected  with  some  definite  presiding 
cortical  area,  although  our  present  knowledge  of  these  in- 
tricate relations  enables  us  to  locate  but  few  of  the  many 
controlling  centers  which  undoubtedly  exist.  See  Locali- 
zation, Physiology,  and  Psycholoqy.         G.  A,  Pieksol, 

Brnin'ard.  Jnnx  Gardiner  Calkins:  poet;  b.  in  New 
London,  Coiui..  Oet,21,  1796.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1.S14. 
He  ]iulilislicd  a  volume  of  poems  in  182.').  and  was  for  six 
years  eilitor  of  tlie  Connecticut  Jlirror.  T).  in  New  London, 
.Sejit,  26,  1S2S,  See  Memoir  of  Brainard,  prefixed  to  his 
works,  by  J,  G,  Whitticr,  1832, 

Braiii-poral :  one  of  sever.al  species  of  massive  actinoid 

coral  in  which  the  furrowed  surface  of  the  coral  resembles 
the  convolutions  of  the  brain.  "  Over  the  curved  surface  of 
a  live '  brain-stone '  are  stretched  the  soft  organic  parts  of  the 
corid,  while  in  the  superficial  furrows  lie  the  stomachs  which 


BRA IKE 


BRANCH 


741 


have  a  similar  serpentine  form  to  the  convolutions  in  which 
they  Ho.  Upon  tlie  surface  of  tlie  brain-stone,  arranged  in 
lines,  are  found  rows  of  mouths,  each  opening  into  that 
stomadi  or  part  of  the  stomach  which  lies  just  bcucatli 
them."    (Fewkes,  in  Standard  Xalurul  Ilislory.) 

David  S.  .Joru.vx. 

Braiiio,  Dantei,  Laurenxe:  rear-admiral  U.S.  navy;  b. 
in  the  city  of  Xew  York,  May  IM,  1H".J9;  entered  the  navy  as 
a  miilshipmaii  May  ;iO,  1H46.  In  1K61-63  lie  commanded  the 
steamer  Mouticello,  lakinjr  part  in  tlie  eniragement  with  the 
battery  at  Sewell's  Point,  mar  Norfolk,  Va.,  May  19,  1861, 
and  in  the  capture  of  Forts  Ilatteras  jind  Clark,  N.  C,  Oct. 
5  of  the  same  year.     Retired  May  IS,  181)1. 

Braine-le-Conite.  bran  le-koiif :  a  town  of  Belgium; 
province  of  llainault;  on  the  railway  from  Brussels  to 
Valenciennes  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  ll-D); 
ha.s  a  chureh  built  al«>ut  1:{(K),  also  cotton-mills  and  dye- 
works.     Fine  flax  is  raised  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  (18tM))  776. 

Briiin'erd  :  city :  capital  of  ( 'row  Wing  co..  Minn.  ( IVu-  loca- 
tion of  couuly.  see  miip  of  Minnesota,  ref.  6-D):  on  Northern 
Pacific  R.  K.  and  Brainerd  and  Northern,  and  on  east  bank 
of  Mississippi  river:  l:i6  miles  N.  of  St.  Paul.  115  miles  W. 
of  Duluth;  has  8  public-school  buildings.  l."i  cliurclies.  mam- 
moth shops  of  Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  water-works,  electric 
lights,  electric  street  railway,  and  imnu'tise  saw-mills,  now 
(1892)  being  constructed.  The  surrounding  district  is  good 
farming  land.    Pop.  (1880)  1.865 ;  (1890)  5,'703 :  (1895)  7,031. 

Editor  of  "  Tribuxe." 

Brailienl.  David:  missionary;  b.  in  Iladdam,  Conn., 
Apr.  •.>(>,  171X.  He  entered  Yale  College  in  17'.i9,  but  was 
expelled  in  1 742  f<ir  an  (jffcnse  growing  out  of  an  excess  of 
religious  zeal.  It  is  probable  that  his  ardent  evangelistic 
elTorts  were  offensive  to  his  college  superioi-s.  In  1743  he 
began  his  famous  labors  among  the  Indians  in  a  village 
about  halfway  between  Stockbridge,  3Iass.,  and  Albany, 
N.  Y.  The  year  following  he  went  among  the  Delawares 
in  Pennsylvania,  ami  afterward  to  Crossweeksung  in  New 
.Jersey,  where  lie  had  liis  most  signal  success.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1747  he  returned  to  Massachusetts  in  broken  licalth, 
and  died  at  Nortliamptiiu,  Oct.  9,  1747.  .Jonathan  Edwards, 
to  whose  daughter  he  was  engaged  to  be  married,  and  at 
whose  house  he  died,  published  a  memoir  of  him  in  Boston, 
1749;  new  edition,  with  his  journals,  by  Sereno  E.  Dwight. 
in  New  Haven,  1822;  best  edition  by  Sherwood  (New  York, 
18S4). 

Brniiierd.  .Jonx:  a  younger  brother  of  David  Brainerd  ; 
b.  at  llaildam.  Conn.,  feb.  28.  1720;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1746:  and  wa-s  for  a  time  successor  to  his  brother  as 
missionary  among  the  Indians  in  New  .Jersey.  In  1757  he 
was  settled  at  Newark,  and  in  1777  at  Deerfield,  N.  .J.,  where 
he  died  Mar.  18.  1781.  See  his  Life,  by  Tliomas  Brainerd 
(Philadeliihia.  1865). 

Brainerd,  Thomas.  I).  D.  :  of  the  same  stock  as  David 
and  Joliu  Brainerd:  b.  at  Lcyden.  N.  Y.,  June  17,1804; 
graduated  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Massachusetts, 
in  1831.  From  1831  to  1833  he  wjis  pastor  of  the  Fourth 
Presbyterian  cliuich  in  Cincinnati.  O. ;  from  1833  to  1836 
edite<l  the  Cinriniinti  Journal  and  Yoidh'x  Maijnzine;  from 
1837  till  his  death  was  pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  cliurch, 
Phihi<lel[)hia.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  New  School  party. 
He  published  in  18(55  the  Life  of  John  Brainerd,  etc.  I),  in 
Scranton.  Pa..  Aug.  21, 1866.  See  his  Life  bv  Mary  Brainerd 
(Philadel|)hia.  1870). 

Braiii-fi'ver:  a  popular  name  for  Cerebral  Mexixgitis 
(q.  c), a  ilangerous  disease,  characterized  in  its  earlier  stages  by 
very  high  fever  and  intense  headache,  usually  followed  by 
delirium  anil  death.  Inflammation  of  the  brain  itself  (en- 
cephalitis) is  less  common,  but  is  even  more  fatal  than  the 
former.  It  is  not  easy  to  discriminate  between  the  two  dur- 
ing life.  Cold  applications  to  the  head  and  mild  but  per- 
sistent derivative  treatment  are  generally  indicated. 

Braiii'tree:  town;  Norfolk  co.,  Mass.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  3-1);  on  Old  Colony 
R.  R.;  10  miles  S.  of  Boston.  Here  are  manufactures  of 
imuhinerv,  woolen  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  pa))er,  tacks, 
cordage,  etc.     Pup.  (1880)  3,!»4S;  (1890)  4,848;  (189.5)  5,311. 

Braize,  or  Becker,  or  I'orgy :  names  applied  in  Great 
Britain  to  Spanm pagrux;  a  sea-fish  allied  to  the  American 
scup,  and  valued  as  food. 

Brake:  a  thicket;  a  nlacc  overgrown  with  shrubs,  bram- 
bles, or  ferns.     In  the  U.  S.  a  thicket  of  canes  is  called  a 


"  canebrake."  The  name  is  also  applied  to  Pteris  aquilina 
and  many  other  large  ferns. 

Brake  :  an  instrument  used  to  break  flax  or  hemp ;  the 
hand  or  lever  by  which  a  pump  is  worked:  a  large  harrow 
used  in  agriculture;  a  sharp  bit  or  snafHe  (of  a  bridle). 

Brake  :  a  machine  attached  to  the  wheels  of  hea\'V  car- 
riages and  railroad  cars,  which,  when  pressed  against  the 
wheels,  retards  or  stops  their  motion  by  friction.  Patents 
have  been  obtained  in  the  U.  S.  for  numerous  machines  or 
inventions  lor  this  purpose.  Among  these  are  "steam  car- 
brakes."  in  the  use  of  which  the  friction  is  produced  by 
steam-power,  and  the  engineer  of  a  locomotive  applies  the 
brakes  by  the  turning  of  a  cock;  and  the  "  Wcstinghouse 
aii'-brake,"  also  controlled  by  the  engineer,  now  extensively 
used.    See  Railway  Eijiipment  under  Railways. 

Bra'nia;  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  C/ia'fodontidcB 
having  the  body  very  deep  and  compressed,  a  single  elon- 
gated dorsal  fin,  and  a  forked  tail,  the  points  of  which  are 
widely  divergent.  The  Brama  rail,  sometimes  called  bream, 
is  common  in  the  Jlediterranean,  and  is  highly  esteemed  for 
food. 

Bramali,  bray'ma,  .Joseph:  machinist  and  inventor:  b. 
in  Stainborough,  near  Barnsley,  Yorkshire.  England,  Apr. 
13,  1749.  He  carried  on  business  in  London,  and  gained 
distinction  by  numerous  and  valuable  inventions,  among 
which  are  a  safety  lock,  a  hydrostatic  press,  and  improve- 
ments in  fire-engines  and  steam-engines.  D.  in  Pimlico, 
London,  Dec.  9,  1814 

Bramnli's  Press:  See  Hydrostatic  Press. 

Branianfe:  architect.     See  Lazzari. 

Brambling.   Bramblefliieli.  or  Monntain   Finch:    a 

small  bird  (Frincjilla  mvn/ifringilla):  nearly  allied  to  the 
chaftincli,  than  which  it  is  rather  larger.  The  predominant 
colors  of  the  upper  parts  are  black  and  lirown,  with  white 
bands  on  the  wings.  The  belly  is  white,  and  some  of  the 
wing-coverts  are  yellow.  It  breeds  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  and  visits  England,  ItiJy,  and  other 
countries  as  a  winter  bird  of  passage. 

BramliaU, .JoH.N  :  Anglican  prelate;  b.  at  Bramhall  Hall, 
Cheshire:  baptized  at  Pontefract,  Nov.  18,  1.594;  educated 
at  Cambridge;  B.  A.  1612;  became  Bishop  of  Deny  1634; 
imitated  Laud's  policy  of  intolerance,  which  lost  Ulster  to 
the  king  and  drove  the  bishop  to  take  refuge  in  France; 
while  in  ParLs  engaged  in  a  losing  controversy  with  Hobbes 
on  the  (piestion  of  freedom  of  the  will ;  at  the  Restoration 
made  Archbishop  of  Armagh  1661.  D.  at  Armagh,  June  25, 
1063. 

Braniptoii :  town :  capital  of  Peel  co.,  Ontario,  Canada 
(for  location,  see  map  of  (Ontario,  ref.  4-1));  situated  at 
junction  of  Can.  Pac.  and  Grand  Trunk  Railways:  21  miles 
W.  of  Toronto ;  has  manufactures  of  flour,  farming  imple- 
ments, gas-pipe,  chandelier,  pumps,  etc.,  and  a  large  trade. 
Pop.  (1881)  2,920 ;  (1891)  3,252. 

Editor  of  "  Conservatoe." 

Bram'well.  Sir  Frederick  Joseph,  Bart.,  D.C.  L.,P.  R.  S. : 
b.  in  Londcm  in  1818.  From  his  earliest  boyhood  he  evinced 
a  great  interest  in  mechanics.  In  1834  he  was  apprenticed 
to  John  Hague,  mechanical  engineer,  with  whom  he  con- 
tinued a  few  years  as  principal  draltsman:  in  18.53  com- 
menced business  on  his  own  account  as  a  civil  engineer;  in 
18.56  was  elected  associate  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers, in  1862  to  full  membershi]i;  in  1867  was  member  of 
the  council:  in  1884-85  was  president.  From  1871  to  1875 
he  was  jiresident  of  the  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
In  1881  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  the  promotion  of 
teclinical  education  ;  in  1886  received  the  honorary  degree 
of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford ;  in  1889  he  was  created  a  baronet. 

W.  R.  H. 

Brail :  the  husk  or  outer  covering  of  wheat,  which  in  the 
process  of  fh)uring  is  separated  from  the  tine  flour.  In  100 
parts  of  bran  there  are  of  water,  13-1;  albumen,  19'3:  oil, 
4'7:  husk  (with  a  little  starch), . 55-6 :  a.sh  or  saline  matter, 
7'3.  Calico-[>rinters  use  bran  and  warm  water  to  remove 
coloring-matter  from  those  parts  of  their  goods  which  are 
not  mordanted.  Bran  and  the  flour  united — i.  e.  unbolted 
wlieat  flour — make  a  good  bread,  wliicli  is  considered  more 
digestilile  than  that  made  of  tine  white  flour.     Sec  Flour. 

Brancll  (in  botany) :  a  part  of  any  organ  or  member  of 
the  plant-body  whicli  has  grown  out  from  another  similar 
organ  or  member.  Thus  we  have  root-branches  and  stem- 
branches,  branches  of  leaves,  branches  of  stamens,  branches 


7i2 


BRANCH 


BEANDIS 


of  hairs,  etc.  Among  the  lower  plants  we  find  branching 
cells,  branching  threads,  branching  thallomes.  etc.  Popularly 
tlie  term  is  often  erroneously  restricted  to  stem-branclies. 

In  systematic  botany  hrniieh  is  a  great  division  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  :  thus  we  si)eak  of  the  branch  of  Proto- 
phytes.  the  branch  of  Bryupliytes,  etc.  See  Vegetable 
Kingdom.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Branch,  John  :  h.  at  Halifax,  X.  C,  Nov.  4.  1782 ;  gi-adu- 
ated  at  tlie  University  of  North  Carolina  in  1801 ;  became  a 
lawver;  was  made  a  judge  of  the  superior  court ;  Governor 
of  North  Carolina  (1817-20):  U.  S.  .Senator  (182:i-29) ;  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy  (1829-:31) ;  member  of  Congress  (1831-33) : 
Governor  of  Flori<la  Territory  (1811  15) :  besides  holding 
other  important  offices.     1).  at  Edgefield,  N.  C,  Jan.  4, 1863. 

Branch,  Lawrence  O'Brien:  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  in 
Halifax  co.,  N.  C,  July  7,  1820:  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1838;  was  a  Democratic  representative  in  Congress  from 
1855  to  1861.  He  was  made  a  Ijrigadier-general  in  the  Con- 
federate armv  in  1861,  and  was  killed  at  Antietam,  Sept.  17, 
1862. 

Branchiop'oda  [from  Gr. ^piyxia. giWs  +  wovs,TroS6s.  foot] : 
a  sub-order  of  entomostracous  Crustacea,  deriving  their  name 
from  the  peculiarity  of  liaving  the  gills,  which  are  numerous, 
attached  to  the  feet.  They  are, small,  many  of  them  almost 
microscopic,  and  abound  in  stagnant  fresh  waters.  A  few 
are  found  in  brine  pools.  They  possess  distinctly  segmented 
bodies,  and  have  numerous  pairs  of  flattened  swimming-feet. 
The  carapace  is  flat  and  shield-shaped,  or  more  frequently 
takes  the  form  of  a  bivalve  shell.  They  are  enormously  re- 
productive by  parthenogenesis.    Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Branchios'tonia  [from  Gr.  Ppdyxia.  gills  -l-  aTifia..  mouth] : 
the  lancelets  :  tlie  only  genus  of  the  vertelirate  class  Lepto- 
CARDii  (q.  v.).  Tlie  name  Branch iosfoma  is  prior  to  that  of 
Amphiojrus,  and  should  be  used  rather  than  the  latter. 

Brand.  Sir  Henry  :  See  Hampden,  Viscount. 

Brande,  William  Thomas,  P. R. S. :  chemist;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  Feb.  11,  1788.  He  lectured  with  success  on 
chemistry  at  the  Koyal  Institution,  and  filled  for  many 
years  an  important  oifice  in  the  mint.  Among  his  works 
are  a  valuable  TJictionanj  of  Science.  Literature,  and  Art 
(1842,  n.  e.  1875)  and  a  Manual  of  Clieniistry.  1).  Feb.  11, 
1866. 

Bran'denburg:  the  most  important  province  of  Prussia, 
and  that  which  formetl  the  nucleus  of  the  Prussian  kingdom. 
It  corresponds  nearly  to  the  old  JIarIc  of  Brandenburg,  and 
has  an  area  of  15.376  sq.  miles.  It  is  mostly  a  level  plain 
which  has  but  little  elevation  above  the  sea.  It  contains 
numerous  lakes,  is  intei'sected  by  the  Oder,  and  also  drained 
by  the  Wartlie,  the  Spree,  the  llavel,  and  the  VA\)e.  which 
latter  forms  part  of  its  W.  boundary.  The  soil  is  sandy 
and  moderately  fertile.  The  [irovince  is  traversed  by  several 
canals  and  railways.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton, wool,  linen,  silk,  |iaper,  leather,  sugar,  etc.  The  chief 
towTis  are  Potsdam,  Koiiigsberg,  and  Frankfort-on-t he-Oder. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Protestants.  It  is  divided  into 
two  regencies  (Regierungsbegir/ie)  and  thirty-three  circles. 
This  country  was  conquered  by  Charlemagne  in  789  a.  d. 
The  first  Margrave  of  Brandenliurg  was  Albert  the  Bear, 
who  is  called  the  fouiuler  of  the  house  of  Brandenburg.  He 
began  to  reign  in  1134.  Early  in  the  fifteenth  century  the 
margrave  became  an  elector  of  the  German  empire,"  and 
took  the  title  of  Elector  of  Hrandenlnirg.  Frederick  William, 
who  became  elector  in  l(i4(l,  a'lded  the  duchy  of  Prussia  and 
part  of  Pomerania  lo  his  dominions,  and  "his  son  took  the 
title  of  King  of  Prussia  in  1701.     Pop.  (1890)  2,541,783. 

Brandenburg  (anc.  Brennahnrcti  or  Brennahnr):  a  town 
of  Prussia;  in  province  of  same  name  :  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Havel,  ancj  on  th(>  Kerlin  and  Magdeburg  Railway; 
38  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of  Berlin  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  3-F).  It  is  inclosed  by  walls,  and  divided  by 
the  river  into  the  old  and  new  town,  between  which,  on  ail 
island,  is  a  quarter  called  "  \'enice."  containing  a  castle  and 
a  media>val  cathedral.  The  town  has  a  riding  academv,  a 
gymnasium,  a  Realsehule,  and  a  public  lilmirv  :  also  manu- 
factures of  woolen  and  linen  goods,  hosiery,  iiaiier.  leather, 
etc.     Pop.  (IHHO)  28,685;  (1890)37,823. 

Brandcnbnrg.  New:  a  town  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz; 
near  the  N.  end  of  Tollensee :  18  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Strelitz 
and  53  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Stettin  (see  map  of  German  Em- 
pire, ref.  2-G).  It  has  wide  and  regular  streets,  and  is  said 
to  be  the  most  beautiful  town  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.     It 


has  a  grand-ducal  palace,  and  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  damasks,  paper,  and  chemical  products.  Pop. 
(1890)  9.323. 

Bran'des,  Carl  Edvard  Cohen  :  Danish  journalist,  poli- 
tician, and  dramatic  writer :  b.  in  Copenhagen.  Oct.  21. 1847. 
In  political  and  literary  principles  he  is  in  full  sympathy 
with  his  brother,  Georg  Brandes  (q.  v.).  Of  his  jilays  may 
be  mentioned  Et  Bessg  (A  Visit,  1882) ;  E)i  Forlovelse  (A 
Betrothal,  1884);  Ka-rliglied  (Love,  1887);  En  Polittk-er  (A 
Politician,  1889).  He  has  published  two  works  on  the 
drama:  Dansk  Skuespilkunst  (Danish  Dramatic  Art,  1880) 
and  Fremmed  S/cuespilku7ist  (Foreign  Dramatic  Art,  1881). 

G.  L.  KiTTREDGE. 

Brandes,  Georg  Morris  Cohen  ;  Danish  critic  and  lit- 
erary historian ;  b.  in  Copenhagen,  Feb.  4,  1842.  Brandes 
is  a  radical  in  religion  and  politics,  and  the  energy  with 
whicli  he  proclaimed  his  views  in  his  lectures  and  writings 
led  to  his  withdrawing  from  Denmark  and  settling  in  Berlin 
(1877),  In  1883  he  was  induced  to  return  to  Copenhagen  by 
an  association  of  private  persons,  who  assured  liiin  a  yearly 
salary  of  4,000  crowns  for  ten  years  as  public  lecturer  on 
belles-lettres.  To  his  influence  is  ascribed  in  great  part  the 
"  realistic  "  movement  in  recent  Danish  literature.  His  chief 
work,  Hovedstremningar  i  det  19de  Aarli undredes  Liieratur 
(The  Main  Currents  in  the  Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury), appeared  in  six  volumes,  1872-90.  Other  works  of 
inii>ortance  are:  Kritiker  og  Portro'ter  (CrUiquefi  and  Por- 
traits, 1870;  2d  ed.  1885):  Danske  Digter  (Danish  Poets, 
1877);  Mudeme  Geister  (1882;  translate<l  by  R.  B.Ander- 
son as  Eminent  Authors  of  the  Niiieteentli  Century); 
3Iennesker  og  Vcerker  i  nyere  ecrojMn'fik  Literatur  (Men 
and  Works  in  Modern  European  Literature,  1883) ;  Det 
moderne  Ojeymembruds  Jliend  (Men  of  the  Jlodern  Awaken- 
ing, 1883:  2d  ed.  1891);  Berlin  sum  tysk  Bigsliovedsted 
(Berlin  as  Imperial  Capital,  1884-85) ;  Ludrig  Holberg  (1885) ; 
Indtryk  fra  Polen  (Impressions  of  Poland,  1888);  Jndtryk 
fra  liusland  (Impressions  of  Russia,  1888) :  Essays  (2  vols., 

1889).  G.  L.  KiTTREDGE, 

Branding:  a  mode  of  punishment  formerly  practiced  in 
Greece  and  Rome  upon  slaves  and  convicts.  Under  Con- 
stantine  the  face  was  protected  from  such  disfigurement.  It 
was  a  mark  of  degradation  provided  for  in  the  canon  law, 
and  in  France  galley-slaves  could  be  branded  down  to  1832. 
In  England  vagabonds,  gypsies,  and  brawlers  might  be  burnt 
in  the  cheek  or  forehead  from  the  days  of  Edward  VI,  to 
1636.  From  the  time  of  Heniy  VII.  this  penalty  was  in- 
flicted in  the  case  of  all  clergyable  offenses  (see  Benefit  op 
Clergy),  but  it  was  abolished  by  an  act  of  Parliament  in 
1822.  Branding  liad  then  become  obsolete,  except  in  the 
case  of  deserters  from  the  army,  who  were  marked  with  the 
letter  D,  not  by  a  hot  iron,  but  by  ink  or  gunpowder.  By 
the  British  ]\[utiny  Act  of  1858  it  is  enacted  that  the  court 
martial,  in  addition  to  any  other  punishment,  may  order  the 
offender  to  be  marked  on  the  left  side,  2  inclies  lielow  the 
arnqiit,  with  the  letter  D,  such  letter  to  be  not  less  than  1 
inch  long,  but  the  practice  was  abolished  in  1879. 

Bran'dis,  Christian  August  :  professor  at  Bonn  Uni- 
versity; b.  at  Ilildesheim,  in  Hanover,  Feb.  15,  1790;  son 
of  Joachim  Dietrich  Brandis,  a  celebrated  [ihysician.  He 
edited,  with  P^mniaiiuel  Bekker.  a  critical  edition  oi  Aris- 
totle. He  was  the  secretary  of  King  Otho  in  Greece.  His 
main  work  was  a  history  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  philoso- 
phies (2  vols.,  183.5-44:  the  third  volume  appeared  in  1860- 
66),  and  a  History  of  the  Derelopmenf  of  Greek  Ph  ilosophy 
(2  vols.,  1862-64).  D.  in  Bonn,  July  24,  '1867.  Cf.  Bursian's 
Gescliichle  dec  Classischen  Philologie  in  Deut-tchlatid,  p. 
917  ff.  (Munich,  188:3). 

Brandis.  Sir  Dietrich.  Ph.D.:  forester;  b.  in  Bonn, 
Germany.  JIar.  31,  1824;  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Bonn  in  1848  ;  appointed  superintendent  of  forests 
in  Pegu  1856  ;  spent  his  life  from  that  time  to  1883,  when 
he  retired,  in  the  care  of  the  forests  in  the  British  possessions 
in  India  and  Burma.  He  wrote  numerous  important  mono- 
gra)ihs  on  the  forests  of  India,  and  organized  schools  there 
for  the  instruction  of  the  natives  in  their  preservation.  In 
1S87  he  was  made  knight  commander  of  the  order  of  the 
Indian  Empire. 

Brandis,  Johannes  :  metrologist  ;  first  decipherer  of  tlie 
Cypriote  inscriptions;  b.  in  Bonn.  Germany,  Dec.  14,  1830; 
d."  in  Liiiz,  July  8,  1873.  Author  of  Das  Munz-Mass-  an. 
Geirichlsu'esen  in  Vorderasieu  his  auf  Ale.rander  d.  Or, 
(Berlin,  1806).     SeeE.  Curtius,  Alierthum  u.  Gegemvart. 


liRAXDOX 


BRANTPORD 


743 


Brandon:  town;  province  of  Manitoba,  Canada  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Caiiaila.  ref.  i)-Il) :  on  fan.  Pac.  and  X.  P. 
and  Man.  Kys.  It  is  surrounded  by  prairies,  and  the  chief 
industries  are  stock-raising  and  farming.     Pop.  (1891)  3,778. 

Brandon:  township;  Rnthind  co.,  Vt.  (for  location  of 
oountv,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  7-B);  on  Cent.  Vermont 
H.  K.";  near  Otter  Creek  ;  16  miles  X.  X.  \V.  of  Rutland.  It 
has  a  gra<ied  academv,  two  parks,  ami  manufactures  of  iron 
castings,  carriages,  flour,  lime,  lumber,  paint,  marble,  etc. 
An  elegant  hotel  was  built  in  1892.    Poj).  (1880)  ;1280 ;  (1890) 

a,;J10.  KdITOR  of  ■•  U.N'IO.N." 

Brandt,  IIermax.v  Cabl  George,  M.  A. :  philologist; 
b.  in  Vilsen,  Germany,  Dec.  15, 1850  ;  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  (1872);  studied  in  Auburn  Tlieologieal  Seminary, 
and  in  Giittingen,  Stritssburg,  and  Freiburg,  (iermany.  In- 
structor in  Hamilton  College  (1874-76);  associate  professor 
ill  Johns  Hopkins  University  ;  Professor  of  French,  German, 
and  Philology  in  Hamilton  College  (since  1882).  Besides  con- 
tributions to  [leriodicals  and  to  journals  of  societies,  ho  has 
jmblished  an  edition  of  Lessing"s  Xdthcui  der  Weise  (1879) ; 
(rfrmmi  Grammitr  for  Iliqh  SiIidiAh  d/ul  Colleges  (1884;  6th 
ed.  1892) :  German  Reader  (1889 ;  Jjd  ed.  1892). 

Brandy  [abbreviation  of  hrandewine.  hraudij-wine,  from 
Dutch  brandewijn.  lit.,  burnt  wine;  so  Germ.  liranntweht]  : 
the  liquid  obtained  by  distilling  the  fermented  juice  of  the 
grape.  It  is  generally  manufactured  from  white  and  |)ale- 
red  wines.  White  wine  yields  a  richer  brandy  than  red 
wine,  as  it  contains  more  of  the  essential  oil  of  grapes,  to 
whicii  the  flavor  of  the  brandy  is  due.  The  peculiarities  of 
the  wine  pasj  to  a  certain  (extent  to  the  branily.  Wines 
whicli  taste  of  the  soil  communicate  the  same  taste,  the 
(/o((/ '/n /crrp,  to  the  l)randy  distilled  from  them.  Wines  of 
Selleul  in  Dauphiny  yield  a  brandy  having  the  odor  and 
taste  of  Florentine  iris ;  those  in  St.-Pierre  in  Vivarais  give 
a  spirit  which  smells  of  violet.  The  stronger  the  wine  the 
greater  the  yield.  The  wines  of  the  south  of  Kuroi)e,  being 
richest  in  alcohol,  yield  t  he  most  brand  v.  The  usual  yield 
is  from  100  to  150  gal.  from  1.000  gal.  of  wine.  The 'best 
brandy,  that  distilled  in  the  department  of  Charente,  known 
as  cognac  anil  armaynac  (mimes  of  towns),  is  made  from 
verv  choice  wines.  Inferior  brandies  are  distilleil  from 
dar^-red  wines  of  France,  Spain,  and  Poi-tugal ;  also  from 
the  fermented  marc  or  refuse  of  the  grape,  and  from  the 
lees  of  wine  and  the  scrapings  of  the  casks.  The  catawba 
brandy,  made  from  the  lees  of  catawba  wine  in  Ohio,  is  a 
very  good  brandy,  though  it  has  the  peculiar  flavor  of  this 
wine.  The  brandy  distilled  from  catawba  marc  has  an  un- 
pleasant taste,  and  contains  much  fusel  oil.  The  wines  of 
California  yield  brandy  abumlantly  and  of  good  quality. 
Various  other  liquors  are  known  as  brandies,  such  as  ••  eider 
brandy"  or  "applejack,"  distilled  from  cider  or  from  the 
"pomace"  or  refuse  ground  api)les  from  the  cider-press. 
This,  when  new,  is  a  harsh,  fiery  liquor,  but  is  much  im- 
proved by  age.  '"  Peach  brandy  "  is  extensively  made  from 
the  pulp  iif  ripe  peaches  in  some  of  the  Soutliern  States. 

Fresh  brandy  is  colorless,  and  remains  so  in  glass  vessels. 
The  sherry-wine  color  which  brandy  geneniUy  exhibits  is 
either  derived  from  the  Ciisk  or  from  burnt  sugar  (jurposely 
added.  Brandy  is  almost  pure  alcohol  and  water,  the  per- 
centage of  alcohol  varying  from  48  to  .56  per  cent.  It  has 
an  agreeable  vinous,  aromatic  odor,  and  a  peculiar  well- 
known  taste.  Its  specitic  gravity  is  from  0'902  to  0-941. 
Besides  alcohol  and  water  it  contains  the  volatile  oil  of  the 
wine,  a  little  acetic  acid,  acetic  ether,  aldehyde,  etc.,  to- 
gether with  tlie  coloring-matter  and  tannic  acid  derived 
from  the  cask. 

Brandy  for  medical  use  should  be  free  from  disagreeable 
odor  and  taste,  and  should  be  at  least  four  years  old.  The 
advantage  of  keeping  bramly  a  few  years  in  the  cask  is  due 
to  the  oxidation  ami  removal  of  the  ranker  fusel  oils,  and 
to  tlie  precipitation  of  possible  traces  of  copper  or  lead  de- 
rived from  the  still  by  the  tannic  acid  of  the  cask. 

The  greater  part  of  the  brandy  and  cognac  of  commerce 
is  made  from  alcohol  deriveil  from  Indian  corn — rectified 
and  deodorized  whisky.  This  is  diluted  to  i)roof,  50  per 
cent.,  and  flavored  with  acetic  ether,  a-nanthic  ether,  oil  of 
grapes,  argol,  and  tannin,  and  colored  with  burnt  sugar. 
It  is  improved  by  the  ailditiim  of  a  little  real  brandy,  and 
by  keeping  it  a  few  years  in  the  cask.  The  following  recipe 
fnr  cognac  brandy  is  taken  from  the  circular  of  a  Xew  Vork 
firm,  whose  business  it  is  to  supply  the  necessjiry  materials 
to  the  manufactures  of  wines  and  liipiors:  "To  40  gal.  of 
sjiirit,  double  distilleil  anil  free  from  odor,  and  reduced  to 


proof  with  distilled  water,  add  \  oz.  of  our  best  cognac  oil 
distilled  from  grapes,  H  jit.  burnt-sugar  coloring,  and  \  oz. 
of  tannin."  At  the  prices  charged  for  the  materials  this 
choice  brandy  would  cost  the  compounder  $1.25  per  gal., 
and  would  sell  at  from  $10  to  ^25. 

Brandy  is  an  esteemed  cordial  and  stomachic.  It  is  fre- 
quently given  in  the  sinking  stages  of  low  fevers  and  to 
convalescents,  and  to  check  diarrhoea.      C.  F.  Chandler. 

Brandy  Station :  on  railroad ;  Cnlpeper  co.,  Va.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ret.  .5-G) ;  56  miles  S.  W.  of 
Alexandria  ;  the  scene  of  conflicts  between  the  Federal  and 
Confederate  forces  on  Aug.  20,  1863,  June  9,  Sept.  13,  and 
Oct.  11,  1863.     Pop.  (1880)  201. 

BrandjH'ine  Creek :  formed  by  Ka.st  and  West  branches, 
which  unite  in  Chester  co..  Pa.  It  flows  .southeastward  into 
tlie  State  of  Delaware,  and  enters  the  Christiana  creek  near 
VVilmington.  It  furni-hes  water-power  for  numerous  mills. 
On  its  banks,  in  Chester  County,  the  British  general  Huwe 
defeated  Wiushingtou,  Sejit.  11.  1777. 

Branford  :  borough;  Xew  Haven  co..  Conn. (for  location, 
see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  11-G) ;  in  Branford  township  ;  on 
X.  Y.  and  X.  II.  11.  R.  (Shore  Line  Div.),and  on  Long  Island 
Sound.  8  miles  E.S.E.  of  New  Haven.  Theharboradmits  ves- 
sels of  300  tons.  Itsprincipal  industries  are  agriculture,  quar- 
rying, and  the  manufacture  of  locks  and  malleable-iron  fit- 
lings  ;  is  a  place  of  summer  resort.  The  Blackstone  Memo- 
rial Library  (cost,  1300.000)  was  opened  June,  1896.  Pop.  of 
township (1880) 3,047;  (1890)4,460.     Editor  of  "Opinion." 

Branks:  an  instrument  formerly  nseil  in  England  and 
Scotland  for  the  punishment  of  scolding  women.  It  was 
of  various  forms,  but  consisted  essentially  of  a  bridle  of 
irim  or  leather,  to  which  was  attached  a  piece  of  iron  which 
held  the  tongue  firmly.  It  is  asserted  that  in  some  obscure 
jilaces  in  England  its  use  came  down  to  quite  recent  times. 

Bran'nan.  John  JIilton  :  soldier;  b.  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia in  1819:  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841;  colonel 
Fourth  Artillery  JIar.  15. 1881  ;  Sept.  28, 1861.  brigadier-gen- 
era! U.  S.  volunteers.  He  served  in  suppressing  Canada  bor- 
der disturbances  1841-42  ;  in  the  war  with  Mexico  1846-48; 
engaged  at  Vera  Cruz.  Cerro  Gordo.  La  Hoya.  Contreras,  and 
Churubusco  (brevet  caiitain),  and  the  city  of  Jlexico  (se- 
verely wounded  at  Helen  Gate) ;  adjutant  First  Artillei-y 
1847^54  :  in  Florida  hostilities  1856-58.  In  the  civil  war  he 
served  in  command  of  the  department  of  Key  West,  Fla., 
1862:  in  the  department  of  the  South  1862-63;  on  expedi- 
tion to  St.  John's  River,  Fla.  (brevet  lieutenant-colonel); 
at  Pocotaligo,  S.  C.  and  several  minor  actions ;  in  Ten- 
nessee campaign  1863;  engaged  at  Hoover's  Gap,  Tulla- 
homa.  Elk  river,  and  Chickamaiiga  (brevet  colonel) ;  as  chief 
of  artillery  department  of  the  Cumberland  1863-65;  en- 
gaged at  Missionary  Ridge  ;  in  the  various  operations  of  the 
Atlanta  campaign  1864  (brevet  brigadier-general);  in  com- 
mand of  the  district  of  Savannah,  and  temporarily  of  de- 
partment of  (reorgia  1865-66.  Brevet  major-general  Mar. 
13,  1865,  for  meritorious  services  in  the  field.  Retired  Apr. 
19,  1882.     D.  in  Xew  York  city,  Dec.  16.  1892. 

Brant,  Joseph  Thayendaneoa  :  a  Jlohawk  Indian  chief; 
b.  in  1742;  sent  to  the  Indian  school  which  grew  into  Dart- 
month  College ;  fought  in  the  British  army  in  the  war  of 
the  Revolution:  dislinguished  himself  in  Col.  Leger's  expe- 
dition against  Fort  Stanwix  and  at  Oriskany  in  1799.  He 
prepared  a  version  of  the  Gnnpel  of  St.  Mark  in  Mohawk, 
which  was  published  with  the  Mohawk  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  in  1787.  D.  Xov.  24,  1807.  A  colossal  statue  erect- 
ed in  memory  of  him  was  unveiled  at  Brantford,  Ontario, 
Oct.  13,  1886!     See  W.  L.  Stone's  Life  of  Brant  (1838). 

Brant,  braant,  Skhastiax  :  German  poet;  b.  at  Strass- 
burg  in  14.58.  lie  was  appointed  an  imperial  councilor  by 
the  Emperor  Maximilian.  He  wrote  a  satirical  poem  en- 
titled Das  Xarrenxrhiff  (T\\i-  Shij)  of  Fools,  1494),  a  Latin 
translation  of  which  (1497)  made  Brant  famous  throughout 
Europe.  He  held  up  to  ridicule  the  vices  and  follies  of  his 
time,  although  without  direct  religious  intention.  Alexan- 
der Barclay  made  an  English  translation  of  it  (London,  1.509  ; 
best  ed.  liy"  T.  II.  Janiieson,  1874,  2  vols.).  Though  not  pos- 
sessed of  great  iioetii'al  gifts  he  was  one  of  the  most  inlluen- 
tial  authors  of  his  time  who  may  be  cla.ssed  among  the  fore- 
runners of  the  literature  of  the  Reformation.  D.  in  Strass- 
burg.  May  10,  1521.  Sec  Zarncke's  excellent  edition  of  the 
Narrenncliiff  (Leipzig,  1854).     Revised  by  Jixius  Goebel. 

Brant'ford  :  a  city  of  Ontario,  Dominion  of  Canada; 
caiiital  "f   Brant  (,'oiinty ;  on  Grand  river  and  the  Grand 


r44 


BRANT  GOOSE 


BRAZEX  SEA 


Trunk  and  the  Brantfnrd,  Waterloo  and  Lake  Erie  Rys. ; 
24  miles  W".  S.  W.  of  Hamilton  and  84  miles  S.  E.  of  Godc- 
rich  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  o-D).  Here  are  large  railway 
machine-shops  and  engine-houses,  and  manufactures  of  brass 
and  iron  castings,  and  farming  Iniplements:  center  of  mag- 
nificent agricultural  countr)-.  Pop.  (1881)  9.616:  (1891) 
12.753.  Editor  of  "  Expositor." 

Brant  Goose :  See  Barnacle  Goose. 

Brantome.  bra"aiVtom',  Pierre  de  Boukdeilles,  AIiIk' 
and  Seigneur  de  :  French  historian  :  b.  of  a  nol.ile  family  at 
Perigord  about  1540.  He  served  in  the  army  in  several 
campaigns,  and  gained  the  favor  of  Charles  IX.,  at  whose 
court  he  passed  some  years.  He  wrote  Les  Vies  des Homines 
Jllustres  et  grnmh  Capi/aines,  etc.,  a  work  of  high  reputa- 
tion. His  style  is  charming,  vivacious,  naif,  sometimes  de- 
scending to  gossip,  and  sometimes  rising  to  eloquence.  An- 
other work  of  his  is  Vies  ties  Dames  galantes.  D.  July  15, 
1614. 

Bra'shear  City,  now  Morgan  City,  La.  (q.  v.). 

Bras'idas  (in  Gr.  Bpoo-iSas) :  a  Spartan  general  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war  whicli  began  in  431  b.  c.  He  relieved 
Megara  in  424,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the  Athe- 
nians. He  Wiis  killed  in  422  B.C.  at  Ampliipolis,  where  he 
was  opposed  to  the  Athenian  general  C'leon.  His  memory 
was  long  honored  Viy  annual  sacrifices. 

Brass  [0.  Eng.  hras;  origin  obscure]:  an  important  alloy 
of  copper  and  zinc,  extensively  used  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes  in  the  arts  on  account  of -the  ea.se  of  working  and 
its  acceptable  color.  It  is  made  (1)  by  fusing  in  cnicibles 
copper  and  zinc,  placing  the  latter  below ;  considerable  of 
the  zinc  is  lost  during  the  operation,  owing  to  its  volatility; 
(2)  by  heating  copper  in  grains  or  sheets  with  oxide  of  zinc 
and  charcoal ;  (3)  the  ancient  method,  by  heating  copper 
with  calamine,  a  native  ore  of  zinc,  and  charcoal.  Different 
varieties  of  brass  adapted  to  special  uses  are  obtained  by 
varying  the  proportions  of  the  component  metals.  Common 
brass  for  ordinary  purposes,  which  is  cast  in  molds  and  fin- 
ished by  turning  and  filing,  contains  about  TO  parts  of  cop- 
per and'  30  of  zinc.  Munh  or  yellow  metal,  which  is  rolled 
into  sheets  and  used  for  sheathing  ships,  contains  from  50  to 
63  parts  of  copper  and  37  to  50  of  zinc.  Tombac,  pinchbeck, 
prince's  metal,  Mannheim  gold,  mosaic  gold,  similoi;  etc., 
contain  80  parts  or  more  of  copper  to  20  or  less  of  zinc.  A 
little  lead  diminishes  the  ductility,  while  tin  increases  the 
hardness  of  bra.ss.  Articles  of  brass  are  cleaned  by  immei-- 
sion  in  aqua  fori  is  (nitric  acid),  and  lacquered  with  sliellac 
in  alcohol.  Brass  is  harder  tlian  copper,  is  malleable  and 
ductile,  and  can  be  readily  cast,  rolled,  stamped,  and  turned 
in  the  lathe.  Xext  to  iron  in  its  different  forms,  it  is  the 
most  important  metal  use<l  in  tlie  arts. 

Brasses.  Monnmental :  sheets  or  plates  of  brass,  upon 
which  are  engi-aved  figures  of  men  and  women,  in  attempted 
portraiture  of  the  dead,  accompanied  by  heraldic  devices, 
etc.  Many  still  exist  in  Enghind.  which  date  from  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Middle  Ages:  some  in  their  original  position, 
let  into  the  floor  or  wall,  and  otliers  preserved  in  churches 
and  museums.  They  are  valual)le  for  the  study  of  meclia-val 
art,  of  costume,  arms,  and  heraldry.        Kussell  STrRois. 

Brassenr  de  Boiirbour^,  brans '  ser '  de  -  boor '  boor', 
Charles  Etiex.ve  :  a  French  abbe  :  b.  in  Bourbourg,  Sept. 
8,  1814;  lived  for  a  long  time  and  traveled  extensively  in 
North  and  Central  America:  held  various  half-ecclesiastical 
positions  in  Mexico,  and  published  Histoire  de  Canada  (2 
vols.,  1851);  Histoire  des  nations  civil isees  du  Mcriqiie  et 
de  rAmerique  Centrnh  (4  vols..  1857-59):  Cframatica  de  la 
lengiin  Quiche  (1862):  and  others  relating  to  the  Mavsis 
civihzation.     I),  in  Nice,  Jan.  8,  1874. 

Brassey,  Thomas:  railroad  contractor:  b.  near  Chester, 
England,  Nov.  7,  1805;  apprenticed  to  a  land-siirvevor ; 
obtained  in  1834  his  first  contract  through  George  Stephen- 
son to  build  a  viaduct  between  Stafford  and  Wolverhamp- 
ton :  built  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  the  Grand  Trunk 
in  Canada,  besides  lines  in  Italy,  the  Crimea,  Denmark,  the 
Argentine  Repulilic.  France.  "Australia,  and  Indi.a.  His 
operations  were  on  an  enormous  scale,  and  he  .'U'cumulated 
an  estate  valued  at  .$35.000.(KIO.  1).  at  Hastings.  Dec.  8. 
1870.  See  his  Life,  bv  A,  Helps  (1872).— His'  son.  Lord 
Thomas:  b.  in  Stafford  in  18:}6;  educated  at  Rugby  and 
at  University  College,  Oxford;  sat  in  the  House  of  Coinmons 
from  1865  to  1886:  an  ailmirally  lord;  was  made  baron  in 
the  latter  year.  He  greatly  improved  the  naval  administra- 
tion, about  which  he  published  valuable  treatises,  and  was 


an  enthusiastic  yachtsman,  visiting  all  parts  of  the  world 
in  the  Sunbeam.  His  wife,  a  granddaughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  published  several  narratives  of  these  voyages,  and 
died  Sept.  14.  1887,  on  her  trip  home  fi-om  Australia!  and 
was  buried  at  sea. 

Bras'sica:  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the  family 
Crucifene;  distinguished  by  a  round  and  tapering  two- 
valved  pod  {silique),  globose  seeds  in  one  row  in  each  valve, 
and  conduplicate  cotyledons.  The  species  of  this  genus] 
which  comprises  the  calibage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  turnip' 
rape.  etc..  are  natives  of  the  temperate  and  cold  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  species  just  named  are  extensively 
cultivated  in  gardens  and  fields.    See  Cabbage  and  Turnip. 

Brathwaite.  Richard  (1.588-1673):  poet:  educated  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Wrote  The  Golden  Fleece  (1611); 
The  Poet's  Willow  (1614),  pastords:  a  collection  of  satirical 
verses;  and  Barnabee's  Journal  in  doggerel  and  Latin 
rhymes,  wliich  came  to  its  eleventh  edition  in  1876.  His 
Life  is  prefixed  to  the  ninth  edition  in  1818. 

Brattleboro :  town ;  Windham  co.,  Vt.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  9-C):  on  Cent.  N'ermont 
and  "S'ermont  Val.  R.  Rs..  and  on  Connecticut  river ;  60 
miles  N.  of  Springfield,  Mass.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Vermont 
Asylum  for  the  Insane,  and  the  trade-center  of  Southeastern 
Vermont,  and  has  the  Brooks  LibraiT,  bestowed  bv  George 
J.  Brooks  in  1887.  The  Estey  Organ  Company  is  the  leading 
manufacturing  establishment.  West  Brattleboro  has  an 
academy.  The  town  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  natural  sce- 
nery. Pop.  of  township  (1880)  5,880.  including  4.471  in  vil- 
lage :  (1890)  6.862  ;  village,  5,467.     Editor  of  '"  Puce.mx." 

Brauns'berg :  a  town  of  Prussia :  province  of  East  Prussia ; 
on  the  river  Passarge:  about  35  miles  S.  W.  of  Konigsljerg 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-J).  It  has  manufactures 
of  woolen  and  Unen  goods,  and  an  active  trade.  Pop.  (1890) 
10,851.  f  \        ' 

Bravo-Mnrillo.  braa  VH-moo-reel'yo.  Juan  Gonzalez:  a 
Spanish  statesman:  b.  in  province  of  Badajoz.  .June.  1803; 
became  in  1847  minister  of  justice:  then  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  of  the  finances.  In  1851  he  became  the  head  of  a 
new  cabinet,  in  which  position  he  followed  a  reactionary 
policy.  In  Apr..  1868,  he  again  became  president  of  the 
cabinet.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  queen  in  1868  lie  followed 
her  to  Bayonne.     D.  in  Madrid.  Jan.  11,  1873. 

Brawn  :  a  preparation  of  fooil  obtained  from  the  flesh  of 
the  wild  boar  or  of  swine.  After  removing  the  bones  and 
squeezing  out  much  of  the  fat.  the  flesh  is  rolled  and  bound 
with  a  string.  It  is  then  successively  stewed  and  baked  with 
various  preparations  of  herbs,  wines,  and  spices,  after  which 
it  is  steeped  in  a  solution  of  brine.  Mock  brawn  is  the  flesh 
of  the  pig's  head  and  feet  cut  into  small  pieces,  boiled, 
pickled,  and  finally  pressed  into  the  shape  of  a  collar.  The 
term  also  denotes  the  muscular  part  of  the  human  body. 

Braxton,  Carter:  i)lanter:  b.  in  Newington,  Va..  Sept. 
10.  1736.  He  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College  in 
1756;  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775; 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  D.  in  Riclimoud, 
Va.,  Oct.  10,  1797. 

'RrAjiaxiQ.Bibracte):  a  small  parish  in  Berkshire.  England; 
22+  miles  W.  of  London.  Poji.  5.750.  Famous  for  its  vicar, 
who  changed  his  reliirion  three  times  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VIIL,  Edwanl  ^'l..  Jlary.  and  Elizabeth,  tliat  he 
might  ■■  live  and  die  the  vicar  of  Bray." 

Bray  fin  ancient  Gaelic  Brag  meant  marsh]  :  a  fashion- 
alile  watering-]ilace  ot  Ireland:  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Bray:  12  miles  S.  P'.  of  Dublin:  partly  in  the  county  of 
Dublin,  but  chiefly  in  the  county  of  Wicklow  (see  map  of 
Ireland,  ref.  9-.J) :  connected  by  2  railways  with  Dublin  ; 
has  2  hotels.  6  churches  and  chapels,  a  bank,  a  court-tunise, 
a  dispensary,  a  savings-bank,  a  newspajier,  and  some  trade 
by  sea.     Pop.  6.600. 

Brazen  Sea:  a  great  bowl  of  cast  metal,  probably  of 
co[)per  or  lirouze,  which  stood  in  the  priests'  court  in  Solo- 
mon's temple.  (1  Kings  vii.  2:5-26:  2  Chr.  iv.  2-5 :  Jose- 
pluis's  Antiquities,  viii.  3.  5).  Its  ]iurpose  was  to  hold  water 
for  the  ablutions  of  the  priests — e.g.  their  hands  and  feet 
(Ex.  XXX.  18.  sqij.).  The  brazen  sea  stood  upon  twelve  oxen, 
the  latter  fa<yng  outward.  The  exact  shape  and  size  of  the 
brazen  sea  are  not  known,  but  the  best  commentators  think 
its  contents  exceeded  11,000  wine  gal.  It  was  broken  up 
by  the  ChakhTans  at  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  and  the 
pieces  taken  to  Babylon  (2  Kings  xxv.  13  ;  Jer.  lii.  17). 


BRAZEN  SERPENT 


BRAZIL,   UNITED  STATES  OF 


745 


Brazen  Seii)^!  :  the  name  of  a  copper  or  bronze  figure 
of  a  sorpt-nl  eriitud  by  Jloses  during  the  journey  of  the  Is- 
raelites from  Egypt  to  tlie  hind  of  promise,  for  the  niiraeu- 
lous  cure  of  those  wlio  hiid  been  bitten  by  venomous  serpents 
(Num.  xxi.  5,  xijq.).  This  brazen  serpent  becanu'  an  object 
of  superstitious  worship  among  the  Israelites,  and  was  con- 
sequently ilest roved  by  Ilezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii.  4).  In  ac- 
cordance with  .lohn  iii.  14,  (he  brazen  serpent  is  regarded 
as  a  type  of  t'lirisl. 

Brazil,  Tnited  States  of  (Port.  pron.  Inaa-zeel):  the 
largest  country  of  South  America,  occupying  alxiut  two- 
fifths  of  the  continent  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts: 
bounded  E.  t)y  the  .\tlantic,  and  N.  \V.  and  S.  Ijy  all  the 
other  South  American  countries  except  Chili.  Length  from 
N.  to  S.  over  2,(i(X>  miles:  greatest  brea<lth.  probably  2. TOO 
mik's.  The  extrenu'  latitmles  chiinu'd  are  ■>  10'  N.  and  :!:! 
45'  S. ;  the  extreme  longitudes,  ;!4'  40'  ami  alwut  74  \V. 
Area  l)y  official  figures  (18U2),  3.309,878  so.  miles :  but  tliis 
includes  large  tracts  claimed  by  Venezuela,  Colombia,  an<l 
Bolivia.  The  northern  and  a  part  of  the  western  bounda- 
ries are  all  uncertain  and  mostly  in  unexplored  regions. 

I'upof/ra/ilii/. — Three  main  divisions  are  at  oiu'c  apparent  : 
1.  the  Brazilian  plateau,  wit li  the  coast  and  central  moun- 
tains:  "2.  the  great  depressions  of  t lie  .\mazon  and  Paraguay, 
meeting  in  the  center  of  the  continent.  an<l  framing  the  first 
division  on  the  northern  and  western  sides:  ;J,  a  strip  of 
land  N.  of  the  Amazon,  forming  a  part  of  tlie  Guiana  pla- 
teau. This  view  of  the  surface  will  be  clear  if  we  inuigine 
the  continent  to  sink  six  or  seven  hundred  feet:  the  wean 
would  then  fill  the  Amazonian  and  Paraguayan  dejiressions, 
leaving  Central  and  Easteni  Brazil  as  a  great  island,  while 
Guiana  would  be  another  island  to  the  N. 

JIoitnfiii>i.s. — The  Brazilian  mountains  border  the  south- 
eastern edge  of  the  fii-st  division,  sending  branches  into  the 
interior.  Structurally  tlie  coa-st  range  begins  in  L'ruguay, 
but  if  only  takes  a  decidedly  mountainous  form  from  about 
lat.  2!)'  :iO  S. ;  thence  it  follows  tlie  coa.st  northeastward  in 
a  stri[)  50  miles  wide,  rapidly  broadening  from  lat.  24'  S.,  un- 
til, near  Rio  de  .Janeiro,  it  attains  itsextreiiie  width  ofalioiit 
2.iO  miles.  Here  there  are  two  well-niarked  parallel  chains: 
the  Serra  do  Mar.  ending  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Parahylia,  and  the  Serra  da  Manti(|Ueira:  the  latter  range 
again  divides  N.  of  tht^  Parahylia,  and  the  branch  nearest 
the  coast  dies  out  near  Bahia:  the  other  and  higher  one 
skirts  the  eastern  side  of  the  Silo  Francisco  valley  to  where 
that  river  turns  eastward.  IJeyond  the  Sao  Francisco  there 
are  isolated  low  ranges  nearly  to  Cape  Sao  Kotpie.  The  aver- 
age height  of  the  coast  range  is  perlia|is  o.lKK)  feet.  Itatiaia, 
in  the  Mantiipieira sub-chain,  attains  S.'JOO  feet,  and  is  |iroli- 
ably  the  highest  point  in  Brazil:  the  Organ  Mountains  in 
the  Serra  <lo  Mar,  at  the  head  of  Kio  ile  Jiineiro  Bay,  have 
peaks  over  7,000  feet  high.  The  scenery,  especiallv  on  the 
coast  from  Cape  Frio  southward,  is  indescribably  grand  and 
beautiful. 

The  Serra  dos  Vertentes  is  a  spur  or  ridge  stretching 
westwanl  from  the  Mantii|ueiia  range  and  separating  the 
head-waters  of  the  Parana  from  (hose  of  the  Sao  Francisco. 
Two  mountain-chains  extend  northward  from  it,  over  the 
plateau  :  the  Serra  da  Canastra  between  the  SiIo  Francisco 
and  Tocantins  river  systems,  ending  about  lat.  10'  S.,  and 
theGoyaz  or  Pyrineos  Mountains,  between  the  Tocantins  and 
Araguaya.  Tliis  latter  range  is  of  unknown  northward  i^x- 
teut :  it  contains  peaks  said  to  be  over  7,0(M)  feet  high.  The 
above  enumeration  includes  all  the  true  mountains  in  Brazil. 

T/ie  BraziUiin  J'/iifntii. — This  extends  from  the  mountains 
to  the  great  river-depressions,  and  is  separated  from  the  north- 
eastern coast  only  by  a  strip  of  low  land  30  to  .50  miles  wide ; 
it  is  partly  diviiled  by  the  Canastra,  Goyaz,  and  Vertentes 
ranp'S.  'I  he  average  elevation  is  probably  about  2.700  feet 
higher  toward  the  mountains,  falling  gently  northward  to 
700  or  WtO  feet  as  it  approaches  the  Amazoil.  The  surface 
is  somelinies  Hat,  otteiier  hilly  or  rolling.  Nearly  every- 
whiTe  the  outer  edges  are  cut  ilown  abruptly,  aiipearing 
from  below  like  mountains,  and  the  plateau  itself  is  ex- 
cavated by  numerous  deej)  river-valleys,  the  sides  of  which 
present  similar  escarpments.  The  bluffs  are  commonly  but 
wrongly  represented  on  our  maps  as  mountain-ranges,  .seam- 
ing all  Central  and  Eastern   Mrazil. 

The  ParagiKii/an  Diprciximi. — The  Upper  Pai'aguay  flows 
through  a  va-st  swampy  plain,  the  Brazilian  jiortion  of 
which  is  some  250  miles  wide,  and  only  400  feet  above  Hie 
sea.  (.See  Pakaouav.)  There  are  sonie  isolated  hills,  the 
Serra  dos  Dourados,  skirting  the  west  shore  of  the  river  on 


the  liorders  of  Bolivia,  and  a  similar  chain  crosses  the  river 

about  lat.  21°  S.,  passing  into  Paraguay. 

The  Ammimian  Depression. — Along  the  lower  Amazon 
this  is  a  plain  from  50  to  150  miles  wide;  above  the  Kio 
Negro  aiKi  Madeira  it  spreads  out  so  as  to  include,  probably, 
all  Northwestern  Brazil.  This  upper  portion,  so  far  as  we 
know,  is  a  |)erf>'ctly  flat  expanse,  nowhere  more  than  200  or 
300  feet  above  sea-level  ;  the  flood-plain  itself  is  in  parts 
150  miles  or  more  wide,  narrowuig  below.  The  Brazilian 
plateau  does  not  apjiear  to  be  continued  beyond  the  Ma- 
deira, and  the  Amazonian  depression,  following  that  river 
and  the  JIaileira,  is  hardly  separated  from  the  Paraguayan 
swamps. 

The  Guiana  Plateau. — The  Brazilian  portion  stretches 
from  the  Rio  Negro  to  the  Atlantic,  its  southern  edges  ap- 
pearingasthe  "table-topped  hills"  of  Almevriin  and  Velha 
Polire,  20  miles  N.  of  the  Amazon.  These 'are  about  2,000 
feet  high,  nearly  flat  above,  and  resemble  the  Brazilian  pla- 
teau in  structure  and  appearance. 

Islands. — The  only  outlying  islands  are  the  volcanic 
rocks  of  Trindade  and  Fernando  de  Noronha.  with  the 
neighboring  islets.  Fernando  ile  Noronha  is  used  ils  a  penal 
settlement  :  the  others  are  desert.  The  Abrolhasand  Rocas 
are  dangerous  reefs  near  the  coast,  the  former  with  a  few 
inhabitants.  Santa  (.'alharina.  Silo  Sebastiao,  and  many 
smaller  islands  on  the  southeastern  coast,  and  Maranhao  on 
the  northeast,  are  higli  islands  separated  from  the  mainland 
only  by  narrow  channels.  Jlarajo,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon,  is  essentially  an  alluvial  formation,  and  there  are 
numerous  low  islands  in  the  river  estuary. 

TFarbors. — The  southeastern  coast  has  many  excellent 
landlocked  harbors,  as  well  as  the  channels  sheltered  by 
Sao  Sebastiao  and  Saiila  Catliariiia  islands.  The  whole 
northeastern  coast  is  essentially  without  harbors,  except  the 
Bay  of  Maranhao  and  the  Pani  estuary. 

Rivers. — The  Amazon  and  its  ti-ibutaries  form  the  finest 
system  of  navigable  rivers  in  the  world.  Ocean-steamers 
can  ascend  to  Peru,  and  snuiller  ones  far  beyond.  The 
Purus,  I(;a.aiid  most  of  the  upper  Brazilian  aniuentsare  un- 
obstructed almost  to  their  sources;  the  .Madeira  and  Negro 
have  ra]iids  in  their  middle  coui'ses,  but  are  navigable 
above ;  the  Tapajos,  Xingii.  and  many  smaller  rivers  and 
secondary  branches  admit  steam-navigation  in  their  lower 
coui'ses.  The  Tocantins  has  an  open  channel  for  about  150 
miles;  above  it  is  obstructed  by  rapids,  but  small  steamers 
now  ply  on  the  up|ier  Tocantins  and  Araguaya.  The  most 
important  eastern  river  of  Brazil  is  the  Sao  Francisco,  about 
l.SOO  miles  long.  Steamers  ascend  to  the  Paulo  AfTonso 
ealaraci,  148  miles ;  and  above  the  falls  a  free  coni'se  of 
1,000  miles  is  now  navigated.  The  Uruguay  and  up|ier 
Parana,  where  they  border  on  Brazil,  are  more  or  less  ob- 
structed; but  the  Parana,  with  its  Brazilian  tributaries, 
promises  to  be  of  great  importance  in  the  future.  Large 
steamers  ascend  the  Paraguay  to  Corumba  (lat.  19°  S.),  and 
beyond  that  the  river  and  its  tributaries  are  navigated  by 
smaller  vessels.  These  chaimels  form  the  principal  outlet 
of  Eastern  Brazil. 

Lakes. — Brazil  has  no  large  interi<ir  lakes.  The  Lagoa 
dos  Patos  and  the  I^agoa  Merim  of  the  S.  are  large,  fresh- 
water estuaries,  with  a  narrow  outlet,  the  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul.  These  lakes  and  the  river  Guahyba  and  ils  branches 
form  an  internal  waterway  of  great  value  for  this  part  of 
Brazil.  The  numerous  lakes  of  the  Amazonian  and  Para- 
guayan flood-lands  are  shallow  but  sometimes  quite  large. 
There  are  numerous  lagoons  along  the  coast. 

Climate. — Generally  sjieaking,  Brazil  has  a  moderately 
warm  and  very  healthful  climate.  The  heat  is  nowhere  ex- 
cessive, being  modified  by  the  regular  winds  and  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  iilateau.  The  warmest  region  is  in  the  Para- 
guayan depression.  On  the  Amazon  the  temperature  rarely 
rises  above  93'  F.  in  the  hottest  honi-s,  and  the  nights  are 
cool.  The  mountain  region  is  moderately  warm  on  the 
coast,  temperate  at  greater  elevations,  and  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Brazil  has  a  mild  winter  from  May  to  September, 
with  (iccasional  slight  snow.  Rains  are  abundant  nearly 
everywhere,  but  especially  on  the  Amazon  and  in  the  coast 
range,  where  the  dry  season  is  only  marked  by  less  plentiful 
showers.  The  great  ]ilateau  has  perhaps  the  most  delight- 
ful climate  in  the  world.  Here  the  months  from  May  to 
October  are  cool,  and  nearly  or  (|iiite  rainless.  A  portion  of 
Northeastern  Brazil  (Ceara.  Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  Paiahyba, 
and  portions  of  Maranhao.  Pernambueo,  and  Bahia)  is  less 
abundantly  watered,  and  is  subject  to  periodical  droughts, 
sometimes  lasting  several  years;  that  of  1877-80  depopu- 


746 


BRAZIL,   UNITED   STATES  OP 


lated  a  large  region,  and  caused  the  death  of  500,000  per- 
sons. 

Yellow  fever  appears  in  some  of  the  coast  cities  almost 
every  year  during  the  warmer  months;  but  severe  epidemics 
of  it  are  only  occasional,  principally  at  Santos  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro.    Malarial  fevers  are  local  and  seldom  severe. 

Distribution  of  Plant  Life. — The  warm  and  damp  Ama- 
zonian depression  is  covered  with  a  thick  tropical  forest,  with 
long  extensions  lining  the  affluents.  Eastward  the  forest 
land  is  narrower  and  much  broken  by  ojien  lands.  The 
coast  range  forms  another  forest  region,  the  higher  portions 
southward  being  composed  of  Araucaria  pines.  There  is  a 
third  large  forest  region  on  the  upper  Parana,  and  a  coast 
strip  from  Pernambuco  southward.  The  southern  end  of 
Brazil,  from  lat  30'  S..  is  mostly  open  grassland.  The  Bra- 
zilian and  (luiana  plateaus  are  partly  open,  partly  covered 
with  a  peculiar  scattered  growth  of  low  trees,  bushes,  and 
grass  called  cerrndo :  l)ut  there  are  numberless  small 
patches  of  forest  on  the  hillsides,  about  streams  and  springs, 
and  lining  the  ravines.  The  Paraguayan  swamps  are  gen- 
erally open,  with  a  rank  growth  of  grass. 

GeoJogy. — The  coast  range  and  interior  mountains  are 
formed  of  very  ancient  metamorphie  rocks  and  granites. 
There  are  no  recent  volcanoes,  but  ancient  volcanic  rocks 
have  been  reported.  The  great  plateau  is  composed  of  nearly 
horizontal  strata,  among  wliich  the  Devonian.  Carboniferous, 
and  Cretaceous  seem  to  be  most  widely  spread.  These 
reappear  on  the  Amazon  and  in  Southern  Brazil.  In  the 
Amazonian  depression  these  older  rocks  are  covered  with 
sandstones  and  clays,  partly,  at  least,  of  later  Tertiary  age. 
Immense  miantities  of  bones  of  quaternary  animals  have 
been  found  in  caves  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
plateau. 

JlinemJs. — For  more  than  a  century  Brazil  was  the  prin- 
cipal gold  and  diamonrl  producing  country  of  the  world. 
The  most  productive  regions  for  both  were  Minas  Geraes, 
Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz.  and  Bahia.  The  gold  was  obtained 
from  surface  washings,  which  are  now  nearly  abandoned  ; 
but  several  quartz  mines  are  worked  productively  in  Minas 
Geraes  and  elsewhere.  The  lowering  of  the  market  price 
for  diamonds,  caused  by  the  discovery  of  South  African 
mines,  made  the  Brazilian  washings  unlucrative.  They  are 
now  worked  only  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  the  opinion  of  ex- 
perts that  the  riches  of  Brazil,  in  both  gold  and  diamonds, 
are  far  from  being  exhausted.  Silver,  copper,  and  lead  ores 
have  been  reported,  but  not  in  paying  quantities ;  the  im- 
mense and  very  rich  deposits  of  iron  are  as  yet  nearly  use- 
less, owing  to  the  lack  of  coal.  Coal  occurs  in  Southern 
Brazil,  and  is  mined  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  quality  is  in- 
ferior. Rock  crystals,  or  "  Brazilian  pebbles,"  are  exported 
from  Goyaz  and  Baliia,  and  agate,  carneUans,  and  petrified 
wood  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 

Fauna  and  Flora. — These  are  both  extremely  rich,  Brazil 
being  the  most  characteristic  portion  of  the  great  neo-tropi- 
cal  region.  (See  America,  South.)  Among  the  important 
forest  products  may  be  mentioned  rubber  (Amazon  and 
Ceara),  Brazil-nuts  (Amazon  and  Maranhao),  sarsaparilla, 
Tonka  beans,  various  vegetal>le  oils,  and  drugs.  There  are  a 
vast  number  of  beautiful  cabinet  woods,  but  almost  the  only 
one  exported  is  rosewood,  and  this  in  small  quantities. 
Among  the  larger  Brazilian  animals  are  tapirs,  jaguars, 
stags,  ostriches,  alligators  of  several  kinds,  and  large  water- 
snakes.  The  fisheries  of  the  Amazon  and  coast  are  very 
productive. 

Agriculfnrp. — Brazil  has  a  large  amount  of  fertile  land, 
especially  in  the  southeastern  portion  and  on  the  Amazon ; 
but  a  great  portion  of  the  plateau  is  probably  only  fitted  for 
grazing.  By  far  tlie  most  important  product  is  coffee,  in 
which  Brazil  stands  first  in  the  world.  It  constitutes  more 
than  half  of  her  exports,  the  ju^incipal  coffee  region  being  in 
the  coast  range  of  .Silo  Paulo,  Minas  (ieraes,  Espirito  Santo 
and  Rio  de  .Janeiro.  Sugar  is  largely  |iroduced  in  Pernam- 
buco, Bahia,  Ceani,  and  elsewhere,  and  tobacco  in  Bahia. 
The  cotton  crop  is  now  insigtuficant.  Cacao  is  one  of  the 
principal  products  of  the  lower  Amazon.  Mandioca,  maize, 
beans,  rice,  ami  tropiial  fruits  and  vegetables  are  largely 
raised  for  home  consumption.  The  most  important  grazing 
districts  are  Rio  (irande  do  Sul  and  Northeastern  Brazil 
from  Pernambuco  to  the  Amazon  ;  the  herds  of  the  interior 
are  still  small. 

Jlantifiiclitre.s. —  Generally  these  are  on  a  small  scale, 
though  collectively  im|iortant.  Cigars  are  largely  manufac- 
tured at  Bahia.  and  pajier.  furniture,  saddles,  "hats,  beer, 
rum,  and  many  other  articles  in  the  southern  cities. 


Railroads  and  Transportation. — In  1893  there  were  over 
6,000  miles  of  railroads,  the  most  complete  systems  being  in 
the  coffee  regions  of  Siio  Paulo,  Minas.  and  Rio;  a  large 
portion  of  these  roads  were  constructed  with  a  Government 
guarantee  of  interest  on  the  outlay.  So  far  only  a  few  of 
them  have  much  more  than  paid  expenses,  and  they  are  a 
lieavy  financial  burden.  All  the  large  rivers  have  regular 
steam-navigation,  with  excellent  vessels,  and  there  are  sev- 
eral Brazilian  lines  of  coasting  steamers.  The  country  has 
nearly  10.000  miles  of  telegraph  lines;  there  is  a  submarine 
cable  to  Euroi)e.  and  one  is  projected  to  the  U.  S.  Good 
common  roails  are  only  found  near  the  coast. 

Education. — Primary  education  is  general  throughout  Bra- 
zil, but  the  country  schools  are  poor ;  in  the  cities  and  larger 
towns  there  are  excellent  schools  (called  coltegios).  and  pro- 
visions for  the  study  of  law.  medicine,  and  theology.  Most  of 
the  cities  have  libraries,  and  some  of  them  museums.  Young 
Brazilians  seeking  higher  education  generally  go  to  Portugal 
or  France.     See  Portuguese-Brazilian  Literature. 

Gorernmenf. — It  is  a  federal  republic,  very  similar  in  form 
to  that  of  the  U.  S.  The  president  and  vice-pi'esident  are 
elected  for  four  years,  and  can  not  be  re-elected  for  the  next 
succeeding  term ;  senators  are  elected  for  nine  yeai-s,  and 
deputies,  or  members  of  the  lower  house,  for  three  years. 
The  states  are  completely  independent  in  matters  of"  their 
own  internal  administration.  Freedom  of  religious  worship 
is  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution.  The  president  and  con- 
gress are  elected  by  practicaDy  universal  suffrage.  There 
are  twentv  states  and  a  federal  district  (Rio  de  Janeiro). 

Population.— This  was  estimated  in  1896  at  16,300,000, 
and  is  probably  too  large.  Over  one-third  arc  classed  as 
white,  but  this  includes  a  large  number  mixed  with  Indian 
and  a  smaller  proportion  with  Negro  blood.  Ciiie-fifth  are 
Negi'oes  and  as  many  more  nnilattoes;  about  400.000  are 
civilized  Indians;  the  remainder  mixed  races.  The  official 
estimate  of  600.000  wild  Indians  is  greatly  exaggerated  ;  the 
tribes  are  small,  and  altogether  probalily  do  not  number 
250.000.  (For  ethnology,  see  Indian  Tribes  of  South 
America.)  The  great  mass  of  the  pojiulation  is  gathered  in 
Southeastern  Brazil.  The  interior  and  the  Amazon  valley 
are  very  thinly  settled,  and  only  partially  explored.  The 
largest  cities  are  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  ca]iital,  estimated, 
350.000  ;  Pernambuco.  100,000  ;  Bahia,  80,000  ;  Pani,  aliout 
50,(X)0 ;  Sao  Paulo,  Fortaleza,  Maranhao,  Parahylia,  and  Porto 
Alegre,  all  above  35,000.  The  whites  are  mainly  of  Portu- 
guese descent,  but  in  Southern  BrazU  there  are  several  hun- 
dred thousand  German  colonists. 

Jlisliirij. — Before  Brazil  was  discovered.  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal had  regulated  their  claims  of  conquest  by  the  treaty  of 
Torilesillas.  (See  Tordesillas.)  By  this  all  new  lands  E.  of 
about  Ion.  50°  \V.  were  assigned  to  Portugal.  Accordingly, 
when  the  Spaniard  Vicente  Yanez  Pinzon  discovered  the 
northeast  coast  of  Brazil  (Feb.  and  Jlar..  1500).  he  did  not 
take  possession,  and  his  voyage  has  little  historical  impor- 
tance. The  same  year  a  Portuguese  fleet  was  dispatched  to 
India  under  Pedro  Alvares  Cabral.  For  some  rea.son  he 
stood  far  out  in  the  Atlantic,  and  on  Apr.  22  fell  in  with  the 
Brazilian  coast  S.  of  Bahia.  He  took  possession  for  Portu- 
gal, followe<l  the  coast  for  some  distance,  and  then  proceeded 
on  his  coiu'se  to  India,  first  sending  back  a  ship  with  tidings 
of  his  discovery.  Some  other  explorations  were  made,  but 
Portugal  was  so  much  occupied  with  her  Indian  conquests 
t  hat  Brazil  was  long  neglected.  The  first  colony,  Sao  Vicente, 
S.  of  Rio,  was  formed  by  JIartin  Affonso  de  Sonza  in  1532; 
and  about  this  time  the  coast  was  divi<led  into  sections,  which, 
as  hereditary  captaincies,  were  granted  to  distinguished  Por- 
tuguese on  the  agreement  that  they  should  settle  them.  These 
correspond  to  the  modern  coast  iirovinces.  now  states  of 
Brazil.  Bahia  was  founded  in  154!),  and  became  the  capital. 
Spain  did  not  dispute  the  rights  of  Portugal  to  Brazil,  but 
other  nations  nuide  attempts  to  colonize  it.  Such  were  the 
short-lived  French  colonies  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (155.')-60)  and 
Maranhao  (1612-14).  Attempts  of  the  Dutch  comuieneed  in 
the  Amazon  early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  They  seized 
Baliia  (1624)  and  held  it  for  a  year,  ami  in  1631  they  took 
Pcrnamlaicoand  formed  a  powerful  colony  around  it.  Con- 
stantly at  war  with  the  Portuguese,  they  were  finally  driven 
out  ill  16.54.  After  1640  Brazil  was  governed  liy  viceroys, 
and  in  1762  the  capital  w.hs  changed  from  Bahia  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  During  tlie  eighteenth  century  the  colonies  devel- 
o|ie(l  rapidly,  owing  to  the  increasing  importance  of  the 
sugar  industry,  and  the  discovery  of  rich  gold  and  diamond 
mines  in  the  interior.  Armed  expeditions  in  search  of 
mines  and  of  Indian  slaves  penetrated  far  into  the  interior. 


BRAZIL 


BRAZOS  SANTIAGO 


747 


fountliiiK  towns  in  Goyaz,  Matto  Grosso,  and  even  on  the 
heail-wiiters  of  tlie  Madeira.  Some  of  tliein  attacked  the 
Spauisti  missions  of  I'akaui'ay  (q.  v.).  The  armies  of  Napo- 
leon drove  the  prime  regent,  Dom  John,  out  of  Portugal, 
and  he  took  refuge  in  Brazil  (1808).  making  his  capital  at 
Kio  de  Janeiro.  He  succeeded  to  the  Portuguese  throne  in 
Mar.,  isiti,  and  in  Apr.,  1821,  returned  to  Portugal,  leaving 
his  son.  Dom  Pedro,  as  regent  in  Brazil.  The  jirinee  jilaeed 
himsi-lf  at  I  lie  hi-ad  of  the  movement  for  inile|iendence,  and 
on  Si-pl.  7.  IM'Ji,  detiiiitely  refused  ohedieiue  to  Portugal ;  a 
constituent  a.ssembly  was  convoked:  Brazil  was  ileelared  an 
independent  empire.  an<l  on  Dee.  1,  1822,  Dom  Pedro  was 
trowned  as  Kmperor  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil.  There  was  some 
oppositicm  and  fighting,  priueipallv  in  the  northern  prov- 
inces, which  did  not  entirely  cease  until  ISJiT.  For  political 
reasons  Pedro  I.  was  comjielled  to  alidieate  .\pr.  G.  1831.  in 
favor  of  his  son.  IVilro  li.  The  latter  being  a  minor,  the 
country  was  governed  liy  a  regency.  His  majority  was  pro- 
claimed, and  he  assumed  the  crown  in  1840. 

Uruguay  had  formed  a  part  of  Hrazil  from  1821  to  1825, 
under  the  name  of  the  Cis-Platine  state.  The  dictator 
Rosius,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  having  attempted  to  annex  that 
country.  Brazil  made  war  on  him.  defeating  liim  in  1852, 
and  I'ruguay  remained  independent.  The  war  with  Para- 
guay (18()->-fi!))  was  brought  on  by  the  dictator  Lopez  of 
that  country,  and  ended  in  his  defeat  and  death.  (.See  Para- 
<iL'AV.)  Brazil  was  the  last  slave-holding  state  in  .Vnu'rica. 
A  grailual  emancipation  law  was  pas,sed  in  1871,  but  the 
final  extinction  of  slavery  wius  due  to  a  remarkable  ]iopular 
movement.  Probably  200,000  slaves  were  fn-ed  by  private 
means,  and  two  provinces  were  emancipated  before  the 
abolishment  of  slavery  was  decreeil  (May  18,  18S8)  bv  an  al- 
most unanimous  vote  of  parliament.  In  1889  a  sudden  rev- 
olution forced  the  Emperor  Pedro  II.  to  abdicate:  a  pro- 
visional government  uniler  Fonseca  succeeded;  a  federal 
constitution  was  adopted  Feb.  24,  1891,  Fon.seca  being 
first  iiresident.  He  was  deposed  in  Nov.,  1891,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  Floriana  Peixoto,  against  whom  several  staters 
and  the  navy  rebelled  in  1893-94,  but  this  movement  col- 
lapsed in  .Mar.,  1894,  when  Prudente  Moraes  was  elected 
president. 

LiTKRATURK. — Tills  is  very  extensive.  Special  students 
sIkuiIiI  consult  the  Ca/alnyo  da  Kjposifno  de  Historia  do 
Brazil  (Kio  de  Janeiro.  1881.  2  vols.),  which  is  a  very  com- 
plete bibliograiihy  of  the  country. 

General  and  (fenyrapltictd  Works. — Wai)paus,  Ilandhuch 
der  (reographie  mid  Statialik  des  Kaixerreichu  Jiranilien 
(Leipzig,  1871):  O  Hrazil  (ieofirapliirn  e  HiMorieo  (Kio  de 
Janeiro,  1884,  <■/  .<'-</.),  founded  on  \Vap|iaus.  but  with  c>x- 
tensivr  additions  by  Brazilian  scholars;  Macedo.  Coroyraplna 
do  liraail  {\i\(}  de  Janeiro.  187H):  /y/vi^// {Bulletin  No.  7  of 
the  Bureau  of  .\m<>rican  Republics.  1891);  The  Mappa  Oe- 
ral  dn  Hrazil:  the  works  of  Denis,  Carvalho.  and  Andrews. 

Jli.tfori/. —  Porto  Seguro.  Historia  (feral  do  Brazil; 
Soutliey.  Jlislory  of  Brazil.  The  works  of  Pereira  da 
Silva,  Capistrano  de  Abreu.  Macedo  Teixeira  de  Mello,  and 
Abreu  e  Lima. 

Ethnology.  —  Martins.  FAhnographie  Amerikas  zumal 
BruJiiliens  (Leipzig,  1867);  Brinton,  The  Amerieau  Race 
(New  York,  1891). 

Oeoloyy.  —  Hartt,  Otology  and  I'hysiral  Geoqraptty  of 
Brazil  (Boston,  1870).  The  works  of  Derby,  Goreeix,  Lund, 
and  Ksehwege. 

Zoology  and  Botany. — Wallace,  (leographiral  Disfribu- 
tion  of  Animals:  Marlins.  Flora  Hrasiliensis. 

Trarels.  —  Bates,  Satiira/isl  on  the  Amazon:  Martins, 
Reise  in  Hrasilien:  Burton,  The  llighlands  of  the  Brazil: 
Bigg- Wither,  Pioneering  in  South'  Brazil :  Wells,  Three 
Thousand  Mile.s  through  Brazil :  the  narratives  of  Saint- 
Ililaire,  Castelnan,  Gardner,  Koster.  and  .\gassiz. 

Herhkkt  H.  Smith. 

Brazil:  railroad  junction;  city,  and  capital  of  Clay  co., 
Ind.  (for  liH'ation  of  county,  .see  mai)  of  Indiana,  ref.  8-C): 
16  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Terre  ilaute.  it  is  an  important  cen- 
ter of  the  block  coal  and  iron  business.  Pop.  (1880)  3,441 ; 
(1890)5,90.5. 

lirnzil  Cnbbacro:  a  Calla-like  plant  with  large  arrow- 
shaped  leaves  iXanthoxiana  sagittifolium).  of  the  family 
,lrrtr«(('.  native  of  the  West  Indies,  and  now  cultivated  in 
Brazil  for  its  thick,  erect,  nutritious  rhizome,  as  well  as  for 
its  foliage,  which  is  cooked  for  food.  This  and  other  species 
of  the  genus  are  commonly  grown  in  <onservatories  for  or- 
namental purpo.ses.  '  C.  E.  B. 


Brnziliaii  Grass  :  popular  name  of  a  substance  used  in 
the  manufaeture  of  hats,  sometimes  called  chip  hats.  It  is 
not  gra.ss.  but  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  palm  {Cliumairops 
argentea)  which  are  imported  from  Cuba. 

lira/.iliaii  Literature:  See  Portuguese  Litekatirk  in 
Bkazii.. 

Urazil-nuts:  the  seeds  of  the  Berthollelia  excelsa,  a 
beautiful   tree  of  the  family  Myrtacea.     This  tree,  which 


1  8 

Brazil-uut :  1,  represents  the  round  wood}'  pericarp,  about  one-fifth 

the  natural  diameter  of  an  example  of  moderate  size  ;  2.  one  of 

the  nuts  or  seeds,  halt  the  natural  length  ;  3.  section  of  the  same. 

attains  a  height  of  100  feet  or  more,  abounds  on  the  banks 
of  the  Orinoco  ami  in  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil.  an<l 
bears  a  round  woody  pericarp  nearly  as  large  as  a  man's 
head.  This  pericarp  contains  about  twenty-four  seeds  or 
nuts,  which  have  the  form  of  a  triangular  |irism.  and  a 
haril  shell  inclosing  a  white  kernel,  wliiih  is  very  agreeable 
when  fr<'sh.  but  soon  becomes  rancid.  They  yield  a  large 
quantity  of  t>il.  which  is  valnable  for  buriiiiig  in  lamps. 
Manv  Brazil-nuts  are  exported  from    Pani  to  Europe  and 

the  r.  S. 

Brazil-wood  :  an  important  dyewooil  obtained  from  the 
Ctesalpinia  crispa,  a  tree  of  tin-  family  Leynminos(e.  There 
are  several  vari- 
eties, known  as 
Pcrnambuco.  Li- 
ma, Santa  Mar- 
tha. Sapan  or  Ja- 
pan, etc.  The 
wood  contains  a 
colorless  (irin- 
ciple,  hrazilin 
(C.IImO.IUO). 
This  changes  by 
oxidation  to  hra- 
i//e(j|  (CielliaOj). 
the  red  coloring- 
matter  which 
gives  the  wood 
its  value.  Pcr- 
nambuco and  Li- 
ma wood  contain 
as  high  as  2'7  per 
cent.of  brazilein. 
.Sapan  1'5.  and 
Santa  Martha 
(also called  Peach 
or  Nicaragua) 
still  less.  Brazil- 
wood is  very 
heavy  and  hanl. 
is  pale  when 
freshly  cut.  but 
becomes  red  by 
exposure  to  the  "air.  The  coloring-malter  is  soluble  in  water, 
but  more  so  in  alcohol  or  ammonia.  Brazil-wood  has  been 
largely  supplanted  by  artificial  dyes.  It  is  used  in  calico- 
printiiigand  in  wood-dyeing,  but  it  is  not  satisfactory. 

Revised  by  Ira  Rk.msen'. 

Bra'zos:  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Texas;  rises  in  the 
high  table-land  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  State  ;  flows  first 
nearlv  eastwaril  to  Baylor,  then  S.  E.  for  about  200  miles, 
and  .subseiiuently  S.  S."  E.  till  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Its  whole  lengtli  is  estimated  at  900  miles.  In  the  rainy 
season,  from  February  to  May  inclusive,  it  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  about  300  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Bra'zos  Santia'go:  an  inlet  and  seaport  of  Texas;  in 
Cameron  County  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas, 
ref.  8-II):  between  the  north  end  of  Brazos  island  and  the 
south  extremity  of  Padre  island.  It  has  some  trade,  but  it 
has  a  bad  and  shifting  bar.  The  settlement  is  on  Brazos 
island,  in  hit.  26"  04  N..  Ion.  97°  12  W. 


Brazil-wuod. 


748 


BEAZZA 


BREAD 


Brazza.  Pierre  Savorgxax,  de :  French  explorer  in 
Africa  ;  b.  on  board  ship  off  Kio  de  Janeiro,  Jan.  26.  1852 ; 
entered  the  French  navy  1870  ;  e.'splored  the  Osiowai  1876- 
78;  continued  his  explorations  in  the  country  X.  of  the 
Congo,  founding  Franceville  and  many  other  stations  1878- 
85  ;  appointed  governor  of  the  important  dependency  thus 
secured  to  France  1886. 

Breach  of  Contract:  See  Contract,  Breach  of. 
Breach  of  the  Peace:  See  Peace.  Breach  of  the. 
Breach  of  Promise :  See  Marriage. 
Bread  :  the  most  common  kind  of  prepared  food ;  made 
from  the  flour  or  meal  of  some  grain,  moistened  with 
water,  and  mixed  or  kneaded  till  of  a  uniform  consistence. 
It  may  or  may  not  be  raised  by  the  development  of  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  mass,  or  of  other  gas.  It  is  formed  into 
loaves  or  cakes,  and  finally  baked  before  a  fire  or  in  an  oven. 
I.  Bread  which  is  not  raised  is  often  called  unleavened 
bread.  This  may  lie  made  from  tlie  whole  grain  bv  soak- 
ing it  in  water,  forming  it  in  the  hands,  and  either  "drying 
it  in  the  sun  or  baking  it  before  a  fire.  This  is  the  sim- 
plest process  of  bread-making,  and  is  still  practiced  to 
some  extent  among  savages.  Generally  unleavened  bread 
is  made  from  grain  which  has  been  pounded  or  brayed  in 
a  mortar  or  between  flat  stones,  reduced  to  meal  in  a  mill, 
or  even  further  reduced  to  flour.  Coai-se  oat.  barlev,  and' 
pease  nieals  are  in  Scotland  made  into  bread  bv  simply 
kneading  with  water,  flavoring  with  salt,  and  balcing  be- 
fore a  fire.  Wheat  bread  is  maile  in  a  similar  manner  in 
many  localities.  The  passover  cakes  of  the  Israelites  were 
thus  prepared.  ^  In  the  U.  S.,  especially  among  the  poorer 
classes  in  the  South.  Indian  corn-meal  is  thus  made  into 
corn-bread.  From  wheat  flour,  sea-biscuit  and  the  various 
kinds  of  crackei-s  are  jirepared. 

II.  Baised  bread  is  bread  which  is  made  porous  and 
spongy  by  the  aid  of  some  gas,  produced  either  before  or 
during  the  baking.  This  g;is  mav  be  carbonic  acid,  either 
generated  by  fermentation,  produced  by  the  decomposition 
in  the  bread  of  an  alkaline  biearbonate."or  mingled  with  the 
flour  in  solution  in  water  under  pressure.  It  may  be  air 
which  is  incorporated  with  the  dough  during  the  knea<Iing 
and  expanded  during  the  baking,  as  in  pastry,  sponge  cake, 
etc..  or  it  may  be  carljonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  vaporized 
during  t!ie  baking. 

The  best  bread  is  made  of  wheat  flour,  although  the  flour 
of  rye,  oats,  and  other  grain  is  used.  (See  Flour.)  Wheat 
flour  owes  its  superiority  to  the  large  percentage  of  gluten 
which  it  contains.  Tliis  body,  when  moistened  with  water, 
becomes  adhesive,  elastic,  and  tenacious,  and  holds  tlie  bub- 
bles of  ga-s  formed  during  the  process  of  raising  the  loaf, 
although  it  be  distended  to  a  spongy  mass  several  times  the 
original  volume  of  the  dough,  tlie  other  cereals  contain 
scarcely  any  gluten  :  hence  it  is  difficult  to  make  light-raised 
bread  from  them.  (See  Glute.v.)  The  bread  from  wheat 
flour  is  whiter  than  tliat  of  other  grains. 

1.  Fermented  bread  is  prepared  either  with  leaven  or  ye«st. 
Leaven  is  dough— i.  e.  flour  and  water— in  a  state  of  incipi- 
ent putrefaction.  When  flour  is  moistened  witli  water  and 
placed  in  a  warm  situation,  spontaneous  chemical  action 
begins  in  the  nitrogenous  constituents,  casein,  fibrin,  gluten 
etc.  This  change  extends  later  to  the  sugar,  gum,  and 
starch.  At  one  stage  of  the  decomposition  the  products  of 
vinous  fermentation  may  be  detected,  alcohol  and  carbonic 
acid;  at  a  later  stage  an  acid  fermentation  supervenes  pro- 
ducing lactic  aciil.  The  alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  and  lactic 
acid  are  formed  from  sugar,  either  the  small  ((uantity  origi- 
nally contained  in  the  flour,  or  an  additional  quantity 
formed  during  the  decom[H)sition  from  the  gum  antl  starch. 
(Sec  I  erme.vtatiox.)  The  change  of  sugar  in  the  vinous 
and  lactic  acid  fermentations  is  shown  in  the  following  for- 
muhe :  " 


Siit'ar.  Carbonic  acid. 

C.il.jUa  =  2C0, 

„^VF*'a  Lactic  acirt. 

C,H„0,  =        2C3lI,Os, 


-Mcohol. 

2f,n.o. 


Where  leaven  is  used  for  making  bread  a  portion  of  the 
dougli  IS  set  a-side  at  each  baking  to  serve  as  leaven  for  the 
next.  The  process  of  making  the  bread  is  verv simple  The 
proper  quantity  of  flour  is  mixed  with  tepid  water,  the 
leaven,  and  a  little  salt,  the  whole  being  well  incorporated 
by  kneading.  I'he  mixture  is  phiced  in  a  warm  situaticm 
and  left  over  night  to  ferment.  If  the  leaven  is  in  the 
proper  stage  of  decoiiii)osition,  it  will  induce  vinous  fermen- 


tation, producing  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas ;  the  latter, 
held  by  the  elastic  and  tenacious  gluten,  will  expand  the 
mass  into  a  light,  porous  sponge,  which  becomes  in  the  oven 
a  palatable  loaf.  If,  however,  the  leaven  be  in  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  of  decomposition,  or  if  some  other  necessary 
condition  fail,  instead  of  alcohol  and  carlionic  acid,  lactic 
acid  will  be  formed,  and  the  dough  will  not  be  raised  by 
gas,  but  will  be  heavy  and  sour.  To  avoid  this  latter  result, 
saleratus,  liicarbonate  of  potassa,  or  soda  is  added  to  the 
dough  This  neutraUzes  the  lactic  acid  as  fast  as  it  is 
formed,  and  by  liberating  carbonic  acid  gas  at  the  same 
time  inflates  the  sponge  and  makes  it  light  and  porous. 
\V  ere  there  any  certainty  as  to  the  quantity  of  lactic  acid  that 
would  be  generated,  it  might  be  possible  to  add  the  proper 
amount  of  saleratus  to  neutralize  it,  but  in  practice  there  is 
generally  an  excess  or  a  deficiency.  In  the  former  case  the 
bread  is  alkaline,  yellow,  and  disagreeable ;  in  the  latter  case, 
sour.  Leaven  is  also  liable  to  communicate  a  disagreeable 
taste  and  odor. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  making  good  bread  with 
kaven,  and  the  frequent  failures  in  private  families,  in 
Paris,  where  bread-making  has  reached  a  high  degree  of 
perfection,  the  bread  is  raised  chiefly  by  leaven,  a  little 
yeast  only  being  added  to  facilitate  the  fermentation.  Ac- 
cording to  Prof.  Horsford,  the  following  is  the  common 
method  practiced  in  Paris:  At  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening 
a  mass  of  paste  (leaven  or  sour  dough)  is  taken,  composed  of 
8_kilog.  of  flour  and  4  kilog.  of  water.  This  is  left  until  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  constitutes  tlie  main  leaven :  8 
kilog.  more  of  flour  and  4  kilog.  of  water  are  then  added  ;  this 
forms  the  first  quality  of  leaven.  At  two  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  16  kilog.  of  iionr  and  8  of  water  are  added  ;  this  is 
the  second  quality  of  leaven.  At  five  o'clock  the  complete 
leaven  is  prepared  by  adding  100  lb.  of  flour  and  52  kilog. 
of  water,  mixed  with  from  200  to  :300  jrrammes  of  yeast.  At 
seven  o'clock  132  kilog.  of  flour  and  68  kilog.  of  water,  holding 
in  solution  2  kilog.  of  salt,  and  mixed  with  from  ;300  to  600 
grammes  of  yeast,  are  added  to  the  leaven,  and  made  into 
well-kneaded  dough. 

With  this  quantity  of  paste  five  or  six  batches  of  bread 
are  made  in  the  following  manner:  7*^  Batch.— This  is  com- 
posed of  half  the  dough  jirepared  as  above,  which  is  molded 
and  left  to  rise,  and  then  set  in  the  oven.  The  liread  of  this 
first  baking  is  sour,  rather  brown,  and  not  particularly  light. 
~'d  .Bo/f/(.— The  dough  remaining  of  the  first  batch  is  mixed 
with  132  kilog.  more  of  flour  and  68  kilog.  of  water,  mixed 
with  the  same  proportion  of  salt  and  veast  as  the  ]>receding 
batch.  Half  of  this  dough  forms  the  second  baking,  the 
bread  of  which  is  whiter  and  better  than  the  firsf.  3d 
Batch.— The  same  quantity  of  flour,  water,  and  salt,  with 
300  grammes  of  yeast,  is  again  added  to  the  dough,  of  which 
half  is  baked  as  usual.  4th  Batch.—Siime  proceeding  as 
for  the  third.  5th  Batch.— This  is  prepared  like  the  forego- 
ing, and  produces  what  is  called  fancy  bread,  the  finest 
quality  of  any. 

The  use  of  leaven  is  of  great  antiquity.  The  usual  agent 
for  raising  lu-ead  in  the  public  bakeries 'in  the  U.  S.  and  in 
many  families  is  yeast,  either  obtained  from  some  brewery 
or  specially  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  following  is  'a 
recipe  in  common  use  in  Xew  England  :  '-Take  eight  good- 
sized  potatoes,  boil,  mash  fine,  pass  through  a  sieve,  and 
work  in  a  cup  of  flour.  Thin  to  a  cream  with  hot  water, 
and  add  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a  tablespoonful  of  sugar. 
When  cooled  to  lukewarm,  add  a  cupful  of  old  yeast,  and 
set  aside  in  a  warm  place.  In  six  hours  the  veast  will  be 
ready  to  use.  Bottled  it  will  keep  for  a  week.  '  Use  a  cup- 
ful for  two  loaves  of  bread." 

A  very  essential  element  of  success  in  bread-making  is 
thorough  kneading.  When  the  bread  has  risen  sufliciently  it 
is  bakeil.  There  is  a  loss  of  about  25  per  cent,  in  baking, 
chiefly  water.  In  bread  raiseil  bv  fermentation  some  alcoliol 
is  evolved.  Lieliig  estimated  that  150.000  gal.  of  alcohol 
are  thus  lost  annually  in  London  alone,  and  12,000,000  gal. 
in  Germany.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  save  it  by  conden- 
sation, but  thus  far  without  success. 

The  carbonic  aiid  which  gives  lightness  to  fermented 
bread  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  small  amount  of  sugar  con- 
tained in  the  flour.  If  wheat  is  ex]iosed  to  dampness  after 
harvesting,  or  it  the  flour  has  been  exjioseil  to  he.at  and 
moisture,  the  albumen  which  it  contains  is  transformed  into 
diastase  (see  Bekr),  which  possesses  the  property  of  chang- 
ing starch  to  dextrin  (gum)  atul  sugar.  Bread  made  from 
such  flour  is  sweet,  sticky,  heavy,  and  dark-colored.  Several 
substances  have  been  used  to  prevent  these  results.     Alum 


BREAD 


BKEADPRUIT-TBEE 


749 


is  said  to  liave  been  extensively  used  in  London ;  its  use  be- 
iuK  now  forliiildoii  bv  law,  lime-water  was  roforainondcd  by 
Lii'liii;.  and  is  larirely  usod  liy  the  (ilusgow  bakci's.  Sid- 
pliatc  of  copper  is  a  poisonous  sail,  said  to  be  used  in  Bel- 
gium, ttJitit  to  rrrhm  being  sutlieient  for  the  purpose.  Mege- 
^louries  announced  some  vears  ago  (Compfrx  JieiiJiiis,  xxx'ii. 
77"):  xxxviii.  Sol,  505;  ilii.  1122;  xliv.40,  449;  xlvi.  126: 
xlviii.  4:il :  1.  467)  tlic  discovery  of  a  body,  "  cerealine," 
found  almost  wholly  in  the  bran,  which  possesses  properties 
similar  ti>  those  of  diastase.  He  devised  means  for  getting 
rid  of  lliis  agent,  or  at  least  of  its  elfucls,  and  the  following 
method  of  bre.id-makiug  bears  his  name.  It  is  assumed  that 
100  kilog,  of  wheat  eu  meal  have  given 

T2  kit.  750  grammes  fiaest  white  flour, 
15  "    7.50        "         (lark  groats, 
11   "    500        "  bran. 

1.  At  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  take  40  litere*  of  water 
at  18°  R.  (72f'  v.),  add  70  gramnu'S  of  ])ure  yea-st,  or  700 
grammes  common  grocer'.s  yeast,  and  100  grammes  of  starch- 
sugar.  (Instead  of  the  yetist  and  sugar,  lake,  if  necessary, 
20  grammes  of  tartaric  acid.)  The  place  where  the  mixture 
is  set  jtside  must  be  maintained  nearly  at  the  temperature  of 
18°  R.  2.  The  next  morning,  at  six  oV-lock,  the  fluid  will 
bo  saturated  with  carbonic  acid.  Stir  in  the  15  kilog.  7.50 
grammes  of  groats.  Fermentation  will  commence  imnu'di- 
ately.  8.  At  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  add  ;>0  liters  of 
water,  and  pa.ss  the  whole  through  a  very  tine  silk  or  silver- 
wire  sieve,  to  separate  the  fine  bran.  4.  The  70  liters  with 
which  the  groats  have  been  treated,  after  p.issing  through 
the  sieve,  will  be  reduced  to  about  55  liters,  with  which  the 
72  kilog.  750  grammes  of  white  flour  and  700  grammes  of 
salt  are  to  be  kneaded  into  a  dough.  (The  bran  is  again 
extracted  with  :!0  liters  of  water,  and  the  extract  emjiloyed 
in  tile  next  liatch.)  5.  The  do\igh  is  then  placed  in  baking- 
pans  to  ferment.     B.   When  raised,  it  is  phu^'d  in  the  oven. 

The  baking  of  bread  can  be  effected  at  212'  F..  but  no 
crust  will  be  formed:  to  secure  the  best  result  a  temperature 
of  3.50'  U>  510'  F.  should  be  employed.  A  high  heat  should 
beavoideil  at  first,  lest  a  hard  ('rust  be  formed,  while  the  in- 
terior of  tJK'  loaf  remains  unbaked.  One  hundred  pounds  of 
flour  yield  from  125  to  Vi~)  lb.  of  bread,  the  incrca.se  being 
<iue  to  the  water  added.  The  most  common  faults  of  wheat 
bread  are  due  to  its  being  (1)  xoiir,  from  the  flour  having 
been  partly  spoiled,  the  yea-st  or  leaven  having  been  too  old, 
or  the  dough  having  been  allowed  to  stand  too  long  before 
baking;  (i)  bitter,  from  excess  of  yeast  or  bad  yea-st;  (3) 
/ii'<ii\i/.  from  insullicient  kneailing,  raising, or  bad  leaven;  (4) 
miitiiij,  from  the  flour  having  been  kept  too  long  in  a  damj) 
place. 

(frahnm  bread  is  made  from  the  unbolted  meal  of  wheat, 
a  mixture  of  bran  and  flour;  it  is  used  by  dyspeptics.  Ri/e 
hritiid  is  largely  used  in  Xorthern  Europe,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  U.S.  It  is  dark-colored,  is  harder  than  wheat 
bread,  and  has  a  pecidiar  taste. 

2.  Sitti.'ititutejs  for  Perinvntatlnn. — Carbonio  acid  may  be 
developed  in  the  dough  by  the  decomposition  of  bicarbonate 
of  notiLssa  (saleratus)  or  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  by  some 
aeiil.  Sour  milk,  hy(lrochloric  aciil.  tartaric  .ncid.  bitartrate 
of  i)otass,a  (cream  of  tartar),  and  the  acid  phospluite  of  lime 
have  been  used  for  this  purpose.  Thi-ygive  rise  respectively 
to  lactate,  chloride,  tartrate,  double  tartrate  (Kochello  salt) 
of  potassium  or  .sodium,  or  to  (in  the  case  of  the  last  nu'n- 
fioned)  a  mixture  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  soda  or  pota.ssa. 
As  neither  of  these  agents  causes  fermiVitation,  none  of  the 
elements  of  the  flour  is  lost,  and  a  greater  yield  of  bread  is 
claimed.  This  saving  is,  however,  very  trifling,  as  the  loss 
in  fermentati(m  is  sm.ill.  The  use  of  the  acid  jihosphate  of 
lime,  suggested  by  Prof.  Horsford,  is  claimed  to  restore  to 
the  flour  the  jihosphates  of  the  wheat  which  were  removed 
in  the  bran.  The  prficess  has  been  C(miuu'n<led  by  Liebig. 
One  strong  recommendation  for  these  "  baking-powdei's"  is 
the  fact  th.-it  bread  may  he  mixed  and  baked  at  once,  with- 
out the  delay  of  several  hours  which  is  necessary  where 
fermentation  is  resorted  to.  As  cream  of  tartar  and  acid 
I)liosphate  of  lime  do  not  act  on  bicarl«nate  of  soda  in  the 
absence  of  water,  cither  of  these  acid  salts  may  be  mixed 
with  tlie  flour,  together  with  the  bicarbonate,  lluis  produc- 
ing what  is  now  extensively  sold  in  the  U.S.  nnderthename 
of  •'  self-raising  flour."  which  is  already  salted,  and  merely 
requires  to  be  mixed  with  water  and  baked  to  produce  a 
palatable  loaf.  Carlionate  of  ammonia  (sal  volatile)  is  sonic- 
limes   used  alone   to   raise   bread ;  being  very  volatile,  it  is 

•  .\  liter  of  water  weighs  1,000  grammes  =  1  kilog.  =  22  lb. 
avoirdupois. 


converted  into  vapor  during  the  baking,  and  raises  the  loaf 
to  a  light  sponge.  .Mr.  Dauglish  introduced  aPrated  bread, 
which  is  prepari'il  by  kneading  flour  in  a  closed  vessel  with 
water  supersaturated  nmh^r  pressure  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 
On  bringing  the  dough  into  the  air,  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
set  free  by  tlu^  removal  of  the  pressure  expands  it  into  a 
s|)onge.  "  Sponge  cake  "  is  raised  by  means  of  air  which  is 
incorporated  with  the  flour  by  first  beating  eggs  to  a  froth, 
stirring  in  the  flour,  and  quickly  baking.  "  Pastry  "  is  made 
flaky,  but  not  really  spongy  liki'  bread,  by  mixing  flour  and 
water  to  a  dough,  rolling  it  out  into  sheets,  applying  butter 
liberally,  doubling  over  the  sheet,  rolling  it  out  again,  and 
again  apjilying  butter.  These  operations  are  repealed  till 
the  dough  becomes  a  sheet  of  innumerable  layers  of  dough 
alternating  with  a  thin  coating  of  butter.  On  exposing 
this  to  the  heat  of  the  oven,  the  ditTerent  layers  of  dough 
separate,  either  from  the  expansion  of  the  imprisoned  air  or 
from  sleani,  and  the  mass  becouics  light  and  flaky. 

C.  F.  Chandler. 
Breadal'bane.  Marquises  op  :  Marquises  of  P.readalbane 
1885,  Earls  of  Holland,  Viscountsof  Tay  and  Paint  land.  Lords 
Glenorchy,  Henederaloch,Ormelie,  and  Wreik  (1()77,  in  Scot- 
land), and  baronets  (l(i25,  in  Scotland),  a  prominent  family 
of  .Scotland. — Gavin  C'ami'HELL,  the  seventh  earl  and  first 
marquis,  w.-is  born  in  1851,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1871. 

Itrcadrriiit-trei' :  an  important  tree  {Arlocitrjuis  incisa) 
of  the  family  .l/Zort/ryOTCt'ic  ;  a  native  of  Southern  Asia,  of 
the  i.slands  of  tlie  South  Pacific,  aiul  of  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, now  naturalized  in  some  of  the  West  Indies.     This  tree 


grows  to  the  height  of  40  or  50  feet,  and  has  large,  glo.ssy, 
dark-green  leaves,  which  are  piiuiatifid  or  deeply  divided 
into  pointetl  lobes.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  18  inches 
long.  The  fruit,  wdiich  is  a  soroxis.  is  nearly  spherical,  and 
is  covered  with  a  rough  rind,  which  is  nuirked  with  small 
irregularly  hexagonal  divisions,  having  each  a  small  promi- 
nence in  the  middle.  The  fruit  sometimes  weighs  4  lb.  or 
more,  contains  a  large  portion  of  starch  or  fecula.  and  is  a 
principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  natives  of  the  South  Sea 
islands.  The  pulp  is  juicy  and  yellow  when  it  is  fully  ripe, 
but  it  is  in  a  better  condition  for  eating  before  it  arrives  at 
that  stage  of  maturity.  When  it  is  gathered  iK'fore  ripeness 
and  baked,  the  pnip  is  white  and  mealy,  very  nutritioiis,  and 
'reseml)les  wheat  bread.  The  ustial  practice  is  to  cut  the 
fruit  into  three  or  four  slices,  and  bake  them  in  an  oven. 
Sometimes  the  peo]>li'  of  a  village  join  to  make  a  huge  oven 
— a  iiit  20  or  30  feet  in  <-ircumference — in  which  several 
hundred  breadfruits  are  liaked  at  once  on  heate<l  stones. 
Baked  in  this  moile,  the  bread  will  keep  good  for  several 
week.s.  The  tree  produces  two  or  three  crops  in  a  year.  It 
has  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies  with  some  success. 
The  timber,  which  is  light  and  of  a  rich  yellow  color,  isusinl 
in  building  houses  and  for  other  purposes,  but  if  exjiosed  to 
the  weather  is  not  very  durable.  A  sort  of  cloth  is  made  of 
the  fibrous  inner  liark.  The  tree  abounds  in  a  glutinous  nulky 
juice,  which,  when  boiled  with  cocoauut  oil,  is  nsetl  as  a  ce- 
ment and  as  birdlime.        Revisetl  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 


ti 


BREADNUT 


BREAKWATER 


Breadiiut :  the  fruit  of  the  Brosimum  alicasfrum,  a 
tree  of  the  iamily  Artocarpacete;  a  native  of  Jamaica.  It 
is  allied  to  the  breadfruit.  The  genus  Brosimum  lias 
staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  separate  trees  in  globose 
catkins.  Its  fruit  is  a  one-seeded  drupe,  wliich  is  edible, 
and  is  used  instead  of  bread  after  it  has  been  boiled  or 
roasted.  The  tree  has  ovate,  lanceolate,  evergreen  leaves, 
and  abounds  in  a  gummy  milk. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Breakwater:  a  structure  designed  solely  to  tranquilize 
the  surface  of  a  body  of  water  by  preventing  the  entrance  or 
formation  of  waves  from  the  sea.  It  is  intended  primarily 
to  provide  shelter  from  storms,  and  must  therefore  be  so 
placed  as  to  bear  the  shock  of  the  waves,  winds,  and  cur- 
rents tending  to  destroy  it.  Its  function  is  tlierefore  differ- 
ent from  that  of  a  mole,  jetty,  cpiay,  or  sea-wall,  which  has 
to  fulfill  other  conditions,  but  often  under  more  favorable 
exposures. 

The  fundamental  purpose  of  a  breakwater  being  protec- 
tion, its  location,  plan,  sections,  dimensions,  material,  and 
mode  of  construction  must  be  influenced  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  physical  features  and  forces  existing  at  the  site  of  the 
proposed  artificial  harljor.  advantage  being  taken  of  any 
natural  formations  which  would  reduce  cost  and  increase 
stability. 

This  class  of  structure  applies  chiefly  to  artificial  harbors, 
but  the  same  general  requirements  exist  with  reference  to 
the  entrances  to  many  natural  harbors,  especially  where  they 
are  located  inside  of  the  general  coast-line.  It  will  therefore 
seem  more  appropriate  to  defer  to  their  special  headings  the 
general  consideration  of  the  several  forces  involved  in  the 
prolilem.  and  to  describe  here  only  the  various  types  and 
precedents  found  in  our  principal  ports. 

For  this  purpose  breakwaters  may  be  grouped  into  (a)  those 
which  project  from  a  cape  or  headland,  and  are  consequently 
attached:  (A)  those  which  are  isolated,  insular  or  detached  ; 
(c)  those  which  are  rigidly  supported  on  the  bed  of  the  sea, 
permanent ;  (d)  those  which  are  upheld  by  the  water,  float- 
ing ;  (f)  those  which  perform  the  doulile  piu'iiose  of  breaking 
the  force  of  the  waves  by  the  outer  slope,  wliile  they  regulate 
the  currents  on  the  inner,  reaction ;  (/)  and  those  which  re- 
quire to  be  combined  to  produce  a  sufficiently  tranquilizing 
effect,  composite. 

Instances  of  most  of  these  types  may  be  found  in  the  va- 
rious forms  of  sandy  islands,  spits,  ami  hooks  which  bestud 
an     alluvial     coast,  _^_ 

and  a  study  of  which 
will  convey  a  good 
idea  of  the  best  forms 
and  sections  for  sim- 
ilar materials  and 
exposures,  but  as  the 
engineer  is  required 
to  apply  wood,  stone, 
or  metal,  the  slopes 
and  dimensions  must 
be  modified  accord- 
ingly.   To  secure  the 

desired  protection,  two  methods  are  available.  The  first  is 
to  oppose  the  force  of  the  waves  by  a  resistance  en  masse ; 
the  second,  by  a  neutralization  of  surface  movefticnts  by 
disintegration  and  deflection.  Both  of  these  are  in  use,  but 
the  tonner  is  in  general  far  more  effective,  as  it  is  also  more 
expensive. 

An  instance  of  the  application  of  both  methods  is  found 
in  the  history  of  the  breakwater  of  Cherbourg,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Normandy,  where  the  tide  rises  18  feet.  The  cres- 
cent-shaped liay  is  embraced  between  Cape  de  la  Hogue  and 
Bartleur.  and  contains  several  rocky  islands,  which  do  not  af- 
ford sufficient  shelter.  The  French  Government,  after  mature 
consideration  and  experiments  made  at  Havre,  decided  to 
adopt  the  i)laiis  tif  M.  Louis  Alexander  de  Cessart.  of  build- 
ing ninety  large  timber  cones,  having  a  diameter  of  142  feet 
at  base,  ll:i  feet  at  top,  0.")  feet  high,  and  weighing  1,000  tons 
net.  to  be  floated  by  large  ciisks  from  the  ways  to  the  site, 
sunk,  ami  balliistcd  with  rock.  The  depth  from  low  water 
varied  from  G  to  7  fathoms,  hence  the  to|)s  would  project 
from  8  to  10  feet  above  high  water.  The  first  cone  wius 
placed  in  position  .Iinie  'i■^.  1780,  and  the  last  .June  li),  1788, 
or  two  years  later.  Twenty-one  cones  were  made,  but  oidy 
eighteen  were  used,  the  others  being  sold  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  intervals  between  thi^m  were  (piite  variable.  The 
first  space,  between  centers,  was  518  feet ;  the  second,  159  : 


the  third,  184,  etc.,  some  of  the  distances  being  as  great  as 
1,845,  1,630,  and  1,310  feet ;  so  far  apart,  in  fact,  as  to  be  in- 
operative, and  to  defeat  the  object  of  their  existence ;  hence 
it  happened  that  in  a  few  years  they  were  destroyed  by  the 
waves.  The  total  length  of  this  lireakwater  between  the 
centers  of  the  extreme  cones  was  12,470  feet  (nearly  '2\  miles). 
The  gap  between  the  first  cone  and  the  fort  on  lie  Pelee 
was  3,269  feet,  while  that  at  the  western  end  was  7,685  feet, 
making  the  total  width  of  the  bay  23,424  feet,  or  nearly  4^ 
miles. 

These  cones  were  ballasted  by  throwing  into  and  around 
them  3,703,703  cubic  yards  of  stone,  at  a  cost  of  $3,100,000, 
which  was  subsequently  utilized  in  the  riprap  breakwater 
of  later  date.  The  total  cost  of  this  original  work  was  |4,512,- 
200,  or  nearly  $363  per  lineal  foot,  proving  it  to  be  a  very 
expensive  experiment.* 

The  ruljble  mound  which  remained  had  been  cut  down  by 
storms  to  14  feet  below  low  water,  having  an  inner  slope  of 
one  on  one  (45  degrees)  and  an  outer  or  sea  slope  of  one  on  ten. 
The  National  Assembly  of  1791  authorized  De  Cessart  to 
raise  it  to  high  water,  but  it  was  not  done  at  that  time.  In 
1804  a  number  of  large  blocks  were  placed  on  the  center, 
and  the  battery  replaced  upon  them. 

Thereafter  until  1830  little  was  done  except  to  preserve 
the  central  battery,  and  to  raise  the  remainder  by  means  of 
rubble  to  low-water  level ;  but  finding  it  extremely  diificult 
to  maintain  it  in  that  position,  and  feeling  that,  in  order  to 
secure  the  desired  tranquillity  within  the  roadstead,  it  was 
necessary  to  raise  the  superstructure  at  least  from  9  to  10 
feet  above  high  water  of  spring-tides,  it  was  finally  resolved, 
at  the  recommendation  of  several  engineers,  to  construct  a 
wall  of  solid  masonry,  with  almost  vertical  sides,  from  low 
water  upward,  upon  the  top  of  the  rubble  base  :  this  upright 
wall  extends  from  thence  up  to  the  full  height  of  6  feet  above 
the  level  of  high  water  of  spring  tides;  it  is  composed  of 
ruljble  masonry  faced  with  granite  ashlar  or  dressed  stone, 
in  horizontal  courses  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  thick,  and  3  to 
4  feet  wide,  set  in  mortar.  This  part  of  the  work  is  36  ft.  3  in. 
wide  at  the  base,  and  29  ft.  3  in.  wide  at  the  top,  the  outer 
slope  being  6  to  1,  and  the  iiuier  slope  nearly  the  same:  on 
the  outside  of  this  superstructure  there  is  a  solid  parapet  8 
ft.  3  in.  thick.  6  feet  high,  and  8  ft.  6  in.  wide  at  the  top. 
The  exterior  base  of  this  wall  is  founded  on  a  bed  of  beton 
or  concrete,  set  in  wooden  boxes  or  cases  10  feet  long,  6  ft.  6  in. 
wide,  and  3  ft.  3  in.  deep,  dove-tailed  together,  and  w'ell  bedded 
in  and  covered  with  large  blocks  of  rubble  stone. 


H    W    SF  TIDES 


j^ffiSAjy.iiSrfosi":^"' 


OKISfNAL  WORK  AS  fX£CUT£D  Iff  IJBa. 

FOFlMlCOFSMUinuBBISHrflOM  SARSESiC 

\VITH RESIDUE fffOM  THECOHES. 


»^^h^*°'^ 


Fig.  1. 


No  sooner  was  this  vertical  wall  raised  above  the  level  of 
high  water  than  it  presented  such  a  sudden  resistance  to  the 
waves,  rolling  upward  along  the  rubble  slope,  that  they 
broke  against  the  face  of  the  vertical  wall  with  the  greatest 
violence,  and  rising  perpendicularly  against  it,  fell  down 
upon  the  rubble,  umlermining  the  base  of  the  vertical  wall 
and  threatening  to  overwhelm  it  entirely.  To  obviate  this,  it 
became  necessary  to  raise  the  rubble  slope  still  higher,  and 
to  cover  the  surface  with  large  heavy  blocKs,  well  wedged  to- 
gether: still  this  only  partially  remedied  the  evil,  for,  not- 
withstanding this  casing,  during  heavy  X.  W.  and  N.  E.  gales 
at  high  w^•lter  the  waves  beat  with  such  violence  against  it 
that  heavv  masses  of  water  wash  over  the  top.  so  as  to  render 
it  both  difficult  and  dangerous  to  walk  along  it,  although 
nearly  10  feet  above  high  water  of  the  highest  tides;  and  it 
was  proposed  in  18.50  to  carry  flie  nilible  slo])e  still  higher  in 
front  of  it ;  also  to  raise  the  "wall  8  feet  higher. 

Sir  John  Rennie  draws  the  following  "conclusions"  from 
the  experience  furnished  by  this  structure  : 

"  First.  The  plan  of  making  the  difjue  or  breakwater  iso- 
lated or  detached  from  the  shore  is  the  best,  and,  if  carried 
into  effect  with  greater  judgment,  would  have  been  more 
advantageous  to  the  harbor. 

•  For  a  detailed  account,  see  Cresy's  Enc.  of  Civil  Eng. 


BREAKWATER, 


751 


"Seconilly.  The  cone  system,  although  ingenious,  was  in- 
applii'alilo  anil  failed. 

"Thirilly.  'I'he  ruhblo  system  for  the  mass  of  the  work  is 
correct,  and  it  lilocks  of  greater  size  had  l)een  employed  the 
result  would  have  Ijcen  more  advantageous  in  economy  of 
tinu',  labor,  and  materials. 

"  Fourthly.  The  vertical  wall  system  is  inferior  to  the  flat 
slope." 

As  this  breakwater  was  designed  to  fulfill  the  double  pur- 
pose of  defeiisr  from  the  sea  and  from  the  eni-Miy,  it  involved 
the  combination  of  rubble  mound  and  masonry  superstruc- 
ture with  parapet  and  fortification,  which  increased  the  cost 
over  that  having  to  meet  but  a  single  condition. 

The  experieiu'c  of  the  ancient  Pluenicians  and  of  the  Si- 
donians,  Egyptians,  Uonuins,  and  Carl  h,-igiinans,  who  built 
extensive  moli'S  of  large  masses  of  rock,  has  not  lieen  utilized 
in  the  modern  structures  which  have  lieen  developed  during 
the  past  century  to  nu'ct  tlie  modified  reiiiiirements  of  an 
extensive  commerce  operated  by  steam,  and  of  the  greater 
exposures  to  violent  forces  to  which  they  are  sulijectcd. 

These  reiinirements  have  led  to  important  modifications 
in  the  design  and  section  of  the  breakwater,  whereby  the 
height  of  the  rubl)le  work  is  limited  to  from  1.5  to  25  feet 
below  the  surface  of  mean  low  water,  that  it  may  be  kept 
below  the  disturbing  ai'tiou  of  storm-waves,  ami  the  <'apping 
theri'of  liy  a  liigh  wall  of  nnisonry  extending  above  Ingh 
water  and  sulUciently  thick  to  resist  the  impact  of  the  sea. 

In  plan  it  is  important  that  there  should  bo  no  re-entrant 
angle  or  convergent  walls  to  compress  the  waves,  and  it  is 
often  necessary  on  exposed  sea  escarpments  to  dejjosit  large 
concrete  or  natural  blocks,  weighing  from  10  to  .lO  tons,  to 
resist  the  force  of  the  sea.   These  are  known  as  icdvi'-hrcdki'ru. 

Engineers  at  present  have  the  benefit  of  an  extended  ex- 
perieiu'e.  and  in  consecpience  can  apjiroximate  their  designs 
tothose  which  have  withstood  the  lestsof  time  and  the  ele- 
ments under  similar  conditions  of  material  and  exposures. 

Tlio  result  is  tluit,  in  general,  for  a  riprap  breakwater  the 
estimates  are  base<l  upon  a  section  of  from  12  to  :!0  feet  in 
width  on  top,  rising  to  from  Tt  to  12  feet  above  high  water, 
and  having  slopes  of  one  on  one  on  the  harl)or,  and  one  on 
two  or  one  on  three  on  the  sea  side,  capped  by  a  revetment  of 
rocks  weighing  from  2  to  10  tons  each,  laid  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible above  nu'an  low  w.itcr,  and  .si>metimes  filled  in  with 
cement.  The  mean  section  of  the  breakwater  at  the  mouth 
of  Delaware  Bay,  resulting  from  an  exposure  to  the  easterly 
storms  of  the  Atlantic  for  upward  of  fifty  years,  has  the 


I67:0" 
Fia.  2.— Mean  section  of  present  breakwater. 

form  shown  in  Fig.  2.  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bottom 
slope  bcli>w  the  twelve-foi>t  phuie  is  I  to  l'(i  outside,  and  1 
to  l-;i  inside.  Within  the  wave-zone  it  is  aliout  1  to  :i.  and 
above  that  level  it  increases  again  to  1  to  1-7.  This  section 
for  a  depth  of  H2  feet  mean  low  water  would  contain  4!).")'3 
square  yards,  and  recpiire  IG.")'!  cubic  yards  for  each  lineal 
foot  of  the  work.  At  this  site  it  was' found  that  for  this 
part  of  the  work  each  cubic  yard  of  volume,  in  situ,  was 
equal  to  l'.")  gross  tons  of  stone. 

As  the  harlior  formed  by  this  breakwater  is  one  of  the 
oldest  of  its  kind  in  the  U.  S.,  a  brief  rererence  to  its  plan 
will  prove  instructive.  It  was  authorized  by  act  of  Congress 
pa-ssed  May  24,  1H2S,  and  was  designed  upon  the  experience 
derived  from  Cherbourg  and  Plymouth.  The  first  load  of 
stone  was  delivered  Apr.  18.  1,S29.  It  is  located  on  the  west 
bank  of  Delaware  Hav  in  the  lee  of  Cape  Ilenlopen,  lat.  IW 
47'  X.,  Ion.  7.')   0(!'  W! 

It  is  an  artificial  harbor  formed  by  a  breakwater  o{ pierre 
perdue,  2,i)')>i  feet  long  on  top,  and  extending  in  a  straight 
line  tangent  to  the  cape  at  the  time  of  its  inception.  The 
nearer  extremity  was  4,200  feet  from  the  beach.  There  is 
an  ice-breaker  l.;W!)  feet  long,  making  an  interior  angle  of 
146'  15'  with  the  axis  of  the  breakwater,  which  latter  would 
cut  it  at  its  middle  point  if  produced.  Thus  between  the 
iee-l)reaker  and  breakwater  there  was  left  a  gap  of  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  Their  to])s  were  about  14  feet  above  mean 
low  water.  The  stones  vary  in  weight  from  \  to  7^  tons. 
By  the  year  1839  there  were  deposited  835,000  tons,  at  a  cost 


of  11,880,000,  giving  a  rate  of  |3.25  per  ton  in  place,  but 
the  structure  was  not  said  to  have  been  completed  until 
1869,  when  the  total  volume  was  estimated  to  be  892,528  tons 
and  the  cost  12,123.000. 

The  structure  itself  has  withstood  very  well  a  number  of 
severe  storms,  but  its  defective  location,  with  reference  to 
the  currents,  has  caused  injurious  shoaling  throughout  the 
protected  area,  which  will  be  more  fully  described  under 
lI.tRnoRs.  To  provide  additional  shelter,  as  well  as  to  im- 
]irove  the  dcjilhs.  the  operation  of  closing  the  gap  has  been 
in  pnigress  for  some  years.  A  mat  tress-sill,  2  feet  thick  and 
100  wide,  has  bei'n  laid  as  a  foundation  tor  a  riprap  mound 
which  it  was  intended  to  raise  to  a  height  of  12  feet  below  the 
plane  of  mean  low  water,  with  a  top  width  of  48  feet  and 
slopes  of  ^.  This  was  to  have  been  capped  l)y  a  concrete 
monolith,  having  the  dimensions  shown  in  Fig.  3. 


M.H.W. 
"iA.i.SN.' 


/a'o"/  s-i.'.o"  \  12' 0" 


ISB' 

Fig.  3.— Section  of  the  project  of  1882. 

This  project  was  the  result  of  a  mature  and  careful  digest 
of  the  more  modern  structures  under  similar  exposures, 
made  by  Mr.  Louis  Y.  Schermerhorn,  C.  E.,  from  whose  con- 
densed report  tlu^  following  extracts  are  taken : 

Description  of  breakwaters  consisting  of  a  concrete  super- 
structure founded  upon  a  random  stone  substrnctm-e. 

Such  breakwaters  have  been  built  at  the  following  local- 
ities : 


LOCALITY. 


Colombo,  Ceylon,  Indian  Ocean . 
Madras.  India,  Indian  Ocean.. . . 
Mormugao.  India,  west  coast... 
JMantira.  India,  Arabian  Sea  , . , . 
Knstendjie,  Turkey,  Black  Sea.. 

Odessa,  Kussia,  Black  Sea 

Fiunie,  Austria,  Adriatic  Sea  . . , 
Ymuideu,  Holland,  North  Sea  . . 


Latitude  north. 

Longitude  cait. 

7° 

80° 

13° 

80° 

22° 

69° 

So" 

67° 

44° 

29°- 

46° 

31° 

45° 

i5r 

62i° 

4}° 

The  following  table  gives  the  principal  dimensions  of 
these  breakwaters : 


LOCALITY. 

Bmtof 
.u|«t- 

stnicture 
beluw 

M.  L.  W 

Top  of 
luper- 

atructure 
above 

M.  L.  W. 

Total 
beiglit  of 

•uper- 
ttructure. 

Width  of 

super- 
structure. 

Range 

of 
tidaa. 

Height 
above 
high 

water. 

Depth  of 

water 
over  lite. 

Colombo,... 

Madras 

Mormugao, . 

Jlanora 

Knstendjie. . 

Odessa 

Fiuine 

Ymuiden  . . . 

*20 
22 

tl8 
15 

+  18 
22 
22! 

+  25 

12 

8 
t20 

9 
12 
10 

"is 

32 
30 
38 
24 
28 
32 
24 
43 

34 
24 

30 

24 

12-18 

22-28 

28-38 

2  0 

3-3 

60 

8-7 

.... 

'i-5 

5-5 

10 
4-7 
14 

0-3 
12 
10 

1-5 

12-5 

18-40 
24-45 
20-28 

18-ao 

12-20 
20-,30 
20-70 
10-30 

*  Rubble  and  10-ton  bags  of  concrete  extend  about  5  feet  above 
the  base. 

+  Sea-face  and  slope  protected  with  large  concrete  blocks. 
t  Inoludes  a  iiarapel  7  feet  higli  and  L-j  feet  thick. 


The  exposure  to  which  the 
mav  be  ilivided  into  two  classe 
exposure  falling  into  the  first 


breakwaters  are  subjected 
the  five  snl)ji^cted  to  ocean 
ii.ss,  and  the  remaining  three 
into  the  second  class.  In  the  first  group  the  foundations  of 
the  concrete  superstructure  are  placed  from  15  to  25  feet 
below  mean  low  water.  This  might  have  been  adopted  for 
two  reasons,  viz. :  (1)  economy  of  construction  ;  (2)  stability 
of  the  work. 

In  the  ca.se  of  Ymuiden  breakwater,  where  the  rubble  base 
was  only  3i  feet  in  thickne.s.s,  it  seems  highlv  probable  from 
the  known  absi'nce  of  stone  within  reasonable  distance  from 
the  site  of  the  work  that  the  depth  of  25  feet  was  chosen 
from  grounds  of  econtuny.  Excluding  Ymuiden.  for  the  re- 
maining four  works  the  depth  of  the  concrete  foundation 
varies  from  15  feet  at  Manora  to  22  feet  at  Madras. 

The  radical  ditference  between  the  action  of  a  vertical 
wall  ami  flat  slopes  of  ranilom  stone  has  resulted  in  material 
changes  of  opinion  as  to  the  limiting  depth  of  wave  disturb- 
ance, iind  where  a  depth  of  12  feet  was  formerly  considered 


r52 


BREAKWATER 


sufficient  to  place  rubble-stone  beyonil  the  action  of  waves, 
depths  of  18  and  even  '22  feet  are  now  advocated  and  used. 

At  Alderney  the  rubble  base  was  originally  placed  at  12 
feet  below  mean  low  water,  V)ut  before  a  condition  of  stabil- 
ity was  attained  the  top  of  the  rubble  mound  at  the  base  of 
the  superstructure  had  been  reduced  to  a  depth  of  between 
15  and  18  feet,  and  even  at  this  depth  it  was  necessary  to 
maintain  the  top  of  the  rubble  with  added  material  to  re- 
place that  which  was  swept  away.  There  is  most  manifest 
economy  in  eitlier  placini;  the  rubble  so  low  at  the  fu-st  as  to 
secure  its  stability,  or  else  protectinsr  it  with  stone  too  large 
to  be  removed.  Otherwise  the  stability  of  the  whole  work 
is  endangere<l,  or  else  a  large  annual  expense  must  be  in- 
curred to  supply  the  waste  and  thereby  insure  the  work. 

At  Tynemouth,  where  the  superstructui-e  is  founded  at  a 
depth  of  20  feet  below  mean  low  water,  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  ton  of  tlie  rubble  mound  on  the  sea-face 
with  a  double  row  of  large  concrete  blocks. 

At  Colombo  the  base  of  the  superstructure  at  2,000  feet 
from  the  shore,  and  in  water  30  feet  deep,  is  placed  16  feet 
below  mean  low  water.  l)ut  the  sea-face  of  the  work  is  pro- 
tected by  large  rubble-stone  raised  to  a  height  of  5  feet  above 
the  base,  and  such  stone  fiu'ther  protected  with  a  close  layer 
of  Kl-tnn  bags  of  concrete.  At  3.0110  feet  from  the  shore, 
and  in  water  40  feet  deep,  the  superstructure  is  carried  to  a 
depth  of  20  feet  below  mean  low  water,  and  then  protected 
by  large  rubble  and  concrete  bags. 

At  Madras  the  base  of  the  superstructure,  founded  22  feet 
below  mean  low  water,  seems  to  have  been  sulliciently  deep 
to  protect  the  top  of  the  rubble  base  from  (he  effect  of 
wave  recoil.  Xevertheless,  in  the  amended  project  for  the 
extension  of  the  Madras  breakwater,  a  wave-breaker  is  pro- 
vided along  tile  sea-face  of  the  superstructure,  consisting  of 
large  random  lilocks  of  concrete  piled  against  the  sea-face 
and  extending  to  the  plane  of  high  water. 

At  Mormugao  the  base  of  the  superstructure,  founded  18 
feet  below  mean  low  water,  has  been  protected  on  its  sea- 
face  by  a  wave-breaker  consisting  of  20-ton  concrete  blocks 
extentling  above  the  plane  of  high  water. 


iiG.  4.— Manora  breakwater. 


At  Manora  the  superstructure,  founded  at  1.")  feet  behiw 
mean  low  water,  has  not  suffered  from  any  reduction  of  the 
rubble  base.  Tliis  is  jirobably  due  to  the  reduced  exposure 
of  the  locality,  joined  witli  the  fact  tluit  the  superstructure 
is  so  low,  practically  tlie  plane  of  mean  higli  water,  that  the 
seas  easily  pass  over  the  work,  and  consequently  greatly  re- 
duce the  back  draught  or  recoil  of  the  waves. 

At  Kusteiidjie  the  sui)erstructure,  founded  at  16  feet  be- 
low moan  low  water,  is  protected  on  the  sea-face  with  large 
random  stone  blocks,  which  extend  about  8  feet  above  the 
base  of  the  superstructure. 

At  Odessa,  where  the  superstnieture  is  fovmded  22  feet 
below  mean  low  water,  the  rublile  base  has  not  required 
lirotwtion. 

At  Ymuiilen.  alllioupli  the  superstructure  is  founded  at  a 
depth  of  2-')  feet  below  mean  low  water,  the  sea-face  is  pro- 
vided with  a  wave-breaker  of  large  concrete  l)locks  extend- 
ing above  the  plane  of  high  water.  This  added  precaution 
■was  probably  nuide  necessary  for  the  reason  tliat  the  rubble 
base  was  onlv  lij  feet  in  thickness,  and  being  founded  on 
yielding  sanil,  it  became  imperatively  necessary  to  protect 
the  sea-fai:e  from  currents  which  would  produce  scour  and 
the  consequent  settlement  of  the  entire  work. 


With  the  exception  of  the  Manora  breakwater,  the  top  of 
which  is  not  above  mean  high  water,  we  find  that  even  when 
the  base  of  the  superstructure  is  placed  at  from  18  to  22 
feet  below  mean  low  water  it  has  been  considered  necessary 
to  give  increased  assurance  to  the  rubble  base  by  special  pro- 
tection. Wliile  the  formation  of  wave-breakers  undoubt- 
edly strengthens  an  otherwise  weak  superstructure,  it  is 
highly  prol)able  that  the  expenditure  of  a  less  amount  of 
money  applied  toward  placing  the  foundations  at  a  lower 
level,  or  in  giving  increased  thickness  to  the  superstructure, 
would  produce  better  results. 

From  the  foregoing  it  may  be  inferred  that,  in  localities 
subject  to  ocean  exposure,  the  best  modern  practice  would 
place  the  ba.se  of  the  superstructure  at  from  15  to  22  feet 
below  mean  low  water,  and  even  then  give  the  top  of  the 
rubble  mound  additional  security  by  the  use  of  large  stone 
or  concrete  blocks. 

Tlie  novel  feature  of  construction  in  the  breakwaters  at 
Colombo.  Madras,  Mormugao,  Manora,  and  Kustendjie  con- 
sists in  the  inclination  of  the  blocks  at  various  angles  to  the 
horizon,  that  they  might  settle  independently  without  de- 
stroying tlie  integrity  of  the  structure.     The  original  design 

COLOMBO 


Fig.  5. 

is  attributed  to  Mr.  Parkes.  member  of  the  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers,  London,  and  it  has  been  successfidly  ajiplied  in 
the  structures  cited.  The  inclinations  adopted  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figures,  as  weU  as  the  depths,  heiglits, 
and  widtlis. 

The  cost  of  these  several  works  was  affected  by  a  number 
of  variable  elements. 

Thus  at  Colombo  tlie  ordinari'  labor  was  performed  by 
prisoners,  who  received  37i  cents  per  day  of  eight  hours. 
Tlie  cement,  tools,  and  machinei-y,  and  skilleil  supervision 
were  brouglit  from  England.  Stone  was  carried  12  miles 
by  rail,  and  the  lireakwater  was  connected  with  tlie  sliore 
and  tlie  quarries  by  a  track.  The  cost,  exclusive  of  dredg- 
ing and  reclamation,  but  including  administration,  was 
$2,430,000.  The  rubble  mound  was  in  jiart  made  by  dump- 
ing from  steam-barges,  and  was  leveled  by  divers.     The 


BREAKWATKR 


total  leiijjtii  was  4,213  feet  for  the  western  liroiikwater,  and 
it  was  i)rop().seil  to  erett  a  rubble  mound  lit'tween  its  ex- 
tremity and  tlie  shore  2,()()()  feet  lonj^,  and  liavini;  a  liarljor 
entrance  at  its  western  end  of  WX)  feet  in  width  to  he  eajiped 
hv  lieavv  blocks.  The  connnerce  fif  this  |ll^rt  hail  increased 
from  Wii.KK)  tons  in  l.S6!»  to  1.2(r,.!)0()  in  IST'J. 

The  .Madras  work  cost  !i;2,402.()()(l ;  that  at  Manora  $529,- 
(MHI;  and  that  of  -Mormu^rao  ^420.(100. 

The  averaf;e  proitress  at  I'olombo  was  150  linear  feet  per 
month  of  superstru<-turc,  .'54  feet  wide  and  from  24  to  28  feet 
liijrh,  or  about  8,0110  tons  jier  workinij  month.  On  one  oc- 
ea.sion  720  Ions  were  set  in  twelve  hours.  At  ^Iadra.s  the 
average  rate  was  7,000  tons  per  month  ;  at  Manora  it  Wiis  but 
0,(MtO  tons. 

In  considering  the  question  of  the  proper  dimensions  to 
be  niven  to  a  breakwater  superstructure,  more  valuable  in- 
dications are  to  be  obtained  from  the  cases  of  failures  of 
works  than  in  those  which  have  proven  succes.sful. 

The  .Mailras  bnvikwater  failed  entirely  from  an  error  in 
the  details  of  construction,  by  whicli  no  bond  was  given  to 
the  blocks  of  the  superstructure  iu  a  direction  transvei-se  to 
th<'  axis  of  the  breakwater.  The  Manora  breakwater  con- 
tained the  same  source  of  weakness,  but  its  redueeil  height 
(the  plane  of  high  water)  saved  the  superstructure  from  a 
fate  similar  to  that  of  Madras. 

Of  tin-  remaining  breakwatei-s  whi<-li  have  been  consid- 
ered t'oloudio  furnishes  the  only  case  of  partial  failure 
which  could  be  used  as  a  v.'ilualile  inilicalion  of  the  neces- 
sary .section  of  a  breakwater  to  withstand  the  action  of  an 
exposure  similar  to  that  of  Colombo.  As  originally  de- 
signed, the  breakwater  was  rectangular  in  section,  with  the 
dimensions  shown  in  A,  Fig.  5. 

The  breakwater  Wijs  given  a  width  of  50  feet,  so  as  to 
utilize  the  lop  as  a  quay.  This  width  of  50  feet  consisted  of 
a  sea-wall  24  feet  thick,  hearting-wall  of  rubble-stone  14  feet 
thick,  and  a  harl)or-\vall  12  feet  thick.  In  the  construction 
of  the  Work  the  sea-wall  Wiis  kept  about  700  feet  in  advance 
of  the  harl)or-wall. 

In  July,  1878,  when  the  breakwater  had  attained  an  ex- 
tension of  about  1,800  feet  from  the  shore,  and  when  the 
24-foot  thick  sea-wall  was  700  feet  iu  advance  of  the  harbor- 
wall,  an  unusually  heavy  southwest  monsoon  caused  a  hori- 
zontal displaceiTUMit  of  tlu^  outer  end  of  the  advanced  sea- 
wall "to  the  extent  of  15  inches,  pivoting  on  a  i)oint  150 
feet  landwiird,  and  lowering  the  (juter  end  12  inches,  dimin- 
ishing to  nothing  450  feet  inshore.  .  .  .  The  signs  of  weak- 
iu!ss  which  indicated  the  inadequacy  of  the  sea-wall  to  sus- 
tain unaided  the  thrust  of  the  sea"  led  to  a  modification  of 
the  hitherto  adopted  plan.  The  u.se  of  the  breakwater  as  a 
([uay  was  abolished,  because  it  was  found  that  the  waves 
swept  over  the  top  of  the  work  with  too  much  force  to  permit 
its  use  for  such  a  purpose.  The  failure  of  a  superstructure 
24  feet  iu  thickness  to  withstand  Uw  shock  of  the  seas  had 
been  demonstrated;  conse(|\ienlly  the  further  progress  of 
the  sea-wall  wa.s  delayed  until  the  harbor-wall  couhl  bo 
brought  up  to  its  outer  end.  Then  the  dimensions  of  sujier- 
structure  were  modified  by  omitting  the  rubble-hearting  be- 
tween the  s<'a  and  harbor  walls,  ami  uniting  the  two  walls  in 
one  section  :i4  feet  in  thickness.  This  width  was  continued 
for  the  remaining  :!.0(H)  linear  feet  of  the  breakwater. 

At  the  time  of  this  failure  of  the  sea-wall  the  top  of  the 
concrete  blocks  had  not  yet  been  covered  with  the  monolith 
of  concrete  4  feet  in  thickness,  which,  after  all  settlement 
had  ceiused,  wjis  finally  placed  so  as  to  unite  the  tops  of  the 
blocks.  .Vlthough  an  increased  stability  would  have  been 
given  to  the  wall  by  this  concrete  (tapping,  yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  added  height  of  4  feet  would  have  subjected  the 
superstructure  to  an  increased  displacing  force  from  the 
waves.  This  experience  at  Colombo  was  most  valuable,  and 
indicates  that  under  a  similar  cxjKisure  the  thickness  of  the 
superstructure  to  insin-e  st.ibilitv  mu.st  be  something  greater 
than  24  feet.  With  the  wall  :M  feet  in  thickness,  no  ditfi- 
eulty  has  subsecpiently  occurred,  and  of  course  it  is  not 
demonstrated  that  a  less  thickness  than  ;i4  feet  wouhl  not 
have  insured  stariility.  The  failure  of  the  wall  when  24  feet 
lhi(-k  and  the  succ<'ss  of  the  wall  when  :U  feet  thick  sinifily 
iiidicalcs  that  somewhere  between  these  limits  assured  sta- 
bility \va,s  reached. 

At  Colombo  five  joggles  are  cut  in  the  lilocks  to  prevent 
transverse  movement. 

At  .Madras  the  blocks  of  each  sloping  section  are  con- 
nected by  a  mortise  aTid  tenon  4-i  inches  wide  by  2i  deep, 
but   there   was  at    first    no  lateral   conm-clion   between   the 
blocks,  so  that  the  breakwater  was  broken  in  1881, 
48 


At  Mormugao,  in  addition  to  the  mortise  ar/l  tenon,  there 
were  vertical  joggles  15  inches  square  extending  through 
the  two  upper  courses,  and  the  top  course  was  united  by 
cramps  of  2-inch  stpiare  iron  and  by  vertical  dowels  7  feet 
long.  At  Kustcndjie  the  blocks  extended  through  the  en- 
tire width,  and  were  not  connected  by  any  binding  ma- 
terials. 

In  these  foin-  places,  after  settlement  had  ceased,  a  coping 
of  concrete  in  nuiss  was  spread  over  the  upper  ends  of  the 
blocks  to  protect  them  from  the  recoil  of  tlie  falling  waves. 

.Vt  Mormugao  there  was  a  slight  tendency  for  the  angle 
of  the  slope  to  fiatten  and  become  concave  at  the  second  or 
third  courses  above  the  liase. 

At  Colombo,  Madras,  and  JIanora  no  such  tendency  toward 
the  slipping  of  the  lower  blocks  and  consequently  flattening 
of  tlie  slope  is  alluded  to  in  the  description  of  these  works. 

At  Colombo  the  ultimate  settlement  of  the  tops  of  the 
blocks  was  from  8  to  18  inches.  This  was  allowed  for  by 
keejiing  the  outer  end  of  the  work  slightly  higher  when  fiKl 
laid. 

At  Sladras  the  settlement  was  from  6  inches  to  4  feet,  the 
latter  being  over  a  yielding  bottom  of  sand  and  mud. 

At  Manora  the  settlement  was  excessive,  and  was  from  S 
to  4  feet.  At  this  locality  the  deposition  of  the  rubble 
mound  but  slightly  preceded  the  construction  of  the  .super- 
structure, and  its  settlement  wa.s  not  complete  before  the 
sujierstructure  was  added.  In  addition  to  (hi.s  the  sand 
bottom  yichU'd  to  the  rubble  to  an  uni'Xpected  d.-gree. 

At  .Mormugao  the  settlement  of  the  supen-tructure  was 
from  lA  to  2  feet,  and  quite  even  in  extent. 

The  principle  of  using  sloping  blocks,  arranged  in  more 
or  less  vertical  sections  indepen<lent  of  each  other,  was  de- 
vised to  overcome  the  dilTiculty  adhering  to  settlement  anc 
the  resulting  dislocation  of  blocks  boruled  and  arranged  ir, 
horizontal  planes,  .\gain,  in  the  system  of  ordinary  hori- 
zontal bond  the  outer  end  of  the  work  reipiired  to  be  left  ir 
an  unfinished  conditicm  from  the  necessity  of  .stejiiiing  back 
the  successive  coui"ses  of  masonry  on  each  other.  With  the 
system  of  sloping  lilocks  the  outer  end  of  the  work  is  at  all 
times  in  a  closer  and  more  secure  condition. 

The  sloping-block  system  was  first  adopted  at  Manora  in 
1870.  anil  directly  afterward  at  Kustendjie,  then  at  Madras 
and  Colombo,  and  lastly  at  Jlornuigao  in  1880. 

^'crIlou-llarcourt.  in  discussing  the  various  forms  of  break- 
waters, says:  "The  mixed  system  (an  upright  wall  founded 
upon  a  rubble  nioinid)  will  probably  have  the  most  extended 
application  :  and  of  all  varieties  of  the  type  the  best  ajipeai-E 
to  l)e  a  superstructure  founded  some  20  feet  below  low  water, 
upon  a  simple  rubble  liase.  formed  of  largo  concrete  blocks 
laid  with  overhanging  cranes  upon  the  .sloping-block  prin- 
ciple, securely  coniM'ctcd  vertically  and  horizontally,  and 
capped  with  concrete  in  m.'iss  after  settlement  has  ceased." 

In  si'tting  concrete  blocks  two  methods  have  been  used — 
viz.,  from  staging  and  from  cranes.  The  great  advantage 
possessed  by  cranes  over  staging  upon  exposed  sites  is  that, 
while  the  latter  must  be  left  exposed  to  storms,  the  former 
can  always  be  nni  back  into  siielter.  And  although  the 
fii-st  cost  of  suitable  cranes  for  handling  heavy  blocks  is 
quite  large,  their  use  dispenses  with  the  great  labor,  ultimate 
cost,  and  delay  incident  to  the  use  of  staging. 

The  advantage  seems  so  entirely  in  favor  of  cranes  that 
they  have  iiractically  taken  the  jilaco  of  staging  in  modern 
works.  At  Kustendjie  alone  staging  was  used,  but  the  total 
length  of  the  breakwater  was  only  253  linear  feet,  and  the 
work  wo\iId  not  have  economically  carried  any  lai'ge  ex- 
penditure for  ]ilant. 

Notwithstanding  the  success  of  these  several  precedents 
and  the  determination  to  use  this  method  of  closing  the  gap 
at  the  Delaware  breakwater,  a  change  of  executive  ollicers, 
involving  a  review  of  the  project,  has  n^sulted  in  a  return  to 
the  riprap  mound,  based  upon  its  simplicity  and  economy. 
It  was  found  that  in  the  more  recent  work  101,71:i  gross  tons 
of  stone  have  made  8(!,700  cubic  yards  of  fill,  giving  only 
1'17  gross  ton  required  per  yard,  as  contrasted  with  1-5  in 
the  oilier  parts  of  the  work.  This  was  tested  by  stones 
weigheil  into  barges,  resulting  iu  1'15  tons  per  yard.  The 
usmil  unit  being  100  lb.  per  cubic  foot  for  broken  stone  of 
average  specific  gravity,  it  would  give  1"18  tons  to  the  cubic 
yard,  thus  confirming  the  later  estinuite  of  material.  On 
this  basis  to  complete  the  closure  of  the  gap  there  would  be 
required  79.000  tons  below  low  water  at  !?:i.OO.  and  27.000  tons 
above  al  ij;4.00,  with  contingencies,  amounting  to  $400,000 
as  compared  with  a  minimum  of  $500,000  for  the  mixed 
rubble  ami  block  system.     The  section  of  the  present  proj- 


roi 


BREAKWATER 


ect,  as  approved  by  the  division  engineer.  Col.  William  P. 
Craighill.  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  6. 


M.  H.W;. 

M.L.W. 


It  is  expected  that  the  work  will  be  completed  in  two  years, 
and  that  the  shoal,  now  stretching  from  the  shore  to  the 
breakwater  with  depths  of  less  than  15  feet,  will  be  cut 
asunder  by  the  currents  aided  by  dredging. 

Many  other  instances  of  riprap  breakwaters  might  be 
cited,  but  they  are  mere  modifications  of  those  already  allud- 
ed to.  Probably  one  of  the  most  important  for  its  size  and 
cost  is  that  at  Block  island,  at  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island 
Somid,  14  miles  from  Jlontaidi  Point  and  10  miles  from 
Rhode  Island  mainland.  The  structure  is  only  1,000  feet 
long,  having  a  gap  iOO  feet  wide  left  between  300  and  .500 
feet  from  its  outer  end,  which  is  to  be  closed.  It  was  built 
between  1S70  and  1.S79  at  a  cost  of  $354,125.59.  This  cost 
includes  also  the  small  inner  harbor  used  by  coasters  and 
fishermen. 

The  Plymouth  breakwater  on  the  south  coast  of  England 
was  built  in  30  feet  of  water  at  a  cost  of  $1,470  per  lineal 
foot.  Between  its  commencement  in  1813  and  1847,  3.600,- 
000  tons  of  stone  have  been  placed  in  the  work,  at  a  total 
cost,  including  the  lighthouse,  of  .|7,500,000.  The  break- 
water is  5,100  feet  long  on  top.  The  opening  left  on  the 
western  end  is  4,300  feet  and  that  on  the  eastern  end  is 
2,200  feet  wide,  with  depths  of  from  5  to  7  fathoms. 

At  Portland,  England,  the  ilepth  is  twice  as  great  (60  feet), 
but,  the  exposure  being  less,  it  has  not  been  found  necessary 
to  cap  the  mound.  The  mean  tide  is  6J  feet  and  the  total 
height  is  72  feet.  Tlie  breakwater  is  massive,  having  a  base 
of  340  feet,  and  containing  545  cubic  yards  per  lineal  foot. 
It  was  built  under  favorable  circumstances,  at  a  cost  of 
$625  per  foot,  or  .$1.15  per  cubic  yard.  The  inner  arm  ex- 
tends 1,700  feet  to  a  gap  of  400  feet,  beyond  which  there  is 
the  outer  mole,  6,400  feet  in  length'.'extending  northward 
and  inclosing  an  area  of  2,130  acres,  which  constitutes  the 
harbor.  In  this  ease  one  ton  of  the  Portland  stone  was 
found  to  measure  20  cubic  feet  in  the  mound;  hence  one 
cubic  yard  would  require  1-35  tons  of  stone. 

Between  1849,  when  the  work  was  commenced,  and  1871, 
5.731,000  tons  were  placed  in  the  work.  Tlie  mound  was 
built  from  staging  18  feet  above  high  water,  supported  on 
screw  piles  and  carrying  five  lines  ot  rails.  The  labor  was 
furnished  by  convicts. 

To  reduce  the  quantity  of  material  required  for  the  mound, 
M.  I'oirel  substituted  concrete  block  at  Algiers  in  1834.  Here 
a  small  island  had  been  connected  with  the  mainland  in  1530 
by  a  rubble  mound  574  feet  long  and  118  feet  wide  on  top. 
A  rubble  breakwater  extended  southward  from  the  island  410 
feet,  inclosing  a  harbor  of  about  11  acres.  But  these  struc- 
tures required  constant  renewals.  After  the  capture  of  Al- 
giers by  the  French  in   1830,   concrete  blocks,  contaiidng 


ing  of  1,115  feet  in  width  for  an  entrance.  The  outer  end  of 
the  breakwater  is  in  10  fathoms  of  water  and  the  harbor 
covers  220  acres. 

In  other  situations  destitute  of  suitable  stone  another 
form,  the  vertical-wall  system,  is  adopted.  In  this  mode 
the  walls  are  built  upright  from  the  bottom,  and  as  all  the 
material  below  low  water  is  put  in  place  by  diving  appa- 
ratus, and  is  of  an  expensive  nature,  the  cost  of  a  work  exe- 
cuted in  this  way  is  very  great.  The  Dover  breakwater  is 
the  most  prominent  example.  It  is  built  up  solidly  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  the  exterior  facing  being  of  ashlar  gran- 
ite blocks,  and  the  hearting  of  rectangular  blocks  of  con- 
crete, built  in  the  same  way  as  ashlar  masonry  up  to  the 
level  of  high  water,  above  which  it  is  filled  in  with  concrete. 

Concrete  blocks  are  a  costly  substitute  at  best  for  rough 
quarry  stone  (when  that  is  at  hand),  and  with  a  system  of 
construction  which  reiiuires  each  block  to  be  "  laid"  (under 
water)  the  expense  must  be  very  great.  The  Dover  break- 
water has  cost  over  |2,000  per  lineal  foot. 


SEA    FACE 


Fib.  ".—Section  o£  the  Plymouth  breakwater, 

from  1."?  to  36  cubic  yards,  were  used  to  protect  the  mole, 
and  subsequently  in"  reconstructing  it  a  row  of  blocks  in 
jilace  was  first  laid  in  sizes  varying  from  80  to  2()0  cubic 
yards.  Outside  of  this  a  row  of  heavv  blocks  was  deposited, 
and  the  space  between  was  filled  witli  rubble.  Behind  this 
protecting  mound  a  trench  was  excavateil  to  6^  feet  below 
low  water,  which  was  filled  with  concrete  in  nuiss.  It  cost 
$400,000  for  a  length  of  050  feet.  The  seaward  extension 
of  the  northern  breakwjiter  was  made  by  sinking  blcK-ks  of 
13  cul>ic  yards  directly  in  the  sen.  The  "outer  slope  was  |, 
the  inner  t.  Since  1840  tlie  liarbor  has  been  exti'uded  by 
cun-ing  the  northern  breakwater  east  ward  2,300  feet,  and 
by  building  a  southern  wing  out  to  meet  it,  leaving  an  open- 


Fio.  8.— Dover  (West)  breakwater. 

This  method  is  oidy  applicable  where  there  is  a  good 
foundation  suflicieutly  hard  to  resist  the  wave  recoil  and 
scour. 

Floatixg  Breakwaters.— Opinions  difi'er  greatly  as  to 
the  utility  of  structures  of  this  class,  and  the  exjierience 
thus  far  is  not  very  satisfactory,  being  baseil  nniinly  upon 
wooden  towers  chained  together  and  anchored.  Jlaiiy  iron 
and  steel  forms  have  been  patented,  but  not  tried  ;  a"mong 
these  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the  late  Mr.  Greenway 
Thomas,  who  designed  floats  in  the  form  of  a  triangular 
prism  with  concave  sides  of  10  feet  width  and  height,  capped 
by  a  triangular  pyramid.  These  buovs  were  anchored  at 
three  points  and  placed  at  intervals  of '12  feet  apart.  Thus 
they  were  expected  to  decompose  the  waves  and  produce 
smooth  water.  An  occasional  expedient  at  sea  is  to  lash 
spars  and  sails  into  a  huge  raft,  in  lee  of  which  protection 
may  be  found.  The  use  of  oil  is  a  well-known  resort  in 
severe  storms,  but  these  are  temporary  expedients  belonging 
rather  to  the  navigator  than  to  the  eiigineer. 

In  other  cases  floating  iron  caissons  or  cylinders  have  been 
suggested,  revolving  about  horizontal  axes,  and  having  fins 
or  flanges  to  check  the  rotation — but  these  only  exist  on  pa- 
per. The  estimated  cost  of  these  floating  structui-es  is  about 
$100,000  per  mile,  so  that  if  efficient  they  have  mucli  to  com- 
mend them,  as  they  can  l>e  placed  in  position  rapidly,  and 
may  be  shifted  or  removed  without  injury  to  channels  or 

currents.  The  nuiin 
objection  urged  to 
their  use  is  the  liabil- 
ity to  break  loose  and 
injure  shipping  or 
other  property. 

Caissoxs  or  Cribs. 
— In  fresh  water,  as  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  most 
of  the  breakwaters  are  com|«)se<l  of  cribs  framed  on  shore, 
and  then  towed  to  the  site  of  the  wc.rk  and  sunk.  These  are 
then  filled  with  stone  and  covered  with  planks  and  caps, 
nuiking  piers  as  well  as  breakwaters.  Where  there  are  no 
teredo  to  eat  up  the  timber,  they  form  comparatively  dura- 
ble structures,  but  in  sea  water  they  will  only  last  a  few 
years,  and  hence  are  inapplicalile.  Here  a  tenqiorary  cais- 
son may  be  used,  filled  with  concrete  or  lined  with  walls, 
leaving  cells  to  be  filled  with  sand  liallast.  These  large 
masses,  weighing  400  to  .500  tons,  form  a  core,  which  may  be 
|irepared  in  a  sheltered  cove,  and  be  towed  in  train  to  the 
work,  and  be  .seuttleil,  filled,  and  covered  by  riprap,  mak- 
ing a  rapid  and  cheap  mode  of  construction,  capable  of  be- 


BRftAL 


BKKCKIXRIDGE 


755 


ing  carried  on  contiiniously  hy  day  and  nifflit.  and  avoiding 
tlie  scour  incidi'Mt.-il  lo  tlic  t'iMl)aMknifnt  inctliod  of  building 
out.  A  liri-akwatiT  CDnstrurtc-d  on  this  [dan  could  lie  Iniilt 
for  loss  than  $1,OUO,000  per  nulit  in  :J0  Uvt  deptli. 

Foundations  for  breakwaters  ui)on  shifting  or  irregular 
bottoms  have  been  construct  eel  of  concrete  in  liags,  deposited 
from  largo  hollow  barges  capaljlo  of  handling  masses  weigh- 
ing from  50  to  1(10  tons  at  a  time,  and  upon  these  have  boon 
erected  monoliths  of  concrete  in  nui-ss,  with  parajiet  and 
covered  wav,  as  at  Newhavon.  Abonleon,  Fiumo  in  Austria, 
etc. 

BiBi.iouRAPHV. — Pn)ceedut(j.s-  of  the  Insfifufion  of  Civil 
Einjineering  (Ijondon);  Proceeding f  Societe  des  Imjeiiieurs 
fjViVs  (Paris) ;  Reports  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers.  United 
States  Arniij  (Washington,  D.  C.) :  narbiirs,  by  Sir  John 
Uennie;  Jlorliors  and  Docks,  Ijy  Ij.  F.  Vornon-Ilarcourt 
(London):  Coiirs  de  Construction  des  Ports  de  Mer;  Jlinard, 
Memoire  siir  les  Travaux  a  la  Mer:  I'oirel,  Annates  des 
Pouts  et  Chaitssees:  Stevenson  on  llarlior;  Kncgclopa'diaof 
Civil  Engineering,  ('rosy:  Spon's  Dictionarg  of  Engineer- 
ing. Lewis  M.  U.^upt. 

Brfal.  br(7aar,  MicH.uiL  Jt'LKs  Alfrkd:  French  philolo- 
gist; b.  in  Landau.  Kheiiish  Bavaria.  Mar.  2(),  1S;{2;  studied 
in  Germany  with  Bopp;  became  in  IHtjG  Professor  of  Com- 
parative Grammar  in  the  College  <le  Franco  ;  in  187.T  direc- 
tor of  the  ftcolo  des  Ilantes  Etudes.  He  has  )iul)lishod 
Etude  desorigines  de  la  religion  Zoroastrienne  (ISii'i);  Iler- 
cuhet  ('(tens,  etude  de  mi/tJiotogie  cuinpiiree  {lX(i:]):  a  trans- 
lation of  Boi)]rs  Gninimaire  compan'e  des  langues  indo- 
eiiropeennes.  with  introduction  and  additions  (.5  vols.,  1867- 
T4) ;  and  various  works  upon  education  in  France. 

A.  K.  Marsh. 

Bl'caill  [Fr.  lirenie  <  O.  Fr.  liresnie;  of  Germ,  origin]:  a 
name  given  to  several  sjiecios  of  fishes.  One  is  a  fresh-water 
lish  of  the  family  Cyprinidte.  the  Abramis  brama.     It  is 


Tlie  bream. 

found  in  many  rivers  and  lakes  of  Kurope.  Related  species 
(Soleniigonns)  nccur  in  Xoi-th  .Vmeric-i.  1'he  name  soa- 
breani  is  given  to  various  Kiiropeaii  fishes  of  the  genera 
f'ageltus,  Sponiigliiisonia.  lirama,  etc.  The  name  bream  or 
brim  is  also  often  applied  in  the  East  and  South  to  species 
of  Lenomis.  or  sunfisli  (see  Sunfish).  fresh-water  fishes  of 
the  L.  S.,  remarkable  for  beautiful  colors,  and  esteemed 
for  food.  Revised  liy  Daviii  S,  .Iokuan. 

IJrcast:  See  Ma.mmakv  Gi.anos. 

BrcHst.  Abscess  of:  chiefly  duo  to  infection  through 
fissured  ni]iph'  of  a  breast  overfilled  with  milk.  It  is  pre- 
vented by  care  and  cleaidiness.  and  liest  treat  I'll  by  a  brisk 
purge,  support  to  the  breast.  i|uinino.  felirifugcs  and  the  un- 
loading of  the  lireast,  thorough  rubbing,  and  inunctions  of 
warm  campliorated  oil.  When  al>scoss  is  fcu-nu'd,  it  nnist  lie 
poult ici'd  or  incised.  Revised  l)y  William  Pi;pfER. 

Breast  Wheel :  in  hydraulics,  a  water-wheel  so  placed  as 
to  be  struck  liy  the  stream  of  water  nearly  on  a  level  w'ith 
the  a.\lo.  the  lower  quadrant  of  the  circumference  on  the 
side  opposed  to  the  stream  l)eing  placed  in  a  race  or  chan- 
nel concentrie  with  the  wheel,  tlirough  wliich  the  water  is 
conducted  in  its  descent.     See  Watkr-power. 

Breastworks:  See  Fortifications. 

Breath:  See  Respiration. 

Breehiii,  brech'in  :  a  town  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland  :  on 
the  lefl  b.iid;  of  the  South  Fsk  :  'Ax  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W.  of 
Alierdoon  (see  nnip  of  Scotland,  ref.  9-1).  It  stands  on  an 
abrupt  declivity,  and  some  of  tlie  streets  are  very  steep.  It 
has  a  cathedral,  part  of  which  was  built  in  the  thirteenth 


century,  now  used  as  a  parish  church.  Adjacent  to  this 
church  is  a  remarkable  nmnd  tower  85  feet  high,  and  sur- 
mounted liy  a  siiire  of  25  feet.  Here  are  manufactures  of 
liiu^ns  and  .sailcloth,  bleaching-works,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church.  Pop.  (1891)  8,955. 
Brcck,  James  Lloyd:  Episcopal  clergyman  and  pioneer 
educator;  b.  in  Philadidphia.  .I^une  27.  1818;  educated  at 
Flushing,  L.  1.,  liy  Dr.  Jluhlonberg,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary,  Xew  York  ;  with  two  or  three  olliei'S 
formed  an  ascetic  associate  mission  for  frontier  work  ;  they 
founded  Episcopal  .schools  at  Xashotali,  maintained  at  first 
bv  receipts  through  tlio  mail.  In  1850  Dr.  Mrcck  move(i  to 
Jlinnesota,  and  founded  at  Crow  Wing  a  mission  to  the 
Cliippowas;  eight  years  later  ho  began  the  church  sclioolsat 
Faribault;  in  18()7  went  to  California,  opened  an  associate 
mission  at  Beiiicia,  and  founded  schools  for  youth  of  both 
sexes;  here  ho  died  Mar.  80,  1876.  He  was  an  advanced 
High  Churchnuin  of  monastic  spirit  and  nruisual  zeal. 


Breek'enridge  :  village  and  railroad  junction  ;  ca^iitalof 
Wilkin  CO.,  Minn,  (for  location  of  county.seo  map 


:-tion ;  capitat  oi 
■  map  of  Alinne- 
scita,  ref.  6-A):  on  the  Red  River  of  the  Xorth ;  217  miles 
W.  X.  W.  of  St.  Paul.  Steamers  plv  between  this  point  and 
the  .Manitoba  settlements.     Pop.  (1890)  6.55. 

B  reek  en  ridge.  John.  D.  D.  :  Presliyterian  divine  and 
polemic;  b.  at  Caboirs  Dale,  Ky.,  July  4.  1797;  graduated 
at  tlie  Collogo  of  Xew  Jersey,  Princotim.in  1818;  studied  at 
the  Princeton  Theological  .Seminary  1819-21;  was  tutor  in 
the  college  1820-21;  chaplain  to  Congress  1822-23;  pastor 
in  Lexington,  Ky.,  1823-26;  in  Baltimore,  Md..  1826-31; 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  board  of  education  18:!l-36; 
Professor  of  Pastoral  Theology  in  Princeton  Theolnfjical 
Seminary  1836-38;  secretary  of  lioar<l  of  foreign  missions 
1838-40;  president  of  the  African  Colonization  Society  ;  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  president-elect  of  Oglethorpe  L^ni- 
vcrsity,  Georgia.     D.  in  Cabell's  Dale,  Ky.,  Aug.  4,  1841. 

Breekenridge.  or  Breckinridge,  John  Cabell;  states- 
man and  general;  grandson  of  John,  note<l  above;  b.  near 
Lexington.  Ky.,  Jan.  21,  1821.  lie  .studied  law ;  practiced 
at  Lexington,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Demo- 
crats in  1851.  He  was  chosen  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S. 
in  1856,  when  James  Buchanan  was  elected  President.  In 
1860  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Anti- 
Douglas  Democrats  who  seceded  from  tlie  convention  that 
met  at  Charleston.  His  competitors  were  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, John  Boll,  and  Stephen  Douglas.  Breckeni-idgo  re- 
ceived seventy-two  electoral  votes,  being  supported  by  all 
the  Southern  States  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
and  Missouri.  Having  lieen  elected  t<i  the  U.  S.  Senate,  he 
took  his  .seat  in  Mar..  1861.  lint  he  joined  the  Confederate 
army  in  the  autumn  of  that  year.  He  si'rved  as  nuijor-gon- 
eral  at  tlie  battle  of  .Stone  river,  which  ended  Jan.  2,  1863, 
and  at  Chickamauga.  Se|)t.  19  and  20  of  that  year.  In  May, 
1864,  he  defeated  Gen.  Sigel  at  Xewmarket,  in  Virginia. 
He  became  secretary  of  war  at  Richmond  in  Jan..  1865; 
visited  Europe  about  five  months  later;  returned  to  the 
U.  S.  in  1S6S.     1).  in  Lexington,  Ky..  May  17.  1875. 

Brcckeiiridiie.  Kohkrt  Jefferson.  D. D.,  LL.  D.  :  Pres- 
byterian minister;  b.  at  Caliell's  Dale.  Ky.,  Mar.  8,  1800; 
an  uncle  of  the  |irecoding.  He  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1819;  practiced  law  in  Kentucky  eight  years  (1823-31); 
then  turned  to  Ihooloiry.  and  was  pastor  in  Baltimore  1832- 
45;  ]iresidcnt  of  Jollerson  College  184.5-47;  bocaine  jiastor 
in  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1847.  Professor  of  Theology  at  Dan- 
ville in  1853;  resigned  1869.  He  iniblished  Travels  in 
Europe  (Philadelphia,  1839)  and  several  works  on  theology. 
His  iirinci]ial  win-k  is  in  two  volumes.  The  Knowledge  of 
(rod.  Oh/ertivelg  Considered  (Xew  York.  1857),  and  The 
Knoicledqe  of  doit.  Suhjectivelg  Considered  (1859).  lie  W'as 
a  loyal  friend  of  tlu'  Cnion  in  the  civil  war  and  presided 
over  the  convention  in  Baltimore  which  in  18()4  renominated 
Mr.  Lincoln.     D.  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27,  1871. 

Breckinridge.  William  Campiiell  Preston,  LL.  D.  : 
Congressman;  b.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Aug.  28,  1837;  studied 
at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky. ;  became  a  lawyer;  served 
in  the  Confederate  army  a.s  colonel  of  the  Xinth  Kentucky 
Cavalry;  was  afterward  Professor  of  Equity  .lurisprudence 
in  Cumberland  Universitv;  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Demo- 
crat in  1884,  '86,  '88,  '90,  and  '92. 

Breckinridge,  Gen.  James:  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution; 
b.  near  Fincastle,  Botetourt  co.,  Va.,  Mar.  7,  1 763 ;  gradu- 
ated at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1785;  became  an  emi- 
nent Federalist  lawyer  in  Virginia.     He  was  a  member  of 


756 


BRECON 


BREESE 


Congress  (1809-17).  and  co-operated  with  Jefferson  in  estab- 
lishing tile  University  of  Virginia.  lie  was  one  of  the  orig- 
inators of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal.  1).  in  Fineastle, 
Va..  Ang.  9.  1)S46.— His  brotlier  John  (1760-1806),  a  C.  .S. 
Senator  from  Kentneky.  Attorney-General  to  President  Jef- 
ferson, and  a  supporter  of  his  measures,  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  Kentucky  lircckcnridges  named  above. 

Brec'oii.  or  Breck'iiockshire :  an  inland  county  of  Sontli 
Wales :  area,  719  scp  miles.  It  is  bounded  N.  l)y  Radnor, 
E.  by  Hereford.  England;  S.  by  Glamorgan,  and  W.  by  Caer- 
marthen.  The  surface  is  occupied  by  several  mountain- 
ranges  and  deep,  beautiful,  and  fertile  valleys.  The  highest 
]ioint  of  this  county  is  Brecknock  Beacon,  which  has  an  al- 
titude of  2.863  feet.'  Old  red  sandstone  underlies  the  south- 
ern and  michlle  parts  of  the  county,  and  Silurian  rocks  are 
found  in  the  X.  The  chief  rivers  "are  the  Wye  (which  forms 
the  X.  E.  l)oundary),  the  Usk,  Elan,  and  Tawe.  The  staple 
]iroducts  are  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  cattle.  It  lias  exten- 
sive iron-works.  The  climate  is  moist,  but  temperate  and 
salubrious.  Capital.  Brecon.  The  other  princijial  towns 
are  Builth.  Crickhovvell.  and  Hay.  The  Welsh  language  is 
still  that  of  the  peasantry  and  of  the  middle  class.  Pop. 
(1891)  57.0:il. 

Brecon.  Brecknock,  or  Aber-Honddu  :  a  town  of 
Wales:  caiiital  of  county  of  same  name;  finely  situated  in 
a  valley  on  llie  river  I'sk  ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ilonddu  ; 
38  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of  Hereford  (see  map  of  England, 
ref.  11-E).  It  has  beautifid  promenades,  an  old  castle,  a  col- 
legiate church,  and  a  college ;  also  considerable  manufac- 
tures.    Pop.  6.500. 

Breda':  a  town  of  Holland  :  in  North  Brabant  :  situated 
at  the  conrtiience  of  the  navigal)le  rivers  Aa  and  Merk  ;  16 
miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Dordreclit  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
ref.  7-E).  It  is  connected  liy  railway  with  Antwerp  ami  Tlie 
Hague.  It  has  a  castle  built  in  lo.^O.  a  Gothic  cathedral,  the 
spire  of  which  is  363  feet  high,  and  a  magnetic  observatory  ; 
also  manufactures  of  linens,  carpets,  hats,  soap,  leather,  etc. 
This  town  can  be  ])rotected  against  an  invading  army  Ijy 
inundating  the  country  around  it.  It  is  eelelirated  as  the 
scene  of  the  "  Compromise  of  Breda."  by  wliich  the  patriots 
protested  against  the  tyranny  of  Philip  II.  in  1566.  and  as 
the  place  from  whicli  Charles  II.  issued  the  "  Declaration  " 
wliich  preceded  his  restoration  in  1660.     Pop.  (1891)  23.536. 

Bredalll.  bray-daal'.  Christian  IIviid:  Danish  poet;  b. 
Oct.  30,  1784;  d.  Jan.  16,  i860.  Dmiiudic  .S'fc«p.s,  in  six 
parts,  appeared,  tlie  first  in  1819  ami  the  last  in  1833.  This 
is  his  chief  work,  and  there  are  passages  in  it  that  by  their 
glowing  pathos  and  powerful  diction  remind  us  of"  Shak- 
speare.  He  wrote  several  dramas  that  were  well  received 
Ijy  the  public.  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Bredero.  Gerbraxd  Adriaensz  :  Dutch  poet  and  play- 
wright;  b.  in  Amsterdam.  1.585;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  1618. 
He  belonged  to  the  middle  class,  and  his  education  was  com- 
paratively meager.  Like  Shakspeare.  he  knew  "  small  Latin 
and  less  Greek."  He  was  trained  to  be  a  painter,  but  his 
heart  was  in  literature.  The  defects  of  his  education  were 
in  a  measure  made  good  by  association  with  the  best  spirits 
of  his  time — Grotius,  Heiusins,  Seriverius,  Vondel,  Coster; 
and  his  talents  were  such  that  he  became  the  best  writer  of 
comedy  Holland  has  produced.  Still,  his  lack  of  the  classics 
made  him  essentially  media^val  and  romantic  in  his  sym- 
pathies, as  is  shown  by  the  themes  of  his  plays.  These  fall 
mto  two  classes:  tragi-comedies(essentialy  co;«(>(/(V(-s  (/c  capa 
U  espada) — Rodderijic etule  Alphonsus  (16il);  Griane  (1613): 
Lnrnlle  (1616);  de  Stomme,  Jiidder  (1618) — and  pure  come- 
dies; de  klurht  ran  de  Koe.  (UWi)  :  Si/men  sunder  xoeticlieyt 
(1613);  van  dit  Meulemtn-  (\&VA);  Tht  Moorljc.  (based  on  the 
EnnarJius  oi  Terence,  161.5);  dn  S/jucjisrhi'  Brabander  Jero- 
limii  (liaseil  on  a  French  trans,  of  Hurtado  de  Mendoza's 
Lazarillu  de.  Tormes,  1617).  The  last  jiiece  is  conniKinly  re- 
garded  asBredero's  f/(r'/(/'(Ki((7V'.  Besides  his  plays,  Bredero 
wrote  poems  in  a  singularly  direct  and  imaginative  style ; 
and  these  were  pulJished  in  1633  under  the  title  Jioer'/ii/li 
((moiireiix  ende  iieiid(ir/i!ii/li  {jnmf  liedthoecl;.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  .\mslerdam.  1638.  and  often  snice. 
See  J.  ten  Brink,  ff.  A.  liredero.  hiaf.-deHlh.  Httidie  van  het 
nl.  blijspel  der  X  VII.  eeii  w  (Utrecht,  1859).    A.  R,  Marsh. 

Bree.  bray,  JIathiku  Ionack:  Flemish  liisldrical  painlcr; 
li.  at  Antwerp,  Feb.  33.  1773.  Anumg  his  works  are  Uiiliens 
Dictatinij  lii.-i  Laxl.  Will  (in  (he  Antwerp  Museum);  En- 
france  of  Xapnle.on  into  Aniirerp;  and  ]'an  der  Werjf  Ad- 
dreaaing  the  Famished  Pojmlace  during  the  Siege  uf  Leg- 


den.  l.'ilJf.    He  was  director  of  tlie  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Antwerp,  where  he  died  Dec.  1.5,  1839. 

Breeclies  Bible :  See  Bible  (Jl/udern  Ver.^ions). 

Breech-loading  Firearms  are  those  which  are  loaded 
by  putting  the  cartridge  directly  in  at  the  breech  instead  of 
ramming  it  in  at  the  muzzle.  It  is  .siid  that  lu'cech-loading 
guns  were  used  early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  \'I.  of  England, 
and  it  is  certain  that  they  were  used  in  Scotland  aliout  that 
time.  There  are  several  ancient  specimens  in  the  Tower  of 
London.  Many  attempts  to  improve  tliis  kind  of  arms 
have  lieen  made,  and  of  late  witli  iiiucli  success.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  weapons  of  this  character  are  the  Arm- 
strong and  Wliitworth  guns,  the  Krupp  steel  guns,  the 
>nitrail/en.fe,  and  among  small-arms  the  needle-gun  and  the 
Clia.ssepot,  Enfield.  Greener.  Lcbel,  Martini,  Mauser,  Sharps, 
Snider,  Spencer,  Ward-Burton,  and  Remington  rifles. 

Breed :  a  variety  produced  in  any  animal  species  in  con- 
sequence of  domestication,  by  changes  somewhat  analogous 
to  those  which  occur  in  cultivated  jilants.  The  changes 
originated  by  breeding  (artificial  selection)  are  in  some  spe- 
cies, as  in  the  dog  and  pigeon,  very  marked,  producing  ex- 
ternal, and  even  structural,  differences  which,  if  they  were 
permanent  and  originated  by  natural  and  unexplained 
causes,  would  confessedly  be  regarded  as  suflicient  to  estab- 
lish ditference  of  species  or  even  genus.  But  the  fact  that 
thoroughbred  animals,  when  neglected  or  allowed  to  go 
wild,  tend  to  revert  to  the  original  type,  and  the  not  less 
important  fact  that  animals  of  the  most  widely  different 
varieties  of  the  same  species  will  (with  a  few  possible  excep- 
tions) breed  freely  with  each  other,  producing  fertile  young 
(which  is  rarely  the  case  with  those  of  different  species),  are 
by  many  held  to  show  a  radical  difference  between  varieties 
or  breeds  and  species.  The  study  of  the  variations  pro- 
duced by  ailificial  selection  suggested  to  Darwin  the  name 
"nalural  selection"  as  applied  to  analogous  iirocesses  in 
nature. 

Some  of  the  results  of  artificial  selection  on  animals  are 
truly  marvelous.  The  numerous  varieties  of  the  dog  and 
the  pigeon  have  been,  to  a  great  extent,  produced  by  design ; 
animals  lieing  bred  to  develop  certain  desired  peculiarities, 
the  princi]ile  being  that  "like  produces  like."  or  that  cer- 
tain (lualities  possessed  by  the  parent  may  be  perpetuated 
and  increased  in  the  offspring.  The  milk-])roducing  quali- 
ties of  the  Ayrshire  cow,  the  butter-making  excellence  of  the 
Jersey  breed,  the  long-wooled  Cotswold  sheep,  antl  the  new 
breeds  of  easily  fattened  swine,  afford  illustratiims  of  the 
industrial  importance  of  this  remarkable  plasticity  or  adap- 
tability (pf  the  various  domestic  animals — an  adaptability 
which  has  only  of  late  been  seientiJically  studied,  and  the 
limitations  of  which  are  as  yet  not  well  known.  See  Dar- 
win. iJumestieated  Animals  and  Cultivated  Plants  (1867). 
Revised  by  Daviu  S.  Jordan. 

Breed.  David  Riddle,  D.  D.;  Presbyterian  minister;  b. 
in  Pittsburg.  Pa..  June  10.  1848;  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College  (1867). and  from  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  (1870); 
]i.istor  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.  (1870-85).  and  in  Chicago,  111.,  from 
1SS5:  has  published  several  little  books,  one  of  wliich.  3Iore 
Z/(//(/,  has  a  very  wide  circulation  in  a  number  of  languages. 
He  has  also  published  Abraham,  the  Tgpiral  Life  of  Faith 
(Chicago,  1886) ;  A  History  of  tlie  I'reparation  of  the 
World  for  Christ  (1891) ;  and  liere-^y  and  Heresy  (1891). 

Breese,  Kidder  Randolph  :  captain  U.  S.  navy ;  b.  in 
Philadelphia.  Apr.  14. 1831 ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midship- 
man Nov.  6,  1846.  At  the  close  of  1861  he  comnunided  the 
third  division  of  Porter's  mortar  flotilla:  took  p.-irt  in  the 
liombardmcnt  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  :  ]iarlicipated 
in  the  attacks  on  Vicksburg  during  June  and  July.  1863; 
took  part  ill  nearly  all  the  severe  engagemenis  on  tlie  Mis- 
sissip])i  and  its  tributaries  during  1863  and  1864;  was  en- 
gaged as  fleet -captain  in  the  naval  assault  on  Fort  Fisher  of 
.Jan.  15.  1865.  and  commanded  the  storming  party.  D.  at 
Newjiort.  R.  I..  Sept.  13,  1881. 

Breese,  Sami'el  Livingston;  rear-.'idmlr.il  U.  S.  navy; 
b.  in  New  York  in  1794;  entered  the  navy  in  bSlO;  served 
against  (ireat  Britain  and  Jlexico ;  became  captain  in  1841, 
and  rear-admiral  in  1862.   D.  at  Mt.  Airy,  Pa.,  Dec.  17,  1870. 

Breese.  Sidney;  b.  at  Whitesboro,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y., 
July  15,  1800.  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1818.  In  1831 
he  was  called  tii  the  Illinois  biir;  attained  distinction;  an 
olliccr  in  the  Black  Hawk  war,  U.  S. ;  State  attorney  1823- 
37:  ap|iointed  I'.  S.  attorney  for  Illinois;  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Illinois  (1843-49);  speaker  of  the  Illinois  Le!?isIatur/» 


BREEZE 


BREMEX 


roT 


in  1850.  He  was  made  circuit  judge  in  1835,  and  again  in 
1855,  becoming  chief  judge  of  that  bench.  He  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  tlie  Illinois  O'entral  R.  R.  D.  at  Pincl<- 
iieyville,  111.,  Juno  27,  1878. 

Breeze :  a  soft  wind,  a  gentle  gale.  Land  and  Sea 
lirei-zes. — In  a  fair  day,  near  the  seashore,  an  hour  or  two 
after  sunrise,  a  gentle  wiiul  begins  to  Ijlow  from  the  sea 
toward  the  land,  gradually  increasing  in  force  during  the 
day.  With  the  declining  sun  the  sea-breeze  loses  its  power, 
and  dies  out  before  sunset.  A  lull  then  ensues,  after  which 
a  land-breezo  sets  in  from  the  land  toward  the  sea,  and  con- 
tinues all  night  until  before  sunrise,  when  another  calm  oc- 
curs. The  cause  of  these  alternate  winds  is  to  be  found  in 
llie  fact  that  the  land  is  more  readily  heated  by  the  niys  of 
the  sun,  and  more  quickly  cooled  in  their  absence,  than  the 
sea.  In  an  island,  for  instance,  in  proportion  as  the  sun 
rises  above  the  horizon  the  land  becomes  warmer  than  the 
neighboring  sea.  Their  rospcsctive  atmospheres  participate 
in  these  inicqual  temperatures;  the  fresh  air  of  the  sea 
rushes  from  all  dire<-tions  in  the  form  of  a  sea-firi'i-se,  which 
makes  itself  felt  along  the  whole  ci>ast.  anil  the  warnuT  and 
lighter  air  of  the  island  will  ascend  into  the  atmosphere. 
During  the  night  it  is  the  reverse.  The  island  loses  heat  by 
radiation,  and  cools  cjuicker  than  the  sea.  Its  atmosphere, 
having  become  heavier,  flows  into  that  of  the  sea  in  the 
form  of  a  litiifl-l/renze;  and  this  interchange  lasts  until  the 
temperature,  and  consequently  the  density,  of  the  two  at- 
mospheres has  again  become  the  same.  This  is  the  phe- 
nomenon observed  almost  daily  on  nearly  all  the  seaboards. 
Mountain-breezes. — Similar  alternate  breezes  are  ol)- 
served  to  play  between  the  great  mountain-chains  and  the 
neighboring  plains,  as  in  the  Alps.  On  a  fair  day  strong 
breezes  rush  up  the  valley  toward  the  overheated  mountain- 
slopes,  and  descend  with  eipial  force  <lnring  the  night ;  for 
during  the  day  the  mountains  absorb  more  lu'at  than  the 
neighboring  free  atmosphere,  and  radiate  more  during  the 
night.     See  Winds. 

Brehm,  braym,  Alfred  Kdmoxd  :  b.  at  Kenthcndorf, 
Saxe-Weiinar.  Feb.  2,  182!);  studied  natural  history  under 
his  father,  the  famous  ornithologist.  Christian  Ludwig 
Brehm ;  traveled  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  the  Sudan ;  visited 
Spain  and  N'orway;  went  once  more  to  Africa  in  1862  in 
ciMupany  with  Duke  Ernst  of  .Sa.xe-Coburg-lTOtha:  was  made 
director  of  the  zoological  garilen  in  Hamburg  18G3,  ami  re- 
moved in  IH(;7  to  Berlin,  where  he  founded  the  great  aqua- 
rium. He  published  Jltu>i/n'r/es  T/iier/el>en  (li  yoh.,  \^(y■^), 
which  was  translated  into  French,  and  of  which  a  new  edi- 
tiim  in  10  vols,  appeared  in  18G8;  Da.i  Lfben  dcr  Vi>i;el,  Die 
T/iiere  (/e.->  ll'nWfts,  etc.  I),  in  his  native  place,  Nov.  15, 
18S-t. 

Itrehoii  Law:  the  law  by  which  Ireland  was  governed 
generally  before  the  conquest,  and  to  some  extent  as  late  as 
the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  so  called  from  the  bvehons 
who  expounded  it,  and  who  were  a  class  of  jurists  or  law 
professors  existing  among  the  Irish  accordini;  to  a  system 
coniraon  to  the  (iauls,  Britons,  and  otiu'r  Kidtic  nations. 
The  ollice  of  brehon  was  often  hereditary  in  families,  aiul 
was  of  great  importance,  partly  because  the  brehons  pro 
servcd  the  laws  in  written  form  and  not  by  tradition,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  bards,  who  also  were  clothed  with  a  certain 
legal  authority.  The  brehons  were  still  in  tlie  full  oKer- 
cise  of  their  functions  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  as  is 
shown  by  the  Government  records  at  Dublin,  and  traces  of 
them  are  found  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  largest  body  of  these  laws  is  preserved  in  a  dallies 
uumuscript  called  Shancluin  Mor,  which  was  com])iled  in 
the  lirst  part  of  tlie  fifth  century.  This  manuscript,  to- 
gether with  others,  has  been  published  in  fae-siniile  and 
translated  by  a  royal  commission  appointed  in  18-52,  not, 
however,  without  numerous  errors,  owing  to  a  lack  of  pro- 
found knowledg(!  of  old  and  modern  Gaelic,  and  to  the 
obscurity  of  the  subject-matter.  These  show  us  that  there  ex- 
isted in  ancient  Ireland  a  system  of  laws  in  which  the  |irop- 
erty  and  personal  rights  of  individuals  were  niinnl<"ly  regu- 
lated. There  was  a  complicated  system  of  land-tenure  from 
monarch  to  slave  through  landlords  and  tenants,  under  which 
much  of  the  land  was  held  in  common  for  tillage  or  pa.s- 
turage.  There  were  petty  kingdoms,  an<l  divisiims  and 
sul)-divisiims  of  thes(\  held  together  in  a  system  not  unlike 
the  feudal  system  of  England,  but  more  loosely  organizeil. 
The  grades  of  rank  were  numerous,  and  the  right  to  claim 
a  certain  rank  depended  upon  the  possession  of  a  fixed 
amount  of  cattle,  agricultural  implements,  and  household 


goods.  The  laws  governing  marriage  allowed  great  libertv 
to  the  husband  in  contracting  irregular  relations.  They 
gave  to  the  wife  the  right  to  alienate  a  portion  of  her  sepa'- 
rate  estate,  ami  to  control  to  some  extent  her  husband's 
right  of  alienation.  The  provisions  governing  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  estates  of  deceased  persons  were  very  minute, 
but  obscure  byrea.sonof  the  technicality  of  the  language  em- 
ployed. The  putting  out  of  children  to  be  nursed  and  edu- 
cated, which  was  practiced  by  tlie  rich,  was  regulated  with 
great  particularity  by  laws  which  prescribed  the  fees  to  be 
paid,  the  instruction  to  be  given  to  the  children,  the  con- 
ditions upon  which  tlieycoulil  be  returned  before  the  end  of 
pupilage,  etc.  In  the  law  of  torts  all  otfenses,  except  mur- 
der, were  condoned  by  fines  or  mulcts,  and  the  amounts  of 
the.se  fines  and  the  persons  responsible  for  their  |)avinent 
were  prescribed,  in  some  cases  the  family  being  niade'liable 
therefor,  and  in  other  cases  sureties  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  old  English  institution  of  frank-pledge.  The  na- 
ture of  the  courts  by  which  these  laws  were  enforced  was 
not  clearly  stated;  tlie  process,  however,  is  more  fully  out- 
lined, and  included  distress  and  other  proceedings,  in  prin- 
ciple resembling  the  common  law  of  England.  This  ancient 
body  of  laws  is  valuable  for  the  liglit  it  throws  uixiii  the 
customs  of  the  people  and  their  household  and  public  life, 
and  U|ion  the  history  of  totemism,  feudalism,  tlie  evolution 
of  the  clan,  tribe.aiul  state,  and  otiier  kindred  subjects.  See 
Sir  Henry  S.  Maine's  Lccliires  on  the  Eiirli/  lltstory  nf  In- 
KtilHliimx.  p.  Sti-rof.s  Ai.l'kx. 

Brei'feufold :  German  village:  5  miles  N.  of  Leipzig; 
the  scene  of  two  victories  of  the  Swedes  over  the  Imijcrial- 
ists,  the  first  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  over  Tilly,  Sept.  17, 
l(j:!l,  the  second  by  Torsi eiison  over  Archduke  Leopokl  and 
Piccolomini,  Nov.  2.  1(542.  It  also  figured  in  the  battle  of 
Leipzig.  Oct.  Hi,  1813. 

Brei'tinger. .loHANN  Jacob:  German  critic;  b.  in  Zurich, 
Mar.  1, 1701.  He  was  a  friend  and  a  collaborator  of  Hoduicr. 
His  chief  work  is  the  Critixche  Dirlifkvnd  (Zurich.  1740),  in 
which  he  expounds  the  a'sthetic  principles  which  helped  to 
revolutionize  (>ernian  poetrv.  See  Brailmaier.  Gexcliichte 
d.puel.  Theurie,  etc.,  18bl8.     1).  in  Zurich.  Dec.  15.  1774. 

JlLIUS  GoEBEL. 

Breifiiiaii.  Hans:  See  Leland.  C.  G. 

Brein'eii :  a  state  and  free  city  of  Germany;  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  Weser;  about  45  miles  from  the  sea  and  60 
miles  S.  W.  of  Hamburg;  lat.  53=  4'  36"  N..  Ion.  8"  48'  54"  E. 
Area,  99  sq.  miles  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  3-D). 
The  city  is  divided  into  the  ol<l  and  the  ii(>\v  town,  the  for- 
mer of  which  is  on  the  right  liank  of  the  river,  and  has  nar- 
row, crooked  streets.  The  new  town,  wliich  is  connected 
with  the  old  by  two  bridges,  is  more  regular.  The  old  ram- 
parts have  been  leveled  and  converted  into  beautiful  ])rome- 
nades  and  pleasure-grounds.  The  most  remarkable  edifices 
are  the  cathedral,  built  about  1.100;  the  fine  old  (iothic 
town-hall,  with  a  famous  wine-cellar;  the  e.xchaiigc,  the 
museum,  and  the  observatory  of  Olbers.  Bremen  has  a  large 
public  library,  a  normal  school,  a  theater,  and  a  hospital; 
also  manufactures  of  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  beer,  liquor, 
sugar,  |iaper,  starch,  ami  cigars.  As  a  commercial  city  this 
is  one  of  the  most  important  of  Germany,  having  an  exten- 
sive foreign  trade,  especially  with  I  he  I'.  .S.,  to  which  it  ships 
about  half  of  the  total  (ierman  emigration.  It  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Hanover.  Bremerhaven,  and  other  towns. 
Vessels  drawing  7  feet  of  water  can  ascend  to  this  [loint ; 
large  ships  slop  at  lircmerhaven.  The  trade  of  Bremen  has 
increa.sed  rapidly  in  the  last  fifteen  years.  The  chief  arti- 
cles of  export  are  woolen  goods,  linens,  glass,  hemp,  hides, 
rags,  wooden  toys,  and  wool.  The  imports  consist  of  cotton, 
cotfee.  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  wines,  dyewoods,  oil,  tea,  etc. 
Shi])-building  is  carried  on  here  extensively.  The  imports 
in  1890  amounted  to  749,938.507  marks,  and  the  exports  to 
about  706.000.000  marks.  The  number  of  emigrants  that 
embarked  lure  in  1890  was  140,410.  Pop.  of  citv  proper 
(18!M))  124.887. 

Bremen  was  founded  before  788  A.  D..  and  was  made  a 
bisho[)ric  by  Charlemagne.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  towns 
of  the  Hanseatie  League.  In  1815  it  was  admitted  into  the 
Germanic  confe<leration  by  the  Congi-ess  of  Vienna.  In  1888 
it  joined  the  German  ZoHverein.  The  government  of  this 
city  and  the  territory  attached  to  it  is  a  nominal  republic, 
the  total  population  of  which  in  1S!I()  was  180.44;).  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  senate,  forming  the  executive,  and  a  house  of 
burgesses,  invested  with  the  power  of  legislation. 

Revised  bv  C.  K.  Adams. 


758 


BREMEN 


BRESLAU 


Bremen :  town :  Marshall  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Indiana,  ret.  2-E) :  on  Bait,  and  Ohio  R.  R. ;  13 
miles  N.  E.  of  Plymouth,  the  capital  of  the  county.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  town  in  an  agricultural  and  lumbering  dis- 
trict.   Pop.  (18^0)  1.028:  (1890)  1.0T6. 

Bremer.  Freurik.\:  a  popular  Swedish  novelist:  b.  in 
Abo.  Finland.  Aug.  1 7. 1801.  She  was  educated  at  Stockholm, 
and  became  in  early  youth  familiar  with  German  literature. 
Her  first  story,  Ajrel  and  Anna,  appeared  in  1828  as  Xo.  1 
of  Sketches  from  Every-chuj  Life  (Tecknuigarutur  hvardags- 
lifort).  a  general  title  under  which  she  continued  to  publish 
stories  until  1848.  Some  of  the  best  known  of  these  sketches 
are  The  President's  DaKf/hters  (Presidentens  dottrar,  1834); 
Xina  (1835):  The  yeii/hbors  (Grannar/ie.  1837):  Home 
(Hemmet.  18:39):  Bmtlurs  and  Sisters  (Syskonlif,  1848). 
The  Bondmaid  (TrCdinnan,  1840)  is  in  another  style.  Miss 
Bremer  visited  the  V.  S.  in  1849.  and  after  her  return  to 
Sweden  published  The  Homes  of  the  New  M'ortd  (Hemmen 
i  den  ni/a  verlden.  185:3-54).  Hertha  appeared  in  1856.  and 
Father  and  Daughter  (Fader  octi  Dotier)  in  1858.  D.  at 
Arsta.  near  Stockholm.  Dec.  :31, 1865.  Most  of  Miss  Bremer"s 
stories  have  been  translated  into  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
man. See  her  Life.  Letters,  and  Posthumous  Works,  edited 
by  her  sister  Charlotte  (New  York,  1868). 

Bremerlia'Teii :  a  town  and  port  of  Germany;  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Weser,  near  its  mouth  ;  about  35  miles 
NT  N.  W.  of  Bremen  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  2-D). 
It  is  a  part  of  the  state  of  Bremen.  It  has  an  outer  and  an 
inner  harbor,  Iniilt  by  the  citizens  of  Bremen  (1827-30)  for 
the  accommodation  of  large  ships  which  can  not  ascend  the 
river.     Pop.  (1890)  16,335. 

Brendan :  See  St.  Brendan. 

Brenhain :  city ;  capital  of  Washington  co.,  Tex.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  5-1):  on  Hous. 
and  Tex.  Cen.  and  Gulf,  Col.  and  Santa  Fe  R.  Rs. ;  70  miles 
S.  \V.  of  Houston.  It  is  in  a  fertile  region  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  cotton,  corn,  and  small  grain  ;  has  fine  public 
school,  large  cotton-seed  oil-mill,  3  cotton  compresses,  2 
foundries,  electric-light  svstem,  and  a  number  of  small  fac- 
tories. Pop.  (1880)  4,101;  (1890)  5,209;  (1893)  estimated, 
7,000.  Editor  of  "  Banner." 

Bren'ner  Pass :  lowest  pass  in  the  main  chain  of  the 
Alps :  on  the  route  between  Innspruck  and  Botzen ;  4.775 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mountains  on  each  side 
rise  about  7.500  feet  above  the  pass,  which  is  open  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  In  1868  a  railway  was  opened  through 
this  pass  from  Innspruck  to  Botzen,  at  which  point  it  con- 
nects with  the  railways  of  Germany  and  Italy.  At  the  sum- 
mit of  the  pass  is  the  small  village  of  Brenner. 

Bren'nus  [Celt.,  king] :  a  famous  chief  of  the  Senones,  a 
trilie  of  ancient  Gaids  who  crossed  the  Apennines  in  ;390  B.  c. 
invaded  the  Roman  state  and  defeated  its  army.  Brennus 
then  ca()tured  Rouu^.  except  the  capitol.  which  he  besieged 
for  about  six  months.  During  this  siege  he  attempted  to 
surprise  the  garrison  by  night,  but  he  was  repulsed  by  Man- 
lius,  who  was  awakened  by  the  cackling  of  some  geese.  The 
Romans  purchased  peace  by  the  payment  of  1.000  pounds  of 
gold.  To  increase  the  price  Brennus  is  said  to  have  thrown 
his  sword  on  the  scale.  See,  on  this  subject,  Arnold's  His- 
tortj  of  Rome. 

Brennus :  a  Gallic  chief  who  invaded  Greece  with  a  large 
army  about  280  B.  c.  ai\d  ravaged  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 
He  was  defeated  at  Delphi  liy  the  Greeks,  who  were  said  to 
have  been  aided  by  an  earthquake. 

Brenta'no,  Clemens:  German  novelist  and  dramatist: 
b.  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Sept.  9. 1778.  He  was  a  brother 
of  Goethe's  friend.  Bettina  von  Arnim  ;  was  a  romanticist, 
and  with  imscttled  mystic  tendencies,  so  that  for  six  years 
his  dominant  task  was  recording  the  revelations  of  the"  nun 
of  Diilmcn.  He  produced  dramas  entitled  Ponce  de  Leon 
(1804)  and  The  Foundation  of  Prague  (1816).  Among  his 
a<lmired  novels  is  Tlie  /fistori}  of  Caspar  the  Brace  and  the 
Fair  Annerl.  In  conjunction  with  Arnim  he  published  the 
collection  of  ballads  called  Des  h'nalien  VTunderhorn  (\HW)- 
08:  2d  ed.  1815).     D.  In  Aschaffeiiburg,  .lune  28,  1842. 

Brentano.  Limo:  economist:  b.  in  Aschaffenburg,  Ba- 
varia, Dec.  18,  1844:  educated  at  Dublin  and  at  (Jennan 
universities:  professor  in  Hreslau  1872.  in  Strassburg  1882. 
in  Vienna  18H8.  in  Leipzig  1889.  in  Munich  1891.  Author 
of  work  on  Kngti.fh  Guilds  (1870);  Die  Arbeitergilden  der 
Oegenwart  (1871-72);   iJas  Arlieitsverhaltnis  gemass  dem 


heutigen  Recht  (1876);  Die  Arbeitsversicherung (ISIQ);  and 
other  works  on  English  and  German  social  questions. 

Brentford :  a  market-town  of  England ;  capital  of  Mid- 
dlesex :  on  the  Thames:  at  the  mouth  of  the  Brent ;  7  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  12-J).  It  is 
connected  with  Kew  by  a  bridge  across  the  Thames;  has 
large  gin-distilleries  and  the  works  of  the  West  London 
Water  Com])any.  It  consists  mostly  of  one  long  street.  The 
town  is  rich  in  historical  interest,  and  has  frequently  been 
alluded  to  bv  Shakspeare  and  other  dramatists.  Pop.  (1891) 
13.736. 

Brenton.  William  :  colonial  Governor ;  emigrated  to  Bos- 
ton from  Hammersmith.  England  :  held  important  offices  in 
Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  where  he  was  several  times 
Lieutenant-Governor.  He  was  President  of  Rhode  Island 
(1660-61)  and  Governor  (1666-69) :  acquired  large  estates  as 
a  surveyor:  name  perpetuated  in  Brenton's  Reef.  D.  in 
Newport.  1674. 

Brenz  (in  Lat.  Brentius),  Johann:  German  reformer:  b. 
at  Weil,  in  Swabia,  June  24,  1499 :  was  educated  at  Heidel- 
berg, and  became  a  Protestant  under  Luther's  influence.  He 
was  a  popular  preacher  at  Halle,  in  Swabia.  from  1522  to 
1546.  until,  with  the  outbreak  of  the  Smalcald  war.  he  became 
an  exile.  Called  by  Duke  Christopher  to  Stuttgart  in  1553 
as  ])rovost  of  the  cathedral  church,  he  thoroughly  reorgan- 
ized the  Wiirtemberg  Church,  giving  it  its  Clmrch  Orders, 
Confession,  and  Catechism.  He  participated  in  many  theo- 
logical conferences,  and  wrote  extensive  volumes  of  exposi- 
tory lectures.  In  his  defense  of  Luther's  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  he  is  sometimes  charged  with  being  a  Ubiqui- 
tarian.  D.  in  Stuttgart.  Sept.  17,  1570.  See  his  Life  by 
J.  Hartmann  (Elberfeld,  1862). 

Revised  by  Henrv  E.  Jacobs. 

Bres'eia :  a  province  of  Loinbardy.  Italy ;  bounded  N.  by 
the  Tyrol.  E.  by  Lago  di  Garda  and  Verona.  S.  by  Cremona, 
and  \V.  by  Bergamo.  Area.  1.644  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is 
fertile.  Silk  and  wool  are  among  the  staple  productions.  It 
has  manufactures  of  woolen  goods,  firearms,  and  cutlery  of 
superior  quality.     Capital.  Brescia,     Pop.  (1890)  501,531. 

Brescia  (anc.  Bri.ria) :  a  handsome  city  of  Lombardy, 
Itidy;  ca|jital  of  province  of  same  name;  pleasantly  sit- 
uated on  a  wiile  jilain  and  on  the  river  Garza;  62  miles  by 
rail  E.  N.  E.  of  Milan  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  on 
the  railway  which  connects  Milan  with  Venice.  It  has  an 
old  cathedral,  a  media?val  stiiicture.  and  a  new  marble  ca- 
thedral (Duomo  Nuovo)  counuenced  in  1604;  also  many 
churches  richly  adorned  with  works  of  art  by  celebrated 
masters,  an  episcopal  palace,  a  college,  a  renowned  public 
library  (Biblioteca  Quiriniana).  a  museum  of  antiquities,  a 
botanic  garden,  and  a  theater.  The  Temple  of  Hercules, 
dating  from  the  second  centuiy,  was  excavated  in  1822.  and 
is  an  archieological  museum.  Here  are  mainifactures  of 
cutlery,  silk,  linen,  and  woolen  fabrics,  pajier.  anil  wine. 
The  streets  and  public  squares  are  adorned  with  numerous 
fountains.  Brixia  was  a  very  ancient  town,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  Cenomanni.  a  Gallic  tribe.  It  was  plundered 
by  Attila.  liut  soon  recovered  from  this  injury.  The  Em- 
peror Otho  1.  declared  it  a  fi'ee  city  about  936.  It  was  bom- 
barded and  taken  bv  the  Austrian  general  Haniau  in  1859. 
Poi>.  (189(1)  4;3.:3.54. 

Bres'lan.  or  Breslaw  (in  liiit.  Bratislavia;  Polish  Wra- 

elair) :  a  large  city  of  Prussia  :  capital  of  Silesia  ;  on  the  river 
Oder:  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ohlau  :  and  on  the  railway  from 
Berlin  to  "Vienna  :  221  miles  bv  rail  S.  E.  of  Berlin  ;  lat.  (of 
observatory)  51=  6'  56-5"  N.,  king.  17°  2'  18"  E.  (see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  5-1).  It  is.  next  to  Berlin,  the  most 
populous  city  of  Prussia.  It  is  divided  by  the  Oder  into  the 
old  and  ni'w  towns,  which  are  connected  by  numerous 
bridges.  The  new  town  has  wide  and  regular  streets.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  The  most  reiiuirkable 
edifices  are  a  cathedral  founded  in  the  twelfth  century.  St. 
Elizabeth's  church,  the  theater.  thcRathhaus.  exchange,  mint, 
and  university  buildings.  The  university  has  a  lilirary  of 
350.000  vohnnes.  Breslau  contains  other  public  libraries, 
an  observatory,  a  botanic  and  zoological  garden,  four  gym- 
nasia, and  numerous  other  schools  of  difTerent  kinds.  It 
has  an  extensive  trade,  and  is  the  greatest  market  for  wool 
in  Germany.  It  has  manufactures  of  woolen,  linen,  cotton, 
and  silk  fabrics,  liroadcloths.  lace,  jewelry,  soap,  earthen- 
ware, starch,  and  ardent  sjiirits.  The  numlier  of  distilleries 
in  it  is  about  100.  Railways  extend  to  Dresden,  Posen, 
Warsaw,  and  Vienna.    Breslau  is  first  mentioned  by  Dit- 


BREST 


BRETOXIC  LANGUAGE 


Y59 


mar.  the  clu'oniilor,  in  1000  a.  i).,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  foundi'd  alMHit  that  date.  It  became  the  scat  of  a 
bishop  in  10.52.  and  the  euiiital  ol"  an  independent  (hiehy  in 
1163.  Reduced  to  a.shcs  by  the  Monf;oliaiis  in  1241,  it  re- 
covered, and  in  12()1  joined  the  llanseatii-  Ijeague.  In  1335 
it  came  under  liohenda,  and  alter  tlie  battle  of  Mohacz  it 
passed  to  Austria.  In  1741  it  was  tal<eu  by  Prussia.  Pop. 
(1800)  33.5,186. 

Brpst  (Lat.  Srcufiim):  a  fortified  city  and  seaport  of 
France:  department  of  Finistere;  314  miles  \V.  of  Paris  (see 
map  of  France,  rcf.  3-A):  said  to  be  the  strongest  military 
port  in  France.  It  is  on  the  north  shore  of  the  road  of 
15rest,  in  lat.  48"  23'  X..  Ion.  4=  2^  W.  Its  outer  harbor  is 
one  of  the  best  and  most  capacious  in  Europe,  Iiaving  ample 
room  for  .")00  ships  of  the  line.  The  harbor  or  road  commu- 
nicates with  the  ocean  by  a  single  channel  called  tlie  (ioulet. 
wtiich  is  1,7.50  yards  wide.  In  the  nuddle  of  this  channel 
are  the  Mignan  rocks,  which  remler  the  entrance  of  hostile 
>hi[>s  very  dillicult  and  dangerous.  The  outer  harbor  or 
roadstead  is  about  6  miles  long,  and  is  defended  by  ]iowerful 
batteries.  The  inner  harbor  is  also  secure  and  sjjacious. 
From  its  natural  a<lvantages  and  the  strength  of  its  defen- 
sive works,  Brest  is  considiTed  one  of  the  first  naval  stations 
of  Kurope.  Here  are  five  large  basins,  extensive  quays,  an 
arsenal,  vast  magazines,  large  Viarracks.  and  a  prison,  the 
|{a:;rie.  which  can  accommodate  4.000  convicts.  Brest  is 
the  western  teriuimis  of  a  railway  which  extends  to  Paris 
via  l{ennes  and  Le  Mans.  The  city  is  built  on  the  slopes  of 
several  hills,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  which  can  com- 
nunncate  only  by  boats.  It  is  encircled  by  ramparts,  which, 
being  planted  with  trees,  form  pleasant  promenades.  It  has 
a  naval  school,  a  medical  school,  a  commuiuil  college,  besides 
nunu'rous  other  schools,  a  public  library,  a  lK)tanic  garden,  an 
observatory,  etc.  This  port  has  little  trade  except  for  the 
supply  of  the  naval  department,  and  its  industry  is  confined 
to  tlie  equipment  of  the  navy.  This  place  wius  not  of  much 
importance  until  Cardinal  Richelieu  commenced  in  1631  the 
fortifications,  which  wen^  completed  by  Vauban.  A  subma- 
rine telegraph  cable  connects  this  harbor  with  Duxburv, 
.Mass.    Pop.  (1881)  06.110;  (1891)  7.5,854. 

Itrest  Litovsk':  a  town  of  Russia;  province  of  (irodno; 
02  miles  S.  of  (irodno  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-B).  It  has 
several  factories  and  considerable  river  trade,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  United  Armenian  bishop.     Pop.  39,001. 

I{rota2rH(>(in  Lat.  Bn'tdimiti  .V/'yjo;-).  usually  called  Brit'- 
tany  in  Knglish.  or  Little  Itrittaiiy :  a  former  province  of 
l''rauce;  extensive  peninsula;  bounded  X.  by  the  Kuglish 
Cliannel,  and  W.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is 
now  com]U'ised  in  the  departments  of  Finistere,  C6tes-du- 
Nord.  Morl)ihan.  Ille-et-\  ilaine.  and  Loire-Inferieure.  It 
was  divided  into  Ilaute-Bretagne  (Upper  Brittany),  capital 
RiTHU's,  and  Basse-Bretagne  (Lower  Brittany),  capital 
Vannes.  Among  the  other  towns  are  Brest,  (^uimper,  and  St.- 
M.ilo.  The  surface  is  partly  mountainous,  and  the  scenery 
wild  and  beautiful.  This  jirovince.  which  in  ancient  times 
was  callecl  Armurirn,  was  settled  by  the  Cymri,  a  Celtic  race 
to  which  the  ancestors  of  the  Welsh  belonged.  It  contains 
large  tracts  of  heath  nearly  uncultivated,  and  extensive  for- 
ests. The  outline  is  indented  with  numerous  bays  and  in- 
lets, which  alTord  facilities  for  navigation  and  commerce. 
Mrittany  aluamds  in  ancient  monuments  and  cromlechs, 
which  are  ascribed  to  thi'  Druids.  Th(^  modern  Bretons  are 
tenacious  of  their  auci<Mit  customs  and  pecMdiarities.  and  are 
generally  Catholics.  They  are  more  loyal  and  devout  than 
the  majority  of  the  French.  Their  language  (the  .\rmori- 
can)  is  peculiar,  and  closely  resembles  the  Welsh.  This  re- 
gion and  its  people  have  a  special  interest  for  antiquarians. 
It  became  subject  to  the  Franks  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
In  848  A.  I).  Nominoe.  an  .Vrmorican  chii'f.  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Brelagne,  and  <lefeated  the  army  of  King 
Charles  the  Bald.  The  Normans  conquered  it  in  the  tentli 
century. 

(Teofrri>i.  Count  of  Renne.s,  became  in  093  the  first  Duke 
of  Uretagne,  which  continued  to  be  an  almost  independent 
fen<lal  duchv  until  it  was  annexed  to  Prance  in  1.531.  Pop. 
(ISOl)  3.1(i2'272.  Sec  Daru.  IlUtnire  de  Brefni/ne  (1826); 
t'ourson.  Ilisloire  des  Penphs  Bretons,  etc.  (1847). 

Bi'fllircii :  See  Plvmoitii  Brkthren  (so  called);  also 
I)i  XKKKs  and  Unitkh  l!iti:TiiRi;x  in  Curist. 

Bretlirpii  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit :  a  sect  of  ex- 
tremely pantheisllc  and  innnoral  semi-monastic  enthusiasts, 
^vhich  probably  origimited  in  the  sect  of  Almericians,  fol- 


lowers of  Amalric  of  Bena,  who  died  in  1309.  Their  princi- 
pal doctrines  were,  according  to  the  testimony  of  their  Cath- 
olic prosecutors,  our  only  source  of  knowledge :  (1)  God  is 
all  that  is ;  (3)  man  is  therefore  God :  (3)  through  sin  (origin 
unexplained)  there  has  come  about  a  separation  between 
man  and  Goil ;  (4)  the  reunion  comes  when  man  recognizes 
this  union  with  God ;  (.5)  when  he  does,  then  he  knows  him- 
self as  God  does,  is  perfect,  and  sin  is  impossible.  The  con- 
sequence was  of  course  tlu?  grossest  immorality.  They  suf- 
fered much  from  the  severity  of  the  authorities,  but  became 
very  mnneroiis  in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy.  The  sect 
lasted  till  about  14.50.  They  were  otherwise  known  as //om- 
i»es  Inlelligentin!  (men  of  understanding),  also  as  Adam- 
ites, Turlupins,  Schwi'striones,  Picards,  etc. ;  aiul  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  immoral  "Adamites"  now  existing  in  Bo- 
hemia are  their  descendants. 

Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools:  same  as  Brothers 

OF  TUE  CURISTIAX  ScHCJOI.S  ((/.  c). 

Bretliren  of  the  Conniion  Life  (in  Lat.  Fratres  Vitm 
Communis) :  an  association  of  jiious  men  founded  in  Deven- 
ter,  Holland,  by  Gerhard  Groot  aljout  1376.  They  had  all 
I)Os.sessions  in  common,  wore  a  uniform  dress,  ate  at  the  same 
table,  and  pursued  the  same  tasks.  They  took  the  three 
monastic  vows  of  obedience,  poverty,  and  celil)ate  chastity, 
l)ut  discipline  was  maintaimul,  generally  according  to  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  without  lifelong  vows.  Later,  "Sis- 
ters of  the  Common  Life"  apjieared.  They  lived  in  special 
houses,  the  sexes  apiirt.  The  head  of  each  liand  of  brothers 
was  called  the  rector:  of  sisters,  the  Martha:  the  head  of 
all  the  brothers,  the  "  father."  who  lived  at  Deventer;  of 
the  sisters,  the  "  head  Martha."  who  live<l  at  Utrecht.  The 
brothers  supported  themselves  by  teaching  and  copying 
manuscripts.  They  were  forbidden  to  beg.  For  this  reason 
the  mendicant  orders  opposed  them.  In  the  (lopes  they 
found.  lK)wever,  supporters,  and  the  Council  of  Constance 
indorsed  them.  From  IlolUnul  they  sjjread  to  Xorthern 
Germany,  Italy,  and  Portugal.  In  1460  they  numbered  130 
houses.  Their  schools  were  famous.  Thomas  a  Kempis  be- 
longed to  them,  and  Wessel  and  Erasmus  were  educated  by 
them.  Luther  and  Melanchthon  esteemed  the  brotherhood 
highly,  and  many  of  them  became  Protestants ;  others  con- 
nected themselves  with  the  Jesuits  and  other  Roman  Catho- 
lic orders,  and  before  16.50  the  fraternity  was  extinct.  See 
S.  Kettlewell,  Thomas  d  Kempis  and  tlie  Brothers  of  the 
Common  Life  (London,  1882,  3  vols.:  2d  ed.  1884). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Breton,  brc-toii .  Emii.e  Auelard  ;  landscape-painter; 
brother  and  pupil  of  Jides  Breton  ;  b.  at  Courricres,  Pas-de- 
Calais,  France;  first-class  medals,  Paris  Expositions,  1878 
and  1889:  Legion  of  Honor  1878;  medals  at  Centennial  Ex- 
hibition, Philadelphia.  1876,  and  Vienna  Exposition  1873. 
A  fine  winter  landscape  bv  him  is  in  the  Luxenibovirg  Gal- 
lery, Paris.  ■  W.  A.  C. 

Breton.  Ji'i.Ks  Anoi.pnE;  painter  of  French  [leasant-life 
in  village  and  field;  b.  at  Com-rieres,  May  1.  1827.  He  was 
a  pujiil  <if  Felix  de  Vigne  and  of  Drolling,  and  began  exhib- 
iting at  the  Salon  about  1S.50.  Ilis  first  recompense  was  a 
third-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  18.55,  and  in  his 
artistic  career  since  then  he  has  been  plentifully  licsprinkled 
with  honors.  He  received  the  medal  of  honor  at  the  Salon 
of  1872,  and  was  made  comnuinder  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  18.80;  member  of  the  Institute  1886.  His  pictures  are  ex- 
cellent from  the  technical  point  of  view,  and  his  earlier  work 
jiarticularly  evinces  true  poetic  sentiment.  In  later  pictures, 
however,  the  sentimental  side  of  his  art  is  sometnues  too 
pronnnent,  and  the  sturdy  vigor  of  his  earlier  period  is  lack- 
ing. Blessint)  the  //arrest  (1857).  Call injl  Home  the  Reapers 
(18.59).  Erenhir/  (1861),  and  The  Gleaner  (1877),  all  in  the 
Luxendjourg  (iallery,  arc  among  his  best  works.  Blessing 
the  Harvest  being  oiie  of  the  works  w^ith  which  he  first  at- 
tracted wide  ]jublic  notice.  Evening  in  a  Hamlet  of  Finis- 
tere. a  picture  of  rare  poetic  qiuditv.  was  sold  in  the  Seney 
sale  in  New  York  in  1.SS5  for  .>;18.006,  considered  at  that  time 
a  very  high  price  for  a  picture  by  a  modern  artist,  biit  it  was 
surpassed  by  the  jirice  paid  for  his  picture  The  Communi- 
cants, at  the  Jlorgan  sale  a  few  years  later,  which  brought 
$4.5,000.  His  pictures  are  very  "ponular  in  the  U.  S.,  and 
some  important  ones  are  owned  by  collectors  in  that  country. 

WlLUAM  A.  CoKKix. 

Bretonie  Lansrna^e:  The  Bretonic  orArmoric  language 
is  one  of  the  few  surviving  remnants  of  the  Celtic  stock.  The 
language  of  Basse-Bretagne,  like  its  population,  is  an  imnii- 


IGO 


BriEUGHEL 


BKE\S'ER 


gration  from.  Kngland.  iu  d  is  therefore  most  closely  related 
to  the  Welsh  suHi  the  extinct  Cornish  ;  in  fact,  in  the  earliest 
records  scareely  distinct  from  them.  It  is  now  divided  into 
several  dialects,  of  which  the  chief  are  those  of  Leon,  of  Tre- 
sjnier.  of  Cornou.'iillcs,  of  Vannes.  They  are  all  more  or  less 
mixed  with  Frencli  loan-ra^terial,  and  are  gradually  yielding 
place  entirely  to  the  French.  The  orthography  of  Bretonic 
s  essentially  the  French.  The  scanty  earliest  monuments  of 
the  language  date  from  the  eighth  century,  and  consist  al- 
most entirely  of  glosses  to  I;atin  texts  and  proper  names  in 
mediieval  documents.  With  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury begins  the  Brctonic  litei-ature  proper,  which  is  almost 
exclusively  religion?  in  content :  hymns,  lives  of  saints,  etc., 
3SpeciaUy  a  series  of  religions  dramas,  or  the  so-called  Mys- 
teries. The  nineteenth  century  [jresents  also  several  secular 
poets.  The  most  important  element  of  the  literature  is  con- 
stituted, however,  by  the  tales  and  songs  collected  from  pop- 
ular tradition.  The  best  survey  of  the  development  of  lan- 
guage and  literature  is  obtained  from  J.  Loth's  Chrestomathie 
bi-eionne  (1890).     Sec  also  Celtic  Lanbuages. 

R.  Thurneysen. 

Brengliel,  bril'gel,  Jan  :  Flemish  painter ;  b.  in  Brussels 
in  1.568  r  called  Velvet  Breughel,  in  reference  to  the  ma- 
terial of  his  clolliing.  lie  painted  landsiape-i.  aiunials, 
flowers,  and  small  figure?,  which  are  finely  finished.  Ajuong 
his  chief  works  are  scveial  pictures  ot  Adam  and  Eve  in 
I'aradise,  which  are  in  ihc  museums  of  the  Louvre,  Berlin, 
and  The  Hague.  The  figures  of  these  were  painted  by  Rubens. 
0.  in  Antwerp,  Jan.  13,  1625. 

Breuarhel,  Pieter  :  Flemish  fainter ;  father  of  the  preced- 
ing: b.  at  Breughel,  near  Breda,  about  15'30.  He  jiainted 
with  success  village  festivals,  ccrcii;  subjects,  and  the  amuse- 
ments of  rustic  life.     D.  in  Brussels  in  1569. 

Brevard',  Epiiraim,  M.  P. :  b.  in  Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C, 
about  1T50:  graduated  at  College  of  New  Jereey  in  1768; 
educated  for  a  physician,  and  practiced  at  Charlotte,  N".  C. ; 
became  secretary  of  the  noted  iMeeklenburg  'convention, 
which  met  in  May,  1775.  and  wa.''.  one  of  the  committee  to 
prepare  resolutions.  As  such  he  participated  in  drafting  its 
resolutions,  which  after  1819  were  reputed  to  contain  a  fa- 
mous dcclaraiioii  of  independence,  nearly  fourteen  montlis 
I  'cfoi-e  Congress  took  a  like  step.  lie  died  iu  Charlotte,  N.  C, 
n  1"8S.  1  ut  le'lhing  was  found  in  hie  papers  corresponding 
'o  the  declaration,  although  he  was  the  secretary  of  the  con- 
vention. He  and  six  hirothers  entered  the  continental  army  ; 
he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston,  S.  C'.,  in  1780,  and  never 
■  ecovered  from  the  hardship  of  his  imprisonment,  .See 
Mecklenburg  Declaratfox  of  Indepexdencb. 

Breve:  in  music,  a  note  formed  thus  [zil,  or  |s|,  or  |(sj|, 
fiTid  equivalent  to  two  semibreves.  The  note  for  a  wliole  l.iar 
n  modern  notation  is  called  a  semibnve.  The  breve  is  now 
used  only  in  alia  capetla  movements,  psalm-iunes,  and 
fugues,  or  at  the  close  of  a  composition. 

Brevet'  [Fr.  letters  patent,  license,  commissiori ;  liter.,  a 
short  writing,  from  Lat.  l/reais,  short]:  a  military  term  ap- 
plied to  a  class  of  commissions  granted  to  officers  of  the  t).  S. 
army,  and  to  the  army  and  navy  officers  of  Great  Britain. 
Formerly  in  Great  Britain  a  general  brevet  was  issued  np'm 
r.pccial  occasions,  such  as  coronaticns,,  the  end  of  a  gv-at 
war,  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  throne,  etc.,  and  when  no 
occasion  of  this  kind  occurred  tin  y  were  issued  at  intervals 
of  about  six  years,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  officers  a 
rank  and  pay  commensurate  with  their  length  of  service. 
From  the  time  of  James  II.  this  general  brevet  formed  a 
part  of  the  military  system  of  England,  and  was  an  implied 
condition  upon  an  oirKcr  entering  tin-  service.  The  brevet 
advanced  all  ollicersof  the  army  above  tne  rank  of  lieutenant 
one  grade  in  rank  and  pay,  i.  e.  a  captain  tiecame  a  major,  a 
major  became  a  lieutenant-colonel,  etc.  The  offii'crs  of  the 
navy  received  a  similar  advance.  Brevets  based  u])on  .some  of 
the  above-mentioned  occurrences  were  issued  in  18:i7,  18:i8, 
1841,  1816, 1851,  and  1854.  Brevets  were  also  conferred  ujion 
officei-s  for  acts  ofcon.spicuous  gal  laid  ry  in  the  fielil.  In  1854 
this  system  was  clianged  and  restricted.  A  brevet,  without 
increa.se  of  pay,  is  now  conferred  n]ion  an  officer  after  five 
years'  service  as  lieutenant-colonel,  ami,  with  a  linuted  in- 
crease of  pay  and  right  to  command,  upon  officers  of  lower 
rank  for  distinguished  .?rrvices  in  tlie  field.  In  the  U.  S. 
brevets  may  be  conferred  fnr  distinguished  services  ui)on 
officers  of  all  ranks,  liy  nomination  hy  the  President  and 
confirmation  by  the  Senate,  in  tlie  same  way  that  other  aji- 
pointments  are  made.    Brevets,  however,  give  no  additional 


pay,  and  confer  upon  the  officer  the  right  to  command  ac- 
cording to  his  brevet  rank  only  upon  special  assignment  by 
the  President.  In  the  U.  S.  ai'my  a  relation  between  pay  and 
length  of  service  is  established  by  allowing  to  officers  of  the 
lower  grades  a  certain  increase  of  pay  for  each  five  years' 
continuous  service.  James  Mercur. 

Bre'viary  [from  Lat.  ireri>(';-n/»i,  abridgment,  summary, 
deriv.  of  hn-ri.i,  short]:  an  a'oridgment  or  epitome:  also  a 
book  containing  the  daily  service  of  the  Church  of  Rome  or 
of  the  (ireek  Church.  It  is  so  called,  probably,  because  it  was 
abridged  from  another  service-book,  called  P/enarhim  opi- 
cinm,  the  "  full  service."  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  ins 
several  breviaries,  some  being  used  in  particular  dioceses  or 
in  special  monastic  orders,  but  the  Brcviaiium  hdiiuiiinm 
(Roman  Breviary)  is  the  mo.st  generally  used,  and  is  rapidly 
taking  the  place  of  the  others  throughout  the  Latin  rite,  and 
it  has  been  translated  into  some  of  the  Eastern  rites.  It  is 
in  four  parts,  the  Psaltery,  or  psalms  for  canonical  hours ; 
the  Froprium  de  Tempore,  for  festivals  in  honor  of  Christ ; 
the  Praprium  de  Sanctis,  for  festivals  of  special  saints;  and 
the  ('(iiiiiiiiiiii'  Sancforiim,  for  other  days.  The  Greek  Bre- 
viarv  {wpo\6yiov)  or  "  dial "  is  used  in  the  Greek  Church  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  churchesof  the  Greek  rite.  (See  Canon- 
ical Hours  and  Liturgy.)  There  is  a  translation  of  the 
Human  Breviary  by  John,  Marquis  of  Bute  (3  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1879). 

Brevier':  in  typography,  a  type  which  is  larger  than 
minion  and  one  size  less  than  bourgeois.  This  cyclopaedia  is 
in  brevier.     See  Printing. 

Brevipeil'iies  [from  Lat.  hrevis.  .short  +  jwnna,  wing]:  in 
the  system  of  Cuvier,  that  tribe  of  birds  which  comprises  the 
ostrich,  cassowary,  emeu,  rhca,  etc.  They  have  wings  so 
short  that  they  are  not  fit  for  flight,  but  they  serve  to  acceler- 
ate the  Sliced  with  which  the  birds  run  on  the  ground.  Their 
sternum  (lireast-bone)  has  no  keel  or  ridge,  a  character  now 
used  to  define  the  sub-class  Ratifie.  The  gigantic  Dinornis 
and  some  other  fossil  birds  exhibit  the  characters  of  the 
brevipcnncs.  Birds  of  this  tribe  flourish  only  in  solitudes 
and  deserts,  and  are  destined  to  extinction,  as  the  progress 
of  population  is  hostile  to  their  increase  or  existence.  See 
CuRSORES.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Brevoort',  James  Renwick  :  landscape-jjainter ;  h.  in  West- 
chester CO.,  N.  Y.,  July  30, 1832  ;  pupil  of  Thomas  Cumniings ; 
National  Academician  1863.  He  lived  for  a  long  time  in 
P^'lorence.  and  painted  Italian  scenery;  visited  Holland  and 
Switzerland  also,  and  painted  subjects  which  he  found  in 
those  countries.     Studio  in  New  York.  W.  A.  C. 

Brewer :  city  ;  Penobscot  co.,  Me.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  ma]i  of  Jlaine,  rel.  8-E);  on  Boston  and  Maine  R.  R., 
and  on  Penobscot  river,  opposite  Bangor,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  bridge.     Pop.  (1880)  3,170 ;  (1890)  4.193. 

Brew'er,  David  Josiah  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor, 
June  20,  1837  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1856,  and  at  the 
Albany  Law  School  in  1858;  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Kansas  1870-81  ;  and  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  V.  S.  for 
the  eiglith  circ\nt  from  1884  until  his  appointment  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  in  1889  as  an  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  S.  Jan.  1,  1896,  Mr.  Cleveland  made  him  a 
member  of  the  ^'enezuela  boundary  commission,  and  lie  be- 
came its  president. 

Brewer,  Ehenezer  Cobiia.m,  LL.  D.  :  Church  of  England 
clergyman  and  author;  b.  in  London,  May  2, 1810;  educated 
at  Trinitv  Hall,  Cambridge ;  ordained  in  1836.  Author  of 
Gtiide  to'Science  (1850),  translated  by  author  into  French  ; 
Dictinnani  of  Phrase  and  Fable  (2ist  ed.  1888) ;  Header's 
Ifandhook  (i2tli  ed.  1888);  Theoloe/i/  in  Science  (1863); 
Jlisloni,  Polificnl  and  Liferar;/.  of  Prance  (1863);  I/ix/ori/ 
of  (iermanii  ( INSl) ;  Dictionarij  of  Miracles  (1884) ;  Historic 
Kote-hool;  i\><\)l) :  about  thirty  educational  works,  and  nu- 
merous pamphlets  under  various  pseudonyms. 

Brewer.  Leigh  Richmond,  D.  D.  :  Missionary  Bislioj)  of 
Montana  ;  b.  in  Berkshire,  Vt..  Jan.  20,  1839  ;  graduated  at 
Ilobart College  lH63and  at  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
narv  1866;  ordained  deacon  July  1.  1866:  was  rector  at 
Carthage  and  Watertown,  Central' New  York  ;  chosen  to  the 
missionary  epi.scojiate  at  the  general  convention  of  1886,  and 
was  consecrated  Dec.  8  of  that  year. 

Brewer.  Thomas  JIayo.  A.M..  IVI.D.:  b.  in  Boston,  ^Mass., 
Nov.  21,  1814.  His  grandfather.  Col.  James  Brewer,  was 
a  well-known  patriot  of  the  Revolution  and  a  leader  in  the 
"Boston   lea-party"   of  1773.      Dr.  Brewer  graduated  at 


BREWER 


BRIBERY 


YGl 


Ilarvivnl  C'dllcse  in  1835.  anil  at  the  Massaclnisotts  JFoclioal 
Sclioiil  in  ls:i^<.  After  two  years  of  professional  lalior,  in 
1840  he  became  editor  of  the  Boston  Atlas,  then  a  leading 
Whij;  paper ;  in  1857  beeanie  a  partner  in  tlie  imlilisliing- 
liouse  of  Brewer  &  Tilcson.  Dr.  Brewer  was  actively  en- 
gaged for  a  lifetime  in  professional  and  bnsiness  duties,  but 
was  best  known  as  a  thorough  Jind  enlluisiastic  ornitholo- 
gist. In  lS;i!)  he  edited  a  new  edition  of  Wilson's  Oniilhul- 
w/v,  for  wliieh  lie  prepared  a  synopsis  of  all  Xorth  Ameri- 
can birds  then  known,  lie  was  a  pei'sonal  friend  of  .\ndu- 
bon.  One  volume  of  a  fine  work  of  his  on  the  0!ili)(/i/  of 
Xor/lt  America  was  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, but  the  j)ublication  was  suspended  on  account  of  its 
great  cost.  lie  also  wrote  most  of  the  biographical  portion 
of  the  IlUtiiry  iif  Xiirth  Atiierican  JJinln.  of  liaird.  lirewer, 
and  Kidgway  (;]  vols,  of  which  were  jmblished  t)V  Little, 
Brown  &  C'o.'in  1874).    1).  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  2:j,  1880. 

IJrovor,  \ViLi,i.\M  IIenmiy:  b.  at  Poughkcepsie.  N.  Y., 
Sept.  !4.  1828;  educated  at  the  scientific  scliool  (d'  Yale 
t'ollege  an<l  at  the  nnivci-sities  of  Heidelberg  and  Jlninch; 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  (ieology  in  Washington  t^ollege, 
I'a.  (1858-()0);  fii-st  jus'sistant  in  the"geological  survey  of  Cal- 
ifornia (lS(10-(i4);  Professor  of  Chemi.stry  in  the  College  of 
California:  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  Shellielil  Scien- 
tific School,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  since  18()4.  He  i>repared 
B(jtnny  uf  Cdliforiiia,  etc. 

IJrcHcrton.  1 1  knrv,  LL.  1). :  .soldier :  b.  at  Xewbnrg,  X.  Y., 
Sept.  ->■).  ISdl  ;  graduated  at  West  Point  ISl!);  colonel  Corps 
of  Kngincers  Apr.  2'J.  1804;  served  as  assistant  professor  at 
the  .^iilit.-iry  Academy  181!)-21  ;  in  construction  of  fortifi- 
cations lM'.;i-3"2:  Cumberland  road  18:i'2-8(i;  improvement  of 
Hudson  river  18:J()-42;  building  Fort  Montgomery,  N.  Y., 
1841—15:  superintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  184.5-52; 
constructing  defenses  of  lijdlimore  harbor  18.52-04;  of  the 
Delawari'  ls(;2-04 ;  of  Point  Lookout.  Md.,  1S6MJ5:  and  of 
Hampton  Roads  18CI-70:  imjirovements  of  harbors  in  Mary- 
laud  1S52-04;  and  mendier  of  engineer  and  otlii'r  lioards 
ls:i!)-07.  Brevet  brigadier-generai  -Mar.  l:i,  1805,  for  long, 
faithful,  and  nuu'itorious  services,  and  retired  from  active 
service  .Mar.  7,  1867.    D.  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  Apr.  17,  1879. 

Hreninar :  See  Bkkk. 

UrcH'sttT.  Bk.nmamix  IIakkis.  LL.  I).:  b.  in  New  .Jersey, 
Oct.  18,  IKIO  ;  was  si>ri(aisly  hurt  by  fire  when  a  child  ;  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  1834;  admitted  to  the  I^hiladidplna  bar 
1838;  soon  appointed  by  President  Polk  to  pass  upon  the 
claims  of  the  Cherokee  Indians  against  the  U.S.;  in  1807 
appointed  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania;  had  a  large 
practic'c,  anil  was  noted  for  tlie  force  and  grace  of  his  pleas. 
In  Dec.,  188L  he  was  apjioinli'd  1)V  President  Artluir  Attor- 
nev-(ieiM'i'al  of  the  V.  S.,  and  held"  that  oince  till  Mar.,  1885. 
D.'in  Phila(h'lphia,  Pa.,  Apr.  4,  1888. 

Brewster,  Sir  D.wid,  LL.  I)..  D.  C.L..  P.R.S. :  natural 
philosopher;  b.  in  Jedburgh,  Scotland,  Dec.  11,  1781.  lie 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  became 
in  1808  editor  of  the  Hilin/iun/h  Enctjdopiedin,  for  which  he 
wrote  numy  artiidcs.  He  received  in  1815  the  Copley  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  for  an  E.ssai/  on  the  Polarizittinn  of 
.A/r/Zi/  hi/  lifflfi-Jio/i.  He  invented  the  kaleidoscope  in  1810. 
In  conjunction  with  Prof.  .Luueson  he  founded  the  Krlin- 
hidyh  I'liilo^oplilcitl  Joarnal  in  181!).  As  his  ndationsas 
an  editor  brought  him  into  frequent  communications  with 
the  most  eminent  scientific  men,  and  he  was  naturally  one 
of  the  first  to  recoginze  the  benefit  which  would  accrvie  from 
regular  intercourse  among  laborers  in  the  same  field,  he,  in 
articles  in  the  Qiiiirterhj  Review,  threw  out  a  suggestion 
whicli  became  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  the  British  As- 
sociation for  the  Ailvancement  of  Science.  It  held  its  fii'st 
meeting  at  York  in  1831.  and  Brewster  and  Herschel  had 
the  chief  part  in  shaiiing  its  constitution.  About  this  date 
the  Royal  Society  awardeil  to  him  the  Rumford  gold  and 
silver  medals  for  his<liscoveries  in  optics.  He  wius  knighted 
in  1832,  and  electeil  in  184!)  one  of  the  eight  foreign  asso- 
ciates of  the  French  Institute.  In  1850  he  invented  the 
.stereoscope,  .\mong  his  works  are  a  Treo/iae  oti  Optics 
(18:!1);  ^[ore  Worlds  tliriii  (hie  {isr,i)  ;  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  (iiid  Wrifiiii/s  of  Sir  Isiiitc  yeii'lon  (2  vols.,  1855).  In 
185!)  ho  was  chosen  principal  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Macphei-son.  the  author 
of  (Issian's  poems.     D.  near  Melrose,  Feb.  10,  1808. 

Brow.stor,  ^Vll,r.IAM  :  one  of  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth ; 
b.  at  Scrooby,  I'^ngland,  in  1560;  wa.s  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  entereil  the  public  service ;  became  a  Nonconform- 


ist, and  in  1607  wa.s  imprisoned  at  Boston,  LincohLshire. 
He  was  liberated  with  great  expense  and  dilliculty,  and 
went  to  Leyden,  where  he  taught  English.  In  1620  he  re- 
moved to  America  on  the  Jlayilower's  fii'st  voyag<'.  He  was 
ruling  elder  of  the  CInn-ch.  preaching  freiiuently,  but  never 
administering  the  sacraments.  I),  at  Plymouth,  Ma.ss., 
great Iv  venerated,  Apr.  10,  1044.  See  his  Life  by  k.  Steele 
(Philadcljihia,  18.57). 

Urcwtoii ;  town;  capital  of  Escand)ia  co..  Ala.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Alabanni,  ref.  7-C) ;  on  L.  and  N. 
K.  R. ;  100  miles  S.  of  ^Montgomery,  near  Conecuh  river;  has 
a  collegiate  institute,  five  churches,  large  lundjer-mills, 
sash  and  door  factory,  and  vegetable  farms,  the  produce  (;f 
which  is  sent  to  Northern  niarket.s.  Pop.  (1890)  1,115;  ac- 
cording to  local  enumeration  (1893).  2,500. 

Editor  of  "  Standard  Gauge." 

Itrialiiioiil.  bree'jud'mon',  Alkxis  Henri  ;  engineer  and 
military  writer:  b.  in  Yenloo.  [irovince  of  Limburg,  the 
Netheriands.  May  25.  1821  ;  entereil  the  military  school  of 
Brussels  in  183!)';  graduated  as  soiis-iienteiiaiil  du  genie. 
(engineers)  in  1843^  Entered  the  staff  corps  (retat-major) 
as  captain  1855;  became  colonel  1808:  clievalier  of  the 
order  of  Leopold  1846— officer  1859.  commimder  1870; 
nuijor-general  Mar.  25,  1874:  member  of  the  Belgian  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  in  1865.  He  is  now  a  lieutenant-general 
retired.  As  an  officer  of  engineers  he  iiarticipated  in  the 
fortification  of  Antwerp  anil  Diest,  and  when  the  ])re.sent 
magnificent  system  of  fortifications  was  decided  upon  he  had 
the  distinguished  honor  id'  planning  works  "unrivaled  in 
Europe  in  the  intelligent  apjdication  of  true  principles  of 
ait  to  a  great  practical  example."  Col.  Brialmont  became 
an  acknowledged  authority  on  the  modern  art  of  fortifica- 
tion. His  military  publications  are  numerous  ;  among  the 
most  important  may  be  nametl :  I'recis  d'Art  Militaire 
(1850.  4  VI lis.  1 2mo) : " ( 'onsiderations  J'o/ifiqiies  ef  Militaires 
siir  III  Jielyiqiie  (1851-52,  3  vols.  8\-_o) ;  Ilistoire  du  Due  de 
Wellington  (1856-57,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Etudes  sur  la  Defense  des 
Etiits  et  sur  la  Fortification  (1863,  3  vols.  8vo,  with  atlas); 
Etudes  sur  I'orqanisation  des  Armees  (1807,  1  vol.  8vo) ; 
Traile.  de  Fortification  I'otijgonale  (1869,  3  vols.  8vo,  with 
atlas) ;  La  Fortification  a  Fosses  Sees  (1872,  3vols.  8vo,  with 
atlas);  Etudes  sur  la  Fortification  des  Villes  Capifales 
(1873);  Les  liegions  Fortifiees;  Tir  pi  on  ye  ant  et  ohus  tur- 
pilles;  La  Fortification  (hi  'J'emps  Present  (1885).  He  is 
the  author  of  the  artii.de  on  Lntrexciied  C-'amps  in  the  pres- 
ent work. 

15rianclion"s  Tlieoreiii :  in  conic  sections,  the  reciprocal 
of  Pascal's  tlicnrem  :  first  discovered  by  Brianchon.  It  was 
thus  enunciated;  "The  three  diagonals  of  every  hexagon 
circumscribed  to  a  conic  meet  in  a  point." 

liriniicoii,  brc'e'siiu'i'son  (anc.  Brigantiiim) :  a  town  of 
France:  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Alpes ;  on  the  river 
Durance;  56  miles  S.  E.  of  Grenoble,  and  near  the  Italian 
frontier  (see  map  of  I<'raiu;e,  ref.  7-1).  It  is  strongly  forti- 
fied ;  is  the  principal  French  arsenal  among  the  Alps,  and  is 
considered  almost  impregnable.     Pel).  (1891)  6..580. 

Itriaiisk'  :  a  town  of  Russia;  government  of  Ore! ;  on  the 
river  Desna:  74  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Orel  (see  nuip  of  Russia, 
ref.  8-D).  It  has  several  churches,  a  cannon-foundry,  an 
imperial  building-yard,  and  a  nnmufactory  of  small-arms. 
Pop.  1.5.000. 

Bribery  [from  0.  Fr.  ttribe.  \wqc  of  bread,  a  gift  to  a  beg- 
gar] ;  in  criminal  law,  a  taking  or  giving  of  a  reward  or 
consideration  with  the  intent  to  corruptly  intlnence  a  per- 
son in  the  ))erfonnance  of  the  duties  of  a  public  office  or 
function,  judicial  or  otherwise.  The  otTense  is  completed 
bv  the  corrujit  taking  or  giving,  whether  the  act  contem- 
)ilated  be  legal  or  illegal  or  be  perfornu'd  or  not.  An  umic- 
cepted  offer  to  give  or  receive  a  consideration  with  such  a 
corrupt  intent  constitides  an  attcmiit  to  bribe.  Both  these 
acts  were  indictable  offenses  at  the  common  law;  but  by 
statute  in  many  cases  acts  have  been  made  bribery  which 
were  not  punishable  as  such  at  common  law.  A  mere  present 
after  the  ]ierl'ornuince  of  the  act  desired,  without  a  lu-evious 
corrupt  under.standing,  does  not  constitute  briliery.  The 
giving  or  receiving  of  a  consideration  to  corruptly  influence 
a  voter  in  a  ]iublic  elei'tion  is  briliery  at  common  law  as 
well  as  under  the  statutes,  by  which  this  subject  is  now  gen- 
erally regulated.  The  bribing  of  a  juror  is  comprehended 
in  the  term  Embracery  {q.  v.).  Bribery  is  a  serious  offense 
against  ]iublic  probitv,  and  the  IT.  S.  Constitution  declares 
that  the  President  aiid  other  civil  ofliccrs  arc  liable  to  im- 


762 


BRICE 


BRICK 


peacliment  for  "treason,  bribery,  and  other  high  crimes  and 
niisdemeanors."  Revised  by  F.  STrROEs  Allen. 

Brice,  Calvix  Stewart  :  U.  S.  Senator :  b.  at  Denmarli, 
0.,  Sept.  17.  1845;  A.  B..  Miami  University,  1863;  LL.  D. 
1892 ;  served  in  the  Union  ai-niy  1862-65.  'after  which  lie 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Cinciiinati  1866;  on  the  Tilden 
electoral  ticket  in  1876  and  the  Cleveland  electoral  ticket  in 
1884;  delegate-at -large  from  Ohio  to  the  St.  liouis  Demo- 
cratic national  convention  1888 :  chairman  of  Democratic 
national  committee  1889.  In  1890  he  was  elected  U.  S. 
Senator  from  Ohio  to  succeed  Henry  B.  Payne. 

Brick :  a  species  of  artificial  stone  made  by  molding 
plastic  clay  into  l)locks.  and  burning  them.  A  very  inferior 
quality  of  bricks  is  made  by  simply  drying  the  blocks  in  the 
sun.  The  earths  most  employed  in  brickmaking  are  (1) 
the  ])lastic  clays,  composed  principally  of  silica  and  alu- 
mina in  varying  proportions;  (2)  the  loams  or  sandy  clays; 
and  (3)  tlie  marls,  whicli  are  either  sandy,  clayey,  or  calcare- 
ous, according  as  silica  in  the  form  of  sand,  alumina,  or  car- 
bonate of  lime  preponderates  in  the  mixture.  These  brick- 
clays  almost  always  contain  a  small  percentage  of  oxide  of 
iron,  carbonate  of  lime,  soda,  and  carbonate  of  magnesia. 
The  purer  clays  contain  about  1  part  of  alumina  to  3  of 
silica,  with  a  percentage  of  water  varying  greatly  among 
the  different  clays.  They  all  mix  up  freely  with  water  in 
either  large  or  small  proportions,  and  are  characterized  by 
a  tenacious  plasticity.  If  molded  and  baked,  they  shrink 
and  warp  greatly  out  of  shape,  and  crack.  Hence  these 
rich  clays  all  have  to  be  tempered  with  sand,  ashes,  or  cin- 
ders before  they  can  be  used  for  bricks.  Some  clays  con- 
tain too  much  sand,  and  are  weak  and  brittle  after  burning  ; 
these  must  be  mixed  with  the  richer  clays.  From  the 
greatly  varying  character  of  the  raw  material,  it  results 
that  the  methods  pursued  in  brickmaking  must  vary  among 
different  localities.  Some  clays  recjuire  but  very  little 
change  in  the  natural  proportion  of  their  ingredients,  and 
but  very  little  labor  to  prepare  them  for  molding  into 
bricks,  it  being  merely  necessary  to  add  the  requisite  quan- 
tity of  water  to  render  the  clay  plastic ;  while  others,  such 
as  the  fire-clays  and  some  of  the  marls,  have  to  be  pulver- 
ized by  machinery  before  they  can  be  reduced  to  a  suffi- 
ciently plastic  condition.  The"  red  color  of  burnt  Ijricks  is 
caused  by  the  [iresence  of  a  small  percentage  of  oxide  of 
iron,  generally  the  protoxide.  Wlien  there  is  more  than  10 
per  cent,  of  iron  oxide  present  the  clay  burns  to  a  blue  and 
almost  a  black  color.  A  large  percentage  of  iron,  if  lime 
also  or  an  excess  of  silica  be  present,  renders  the  clay  fusi- 
ble. Some  clays  contain  lime  and  very  little  or  no  iron. 
These  burn  white,  and  require  a  less  intense  heat  than  any 
other  clays  to  produce  hard  brick,  the  lime  being  a  flux  oil 
the  silica.  When  carbonate  of  lime,  whether  as  chalk,  marl, 
nodules  of  calcareous  petrifactions,  or  in  any  other  form,  is 
present  in  the  clay,  it  is  converted  into  quicklime  in  burn- 
ing, and  only  such  portions  of  it  wiU  combine  with  the 
silica  and  alumina  as  come  into  actual  contact  with  them. 
The  balance  remains  quicklime,  which  will  slake  when  the 
bricks  become  wet,  and  destroy  them.  Hence  clay  contain- 
ing too  much  carbonate  of  liii'ie  is  unfit  for  bricks.  Other 
clays  contain  iron  and  lime  with  an  excess  of  the  latter,  in 
which  case  the  bricks  burn  to  a  light  dun  or  a  whitish  color. 
Magnesia  generally  produces  a  brown  color. 

The  presence  of  iron  pyrites  is  objectionable,  for  the 
burning  expels  tlie  sulphur.' leaving  oxide  of  iron  or  a  basic 
sulphate,  which  occupies  less  volume  than  the  original  jiy- 
rites,  and  makes  the  bricks  porous  and  weak.  'S'egetable  re- 
mains, such  as  roots,  grass,  etc.,  should  be  excluded  for  a 
similar  reason. 

It  is  imi)ossible  to  ascertain,  by  chemical  analysis  alone, 
whether  or  not  a  given  clay  or  aiiv  mixture  of  two  or  more 
clays  will  make  good  bricks.  The  best  chemical  tests  will 
furni.sli  only  a  close  approximation.  The  conqiosition  of 
four  clays — two  suitalile  for  common  bricks  and  two  for 
fire-brick— is  given  below.  Nos.  3  (from  Stourbridge,  Eng- 
land) and  4  are  the  fire-brick  clays : 


COMPONENTS. 

No.  1. 

No.  8. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

Silica 

50-40 

84-00 

2-70 
1-.S0 

ai-uo 

49  44 
34  26 
7-74 
1-48 
5-14 
1-94 

51-80 
80-40 

414 

'6-36  i 
13-11  ( 

58-40 

35  78 

3-02 

Alumina ( 

Oxide  of  iron ) 

Carbonnte  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

2-72 

Totals 

100 

100 

99-75 

99-92 

Some  of  the  fire-clays  contain  as  high  as  65i  to  66  per  cent, 
of  silica,  27;i  to  26i  per  cent,  of  alumina,  and  5^  to  6  per 
cent,  of  oxide  of  i'ron,  the  balance  being  the  alkalies  and 
water. 

Fire-bricks  are  used  for  lining  furnaces,  kilns,  ovens,  etc., 
subjected  to  an  intense  heat  tliat  would  destroy  common 
bricks  or  stone.  The  Stourbridge  fire-bricks  are  noted  for 
their  excellence.  The  clay  is  dug  up  and  exposed  from 
three  to  eighteen  months,  according  to  the  weather,  in 
■■  spoil  heaps,"  spread  over  as  large  an  area  as  practicable, 
until  thoroughly  disintegrated  by  weather  and  frost ;  in 
winter  three  months  will  suffice.  The  clay  weighs  6  tons 
to  7  cubic  yards,  and  some  of  the  spoil  heaps  contain  10,000 
tons.  After  weathering,  the  clay  is  ground  in  a  circular 
pan  under  two  cylindrical  stone  rollers,  each  weighing  2}  to 
3J  tons,  and  faced  with  iron.  After  grinding,  the  clay  is 
carried  on  an  endless  band  to  a  *•  riddle  "  of  4  or  6  mesiies  to 
the  inch  for  fire-bricks,  6  to  10  meshes  for  fine  cement  clay, 
and  12  to  14  meshes  for  glass-house  or  pot  clay.  After 
jiassing  the  riddle  the  clay  is  tempered  with  water  to  a 
suitable  degree  of  plasticity,  and  is  then  passed  through  a 
cylindrical  cast-iron  pug-mill,  where  it  is  cut  and  stirred 
by  revolving  helicoidal  blades,  which  force  it  out  through 
an  opening  at  the  bottom  in  the  form  of  a  bar,  which  is  re- 
ceived and  carried  by  an  endless  band  to  the  molding-shed. 
The  fire-bricks  are  molded  by  hand  in  the  usual  manner, 
dried  in  artificially  heated  she'ds  at  a  temperature  of  60'  to 
70'  F..  or  by  the  sun  in  clear  weather.  They  are  burned 
in  circular  domed  kilns  or  cupolas  called  ovens,  where 
they  remain  from  eight  to  fourteen  days,  being  subject  to 
the  intensity  of  flame  or  white  heat  for  about  four  days 
and  three  nights.  In  liurning.  the  heat  is  slowly  increased 
and  gradually  lowered,  and  the  Ininit  contents  require 
.seven  davs  to  cool.  Most  of  the  kilns  contain  12.000  bricks 
—some,  exceptionally,  30,000  to  35,000.  The  chimney- 
stack  is  on  the  outside,  and  the  flame  burns  with  a  down 
draught,  descending  through  holes  in  the  floor.  Coal  is 
used  for  fuel. 

Excellent  fire-bricks  are  made  in  New  .Jersey  at  Perth 
Amboy,  Woodbridge,  South  Amboy,  Trentim,"and  other 
places  in  the  vicinity.  The  process  of  manufacturing  is 
essentially  the  same  as  for  common  bricks.  The  fire-clavs 
of  these  localities  contain  generally  more  alumina  and  less 
silica  than  those  of  Stourbridge, 'England,  and  are  there- 
fore richer,  the  alumina  reaching  in  some  cases  as  high  as 
37-iV  to  SOt'it  per  cent.,  with  only  43i%  to  45^^  per  cent,  of 
silica.  The  composition  of  the  bricks  consists  of  about  J 
raw  clay.  ^  cement,  i  kaolin,  and  i  fine  sand.  The  cement 
is  fire-clay  that  has  been  burnt ;  the  kaolin  is  a  clay  con- 
sisting of  very  fine  sand.  mica,  and  fire-clay,  found  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  fine  sand  is  clean,  coarse,  angular-grained 
quartz,  found  remarkably  pure  near  liy. 

The  leading  type  of  the  machines  used  at  Haverstraw, 
N.  Y.,  and  vicinity  for  the  manufacture  of  common  bi-icks, 
where  aiioul  2,000.000  per  day  are  made  during  the  working 
season,  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  and  is  known  as  the  "  Vervalen 
machine."  The  object  of  this  machine  is  merely  to  fill  the 
molds  more  rapidly  than  could  be  done  by  hand,  and  not  to 
produce  a  jiressed  brick. 

A  is  a  wooden  box  or  tub  about  3  ft.  4  in.  square  inside, 
and  from  4  ft.  6  in.  to  5  feet  high,  into  which  the  clay  to  be 
molded  is  cast.  B  is  a  vertical  iron  shaft  about  5  inches  in 
diameter,  geared  with  the  engine  shaft  C,  which  imparts  to 
it  a  horizontal  rotary  motion^  The  lower  end  of  B  is  pro- 
vided with  a  heavy  easting,  shaped  like  the  letter  S.  called 
the  ivippr.  which  sweeps  the  clay  thi-ougli  a  lateral  opening 
in  the  front  side  of  A  into  the  cast-iron  box  D. 

The  shaft  B  is  provided  with  a  number  of  projecting 
arms,  from  fourteen  to  twenty-two,  Avhich  clear  the  sides  of 
the  tub  by  almut  an  inch,  and  serve  to  mix  the  ingredients 
before  they  are  expelled  by  the  wiper.  When,  however,  the 
clay  is  previously  mixed  by  a  tempering  wheel,  these  arms 
are  removed,  leaving  only  the  wiper,  and  the  tub  then  serves 
merely  as  a  ho]i]ier.  The  bottom  of  the  cast-iron  box  I)  is 
pi-ovided  with  six  openings,  through  which  the  prepared 
clay  is  forced  into  corresponding  openings  in  the  mold  E. 
\  sort  of  recta ugtdar  piston  works  up  and  down  in  the  box 
D  by  means  of  a  connecting-roil.  F.  run  l)y  a  drum.  0.  A 
crank  at  the  end  of  the  drum-shaft  II  comiiiunicates  a  stroke 
of  about  7  inches  to  the  [liston,  which  stroke,  however,  can 
lie  diminished  at  pleasure  by  shifting  the  position  of  a  pin 
at  the  lower  extremity  of  F.'  The  bottom  of  the  piston  does 
not  come  nearer  than'abciut  6  inches  to  tlie  bottom  of  the 
box  D. 


15KICK 


63 


The  action  of  tlie  maeliine  will  now  be  readily  understood. 
The  prepared  cliiy  i-;  -iwi'pt  by  the  wi]ier  out  of  A  into  1), 


Fia.  1.— Vervalen  machine. 

■whence  it  is  expelled  by  a  down  stroke  of  the  piston  into  a 
mold  |)laee<l  under  it.  While  this  mold  is  beinff  tilled  an 
empty  one  is  inserted  behind  it  throiiijli  the  aperture  I.  The 
ilruni  O  conlinuinf;  its  nn'olution  in  the  direction  of  the  ar- 
row, a  cam.  K.  strikes  the  lever  L,  throwinjr  it  forward,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  It  carries  with  it  the  slial't  M,  which 
by  means  of  a  horizontal  rod  attached  to  two  cranks  (one  of 
which  is  shown  partially  in  the  liguri'  at  .V)  and  passing  be- 
hind the  empty  mold,  forces  it  forward,  tlirusting  out  the 
full  one  upon  the  table  0,  and  []lac-iu!;  the  empty  mold  in 
position  to  be  filled.  The  drum  (I  continuing  its  revolution, 
aniitlicr  cam.  placi'd  so  as  to  clear  the  tO[)  of  the  lever  L, 
strikes  the  upper  arm  of  the  lever  P,  causing  it,  by  means  of 
the  proji'Ct ion  Q,  to  return  L  to  its  [iriuiitive  position.  A 
chock  prevents  L  from  falling  too  far  liH('k.     .Vud  so  on. 

Wlienever  the  nature  of  the  materials  used  admits,  the 
mixture  of  the  ingredients  is  made  by  the  i)ug-mill  working 
in  the  tub.  In  this  case  a  recttangular  pit  is  prepared  di- 
rectly behind  the  machine,  capable  of  ccmtaiuing  the  amount 
of  clay  recpiired  for  a  day's  work.  The  clay  is  placed  over- 
night in  this  pit,  and  is  wet  down  with  a  certain  amount  of 
water,  varying  according  to  tlic  nature  of  the  clay  used.  In 
the  morning  the  other  ingredients,  consist  iug  of  sand  and 
anthracite  coal-dust,  are  carted  to  the  pit  and  roughly  mixed 
by  two  spaders,  who  afterward  throw  it  up  into  the  tub, 
where  the  pug-mill  completes  the  mixing. 

The  proportion  of  saml  used  varies  ac:cording  to  the  (|ual- 
ity  of  tne  clay  and  the  relative  projiortions  in  which  the  two 
lire  found  in  the  liank.  It  may  be  taken,  on  an  average,  at 
•one-third  sand  to  two-thirds  clay.  The  IlaversI raw  sand  is 
of  excellent  quality,  and,  more  than  the  clay,  gives  the 
bricks  of  this  locality  tlieir  peculiar  character.  Coal-dust  is 
used  in  the  average  proportion  of  3  peeks  to  the  1.000  bricks. 
For  burning  pmperly  in  the  kilns,  a  certain  number  of  what 
are  called  (/oHA/c-eort/bricks  is  required,  in  which  the  pro- 
portion is  about  '}  bush,  of  dust  per  1.000  bricks.  When  mixed 
m  a  circular  pit  by  means  of  a  "  temiiering-wheel,"  the  clay 
and  coal-dust  are  disposnl  in  alteniiile  layers  iind  cut  up  by 
the  wheel.  The  sand  is  then  addcil  and  incorporated  by  the 
wheel.     The  operation  consumes  the  entire  day. 

When  the  molds,  which  are  nnide  mostly  of  cherry  or 
locust  wood,  and  contain  six  bricks  each,  are  thrust  from 
under  the  nress  U])on  the  table,  thev  are  jdaced  on  trucks 
and  wheeled  under  the  drying-shed.  'Phe  liricks  an;  thrown 
<nit  upon  the  fl;it.  When  sulVK'ient ly  dry  they  are  "edged 
up"  l)y  uiearis  of  an  instrument  called  an  edt/er.  then 
""spatted,"  or  tapped  with  a  Hat  board  called  a  '•  spatter," to 
pive  them  a  clear  edge,  and  then  "liackcMl  up,"  or  placed  in 
long  and  narrow  rows  on  edge.  When  dry  enough — that  is, 
in  one  to  three  days,  according  to  weather — they  are  built 


up  in  "arches,"  set  on  edge  in  the  order  called  "three  over 
one."  The  arches  contain  28.000  to  35,000  bricks  each, 
and  are  6  bricks  or  4  feet  wide,  about  44  bricks  or  30  feet 
deep,  .ind  from  45  to  55  courses  liigh.  Each  arch  has  an 
opening  at  the  bottom — hence  the  name — in  the  center  of 
its  wiilth,  in  which  the  wood  used  in  baking  is  placed.  On 
the  outside  are  ]ilaced  the  "  doidjle-coal  "  bricks,  to  the  num- 
ber of  about  3,000  per  andi.  Hricks  containing  only  the 
usual  proportion  of  coal  would  not  burn  properly  at  this 
distance  from  the  fire. 

A  nuuil)er  of  arches,  five,  ten,  or  more,  are  built  up  con- 
tiguously, so  as  to  form  a  solid  nias.s.  The  whole  is  then 
covered  with  a  dry  wall  of  baked  bricks,  the  lower  courses 
being  one  brick  thick  and  the  rest  half  a  brick.  At  the 
liottom  they  leave  a  vacancy  between  the  wall  and  the  face 
of  the  arch,  which  gives  a  batter  to  the  covering  wall,  and 
atTiprds  a  better  <lraught.  Arch-irons  or  cast-injii  frames 
having  an  opening  of  about  1  se).  foot  are  inserted  in  the 
openings,  anil  the  whole  is  smeared  over  with  clay.  The 
heap  so  prepared  is  called  a  kiln.  This  system  of  burning 
is  pursued  rather  than  that  with  permanent  kilns,  on  ac- 
count of  the  greater  lunnber  of  bricks  which  may  be  burned 
in  a  given  s])acc.  At  Ilaverstraw  vards  controlling  onlv  200 
fc'ct  frontage  can  thus  m,-ike  fro"m  .^),000,000  to  6,000,000 
bricks  per  season  of  150  working  days. 

Aliout  four  cords  of  wood  are  used  per  arch,  and  the  burn- 
ing re(|uires  six  days,  fires  V)eing  lit  on  Monday  morning 
and  drawn  on  Satin-day  evening.  Molding  is  usually  car- 
ried on  during  the  forenoon  of  each  day — about  five  to  six 
hours — the  rest  of  the  day  being  spent  in  "liacking  np."etc. 

The  machines  above  nu-ntioned  turn  out,  in  ordinary 
working,  ten  molds  or  sixty  bricks  per  niimite,  or  18,000 
to  20.000  per  forenoon.  They  require  the  following  plant 
and  belli  jjcr  nuiehine :  25  molds,  4  trucks,  and  8  men.  If 
opcratcil  by  steam,  a  machine  turning  out  18,000  per  day 
reqiiires  8  horse-power  nominal,  high  pressure. 

The  standard  of  full  work  in  this  .section  is  to  turn  out 
1,000  bricks  per  day  for  every  soul  employed,  from  the  time 
the  clay  is  dug  till  t lie  bricks  n 

are    loaded    in    the   vessels.  J^SIFTN 

Thus  an  establishment  em-  «ltB:     \   1 

])loying  forty  hands,  all 
told,  should  tiim  out  40.000 
bricks  jier  day. 

The  Morand  brick -ma- 
chine, Fig.  2.  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  pug-mill,  under 
which  revolves  a  horizontal 
iron  table,  in  which  there 
are  eight  openings  or  molds 
of  the  size  of  a  brick.  The 
mill  mixes  the  clay,  aiul 
forces  it  downward  by  il-^ 
helicoida!  arms  through  :i 
slot  in  the  bottom  of  the 
mill,  thus  filling  the  molds 
as  they  pass  under  the  slot. 
Kach  mold  then  passes  un- 
der a  pressure-plate,  which 
confines  the  clay  on  top, 
while  a  movable  plate,  which  closes  the  mold  at  the  bottom, 
is  forced  up  by  passing  over  a  cam.  This  com])resses  the 
plastic  brick,  forcing  out  the  air  and  excess  of  clay  through 
a  small  holc>  in  the  pressure-plate.  After  ]iassing  the  |>res- 
sure-plate  the  bricks  are  thrust  up  to  the  top  of  the  table, 
and  then  moved  automatically  to  an  endless  band,  which  car- 
ries t  hem  away.  From  the  baiul  they  are  loaded  upon  eai-s, 
which  convey  them  into  drying-ovens.  They  go  to  the 
kiln  the  next  day.     .See  Kilns. 

Three  qualities  of  brick  are  taken  from  the  kiln.  Those 
forming  the  to|:i  and  sides  of  the  arches  are  called  iircJi  hrick, 
those  from  the  interior  of  the  pile  are  Iwil)/  hrirk.  and 
tho.se  from  the  exterior  are  soft  brick.  The  arch  bricks 
are  hard  and  often  brittle  and  weak  from  overburiiing;  the 
soft  bricks  are  underlnirned.  and  fit  only  for  backing  and 
filling.  The  body  brick  is  of  the  best  quality.  Good  bricks 
should  be  of  regular  shape,  have  parallel  surfaces.  ])lane 
faces,  and  sharp  edges  and  angles.  They  should  be  of  uni- 
form texture,  and  should  ring  when  struck  a  sharp  blow 
with  a  haninier.  The  amount  of  water  absorbed  is  an  index 
of  the  dnraliility  of  brick,  and  the  best  qualities  should  not 
absorl)  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  water  af- 
ter seven  days"  immei-sion.  The  higher  the  specific  gravity 
the  better  is  the  quality  of  the  brick,  as  a  general  rule. 


Fig. 


Morand  brick-machine. 


764: 


BRICK,   ARCHEOLOGY  OF 


BRIDGE 


The  compressive  strength  of  brick  is  extremely  variable. 
A  mean  value  may  be  stated  at  '2,oOO  lli.  per  square  inch,  but 
soft  brick  will  scarcely  bear  more  than  one-tenth  of  this, 
while  the  best  pressed  brick  will  stand  7,000  Iti.  per  square 
inch,  or  more.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  the  durability  of  brick 
increases  with  both  its  tensile  and  compressive  strength. 
Compressive  tests  of  brick  are  not  easily  made  so  as  to  give 
reliable  results,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  specimens 
with  surfaces  truly  parallel.  Tests  for  transverse  or  flexural 
strength  are  easier  to  make,  and  in  general  more  satisfactory. 
These  can  well  be  executed  by  supporting  the  middle  of  the 
brick  upon  a  fixed  bar  as  a  fulcrum,  and  hanging  stirrups 
upon  the  ends  to  support  a  barrel  for  carrying  the  loads. 
Let  I  be  the  length  of  the  brick  from  the  center  of  one  stir- 
rup to  that  of  "the  other,  b  the  breadth  and  d  the  depth  of 
the  brick,  and  11' the  load  which  is  placed  in  the  barrel  to 
cause  rupture.     Then  if  S  be  computed  from  the  formula 


S  = 


•API 
bd^' 


this  gives  the  quantity  called  the  modulus  of  rupture.  If 
b,  d,  and  /  be  taken  in  inches,  and  P  be  in  pounds,  then  S  is 
in  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  higher  the  value  of  this 
the  better,  other  things  being  equal,  is  the  brick. 

The  following  arc  the  average  results  of  souie  of  the  tests 
made  ujion  different  qualities  of  brick  used  in  the  arch  lining 
of  the  Vosburg  tunnel  on  the  Leiiigh  Valley  R.  R.  The 
compressive  strengths  here  given  are  comparative  only  as 


MAKER  AND 

NUMBKR  OF 

TESTS. 

Class. 

Per  cent,  of 

water  absorbed 

to  original 

weight. 

CompressiTe  strength, 
pounds  per  E<1.  inch. 

Modului  of 
mpture, 

pounds  per 
sq.  inch. 

€.,  31  tests.  \ 
r:.,  50  tests.  - 

Very  hard. 

Hard 

Medium . . . 
Verv  liard. 

Hard 

Medium . . . 
Soft 

lS-6 
13-6 

\7-i 
G-4 
1.5-4 
18-9 
22-2 

Clicked. 

823 
1,408 

79.5 
3.870 
1,960 
2,695 
1,102 

Crushed. 
3.060 
2,541 
1.274 
5,537 
3,063 
4,287 
2,205 

445 
530 
290 
1,588 
893 
Wl 
2G9 

they  were  made  in  a  wheel  press  which  gave  a  shock  to  each 
brick  as  the  stress  was  applied.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  bricks  began  to  crack  uudcr  about  one-half  the 
stress  which  caused  final  rupture. 

The  paving-brick  used  in  Western  cities  is  made  of  fire- 
clay containing  about  69  per  cent,  silica,  l.i  per  cent,  alu- 
mina, 5  per  cent,  of  water  cheuiieally  combined,  3  per  cent. 
lime,  2-5  per  cent,  iron,  and  2-.5  per"  cent,  magnesia.  Such 
brick  is  serai-vitrified,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  over  2,  is  very 
tough,  and  often  makes  a  good  pavement  for  light  traffic. 
The  Ijest  qualities  of  such  brick  will  absorb  less  than  5  per 
cent,  of  their  weight  of  water  after  ten  days'  immersion.  The 
following  are  mean  results  of  a  few  tests  of  paving-briek  for 
absorption,  made  by  C.  P.  Chase  in  1890,  and  also  for  com- 


NAME. 

Specific 
gravity. 

PER  CENT.   OF  ABSORPTION 
AFTER— 

Three  days. 

Five  days. 

Ten  days. 

Ottawa.  Ill        

2-35 
2-28 
2  27 
2-24 
207 
1-82 

3-11 
1-62 

2  56 
4-46 
2-68 
1513 

3-44 

1-79 
2  78 
4-58 
304 
1606 

401 

1-84 
2g3 
4-62 
318 
16-50 

Clintou.  la 

Galesburg,  111 

Barddlph,  III 

parison  results  for  a  common  red  brick.  It  is  stated  that 
the  percentage  of  absorptiun  varied  almost  directlv  with  tlie 
degree  of  vitrification.  'I'he  average  compressive  strength 
of  i)aving-briek  is  about  7,000  \h.  per  square  inch,  but  some 
varieties  tested  have  given,  for  small  specimens  cut  from  the 
brick,  results  as  high  as  10.000  and  12,000  lb.  ]>er  square  inch. 
See  the  articles  Mason-kv  and  Pavkmk.vts  ;  also  Baker's 
Mnmnnj  Vomfruction  (l.si)l),  and.  on  the  manufacture  of 
brick,  several  discussions  in  Tmnmclimia  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers  for  ,lune,  1888. 

Revised  by  Mansfield  Merrimax. 
IJrick.  Archaeology  of:  The  use  of  clav  as  a  building 
material,  in  the  form  of  bricks  dried  in  the  sun  or  kiln-liurnt 
dates  from  the  carlie 
Euphrates  vallev,  but 
3;  Ex.  i.  14;  v. '7,  8). 

posed  by  Mariette  to  be  the  oldest'in  Egvpt,  and  attributed 
by  Miuspero  to  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties  (more  than  3,000 


lu  oi-ichs  (iriea  in  iiie  sun  or  Kiin-ournt, 
lest  antiijuity,  not  only  in  the  Tigris- 
it  ill  Egypt  and  other  countries  (Gen.  xi. 
.     The  great  pyramid  of  Sakarah,  sup- 


years  B.C.),  is  of  brick,  as  are  many  other  lesser  pyramids. 
Sun-dried  brick  was  used  by  Osirtasen  III.  (twelfth  draasty) 
in  his  fortresses  at  Koummeh  and  Semneh.  and  by  later  mon- 
archs  for  the  circuit-walls  of  their  temples,  while  burnt  bricks 
served  for  the  construction  of  dams,  dikes,  granaries,  and 
other  public  works. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  brick  was  practicallv 
the  only  building  material,  sun-dried  brick  forming  the 
whole  mass  of  the  enormous  terraces  and  thick  walls  of 
AssjTian  and  Chalda-an  architecture.  Scarcity  of  fuel  in 
Assyria  compelled  an  economy  in  the  use  of  burnt  brick, 
which  was  less  pressing  in  Ch;ildita,  where  some  even  of  the 
most  ancient  teiTaces,  as  at  Warkah  and  JIugheir,  are  faced 
with  enameled  or  glazed  bricks  of  brilliant  colors.  To  pre- 
serve these  enormous  clay  mounds  from  destruction  by  the 
infiltrations  of  rain-water,  they  were  provided  with  elaborate 
drains,  which  offer  us  some  of  the  earliest  examples  of  arched 
construction.  They  were  built  without  centerings  by  in- 
genious processes  still  in  vogue  in  those  regions,  and  their 
decay  accounts  for  the  rain  of  the  terraces  and  palaces  above 
them.  It  was  customary  to  stamp  the  bricks  with  the  name 
of  the  reigning  monarch,  a  fact  of  the  greatest  service  in 
arclueological  invest  igat  ions. 

The  Romans,  however,  deserve  the  credit  of  the  greatest 
advances  in  the  use  of  brick,  which  was  by  them  very  gener- 
ally employed  to  face  their  concrete  masonry,  tlie  facings 
being  first  built  and  the  spaces  between  filled  with  concrete 
or  beton.  The  Roman  vaulting  was  of  concrete,  poured  upon 
a  skeleton  of  brick  ribs,  or  over  a  thin  shell  of  flat  tiles  laid 
edge  to  edge  upon  the  centerings.  Brick  thus  played  a  large 
part  in  the  development  of  Roman  arcliitecture.  The  By- 
zantine architects  also  used  brick  as  a  material  of  construc- 
tion, occasionally  allowing  it  to  appear  externally  in  red 
bands  alternating  with  bands  of  stone,  a  practice  afterward 
copied  by  the  AraVi  architects  of  Cairo.  In  the  Sliddle  Ages 
brick  fell  into  genei'al  disuse,  the  settling  of  brick  masonry 
and  the  massiveness  it  requires  making  it  undesirable  for 
the  lofty  vaulted  stractures  of  the  Gothic  architects,  with 
their  striving  after  slenderness  and  general  lightness  in  the 
sujjporting  masses.  In  Lombardy,  however,  and  in  Venice, 
it  found  more  favor,  and  the  use  of  teiTa-cotta  in  conjunction 
with  brick  supplied  the  element  of  grace  and  elegance  other- 
wise lacking. 

In  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Mexico,  adobe,  a  species  of 
unburnt  brick,  was  used,  not  only  by  the  Spaniards  but  by 
the  Pueblos  and  other  native  races  long  lief  ore  the  advent 
of  the  Spaniards.  Excellent  bricks  are  found  in  Peru,  and 
the  Chinese  and  the  people  of  India  and  Persia  have  also 
shown  high  skill  both  in  the  making  and  in  the  artistic  use 
of  plain  and  enameled  or  glazed  bricks. 

A.  D.  P.  Hamlin. 

Bridge,  John  Frederick  :  musician :  b.  in  Oldbury, 
Worcestershire.  England,  Dec.  .5.  1844:  educated  first  liy 
his  father,  and  then  by  Mr.  Hopkins,  of  Rochester  cathedral ; 
studied  composition  tinder  Sir  John  Goss.  His  first  ajipoint- 
ment  was,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  as  organist  of  Trinity 
cliurch.  Windsor.  In  1868  he  took  the  degree  of  Mus.  Bac. 
at  Oxford;  in  1869  was  appointed  organist  of  JIanchester 
cathedral ;  in  1874  took  the  Mus.  Doc.  degree  at  Oxford,  for 
which,  as  a  degree  exercise,  he  wrote  the  oratorio  3/ounf 
Moriah.  He  was  then  appointed  deputy  cu-ganist  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  on  the  death  of  James  Turle  became  full 
organist.  His  next  work  was  the  cantata  Boadicen,  followed 
by  a  setting  of  the  Hi/mn  of  Sf.  Prancis  d'Assisi.  For  the 
Birmingham  festival  of  1885  he  set  Gladstone's  Latin  ver- 
sion of  Pock  of  Af/es,  as  a  motet  for  baritone  solo  and  chorus. 
At  the  Queen's  jubilee  in  1886  he  composed  the  jubilee 
anthem,  by  royal  command.  His  oratorio  The  Pepenianre 
of  Nineveh  was  composed  for  the  Worcester  festival  of  1890, 
and  the  cantata  CalUrhoe.  for  the  Biriningham  festival  of 
1888.  For  (he  Gloucester  feslivtd  of  1892  he  comjiosed  a 
short  cantata  on  Dante's  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
in  the  Puryettorlo.  canto  xi.  Dr.  Bridge's  church  music  is 
very  much  in  favnr.  .•iiid  he  has  also  written  some  very  fine 
songs,  part-songs,  and  madrigals,  both  for  male  and  mixed 
voices.  "  D.  E.  Hervey. 

Bridgre,  Joseph  Cox :  musician  ;  brother  of  Dr.  John 
Frederick  Bridge;  b.  in  Rochester,  England,  Aug.  16.  18.53; 
chorister  and  subsecpiently  assistant  organist  at  the  cathe- 
dral ;  studied  under  his  brotlier  and  John  Hopkins,  and 
took  the  degrees  B.  A.  187.5,  Mus.  Bac.  1876,  M.  A.  1878, 
and  Mus.  Doc.  1879,  from  Oxford;  ajipointed  organist  of 
Cliester  cathedral  in  1879,  where  he  still  remains;  revived 


BRIDGE,  MAGNETIC 


BRIDGES 


T65 


.the  Chester  music  festival  in  1870,  and  at  tlie  festival  of 
1885  |)ri)(liiceil  liis  oratorio  Daniel,  lie  is  the  conduetor  of 
several  societies  at  Chester  ami  Brailfonl.  His  eompositioiis 
are  chiefly  for  the  church.  ]).  E.  IIervev. 

BridtfP,  Magriu'tic :  a  device  for  the  aiiplicatioii  of  the 
priiuiph'  of  Wheatstone's  bridge  (see  Bridge,  Wueatstone's) 
to  the  iniasurement  of  iiiugnetic  resistances.  See  also  Mag- 
netism OF  llioX. 

IJrid^-e.  Whciitsloiio's:  See  \Viikatstoxe"s  Bkidok. 

Bridye  of  .Vlliiu:  town  of  Stirlingshire,  Scotland;  so 
named  from  the  bridge  across  the  river  Allan,  which  bounds 
it  on  the  W. ;  situated  at  the  southern  base  of  the  western 
termination  of  the  Oehil  Hills  (see  nnip  of  Scotland,  ref. 
11-G).  Pop.  3,.500.  It  has  several  elegant  churehes,  fine 
liotels.  and  numerous  lodging-houses.  About  oO.OOO  visitoi"s 
freipieril  it  ainuially  on  account  of  its  mineral  walei's  and 
mild  and  salul)rious  climate. 

l{ridg('i)orf :  a  city,  custom-house  port,  and  important 
raiboad  and  commercial  center ;  one  of  the  county-seats  of 
Fairfield  eo.,  Conn,  (for  location,  see  map  of  Connecticut, 
ref.  12-E).  The  townsliip  Wiis  founded  in  1831,  and  the 
city  charter  granted  in  1836.  It  is  situiited  on  an  inlet  of 
Long  Island  Sound:  at  the  mouth  of  Pequonnoek  river, 
which  is  bridged  in  manv  places;  .58  miles  X.  E.  of  New 
York  and  18  miles  W.  S.  \V.  of  New  Haven;  lat41°  10'  30' 
X..  Ion.  7-V  11  4H'  \V.  It  has  lines  of  steamboats  connect- 
ing it  wilh  Xew  York,  and  a  small  steamer jilving  between 
it  and  Port  .lelferson,  L.  I.  It  is  on  the  X.  Y.,  X.  II.  and 
II.  R.  R.,  and  is  a  terminus  of  the  Xaugatuek  aiul  the 
Housat<inic  R.  Rs.  It  now  (18!)-i)  has  an  area  of  nearly  15 
sij.  miles,  including  East  Bridgeport  (or  the  part  east  of  the 
Peiiuonnock  river),  and  HIack  Rock  at  the  other  side  of  the 
city.  Black  Rock  harbor  is  a  favorite  stoi)ping-place  for 
yachting  s(piadrons,  and  will  accommodate  large  ves,sels. 
Bridgeport  has  a  fine  seliool  system;  a  large  and  well-man- 
aged public  lilirary  (richly  endowed  liy  private  becjuest); 
a  scientilie  society,  havinga fine  collection  of  Indian  relics; 
historical  society,  hospital,  orphan  asylum,  energetic  board 
of  trade,  and  other  public  institutions  and  societies.  There 
are  many  large  and  beautiful  buildings,  among  which  are 
I'.  S.  post-offlce  and  custom-house.  Y.  M.  C.  .V.  Ijuilding,  the 
Barinim  .Memorial  Institute  (bequeathed  to  the  Scientific  and 
llistiiric.'il  Societies),  and  the  Fairlield  County  court-house. 
It  has  three  fine  parks,  of  which  Seasiiie  park  has  a  sea-wall 
and  shore-drive  2  miles  long.  Here  is  a  statue  of  Elias 
Howe,  the  inventor  of  the  sewing-machine. 

Industrifit. — According  to  the  U.S.  census  report  for  1890 
it  is  the  chief  manufacturing  city  in  the  .State,  having  555 
industrial  establishments  with  a  "capital  of  :jl!),0i)4.1S(),  giv- 
ing employment  to  12.7G:i  persons,  and  paying  in  wages 
annually  ^T,4!I2.0;»2.  The  cost  of  tiie  nuitcrials  emploved  is 
^10,lT;i."212,  and  the  value  of  the  product  !j;31.83!),77(i."  The 
assi'sse  1  valuation  in  18i)U  was  .|;3 1  ,!)43,283.  The  industri<s 
which  are  especially  noteworthy  are  the  manufacture  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  corsets,  sewing-nuurhines,  hai'dware, 
articles  of  aluminium  and  aluminium  bronze,  articles  of 
brass,  and  forging.  Here  is  a  large  grain  elevator.  The 
city  has  an  ample  water-supply,  electric  lights  and  ga.slight 
system,  and  such  other  equipments  as  are  necessary  for  an 
enter|)rising  nuinufacluring  and  commercial  city.  Pop. 
(1870)  before  the  annexation  of  Black  Rock,  a  part  of  Fair- 
field. 18.!»6y;  (1880)  27,643 ;  (1890)  48,866  :  (18!):!)  estimated, 
55.(100.  Editor  of  "  Evkxixg  Pcst." 

Britlge|»()rt :  railroail  junction;  Belmont  co.,  0.  (for  lo- 
cation of  countv,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  .5-1) ;  on  the  Ohio 
river,  opposite  \Vheeling.  with  whicli  it  is  ccmnected  bv  a 
bridge.     Pop.  (1880)  2,3!)5;  (1890)  3.369. 

Bridgers  Pass:  a  defile  in  the  Rocky  Mountains;  in 
the  south  partof  the  State  of  Wyoming.  The  overland  mail 
route  passed  through  it  before  the  Pacific  R.  R.  was  opened. 
It  is  "a  narrow  gallery,  walled  by  noble  precipices  of  red 
granite  and  metamorphic  sandstone,  rising  directly  from 
the  traveler's  side  to  the  almost  perpendicular  height  of 
from  1. 11(10  to  2..500  feet,  and  is  several  miles  in  length." 

BridiTos:  A  bridge  is  a  structure  spanning  a  valley,  river, 
or  other  space,  and  intended  to  serve  for  the  passage  of 
men,  animals,  or  vehicles.  The  most  obvious  and  simple 
bridge  is  a  tree  thrown  across  the  stream,  and  hence,  says 
Rankine,  '•the  first  man  who  bridged  a  torrent  with  a  fallen 
tree  had  in  him  something  of  the  engineer."  .Another  [>riini- 
tive  method,  practieeil  in  some  mountainous  regions  of 
South  America,  and  alsn  in  (')iiii.i.  i~  the  sus[)ousion  of  a 


rope  across  a  stream,  to  which  a  hammock  is  so  hung  that 
it  can  be  drawn  across  from  shore  to  shore  ;  these  are  uuide 
of  such  stability  that  even  nudes  are  carried  over  in  the  ham- 
mocks. The  fallen  tree  is  the  prototype  of  the  modern 
girder,  or  truss  briilge,  and  the  rope  is  tiie  germ  from  whicli 
the  suspension  bridge  has  been  developed.  Pontoons,  or 
floating  assemblages  of  boats,  were  constructed  bv  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  and  in  modern  times  are  of  much  use  in 
military  operations.     See  Bridges,  Mieitakv. 

A  bri<lge  consists  of  a  substructure  and  a  supei'Structure, 
the  former  being  the  abutments  and  piers,  which  are  usuallv 
of  masonry,  and  the  latter  Ijeing  the  tind)eror  metal  frame- 
work which  is  su|)porteil  by  them.  There  may  be  two  abut- 
ments and  one  span  of  a  superstructure,  while  for  two  spans 
an  intermediati-  pier  is  riKpiired.  The  numljerof  spans  and 
l>iei-s  will  be  determined  in  any  given  case  by  local  condi- 
tions, the  general  problem  being  to  devise  such  an  arrange- 
ment that  the  total  cost  maybe  the  least  po.ssible.  .\s  a 
rough  rule  it  may  be  said  that  the  greatest  economy  will  lie 
attained  when  the  cost  of  the  substructure  is  eipial  to  the 
cost  of  the  superstructure.  'I'he  methoils  of  constructing 
piers  and  abut inenls  are  described  in  the  articles  For.viiA- 
Tio.N  and  Masonry,  while  here  the  .sui)erstructure,  or  bridge 
proper,  receives  chief  attention. 

Britlge  structures  are  formed  of  arches  springing  from 
one  abutment  to  another,  or  of  trusses  aiul  girdei-s  resting 
upon  the  abutments,  or  of  chains  (U'  cables  suspended  from 
towers.  Thus  arises  the  funchuncntal  clas-^ification  into 
arch  bridges,  truss  bridges,  and  suspension  briilges.  But 
before  considering  the  different  forms  under  each  of  these 
cla.ssi^s  an  historical  review  of  their  development  is  jierhaps 
best  secured  by  dividing  them  into  stone,  timber,  and  iron 
structures.  Truss  bridges  are  far  more  numerous  at  the 
present  day  than  any  other  form,  and  these  may  be  built  as 
fixed  inde|:en(lcnt  siiaus,  as  continuous  over  several  spans, 
a.s  drawbridges,  and  as  cantilever  structm-es.  The  articles 
Fi.EXfRE.  Moment,  Stresses,  and  .Strexgth  of  Materials 
deal  with  some  of  the  mechanical  principles  emjiloycd  in 
the  computation  and  design  of  bridges. 

The  total  length  of  a  bridge  is  an  index  of  its  magnitude, 
but  the  length  of  its  greatest  span  more  often  indicates  the 
dilliculty  of  its  con.sl ruction  and  its  rank  as  an  eiigiiu'cring 
work.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  total  lengths  of  several 
of  the  longest  and  most  important  bridges  of  the  world: 

Feet. 

New  Tay  bridge.  Scot  land 1 0.780 

Ohio  river  bridge.  Cairo,  III 10.560 

Forth  bridge,  Scotland 8,295 

Jlissouri  river  bridge,  Kansas  City,  Mo 7.633 

Poughkce]isie  bri<lge.  N.  Y 6.770 

Vi<-toria  bridge.  Montreal,  Canada 6..520 

New  Susipielianna  bridge.  Havre  de  Grace.  Md..  6.315 

East  rivei-  bridge.  .NcwYork 5,989 

Cincinnati  and  New]iort  bridge,  Ohio  river 5.925 

Cincinnati  and  Covington  bridge,  Ohio  river  . . .  5.:i60 

Rapperswyl  bridge.  Lake  Zurich .5.:i33 

Ohio  river  bridge,  Louisville,  Ky 5,280 

In  general,  these  lengths  in<'lude  ma.-ionry  or  viaduct  ap- 
proaches as  well  as  the  main  spiuis.  In  the  following  de- 
scription of  briilges  of  different  classes  tlio.se  of  longest  span 
an<l  of  the  greatest  importance  as  engiiu'ering  con.st ructions 
at  the  time  of  their  erection  will,  as  a  rule,  receive  principal 
attention. 

Stone  Bridges. — These  were  fii'st  constructed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, aiul  eiglit  <iver  the  river  Tiber  are  described  in  history. 
Ruins  of  bridge  structures  are  now  found  in  different  jiarts 
of  the  ancient  Roman  empire.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
bridge  of  Alcantara  u|ion  the  Tagus  still  remains  as  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  uuisonry  construction.  It  had  six  arches,  the  whole 
length  being  670  Sjianish  feet,  and  the  roadway  being  205 
feet  abovi'  the  bottom  of  the  river.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
there  existed  a  fraternity  known  as-'Brothei-s  of  the  Bridge," 
originallv  formed  to  secure  the  side  ]iass)ige  of  travelers  over 
rivers,  wliich  erected  many  stone  bridges  in  France.  The 
fii-st  stone  bridge  in  Londim  was  begun  in  1176  by  Peter  of 
Coleehurch.  a  |n-iest.  and  its  construction  occupied  thirty- 
three  ycjii's  ;  it  had  nineteen  arches  of  small  span,  with  very 
wide  piers.  Few  important  structures  were  built,  however, 
from  the  time  of  the  Konuin  decadeiU'C  until  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  Westminster  bridge  completed 
in  17.50  ha<l  fifteen  spans,  the  largest  being  an  arch  of  76  feet 
width.  The  finest  of  the  earlier  French  bridges  is  that  by 
Perronct,  over  the  Seine  at  Neuilly.  complitirl  in  1774.     It 


766 


BRIDGES 


consists  of  five  arches,  each  128  feet  in  span  and  32  feet  rise. 
The  soffits  of  the  arches  are  constructed  of  a  conoidal  form, 
perhaps  to  allow  the  easy  passage  of  water  in  times  of  flood. 
Other  stone  bridges  are  mentioned  in  the  article  Arch. 


Fig.  1.— Perronet's  bridge  at  Neuilly,  1774. 

Culverts  are  small  masonry  bridges  which  allow  the  pas- 
sage of  streams  through  embankments.     Excluding  these, 
comparatively  few  stone  bridges  will  be  found  on  the  rail- 
roads in  the  U.  S.     The  Black  Rock  tunnel  bridge,  built  in 
1836  by  Moncure  Robinson,  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Read- 
ing R.  R.,  has  five  arches  of  73  feet  span  and  16^  feet  rise. 
The  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  has  a  number  of  stone  bridges  on 
its  line  between  llarrisburg  and  Pittsburg,  some  of  which 
have  spans  of  nearly   100  feet.     The  cheapness  of  timber 
during  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  and  the  great 
development  of  iron 
bridge    construction 
since,  have  prevented 
the    erection  of  the 
more     costly    stone 
structures.     As  it  is 
found,  however,  that 
the     life     of      iron 
bridges  is  much  less 
than  was  at  first  sup- 
posed, stone  bridges 
are     now    regarded 
with   more  favor  on 
account  both  of  durability  and  expense   of   maintenance. 

Timber  Bridges. — The  oldest  wooden  bridge  on  record  is 
the  pons  sulilicius  which  was  built  at  Rome  across  the  Tiber, 
631  B.C.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  combat  of  Horatius  Codes, 
a  Roman  knight,  who  saved  the  city  by  his  noljle  defense  of 
this  bridge.  The  viovAsublicius  is  believed  to  imply  wooden 
piers  or  piles.  We  have  no  satisfactory  description  of  this 
structure,  or  of  other  ancient  bridges,  until  5.5  b.  c,  when 
Caesar  constructed  a  trestle  or  pile  bridge  across  the  Rhine 
near  Bonn,  the  following  account  of  which  is  given  in  his 
Com  meiitaries : 

"  Timbers  of  a  foot  and  a  half  thickness,  sharpened  at  the 
foot,  and  of  a  length  corresponding  to  the  depth  of  the  river, 
were  assembled  in  couples,  allowing  an  interval  of  2  feet 
between  them.  Thus  united  by  means  of  suitable  appara- 
tus, they  were  let  down  into  the  water,  not  vertically  like 
ordinary  piles,  but  inclined  in  the  direction  of  the  current. 
and  thus  driven.  Another  couple  with  opposite  inclination 
was  then  fixed  (or  driven)  40  feet  below  the  fii-st.  These 
double  pieces,  thus  disposed,  received  at  their  extremity  a 
beam  of  2  feet  thickness,  which  filled  the  interval  between 
the  pieces  of  each  pair,  and  which  was  thus  supported  at 
each  end  by  double  ties.  This  framework  composed  of  pieces 
inclined  in  opposing  directions,  strongly  connected  with  each 


the  assemblage.  After  making  a  number  of  similar  struc- 
tures, placed  at  equal  distances  and  extending  from  shore  to 
shore,  a  continuous  flooring  was  added  composed  of  beams 
covered  with  fascines.     Besides  these  arrangements  inclined 

(brace)  piles  were  driv- 
en on  the  lower  side 
and  connected  with  the 
rest  of  the  work,  form- 
ing a  whole  capable  of 
resisting  the  greatest 
impetuosity  of  the  cur- 
rent." 

This  description  clear- 
ly indicates  a  trestle 
bridge  composed  of  bents  protected  by  fenders.  The  cut 
is  one  of  Rondelet's  "restorations"  of  this  interesting  struc- 
ture ;  its  length  was  probably  about  1,800  feet,  and  Ca?sar 
says  that  ten  days  were  occupied  in  its  construction. 

The  longest  timber  span  on  record  was  built  about  1760 
by  Ulric  and  John  Grubenmann,  over  the  Limmat  river, 
near  Baden.  Its  span  was  366  feet,  without  intermediate 
support.  This  structure,  like  all  other  wooden  bridges 
erected  before  the  present  century,  was  constructed  with 
little  regard  to  the  principles  of  the  economic  disposition 


Fig.  3.— Grubenmann's  long  timber  bridge. 

of  materials,  although  it  shows  much  skill  in  details  of  car- 
pentry. It  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in  the  campaign 
of  1799.     The  cut  shows  one-half  of  the  span  only. 

The  germs  of  the  theory  of  trusses,  and  the  definite  divi- 
sion of  a  bridge  into  an  upper  chord,  a  lower  chord,  and  in- 
clined web  memliers,  are  seen  in  bridges  erected  by  Theo- 
dore Burr  and  l>y  Timothy  Palmer  early  in  the  present 
century.     Tlie  oldest  bridge  now  standing  in  the  U.  S.  was 


Fig.  a.— Ccesar's  bridge  over  the  Rhine. 


other,  formed  a  very  solid  combination  :  for  the  property  of 
such  a  disposition  of  materials  is  that  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent adds  to  its  stability  by  exerting  a  strong  pressure  on 


Fig.  4.— The  Burr  truss. 


l)uilt  by  Burr  at  Waterford,  X.  Y..  in  1804.  and  consists  of  four 
spans  of  1.54,  161.  176,  and  180  feet  in  the  clear;  the  timber 
is  hewn  yellow  pine.  In  1805  Palmer  built  the  bridge  over 
the  Delaware  river  at  East  on.  Pa.,  which  has  three  spans  of 
163  feet  in  the  clear,  or  195  feet  between  oenters  of  piers; 
this  bridge  is  also  still  in  use.  and  only  aliout  one-sixth  of 
the  original  timber  has  been  renewed.  Palmer  also  built  in 
1H()6  a  bridge  over  the  Schuylkill  at  Philadeli)liia.  known  as 
"  t  he  permanent  liridge,"  which  had  two  side  spans  of  1 50  feet, 
and  a  central  span  of  195  feet.  This  liridge,  like  others  of 
this  period,  was  covered  with  boards  to  protect  the  frame- 
work from  the  weather.  Palmer  was  a  "self-taught  archi- 
tect." of  Xewburyjiort.  Mass.,  but  his  structures  display 
genius  as  well  as  jiractical  knowledge.  Burr's  bridges  are 
likewise  noteworthy.  ]iarticularly  the  one  at  Trenton,  X.  .1., 
having  five  spans,  the  longest  of  203  feet,  and  the  one  at  llar- 
risburg. Pa.,  consisting  of  twelve  spans  of  about  210  feet 
each  ;  a  portion  of  this  last  bridge  is  still  in  use.  Previous 
to  the  year  1816  there  were  fourteen  bridge  patents  issued  by 
the  U.  S.  patent  otfice.  but  the  nature  of  most  of  them  is  un- 
known, as  the  records  were  destroyed  by  fire. 

Thomas  Pope,  "architect  and  landscape  gardener."  ]nih- 
lishcd,  in  New  York  in  ISll,  tlie  first  American  book  on 
bridge  construction,  which,  while  giving  descriptions  of 
numy  European  structures,  is  m.-iiidy  devoted  to  advocating 


BRIDGES 


76( 


a  scheme  of  his  own  en 
antl  whk-h  boUlly  sets 


led  "the  flviiifr  pendant  lever  bridge," 
forth  a   iilaii   lor  a  span  of  1,800  feet 


Fia.  5.— Palmer's  bridge  at  PliiluUelyhia,  1806. 

over  the  lliiilson  river.  The  inventor  gives  his  plan  of  con- 
struction in  great  detail,  together  with  a  view  twice  repeated 
of  the  entire  bridge.  Bnt,  as  it  was  to  be  built  out  from  its 
atnitments  witliout  aid  of  false  works,  he  has  given  a  view 
(Fig.  6)  of  the  half  bridge  thus  projected,  with  the  motto: 

Like  half  a  rainbow  rising  on  yon  sliore 
Wliile  its  twin  partner  spans  llie  semi  o'er 
And  niakfs  a  perfect  whole  that  need  not  part 
Till  time  has  furnished  ua  a  nobler  art. 

I goo.  FX 


Fig.  6.— Thomas  Pope's  flying  bridge. 

The  plan  of  building  out  arms  from  shore  abutments  and 
uniting  them  at  the  middle  is  a  distinctive  feature  of  the 
modern  cantilever  bridge.  Pope  had  the  idea,  but  built  only 
a  model  of  50  feet  span.  It  would  not  l)e  possible,  however, 
to  erect  a  long  span  briilg(^  with  his  details  of  construction. 

In  lS\'i  Lewis  W'ernwag  built  a  bridi^e  called  "the  Colos- 
sus" over  the  Schuylkill  river  at  Fairmounl.  which  had  a 
clear  span  of  :i4l)  feet.  As  its  rise  was  o8  feet,  it  acted  like; 
an  arch  as  well  as  a  truss,  and,  in  fact,  thc'  u|)per  part  of 
one  of  the  abutments  is  said  to  have  moveil  3  or  4  inches 


than  upon  the  clear  recognition  of  thc  function  of  counter 
braces  m  stiffening  the  structure,  "whether  loaded  or  un- 
loaded."   Among  other 
wooden    liridge  trusses 
devisi'd  after  this  time, 
should    be    mentioned 
those  of  Ih'rman  Ilaupt 
(1839)  aiui  ]).{'.  McCal- 
luni(18r)l),  the  latter  of 
which    had    a    curved 
upper   chord    and    the 
cciiniter  braces    so    ar- 
ranged that  the  bridge  could  be  stiffened  by  lengthening 
them  when  it  was  loaded.     Hut  about  this  time  timber  began 
to  give  way  to  iron.     Details  regarding  early  Anieriean  tim- 
ber  bridges  may  be  found  in  Duggan's  jSfone,  Iron,  and 


Fig.  T. — "Wernwag's  Colossus. 


under  the  thrust.  The  double  diagonal  bracing  connecting 
the  upper  ami  lower  chords  shows  that  its  builder  had  i-on- 
sidereillhe  distorting  action  of  moving  loads.  The  lattice 
truss  of  Ithiel  Town,  introduccil  about  18'20,  was  a  form  easy 
to  construct  for  short  spans,  being  made  mostly  of  plank, 
but  its  use  addcil  little  to  the  science  of  bridge  construction. 
In  1830  Col.  S.  II.  Long,  of  the  V .  S.  engineers,  took  out  a 
patent  for  a  truss,  of  which  Fig.  8  shows  one-half  of  thc 
original  drawing  of  the  side  elevation.  In  1830  he  jiublished 
at  Concord.  N.  H.,  a  pamphlet  of  75  pages,  describing  the 
features  of  liis  system.     It  nad  the  great  merit  of  |)roviding 


Fio.  8.— Long's  truss,  lS-10. 

diagonal  counter  braces  to  stitTen  the  truss  under  the  ai'tion 
of  the  moving  load,  and  these  were  fastened  by  wooden  keys 
or  wedges  which  were  made  adjustalile,  so  that  the  structure 
could  be  stiffened  at  any  time.  The  fii-sl  bridge  on  this  ohm 
was  on  the  Washington  roail,  "2^^  miles  from  Baltimore,  wliich 
had  100  bet  span,  and  others  were  oroliably  liuilt  on  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio  K.  U.  Long's  influence  upon  bridgi'  build- 
ing depends  less  upon  bridges  actually  constructed  by  him 


Fig.  9.— McCallum's  truss. 

Wond  Bridges  of  Vniied  Sfiili't  liailrnnds  (Xew  Tork, 
1850).  and  iii  Ilaupt 's  (jnwral  Theurij  of  Bridge  Vonstruc- 
lioii  (New  York,  1851). 

Combination  Bridget. — A  combination  truss  is  one  which 
has  some  members  made  of  timlierand  others  of  iron.  Will- 
iam Howe  in  1840  patented  such  a  bridge,  having  its  chords 
and  diagonal  braces  of  timber,  and  the  vertical  mcmliers  of 
wrought  iron.  The  braces  butt  at  each  end  against  cast-iron 
angle" blocks,  and  the  vertical  ties  have  nuts  at  each  end  so 
that  they  can  lie  firmly  tightened.  This  bridge  liecame  very 
]]opular"on  account  of  facility  of  construction,  satisfactory 
action  under  the  passage  of  loads,  and  cheapness,  and  it  was 
extensively  built  for  highway  and  railway  service.  The  cut 
shows  one-half  of  a  bridge  whose  sjian  is  about  140  feet.  For 
railroad  Ijridgcs  greater  in  si)an  than  this  the  trusses  were 
usually  stiffened  with  arches,  after  the  style  of  the  Bni-r 

bridge.  JVIany  bridges 
were  btiilt  on  the  Howe 
plan  with  spans  of  "200  feet 
or  more,  thie  of  the  most 
iKjtable  was  the  liridse  on 
the  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more ami  Wilmington 
B.  R.  over  the  Susquehan- 
na river  at  1 1  avi-e  de  G  race, 
which  was  completed  in  1850.  This  had  a  total  length  of 
about  3..5(H)  feet,  there  being  thirteen  spans  of  '250  feet  each, 
and  a  dra.w  span  of  17G  feet.  The  construction  of  this  bridge 
occupied  five  years,  and  its  cost  was  nearlv  iti'J.OOO.OOO.  The 
figure  shows  an  elevation  of  the  drawbridge  and  of  one  of 


Fig.  10.— The  Howe  truss,  1840. 

the  fixed  spans.  Most  of  the  Howe  truss  bridges  in  the 
Eastern  ana  Jliddle  States  have  been  reiilaced  by  iron  struc- 
tures, but  numbers  of  llicm  arc  fo\uid  in  the  Soulhcru  ami 


ISEHSS 

i|im|iMi;ii 

1 

"Tj 

[                               A 

L-— > 

4---! 

m 

\^  —^—"^— •■""•• ■ 

Fig.  11.— Havre  de  Grace  bridge,  1850. 

Western  States,  and  they  are  still  frequently  built  in  locali- 
ties where  I  imber  is  cheap.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  U.  S.. 
however,  iron  bridges  arc  cheaper  for  .spans  of  over  150  feet, 
and  I  hey  are  not  only  of  longer  life  under  natural  wear,  but 
are  far  less  liable  to  decay  and  to  destruction  by  fire. 

In  1844  Thomas  W.  anil  Caleb  Pratt  patcnteda  truss  hav- 


res 


BKIDGES 


ing  the  upper  and  Imver  chords  and  the  vertical  posts  of 
timber,  while  all  the  inclined  members,  except  the  two  end 
ones,  were  made  of  adjustable  iron  rods.  A  skeleton  dia- 
gram of  the  Pratt  truss  closely  resembles  one  of  the  Howe 
truss,  yet  the  jirinciple  of  transmission  of  the  stresses  and 
the  details  of  construction  are  quite  different.  As  a  com- 
biuation  bridge  it  never  attained  a  popularity  equal  to  that 


Fio.  13.— The  Pratt  truss. 


of  the  Howe,  as  its  methods  of  connecting  the  timber  and 
iron  members  are  quite  complicated.  Soon  after  ISoO,  how- 
ever, it  began  to  be  constructed  entirely  in  iron,  and  in  this 
form  has  "probably  been  more  extensively  built  than  any 
other  one  kind  of  truss.  The  Howe  truss,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  not  well  ailapte<l  for  construction  wholly  in  iron,  and  but 
few  were  ever  lun'lt.  'Jlie  ill-fated  Ashtabula  bridge,  which 
failed  Dec.  29. 1876.  causing  the  death  of  about  ninety  pcrson.s, 
was  an  iron  Howe  truss  of  1.54  feet  span. 

Metallic  Bridges. — Cast  iron  was  employed  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  the  construction  of  se\'- 
cral  arched  bridges  in  England  (see  Arch).  Owing  to  the 
cheapness  of  timber  in  America,  iron  was  little  uscil  prior  to 
1850.  the  first  iron  bridge  erected  being  in  1840  over  the 
Erie  Canal.  This  had  cast-iron  girders,  whicli  were  strength- 
ened by  wrought-iron  suspension  rods,  and  the  span  was 
about  77  feet.  In  the  same  year  Squire  Whipple  built  a 
truss  with  curved  upper  chord  of  Ciist  iron  and  a  straight 
lower  chord  of  wrought  iron,  forming  ^yhat  is  now  called 
the  bowstring  truss.  A  number  of  these  with  spans  of  100 
feet  and  over  were  luult  in  subsequent  years.  A  truss  in- 
vented by  Wendell  Bollman  and  another  by  Albert  Fink 
were  introdncea  soon  after  1850,  and  extensively  built  in 
Maryland.  r)hi(i.  and  westward;  these  had  chords  and  posts 
of  cast  iron,  and  tension  rods  of  wrought  iron.  Fig.  13 
shows  part  of  tlie  old  bridge  between  Louisville.  Ky.,  and 
Xew  Albany,  Ind..  where  several  Fink  trusses  are  seen,  the 
long  channel  span  licing  a  Warren  truss  with  auxiliary  ver- 
ticals inserted.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Fink  truss  has  a 
pair  of  long  tension  rods  running  from  the  abutments  to  the 


INDIANA       CHANNEL 


Fig.  13.— Louisville  bridge,  18C9. 

foot  of  the  central  post,  then  each  half  span  is  subdivided 
by  a  post  to  whosi!  foot  a  shorter  pair  of  rods  are  connected. 
and  so  on  with  smaller  divisions,  thus  forming  a  structure 
without  a  lower  chord.  It  has  not  proved  an  economical 
truss,  and  could  not  l)c  used  for  long  spans,  so  that  now  it 
is  rarely  or  never  built. 

In  1853  Sciuirc  AVhippIe  built  near  Troy,  X.  Y.,  a  railroad 
bridge  of  146  feet  clear  span,  the  top  c'hord  and  posts  being 
of  east  iron,  and  the  lower  chord  and  diagonal  rods  of 
wrought  iron.  This  is  the  Pratt  type,  with  a  double  system 
of  posts  and  dia,goiials.  \isually  called  a  double  intersection 
truss,  or  more  often  a  Whipple  truss.  This  form  has  been 
cxtensividy  used  in  wrnughl  iron,  particidarly  for  long 
spans,  until  about  1885.  when  it  began  to  go  out  of  use. 
Figs.  18  and  22  show  the  Whipple  truss,  and  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  by  its  use  the  panel  lengths  can  be  made  sliorter 
than  in  IIk^  Pratt  form  of  Fig.  12,  with  the  same  inclination 
of  diagonals.  This  is  advantageous  in  lessening  the  cost  of 
the  floor  system,  and  the  truss  is  only  going  out  of  use  be- 
cause other  methods  of  securing  the  same  results  have  been 
devised. 

The  forms  of  trusses  which  had  been  used  for  eomliina- 
tion  brid.ses,  and  for  compound  structures  of  cast  and 
wrought  iron,  suffered  more  or  less  modification  when 
wrought  iron  alone  came  to  be  employed,  and  some  of 
these  will  receive  mention  below.  The  tbiwe  tru.ss.  as  an 
iron  structure,  pnivi'cl  an  unceonornical  and  inconveiueiit 
arrangement,  not  withstanding  its  gi'eal  success  as  a  comlii- 
nation  briilge.  while  the  Pratt  truss,  wliich  was  little  built 
in  wood  anil  iron,  proved  admirably  achqited  for  the  \ise  of 
wrought-iron  corniections.     Under  the  sharp  comjietition  of 


bridge-builders  every  advantage  that  theory  could  indicate 
or  that  experience  could  suggest  was  seized  upon  to  render 
structures  both  safe  and  economical. 

Cast  iron  did  not  prove  a  satisfactory  material  for  rail- 
road liridges  on  account  of  its  liability  to  faihn-e  under  re- 
peated stresses  and  sudden  shocks.  As  we  have  seen,  wrought 
iron  was  emiiloyed  for  tensile  members  in  the  first  American 
bridges,  but  it  was  not  until  1863  that  a  structure  wholly  of 
wrought  iron  was  built.  This  was  a  bridge  for  the  Lehigh 
Valley  K.  R.  at  Mauch  Chunk.  Pa.,  ami  eve?i  in  this  east- 
iron  joint  details  were  employed.  After  this  date  the  use 
of  wmught  iron  increased  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  the 
present  time  Ciist  iron  would  not  be  alloweil  except  for 
highway  bridges  of  short  span  and  light  trafiic.  Standard 
specifications  for  railroad  bridges  forbid  the  use  of  cast  iron 
even  for  small  joint  blocks  and  bridge  seats,  although  such 
are  often  allowed  for  highway  structures. 

Steel  as  a  material  for  bridge  construction  Ijegan  to  be 
used  about  1870,  the  fir.st  extensive  ajiplicatidn  being  in  the 
great  St.  Louis  arches  in  1873,  and  later  in  tlie  trusses  of  the 
suspension  bridge  over  the  East  river  between  New  York 
and  Brooklyn.  It  is  now  extensively  used  in  the  form  of 
plates  for  floor  beams  and  of  eye  bars  for  the  tensile  mem- 
bers, and  many  entire  bridges  have  been  made  of  mild  steel, 
the  mechanical  properties  of  which  do  not  greatly  differ 
from  those  of  wrought  iron.  As  steel  is  stronger  than 
wrought  iron,  and  qualities  of  suitable  ductility  and  resili- 
ence can  now  be  readily  obtained  at  about  the  same  cost  per 
pound,  its  use  is  steadily  increasing. 

Chmsificuiion. — In  dealing  with  the  subject  from  an  his- 
torical point  of  view,  and  in  tracing  the  development  of  dif- 
ferent forms,  a  classification  of  bridges  ihto  stone,  timber, 
and  metallic,  such  as  is  given  above,  is  very  useful.  But  a 
comjirehensive  survey  must  include  a  division  according  to 
the  i)rinciplcs  employed  in  their  conslructinn.  It  is  true 
that  some  structures  exist  in  which  the  principles  are  so 
condjined  that  their  classification  is  quite  difficult,  but  it 
has  been  found  as  a  general  rule  that  composite  systems  are 
not  economically  advantageous,  and  the  tendency  has  long 
been  toward  simplicity  of  arrangement  under  forms  which 
are  capable  of  definite  com]>utation.  For  instance.  Fig.  11 
shows  an  arch  combined  witli  a  truss,  an  old  arrangement 
wdiich  is  now  universally  abandoned  cxcciit  as  a  temporary 
expedient,  for  it  is  quite  impossible  to  detei-mine  what  pro- 
portions of  the  load 
are  carried  by  the  two 
d liferent  systems. 

The     three     broad 

I  iiiidamcntal     princi' 

plrs      under      which 

liridges  maybe  classi' 

fied  are  those  of   the 

beam,  the   arch,  and 

the  rope,  which  give  rise  respectively  to  the  girder  or  truss 

bridge,  tlie  arched  bridge,  and  the  suspension  bridge.     The 

first  of  these  exerts  only  vertical  pressure  iqion  its  piers 

or  points  of  support,  while  the  second  and  I  hint  bring  either 

outward  thrusts  or  inward  pulls  upon  the   abutments  or 

anchorages. 

The  woi'ds  girder  and  truss  are  often  iised  snionyniously  ; 
bid  the  first  properly  refers  to  a  structure  in  <me  |iiece,  or 
made  of  several  pieces  riveted  together,  so  that  it  acts  like  a 
solid  beam.  For  spans  less  than  30  feet  liridges  are  often 
made  by  using  solid  iron  or  steel  I  beams,  which  are  now 
rolled  in  sizes  as  high  as  20  inches  in  depth.  For  spans  be- 
tween 30  and  90  feet  plate  girders  are  extensively  used; 
these  are  made  of  iron  plates  and  angles  riveted  together  so 
as  to  form  one  solid  structure.  Lattice  girders  are  also 
riveted,  but  instead  of  a  plate  connecting  the  llanges,  diag- 
onal pieces  crossing  each  other  are  used.  Box  or  tubular 
girders  are  foriued  by  arranging  iron  jilates.  angles,  and 
other  shajjcs  so  as  to  inclose  a  hollow  rectangular  space,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  20. 

A  truss  consists  of  an  upper  chord,  a  lower  chord,  and  of 
diagonal  members  connecting  them,  the  whole  forming  an 
open  framework  so  arranged  that  the  principal  members 
are  subject  only  to  tensile  or  compressive  stresses.  A  truss 
having  numerous  diagonal  members  riveted  to  the  chords  is 
called  a  lattice  girder.  A  truss  having  its  members  con- 
nected by  pins  at  ;ill  principal  joints  is  a  iiiii  bridge. 

A  girder  cir  truss  bridge  is  c'lllcd  sinqilc.  or  iiid('|icndent, 
when  supported  only  at  each  end.  and  it  is  contiiiunus  when 
it  extends  over  more  than  two  supports.  A  drawbridge  is 
one  that  can  be  moved,  usually  by  swinging  around  a  cen- 


BRIDGES 


769 


tviil  pivot,  so  as  to  allow  vessels  to  pass  the  stnictiire.  A 
ciiiitiK'Ver  was  jirimitivcly  any  lieam  or  truss  |)rojccting  out 
fniMi  a  wall,  liut  a  <'aiitili'Vi'r  liridije  now  nu'aiis  a  structure 
foruRil  by  two  trusses  cxtendiiif;  from  opposite  aliutiiieuls 
over  two  piers  and  united  by  anotlier  shorter  simple  truss. 

In  Europe  the  riveted  system  ot  construction  now  gener- 
ally ])revails.  In  this  system  tlic  web  members  are  con- 
nected to  the  chords  by  means  of  rivets,  many  plates  being 
used  at  each  joint  to  render  this  j>ossiblc.  In  the  U.  S., 
however,  the  system  of  pin  connections  for  these  principal 
joints  is  universally  used  for  bridges  greater  in  span  tlian 
111)  feet.  Kivcted  trusses  require  much  work  in  the  tield, 
while  for  pin  trusses  the  erection  is  far  simpler.  It  is 
claimed  that  riveted  structures  are  less  liable  to  failure 
than  pin-connected  ones:  while,  on  the  other  liand.  it  is 
claimed  that  the  stresses  in  the  latter  are  more  determinate, 
so  that  the  material  can  be  proportioned  to  give  greater  uni- 
form security  in  all  parts.  Good  bridges  can  be  made  upon 
eitln'r  system,  and  considerations  of  economy  will  generally 
decide  which  is  to  be  adopted  in  any  given  case. 

Theiiry  and  Dinign  of  Tru.ssex. — Bridge  trusses  erected 
prior  to  1840  were  rarely  well  arranged  to  carrv  the  stresses 
that  were  brought  upon  them.  The  first  publication  in  the 
r.  S.  dealing  with  the  theory  of  the  sul)ject  Wiis  that  of 
S(piire  Wliijiple  in  1847,  and  from  that  date  computations 
and  rational  design  lierame  possilile.  It  is  not  intended 
here  to  explain  the  theory  of  the  comimtation  ot  stresses, 
but  a  brief  popular  statement  of  a  few  fundamental  i)riiici- 
l>les  will  be  useful  before  taking  up  the  ilescription  of  the 
great  bridges  of  the  world. 

A  Howe  truss  (Fig.  10)  is  formed  liy  an  upper  chord  which 
is  always  in  compression,  a  lower  cluird  always  in  tension, 
and  certain  web  pieces  which  connect  them.  Ot  these  web 
memliers  the  vertical  ones  are  under  tensile  stress  anil  the 
inclined  ones  under  compressives  stress.  In  the  Pratt  truss 
(Fig.  Vi)  and  in  the  \Vhi]>ple  truss  (Fig.  18)  the  web  mem- 
liers are  arranged  so  that  the  vertical  ones  take  theconi|)res- 
sion  and  the  inclined  ones  the  tension  ;  this  is  a  better  ar- 
rangement than  in  the  Howe  truss,  since  a  long  bar  or  col- 
umn is  liable  to  bend  under  compressive  stress,  and  must  be 
sliirenedto  prevent  this  by  the  use  of  extra  materi.-il.  In 
(he  Ilowe  truss  one  series  of  web  braces  provides  for  the 
action  of  the  dead  or  permanent  load,  while  the  smallerones, 
known  as  counter  Ijraces,  prevent  the  distension  under  the 
live  or  rolling  load.  So  in  the  I'ratt  and  Whipple  trusses 
there  are  main  ties  and  counter  ties  which  act  in  a  similar 
iiiauner.  The  stresses  in  the  ehordsare  greatest  near  t  lie  mid- 
dle ot  the  truss,  as  are  also  the  stresses  in  the  counters  ;  the 
stresses  in  the  main  members  of  the  webbing,  however,  are 
greatest  near  the  ends  of  the  truss.  N'ow,  to  insure  economy 
of  material,  the  sizes  of  members  must  be  iiroportional  to 
the  siri'sses  that  they  are  to  carry;  hence  it  is  that  the 
chords  of  a  simple  truss  are  snialleslat  theends  and  greatest 
at  the  middle  of  a  bridge,  while  the  main  bracing  is  greatest 
ill  si/e  at  the  ends  and  least  at  the  middle.  The  stresses  in 
the  chords  under  a  given  load  vary  with  the  height  of  the 
truss,  the  higher  the  truss  the  less  iieing  the  stresses.  Thus, 
as  far  as  the  chords  an'  concerned,  economy  is  secured  by 
iiiakiiig  a  truss  very  high;  but  as  the  length  of  the  web  mem- 
bers increases  with  the  height  a  limit  fxists,  and  this  in 
jiractice  results  in  making  the  height  usually  less  than  one- 
tifth  of  the  span,  or  for  long  bridges  one-tenth  of  the  span. 

The  triangular 
truss,  in  which  the 
webbing  consists  of 
meiubers  forming  a 
series  of  equilateral 
triangles,  each  mem- 
ber   being    adapted     , 

for  both  tension  and 

compression,        was 

[imposed  in  1846  by  Xeville,  a  Belgian  engineer,  but  was 

tirst  built  in  England  by  Capt.  Warren  about  1850,  and  is 

hence  called  the  Warren  truss.     In  Fig.  14  is  shown  a  skele- 


mark  —  denotes  tensile  stress.  In  1851  a  railroad  bridge  on 
this  system  was  built  over  the  Trent,  having  a  sjiaii  of  240 
feet,  cast  iron  being  use<l  for  coiu]iression  members  and 
wrought  iron  for  tension  members.  In  1853  the  t'rumlin 
viaduct,  formed  of  ten  sjians  of  150  feet  each,  was  erected  on 
the  same  .system,  using  wrought  iron  throughout.  The  piers 
of  this  structure  were  made  of  cast-iron  posts  with  wrought- 
iron  braces,  the  height  ot  the  highest  pier  being  170  feet,  the 
whole  forming  a  handsome  structure. 

The  liowstring  truss,  one  form  of  which  is  shown  by  Fig. 
15,  originated  in  an  attempt  to  economize  material  by  mak- 
ing the  chords  of  uniform  section  throughout.  If  this  were 
done  in  a  truss  with  parallel  chords  the  end  chord  members 


Fig.  1.5. — luverted  bowstring  truss. 

would  have  an  excess  of  material,  but  by  making  one  of  the 
chortis  curved  the  stresses  were  rendered  approximately  uni- 
form ;  for  a  parabolic  curve  the  straight  chord  is  strained 
alik<'  throughout  its  entire  length.  The  form  in  Fig.  15  is 
really  an  inverted  bowstring  truss,  the  name  being  originally 
applied  to  llie  case  where  the  upper  chord  was  curved  and 
ill  compression  and  the  lower  one  straight  and  in  tension. 
Bridges  with  such  trusses  were  lirst  built  by  Laves  in  France 
about  18;!5  of  timber  and  iron,  and  later  they  were  erected 
ot  cast  and  wrought  iron  in  Kngland  by  Brunei,  and  in  the 
U.  S.  by  Whi])|)le.  This  priiiciiile  of  construction  has 
proved  an  econoiuie  one.  and  it  is  used  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  some  of  the  longest  truss  bridges  ever  erected  (see 

Fig.  L>;i). 

The  lenticular  tniss  has  both  upper  and  lower  chords 
curved  either  in  parabolic  or  circular  lines.  Such  bridges 
were  erected  soon  after  1840  in  France,  and  were  developed 
about  1850  in  Enghiud  anil  about  18(10  in  Germany  into  an 
important  economic  system  of  design.     The  horizontal  line 


Fia.  16.— Lenticular  tniss. 


Siiis6^^ 


in  Fig.  16  indicates  the  position  of  the  floor  of  the  bridge, 
and  iloes  not  represent  a  chord,  the  functions  of  these  being 
fullilled  by  the  curved  members  alone.  By  properly  i>ro- 
jiortioning  the  depths  at  the  various  panels  the  strains  in 
the  chord  members  can  be  made  nearly  eijual.  so  that  they 
can  be  of  uniform  section  througliout  ;  the  web  memliers  are 
also  found  to  vary  less  in  size  than  in  trusses  where  the 
chords  are  parallel.  It  is  probable  that  this  form  of  truss  is 
the  one  which  will  ultimately  be  found  to  alford  the  great- 
est degree  of  economy  as  far  as  material  alone  is  concerned. 
The  longest  one  yet  constructed  is  that  designed  by  Brunei, 
and  completed  in  185!).  to  carry  a  railway  across  the  Taiiiar 
river  at  Saltash.  near  I'lymouth,  iMigland ;  this  is  455  feet 
in  .siiaii,  and  at  that  dale  was  an  cugiiieering  work  of  great 
magnitude.  In  this  bridge  the  roadway  was  hung  below  the 
lower  chord  (see  Fig.  il),  but  it  is  also  sometimes  jjlaced 
above  the  upper  chord. 


Fio.  1 1.— The  Warren  truss. 


ton  diagram  with  spheres  at  the  several  api>x  points  of  the 
up]ier  chord  to  represent   the  loads,  the   mark  +  denoting 
the  compressive  stress  under  a  uniform    load,  while   the 
49 


Fio.  17.— Fiiik  truss. 

The  loads  which  the  trusses  arc  to  carry  are  Imown  in 
advance,  and  from  tlie.se  the  stresses  are  computed  by  the 
principles  of  statics.  (See  Gu.U'iiic  Statics  and  Strksses.) 
The  live  load  isthat  of  a  crowd  of  people  on  a  highway  bridge 
and  of  a  train  on  a  railroad  bridge.  The  ilead  load  is  tlie 
weight  of  the  bridge  itself.  It  was  formerly  the  practice  to 
take  the  live  load  for  a  railroad  bridge  as  a  uniform  rolling 
weight  of  about  2.000  lb.  per  linear  foot  per  track,  the  exact 
figure  being  somewhat  greater  for  short  spans  than  for  long 
ones  on  account  of  the  greater  shock  due  to  the  jiassage  of 
trains,  and  most  of  the  structures  erected  jirior  to  1875  were 
designed  under  such  an  a.ssuni|ition.  Prom  these  loads  the 
stresses  are  computed  and  written  on  a  diagram  called  the 


770 


BRIDGES 


ptraiu-sheet.  In  Fig.  17  is  shown  a  strain-sheet  of  a  Fink 
truss  of  242  feet  span  and  30  feet  depth,  where  are  given  tlie 
stresses  due  to  a  live  load  of  1'3  tons  per  foot  and  a  dead 
load  of  1'35  tons  per  foot,  tensile  stresses  being  marked  with 
a  minus  sign  and  compressive  stresses  with  a  plus  sign.  The 
stress  in  tlie  upper  chord  is  comjiression,  and  is  uniform 
throughout. 

The  Whipple  truss,  shown  in  the  skeleton  diagram  of  Fig. 
18,  consists  of  a  double  system  of  diagonals  each  of  which 


■f-S*!       h7/6         ■I-8S}'     -l-gSZ      -i-IOBS     ■+//S0       -H2I0      -H2  3f     +/2J* 


-i«ff 


-S^3  -7/6  -Se*  -»87 

Flo.  18.— The  Whipple  truss. 


is  separately  computed  for  the  loads  that  come  upon  it. 
The  cut  gives  the  strain-sheet  of  the  bridge  built  at  Cincin- 
nati in  1872,  the  span  being  415  feet  and  the  depth  41|-  feet. 
This  bridge  carries  a  single  track  railroad  on  its  lower  chord, 
and  outside  of  each  truss  is  a  highway  track  supported  by 
projecting  floor  beams.  The  dead  load  was  taken  as  2J-  tons 
per  linear  foot,  and  the  live  load  at  1^  tons  for  the  railroad 
and  J  tons  for  tlie  highway  (see  Fig.  22). 

About  187.5  the  practice  arose  of  taking  a  greater  load  per 
linear  foot  for  the  locomotive  than  for  the  train.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  long  span  built  over  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati  in 
1877  it  was  required  that  the  stresses  should  be  computed 
for  two  locomotives  coupled  together,  each  of  them  weigh- 
ing 36  tons  on  a  12-feet  wheel  base,  or  with  tender  66 
tons  on  a  base  of  .50  feet,  followed  by  cars  weighing  0'9  ton 
per  linear  foot.  About  1880  this  method  began  to  go  out 
of  use,  and  the  practice  was  introduced  of  taking  the  actual 
wheel  loads  of  a  locomotive  in  their  actual  positions,  the 
carload  being,  as  before,  considered  as  uniformly  distributed. 
Theoretically  the  static  stresses  are  more  determinate  under 
the  assumption  of  exact  concentrated  loads  than  if  they  be 
regarded  as  distributed ;  but  when  the  increased  dynamic 
stresses  due  to  the  sudden  application  of  the  load  are  con- 
sidered, which  are  iniletermiiiate  and  can  only  lie  allowed 
for  approximately,  it  is  doubtful  if  these  reftneraents  of 
computation  are  either  necessary  or  advantageous. 

In  Fig.  19  are  shown  the  stresses  on  a  drawbridge  truss  of 
3.58  feet  total  length  and  26  feet  depth,  caused  by  a  dead 
load  of  0'95  ton  per  linear  foot  and  a  live  load  of  1-25  tons 


Fio.  19.— Drawbridge  truss. 


per  linear  foot.  It  is  seen  that  the  chords  take  Ijoth  tension 
and  compression,  one  kind  of  .stress  occurring  wlicn  the 
draw  is  open  and  the  other  when  it  is  closed  and  suljjected 
to  the  live  load.     This  truss  is  also  of  the  Whipple  type. 

Tubular  Bridges. — The  Britannia  bridge  over  the  Menai 
Straits,  in  Wales,  designed  bv  Robert  Stephenson,  was  com- 
pleted in  18.50.  It  has  two  spans  of  460  feet  and  two  of  230 
feet,  made  of  east  and  wrouglit  iron,  forming  a  rectangular 
tube  1.380  feet  long.  28  feet  in  depth,  and  13  ft.  8  in. 
wide  in  the  clear,  through  which  a  single  track  passes. 
Fig.  20  shows  a  section  of  the  structure,  but  in  realitv  there 
are  two  independent  tubes  side  by  side  for  the  passage  of 
trains  in  opposite  <lirections.  The  shore  spans  of  230  feet 
were  built  in  place  on  false  works,  but  the  long  central 
spans  were  budt  on  shore,  floated  out  on  iiontoons.  and 
lifted  into  place  by  hydraulic  presses.  The  cost  of  the 
bridge,  inclusive  of  substructure,  was  almut  it;3,00O.000. 

The  Victoria  tubular  bridge  across  the  St.  Lawrence 
river  at  Montreal,  Canada,  also  designed  by  Robert  Stei)hen- 
son,  was  completed  in  1860,  having  occupied  six  years  in 
construction.  It  has  twenty-five  spans,  the  middle  one  being 
330  feet,  and  each  of  the  others  243  feet  long,  the  whole, 
with  abutments,  being  nearly  1}  miles  long,     the  tubing  of 


this  bridge  is  not  cellular  at  top  and  bottom,  as  is  the  Brit- 
annia. The  ironwork  was  made  in  England,  even  to  the 
punching  of  the  rivet-holes,  and  each  span  was  built  in 
place  on  false  works.     The  cost  was  about  .'ji7,000.00O. 

Although  these  tubes  form  very  strong  and  stiff  bridges, 
yet  it  is  now  universally  recognized  that  their  erection  was 
an  error  of  judgment  which  retarded  the  development  of 
economic  bridge  design.  The  train  passes  through  the  tube, 
as  through  a  tunnel,  in  darkness  and  smoke,  so  that  from 

the  point  of  view  of  a  trav- 
eler they  are  unfavora- 
bly regarded.  Their  great 
weight  and  the  large 
amount  of  workmanship 
render  them  the  most  cost- 
ly of  all  structures ;  indeed, 
both  the  Britannia  and  the 
Victoria  bridges  proved  ru- 
inous to  the  companies  that 
built  them.  Simultaneous- 
ly with  the  attempt  to 
bridge  large  spans  by  the 
tubular  plan  in  England 
and  Canada  the  suspension  principle  was  being  applied  for 
the  same  purpose  in  the  IJ.  S.,  although  it  had  been  re- 
jected by  the  British  engineers  when  considering  the  de- 
signs for  the  structure  over  the  Menai  Straits. 


-fOBS         -  //SO 


T — Y — ^r — ^ 


Fio.  80.- The  Britannia  tube,  1850. 

Simple  Truss  Bridges  of  Long  Spon. — A  bridge  of  more 
th.an  300  feet  span  is  usually  regarded  as  "  long,"  but  the 
number  of  these  has  become  so  great  that  a  mere  enumera- 
tion would  occupy  too  much  space.  The  following  descrip- 
tions are,  as  a  rule,  limited  to  tho.se  spans  which  exceed  400 
feet,  and  from  these  are  selected  such  as  are  noteworthy  on 
account  of  new  principles  of  design,  difliculties  of  con- 
struction, or  special  engineering  features  of  Interest. 

The  Saltash  bridge  has  already  been  menlloned  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  application  of  tlie  lenticular  system  to  long 
spans.  The  whole  .stnicture  has  nineteen  spans,  two  of  4.55 
feet  from  center  to  center  of  i)iers  and  the  others  are  69J 
feet  each,  making  a  total  length  of  2.240  feet.  The  main 
piers  are  190  feet  in  height  from  the  top  to  the  foundation, 


BRIDGES 


771 


and  they  were  sunk  in  open  wrought-iron  caissons.    The  |  of  tlie  design  and  constniction  of  this  bridge  tests  of  mate- 
upper  chord,  or  arch  as  it  is  sometimes  improperly  called,  is  |  rials  and  iiii'inliors  were  iiiiide  upon  an  extensive  scale,  and 

kiiowledtre  tlnis  obtained 
wliich  proved  of  great 
value  to  the  engineering 
profession. 

In  I880  the  bridge  over 
the  Ohio  river  at  Hen- 
derson. Ky.,  was  com- 
pleted, which  has  a  total 
length  of  :J,()88  feet,  and 
is  composed  of  sixteen 
spans,  the  longest  being 
.")2o  feet  from  center  to  center  of  i)iers.     Since  that  date  the 


made  of  wrought-iron  plates,  forming  a  hollow  t\d)o  of  an 
elliptical  cross  section:  its  width  being  10  ft.  !(  in.  and 
its  depth  12  ft.  :i  in.  The  lower  chord  is  formed  of  sus- 
pension chains,  and  its  Imrizontal  pull  counteracts  the 
thrust  of  the  upper  chord,  so  that  the  resultant  pressures  on 
the  supports  are  vertical.  Kach  of  the  main  trusses  was 
constructed  entire  on  shore,  floated  out  on  pontoons,  and 
raised  into  place  by  hydraulic  presses. 

The  Ohio  river  bridge  at  Ijouisville,  Ky.,  designed  by 
Albert  Fink  and  completed  in  1869,  has  a  channel  span  of 
400  feet,  another  tixeil  span  of  ;i70  feet,  a  ilraw  span  of  264 
feet,  an<l  twentv-four  other  sjians.  the  total  length  being 
.5.21s  feet.  A  part  of  this  liri(lge  is  shown  in  Kig.  1:1.  At 
the  time  of  its  erectii>n  the  channel  span  was  the  longest  in 
America,  and  the  whole  bridge  was  regarded  as  an  engineer- 
ing work  of  great  magnitude.  The  long  (Oiannel  spans  were 
arranged  with  through  trusses,  while  the  others  had  deck 
trusses,  the  clear  headway  below  the  latter  being  90  feet 
above  low  water.  The  extreme  rise  of  the  Ohio  river  is 
about  40  feet,  and  on  this  account  the  const ru<'t ion  of  founda- 
tions an<l  the  erection  of  false  works  are  often  attended  with 
great  danger. 

The  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river  between  Xewport  and  Cin- 
cinnati, built  in  lS72bythe  Keystone  Bridge  C'om|)any.  J.  H. 
Linville  chief  engineer,  has  a  channel  span   of  420  feet. 


development  of  the  cantilever  system  has  somewhat  inter- 
fered with  the  design  of  simple  trusses  of  long  span,  yet  at 
least  four  over  .WO  feet  in  length  have  been  erected.  The 
bridge  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  K.  K.  over  the  Susquehan- 
na river  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Md.,  includes  two  spans  of  375 
feet  each,  four  spans  of  473  feet  each,  and  two  spans  of  .51-5 
feet  each.  The  channel  span  of  the  Ohio  Connecting  Rail- 
way bridge  at  Pittsburg  is  ,523  feet,  and  special  interest  at- 
taches to  this,  as  it  was  built  on  falseworks  on  shore  and 
then  the  whole  floated  across  the  river  on  barges  into  its 
place  on  the  piers.  The  bridge  of  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
Railroad  over  the  Ohio  river  at  Ceredo,  West  Va.,  com- 
pleted in  18!r2.  has  two  spans  of  301  feet  each,  two  of  304  feet 
each,  and  one  span  of  .521  feet,  all  being  with  liowstring 
trusses,  and  similar  in  general  style  to  those  in  Fig.  23. 

In  1886  occurred  an  interesting  international  competition 
for  the  erection  of  a  bridge  structure  2.900  feet  long  over  the 
llawkesbury  river  in  New  South  Wales.  Australia.  Plans 
and  pro|>osals  wi're  submitted  by  fourteen  bidders,  two  from 
.Vustralia.  one  from  •■'ranee,  eight  from  f'higland  and  Scot- 
land, and  three  from  the  V.  S..  the  lowest  bid  being  $1,364,- 
690  and  the  highest  )i!3.413..590  for  both  foundations  and 
superstructure.  The  contract  was  awarded  to  the  L'nion 
Bridge  Companv,  of  New  York,  and  the  work  completed  in 


wmm^. 


Fio.  32.— Cincinnati  and  Newport  bridge,  IBTa. 


which  is  shown  in  Fig  22.  The  .style  of  construction  is  that 
of  (he  Whipple  truss,  which  has  also  been  extensively  used 
for  other  long-sjjan  bridges.  The  entire  structure  ranks 
among  the  longest  in  the  world,  having  twenty-three  spans, 
aggregating' .5.92.5  feel  in  h'Ugtli. 

The  Kuilenburg  bridge,  built  by  G.  Van  Diesen  over  the 
Leek,  in  Holland,  in  18()(i.  has  one  span  of  .51.5  feet  between 
centers  of  piers.  This  is  a  lattice  girder  with  a  I  riple  system 
of  webbing,  the  upper  chord  being  curved,  and  the  truss  re- 
sembling in  general  outline  that  shown  in  Fig.  9.  For  a 
number  of  years  this  span  stood  at  the  head  as  the  longest 
of  simple  truss  bridges. 

In  1^77  another  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river  at  Cincinnati 
was  completed  by  the  Key.stone  Bridge  Company,  which  had 
five  spans  aggregating  1,600  feet,  the  channel  span  being 
.51!)  feet  between  centei-s  of  piers,  or  51.5  feet  between  centers 
of  end  pins.  The  general  style  and  appearance  of  this  span 
is  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  22".  The  depth  of  this  truss  wivs 
5U  feet  and  its  widtli  20  feet,  it  beuig  for  a  single-track 
railway.  The  lower  chord  was  106  fict  aliove  low-water 
uuirk.  The  weight  of  iron  in  one  of  the  300  feet  spans  was 
657.400  111.,  while  that  in  the  chaniud  span  of  .51.5  feet  was 
2,634.400  lb.,  or  nearly  four  times  as  much.     In  the  progiess 


18S9.  The  piers  are  especially  noteworthy  (Ui  accoimt  Of 
their  great  depth,  and  as  having  been  sunk  under  very  un- 
favorable conditions.  (See  Foi'xuations.)  The  bridge  has 
two  spans  of  408  feet  each  and  five  spans  of  416  feet  each, 
all  being  typical  American  trusses  in  the  general  features  of 
design. 

The  longest  simple  truss  span  yet  erected  wa.s  built  by  the 
Phamix  Bridge  Comimny  in  188S  over  the  Ohio  river  at 
Cincinnati,  its  length  bi'ing.5.50  feet  between  centers  of  piers, 
or  545  feet  between  centers  of  end  pin.s.  The  bridge  also 
has  two  other  spans,  each  490  feel  in  length.  All  the  spans 
carry  a  double-track  railroad,  together  with  two  roadways 
and  sidewalks,  so  that  (hey  are  the  heaviest  sim]ile  trus.ses 
ever  const ructeil.  Fig.  23  shows  that  the  style  of  arrange- 
ment presents  featm-es  radically  dilTerent  from  the  Whipple 
truss,  not  oidy  in  the  curved  outline  of  the  up|ier  chord,  but 
in  the  arrangeuu-nt  of  the  webbing,  whereby  a  double  sys- 
tem is  avoided  and  tlu'  long  posts  are  strengthened  by  short, 
horizontal  struts.  The  truss  of  the  central  sjian  is  84  feet 
in  depth  at  the  middle.  'I'he  wciirht  of  iron  and  steel  in  tho 
three  .spans  is  almost  ex;iclly  lO'oOO.OOO  lb.;  besi(lcs  these 
there  are  approaches  consisting  of  shorter  spans  which  make 
the  total  length  of  the  structure  over  one  mile,  so  that  in 


BRIDGES 


all  20,360,000  llj.  were  useil.  Tlie  erection  was  accompanied 
with  difficulties  on  account  of  unusual  floods  in  tlie  river, 
and  the  false  works  of  one  of  the  sjians,  together  with  about 
700,000  lb.  of  iron  and  steel  members,  were  swept  away  in  a 
complete  wreck.  As  an  illustration  of  the  perfection  of 
American  methods  of  construction  and  erection,  it  may  be 
mentioned  tliat  tlie  actual  shop-work  on  the  superstructure 


The  Lachine  bridge,  designed  by  C.  Shaler  Smith,  and 
erected  by  the  Dominion  Bridge  Company  in  1887  over  the 
St.  Lawrence  river  at  Montreal,  is  sliown  in  Fig.  24.  It  con- 
sists of  two  central  through  spans  of  408  feet  each,  and  two 
side  deck  spans  of  269  feet  each,  forming  a  continuous  truss 
over  five  supports.  The  structure  has  great  interest  on  ac- 
count of  the  graceful  and  pleasing  manner  in  which  the 


Fig.  23. — Ciueinnati  and  Covington  bridge, 


began  in  Mar.,  1888,  and  that  the  last  of  the  three  spans  was 
coupled  and  traffic  passed  over  on  Dec.  2.5  of  the  same  year. 

The  bridge  over  the  Ohio  river  at  Cairo,  111.,  opened  in 
1889,  includes  two  through  spans  of  .518|-  feet,  seven  of 
400  feet,  three  deck  sjians  of  249  feet,  and  thirty-eight  spans 
of  viaduct  structure,  making  a  total  h'ngth  of  10,.)60  feet. 
The  cost  of  the  substructure  was  i|l, 189,744  and  of  the  super- 
structure |76.),616. 

Continuous  Bridges. — A  continuous  truss  extends  over 
three  or  more  supports,  .so  that  a  load  placed  on  one  of  the 
spans  causes  stresses  in  tlie  other  spans.  Many  such  bridges 
have  been  erected  in  Europe,  but  the  system  has  found  little 
favor  in  the  U.  S.  In  a  simple  truss  the  stresses  in  the 
members  are  not  affected  by  slight  changes  in  level  of  the 
supports,  but  in  a  continuous  truss  they  would  be  materially 
altered.  A  simple  truss  has  the  upper  chord  always  in  com- 
pression and  the  lower  chord  always  in  tension,  but  in  a 
continuous  truss  the  upper  ciiord  is  in  tension  and  tlie  lower 
one  in  compression  for  some  distance  on  each  side  of  a 
pier  (see  FLEXt'RE),  and  a  portion  of  each  chord  is  liable 
to  receive  either  kind  of  stress  under  the  action  of  a  pass- 
ing load.  Theory  indicates  that  when  several  sjjans  are 
to  be  bridged  the  continuous  system  requires  less  material 
than  simple  trusses,  but  this  is  apparently  overbalanced 
by  the  uncertainties  arising  from  the  causes  just  mentioned. 

Among  the  continuous  bridges  in  England  may  be  men- 
tioned that  over  the  Wye  at  Chepstow,  having  three  spans 
of  100  feet  each  and  one  span  of  305  feet.  In  Ireland  the 
Boyne  viaduct  at  Drogheda,  built  in  18.5.5,  has  three  spans 
of  141,  267,  and  141  feet.  In  Germany  is  found  the  bridge 
over  the  Weichsel  at  Dirschau.  having  six  continuous  spans 
of  397  feet  each.  The  Victoria  tubular  structure  at  Mon- 
treal, Canada,  is  continuous  over  one  pier  and  disconnected 
at  the  next,  thus  making  continuous  bridges  of  two  spans, 
each  of  242  feet  in  length. 

The  bridge  designed  and  built  by  C.  Shaler  Smith  in  1877 
over  the  Kentucky  river  is  an  interesting  one,  as  it  forms 
one  of  the  connecting  links  lietvveen  the  continuous  and  the 
cantilever  systems.  The  distance  to  be  bridged  was  1,12.5 
fei^t  at  an  elevation  of  27.5  feet  above  the  low-water  level 
of  the  river,  and  it  was  divided  into  three  spans  of  375  feet 
each  by  two  piers.  As  false  works  were  impracticable,  the 
structure  was  built  out  from  each  shore  abutment,  one  panel 
after  the  other,  until  the  piers  were  reached,  and  tlie  process 
was  then  continued  until  the  two  halves  met  over  the  middle 
of  the  river,  where  they  were  united.  Thus  a  continuous 
bridge  of  tliree  spans  was  formed,  but  on  account  of  the 
great  height  of  the  iron  piers,  and  their  alteration  in  length 
under  changes  of  temperature,  the  chords  were  cut  at  a 
distance  of  300  feet  from  each  abutment,  and  the  webbing 
was  .so  arranged  that  horizontal  stresses  could  not  be  trans- 
mitted. Thus  the  structure  was  converted  into  two  simple 
trusses,  each  300  feet  in  length,  and  a  central  truss  .525  feet 
long.  Each  of  the  simpler  trusses  was  supported  at  one  end 
by  the  shore  abutment  and  at  the  other  end  by  the  ]iroject- 
ing  or  cantilever  part  f>r  the  central  trirss.  The  disadvan- 
tages of  |ierniaiient  coulinuity  were  thus  avoided,  while  all 
the  advantages  of  this  method  of  erection  were  secured. 


transition  from  the  deck  to  the  through  s]ian  is  made,  as 
well  as  for  its  low  cost  when  compared  with  its  neighbor, 
the  Victoria  tubular  bridge.  The  following  comparative 
details  of  these  structures  are  valuable,  as  showing  the  prog- 


FiG  M  — Lachine  bridge  at  Montreal  18H7 

ress  made  in  the  science  and  art  of  bridge  design  and  erec- 
tion during  the  short  space  of  thirty  years  : 


ITEMS. 

Lachtne. 

Victoria. 

Total  length  in  feet                .                .... 

3,535 
12 

8  to  12 

20  to  90 

1  year 

408 

240 

11.000 

3,690 

S1,250.(XM 

$:«4 

6.520 

24 

2  to  8 

22 

6  3'ears 

3:50 

242 

100.600 

9.0O0 

$r,ooo.ooo 

¥1,073 

Drau'hridgcs. — The  usual  type  of  drawbridge  in  the  U.  S. 
is  that  shown  in  Pig.  19.  The  tru.ss  is  symmetrical,  and 
rests  on  a  turntable  on  the  central  or  pivot  pier.  Two  equal 
openings  ai-e  provided  when  the  draw  is  turned.  When  it 
is  sluit.  the  truss  is  a  continuous  one  of  two  spans,  and  liable 
to  be  acted  upon  by  the  live  load.  When  the  draw  is  swung 
open  the  live  load  can  not  come  on  it.  and  it  consists  of  two 
semi-girders  or  cantilevers,  connected  together  over  the  [livot 
pier.  In  the  first  case  the  npper  chord  is  under  tension  for 
a  certain  distance  over  the  pivot  pier,  and  under  compression 
throudiout  the  rest  of  its  length,  and  the  reverse  holds  for 
the  lower  cliiird.  In  the  second  case  the  top  is  in  tension 
and  the  liultom  is  in  compression.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  make  these  chords  so  that  they  will  resist  both  kinds  of 
stress. 

The  practice  among  American  bridge-lmilders  is  to  con- 
sider the  permanent  load  as  at  all  times  supported  by  the 
pivot  pier,  whether  the  draw  be  open  or  .shut.  The  live  load 
IS  proviiled  for  by  considering  the  draw  as  a  continuous 
girder  on  three  supports.  The  depth  of  dniwliridges  is  gen- 
erally made  greater  over  the  pivot  pier  tlian  at  the  ends.  This 
gives  an  increase  of  depth  where  it  is  needed,  while  the  titiss 
is  kept  shallow  at  the  ends,  where  any  increase  of  weight 


BRIDGES 


773 


beyond  what  is  absolutely  needful  is  injurious,  as  increasing 
the  stresses  when  tlie  draw  is  open.  Drawbrid>;cs  are  turned 
liy  pariiii;  on  tin-  liriuiiiferenee  of  the  pivot  pier  worked  by 
liund  or  by  steam. 

The  span  of  a  drawl)ridjre  is  usually  estimated  from  end 
to  end,  and  thus  includes  the  space  oceupied  bv  the  center 
pier.  A  lar<;e  number  of  such  drawbridjjes  with  spans  ex- 
ceeding: ;J00  feet  have  been  built  over  the  navigable  rivers  in 
the  I'.  S.  The  Missmiri  rivi  r  bus  several  with  openiu'js  of 
1  GO  feet  in  the  clear.  On  tlu'  Mississippi  river  there  is  one 
of  362  feet  span  at  Quincy,  (ine  of  ;jSO  feet  span  at  Keokuk, 
and  one  at  Louisiana,  Mo.,  which  has  a  span  of  444  feet  with 
two  opcnintrs  of  3(K)  feet  each  in  the  clear. 

The  Arthur  Kill  drawlu'idsre  on  the  Haltimore  and  Ohio 
R.  K..  over  the  arm  of  the  sea  between  .Staten  lslan<l,  N.  V., 
and  the  mainland  of  New  Jei-sey,  was  built  in  1S88  by  the 
Keystone  Bridge  Company.  It  is  a  single  track  draw  of 
4!J(U  feet  lietween  centers  of  end  piers,  'A  feet  deep  at  the 
nii(f<lle.  and  ;!0  feet  deep  at  the  ends,  anil  gives  a  clear  water- 
way of  'iW  feet  on  one  side  and  214  feet  on  the  other.  The 
weight  of  the  draw  is  supported  by  a  rini-bearing  turntable 
Willi  54  east-steel  rollers  turning  in  a  track  24  feet  in  diam- 
eter. When  the  draw  is  closed  the  ends  are  lifted  by  wedges, 
so  that  each  half  is  indepeiulent  of  the  other,  and  the  struc- 
ture beciinu'S  two  simple  trusses  instead  of  being  continuous. 
The  enils  can  be  lowered  and  the  draw  be  swung  open  in 
three  minutes. 

The  longest  drawbridge  vet  constructed  is  that  designed 
by  Alfred  P.  Boiler,  and  biult  in  1890  by  the  Union  Bridge 
Company  as  a  part  of  the  railroad  bridge  over  the  'I'hames 


ranged  with  sliding  joints  near  O  and  /),  so  that  no  hori- 
zontal st resides  can  be  transmitted.  A  load  placed  anywhere 
on  A  B  is  supported  at  .1  and  B:  a  load  placed  on  B  C  causes 
a  downward  pressure  at  Ji  and  an  u|jward  pull  at  ^1,  and  a 
loatl  placed  anywhere  on  JJ  /'can  produce  no  elTect  at  either 
A  or  B.  A  load  placed  on  the  central  span  CD  is,  however, 
carried  to  C  and  D  in  (iroper  proportions,  just  as  if  6'  and 
D  were  the  abutments  of  a  sim])le  truss,  and  then  these  pro- 
portions are  transferred  to  the  left  and  right  respectively. 
The  arm  B  C  is  the  cantilever  jiart  of  t  he  I  russ  A  C,  and  from 
this  circum.stance  arose  the  term  "cantilever  bridge." 

Germs  of  the  idea  of  a  bridge  with  u  projecting  or  canti- 
lever arms  are  seen  in  the  design  made  by  Thomas  Pope  in 
1811.  and  in  a  patent  granted  to  A.  Cantield  in  18:i3.  The 
Kentucky  river  bridge  of  1875,  often  quoted  as  an  ai)plica- 
tion  of  the  cantilever  iirinci|)le.  can  not  be  so  regarded  e.vcept 
in  the  method  of  its  erection;  it  is  rat  her  a  continuous  bridge, 
modilied  by  making  |)crmanent  points  of  inflection  accord- 
ing to  principles  whii-li  were  well  known.  But  the  very 
great  advantage  of  being  able  to  erect  a  truss  system  over  a 
deep  chasm  without  the  use  of  false  works,  which  is  a  feature 
of  both  .systems,  has  caused  them  to  be  sometimes  con  founded 
in  principle.  In  1870  Prof.  W.  P.  Trowbridge  proposed  a 
design  for  a  bridge  across  the  East  river  at  Blackwell's  isl- 
and, in  which  is  seen  a  central  truss  siijipoiled  by  two  canti- 
lever arms,  anil  in  1870  Charles  Macilonald  maile  plans  for 
the  same  bridge  showing  similar  features.  In  these  designs 
the  object  appeared  to  be  to  modify  the  suspension  system 
by  avoiding  the  cables  and  the  horizontal  tensions  caused 
by  them. 


Fig.  25. — Thames  river  bridge.  New  London.  Conn..  181(0. 


river  at  Xew  London.  Conn.  In  Fig.  25  are  seen  at  the  ends 
two  deck  s|)ans  of  150  feet  each,  then  two  through  spans  of 
310  feet  each,  and  in  the  middle  the  draw  span  of  .503  feet, 
whose  upper  chord  is  rever.M-d  in  curvature  from  the  usual 
ract ice,  the  whole  presenting  a  most  graceful  appearand 


P.'; 


rile  draw  is  noteworthy  not  only  on  account  of  its  length, 
but  it  carries  two  track.s,  and  each  truss  is  proportioned  for 
a  moving  load  of  two  K6-ton  locomotives  followed  liy  atrain- 
load  of  3.000  lb.  per  linear  foot.  The  central  height  of  the 
draw  is  71  feet,  the  end  height  is  25  feet,  the  clear  distance 
between  tresses  is  2G  feet,  and  its  weight  is  1,300  tons. 

Cantilei'iT  Hridt/cy. — This  type  of  truss  bridge,  which  has 
been  iiitroduced  and  perfected  since  18.82,  will  be  understood 
by  a  consideration  of  Fig.  20,  which  gives  a  skeleton  diagram 
of  the  Niagara  cantilever.  A  C  is  a  truss  having  a  shore 
arm.  A  B.  and  a  river  arm,  B  C ;  it  is  su|)ported  by  the  an- 
chorage .1  and  the  tower  li.  On  the  other  side  of  the  river 
is  a  similar  truss,  FD,  supported  at  F  and  £'.     Connecting 


Fig.  26.— Niagara  cantilever  bridRe,  188.3. 

these  two  is  a  simple  independent  tnis.s,  CD.     In  the  figure 
the  chords  apjx'ar  continuous,  but.  in  reality,  these  are  ar- 


A  cantilever  bridge  was  designed  by  Charles  C.  Schneider 
in  1882,  and  erected  over  the  Niagara  river  during  the  fol- 
lowing year,  within  7i  months  from  the  date  of  its  com- 
mencement. Its  total  length  is  !)I0  feet,  span  of  the  shore 
arm  li)5  feet,  length  of  the  river  arm  175  feet,  length  of  the 
central  tniss  175  feet,  and  clear  span  between  the  towers 
470  feet.  The  bridge  is  245  feet  high  above  the  surface  of 
the  river,  and  the  steel  towers  are  130  feet  high.  The  erec- 
tion was  efTected  by  constructing  false  works  under  the  shore 
arms,  and,  when  these  were  completed,  building  out  the 
trusses,  panel  by  panel,  until  they  met  over  the  middle  of 
the  river.  The  upper  and  lower  chords  were  then  discon- 
nected near  ('  and  J),  making  CD  a  simple  truss,  indc- 
peiideut  of  the  rest  of  the  bridge.  The  cost  of  the  bridge, 
exclusive  of  aijproaches,  was  about  ^000,000. 

In  1885  a  .steel  cantilever  was  erected  over  St.  John 
river,  Xew  Brunswick,  which  has  a  total  length  of  813  feet, 
a  clear  central  span  of  477  feet,  a  shore  arm  of  101  feet,  a 
river  arm  of  l!ll  feet,  and  a  central  truss  of  144  feet.  The 
great  advantjige  of  the  method  of  erection  was  here  again 
demon.<t rated,  so  that  since  1885  cantilever  bridges  have 
been  built  in  such  numbei's  as  almost  to  escajie  record.  For 
short  spans  they  have  not  been  able  to  displace  simple 
trusses,  but  for  sjians  between  400  and  800  feet,  wliere  false 
works  are  ilillicult  of  erection,  they  seem  to  be  more  eco- 
nomical than  the  simide  truss,  the  arch,  or  the  su.spension 
system. 

The  bridge  over  the  Hudson  river  at  Poughkeei>sie,  com- 
pleted in  181^!).  has  a  total  length  of  0,7(!7  feet,  the  live  spans 
over  the  river  being  548,  525,  540,  525,  and  548  feet  between 


BRIDGES 


centers  of  piers.  Of  these  the  first,  third,  and  fifth  are  true 
cantilever  spans,  having  a  central  truss  connecting  the  arms 
which  project  in  each  direclion  from  the  second  and  fourth 


spans. 


Fis 


jws  one  of  these  fixed  connecting  spans, 


and  also  one  of  the  cantilever  spans.     In  this  method  of 


made,  having  two  suspension  sjians  of  1.600  feet  each,  and 
tlie  contract  wa,s  awarded,  but  financial  reasons  necessitated 
its  abandonment.  In  1881  a  design  on  the  cantilever  plan 
was  made  by  the  engineers,  Benjamin  Baker  and  John  Fow- 
ler, having  projecting  arms  615  feet  long,  and  a  central 


-t'ouglikeepsie  cautilever  bridge,  1889. 


construction  the  fi.\ed  spans  are  erected  upon  false  works, 
and  then-  [u-ojecting  arms  are  then  built  out  in  both  direc- 
tions. The  economy  of  the  cantilever  system  in  erection  is 
thus  gained  only  for  each  alternate  span,  but  for  the  fixed 
spans  tlie  advantage  of  the  continuous  system  is  gained 
without  its  disadvantages.  This  bridge  is  also  noteworthy 
on  account  of  the  great  depth  of  the  foundations  of  the 
piers.    See  Foundation. 

The  bridge  across  the  Colorado  river  at  Red  Rock,  Cal., 
was  built  in  18i)0  by  the  Phoenix  Bridge  Company,  and  car- 
ries a  single-track  railroad.  At  that  time  it  was  the  largest 
span  of  the  cantilever  type  in  the  U.  S.  Its  general  ar- 
rangement is  like  that  of  the  Niagara  cantilever,  exceiit  that 
it  is  a  througli  l)ridge.  The  shore  arms  and  the  river  arms 
arc  of  the  same  length,  165  feet  each,  while  the  central  truss 
is  330  feet  long,  thus  making  the  distance  between  the  piers 
660  feet,  and  the  total  length  990  feet.  The  entire  weight 
of  iron  and  steel  in  the  structure  is  3,.500,000  pounds,  and  it 
was  erected  ineiglity  working  days,  the  total  cost,  exclusive 
of  masonry  work,  being  .f  330,160. 

The  bridge  over  the  .Mississippi  river  at  Memphis,  Tenn., 
designed  by  George  S.  .Morison,  and  completed  in  1893,  con- 
tains two  cantilever  spans  and  one  fixed  span  longer  than 
any  heretofore  constructed  in  the  U  S.,  and  next  to  the 
Forth  bridge  they  are  the  longest  truss  spans  in  the  world. 
The  fixed  span  is  631  feet  in  length,  and  the  cantilever 
spans  are  each  TOO  feet,  consisting  of  two  cantilever  arms 
169  feet  long  and  a  centi'al  truss  of  453  feet.  The  bridge  is 
a  through  railroad  structure  78  feet  high  and  30  feet  wide 
between  centers  of  trusses,  an<l  the  clear  height  of  the  lower 
chord  above  low  water  is  110  feet.  The  bridge  proper  is 
2,600  feet  long,  and  the  iron  viaduct  approach  is  2,300  feet 
in  length.  The  material  is  mostly  steel,  and  some  of  the 
pins  used  are  14  inches  in  diameter  and  nearly  5  feet  long. 


truss  .500  feet  long.  The  general  features  of  this  plan  were 
adopted,  and  under  it,  with  some  modifications,  the  struc- 
ture was  Ijuilt.  Work  was  begun  in  1883,  and  the  bridge 
was  opened  for  tratfic  early  in  1890.  It  consists  of  two 
shore  arms,  each  680  feet  long,  and  two  main  spans,  each 
1,710  feet  long.  Fig.  28  shows  one  shore  arm  and  one  main 
span,  with  the  middle  j^ier,  or  a  little  more  than  one-half  of 
the  whole  cantilever  structure.  Beginning  at  the  end  the 
successive  distances  are,  in  order,  a  shore  arm  of  680  feet,  a 
tower  of  155  feet,  a  cantilever  arm  of  680  feet,  a  central 
truss  of  350  feet,  a  cantilever  arm  of  680  feet,  and  the  mid- 
dle tower  of  270  feet  length;  then  follows  the  other  canti- 
lever s]ian  of  the  same  dimensions  and  its  shore  arm,  the 
whole  forming  a  structure  symmetrical  with  respei't  to  the 
center  of  the  middle  tower.  Each  of  the  towers  has  the 
great  height  of  343  feet,  and  they  rest  upon  low  masonry 
piers  placed  120  feet  apart  transversely  across  the  bridge. 
The  width  of  the  bridge  at  the  central  truss  is,  however, 
only  sufficient  for  two  railway  tracks,  so  tliat  the  cantilever 
trusses  are  not  parallel,  but  converge  toward  the  ends;  and 
as  the  tops  of  the  towers  are  nearer  together  than  the  bases, 
the  memliers  of  the  truss  do  not  lie  in  a  plane,  but  in  a 
warped  surface.  The  compression  members  are,  as  a  rule, 
tubular,  the  ])rineipal  ones  being  13  feet  in  diameter,  while 
the  tension  members  are  mostly  lattice  girders.  The  whole 
structure  is  of  steel,  of  which  51.000  tons  were  used  on  the 
main  spans,  and  the  cost,  without  the  approaches,  was  about 
.113,000,000. 

Ari-/ir(/  Bridges. — The  truss  bridges  above  described  form 
a  distinct  cliiss  intermediate  between  the  arch  and  suspen- 
sion systems.  In  a  truss  bridge  one  chord  is  in  tension  and 
the  other  in  compression,  while  the  points  of  su|iport  receive 
only  vertical  pressures.  In  a  suspension  bridge  the  main 
cables  are  in  tension,  and  a  horizontal  pull  is  brought  upon 


Fio.  28.— The  Forth  cantilever  bridge,  1890. 

The  Forth  bridge,  famous  a.s  having  llie  longest  spans  in  |  tlie  abutments.      In  an  arched  bridge  the  main  ribs  are 
the  world,  remains  to  bo  noticed.     In  1880  a  design  was  |  mostly  subject  to  compressive  stresses,  while  the  abutments 


BRIDGES 


775 


receive  a  horizontal  tlinist  in  addition  to  the  vertical  pres- 
sures. Some  arched  l>ri<lgos  have  lu'cn  described  near  the 
lipginniiiK  of  this  article,  and  under  Arch  those  of  widest 
span  will  he  found  mentioned.  An  arch  is  nsiuiUy  more 
p-accful  in  apiH'aranee  than  a  truss,  and  it  seems  to  produce 
<in  the  mind  of  the  traveler  a  feeling  of  greater  security. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  cities  the  question  of  a>sthetics  is 
an  important  one  that  can  not  l)e  overlooked,  anil  hence  an 
arched  bridge  is  sometiuies  preferred  when  a  simple  truss  of 
eipial  strength  could  be  erected   for  much  less  money. 

Tlie  great  arched  bridge  at  St.  Louis,  of  which  an  illus- 
tration is  given  in  the  article  Arch,  has  two  spans  of  497 
feet  and  one  of  515  feet  in  the  clear,  and  a  total  length,  in- 
eluding  abutments,  of  1,700  feet,  and  it  carries  two  railroad 
tracks,  together  with  a  highway  on  the  upper  deck.  Its  cost 
was  about  $5,300,000.  or  *:i,15'0  per  linear  foot,  while  that 
of  the  Poughkeejisie  cantilever  bridge,  which  has  two  rail- 
road tracks  only,  was  about  5!S40  per  linear  foot.  The  steel 
for  the  St.  Louis  arches  was,  however,  very  costly,  and  at 
the  present  time  a  similar  bridge  could  be  erected  at  a 
much  lower  figure. 

The  Washington  bridge  over  the  Harlem  river,  shown  in 
Fig.  2t),  is  a  highway  structure  of  beautiful  and  imposing 


different  systems,  the  arch  and  the  simple  truss  stand  at 
present  on  a  dose  equality,  the  former  having  541  feet  and 
the  latter  550  feet:  but  these  distances  are  far  surpassed  by 
the  suspension  system  with  l,6il5  feet,  and  by  the  cantilever 
system  with  l,710feet.    See  Arch,  Aqueducts,  and  Viaduct. 

Sufipension  Jin'dgex. — The  modern  suspension  bridge  con- 
sists of  a  platform  hung  from  cables,  which  are  stretched 
across  a  river,  being  sujiported  by  two  towers  and  anchored 
at  abutments.  The  platform  is  the  roadway  over  which  the 
ti'allic  ]iassi's,  and  this  is  usually  .stiffeMcd  by  a  truss.  State- 
ments regarding  ancient  suspension  bridges  in  China  of 
several  hundred  feet  in  length  are  found  in  the  writings  of 
travelers,  but  definite  descriptions  arc  lacking,  and  prob- 
ably,  like  the  rojie  and  chain  bridges  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, most  of  them  were  arranged  with  the  roadway  plat- 
form laid  directly  on  the  chain.s.  In  1741  such  a  chain 
bridge  was  crecte<l  in  England  over  the  Tees.  It  was  a 
rude  foot-walk  of  70  feet  span  and  2  feet  width  oidy,  and 
exercised  no  influence  on  the  developuieiit  of  the  present 
system.  'J'he  main  span  of  a  modern  susijcnsion  bridge  is 
the  distance  between  the  towers,  and  there  are  usually  two 
side  or  shore  spans. 

The  first  true  suspension  bridge  having  the  roadway  hung 


Fio.  ;;u. — The  WasliiugLuu  bridi;e  at  New  York,  1S89. 


a|)pcarance.  It  has  two  metal  arches,  each  510  feet  in  clear 
s|ian,  and  seven  masonry  arches  each  of  60  feet,  the  total 
length  being  2,375  feet.  The  width  of  the  roadway  is  80 
feet,  and  its  height  above  mean  high  tide  is  151  feet.  Work 
was  commenced  in  .lulv,  1886,  and  the  structure  was  com- 
pleted in  Feb..  1889,  at  a  cost  of  $2,850,000,  or  $1,200  per 
linear  foot.  The  webbing  of  the  arches  is  formed  by  solid 
plates  with  radial  stiffness  at  intervals,  thus  giving  them  an 
appearanc<'  as  if  made  of  masonrv  voussoirs.  'I'liis  struc- 
ture was  built  l)y  the  city  of  Xew  Vork,  William  It.  Ilutton 
being  the  engineer. 

The  word  viaduct  is  applied  to  a  bridge  where  the  towers 
are  high,  crossing  a  valley  or  chasm.  Some  viiuluets  are 
also  sup[iorted  by  one  or  more  metallic  arches.  The  great 
arch  of  theGaraiiit  viaduct.  541  feet  in  span  and  169  feet  in 
rise,  is  shown  in  Fig.  30,  which  indicates  iilso  the  method  of 
erection,  it  having  been  built  out  from  the  abutment  piece 
by  piece  and  supported  by  cables  fastened  t<i  the  lops  of  the 
towers;  the  suspension  rope  shown  above  the  span  was  used 
in  transporting  the  materials  from  the  completed  roadway 


Fio.  30.— Arched  viaduct  at  (iarabit,  France,  1885. 

of  the  viaduct  to  their  places  in  the  arch.  A  method  of 
erection  somewhat  similar  was  used  in  the  St.  Ijtniis  bridge, 
Iput  the  arches  of  the  Washington  bridge  were  built  on  tim- 
ber false  works.  In  general,  it  may  be  sjiid  that  the  erection 
of  arched  bridges  is  more  dillicult"  and  costly  than  that  of 
other  kinds.     In  regard  to  the  limiting  spans' possible  under 


from  cables  was  erected  by  Jacob  Finlay  in  1801  over 
Jacob's  creek,  near  Greensburg,  Pa.  It  had  two  chains,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  bridge,  with  links  of  the  same  length  as 
the  distance  between  the  floor  joists.  These  chains  passed 
over  towers,  and  each  was  bolted  to  four  large  anchor  stones 
at  the  ends.  The  span  between  the  towers  was  70  feet,  and 
the  width  of  the  roadway  was  12-i  feet.  A  patent  was 
granted  to  Finlay  in  1808,  but  before  this  date  eight  of 
these  bridges  had  been  erected,  the  longest  being  over  the 
Schuylkill  river,  with  306  feet  span,  "aided  by  an  interme- 
diate pier."  Others  were  built  at  Cumberland,  JId.,  at  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  at  Brownsville,  Pa.,  and  one  over  the  Poto- 
mac above  Washington,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  31.     This 


>-?- 


.,„^^' 


^W' 


'/• 


Fio.  31.— I'otomac  bridge,  1805. 

had  a  span  of  130  feet,  a  roadway  15  feet  wide,  and  the 
chains  were  made  of  IJ-inch  wrought -iron  bar.  These 
bridges  are  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Thoma.s  Pope,  pub- 
lished in  1811.  and  it  has  been  thought  by  some  writers 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  system  was  thus  introtluccd  into 
Europe. 

In  1809  John  Temi)leman  built  a  suspension  bridge  near 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  having  240  feet  span  and  two  road- 


BRIDGES 


wars  each  15  feet  in  width.  In  1815  one  was  constructed 
over  the  Lehigh  river  at  AUeutown,  Pa.,  wliich  liad  two 
spans  of  230  feet  each  and  a  roadway  30  feet  wide.  This 
was  badly  damaged  by  fire  in  1828,  and  soon  after  was 
carried  away  by  a  flood.  All  suspension  bridges  built  up 
to  this  date   had   cables  made  of  chains  or  links  of  bar 


port  of  railroad  trains  as  well  as  common  travel."'  In  1847 
he  built  a  foot-bridge  of  about  800  feet  span  across  the 
Niagara  river  2  miles  below  the  falls.  In  1848  he  constructed 
the  Wheeling  bridge  over  the  Ohio,  remarkable  at  the  time 
as  the  longest  span  in  the  world,  1,010  feet ;  it  was  24  feet 
wide,  having  both  a  roadway  and   a  foot-walk,  and   had 


FiQ.  32. — Niagara  suspension  bridge,  IbM. 


iron.  In  1816,  however.  White  and  Uazzard  constructed 
a  foot-bridge  across  the  river  at  the  falls  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill, above  Philadelphia,  whose  cables  were  made  of  six 
wires,  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  thus  a  new  epoch  of  de- 
velopment was  instituted.  The  span  of  this  structure  was 
408  feet,  its  cost  was  $125,  a  toll  of  one  cent  was  charged 
for  passage,  and  only  eight  persons  were  allowed  upon  it  at 
one  time. 

The  suspension  system  received  no  serious  attention  in 
Great  Britain  until"  1814.  In  that  year  Telford  instituted 
experiments  on  the  tenacity  of  wroiiglit  iron,  and  concluded 
that  it  was  possible  to  bridge  spans  of  1.000  feet  on  the  sus- 
]^ension  plan.  In  1819  Samuel  Brown  built  a  bridge  of  449 
feet  span  across  the  Tweed,  and  in  1826  Telford  completed 
the  Menai  chain  Ijridge,  which  had  a  total  length  of  1,710 
feet  and  a  span  of  580  feet.  The  t'onway  bridge,  completed 
about  the  same  time,  had  a  span  of  327  feet,  and  the  Mon- 
trose bridge,  finished  in  1829,  had  a  span  of  432  feet.  All  of 
these  structures  had  chains  composed  of  straiglit  bai-s  sev- 
eral feet  long,  united  by  coupling  bolts,  the  Jlenai  bridge, 
for  instance,  having  sixteen  such  chains,  each  of  ftve 
wrought-iron  bars,  9  feet  long,  3J  inches  wide,  and  1  inch 
thick.  They  were  deficient  in  rigidity,  and  indeed  the  one 
over  the  Tweed  was  blown  down  six  months  after  its  erec- 
tion, so  that  the  system  was  gradually  abandoned  in  Eng- 
land, and  about  1850  the  tubular  girder  was  regarded  as 
best  adapted  to  long  spans. 

Suspension  structures  were  built  soon  after  1820  in  France, 
Belgium,  and  Germany,  and  a  higli  degree  of  develcipnient 
was  reiiched  in  1834,  when  the  long  bridge  at  Freiburg  in 
Switzerland  Wiis  completed.  This  has  a  span  of  870  feet, 
and  is  suspended  at  the  height  of  167  feet  aliove  the  river. 
It  is  thus  319  feet  longer  than  the  Jlenai  bridge,  and  65  feet 
higher.  It  is  supported  on  four  cables  of  iron  wire,  each 
containing  1.056  wires,  the  united  strength  of  which  is  ca- 
pal)le  of  supporting  three  times  tlie  weight  which  the  bridge 
will  over  be  likely  to  bear.  It  was  subjected  to  several  se- 
vere tests;  for  instance,  15  pieces  of  artillery,  drawn  by  50 
horses,  and  accompanied  by  300  people,  pa.ssed  over  it  at 
one  time,  and  were  collected  in  as  close  a  l)ody  as  possible, 
first  on  the  center  and  then  at  the  two  cxtren'iities.  A  de- 
Ijrcssioii  of  39J-  inches  was  thus  produced,  but  no  sensible 
oscillation  was  occasioned. 

To  resume  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  suspen- 
sion system  in  the  r."S.,  the  name  of  t'harles  Ellet  first 
claims  notice.  In  1842  he  built  a  briilge  of  wire  cables.  3.58 
feet  in  span,  over  the  Schuylkill  river,  to  replace  the  wooden 
one  erected  thirty  years  before  by  Wernwag.  In  1846  he 
liuilt  the  Monongahela  bridge  at  I'ittsburg,  which  consisted 
of  eight  spans  of  188  feet  each,  and  at  this  date  he  ex- 
pressed the  conviction  that  "  any  span  within  1,500  feet,  with 
the  usual  dclloction,  can  be  made  perfectly  safe  for  the  sup- 


twelve  cables  containing  a  total  of  6,600  wires.  This  bridge 
was  blown  down  in  1854,  nearly  all  the  cables  breaking  at 
the  anchorage. 

The  perfection  of  the  suspension  system  and  its  adapta- 
tion to  railroad  bridges  of  long  span  is  due  to  John  A.  Roeb- 
ling.  The  defect  of  the  system  was  the  lack  of  rigidity  and 
the  oscillations  produced  by  wind.  This  he  remedied  by 
using  deep  stitiVning  trusses  at  each  side  of  the  roadway, 
aided  by  horizontal  and  vertical  stays  extending  out  from 
the  towel's.  His  first  great  work,  the  Niagara  bridge,  com- 
pleted in  1854,  lias  a  span  of  821  feet  and  a  width  of  15 
feet,  and  carries  two  decks,  the  lower  for  higliway  and  the 
upper  for  railway  traffic.  Each  deck  is  supported  by  two 
cables  lOJ  inches  in  diameter.  com]iosed  of  seven  strands  of 
520  wires  each.  The  trusses  had  wooden  chords  and  posts, 
and  ■nTought-iron  diagonals,  and  the  towers  were  of  stone. 
In  1881  these  tnisses  were  replaced  by  new  ones  of  steel  and 
iron,  and  in  1887  the  stone  towers  were  taken  out  and 
wrouglit-iron  ones  erected.  This  lu'idge  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  the  system  for  long  spans  under  raDroad  traiBc, 
but  a  few  years  after  it  had  been  rejected  by  the  English 
engineers  in  favor  of  the  tubular  plan.  Among  tlie  other 
bridges  designed  by  Roebling  space  only  permits  a  notice  of 
two.  The  Cincinnati  and  Covington  bridge,  completed  in 
1867,  has  a  span  of  1,057  feet  and  a  total  length  of  2,2.53 
feet.  This  carries  roadway  traffic  only,  and  is  supported  liy 
two  wire  cables  of  12^  inches  diameter.  The  greatest  of  all, 
however,  is  the  East  river  bridge,  connecting  the  cities  of 
Xew  Tork  and  Brooklyn,  which  has  a  main  span  of  l,t595 
feet  and  two  side  spans  of  930  feet  each,  and  carries  two 
tracks  of  a  catile  railway,  two  roadways,  and  a  fnot-walk. 
The  article  Brooklyn  gives  a  description  and  illustration 
of  this  grand  structure,  and  the  diflicult  work  of  sinking 
the  piers  is  recorded  in  the  article  FofXUATiox. 

^lethods  of  stiffening  a  suspension  bridge  by  trussing  the 
cables  have  also  been  employed,  the  most  notable  being  the 
Point  Street  liridge  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  designed  by  E.  Ilem- 
berle,  and  built  in  1878,  which  has  a  span  of  800  feet  and  a 
deflection  of  88  feet.  In  the  common  suspension sy.st em  the 
cables  pass  over  the  towers  on  sa<idles  which  may  have  a 
slight  horizontal  motion,  but  in  the  stiffened  system  the 
plan  of  fastening  tliem  rigidly  to  the  towers  may  be  used. 
Two  cables  connected  by  bracing  may  be  employed,  thus 
forming  an  inverted  rigid  arch,  as  in  the  Grand  Avenue 
bridge  at  St.  Louis,  built  in  1891,  whicli  lias  a  main  span  of 
400  feel.  A  design  lor  a  bridge  of  this  character  over  the 
Hudson  river,  betwei'n  Xew  York  and  Jersey  City,  has  been 
made  by  (Jiistav  Jjindenthal,  Its  nuiin  span  is  to  have  the 
great  lengtli  of  3,100  feet,  which  is  nearly  double  that  of  the 
East  river  bridge,  and  the  shore  sjians  will  be  1,800  feet 
each.  The  cables,  four  in  number,  are  to  be  in  pairs,  and 
each  will  be  about  .50  inches  in  diameter.     They  will  be 


BRIDGES 


777 


hiiitciil  t(i  the  towers  by  pins  of  hollow  forged  steel  25  feet 
1(111^  ami  40  inches  in  diameter,  and  being  braced  together 
tile  cakwlatioM  will  Ijc  analoijous  to  those  of  the  elastic  arch 
with  liin;,'ed  ends.  The  stillcninj;  trusses  will  lie  used  on 
the  roailway  as  in  the  common  system  for  the  distribution 
of  the  locomotive  loads,  but  these  will  act  only  incidentally 
to  prevent  the  deformation  of  the  cables,  tluit  function  be- 
inj;  performed  by  the  bracinjj  which  connects  them. 

Fii,'.  '-i'-i  shows  a  view  of  this  |iroposed  stupeixlous  struc- 
ture, which,  as  a  whole  and  in  detail,  far  exceeds  auylhin'; 
yet  attempted  in  bridge  construction.  It  will  be  a  railroad 
bridge  excdusively,  and  be  alile  to  carry  fourteen  tracks, 
eight  on  the  lower  and  six  on  the  upper  deck,  the  latter  ones 
to  be  added  when  the  need  for  tlieni  ai'iscs  in  tlie  future.  The 
towei-s  will  be  nearly  (MM)  feet  in  height,  or  more  than  twice 
the  height  of  those  of  the  Kast  river  bridge,  and,  indeed,  ex- 
ceeding in  height  anything  yet  constructed,  except  the 
Kiifel  l(jwer  in  I'aris,  The  right  to  build  the  bridge  was 
granted  by  Congnjss  in  1890,  and  five  yeare  were  given  for 


The  bridge  was  a  deck  structure,  157  feet  in  span,  of  the 
Howe  truss  type,  built  all  of  iron.  The  report  of  a  com- 
mittee appoinleil  by  the  Ohio  Legislature  to  investigate 
the  failure  concluded  that  the  bridge  went  down  under  an 
ordinary  load  by  reason  of  defects  in  its  original  construc- 
tion, and  thai  these  defects  could  have  Ijccn  discovered  at 
any  time  after  its  erection  by  careful  examination. 

i'he  Tarillville  bridge,  over  the  Farmiugton  river,  in  Con- 
necticut, went  down  on  Jan.  15,  lt<7S,  while  an  excursion 
train  was  passing  over  it  al  slow  s]ii'ed,  and  thirteen  |)ersons 
were  killed.  It  was  a  through  Howe  truss  of  the  common 
pattern  with  two  spans,  each  of  165  feet.  The  coroner's 
jury  repoited  tlnit  the  wrought-iron  vertical  rods  were  too 
small,  and  that  the  timber  of  the  chords  liad  become  weak- 
eneil  by  decay  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  bridge 
unfit  for  \ise. 

The  Tay  bridge,  in  Scotland,  was  blown  down  on  Deo. 
28,  1879,  while  a  train  was  passing  over  it  in  a  violent  storm 
of  wind,  and  all  on  board — about  seventy-five  in  number — 


Fig.  3.3.— Proposed  Hudson  river  bridge. 


preliminary  surveys  and  designs  before  beginning  work,  but 
It  is  tliought  that  actual  construction  will  begin  in  1894, 
and  that  with  the  present  manufacturing  facilities  of  the 
steel-works  of  the  L.  S.  it  will  be  completed  in  1899.  The 
estiuuited  cost  is  about  .^30.UOt).(IOO.  the  interest  on  which  is 
about  $5,000  per  day.  As  about  150  express  and  680  local 
trains  arrive  at  and  depart  from  the  Jersey  side  every  day, 
bringing  75.000  passengers  by  ferries  into  Xew  York  and 
taking  away  an  eijual  number,  it  is  plain  that  the  need  for 
such  a  bridge  is  pressing,  and  (hat.  like  the  Brooklyn  bridge, 
the  tralVie  over  it  would  continually  increase. 

Fiiihireii  of  Biidyi-x. — -U  the  present  day  the  science  of 
the  theory  of  stres.ses  and  of  the  properties  of  materials  is 
so  exact  that  a  bridge,  designed  and  erected  by  competent 
engineers,  has  perfect  security  in  all  its  parts  under  the 
heaviest  loads  that  can  come  upon  it,  and  during  the  nu>st 
severe  storms  of  wind.  This  science  becomes  more  and 
more  exact  every  year  as  respects  both  strength  and  econ- 
omy, and  the  study  of  the  causes  of  bridge  disasters  has  had 
much  inlUience  ill  modifying  tlie  methods  of  design.  For 
inslauce.  failures  of  bridges  due  to  the  derailment  of 
trains  have  caused  the  floor  systems  to  be  strengthened  in 
a  manner  which  ordinary  computations  could  never  have 
indicateil.  The  subject  of  failures  of  bridges  and  of  the 
causes  of  failure  is  hence  one  of  great  iinporlance  to  a 
bridge  engineer.  Here  it  is  only  possilile  to  brielly  mention 
a  few  of  those  most  important  on  account  of  the  loss  of  life 
and  of  the  lessons  which  they  teach.  At  the  present  time, 
as  in  the  past,  it  is  unfortunately  true  that  briilge  disasters 
occur,  but  it  is  also  true  that  nearly  all  of  them  could  have 
been  prevented  by  an  eflicient  system  of  inspection.  A  few, 
indeed,  sucdi  as  tho.se  caused  by  cyclones  and  earthquakes, 
can  iu)t  be  avoided  by  human  foresight ;  but  careful  and 
constant  inspection  is  a  factor  of  as  great  importance  in  jire- 
venting  accidents  as  sound  theory  and  thorough  construc- 
tion. 

According  to  a  table  compiled  by  T.  Appleton  in  1878, 
there  occurred  in  the  U.  S.  during  the  five  years  187:i- 
77  a  total  of  18:i  failures  of  railioad  bi-idges,  of  which 
thirly-five  were  caused  by  fire,  hurricane,  and  Hood,  and  the 
remainder  fell  under  service.  Hy  these  accidents  197  per- 
sons were  killed  and  4S5  were  injured. 

On  Dec.  211.  1.H70,  the  .Vshtaluila  liriilge,  in  Ohio,  on  the 
Lake  Shore  K.  R..  fell  while  an  express  train  was  passing 
over  it,  and  about  eiglity  of  the  piussengei's  and  seven  of  the 
crew   were  killed  out  of  a  toUil  of  158  j)ersons  on  board. 


pcrishc<l.  The  bridge  was  the  longest  in  the  world,  having 
eighty-five  spans,  with  a  total  length  of  10,321  feet,  and 
thirteen  .s]ians  and  their  piers  were  lilown  down.  The 
piers  were  mostly  made  of  cast-iron  columns  connected  by 
liorizontal  braces.  The  board  of  inquiry  reported  that  the 
failure  was  caused  by  the  insufficiency  of  the  cros.s-bracings 
and  their  fastenings  to  su.stain  the  force  of  the  wind,  and 
that  no  understood  rule  and  no  requirements  existed  in 
(xreat  Rriiain  regarding  computations  for  wind-pres-sures, 
although  in  France  55  lb.  per  square  foot  and  in  the  V.  S. 
50  lb.  was  generally  used.  It  is  scarcely  neccs.sary  to  remark 
that  careful  computations  of  wind-stresses  were  made  for 
the  new  Tay  bridge. 

On  July  i,  1881,  occurred  at  Morelos,  Mexico,  the  most 
fatal  bridge  accident  on  record,  whereby  247  soldiei-s  were 
killed,  40  were  injured,  and  only  20  escaped  uninjured  of 
all  those  on  the  train. 

The  necessity  of  careful  inspection,  as  plainly  empha- 
sized by  the  disasters  of  Ashtabula  and  TarifEville,  led  to  a 
tliorongh  overhauling  of  old  railroad  liridges  during  the 
following  years.  Accidents,  however,  still  occurred,  but 
none  involving  great  loss  of  life.  In  1886  there  were  re- 
ported twenty-two  failures  of  bridges  in  the  V.  S.,  by  which 
thirty-five  persons  were  killed.  Of  these  twenty-one  per- 
sons perished  in  the  wreck  of  a  bridge  at  Onelika,  Ala., 
whose  abutments  are  said  to  have  been  weakened  by  a 
freshet. 

The  Bussey  bridge,  at  Roslindale.  Mass.,  fell  on  Jlar.  14, 
1887,  whereby  26  iiassengers  were  killed  and  115  injured. 
The  bridge  was  of  125  feet  span,  and  of  an  unusual  form 
of  construction.  The  railroad  commissionei-s  reported  that 
it  was  built  practically  without  superintendence,  aiul  that  the 
only  inspection  had  been  that  made  by  a  machinist  who  had 
regularly  passed  over  vital  parts  of  the  bridge  without  real- 
izing that  they  were  important  or  defective.  The  lesson 
taught  by  this  accident  is  that  important  constructions 
should  be  built  and  inspected  by  educated  and  trained  engi- 
neei'S,  it  safety  as  well  a-s  economy  is  to  be  secured. 

The  accident  at  t'hatsworth.  111.,  on  Aug.  10,  1887,  may 
here  be  mentioned,  although  properly  it  was  not  can.sed  by 
a  bridge  failure.  A  small  wooden  trestle,  only  ;!()  feet  in 
length,  liad  caught  fire,  and  before  an  excureion  train  could 
be  stojiped  il  became  wrecked,  and  73  persons  were  killed 
and  374  injured. 

In  18.S9  (.'.  F.  Stowell,  bridge  engineer  of  the  New  York 
State  railroad  commission,  compiled  a  table   showing  the 


•78 


BRIDGES 


BRIDGES.  JIILITARY 


bridge  failures  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  during  the 
ten  years  1879-88,  wliich  jfives  a  total  of  265  bridges.  Of 
these,  27  were  due  to  fire.  39  to  freshet,  8  failed  while  under- 
going repair,  60  were  knocked  down  by  derailed  trains,  and 
34  fell  with  trains  passing  normally  over  them.  This  does 
not  include  trestles  and  culverts,  or  failures  occurring  with- 
out accident  to  a  train.  The  most  serious  accident  during 
1889  was  at  St.  George,  Ontario,  where  a  derailed  train 
knocked  down  one  span  of  a  bridge,  and  13  deaths  and  29 
injuries  resulted.  In  1890  a  drawbridge  was  left  open  at 
Oakland,  Cal.,  and  a  train  plunged  into  the  water,  drown- 
ing thirteen  persons;  other  serious  disasters  of  this  kind 
are  also  on  record,  but  these  are  properly  classed  as  due  to 
negligence  of  operation. 

On  June  14, 1891,  a  small  bridge  of  134  feet  span  at  Jlon- 
ohenstein,  Switzerland,  failed  whUe  a  passenger  train  was 
crossing  it,  by  which  74  persons  lost  their  lives  and  about 
200  others  were  injured.  Tlie  bridge  had  riveted  lattice 
trasses,  and  had  been  in  service  lor  sixteen  years.  A  com- 
mission of  experts  concluded  that  the  bridge  was  faultily 
constructed  and  weak  in  some  of  its  parts ;  that  the  iron  was 
generally  of  poor  quality:  and  that  injury  had  occurred  sev- 
eral years  before  by  the  sinking  of  one  of  the  abutments 
during  a  freshet. 

Stntisticx. — No  statistics  have  ever  been  collected  regard- 
ing the  numlier  of  Ijridges  of  different  kinds  and  lengths  of 
spans.  But  figures  obtained  by  Theodore  Cooper  in  1889 
for  26.228  miles  of  railroad  in  the  U.  S.  showed,  excluding 
trestles  and  spans  under  20  feet,  446,488  linear  feet  of 
bridges.  Using  this  as  a  basis  of  estimate  for  the  160.000 
miles  of  railroad  in  the  U.  S.,  he  found  the  following  distri- 
bution : 

Spans  from    20  to    50  feet. . .  .  121  miles  =  18.150  spans. 

.50"  100    ••    130     ■■      =    9.100 

"      100"   1.50    "    190     "      =    8.000 

"      150  "  200    "    109     "      =   3.300       " 

"      over  200  feet 56     "      =    1.150       " 

Total 606    "      =39.700      " 

These  include  both  wood  and  iron  bridges,  and  for  the  iron 
bridges  he  gives  the  following  estimates : 

Spans  under  20  feet 17  miles  =    5,100  spans. 

"      from    20  to    .50  feet 86     "      =12.900       " 

50"  100    "    66     "      =    4.600       " 

"      100  "  1.50    "    93     "      =    3.600      " 

"      150  "  200    "    69     "      =    2.100      " 

"      over  200  feet 49    '•      =       950      " 

Total  iron  spans 380    "      =  29,550      " 

Literature. — The  first  book  on  bridge  construction  pub- 
lished in  the  U.  S.  was  Thomas  Pope's  Treatise  on  Bridge 
Archifecture  (New  York.  1811).  which  has  already  been  al- 
luded to  as  advocating  the  advantages  of  his  "  flying  pend- 
ant lever  bridge,"  but  which  devotes  196  pages  to  "  an 
historical  account  and  description  of  different  bridges  erect- 
ed in  various  parts  of  the  world."  ^Mention  has  also  been 
made  of  a  pamphlet  issued  by  Col.  S.  H.  Long  in  1836.  but 
nothing  further  is  known  to  have  been  published  until  1847. 
when  Squire  Whii)j)le  issued  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  a  book  entitled 
A  ^Vork  on  Bridge-building,  consisting  of  two  essays,  the 
one  elementary  and  general,  the  other  giving  original  plans 
and  practical  details  for  iron  and  wooden  bridges.  This 
work  gave  methods  for  comjiuting  stresses  in  trusses,  but  its 
circulation  was  very  small.  In  1851  appeared  General 
Theory  of  Bridge  Construction,  containing  demonstrations 
of  the  principles  of  the  art  and  their  application  to  prac- 
tice, by  Herman  Haupt,  A.  M.,  which  gave  an  excellent  dis- 
cussion of  the  resistance  of  materials,  the  flexure  of  beams, 
and  the  theory  of  stresses,  as  well  as  examples  of  timber 
bridges  for  railroad  service.  Little  literature  appeared  in 
this  country  between  1850  and  1870,  but  since  1870  a  large 
number  of  books  have  been  issued.  The  following  are  t  lie 
titles  of  the  several  standard  technical  works,  with  the  date 
of  the  first  edition  :  Wood.  Treatise  on  tite  Theory  of  the 
Construction  of  Bridges  and  Hoofs  (1873):  Greene.  'Trusses 
and  Arches  Analysed  hy  (Iraph'ic  Methods  (1879);  Burr. 
Stresses  in  Bridge  and  Roof  Trusses  (1880):  Du  Bois. 
Strains  in  Framed  Structures  (1883):  Waddell.  Design  of 
Highway  Bridges  (lliS4) :  Bemler.  Principles  of  Ecotioniy  i'lt 
Design  of  Metallic  Bridges  (1885);  Johnson  and  Bryan. 
AUodern  Framed  Structures  (1893).  Monograplis  in  liook 
form  liave  also  appeared  on  the  construction  ot  the  Niagara 


suspension  bridge,  the  St.  Louis  and  Illinois  bridge,  the 
Washington  bridge  in  New  York,  and  others,  while  the  col- 
umns of  engineering  journals  and  of  the  T'runsactionsnf  the 
Aniericnn  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  contain  many  valuable 
pa]>ers.  both  theoretical  and  descriptive.  Almost  tlie  only 
books  of  an  historical  and  descriptive  nature  published  in  the 
U.  S.  are  Boiler,  Iron  Highway  Bridges  (1876),  and  Cooper, 
American  Railroad  Bridges  (1890). 

Among  foreign  books  the  following  may  be  noted  as  con- 
taining drawinors  and  descriptions  of  bridge  structures: 
(xauthey.  Traite  de  la  construction  des  ponts  (Paris.  1809); 
Miller,  Die  Bn'ickenbaukunde  (Leipzig,  1860) :  IIund)cr,  Cast 
and  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Construction  (London.  1864);  Maw 
and  Dredge.  Road  and  Railway  Bridges  (LomVm.  1872);  and 
lleinzerling.  Die  Briicken  in  Eisen  (1874).  Of  the  large  num- 
ber of  foreign  theoretical  works,  Fidler's  Practical  Treatise 
on  Bridge  Construction  (London,  1887)  may  be  mentioned  as 
perhaps  likely  to  be  most  seiTiceable  to  students. 

Mansfield  Merriman. 

Bridges.  Laws  Governing  the  Erection  of  :  In  England 
at  the  common  law  no  one  can  build  a  public  Vii-idge  without 
a  license.  In  the  U.  S.  the  building  and  nuiintaining  of 
bridges  upon  the  highways  is  a  duty  that  is  included  in  that 
usually  imposed  by  statute  upon  the  nuinicipal  corporations 
to  maintain  the  highways  in  a  condition  reasonably  safe  and 
convenient  for  public  travel.  The  right  to  erect  a  bridge 
over  navigable  waters  may  be  conferred  by  State  law.  sub- 
ject, however,  to  the  exercise  of  the  power  conferred  by  the 
Constitution  upon  Congress  to  regulate  navigation.  In  pur- 
suance of  this  power  Congress  has  passed  a  law  (26  Stat,  at 
large,  453)  which  provides  that  whenever  the  Secretary  of 
^^'ar  shall  have  good  reason  to  believe  that  any  bridge  is  an 
unreasonable  obstruction  to  navigation  he  shall,  alter  giv- 
ing the  parties  opportunity  to  be  heard,  give  notice  to  alter 
it,  specifying  the  changes  to  be  made.  Failure  to  remove  is 
a  misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  a  fine  not  exceeding 
§.5.000  maybe  imposed,  each  month  of  default  being  deemed 
a  new  ofEense.  The  custom  is  to  obtain  the  consent  both  of 
Congress  and  of  the  State  Legislature  before  bridging  navi- 
gable waters.  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Bridges.  Military  :  Wherever  warfare  has  been  so  far  re- 
duced to  a  system  and  a  science  as  to  call  into  the  field,  for 
protracted  campaigns,  large  and  organized  armies,  the  very 
necessities  of  the  case  call  for  some  systematic  method  of 
passing  streams,  and,  as  belonging  to  it,  special  organizations 
of  men  {personnel)  for  making  bridges,  and  a  portaljle  bridge 
apparatus. 

The  bridge  of  boats  of  Xerxes  for  passing  the  Hellespont, 
the  tinil)er-[jile  Ijridge  of  C*sar  (of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  the  article  Bridges),  were  not  ordinary,  but  extraor- 
dinary constructions  necessitated  by  the  magnitude  of  the 
obstacles :  and  they  owe  their  record  probably  to  that  pecul- 
iarity. It  is  quite  likely,  however,  that  during  ages  wlien 
roads  for  wheeled  vehicles  scarcely  existed,  and,  on  the 
other  liand,  forest  timber  was  abundant,  the  felled  tree 
(elaborated  into  a  rude  bridge),  or  some  such  improvised  ex- 
pedient, could  generally  be  resorted  to,  and  tluit  a  regular 
"  bridge  equipage,"  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  tei'm,  did 
not  exist.  The  Romans  are  known  to  have  had  a  species  of 
"  ponton  "  (as  we  now  call  it)  to  carry  with  their  armies.  In 
fact  the  wooden  boat  has  naturally  offered  the  readiest  means 
of  support  to  portable  bridges ;  but  these,  generally  large 
and  heavy,  are  with  difficulty  transported.  Hence  various 
expedients  for  creating  a  vessel  of  consideralile  flotation 
power,  yet  lighter  and  more  portable  than  ordinary  boats 
(such  as  framework,  covered  by  skins,  canvas,  etc.)  have 
been  resorted  to.  The  French,  the  systeniatizers  of  the 
modern  art  of  war,  were  naturally  the  first  to  proviili>  a 
regular  organization  and  established  type  of  construction  for 
the  military  lu'idge.  and  to  organize  a  personnel  by  which 
it  should  l)e  operated. 

Their  first  ponton  was  of  copper.  Their  system  has  under- 
gone successive  modifications  and  improvements,  and  instead 
of  metal,  wood  is  used  in  their  ponton.  As  fixed  in  1853  the 
French  [)onton,  as  described  by  Gen.  Cullum  in  his  work  on 
militarv  bridges,  is  a  flat-bottomed  wooden  boat.  31  feet  long, 
the  middle  part  or  body  of  which,  for  a  length  of  16  feet,  has 
a  trapezoidal  .section  of  5'  7"  widtli  at  top  and  4'  4"  at  bottom, 
and  2  7  deep;  the  fore  part,  8'  9'  long,  diminishes  to  2  6" 
in  width  at  the  bow.  and  has  a  sheer  of  .5^'  :  and  the  aft  part, 
6  3"  long,  dinnnishes  to  4  7'  in  width  at  the  .stern.  an(i  has 
a  sheer  of  3".  Each  bateau  weighs  1.455  lb.,  is  liorne  on  the 
sliouldei-s  of  17  lo  20  men,  has  a  flotation  of  18,600  lb.,  car- 


BRIDGES.   -MILITAKY 


•79 


rics  'i't  infiiiitrv  soldiere,  is  convenient  fur  disembarking 
troops,  and  can  be  eiisily  navigated  in  a  rapid  current  by 
five  men. 

The  material  for  tlte  Frencli  bateau  bridge  for  an  army 
consists  of  8abntmenls.  8  trestles,  33  bateaux.  4  mooring- 
boats,  3;5!)  balks  (84  abutment.  24  claw,  and  231  bateaux). 
784  chesses.  32  anchors,  and  all  the  accessories  for  forming 
a  bridge  oC  41  bays.  262  yards  long,  and  12  i)i'  wide.  This 
train  maybe  divided  into  4  divisions,  each  containing  the 
material  for  a  complete  bridge. 

The  Ifnssians  have  a  somewhat  lighter  equipage;  the  pon- 
ton (of  canvas)  is  a  llal-liottomed  bateau,  iiaving.  except  at 
the  ends,  a  rectangular  section.  The  length  at  top  is  21 
feet,  and  at  bottom  18  4";  the  width.!' 4' ;  anil  the  depth  2' 4". 
The  skeleton  consists  of  two  side-frames,  connected  by  mova- 
ble transoms — all  of  4-inch  scantling.  The  canvas  cover  is 
10  8'  wide.  30  feet  long  in  the  middle,  and  23'  3"  along  the 
edges:  both  sides  being  tarri'd  or  [lainted  black  with  a  cora- 
jiosition,  applied  hot.  com]iosed  of  hempseed  oil,  strong 
loam,  india-rubber,  soap.  wax.  and  soot.  The  cover  is 
brought  over  the  ends  of  the  frame,  and  lashed  to  the  top 
transoms;  it  is  secured,  along  the  sides,  to  the  top  string- 
pieces  of  the  side-frames  by  small  nails  passing  through 
eyelet-holes  along  the  edges  of  the  clolli.  A  plank  is  laid 
on  the  bottom  for  the  |)ontoniers  to  stand  upon.  The  can- 
vas ponton,  frame  and  cover  complete,  weighs  718  lb.,  and 
has  a  flotation  of  13.428  lb. 

The  compli'te  liridge  is  composed  of  32  canvas  pontons, 
with  bridge-dooring  and  .accessories  for  33  bays;  and  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Birago  equipage,  consisting  of  8  trestles  and  15 
wooden  pontons  (8  bow  and  7  body  pieces),  with  a  bridge- 
flooring  for  8  bays. 

The  Austrians,  after  satisfactory  trials  in  the  passage  of 
the  broad,  deep,  and  rapid  current  of  tlie  Danube,  adopted, 
in  1841.  a  system  named  from  its  inventor.  Col.  Birago,  of 
the  Austriati  Imperial  Kiigineers.  This  system  was  some- 
what modified  in  bS.')!). 

This  equipage  has  fixed  and  floating  bridge-supports,  the 
former  consisting  of  abutments  and  trestles,  and  tlie  latter 
of  pontons  of  two  pieces  assemlded  together  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  l)ridge  for  the  jjassage  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  or  a?'tillery,  aiul  whether  designed  for  one,  two,  or 
three  distinct  roadways. 

The  pontons  are  flat-bottomed  bateaux  of  sheet  iron,  of 
one  piece,  or  from  two  to  six  assembled  together,  end  to 
end,  by  suitable  bolts  and  fixtures.  The  Birago  trestle  is 
composed  of  a  cup  and  two  let/s,  to  the  lower  ends  of  which 
.•(/loe-s  are  attached  to  increase  their  bearing  surfjice.  and  give 
greater  stability  to  the  trestle.  The  cap  is  adjiistdble,  be- 
ing partly  supported  at  tiie  pmper  height  by  siixpcnsion 
chains,  at  one  end  of  whicli  are  large  rings  passed  over  the 
tops  of  the  legs,  the  free  ends  being  run  tlirough  suspension 
rings  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cap.  After  the  chains  .are 
made  taut,  and  the  caji  is  at  its  i)roper  height,  the  latter  is 
lield  in  [)lace  by  the  fogghs  inserted  in  the  last  link  which 
ha-s  [lassed  through  the  suspension  rings. 

Nothing  like  a  "  liriilge  eciuipage  "  had  belonged  to  our 
military  service  until  1846.  The  HngineiT  I)e])artmeiit  had 
long  foreseen  the  necessity  of  a  corps  of  well-drilled  pon- 
toniers  and  a  l)ridge  I'ljuipage  for  our  army,  and  year  after 
year  had  urged  their  great  inqxirtauci'  upon  the  attention 
of  Congress,  but  not  until  May  1.5,  1846.  was  its  sanction 
given  to  the  project  of  the  department,  and  when  too  late 
to  aid  \\w  passage  of  the  Rio  Grande  by  our  forces  then  in- 
va<ling  Mexico. 

With  the  sanction  of  Congress  finally  obtained,  a  com- 
l)any  of  sappers,  nuuers.  and  pontouicM's  was  organized  ns 
part  of  the  Corps  of  Kngineers,  and  an  india-ruliiier  ponton 
bridge  of  46  pontons  was  prepared  by  direction  of  the 
<-hier  of  engineers,  but  under  tlie  superintendence  of  the 
late  Major-Cren.  (i.  W.  Cullum.  then  a  captain  in  the  Cor])s 
of  Kugiueers.  Anotlier  of  36  jiontons  was  subsequently 
di^|)alclicil  with  the  army  under  Gen.  Scott.  Owing  to  the 
lightness  of  these  pontons  only  tlilrtij-fiiv.  nix-horsc  cdrringct 
were  necessary  to  transport,  over  the  worst  roads,  a  complete 
train  for  the  formation  of  a  bridge  of  200  yards.  For  the 
French  bateau  briilge  of  nearly  240  nu-ters.s('ec»/(/-se('(';i  .sij:- 
horae  carriages  are  used. 

The  rubber  pontons  in  use  for  drill  ]inrposes  at  'West 
Point  having  become  unservicealiU'.  an<l  it  Iiaving  become 
eviileni  that  rubber  was  not  adapted  to  their  construction, 
experiments  were  undertaken  by  the  then  instructor  of 
practical  engineering,  Capt.  .1.  C.  l)uane,  now  briga<lier-gen- 
cral  and  chief  of  engineers,  U.  S.  armv,  retired. 


The  imnu'nse  trains  with  which  our  armies  are  unavoid- 
ably cncundiered.  the  long  nuirches  to  be  made,  and  the 
numerous  wide  and  ra]iid  rivers  to  be  crossed,  demand  an 
equipage  of  the  most  substantial  character.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  extended  expeditions  of  light  columns,  which 
necessarily  attend  our  military  ojierations.  retpiire  a  train 
light  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the  most  rapid  cavalry  move- 
ments. 

Hence  we  require  both  a  reserve  and  advance-guard  train. 

The  experinu'nts  included  the  trial  of  the  bridge  equi- 
pages used  by  those  Eurojiean  armies  most  experienced  in  the 
art  of  military  bridge-building. 

I'ontons  were  constructeil  after  the  models  of  the  French 
bateau,  the  Austrian  sectional  ponton,  and  the  Kussian  can- 
vas boat.  Corrugated-iron  boats  w'ere  procured,  correspond- 
ing as  nearly  in  form  and  dimensions  to  the  French  and 
Austrian  boats  as  the  nature  of  the  nuiteria!  wouhl  i>ermit. 
A  number  of  Birago  trestles  were  also  constructed.  All  of 
the  above  material,  with  the  exception  of  the  iron  boats, 
was  prepared  by  the  enlisted  men  of  the  Engineer  Company 
(A)  then  stationed  at  West  Poii\t. 

The  bridges  formed  of  this  material  were  exposed  as 
much  as  possible  to  the  action  of  heavy  loads,  storms,  the 
tide,  and  floating  ice.  The  material  was  also  [jacked  on  car- 
riages of  various  patterns  in  order  to  ascertain  the  best  form, 
both  of  bridge  material  anil  of  carriage,  for  transportation. 

The  selection  of  the  French.  Kussian.  and  Austrian  trains 
for  these  ex|)eriments  was  made  after  a  carefid  study  of  the 
various  equipages  used  by  the  armies  of  Europe.  These 
tliree  nations  alone  appeared  to  have  definitely  settled  on 
their  systems,  and  this  after  much  experience  and  thorough 
research. 

After  experimenting  for  two  years,  tlie  conclusion  was 
arrived  at  that  the  Fri'nch  |ionton  should  be  adojited.  Ex- 
|ierinients  followed  to  delermiue  Hit-  niati'rial  of  which  the 
|)outon  should  be  made.  Lifc-lioals  Iiaving  been  success- 
fully made  of  corrugated  iron,  it  was  piresumcd  it  might  be, 
with  equal  advantage,  applied  to  ]iontons.  It  was  not  only 
found  that  to  get  ade(|uate  strength  the  weight  must  be  in- 
creased beyontl  that  of  the  wooden  ponton,  but  that  iron 
failed  in  other  respects.  In  fact,  it  would  not  bear  land 
transportalion,  as,  in  traveling  over  a  rough  road,  the  joints 
ojien  by  the  yielding  of  either  the  rivets  or  sheet  iron. 
When  in  the  bridge,  if  the  boat  grounds  on  an  uneven  or 
rocky  bottom,  a  hole  is  frequently  jiunched  through  it,  and 
such  injuries  can  not  be  repaired  in  the  field.  The  wooden 
ponton  is  not  only  much  less  liable  to  such  accidents,  but 
can  bi!  readily  repaired  when  they  do  occur. 

See  Organization  of  the  Bridge  Equipage  of  the  United 
States  Armg. 

Previous  to  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  a  jionton  bridge 
over  the  Potomac  at  Harper's  Ferry  was  destroyed,  the  pon- 
tons being  scuttled  and  set  adrift  aliove  the  rapids.  Aliout 
three  weeks  after,  the  water  having  fallen,  the  boats  were 
recovered,  rejiairetl  with  pieces  of  hard-bread  lioxes  ob- 
tained from  the  eonimis,sary.  and  used  in  constructing  a 
bridge  at  Berlin,  over  wliieh  the  entire  army  passed  into 
Virginia. 

\\'ith  i'<'gard  to  the  canvas  boat,  it  soon  became  apparent 
that  it  was  precisely  what  we  reijuired  for  our  advance- 
guard  train.  It  is  light,  simple,  strong,  easily  reiiaired,  and 
when  packed  can  safely  be  transported  with  the  superstruc- 
ture of  the  bridge  as  rapidly  as  any  column  of  troops  can 
move.  A  strong  argument  in  favor  of  its  adojition  was  that 
it  had  been  used  successfully  by  the  Russians  for  more  than 
1(H)  years,  under  every  variety  of  circumstances  likely  to 
occur  in  this  country. 

The  French  poiiion  wagon  not  being  adapted  to  our 
rough  roads,  further  cx|)erimenls  ensued  to  fix  upon  the 
selection  of  a  proper  carriage  for  transporting  our  bridge 
equi|)age. 

Through  the  information  gaineil  by  these  experiments  re- 
sulted the  system  of  bridge  equipage  adopted  at  the  coin- 
mencemi'iit  of  the  civil  war. 

"During  the  winter  of  1861-62  five  trains  -were  eon- 
stnicted.  each  composed  of  34  |)ontons  and  8  trestles — the 
Jiontons  being  nearly  of  the  same  form  and  dimensions  of 
the  Frencli  bateau.  The  frame  wa.s  somewhat  different,  the 
ribs  being  entire  and  .strongly  ironed,  and  the  ironing 
stronger  throughout.  The  stern  was  provided  with  a  locker. 
There  were  also  other  alterations  in  the  details  of  con- 
struction. The  balks  were  stronger,  and  the  Birago  trestle 
was  modified  by  substituting  Iniilt  beam.s,  instead  of  solid 
timber,  for  the  trestle  caps  and  balks. 


780 


BRIDGES,  MILITARY 


"  At  the  same  time  several  canvas  trains  were  organized. 
In  constructing  the  ponton  frame  the  dimensions  and  form 
of  the  Russian  boat  were  exactly  retained.  The  scantling 
for  the  frame  wiis  considerably  lighter,  but,  being  strongly 
braced  and  ironed,  the  strength  was  about  the  same.  One 
train  was  composed  of  canvas  boats  and  trestles,  being,  in 
truth,  a  trestle  train,  with  auxiliary  pontons  to  be  used  only 
where  the  depth  of  water  or  muddy  bottom  prevented  the 
use  of  trestles. 

'•  In  the  month  of  Feb.,  1863,  a  ponton  bridge,  composed 
of  about  sixty  boats  of  the  reserve  train,  was  thrown  across 
the  Potomac  "at  Ilarjier's  Perry.  The  river  was  then  a  per- 
fect torrent,  the  water  being  15  feet  above  tlie  summer 
level,  and  filled  with  driftwood  and  floating  ice.  The 
greatest  difficulty  was  experienced  in  pulling  the  pontons 
into  position,  and  it  was  necessary  to  make  use  of  ship 
anchors  and  chain  cables  to  hold  them  in  place.  Notwith- 
standing these  unfavorable  circumstances,  the  bridge  was 
completed  in  about  eight  hours,  and  the  corps  commanded 
by  Oren.  Banks,  with  all  its  trains  and  artillery,  passed  over 
it  without  accident  or  delay. 

"  Several  of  these  trains  accompanied  the  army  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign.  The  pontons  were  used  in  discharg- 
ing quartermaster  and  commissary  stores  at  Ship  Point, 
in  disembarking  Gen.  Franklin's  command  at  West  Point 
(York  river),  and  in  constructing  bridges  over  Hampton 
creek,  the  streams  in  front  of  Yorktown,  and  the  Upper 
Chickahominy.  Finally  a  bridge  was  built  over  the  Lower 
Chickahominy,  about  2,U00  feet  long,  over  which  nearly  the 
whole  Army  of  the  Potomac,  with  its  immense  trains,  artil- 
lery, and  cavalry,  passed  with  promptness  and  safety. 

"  After  the  army  had  passed,  the  bridge  was  dismantled 
and  the  balks,  chesses,  etc..  packed  into  lihe  pontons,  whicli 
were  formed  into  rafts  and  towed  by  steamers  to  Washing- 
ton. The  bridge  trains  were  next  transported  to  Ilariier's 
Ferry,  where  a  bridge  was  constructed  a  second  time,  but 
under  entirely  different  circumstances  from  that  built  dur- 
ing the  previous  winter.  The  water  was  now  not  deep 
enough ;  and,  as  it  continued  to  subside  shortly  after  the 
bridge  was  laid,  many  of  the  pontons  grounded  on  a  very 
uneven  and  rocky  bottom.  Some  of  them  were  completely 
out  of  water,  yet  the  heavy  trains  continued  to  move  over 
the  briilge  without  seriously  injuring  them  ;  and  when  the 
water  rose,  most  of  them  floated  as  well  as  ever. 

"  Discovering  in  this  way  that  the  boats  were  much 
stronger  than  we  had  su]>posed,  we  were  enabled  to  improve 
the  method  of  bridging  tidal  streauis. 

"It  had  formerly  l)een  consiilered  necessary  to  Iniild  out 
to  low-water  mark  with  trestles,  so  that  the  ponton  sliould 
always  lie  afloat.  The  bridge  is  now  commenced  at  high- 
water  mark,  building  with  pontons  alone.  As  the  water 
subsides,  the  pontons  nearest  shore  ground  successively, 
forming  a  gentle  ramp  from  the  abutment  to  the  floating 
portion  of  the  bridge,  instead  of  making  the  descent  in  20 
feet,  as  formerly.  This  method  of  course  applies  only  to 
wooden  pontons,  and  to  cases  where  the  bottom  is  favorable. 

"  During  the  Fredericksl)urg  campaign  it  became  neces- 
sary to  force  tlie  passage  of  I  lie  Hap|ialiaiinock.  The  enemy, 
having  intrenched  themselves  on  the  bank,  prevented  tor 
some  time  the  construction  of  th((  bridge ;  until  at  length 
troops  were  embarked  in  the  pontons  and  ferried  across, 
where  they  stormed  the  rifle-pits,  and  held  them  until  the 
bridge  was  completed. 

"  During  the  year  1863  the  ponton  trains  accompanied 
the  army  iu  all  its  marches  backwanl  and  forward  through 
Virginia,  frequently  bridging  the  Potomac,  Rapidan.  ami 
Rap|i,'diannock.  In  the  latter  stream  the  bridges  remained 
in  [losition  all  w-inter;  and,  notwithstanding  the  frequent 
floods  and  tlu^  quantity  of  ice  formed,  but  few  interruptions 
occurred  on  these  thoroughfares. 

"Dui-ing  the  caLiipiiign  of  1864  trains,  composed  of  four- 
teen pontnns  and  two  trestles,  accompanied  each  of  the 
three  army-cor|is  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  The.se  trains 
attended  their  corps  in  the  long  imirch  from  Culpeper  to 
the  .lames  river,  and.  althougli  the  roads  were  freipiently 
very  bad,  in  no  instance  did  they  delay  the  march  of  the 
troojis  or  arrive  late  when  a  bridge  was  to  be  laid. 

•'The  headijuarters  train  was  followed  by  a  canvas  train  ; 
which,  when  a  crossing  was  to  he  nuule  by  .siirprise.  wius  sent 
forward  with  the  cavalry,  who  coviM-i'd  the  construction  of 
the  liridge  and  held  the  position  till  the  main  body  anlved. 

••(_)n  reaching  the  James  river,  a  bridge  was  laid  oppo- 
site t'harles  City  (Jourt-house  (at  a  point  selecteil  by  the 
writer  of  this  article),  about  2,000  feet  in  length.    Tlie  water 


was  so  deep  and  rapid  that  the  pontons  could  not  be  held 
by  their  own  anchors,  and  it  was  found  necessary  to  attach 
tlieir  cables  to  schooners  anchored  above  and  "below  the 
bridge.  .  .  .  For  the  next  40  hours  a  continuous  stream  of 
wagons  passed  over  the  liridge,  from  4,000  to  6.000  wagons, 
some  said  50  miles  of  wagons,  and  nearly  all  the  artillery  of 
this  army,  and  by  far  the  larger  portion'of  the  infantry  and 
all  its  cavalry  present,  and  even  to  its  heads  of  3,000  ormore 
of  beef  cattle — the  most  injurious  of  all — without  an  acci- 
dent to  man  or  beast."  (Report  of  (jen.  Benliam.)  The 
length  of  the  bridge  was  made  up  of  200  feet  in  trestlework 
ancl  2,000  feet  in  pontons  (101  in  all) ;  depth  of  the  river,  85 
feet. 

"  Thus  the  wooden  ponton  train  through  four  years  of 
war,  during  which  the  bridges  constructed  were  "without 
parallel  in  number  and  magnitude,  amply  fulfilled  all  the 
requisites  of  a  good  bridge  equipage.  The  fre(picnt  cross- 
ing of  the  Potomac.  Chickahominy  and  James  rivers  proved 
that,  even  under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances  it 
could  furnish  a  briilge  cajiable  of  passing  a  large  army,  with 
its  heaviest  trains  over  wide  and  rapid  streams,  with  safety 
and  dispatch. 

"  Its  capabilities  in  ferrying  troops  were  shown  at  Ship 
Point.  West  Point,  and  Fredericksburg ;  and  of  the  mobil- 
ity of  the  equipage  there  was  abundant  proof  in  tiie  long 
uuirches  during  the  last  two  years  of  the  war. 

"  The  canvas  equipage,  also,  was  perfectly  successful  as 
an  advance-guard  train.  In  the  cavalry  raids  it  was  always 
able  to  keep  pace  with  thecolunms;  and,  although  they  fre- 
quently marched  hundreds  of  miles,  it  was  invariably  ready 
to  furnish  a  prompt  ami  secure  means  of  crossing  all  the 
streams  on  their  route.  It  also  often  furnished  bridges  for 
the  heavy  trains  of  the  army  over  streams  of  moderate  width 
and  rapidity. 

"  The  only  part  of  the  bridge  equipage  which  did  not 
realize  all  our  expectations  was  the  Birago  trestle. 

"  As  already  stated,  a  train  was  organized  early  in  the  war 
on  the  Austrian  principle,  in  which  the  trestle  is  the  main 
dependence,  the  jionton  being  merely  auxiliary.  It  was 
supposed  that  many  streams  would  be  encountered  which 
would  be  bridged  best  with  trestles  alone,  but  none  such 
were  met  with.  In  fact,  when  a  .stream  is  more  than  2  feet 
deep,  a  ponton  bridge  nmy  be  laid  ;  when  less  than  that 
depth,  if  the  bottom  is  hard,  it  nuay  be  forded,  and  no  liridgi^ 
is  required  :  should  the  bottom  be  soft,  the  trestle  legs  will 
usually  settle  so  as  to  render  the  bridge  unsafe.  As  it  was 
not  deemed  advisable  to  transport  with  the  army  a  train 
whicli  could  only  be  used  in  exceptional  cases,  this  descriji- 
tion  of  equipage  was  abandoned.  The  trestle  was,  however, 
very  useful  as  an  auxiliary,  especially  with  the  canvas 
train  :  for,  as  these  boats  when  in  the  liridge  should  never 
be  allowed  to  touch  the  bottom,  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  build  out  sevei'al  bays  from  the  shore  before  sufficient 
depth  of  water  can  be  obtained  to  float  the  ponton — and  for 
this  purpose  nothing  could  be  better  than  the  Birago  tres- 
tle, which  is  alsoequallyusefulforasimilarpurpo.se  with 
the  reserve  train,  when  the  river  bottom  is  rough  near  the 
shore. 

"  The  canvas  train  was  extensively  used  by  the  Western 
army,  and  with  such  success  that  it  was  proposed  to  employ 
it  exclusively.  Experience,  however,  in  the  East  has  dearly 
jiroved  that  this  train  can  not  fulfill  all  that  is  required  of 
the  bridge  equipage  of  a  large  army.  The  bridges  of  the 
Potomac  and  James  rivers  could  not  have  been  built  with 
canvas  boats,  which  will  not  resist  ice  and  driftwood ; 
neither  are  they  suited  to  the  disembarkation  of  troops  or 
the  passage  of  a  river  by  force. 

"  Kx[ierience  would  therefore  lead  us  to  concur  with  Gen. 
Barnard  in  his  remarks  on  this  subject,  viz. : 

""The  numerous  projiosers  of  "flying"  bridges  forget 
that  if  a  military  bridge  is  intended  to  be  cnrricd  witli  an 
army,  it  is  also  intended  to  rrirri/  an  army,  its  columns  of 
men,  its  cavalry,  its  countless  heavy  wagons,  and  its  ponder- 
ous artillery.  It  must  carry  all  these,  and  it  must  do  it 
with  certainly  and  safety,  even  though  a  demoralized  corps 
should  rush  upon  it  in  throngs.  No  makeshift  ex[iedieiit, 
no  "  ingenious"  invention  not  tested  by  severe  exiierinieiil, 
no  light  alTair  of  which  the  chief  merit  alleged  is  that  it  is 
light,  will  be  likely  to  do  what  is  recpiired,  and  what  the 
French  ponton  has  so  often  done.'  " 

The  ex|ierieneed  engineer  ofiicers  from  whose  Jntroduc- 
torij  m.-ilori)  we  quote  constituted  a  board  which,  in  1870,  es- 
tablished the  present  authorized  organization.  It  was  based 
upon  the  experience  we  have  described  in  their  language. 


BRIDGES,   MILITARY 


781 


As  now  fixed  tlic  V.  S.  liriil^e  equipage  is  composeil  of 
reserve  and  of  advutue-ituard  trains.  The  former  are  in- 
tended to  accompany  larj.'!'  liodies  of  troops  in  llie  field,  and 
are  proviiled  witli  the  material  necessary  for  the  construc- 
tion of  liridfjes  of  sulKcient  capacity  to  pu.ss  hir^e  armies  with 
their  heaviest  trains  over  rivers  of  any  size  and  rapidity. 

The  advance-fjnard  eipiipafje  is  inti'iided  for  tlie  use  of 
lisht  troops,  such  as  advance  guards,  cavalry  expeditions, 
etc.  It  is  orijanized,  both  as  ref;ards  material  and  carriasfcs, 
witha  view  to  rapidity  of  movement.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  capable  of  furnisliinf;  a  l)ridf;e  whicfi  will  fidfill  all  the 
reciuireincnts  of  troojis  cujja^red  on  such  service. 

The  basal  elements  of  these  distinct  cipiipap'S — the  French 
wooden  bateau  and  the  Russian  canvas  ponton — are  of  di- 
mensions very  nearly  corresponding  to  those  (already  given) 
of  their  original  |>rototypes;  but  with  modifications  in  de- 
tails of  construction  derived  from  our  own  experience. 

The  reserve  ecpiipagc  is  divided  into  trains,  each  of  which 
is  composed  of  four  ponton  <livisions  and  one  supply  divi- 
sion. Each  division  is  accompanied  by  a  tool  wagon  and 
traveling  forge. 

JCac/i  ponton  division  is  complete  in  itself,  containing  all 
the  material  necessary  for  constructing  a  bridge  of  eleven 
bays,  or  Si.')  feel  in  length. 

Each  of  these  divisions  is  subdivided  into  four  sections, 
two  of  which  are  ponton  ami  Iwo  abutment  sections;  the 
former  contains  ;i  ponton  wagons  and  1  chess  wagon;  the 
latter,  1  ponton,  1  chess,  and  1  trestle  wagon  each. 

The  ponton  section  contains  tlu'  material  for  three  bays, 
and  should  never  be  subdiviiled.  The  division  may  lie  in- 
creased or  diminished  at  pleasure  by  changing  the  number 
of  its  ponton  sections. 

Tim  supply  division  is  provided  with  articles  necessary  to 
replace  nnilerial  lost  or  worn  out.  such  as  balk,  chess,  spare 
parts  of  carriages,  a  few  complete  carriages,  etc. 

The  carriages  of  this  division  consist  of  ponton,  cliess, 
and  tool  wagons,  and  of  forges.  Their  luimber  and  pro])or- 
tion  will  be  <letermined  by  the  nature  of  the  country  in 
which  the  army  is  operating,  and  by  the  ])roximity  of  the 
main  depot. 

The  trains  of  the  advance-guard  equipage  are  composed 
of  4  ponton  divisions,  each  of  which  consists  of  8  ponton,  2 
chess,  and  2  tri'slle  wagons. 

The  ponton  wagon  carries  all  the  material  necessary  for 


constructing  a  complete  bav 
be  increased  or  di- 
minished by  one  or 
more  ponton  wagon-- 
without  disorganiz- 
ing it.  When  a  forced 
nnirch  is  to  be  made, 
and  it  is  desirable  to 
lighten  the  loads,  the 
chess  may  be  removed 
from  the  ponton  wag- 
ons, the  rojje  from 
the  trestle  wagon-, 
and  the  load  of  tli 
chess  wagons  be  re- 
duced to  40  chess. 
The  number  of  the 
latter  wagons  in  this 
case  nuist  be  in- 
creased to  5. 

The  ponton  wag- 
ons of  reserve  train 
are  drawn  by  ,S  mul<  - 
or  6  horses,  those  of 
the  advance  -  guanl 
train  by  (i  nuiles  or 
4  horses,  the  "loads  " 
being  about  :!.000and 
2.000  11).  respectivelv. 
It  would  be  out  of 
i)laee   to   enter  more 


The  division  may  therefore 


luded  to.  The  military  railroad  construction  and  repair 
corps  were  a  part  of  the  quartermaster's  department,  which 
organized,  hired,  and  paid  all  their  memliers.  and  liought 
and  pai<l  for  all  the  nuiterial.  and  po.sses.scd  and  ojierateil 
the  railroads  at  an  exjiense  which  at  one  litne  amounted  to 
about  .'f;2.000,000  per  month.  Under  the  chief  of  that  de- 
partnu'iit.  and  especially  charged  with  this  duty,  the  princi- 
pal organizer  anil  conductor  of  niilitarv  railroad  transpor- 
tation and  repairs  was  Brig.-Gen.  I).  ('.  ilet'allum  (who  has 
since  nuide  a  valuable  report  on  this  subject),  well  known  as 
an  able  civil  engineer  and  inventor  of  tlie  "  inflexible  arch 
truss";  but  the  creilit  of  the  military  railroad  operation, 
and  repair  and  success,  belong  to  no  individual  altogether, 
but  to  the  qnarterniii-stcr's  department,  and  to  the  body  of 
railroad  engineers,  superintendents,  and  operatives  who 
came  into  its  service  to  aiil  the  country  during  the  war. 

In  the  occupation,  for  protract e<l  [jcriods,  of  the  same 
ground  (as  in  investments,  sieges,  etc.).  military  bridges  as- 
sume friMiuently  a  seuii-penuanent  character. 

Thus  while  tiie  Army  of  the  l^olomac  occujiied  a  position 
near  Kichmond  (May  and  .lunc.  1802)  its  wings  were  sepa- 
rated by  the  formidable  liarrier  of  the  C'hickahominy  rivu- 
let and  swamp.  One  of  the  bridges  is  thus  ilescribed  in 
the  report  of  the  chief  of  engineers  of  the  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac : 

••  The  bridge  was  built  over  the  stream  n])on  frame  tres- 
tles: through  the  swamp  it  was  supported  by  cribs.  The  rtp- 
proachcK  to  the  bridge  ovcrthc  low  bcittoiu-lands  were  either 
raised  corduroy  or  (on  the  north  siile)  simjilv  earth  raised  2 
or  3  feet  (the  soil  being  here  sandy),  with  a  layer  of  brush  1 
foot  below  the  upper  surface,  deep  lateral  ditches  being 
made.  The  whole  structure  of  the  bridge  and  apjiroaches 
was  about  1,400  yards  long.  The  trestlework  and  crib- 
work  bridge  was  mostly  done  by  troops  of  tlie  engineer  brig- 
ade under  tien.  Woodbury;  the  apiu-oaches  on  the  noi'th  by 
the  "Jth  and  22d  Massachusetts  regiments  (Cols.  Cass  and 
(love,  both  of  whom  were  killed  in  the  battles  following),  and 
those  on  the  south  side  by  the  3d  Vermont.  The  bridge  was 
ready  for  the  passage  of  teams  on  the  14t  h,  covered  wit  h  eart  h, 
and  the  approaches  entirely  completed  on  the  ITlli.  The 
bridge  proper  was  l.OSO  feet  long;  roadway,  11  feet  wide; 
number  of  cribs,  40 ;  of  framed  trestles,  (i."'     (Fig.  1.) 

The  condiined  armies  under  Gen.  (irant  occupied  posi- 
tions before  Petersburg  and  Kichmond  from  June.  ls(i4.  to 
Apr.,  1865.     The  Janu'S   river  sejiarated   the  Army  of  the 


"-'^•i^J^iWf^ffi 


Fig.  1.— Woodbury  and  Alexander's  brid^'c 


fully  into  this  subject  in  this  work:  but  these  historical  de- 
tails concerning  the  development  of  the  military-bridge  sys- 
tem of  the  r.S. — a  matter  in  which  the  country  had  no  experi- 
ence whatever — iluring  the  war  can  not  fail  to  be  interesting. 
Jiailirai/  liridi/es. — .Vnother  interesting  branch  of  the 
subject — the  remarkalile  constructions  applied  to  the  im- 
provisation of  railroad  bridges  in  place  of  destroyeil  ones, 
and  the  noteworthy  system  (d'  repiiir  and  construction  in- 
troduced iiUo  our  military  railway  service,  can  only  be  al- 


James  (in  its  final  position)  from  the  center  and  left.  An 
assured  communication  was  in<lispensable,  and  at  the  same 
time  one  which  would  not  impede  the  navigation  for  Federal 
vessels,  whether  transports  or  armed. 

Col.  P.  S.  Michie,  chief  of  engineers.  Army  of  (he  .Tames, 
designed  and  sultmitted  for  approval  a  timljer-jiile  bridge 
with  a  floating  draw  (the  floats  being  ordinary  pontons),  of 
which  an  elevation  of  a  portion,  including  the  "  draw."  of 
pontons  is  here  given,     (rig.  2.) 


r82 


BRIDGET 


BRIDGTOX 


The  piles  of  trestles  were  guarded  against  ice  (which  in  [  married  in  Paris,  Feb.  11,  1829.     By  his  last  will  lie  left 
the  winter  forms  freely  in  the  upper  James)  by  highly  in-  |  £8,000  to  be  paid  to  the  author  of  the  best  treatise  On  the 

-j..^^^  Puwer.   Wisdnm.  and 

■  1^1-1         I         I         I         11         I   1    «    Goodnc'.is  of  God  as 

Manifested  in  tlie. 
Creation.  He  was  an 
Anglican  priest,  very 
eccentric.  Thus  he 
had  his  house  in  Paris 
filled  witli  dogs  anil 
cats.  Some,  dressed 
up  like  human  beings,  were  taken  riding  witli  him  and  fed 
at  his  table. 

Brid^ewater  Treatises :  a  series  of  works  named  in 
honor  of  the  Earl  of  Bridgewater.  (See  preceding  article.) 
Tlie  trustees  who  had  the  control  of  his  bequest  of  £8,000 
placed  it  at  the  disposal  of  Gilbert  Davies,  ]iresident  of  the 
Koyal  Society,  who  appointed  eight  gentlemen  to  write 
separate  treatises  illustrative  of  tlie  power,  wisdom,  and 
goodness  of  God.  Thev  are  arranged  as  follows  in  tlie  col- 
lected edition:  Vol.  i.",  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  F.  K.  S..  Tlic 
Hand  as  Evincing  Design  (1832;  Tth  ed.  1860) ;  ii.,  iii.,  by 
Rev.  William  Kirby,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S.,  I'ower,  Wisdom,  and 
Goodness  of  God'  in  the  Creation  of  Animals  (1835);  iv.,  by 
John  Kidd',  M.  D..  F.  R.  S..  Adaptation  of  External  Nature 
to  the  Physical  Conditions  of  3Ian  (1833);  v.,  by  Rev.  Will- 
iam Whcwell.  M.  A..  F.  R.  S.,  Astroiiomg  and  General 
Phi/sics  irith  Reference  to  Natural  Theologij  (18;i3) :  vi.,  by 
Rev.  Thomas  Chalmers.  D.  D..  Adaptation  of  Externctl 
Nature  to  the  jUoral  and  Intellectual  Conditions  of  Man 
(1833):  vii.,  by  William  Prout,  Jl.  D.,  F.  R.  S..  Chehiistr;/. 
3Ieteorolo(/i/.  and  Digestion  with  lieference  to  Natural 
Theology '(\S34:  4th  cd.  185.5);  viii.,  i'x.,  by  Rev.  William 
Buckliind,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Geoloqi/  and  Mineraloqi/  witli 
Reference  to  Natural  I'heology' (iSSd):  x..  xi..  bV  Peter 
Mark  Roget.  M.  I)..  P.  R.  S..  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology  (4th  ed.  1869). 

Bridgrniaii.  Frederick  Arthur:  genre  and  portrait 
painter,  principally  of  Oriental  subjects:  b.  at  Tuskcgee, 
Ala.,  Nov.  10, 1847  ;  pupil  of  Gcrome,  Paris ;  Nat ional  Acade- 
mician 1881 ;  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
1880;  medal  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  Philadelphia, 
1876 ;  third-class  medal,  Salon,1877 ;  second-class  medal  and 
Legion  of  Honor,  Paris  Exposition,  1878 ;  second  class-medal. 
Paris  Ex]iosition,  1889;  medal  at  Munich  Exjiosition  18yM. 
Ilis  \n<-hn'e  Procession  of  the  Bull  Apis  \»  in  the  Corcoran 
Art  tialleiT,  Washington;  his  Roumanian  Lady,  in  tlic 
Temple  collection.  Pennsylvania  Academy,  Philadelphia; 
and  Diligence  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  Permanent  Gallery, 
Liverpool,  England.  Many  of  liis  works  are  owned  in  tiie 
U.  .'>.  His  pictures  display  very  clever  teehnicpie,  and  are 
generally  brilliant  in  color.     Studio  in  Paris. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Briilgliiaii.  Laura  :  a  blind  deaf-mute :  atfoi'ded  a  i-e- 
markable  instance  of  the  development  of  intellectual  and 
moral  powers  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances.  She 
was  born  at  Hanover,  N.  H..  Dec.  21,  1829.  When  two  years 
old  she  lost  her  sight,  hearing,  and  smell  through  a  severe 
illness,  her  sense  of  taste  being  at  the  same  time  greatly  im- 
paired. At  the  age  of  eight  she  was  placed  under  the  in- 
struction of  Dr.  Howe,  of  Boston,  principal  of  Perkins  In- 
stitution. She  soon  learned  to  read  and  s]iell  with  a  man- 
ual alphabet,  and  afterward  learned  to  write  and  to  sew, 
acquired  very  considerable  inl'ornuition,  and  \v;is  an  olijeet 
of  great  interest  to  psychologists  and  to  those  interested  in 
the  education  of  pei'sons  of  defective  senses.  She  was  a 
teacher  in  the  Perkins  Institute,  and  composed  religious 
verse.  D.  Mav  24.  1889.  See  Marv  S.  Lanison's  biography 
of  her  (Boston",  1878). 

Bl'iilu'iiorlli  (anc.  Bruges  or  Brugia):  a  town  of  Shrop- 
shire. Kiighind  :  on  both  sides  of  the  Severn  :  111  miles  S.  E. 
of  Shrewsbury,  and  123  miles  N.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  9-G).  The  upper  part  of  the  town  is  pic- 
tures((Mely  built  on  a  rock  60  feet  higher  th;in  the  river.  It 
has  an  old  castle,  almshouses,  a  public  library,  a  libiecnat  or 
charity  school,  a  handsome  l)ridge,  and  manufactures  of  i-ar- 
pels,  nails,  tobacco-pipes,  boats,  and  worsted  -stuffs.  It  has 
a  heavy  commerce  upon  the  river,  and  is  sujiposed  to  have 
been  founded  bv  a  daughter  uf  Alfred  the  Great.  Po)i. 
(1891)  5,723. 

Bridgton  :  town;  Cundierland  co..  Me.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref.  10-B);  on  Bridgton  and  Saco 


Fio.  2. 

clined  guard-pieces,  the  feet  of  which  were  secured  to  piles 
in  the  bed  of  the  river.  Each  trestle  was  made  up  of  a  caji- 
piece  and  six  piles  (in  jiairs)  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river. 

This  bridge,  which  was  constructed  late  in  the  year  1864, 
was  in  use  down  to  the  close  of  the  civil  war.  During  the 
period  above  indicated  the  gap  in  our  lines  made  by  the 
Rappahannock  was  occupied  by  one  or  more  ordinary 
ponton  bridges.     See  Haupfs  Military  Bridges  (1867). 

Revised  by  Jas.  Mercur. 

Bridget  (or  Brigit).  Saint,  or  Saint  Bride :  one  of  the 
three  patron  saints  of  Ireland;  b.  at  Fochart.  now  Faugher, 
47  miles  N.  W.  of  Dublin,  453 ;  early  showed  a  character  of 
great  energy,  courage,  generosity,  unselfishness,  and  holi- 
ness ;  became  a  devotee,  and  founded  a  monastery  of  the 
Columbian  order  at  Kildare,  30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Dublin  ; 
and  there  died  Feb.  1,  .523.  The  name  Brigit  means  "the 
fiery  arrow."'     Her  day  is  Feb.  1. 

Bridget,  Sai.nt  (of  Sweden) :  See  Birgitta,  Saint. 

Bridgetoii :  city,  railroad  center,  and  port  of  entry,  the 
capital  of  Cumberland  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  7-B);  is  situated  on  both  sides 
of  Cohansey  river,  a  tide-water  stream ;  20  miles  from  Dela- 
ware Bay,  37  miles  S.  of  Philadelphia,  and  127  miles  S.  of 
New  York.  Its  area  is  15-39  sq.  miles,  or  9,849  acres.  As  a 
port  of  entry  it  is  second  in  tlie  State.  The  leading  articles 
received  are  coal,  ]iig  iron  and  iron  ore,  luml>er,  lime  and 
shells,  fertilizers,  and  manufactured  goods.  The  principal 
shipments  are  nails,  gas  and  water  pipe,  canned  fruits, 
woolen  goods,  window-glass,  hollow-ware,  and  grain,  pota- 
toes, etc.  It  is  the  leaiiing  city  of  Southern  New  Jersey  in 
the  variety  and  value  of  its  manufactured  products.  Edu- 
cational facilities  are  fine.  The  South  Jersey  Institute  for 
both  sexes,  opened  in  1870  on  a  commanding  site,  has  a 
handsome  and  well-appointed  building  which  cost  over 
$65,000.  The  West  Jersey  .\cademy  occupies  a  fine  build- 
ing in  a  beautiful  location.  Ivy  tlall,  a  select  boarding- 
school  for  girls,  ha.s  a  high  reputation.  There  are  also  pub- 
lic schools  of  a  high  order.  It  has  a  flourishing  board  of 
trade,  building  and  loan  associations,  a  large  number  of  be- 
nevolent societies,  and  good  countv  buildings.  Pop.  (1800) 
about  400;  (1880)  8.722;  (1890)  li;424;  (1895)  13,292. 

Editor  of  "  News." 

Bridgetown  :  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Barbados  ; 
on  its  west  coast,  and  extends  idong  the  north  side  of  Carlisle 
Bay,  which  forms  its  roadstead;  hit.  13^  4  N.,  Ion.  59'  38 
W.  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref.  8-M).  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  Bishop  of  Barbados  and  the  governor  of  the  Wind- 
ward islands,  and  has  an  arsenal  ancl  barracks  in  the  vicin- 
ity.    Pop.  (1891)21,000. 

Bridgewater;  a  town  and  river-port  of  England;  in 
Someisetshire;  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Parret ;  33  miles 
by  rail  S.  W.  of  Bristol  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  13-F).  It 
is  neatly  built,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  of  brick.  Vessels 
of  200  tons  can  ascend  the  river  to  this"  town.  Here  is  St. 
Mary's  church,  which  has  a  reniarkalile  and  lofty  spire. 
This  is  the  native  place  of  Admiral  Blake.  Bridgewater  be- 
came a  free  borough  in  1200.     Pop.  (1891)  12,429. 

Bridgewater:  a  post-village  of  New  Dublin  township, 
Lunenburg  County;  12  miles  from  Lunenburg.  Nova  Scotia 
(see  map  of  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia,  ref.  3-B):  has  manu- 
factures of  lumber,  etc.     Pop.  4,000. 

Bridgewater;  town;  PIvmouth  co..  Mass.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Massa'chusi'tts,  ref.  4-1) :  on  Old  Col. 
R.  H..  27  miles  S.  of  Bo.ston.  It  contains  a  State  ni>rmal 
school.  State  almshouse,  extensive  iron-works,  cotton-gin, 
and  other  manufaetiM-ing  cstablishmenls.  , and  is  the  seat  of 
the  countv  agricultural  fair.  Pop.  of  township  (IHSO)  3.620; 
(18!"i)  4.249 ;  (1H1)5)  4,686.         Editor  of  "  Indepe.nde.nt." 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Hknrv  E(iERT0X,  eighth  Earl  of; 
b.  in  London,  Nov.  11,  1756;  son  of  John  Egerton,  Bishop  of 
Durham.     He  iidierited  the  earldom  in  1823,  and  died  uu- 


lUnDI.INGTOX 


BRIGANDAGE 


783 


River  R.  R. ;  38  miles  from  PorthiiKl.    It  has  5  cliurehcs.  5 

graded  scliools,  woolen  mills,  mid  other  maiuifaetories,  and 
is  aeeessible  liv  steamboat  from  the  luot  of  Sebago  Lake. 
Pop.  of  township  (1880)  :>,»«:!;  (1«!J0)  2M)'i. 

Kditor  of  "  Nkws." 

Rridliii^toii.  or  liiirliii^tnii  :  market-town  in  the  Kast 
Ridin;;  of  Vorkshire,  Kni^land  ;  on  the  North  Sea ;  54  miles 
by  rail  K.  by  X.  of  York  (see  map  of  Kngland,  ref.  &-J). 
Here  are  remains  of  a  rich  priorv  founded  by  a  f;rand-ne|)hew 
of  William  the  Coiii|Ueror.  Numerous  aneient  tumuli  or 
barrows  oecur  in  this  vieinity.  Hridlinifton  (^uay,  a  seaport 
and  liathinir-plaee.  is  on  the  sea,  1  mile  S.  K.  of  tin'  town.  It 
has  a  chalybeate  sprinj;  and  several  hotels;  also  an  active 
trade  in  corn,  which  is  exported  from  it.  This  place  is 
noted  for  chalk-Hint  fossils.  Pop,  of  Bridlington  and  t^uav 
(IS'.tl)  (l.illl. 

Bridpiirt  :  a  seaport-town  of  Dorsetshire,  Englaml ;  on 
the  liril  or  Uride  river;  10  miles  X,  W,  of  Dorchester  (see 
ma])  of  Kn;;lanil,  ref,  14-F),  It  is  surrouiuled  by  hills,  and 
consists  chietly  of  three  s])aeious  streets.  It  has  a  (iothic 
church,  an  almshouse,  a  lowi\-hall;  also  manufactures  of 
eordajre,  sail-cloth,  shoe-threail,  and  tish-uets.  The  vicinity 
is  celebrated  for  its  butler  and  cheese.     Pop.  T:,rM). 

Brief  [O,  Fr,  href,  brief  <  Lat.  breve,  a  short  list,  note, 
dispatch,  neat,  of  hreris,  short] :  in  law,  an  abridged  state- 
ment of  the  plaintill's  or  det'cndant's  ca.se,  prepared  by  his 
attorney  for  the  use  of  the  barrister  or  counsel,  (See  At- 
torney,) It  should  contain  a  summary  of  the  |)leadings,  a 
concise  statenu'Ut  of  the  facts  involved,  the  names  of  the 
witnesses,  the  substance  of  their  testimony,  and  usually  ob- 
servatioi 
counsel. 

In  the  tr,  S,,  where  the  siime  person  performs  the  func- 
tions of  both  attorney  and  counsel,  the  word  "  brief"  is  used 
to  denote  the  sketch  of  the  argument  of  counsel,  with  or 
without  a  statemeul  of  facts,  which  is  either  used  by  him 
or  submitted  to  the  court  inider  its  rules,  "  Brief  "  is  also 
sonietiuu'S  employed  in  the  sense  of  brrre,  to  denote  one  of 
the  writs  by  which  all  suits  in  the  higher  courts  were  origi- 
nally begun.  Revised  by  F,  Stl'Kues  Allkn, 

Brief,  I'apal:  a  letter  addressed  by  the  po]ie  to  tem- 
poral princes  or  communities  on  sulijects  of  discipline  or 
public  alTairs.  It  differs  from  the  papal  bull  in  several  re- 
spects, giving  decisions  on  matters  of  inferior  importance, 
which  do  not  require  the  deliberations  and  assent  of  a  con- 
clave of  cardinals.  It  is  not  signed  by  the  pope,  but  by  the 
scgivlario  dc"  brevi,  an  ollicer  of  the  pa])al  chancery.  It  is 
wrlllen  on  thin  |iarchrnent,  in  current  l,.ilin  characters,  be- 
gins with  the  name  of  tlie  pope,  is  dated  after  the  modern 
and  not,  as  in  bulls,  after  the  Roman  fashion,  and  sealed 
in  red  wax  with  the  pope"s  private  seal,  called  the  "  Fisher- 
nian's  Ring"  (.Vnnulus  Piscatoris), 

Brieg,  breech;  a  town  of  Prussia:  in  Silesia;  on  the 
Oder,  and  on  the  railway  from  Breslau  to  Djjpeln ;  :3!)  miles 
by  rail  X.  of  Xeisse  (.see  map  of  German  Fmpire,  ref,  o-I), 
It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  gymnasium,  a  good  library,  and 
manuraclures  of  hosierv,  ril)bi>ns,  linens,  and  woolens.  Pop. 
(IWIO)  ■,'(),!. ".4. 

Bricl.  or  The  Brill:  a  fortified  seaport-town  of  Holland; 
proviiue  of  Soulli  Holland;  near  the  moutli  of  the  river 
Meuse;  l:i  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  The  Hague;  lat.  of  liirhthouse 
5r  54  ir  X.,  hm.  4  !)'  51 "  F.  (see  map  of  Holland  and  IVl- 
giuiii,  ref.  G-D).  It  has  a  good  harbor,  is  inlersecle<l  by 
.several  canals,  and  contains  .several  magazines.  The  capture 
of  this  town  by  William  de  la  Marck  in  1572  was  the  tirst 
imi>orlaut  event  in  the  long  contest  between  the  Dutch  and 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  Van  Tmmp  and  Dc  Witt  were  born 
here.      I'op.  4,(i0(), 

Bl'ioiiiie.  or  Brieniie-lc-Chrifoaii.  biee  en  h-shali'to', 
called  aUo  Bi°l<>iine-Na|ioleon.  -lufa  {m  hi  nix' :  a  small  town 
of  France  ;  di'parlmcnl  of  .\ulie;  on  the  river  Aube  :  'i'.i  miles 
K.  X.  K.  of  Troves  (sei'  map  of  France,  ref,  4-G),  Here  was 
a  military  school  in  which  N'apoleou  I,  was  educated.  The 
place  derived  its  name  from  a  chateau  built  by  the  last 
Count  de  Hrienne.  In  .Ian..  1814,  a  battle  was  fought  here 
between  Napoleon  and  the  allies  commanded  by  Hliicher  and 
Schwarzenl>erg,  in  which  the  latter  were   victorious.     Pop. 

(is'.U)  I,:;!-', 

Brionz,  brei-Vns,  Lake  of  ((term.  lirieiizer-See) :  in  Switz- 
erland ;  is  formed  by  the  river  Aar,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ilasli 
valley.  It  is  8  miles  long,  3  miles  wide,  and  from  500  to 
3,100'  feel  deep.     The  surface  is  1,847  feet  above  the  level  of 


the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  one  of  which, 
called  the  Hothhorn,  commands  a  grand  view  of  the  Alps, 
The  surplus  water  of  this  lake  Hows  through  the  Aar  into 
Lake  Thuu,     A  small  steamer  plies  on  the  lake  daily. 

Bricrre  dc  Boisiiioiit.  bn'e  iir'd('-bwa"a  nioh',  Alex.ixdre 
.lAcyiES  Fha.m/ois  :  a  French  physician ;  b.  in  Rome,  Oct. 
18,  17'J7;  pul)lislied  numerous  treatises  on  medico-psycho- 
logical sulijects;  among  others,  De  V Ennui;  Sur  le  Suicide 
et  la  Fiilie-nuicitle  (rev.  ed.  1865) ;  and  Def:  Maladies  Men- 
tales  (1860).     D.  in  St.-Mande,  Dec.  25,  1881. 

Brigade  [Fr.,  from  Ital.  briyala,  crew,  company] :  a  group 
of  regiments  or  battalions  condjiued  into  one  body.  In  the 
British  army  it  denotes  a  body  fornu'd  by  the  union  of  two 
or  more  ri'giments  or  battalions  under  one  commander, 
calli'il  a  brigadier.  It  is  a  tem]io!aiv  grouping  which  can 
be  broken  up  whenever  the  commander  of  the  army  thinks 
proper.  In  the  U.  S.  army  two  or  more  regiments  of  infantry 
or  .s(|uadrons  of  cavalry  may  constitute  a  brigade.  A  brigade 
of  cavalry  is  usually  eight  or  ten  sr|uadroii.s.  The  term  is 
often  applied  to  unii'iu-med  lioilies  acting  under  authority  in 
a  siMui-milltary  way,  as  ■•  fire  brigade."  The  Uoyal  (iuard 
in  (ireat  liritaiii.  consisting  of  three  cavalry  and  three  infan- 
try regiments,  is  known  as  the  Household  lirigade. 

Brigadier', or  Brigadier-general :  thc<ommanderof  a 
brigade;  an  ollicer  who  is  one  degree  higher  than  a  colonel, 
and  one  lower  than  a  major-general.  In  thi^  British  army  a 
brigadier  is  an  officer  (usually  a  colonel)  who  for  a  limited 
time  and  for  a  sneciid  service  is  appointed  to  the  command 
of  a  brigade.  When  this  is  broken  up  he  either  falls  back 
to  his  colonelcy  or  is  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 

Brig'andage  :  highway  robbery  by  organized  gangs,  who 
make  their  lii>ine  in  secure  places  in  the  forests  or  among 
the  mountains,  from  which  they  i.ssue  forth  to  seize  and  rob 
wayfarers  oi'  to  hold  them  for  ransom.  In  a  period  of 
barbarism,  when  might  is  the  only  right,  brigandage  has  its 
rise.  The  heroes  of  Greece  distinguished  themselves  by  sup- 
pressing brigandage.  Theseus,  Perseus,  and  Hercules  purged 
the  country  of  these  robbers  who  had  taken  refuge  m  cav- 
eni.s,  and  also  of  the  princes  who  practiced  the  same  trade. 
Cities  pillaged  each  other.  The  Palatine  Hill,  the  cradle  <if 
Rome,  was  originally  a  refuge  for  the  brigands  of  the  Cain- 
pagna;  iluriiig  the  whole  ]ieriod  of  the  Roman  republic  the 
Italian  peninsula  was  full  of  brigand.s.  The  fugitive  slaves 
and  the  inhaliitaiits  of  conquered  cities  who  had  escaped  the 
Roman  sword  continually  increased  the  number.  The  Ci- 
minian  forest  was  their  headquarters,  and  this  has  remained 
until  our  time  a  most  dangerous  [ilace  for  travelers  from 
Florence  to  Kome.  The  civil  wars  Increased  the  numbers  of 
the  brigands;  Roman  citizens  were  carried  away  almost 
under  the  eyes  of  the  .soldiers  and  held  in  prison  until  they 
paid  a  high  ransom.  Still  the  bi-igands, even  at  that  period, 
were  not  without  sentiment.  Paheiuon.  the  celebrated  gram- 
marian, having  fallen  into  their  hands,  was  sent  away  with- 
out harm  as  soon  as  they  had  heard  his  name.  Fifteen 
centuries  laler  Ariosto  paid  his  ransom  on  almost  the  .same 
spot  by  reading  a  few  stanzas  of  his  ]ioi'm. 

The  vasi  lorots  thai  covered  Gaul  and  (iermaiiy  furnished 
a  natural  retuge  for  brigands;  continual  wars  favored  them, 
and  the  whole  feudal  system  in  many  of  its  features  was 
little  better  than  respectable  brigandage.  In  France  the 
system  survived  longer  than  in  (iermany.  The  eighteenth 
century  furnishes  two  famous  naiues  in  the  annals  of  brig- 
andage in  France.  Cartouche  aii<l  Mandrill.  Napoleon  hav- 
ing firmly  esbdilisheil  the  security  of  the  roads,  since  his 
day  brigandage  has  practically  been  unknown  in  that  coun- 
try. Italy,  always  the  classic  home  of  brigands,  and  .Spain, 
her  rival  in  this  respect,  continued  for  many  years  to  give  a 
home  to  these  romantic  criminals.  The  outlaws  were  gen- 
erally in  league  with  the  authorities,  and  were  never  betrayed 
exce]if,  for  vengeance;  this  was  |iarticularly  the  case  in 
Southern  Italy  The  ordinary  line  of  operations  of  the  brig- 
ands extended  from  Vienna  to  Naples,  covering  the  lofty 
mountains  of  Ai|uila  and  A(|uino,  K.  of  Rome.  These  are 
covered  with  dense  fores! s,  which  support  numerous  goals, 
on  which  the  brigands  .subsisted.  Brigandage  was  entirely 
consistent  wilh  religion.  A  man  took  his  gun  and  went 
upon  the  highway  to  collect  money  to  pay  his  taxes  or  his 
church  assessments.  Napoleon  waged  a  tierce  war  against 
this  system  in  Italy,  and  during  all  his  domination  no  a.ssas- 
sinatiuii  or  theft  was  allowed  to  go  un])nnished.  This  was 
one  great  cause  of  the  jioinilar  hatred  against  him.  One  of 
the  most  famous  of  the  Italian  brigands  was  Fra  Diavolo, 
who  played  an  important  part  in  the  revolution  of  Naples 


784 


BRIGANTES 


BRIGHT 


in  1799,  was  received  with  great  favor  at  the  co\irt.  and  given 
the  title  of  colonel  by  Queen  Caroline.  Spain  lias  liad  much 
the  ex|)ericnce  of  Italy.  No  government  has  ever  lieen  strong 
enougli  to  track  the  malefactors  to  their  mountain  fastnesses 
and  exterminate  them.  Here,  as  in  Italy,  brigandage  seemed 
rather  chivalry.  Jose  Maria,  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Spanish  contrabandists,  is  said  never  to  have  taken  a  ring 
from  a  lady's  hand  without  saying  "  Jladaui,  so  fair  a  hand 
has  no  need  of  ornament."  Other  countries  preserve  tender 
recollections  of  these  happy  times.  Schinderhannes  is  still 
popular  along  the  Rhine  ;  Chandor  is  as  celebrated  for  his 
filibustering  exploits  as  for  his  sliare  in  the  revolution  of 
1848.  In  Albania  this  form  of  plunder  still  exists.  A  char- 
acteristic feature  of  brigandage  everywhere  is  the  holding 
of  captives  for  a  ransom.  The  brigand  has  furnished  many 
heroes  to  literature  and  opera.  Ilernani,  the  hero  of  Victor 
Hugo's  great  drama,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated.  About's 
Roi  (les  Moniagnes  is  a  well-known  and  delightful  talc  based 
upon  brigandage  in  (ireecc.  See  Ljiroiisse,  DictimitKiirif  (hi 
XIX"  SiMctc  (upon  which  this  article  is  largely  founded) ; 
Baedeker's  Guide  to  Southern  Italy.  C.  II.  Thurber. 

Brig'an'tes :  a  powerful  nation  of  ancient  Britain,  in- 
habiteil  what  is  now  the  north  of  England,  including  tlie 
counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Durham,  York,  and 
Lancaster. 

Briarg'S,  Charles  Augustus,  H.  D.  :  theologian  and  scholar ; 
b.  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  15, 1841 :  studied  at  the  University 
of  Virginia  1857-60,  the  Union  Tlicological  Semiiniry  of  New 
York  1861-63,  and  the  Univei-sity  of  Berlin  1866-69 ;  was 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Roselle,  N.  J.,  1870-74; 
in  1875  was  chosen  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  the  Cognate 
Languages  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  ; 
in  1891  was  transferred  to  the  newly  endowed  Edward  Rob- 
inson chair  of  Biblical  Theology.  His  inaugural  address  was 
the  occasion  of  his  trial  for  heresy  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
York,  on  the  ground  that  it  maintained  the  following  errors : 
(1)  that  Reason  is  a  fountain  of  divine  authority  which  may' 
and  does  savingly  enlighten  men ;  (2)  that  the  t'hureh  is  a 
fountain  of  divine  authority  which,  apart  from  the  Holy 
Scripture,  may  and  does  savingly  enlighten  men ;  (3)  that 
errors  may  have  existed  in  the  original  text  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, as  it  came  from  its  authors ;  (4)  that  Moses  is  not  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch;  (5)  that  Isaiah  is  not  the  author 
of  half  tlie  book  that  Ijears  liis  name ;  (6)  that  Sanctification 
is  not  complete  at  death.  The  trial  lasted  for  some  six 
weeks  (during  November  and  December,  1892),  and  resulted 
in  the  acquittal  of  the  accused  on  every  count.  It  was  shown 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  majority  of  the  presbytery  that  he 
never  maintained  the  error  stateil  in  the  firs't  two  counts, 
and  in  regard  to  the  others  that  it  was  allowable  in  a  Pres- 
byterian minister  to  hold  the  opinion  sought  to  be  con- 
demned. The  decision  of  the  jn'esljytery  was  appealed  to 
the  General  Assembly.  He  was  the  editor  of  the  Preshy- 
terian  Review.  1880-8!}.  anil  author  of  Biltliral  Stuilij  (New 
York,  1883;  3d  ed.  188S):  Aiuerirun  I'lrsbi/frriiini.^m'ilHSn); 
Jles.sianic  Prophecy  (1886);  Wliiiher's'  (1889);  Tlie  Bible, 
the  Church,  and  the  Reason  (1892).  The  University  of  Edin- 
burgh gave  him  the  degree  of  I).  D.  in  1884. 

BriffffS,  Charles  Frederick  ;  journalist ;  b.  at  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  in  1804.  He  established  the  Broadway  Journal  in 
1844,  and  was  afterward  associated  editorially  wit  h  Putnam's 
Ilagazine.  the  Independent,  and  the  Neu<  Y<irk  Times.  He 
published,  besides  other  work.s.  The  Adrentures  of  harry 
Franco:  a  Tate  of  the  Great  Panic  (18311) ;  The  'Haunted 
Merchant  (1844) :  iind  The  Trippinr/sof  Torn,  I'epper  (1X47). 
1).  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June  20,  1877. 

Brig'K'S,  Georoe  Nixon-,  LL.  I). :  lawver  and  judge  ;  b.  in 
Adams,  Mass.,  Apr.  13,  1796;  became  a  lawyer  in  1818  in 
BiTkshire  Counly;  distinguished  himself  in' defense  of  an 
Indian  charged  with  murder  in  1837 ;  from  1831  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  for  twelve  years,  and  Governor  of  Jlassachu- 
setts  from  1844  to  1851,  during  which  time  he  refused  to 
pardon  Prof.  Webster,  the  inuriierer  of  Dr.  Parkman.  He 
was  a  common  i)leas  judge  1851-56;  .also  a  trustee  of  Will- 
iams College  for  sixteen  years,  and  a  distinguislieil  philan- 
thropist, and  for  many  years  president  of  tlie  Baptist  Mis- 
.sionary  Union.  1).  in  "Pittsfielil,  Sept.  12,  1861.  See  his 
memoir  under  title  Great  in  Goodness  (Boston,  1866). 

Briggs,  Henry:  mathematician  ;  b.  near  lltdil'ax,  York- 
shire, in  1551;  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  became  in  1619  S.avilian  Profrssor  of  Astronomv  at  Ox- 
ford.    He  made  imijortant  contributions  to  the  theory  of 


logarithms,  in  which  the  logaritlnn  of  ten  was  taken  as 
unity,  and  published  in  1624  a  great  work  entitled  Arith- 
meticci  Loi/arithniica.  giving  the  losarithms  of  natural  num- 
bers from'l  to  20,000.  and  from  90,000  to  100,000,  calculated 
to  14  places.  His  Trigononietria  Brilannica  (Lontlon,  1633) 
contained  Tables  of  natural  sines,  tangents,  and  secants  with 
logarithms  to  the  hundredtli  part  of  a  degree.  D.  in  Ox- 
ford, Jan.  26,  1630. 

Brigliain,  Ajiariah,  51.  D. :  b.  near  New  Slarlborough, 
IMass.,  Dec.  26, 1798  ;  practiced  medicine  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
where  his  opposition  to  revivals  on  hygienic  grounds  brought 
him  obloquy.  He  became  superintendent  of  tlie  lunatic 
asylum  at  Utiea,  N.  Y.,  in  1842.  Among  his  works  is  The 
Anatomy.  Pht/sioloeiy.  and  Patholoyy  of  the  Brain  (1840). 
D.  in  Utiea,  Sept.  8,  'l849. 

Brig'liaiu,  Charles  Henry  :  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July 
37,  1820;  graduated  at  Harvard;  became  in  1844  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  church  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  and 
in  1865  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
After  1866  he  was  Professor  of  Biblical  Archirology  and 
Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  Meadville  (Pa.)  Theological 
School.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  of  the  Philological  Society,  and  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and 
was  the  author  of  many  contributions  to  ]ierioilical  litera- 
ture. D.  in  Hrooklvn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  19, 1879.  See  his  Memoir 
by  E.  B.  Willson,  Boston,  1881. 

Brighnm  ;  city ;  capital  of  Box  Elder  co.,  Utah  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  ma]i  of  Utah,  ref.  3-L) ;  on  Cent.  Pao. 
and  on  branch  of  Union  Pac.  R.  Rs. ;  60  miles  N.  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  near  the  northern  shore  of  Salt  Lake.  There 
are  here  churches  of  three  denominations,  and  4  district  and 
3  sectarian  schools:  farming  and  fruit,  cattle,  and  sheep 
raising  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,877;  (1890)  2,139;  (1895)  State  census,  2,732. 

EUITOR  OF  "  BUQLER." 

Bright,  John:  orator  and  statesman  ;  b.  near  Rochdale, 
Lancashire,  England,  Ni>v.  16.  1811.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  About  1840  he  became  a  personal 
and  political  friend  of  Richard  Cobden,  and  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  orator  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  in  advocacy 
of  which  he  addressed  many  public  meetings.  He  was 
elected  a  memlier  of  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Durham  in 
1843,  and  was  returned  for  Manchester  in  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1847.  Cobden  and  Bright  became  the  principal 
leaders  of  the  Jlanchester  scliool  or  )iarty,  which  was  not 
identified  with  either  of  the  great  political  parties,  but  ad- 
vocated a  pacific  foreign  policy  and  electoral  reform.  He 
was  defeated  in  the  election  of  1857,  because  he  had  opposed 
the  Crimean  war  against  Russia  and  the  Chinese  war,  but 
was  elected  in  the  same  year  by  the  Liberal  voters  of  Bir- 
mingham, whom  he  continued  to  represent  for  many  years. 
During  the  great  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  he  expressed  his 
syniiiathy  with  the  Union  cause  in  several  eloquent  speeches. 
After  tlie  Kefonn  bill  of  Russell  and  Gladstone  had  been  re- 
jected by  the  House  of  Commons  in  1866,  Mr.  Bright  ad- 
vocated the  cause  of  electoral  reform  by  vehement  sjieeches 
at  immense  public  meetings  in  London,  Manchester,  Bir- 
mingham, and  other  places.  In  1867  the  friends  of  reform 
trium])Iicd,  and  procured  the  passase  of  a  bill  granting  the 
right  of  suffrage  to  every  householder  in  a  borough.  He 
entered  tlie  caliinct  formed  by  Mr.  tiladstone  in  Dec,  1868, 
as  president  of  the  Boanl  of  Trade,  and  resigned  office  on 
account  of  ill  health  about  Jlar.,  1871 ;  again  a  member  of 
Jlr.  Gladstone's  cabinet  of  Apr.  38,  1880 ;  he  resigned  July 
14,  1882,  announcing  in  the  House  of  Commons  that  he  re- 
tired because  he  differed  from  his  colleagues  of  the  cabinet 
on  then-  Irish  home-rule  and  their  Egyjitian  policy.  He  was 
elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  Nov.  15, 
1880.  A  collection  of  his  speeches  was  published  in  two 
volumes  in  1868.     D.  in  Lonilon,  JIar.  27,  1889. 

Briglit.  Marshal  II. :  b.  at  lluds.m,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  18, 1834; 
educated  at  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge,  1852-53; 
reported  in  New  York  Senate  1854;  associate  editor  .l//<r/?iy 
vlrc/Hssame  year;  served  in  the  civil  war;  appointed  on  the 
staff  of  (ieii.  Robert  Anderson,  Oct.,  1861  ;  served  succes- 
sively on  staffs  of  Gens.  W.  T.  Sherman,  I).  C.  Ihiell,  W.  S. 
Kosecrans,  and  George  II.  Thomas  1M61-65;  partici|iated  in 
several  engagements;  breveteil  majnr  for  valualile and  meri- 
torious services:  resigned  his  commission  at  close  of  the 
war  1H65:  engaged  in  silver  mining  in  Nevada;  liecame 
managing  editor  of  Christian  at  Worh;  New  York,  1873,  and 


WRIGHT 


BKIXDABAX 


rs5 


eilitor-in-cliiff  18«0.  lie  lias  contributed  to  numerous peri- 
odiiiils  on  lli<"oloj;i(ul,  si-ieiitifio,  and  philosophical  subjects, 
and  delivered  various  addresses. 

Itriiflit.  William,  I).  I). :  Canon  of  Christ  Church  and 
lieirids  Professor  of  Kcclesiastieal  Ilislory,  Oxford;  b. 
in  Diineasler,  Enjjland,  Dec.  14,  18^4.  KiUuiiled  at  Kugby 
and  at  University  Collei^e,  Oxford  ;  graduated  15.  A.  1840; 
felli>\v  of  liis  collej;c  1847;  ordained  184S  and  1850;  Canon 
Clirist  Cluirch  and  regius  professor  18()8.  Author  of  An- 
cimf  (.'olli'cl.'i  (18.>7;  2d  ed.  1861);  Ili-s/un/ of  l/ie  Church 
from  the  Edict  of  Milan  to  Council  of  Chalcedon  (1860; 
oth  ed.  1888) ;  Sermons  of  SI.  Leo  the  Great  on  the  Jncar- 
miliiin.Xrun^.  with  his  Tome  and  Sotes  (2d  ed.  1883) ;  Faitit 
anil  Life  (18(i4;  2d  ed.  1866);  llyinns  and  other  ^'e.rlle■■s 
(1866;  2d  ed.  1874);  Chapters  of  L'arly  English  Church 
Jlislori/  (1878 ;  3d  ed.  1889) ;  Notes  on  the  Canons  of  the 
FtrsI  Pour  General  ('ouncils  (1882);  lona  and  other  Poems 
(18X6);  Addresses  on  the  Seven  Sayinys  from  the  Cross 
(1887);  Sermons  on  the  Incarnation  (188!));  Lessons  from 
the  Lires  of  Three  Great  Fathers  (1800);  The  Roman  Claims 
Tested  hi/  Antiquity  (1877).  Kditor  of  Kusebius's  Ecrlesias- 
tical  History  (1872  ;  2d  ed.  1882) ;  S(.  Athanasius's  Orations 
against  the  Arians  (Mia  \  2d  ed.  1883);  Socrates's  Eeclesi- 
astical  /fislory  (1878);  select  Anti-Pelagian  Treatises  of 
St.  Alliiiniisius,  in  The  Library  of  the  Fathei'S. 

Itri^-Jitoii,  formerly  lirii^litlM'lmstonc :  a  town  and 
fashionalile  waterins-place  of  Enjiland,  in  Sussex;  on  the 
KiiLclish  Channel  :  .">()  miles  .S.  of  London  (see  map  of  Kn>;- 
land,  ref.  14-.I).  It  is  the  southern  tiM-minus  of  tlie  London 
and  l!rij;hton  Railway.  Lat.  of  lii^htliouse,  .W  50'  X.,  Ion. 
0  8  VV.  It  extends  3  miles  alonj;  the  coast,  and  is  shel- 
tered on  the  X.  and  X.  K.  by  the  South  Dijwns.  To  resist 
the  inroads  of  the  sea,  which  formerly  undermineil  the 
chalk-clifTs  at  Hrijthton.  a  sea-wall  of  jjreat  strength  has 
been  constructed.  It  is  60  feet  high  and  forms  an  admir- 
able promenade.  In  the  middle  of  the  town,  in  an  open 
space  <-al!ed  the  Steyne.  is  the  pavili(Ui  or  Marine  Palace,  a 
fantastic  structure  of  Oriental  style  built  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales  ((Jeorge  IV.).  It  was  finished  in  1827,  and  is  now 
owiieil  by  the  corporation  of  Brighton.  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  consists  mostly  of  new  and  elegant  streets  and 
terraces.  It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  the  aristocracy  and  the 
opulent  classes,  has  numiTous  magniticeiit  hotels,  two  the- 
aters, assembly-rooms,  and  many  boarding-schools.  Among 
its  institutions  are  Brighton  College,  founded  in  1847  for  the 
cducalioii  of  the  sons  of  noblemen,  a  hospilal,  and  the  Sus- 
sex Literary  and  Scientific  Institution.  Urighton  returns 
two  members  to  Parliament.  Steamers  ply  between  this 
place  and  Dieppe.  A  fine  terrace,  called  the  Marine  Parade, 
extends  about  a  mile  between  the  Steyne  and  Kempt  on,  an 
eastern  suburb  of  Brighton.  It  has  little  or  no  maritime 
trade,  an<l  owes  its  rapid  increa.se  to  the  salubrity  of  the  air 
and  its  attractions  to  persons  in  pursuit  of  health  and  jilcas- 
ure.  It  entertains  annuallv  about  80,000  visitors.  Pup. 
(1881)  107,528;  (1891)  ll.j,40'2. 

lJri!rlit'.s  Diseaso,  or  Nephritis  (named  after  the  fa- 
mous Kiiglish  physieian.  Dr.  Richard  Bright,  who  studied  this 
disease  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centurv) :  essen- 
tially a  degeneration  of  the  kidney  structure.  In  conse- 
(pience  of  this,  the  normal  excret(U'y  jirocesses  arc  not  ac- 
complished, and  various  poisonous  substances  meant  for 
excretion  are  retained,  to  the  impairment  of  the  general 
health.  The  causes  of  this  disease,  or  more  properly  group 
of  diseases,  for  under  the  term  Bright's  disease  are  included 
various  degenerations  of  the  kidneys,  are  extremely  varied. 
Infectious  diseases,  partjcularly  scarlet  fever,  wet  and  cold, 
gout,  syphilis,  excessive  use  of  alcohol,  and  many  other 
causes,  may  bring  about  disease  of  the  kidneys.  Bright's 
disease  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  The  former  is  the  iform 
commonly  observed  after  infectious  disease  or  exposure,  and 
in  a  fair  pro[)ortion  of  cases  terminates  happily.  The  latter 
is  the  result  of  more  slowly  acting  causes,  and  may  be  ac- 
companied by  a  great  variety  of  symptoms.  The  first  effect 
of  degeneration  of  the  kidney  substance  is  alteration  in  the 
character  of  the  urine.  The  presence  of  albumin  in  Ihe 
urine,  though  by  no  means  always  indicative  of  Bright's 
disciise,  rarely  fails  to  be  a  symptom  of  the  disease.  At  the 
same  time  there  may  be  seen  by  the  microscope  certain 
small  "ca.sts"  or  molds  of  the  urinary  tubules  of  the  kid- 
neys. The  latter  are  considered  alisolutely  indicative  of  the 
disease  whereas  ALnr.MixiRiA  ((/.  c.)inay  occur  in  other  con- 
tlitions.  Of  the  other  symptoms  derangement  of  the  diges- 
tive system,  headache,  progressive  weakness  and  anicmia, 
SO 


dimness  of  vision,  and  finally  dropsy  are  important.  In  ex- 
acerbations these  symptoms  may  become  intensified,  causing 
vomiting,  diarrhuz'a,  entire  loss  of  vision,  widespread  dropsy 
(ana-sarca),  and  finally  convulsions  or  coma.  It  is  important 
to  remember  that  Bright's  disease  as  a  rule  is  a  wholly  pain- 
less disease.  The  pains  in  the  back  and  side  so  frequently 
attributed  to  this  di.seaseare  usually  muscular  or  rheumatic, 
sometimes  they  are  expressions  of  disturbance  or  irritation 
of  the  intestines,  but  very  rarely  can  they  be  attributed  to 
Bright's  diseas;e.  Stone  in  the  kidney  does  cause  such  pains, 
but  these  are  more  acute  than  the  dull  ache  spoken  ot,  and 
are  apt  to  be  so  severe  as  to  lead  to  an  early  recognition  of 
their  true  cause.  The  outlook  in  chronic  Bright's  disease 
is  always  gloomy,  though  many  per.sons  reach  an  old  age 
totally  unaware  of  the  fact  that  they  had  the  disease  during 
many  years,  and  others  live  long  periods  in  comparative 
comfort  after  having  discovered  the  disease.  The  best  t  reat- 
nient  is  the  hygienic,  consisting  of  carefully  regulated  diet, 
avoiding  meat  and  other  albuminous  foods  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  restriction  of  alcoholic  drink  to  the  miuiuium, 
moderate  exercise,  and  careful  avoidance  of  cold  and  wet. 
During  the  acute  attacks  medicinal  treatment  may  be  needed 
to  compensate  the  improper  excretion  of  urine.  If  dropsy 
is  pronounced,  active^  purgation  or  sweating  may  be  re- 
quired :  if  weakness  and  ana-mia  are  great,  iron  will  be  found 
efficaci(ais,  or  it  may  be  necessary  to  administer  other  tonics. 
See  Alhimi.nuria.  William  Pei'PEK. 

Brigitta:  See  Biroitta. 

Brigittiiio.s,  brij  it-inz,  or  Order  of  the  Saviour:  a 
monastic  (U-der  affiliated  with  the  Augusliiiians;  founded 
by  St.  Bridget  (or  Birgitta)  of  Sweden  in  1344.  It  originally 
included  monks  and  nuns,  who  lived  in  the  sjime  house,  but 
were  forbidden  to  see  each  other.  Theie  are  at  iiresent  few 
if  any  Brigittine  monks,  and  not  many  nuns.  Sion  House 
was  the  only  English  convent.  CEcolainpadius,  the  Re- 
former, was  once  a  Brigittine  monk. 

Bri'jriis  :  a  port  of  entry  and  post-town;  capital  of  Bri- 
gus  (listri<'1,  Xewfoundlaiiil ;  is  about  35  miles  X.  W.  of  St. 
Johns.  It  lias  a  small  but  good  harbor,  having  over  820 
cod-fishing  boats  ami  30  trading  vessels,  and  is  visited  by 
steamers  from  St.  Johns.  It  has  a  convent  of  Sisters  of 
Mercv  and  a  jail,  it  has  considerable  agriculture.  Pop. 
about  2.000. 

Bril,  Pail:  landscape-painter;  b.  in  Antwerp  in  1556. 
He  was  a  pu|)il  of  his  brother  Jlattheus,  an<l  worked  for 
many  years  in  Rome,  where  he  died  Oct.  7,  1626. 

Brill :  a  flounder  (Bolhus  rhoml/us) ;  found  on  the  coasts 
of  Europe,  and  esteemed  as  food,  though  inferior  to  the  tur- 
bot  which   it    much  resembles,  but   from   which  it  may  be 


distinguished  by  its  want  of  tubercles  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  by  the  color,  which  is  a  reddish  sandy  brown  on  the 
upper  sirle,  varied  with  darker  brown,  and  sprinkled  with 
white  pearly  spots.     It  seldom  weighs  more  than  8  lb. 

BriiiistoiU' :  a  commercial  and  common  name  for  Sii.- 
PHIR  ((/.  c). 

Brindabaii.  brin-ila-baan'.  or  BindrnbiiiKl  (anc.  Vrin- 
darana):  a  sacred  town  of  British'  India  ;  in  Xorthwestern 
Provinces;  on  the  river  Jamna;  about  40  miles  X.  X.  W.  of 
Agra  and  7  miles  from  Miittra  (see  map  of  X'.  India,  ref. 
6-E).  It  has  .several  temples  of  Krishna,  one  of  \vhich  is  a 
remarkablv  massive  structure.  This  town  is  visited  by 
multitudes  of  pilgrims  from   distant  parts  of  India,  and 


786 


BRINDISI 


BRlSTED 


their  munificence  is  the. chief  su]iport  ot  the  |iliice.     Pop. 
(1890)  21.4G7. 

Briu'rtisi :  ii  tortifioil  seaport  of  Italy ;  province  of  Lecce  ; 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic ;  38  miles  bv 
rail  N.  N.  W  of  l.ccce :  lat.  of  fort.  40°  39  X.,  Ion.  18'  1'  E. 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-II).  The  ancient  Unindisiiim  was 
taken  from  the  Salient ines  by  the  Romans  in  2G7  B.  c,  and 
was  afterward  the  |)rincipal  naval  station  of  the  Romans 
on  the  Adriatic.  It  had  an  excellent  landlocked  harbor, 
and  was  long  one  of  the  most  important  maritime  cities  of 
Italy.  It  was  the  port  from  which  the  Romans  embarked 
on  the  voyage  to  Greece.  Vergil  died  here  in  19  B.  c.  The 
crusaders  used  it  as  their  chief  port  of  embarkation  to  the 
Holy  Land.  The  harlior  having  become  choked  with  sand, 
its  iinportance  greatly  declined.  Here  is  a  mediaeval  cathe- 
dral and  an  anci<'nt  castle.  The  large  steamei's  of  the  Pe- 
ninsular and  Orient.Ml  Company  now  enter  this  port,  which 
lias  recently  been  improved.  Since  1860  the  government 
has  dredged  thi'  harbor,  so  that  a  depth  of  nearly  6  fath- 
oms has  been  ol)(ained,  and  has  constructed  two  breakwaters 
and  about  3.000  feet  of  quay.  The  position  of  Brindisi  lias 
been  rendered  very  advantageous  for  commerce  by  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  A  railway  extends  from  t  his 
town  along  the  coast  to  Ancona,  Milan,  etc.     Pop.  16,719. 

Brine  Sliriiiip  .  a  small  entomostracous  crustacean  of  the 
order  Fhyllupoda. ;  found  in  salt  pools  and  salt  lakes.  The 
American  species,  Aiiniiin  (intcilis,  is  common  in  many 
places  and  especially  abundant  in  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  Lake 
Mono,  and  other  salt  or  alkaline  lakes  of  the  Great  Basin.  The 
European  species,  Artrmia.talina.  is  of  especial  interest, from 
the  fact  that  it  is  known  toiiroduce  several  broods  parthe- 
nogenetically,  and  also  that  it  has  been  known  to  vary  very 
much  in  form  with  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  brine 
in  which  it  lives.  David  S.  Jordan. 

Brink.  Bkrn'HARD  Aegidhs  Koxrad  ten:  philologist: 
b.  at  Amsterdam,  .Jan.  12.  1841.  He  was  educated  in  Ger- 
many, and  was  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  Uni- 
versity at  Marburg  1870-73.  In  1873  he  was  called  to  the 
University  at  Strassburg,  then  just  reorganized,  as  Professor 
of  English  Philology,  and  he  held  that  position  till  his  death, 
Jan.  29,  1893.  Ten  Brink  was  not  only  a  broad  and  accurate 
.scholar,  but  a  man  of  distinguislied  literary  taste,  and  nuis- 
ter  of  an  attractive  a.nd  elegant  style.  His  principal  work, 
Oeschichfe.  tier  em/li.tr/ii'n  Lifn-atur  (pt.  i.,  1877,  English 
translation,  1883  ;  "pt-  "•.  1889-93,  English  translation,  first 
half,  1893).  comes  down  tci  the  Reformation.  Other  impor- 
tant works  are  Chauci'r :  Studien  ziir  Geschiclife  seiner 
Entii'ickliinfi  iind  ziir  Chroiuilngie  aeiner  Schriffeii  (1870); 
Chancers S]irrirlie  iinil  r('/-A7(».s/(1884);  5e'oH'«//(  1888), being 
No.  62  of  (^twUen  iiitd  Forsrhuiiiji'n  ziir  Sprach-  iiiid  Ciiltiir- 
geschichte  der  nrrintiiiischeii  Volker.an  important  series  of 
monographs  begun  in  1874,  of  which  ten  Brink  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  editors.  G.  L.  Kittredge. 

Brinkley :  town  (foutidod  in  1874):  Monroe  co.,  Ark.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  nui])  of  Arkansas,  ref.  3-E) :  on  Ark. 
Midland,  Little  Rock  antl  Mem.,  St.  Louis  S.  W..  and  Wh.  and 
Bl.  Riv.  Val.  H.  Ks. :  68  miles  from  .Alemphis.  Brinkley  is 
situated  in  the  fertile  southern  timber  belt,  and  is  the  chief 
railroad  center  and  maimfacturing  town  of  Eastern  Arkan- 
sas; it  lias  Cfir-works,  railroad  machine  and  repair  shops, 
oil-mill,  two  stave-factories  and  cooperage  works,  ice-factory, 
very  large  lumber-mill,  water-works,  electric  lights,  and  two 
banks.  There  are  seven  chiirclies  and  good  public  schools. 
The  recent  rapid  growth  of  the  town  is  due  to  the  comiile- 
tion  of  the  railroads  centering  here.  Pop.  (1880)  325;  (1890) 
1,510;  (1893)  estimated,  3,100.  Editor  of  "AiKiis." 

Brintoii,  Daniel  Garrison,  M.  D.  :  archaeologist  and 
ethnologist ;  b.  at  Thornburv,  Chester  co..  Pa..  Mav  13, 
1837;  A.  I?.,  Yale  College,  1858  ;  M.  I).,  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege. Philadelphia.  IHfiO;  studied  in  Paris  and  Heidellierg; 
entered  the  army  as  a  surgeon,  serving  as  medical  director 
of  the  Eleventh  .\rmy-corps.  and  later  as  superintendent  of 
hospitals  at  t^uiiicy  and  Springfield.  111. :  edited  the  Medinil 
and  Surgical  Heporfer  1867-87;  apjiointed  Profi^ssor  of 
Ethnology  at  the  Ac^ademy  of  N'atural  Sciences  in  Philadel- 
])hia  1884:  Professor  of  American  Linguislics  and  Archa'ol- 
ogv  in  the  Univer.sitv  of  Pennsvlvania  18SG;  author  of  The 
Floridian  Pi'nin.iii/i'i  (\h:,'.)):  the  .Vi/tlis  ot'flie  lYew  World 
(1868);  American  llerii  Mi/lhx  (1SS2)';  h'ss(ii/.-<  <,f  an  Ameri- 
canist (1870);  liari-s  and  Pennies  (1890);  The  Anii'riran 
Race  (1892).  The  Lihrarij  iif  Almriginal  American  Litera- 
ture (8  vols.),  of  which  he  is  the  editor,  is  a  reproduction  of 


aboriginal  legends,  thought,  and  customs,  as  authentic  ma- 
terial for  linguistic  study.  He  has  contributed  largely  to 
the  study  of  American  archiPology,  ethnology,  and  linguis- 
tics. 

Brion,  bre'e'oiV,  Gustaa-e  ;  genre-painter,  princijiallv  of 
Alsatian  life;  b.  at  Rothau,  Alsace,  Oct.  24.  1824;  d.  in 
Pari.s,  Nov.  4.1877.  His  Pilgrims  uf  St.  0(/(7p,  painted  in 
1863,  is  in  the  Louvre.  He  received  the  Legion  of  Honor 
and  a  first -class  medal  at  the  Salon  of  1863.  and  the  medat 
of  honor  in  1868.  Knight  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  of  Bel- 
gium. A  good  many  of  his  works  are  in  American  collec- 
tions. William  A.  Coffin. 

Brisbane :  city  and  seaport,  and  the  capital  of  Queens- 
land. Australia:  on  Brisbane  river;  about  20  miles  from  its 
entrance  into  Moreton  Bay,  and  about  600  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Sydney  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  5-J).  Wool  and  other 
products  are  exported  from  this  place.  It  is  connected  by 
rail  with  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  Adelaide,  and  is  in  di- 
rect steamship  communication  with  London  and  Liverpool. 
The  Houses  of  Parliament  meet  in  an  expensive  and  hand- 
some structure,  and  the  public  buildings  are  for  the  most 
]iart  ini|iressive.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  a  Roman 
('alholic  bishoji.  Settlement  began  here  with  a  ]ienal  col- 
ony in  1825.  which  was  broken  up  in  1839  :  was  incorjiorated 
as  a  city  in  1859  and  made  the  cajiital  of  the  Moreton  Bay 
district,  and  subsequently  of  Queensland ;  was  inundated 
and  severely  injured  bv  a  flood  in  the  river  early  in  Feb., 
1893.     Poi)."(l881)  31,109:  (1891)  55,959.  including  suburbs. 

Brisbane.  Sir  Thomas  Macdougall,  G.C.  B.  ;  astrono- 
mer and  general:  b.  in  Largs.  Ayrshire.  Scotland,  July  23, 
1773;  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Peninsula  1812-13; 
governor  of  New  South  Wales  1821-25.  who  inqiroved  the 
penal  colonies  and  promoted  the  commerce  of  the  colony, 
rile  ri^er  and  town  of  Brisbane  perpetuate  his  name.  He 
catalogued  7.385  stars  while  in  Australia,  and  on  his  return 
built  an  observatory  on  the  Tweed;  was  made  a  liaronet  in 
1836 :  succeeded  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh.     D.  in  Largs,  Jan.  27,  1860. 

Brissot  de  Warville,  breX's'so'dc-vaar'vi'el',  Felix  Satur- 
NIN  :  painter  of  landscape  and  sheep  (contenqiorary  French 
school) ;  b.  at  Sens,  Yonne ;  d.  in  Paris.  July,  1892.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Leon  Cogniet.  and  obtained  a  second-cla.ss 
medal  at  the  Salon  of  1882.  His  work  is  notable  for  vigor- 
ous execution  and  excellent  drawing  of  animals,  especially 
sheej),  whicli  he  particularly  loved  to  paint. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Brissot  de  Warville.  Jean  Pierre;  French  (iirondist 
and  political  writer:  b.  near  Chartres.  Jan.  14.  1754.  He 
jiiiblished  in  1780  a  Theory  of  Criminal  Laws.  In  1785 
lie  was  unjustly  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  about  four 
months.  With  the  aid  of  his  friends  he  founded  about  1788 
the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Negroes,  and  visited  the 
U.  S.  to  promote  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  After  his 
return  to  France  he  founded  and  edited  the  Patriate  Fran- 
eais.  an  aide  republican  journal.  In  1791  he  was  elected  to 
the  National  Assembly  by  the  voters  of  Paris.  He  was  so 
]ironiinent  a  leader  of  the  Girondists  that  they  were  often 
called  the  Brissotins.  Having  been  elected  to  the  conven- 
tion, he  op|)osed  the  execution  of  the  king.  He  was  guil- 
lotined in  Paris,  Oct.  31. 1793.  See  Brissot 's  jWw«/;t.s' ym»c 
serrir  a  f  Ilistiiirc  de  la  Pfroliition.  imblislied  liy  his  son  (4 
vols.,  ln:{()).  and  his  own  meiiioirs  entitled  lycqsa  mes  oifmits 
(1885). 

Bris'ted,  Cihrles  Astor:  .son  of  the  John  mentioned 
below;  b.  in  New  York,  Oct.  6,  1820^  educated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, New  Haven,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  author 
of  an  edition  of  Catullus  (1849);  Five  Years  in  an  Fnglish 
I'n i rersit  1/  {IH'il  :  revised  1872);  7'he  Upper  Ten  Thousand 
(18.52);  Pieces  of  a  Broken-down  Critic  (WhH):  The  Inter- 
ference Theory  of  Oorernment  (\H(i7):  Anacreontics  (IHTi): 
and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  leading  periodicals.  I). 
at  Washington.  I).  C,  Jan.  15,  1874. 

Bristed.  John  ;  an  Episcopal  clergyman:  b.  in  Dorset- 
shire, Kngland.  in  1778:  educated  at  Winchester  School: 
removed  to  the  l'.  S.  in  1806:  practiced  law  in  New  York  ; 
married  a  daughter  of  .lohn  Jai'ob  Astor;  studied  divinity 
and  wasonlaineil  in  the  Ejiiscopal  Church.  He  was  autlicu- 
of  Critical  and  I'/iilos<iphical  Fssai/s  (1804):  pesoiirees  of 
the  I'nited  States  (1818),  reprinted  i'n  London  with  the  title 
America  and  her  liesoiirces.  the  .same  year;  and  An//lo- 
American  Churches  (1823).  I),  at  Bristol,  l{.  I.,  Fell.  23„ 
1855.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 


BRISTLE-TAIL 


BKISTOW 


767 


Bristle-tail:  an  insect  of  the  siib-or<ler  Ciniiia;  an 
a<;ile  civatuiv  of  low  sirm-tiiic  and  witliont  winjfs,  found  in 
damp  rooms,  a?id  oftfn  fwdinj;  on  ta|x'slry  or  clotliin;;. 
The  long  liristh's  at  the  tail  suggest  the  name.  A  toinmou 
specifs  is  Lepixmii  snccharinu. 

Bris'tol :  maritime  city  of  England;  sittnited  on  the 
Avon  at  its  cunlhieMce  with  the  Krome ;  8  miles  from  the 
sea  :  Il{  miles  liy  rail  N.  W.  of  Bath,  and  118  miles  by  rail 
\V.  of  l.ondon:"lat.  oT  27'  X..  Ion.  2'  35  W.  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  12-F).  It  i.s  chiefly  in  the  county  of  Gloucester, 
and  partly  in  Somersetshire,  and  occupies  several  hills  and 
valleys.  It  is  the  termiinis  of  the  Great  Western,  the  Bris- 
tol and  Exeter,  and  the  Midland  Kailways.  Bristol  returns 
four  mcjnbers  to  Parliament.  Among  its  remarkable  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  which  was  founded  about  MTM;  the 
fine  church  of  St.  JIary  Kedclitfe,  which  was  completed  in 
IHTfi :  the  Temple  church,  which  luus  a  leaning  tower;  the 
guildhall-  the  exdiange.  used  as  a  corn-market;  and  the 
new  general  hospital.  The  modern  portions  of  Bristol,  in- 
eluding  Clifton  and  other  sut)urbs,  consist  of  handsome  resi- 
dences in  S(|uares,  terraces,  crescents,  and  detached  villas. 
This  city  has  a  public  library,  a  bishop's  college,  a  medical 
school,  an  iulirmary,  an  asylum  for  the  lilind,  an  asylum  for 
deaf-mutes,  and  other  benevolent  institutions.  Tlie  Avon 
here,  though  luirrow,  is  deep  enough  for  large  vessels. 
Alwiut  t6.50,00(l  have  been  expended  in  turning  this  river 
into  a  new  course,  and  its  old  channel  now  forms  a  harbor 
furnished  with  locks  and  quays  (i,()(M)  feet  long.  Bristol 
was  the  first  liritish  port  between  which  and  the  U.  S.  a 
regular  communication  by  steam  was  established.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade  with  Canada,  the  V.  S.,  the  West  Indies, 
France,  Russia,  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  etc.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  copper,  iron,  brass,  coal,  salt,  and 
manufactured  goods.  The  manufactures  of  this  city  are 
chiefly  cotton  goods,  refined  .sugar,  glass,  woolen  goods, 
chemical  products,  machinery,  and  earthenware.  Here  are 
extensive  ship-yards,  which  turn  out  excelleiU  vessels.  This 
place  was  called  Ctier-ndfr  by  the  Britons,  and  Brirstnwe 
or  Hriextow  by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  A  fortified  town  existed 
here  as  early  a.s  .500  A.  1).  It  wa-s  formerly  the  second  com- 
mercial city  in  England.  During  the  civil  war  it  was  taken 
alternatelvbv  Rovalistsand  Koundlieads.  Pop.  (l.SSl)  20G,- 
50:i;  (isiii)  221,G(i5. 

Bristol:  town  (incorporated  ITSo);  Hartford  co.,  Conn,; 
on  N,  E.  K.  R.,  18  miles  S,  W,  of  Hartford  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  9-G) ;  lias  9  clmrches  and  VA 
schools,  including  a  high  school,  a  free  public  library,  a 
national  and  a  savings  bank,  2  stockinet  factories,  foundries, 
manufactories  of  brass  goods,  clocks,  bells,  hardware,  steel 
fishing-rods.  etc.  Tlie  borough  of  Bristol  (IS!);!)  has  an  esti- 
mated population  (,laii.  1,  1896)  of  6,127.  It  is  connected 
with  New  Britain  and  I'lainville  by  an  electric  tramway. 
Sewage  is  disposed  of  bv  irrigation  svstem.  Pop.  of  town 
(1890)  7,382;  (1896)  estimated,  8,711. 

Bristol:  town  (incorporated  in  1819);  Grafton  co..  X.  H. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Xew  Hampshire,  ref, 
7-E);  is  lermiiiusof  U'ristol  branch  of  Concord  Division  of 
B.  and  .M.  R.  R. ;  ;52  miles  from  Concord,  and  is  situated  at 
the  junction  of  IVmigewasset  and  Xewfouiid  rivers.  Mrislol 
has  6  schools.  ;i  churches,  a  public  library,  and  manufactories 
of  flannels,  jxiper,  wood-iuilp,  and  wooden-ware.s.  It  is  a 
place  of  summer  resort.     Pop.  (IHSO)  l.:{.i2  ;  (1890)  l..')24. 

Editor  ok  ••  ExTf;Ri>RisK." 

Bristol :  borough  :  Bucks  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  .V.!) ;  on  railroad  and  on  the 
Delaware  river;  19  miles  above  Philadelphia,  and  nearly 
oppositi-  Burlington,  N.  .1.  Its  industries  are  iron-founding 
and  manufactures  i,r  Hour,  machinery,  worsted,  and  furni- 
ture. Here  is  a  valuable  mineral  spring.  Pop.  (1,S80)  .1.273; 
(1890)  6,.").5:i. 

Bristol:  pint  of  entry:  capital  of  Bristol  co..  R.  I.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Uliode  Island,  ref,  9-0) ;  on 
P„\V.  and  Bri.stol  R.  R.,  and  on  Xarragansett  Bav  ;  l.")  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Providence,  and  7  miles  S.  \V.  of  Fall" River.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  which  is  easy  of  access,  and  will  ailmit 
large  vessels.  It  has  two  yacht-building  establishments, 
and  mauufaetures  of  cotton  goo<ls,  rubber  goods,  worsted, 
etc.  Bristol  has  17  public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  8 
churches,  a  free  library  of  about  12.000  vohiines  with  brown- 
stone  librarv  building.  The  town's  charter  was  graiite<J  in 
1680.  Pop.  of  township  (1880)  6,028;  (1890)  5,478;  (1895) 
6,730,  Editor  ok  '•  Piuexix," 


Bristol:  city;  Sullivan  eo.,  Tenn.,  and  Washington  Co., 
Va.  (for  Icjcation  of  county,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  5-K). 
The  State  divisiim-line  between  Tennessee  and  Virginia 
runs  E.  aii<l  W.  along  the  main  street,  and  Bristol,  Va,,  was 
formerly  called  Goodson,  Bristol  has  King  College  for 
young  men,  Sullins  College  and  Southwest  Virginia  Insti- 
tute for  young  hulies,  good  public  schools,  2  tobacco-facto- 
ries and  wareliouses.  2  flouring-niills,  an  iron  furnacft,  veneer- 
factorv,  cotton-factorv,  ]ilaning-niills,  ice-fact orv,  car-works, 
etc.  i'op.  (1880)  3,209  ;  (1890)  6,'226 ;  (1892)  estimated  about 
9,000.  Editor  ok  "  Coirikr." 

Bristol:  town  (founded  in  1789);  Addison  eo.,  Vt,  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  5-B);  is  E. 
terminus  of  Bristol  R.  R..  and  81  miles  .S.  of  Burlington; 
lias  a  gradecl  school  and  7  district  schools,  and  churches  of 
4  denominations.  Us  industries  are  principally  fanning 
(in  which  one-third  of  the  population  are  engaged),  and  the 
manufacture  of  burial-caskets,  beekeepers'  supplies,  and 
wooden  mailing-boxes.  Pop,  (1880)  1,579;  (1890)  1,828; 
(189:i)  estimated,  2,000.  Editor  ok  "IIkrald." 

Bristol.  (iKORGE  Prk.ntice;  scholar;  b. at  Clinton,  X,Y., 
.luiie  21,  1856;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  1876;  as- 
sistant Professor  of  Greek  in  lljimillon  1S.S2-.SS:  aiiiuiinted 
a^isociale  Professor  of  Greek  in  Cornell  I'liiversitv  in  1888. 
Editor  of  Selected  OmtiaiiH  of  Li/xidK  (1892).  15.  I.  W. 

Bristol.  Jonx  Buxyax  :  landscape-painter ;  b.  at  Hills- 
dale, X.  Y.,  Mar.  14,  1S26,  Studied  at  Hudson,  X.  Y., 
under  Henry  Ary,  and  first  came  into  notice  by  the  exhibi- 
tion of  landscapes  which  he  ha<l  painted  in  Florida  about 
1860.  National  Acaih'iniciaii  1875;  honorable  mention, 
Paris  Exposition,  1889;  medal  of  honor.  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion, Phil.'idelpliia.  1S76.  for  his  picture  entitled  Moini/  Ox- 
faril.     Studio  in  Xew  York.  William  X.  Cokkin. 

Bristol.  Marijuesses  ok  (1826,  in  the  United  Kingdom), 
Earls  of  Bristol  (1714,  in  Great  Britain),  Earls .Termyn  (1826, 
in  the  United  Kingdom),  and  Barons  Ilervey  (170:^,  in  Eng- 
land), a  noble  family  of  Great  Britain. — Fhedekuk  William 
Joux  IIkrvev,  the' third  marquess:  b.  June  28.  1834  :  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1864.  He  w'as  member  of  Parliament 
for  West  Suffolk  1859-64. 

Bristol  Brifk.  or  Bath  Briek  :  a  variety  of  brick  used 
for  scouring  steel  table-cutlery  and  other  poli>hed  steel  sur- 
faces. It  is  made  at  various  places  in  Enghind  and  the 
U.  S..  a  ]ieculiar  fiiii'  sand  being  used  in  the  manufacture. 

Bristol  Clianiiel  :  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  in 
the  southwest  part  of  Englan<l :  bounded  on  the  X.  by  Wales 
and  on  the  S.  by  Somerset  and  I)evoiishin>.  At  the  E.  end 
it  communicates  with  the  estuary  of  the  Severn.  It  is  the 
largest  inlet  of  Great  Britain,  and  has  a  coast-line  of  220 
miles.  The  tides  rise  to  an  extraordinary  height — at  Bristol 
about  40  anil  at  Chepstow  sonu'times  70  feet.  The  ju-incipal 
bays  are  Swansea  Hay,  Caermarlhen  Bay,  Cardifl'  Roads,  the 
.Severn  Estuary,  and  Barnstable  Bay. 

Bris'tow.  Hkx.iamin  Helm  :  b.  at  Elkton.Todd  co„Ky„  in 
1833;  .studied  law,  and  practiced  his  profession  successfully 
in  Kentucky  till  1861,  when,  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  being 
of  .strong  Union  sentiments,  he  volunteered  his  services, 
and  as  major  of  the  Twenty-fifth  Kentucky  Voluntcei-s 
was  engaged  at  Fort  Donelson  and  as  lieutenant-colonel 
at  Sliiloh,  in  command  of  the  regiment,  being  wound- 
ed in  the  last-named  battle.  Afterward,  as  colonel  of 
the  Eighth  Kentucky  Cavalry,  he  served  throughout  the 
war  with  distinction.  Aliout  the  close  of  the  war  he  re- 
ceived the  apiiointnu'iit  of  U.  S.  district  attorney  for  the 
Louisville  district.  The  ability  here  exhibited  led  to  his 
ajipointment  as  solicitor-general  on  the  organization  of  the 
dejiartmeiit  of  justice  in  1870.  Afterlwo  year.s' service  he 
resigned  and  became  attorney  of  the  Texas  Pacific  R.  R., 
which  position  he  held  but  a  short  time  when  he  returned 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Louisville.  Ky. ;  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  in  1873  ;  and  was  Secretary  of  the 
rrcasury  in  1874-76.     D.  in  Xew  York,  June  22,  1896. 

Bristow,  (lEORdE  Frederick:  musician;  b.  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y..  Dec.  19.  1825;  studied  princi])ally  under  his 
father,  an  English  musician  and  comiioscr;  became  one  of 
theearliest  members  of  the  Xew  York  Philharmonic  Society  ; 
composed  for  this  society  his  concert  overture  in  E  flat,  op. 
3,  in  1846  ;  his  JiiUien  symphony,  op,  24,  in  1855  ;  symphony 
in  F  sharp  minor,  op,  26,  in  18.58;  overture  Colimihus,  op. 
34,  in  1866;  symphonv  Arriidiriii.  op.  .50.  in  1873.  His 
oratorio  Praise  to  (lot),  op.  ;!2,  was  produced  bv  the  Xew 
York  Harmonic  Society  in  1866,    His  opera  Rip  Van  WinkU 


788 


BRISTOW  STATIOX 


BRITISH   COLUJIBIA 


was  produced  by  tlic  Pync-IIairisnn  company  at  Nibln's 
Garden.  Xew  York,  in  1853,  and  luid  a  long  aiid  successful 
run.  This  was  rewritten  to  a  new  libretto  in  1880.  He  was 
conductor  of  the  Harmonic  Society,  the  Mendelssohn  Union, 
and  the  Centennial  Choral  Union  ;  was  for  many  years 
director  of  the  music  in  the  New  York  public  schools!  In 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  he  has  composed  an  opera, 
Columbus,  1878;  an  oratorio,  Daniel.  1867:  a  cantata,  I'/ie 
Great  Republic,  1862,  besides  much  church  music  and 
many  songs  and  piano  pieces.     He  lives  in  Xew  York  city. 

D.  E.  Hervey. 

Bristow  Station,  now  Bristoe :  Prince  William  co., 
Va.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Viririnia.  ref.  4-H): 
on  the  Richmond  and  Danville  1!.  K. :  4  miles  \Y.  S.  W.  of 
JIanassas  Junction.  A  severe  engagement  took  place  here 
the  afternoon  of  Aug.  27,  1862,  between  tlie  U.  S.  forces 
under  Gen.  Hooker  and  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Ewell. 
darkness  closing  the  conflict,  with  severe  loss  on  both  sides. 
On  Oct.  14,  1863,  the  Confederate  general  A.  P.  Hill  at- 
tacked the  force  under  command  of  Gen.  G.  K.  Warren, 
U.  S.  army,  at  this  place :  the  attack  was  repulsed  by 
Warren,  who  captured  several  pieces  of  artillery  and  numy 
prisoners. 

Brit :  a  name  applied  to  young  herrings. 

Britaii'uia :  the  ancient  name  of  the  i.sland  of  Great 
Britain.  It  was  inliabited  by  rude,  uncivilized  tribes  of 
Britons  (Lat.  Britnnni).  who  were  perhaps,  but  not  prob- 
ably, the  aborigines  when  .Julius  Ca'sar  invaded  the  island 
in  5.5  B.  c.  Their  religion  was  a  sanguinary  Druidism. 
Many  of  the  Britons  were  Cymric  Celts,  while  "those  of  the 
northern  part  were  jirobably  largely  Gaelic.  (See  Britox.) 
They  obstinately  resisted  the  Roman  invaders,  but  without 
success,  and  the  southern  half  of  the  island  was  conquered 
by  the  armies  of  Vespasian.  In  the  reign  of  Domitian, 
Agricola  extended  Roman  power  to  Scotland,  and  erected  a 
chain  of  forts  between  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth  about 
84  A.  D.  The  northern  part  of  the  island  was  inhabited  by 
the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  whom  the  Romans  failed  to 
subdue.  These  warlike  barbarians  made  frequent  inroads 
into  tlie  southern  province,  to  oliviate  which  the  Romans 
built  the  wall  of  Antoninus  about  140  a,  d.  Another  ram- 
part, called  the  Wall  of  Hadrian,  extending  from  Solway 
Frith  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  was  completeil  by  Severus 
about  210  A.  D.  The  part  of"  the  island  S.  of  this"  wall  was 
for  several  centuries  under  the  dominion  of  tlie  Romans, 
who  founded  many  towns  (municipia),  and  diffused  Roman 
culture,  arts,  aiul  civilization  iu  the  country.  They  made 
numerous  roads  from  London  to  the  provinc'es,  the  remains 
of  which  are  still  visible.  Many  parts  of  England  abound 
in  Roman  antiquities,  including  remains  of  camps,  baths, 
mosaic  pavements,  weapons,  ornaments,  utensils,  pottery, 
sculptures,  and  coin.s.  It  appears  tluit  the  Romans  in- 
tended to  keep  Britain  as  a  permanent  conquest,  but  in 
consequence  of  the  internal  disorders  and  external  dangers 
that  menaced  the  stability  of  the  Roman  empire  the  legions 
were  withdrawn  from  the"  island  about  420  A.  D.,  soon  after 
which  it  was  invaded  and  conquered  by  the  Saxons.  It  is 
said  that  Ca;sar  was  the  first  wlio  gave  the  name  Britannia 
to  this  island,  which  before  his  time  was  called  Albion. 
The  name  Britannicte  Insulce.  however,  was  applied  to  the 
British  islands  collectively  before  C;esar  invaded  Albion. 
Britannia  is  usually  personified  in  the  fine  arts  as  a  wom- 
an seated  on  an  insulated  rock,  leaning  on  a  shield  and 
holding  in  her  hand  a  spear  or  trident.  See  Camden's  Bri- 
tannia. 

Britannia  Metal:  an  alloy  of  tin  with  a  little  anti- 
mony, zinc,  and  copper;  largely  used  in  the  nuinufacture 
of  coffee-pots,  tea-pots,  and  other  vessels.  It  is  harder  than 
pewter,  ami  not  so  easily  indented  or  bent.  The  propor- 
tions of  the  metals  combined  to  nuike  tliis  alloy  are  various. 
The  average  composition  in  100  parts  is— tin,  85A  ;  anti- 
mony, ](>i;  zinc,  3;  and  copper,  1,  The  jiresent  composi- 
tion of  the  alloy  used  at  Birmingham,  England,  is  stated  to 
be  no  (if  lin.  8  of  antimony,  2  of  co|)per. 

Britaiiniciis:  a  surname  which,  on  account  of  some 
alleged  victories  in  Urilain,  the  Roman  senate  bestowed  in 
42  A,  D.  on  the  Kinpcrur  Claudius  and  his  newly  born  son 
by  .Messalina.  Claudius  Tiberius  (lermauicus.  and  which 
afterward  became  tlie  distinguishing  appellation  of  the  lat- 
ter. In  48  Messaliua  was  executed,  and  Agripnina.  the 
second  wife  of  Claudius.  induce<l  him  to  exclude  Britanni- 
cus  from  the  throne  and  appoint  Xero,  her  s<m   by  her 


former  husband,  successor.  After  the  accession  of  Xero, 
however,  Agrippina  used  Britannicus  as  a  means  of  intiini- 
datiiig  him,  and  to  get  rid  of  his  rival  Xero  poisoned  him 
Dec.  15,  .55, 

British  America  :  a  name  which  in  its  widest  sense 
comprises  all  British  possessions  in  the  western  hemi- 
sjihere.  It  is  usually  applied,  however,  to  the  territory  em- 
braced since  1873  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  to  Labra- 
dor and  Xewloiiudlaud.     See  these  headings  respectively. 

Britisli  Association  for  tlie  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence: a  society  for  promoting  the  mutual  acquaintance  of 
scientific  men,  the  intereh.iiige  of  scientific  ideas,  and  the 
solidarity  of  the  great  body  of  scientific  workers,  founded 
in  1831  at  a  memoralde  meeting  held  in  the  city  of  York. 
With  admirable  prescience  it  was  given  so  comprehensive 
an  organization  that  only  minor  changes  have  been  found 
necessary  in  subsequent  years.  Its  annual  meeting,  held  in 
the  summer  season,  occupies  a  week.  Each  year  a  new 
meeting-place  is  chosen,  and  towns  vie  with  one  another  for 
the  privilege  of  entertaining  the  society.  The  proceedings 
consist  chiefly  of  the  announcement  and  discussion  of  re- 
sults of  scientific  work,  and  for  this  purpose  the  association 
is  divided  into  eight  sections,  meeting  in  separate  halls. 
The  fiehl  of  Section  A  is  mathematical  and  physical  sci- 
ence ;  of  B,  chemical  science  ;  of  C,  geology ;  of  D,  biology ; 
of  E,  geography ;  of  F,  economic  science  and  statistics;  of 
G,  mechanical  science:  and  of  H,  anthropology.  The  mem- 
bership is  about  4.600,  the  usual  attendance  about  2,000,  A 
large  income  from  dues  yields  a  surjilus  which  is  devoted 
to  the  aid  of  special  researches  conducted  by  committees  of 
the  association.  The  grants  for  such  purposes  amount  an- 
nually to  about  £1.000. 

The  example  of  Great  Britain  in  founding  this  institu- 
tion has  lieen  followed  in  Germany.  France,  and  the  U.  S. 
See  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence. G.  K.  Gilbert. 

British  Columbia  :  a  pro\ince  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada ;  bounded  S.  by  the  U.  S.  (Washington,  Idaho,  and 
Montana),  X.  by  Xorthwest  Territory.  E.  by  Athabasca  and 
Alberta,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Alaska.  The 
northern  boundary  is  the  parallel  of  60°  X.  It  includes  the 
important  islands  of  Queen  Charlotte  (q.  r.)  and  Vancouver 
(which  last  was,  in  1849,  made  a  crown  colony,  and  in 
1866  united  to  the  present  province,  q.  c).  British  Columbia 
was  united  to  Canada  in  1871.  The  soil  of  portions  of  the 
province  near  the  sea  is  good,  and  the  climate  mild,  though 
rainy ;  but  in  the  interior  the  surface  is  extremely  nigged, 
and  the  climate  is  severe.  The  coast-line  is  characterized 
by  remarkable  fiords,  called  "  canals,"  which  are  often  waDed 
in  by  mountains  of  moderate  elevation  known  as  the  Cas- 
cade Range,  The  same  feature  is  seen  to  an  unusual  de- 
gree in  the  lakes  of  the  province.  These  are  generally 
very  long  and  narrow,  lying  between  parallel  ranges  of 
mountains.  The  highest  peaks  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of 
this  province  are  ilt.  Brown  (about  16.000  feet)  and  Mt. 
Hooker  (about  15,700  feet).  Furs  are  largely  exported. 
There  is  much  valuable  timber,  and  the  fisheries  have  be- 
come important.  Cod,  haddock,  herring,  halibut,  trout,  stur- 
geon, anchovies,  and  especially  salmon,  abound.  There  is 
much  fine  grazing-land.  Large  amounts  of  gold  have  been 
obtained  here,  and  silver,  copper,  zinc,  mercury,  coal,  iron, 
and  marble  are  found.  Manufactures  in  1891  embraced 
755  establishments,  §14,342,149  invested  capital,  11.473  em- 
[iloyees,  and  a  production  valued  at  ^11,916,928.  Education 
is  comiiulsory.  Religiously,  the  inhabitants  in  1891  were 
divided  into  Anglicans  23,600,  Roman  Catholics  20.367,  Pres- 
byterians 1.5,281,  Jlethodists  14,298,  pagans  (chiefiy  Indians 
and  Chinese)  12,891,  and  of  all  other  denominations  11,376, 
Area,  3.82,300  sq.  miles.  Capital,  Victoria.  The  principal 
towns  are  Victoria  and  Xaiiaimo.  on  Vancouver  Island,  and 
Vancouver  and  Xew  Westminster,  on  the  mainland  at  the 
terminus  of  the  C.  P.  R.  R.  Total  imp.  (1891)  97,612,  of 
whom  42'4  per  cent,  were  of  foreign  birth,  though  chiefly 
from  (treat  Britain  and  the  U.  S.,  including  about  25,000 
Indians  ami  6.(J00  Chinese.  The  best  harbor  is  at  Esqui- 
mault.  British  Columbia  has  an  Anglican  bishop,  whose 
seat  is  at  Xew  Westminster. 

Certain  islands  in  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  having 
been  claimed  by  lioth  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain,  were 
held  under  joint  military  oecnpation  until  Oct.,  1872.  when, 
l)y  a  decisinii  of  the  Eni]ieror  William  I.  of  Germany,  to 
whom  the  ilis|)nte  was  referred,  tliey  became  U.  .S.  territory. 
These  islands,  of  which  San  Juaii  is  the  most  important, 


BRITISH   KAST   AKHIC.V 


BROCA 


rs9 


niv  ten  in  iminber.     Their  eiit  in'  population,  now  embraced 
in  the  county  of  San  Juan,  in  1H80  was  !MK  ;  (1890)  2,072. 
Kevised  by  M.  W.  IIarrinqton. 

British  Kiist  ATrioa:  See  Iiiea. 

ISritisli  lliiipire:  Sec  Great  Britain  and  Irki.axd. 

liritisli  (^niiina  :  See  Guiana. 

Hritish  (Jiim  :  Si'C  Dk.xtri.n. 

Krilisli  Honduras:  See  IIoxulras,  British. 

l(rili>li  Iiiditi:  See  India. 

Britisli  Museum:  in  London;  was  established  in  175.3 
bv  aet  of  Parliament  in  pursuance  of  a  bequest  of  Sir  Llans 
Sloaiie  to  the  nation  of  his  cabinets  of  natural  history  and 
his  binary,  nuinberiii^'  ."iO.DOO  volumes,  in  return  for  a  sum 
of  i'2(I.IIO()  to  be  paid  to  his  heirs,  and  was  opened  in  1759. 
The  palace  of  the  l)uke  of  Montague  on  Great  Russell  Street 
was  purchased  for  the  reception  of  the  collection.  In  1801 
the  Klgin  niarbh'S,  in  1823  the  library  of  George  III.,  con- 
taining 80.000  voltinies,  were  added  to  the  museum,  and  it 
has  been  subsefjuently  enriched  by  the  Granville  library,  the 
Sir  William  Temple  coin  cabinets,  the  Layard  and  Loftus 
collection  of  Assyrian,  and  the  Latly  Webster  collection  of 
^[e.\ican,  anti<|uities,  and  other  extensive  acces.sions.  The 
buililing  in  1828-47  was  enlarged  and  renovated  at  a  cost 
of  .£1.5t).0OO.  and  an  additional  wing  was  built  in  188;l  with 
the  funds  left  by  Mr.  William  While.  The  libraiT  numbei-s 
1,600,000  Volumes,  besides  many  thousands  of  JISS.,  docu- 
ments, and  state  papers.  The  collections  of  antinuities  are 
altogether  the  coinpletest  in  Europe.  The  museum  contains 
also  the  finest  collection  of  vases,  among  them  the  famous 
Portland  vase,  and  the  largest  collections  of  Greek  and 
Roman  sciiljiture  in  the  world,  and  the  cabinets  of  natural 
objects  embrace  every  province  of  science.  .\  catalogue  is 
now  being  jirinted,  but  will  not  be  finished  until  1900. 

British  New  (<iiiii(>n:  See  N'kw  (iiixea. 

British  Xortli  Borneo:  See  Borneo. 

Briton:  a  native  or  citizen  of  ancient  Britain  or  Brit- 
annia ((/.  i'.).  When  Ca'Sifr  invaded  Albion  in  .55  B.  r.,  he 
found  in  it  two  different  peoples.  The  Interior  was  occu- 
pied by  the  primitive  or  indigenous  Celtic  inhabitants,  who 
had  been  driven  back  from  the  coasts  by  a  people  of  proba- 
ble Gothic  descent.  The  hitter  had  colonized  the  southeast 
iiart  of  the  island,  and  were  less  numerous  than  the  Celtic 
Jritons.  The  language  of  the  Southern  Celtic  Britons  was 
very  similar  to  the  present  Welsh.  "  The  Gaels  and  Britons," 
says  R.  (J.  Latham,  "  are  the  fundamental  |)opulations  of 
the  British  isles.  The  I'icts  were  either  aboriginal  or  in- 
trusive. If  aboriginal,  they  were  like  the  Gaels  and  Brit- 
ons, Keltic.  "  (See  PicTS.)  When  Ca'sar  iiivadeil  the  island, 
the  Britons  were  divided  into  a  numl)er  of  petty  kingdoms 
or  states.  Some  of  these  were  callc'd  Siliire.t.'  lirii/duteti, 
Orddrid-",  TriiKjhanfix,  and  Citntli.  Their  religion  was 
Druidism.  (See  Druids.)  The  primitive  Britons  were  brave 
and  warlike,  but,  in  consequence  of  their  divisions,  they 
were  coniiucrcd  by  the  Romans  without  much  difficulty. 
They  wer<^  rude  barbarians,  who  painted  their  bodies  blue. 
The  term  Briton  is  often  applied  to  a  modern  inhabitant  of 
Great  Britain. 

Brittuii)' :  See  Bretagnb. 

Brittle-star:  a  starfish  of  the  order  Ophiuroidpa,  called 
also  serpent-star.  The  brittle-stars  pos,sess  a  distinctly 
outlined  citnlral  disk,  in  which  is  the  stomach.  The  arms, 
usually  five  in  numlier,  spring  abruptly  from  the  disk.  The 
ambulacral  groove  is  covered  by  a  series  of  plates,  causing 
the  ambulacral  feet  to  extend  from  the  sides  of  the  arms. 
The  arms  are  cylindrical  and  fiexible,  and  do  not  contain 
any  appeixlages  of  the  stoimich,  as  do  lhi>se  of  true  star- 
fishes. The  arms  are  unbranched  in  all  but  the  family 
Axtrnphyllilie,  to  which  the  basket-fish  and  Gorgon 's-lieail 
belong.  There  are  aliout  .500  species  of  brittle-stai-s,  certain 
ones  being  very  common  on  most  coasts. 

David  S.  Jordan. 

Britton,  Xatiianiei,  Lord,  K.  M..  Ph.  D. :  botanist  :  b.  on 
Staten  Island,  X.  V.,  Jan.  1.5,  1M.59:  grailnated  from  Colum- 
bia College,  in  which  he  is  now  Professor  of  Botany.  As 
botanist  of  the  .Slate  geological  survey  he  published  a 
Catalogue  of  the.  Plaiitx  Fuiiiid  in  ytirjersei/  (1889).  He 
is  editor  of  the  Jiulletin  of  the  Toneij  Botanical  Club. 
He  has  published  technical  papi!rs  on  (rertain  genera  of 
sedges,  Ci/penm,  Scleria.  and  Eleucharix,  South  American 
plants,  Arizona  plants,  etc.  Charles  K.  Bessey. 


Brivp,  or  Brires-lu-Gaillarde,  brecvlaa-ga'yaard' :  a 
town  of  France  ;  de|partment  of  Correze  :  situated  in  a  rich 
plain  on  the  river  Correzi' ;  44  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Perigueux 
(see  map  of  France,  ref.  7-E).  It  has  manufactures  of 
muslins,  woolen  siutfs,  silk  handkerchiefs,  etc. ;  also  a  col- 
lege and  public  library,     Poi).  (1891)  6,803. 

Brix  :  See  Brux. 

Broacll  (sometimes  written  Barna'ch) :  a  district  and  city 
in  the  -North  Division  of  Bombay. British  India.  Thedistrict 
is  on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  and  S.  of  the  river 
Mahi.  Area,  l,45:j  s(|.  miles,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  alluvial 
plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Xerbudda.  The  hind  is 
rich  and  highly  cultivated,  and  though  without  forests  is 
not  destitute  of  trees.  Agriculture  is  the  almo.st  exclusive 
industry.  Pop.  327,000,  about  three-fourths  Hindus.  The 
chief  town  is  Broach,  situated  on  an  elevated  mound,  sup- 
iKised  to  be  artificial,  on  the  right-hand  bank  of  the  Xer- 
budda, 30  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  has  a  considerable 
trade,  and  exports  annually  large  (|uantities  of  raw  cotton. 
It  is  probably  the  Buryyaza  of  Ptolemy  and  Arrian.  It 
first  came  into  British  possession  in  1772.  Pop.  38,000. 
It  has  two  steam  coKon-gins.  It  has  also  a  Brahminicml 
hospital  for  sick  and  disabled  animals  ;  even  insects  are  re- 
ceived. On  an  island  near  Broach  is  the  largest  banyan- 
tree  in  India.  It  is  said  to  have  once  sheltered  an  army  of 
7,000  men.  M.  W.  Harrinoto.v. 

Broad  Arrow:  a  government  mark  used  as  a  means  of 
identification  upon  British  Government  stores  of  every  de- 
scription, and  so  called  as  being  likened  to  tlie  head  of  a 
broad  arrow.  It  is  a  felony  to  obliterate  or  deface  this  mark  : 
and  the  unlawful  placing  of  it  upon  goods  involves  a  pen- 
alty of  €200  and  the  forfeiture  of  the  goods.  The  mark  is 
supposed  to  be  of  Celtic  origin,  and  by  some  identified  with 
a  Druiilical  letter  typical  of  superiority  in  rank,  autliority. 
or  holiness,  and  also  believed  to  have  stood  for  king  or 
prince.  It  was  used  as  the  cognizance  of  Henry  Viscount 
Sydney.  Karl  of  Komney,  Master-General  of  Ordnance  from 
1693  to  1702,  and  was  first  used  as  a  government  mark  in 
his  time. 

Broad  Mountain:  a  high  ridge  in  the  anthracite-coal 
region  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Carbon  and  Schuylkill  Counties. 
It  has  an  altitude  of  about  2,000  feet  above  (he  sea,  and  is 
nearly  .50  miles  long.  Its  direction  is  nearly  X.  E.  and  S.  W. 
The  Mine  Hill  K.  R.  cros.ses  this  mountain. 

Broad  River:  a  river  of  the  U.  S.,  rising  at  the  foot  of 
the  Blue'  Ridge,  in  the  western  part  of  Xorth  Carolina.  Hav- 
ing entcreil  South  Carolina,  it  flows  in  a  S.  S.  E.  direction 
through  fertile  uplands,  and  unites  with  the  Saluda  at  Co- 
lumbia to  form  theCongaree  river.  Total  length  estimated 
at  150  miles. 

Broad  To|»  Mountain  :  a  mountain  of  Pennsylvania  :  in 
the  northea.st  part  of  Bedford  County,  and  the  south  part  of 
Huntingdon  County.  It  rises  about  2,500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Here  are  extensive  beds  of  bituminous  coal, 
for  the  transportation  of  which  a  railroad  has  been  opened 
from  this  mountain  to  Huntingdon. 

Broad'us,  John  Albert,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Baptist  educator 
ami  aiillior;  b.  in  Culpeper  co.,  Va..  Jan.  24,  1827;  educated 
at  tlie  University  of  Virginia;  assistiint  instructor  at  the 
University  of  Virginia;  chaplain  of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia; pastor  of  churches  in  Charlottesville,  South  Carolina, 
and  Kentucky.  In  1859  he  became  professor  in  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  and  upon  the  death  of 
Dr.  Bovce  was  chosen  to  be  president  of  that  institution. 
D.  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Mar.  16,  1895.  He  published  Pn-pa- 
ratiou  and  De/u-ery  o/Se/VMiHi.s  (Philadelphia,  1870);  Lec- 
turec  on  Frearhinij  (X'ew  York,  1876) ;  Commentary  on  Mat- 
thew (Philadelphia.  1886);  Sermons  and  Addresses  (1886); 
and  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Xew  York,  1890). 

Broca,  bro  kaa',  Paul:  French  surgeon  and  anthropol- 
ogist;  b.  at  St.  Foy-la-Grandc,  Gironde,  Juno  28,  1824: 
Professor  of  Surgical  Pathology  at  Paris  ;  founded  the  Paris 
Anthropological  Society;  Legion  of  Ilomu-  1868;  presi- 
dent International  Congress  of  Anthro|)ology  at  Paris 
1878;  since  1X72  published  the  Heme  d'Anihropotoj/ie. 
Among  his  voluminous  works  are  Sur  i'Anesthesie  Chirurgi- 
cale  Jli/pnutiaue {IHiiH) ;  A'lndes  snr  le.s  Animaux  Jiessusei- 
/«nA<  (1860) ;  Traiti^  den  Tinneurs  (lSi5i)-(i'.t)\  Menwires  sur 
les  Caracteres  physiques  de  Vllomme  Brehistoritjue  (1869); 
I/Anatomie  coinparee  de  Vllomme  et  des  Primates  {lS<i9); 
Memoires  d' Anthropoloqie  (1871-88);  and  Correspondance 
(1886).     I),  in  Paris,  July  9,  1880. 


iW) 


BROCADE 


BRODIE 


Brocade  [Span.  Jinn-dihi :  Ital.  brnrcafn,  embossed  mate- 
rial:  deriv.  Ill'  Ilal.  Iirorcii.  boss,  stu<l :  cf.  Kng.  brooch]: 
ji  silk  fabric  variefiated  with  gold  and  silver  threads,  or  a 
silk  faliric  on  wliieli  figures  of"  flowers,  foliage,  or  other  ob- 
jects are  formed  by  the  threads  of  the  warp  and  woof 
being  raised  by  the  .Jaeiiuard  loom  or  other  means.  Bro- 
cade" bears  nearly  the  same  relation  to  silk  textures  as 
damask  to  linen  fabrics. 

Broca's  Coiivoliitioii :  See  Speech. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac:  Brifisli  soldier;  li.  in  the  island  of 
Guernsey.  Oct.  (>.  ITtiit;  entered  the  arTTiy  and  rose  by  serv- 
ices in  tile  West  Indies.  Holland,  and  Denmark  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  regimeid.  which  was  orderrd  to  Canada  in  1802. 
Here  in  ISOo  he  su|i|uvsseil  a  threaleuing  mutiny;  in  1810 
was  made  Ijieutcuant-Covernor  of  Upper  Canada:  and  in 
1813  caiitured  Detroit  from  den.  Hull.  He  was  killed  in  the 
battle  of  Queenstown,  Oct.  1:1,  1812.  He  was  then  a  major- 
general.  ParlianuMit  pensioned  his  family,  and  monuments 
were  erected  to  him  in  St.  I^lu^s,  London,  and  on  Queens- 
town  Heights,  which  are  still  standing.  His  name  is  per- 
petuated in  that  of  Brockville.  Ontario. 

Brockeii.  The.  or  Blocksber^  (anc.  Mmix  Hriictii-Ka) : 
a  moiuitaiii  of  Prussia;  pi'ovince  of  Saxony;  20  miles  \V.  S. 
W.  of  Hallierstadt ;  the  highest  summit  of  the  llartz  Moun- 
tains. an<I  :i.T40  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  cul- 
tivated nearly  to  the  top,  which  connnands  a  fine  view  in 
clear  weather.  The  Broeken  is  the  cradle  of  many  ]30pular 
superstitions.  It  is,  acconliug  to  an  ancient  belief,  the 
scene  of  the  aiunud  dance  of  the  witelies  on  Walpui'gis 
night  (^lay  t).  This  superstition  in  all  probability  owes  its 
origin  to  the  iihenomenon  known  as  "The  Specter  of  the 
Broeken,"  seen  here  and  elsewhere,  which  is  .simply  the 
shadow  of  a  nuui  or  other  object  on  the  fog,  best  seen  at  sun- 
rise. The  apparent  enlargement  of  the  figure  is  an  illusion, 
and  the  shadow  can  be  seen  only  l)y  tlie  one  who  makes  it  or 
some  one  very  close  to  him. 

Brockes,  brok'es,  Bakthold  IlEiNmrn  ;  (ieiMuan  p<iet  :  li. 
in  Hamburg,  Sept.  32,  1680.  He  was  tlic  first  poet  who 
turned  away  from  the  conventional  classicism  and  dry 
learning  of  (xcrman  poetry  iluring  the  latter  pai't  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  and  who  urgeil.  {'specially  in  his  /rdisr/ii's 
Veriinuycn  in  (liitt  (Hamburg,  1721).  .-t  more  thorough  study 
and  contemphition  of  nature.  D.  in  Ilamliurg.  .Ian.  l(i,  1747. 
See  .\lois  Brandl.  H.  II.  «/w/,c.s  (Innsbruck.  1878). 

.Jl'Lirs    (tOEBEL. 

Broek'ett,  Linus  Pierpont  :  historical  and  miscellane- 
ous writer;  b.  at  Canton,  Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1830.  He  published 
among  other  works,  a  Ilistoni  iif  Eilurdfiiin  (1.8.")!)):  //is/on/ 
(jff/ic  ('in/  War  (1866) :  Mni  of  Our  Din/  (1868) ;  The  Ymr 
of  Biittlcti  (1871);  anil  h'piili'iiiic  uiiil  Ciiii/Hi/ioiiK  DinHaxi-x 
(187:1).      I),  in  llrooklyn,  .Ian.  1:1,  18!):!. 

Brock'liaiis.  Krieuru'U  Arnold;  (iernian  pulilisher;  b. 
at  Dortmund.  May  4.  1773.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  firm 
of  Brockhaus  in  Leipzig,  and  pulilislieil  six  editions  of  the 
('oiiri'rx(ifi(i>i-s-//i'.rikoii.  He  was  distinguisheil  for  his  lit- 
erary culture,  enterprise,  and  patriot  ism.  He  liecame  a  citi- 
zen of  Leipzig  in  1817.  I).  Aug.  20.  182:!. — Hkinrich:  son 
of  the  preceding;  b.  in  Amsterdam.  I'Vli.  4.  1804.  He  suc- 
ceeded ins  father  its  pro]ii'ictor  ot  the  pnlilishing-hcpuse,  and 
published  new  cdilions  of  the  ('tiinrrx<iHnnx-L(:rikoii.  1). 
in  Li'ipzig.  Nov.  l."),  1874. — Hermann;  tlu'  lu-olher  of  Ilein- 
rich :  b.  in  .\mslerdam.  .Ian.  28,  1806:  was  educated  at  Lei])- 
zig,  (iottingen,  ami  Bonn.  He  lived  for  a  lime  in  France 
and  England;  became  professor  at  Jena  in  18:10,  and  at 
Leipzig  in  1841,  where  in  1848  he  was  made  Professor  of 
Sanskrit  Speech  and  Language,  and  Ihi'i-c  he  died.  .Ian.  .l. 
1877.  .\mong  his  publications  arc  cdilions  of  the  Zfii<l<tri'\lii 
anil  the  Vi  lid  III  ail  Snili'.  in  Latin  (Leipzig;'.  18,")());  of  the 
/uitlii'i-Siirll-Sih/iirii.  or  collection  of  fables  of  Somadcva. 
Bhatia  (2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1866);  of  the  Persian  compilation. 
Tin-  liiMikx  of  the  Si-ri'n  W'ixe  Mnxfer-i  (184.1):  and  of  a  crit- 
ical edition  of  (lie  Noiif/n  of  Jtniix  (18.54-60). — Heixrich 
KmiARi):  b.  in  Jjciiizig,  Aug.  7,  183!) ;  son  of  Hcinrich;  edu- 
cati'il  at  Leipzig,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin;  a  member  of  Ihc 
Ki-iclistag  1871-78;  succeeded  his  father  in  1874  al  the  head 
of  the  pulilishing-house. —  His  brother  IIeinrh  n  Hidoi.i': 
b.  in  Leipzig.  .Inly  16.  18:!8;  brought  up  to  his  father's  busi- 
ness; became  Kduard's  parlner.  This  linn  has  had  in  hand 
siiU'C  its  commencement  in  1818  the  publication  ot  the  enor- 
mous (rerman  Kiin/rlo/iifditi  of  Li'driiiiii/  iitiil  Art.  of  Ersch 
and  tlrnber,  which  in  1888  had  reached  11)8  volu!nes  and 
was  still  incomplete. 


Brockport ;  village ;  Jlonroe  Co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4-D) ;  on  the  N.  Y.  Cent. 
K.  K..  and  on  tlie  Erie  Canal :  17  miles  W.  of  Rochester;  is 
in  the  heart  of  a  wealthy  and  populous  farming  country. 
Brockport  has  electric  lights,  water-works,  eight,  churches,  a 
State  normal  school,  mower  and  reaper  works,  flour-mills, 
shoe-factorj',  and  other  manufactories.  The  manufacture 
of  reapers  liegaii  here  in  1.S46,  and  suliscquently  the  first 
reapers  with  circular  platform  and  swee)i-rake  were  con- 
structed here.     Pop.  (1870)  3,817:  (1880)  1,971  ;  (1890)  :l,742. 

Editor  of  "  Republic." 

Brockton ;  city  (formerly  North  Bridgewater,  incorpo- 
rated in  1874) :  Plymouth  co.',  Mass. ;  on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and 
Hart.  Railroad  ;  20  miles  S.  of  Boston  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Massachusetts,  ref.  4-J).  It  is  one  of  the  first  cities  in 
the  county  for  wealth  and  population,  and  is  an  important 
trading-center.  The  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  is  the 
principal  industry,  there  being  invested  in  the  various 
branches  of  this  industry  a  capital  of  over  $6,500,000,  accord- 
ing to  the  U.  S.  census  report  for  1890 ;  furniture,  carriages, 
needles,  and  shoe-tools,  paper  boxes,  candy,  etc.,  are  also 
manufactured.  It  has  a  public  library.  Pop.  (1880)  13,608  ; 
(1890)  27,294  :  (1895)  ;13,165.       Editor  of  "  Enterprise." 

Brock'ville  ;  a  port  of  entry  of  Ontario,  Canada;  capital 
of  the  county  of  Leeds;  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway ;  12.5  miles  by  railway  S.  \V.  of  Jlon- 
treal,  and  7.5  miles  by  railway  S.  of  Ottawa  (see  map  of  On- 
tario, ref.  3-II).  Hardware,  chemicals,  wliite  lead,  gloves, 
farming  tools,  steam-engines,  and  machinery  are  manufac- 
tured here.  It  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Brockville 
and  Ottawa  Railway.  It  is  connected  by  ferrv  with  Morris- 
town.  X.  V.     Pop.  of  district,  13,000. 

Brockway,  Zebulon  Reed  :  penologist ;  b.  in  Lyme,  New 
London  co.,  Conn.,  Apr.  28,  1827;  clerk  Connecticut  State- 
prison  1849-50;  assistant  superintendent,  Albany,  18.54-61, 
under  Pillsbury ;  opened  Detroit  House  of  Correction  and 
conducted  it  1861-73 ;  (U'ganized  and  since  1876  controlled 
Elmira  penitentiary.  New  York  ;  founder  in  the  LT.  S.  of  in- 
determinate sentence  and  penal-refiu'in  methods;  has  writ- 
ten much  for  the  magazines  on  penological  questions,  and  is 
autlior  of  numerous  papers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Prison  Association  of  the  U.  S. 

Broderick.  David  Colbreth  ;  U.S.  Senator  from  Cali- 
fornia ;  li.  in  Washington,  D.  ('..  Feb.  4,  1820;  cilucated  in 
New  York  city:  ap|irentici'd  to  a  stone-cutter;  defeated  as 
caiididalc  for  Congress  in  1846;  removed  to  California,  in 
184!) ;  served  as  L'.  S.  Senator  from  California  from  1857  to  his 
death  :  fought  a  duel  with  .Indge  I).  S.  Terry,  of  the  State  Su- 
IMvme  Court,  and  was  killed,  near  Lake  MerccMl,  Sept.  16.1859. 

Brod'liead  :  (ireen  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-1)) ;  beautifully  situate*!  on  railroad 
anil  on  Sugar  river:  90  miles  W.  of  Milwaukee:  has  a  large 
graded  school,  a  foundry,  machine-shops,  wagon  and  car- 
riage factories,  large  flouring-mills.  etc.,  and  an  extensive 
trade.  The  surrouiidinL;'  coiintrv  is  exceedingly  fertile. 
Poji  (1880)  1.2.54;  (18!)0)  1.461;  (18!)5)  1,717. 

Brodliead.  .lonx  Romeyn,  LL.  D.  ;  historian  ;  son  of  Rev. 
Dr.  .lacob  Brodliead:  b.  in  Philadeliihia.  .Ian.  2,  1814;  grad- 
uated at  Rutgers  College  ill  1831.  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  New  York  city  in  I8:!5.  After  two  years  he  began  to 
devote  himself  to  the  study  of  American  history.  In  18;;J9 
he  went  to  Holland  as  secretary  of  the  U.  S.  legation  at  The 
Hague.  In  1841  he  was  .-ippointed  by  Gov.  Seward  to  search 
out  and  copy  (locunieiils  relating  to  the  early  history  of  New 
York.  When  he  returned  in  1844  he  l>rought  with  Iiim 
more  than  5.000  separate  documents,  which  led  IMr.  Ban- 
croft to  say  that  "  the  ship  in  which  he  returned  was  niore 
richly  freighted  with  new  materials  for  American  history 
than'any  thid  had  ever  crossed  the  Atlantic."  These  docu- 
ments w'cre  afterward  published  in  eleven  quarto  volumes. 
From  1846  to  1849  he  was  secretary  of  legation  under  Mr. 
Bancroft  in  London.  From  18.53  to'  1857  he  was  naval  offi- 
cer of  Hie  jiort  of  New  York.  Years  of  jiatienl  labor  were 
bestowed  u|)on  his  fli-ilori/  nf  the  State  of  \eir  }'o;7.-,  the 
first  volume  of  wliicli  apiieared  in  18.5:1,  and  the  second  in 
1871.     D.  in  New  York  city.  May  6.  1873. 

Bro'die,  Sir  Benjamin  Collins,  I).  C.  L..  F.  R,  S. :  sur- 
geon; b.  in  Wiltshire,  England,  June  9,1783;  became  in 
18:12  surgeon  to  William  IV. ;  was  created  a  baronet  in  1834. 
Among  his  works  are  Lectures  on  Local  yerroiis  Affections 
(18:!7)  and  Psi/eholoffiriil  Inquiries  as  to  the  Mental  Facul- 
ties (1854).     lie  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  So- 


BROnRICK 


BKOMKI.IA    FAMILY 


ri»i 


cictv  ill  ISll  for  his  contributions  to  physiology.  D.  near 
Loii(l<jn.  Oft.  21. 1H()2.     Sw  his  Aii/nhioi/niplii/  (1865). 

Brod'rifk.  Hon.  Hkokck  Chaki.ks,  I).  C.  h. :  educator; 
!■.  In  N'liiliilU.  Knj;huiil.  May  5.  IKil  ;  cducatetl  at  Eton,  at 
Haliiol  Cullejje,  Oxford,  and  at  rniversitvof  London;  called 
to  the  liar  l^fc")!) ;  niemher  of  sdiool  board  for  London  18T7; 
member  of  ■joverninj;  body  of  Kton  College;  warden  of 
MiTton  Colleire  l!SSl ;  lias  cnntrilnited  to  k'adiner  |ii'riodicals, 
and  has  imbllslied  /'uli/inil  Sfiii/ifX  (18«0);  A'liyliah  Land 
(iiiil  KiijiUsh  LiiiidlorilK  (ISSl);  JIhikji'i'iiIk  iif  Merton  Col- 
li\i/r;  .ind  a  I/ixfi/ri/  of  l/ie  I'ltirerxili)  iif  U.rfiird. 

Hro'tly  (formerly  called  Liibicz) :  a  tradiiifi-town  of  Aus- 
tria, in  (ialieia ;  near  the  Knssian  frontier;  .50  miles  K.  N.  E. 
of  Leinberi;  (see  map  of  Auslria-IIun<,'ary.  ref.  3-L).  It  has 
an  imperial  ehaniln'r,  a  theater,  and  a  castle:  also  manufac- 
tures of  linen  anil  leather.  'I'lie  majority  of  its  inhabilaiils 
are  Jews.     I'op.  (IS'.IO)  17.47."). 

Brotflie,  br()  yee  .  Aiuii-lk  Lkoxce  \'i(  tou  Chari.ks,  Due 
de  :  slale>mjin  :  b.  In  I'.iris.  Nov.  :J,S,  ITS.").  lie  inarrii'd  in 
ISIG  the  daiif^hterof  Mailame  de  Stael.  lb'  was  a  friend  of 
(tni/.ot.  and  co-operated  with  him  as  a  leader  of  the  party 
called  Doctrinaires,  lie  was  MinistiT  of  Foreign  Alfairs 
from  Oct.,  1S:W,  to  Apr.,  1834.  In  18411  he  was  a  conserva- 
tive member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Aiademy  in  IS.-)*).     I),  in   I'aris,  .Ian.  2.5.  1870. 

Bl'o^lic,  .lACc^fKS  V^lCTOR  Al.liKKT.  Diic  de :  statesman 
and  author:  b.  in  Paris,  .June  1;!,  1821.  Ilavinj;  kept  aloof 
from  pnlilic  life  durinjr  the  second  enipii'e.  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  London  by  M.  Thiers  in  Feb.,  1,S71  ;  be<'ame 
Minister  of  Foreif^u  .\ITairs  in  the  ^lac.Malion  adminislra- 
lion  in  187.{-74:  .Minister  of  .Justice  in  1877,  but  his  exer- 
tions in  behalf  of  the  constitutional  monarchy  ended  with 
the  downfall  of  ^MacMalion.  His  priiicip.'d  works  are  /'A///iw 
ft  VKiiipire  romiiin  an  qualribni'  •Sier/r  (lS.")(i,  6  vols.);  La 
Sotiffrnhii'te  Poiifitii'afi'  ff  la  Liht'ft^  (I8(U);  Fr^dt't'ie  II, 
ft  JIarii'  Tlinfs,'  (1882);  Fn'dn-ic  II.  ft  Liiid.i  AT.  (188.5); 
Marie  Ttu'rr.sr  impe  rat  rice  (1887);  Maurice  de  Sa.re  et  le 
Marijuix  d'Arj/i'iiaon  (2  vols..  181)1). 

Broiliii£r:  the  process  of  cooking  meat  or  fish  by  the  di- 
rect action  of  heat  over  or  in  front  of  a  clear  fire.  The  food 
to  bo  I'ooked  is  placed  npon  a  gridiron.  By  this  method  the 
albumen  on  the  outside  of  the  food  becomes  coagulated  at 
the  outset,  and  forms  a  crust  which  prevents  the  juices  flow- 
ing out. 

ISrnkeii  Bonos:  See  Fkacti  kk. 

Broken  Bow:  city:  capital  of  Custer  eo..  Xeb.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Xebraska,  ref.  lO-E);  is  siluateil 
in  a  stock-raisini;  and  agricultural  region.  Pop.  (188.5)  212  : 
(IsnO)  1,G47. 

Broken  Breast  :  a  condillnii  occurring  in  abs<'ess  of  the 
bri'ast.     .Sci'  Hkkast.  Ahsckss  OK. 

Brokpn  Wind:  a  disease  of  the  horse,  the  nature  of 
which  is  not  well  understood,  though  it  is  charactcriziul  by 
dillieulty  in  the  act  of  expii-ation,  the  horse  making  a  spas"- 
modic  etYort  to  expel  the  air  fi-om  llie  lungs.  Tin' syniplnms 
are  best  observed  when  the  liorsc  is  cxei'ciseil,  the  br<-alhing 
becoming  labored,  the  ncjslrils  dilated,  the  eyes  bloodshot, 
showing  imi)erfect  purification  of  blood  in  the  lungs.  A 
broken-wiiKled  horse  has  a  bad  hollow  cough.  When  the 
animal  is  oppressed  by  work,  the  piilse  is  excessively  rapid 
and  llu' heart  beats  energetically.  From  this  circumstance 
it  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  disease  of  the  lieart.  Low-bred 
horses  are  especially  liable  to  broken  wind  if  fed  on  innu- 
Iritiousand  bulky  food,  and  at  Hie  same  lime  kept  at  hard 
work.  The  Irealment  is  misatisfaclory.  and  we  can  only 
hope  for  palliation  by  kei'ping  the  alimentary  canal  in  order, 
ailniinistering  occasional  |iurgatives,  and  feeding  on  a  projier 
quantity  of  tlu' best  oats,  which  should  always  be  bruiseil ; 
also  allowing  the  best  hay  in  spare  (piantities— 10  to  12  lb. 
<laily.  The  hay  should  be  cut  and  wet.  I''resli  grass  in  its 
season  is  the  proper  fooil.  Dusty  hay  and  dry  meal  as  food 
should  especially  be  avoided. 

Brokor  [from  O.  Vr.  Iirulcedr,  liroeliear.  tapslcr,  wine-re- 
tailer; deriv.  of  vb.  tinicliirr,  lap.  Fug.  Iinxu-ti]:  in  general, 
a  species  of  agent  employed  to  act  as  a  middleman  or  nego- 
tiator between  distinct  parties,  such  a-s  buyer  or  seller, 
though  this  statement  would  not  include  a  |>awnbroker. 
lie  (lifters  from  a  factor,  since  he  does  not  have  possession 
of  the  property  with  which  he  deals.  lie  is  in  a  certain 
sense  the  agent  for  both  parties,  though  primarily  of  the 
party   by   whom    lie   is  employed.     Accordingly,   until   he 


closes  the  negotiation  he  is  (he  agent  of  the  party  who  em- 
ploys him.  If  he  were  employed  to  buy,  he  could  not  sell 
his  own  goods,  but  must  buy  of  a  third  jierson,  even  though 
his  engagonient  be  gratuitous.  Regularly,  a  broker  discloses 
his  agency  on  I  he  face  of  I  he  t  ransact  ion  ;'sliould  he  fail  to  do 
so,  he  would,  by  the  gcncrid  principles  of  the  law  of  agency, 
make  himself  jicrsonally  lialile.  When  he  has  closed  the 
negotiation,  he  usuiilly  gives  to  either  party  a  memorandum 
of  the  transaction,  and  in  the  <-ase  of  the  sale  of  goods  gives 
a  "bought -ami-sold  note."  For  the  jiurpose  of  complving 
with  the  rule  of  law  re(|uiring  in  certain  sales  a  written 
meniorandum.  he  is  the  agent  of  both  parties.  A  broker  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  an  auctioneer;  a  broker  nniy  both 
sell  and  buy — an  auctioneer  only  sells.  A  broker  buys  and 
sells  at  iirivate  sale — an  auctioneer  only  sells  at  jiublic  side. 
His  compensation  is  usually  derived  from  connnissions  upon 
the  transaction,  termed  "brokerage."  The  commission  is 
earned  when  the  negotiation  is  completed.  The  real  inquiry 
in  such  a  case  is.  Did  the  bioker's  services  result  in  bringing 
the  buyer  and  seller  logetherf  If  that  be  the  case,  he  will 
be  entitled  to  his  commissions,  though  the  contract,  from 
subseciuent  causes,  was  not  in  fact  earrii'd  out.  On  the 
otiu'r  hand,  if  the  ncgotialion  failed  at  the  lime,  and  the 
jiarties  were  subseipiently  brought  together  by  other  means, 
nis  commissions  would  not  be  payable. 

In  the  large  cities  brokers  form  a  distinct  class  of  persons, 
<levotiug  themsidves  to  special  departments  of  agency,  such 
as  insurance-brokers,  stock-brokers,  real-estate  brokers,  prod- 
uce-brokers, and  the  like.  A  person  may,  however,  act  as  a 
broker  in  a  singU'  transaction  without  following  the  busi- 
ness, and  will  be  governed  in  the  main  by  the  rules  already 
stated.     See  .VoKXT.  '    T.  W.  DwKillT. 

Bro'nisil :  CoHHrjO  =  ('^BrsO.H  ;  a  compound  analogous 
to  rlilnrjl.  iirodnced  by  the  action  of  bromide  on  alcohol. 

Bronilicr^,  brom  bitirh  (Polish  Bi/dgo.tzcz):  a  town  of 
Prussia;  (irovince  of  Posen ;  on  the  river  Brahe ;  about  (> 
miles  from  its  junctiim  with  the  Vistula,  and  6.5  miles  \.  E. 
of  Posen  (see  map  of  (ierimui  Empire,  ref.  ;J-I).  It  is  on 
the  railway  from  Berlin  to  Dantzig,  and  on  the  Bromberg 
Canid.  which  connects  the  Vistula  with  llie  Oder.  It  has  a 
normal  school  .-iiid  a  gymnasium;  also  manufactures  of 
linen  and  woolen  f.Mbrics,  tobacco,  Prussian  blue,  etc.  Here 
are  sevi'ral  distilleries,  jiotteries,  and  breweries.  ]*oi).  (188.5) 
3G.2(i!>;  (18il0)  41,4.51. 

Broine,  RicnAUi) :  English  dramatist;  at  first  a  servant 
of  lien  .Jonson  ;  wrote  twenty-four  iiopular  plays,  fifteen 
being  comedies.  The  best  ai'e  T/ie  ^ort/ieni  La-'i.\  ;u\d  The 
■Juriat  Cri'ic.  His  dramatic  works  were  reprinted  in  187;i. 
I),  about   1(5.52. 

Bronic-grnss  :  a  grass  of  the  genus  limmii.'i.  which  com- 
prises numerous  species,  natives  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
Hnjiniin  iiiullis  grows  well  on  jioor  soils,  and  is  readily  eaten 
by  cattle,  but  is  not  much  esteemed  by  farmers.  The  tall 
broiiie  grass  {liroiiiii.i  t/ii/aiiteiis).  a  native  of  Europe,  grows 
ni'arly  5  Icel  high,  and  aH'onls  a  lai'ge  bulk  of  foliage,  not 
mui-li  ndished  by  cattle.  Thi>  Hrmiiiix xecal in ii.t,  mnunonly 
calli'd  chess  or  cheat,  is  a  troublesome  weed  wliicli  infests 
grain-fields  both  in  Europe  and  the  V.  S.  In  the  latter  it 
is  a  naturalizeil  exotic.  It  resembles  rye  {seeale)  when  it  is 
young,  hence  the  specific  name  .■ieca/iiiu.i.  The  seeds  retain 
tlieii'  power  of  germinating  for  years.  This  weed  is  so  com- 
mon in  wheat-fields  thai  many  farmers  believe  that  wheat 
will  turn  into  chess.  Jiroiiius  l/riza-farntin  is  grown  in  gar- 
dens for  use  in  dry  bouquets. 

Bronic'liil :  a  g<'nus  of  ]ilanls  of  the  family  liromi/iareie  ; 
named  after  the  Swedish  bolanisl  Bromcl  :  natives  of  tropi- 
cal .\mcrica.  tluaigh  many  have  naturalized  themselves  in 
Asia  and  Africa.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  and  the  leaves 
have  spiny  serratures  on  the  margins.  The  genus  conqu'lses 
a  number  of  species,  the  fibej-s  of  which  are  used  for  cord- 
age, ropes,  nets,  etc.  Among  them  are  Bromelia  pit/tin, 
which  abounds  in  the  I'hilipiiine  islands,  and  is  cultivated 
for  its  fiber  by  the  Chinese;  and  the  Hrnmilia  piiit/iiis  of 
the  West  Indies,  from  the  fruit  of  which  a  vinous  li((Uor  is 
prepared. 

Bromolin  Family  {lirnme/iacea'):  monocotylechinous 
plants,  natives  of  tropical  climates.  They  have  six  stamens 
and  a  single  style,  with  a  three-celled  ovary.  The  leaves  are 
hard,  rigid,  channeled,  and  often  spiny.  Some  of  the  S|)ecies 
have  beautiful  flowers.  The  order  comprises  more  than  350 
species,  among  which  are  the  pineapple  (Aii<ina.'<  .tatiriis) 
and  the  Tiltiiiidnia  ii.s>ieuide.i.  wliich  is  called  Spanish  moss 


70-2 


BROMINE 


BRONTE 


or  old  man's  beanl.  It  grows  in  the  Southern  U.  S.  on  for- 
est trees,  from  the  branches  of  whi<-li  it  hangs  down  in  long 
gray  threads.  The  fiber  of  this  is  used  to  stuff  mattresses. 
Many  of  the  species  are  epiphytic,  growing  on  trees,  and  are 
capable  of  vegetating  for  a  long  time  without  contact  with 
the  earth,  and  will  flower  if  suspended  in  the  air  after  Vicing 
severed  from  tlieir  roots.  The  leaves  of  some  are  so  formed 
as  to  retain  near  their  base  a  quantity  of  water,  and  tluis 
supply  travelers  with  refreshment.  Many  plants  of  this 
orderafford  valuable  fibers,  which  are  used  in  making  cord- 
age, cloth,  etc.  The  fiber  of  the  leaves  of  Anniui.'i  sativus 
has  Vieen  made  into  a  fabric  resembling  wliite  muslin. 

Broinidrosis:  See  Skin  Diseases. 

Bro'inine,  or  Bro'miiini  [from  Gr.  /Spi^o'-  f""'  odor] : 
a  chemical  element  discovered  in  18','6  by  iialanl.  Its 
chemical  symbol  is  Br.  and  atomic  weight  8(1.  It  resendiles 
chlorine  in  chemical  habitudes,  and  exists  in  minute  quan- 
tity in  sea-water  and  tlie  ashes  of  marine  plants.  It  is  also 
found  in  many  mineral  springs,  especially  those  of  Kissin- 
gen,  Kreuznach,  and  Arnstadt  (13-6  grains  per  imperial 
gallon),  in  Germanv,  Tenbury  in  Worcestershire  (12 J  grains), 
Saratoga  and  Ballston,  N.  Y".  and  in  many  brines,  especially 
those  of  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  and  in  the  waters 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (121  grains).  Bromine  also  occurs  as  a 
bromide  of  silver  in  the  mines  of  Chili  and  other  countries. 
It  is  usually  extracted  from  tlie  inotlier-liquors  or  bitterns 
of  brines,  or  from  the  purification  of  rock  salt  and  chloride 
of  potassium  liy  the  agency  of  chlorine  or  of  binoxide  of 
manganese  ami  sulphuric  acid.  Formerly,  most  of  the  bro- 
mine was  obtained  at  Schonebeck.  Prussia;  since  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Stassfurt  deposits  larger  quantities  (260  tons 
per  annum)  have  been  made  there.  In  I  he  U.  S.  much  bro- 
mine is  made  at  Tarentum.  Sligo,  and  Xati-ona,  Pa.,  at 
Pomeroy,  0.,  Pittsliurg,  Pa.,  .Syracuse.  X.  Y.,  and  Kanawha, 
West  Va. :  also  in  Michigan.  The  total  product  of  the  U.  S. 
was  estimated  at  388.000'lb.  for  1890.  To  obviate  the  danger 
attending  the  transportation  of  bromine,  much  of  the  bro- 
mine of  Stassfurt  is  shipped  as  ethyl  bromide,  from  which 
it  is  easily  set  free. 

Bromine  is  a  dark  reddish-brown  liquid,  having  a  power- 
ful suffocating  odor  and  emitting  heavy  red  fumes.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  2976;  it  boils  at  14.5-4"  F.,  and  freezes  at 
19'4°.  It  is  very  poisonous ;  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
slightly  so  in  water.  It  combines  readily  with  metals; 
forms  hydrobromic  acid  (IIBr)  with  hydrogen,  and  with 
oxygen  broinic  acid  (HBrOs)  and  hypobromons  acid 
(HBrO),  all  of  which  are  analogous  in  their  ju'operties 
to  the  corresponding  compounds  of  chlorine.  Bromine 
possesses  bleaching  aiul  disinfecting  properties.  It  is  used 
to  a  limited  extent  as  a  disinfectant,  but  its  most  impor- 
tant application  is  for  the  manufacture  of  bromide  of  po- 
tassium (KBr),  which  is  used  in  medicine  and  in  photog- 
raphy. Bromide  of  ammonium,  cadmium,  etc.,  are  also 
prepared  for  the  latter  purpose.  Bromine  is  also  used  ex- 
tensively in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsex. 

Bro'moform  (or  trihrnm-methane.  C'lTBra) :  a  compound 
analogous  to  chloroform  and  iodoform.  It  is  a  heavy,  vola- 
tile li(iuid. 

Bromsgrove:  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire,  Eng- 
land ;  IG  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Birmingham ;  in  a  richly 
wooded  valley  ;  on  the  Birmingliamaud  Bristol  Railway  (see 
map  of  England,  rcf.  10-G).  It  has  a  fine  old  church,  and  a 
grammar  school  founded  by  Edward  VI. ;  also  manufactures 
of  buttons  and  nails.     Pop".  (1801)  7.934. 

Bronchi,  brongki  [pi.  of  Lat.  irojic/ii/.",  from  f!r.  0p6yxos, 
windpipe] :  tlie  divisions  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe  through 
which  the  air  is  conveyed  into  the  lungs.  The  trachea  di- 
vides into  a  right  ami  left  bronchus  similar  in  structure  to 
itself.  The  right  is  the  shorter  of  the  two  and  is  rather 
largiu-  in  caliber  than  the  other.  Witliin  the  lung  the  bronchi 
diviile  ami  subdivide,  forming  minute  tubes.  Tliese  are  lined 
with  epitlulium  of  ciliated  type,  and  their  walls  are  com- 
posed of  filiro-rauscular  tissue  strengthened  with  rings  or 
plates  of  cartilage.  The  terminal  bronchi  divide  into  bronchi- 
oles, which  again  open  into  the  alveoli  or  resjiiratory  part  of 
the  lungs.  "W.  P. 

BroiK'hi'tis  [from  Gr.  pp6yxos,  trachea  +  suffix  -itis  (Gr. 
-iTis)] :  a  diseased  condition  characterized  by  inflammation 
or  hyneraunia  (congestion)  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  air-passagcs,  and  usually  accompanied  by  a  more  or  less 
excessive  secretion  of  mucus  from  that  membrane.    Young 


children,  old  people,  and  tliose  who  are  feeble  or  ill-nour- 
ished are  especially  liable  to  it.  More  or  less  bronchitis  is 
usually  associated  with  pulmonary  consumption,  with  ob- 
structive heart  disease,  and  with  asthma.  It  is  often  seen  in 
patients  with  intermittent  fever,  typhoid,  measles,  and  small- 
pox. Perhaps  the  most  fniitful  cause  is  exposure  to  sudden 
and  extreme  changes  of  the  weather,  leading  primarily  to 
that  form  of  acute  bronchitis  which  is  known  as  a  "cold  on 
the  lungs."'  Influenza  is  an  epidemic  bronchitis,  the  cau.se 
of  which  is  undecided,  but  is  probably  some  unknown  in- 
fluence existing  in  the  air. 

The  symptoms  of  bronchitis  are  of  various  character, 
varying  according  as  the  disease  is  seated  in  the  larger  or 
the  smaller  bronchi ;  the  disease  is  also  much  more  formi<l- 
able  in  young  children  and  in  aged  persons  than  in  others. 
There  is  especial  danger  in  the  case  of  infants  that  collapse 
of  small  porti<iiis  of  the  lung  may  ensue.  Bronchitis  may 
be  either  chronic  or  acute.  Uncom]ilicated  chronic  bron- 
chitis may  require  the  u.*e  of  sedatives  or  tonics,  with  sys- 
tematic exercise  and  careful  attention  to  the  other  hygienic 
conditions,  but  the  treatment  of  individual  cases  will  vary 
with  the  circumstances  and  special  condition  of  the  patient. 
The  inhalation  of  medicated  vapors  and  atomized  liquids  is 
especially  recommended  in  some  cases.  Acute  bronchitis  is 
in  general  to  be  treated  by  expectorants  or  emetics,  to  re- 
move the  secretion,  and  by  diaphoretics  and  counter-irritants, 
such  as  mustard,  on  the  extremities  and  the  chest,  to  relieve 
the  congested  blood-vessels  of  the  bronchi.  When  the  case 
is  extreme  and  suffocation  threatened,  an  infant  may  be 
often  relieved  by  a  warm  bath.  There  are  other  special 
remedial  measures  which  may  be  resorted  to  under  the  ad- 
vice of  the  physician. 

The  diagnosis  of  bronchitis  may  be  somewhat  obscure, 
but  to  the  practitioner  the  stethoscope  reveals  the  extent 
and  character  of  the  disease  by  signs  which  to  the  un- 
trained observer  might  appear  insignificant.  It  may  be 
observed  that,  except  in  children  and  old  persons,  the 
great  proportion  of  cases  of  acute  bronchitis  recover  spon- 
taneously. 

BroiK'liocole.  brongko-setl :  See  Goitre. 

Brondsted.  bron'sted.  Peter  Olif:  b. at  Fruering.  Xov. 
17.  1780;  studied  at  the  Cniversity  of  Copenhagen,  then  in 
Paris  1806-08;  undertook  extensive  explorations  in  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor  from  1810  to  1813.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  made  Professor  of  Philology  in  Copenhagen,  but  went  in 
1819  to  Rome,  and  resided  there  till  1823.  visiting  Southern 
Italy,  Sicily,  the  Ionian  islands,  and  Jlalta.  lie  spent  some 
time  in  England  and  in  Paris.  1828-32.  Returning  to  Copen- 
hagen in  1832  as  director  of  the  royal  miniisniafical  collec- 
tions and  Professor  of  Archa>ology.  he  clied  there  June  26, 
1842.  His  principal  work  is  Voi/ni/i'.s  dnns  la  Grece,  accom- 
paf/nes  de  reclierehex  iirchfolngiijiies  ft  siiivis  d'un  aperi;u 
stir  foi/tes  hs  eiifreprises  scipntifiqiifs  qui  onf  eu  lieu  en 
Greet  depiiin  Paunanias  Jiisqu'd  iios  jours  {Puria,  1826-30, 
2  parts).  lie  also  wrote  Bidrag  til  den  danshe  Ilislorie.  af 
udenlandske  Jf(inuscripfsaiiilint/er{\i^l~-l8) ;  Desrriptioii  of 
Tliirty-twd  Aiieieiit  Greek  Painted  Vases  (1832);  Tlie. 
Bronzes  of  Siris  (1836);  and  finally  published  a  very  fine 
Danish  translation  of  ^Eschylus's  Ayamemnun  (1842),  leav- 
ing in  MS.  a  version  (published  1844)  of  the  rest  of  the  tril- 
ogy. Revised  by  G.  L.  Kittredoe. 

Brongniarf.  brohni-aar.  Alexandre:  savant:  b.  in 
Paris.  Fell.  .'i.  1770.  lie  became  in  1800  director  of  the  por- 
celain manufactory  at  Sevres.  In  181.5  he  was  admitted 
into  the  Institute.  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  an  Ele- 
mentiiri/  Treatise  nn  Mineralmjii  (1807)  and  a  Treatise  on 
the  Art  of  Pottenj  (184.5).  He'  classified  reptiles,  to  the 
divisions  of  which  he  g.ave  the  names  of  Saurians,  Batra- 
chians,  Chelonians.  and  Ophidians,  an<l  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  .systematic  stiuly  of  Trilobites.   D.  in  Paris.  Oct.  7, 1847. 

Bron'tc:  a  town  of  Sicily;  in  the  province  of  Catania; 
near  the  west  base  of  Mt!  Etna;  28  miles  X.  X.  W.  of 
Catania  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  9-F).  It  has  manufactures 
of  paper  and  woolen  goods.     Pop.  17.395. 

Bron'te,  .\x.\e:  sister  of  Charlotte  Bronii';  b.  at  Haworth. 
Yni-kshiiv.  England.  Mar.  2.5.  1820;  wrote,  under  the  pen- 
name  Acton  /iril.iwn  novels,  Ai/nes  Grei/  (1847)  and  Tlie 
Tenant  of  Wild  fell  Hall  (1848).  besides  a  number  of  poems. 
D.  in  Scarborough,  ^lay  28,  1849.  IIexry  A.  Beers. 

Bronte,  Charlotte  (Currer  Bell):  novelist;  b.  at  Thorn- 
ton, in  Yorkshire,  Apr.  21,  1816.  Her  eccentric  father,  Pat- 
rick Bronte,  originally  Prunty,  became  curate  of  Haworth, 


broxtK 


BUOXZE 


793 


York.sliiro.  in  1820.  She  lust  her  iiiotlier  in  1821.  anil  wii.s 
sent  to  a  Ijouriling-sphool,  where  her  health  was  irnpaireil  l>y 
inipure  air  and  unwholesonie  food;  and  then  (an;;ht  until  In 
1842  slie  ami  her  sister  Kinily  weiil  to  Urussels  to  learn 
Kreneli.  In'184(>.  Charlotte  and  her  sisters.  Knilly  and  Ainie. 
imlilislied  a  volnnio  entitled  Poemn  liij  Ciirnr.  Ellii.  and 
Acloii  liilt.  Her  tirst  successful  work  was  •linif  Kijre.  iiit 
Aiitiiliioi/nip/ii/.  rililril  bij  t  'iirrer  liftt  (1S4T),  which  was  very 
popiilar.  Her  other  eiiief  works  are  Shirlci/  (184!))  and 
\'i//f/tK  (1852).  She  was  niarrleil  in  l.s.Vl  to  the  Uev.  A.  15. 
Xkhols,  her  father's  curate.  an<l  d.  .Mar.  yi,  l.S")5.  See  K.  V. 
(laskelTs  Liji-  ofCliarlolli'  /iiuii/E(2  vols..  1857),  anil  another 
life  of  her  by  T.  \V.  Held,  1877. 

IJronti'.  Kmii.v  Jane:  sister  of  Charlotte;  h.  at  Thornton. 
Yorkshire.  England.  An-;.  20.  1818.  Her  life  was  spent  at 
her  father's  parsonage  at  llaworth.  where  she  wrote,  under 
thepen-inime  £11  ix  Hell,  herslron),'hut  painful  iioveliri/Z/iK;- 
utfi  Ilfifihts  (1847).  and  a  number  of  poems.  She  is  the  orig- 
inal of  Shirlev  in  Charlotte  Hrontc-'s  novel  of  thai  name.  D. 
in  llaworth.  JJi'c.  U».  1848.  Hk.vuv  .\.  Hhkhs. 

Broiitotlieriiim :  See  Titaxotiii-.kiim. 

Itroiizc:  an  alloy  of  copper  and  ti^  in  variable  jiropiir- 
tlons;  harder  and  more  liisible  than  copper,  but  less  mal- 
leabli'.  liell-Mutal  is  a  variety  of  l)ronzi'.  and  the  cannon 
commonly  ealle<l  brass  are  made  i>f  this  alloy.  IJronze  was 
used  by  the  aiiciiints  for  weapons  and  utensils  before  the 
art  of  worklni;  iron  had  been  Invented.  'I'lie  metal  which 
IheKomans  calleil  its  was  probably  bronze,  'riie  brass  meii- 
tione<l  in  the  Hible  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  pure 
copper  or  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  Hronze  Is  extensively 
used  in  statues,  nnichiiu'ry.  and  ordnance.  The  Frenili  and 
Knglish  have  Issued  bronze  coins  for  currency.  Teniperiui; 
produces  on  bronze  an  clfect  directly  opposite  to  that  on 
steel.  To  render  bronze  malleable  It  nnist  be  heated  to  red- 
ness and  (juenched  in  water.  A  mixture  of  1)0  parts  of  cop- 
per with  10  of  aluminium  produces  ••aluminium  bronze,"  a 
valmible  alloy  which  is  useil  as  a  substitute  for  bronze. 
'•  Manganese  bronze."  contains  manganese  in  substitution  for 
tin.  up  to  II)  and  even  2(1  per  cent.  Pliosphor  l)ronze  is 
any  stanilard  bronze  fluxed  with  phosphorus,  and  usually 
retains  a  small  proportion  of  that  element.  All  these  alloys 
are  usually  strongi'ranil  sounder  than  the  pin'e  bronze.  The 
varieties  of  bronzi^  are  composed  of  the  following  propor- 
"  'opper  !),  tin   1  ;  Chinese  gongs,  coii- 

hells,  copper  (!.  tin  I  ;  house  bells, 
copper  4.  tin  1  :  large  bells,  coppei'  ;J.  tin  1  ;  bronze  for 
wheels,  copjier  10,  tin  1 ;  telescope  or  speculum  metal,  eop|)er 
2,  tin  1  :  mathematical  Instruments,  cop]ier  12,  tin  1. 

Brume-brass  nlloi/s  (Aalc/wids,  as  the  writer  has  called 
them)  are  teriniry  alloys  of  copper,  tin.  and  zinc.  Their 
iiro|)erties  were  investigateil  by  the  writer  for  the  IT.  S. 
Ijoard  appointed  to  test  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals,  1875, 
by  special  processes  devised  for  the  purpose.  (See  liepiirt 
nf  United  States  Hoard,  I{.  11.  Thurston,  ed..  WsLsliington. 
1878-80.)  To  represent  with  satisfactory  ]ueclsion.  comi)lete- 
ness,  and  intelligibility  a.series  of  researches  on  the  character 
of  triple  alloys  of  all  desired  proportions  appeared,  at  fir.st, 
a  most  difficult,  if  not  insolvable,  |)roblem.  A  very  satisfac- 
tory method  was.  however,  finally  devl.sed. 

In  any  triangle,  jis  at  A,  Fig.  1,  let  fall  perpendiculars 
upon  the  three  equal  sides.  The  area  of  tlie  whole  triangle 
B,  C,  D,  Is  measured  by  the  product  of  the   altitude.  C  K, 

bv  cme-half  the  base,  15  I). 
nrawlinesA  15.  A  C,  A  I),  to 
the  vertices  of  the  triangle, 
thus  forming  three  smaller 
triangles,  the  sum  of  which 
e(|uals,  in  area,  the  original 
t  riangle.  We  now  have : 
C  K  X  1-2  15  1)  =  A  F  X  1-2 
15  1)-)-  At;  X  1-215C  +  AH 
X  1-2  C  D  ;  or.  the  sides  of 
the  triangle  being  equal.  C  E 
X  1-2  B  1)  =  (A  V  +  A  G 
+  A  II)  1-3  15  D.  Hence 
A  F  +  A  (i  -1-  A  n  =  C  K. 
But  the  area  of  the  whole  triangle  may  be  conceived  to 
represent  a  ternary  alloy  composed  of  the  three  components 
in  pro])ortl<ins  represented  by  the  areas  of  the  three  several 
small  triangles  which  together  nnike  up  Its  total  area.  But 
these  smaller  triangles  have  areas  proportional,  as  has  just 
been  seen,  to  their  altitudes,  A  F,  A  (i,  .\  II ;  thi^  proportions 
in  which  the  three  inetuls  are  combined  to  form  the  given 


tions:  Bronze  cannon,  copper  !),  tin   1  ;  Chinese  gongs,  coji- 
per  .5,  tin   1 ;    m\islcal  bells,  copper  fi.  tin    I  ;    house   b  ' 


Fig. 


alloy  may  therefore  be  measured  by  the  ratio  of  their  rep- 
resentative triangles  to  the  whole  triangle  in  area  and  in  al- 
titude. Then,  dividing  the  height  of  the  large  triangle  into 
one  hundred  equal  parts,  the  altitudes  of  the  small  triangles, 
measured  in  the  same  units,  will  represent  the  percentages  of 
the  three  elements  in  the  given  alloy. 

Every  point  in  the  triangle  thus  represents  some  certain 
triple  alloy;  there  is  no  possible  ternary  alloy  which  has 
not  its  representative  point  in  the  triangle.  We  now  have 
before  us  a  field  which  exactly  defines  our  research,  and  we 
may  attempt  Its  exploration  with  a  clear  understaiuling  of 
what  Is  to  be  done. 

The  result  of  an  investigation  such  as  has  just  been  de- 
scribed may  l)c  very  beautifully  exhibited  to  the  eye  by 
making  a  model  (Fig.  2)  of  the  surface  thus  determined.  In 
carrying  out  these  researches 
the  writer  founil  the  follow- 
ing plan  perfectly  satisfac- 
tory : 

Ijay  out  a  t  riangle,  as  abovi 
described,  ujMjn  a  surface  of 
sheet  bras.s.  At  the  points  at 
which  determinations  have 
been  made  elect  wires  of 
which  the  lengths  have  been 
made  carefully  proportional 
to  the  ordinates  of  the  repre- 
sentative surface  at  those 
points,  screwing  them  firndy, 
or  otherwise  fixing  them,  in 
their  places.  When  all  the 
wires  are  In  pl.'U'C  and  are 
found  to  be  of  the  exact  length  required,  place  bits  of  board 
along  the  outside  to  form  the  boundaries  of  the  triangle,  and 
nour  in  plaster-of-Paris  until  the  wires  are  all  covered. 
vVhen  the  plaster  has  set,  remove  the  boards  and  carefully 
cut  away  tlie  upper  part  of  the  plaster,  working  carefully 
down  to  the  tops  of  the  wires,  just  exposing  their  points. 
The  surface  thus  pro<luced  Is  a  model  of  the  strength,  or 
other  (luality  represented,  of  all  the  alloys. 

Similarly  a  model  may  be  made  to  represent  any  other 
quality,  as  elasticity,  ductility,  malleability,  resilience,  or 
the  total.  (AVw  Flan  of  Jiepresetiliny  Researches,  etc.,  K.  H. 
Thurston.  Proc.  Am.  Assoc,  for  Advancement  of  Science, 
1887.  vol.  xxvi.) 

The  result  of  this  investigation  was  the  determination  of 
the  tenacities  and  other  properties  of  all  possible  alloys  of 
copper  and  zinc.  coi>per  and  tin.  and  co])per,  zinc,  and  tin, 
and  of  tlie  discovery  of  the  existence  and  the  location  of  a 
••  maximum  alloy,"  rei>resented  by  the  highest  point  (m  the 
model,  of  the  highest  tenacity  attainable  In  this  system  of 
alloys  ;  which  alloy  contains  about  55  parts  copper,  43  zinc, 
and'2  of  tin,  and  lias  a  temtcity  of  from  70.000  to  85.000  lb. 
per  square  Inch  (4.8.50  to  5.500  kilog.  per  .scpiare  centimeter), 
according  as  it  is  well  or  badly  fluxed.  If  t  and  z  are  the 
percentages  of  zinc  and  of  tin,  the  alloys  slioiiUl  have  r'Ot 
less  than  the  following  tenacities  in  pounds  on  the  square 
inch.  (Materials  of  Engineering,  R.  H.  Thurston,  vol.  iii., 
ai1.  2.55.) 

For  bronze,  in  British  and  metric  measures,  respectively: 
7"  =  30,000  4-1.000/. 
7',,,  =3  2.100  +  70  /.nearly. 

For  brass:         r  =  30.000 -i- .500  .'. 

7'„,  =  2.100  4-  35  ^,  nearly. 

The  best  alloys  in  this  respect  have  a  composition — 
Z  +  'it  =  55.  nearly, 
and  their  tenacity  is  not  far  from 

"  7' =  40,000  H-  500  2. 
T„,  -  2,800  +  33  z,  nearly, 
when  the  proportion  of  tin  exceeds  about  1  per  cent.     The 
strongest  alloys  are  dt^liclent  in  ductility,  however,  as  a  rule, 
and  lie  on  the  margin  of  a  field  of  gray  alloy.s,  in  which  all 
are  too  brittle  for  common  use  In  the  arts.     With  phos- 
|)horus  used  as  a  flux,  the  writer  found  it  possible  to  secure 
tenacities,  for  alloys  from  copper  100,  to  4/  -|-  3  =  .50. 
2'=  60.000  +  1.000  /  +  500  z. 
T„  =  4.200  -I-  70  /  -I-  35  z,  nearly. 
Jlany  exceptionally  strong  alloys  are  now  known  to  fall  into 
this  class,  or  nearly  so:  as  Farquhanson's,  copper  37,  tin  1  ; 
British  naval  bronze,  cojipcr  87^()5.  tin  8^32.  zinc  4'03 ;  To- 
bin's  alloys,  used  by  the  I  .  S.  Xavy  Department,  copper  .58'23, 
tin  2'30,  zinc  3!)^48,  the  atomic  proportions  of  these  elements. 
These  alloys  have  tenacities  ranging  up  to  70,000  lb.  per 


794 


lUlONZE,  AGE   OF 


BKOOKHAVEN 


square  inch,  will  work  well  either  hot  or  cold.  c:m  be  forged 
anil  rolled  mid  iiiiikc  sjood  eastings,  ('old-rollini;  increases 
(cnacitv  greatly,  while  reducing  their  ductility  and  resili- 
cuee,  aiid  this  ju-ocess  was  employed  by  Dean  in  the  produc- 
tion of  bronze  ordnance,  and  also  later  by  Uehatius  tor  the 
Austrian  army.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Bronze.  Age  of:  It  is  held  by  some  archipologists  that, 
when  primeval  man  began  to  become  civilized,  the  iirst 
weapons  of  war  and  utensils  for  industry  were  made  of 
stone ;  that  in  the  next  stage  of  progress  (in  most  nations 
before  the  beginningof  history)  there  succeeded  atime  when 
copper  and  its  alloys  were  used  in  the  place  of  stone  for 
many  purposes,  as  is  known  to  have  been  true  among  the 
Peruvians,  and  also  among  some  of  the  ancient  races  of 
Xorth  America ;  and  that  in  the  third  stage  men  learned 
how  to  smelt  and  work  iron.  Hence  these  three  hypothet- 
ical stages  are  respectively  termed  the  Age  of  Stone,  the 
Age  of  Bronze,  and  the  Age  of  Iron.  These  terms  are  con- 
venient, though  it  is  certain  that  the  so-called  ages  inter- 
penetrated and  overlaiiped  each  other.  In  Denmark  and 
.Scandinavia  especially  tiierc  have  been  interesting  and  ex- 
tensive collections  made  of  the  relies  of  the  Age  of  Bronze, 
and  it  appears  certain  that  a  large  part  of  these  curious 
weapons  and  tools  (which  are  in  many  cases  finely  wrought) 
were  made  in  iirehistoric  times ;  nevertheless  there  are 
many  able  men  who  deny  that  the  facts,  so  far  as  known, 
sustain  the  above-mentioned  theory  of  the  origin  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

Bronzed  Skin  :  See  Addison's  Disease. 

Bronze-wing:,  or  Bronze-piijeon  :  one  of  several  spe- 
cies of  pigeons  :  natives  of  Australia;  mostly  belonging  to 
the  genus  Phaps.  They  have  the  wing  coverts  marked  with 
lustrous  bronze-colored  spots.  The  common  bronze-wing 
(Pfiaps  chiilropiera)  is  distributed  over  all  the  Australian 
colonics.     It  weighs  about  1  lb.,  and  is  esteemed  as  food. 

Bronzing::  the  covering  of  articles  made  of  clay,  metal, 
wood,  or  oilier  material  with  a  substance  which  gives  them 
the  appearani'e  of  being  made  of  bronze.  .Sometimi'S  bronze 
or  sunn- other  alloy  of  eoiiper  is  actually  spread  upon  the 
articles  to  be  bronzed,  which  may  lie  done  by  the  electrotype 
process,  or  liy  applying  the  powdered  alloy  liy  means  oi  go/il 
sizf.  which  is  a  mixture  of  linseed-oil  and  gum  anime. 
There  are  also  certain  chemical  reagents  which  when  applied 
to  various  metals  will  give  them  a  bronzed  appearance. 

Brooke.  Gust.wus  V.\ughan  :  tragedian :  b.  in  Duldin, 
Ireland.  Apr.  25, 1818  ;  was  educated  for  the  law :  went  upon 
the  stage  in  183;^:  attained  eminence  as  a  tragedian,  playing 
with  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  Great  Britain  oml  thi' 
U.  S.  lie  was  lost  on  the  steamer  London  while  on  a  \ovage 
to  Australia.  Jan.  11.  1866. 

Brooke.  Henry:  dramatist  and  novelist :  b.  in  the  County 
of  (avail.  Ireland,  in  ITOo:  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin:  was  a  friend  of  Pope.  He  wrote,  besides  other 
works,  Uniivrsal  Bmitfi/,  a  poem;  tragedies  entitled  the 
Earl  of  Emex;  Giixtafnx  V(i«n  (1739),  which  was  pro- 
duced in  Ireland  as  Tin'  Patrinf:  and  a  novel  called  The 
Find  of  (^iiiilili/.  of  wliji'h  an  edition  appeared  in  1859,  with 
encomiums  from  (_'harles  Kiiigslev  for  its  permanence  of 
pure  and  elevating  thought.    1).  in  Dublin,  Oct.  10,  1788. 

Brooke,  Sir  .Iames:  Kajah  of  Sarawak:  b.  of  English 
|iarents  in  15enares.  India.  .\])r.  'J9.  180:^;  educated  in  Nor- 
wich. He  served  in  the  Burmese  war  of  1825,  and  was  badly 
wounded  ;  inherited  from  his  father  in  1835  an  estate  of 
1|15().0()() ;  formed  a  project  to  suppress  piracy  in  the  Malay 
archipelago;  went  to  Borneo  in  1838.  lie  rendered  some 
service  to  the  Sultan  of  Borneo,  who  in  1841  appointed  him 
governor  of  Sarawak.  He  framed  a  code  of  laws  for  the 
natives  of  Sarawak,  and  displaved  great  energy  in  the  ex- 
tirpation of  pirates,  llis  coadjutors  received  £20.000  as 
head-money  for  the  pirates  whom  they  killed,  but  on  par- 
liamentary investigation  he  was  exonerated  from  profiting 
by  the  bloody  business.  Prom  1848  to  1857  he  was  British 
governor  and  consul-general  in  the  island  of  Jjabuaii.  In 
the  latter  year  he  repulsed  a  desperate  attack  of  Chinese  on 
his  estates,  and  drove  tlieni  rrom  Borneo,  and  he  lived  to 
achieve  the  independence  of  Sara\vak.  In  1847  he  was 
created  a  knight  liy  Queen  Victoria.  I),  at  Burrator.  Devon- 
.shire,  England,  .lune  1 1,  1S()S.  and  was  succeeded  as  rajah 
by  a  (lepliew.  See  St,  .Inlm's  Ijifi;  (jf  .Sir  Jiiwi-x  /iiiiii/;<' 
(1879). 

Brooke,  Stoitokd  .AnasTis:  clergyman  and  author;  b. 
at  Jjetterkeiinv,   Ireland.   Nov.    14,    1832;   was  educated  at 


Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  held  various  London  livings  in  the 
Church  of  England,  becoming  in  1872  a  queen's  chaplain ; 
in  1880  he  became  a  rnitarian  because  he  had  ceasi'd  to 
believe  in  a  miraculous  incarn.ation ;  olhciates  in  iieiU'urd 
chapel.  Bloomsbury,  London.  lie  is  the  author  of  many 
volumes  of  sermons,  mostly  promulgating  advanced  Broad 
Church  views,  besides  Pocm.s  (1888):  Tlii'o/oi///  in  /Jic  Eng- 
lish Poets  (1847):  a  very  iiopular  yiinn'i:  Hislnri/  of  Enylish 
Jji ti'rnf II re  {1S7(}):  The  Early  Life  uf  Jesus;  and  the  best 
edition  yet  extant  of  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Frederirk  W. 
Pohertsiin  (1865).  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Brook  Farm :  a  community  established  in  West  Rox- 
bury.  JIass.,  in  1841.  as  an  experiment  in  "  plain  living  and 
high  thinking."  The  articles  of  association  provided  that 
the  name  and  style  of  the  community  should  be  the  "  Brook 
Farm  Institute  of  Agriculture  and  Education."  and  defined 
its  object  to  be  the  establishment  of  an  ••agricultural,  liter- 
ary, and  scientific  school  or  college."  The  heail  of  the  com- 
munity was  (ieorge  Ripley,  formerly  a  Unitarian  minister 
in  Bo.ston,  who  had  been  in  1836  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Transcendental  Chib,  with  Emerson,  Hedge,  Alcott,  and 
others;  and  in  1840  had  established  the  transcendentalist 
organ.  The  Dial,  in  connection  with  Emerson  anil  jMargaret 
PiUler.  Associated  with  Ripley  in  the  Brook  Farm  enter- 
prise were  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  Charles  \.  Dana,  .lohn  S.  m 
Dwight,  and  other  well-known  men.  They  liought  a  farm  I 
comprising  some  200  acres,  about  9  miles  from  the  city  of  ■ 
Boston.  Several  trades  besides  agriculture  were  carried  on, 
and  a  number  of  children  were  received  as  iiujiils.  instruc- 
tion lieing  furnished  in  ancient  and  modern  languages,  his- 
tory, mathematics,  moral  philoso|iliy.  niusic.  drawing,  etc. 
It  was  designed  to  sulistitute  co-operation  for  selfish  compe- 
tition, and  to  dignify  bodily  labor  by  uniting  it  with  the  in- 
tellectual and  spiritual  lii'e.  The  community  was  at  first 
organized  as  a  joint-stock  conqiany.  each  subscriber  being 
guaranteed  5  per  cent,  per  annum  on  his  shares.  In  1844, 
mainly  owing  to  the  influence  of  Albert  Brisliane.  it  was  re- 
organized on  a  Fourieristic  plan,  as  a  "jihalanstery,"  and 
incorporated  in  1845  under  the  title  of  the  ••  Brook  Farm 
Phalanx."  In  the  latter  year  the  phalanstery  building,  an 
uncompleted  wooden  structure  designed  to  lodge  the  entire 
community,  was  Iiurned ;  and  in  1847  the  experiment,  hav- 
ing proved  a  failure  financially,  was  given  up. 

Life  at  Brook  Farm,  especially  during  the  first  years  of  . 
enthusiasm,  had  idyllic  and  romantic  aspects,  of  which 
Hawthorne  availed  himself  in  his  Blithedale  Pomanre.  In 
its  palmiest  .state  the  community,  including  .school  chihlren 
and  boarders,  numbered  about  150  souls.  Kitchen  and 
table  were  in  common ;  very  little  help  was  hired,  but 
]iliilosophers.  clergymen,  and  poets  worked  at  the  humblest 
tasks,  milUing  cows,  pitching  manure,  cleaning  stables,  etc., 
while  cultivated  women  cooked,  washed,  ironed,  and  waited 
at  table.  All  work,  manual  or  intellectual,  was  credited  to 
nu>mbers  at  a  uniform  rate  of  ten  cents  an  hour.  Among 
many  persons  of  note  who  took  an  interest  in  Brook  Farm, 
and  were  frequent  visitors  though  not  residents  there,  were 
Emerson.  Theodore  Parker.  JIargaret  Fuller,  Bronson  Alcott, 
Orestes  A,  Brownson,  Rev,  W,  II.  Channing.  and  Christojiher 
P.  Cranch.  The  JIiirl/iii//er,  a  weekly  journal  devoted  to 
the  princijile  of  association,  was  issued  from  Brook  Farm 
from  1845  to  1847,  and,  after  the  break  u|)  of  the  commu- 
nity, transferred  to  New  York.  It  numliered  among  its 
contributors,  exclusive  of  Brook  Fanners,  writers  like  Low- 
ell. Whittier,  Greeley,  Iligginson,  Story,  and  Curtis.  See 
Hawthorne's  American  Xole-hoidrs:  O.  B.  Frolhiiigham's 
Lifeof(ieori/e  Riplei/;  T.  \V.  Higginson's  Life  of  Marijaret 
Fiiller:  {\xv' Atlantic  Moitthhi  for  Oct..  1878 ';  and  Old  and 
New  for  Feb.,  Ajir.,  and  Sept.,  1871,  and  May.  1872. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Brookfleld  :  town  ;  on  railroad  ;  Linn  co..  Mo.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  2-F) :  is  the  central 
station  and  division  headquarters  of  the  Hannibal  and  St. 
Joseph  R.  R.  Several  of  its  offices,  its  round-house,  and  ex- 
tensive shops  are  located  here.  There  is  a  coalmine  near 
the  town.     Pop.  (1880)  2.'264  ;  (1890)  4..547. 

Brookliiiven :  city :  capital  of  Lincoln  co..  Miss,  (for  lo- 
cation  of  county,  see'map  of  .Mississippi,  ref.  8-F) ;  situated 
at  junction  of  111.  Cent,  and  Jler..  Brookhaven  and  Natchez 
U. 'Rs..  54  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Jackson.  The  city  has  9 
churches,  a  fine  ])ublic  school,  and  is  the  .-^cat  of  Whitworth 
Female  College,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  institutions  of 
learning  in  the  South  ;  it  has  a  foundry,  machine-shops,  and 
2  planing-mills.     The  principal  industries  of  the  surround- 


liHOdKIXGS 


BROOKLYN 


795 


ing  country  are  luml)erini;  ami  agriculture,  and  BnKjkhavcn 
ii  an  important  tra<linf;-i-cntfr  for  tlie  iiroilucls.  alxiut 
l:!,0OU  li:tl.-s  of  cotton  licin;;  miirkctc<l  annually.  I'o)].  (ISSO) 
l,(il-):  0''>''")  ■-'•I-*- :  (If*!):!)  with  suliurlis.  aliiiut  H.OOU. 

Kditoh  of  •■  Lincoln  County  '1'i.mes." 
BrookiliiTS:  city;  caiiital  of  Brookings  co..  S.  I),  (for  lo- 
cation ot  count  v.  sec  map  of  South  Dakota,  rcf.  fi-G):  on 
Chicago  anil  X.'  \V.  H.  It.:  in  the  fertile  Sioux  valley.  Here 
are  South  Dakota  Agricultural  College  and  V.  S.  Agricul- 
tural E.\periment  Station,  large  flouring-mill,  large  tow- 
mill,  five  churches,  connnodions  school  liuilding,  electric 
liglits,  and  water-works.     I'op.  (IWIO)  1,.-)1H;  (IHito)  l.:4:i. 

C.  A.  \\  EST.  SUr'T  OK  SCHOOLS. 

Brookite:  a  mineral  nannnl  in  honor  of  Brooke,  the 
crvstallogr;iplier:  pure  native  titanic  aidiydride.  It  occurs 
in'  redilish,  vcUowisli,  or  hair-l)rown  crystals,  which  arc 
more  or  less  iransluccul.  and  have  a  brilliant  luster,  inclin- 
ing to  nu'tallic.  It  is  found  in  Perthshire,  Scothuul,  at 
Tavistock,  in  Savoy,  an<l  other  places.  A  variety  found  in 
the  Ozark  Mounlafus,  .Vrkan.sas,  is  called  iirk-iiiixilc. 

Revised  by  C.  Kirchhoff. 

Rrooklime  (Vemnira  beeaihunya) :  a  perennial  plant; 
native  of  Kuropc ;  grows  in  dilclies  ami  wet  places.  It  has 
a  proiMLudient  stem  and  elliptical  serrate  leaves,  which  are 
succuleni,  and  are  usi'il  in  JMigland  as  an  ingrcilient  in 
spring  salads.  In  the  1'.  S.  is  found  a  sinular  plaid,  the 
Vcvdnicii  aiiii-ricaiiri.  or  .Vmi'rican  brooklime. 

Bruuklilie:a  township  in  Xorfolk  co.,  Mass.  (for  loca- 
tion <if  county,  see  map  of  .Mas.sachusetts,  ref.  ■i-\):  on  the 
Charles  river",  which  separates  it  from  Boston  and  Cam- 
bridge. It  is  connected  with  Boston  by  steam  an<l  street 
railways,  anil  is  almost  wholly  a  place  of  residence.  It  has 
many  fine  villas  and  country  seats,  and,  with  its  meandering 
and  Well-kept  streets  winding  among  lawns  and  terraced 
grounds,  under  tine  old  trees  and  amid  ornameidal  sliruli- 
bery,  jircscnts  the  appearance  of  a  park.  A  snnUI  part  of 
this  township  has  been  annexed  to  Boston  since  the  census 
of  bSTO.  lirookline  has  a  |iulilic  library  building  costing 
$.iO,(MX),  and  a  granite  town-house  coMing  !J;l.">(l.ll(H).  I'op. 
(1880)  8,057  :  (ISOO)  12,10:! ;  (1895)  16,164. 

Editor  op  "  CIlI^oxI^LK." 

Brooklyn:  city  (formally  laid  out  in  1855):  Poweshiek 
CO.,  la.  (for  location  of  county,  see  nnip  of  Iowa.  ref.  5-1); 
on  Ch.,  Ilk.  I.  and  Pae.  R.  R". ;  Tl  miles  E.  of  Des  Moines, 
104  nulos  \V.  of  Davenport.  It  has  graded  schools,  six 
churches,  several  grain  elevators,  and  a  flonr-mill,  and  is  a 
division  station  of  the  Ch..  Rk.  1.  and  Pac.  R.  R.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  rich  farming  land,  with  manv  elegant 
farm-houses.     Pop.  (1880)  1,234;  (1800)  1.202;  (1805)  1,244. 

Editor  of  "Ciironicli;." 

Brooklyn  :  a  city,  seaport,  and  county-seat  of  Kings  co., 
X.  Y. ;  situated  at  the  west  end  of  Long  Island:  on  Xew 
York  Bayand  on  the  East  river.an  estuary  se))arating  Long 
Islaiul  from  .Maidiattaii  Island,  and  connecting  Long  Island 
Souiulwith  New  ^■ork  May;  lat.  (at  Xavy-yard)  40°  51  :!0' 
X.,  Ion.  ?:!  50  ;i0"  \V.  of  (i'reenwich.  The  ground  on  which 
it  is  built  rises  with  a  steep  grade  from  the  bay  and  river  to 
a  ridge  which  extends  eastward  through  the  island.  .\t  its 
liighest  )K)int  it  is  aboid  175  feet  above  tide  water,  and  com- 
mands an  extended  view  of  Xew  York  Hay.  Its  idevated 
and  rolling  surface  gives  to  the  city  a  healthful  and  pictur- 
esque location.  Exclusive  of  the  districts  annexed  by  acts 
of  the  Legislature  in  May  to  .July,  1804  (see  below),  the  city 
has  an  area  of  ;!U  sq.  miles,  has  !)  miles  of  water-frontage, 
and  657  miles  of  streets,  of  which  :i97  are  paved  and  18;i  liiu'd 
with  shade  trees.  Brooklyn  is  an  aggregation  of  villages 
which  have  gradiiallv  coalesced ;  the  city  as  a  whole  there- 
fore lacks  unity  of  desigm  The  streets  ami  avenues  are 
broad  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  except  along  the 
boundaries  of  the  original  villages.  Miles  of  immense  retail 
estalilishments,  many  of  them  unsurpassed  in  their  size  and 
appointments  by  any  stores  in  the  country,  liiui  Fulton 
.Street,  Broadway,  Myrtle  .\ venue,  etc. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  ponds,  streams,  and 
artesian  wells  on  Long  Island,  covering  a  draiitage  area  of 
fiOJ  sq.  nules.  The  water  is  pumped  into  the  reservoir  at 
Hidgewood,  and  thence  distriliuted  through  416  miles  of 
mains.  The  works  cost  .'j;lS.;!,H(;,(;(i:2,  and  have  a  storage  ca- 
pacity of  1,180,000,000  gal.  The  average  daily  consumption 
is  about  50.000,000  gal. 

Parks. — Brooklyn  has  16  parks,  with  an  area  of  7.54  acres. 
The  principal  one  is  Prospect  Park,  area  516J  acres,  includ- 


ing no  acres  of  woodland,  77  acres  of  lakes  and  water- 
courses, 70  acres  of  meadows,  2.5yj  plantations,  8J  miles  of 
drives,  :V(i-  miles  bridle-roads,  and  lOf  miles  of  walks.  It  is 
situated  on  the  highest  ground  of  the  city,  and  affords  ex- 
tended views  of  bay,  ocean,  and  islaiul.  It  is  a  beautiful 
breathing-place  for  the  inhabitants  of  this  great  city.  It 
cost  $0,150.;H:M.  and  over  16.000.000  visitors  were  estimated 
in  1801.  The  most  noted  of  the  other  )iarks  is  Washington 
Park  (Fort  (ireene).  :W  acres  of  beautiful  grounds,  where  are 
entombed  11,000  victims  of  the  Revolutionary  war  prison 
ships.  Among  the  monuments  of  the  city  may  be  men- 
tioned an  imposing  Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Memorial  Arch  on 
the  Prospect  Park  Plaza,  built  of  white  marble,  and  dedicated 
in  1802:  a  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln  on  the  plaza,  and 
one  of  Henry  Ward  Heecher  in  I'ront  of  the  City-hall ;  and 
busts  of  'I'liomas  Moore,  \Vashinglon  Irving,  and  John 
Howard  Payne,  in  Prospect  Park. 

Cemeteries. — Five  cemeteries  lie  wholly  or  partly  within 
the  city,  (ireenwood,  S.  W.  of  and  not  far  from  Prospect 
Park,  has  an  area  of  474  acres.  It  is  the  re.sling-place  of 
about  265.(HH)  dead,  and  is  widely  known  for  the  beauty 
of  its  grounds  and  monuments.  Evergreens,  at  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  city,  covers  375  acres,  and  is  al.so  a 
beautiful  place,  and  contains  the  remains  of  about  125,000 
persons. 

Means  of  ('ommuniattion. — The  first  horse-car  of  Brook- 
lyn began  to  run  July  4.  1854.  Now  (1804)  there  are  30 
railways  operated  by  horses,  cables,  electricity,  or  steam, 
having  one  or  both  termini  in  the  city ;  the  length  of  those 
within  the  city  exceeds  160  miles,  and  includes  24  miles  of 
ele\ated  railway.  In  1802  200,545.404  passengers  were  car- 
ried by  these  railways. 

The"  fir.«t  ferry  between  Manhattan  and  Long  Island  was 
established  in  1()42,  about  where  l'\ilton  ferry  no%v  is.  The 
tir.st  steam-ferry  was  opened  May  10.  1814.  In  1836  the  re- 
ceipts on  the  New  York  side  were  less  than  |100  per  day; 
in  180;!  the  earnings  of  the  five  lines  of  the  Union  Ferry 
Comiiany  alone  aggregated  .'ES847.022,  and  they  carried  over 
:?5.626,600  passengers.  Seventeen  ferries  bet  ween  convenient 
points  ply  day  and  night  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  y'ew  York  and  Bmokli/ii.  Bridge. — This  is  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  over  the  East  river,  and  conncc-ting  Xew  \  ork 
and  Brooklyn.  The  plans  and  estimates  were  made  by  John 
A.  Roebling,  who  was  its  chief  engineer  till  his  death  in 
1860.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Washington  A.  Roeb- 
ling. under  whose  direction  it  was  finished.  The  construc- 
tion was  lieirnn  Jan.  2,  1870.  and  the  bridge  opened  to  the 
public  .May'2:!,  188:i.  The  length,  with  extensions,  is  6,537 
feel.  It  lias  3  granite  towers  278  feet  high,  one  on  either 
slun'e.  'l"he  horizontal  section  of  these  towers  at  high-water 
mark  is  140  by  .59  feet,  and  at  the  top  1:^6  by  .53  feet.  The 
dei)th  of  the  tower  foundations  below  high  water  is,  on  the 
N'ew  Y'ork  side.  78  feet,  and  on  the  Brooklyn  side,  45  feet. 
The  length  of  the  river  sfian  is  1,.595^  feet.  The  bridge  is 
su|)ported  by  4  great  cables,  and  by  many  stays  extending 
from  the  towel's.  Each  of  the  cables  contains  .5.296  ])arallel 
galvanized  steel,  oil-coated  wires,  closely  bound  up  into  a 
solid  cable  1.5}  inches  in  diameter.  Each  wire  is  3,578J  feet 
long.  The  clear  height  of  the  bridge  above  high  water  is 
135  feet  in  center  of  river-span,  and  at  the  towers  119J  feet. 
The  bridge  is  85  feet  wide,  and  contains  5  parallel  avenues. 
Tlie  central  avenue,  15.?  feet  wide,  is  for  foot-passengers; 
those  on  either  side  of  tlm  footway  are  for  passenger-cars, 
drawn  by  a  cable  11.600  feet  long.  The  outermost  avenues, 
each  about  10  feet  in  width,  are  foi- vehicles.  The  perma- 
nent weight  suspended  from  the  cables  is  14.680  tons.  The 
original  cost  of  construction  was  $!5.()00,000.  The  cars 
began  running  over  it  on  Sept.  24,  l'i8:!.  jind  between  that 
lime  and  Dec".  1,  1893,  carried  :i04,875,28(i  pa.ssengei-s.  The 
total  receipts  from  the  bridge  for  the  vear  ending  Dec.  1, 
1893,  were  .*  1,590,140.0;!. 

Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  City-hall,  Court- 
house. Jlunicipal  Building,  Hall  of  Records,  Federal  Build- 
ing, Academy  of  JIusic,  Academy  of  Design,  Brooklyn 
Library,  Long  Island  Historical  Society,  Packer,  Polytech- 
nic, and  Pratt  Institutes,  and  many  large  buildings  for  office 
and  commercial  purposes. 

Clnnrhes. — The  city  contains  :^07  Protestant  churches, 
with  a  membership  of  99.040.  owning  property  valued  at 
:j!12.422,0O0,  and  having  ;!I7  schools,"  aggregat"ing  121,256 
pupils;  61  Ronuin  Catholic  churches,  with  iiarishioners  to 
the  number  of  244,200.  owning  property  valued  at  ^6,589,- 
(X)0,  and  having  in  their  Sunday-schools  24,:i00  children ; 
lU  missions,  33  city  missionaries,  43  religious  societies,  and 


796 


BROOKLYN' 


BROOKS 


a  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  wilh  5  liranches  and 
a  membership  of  4.230. 

Ediicatiun. — The  public  schools  consist  of  2  high  schools, 
one  for  boys  and  one  tor  girls:  a  training-school  for  teach- 
ers, 84  day  and  16  evening  schools,  and  10  indnstrial  and 
asylum  schools.  The  number  of  children  on  register  in  l!j!)3 
was  102.468.  The  cost  of  the  schools  in  1893  was  $2,449,- 
735.33.  There  are  4  private  institutions  of  high  order,  viz. : 
the  Polytechnic,  Packer,  and  Pratt  Institutes,  and  the  Adel- 
phi  Academy;  also  2  colleges,  2  medical  colleges,  3  business 
colleges,  and  many  excellent  seminaries  and  academies. 
There  are  3  large  and  8  smaller  libraries,  having  an  aggre- 
gate of  460.000  volumes :  of  these  73.500  are  in  free  libraries: 
also  a  museum  of  art  an<l  science,  museums  of  natural  his- 
torv,  antiquities  and  meclianical  arts,  an  academy  of  design. 
and  2  art  associations. 

Newspapers. — Brooklyn  has  5  dailies,  3  weeklies,  and 
many  papers  of  irregular  issue,  and  3  of  the  large  New 
York  dailies  publish  a  Brooklyn  edition. 

Charitable  Institulionn. — For  general  or  special  relief, 
supported  mainly  by  contributions,  number  118,  among 
which  are  20  hosi)itals,  11  homes  for  the  aged,  a  maternity 
hospital,  11  orphan  asylums,  6  nurseries,  24  dispensaries,  a 
home  for  incurables,  a  home  for  consumptives,  and  several 
industrial  schools  and  agencies. 

Finances.  Banks,  etc. — Net  city  debt.  Mav  1.  18fl4,  .f46.- 
283  540.  Valuation  for  1893 :  real  estate,  1:486,531,506 ;  jjer- 
sonal  estate.  .119,523,170:  total,  $506,054,676.  There  are  23 
banks  of  deposit,  14  savings-banks,  7  trust,  4  safe-deposit,  9 
gas-light,  14  electric-light,  and  4  title-guarantee  companies. 

Courts. — U.  S.  circuit  and  district  courts;  circuit,  special. 
and  general  terms  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court ;  county 
court :  court  of  sessions :  city  court ;  surrogate's  court :  3 
district  justices  and  4  police  justices. 

Manufactures. — According  to  the  census  of  1890  there 
were  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn  229  industries,  and  10.561  in- 
dustrial establishments,  with  a  capital  of  $125,849,052,  and 
giving  emplovment  to  103.683  persons  at  the  aggregate  an- 
nual wages  of  $61,975,702.  The  cost  of  the  materials  used 
was  $137,325,749.  and  the  value  of  the  product  $348,750,184. 
The  values  of  the  annual  product  of  the  principal  individual 
industries  are  as  follows:  Sugar  and  molasses  refining,  18 
establishments,  $16,629,982;  foundries  and  machine-shops, 
169  establishments,  $15,350,776;  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing, 63  establishments,  $13,317,789;  coffee  and  spice,  13 
establishments,  $12,247,162;  chemicals,  36  establishments, 
$10,467,109 ;  cordage  and  twine,  3  establishments,  $5,625,792. 

Commerce. — Though  pre-eminently  a  city  of  homes  for 
men  doing  business  in  New  York,  Brooklyn  has  developed 
a  commerce  which  is  now  of  great  proportions.  The  wharves 
and  docks  of  the  city  have  a  water-frontage  of  over  25  miles, 
lined  with  great  warehouses  and  elevators.  The  ware- 
houses have  a  storage  capacity  of  over  90.000.000  cubic  feet, 
and  the  grain  elevators  a  storage  capacity  of  19,850.000  bush, 
and  a  transfer  capacity  of  127.000  bush,  per  hour.  Flach 
elevator  is  capable  of  emptying  a  canal-boat  containing 
8,000  bush,  in  two  hours,  and  of  loading  a  ship  at  the  rate 
of  8,000  bush,  per  hour. 

The  export  of  grain  from  Brooklyn  exceeds  that  from 
New  York,  Jersey  City,  and  Hoboken  combined  :  the  export 
of  potatoes,  flour,  provisions,  cotton,  sugar,  and  petroleum 
is  also  extensive. 

The  principal  articles  of  regular  importation  at  Brooklyn 
piers  are  coliee,  sugar,  green  and  dried  fruits,  rubber,  and 
sulphur.  In  1887  90  per  cent,  of  the  coffee  and  sugar  im- 
ported into  the  U.  S.  was  received  there;  in  round  numbers. 
2,500,000  bags  coffee.  900.000  tons  sugar,  besides  2.000.000 
boxes  of  lemons,  50,000  tons  rubber,  and  40,000  tons  of  sul- 
phur. 

Thirty-six  regular  lines  of  steamships  and  a  great  number 
of  "  tramp  "  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  dock  in  Brooklyn. 

Along  the  water-front  are  also  extensive  basins,  one  cover- 
ing 40  acres  and  accommodating  500  vessels  at  one  time, 
ship-yards,  dry  docks,  and  marine  railways.  There  also  is 
the  Brooklyn  Navy-yard,  the  most  important  station  in  the 
U.  S..  where  four-fifths  of  the  stores  for  the  entire  navy  are 
handled,  and  war-ships  are  built,  repaired,  and  lilted  out 
for  sea  service. 

The  \Vallalx)ut  Market,  established  in  1884,  covers  M-^is 
acres,  anil  was  the  rendezvous  in  1891  for  41,201  farmers' 
wagons  from  Long  Island.  A  large  wholesale  trade  in  pro- 
visions and  fruits  is  carried  on  there. 

History. — Brooklyn  was  namecl  from  P>re\ickelen  (marsh 
land),  in  the  province  of  Utrecht  in  Holland,  6  miles  from 


the  city  of  Utrecht,  from  which  some  of  its  early  settlers 
came  June  16,  1637.  Long  Island  was  originally  occupied 
by  13  tribes  of  Indians  belonging  to  the  Algonquin  nation, 
one  of  which,  the  Canarsie.  occupied  the  west  end  of  the 
island,  including  the  ground  now  covered  by  Brooklvn. 
The  first  step  toward  the  settlement  of  the  city  was  the  pur- 
chase from  the  Indians  in  1636.  by  William  Arianse  Bennet 
and  Jaques  Bentyn.  of  a  ti-act  of  630  acres,  lying  at  Gowanus, 
between  Twenty-seventh  Street  and  the  New  Utrecht  line ; 
the  second  .step,  the  purchase  by  Joris  (George)  Jansen  de 
Rapalje  of  325  acres  at  the  Wallabout  Bay,  June  16,  1637. 
In  1642  there  were  at  the  west  end  of  the  island  5  hamlets — 
"  Tlie  Ferry  "  ;  "  Breuckelyn,"  near  the  present  Hoyt  and 
Fulton  Streets,  where  stood  the  church  ;  "  Gowanus,"  around 
Gowanus  Bay ;  "  Bedford,"  inland  ;  and  '•  The  Wallabout," 
around  W'allabout  Bay. 

Immediately  upon  the  establishment  of  the  ferry,  grants 
of  building-lots  at  that  point  began,  and  that  locality,  as 
well  as  the  other  hamlets,  increased.  The  union  of  the  5 
hamlets  into  one  village  called  Breuckelen  took  place  in  1646. 
In  1653  it  received  a  Dutch  charter,  in  1665  an  English  char- 
ter, and  in  1788  was  organized  as  a  town  under  State  law. 
On  Apr.  12.  1816,  Brooklyn  village  was  incorporated,  and 
on  Apr.  8,  1834,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city.  An  act  con- 
solidating Brooklyn,  Williamsburg,  and  Bushwick  was 
passed  Apr.  17.  1854,  and  went  into  effect  Jan.  1,  1855.  A 
new  charter  was  granted  in  1873.  and  amended  in  1880  and 
1881.  In  June.  1888.  abill  was  passed  by  the  Legislature  "  to 
revise  and  combine  in  a  single  act  all  existing  special  and 
local  laws  affecting  public  interests  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn." 

The  township  of  New  Lots  was  annexed  to  Brooklyn  in 
1886,  and  forms  its  Twenty-sixth  ward.  An  agitation  for  the 
consolidation  of  the  cities  of  Brooklyn  and  New  York  result- 
ed in  the  passage  by  the  Legislature  in  May,  1894,  of  a  bill 
providing  for  the  submission  of  the  question  to  popular  vote. 
At  the  same  session  of  the  Legislature  bills  were  passed  an- 
nexing the  towns  of  Flatbush,  Gravesend  and  New  Utrecht 
to  Brooklyn,  and  providing  for  the  annexation  of  the  town 
of  Flatlands  (Jan.  1,  1896).  This  action  made  the  city  of 
Brooklyn  and  the  county  of  Kings  coextensive,  abolished 
the  Kings  County  board  of  supervisors,  and  vested  the  au- 
thority formerly  held  by  it  in  the  boai'd  of  aldermen.  It 
also  gave  the  city  thirty-one  wards,  the  Twenty-seventh  and 
Twenty-eighth  being  constituted  from  the  old  Eighteenth. 
Flatbush  becoming  the  Twenty-ninth,  New  Utrecht  the 
Thirtieth,  and  Flatlands  and  Gravesend  together  the 
Thirty-first.  The  enlarged  city  extends  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  at  Coney  Island  to  the  East  river  and  New  York 
harbor,  has  an  area  of  66'39  sq.  miles,  and  is  thus  the  largest 
citv  in  the  .State.  According  to  the  State  census  of  1892, 
Brooklvn  had  a  population  of  957.958;  Flatbush,  12,625; 
New  Utrecht,  9,129  :  Gravesend,  8.418 ;  and  Flatland.«,  4,234 
— a  total  of  992,364,  excluding  2,912  inmates  of  county  in- 
stitutions. A  conservative  estimate  in  1894  placed  the  total 
population  at  1,000,100.  The  annexation  of  Gravesend 
brought  into  Brooklyn's  limits  all  the  beach  hotels  and  tlie 
shore  resorts  on  Coney  Island,  and  the  race-courses  of  the 
Coney  Island  and  the  Brooklyn  Jockey  Clubs  and  of  the 
Brigliton  Beach  Racing  Association.  The  government  of 
the  city  is  vested  in  a  board  of  aldermen,  called  the  common 
council,  the  majority  of  whose  members  are  elected  in  alder- 
manic  districts  and  the  remainder  from  the  city  at  large; 
terms  of  all  members,  two  years.  The  administrative  power 
is  vested  in  the  mayor  and  heads  of  departments,  all  of 
whom  (except  those  of  the  department  of  finance,  audit, 
and  public  instruction)  are  appointed  by  the  mayor.  Over 
the  ground  now  occupied  by  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  on  Aug. 
7,  1776,  was  fought  the  first  great  battle  of  the  Revolution 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  battle  of  Long 
Island. 

For  the  result  of  the  movement  in  favor  of  consolidation, 
see  the  article  New  York.  Gerrit  Smitu. 

Brooks,  Charles  William  Shirley  :  journalist,  lecturer, 
dramatist,  and  novelist:  b.  in  London.  England,  Apr.  29, 
ISIO;  became  a  newspaper  reporter  and  writer;  was  sent 
by  th(!  Morning  Chronicle  to  the  East  to  report  on  the  con- 
dition of  labor,  and  produced  the  Russians  of  the  South 
(1856).  He  produced  the  dramas  The  Creole,  Our  iVew 
(lorerness.  etc.  Among  his  novels  are  Aspen  Court  (1857); 
Gordian  Knot  (1860);  The  Silver  Cord  (1861):  iim\  Sooner 
or  Later  (1868).  He  became  connected  with  Punch  in  1851, 
and  on  the  death  of  l\Iark  Lemon  in  1870  succeeded  him  as 
editor.     D.  in  London,  Feb.  23,  1874. 


y. 


dI    BR0( 


Union 


street  Car  Lijtes- 


Elevated  Railroa 


^LYN    TT 


21,  NoTchy.  C2 
•Ji.  Park,  B  :i 
■2:.i.  S.UI,  B  i 


Railroads. 

Brooklyn  A  Brlt:htoD   Bt^ach,  D4 

Brooklyu,  Balh  A  Wt^st  End,  B  S 

Brooklyn  A  Ko«.-kaway  Beach,  F  4 

Lode  IMan.I,  C  4— P  ■.' 

L.  I.,  MADbatUD    Beach    Div.,  C4— a4,  Brooklyn  Institute,  C  S 

r>2  25.  fit' 

L.  1.,  New  York  &  Uotkaway  Beach,  ■.>o.  Coiirt  House, 


Public  Buildings,  Etc. 

klyn  1 
Hall, 


Loni;  Island  Historical  Society,  B.1 
■2&.  Memorial  Arch.C-l 
i^.  Munkipal   BuildlDK,  B  3 
3).  Navy  Yard.  C  3 

31.  Po8t  Office,  B3 

32.  Pratt  Institute,  C  3 

33.  Y.  M.  C.  Ass.K-ialion,  C  3 
M.  Y.  W.  C.  .\saoclatioD,  C  3 


H 


«.  St.  Paal'a,  D  2 
47.  St.  Peter's,  U  3 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAU 
4^.  First,  D  I 
4y.  iJrace.  €  4 
5if.  New  York  Avenae,  D  4 

51.  Sands  St.  Memorial,  B  3 

52.  St.  John's,  C  2 

PRESBYTERIAN. 

53.  Classon  Avenue.  D  3 

54.  Lafayette  Aveoue,  C  3 

55.  Second,  B  3 
Tabeniacle,  C  3 
Westminster,  B  4 

PROTESTANT  EPISrOPAL. 
M.  Christ,  B  3 
,  <irace,  B  3 
,  Holy  Trinity,  B  3 
61.  St.  Aod's,  B3 
St.  Luke's,  C  4 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC. 
63.  Cathedral,  C  3 
&1.  St.  Anthony,  D  I 

65.  St.  Augustine,  C  4 

66.  Holy  Trinity.  D  2 

67.  St.  Paul's,  B  3 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

68.  Church  of  the  Saviour,  Unit.,  B:i 

69.  Church  of  Our  Father,  C  4 

10.  First  Dutch  Reformed.  C  4 

11.  Temple  Israel,  Jewish.  D;j 


'I'liK  Approach  to  the  East  River  Bridge— (New  York  side). 


BROOKS 


UROOKVILLE 


Brooks.  Charles  Timothy:  I'liitarian  minister  and  poet: 
b.  at  Salcin,  Mass.,  .luiH'  20.  l.Si;i:  ■rracluattMl  at  Harvard  in 
18;!2.  and  wa^  i>iislfir  at  Xcwpurl.  H.  I.,  frmii  ls;!T  Ici  1K~:!. 
He  IraiislattMl  I^iiisf,  Ilcxpcnin,  Tittiii,  and  many  small  pocnis 
from  tlie  (ii'rman.  His  Pueiiis,  On'rjhiiil  and  'J'lanslali'd, 
were  pnblislu'd  witli  a  memoir  l)v  t'liarles  \V.  Wendte  (Bos- 
ton. ISM).     I),  in  Xewiiort,  K.  I.'.  June  14,  18H;i. 

Brooks.  l",LnRii)(it-:  Gkhry,  I).  I). :  I),  at  Dover.  N.  11.,  .lidv 
29,  1816;  studied  law  (l«:i3-3.5)  with  I'hief  .Jnstiee  Termey  of 
Maine:  hepm  pn-acliiniiin  18::i(5:  lieeanie  Univei-salist  pastor 
in  West  .\mcsb\irv,  Mass..  l.s:JT,  Kast  (■and)ri(l','e  18:i8.  Lowell 
1845.  and  l.ynn. '.Mass.,  1S.10,  ,\ew  York  eily  18.59.  resigned 
18(JT.  I'liiladelpliia.  Pa..  18(i8,  He  was  jieneral  seeretary  of 
the  Universalist  general  convention  18()7-<i8.  I),  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  April  8,  1878.  See  his  Life  bv  E.  S.  Brooks 
(Bostim,  1888). 

Brooks,  Kk.vstis:  journalist:  b.  at  Poi-tland,  Ale..  .Ian. 
31,  1815;  educated  at  Brown  University  ;  was  the  eoad.julor 
and  partner  of  his  brotlar  Jamks  (</.  i:)  on  the  yew  i'or/i- 
Jij'pieisfi,  and  its  proprirlor  until  1877;  State  Senator  185:5- 
57,  becominj;  involved  in  a  controversy  with  Ai'chbishop 
Huffhes  on  account  of  his  efforts  to  divest  Human  Catholic 
bishops  of  the  power  to  hold  real  estate  in  trust  for  the 
Church  :  Asscmblvman  and  Democratic  leader  1878-79  and 
1881.     D.  Nov.  2.5.'  1880. 

Brooks.  .Iamks:  editor  and  jiolitician  :  li.  in  Portland.  Me.. 
Nov.  10. 1810 :  graduated  at  Waterville  in  18:il.  He  was  edu- 
cated by  his  own  inchistry.  He  studied  law  with  .John  Xeal 
the  novelist:  tausht  school,  and  at  the  same  time  enufajjed  in 
politi<'al  journalism.  When  twenty-one  years  of  age  he  was 
elected  to  the  .State  Legislature,  ancl  in  I  he  following  year  be- 
came a  newspaper  eorrespondeni  at  Washington.  He  after- 
ward traveled  in  the  South  and  in  Europe.  In  18:56  he  es- 
tablished the  yew  Vork  Exprens.  He  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress 1849-5:5.  1805-67.  his  seat  being  at  last  successfully  con- 
tested by  Hon.  W.  K.  Dodge,  and  1869-7:1  He  wii-s  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Knownothing  party,  and  during  the  war 
a  peace  Demnerat :  was  censiirecl  in  Congress  for  participa- 
tion in  the  Credit  Mobilier  corrupt  practices.  1).  in  Wa.sh- 
ington.  Apr.  :30.  187:1 

Brooks.  .John,  M.  D.,  LL.D.  :  b.  in  Jledford.  Mass..  May 
31,  17-)2;  practiced  medicine  at  Reading:  fought  with  the 
greatest  honor  as  an  otlicer  at  Lexington,  While  Plains,  Sara- 
toga, Monmouth,  etc.,  becoming  a  colonel  and  adjutant-gen- 
eral. He  ijracticed  meilicine  at  Jledford.  Mass.,  after  the 
war,  and  was  a  member  of  the  .State  convention  which 
adopted  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  (181t>-2:)).  and  president  of  tiie  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society  (1817-25).     D.  Mar.  1.  182.5. 

Brooks.  Kkxhai.l.  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Roxburv,  Mass.,  Sept.  3, 
1821;  graduated  at  Brown  I'niversity  1841;  Xewton  Theo- 
logical Institute  1843;  tutor  in  Columhian  College  1841-4:3; 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  at  East  port.  Me..  184.5-.52  ;  Pro- 
ies.sor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  Waterville 
College  18.52-.55:  pastor  at  Pitchburg.  .Mass..  185.5-65;  editor 
of  the  yaliDiial  litipli.st.  Philadelphia.  1865-68;  and  |)resi- 
dent  of  Kalamazoo  College,  Jlichigan.  1868-87. 

Brooks,  Mauia  Gowkn:  poet;  b.  in  Medford.  ]\[ass., 
about  1795.  Slie  was  marrie<l  y(ning  to  a  Mr.  Brooks,  a  mer- 
chant of  Boston.  Her  chief  work  is  Ziiphic/.  or  the  liiiile  of 
Semn.  the  first  canto  of  which  was  published  in  1825,  and 
the  complete  poem  in  London  in  18:5:5,  under  the  supervision 
of  Robert  Southcy,  who  gave  the  author  the  .soljriijuet  Maria 
DKL  OcciDKXTE  (.Maria  of  the  West).  D.  at  .Matanzas,  Cuba, 
Nov.  11,  184.5. 

Brooks.  XoAii :  journalist  and  author:  b.  at  Castine,  Ale.. 
Oct.  :50,  18:50.  He  has  been  engaged  in  newspaper  work  siru'e 
18.50.  first  in  Boston,  afterward  in  California.  W.-ishington. 
anil  New  Vork.  where  he  was  mie  of  the  editorial  stall  of  the 
Trilinne  and  the  Timex.  In  18S4-189;S  he  edited  the  DaiUj 
.\<li'erfi.ier  of  Newark.  N.  .L  He  ha^  i)ulilislu'd  a  Life  of 
Ahrahnm  />/;if(*/H  (1888)  and  a  nundiiM' of  books  for  boys, 
such  as  The  lioij  Emii/riiii/K  (1876)  and  7'lie  Fairport  yiue 
(1881).  I1i;nry  a.  Beers. 

Brooks.  Piiii.i.u's.  I).  1)..  Oxon. :  author,  jjreacher.  ami 
Bishop  of  .Massachusetts;  b.  in  Boston,  Dee.  13, 1835;  gradu- 
ateil  at  Harvard  in  185.5.  He  studied  in  the  Episcopal  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  .\lexnndri;i.  Va. :  was  orilained  in  18.59; 
becanu'  the  same  vear  recfcir  of  Ihe  Church  of  the  .Vdvent  in 
Philadelphia,  and'  in  1862  of  the  Chun-h  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
where  he  remained  until  1S69,  when  he  acceiited  the  rector- 
ship of  Trinity  church  in  Boston,     in  1886  lie  was  elected 


in  Philadelphia  a.ssistant  bishop  in  Pennsylvania,  but  de- 
clined the  ollice.  Elected  Bishop  of  Ma.'isachusetts  on  Apr. 
:W.  1891.  he  accepted  the  aiiiiointment.  and  was  consecrated 
in  his  own  church  Oct.  14  of  the  same  year.  He  published 
five  volumes  of  sermons;  Ler.fiires  on  Preaching,  delivered 
Ijefore  the  Divinity  School  of  Yale  College ;  several  orations, 
short  poems,  carols,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  been  issued  in 
repeated  editions.  He  was  a  Broad  Cluirchman,  and  was 
regarded  in  England  and  the  U.  S.  as  the  greatest  preacher 
of  his  Chuiih.  He  was  a  man  of  noble  stature,  rapid  in 
utterance,  averse  to  polemics,  but  a  great  spiritual  leader. 
D.  in  Bo.ston,  Mas.s.,  .Ian.  2:5.  189:1  A  statue  of  Bishop 
Brooks  is  to  be  erected  in  Copley  Square.  Boston,  overlook- 
ing the  scenes  of  his  rectorate  at  Trinity  church.  Three  of 
Bishop  Brooks's  brothers  entered  the  Episcopal  Church  min- 
istry.— Eredekick  :  b.  in  Boston.  Mass.,  Aug.  5, 1842;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  1863;  studied  theology  at  the  Episcopal  Di- 
vinity .School,  Philadelphia  ;  ordained  in  186(!;  wasrectorof 
churches  in  Des  Moines,  la.,  an<l  Cleveland,  O. ;  drowned  by 
sti:p])ing  tlinuigh  an  open  draw  at  night  in  the  bridge  over 
Charles  river,  Boston,  Sept.  1.5.  1874.  Posthumous  volume 
of  sermons  (1875).  with  introduction  by  Pliillips  Brooks. — 
Arthur:  b.  in  Bo.'^ton,  June  11,  1845;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard 1867;  studied  theology  in  Andover  and  Philadelphia; 
took  orilers  in  1870;  rector  in  Williamsport,  Pa.,  of  St. 
James's  churcli.  Chicago,  and  of  tlie  Church  of  the  Incarna- 
tion. New  York,  1875.  D.  at  .':;ea  July  10. 1895.  He  published 
Sermons  (\%9>^  \  Englished.  Chrift  for  To-day). — John  Cot- 
ton: b.  in  Boston,  Aug.  29.  1849;  graduated  at  Harvard 
1872;  studied  theology  at  Andover  and  Philadelpliia:  or- 
dained 1875;  rector  in  Bristol,  Pa..  1876;  Providence,  R.  I., 
and  of  Christ  church,  Springfield,  Mass.,  1878. 

Brooks,  William  Keith.  Ph.  D. :  b.  in  Cleveland,  0.,  Mar. 
25,  1848;  graduated  from  Williams  College  1870;  took  the  de- 
gree Ph.  1).  at  Harvard  I'lnversity  1874;  was  assistant  in  tile 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  1874-75;  became  asso- 
ciate of  Johns  Hopkins  University  1876;  and  in  1883  Pro- 
fessor of  Jlorphology  there.  Dr.  Brooks  is  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  several  foreign  sci- 
entific societies.  In  1878  he  organized  the  Johns  Hopkins 
summer  nuirine  laboratoiy.  which  ha.s  won  a  reputation  for 
itself  by  the  class  of  students  who  study  there,  and  the 
jiublications  which  are  the  result  of  their  work.  His  most 
iiu[iortant  works  are  Ihindbook  of  Invertebrate  Zoology 
(18S1.  400  pp.,  300  cuts):  Heredity  (1883,  300  pp.);  aiid 
The  Derelopment  and  Proteel ion  of  the  Oyster  in  Mary- 
land (192  pp.  quarto,  13  plate.s,  3  charts.  1884).  Besides 
tliese.  he  has  published  Tjeucifer.  a  Study  in  Morphology 
(1881).  and  a  monograph  on  Stomntopnda  (1886)  in  Trans- 
actionti  of  tlie  London  Royal  Society,  and  other  papers  on 
marine  forms. 

Brooks,  William  Thomas  Harbaioh:  .soldier;  b.  in  New 
Li.sbon.  O..  Jan.  2H.  1S21  ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841 ; 
major  Eighteenth  Infantrv  JIar.  12,  1862  ;  and  Sejit.  28.  1861, 
brigadier-g<'iieral  U.  S.  volunteers.  He  served  in  the  Florida 
war  1841-42  ;  on  frontier  duty  184:5-45  ;  in  the  military  occu- 
pation of  Texas  1845—46;  in  the  war  with  Mexico  1846-48; 
was  engaged  at  I'alo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Paliua,  Monterey 
(brevet  captain).  Vera  Cruz.  Ccrro  Gordo.  Contreras,  Churu- 
busco  (brevet  major),  and  the  city  of  Mexico,  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Brevet  Maj. -Gen.  Twiggs  1848-51 ;  in  active  operations  in 
New  Slexico  in  1868,  and  engaged  In  several  skirmishes 
against  the  X^avajtis.  In  the  civil  war  he  served  in  the  Vir- 
ginia Peninsula  campaign  1862;  engaged  at  Yorktown, 
Golden's  Farm,  Savage  Station  (wounded),  and  Olendale  in 
the  Maryland  campaign  1862:  engaged  at  Cramjiton  Pass 
and  .Vntietam  (wounded):  commanded  divisiim  in  the  Rap- 
pahannock campaign  lSG2-6:5:  in  command  of  the  depart- 
ment of  (he  Aionongahcla  186:S-()4.  when  Pittsburg  was 
threatened  by  a  raid;  in  command  of  the  Tenth  Corps  before 
Richmond  1864;  engaged  at  Swift's  Creek,  Drury's  Bluff, 
Bermuda  Hundred,  Cold  Harbor,  and  the  siege  of  Petei's- 
burg.  Failing  health  from  exposure  and  wounds  caused 
him  to  resign  from  the  army,  July  14,  1864,  and  in  1866  he 
retired  to  v  farm  in  Huntsville,  .-\la.,  where  he  resided  till 
his  death,  July  19,  1870. 

Brookville:  town;  on  railroad:  capifal  of  Franklin  co., 
Inil.  (fur  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  8-G). 
It  has  great  water-jiower,  iiaper-inills,  flouring-mills,  etc., 
and  contains  Brookville  College.  Pop.  (1880)  1,813;  (1890) 
2,028. 

Brookville:  borough  and  capital  of  JefTci-son  co.,  Pa. ; 
on  railroad  and  on  Red  Bank  ereek  (for  location  of  county,  see 


^98 


BROOM 


BROUGHAM 


map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-(').      Pop.  (1880)  2.136  ;  (1890) 
2,478. 

Broom :  anv  one  of  several  shrubs  of  the  family  Legumi- 
nome.  Tliey  belongto  the  alliorl  genera  of  Spnrtiiiih.  Genista, 
and  Cytisus.  The  c-oinmoii  broom  of  P^urope  {('i/ti.iii.i  .sco- 
parius)  grows  on  dry  and  sandy  soils  and  heatlis,  and  bears 
handsome  yellow  flowers.  The  branches,  which  are  very 
tough  and  angular,  are  used  for  making  brooms.  The  young 
tops  and  seeds,  being  strongly  diuretic,  are  used  in  medicine, 
and  are  beneficial  in  dropsy.  All  kinds  of  broom  have  long, 
slender  liranehes.  The  Spanish  broom  (Spartium  junreiim) 
grows  wild  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  possesses  medical 
properties  like  the  common  liroom.  The  fiber  of  its  branch- 
lets  is  used  in  Italy  and  Spain  for  making  cloths  and  ropes. 
The  Cytisus  a/bus.  or  white  broom,  also  a  native  of  Europe, 
is  cultivated  in  England  as  an  ornamental  shrub,  and  bears 
white  flowers  which  are  much  admired.  It  sometimes  attains 
a  height  of  15  feet  or  more.  The  broom  (Fr.genet)  gave  name 
to  the  royal  family  of  Plantagenet,  one  of  its  ancestors  hav- 
ing the  broom  for  his  crest. 

Broom-corn :  a  plant  of  the  order  Gramime ;  native  of 
the  East  Indies  :  cultivated  in  the  U.  S.  It  is  a  variety  of 
the  same  species  which  produces  sugar-cane,  durra-corn.  and 
other  plants  (6'or'jrA)<ni  snccliara  turn  or  Sarc/iar'iim  offici- 
nar'um).  It  has  a  jointed  stem,  which  gi-ows  to  the  height  of 
8  or  10  feet,  and  bears  spikelets,  two  and  three  together,  on 
the  ramifications  of  an  open  panicle.  Only  the  middle  or 
terminal  one  of  these  is  fertile  ;  stamens  three.  The  panicle 
is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brooms.  It  is  stated 
that  this  plant  was  first  introiluced  into  the  U.  .S.  by  Dr. 
Franklin,  who.  finding  a  seed  on  a  whisk  that  had  been  im- 
ported, planted  it  and  ])ropag,ated  it.  It  succeeds  best  in  al- 
luvial soils,  but  will  generally  prodiice  a  fair  crop  on  any 
land  that  is  adapteil  to  maize.  Broom-corn  is  largely  culti- 
vated in  the  Jlohawk  Valley  of  New  York,  in  Nebraska  and 
Kansas,  and  other  regions.  It  is  |)lanted  in  rows  about  3  feet 
•apart,  and  in  hills  about  18  inches  apart.  The  average  prod- 
uce of  an  acre  is  aljout  500  lb.  of  the  bnish  or  material  for 
brooms.  The  brush,  or  stems  of  the  panicle,  grow  straighter 
if  the  panicle  stands  in  a  horizontal  or  drooping  position. 
The  stalks  are  therefore  broken  over  when  the  panicle  is 
nearly  full  grown,  at  a  point  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  be- 
low the  head.  Two  rows  are  ordinarily  broken  toward  each 
other.  This  operation  is  called  "tabling."  The  seed  of 
broom-corn  is  often  fed  to  chickens,  but  it  has  comparative- 
ly little  value.  The  brush  is  not  harvested  until  the  seed  is 
nearly  ripe,  and  liy  this  time  the  herbage  is  so  hard  that  it 
has  little  value  for  fodder.  Revised  by  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Broome,  Sir  Frederick  Napier,  K.  C.  M.  G.  :  British  co- 
lonial statesman  and  author :  b.  in  Canada.  1842  :  educated 
at  Whitchurch  Grammar  School,  Shropshire,  England  ;  emi- 
grated to  New  Zealand  1857 ;  returning  to  England,  was 
on  the  staff  of  The  Times  1869-73 ;  colonial  secretary  of 
Natal  1875  ;  of  Mauritius  1877 ;  lieutenant-governor  of  Jlau- 
ritius  1880.  As  governor  of  Western  Australia.  1882-90.  he 
did  much  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  colony.  Besides 
contributions  to  magazines,  he  was  author  of  Poems  from 
New  Zealand  (1868)  and  The  Stranger  of  Seriphos  (1869). 
D.  in  England,  Nov.  26,  1896. 

Broome,  John  L.  :  lieutenant-colonel  U.  S.  M.  C. ;  b.  Mar. 
8,  1824,  in  the  State  of  New  York :  was  appointed  a  second 
lieutenant  in  the  marine  corps  Jan,  12, 1848.  lie  served  with 
the  marine  battalion  in  Mexico  during  the  Mexican  war. 
While  in  command  of  the  marine  guard  of  the  Hartford 
during  1862  an<l  1863  he  |)arlicipated  in  the  attacks  on  Forts 
St.  Philip  and  Jackson  and  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and  in 
all  the  many  actions  of  that  famous  vessel  in  the  waters  of 
the  Mississippi.     Retired  Mar.  8,  1888. 

Brosboll,  brosbiil,  JonA.N  Carl  Christian:  Danish  nov- 
elist; b.  in  Friderieia.  Aug.  7,  1820.  Under  the  pseudonym 
Garit  Etlar  he  i>ul)lished  manv  volumes  of  novels  and  tales, 
as  well  as  some  poems  and  dramas.  His  best  stories  are 
scenes  either  froiu  Dimisii  history  or  from  peasant-life  in 
Jutland.  His  works  wcri'  collected  in  twenty-four  volumes 
(Skrifter,  1850-68);  an  additional  collection"(A'i/  Sanding) 
appeared  1873-79  (fiv<'  volumes),  and  a  new  edition  of  his 
works  was  publislu'd  in  1887,  if.  G.  L.  K. 

Brother  Jonutlian  :  See  TRi-Mnri.L.  Joxathax. 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools:  an  order  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  CImreli  :  lnuiidcd  in  1679  at  Kheims  by  the 
Abbe  La  Salle,  and  c<inlinni(l  in  1725  by  Henediet  XIII. 
Its  menibei-s  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the  priesthood.     They 


devote  themselves  to  teaching,  and  especially  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  poor,  mo.stly  in  rudimentary  bi-anches,  but  some- 
times in  more  advanced  studies.  They  are  numerous  in 
France,  Ireland,  Italy,  the  U.  S.,  and  most  other  countries. 

Broii^h.  John  :  b.  in  Marietta.  0..  Sept.  17,  1811  ;  was  a 
printer  in  his  youth  :  studied  at  Ohio  Univei-sity.  He  editecl 
several  political  journals;  became  a  powerful  Democratic 
orator;  held  important  public  offices.  In  1846  he  became  a 
lawyer.  In  1848  he  left  political  life  for  a  time  to  preside 
over  a  I'ailroad.  In  1864  he  became  Governor  of  Ohio,  re- 
ceiving the  joint  vote  of  all  parties  who  were  in  favor  of 
prosecuting  the  war  again.st  the  insurgent  States.  D.  in 
Cleveland.  Aug.  29,  1865. 

Broiigliam,  Ijroo  am.  Hexry,  Lord :  orator,  lawver,  and 
writer;  b.  in  Edinburgh.  Scotland.  Sept.  19.  1779.  His 
mother  was  a  niece  of  Dr.  Robertson,  the  historian.  He 
graduated  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1800.  He  was  intimate 
with  Francis  Jeffrey  and  Sydney  Smith,  whom  he  aided  in 
founding  the  Edinburgh  Bei'ieir  in  1802.  and  he  continued 
to  contribute  to  that  review  for  many  years.  In  1808  he  re- 
moved to  London,  and  was  called  to  the  English  bar.  He 
became  a  Whig  member  of  Parliament  in  i810,  and  soon 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  del)ater  as  well  as  a  forensic 
pleader.  As  a  parliamentary  orator  he  was  distinguished 
for  vehemence  and  energy,  and  the  ratlier  free  use  of  sar- 
casm and  invective.  He  rejjresented  Winchelsea  from  1816 
to  1830.  Among  his  famous  performances  as  an  advocate 
was  his  defense  of  Queen  Caroline  (1821).  by  which  he  gained 
great  popularity.  He  distinguislied  himself  as  a  promoter 
of  popular  education,  as  a  reformer  of  laws,  and  a  friend  of 
political  reform  and  progress.  In  1825  he  published  Prac- 
tical Observations  on  the  Education  of  the  People.  He  took 
a  jirominent  part  in  founding  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge,  of  which  he  became  in  1827  the  first 
chairman.  He  made  a  powerful  speech  against  slavery  in 
1830,  soon  after  which  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  by 
the  great  popular  constituency  of  Yorkshire.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  new  Whig 
ministry,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Brougham 
and  Vaux.  He  retired  from  office  with  his  colleagues  in 
Nov.,  1834,  after  which  he  ceased  to  act  with  the  Whigs, 
without  joining  any  other  ijarty,  but  pursued  an  independ- 
ent political  course. 

Among  his  writings  are  a  Treatise  on  the  Objects.  Advan- 
tages, and  Pleasures  of  Science:  Sketches  of  Statesmen  of 
the  Time  of  George  III.  (3  vols..  1839-4;^) ;  Political  Phi- 
losophy (3  vols..  1840-44).  He  died  at  Cannes,  in  France, 
May  9.  1868.  He  had  puljlishcd  an  edition  of  his  coUeeted 
works  in  10  vols.,  1857.  See  Lord  Campbell's  Life  of  Lord 
Brougham. 

Brongliam.  Joiix :  actor  and  plaj-«right  :  b.  in  Dublin, 

Ireland.  !May  S».  1810:  educated  to  be  a  surgeon. but  reverses 
led  to  a  change  of  plan,  and  he  entered  the  stage  at  the  Tot- 
tenham theater.  London,  in  1830.  Afterward  he  was  en- 
gaged by  Madame  Vestris  to  act  in  her  stock  company  at 
the  London  Olympic  theater.  His  first  dramatic  compo.si- 
tion  was  a  burlesque,  written  fiu-  William  E.  Burton.  It 
succeeded,  and  he  wrote  many  similar  pieces  of  a  light  de- 
scription. It  was  at  this  period  that  he  wrote,  in  conjunction 
with  Dion  Boucicault,  the  comedy  of  London  Assurance. 
A  little  later  he  undertook  the  nniiiagement  of  the  London 
Lyceum,  and  for  this  stage  he  wrote  several  plays. 

In  1842  Brougham  removed  to  the  U.  S. :  acted  at  the  Park 
theater,  and  made  a  professional  tour  of  the  theatrical  cities 
of  the  U.  S.  He  then  settled  down  as  a  member  of  the 
stock  company  of  Burton's  theater.  New  York.  Here  he 
wrote  Vanity  Fair;  The  Irish  Yankee;  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin ;  The  Irish  Emigrant ;  a  dramatization  of  Dombey  and 
Son;  and  other  dramas.  He  then  undertook  the  manage- 
ment of  Niblo's  Garden.  On  Dec.  23.  1850.  he  opened 
Brougham's  Lyceum,  which  afterward  became  Wallack's 
theater.  Brougham  did  not  keep  it  long,  but  while  there 
he  wrote,  among  other  pieces,  a  dramatization  of  David 
Coppertield,  and  a  new  version  of  The  Actress  of  Padua. 
His  next  venture  was  made  at  the  Old  Bowery  theater 
(1856-57),  wlu're  he  produced  IVie  Pirates  of  the  JILssissippi  ; 
Tlie  Ned  JIask;  Tom  and  Jerry  in  America  ;  The  Miller  of 
yew  Jersey,  all  dramas  of  a  common  sort,  but  profitable. 
Then  he  accepted  an  engagenu'iit  at  Wallack's  theater,  and 
while  there  he  wrote  aversion  of  Hleak  Ifou.se;  Pocahontas; 
The  Ruling  Pa-i-fion ;  and  Playing  with  Fire.  A  little 
later  he  left  Wallack's  and  rejoined  Burton  at  the  Metro- 


BKOUGHTOX 


BROWN 


799 


politan   tln'iitcr.  and  licrr  lie  pniihiciMl   his  Imi-lesque  of  6'o- 
lumbus. 

In  lS()l-ti2  Hroii^liain  went  to  London,  where  he  re- 
mained ii|i\vaiil  of  four  veais.  Diirini;  this  time  he  wrote 
Tlie  Dukt>i  Motto  and  Bet  Dminiiio.  and  draniatie  versions 
of  two  novels  l>y  Miss  M.  E.  Hraddon  tailed  Lady  Audlnj's 
Secret  and  Ouli/  a  Cliid. 

In  180!)  he  opened  Hrousham's  tlicater,  in  Twenty-fourth 
Street,  New  York.  His  manaf^enient  in  this  house  was  of 
short  duration.  Ilis  last  ajijiearanee  on  the  sta^e  oecurred 
on  Oct.  2"),  1S7H.  at  Uootli  s  theater.  New  York.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Lotos  Club,  of  New  York,  and 
for  some  lime  its  president. 

Brougham  started  in  New  York  a  eomie  paper  called  T)ie 
Lantern,  and  he  wasauthorof  two  volumesof  miscellaneous 
writiiiKS<'ntitled  .1  linskrt nf  ( 'lii/)'<iini\  'J'/ie  Bi(nfl)i/  Papers. 
He  was  separated  from  his  tirsl  wife  in  lK4o.  Ilis  second 
wife,  Mi.s,s  Nelson,  whom  he  wedded  in  1847,  died  in  1870. 
D.  at  New  York,  June  7,  1880. 

Keviscil  by  B.  B.  Vallentixe. 

BroilK'litoii-  HiioDA  :  novelist;  b.  at  Sejjrwyd  Hall,  Den- 
bighshire, Wales.  Nov.  29.  1840.  Amonj;  her  novels  are  ]S,'ut 
n'isely.  but  Too  U>//(1867);  Cometh  up  ax  a  Flower  (K^'i); 
Red  a."  a  Uose  i.i  Slie  (1870) ;  Oood-bi/e.  Sweetheart  (1872). 
Miss  Brouijhton  has  lived  much  at  Oxford,  the  scene  of  her 
novels  Belinda  (1883)  and  Doctor  Cupid  (188(i). 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Broiis'sa.  or  Briissa  (anc.  Prusa  ad  (Hijmpum):  a  city  of 
Asia  Minor;  in  .\natolia  :  pleasantly  situated  at  the  north 
base  of  iMt.  Olympus  :  aliout  <>0  miles  S.  by  K.  from  ('on- 
stantinonle  (see  nuip  of  Turkey,  ref.  4-K).  It  is  on  a  beau- 
tiful and  fertile  plain,  and  presents  a  maf;nifieent  externa! 
appearance,  havinj;  more  than  200  mosiiues  and  mimirets, 
some  of  whicli  are  very  handsome.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
but  are  kept  clean  l)y  runnin;;  water.  Here  are  many  eol- 
lefjes  and  schools,  sevend  .\rnienian  churches,  and  hiri;e 
bazaars  supplied  with  European  Hoods.  Broussaisone  of  the 
most  commercial  cities  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  raw  silk  is 
the  chief  article  of  exijort.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk, 
satin,  fiauze,  cotton  cloths,  and  tapestry.  The  silks  of 
Broussa  are  highly  esteemed  in  the  European  markets.  A 
superior  article  of  China  was  formerly  manufactured  here, 
but  the  art  is  now  lost.  Here  are  warm  mineral  springs 
which  were  <'clelirate(l  in  ancient  tiuu's.  Pruxa  was  tlie 
capital  of  aiuient  Bitliynia.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turkish 
Sultan  Orkhan  in  i:i2(),  after  which  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Turkish  empire  until  14.");!.  Fel).  28.  18.55,  the  town  was 
nearly  deslroved  by  an  earthquake.  Pop.  re])orted  ;J7.500 
in  188.5,  Imt  since  the  Uusso-Turkish  war  it  has  grown  rap- 
idly, anil  WHS  (1891)  estimated  at  100,000. 

Brous.sais.broo'say',  Fkan(;ois  .Iosei>ii  Vktok:  jihysician; 
1).  in  .Snint-.Malo.  departiiu-nt  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  France,  Di'C. 
17.  1772  ;  educated  in  the  public  school  of  Dinan  and  under 
the  supervision  of  Ids  father,  who  was  ;i  country  physician. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Hevolution  he  joineil  t hi'  army  as  a 
volunteer,  but  wasdischarijecl  on  a<'count  of  sickness;  studied 
medicine  ;  obtained  a  commis.sion  as  surgeon,  first  on  a  ship 
of  war,  afterward  at  Brest,  and  went  in  1799  to  Paris  to 
pursue  a  regular  coursi;  of  meilieine.  In  1804  he  was  up- 
pointed  military  surgeon  to  the  camp  of  Boidogne.  and  ao 
companied  this  division  of  the  Fr<>iu-h  army  till  180S.  After 
the  publication  in  that  year  of  his  l[istoire  de.t  Phleijni(isie.f 
clironiijue.i.  he  was  maile  chief  physician  to  one  of  the  di- 
visions of  the  French  army  in  Spain. and  remained  there  till 
1814.  After  the  end  of  tlu'  war  he  was  made  assistant  pro- 
fessor at  the  military  hospital  of  the  Val  de  (irilce  in  Paris; 
published  in  ISIG  H.riinien  de  doctrine  medirtite  t/enerale- 
nient  adoptee  ;  in  1H24  '/'mite  de  la  plii/.tioloi/ie  (i//pli(piee  a 
la  patholoi/ie  :  in  1S29  Coinmentaire.s  dex  propoxitionx  de 
pathotojiie  conxiijnex  i/unx  rejomen  ;  in  18:52  Ac  c/io/era  mor- 
bus epidemiyue.  and  was  in  the  siune  year  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  General  Pathologv  in  the  .\cadciuv  of  .Medicine,  wliicli 
oflice  he  held  till  his  "death.  Nov.  17.'  1838.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  jihysiological  system  of  medicine. 

Broiisson.  broo'soii',  ('i.AtUE:  b.  in  Nimes,  France,  in 
1647;  studied  law.  and  was  a  celebrated  advocate  in  Tou- 
louse when  the  persecutions  began  against  the  Huguenots, 
to  whose  .sect  he  belonged.  After  the  Kevocation  of  the 
Eilict  of  Nantes  in  l()8-5.  when  the  churchi's  of  the  Hugue- 
nots were  interdicted,  their  ministei-s  exiled,  and  their  liooks 
l)urnt,  Brous,son  assi'udiled  from  tinu'lotime  his  co-religion- 
ists in  his  house.  an<l  endeavored  to  uiihold  their  courage 
and  strengthen  their  power  of  resistance.     These  reunions 


caused  finally  a  pojjidar  outbreak  in  Toulouse,  and  Brous- 
son  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Switzerlanil.  Here  he  was  con- 
secrated to  the  ministry,  and  although  the  governor  of  the 
province  of  Languedoc  put  a  price  of  10,000  livres  on  his 
head,  he  returned  to  France,  and  lived  up  to  1693  a.s  an  itin- 
erant prie.st  in  the  Cevennes.  where  he  preached  in  the  caves 
and  crags  to  those  who  gathered  around  him,  fornung  the 
famous  a.txemh/eex  dii  dexert.  After  a  short  residence  in  the 
Netherlands,  he  re-entered  Franco  liy  the  way  of  the  Jura 
Mountains,  ami  began  om-e  more  to  preach  in  the  Cevennes, 
but  was  caught,  brought  to  Mont pellier,  tried  on  a  charge 
of  co-operating  with  Count  Schond>erg  in  a  .scheme  of  in- 
va<ling  France,  and  broken  on  the  wheel  Nov.  4,  1698.  Ilis 
influence,  Ijoth  as  a  preacher  and  a  writer,  was  very  great, 
and  he  is  considered  oin^  of  the  martyrs  of  the  French  Re- 
formed Chun'h.  He  wrote  L'etat  dex  reformex  de  France 
(3  vols..  The  Hague,  1684);  Lettres  au  clerye  de  France 
(1685) ;  Jjcttrexdex  Protextantx  de  France  d  toutex  lex  autrex 
Protextantx  de  I' Europe  (Berlin,  1688);  Letfrex  aux  Catho- 
liques  romainx  (1689) ;  lielation  sommaire  des  merveillex  que 
Dieu  fail  en  Prance  danx  lex  Cei'etinex  (1694);  La  7nanne 
myxtiipie  du  dexert  (published  in  1693  by  the  synod  of  Haar- 
lem), etc. 

Broiissoiie'tia  :  a  genus  of  trees  allied  to  the  nuillierry. 
It  comprises  tile  pajier  mulberry  (Hroux,-io)ietta  pajii/rifera), 
the  fibrous  liark  of  which  is  used  liy  the  Chinese  and  .lapaii- 
e.se  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  It  is  a  small  tree  with 
deciduous  leaves  of  variable  shape.  It  is  planted  as  a  shade 
tree  in  some  American  cities. 

Brown  (in  Fr.  l)run):  in  ]iaiiiting.  a  dark  dusky  color,  in- 
clined to  red,  of  various  degrees  of  de])tli.  It  belongs  to 
the  tertiary  colors  known  as  russets  and  olives,  in  which  the 
hue  is  modified  by  an  admixture  of  black  or  a  dark  pig- 
ment. Among  the  brown  pignu'Uts  are  bister,  umber,  raw 
and  burnt  sienna,  and  brown  madder. 

Brown,  Aaron  Venabi.e:  statesman;  b.  in  Brunswick 
CO.,  Va.,  Aug.  1.5.  1795;  graduated  at  Chapel  llil]  in  1814; 
removed  to  Tennessee  in  1815;  partner  of  James  K.  Polk  ; 
member  of  Congress  1839-45  ;  and  was  elected  Governor  of 
the  State  in  184.5.  He  became  Postmaster-General  of  the 
V.  S.  in  1S57  under  Buchanan.  1).  in  Washington.  D.  C, 
Jlar.  8,  1859. 

Brown.  Be.v.iamin  Gratz  ;  b.  in  Lexington.  Ky.,  IMay  28, 
1826;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1847.  He  began  the  iiractice  of 
law  at  St.  Louis,  Jlo. ;  was  a  member  of  the  State  Legis- 
lature (lsr)2-58);  edited  tlie  Missouri  Democrat  (1854-59). 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in  1861  lie  raised  a  regiment 
and  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Union;  afterward  com- 
manded a  brigade  of  militia.  He  was  among  the  most 
active  and  infhieiitial  in  |irocuring  the  adojition  of  the  or- 
dinance of  freedom  in  1864  by  the  State  of  Missouri.  He 
was  U.  S.  Senator  in  1863-67.  and  was  made  Governor  of 
Jlissouri  in  1871.  He  was  nominated  at  the  Cincinnati 
convention,  Jlay,  1872,  for  the  office  of  Yice-President  of 
the  U.  S.,  Horace  Greelev  being  the  nominee  tor  President. 
D.  in  St.  Louis,  Dec.  13,  "1885. 

Brow  n.  Cuarles  Brockden  ;  novelist,  and  the  first  pro- 


fessional man  of  letters  in  the  V.  S. ;  b.  in   Philadelphia, 

vas  spell 
deljihia,   where    he    edited    The   Literary   Magazine   and 


Jan.  17,  1771.     Uis  life  was  spent  in  New  York  and  Phi 


pnia, 
'hila- 


American  Register  (1803-08).  His  romances,  Wieland 
(1798).  Ormund  (1799),  Ed<iar  Jfuntley  (1799),  Arthur  Mer- 
vyn  mm,  Jane  Talbot  (ISOl).  an.UVdra  //(((cori?  (1801),  are 
vveird  and  mysterious,  dealing  with  the  (ihenomena  of  sleep- 
walking, ventriloquism,  etc.  I).  Feb.  22.  1810.  See  Pres- 
cott's  Life  of  C.  B.  Brown,  in  Sparks's  American  Biog- 
raphy, vol.  i. ;  W.  Dunlap's  Ijife  of  Charles  B.  Brown. 
prefixed  to  an  eilition  of  his  works  (1827);  C.  I.  Stevenson's 
Life,  announced  (1893).  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Brown,  Ford  Madox;  decorative  and  genre  painter;  b. 
of  English  parents  at  Calais,  France,  Apr.  16,  1821  ;  pupil 
of  the  academies  of  Bruges  and  Antwerp.  Notable  among 
his  works  is  a  series  of  frescoes  in  the  lown-liall  of  Man- 
chester, illustrating  the  history  of  the  city.  He  generally 
held  aloof  from  public  exhibitions.  D.  in  London.  Oct.  6, 
1893.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Brown.  Francis,  D.  D.  :  b.  in  Chester,  N.  11..  Jan.  11, 
17S4;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1805:  tutor  from 
ISOO  to  1809;  settled  over  the  Congregational  church  in 
North  Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  1810;  chosen  president  of  his 
alma  mater  in  181,5.  It  was  during  his  presidency  that  the 
famous  Dartmouth  College  case  was  carried  up  to  the  U.  S. 


800 


BROWN 


Supreme  Court,  Jeremiah  Mason  and  Daniel  Webster  ad- 
mired the  ability  with  which  he  served  them  in  their  man- 
agement of  tlie  case,  wliicli  was  won  for  him,  and  lie  was 
reinstated  as  college  president  in  IHl'J.     D.  July  17,  1820. 

Brown.  Francis,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D. :  grandsou  of  Francis 
Brown  ;  b.  in  Hanover.  X.  H.,  Dee.  20,  184y :  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1870 ;  tutor  there  1873  to  1874 ;  gradii- 
ated  at  the  Union  Theological  Seniiiuiry  in  1877:  spent  two 
years  in  Germanv;  in  1879  was  ajipointed  instructor,  in 
1881  Associate  Professor,  in  Biblical  Philology  in  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York ;  in  ISStO  was  transferred 
to  the  "chair  of  Hebrew  and  the  Cognate  Languages.  He 
edited  Ijenorinaut's  The  Beginnings  of  History  and  (witli 
Dr.  R.  D.  Ilitchc'ock)  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles. 
He  wrote  Assijriuloyy,  its  Use  and  Abuse  in  Old  Testament 
Study  (1885).  Revised  by  George  P.  Fisher. 

Brown,  George:  commodore  U.  S.  navy;  b.  June  19. 
1835,  in  Indiana ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Feb. 
5,  1849.  He  was  in  couunand  of  Admiral  Porter's  flag-ship, 
the  Octorora.  at  the  attack  on  Vicksburg,  June  28,  1862. 
On  the  night  of  Feb.  24,  186a,  Brown,  in  the  steamer  In- 
dianola,  defended  his  vessel  for  an  hour  and  twenty-seven 
minutes  against  the  rams  Queen  of  tlie  West  and  William 
H.  Webb,  and  two  large  "  eotton-clads,"'  surrendering  the 
Indianola  only  when  she  was  fast  filling  with  water.  He 
commanded  tlie  steamer  Itasca  at  the  battle  of  Jlobile  Bay, 
Aug.  5,  1864,  and  during  the  subsequent  operations  against 
the  defenses  of  Mobile. '  On  Jan.  25,  1890,  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Pacific  station,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral  while  holding  that  command. 

Brown,  George:  Canadian  statesman:  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  Nov.  29,  1818.  He  was  educated  in  his  native 
city,  and  in  early  manhood  removed  with  his  parents  to 
New  York.  In  1843  he  proceeded  to  Toronto,  and  in  1844  es- 
tablished the  Globe  newspaper,  which  has  been  ever  since  the 
leading  Liberal  paper  of  Canada.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1852;  formed  the  Brown-Dorian  administration  Aug.  2, 
1858,  but  resigned  with  liis  colleagues  after  liolding  office 
for  a  few  days  in  eonse(pience  of  adverse  vote  passed  by  the 
Assembly.  He  was  leader  of  the  Reform  section  of  the 
coalition"  government  from  1864  till  1865,  when  he  resigned 
owing  to  the  policy  of  the  Government  relative  to  a  reci- 
procity treaty  with  the  U.  S.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Charlottetown  conference  in  1864;  to  that  at  Quebec  tlie 
same  year;  went  to  London  on  public  business  in  1865;  and 
to  Washington  in  1874  as  joint  plenipotentiary  with  Sir 
Edward  Thornton  to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty  with 
the  U.  S.  On  Mar.  25,  1880,  he  was  shot  in  the  leg  by  a 
discharged  employee,  and  died  in  consequence  May  9  fol- 
lowing. See  Hon.  Alexander  Mackenzie's  Life  and  Speeches 
of  the  Hon.  George  Brown  (Toronto,  1882). 

Neil  Macdoxald. 

Brown,  George  Loring:  landscape-painter;  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Feb.  2.  1814;  pupil  of  W.-ishington  Allston,  and 
Isabey,  Paris.  Most  of  his  works  are  owned  in  Boston  and 
vicinity.  His  Crown  of  New  England  was  purchased  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  when  he  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1860.  and 
his  Bay  of  New  York  was  presented  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  the  same  year  by  a  number  of  New  York  merchants. 
Studio  at  Maiden,  near  Boston.  W.  A.  C 

Brown,  George  William  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Baltimore,  Mil., 
Oct.  13,  1812;  graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1831.  In 
1867  he  Wivs  a  member  of  the  Maryland  constitutional  con- 
vention, and  from  1873  until  1888  was  chief  justice  of  that 
State.  He  was  one  of  three  compilers  of  the  first  Digest  of 
the  Decisions  of  the  Maryland  Court  of  Appeals,  lie  was 
mayor  of  Baltimore  at  the  time  the  mob  of  that  city  at- 
tacked the  Sixth  JMassachusetts  Regiment  on  its  way  to  the 
defense  of  Washington,  Apr.  19,  IStil.  I),  at  Lake  Mohonk, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  6,  1890.  Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Brown,  Goold:  grammarian  and  teacher;  b.  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  Mar.  7,  1791  ;  taught  an  academy  in  New 
York  for  twenty  years.  He  published  Institutes  of  English 
(rrammar  (1823)  and  Grammar  of  English  Grammars 
(1850).     1).  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  Mar.  31,  1857. 

Brown.  Harvey:  soldier;  b.  in  Raliwav,  N.  J.,  in  1795 ; 
gradiiati-d  at  West  Point  in  1818;  coloniO'  Kifth  .VrtiUery 
May  5,  1861.  He  served  chiefly  at  sealioard  posts  1818- 
61 ;  as  aide-de-camp  to  Maj.-Gen.  Brown  1824-25  ;  on  quar- 
termaster duty  1826-29;  in  the  Plat^k  Hawk  expedition 
1833;  in  the  Florida  war  1836-38;  engaged  at  Wahoo 
Swamp  ;  suppressing  Cainuia  border  disturbances  1839-41 ; 


in  the  war  with  Mexico  1846-48 ;  engaged  at  Monterey,  Vera 
Cruz.  Cerro  Gordo.  Contreras  (brevet  lieutenant-colonel), 
Jlolino  del  Rey.  and  the  city  of  Mexico  (brevet  colonel) ;  on 
recruiting  service  1848-52;  superintendent  1851-53;  in 
Florida  liostilities  1853-53 ;  in  command  of  tlie  artillery 
school  for  practice  1857-58  ;  inspector  of  artillery  1859-60. 
In  the  civil  war  he  was  engaged  in  the  defense  of  Fort 
Pickens,  Fla.,  1861-62  (brevet  brigadier-general) ;  and  as 
military  commander  of  the  city  of  New  York,  Jan.  15- 
July  16,  1863,  suppressed  the  draft  riots  (brevet  major-gen- 
eral). Retired  from  active  service  Aug.  1,  1863.  D.  at 
Clifton,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  31,  1874. 

Brown,  He^-ry  Billings.  LL.  D.  :  jurist ;  b.  in  Lee,  Mas.s., 
Mar.  2,  1836  ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1856 ;  studied  law ;  re- 
moved to  Michigan ;  became  U.  S.  district  judge  in  1875 ; 
appointed  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
U.  S.  in  1890,  succeeding  Samuel  P.  Miller. 

Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Brown,  Henry  Kirke  :  sculptor  and  painter :  b.  in  Leyden, 
Mass..  Feb.  24,  1814.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  Washington  in  Union  Square,  New  York ; 
a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Gov.  Clinton  at  Greenwood 
Cemetery ;  the  Angel  of  the  Resurrection,  also  at  Green- 
wood ;  and  a  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Gen.  Winfleld 
Scott.  His  statue  of  Gov.  Clinton  at  Washington  is  per- 
haps the  finest.  He  was  the  first  American  to  use  bronze 
in  sculpture,  made  much  portrait  statuary,  and  was  also  a 
painter  of  no  mean  ability.  D.  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  July  10, 
1886. 

Brown.  Jacob:  b.  in  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  May  9,  1775;  re- 
moved to  New  York  in  1798.  He  joined  the  army  in  1812, 
and  defended  Sackett's  Harbor  in  1813.  Having  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general,  he  invaded  Canada  in  the 
spring  of  1814,  and  commanded  with  success  at  Chippewa 
and  Niagara  Falls  in  July  of  that  year.  He  liecame  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  it.  S.  armv  in  1821.  D.  in  Wash- 
ington, I).  C,  Feb.  34,  1828. 

Brown.  James:  merchant:  b.  in  Providence,  R.  I..  Mar. 
32.  1698.  He  was  in  the  third  generation  of  descent  from 
CuAD  Brown,  who  immigrated  to  New  England  in  1638 ; 
became  jiastor  in  succession  to  Roger  Williams  of  the  Fii-st 
Baptist  church  in  Providence ;  was  known  as  the  "  Peace- 
maker" of  the  colony,  and  died  about  166.5.  James  was  the 
father  of  four  sons  who  were  benefactors  of  Brown  Univer- 
sity (q.  I'.),  founders  of  the  prosperity  of  Providence,  and  of 
a  very  wealthy  family  in  Rhoile  Island.  D.  Apr.  37, 1739. — 
His  son  Nicholas;  b.  in  Providence.  July  28,1729;  d.  there 
May  29.  1791.  He  was  a  zealous  Baptist,  and  greatly  in- 
creased his  fortune  by  commei-ce. — The  second  son.  Joseph  ; 
b.  in  Providence,  Dec.  3,  1733;  on  acquiring  a  fortune,  gave  ■ 
much  time  to  mechanics  and  astronomy.  He  made  obser-  ^ 
vations  of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1769,  and  published  his 
observations;  was  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in 
Rhode  Island  College  from  1784:  alone  of  the  brothers  be- 
came a  communicant  in  the  Baptist  church;  d.  Dec,  3.  1785. 
— John  ;  b.  in  Providence,  Jan.  23, 1736 ;  was  the  more  enter- 
prising of  the  house  ;  ojiened  trade  with  China  and  the  East 
Indies ;  led  the  raid  upon  the  British  sloop  of  war  Gasjiee, 
1772;  imported  and  supplied  ammunition  to  the  army  under 
Washington  while  at  Cambridge  ;  representative  in  the  Sixth 
Congress;  laid  the  corner-stone  of  Rhode  Island  College 
when  it  was  removed  to  Providence  ;  was  its  benefactor  and 
treasurer  from  1783;  d.  in  Providence.  Sept.  20,  1803. — 
Moses,  youngest  of  the  brothers;  b.  in  Providence,  Apr.  4, 
1738;  had  mercantile  experience  in  the  family  business; 
withdrew  in  1773;  became  a  Quaker,  a  patron  of  Friends' 
schools,  and  an  abolitionist :  <1.  in  Providence.  Sept.  6,  1836. — 
Nicholas,  who  bore  his  father's  name  (as  .above):  b.  in  Prov- 
idence. Ajir.  4,  1769  :  is  the  member  of  the  family  for  whom 
Rhode  Island  College  in  1804  changeil  its  name  to  Brown 
University.  Inheriting  wealth  ami  a  trading  business,  he 
took  his  brother-in-law  into  partner.ship,  and  thus  formed 
the  powerful  house  of  Brown  &  Ives,  now  engaged  in  tex- 
tile manufactures.  He  took  some  representative  part  in 
Whig  politics,  gave  aliout  $100,000  to  the  college,  endowed 
the  Providence  Athenanim  and  an  insane  asylum ;  d.  in 
Providence,  Sept,  27,  1841. — His  son  was  John  (.'arter 
Brown;  bililio|iliile  ;  b.  in  Providence,  Aug.  28,  1797:  g.ati 
uated  at  Brown  University  1816;  partner  in  his  father's  busi- 
ness; gathered  a  library  of  Americana  prior  to  1800,  rich 
in  Canadian,  New  England,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  docu- 
ments and  books:  celebrated  among  scholars  for  its  com- 
pleteness; catalogued  by  J.  R.  Bartlett  (4  vols.,  1871).     Mr. 


BROWN 


801 


Brown    r,:i\p   ^IfiO.OOO   to  T?rr>wn    I'nivorsity,   cliicfiy    for 
lilirury  cqiiipmeiit.     I),  in  Providence.  June  10,  1874. 

Krown.  .Tajiks  Alle.v,  T).  D.,  LL.  I). :  Lutheriin  divine: 
li.  of  (Quaker  pareiilaj^c,  in  Laneiister  eo..  Pa.,  l-Vl).  1'.).  1821 : 
;,'raduate(l  at  Pennsylvania  C'olK'f^e,  Ctettyslnirj;.  18-12:  [lu-s- 
tor  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Reading.  Pa. :  Profe.-isor  of  Sys- 
tematic TlieoloLtv.  N'cwberry,  S.  I".,  185!)-<51.  and  al  Gettvs- 
l)iirjr.  Pa..  Isei-T!*:  autlior  of  The  J\'e«-  TIii-d/o,/;/  (IS.i?). 
and  editor  of  Qitnrterlii  lieriew  of  Lulheian  Church  (1870- 
7!)).    D.  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  June  19,  1883. 

Hexrt  E.  Jacobs. 

Brown.  J.  Api-lktox:  landscape-painter:  b.  at  Xewbury- 
port.  Mass.,  July  24,  1844:  jpuiiil  of  Benjamin  ('.  Porter, 
lioslon.  ami  of  Lambinet  in  France  :  mcinijer  of  the  Society 
i'(  American  Artist.s  18i)2.  His  pictures  of  sprinittime  are 
-ympatlielically  treated,  and  his  hindscape  work  in  fjeneral 
;-  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  delicate  and  tender  color. 
Jlost  of  his  artistic  career  has  lieen  passed  in  Boston,  but 
he  removed  to  New  York  in  1891.  W.  A.  (,'. 

Brown.  James  B.m,dwin:  Coiigrejrationalist :  b.  in  I^on- 
don.  England,  Au^.  19,  1820:  d.  in  Condon.  June  28.  1884. 
Jle  ;rraduated  at  I  niversity  College,  London,  18.'i9.  lie  (irst 
studied  law  and  atterwaril  theology.  He  became  a  minister 
at  Derl)y  (184;i|. and  then  was  pastor  in  London,  in  theClap- 
haui  Road  (1846).  From  there  he  removed  with  his  congrega- 
tion to  Brixton  (1870).  lie  hail  great  influence  in  the  Chris- 
tian communion  to  which  he  belonged.  He  was  a  jirolific 
author  on  a  variety  of  theological  and  ecclesiastical  topics. 
One  of  his  principal  works  is  The  Doctrine  of  Aiiiiihiliitian 
in  the  Liyiit  of  the  Gospel  of  Lore  (Ijomlon.  1875;  2d  ed. 
1878).  (iKoRGE  P.  Fisher. 

Brown.  John  :  a  rcbgious  writer :  b.  at  Carpow.  in  Perth- 
>hirc,  Scotland,  in  1722.  He  .studied  theology  umler  Kbe- 
nezcr  Er.skine.  of  Stirling,  in  connection  with  the  Associate 
Burgher  Synod,  and  in  17.")1  became  pastor  of  the  Associate 
congregation  at  Haddington,  and  so  renuiined  till  his  death. 
He  had  a  high  reputation  for  i)iely  and  learning.  It  is 
stjvted  that  lie  kiu'w  nine  larigiuiges.  Among  his  works  are 
a  Diclionari/  of  the  /ii7</«  (Edinburgh.  17t!9)  and  a  Self-in- 
terpri'tittff  liil/le  (1778.  2  vols.).  D.  in  Haddington,  June  19. 
17S7. 

Brown.  John'.  M.  D.:  a  physician  :  author  of  the  Brunonian 
system  of  medicine:  was  born  in  Bunkle  parish.  Berwick- 
sliire,  Scotland,  in  1735.  He  published  in  1780  Elemcnta 
Medicime,  in  which  he  propoumled  his  new  system,  in  which 
diseases  were  classilied  as  the  eonsef|uence  of  an  excess  or 
deficiency  of  excitement,  or  as  sthenic  and  asthenic.  This 
was  received  with  favor  by  nniny  physicians.  His  favorite 
meilicines  were  alcohol  and  opium.  I),  in  London,  Oct.  17. 
17SS. 

Brown.  John  :  patriot:  b.  in  Sandisfield.  Mass..  Oct.  19, 
1744:  graduated  al  Vale  in  1701 :  l)ecaine  king's  attoriu'y  in 
the  Xew  York  c<.lony  :  al'icrward  practiced  law  at  Pittstield, 
Mass.  In  1774  and  1775  he  operated  for  the  cause  of  free- 
dom in  Canada  :  aided  in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  :  took 
Fort  Chaml)!y:  fought  at  {Quebec;  became  a  lieutenant-col- 
onel :  and  in  1777  surprised  the  outposts  at  Ticonderoi;a. 
and  nuide  important  captures.  He  was  killed  bv  the  Ind- 
ians in  the  Mohawk  Valley  campaign,  Oct.  19.  1780. 

Brown.  .lonx.  JI.  I). :  (ihysician  ;  a  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  John 
Brown,  of  Haddington  (178'4-1858) :  b.  in  Biggar.  Scotland, 
Sept.  22.  1810.  He  practiced  in  Edinburgh,  and  published 
llor(p,  Siilisecinp  (1858),  containing  the  well-known  Our 
DiKjx.  lint,  and  hi«  Friends,  and  John.  Leech  and  Other 
J'apers  (1882).  He  wrote  but  little,  and  (mly  of  animals  and 
things  he  loved.  Pathos  and  humor  are  his  characteristics. 
He  sulTered  nuich  from  pericds  of  depression.  1).  in  Edin- 
burgh, Jlay  11,  1882. 

Brown,  Jonx,  of  Ossawatoniie :  a  zealous  opponent  of 
slavery;  b.  in  Torrington.  Conn..  May  9.  1800.  lie  removed 
to  Ohio  in  early  youth,  married,  and'worked  at  the  trade  of 
a  tanner.  His  life  was  always  unsettled  and  adventin-ous. 
lint  as  upright  and  resolute  as  an  old  Covenanter's.  He  was 
twice  married  anil  had  twenty  children,  and  the  whole 
familv  made  sacrifices  to  susi.-ii'n  his  enterprises.  In  18.55 
he  emigrated  to  Kjinsas.  where  he  fought  against  the  pro- 
slaveiT  party,  and  lived  at  Ossawatoniie.  His  house  was 
burned  ami  a  son  killed  in  the  border  wars  of  Kansas,  and 
he  made  bloody  reprisals.  He  was  the  master-spirit  of  the 
convention  which  met  at  Chatham.  Canada,  in  Mav.  1859. 
and  organized  an  invasion  of  Virginia  in  order  to  liberate 
the  slaves.  In  July  of  that  year  he  rented  a  farmhouse 
61 


about  6  miles  from  Harper's  Ferry.  On  Oct.  16.  aided  by 
twenty-two  associates,  of  whom  six  were  Negroes,  he  sui-- 
prised"  Harper's  Fen-y,  and  captured  the  ai-seual  and  ar- 
inoi'v.  He  and  his  party  wei'c  overcome  the  next  day  by  a 
detachment  of  l'.  S.  troops,  and  Brown  and  his  surviving 
followers  were  given  up  to  the  State  authorities  for  trial. 
He  was  hanged  at  Charlestown.  Va..  Dec.  2.  1859.  exhibiting 
great  serenity  and  elevation  of  mind.  His  adventure  was 
influential  in  disclosing  and  intensilying  the  feeling  between 
the  North  and  the  South,  and  a  po]iular  song  concerning 
him  was  an  inspiring  tune  in  all  the  Union  camps  during 
the  civil  war.  See  Rcdpath.  Life  of  Captain  John  Brown 
(18G0).  and  the  fuller  work  of  F.  B.  Sanborn,  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  John  Brown  (1885). 

Brown.  John  G.  :  genre-painter;  b.  at  Durham,  England, 
Nov.  11.  1831;  pupil  of  the  Academy  at  Edinburgji.  Scot- 
land, and  afterward,  when  he  removed  to  the  l'.  S..  studied 
in  the  schools  of  the  National  Academy.New  York,  in  1853; 
National  Academician  lH(i3  ;  honorable  mention,  Paris  Expo- 
sition, 1889.  The  subjects  of  his  works  are  scenes  of  country 
life  and  single  figures.  His  portrayals  of  the  New  York 
bootblacks  and  street  urchins  are  widely  known  and  very 
popular.  He  is  president  of  the  American  Water-color 
Society,  and  paints  skillfully  in  oil  and  in  water-color. 
Studio  in  New  York.  William  A.  Cokfix. 

Brown,  John  Henrv  Hobart,  D.  D.  :  fii-st  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  in  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. ;  b.  in  New  York 
city.  Dec.  1.  1831  ;  graduated  at  the  Oeneral  Theological 
Seminary  1854;  took  orders  1855:  served  jiarishes  in  New- 
York  State;  consecrated  bishop  Dec.  15,  1875;  il.  at  his 
see  May  2,  1888. 

Brown.  Joiix  Lewis  :  French  painter  of  genre  and  out- 
door lite,  principally  hunting  st-encs;  b.  at  Bordeaux,  Aug. 
l(i.  1829.  He  became  identifieil  with  the  impressionists,  and 
his  jiictures  give  evidence  of  careful  and  artistic  ob.serva- 
tion  and  talent  in  the  representation  of  atmospheric  effects. 
Pupil  of  Roque|ilan  anil  of  Belloc  ;  first-class  medal.  Paris 
Ex|iosition.  1889;  Legion  of  Honor  1870.  Studio  in  Paris. 
D.  in  1892.  W.  A.  C. 

Brown.  Joseph  Emerson,  LL.D.  :  statesman  ;  b.  in  Pick- 
ens CO.,  S.  ('..  Apr.  15,  1821 ;  educated  at  Calhoun  Academy, 
S.  C.  and  in  law  at  Yale  College  1846 :  settled  in  Canton,  da". ; 
engaged  in  politics  and  served  in  the  Legislature ;  superior 
court  judge  of  Blue  Ridge  circuit  1855:  elected  Governor  in 
1857and  for  three  succeeding  terms ;  as  war  Governor  of  Geor- 
gia seized  the  Savannah  forts  before  his  State  seceded;  dis- 
puted with  Jlr.  Davisthe  Confederateconscri|ition  laws;  op- 
posed Sherman's  march  through  (ieorgi;i  with  10.000  recruits 
gathered  from  exempt  classes,  but  refused  to  send  them  out 
of  the  State;  prisoner  of  war  in  18C4:  accpiiesced  in  recon- 
struction laws,  and  su]iported  Grant  for  the  presidency  at  the 
cost  of  po|mlarity  at  home;  chief  justice  of  (ieorgia  1868 ; 
president  of  Western  and  Atlantic  R.  R.  from  1870:  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1880  to  fill  vacancy  caused  by  resignation  of 
(ieii.  Gordon  :  retained  in  the  Senate  by  the  Legislature  un- 
til 1890,  when  he  declined  a  re-elect  ion  :  gave  .*.50.000  to 
Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  ami  as  much  more 
to  the  Georgia  State  University.  D.  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov, 
30,  1894.  See  his  Life  and  Times,  bv  H.  Fielder  (Spring- 
field. .Mass..  1883). 

Brown,  Robeht:  founder  of  the  Brownisf  sect,  or  IxuE- 
PENDENTs  (q.  f.):  b.  in  Tolethorpe,  Rutlandshire.  England, 
about  1.5.50:  probably  graduated  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge,  1574  :  tanglit  school  in  Southwark.  and  preached 
in  the  fields:  went  to  Norwich  and  organized  a  Congrega- 
tional church  in  1.581.  publishing  his  views  of  church  politv  ; 
took  refuge  in  Holland  and  dislrilnited  tracts  in  England, 
for  which  two  men  were  hanged;  tried  for  heresy  in  Scotland 
1583;  preached  in  Northampton ;  got  into  jail  for  it;  was 
excommunicated  by  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  having 
never  separated  entirely  from  the  establishment ;  conformed 
in  1.591,  and  for  forty  years  was  rector  of  Achurch-cum- 
Thor|)e,  diocese  of  Peterborough ;  left  treatises,  of  which 
three  are  extant,  teaching  Congregationalism  as  iiracticed  in 
the  U.  S. ;  said  he  had  been  "in  thirty-two  dungeons";  d. 
in  1633,  and,  it  is  reported,  in  Northampton  jail. 

Brown,  Robert.  M.  A.,  Ph.  D. :  traveler  and  scientist; 
b.  in  Campster.  Caithness.  Scotland.  JIar.  23.  1842:  studied 
at  Edinburgh.  Leyden,  Copenhagen,  and  Rostock;  visited 
Jan  Mayen,  Spitzbergen,  Greenland,  and  western  shore  of 
Baffin's  Hay  (1861);  the  Pacific  islands,  Alaska,  Venezuela, 
and   Pering  seacoast  and  Vancouver  (1863-66):  Greenland 


802 


BROWX 


BROWNIAX   MOVEMENTS 


a  second  time  and  North  Africa  since  1867;  removed  to 
London,  1876  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work ; 
member  of  iniiiierous  learned  societies;  author  of  twenty- 
six  volumes,  includiuf;  Fnipli'S  iif  /lieWorkl  (6  vols.) ;  Coun- 
tries of  the  M'orld  (6  vols.);  Mantiul  iif  Botany  ;  Our  Enrttx 
(3  vols.) ;  and  Scienee  for  Alt  {o  vols.):  a  lari;e  numlier  of 
scientific  memoirs,  and  some  3,000  articles  and  reviews  in 
various  languages.     D.  Oct.  26,  1895. 

Brown.  KoBERT.  F.  R.  S..  D.  C.  L.  :  Imtanist  :  b.  at  Mon- 
trose. Scotland.  Dec.  21.  1773.  He  studied  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Edinlnirgh.  and  was  naturalist  to  the  expe- 
dition which  ('apt.  Flinders  conducted  to  Australia  in  1801. 
In  ISO-j  he  returned  with  a  collection  of  4.000  species  of  Aus- 
tralian iilants.  and  in  1810  he  published  a  Frodromns  Flora' 
XorfP  Jiolldniliii'.  lie  also  wrote  General  Remarks,  Geo- 
graphical and  Si/steinalical,  on  the  Botany  of  Terra  Aus- 
'tralis  (1814).  I  lis  discovery  of  the  gymnospermy  of  the 
conifers  was  published  in  1825.  In  1827  he  became  keeper 
of  the  botanical  department  of  the  British  Mu.seum.  D.  in 
London,  June  10,  1858. 

Brown.  Sir  Sasiuel  :  naval  officer  and  civil  engineer  ; 
b.  in  London.  England,  in  1776.  He  served  on  the  sea  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars ;  invented  a  method  of  manufacturing 
chain  cables  which  led  to  their  introduction  into  the  navy ; 
in  1819  built  the  first  suspension  bridge  in  England.  JIade 
a  Hanoverian  knight  in  1838.  1).  in  Blackheath,  Mar.  15, 
1852. 

Brown.  Samtel  Gil.man.  D.  D..  LL.  D.  :  son  of  President 
Francis  Brown ;  b.  in  N<n-th  Yarmouth.  Me..  Jan.  4,  1813 ; 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1831,  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1837;  traveled  in  Europe  from 
1838  to  1840 ;  was  professor  in  Dartmouth  College,  first  of 
oratory  and  belles-lettres,  from  1840  to  1863,  then  of  intel- 
lectual ]ihilosophy  from  1863  to  1867.  and  was  presiilent  of 
Hamilton  College  from  1867  to  1881.  Besides  numerous  ad- 
dresses and  articles  in  reviews,  he  published  a  Bioqraphy  of 
Self-tani/ht  Men  (1847)  and  The  Life  of  Hon.  liiifus 
Choate  (1862).  He  also  lectured  on  British  Orators.  D.  in 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  4.  1885. 

Brown,  Thomas,  M.  D.  :  metaphysician  ;  b.  in  Kirkcud- 
brightshire. Scotland.  Jan.  9,  1778.  He  was  a  pu|>il  of  Du- 
gald  Stewart  in  Edinburgh.  In  1798  he  published  a  refuta- 
tion of  Darwin's  Zoononiia.  Having  stuilied  medicine,  he 
gradiuitod  in  1H03.  and  practiced  medicine  about  seven 
year.s.  In  1810  he  was  appointed  colleague  of  Dugald  Stew- 
art as  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgli.  He  was  very  popular  as  a  lecturer,  and  pub- 
lished Lectures  on  the  Fhilosophy  of  the  Human  Mind  (4 
vols..  1820).  His  other  chief  work  is  Observations  on  the  Fe- 
tation of  Cause  and  Effect  (1805  ;  3d  ed.  enlarged,  1818).  His 
chief  contribution  to  psychology  is  an  explication  of  the 
sixth  or  mu.Hcular  sense.  Died  while  on  a  visit  in  London, 
Apr.  2. 1820.  See  Dr.  Welsh,  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writ- 
ings of  7'homas  Brown  (1825). 

Brown.  Thomas  :  English  humorist ;  b.  at  Shifnal,  in 
Shropsliire,  in  16(i3  ;  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  He 
was  a  wag  and  miscellaneous  scribbler,  and  his  writings  con- 
sist largely  di  satires,  epigrams,  lampoons,  farces,  and 
sketches  of  low  life  in  London,  such  as  Ainusentents.  Serious 
and  Comical  (Xinn):  A  Wall  Found  London  and  Westmin- 
ster.   D,  in  Loudon,  June  16,  1704.         Henry  A.  Beers. 

Browne,  Charles  F'arrar  (known  as  Artemus  Ward): 
humorous  writer;  b.  at  \Vaterford.  Me..  Apr.  26.  1834.  He 
learned  the  busitiess  of  a  printer;  removed  to  Ohio,  and 
about  1858  began  contributing  to  the  Clereland  Flaindealer 
a  series  of  humorous  Letters  from  Artemus  Ward,  Sliow- 
man.  In  1860  he  went  to  New  York  and  joined  the  editor- 
ial staff  of  Vanity  Fair.  He  became  a  popular  lecturer ; 
visited  Ciilifornia  in  1863  and  Loudon  in  1866.  D.  at 
Southamiiton.  England.  Mar.  6,  1867.  He  pul:ilishe<I  Arte- 
mus Ward,  his  Hunk  (  bS62).  and  other  works.  See  his  Com- 
plete Writings,  witli  biogniphv.  bv  y\.  D.  Laiidon  (New 
■\'ork.  1875). 

Browne.  Edward  Harold.  D.  D..  I).  C.  L.  :  IJisho])  of 
Wjiirhester.  England  ;  b.  at  .\ylesbury.  Buckingliamshire, 
Mar.  6,1811;  educated  at  Kiiiniainiel  College,  Candiridge. 
1832;  took  orders  in  1836;  consecrated  Hisliop  of  Ely  1864: 
translateil  to  Winclu'ster  1873;  resigiu'd  1891.  Bishop 
Browne  took  a  great  inleresl  in  the  Old  Catholic  move- 
ment, and  atteudi'd  the  Old  Catholic  congress  at  Cologne  in 
1872.  He  was  a  niemlier  of  the  (.).  T.  Company  of  Revision 
of  King  James's  Version.     He  was  the  author  of  An  F.rpo- 


sition  of  the  XXXIX.  Articles  (2  vols.,  1850-53;  13th  ed.  in 
1  vol.,  1887) ;  Sermons  on  the  Atonement  and  other  Suhjects 
(1859);  3Ie.mah  Foretold  and  F.rpected  {1>H}2):  The  Fenta- 
teuch  and  the  Elohistic  Psalms  in  reply  to  Bi.shop  Colenso 
(1863) :  I'he  Strife,  the  Victory,  the  Kingdom  (1872) :  Fo.ii- 
tioii  and  Farties  of  the  English  Church  (1875) ;  Commentary 
on  Genesis  in  the  Speaker's  Commentary,  together  with  nu- 
merous charges,  addresses,  etc.     D.  Dec.  19,  1891. 

William  Stevens  Perry. 

Browne,  Sir  J.  C. :  See  Crichton-Browne. 

Browne.  John  Ross  :  Irish-American  writer  and  traveler  ; 
b.  in  Ireland  in  1817.  Among  his  works  are  Etchings  of  a 
Whaling  Cruise  (1846)  and  Yusef.  or  the  Journey  of  the 
Fraqi  (1853).  He  was  minister  to  China  in  1868-70.  D.  in 
Oakland,  Cal..  Dee.  9,  1875. 

Browne.  Samuel  J. :  b.  in  England.  Mar.  19.  1788 ;  be- 
came in  1798  a  resident  of  Cincinnati,  0..  where  he  grew 
rich  by  investments  in  land.  He  was  long  a  minister  of 
the  United  Brethren,  and  afterward  of  the  Presbyterians. 
I),  in  Harrison  Junction,  0.,  Sept.  10,  1872,  leaving  a  large 
amount  of  money  to  found  a  church,  a  university,  and  a  free 
school. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  M.  D.  :  English  philosopher  and 
writer:  b.  in  London,  Nov.  19,  1605.  He  jn'acticed  medicine 
at  Norwich  feu-  many  years ;  published,  besides  other  work.s, 
lieligin  Medici  (1642) :  Inquiries  into  Vulgar  and  Common 
Errors  (1646):  and  I'm  Burial  (1658),  all  written  in  a 
quaint,  highly  latinized  style,  and  displaying  a  most  peculiar 
imagination.  He  w'as  knighted  bv  Charles  II.  in  1(371.  1). 
Nov.  19.  1682. 

Browne.  William:  pastoral  poet  :  b.  at  Tavistock,  Dev- 
onshire. EnglaiKl.  in  1591.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege. Oxford  :  afterward  entered  himself  at  tlie  Inner  Tem- 
ple. His  I lest -known  works  nw  Britannia's  Fastorals  (\^\'i- 
16)  and  The  Shepherd's  Pipe  (1614).      D.  about  1643. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Brownell.  Henry  Howard  :  b.  in  Providence,  R.  I..  Feb. 
6,1820;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Cotm.,  in 
1841;  wrote  a  number  of  popular  histories;  a  volume  of 
Foems  (1847):  Lyrics  of  a  Day  (1864);  War  Lyrics  (1866). 
In  the  civil  war  iie  was  a  volunteer  naval  officer,  ser\  ing  on 
Farragut's  staff.  He  lived  inainlv  at  East  Hartford,  wliere 
he  died  Oct.  31,  1872. 

Brownell.  Thomas  CnrRCH,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  Bishop  of 
Connecticut  ;  b.  at  Westport,  Mass..  Oct.  19,  1779  ;  graduated 
at  Union  College  in  1804.  He  held  various  ]irofessorships 
in  the  college  until  1816.  when  lie  took  orders  in  tlie  Protes- 
tant Ejii-scopal  Church.  In  1819  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Connecticut,  and  was  the  first  president  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege. Hartford  (1824-31).  He  was  largely  instrumental  in 
]iroviding  liberal  endowments  for  its  professorships,  and  in 
securing  important  additions  to  its  general  fund.  In  1852 
he  became  presiding  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  E)ii.scopal 
Church  in  the  U.S.  He  published  an  E.rpositor  of  the  New 
Testament:  a  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Common  Frayer; 
Religion  of  the  Heart  and  Life  (5  vols.,  1839^0) :  Con.'tola- 
tion  for  the  Afflicted:  Christian's  Walk  and  Consolation  ; 
and  several  other  works.  D.  in  Hartfonl,  Conn.,  Jan.  13, 
1865.  A  bronze  statue  of  tlie  bishop  stands  on  the  campus 
of  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  the  gift  of  his  son-in-law,  Gor- 
don W.  Burnham,  of  New  York. 

Brownian  Movements  (Fedesis) :  those  movements  seen 
with  the  inierosco|H'  among  minute  ]iarticlcs  (not  living)  in 
a  liquid.  Robert  Brown,  the  botanist,  first  described  them 
in  1827.  These  movements  have  often  been  mistaken  for 
(■(7a/  motions.  Wlien  bacteria  or  other  minute  organisms 
in  a  solution  are  observed  through  a  micro-scope  they  are 
found  to  be  in  motion.  After  the  liquid  has  been  sterilized 
by  heat  or  otherwise,  motion  still  goes  on.  but  in  a  mjinner 
obviously  dilfi^rent  from  that  due  to  living  organisms.  The 
same  phenomena  can  be  exhibited  by  ruliliing  fine  powder 
of  gamlioge.  carmine.  lampblack,  or  pumice-slone  in  water. 
Indeed,  as  Jevons  has  shown,  all  .solid  matter  when  very 
finelv  divideil.  and  in  suitable  liquid,  shows  this  motion. 
Beale  considers  of  the  same  nature  the  motions  of  very 
minute  bubbles  (Ywhrru  of  ""  i"<^'li  i"  diameter)  within  cer- 
tain crystals.  These  movements  have  not  been  satisfactorily 
exiilaiiled.  Beale  suggests  their  possible  connection  with 
lieat.  See  Jevons.  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopy,  viji. 
(1878).  p.  1 72 :  also  Carpenter,  The  Microscope,  7th  ed.,  p.  373. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 


BROW  NIK 


BKOWX-SliQUAKI) 


803 


Brownie  :  a  spirit  of  tlio  fairy  order  in  the  old  supersti- 
tions of  Scotland.  The  tradition  is  that  he  was  a  good- 
humored  golilin,  will)  attaclied  himself  to  farmhouses,  and 
oeeupied  himself  when  tlie  family  were  in  bed  in  perfonn- 
ing  any  work,  siieh  as  ehurniiiij.  threslung,  etc. — a  sijirit 
not  seen  or  spoken  to.  an<l  only  known  liy  the  ]ierformanee 
of  voluntary  labors.  In  Cornwall  a  fiohlin  known  as  Hrowny 
is  called  lo  assist  at  the  swarming  of  bees. 

Browning.  Ki.izAnETn  Hakrktt  :  the  greatest  Knglish 
poetess;  b.  in  t'arilon  Hall.  Durham.  .Mar.  (i.  ISOO.  Her 
father.  Kdward  Moulton.  tonk  the  name  Barrett  on  the 
inheritance  of  some  estates  in  .Jamaica.  She  was  liberally 
educated,  and  studied  the  (ireek  and  Latin  languages  witli 
sucees,s.  She  ]mblished  in  IS^G  a  volume  entitled  an  Essay 
on  Mind,  (ind  ollirr  Pmins,  and  in  IfSii:!  translated  from  the 
Greek  of  >l']schylus  I'roinrflii-iis  lioiniil.  Her  health  having 
been  impaireil  by  tlu'  rupture  of  a  blood-vessel  in  ls:iT.  she 
passed  .several  years  in  seclusion.  In  184(1  she  was  married 
clanilcstinely  to  the  poet  Uobert  lirowning.  an<l  went  with 
him  to  reside  in  Italy,  .\niong  lier  poems  are  The  Sera- 
phim and  oilier  Poems  (1H:W):  T/ie  iiomaiinl  of  llie  Pai/e 
(is:!!));  .1  Drama  of  E.rile  (1844):  Aurora  Leii/li  (185(i): 
Poems  before  Cimf/ress  (1860);  and  LasI  Poems  (1801). 
Many  of  ^Irs.  Hrowning's  poems.  su<'h  as  Casa  Giiiili  W'in- 
diDfs  (18.") I),  n-lale  to  Italy  and  the  Italian  aspirations  for 
liberty  an<l  unity.  Aurora  Leii/li  (\HM^).  in  which  she  em- 
bodies her  philosophy  of  life  and  art.  is  a  novel  in  ver.se, 
dealing  with  contemporary  thought  in  l'.3.()0()  lines  of  blank 
ver.se.  Soiinels  from  llie  Po/7»ry»c.s(' (18")0)  contains  some  of 
the  line.st  love  poetry  in  the  language,  and  is  not,  in  fact,  a 
translation,  as  the  title  implies,  lint  original  with  Jlrs. 
Hrowning.     She  died  in  Florence.  .Tune  iJO.  1861. 

Revised  by  IIk.nry  A.  Beers. 

Browning.  Or  viM.K  Hukmax:  statesman;  b.  in  Harrison 
CO.,  Ky..  IMjO;  educated  at  .\ugusta  College;  studieil  law; 
callcil  to  the  bar  in  18:il  ;  removed  to  tjuiney.  111.  He  servecl 
in  the  Black  Hawk  war;  became  a  prominent  State  poli- 
tii-ian  ;  was  V.  S.  Senator  (18()l-():i) :  .Sivretarv  of  the  Interior 
(18(i(>-68) :  acting  Attornev-(_;eneral  of  the  U."  S.  under  Presi- 
dent .Johnson  (18C8-()i)).     I),  in  (iuincy,  Aug.  10,  1881. 

Browning.  Kooert:  the  foremost  of  psvcliological  poets; 
li.  at  Cambcrwell.  a  suburb  of  London.  May  7.  1812.  His 
early  education,  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen,  wa.s  got  in  ])ri- 
vate  schools  and  at  home;  subsequently  a  private  tutor  was 
emnloyed  for  some  year.s.  His  father,  a  clerk  in  the  Bank 
of  Kngland  anil  a  scholar  of  t lie  old-fashioned  elassicd  type, 
was  an  enthusiastic  eollectoi'  of  scarce  and  curious  liooks, 
and  his  house  was  filled  with  them.  These  the  young 
Browning  voraciously  devoured,  and  from  them,  and  the 
inspiration  of  his  book-loving  father  and  of  a  mother  of 
whom  Carlyle  spoke  as  "the  true  type  of  a  Scottish  gentle- 
woman," and  the  piict  himself  as  "a  divine  woman."  he  de- 
rived an  education  of  a  kind  wliich.no  doubt,  better  fitted 
liim  for  his  future  work  than  any  he  could  have  derived 
from  either  of  the  great  universities  at  the  time.  In  a  pri- 
vate letter  he  says;  "I  could  never  have  done  much  by 
either  process."  meaning  that  of  public  school  or  university. 

In  his  eighteenth  yc;u-  he  attended  for  oidy  a  term  or  two 
the  Ijondon  I'niversity.  now  University  College,  where  he 
.studied  (ireek  eliielly.  an  ardent  love  of  which  he  had  im- 
bilied  from  his  father.  The  winter  of  18:i:!-:!4  he  spent  in 
Kussia.  and  was  nuu'h  impressed  with  liiissian  life  and  Rus- 
sian winter  scenery.  It  does  not  seem  that,  up  to  this  time, 
he  had  pursued  any  strictly  scientific  studies,  though  his 
knowdedge  of  various  sciences  a|)pears,  from  his  tiootry,  to 
have  become  later  quite  extensive.  Throughout  his  works 
there  are  many  evidences  of  a  deep  insight  into  the  phenom- 
ena of  nature.  But  the  human  soul  was  ever  his  ultimate 
interest ;  in  his  own  words.  ••  little  else  is  worth  study  "  th.in 
what  bears  upon  its  development.  His  early  work.  Paraeel- 
.si/.s  (18;J5).  showed  the  transcejidental  character  of  his  genius, 
and  struck  the  kev-note  of  his  subsequent  poetry- — namely, 
that  "truth  is  within  ourselves,"  mearnng  spiritual  and  ab- 
solute truth,  the  greatest  agency  for  the  awakening  of  which 
being  great  pei-sonalitie.s. 

He  married  in  1846  the  poet  Klizabeth  Barrett.  Their 
married  life  of  fifteen  years  (she  died  in  1861)  was  sjient  in 
It.-ily.  and  chiefiy  in  FloriMice.  gulden  records  of  which  are 
Ins  One  Ward  More  and  <)  Liirir  Love.  Half  Aiii/el  and 
Half  Hi rd.  A  son,  Robert  Wiedenumn  liarrett  Browning, 
who  has  attained  to  eonsideral)le  distinction  as  an  artist, 
was  l)orn  Mar.  9.  184!>. 

Italy  was  ever  Bi-owning's  "laml  of  lands,"  and  his  poetry 


is  informed  throughoiu  with  its  spirit,  and  exhibits  a  subtle 
knowlcMlge  of  the  Italian  character  in  all  its  ))hases.  "  Open 
my  heart  and  yon  will  see  graved  inside  of  it  •  Italy." "  After 
the  death  of  Mrs.  Browning  he  took  no  his  abode  in  Lon- 
don, making  annual  summer  visits  to  the  Continent  till  the 
end  of  his  life,  especially  to  his  beloved  Venice. 

t)f  his  voluunnous  poetry  s])ace  allows  mention  of  oidy 
the  mure  important  works,  or  collections  |iulilished  under 
general  titles;  Strafford :  an  Ilistorieal  7'rai/e<ly(l8-i'):  Sor- 
dello  (1840);  Bells  and  Pomei/ranales,  in  8  no,s.  (1841-46), 
containing  many  of  his  most  po))ular  composition.s;  Christ- 
mas h're  and  Easter  Day  (18.")0)  give  the  |ioet's  altitude 
toward  Christianity;  Men  and  Women  {18:m);  Dramatis 
Persanit'  (18(>4);  the  last  two  collectiims  will  cuntinue  per- 
haps to  be  most  read  ;  IVie  Hini)  and.  l/ie  Book-  (l868-()!)),  his 
masterpiece,  and  the  greatest  ])iietical  achievement  of  the  cen- 
tury; lialanstion's  Adrentnre.  includiny  a  Transcript  from 
Euripides  (1871 ) ;  the  Transcri/it  is  a  paraphrase  of  t  he  Al- 
k-estis,  informed  with  the  idea  of  the  regenerating  power  of 
personality;  Fifme  at  the  Fair  {IHTi):  Red  Cotton  Night- 
cap Country  (1878) ;  -1  ristnphanes's  Apohigy  (187")) ;  Ij<i  Sai- 
siaz  (1878),  "the  poet's  musings  on  death,  (iod.  the  soul,  and 
the  future  state  ";  Dramatic  iilylls(W^) ;  2il  series  1880). etc. 
His  last  volume.  Asolando.  was  published  in  London  on  the 
day  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in  Venice,  in  the  Palazzo 
Rez/.onico.  Dec.  12.  188!).  His  body  I'ests  in  Poets'  Corner, 
in  Westminster  Alibcy. 

By  far  the  largest  |)ortion  of  his  voluminous  poetry  is  dra- 
ma! ic  monologue — a  ditfieult  art -form  which  lie  made  pe- 
culiarly his  own,  in  bringing  it  into  the  service  of  that 
"woilhicr  stage,  the  soul  itself,  its  shifting  fancies  and  ce- 
lestial lights." 

After  nearly  fifty  years  of  noble  poetic  jiroductiveness, 
which  was  unattended  by  any  conspicuous  recognition,  the 
poet  at  last  received  a  portion  of  the  payment  in  the  public 
estimation  which  had  been  so  long  due  him.  The  Brown- 
ing Society  of  London  was  founded  in  1881  by  Dr.  F.  J. 
Furnivall  for  the  study  and  discussion  of  his  works,  the 
publication  of  papers  on  them.  etc.  A  large  body  of  val- 
ualile  criticism  has  been  since  published  by  the  societv.  and 
an  interest  lias  been  awakened  which  has  resulted  in  the 
publication  of  many  works  of  various  kinds  on  his  poetry, 
and  in  the  establishment  of  Browning  clubs  all  over  tlie 
English-speaking  world — an  interest  which,  by  reason  of  its 
solid  basis,  will  be  perpetuated  and  increased." 

Hiram  Corson. 

Brownists;  See  Baptists. 

Brownlow.  William  Ganxawav  ;  Jletliodisl  divine  and 
politician:  b.  in  Wyllie  cu..  Va..  Aug.  2!*.  180.i ;  renioved  to 
Teiincs.see.  where  he  edited  the  Kno.irille  Whig,  in  which  his 
caustic  writing  earneil  him  the  sobriquet  of  "the  figliting 
parson. ■■  In  1856  he  published  The  Iron  Wheel  E.ramined 
anil  its  False  Spokes  Extracted,  in  reply  to  an  as.saidt  on 
Methodism,  .\fter  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in  1861  he 
was  a  firm  adherent  of  the  Union  [larty.  in  consequence  of 
wliicli  he  suffci'i'd  arrest  and  iiu]>risoninent.  when  the  Con- 
federate government  in  18(>2  sent  him  within  the  Union 
lines.  He  then  lectured  in  N'orthern  cities  tn  large  audi- 
ences, but  in  1864  returned  to  Knoxville,  and  in  186.")  was 
elected  Governor  of  Tennessee  by  the  Republicans;  re- 
olected  in  1867.  He  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
istill  I,,  IS7.^     I),  in  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  Apr.  2!»,  1877. 

BroHnlow:  Earls,  and  Viscounts  Alford  (181.").  in  the 
United  Kingdom),  Barons  Brownlow  (1776.  in  Great  Brit- 
ain), and  Baronets  (1677).  a  prominent  family  of  Great  Brit- 
ain.— .\iiKLiii',KT  Wkllixotox  Brow.nlow,  the  third  earl, 
born  .\ug.  111.  1844.  succeeded  his  brother  in  1867.  He  was 
mcnilier  of  Parliament  for  North  Shropshire  1866-67. 

Brown-Sf^jnard.   lirownse-kaar',   C.  Kdouard,  IM.  D. ; 

physiologist  and  neurologist ;  b.  in  the  island  of  Mauritius 
in  1818.  llewasthe  son  of  Kdward  Bmwn.  a  Philadelphian, 
and  a  French  ladynir  Sequard.  He  studied  in  Paris,  where 
he  graduated  as  .M.  D.  in  1840.  He  gained  distinction  by 
experiments  on  blood,  animal  heal,  and  the  spinal  cord. 
These  highly  important  researches  are  believed  to  have 
thrown  as  much  light  as  those  of  any  other  observer  upon 
the  physiology  and  diseases  of  the  nervous  system.  In  1869 
he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  School  of  Jledicine  in 
Paris.  His  researches  have  done  much  to  elucidate  the  re- 
lations of  the  sensor  to  the  motor  nerves  and  the  gray  mat- 
ter of  the  brain.  He  was  a  lecturer  in  Harvard  Univer- 
sity 1864-68;  a  practitioner  in  New  York  187:^-78;  the 
founder  of  several  medical  journals  in  Paris  :  Professor,  from 


804 


BROWXSON 


BRUCE 


1878,  of  Experimental  Medicine  in  the  College  de  France. 
Late  in  life  he  announced  the  discovery  of  an  elixir  vitcr 
prepared  from  the  genitals  of  sheep  for  inoculation.  Vint  to 
the  detriment  of  his  reputiition.  He  resided  cliiefly  in  Paris. 
His  principal  works  are  Ph)/xiohjgi/  and  Patliohigy  of  the 
J^'ervous  System  (1860):  I'aral  ijsis  of  the  Loiver  Extremities 
(1860);  Lectures  on  A'errou.t  AJfec'tious  (1873);  articles  in 
medical  journals.     D.  in  Paris.  Apr.  1,  1894. 

Brownson,  Xatihx  ;  a  physician  and  statesman  of 
Georgia:  i:ni<luatcii  at  Yale  in  1761;  member  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress  (1 77.5) ;  surgeon  of  the  ReTolutionarv  army ; 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  (1776  and  1778);  Gov- 
ernor of  Georgia  in  1781.     D.  in  Liberty  co.,  Ga..  in  1796. 

Brownsoii.  Orestes  Auoustus.  LL.D.  :  journalist  and 
theologian;  b.  in  Stockbridge.  Vt..  Sept.  16.  1803.  He 
founded  in  1838  The  Boston  Quarterly  Review,  known  later 
as  Brownson's  Quarterly  Review  (Xew  York),  and  nearly  all 
written  by  him;  discontinued  in  1873:  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  Democratic  Review.  He  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1844,  having  previously  been  a  Presbyterian, 
Universalist,  and  riiitarian.  He  published  a  novel,  Charles 
Elwood,  or  the  Iiifiilel  Converted  (Boston,  1840),  and  other 
works.  T).  in  Detroit.  Jlich.,  Apr.  17,  1876.  See  his  Works 
(New  York.  1883-85.  10  vols.). 

Bronirs  Talle.v :  village :  Traverse  co..  Minn,  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see'map  of  Minnesota,  ref.  8-A) ;  is  terminus 
of  Brown"s  Valley  branch  of  Great  Xorthern  R.  R. :  has  four 
churches,  a  good  school,  a  grain  elevator,  and  a  flouring- 
mill.  Its  water-supply  is  mostly  derived  from  an  artesian 
well.  It  is  situated  in  a  fine  agricultural  district  Ijetween 
the  sources  of  Big  Stone  and  Traverse  I-akes,  which  form 
the  boundary  between  Jlinnesota  and  South  Dakota  tor 
over  70  miles.     Poi).  (1880)  64:  (1890)  498. 

Editor  of  "  Ixterlake  Tribl'xe." 

Brownsville:  Lonoke  co..  Ark.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Arkansjis,  ref.  3-D);  27  miles  E.  of  Little  Rock. 
Here  an  engagement  took  place.  .\ug.  25.  1863.  between  a 
division  of  U.  S.  cavalry  and  the  Confederates,  who  were 
(piickly  driven  from  the  town. 

BrowiisviHe :  borough:  Fayette  co..  Pa.:  on  railroad 
and  the  Moiiongahela  river:  35  miles  S.  of  Pittsburg  (for 
location  of  ccjunty,  see  nuip  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  (>-B) ;  has 
large  glass-factories,  coal  mines,  iron-foundries,  machine- 
shop.s,  planing-mills,  etc.     Pop.  (1880)  1.489:  (1890),  1.417. 

Editor  of  "  Cupper." 

Brownsville :  city ;  capital  of  Haywood  co..  Tenn.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  7-B).  The  city 
is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  cotton-growing  district,  and  its 
principal  industries  are  connected  with  the  shipping  and 
manufacture  of  cotton.     Pop.  (1890)  2,516. 

Brownsville:  a  river-port  and  city;  on  railroad:  capi- 
tal of  Cameron  co..  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Texas,  ref.  S-H);  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  ojipo- 
site  Matamoras.  Mexico.  It  has  steam-navigation  on  the 
Rio  Grande  and  an  extensive  trade  with  Mexico.  Here  are 
a  custom-house,  6  churches.  9  si-hools,  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
college.  Brownsville  was  taken  from  the  Confederates  bv 
Gen.  Banks  in  Xov.,  1863,  Poii.  (1880)  4.938:  (1890)  6,134.  " 
Editor  of  "  Cosmopolitan." 

Brown  University;  an  institution  of  learning  founded 
in  17()4  at  Warren.  R.  I.,  and  removed  to  Providence,  its 
present  seat,  in  1770.  Its  first  name  was  Rhode  Island  Col- 
lege, but  in  1804  it  received  its  present  name,  in  honor  of 
Xicholas  Brown,  one  of  its  chief  benefactors.  Its  presidents 
have  been  James  Manning.  1765-90;  Jonathan  Maxev.  1792- 
1802;  Asa  Messer,  1802-27:  Francis  Wavland,  1827-.55 ; 
Barnes  Sears.  185.5-67;  Alexis  Caswell,  1868-72:  Ezekiel  G. 
Robinson,  1872-89 ;  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  1889-.  The 
corporation  consists  of  12  fellows  and  36  trustees,  of  whom 
a  slight  majority,  including  the  president,  nnist  be  Bajitists. 
while  the  rest  can  not  lie,  except  that  the  4  fellows  not  re- 
quired to  lie  Baptists  may  be  members  of  any  denomination, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  these  places  have  never  been 
filled  by  Baptists.  The  administration  is  most  lilieral  and 
catholic.  The  statistics  for  1892-03  show  62  nu-mbers  of 
the  faculty  and  540  students,  of  whom  88  are  graduate  stu- 
dents. The  library  has  80.000  volumes.  The  13  university 
buildings  are  all  sid)stantial  and  in  good  order,  and  several 
of  them  new  and  of  superior  architecture.  The  gymnasium 
is  exceptionally  beautiful  and  well  eijnipped.  The  observa- 
tory contains  one  of  the  tinest  telescopes  in  America.  The 
university's  invested   funds  amount   to  about   :?  1 ,300.000. 


The  buildings  and  grounds  have  an  assessed  valuation  of 
half  a  million  more.  Courses  of  study  are  provided  for 
the  degrees  of  A.  B.,  B.  P.,  B.  S..  C.  E..  and  M.  E.  The  studies 
for  the  first  year  are  usually  prescribed,  the  rest  nearly  all 
elective.  Of  the  graduate  students  ten  are  candidates  for 
the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  Aliout  half  the  students  are  from 
Rhode  Island,  aljiiut  a  fourth  from  Jlassachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut. In  the  remainder  nearly  all  the  States  are  repre- 
sented, as  well  as  Canada.         Revised  by  E.  B.  Andrews. 

Brownwood :  city :  capital  of  Brown  co.,  Tex.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  3-G):  on  Gulf,  Col. 
and  Santa  Fe  and  Fort  Worth  and  Rio  Gr.  R.  Rs. :  370  miles 
from  (Talveston  and  140  miles  from  Austin :  has  6  churches, 
2  public  schools.  Daniel  Baker  College  (Presbyterian),  and 
Howard  Payne  College  (Baptist).  Its  principal  industrial 
establishments  are  a  cottonseed-oil  mill,  roller  ilouring-niills, 
ice-factory,  wire-fence,  iron-cornice,  and  saddle  and  harness 
manufactories,  and  coal  mines.  The  city  has  a  thriving 
tnide  in  wheat,  cotton,  hav,  pecans,  cattle,  and  hides.  Pop. 
(ISt^O)  725;  (1890)  2,176;  (1893)  estimated  with  suburbs, 
6.000.  Proprietor  of  ••  Banner." 

Brozik,  Vaczlav;  painter  of  historical  sulijects  and 
genre ;  b.  at  Tzcmoschna,  near  Pilsen,  Bohemia,  in  1852 ; 
pupil  of  Piloty  and  of  Munkacsy ;  second-class  medal.  Salon, 
1878 :  officer  Legion  of  Honor  1890.  His  best  work  is  the  77ie 
Imperial  Counselors  Mnrtinitz  and  Slawata  thrown  out  of 
the  windows  of  the  Chateau  uf  Hradschine  at  Prague  l)y 
Count  Thurn.  in  ifiitV,  which  is  dramatically  composed,  and 
fairly  good  in  color  and  drawing.  The  large  picture  of 
Columhus  before  Ferdinand  and  Isahella.  in  the  Metro]ioli- 
tan  Museum,  Xew  York,  is  much  inferior  to  it.  Studio  in 
Paris.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Bruce :  the  name  of  a  noble  family  of  Scotland  :  descend- 
ed from  Robert  de  Bruis  (or  de  Brus).  a  Xorman  knight 
who  followed  William  the  Conqueror  to  England  in  1066. 
He  derived  his  lineage  from  Bnisi.  a  Xorthman.a  son  of  the 
famous  Sigurd.  His  younger  son.  Ailam.  who  ac(iuired  a 
large  estate  in  Yorkshire,  left  a  son,  Robert,  who  received 
from  David  1.  of  Scotland  a  grant  of  the  lordship  of  Annan- 
dale,  held  by  the  tenure  of  military  sen-ice.  He  died  in 
1141.  and  left  a  son  Robert,  who  was  the  second  Lord  of 
Amiauilale.  This  second  lord  had  a  grandson.  Robert,  who 
was  the  fourth  Lord  of  Annandale.  He  married  Isabel,  a 
daughter  of  David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  younger  lirolherof 
King  William  the  Lion,  and  thus  laid  the  founihilion  for 
the  royal  house  of  Bruce.  lie  died  in  1245.  Robert  de 
Bruce,  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and  the  fifth  Lord  of  Anmm- 
dale.  was  born  in  1210.  When  the  Scottish  throne  be<'ame 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Queen  JIargaret  in  1290,  this  Roliert 
de  Bruce  and  Baliol  claimed  the  throne.  The  dispute  was 
referred  to  Edward  I.  of  England,  who  deciiled  in  favor  of 
Baliol.  Robert  died  in  1295,  leaving  a  son,  Roliert,  who  liy 
his  marriage  with  the  Countess  of  Carrick  obtained  the  title 
of  Karl  of  Carriek  (1271).  He  fought  in  the  English  army 
against  Baliol  at  the  battle  of  Dunliar.  D.  in  1304,  and  left 
a  son,  Robert,  who  became  King  of  Scotland. 

Briiee.  Alexander  Balmain.  D.  D.  :  theologian  :  b.  in  the 
piirish  of  Aberdalgie,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  Jan.  30,  1S31  ; 
studieii  in  Edinburgh:  was  settled  in  Cardros.s.  Dumburtim- 
shire,  in  1859;  was  translated  to  Broughty  Ferry,  Forfar- 
shire, in  1868:  anil  in  1875  was  made  Professor  of  Apolo- 
getics and  Xew  Testament  Exegesis  in  Free  Church  College 
of  Glasgow.  Has  published  the  Training  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  (Edinbursh.  1871 :  3d  ed.  1883);  tlie'llumiliation 
of  Christ  (1876:  2d  ed.  1881):  The  Chief  End  of  Revelation 
(London.  1881):  The  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ  (\Wi: 
3d  ed.  1887):  The  Galilean  Gospel  (E<Xm\mvg\\Am-i):  The 
Miraculous  Element  in  the  Gospels  (London,  1887);  The 
Kingdom  of  God  (Edinburgh.  1889);  Apologetics  (1802); 
and  some  minor  works.  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Bruce,  David:  See  David  II. 

Bruce.  Edward  :  King  of  Ireland :  younger  brother  of 
Roliert,  King  of  Scotland:  fought  for' Scottish  independ- 
ence: landing  in  Ireland  with  6.000  men  in  131.5.  wrested 
Ulster  froiu  the  Kn^ish.  and  was  crowned  King  of  Iridand 
1316:  defeated  and  sL-dii  in  battle  of  Dundalk,  Oct.  5,  1318. 

Bruce.  Sir  Frederick  William  AnoLPnrs:  a  British 
<liplomatist :  b.  in  Broondiall.  Fifeshire.  Scotland,  Apr.  14. 
1814:  brother  of  Lord  Elgin;  graduated  at  Oxford  1834. 
He  was  consul-general  in  Egypt  in  1849;  minister  to  China 
1861  :  and  in  1865  succeeded  Lord  Lyons  as  ambassador  at 
Washington.     D.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  19,  1867. 


bkuc'p: 


BUrCK-LAJOS 


805 


Briico,  George:  h.  in  Eilinl>ur<jh,  Scotland,  June 26. 1781  ; 
removod  in  17!I5  to  the  l'.  S.,  and  learned  to  be  n  jji-inler 
ill  ['liiladcl]>liia.  In  1H08  he  became  iniblislier  and  priiili  r 
of  the  Xevv  Voik  Ddily  Adrertixir;  in  1S06,  with  hislirotlier 
David,  ho  be^an  printing  books;  in  1S12  they  intiodntcd 
stereotyping  into  the  T.  S.,  and  soon  alter  established  an 
extensive  type  and  stereoty|io  I'oiiiulinj;  bnsiiiess.  George, 
with  his  iK'iihew  David,  invented  a  sneeessful  type-casting 
inacliine.     1).  in  New  York,  July  (i,  WUG. 

IJnice.  Sir  Georue  Baiki.ay:  b.  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in 
IWl.  lie  was  trained  lor  the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer 
as  a  i)iipil  of  Hobort  Steplienson,  on  whose  recoiiiiiiciiilalion 
he  obtained  ap])oiiitinents  on  the  Xewcastleaiid  Darlington, 
the  Northampton  and  I'elerboroiigh,  and  the  York,  New- 
castle and  ]5erwick  Kailways,  and  became  resident  enginci^r 
of  the  Royal  Border  liridge,  a  work  nearly  half  a  mile  long, 
carrying  the  last-named  railway  over  the  Tweed  at  Berwick. 
This  bridge  was  opened  by  the  (^ueeii  with  con^iilcndile 
stall'  in  ls.")0.  Shortly  aflerward  Mr.  Briu-e  went  lo  India, 
and  in  I8.j3  became  chief  engineer  of  the  Madras  Kailwav. 
He  laid  ont  and  constructed  the  original  line,  .500  miles 
long,  on  the  departmental  system,  i,  e,  dispensing  with  a 
contractor,  a  proceeding  which  was  reckoned  a  bold  ex- 
periment in  those  day.s.  He  became  consulting  engineer  to 
what  is  now  the  .South  FiKlian  Railway,  of  (iOI)  miles,  which 
was  carried  out  on  the  same  system  as  the  Jladras  line.  In 
addition,  he  wjis  engineer  also  to  some  Kast  I'russian  rail- 
ways, and  to  the  Government  of  New  Zealand  for  its  lines, 
as  well  as  to  those  constructed  in  Spain  and  the  Spanish- 
speaking  republics,  among  the  most  notable  being  the  Rio 
'I  into  and  the  East  Argentine  lines.  On  .June  6,  1887,  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
and  again  on  May29, 1888.  Shortly  afterward  he  received  the 
honor  of  knighthooci,  as  having  been  president  at  the  time 
of  the  jid>ilee  of  the  (jueeii.  Sir  (ieorge  has  been  moderator 
of  the  English  Riesbyterian  Synod.  W.M.  K.  11l"tto.\". 

Bnicp.  .Tames:  traveler;  b.  in  the  county  of  Stirling, 
Dec.  14.  17:iO.  He  wa.s  appointed  consul-general  at  Algiers 
in  ITfi-'i,  after  which  he  studied  several  Oriental  languages, 
and  explored  the  antiquities  of  Barb.ary.  In  1768  he  de- 
parteil  from  Cairo  on  a  journey  to  .\byssinia,  in  order  to 
discover  the  .source  of  the  Nile.  Passing  through  Syone. 
Cosseir.  and  .Tidda.  he  reached  Gondar  in  l-'el)..  1770.  lie 
discovered  the  source  of  the  Blue  Nile  in  November  of  tli.'d 
year,  and  remained  about  two  years  in  Abyssinia,  the  king 
of  which  treated  him  kindly.  lie  jiassed  through  great 
dangers  and  hardships  in  his  return,  and  arrived  in  Eng- 
land in  1774.  In  17!)0  he  published  Tnivt'/-'<  to  Diacnver  //if 
Si)iirreoftlie  A7/c(o  vols.).  His  vei'acity  wasat  first  doubted 
by  many,  but  his  statements  have  been  confirmed  by  Salt, 
Belzoni,  and  othei-s.  1).  at  Kiiiiiard,  Apr.  37,  1794.  See  A. 
JIurray.  Lifi'  of  Bruce. 

Itnu'P.  JIiciTAEi. :  Scottish  poet,  whose  productions  (mostly 
hymns)  are  characterized  by  singular  pathos  and  lieaiity  :  b. 
at  Kinneswood.  in  the  couiily  of  Kinross.  Mar.  27.  1746.  He 
dieil  of  consumption  .July  5.  1767.  In  1770  his  "  friend."' 
the  Rev.  .John  Logan  (1748-88),  published  what  purported 
to  be  his  literary  remains.  In  1781  this  same  Logan  ])ub- 
Ijshi'd  another  volume  of  poems,  which  he  called  his  own. 
The  best  of  these,  it  is  now  almost  absolutely  certain,  came 
from  t\w  pen  of  .Michael  Bruce.  A  baser  act  of  literary 
piracy  w;is  never  periiet rated.  See  Tin-  Warks  of  ^ficluiil 
lirnci',  edited   bv   Rev.   .\lexaiider  B.  (trosart,    ICdinburgh, 

is(;.">. 

Bruce,  Kohert:  an  heroic  King  of  Scotland  ;  b.  JIar.  21, 
1274;  son  of  Robert  de  Bruce,  Earl  of  Carrick.  In  1206,  as 
l"..irl  of  Carrick,  he  swore  fealty  to  Edward  I.  of  Englanil, 
l>ut  he  soon  joined  the  Scottish  leaders  who  were  fighting 
for  I  he  independence  of  Scotland.  Having  made  peace  with 
l-Mw.ird  I.,  he  became  in  12!)!)  one  of  the  four  regents  who 
ruled  the  kingdom.  In  loO.")  he  was  involved  in  a  quarrel 
with  the  Red  Comyn,  who  was  a  nephew  of  Baliol,  and  was 
a  claimant  of  the  throne.  Bruce  killed  Comyn.  and  then 
assembled  his  vassals,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone  in  the 
spring  of  1:^06.  His  small  army  was  soon  defeateil  by  the 
English,  and  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  island 
of  Rathlin.  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  where  he  remained  all 
winler.  Henewing  the  contest  in  the  spring,  he  defeated 
the  English  at  Loudon  Hill  in  May.  l:!07.  In  less  than  two 
years  h<>  made  himself  master  of  nearly  all  Scotland,  and  in 
UiO!)  he  drove  ba<'k  an  invading  army  of  I'^dward  II.  The 
latter  invadcMl  .Scotland  again  in  Kil4  with  an  army  of 
about  100.000  men.     Bruce,  who  hail  less  than  half  as  many. 


gained  a  complete  victory  at  Bannockburn,  June  24,  1314. 
In  l:il8  the  Scots  invaded  England,  and  after  several  other 
campaigns  the  war  was  siis]ieiided  in  l:i2:)  by  a  truce.  By  a 
treaty  of  peace  conchi<leil  at  Northampton  in  l:j28  the  Eng- 
lish king  recognized  the  independence  of  Scotland.  Bruce 
died  June  7,  l;J2!),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David. 

Bru'epil :  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  family  Riiinee(P.  One 
species  ot  this  genus,  a  native  of  Abyssinia," is  called  Jinicea 
anii-dij.sinterirn  because  its  leaves  have  astringent  [iroper- 
ties  of  great  value  in  diarrhu'a  and  dysentery.  In  .Sumatra 
and  China  another  species,  the  Brmed  aumatrana,  is  \iseti 
for  the  same  purpose  as  the  species  just  named,    U,  A,  H. 

Briico  Minos:  a  port  of  entry  of  the  Al-'oma  district. 
Ontario.  Cjiniida:  near  the  north  end  of  I^ake  Huron;  'Aii 
miles  below  Sault  Sti'.  JIarie  (see  map  of  Canada,  ref.  10-K). 
It  li.'is  proiluctive  copper  mines. and  exports  large  quantities 
of  fish.     Pop.  l.,500. 

Brncli.  broo/.li.  Max:  musician:  b.  in  Cologne,  on  the 
Kliine,  .liiii.  6, 18;i8;  early  showed  musical  talent,  in  which 
he  was  directed  by  his  mother.  By  the  time  he  was  fourteen 
years  old  he  had  already  written  nearly  seventy  composi- 
tions, among  them  being  a  symphony,  which  was  performed 
in  Cologne  in  18.52.  He  then  sluilied.  first  under  Ferdinand 
Ililler,  and  later  at  Leipzig.  In  1859  he  returned  to  his 
native  city,  and  began  his  professional  career.  Among  his 
early  compositions  is  his  JiibiUile,  Ami-n,  which  has  been 
sung  with  great  success  by  choral  societies.  His  first  grcjit 
work  was  the  opera  Lorelei),  comjiosed  to  the  text  which 
Geibel  wrote  for  Jlendelssohn.  This  was  produced  in  Mann- 
heim in  1863,  and  is  a  standard  work  in  the  German  oper- 
atic repertory.  In  18()4  he  produced  his  cantata  for  male 
voices,  Frillijof.  at  Aix-la-Cha|iellc.  In  1873  his  ojiera 
Jlennlonr.  based  on  Shakspeare's  Winfer'n  1'a/e,  was  pro- 
duced at  Berlin  and  Dresden.  Other  important  compositions 
are  Salfinii>s;  ^'ormun  E.rpe(lHion  :  lionxin  Sony  of  Tri- 
umph (a  ]>articularly  fine  work);  Fitir  F/len,  on  the  story 
of  the  siege  of  Lucknow;  Odi/xxev-s ;  Lay  of  the  Belt -^ 
Achilleiix  and  Armi/iiiis.  This  last  is  a  special  favorite  in 
the  L'^.  S..  having  been  sung  twice  at  the  Worcester  festivals, 
and  also  in  Philadelphia.  Bruch  also  composed  symphonies 
and  overlures,  and  a  few  violin  concertos,  but  is  better 
kiKiwn  by  his  vocal  music.  D.  E.  Hervey. 

Bruoli'sal :  a  town  of  Germany:  in  R.aden  ;  on  the  river 
Salzliach  ;  ami  on  the  railway  from  Heidelberg  to  Carls- 
riihe  ;  14  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  the  latter  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  6-D).  It  is  the  northwestern  terminus  of  a 
railway  which  extends  to  Friedrichshafen  on  Lake  Constance. 
It  has  an  old  castle  of  the  twelfth  century,  a  fine  palace,  a 
gymnasium,  and  a  paper-mill.  Pop.  (1885)  11,657;  (1890) 
li,!)02. 

Bni'cia.  or  Bniciiie:  .a  bitter  an<l  jioisoiKnis  vegetable 
alkaloid  found  in  S/ri/chnox  ini.r  roiiiieii.  It  is  character- 
ized by  giving  a  blood-red  color  witli  concentrated  nitric 
acid.  It  was  discovered  in  bark  incorrectly  supiio.sed  to  be 
that  of  Brucea  anfiiji/xtntirira.  whence  its  name.  Its  toxi- 
cological  eil'ccts  are  like  those  of  strychnia,  but  it  is  far  less 
active, 

Briicite:  the  native  magnesic  hydrate,  JlglUOj.  It  is 
found  in  serpentine  at  Iloboken.  N.  J.  The  finest  specimens 
occur  in  the  chrome  mines  of  Texas,  Pa. 

Briiok'e.  Ernst  \ViLnEl.M:  physiologist;  b.  at  Berlin, 
Germany.  .June  6.  1819;  became  in  1846  teacher  of  anatomy 
at  the  Berlin  Art  Academy  ;  in  1849  Professor  of  Physiology 
in  Vienna.  He  is  the  author  of  Ancitomische  Bexchreihuitg 
ih'K  Aiii/npfela  (1847);  Oniiiflzfiye  tier  J'hi/siolo(/ie  mid  Si/x- 
tematik  de'r  Sprachlniite  (1856;'2ded.  1876);  S'eiie  Milhode 
der  phonetixchen  Tninxcription  (1863) ;  Phyxiologie  der 
Fnrheti  fiir  die  Zii'ecke  der  A'u».ilt/e:U'erbe  (1866) ;  Die phi/si- 
olof/ischen  Gritndhigen  der  neuhorhdeutxclien  Vershunxt 
(1871);  and  Vorhiiii afen  Tiber  Physiologie  (1885).  D.  in 
Vienna.  Jan.  7,  1892. 

Bnickcr.  broo  kpr,  Joiiaxx  Jakor:  a  German  historian 
and  Protestant  minister;  b.  in  Augsburg.  Jan.  22.  1696; 
studied  at  Jena;  became  pastor  in  Augsbu^g  1744.  Among 
his  works  is  a  Crilirnl  Jfi.itori/  of  Fhiloxo/ihy  (in  Latin,  5 
vols..  Lei]izig.  1741-44).  which  has  a  high  reputation.  It 
contains  valuable  biogra|)hical  niati'rials,  but  is  deficient  in 
crilical  analysis.     D.  in  Augsburg,  Nov.  26,  1770. 

BriU'k-Lii,jos.  Loins:  genre-painter;  b.  at  Pajia,  Hun- 
gary. Nov.  3.  1S46:  pupil  of  the  Vienna  Academy  and  of 
Munkacsy ;    formerly   a   frequent   exhibitor   in   the   Paris 


806 


BRUCKNER 


BRUNEL 


Salons,  but  has  resided  of  late  years  in  London,  and  his  work 
is  more  often  seen  there.  Well  known  to  American  col- 
lectors. W.  A.  C. 

Bruckner,  brook  ncr,  Axton  :  musician  :  b.  at  Ausfclden, 
Austria.  Sept.  4.  18'24:  was  a  clioristcr  and  subsequently 
u'rjranist  of  tlie  Institute  of  St.  Florian :  in  1855  became  or- 
ganist of  Linz  cathedral;  continued  his  studies  under Sech- 
ter  and  Kitzler:  succeeded  Secliter  as  organist  of  the  Hof 
Kapelle,  Vienna,  at  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1867.  He  was 
a  famous  organist,  and  in  late  life  became  a  composer,  and 
produced  three  grand  masses,  seven  symplionies,  and  many 
other  works,  all  of  which  are  marked  by  profound  learning. 
His  romantic  svmphouv  in  E  flat  (No.  4)  was  performed  in 
New  York  by  the  Philharmonic  Society,  Mar.  16,  1888 ;  his 
symphony  in  D  minor  by  the  Symphony  Society  in  1885; 
and  his  symphony  in  E  major  (Xo.  7)  by  the  Philharmonic 
Society  in"  1886.     D.  Oct.  11,  1896.  D.  E.  Hkrvey. 

Briig'es,  broo'jfz  (Dutch  Brugge,  or  Bruggen,  i.  e. 
bridges,  Ij&t.  Bniga):  a  fortified  city  of  Belgium;  capital 
of  the  province  of  West  Flandei-s;  situated  on  a  fertile 
iilain  about  8  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  64  miles  liv  rail 
N.  \V.  of  Brussels:  lat.  51=  Vi  X.,  Ion.  3'  14'  E.  (see  niap  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  ret.  9-B).  The  railway  from  (-)stend 
to  Brussels  passes  tlirough  Bruges,  which  is  connected  with 
the  ocean  by  several  canals.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
numerous  bridges  (about  fifty-four)  which  here  cross  the 
canals.  It  contains  many  fine  Gothic  edifices,  some  of  which 
were  built  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  are  richly  adorned 
with  works  of  art.  Among  these  are  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame,  which  has  a  spire  450  feet  high,  and  contains  a  splen- 
did monument  of  Charles  the  Bold;  the  town-hall,  with  a 
lofty  tower  and  a  celebrated  chime  of  forty-eight  bells;  and 
the  Cathedral  of  St.-Sauveur,  furnished  with  paintings  of 
eminent  artists.  Memling"s  Shrine  of  St.  Urmila  and  his 
other  works  at  Bruges  are  of  great  importance  in  the  history 
of  median-al  ]iainting.  Bruges  has  an  academy  of  |iainting, 
a  pul)lic  library,  a  nuiseum,  an  episcopal  college,  a  iKisjiital, 
a  school  of  surgery,  and  an  institution  for  the  blind.  Here 
are  maiuifactures  of  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  fabrics,  lace, 
leather,  cordage,  tobacco,  and  soap.  Several  thousand 
women  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  lace  of  fine 
(juality.  Bruges  was  an  imjiortant  commercial  town  before 
the  Norman  conquest  (1066).  after  which  it  continued  to  in- 
crease in  riches  and  population.  In  the  tliirteeiith  century 
it  was  the  great  central  mart  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  Its 
manufactures  were  also  very  extensive.  The  tapestry  and 
cloths  of  Bruges  were  celebrated  for  their  excellence. "  The 
population  once  exceeded  200.000.  Its  prosperity  was  in- 
jured l>v  a  popular  revolt  in  1488,  and  bv  persecutions  and 
vexatiolis  under  Philip  11.  of  Spain.     Pop.  (1891)  47.331. 

Itni^niann.  brooA-h  maan,  Friedrich  Karl  ;  philologist ; 
b.  at  Wiesbaden.  Germany.  JIar.  16.  1849;  studied  at  Halle 
and  Leipzig  1867-71 ;  taught  in  the  gymnasium  at  Wies- 
baden 1872-73,  at  Leipzig  1873-77.  In  1877  he  became  a 
lirivat-docent  in  the  University  of  Leipzig;  in  1882  assistant 
professor;  in  1884  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  Com- 
parative Philology  at  Freiburg;  in  1887,  after  the  death  of 
Georg  Curtius,  was  called  as  his  successor  to  Leipzig.  Brug- 
mann  is  distinguished  not  only  for  his  scientific  attainments, 
but  for  his  skill  as  a  teacher,  and  liis  clearness  and  force  as 
.■1  lecturer  and  writer.  His  investigations  in  the  field  of 
Indo-European  vocalism  have  done  much  to  bring  about  the 
great  changes  of  theory  and  method  wliich  characterize  the 
history  of  the  science  in  the  last  fifteen  years.  Especially 
rich  in  its  results  was  his  article  on  Xasulis  soiinns.  pub- 
lished in  vol.  ix.  of  Curliaa's  Studieti.  of  which  Brugmaiui 
was  at  the  time  joint-editor.  Though  the  position  taken  in 
this  article  was  so  radical  as  to  call  forth  a  disclaimer  and 
reliuke  (see  note  at  I'ud  of  Stii(lieit,i\.)  from  his  cu-editor. 
Prof.  Curtius.  and  led  ultimately  to  a  iiersonal  rupture  be- 
tween the  two  men.  it  proved  itself  to  be  nothing  less  than  a 
turning-point  in  the  historv  of  tlie  science.  Its  essential  re- 
sults are  to-day  universally  accepted.  The  association  of 
Brugmann  with  Hermaiui  Osthoff  in  the  publication  of  the 
M(ir/j/iii/ogi«c/ie  Unli-rniichungen  (vols,  i.-iv.,  1878-81,  vol.  v., 
1890)  was  especially  significant,  tliese  writings  characterizing 
the  ijeriod  of  transition.  The  chief  work  of  Brugmann  is 
that  in  which  he  brings  logetlii-r  and  classifies  with  a  mas- 
terly control  of  the  dillieult  material  involved  the.  whole 
body  of  results  in  the  field  of  Indo-lMimpean  grannnar  from 
the  .sides  of  .phonology  and  infUvlion,  Orinnlrixa  iter  ver- 
gleichenden  Ciramrmitik  tier  infliigermiitii.ir/ii-H  Sprurhen  (3 
parts    appeared.    1886-90;    English    translation).     Among 


his  other  works  are :  Ein  Problem  der  homerischen  Text- 
kriti'k  (1876);  LHaui.iche  Volkslieder  mid  M(in-/ie/t,  with  A. 
Leskien  (1882) ;  (jrierhiitche  (irarniimtik.  uwiA.u.of  MiiUer's 
Handbuch  der  Albertinus  M'isseitschafi  ^2A  ed.  1890);  Zum 
heutigen  Stand  der  Sprachwissenschaft  (1885).  He  is  also,  in 
company  with  W.  Streitberg,  editor  of  the  Indogermanische 
Forschungen.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Brii^sch,  brooAh.sh,  IlEiNRirn  Karl;  Egypt  olosist ;  b. 
at  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1827 ;  studied  at  Berlin ;  'made  his  first 
scientific  journey  to  Egypt  in  1853 ;  became  privat-docent 
in  Egyptology  in  Berliii  1854:  accompanied  the  Prussian 
embassy  into  Persia  1860:  returned  1861 ;  he  was  appointed 
Prussian  consul  to  Cairo  in  1864  ;  in  1868  the  khedive  made 
him  director  of  the  museum  of  Boulak ;  became  Profes.sor  of 
Egyptology  at  Giittingen  1869.  In  1885  and  1886  he  was 
again  in  Persia  for  a  stay,  but  from  1886  he  lived  in  Berlin, 
where  he  lectured  in  the"  university.  In  1891  lie  took  3,000 
papyrus  rolls  with  him  from  Egyp"t.  Among  his  numerous 
writings,  all  of  which  are  of  the  first  rank,  may  be  men- 
tioned; liritinmairr  deinutiqne  (Berlin,  18.55);  llieroglyph- 
isch-demotixche  WOrterbuch  (Leipzig,  1867-82,  7  vols.) ;  Oe- 
schichte  ^yypteiis  iinter  den  Fharaonen  (1877;  Eng.  trans. 
History  of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.  1879 ;  2d  cd.  by  Mary 
Brodrick.  1891) ;  Religion  iind  Jlytholoyie  der alten  yEgypter 
(1884);  Thesaurus  inscriptionum  wgyptirarani  (1883-91,6 
parts);  S/eininschrift  u.  Bibehrort  (Berlin,  1st  and  2d  ed. 
1891).     D.  in  Berlin,"  Sept.  10,  1894. 

Briihl.  Hei.nrich,  Count  von ;  German  statesman ;  b. 
in  Weissenfels,  Aug.  13,  1700;  prime  minister  to  Augustus 
III.  of  Saxony  ami  Poland  1746;  impoverishi'd  the  country 
in  slavishly  supplying  his  master's  and  his  own  extrava- 
gance ;  gained  wealth  and  titles.  The  Koyal  Library  in 
Dresden  contains  his  collection  of  62.000  volumes.  D.  in 
Dresden,  Oct.  28.  1763. 

Brule  Indians:  See  Sioia.n  Indians. 

Brumaire.  brli  miir  :  second  month  in  the  calendar  of  the 
F'rench  republic :  derived  from  brume,  a  mist,  a  fog.  Lat. 
bruma,  winter.  It  comprised  the  tijne  from  Oct.  23  to  Nov. 
21.    See  Calendar. 

Brnni'niell.  Georoe  Bryan:  "Beau  Brummell."  a  fa- 
mous fop:  1).  in  L<inilon.  .lune  7,  1778;  schooled  at  Eton 
and  for  a  while  at  Oxford.  He  had  elegant  taste  in  dress, 
became  intimate  with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  lived  in  sump- 
tuous style,  and  associated  with  the  nobility  on  equal  terms  ; 
was  recognized  as  an  oracle  in  questions  of  etiijuette  and 
dress;  squandered  a  fortune;  went  into  exile  in  1815:  and 
died  at  Caen  in  a  pauper  lunatic  asvlum.  JIar.  29,  1840. 
See^his  Life  by  Jesse  (new  ed.  1886). 

Brunck.  Richard  Francois  Philippe;  classical  scholar; 
b.  at  Strassburg,  Alsace.  Dec.  30.  1729.  He  was  liberally 
educated  in  Paris,  and  lieeame  an  ingenious  critic  and  bold 
emendator  of  the  classics.  He  edited  Anacreon.  Aristoph- 
anes, Sophocles,  and  Terence,  and  published  Analecta  Vete- 
rum  Poetarum  Gnerorum  (1772-76).  In  the  French  Revo- 
lution he  warmly  supporteil  the  popular  cause.  1).  June  12, 
1803. 

Brundisinni:  See  Bhixdisi. 

Brunehaut.  brim  ho.  or  Brnnehilde.  briin  hwld  :  a 
famous  queen  ;  daughter  of  Athanagildus.  King  of  the  Visi- 
goths. She  was  married  in  568  a.  d.  to  Sigebert,  King  of 
Austrasia,  She  was  beautiful,  ambitious,  and  high-spirited. 
Her  husbaiKl  was  assassinated  in  575  by  the  order  of  Fre- 
degonda.  Queen  of  Neustria.  She  afterward  governed  the 
kingdom  with  ability,  and  obtained  an  ascendency  over  her 
son  Childeliert,  who  was  the  nominal  king.  Having  Ijceu 
defeated  in  battle  and  captured  by  Clotaire  II.,  she  was 
murdered  in  613  a.  d. 

Brunei,  or  Borneo :  a  seajiort-town  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Borneo:  capital  of  the  sultanate  of  Brunei  (see  map 
of  East  Indies,  ref.  5-F).  a  territory  of  3.000  sq.  miles  and 
50.000  inhabitants  which  came  under  British  jirotection  in 
1888.  The  houses  are  built  on  posts,  and  I'anals  ]jass  through 
all  the  streets.     Pop.  about  2.5,000. 

Brunei',  Isa.mbard  KixcinoM,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S. :  engi- 
neer; b.  in  Portsmouth,  England.  Apr.  9.  1806.  He  was 
(Muployed  un<ier  his  father  as  assistant  engineer  of  the 
Tliames  tuiniel.  in  tlie  construction  of  which  he  displayed 
great  energy  and  at)ility.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  of  the  Great  Western  Railway.  He  was  the  de- 
signer and  engineer  of  the  Great  Western  steamship  and  of 
the  Great  Eastern,  .^aid   to  be  the  largest  vessel  ever  built. 


I'.Rl'XEL 


BKUXSWICK 


807 


iind  of  the  Roval  Albert  briiljje,  SHltash.    (See  Briuok.)    D. 
Sept.  14.  185!)."    See  Life  (1870)  by  his  son. 

Uriiiicl.  Sir  Makk  Is.\mi>.\ri).  K.  H.  S.  :  engineer;  b. 
iiiiir  luiiun,  in  Fninee,  A|>r.  2."),  1709;  father  of  the  pre- 
<  idinti-  l>rivcn  from  Krancc  by  the  Keign  of  Terror,  he 
iirnoved  to  New  Vork  in  lT!i:i,  and  designed  the  Howery 
theater  of  that  city.  In  17!l!)  lie  went  to  Kngland.and  nisu- 
ried  a  Miss  Kingdom.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  me- 
chaniea!  ingennity,  and  invented  a  niaehini'  for  making 
lilock  pnlleys,  for  whicli  the  tiovernment  gave  him  !f;S5.000, 
jind  other  iiseful  maeliines.  His  most  important  work  is 
the  'I'liames  Innnel.  whicli  »as  eommeneed  in  WiT>  and 
..pelied  in  lH4:i.  D.  Dee.  12,  184!).  See  K.  Beamish,  Lifnof 
M.  I.  liniiitl. 

Brunelleschi.  broo-nel-les'ke'e,  Pilippo:  anhiteet  and 
siiilptor;  b.  in  Florence  in  1:577.  He  promoted  the  restora- 
tion of  the  ancient  style  of  architecture  as  a  substitute  for 
the  Gothic,  which  in  his  youth  prevailed  in  Italy.  The  first 
church  built  in  Kurope  in  the  revived  (dassical  styli'  was  the 
Chun'h  of  San  Loivn/o  in  Florence,  designed  by  him.  About 
141S  he  was  appointed  archili'ct  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence 
(Santa  Maria  di'l  Fiore),  which  had  been  commenced  about 
1  •>!!(;,  and  was  unfinished.  He  raised  over  it  a  grand  and 
beautiful  dome,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 
.\mong  his  other  works  is  the  Pitti  I'alace  of  Florence.  D. 
in  Florence,  Apr.  10,  1446.  See  Baldinucci,  Vita  eli  F.  di 
S,r  liniiifllescu  (1812). 

Briiiu't.  brunav',  Jacques  Charlks  :  bibliographer;  b. 
in  Paris,  Nov.  2.  1780;  d.  there.  Nov.  14,  18G7.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  bix)kseller,  and  was  brought  up  among  books.  He 
]ire]iared  numerous  catalogues,  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  science  of  bibliography.  His  great  work  was  the  Manual 
lilt  Lllirttiie  ft  (if  I'AiiKitiur  de  Lirres  (first  jiublished  in 
ISIO;  .-)lli  ed..  Paris.  1800-6."),  0  vols.,  ;i  supplements,  1870-80). 

BruiU'tierc,  bri'i  ne  li-ar  ,  Fkhdinand:  French  critic;  b. 
in  Toulon,  July  HI,  18411;  became  in  1880  Lecturer  on  the 
French  Ijanyuage  and  Literature  in  the  Kctile  Normale  Su- 
jierieure  at  Paris,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  June  8, 
18!Ki.  As  a  coiilributor  to  the  Heme  de.s  Deux  A/omles  he 
has  distinguished  himself  for  his  defense  of  the  classic  French 
trailiiion  in  literature,  and  for  his  sharp  criticism  of  realism, 
n.-itu la lism, determinism,  and  similar  lit erary_and  ethical  doc- 
trines in  great  vogue.  Among  his  works  are  Etudes  critiques 
siir  riiislnire  de  la  litterature  franrnise  (J-!  series,  1880-82- 
87) ;  Ije  Roman  naturatlste  (1883) ;  Ilistnire  et  Litterature 
(1884-86) :  V Eeolutian  des  Oenres  dans  I'LIistoire  de  la  Lit- 
terature (vol.  i.,  18110).  A.  R.  Marsh, 

Itniiihiltlil.  or  Itriiiiehilil  of  Norse  mythology:  See 
Brvmiu.d. 

Urillli  :  Sec  .\ni.TiNi's, 

llruiilecs.  Sir  Jamks,  F,  R,  S, :  jiast  president  of  the  In- 
stitution of  Civil  Kiigineers;  I),  at  Kelso,  Roxburghshire,  Scot- 
land, ill  1810  ;  educated  tlierc  and  al  tlie  University  of  Fdiii- 
burgli.  He  prai'ticed  as  a  surveyor,  and  in  18:i8  became  as- 
sistant cnginceron  the  Mollon  and  Preston  Railway, one  of  the 
first  lines  eonstrueted  in  Kngland.  From  1844  to  ISoO  he  car- 
ried out  the  extensive  works  of  t  he  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire 
Railway  system,  with  Sir  .John  Ilawksliaw  as  chief  engineer. 
In  18.^0  he  constructed  the  Lniiilondcrry  and  Coleraine  Rail- 
way, ill  1802  undertook  the  dillicult  I'lverston  and  Lancaster 
Railway  across  Morccainbc  Hay;  was  engaged  in  <ilher  en- 
gineering W'ork  in  Kngland  and  abroad,  and  as  arbitrator  in 
the  settlement  of  disputed  contracts.  Among  his  works  are 
the  Solway  Junction  Railway,  Clifton  Extension  Railway, 
Mersey  Tunnel  Railway,  the  .\vonmouth,  Kiiig"s  Lynn,  and 
Whitehaven  docks.  He  was  associated  with  Sir  John  llawk- 
shaw  as  engineer  of  the  proposed  Channel  tunnel.  He  con- 
structed in  Brazil  llie  Sao  Panlo.the  Minasancl  Rio.aiidthe 
Porto  Alegre  railways,  and  received  the  deccnation  of  the 
Brazilian  order  of  the  Rose.  lie  al.so  built  the  Central  Uru- 
guay and  the  Bolivar  railways.  Me  was  knighted  by  the 
(^ueen  at  Windsor  in  1886.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  \Kt.i.  and  its  president  in 
188;!.  He  wrote  ii|)on  piles,  railways,  sea  embankments, 
land  reclamation,  iron  viaducts,  etc.     D.  June  2,  18!I2. 

Wm.-R.  IIlTTON. 

Itriinii  (.Slavic  Brno,  the  ford) :  a  fortified  city  of  .Austria ; 
the  capital  of  Moravia:  beautifully  situated  at  the  coiiHii- 
enci'  iif  the  Schwarza  ami  the  /.willawa;  !t4  miles  by  rail 
N,  N.  E.  of  Vienna,  and  bV.I  miles  bv  rail  S.  E.  of  Prague; 
lat.  4!)  11  •AW  N.,  Ion.  16  ;56'  3!)"  E'.  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  4-F).     Here  is  the  ca.stle  of  Siiielberg,  used  as 


a  state  prison.  Among  the  remarkable  public  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  the  Gothic  Church  of  St.  James,  the  Land/iaus, 
formerly  a  rich  Augustine  convent,  several  palaces  of  the 
nobility,  and  a  theater.  Briiiin  also  contains  a  museum,  a 
public  library,  and  a  botanic  garden.  It  has  iin|iortant  man- 
ufactures of  w<K)lcu,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  ribbons,  glass, 
soap,  and  tobacco.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  highest  civil  and 
military  authorities  of  Jloravia  and  .\ustrian  Silesia,  and  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  bislio]i.  Its  manufaclures  of  woolens  are 
said  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  the  Austrian  empire.  Over 
lo.OOO  ]iersoiis  are  employed  in  the  factories.  Napoleon  ii.sed 
Briinii  as  his  headquarters  before  the  battle  of  Austerlitz. 
Pop.  ( 1  mO)  82,600 ;  ( 1 8!)  1 )  9.5,342. 

Brnnii,  Hkinrich,  von  :  arehn'ologist ;  b.  in  Worlitz,  Jan. 
23,  1822;  pii])il  of  Welcker  and  Ritschl;  Professor  of  A rch- 
a'ology  in  the  University  of  Jlunich:  author,  among  other 
works,  of  (Jesrhichfe  der  grieeh.  A'unstter  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
18.53-,59 ;  2d  ed.  1888-89).     D.  July  23,  1894. 

Brii'lio  (in  Lat.  £r»H«.s),  Giordano  ;  philcsopher ;  b.  at 
Nola,  in  the  kingdom  of  Najiles,  in  l.')4.8.  and  entered  the 
Dominican  onler  in  l.~)(i3.  lie  was  a  man  of  independent 
and  speculative  spirit,  and  rejected  the  ortlmdox  doctrines 
of  the  Church.  On  account  of  his  opinions  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  his  monastery  in  1570.  and  afterward  led  a  wander- 
ing life.  He  fled  first  to  Geneva ;  a  few  years  after  he  re- 
moved to  Paris;  pas.sed  some  time  in  England.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Spaccio  delta  liestia  triaiifante  (1.584);  Delta 
Causa  I'riiiripiii  e  L'n»:  Del  luliiiito  L'niverso  e  J/ondi. 
About  1.592  he  returned  to  Italy  and  became  a  resident  of 
Venice.  Having  been  accused  of  heresy,  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Rome  for  seven  years,  and  was  burned  there  as  a  heretic 
Feb.  17.  loot).  OnJune  9,  1889,  a  monument  to  him  was 
unveiled  on  the  same  spot  where  he  died.  He  was  an  advo- 
cate of  the  Coperniean  sysli'in  on  speculative  and  not  scien- 
tific grounds.  He  declared  the  universe  to  be  everlasting, 
complete,  and  to  beliod.  Nature  is  the  self-evolution  of  (Sod. 
Fr.  11.  Jacobi  and  Schelliiig  first  called  the  attention  of  the 
modern  world  to  his  views.  His  lt;iliaii  works  were  edited 
bv  P.  Lagarde  (Gottingen,  1888,2  vols.)  and  his  Latin  works 
by  'Pocco  (FlorcMice,  1889,  1891).  His  Delia  ( 'ausa  Princijjiu 
e  Una  was  translated  into  (Jerman  in  J.  II.  Kirchniann's 
P/ritosiiptiisclie  Biblidthek  (Leipzig,  part  184,  1873),  and  his 
lieformatiun  des  Ilimntels  (1889). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jaiksox. 

Bruno.  Saint;  founder  of  the  Carthusians  ;  b.  in  Cologne 
about  10:iO.  His  parents  were  prominent  jiersons.  and  his 
education  was  the  best  the  times  alTorded.  In  10.57  he  be- 
came master  of  the  cathedral  school  in  Rlieims.  In  1082  he 
retired  from  the  world,  and  with  a  few  friends  began  to  live 
in  solitude  at  Saisse-Fontaines  ;  in  1084  he  withdrew  to  La 
Grande  Chartreuse,  and  foundeil  there  the  order  of  Carthu- 
sians, who  adojited  I  he  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  The  monastery 
of  La  Grande  Cliart  reuse  was  afterward  built  at  the  same 
place.  In  1090  he  obeyed  the  pa|)al  summons  and  went  to 
Rome  as  ]iapal  adviser,  but  finding  cniirt  life  disla.stetiil  he 
sought  and  oblained  means  to  build  ;inotlier  monastery  at 
Delia  Torre  (1094):  siibseipieiitly  another  was  built  (11)97). 
I),  at  Delia  Torre.  Italy.  Oct.  6."llOI.  He  was  canonized 
1028.  (See  Carthi-sia.n's.)  Sec  his  Life  by  D.  Jl.  Tappert 
(Luxemburg.  1.^72). 

Bruno  llic  (Jrent ;  .Vrchbishop  of  Cologne;  b.  925;  a 
youiigei'  lirntlii'r  of  the  Emperor  Otho  I.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  talents,  virtue,  and  learning,  and  had  a  powerful  in- 
fluence in  the  Church  and  state.  He  became  lord  high  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire  940  ;  .\rclibishop  of  Cologne  953.  I),  in 
Rheinis,  Oct.  11.  905. 

Brims.  Pavi,  Victor,  von  :  b.  in  Brunswick,  .Vug.  9. 1812  ; 
slurlii'd  at  Brunswick.  Tiiliingen,  ami  Berlin.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  surgical  treatises  and  handbooks,  and  made 
a  special  study  of  ilisea.ses  of  the  larynx,  for  the  treatment 
of  which  he  invented  a  new  and  effective  throat-mirror.  He 
was  one  of  the  highest  surgical  authorilies  in  Germany.  His 
work  on  laryngoseopic  surgery  gained  for  him  the  grand 
iirizc  of  20.000  marks,  olferi'd  b'v  the  Academv  of  'I'lirin.  I), 
in  Tiibingen,  Mar.  19.  1883. 

Brunswick:  a  duchy  of  the  German  empire;  consists 
of  three  larger  parts  and  several  enclaves.  .\i<'a.  1.424  sq. 
miles.  The  larger  part,  containing  the  capital,  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  Prussia.  The  chief  mountain-range  is  a  part 
of  the  Hartz  Niountains  in  lheS.,tlie  highest  point  of  which 
in  the  duchv  is  the  Worinber"  .'$,245  feet  high.  It  is  trav- 
ersed bv  the  Ocker  in  the   N.,  and  the  Leine,  Alter,  and 


808 


BRUNSWICK 


BRUSH 


Bode.  Tlie  chief  jji-oducts  are  grain,  flax,  and  liops.  Amdng 
the  mineral  products  are  silver,  lead,  iron,  cojipcr.  cual.  ala- 
baster, alum,  salt.  etc.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of 
linen,  wooden  wares,  glass,  sugar,  tobacco,  ]mpcr,  cloths,  etc., 
also  large  beer-breweries.  It  has  5  gymnasia,  1  polytechnic 
school,  a  theological  seminary,  2  normal,  and  numerous 
other  schools.  Thegovennucnt  isa  constitutional  monarchy, 
and  the  supreme  ]iower  is  vcsti-il  in  a  duke  and  a  legisl,ilivc 
body  of  46  members.  The  receipts  and  expenses  for  181)1 -92 
were  each  estimated  at  12.4()().()(l()  uuirlis.  The  public  debt 
in  1891  amounted  to  28.H71,r)HS  marks.  Brunswick  is  repre- 
sented by  2  memtiers  in  the  liiuidesrath  of  the  emi)irc,  and 
3  deputies  in  the  imperial  Reichstag.  Its  contingent  to  the 
German  armv  forms  part  of  the  Tenth  Army-corps.  Pop. 
in  1890,  403.029. 

Histonj. — Bnniswick  formed  originally  a  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Saxony,  and  was  given  in  1194  to  Henry  the  Lion.  His 
grandson  Otto  Ijecamc  first  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  123.5. 
After  having  been  divided  and  reunited  Vjy  the  descendants 
of  Otto,  they  were  again  united  under  Ernest  the  Confessor 
(il.  I.i46).  ilis  two  sous,  Henry  and  William,  again  divideil 
the  countiT",  and  formed  tlie  two  branches  Brunswick-CJeis 
andBrunswick-Luneburg,the  latterof  which  reigned  as  elect- 
ors of  Hanover,  and  in  the  person  of  George  I.  suceeeiled  to 
the  British  throne.  Brunswick  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  but  in 
1813  it  again  became  an  independent  state  under  Frederick 
William,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Quatre  Bras  in  181.5. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  sou  Karl,  who  was  expelled  from 
the  country  in  1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  ^^'il- 
helm.  wlio  died  Oct.  18. 1884.  Brunswick  joined  the  German 
customs-union  in  1844.  assisted  Prussia  in  the  war  of  1806. 
joined  the  North  German  Confederation  in  the  same  year, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  German  em])ire  upon  its  re- 
vival in  1870.  Witli  the  death  of  Duke  Wilhelm  the  ducal 
line  of  Brunswick  became  extinct.  Duke  Charles  having 
died  in  Aug..  1873.  without  issue.  Prince  Albrecht.  I).  Jlay 
8. 1837, son  of  the  late  Prince  Albrecht  of  Prussia,  was  unan- 
imously elected  regent  of  the  duchy  l)y  the  Diet,  Oct.  21, 
1885  ;  accession  Nov.  2, 1885.  The  heir  to  Brunswick  is  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  excluded  owing  to  his  refusal  to  give 
up  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  Hanover. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Brunswick  (Germ.  Brimnschwi'ig ;  anc.  Brnnonis  Viciis) : 
a  city  of  Germany;  ca|iital  of  tlic  duchy  of  the  same  name: 
on  tlie  river  Oker;  and  in  a  level  district:  47  miles  bv  rail 
E.  S.  E.  of  Hanover:  lat.  52°  16'  11"  N.,  Ion.  10=  32'  09"  E. 
isee  map  of  Gernnm  Empire,  ref.  4-E).  The  old  fortifica- 
tions have  been  demolished  and  converted  into  pleasant 
])romenades.  It  contains  a  magnificent  ducal  palace,  an 
ancient  cathedral,  the  Clmrch  of  St.  Andrew  with  a  steeple 
316  feet  high,  a  mint,  an  opera-house,  a  town-hall,  and  a 
museum  which  contains  paintings  by  Albert  Dilrer,  Rem- 
brandt, Holbein,  and  other  great  masters.  Railways  extend 
from  this  town  to  Hanover.  JIagilebnrg.  and  other  places. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen  goods,  lacquered 
wares,  papier-mache,  tobacco,  hai'dware.  etc.  A  great  an- 
nual fair  is  held  here.  Among  its  institutions  are  a  col- 
lege, a  gymnasium,  a  Realsclude.  and  an  asylum  for  deaf- 
mutes.  This  is  a  very  old  town.  It  was  enlarg<>(l  and 
l)eautified  l)y  Henry  the  liion  in  the  twelfth  century.  It 
formerlv  belonged  to  the  Ilaiise  League.  Pop.  (1885)  85,174; 
(1890)  101,047. 

Brunswick:  city;  railroa<l  junction,  and  port  of  entry: 
capital  of  (ilyiui  co..  Ga.  (for  location  of  county,  see  ma[)  of 
Georgia,  ret.  7-K):  on  St.  Simon's  Sotmil  :  S  miles  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  80  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Savaun;di.  It  has 
a  first-class  system  of  |nd)lic  schools.  There  are  here  a  safe 
and  spacious  harbor,  a  large  manufacture  and  export  of 
yellow-pine  hnnber,  and  a  large  export  trade  in  cotton.  At 
the  south  end  of  St.  Simon's  island,  and  on  the  north  side 
of  the  entrance  to  the  sound,  is  St.  Simon's  lighthouse.  It 
is  of  brick,  ami  is  108  feet  high.  Pop.  (1880)  2,891  :  (1890) 
8,459.  Editor  OK  "Times." 

Brunswick:  town:  Cumberland  co.,  IMe.  (for  location  of 
county,  sec  map  of  .Maine,  ri'f.  10-B);  on  railroads  coinu'ct- 
ing  it  with  Portland,  Augusta,  and  Math;  on  Androscoggin 
river  at  head  of  navigation;  29  miles  X.  V..  of  Portland; 
connected  by  bridge  with  Tonsham.  Falls  in  the  river  fur- 
nish ample  water-power.  Tlie  town  is  the  seat  of  Bowdoin 
College  (y.  v.):  its  industries  are  flour,  cotton  and  paiier 
mills,  taniierv,  shipping,  etc.  Pop.  (1880)  5,384  ;  tl890) 
6,012. 


Brunswick :  town :  Chariton  co.,  Mo.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Jlissouri,  ref.  3-F);  on  Wabash  R.  R., 
and  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Missouri  river;  90  miles  E. 
by  N.  by  railroad  from  Kansas  City;  has  excellent  public 
school,  saw  and  planing  mill,  cigar-factorv ;  is  good  wheat 
and  corn  shipping-point.  Pop.  (1880)  1,801 ;  (1890)  1.748. 
Editor  of  •'  Brunswicker." 

Brunswick-Bevern.  At-iasT  Wilhelm.  Duke  of:  a 
Prussian  general;  b.  (.)ct.  15,  1715:  took  part  in  the  wars 
of  Frederick  the  Great  against  Austria,  lie  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  of  Lowasitz,  Reiclienberg,  Prague, 
and  Kollin.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Breslau 
in  1757.  and  was  released  iu  1758.  D.  Aug.  1. 1781.  He  was 
the  tallest  soldier  of  his  time  in  the  Prussian  army. 

Brunswick  Black :  a  varnish  used  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  a  bright  polished  apjiearance  to  coarse  iron-work, 
such  as  grates  and  fenders.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  bitu- 
men, lampblack,  and  turpentine,  and  is  applied  with  a  brush. 

Brunswick  Green:  an  oxychloride  of  copper,  used  as  a 
pigment  in  the  arts.  It  is  obtained  liy  exjiosing  metallic 
co])|ier  to  the  action  of  ammonium  chloride,  or  by  mixing 
sulphate  of  copper  and  common  salt  into  a  paste  with  water. 
It  is  also  generated  by  the  action  of  sea-water  on  copper, 
and  occurs  native  in  xVtacama  in  the  form  of  green  sand, 
hence  called  atacamite, 

Brnns'wick-Lii'nebiirg',  K.\rl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand. 
Duke  of:  a  German  general;  b.  Oct.  9,  1735;  nephew  of 
Frederick  the  Great;  eldest  son  of  Duke  Karl.  He  fought 
for  his  uncle  in  the  Seven  Years  war.  and  succeeded  to  the 
duki'dom  in  1780.  He  became  in  1792  commander-in-chief 
of  the  allied  armies  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  which  invaded 
France  and  were  repulsed  liy  Dumouriez.  In  1793  he  re- 
signed the  command.  He  took  command  of  the  Prussian 
arm^  in  1806,  and  was  defeated  by  the  French  at  Jena  in 
October  of  that  vear.  In  this  battle  he  was  mortallv 
wounded.     D.  Nov.  10.  1806. 

Bruscllius.  brooshi-us.  or  Bruscli.  broosh,  Gaspard  : 
German  historian  :  b.  at  Schlakenwald.  Bohemia.  Aug.  19, 
1518:  in  1552  made  a  count  palatine  and  poet  laureate  by 
Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Kom.-ius.  He  favored  Luther  and 
Melatichthon,  and  in  1559  was  murdered  iu  a  forest  liy  some 
gentlemen  who  thought  themselves  s;itirized  by  him.  His 
chief  historical  works  are  De  Germuiiiie  episcopatihns  epi- 
tmne  (1549)  and  Jlonasferiorum  German ue  pracipuuridii 
Chronuloyia  (1551). 

Brusll :  name  of  instruments  for  removing  dirt  from 
various  surfaces  by  friction,  for  ailjusting  the  hair,  for  pol- 
ishing, for  applying  paints,  whitewashes,  and  the  like. 
Hog's  bristles  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  material  for  the 
friction  surface  of  the  best  lirnshes;  but  for  delicate  work 
camel's,  badger's,  sable's,  and  rabbit's  hair  is  used.  Wire 
brushes  are  used  in  various  departments  of  manufacturing 
industry.  Split  whalebone  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  bristles.  Broom-corn  and  twigs  of  trees  are 
often  employed  for  stiff  brushes,  and  the  coarse  instruments 
used  in  cleaning  streets  are  ]iartly  made  frcmi  bass  or  pias- 
saba  and  other  imported  palm  iiliers.  IMost  brushes  are 
made  by  joining  some  of  the  aliove  materials  to  a  stock  of 
wood,  leather,  bone,  or  metal,  by  various  methods — a  busi- 
ness which  gives  employment  to  many  thousands  in  Eurojie 
and  the  U.  S.  Ingenious  machines  have  been  inventeil  for 
the  performance  of  various  parts  of  the  work  of  making 
brushes;  and  these  machines  liave  greatly  reduced  the 
lalior  and  expense  of  manufacture. 

Brusll  (in  d\niamo-electricity) :  a  device  for  making  elec- 
tric contact  with  the  moving  parts  of  a  generator  or  motor. 
Brushes  consist  of  strips  of  copper  or  brass,  or  of  bundles  of 
wire  held  with  suitable  pressure  by  means  of  a  spring  in 
contact  with  the  commutator  or  other  moving  part  witli 
which  connection  is  sought.  Carbon  plates  or  pencils  are 
largely  used  instead  of  metallic  Ijrushes.  In  static  elec- 
tricity a  brush  is  the  name  given  to  certain  forms  of  silent 
discharge  through  the  inr.  the  illumination  from  which  is  so 
faint  as  to  be  clearly  visible  only  in  a  darkened  room.  See 
Dynamo  Electric  Machines  and  Electric  Discuarue. 

Brusll,  Charles  Francis:  best  known  as  the  inventor  of 
the  Brush  dynamo  for  arc  lighting,  and  of  a  lamp  that 
worked  uniformly  on  a  large  circuit  supplying  many  lights; 
b.  in  Euelid.  ().,  Mar.  17,  1849,  and  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  in  1869.  He  is  also  the  inventor  of  a  great 
number  of  devices  which  have  been  of  piactical  value  in 
the   development   of  the  electric  light.     In  1881  he  was 


BKUSH 


BRUSSKLS  COXFEEEN'CE 


803 


made  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  IIoiioi-  in  Fiuncc.  Resides 
in  Cleveland 

liruKh.  George  De  Forest:  painter  of  fifrnre-subjeets ; 
b.  at  Sla-llnvillo,  Tenn..  in  1S55:  pupil  of  (u'r'mie.  Paris; 
member  of  till- Society  of  Air.eriean  Ailisis  l.s,sO;  associate 
National  Academy  of  l)esij;n  ;  fn-.-t  llallsartcn  prize,  Na- 
tional Academy,  i8S8.  His  pictures  of  Indian  life  in  the 
West  attracted  notice  in  the  New  York  exhibitions  about 
18yy,  anil  some  of  his  most  successful  works  are  among 
those  of  that  class  of  subjects.  Latterly  he  has  spent  some 
years  in  Paris  again,  and  at  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
in  1S!)3  exhibited  two  remarkable  works,  The.  I'urlrait  and 
Osxidii  thf  Jionl.  His  work  is  especially  good  in  drawing, 
and  presents  sonic  points  of  similarity  in  techniial  metho<l 
to  tliat  of  Gerome,  but  is  entirely  ni<lividual  in  character. 
JIunrniiiff  her  lirare  aiul  An  Aziifc  Scul/)li>i;  two  of  his 
best  i)i<'turcs,  are  in  the  collection  of  Thomas  B.  Clarke, 
New  S'ork.     Studio  in  New  York.        William  A.  Coi'KI.n. 

Kl'iish.  Georoi-:  .Iarvis  :  mineralogist:  b.  in  Biooklvii. 
N.  Y..  Dec.  bi,  I8:il :  educated  at  Yale  College,  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Munich,  the  Mining  Acr.demy  of  Freiberg.  Sax- 
onv,  and  the  School  of  Mines  in  London.  He  became  in 
\Hhr,  I'n.fess.ir  cit  .Metallurgy  in  Yale,  to  which  the  profess- 
orship of  mineralogy  was  added  in  llS(i4.  He  is  executive 
officer  of  the  Shellield  Scientific  School,  has  published 
numerous  papers  in  the  Amerktin  Juiirnal  of  Science,  and 
is  author  of  parts  of  the  fifth  edition  of  Dana's  Mineralogy. 
See  J'tipiihir  Science  Monllili/  for  Nov.,  1881. 

Briish-tiirkov.  sometimes  called  New  HoHand  Vul- 
ture: a  bird  (i'aleijdlld  Idf/iami)  of  .\ustralia,  rcmaikalile 
for  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  its  eggs  are  hatched. 
Several  pairs  of  these  birds,  having  united  to  build  a  nest, 
collect  leaves,  grass,  etc.,  into  a  heap,  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  several  cart-loads.  Li  this  mass  the  several  fe- 
males deposit  their  eggs,  where  they  remain  till  hatched  by 


Brush-turkey. 

the  artificial  heat  of  the  mound.  The  bird  is  about  the  size 
of  the  common  turkey,  and  has  wattles  on  its  head  and 
neck.  When  pursued,  it  endeavors  to  makes  its  escape  by 
running  through  the  tangled  brush  or  by  flying  into  the 
low  branches  of  a  neighboring  tree. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  several  other  species  and  gen- 
era, all  Australian,  and  nearly  all  closely  resembling  the 
above  bird  in  its  peculiar  habits.  The.se  liow  constitute  the 
family  .Ve(/(i/}inlicliF  (q.  r.).  The  birds  are  edil)le.  and  are 
much  sought  as  game. 

Briiso'lii.  (WisoLAMo:  Italian  historian  and  poet:  b.  in 
Legnano,  Dec.  10,  1610.  He  wrote  many  Latin  ami  Italian 
poems;  was  for  a  time  confined  in  prison  at  Yenice  fiu'  lus- 
suming  imjiroperly  the  dress  of  a  Carthusian  monk.  He 
wrote  many  hislorical  and  other  works,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  I.tluiiii  (i'ltdlia  (IGoti-SO).     D.  alter  ItiT'J. 

Brnssa:  a  city  of  Asia  Minor.    See  Broi-ssa. 

Bnis'scls  (in  Dutch,  Bni.t.iel ;  Fr.  Brn.reUi'x):  capital  of 
Belgium:  in  the  jirovince  of  Brabant  ;  on  the  river  Senne: 
27  miles  bv  rail  S.  of  Antwerp,  ami  227  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  E. 
of  Paris;  lat.  m  .51  10"  N.,  Ion.  4°  23'  13"  E."  (see  map  of 
Hollan<l  and  Belgium,  ref.  10-D).  It  is  built  partly  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  which  rises  220  feet  above  the  level  oi'  the  sea, 
and  partly  on  a  fertile  i)lain.  The  upjier  town  on  the  hill  is 
the  most  modern  and  fashionable,  and  contains  the  royal 
palace,  pid)lic  offices,  and  the  finest  hotels.  Brussels  is  the 
most  important  and  ]iopnl()Us  city  of  Hclgium.  is  remarka- 
ble foi-  the  luunber  and  richness  of  its  antii|Ue  buildings, 
antl  ranks  among  the  finest  cities  of  Europe.     The  walls 


which  formerly  surrounded  this  city  have  been  converted 
into  broail  ])romenades  lined  with  doulile  rows  of  shadi' 
trees.  The  .Mice  Vert <■  is  a  fashionable  promenade  along 
the  Scheldt  Canal,  and  extends  to  the  royal  palace  of  Laek- 
en,  about  'i  miles  N.  of  the  city.  The  principal  ])ubli<' 
sipiares  are  the  Place  Koyale,  the  Graiule  Place,  in  which 
stanils  the  hotel  de  ville,  and  the  Place  de  hi  Monnaie,  which 
contains  the  mint,  the  theater,  and  the  exchange.  Among 
the  remarkable  edifices  of  the  city  are  the  hotel  de  ville,  a 
fine  Gothic  striulure  with  a  spire  ;J64  feet  high,  in  the  grand 
hall  of  whi<-h  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  abdicated  in  1.105 ; 
the  Gothic  Cathedral  of  .St.  Giidule,  which  was  built  aljout 
1270  and  is  celebrated  for  its  painted  windows,  numei-ous 
statues,  and  carved  pulpit:  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  la 
Clia[)elle  commenced  in  IKU;  the  royal  palace;  the  modern 
Church  of  Noti'c  Dame  de  Bon  Secoui-s ;  the  former  palace 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange;  and  the  Palace  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
which  contains  a  large  collection  of  paintings  of  the  Fh'in- 
isli  school :  the  Palais  de  .Justice,  built  in  lbG6-8;i  al  a  cost 
of  nearly  .$10,1100,000,  situated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city 
on  a  comniandiug  eminence,  and  one  ot'  the  most  strikingly 
handsome  buildings  in  Eurojie.  Bnissels  has  a  public  li- 
brary (Royal)  of  ;{oO,000  volumes;  a  botanic  garden  ;  an  as- 
tronomical observatory,  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe;  a  mag- 
netic observatory :  a  free  university,  founded  in  1S:J4,  with 
four  faculties — viz.,  law,  medicine,  mathematical,  and  physi- 
cal sciences,  and  belles-lettres  ;  a  normal  school,  a  polytech- 
nic school,  and  institutions  for  the  lilind  and  for  deaf-mutes. 
The  only  mint  of  the  kingdom  is  situated  here.  In  1888  a 
world's  exhibition  was  held  in  this  city.  Brussels  is  one  of 
the  great  centers  of  Belgian  industry,  and  is  celebrated  for 
the  manufacture  of  lace  which  is  considered  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  other  chief  products  of  its  manufactories  are 
fine  linens,  damasks,  ribbons,  gold  and  silver  embroideiy, 
glass  mirrors,  jewelry,  paper,  porcelain,  hats,  mathematical 
and  musical  instruments,  carriages,  and  chemical  products. 
Its  trade  is  facilitatc^d  liy  a  canal  which  connects  it  with 
.'\ntw'er|).  and  by  railways  which  radiate  in  many  <lirections. 
About  one-third  of  the  people  of  this  city  siieak  French,  and 
the  others  Flemish  or  Dutch.  Brussels  was  the  seat  of  the 
International  Monetary  Conference,  called  by  the  U.  S.  to 
discuss  the  position  of  silver,  which  met  in  Dec,  18i)2.  Poji. 
(with  sul)nrbs)  (1880)  394,940 ;  (1885)  438,843  ;  (1891)  482,268  ; 
ot  the  city  proper  (1891)  182,305. 

Bnissels  Conferoiice :  a  conference  of  delegates  from 
the  priiK'ipal  military  power.s.  calli'd  by  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  in  1874.  to  jirepare  the  way  for  an  agreement  upcm  a 
code  of  rules  to  govern  civilized  warfare.  It  met  in  Brus- 
sels .July  27  of  that  year.  Delegates  from  Russia.  Germany, 
France.  Austria,  Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands.  Belgium, 
Italy,  Spain,  Di'iimark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, and  Greece  were  present.  The  single  English 
delegate  attended  under  express  stipulations  that  the  rules 
of  naval  warfare  should  not  be  discussed.  The  L*.  S.  were 
not  represented,  alleging  the  lateness  of  the  invitation. 

The  draft  of  a  code  had  been  submitted  before  this  to  the 
governments  invited,  and  many  of  its  rules,  embodying  the 
best  modern  usage,  were  acceptable  to  all  the  delegates. 
Thus  there  was  a  substantial  agreement  on  the  subjects  of 
lawful  weapons,  care  ot  (he  wounded,  pillage,  .«ieges,  armis- 
tices, prisoners  of  war,  spies,  treatment  of  public  and  pri- 
vate pro|)ei-ty,  cajiitulations,  duties  of  neutral  states  in  case 
trooiis  are  driven  across  their  frontiei's,  and  flags  of  truce. 

The  chief  points  of  dilTerence  related  to  the  topics  of  "oc- 
cupation of  territory  "  and  the  "  levee  en  masse."  Here  the 
interests  of  the  great  and  of  the  smaller  military  iioweis; 
proved  irreconcilable.  On  the  one  side  it  was  argued  that  a 
portion  of  the  enemy's  territory  once  occupied  by  an  in- 
vader, its  defenders  having  been  arrested  or  driven  out,  re- 
mains lawfully  in  the  hands  of  that  invader  as  occupied 
territory,  even  though  his  forces  may  have  advanced  and 
left  it  vacant.  In  the  opinion  of  the  smaller  states,  occupa- 
tion was  held  a  quest i<in  of  fact,  not  of  construction  :  it  must 
be  substantiated  by  the  constant  presence  of  an  invading 
force  strong  enough  to  keep  its  people  from  rising. 

In  like  manner  the  levee  en  masse,  or  popular  rising 
against  an  invader  in  unoccupied  territory,  was  held  by  one 
sot  of  delegates  to  be  lawful  only  when  these  irreg'ular  forc'Cs 
were  properly  officered,  bore  arms  openly,  and  wore  such  a 
badge  or  uniform  as  to  be  recognizable  at  a  distance.  Such 
conditions  were  believed  by  the  other  set  to  be  inconsistent 
with  a  popular  rising  for  defense,  a  measure  upon  which 
states  with  no  com[)ulsory  military  service  must  rely  in  case 


810 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS 


BRYDGES 


of  invasion.  The  subject  of  wliat  toulil  be  lawfully  exacted 
from  conquered  territory  under  the  head  of  requisitions  and 
contributions  was  also  in  dispute. 

Although  thu-;  failing  of  adoi>tion,  the  Brussels  confer- 
ence w'as  not  witliout  value.  It  brought  out  clearly  the 
points  at  issue,  and  the  necessity  for  compromise  in  regard 
to  them.  It  was  a  promising  step  in  a  right  direction.  A 
later  attempt  to  codify  the  laws  of  war  was  made  in  1880  by 
a  committee  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law,  with  the 
Brussels  code  as  a  basis.  It  legalizes  the  levee  en  masse  on 
the  sole  condition  that  the  rules  of  war  be  adhered  to.  and 
defines  occupieil  territory  as  a  region  where  the  former  sov- 
ereign has  ceased  to  exerci.se  authority  and  the  invading 
power  alone  finds  itself  able  to  maintain  order.  Tliis  Ox- 
ford code  is  reasonable,  and  worthy  of  a  recognition  which 
it  has  not  yet  received  from  any  government. 

Theodore  S.  Woolsey. 

Brussels  Sprouts :  like  the  Cabbage  ((/.  v.).  a  form  of 
Brassica  oleracea.  It  takes  its  name  from  Brussels,  Bel- 
giiviu,  and  from  the  term  "sprouts,"  which  is  used  for  kale- 
like plants.  It  ditfers  from  the  calAage  in  forming  lit- 
tle heads  (or  buds)  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  stem.  As  these  buds  develop  the  leaves 
are  cut  away  until  only  a  crown  is  left  at  the  top  of  the 
stem.  These  little  heiids  attain  a  diameter  of  an  inch  or 
two.  Brussels  sprouts  is  grown  for  a  fall  crop,  the  seeds 
Ijeing  started  out  of  doors  :  the  subsequent  treatment  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  cabbage.  L.  U.  Bailey. 

Brn'tus.  Lfcius  Jr.virs:  Roman  patriot:  son  of  Tar- 
quinia  and  nephew  of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  According  to 
tradition,  that  tyrant  was  about  to  put  him  to  death,  but  he 
saved  his  life  by  feigning  idiocy,  which  was  the  origin  of 
his  surname  Brutus.  When  the  tragic  fate  of  Lucretia  had 
prepared  the  people  to  revolt.  Brutus  led  them,  expelled  the 
Tarquins  from  Rome,  and  founded  a  republic  (509  B.  c). 
He  was  then  elected  one  of  the  consuls.  He  ordered  the 
execution  of  his  own  sons.  Titus  and  Tiberius,  who  were 
convicted  of  treason.  About  507  he  was  killed  in  a  battle 
against  the  Tarquins. 

Brntns,  IMari  is  .Trxius  :  a  Roman  republican  ;  descend- 
ant of  the  preceding:  b.  in  85  B.  v.  He  nuirried  I'ortia,  tlie 
daughter  of  t'ato  Uticensis,  who  was  his  maternal  uncle.  In 
the  civil  war  he  fought  under  Pompey  against  C'a'sar,  but 
after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  was  kindly  treated  by  the 
dictator,  with  whom  he  entered  into  friendly  relations ;  he 
was  appointed  (iovernor  of  t'isalpiue  Gaul.  His  zeal  for 
republican  liberty  and  the  influence  of  his  friend  Cassius 
induced  him  to  join  the  conspiracy  against  Ciesar;  lioth 
took  part  in  hisnmrder:  liecame  i>romment  leaders  of  the 
republican  i>arly :  led  an  army  against  that  of  Antony  and 
Octavius  at  Philippi  (i'i  b. c).  and  after  the  reverse  of  Ca.s- 
sius  Brutus  killed  liimself  on  the  field. 

Bry'an :  village  and  capital  of  Williams  co.,  0.  (see  map 
of  Ohio,  ref.  1-C) :  on  Lake  Shore  and  M.  S.  R.  R. :  58  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Toledo.  Has  machine-shop,  graded  schools. 
and  several  churches.     Pop.  (1880)  2,953  ;  (1890)  3,068. 

Bryan  :  village  and  capital  of  Brazos  co.,  Tex.  (for  loca- 
tion of  countv.  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  4-1) ;  on  Houston  and 
Texas  Cent.  R.  R. ;  100  miles  X.  W.  of  Houston.  Industries 
are  saw  and  grist  mill,  carriage  and  wagon  shop,  chair-fac- 
tory, etc.  Near  bv  is  the  Agricultur.al  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege of  Texas,  at  College  Station.     Pop-  (l^^'O)  2,979. 

Bryan,  Wii,liam  Je.xnings:  lawyer,  politician,  and  jour- 
nalist; b.  at  Salem.  111.,  Mar.  19,  18(50:  educated  at  Whip- 
ple Academy  and  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  111.,  where 
he  graduated  with  honor  in  1881  :  studied  law  at  Chicago 
for  two  years;  returned  to  Jacksonville,  where  he  began 
practice ;  married  a  year  later,  and  in  1887  removed  to 
Lincoln,  Neb.;  was  a  delegate  to  the  Democratic  State 
convention  at  C>maha  1888;  declined  the  nomination  for 
lieutenant-governor  1889;  in  1890  elected  as  a  Democrat  to 
Congress;  Ijccame  a  niemlicr  of  the  ways  and  means  com- 
mittee; advocated  '•  tariff  for  revenue  only"  and  attracted 
attention  as  a  speaker,  being  frequently  spoken  of  as  the 
"boy  orator  of  the  Platte";  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1892 
and  became  a  clianijiion  of  "  free  silver."  At  the  end  of  his 
second  term  he  returned  lo  Nebraska  and  became  editor  of 
the  Omaha  WorUI-Ileidhi.  In  189(i  he  received  the  nomi- 
nation for  President  of  the  C.  S.  of  lioth  the  Democratic 
and  the  People's  Party  national  conventions  on  a  free-silver 
platform,  but  received  only  17G  electoral  votes  of  the  244 
necessary  to  a  clioice. 


Bryaiiitos:  followers  of  William  0"Bryan.  who  separated 
from  "the  Wesleyans  in  1815.     See  Bible  Christians. 

Bryant,  William  Cullex  :  poet  and  journalist ;  b.  in 
Ciimmington.  Hampshire  co..  Mass.,  Nov.  8,  1794:  educated 
at  Williams  College,  which  he  entered  in  1810.  He  studied 
law.  and  in  1815  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  after  practic- 
ing successfully  for  ten  years,  first  at  Plainfield  ami  then 
at  Great  Barrington,  removed  in  1835  to  New  York,  and  be- 
came an  editor.  In  1826  he  became  connected  with  the 
Evening  Post,  of  which  he  was  the  editor-in-chief  from  1828 
till  his  death.  Jlr.  Bryant  visited  Eurojie  several  times  and 
presented  the  literary  fruit  of  liis  travel  in  a  series  of  Let- 
ters of  o  Traveler  (1853  and  1859).  Letters  from  Sjxiin  and 
oilier  Countries,  and  Letters  from  tlie  East  (1869),  which 
rank  high  in  literature  of  their  class.  Br\  ant's  career  as  a 
poet  began  very  early.  He  contributed  verses  to  the  connty 
gazette  before  he  was  ten  years  old  ;  in  his  fourteenth  year 
he  published  a  political  satire.  The  L'mhriri/o.  together  with 
another  long  poem.  Tlie  Sj/anisli  lierolution.  which  in  a 
twelvemonth  reached  a  second  edition.  Thanatopsis,  per- 
haps the  most  impressive  and  most  widely  known  of  his 
jiieces.  was  produced  in  his  nineteenth  year.  He  published 
the  first  volume  of  poems,  llie  Ages,  in  1821  at  Cambridge, 
and  the  first  complete  collection  in  1882  at  New  York. 
Nevert  heless.his  poems  are  not  many,  nor  are  they  the  product 
of  a  facile  muse;  the  principal  characteristic  of  his  jioetry 
being  thoughtfulness.  His  translations  of  the  lliuil  and 
0(h/sseij  into  blank  vei'se  were  published  in  1870  and  1871. 
He  responded  to  frequent  invitations  to  make  ceremonial 
addresses — a  duty  that  he  discharged  with  rare  felicity. 
His  efforts  in  this  kind  have  lieen  collected  in  a  volume  of 
Orations  and  Addresses  (1873).  An  edition  of  his  works 
complete  in  four  volumes  was  published  in  1883-84.  edited 
by  his  son-in-law,  Parke  Godwin.  D.  at  New  York  city, 
Jime  12,  1878.  See  his  Life  by  Parke  Godwin  (New  York, 
1883.  2  vols.).  Revised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Bryce.  George.  LL.  D.  ;  Canadian  clergyman ;  b.  at  Mt. 
Pleasiint.  Brant  co..  Out..  April  23.  1844.  'He  graduated  at 
Toronto  University  in  1869.  at  Knox  College  in  1871.  and 
the  latter  year  was  elected  as  assistant  and  successor  in 
Chalmers's  "church,  Quebec.  The  same  year  he  was  author- 
ized by  the  Presbyterian  General  Assemljly  to  estalilish  a  col- 
lege among  Selkirk  settlers  on  Red  river,  and  also  to  organ- 
ize a  Presbyterian  church  in  Winnipeg.  Manitoba,  all  of 
which  he  successfully  accomplished,  'fhe  college  was  in- 
corjiorated  in  1888.  and  in  1884  was  removed  to  Winnipeg. 
He  was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  Manitolia  Uni- 
versity in  1871 ;  ajipointed  inspector  of  Winnipeg  si-hools 
in  18^7:  examiner  in  natural  science  in  Manitoba  L'niver- 
sitv  in  1878;  and  moderator  of  first  Presbyterian  synod  of 
Mi'initoba  and  Northwest  Territories  in  1884.  Among  his 
works  are  JJanitoha.  its  Infancy.  Growth  and  Present  Con- 
dition (London.  1883) ;  Canada  and  the  Xorth  west  (IBS'); 
and  A  .Short  History  of  the  Canadian  People  (1886). 

Neil  JIacdonald. 

Bryce.  James.  M.  P. :  statesman  and  author ;  li.  in  Belfast, 
Ireland,  Jlav  10.1888;  educated  at  the  High  School  and 
Universitv  of  Glasgow,  and  at  Trinity  College.  Oxford,  grad- 
uating at 'the  latter  in  1862  with  a  'double  first ;  ajii>ointed 
Regiiis  Professor  of  Civil  I>aw  in  Oxford  University  1870; 
elected  to  Parliament  in  1880;  Under  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  government  in  1885. 
Author  of  The  IToli/  Roman  Empire  (9th  ed.  1888):  Trans- 
caucasia and  Ararat  (1877  ;  new  ed.  1897);  edited  Two  Cen- 
(uriesof  Irish  History  (ISSH):  The  American  Commonwealth 
( 1888) :  and  many  essays  and  magazine  art  ides.  He  has  been 
interested  in  various  political  and  social  .subjects;  is  a 
finished  scholar  and  able  wnter.  His  American  Common- 
wealth is  the  best  known  of  his  works  in  the  U.  S..  and  is 
generallv  regarded  as  the  best  descriiition  of  the  political 
and  social  institutions  of  the  U.  S.  ever  written.  In  1892  he 
was  appointe<l  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  with 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet  of  Mr.  Gladstone.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Brydses.  Sir  Samuel  Egertox:  English  writer  and 
biblio"grapher;  b.  in  Kent.  Nov.  80.  1762;  published,  besides 
many  novels,  letters,  poems,  et(.:.  Censura  JJlerana.  Con- 
tain'inq  Titles  and  Ojtinions  of  Old  English  Books  (10  vols., 
lS05-d9);  The  British  Bibliographer  (4  vols.  8vo.  lSlO-14); 
and  lies  Literaria-  (3  vols.,  1821).  He  claimed  that  he  was 
the  lawful  heir  to  the  barony  of  Chandos.  but  his  title  was 
not  recognized.  D.  at  Geneva.  Sept.  8.  1887.  See  his  Auto- 
biography (2  vols.,  1834). 


1!I;VF.NNI(IS 


BL'CCIXUM 


811 


Urjt'ii'iiios,  Philotheos:  Greek  Catholic  bishop;  h.  in 
l'oii>taiiliiio|ilr.  Mar.  26.1833;  educated  at  t'lialii'  and  in 
Gernumy  ;  liecanie  Professor  of  TlieoNifcy  at  t'lialce  INHl  ; 
nietroiiolitan  of  Serrae,  in  Macedonia.  IHTo;  of  Niconiedia 
1877.  In  1H73  lie  discovered  the  famous  Tfnihiny  of  llie 
Tifilve  Apiis/lix  in  the  .Jerusalem  monastery  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  pntilished  it  (irst  in  1883.  .See  l)r.  Sclmff's  edi- 
tion (3d  ed.  1888). 

Bryt'li'niiis,  Xicki'Iioris:  Uyzantine  historian  and  };en- 
eral :  "a  minister  of  Alexis  Couinenus,  whose  dauj.diter.  ,\nna 
<'oinnena.  he  married.  D.  about  1137.  His  Jlisli/ry  of 
Cuti-sl(tittiii(ii>te  was  edited  by  Mcinekc  (1836). 

Itryn'liild.  or  Hryiiliirda:  a  beautiful  maiden,  cele- 
brated in  the  Xor>.-  niytlioloj;y.  Though  called  a  valkyria, 
she  is  evidently  the  same  person  as  the  Princess  Brunhild  of 
the  yibi'liiii(/in  Liei/.  Sec  Thorp's  Xorf/ieni  Mijtlmldijy. 
vol.  i. ;  also  NinKHNiiKX  Lieu,  in  this  work. 

Uryii  Mmvr  ('ollci;*'  (at  Brvn  Mawr,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
H.  \C  10  miles  \V.  of  "Philadelphia) :  foundcil  by  Joseph  \V. 
Taylor.  M.  I).,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  who  died 
in  1880.  having  bought  the  land,  aliout  42  acres,  and  bej;uii 
the  erection  of  the  collefrc  buildinjp?  dnriuf;  his  lifetime. 
The  college  is  intended  to  give  to  women  of  intelligence  and 
retiueineiit  the  best  opportunities  for  culture,  comliineil  with 
Christian  iiilluences  and  soci.-d  amenities.  Its  distinctive 
features  area  high  stauilard  of  preparation  for  admission  ; 
a  system  of  studies  which  combines  rcipiired  courses  for 
general  culture  with  varied  I'lective  groujis  of  two  chief 
studies  in  fixed  combitmtions  and  other  free  electives;  gradu- 
ate courses  in  all  subjects  offered  to  undergraduates;  fel- 
lowships of  ijoi.'j  each,  nine  in  number,  open  to  graduates 
who  have  alreaiiy  dislinguislied  themselves  in  particular 
branches  of  study,  namely,  (jreek,  Latin,  ICnglish,  (iermau, 
liomance  languages,  history,  mathematics,  biology,  and 
chemistry.  A  fellowship  is  also  olfered  yearly  to  a  gradu- 
ate of  the  college  to  eiuible  her  to  pursue  studies  at  some 
Kuropean  universitv.  M.  Carey  Thomas,  LL.  1).,  is  presi- 
dent (18114). 

llry'oii)':  a  tendril-bearing,  climbing,  herbaceous  plant 
of  the  genus  Bnjuiiiri,  of  the  ('ucurbitaci'tv  or  Gourd  Family 
(q.  v.).  The  genus  contains  about  twenty  species.  They  are 
natives  of  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  Two  species  (B. 
dioirn  and  ]i.  alba)  occur  in  Kurope.  and  from  the  roots  of 
these  is  ol)tained  the  drug  "  Bryonia."  a  drastic  hydragogue 
cathartic,  now  much  less  used  than  formerly.  Some  of  the 
S[K'cies  are  (|uile  ornaiueutal.  anil  are  desirable  climbers 
since  their  tuberous  roots  are  perennial,  the  stems  and  leaves 
only  dying  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  cut-leaved  bryony 
of  Ceylon  is  now  assigned  to  the  genus  Jiri/onupsin. 

Bryony,  Klnck  :  a  pretty,  twining,  tuberous-rooted  plant 
.{ Ttimiix  rumininiix)  belonging  to  the  Yam  family,  and  native 
of  Europe.  N'orth  Africa.  an<l  temperate  Asia.  It  is  some- 
what cultivated  for  its  beautiful  foliage  of  heart-shaped, 
bright  green  ji'aves  and  bright  red  (but  inedible)  berries.  A 
second  species  occurs  in  the  Canary  islands. 

Bry'opliytcs  [from  Gr.  Bpiov.  moss  +-  <pin6i/.  \An\\[  ] :  the 
niossworts  {Jii-i/op/ii/fa):  one  of  the  branches  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  characterized  by  tlie  production  of  antherids  ami 
orvhKjDnfK.  \\iv  hitter  after  fertilization  developing  a  more 
or  less  stalked,  leafless  upore-fruit.  Thev  are  readily  sepa- 
rated into  two  classes,  viz.:  (1)  the  liverworts  (Hi-'patira;), 
which  are  mostly  thalloid  plants,  with  splitting  spore-fruits, 
containing  elaters;  (2|  the  mosses  (.1/»,sr/),  Icafv-slemmed 
plants,  with  spore-fruits  mostly  opening  by  a  lid,  and  con- 
taining no  elaters.     See  Plants  (Fossil).      '  C.  E.  Bessey, 

Bryozci'a  [from  Gr.  fipiov.  moss  +  fyov.  animal]  :  group  of 
animalsordoubtfnlalliniti(s.l„.ing  placed  bv  some  zoologists 
as  one  of  the  class.-s  of  tlu-  Mi>//i<.ir(jiilta.Uw  Bn,r/iii,/,w/a 
being  the  other  class  ;  by  others  as  one  of  the  orders  of  the 
classPTO.w/«/,/(Vi,  of  the  branch  Vermes.  (See  Worms.)  They 
are  very  small,  and  moss-like  or  polyp-llkc  in  appearance. 
usually  united  together  in  colonies,  most Iv  marine,  but  some 
species  live  in  fresh  water.  Thcv  are  also' known  as  Polvzoa 
('•/•  '■■>■  .J.  S.  K. 

Bry'son.  .V.ndrk.w:  rear-admiral  U.S.  navv:  b.  in  Xew 
York,  .liily  •.'.■).  18->3;  entered  the  navv  18:!7;'  commanded 
the  ironclad  Lehigh  in  18G3  and  1864  at  the  reduction  of 
Fort  JIacon.  and  was  in  all  the  important  fights  with  the 
defenses  of  Charleston  liarbi>r:  biiame  commander  1873- 
rear-admiral  1880;  retired  1881.  D.  In  Wushington.  1)  c' 
Feb.  7,  I8!»3.  ■' 


Bii'baliis  [Gr.  $ovBa\os.  a  species  of  antelope] :  a  genus  ni 
]i(iriil(f.  the  species  of  which  constitute  the  buffaloes  of  India 
and  Africa.     See  Bikkalo. 

Biibas'tis  (the  Pi-bexilli  of  Scripture  and  modern  Tel- 
bdxiii):  a  ruined  city  of  Lower  Kgypt ;  in  the  delta  of  the 
Nile:  about  7.")  miles  a  little  E.  of  X.  from  Cairo;  lat  30'  36' 
X.,  Ion.  31°  33  E.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  extensive 
mounds  containing  the  renuiins  of  brick  houses  and  broken 
pottery.     Sec  Heiuduliis  ii.,  137,  1-56. 

Bllbastis:  a  god<less  of  ancient  Egypt  ;  a  deification  of 
the  moon  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Artemis;  said  to  sig- 
nify literally  ••she  who  multiplies  her  as[)ccts'";  so  called  in 
allusion  to  the  changes  of  the  moon.  According  toother 
authorities,  Bubastis  was  the  deification  of  the  cat,  which 
animal,  as  is  well  known,  was  an  object  of  worship  in  ancient 
Egvpt.  Ilcr  name,  according  to  modern  Egyptologists,  was 
Pe'cht  or  1M.M. 

bubble :  a  globular  film  or  vesicle  of  water  or  other  lic|uid 
inllaled  with  air,  vapor,  or  gas.  The  .stiuly  of  bubbles  has 
added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  capillarity  and  of  molecu- 
lar action  in  liquids.  The  thickness  of  the  soaii-bubble  film, 
determined  by  means  of  the  interference  of  light,  to  which 
the  bublile  owes  its  transcendent  coloring,  has  furnished 
physicists  with  a  means  of  estimating  the  probable  size  of 
the  molecule.  Soap  films  have  been  observed  tlu'  thickness 
of  which  was  certainly  less  than  jTruitrBxr  ^'f  ""  inch.  It  is 
certain  that  a  molecule  of  water  can  not  exceed  such  a  film 
in  thickness,  and  there  are  reasons,  on  the  other  hand,  for 
thinking  that  its  diameter  can  not  be  less  than  aoiioiotioo 
of  an  inch.  E.  L.  X. 

Biibon'ic  riaglie:  See  Plagie. 

liiicaraiiiaii'ga  :  tlie  capital  of  the  department  of  Santan- 
der,  republic  of  Colombia:  Ion.  73'  10'  W',,  lat.  7°  X.;  on 
the  east  side  of  the  main  mountain-range  (sec  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  2-C).  There  are  extensive  gold,  copjier,  and 
iron  mines  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  16,000. 

Blici'aiieer'  [from  Fr.  bourdnier,  deriv.  of  bonciDier.  to 
smoke  meat  on  a  hiiiic<in,  a  native  So.  Amer.  name  for  a 
wooden  grate  or  framework  used  in  drying  meat]:  a  name 
originally  applied  to  French  hunters  in  llayti  who  brought 
their  meat  to  market  cured;  tlien  to  the  famous  adventurers 
or  filibiisti'i-s  who  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
infested  the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  colonies  of  South 
America.  They  were  mostly  English  and  French,  and  were 
united  by  a  common  hostility  to  the  Spaniards,  to  plunder 
wliom  was  their  principal  object  and  business.  For  mutual 
protection  against  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards,  they  organ- 
ized themselves  into  an  association  or  community  bound  by 
a  simple  code  of  laws.  The  island  of  Tortnga  was  at  one 
time  occupied  by  them.  an<l  was  their  chief  base  of  opera- 
tions. They  took  immense  booty  from  the  .Spanish  galleons 
which  conveyed  precious  metals  to  Spain,  and  often  attacked 
ti)wns  on  the  coasts.  Among  the  famous  an<l  able  leaders  of 
the  buccaneers  were  tlie  Freiu'h  Montbar,  surnamed  Tnu  Ex- 
terminator, and  Henry  ^Morgan,  a  Welsliman,  who  was  born 
about  1637.  The  latter  organized  fleets  and  armameiits,  took 
fortresses,  and  displayed  remarkable  military  talents.  He 
was  knighted  by  Charles  11..  and  made  governor  of  Jamaica, 
alreaiiy  in  possession  of  his  confederates.  The  navigator 
Dampier  also  took  part  with  the  buccaneers  in  some  expedi- 
tions against  the  Spaniards.  The  wars  of  William  111.  with 
France  dissolved  the  confederation,  and  in  1701,  treaty  of 
Kyswick.  the  buccaneers  lost  their  political  character,  and 
were  replaced  by  a  set  of  marine  thieves  or  vulgar  pirates. 
See  James  Burney,  Ilinlory  of  Ihe  liuccunecrK  (IBIG) ;  Thorn- 
burv,  MoiKircltsof  the  Main  (185.5);  and  Les  Flibustiers  au 
XVlI-  Sih-le  (1884). 

Biicciiia'tor  ( Lat.  deriv.of  iwwi'HaVc.  to  blow  the  trumpet. 
Lat.  bn  cilia]:  a  muscle  situated  in  the  substanci!  of  the 
cheeks:  so  called  bccau.se.  when  the  cheeks  are  distended 
with  air,  the  contraction  of  the  buccinator  muscle  forces  it 
out.  Its  principal  use  is  to  hold  the  food  between  the  teeth 
during  mastication. 

Biic'ciiiiini  [Lat..  triiinpet]:  a  genus  of  gasteropod  mol- 
lusks  known  as  the  whelks;  characterized  by  a  .shell  with  a 
smooth  nonplicated  columella,  and  with  a  fis,snre  or  short 
respiratory  canal  iullected  toward  the  left.  The  shape  of 
some  species  of  this  genus  resembles  that  of  a  trumpet. 
fiiitr ilium  iiiiihihim  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the 
species,  and  is  a  typical  representative  of  the  gen\is.  Most 
of  the  living  species  are  found  in  the  cold  zones;  many  are 
fossil. 


812 


BUCCLEUCH 


BUCHANAN 


Buc'cleiicll,  Dukes  of  (1663) :  Dukes  of  QueensbciTy, 
Marquesses  of  Dumfriesshire.  Earls  of  Druuilanritr  aud  San- 
quhar (1684).  Earls  of  Buccleuch  (1610).  Earls  of  Dalkeith 
(1663),  Viscounts  of  Xith.  Torthorwold.  and  Ross,  and  Barons 
Douglass  (1684).  Barons  Soot t  of  Buccleuch  (16t)6).  Barons 
Scott  of  Eskdale  (1619).  Lords  Scott  of  \\'inchester  (1663.  in 
Scotland).  Earls  of  Doncaster.  and  Barons  Tynedalc  (1662, 
in  England) ;  a  noble  family  of  Scotland,  descended  from  Sir 
Walter  Scott  of  Branxhoini  and  Buccleuch,  a  brave  aud 
powerful  chieftain  who  liveil  in  the  reign  of  James  V.  lie 
fought  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie  in  1.547.  and  died  in  1.552. 
Somi^  incidents  of  his  life  formed  tlie  subject  of  Scott's  poem, 
the  Lini  of  /lie  Last  Minslrel.  His  great-grandson,  also 
named  Sir  Walter,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Scott 
of  Buccleuch  in  1606.  The  first  duke  was  beheaded  in  1685, 
but  the  duchess  retained  the  title  and  estates.  Henry,  the 
third  duke,  born  in  1746.  was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Adam 
Smith.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  efforts  to  improve 
his  extensive  estates  by  planting  trees,  enriching  the  soil, 
making  roads,  and  improving  the  breed  of  sheep.  D.  in  1.S12. 
— His  grandson.  Walter  Fkancis,  b.  Nov.  25. 1806.  the  fifth 
Duke  of  Buccleuch  and  the  seventh  of  Queensberry.  is  said 
to  have  spent  £320.000  in  improving  the  liarbor  of  Granton. 
about  2  miles  from  Edinburgh,  the  greatest  pulilic  work 
ever  executed  in  Scotland  by  an.  imlividual  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. He  succeeded  his  father  in  181!t :  was  L(U-d  Privy  Seal 
1842-46:  and  president  of  the  council  in  1846.  D.  in' 1884 
— The  sixth  duke,  William  IIkxkv  Walter,  b.  in  1831.  was 
M.  P.  for  .Midlothian  1853-68  and  1874-80. 

Biiceu'taur  (It.  BiKcntnro) :  name  of  a  celebrated  Venetian 
galley  which  was  gilded  and  sumptuously  furnished,  and  was 
used  "only  once  a  year  in  a  splendid  aquatic  procession,  when 
the  doge  performed  the  ceremony  of  espousing  the  Adriatic 
on  Ascension  Day  by  dropping  a  ring  into  the  water.  It  was 
about  100  feet  long,  and  in  the  annual  procession  was  1V>1- 
lowed  by  many  gondolas  and  feluccas.  It  was  burned  in 
1797,  having  been  kept  for  this  service  since  1177. 

Bliceph'allis  [Gr.  ;8ou«e'(fo\os.  ox-head,  probably  applied  to 
ahorse  liramled  with  the  uuirk  of  an  ox-head]:  thi>  favorite 
horse  of  .Alexander  the  Great,  who  rode  on  him  in  all  his 
campaigns.  He  was  purchased  in  Thessaly  by  King  Philip. 
and  cost,  acconlingto  Pliny,  16  talents,  equal  to  neai'ly  $20,- 
000  of  our  money.  The  royal  grooms  were  unable  to  manage 
him.  but  Alexander,  then  very  young,  tried  and  succeeded  : 
and  Buce|ihalus  would  never  i)erniit  any  one  Ijut  Alexander 
to  ride  hinu  Bucephalus  died  in  India  from  tlie  etfeets  of 
wounds  received  in  liattle  about  326  B.  c  and  Alexander  built 
in  his  lionor  the  city  Bucephala  on  the  Hydaspes. 

Bii'cer  [from  Gr.  /Soiis,  cow  +  Kepas.  horn  ;  being  a  literal 
translation  of  his  German  n.-ime.  Kii/ihoni],  Martix  :  German 
Reformer;  b.  in  Schlettstadt,  near  Strasslnirg.  in  1491:  was 
for  a  time  a  Dominican  friar;  became  a  Protestant  in  1521  ; 
a  friend  of  Luther;  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Heidel- 
berg. He  introduced  the  Reformed  doctrines  at  Strassburg 
1523,  and  was  for  many  years  Professor  of  Theology  at  that 
city.  When  dissensions  arose  l)etween  Luther  aud  Zwingli. 
Bucer  acted  the  part  of  mediator.  At  first  he  openly  repu- 
diated Luther's  doctrine.  He  composed  the  Tetrapolitan 
Confession,  which  was  offered  at  Augsburg  alongside  of  that 
of  the  Lutherans.  In  1536  he  went  to  Wittenberg  to  effect 
a  reconciliation.  The  result  was  Tha  Wil/i'iilicri/  Cnncord, 
in  which  he  indorsed  IjUther's  doctrine  of  the  Heal  Presence, 
but  denied  that  unbelieving  communicants  received  Christ's 
body.  This  ajipears  to  have  remained  his  position  to  the 
end.  In  1543  he  co-operated  willi  Jlelanchthon  in  the  prep- 
aration (5f  the  Formula  for  the  Keformation  of  Cologne  by 
Archbishop  Hermann,  a  document  whose  chief  significance 
is  the  important  part  wliich  il  bore  in  the  |ireparation  of  the 
English  liook  of  Common  Praijcr.  At  tlie  invitation  of  Arch- 
liishop  Cranmer  he  went  to  England  in  1519.  and  became 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Cambridge,  proniiiu'iit  ly  ]iartieipat- 
ing  in  the  reforms  made  by  Cranmer,  especially  in  I  lie  litur- 
gical sphere.  Of  this  activity  his  ("ensiira  on  I  he  I'mijer-hook 
(1.5.50),  and  the  other  writings  contained  in  his  .SV/v'/z/o  .l)(- 
ylicnnn  (Basel.  1577)  are  memorials.  1).  in  Cambridge.  Eng- 
and,  Pel).  28,  1.551,  See  his  biography  by  .1.  W.  Baiim  (El- 
berfeUl,  1!^60)  and  in  Stciilieii's  /)ir/i<imiri/  of  yiifioiml  liiog- 
raphy.  Hkxrv  E.  .Iacobs. 

Bucprof'idii'  [from  Gr.  goiWtptos.  ox-horned],  or  Horii- 
bUls:  a  faiiiily  of  the  I'inin'ir.  rcniarUalile  for  the  excessive 
size  of  the  mandibles,  of  which  llir  upper  usually  supports  a 
large  horn-like  protuberam-e.  The  feet  are  strong  and  short, 
the  wings  short ;  size  large. 


1)1 


Buch.  booA'h.  Leopold,  von :  geologist ;  b.  at  Stolpe-on-the- 
Oder,  Prussia,  Apr.  25.  1774;  studied  mineralogy  under 
Werner  at  Freiberg ;  explored  the  geology  of  many  countries 
of  Europe,  generally  traveling  on  foot.  In  1805  he  wilnessed 
an  eruption  of  Jit.  Vesuvius,  which  converted  him  to  the 
Plutonic  theory.  Among  his  principal  works  are  Geugnoatii- 
ObservafioHs  (luring  Travels  in  Germani/  and  Jfah/  (2  vols., 
1802-09);  Travels  in  Xorivaij  and  Lapiand  (1810)';  and  On 
the  Mountain  Si/stems  of  Russia  (1840).  He  published  an  ex- 
cellent geological  map  of  Germany  (1824);  was  author  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  slow  upheaval  of  continents.  D.  in  Berlin, 
Mar.  4,  18.53.  See  the  English  translation  of  Flourens's 
Eulofjtj  on  L.  von  Buch.  in  the  .Smithsonian  Rejiort  for  1862, 
p.  358. 

Buchail,  bu/.h'au :  a  district  of  Scotland:  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Aberdeenshire  ;  consists  of  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  eouiitv  lying  between  the  Doveran  and  the 
Ytham. 

Biiehail'ail :  village  (incorporated  in  1858);  Berrien  co., 
Mich,  (for  location  of  county,  see  ina]j  cpf  Jlichigan.  ref.  8- 
G) :  on  the  St.  .loseph  river,  and  on  railroad :  87  miles  E.  of 
Chicago  and  197  miles  W.  of  Detroit.  Buchanan  has  a 
graded  school  and  six  churches ;  it  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  rich  agricultural  and  fruit  region,  has  a  larire  trade, 
and  a  varietv  of  manufactures.  Pop.  (1880)  l.s()4;  (1S90) 
1.994;  (1894)"l,895.  Editor  of  "  Kecoru." 

Biieliaiiaii.  liyii-kan'an.  Claudius,  D,  D,  ;  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England ;  b.  at  Cambuslang,  near  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  Jlar.  12.  1766;  educated  at  Queen's  College.  Cam- 
bridge, England,  lie  was  professor  in  the  College  of  Fort 
William  in  Beng.al  (1799-1807) ;  returned  to  England  1808: 
wrote  Christian.  Researches  in  Asia  (1811).  a  work  that  con- 
tributed largely  to  awaken  the  missionary  spirit  of  the  ]ires- 
ent  time.  D.  in  Broxbourne.  Hertfordshire.  Fell.  9.  isi5. 
See  J/pwo/cs.  by  Dr.  Hugh  Pearson  (London.  1819;  5th  ed. 
1846). 

Bnchanaii.  Fraxklix:  b.  in  Baltimore,  Md..  Sept.  18. 
1800:  became  a  midshipman  of  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1815; 
jiassed  through  the  various  grades  of  the  service,  becoming 
a  captain  in  1855.  In  1861  he  resigned,  intending  to  enter 
the  Confederate  service,  but  subsequently  he  asked  to  be  re- 
stored. His  request  was  refused,  and  he  then  joined  the 
Southern  luu-y.  He  commanded  the  Merrimack  frigate  aftci- 
she  was  fitted  up  as  an  ironclad,  and  with  her  engaged  and 
sunk  the  woculcn  frigates  Congress  and  Cumberland.  Being 
wounded  in  this  affair,  the  command  of  the  Merrima<-k  in 
the  encounter  with  the  Monitor  devolved  u|ion  Lieut. 
Catesliy  .lones.  For  this  service  Buchanan  was  made  a 
Confederate  admiral;  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by 
Farragut  in  Jlobile  Bay  Aug.  5.  1864.  having  fought  on 
board" the  ii-oiiclad  Tennessee,  and  lost  a  leg.  President  of 
the  JIarvlaiid  Agricultural  College  after  the  war.  D.  in 
Talbot  CO..  Md..  May  11.  1874. 

Bneliaiiaii.  George  ;  Scottish  poet  and  historian ;  1).  at 
Killearn.  Stirlingshire.  Feb..  1.506.  He  was  well  educated 
in  Paris,  and  liecame  a  professor  in  a  college  of  that  city. 
Having  adopted  the  Reformed  doctrines,  he  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1.537,  and  wrote  Somniiim,  a  satire  against  the 
monks,  for  which  he  was  persecuted.  He  took  refuge  in 
England,  and  jiassed  over  to  France  about  1540.  He  was 
employed  as  a  teacher  in  Bordeaux  and  Paris  for  several 
years,  "during  which  he  wrote  some  Latin  tragedies;  also 
taught  three  years  in  the  Portuguese  university  in  Coinilpra. 
where  he  was  driven  by  persecutions  for  suspected  heresy. 
After  severjil  changes  of  residence  and  adventures,  he  re- 
turned to  Scot  land  in  1560.  In  1562  he  was  appointed 
cla.ssical  tutor  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  His  religi<ius  and 
political  jirinciples  rendered  him  in  the  civil  warthat  ensued 
a  supporter  of  Regent  Murray,  who  made  him  jiriricipal  of 
St.  Leonaril's  College.  St.  Andrews.  Lennox  maile  Jilm  pre- 
ceptor to  the  young  king.  James  VI..  in  1570.  and  Keeper  of 
the  Privy  Seal  in  the  same  year.  D.  in  Edinburgh.  Sept.  28, 
1.582.  As  a  scholar  he  was  almost  unrivaled  by  any  of  his 
contemporaries.  lie  wrote  Latin  verse  with  great  imrity, 
and  was  humorous,  sarcastic,  and  profound.  His  chief 
works  are  a  J/islori/  of  Scotland  (Renini  Scoticarum  His- 
toria.  1.582);  a  metrical  Latin  version  of  the  Psalms  (1570); 
Franciscaniis.  a  ]ioi>tical  satire:  and  a  posthumous  tract,  I)e 
Jure  Rei/ni.  atlirmiiig  llial  kings  exist  by  will  of  the  people, 
which  had  great  influence  in  the  politics  of  the  next  century. 
See  his  .1  utobiojiraphii.  160H  ;  David  Irving,  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  Gronje  liiiclutnun  (1817). 


men  AX  AX 


BUCHEZ 


813 


Biu-haiiaii.  Isaac:  Caiiailian  politieiiin;  b.  in  Glasfcow, 
SLiillaiiil,  .Inly  21.  ISIO:  Wecamo  a  kwlin;;  iiiercliaiit  ami 
presidiiit  (if  llif  board  of  tiadi'  in  Hainiltoii,  Ontaiin.  He 
was  uflivi'  in  puHiiit;  down  the  rebellion  of  1S;J7.  and  was 
for  many  yeai-:;  )>roiiiineiitly  engaged  in  public  affaii-s.  He 
]iiiblislicd  The  Relaliiinx  of  the  Jnduxtiii  of  Caiimln  with 
the  Jliilhir  Ciiiiiilry  anil  the  United  Staler.  Elected  to  the 
Canadian  I'arlianient  in  1H41  for  the  eily  of  Toronto,  he 
helped  to  seeiire  responsible  government  for  the  people  and 
to  procure  the  reduction  of  the  iluty  on  Canadian  wheat. 
In  184;!  he  supported  Ijord  Jtelcalfs  adniinisl ration  at  the 
head  of  the  Constitutional  or  order  [larty.  For  nuiiiy  years 
he  hehl  a  seat  in  the  executive  council  of  the  province.  D. 
Oct.  1,  I8.s:s. 

liiiclianilil.  .Tamks:  fifteenth  President  of  the  U.S.:  h. 

near  .Mtrrersburg,  Krard;lin  co..  Pa.,  Apr.  2.'!.  ITitl  :  gradu- 
atc<l  at  l)i<-l<inson  College,  Carlisle,  in  180!):  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1812.  He  was  a  Federalist  in  his  youth,  but  sup- 
ported the  war  of  1812-1.5,  which  he  thought  glorious  to 
the  people  but  disgraceful  in  the  extreme  to  the  administra- 
tion. The  death  of  his  betrothed  lerl  him  into  politics  as  a 
distraction  from  his  grief,  anil  in  182()  he  went  to  Congress, 
where  he  served  ten  years,  turning  Deuuicrat  on  (jueslions 
of  internal  iniprovenu'Ul.  Here  he  was  especially  con- 
spicuous on  bills  reorganizing  the  judiciary  and  fixing  its 
appellate  jiiris(li<-tion.  In  1S28  he  supjjorted  Gen.  Jackson 
for  the  presidency,  who  sent  him  in  18;!1  as  minister  to 
Russia,  where  he  concluded  a  favorable  commercial  treaty  : 
was  V.  S.  Senator  ls:i4-4.5,  when  he  took  an  influential 
]iositioii,  defending  the  executive  prerogatives  of  vetoand  of 
removing  civil-service  ollicials  at  will,  urging  spoliation 
claims  against  France,  and  also  the  expunging  from  the 
record  of  tlu'  senatorial  censuie  of  .lackson.  While  de- 
fending the  right  of  petition,  he  declared  against  the  power 
of  the  Govcrmnent  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  States. 
At  this  time  his  separation  from  Whig  doctrines  became 
complete,  and  he  refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
ilency,  after  having  been  a  conspicuous  supporter  of  Van 
Kuren.thal  the  nomiualion  might  go  to  .James  K.  Polk,  who 
appointed  him  his  .Secn'tary  of  State.  Tlu'  questions  he 
confronted  then  were  the  northwest  boundary-line  of  Ore- 
gon, the  Mexican  war,  ami  the  application  of  the  Monroe 
doctrine  to  California  and  Central  America,  with  a  view  to 
nrevent  British  acciuisitions  there.  Mr.  ISuchanan  fornui- 
lated  the  |iolicyof  the  administration  on  lh<'se  points.  Dur- 
ing the  Taylor-Fillmore  govertiment  he  established  himself 
at  Wheatlands.  near  Lancaster,  and  received  his  niece,  Har- 
riet Lane,  and  a  nephew  in  their  orphanage  into  his  family. 
Ilere  he  ojiposed  the  Wilmot  ]iroviso,  and  supjiorted  the  com- 
promises of  18.50,  After  four  years  of  private  life  he  was 
sent  by  President  Pierce,  with  whom  he  had  contested  the 
n<iniination  for  )>residencv,  as  minister  to  Kngland  in  18.5ii. 
He  then  joined  in  the  Ostend  manifesto,  proposing  the  ac- 
([uisilion  of  Cuba  by  treaty  or  otherwise.  It  was  his  bid  for 
the  Uemocratic  nomination,  and  it  won.  He  was  nomiiuited 
by  the  Democrats,  and  elected  President  of  the  U.  S.  in 
1.S.56.  The  other  candidates  were  .John  C.  Fremont,  Ue- 
l)ublican, and  Millard  Fillmore,  ".American."  Jtr.  Puchamm 
received  174  electoral  votes.  His  cabinet  contained  Howell 
Cobb,  J.  IJ,  Floyd,  .Jacob  Thompson,  and  Isaac  Toucey,  who 
proved  to  be  secessionists  and  laliored  (o  weaken  the  (iov- 
ernment,  but  Mr.  Uuchanan  perceived  this  reluclantly  and 
tardily.  He  bhuneil  the  Xorth  for  its  abolitionism  as  a 
cause  of  sectional  hatred,  supported  the  Lecompton  Con- 
stitution for  Kansas,  and  directed  a  governnuMit  controlled 
by  the  Southern  Democracy,  even  to  the  extent  of  using  his 
influenci'  against  the;  nomination  of  Douglas,  The  ])robleni 
of  his  ailmiuislration  was  to  prevent  the  division  of  the 
Democratic  party,  and  in  this  he  ull<'rly  failed,  liccoming  a 
jiartisan  of  the  Southern  wing.  When  secession  came  on 
lie  was  tortured  betwi'eii  his  subserviency  to  the  conspirators 
in  his  cabinet  and  among  his  counselors  and  his  desire  to 
postpone  the  collapse  of  the  Union  under  his  administra- 
tion. His  final  position  was  announced  in  a  feeble  mes- 
sage of  Dec,  1H60,  in  which  he  blamed  the  Xortliern  people 
for  the  disruption  of  the  I'nion,  and  aflirmed  that  the  ex- 
ecutive had  no  power  or  right  to  prevent  the  secession  of  a 
State.  He  pulilished  in  lS(i(!  J/c.  liiiihdnnn'.s  Adminixtni- 
tiun.  a  work  in  defense  of  his  policy  as  I'resident.  F.venls 
forced  the  disunionists  to  leave  the  cabinet,  and  tlicy  were 
replaced  by  loyal  men  who  passed  the  possession  of  the  Gov- 
ernment over  to  Mr.  Lincoln  with  only  seven  Slates  in  seces- 
sion.  In  his  rotireineiit  Mr.  liuchanan  supported  the  war  for 


the  Union.     D.  near  liancaster.  Pa..  .Tune  1,  1868.     Sec  his 
Life  by  (J.  T.  Curtis  (Xew  York,  DiSi). 

Huchaiian,  Robert  Christie:  soldier;  b.  in  Marvland 
about  ISU  ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830:  Feb.  8,"l864, 
colonel  Tenth  Infantry.  He  served  in  Black  Hawk  war  1832  ; 
in  command  of  gunboats  in  the  battle  of  Bad  Axe  river;  as 
adjutant  Fourth  Infantry  18:J5-:38:  in  Florida  war  1836-38 
— 1841-42:  in  the  military  occupation  of  Texas  184.5-4(i;  in 
the  war  with  Mexico  1846-48  under  both  Taylor  and  .Scott  ; 
in  command  of  district  of  Gregon  and  Xorlhern  California 
18.56;  against  Rogue  river  Indians  ;  superintendent  of  West- 
ern recruiting  18.5T-.5i).  In  the  civil  war  he  served  in  the 
Virginia  Peninsula  1862  ;  Gaines's  Jlill  (brevet  colonel).  Mal- 
vern Hill  (brevet  brigadier-general);  in  Xorlhern  Virginia 
campaign  1862:  engaged  at  Antietain  and  at  Fredericks- 
burg (brevet  major-general):  assistant  provost-marshal,  etc., 
for  X^cw  York  1864.  and  member  of  commissions  lf'6.5-68. 
Retired  from  active  service  Dec.  31,  1870.  I),  in  Washing- 
ton, 1),  C.,  Xov.  29,  1878. 

Buclianan,  KoBKRT  Wii,LiA.Ms:  poet  and  romancer;  b.  at 
Glasgow.  .\ug.  IS.  1S4I  :  eilucaled  at  (ilasgow  University; 
went  to  Lonilon  in  1860.  He  has  published  some  forty  vol- 
umes in  pnjse  and  vei'se,  consisting  of  novels,  plays,  poems, 
and  critical  essays.  Among  these  are  Ji/i//s  and  Legends  of 
/urerhuiH  (186.5);  Daeiil  (rray  and  Ol/ter  L'ssays  (1868); 
The  Drama  of  Kint/a  (1871);  ^Vip  A<-»'  Abelard.a  Ronianre 
(1884).  He  attacked  Rossetti,  Swinburne,  and  others  in  an 
article  in  the  Conteni/ioran/  Rerieir  entitled  Tlie  Fiexhlij 
School  of  I'oetnj  (1872).     lie  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1884-8.5. 

Hexrv  a.  Beers. 

Itiichaiiaii.  Thomas  McKeax  :  lieutenant -commander 
U.  S.  navy;  b.  at  Bellefonle.  Pa.,  Sept.  10,  1837;  graduated 
at  the  Xaval  Academy  in  18.5.5.  Hi'  was  in  many  engage- 
ments on  the  lower  Mississippi  in  co-o])eration  with  the 
Union  army,  and  on  Jan.  1.5,  1862,  fell,  shot  through  the 
head,  while  "encouraging  in  his  own  person  his  officers  and 
men  to  fight  courageously  "  in  the  sharp  action  at  Bavou 
Teche. 

ISiichanilcs.  biiA-h'an-its :  a  Scotch  fanatical  sect,  now  ex- 
tinct:  derived  its  existence  (in  1783)  and  its  name  from  a 
Mr.s.  Buchan.  whose  maiden  name  was  Kls|ietli  Simjison; 
b.  at  Fatmackcn,  between  lianif  and  Portsoy,  in  1738;  mar- 
ried Robert  Buchan,  but  separated  from  him:  in  1781  re- 
moved to  (ilasgow,  and  in  1783  to  Irvine,  where  she,  with 
Rev.  Hugh  Wliite.  founded  the  sect,  which  ultimately  num- 
bered forty-six.  White  claimed  thiil  Mi-s.  Buchan  was  the 
woman  mentioned  in  Rev.  xii..and  she  that  he  was  the  man- 
child.  The  sect  was  expelled  for  immoral  practices  in  1784. 
and  eslalilished  the  farm  of  X^ew  Cample,  in  the  parish  of 
C'loselnirn.  Dumfriesshire.  Mrs.  Buchan  professed  to  give 
the  Holy  (Jhost  by  breathing.  She  died  May,  1791 — a  dis- 
proof of  I  heir  claim  that  they  would  be  living  on  the  earth 
when  ChrisI  came.  The  last  of  the  seel  died  in  184.8.  See 
Train.  Tlie  Hiu-hanitexfrom  First  to  Last,  Edinburgh.  1846. 

Bncliarcst'  (i.  e.  City  of  Joy):  the  capital  of  Roumania; 
situateil  ill  a  fertile  plain  on  "the  river  Dimbovetza.  about 
140  miles  X.  W.  of  Varii;i  :  hit.  44"  2.5  30"  X..  Ion.  26'  5  24" 
E.  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungarv,  ref.  9-M).  The  houses  are 
raostiv  mean,  and  the  streets  dirty  and  not  well  paved.  It 
contain  over  100  chun-hes,  a  college,  a  public  library,  several 
lios])ilals,  and  an  excessive  number  of  gaming-houses.  This 
citv  has  the  rejiutation  of  being  the  most  di.ssolute  capital  in 
Europe.  It  is  the  entreiiot  for  llie  trade  between  Austria 
ami  Turkey,  the  chief  articles  of  which  are  grain,  wool,  salt, 
buihling-tiniber,  cattle,  and  wax.  The  treaty  of  ijeace  by 
which  the  sultan  ceded  Bessarabia  and  part  of  Moldavia  to 
Russia  was  eonchuled  here  in  Mav,  1812.  Pop.  (1876)  221,- 
000:  (1892)  proliably  250.000. 

BHfll'clt'r,  Fra.nz:  classical  philologist,  eminent  aullior- 
itv  in  the  domain  of  early  Latin;  b.  in  Rheinbcrg,  June 
3,"  1837;  professor  in  Bonn  since  1870.  Among  his  works 
are  Oniiidriss  der  lateiiiischen  Declination  (1879) ;  /''''"h- 
tiniis.de  aqiiis  url/is;  Perrif/ilium  Veneris;  Petroniiis  (L'il. 
mai.  1862;  together  with  /yiinr Priapennim.XaYio »  Saliine 
Menippeu'.  and  the  A/iocolori/ntesis  of  Seneca,  1882) ;  Qiiinlt 
Ciceronis  reliqiiite  (1869);  Herodas  (1892);  and  numerous 
articles  on  earlv  Latin  in  the  Rheinische  Sliiscuni  ami  else- 
where. ■  A.  Gll>E.MAX. 

BiU'Iiez,  bii'shay',  Philippe  .Joseph  Bex.iajiix  :  jihilosophi- 
cal  writer  and  Vepubiiean:  h.  in  Jlortagne,  Ardennes, 
France,  -Mar.  31,  1796.  He  studied  medicine,  and  took  part 
in  several  [ilots  against  the  Bourbons.     He  wrote,  liesides 


su 


BtCHXER 


BUCKINGHAM   AND   CIIAXDOS 


other  works.  The  Science  of  the  Development  of  Humanity 
(1833).  and  a  Complete  Treatise  on  Philosophy  from  the 
Catholic  and  Progressire,  Point  of  View  (3  vols.,  1840). 
Buchez  and  Roux  Lavergne  publislied  The  Parliamentary 
History  of  the  French  Mevolution  (40  vols.,  ]833-;^8).  He 
was  president  of  the  Xational  Assemblv  in  Mav.  1848.  D. 
in  Rhodes,  France.  Aug.  12,  1865. 

Biich'ner.  Friedrkh  Ivarl  Christian  Lvdwig:  b.  in 
Darmstadt,  Germany.  JIar.  29.  1824:  a  leading  advocate 
of  •■  humanitarian."  materialistic,  and  atheistic  opinions. 
His  best-known  work  is  entitled  Kraft  unci  Stof  (Force 
and  Matter.  1854).  lie  has  written  also  two  volumes  with 
the  title  Phi/sioloyiral  Pictures  (\mi):  one  on  Statural 
Philosophy -.'Si-r  Lectures  on  Darwin  (1868):  and  a  work 
on  Man  in  the  Past.  Present,  and  Future  (1869-70).  The 
latter  has  been  translated  (1872)  into  English  by  W.  S.  Dal- 
las. P.  L.  S.  With  considerable  acquaintance  with  recent  sci- 
ence, an  easy  style,  and  some  ingenuity  of  argument,  the  prin- 
cipal attraction  of  JSiichner's  works  to  most  readers  is.  prol> 
ably.  his  audacity.  In  1872-73  Buchner  made  a  lecturing-tour 
in  the  U.  .S..  unt'ler  the  auspices  of  the  German  Turnverein, 
but  wit  hout  marked  results  in  the  propagation  of  his  opinions. 

Biiohtel  {'ollege  (Akron,  0.) :  Its  corner-stone  was  laid 
Julv  4,  1871.  and  it  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  students 
Sept.  11,  1872.  It  was  founded  by  the  Ohio  Convention  of 
Universalists,  and  named  Buchtel  College  in  honor  of  .John 
R.  Buchtel  (1820-1892).  whose  benefactions  to  the  college 
are  estimated  at  ^.500.000.  It  is  open  to  men  and  women 
on  equal  terms,  ami  offei's  three  courses  of  study — the  clas- 
sical, the  philosophical,  and  the  scientific — leading  respect- 
ively to  the  degrees  of  A.  B.,  Ph.  B.,  and  B.  S.  Besides  the 
main  college  building  it  has  an  astronomical  observatory 
and  a  gj'mnasium. 

Bnchn,  byu'kyu  [a  South  African  word] :  the  leaves  of 
Barosma  crenata.  crennfula.  ami  serrafifolia.  and  of  other 
strong-smelling  South  African  plants  used  in  medicine  for 
their  diuretic  properties.  They  belong  to  the  family  Ruta- 
cetB.  and  are  used  by  the  Hottentots  for  many  diseiises.  The 
natives  also  prize  them  for  their  fragrance,  and  use  them 
in  perfuming  their  bodies.  In  commerce  the  various  kinds 
of  buchu  are  known  as  "  round  "  and  '•  long  "  buehu,  etc. 
They  all  contain  a  volatile  oil. 

Bnck :  the  male  of  the  fallow  deer  and  of  other  species 
of  deer  :  also  the  male  of  sheep,  goats,  antelopes,  and  rab- 
bits. The  term  is  not  projierly  ap|ilied  to  the  male  of  red- 
deer  or  American  deer,  which  is  called  a  stag.  The  term 
doe  is  applied  to  the  females  of  tliose  species  of  deer  the 
males  of  which  are  called  bucks. 

Buck.  Dudley  :  organist  and  composer  :  b.  in  Hartford. 
Conn..  Mar.  10.  1839:  studied  first  at  home  and  later  in 
Leipzig.  On  his  return  was  appointed  organist  of  Park 
church,  Hartford,  and  a  few  years  later  went  to  St.  .James's 
church,  Chicago.  The  great  fire  of  1871  having  destroyed 
liis  home  there,  he  returned  East,  and  was  for  a  short 
time  organist  of  tlie  great  organ  in  JIusic  Hall,  Boston ; 
soon  went  to  Xew  York,  and  acted  as  substitute  conductor 
of  Thomas's  Central  Park  Garden  concerts ;  was  appointed 
organist  of  St.  Aim's  church.  Brooklyn,  and  later  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Bro<iklyn.  where  he  still  re- 
mains. Buck  is  one  of  the  finest  orgiinists  in  the  U.  S..  and 
as  a  composer  is  also  very  eminent.  In  1876  he  was  selected 
to  compose  the  cantata  for  the  opening  of  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  in  Philadelphia.  Ilisi-anlata  .SVe«e.s/TO/H //on(/- 
fellow's  Golden  Leyend  took  the  .^1.000  prize  at  the  Cincin- 
nati festival  of  1880.  lie  has  also  composed  the  following 
cantatas:  Forty-sixth  Psalm;  The  Leycnd  of  Don  Munio: 
Voyage  of  Columbus  (for  male  voices);  The  Light  of  Asia 
(text  by  Edwin  Arnolil);  Hymn  to  Music;  The  Xun  of 
Nidaros  (for  male  voices) ;  King  Olafs  Christmas  (for 
male  voices) :  Chorus  of  Spirits  and  Hours,  from  Shel- 
ley's Prometheus,  besides  an  f)i)era,  DeserrI,  and  another  in 
manuscript  and  unproiluced,  together  with  luimerous  songs 
and  part  songs,  for  both  male  and  mixed  voices,  and  very 
many  pieces  for  the  organ,  and  almost  numberless  pieces  of 
church  music,  lie  is  the  comluctor  of  the  Apollo  Club  of 
Brooklyn,  a  society  of  male  voici's,  and  has  frequently  olh- 
ciated  as  judge  in  musical  compi'titions.  His  music  is  very 
popular,  being  full  of  beautiful  melody.  He  has  also  com- 
posed several  works  for  full  orchestra,  including  .sevcial 
symphonies,  a  concert  overture.  Mann  ion,  imiX  sonu"  smaller 
works.  His  cantata  The  Story  of  the  Cross  was  published 
in  1891.  D.  K.  IIervev. 


Buck  Bean,  or  Marsh  Trefoil  (Menyanthes  trifoliata) : 
a  plant  of  the  family  Genlianaceie.  It  is  imligenous  in 
Europe  and  the  U.  .S.,  and  is  widely  distributed  in  the  colder 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  grows  in  bogs  and 
marshes,  hence  also  called  bog-bean.  The  leaves  are  ternate. 
the  coroUa  funnel-shaped  and  five-parted,  and  the  fruit  is  a 
pod  or  two-valved  capsule.  A  bitter  extract  obtained  from 
the  leaves  is  a  valuable  remedy  for  dyspepsia  and  disordei-s 
of  the  bowels.  The  whole  plant  is  tonic,  and  is  used  in 
Germany  as  a  substitute  for  hops. 

Buckeye :  the  popular  name  of  certain  American  ex- 
ogenous trees  and  shrubs  of  the  genus  ^sruliis  and  the 
family  Sapindacece.  The  Ohio  buckeye  (^Fscuhis  glabra), 
growing  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  is  a  large  tree  witli 
a  strong-smelling  bark,  small  obscure  flowers,  and  prickly 
fruit  containing  the  seed,  a  large  nut  resembling  that  of  the 
hoi-se-chestnut  tree,  which  is  a  near  relative  of  this  buckeye. 
The  sweet  buckeye  (^^.  ocfandra).  a  tree,  sometimes  a  shrub, 
of  a  range  rather  more  to  the  south  than  that  of  the  preceding, 
has  yellow  or  sometimes  dull  purple  flowers.  The  red  buck- 
eye (^.  pa  via)  has  a  still  more  southern  habitat.  It  is  gen- 
erally small,  and  has  bright-red  flowers.  The  California 
buckeye  (^.  californica)  is  a  tree  30  to  40  feet  in  height, 
growing  on  the  Coast  Range  Mountains  and  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Xevada.  There  are  various  other  spe- 
cies in  Asia.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  Besset. 

Biickhaii'lion  :  town :  capital  of  Upshur  co..  West  Va. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  West  Virginia,  ret.  7-H): 
on  W.  Va.  and  Pitts.  R.  R..  and  on  Buckhannon  river;  41 
miles  from  Clarksburg.  Here  are  flouring,  saw,  and  woolen 
mills,  tannerv.  a  furniture-factory,  and  two  colleges.  Pop. 
(188U)  761;  (1890)  1.403. 

Buckiughaiu.  George  Villiers.  Duke  of:  favorite  of 
.James  I.  of  England;  b.  in  Leicestershire.  Aug.  20.1592. 
He  became  in  1617  a  gentlemen  of  the  bedchamlier.  and 
obtained  in  the  sjiace  of  two  years  the  titles  of  baron,  vis- 
count, and  earl.  In  1616  he  was  appointed  lord  admiral  of 
England.  He  accompanied  Charles.  Prince  of  Wales,  when 
he  went  to  ^ladrid  in  1623  to  obtain  in  marriage  the  infanta 
of  Spain.  The  failure  of  this  suit  was  ascrilied  to  the  arro- 
gance of  Villiers.  who  in  his  absence  was  created  Duke  of 
Buckingham.  He  negotiated  the  marriage  of  the  prince 
with  Henrietta  of  France  ;  contrived  a  disastrous  expedition 
against  Cadiz  and  an  impotent  one  against  Rochelle.  from 
•niiich  he  returned  in  disgrace.  After  the  death  of  James  1. 
he  became  the  favorite  and  prime  minister  of  Charles  I.,  but 
he  made  himself  odious  to  the  nation.  He  was  assassinated 
in  Pi  irtsmouth  while  embarking  for  a  second  raid  on  Rochelle 
by  .lohn  Felton.  Aug.  23.  1628: 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers.  Duke  of;  b.  in  West- 
minster. .Ian.  30.  1627.  He  was  an  adroit  courtier,  but  prof- 
ligate and  nn])rincipled.  On  the  defeat  of  the  royalist 
party  in  1651  he  went  into  exile.  At  the  R<'storation  (1660) 
he  became  a  member  of  the  privy  council  and  an  enemy 
of  Lord  Clarendon,  after  whose  fiill  (1667)  he  was  a  con- 
fidential minister  of  Charles  II.  He  was  the  president  of 
the  ministry  called  the  ••  Cabal."  He  wrote  the  Rehearsal. 
a  burlesque  on  the  lieroic  plays  of  Dryden  and  other  Res- 
toration dramatists,  produced  at  the  King's  theater  in  1671. 
with  immense  success,  and  other  plavs.  D.  in  Kirbv  3Iot)r- 
side.  Yorkshire,  Apr.  16.  1688. 

Buckinsjrliam.  Joseph  Tinker:  writer;  b.  at  Windham. 
Conn..  Dec.  21,  1779;  published  Specimens  of  jV^eirspaper 
Literature  (18.50)  and  Personal  Jfemoirs(\8i)2);  became  suc- 
cessively editor  of  the  A>h'  England  Galaxy,  the  Boston 
Courier,  and  the  yew  England  Magazine.  D.  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass..  Apr.  11,  1861. 

Buckingliam.  William  Alfred;  war  Governor  of  Con- 
necticut ;  li.  in  liebanon.  Conn..  May  28.  1804  :  brought  up  on 
a  farm  :  l)ecame  a  manufacturer  in  Xorwich.  of  which  city 
he  was  mayor  for  four  terms:  was  nine  times  successively 
elected  Governor  of  his  native  State  (1858-66);  sent  55.000 
troops  to  the  Union  armv  without  drafting,  an  excess  of  the 
quota  of  the  State  by  6.000:  U.  S.  senator  1869  to  his  death; 
eminent  in  temperance  and  missionary  projects,  and  in 
Congregational  councils;  gave  ^25.000  to  Yale  Theological 
Seminary:  d.  in  Xorwich.  Conn..  Feb.  3.  1875.  A  statue  of 
him  is  in  the  State-house  at  Hartford. 

Buckinghauisliire  (England):  See  Bucks. 

Buckingham  and  Chandos.  Dukes  of:  Marquesses  of 
Chandos  and  Earls  Temple  of  Stowe  (1822.  in  the  United 
Kingdom),  Jlarquesscs  of  Buckingham  (1784),  Earls  Tern- 


BUCKINdllAMSIIIHK 


lUC'KSI'OKT 


S15 


pie  (1749).  Visociunts  and  Bhi-oiis  Ccilihain  (ITIS.  in  (Ircat 
Britiiin),  Earls  Nuf;enl  (ITTti.  in  Ireland),  Hanms  Kinloss 
(1001,  in  Scutland),  a  nolile  familv  of  (ireat   liritain, — Kk  ii- 

ARD     I'LANTAliKNKT     CaMI'BKLL     'rKMI'LK     Nl(iEXT-!?KYUUKs; 

Chaxdds  GkIvXvh.lk.  tlic  tliird  duke  of  this  family,  li.  in 
18-28,  siK-cfC'dfil  his  falhc-rin  IMtll.  He  was  lord  pivsidc-nt 
of  the  i-i)uncil  lS(Ki-GT,  Sc-iMvtary  iif  Statu  for  the  Colonii's 
18t>T-(i'\  andlieianie  Lord-Lioutenant  i>f  Hacks;  governor  of 
Madras  1S73-HO;  ehairnian  of  eonnnittees  of  House  of  Lords, 
D,  Mar.  27,  IISS!),  and  the  dukedom  was  extinguished  with 
him. 

Itiickiiigliainsliire,  Kaki.s  of  (174t),  in  Kngland) :  lianms 
Iloliart  (IT'.'S,  in  (in-at  lirilain),  and  haronets  (101 1,  in  Kng- 
landj.  a  nolile  fannly  of  (ireat  lirilain, — .Vu(ifsTis  Kijward 
HoHART,  the  sixth  earl,  h,  N'<iv,  1,  17!):J,  .succeeded  his 
broth>'r  in  1S4!I,  and  d.  in  188.").  Present  earl  is  Sidxky 
C'arr  IIoiiart-Hampdex,  b,  in  18li0. 

BiicklaiKl.  Cyris:  inventor;  h.  in  .Manchester,  Conn., 
Aug.  1(1.  17!l!l;  liecanu' a  machinist,  and  found  employment 
in  the  Springlield  armory.  He  invented  a  machine  for 
turning  gun-st(K:ks  linishe<l  from  the  rough  block  ;  also  pcr- 
fecteil  the  iuterchangeabilitv  of  the  parts  of  n  musket,  re- 
ducing the  cost  one-half,  fteceived  .'i;7(),(10()  from  Congress 
for  his  inventions;  retired  in  broken  health  in  18o9;  d, 
Feb.  L>(i.  I8ill. 

Buck  land,  William,  D,  1)„  K.  R,  S,  :  geologist;  b.  in 
Tiverton,  Kngland,  in  1784;  educated  at  Corpus  Christi 
College.  Oxford  ;  reader  on  geology  on  royal  founilalion  at 
Oxford  in  181!!;  author  of  a  distinguished  Work  in  geology, 
Reliiiuiir  Dilnvinnte  (1  vol.,  182;1),  His  principal  work  is 
the  Hridgewater  Treatise  entitled  (holiii/))  iniil  Jliiifirtlof/i/, 
Considenil  iril/i  Reference  to  Nntiiral  Tlwologij  ('i  vols., 
1836),  In  182.5  he  became  a  canon  of  Christ  cluireli.  Ox- 
ford: Dean  of  WestniinstiT  in  184.").  0.  .\ug.  14,  18.j().— 
Fraxi'Is 'I'rkvklyax.  his  son  :  b.  in  Oxfonl,  Dec,  17,  182(> :  a 
pisciculturist:  became  inspector  of  ISritish  >almon  and  her- 
ring fisheries;  wrote  treatises  on  his  favorite  pursuits;  d. 
Dec.  lit,  1880,  See  his  Life  bv  .1,  C,  Bompas  (London, 
188.">). 

Rlicklaii'dia ;  a  large  and  beautiful  evergreen  tree  of 
the  family  Iliitnnmehiceie:  native  of  the  Himalaya  ]\Ioun- 
tains.  The  trunk  is  sometimes  7  feet  in  iliameter  at  5  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  40  feet  before 
it  branches.  The  foliage  is  thick  and  glossy,  but  the  timber 
is  not  very  valual)le. 

Buckle.  (cKORfiE  Karlk:  English  journalist  ;  b.  .luiu'  10, 
1854;  educated  at  Oxford:  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1880:  enti'reil  the  ollice  of  Tlie  rimes  in  1880,  and  be- 
came its  editor  in  1884.  .Married  in  188")  a  daughter  of 
James  I'ayu. 

Buckle,  Hexry  Thomas:  philo.sophical  historian;  b.  at 
Lee,  in  Kent,  Xov,  24,  1822,  His  father  was  a  merchant, 
at  whose  death  he  came  into  the  possession  of  an  ample  for- 
tune, and  was  enaliled  t.i  gratify  his  fondness  for  books, 
forming,  it  is  said,  one  of  the  finest  ]irivate  libraries  to  be 
found  in  . all  Europe.  He  pnblislu'd  in  t8"i7lhe  first  volume 
of  the  nixliiri)  (if  Cii'ilizdlioH  in  Eni/ldnd,  a  work  display- 
ing great  boldness  as  well  as  affluence  of  thought,  and  char- 
acterized by  an  easy  and  vigorous  style.  It  pro|)osed  to 
intr(«luce  a  now  method  of  studying  and  writing  history 
which  shonhl  raise  history  to  the  rank  of  a  real  science. 
The  .second  volume  appeared  in  ISOI.  He  taught  Ihat 
skepticism  was  the  source  of  ]irogress  and  credulity  re- 
tarded if.  wr)rking  out  his  conclusions  often  in  a  one-sided 
way  and  with  boldness  offensive  to  conservative  minds.  Mr. 
Buckle  set  <iut  on  an  Eastern  tour  in  18()1,  ami  dieil  at 
Danni-scns,  May  2!),  18(!2.  The  three  volumes  of  Mixecllane- 
oun:  and  Postliumons  Writinqs  were  edited  bv  Miss  Tavlor 
(1872).     See  his /w'/eby  A,  H.  Huth  (1880), 

Buckley,  .Iames  .Moxroe,  D.I).,  LL,  D, :  editor  and  min- 
ister of  the  Methodist  Epi.scopal  Church:  b,  at  Hahway, 
X,  .f.,  Dec.  Ki,  18;i(i;  educateil  at  Pennington  Seminary  and 
Wesleyan  I'lnversily;  entered  the  ministry  1S.~)S;  editor  of 
The  ( 'liriififiu  Adrorate  (Suw  Yovk  since  ISISO);  author  of 
Two  Weeks  in  the  Yosemiti-  and  Vicinity  (New  York,  1878) : 
(^hrislinns  and  the  Theater  (1875);  Supposed  Minii-les 
(Boston,  1875);  Midniqhl  Snn.  the  Czar  and  tlie  Xitiitists 
(Boston,  18.8(!):  (hits'  or  Wild  Oats  (New  York,  1885); 
Foilh  irenlinii  (New  York,  1892), 

Buckley,  Samikl  Botsford,  Ph.  D. :  b.  in  Torr>'y,  Yates 
CO.,  X.  Y.,  May  !l,  1809;  grailuated  at  Wesleyan  University 
in  1886;  traveled  extensively,  chiefly  in  the  Southern  States, 


as  a  student  of  botany,  malacology,  geology,  geodesy,  etc.; 
was  assistant  mituralist  and  geologist  in  the  State  survey  of 
Texas  18(iO-61  ;  was  connected  with  the  U,  S,  sanitary  com- 
mission 1862-65:  State  geologist  of  Te.xas  186(>-67;  was 
1871-72  editorially  connected  with  the  State  Gazette.  Aus- 
tin, Tex. ;  was  author  of  many  .scientific  and  other  iiapei's, 
and  prepared  a  work  on  the  frees  and  shrubs  of  the  L.  S. 
He  discovered  the  flowers  and  fruit  cjf  the  shrub  or  small 
tree  liiicltlei/a  distiehophi/llii,  named  in  his  honor  by  Dr. 
Torrey.     D.' in  .\n.stin,  Tex.,  Feb.  18,  1884, 

Ituek'ininster,  .Ioseph,  I),  1),:  an  orthodox  divine;  b.  at 
Uutland,  Mass.,  Oct,  14,  1751  ;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1770; 
became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Portsmouth,  X,  II„  in  1779; 
and  was  an  eloquenl  and  pojinlar  preacher.  D.  in  Heads- 
boro,  Vt.,  .June  10,  1812,  See  his  Memoirs  (Boston,  1851), 
by  his  daughter,  Eliza  B.  Lee. 

Biickniinstcr.   Joseph    Stevens,   D,  I).:    b,   at    Port.s- 

moutli.  -N.  11..  .May  2(i.  1784:  son  of  Joseph  mentioned 
above;  graduated  at  llarvanl  in  1800.  and  in  1N04  became 
pastor  of  the  Brattle  Street  church  in  Boston.  He  had 
gn-at  oratorical  ability,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Anthology 
Club  and  contributor  to  the  Jlonthli/  Antho/iii/y  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Boston's  literary  reimtation,  and  especial- 
ly one  of  those  who  first  gave  the  ]>reaching  of  his  time  a 
literary  form  where  it  hail  been  merely  expository  ami 
hortatory,  strewn  thick  with  Seri]iture  iexts  with  which 
eha|iter  and  verse  were  given.  He  was  of  the  Libei'al  Chris- 
lian  party  of  his  day.  which  became  distinctly  I'nitarian 
shortly  after  his  death.  In  the  pulpit  he  was  Channing's 
rival,  and  no  less  on  this  account  his  valued  friend.  His 
literary  tastes  were  likely  to  draw  him  from  the  jjulpit  to 
secular  .scholarshiti,  when  his  brilliant  career  was  cut  short 
by  epilepsy,  D,  June  9,  1812,  See  his  Memoirs  (Bcston, 
1851),  by  his  sister,  John  W,  Chadwick, 

Buckner,  Simon  Bolivar:  Courederate  general;  b.  1823 
in  Kentucky;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1844;  in  infantry 
1844-.52:  subsei|uently  commissary  of  subsistence;  servc'd 
at  frontier  posts  l.s!44-52:  assistant  jirofessor  at  thi'  Mili- 
tary .\cademy  1846;  in  the  war  with  Mexico  184()-48  under 
both  Taylor  and  Scott;  quartermaster  Sixth  Infantry;  as- 
sistant instructor  at  the  Military  .-Vcademy  1848-50:  on  com- 
missary duty  at  Xew  York  city  1852-55:  resigned  Mar.  2(i. 
1855.  He  was  superintendent  of  construct  ion  of  Chicago  cus- 
tom-house 185,5  ;  adjutant-general,  rank  of  colonel,  of  Illinois 
1857;  farmer  near  Louisville,  and  inspector-general  com- 
nuiiiding  Kentucky  home  guards  1800-61  ;  joined  the  South- 
ern army  in  the  civil  war;  was  in  command  of  Bowling 
(ireen,  which  he  evacuated  on  the  capture  of  I-'ort  Henry, 
falling  back  on  Port  Donclson  (surrendered  Feb.  16, 1862,  to 
Gen.  Grant,  with  1(!,(I00  troops  and  vast  stores):  prisoner  of 
war  at  Fort  Warren  till  Aug.,  18()2 ;  in  command  of  a  divi- 
sion of  Hardee's  corps  in  Bragg's  army  in  Tennes.see:  as 
nuijor-general  assigned  to  third  grand  division ;  engaged  at 
Murfreesboro  and  Chickainauga,  and  included.  May  26,  1865, 
in  Kirhy  .Smith's  surrender  to  Gen.  Canby.  He  was  elected 
Governor  of  Kentucky  Aug.  I.  1887.  Xominated  for  Vice- 
President  by  the  Sound-money  Democrats  Sept.  3,  1890. 

Bucks,  or  Buckinglianisliire:  an  inland  county  of 
England;  bounded  X.  bv  Northampton,  E.  liv  Bi'dfonl  and 
Hertford,  S.  by  Berks,  aiid  W.  by  Berks  .and  (Jxford.  It  has 
an  area  of  746  .s().  miles.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  val- 
leys and  hills  of  moderate  height.  The  Chilfern  range  of 
clialk-hills,  about  900  feet  high,  extends  across  the  county 
in  a  X.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction.  Xear  the  middle  of  the 
county  is  t\\r  fertile  Vale  of  .\ylesbury.  which  is  birther  X. 
than  the  Chiltern  Hills;  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  con- 
tains a  large  portion  of  clay.  It  is  drained  iiy  the  Ouse, 
the  Thames,  and  other  smaller  rivers.  The  staple  products 
are  wheat,  beans,  butter,  cattle,  and  mutton.  The  sheep  of 
the  X'ale  of  Aylesbury  are  noted  for  their  fine  and  heavy 
fieeees,  Bucks  County  is  intei-sected  by  the  Great  Western 
and  X'orlhwesteru  Hailwavs,  The  chief  towns  are  Avles- 
bury,  Buckingham,  and  Miirlow,     Pop,  (1891)  185,190.  ' 

Bucksport  :  townshi]) ;  terminus  of  Bucksport  branch  of 
Maine  Cenlr.Ml  K.  li'. :  Hancock  co..  Me.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  ma|i  of  .Maini',  ref.  8-E)  :  on  left  (east)  bank  of 
Pemibscol  river:  18  miles  .S.  of  Bangor.  It  derives  its  sup- 
port principidly  from  ship-building,  fisheries,  tanneries,  ssiw- 
mills,  and  ice  business.  Just  out  of  the  village  are  U,  S, 
salmon-breeding  houses  and  jiond.  It  has  daily  stage  con- 
nection with  outlying  towns,  Bucksport  has  three  churches, 
and  is  the  seat  "of  the   East  Maine  Conference  Seminary. 


81(5 


BrCKTHORX 


BUDAPEST 


Pop.  of  township  (1880)  3,047 :  (1890)  2.021 :  (1893)  estimated. 
3.000.  '  Editor  of  "  Clipper." 

Biiektliorn  :  a  shrub  or  small  tree  of  tlie  genus  Rhnm- 
?!?j.s  and  Um\\\\'  Ithamnacew.  distinguished  by  a  liell-slniped 
calyx  whieli  is'  four  or  five  cleft,  and  jjetals  which  are  small 
and  sometimes  wanting.  Tlie  fruit  is  a  berry-lil<e  druiic, 
containing  two  to  four  separate  sced-lilvc  nutlets.  The  spe- 
cies are  numerous,  and  natives  of  many  temperate  and 
tropical  regions.  Tlie  common  bucktliorn  (Rhainniis  ca- 
thurticus)  is  a  deciduous  slirub.  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
naturalized  in  the  U.  .S.  It  luis  spiny  brandies,  ovate 
leaves,  and  small  blaelv  l)erries  (or  drupes)  which  are  nau- 
seous and  purgative,  and  wliich  yield  tlie  pigment  called 
sap-green  (or  bladih^r-grecn).  Tliis  shrub  is  planted  for 
liedges  in  tlie  U.  S.  Tlie  Atlantic  States  have  two  native 
siiecies.  Tlie  alder  buelcthorn  (Rhamnus  francjuhi)  is  a 
European  shrub  which  is  not  armed  with  spines,  and  lias 
ovate,  entire  leaves.  Tlie  berries  are  violently  cathartic. 
The  bark  has  lieen  employed  in  medieine.  and  is  used  for 
dyeing  yellow.  The  unrijie  fruit  of  dyer's  buckthorn 
(Rhamn'us  infeeforius),  a  shrub  which  grows  in  Southern 
Europe,  yields  a  bright  yellow  dye.  The  so-called  French 
or  Avignon  berries  used  by  dyers  are  the  fruit  of  the  last 
and  other  species. 

Bliekwhoilt  [buck-  has  same  root  as  hmcli:  Germ.  Buche. 
without  umlaut;  cf.  Germ.  Biichweize]:  an  annual  plant 
(Fac/opi/  riiin  e.icuhiitiiin.  or  Polygonum  fngopi/rum):  of 
the  order  Poh/yonacea:;  said  to  lie  a  native  of  Central  Asia 
and  Manchuria.  It  is  cultivated  for  food  in  Europe  and 
the  U.  S.  it  grows  to  the  height  of  2  feet  or  more.  It  has 
triangular,  lieart-shaped  or  halberd-shaped  leaves.  The 
seeds  are  triangular,  and  resemble  a  beech-nut  in  form. 
Cakes  of  buckwheat  eaten  warm  are  a  favorite  article  of 
food,  and  verv  nutritious.  Buckwheat  meal  contains  about 
10  per  cent,  of  gluten  an<l  TiO  per  cent,  of  starch.  Bees  are 
partial  to  the  flowers  of  this  iilaiit,  which  secrete  a  large 
portion  of  honey,  not  of  the  first  ipiality.  Buckwheat  comes 
to  maturity  in  a  shorter  time  than  most  other  grains,  and 
may  be  sown  late.  In  tlio  U.  S.  the  seeds  are  usually  sown 
broadcast.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  for  one  acre  is  a 
busliel  or  one  liushel  and  a  lialf.  It  requires  little  nitro- 
genous or  coarse,  heavy  manure.  A  good  crop  of  this  grain 
yields  , about  30  Imsh.  on  an  acre,  and  a  bushel  of  it  weighs 
from  45  to  48  lli.  Kornierly  buckwheat  was  grown  mostly 
as  a  late-season  and  •■catch"  crop,  but  it  now  receives  more 
systematic  ti-eatuu'iit  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Another 
species,called  Tartarian  buckwheat  (ii'n(7q/j»//'»/H^«-/r(7-'(CHn(), 
is  a  hardy  native  of  Silieria,  and  is  adajited  to  cokl  climates. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  common  buckwheat  by  the 
toothed  edges  of  its  seeds,  and  is  inferior  in  qu.-dity. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Bucknhc.lt  Family  (Pohmoimceie):  apetalous,  dicoty- 
ledonous herbs,  shrubs"  or  even  trees;  with  a  superior  one- 
celled  ovary,  containing  an  creel,  straight  ovule.  They  are 
related  to  the  amaranths,  eliemipcids.and  piukworts.  There 
are  about  COO  species,  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
world.  The  most  important  genera  are:  En'ogonum,  con- 
taining about  100  species,  all  American;  Poli/goniim,  with 
150  species;  Rii me.r,  v/ith  130  species;  and  Coccoloba,  with 
80  species.  Fagopijrum  escidenliim  of  Asia  is  the  well- 
known  buckwheat ;  Rhcinii  liiiipoiilictim.  R.  nndnlatiim.  and 
R.  officinale  are  known  as  rhubarb,  and  supply  the  drug 
bearing  that  nanie,  while  the  petioles  of  the  first  and  second 
are  used  for  pies,  tarts,  .sauces,  etc.      Charlk.s  E.  Bessev. 

Buckwlu-al-tree:  a  small  tree  or  shrub  of  Georgia  and 
the  Gulf  Stales  (the  (.'liftonia  ligusfrina);  a  smooth,  ele- 
gant evergreen  of  the  faiiiily  Ciiri/taceie.  It  has  clusters  of 
white,  fragrant  blossoms  in  JIareh,  April,  and  May.  It 
grows  around  swainjis,  ponds,  and  streams,  and  is  often 
called  fifi.  Its  pendulous-winged  fruit  issometiines  slnqied 
like  a  kernel  of  l)uck\vheat ;  whence  the  name. 

Bncoric  [froni  Gr.  $ouko\ik6s.  deriv.  of  Povk6\os.  herds- 
man]: pastoral  or  pertaining  to  herdsmen,  'i'liis  lenu  is 
applied  to  a  kind  of  pastoral  poi'try  written  in  hexameter 
verse.  The  )ioems  of  Theocritus  and  the  Erli/gticn  of  Vergil 
are  the  most  jierfecl  models  of  bucolic  jioetry. 

Bucy'rus;  city;  capital  of  Crawford  co.,  0.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  3-F):  on  Pa.  and  Ohio 
Central  11.  Rs.,  and  on  Sandusky  river;  02  miles  N.  of 
Columbus.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  large  farming  and  manufac- 
turing community;  has  large  uniim  .school-lKUisc,  gas  and 
electric   lights,  good  sewerage  system,  and  pavements   of 


vitrified  brick  in  many  of  its  streets.  There  are  mineral 
s]irings  in  the  town  and  neighborhood.  The  skeleton  of  a 
mastodon  was  fonnd  in  the  vicinity  in  1838.  Po]).  (1880) 
3,835 ;  (1890)  5,974.  'Editor  op  '■  Forum." 

Biul  (in  jilants) :  In  the  growth  of  a  shoot  it  frequently 
ha|ipens  that  the  elongation  of  the  stem  is  checked  for  a 
time,  while  the  leaves  continue  their  growth  for  a  while 
longer.  The  result  is  a  collection  of  leaves,  mostly  closely 
packed  together  into  a  pretty  solid  mass,  and  this  we  call  a 
liiiil.  rsually  the  leaves  are  consideralily  inodifii'd.  the 
outer  ones  soon  becoming  hard  and  scale-like,  constituting 
the  so-called  "  bud  scales."  When  the  elongation  of  the 
stem  is  resumed  the  leaves  are  separated,  and  the  bud  dis- 
appears. A  bud  is  thus  a  quiescent  state  of  a  shoot.  In 
popular  botany  buds  are  distinguished  as  "  leaf-liuds  "  and 
"  flower-lnids,"  the  former  developing  leafy  shoots  and  the 
latter  one  or  more  flowers.  Inasmuch  as  flowers  are  them- 
selves transformed  shoots,  all  buds  are,  strictly  speaking, 
essentially  alike. 

Sometimes  the  word  bud  is  applied  to  particular  out- 
growths in  the  lower  plants,  especially  when  these  have  to 
do  with  the  production  of  new  plants.  Thus  we  speak  of 
the  buds  on  the  yeast  plant,  the  bnils  of  liverworts,  etc. 
This  use  of  the  word  should  be  abandoned,  as  it  tends  to 
confusion.  Charles  E.  Bessby. 

Buda,  boo'da:  city  of  the  Austrian  empire;  formerly  a 
cajiital  of  Hungary."  From  its  hot  springs  Buda  derives 
its  German  name  of  Ofen — i.  e.  oven,  liuda,  is  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube  opposite  to  Pest,  with  which  it  is  now 
incorporated  as  one  citv.  stvled  Budapest  (</.  v.).  Pop.  (1880) 
of  Buda  alone,  about  60,000. 

Biidu'iis  (Biiili').  Guillau.me:  jihilologian ;  b.  in  Paris, 
14(57;  d.  there  Auj*.  23,  1.540;  em|)loyed  by  Louis  XII.  and 
Francis  I.  in  Roman  embassies  and  other  public  business; 
instigated  the  founding  of  the  College  de  Prance ;  obtained 
license  for  jirinting  in  opposition  to  the  Sorbonne  ;  was  royal 
librari.m  when  he  died.  Ills  best-known  works  were  .4)WiO- 
tationes  in  .c.rii:  Hbros  Pandecforum  (1.50H):  l)c  Asse-  et 
parlibus  ejus  (1514);  and  Coninienfarii  Bingiice  GrcecCB 
(1519);  sns[)ected  of  secret  predilections  for  Lutheranism. 
See  his  TAf'e  by  E.  de  Bude  (Paris,  1884),  ami  his  Letlres 
tn('rf//t-s  (Paris,  i887).     D.  in  Paris,  Aug.  22,  1540. 

Buda.  Old  (in  Ger.  Ait  Ofen;  Hun.  0'  Buda):  a  munic- 
ipal town  of  llungary,  in  the  county  of  Pest,  on  the  Dan- 
ube, almost  adjoining  the  suburbs  of  Buda  (see  map  of 
Austria-IInngarv,  ref.  6-11).  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
Sicanibi-ia.     Pop.  16,000. 

Biidaiiost.  boo'da-pest :  capital  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary ;  is  composed  of  Buda.  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube", and  Pest,  on  the  left  bank,  the  two  being  connected  by 
several  handsome  liridges.  one  a  susiiension  bridge  1,200  feet 
in  length  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  6-H).  Buda 
and  Pest  were  independent  of  each  other  nj)  to  1S73.  The 
population  of  the  two  cities  in  1848  was  scarcely  100.000. 
Their  growth  was  not  marked  until  the  format  i(m  of  the 
new  constitution  of  the  Austro-llungarian  empire  in  1868. 
llungary  then  became  jiractically  an  independent  kingdom, 
and  Budapest,  as  co-ordinate  capital  with  Vienna  of  the  em- 
pire, and  the  center  of  the  growing  national  life,  entered 
uiion  a  new  and  magnificent  era.  Its  growth  in  the  two 
decades  from  1870  to  1890  rivals,  and  in  some  respects  sur- 
liasses.  that  of  the  great  Western  cities  of  the  U.  S.  Buda, 
formerly  the  more  important,  has  been  outstripped  by  Pest 
in  this 'advance.  Buda  is  strikingly  i)icturesc|ue.  A  rock, 
siiringing  abruptly  from  the  river,  and  rising  to  a  height  of 
neariv  1.000  feet.' is  crowned  by  the  now  useless  (-itadel ;  a 
neighboring  liut  lower  eminence  affor<ls  a  striking  site  for 
the  imposing  roval  palace;  and  the  city  forms  itself  in  im 
.•imphithiMiter  .-ibout  the  liase.  Pest  is  situated  on  a  sandy 
plain,  but  its  location  gives  it  marked  commereial  advan- 
tages. Budapest  is  the  greatest  grain-market  of  the  empire. 
Vast  fleets  of  grain-boats  ply  u|ion  the  Damibe,  and  the 
milling  industry  is  of  great  extent.  i\Iany  of  the  iinprove- 
mciilsin  fIoui--ii'iilling,includingtlieroller-iirocess.origiiiated 
hi'iv.  The  citv  I'ouncil  numbers  400.  doubtless  the  largest 
lioily  of  the  kiiid  in  the  world;  but  the  government  is  elfi- 
cien'tly  carried  on  by  a  small  number  of  iiiunici]ial  oflicials. 
Sanitary  imiirovenie'nts  have  reduced  the  death-rate  from  50 
]ier  1.0()0  to29.  The  old  streets  have  been  straighteneil  so  tar 
as  possible.  Andrassy  Strasse  is  the  finest  street  of  the  city, 
and  by  reason  of  its  length  (2  miles),  its  width,  tiaving,  and 
the  uniformly  handsome  buildings  that  line  it,  has  a  claim 


BUDD 


BUDDHISM 


817 


to  be  considered  amonK  the  great  streets  of  the  world.  The 
i|uays  that  confine  the  Danube  for  a  distance  of  Smiles,  lined 
with  lini'  buildinjjs,  are  a  strikin^part  of  thecily.  Kadiiitin^ 
thoroiijih fares,  intersected  by  the  so-called  Ji!ini/sfrai<.'<en,  have 
been  inlroduced.  Near  the  Bh)cksber«  on  the  Biida  side,  on 
which  is  the  observatory,  are  three  celebrated  sulphur  springs, 
much  resorted  to  for  certain  diseases,  and  contrihuting  not 
:i  little  to  the  natural  advantajjes  of  the  city.  Jiudapest  has 
a  llourishini;  university,  an  academy  of  sciences,  a  polylcehnie 
.schdiii,  and  is  well  proviilcd  willi  other  educational  institu- 
tions. Besides  the  Imildinjjs  already  mentioned,  the  cathe- 
dral, city-hall,  national  theater,  anil  university  church  are 
ainonn  tiie  most  important.  The  Margaretta  island  in  the 
Danulie  has  been  transformed  into  a  park.  Wine  of  a  su- 
perior (iiiality  is  produced  in  the  vicinity  (the  Ufner).  The 
Iruiicrial  Parliament  meets  in  alternate  years  at  Budapest 
iiiiil  X'iciina,  and  the  emix'ror  and  court  spend  much  time  in 
the  Hungarian  capital.  The  history  of  the  city  is  most  in- 
teresting; it  was  once  the  site  of  a  komaii  colony;  was  long 
regarded  as  the  citadel  of  Christendom  against  the  Turks; 
belonged  to  the  Turks,  1539-lCWG:  in  800  years  the  citadel 
wjis  besieged  twenty  times.  The  election  of  the  Hungarian 
kings  formerly  took  i)lace  on  the  liakos.  a  iieighljoriiig  plain, 
and  here  as  many  as  100.000  men  often  encamped  for 
months.  The  iii'w  Budajiest  is  the  center  of  the  political, 
commercial,  literary,  and  artistic  life  of  a  progressive  and 
ambitious  people  numliering  17.000.000.  and  as  such  is  rea- 
sonably sure  of  maintaining  and  improving  its  position 
among"  the  great  cities  of  the  world.  Pop.  (181)0)  506,061. 
See  Mill/ ape  ft.  the.  Rise  of  ft  Xew  MetropuUs,  by  Albeit 
Shaw,  TItf  CeHtnnj,.]ime,'\W2.  C.  II.  ThI-rber. 

Biidil.  .TosEi'ii  Lantasteb:  Professor  of  Horticulture  and 
Forestry  in  IhcMowa  Agricultural  College;  b.  in  Peekskill, 
N.  Y..  .July  .5.  IHH.'i:  known  for  his  efforts  to  secure  hardy 
fruits  for  tlie  Northwest,  particularly  through  his  travels  in 
Russia  with  Charles  (iIbb  ((j.  r.),  and  the  introduction  of 
many  l{u.ssian  fruits  and  ornamental  trees.  The  papers  and 
library  of  the  late  Charles  Downing  were  bequeathed  to 
him. 

Uiiilde'ns.  JoHAXN  Fraxz  :  Lutheran  theologian  and 
philosopher;  b.  in  .Vuclam,  in  Pomerania,  .lune  25,  1667. 
lie  was  elected  in  1602  Professor  of  the  Greek  Languages  at 
('"burg;  in  lOiCi  was  invited  to  take  the  ch;iir  of  Moral 
Philosophy  at  Halle  ;  in  1705  became  Professor  of  Theology 
at  .lena.  llis])ositiou  was  onewhicli  harmonized  orthodoxy 
ami  pietism.  His  erudition  was  enormous  (he  was  the  most 
universal  scholar  among  the  theologians  of  his  time),  yet 
accurate,  and  his  judgment  was  of  the  most  solid  kind.  He 
wrote  more  than  a  hundred  books,  most  of  which  are  si  ill 
sought  by  scholars,  and  several  of  which  are  acknowledged 
standards.  His  more  important  liookswere;  Inxfifutiones 
2'heolojiim  MuruUa  (Ijcipzig.  1171);  I/isfifiifionen  T/wo/ni/im 
X>oy»nn/('«p  (Leipzig.  1728);  IliKtaria  Tlti-iilniiitr  Doijmaiicm 
el  Jloralis  (Frankfort,  1725).  In  philosophy  he  was  an 
eclectic.    D.  in  Gotha,  Nov.  li),  1729. 

Ucvised  by  Hexrv  E.  Jacobs. 

Buddha  or  Booddha  :  a  Sanskrit  word  meaning  "awak- 
ened, enlightened,  illuminated."  It  is  applied  to  a  man  who 
has  attained  to  ]ierfect  knowledge  of  the  truth;  who  liv 
good  works  through  countless  existences  has  at  length  be- 
come released  from  the  bonds  of  existence;  and  who,  before 
entering  into  Xirvaxa  {q.  v.)  prea<-hes  the  truth  to  mankind 
for  its  redemption.  Innumerable  Buddhas  have  already  ap- 
peared. The  liuddha  of  the  pre.«ent  dispensation — the  his- 
torical Buddha — was  born  of  the  Kshatriya  tribe  of  (^'iikvas 
(Sakyas).  ;ind  called  in  his  youth  Siddhattha.  After  attain- 
ing enlightcnnu'iit.  he  was  called  (Totama  (or  Gautama) 
liuddha;  also  .Samana  Gotama,  "'the  Gotamid  ascetic."' 
(,'akya-uiuni  (Sakyamuni),  "Vakya-sage,"  and  (,'akya-singha, 
••  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  (,'iXkyas,"  are  mere  epithets,  like 
•■  I'rophcl  of  Nazareth."     See  Gautama.       C.  R.  IjAXMax. 

Kiiddliism  :  a  complex,  many-sided  religious  system  which 
originated  in  India,  lU'obably  about  .500  B.C..  and  flourished 
there  for  sixteen  centuries  along^ide  of  Braiimaxism  (</.  c), 
from  which  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  evolved,  and  wilii 
which  it  had  many  things  in  common.  By  the  thirfeeiilh 
century  of  our  era  it  had  practicjilly  disappeared  there,  losing 
itself  in  that  development  of  I'r.ihmauism  which  is  known 
as  Hinduism,  and  to  which  it  had  itself  contributed.  From 
India  the  system  was  carried  southward  to  Ceylon  about 
250  b. c;  thence  to  Burma  in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 
and  to  Siam  in  the  seventh.  As  it  now  exists  in  these  coun- 
tries it  lulherts  more  closely  to  the  primitive  system  than 
62 


does  that  which  prevails  elsewhere,  and  is  known  among 
scholars  as  southern  Buddhism.  About  245  B.C.  it  was  car- 
ried northward  by  missionaries  to  Kashmir,  whence  it  spread 
to  Nepal,  Tibet,  China, Koiva,  and  .Japan.  In  these  countries 
it  received  so  many  new  developments  that  in  some  impor- 
tant respects  it  bears  little  resemblance  to  the  original. 
Northern  Buddhism  adheres  in  the  main  to  the  ex[ianded 
form  of  doctrine  [n'omulgated  by  Nagarjuna,  the  fourteenth 
Indian  patriarch,  called  the  M<i?tui/dna.  or  "Great  Vehicle 
or  Conveyance,"  as  distinguished  from  the  more  primitive 
doctriue-s  of  the  .southern  school,  called  Il'iiidycoia,  the 
"Little  (or  Interior)  Vehicle  or  Conveyance."  The  form  of 
Buddhism  which  prevails  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia  is  called 
Lamaisni.    See  all  these  titles  and  the  countries  named. 

J/.1  Fiiundci: — Buddhism  originated  in  the  ethical  and 
philosophical  tcjK-hings  of  an  ascetic  and  reformer  known 
among  southern  Budilhists  as  Gautama,  or  Gotama  (thesac- 
erdotal  name  of  the  family  to  wliich  he  belonged),  among 
northern  Buddhists  as  Sakyamuni  (the  ".Sakya  Sage"),  aial 
generally  among  Europeans  as  the  Buddlia,  or  simiily  Bud- 
dha, the  "enlightened  '  one,  referring  to  the  perfect  insight 
which  cjime  to  him  as  he  sal  under  the  Bo-thee  {q.  v.)  pon- 
dering in  rapt  meditation  on  the  problem  of  life  and  its  at- 
tendant miseries.  Son  of  a  we.nllhy  Sakya  chief'lain  (whose 
seat  was  at  Kapilavastu.  near  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas), 
reared  in  luxury  and  surrounded  with  all  the  plea.sures  and 
seductions  of  an  Ka.stern  court,  he  seems  to  have  reached  the 
age  of  twenty-nine  before  making  acquaintance  with  human 
sufTering,  or  realizing  its  universality,  depth,  and  inlen.sity. 
Tlie  story  is  that  on  four  different  occasions,  while  driving 
through  the  city,  this  was  presented  tohim  in  four  "  visions." 
One  of  the  devas  appeare(i  to  his  gaze  first  as  a  decrepit  and 
wrinkled  old  man.  tottering  along  with  the  help  of  a  staff; 
next  as  a  loathsome  leper,  writliing  by  the  wayside  in  the 
agonies  of  disea.se:  on  the  third  occasion  as  a  putrid  corpse 
bi'ing  carried  to  the  grave.  Profoundly  saddened  and  im- 
prcs.sed  by  these  sights,  and  by  the  knowledge  wlii(rh  inquiry 
brought  him,  that  these  were  no  uncommon  occurrences  but 
the  lot  of  all  without  reference  to  sex.  caste,  or  condition,  he 
was  prepared  for  the  fourth  vision,  a  Brahmanical  reel  use,  who 
had  abandoned  the  wtirld  and  its  lleeting  jileasures  in  order 
that  by  meditation  and  mendicancy  he  might  find  a  way  of 
escape  from  the  ills  of  life.  This  seemed  to  Gautama  to 
point  to  a  way  of  deliverance,  so  for.saking  his  home,  his 
wife,  and  the  boy  born  to  him  that  very  day,  he  assumed  the 
garb  of  a  mendicant,  and  .set  out  to  iind  salvation  for  him- 
self and  all  mankind.  DisapfHiinted  with  (he  Brahmanical 
teaching  which  he  first  tried,  he  plunged  into  the  forest,  and 
for  six  years  iinavailingly  sought  liy  increasingly  vigorous 
austerities  and  self-mortification  to  find  the  peace  and  de- 
liverance he  desired.  At  last  almost  in  ilespair  he  Hung  him- 
self down  beneath  a  bo-tree,  and  there,  after  forty  days  and 
nights  of  fixed  contemplation,  enlightenment  came  to  him, 
and  the  problem  was  solved. 

Doctrinal  Baxis. — His  solution  of  the  problem  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  Four  A'erities  or  Noble  Truths,  regarded  as 
fundamental  by  all  Buddhists  of  whatever  school.  They 
are:  1.  SulVering  exists  wherever  .sentient  being  exists.  2. 
The  cause  of  snlfering  is  desire,  a  craving  for  pleasure  or 
for  existence.  This  li'ads  to  reliirth,  and  reliirtli  is  suffer- 
ing, y.  Deliverance  from  suffering  can  l)e  efl'ected  only  by 
the  extinction  or  "  blowing  out "  of  desire.  This  is  Nirv.vna 
(q.  v.).  4.  This  cessation  of  suffering  and  entrance  into 
Nirvana  can  be  attained  only  Ijy  walking  in  the  Path  of 
Buddha,  or  the  Noble  FightfoUl  Path.  This  comprises 
ri.glit  views  (as  to  the  nature  and  cause  of  suffering);  right 
thoughts;  right  words;  right  actions;  right  means  of  live- 
lihood— that  is,  as  a  mendicant  monk,  living  in  celibacy 
and  on  offered  alms;  right  application  of  the  spirit  to  the 
study  of  the  law ;  right  memoiT,  or  freedom  from  error  in 
recoilecting  the  law ;  and  right  meditation.  The  last  four 
of  these  a]iply  particularly  to  the  community  of  mcmks 
which  he  founded ;  Hie  lirst  four  to  both  monks  and  lay- 
men. 

In  this  Eightfold  Path  there  are  four  distinct  stages.  He 
who  has  arrived  at  a  just  perception  of  the  four  verities  and 
enters  upon  "the  stream  of  holy  conduct,"  successively  be- 
c(mies  free  from  the  first  three  of  the  ten  fettere  which  bind 
us  to  life  with  its  sorrows,  viz..  from  delusion  in  regard  to 
self,  from  doubt  as  to  Buddha  and  his  law.  and  from  dc- 
peudence  on  works,  or  a  belief  in  the  ellicacy  of  rites  and 
ceremonies.  By  per.severance  throughout  the  second  stage 
lu.st,  hatred,  and  delusion  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
the  disciple  attains  to  the  degree  of  saintship,  which  in- 


818 


BUDDHISM 


BUELL 


volves  only  one  more  return  to  this  world.  By  perseverance 
in  the  tlii'rd  stage  sensuality  and  ill-will  are  entirely  de- 
stroyed, and  he  is  freed  i'rom  all  necessity  of  ever  return- 
ing to  this  world.  When  the  fourth  stage  is  completed  he 
is  set  free  from  all  error ;  he  has  burst  the  remaining  five 
fetters,  viz.,  love  of  life  on  the  earth,  desire  of  life  in  heaven, 
pride,  self-righteousness,  and  ignorance — the  first  link  in  the 
twelve-linked  chain  of  cause  and  effect.     .See  Xidaxa. 

Upon  the  Four  Xoble  Truths  and  tliis  Eightfold  Path  has 
been  reared  the  whole  elaborate  superstructure  of  Buddhist 
doctrine  and  practice,  with  its  Tr.\xs.migratiox;  its  six  Gati, 
or  conditions  of  sentient  existence;  its  twelve  Xidan'AS,  or 
links  in  the  chain  of  causation  ;  its  five  Skandhas,  or  bun- 
dles of  material  and  abstract  qualities,  by  the  union  of  which 
personality  is  produced  ;  its  Paramitas,  or  cardinal  virtues, 
by  means  "of  which  one  may  pass  across  the  great  sea  of  life 
aiid  death  to  the  shores  of  X'irvaxa  ;  its  Dhyaxa,  or  fixed  con- 
templation: its  Brahmalokas  and  its  Devalokas;  its  heav- 
ens of  TusHiTA  and  Swarga  :  its  Sckhavati,  or  Paradise  of 
THE  West:  its  hot  and  cold  hells  (see  Naraka);  its  Sangha, 
or  order  of  monks ;  its  Viharas,  or  monasteries  :  and  its  nu- 
merous sects  anil  developments,  some  account  of  all  of  which 
is  necessary  to  any  adequate  presentation  of  Buddhism,  but 
which  can  "not  be  dwelt  on  within  the  limits  of  a  single  page. 
See  all  the  above  titles  in  the  order  here  given.  See  also 
TsiXG-TU  (or  JoDo)  and  Shixshiu. 

In  its  primitive  form  Buddhism  was  essentially  atheistic. 
The  gods,  equally  with  men  and  animals  and  all  the  other 
forms  of  sentient  existence,  were  subject  to  change — to  de- 
cay, death,  and  rebirth.  Hence  sacrifice  and  all  forms  of 
worship  were  useless,  and  a  priesthood  unnecessary.  Later, 
however,  the  worship  of  various  deities  was  introduced, 
and  Buddha  himself,  as  well  as  Maitreva  (q.  i:),  the  com- 
ing Buddha :  Adibuddha,  the  origin  of  all  things ;  the 
Dhvaxi-buddhas.  or  impersonations  of  abstract  thought ; 
Amitabha,  the  Buddha  of  "  Boundless  Light  "  who  presides 
over  the  Paradise  of  the  West :  Avalokiteshvara.  the  god  (or 
goddess)  of  mercy  (see  Kwax-yix)  ;  and  many  others,  are 
objects  of  worship  throughout  some  section  of  the  northern 
school.  It  also  denied  the  existence  of  the  soul, and,  indeed, 
of  evervthing  except  body,  mind,  and  sensation,  of  lieaven, 
earth,  and  hell,  all  of  which,  however,  are  described  as  char- 
acterized by  impermanency,  and  subject  to  continual  disin- 
tegration and  reintegration.  JMan  is  conceived  of  as  a  com- 
bination of  five  skandhas,  or  bundles  of  material  qualities, 
sensations,  abstract  ideas,  tendencies  of  mind,  and  mental 
powers.  The  breaking  up  of  these  is  death.  A  force,  how- 
ever, is  left  behind,  and  under  the  influence  of  this  there  is 
a  tendency  in  these  five  elements  to  recombine  and  form  a 
new  personality  or  individual.  This  force  is  called  Karma, 
the  consequence  of  the  acts,  words,  and  thoughts  of  the 
individual  during  the  continuance  of  the  combination  of 
qualities  which  has  come  to  an  end.  It  is  this  accumulation 
of  merit  or  demerit  which  determines  the  nattire  and  condi- 
tion of  the  new  personality,  but  it  can  not  be  said  to  be  a 
soul.     See  Karma. 

77(6  Brotherhood  or  Srint/hn. — A  very  important  feature 
of  the  system  of  Buddha  was  the  community  or  brotherhood 
of  converts  which  grew  up  around  him.  At  first  it  con- 
sisted of  himself  and  his  first  five  converts,  the  ascetics, 
with  whom  he  had  lived  in  the  forests  before  he  discovered 
tliat  austerities  were  useless  in  bringing  deliverance  from 
the  ills  of  life.  As  converts  iticveased  they  joined  this  band 
of  ilisciples  called  Bikshus  and  Bikshunis  (male  and  female 
mendicants),  and  Ijound  themselves  to  chastity  and  a  life  of 
self-denial.  Conduct  was  regulated  by  a  sinijile  code  of  ten 
.jrohibitions.  Not  to  kill  (or  even  injure  ani/  living  thing, 
no  matter  how  lowly);  not  to  steal,  or  commit  adultery,  or 
lie  (an<l  this  included  abstention  from  all  manner  of  im- 
proper speech) ;  not  to  use  strong  ilrink.  or  take  repasts  at 
improper  times;  not  to  look  at  dances  anil  jilays,  or  have 
costly  raiment,  perfumes,  or  ornaments;  not  to  have  a  large 
bed  or  (jiiill :  and  not  to  receive  gold  or  silver.  In  addition 
to  these,  twelve  observances  were  enjoined  on  recluses,  who 
were  required  to  use  clothes  made  of  rags  picked  up  in 
burying-grounds  or  on  the  road:  to  have  only  three  such 
coats,  all  made  by  the  wearer's  own  hands:  to  have  a  cloak 
of  yellow  wool  to  cover  all,  and  made  in  the  same  way;  to 
live  exclusively  on  fond  given  in  charity  and  williout  ask- 
ing: never  to  eat  or  drink  after  midday;  In  live  in  the  for- 
ests or  jungles;  to  have  no  roof  but  the  foliage  of  the  trees; 
to  sit  with  the  back  supported  by  the  trunk  of  a  tree;  to 
sleep  sitting  and  not  hnng;  never  to  change  the  position  of 
the  mat  or  quilt  when  once  it  had  been  spread ;  and  lastly 


to  go  once  a  month  to  the  cremation  or  burying  grounds  to 
meditate  on  the  vanity  of  life.  As  his  doctrines  spread, 
and  it  was  found  impracticable  for  all  to  join  this  bi'other- 
hood,  the  first  five  injunctions  (as  the  first  four  of  the  eight 
noble  paths)  were  made  obligatory  on  the  masses.  The  one 
great  redeeming  and  commendable  feature  of  Buddhism  is  its 
charity,  its  kindliness  toward  and  its  care  for  the  welfare  of 
all  living  things,  and  its  sympathy  with  sorrowing  humanity  ; 
and  its  spread  is  perhaps  more  due  to  this  than  to  any  other 
feature.  As  it  now  exists  its  many  votaries  in  its  temples 
and  raonastei'ies  are  perhaps  the  only  real  Buddhists, 
but  its  moral  teachings  exercise  considerable  influence  over 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia,  from 
Ceylon  to  .lapan.  For  Esoteric  Buddhism,  see  Theosophy  ; 
for  Buddhist  Cosmogony,  see  .Jambudvipa  and  Si'meru  ; 
and  for  an  account  of  its  scriptures  (which  are  voluminous), 
see  Tripitaka. 

The  following  works  on  Buddhism  may  he  consulted  with 
profit:  Jiitroducfioti  a  Vhistoirtdu  Bouddhistne  Jiidien.hy 
Eugene  Burnouf  (1844-76) ;  Ls  Lotus  de  la  Bonne  loi,  by 
the  same  author  (1832);  A  Iffuiual  of  Buddhism,  by 
K.  Sjience  Hardy  (2d  ed.  1880) ;  Easlern  Monachism  (1860) 
and  Legends  and  Tlieoriesof  tlie  Buddhists  (18(i6),  both  by 
the  same  author:  Bcliyion  des  Buddha,  by  Koeppen  (vol.  i. 
deals  with  ^Southern  Buddhism  (18.5?)  and  vol.  ii.  wilh 
Lamaism.  18.5!l) ;  Buddhis?)i  in  Tibet,  bv  Schlagintweit 
(1863) :  TJie  Wheel  of  the  Law.  by  Alabaste'r  (1871) ;  Legend 
of  the  Burmese  Buddha,  by  Bishop  Bigandet  (1858) ;  Bud- 
dagosha's  Parables  (from  the  Burmese),  by  Capt.  Kogers, 
with  Introduction  bv  Max  Jliiller  (1870) :  Der  Buddhismus, 
seine  Dogmen  und Literatur.\t\  Wassilief  (1869);  A  Catena 
of  Buddhist  Scriptures,  by  Beat  (1871);  Texts  from  the 
Buddhist  Canon,  commonly  knuivn  as  Dhammapada.  trans- 
lated from  the  (I'hinese  by  the  same  author ;  Chinese  Bud- 
dhism, hv  Edkins  (1880) ;  Buddhism  (1880),  and  the  Ilib- 
bert  Lectures  (1881).  by  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids;  Buddhism  in 
its  Connection  tcith  Hinduism,  by  Jlonier-Williams  (1889); 
and  Buddhism.  Primitive  and  Present,  in  Jlagadha  and 
Ceylon,  by  Bishoji  Copleston  (1892).  E.  Lilley. 

Budding,  or  Inoculation,  is  a  mode  of  propagating 
improved  and  choice  varieties  of  fruit  which  can  not  be 
reproduced  by  seeds.  It  is  the  best  mode  of  propagating 
peaches,  and  is  convenient  in  the  case  of  phniis.  cherries, 
apples,  pears,  roses,  etc.  The  best  time  for  budding  is  the 
last  half  of  snnuner.  The  ojieration  is  performed  by  open- 
ing the  bark  of  the  stock  with  a  vertical  and  transverse  cut, 
nearly  like  a  letter  T.  and  inserting  into  it  a  leaf-bud  of 
another  variety.  The  length  of  the  bark  and  wood  cut  off 
with  the  bud  is  about  an  inch.  These  buds  are  taken  from 
a  branch  formed  in  tlie  present  or  preceding  year.  They 
shoidd  be  cut  sijuarely  at  the  top,  so  as  to  fit  the  transverse 
section  of  the  bark  of  the  stock.  The  leaf  growing  close  to 
the  bud  should  be  cut  olf.  The  process  is  finished  by  tying 
the  bud  with  bass  matting,  soft  cotton  twine,  or  woolen 
yarn.  The  operation  just  described  is  called  "  shield-bud- 
ding," and  is  more  rapidly  performed  than  grafting. 

Bude-lig'lit :  a  brilliant  light  invented  by  a  Mr.  Gurney, 
of  Bude.  in  Cnrnwall.  England.  He  introduced  a  stream 
of  oxygen  into  a  flaming  jet  of  oil  or  gas.  The  expense  of 
this  system  has  prevented  its  general  use.  The  same  name 
is  sometimes  inappropriately  given  in  Great  Britaiji  to  other 
similar  invention.s. 

Budissin :  See  Bautzen. 

Bnel,  Samuel,  D.  D.  :  theological  writer  and  professor ; 
b.  in  Troy.  N.  Y.,  June  11,  1815 ;  graduated  at  Williams 
College  183:^:  rector  of  parishes  in  Jlichigan,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  New  York ;  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory and  subse<|uently  of  Divinity  in  the  Seabury  Divinity 
School.  Faribault.  Minn.,  1886;  of  Systematic  Divinityand 
Dogmatic  Theology  in  the  General  SeminaiT.  Xew  York 
city,n871.  He  translated  the  lieport  of  the  Union  Con- 
ferences held  August  lu-lG.  1S75.  at  Bonn  (Kew  York,  1876). 
ile  wrote  The  Apostolical  System  of  the  Church  Defended 
(Philadel|)hia.  1844) ;  Eurharistic  Presence.  Sacrijice.  and 
Adoration  (Xew  York.  1874);  and  .4  Treatise  of  Dtigmatie 
Theology  (IS'.tO.  2  vols.).  Died  in  Xew  York  citv,  Dec.  30, 
1892. 

Buell.  Don-  Carlos  :  soldier ;  b.  near  Marietta.  0.,  Mar. 
23.  1818  :  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841 :  after  serving- 
in  the  ini'antry  till  1848,  became,  .luly  17,  1862.  assistant 
adjutant-general  U.  S.  A.,  rank  of  colonel,  and  Jlar.  21, 
1862,   major-general  U.   S.   volunteers.     He  served  in   the 


BUEXA  VISTA 


liUFFALO 


819 


Florida  war  1841-43 :  on  frontier  duty  1843-45 ;  in  the 
military  octMipation  of  Texas  1840^(5;  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  184C-4S.  and  was  wounded  at  Churnbnseo;  ad- 
jutant of  the  Third  Infantry  1847-48  ;  assistant  adjutant- 
general  at  Washington,  1).  C,  1848—19:  at  head<iuarters  of 
various  deparlinents  1849-61.  In  the  civil  war  lie  was  in 
coinnuind  of  the  department  and  army  of  the  Ohio  1862; 
engaged  at  the  hattle  of  Shiloh,  siege  of  Corinth,  oiieralions 
in  Xorlhern  Alabama,  aiul  the  retreat  to  Louisville  to  cut 
off  the  army  of  Hragg.  which  he  drove  from  Kentucky; 
was  hcfore  a  commission  to  investigate  his  operations  18(i2- 
63.  lie  resigned  from  the  army. June  1,18<>4,  and  in  1865 
became  president  of  the  Green  Kiver  (Kentucky)  Iron- 
works. 

ItiiPlia  Vista  (Sp.  jiron.  bwa  luia-vees'ta'a):  a  hamlet  in 
Mexico;  about  90  miles  S.  W.  of  Jlonterey  and  7  miles  S. of 
Saltillo;  famous  for  the  battle  fought  in  its  vicinity  between 
the  U.  S.  forces  under  (ien.  Zachary  Taylor  and  the  Mexican 
army  under  Santa  Anna,  Feb.  22-23,  1S47.  (ien.  Taylor, 
having  become  assured,  from  reconnoissances  on  Feb.  20, 
that  the  enemy  was  in  heavy  force  at  Kncarnacic'm,  30  miles 
in  front  of  Agua  Nucva,  with  the  evident  intention  of  at- 
tacking his  position,  withdrew  his  army  on  tlie  21st  from 
the  camp  at  Agua  Xueva,  which  could  be  turned  on  either 
flank,  and  took  up  a  strong  line  a  little  in  front  of  Buena 
Vista.  A  cavalry  force  left  at  Agua  Xuevji  to  cover  the  re- 
moval of  suiiplies  was  driven  in  during  the  night,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  22d  the  Mcxi<'an  army  a|)peare(l  imme- 
diately in  front  of  Hueiia  Vista,  and  at  11  A.  M.  (Feb.  23)  a 
flag  wa.s  sent  from  Santa  Anna  with  a  siimintms  of  uncon- 
ditional surrender,  to  which  (ien.  Taylor  laconically  replied 
that  he  "declined  to  accede  to  the  request." 

The  line  occupied  by  the  V.  S.  troops  was  one  of  re- 
markable strength.  The  road  at  this  point  becomes  a  nar- 
row delile.  the  valley  on  its  right  being  rendered  imiirac- 
ticable  for  artillery  by  a  system  of  dee))  and  impa.ssable 
gullies,  while  on  the  left  a  succession  of  rugged  ridges  and 
precipitous  ravmes  extends  back  toward  the  mountain 
which  bounds  the  valley.  The  features  of  the  grounii  were 
such  as  nearly  to  paralyze  the  artillery  and  cavalry  of  the 
enemy,  while  his  infantry  eouhl  not  derive  all  the  a<lvan- 
tage  of  his  numerical  superiority.  The  action  was  com- 
menceil  about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  22d,  be- 
tween the  light  troops  on  the  left,  and  skirmishing  continued 
till  dark,  but  lu)  serious  attack  was  made  until  the  morning 
of  the  23d.  During  the  night  of  the  22d  the  Mexicans  had 
occupied  the  mountain-side  by  light  troops,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  forcing  the  left  Hank  of  the  U.  S.  army,  and  it  wjis 
here  that  the  action  commenceil  on  the  23(1,  and  an  obstinate 
and  sanguinary  conflict  was  maintained,  with  short  inter- 
vals and  varying  success,  throughout  the  day,  resulting  in 
the  repulse  of  the  enemy  from  Taylor's  lines,  which,  how- 
over,  had  been  much  contractid  since  morning.  An  attju-k 
of  cavalry  upon  Buena  Vista  and  a  demonstration  upon 
Saltillo  were  also  rej)elled,an<l  during  the  night  Santa  .\inia 
abandoned  his  position  and  fell  back  upon  Agua  Xueva.  A 
reeonnoissance  made  on  the  26th  disclosed  the  fact  that  the 
retreat  luul  been  continued  in  the  direction  of  San  Luis 
Potosi,  and  fien.  Taylor  resumed  his  former  camp  at  Agua 
X'ueva  on  the  27th. 

The  V.  S.  force  engaged  was  about  .'5,200,  while  the  Jlexi- 
can  army  was  stated  by  Santa  Anna  in  his  summons  to  be 
20,000  St  rong.  The  loss  in  U.S.  troops  was  746,  of  which 
267  were  killed;  the  Mexican  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  about  2,000. 

Biion  .Vyro:  See  Boxaire, 

Itiicnilia,  bwen-deea'a,  Juas:  Peruvian  general;  b.  at 
Lima.  1814.  He  early  entered  the  army  as  an  artillery  cadet, 
ascending  bv  regular  grades  to  the  rank  of  general ;  in  1874 
he  commanded  the  force  which  crushed  the  insurrection  of 
Pierola.  ■  When  the  Chilian  war  broke  out  in  1.S7!»  he  was 
put  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  south  at  Tarapaca. 
With  7.000  Boliviiins  and  Peruvians,  very  badly  eipiipped, 
he  attacked  10,000  Chilians  on  the  heights  of  San"  Francisco, 
near  Pisagua  (Xov.  8,  1879);  he  was  defeated  with  terrible 
loss,  and  retreated  to  Tarapaca.  where  the  Chilians  attacked 
him,  but  were  repulsed  (Xov.  27).  losing  most  of  their  artil- 
lery. Huendia  then  continued  his  retreat  to  Arica.  lie  was 
court  niartialed,  but  exonerated,  and  served  in  the  defense 
of  Lima.     After  the  war  he  retired  toj)rivjite  life. 

lIiiUBERT  II.  Smith. 

Bne'nos  .Vy'res:  a  province  of  the  Argentine  Uepublie; 
boiiiKled  X.  E".  by  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the 


Atlantic  Ocean,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Rio  Xegro,  which  separates 
it  from  Patagonia.  The  area  is  estimated  at  63,000  sii. 
miles.  The  surface  is  an  alluvial  plain,  in  which  timber  and 
stones  are  scarce ;  the  .soil  is  mostly  fertile.  Here  are  vast 
treeless,  grassy  plains,  called  pdiiipan,  which  afford  pasture 
to  immense  herds  of  cattle  and  horses.  These  constitute  the 
principal  riches  of  the  inhabitants.  This  province  is  not 
liberally  sujiplied  with  rivers  or  running  streams,  but  con- 
tains a  great  number  of  salt  lakes.  The  principal  river  be- 
sides the  Parana  (La  Plata)  is  the  Kio  Colorado,  which 
traverses  the  S.  \V.  part  of  the  provinci'.  The  climate  in 
the  X.  part  is  mild,  and  has  a  mean  summer  temperature  of 
90°  F.  It  became  independent  of  Spain  in  1810.  seceded 
from  the  Argentine  Republic  in  18.53,  and  was  reunited  to  it 
in  June,  1860.  A  large  number  of  Kui-opeans  have  emi- 
grated to  this  province.  Pop.  (1895)  921,222.  Cajiital,  La 
Plata  (founded  in  1884).  and  situated  about  40  miles  S.  E. 
of  the  city  of  Buenos  .\yrcs. 

liiioiios  Ayres:  a  seaport  of  South  America:  capital  and 
largest  citv  of  the  Argentine  Republic;  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  La  Plata :  hit.  34°  36'  S.,  Ion.  58  22'  W.  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref.  8-F).  It  is  nearlv  opposite  to  Monte- 
video, which  is  100  miles  distant.  The  streets  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles,  are  paved  with  granite,  end  bordered 
by  low  brick  houses,  which  usually  have  each  a  garden  ad- 
joining. The  principal  imblic  buildings  are  a  large  cathe- 
dral, numerous  churches,  the  House  of  Kejircsentatives,  and 
a  college,  with  wliicli  are  connected  a  large  library,  an  ob- 
servatory, and  a  normal  school.  The  adjacent  country  is 
alluvial,  and  nearly  destitute  of  timber.  The  climate  is  dry 
and  healthy.  Many  line  [)ublic  buildings  have  lately  been 
completed,  an<l  others  are  in  progress.  Its  ti'ade  and  pros- 
perity are  impeded  by  the  want  of  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbor.  The  chief  exports  are  hides,  beef,  grain,  wool,  tallow, 
horns,  and  skins.  It  is  ra|iidlv  t'l'owiiig  in  imjiortance.  Pop. 
(1882)  29.5.000;  (1892),  549,307;'  (1895)  6G5,'243. 

liilfnrik.  or  Koofurik.  boo-fa'a-reek  :  a  village  of  Algeria; 
18  miles  .S.  S.  \V.  of  Algiers;  on  the  road  from  Algiers  to 
Blidah  and  Oran;  an  im|iortant  military  station.  It  has  a 
trade  in  cotton,  grain,  olives,  oranges,  and  an  important 
weekly  market.     Pop.    (1891)  8,064. 

Itiitfalo :  either  of  two  species  of  ruminant  animals 
of  the  family  Boridw.  the  liabaJux  hiiffrliis  and  liiihahis 
caffei:  The  former  is  a  native  of  India,  where  it  has  been 
long  domesticated,  and  is  an  important  and  useful  animal. 
It  is  generally  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  in  India  and  also  in 
Italy,  where  it  was  introduced  about  600  A.  D.  It  is  larger 
and  more  powerful  than  an 
ox,  and  has  a  larger  head  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body ;  the  dorsal  line  rises 
into  a  considerable  elevation 
above  the  shoulders.  It  has 
large  crooked  horns,  which 
are  curveil  first  outwanl  ami 
downward,  and  next  back- 
ward and  ujiward.  The  buf- 
falo is  partial  to  marshy 
places,  and  is  addicted  to 
waUowing  in  the  mud  and 
shallow  water.  Its  llesh  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  ox.  but 
the  milk  of  the  feiiuile  is  said  to  be  excellent  in  (piality. 
The  tame  buffaloes  of  India  are  easily  managed  and  guided 
by  a  mere  rope,  and  the  driver  often  rides  on  their  backs. 
The  jungles  of  India  are  also  infested  by  wild  buffah>es  of 
the  same  species,  sometimes  called  arna  or  arnee,  a  fierce 
and  dangerous  animal,  which  is  more  than  a  match  for  a 
tiger.  'The  Cape  buffalo  (Buhnhm  cnffer)  is  a  native  of 
South  Africa,  and  has  not  been  domesticated.  It  has 
large  horns,  the  bases  of  which  are  close  together.  The 
horns  spread  or  diverge  laterally,  are  next  bent  downward, 
and  have  the  point  curved  upward  and  inward.  The  animal 
measures  about  8  feet  from  the  base  of  its  horns  to  its  tail, 
and  is  about  5^  feet  in  height.  It  is  a  dangerous  animal, 
and  will  attack  men  without  jirovocation.  but  it  is  .some- 
times mastered  bv  the  lion.  Its  hide  is  so  thick  and  tcaigh 
that  the  Callers  make  shields  of  it.  V.ist  herds  were  for- 
nierlv  found  in  South  Africa.  For  the  American  buffalo,  see 
Bison.  Revised  by  I».  S.  .Iordan. 

ItulTalo:  acity;  port  of  entry,  and  important  railroad  and 
commercial  center;  capital  of  Erie  co..  X.  V.  (for  location  ot 
countv,  see  mat)  of  Xew  York,  ref.  .5-C);  in  lat.  42^  53'  N., 
Ion.  78°  05    \V.;   at  the  foot  of   Lake  Erie  and  head  ot 


Cape  butTalo. 


82U 


BUFFALO 


BUG 


Niagara  rivtr.  It  is  also  the  western  terminus  of  tlie  Erie 
Canal.  In  population  and  wealtli  it  is  the  third  city  in  the 
State.  The  city  is  delii;htfully  situated,  havins:  a  navi.s;aljle 
water-front  of  about  7  miles,  with  numerous  substantial  and 
extensive  piers,  breakwaters,  basins,  and  canals,  constructed 
at  an  expense  of  several  miUions  of  dollars,  partly  by  the 
Federal  Government  and  partly  by  the  State  and  municipal 
authorities.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  on  the  lakes, 
formed  by  the  Buffalo  i-iver.  navigable  for  about  2  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Tlie  entrance  is  protected  by  extensive 
breakwaters.  Tlie  city  extends  down  the  Niagara  river  and 
Lake  Erie  aliout !)  miles,  and  at  right  angles  with  it  the  same 
distance.  The  Niagara  is  here  crossed  with  a  fine  iron  truss 
railroad  bridge,  completed  in  1873  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000, 

Buffalo  is  noteil  for  its  wide  and  beautiful  streets,  and  the 
profusion  of  trees  and  shrulibery  with  wliieh  they  are  deco- 
rated. The  report  of  the  State  assessors  for  1891  puts  the 
valuation  for  the  [>urpose  of  taxation  at  .$179,957,3o0; 
exempt  from  taxalion,  !?19, 736,61.5,  The  bonded  debt  of  the 
city  Jau,  1,  1892,  was  .$10,079,399,63,  an  increase  during  tlie 
year  of  $.'>2,663.37.  The  city  treasurer  received  from  all 
sources  |7.613.374.78. 

The  extensive  water-works  are  the  property  of  tlie  city. 
There  are  several  gas  companies,  three  electrical  lighting 
companies,  natural  gas,  a  magniftcent  park  and  boulevards 
almost  surrounding  tlie  city,  a  State  normal  school  and 
school  of  practice,  a  central  higli  .school,  and  sixty  district 
schools,  besides  many  ot  lier  educational  establishments.  The 
City  and  County  Hall.  Imilt  of  granite,  was  completed  in 
1876  at  a  cost  of  i?  1,400.000.  The  State  has  erected  an  in- 
sane asylum,  which  accommodates  1,500 patients;  it  cost  over 
a  million  dollars.  Tlie  city  contains  a  free  charity  institute 
and  hospital  and  crtfltc  for  the  care  of  poor  children  (en- 
dowed by  the  late  Benjamin  Fitch),  a  music  hall,  and  a 
merchants'  cxcliange  (these  last  two  being  both  magnificent 
structures).  There  are  4  large  markets,  45  grain  elevatoi's, 
a  stone  post-office  liclonging  to  the  U.  S.  Government,  and 
a  new  $2,000,000  post-office  building  has  been  arranged  for; 
a  State  armory  and  arsenal,  a  commodious  hall  and  library 
building  belonging  to  the  Young  Men's  Association,  and  one 
belonging  to  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  There 
are  155  church  edifices.  Of  the  latter,  two  (one  Roman 
Catholic  antl  the  other  Episcopalian)  are  imposing  cathedrals. 
With  literary,  benevolent,  an<i  educational  institutions  Buf- 
,  falo  is  well  supplied.  Among  tliem  are  the  \''oung  Wen's  As- 
sociation, with  a  library  of  50,000  volumes,  and  real  estate 
and  buildings  worth  $350.000 ;  the  Society  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences, with  an  extensive  collection,  and  a  large  museum  of 
easts  of  fossil  remains  ;  an  art  gallery,  an  historical  society, 
law  library,  decorative  ai't  society,  mechanics'  institute,  Gros- 
venor  Library  (free),  5  hospitals,  2  orphan  asylums,  2  medical 
colleges,  a  female  seminary,  and  several  Catholic  colleges. 
Buffalo  has  over  twenty  cemeteries,  and  a  crematory.  It  has 
30  newspapers  and  periodicals,  10  of  them  dailies.  There  are 
18  banks  of  discount,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  .f  4,600,- 
000 ;  and  5  savings-banks,  with  deposits  amounting  to  about 
$27,000,000.  The  building  and  loan  association  movement 
has  been  extensively  developed. 

Manufactures. — According  to  the  census  of  1890,  Buffalo 
had  3,.559  manufacturing  establishments,  with  a  capital  of 
$67,867,154,  employing  49,998  persons,  who  received  $24,- 
617,408  in  wages,  the  total  value  of  the  product  being  .$96,- 
448,654, 

Commerce. — Buffalo  is  the  great  E,  terminus  of  the  lake 
traffic,  especially  of  the  grain,  c'attle,  and  lumber  trade.  In 
1891  grain  receipts  by  lake  were  163,855,445  bush,  (inclnding 
flour  estimated  as  wheat),  and  16,416  carloads  by  rail  (esli- 
mated).  The  lumber-trade  is  very  extensive.  Im"t)orls  ot  all 
kind_s  of  coal  in  1891  were  6,000,000  tons;  exj.orts  by  lake, 
2,365,895  tons ;  and  the  coal-tra<le  is  rapidlv  increasing. 
The  receipts  of  live  stock  in  1891  wen^  696,534 'cattle,  3,299,- 
577  hogs,  1,.536.420  sheep.  In  1891  the  arrivals  and  depart- 
ures of  vessels  were  10,879,  with  nearlv  1,600,000  tonnage. 

In  Dec,  1813,  the  village,  then  containing  about  200 
inhaliitants  was  burned  by  the  Uritish.  After  the  war  it 
speedily  began  to  increase,  and  in  1828  contained  about 
7,000  inhabitants,  the  completion  of  the  canal  in  1825 giving 
a  strong  impetus  to  its  growth.  It  became  a  citv  in  1832, 
and  then  had  15.090  inlialiitanls.  Pop.  (1835)  1.5.700:  (1880) 
155,134;  (1890) '255,664 ;  (1892)278,796:  (1895)33.5,709. 

Mark  S.  IIlbhell. 

Biifl'nio:  city:  capital  of  Johnson  co.,  Wy.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  at  Wyoming,  ref.  8-J) ;  has  electric  lights 


and  water-works.  Farming,  stock-raising,  and  mining  are 
its  principal  industries.     Pop.  (1890)  1,087. 

Biift'alo-berry  {ShepJierclia  argentea):  a  large  shrub  of 
the  family  Oleaster  ov  JSkeagmieeie  ;  ditecious  flowers  and  sil- 
very-scurfy opposite  leaves ;  introduced  to  cultivation  as  a 
fruit-plant  in  1890.  It  bears  small,  ovoid,  scarlet,  acid  ber- 
ries in  clusters.  It  is  native  to  the  interior  region  E.  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  and  W.  of  the  Mississippi,  extending  from 
Saskatchewan  to  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico. 

Biift'alo-flsli :  any  one  of  the  large  suckers  (Ictiohus  and 
Sclerugnathus);  of  the  family  Catostomida>;  found  in  the 
Mississippi  valley.  They  reach  a  weight  of  10  or  12  lb.,  but 
are  not  much  valued  as  food,  being  flavorless  and  full  of 
bones. 

Buffet.  Lons  Joseph  :  politician  ;  b.  in  >[irecoui-t,  Vosges, 
France,  Oct,  26,  1818;  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Dqm- 
ties  from  the  Vosges  in  1848;  Jlinister  of  Commerce  and 
Agriculture  under  Louis  Napoleon ;  Finance  Minister  in  the 
Ollivier  cabinet  1870;  elected  president  of  the  National 
Assembly,  to  succeed  M,  Jules  Grevy,  Apr.  4,  1873;  vice- 
president  of  the  council  and  Minister  of  the  Interior  1875; 
elected  life  senator  June  16,  1876. 

Biifi'oii,  biiffon,  Georges  Louis  Leclerc,  Comte  de :  nat- 
uralist and  philosopher;  b.  in  Montbar,  in  Burgundy,  Sept. 
7.  1707.  lie  was  liberally  educated,  and  traveled  in  his 
youth  in  Italy  and  England.  In  1739  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  appointed  intendant  of  the  royal 
garden  in  Paris.  He  published  in  1749  the  first  three  vol- 
umes of  his  Natural  Ilistori/,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
Daubenton.  Twelve  other  volumes  of  it  appeared  between 
1749  and  1767.  This  work,  which  made  an  epoch  in  the 
study  of  the  natural  sciences,  displays  a  brilliant  imagina- 
tion and  presents  many  ingenious  ideas.  He  was  admitted 
into  the  French  Academy  in  1753.  Among  his  most  admired 
works  is  the  Epochs  of  Nature  (!fipo(pies  de  la  Nature),  which 
ajipeared  in  a  supplement  to  his  Natural  History.  He  re- 
ceived from  the  king  the  title  of  Count  de,  Buffou  in  1776. 
D.  in  Paris,  Apr.  16,  1788.  See  Coiidorcet.  Eloge  de  Biiffun  ; 
Cuvier,  Eloge  de  Bufon,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  Natural 
History  (36  vols.,  1826);  Flourens,  Bufon:  Ilistoire  de  sa 
Vie,  etc.  (1844). 

Bnfoiridic:  See  Toad. 

Bu'ford,  John:  soldier:  b.  in  Kentucky  in  1826:  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1848:  served  on  frontier  duty  1848- 
61 :  quartermaster  of  the  Second  Dragoons  18.5.5-.58 :  in  the 
Sioux  expedition  1855:  engaged  at  Blue  Water  in  quell- 
ing the  Kansas  disturbances  1856-57;  on  the  Utah  exjiedi- 
tion  1857-58.  In  the  civil  war  he  served  as  assistant  in- 
spector-general (major),  making  inspections  1861-62 ;  in 
command  of  cavalry  brigatle  in  Northern  \'irginia  campaign 
1862 ;  engaged  at  Madison  Court-house.  Kelley's  Ford.  Thor- 
oughfare Gap.  and  Manassas  (wounded) :  chief  of  cavalry  of 
the  Array  of  the  Potomac  in  Maryland  camiiaign  ;  engaged 
at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam  :  in  Rappahannock  cam- 
paign, commanding  cavalry  brigade  186'2-63;  engaged  at 
Fredericksburg.  .Stoneman's  raid,  and  Bevei'Iy  Ford ;  in 
command  of  a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Pennsylvania  cam- 
paign 1863;  engaged  at  Gettysburg  and  iiumei'ous  skirmi.shes 
in  Central  Virginia  1863:  engaged  at  Culpe])er,  Bristow 
Station,  and  numerous  movements  and  skirmishes,  lie  was 
an  admirable  cavalry  officer;  rose  to  be  major-general  of 
volunteers,  died  from  the  effects  of  exposure  and  wounds, 
Dec.  16,  1863,  at  Washington,  D,  C. 

Biiford,  Napoleon  Bonaparte:  soldier  and  engineer;  b. 
in  Woodford  co..  Kv.,  Jan.  13,  1807;  gi'a<luated  at  West 
Point  in  1827:  and  Apr.  15,  1862,  brigadier-general  U.S. 
volunteers.  He  served  on  garrison  and  topographical  duty; 
as  assistant  professor  at  the  Military  Academy  till  Dec.  31, 
183.5.  when  he  resigned  and  entered  upon  railroad  and  bank- 
ing Inisiness  chiefly  at  Rock  Island.  111.  In  the  civil  war  he 
w.as  colonel  of  the  Twenty-seventh  Illinois  Volunteers  till 
promoted  brigadier-general;  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Bel- 
mont; attack  of  Island  No.  10:  capture  of  Union  City,  Ky. ; 
siege  and  battle  of  Corinth.  Jliss. ;  siege  of  Vicksburg ;  in 
command  of  Helena,  Ark,  Brevet  major-general  U.  S.  vol- 
unteers iMar.  13,  1865,  and  Aug.  24.  1S65,  mustered  out  of 
volunteer  service.  He  was  superintendent  of  a  mining  com- 
pany in  Colorado;  special  U.  S.  Indian  commissioner  1867- 
68 ;  "Union  Pacific  Kailway  commissioner  1868-69.  1 ).  Mar. 
28.  1883, 

Bust,  or  Boi?  :  a  river  of  Russian  Poland  ;  the  southern  of 
tlie  tw(;  rivers  with  this  name  rises  in  Galicia;  flows  nearly 


'^ 


o 


c 


BUG 


BUILDING   AXD   LOAX   ASSOCIATIOXS    821 


northward  and  northwestward  ;  after  a  course  of  about  450 
mill's  fiitei-s  tlie  Vistula  at  the  fortress  of  Jlodliii,  about  18 
inilis  X.  \V.  ut  Warsaw. 

Knz,  or  UofjT  (ane.  Ili/panis) :  a  river  of  Russia :  the  iii>rth- 
ern  of  this  name  rises  in  Pii<U«lia  :  tli)ws  nearly  southeast- 
ward, and  enters  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper  :{0  miles  \V.  of 
Kherson.  Its  wliole  lenjith  is  estimated  at  oOO  miles.  It  is 
uavifjable  for  small  vessels  from  its  mouth  to  Vosnesensk, 
upward  nt  100  miles. 

Biiir  Bible:  See  Bihlk. 

ISii;;oaii<l.  bu  iho'.  Thomas  Robkrt.  Due  d'Isly:  general; 
I),  in  Limo^'es,  Kranee,  Oct.  15,  1784;  rose  in  the  Napoleonic 
wars  to  a  eoloueley.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  18^)0  he 
was  created  a  nuirshal  of  France.  Having  won  several  vic- 
tories in  Algeria,  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  the 
same  in  1840.  He  defeated  the  army  of  the  Kmperor  of 
Morocco  at  Isly  in  1844.  During  the  revolution  of  Feb., 
1848,  he  commauded  the  army  at  Paris.  D.  from  cholera  in 
Paris,  June  10.  184!t.  See  his  Memoha  bv  Comte  d'Ideville 
(Eng.  trans.  ISS-J). 

BilgPuhitiJrcii,  boogcn-haa-gcu,  .ron.\.NM.  surnami-d  Pome- 
RA.NL'S.or  Dr.  Pomuu'r:  learned  German  Protestant  Ueformer; 
b.  at  W'olliu,  Ponu'rania,  .lune  24.  148").  He  wtjs  converted 
to  the  doctriiu's  of  Luther  in  lo'iO,  and  became  pastor  at 
Wilti'uberg  in  1.V22.  He  was  adevoted  friend  of  Luther, 
whom  he  a.ssisti'd  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  His  chief 
works  area  Coinnii'iifan/  on  the  Pnaliim  (Hasel,  lo"24),  and 
an  arrangement  of  the  P<is.iiiiii  Ilin/ori/.  He  organizeil  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Pomerania,  Hamburg,  Brunswick,  and 
Denmark.  D.  in  Witteiilierg.  Apr.  20,  l.wH.  See  his  Life 
by  .1.  B.  Vogl  (Klberfeld.  l.SOT)  and  bv  H.  Ilering  (Ilalie, 
188H).  His  correspondence,  edited  by  J,  B.  Vogt,  appeare<l 
in  Stettin  in  1888. 

Bil!;-flsli  :  the  menhaden  (Brevoortia  tyrannus);  a  her- 
ring-like fish  of  the  -Vtlantic  coasts  of  the  V.  S. ;  so  called 
from  the  fact  that  a  small  LTUstari-im  (Oiiisnis  priFf/ii.s/a/or) 
is  often  to  bo  found  living  in  the  fore  part  of  its  mouth. 

Bliffgre,  bo"<)gg<',  KLSKfs  Soi>ni-s:  philologist;  b.  in  Laur- 
vik,  Norway,  Jan.. ■).  188;i;  appointed  lector  in  the  university 
at  Christ iania  in  lS(i4,  and  professor  in  18()(i.  Bugge's  con- 
tributions to  almost  all  branches  of  philology  have  been  im- 
portant. He  is  an  eminent  runologist  and  Heowidf  scholar. 
His  great  edition  of  the  Poetic  Julda  ap|)eareii  in  1H()7 
(Norrccn  I-'ornkva^iSi).  His  Sludiex  Concerniiuj  the  Origin 
of  the  Northern  .Ui/thoto(/>/.  otc.  {Stndii.-i\  over  de  nonliske 
Guile- og  Heltesagn's  Oprtridelse.  1881-8!);  Germ,  trail.,  Stu- 
dien,  etc.by  0.  Brenner.  1881-89),  arc  revolutionary  in  tend- 
ency and  have  provoked  violent  opposition.  (.See  Noktiier.v 
Mythology.)  Of  his  other  works  may  be  mentioued  his 
collection  of  Norse  ballads  (Gainte  Nor'ake  Folkeriaer.  1858), 
and  his  edition  of  the  Yohinn(jii  and  other  sagas,  Xorrone 
Skrifter  of  S(t(;iihi.it()risk-  Jiiili,o/il  (lHn4-r-i).  >Iuch  of  his 
most  important  work  has  ajipeared  in  learned  periodicals. 

G.   L.  KlTTRKUOK. 

Bu'gis:  a  people  of  the  Malay  .\rchipelago;  chiefly  in- 
habiting Celelies  and  .Macas,sar.  They  are  noted  for  ilu'ir 
commercial  enterprise,  and  own  many  vessels  employed  in 
the  navigation  of  the  Last  Indian  seas.  They  are  mu.scular, 
middle-sized,  and  of  a  light-lirowMi  color,  and  have  made 
considerable  jirogress  in  civilization.  They  manufacture 
cotton  cloth,  build  durable  .sailing-vessels,  and  are  said  to  be 
skillful  workers  in  copper  and  iron. 

Bn^lp:  a  brass  musical  wind  instrument:  has  been  iiii- 
jiroved  by  keys  so  as  to  l)e  caiialile  of  all  the  inllections  of 
the  .scale.  In  its  original  form  thi'  bugle  is  the  signal  horn 
for  the  English  infantry,  as  the  trumpet  for  the  cavalry. 
Five  .sounds  only  are  recjuired  for  the  various  calls.  This 
instrument  is  never  used  m  the  orchestra. 

Biisrlc  :  a  plant  of  the  genus  Ajuga  which  contains  about 
fifty  annual  or  perennial  herbaceous  plants  of  the  iMbialw 
or  Mi.vT  F.iMii.Y  ((/.  I'.),  bearing  whorls  of  very  irregular  flow- 
ers. None  are  natives  of  North  America.'  Hjilf  a  dozen 
species  have  been  introduced  into  flower-gardens,  where 
they  are  quite  ornamental  and  easily  grown.  C.  E.  B. 

Bll'erloss  [via  Fr.  and  Lat.  from  (ir.  PovyKaaao!.  ox- 
tongued  :  (SoSr,  ox  +  yKHafra.  tongue,  perhaps  from  t  h<.  shape 
and  roughness  of  its  leaves]:  a  common  name  given  to  sev- 
eral species  of  plants  of  the  family  Jiiiriiginarew  and  of  the 
genera  Aiichiiso  and  Li/ro/mi.t.  '('he  /ji/rojixis  iirreii/<i.i  is  a 
common  weed  in  the  grain-fields  of  Great  Britain.  The 
Lgcopsin  has  a  funnel-shaped  corolla  with  a  curiously  curved 


tube.  The  Echiuni  vulgare,  called  viper's  bugloss,  is  a  na- 
tive of  Europe  and  naturalized  in  the  U.  S. 

Biih'lcr.  (iEORU  :  Indologist;  b.  at  Bei-stel,  in  Hanover, 
July  1!),  18:i7:  studied  at  (iottingen,  Paris. ami  London, an(l 
became  ])rofessor  in  Elphin.stone  College.  Bombay,  in  1863. 
Hi'  made  many  ex|>editions  in  search  of  Sanskrit  manuscripts, 
exploring  the  libraries  of  (lujerat,  Rajputaiia,  etc.,  and  even 
Kashmir :  made  valuable  reports  to  Government  upon  his 
work ;  and  jiiirchased  many  old  manuscripts,  which  are  now 
in  the  Dekkan  College,  I'uua,  accessible  to  scholars.  He  also 
purchased  for  the  libraries  of  Oxfoi'd.  Cambridge,  and  Berlin. 
\Vith  Kielhoru  he  founded  in  1868  the  Bombay  .Sanskrit 
Series,  a  very  useful  collection  (to  date,  40  vols.).  In  1880 
he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Vienna,  where,  with  his 
colleagues  of  the  Oriental  Institute,  he  established  in  1887 
the  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kuiide  des  Morgenlandes 
(to  date.  6  vols.).  His  studies  in  Hindu  law  appeared  in  the 
Digest,  in  translations  of  Manu  and  other  law-books,  vols. 
XXV..  ii.,  and  xiv.  of  Max  Miiller's  Snrred  Bnokx  of  the  Eimt, 
and  elsewhere.  His  achievements  in  Indian  ejiigraphy  and 
chronology  (in  the  Ind inn  Aritiquarii  am\  Epigni/ihiii  fndi- 
c(i).  literary  and  religious  hi.story.  are  of  great  importance. 

C.  R.  La.nmax. 

Blilll->vork :  a  Germanized  form  of  lioulc  or  l!<mlle 
work:  a  form  of  decorative  inlaying  for  cabinet  work, 
brought  to  perfection  by  Andre  Charles  Boule  (1643-17;!2), 
a  French  caliinet-maker,  whose  name  was  given  to  this  form 
of  art.  He  used  bias.s,  tortoise-shell,  ivory,  and  gold,  work- 
ing out  designs  of  (lowers,  landscapes,  and  even  hunting 
scenes,  and  invented  a  proec'ss  of  iiuilti]ilyiiig  copies  of  his 
designs  and  obtaining  figures  and  matrices  by  one  o]ieratioii. 
The  work  is  done  with  veneers.  For  centuries  inlaid  work 
came  chiefly  from  the  East,  and  consisted  of  gi'ometric  jiat- 
tcrns.  Certosina-work,  named  for  the  Carthusian  monastery 
near  Pavia,  is  an  inlay  of  ivory  on  solid  cypress  or  walnut 
wood.  Reisner-work  is  afierman  form  of  decoration  named 
for  its  inventor,  in  wliieli  woods  of  different  color  and  grain 
are  used  to  bring  out  patterns. 

Biilirstoiie :  See  Burrstone. 

Biiildiiijy:  and  Loan  .Associations  :  societies  established 
for  the  ]iiirpose  of  eiialiliiig  persons  of  moderate  means  to 
become  the  owners  of  homes  by  a  siiecessiou  of  small  pay- 
ments; called  also  Jiiiilding  Sorietiex  (in  Great  Britain  and 
Pennsylvania):  Co-operalire  Jinnkn  (Jlassachusetts);  Co- 
operatire  Savings  and  Loan  AsKociatioiis  (New  York). 

The  first  of  these  associations  was  established  at  Birming- 
ham, England,  in  1781.  In  l.s:^6  they  hail  become  so  nu- 
merous and  important  that  a  Building  Societies  act  (now 
superseded  by  that  of  1874)  was  passed  in  that  year.  The 
first  .American  society  seems  to  have  been  organized  at 
Fi-ankford  (now  a  part  of  Philadelphia)  in  18:!1.  The  .sys- 
tem has  flourished  most  in  Pennsylvania,  but  has  sjiread 
itself  all  over  the  country,  as  will  be  seen  from  tlie  follow- 
ing table,  compiled  from  the  ninth  annual  report  of  the  U.S. 
Commissioner  of  Labor,  which  deals  entirely  with  Building 
and  Loan  Associations,  and  gives  the  figures  for  Jan.  1,  1893  : 


New  Knglaud IS2 

New  Yorlc 418 

New  Jersey 288 

Delaware,  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  Mar.vlaud 2<10 

Illitiois titiO 

Indiana '. ...  4-1.5 

Iinva  and  Nebraska l.W 

Missouri Siiti 

Oliio 7H 

Pennsylvania 1,071) 

Gulf  .Slates 128 

I'aeific  States 107 


Souttiern  .\ilantic  States. . . .    i^^ 

Territories 10 

Arkansa.s,  Kansas,  and  Colo- 
rado      150 

Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
West  Virginia 382 

Michigan,  Jlinuesota,  and 
Wisconsin 214 

Idaho,  j\U>ntana,  Nevada, 
Utah,  and  W'yoming 2.5 

North  and  South  Dakota 2.S 


Total S.aiS 

Of  these  5.598  were  local  and  240  were  national  associa- 
tions, with  a  total  membership  of  1,745,725  (over  1,500  asso- 
ciations not  reporting),  the  total  dues  paid  on  shares  in 
force,  plus  profits,  amounting  to  $450,()()7,594.  Reports  for 
1S94  show  2.71)7  assoeiations  in  the  United  Kingdom,  with 
587.850  members,  and  funds  amounting  to  t'51,540,007. 
Similar  assoiuat ions  exist  in  the  British  colonies. 

The  capital  of  a  building  association  is  provided  by  the 
issue  of  shares  ordinarily  worth  $200  each.  'I'hesc  are  not 
.sold  outright,  but  are  paid  for  in  installments  at  the  rate  of 
iJl.OO  a  mouth.  If  there  were  no  such  thing  as  interest  it; 
would  of  course  take  200  months,  or  nearly  seventeen  years, 
to  pay  for  a  share  ;  but  the  money  thus  paid  in  is  loaned  out 
and  the  subscriliers  are- credited  with  the  interest,  so  that 
the  time  is  much  shortened.  If  the  money  is  .so  invested  as 
to  earn  0  per  cent,  above  expenses,  the  shares  will  mature  in 


822 


BUILDIXG   AND  LOAN   ASSOCIATIONS 


126  months  or  about  ten  and  a  half  years :  thai  is,  12fi  month- 
ly payments  of  $1.00  each  will  entitle  the  holder,  at  the  end 
of  th.at  time,  to  .^200  in  the  treasury  of  the  society. 

But  how  is  this  money  invested!  It  is  loaned  to  mem- 
bers in  sums  not  exceeding  the  maturity  value  of  their 
shares  to  assist  them  in  owning  their  homes.  If  a  man  is 
making  payments  on  one  share  he  is  entitled  to  liecome  a 
borrower  to  the  extent  of  lS20():  if  he  is  nuiking  payments 
on  five  shares  he  may  borrow  §1,000,  and  so  on — provided, 
of  course,  that  he  can  show  that  the  money  is  to  be  safely 
invested.  Only  it  will  generally  happen,  in  the  early  stages 
of  a  society's  life,  that  there  are  more  men  who  want  to 
borrow  than  there  are  funds  available.  In  this  case,  who 
shall  have  the  preference  f  Sometimes  this  isclecided  by  or- 
der of  subscription  to  the  shares  :  sometimes  by  lot  ;  but  in 
most  societies  the  loan  is  awarded  to  the  man  who  will  bid 
the  highest  premium  for  the  privilege  of  having  it,  and 
these  premiums  form  an  important  part  of  the  society's 
profits.  Sometimes  this  premium  is  paid  in  the  form  of  a 
gross  sum  deducted  from  the  principal  of  the  loan ;  more 
commonly  it  takes  the  form  of  a  small  monthly  payment  in 
addition  to  the  interest  itself.  Thus  a  num  who  had  sub- 
scribed to  five  shares,  and  secured  a  loan  of  $1,000  at  a  pre- 
mium of  40  cents  a  share  per  month,  would  have  to  pay  each 
montli  as  follows : 

Subscription  to  five  sliares $6  00 

One  month's  interest  on  $1,000  at  6  per  cent .'i  00 

Premium  on  loan  of  $1,000  (Ave  shares) a  00 

Total - $ia  00 

This  sum  of  $13.00  per  month  he  would  continue  to  pay 
until  his  shares  matured,  that  is,  until  they  were  worth  $200 
each.  At  that  time,  probably  some  twelve  and  a  half  years 
from  the  date  of  the  original  organization,  he  would  own 
five  full-paid  shares  of  $200  each,  which  would  stand  to  his 
credit  on  the  books  of  the  association,  and  which  would, 
without  further  transactions,  cancel  the  princijial  of  his 
debt.  At  this  same  time  those  who  had  been  subscribers 
and  not  borrowers  would  find  that  they  had  credits  without 
corresponding  delits,  and  the  treasurer  of  tlie  association 
would  pay  them  in  full  from  the  funds  which  the  financial 
■operations  just  described  woiUd  have  enaljled  him  to  accu- 
mulate. When  this  was  done  tlie  affairs  of  the  association 
would  be  said  to  lie  wound  up. 

In  the  older  building  societies  affairs  were  actually  man- 
aged in  this  way.  All  the  payments  were  begun  at  the  same 
date:  all  the  shares  matured  at  the  same  date,  and  at  this 
time  the  affairs  of  the  association  were  absolutely  closed. 
This  was  not  without  its  advantages.  The  complete  wind- 
ing tip  insured  a  certain  plainness  and  straightforwardness 
of  accounts  which  it  was  harder  to  secure  as  certainly  in  any 
other  fashion.  But  the  advantage  was  rather  dearly  ]mr- 
chased.  In  the  first  ]jlace,  the  system  made  it  hard  for  new 
members  to  enter  the  association  after  it  was  once  estab- 
lished. They  could  only  do  so  liy  paying  in  a  Uim|isum  the 
anwmnt  which  they  would  have  contributed  month  by  month, 
with  the  addition  of  the  ]n-ofits  which  such  cimtributious 
would  have  earned  during  the  time  which  had  elapsed  .since 
tlie  association  was  organized.  In  the  second  place — and 
this  was  much  more  serious — it  was  necessary  to  accumulate 
a  good  ileal  of  cash  for  the  ])urpose  of  winding  up  any  such 
fissociation  all  at  once.  The  non-borrowing  shares  hail  to  lie 
paid  in  full,  and  these  were  often  very  numerous.  To  accu- 
mulate thi.>  cash  it  was  necessary  to  keep  much  money  com- 
paratively idle  for  months  before  the  winding  up  of  the  as- 
sociation, for  it  was  imiiossible  to  find  borrowers  for  .short- 
I  ime  loans  as  freely  as  for  long-time  loans  in  the  early  period 
of  the  society's  life.  Of  course,  any  such  failure  to  realize 
lirofits  told  upon  the  gains  of  the  investors  as  a  whole.  To 
meet  these  dilliculties.  inherent  in  the  "  terminating"  plan 
just  de.scrilied,  the  system  of  series  of  shares  was  invented. 
Under  this  system  the  society  is  not  arranged  for  winding 
up  at  a  definite  time,  nor  do  all  the  shares  mature  at  the 
same  date.  If  a  number  of  men  want  to  come  in  a  year 
after  the  .society  is  started  they  are  encouraged  to  do  so; 
and  instead  of  fieiiig  conipelleil  to  pay  back  dues  in  a  lump 
sum  they  are  allowed  to  subscribe  to  new  shares  which  will 
mature  a  year  later  than  the  old  ones.  We  thus  have  suc- 
cessive seines  of  shares,  usually,  though  not  always,  liearing 
dates  one  year  apart,  and  matiiring  at  similar  intervals  one 
after  another,  whose  accoinits  and  profits  are  kept  sep- 
arately. If  a  non-boiTowiiig  member  in  an  older  series 
wishes  to  become  a  borrower,  he  is  encouraged  to  draw  out 
the  amount  due  to  liis  credit  on  the  older  series  and  let  his 


shares  in  that  series  be  canceled  ;  and  then  he  subscribes 
to  shares  in  a  new  series  as  a  liasis  for  whatever  further 
money  he  needs  in  the  way  of  loans.  As  the  shares  of  the 
older  series  approach  maturity,  opportunities  are  given  for 
voluntary  withdrawal  on  the  basis  of  the  profits  already 
earned,  and  in  some  societies  authority  is  given  for  the  com- 
pulsory retirement,  at  proper  valuation,  of  non-matured 
shares.  The  object  of  all  these  provisions  is  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  accumulating  large  sums  of  idle  cash  for  the 
exigencies  of  any  single  moment,  which  would  be  a  source 
of  loss  and  of  danger.  In  England  this  ditficulty  is  some- 
times obviated  by  providing  that  certain  shares  are  to  be 
reinvested  instead  of  being  paid  up,  and  in  the  German 
BciHgenos!ie)iscliafteti  this  |irinciple  ajijiears  to  have  been 
carried  yet  further.  Such  methods  tend  to  create  a  sejia- 
rate  body  of  non-borrowers,  who  furnish  no  small  part  of 
the  capital,  and  deprive  the  scheme  of  some  of  its  essen- 
tially co-operative  character.  The  extreme  of  this  depriva- 
tion is  seen  in  the  building  societies  of  France,  which  are 
generally  managed  liy  representatives  of  the  lenders  alone. 
The  workman  pays  for  his  home  l)y  installments,  as  in  Great 
Britain  or  the  U."S.,  Init  he  does  not  furnish  the  bulk  of  the 
capital  by  such  payments,  nor  does  he  control  its  manage- 
ment and  disposition.  Under  such  circumstances  much  of 
the  educational  value  of  these  institutions  is  lost. 

In  case  the  subscriber  to  a  non-borrowing  share  is  unable 
to  keep  up  his  payments  he  is  generally  allowed  to  withdraw 
and  receive  back  the  money  that  he  has  paid  in,  provided 
the  society  has  funds  available  for  that  pur])ose.  Whether 
lie  should  be  allowed  the  full  share  of  ]nTiflts  already  earned, 
or  only  a  part  of  them,  is  a  ilis|iuteil  i|ucstion.  As  the  shares 
approach  maturity  it  is  generally  well  to  encourage  volun- 
tary withdrawal  for  reasons  just  given,  and  in  that  case  full 
profits  should  be  allowed.  At  earlier  periods  in  the  life  of 
the  shares  it  is  thought  better  to  hold  back  a  part  of  the 
profits,  as  [jenalty  for  too  early  withdrawal. 

The  mechanism  of  these  societies  is  simple.  Their  affairs 
are  controlled  by  a  ]iresident  and  board  of  directors;  lint 
the  most  active  officials  are  the  secretary  and  treasurer.  At 
the  monthly  meetings,  which  are  held  regularly,  the  secre- 
tary takes  the  names  of  applicants,  receives  the  fees  of  mem- 
bers and  hands  them  over  to  the  treasurer.  At  each  of  these 
meetings  the  amount  available  for  loaning  is  announced,  and 
public  bids  are  imide  for  the  award.  The  loan  is  granted  to 
the  highest  bidder,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  "property 
committee"  of  the  board  of  directors,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
see  that  the  borrower  does  not  invest  the  money  in  an  unsafe 
manner.  If  he  wishes  the  loan  to  buy  a  house  already  built, 
they  have  to  see  that  the  price  is  not  in  excess  of  the  per- 
manent value  of  the  jiroperty :  if  he  wishes  to  build,  they 
may  examine  into  the  character  of  the  real  estate,  liouse- 
plans,  etc.  In  cases  of  the  latter  class  the  money  is  not  gen- 
erally paid  to  the  borrower  in  a  lump  sum.  but  given  by  the 
treasurer  to  the  contractor  from  time  to  time,  as  the  build- 
ing progresses.  If  tlie  connnittee  rejiorts  unfavoralily  on 
the  security,  the  loan  is  of  course  awarded  to  some  one  else. 
The  treasurer,  who  may  have  large  amounts  of  money  to 
handle,  is,  in  all  well-managed  societies,  an  official  under 
bonds.  He  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a  "  finance  commit- 
tee "  of  the  board  of  directors,  distinct  from  the  property 
committee  just  described.  Further  details  and  suggestions 
as  to  organization  and  management  are  given  in  Judge 
Seymour  Dexter's  excellent  little  book  Co-o/jirafire  San'ngK 
and  Loan  Asson'aHoiix  (New  York),  also  in  the  Report  of 
the  Pennxi/lroiiin  Biirviin  of  Iinhisfrinl  Stdtistirs  for  1888. 
So  economical  is  the  administration  of  these  societies  that 
the  more  recent  Pennsylvania  reports  show  current  expenses 
of  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  moneys  handled. 

The  advantages  of  .societies  of  this  kind  are  very  great ; 
but  tliey  are  not  to  be  souglit  in  the  most  obvious  lines,  or 
in  the  ways  wliich  are  orilinaiily  assumed.  To  begin  with, 
these  societies  do  not  always  or  generally  furnish  a  means 
liy  which  an  intelligent  workman  can  get  his  home  cheaper 
than  by  dealing  with  reputable  savings-banks.  The  finan- 
cial stalements  ])urporling  to  show  comparative  cost  by  dif- 
ferent methods  of  pavinent  are  often  niisleadin.g.  So  well 
informed  a  writer  as  ^Ir.  Linn,  whose  articles  in  Scn'biier's 
Maipiziiie  have  been  a  mo.st  useful  means  of  disseminating 
information  on  this  subject,  presents  lui  illustration  of  econ- 
omy which  starts  from  an  absolutely  false  assumption  as  to 
the  possible  relations  lietween  interest-rate,  premium,  and 
time  of  maturity.  A  man  who  puts  his  money  in  a  savings- 
bank  at  4  iier  cent,  unt  il  he  accumulates  a  fund  large  enough 
to  enable  him  to  borrow  the  balance  of  what   he  needs  at  6 


BL'ILDING   AXU   LOAN   ASSOCIATIONS 


BUILDING-STONE 


823 


per  cent.,  with  the  right  to  make  partial  |myinpnts  on  the 
principal,  gets  his  house  cheaper  than  he  can  through  the 
agency  of  anv  ordinary  building  society.  For  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Philadoli)hia.  where  the  system  is  so  well  estab- 
lished that  a  great  deal  of  capital  stands  constantly  at  the 
disposal  of  these  societies,  this  statement  should  [lerhaps  be 
modified  ;  tint  for  the  country  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  safe  one  to 
make;  at  any  rate,  wherever  the  interest  which  a  man  pays 
on  savings-bank  loans  is  only  about  2  per  cent,  greater  than 
that  which  he  can  receive  on  savings-liank  deposits. 

The  shorter  the  time  in  which  the  shares  mature  the 
worw  is  the  economy  for  the  borrowei-s  as  a  cla.s.s.  If  the 
shares  nniture  in  less  than  eleven  years,  it  shows  as  a  mere 
matter  of  arithmetic  that  the  non-borrowers  are  making  fen 
per  cent,  on  the  money  advanced,  a  rale  of  jirofit  which  in 
these  days  is  ipiite  excessive.  The  borrower's  as  a  cla.ss  must 
pay  this.  But  the  answer  is  made  that  the  borrowers  gain, 
along  with  the  rest,  by  tlio  fact  that  the  period  of  payment 
is  shortened  by  the  more  rapid  maturity  of  the  shares. 
The  speciousness  of  this  argument  constitutes  one  of  the 
dangers  of  this  form  of  association.  The  borrowei-s  appar- 
ently share  in  all  the  profits:  they  do  not  see  that  if  the 
non-borrowers  furnish  two-tlui'ds  of  the  capital,  the  borrow- 
ers pay  the  whole  exlra  profit  by  e.vcessively  high  premiums 
and  only  get  one-third  of  it  back.  The  temptation  to  nuike 
premiums  too  high  is  one  that  is  very  ditKcult  to  avoid; 
and  few  members  ot  a  l)nilding  society  have  the  financial 
knowledge  to  resist  it.  If  the  shares  of  a  society  mature  in 
less  than  twelve  veal's,  with  the  rates  of  interest  prevailing 
in  some  U.  S.  cities,  it  may  he  confidently  stateil  that  the 
borrowers  have  sacrificed  their  own  connnercial  ailvantage. 

Another  claim  urged  in  behalf  of  these  associations  is 
that  they  stimulate  the  habit  of  saving  by  making  it  com- 
pulsory. It  is  said  that  a  man  will  save  more  when  he  is 
compelled  to  put  it  in  a  building  society  than  when  he  sim- 
ply has  the  option  of  putting  it  in  a  savings-bank.  This  is 
doubtless  true,  but  the  gain  is  attended  with  certain  serious 
I0S.SCS.  In  case  of  sickness  this  compulsory  saving,  instead 
of  being  a  help  to  a  man,  may  be  the  woi-st  possible  burden. 
If  he  has  been  attracted  into  paying  a  high  premium,  he 
may  find  that  this  burden  becomes  enormously  heavy,  and 
unless  the  administration  of  the  society  is  unusiuiUy  intelli- 
gent the  danger  from  this  source  is  very  great  indeed.  If 
a  man's  earnings  and  expenses  are  perfectly  regular,  regular 
saving  furnishes  the  best  possible  check  against  extrava- 
gance; but  if  he  is  brought  face  to  face  with  unexpectedly 
increased  expenses  and  unexpectedly  diminished  earnings, 
it  adds  to  a  load  which  is  heavy  enough  at  best. 

A  more  unmixed  gain  to  the  connnunity  as  well  as  to  the 
members  lies  in  the  fact  that  these  societies  enal)le  work- 
men to  become  owners  of  real  estate  sooner  than  any  other 
means  which  has  yet  been  devised.  The  combination  of 
payments  in  the  share  with  security  for  the  loan  makes  it 
possible  for  these  societies  to  advance  up  to  70  or  80  |)er 
cent,  of  the  value  of  the  jn'operty.  while  the!  savings-banks 
are  restricted  to  iiO  per  cent,  llowevi'r  the  account  may 
stand  in  the  matter  of  dollars  and  cents,  the  workman  is 
a  gi'eat  gainer  in  liapi>iness  and  self-respect  in  becoming  a 
real-estate  owner  as  soon  as  possible.  '1  he  "  magic  of  prop- 
erty "  will  enable  him  to  work  harder  and  feel  the  load  less. 
Kven  when  he  is  paying  an  unduly  high  j)remium,  he  is 
paying  it  under  conditions  which  make  him  feel  its  burdens 
least  and  its  benefits  most.  And  liesiiles  the  gain  to  the  in- 
dividual house-owners  ami  their  families,  there  is  a  (rcmen- 
dous  gain  to  the  community  in  having  the  ownership  of  real 
estate  widely  distributed.  It  puts  every  owner  more  com- 
pletely on  the  side  of  law  and  order  than  he  ever  was  before, 
lie  feels  himself  an  integral  part  of  the  state  more  fully, 
and  is  the  more  ready  to  take  the  full  share  of  his  responsi- 
bilities as  a  citizen. 

The  a.sscK'iation  also  has  a  strong  educational  effect  on  its 
members  in  teaching  them  practical  lessons  conceriung  the 
conduct  of  business.  'I'hey  learn  to  provide  for  a  future 
debt  by  constant  investment  of  their  .savings  in  an  attract- 
ive form.  They  find  out  about  the  handling  of  money; 
almnt  iTitercst  and  the  laws  which  govern  it  :  aljout  the  rela- 
tion between  values  in  the  present  and  future;  and  a  thou- 
sand other  things  which  lay  the  foundati<m  for  Imsiness  suc- 
cess. They  also  learn  alniut  the  (■on<lilions  and  methods  ot 
building;  they  learn  to  buy  and  laiild  with  better  juilgment 
than  their  unaided  knowledge  would  have  taught  them.  So 
great  have  bi>cn  the  gains  of  this  sort  that  there  are  not  a 
few  such  societies  in  which  rich  men  take  part  as  means  of 
both  learning  and  teaching — an  interchange  of  suggestions 


as  to  the  better  ways  of  utilizing  money  in  building  houses. 
Thi.s  educational  influence  is  not  the  result  of  any  machin- 
ery;  it  comes  from  the  contact  of  man  with  man.  It  is  not 
found  in  the  "national"  loan  a.ssociations.  which  simply 
provide  a  means  of  investment  and  borrowing — too  often 
under  disjidvantageous  conditions.  Even  at  their  best  the 
national  associations  are  subject  to  most  of  the  special  dan- 
gers of  the  local  ones,  with  few  of  their  distinctive  advan- 
tages. The  co-operative  character  and  the  educational 
influence  which  this  involves  are  either  absent  from  the  na- 
tional associations  or  present  only  in  name.  The  expense  of 
advertising  connecteti  with  .such  associations  is  large;  the 
effective  control  by  investors  or  any  one  else  is  small.  In 
fact,  the  moment  a  building  association  goes  outside  of  cer- 
tain narrowly  defined  lines  of  business,  there  are  great  op- 
jiorl unities  for  alins(>  of  power.  The  recent  history  of 
building  societies  in  Kngland  has  furnished  a  conspicuous 
example  of  this.  Many  of  them  entered  upon  banking 
transactions  for  which  Ihey  had  neither  the  proper  organi- 
zation, the  proper  overeight,  nor  the  proper  cash  reserve. 
In  some  cases  their  methods  of  business  were  legitimate 
enough,  and  the  public  suspicion  of  their  characters  proved 
to  be  unjustified;  but  not  a  few  were  inisound  from  Vjegin- 
ning  to  end.  In  his  report  for  18!l'2  the  registrar  of  friendly 
societies  wisely  insists  upon  constant  inspecticm  of  the  ac- 
counts by  the  investors  themselves  as  the  only  effective  safe- 
g\uird  against  abuse  of  power  by  the  building  society  ofii- 
cials.  Arthur  T.  IIadiIey. 

ISllilding-stoiie :  sioue  suitable  for  building  purposes. 
The  vai'ielies  of  stone  most  commonly  em|)loyed  for  build- 
ing purjHises  may  be  grouped  mider  the  general  names  of 
granite,  marble,  limestone,  and  .sandstone,  though  other 
rocks,  such  as  the  serpentines,  traps,  porphyries,  and  recent 
voleanics.  are  not  infrequently  utilized  when  their  colors 
are  suitable,  or  where,  on  account  of  locality  or  means  of 
transportation,  they  are  to  be  had  at  a  less  cost  than  other 
stone. 

It  may  be  well,  before  proceeding  to  describe  in  detail  the 
various  siones  used  in  architeclnral  application,  to  call  at- 
tention l)rie(iy  to  the  essential  (|ualilies  which  such  stone 
should  possess.  These  tpudities.  named  in  the  order  of  their 
importance,  are  as  follows,  regard  being  had  to  their  use  in 
ordinary  building : 

(1)  Din-aliilily.  (2)  Permanency  of  color.  (3)  Cnishing 
strength  and  elasticity.     (4)  Cheapness. 

DunihUihj. — Not  all  stones  arc  eijually  durable,  and  this 
is  due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  Taken  from  its  tiuarry-bed 
and  placed  in  the  wall  of  a  bnililing  a  stone  liecomes  ex- 
posed to  the  constant  variations  of  temperatures,  to  the 
chenucal  action  of  acid  rains  and  atmospheres,  to  the  com- 
bined chemical  and  physical  action  of  growing  organisms, 
to  the  compressive  weight  of  the  overlying  material,  and 
perhaps  to  the  mechanical  action  of  wind-blown  sand  cU' 
the  wear  of  passing  feet.  To  these  must  be  addeil  the  de- 
structive action  of  artificial  heal,  as  when  a  tiuilding  is  in- 
jured by  fire.  The  constant  ex])ansion  and  contraction  pro- 
duced by  variations  in  tempeiature  are  perhaps  more  trying 
than  is  ordinarily  supposeil.  Stones,  as  a  rule,  po.ssessbnt  a 
low  conducting  ])ower.  They  are  aggregates  of  minerals, 
more  or  less  closely  cohering,  each  of  which  pos,sessos  its 
own  degree  of  ex]iansion  and  contraction.  As  temncratures 
rise,  each  constituent  expands,  crowding  with  resistless  force 
against  its  neighbor;  as  temperatures  fall  a  corresponding 
contraction  takes  place.  A  slow  and  gradual  weakening  and 
disintegration  is  the  inevitable  result.  Artificial  heat,  as  pro- 
duced by  a  burning  building,  is  necessarily  more  injurious 
in  proportion  as  the  temperature  is  higher.  Sufficient  data 
are  not  at  hand  for  estimating  accurately  the  comparative 
fireproof  properties  of  various  stones,  but  it  is  an  assured  fact 
t  hat  granite  in  this  respect  ranks  extremely  low.  while  the  fai't 
that  certain  siliceous  sandstones  are  used  for  furnace  back- 
ings would  seem  to  show  that  they  are  at  least  very  nearly 
if  not  f|uite  fireproof.  Up  to  the  temperature  at  which  it 
is  converted  into  (piicklime,  ordinary  limestone  has  been 
found  more  durable  than  graiute.  The  dui'al)ility  of  color 
of  any  stone  dejiends  mainly  upon  the  presence  or  absence 
of  ferruginous  and  carbuiiaceous  matter.  Stone  containing 
iron  in  the  form  of  sulphiile  or  protoxide  carbonate  com- 
poun<ls  is  liable  to  change  from  a  white  or  blue-gray  to  a 
()uff.  yellow,  or  brown-red  color.  Where  this  change  tjikes 
[ilace  uniformlv  throughout  a  stone  it  is  often  beneficial, 
changing  a  cold  gi'av  to  a  warm  bntT  tint^  Such  a  change 
is  spoken  of  as  "  mellowing"  ;  frequently,  however,  the  ox- 


824 


BUILDING-STONE 


idation  takes  place  in  spots  or  streaks,  and  the  result  is  un- 
siglitly.  Carbonaceous  material,  which  imparts  a  dark  color 
to  the  stone,  may  in  time  bleach  out  to  a  dirty  whiteness. 

When  a  stone  becomes  saturated  witli  water  from  rain  or 
other  causes,  and  is  then  subjected  to  freezing  tempera- 
tures, an  energetic  agent  for  disintegration  is  brought  into 
play.  Water  passing  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state  exerts  a 
pressure  of  138  tons  to  the  square  foot  of  surface.  It  is 
therefore  not  surprising  that  a  small  amount  of  water  con- 
fined within  the  pores  of  a  stone  produces  in  time  very  dis- 
astrous results. 

The  water  from  rainfalls  passing  through  tlie  atmosphere 
takes  up  a  small  amount  of  carbonic  aciil.  This  when 
brought  in  contact  with  .stone  in  tlie  walls  of  a  building  is 
l>roductive  of  a  slight  solvent  action,  particularly  in  mar- 
bles and  limestones,  or  in  sandstones  willi  calcareous 
cements. 

In  certain  cases  the  crushing  strength  and  elasticity  of 
stone  are  matters  of  importance.  It  must,  however,  be  ad- 
mitted that  these  (|ualities  have  in  times  past  been  greatly 
overestimated.  It  is  a  rule  among  builders  never  so  to 
place  a  stone  tliat  it  shall  be  subjected  to  more  than  one-tent  h 
or  even  one-twentieth  tiie  pressure  it  is  known  to  be  eapalile 
of  sustaining.  Under  sucli  circumstances  there  are  few  kinds 
of  stone  that  are  not  strong  enough  for  all  ordinary  purposes 
of  construction,  and  the  test  of  ratio  of  absorption,  resist- 
ance to  freezing,  and  permanency  of  color,  are  of  vastly 
.greater  importance  than  that  of  com])ression.  The  relative 
cheapness  of  materials  and  their  color  are  still,  and  perhaps 
must  always  be,  the  controlling  factoi-s  in  deciding  what 
materials  shall  be  used  in  the  greater  number  of  cases. 
Cheapness  is  necessarily  dependent  upon  abundance,  proxim- 
ity of  quarries  to  market,  and  ready  means  of  transportation, 
together  with  the  ease  with  which  a  stone  may  be  quarried 
and  worked.  The  last  quality,  untoilunately,  not  infre- 
quently leads  to  the  selection  of  a  soft,  porous,  and  inferior 
article. 

Tfsting. — The  tests  which  thus  far  have  been  made  upon 
stone  to  ascertain  their  fitness  for  any  particular  form  of 
architectural  application  were  made  mainly  with  a  view  of 
ascertaining  their  crushing  strength  and  resistance  to  action 
of  frost.  The  crushing  strength  is  tested  by  means  of  ma- 
chines, in  which  small  cubes  are  submitted  to  a  measured 
force  until  they  are  crushed.  Sueli  machines  are  manu- 
factured by  Fairbanks  iSc  Co..  of  New  York,  and  the  Kiehle 
Bros.,  of  Philadelphia.  There  is  also  a  remarkable  testing- 
machine,  invented  by  A.  II.  Emery,  in  use  at  the  Watertown 
arsenal  in  Massachusetts.  A  large  munljer  of  such  tests 
have  been  made  undiu-  the  direction  of  Gen.  Q.  A.  Gillmore 
at  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  by  Gen.  Franklin  at  the  Navy-yard 
in  Washington,  by  engineers  at  the  Watertown  arsenal, 
and  others.  The  results  obtained  liy  these  investigators  do 
not  affoni  very  satisfactory  data  for  a  comparison  of  the 
relative  strength  of  the  different  materials,  owing  presuma- 
bly to  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  methods  employed  and 
in  preparing  the  cubes  to  be  experimented  upon.  Enough. 
however,  has  been  done  to  warrant  the  a.s.sertion  that  in 
other  than  very  exceptional  circumstances  no  further  tests 
of  this  nature  are  needed,  since  under  the  conditions  ordi- 
narily existing  a  very  weak  stone  will  prove  sufficiently 
strong  for  all  practical  purposes. 

The  question,  indeed,  is  no  longer  what  will  a  carefullv 
prepared  cube  of  the  stone  bear  to-day.  but  rather  how  will 
it  endure  the  vicissitudes  of  a  trying  climate,  and  what  will 
it  bear  after  years  of  exi)osure'to"the  action  of  heat  and 
frost.  To  these  questions  the  ordinary  tests  give  us  no 
clew.  The  following  figures  indicate  the'range  iii  compress- 
ive strength  and  weight  per  cubic  foot  among  various  rocks 
so  far  as  they  have  been  ascertained  : 


DESCRIPTIOX, 

StrcDctb  in  lbs. 
per  cubic  incli. 

Weijeht  in  Ib>. 
per  cubic  foot. 

Granite 

15,000  to  25.000 

ao.ooo  ■•  SO.OOO 

6.0(Xi  "  ri.oiM) 

8.000   "    13.1)00 
5.000   "    1-1.000 
5.000   "    17.(K)0 

lf»5  to  170 

Maroie  icrvstalline  limestone) 

Marble  (crystalline  dolomite) 

1115    '*   170 
168   '*   175 

Sandstone 

180  **   160 

For  a  single  test,  tlie  best  that  can  be  applied  to  stone  is 
one  to  ascertain  its  i)ower  to  resist  the  action  of  frost.  This 
can  best  be  done  by  actually  freezing  prepared  cubes  when 
saturated  with  moisture.  C'hemical  method.s  as  .saturating 
with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  which  is  then  allowed  to 
crystallize,  have  i)roved  unsatisfactory  and  unreliable.    The 


power  of  stone  to  resist  the  action  of  an  acid  atmos])here 
was  tested  by  Prof.  N.  H.  Winehell  at  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
by  placing  prepared  cubes  in  a  dish  of  water  through  which 
carbonic  acid  was  kept  constantly  bubbUng.  The  resistance 
to  heat  was  tested  by  placing  the  specimen  in  a  muffler, 
raising  to  a  white  heat,  and  noting  the  change  in  color  and 
disintegration,  if  any.  While  still  hot  the  cubes  were 
dropped  into  cold  water  and  the  effect  noted. 

Isone  of  the  tests  that  can  be  made  in  the  laboratory  are 
equal  for  practical  results  to  an  examination  of  the  old  ex- 
posures in  a  quarry  <u'  of  stone  as  it  appears  in  the  walls  of 
a  building  of  long  standing.  Any  serious  disintegration  or 
discoloration  will  here  have  made  itself  apparent. 

'■  A  good  building-stone,  whatever  its  kind,  should  possess 
a  moderately  tine  and  even  texture,  with  the  grains  well 
compacted ;  should  give  out  a  clear  ringing  sound  when 
struck  with  a  hammer ;  and  show  always  a  clear,  fresh  frac- 
ture. It  should  also  be  ca]iable  of  absorbing  only  a  pro- 
portionately small  amount  of  water." 

Granite  has  ranked  from  time  immenmrial  as  one  of  the 
strongest  and  most  desirable  of  building  materials.  Unfor- 
tunately, its  great  hardness  has  until  recently  proved  a 
serious  drawliack  to  its  use  in  other  than  the  most  massive 
structures.  The  invention  of  machines  for  cutting,  grind- 
ing, and  polishing,  has.  however,  very  largely  done  away 
with  tills  difficulty,  and  the  stone  is  now  in  very  general 
use,  not  merely  tor  house  walls  and  massive  masonry,  but 
in  turned  and  polished  columns,  pilasters,  balustrades,  mon- 
uments, and  tomVjstones.  Commercially,  the  name  granite 
is  made  to  include  a  variety  of  siUeeous  rocks  having  only  a 
massive  and  granular  crystalline  structure  in  common  :  the 
diabases  and  gabbros  are  thus  inchuled  under  the  name  of 
hidck  granite.  Properly  the  name  is  restricted  to  eruptive 
rocks  consisting  essentially  of  the  minerals  quartz,  potash 
feUUpar.  and  one  or  more  minerals  of  the  mica,  liornblende, 
or  jiyroxene  group.  The  prevailing  color  of  granite  is  some 
shade  of  gray,  though  ]iink  and  red  colors  are  common. 
The  gray  hues  are  due  to  the  prevalence  of  mica  or  horn- 
blende;  the  ])ink  and  red  to  the  prevailing  pink  and  red 
feldspar.s.  The  ordinary  grays  are  useil  mainly  for  general 
building,  curbings.  and  pavements,  while  the  darker  colors, 
as  those  of  Quincy  (Mass.),  and  the  pink  and  red  varieties, 
are  utilized  in  ornamental  work  and  for  the  bases  of  statues. 
Granites  occur  in  all  the  States  bordering  upon  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountain  system,  but  are  more  extensively  quar- 
ried in  Maine  and  Massachusetts  than  elsewhere,  a  fact  due 
to  the  excellent  facilities  for  shipping  as  much  as  to  the 
quality  of  tlie  material.  The  most  noted  granites  of  the 
U.  S.  are  those  of  Ilallowell.  Ked  Beach.  Vinalhaven,  Bix's 
and  Hurricane  islands,  and  adjacent  localities  on  the  coast 
of  Maine,  Concord.  N.  II..  t^)uincy  and  Cape  Ann.  Mass., 
Westerly,  K.  1..  Kichinond.  Va.,  Iron  County,  JIo..  and  East 
St.  Cloud.  Minn.  Good  granites  abound  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region.  Imt  are  as  yet  undeveloped,  excepting  to  a  sUglit 
extent  in  Colorado  and  California.  Among  other  noted 
stones  belonging  to  this  class  are  the  red  granites  from  the 
Bay  of  Fiindy,  Nova  Scotia,  and  from  near  Peterhead.  Scot- 
land. A  gray  granite  with  |iiiik  crystals  of  porpliyritic  feld- 
spar is  obtained  in  Shap,  Westmoreland  co.,  England,  and  a 
coarse,  dark  red-brown  variety  in  Sweden. 

M.MUU.K. — The  term  "  marble  "  as  ordinarily  u.sed  includes 
any  stone  composed  essentially  of  carbonate  of  lime  alone, 
or  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  van'ing  jiroportions, 
and  which,  owing  to  itj  coUir  and  texture,  is  sufficiently 
beautiful  for  a  high  grade  of  building  material,  or  for  raoii- 
umeiital  or  decorative  work.  In  color  marbles  vary  from 
pure  white,  through  all  sli.-ides  of  gray,  to  black:  yellow, 
pink,  brown,  and  red  are  by  no  means  uncommon,  the  gray 
and  lilack  hues  lieing.  as  a  rule,  due  to  carbonaceous  matter, 
and  the  others  to  iron  oxides.  In  ti'Xtiire  they  vary  from 
finely  and  coarsely  granular  to  compact  and  apparently 
ainoi'-phous,  at  times  highly  fossiliferous.  A  high  grade  of 
marble  for  polished  interior  decorative  work  should  be  so 
compact  as  to  yield  under  the  hands  of  the  workman  a 
close,  enamel-like  surface  with  little  if  any  granulation. 
For  building  and  statuary  purposes,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
granular  .stone  is  the  most  ilesiiiible.  giving  in  tool-<lres.sed 
or  rock-faceii  work  an  etfect  much  more  iileasing  to  the  eye 
than  do  the  compact  varieties. 

The  principal  sources  of  American  marbles  are  at  present 
the  lieds  of  Silurian  limestone  and  dolomite  which  border 
the  Appalachian  Jlounlain  system.  Vermont  produces 
some  60  jier  cent,  of  the  entire  output.  Coarse  dolomite 
marbles  eminently  suited  for  constructive  purpo.ses  occur  iu 


BL'ILDIXa-STOXE 


825 


Western  Coimcoticut  and  Massaeliusetts,  ami  in  Sontlicast- 
ern  New  York  ;  a  coarse  buililinir-marlile  is  also  ijiiarrieil  in 
Northern  Geori;ia.  Pink  ami  chocolate  variegated  marbles 
suitalile  for  furniture  and  interior  decorative  work  occui 
almndanlly  in  Eastern  Tennessee,  and  have  Ijeen  (iuarrie<l 
for  many  years.  This  is  now  the  chief  source  in  the  V.  S. 
for  colored  decorative  inarlile.  (rood  marbles  are  known  to 
occur  in  the  Uocky  Mountain  region,  hut  as  yet  tlu'y  have 
come  into  but  little  u.se,  owing  to  their  inaccessibility.  Re- 
cent dc'velopments  in  Colorado  and  California  are,  however, 
very  promising. 

The  principal  foreign  sources  of  marble  are  Northern 
Italy,  the  Krench  Pyrenees.  Belgium.  Germany,  and  Algeria: 
Spain  and  Portugal  are  also  i)rodnctive.  The  most  noted  of 
these  are  the  while  statuary  marble  of  Carrara,  the  lilack 
and  gold  and  Sienna  inarl)les  of  Italy;  the  so-called  Xu- 
midian  nuirlilc^  of  .\lgeria:  the  (/riollc  or  Kreuch  red  from 
the  I'yreiu'cs;  the  St.  Anne  and  Sarracoliu  from  lielgium  : 
the  l''<)rmosa  and  Bougard  from  Germany;  and  the  yellow 
from  Portugal. 

The  so-called  "onyx  marble"  is  in  reality  a  compa<t  ami 
very  beautiful  varii'ty  of  travertine.  This  is  by  far  the 
most  beautiful  and  highly  prized  of  all  marbles.  TIfe  prin- 
cipal sources  of  supply  in  tnues  past  have  been  Kgypt  and 
Algeria,  more  recently  Jlexico.and  still  more  recently  high- 
grade  material  of  this  nature  has  been  found  in  Arizona 
and  California  in  the  U.  S.  Extensive  deposits  are  also 
re|iorteil  in  the  desert  region  of  Lower  California.  The 
verd  antique  nuirbles.  so  called,  are  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  Seri'K.ntixk  (</.  c). 

liiMESToxF.s. —  Limestones  vary  in  color  and  texture,  as 
well  a.s  in  durability  for  const ructive  purposes,  as  do  the 
marbles.  They  may  be  compact  anil  amorphous,  finely  or 
coarsely  crystalline,  or  fossiliferous.  S(,>nu',  like  thi;  Florida 
coqnina,  are  mere  aggregates  of  more  or  less  comminuted 
shells.  The  limestones  as  a  rule  are  less  de-sirable  for  con- 
structive jiurposes  than  are  the  granites,  marbles,  or  sand- 
stone: this  on  account  of  their  coloi-s  and  poor  working 
qualities.  There  are,  however,  important  exce|itions.  The 
most  important  of  the  limestones  useil  for  eouslruct  ive  iiur- 
poses  are  the  oiililes  or  oolitic  limestones  from  the  sub- 
carboniferous  beds  of  Southern  Indiana  and  adjacent  por- 
tions of  Kentucky  ;  these  are  of  a  white  or  cream  c()lor,  fine 
grained  and  readily  wmught.  They  are  eminently  suited 
for  finely  carved  and  ornate  styles  of  architecture.  In  color 
and  texture  they  correspond  closely  with  the  Jurassic  oolites 
of  Ei\gland.  which  have  been  in  use  in  that  country  since 
early  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  dolomitic  Silurian  lime- 
stone underlying  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  adjaceul  portions 
of  Will  and  t'ook  Counties,  is  another  important  .source  of 
material  for  both  building  and  flagging  purposes.  In  many 
instances  the  stone  contains  sntlicieut  iiilumlnous  nnitler  to 
discolor  and  impart  to  it  a  peculiar  antique  look  which  is 
much  esteemeil  by  some.  Important  beds  of  limestone  for 
structural  purposes  also  occur  in  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Jlis- 
siaun.  Ohio  also  has  many  quarries  of  local  importance. 
but  fewoflhemare  known   beyond  the  limits  of  the  State. 

Sandstones  are  among  the  nmst  varial)le  of  natural  Inuld- 
ing  nuilerials.  As  the  uauu' denotes,  they  are  composed  es- 
.sentially  of  consolidated  sand,  but  the  composition,  te-xture, 
and  color  of  this  san<l  nniy  vary  almost  indefiidtely.  As  a 
rule,  the  predominating  constituent  in  a  sandstotu'  is  the 
ndneral  (puirtz.  in  rounded  or  more  or  less  angular  grains. 
Feldspar  and  miiu'rals  of  the  hornblemle,  pyroxene,  or  mii'a 
group  are,  however,  common.  The  usual  cementing  or  l)iiid- 
ing  constituent  in  samlstone  is  silica,  carbonate  of  linu'.  iron 
oxide,  or  clayey  nuilter.  The  durability  of  the  stone,  as 
W(dl  as  its  working  qualities,  is  dependent  more  upon  the 
character  of  this  cement  than  upon  that  of  the  grains  com- 
posing the- stone  itself.  Of  all  cementing  nuilerials  the 
siliceous  is  the  most  durable,  and  Ihi!  clayey  the  least  so. 
since  the  first  is  less  susceptible  to  the  solvent  action  of 
water  from  rainfalls.  Holh  ferruginous  and  calcareous 
cements  are  slightly  solnlile  and  lialile  to  slow  removal. 
whereby  the  stone  liecomes  friable  and  slowly  disintegrates. 
The  clayey  cement  is  a  .source  of  weakness  on  account  of  lis 
tendency  to  absorb  water,  whereby  the  stone  is  rciulered 
liable  to  in.iury  by  freezing.  In  color  .sandstones  are  as  vari- 
able as  in  texture.  Tlu'  prevailing  hues  are  .sonu!  shades 
of  gray,  bull',  drali,  red,  or  brown,  the  coloring-matter  being 
nudnly  iron  in  some  of  its  forms.  A  white  color  denotes 
the  absence  of  iron.  The  red  is  due  to  anhydrous  iron  ses- 
(piioxide  ;  brown  to  a  hydrous  sesquioxide;  the  gray  color 
may  be  ilue  to  iron  in  the  fcuin  of  a  protoxide  carlionate. 


Such  stones  are  liable  to  turn  yellowish  on  exposure.  In 
certain  of  the  Ohio  (luarries  the  stone  is  brown  in  color  as 
ex|)osed  in  the  surface  outcrops,  but  dark  blue-gray  below 
the  water  level,  the  change  being  due  to  the  oxidation  in 
the  upper  layers  of  the  jirotoxide  carbonate.  In  many  sand- 
.stones  tlie  cementing  silica  has  so  orientated  itself  arouiul 
the  original  quartz  granules  as  to  convert  the  stone  into  a 
grarndar  aggregate  of  inqierfeet  crystals.  Such  .stones  are 
properly  cpiartziles,  an<l  rank  among  the  most  indestructible 
of  l)uildiug-stones.  though  imforliniately  they  are  extremely 
hard  to  work.  The  well-known  Potsdam  sandstone  of  St. 
Lawrence  co..  X.  Y.,  is  one  <;f  the  best  examples  of  this  phe- 
nomenon. 

All  stone  are  softer  and  most  readily  worked  when  first 
quarried  than  after  se.n.soniug,  but  this  characteristic  is  most 
strongly  marked  in  sandstone.  This  is  due  to  the  isct  tjiat 
the  stone  as  it  lies  in  the  ground  contains  a  small  amount 
of  sap,  or  (|Uarry  water,  as  it  is  called,  and  this  carries  the 
cementing  material  in  solution,  to  be  deposited  on  flv.iix)- 
ration.  So  abundant  is  this  qiuirry  water  in  numy  saml- 
stoues  that  the  rock  is  lialile  to  serious  injury  if  frozen  with- 
out previous  seasoning.  On  this  account  many  ((uarries  in 
nortliern  latitudes  can  be  worked  only  during  the  warmer 
seasons  of  the  >ear. 

The  favorite  sandstiuies  for  ccmstruetive  purimses  in  the 
U.  S.  are  the  Ohio  freestones,  or  Herea  grits,  from  the  Wav- 
erly  division  of  the  sub-carboniferous  foruuitions  in  Ohio, 
and  the  brown  and  reil  freestones  from  the  Trias.sie  forma- 
tions of  the  A1  lantic  Stales  and  eastern  slopes  of  the  Kocky 
Jlountain  range.  The  firsi  is  a  fine  light  drab,  gray,  or  buif 
siliceous  sandstone,  very  readily  wrought,  and.  when  prop- 
erly laid,  very  durable.  The  best-developed  quarries  are  in 
the  towns  of  Herea.  .\ndierst.  Fast  Clevel.and.  Illyria.  and 
Independence,  in  Lorain  and  Cuyahoga  Counties.  The 
Tria.ssic  stone  is  of  a  jirevailing  brown  or  red-brown  color, 
and  has  been  used  frequently  in  Xew  York  ami  other  Kasl- 
eru  cities  in  the  form  of  ashlar  blocks  for  hou.se  fronts.  Un- 
fortunately, little  judguu'iit  was  exercised  in  cither  the  se- 
lection of  the  material  or  its  ]irep:iralion  and  laying  in  the 
wall.  Serious  disintegration  has  not  intrcciucntly  I'esulted  and 
the  stone  been  brought  thereby  into  undeserved  disrepute. 
The  ]irincipal  ipuirries  in  the  East  are  along  the  Connecti- 
cut valley  in  Massachusetts  and  ('(mnceticut,  particularly 
at  Portland  in  the  la.sl-named  Slate,  and  in  various  towns 
in  Pas.saic,  Essex,  Hunterdon,  and  jMercer  Counties  in  Xew 
Jersey,  and  at  the  mouth  of  Seneca  ci-eek  in  Maryland. 
Extensive  (puirries  an-  also  operated  at  llummelslown.  in 
Dauphin  co..  Pa.  Within  a  few  yeais  operations  have  be- 
gun in  Triassic  beds  forming  the  eastern  foolhills  of  the 
Kocky  Mountains  near  (iolden.  Col.,  and  l''lagstatl',  Ari- 
zona, Beds  of  Medina  sandstone  of  a  red-brown  and  gray 
color  in  Western  X'ew  Y'ork  furnish  also  »  high-grade  build- 
ing and  |iaving  stone.  Thin  bedded  blue-gray  aluminous 
sandstones  belonging  to  the  Hamilton  group  are  adunrably 
suited  for  pavements,  steps,  sills,  ami  lintels,  and  are  exten- 
.sively  quarried  in  Albany,  Green,  and  Leister  Counties  in 
this  same  Stale,  and  in  Luzerne,  Wyoming,  and  other 
counties  in  I'emisylvaiiia.  The  stone  is  |)0|)ularly  known 
as  ••  blueslone  '"  or  "  fiagstone,"  on  account  of  its  color  or 
the  prevailing  use  to  which  it  is  put.  Silurian  sandstones, 
also  of  a  brown  or  red  color,  are  found  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  up|ier  peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  are  l)eing  worked 
at  various  points  in  Jlar(|uette.  Baraga,  and  Houghton 
Counties  to  fmnish  materials  to  cities  along  the  lakes.  A 
dense  (|nartzile  of  Potsdam  age  occurring  near  Sioux  Falls, 
in  South  Dakota,  has  been  worked  for  Vmilding  and  iiaving 
nuilerials,  and  to  a  slight  extent  for  ornamental  work,  such 
as  turned  columns  and  polished  tiling.  A  beautiful  light- 
buff  stone  from  sub-carboniferous  beds  near  St.  Genevieve, 
Mo.,  has  been  utilized  to  .stnue  extent.  The  sandstones  of 
the  Pacific  coast  have  been  a-s  yet  but  little  developed,  as 
there  has  been  until  reci'Utly  but  small  demand  for  such 
uniterials.  Large  quantities  occur  around  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  in  Califiuina:  in  Douglas  CO.,  Ore.,  and  on  Chuck- 
aunt  Bay.  in  Washington. 

The  most  noted  of  foreign  sandstones  whi<-h  are  brought 
into  the  U.  S.  are  the  pale  olive  green  Coal  Measure  stones 
from  the  vicinity  of  Dorchesler,  Xew  Brunswick,  and  the 
bright-red  ■■  Corsehill  stone  "from  near  Anu:ni,  in  Dumfries- 
shire. Seotlaml.  A  brown-red  Pot.silam  stone  is  also  im- 
ported to  some  extent  from  Verde  island,  Xipigon  Bay,  Ijake 
Suiierior. 

PoRPiivRV,  as  the  name  is  ordinarily  used,  includes  any 
rock  with  a  porphyrilic  structure.     The  quartz  porphyries 


S26 


BUILDING-STONE 


BULGARIA 


■of  Eastern  Massachusetts  are  of  exceptional  beauty  when 
polished,  but  their  intense  hardness  prohibits  their  extensive 
use.  The  green  antique  porphyry,  or  JIarmur  Lacedmmo- 
nimn  viride  of  the  ancients,  is  a  porphyritic  diabase,  wliile 
the  red  Egyptian  porphyry,  or  Rosso antico. is,  according  to 
Delesse,  a  porphyrite. 

Alabaster,  a  fine  translucent  variety  of  gypsum,  is  little 
used  for  other  work  than  that  of  making  small  stands,  vases, 
and  statuettes.  It  is  too  soft  for  use  where  exjjosed  to  wear. 
No  alabaster  of  importance  is  produced  in  the  U.  S..  the 
chief  source  of  supply  being  Northern  Italy,  whence  it  is 
exported  in  the  manufactured  form  under  the  name  of 
"  Florentine  marble." 

Serpentinous  rocks  are  abundant  in  numerous  localities 
along  the  Appalachian  and  Coast  Range  belts  of  mountains, 
but  are  at  present  in  little  ilemand  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  colors  are  cold  and  do  not  n-adily  harmonize  with  their 
surroundings.  The  rock  is  as  a  rule,  moreover,  badly  jointed, 
and  this  renders  the  jirociiring  of  large  slabs  or  blocks  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty.  Serpentines  of  compact  texture 
and  susceptible  of  a  light  lustrous  polish  occur  at  Deer  isl- 
and. Maine  ;  near  Roxliury,  in  Vermont ;  Lynnfield.  Mass. ; 
Milford,  Conn. ;  Essex  co.,  N.  Y. :  in  Harford  C(i..  JId. :  on 
the  Gila  river.  Grant  co.,  New  Jlexico ;  and  near  Victor,  in 
San  Bernardino  co.,  Cal.  A  coarse,  porous,  light-green  ser- 
pentinous rock  is  quarried  in  Chester  co..  Pa.,  and  furnishes 
a  cheap  and  durable  building  material  for  the  many  cities 
and  towns  in  the  vicinity. 

The  most  noted  of  foreign  serpentines,  or  verd  antiques, 
are  those  of  the  Lizard  district,  in  Cornwall,  England :  the 
"  Connemara  green  "  from  County  Galway,  in  Ireland  ;  and 
the  serpentinous  breccia  from  near  Genoa,  Italy. 

Trap  is  a  term  used  to  include  a  number  of  igneous  rocks 
which  may  he  more  accurately  described  under  the  names  of 
diabase,  dolorite,  basalt,  melaphyr,  diorite,  and  gabbro. 
These  rocks  are  little  used  for  building  or  decorative  pur- 
poses, owing  to  their  somber  hue  and  poor  working  qualities. 
They  are.  however,  exceedingly  strong  and  often  very  dura- 
ble. The  Mesozoic  trajis  of  the  Atlantic  border  are  exten- 
sively used  for  road  ballast  and  street  pavonents,  and  uujre 
rarely  for  bridge  work  and  general  constructive  iiurjioses. 
Gabbros  from  the  coast  of  Maine,  and  near  Duluth,  Minn., 
are  also  in  great  favor  for  monumental  work.  ac()uii'ing 
a  high  polish,  and  being  dark  gray  or  nearly  black  in  col- 
or; such  are  commercially  known  as  "  black  granites."  A 
norite  from  Kecseville.  N.  Y.,  is  used  for  similar  purposes, 
and  a  coarse  granitic  diorite  from  near  Croton  Landing  on 
the  Hudson  river  in  the  same  State  is  utilized  for  building. 
A  greenish  melaphyr.  or  aiiii/i/diiloid.  from  Brighton,  Mass., 
furnishes  excellent  foundation  material.  The  ba.salts  are 
little  utilized  as  yet  for  other  than  paving  purposes. 

Consult  also  a  treatise  On  the  Building  find  Ornamenial 
Stone  of  Great  Britain  and  Fori-iyii  ('onntries.  by  Edward 
Hull  (London,  1872) :  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration,  bv 
George  P.  Merrill  (Wiley  &  Sons.  New  York.  1891);  (iranile 
and  our  Granite  Industries,  Ijy  G.  \V.  Harris  (London,  ]8i(l ) ; 
Building-stone  of  Xeir  York  State,  by  .J.  G.  Smock,  Bidle- 
tin,  New  Yoi'k  State  Jluseum  ;  Ilandtmok  and  Catalogue  of 
the  Collection  of  Bnilding  and  Ornamental  Stones  in  the 
United  States  National  jliiseuni,  by  George  P.  Merrill, 
Smithsonian  Report,  1880.  part  ii..  pp.  277-648;  Report  on 
Buildiny-stone  and  Qiiarri/  Indiistri/  of  the  United  States 
vol.  X.  Reports  of  Tenth  Census  (li^i);  Historij  and  U»es  of 
Limestone  and  Martiles,  by  S.  M.  Buridiam  (Boston.  1883); 
A  Report  on  Building-stone,  by  Prof.  James  Hall  (All)any, 
N.  Y'.) ;  yotes  on  Building  Construction,  part  iii..  South 
Kensington  Educational  Series  (London,  1879) :  An  Ency- 
clopedia of  Architecture,  h\  .]iif,m\i  Gwilt  (London,  18.51); 
_^  Technologic  du  Batiment,  by  Tlieodore  Chateau  (Paris, 
1880):  Materiau.r  de  Construction  de  t'E-rposition  Unirer- 
selle  de  IS',5,  l>y  A.  Delesse  (W.'iG) :  Report  of  ( 'ammisxioners 
on  Huildiny-stonesfor  the  New  Houses  of  Part  ionieni  (Lon- 
don, 18:i!)-4-")) ;  Economic  Geology,  by  David  Page;  Ansled's 
Practical  Geology ;  Report  on  Compressive  Strength  of 
Buililing-stones  of  the  United  States,  by  Gen.  Q.  A.  Gill- 
more;  Report  on  the  Build in//-stone  of  Iowa,  bv  Prof.  Gus- 
tave  Ileinrich  and  Lieut.  W.' P.  Butler  (1871):  Report  on 
JIarl/le,  etc.,  for  the  United  States  Capitol  Ej-tension,  Presi- 
dent's Message  (18")2):  Smithmnian  Report  for  1S.")(>;  Build- 
ing and  Ornamental  Stones  shown  in  the  Centennial  Expo- 
sition, Philadelphia,  1876,  liy  J.  S.  Newberrv,  Hei>ort  of 
Judges,  Group  L ;  E.rperiments  on.  the  Resistance  of 
Stones  to  Crushing  madr,  under  the  Direction  of  Gen. 
Franklin,  at  Hart  ford.  Conn.,  Tranx,  Am,  Sue,  Ciril  En- 


gineers, No.  xlviii. ;  Experimental  Tests  of  Building-stones, 
by  R.  G.  Hatfield,  ibid,,  Ivi. ;  Building-stone  of  Minnesota, 
by  Prof.  N.  H.  Winchell,  vol.  i.  Final  Report  on  Geology 
of  Jlinnesota.  George  P.  Merrill. 

Building's.  Wanning  and  Ventilation  of;  See  Warm- 
ing AXD  Ventilation  oe  1>iildixgs. 

Bujalance.  boo-A-ha'a-laan'thay ;  a  town  of  Spain;  prov- 
ince of  Cordova ;  about  25  miles  E.  of  Cordova  (see  map  of 
Sijain,  ref.  18-E).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  flanked  with 
old  towers,  and  has  an  old  Arabian  castle  and  a  college. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  woolen  goods,  glass,  and  pottery. 
Pop.  10.500. 

Bukorina,  boo-ko-vee'na :  a  province  of  Austria ;  bounded 
N.  by  Galicia,  E.  and  S.  by  Rouinania,  and  W.  by  Hungary, 
and  Galicia  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  5-L).  Area, 
4,035  sq.  miles.  With  the  exception  of  both  banks  of  the 
Pruth,  its  chief  river,  the  country  is  mountainous  through- 
out. The  climate  is  severe,  but  healthful.  It  has  very  little 
commerce  and  industry.  The  cliief  occupations  of  the  in- 
liabitants  are  agriculture  and  cattle-raising.  Iron,  copper, 
and  rock-salt  are  mined  in  large  quantities.  Bukovina  was 
originally  a  jjart  of  Transylvania,  with  which  country  it 
passed  under  Turkish  rule  in  1.529 ;  ceded  to  xVustria  in  lt77 ; 
united  with  Galicia  in  1786;  organized  as  a  separate  crown- 
land  in  1849.     Po]i.  (1891)  646.5'91. 

Bulak.  or  Boulac,  boo-Uiak' ;  a  town  of  Egypt ;  on  the 
riglit  bank  of  the  Nile ;  about  a  mile  from  Cairo ;  at  the 
branching  of  the  Pelnsiac  arm  of  the  Nile.  It  formerly 
stood  on  an  island.  The  vessels  navigating  the  Nile  dis- 
charge their  cargoes  at  Bulak.  which  is  the  port  of  Cairo,  and 
contains  a  custom-house.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  silk,  a  Government  jirinting-office.  and  a  very  valuable 
museum  of  Egyptian  anti(iuities.     Pop.  about  13.000. 

Bulb  [from  Lat.  bulbus,  from  Gr.  $o\$6s,  onion]:  in  bot- 
any, a  generally  rounded  or  ovoid  structure  consisting  of  a 
short  stem,  U]ion  which  are  attached  many  thickened  bases 
of  leaves,  usually  in  the  form  of  concentric  layers.  For  the 
most  part  bulbs  are  subterranean,  or  partly  so"  and  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  short  stem  roots  grow  out  and  downward 
into  the  soil.  The  onion  is  a  good  example  of  a  bulb,  and 
in  it  the  little  stem  may  be  easily  seen  by  making  a  vertical 
section,  while  the  arrangement  of  the  layers  may  be  best 
seen  in  a  cross-section.  By  a  close  comparison  of  bulbs  and 
buds  it  is  readily  seen  that  their  structure  is  similar.  Each 
is  but  the  quiescent  state  of  a  shoot,  in  which  by  the  checked 
growth  of  the  axis  the  leaves  are  developed  in  close  prox- 
imity. Thickened  stems  are  sometimes  erroneously  called 
bulbs,  as  in  the  crocus,  gladiolus,  etc.,  where  they  are  more 
properly  called  corms.  Tliickened  roots  of  particular  shapes 
are  often  termed  bulbous  roots  in  allusion  to  their  resem- 
blance to  bulbs  in  form,  although  there  is  otherwise  no 
similarity.  C.  E.  B. 

Bul'bul;  the  Persian  name  of  the  nightingale;  sometimes 
used  by  Engli-sh  poets.  The  same  name  is  given  by  the 
people  of  India  to  a  dilferent  species  of  bird,  the  Pycnonofus 
hcemorrhous.  It  is  a  small  bird  of  brilliant  plumage,  and 
remarkable  for  its  pugnacity  and  its  lively  manners.  It 
likes  to  liuild  near  houses.  If  s  constant  singing  is  described 
as  pleasant,  but  hardly  musical,  at  least  not  to  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  true  nightingale. 

Bnlga'ria  (anc.  Ma>sia  Inferior) :  a  principality  of  Eu- 
rope ;  bounded  N.  liy  the  Danube,  E.  by  tlie  Black  Sea, 
S.  by  the  Balkan  Mountain  range,  and  W.  by  Servia  (see 
map  of  Turkey.  3-D).  Area,  24,360  s().  miles.  The  surface 
is  level  in  the  N.  and  mountainous  in  the  S.,  and  is  gener- 
ally well  wooded.  The  soil  in  some  parts  is  fertile.  It  is 
drained  by  numerous  small  tributaries  of  the  Danube.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  lionu'd  cattle,  grain,  wine.  iron, 
wood,  hides,  wax,  and  attar  of  roses.  The  principal  towns 
are  Hustcliuk  (Kusse),  Plevna,  liazgrad,  Sevliovo,  Rahova, 
Vratya,  Varna,  Widin,  Sofia,  and  .Schumla.  The  Bidgarians 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church,  but  for  many  years  endeavored 
to  become  independent  of  the  |iatriarchate  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  to  have  all  the  Bulgarian  dioceses  of  Turkey  united 
under  one  Bulgarian  exarch.  The  demand  was  granted  by 
the  Turkish  Government  in  .\pr..  1870.  The  people  are  of  the 
Finnish-Ugriau  race,  buf  adopted  very  early  the  Slavonian 
language.  This  counfrv  was  coiKpiered  by  the  Turks  in 
1390.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878  (see  Berlin  Congress), 
it  was  made  an  autonomous  and  tributary  principality  un- 
der the  Sidtan  of  Turkey.  Pup.  (1888)  2.193,934.  Capital, 
.Sofia.     In  Oct.,  1885,  Eastern   Roumelia  (area  about   13,.5(IO 


BULGARIAN   LAXGUAGB 


BULGARIN 


827 


sq.  miles,  witli  900,441  pop.  in  1888)  was  annexed  to  Bulgaria. 
Prince  Alexamler  of  Bulgaria  abilieateil  Sept.  7, 188G.  Fer- 
(linaiiil.  Duke  <if  Saxony,  was  elected  I'rinee  of  Bulgaria  by 
the  National  .Vssemhiy  .July  7,  1887,  and  a.ssume(l  tiie  gov- 
ernment Aug.  14, 1887.  I  lis  election  and  the  union  of  Eastern 
Koumelia  to  Bulgaria  luive  not  yet  (18i)6)  been  eonfirmed  by 
the  great  powers.  See  AR.MV.and  Jireeek,  Das  Fursienthum 
Bult/arie/t  (1891). 

Kiilgariiin  l.aiiu:iiii;r(':  See  Slavic  Ija.nguages. 

Kiilgiiriiiii  IJtcraliHT:  Tlie  literature  of  Bulgaria  falls 
into  two  di.-iinet  and  widely  se])arated  periods.  The  first 
of  these  extends  from  the  ninth  to  the  fourteenth  century, 
theilate  of  the  conciuest  of  the  Bulgarians  by  the  Turks:  the 
second  conu's  wholly  within  our  own  century.  Tlie  literary 
language  of  tlie  two  jieriods  is  ditTereiit.  and  the  very  alpha- 
bet has  changed.  In  llie  early  iieriod  the  so-called  Cyrillic 
alphabet  obtained,  being  the  alpludiet  given  to  the  Slavic 
race  by  Cyril  and  Methodius,  the  ajiostles  to  Uu:  Slavs,  who 
were  themselves  Bulgarians  from  Salonica  and  began  the 
spreading  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  faith  among  the  Slavs 
from  Bulgaria.  There,  too,  they  designed  the  Slavic  alpha- 
bet, and  Iran^lateil  the  Scriptures  and  various  Church  books; 
anil  llir  .■ini-ient  Bulgarian  dialect  and  stylt^  of  writing  are 
both  called  Cyrillic.  Being  then  of  all  the  Slavs  nearest  to 
an<l  most  in  contact  with  the  Byzantine  (ireeks,  the  Bulga- 
rians advanced  in  literature  more  rapidly  than  any  otlier 
Slavic  nation.  Jlost  of  the  literary  production  of  that  time, 
however,  was  theological  in  its  character.  The  (TOS|)el  of 
Gstromir'  is  taken  a.sthe  purest  .-itandard.  for  style  and  .also 
for  orthography,  of  the  Cyrillic  or  Old  Bulgarian  literature. 
The  language  compares  fjivorably  with  Latin  and  (ireek  for 
richness  and  pliability,  and  translations  were  freely  made 
fnun  these  tongues.  Many  manuscripts  containing  such 
translations  are  preserved  in  the  great  libraries  of  Lurope, 
though  unfortunately  few  have  as  yet  been  published. 
.Scholars  have,  however,  derived  important  aid  from  them 
for  the  study  of  the  originals.  01<1  Bulgarian  literature 
reached  its  zenith  during  the  reign  of  the  Tzar  Simeon  (lat- 
ter part  of  the  tenth  century).  Though  consisting,  as  has 
been  indicated,  largely  of  translations,  it  well  deserves  study 
for  the  light  it  throws  upon  the  general  literary  relations  of 
meilia'val  Europe. 

After  the  compu'st  of  Bulgaria  by  the  Turks  (1306),  the 
(ireek  subjects  of  the  Turkish  Government  succeeded  in  prej- 
udicing their  rulers  against  the  unruly  Bulgarians,  and  in 
olitaining  the  right  themselves  to  invade  the  country  with 
their  churches,  schools,  and  language.  S[ic-edily  the  (Jreek 
tongue  replaced  the  Bulgarian  in  religion  and  e<lucation. 
The  (ireek  bishops,  with  intent  to  Ilellcni/.e  the  Bulgarians, 
destroyed  the  public,  and  even  private,  libraries  in  which  \ven> 
Bulgarian  books,  so  that  only  scattered  manuscripts  were 
preserved. 

The  gap  in  Bulgarian  literature  from  the  fonrteenth  to  the 
nineteenth  century  is  bridged  by  a  single  class  of  literary 
productions.  ]iopular  liidlads,  tales,  and  proverbs;  and  these 
are  rarely  other  than  modern  in  the  form  we  have.  Still 
they  are  in  substance  traditional,  and  give  us  much  infornni- 
t ion  as  to  the  life  of  Bulgaria  during  these  centuries.  The 
ballads  often  make  use  of  Bulgarian  history  tiniler  the  tzars, 
especially  the  last.  Tzar  Shishni.in  ;  but  for  the  most  part 
they  descrilic  the  wrongs  suffered  from  t  he  Turks  and  Greeks, 
and  the  deeds  of  llii'  heroic  avengers  of  tliese  wrongs.  There 
are  love  ballads  also.  .\11  are  sung  to  mehincholy,  long- 
drawn  airs,  said  to  have  been  adopted  after  the  Turkish  con- 
quest. In  the  heroic  ballads,  the  chief  ligiwes,  represented 
a.s  banner-bearers  of  bands  of  llaiducs,  are  the  leaders  of 
bodies  of  insurgents ;  and  the  Bulgarian  heroes  are  often 
confused  with  the  ballad  heroes  of  Servia  and  Montenegro. 
There  are  numy  collections  of  these  ballads,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mimed,  those  of  Bezsonolf,  the  brothers  Jli- 
ladinolT.  Kachanofski,  Verkovich,  Ilieff,  and  Shapkarefl. 
See  BAi.r-An  1'oktrv. 

Mmlfni  I'eriiid. — The  first  Bulgarian  book  of  the  new  epoch 
was  published  in  18()(i.  Certain  Bulgarians  educated  in  Rus- 
sia formed  a  club  in  Odessa  for  the  purpose  of  reviving  Bul- 
garian literature,  and  also  with  the  mtent  to  make  Bulgaria 
an  indcpendiMit  exarchate.  The  last  (loint  was  not  gained 
until  .Vjir..  ISTO.  after  many  and  severe  trials.  But  long  be- 
fore this,  local  revolts  against  the  (ireek  patriarchate  had 
banished  the  (Jreek  bishops,  with  their  books  and  language, 
from  most  of  the  Bulgarian  churches  and  schools.  About 
the  uiidiUe  of  the  century,  a  gymnasium  was  establislied  at 
Bolgrad,  in  Bessarabia  ;  and  the  brothers  AprilotT,  of  0<lessa, 


had  endowed  another  in  their  native  town  in  Bulgaria,  Ga- 
brova.  Text-books  and  |)eriodicals  began  to  be  published  in 
Bulgarian.  At  first  an  attempt  was  made  to  preserve  the  Old 
Bulgarian  alphabet  and  langiuige — or  at  least,  as  Rakovski 
advocated,  to  adopt  an  intermediate  dialect,  which  should 
serve  as  a  medium  for  all  .Slavs,  asOld  Bulgarian  hadfornierly 
done.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  language  had  under- 
gone_such  moditications  that  the  modern  form  of  it  was  re- 
lated to  tlui  old  form  much  as  modern  to  ancient  (ireek,  or 
Italian  to  Latin.  Accordingly,  the  old  iiliom,  with  the  Russ- 
isms  it  had  accpiired  from  the  printing  of  the  Church  books 
in  Russia,  was  consigned  to  the  use  of  the  Church,  while  the 
living  langiuige  was  ado|3ted  for  the  schools  and  for  literary 
puqioscs.  The  old  accentuation  and  abbreviations  and  from 
eleven  to  sixteen  letters  of  the  old  alphabet  have  been  aban- 
doned ;  and  the  calligraphic  handwriting  ami  the  smooth 
Russian  type  are  employed.  These  changes,  however,  have 
not  been  tlioroughly  or  systematically  carried  out  :  and  the 
tendenev  to  adopt  the  |ihonetic  system  of  writing,  advocated 
especially  by  I'rof.  Lrinoff,  causes  great  confusion  in  Bul- 
garian orthography. 

The  foUdwing  writers  of  the  new  epoch  deserve  to  be  men- 
tioned: P.  R.  Slaveicoff,  1.  (in'iefT,  Xeofit  Rilski,  Lv'iben  Ka- 
ra vcloff.  and  S.  Kakovski.  Though  not  writers  of  cosmo]iolit an 
training  or  European  reputation,  these  men  have  done  much 
for  the  literary  future  of  their  race.  SlaveicoS,  especially, 
the  most  productive  of  all,  has  proved  himself  a  born  poet 
and  a  sharp  satirist.  Ills  Smt'slim  Kalenddr,  JS'nv(i-moda 
Knlciiildr.  and  his  jieriodical  (Ididii  have  bi-en  the  prin- 
cipal factors  in  the  overthrow  of  the  (ireek  hierarchy  and 
the  awakening  of  independent  liulgarian  life.  Slaveicoff 
has  also  translated  many  novels  and  poems  into  Bulgarian, 
and  has  edited  several  periodicals.  (iri'ietf  has  worked 
mainly  as  a  teacher  thnuigh  the  schools.  He  has  composed 
and  translated  many  text-books.  Rilski.  first  a  teacher  and 
then  hegunienos  of  the  monastery  of  Rila,  has  translated 
the  Xew  Testament,  and  com])osed  the  first  Bulgarian  dic- 
tionary and  grammar,  but  only  the  grammar  was  pub- 
lished in  1835.  Karaveloff  is  a  noted  novelist  and  jour- 
nalist. 

Education  is  making  greater  progress  in  Bulgaria  than  in 
any  other  Slavic  country.  Jlissionaries  from  the  U.  S.  have 
contributeil  much  to  this,  and,  indeed,  to  the  development 
of  Bulgarian  literature.  Dr.  Riggs  jiublished  in  1844  a  Bul- 
garian grammar,  and  Jlr.  Morse  in  1859  the  first  vocabulary. 
Bulgaria  has  now  a  university  at  Sofia.  7  gymnasia  for  boys 
and  G  for  girls,  i  normal  schools,  1  commercial,  2  agricul- 
tural and  1  technical,  all  under  the  care  of  the  (iovernment, 
and  very  pros]>erous.  The  exarchate  supports  also  a  gym- 
nasium in  Salonica  and  many  grammar  schools  in  Macedonia. 
For  ])rofessional  training,  Bulgarians  must  st  ill  go  to  foreign 
countries. 

In  the  way  of  periodicals,  Bulgaria  has  eleven  magazines 
or  reviews,  of  which  the  .S'/ywcH/c,  edited  by  the  Ministry  of 
Education, yV/vW(V//c.sA-o  iS^jf'.sY/Hi'e, and  Tnid  are  very  good; 
and  twenty-eight  newsjiapcrs,  of  which  two  are  dailies. 

E.  S.  YOVTCHEFF. 

Blll^arill.  Faudki  VKXEiUKTovrnii  :  Russian  writer;  b. 
in  the  department  of  Minsk,  in  Lithuania.  1789;  d.  near 
Dorpat.  Sept.  l:i,  \i<V.).  In  his  youth  he  served  in  the  Russian 
army  against  Xapoleou.and  in  Finland;  but  in  1810.  having 
withdrawn  from  the  Russian  service,  he  Joined  the  famous 
Polish  legion  ;it  Warsaw,  and  served  under  Napoleon  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany  (1810-14).  After  the  conclusion 
of  peace  he  cut I'red  the  Russian  administration,  and  at  the 
same  time  began  to  write.  In  1825  he  founded  with  (ireteh 
the  journal  S^'icivniaja  Ptclield  {Kortliern  Bee),  for  which  he 
wrote  many  years.  He  was  an  able  writer,  but  unjust, 
servile,  and  venal.  In  politics  and  literature  both  he  was  a 
fierce  absolnt  ist  and  reactionary ;  and  as  such  he  enjoyed 
the  special  favor  of  the  Ru.ssian  (iovcninu'nt.  His  feud  with 
the  Russian  romanticists,  esiiecially  Puslikin,  was  of  the 
bitterest.  He  is  now  chiefly  remembered  for  his  novels, 
which  have  undeniable  |)ower.  and  whii-h  have  been  trans- 
lated into  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe.  The  chief  of 
the.se  are  Iran  Vuixhif/in.  or  the  liuaxUtn  Oil  Bias  (1829) ; 
Demetrius  {W-W)\  Mazeppn  (1832);  J'eler  Iraiinritrl}  ^'ltis- 
h  if/in.  sequel  tn  the  Russian  (HI  BtiiK  (1834).  Besides  Iheso 
novels,  Biilgarin  wrf>te  a  great  work.  Bussia,  Geographical, 
Statistical,  aud  Ijiternry  (fi  vols.,  St.  I'etersbnrg,  1830),  and 
.Memoirs  (  H'<).s/)ow/«(r)i(V?.  0  vols.,  St.  Petersburg.  1844-49; 
(ierm.  trans,  bv  Reinthal  and  Clcnienz.  0  vols..  .Tena.  1858- 
61).  ■  A.  R.  Maksh. 


828 


BULKELEY 


BULL-FIGHTING 


Bnlkeley,  Morgan  Gardner,  A.  M. :  Governor  of  Con- 
necticut :  b.  in  East  Haddain.  Conn.,  Dec.  26, 1837 :  educated 
in  Hartforii  High  School;  mayor  of  Hartford  1880-88:  elected 
Governor  of  Connecticut  in  188!) :  and  in  1891  held  over  with 
the  aid  of  th«  House  of  Re[)resentatives,  owinsr  to  alleged 
defects  of  election  returns,  although  he  had  not  been  a  can- 
didate for  the  oilice. 

BnlkhontI :  on  board  ship,  a  partition  separating  the  cab- 
ins and  staterooms  on  the  same  deck,  as  cabin  bulkhead, 
wardroom  bulkhead,  etc.  Water-tight  bulkheads  are  trans- 
verse partitions  of  iron  dividing  the  holds  of  the  modern 
steamship  into  compartments.  Transverse  and  longitudinal 
bulkheads  increase  the  structural  strength  of  a  ship,  and,  by 
confining  a  fire  or  a  leak  toone  compartment,  add  to  her  safety. 
A  collision  bulkhead  is  a  transverse  partition  in  the  fore 
body  of  a  ship.  Should  the  bow  be  stove  in  by  a  collision,  it 
confines  the  water  to  the  forward  compartment.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a  structure  of  wood  or  stone,  to  hold  back 
earth,  as  on  a  water  front,  in  a  mine,  etc.  S.  B,  Luce. 

Bull  (in  Lat.  taxnis.  Fr.  faiireaii):  the  male  of  animals 
belonging  to  the  family  Boridw  and  genus  Bos.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  the  males  of  some  other  animals,  such 
as  the  elk,  sea-lion,  seal,  whale.  (See  Bovidje.)  Also  the 
name  of  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  of  a 
constellation  which  does  not  coincide  with  the  sign.  (See 
Taurus.)  In  conversation,  a  ridiculous  speech  defined  by 
Sydney  Smilh  as  "  an  apparent  congruity  and  a  real  incon- 
gruity of  ideas  suddenly  discovered."  The  use  of  the  terra 
was  known  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century. 

Bull,  or  Papal  Bull  [from  Lat.  bulla,  knob,  seal] :  an 
ordinance  or  decree  of  the  pope,  eqmvalent  to  the  edicts, 
proclamations,  or  letters-patent  of  secidar  sovereigns,  some 
of  which  were  formerly  called  bulls.  (See  Bull.  Golden,  be- 
low.) All  bulls  are  written  in  Latin,  except  those  addressed 
to  the  United  Greek  churclies.  They  are  generally  desig- 
nated by  the  first  words  of  the  text :  thus  the  bull  issued  in 
1536  against  heretics  was  t-alled  the  bull  "  In  Ca'na  Domini," 
and  tliat  directed  against  the  Jansenists  in  1713  was  the 
bull  "  Unigenitus."  The  publication  of  a  bull  is  termed 
fulmination  (from  the  \j&\.  fuliuino.  fulniinatum,{o"\nxv\ 
a  thunderbolt," /H/mcH).  Bulls  are  written  on  parchment, 
and  a  leaden  seal  is  appended  to  every  biUl  by  means  of  a 
silken  cord  if  the  object  of  the  bull  be  the  granting  of  a 
favor;  but  if  it  be  a  matter  of  justice,  the  cord  is  of  hemp. 

Revised  by  John  J.  Keane. 
Bull.  Golden  :  a  term  applied  to  a  decree  or  enactment 
of  Charles  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  published  in  1356,  in 
two  diets  lield  in  succession  at  Nuremberg  and  Jletz,  in 
order  to  fix  the  laws  in  the  election  of  emperor  and  to  regu- 
late tlie  number  and  jirivileges  of  electors.  It  is  preserved 
at  Frankfort -on-t he-Main.  Another  "golden  bull,"  of  An- 
drew II.  of  Hungary,  in  1222,  fixed  the  privileges  of  the 
nobles,  and  was  regarded  as  a  national  constitution. 

Bull,  Ole  Borxemann:  Norwegian  violinist;  b.  at  Ber- 
gen, Feb.  5,  1810.  He  visited  Paris  in  his  youth,  and  after- 
ward performed  in  Italy  and  Englaml  with  great  success. 
In  1845  he  removed  to  the  U.  S..  jmrchased  a  large  tract  of 
land  in  Pennsylvania,  and  founded  the  colony  of  Oleana. 
This  proved  to  be  a  failure,  and  he  returned  to  Europe,  but 
subsequentlv  visited  the  V.  S.  several  times.  D.  at  Bergen, 
Norway,  Aug.  18,  1880. 

Bul'la:  a  genus  of  molluscs  belonging  to  the  order  of 
Opisthobranchs  (see  Gasteropoda)  and  family  Bullidif. 
which  receives  its  name  from  the 
swollen  globular  shell  with  which 
all  the  species  are  provided.  The 
whorls  of  the  shell  are  few  in  num- 
ber, the  outer  ones  greatly  swollen, 
and  the  spire  is  frequently  covered 
by  the  outer  whorl.  The  animal 
has  a  broad,  flat  head,  which  is 
united  to  the  fleshy  tentacles  to 
form  a  frontal  disk.  Gills  occur 
only  on  the  right  side.  The  spe- 
cies, of  which  over  fifty  are  known, 
are  all  marine,  and  are  mostly  in- 
habitants of  warmer  seas,  especially 
those  with  sandy  bottoms.  Fossil 
species  occur  in  Cretaceous  rocks. 

Bnll-baitinsr :  a  sport  formerly  common  in  England,  but 
illegal  since  1835.  The  bidl  was  liaited  by  inciting  dogs  to 
attack  him,  and  in  order  that  the  bulfs  temper  might  be  ex- 


BuUa  velum. 


cited  his  nose  was  blown  full  of  pepper.  Sometimes  the  bull 
was  fastened  by  a  rope,  and  bulldogs  were  set  at  him.  one 
at  a  time,  to  fasten  themselves  on  his  nose,  which  operation 
was  called  pinning  the  bull.  The  sport,  however,  chiefly 
consisted  in  seeing  the  dogs  tossed. 

Bulldog  [so  called  from  the  practice  of  Bixl-baitixo 
{q.  J'.)] :  a  variety  of  dog  especially  bred  in  Great  Britain. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  courage,  faithfulness,  persistency, 
and  strength.     It  is  now  uuich  less  frequently  bred  than  in 

Sast  times.  The  size  of  the  neck  and  fore  quarters  of  this 
og  is  quite  in  excess  of  the  development  of  the  other  parts. 
The  bulldog  is  one  of  the  most  fierce,  and  even  dangerous, 
of  his  species.  Its  chief  value  at  present  is  for  crossing  with 
other  lireeds.  The  greyhound,  the  terrier,  and  the  pointer, 
each  have  their  courage  and  persistency  nuich  improved  by 
this  cross,  if  judiciously  made. 

Bulldozing,  Bulldoser.  or  Bulldozen :  a  slang  term 
of  Louisiana  origin,  having  as  yet  a  variable  significance. 
Its  first  use  was  in  the  parishes  of  Feliciana  and  Baton 
Rouge,  in  1876,  to  describe  the  doings  of  a  ban<l  of  a  dozen 
Regulators  styled  the  "Union  Stop,"  who  umlcrtook,  in  the 
absence  of  law,  to  check  the  stealing  and  killing  of  slock, 
which  were  destroying  the  cattle  and  hogs  of  that  region. 
The  punishment  of  offenders  was  with  the  well-known  bull- 
whip — a  hickory  handle  of  12  or  15  inches  and  a  plaited 
thong  of  3  to  5  feet.  A  dozen  lashes  (or  the  dozen  com- 
posing the  band)  gave  the  name  to  the  process  or  dose  of 
strapping,  and  it  was  called  "  bulldosing "  or  "bulldozing." 
It  soon  was  applied  to  all  summary  punishment  not  au- 
thorized by  law.  3Iore  recently  it  became  a  political  term, 
particularly  as  applied  to  the  influencing  of  negro  voters  by 
those  of  their  own  color;  but  bulldozing  has  become  a  term 
used  to  describe  all  the  various  kinds  of  intimidation,  real 
or  imaginary,  used  at  elections. 

Buller,  Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  Redvers  ITenrv  :  English  soldier ; 
b.  in  Devonshire  in  1839;  entered  the  army  in  1858;  served 
with  distinction  in  China,  the  Ashanti  war,  the  Zulu  war, 
the  Boer  war.  the  Egyptian  war  of  1882,  and  the  Sudan 
campaigns  of  1884-85 ;  lieutenant-general  1887. 

Bullet  (in  Fr.  balle:  Gcrm.Kuc/i'l):  a  projectile  of  lead  to 
be  discharged  from  various  kinds  of  small-arms.  For 
smooth-bore  arms  Ijullets  are  u.sually  sjiherical.  but  for  rilleil 
musketry  various  forms  of  the  elongated  l.)ullet  are  used. 
Most  of  these  bullets  have  an  expansive  base,  either  hollow 
or  plugged  with  wood,  the  design  being  to  force  the  soft 
lead  outward,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  fit  the  grooves  of  the  rifle, 
and  thus  give  the  bidlet  a  rotation  aroufid  its  long  axis  dur- 
ing the  motion  forward.  This  rotation,  as  is  well  known, 
increases  the  range  and  precision.  Bullets  were  formerly 
always  cast,  but  now  they  are  more  frequently  stamped  in 
steel  dies. 

Bulletin  [Fr.] :  in  diplomatics,  a  term  equivalent  to 
schedule,  and  variously  applied  to  diff'erent  public  acts.  In 
recent  times  the  word  is  often  used  to  denote  an  official  re- 
I)ort,  a  dispatch  of  a  military  commander,  and  in  a  wider 
sense  any  public  notice  or  announcement,  especially  of  re- 
cent events.  In  France  the  ticket  or  slip  of  paper  which 
each  elector  uses  in  voting  at  elections  is  called  a  bulletin. 
In  the  U.  S.  official  bulletins  of  the  weather  are  issued  daily 
by  tlie  Weather  Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Bull-lighting'  (in  Sp.  corrida  de  toros  or  iiesta  de  ioros): 
a  contest  between  men  and  bulls  carried  out  as  a  show  for 
the  public  entertainment.  Bull-fights  were  introduced  at 
Rome  by  .Julius  Ca>sar,  and  were  popular  during  the  reigns 
of  the  emperors.  They  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the 
Jloors  in  the  eighth  century.  They  were  abolished  there  by 
Philip  v.,  but  were  revived  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  are  now  a  popular  sport  in  Spain  as  well  as  in  Sjianish 
America.  Lately  efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  them 
into  the  south  of  France,  but  have  met  with  some  ojiposi- 
tion.  At  the  present  time  bull-fights  are  carried  out  by  |iri- 
vate  individuals  or  for  the  benefit  of  hospitals  or  other  public 
institutions.  In  Madrid  the  fights  take  place  in  the  I'laza 
de  Toros,  an  arena  round  which  the  seats  are  ranged  as  in 
an  amphitheater,  with  rows  of  boxes  at  the  top.  It  is  said 
there  is  room  for  10,000  spectators.  The  actors  in  the  bull- 
fight are  generally  professionals,  but  amateurs  are  some- 
times permitte<l  to  take  part.  The  fight  is  divided  into 
three  acts.  In  the  first  act  the  picadors  take  part,  in  the 
second  the  chulos.  and  the  third  act  is  reserved  for  the 
matador.  The  picadors,  who  are  dressed  like  the  knights 
of  ancient  times,  are  mounted  and  armed  with  lances  (hence 


BULLFINCH 


BULL  KUX,  BATTLP:  OP 


829 


the  mime,  from  Spanish  pica,  a  pil<e  or  lance.    They  take 
their  place  at  the  center  of  the  arena.     The  chulos.  who 

are  on  foot,  are  (Iressed  in  colored  cloaks.  Tlie  matador  is 
on  foot,  and  carries  a  swi.rd  and  a  niulefa — a  stick  with  a 
piece  of  red  silk  fastened  to  it.  When  the  maj;istrate  gives 
the  signal  a  bull  is  let  out  into  the  arena.  If  the  bull  is  a 
brave  one,  the  picadors  assunje  a  defensive  attitude  :  but  if 
he  is  shis;;ish,  tliey  attack  liini  vigonnisly.  If  tliey  fail  in 
irritating  hirn.tiie  animal  is  stabbed  in  the  back  of  the  neck. 
Wliiiu'Vcr  a  picador's  horse  is  wounded  or  he  himself  is 
thrown,  the  chulos  advance  and  distract  the  bull's  attention 
with  their  ch«iks.  The  bull  generally  kills  some  of  the 
horses,  and  on  rare  occasions  one  or  two  men.  When  the 
bull  becomes  exhausted,  the  picadors  are  succeeded  by  the 
chulos  with  banderillas — small  barbed  darts — to  which  fire- 
crackers are  sometimes  attached.  These  the  chulos  dis- 
charge at  the  bull  to  stimulate  his  flagging  energies.  In  the 
last  act  the  matador  enters  alone.  The  bull  being  enraged 
by  the  sight  of  the  muleta  makes  a  dash  for  it.  and  the  mata- 
dor standing  aside  <lrives  his  sword  in  front  of  the  left  shoul- 
der. A  team  of  mules  tluMi  enters, and  the  dead  liodyof  the 
bull  is  quickly  carried  away.  The  matador  is  greeted  witli 
cheers,  but  tlie  i)opulace  is'equally  well  satislied  should  tlie 
bull  be  the  victor,  when  another  matador  enters  the  arena. 
Biillflneh  (Pyr)7ii;/rt  laropaa):  a  Kuropean  bird  of  the 
fjuuily  (if  Frin()Mi(l(c:  al)out  the  size  of  the  lommon  spar- 
row; Often  kept  as  a  cage-bird,  especially  by  the  Germans. 


liullflnch^ 

It  is  easily  tniincd.  The  jihimage  is  blnish  prray  above,  the 
brciist  is  of  a  lu-ight  tile  red,  and  the  crown  of  the  head  atid 
the  greater  wiug-ooverts  are  blacl:.  It  builds  on  bushes  or 
trees  near  ihe  ground,  and  ferds  chiefly  on  seeds,  berries, 
and  buds.  Its  song  is  not  n.-ilurally  very  agreeable,  but  it 
can  be  improved  by  education,  and  trained  bulllinches  are 
sold  for  hi^'li  iirice.s.  The  piuf  bulllineh  (Pinicnla  cnuclea- 
/or)  is  a  bcuutiful  northern  bird  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
male  is  of  :i  splendid  red,  tlie  lemalr  an  orange  green. 

XlnlltrK'j:  iJ{atin  caienbiand):  a  frog  found  in  the  U.S.; 
of  olive-giren  color;  generally  8  to  12  inches  long,  though 
in  some  rases  it  attain 
derives  its  name  from  tl 
whiph  is  of  a  deep  bass 
b\dl  It  is  almost  who 
frog  are  nflon  used  as  d 

nnllhead:    the  po|.i 
genns  C'if/US,  of  which 
HUil  Aiiiiilca.     AnotI 

>ll(J,EIt's-rHfMH   ((/.  '.I 

allyoHi'i'  species  of  i-atli 
in  the  Northeastern  Slal 

Rollingpi'.  biSiMiuLT  «r,  IIeixricu  :  Swiss  reformer:  b. 
in  IJiciiigsrtcn,  in  i  lie  c»nton  of  Aargau,  near  Zurich,  July 
IS.  B(I4;  d.  in  Zuiicli,  Sept.  17,  1-575:  studied  theology  in 
Col  Jill),  and  beiaine  iv  teailier  in  the  convent  at  Koj^pcl 
ITiJa  by  the  wriiiugs  of  Luther,  Jlelanchthon,  and  Zwiugli 
led  If'  embrace  i  he  Ifeformalion.  In  152!)  he  was  chosen 
jia^r  of  his  nniivc  city,  and  nnirrieil.  and  in  l.")^!  lie  suc- 
cei  ed  Zwingli  as  pastor  of  Zurich.  He  wrote  willi  great 
dii  ity  against  Luiber  in  the  controversy  concerning  the 
Lo  I's  Supper,  but/fie  finally  came  to  an  agreement  with 
Ca  in;  ana  he  djew  up  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession 


I  he  length  of  19  to  21  inches.  It 
remarkable  loudness  of  its  voice, 
lud  rcsembis  the  bellowing  of  a 
y  aquatic.     The  liind  legs  of  this 

ilarmame  of  smaU  fishes  of  the 
tlieiB  are  several  species  in  Europe 
r  Bime  commonly  given  them  is 
pititirus  luliiilosHs  and  occasion- 
are  locallv  known  as  bullheads 


1566,  the  most  elaborate  Reformed  creed.  Of  his  numerous 
writings — commentaries,  sermons,  dogmatical  expositions, 
polemical  treatises  against  the  Lutherans,  the  Anabaptists, 
etc. — there  is  no  collected  edition;  but  they  enjoyed 
great  authority  in  their  time.  His  lieformaiiunsgeschichte, 
edited  by  llottinger  and  Viigeli,  appeared  first" in  3  vols. 
(Frauenl'eld,  lSi8— ID):  his  sermons,  the  so-called  Decades, 
were  early  translated  (London,  1577;  new  ed.  Cambridge, 
l)S4!)-52,  4  vols.)  and  tlieir  reading  was  enjoined  by  convo- 
cation on  the  inferior  iiiini.sters.  See  his  Life,  by  C.  Pes- 
talozzi  (Klberfeld,  lS5t<)  and  by  Hoget  Christoffer  (Zurich, 
IS75);  also  G.  R.  Zimmermanu,  Din  Zuricher  Kirehe  und 
ihre  Anfistes  (Zurich,  1877). 

ISillIion :  gold  or  silver  in  mass,  and  hence  gold  or  silver 
without  reference  to  the  shape  or  form  in  which  it  is  made. 
The  term  is  ordinarily  used  of  uncoined  gold  and  silver,  but 
is  sometimes  applied  to  coined  metal  when  sold  by  the  bulk 
instead  of  according  to  its  face  value,  especially  when  worn, 
or  depreciated  by  alloy.  Gold  and  silver  are  called  bullion 
when  smelted  from  the  ore  and  not  perfectly  refined,  or 
when  perfectly  refined  but  melted  down  into  ingots  or  bars, 
or  in  any  uncoined  form. 

Itiillock,  Charles:  Anglican  clergyman;  b.  in  1829; 
educated  in  St.  Bee's  College,  Cumberland :  was  appointed 
rector  of  St.  Nicholas,  Worcester,  1860;  removed  to  Black- 
heath  in  1874;  founded  and  edited  several  popular  religious 
periodicals-3^77(C  Firi'nidf,  Home  Wards,  The  Day  vf  Ikiyx, 
and  Hand  and  Heart,  afterward  called  The  Church  Stand- 
ard; he  also  published  ii'H(//«7irf'«  lioyal  Home,  The  Hume, 
Life  of  the  Prince  Consort,  etc. 

lillllock.  Rtn-fs  Bliowx:  first  Governor  of  Georgia  under 
till'  new  coiistiliition  adopted  in  pursuance  of  the  recon- 
struction measures  of  Congress;  b.  in  Bethlehem.  Albany 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  28,  lS;i4 ;  educated  at  Albion  Academy; 
sent  to  organize  a  Southern  express  business  at  Augusta, 
Ga. ;  was  a  member  of  the  State  constitutional  convention 
which  was  called  in  1867.  In  the  ensuing  election  in  1868 
the  constitution  formed  by  this  convention  was  ratified; 
and  he  was  declared  to  be  duly  elected  Governor  of  the 
State.  This  office  he  held  until  the  fall  of  1S70,  main- 
taining in  the  face  of  great  obloquy  the  rights  of  Negro  rep- 
resentatives in  l-he  Legislature,  and  appealing  to  Congress 
for  support.  When  a  new  Legislature  strongly  opposed  to 
his  policy  was  elected,  he  resigned  office  and  retired  to  At- 
lanta. The  courts  vindicated  him  from  every  allegation  of 
corrupt  practices.  He  greatly  extended  the  railroad  and 
traffic  systems  of  Georgia. 

IJullock,  William  A.:  inventor;  b.  in  Greenville. Greene 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  1813:  became  a  machinist;  founded  the  Ban- 
ner of  tlie  i'nion  (Philadelphia,  1849);  removed  to  Catskill, 
and  invented  a  press  lo  print  his  paper;  constructed  a 
"planetary  press"  for  Frank  Leslie,  which  worked  with  un- 
matched speed  ;  improved  his  invention  until  he  had  pro- 
duced the  self-feeding,  automatic-adjusting,  and  printed 
sheet  delivering  web-press,  capable  of  turning  out  30,000 
newspapers,  cut  apart  and  folded,  in  an  hour;  injured 
while  setting  up  one  of  his  own  iiresses  in  Philadeliiliia,  and 
d.  there  Apr.  14,  1867. 

Itnll  Knn.  Battle  of;  a  batth'  which  has  been  classed 
as  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S. 
As  the  ./?'•■</  pitched  battle — the  first  trial  of  strength  be- 
tween the  North  and  South — its  inception  and  issue  were 
pregnant  wil  li  grave  consequences  to  the  future  of  a  .strug- 
gle in  which  the  two  combatants  were  yet  hesitating  to 
engau'e.  In  its  pui'cly  military  results  it  has  been  well  said 
that  "the  cannon  of  Bull  Run  echoed  lienceforth  on  every 
batile-lirld  of  the  war."  'I'lie  bombardment  of  Fort  Sum- 
ter found  the  Government  completely  destitute  of  an  or- 
ganized force — the  army  scattered  on  distant  frontiers  (a 
large  i"irtion  indeed  captured  through  the  agency  of  its 
commander),  and  the  navy  dispersed  to  remote  quarters  of 
the  earth.  For  no  inconsiderable  period  the  possession  of 
the  national  capital  seemed  to  be  due  rather  to  the  hesita- 
tion or  irresolution  of  the  Confederates  than  to  its  capabil- 
ity of  vigorous  defense.  But  the  President's  call  for  75,000 
volunteers  for  "three  months"  (his  power  to  call  out  the  mi- 
litia to  "suppress  insurrection"  being  thus  legally  limited) 
had  assembled  in  Washington  and  elsewhere  a  large  militia 
force  which,  strenglliened  by  such  portions  of  the  regular 
force  as  could  be  made  available,  had  been  diligently  trained 
under  direction  of  army  ollicers. 

Simultaneously  with  the  occupation  of  the  Virginia  shore 


830 


BULL   RUN,   BATTLE   OF 


of  the  Potomac  by  the  Union  army,  the  Confederates  had 
established  themselves  at  Manassas  Junction,  a  point  on 
the  railroad  25  miles  W.  from  Alexandria,  and  tlie  junction 
of  the  great  Southern   railroad   route  (counecting  Wash- 


Map  of  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 1861 

ington  with  Richmond  and  the  South)  and  the  Manassas 
Gap  R.  R.,  leading  to  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  where 
another  Confederate  force  mider  Johnston  confronted  Pat- 
terson, who  had  recently  crossed  the  Potomac  at  Harper's 
Ferry. 

Tlie  occupation  of  Manassas  was  recommended  to  the 
Confederates  by  the  fact  tliat  it  controlled  the  railroad 
routes,  and  was  itself  a  strong  position.  An  elevated  pla- 
teau in  tiie  crotch  formed  by  the  Occoquan  and  its  princi- 
pal tributary  from  tlie  north.  Bull  Run,  of  which  the  beds 
are  canal-like  cuts  in  horizontal  strata  of  red  sandstone,  it 
was  of  ditficult  approach  to  an  attacking  army,  while  the 
general  character  of  the  country,  broken,  wooded,  with  few 
roads  fit  for  the  movement  of  "troops,  was  favorable  to  the 
defense. 

Leading  almost  directly  W.  from  Alexandria,  diverging 
slightly  to  the  north  from  the  railroad,  a  macadamized  road 
passed  through  Centreville,  23  miles  distant. 

From  Centreville,  a  little  W.  of  S.  and  6  or  7  miles  dis- 
tant, lay  Manassas  Junction.  About  midway  between  these 
two  points  flowed  tlie  rivulet  of  Bull  Run  (the  real  defen- 
sive line  of  the  Confederates)  in  a  general  direction  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E. 

A  road  led  from  Centreville  almost  directly  to  the  Junc- 
tion, crossing  Bull  Rtin  3  miles  from  Centreville  at  E. 
Mitchell's  Ford,  a  short  distance  below  which  is  Ulai-k- 
burn's  Ford.  The  turnpike  liefore  mentioned  continued  i(s 
westerly  course  toward  Warrenton,  in  a  nearly  stiaiglil  Ihic 
beyond  Ccntn^ville,  crossing  I'ull  Hun  at  the  Stone  liridge, 
4  miles  (llslaTit.  Somewlial  enstwanlly  nt'  S.,  a  country  road 
from  Centreville  crossed  15ull  Run  ajui  the  railroad  attlnion 
Mills. 

The  Confederate  force  was  distributed  along  Bull  Run 
from  Union  Mills  to  the  Stone  Bridge  (nearly  8  miles),  with 
reserves  and  a  fortified  ]»isiliou  at  or  near  the  Junction. 

The  line  was  a  strong  one.  for  the  stream,  though  contain- 
ing but  little  water  at  that  M'ason.  was.  owing  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  bed  and  tn  the  alirupt  and  wooded  slopes  of  its 
right  bank,  a  formidable  obslacle. 

The  army  of  Gen.  iMcDowell,  which  marched  to  the  at- 
tack of  this  position,  nuinljered  a1>out  30.()0()  men.  Save 
perhaps  700  or  800  regular  troops  (fragments  of  regiments) 


of  the  old  army,  it  was  composed  wholly  of  raw  volunteers, 
none  of  whom  had  been  in  a  soldier's  garb  more  than  two 
or  three  months,  and  at  least  half  of  whom  were  enlisted 
only  for  a  term  of  three  months,  then  just  al)out  expii-- 

ing.  Such  an  army 
as  this  was  certain- 
ly not  the  best  suit- 
ed for  an  olfensive 
campaign.  Troo])s 
■utterly  raw  ;  bri- 
gades and  divisions, 
the  component  parts 
of  which  had  never 
been  brought  in  con- 
tact before,  com- 
manded Ijy  ofiRcers 
who,  thongli  gener- 
ally of  ability,  were 
for  the  first  time  ex- 
ercising these  exten- 
sive command.s,  and 
who  had  hardly  even 
seen  the  troops  they 
commanded. 

Such  was  the  army 
which  mari'hed  from 
the    banks    of     the 
Potomac  on  the  af- 
ternoon of  July  16. 
It    moved    in   four 
columns,  one  by  the 
turnpike,  one  by  the 
lateral  eoinitry  roads 
on  the  right,  one  on 
the  left  of  the  rail- 
road,   and    another 
between    tin'    turn- 
pike   and    lailroad, 
following     what    is 
known  as  tlic  "  ISrad- 
dock"  road,  from  its 
having   lieen    made 
by  that  general  on  his  memorable  march  to  Fort  I)u(juesne 
in  17.14,  which  terminated  in  his  disastrous  defeat  and  death. 
The  "  plan  "  of  the  campaign  organized  by  Gen.  McDowell 
had  been  carefully  studied  by  him  in  conjunct  ion  with  his 
staff  officers  for  a  week  or  two  liefore  the  movement  com- 
menced.    It  was  a  featuiv   of  it,  after  reachiiig  Fairfax 
Court-house,  to  make  a  sudilen  movement  to  the  left,  iross- 
ing  the  Occoquan  just  below  the  junction  of  that  stream  with 
Bull  I?un,  aiming  at  the  enemy's  railroad  communicalions. 
His  personal  reconnoissauces  in  that  direction,  made  on  the 
18th,  led  him  to  consider  the  country  imjiracticable  for  the 
operations  of  his  army. 

However  imperative  it  was  (for  many  reasons)  lo  lose  no 
time  (a  regiment,  the  term  of  which  expired  on  the  eve  of 
the  battle,  actually  marched  "  to  the  rear,"  as  Gen.  JIcDnwell 
expressed  it,  "to  "the  sound  of  the  enemy's  cannon  ")  it  was 
out  of  the  question  to  attack  until  some  plan  could  be  de- 
vised which  would  promise  success.  A  day  was  acetu'dingly 
spent  in  reconnoissances. 

The  Stone  Bridge,  already  mentioned  as  forming  the 
left  of  the  enemy's  defensive  position,  was  a  single-arched 
structure  over  the  narrow  stream.  The  jiassau'e  was  fcnnid 
to  be  guarded  by  field-gims,  and  the  road  and  adjacent 
ground  beyond  obstructed  by  formidalile  abattis.  ScMM-al 
roads  were  ascertained  to  lead  lo  fords  between  Blackburn's 
and  the  Stone  Bridge,  but  they  were  mere  by-p:iths,  the  op- 
posite banks  of  the  stream  gcnei-ally  steep  and  tangled,  and 
prol)ably  olistructed. 

It  was  found  that  a  couple  of  nules  above  the  Stone  Uridge 
tliere  w,<is  a  good  ford  at  Sudlcy  Springs,  which  was  Ijut 
slightly  guarded,  and  that  above  ihal  |ioint  tlie  si  i-eam  was. 
alnio.sl  everywhere,  easily  passable.  No  continuous  road 
oouununicated  from  the  turnpike  with  the  Sudley  ford,  but 
reconnoissances  showed  that  the  intervening  coiuitl'V  was 
a!m<ist  everywhere  practicable  to  all  arms. 

The  writer  finds  ni  his  note-book  llie  following  mcnacran- 
dumofa"]ilan  of  battle"  or  attack,  which,  founded  upun 
the  ;ibove  results  of  reconnoiss.ance,  wa>  submitted  to  Uen. 
McDowell. 

1st. — One  division  to  advance  on  Warrenton  Tnrn|ike 
at  3  o'clock  to-morrow  morning.  Tin.  leading  brigad-  to 
threaten  the  bridge  over   liidl  Run — throwing  skirmisiers 


\ 


BULL   RUX.   BATTLK   OF 


831 


into  the  woods  on  both  flanks.  No  serious  effort  will  be 
made  on  the  bridtco,  Imt  artillery  may  he  opened  ii])nii  it,  as 
if  to  open  the  way  for  an  assault,  and  the  operation  to  be 
conducted  (ix  if  an  assaidl  were  intended. 

The 'id,  3d,  and  4th  hrijiades  to  turn  to  the  rij;ht  at  the 
road  J  to  f  of  a  mile  1«  vond  Cub  Uun.  On  reaching  the 
forks  to  the  two  fords  a  brigade  will  turn  olV  on  the  left 
fork,  advancing  on  it  /iixl  nwnijh  to  <lcar  the  route  for  the 
passage  of  the  two  followiii";  brigades,  which  taki^  the  right 
fork  toward  Sudley  Spring's.  The  ford  at  Suilley  Springs 
will  lie  turned  l>y  a  inanh  ai'ound  and  some  200  yards  above 
it.  The  leailiuj:  brii^ade  will  be  followed  by  the  one  in  rear, 
and  the  whole  force  advance  rapidly  by  the  road  from  Sudley 
Springs  southward  to  reach  the  Warivuion  Pike  by  I  he  short- 
est route.  The  brigade  lift  on  the  ro.id  t<i  llu- lower  ford 
will  then  pass  over.  Ddacliinenls  from  the  advanced  bri- 
gades shoulil  l)e  sent  lo  lake  in  rear  Ihe  deriiidere  of  the 
lower  ford  and  Warrenli.n  Pike  bridg(\  The  brigade  left 
at  the  Stone  liridge  will  cross  over  and  join  the  other  two. 

2d. — Anollier  division  should  follow  to  take  position  be- 
hind Bull  Itun,  to  be  ready  to  pass  over  if  necissarv — but, 
ludess  ordered  from  headquarters,  to  remain  on  tlie  east 
side. 

3d. — Another  division  should,  simultaneously  with  the 
commenpenicnt  of  the  lirst  operation,  comnnncc  the  sem- 
blance of  an  attack  on  lilackburn's  Fonl.  Kvrry  appearance 
of  a  formidable  assault  should  be  made,  but  no  ((/tempt  lo 
force  the  jin.s.iage,  unless  the  enemy  shows  uninistaKable 
signs  of  retiring. 

4th. — A  not  her  division  should  niuain  in  reserve  atCcntre- 
villc. 

This  plan  was  .adopted  by  the  gineral,  modifying  the  com- 
position only  of  the  dilbri'Ut  coluniMS  thus: 

One  division  under  Col.  .Miles  lo  lemain  in  n^serve  at  Cen- 
treville,  ami  to  make,  with  one  of  its  brigades,  a  false  attack 
on  Blackburn's  Ford  :  another  division  (Tyler's)  to  move  by 
the  tnrnpiki-  up  to  the  Stone  Bridge  and  threaten  that  point, 
and,  at  tlie  proper  time,  to  carry  it  aiul  unite  with  the  prin- 
cipal coluiini,  which,  consisting  of  the  two  divisions  of  Hunter 
and  lleintzelnum  (aliont  12.()0(i  men).  w,-is  lo  diverge  from 
the  turnpike,  and.  Iiy  a  flank  iiiovi'inent.  reach  the  Sudley 
Ford,  and  descending  the  riglii  iiank  of  the  stream,  take  the 
defenses  of  the  Stone  Bridge  in  the  rear.  The  united  force 
would  then  give  battle,  strike  .iC  the  enemy's  railroad  com- 
munication, or  act  otherwise,  a<  circumstances  nught  dic- 
tate. . 

This  plan  was  eaiTJed  out  in  is  main  features,  l)util  failed 
in  one  import.nnt  particulnr.  ,'lt  \v:is  calculated  that  the 
marching  column  should  divi'rge  from  the  turupilfe  by  early 
daylight  (the  route  being  so  wooded  that  a  night  uuirch  was 
deemed  iniprudeiit)  and  rcacll  Sudley  Ford  l)y  6  (U- 7  A.  M. 
The  Stone  l!i  idge  division  dii|[not  clear  the  roiid  over  whicli 
both,  for  a  certain  distance,  htd  to  p:iss,  so  that  the  column 
could  take  up  its  march  until  near  6  o'eloik.  The  route 
through  ficMs  and  woods  to  Sudley  pi'oved  to  lie  far  longer 
and  more  dillicult  tlian  was  believed.  The  colunni  did  mit 
reach  ttie  Suillcy  Ford  till  near  half-past  nine,  three  or  four 
hours  "behind  time."  When  it  re.iehed  the  ford  the  heads 
of  the  enemy's  columns  were  visible,  on  the  march  to  meet 
the  attack. 

This  h'ss  of  time  caused  the  loss  ol  the  battle.  It  might 
have  been  unwarranlMiile  to  have  iDinUed  on  punctuality 
wit  ban  aruiy  so  utterly  incxp-rienerd  in  tactical  nuino'uvers 
and  in  marching:  nevnihile^s  thi  immediate  end  aimed  at 
wasgaiiied — the  pass.ige  ot  Ihdl  h'un  Was  aecomplislu'd  and 
the  Conl.Mlerate  left  liirned,  while  the  ai)pea ranee  of  Tyler's 
column  in  the  front  of  the  St<  Tie  Briilge  liad  disconcerted 
their  plan  of  at  tacking '>«'■  Icfthy  crossing  ;ii  the  lower  fords. 
Hiiater.  having  cnis-ed  iil  Sudley  Springs,  led  Ins  column 
down  to  lake  in  reverse  the  Steiic  Bridge  position.  Evans, 
who  held  the  Confederate  left  .it  that  poiiii.  had  ha<l  his  a1- 
tcTition  "ccupii'd  through  the  luorning  hours  liy  Tyler  in  his 
front;  Imt  the  uiarch  of  Iluntei's  column  became  evident 
long  before  Ihe  ford  was  HiMflled.  and  ere  it  reachcil  the 
bridge  l>ans.  sending  f  ir  i.«nforcemciits,  had  formed  en 
piilenci  across  Himler's  line  f  march.  ,\  sharp  eond)at  en- 
suedjwliieh  resulted  in  forci/p  the  Confederal!'  position  and 
in  o^rjng  the  Si  one  Ihidaf"  Tyler's  ilivision  :  two  of  the 
|il(S  I  W.  T.  Shermau's/iei  Kcyes's)  immediately  jiassed 
^ned  theii  force  witlBlunler'.s.  Thus  had  been  gaineil 
meitiati  end  of  the  Mctiial  plati  of  the  operation.  The 
Scrate  left  Inid  beerfturiu'd.  the  W'arrcnlon  Turnpike 
from  theiu  (openiii/l"  us  the  Stone  Bridge);  and  their 
lid  been  driven  baeJa  mile  and  a  half.    Cien.  McDowell 


brigi 
and  j 
the  iH 
Cont 
takei 
line  I 


luul  thus  brought  nearly  all  his  three  divisions  into  position 
on  the  enemy's  left  flank,  and  was  advancing  nearly  18,000 
strong.  The  Confederate  left  (all  his  tr<iops  that  hail  been 
engaged)  had  been  thrown  into  confusion.  Gens.  .Johnston 
and  Beauregard  hastened  to  the  scene,  ordering  uji  to  tludr 
routed  left  all  the  brigades  which  could  be  spared  from  the 
center  and  left  of  their  line.  "  We  came,"  says  .Johnston. 
"  not  a  moment  too  soon."  for  "  the  long  contest  had  greatly 
disconraged  the  troops  of  Bee  and  Evans."'  He  fomid  "th.Ht 
the  aspect  of  affairs  was  critical,"  but  by  great  elTorts  "and 
some  example"  the  "battle  was  re-estal)lished,"  aijd,  after  it 
time,  "many  of  the  broken  troops,  fragments  of  compaiues, 
and  individual  stragglers,  were  reformed  and  brought  into 
action." 

The  position  on  which  a  stand  was  now  made  was  a  table- 
land in  which  Ihe  slopes  from  Young's  creek  (crossing  the 
I'nion  line  of  nuirch  at  right  angles  and  emptying  into  Bull 
Knn  near  the  Stone  Bridge)  terminate  in  the  gciu'ral  level 
of  the  country.  To  carry  Ihe  position.  McDowell  advanced 
the  brigades  of  Wilcox  and  Ilonard  on  the  right,  sujiported 
by  pait  of  Porter's  brigade  and  the  cavalry  under  Palmer; 
the  brigades  of  Franklin  and  Sherman  in  the  center  and  up 
the  road,  and  Kcyes's  brigade  on  the  left.  .Schcnck's  brigade 
(of  Tyler's  division)  was  still  at  Centreville;  but  the  jiositions 
of  these  troops,  coupled  with  the  demon.st rations  made,  still 
detained  several  ('(mfeilcrale  brigades  confronting  them. 

A  severe  contest  ensued  for  this  position,  with  varving 
success,  the  n^sult  of  which  was,  at  3  p,  M.,  the  pos.session  of 
the  hill,  the  fighting  having  commenced  at  10.30  a.  m.  of  a 
July  day.  The  men,  who  had  been  uji  since  2  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  were  exhausted  by  fatigue,  want  of  food  and  water, 
and  somewhat  demoralized  by  the  vigorous  resistance  they 
had  encountered. 

"  It  was  at  this  time,"  says  Gen.  SrcDowell,  "that  our  ad- 
versary's rc-enfiux-ements  came  to  his  aid  from  the  railroad 
train,  under.stood  to  have  just  arrived  from  the  valley  with 
the  residue  of  Johnston's  army.  They  threw  themselves  in 
the  woods  on  our  right  and  toward  the  rear  of  our  right, 
and  opened  a  fire  of  musketry  on  our  men.  which  caused' 
them  to  break  and  retire  down  "the  hill-side.  This  soon  de- 
generated into  di.sorder.  for  which  there  was  no  remedy. 
Kvery  effort  wjis  made  to  rally  tiiem,  even  bevond  the  reach 
of  the  enemy's  lire,  but  in  vain."  According  to  t  he  statement 
of  the  Confederate  commaniler.  it  was  not  wholly  "  re-enforce- 
ments just  arrived  from  the  vallev"  via  Manassas  Junction 
—Elzey's  brigade,  under  Gen.  E.  "K.  Smith— which  at  this 
critical  moment  "threw  themselves  on  our  right,  etc.,"  with 
consequem-cs  described  by  Gen.  McDowell.  In  f.nct,  our  ex- 
trenu'  right  was  flanki'd  'liy  Early's  brigade  of  Beauregard's 
forces,  which,  having  been  employed  in  partial  execution  of 
his  plan  of  attack  on  the  Union  left  and  rear  at  Centre- 
ville, had  been  thus  brought  up  when  that  [ilan  failed  by 
the  miscarriage  of  his  orders  to  Ewell  (who  was  to  begin  the 
movement  from  his  extreme  right),  coupled  with  the  devel- 
opnu'iil  of  our  attack  on  his  left. 

Enough  has  been  written  to  show  how  grcativ  misrepre- 
.sentcd  and  nnsunderstood  has  been  litis  battle,  'it  was  one 
(and  the  (irsi)  of  the  few  battles  of  the  wliole  war  deliber- 
iitch  phiiDieil  beforehand.  (vecH/frf  (except  as  to  punctuality 
in  time)  in  full  accordance  with  its  plan,  and  siicce.s.tfn/  up 
to  a  jioint  at  wliich  it  was  believed  the  final  result  m'ust  be 
decided.  ^I'liat  the  success  so  far  accomplished  did  not,  as 
it  should  have  done,  prove  decisive,  was  due  to  causes  in- 
herent in  the  raw  and  otherwise  unsuitiible  character  of  the 
attacking  force  for  tactical  nioveiuents  ami  long-continued 
«m/;-e.v.s('cf  action.  The  bailie  was  pronounced  bv  the  Con- 
federate President,  himself  a  soMier.  who  at  B'uctia  Vi.sfa 
had  learned  the  meaning  of  such  words,  "a  hard-fought 
field." 

On  the  authority  of  Gen.  Jordan,  Beauregard's  chief  of 
statr.  Ewcll's,  Longstreet's.  Jones'.s,  Holmes's,  and  half  of 
Boidiam's  brigades,  not  engaged  at  all,  Early's  and  Elzey's 
brigades  and  other  regiments,  some  newly  "arrived — in  'all 
over  1.5.000  nieti — were  "in  excellent  com'lition '' :  the  real 
obstacle  to  an  advance  after  the  battle  was  "the  lack  abso- 
lutely of  one  day's  rations,  coupled  with  insuflicicnt  trans- 
portation for  the  indispen.sable  sinidl-arms  and  ariillery 
amtitnnition — ils  the  advance  would  have  been,  not  upon 
the  Federal  position  at  Arlington,  but  by  crossing  the  Poto- 
rmic  somewhere  idioul  liilwjird's  Ferry"  and  taking  Wash- 
ingtoTi  in  reverse."  On  the  Union  part.  Milcs's  whole  di- 
vision, in  reserve  at  Centreville,  ami  Kunyon's.  7  miles 
farther  back,  giuirding  communications,  had  been  unen- 
gaged, while  Howard's  and  Keycs's  brigades   were  nearly 


832 


BULL  RL'X.  SECOND   BATTLE   OF 


fresh.  Both  sides  had  received  severe  handling,  and  the 
language  already  quoted  from  Gen.  Johnston  shows  the  criti- 
cal aspect  and  gloom  on  the  Confederate  side  of  the  held  up 
to  the  moment  Vlien  tlie  elation  of  scarcely  expected  victory 
came  to  dispel  it. 

And  concerning  the  "panic"  which,  although  military 
writers  have  generally  been  free  from  tliis  injustice,  has 
been  so  commonly  held  up  as  the  picture  of  the  battle,  the 
instances  even  with  armies  of  veteran  troops  like  Xapoleon"s 
(Albuhera  and  Vittoria,  etc.)  are  so  numerous  that  the  ex- 
ceptional case  of  Bull  Run,  when  the  Union  army  was 
almost  wliolly  made  of  three-months  men,  should  excite  no 
surprise:  it  was  not  such  as  to  prevent  a  stand  at  Centre- 
ville.  ••  the  apparent  firmness  "  of  which,  says  Gen.  Johnston, 
'•checked  our  j)ursuit."'  The  disorder  and  mob-like  appear- 
ance was  ratlier,  as  described  by  Major  (afterward  Jlajor- 
General)  H.J.  Hunt,  the  result  of  "sheer  fatigue."  They 
were,  says  he,  "  footsore,  hungry,  and  tired :  but  had  we  been 
attacked  I  have  little  doubt  that  a  stout  resistance  would 
have  been  made.''  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Bull  Run.  Second  Battle  of:  While  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  under  Gen.  McClellan  on  the  Peninsula,  w-as  op- 
erating against  Richmond,  Gen.  Pope.  June  26,  1862,  took 
command  of  the  troops  in  Northern  Virginia,  then  un.jp- 
posed  by  anv  forces  X.  of  Richmond.  To  draw  from  Ric)i- 
raond  some  of  Lee's  army,  and  thereby  relieve  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  of  resistance  to  its  operations  against  that  city. 
Pope  collected  liis  scattered  forces  and  placed  them  S.  of 
the  Rappahannock,  along  the  Orange  and  Alexandria  R.  R. 
and  from  Sherry  ville  to  Culpeper  Court-house,  with  directions 
for  the  cavalrv  to  tic  rapidly  pushed  to  GordonsviUe  ai\d 
Charlottesville,  and  to  destroy  the  railroad  connecting  those 
places  with  Richmond  and  the  West.  These  movements, 
however,  were  so  slow  that  Lee,  informed  of  their  (lurpose, 
hastened  Jackson  and  Ewell  to  GordonsviUe  and  thwarted 
them. 

In  the  meantime  the  authorities  at  Washington  decided 
to  form  a  junction  on  the  Rappahannock  of  the  forces  un- 
der McClellan  and  Pope,  and,  Aug.  3.  ordered  McClellan  to 
transfer  his  armv  from  Harrison's  Landing  via  Acquia  Creek 
to  Falmouth,  wliere  Burnside's  corps  had  arrived.  To 
quicklv  withdraw  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  with  its  very 
limited  supplies  of  land  and  water  transportation,  involved 
abandonment  to  the  enemy  of  thousands  of  sick  and  wound- 
ed, the  destruction  of  enormous  suppUes  of  arms  and  am- 
munition, provisions,  tents,  etc.,  demoralization  to  the  army, 
and  injury  to  tlie  Union  cause.  Without  any  loss  of  ma- 
terial the' armv  as  a  bodv  (some  having  gone)  at  the  earliest 
moment  (Aug.  14)  moved  to  Yorktown  and  Fort  :Monroe, 
whence,  for  w-ant  of  water  transportation,  it  was  sliiw  to  em- 
bark and  reach  its  destinations.  July  30  Poi>e  joined  his 
army  in  tlie  iield,  and  continued  concentrating  his  forces, 
the  "advance  of  which  (Banks"s  corps)  had  reached  Cedar 
Mountain.  Jackson,  with  Kwell,  on  Aug.  8  and  S).  moved 
on  Cedar  Mountain,  where,  Aug.  9.  he  was  attacked  with 
great  spirit  by  Banks,  who,  unsupported,  was  repulsed  with 
heavy  losses.  "  J.ackson,  on  the  11th,  fearing  attack  by  Pope's 
combined  superior  forces,  withdrew  to  GordonsviUe. 

Lee,  seeing  the  withdrawal  of  McClellan  relieved  Rich- 
mond of  all  danger,  determined  to  crush  Pope  before  he 
could  be  re-enforced  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and,  on 
the  13th  and  Ulh,  pushed  forward  the  van  of  his  army  un- 
der Longstreet.  Hood,  and  Stuart,  and  crossed  the  Rapidan 
on  the  20th.  Reliably  infonned  of  Lee's  intentions.  Pope 
retired  beliind  the  Happaliannock.  Lee,  unable  to  cut  Po{>e 
off  from  Fredericksburg,  moved  up  the  river  to  turn  his 
right  flank.  On  the  22d  Stuart  crossed  the  river,  [lassed 
tlirough  Warrenton  to  Catlett's  Station,  where  he  captured 
Pope's  papers  and  baggage,  and  destroyed  many  wagons. 
On  Stuart's  return,  informed  of  Pope's  forces  and  locations, 
Ijee  commencerl  moving  to  Pope's  right,  sending  forward 
Jackson  and  Stuart,  23.000  strong,  to  push  across  the  moun- 
tains to  Pope's  rear,  ca|)ture  the  flejxit  at  Mana.ssas.  and 
break  communication  with  Alexandria — conct;aling  his  in- 
tentions by  threatening  Pope  at  river  crossings  with  his  main 
forces,  2.5,000  strong,  umler  Longstreet.  Jackson  succeedi'd 
the  night  of  the  26th.  Pope,  while  on  the  Rappahannock, 
knew  of  a  large  body  going  to  his  right.  Iml  at  10  .v.  m.  on 
the  2~th  did  not  know  what  force  was  in  his  rear  oilur  than 
cavalry,  and  "considered  it  doubtful  if  the  enemy  means  to 
attack  us  or  not,"  but  that  "he  might  attempt  to  keep  us  in 
check,  and  throw  considerable  force  across  the  Potmnac  in 
direction  of  Leesburg."   Up  to  this  time  Pope,  then  at  War- 


renton Junction,  had  been  joined  by  corps  and  divisions 
under  Reno,  Reynolds,  Heiutzelman,  and  Porter,  and  the 
brigade  of  Pratt  under  Sturgis.  making  his  total  strength 
about  63.500  against  Lee,  then  about  56,000. 

Early  on  the  27th  Pope  decided  to  interpose  between  the 
enemy  and  Manassas,  and  form  a  line  E.  of  Thorouglifare 
Ga)i,  so  as  to  be  readily  re-enforced  from  Washington  and  to 
fall  upon  the  enemy's  flank,  or  to  retire  behind  Bnll  Kun.  if 
necessary.  McDowell,  at  Buckland  Mills,  was  orden-d  with 
Reynolds  and  Sigel  to  Gainesville  that  night,  Reno  and 
Kearny  to  Greenwich,  where  Porter  at  Warrenton  Junc- 
tion with  Piatt  was  to  follow  on  the  28th.  when  relieved  by 
Banks.  At  3  P.  m.  Pope  withdrew  along  the  railrc^ad,  fol- 
lowing Hooker,  w  ho  had  been  sent  toward  Manassas  to  re- 
open communication.  Hooker,  near  Biistoe  Station,  en- 
countered Ewell.  who,  after  a  short  engagement,  retired  lie- 
hind  P.road  Run  and  ji^ined  Jackson  at  JIanassas.  Pope 
joined  Hooker  at  sunset,  and  then  learned  that  Jackson  and 
Stuart  were  between  him  and  Washington.  Pope  deter- 
mined to  destroy  Jackson  or  "  to  bag  the  whole  crowd  "  be- 
fore Tjie  could  rescue  liim,  and  ordered  Porter  to  march 
from  ANarrenton  Junctinn  at  1  o'clock  and  join  him  at  day- 
break nil  the  28th:  Reno  and  Kearny  to  join  him  at  dawn, 
and  ^KDowell  with  Sigel  to  march  on  to  Manassas  with 
his  right  on  Manassas  R.  E.,  and  left  extending  X.  Pope 
stated  in  orders  to  Porter :  "  The  enemy  has  been  driven  back, 
but  is  retiring  along  the  railroad.  We  must  drive  him  from 
Manassas,  and  ckar  the  country  between  that  jilace  and 
Gainesville,  where  McDowell  is."'  The  night  was  very  dark, 
the  road  narrow  ami  through  timber,  crossed  by  streams 
without  liridges,  and  by  a  railroad  with  cars  running,  and 
also  crowded  by  the  entire  wagon-train  of  the  whole  army 
Porter  knew  this,  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  reach  Pope 
(10  miles  distant)  any  earlier  by  marching  at  1  o'clock  than 
at  3.  and  on  arrival  have  Ms  command  in  condition  to  pur- 
sue the  retreating  enemy  10  miles  further. 

Porter  started  at  3  jv.  M,  and.  though  greatly  obstructed, 
reached  Pope  at  8 ;  was  not  wanted,  and  was  twice  ordered  to 
remain  at  Bristoe,  for  "when  wanted,  you  will  be  sent  for." 
Jackscm  hail  retired  from  Manassas  during  the  nii^ht.  and 
on  the  28th  had  his  command  strongly  pasted  behind  the 
r:iilroad  embankment  between  Smiley  Springs  and  Grove- 
ton,  )irepared  to  resist  attack  and  to  await  the  airival  of 
IjCc  .  who  he  knew  was  closi  by  at  Thoroughfare  Gap.  Pope, 
misli-^l  to  the  belief  that  Jaikson  was  at  Centre\ille  by  some 
of  his  troops  going  towird  Centiiville.  followed  with 
Heintzihnan  and  Reno,  and  called  McDowrll  to  liini, 
thus  leaving  open  the  road  netweeii  Lre  and  Jackson.  Jlc- 
Dowell  sent  Sigel  and  Reynolds  to  !Manas.sas  as  directed, 
but.  knowins-  Lee  was  coming  througli  Thoroughfare  Gap, 
sent  Ricketts'scavah-y  to  resist  his  advance.  Under  >ub.se- 
quent  orders  he  sent  King  U)  the  Warrenton  Pike  ti'ward 
Centreville.  while  he  went  tojoin  Pope.  King  bifon  dark 
had  a  severe  eoini>st  with  Jackson  ^^ .  of  Groveton.  Hav- 
ing no  instructioij-  and  no  support,  he  moved  that  ni.L'lit  to 
JIanassa-«.  Riekelts,  repulsed  by  Lee.  marehed  to  (iroveton 
via  Greenwich  and  Jlanassas.  reaching  there  at  dark  on 
the  29th.  Lee  (or  Ltmgstreet).  thusuiiopposed,  joined  .lack- 
son  by  10  A.  M.  on  the  29th.  and  was  in  posiiion  on  his  right 
at  Groveton  by  12  M.  JleDowell  went  to  Manassas  load- 
vise  Pope,  but  tlie  latter'  Inid  gone  to  Centriville.  Henring 
the  sound  of  King  fightijig  with  Jackson, he  started  through 
the  woods  to  find  liuu,  but  got  lost  and  did  not  join  his  lom- 
mand  till  the  39th. 

On  the  morning  of  the£'.ith  .Tackson  was  strongly  posted 
behind  the  railroad  embankment  and  in  the  woods  between 
Sudley  Springs  and  Grovetioi.  Longstr-et  h.id  arrival  at 
10  A.  M.,  and  by  13  M.  forraeii  on  Jackson's  right,  exti^nd- 
ing  S.  beyond  ManassasGap  K.  R.  Sig^  1  N.  imd  Beynolds 
S.  of  Warrenton  Pike,  at  Gni^eton.  engiiired  .lackson  with 
skirmishers  and  artillery  :it  long  range.  I'hey  vere  joined 
by  noon  by  Heintzelman  and  Keiio.  pu>hed  forward  by 
Pope  at  Centreville.  Porti  r,  \.  of  .Mana--as,  v  iisJi.isten- 
ing  under  ordeisi  to -Centreville,  "where  ii  w:i-  wry  im- 
portant to  be  at  an  early  honr.  A  seve^  eng-oj-eoHiit  is 
likelv  to  take  place,  and  you:  prescm  e  isn  essm  v,''  when 
at  9  a.  m.  he  was  oidcred  to  tike  Kiiu'.  at  ^Ian:l-.a.-,  and 
"move  on  Gainesville."  Rick.tts.  with  Bu  'rd's  ea.alry, 
was  e?(  run t f  trom  Gainesville,  ia  Greenwich  to  JIaB;issa.s. 
Banks  at  Kristoeguai'ded  the  amy  trains.  I'ortcr  r'tthed 
Dawkin's  liranch  at  11.30  A.  M.,  aid  found  Loiigstrni  tak- 
ing position  on  the  West  bank  twc.ty-four  to  thii-ty-si>(iours 
earlier  than  Pope  announced  his  xpected  arrival,  le  was 
preparing  to  attack   Longstreet     hen  McDowell    arived 


1 


BULL'S   KYE 


Bt^LOW 


833 


and,  under  authority,  assumed  ennimand,  stopped  all  offen- 
sive operation  and,  withdrawin;;  King  Ijeyoiid  supjiort,  re- 
tired, via  Sudley  njud.  to  lake  position  on  Porter's  rifjht  and 
'•  establish  eonnnunieal ion  with  the  forees  at  Groveton,"  as 
ordered.  Porter,  knowing  that  Lonfp^treet  was  more  tlian 
twieeliis  strenjith  and  well  proti>et ed,  and  tlial  whieheveroiie 
attaoked  liy  erossiiii;!  heopi-n  valley  lietween  I  hem  would  meet 
withdisaster.  posted  liis  forees  to  invite  and  risk  attack,  and, 
at  times,  threat eiieil  it — eaeh  with  the  object  of  holiling  Ijong- 
street  from  attacking  Pope  or  assisting  .laekson.  So  suc- 
cessful was  I'i>rler  that  Longstreet,  anticii)aling  attack, 
drew  Wilcox's  division  at  alxnit  4  P.  M.  from  .Jackson's  su|)- 
port.  and  retained  him  till  too  late  to  support  Hood  when 
sent  back.  Porti'r  all  <lay  and  till  :{.:iO  a.  M.on  the  ;i()th  held 
his  troops  facing  Ijongstri'ct  and  protecting  his  flank  and 
rear  along  the   road  to  liethlehem   Church,  constantly  cx- 

iii'cting  information  or  orders  from  McDowell  or 
'ope,  but  receiving  none  till  too  late  to  be  executed. 
Pope  at  1  1".  .M.  joined  the  forces  o|)posiiig  Jackson 
and  stopjied  the  skirmishing  and  the  artillery  duels 
at  long  range  going  on  all  the  morning  and  at  H  p.  m. 
ordered  Hooker  to  attack.  Grover,  of  Hooker's  divi- 
sion, vigorously  attacked  and  broke  .Jackson's  first  and 
second  lines  and  penetralrd  to  the  third,  but.  unsup- 
ported, was  Hanked  and  drivi'U  liack  with  heavy  loss. 
Hearing  of  .McDowell's  approach,  Po]w  at  4.30  sent 
ordei-s  to  Porter  to  attack  .Jackson  in  flank  and,  if 
possible,  his  rear,  and  in  due  time  for  sinuUtaneotls 
lu'tion  directed  Kearny  to  attack  his  left  flank.  Porter 
received  his  order  at  dusk,  too  late  to  execute,  even  if 
Longstreet  had  not  been  between  him  and  .lackson.  McDow- 
ell had  not  informed  Pope  of  Longstreet "s  arrival,  nor 
forwarded  Porter's  disjiatches  giving  the  state  of  affairs 
in  his  front.  Kearny  vigorously  and  gallantly  attacked, 
but  was  repulseii  with  heavy  losses.  At  sunset,  on  McDow- 
ell's arrival.  Pope  ordered  him  to  push  King's  division  after 
the  "retreating"  foe.  The  division  was  met  by  Hood  ad- 
vancing to  attack  and  was  badly  <lefeated.  Xight  clost^l 
the  eonti'st,  each  army  holding  its  own  ground. 

Pope's  army  on  the  'i'Mh  was  muchcul  up,  weakened,  had 
no  hope  of  support,  distant  from  food  for  men  and  horses, 
and  all  were  greatly  fatigued.  Lee's  army  wa.s  re-enforced 
that  night,  making  it  sti-onger  than  Pope's,  which  till  then 
was  about  its  eqmil.  Pope,  however,  determined  to  renew  the 
struggle  on  the  3f)th,  and  by  noon  had  gathered  all  his 
forces,  Hanks  excepted,  X.  of  Warrenton  Pike,  facing 
.Jac-kson.  lii'lieving  that  ".lackson  was  retreating  to  the 
mountains  to  unite  with  Longstreet,"  who  he  woidd  not  ac- 
knowledge had  arrived.  Pope  assigned  "  IMiDowell  to  the 
command  of  the  pursuit."  and  ordered  him  "to  push  for- 
ward Porter's  corps  on  the  Warrenton  I'ike,  followed  by 
King  and  Keynohls,  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  and  to  press 
liim  vigorously  during  the  whole  day."  Hicketts  and 
Hcintzebuan  were  ordered  to  move  on  the  road  from  Sudley 
Springs  to  Haymarket.  held  by  .Jackson  on  the  SUh.  Por- 
ter's advance,  under  liutterlield.  vigorously  assaulted  .Jack- 
son, and  at  once  developed  the  enemy's  united  army  ])osted 
and  prepare<l  for  anv  emergency,  and  turning  Pope's  unpro- 
tected left  flank,  fieyond  driving  the  eiuMny  behind  the 
railroad  embanknu'iit  and  developing  their  positions.  I'or- 
ter's  attack  accomjilislied  nothing.  .\s  line  after  line  ad- 
vanced, the  enfilading  lire  of  tlii'  enemy's  batteries  on  the 
left,  togel her  with  the  infantry  lire  in  front,  aluKJst  anni- 
hilated the  attacking  force  and  compelled  withdrawal. 
Sykes  went  to  the  Henry  Hill,  anil  Butterfield,  having  ex- 
ponded  his  annnunition,  to  the  rear.  Warren,  of  Porter's 
corp.s,  seeing  Keynolds  removeil  to  the  rear  from  the  most 
important  defensive  point  S.  of  the  ]>ike,  and  the  flank 
exposed,  at  once  hastened  lo  reo<rupy  it  with  his  snuill 
brigade,  and,  all  hough  almost  annihilati'd  by  Longstreet's 
ailvance,  lielil  it  long  enough  for  IJeynolds's  and  Kicketls's 
divisions  and  portions  of  .Sigel's  corps  to  form  on  his  left 
and  with  Sykes's  regidars  on  the  Henry  Hill  to  .save  Pipe's 
line  of  retreat  from  seizure  by  Ijongtreet.  This  position  was 
firmly  held  against  vigorous  attacks  till,  undercover  of  dark- 
ness. Pope's  army  retired  unmolesled  across  Hull  Hun  and 
took  jiosition  on  the  heights  of  I'entrevillc.  The  army  was 
withilrawn  from  t'entreville  the  night  of  Sept.  1,  and  took  [lo- 
sition  in  the  ili-fi>nses  <if  Washinglon,  lighling  m  route  with 
.Jackson  the  battle  of  C'hantilly.  The  command  of  the  army 
was  then  transferred  to  McClellan.      Fnz  .John  I'orter. 

Bull's  Eye:  in  architecture,  the  technical  name  given  to 
a  glass  lens  used  for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  the  light 
53 


of  a  given  center  upon  an  object.  It  is  also  applied  to  a  cir- 
cular window  of  plain  glass.  On  shiplward  the  bull's  eye  is 
a  small  |iulley  in  the  form  of  a  ring,  with  a  rope  s])iiccd 
round  the  outer  edge,  and  another  sliding  through  a  hole  in 
the  center.  In  rifle  practice,  the  small  Ijlack  center  in  the 
circle  on  the  target  is  called  the  bull's  eye.  In  astronomy, 
the  bull's  eye  is  Aldebaran,  a  bright  star  in  Taurus. 

Bull-terrier  :  a  <log  bred  by  a  cross,  more  or  less  remote, 
between  the  bulldog  and  some  one  of  the  terriers;  fre- 
quently uniting  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  courage  and 
strength  of  the  bulldog  with  the  docility,  activity,  quick 
scent,  and  intelligence  <}f  Ihe  terrier.  This  little  animal  is 
especially  famous  for  ils  zeal  and  success  in  killing  rats. 

Bull-trout.  (J ray-tr(»iit.  Wliitliiiar.  or  Seweu  :   names 

applied  in  Knglanil  to  the  salmon  trout  (6'«/«io  trulla);  a 


Hull-lroui  onalet. 


large  trout  found  in  the  mouths  of  rivers  approaching  the 
salmon  iti  size  and  habits,  but  inferior  as  food.  The  name 
bull-trout  is  applied  in  Oregon  to  the  Dolly  Vardeu  trout 
(SitlirliiKix  mulma).  D.  .S.  Jordan. 

Bullies,  bool'-nez,  Maxuel:  Chilian  general  and  states- 
nuiii ;  b.  at  Concepcion.  Dee.  2.").  1700.  When  only  sixteen 
years  ohl  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  Spaniarils  for  eight 
months,  owing  to  his  revolutionary  ideas:  released  by  the 
advance  of  San  Martin,  he  joined  his  army  (1818)  and  served 
as  colonel  in  most  of.tlie  battles  of  the  Chilian  revolution. 
From  1820  to  182::S  he  commanded  a  force  against  the  Araix- 
canian  Indians,  and  completely  subdued  them;  was  made 
brigadier-general  in  18:^1,  and  in  18:38  commanded  the 
Chilian  army  of  .'i.OOO  men  sent  against  .Santa  Cruz  in  Peru  : 
he  took  Lima,  won  the  battles  of  lluarez  and  Puente  del 
Hnnin,  and  finally,  in  conjunction  with  (iamarra's  Peruvians, 
routed  Santa  Cruz  at  the  Pan  de  Azncar.  near  Are(pii[)a 
(Jan.  in.  18;!!)).  This  drove  Santa  Cruz  from  the  country. 
and  the  Peru-Holivian  confederation  was  broken  uii.  For 
this  victory  Huhu's  was  created  marshal  of  Ancacho  by 
fiamarra.  and  Chili  made  him  a  lieulenant-general.  He  was 
elected  president  of  Chili  in  1841.  and  re-elected  1846,  serv- 
ing for  ten  years;  his  administration  was  prosperous  through- 
out, and  marked  by  great  material  and  intellectual  progress. 
Gen.  Bulnes  was  afterward  senator  and  councilor  of  state. 
D.  at  Santiago.  Oct.  18.  1866.  Hkriskht  II.  Smith. 

Bii'low.  l''RiEnRi(H  WiLiir.LM,  Baron  von:  b.  on  the  pa- 
ternal estate  of  Falkeuberg.  Prussian  province  of  Branden- 
burg, Feb.  16.  \~'>'> :  entered  the  army  in  ITti'.l ;  was  a  lieu- 
tenant-general at  the  opening  of  the  war  of  independence  in 
18K{.  Twici'  he  defeated  Oudinot  in  minor  eiu-ounlers,  and 
l)y  his  victory  over  Xey  at  Dennewilz  (Sept.  6.  1S1:J)  he  pre- 
vented the  I^'rench  from  pushing  onward  to  Merlin.  In  the 
battle  of  Leipzig  he  took  a  conspicuous  part  ;  then  drove 
the  French  out  of  Westphalia,  Holland,  and  Belgium,  join- 
ing the  allies  in  Paris,  where  the  Prussian  king  nuide  him 
Count  of  Dennewilz  and  gave  him  estates  worth  $1.')().000. 
He  also  distinguished  himself  at  Waterloo,  finishing  the  cam- 
paign by  occupving  Jlontmartre  at  Paris.  D.  at  Konigs- 
berg,  Feb.  2."),  1816. 

Billow.  Hans  Guido,  von :  musician  ;  b.  at  Dresden,  Jan. 
8,  18:i0;  studied  law  in  Leipzig  and  Berlin;  determined, 
under  the  influence  of  Kichard  Wagner  and  Liszt,  lo  devote 
himself  ex<dusively  to  nnisic  ;  studied  under  Liszt  at  Wei- 
nuir  1851-r);{;  setlli'd  in  1854  in  I5erlin,  where  he  was  mada 
Professor  of  the  Piano  at  the  Conservatory  of  JIusic  in  1M.5-'). 
Having  made  several  concert-tours  in  Germany  and  Russia, 
and  ac(piired  a  great  rej)utation  as  a  pianist,  he  removed  in 
1.M67  to  -Munich,  where  he  became  cha]iel-masler  to  the  king. 
After  that  time  he  maih'  two  concert-tours  in  lite  I".  S.,  and 
also  acted  as  orchestra  conductor  in  Berlin,  Hamburg,  and 
other  large  (ierman  cities.  Von  Biilow  %vas  a  man  of  great 
intellect,  but  eccentric  and  self-opinionated  to  the  verge  of 
insanity.  His  annotations  of  Beethoven's  sonatas  and  of 
other  older  classical  piano  comjjositious  are  valuable.     He 


831 


BULWARK 


BUXKARA 


composed  several  pieces  both  for  the  pianofni-te  and  orches- 
tra, and  wrote  much  for  the  2^'eiie  Zeitsclirift  fur  Musi!;, 
and  both  his  conipositions  and  his  writings  show  enthusiasm 
for  the  ideas  of  Wagner.     D.  in  Cairo,  Feb.  13,  1894. 

Bulwark  (in  Fi:  boulevard):  in  fortification,  a  rampart 
or  bastion :  an  outwork  for  defense :  that  which  secures 
against  an  enemy :  a  shelter  or  means  of  protection.  On 
sliipboard  a  lnUwark  is  tlie  parapet  raised  round  tlie  deck 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  men  and  goods  from  slipping 
overboard,  and  of  excluding  the  waves  from  the  deck.  In 
ships  of  war  the  bulwark  is  sufficiently  high  and  solid  to  afford 
the  crew  some  protection  against  the  shot  of  the  enemy. 

Bul'TVer,  Edward  George  Earle  Lyttox  (Baron  Lvtton) : 
English  novelist:  b.  in  London.  May  25.  1803:  in  1826  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  soon  after  visiteil 
France,  and  pulilislied  after  his  return  his  novel  of  Falkland 
(1837).  wliich  was  fnllowed  bv  Pelham,  or  the  Adi-enturea  of 
a  Gentleman  (1838):  The  Disowned  (1828):  Devereuj-(\Si<:)) : 
Paul  Clifford  (1830) :  The  Siamese  Twins,  a  poem,  (1831) ; 
and  Eugene  Aram  (1832).  In  1831  he  was  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  St.  Ives,  and  from  1832  to  1841  he  represented 
the  city  of  Lincoln.  He  published  in  1833  Eniiland  and  the 
English  ;  the  same  year  visited  Germany  and  Italy.  He 
produced  in  rapid  succession  Tlie  Pilgrims  of  the  Rhine: 
The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii:  Rienzi,  the  Last  of  the  Trib- 
unes (Wi^):  and  The  Student,  a  series  of  contributions  to 
the  JVew  Monthly  Magazine,  of  which  he  was  for  some  time 
editor.  His  drama  entitled  The  Duchess  of  LaValliere  (18S6) 
was  not  well  received.  In  1837  he  brought  out  Athens,  its 
Rise  and  Fall,  and  Ernest  Maltravers,  a  novel,  which  was 
continued  under  tlie  title  of  Alice,  or  the  Mysteries.  His 
dramas  entitled  The  Lady  of  Lyons  (1838)  and  Richelieu 
were  very  successful,  as  well  as  the  comedy  of  Money,  which 
came  out  soon  after.  His  J\7^/i/  and  Morning,  a  novel,  pub- 
lished in  1841,  was  followed  by  Zationi  (1842):  The  Last  of 
the  Barons  (1843);  Lucretia,  or  tlie  Children  of  the  Sight 
(1846) :  and  Harold,  the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings  (1848). 
His  novels  entitled  The  Caxtons  (1850),  Mij  Soi-el  (1851). 
and  ^\llat  Will  he  Do  with  It  ?  (1858).  first  appeared  in 
Blackwood's  Magazine,  to  which  Bulwer  was  a  frequent 
contributor.  .1  Strange  Story  eauie  out  in  All  the  Year 
Round  in  1861.  Although  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  on 
his  novels,  he  distinguished  himself  in  various  depart- 
ments of  bterature.  His  translations  of  Schiller's  poems 
(1844)  were  received  with  favor,  and  he  published  orig- 
inal poems — O'Niel,  or  the  Rebel  (182p ;  The  Xew  Timon 
(1846) ;  and  King  Arthur  (1848).  His  novels  have  great 
popularity  throughout  the  English-speaking  world,  as  well 
as  on  the  Continent  of  pjurope,  and  have  been  translated 
into  several  languages.  Bulwer  was  made  a  baronet  in  1838, 
and  in  1844,  on  the  death  of  his  mother,  came  into  posses- 
sion of  the  Knebworth  estates  and  assumed  tlie  name  of 
Bulwer-Lytton.  He  had  published  in  1835  a  Liberal  polit- 
ical pamphlet  entitled  The  Crisis,  which  caused  a  great 
sensation.  He  was  elected  loril  rector  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1856,  and  in  1858  he  held  for  a  time  the  office  of 
Secretary  of  State  for  tlie  Colonies.  He  was  made  a  peer 
in  1866,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Lytton.  In  1827  he  mari-ied 
Miss  KosLXA  Wheeler,  of  Limerick  (1802-82),  who  wrote 
Chevely,  or  the  Man  of  Honor  (1830) :  Bianca  Capello  ; 
The  Budget  of  the  Bubble  Family,  etc.  The  union  was 
unhapiiv,  and  the  parties  separated  in  1836.  D.  at  Torquay, 
Jan.  18,'  1873. 

Bulwer.  Edward  Kobert  :  See  Lytton,  Edward  Robert 
Bulwer-Lytton. 

Bnlwcr,  William  Henry  Lytton  Earle  (Baron  Dalling 
and  Bulwer):  English  di]>loinalist  and  author;  a  brother  of 
Bulwer-Lytton  the  novelist :  b.  in  London.  Feb.  13.  1801 : 
was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1830;  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Madrid  in  1(<43,  where  he  opposed  Xarvaez.  who  ordered  him 
home.  In  1849  he  was  transferred  to  Washington,  where 
he  negotiated  the  Bulwer-Claylon  treaty  guaranteeing  the 
neutrality  of  interoci  auic  routes  across  Central  America  ;  in 
1851  was  created  a  Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath.  He 
became  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Constantinople  in  18.58. 
He  was  afterward  ennnliled.  Among  his  works  are  France. 
Social  and  ii'/cmriy  (1834) ;  a  Life  of  Lord  Byron  (18ii5): 
one  of  Palmerston  (1870);  and  The  .Uonarchy  of  the  Middle 
Classes.     D.  in  Naples,  Italy,  May  23,  1872. 

Biilwer-Claytoii  Treaty  :  See  Clayto.n-Bulwer  Treaty. 

Bliuiiualu'ti :  the  local  name  for  Harpodon  nehereus,  a 
fish  of  the  family  Synodontidte,  abundant  at  certain  seasons 


on  the  coast  of  India.  It  has  a  long  body  covered  with  thin, 
translucent  scales,  a  thick  bead,  wide  mouth,  and  slender, 
recurved  teeth.  It  is  dried  and  exported  in  considerable 
quantities  from  Bombay  and  parts  of  the  adjacent  coast, 
being  known  in  commerce  as  bummalah  or  Bombay  duck. 

Bum'stead.  Freeman  Josiah,  M.  I). :  b.  in  Boston.  Mass., 
Apr.  21.  1826:  graduated  at  Williams  College  iu  1847: 
studied  medicine  in  Paris:  became  a  practitioner  in  Xew 
York,  where  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Venereal  Diseases 
in  the  College  of  Physicians  anil  Surgeons  ;  also  surgeon  to 
the  Eye  and  Ear  Hospital  and  the  Charity  Hospital.  He 
published  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Venereal  Diseases 
(1861).  and  valuable  translations  from  Ricord  and  CuUerier. 
D.  in  Xew  York.  Xov.  28,  18179. 

Biiuce.  Francis  M.  :  captain  U.  S.  navy ;  b.  in  Hartford, 
Conn..  Dec.  25.  1836;  graduated  at  the  X'aval  Academv  in 
1857  :  had  charge  of  the  naval  howitzei-s  in  the  combined 
army  and  navy  expedition  of  July  10.  1863.  which  resulted 
in  tlie  capture  of  a  part  of  Morris  island;  participated  in 
all  the  important  attacks  on  the  defenses  of  Charleston  har- 
bor during  the  summer  and  faU  of  1863:  was  in  the  disas- 
trous assault  upon  Fort  Sumter  of  Sept.  18.  1863,  where,  for 
his  "  gallant  support  and  zealous  co-o]ieration,"  he  received 
the  thanks  of  his  commanding  officer,  Capt.  Thomas  H.. 
Stevens.  Apr..  1892,  in  command  of  the  U.  S.  naval  train- 
ing station.  Xewport,  R.  I.  Revised  by  S.  B.  Luce. 

Bunce.  Oliver  Bell  :  publisher  and  author ;  b.  in  X'ew 
Y'ork,  Feb.  8,  1828.  He  was  for  some  years  editor  of  Apple- 
tons'  Journal  and  published  a  number  of  books,  among 
which  are  Bachelor  Bluff  {1SS2)  and  Don't  (1884),  a  man- 
ual of  etiquette  which  has  had  an  immense  sale.  D.  in  Xew 
York.  May  15,  1890.  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Bnnee.  William  Gednet  :  painter  of  Venetian  scenes  and 
landscapes:  b.  in  Hartford.  Conn..  Sept.  10.  1842;  pupil  of 
William  Hart,  Andreas  Achenbach,  Diisseldorf,  and  P.  J. 
Clays,  Brussels:  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
1879.  His  pictures  are  notable  for  tender  and  delicate  color- 
schemes,  but  are  not  realistic.  He  spends  most  of  his  time 
aln-oad,  principally  in  Venice ;  has  painted  lately  at  Biar- 
ritz. France,  and  when  in  the  L^.  S.  lias  a  studio  in  Xew 
York.  WiLLiAJi  A.  Coffin. 

Bun'oombe :  a  district  of  Xorth  Carolina.  The  phra.se 
"talking  for  Buncombe,"  often  heard  among  politicians,  was 
first  useil  by  a  member  of  Congress  from  that  district.  Dur- 
ing a  long  speech  which  he  made  several  members,  who  had 
not  patience  to  listen,  retired  from  the  hall.  He  then  told 
the  remaining  members  that  they  also  might  go.  for  he  "  was 
only  talking  for  Buncombe." 

Biiiidelkhand',  or  Bandelkhand  :  territory  of  Central 
India  ;  bounded  X.  E.  bv  the  river  Jumna.  It  extends  from 
lat.  24"  to  26  26'  X..  and  from  Ion.  78  to  81°  36  E.  Area 
about  10.241  sq.  miles,  of  which  about  8.700  sq.  miles  are  sub- 
ject to  the  British,  while  the  rest  of  the  countiy  is  governed 
by  numerous  native  princes,  whoare  tributary  to  the  British. 
It  is  said  to  contain  diamonds  and  rich  beds  of  iron  ore. 
The  chief  towns  are  Calpe,  Banda,  Jhansi,  and  Callinger. 
Pop.  1,403,000. 

Buii'di,  or  Booiidee :  a  native  state,  Rajputana,  British 
India:  between  24°  58'  and  25"  55'  X'.  lat..  and  75  23  and 
76°  36'  E.  Ion.  Area,  2,300  sq.  miles.  It  is  generally  hilly 
and  wild,  and  is  much  infested  by  robbers.  Principal  crops, 
maize,  wheat,  pulse,  and  oil-seeds.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Chambia  and  'Xij.  Pop.  255.000.  British  protectorate  was 
assumed  iu  1818,  and  costs  the  chief  |20,000  annually.  Chief 
town.  Bundi ;  [lop.  31,000. 

Buiisray.  (iEORoE  Washington  :  journalist ;  b.  in  Walsing- 
hani.  Eug'lan<l.  .luly  22.  1818;  removed  to  Xew  York  when 
nine  years  of  age;  was  for  a  time  on  the  Tribune  with  lloj'- 
ace  Greeley:  wrote  many  poems,  the  Ijest-known  being  The 
Creed  of  the  Bells  ;  had  a  wide  ac(iuaintance  with  statesmen 
and  authoi's;  was  a  jxipular  lecturer.     D.  July  10,  1892. 

Bunion,  iir  Biinyon  [cf.  bunny,  lump,  swelling] :  a  pain- 
ful inttammation  of  the  bursa  or  membranous  sac  of  the 
ji>int  which  connects  the  great  toe  with  its  metatarsal  bone. 
The  pressure  of  a  boot  causes  this  bursa  to  inflame  and  swell, 
and  this  may  go  on  to  sujipuration.  Best  and  ]ioulticiiig 
are  generally  sufficient  to  subdue  the  attack,  and  wearing  a 
shoe  which  is  so  constnicted  as  to  save  the  bunion  from 
pressure  will  generally  [irevent  a  recurrence. 

Bunka'ra,  or  Blue  River ;  a  stream  of  Colorado ;  rises 
near  South  Park,  among  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  unites  with 


BL'XKKR 


BUNKER  HILL 


835 


the  Grand  river  ul)out  21)  miles  W.  of  Hot  Sulphur  Springs. 
Total  length  cstinialeii  at  100  miles 

Buii'kcr,  Dkxxis  Miller:  genre,  landscape, and  portrait 
painter;  b.  in  Xew  Vurk,  Nov.  6,  1861  ;  d.  in  Hoston,  Dec. 
28,  18!)l).  He  began  his  art  ediu'ation  in  1878  in  the  Na- 
tional Aoademy  schools,  afterward  attending  the  classes  at 
the  Art  Students  League:  went  to  Paris  in  IHHl,  where, 
after  spending  three  months  in  the  Acailemie  .Julian  and 
the  class  of  Ilehert  in  the  ftcole  dos  Beaux-Arts,  he  beciime 
a  pupil  of  Gen"ime.  anil  worked  under  his  instruction  until 
1884,  when  he  returned  to  New  York.  His  first  pictures 
were  exhibited  at  the  Academy  and  elsewhere  in  Xew  York 
several  years  before  he  went  abroad,  and  while  he  was  a 
student  he  painted  and  sold  a  good  many  pictures.  The 
first  jiicture  he  exhibited  after  his  stu<ly  in  Paris  was  a  fig- 
ure of  a  young  man  in  a  studio  playing  a  guitar  and  enti- 
tled liiiliftnia.  For  this  picture  he  received  the  tliird  llall- 
garten  prize  at  the  National  Academy  in  188."),  and  the  same 
year  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Ar- 
tists. He  was  the  luincipal  instructor  in  the  C'owles  Art 
School  in  Boston  from  1880  to  1889,  and  while  there  painted 
a  numliiT  of  excellent  portraits.  For  his  beautiful  picture 
The  Minor  (Societv  of  American  Artists,  1890)  he  was 
awarde<l  tlie  .lames  \V.  Kllsworlh  prize  of  !*:10()  at  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  .\rt  Instit\ite  of  Chicago  (1890).  His  work, 
though  not  lacking  in  refinement  aiul  delicacy,  is  es.scntially 
rolnist  and  virile.  In  7Vo-  Mirror  (engraved  in  the  Ci'iihiri/ 
Magazine,  Feb.,  1891)  sincerity  and  grace  are  happily 
blended,  and  the  picture  is  especially  notal)le  for  elcgaiue 
of  line  and  beauty  of  expression.  A  portrait  of  the  artist's 
wife,  the  last  work  he  completed,  is  in  the  Jletropolitan 
Museum,  New  York.  Willi.vm  A.  Coffin. 

Bunker  Hill:  a  rounded  eminence  in  Charlestown,  now 
a  part  of  Boston,  .Mass.  It  is  about  1 10  feet  high  and  con- 
nected Ijy  a  ridge  with  another  small  ennn('nee  700  yards 
distant  called  Breed's  Hill.  These  two  elevations  are  famous 
for  the  battle  fought  here  between  the  British  and  American 
forces  .June  17,  1775.  The  American  redoubt  was  on  Breed's 
Hill,  but  l)v  common  usage  the  event  is  known  as  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill. 

After  the  stirring  events  of  the  spring  of  that  year  the 
troops  organized  in  New  England  had  taken  up  a  line  ex- 
tending from  Roxbury  to  CaMd>riilgi'  under  command  of 
(ien.  Artemas  Ward:  Putnam.  Starke,  Prescott.  (iridley, 
and  Poineroy  were  there,  and  \i\  the  middle  of  June  not  less 
than  20,000  men  had  assendjled. 

Gen.  Gage  was  in  chief  commaiul  of  the  British  at  Bo.ston, 
and  had  been  recently  largely  re-enforced  l)y  Gens.  Howe, 
Burgoyne,  and  Clinton. 

It  having  Ijeen  ascertained  I)y  the  provincial  army  that 
Gage  meditated  seizing  and  fortifying  Bunker  Hill  and  the 
heights  of  Dorchester  on  the  night  of  the  181  h.  it  was  deti'r- 
ndned  liy  the  .Americans  to  forestall  this  design,  and  on  the 
night  of  the  IGth  a  detachment  of  1,000  men,  under  com- 
mand of  Col.  William  Prescott,  was  dispatched  from  Cam- 
bridge to  Charlestown  for  the  purpose  of  fortifying  Bunker 
Hill.  They  were  joined  at  Charlestown  Neck  by  Gen.  Put- 
nam and  Major  Brooks,  and  at  a  council  it  was  decided  to 
fortify  Breecl's  Hill,  not  as  high  as  Bunker  Hill,  but  nearer 
Boston.  By  daybreak  a  formidabh'  work  had  lieen  thrown 
up  on  the  spot  now  marked  by  the  Bunker  Hill  Moiniment. 
Tnis  being  iliscovercd  by  daylight,  the  Lively  opened  fire 
upon  it,  which  soon  extended  to  all  the  shipping  and  the 
battery  on  Copp's  Hill  in  Boston;  the  British  troops  were 
called  to  arms  and  preparations  for  an  attack  were  made,; 
Prescott  meanwhile  continued  to  strengthen  his  position  ami 
sent  to  CaMd)ridge  for  rc-enforcenu>nt-s.  The  entire  American 
force  engaged,  however,  did  not  probably  exceed  at  any 
time  L.'itM).' 

A  force  of  British  under  Gens.  Howe  and  Pigot,  covered 
by  the  guns  of  their  shipping,  had  endjarked  in  l)oats  and 
landed  at  Morton's  Point.  E.  of  the  foot  of  Breed's  Hill. 
This  movenu'nt  produced  the  greatest  excitement  in  Cam- 
bridge and  re-enforcements  were  hastened  to  Charlestown, 
Gens.  Warren  and  I'onieroy  arriving  at  2  i".  M.  at  the  mo- 
nu'ut  Hiiwc,  whose  force  l)y  this  linu'  hiul  l)een  increased  to 
about  4,000,  began  his  advance  around  the  eastern  slopes  of 
Breed's  Mill  and  along  the  Mystic  river  with  the  intention 
of  gaining  the  rear  of  the  American  lines;  but,  this  move- 
ment having  been  antici|iated,  Knowlton  had  taken  up  a 
position  near  Bunker  Hdl  and  thrown  up  a  lireastwnrk 
nearly  2.10  yards  in  length,  and  another  line  had  been  built 
in  front  of  a  3tone  and  rail  fence,  between  which  was  i)laccd 


new-mown  hav,  and  Ijetween  tlie  breastwork  and  the  rail 
fence  the  artillery  was  placed.  The  Connecticut  ami  New 
Hampshire  troops  weie  \\'.  of  the  redoubt,  and  a  force  was 
posted  at  the  foot  of  the  southwest  side  of  Breed's  Hill,  near 
Charlestown,  and  a  work  had  been  commenced  on  Bunker 
Hill.  (ien.  Warren,  who  was  with  Prescott  in  the  redout)t, 
refused  to  take  comnuind  from  either  Prescott  or  Putnam, 
saying  he  came  to  light  as  a  volunteer.  Howe  was  foileci 
in  his  flank  movement  ami  compelled  to  make  a  direct  at- 
tack, and,  having  ordered  the  guns  of  the  shipping  and  the 
battery  at  Copp's  Hill  to  open  fire  on  the  redoubt,  moved 
forward  under  its  cover  up  the  slopes  of  Breed's  Hill  in  two 
wings,  the  right  under  his  own  command,  the  left  under 
Pigot  :  (ien.  Howe  with  his  command  to  carry  the  position 
at  the  rail  fence,  while  Pigot  attacked  the  redoubt.  Pres- 
cott's  orders  to  his  men  were  to  reserve  their  lire  on  the  ad- 
vancing colunnis  till  the  whites  of  the  men's  eyes  could  be 
seen.  The  British  opened  fire  when  within  gunshot,  but  no 
reply  was  heard  from  the  breastworks  till  they  were  within 
close  range,  when  volley  after  volley  was  poured  into  their 
ranks,  causing  them  to  fly  in  disorder  toward  their  boats. 
Howe  succeeded,  however,  in  (piiikly  rallying  his  troo|)s, 
and  being  re-enforced  by  some  400  marines  and  provided 
with  artillery,  of  which  latter  they  were  deficient  in  the  fir-st 
attack,  a  second  advance  was  nuide  over  the  sjime  grovnid. 

In  the  mean  time  re-enforcements  had  been  sent  to  Pres- 
cott, but  those  sent  from  Cambi-idge  were  prevented  from 
crossing  Charlestown  Neck  by  the  severe  fire  of  the  batter- 
ies and  sliipping  of  the  British,  and  but  few  additional 
troops  rcacheil  the  redoubt  before  the  second  attack. 

As  before,  the  Americans  reserved  their  fire  till  the  British 
line  was  at  short  range,  when  it  was  delivered  with  the  same 
deadly  effect. 

Hot  shot  from  Copp's  Hill  having  meanwliile  .set  fire  to 
some  houses  in  Charlestown,  the  whole  town  was  soon  in 
flames,  and  Gen.  Howe  hoped  to  storm  the  redoubt  under 
cover  of  the  smoke  ;  but  a.  light  wind  which  had  just  sprung 
up  cleared  away  the  smoke  and  disclosed  the  advancing  col- 
umns, which  were  again  broken  and  driven  in  confusion  by 
the  fatal  fire  from  the  patriots  within  the  redoul)t.  Howe 
was  now  re-enforced  by  Clinton,  ami  a  thirtl  attack  was  made 
upon  this  little  band,  whose  ammunition  was  now  nearly 
exliausted,  and  Howe,  having  discovered  the  weakness  of 
this  part  of  the  line,  attacked  the  position  between  the  rail 
fence  on  the  E.  of  the  redoubt  and  the  breastwork,  sweep- 
inj;  it  with  his  artillery  and  forcing  its  defenders  within  the 
redoubt.  The  amnumition  of  the  Americans  was  now  com- 
pletely exhausted,  and  the  British,  advancing,  scaled  the 
work,  but  were  met  by  the  Americans  with  muskets  clubbed, 
and  a  hand-lo-haiul  conflict  ensued.  But  the  superiority 
of  the  British  in  numbers  was  too  great,  and  Prescott  was 
com])elled  to  order  a  retreat,  himself  and  Warren  being  the 
last  to  leave  the  works.  Stark  and  Knowlton  niaintaiiu'd 
their  position  at  the  rail  fence  until  the  retreat  had  bi-en  ef- 
fected, when  thev  retired  slowly  and  in  good  order.  Warrt'U 
had  hardly  left  llie  redoubt  when  he  fell,  shot  through  the 
head;  Prescott  escaped  uninjured.  Falling  back  across 
Bunker  Hill,  Putnam  here  made  an  inetfectual  attempt  to 
rally  the  retreating  army  within  the  partially  finished  works. 
The  retreat  cuntmued  across  Charlestown  Neck,  where 
nuiny  were  killed  by  a  severe  fire  fi-om  the  shi]iping  and 
batteries;  but  the  British  did  not  continue  their  pursuit  be- 
yond this  point. 

'I'he  British  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  about  1,050 ; 
the  American  loss  was  not  over  4.50. 

A  graidte  obelisk,  221  feet  in  height,  now  marks  the  scene 
of  this  important  struggle  on  Breed's  Hill,  and  is  known  as 
Bunker  Hill  Monumeid.  Gen.  Lafayette  laid  the  corner- 
stone .June  17.  1820.  and  Daniel  Webster  delivered  one  of  his 
most  memoralile  orations  on  the  occasion.  The  moiunnent 
was  completed  in  1842,  and  was  dedicated  .June  17,  184;!,  in 
the  presence  of  the  President  of  the  L^.  S.  and  his  cabinet, 
Daniel  Webster  being,  as  before,  the  orator  of  the  occasion. 

Bunker  Hill:  city  (founded  in  1836);  Macoupin  co.,  111. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  8-D) ;  on 
('lev.,  (in..  Ch.  and  St."L.  R.  R. ;  37  miles  N.  E.  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.;  has  seven  churches,  pul)lic  school  with  high-school 
course,  academy,  nnlitary  school,  flouring-niills,  and  coal 
ndne.  The  raising  of  gi'ain,  fruit,  and  cattle  and  dairy- 
farming  are  the  principal  industries  of  this  section,  which 
is  the  largest  milk-|)roducing  point  tributary  to  St.  Louis. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,441 ;  (1890)  1,269 ;  (1892)  liy  scho<>l  censu.s,  1,340. 

Editor  of  "Gazette." 


836 


Bl'XXKR 


BUNYAN 


Banner.  IIexry  C'i'yler:  journalist  and  author;  b.  in 
Oswego.  X.  Y..  Aug.  3,  185.5.  He  was  editor  of  the  comic 
weekly  Puck  from  its  establishment  in  187T  until  his  death. 
Published  a  volume  of  poems.  Airs  from  Arrady  (1884) :  and 
several  novels,  .1  Wuniiin  of  Hiiitor  (1883) ;  The  Midge  (1886), 
etc.     1).  at  Xutley,  X.  J.,  May  11,  WM. 

Bnno'des  semma'cea:  called  in  English  gem  pirn  pie  t : 
a  species  of  Actixid.e  (i/.  v.).  When  open  it  bears  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  a  flower,  but  when  closed  it  assumes  a 


Bunodes,  open.  Bunodes,  closed. 

spherical  form,  having  the  a|i])earance  of  an  echinus  stripped 
of  its  spines.  The  gi^nerio  name  is  from  the  Greek  Povi/dSns, 
signifying  "  resembling  an  eminence  or  a  woman's  breast " 
(referring  to  its  form  wlien  closed):  the  specific  name  is 
from  the  Latin  gemma,  a  "  bud,"  or  .small  protuberance,  and 
has  allusion  to  the  wart-like  protuberances  on  the  exterior 
surface. 

Bunsen.  Christun  Karl  .Josias,  von.  Ph.  D..  D.  C.  L., 
Chevalier :  writer  and  diplomatist ;  b.  at  Corbach,  in  West- 
phalia. Aug.  35. 1701.  lie  studied  theology  and  the  Oriental 
languages  at  JIarburg  and  (iottingen.  and  especially  in 
Paris;  was  ap[)ointed.  at  X'iebuhr's  suggestion,  secretary  to 
the  Prussian  embassy  at  Rome  in  1818,  where  he  remained 
many  years  and  devoted  much  time  to  philology  and  his- 
torical research.  In  1827  he  succeeded  Nieliuhr  as  Prussian 
minister  at  Rome.  In  1838  he  was  recalled,  and  in  1839  be- 
came Prussian  ambassador  to  Switzerltmd.  lie  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Tjondon  in  1841.  and  aci|uired  a  greater  in- 
fluence and  a  higher  position  in  English  society  than  any 
German  diplomatist  had  ever  enjoyed.  His  principal  works 
are  Die  Verfiissung  der  Kirr/ie  der  Znkunft  (llamliurg, 
1845) ;  JEgiiptens  Stelle  in  der  Weitgesehiclite  (5  vols.,  Gotha, 
184.5-57;  Eng.  trans.  Egi/pt's  Place  in  Cniversal  JJintury, 
London,  1848-67):  Christianity  and  Mankind  (7  vols.. 
London.  1854);  Gott  in  der  (fesnhichte  (3  vols..  Leipzig, 
1857-58 ;  Eng.  trans.  God  in  History.  Loiulon.  1868-70,  3 
vols.):  and  Vollesdndiges  Bibelwerk  fiir  die  Gemeinde  (9 
vols.,  Leipzig.  18.58-70:  oidytlie  first,  second,  and  fifth  were 
completed  by  him  ;  the  others  are  from  his  notes  liy  lloltz- 
mann  and  Kampliausen).  He  had  a  high  re|)Utation  as  an 
Egyptologist,  and  was  liberal  in  religion  and  politics.  He 
was  recalled  from  the  court  of  St.  .tames  in  1854.  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Freiherr  (bai'on)  in  1858.  D.  in 
Bonn.  Nov.  28.  I860.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  at 
Corbach  on  Aug.  25,  1891.  See  Memoirs  of  Baron  Bunsen. 
by  his  wife  (3  vols.,  London,  1868). 

Biinson,  Hohkut  Wilhelm  :  German  chemist ;  b.  in 
Gottingrn.  Mar.  31.  1811;  succeeded  Wohler  in  the  Poly- 
technic Institution  of  Cassel;  became  in  1851  Professor  of 
Chemistry  at  Breslau.  and  in  18.52  at  Heidelberg.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  works,  the  most  important  perhaps  lieing 
on  gas  analysis.  His  investigations  on  organic  compounds 
of  arsenic,  kakodyl.  etc..  in  1841,  attracted  nuich  attention. 
He  has  invented  important  jiieces  of  a))paratus,  several  of 
which  bear  his  name,  as  the  Bunsen  batterv.  gas-burner, 
photometer,  filter  pump.  etc.  His  most  brilliant  discovery 
was  probably  that  of  spectrum  analysi-i  and  the  .Spectro- 
scope (q.  IK),  made  in  connection  with  Kirchhoff.  This  in- 
strument established  a  new  era  in  astronomy,  and  has  al- 
readv  led  to  most  vjiluable  discoveries  in  cheiiiistrv.  By  its 
aid  Bunsen  himself  iliscovered  two  ui'.v/  alkaline  metals. 
cccsinm  and  niliidium.  and  Lamy  and  Crookes  discovered 
thallium  nuiX  Kiche  and  Ixichter  indium.  He  al.so  devi.sed 
a  new  system  of  analysis  by  llame  reactions.  His  laboratory 
was  a  favorite  resort  for  per.soMs  from  the  U.S.  studying 
chemistry  in  Kurope. 

Bunsen  Burner:  a  gas-burner;  the  invention  of  Kobert 
Wilhelm  Bunsen ;  intended  to  secure  perfect  combustion. 


By  it  air  is  caused  to  mix  with  the  gas  before  ignition,  thus 
producing  a  smokeless,  sootless  flame  of  little  light,  but  of 
great  heating  power.  The  appliance  has  been  much  im- 
proved, and  is  of  great  importance  in  the  laboratory,  work- 
shop, anil  kitchen. 

Bunt:  See  Smuts. 

Bun'ter  Sand'stein  (variegated  sandstone) :  a  German 
name  for  the  ■•  new  red  sand>tone";  the  lowest  portion  of 
the  Triassic  series:  called gres bigarre  by  French  geologists. 
As  the  Trias  is  more  perfectly  developed  in  Germany  than 
in  (ireat  Britain,  the  German  beds  are  considered  the  typical 
group  of  the  Triassic  period.  Large  quantities  of  bunter 
sandstein  flank  the  Yosges  Mountains.  It  is  there  gener- 
ally a  fine-grained,  solid  sandstone,  useful  as  a  material  for 
liuilding,  and  is  often  of  a  blue,  red,  or  greenish  tint.  The 
most  remarkable  fossils  of  this  formation  are  the  remains  of 
huge  batrachiaiis,  including  the  Labyrinthodon. 

Bunting:  a  name  properly  given  to  numerous  small 
streaked  sparrows  of  the  genera  Emberiza,  Euspiza,  Plec- 


The  cirl  bunting  (Emberiza  cirlits). 

frophenax.  etc.  These  birds  are  mostly  European,  but  some 
are  found  in  America.  One  of  their  number  is  the  ortolan 
of  Europe,  so  highly  prized  for  the  table.  The  bobolink 
is  sometimes  called  rice-bunting,  and  several  other  birds  are 
often  imjiroperly  called  buntings. 

Bunting:.  Jabez.  D.  D.  :  Wesleyan  minister;  b.  in  Man- 
chester, England,  May  13,  1779;  entered  the  ministry  1799; 
gained  distinction  as  an  elotiuent  preacher;  had  so  great 
influence  in  his  denomination  that  he  has  been  called  "'the 
second  founder  of  Methodism."  IX  in  Lond(5n.  June  16. 1858. 
See  his  Life,  by  T.  P.  Bunting  and  G.  S.  Kowe  (London.  1887). 

Bunyan.  .Jotix  :  author  of  Pilgrim's  Progress-,  b.  at 
Elstow"  near  Hcdforil.  England,  in  Nov.,  Ili28  (ba)itized 
Nov.  30).  and  learned  the  trade  of  a  tinker;  enlisted  in  the 
army  of  the  Parliament,  probably  (the  jioint  is  curiously 
enough  uncertain)  about  1645;  soon  quitted  the  army,  and 
married  at  about  the  age  of  twenty.  After  passing  through 
severe  s]iiritual  conflicts,  he  attained  inward  peace  and  pro- 
found religious  views.  He  joined  the  Nonconformists  in 
l(i.53  ;  in  1655  he  removed  to  Bedforil.  and  began  to  exhort ; 
in  1657  he  was  regularly  recognized  as  a  preacher,  but  stiU 
continued  to  practice  his  trade.  He  conducted  services  in 
lieilford  and  other  places,  in  1660  for  so  doing  he  was  con- 
fiiu'd  in  Bedford  County  jail,  aiul  there  remained  till  1672. 
In  1675  he  was  again  in  [irison.  but  only  for  six  months.  It 
WHS  (luring  this  time  tliat  he  wrote  the  i'ilgrim's  Progress, 
whicli  he  published  in  167.H.  and  a  second  edition  the  same 
year,  and  a  third  in  1679,  much  enlarged.  The  second  part 
appeared  in  1684.    His  jjrcaching  tours  were  made  from 


BUNYOX 


BUUBOT 


831 


Bedfonl.  and  were  ni)t  wilhout  risk.  He  went  frequently 
to  Lon<ion  to  jireaoh,  ami  wherever  he  went  had  larjje  con- 
gregations. In  the  spring  of  1688  lie  hail  the  "sweating 
sickness";  later  eaugiit  a  severe  cold  by  riding  through 
heavy  rain  to  l.omlon  from  Heading,  whither  he  had  gone 
to,  and  did,  reconeile  a  father  and  son.  In  Lonilon  he  lay 
for  a  while  sick  of  a  fever,  and  linally  died  there  Aug.  31, 
1688.  His  masterpiece,  Tlw  /'ih/n'in'.'i  Proj/reax,  is  the 
greatest  of  allegories, and  one  of  the  religious  classics  of  the 
rliiglish  tongue,  aiul  by  means  of  translations  more  widely 
spread  than  any  book  save  the  Hible.  It  betrays  a  mind 
fairly  saturated  with  the  Bible  and  such  books  as  Fox'x 
M(irli/rt  and  Haglev's  Practice  of  Pirtij.  While  so  simple 
as  a  story  that  a  child  can  undei'stand  and  enjoy  it,  it  is  so 
profound  in  its  do<-trines  that  the  trained  theologian  best 
anpreciatcs  it.  His  second  famous  allegory  is  Thi>  Jliihj 
H  (ir,  first  issued  in  l(i82.  It  has  no  rival  in  any  language 
save  his  own  Pilyiim's  Pnif/rfAs.  Among  his  other  writ- 
ings, which  are  numerous,  many  dating  from  his  long  im- 
prisonment, should  be  mentioned  Grace  Abounding  to  the 
Chief  of  Sinner.''  (l(i(>(i),  his  spiritual  autobiography,  which 
recounts  how  he  became  a  holy  num  from  being  a  careless 
sinner;  The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.  Bailmun  (1680);  The 
Jeruxalem  Sinner  Saved  (1688),  a  remarkable  sermon;  The 
Ileaeenli/  Footman  (16il8).  There  are  innumerable  editions 
of  these  works  of  Bnnyan,  but  no  complete  edition  worthy 
of  his  fame  has  recently  been  printed.  The  life  of  Bunyan 
has  been  exhaustively  treated  by  Hev.  John  Hrown  (Lon- 
don, 188o;  2d  ed.  1887);  readable  is  the  shorter  work  by  E. 
Venablcs  (1888).  Samuel  M.\i'ai'LKY  Jackson. 

Biinyon :  See  Bi-nio.n. 

Itlinzliui.  Iiciontslow:  a  town  of  Prussia:  in  Silesia;  on 
the  I5ober;  28  uiiles  l)y  rail  W.  X.  W.  of  Licguitz  (see  map 
of  German  Kmpir.e,  ref.  4-11).  It  has  a  nornnd  school,  and 
manufactures  of  woolen  goods,  hosiery,  linens,  etc.  Pop. 
11,600. 

Blliizliiii.  Jiin^,  yoJuig'boontslow  (i.  e.  Young  Buntzlau) : 
city  of  Bohemia ;  on  the  river  Iser ;  87  miles  X.  R.  of  Prague. 
It  has  an  old  castle,  a  gymnasium,  and  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  leather,  and  soap  (sccr  maj)  of 
Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-E).     Pop.  (18'J())  ll,.jI8. 

Buoy,  bwoi,  or  boi :  a  floating  body  usmdly  intended  as  a 
mark  for  the  guidance  of  nuirincrs.  It  is  made  either  of 
wood  or  metal,  and  is  often  hollow.  Buoys  are  generally 
moored  by  chains  to  the  bed  of  the  chainiel.  They  are  of 
various,  shapes,  sizes,  and  colors  to  distinguish  them  one 
from  another,  and  iudicale  to  the  mariner  each  a  specific 
instruction.  Starboard  buoys,  usiuilly  red,  are  on  the  right 
of  a  vessel  asc<'ndiiig  the  channel,  or  on  the  (Mast  going 
with  the  llood-tiile  current ;  port  buoys,  usually  black,  are 
on  the  left  in  the  same  circumstances;  spherical  buoys, 
striped,  indicate  the  end  of  a  shoal;  a  hollow  conical  buoy 
is  called  a  "  can-buoy  " ;  a  double  <'oniial  buoy  is  called  a 
"nun-buoy";  a  floating  wooden  spar  is  a  "spar-buoy."  The 
bell-buoy  is  a  contrivance  for  retulering  a  buoy  andilile, 
whether  it  is  visible  or  not  :  it  is  flat  on  lop,  where  a  bell  is 
mounted,  the  clapper  of  whicli  is  set  in  vibration  by  undu- 
lations of  the  water.  TheConrtcnay  buoy  is  surmounted  by 
a  whistle  connected  with  a  hollow  lube;  longeno\igh  to  reaeii 
stiller  water  beneath.  As  the  buoy  rises  and  falls  on  the 
waves  the  water  in  the  tubi^  correspondingly  changes,  so 
that  the  air  rushes  in  or  <ait  of  the  whistle  as  the  air  in  the 
tube  expands  or  is  compressed.  Lighter  buoys  are  used  to 
mark  river  channels.  A  connnon  shape  for  buoys  to  be  used 
to  mark  shoals  in  rivei-s  or  in  other  sheltered  places  is  that 
of  a  fruslrum  of  a  cone.  They  are  anchored  point  down- 
ward, with  the  name  of  the  buoy  on  the  top.  In  laying 
sid)niarine  telegraphs  buoys  are  used  when  cables  are  cut 
ami  abandone(l  during  rough  weather, afterward  to  be  picked 
up  and  rejiaired,  when  the  work  of  laying  the  cable  goes  on 
as  before  the  storm. 

A  buoy-rope  ou  shipboard  is  the  rope  which  connects  the 
anchor  with  a  buoy  floating  above  it.  It  is  simply  intended 
to  point  out  the  locality  of  the  anchor,  but  if  it  be  strong  it 
is  useful  in  assisting  to  raise  the  anchor  at  times  when  the 
proper  cable  is  cut  or  injured. 

Hnphiiga:  See  Bkef-katkr. 

Hupres'lis  [from  Gr.  /SouTrprjo-Tis,  an  insect  whose  sting  is 
said  to  have  caused  cattle  to  swell  up;  fiovs,  (i\  +  nfiiiifiv. 
puff  up] ;  a  genus  of  coleopterous  insects  of  the  family  .6m- 
prestiaw.  which  includes  more  than  1,000  species.  They  are 
remarkable   for   the  spleiulor  and  richness  of  their  coloi-s. 


They  are  found  in  Xorth  America,  but  are  more  abundant; 
in  tropical  countries.     The  Bnprestis  gigas,oi  Cayenne,  is 


The  giant  buprestis. 

about  2  inches  long,  and  is  larger  than  any  of  the  Xorth 
American  species. 

Bur;  a  rough,  prickly  covering  (involucre)  of  the  seeds 
of  some  plants,  as  the  chestnut.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  flower-head  or  involucre  of  the  Arctium  lappa  (burdock), 
the  prickles  of  whicli  are  hooked  at  the  point.  In  engraving 
on  steel  or  c(i]ipcr,  bur  is  a  sliglii  ridge  raised  on  the  edges 
of  a  line  by  the  graver  or  the  dry-point. 

Bur'bago,  Hiciiard:  actor;  one  of  Sliakspeare's  associ- 
ates; b.  about  1567.  He  sereins  to  have  belonged  to  one  of 
those  companies  of  traveling  actors  which,  under  the  name 
of  "  Knglische  ('omiidiaehen,"  now  and  then  vi.sited  the  Con- 
tinent, more  especially  Xorth  Germany,  Holland,  and  Den- 
mark; exercised  considerable  influence  on  the  development 
of  the  drama  and  the  theater  in  those  countries ;  inherited  a 
share  in  the  Blackfriars.  and,  with  Shakspeare,  llciiiming, 
and  others  as  partners,  built  tlicGlobe  llu'ater,  where  he  took 
leading  parts  in  all  sorts  of  plays  until  he  died.  He  played 
Kichard  III.  and  other  tragic  roles  with  great  spirit.  1).  in 
London,  Jlar.  l;^,  1618-19."  See  VvUw't'  Ili.stori/  of  English 
Dramatic  Poetry  (1879). 

Hiir'beck,  Hkxrv:  soldier;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  8, 
17."il.  He  was  a  soldier  in  the  Hcvolution,  and  was  ap- 
l)oiiited  captain  uniii'r  the  ConfcMleration  May  1,  1787.  In 
1789  he  was  commissioned  a  captain  of  artillery,  major  in 
1791,  lieuteiiant-Cdlniiel  in  1798.  and  colonel  in  1802.  He 
served  with  dislimljon  in  tlie  lievolulionary  war,  in  that  of 
1812  with  Great  Britain,  and  on  frontier  service.  He  was 
breveteil  brigadier-general  18!;i,  and  retired  from  Hie  army 
June,  1815.     I),  in  Xew  London.  Conn.,  Oct.  2.  1848. 

Blir'bldge,  Gkorok  Wiif.ki.ock,  D.  C.  L.  ;  Canadian  ju- 
rist ;  li.  in  Canning.  Xew  Brunswick,  Feb,  6, 1847 :  educated 
at  Alt.  Allison  Wesleyan  College;  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1872;  appointed  (lueen's  counsel  in  1885.  He  practiced  his 
profession  at  St.  John;  was  secretary  of  the  coinmissioners 
for  consolidating  the  laws  of  Xew  Brunswick;  a  cominis- 
sioiier  to  revise  and  consoliilati'  the  statutes  of  Canada  in 
188:{;  Deputy  Minister  of  Justice  for  the  Dominion  from 
May,  1882,  uiilil  appointed  judge  of  the  KxcluMiuer  Court  of 
Caiiaila  Oct.,  1887.  This  court,  which  consists  of  but  one 
judge,  has  exclusive  original  jurisdiction  in  respect  of  any 
matter  which  might  in  England  be  the  subject  of  an  action 
against  the  crown.  Xeil  Macdonalu. 

Bur'bot  (Lota  lota):  a  fish  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the 
arc!  ic  and  subarctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres ;  is  the  only 


The  burbot. 


fresh-water  species  of  the  family  Gadidw  or  codfishes.     It 
reaches  a  weight  of  8  or  10  lb.  "  It  has  two  doi-sal  fins,  the 


838 


BURBRIDGE 


BtlRGER 


second  of  which  is  very  long,  and  a  very  long  anal  fin.  Its 
flesh  is  white,  firm,  and  is  not  highly  esteemed  as  food.  It 
is  capable  of  living  a  long  time  luit  of  water.  It  is  also 
known  in  the  U.  S.  as  eel-pout,  eusk,  and  ling. 

Bur'brid^e,  Stephen  (Jang:  general  of  volunteers  ;  b.  in 
Scott  CO.,  Ky.,  Aug.  19,  1S81 ;  edueatetl  at  Georgetown  Col- 
lege and  at  Kentucky  Military  Institute,  Frankfort;  studied 
law  in  the  office  of  the  late  Senator  Garrett  Davis  at  Paris, 
Ky.  In  1849  he  returned  to  Georgetown,  1).  C,  and  engaged 
in  mercantile  business  till  1853,  when  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  farming,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  ei\il  war  was 
conducting  a  iarge  farm  in  Logan  co.,  Ky.  He  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  U.  S.,  and  raised  the  famous  Twenty-sixth 
Kentucky,  which  he  led  until  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  where  he 
was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  of  U.  S.  volunteers ; 
fought  to  expel  Bragg  from  Kentucky  in  1862 ;  ordered  to 
join  the  expedition  against  Vieksburg;  led  the  charge  at 
Arkansas  Post  and  at  I'ort  Gil)son,  being  among  the  first  to 
enter  each  place  ;  connnanded  the  military  district  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  during  this  time  drove  .lohn  Morgan  into  Ten- 
nessee. For  this  service  he  was  breveted  major-general. 
Resigned  in  1805.     D.  in  Brooklyn,  Dec.  1,  1894. 

Biirck'liarilt,  Johann  Ludwig:  Swiss  traveler;  b.  al 
Kirciigarten,  near  Lausanne,  Nov.  24, 1784.  After  studying 
at  Leipzig  and  Gottingon  he  went  to  London  in  1806,  carry- 
ing with  him  a  letter  of  introduction  from  the  celebrated 
Blumenbach  to  Sir  .Josepli  Banks,  and  entered  tlie  service  of 
the  African  Association,  whicli  in  1809  sent  him  to  explore 
the  interior  of  Africa.  He  spent  about  two  years  in  Syria; 
prepared  himself  \>y  the  study  of  Arabic  and  medicine,  inur- 
ing himself  to  all  kinds  of  hardships  and  privations,  lie 
traveled  througli  Cairo  and  Nuljia  to  Mecca,  where  he  ar- 
rived in  1814.  Disguised  as  a  Moslem  haji,  he  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Mt.  Ararat  and  to  Jledina  with  peril  to  his  life. 
D.in  Cairo,  Oct.  15,  1817.  and  bequeatlied  his  Oriental  MSS. 
to  Cambridge  University.  His  lYari'/.s  in  JS'iihki  (in  English, 
London,  1819) ;  Tnnvh  hi  Si/ria  and  the  Iluhj  Lunil  (1822) ; 
Traivls  in  Arahia  (1829) ;  Niitc-f  on  the  Beduiiins  and  Wa- 
habys  (1830);  and  Arabic  I'rnri'rbs ;  or  the  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Miidern  Kyijjjtians,  Illustrated  from  their 
Proverbial  Sai/inys  (1830),  are  highly  esteemed.  See  his 
Life,  prefixed  to  his  Travels  in  Nubia. 

Burden.  Henry  :  inventor  and  ironmaster ;  b.  in  Dum- 
blane,  Scotland,  Apr.  20,  1791  ;  removed  to  the  U.  S.  in  1819  ; 
set  up  business  as  a  farm-tool  manufacturer,  and  made  tlie 
first  cultivators  ;  in  1825  invented  a  process  of  making  rail- 
road spikes  which  greatly  cheapened  railway  construction  : 
in  1822  was  an  ironmaster,  and  eventually  the  head  of  one  of 
the  largest  rolling-mills  and  iron  and  .steel  establishments  in 
the  V.  S.,  located  near  Troy,  X.  Y. ;  especially  famous  for  his 
machine  which  turns  iron  bars  into  finished  horseshoes  at 
the  rate  of  sixtv  a  miinite  ;  grew  very  rich  ;  d.  in  Trov,  X.  Y., 
Jan.  19,  1871. 

Burden  of  Proof:  the  obligation  or  necessity  of  proving 
the  fact  in  dispute  in  an  issue  joined  in  a  court  of  justice. 
The  general  rule  is  that  the  burden  of  proof  rests  upon  the 
party  who  asserts  the  allirnialive  of  the  issue.  The  same 
rule  is  applied  if  he  groumls  his  case  on  a  negative  state- 
ment or  ailegaticin.  If,  however,  the  ]n'oof  by  which  this 
negative  allegation  may  be  disproved  is  peculiarly  within 
the  knowletlge  of  the  opposite  party,  a  prima  facie  case  is 
established  by  its  simple  assertion.  In  general,  the  party 
upon  whom  rests  the  burden  of  proof  has  the  privilege  of 
opening  and  closing  the  case.  In  most  civil  causes  judg- 
ment must  be  given  for  the  party  establishing  a  prcpoiuier- 
ance  of  evidence,  bul  in  <'riminal  cases  the  accused  nuist  be 
acquitted  unless  the  jury  are  satisfied  of  his  guilt  beyond  a 
reasonable  doubt.  Ilencc'  the  rules  concerning  the  burden 
of  proof  are  of  great  importance  in  criminal  prosecutions. 
The  burden  of  i)rool  is  on  the  government  throughout  the 
whole  case.  Revised  by  F.  .Stukoes  Allkn. 

Burdett',  Sir  Fkancis  :  a  popular  ami  liberal  English 
legislator:  b.  Jan.  25,  1770.  In  179:i  he  married  a  rich 
heiress,  Sophia  Coutls.  Ih^  was  elecleil  to  Parliament  about 
1795;  became  an  elTecl  ive  speaker ;  advo<'ated  parliamentary 
reform  for  a  while,  during  which  lime  he  was  twice  arrested, 
once  imprisoned  anil  fined  fur  crilicisms  of  the  Govi'i-niiu'nt ; 
turned  Conservative  in  ls;{5.  He  representi'd  Westminster 
for  many  years  {1807-;!7).  and  then  Wdlshin-  initil  his  death; 
was  the  idol  of  the  London  iin|iulace.     D.  Jan.  23.  1844. 

Bnrdett-Contts, AN(iKi,A  Georoiana.  Baroness :  daughter 
of  .Sir  Francis  Burdett ;  b.  Ajir.  21, 1814  ;  gained  distinction 


by  the  liberal  use  of  her  vast  fortune.  She  built  churches, 
among  which  is  the  beautiful  St.  Stephen's  at  Westminster ; 
endowed  the  bishoprics  of  Adelaide,  Cape  Town,  and  British 
Colundjia ;  aided  emigrants  on  a  great  scale,  and  provided  a 
"  Home  "  at  Shepherd's  Bush  for  such  women  as  had  hipsed 
into  evil  ways.  In  1871  she  was  nuwle  a  baroness  in  her  own 
right.  Ten  years  later  she  married  William  Lehman  Ash- 
mead  Bartlett  (b.  in  New  Brunsw-ick,  N.  J.,  in  1851),  who  took 
her  name,  whereby  she  lost  some  part  of  her  iidieritance. 

Burdette,  Robert  Jones:  humorist  and  journalist :  b. at 
Greenslwiro,  Pa..  July  30,1844;  removeil  to  Peoria,  III.,  in 
his  youth  ;  enlisted  in  Forty-seventh  Illinois  Volunteers  in 
1862  as  a  (U-ivate,  and  served  through  the  war  ;  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Peoria  Transcript  in  1869;  in  1874  as- 
sociate editor  of  the  Burlington  Hawkei/e,  his  humorous 
contriljutions  to  which  made  him  famous. "  He  lias  delivered 
various  lectures  on  facetious  subjects  and  published  Hawk- 
eyes  and  other  comic  books. 

Burdick,  Francis  M.,  A.  M.,  LL.  B.,  LL.  D. :  professor  of 
law ;  b.  at  De  Ruyter,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1,  1845 ;  was  educated  at 
Hamilton  College  and  at  Hamilton  College  Law  School,  Clin- 
ton, N.  Y. ;  practiced  law  in  LUica,  N.  Y.,  1872-83,  and  was 
mayor  of  the  city  1882-83 ;  was  Maynard-Knox  Professor 
of  Law  and  History  in  Hamilton  College  1883-87 ;  Profess- 
or of  Law  in  Cornell  University  Law  School  1887-91 ;  and 
became  D  wight  Professor  of  Law  in  Columbia  College  Law 
School,  New  York,  in  1891.  Dr.  Burdick  hiis  published  Th& 
Study  of  Law  as  a  part  of  a  Oeneral  Education  (Albany, 
1887),  and  Cases  on  Torts  (New  York,  1891  ;  new  ed.  1895). 
In  1894  he  succeeded  Henry  Wade  Rogers  .as  associate  ed- 
itor in  charge  of  the  department  of  law  in  this  cyclopaedia, 
and  has  contributed  many  important  articles  to  it.  Re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Hamilton  College  in  1895. 

Burdock  (Arctium  lappa):  a  plant  of  the  family  Com- 
positif  ;  has  a  globular  involucre  with  imbricated  coriaceous 
scales,  each  tipped  with  an  abrupt  and  spreading,  awl- 
shaped,  hook-|:iointed  appendage.  This  involucre,  which  is 
called  a  bur,  catches  hold  of  the  clothes  of  jiersons  who  come 
into  contact  witli  it.  The  burdock  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  naturalized  in  the  L^.  S.,  growing  as  a  weed  in  waste 
places,  fence-corners,  and  near  dwellings.  It  is  used  in 
medicine  as  a  diuretic  and  diaphoretic. 

BnrdwilM,  or  Bardwau :  a  town  of  Bengal,  India;  capital 
of  a  division  and  district  of  the  same  name ;  on  the  Dum- 
modah,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road;  68  miles  by  rail 
N.  W.  of  Calcutta  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  7-1).  It  has 
manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  a  large  palace, 
but  the  houses  are  generally  rather  mean.     Pop.  35,000. 

Biire:  See  Burl 

Bureau  Ver'ltas :  an  institution  for  the  classification  of 
the  steamships  and  sailing-vessels  of  all  nations  ;  used  by  un- 
derwriters, maritime  insurance  agents,  etc.  It  was  founded 
at  Antwerp  in  1828,  by  Charles  Bal.  During  the  revolution 
of  1830.  which  separated  Belgium  from  Dutch  rule,  the 
Bureau  Veritas  was  removed  to  Paris,  France,  where  it  was 
long  known  as  the  French  Lloyd's.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71  the  bureau  was  finally  located  at  Brussels,  in 
Belgium.  Its  surveyors  .and  agents  are  found  in  the  sea- 
ports of  .all  maritime  countries,  and  their  ratings  of  vessels 
are  the  fruit  of  the  utmost  severity  in  examination. 

Burg,  b(M)r/i-h  :  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony  ;  on  the  river 
Ihle;  17  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Magdeliurg.  It  was  .settled 
by  French  and  Walloon  colonists,  aiul  has  been  for  many 
centuries  celebrated  for  its  manufactui'es  of  woolen  cloth, 
ili'rc  are  .also  maiuifactures  of  linen,  machinery,  pottery,  etc. 
Pop.  (18!l(l)  17,572. 

Hurgdorf,  bcmrA-h'dorf  (in  Fr.  Berthoud):  a  town  of 
Switzerland;  canton  of  Berne;  on  the  river  Emmen  ;  13f 
miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Berne  (see  map  of  Switzerland,  ref. 
4-E).  It  has  a  castle  and  manufactures  of  ribbons  and  silk. 
Pestalozzi  opened  a  school  here  in  1798.  The  Sommerhaus 
baths  are  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  (1888)  6,876. 

Biir'ger,  Gottfried  August:  German  poet;  b.  near  Hal- 
berstadf.  Dec.  31,  1747.  He  studied  at  Giittingen,  and  his 
literaiT  career  was  greatly  influenced  by  reading  Shakspeare 
find  I'crcifs  Relics  of  Ancient  Poetry.  His  works  cimsist 
chiefly  of  ballads  and  .songs,  which,  though  very  poiuilar, 
did  not  relieve  him  from  jioverty.  .Xiiiong  liis  best  prciduc- 
tions  are  Leiiore  (1772)  and  the  Wild  Ilunlsnian.  D.  in 
Giittingen,  June  8,  1794.  See  Priihlc's  G.  A.  Biiri/er  (Leip- 
zig, 1856). 


BURGES 


BTJRGOS 


830 


IJiir'aros.  Tkistam.  TiL.D. :  statesman  ami  orator;  b.  in 
Koilu'Stcr,  Mass.,  Fob.  2ti.  1770;  Kniduutcd  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  17!)0;  studied  law,  which  lie  jiracticed  with  suc- 
cess at  Providence,  U.  I.,  and  became  a  leader  of  I  lie  Federal 
party.  He  was  for  a  time  chief  justice  of  Kliode  Island,  and 
afterward  a  profissor  in  Brown  I'niversily.  In  1825  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  ('oiifjress,  in  which  he  continued 
ten  years,  and  gained  a  high  reputation.  He  waseniinently 
logical  and  terribly  sarcastic.  D.  in  Providence,  Oct.  i:j, 
18.53. 

lliirgress,  Alexaxdek.  I).  1)..  LI,.  I).:  Bishop  of  Quincv, 
HI.;  b.  in  Providence,  K.  1.,  Oct.  :!1,  1819;  graduated  at 
Brown  Vniversitj-  18;i8,  and  the  General  'I'heological  Semi- 
nary, New  York  city,  1841  ;  orilained  1842  ;  held  parochial 
charges  at  Kast  Ila<ldani,  Conn.;  Augusta  and  I'or(lan<l, 
Me.;  Hrooklyn,  X.  Y. :  and  Springtielil,  Mass.  Consecrated 
Bisho]j  of  (^uincy.  May  15.  1878;  published  a  memoir  of  his 
brother,  the  Bishop  of  Maine,  carols,  hymns,  special  ser- 
mons, charges,  etc. 

Blircess,  Georck,  P.P.:  Bishop  of  Maine;  b.  at  Provi- 
dence. i{.  I.,  Oct.  :il,  180!);  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1820;  was  a  tutor  there  for  a  time;  studied  in  Germany 
two  years;  rector  of  Christ  church,  Hartford,  Conn.  (18;i4-- 
47);  and  wa.s.  Oct.  31,  1.^47.  consecrated  Bisho))  of  Maine, 
acting  also  as  rector  of  Christ  church,  (iardiner.  He  went 
to  Haiti  til  fi>uiid  a  mission, and  died  there  of  apoplexy  .\iir. 
2;l.  IbOli.  Ho  published  J'ii(je-s  fniiii  /lie  Ecdcsidntical  itU- 
Utry  of  Xeiv  Bni/hind  (Boston.  1847);  Tin'  LaM  Eiu'tni/ 
Conquering  and  t'ongiieri'd  (Pliiladelphia,  1850);  a  volume 
of  sermons;  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms  (Xcw  York, 
1840);  and  other  works. 

Biirgross.  James,  LL.  D.  :  archu'ologist  ;  b.  in  Kirkmahoe. 
Dumfriesshire,  Scotland.  1832;  went  to  Calcutta  lis  Profess(U- 
of  Mathematics,  1.855;  eiigjiged  in  educational  work  in  Bom- 
bay IH(;i-73;  publishecl  the  moiilhly  Indiini  An/ifjuary 
1872-*(5;  in  187:i  was  put  in  charge  of  the  archa'ologicjil 
survey  of  Bombay;  in  1885  appointed  director-general  of 
the  archa'ological  survey  of  India,  i-etiring  in  1889.  Editor 
of  Epii/nip/u'ii  Indica  and  author  of  various  works  on  the 
temples  of  India. 

Bnrg:i'SS. -Tonx  William,  Uj.  I). :  educator;  b.  at  Cor- 
nersville,  Giles  eo..  Tenn..  Aug.  2fi,  1844 ;  educated  at  Cum- 
berland University,  Lebanon.  Tenn.,  and  Amherst  College, 
Mass.,  whence  he  graduated  in  18(i7;  was  admitted  to  the 
))ar  of  Massachusetts  in  18G9 ;  appointed  Professor  of 
English  Literature  and  Political  Economy  at  Knox  Col- 
lege, (ialesburg.  111.,  in  1869;  in  1871  studied  history  and 
public  law  at  Giittingen,  Lei])zig.  and  Berlin;  was  appoint- 
ed Professor  of  Ili.story  and  Political  Science  at  Aiidierst 
College  in  1873;  Profes.sor  of  Political  History  and  Public 
Law  at  Columbia  (\illege.  New  York,  in  1870.  and  of  Con- 
stitutional and  International  History  and  Law  in  1880. 

Burjrln'f  and  .\ntiliiirgli<'r ;  Sec  Associate  Peesbyteby 
and  Ph);sI!vti;riax  Cmikiu. 

Burgkniiiir.  bo'iirk mir,  IIa.vs:  a  noted  Gennan  paint<?r 
and  engrave]-  on  wood  ;  b.  in  Augsburg  in  1472.  He  was  a 
frieml  of  Aliiert  Diirer.  His  paintings  aiT  in  galleries  at 
Munich,  Berlin.  Augsburg,  and  Vienna.  In  135  wood-cuts 
he  depicted  T/ie  'friiimpli  of  the  JCiiiperor  Mdximilian,  for 
which  the  emperor  wrote  the  text,     1).  in  l.Wl. 

Burglary  I  .\uglo-Fr.//«r(//«/-iV,  origin  obsi-ure]:  in  crim- 
inal law,  the  act  of  breaking  and  entering  into  a  dwelling- 
house  of  auolher  or  a  churcli  in  the  night-time,  with  intent 
to  commit  a  felony  therein.  There  are  four  circumstances 
necessiiry  to  conslilute  the  offense,  referring  to  pla<e,  time, 
the  acts  done, and  the  intent.  The  place  is  a  dwelling-house 
or  a  church.  It  is  not  neces.sary.  in  order  to  constitute  a 
"dwelling-house. "  that  there  slxiuld  be  any  person  residing 
in  the  house  at  the  time.  It  is  enough  if  it  be  habitually 
used  as  a  dwelling,  though  it  may  at  the  time  be  closed,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  per,son  having  two  or  more  resiliences.  I)itli- 
cult  questions  sometimes  arise  ils  to  buildings  connected 
with  the  house  and  within  the  curtilage,  and  as  to  Hie  case 
of  loilgei-s  having  separate  rooms  aiuj  entering  by  a  common 
door.  In  the  last  instance  the  imjuiry  would  be  whether 
each  lodger  has  a  distinct  dwelliiig-huuse.  Consult  Bishop 
or  Wharton  on  Ciimuuil  Law. 

As  to  time,  the  rule  is  that  the  offense  ranst  be  cominitted 
by  night.  The  better  o|Mnion  is  that  both  the  breaking 
and  entering  must  be  by  night,  though  the  two  acts,  so  far 
as  they  are  distinct  in  their  nature,  may  be  committed  on 
separate   nights.     It  is  held  to  be  night  when  a  person  can 


not  by  the  light  of  the  sun  clearly  discern  the  face  of  another. 
This  is  quite  indelinite.  and  as  burglary  is  a  lieiiuuis  of- 
fen.se  some  fixed  though  arbitrary  rule  siH'nis  desirable.  In 
some  of  the  Stales  the  time  is  fixed  by  statute.  The  fact 
that  the  face  can  be  seen  by  moonlight  does  not  affect  the 
(|Uestion. 

The  acts  to  be  done  are  breaking  (actual  or  constructive) 
and  an  entry.  The  word  "breaking"  is  not  to  be  construed 
so  as  to  require  any  gi'eat  degree  of  force  or  violence.  Un- 
latching a  door  or  raising  a  window  is  sullicient.  If  a  door 
or  win<low  be  left  open,  an  entry  through  them  would  not 
be  a  breaking,  though  the  act  of  coming  down  a  chimney 
would  be.  Any  entry  will  suffice,  .such  as  thrusting  the 
hand  or  an  instrument  to  be  used  in  the  commission  of  a 
felony,  thniiigh  a  broken  pane  of  glass.  The  thrusting  or 
forcing  in  of  an  iuslrumeni  to  be  used  in  breaking  only 
does  not  of  itself  constitute  a  burglarious  breaking  and 
entry.  The  act  of  discharging  a  loaded  [lislol  or  gun 
through  a  door  or  the  glass  of  a  window  with  a  fidonious 
intent  would  be  both  a  breaking  and  an  entry.  It  is  suffi- 
cient if  the  entrance  be  proeuivd  tlirough  frauil  or  intimi- 
dation. It  is  doulitful  whether  the  act  of  lireiikiiu/  i/iif  (>(  a 
house  will  be  sufficient,  though  the  other  ingredients  of  the 
olTeiise.  except  breaking  in,  be  jiresent. 

Finally,  there  mii.st  be  an  iident  to  comtnit  a  felony.  If 
a  felony  be  actually  committed,  the  intent  may  be  inferred. 
It  will  be  immaterial  whether  the  felony  exists  at  common 
law  or  is  created  liy  .statute.  An  intent  to  commit  a  tres- 
]jass  will  not  suffice. 

The  common-l:iw  ingredients  of  this  crime  have  been 
modified  in  the  U.  S.  by  statute.  Burglary  is  sometimes 
divided  into  degrees;  some  of  these  degrees  would  include 
breaking  and  entry  in  the  daytime,  or  into  buildings  other 
than  dwelling-hou.ses  and  churches,  or  breaking  out  of  a 
building,  as  well  as  into  it.  In  some  of  the  States,  statute 
law  makes  the  intent  to  commit  any  crime  suflicient. 

T.  W.  DwiGHT. 

Biirgromaster ;  the  great  ice-gull,  Larus  glaucus,  of  the 
arctic  regions  of  both  liemi.s])heres. 

Hiii-goii,  Joiix  William  :  Dean  of  Chichester,  England  ; 
b.  in  .Smynui.  Asia  Minor.  Aug.  21,  1813;  educated  at 
Worcester  College,  Oxford  ;  B.  A.  1845;  wrote  the  Xewdi- 
gate  prize  poem  1845;  fellow  of  Oriel  College  1840;  took 
holv  orders  1848:  Gresham  lecturer  in  Divinitv  1868;  vicar 
of  "St.  Mary  the  Virgin,  Oxford,  1863;  Deaii  of  Chiches- 
ter 1876;  author  of  Tlie  Life,  and  Times  of  Sir  Thomas 
aresliam  (2  vols.,  WiO) ;  I'etra.  a  Poem  (1846) ;  Ojford  lie- 
formem  (1854);  A  IHain  ('onime)itiiry  on  llie  Four  Holy 
Oospefs  (8  vols.,  1855;  new  ed.  4  vols.,  1877);  Uislorical 
Xo/iceii  of  the  Colleyeii  of  Ojford  (1857);  Plain  Commen- 
tary on  /he  Book  of  Pxalmx.  Prayer-bixik  version  (2  vols., 
IH57):  In-ipirat ion  and  In/erpre/a/ion  (\Httl):  Le//er/i  from 
Jionie  (1862);  .4  Trea/ixe  on  the  Paxtoral  Office  (1864); 
Ninety-one  Shor/  Sermons  (2  vols.,  1867) ;  Disesiah/ ishmeni, 
the  Sa/ion'-f  Formal  Jiejection  of  God  and  Denial  of  the 
Faith  (1868) ;  Fni/liind  and  Home:  Three  Letters  to  a  Per- 
vert (1869):  The  )jasl  Tweire  Verses  of  the  (lospel  acrord- 
in(/  to  St.  J/urk  Vindirated  (1871):  1'lie  AUtanasian  Creed 
(1872);  A  Plea  for  the  Study  of  Divinity  in  (A(/or</ (1875); 
The  Jtevisioii  Revised  (1883) ;  Poems  (1885) ;  Lives  of  Twelve 
Good  Men  (1888;  2  vols.,  3d  ed.  1889).  D.  in  Cli"icliester, 
Aug.  6, 1888.  See  his  Life  by  E.  M.  Goulburn  (London,  1892, 
2  vols.). 

Burgos.  boor'gSs :  a  province  of  Spain,  in  Old  Castile; 
bounded  X.  by  .Santander.  K.  by  Biscay.  Alava.  and  Lo- 
groi'io.  .S.  K.  by  Soria.  .S.  by  Segovia,  and  W.  by  Valladolid 
and  Valencia.  Area.  5.051  s(|.  miles.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Douro  and  the  Ebro.  which  rises  within  its  limits.  The 
surface  is  partly  mountainous.  Gold,  silver,  cop|)er,  iron, 
and  lead  ar.>  found  in  it.     Pop.  (1887)  337,822. 

BiiivoK  (Lat.  liuryi) :  a  city  of  Spain  :  capital  of  jirovince 
of  sjime  luMue ;  on  tile  river  Arlanzon;  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  de  t)ea  ;  140  miles  by  rail  X.  of  Madrid  ;  lat.  42°  20' 
X..  Ion.  3°  45  W.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Olil  Ca.s- 
tile.  ancl  was  far  more  populous  than  it  is  now.  It  was 
founded  in  K44  a.  ii..  and  has  many  antique  buililings.  The 
court  was  reniovi'd  from  Burgos  to  Madrid  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  after  which  the  importance  of  the  former  declined. 
The  most  remarkable  edifice  here  is  the  cathedral  of  brown 
stone,  which  is  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  Europe.  This  was  commenced  in  1221. 
Burgos  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  college  and 
some  manufactures  of  woolen  and  linen  fabrics.     The  rail- 


8^0 


BURGOS 


BURI 


way  which  connects  Bavonne  with  Valladoliil  passes  through 
this  town.     Pop.  (1887)"  31.801. 

Burgos,  Laws  of  :  a  system  of  laws  for  the  regulation  of 
Indian  labor  in  America,  promulgated  at  Burgos,  Spain, 
Dec.  27,  1512.  They  were  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the 
Dominicans  of  Hispaniola  to  protect  the  Indians ;  tlie  monks 
were  opposed  by  the  colonists,  and  King  Ferdinand  referred 
the  question  to  a  special  junta  which  prepared  these  laws. 
They  provided  that  the  Indian  laborers  should  have  houses, 
land  for  planting,  and  upeso  of  gold  annmiUy  to  buy  clothes ; 
religious  instruction  was  secured  to  them  :  regular  inspectors 
of  the  mines  were  created,  and  it  was  forbidden  that  the 
Indian  miners  should  be  forced  to  work  more  than  five 
months  consecutively ;  every  effort  was  to  be  made  to  at- 
tract the  Indians  by  gentle  means.  These  liumane  laws 
caused  much  dissatisfaction  and  soon  became  a  dead  letter. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Biirgoyue.  Johx:  Britisli  general  and  dramatist;  b.  Feb. 
24,  1728:  commanded  a  force  which  captured  Alcantara,  in 
Spain,  in  1762:  was  sent  to  the  American  colonies  in  177.5; 
fought  under  Carleton  to  expel  the  insurgents  from  Canada. 
In  the  summer  of  1777  he  took  command  in  Canada  of  an 
army  of  8.000  men,  which  was  ordered  to  enter  Xew  York 
State  and  advance  to  Albany  to  meet  Clinton,  who  was  to 
ascend  the  river,  thus  cutting  the  colonies  in  twain.  He 
was  repulsed  at  .Stillwater  in  September,  and  was  captured 
with  his  whole  army  at  Saratoga  in  Oct.,  1777.  by  the  army 
under  Gen.  Gates;  returned  home  in  1778.  and  wrote  a  vin- 
dication of  his  campaign  entitled  .1  State  of  tint  Expedi- 
tion (1780).  (See  Saratoga.  Battle  ok.)  He  wrote  success- 
ful dramas  called  Ttie  Maid  of  the  Oakx  (1780);  .Sore  Ton; 
and  r/if  Heiress  (1786).     D.   in  London,  Aug.  4,  1792. 

Bursroyne.  Sir  .Iohn  Fox  :  field-marshal ;  son  of  Gen.  John 
Burgoyne.  and  godson  of  Charles  James  Fox ;  b.  in  London, 
July  24.  1782;  entered  the  Royal  Engineers  as  second  lieu- 
tenant in  1798.  Diu'ing  a  period  of  seventy-three  years' 
service  he  slowly  but  steadily  a.scended,  until  at  an  age  far  be- 
yond the  scriptural  limit  of  the  life  of  man  he  reached  that 
summit  of  his  professional  career  which,  in  a  published  let- 
ter, dated  Wilhelmshohe,  Oct.  29,  1870,  earned  for  him  from 
the  French  empei'or.  Xapoleon  III.,  the  designation  of  ■"  Le 
Moltke  de  fAngleterre."  He  served  as  commanding  en- 
gineer under  Gen.  Frazer  at  the  assault  of  Alexandria  and 
siege  of  Rosetta,  Egypt,  in  1807 :  and  under  Sir  John 
Moore  in  his  Portuguese  campaign  and  retreat  in  1808. 
Through  the  Peninsular  war  he  took  a  prominent  part,  as 
an  engineer  officer,  in  its  greater  sieges  and  Ijattles,  e.  g.  the 
siege  of  Ciud.ad  Rodrigo,  the  two  sieges  of  Badajoz  ;  as  com- 
manding engineer  at  the  desperate  siege  of  Bm-gos  and  of 
that  of  Sebastian  (shot  through  the  neck  in  the  assanlt),  and 
the  battles  of  Busaco,  Salamanca,  Bidassoa,  Xivelle,  etc.  He 
came  out  of  the  Peninsular  war  aged  thirty-two  and  the 
seniorofflcer  of  engineers  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  sieges 
of  Spain.  As  commanding  engineer  under  Gen.  Pakenham 
he  was  present  at  the  assault  of  Gen.  Jackson's  lines  below 
Xew  Orleans.  Jan.  8,  1815,  as  also  at  the  capture  of  Fort 
Bowyer  (Mobile  Point),  Feb.  11.  He  was  called  again  to  the 
field  (aged  seventy-two)  for  the  Crimean  war.  Against  the 
opinion  of  th('  French  engineers  he  pointed  out  at  the  be- 
ginning the  MalakofE  as  the  proper  and  decisive  object  of 
the  siege  operations.  On  his  recall  he  resumed  his  position 
at  the  War  Office  a-s  inspector-general  of  fortifications,  to 
which  place  he  had  lieen  appointed  in  1845.  His  services 
in  this  capacity  and  his  various  reports  and  official  writings 
were  deemed  to  justify  the  j)ulilication  of  a  work  entitled 
Military  Opinions  of  Sir  ■fiilin  Bnnjotini'  (London,  1859). 
After  seventy  years'  service  he  retired  in  1868  with  promotion 
to  the  rank  of  field-marshal,  and  the  a])pointment  of  con- 
stable of  the  Tower  of  London.  Though  then  aged  eighty- 
six,  his  ])hysical  powers  were  good  and  his  mind  unim])aired. 
He  died  Oct.  7. 1871,  at  the  age  of  eighty-nine,  and  was  buried 
in  the  historic  Tower  nf  London. 

Blir'tfUlldy  (in  Fr.  liijiirgoiine;  \Mi.  Jinrf/iimiia):  one  of 
the  mi)-I  important  of  llu'  fdrmer  provinces  of  France:  now 
forms  the  departments  of  Cute  d'Or,  Saone-et-Loire.  Yonne. 
part  of  .\in.  and  jiart  i>r  .\ulie.  Tlie  whole  ]iiiiiulation  of 
the  departments  of  ,\ in.  Saone-et-Loire,  Cote  d  Or,  Yonne, 
Aube,  llaute-Marne,  and  llaute-Saone  amounted  in  1891  to 
2,477,921.  The  name  was  derived  from  an  ancient  Gennan 
tril)e  called  in  Latin  Hun/iindi  or  Buri/iindionex,  who  set- 
tled in  this  part  of  Gaul  about  408  A.  I).  (Jondemar.  King 
of  Burgundy,  was  defeated  and  killed  in  .584  by  the  Franks, 
who  then  obtained  possession  of  Burgundy.     The  kingdom 


of  Burgimdy,  re-estal)li.shcd  in  561,  was  much  more  exten- 
sive than  the  province  of  that  name,  and  its  extent  va- 
ried in  different  jjeriods.  It  included  the  provinces  of 
Burgundy,  Franche-Comte,  Dauphinc,  a  part  of  Switzer- 
land, Lyonnais,  and  nearly  all  the  basin  of  the  Rhone.  In 
879  A.  i).  Burgundy  renounced  its  allegiance  to  the  weak 
Carlovingian  king,  and  lieeame  an  independent  state  ruled 
by  King  Boso.  It  afterward  in  part  belonged  to  the  king- 
dom of  Aries  (933-1032).  Upjier  Burgundy  was  a  kingdom 
from  888  to  933.  In  these  ages  there  were  often  several  lines 
of  princes  claiming  the  title  of  King  of  Burgundy,  and  niling 
over  parts  of  the  country.  King  Rudolf  III.,  dying  without 
male  issue  in  1032,  bequeathed  liis  kingdom  to  the  Emperor 
Conrad  II.  Conrad's  son  Henry  erected  it  into  a  duchy, 
feudal  to  Germany,  sometimes  called  Little  Burgimdy. 
Meanwhile  the  northwestern  portion  of  old  Burguiuly  re- 
mained a  fee  of  the  French  crown,  governed  by  a  line  of 
dukes.  This  line  became  extinct  in  1361.  but  John  II.  of 
France  made  his  son,  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  in  1364.  After 
this  Burgundy  became  an  important  state,  which  was  much 
of  the  time  virtually  independent.  Several  of  the  dukes  who 
reigned  over  it  were  jiowerfid  and  famous  jirinces.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  in  1477,  the  ducal  line  became  ex- 
tinct, and  the  duchy  was  annexed  to  France.  From  915  to 
1384  Franche-Comte  was  under  a  line  of  counts  of  Burgundy, 
but  Philip  the  Bold  made  it  a  part  of  his  dominions  in  1384. 
See  De  Baraiite,  Histori/  of  the  Did-es  of  Btinjundij  (13 
vols.,  1826) ;  Dubois,  La  Bourgogne  depiiis  son  Oriyine  (3 
vols.,  1867). 

Burgundy,  Dukes  of  :  See  Charles  the  Bold,  Philip 
the  Bold,  and  Philip  the  Good. 

Burgundy,  Louis,  Duke  of :  Daupliin  of  France ;  b.  in 
Versailles.  Aug.  6,  1682 ;  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the 
father  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  a  youth  of  violent  passions  and 
extremely  haughty,  but  his  character  was,  it  is  said,  refoiTued 
by  Fenelon.  who  was  his  preceptor.  He  married  Adelaide 
of  Savoy  about  1698.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  became 
dauphin  and  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  D.  of  scarlet  fever, 
Feb.  18,  1712. 

Burgundy  Pitch  (Pix  Burgmidica) ;  a  resinous  concrete 
exudation  from  the  Allies  exeelsa  or  Xorway  fir.  It  is  ren- 
dered commercial  liv  melting  it  in  hot  water,  by  which  )iroc- 
ess  part  of  its  volatile  oil  is  .separated  from  it.  By  strain- 
ing it  through  a  coarse  cloth  some  impurities  are  removed. 
It  is  of  a  yellowish-white  coloi'.  is  hard  and  brittle  when  cold, 
but  is  softened  by  a  moderate  degree  of  heat.  It  has  a  pleas- 
ant resinous  odor  and  a  slightly  bitter  taste.  It  is  used  in 
medicine  as  an  external  application  in  the  form  of  a  plaster. 
The  Burgundy  jiitch  of  commerce  comes  chiefly  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Xeufchatel,  Switzerland. 

Burgundy  Wines:  the  name  of  French  wines  produced 
in  the  former  province  of  Burgundy,  the  best  coming  from 
the  range  of  hills  called  Cote  d'Or,  between  Dijon  and  Chal- 
ons. Tliese  hills  are  about  800  to  1.000  feet  high,  and  the 
finest  vineyards  are  about  half  way  up.  The  wines  are  cele- 
brated for  richness  of  flavor  and  perfume.  The  best  red 
wines  of  Burgundy  are  called  Clos-Vongeot,  Chambertin, 
Romane-Conti,  Vohiay.  Pomard,  and  Richebourg.  The  white 
wines  of  Biu'gumly  are  said  to  tie  the  finest  in  France,  but 
the  quantity  produced  is  less  than  that  of  the  red. 

Burliani)ur'.  or  Barhanpur  (Hinili,  Barlianpnrn):  a 
city  of  Ximar  district.  Central  Provinces.  Britisli  India;  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Kaudesh  ;  on  the  river  Tajiti ;  309  miles 
by  rail  X.  E.  of  Bombay  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  2-D).  It 
is  on  the  Great  Indian  Penin.sular  R.  R.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  best -built  cities  of  the  Deccan.and  has  wide  and 
regular  streets  and  brick  houses.  Among  the  remarkalile 
buildings  is  a  mosque  built  by  Aurungzebe.  and  an  old  royal 
palace  which  is  nearly  ruined.  This  city  was  taken  liy  Akiiar 
aliout  1600.  It  has  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  threail 
for  brocade.     Pop.  30,017. 

Bu'ri,  or  Burt":  the  first  of  the  gods  of  the  X'or.se  mythol- 
ogy (,Esir).  It  is  related  that  when  the  mythic  cow  Aud- 
humla  (whose  name,  from  aiidr.  desert,  and  hum,  darkness, 
may  be  said  to  symbolize  the  original  chaotic  darkness)  be- 
gan to  lick  the  frost -covered  rocks  of  (he  iirimeval  chaos, 
there  came  forth  a  beautiful  and  mighty  being  in  lunnan 
form  called  Bm-i,  whose  son  Biir  (that  is  liorn,  anil  lii'ncc,  like 
the  Latin  natiis,  signifying  a  son)  was  the  father  of  Odin. 

Buri :  a  species  of  iialm  ;  native  of  the  Philippine  islands. 
Its  trunk  is  employecl  in  the  construction  of  houses;  sugar 
and  spirituous  liquors  are  made  of  the  sap ;  the  pith  yields  a 


BrRIAL 


BURLESOX 


841 


valualilo  artiele  of  food  (sngo) :  and  mats  and  sails  are  made 
from  ils  fiber.     Tliis  palm  is  the  Arenga  saccharifera. 

]tiirial:  See  Funeral. 

Burial  Socioties:  See  Friendly  Societiks. 

Biir'idaii  ( I'l'.  |iron.  bii  ri-daan  ),  Jean  :  scholastic  philos- 
ophcr;  li.  al  I'.riluini'.  Arlois.  France,  aliout  IWO.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Occam  :  lectured  al  I'aris;  l)elon{;ed  to  the  Nom- 
inalist school,  lie  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  J/e/n- 
p/ii/sira.  and  other  works,  and  was  the  reputed  author  of  a 
celebrated  sophism  called  "  Huridau's  Ass,"  but  it  is  not 
found  in  his  books.  The  subject  of  this  was  an  ass  placed  be- 
tween two  ecpiidistant  and  ccmal  l)undlcs  of  hay.  and  starving 
on  account  of  the  eciual  balance  of  the  two  motives.  For 
sonu'  unknown  reason  he  left  Paris  for  Viemui.  and  was  in- 
strinncntal  in  founding  the  university  there.     I),  after  1358. 

Bii'rin  :  a  jiost-town  aiul  port  of  entry  of  NcwfouiuUand  ; 
ca]iital  of  district  of  same  name:  ha.s  a  fine  harbor  on  the 
west  side  of  I'laccntia  I5ay.  and  a  jail.     Pop.  3,000. 

Burins:  See  Chizeuoots. 

Burke.  Ed.mi'nd.  LL.  I). :  statesman, orator,  and  writer:  b. 
in  Dulilin.  Ireland.  .Ian.  1. 1728.  or.  according  to  some  writei-s, 
in  17:^().  Al  an  early  age  he  became  the  |iupil  of  Abraham 
.Shaekleton.  a  t^u.uker  of  superior  attaiunients  and  excellent 
character,  who  taught  a  school  at  Uallitore.  Having  entered 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  devoted  himself  to  history,  |)lii- 
losoiihy,  the  classics,  etc.,  not  neglecting  poetry  and  other 
wiirKs  of  imagination.  He  afterward  stmlied  law  at  the 
Jliddic  Temple.  London,  but  returiu'd  to  Ireland  in  1751, 
and  took  the  di'grei:  <if  .\.  Al.  His  \'i)i</iei>fi<)it  of  \<ifi(ral 
/Sufii'fi/,  au  ircinical  criticism  of  Ijord  Bolingbrokc's  attacks 
on  Christianity,  came  out  anonymously  in  1756.  This  was 
followed  by  a  P/ii/owpliirnl  Jiujiiiri/  in/it  the  Origin  of  our 
Iderix  of  till'  Siihliine  and  lictitillful.  which  was  highly  <'om- 
raendeil  by  Dr.  .Johnson.  Hurke  uiarruMl.  in  1757.  -Mary  .Jane, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Nugent,  of  15ath.  and  the  union  appears  to 
have  been  a  very  hajiiiy  one.  Soon  after  lliis  he  formeil  an 
intimacy  with  Dr.  .Johnson  and  (tarriek;  the  former,  from 
his  first  acciuaintance  with  Burke,  felt  the  warmest  admira- 
tion for  his  talents,  and  was  accustomed  to  say  that  "  no 
man  of  sense  couhl  meet  Mr.  Uurke  by  accident  under  a 
gati^way,  to  avoid  a  shower.  witJiout  being  convinced  that 
he  was  the  first  num  in  Kngland."  In  175!)  Hurke  became 
private  secretary  to  VV'illiam  Gerard  Hamilton,  through  whoso 
influence  chiefly  he  received  a  pi'Msjon  from  the  (iovernment 
of  t'80()  per  annum  :  but  liiuliug  that  his  pcilitical  independ- 
ence would  be  compronused  by  its  acceptance,  he  threw  it 
up  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Ho  was  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Wendover,  in  ISuckinghamshire,  aliout  17(i5,  and  re-elect- 
ed in  1768.  Having  soon  after  puriOuised  an  estate,  he  wrote 
to  his  friend  Shac'kleton :  "  I  have  made  a  push  with  all  I 
couhl  collect  of  my  own,  anil  the  aid  of  my  friends,  to  cast 
a  little  root  into  this  country.  1  have  pundiased  a  house 
with  601)  acres  of  land  in  Bnckinghanishire.  24  miles  from 
London."  His  Tlioiights  on  flu-  ('iiii.se  of  the  Pre.icnf  Dis- 
cvntent  ctuni-  out  in  1770.  and  in  1771  he  was  appointed  agent 
of  the  colony  of  New  York.  In  1772  Sir  t'harles  Colebrook, 
in  the  name  of  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company, 
offered  to  Burke,  who  luul  alreaily  considerable  knowledge 
of  Indian  affairs.  "  the  first  position  in  a  supervisorsliip  of 
three,  empowered  to  trace  out  in  iletail  the  whole  ailminis- 
trativc  system  of  India,  and  to  remedy  all  they  could  find 
amiss."  This  offer  he  declineil,  feeling  perhaps  unwilling 
to  leave  Parliament  at  a  time  when  .\merican  affairs  were 
becoming  more  complicated,  and  the  condition  of  France 
fille(I  him  with  anxious  forebodings.  Soon  after  his  return 
from  a  short  residence  in  Paris,  he  said  in  a  speech  in  Par- 
lianu'Ut,  "  I  see  propagated  principles  which  will  not  leave 
to  religion  even  a  toleration,  and  make  Virtue  herself  less 
than  a  name."  In  .\pril.  1774,  he  made  a  sjieech  on  Amer- 
ican ta.xation,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  the  only  mem- 
ber of  Parliauu'nt  who  fully  comprehended  the  dangers 
which  threatened  the  Auu'rican  colonics.  In  Nov..  1774, 
Burke  represented  the  city  of  Bristol  in  Parliament,  and  in 
Mar.,  1775,  madi\  an  adndrable  speech  in  favor  of  concilia- 
tory measures  toward  the  .Vmerican  coh)nies.  Fox  said  of 
this  oration:  "Let  gentlemen  read  this  s|ieech  by  day  and 
UK^ditatc  upon  it  by  night  :  they  would  there  learn  that  rep- 
resentation was  the  sovereign  remedy  for  every  evil."  In 
1780  he  delivered  his  speech  O/i.  tlie  Economical  lieform, 
and  in  1782  b<>eamc  a  privv-councilor  aiul  paymaster-gen- 
eral of  the  fones  under  tlie  Rockingham  ndnistry.  His 
speech  on  the  East    India  Bill  in   Dec,   178:3,  is  esteemed 


one  of  his  best.  Burke  retired  from  office  soon  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Pitt  as  Prime  Minister,  and  held  no  position  after- 
ward under  the  Government.  In  Feb.,  1785,  he  made  a 
s|)cech  on  the  debts  of  the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  which,  says  Prior, 
"  was  one  of  those  outpourings  of  a  fertile  and  vigorous  in- 
tellect which  on  an  uniu-omising  theme  seemed  to  combine 
all  that  could  instruct,  dazzle,  and  even  overpower  the  read- 
er." His  ]iroseeution  of  Hastings,  the  most  arduous  enter- 
prise of  his  life,  was  commenced  in  Jan..  1786,  aiul  he  con- 
ducted the  impcachnu'nt.  On  Feb.  1.5.  1788,  Burke  made 
his  memorable  speech  in  Westminster  Hall,  in  the  presence 
of  an  immense  assembly.  Although  a  verdict  of  accpiittal 
was  passed  in  1705,  the  noble  efforts  of  Burke iled  the  way 
to  great  reforms  in  the  Government  of  India.  In  17!)0  Burke 
liuiilished  his  }iellirti(i)is  on  llie  Remliition  in  France,  of 
which  more  than  30,000  copies  are  said  to  have  been  .sold 
within  a  few  nuinths.  It  was  translated  into  French,  and 
received  with  enthusiasm  in  all  jiartsof  Kurope.  Soon  after 
this  he  published  An  Appeal  from  the  Seiv  to  the  Old  ^\'higs, 
in  whicli  he  refutes  the  charge  bmught  against  him  by  Fox 
of  having  abandoned  the  princii>les  of  his  party.  About 
1705  Burke  received  considerable  pensions  granted  at  the 
desire  of  the  king,  and  without  solicitation  (m  his  pari  or 
that  of  his  friends.  His  accejitance  of  these  well-merited 
rewards  cxiiosed  him  to  .severe  attacks  upon  his  character, 
in  reply  to  which  he  wrote  his  Letter  to  a  yolile  Lord,  which 
was  received  with  great  favor.  Burke's  only  son,  Richard, 
a  young  man  of  great  promise,  had  died  in  1704,  and  this 
aflliction  probably  hastened  the  father's  death,  which  took 
place  July  0,  1707.  He  was  buried  at  lieaconsfield,  near  his 
estate.  See  Prior,  L//c  o/ />'i(/-/,c  (London.  18.54) :  Dr.  Geo. 
Croly,  Political  Life  of  Edmund  Burke  ;  Ijord  Jeffrey,  Mis- 
cellanies ;  John  Morley,  Edmund  Burke  (1867). 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Biirkp.  John:  genealogist;  b.  near  Parsonstown,  County 
Tijiperary.  Ireland,  in  1786;  settled  in  London,  and  pub- 
lished, besides  other  heraldic  and  genealogical  works,  a 
Dirtionary  of  the  Peerage  and  Baronetage  of  the  British 
Empire  (1826).  The  twentieth  edition  was  published  by 
his  son.  D.  in  Aix-la-Cha)ielle.  Mar.  27,  1848. — His  second 
son, Sir  John  Bekxaku  Bikke.  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Lonihm  in  1815; 
became  in  185:i  Ulster  King  <if  Arms,  and  was  knighted  in 
1-854;  governor  of  the  -National  (iailery  of  Ireland  1874.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  heraldry  and  kiiulred  subjects,  e.  g. 
Anecdotes  of  the  Aristocracg  {\i<4i)-i>(>);  The  Landed  Gen- 
tri/;  Rem ini.scences.  Ancestral  and  Anerdulnl.  1).  in  Dub- 
lin, Dec.  l;3,  1802. 

Biir'leigli.  or  Biirgllley.  William  Cecii^,  Lord:  states- 
man; b.  at  Bourn.  Liiieolnsliire,  England,  Sept.  13.  1520; 
graduated  at  St.  .John's  College,  Candiridge,  studied  law; 
married  Mary  Cheke.  sister  of  the  great  humanist,  in  1541, 
wiio  ilied  in  threi'  years,  leaving  an  only  sim ;  and  in  1545 
Mildred,  daughter  of  Sir  .Anthony  Cook.  In  1.548  he  was 
ajipointed  Seeretarv  of  State.  As  he  was  a  Protestant,  he 
resigiH^d  oflice  on  t^ie  accession  of  Queen  Mary  in  1553,  but 
by  conformity  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  eseajied  per- 
.secution  in  tliat  reign,  altluiugh  he  succeeded  in  defeating 
a  bill  to  couliseate  the  property  of  Protestant  refugees.  He 
was  again  a|ii)ointed  Secret.-iry  of  State  by  yueen  Elizabeth 
In  Nov.,  155M.  and  was  viitually  Prinu'  Minister  for  forty 
vears  from  that  date.  In  1571  he  received  the  titleof  Baron 
liurleigh,  and  in  1572  became  Lord  Treasurer.  According 
(o  Hume,  "he  was  the  most  vigilant,  active,  and  prudent 
minister  ever  known  in  England. "  D.  in  Londim,  Aug.  4. 
1508.  and  left  no  less  than  :!00  landed  estates.  His  tomb  is 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  From  him  through  his  second  son 
have  descended  the  K.arls  and  Mari|uises  of  Salisburv.  Lord 
Burleigh's  goveriuneiit  was  in  a  critical  time,  and  had  to 
be  carried  on  under  a  penurious  and  capricious  queen,  but 
oiu'  who  had  the  discernment  to  keep  him  employed.  He 
em|iloyed  spies  freely,  was  shrewd,  tortuous,  patriotic,  and 
what  political  glory  attaches  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  he  is 
entitled  hirgclv  to  the  credit  of.  See  Arthur  Collins,  Ai/<; 
of  William  C'eril  (1732);  Jlotley,  J/i.'<lori/  of  the  United 
Artherl<uids.  chaps,  vi..  viii.,  and  xviii. ;  Froudc,  History  of 
England,  vol.  v. 

Bur'lpsoii,  Ri'Frs  ('.,  1).  I)..  LL.  D. :  one  of  the  earliest 
educators  in  Texas;  b.  near  Decatur.  Ala..  Aug.  7.1823; 
sjient  seven  years  in  Nashville  I'lnversity:  taught  in  Mis- 
si.ssippi  and  in  the  Theological  Institute,  Covington,  Ky. ; 
grailuated  June  10.  1847.  A  few  months  later  he  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  church,  Houston,  Tex.  lie 
tilled  that   position  three  and  a  half  years,  aiul  was  then 


842 


BURLINGAME 


BURMA 


■nnanimously  elected  president  of  Baylor  I^xiversity  (g.  v.) 
His  great  life  purpose  has  been  to  elevate  the  Baptist  de- 
riomination,  and  especially  to  found  a  great  Texas  Baptist 
university. 

Bnr'liiigaiiie  :  city  and  railroad  junction  :  former  capi- 
tal of  Osage  CO.,  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Kansas,  ref.  6-1) ;  24  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Topeka.  Coal  is 
found  in  abundance  here,  also  a  fine  quality  of  fire-clay. 
The  surrounding  countrv  is  unsurpassed  in  productiveness. 
Pop.  (1880)  1.370  :  (1890)"  1.472. 

Biirliugraiue.  A.vso.v.  LL.  D. :  diplomatist:  b.  at  Xew 
Berlin.  Chenango  co.,  X.  Y..  Nov.  14.  1822 :  graduated  at 
Harvard  iu  1846.  Hit  became  a  lawyer  and  a  resident  of 
Boston,  and  represented  the  fifth  district  of  Massachusetts 
in  Congress  from  1854  to  1860.  For  denouncing  the  as- 
sault made  upon  Senator  Sumner  he  was  challenged  by  Pres- 
ton S.  Brooks,  an<l  selected  rifles  for  the  weapon  and  Can- 
ada for  the  rendezvous,  but  Brooks  refused  to  travel 
through  the  angry  North.  He  acted  with  the  Republicans, 
and  gained  distinction  as  an  orator.  In  1861  he  was  sent  as 
commissioner  to  Cliin;i,  and  iu  1867  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador from  China  to  the  U.  S.  and  the  great  powers  of  Eu- 
rope, negotiating  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce.  I)., 
whOe  engaged  in  tlie  Chinese  service,  in  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia.  Feb.  23.  1870. 

Bur'liiigtoii.  Eugland  :  See  Bridlington. 

Burlington:  city,  important  railroad  center,  and  river- 
port  of  Iowa :  capital  of  Des  Moines  co.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Iowa.  ref.  7-K) :  situated  on  the  Missis- 
sippi river:  207  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  2.50  miles  by 
water  above  St.  Louis,  and  296  miles  by  railroad  E.  of 
Omaha.  The  river  is  here  a  broad,  deep,  and  beautiful 
strejjm.  The  |ilan  of  the  city  is  regular,  and  the  liouses  are 
mostly  of  brick  or  stone.  Many  of  the  private  residences  are 
built  on  liigli  blutfs  wliieli  afford  extensive  views  of  river 
scenery.  This  place  is  the  seat  of  Burlington  Univei-sity, 
and  contains  about  twenty-five  churches  and  numerous 
manufactories.  Here  occurs  a  valuable  variety  of  carbonif- 
erous limestone.  (See  Birlixutox  Limestone).  Burling- 
ton is  sometimes  called  the  "  Orchard  City."  Pop.  (1860) 
6,706;  (1880)  19,4.50;  (1890)  22,.56o ;  (1895)  2o,346. 

Editor  of  •'  Gazette." 

Burlington:  railroad  junction  ;  a  city:  capital  of  Coffey 
CO..  Kan.  (tor  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref. 
6-1);  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Neosho  river;  28  miles  S.  E. 
of  Emporia  and  65  miles  S.  of  Topeka.  It  has  an  aliun- 
<lant  water-power,  a  pul)lic-school  house  costing  $::50,000. 
and  first-cla.ss  mills.     Pop.  (1880)  2,011 ;  (1890)  2,2:39. 

Burlington:  city  and  railroad  center,  of  Burlington  co., 
N.  .1.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref. 
5-1)):  on  the  Delaware  river,  nearly  opposite  Bristol;  20 
miles  above  Pliiladelphia  an<l  12  miles  S.  W.  of  Trenton. 
The  river  is  here  nearly  a  mile  wide,  and  incloses  an  isl- 
and of  300  acres.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  St.  Mary's  Hall 
(an  Episcopalian  school  for  girls)  and  Burlington  College : 
contains  an  opera-house,  has  gas  and  water  systems,  an(l  a 
public  library.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  shoes,  canned  goods,  iron  pipes  of  all  sizes,  stoves, 
heaters,  and  carriages.  The  town  was  settled  as  New  Bev- 
erly in  1667;  incorporated  with  its  present  name  in  1784; 
has  fine  and  shaded  streets  and  many  old  mansions.  Pop. 
(1880)6,090;  (1890)7,264;  (189.5)7,844. 

Maxaoer  of  "  Daily  Enterprise."' 

Burlington:  city:  raih-oad  center;  capital  of  Cliitten- 
deu  CO..  \  t.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  4-B) ; 
on  Burlington  Bay  of  Ijake  Champlain ;  40  miles  W.  from 
Montpelier,  tlie  capital  of  the  State.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  city  ill  1865,  and  is  the  largest  ]ilace  in  the  State.  Pop. 
(1840)  4.271 ;  (1880)  11,:365  :  (1890)  14..590.  Area  of  original 
township,  6  si],  miles;  about  two-fifths  wi^re  included  iu  the 
municii)al  limits,  the  rest  forming  a  new  town  called  Soutli 
Burlington. 

The  heaviest  trade  in  the  citv  is  in  lumber.  Tlie  capilal 
invested  is  over  ?l.000,000.  Tliere  an'  large  (juarries  of 
building-stone,  of  linu'sloue.  ami  of  fine  marble  within  or 
near  the  city  limits:  lime-kilns  ami  brick-yards  are  in  a<t- 
ive  operation,  and  strain  marbh-niills.'  ma<lntie-sliiips, 
foundries,  sash,  chair,  furnilure.  patent-medi<iiie.  and  shoe 
factories,  paper-mills,  and  inanv  smaller  manufacturing 
trades  are  thriving.  On  the  nortlieast  limit  of  the  city  the 
abundant  water-power  of  the  Winooski  is  utilized  for  woolen 
and  cotton  mills,  flour-mills,  raachine-slioi)S,  chair  fa<tories, 


etc.  A  line  of  passenger  steamers  and  a  large  fleet  of  tugs 
and  barges  ply  between  Burlington  and  every  port  on  the 
lake. 

The  University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege is  situated  here  ;  it  was  chartered  in  1791,  has  a  flour- 
ishing medical  department,  and  ranks  as  one  of  the  best  in- 
stitutions in  the  countiy.  Since  1872  young  women  have 
been  admitted  to  the  classical  and  scientific  departments  on 
the  .same  terms  as  young  men.  The  college  buildings 
stand  on  the  crown  of  the  hill  on  whose  side  the  city  is 
built,  iu  a  most  beautiful  and  commanding  position  over- 
looking the  lake.  The  library  is  in  a  handsome  stone  build- 
ing, and  another  edifice  contains  a  museum  and  an  art- 
gallery.  A  park  of  7  acres  lies  in  front  of  the  college  build- 
ings, and  lands  of  the  university  are  in  the  rear.  The 
city  schools  are  under  control  of  a  board  of  commissioners 
elected  by  the  people.  The  high-school  building,  erected  in 
1871  at  a  cost  of  |20,000,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  State. 
There  are  also  two  large  Roman  Catholic  schools,  an  Epis- 
copal institute  for  boys,  and  several  private  schools  witliin 
the  city  limits.  St.  Mary's  (Roman  Catholic)  cathedral  is 
one  of  the  finest  church  edifices  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try. There  are  two  oi^phan  asylums — one  Roman  Catholic 
and  one  Protestant.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the 
city-hall,  the  county  court-house  (a  handsome  stone  build- 
ing, erected  in  1872),  the  county  jail,  the  U.  S.  post-office 
and  custom-house  (a  brick  building,  erected  in  1858).  and 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  The  libraries  are  the  L'niversity 
Library.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  Lilirary,  and 
the  Fletcher  Free  Library,  which  last  is  under  control  of 
the  city. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  lake,  raised  by 
steam-pumps  to  a  reservoir  on  the  hill,  which  gives  a  head  of 
280  I'eet ;  the  water-works  are  under  the  control  of  the 
city.  Lakeview  Cemetery,  opened  by  the  city  in  1868,  on 
the  bluff  overlooking  the  lake,  is  already  a  beautiful  s))ot, 
and  Green  Jlount  Cemeteiy,  on  the  eastei'n  side  of  the  city, 
overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Winooski,  contains  a  monu- 
ment to  Ethan  Allen,  who  was  one  of  the  early  settlers 
and  buried  here — a  shaft  of  gi-anite  surmounted  l)y  an  heroic 
statue  of  Allen  in  marble,  which  was  unveiled  with  imposing 
ceremonies  July  4,  1873. 

Burlington  was  first  settled  in  1773.  but  no  permanent  resi- 
dences were  made  till  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  in  1800  the  iiopulation  was  6(X).  The  principal  streets 
are  4  rods  wide,  laid  out  at  right  angles,  many  of  them 
well  shadeii  with  elm  and  maple  trees.  The  location  of 
the  city  is  unequaled  in  this  part  of  the  country,  and  the 
beauty  of  its  scenery  unsurpassed  anywhere.  The  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  city,  midway  of  the  eastern  shore 
of  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  facilities  for  transportation  by 
rail  and  water  make  the  whole  valley  of  the  lake  tribu- 
tary ttJ  it  in  the  way  of  "business. 

Editor  of  "Free  Press." 

Burlington:  village  (settled  in  1837):  Racine  co..  Wis. 

(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-F) ;  on 
Wis.  Cent,  and  C.  M.  and  St.  P.  R.  Rs.,  and  on  Fox  river:  27 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Racine.  It  has  seven  churches,  a  graded 
school,  and  niaiiufa<turing  and  agricultural  industries. 
Po],.  (1880)  1,6U  :  (1890)  2,043;  (189.5)  2,428.     . 

Burlington  Limestone:  a  formation  of  the  carbonifer- 
ous yieriod.  occurring  in  MLssouri  and  Illinois,  adjacent  to 
the  Mississippi  riyer.  It  affords  a  valuable  building-stone, 
and  is  ])eculiarly  interesting  to  naturalists.  The  upper 
bed  is  of  a  light-gray  color,  and  is  nearly  pure  carbon- 
ate of  lime.  The  lower  bed  contains  more  magnesia.  "  It 
is,"  says  A.  II.  Worthen,  "exceedingly  rich  iu  fossils,  espe- 
cially Crinoiilea.  and  has  afforded  a  greater  number  both  of 
species  and  individuals  than  all  the  other  Palaeozoic  rocks  of 
this  continent  combined." 

Blirmn  :  the  largest  province  of  the  British  Indian  em- 
pire: siri'lelu's  from  lat.  28"  N.  far  uji  in  the  mountains  of 
Tilii't.  soutliwaril  in  a  long  strip  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
.Malay  |ieninsula  to  lat.  10"  N. :  its  greatest  breadth  is  in  lat. 
21  3{)  from  Ion.  E.  92°  to  103°:  bounded  N.  W.  by  .\ssjim 
and  Manipnr.  W.  by  Hill  Tippcrah.  ^Maniimr.  and  the  Bay 
of  IV'Ugal.  which  also  forms  its  southern  boundary.  E.  by 
Siam.  TniKiiiin.  and  China.  Area.  Lower  Burma.  87.220  S(|. 
milrs;  rpper  Murma.  68.922:  total.  1.56.142  sq.  miles.  Po]i. 
(1H91)  Lower  Burma.  4..569.680 :  Upper  Burma.  2.984.730; 
total,  7..5.54.410.  Contains  35  administrative  di.stricls.  Prov- 
inces of  Lower  Burma  are  .\rakan.  Irawadi.  Pegu,  and  Teiia.s- 
serim,  covering  the  entire  seacoast.    The  Mergui  Archipelago 


BURMA 


843 


(see  JIergui)  is  part  of,  and  lies  off  the  lower  coast  of,  Tenas- 
seriin.  Pi>rti<>ns  of  old  Biiriim  have  not  yet  been  incor- 
piiiutod  into  ISrilisli  India,  but  are  frontier  territory.  Total 
area  estinial(.'<l  al  i.NO.OIMJ  sii.  miles. 

Fhijuieal  Afpects. — The  \  onia  Mountains  are  ii  ooa.st-range 
alonj;  tlie  esust  boumlary  uf  Arakan.  and  form  a  continuation 
of  the  Barail  and  Patkoi  ranjte,  an  otfshoot  from  the  Hima- 
layas. Blue  Mountain,  one  of  its  peaks,  is  said  to  reach  an 
elevation  of  H.DOO  feet.  On  its  west  side  lies  the  valley  of 
the  lower  Koladan.  K.of  it  is  the  basin  of  Ihc  jrivat  Irawadi, 
which  receives  the  large  alllueiit  Kyen-diien  aliout  80  miles 
lu'low  Maiulalay.  The  IVgu  Voma  ran};e  separati'S  the  Ira- 
wadi from  the  .Sittanjj  valley  on  the  K. ;  and  l'ounj;-Ijoung 
ranj;e,  which  crosses  the  Slian  .Stales  and  has  peaks  about 
7.(M)0  feet  high,  diviih's  the  Sitlang  from  the  Salwin  valley. 
The  Tenasseriin  Mountains  are  on  tlie  eastern  boundary  of 
the  province  of  the  sjune  name,  rise  5.000  feet,  and  are  cov- 
ered with  a  dense  and  solitary  jungle.  The  Mekong  or 
('and)odia  river  passes  across  the  eastern  part  of  Upper 
]{urma  from  X.  to  S.  X.  of  the  Pegu  district  the  coinitry 
slopes  upward  through  a  rolling  country,  broken  here  and 
there  by  ranges  of  liills  for  ;iOO  miles,  and  then  bcconies 
mountainous,  wild,  and  little  known  to  geographers.  The 
Irawadi  anil  Salwin  are  the  largc'st  rivers:  the  former  navi- 
g!d)le  lor  large  vessels  above  liliamo,  TOO  miles  from  the 
st'a.  and  runii^hing  Ihe  highway  of  commerce  to  the  Chinese 
l>order:  the  latter  navigalile  for  only  SO  miles  from  the 
co.-ist.  The  Kyen-<luen,  also  known  iu«  the  C'liindwin,  can 
be  ascended  :iO0  miles  from  ils  confluence  with  the  Irawadi. 
All  the  Burman  rivers  arc  subject  to  great  fluctuations  of 
water,  and  in  the  dry  season  (December  to  .Inly)  navigation 
above  the  tide-reaches  is  nuicli  impeded.  During  the  rest 
of  the  year  Ihe  alluviid  plains  are  subje<-t  to  inundiitions. 
when  the  streams  are  covered  with  boats  of  every  descrip- 
tion and  <(iiiimerce  is  active.  The  upper  river  courses  have 
a  less  overflow,  though  fed  from  the  Ilimalaya-s,  and  they 
force  their  way  Ihrough  rugged  and  grand  defiles.  A  canal 
runs  from  Ihe  Pegu  to  the  .Sittang  river.  Lakes  are  Thoo, 
Laligyin,  and  Kandaiigee. 

The  rainfall  on  llie  eoiust  exceeds  at  places  200  inches  a 
year,  but  diminishes  rapidly  as  the  country  is  a.scended,  ex- 
ce]>t  that  in  llu'  Shan  States  and  at  Blianio  it  is  excessive 
(from  HO  to  100  inches).  At  Prome  it  is  ii  inches.  The 
rainy  season  lasts  from  Ave  to  seven  months.  The  tempera- 
ture is  tropical,  but  Ihe  nights  are  cool  and  there  are  no 
siroccos.  Going  to  the  interior  the  temperature  moderates 
with  the  iiscent.  but  al  Mandalay  the  dust  and  glare  in  the 
spring  are  oppressive.  In  the  rul)y  district.  •'i.tiOO  feet  al)ove 
.sea-level,  the  summer  heat  is  moderate  (SO  max.),  and  a 
sanitarium  is  here  established  for  European  troops. 

Florti  and  Faiinii. — The  alluvial  districts  produce  rice  in 
many  varieties  (the  staple  of  the  country),  nuuze,  millet, 
wheat,  tobacco,  and  sugar  (mostly  produced  from  a  variety 
of  the  palm),  cocoa,  and  in  Ihe  hill  country  varieties  of  Ihe 
tea  plant.  Cotton  is  widely  cullivaleil.  but  chiefly  on  uy)- 
lands.  Indigo  is  indigenous,  but  is  crudely  made,  and  ani- 
line dyes  have  destroyed  its  importance.  Thi'  mango,  orange, 
citron,  yam,  e\istanl-apple,  papaya,  capsicum,  ami  jilantain 
are  common.  The  forests  are  nuigniliceiit,  and  comprise  all 
Indian  varieties  of  tives.  Teak  abounds  especially  in  Pegu, 
and  stick-Iae,  with  other  lacipier  gums,  is  sent  ilown  from 
the  Shan  and  upper  districts. 

The  forests  are  covi>rt,s  for  many  animals.  The  elephant, 
and  single  and  double  horned  rhino<'eros  haunt  the  jungles; 
I lu' tiger,  wild  hog.  and  sever.il  species  of  deer  an;  hunted; 
fish  are  abundanl,  and  furnish  a  welcome  dietary  to  the 
people;  the  abundanl  jungle  fowl  is  domesticated  ;  plumage 
birds  enliven  the  forests;  aiiuatic  birds,  as  geese,  ducks,  ad- 
jutants, cormorants,  wa<lei's,  and  sand-birds,  are  numerous. 
Domesticated  aniimds  are  the  ox,  ImlTalo,  hor.se,  and  a  few 
elephant.s. 

Jlinerah. — Burma  is  rich  in  mineral  proihicts,  hnt  the 
natural  deposits  are  almost  an  unworked  field.  A  binoxide 
of  tin  is  common  in  Ihe  lower  Tena.sserim  region,  but  the 
rich  ore  is  crudely  reduced.  In  the  same  region  are  coal 
and  lead,  antimony,  ami  manganese.  In  Upper  Burnni 
placer  gohl  is  found;  also  silver,  copj>er,  tin,  antimony, 
andier,  liisnnilh,  pctrolenm  products,  hne  buililing-stones, 
and  gems.  Ircm  abounds  to-the  X.  of  Pagan,  the  old  capi- 
tal;  petroleum  is  an  artiile  of  exyiorl  ;  andier  conu'S  from 
the  upper  valley  of  Ihe  KycMi-iluen.  The  gems  of  Burma 
are  chiefly  sap]>hire  and  ruby.  The  richest  mineral  districts 
are  in  Upper  Burma  toward  the  Chinese  frontier,  across 
which  trade  Inis  pa-ssed  for  centuries.     Ja<le  comes  from  this 


border,  and  its  production  is  farmed  out.  The  sapphire  dis- 
trict, some  70  miles  X.  K.  from  Man<lalay,  extends  over  an 
area  of  100  si|.  miles,  and  is  worked  from  pits.  The  gems 
were  a  crown  luodud,  ami,  according  to  color,  are  sold  as 
ruby,  amethyst,  topaz,  and  chrvsoberyl. 

J'eople. — The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mongoloid.  From 
their  own  name,  Ba-nia  as  understood  by  Europeans,  comes 
the  name  of  the  country.  Oeiierally  they  are  well-formed, 
dark,  active,  with  lank  black  hair  and  slight  beards,  like 
the  Siamese.  There  are  other  tribes,  as  the  Karens  in  the 
E.,  the  Paloungs,  the  Kakhyens  or  Singphos,  a  predatory 
people  on  the  N'.,  and  the  .Shans  on  tlie  E.,  who  change 
allegiance  a.s  suits  their  convenience.  All  are  fond  of 
arrack.  Keligiously  the  people  in  Lower  Biimni  are  divided 
in  order  of  imporlance  as  Buddhists  (Ihe  donunani  faith), 
Mohammedans,  Hindus,  Christians,  ami  about  4  ]>er  cent, 
diversified  faiths.  Their  government  was  purely  ilespotic, 
tinctured  with  a  religious  reverence  forollicials.  The  king's 
subordinates  were  provincial  governors,  ecpiippeil  with  arbi- 
trary powers.  They  had  no  salaries,  but  lived  by  farming 
the  revenues  and  by  fees.  .lustice  >vas  lucrative  to  its  dis- 
pensei-s.  The  administration  was  little  better  than  Oriental 
extortion.  Heredity  counted  for  nothing.  A  kind  of  Chi- 
nese ofhcialism  fixed  a  nian"s  precedence  and  anihorily  wilh 
badges,  costumes,  buttons.  an(l  girilles.  and  this  was  carried 
to  a  gri'at  detail  of  color,  form,  and  habit.  The  priests  were 
mendicants,  wore  yellow  garments;  nuns  were  not  bound 
by  irrev(K'able  vows.  Theoretically  all  Ihe  people  were  slaves, 
and  could  not  migrate  without  pernussion.  Outcasts,  lepei-s, 
executioners,  pagoda  slaves,  and  midertakers  were  treated 
with  contempt  and  cnidty.  Women  \vere  not  secluded  :  their 
embraces  might  be  sold  for  a  time  without  dishonor,  but 
prostitutes  were  infamous. 

The  people  have  a  monosyllabic,  flexible  speech,  used  for 
secular  ]iiirposcs,  written  with  circular  letters  of  Indian 
and  Buddhist  origin,  but  Pfili  is  the  Siicred  language.  The 
literary  form  is  almost  wholly  dramatic,  and  the  ])!ays  are 
consonant  wilh  Occidental  nioral.s.  Incident  and  scenic 
effects  are  merely  suggested,  but  the  jiroduction  of  a  play 
s|iins  out  beyond  any  (ireek  trilogy.  Jlonastic  libraries  are 
comiiKpn  ;  jiaper  is  of  bamboo  or  palm-leaf  produclion. 
Chronicles  are  of  ancient  comjiosilion.  fail  unauthentic. 
Judson"s  Dictionarij (1K.")2)  and  Bastian's Spraclirrry/riclii'iide 
Studicn  (1870)  are  Ihe  keys  to  the  language.  See  also  Col. 
Yule's  Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  the  Court  of  Ara  (18.58). 

Iiidtistriiil  Aspects. — X'ative  taxes  formerly  repressed  all 
industries,  the  rich  paying  an  annual  (|uil-reiit  and  the  [loor 
suffering  extortion.  The  houses  are  built  upon  piles  in  the 
inundated  and  most  populous  districts,  and  are  of  wood; 
lirick  is  common  in  temples,  and  arches,  pointed,  flat,  and 
circular,  with  domes,  abonnd  in  jmblic  Iniildings.  while  carv- 
ing, gilding,  and  fantastic  ornamentation  give  them  an  ap- 
pearance of  barbaric  gorgeousness.  The  loom  lingers  in 
families  all  over  the  country,  and  its  products  arc  silk 
fabrics  and  cotton  goods.  I'orcelain.  jiottery.  bells,  lac- 
quered ware,  cutlery,  personal  weajions  of  steel,  rice,  and 
preserved  fish  are  common  ]irodiicls.  The  country  ex]iorts 
much  to  China  of  the  native  products  named,  anil  receives 
artistic  miinufactures  in  return.  In  Lower  Burma  the  prin- 
cipal products  are  rice,  lumber,  potten-.  textile  fabrics,  salt, 
cotton,  lactpiered  and  gilt  work,  dyes,  cutch,  and  gold  and 
silver  bowls.  The  British  exports  from  Burma  in  1890  were 
f  17,701.02.5.  There  were  then  1.0!I2  miles  of  railway  com- 
pleted. Mandalay  being  connected  with  the  coast  thereby. 

Weiglits  and  Measures. — Lead  is  used  for  small  coins; 
money  transactions  are  by  weight;  the  coinage  is  in  con- 
fusion.    The  ball  and  the  daiii  are  the  purest  silver  coins. 

(1)  Weight  ;  The  seeds  of  a  little  black  pea  (Abrus preca- 
foriu.s)  supply  the  unit,  and  yveigh  from  1  to  2  grains;  8 
make  a  pae,  IG  a  mat.  64  a  kvap,  100  kvajis  a  i)ies.sa  or  viss. 
The  viss  of  Bangoon  =  ;5-:{:i:i;!i  lb.  av.  =  lollOtiG  kilgm. 
Multiple.  150  vi.ss  =  t  candy  -  oOO  lb.  av.  =  22(i-7!tr,n  kilgm. 
Sub-multiples,  yjj  viss  =  1  tii-al ;  yo-h  'ical  =  1  moos. 

(2)  Length;  The  taim  or  cubit  of  Kangoon  =  18  inches  = 
4.')7'2  mm.  Sub-multiple.  ^V  taim  =  1  paulgat  =  1  English 
inch.  Also.  22  |iaulgats=:l  saundaung,  or  royal  culiit. 
For  road-measure.  7  saundaungs  =  1  dlia  or  bambou:  1,000 
bambous  =  1  dain  or  taing  =  2'4:f06  miles  —  H'Oll.')  km. 

(:i)  Volume;  Commoilities  of  all  kinds,  liipiid  or  dry,  are 
sold  by  weight. 

(ttieernnienl. — .\  chief  commissioner,  under  the  Viceroy  of 
India. rulesthe  province.  Under  him  areeight  deputies  for  as 
many  districts,  who  are  invested  with  police,  judicial,  anil  rev- 
enue powers.     Beneath  them  are  township  otlicei-s.  of  like  but 


844 


BURMANN 


BURNETT   PRIZES,  THE 


subordinate  functions.  Tlie  country  is  controlled  by  20,000 
troops,  and  a  police  officered  by  Indian  and  Burman  leaders. 
Revenue  is  derived  from  the  teak  forests,  a  capitation  tax,  a 
land  tax  ranging  from  halt  a  rupee  (17  cents)  an  acre  to  2-J 
rupees  on  rice  lands,  the  industrv  that  inimenselv  surpasses 
all  others.  Revenue  in  1890  nearly  $16,000,000.  and  ex- 
penditures a  little  over  $1:1000,000. 

History. — The  early  chronicles  are  not  trustworthy.  The 
dominant  race  probably  came  2,000  years  ago  from  Central 
Asia  down  the  Irawa<_li  valley.  In  the  eleventh  century  the 
Biiddhists  are  known  to  have  been  established  at  Prome,  a 
civilization  was  developed,  and  the  cities  of  Pagan,  Pegu, 
Sagain,  Prome,  and  Ava  were  in  an  advanced  architectural 
stage.  The  Shans  and  Talaings  invaded  the  country,  but  did 
not  destroy  its  monuments.  European  settlements  began  in 
the  seventeenth  century  with  French  and  English  factories. 
In  the  middle  of  that  century  a  native  dynasty  of  peasant 
origin  Ijrought  all  Burnui  under  one  rule.  When  the  Brit- 
ish subdued  Assam,  friction  arose  on  the  Burman  borders, 
and  in  1824  Ava,  with  Arakau  and  Tenasseriin,  was  ceded 
to  Great  Britain.  In  1880,  on  pretext  of  harassed  trade. 
Great  Britain  annexed  Pegu,  The  final  conquest  came  in 
188.5  in  retaliation  for  King  Thel)aw's  proposed  alliances 
with  China  and  liis  mulcts  on  a  British  trading  company 
operating  in  Upper  Burma.  On  Nov.  28  the  Burmese  laid 
down  their  arms  at  Ava :  Mandalay  capitulated,  and  Thebaw 
was  carried  captive  to  India.  The  ne.it  year  all  his  domin- 
ions were  annexed  to  the  (Queen's  empire.  See  Forbes,  Brit- 
ish Burma  (1876);  Sir  Arthur  Phayre,  History  of  Burma 
(1883) ;  Wayland,  Life  of  Judson  (1853) :  Anderson,  Expe- 
dition to  East  Yunan  via  Bhamo  (1871);  Scotl  ("  Shway 
Yoe"),  Tlie  Burman,  His  Life  and  Xotions  (1882),  and 
Burma  as  it  was,  is,  and  will  be  (1886).  W.  W.  II. 

Bnr'mann,  Peter  :  philologist;  b.  in  Utrecht,  July  6, 1668; 
became  Professor  of  History,  Eloquence,  and  the  Greek  Lan- 
guage at  Leyden  in  1715  ;  edited  Horace,  Ovid,  Vergil,  Quin- 
tilian,  Lucan,  and  other  classics,  and  wrote  several  works, 
among  which  is  a  treatise  On  the  Revenues  of  Rome  (Ue  Vecti- 
galibus  Populi  Romani,  1694).  His  writings  were  esteemed 
for  their  accurate  erudition.     D.  in  Leyden,  Mar.  31,  1741. 

Biir'meister.  Karl  Hermann  Ko.vrad  :  a  German  natu- 
ralist;  li.  in  Stralsund.  .Jan.  15,  1807;  d.  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
May  1,  1891.  Educated  at  Greifswald  and  Halle;  for  a  time 
Professor  of  Zoology  at  the  L'niversity  of  Halle.  In  1850 
he  resigned,  and  made  a  journey  to  Brazil ;  returned  to  Eu- 
rope ;  in  1856  again  visited  South  America,  and  passed  IViur 
years  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1861  he  was  made 
director  of  the  National  Museum  in  Buenos  Ayres,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  until  a  severe  accident  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  it,  when  he  was  pensioned  by  the  Government.  Be- 
sides a  large  nnmlier  oi  ijajjers  on  entomological  and  kindred 
subjects,  he  published  Systemntische  Uebersichtr  (hr  Thiere 
Srasiliens  (Halle,  1856);  Description  physique  de  la  Repub- 
lique  Argentine  (Paris,  1876);  and  Annules  del  Museo  P!ib- 
lico  de  Buenos  Aires  (1864^74).  D.  at  Buenos  Ayres,  May 
2, 1892.  F.  A.'LucAS. 

Bnr'nabv.  Frederick  Gistavus  :  soldier  and  traveler ; 
b.  in  Bedford.  England,  Mar.  3,  1842 :  author  of  A  Ride  to 
Kliiva  (3d  ed.  1876) ;  On  Horseback  through  Asia  Minor 
(7th  ed.  1877);  -1  Ride  Across  the  Gtiannel  (1882),  an  ac- 
count of  a  balloon  trip.  Fell  in  the  V)attle  of  Abu  Klea.  in 
Nubia,  Jan.  17,  1885. 

Bnr'iiand,  Francis  Cowley:  English  humorist  and  jour- 
nalist ;  li.  Xciv.  2!l.  1836;  educated  at  Eton  an<l  at  Trinity 
College,  Candjriilge,  1858;  studied  for  the  Church  ;  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  was  called  to  the  bar;  since  1880  edi- 
tor of  Puucli ;  author  of  numerous  parodies,  theatrical  bur- 
lesques, and  other  facetiic,  the  best  known  of  which  are  his 
comedy  The  Colonel,  a,  satire  on  the  .'esthetes;  his  travesty 
of  Douglas  JerroUrs  Black-o/ed  tiusan:  Happi/  Thoughts 
(1868);  More  Happy  Thoughts  (1871).     IIexrv  A.  Beers. 

Burne-J<»iies,  K.dwaru;  i>ainter  of  figure  sulijects  and 
desigiu'r  of  decorative  work  :  b.  in  Birmingham.  Kngland, 
Aug.  28,  1833:  iiuiiil  of  Dante  Gabriel  Kosselti;  lielongs  to 
the  romantic  school  of  English  artists,  and  is  ncilalile  more 
for  his  conceptions  of  his  sulijects  and  for  his  neculiar  com- 
positions in  the  treatnuuit  of  them  than  for  tlie  possession 
of  technical  merits.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1SS5.  At  the  Paris  Expositicin  in  1878 
liis  i)ictures,  including  the  BeyuiUmj  of  Merlin  (1877),  at- 
tracted much  notice  from  continental  critics,  and  at  the  ex- 
position of  1889  lie  was  awarded  a  first-class  medal  for  the 


only  ])icture  he  exhibited.  King  Cophetua  and  the  Beggar 
Maid  (1884).     Studio  in  London.         William  A.  Coffin. 

Biirnes,  Sir  Alexander  :  traveler  and  Orientalist ;  b.  at 
Montrose,  Scotland,  May  16,  1805.  He  entered  the  army  of 
India  in  his  youth,  and  by  his  knowledge  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages gained  a  rapid  promotion.  In  1832  he  started  frcjm 
Lahore  on  an  exploring  expedition  in  Central  Asia,  and 
visited  Balkh.  Bokhara,  Astrabad,  Teheran,  etc.  Having 
returned  to  England  in  1833,  he  published  Travels  into 
Bokhara.  In  1838  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  (.'abul, 
where  he  passed  some  years  as  political  resident.  He  was 
murdered  there  Nov.  2,  1842,  by  the  Afghan  insurgents, 

Biir'net :  the  jiopular  name  of  plants  of  the  genus  Pote- 
riion.  belonging  to  the  family  Rosacea'.  The  great  burnet 
(Poterium  officinale)  is  cultivated  in  Germany  as  a  forage- 
plant,  and  yields  a  good  crop  on  poor  soils,  A  similar 
species  grows  wild  in  North  America.  The  common  burnet 
(Poterium  sanguisorba)  furnishes  valuable  pasturage  for 
sheep  on  the  English  downs.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  Ameri- 
can gardens,  and  is  used  in  salads. 

Burnet ;  town  ;  capital  of  Burnet  co.,  Tex.  (for  location 
of  coinitv.  see  map  of  Texas,  ret.  4-H) ;  on  Aust.  and  N.  West. 
R.  li.:  4.J  miles  N.  W.  of  Austin,  and  10  miles  E.  of  the  Col- 
orado river :  has  6  clniri-hes,  a  higli  school,  2  gins,  and  a 
roller  flouring-mill.  Its  interests  are  chiefly  agricultural. 
Burnet  was  founded,  about  1840,  as  Fort  Croghan,  but  has 
been  known  as  Burnet  since  1852.  Pop.  (1880)  490:  (1890) 
1,4.54.  Editor  of  "  Bulletin." 

Burnet.  Gilbert.  F.  R.  S.  :  historian  and  prelate ;  b.  in 
Edinburgh.  Scotland,  Sejit.  18.  1643.  He  became  Professor 
of  Divinity  in  the  L'nivcrsity  of  (jlasgow  in  1669.  resigned 
that  chair  in  1674.  and  removed  to  London.  In  1679  he 
pul_>lished  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  England  (3  vols..  1679-1714).  He  reftised  a  bishop- 
ric which  was  offered  to  him  by  Charles  II.  He  was  a  cour- 
ageous and  able  asscrter  of  civil  liberty  in  the  important 
crisis  which  preceded  the  revolution  of  1688,  and  gained  the 
favor  of  William  III.,  who  appointed  him  in  1689  Bishop 
of  SalisbuiT.  He  made  a  model  bishop.  Among  his  works 
are  a  lyife  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale  (1682),  and  a  History  of 
his  Ou-u  Times  (2  vols..  1723-34),  his  mo.st  important  work. 
See  the  liiography  by  his  son  in  the  last-named  work.  D. 
in  London,  Mar.  7,  1715. 

Burnett'.  Frances  Eliza  (Hodg.wn) :  novelist:  b.  in 
Manchester.  England.  Nov.  24,  1849 ;  came  to  the  U.  S.  at 
the  close  of  the  civil  war,  and  lived  in  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
until  lier  mari-iage.  in  1873,  to  Dr,  S.  JI.  Burnett ;  since  has 
resided  mainly  at  Washington.  Among  her  novels  of  Eng- 
lish life  are  That  La.^s  o'  Loirrie's  (1877) ;  Haworth's  (1879) : 
of  American  life.  Loui.'iiana  (1880);  Through  One  Adminis- 
tration (1883).  A  number  of  her  stories  have  lieen  success- 
fully dramatized.  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy  (1886),  in  partic- 
ular, being  one  of  the  greatest  hits  of  the  day. 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

Burnett,  James:  See  Monboddo. 

Burnett  Prizes :  founded  by  James  Burnett,  a  philan- 
thropist, born  in  Aberdeen,  1 729 ;"died  there  Nov.  9, 1784.  He 
made  a  competence  in  stocking-weaving  and  salmon-fishing. 
By  his  will  part  of  his  estate  was  used  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor  of  Aberdeen  and  neighborhood  ;  part  was  a  fund  to  de- 
fray the  expense  of  inoculation  (later  used  for  vaccination), 
and  the  remaining  interest  was  to  be  allowed  to  accumulate 
for  forty  years  or  until  £1,600  had  accrued,  and  then  to  be 
paid  in  prizes  of  £1,200  and  £400  respectively  to  the  best 
and  next  best  "  treatises  on  the  evidence  that  there  is  a  Being 
all-powerful,  wise,  and  good,  by  whom  everything  exists; 
and  particularly  to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the  wisdom 
and  goodness  of  the  Deity,  and  this  independent  of  written 
revelation  and  of  the  revelation  of  I  lie  Lord  Jesus;  and  from 
the  whole  to  point  out  the  inference  most  necessary  and  most 
useful  tx)  mankind."  The  first  award  was  made  in  1813. 
when  William  Laurence  Brown  received  the  highest  prize 
for  his  A's.soy  on  the  E.ristence  of  a  Supreme  Creator,  pos- 
sessed of  Lifinite  Power,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  (2  vols., 
Aberdeen,  1816) ;  and  John  Bird  .Sumner  the  second  for  ,4 
Treatise  on  the  Records  of  the  Creation,  and  on  the  Moral 
Attributes  of  the  Creator:  with  Particular  Reference  to  the 
Je<vi.sh  History,  and  to  the  Consi.'ilency  of  the  Principle  of 
Population  with  the  UV.sJom  and  Goodness  of  the  Deity  (2 
vols.,  London,  1816;  2d  ed.  1818).  The  second  and  final 
award  was  in  1855,  when  Robert  Anchor  Thompson  (Chris- 
tian  Theism,  2  vols.,  London,  1855;  n.  e.  1863)  and  John 


lU-KXETT'S  DISIXFECTIXG   FlA'ir) 


BURNOUP 


845 


Tulloch  {Theism,  Edinburgh,  1855)  were  the  prizemen  re- 
spectively. Since  IWS  the  fund  hits  been  used  to  support  a 
lectureship  on  natural  theology  in  the  University  of  Aber- 
deen, and  no  further  prizes  will  be  given. 

IJumt'tl's  Uisinfectiiig  Fluid:  a  solution  of  considera- 
ble stn-iiglh,  coritiiitiiiig.  !us  its  chief  constituent,  chloride  of 
zinc  and  a  coui[iaratively  small  amount  of  iron,  which  is  al- 
ways diluted  to  the  extent  of  about  1  to  5  gal.  when  used 
for  disinfecting  purposes.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  not  a 
true  disiufectaiil.  lint  only  a  deodorant  and  antiseptic,  in- 
hiliiting  the  growth  of  disease  germs,  but  not  destroying 
them.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  largely  supplanted  by 
chlorinated  lime  or  corrosive  sublimate  for  disir(fecting  pur- 
])oses.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
timber,  and  this  process  is  called  burnettizing.  Another 
name  for  Uurnett's  fluid  is  Crewe's  disinfecting  liquid. 

Biir'iipy.  CinRi.Ks,  F.  K.  S.,  JIus.  D. :  composer:  b.  at 
Shrewsbury,  Knglaml.  .\pr.  17,  1726:  wa.s  a  friend  of  Dr. 
.lohnson  and  I'Mmuud  liurkc;  wrote,  besides  other  works,  a 
(reneral  Ilixtorij  ittMiitIc  from  the  Earliest  .li/cs-  (4  vols., 
1776-80),  which  is  highly  esteemed  ;  a  />//c  nf  lldiulil:  one 
of  Melaxhixii) ;  composed  Alfred,  liiibin  Noixl,  unil  Queen 
Mnh  for  Drury  Ijane  theater.  He  was  the  father  of  Ma- 
dame dWrblav.  I),  in  Chelsea  Hospital,  where  he  was  or- 
ganist, Apr.  li.  1S14.  His  library  was  bought  for  i{:07,500 
by  the  British  Museum.     .See  his  Life  by  his  daughter. 

Biirney,  Frances:  Stu;  D'Arui,.\y,  Madasik. 

Buriiey.  Stanford  Guthrik,  D.I).,  LL.  1). :  minister  in 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  ;  b.  in  Kobcrtson  co., 
Tcnn.,  Apr.  16,  1814;  educated  at  Cumberland  College, 
Princeton,  Ky. :  liegan  preaching  at  the  age  of  twenty.  He 
was  president  of  Uuioii  Female  College,  Oxford,  Miss.  (1853- 
6'2) ;  Professor  ot  English  Literature  aiul  of  Metaphysics  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi  (lS(i.5-7;i) :  of  IJiblical  Ijitera- 
ture  in  Cumberland  University  (1877-M()) :  since  Professor  of 
Svstematic  Theologv  there.  He  pul)lished  Treatiseon  Elec- 
tion (Xashville,  187!)):  B(iptism<il  Jiegenemtion  (1881); 
Atonement  and  Law  lierieived  (ISST);  Solerioloi/ij  (18SS) ; 
Chart  of  Dulii :  Sttidien  in  Moral  Science  (IHiH)) :  Stiidiea 
in  Psyrhdloyij  {18!)()):  Studies  in  'I'heolof/!/.  wixdy  for  the 
jiress,  18!)2.  He  has  lieen  active  in  i]^  movements  of  the 
Cumberland  Church  for  closer  union  with  other  F'resby- 
terian  churches.  \V.  J.  Hkecher. 

liiiriiliam  liidiistrial  Farm  :  near  Canaan  Four  Cor- 
ners, Columbia  co.,  N.  V. ;  on  the  borders  of  Lake  t^ueechy  ; 
incorporated  in  1887.  The  farm  was  a  .Shaker  settlement 
which  was  i)urcha.st'd  liy  Frederic  (r.  Burnham.  who  gave 
it  to  be  used  as  an  institution  for  saving  unruly  l)oys.  It  is 
.580  acres  in  extent.  Up  to  188!)  it  was  run  on  ordinary 
in.stitutional  lines.  Not  having  been  entirely  successful  it 
was  then  put  in  charge  of  Mr.  \V.  M.  F.  Kouud.  who  had 
always  been  one  of  its  trustees.  Mr.  Kouud  conceived  the 
idea  of  uniting  the  systi'iu  of  the  Kauhe  Haus  in  (iermany 
and  of  that  at  Mettray,  France.  To  accomplish  this  ho 
organized  the  order  of  St.  Christopher.  This  order  is  ma<lo 
up  of  consecrated  young  nu'ii  of  various  religions  denomi- 
nations, who  are  in  training  for  lives  of  institutional  use- 
fulness. At  ]iresent  (18i)2)  eight  brothers  are  engaged  in  car- 
rying on  the  work  of  the  Burnham  Industrial  Farm,  liut 
after  a  period  of  three  and  a  half  year.s"  training  they  may 
be  sent  by  the  director  to  take  care  of  other  institutions. 
Boys  may  be  sent  from  all  i>arts  of  the  country  to  the 
farm  in  three  ways — lii-st,  by  reiuinci.it  ion  of  the  boys  by 
their  parents;  second,  when  eoinmittcd  by  magistrate;  thiril, 
by  transfer  from  other  institutions.  They  may  be  kept  dur- 
ing their  minority,  but  arc  ordinarily  retained  .lot  more  than 
two  and  a  half  years.  They  are  taught  simple  trades,  gar- 
dening, and  farming.  The  farm  has  no  endowment,  but  is 
entirely  supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions.  In  1893  it 
had  70  boys,  luit  the  plan  provides  for  1,200. 

Biirninar-bush;  See  Si-indle-tree  Family. 

Itiirning-glassos  and  Biiriiiiiir-iiiirrorH :  glasses  or 
luirroi-s  so  formed  as  to  collect  the  sun's  rays  which  fall  on 
them  into  a  point  or  focus,  and  thereby  produce  intense  heat. 
The  rays  of  light  or  heal  may  be  concentrated  either  by  re- 
fraction ,<r  redection;  in  the  former  ca.se  they  must  jiass 
through  a  transparent  refracting  siib.stanee,  as  glass  formed 
into  a  proper  sliape  ;  in  the  latter  they  fall  on  a  coucove 
polished  surface  of  silvered  gla.ss  or  bright  metal. 

The  method  of  exciting  heat  or  producing  fire  by  the  con- 
centration of  the  sun's  ravs  was  known  from  remote  an- 


ti(|uity.  as  is  proved  by  the  vei-y  ancient  although  doubtful 
story  that  Archimedes  burned  by  means  of  mirrors  the 
Roman  licet  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse.  The  celebrated 
Buffon,  with  168  mirrors,  each  about  6  inches  square,  set  fire 
to  planks  of  beech  150  feet  distant,  and  this  with  the  faint 
ravs  of  the  sun  at  Paris  in  the  month  of  JIarch. 

"in  prc|iaring  a  burning-gla.-^s  the  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  figure  necessary  to  collect  all  tlu'  rays  into  the 
smalle.-it  possible  sjiace.  Descartes,  in  his  Optica,  showed 
that  a  disk  of  glas.s, convex  on  the  one  side  and  concave  on 
the  other,  the  convex  side  being  a  portion  of  an  elliptic 
surface  and  the  concave  a  portion  of  a  siihere,  would  cause 
parallel  rays  falling  on  its  convex  side  to  converge  in  a  single 
point.  But  as  the  iiraelical  dilliculties  of  forming  a  glass 
accurately  into  this  sliape  are  insuperable,  both  sides  are 
ground  into  portions  of  a  s]jliere.  In  a  lens  the  focal  length 
depends  ou  the  curvature,  or  the  radius  of  the  splicrc,  and 
on  the  refractive  [lower  of  the  substance  of  which  the  lens  is 
formed. 

The  proper  form  for  a  buriiing-niirror  is  the  paraliola.  but 
a,sa  parabolic  curve  is  exceedingly  diilicult  to  obtain  cither 
upon  metal  or  glass,  o])ticians  frequently  rest  content  with 
a  spherical  curvature  of  long  focus.  Keccntly  burning-mir- 
rors have  been  coiistructeil  of  glass  upon  tlie  curved  surface 
of  which  pure  .silver  is  precipitated  by  chemical  means.  By 
this  plan  the  curved  surface  is  produced  upon  glass,  and 
thus  becomes  permanent,  while  tlie  reflection  is  ettccted  by 
the  polished  surface  of  the  silver,  which  can  lie  easily  renewed 
from  time  to  time.  The  focus  of  a  burning-mirror  is  one- 
half  of  the  radius  of  curvature. 

Among  those  who  have  experimented  in  modern  times 
upon  the  elfects  of  burning  glasses  or  mirrors  are  Baron 
Napiei-,  the  illustrious  inventor  of  higarithms,  Kircher,  Dr. 
.lames  Gregory,  Sir  Isaac  Xewton,  and  many  others.  The 
most  powerful  solitl  lens  ever  constructed  was  the  work  of 
Mr.  Parker,  an  ingenious  London  artist.  It  was  made  of 
flint  glass,  was  :i  feet  in  diameter,  :!J  inches  tliick  at  the 
center,  its  focal  distance  6  ft.  8  in.,  the  diameter  of  the  burn- 
ing focus  1  inch,  and  its  weight  212  lb.  The  rays  refracted 
by  this  lens  were  received  on  a  second.  I  he  diameter  of  which 
in  the  frame  was  1:^  inches,  and  its  focal  length  29  inches. 
The  diameter  of  the  focus  of  the  cfimbined  lenses  was  half 
an  inch:  consequently,  liy  the  addition  of  the  second  lejis, 
the  burning  power  was  increa-sed  4  times.  With  this  lens 
some  of  the  most  refractory  substances  were  fused  in  a  very 
short  spaci'  of  time  :  for  example.  10  grains  of  common  slate 
in  2  seconds:  10  grains  of  cast  iron  in  'i  seconds:  10  grains 
of  lava  in  7  seconds;  10  grains  of  jasper  in  35  seconds,  etc. 
One  acciiunt  says  "the  most  infusible  metals  were  in.stantly 
melted  and  dissipated  in  vapor."  This  glass  was  afterwanl 
carried  to  China  by  one  of  the  ofKccrs  who  accompanied 
Ijord  Macartney,  and  left  at  Peking.  A  remarkable  lens, 
formed  by  bi'uding  or  molding  two  plates  of  glass  over  a 
parabolic  mold,  and  tilling  the  cavity  between  with  !)0  qt.s. 
of'spirits,  was  constructed  by  Rossini,  of  (iratz.  in  Styria. 
The  diameter  of  the  plates  was  ;i  ft.  :!  in.,  anil  they  were 
united  by  a  strong  ring  of  metal.  The  whole  was  mounted 
on  a  heliosliit.  In  its  focus  a  diamond  was  instantly  kindled 
and  dissipated,  and  a  [liece  of  |ilatiiium  2!)  grains  in  weight 
was  melted  and  thrown  into  violent  ebullition.  This  lens 
now  belongs  to  the  French  Government.  In  France,  partic- 
ularly, the  practical  application  of  burniiig-mirrors  to  the 
utilization  of  the  sun's  rays  in  ilriving  heat-engines  and  in 
cookery  has  been  extensively  studied,  with  a  view  to  the 
use  of  such  devices  in  Northern  Africa  and  other  tropical 
regions.  Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Biirn'ley:  a  market-town  of  Lancashire,  England;  on 
the  Bnin  ;  near  its  entrance  into  the  North  ('aider;  30  miles 
N.  of  Manchester  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  6-G).  It  is  con- 
nected by  railway  with  Blackburn.  Liverpool,  and  other 
cities.  It  has  manufactures  of  I'otton  and  woolen  faVirics, 
calico-printing  work.s,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  taiinerii'.s,  and  rope-walks.  Its  prosperity  is  partly 
derived  from  the  collieries  in  the  vicinitv.  I'op.  (18!)1) 
87.0.58. 

Btiriioiif.  biir'noof  ,Eroi5NE;  Indologist;  b.  at  Paris.  Apr. 
8,  IKOl  :  iiiic  of  the  founders  of  the  Soeiete  .Xsiatiipie;  be- 
came its  secretary  in  18:!0:  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  18;i2;  soon  after  Profes.sor  of  Sanskrit  at  the 
College  de  France.  His  Sanskrit  studies  furnished  him  the 
kev  not  only  to  the  sacred  language  of  Bud<lhisni,  the  Pall 
(I-!smy  on  the  Pali,  1826),  and  to  that  of  the  ,V vesta  (  Vedidad 
.S'«</f,  182!)-4;};  Commentary  on  the  )'((jh(i,  18y:i,  etc.),  but 


846 


BURNS 


led  liim  also  to  the  decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions. His  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Buddhism  in 
India  (1844)  put  the  study  of  this  great  religion  on  a  scien- 
tific basis.  D.  in  Paris.  May  is.  1^.52.  liis  works,  like  his  life, 
unfinished ;  but  his  masterful  control  of  facts,  coupled  with 
the  brilliancy  of  his  imagination — in  a  word,  his  genius  for 
discoTery^and.  aliove  all.  his  self-forgetting  love  of  truth, 
make  him  one  of  the  heroes  of  "the  heroic  age  of  Oriental 
studies."  See  J.  Mohl,  Vingf-sept  <ins  d'hisfoire  dts  etudes 
orien  tales,  i.  4.58-469.  C.  R.  Laxmax. 

Burns,  Antuoxy  :  a  fugitive  slave :  b.  in  Virginia  about 
1830;  d.  in  St.  Catherines,  Canada.  July  27.  1862.  Escaping 
from  slavery,  he  was  arrested  under  the  fugitive  slave  law 
in  Boston,  May  25.  1854,  an  event  which  created  an  intense 
excitement,  in  which  Theodore  Parker,  Phillips,  Higgiusou. 
and  other  eminent  citizens  participated.  A  meeting  was 
held  in  Faneuil  Hall  to  protest  against  his  rendition;  the 
court-house  was  assaulted  by  a  mob  to  rescue  him  :  he  was 
sent  back  .South  on  a  revenue  cutter ;  afterward  gained  liis 
liberty;  studied  at  Oberlin ;  became  a  Baptist  minister  to  a 
colored  congregation  in  St.  Catherines.  The  interest  in  the 
ease  grew  out  of  the  exhibition  of  the  determination  in  the 
North  to  uphold  the  common  law  and  State  statutory  safe- 
guards of  personal  liberty  against  the  fugitive  slave  law 
compromise,  which  transferred  the  trial  of  a  Negro's  freedom 
to  the  courts  of  the  State  where  the  claimant  resided,  and 
in  slave  States  no  such  safeguards  existed  for  a  person  of 
African  descent. 

Burns.  Francis,  D.  D.  :  colored  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church :  b.  in  Albany.  N.  Y..  Dec.  5.  1809 :  sent 
as  missionary  to  Liberia.  Africa,  in  1834 ;  taught  in  a  school 
at  Cape  Palmas ;  joined  the  Liberia  Conference  in  1838 ; 
founded  the  Monrovia  Academy  in  1851 :  ordained  bishop 
of  his  denomination  in  Liberia  in  1858 :  and,  after  nearly 
five  years  of  service,  d.  in  Baltimore,  ild..  Apr.  18,  1863. 

Burns.  Sir  Georoe  :  baronet ;  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Cunard  line  of  steamers;  b.  Dec.  10,  1795:  entered  into 
partnership  with  his  brother  .James  in  Glasgow  about  1818; 
co-operated  with  Sanniel  Cunard  and  others  in  founding  the 
Cunard  line  of  steamers  in  1838,  as  the  result  of  a  general 
invitation  from  the  British  Government  for  tenders  for  the 
conveyance  of  American  mails  by  steam-vessels  ;  created  a 
baronet  in  May,  1889.  D.  June  2",  1890,  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  title  and  estate  by  his  eldest  son,  Sir  John  Burns,  of 
Castle  Wemyss,  Renfrewshire, 

Barns,  .Johx  :  English  labor  organizer  and  lea<ler ;  b.  in 
VauxhaU,  Loudon,  1858,  in  very  humble  circumstances :  at- 
tended school  until  he  was  ten.  when  he  entered  a  candle- 
factory.  He  afterward  apprenticed  himself  to  an  engineer 
at  Millbank,  and  woi-ked  as  foreman  engineer  for  twelve 
months  on  the  Niger  in  West  Africa.  On  his  return  he 
made  a  six-months  tour  through  Europe.  During  his  youth 
he  was  an  omnivorous  reader,  and  is  said  to  have  imbibed 
his  socialistic  theories  from  a  Frenchman  who  was  em- 
ployed in  the  same  shop  with  him.  He  addressed  audiences 
of  workingmen  for  years,  and  was  probalily  the  most  promi- 
nent labor  agitator  in  Great  Britain.  In  1885  he  was  the 
socialist  candidate  for  Parliament  for  the  western  division 
of  Nottingham,  liut  was  defeated,  lie  was  prominent  in 
the  agitation  of  the  uncmiiloyed  in  1886.  In  1887  he  con- 
tested the  right  of  public  meeting  in  Trafalgar  Square,  and 
suffered  six  weeks"  imprisonment  for  resisting  the  police. 
During  the  great  dock  strikes  in  Lomlon  (Aug.  1.5.  1889- 
Sept.  14,  1889)  he  was  one  of  the  most  influential  leaders  of 
the  strikers,  and  was  a  meml)cr  of  the  Mansion  House  com- 
mittee of  conciliation  which  brought  about  the  settlement 
of  the  difficulties  and  the  end  of  the  strike.  He  was  also 
prominent  in  the  Scotch  railway  strike  in  1891.  Mr.  Bums 
IS  a  member  of  the  London  County  Council,  and  was  elected 
(July  6,  1892)  a  member  of  Parliament  for  Battcrsea.  His 
sincerity  and  aliility  are  un(iuestioned.       C.  H.  Thi-rber. 

Burns,  Robert:  the  national  poet  of  Scotland;  b.  near 
the  town  of  Ayr.  .hin.  25.  1759.  His  father  was  a  yeonum 
farmer.  Although  his  life  .-ieems  to  have  been  one  long 
struggle  with  misfortune.  Hurns's  father  was  at  great  pains 
to  give  his  children  a  good  education.  When  lie  was  able 
he  sent  them  to  school;  and  not  iiiifrcqueutly  when  the 
day's  work  was  ended  he  taught  his  children  himself.  Burns 
wa.s  early  familiarizeii  with  those  trials  and  hardships  to 
which  the  poor  are  so  often  exposed,  and  to  wliicli  he  some- 
times alludes  with  such  power  and  pathos  in  his  j)oetry.  The 
poet  had  a  robust  frame  and  active  body,  as  well  as  a  strong 


intellect  and  acute  sensibilities.  He  is  said  to  have  done  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  the  work  of  a  man. 

In  the  case  of  Burns,  as  in  that  of  Sappho,  it  was  love  that 
taught  him  song.  A  little  before  he  reached  his  sixteenth 
year  he'^fii-st  committed  the  sin  of  rhyme."  A  "  bonnie, 
sweet  sonsie  lass  "  had  been  associated  with  him  in  the  laliore 
of  the  harvest-field.  Her  singing  "  made  his  heart-strings 
thrill  like  an  ^Eolian  harp."  and  first  inspired  him  with  the 
idea  of  \vi'iting  songs.  An  irresistible  attraction  toward 
what  he  calls  the  "adorable  half  of  the  human  species"  was 
perhaps  his  most  remarkable  characteristic ;  and  hence  it 
was  as  an  amatory  poet  that  he  was  especially  distinguished, 
though  patriotism,  friendship,  conviviality,  and  the  rural 
life  of  the  Scotch  peasantry  are  constant  motives  in  his 
poetry.  Unhappily,  this  remarkalile  susceptibility  to  the 
tender  passion  degenerated,  under  the  influence  of  evil  com- 
pany, from  its  first  purity,  and  led  him  into  illicit  amours, 
which  were  the  cause  of  his  princijial  misfortunes.  In  pro- 
portion as  he  cast  off  the  restraints'  of  morality,  he  seems 
to  have  lost  his  reverence  for  religion.  With  his  other 
faults  and  vices,  intemperance  went  hand  in  hand.  But 
he  had  too  much  sense  of  right  and  too  much  feeling  to  be 
able  to  drown  altogetlier  the  reproving  voice  of  con- 
science. 

He  had  formed  in  1785  a  liaison  (which  was,  according  to 
the  usage  of  Scotland,  virtually  a  marriage)  with  Jean  Ar- 
nuiur,  a  person  somewhat  above  his  own  position  in  life. 
She  bore  him  twins,  and  although  he  had  ])reviousIy  given 
her  a  written  acknowledgment  of  nuirriage  her  father  was 
greatly  incensed  against  the  poet,  so  that  he  determined  to 
leave  Scotland  and  seek  liis  fortune  in  the  >^w  World.  But 
before  quitting  his  native  country  forever,  he  resolved  (1786) 
to  publish  his  poems.  The  success  of  the  experiment  in- 
duced him  to  change  his  plans.  He  was  encouraged  to  visit 
Edinburgh,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  many  men 
at  that  time  distinguished  in  literature,  including  liugald 
Stewart  and  Dr.  Blair,  besides  many  others.  It  was  during 
Burns's  visit  to  the  capital  that  Scott,  then  a  very  young 
man.  had  an  opportunity  of  beholding  and  listening  to  the 
gifted  stranger.  He  has  left  a  very  interesting  account  of 
Burns's  appearance. 

Among  men  of  rank  who  interested  themselves  in  the 
poet.  Lord  Gleucairn  was  especially  prominent.  Burns  al- 
ways remembered  his  kindness  with  the  nujst  heartfelt  grati- 
tude, and  afterward  dedicated  to  his  memorv  the  beautiful 
and  touching  lines  entitled  the  Lament  for  -James.  Earl  of 
Gleucairn.  Soon  after  his  visit  to  Etlinburgh  he  puldished 
(1787)  a  new  edition  of  his  poems.  In  1788  he  openly  de- 
clared liis  marriage  with  Jean  Armour,  and  abtiut  this  time 
was  appointed  an  officer  of  the  excise,  with  a  salary  of  £50 
a  year ;  it  was  subsequently  increased  to  £75.  His  intemper- 
ate habits,  which  had  been  aggravated  by  the  excitement  and 
irregularities  of  his  recent  life  in  Edinburgh,  and  his  subse- 
quent pecuniary  distresses  gradually  gained  a  great  ascend- 
ency over  him,  but  rarely  if  ever  to  the  extent  of  rendering 
him  incapable  of  performing  the  duties  of  his  office.  He  re- 
moved in  1791  to  Dumfries,  where  he  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  D.  July  21,  1796.  Nearly  twenty  years  after 
his  death  a  splendid  mausoleum  was  erected  to  his  memory 
in  the  churchyard  at  Dumfries,  whither  his  remains  were 
removed  on  June  5,  1815.  See  Lockhart's  iyZ/c  of  Burns 
(1828);  Currie's  Life  of  Burns,  prefixed  to  the  Correspond- 
ence of  the  poet  ;  A.  Cunningham.  Life  and  Land  of  Robert 
Burns  (1840) ;  Carlyle.  Mi.'icellanles;  a  Life,  by  Princi])al  J. 
C.  Shairp,  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series;  and  the 
complete  collection  of  Jiis  works  (1877-82,  7  vols.)  by  Doug- 
las and  Nichol. 

Burns.  Robert  Ferrier.  D.  D.  ;  Canadian  clergyman ;  b. 
in  Paisley,  .Scotland.  Dec.  23.  1826;  educated  at  "Gla.sgow 
University  and  at  New  College.  Edinburgh ;  removed  to 
Canada  in  184.5.  completing  his  course  at  Ktiox  College.  To- 
ronto. Previous  to  his  appointment  as  pastor  of  the  Fort 
Massey  Presl)\lerian  church.  Halifax,  in  1875.  he  helil  ]ias- 
torates  in  Kingston,  St.  Catherines.  Chicago,  and  Montreal, 
in  the  order  named.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Pan-Prcsliy- 
terian  Council  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1880,  and  to  that 
held  at  Belfast  in  1884.  Among  his  published  works  are 
Maple  Leares  for  Grave  of  hinridn  (.St.  Catherines,  1865); 
Maine  Law  (Halifax.  1875);  Modern  Bahijlon  (1870);  and 
Confession  and  Absolution  (1883).  His'  father,  Robert 
Burns,  D.  D..  was  Professor  of  Church  Hi.story  and  Apolo- 
getics in  Knox  College,  and  was  the  most  distinguished  min- 
ister of  his  time  in  Canada.  Neil  JIacuoxald. 


BURNS 


BURR 


847 


Burns.  William  Wallace:  frencral;  b. in  Coshocton.  0., 
Still.  :5,  1825;  griiflimteil  at  West  Point  in  1M4T;  liecanie  a 
bnjjadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861  ;  inajor-<reneral  vol- 
uiiteci"s  in  18fW:  ami  brevet  brifjadiei-'reniral  U.  S.  army 
in  1805.  He  .served  in  the  Army  ol"  the  Potomac  until  1863. 
Reverting  to  his  position  as  an  otlieer  in  the  subsistence  ile- 
]iartment  he  served  until  Sept.  19.  188!).  when  he  rctireil  for 
aj;e  witli  the  rank  of  colonel.  D.  suddeulv  at  Beaufort,  S.  C, 
Apr.  I'.).  18'J2. 

Itiiriis  and  Scalds:  in  medicine,  injuries  caused  by  dry 
heat  (liuriis),  or  by  moist  heat,  such  as  that  of  hot  water  or 
steam  (scalds).  In  both  cases  the  results  are  quite  similar. 
Various  degrees  of  burns  are  described  according  to  the 
depth  to  which  the  injury  penetrates.  Thus  in  cases  of  the 
first  degree  there  may  be  merely  redness  and  slight  inflam- 
mation of  the  skin.  In  those  of  the  second,  third,  or  higher 
(legri'es  the  skin  is  destroyed,  and  the  underlying  tissue  and 
muscles  are  implicated.  Where  large  parts  of  the  body  ex- 
ceeding half  of  the  whole  surface  arc  involved  death  is  al- 
most inevitable.  The  immediate  effect  of  the  burn  is  great 
shock,  followed  by  complete  collapse  if  relief  is  not  afforded. 
Occasionally  disturbances  of  internal  structures  results  from 
extensive  burns,  as,  for  instance,  ulceration  in  the  duodenum 
or  IJright's  disease. 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  soothing  lo- 
tions or  ointments,  the  use  of  anodynes  for  the  [lain,  and 
stimulants  in  case  of  threatened  collapse.  A  mixture  of 
lime-water  and  sweet  oil,  which  is  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  Carron-oil,  is  very  useful.  In  slight  burns  the  pain 
may  be  relieved  by  dusting  baking-soda  upon  the  surface. 

W.  P. 

Bnrnsido,  .\MnROSK  Kvkrett  :  military  officer  and  fJov- 
ernnr  ;  b.  in  Liberty,  Ind..  May  2:i.  1824:  graduated  at  West 
Point  1847;  as  lieutenant  of  artillery  served  in  war  with 
Mexico  1847-48;  on  frontier  duty  in  N'ew  .Mexico  184!l-50, 
engaged  with  .lacarillo  .\paches  (wounded);  with  Mexican 
boundary  commission  1851-.52  ;  resigned  Oct.  2. 185;5 ;  manu- 
facturer at  Hristol,  H.  I..  185.'i-.W,  of  breech-loading  rifles, 
which  he  hail  invented  ;  cashier  of  land  <lepartment  Illinois 
Central  R.  K.  Company  1858-.5!) ;  trea.sur(!r  Illinois  Central 
R.  R.  Com])any  18f)()-^t)1.  In  the  civil  w;ir.  as  colonel  of 
Rhode  Island  three-mouths  vo!unteei-s,  he  served  in  Maj.- 
Geii.  Patteison's  operations  about  Cuinberlanil.  Md..  and  in 
the  Manassas  campaign,  1861,  was  engaged  at  Bull  Run. 
Appointed  brigadier-general  U.  S.  voluntc^ers.  Aug.  (i.  istjl. 
and  promoted  to  raajor-g(;iieral  May  18,  1862;  he  served  in 
organizing  the  coa-st  division  and  in  command  of  depart- 
ment of  Xorth  Carolina  1862;  engaged  at  Roanoki' island. 
Newbcrn,  Camden,  and  Fort  Miu-on ;  in  command  of  Ninth 
Army-corps  at  Newport  News  and  Fredericksburg  1X62;  in 
Maryland  cani]i.[ign  engagi^d  at  South  Mountain  and  .\n- 
tietam,  in  command  of  left  wing;  in  general  charge  of  Har- 
pers Ferry  1862;  in  command  of  .\rmy  of  Potomac  Nov.  7, 
1862,  to  Jan.  28,  186:!;  defeated  at  Fredericksburg;  in  com- 
mand of  department  of  Ohio  186:!;  engaged  against  Mor- 
gan's raidei-s;  captured  Curaberland  Gap;  occupied  Hast 
Tennessee  after  several  actions  and  sustained  a  siege  at 
Knoxville;  in  command  of  Ninth  Coi-ps  in  Richmond  cam- 
paign 1864;  engaged  at  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  North 
Anna,  Tolopotomy,  liethesila  Church,  and  Petersburg,  in- 
cluding mine  assault ;  resigned  .\pr.  15.  1865.  from  volun- 
teer ser\-ice.  Civil  engineer  1S65-66;  president  of  Cincin- 
nati and  Martinsville  R.  U.  Company  in  1805;  of  Rhode 
Island  Locomotive  Wfirks  in  1S6().  and  of  Imlianapolis  and 
Vincennes  R.  U.  Conipanv  in  1H67;  (ioviM-nor  of  the  .Slate 
of  l{ho.le  Island  1866-6!».  He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Kliodi;  Island  in  1875,  and  re-elected  in  1880.  D.  in 
Bristol,  R.  1.,  Sept.  U,  1881. 

Bnrnt  OfTerings:  See  Sacrifice. 

Bnrut  Sienna:  a  pigment  made  by  heating  raw  sienna 
to  a  high  temperature.  Raw  sienna  occurs  in  nature,  and 
owes  its  color  to  the  [)resence  of  compounds  of  iron.  Both 
pigments  are  usetl  iu  oil,  water,  and  fresco. 

Burnt  I'mher:  a  pigment  made  by  heating  raw  umber 
to  a  high  temperature.  Umber  was  formerly  obtained  from 
Umbra,  in  the  I'apal  States,  whence  its  name.  It  is  a  com- 
pound of  silica,  iron,  and  nmnganese.  Burnt  umber  is  used 
in  oil  and  water  colors,  and  is  highly  valued. 

Bur  Oak.  or  Burr  Oak  (Qtiercus  mucrocttrfia) :  a  species 
of  oak  of  meiliuni  size  found  in  the  U.  S.,  principally  E.  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  also  called  over-cup  oak  and 
mossy-cup  oak.     Its  timber  is  valuable. 


Burr,  Aarov;  scholar;  father  of  the  Vice-President ;  b.  in 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  Jan.  4.  1716;  graduateil  at  Yale  in  1735; 
licensed  to  preach  in  1736;  settled  over  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Newark.  N.  J.,  in  1738;  chosen  president  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  Pi-inceton,  N.  J.,  in  1748;  d.  there 
Sept.  24. 1757.  In  1752  he  married  Ksther.  daughter  of  the 
eUier  President  Edwards.  She  died  Apr.  7,  1758.  in  the 
twenty-seventh  year  of  her  age.  They  left  two  children — a 
daughter,  who  married  Hon.  Tapping  Reeve,  chief  justice  of 
the  Suprcnu'  Court  of  Connecticut,  and  a  son,  Aaron,  noticed 
below.  Dr.  Burr  was  a  scholarly  and  eloquent  man.  He 
published  a  Latin  grammar  (1752)  known  as  The  Xewark 
(iidiiimar;  a  pamphlet  on  The  Supreme  Divinity  of  our 
Liinl  Jesux  Christ,  reprinteJl  in  1791,  and  .several  discourses. 

Burr.  Aarox:  politician  and  Vice-President  of  the  U.S.; 
b.  in  Newark.  N.  J.,  Feb.  6.  1756;  son  of  the  preceding; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1772;  joined  the  provincial  army 
at  Cambridge.  Mass..  in  1775;  served  as  a  private  soldier, 
and  afterward  as  aid  to  Montgomery  on  the  (Quebec  expe- 
dition; served  on  the  staffs  of  .\rnold,  Washington  (whom 
he  disliked),  and  Putnam,  liecomiiig  a  lieutenant -colonel, 
and  commanding  a  brigade  at  .Monmouth.  He  resigned 
from  the  army  by  rea.son  of  ill-health  in  1779;  practiced 
law  at  Albany  in  1782.  and  in  New  York  city  in  1783;  be- 
came .\ttornev-(ieneral  of  New  York  in  1789  ;  was  a  Hepub- 
lican  U.  S.  Seiiator  1791-97.  In  IMOO  lie  and  Jefferson  each 
had  seventy-three  electoral  votes  for  the  ofHce  of  President 
of  the  U.  S.  The  choice  was  thus  left  to  Congre,s.s,  which, 
on  the  thirty-sixth  liallot.  chose  Jefferson  for  President  and 
Burr  for  Vice-President.  In  1804  he  mortally  wounded  in 
a  duel  his  rival  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  in  conse(iuence 
lost  greatly  in  political  and  social  influence,  and  soon  after 
embarked  in  a  wild  attempt  ujioii  Jlexico  and.  as  was  as- 
serted, upon  the  southwestern  territories  of  the.U.  S..  there- 
l)y  involving  in  ruin  his  friend  Blennerhassett.  He  was  in 
1S()7  tried  at  Richmond,  Va.,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but 
was  aiMjuitted.  To  escape  his  creditors  he  retired  to  Europe 
for  a  time,  but  returned  to  New  York  in  1812.  and  again 
|>r;icticed  law.  D.  on  .Staten  Island.  Si'pt.  14,  1836.  Burr 
was  a  man  of  much  ability  and  very  brilliant  and  pojiular 
talents,  but  his  influence  was  destroyed  liv  his  unscrupulous 
political  acts  and  his  grossly  immoral  conduct  in  private  life. 
.See  his  Life,  by  M.  L.  Davis  (1836-37);  bv  James  Parton 
(1857). 

Burr.  Exorn  Fitcii  ;  mathematical  ami  religious  author  ; 
b.  at  Green's  Farms.  Fairfield,  Conn..  Oct.  21.  1818;  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  18:!9 ;  spent  several  years  in  New  Haven  in 
scientific'  and  other  studies  ;  was  settled  over  the  Congrega- 
tional clnirch  in  Lyme,  Conn.,  in  1850.  Siiu'c  1868  he  has 
been  a  lecturer  on  the  Evidences  of  Religion  at  Amherst 
College.  He  has  published,  among  other  works,  A  Treatise 
on  the  Ajyplirrifiini  of  tlie  Calruliis  to  the  Theory  of  Xep- 
fiine  (New  Haven,  1848);  iTcfe  Co'liim  (1867);  PaterMiitidi 
(1870) ;  hortrine  of  Evolution  (1873) ;  A  Song  of  the  Sea  (an 
illustrated  poem,  1873) ;  The  Voyage  (1874) ;  JJio  the  Athenian 
(18>tl):  CeleHtia!  Empires  (ISSr,):  Universal  Beliefs  (1887); 
Long  Ago  (1888);  Practical  Relations  (1889);  Aleph,  the 
Chaldean  (1891). 

Burr.  GKORiiE  Lixcolx.  A.B.  :  professor  of  history:  b. 
at  Oranul.  N.  Y..  Jan.  30,  1857;  eilucated  at  Cortlanil  .Acad- 
emy, Cornell  Iniversity,  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Zurich, 
and  the  Sorbonne  and  the  ficole  des  Charles,  Paris;  instruc- 
tor in  History,  Cornell  University,  1881-84  ;  engaged  in  his- 
torical study  and  research,  mainly  abroad.  1884-88;  libra- 
rian of  the  President  White  Library,  Cornell  University, 
since  1878;  Profc.s.sor  of  Ancient  and  Media'val  History,  Cor- 
nell L'niversitv,  1892;  author  of  The  Literature  of  M'ifch- 
rraft  (New  Yiu-k,  1890) ;  The  Fate  of  Dietrich  Flade  (New- 
York,  1891);  Charlemagne,  (Heroes  of  History  Series);  and 
various  magazine  articles  and  reviews. 

Burr,  Jonathan  Kelsev,  D.  D.  :  minister  of  the  M.  E. 
Chunli;  b.  at  Middletown.  Conn..  Sept.  21,  1825;  educated 
at  Wesleyan  University  ;  filled  .some  ol  the  most  important 
pulpits  in  the  Newark  and  New  Jei^sey  conferences;  author 
of  Commentary  on  the  liook  of  Job;  and  articles  on  hicar- 
nntion  and  Krishna  in  JtcClintock  and  Strong's  Jiililiral 
Cyclopwdia  ;  member  of  the  American  Cominittei'  of  Re- 
visi<m  of  the  New  Testament.  D.  at  Trenton.  N.  J.,  Apr. 
24,  1882. 

Burr,  William  Hibert  :  civil  engineer;  b.  in  Water- 
town,  Conn.,  July  14,  1851  ;  graduated  in  1872  at  Ren.sstdaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  was  Professor  of  lia- 


848 


BURRAGE 


BURSLEM 


tional  and  Technical  Mechanics  at  Rensselaer  Poh-technic 
Institute  1876-«4 :  engineer  of  construction  and  general 
manager  of  tlie  Phoenix  Bridge  Coinpany  1884-91 :  vice- 
president  of  Sooysinith  &  Co.,  contracting  engineers,  1891- 
93.  In  Jan.,  1893,  he  was  apjjointed  Professor  of  Civil  En- 
gineering in  Columbia  College.  Xew  York  city.  He  is  the 
author  of  Stresses  in  Bridge  and  Ruof  Trusses.  Arched 
Ribsand  Suspension  Bridges(Sev(  York.  1879) ;  Tlie  T/ieory 
affile  JIasonri/  Arch  (1881):  and  'Die  Elasticity  and  Resist- 
ance of  tlie  Materials  of  Engineering  (1883). 

Biir'ragre,  Hexry  Sweetser,  D,  D.  (Brown  Univ.,  1883) : 
Baptist  minister  and  author;  b.  at  Fitchbui'g.  Jlass.,  Jan.  7, 
1837 :  graduated  at  Brown  University  1861.  at  Newton 
Theological  Institution  1867 :  studied  at  the  University  of 
Halle  1868-69 ;  pastor  of  a  church  in  ^Vaterville,  Me., 
1870-73 :  editor  of  Zion's  Adntciite,  Portland,  Me.,  since 
1873.  Besides  a  large  number  of  review  articles  and  his- 
torical papers.  Dr.  Burrage  published  the  following  works  : 
Tlie  Act  of  Baptism  in  the  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
(Philadelphia.  1879) :  History  of  the  Anabaptists  in  Switzer- 
land (Philadelphia.  1883) ;  Baptist  Hymn-ivriters  and  their 
Hymns  (Portland,  1888).  In  addition.  Dr.  Burrage  has 
edited  the  following:  Brown  I'nirersity  in  tlie  Ciril  War 
(Providence.  1868):  Rosier's  Relation  of  M'aynioiilh's  Voy- 
age to  the  Coast  of  Maine,  16Uo,  Oorges's  Society  (Port- 
land, 1887). 

Biirraiiipooter:  See  Brahmaputra. 

Bnrrard  Inlet:  narrow  inlet  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
British  Columtiia  :  9  nules  long;  forms  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors on  the  Pacific  coast.  On  its  north  shore  is  Yancouver, 
the  western  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  R.  R. 

Burriaiia.  Ijoor-ri-aanaa :  a  town  of  Spain :  province  of 
Castellon  de  la  Plana ;  on  the  Rio  Seco ;  near  tlie  Jlediter- 
ranean  (see  map  of  Spain,  rcf.  16-1).  It  exports  wine,  oil, 
and  fruit.     Pop.  10,000. 

Bnr'rlll,  Thomas  Jonathan,  Ph.  D. :  botanist ;  b.  at 
Pittsfield.  Mass..  Apr.  2.5.  1839;  Professor  of  Botany  in  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois:  pulilished  many  reports  and  papei-s.  prin- 
cipally on  fungi.  The  more  important  are :  The  Bacteria 
(1882)':  Parasitic  Fungi  of  Illinois  (18S5-S7). 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Bur'ritt,  Elihu  :  reformer  and  linguist :  called  The 
Learned  Blacksmith  ;  b.  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8, 
1811.  He  worked  for  many  years  at  the  trade  of  a  black- 
smith, anil  became  a  self-taught  master  of  many  ancient 
and  modern  languages.  As  a  pulilie  lecturer  he  advocated 
temperance  and  peace  in  the  U.  S.  and  in  England.  Among 
his  works  are  Sparks  from  the  Anril  (London,  1848)  ; 
Thoughts  on  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad  (Boston,  18o4)  : 
Walk  from.  John  o' Groat's  to  Land's  End  (London,  1H64)  ; 
Walks  in  the  Black  Country  (1868);  Chips  from  Mam/ 
Blocks  (1878).  I),  in  Xew  Britain,  Conn.,  JIar.  '7,  1879.  See 
his  Life,  by  t'harles  Xorthend  (Xew  York,  1879). 

Burr  Oak:  See  Bl-r  Oak. 

Biir'roilghs,  George  :  the  only  clerical  victim  of  the  Sa- 
lem witchcraft  delusion  ;  b.  about  16.'50  ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1670;  was  a  preacher  in  Falmouth  (now 
Portland),  .Me.,  in  1676,  and  in  Salem,  Mass.,  1680.  In  1683 
he  went  l)ack  to  Falmouth,  where  he  remained  until  the  Ind- 
ians sacked  the  town  in  1690;  returning  to  Salem,  he  was 
accused  in  1692  of  witchcraft,  placed  on  trial, and,  owing  to 
the  infatuation  then  prevaiUng.  was  declared  guiltv  of  exer- 
cising diabolical  powers,  and  executed  Aug.  19.  1692.  At 
the  scene  of  execution  he  declared  his  innocence,  his  appeal 
moving  the  spectators  to  teai-s;  and  though  he  repeated  the 
Loi'd's  Prayer,  which  no  witcli  was  supposed  to  be  able  to 
do  without  mistake,  he  was  doomed  to  suffer. 

Burroughs,  John  :  essayist ;  V).  in  Koxburv.  X'.  Y..  Apr.  3. 
1837.  Frimi  1863  to  1872  he  was  in  the  Treasury  Dejiart- 
ment  at  Wasliington,  and  then  a  national  bank  examiner. 
Since  1873  tie  lui*  resided  at  West  Park  on  tlie  Hudsi>n,  and 
has  published  many  volumes  of  out-door  jiapers,  such  as 
Winter  Sunshine  (1875) ;  Birds  and  Poets  (1877);  Locusts 
and  Wild  Honey  (1879):  Pepacton  (1881);  Fresh  Fields 
(1884) :  Signs  and  Seasons  (1886).  His  sympathy  with  ani- 
mal life  is  expressed  in  a  charming  style." 

Henry  A.  Beers. 

BlirrowillfT  Onl.  called  also  Cor|llilllb<»  Owl :  a  remark- 
able liinl  {Speotyto  cunicularia).  which,  "disdaining  all  the 
traditions  of  its  family,"  hunts  for  its  jirev  (consisting  chieflv 
of  beetles  and  other 'insects)  in  broad  daylight,  facing  the 


glare  of  the  noonday  sun  without  any  inconvenience.  It  is 
a  small,  lively  bird,  and  is  found  in  many  parts  of  America, 
being  especially  abundant  W.  of  the  Mississippi,  and  inhab- 


^35ri 


-V  i 


J''/''^::^, 


Burrowing  owls. 


iting  the  same  localities  as  the  marmot  (or  ])rairie  dog), 
whose  dwelling  it  often  shares,  the  rattlesnake  sometimes 
also  occupying  the  same  abandoned  burrows.  Although  the 
burrowing  owl  prefers  to  dwell  in  the  holes  already  exca- 
vated by  the  jirairie  dog.  it  will,  if  obliged  to  do  so,  dig  bur- 
rows for  itself  :  but  these  are  not  so  deep  or  .so  neatly  made. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Biir'rows,  \\'illiam  :  a  naval  officer ;  b.  near  Philadel- 
phia, Pa..  Oct.  6. 1785.  lie  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  ;  served  on  the  Barbary  coast ;  on  the  outbreak  of 
war  with  Great  Britain  (1812),  while  on  his  way  to  the  U.  S., 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  He  reached  home  in  June.  1813.  and 
immediately  resumed  his  duty.  He  commanded  the  brig 
Enterprise  in  an  engagement  with  the  British  brig  Boxer  off 
Portland.  ;\Ie..  Sept.  .5.  1813.  during  whieli  he  was  mortally 
Wounded.  He  lived,  however,  long  enough  to  receive  the 
surrender  of  the  British  vessel.  His  remains  were  interred 
in  Portland  by  the  side  of  Blvthe  (q.  v.),  the  commander 
of  the  Boxer,  who  was  also  killed  in  the  same  action. 

Biirrstoiie,  or  Biihrstone:  a  cellular  siliceous  rock  of 
fine  texture,  used  for  millstones.  The  siliceous  material 
does  not  consist  of  grains  cemented  together  as  in  sand- 
stones, but  appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  solution, 
either  chemically  or  through  the  agency  of  minute  organ- 
isms. The  cavities  giving  the  cellular  structure  are  molds 
of  small  shells,  shell  fragments,  or  seeds  which  were  dis- 
solved out  after  the  formation  of  the  rock.  Burrstone  has 
been  obtained  from  Eocene  formations  of  France,  Belgium, 
X'^orth  Carolina,  and  Alabama.  Its  value  for  the  grinding 
of  grain  depends  on  its  open  texture,  which  prevents  the 
surface  from  becoming  smooth  by  wear.  The  best  grades 
are  usually  found  only  in  small  pieces,  and  a  number  of 
these  are  combined  to  make  a  millstone.  They  are  fitted 
together,  set  in  a  matrix  of  plaster  of  Paris  or  other  cement, 
and  the  whole  boinid  with  an  iron  hoop.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  roller  process  in  flouring-mills  the  use  of  burr- 
stone  has  diminished.  The  American  quarries  are  not  now 
worked,  and  the  value  of  imported  stones  fell  from  a  maxi- 
mum of  |;125.000  in  1880  to  about  $18,000  in  1894.  Certain 
standstones  quarried  in  Xew  York,  Pennsylvania,  Yirginia, 
etc.,  are  commercially  known  as  burrstones,  and  these  are 
still  used  for  the  grinding  of  the  coarser  grains. 

Bnrsinii.  booi'si-an.  Conrad:  archaeologist  and  classical 
philologist:  b.  in  Mtitzschen.  Saxony,  Xov.  14,  1830;  took  his 
degree  in  Leipzig  in  1852.  After  traveling  in  Greece  and 
Italy  for  a  number  of  years,  he  occupied  profi'ssorsliips  in 
Leipzig,  Tiibingen,  Zurich,  Jena,  ami  finally  in  Jlunich, 
where  "he  died  Sept.  21.  1883.  Among  the  imlst  valuable  of 
his  numerous  publieations  may  be  mentioned  Seneca  Rhetor 
(Leipzig.  1S57):  (leogni/iliy  of  (Irei-ce  (2  vols..  1867-72); 
History  of  Classical  Pliilology  in  (iermany  (W^'A).  He  is 
also  the  author  of  excellent  reports  on  the  history  of  phi- 
lology in  the  ■/ahre.ilierichte  I'ilter  die  Fortschritte  der  clas- 
sischen  Alterthnmswissenschaft,  of  which  he  was  the  founder 
and  editor.  For  an  account  of  his  life  and  a  complete  li.st 
of  his  writings,  see  Biogni/ili.  Jiihrhuch.  vi.  (1883).  ]>.  1-11. 

Alfred  Gidemax. 

Bnrs'leill  :  a  market-town  of  Staffordshire.  England ;  2^ 
miles  N.  W.  of  Xewcastle-uniler-Lyne ;  on  an  eminence  near 


BrUT 


BUSBECQ 


849 


the  Trent  Caiml  (see  map  of  KiijErlaml,  ref.  8-G).  The  occu- 
iiatkm  of  the  iiilialiitaiits  is  earthenware  inaniifaeture,  and 
it  is  tile  prineipal  place  in  the  district  called  the  Potteries. 
I'op.  (lf<91)  ;i().f<t)2. 

Burt.  Armistkad:  h.  in  Kd^efieltl  eo..  S.  ('. ;  received  a 
lilieral  educalicin;  admitted  to  the  liar  in  1823;  settled  at 
Ablx'ville.  where  he  practiced  law  until  his  death.  He  was 
member  of  Congress  1H43-53 :  durinj;  part  of  the  Thirtieth 
Congress  acted  a.s  Speaker  to  the  House  of  Kepreseiitatives. 
He  was  an  ardent  secessionist,  and  a  member  of  the  State 
Legislature  in  18(i5  which  enacted  "the  HIack  Code."'  In 
IHTO  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  which  made 
IlaniptcMi  Gcivernor.  .Mr.  Hint  was  one  of  the  ablest  advo- 
cates in  the  Stale.     D.  Oct.  30,  1883. 

Burt.  William  A. :  b.  in  Woreester,  Mass..  June  13, 1793 : 
became  a  surveyor  of  Krie  co.,  N.  Y. :  in  1834  removed  to 
Michigan  ;  surveyed  Xorthern  Michigan  (1840-47),  intro- 
ducing important  improvements  in  surveying.  At  the 
World's  Fair  in  London,  1851,  he  obtained  a  niedal  for  his 
solar  compass.  lie  was  for  a  time  .judge  in  one  of  the 
Michigan  State  courts,  and  one  of  the  originatoi's  of  the 
canal  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.     D.  Aug.  18.  1858. 

Bur'ton,  Asa,  D.  P. :  b.  in  Stoningtoii,  Conn.,  Aug.  25, 
1752;  graduated  at  Dartiiioulh  College  in  1777;  .Ian.  1!), 
177!),  was  settled  over  the  Congregational  eliiiich  in  Thet- 
ford.  Vt.,  177!l.  where  he  dieif  May  1,  1836.  lie  was  the 
champion  of  the  so-called  "Taste  scheme,"  in  opposition  to 
the  "Exercise  scheme"  of  Dr.  Emmons,  and  conducted  the 
controversy  with  great  ability.  Besides  occa.sional  sermons, 
he  imblished  at  Portland,  Me.,  in  1834,  a  volume  of  A'.tgays 
on  Sunn-  of  the  Firxt  I'liiiciplfs  of  Jltta/ihi/.iics,  Ethics,  and 
Theoloijy.     See  his  memoir  by  Thomas  .\danis. 

Burton,  Sir  Fredkiuck  William.  LIj.  I).,  K.  11.  A.,  F.  S. 
A.:  artist;  b.  in  Ireland.  181(i;  educated  in  Dublin;  from 
1851  till  1858  was  in  Municli  and  Xuremberg.  lie  has  ex- 
hibited often  in  London  at  tlie  Hoyal  .Vcademy  and  at  the 
Dudley  (iallery.  Siiiei'  1874  he  has  been  director  of  the 
National  ttallery. 

Burton,  Joh.n  Hill.  LL.  D.,  P.  R.  S.  E. :  historian  and 
advocate;  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  Aug.  32,  180!);  pub- 
lisheil,  besides  antiipiarian  books  on  Scotch  law  and  history. 
The  Life  and  Correspondrnre  of  Darid  Hume  (3  vols,. 
1846) ;  Poliliad  and  Social  h'conomi/  (1840) ;  and  The  His- 
tory of  Scotland  from  Agricoln'a  Invasion  to  the  lieroliilion 
of  lu'sS  (1867),  which  is  highly  esteemed;  a  Ilistonj  of 
Queen  Anne's  lieit/ii  (1881) ;  and  The  Book  Hunter  (2d  ed. 
1883).     D.  near  Edinburgh,  Aug.  10,  1881. 

Burton.  Xathaxiel  .Irnsox,  D.  I). ;  CongregationalisI ; 
b.  at  Trumbull,  Conn..  Dec.  17,  1834;  graduated  at  Wes- 
leyaii  Ciiiversitv,  Midilletown,  Conn.,  1850.  and  at  the  Yale 
Divinity  School,  Xew  Haven,  Conn.,  1853;  pastor  at  Fair 
Haven,  Conn..  185;{-57;  al  the  Fourth  Congregational 
church.  Hartford,  Conn.,  1S57- 70;  the  Park  church.  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  from  1«7()  until  his  death  there  Oct.  13.  1887. 
Since  his  death  a  volume  of  his  Yale  lectures  on  preaching 
has  been  published.  CrEoiuiE  P.  Fisher. 

Burton.  Cajit.  Sir  Richard  Fra.vcis  ;  traveler  ami  Ori- 
entalist ;  b.  in  Hertfordshire.  England,  of  Scottish  parent- 
age. Mar.  1!).  1831.  Having  served  many  years  in  tlie-Kast 
Indian  army,  he  published  in  1851  Sindh,  and  the  Races 
tliat  Inhabit  the  Valtry  of  tlie  Indus.  Difjguised  as  a  Mus- 
sulman he  performed  a  perilous  exploration  of  Arabia  in 
18,53,  and  imblished  a  Personal  Xarrative  of  a  I'ilyrimaye 
to  El  Jledinah  and  Meccali  (3  vols.,  1856).  Hi>  serveil  in 
Hritish  consulates  from  1861  until  his  death,  chiefly  in  the 
ciuintries  of  which  he  wrote.  He  also  undertook  extensive 
explorations  in  Central  Africa,  along  the  Congo,  in  the  high- 
lands of  Brazil,  etc..  and  imblished  The  Lake  Regions  of 
Central  Africa  (1860);  The  Ifiyhlands  of  firazil'  {i  vols., 
186!));  X((/i3iV;f/r  (3  vols.,  1873) :  Two  Trips  to  (iorilla  Land 
and  the  Cataracts  of  tlie  Conqo  (1875);  Tl>e  Hold  Mines 
of  J/idian  OHIH):  The  Gold  (''oast  (1883).  Capt.  Uurton"s 
work.s,  which  number  nearly  fifty  volumes,  include,  besides 
travels  and  grammars  of  several  East  Indian  dialects,  ver- 
sions of  the  poems  of  Camoens,  and  an  important  transla- 
tion of  the  A  rabian  Xiyhts  ('im^y-i^'^.  16  vols).  I),  in  Trieste, 
Oct.  30.  1800.  See  his  Earli/  Prirate  and  Public  Life,  bv 
F.  Hilchman  (3  vols.,  London,  1887). 

Burton,  Rohert  :  clergyman  ;  b.  at  Lindley,  in  Leices- 
tershire. England.  Feb.  S.  i576;  edmalcd  at  Urazeiiose  Col- 
lege, Oxfonl.  He  became  vicar  of  St.  Thomas's,  in  Oxford, 
1616;  after  1630  rector  of  Segrave,  keeping  both  benefices 
54 


until  his  death.  He  was  author  of  a  ciuaint  and  popular 
work  entitled  Tlie  Anatomy  of  Melancholy  ;  what  it  is, with 
all  the  Kinds,  Causes,  Symploms.  Proynostics,  and  seceral 
Cures  of  it:  Philosopliically.  Medicinally,  Historically 
Opened  and  Cut  up,  by  Democritus  Junior  (1631).  It  is  an 
amusing  medley  of  quotations  and  reflections  made  by  a 
man  of  rare  genius  and  learning.  I),  in  Oxford,  .Ian.  3,5, 
1640.  There  are  many  editions  of  the  Anatomy  of  Melan- 
choly,  the  sixth,  which  contains  changes  by  the" author,  was 
published  shortly  after  his  death.  There  is  a  more  modern 
edition,  in  3  vols.,  in  which  the  quotations  are  translated. 

Burton.  William  Evans;  comedian  and  writer;  b.  in 
London.  Scpl.  24,  1804.  He  acted  with  distinguished  suc- 
cess both  in  (iivat  Britain  aiul  in  the  U.S.  While  in  the 
former  country  he  wrote  a  drama.  Ellen  Wareliam.  which 
for  a  time  enjoved  a  ";reat  popularity.  He  compiled  the 
CyclupwJia  of  \Vit  and  Humor.  He  was  also  very  success- 
ful as  a  manager.  He  built  the  National  theater  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  ill  X'ew  York  iiurchased  Palnio's  o|)era-liouse, 
ami  afterward  the  Melropolilaii  theater  on  Broadway.  D. 
in  New  York,  Feb.  10,  1860. 

Burton-on-Trent ;  a  town  of  England  ;  in  .Stafford- 
shire ;  on  the  river  Trent;  11  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of 
Derby  (see  map  of  Eiiglaml.  ref.  9-11).  The  Trent  is  here 
crossed  by  a  stone  briilge  of  39  arches,  which  in  l!S64  re- 
placed one  of  36  arches,  and  1,545  feet  long,  built  before  the 
Xorinan  conquest.  ISurton  has  large  breweries  of  celebrated 
ale;  also  iron-works  and  manufaf'tures  of  cotton  goods.  It 
is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal.     Pop.  (1891)  40,047. 

Burn.  Bouro.  or  Boom:  an  island  of  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago; about  00  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Aniboyiia;  between 
tat.  3  and  4  S..  and  between  Ion.  120  and  127'  E.  Area, 
estimaled  at  3.384  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mountainous, 
but  llie  soil  is  fertile,  ll  contiiins  Ml.  Dome,  which  is  said 
to  be  10,400  feet  high.  Cajeli  Bay,  on  the  north  side,  af- 
forils  good  anchorage.  Pop.  about  20.000.  mostly  Malays 
and  .Mfuros. 

Burugird'.  or  Booroogird  :  a  town  of  Persia;  province 
of  Irak-Ajeinee  ;  in  a  fertile  valley  ;  about  184  miles  X.  W.  of 
Ispahan  and  74  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Ilamadaii.  It  has  a  cas- 
tle and  several  mos(|iies.  It  has  an  extensive  trade  in  cot- 
Ion  goods,  of  which  it  is  .said  to  export  over  .$300,000  worth 
annually.     Pop.  about  30.000. 

Bury,  ber  ri :  a  manutacturing  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land ;  on  the  river  Irwell;  10  miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Man- 
chester (see  map  of  England,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  on  a  railway 
which  connects  it  with  Bolton  and  Liverpool.  It  contains 
more  than  twenty  churches  and  Dissenting  chapels,  several 
public  libraries  and  literary  institutions.  Here  are  impor- 
tant inanul'actures  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  inacliinery, 
and  paper,  also  calico-printing  works  and  dye-works.  Jliiies 
of  coal  and  quarries  of  goocl  freestone  have  been  ojiened  in 
the  vicinity.  Hiiry  returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  The 
eminent  sttflesman  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  born  near  here.  Pop, 
(1891)  57.306. 

Burying-lwotles  :  cerlain  beetles  of  the  order  Coleoptera 
and  family  Sytphidw.  famous  for  their  habits  of  interring 
the  bodies  of  dead  animals.  When  the  carcass  of  a  mouse 
or  other  small  animal  is  found,  several  of  tlicin  collect 
around  it.  and  by  digging  the  earth  from  bencjilh  gradually 
sink  it  several  inches  below  the  surface.  In  it  tlie  female 
deposits  her  eggs,  and  when  the  larva?  arc  hatched  they 
find  themselves  in  the  midst  of  suitable  food. 

Bury  St.  F.dniuntls.  or  St.  Edninn<lslinr_v;  an  ancient 
borough  of  England  ;  counly  of  Suffolk;  finely  situated  on 
the  river  Larke ;  26  miles  by  rail  X.  W.  of  Ipswich  and  95 
miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref. 
10-K).  It  is  well  built  and  remarkably  clean.  It  has  a 
botanic  garden,  a  guildhall. a  fine  Gothic  church  (St.  Mary's), 
a  I'elebraled  grammar  school  founded  in  15.50,  and  some  re- 
mains of  a  large  Benedictine  abbey  (.505  feet  by  313).  which 
was  founded  bv  Canute,  and  became  the  richest  (except  one) 
in  England,  f  lere  is  an  old  belfry  or  quadrangular  tower 
about  85  feel  high,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  remains  of 
Saxon  architecture  extant  in  Hritain.  Parliaments  were  held 
herein  1373, 13!)6.  and  1440.  Bury  has  a  large  trade  in  wool, 
butler,  grain,  and  cheese.  It  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment.   Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  was  born  here.    Po]i.  (1891)  16,630. 

Bus'becq,  or  Bousbpot),  Acoier  Ghislex,  de  (Lat.  Bus- 
bequius):  I'lemisli  scholar  and  traveler:  1).  at  Commines  in 
1533.  He  was  employed  on  several  important  diplomatic 
missions,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  from  the  Emperor 


850 


BUSBY 


BUSKEN'-IIUKT 


Fenliiiand  to  Solyiiian  II.  f)f  Turkey.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
account  of  this  enil)a.ssv.  entitled  Legationia  Tiircicti'  Epis- 
lohe  Qucituor  (1.58t().  D.  near  Rouen,  Oct.  38.  1592.  See 
Forster  and  Daniel,  7y('/e  and  Letters  of  Oi/ier  Ghiselin  de 
Busbecq  (London.  18S0)'. 

Busby,  liuz'bi.  Dr.  UiniARi) :  a  famous  schoolmaster;  b. 
at  Luttou,  Northauiiitoushirc,  England,  Sept.  32,  1606.  He 
was  head  master  of  Westminster  School  for  aliout  fifty-six 
years  (1640-95) ;  was  a  very  successful  teacher  and  a  strict 
disciplinarian.  He  is  said  to  have  educated  a  larger  num- 
ber of  eminent  men  than  anv  other  teacher  who  ever  lived. 
D.  Apr.  6,  1605. 

Biiseli'iiia'.  Axtojj  Friedrrh  :  geographer :  b.  in 
Sehauniburg-Lippe.  Germany.  Sept.  27,  1734.  He  became 
in  1761  miiiisler  of  a  Protestant  congregation  in  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  in  1766  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  employed 
as  director  of  a  gymnasium  :  published  a  Description  of  the 
Earth  (1754),  which  was  the  most  complete  work  on  geog- 
raphy that  liad  then  ajipeared  :  also  a  Magazine  of  History 
and  Geoyrajjliy  (35  vols..  1767-93).  D.  in  Berlin,  May  23, 
1793. 

Bnsen'to  (in  Gr.  nu|oDs :  Lat.  Buxentum) :  a  river  of  Italy  ; 
in  the  province  of  Salerno:  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Busen- 
to  at  the  city  of  Policastro.  Upon  the  death  of  Alaric,  the 
Visigoth  king,  his  followers  turned  the  course  of  the  river, 
and  after  having  buried  him  again  led  the  river  into  its  old 
course,  thus  covering  all  trace  of  Alaric 's  grave  from  the 
eyes  of  his  enemies. 

Bush,  George  :  biblical  scholar ;  b.  in  Norwich.  Vt., 
June  13,  1796;  gra<Uiated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1818; 
studied  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  1820-23,  in  the 
same  class  with  Alliert  Barnes  :  from  1824  to  1839  was  pas- 
tor of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Indianapolis.  Ind.  He  be- 
came in  1831  Professor  of  Ileljrew  and  Oriental  Literature 
in  the  University  of  New  York ;  was  converted  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Swedenborg  in  1847:  left  his  professorship  and 
was  pastor  of  a  New  Church  Society  in  New  York  1848-52  ; 
stated  supply  of  one  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1854-59.  Among 
his  works  are  a  Life  of  3Ioh<t/nnieil  (New  York,  1833);  a 
Hebrew  (rrammar  {18'i^) :  and  Bible  Commentaries  (8  vols., 
1840,  et  seqX  D.  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  19,  1859.  See 
his  memoir  by  W.  Jl.  Fernald  (Boston,  1860). 

Bush-buck  :  See  Bosch-bok. 

Bushel  (in  Fr.  boisseau):  an  English  measure  of  capac- 
ity, containing  8  gal.  or  4  pecks.  Each  gallon  holds  10  lb. 
avoirdupois  of  distilled  water,  and  measures  377'374  cubic 
inches:  consequently  the  imperial  bushel  contains  80  lb.  of 
distilled  water,  and  is  equal  to  3,218'192  cubic  inches.  The 
old  Winchester  bushel  contains  2,150-42  cubic  inches.  The 
State  of  Nc'w  York,  by  statute  of  1839,  adopted  the  imperial 
bushel,  but  in  the  revised  statutes  of  1851  this  was  abolished 
and  the  Winchester  bushel  substituted.  By  law  in  some  parts 
of  the  LT.  S..  and  in  commercial  usage,  a  bushel  of  grain  and 
of  other  stajile  commodities  is  reckoned  in  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois ;  a  bushel  of  wheat  has  53  lb.  weight.     See  Gallon. 

Bushiro.  or  Aboo-shehr:  a  seaport  of  Persia;  on  the 
Persian  tiulf;  aboul  120  mill's  W.  S.  W.  of  Sheeraz  ;  lat. 
39'  N.,  Ion.  50"  50'  E.  It  is  at  the  northern  extremity  of  a 
sandy  peninsula,  and  is  the  principal  commercial  emporium 
on  the  coast  of  Persia,  The  anchorage,  which  is  the  best 
on  the  coast,  consists  of  an  outer  harbor,  exposed  to  the 
N.  W.  winds,  and  a  safe  inner  harbor.  It  has  a  large  traile 
with  British  India,  from  which  it  imports  rice,  indigo,  sugar, 
and  English  cotton  goods.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
raw  sillc,  shawls,  horses,  car|iets.  silk  goods,  grain,  Sheeraz 
wine,  [icarls,  dried  fruits,  etc.     Pop.  37,000. 

BiishmcH.  or  Bosjpsmans,  bosh  ez-manz:  a  name  given 
to  sonu;  roaming  tribes  of  savages  who  live  in  Sonlhern 
Africa,  along  the  Orange  river.  They  are  similar  to  the 
Hottentots;  are  very  diminutive!  in  stature,  and  of  a  dark- 
brown  comyilexion.  They  build  no  houses  and  have  no 
tents.  They  are  malicious  and  intractable,  .-uid  live  by  hunt- 
ing and  robbery. 

Bush'ncll :  a  city;  ^IcDonough  co..  III.  (for  location  of 
county,  sie  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  5-('.);  on  Chic,  Bur.  and 
Quincy  and  Tol..  l*<'oria  and  West.  K.  Rs. ;  70  miles  N.  of 
Quiiu-y  and  193  miles  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  Tlu-re  are  here 
good  public  schoiils,  a  normal  college,  manufactories  of 
pumps,  small  hardware,  and  fine  brick.  The  city  has  water- 
works and  electric  lights.  The  city  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  liigh,  rich,  praii'ie  agricultural  district,  and  has  anqile 


supplies  of  timber  and  coal.    Pop.  (1880)  2,316;  (1890)2,314; 
(1893)  estinuited,  3,387.  Puulisher  of  "  Record." 

BushneU.  Horace,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Congregational  minis- 
ter ;  b.  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Apr.  14,  1803;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1827;  was  tutor  from  1839-31.  Having 
previously  studied  law,  he  turned  to  theology,  and  was 
settled  over  the  North  church  in  Hartford,  Conn.",  from  1833- 
59,  when  the  failure  of  his  health  compelled  him  to  resign 
his  pastorate,  though  he  was  still  able  to  do  literary  work 
and  to  preach  occasionally.  He  was  distinguished  tor  the 
originality  and  boldness  of  his  thinking,  and  for  the  brill- 
iancy and  vigor  of  liis  style.  Among  his  published  works 
are  a  Phi  Beta  Kappa  oration  in  1837  on  7'he  Principles  of 
yational  (ireatness;  Christian  Siirtiire  (Hartford.  Conn., 
1847;  n.  c.  New  York,  1860);  God  in  Christ  (Hartford, 
Conn.,  1849) ;  Nature  and  the  Supernatural  (New  York, 
1858);  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice  (1865;  revised  in  1873): 
Forgireness  and  Law  (1874).'  He  was  also  the  author  of 
numerous  discourses  and  essays  on  theological  and  literary 
themes,  all  of  whicli  have  the  stamp  of  genius.  His  .select 
works  were  pul>lished  in  New  York  in  eight  volumes  (1876- 
77),  and  in  1881  three  additional  volumes  of  Miscellanies- 
from  his  )ien  were  issued.  He  exerted  a  stimulating  and 
widely  extended  influence  in  the  field  of  religious  thought. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  attractive  preachers  of  his  day. 
With  a  vivid  imagination  and  talents  for  speculation,  lie 
combined  singular  practical  good-sense  in  every-day  af- 
fairs. See  his  memoir  bv  his  daughter  (New  York,  1880). 
D.  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876. 

Revised  by  George  P.  Fisher. 

Bushwhackers  (in  the  language  of  the  U.  S.  civil  wai'> 
were  those  men  who  rarely  or  never  wore  a  uniform,  and 
claimed  to  be  peaceful  farmers  or  herdsmen  when  in  pres- 
ence of  a  superior  hostile  force,  but  had  firearms  con- 
cealed at  a  convenient  distance,  and  did  not  scruple  to 
use  them  on  any  ojiportunity  to  pick  off  from  an  amliush 
a  soldier  while  he  was  moving  in  fancied  security.  Bush- 
whackers were  es|iecially  murderous  in  jMissouri,  and  were 
often  treated,  when  they  were  captured,  with  unrelenting 
severity. 

Business  Colleges :  schools  in  which  young  men  and 
women  are  trained  for  business  cai'eers.  Commercial  teach- 
ing was  first  attempted  in  the  U.  S.  in  private  schools  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose.  These  have  grown  from  scattered 
schools  of  little  re|>ute,  for  instruction  in  bookkeeping,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic,  to  well-organized  institutions,  with 
courses  adapted  to  training  their  pupils  for  every  depart- 
ment of  business  activity.  The  time  of  study  necessary  for 
graduation  in  the  business  colleges  of  the  U.  S.  is  from  four 
to  twenty-five  months  in  day  courses  and  from  four  to  thir- 
ty-six months  in  evening  courses.  The  demand  for  stenog- 
raphers and  typewriters  has  much  increased  the  attendance 
on  the  business  colleges.  Most  of  the  colleges  give  the  stu- 
dent practical  knowledge  of  how  business  is  transacted  in 
the  large  cities  in  banking,  insurance,  real  estate,  and  com- 
mercial houses,  by  means  of  the  college  bank,  college  job- 
bing-house, etc.  The  student  is  required  to  act  as  cashier, 
paying  teller,  receiving  teller,  shipping  clerk,  salesman,  and 
bookkeeper.  He  buys,  sells,  makes  deposits,  draws  checks, 
and  sustains  in  general  the  same  relation  to  the  college  bank 
and  jobbing-house  that  the  merchant  has  in  the  outside 
world.  Commercial  law,  commercial  calculations,  and  fre- 
quently the  tariff  laws  of  different  nations,  also  form  a  part 
of  the  course.  According  to  the  annual  report  of  the  U.  S. 
commissioner  of  education  for  the  school  year  1890-91.  there 
were  250  business  colleges,  which  had  1,586  instructors,  81,- 
898  students  (of  whom  68.093  attended  day  schools  and  13,- 
805  attended  evening  schools),  and  9,159  graduates  of  the 
year.  The  importance  of  commercial  training  has  become 
so  generally  recognized  that  business  courses  are  now  pro- 
vided in  the  regular  systems  of  public  education  in  many 
countries.  The  addition  of  such  a  course  to  the  curricula 
of  the  higher  public  primary  schools  has  been  indorsed  at 
several  international  educational  congresses,  notablv  at  Paris 
in  1889.  In  1890-91  there  were  36.564  .students  in  the  com- 
mercial departments  of  city,  normal,  and  secondary  schools 
and  colleges  in  the  U.  S.     '  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Busi'ris  (in  Gr.  Bouo-ipw) :  in  Greek  mythology,  a  fabu- 
lous personage ;  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of  Neptune, 
and  a  King  of  Egypt,  who  sacrificed  all  the  foreigners  en- 
tering his  dominions,  and  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Busken-Huet,  Conrad  ;  See  Huet,  Conrad  Busken. 


BUSKIX 


BUTE 


851 


Itiiskin:  a  cnveriiiK  for  tlio  leg  or  for  the  ankle  and 
foot  ;  II  shoe  reaehinj;  up  to  the  muldle  of  the  culf  anil 
tifjhtly  lateil.  The  woril  buskin  is  used  by  Knglish  writers 
as  a  translation  of  Latin  ro//(«/viH.v,  which  was  a  hiRh  shoe 
woin  by  aneient  tra-fic  aetors,  and  had  thick  cork  soles. 
The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  the  trajjie  drama  or  tra-jic 
style,  having  been  used  in  contradistinction  to  suiriis,  a 
sock  or  flat-solcd  shoe  worn  by  comedians. 

Riissan:;  (also  Itoossil) :  a  town  of  Central  Africa  ;  in  the 
Sudan;  on  an  island  in  the  Xiiccr;  Int.  10'  14' X..  Ion.  6' 
11  K.  It  is  inclosed  by  a  wall,  and  is  within  the  limits  of 
the  Hritish  Niger  protectorate.  Pop.  estimated  at  12,000. 
Mungo  I'ark  ilied  here. 

Hus'sey,  Benjamin  :  b.  in  Canton.  Mass..  Mar.  1,  1737; 
served  in  the  Kevoliitiomiry  army  at  Hurgoyne's  capture. 
He  was  a  silvei-smilh  of  l)e<lliam,  .Mass..  and  afterward  a 
very  successful  merchant  of  Boston.  I),  in  Uoxlnirv.  Mass., 
Jan'.  13.  184-,>,  leaving  .•i;:ir>().0(K)  to  Harvard  University,  half 
to  found  the  Hussey  School  of  .\griculture.  and  half  to  sus- 
tain the  Law  and  Divinity  Schools. 

Itiissoii.  biis'.swiV.  Charles;  landscape-painter;  b.  at 
Montoirc.  Loir-et-Cher.  France,  .July  l.i.  1822;  pujiil  of  Ke- 
mond  and  of  Frangais;  first-class  medal.  Paris  Ex|)osition, 
1878;  officer  of  the  Legion  of  llimor  1887.  His  work  be- 
longs to  the  style  of  the  scliool  founded  on  Poussin,  and  has 
little  in  common  with  modern  landscape-painting  as  inter- 
preted bv  the  masters  of  the  "  Fonlainclilean  group"  and 
their  followers.  It  is  not  without  dignity,  and  is  sincere 
and  more  notable  for  composition  than  for  actual  truth  to 
nature.  William  A.  Cofki.v. 

Itlis'sil  Palm  :  the  Miinicnria  mrcifera.  of  the  family 
PalmactfW ;  a  tree  15  to  20  feet  high,  with  large,  rigid,  sub- 
erect  leaves,  which  are  at  first  entire.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
lower  Amazon  regioiL  The  large  leaves  ai'e  used  by  the  na- 
tives of  the  region  in  building  their  huts,  while  the  spathes 
are  easily  transformed  into  receptacles  for  containing  food 
or  other  articles.  The  fruits  have  no  economic  value.  This 
palm  is  related  to  the  loildy-palm  {('ari/iitd),  piassalie-palm 
(Attalea,  q.  !'.),  and  Cocoaxlt  (7.  c),  with  which  it  is  asso- 
ciated in  the  sub-family  Cernxi/linie.  It  has  long  been  grown 
in  conservatories.     See  Pal.m  Fa.mily.  U.  F.  B. 

Bust  (in  hu\.  biixfo  :  Vr.  bu.i/t') :  a  sculpture<l  representa- 
tion of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  human  Ijody.  Those 
made  by  the  (Jreek  ,scul|>tors  are  generally  worked  in  the 
upper  part  of  an  uiirighl  block  of  stone  or  marble,  usually 
ot  the  height  of  a  person  of  |)roportioiuite  stature.  The 
busts  of  later  limes  are  sometinu's  the  complete  representa- 
tion of  the  head  and  body  down  to  the  line  where  it  is  cut 
off  evenly;  but  more  often  they  consist  of  the  head  and 
shoulders  onlv,  raised  upon  a  somewhat  ornamental  base  or 
foot.  Portrait  busts  were  extremely  common  under  the 
Koman  empire,  and  again  in  the  tiftecnth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Russkll  Stukois. 

Blistamoiitp,  boos-ta-men  tc,  Axastasio:  Mexican  revo- 
lutionist and  statesman ;  b.  at  Tiiiuilpan,  province,  now 
state,  of  Michoacan,  .Inly  27.  1780.  lie  entered  tlu^  Spanish 
army  as  a  sulialtern  officer  in  18()8,and  in  the  fii-st  struggles 
fought  against  the  revolutionists;  but  in  1821  he  ioined 
Iturbide,  co[iiinanded  a  division  in  the  march  on  jfexico, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  provisional  junta  before  Iturbide 
was  declared  emperor.  With  the  fall  of  that  chief  (1822)  he 
was  sent  for  a  time  into  retirement;  but  in  1829  he  was 
elected  vice-president  in  the  (Juerrero  administration,  and 
commanded  the  army.  After  a  few  months  he  revolted 
against  GucrnTo.  heading  the  Centralist  jjarly.  which  aimed 
to  overturn  the  federal  form  of  governnn'Ut.  The  success 
of  this  movement  made  Bustameiite  acting  president  of 
Mexico  in  18;i().  In  18:!2  .Santa  .Vnna  headed  a  revolt 
against  him;  in  the  war  which  followed  Buslamente  person- 
ally led  his  troops  in  several  actions,  but  was  finally  beaten 
and  forced  to  resign  :  he  was  imprisoned,  and  in  18;!:i  ban- 
ished. The  capture  of  Santa  .\nna  in  the  Texas  war  (18:36) 
brought  the  Centralists  again  into  power;  they  called  Uus- 
tainente  back,  and  in  18;i7  he  was  I'lccted  president  of  Mex- 
ico. During  his  administration  there  was  a  brief  war  with 
France  (1888).  and  disorders  which  liroke  out  in  1840  finally 
foned  Bustamentc  to  give  up  the  presidency  to  Santa  .\nna 
(1843).  He  traveled  for  souu>  tinu",  but  returned  to  take 
part  in  the  war  with  the  U.  S..  and  served  with  the  arinv 
until  184.S.     D.  at  San  .Miguel  Allcndc.  Feb.  ti.  18."):$. 

Herhkht  II.  Smith. 


Riistilinoiite.  Carlos  Maria,  de:  Mexican  |)f)litician  an<l 
historian;  li.  in  Mexico  city  in  1774.  He  studied  law,  be- 
came an  advocate  in  1801,  and  was  editor  of  the  Diario  de 
Mejico  from  180.5.  Taking  part  in  the  earlier  revolutionary 
movements,  he  commanded  a  regiment  under  Morelos(1812), 
was  captured  and  imprisoned  al  \'era  Cruz;  released  by 
Santa  Anna,  he  marched  with  him  to  the  capital  (1821). 
From  this  time  he  took  a  ]irominent  part  in  [lolilical  life. 
Ix'ing  memlicr  ot  congress,  holding  various  offices,  and  writ- 
ing so  boldly  that  he  was  .several  times  imprisoned.  In  the 
intervals  he  puljlished  various  historical  woi'ks  on  the  war 
of  independciK-e  and  the  subsetineiil  period.  As  he  was  an 
eyewitness,  anil  a  fluent  and  careful  writer,  his  works  are 
of  great  value.  Among  them  are  CiKiiIra  liinforiro  de  lit 
Heriilufiuii  di'  In  Ailu'rirci  Mejlciitid  (182:i-;J2,  6  vols.);  Ilin- 
loiiii  del  eiiij/eiadur  Ayusliii  de  Iturbide ;  and  Ilistoria 
del  gobierno  del  jeiieral  Santa  Anna.  I),  at  Mexico,  Sept. 
21,  1848.  IIkkukkt  II.  S.mith. 

Bustard  ;  a  bird  of  the  genus  Olln  and  order  Cursores. 
Tlie  liustards  have  three  toes,  which  arc  all  directed  forward, 
long  naked  legs,  and  bills  of  nu)ih'rate  length.  They  are 
m<istly  inhabitants  of  open  plains,  to  which  all  their  habits 
are  adapted.  Although  they  are  capable  of  flying,  they 
often  endeavor  to  escape  from  danger  l)y  running.  The 
great  bustard  (Otisi  Itirihi)  is  the  largest  of  Kurojie.-m  lanii 
Idrd.s,  and  sometimes  weighs  JiO  lb.  It  is  found  in  the  east- 
ern and  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  abounds  in  the  open 
plains  or  .steppes  of  Tartary.  The  pliuuage  is  of  a  pale 
chestnut  color  on  the  u]iper  parts,  finely  variegated  with 
black.  The  wings  are  diversified  with  black  and  white,  and 
the  l.'ul  is  tipped  with  white.  The  male  has  on  each  side  of 
the  cliin  or  neck  a  tuft  of  feathers  nearly  !l  inclies  long,  un- 
dei-  whieli  is  a  spot  of  iiiikeil  skin,  and  in  the  throat  a  sac  or 
pouch  eapalile  of  holiling  'i  or  4  pints  of  water.  Their  flesh 
IS  highly  esteemed  as  food.  The  little  Ijustard  (Otix  tetrax)  is 
common  in  Southern  Europe  and  Xorlliern  Africa,  and  is 
not  half  so  large  as  the  Oti«  tardii.  Soufh  .\friea  produces 
a  species  called  Oti«  kori.  or  Kori  bustard,  which  is  5  feet 
high  or  more,  and  is  a  noble-looking  bird.  Its  flesh  is  good. 
i\lacc|ueen's  bustard  is  a  fine  Asiatic  bird.  Several  other 
bustards  are  known,  all  Old  World  species,  except  one, 
which  is  Auslralian. 

Blis'to  Ar.siz'io  :  a  town  of  Italy ;  province  of  Milan  ;  23 
miles  by  rail  N.  W.  of  Milan  ;  on  a  ferlile  plain  (see  map 
of  Italy,  ref.  2-15).  It  has  several  churches,  one  of  which  is 
adorned  with  fine  old  frescoes  by  Ferrari.  Here  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton  thread.     Pop."  13,500. 

Biitclicr,  Samikl  IIexrv,  LL.  D.  :  professor  of  Greek; 
li.  ill  Dulilin,  Ireland,  Apr.  16,  1850;  educated  at  Marl- 
borough College ;  fellow  and  assistant  tutor  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege. Caml)ridge.  1874-76;  fellow  and  li'clureral  University 
College.  Oxford,  until  1882;  was  then  made  Professor  of 
Greek  at  Edinburgh  University.  .loint  luilhor  of  Trdtixla- 
liimofthe  Odi/xxeij  (1870);  author  of  Deinimlhenen  (1881); 
and  his  inaugural  address,  Wluit  ire  owe  to  Greece  (1882). 

Butc'her-bird.s  :  the  Laniidw,  or  Slirik-en.    See  Shrike. 

Iliitclicr'.s  Brodiii  {Rufieu,i  (muleatux):  a  biennial  ever- 
gieiii  plant  of  the  family  Llliareiv:  has  a  stem  from  1  to  3 
feet  high,  and  ovate,  alternate,  sharp-pointed  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  a  red  berry  nearly  as  large  as  a  wild  cherrv.  It  is 
indigenous  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivateil  for  or- 
mimeutal  purposes.     The  root  is  aperient  and  diuretic. 

Bute:  an  island  of  Scotland  :  in  the  Frith  of  Clyde  ;  sejia- 
rated  from  the  uuiinlanil  by  ii  narrow  si  rail  <-,nlled  the  Kyles 
of  Bute,  which  is  aliout  a  mile  wide.  The  island  is  about  15 
miles  long,  and  Inus  an  area  of  nearly  60  sq.  miles.  The 
mildness  of  the  climate  renders  it  a  favorite  resort  for  in- 
valids. The  chief  town  is  Rothe.say.  Here  are  Kothesay 
Castle  (in  the  burgh  of  Rothesay),  and  Dunnagoil,  a  vitri- 
fied fort  on  the  .southwest  coast.  The  seat  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Bute,  called  Monntstuart  House,  is  on  the  east  coast. 

Bute,  or  Butpsliiro:  a  county  in  the  southwest  part 
of  Scotland  ;  comiirises  the  islands  of  Uute.  .Vrran.  the  Cum- 
liraes.  Holy  isle,  Pla<lda,  and  Inchmarnock.  Area  about 
225  .si[.  miles,  or  14:J,977  acres,  of  which  22,066  are  cultivated. 
Pop.  (1801)  18.408. 

Bute,  Mahcji'Esses  of:  Earls  of  Windsor  and  Viscounts 
Mountjov  (17!lt!);  Barons  Monntstuart  (1761);  Barons  Car- 
diff (1766,  in  Great  Britain);  Earls  of  Dumfries  (1633); 
Earls  of  Bute  (1703);  Viscounis  of  Ayr  (1622);  Viscounts 
KingaiHh.  Lords  Monntstuart.  ('umbrae,  and  Inchmarnock 
(1703);  Lords  Crichton  and  Cumnock  (163:5):  Barons  ('rich- 


852 


BUTE 


BUTLER 


ton  of  Sanquhar  (1488,  in  Scotland),  and  baronets  (1(527.  in 
Scotland). — Johx  Patrick  Crichtox  Stuart,  the  tliird  mar- 
quess, born  Sept.  13,  1847,  succeeded  his  father  in  1848.  In 
1868  he  joined  the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  and  he  has  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Breviary  (2  toIs.,  187U). 

Bute.  John  Stuart,  Earl  of:  a  minister  of  state :  b.  in 
Scotland  in  1713  ;  was  educated  at  Eton  :  married  a  daughter 
of  Lady  JIary  Wortlcy  Montagu.  lie  became  groom  of  the 
stole  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who  was  afterward  George  III., 
over  whom  he  acquired  a  great  influence.  In  Mar.,  17G1,  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  principal  Secretaries  of  State  ;  May 
29,  1762,  he  became  Prime  Minister,  and  held  ofRee  until 
the  following  April.  His  policy  was  peace  with  France  and 
royal  absolutism  at  home.  He  resigned  because  of  his  un- 
popularity, but  for  twenty  years  was  suspected  of  and  hated 
for  a  secret  intimacy  with  the  king.  He  traveled  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  then  retired  to  his  estate  in  Bedford- 
shire, and  occupied  himself  with  building  and  studies,  as- 
trtiuomy  and  natural  history.     D.  Mar.  10,  17U2. 

Bil'tea:  a  genus  of  handsome  evergreen  trees  and  climb- 
ing shrubs  of  the  family  PapiUonacecB  (see  Leguminos.*), 
nearly  related  to  the  beans  proper  (P/!a.5eoZ«s),  and  dedicated 
to  John,  Earl  of  Bute  (q.  v.),  a  patron  of  botany.  The  flowers 
are  in  racemes,  scarlet  or  orange,  and  with  a  large  keel  and 
recurved  banner.  The  leaves  are  trifoliate,  and  the  leaflets 
large  and  ovate  in  outline.  Some  of  the  species  yield  lac 
and  kino,  while  from  their  flowers  a  dye  is  made.  Five 
species  are  known,  all  natives  of  Southeastern  Asia.  li.  fron- 
dosa  and  B.  superba  are  grown  in  conservatories,  and  are 
regarded  as  possessing  liigli  ornamental  value.       C,  E.  B. 

Butiii,  bil'tah',  Ulvsse  Louis  Auguste  :  painter  of  genre, 
principally  of  the  life  of  fishermen  and  sailors:  b.  at  St.- 
Quentin  in  1838;  jiupil  of  Lemale,  of  Picot,  and  of  Pils  ; 
second-class  medal.  Salon,  1878:  Legion  of  Honor  1881. 
His  pictures  are  notable  for  sound  technique  and  trutliful- 
ness  in  the  rendering  of  out-of-doors  effects.  Burial  of  a 
Sailor  at  Villerrille,  an  excellent  example,  is  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg Gallery,  Paris.    I),  in  Paris,  Dec.  9,  1883.    W.  A.  C. 

But'ler :  town  :  Do  Kalb  co.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  2-G) ;  on  Lake  Shore  and  Wabash 
R.  Rs. :  72  miles  W.  of  Toledo,  0.;  has  Wabash  R.  R.  re- 
pair-shops and  a  wind-engine  factory.  The  surrounding 
country  is  fine  agricultural  land.  Pop.  (1880)  1,056;  (1890) 
2,521.  li^DiTOR  OF  '•  Record." 

Butler:  capital  of  Bates  co.,  JIo.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  5-E) ;  on  Mo.  Pac.  R.  R. ;  in  a  fer- 
tile prairie,  75  miles  S.  l)y  E.  from  Kansas  City.  Butler, 
which  was  founded  in  1857,  luirned  during  the  "war  of  tlie 
rebellion  and  afterward  reliuilt,  has  seven  churches,  good 
public  schools,  mills  and  grain-elevators,  water-works,  and 
electric  lights.  The  princi|ia.I  industry  is  agriculture.  Pop. 
(1880)  2,163;  (1890)  3,812;  (1893)  with  suburbs,  3,750. 

Editor  ok  "  Bates  County  Democrat." 

Butler:  borough;  on  railroad;  capital  of  Butler  co..  Pa. 
(for  location  of  comity,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-T5) ; 
on  the  Conequenessing  creek;  31  miles' X.  of  Pittsburg: 
has  three  extensive  glass-manufactories  (two  for  bottles  and 
one  for  plate  glass) ;  natural  gas  is  used  in  all  of  them.  It 
has  also  a  large  planiiig-mill,  several  oil-well-supply  manu- 
factories, a  number  of  llourlMg-mills,  etc.,  and  is  th(3  center 
of  prolific  oil-fields.  It  has  a  fine  court-house  and  public- 
-school  buildings.     Pop.  (1880)  3,163;  (1890)  8,734. 

Editor  of  ••  Times." 

Butler.  Albax:  Roman  Catholic  divine;  b.  at  Apple- 
live,  in  Xorthampton,  England,  1710;  studied  at  Douav,  in 
France;  was  professor  there;  lati'r  president  of  the  English 
Catholic  (:ollegc  of  St.-Omer,  in  France.  I),  at  .St.-Omcr, 
May  15,  1773.  He  is  best  known  in  the  world  of  letters  by 
\\is  Lires  of  the  Fathers,  Mnrli/rx.  and  other  Principal 
Sainln  (London.  1756-59,  4  vols.),'a  work  of  great,  learning 
and  judi<'ious  criticism.  See  Cliarli^s  Butler's  Life  of  tlw 
lieu.  Atlmn  Butler  (Edinburgh,  1799).        JoiiN  J,  Kea'ne. 

Butler,  Benma.min  Kra.nklin,  LL.  I). ;  lawver,  general,  and 
politician:  b.  at  Deerfield,  N.  IL,  Nov.  .5,  18'l8;  son  of  ('apt. 
John  IJutler,  who  commanded  a  company  of  dragoons  in  the 
war  of  1812,  and  served  under  Jackson  at  New  Orleans. 
Reared  by  an  excelli'iit  mother,  B.  F.  Butler  graduated  in 
18;i8  at  Waterville  College,  Jlaitie;  in  1840  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  wliere  he  ivqiidly  advanced  to  an 
extensive  and  lucrative  practice,  in  which  he  ac(|iiiivii  a 
considerable  fortune.  He  served  in  the  Stale  militia  through 
all  grades  from  private  to  brigadier-general.     A  Demoeriit 


liy  inheritance  and  conviction,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
Iiolitics,  and  in  1853  represented  Lowell  in  the  Legislature, 
where  he  lent  powerful  aid  to  the  bill  for  reducing  the  hours 
of  l;d)or  in  the  factories  of  the  State  from  thirteen  to  eleven. 
In  18.)3  he  was  a  member  of  the  constitutional  convention  ; 
in  1859  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts.  In  the 
national  Democratic  convention  of  1860  in  Charleston.  S.  C, 
he  voted  over  fifty  times  to  give  the  nomination  for  the 
presidency  to  Jefferson  Davis.  On  Ajir.  15,  1861,  ujion  a 
call  for  troops  to  hasten  to  the  defense  of  Fortress  Monroe 
and  Washington,  Brig.-Gcii.  Butler,  who  at  5  p.  M.  was  in 
court  in  Boston  tirying  a  cause,  issued  the  requisite  orders 
for  mustering  the  regiments  of  his  brigade.  Apr.  i6,  the 
Sixth  Regiment  left  Boston,  and  on  the  i8th  Gen.  Butler,  at 
the  head  of  the  Eightli,  tcmk  his  departure,  having  been  or- 
dered to  proceed  to  Wasliiugtoii  by  way  of  Baltimore.  Two 
regiments  of  his  brigade  had,  in  the  meantime,  sailed  fcjr 
Fortress  Monroe,  which  they  garrisoned  and  saved  from 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Prevented  from  reach- 
ing Washington  by  way  of  Baltimore,  in  consequence  of  the 
burning  of  bridges,  he  seized  Annapolis,  repaired  the  rail- 
road between  that  city  and  Washington,  and  thus  the  pjighth 
Massachusetts  and  Seventh  New  York  reached  the  capital  in 
time  to  prevent  all  attempts  on  the  jiart  of  hostile  forces  to 
seize  it.  May  13,  1861,  at  the  head  of  900  men,  he  marched 
upon  B^dtimore,  and  encamped  on  Federal  Hill,  in  the  midst 
of  the  city,  without  opposition — a  service  immediately  (May 
16)  rewarded  by  President  Lincoln  with  the  commission  of 
major-general  in  the  service  of  the  U.  S.,  and  by  assigning 
him  to  the  command  of  Fortress  Monroe,  where  he  arrived 
May  23.  He  here  refused  to  send  back  the  runaway  slaves 
to  their  masters,  on  the  ground,  originated  by  him,  that  the 
slaves  were  "  property  contraliand  of  war."  Feb.  23, 1862,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  troops,  18.000  in  number, 
forming  part  of  the  expedition  against  New  Orleans.  Capt. 
Farragut  commanding  the  naval  force.  After  the  heroic 
passing  of  the  forts  defending  the  Mississippi  l>y  Cajit.  Far- 
ragut, (ien.  Butler  (May  1.  18153)  landeil  and  tciok  possession 
of  tile  city,  where  he  remained  until  Dee.  16  following,  when 
he  was  relieved  by  Maj,-Gen.  N.  P.  Bsinks.  During  But- 
ler's administration  of  the  department  of  the  Gulf  he  taxed 
the  wealthy  Confederate  citizens  to  su])iJort  the  thousands 
of  iiilial)itants  reduced  to  destitution  by  the  war,  enforced  a 
thorough  sanitary  system,  and  governed  the  city  with  an 
ability  and  justice  never  .surjiassed.  Nov.,  1863,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  deiiarfment  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina.  In  the  winter  he  conceived  tlie  [n'oject  of  at- 
tacking Richmond  from  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hundred. 
On  May  5,  1864.  he  occupied  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hun- 
dred, and  intrenched  himself  upon  that  peninsula  in  a  po- 
sition strong  for  defense,  but  from  which  he  could  not  ad- 
vance, holding  it  with  supplies,  and  subsequently  aiding  the 
movement  of  Gen.  Grant  upon  Petersburg,  after  the  reimlse 
of  the  Wilderness  .and  Cold  Harbor.  He  went  with  a  de- 
tachment of  his  forces  in  Nov.,  1864,  to  New  York  during 
the  presidential  election,  a  rising  being  expected  in  that  city 
by  which  the  election  was  to  be  carried  by  the  Democracy.' 
With  a  small  force  he  held  the  city  in  peace  and  quiet,  and 
eomiielled  an  orderly  election.  lie  was  sent  against  Fort 
Fisher  in  Dec.,  1864,  where  he  first  ex]iloded  a  powder-boat 
without  eflieet ;  subsequently  lauded  his  troojis  for  an  as- 
sault after  a  severe  bombardment  by  the  fleet :  but  ujion  the 
advice  of  his  chief  engineer,  who  considered  the  works  im- 
pregnable by  assault,  he  withdrew  his  forces.  Before  the 
secoml  expedition  Gen.  Butler  was  relieved  of  his  command. 
In  1866  he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the  Essex  district 
in  Massachusetts.  He  was  nominated  Sept,  19,  1882,  by 
Jlassachusetts  Democratic  Convention  for  Governor,  and 
was  elected  Nov.  7, 1882 ;  was  defeated  Nov.  6,  1883,  and  was 
"Greenback"  candiilate  fur  Pi'esiiU-nt  of  the  V.  S.  in  1884. 
He  published  Tlie  Aulol>io//ra/ilii/ unit  r'erfonal  Beniinis- 
cfnces  of  Maj.-Qen.  Benjamin  F.  Butter  (1893).  D.  in 
Washington,  I).  C.,  Jan.  11,  1893. 

Revised  by  James  JIercur. 

Butler.  Ciiari.es:  nephew  of  Alban  Butler;  jurist  and 
w-riter;  b.  in  London,  England,  Aug.  14, 1750  ;  was  a  Roman 
Catholic,  lie  wrote,  besides  other  works,  Ilorip  Biblirm 
(London,  1797) :  llistorieat  Jfenioirs  rex/iertinfi  tlie  Fni/tinh, 
Iriuli,  anil  Seiittisti  Ciittiotirs  (1S1!»-31,  4  vcjIs.);  and  a  con- 
tinuation of  his  uncle's  Licen  of  til c  Saints.  D.  in  London, 
June  2,  1832. 

Butler,  Clement  Moore,  D.  D.  :  divine  and  scholar  ;  b, 
in  Troy,  N.Y.,  Oct,  16, 1810;  graduated  at  Washington  (now 


BUTLER 


853 


Trinity)  ColU'jrc.  Hartfonl,  Conn.,  iHXi,  unci  at  the  General 
Thuoloffieal  Sfiiiinarv.  Xew  York  city.  1886.  He  was  or- 
(luineil  in  1H;{(5;  rector  of  St.  John's  cliiircli,  Georjfetown. 
I).  C,  1841-44 ;  of  Grace  church.  Boston.  1844-47 ;  of 
Trinity  church  al  Washinjrlon  1847-54;  chapliiin  of  the 
Senate  of  llie  I'.  S.  184!)-.").').  lie  was  suhsequeiilly  rector 
of  the  ProlcstanI  Kplscoiial  Church  at  Itonie  (in  Italy) 
18(i2-<i4;  in  Ihc  la>t-Main('(i  year  lie  was  a|)|)ointc(l  Professor 
of  Kcclesiaslical  History  in  the  Kpiscopal  Divinity  .School  in 
West  l'hila<lel|>hia ;  resij.fnc(l  in  1884.  Besides  numerous 
sermons  ami  lectures.  Dr.  Butler  published  The  Book  of 
CoiiDiion  I'niijer  In/er/treled  hi/  its  Uistorij  (Boston,  184(5; 
2d  ed.  Washiiif^on,  184!));  Old  'fnilli.t  itiid  Xeif  Enom 
(Xew  York,  18.')0) ;  The  Flock  Fed  (18.50);  ,S'/.  Paul  in  Home 
(Philadelphia.  I8G."));  Inner  Home  (ISGG);  Manual  of 
Fcelenius/iful  Histori/  from  the  First  to  the  Thirteenth 
Ceittiiri/  (2  vols.,  1868):  also  a  Continuation  of  the  same 
from  the  Thirteenth  to  the  Eiyhternth  Centurij;  The  Re- 
formation in  Sweden  (Xew  '^'ork,  188:i) ;  and  various  other 
works.     D.  in  Philadc'lpliia,  Mar.  '>,  18;io. 

Hiitler,  Kliz.ahktu  Soitiierukx  Thompson  :  military 
painter  of  the  contemporary  English  school:  b.  at  Lau- 
sjinne,  .Switzerland,  of  British  parents  about  1844.  .She  re- 
ceived her  ai't  education  at  the  South  Kensinijton  Museum 
.Schools  and  in  Florence,  where  she  was  a  jiupil  of  Giuse|)pe 
Belhicci.  Al  the  Uoyal  Academy,  London,  she  exhibited  a 
picture  entitled  Misxiin/,  which  attracted  notice  for  its 
strong,  vijjorous  painting,  and  followed  it  the  next  year  with 
The  Roll  Call.  She  at  once  obtained  a  wide  reputation  as 
an  artist  of  ori:;inal  and  striking;  ability,  and  her  work  be- 
came popular  in  Kuftlaiul.  The  Roll  Call  was  ptnvlia.sed  by 
the  (^\ieen,  and  is  now  at  Windsor  Castle.  Miss  Thoiupson 
nnirried  Major  Williain  Francis  Butler  of  the  British  army  in 
1877,  and  has  contiinu'd  to  ])aint,  but  has  not  exhibile<l 
nuicli  of  late  years.  Her  pictures  are  especially  notable  for 
their  excellent  composition  and  dramatic  force.  Some  of 
her  principial  works.  besicU's  the  two  above  mentioned,  are 
RemiKints  of  an.  Armi/  {la"!'.)):  Scotland  for  Ever;  Defense 
of  Rorke's  hrift  (\»n\):  Floreat  Fiona:' mv\  Charge  of  the 
Scots  Greys  (it  Waterloo  (18.82).     Studio  in  London. 

William  A.  Coffix. 

Itiiflcr.  FuAXCKS  AxxF,  Kemblk:  See  Kkmble. 

Ulltler,  (iKOR(;K  B. :  genre  and  portrait  painter:  1).  in 
Xew  York;  coiitem|)orary  ;  pupil  of  Couture.  Paris  ;  National 
Academician  187:i :  member  of  the  Society  of  .\merican 
Artists  1880;  lived  a  number  of  years  al  Capri,  Italy,  and 
painted  pictures  there.  He  has  devoted  himself  mostly  to 
painting  portraits.    Studio  in  Xew  York. 

William  A.  Coffix. 

Butler,  IIicxRV  Jfo.vrAof,  D.  D. :  master  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege. Cambridge;  b.  in  Harrow.  18:i:!;  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  185.5;  ordained  1.8.5!);  head  master  of 
Harrow  18.5!»-8o  ;  select  preacher,  Oxford,  1877-78,  an<l  1878- 
8()-«2:  Cambridg..  1870-.85;  Dean  of  Gloucester  188.5-W6; 
nnister  of  Trinity  College  1886;  vice-chancellor  of  univer- 
sity 1.889.  -Vnthor  cit  Sermons  /'reached  in  the  (Viapel  of 
Harrow  (1861  ;  2d  series,  186!)). 

Blltler.  Howard  Htsskll:  landscape,  marine,  and  por- 
trait painter:  b.  in  Xiw  '^'ork.  Mar.:!.  1856;  pupil  of  I)a- 
gnan-Bouveiet  and  of  Gervex,  Paris;  member  of  the  Society 
of  American  Artists  188!).  and  of  the  Archilectmal  League. 
X'ew  York  ;  honorable  mention.  Salon  of  1886;  Temple  sil- 
ver medal,  Pennsvlvania  .\cademy,  Philadelphia.  1888; 
third-class  medal,  Paris  F.xpi)silion,"l88i).  As  nresident  of 
the  American  Fine  Arts  Society  he  ili'voted  mucn  of  his  time 
to  the  organization  of  that  inslitution,  which  is  composed  of 
a  union  for  exhibition  purpo.ses  in  its  building  in  West 
Fifty-seventh  Street,  Xew  York,  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artist's,  the  Architectural  League  of  Xew  York,  and  the  Art 
Students  League;  graduated  in  the  scientilic  course  at 
Princeton  College  in  1.876,  and  practiced  law  in  X'ew  York 
before  he  began  the  .study  of  painting  in  188;t. 

William  A.  Coffix. 

Blltlor.  .Iames  Glkxtwortii.  D.  I). :  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter; b.  in  Brooklyn.  X.  Y.,  Aug.  :f.  1821  :  studied  at  the  Xew 
York  L'niversityand  at  Union  (1846_(r)  and  Yale  (1848-t!)) 
Theological  .Seminaries;  was  |)astor  of  Ihe  Walnut  Street 
Presbyterian  church.  Philadelplua.  18.52-(>8:  secretary  of  Ihe 
Ainencan'and  Foreign  Christian  L'liion  1868-71;  pastor  in 
Brooklyn,  X'.  Y.,  1871-7:i.  Of  late  years  he  has  devoted  him- 
self to  his  great  coniinenlarv  The  Jiihle  Work,  by  which  he 
is  chielly  known.     Of  Ihe  XVw  Testament  part,  vol.  i.  ap- 


peared in  1878,  vol.  ii.  in  1879.  On  the  Old  Testament,  vol. 
1.  appeared  in  1886.  vol.  ii.  in  1888,  vol.  iii.  in  1889,  and  vols, 
iv..  v..  vi.  in  18!)2.  Vols.  vii.  and  viii.  are  nearly  ready  (1893). 
In  18!)0  he  published  7'he  Fourfold  Uospel. 

Butler.  .loiix  Jay,  D.  D.  :  a  Free-will  Baptist  mini.ster; 
b.  at  lierwick.  .Me..  Apr.  !).  1814:  graduated  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege in  1837;  studied  theology  al  Ainlover.  Mass..  1841-44; 
Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  Whitestown  Theological 
Seminary  (1844— 54):  of  Systematic  Theology  at  the  Theologi- 
cal School  of  New  llamjiton,  X".  H.  (18.54^70);  Professor  of 
Sacred  Hhetoricaiid  Homileticsin  Bates  College  Theological 
Seminary.  Lewiston,  .Me.  ;  and  since  1873  of  .Sacred  Litera- 
ture, Hillsdale  College,  Mich.  For  many  yeai-s  he  has  been 
connected  with  the  Morning  Star,  a  religious  paper  of  Dover, 
X.  11.  He  has  published  several  comnientaries  on  parts  of 
the  Bii)le.  and  a  work  on  natural  and  revealed  theology. 

Blltler.  .losEi'H  :  bishop  and  writer:  b.  at  Wantage,  Berk- 
shire, Kngland,  May  18.  16!)2.  About  1714  he  wrote  an  able 
refutation  of  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke's  celebrated  a  priori  argii- 
nu'Ut  ;  graduated  at  Orii-I  C<illege.  Oxford.  1718;  was  ap- 
[xiinted  prea<her  at  the  Rolls  chapel  in  1719;  obtained  the 
rich  iH'nefice  of  Stanhope  in  1725;  became  chaplain  to  Lord 
Chancellor  Talbot  in  1733;  Bisho]i  of  Bristol  in  1738.  In 
1750  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Durham.  A  sermon  by 
Bishop  Butler  before  the  .Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 
in  Foreign  Parts  awakened  no  little  interest  from  its  strenu- 
ous advocacy  of  the  work  of  the  society  in  the  American 
colonies:  while  a  MS.  plan  for  the  introduction  of  bishops 
into  America,  written  by  him  in  ]7.5l).and  first  published  by 
the  Bev.  Fast  .\ptliorp  ill  a  controversy  with  the  Kev.  Dr. 
Mayhewsome  years  later, connects  this  distinguislu'd  prelate 
with  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  history  of  America.  His 
chief  work  is  The  Analoyi/  of  Religion.  Natural  and  Re- 
vealed, to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Kature  (London, 
1736).  D.  in  Bath,  unmarried,  .Iinie  16,  1752.  See  T.  Bart- 
lett,  ^femoirs  of  the  Life  of  Joseph  Hutler,  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham (Lonilon.  1839).  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that 
issued  in  two  volumes  from  the  Oxford  University  Press 
(184!)),  with  a  preface  by  Bishop  Halifax. 

Blltler.  Matthkw  Cali!Haitii  :  U.  S.  Senator;  b.  near 
(iivenviUe.  S.  C.,  Mar.  8,  1836  ;  educated  at  .South  Carolina 
College;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857;  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army  during  the  war;  elected  to  the  Senate  in 
1876;  re-elect'ed  1882,  1888. 

Blltler.  Nicholas  MiKRAV.  Ph.  D. :  educator;  b.  in  Eliza- 
beth, X.  .1..  Apr.  2,  1862;  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
Paterson,  X.  ,1..  Columbia  College.  X.  Y.,  University  of 
Berlin,  and  University  of  Paris;  in  1887  organized  the  Xew 
York  College  for  t he  Training  of  Teachei's;  in  1888  became 
Professorof  Philosophy  and  Education  in  Columbia  Collegi' ; 
dean  of  the  university  faculty  <if  philosophy  since  18!M1; 
editor  of  The  Educational  Reriew  \X\n:  iiuthor  <if  Horace 
Manu  and  American  Systems  of  Education,  and  e.s.says  on 
manual  training  and  allied  subjects.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Butler,  PiKRCF,  JLvsox:  son  of  William,  a  Senator  nameil 
below;  colonel, and  former  (iovernor  of  South  Ciirolina  :  b. 
in  Edgefield  district,  S.  C..  .\pr.  11.  1798;  entered  the  army 
in  1819  as  second  lieutenant  of  infantry;  promoted  to  first 
lieutenant  1822;  captain  1825;  resigned  from  the  army  in 
1829  ;  president  of  a  bank  at  Columbia  until  18:W ;  accepted 
the  appointment  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  Goodwin's  regiment 
of  South  Carolina  volunteers,  and  served  against  the  Senu- 
nole  Indians  in  Florida.  On  his  return  was  elected  (1838) 
Governor  of  .South  Carolina  ;  at  the  end  of  his  term  became 
Indian  agent,  and  was  acting  as  such  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Mexican  war,  when  he  was  elected  colonel  of  the 
"Palmetto  regiment  "of  South  Carolina  volunteers,  which 
he  led  to  Ihe  seat  of  war,  distinguishing  himself  at  Cerro 
Gordo  and  snb.sec|ueiit  battles;  at  Chunibiisco,  Aug.  20. 1.847, 
he  continued  to  lead  his  men  after  being  wounded,  when  he 
was  shot  a  second  lime,  through  the  head,  an<l  killed. 

Blltler,  Samtel;  an  English  poet ;  b.  in  Worcestershiro, 
Feb.  8,  1612;  was  liberally  educated,  and  became  in  early 
youth  clerk  to  a  justice  of  the  peace;  afterward  eiitc'ivil  the 
service  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  who  is  sup|iosed  to  be  the  pro- 
totype of  Iludibra-s.  He  jaiblished  in  166:!  the  first  part  of 
Jludibras.  a  witty  jmem  satirizing  the  Puritans,  which  ob- 
tained great  popularity,  and  thus  furnished  a  nuiltilude  of 
proverbial  sayings,  such  as  : 

He  that  complies  against  liis  will 
Is  of  Ihe  same  opinion  still. 


854 


BUTLER 


BUTTER 


The  second  part  appeared  in  1664.  and  the  third  in  16T8.  D. 
ipoor  in  Loudon.  Sept.  2.5. 1680.  See  A.  Ramsay's  Butler  and 
his  Jliidibras. 

Butler,  William,  D.I).:  missionary  of  the  Methodist 
Kpiseopal  Church :  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Jan.  31.  1818  ; 
graduated  at  Didsbury  College,  near  Manchester,  England, 
1844 :  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Wesleyan  Church,  aiul 
.served  in  the  New  England  conferences ;  became  secre- 
tary of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Cliurch  1869;  resigned  in  1873;  found- 
ed Methodist  Episcopal  missions  in  India  (1856)  and  Mexico 
(1873) ;  author  of  Methodist  Episcoiial  portion  of  Cyclo- 
ptpdia  of  Mis-v'oiw.  Tlie  Land  of  the  Vedd  (New  York, 
1872) ;  From  Boston  to  Bareillij  and  Bac/c  (1885) ;  Mexico 
in  transition  from  t/ie  Power  of  Political  Romanism  to 
Cii-it  and  Religions  Libertij  (New  York,  1892). 

Butler.  William  :  b.  in  Prince  William  co.,  Va..  in  1759 ; 
graduateil  as  student  of  medicine  at  South  Carolina  College  ; 
became  a  lieutenant  in  Gen.  Lincoln's  army  in  1779;  was  en- 
gaged at  Stono  ;  served  in  Pulaski's  corjjs  until  the  death  of 
the  latter;  afterward  served  with  Gens.  Pickens,  Lee,  and 
Greene  ;  became  commander  of  a  body  of  mounted  rangers, 
and  was  engaged  in  many  battles  with  the  Tories.  Shortly 
after  the  war  he  was  apjiointed  Ijrigadier-general,  an<l  in 
1796  maior-general,  of  militia;  member  of  convention  in 
1787  to  tiecide  on  the  adojjtion  of  the  Federal  Constitution  ; 
nu-mber  of  convention  which  .adopted  the  constitution  of 
South  Carolina:  member  of  the  Legislature:  M.  C.  1801-11  ; 
commanded  South  Carolina  troops  in  1812.  D.  in  Columbia, 
S.  C..  Nov.  1.5.  1821. 

Butler.  William  Alle.v;  lawyer  and  poet;  b.  in  Alliany. 
N.  Y.,  1825 :  graduated  at  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1843.  He  wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  very  popular 
satirical  poem.  Nothing  to  Wear,  an  Episode  of  City  Life 
(1857);  also  a  biography  of  Martin  Van  Buren  {IHS2),  and 
Domesticiis  (1886).  a  tale  of  labor  troubles. 

Butler.  William  Archer  ;  philosopher;  b. in  Annerville, 
near  Clonmel,  Ireland,  in  1814 ;  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Duljliu.  where  he  became  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in 
1837,  and  in  the  sjime  year  was  ordained.  In  1842  he  be- 
came, in  addition  to  being  professor,  rector  of  Ka^^n^)ghy, 
and  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  Roman  C'atholic  contro- 
versy. He  had  brilliant  gifts,  and  his  fame,  which  was 
mainly  posthumous,  is  permanent.  He  was  admired  as  a 
preacher  eiiually  by  the  simple  and  the  learned.  His  chief 
work  is  Lectures  on,  tlie  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy  ('i 
vols..  1856).  Other  works  uiv  tSermons,  Doctrinal  and  Prac- 
tical {Duhlm.lS4i):  2d  series,  Cambridge,  1856):  Lefferson  the 
Derelopment  of  Christian,  Doctrine,  in  reply  to  Newman 
(Dublin,  1850).  (See  his  memoir  in  the  tirst  series  of  his  ser- 
mons.)    D.  in  Dublin.  .Tuly  5,  1848. 

Butler.  William  Orlando;  general:  b.  in  Kentucky  in 
1793;  served  in  the  war  of  1812  and  the  Mexican  war;  lie- 
came  a  major-general  in  1!S46.  He  was  the  Democratic 
candidate  tor  the  ollice  of  Vice-President  in  1848.  but  was 
not  elected.  D.  in  CarroUton.  Kv.,  Aug.  6, 1880.  See  his  Life 
(1848)  by  P.  P.  Blair,  Jr. 

Butler.  Zkri'LON' :  soldier;  b.  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  in  1731; 
served  in  tlie  French  war  and  in  the  expedition  to  Havana: 
he<'anu'  captain  in  1761 ;  settled  at  Wyoming,  Pa.,  in  1769; 
was  lieutenant-colonel  of  Connecticut  troops  serving  in  New 
Jersey  1777-78;  became  colonel  Mar.  13,  1778.  He  com- 
manded the  small  garrisim  at  Wyoming,  Pa,,  at  the  time  of 
the  nuissacre.  July  3. 1778  (see  Wyomin'gv  alley)  ;  and  served 
bravely  in  (ieu.  Sullivan's  expedition  against  the  Indians  of 
the  Six  Nations  at  Newtown  (now  KImira).  N.  Y..  in  1779, 
and  dm-iug  the  whole  of  tluit  Indian  war.  D.  at  Wilkes- 
barre.  Pa..  July  28,  179.5. 

Butte,  bynt.  City  ;  on  railro.ad  :  capital  of  Silver  Bow  co., 
Jlon.  (for  location  of  county,  see  mui[)  of  Montana,  ref.  6-E) : 
was  settled  in  1864  as  a  gold-placer  camp.  Within  4  miles 
of  the  court-house  are  ma uv gold  and  silver  mines;  product 
of  the  county  in  1889.  ^!).13.5.728.  There  are  9  silver  mills 
with  375  stamps,  redu<'ing  over  700  tons  of  ore  ]ier  day. 
There  are  5  smelters  (1  silver  and  4  copper)  besides  the  one 
at  Anaconda,  which  is  capable  of  reducing  2,000  tons  of 
Butte  co])ix>r  ore  [ler  day.  The  city  has  a  fine  court-house,  a 
city-hall,  an  opera-house,  telegraph  and  tc>lephone  service, 
street  railroads,  water-work.s.  gas,  electric  lights,  etc..  and  a 
jiublic  lil)rarv  of  about  2,000  volumes.  Pop.  (1874)  about 
.50;  (1880)3,363;  (1890)  10.723. 

Euitor  01"  "  Inter-Mountain." 


Butter  [from  Ijat.bu'tyrunufrom  Gr.PoiTvpo^]■.  the  fatty 
sulistance  extracted  from  milk.  In  ancient  times  the  He- 
brews made  use  of  butter  as  food,  but  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  used  it  only  as  an  ointment  in  their  baths ;  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  Greeks  obtained  their  knowledge  of  the 
substance  from  the  Scythians.  Thraciaus.  and  Phrygians, 
while  the  Romans  olitained  it  from  Germany.  In  Southern 
Europe,  at  the  present  time,  butter  is  very  .sparingly  used, 
olive  oil  often  taking  its  place;  and  in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Southern  France  it  is  sold  by  apothecaries  as  a  medicinal 
agent  for  external  application.  In  the  East  Indies  the  na- 
tives use  pr/ifp,  which  is  butter  clarified  by  boiling.  Butter 
is  usually  nuide  from  cow's  milk,  which  "has  the  following 
average  com])osition  : 

Fat  Ibutten per  cent.  350 

Casein 380 

Albumen 0-75 

Sugar  (lactose) 4-25 

Salts  (allialine  and  earthy) 070 

Water 87-00 

Total 100  00 

The  composition  varies  widely  with  the  food,  breed,  age,  and 
individuality  of  the  cow,  the  age  of  the  calf,  the  time  and 
frequency  of  milking.  The  last  milk  drawn  at  a  milking  is 
richer  in  butter  than  the  first.  (See  Milk.)  The  casein, 
sugar,  and  the  salts  are  in  solution,  while  the  fat  is  in  sus- 
)iension  in  the  form  of  minute  globules,  which  are  read- 
ily seen  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  They  vary  in  size 
t'i'om  I II  i  I)  0  to  jTiVny  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  quite 
trans])arent.  refract  light  strongly,  and  give  the  milk  its 
while  color.  It  was  formerly  suppo.-'eil  that  each  globule 
was  covered  with  a  thin  membrane  or  envelope,  but  this  has 
been,  disproved  by  Von  Baundiauer  and  F.  Knapji.  and  by 
Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock.  who  has  shown  that  the  fat  globules  of 
milk  behave  in  all  respects  like  the  globules  of  artificial 
emulsions  of  other  fats  and  oils.  The  globules  are  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  several  neutral  fats  or  glycerides,  chiefly  the 
li([uid  fat  olein  and  the  solid  fats  palmitin  and  stearin,  with 
small  quantities  of  butyrin.  myristin.  caproin.  caprylin,  and 
caprin.  The  small  amount  of  these  latter  fats  gives  to  butter 
its  characteristic  odors  and  flavors;  beside  these,  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  many  of  the  volatile  fats  of  the  food  may  pass 
directly  into  tlie  butter  globules  without  change.  In  this 
way  not  only  are  the  delicate  desirable  flavors  of  tlie  sweet- 
scented  grasses  and  clovers  transmitted  to  the  butter,  but 
also  the  less  desirable  (mes  that  are  characteristic  of  onions, 
turnips,  cabbage,  etc.  Moreover  milk,  ami  particularly  the 
fats  in  the  milk,  readily  absorbs  odors  and  taints  from  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  it ;  so  that  in  order  to  make  butter 
of  the  finest  quality  and  flavor,  not  only  must  the  animal  be 
supplied  with  clean,  wholesome  food  and  water,  but  the  at- 
mosphere surrounding  the  animal  and  the  milk  during  all 
the  [irocess  of  niauufactiire  must  be  pure,  and  all  surround- 
ings and  utensils  kept  as  nearly  absolutely  clean  as  possible. 
Cream. — Cream  is  that  part  of  milk  into  which  a  large 
proportion  of  its  fat  has  been  gathered.  It  is  composed  of 
the  same  constituents  as  milk,  liut  they  are  not  in  the  same 
or  any  constant  relative  proportion.  Analy.ses  have  shown 
from  8'17  to  70'2  per  cent,  of  fat  in  cream.  Dr.  Voelcker 
gives  the  composition  of  cream  as  follows: 

Fat  (Initter) percent.  33-43  25-40 

Casein 2"62  I  -.., 

Sugar r.Wf  '  "" 

Salts 0-72  219 

Water 61 -67  64  80 

Totals 10000       100  00 

A  <-ream  containing  30  per  cent,  of  fat  is  considered  rich. 
Cream  is  separated  from  milk  wholly  as  a  matter  of  conven- 
ience. Butter  may  be  made  from  whole  milk  as  well  as  from 
cream.  The  separatinu  is  ett'ectcd  by  me.'ins  of  the  dilference 
in  specific  gi'avity  between  the  fat  globules  and  the  milk 
serum,  but  the  separation  is  never  complete.  Some  of  the 
milk  serum  adheres  to  and  is  carried  up  with  the  larger 
globules,  and  some  of  the  smaller  globules  are  held  back  by 
the  senim,  which  is  always  more  or  less  viscous,  so  that  the 
cream  always  contains  scmie  milk  serum,  and  there  is  always 
somi'  fat  remaining  in  the  skim  milk.  The  cinupleteness 
with  which  the  fat  is  removed  from  the  skim  milk  is  one  of 
the  most  important  et-ontunics  in  the  manufacture  of  butter, 
as  under  different  systems  of  separation  the  loss  of  fat  in 
the  skim  milk  may  be  from  6  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
In  practice,  the  separation  of  the  cream  is  effected  either  by 
the  force  of  gravity  acting  upon  the  fat  globules  in  the  milk 
when  set  at  rest,  or  by  centrifugal  force  acting  upon  the 


BUTTER 


855 


globules  in  a  rapidly  revolviiifr  c-yliiulcr  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  oldest  and  still  the  most  common  way  of  sep- 
anilins  the  creain  is  to  set  the  milk  in  shallow  pans  from  2i 
to  4  inches  deeii.  in  a  room  at  a  temperature,  if  possible,  not 
above  60  F.  In  the  course  of  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours 
the  cream  will  have  more  or  less  completely  risen  to  the  sur- 
face and  can  be  removed  by  skimminjj.  Milk  on  standing 
becomes  sour;  that  is,  it  underj;ocsa  fermentation  by  means 
of  which  a  |iart  of  the  milk  sufrar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid, 
and  this  acid  acting  upon  I  he  casein  causes  ll  to  coagulate 
or  thicken ;  when  this  thickening  takes  place  any  remaining 
fat  globules  are  prevented  from  rising,  so  that  the  complete- 
ness of  the  creaming  depends  somewliat  upon  the  length  of 
time  which  the  milk  may  be  kept  sweet  after  it  is  set.  The 
nitli<'ulty  in  keeping  tlii'  milk  sweet  for  a  time  suflicient  for 
all  the  fat  globules  to  rise  led  to  the  practice  of  surrounding 
the  milk,  as  it  was  set.  with  cold  wati'r.  ami  il  was  subse- 
(pienlly  found  that  when  this  was  done  the  depth  of  the 
milk  could  be  greatly  increa-seil.  The  ]iractice  of  cold  deep 
setting.  !is  linally  developed,  is  to  place  the  milk,  as  quickly 
as  possible  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  into  cans  8  inches 
in  diameter  and  30  inches  deep.  These  cans  arc  set  or  even 
submerged  in  water  wliich  is  as  nearly  as  ixjssible  the  tem- 
peralure  of  melted  ice.  It  lias  been  toun(I  that  under  these 
conditions  not  only  does  the  cream  rise  in  a  shorter  time, 
but  nmch  nuire  completely  than  when  set  in  pans.  Since  it 
would  ordinarily  be  ex|>ected  that  increasing  the  depth  of 
the  milk  would  increase  the  time  required  for  the  cream  to 
rise,  and  also  interfere  with  the  completeness  of  the  cream- 
ing, several  theories  have  been  put  forwafd  to  account  for 
this  quicker  and  more  complete  creaming.  The  one  most 
commonly  held  has  been  that  the  serum  of  milk  being  a 
better  conductor  of  heat  than  the  fat.  it  cools  more  rapidly 
when  placed  in  contact  with  cold  water,  and  this  more  rapid 
cooling,  causing  a  greater  contraction,  would  increase  the 
difference  in  si)ecitic  gravity  between  the  fat  globules  and 
the  serum,  and  so  aid  in  their  separation.  But  this  has  been 
shown  to  be  falhicions.  for,  tliough  it  is  true  tli.-it  water  is  a 
better  conductor  of  heat  tlian  fat,  the  small  size  of  the  fat 
globules  (their  diameter  being  about  yoVir  of  an  inch)  renders 
it  impossible  that,  under  any  circumstances,  there  can  be 
more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a  degree  difference  between 
the  temperature  of  the  fat  ami  that  of  the  milk  serum. 
Moreover,  within  the  limits  of  temperatiu'e  ])ractical  for 
<'reaming  (!)0'  P.  to  40°  F.),  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of 
butter  fat  is  more  than  three  times  as  great  ivs  that  of  water, 
so  that,  in  onh'r  to  uuiintain  the  same  relative  difference  in 
their  specific  gravities  when  the  temperature  is  falling,  the 
milk  serum  must  cool  nuire  than  three  tinu's  as  rapidly  as 
the  fat.  In  other  words,  when  the  milk  serum  has  cooled 
from  90°  F.  to  40  F.,  or  through  .50  F..  the  fat  globules 
should  have  lost  less  than  17  F..  and  should  still  have  a  tem- 
perature of  over  7;i'  F".  Such  a  coiulilion  is  manifestly  im- 
possible:  but  any  less  difference  than  this  would  cause  the 
fat  to  become  ndatively  heavier  than  at  iirst,  and  would 
operate  against  the  creaming. 

Dr.  Babcock.  liy  the  discovery  of  fibrin  in  milk,  has  offered 
a  more  rational  theory.  Fibrin  iipim  exposure  to  the  air 
coagulates  or  forms  clots,  and  it  does  this  more  readily  at  a 
temperature  at  or  near  blood  lieat.  Thes<»  clots  forming  in 
the  milk  tend  to  prevent  the  rising  of  the  fat  globules.  The 
rapid  reduction  of  the  whole  nuiss  of  the  milk  to  a  temi)er- 
ature  below  .W  F.  prevents  the  formation  of  fibrin  clots. 
and  so  ren<lers  the  separation  of  the  fat  globules  from  the 
milk  serum  easier  and  more  complete. 

In  1877  a  patent  was  granted  to  Lefcldt  and  Lentsch  for 
a  nuichine  which  shouhl  separate  the  cream  from  milk  by 
centrifugal  force.  .Since  then  the  early  machine  has  been 
much  improved  by  De  Laval  and  others,  until  at  the  pres- 
ent time  the  most  eft'eclive  means  of  cream  separation  is 
afforded  by  the  use  of  these  machines.  Briefly,  the  machine 
is  composed  of  a  strong  steel  bowl  or  cylindiT.  so  arranged 
that  it  nuiy  be  ma<le  to  revolve  at  a  speed  of  0,.")00  to  7..5(K) 
revolutions  per  mimite.  The  milk  being  introduced  at  the 
center  of  the  cyliiuler,  the  centrifugal  force  causes  it  to  be 
carried  to  the  sides,  and.  acting  with  greater  force  upon  the 
heavier  particles  or  serum  of  the  milk,  separates  tiie  milk 
in  the  bowl  into  a  layer  of  skim  milk  next  the  wall  and 
cream  nearer  the  center.  Kxits  are  so  arranged  that  any 
<Icsired  pro]iortion  may  be  constantly  drawn  off  from  lioth 
the  skim  milk  and  cream  lavers.  and  the  whole  milk  con- 
stantly flowing  into  the  bowl  the  operation  is  contimuais. 
By  rcgidating  the  speed  of  the  nuu-hlne  and  the  rate  of  in- 
flow the  fat  of  tlie  milk  may  be  almost  completely  gathered 


into  the  cream,  and  only  the  verv  smallest  globules  left  in 
the  skim  milk.  For  the  best  results  the  milk  should  be  at  a 
temperature  of  86°  to  !>0°  F.  The  inflow  should  be  regular, 
and  the  number  of  revolutions  not  fall  below  6,500.  The 
larger  power  luachiiu's  have  a  cajiacity  of  3,000  to  4,(X)0  lb. 
of  milk  per  hour,  and  snudler  hand-power  machines  have  a 
capacity  of  2.")0  to  ^.^O  lb.  per  hour. 

Under  ordinary  conditioits  the  comi)arative  loss  of  fat  in 
the  skim  milk  by  these  different  systems  of  separation  will 
be  about  as  follows  with  milk  containing  3-5  per  cent,  of  fat : 


SYSTEMS  OF  SEPARATION. 

Per  cent,  of  Tut 

Ir.  tkim  milk. 

Total  loM  of 
fat,  per  cent. 

0-70 
0-56 
014 

30 

16 

"  the  centrifugal  machine 

4 

t'ream  may  be  churned  into  butter  as  soon  as  it  is  removed 
from  the  milk  and  while  it  is  still  sweet.  Such  butter,  known 
as  sweet-cream  butter,  is  of  a  peculiar  flavor,  and  at  the 
present  time  is  only  in  limited  demand  in  the  markets  of  the 
U.  S.  The  more  usual  practice  is  to  "ripen  "  the  cream  lie- 
fore  it  is  churned.  By  ripening  is  meant  the  development 
of  a  mild  degree  of  acidity.  The  cream  that  is  to  be  churned 
at  one  time  is  brought  to  a  temperature  of  about  70  F.,  at 
which  temperature  it  is  kept  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours. 


De  I-aval  creamer. 


During  this  time  it  should  be  frequently  stirred,  and  many 
believe  that  it  is  of  great  advantage  if  it  can  lie  freely  ex- 
posed to  a  pure  atmosiihcre.  At  the  end  of  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours  lactic  acid  will  have  developed  in  suflicient  quan- 
tity to  cause  a  slight  coagidation  of  the  casein,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  characteristic  flavors  will  have  developed  ;  the 
cream  is  then  ready  for  the  churn. 

('/lurniiiff. — By  agitating  cream  or  milk  at  a  proper  tem- 
[Kirature,  the  fat  gloluiles  may  be  ma<le  to  unite  and  sepa- 
rate from  the  watery  serum,  wliich  is  called  buttermilk.  This 
is  commonly  done  in  a  wooden  vessel — a  churn.  Formerly 
the  churn  was  sini|)ly  a  small  barrel-shaiied  vessel  supplied 
with  a  cover  ami  a  wooden  dash  or  ]ilunger.  This  is  known 
as  tlie  dash-churn,  and  tlie  agitation  of  the  cream  is  effected 
by  moving  the  dash  or  pliuiger  ra|iidly  up  and  down  through 
the  cream.  Innumerable  contrivances  have  been  invented 
for  effecting  this  agitation,  and  the  Patent  Office  is  fille<l  with 
models  of  various  sorts  of  churns:  but  there  is  no  churn 
better  than  a  plain  box  or  barrel  without  inside  dasher,  floats, 
or  contrivances  of  any  s<u't.  The  luxessary  agitation  is  pro- 
duced by  the  concussion  of  the  particles  of  cream  upon  ea<'h 
other  by  either  revolving  the  liox  or  barrel,  or  swinging  it 
from  side  to  side.  The  matter  of  causing  the  fat  globules  to 
unite  into  butter  is  largely  one  of  temperature,  and,  as  has 
been  shown  bv  the  churning  of  artificial  emulsions  of  various 


856 


BUTTER 


fats  and  oils,  the  proper  temperature  for  ehurniiig  Ijcars  a 
definite  relation  to  tlie  melting-point  of  the  fat  to  be  churned. 
Ripened  cream  may  be  churned  at  any  temperature  between 
56°  and  70'  F.,  according  to  circumstances.  In  a  great  ma- 
jority of  cases  63°  to  64°  F.  is  the  best  temperature  at  which 
to  churn.  Sweet  cream  should  be  churned  at  a  temperature 
six  to  eight  degrees  lower  than  ri|icned  cream  of  the  same 
character.  If  the  churning  temperature  is  too  low.  the  fat 
globules  are  so  hard  that  tiiey  will  not  stick  togctlier.  If  tlie 
churning  temperature  is  too  high,  the  fat  globules  are  so  soft 
that  they  do  not  readily  unite,  and  the  butter  is  of  a  very 
soft,  oily  nature.  Below  .50"  and  above  80°  F.  but  very  little 
butter  can  be  obtained  from  churning :  while  aliove  the  melt- 
ing-point of  butter  fat  (93°  to  96°  F.)  the  fat  globules,  in- 
stead of  uniting  upon  agitation,  are  br<jken  up  into  still 
smaller  particles.  The  time  required  for  cluirning  depends 
largely  upon  the  temperature,  the  ripeness  of  the  cream, 
and  the  rate  of  agitation.  A  high  temperature  and  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  ripeness  shorten  the  process.  A  speed  of 
about  TOO  feet  per  minute  is  considered  to  be  the  best.  It  is 
best  to  churn  at  such  a  temperature  tliat  from  forty-five 
minutes  to  one  hour  will  be  required  lietore  tlie  butter  sejia- 
rates,  or  "  breaks,"  as  it  is  called.  When  the  globules  have 
united  into  masses  the  size  of  kernels  of  wheat,  the  churning 
should  be  stopped ;  the  butter,  being  lighter,  will  rise  to  the 
top,  after  which  the  buttermilk  may  be  drawn  off.  Tlie 
butter  should  then  lie  waslied,  until  all  traces  of  buttermilk 
are  removed,  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  4.")°  to  50°  F.  If 
too  cold  Wider  is  used  in  washing,  tlie  delicate  Havoring-oils 
will  be  carried  oti  in  tlie  wash  watei'  and  the  quality  of  the 
butter  injured.  After  the  butter  is  Avashed  it  should  be  salted 
with  clean,  fine,  pure  salt,  usually  an  ounce  to  the  pound,  and 
■  the  surplus  water  removed.  The  salting  and  removal  of  the 
moisture  are  done  by  working  the  mass  thoroughly  with  a 
wooden  paddle  or  lever  upon  a  smooth  wooden  taltle.  Various 
forms  of  workers  are  in  u.se,  but  those  are  l.iest  which  remove 
the  moisture  and  work  in  the  salt  by  means  of  direct  pressure 
upon  the  mass  rather  than  by  a  grinding  motion.  When  the 
moisture  is  sufficiently  renio\-ed,  and  the  salt  is  completely 
dissolved,  the  butter  is  packed  in  tid)S  or  printed  in  molds, 
and  is  ready  for  market.  Woi'king  is  best  done  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  50'  F.  The  complete  removal  of  the  liutterinilk 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  but- 
ter. Pure  flutter  fat  may  be  kept  for  months  without  be- 
coming rancid,  but  if  any  buttermilk  is  left  in  the  liutter, 
the  casein  of  the  buttermilk  acts  as  a  ferment  u|>on  both  the 
sugar'and  the  butter  fat.  The  former  is  changed  to  lactic 
acid,  and  a  little  of  the  latter  to  free,  fatty  acids  and  gly- 
cerin. Salt  tends  to  [irevent  this  fermentation,  and  some- 
times white  sugar  and  saltpeter  are  added  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, but  the  complete  removal  of  the  buttermilk  is  of  much 
more  importance  than  the  addition  of  preservatives.  When 
freshly  made  from  the  milk  of  cows  that  are  fed  upon  grass 
or  succulent  food.  Imtter  is  of  a  golden  yellow  color  and 
granular  texture ;  but  upon  dry  food,  especially  upon  the 
poorer  kinds,  the  butter  is  paler,  even  to  whiteness.  Tlie 
texture  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  granules  when  churn- 
ing is  stopped,  and  upon  the  care  used  in  working.  Certain 
breeds  of  cows,  notably  those  of  the  Channel  islands,  Jersey 
and  (Guernsey,  impart  a  high  color  to  the  butter  made  from 
their  milk.  The  poorer  and  paler  kinds  of  butter  are  often 
artificially  colored,  usually  with  an  extract  of  annotto  grouiul 
in  oil.  Butter  varies  very  much  in  composition,  mainly  in 
the  propiu'tions  of  fat  and  water,  and  these  are  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  care  taken  in  working  it.  Butter  of  good 
quality  should  have  a  composition  about  as  follows : 

Fat per  cent.  84 

Casein 2 

Ash  (iiieluding  salt) 3 

Water 11 

Total 100 

The  proportion  of  fat  in  butter  may  vary  from  77  percent, 
to  93  per  cent.;  it  should  not  be  less  than  SO  per  cent.,  and 
the  percentage  of  water  should  not  exceed  15.  liutter  melts 
at  from  'Xi  to  06°  F.,  .-ind  the  melting-point  or  luiruness  is 
an  imporlant  ]ioint  in  the  (piality  "f  butter.  The  hardness 
varies  with  the  varying  pro])ortions  of  olein.  pjdiuilin.  and 
stearin  in  the  butter,  and  these  vary  with  the  individuality 
and  breed  of  the  cow.  with  the  kind  of  food,  and  with  the 
length  of  time  the  cow  has  been  in  milk.  With  cows  fresh 
in  milk  in  the  spring,  and  fed  on  fresh  grass,  the  olein. 
stearin,  and  palmitin  are  usually  found  in  the  proportion  of 
about  50,  yo,  and  30.    Later  in  the  season,  when  the  cows  are 


further  advanced  in  milk,  and  the  pastures  drier  and  harder, 
the  proportions  may  be  found  to  have  changed  to  80  of  olein, 
50  of  stearin,  and  20  of  palmitin. 

Tlie  Buffer  Business. — The  average  yield  of  butter  is  1  lb. 
from  23  to  25  lb.  of  milk.  The  average  milk  vield  of  the 
cows  of  the  U.  S.  is  from  3.000  to  3.500  lb.  per  aiinuni.  This 
would  indicate  a  butter  yield  of  120  to  150  lb.  per  cow  per 
annum,  and  is  probalily  not  far  from  the  amount  actually 
produced.  There  are,  however,  numerous  dairies  scattered 
through  the  whole  country  where  the  butter  yield  amounts 
to  300  lb.  and  over  per  cow  per  year,  and  individual  instances 
are  on  record  where  single  cows  have  produced  700.  800,  900, 
and  in  one  case  1.153  lb.  15J  oz.  in  a  single  year.  Such  rec- 
ords serve  to  show  that  the  butter-producing  capacity  of  the 
cows  of  the  country  is  capable  of  a  niuch  higher  develop- 
ment than  that  now  attained.  A  great  stimulus  to  the  pro- 
duction of  butter,  and  an  important  factor  in  the  improve- 
ment of  its  quality,  was  the  establishment  of  butter  factories, 
or  creameries,  as  they  are  called.  They  liave  been  in  success- 
ful operation  now  for  about  twenty  years,  and  are  scattered 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  U.  S..  but  are  found  in  greatest 
numbers  in  the  States  of  Wisconsin.  Illinois.  Iowa,  and  Min- 
nesota. In  these  factories  it  is  iiossible  tn  make  up  the  but- 
ter from  a  large  number  of  cows  owned  by  many  patrons, 
under  the  su|iervision  of  a  single  man.  with  the  greatest  skill 
and  with  the  most  approved  machinery.  The  direct  effect  is 
to  remove  from  the  farm,  and  piirticidarly  from  the  farm- 
house, a  large  amount  of  drudgery,  to  economize  the  labor 
and  minimize  the  cost  of  production,  and  to  manufacture  a 
product  of  a  uniformly  high  quality.  These  factories  are 
often  co-ojierative.  and  so  return  to  the  patrons  the  largest 
possible  net  amount  from  the  raw  materials.  In  some  of 
the  factories  the  milk  is  brought  to  the  factory  and  the 
cream  .separated  by  large  centrifugal  machines;  in  others, 
the  milk  is  set  for  creaming  at  the  farm,  usually  by  a  cold, 
deep-setting  process,  and  only  the  cream  taken  to  the  factory 
by  wagons  that  go  aliout  from  farm  to  farm  for  the  jnirpose 
of  gathering  it.  The  pooling  of  milk,  and  particularly  of 
cream,  from  a  large  number  of  iiatrons.  usually  varying  quite 
widely  in  quality,  gave  rise  to  some  difficulty  in  the  matter 
of  making  a  just  and  equitable  division  of  returns.  At  first, 
the  milk  was  paid  for.  or  the  dividends  made  on  the  basis  of 
the  weight  or  measure  of  the  milk  or  cream.  This  was  soon 
found  to  be  unsatisfactory,  particularly  to  those  patrons  who 
furnished  the  best  quality  of  either  milk  or  cream,  and  va- 
rious means  were  devised  for  quickly  and  easily  determining 
the  true  butter-producing  value  of  any  given  samjile  of  milk 
or  cream.  None  of  these  were  entirely  satisfactory,  and  it 
was  not  until  1890  that  Dr.  Babcock  hit  u])on  a  means,  ijartly 
chemical,  partly  mechanical,  and  known  as  the  "  Babcock 
test,"  liy  means  of  which  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk  may 
be  easily,  quickly,  cheajily.  and  accurately  determined.  In  a 
large  number  of  factories  this  method  is  now  u.sed  with  the 
best  .satisfaction  for  determining  the  ]iercentage  of  fat  in 
each  patron's  milk  each  day.  and  the  dividends  are  ajjpor- 
tioiKHl  among  the  several  patrons,  not  on  the  basis  of  the 
quarts  or  pounds  furnished,  but  u]ion  the  jiounds  of  fat  pres- 
ent in  the  milk.  While  there  is  nothing  about  the  process  of 
manufacturing  butter  in  large  quantities  in  butter  factories 
that  of  itself  should  make  the  butter  of  any  better  i|uality  or 
even  so  good  as  can  be  made  with  the  same  care  ii|i()ii  the 
farms  where  the  milk  is  produced,  still,  from  the  fact  that 
upon  a  large  majority  of  farms  sufficient  care  is  not  exercised, 
and  because  of  the  advantages  which  the  factory  has  in  mar- 
keting large  amounts  of  butter  of  a  uniform  quality,  the  fac- 
tory system  is  usually  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  way 
in  which  the  producer  of  the  milk  may  turn  it  into  butter 
with  the  largest  recompense  in  money. 

Friiudu/i'iif  preparafiiin-i  are  often  widely  advertised  and 
extensively  sold  among  the  unsophisticated  for  largely  in- 
creasing the  yi(>ld  of  bvitter.  Tlie.se  preparations  are  usually 
known  as  butter  powders,  and  are  largely  composed  of  alum 
or  some  similar  substance,  whose  effect  is  to  coagulate  the 
casein  and  enable  the  operator  to  mix  it  with  the  butter, 
forming  a  frothy  mixture  of  sour  curd  and  liutter  fat.  The 
directions  for  the  use  of  a  certain  one  of  these.  comi>osed  of 
ei|ual  parts  of  alum  and  sugar,  are  typical  of  all :  "To  a  quart 
of  milk  twelve  hours  old  add  1  lb.  of  butter;  warm  by  setting 
the  churn  in  blood-warm  water.  Add  a  teaspoonfnl  of  the 
)iowder  and  churn  as  usual.  You  will  have  2^  lb.  of  delicious 
frc'sh  butter."  It  is  needless  to  say  that  such  a  mixture  is  not 
butter  at  all,  and  is  anything  but  delicious. 

The  aduUeratiims  most  frequently  founil  in  butter  are 
excess  of  water  and  salt.     Thcv  mav  be  detected  and  esti- 


BUTTER 


BfTTKRFLY 


857 


mated  by  melting  a  weighed  quantity  of  tlie  butter  and  al- 
liiwing  them  to  settle  out.  Lard  ami  other  inferior  fats  arc 
sometimes  mixed  with  butler  by  unscrupulous  groeers,  but 
are  eiusily  delected.  Tlie  chief  competitor,  however,  of  butter 
is  known  as 

Arliftvial  Buffer. — Artificial  butter,  whose  base  is  suet,  is 
usually  known  in  tlu'  market  as  ufroiiuirr/iiriiie ;  that  made 
from  the  fat  of  swine  is  called  tmfterine  or  tiuine.  (See  IJl'T- 
TKR,  Artikh'iai,.  below,)  With  improved  processes  the  pro- 
duction largely  increased,  and  oleonuirgarinc  became  a  very 
serious  compel ilcu-  of  real  l)utter  in  the  markets.  While 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  good  and  cheap  substitute  for 
the  poorer  grades  of  butter,  still  from  the  facts  that  impure 
and  ofti-n  diseased  materials  were  used  in  its  mainifacture, 
that  oleonuirgarinc  is  believed  by  many  to  be  less  digestible 
in  the  human  stomach  than  pure  butter, and,  most  important 
of  all,  that  oleoMiargarine  was  fraudulently  put  upon  the 
marki't  as  pure  butter.  Congress,  at  the  earnest  solicitation 
(if  dairyuuMi  and  against  the  nu)st  vigorous  efforts  of  the 
oleonuirgaiine  unmufaeturei's,  on  Aug.  2,  18H6,  passed  a  law, 
known  as  the  Oleomargarine  Act,  the  ]>rovisions  of  which 
were  lus  fol  lows :  A  special  tax  of  ijeoO  is  levied  on  manu- 
facturers, a  tax  of  sSs-feO  cm  wholesale  dealers,  and  a  tax  of 
$4H  on  retail  dealci-s.  Hesides  this,  a  stamp  tax  of  two  cents 
per  pouiul  is  assessi'd  on  every  pound,  or  package  containing 
a  fraction  of  a  pound,  maiuifaclured  in  the  V.  S. ;  and  upon 
that  importe<l  from  other  countries  a  tax  of  fifteen  cents  a 
pi>un<l  is  levied,  besides  anv  customs  dutv.  For  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  18!)1,  ?1,077,!)2-1  were  collected  by  the 
internal  revenue  department  under  this  act.  The  effect  of 
this  law  has  not  been  such  .is  was  hoped  by  its  framers — to 
prohibit  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine — for  the  amount 
manufactured  has  actually  increased  since  the  passage  of 
the  act.  The  law,  however,  has  not  failed  in  noteworthy  re- 
sults. It  has  helped  to  raise  the  price  of  butter,  especially 
that  of  good  butter,  by  preventing  oleomargarine  from  mas- 
querading as  a  more  exi)ensive  article.  It  has  kept  the 
price  of  oleomargarine  down,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
consunu'rs.  by  compelling  it  to  l)e  sold  under  its  own  nanu\ 
It  has  reliev<Ml  that  product  from  the  reproach  of  being  a 
fraudulent  artiide.  and  has  given  it  an  honorable  position  in 
conuuerci'  as  a  legitinuite  means  of  utilizing  waste  pnxlucts, 
and  as  a  clie.ip.  wholesome  substitute  for  an  expensive  ne- 
cessity. Hesiiles  the  national  act,  numy  of  the  States  have 
also  pas.seil  laws  governing  the  uninufacture  and  sale  of  arti- 
ficial butler,  and  some  of  them,  notably  New  York,  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  actually  prohibit  them.  The  Xew  York 
law  has  been  in  o|)eralioTi  for  several  years:  it  was  bilterly 
attacked  by  the  nnumfacturers  of  oleonnu'<;arine,  but  has 
been  ileclarcd  conslilutional  by  the  highest  State  court. 

Ve(/t;fnf/fi'  Huffera. — The  name  "  butter"  is  applied  to  sev- 
eral vegetable  fats,  such  as  palm,  cacao,  cocoanut,  nutnu'g, 
and  shc!a  butler.  The  latter  is  nnule  from  a  nut  like  the 
olive,  and  is  used  in  .\frica  as  a  substitute  for  butter. 

Mefaftic  liiitfcr-s. — In  chemistry  the  name  butter  was  for- 
merly applied  to  certain  oily  compounds  which  resend)led 
melted  butter:  as  the  butter  of  anlimouy.  bismuth,  zinc,  and 
tin,  which  were  the  chlorides  of  the  respective  metals.  Bog 
bitlfi'r  is  a  fossil  butter  fouiul  occasionally  in  the  Irish  peat- 
bogs. It  is  believed  to  have  been  made  by  man.  BocI;  buf- 
fer is  an  iron  ahnn  which  apjicars  as  a  pasty  exudation  on 
alum  slates.  IIkxrv  II.  Wi.no. 

Butter,  ARTiFirni,,  Itiitteriiie.  Olooiiiarg'ariiip:  mix- 
tures of  various  fats  prepared  as  substitutes  for  butter.  A 
French  chemist,  Mege-.'louries,  first  devised  a  method  of 
imiking  artilieial  l>utter  on  the  large  scale,  which  he  de- 
.seribed  in  1870  as  follows:  "The  tat  of  best  quality  from  re- 
centlv  killed  bulkicks  is  finely  cut  in  a  kind  of  sausage- 
grinder  in  order  to  break  up  the  nu'mbranes.  The  fragments 
fall  into  a  tank  heated  with  steam,  which  for  every  1.000 
parts  of  fat  contains  :iOO  parts  of  water  anil  1  part  of  car- 
bonate of  potasli.  and  two  stomachs  of  sheep  or  pigs.  The 
temperature  of  the  mixture  is  raised  to  45  t".  After  two 
hours,  under  the  inlluence  of  the  pepsin  in  the  stomach,  the 
membranes  are  dissolvi'd  and  the  fat  melted  and  risen  to  the 
top  of  the  mixture.  The  fat  is  next  drawn  off  into  a  second 
timk.  kept  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature,  and  3  per 
cent,  of  common  salt  addeil.  After  two  hours  nn>re  the  fat 
becomes  clear  and  taki's  on  a  yi'llow  color,  and  accpiires 
somewhat  the  taste  anil  0(U)r  of  fresh  butter.  The  fat  is 
IU)W  drawn  off  into  vessels  and  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  then 
cut  into  |)ieces.  wrapped  in  linen,  and  put  in  a  hvdraulic 
press  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  25    (.'.     liy  pres- 


sure the  fat  is  separated  into  two  nortions,  viz. :  stearin  40  to 
50  per  cent.,  and  fluid  oleo  .50  to  60  per  cent.  The  stearin 
remaining  in  the  presses  is  used  in  candle-nuiking." 

Since  1.S70  numy  patents  have  been  issued  tor  the  prepara- 
tion of  artificial  butter,  and  large  quantities  are  numufae- 
tured.  All  the  methods  have  this  in  common,  that  they  in- 
volve the  use  of  animal  fats  other  than  butter.  In  some  of 
them  CoTToNSF.KU  <  in,  <</.  v.)  is  used.  One  of  the  largest 
manufacturers  of  artilieial  butter  in  the  U.  S.  thus  describes 
the  process : 

••  The  fat  is  taken  from  the  cattle  in  the  process  of  slaugh- 
tering, and,  after  thorough  washing,  is  phu'ed  in  a  bath  of 
clean,  cold  water,  and  surrounded  with  ice,  where  it  is  al- 
lowed to  renuiin  until  all  animal  heat  has  been  renuned.  It 
is  then  cut  into  small  pieces,  .  .  .  and  cooked  at  about  150' 
F.  until  the  fat.  in  licpiid  form,  has  scimrated  from  the 
fibrin  or  tissue:  then  settled  until  it  is  perfectly  clear. 
Then  it  is  drawn  into  graining-vats  and  allowed  to  "stand  a 
day,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  ]iresses.  The  ]nvssing  extracts 
the  stearin,  leaving  tlu'  renuiiuing  product,  which  is  com- 
mercially known  as  oleo  oil,  which  when  churned  with  cream 
or  milk,  m-  both,  and  with  usually  a  snuill  proportion  of 
creamery  butter,  the  whole  being  properly  salted,  gives  the 
new  food-product  (jfenmarf/tiriiie.  ...  In  making  butter- 
ine  we  use  neutral  lard,  which  is  made  from  selected  leaf 
lard  in  a  very  similar  mamu'r  to  oleo  oil,  excepting  that  no 
stearin  is  extracted.  This  neutral  lard  is  cured  in  salt  brine 
for  forty-eight  to  seventy  hours,  at  an  ice-water  tempera- 
ture. It  is  then  taken,  and,  with  the  desired  proportion  of 
oleo  oil  and  fine  butter,  is  churned  with  cream  and  milk, 
producing  an  article  which,  when  pi-o]ierly  salted  and 
]>acked,  is  ready  for  nuirket.  In  both  cases  coloring-nuitter 
IS  useii,  which  is  the  same  as  that  used  by  dairymen  to  color 
their  butter.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  viz.,  in  cold 
weather,  a  snuill  quantity  of  salad  oil  made  from  cottonseed 
is  used  to  .soften  the  texture  of  the  product,  but  this  is  not 
generally  used  by  us." 

It  is  the  general  opinion  of  those  who  have  studied  the 
subject  that  artificial  butter  is  a  wholesnnu'  article  of  food. 
Its  compositiiin  is  very  similar  to  that  of  natural  butter,  and 
exjieriments  have  shown  that  the  two  are  aliout  eijually  di- 
gestible. The  prejudice  against  oleomargarine  is  largely 
due  to  ignorance.  Methods  of  analysis  have  been  devised 
by  which  it  is  possible  to  determine  whether  a  given  specinuui 
is  natural  or  artificial  butter.  Ir.v  Re.msen. 

Ituttcrcii)) :  See  KAXfXCULUS. 

Hut'lerlield.  D.vxikl  :  b.  in  Utica,  Oneida  co.,  X.  Y.,  Oct. 
31,  18;U  ;  educated  at  I'liion  College :  went  into  nuux-antile 
pursuits;  became  colonel  of  a  nnlitia  regiment  which  he  led 
to  Washington  aiul  to  Patterson's  Shenaruloah  anny  on  the 
breaking  out  of  I  he  civil  war:  w'as  nuulc  brigadier-general 
of  voluiUeers  Sejit.,  ISOl  ;  nuijiu'-general  Nov.,  1SG2.  au<l  at 
the  same  time  coUmel  of  the  Fifth  Infantry  in  the  regular 
army;  took  part  in  numy  actions  under  (iens.  McClellaii, 
Po])e.  and  Hurnside;  was  chief  of  (ien.  Hooker's  staff  at 
Chancellorsville  and  Lookout  Mountain,  and  in  the  cam- 
paign to  .Atlanta.  He  was  breveted  major-general  in  the 
regular  army;  resigned  in  18Ci):  sub-treasurer  of  the  U.  S. 
in  Xew  York:  then  in  the  express  business.  Published 
Camp  titi(f  Oufpoxf  l)i(fi/  (IHtii). 

Biittor-fisli :  a  small  silver  flat -bodied  fish  of  the  family 
SfroiiKifiiilif  (•Sfmtiiiifi'ux  friiiniiiflius)  fmnul  along  the  At- 
lantic coasts  of  the  l'.  S.  Its  llesh  is  fat,  whence  the  name, 
and  it  is  much  valued  as  food.  The  name  is  applied  to 
other  fishes,  as  the  gunnel  (Muneninde))  gunneltufi)  of  the 
North  .Mlanlic. 

Uiitterfly  :  the  common  name  of  the  Rhopalocera  or  day- 
flying  Lei'iLopteka  (q.  v.).  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
other  Lepidoptera  (moths)  by  the  diurnal  habits,  the  an- 
tenna>  enlarged  or  clubbed  at  the  tip,  ami  by  holding  the 
wings,  when  at  rest,  folded  vertically  over  the  back.  Other 
characters  must  be  sought  in  entomological  treatises.  Hut- 
terflies  are  usually  divided  into  five  "  families."  In  the  llex- 
peridte.  commonly  called  skippei's  on  account  of  their  jerky 
flight,  the  antenna"  are  bent  or  hooked  at  the  tip.  These  arc 
mostly  small,  dark-colored  forms,  with  large  abdomens,  more 
like  those  of  moths  than  of  other  butterflies.  In  the  four 
other  families  distinguished  from  one  another  by  characters 
too  technical  for  consideration  here,  the  club  of  the  auteniiio 
is  not  lauit.  The  I'apitionidie  includes  the  sw.dlow-tailed 
butterflies,  large  forms  of  remarkable  lieauty,  of  which 
about  twenty-five  species  occur  in  the  l'.  S.  The  larva^  of 
these  are  noiieeable  from  the  fact  that  they  possess  t\vo  pro- 


858 


BUTTERFLY-WEED 


BUTTON 


trusible  fleshy  horns  which  emit  a  disagreeable  odor,  thus 
serving  as  organs  of  defense.  Tlie  Pieridk  are  smaller  forms, 
white,  yellow,  or  orange  in  color.  Here  belong  the  Cabbage 
Butterflies  (q.  v.).  The  Lycwnidce,  are  still  smaller,  and 
our  common  species  are  usually  divided  into  the  blues,  the 
coppers,  and  the  hair-streaks,  according  to  the  color  and  or- 
namentation of  the  wings.  There  are  about  125  species 
known  in  the  U.  S.  The  largest  family  of  Imtterflies  is  the 
2fi/mphaliclce,  the  members  of  which  vie  with  the  swallow- 
tails in  size.  In  these  the  fore  legs  are  so  reduced  in  size 
that  they  are  of  no  use  in  walking.  Most  striking  of  the 
family  are  the  large  JMorphos  of  Brazil,  with  an  eyelike  spot 
on  each  hind  wing.  The  Heliconias  of  the  same  regions 
should  also  be  mentioned.  These  are  strong-flying,  narrow- 
winged  forms,  which  are  protected  from  birds,  etc..  by  their 
disagreeable  odor  and  taste.  In  the  same  regions  are  nu- 
merous Pierids  which  have  no  such  protection,  but  which 
so  closely  resemble  the  Heliconias  in  form,  color,  and  mode 
of  flight,  that  no  bird  having  once  tasted  a  Heliconia  would 
be  apt  to  take  one  of  them.  Some  species  of  yymphalidce 
have  a  wide  distribution.  Thus  the  morning  cloak  or  Cam- 
berwell  beauty  { Vanessa  antiopa)  is  common  to  the  north 
temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  while  the  Vanessa 
cardui  occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  globe  except  South  America 
and  the  Arctic  regions. 

A  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  butterflies  is  the 
Di-  or  Polymorphism  {q.  v.)  existing  in  many  sjiecies.  Thus 
the  swallow-tail  Papilio  ajar,  of  the  U.  S.  passes  the  winter 
in  the  chrysalis  state.  Those  which  emerge  from  the  chrysa- 
lis early  in  spring  have  the  markings  of  the  form  earlier 
known  as  P.  marcellus.  while  those  that  emerge  in  the  sum- 
mer are  known  as  P.  telamonides.  Both  of  these  lay  eggs, 
from  which  are  developed  in  the  same  season  butterflies  of 
the  ajar  type,  and  from  these  come  the  chrysalids. 

In  spite  of  their  beauty  butterflies  must  be  regarded  as 
pests,  since  their  larvje  feed  ujion  vegetation,  and  sometimes 
occur  in  such  numbers  as  to  do  great  damage.  They  have 
always  been  favorites  with  collectors.  See  Lepidoptera.  and 
Kirby's  Synonymic  Catalogue  of  Diurnal  Lepidoptera  (Lon- 
don, 1871-77).  J.  S.  K. 

Butterfly-WPed :  the  Asdepias  fiiberosa:  an  herbaceous 
plant  which  is  indigenous  in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  and  is 
sometimes  called  Pleurisy  Root.  It  has  nearly  sessile 
leaves,  varying  from  linear  to  oblong-lanceolate,  and  has 
showy,  orange-colored  flowers.  The  root  is  diaphoretic  and 
expectorant,  and  has  been  used  in  medicine.     See  ^Vsclepias. 

Biitteriiie:  See  Butter,  Artificial. 

Bntteriiiilk  :  the  part  of  milk  that  remains  after  the 
butter  has  been  separated  from  it.  It  contains  casein,  sugar, 
water,  and  all  the  original  ingredients  of  milk,  except  the 
greater  part  of  oily  matter.  It  is  a  nutritious  beverage,  and 
is  extensively  used  in  many  places  as  food. 

Butternut,  or  White  Walnut:  the  Juf/lans  cinerea,  and 
its  fruit,  which  is  indigenous  in  the  U.  S.  The  tree  grows 
to  the  height  of  from  tit)  to  7.5  feet,  with  gray  bark  and 
widely  spreading  branches,  and  lias  oblong-lanceolate  downy 
leaflets,  which  are  serrate,  pointed,  and  rounded  at  the  base. 
The  petioles  and  brancblets  are  downy  also,  and  have 
clammy  hairs.  The  fruit  is  oblong  and' clammy,  and  con- 
tains an  oily,  eatable  kernel.  The  nut  is  deeply  sculptured 
and  rough  with  ragged  ridges,  and  is  two-celled  at  the,  base. 
The  wood  is  valuable  in  the  arts,  and  contrasts  finely  with 
black  walnut.  The  nuts,  if  gathered  in  June,  can  be  made 
into  fine  pickles.  The  name  Butternut  is  given  also  to  a 
South  American  tree,  Caryocar  nuriferum  (family  Ternslroe- 
TOMCMC), which beai-s  large  drupes  containiugfourone-seeded 
edible  nuts.  Revised  l)y  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Bulfer.  Shea:  See  Bassia. 

Hntter-trees:  species  of  East  Indian  trees  of  the  genus 
Bassia  and  family  Sapotaceo!,  so  named  on  account  of  the 
butter-like  fat  obtained  from  their  .seeds,  and  used  as  food. 
There  are  other  fat-yielding  trees  which  bear  this  name. 

Butterwort :  an  herbaceous  plant  of  t  he  ftemiii Pi iiyuicula 
and  family  Leiililiutaridrea; :  distinguished  bv  a  two-li])ped 
calyx  the  upper  lip  trifid,  Ibe  lower  bifid:  and  a  spurred 
corolla,  two-lipj)ed  and  gaping,  the  upper  lip  arclied.  The 
Pinyuieula  vulgaris  is  a  snniU  stemless  perennial,  growing 
in  marshes  and  on  wet  rocks  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  It 
has  the  jrower  of  coagulating  milk,  and  is  used  for  that  pur- 
jiosc  by  the  Laplanders.     Revised  by  (Iiiarles  E.  Bessev. 

But'tenvorth.  Hezekiam  :  journalist :  b.  in  Warren.  R.  1., 
'1i;c.  •,">,  ls:!<).     Became  a.ssistant  editor  of  the  Youth's  Cim- 


panion.  Boston,  in  1871,  and  has  published  much  jinpular 
juvenile  literature,  such  as  Zigzag  Journeys  (1878-90)  etc. 

Buttlar.  booflar,  Eva,  von :  b.  at  Eschwege,  in  Hesse,  in 
1670 :  in  1687  married  to  De  Vesias,  a  French  emigrant  who 
lived  at  the  ducal  court  of  Eisenach  as  dancing  and  fencing 
master  and  tutor  to  the  pages ;  lived  here  for  several  years  ; 
in  1697,  having  met  with  the  famous  Pietist,  Vockerodt  of 
(iotha.  she  changed  the  whole  character  of  her  life,  left  her 
husliand.  and  returned  to  her  native  town.  Her  religious 
enthusiasm  soon  degenerated  into  faiuiticism  and  blas]ihemv. 
On  .Tan.  2.  1702.  a  new  "Christian  "congregation  was  formed 
at  Allendorf,  in  Hesse,  in  which  she  was  worshiiied  first  as 
the  Holy  Ghost,  afterward  as  the  mother  of  the  Ijord,  who 
should  give  birth  to  the  new  Christ.  In  spite  of  the  public 
indignation  aroused  by  many  immoral  pi-actices.  the  congre- 
gation maintained  itself  for  "some  twelve  years.  The  move- 
ment cast  reproach  upon  all  Pietists.  D.  at  Altona,  near 
Hamburg,  about  1717.  See  E.  F.  Keller,  Die  Buttlarische 
Rotte  in  Niedner's  Zeitschrifft  fur  liisl.  Tlieologie  (tSio) ; 
and  Jl.  Goebel,  Geschichte  des  cliristlichen  Lehens  in  der 
rliein-westplial.  evang.  Kirche  (2  vols.,  Coblenz,  18.52,  ii.  728- 
809) ;  and  her  Life  by  Ludwig  Christiany  (Stuttgart,  1870). 

Buttmann,  boot  man,  Pnii.ipp  Karl:  i)hilologist ;  b.  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Germany.  Dec.  .5,  1764;  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  Royal  Liljrary  of  Berlin  in  1796, 
and  chief  librarian  of  the  same  in  1811.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Xiebuhr,  and  an  excellent  Greek  scholar.  He  edited  sev- 
eral Greek  classics,  and  i>ublished,  besides  other  works,  a 
Greek  Grammar  for  Schools  (1792):  a  large  Greek  Gram- 
mar (AusfUhrliche  Griechische  Sprachlehre,  unfinished) ; 
and  Lerilogus.  or  Erplanation  of  the  Greek  ^yords  (1818). 
I),  in  Berlin,  June  21,  1829. 

IJiitt'ner.  Christian  Wilhelm  :  b.  at  ^\  ilfenbiittel, 
Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1716;  was  for  many  years  profes- 
sor in  the  University  of  Gottingen  ;  died  at  Jemi  in  1801. 
He  traveled  extensively,  and  made  very  comprehensive 
studies  of  languages  and  of  natural  history.  He  gave  the 
first  idea  of  a  glossography,  or  geography  of  languages,  and 
formed  rich  collections  of  natural  history.  In  honor  of  him 
Leopling  named  a  species  of  plants  belonging  to  the  six- 
teenth class  of  the  system  of  Linna?us,  and  comprising  sev- 
eral tropical  shrubs  related  to  the  cocoa-tree,  BUttneria. 

Button  [from  0.  Fr.  hoton,  bud,  knob,  button:  Ital.  hoi- 
tone:  S]ian.  hoton  ;  deriv.  of  0.  Fr.  holer  >  Mod.  Fr.  bouter, 
slioof.  thrust,  a  word  of  Teutonic  origin  ;  cf.  (>.  II.  G.  bozan, 
l-ieat :  ().  Eng.  heatan  >  Eng.  beat]  :  an  articde  of  dress  of 
various  forms,  used  either  for  ornament  or  for  fastening  to- 
gether the  parts  of  a  dress  by  means  of  a  loop  or  worked  liut- 
tonhole.  Buttons  are  used  for  various  articles  of  male  and 
female  a]iparel.  and  for  hats,  bonnets,  shoes,  and  gloves.  The 
word  is  also  applied  in  carpentry  to  a  flat  oblong  piece  of  wood 
or  metal,  turning  on  a  nail  or  screw,  to  fasten  doors  and  the 
like  ;  and  in  assaying  to  a  round  mass  of  metal  remaining 
in  the  cupel  after  fusion  :  but  the  use  of  the  word  in  rela- 
tion to  articles  of  dress  is  the  one  of  most  importance.  The 
buttiui  is  generally  considered  a  sign  of  civilization.  The 
savage  fastens  his  blanket  or  tunic,  his  leggings  and  moc- 
casins, with  strings,  and  has  no  idea  of  buttonhole  or  but- 
ton ;  and  it  is  only  when  a  considerable  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion is  attained  that  we  find  buttons  taking  the  pilace  of 
strings  or  lacings,  while  fashion,  in  the  artificial  comlition 
of  society  in  great  cities,  requires  a  profusion  of  buttons,  not 
so  much  for  use  as  for  ornament.  Except  the  occasional  use 
of  a  gem  to  fasten  the  toga  at  the  neck,  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans seem  to  have  had  no  idea  of  buttons,  as  indeed  their 
flowing  robes  did  not  require  them.  They  were  first  applied 
to  dresses  (])rol)ably  in  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century) 
for  purposes  of  ornament  only,  but  somewhat  later  the 
buttonhole,  an  exjiansion  of  the  idea  of  the  loop,  was  in- 
venteil,  and  the  button  became  indispensidile  for  the  dress. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventceutli  century  the  numufac- 
ture  of  buttons  had  attained  some  im|:iortaiice  in  England, 
Birmingham  being  then,  a-s  now,  its  ])rinci]ial  seat.  These 
buttons  were  of  cloth,  covering  a  wooden  disk,  of  gold,  steel, 
and  ivory,  the  last  three  the  work  of  tlie  goldsmiths,  who 
were  very  expert  in  the  arts  of  <'hasing  and  carving  metals. 
Some  of  the  steel  buttons  made  at  tlie  Soho  works  about 
this  time  were  sold  at  140  guineas  the  gross,  or  almost  ^.5 
the  button.  About  174.5  Jlatthcw  Boulton  made  many  im- 
provements in  inlaid  and  steel  buttons.  Gilt  buttons  came 
into  use  soon  after  the  accession  of  George  III.  in  1760,  and 
John  Taylor,  of  Birmingham,  originally  a  cabinetmak<'r, 
patentcMl  many  improvements  in  gilt,  i)lated,  and  lacquei-ed 


BUTTON 


BUTTRESS 


859 


buttons.  The  making  of  the  shanks  oi'  eyes  of  these  hiit- 
tdiis  was  improveil  by  Halph  Ileaton,  also  of  Birmiiif;lmni. 
not  far  fioiii  IHOO.  Tliis  is  still  a  sc|>iinilc  Imiin-h  of  the 
business  at  Biiininjjhaui.  From  ITfiO  to  the  present  lime 
the  Muinulueture  of  buttons  has  l]een  a  eonstantly  growing 
inihistry  in  (ireat  Britain,  Kranee.  Switzerland,  and  tlie  U.  S. 
All  descriptions  of  buttons  nuiy  be  elassed  under  three  dis- 
tinct lieads — viz.,  shank  Imltoii.s,  liole  buttons,  and  covered 
buttons— but  each  kind  is  made  of  a  jrreat  variety  of  materials 
and  an  almost  infinite  divei'sily  of  forms.  The  covered  t)ut- 
lons.  liavinj;  a  basis  of  wood,  lirass,  zinc,  or  tin,  have  their  eov- 
erin;;  of  farmer's  satin,  prunella,  broadcloth,  brocade,  velvet, 
silk,  mohair,  {rrenadine,  twist,  linen,  <()tton,  anil  in  short, 
t'Very  d<'Scri|>tion  of  textile  fabric.  Both  the  shank  and  the 
covered  buttons  are  to  a  considerable  extent  made  on  the 
.shell  plan — i.  e.  the  face  of  the  b\ittiin  is  stamped  out  of  a 
thin  slieet  of  metal — and  may  have  a  Hat,  nval.  ur  round  sur- 
face, a-s  desire<l ;  and  the  back  or  under  surface  is  also 
stamped,  and.  its  edges  beini;  turned,  it  is  pressed  into  the 
upper  shell  and  locked  there  by  the  pressure.  The  principle 
on  which  all  shell  buttons  are  nnide  was  lirsl  devised  by  B. 
.Sanders,  a  Dane,  who  had  lost  most  of  his  property  in  Co- 
penhagen in  the  bondiardment  of  that  city  in  1S()7.  and 
removed  to  Birminghairi,  England,  where  he  lommenced  the 
mamifacture  ot  buttons.  He  applii'd  it  oidy  to  cov<'red 
buttons,  whii'h  he  made  of  sheet  brass  or  tin  in  two  part.s, 
the  upper  blank  or  disk  having  its  edge  turned  up  and  being 
<'overed  with  cloth,  silk,  or  lasting,  and  the  under  blank, 
which  was  suuvller  than  the  uiiper  and  convex  in  form,  hav- 
ing a  wire  shank,  and  the  cloth  and  paper  or  cardboard 
which  was  to  keep  it  in  plac<>  put  inside  of  it.  and  the  two 
were  presscil  together,  the  tununl  edges  interlocking  so  us  to 
make  a  perfect  button.  An  improvement  was  made  in  these 
by  a  son  of  Mr.  Sanders,  the  lower  blank  having  a  circular 
hole  in  it  (and  receiving  in  consequence  the  name  of  "col- 
let ■■),  through  which  in  the  act  of  pressing  the  two  blanks 
together  a  portion  of  the  cloth  or  textile  inside  of  the  collet 
was  thrust,  so  as  to  make  a  flexible  cloth  shank  in  place  of 
till' wire  one.  Other  modifications  were  mailc  by  other  in- 
ventors which  reduced  the  price  and  greatly  increased  ihe 
facility  of  proiluction.  One  of  these  was  the  production  of 
what  is  known  as  the  silk-liack  button,  which  dispenses  with 
the  collet,  though  it  substitutes  for  it  a  roun<l  piece  of  slieet 
iron  smaller  than  the  upper  blank.  The  .so-called  silk-back 
is  a  very  thick  heavy  cloth  having  a  silk  face,  which  is  cut 
out,  of  the  proper  size,  by  a  die,  its  back  having  first  been 
coated  with  a  heavy  sizing:  a  filling  of  soft  spongy  [laperis 
placed  upon  this  sizing,  ami  the  back  is  then  gathered  over 
ihe  small  blank  of  slieet  iron  and  ]iressed  into  the  upper 
blank  or  shell,  which  had  previously  lieen  covereil  with 
the  proper  material,  and  the  liutton  is  completed,  no  metal 
appearing  upon  eithersui-face.  In  the  shell-covered  buttons 
sheet  iron  is  now  used  for  the  bl.'inks.  and  where  the  metal 
show.s,  as  in  the  ordinary  flexible  shank  buttons,  it  is  la<'- 
(piered.  The  process  for  making  the  metallii- shell  buttons 
is  different,  though  the  principle  is  the  same.  These  liiit- 
tons,  whether  of  flat  or  oval  surface,  and  whether  tigureil  or 
plain,  are  made  from  rolled  brass  plate:  originally  the  flat 
buttons  were  .solid  and  struck  out  as  blanks  from  a  thick 
plate,  the  eye  or  shank  soldered  on,  and  the  whole  finished, 
polished,  and  gilt,  or  silvered  by  the  old  cream-ol-lartar 
process  for  silvering  or  the  mercury  amalgam  for  gild- 
ing. It  was  said  that  by  this  l.-itter  process  six  cents"  worth 
of  gold  would  sullice  for  gilding  a  gross  of  l>nttons.  Both 
proee.-ises  have  Ix'iMi  superseded  l)V  electro-plating.  (See 
(iil.uiN'u  and  Elkctro-I'L.vtixo.)  When  buttons  began  to  be 
made  on  the  sliidl  plan  the  upper  blank  was  forced  by  the 
falling  of  a  heavy  weight  into  a  finely  cTigraved  die  of  hard- 
ened .steel,  which  gave  it  the  oval  lorm  and  the  beautifully 
ornamented  surfa<'c.  and  the  nndi'r  blank  into  another  die, 
which  stamped  upon  it  the  maker"s  name  or  trade-mark, 
and  at  a  later  date  riveted  the  shank  (which  befor<'  had  been 
soldered  to  it)  into  this  plate:  a  filling  of  stout  paper  or 
binder's  board  was  then  placed  upon  it.  The  two  plates  were 
then  pres-sed  together  bv  a  fly-press,  and  the  button  was 
trimmed  and  ready  for  the  gilding.  When  gilt  it  was  liur- 
nished  and  set  on  cards  containing  a  dozen,  when  it  was 
ready  for  market.  Subseipient  improvements  have  com- 
bined and  siiuplilicd  these  priK'esses.  so  that  now  a  single 
niachine  completes  the  button  except  the  gilding,  burnish- 
ing, and  carding:  and  Ihe  la.st  (irocess  is  also  performed  by 
a  nnichine.  Emliossed  buttons  have  been  made  of  horn 
softened  by  heat,  dyed,  and  pres.seil  in  a  die  of  liiiiti  bn'ilfe 
(sawdust  and  shellac  heated),  and  of  india-rubber  and  guttn- 


jxTcha  vulcanized,  which  were  for  some  years  very  popular. 
These  have  now  mostly  given  place  to  oval  and  flat  buttons  of 
ivory,  bone,  vegetable  ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  and  celluloid. 
The  ivory,  bone,  and  vegetable-ivory  but  tons  are  engraved  and 
dyed  in  a  variety  of  patterns  and  checks.  The  mother-of-pearl 
may  be  either  of  the  ordinarv  color  of  pearl  or  what  is  known 
as  smoked  pearl.  The  celluloid  buttons  are  made  in  molds 
and  dies,  like  the  vulcanite  and  horn.  Those  inadcof  Vege- 
TAMI.E  IvoKV  ((/.  r.)  are  cut  from  slabs  sawed  out  of  the 
vegetable  ivory-nut  by  bits  attached  to  spindles  and  made 
to  turn  very  rapidly,  and  are  then  turned,  jiolished,  dyed, 
and  worked  in  figures  in  a  lathe.  They  are  then  care- 
fully sorted  and  put  upon  cards.  The  hole  buttons,  when 
made  of  ivory,  vegetable  ivory,  pearl,  inalacliit<',  onyx,  etc., 
are  cut  by  a  tubular  saw  or  liit  revolving  with  great  rapid- 
ity :  the  eyes  are  made  by  fine  revolving  drills.  Pearl  shirt 
buttons  are  made  in  great  (piantities  Viotli  in  the  I'.  S. 
an<l  Kurope,  and  many  of  them  are  made  of  cheap  substi- 
tutes for  pearl.  Agate  or  feldspar  buttons  for  undercloth- 
ing, as  well  as  clay  buttons,  ]iressed  into  mollis  and  baked 
and  glazed  like  |)orcelain,  are  mostly  made  in  Eurojie,  re- 
([uiring  very  cheaii  labor  for  their  prodnction.  The  greater 
]iiirl  of  the  Irouscr  buttons  in  use  are  made  cither  from 
japanned  iron  stamped  out  by  a  heavy  die  or  embossing 
swedge.  or  are  made  as  shell  buttons,  with  the  back  of  pa|icr  or 
wood,  and  the  whole  button  made  by  one  machine  and  almost 
by  a  single  blow.  They  are  afterward  japanned.  Fancy 
and  ornamental  buttons  for  ladies'  dre.s.ses  are  sometimes 
made  of  combinations  of  cloth  and  gla.ss,  or  jiapier-mache, 
pearl,  metal,  or  choice  woods,  sometimes  of  vulcanite,  gla.s.s, 
]>earl,  or  Whitliy  jet.  but  oflener  at  the  present  day  of  silk, 
velvet,  silk  cords  and  figures,  or  what  is  known  as  pas.senien- 
terie,  or  of  brocade  and  embroidered  silk.  Tlii'se  are  usually 
made  upon  a  wood  foundation,  especially  if  they  are  oval 
or  of  fanciful  shape.  Their  manufacture  is  often  carried  on 
in  connection  witli  other  dress  trimmings. 

The  manufacture  of  covered  buttons,  except  in  its  sim- 
pler forms  of  luinil-made  covere<l  buttons,  was  not  attempted 
in  the  U.  S.  earlier  than  ISi")  or  lt<2(;.  Samuel  Williston, 
who  was  the  founder  of  the  <'overed-biittou  business  in  his 
country,  commenced  covering  buttons  liy  hand  at  East- 
hampton,  Mass.,  in  1M6.  and  by  the  gradual  introduction 
of  machinery  and  a  consolidation  of  his  methods  and  ma- 
chines with  those  of  the  llaydens  at  Haydeiiville  in  \H'ii 
(the  llaydens  had  been  making  buttons  in  a  small  way 
after  the  Sanders  patterns  from  18;!1).  laid  the  I'oundatiims 
of  the  extensive  works  of  the  National  Button  Company, 
which  employs  1T5  hands  and  can  turn  out  ^.."lOO  gross  per 
day.  Wateriiury.  Conn.,  was  one  of  the  early  seats  of  the 
manufacture,  but  has  lieen  largely  occupied  with  the  pro- 
duction of  metal  buttons.  In  Great  Britain  five-sevenths  of 
the  manufacture  are  concentrated  in  Birminghiim.  France 
and  Austria  have  great  numbers  of  factories  where  dress 
buttons  are  made  in  connection  with  other  dress  trimming. 

Ill  China  the  knob  of  gold  or  of  some  precious  stone  worn 
at  Ihe  top  of  the  ollicial  hat  is  called  a  button,  ami  is  used 
to  iiulieate  rank.  There  are  nine  grades,  each  indicated  by 
some  special  color  or  material.  Tlie  highest  is  transparent 
red  (a  ruby):  the  second  o|ia(|Ue  red  (coral):  the  third  trans- 
parent blue  (sapphire);  the  fourth  opacine  blue  (lapis  lazuli); 
the  fifth  transparent  white  (crystal) ;  tlie  sixth  opaque  white 
(stone);  the  seventh  [ilain  gold;  an<l  the  eighth  and  ninth 
workeil  gold.  These  are  again  divided  into  two  <-Iasses,  dis- 
tinguished as  pn'iin'/H(l  and  .siitiDnliiitih.  the  latter  having 
the(  'liinese  character  for  "old  age"  engraved  on  them.  The 
niiitli  button  has  two  such  characters  engraved  on  it,  and 
is  the  button  worn  by  every  one  who  has  taken  the  siu-lsai, 
or  bachelor's  degree. '  "  Revised  by  R.  Lillev. 

Itlittoii-liiish  (('pplialo)illiiix  ocridenldlix):  a  shrub  of  the 
Ciiirhoiia  laiiiily,  with  a  white  flower  in  gloliose  heads, 
whence  its  name.  When  in  flower  it  is  much  frequented  bv 
bees, 

Itnttoinvnod :  See  I'la.ne-tree. 

Kiittress  I  from  Fr.  /<oi; /<-/•. thrust,  push] :  a  projection  built 
agaiiLst  a  wall  or  other  structure  for  the  purpose  of  strength- 
ening it,  especially  where  exposed  to  a  horizontal  thrust  or 
pressure,  as  in  terrace-walls  or  in  walls  supporting  heavy 
vaults  or  roofs.  Rudimentary  buttresses  are  found  in  Chal- 
da'a.  but  the  buttress  never  became  an  architectural  feature 
until  Ihe  introduction  of  vaulting  by  the  Romans  eom)ielled 
thi'in  to  thicki'ii  the  nia.sonrv  at  the  points  where  the  thrust 
was  exerted,  and  to  carry  the  resisting  mass  above  the  roofs 
of  the  wings  of  the  building,  as  in  the  great   halls  of  the 


860 


BUTYRIC   ACID 


BYFIELD 


thermce.  The  (Jothip  an-liitects  developed  from  this  device 
the  Jli/ing  buttrti<s  (Fr.  arc-boutant).  \n  which  a  half-an-h, 
springing  from  a  heavy  pinnacled  buttress  on  the  line  of  the 
outer  side-aisle  wall,  rises  to  the  level  of  the  nave-vaulting 
above  the  clerestory,  and  transfers  its  enormous  thmst  down- 
ward to  the  exterior  buttress.  The  earliest  buttresses  were 
broad  and  simple ;  with  the  develo|iment  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture they  became  narrower  but  deeper,  wi're  broken  into 
receding  steps  or  stages,  adorned  witli  gablets.  and  termi- 
nated in  lofty  pinnacles ;  wliile  the  flying  arches  became  ex- 
tremely elaborate  in  Prance,  especially  where  the  vaulting 
was  loftier  and  bolder  than  elsewhere.  In  the  perpendicular 
and  flamboyant  styles  the  buttress  was  sometimes  richly 
panele<l  over  its  whole  surface.  A.  D.  P.  Hamlin. 

Butyr'ic  Acid  [from  Lat.  hu'tyrum.  Butter  (q.  v.)']  :  oc- 
curs in  the  combination  with  CtLTCErix  (q.  v.),  in  the  form  of 
a  fat  in  butter,  and  is  one  of  the  niemliers  of  the  series  of 
so-called  "  fatty  acids."  When  the  fat  of  butter  is  treated 
with  an  alkali,  it  is  saponified,  and  a  salt  of  liutyric  acid  is 
obtained.  From  this,  by  treatment  with  any  one  of  the  or- 
dinary acids,  the  butyric  acid  can  be  set  free.  It  is  formed 
most  readily  by  fermentation  of  sugar  and  of  starch.  Ran- 
cid butter  contains  it  in  the  free  condition  together  with 
other  acids,  and  the  peculiar  odor  and  taste  of  such  butter 
are  due,  to  some  extent,  to  the  presence  of  these  acids.  Bu- 
tyric acid  is  a  colorless  transparent  liquid  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. When  cooled  down  to  a  very  low  temperature  it 
solidities.  It  is  manufactured  on  the  large  scale  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  Butyric  Ether  (q.  v.). 

Butyric  Ether:  a  substance  belonging  to  the  general 
class  of  Ethers  (q.  r.)  which  are  formed  by  the  action  of  al- 
cohols on  acids.  Butyric  ether  is  made  by  treating  a  mix- 
ture of  butyric  acid  and  ordinary  alcohol  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  heating.  The  ether  separates  as  a  layer  that  can 
easily  be  removed  and  purified.  Like  most  of  tlie  substances 
belonging  to  the  same  class,  this  ether  has  an  agreeable  odor. 
The  odor  in  this  case  is  like  that  of  pineapples,  and  the  ether, 
which  is  a  colorless  liquid,  is  manufactured  and  sold  under 
the  name  of  pineapple  oil.  It  is  used  extensively  in  perfum- 
ery. Whether  the  odor  of  pineapples  is  due  to  the  presence 
in  these  of  butyric  ether  has  not  been  determined.  The 
quantity  present  is,  in  any  case,  very  small. 

Biixbaiiin'ia :  a  genus  of  mosses  (named  Iti  honor  of  .1.  C. 
Buxtiamn,  a  Gerjuan  Ijotanist),  of  which  only  two  species 
are  known.  Bujlxiiimln  nphi/tla  occurs  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  is  ap])arently  destitute  of  leaves;  the  part  of 
it  visible  above  the  ground  is  merely  the  little  capsule,  sur- 
rounded with  minute  scales. 

Blix'ton  :  a  town  and  watering-place  of  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land; in  a  deep  valley  near  tlie  source  of  the  Wye;  33  miles 
N.  W.  of  Derby,  and  ItiO  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  London  (see  map 
of  England,  ref.  8-G).  Here  are  calcareous  and  chalybeate 
springs,  which  are  aimually  visited  by  about  14,000  persons. 
Buxton  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  scenery,  has  several  good 
hotels,  and  batlis  which  are  regarded  as  among  the  finest  in 
Europe.  One  of  the  Dukes  of  Devonshire  expended  £130.000 
here  in  the  erection  of  a  pile  of  stone  buildings  called  the 
Crescent.  Buxton  was  once  the  residence  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  then  a  captive.  The  inhabitants  manufacture  orna- 
ments from  alabaster  and  spar,  and  excellent  lime  is  burned 
at  the  ipiarries  near  Poole's  Hole,  an  immense  stalactite  cave 
about  lialf  a  mile  distant.  Near  this  town  is  Diamond  Hill, 
famous  for  its  crystals.     Pop.  (18!)1)  7,434. 

Bil\toii.  Sir  Thomas  Powell:  philanthropic  brewer;  h. 
in  Eari's  Colne,  Essex.  England.  Apr.  1,  1786;  was  the  son 
of  opulent  parents:  studied  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  lie 
married  in  1807  Hannah  Gurney,  a  sister  of  Joseph  John 
Gurney  and  of  Mrs.  Pry ;  was  elected  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1818  by  the  voters  of  Weymouth,  which  he  rejire- 
sented  nineteen  years;  was  made  a  baronet  in  1840.  He 
was  an  eminent  ailvocate  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  im- 
provement of  prison  disei[)line,  an<l  oilier  humanitarian 
measures,  and  hail  much  inlluence  in  public  altairs.  D. 
P(!b.  lit,  184o.  See  his  memoir  bv  his  son.  Sir  Chai'les  (Lon- 
don, 1.S48;  n.  e.  1873). 

Biix'torf  (in  Lat.  Biixtorjlnn).  Johax.v  ;  .scholar;  b.  at 
Kamen,  in  Westphalia,  Dec.  3o,  1564;  was  well  versed  in  the 
Hebrew  language  ami  rabbiidcal  literature.  In  1591  he  be- 
came Professor  of  Hebrew  at  liasel.  His  chief  works  are  a 
Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Cltahloicuin  (1607)  and  liihlia  He- 
hraica  Rabbinica  (1618).  D.  at  Basel,  Sept.  Vi,  1639.  See 
his  Life  by  E.  P.  Kautzsch  (Basel,  187'.)). 


Biixns :  See  Box. 

Buys-Ballot,  bois  balil  lot,  Christophorus  Hexricus  Di- 
DERicus.  Ph.D.:  meteorologist  and  author  of  the  well- 
known  Buijfi- Ballot's  Law,  expressing  the  relations  of  the 
wind-directions  to  the  position  of  the  storm  center ;  b.  in  the 
small  village  of  Kloetinge,  province  of  Zeeland.  Holland,  Oct. 
10,  1817.  Uc  obtained'  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  L'trecht,  in  which  institution  he  soon  became  a  pro- 
fessor (1847),  remaining  in  this  position  for  forty  years.  He 
was.  in  some  sense,  the  creator  of  the  Dutch  meteorological 
service,  of  which  he  was  the  director  until  his  death.  On 
leaving  his  professional  chair  a  special  medal  was  struck  in 
his  honor.  He  was  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Meteorological  Society  and  of  the  Austrian  Meteorological 
Society,  and  knight  or  commander  in  orders  in  Austria,  Hol- 
land, Portugal,  and  Russia.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  not 
only  in  Dutch,  but  also  in  Ejiglish.  German,  and  French. 
His  earliest  papers  were  upon  chennstry  and  physics,  but 
for  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life  they  were  devoted  to 
meteorology.     D.  in  Utrecht,  Feb.  3,  18!t0. 

Jl.  W.  Harrington. 

Blizaiicais.  biizalnVsa' ;  a  town  of  Prance ;  department 
of  Indre;  situated  partly  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Indre 
and  partly  on  the  islands  in  its  channel :  46  miles  S.  E.  of 
Tours  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  5-E).  Here  are  extensive 
iron-works.     Pop.  (1891)  5,037. 

Buzzard :  a  bird  of  the  genus  Butco,  order  Raptores 
and  family  Falcon irhe;  having  a  small  bill,  which  bends 
from  tlie  base  and  is  not  notched.  The  linzzards  resemble 
the  eagle  and  falcon  in  form,  but  are  inferior  in  size  and 
courage.  The  common  buzzard  (Butco  vulgaris),  a  native 
of  Europe,  measures  nearly  4  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 
wings.  It  is  sluggish  and  inactive  compared  with  other 
birds  of  prey.  The  prevailing  color  of  its  plumage  on  the 
u])]ier  parts  is  brown,  with  a  mixture  of  black.  The  rough- 
legged  buzzard  (Archibuteo  lagopus)  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  having  the  tarsi  feathered  to  the  toes.  It  is  widely 
distributed  in  Europe  and  Africa,  and  is  found  in  Nortli 
America.  Among  the  other  species  of  this  genus  is  the  red- 
tailed  hawk  or  chicken  hawk  of  the  U.  S.  {Buteo  borealis), 
which  often  kills  poultry.  The  American  bird  called  turkey- 
buzzard  belongs  to  the  genus  Cathartes  (q.  v.). 

Buzzard's  Bay :  in  the  soutli  part  of  JIassachusetts ;  is  30 
miles  long;  has  an  average  width  of  7  miles;  contains  the 
harbors  of  New  Bedford,  Fairhaven.  and  Wareham.  It  is 
sheltered  from  the  oce.an  by  the  Elizabeth  islands. 

By-bidding:  bidding  at  an  auction  sale  by  a  person  on 
behalf  of  the  owner  of  the  property  sold,  and  with  no  intent 
of  purchasing  it.  In  the  U.  S.  some  authorities  have  held 
that  a  single  by-bidder  may  be  employed  to  prevent  the 
property  from  being  sacrificed  lielow  a  given  price,  lint  that 
the  empliiyment  of  a  number  to  create  a  false  appearance 
of  competition  is  a  fraud.  When  there  has  been  fraudulent 
by-bidding  a  bonu-jide  bidder  may  refuse  to  take  property 
knocked  down  to  him,  or  may  claim  property  knocked  down 
to  the  by-bidder  when  his  own  bid  was  the  highest  bona-fidc 
bid.  By-bidders  are  often  called  "  puffers."  See  Auction. 
Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Byb'los.  or  Byblus  (in  Gr.  Bii;3\os);  an  ancient  citjr  of 
Phamicia;  on  the  Jlediterranean;  about  32  miles  N.  Is.  E. 
of  Bervtus;  called  Oihlab  liy  the  Hebrew  writers.  It  was 
near  tlie  base  of  Mt.  Lebanon,  and  was  said  to  be  the  native 
place  of  Adonis  or  Thammuz.  This  site  is  occupied  by  the 
modern  town  of  Jube'il  and  ruins  of  a  Roman  theater. 

Byblos :  an  ancient  town  in  the  delta  of  Egypt ;  eele- 
brall'il  lor  its  manufacture  of  papyrus,  the  chief  writing- 
material  of  the  civilized  world.  It  stood  in  a  marshy  tract 
which  produced  in  abundance  the  byblus  or  papyrus  plant 
(Ci/pcrua  antiquorum). 

Byerly,  WiLr.iAM  Elwood.  Ph.  D. :  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.. 
Dec."  13,  1849:  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1871  :  received 
Ph.  I),  from  same  1873;  was  appninted  Assistant  Professor 
of  Jlathematies  at  Cornell  Universily  1873-76;  held  the 
same  position  at  Harvard  1876-81  ;  was  appointed  full  pro- 
fessor there  1881.  In  1878  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  has  published  Etc- 
mcnt.i  of  Differential  Calculus  (1879);  Elements  of  Inteijral 
Calculus  (1881) ;  and  .several  syllabi  of  matliematical  courses 
given  at  Harvard. 

By'llcld,  Nathaniel!  b.  at  Long  Ditton,  Surrey,  Eng- 
land, in  1653  :  removed  to  Boston,  N.  E.,  1674,  and  became  a 


^ 


liVFoni) 


BYRON 


861 


prominent  merchant ;  was  the  principal  settler  of  Bristol, 
H.  I.;  returned  to  Boston  in  1724;  became  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Kepresentatives;  was  judjre  of  the  Bristol  t'ouutv 
court  of  common  pleas  for  thirty-eijiht  veal's,  and  of  Suffolk 
t'ountv  lT3f)--'J2:  meniher  of  the  council  and  judge  of  the 
vice-ailniiralty  1704-15  and  1729.  D.  in  Boston,  June  6, 
17:«. 

ByTord,  William  Heath,  M.  D.  :  physician ;  b.  in  Eaton, 
Prelile  co.,  O.,  Mar.  20,  1H17:  was  seli'-ediu'aled ;  became  an 
active  practitioner  in  ('hica,i;o:  president  of  facuUy  and 
Professor  of  Clinical  Sursfery  in  the  Women's  Hospital  Med- 
ical College;  twice  president  of  tlic  American  Medical  As- 
sociation ;  author  of  Israel  ice  of  Mfdicine  and  Suryi-ry  Ap- 
plied to  DineiinfK  and  Arridents  Peculiar  fo  Women  (rev.  ed. 
1871) ;  Theory  and  Practice  of  Obstetricn  (Xew  York,  1870). 

Ily-lliws:  oriffiiially  laws  (now  usually  called  ordinances) 
nuide  liy  a  comnninity  or  municipal  corporation  for  tlie  pur- 
iiose  of  local  j;overnnicnt ;  by  extension,  rules  or  laws  made 
by  any  cor|)oratioii  under  authority  conferred  by  its  charter 
or  by  statute,  or  nuide  by  an  unincorporated  association 
with  the  consent  of  its  members,  for  its  own  <,'overnment  or 
that  of  its  members.  It  is  a  ;Lrencral  rule  that  the  power  to 
make  by-laws  is  incidental  to  the  existence  of  a  corporation. 
'I'his  power  is  sometimes  expressly  conferred  upon  the  cor- 
iKiration  in  its  charter,  or  vested  in  a  select  body,  such  as  a 
lioard  of  directors.  Where  the  charter  is  silent,  however, 
the  power  appertains  to  the  corporation  itself,  except  in  the 
case  of  charitalile  cor]iorations  which,  in  ijcueral,  have  no 
such  implied  .lulhority.  I5y-laws  must  l)e  reascmable  and 
consistent  with  law,  and  be  eiuicte<l  within  the  State  where 
the  charter  is  in  force.  A  written  entry  is  not  essential  to 
their  validity,  and  their  existence  may  be  established  by 
custom.  The  b\-laws  of  a  municipal  corporation  {govern  all 
persons  wit liin  its  jurisdiction;  those  of  a  ])rivate  corpora- 
tion have  no  force  as  such  over  persons  not  memliers,  liut 
tlie  members  are  presumed  to  know  them,  and  are  bound  by 
them.  A  |ji'nalty  for  their  breach  may  be  collected  by  an 
action  at  law.  The  by-laws  of  a  nuinicipal  corporation  arc 
enacted  in  the  exercise  of  a  quasi-let;islative  capacity,  and 
the  corporation  is  not  liable  for  damages  resulting  from  the 
acts  of  citizens  by  whom  they  are  broken. 

Revised  by  I'\  Sturges  Ai.lion. 

IJyles.  Matiikr.  I).  D.  :  clergyman  and  wit;  b.  in  Hoston, 
Mass.,  Mar.  20.  170(i.  His  father  was  a  native  of  England; 
on  his  motlier's  side  he  descended  from  th(^  Kev.  Richard 
.Mather  and  the  Kev.  .lohn  Cotton.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  172.^;  was  ordained  first  pastor  of  llollis 
Street  church,  Boston,  1783;  soon  attained  eminence  in  his 
|>rofessioii;  also  attracted  considerable  attention  by  his  poet- 
ical talents.  He  contiimed  happily  with  his  parish  til!  the 
excitement  preceding  the  Revolution  created  a  distrust 
against  him.  and  he  \v;is  accused  of  being  a  Tory  and  sepa- 
rated from  Ills  parish.  Charges  were  afterward  made 
against  him  that  he  pr;iyed  tortile  king  and  received  visits 
from  Hritish  ollicers.  an<l  in  Jlay,  1777.  he  was  publicly  de- 
nounced in  town-meeting.  On  .lune  2  following  he  was 
placed  on  trial,  pronounced  guilty,  and  ordered  to  be  con- 
fineil  on  a  guardship,  and  in  forty  days  to  be  sent  to  Eng- 
land with  his  family;  this  sentence,  however,  wii-s  not  exe- 
cuted, but  he  was  conliruMl  to  his  own  house,  over  which  a 
guard  was  ]ilaced.  afterward  removed,  but  again  rei)laced 
and  again  dismissed,  causing  him  to  say  that  he  was 
"guarded,  reguarded,  and  <lisregariled."  His  literary  talent 
wius  recognized  by  many  men  of  genius  in  England.  He 
continued  to  reside  in  Hoston,  but  was  not  again  coiniectcd 
with  any  parish.     I),  in  Boston,  .Inly  .5,  1788. 

Bylot's  Hay:  See  Uaffix's  Bay. 

Byilg,  OiiORUK :  b.  in  Wrot  ham.  England,  Jan.  27, 1662-63 ; 
went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  fifteen  ;  in  1 703  became  rear-admiral 
of  the  r(Ml.  Served  in  17(U  inider  Sir  Clouilesley  Shovel,  and 
re(luced  Gibraltar;  also  distinguished  for  his  services  at 
battle  of  Malaga  and  olf  Messina,  where,  July  31,  1718,  he 
dispersed  the  Spanish  fleet.  He  wiLs  afterward  made  rear- 
admiral  of  (rreal  Britain,  member  of  the  iirivy  council. 
Baron  Mvng,  Viscount  Torrington.  an<l  Kuigtit  Companion 
of  the  liath.  In  1727  he  became  First  Lord  of  the  -Admir- 
alty.    D.Jan.  17,  1733. 

Byilg.  Joiix:  admiral;  .son  of  Viscount  Torrington  ;  b.  in 
1704";  gaiiu'd  the  rank  of  ailmiral  of  the  red  in  1748.  In 
17."i6  he  eonnnanded  an  expedition  sent  to  relievo  Minorca, 
then  l)l(icka<led  bv  the  French.  He  failed,  and  was  accused 
of  cowardice  by  tlie  ministers,  who  sought  to  divert  atten- 


tion from  their  own  inelTicient  mea.surcs  by  sacrificing  him 
to  the  public  indignation.  He  was  tried  by  a  court  martial 
and  shot  on  board  the  Monarque,  at  Portsmouth,  Mar.  14, 
1757. 

Byii^  Inlet ;  a  port  of  entry  of  the  province  of  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  the  north  side  of  Georgian  Bay,  Lake  Huron 
(see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  1-C) ;  has  very  extensive  saw-mills, 
whence  20.000,(K)0  feet  of  lumbi^r  are  yearly  sent  to  the  V.  S. 
It  is  visited  in  winter  by  dog-sledges,  and  in  summer  by 
regular  .steamers.     Pop.  alxmt  200. 

Byrd,  William  :  composer.     SeeBiRUK. 

Byrd.  William,  F.  U.S.;  author;  .son  of  William  Byrd, 
a  weali  by  collector  of  manuscripts;  b.  at  Westover,  Va.,  Mar. 
16.  Iti74  ;  studii'd  law  in  London  ;  long  held  important  ollices 
in  \'irginia.  He  was  a  patron  of  literature,  and  laid  out  in 
1733  tiie  towns  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond.  He  wrote 
many  valuable  sketches  of  his  travels  in  Virginia.  Some  of 
Ills  writings  were  published  by  Edmund  Kuflin  as  The  WeM- 
orer  Monuncriptu  (\>>4\),  and  "more  coiuiilclely  in  1866  as  the 
Ili.ttori/  of  the  Dividing  Line  anil  Other  Tracts.  They  con- 
tain {\iv  Ji'ecord.s  of  the  Viri/inia  Company  (1619-24).  jiur- 
chased  in  England  by  him.  1).  in  Westover,  Va..  Aug.  26, 
1744. 

Bynm.  George  Noel  Gordon,  Lord  :  poet  ;  b.  in  London 
Jan."  22,  1788.  He  belonged  to  an  ancient  Norman  family, 
whose  name  was  variously  written  Muriin,  lliron,  and  Hvron. 
Joii.N  Byron  (</.  c).  the  i)oet"s  grandfather,  was  a  noted  "I'lng- 
lish  lulmiral.  Capt.  Hyron.  the  son  of  the  admiral,  married 
Catherine  (lordoii,  a  Scottish  heiress,  who  had  oidy  one 
son,  the  sulijcct  of  this  notice.  Cajit.  liyr<in  was  distin- 
guished for  iiothing  but  his  vices.  Having  squandered  a 
large  portion  of  his  wife's  pro])erty  he  deserted  her,  after 
which  she  retired  to  Scotland,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
Aberdeen,  where  young  Byron  received  the  first  nuliinents 
of  his  education.  '  Before  he  was  .seven  years  old.  with  his 
mother  he  visited  the  llighlamls.  the  pic'turesipic  beauty  of 
which,  even  at  that  age.  made,  it  is  said,  a  powerful  impres- 
sion on  his  luiuil.  Wiieii  he  was  ten  years  old  he  succeeded 
to  till'  estate  and  title  of  his  grand-uncle.  William,  fifth  Lord 
Byron,  who  had  resided  at  Newstcad  Abbey,  where  he  died 
in  17118.  The  poet  had  a  congenital  deformity  of  his  feet, 
which  rendered  him  lame,  and  which  was  during  his  whole 
life  a  bitter  mortification  to  him.  When  he  wasabout  twelve 
years  old  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Harrow.  While  here  he 
became  ac(|uainted  with  Miss  Chaworlh,  for  whom  he  con- 
ceived a  romantic  and  passionate  love.  She  was  the  heiress 
of  Annesley.  which  was  adjacent  to  Newstcad,  the  estate  to 
which  Byron  had  succeeded.  This  appears  to  have  been  one 
of  the  truest  and  dee])est  attachments  of  his  life,  and  he  seems 
to  have  fully  persuaded  himself  that  if  he  had  married  Miss 
Cliaworth  he  would  have  been  a  far  better  as  well  as  a  hap- 
pier man.  He  went  in  1805  to  Cambridge,  which  he  left 
two  years  afterward  without  taking  a  degree.  Wliili'  at  the 
university  he  published  (1807)  a  volume  of  poems.  Jlonrs  of 
Idleness.' \\\\\f\\  was  criticised  in  the  Edinburgh  lieviexv. 
This  criticpic  was  written  by  Mr.  (afterward  Lord)  Brougham, 
but  Byron  always  supposed  that  Jeffrey  was  the  author.  In 
retaliation  lie  wrote  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Periewers, 
which  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  his  fame. 
This  satire,  though  evincing  great  talent  in  its  way,  is  in 
manv  parts  egregiously  unjust,  as.  for  example,  where  the 
satirist  speaks  of  Scoti.  It  is  but  just  to  adil  that  Byron 
himself  afterward  deeply  regretted  the  )iiiblication  of  the 
poem,  and  did  everything  in  his  power  to  suppress  it. 

In  180!),  in  companv  with  his  friend  Jlr.  llobhouse,  Byron 
commenced  his  travels  through  dilTereiit  parts  of  Europe — 
.Spain.  Portugal,  European  Turkey,  and  Greece.  After  an 
absence  of  alamt  two  years  he  returned  to  England,  and 
published  the  first  two  cantos  of  (Vi/Wr //arwW.s  y-'(7(/;-/»i- 
(///<•,  which  were  received  with  extraordinary  favor,  so  lliat. 
as  he  himself  informs  us,  he  "awoke  one  morning  and  found 
iiimself  famous."  He  soon  after  took  his  seat  in  the  British 
House  of  Peers.  At  one  time  it  would  appear  that  he 
thought  seriously  of  giving  himself  up  to  jiolitics,  but  he 
soon  changed  his  pur]iose.  and  turned  his  attention  again  to 
poetry.  Within  llie  next  two  or  three  years  he  i)roduce(l 
several  minor  poems  of  exquisite  beauty — namely.  The 
Giaour.  The  liride  of  Al/ydos,  The  Corsair.  Lara.  The 
Sie(/e  of  Corinth,  Parisina,  and  The  Prisoner  of  Chilton. 
On '.Ian.' 2,  1815,  he  was  married  to  .Miss  Isabella  'Millbanke, 
only  daughter  of  Sir  Ralph  Millbanke.  afterward  Noel.  She 
wa.s"  regarded  as  a  great  hi'ire.ss.  But,  if  Byron  may  be  be- 
lieved, his  fortune  was  but  little  improved  by  this  marriage. 


862 


BYRON 


BYZAXTINE  EMPIRE 


He  says:  "All  I  have  ever  received  or  am  likely  to  receive 
(and  that  has  been  twice  paid  back,  too)  was  £10,000."  The 
union  was  a  very  unhappy  one.  as  well  on  account  of  Lord 
Byron's  licentious  habits  as  the  incompatibility  of  temper  of 
the  two  parties. 

Lady  Byron  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Ada.  who  became 
afterward  the  Countess  of  Lovelace.  She  was  Lord  Byron's 
only  legitimate  child:  he  addresses  her  in  Childe  Harold  as 
"  sole  daughter  of  my  house  and  heart." 

Not  long  after  the  liirth  of  Ada  his  wife  left  him,  an<l, 
taking  the  child  with  her.  went  to  her  father's.  lie  left 
England  early  in  1S16.  resolved  never  again  to  return  to  his 
native  land.  Passing  througli  Belgium,  he  vi.sited  tlie  field 
of  Waterloo :  he  subsequently  went  to  Switzerland,  and  re- 
sided near  Geneva.  Here  lie  wrote  the  third  canto  of 
Childe  Harold.  He  afterward  abode  some  time  in  Venice. 
He  next  visited  Ravenna,  where  he  formed  a  liaison  with 
the  Countess  of  Guiccioli,  whose  sprightly  and  imaginative 
character,  no  le.ss  tlian  her  jiersonal  beauty,  powerfully  at- 
tracted him.  While  at  Pisa  in  1822  he  experienced  great 
sorrow  in  the  tragic  deatli  of  his  friend,  the  poet  Shelley, 
Early  in  1822  Byron.  Shelley,  ami  Leigh  Hunt  were  asso- 
ciated in  the  pul>lieation  of  a  journal  styled  The  Liberal. 
but  Byron  and  Hunt  quarreled  soon  after  the  death  of 
Shelley,  and  The  Liberal  was  discontinued. 

While  in  Italy  Byron  wrote  several  of  his  most  admii-ed 
poems,  including  the  fourth  canto  of  Childe  Harold.  Mazep- 
pa,  Manfred.  Cain,  a  Jli/.'^feri/,  Marino  Faliero.  The  Two  Fon- 
cari,  Sardanripatiix.  Werner,  and  IJoii  Juan.  He  espoused 
with  enthusiasm  the  cause  of  Greek  independence,  and  in 
1823  passed  over  from  Italy  to  Cephalonia,  where  he  spent 
several  months.  In  the  early  part  of  1824  he  arrived  at  Mis- 
solonghi.  He  took,  Apr,  9.  a  severe  cold,  which  caused 
his  death  on  Apr,  19,  1824, 

Byron's  poetic  genius  was  of  a  very  high  order,  but  more 
distinguished  for  clearness  and  intensity  than  for  lireadtli 
or  versatility.  His  intellect  partook  in  a  remarkable  degree 
of  the  character  of  his  emotional  nature.  It  was  only  un- 
der the  influence  of  intense  feeling  or  passion  that  he  could 
put  forth  his  poetical  powers  with  any  success.  And  hence 
it  is  that  everything  he  has  written  is  so  strongly  colored 
with  his  own  personal  feelings.  He  was  perhaps  the  most 
intensely  subjective  of  all  the  great  poets  that  ever  lived. 
This  explains  why  he  had  no  genius  for  dramatic  composi- 
tion. He  could  only  represent  successfully  those  characters 
which  resembled  his  own.  His  soul  was  not  capacious  nor 
calm  enough  to  reflect  without  distortion  the  infinitely  va- 
ried pictures  presented  by  the  comedy  and  tragedy  of  hu- 
man life,  "Wit  and  understanding,  rather  than  imagination, 
were  his  leading  intellectual  traits.  His  most  remarkable 
characteristic,  as  a  poet,  was  his  power  of  expressing  in- 
tense passion,  particularly  of  the  darker  and  fiercer  kinds. 
"  Never,"  says  Macaulay,  "  had  any  writer  so  vast  a  com- 
mand of  the  whole  elocpience  of  scorn,  misanthropy,  and 
despair."  See  Moore's  Life  of  Byron  (1830) :  Recollections 
of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron,  by  E.  J.  Trelawney 
(1858).  Revised  by  Henry  A.  Beers. 

Byron,  Henry  .James  :  writer  of  burlesque  dramas  ;  b.  in 
Manchester,  England,  1834 ;  was  a  lawyer  by  profession : 
contributed  much  to  London  Fun,  of  which  he  was  for  a 
time  the  editor.  His  princi]jal  works  are  travesties  of  va- 
rious popular  and  standard  dramas  and  operas — Fra  Dia- 
volo,  his  first  effort  (18.i8) :  The  Lady  of  Lyons,  etc. — lint 
he  produced  several  comedies,  pantomimes,  and  novels — 
Paid  in  Full  (3  vols.,  1865);  Old  Sailors,  first  brought 
out  in  1874;  and  Our  Boys  {IS78).  He  also  ac(iuired  dis- 
tinction as  an  actor  in  London,  D.  in  London,  Apr.  11. 
1884. 

Byron,  .Tohn  :  vice-admiral ;  grandfather  of  the  [loet ; 
son  of  tlie  fourth  Lord  Byron  ;  b.  at  Newstead,  Nov.  8,  1723; 
entered  the  navy;  served  in  Anson's  expedition  of  1740; 
also  against  Louisburg  in  1760;  circumnavigated  the  globe 
(1764-66);  fought  D'Kstaing  off  Granada.  .July  6,  1779,  in 
the  American  war;  was  long  known  in  the  na'vv  as  ■•  ]'\)ul 
Weather  Jack,"  on  account  of  tlie  ill-luck  attending  his 
early  service,    I).  Apr,  10,  1786, 

ByssHS:  a  bundle  of  silky  or  shining,  semi-transparent, 
horny  filaments  by  which  many  bivalve  mollusks  attach 
themselves  to  rocks  or  other  fixed  .substances.  These  fila- 
ments are  secreted  by  a  gland  at  the  base  of  the  foot  of  the 
animal.  They  are  giiiiled  to  their  place  by  the  foot,  and 
expand  into  a  sort  of  disk  at  the  point  of  attachment.  An 
example  of  the  byssus  may  be  seen  in  common   mussels. 


The  Pinna  of  the  Mediterranean  produces  long  and  strong 
filaments  of  a  silky  luster,  wliich  can  be  woven  into  cloth. 
This  cloth  is  highly  prized,  but  the  Pinna  has  become  so 
rare  that  it  can  not  be  produced  in  large  quantities, 

Byz'antiiie,  or  Bezant  [from  Byzantium,  the  old  name 
of  Constantinople]  :  in  luimismatics,  is  a  terra  applied  to  a 
coin  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  These  coins  were  of  gold, 
silver,  and  bronze :  bore  impressions  distinct  from  tlie 
earlier  Roman  coins;  were  co]iied  in  several  countries. 
They  were  current  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  even  in  In- 
dia. The  silver  bezant  was  worth  about  10s.  sterling.  The 
golil  bezant  was  worth  at  one  time  £15  sterling. 

Byzan'tine  Art :  the  peculiar  phase  of  art-development 
which  originated  in  Byzantium.  The  city  of  Byzantium, 
or  Constantinople,  owing  to  its  geographical  situation  was 
lieculiarly  open  to  mingled  art  influences,  and  developed 
out  of  Roman  traditions,  modified  by  the  Greek  taste  and 
a  liberal  admixture  of  Oriental  elements,  a  new  art  called 
Byzantine.  It  is  the  first  distinctively  Christian  national 
art;  is  especially  rich  in  decorative  detail  an<l  in  the  use  of 
color,  and  displays  the  failings  as  well  as  the  merits  incident 
to  its  transitional  character.  It  flourished  from  the  time  of 
Constantine.  330  x.  D.,  nearly  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople 
in  1204,  by  which  time,  however,  it  had  lost  its  original 
vigor  and  perfection.  It  strongly  influenced  the  art  of 
Venice  and  Nortlieastern  Italy.  Its  arcliitecture  was  based 
on  a  mingling  of  Roman  and  Oriental  constructive  prin- 
ciples, treated  with  Greek  freedom,  but  it  gave  Ijirth  to  few 
monuments  of  great  size.  Its  noblest  production,  the 
Church  of  the  St.  Sophia  (or  Divine  Wisdom)  in  Constanti- 
no|)le.  now  a  mosque,  was  built  in  532-538  under  Justinian, 
and  was  the  first  great  pendentive-domed  church  ever 
erected :  it  still  remains  one  of  the  most  imposing  and 
beautiful  structures  in  existence,  resplendent  with  its  un- 
rivaled mosaics,  superb  columns  of  jasper  and  porphyry, 
and  its  majestic  outlines,  St,  Mark's  in  Venice,  though 
built  nearly  500  years  later  by  Byzantine  architects,  in 
imitation  of  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  at  Constantinople, 
is  a  magnificent  exanijile  of  a  later  phase  of  Byzantine  arch- 
itecture, and  Ravenna  is  also  rich  in  splendid  Byzantine 
monuments.  The  dome  is  a  distinctive  feature  of  all  By- 
zantine i-eligious  arcliitecture.  Tlie  intist  highly  developed 
of  Byzantine  arts  was  that  of  mosaic;  but  ivory-carving, 
the  illumination  of  MSS.,  and  the  production  of  s)ilendid 
fabrics,  were  almost  equally  advanced.  In  Russia  and 
Greece  the  traditions  of  Byzantine  art  are  not  yet  wholly 
extinct.  A.  D.  F,  ilA.MUx. 

Byzantine  Empire;  also  called  Eastern  or  Greek  Em- 
pire: the  name  of  a  former  empire  of  Europe  which  came 
into  existence  in  395  a.  \k.  upon  the  death  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  divided  his  empire  be- 
tween his  two  sons,  Arcadius  and  llonorius.  While  the  lat- 
ter received  the  western  lialf  as  his  portion,  Arcadius  be- 
came ruler  of  the  eastern  empire,  then  comprising  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  Pontus,  Egypt,  Thrace,  Moesia,  Macedonia, 
Crete,  and  Greece,  with  the  capital  at  Constantinople,  The 
history  of  the  Byzantine  empire  extends  from  395  a,  d. 
to  1453.  During  the  reign  of  Arcadius  ambitious  politicians 
wielded  an  unlimited  power,  and  ojipressed  the  peo]ile  to 
satisfy  their  rajiacity.  Arcadius  was  followed  by  his  seven- 
year-old  son.  Theodosius  II.  (408-450),  for  whom  a  prefect 
ruled  with  wisdom  and  strength.  In  415  he  took  his  sister 
Puleheria  as  co-regent,  who  from  that  time  took  charge 
of  the  entire  administration.  Peace  and  prosperity  reigned 
during  Theodosius's  rule,  and  were  only  interrupted  by  a 
short  war  witli  Persia  in  422.  which  led  to  the  aci|uisi- 
tion  of  a  ]iart  of  Armenia.  But  )icace  with  Attila.  King  of 
the  Huns,  could  only  bi'  purcliased  by  large  tracts  of  land 
on  the  Danulie  and  large  sums  of  money.  Upon  the  death 
of  Theodosius  he  was  .succeeded  by  his  sister  Puleheria. 
She  married  the  senator  Marcianus.  who  reigned  until  457. 
Under  Justinian  (.527-565),  who  became  famous  by  liis  legis- 
lation and  the  victories  of  his  generals.  Belisarius  and 
Narses,  the  Byzantine  empire  gained  great  influence  and 
|)oweramong  the  otiier  nations,  while  in  the  interior  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  parties  were  quelleil  effectually.  Under  the 
nephew  and  successor  of  Justinian  (.lustinus  II.,  56.5-578) 
the  empire  suffered  from  invasions  of  the  Lombards  and 
Persians,  In  718  Leo  III,  ascended  the  throne,  and  con- 
tinued to  sustain  hiui-self  in  spite  of  the  contest  concerning 
the  worship  of  images  which  conliniieil  for  over  a  century, 
and  of  the  attacks  of  the  Arabs.  He  died  in  741,  having 
wrested  Phrygia  from  the  Arabs,  but  lost  the  last  rem- 


UV/.ANTIXE    IIISTORIAXS 


BZOVIUS 


863 


nant  of  territoiy  in  Italy.  Basiliiis  I.  Maccdo,  the  fouiuler 
(if  the  MaciMloiiian  dyiiastv.  asfoiuled  ihu  throne  in  867. 
lie  introiliiccil  ivfoiiiis  in  all  lnani-lies  of  the  ailinitiistra- 
tioii,  and  ivvisc'il  the  hiws  of  Justinian,  lie  was  sueceeded 
by  his  son.  Leo  VI.  who  calh'd  upon  the  Tui-ks  to  aid  liim 
against  the  Saracens,  and  ttius  opcni'il  tlie  way  for  the  Tni-ks. 
After  the  extinction  of  tlie  Macedonian  dynasty  in  1057 
Isaac  t'onmenus  was  raised  to  the  throne  \>\  the  linaiumous 
vote  of  the  army.  He  introduced  many  reforms,  and  en- 
tered a  monastery  in  lOo!).  Among  Ids  successors  Alexius 
1.,  who  began  to  rule  in  1081,  wjvs  the  most  imiiortant. 
lie  increased  the  area  of  tlie  empire  considerably.  The  dy- 
nasty of  the  Conineniiin  emperors  continued  to  ruli!  until 
1204.  In  1'204  t'onstantinople  was  taken  by  the  Frencli  and 
Venetians  (called  the  Latins),  who  then  became  ma.sters  of 
the  wliole  empire.  They  divided  it  into  four  parts,  giving 
the  first  with  the  capital  to  Baldwin,  fount  of  Flanders, 
who  was  made  emperor,  and  whom  the  other  partioii)ants  in 
the  expedition  recoginzed  a-s  their  sovereign.  The  ^'ene- 
tians  received  a.s  their  share  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  and  ,Kgean  Seas,  a  part  of  the  Morea,  together 
with  several  islands:  ISonifacius,  Count  of  Montferrat,  re- 
ceived Macedonia  and  part  of  GrtK-ce;  dukedoms,  count- 
shijis,  principalities,  etc.,  were  estaldishcd  at  various  places; 
whde  a  luindier  of  (ireek  princes  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence. L'nder  Theodorus  Lascaris,  who  had  been  elected 
emperor  at  Constantinople,  an  empire  was  formed  at  Ni(\-ea 
(Nice).  In  Trcbizond  Alexius  Coinnenus  ruled  with  abso- 
lute power.  One  of  his  successors,  .lohn  Cuninenus,  be- 
came Emperor  of  Trebizond.  Neither  Baldwin  nor  his  suc- 
cessoi-s  could  do  anything  to  avert  the  impending  ruin. 
Baldwin  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Bulgarians,  and  <iied  in 
1200.  His  brother  Henry  ruled  bravely  and  wisely  till  1216, 
when  the  empire  became  a  prey  to  utter  anarchy. 

The  dynasty  of  the  I'aheologi  began  with  Michael  VIII. 
Pala'ologus,  who,  liy  the  help  of  the  (ienoese  captured  Con- 
stantino|ile  in  1261.  .Michael,  the  lirst  of  the  Baheologi,  was 
an  able  prince,  liut  otrended  both  clergy  and  people  \)\  an 
attempt  to  unite  the  (ireek  and  Latin  Chur<'hes.  Androni- 
cus  III.,  a  great-grandson  of  Michael,  became  eiiiperor  in 
i:i28.  During  his  reign  the  Turks  took  Xica^a  and  Xicome- 
dia  and  devjustated  the  F,uio|iean  coasts.  In  the  reign  of 
his  son,  Johannes  V..  the  Turks  began  to  gain  ground  in 
Europe,  and  in  1362  Sultan  Amurath  had  made  .\drianople 
his  capital.  L'nder  the  following  rulers  the  empire  rapidly 
declined,  giving  way  more  and  more  to  the  advancing  forces 
of  Turks,  until  on  May  2'.(,  14"):i,  with  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantin(jple  by  Mohammed  II.  and  the  death  of  Constantine 
XL,  the  Byzantine  empire  came  to  an  end,  and  the  Turkish 
rule  was,  after  centuries  of  fierce  warfare,  lirmlv  estalilished 
ill  Furope.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Byzantine  Historians:  (ireek  writers  who  have  treated 
of  the  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  They  fall  into  two 
groups,  historians  jiroper  and  chroniclers.  The  historians 
deal  with  contemporaneous  events  and  special  epochs,  follow 
classical  models,  and  write  for  a  cultivated  public.  The 
chroniclers  deal  with  universal  history,  write  for  the  people, 
and  dwell  on  matters  that  appeal  to  the  pojailar  taste,  such 
as  jilague,  pestilence,  and  famine,  comets  and  earthquakes, 
great  buililiiigs,  and  famous  chariot-races.  The  church 
makes  itself  felt  throughout,  and  the  language,  if  not  ex- 
actly the  language  of  the  ]ieo|)le,  is  one  the  people  can  un- 
derstand. The  historians  constitute  the  best  part  of  Byzan- 
tine literature,  but  they  have  no  new  critical  method,  no 
new  conception  of  history.  They  move  along  the  lines  of 
old  forniufa\  and  the  old  tradition  jiei-sists  in  the  representa- 
tion of  life  as  in  the  character  of  the  language.  They  are 
not  uncriti<-al,  as  antiiiuity  counted  criticism,  and  they  show 
a  laudable  desire  to  gather  information  from  living  sources. 
They  do  not  neglect  geography  or  ethnology,  and,  as  many 
of  them  were  men  of  high  ofYicial  station,  ttiere  is  no  lack  of 
original  state  jiapers,  of  original  letters  for  the  substantia- 
tion and  illustration  of  the  narrative.  Despite  the  artificial- 
ity of  the  language,  the  character  of  the  period  is  mirrored 
in  the  great  space  given  to  diplomatic  and  theological  t|uar- 
rels,  and  if  the  pressure  of  Byzantine  despotism  has  proved 
fatal  to  veracity  here  and  there,  if  the  narrative  is  colored 
at  times  by  personal  sympathies  and  ]iersonal  antipathies, 
yet  on  the  whole  there  is  a  recognition  of  the  historian's 
duty  to  be  impartial  and  to  be  truthful.  Of  the  multitude 
of  authors,  only  a  few  can  be  mentioned  here.  Among  the 
most  important  of  the  liistorians  are  Procopius,  Agathias, 
Theoiihylactus,  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus,  Leo  Diacouus, 


Xicephonis  Bryennius  (see  Brvenxiis)  and  his  wife,  the  fa- 
mous Anna  Comnena.  all  mentioned  in  their  proper  places. 
Among  the  chroniclers  may  be  noted  Johannes  Ant  iochenus, 
Johannes  Malalas,  Theophanes  Confessor,  Xiphilinus,  and 
Zonaras.     Much  remains  unpublished. 

Editions.— The  Paris  Corpux.  edited  by  Labbe,  1648-1711, 
in  42  [larts:  re|irinted  with  additions  at  Venice,  1729-1733: 
the  Bonn  Cnipiis.  1828-78,  41)  volumes,  much  of  which  has 
been  taken  ii|i  into  Migne's  J'dfrolor/ia  (Irwca.  See  Kruin- 
bacher,  Ufxvhichtt  iler  byzantinischen  Litleratur  (Munich, 
1801), 

Ityzantiiic  Recension:  a  Greek  text  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment :  used  ill  Constantinople  after  it  became  a  metropol- 
itan see  in  the  Eastern  Church.  It  is  cited  by  several  Greek 
Fathers,  and  was  used  as  the  basis  of  the  old  Slavic  version. 
It  corresnonded  quite  nearly  with  the  present  "  received 
text "  ami  with  many  existing  MSS. 

K.rzan'tinni  (in  (ir.  TAvCaimov)  :  an  ancient  Greek  city; 
silualed  on  \hv  Thraciaii  Pjosplimus.  ami  on  the  site  of  tiie 
modern  Coiistaiitiuoplc.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
a  colony  of  Megarians  in  6()7  ».  c.  It  increa.sed  rapidly, 
and  soon  became  an  important  commercial  city.  Few  cities 
could  boast  so  magnificent  a  position.  Commanding  as  it 
did  the  two  shores  of  both  Europe  and  Asia,  at  the  .same 
tiiiu'  secure  and  advantageously  situated  for  commerce,  it 
had  at  its  cummaiid  the  choicest  gifts  of  nature  and  the 
most  charming  scenery.  Byzantium  was  very  evidently  the 
site  of  extensive  tunny-fisheries,  the  fishes  visiting  the  port 
|)eriodically  in  immense  nuniliers.  as  they  do  at  the  present 
day.  The  fish  were  salted  and  exjiorted.  The  name 
"Golden  Horn."  .still  applied  to  a  part  of  the  channel  of 
('onstantino]ile.  was  proliably  derived  from  the  great  reve- 
nue flowing  from  this  fishery.  The  Byzantines  also  levied 
a  consideralile  toll  on  vessels  jiassing  from  sea  to  sea.  The 
levying  of  these  tolls  once  involved  them  in  war  with  the 
Kliodians.  They  also  derived  much  profit  from  their  rich 
corn-fields  not  far  from  the  city.  On  the  S.  it  was  bathed  by 
the  Propontis(Sea  of  Jlarmora),  and  on  the  N.  by  the  watei-s 
of  the  Golden  Horn.  Having  been  eai)liired  by  a  general  of 
Darius  Ilystaspis.  it  was  liberated  by  Paiisanias  aliout  478  n.  c. 
\  few  years  later  Byzantium  liecaiiie  an  ally  or  triliiilarv  of 
Athens,  against  which  it  revollcil  in  440  n.  c.  It  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  Alcibiadi's  in  408.  Philip  of  Macedon 
besieged  it  in  340  n.  c,  but  Demosthenes  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  .send  a  fleet  which  compi'lled  liim  to  raise  the 
siege.  This  reimlse  of  Philip  was  one  of  the  proudest  feats 
of  the  great  orator,  who  often  recurs  to  it  in  his  speech  On 
t/if  Croini.  Byzantium  was  for  ages  especially  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  barbarians,  but  the  long  wars  did  not  beget 
much  valor  in  the  people.  From  their  great  commercial 
prosperity  they  early  became  corrupted,  and  they  were  pro- 
verbially indolent,  cowardly,  and  luxurious.  Byzantium 
was  probably  either  a  kingilom  or  the  seat  of  a  tyrannus; 
afterward  it  became  an  aristocracy,  and  later  a  crude  de- 
mocracy. 

The  Byzantians  suffen^d  much  from  the  predatory  incur- 
sions of  the  (iauls.  and.  being  unable  to  resist  them  in  bat- 
tle, agreeil  about  27il  H.  c.  to  jiiiy  them  an  annual  triliute. 
This  city  supported  Pescennius  Xiger  in  the  civil  war  again.st 
Septimius  Severus.  who  captured  it  in  li)6  a.  d.  after  a  brave 
resistance  of  three  years'  duration.  He  then  reduced  it  al- 
most to  ruin,  but  afterward  relented  and  partially  restored 
it.  The  name  of  ^4  (((/".s^j  .l/i/oK/xn  was  given  to  it  in  his 
time.  The  (ireek  Christians  ascribe  the  foundation  of  the 
Byzantine  Church  to  the  labors  of  St.  Andrew  the  apostle, 
but  this  .statement  is  unsupported  by  trustworthy  evidence. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  soon  after  200  A.  D.  there  were 
numerous  Christians  in  the  city.  In  330  a.  D.  Constantine 
the  (ireat  selected  this  place  as  the  ca]iital  of  his  empire, 
and  founded  a  now  city,  which  he  intended  should  rival 
Home,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Xew  Rome.  This 
city  of  Constantine  was  much  more  extensive  than  Byzan- 
tium, which  occupied  in  all  probability  only  the  most  east- 
ern of  the  seven  hills  on  which  the  modern  capital  is  built. 
See  CoxsTA.NTiNOi'Li:. 

Hzo'vius,  or  Itzonski.  bihov  skee,  ,\uraha.m  :  a  Roman 
Catholic  historian;  b.  at  Proczovic.  Poland,  in  1")67.  He 
was  a  zealous  Dominican  prior ;  was  called  to  Home  by  Pius 
v.,  where  he  wrote  in  Latin  !)  volumes  of  a  continuation  of 
the  Annnis  of  Baroiiiiin:  an  Krrlesiaxlicn/  Ilistori/  (2  vols, 
fol.,  Rome,  1616) ;  and  other  historical  works,  besides  nu- 
merous sermons  and  biographies  of  several  poiies.  D.  in 
Rome,  Jan.  31,  1637. 


c 


the  third  letter  of  most  European  alpha- 
bets :  is  in  English  either  a  palatal  explo- 
sive, with  the  sound  of  k.  a  sound  wliich  it 
has  before  a,  o.  w.and  the  consonants  (ex- 
cept h).  unless  marked  with  the  cediOa, 
tlius,  f,  as  in  fofade  and  other  words, 
mostly  from  the  French  and  Portuguese. 
When  marked  with  the  cedilla,  or  when 
occurring  before  e.  i.  or  y.  it  has  the  sibilant  sound  of  .s.  Ch 
has  (1)  the  Spanish  sound,  as  in  the  word  church:  (2)  the 
French  sound  (equivalent  to  sh.  the  German  sch),  as  in 
chaise  ;  and  (3)  the  hard  sound,  equivalent  to  k,  as  in  chord. 
The  German  guttural  ch  is  never  used  in  English.  C  in 
music  is  the  first  note  of  the  "  natural "  diatonic  scale,  which 
scale  is  so  called  because  it  requires  neither  flats  nor  sharps 
in  its  signature.  In  the  ancient  Greek  system  of  tonality 
the  scale  of  which  C  forms  the  initial  note  was  called  Ionic. 
C  in  Latin  stood  for  100,  and  also  for  the  prienomen  Caius. 
In  chemistry  it  is  the  symbol  of  carbon ;  and  c.  c.  is  an  ab- 
breviation for  ••  cubic  centimeter."' 

Caaba :  See  Kaaba. 

Caaing'-wliale.  kawing-hwal  [Scottish,  dri^•ing-whale] : 
the  Globicephalus  melas :  a  large  porpoise  which  abounds 
in  herds  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  Xorth  America,  Ice- 
land, etc.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  when  one  of 
the  herd  is  stranded  the  rest  all  follow  it,  sometimes  as 
many  as  100  at  once  rushing  to  their  own  destruction  in  this 
manner.  They  are  the  source  of  rich  booty  to  fishermen. 
Other  species  of  the  genus  inhabit  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Pacific,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  black-fish  whales  of  North 
America,  and  is  nujst  frequently  caught  off  the  coasts  of 
Scotland. 

Cabal'  [from  Fr.  cabah  <  Late  Lat.  cahbala  <  Heh.  g(tb- 
hdldh.  tradition  :  hence  the  secondary  meaning  of  cahbala, 
secret  doctrine  or  art] :  a  secret  council  formed  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  (1667) :  consisted  of  the  following  mem- 
bers :  Sir  Thoma.s.  afterward  Lord  Clifford.  Lord  Arlington, 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham.  Lord  Asliley.  afterward  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  and  tlie  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  The  Cabal  was 
dissolved  in  1674.  The  prevailing  opinion  that  the  word 
was  formed  from  the  initials  of  the  names  of  its  members  is 
perhaps  erroneous,  as  it  had  been  used  before  to  denote  a 
secret  cabinet,  and  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Hebrew 
(see  Cabbala),  but  this  accidental  association  of  the  initial 
letters  may  have  suggested  this  particular  application  of  the 
name. 

Caballero,  ka1i-ba'al-ya  ro,  Fersas  (pseudonym  of  Cacilia 
Bohl  von  Fabcr) :  Spanish  novelist ;  b.  of  German  parents 
resident  in  Cadiz.  Dec.  25.  1796.  She  made  a  wide  reputa- 
tion by  her  stories  describing  the  local  customs  of  various 
parts  of  Spain.  She  was  a  devout  Roman  Catholic,  and  on 
this  ground  also  very  popular.  Among  her  novels  the  fol- 
lowing are  worth  mentioning:  La  Oan'ota;  Un  Vernno  en 
Bornog;  Fobre  Dolores;  Clemencia;  and  the  collections  of 
tales  called  Felaciones  and  Ciiadros  de  Costnmbres.  D.  Apr. 
7,  1877.  The  best  edition  of  her  works  is  that  of  JIadrid, 
18  vols.,  1855-67:  anotlu'r  excellent  one  is  that  of  Brock- 
haus,  11  vols.,  Leipzig,  1860-82.  A.  R.  Maksh. 

Cabanas :  See  Cavaxas. 

Cabaiiel.  kaa  ba-nel'.  Alexandre:  painter  of  genre,  his- 
tory, and  portraits;  b.  at  .Montpellier,  France,  Xov.  28. 
1823  ;  d.  in  Paris.  .Ian.  23,  1889  :  was  a  pupil  of  Picot :  won 
the  Grand  Piix  de  Rome  in  1845 :  was  a  perfect  type  of  the 
artist  whose  methods  are  founded  on  the  classicism  of  David 
in  his  historical  work,  and  only  in  his  portraits,  of  which  he 
painted  a  large  number,  did  he  show  that  lie  was  affected  by 
more  modern  influences.  He  was  for  many  years  one  of  the 
Professors  of  Painting  in  the  f>cole  des  Beaux-Arts,  aiul 
among  his  pupils  are  some  of  the  most  famous  French  ar- 
tists. His  list  of  honors  is  a  long  one,  including  a  first-class 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855  ;  the  medal  of  honor  at 
the  Salon  of  1865  ;  medals  of  honor  at  the  Universal  Expo- 
sitions in  1867  and  1878:  member  of  the  Institute  1863: 
commander  Legion  of  Honor  1884.    His  Death  of  Moses 


(1852)  is  in  the  Corcoran  GaUery  at  Washington ;  his  por- 
trait of  Miss  C.  L.  Wolfe  is  in  the  Jletropolitan  JIuseum, 
Xew  York  :  and  five  of  his  works,  including  the  Apotheosis 
of  St.  Louis  (1855)  and  the  Birth  of  Venus  (1863).  are  in  the 
Luxembourg  Gallery,  Paris.  In  the  Pantheon  at  Paris  are 
his  frescoes  depicting  the  life  and  education  of  St.  Louis. 
Many  pictures  and  portraits  by  him  are  owned  in  the  U.  S. 
His  portraits  of  men  are  lacking  in  virility  and  vigor,  but 
his  portraits  of  women  are  distinguished  and  refined,  though 
often  somewhat  insipid.  He  was  a  graceful  and  accurate 
draughtsman.  Replicas  of  his  Birth  of  Venus  are  in  the 
collections  of  John  Wolfe,  New  York,  and  H.  C.  Gibson, 
Philadelphia.  William  A.  Coffix. 

Cabanis.  kali'ba-nee',  Pierre  Jeax  George  :  philosopher 
and  physician :  b.  at  Cosnac.  Charente-Inferieure.  France, 
June  5.  1757.  He  was  a  friend  and  political  partisan  of 
Mirabeau.  whom  he  attended  in  his  last  illness.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1706.  and  became  Professor  of 
Medicine  in  Paris  in  1797.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he 
was  an  atheist.  His  principal  work  is  the  Belations  between 
the  Physical  System  and  Mental  Faculties  of  Man  (Rap- 
ports du  Physique  et  du  Moral  de  THomme,  1802),  in  which 
he  nuiintained  that  "  the  brain  secretes  thought  as  the  liver 
secretes  bile."  But  he  afterward  changed  his  opinions  in 
this  respect,  and  adopted  theistic  views.  D.  near  Jleulan, 
May  5,  1808. 

Cabbage  [from  Old  French  cabus.  dialectally  caboche.  a 
calibage  :  from  Lat.  caput,  a  head]  :  a  garden  esculent  of  the 
mustard  family.  The  cabbage  in  some  of  its  forms  has  been 
cultivated  from  prehistoric  times.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
where  the  wild  plant  is  still  to  be  found  u]inn  certain  sea- 
coasts.  Brassica  oleracea,  the  species  to  wliich  the  cabbage 
belongs,  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  cauliflower, 
kales,  and  Brussels  sprouts,  and  some  botanists  even  sup- 
pose that  some  of  the  turnips  have  had  a  similar  origin.  In 
English  there  is  no  generic  name  to  cover  all  these  forms  as 
there  is  in  French  in  the  word  chou.  The  cabbages  are  com- 
monly divided  into  two  general  groups,  the  common  smooth 
sorts  and  the  Savoys,  which  are  characterized  by  blistered 
leaves.  The  common  cabbages  are  again  grouped  accord- 
ing to  the  shajie  of  the  head,  as  spherical,  oblong,  conical, 
and  flat ;  and  tliere  are  also  green  and  red  varieties.  Col- 
lards  is  a  kale-like  vegetable  belonging  to  this  same  species, 
or  sometimes  young  cabbage  plants,  which  are  used  for 
•■  greens,"'  are  so  called.  The  cabbage  is  an  important  crop 
in  temperate  climates.  In  1890  77.094  acres  were  devoted 
to  it  in  the  truck-farms  of  the  U.  S..  and  1,268  acres  were 
devoted  to  the  growing  of  seed.  Seed  for  early  cabbages  is 
sown  in  hotbeds,  but  that  for  the  late  crops  is  sown  in  seed- 
beds in  the  open,  or  sometimes  even  planted  in  the  position 
in  which  the  plants  are  to  grow.  Cabbages  demand  a  deep 
and  rich  soil,  and  one  which  is  not  liable  to  injury  from 
drouth.  Over  100  varieties  are  now  known  and  cultivated 
fn  the  L'.  S.  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Cabbage  Bntterfly :  any  one  of  those  butterflies  the 
larva-  of  which  feed  upon  cabbage  and  allied  plants.  These 
are  mostly  confined  to  that  group  called  Pieridtv.  the  pre- 
vailing color  of  which  is  yellow  or  white.  Two  of  tlie  most 
common  species  (Pieris  rapce  and  Pontia  jirofodice)  are  na- 
tives of  North  America,  but  they  seem  to  be  lessening  in 
numbers  since  the  advent  of  the  European  form,  Pieris  rapcp, 
which  was  introduced  some  thirty  years  ago.  They  are  difli- 
cult  pests  to  deal  with  since  the  larva-  bore  into  the  heads  of 
the  cabbage,  and  hence  poisons  can  not  be  used  conveniently. 

Cabbaee-fljr  (Anthomyia  bra-'isica-) :  a  fly  of  the  same 
family  wilh  the  house-fly,  flesh-fly,  etc..  of  which  the  mag- 
gots often  do  injury  to  the  roots  of  cabbages.  It  is  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  turnip-fly.  onion-fly.  etc.  They  are 
found' in  America  and  Europe,  and  are  very  destructive. 
The  larva-  are  a  dull-reddish  color,  and  the  round  of  meta- 
morphoses is  about  eight  weeks.     Lime-water  destroys  them. 

Cabbage-palm,  or  Cabbage-tree  :  one  of  several  species 
of  palm,  the  great  terminal  bud  of  which  is  eaten  like  cab- 
bage, and  aUo  bears  nuts  of  which  the  kernel  is  sweet.     The 

(864) 


CABBALA 


CABLE,  ELECTRIC 


8G5 


cabbage-palm  of  the  West  Indies  is  the  Euterpe  ohratea, 
which  {rrows  to  the  lieight  of  120  feet  or  more.  The  pal- 
metto {Habcil  jjiihiietto)  is  sometimes  ealleil  ciibliaj;e-])alm. 

Cab'bala,  or  Knhhnlah  [Late  Lat..  I'lum  lU'\Ki/nljbdldh. 
what  is  rei-civcil.  ti-a<litioiiJ :  an  aiicii'iit  .Icwisli  system  of 
religious  philosophy  or  thi'oso|)liy.  'I'liosc  who  liavf  stiulieil 
the  subject  witli  the  ftreatest  care  are  not  fuUv  agreed  among 
themselves  as  to  its  origin  and  character.  "I'he  Cabbala  at- 
tempted to  explain  the  nature  of  tiod  and  of  the  universe. 
Some  of  the  late  writers  of  this  schoul  taught  that  God  has 
neither  will,  intenlion.  desire,  nor  action,  but  thai  ten  Sepli- 
inilh.  or  intelligences, emanated  from  (bid.  The  first  Srpli- 
inih  is  ejJletl  the  Inxn-ulabU  IJeit/ftt  (from  whieh  the  sec- 
ond wiLS  derived,  as  the  third  from  the  secon<l,  and  so  on). 
The  names  of  the  other  intelligences  in  order  are  wisdom, 
intellect,  grace,  power,  beauty,  firmness,  splendor,  founda- 
tion, and  authority.  As  (bxl  became  active  in  these  Sephi- 
rolli,  so  these  be<-ome  externally  manifested  in  the  univei-se. 

The  psychi)li>gy  of  tlic  Cabliala  teaches  the  dnetrineof  the 
transmigration  of  .souls,  but  as  the  literature  of  the  system 
is  immense,  and  its  teachings  recondite  and  often  puerile,  it 
is  dillicult  and  unnecessary  to  state  exactly  what  this  phi- 
losophy tauglit.  It  probably  was  intluenced  by  the  Greek 
j)hilosophy  known  as  Xeo-Pljitonism.  According  to  recent 
authorities  it  originated  among  Jewish  thinkers  of  the  tenth 
(M'uturv.  See  Knorr  von  Ko.senroth"s  ('ablmla  Denudata, 
or  its  English  translation.  The  Cabliala  I'liru'led.  by  S.  L. 
yi.  Mathei-s  (London,  1887),  containing  three  books  of  the 
Zohar.  Reviseil  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Cabbalists:  those  .Tews  who  believe  in  the  Cabbala,  or 
traditional  interpretation  of  the  Pentateuch,  said  to  have 
been  received  by  Moses  from  God  on  .Ml.  .Sinai.  .See  |)re- 
ceding  article. 

Cabeiri :  See  ('ahiki. 

Cabell  Coiirt-lioiisp:  See  Barboi-rsville. 

Cabl'll,  Wilijam:  member  of  a  family  eminent  in  the 
annals  of  Virginia;  b.  in  Licking  Hole,  \'a..  Mar.  13,  1730; 
eldest  son  of  William  Cabell,  surgeon,  who  emigrated  from 
England  to  America  in  1723,  and  obtained  extensive  grants 
of  land  on  the  .Tames  river.  William  Cabell,  .fr.,  was  .sheriff 
of  Albemarle  Conntv  17.^1;  "his  majesty's  presiding  jus- 
tice" and  member  of  the  house  of  burgesses  17.57;  connnis- 
sioner  for  settling  military  claims  17.J8;  member  of  tlie 
house  of  burgesses  when  the  colonics  revolted;  member  of 
the  committee  that  prepared  the  "bill  of  rights"';  first  pre- 
siding magistrate  for  the  V.  S.  after  the  Ueelaralion  of  Inde- 
pendetice;  unanimouslv  chosen  presidential  elector  in  1789. 
lie  left  an  estate  of  20,000  acres.  D.  at  Union  Hill,  Va., 
JIar.  23,  17!)8. 

Cabpstaing.  GiriLi.EM.  de :  a  famous  Proven(^l  poet ;  lived 

and  wrote  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century.  Little 
is  known  of  his  life  except  I  he  improbable  I  ale  of  the  end  of  it. 
This  is,  in  brief,  that  having  loved  Jlargarida,  wife  of  Count 
Kaymond  of  Koussillon,  he  was  slain  by  the  latter,  and  his 
heart  was  offered  by  Ihi^  angry  lord  to  his  wife  to  eat.  She, 
having  eaten  of  it,  dedareil  that  it  was  the  sweetest  morsel 
she  had  ever  tasted,  and  that  she  would  never  eat  other  food 
after  it.  So  she  threw  herself  from  the  turret  of  the  ca.-itle 
and  was  killed.  This  lale  was  very  widely  known  in  the 
Jliddle  Ages,  and  was  used  by  Boccaccio.  See  Diez,  Lebiii 
uitd  H'cr/.c  i/es  Trdiibadtinrs  (2d  ed.  1882) :  Franz  Hiiffer, 
Der  Trohndar  Guillem  de  Cahestanh,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
H'erAe  (1861));  E.  Besehnidt,  Die  Biographic  des  Trohadors 
a.  de  C,  und  ihr  liistorischer  Werih  (1879).  A.  R.  SI. 

Cabet.  kaa  ba',  Etiknnf.  :  socialist ;  b.  in  Dijon,  France, 
Jan.  2,  1788.  He  was  a  railical  democrat  in  politics  and  a 
leader  of  the  Carbonari.  In  1843  he  publislied  a  romantic 
work  called  Travels  in.  Jruria,  which  was  vi!ry  po|iular 
among  the  workingnu-n  of  Paris.  He  planted  in  11^46  a 
colony  on  the  cononunist  system  on  the  Red  river  in  Texas, 
from  which  he  and  his  followers  removed  in  1849  to  Xauvoo, 
111.,  after  that  town  had  been  deserted  by  the  Mormons.  1). 
in  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  Xov.  9, 185G.  His  colony,  which  had  never 
enjoyed  much  prosperity,  was  broken  up  in  1857. 

Cabeza  de  Vaca :  See  Vaca,  Alvar  NuSez,  etc. 

Cabin:  a  small  room  orinclosure  ;  a  cottage,  .small  house, 
or  rmlely  built  temporary  residence.  Also  an  apartment  in 
a  ship  or  steamboat  for  t  he  use  of  the  oflicers  and  passengers. 
These  apartments  in  stcainbiiats  arc  often  called  saloons.  In 
ships  of  war  the  rooms  of  the  ailmirals  and  captains  are 
called  cabins,  and  are  fitted  up  with  much  elegance. 
C& 


Cabinet:  specifically,  a  bofly  of  counselors,  generally 
coinposetl  of  the  heads  of  executive  departments,  on  which 
the  respiinsibility  of  government  devolves.  The  name  is 
taken  from  the  cabinet  or  private  apartment  where  a  king 
was  accustomed  to  meet  his  |irivy  council  in  secret  confer- 
ence. Before  the  modern  cabinet  was  developed  the  term 
was  used  reproachfully,  as  imjilying  a  government  by  in- 
trigue of  court  favorites.  It  is  not  now  a  body  known  to 
the  law  in  either  the  United  Kingdom  or  the  U.  S.  Under 
the  Tudors  and  Stuarts  the  privy  council  was  the  council  of 
state.  The  modern  cabinet  l)egan  vinjer  William  111.,  who 
jilaced  the  ministry  on  a  parliamentary  basis  and  rei|uired 
parly  unity  among  its  members,  and  lie  and  (^ueen  Anne 
were  wont  to  i>resi(le  over  its  meetings.  Under  the  first  two 
Georges,  who  scarcely  tinderstood  English,  the  cabinet  ac- 
(|iiired  independence  of  the  crown,  and  no  subsequent  mon- 
arch has  been  able  to  regain  control,  so  that  it  is  a  maxim' 
of  the  British  Government  that  the  monarch  shall  not  attend 
the  discussions  of  his  advisers.  He  may  dismiss  his  ministry, 
however,  and  apiieal  to  Parliament,  and  even  to  the  country, 
but  the  proceecling  has  become  hazardous  and  is  not  at- 
temiited.  The  Prime  ^Minister  selects  from  the  chief  ofl^icei-s 
of  the  Government^  whose  names  he  submits  to  the  crown, 
those  whom  he  will  have  in  his  cabinet,  and  he  is  not  re- 
stricted as  to  their  number  nor  their  division  between  the 
two  Houses  of  Parliament,  excejit  that  prescription  has  fixed 
the  number  at  not  less  than  eleven,  viz.:  First  Loi'd  of  the 
Treasury.  Lord  Chancellor.  Lord  President  of  the  Council, 
Lord  Privy  Seal.  Chancellor  of  the  Kxchcquer,  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  and  the  five  Secretaries  of  State.  This 
body  is  the  resjionsible  Govemment  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  stands  or  falls  together.  Its  meetings  are  secret,  no 
record  of  its  proceedings  is  kept,  it  is  dishonorable  to  divulge 
its  deliberations,  each  member  is  bound  by  its  decisions  or 
must  resign  his  office  in  the  ministry,  and  in  practice  he  is  a 
member  of  Parliament. 

Ill  th(!  U.  S.  the  cabinet  is  composed  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
eight  executive  dcpailnients  created  by  acts  of  Congress,  viz. : 
the  .Secretaries  of  State,  Treasury,  War,  Attorney-General, 
Postma-ster-General  (created  in  1789),  Secretary'  of  Navy 
(1798),  .Secretary  of  Interior  (1849),  and  .Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture (l''^^^9).  Their  meeting  as  advisers  of  the"  President 
is  unknown  to  the  law  or  constitution,  and  their  conclusions 
in  cabinet  have  no  binding  force,  except  that  a  dissenting 
member  would  resign  ollice  if  he  could  not  conform.  By  act 
of  1886  niembci-s  of  the  catiinet  in  the  order  named,  except 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  succeed  to  the  performance  of 
chief  executive  functions  wlu>n  by  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  disability,  the  otliees  of  President  and  Vice-President 
are  both  vacant,  until  the  disability  is  removed  or  a  President 
is  elected.  In  this  event  Congress  must  be  assembled  within 
twenty  days.     See  Ca.makii.la.  C.  K.  Auams. 

Cabi'ri,  or  Cabeiri  (in  (ir.  Kaflfipoi):  ancient  divinities 
worsliijied  in  Samollirace.  Pliu'iiicia.  Greece,  and  other 
countries.  The  myth  of  the  Caliiri  is  obscure,  and  not  well 
explained  by  ancient  writers.  Their  worship  was  performed 
with  much  solemnity  and  mystery.  The  earliest  inenti(m 
of  them  ill  literature  is  in  a  drama  by  ^I'lschylus,  entitled 
Ka^eipoj.  in  which  they  are  represented  as  beneficent  beings 
who  mingle  freely  wiili  the  Argonauts  during  the  visit  of 
the  killer  to  Leninos. 

Cable:  a  rope  or  a  chain  mostly  employed  on  shipbo.ard 
to  connect  the  ship  with  her  anchors.  The  name  is  often  ap- 
plied to  wire  ro|)es.  es|ie(ially  such  as  are  used  in  suspension 
bridges  and  to  submarine  I eiegraph  lines,  etc.  Rope  cables 
are  made  of  the  best  hemp,  of  manilla.  or  of  coir.  The  cir- 
cuniference  vanes  from  aliout  12  inches  to  26.  A  number 
of  yarns  are  twisted  to  form  nlismini ;  three  li.s.sums,  twisted 
in  an  oji|iosite  direction,  form  a  nlmiul:  and  three  stramls 
twisted  111  the  direction  of  the  yarns  in  a  lissum  form  a  cable. 
The  strength  of  a  calile  varies  according  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter.  On  shipboard,  cables  receive  the  names  of  .'Ace/ 
cables,  hdwer  cables,  etc..  according  to  the  anchor  to  which 
they  are  altacned.  Hempen  cables  have  been  superseded  by 
chain.  Chain  cables  consist  of  links  the  length  of  each  of 
which  is  aliout  six  diamelers  of  the  iron  of  which  it  is  nia<le, 
and  the  breadth  aliiait  three  and  a  half  diametei-s.  See 
Roi'Ks  AND  Roi'E-JiAKiNo.  Revised  by  S.  B.  LrcE. 

Cable.  Eleetric :  a  conductor  or  set  of  conductors  for  the 
electric  current,  in  whieh  iirotection  from  injury  is  provided 
for  by  surrounding  the  insiilaling  coat  wiih  a  sheath  or 
armor.  Cables  for  use  uiidergrounil.  where  the  chief  .s<iiirces 
of  injury  are  of  a  chemical  nature,  are  commonly  surrounded 


866 


(ABLE 


CACERES 


with  a  sheath  of  lead.     Submarine  cables,  which  are  subject 
to  conliuual  abrasion,  are  incased  in  an  armor  of  steel  wire. 


Fig.  1. — Underground  cable,  con-       Fig.  2.— Submarine  cable,  with 
taining  six-stranded  conduc-  one-stranded  conductor, 

tors  for  electric  lighting. 

For  the  sake  of  gi-eater  fJexibility.  cables,  even  when  they  con- 
tain but  a  single  circuit,  are  usually  made  up  of  many  strands. 

Cable.  George  W.isiiixtiTON  :  novelist :  b.  in  Xew  Orleans, 
Oct.  13,  1844:  served  in  the  Confederate  army  during  the 
civil  war.  after  the  close  of  which  lie  returned  to  Xew  Orleans; 
engaged  in  surveying,  journalism,  and  various  mercantile 
occupations  initil  187!),  when  he  began  to  devote  himself 
wholly  to  litcratiu-e.  He  gave  readings  from  his  stories  in 
Xortliern  cities,  and  since  188.5  has  resided  in  Connecticut 
and  in  Northampton,  ^lass.  Ills  fictions  relate  mainly  to 
Louisiana  life,  and  illustrate  Creole  dialect  and  character. 
Among  them  are  Olil  Ci-fdli'  Vai/n  (1879-88);  Thi'  GraiuUa- 
srmes  (1880) :  MiuUime  Delphine  (\m\):  Dr.  ScciVr  (1885) ; 
Bonaventiire  (1888).  etc.  He  also  wrote  essays  on  the  penal 
systems  and  the  conditiiin  of  the  colored  race  in  the  Southern 
States.  IIexry  A.  Beers. 

Cabot.  .James  Elliot:  b.  in  Boston.  Mass.,  .Jutie  18,  1821; 
writer  lor  The  Dial  in  1844:  edited  The  Ma-sxKchiisi't/s 
Qtiarferli/  1848-50;  edited  Aiidiiboji's  Binlif  of  Ami'rica; 
contributor  to  the  Af/nnfic  Munthhj.  The  Xtirth  Aiiien'ran 
Review,  and  other  magazines;  undertook  on  invitation  of 
R.  W.  Emerson  the  editorship  of  his  writings  ;  jiulilished  in 
1887  A  Memoir  iif  Jial/jh  ]y(il<lo  Emerson.     W.  T.  H.arris. 

Cabot,  John  :  a  foreign  merchant  of  Bristol  who,  after  the 
discovery  of  America  l)y  Columbus,  was  placed  in  command 
of  a  fleet  of  five  vessels,  which  sailed  in  the  spring  of  14!)7. 
They  reached  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  (according  to  Se- 
Itastian  Cabot's  map.  fotuid  in  the  geographical  cabinet  of 
the  National  Ijibrary  in  Paris)  on  .June  24,  and  were  in  pjiig- 
land  again  in  August.  Nothing  is  heard  of  him  after  14!)8, 
and  he  is  sui)posed  to  have  died  about  that  time.  The  date 
of  his  birth  is  not  known. 

Cabot.  Seh-^stian  ;  navigator ;  son  of  the  preceding ;  b. 
in  Bristol.  Knglaiul.  1477.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
with  his  father  in  the  voyage  of  1497,  and  there  are  some 
indications  that  he  visited  the  North  American  coast  in 
1503.  In  1517  he  commanded  an  English  expedition  in 
search  of  a  Northwest  pas.sage.  discovering  the  entrance  of 
Hudson's  Bay  and  penetrating  to  lat.  67"  SO'  N.  Invited 
by  Charles  V.  to  Spain,  he  was  made  Grand  Pilot  of  Castile 
(1518),  and  in  this  capacity  commanded  four  shijis  which 
left  San  Iju<-ar  in  Apr..  1526.  to  follow  Magellan's  route  to 
the  Moluccas.  Toucliing  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  lie  entered 
the  Plata,  ascended  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  to  the  site  of 
Ascencion,  and,  aliandoning  the  Molucca  voyage,  built  the 
fort  of  Espirito  Santo  oii  the  Parana,  thus  founding  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  this  region.  Receiving  no  aid  from 
Spain,  he  returned  in  1.580.  Ii'aving  a  garrison.  He  remained 
in  the  S|ianisli  service  until  the  end  of  1.546,  when  he  went 
to  Pjiigland.  Kilward  VI.  granted  him  a  pension,  and  he 
was  influential' in  promoting  Englisli  commercial  enter- 
prises, especially  to  the  Baltic.  1).  in  London,  1557.  A 
map  of  the  world,  published  in  Holland  in  1544.  is  ascribed 
to  Cabot.  See  Biddle,  Selmxtion  Cabot  (1881);  Harris.se, 
Jean  et  SebaMien  Cahot  (1882);  Doniersay.  Ilistoire  ilii  Para- 
guay. Herbert  II.  S.mith. 

Cabra,  kaabra"!!  (anc.  ^(/abntm) :  a  town  of  Spain  ;  in 
the  province  of  Cordova:  80  miles  .S.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Cordova  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-E).  It  has  a  college,  a 
cathedral,  a  convent,  and  maiuit'actnres  of  linens,  hats,  soaji, 
bricks,  etc.  The  neighboring  region  is  volcanic,  and  pro- 
duces excellent  wine.     Pop.  about  14.000. 

Cabral'.  Peuro  Alvarez,  or  Pedralvez;  Portuguese 
navigator:  b.  aliout  1460.  In  1500  he  commanded  a  fleet 
of  eighteen  ves.sels  destined  to  follow  the  route  to  India 
which  had  been  opened  bv  Vasco  da  Gania.     Obeving  his 


instructions,  he  kept  far  out  in  the  Atlantic,  and  thus,  on 
Apr.  22,  discovered  the  Brazilian  coast  about  lat.  16'  30'  S. 
(See  Brazil.)  Continuing  his  route.  May  2,  Cabral  soon 
lost  four  ships  in  a  storm ;  with  the  rest  he  proceeded  to 
Jlozambique  and  Calicut.  A  fort  which  he  founded  at  Cali- 
cut was  destroyed;  he  then  made  an  alliance  with  the  sov- 
ereign of  Cochin,  loaded  his  vessels  with  spices,  and.  losing 
one  more  ship  on  liis  return,  readied  Lislion.  July  28.  1.501. 
Of  Cabral's  sulisequent  life  nothing  is  known;  he  probably 
died  about  1536.  See  Capistrano  de  Abreu,  Deseobrimentu 
do  Brazil  (Rio  de  .Janeiro,  1883) ;  Barros,  Deeadas  da.f 
Lidiax.  Herhert  H.  S.mith. 

Cabrera,  ka'a-bra'ra'a.  Don  Ramox  ;  general  and  Carlist ; 
noted  for  his  cruelty  ;  b.  in  Tortosa.  Catalonia.  Sjiain.  Aug. 
81, 1810.  In  the  civil  war  which  began  aliout  1884  he  fought 
for  Don  Carlos  against  the  Christinos.  and  became  a  leader 
of  guerillas.  He  gained  a  victory  at  Bunol  in  Feb..  1837,  and 
took  Valencia;  but  he  was  driven  out  of  .Spain  by  Espartero 
in  1840,  and  retired  to  France.  He  returned  in  1848  ami 
renewed  the  contest,  but  he  was  defeated  and  went  into 
exile  in  Jan..  1840;  supported  the  government  of  Alfonso 
XII.     I),  at  Wentworth.  Knglaml.  May  24,  1876. 

Cabrera  ISobadilla  y  Meiuloza.  Lris  Gero.wmo  Fer- 
xanuez.  de  :  fourth  Count  of  Chinclion  ;  .Spiinisli  adminis- 
trator; b.  about  1575.  From  Jan..  1()2!).  to  l)<'c.  18.  1689, 
he  was  Viceroy  of  Peru.  His  adniinistralion  \v;is  a  difficult 
one.  owing  to  the  constant  demainl  from  .Spain  for  a  larger 
revenue;  he  also  had  to  deal  with  the  Araucanian  war  in 
Chili,  and  with  an  insurrection  of  the  I'rus  Indians  of  Lake 
Titicaca.  The  most  memorable  event  of  his  term  was  the 
discovery  of  the  medicinal  properties  of  Peruvian  bark,  with 
which  tiie  viceroy's  wife  was  cured  of  a  fever.  He  died  at 
his  castle,  near  Madrid,  in  1647.  Hkhhert  II.  Smith. 

Cablll.  ka-bool"  (properly  kawbo"ol):  a  fortified  city  of  Af- 
ghanistan: on  the  Cabul  river,  here  crossed  by  tliree  bridges: 
80  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Ghazni  :  about  6.400  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea:  lat.  84=  80  X..  Ion.  69°  6'  E.  (see  maji  of 
Asia,  ref.  5-1)).  Tlie  climate  in  winter  is  very  severe.  The 
citadel,  called  Bala  Ilissar.  includes  the  palace  of  the  Khan. 
the  government  offices,  royal  gardens,  and  ninnerous  dwell- 
ings" The  streets  are  narrow  :  the  liouses  jire  two  or  three 
.stories  high,  and  have  flat  roofs.  The  jiublic  Imildings  are 
not  remarkable.  Cabul  is  widely  celebrated  for  the  variety 
and  excellent  quality  of  its  fruits.  a|iples.  ]iears.  pomegran- 
ates, grapes,  etc.  It  has  an  extensive  trade  as  an  entrepot 
between  India  and  Turkestan.  The  people  of  Calml  are  Mo- 
hammedans and  a  mixture  of  several  races.  Under  the  Em- 
jieror  Biiber,  Cabul  was  the  ca)iital  of  the  Jlogul  empire.  It 
was  taken  bv  Tamerlane  about  1400.  and  bv  Xadir  Shah  in 
1788.  The  British  captured  it  in  1889.  but  in  J.-iii..  1843.  the 
Afghans  revolted  and  massacred  the  British  army.  Shere 
Ali  took  it  from  his  revolted  brothers  in  1868;  it  was  again 
captured  in  1879  by  Sir  Frederick  Roberts,  in  retaliation  for 
the  destiuction  of  the  British  resideucv.  Pop.  .50.000  to 
60.000. 

Caca'o  [Span,  form  of  native  Mexican  name  (if  the  tree 
caca-iiaf/]:  the  fruit  of  the  Theobroma  cacao,  a  tree  of  troji- 
icai  America;  of  the  family  Sterculiacea:  Chocolate  and 
cocoa  are  made  of  the  roasted  oily  kernels  of  the  cacao  nut, 
which  also  yields  cacao  butter.  This  trei'  should  not  lie  con- 
foundeil  with  the  cocoanut  tree,  nor  witli  the  coca  of  Peru. 

Cacao  Butter:  a  fixed  oil,  hard  and  soliil  at  ordinary 
temperatures;  is  vielded  in  large  quantities  by  the  fruit  of 
Thmhroina  riirao'.  It  is  extracted  by  heiit  and  pressure.  It 
contains  a  very  large  proporti<ui  of  stearin,  with  some  olein 
and  palniitin. "  It  is  largely  used  in  the  preiairation  of  cos- 
metics, and  is  e.sjiecially  iLseful  in  pharmacy  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  suppositories.  "The  mafurra  tallow  which  is  brought 
from  Madagascar  closely  resembles  the  above  in  chemical 
and  ]ilivsi<-al  properties.  Cacao  butter  is  not  to  be  coti- 
louiideii  with  cocoa  butter,  which  is  a  kind  ot  palm  oil.  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  • 

Cae'apoil.  or  Great  Cacapoii :  a  river  of  West  Virginia  ; 
rises  near  the  south  extremity  of  Hardy  County:  flows 
nearly  northeastward  through  Hampshire  and  Morgan 
Counties,  and  enters  the  Potomac.     Length  about  140 miles. 

Ciieeres,  kaatho-rf7s:  a  province  of  Sfiain  :  boundecl  X. 
liy  Salamanca.  E.  bv  Avila,  Toledo,  and  Ciudad  Real,  .S.  by 
B'adajoz.  and  W.  liv  Portugal.  Area,  8,014  sq.  miles.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  river  Tagus.  The  surface  is  diversified 
bv  .several  ranges  of  mountains.  C.-qiital.  Caceres.  Po]!. 
(1887)  839,793. 


CACERES 


CACHICAMA 


S6T 


CicPres  (anc.  Castra  Ccecilia) :  a  town  of  Spain  ;  capital 
of  jiidvince  of  same  name;  siluatetl  on  high  ground,  25 
mill's  \V.  by  X.  frnm  Tnijillo  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  16-C').  It 
eontains  an  old  castle,  an  episcopal  palace,  several  convents 
anil  liospilals,  a  theater,  a  Jesuits'  college,  and  a  bull-ring 
which  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Si)ain.  It  has  manufactures 
of  linens,  woolen  goods,  hats,  soap,  wine,  etc.  Interesting 
Roman  and  Jloorish  antiquities  are  found  here.  I'op.  about 
15,01)0. 

Ciiceres,  Andres  Avemno:  Peruvian  soldier  and  states- 
man: b.  in  .\yacucho,  Nov.  11.  1838.  lie  served  as  an  ofTi- 
cer  under  Caslilla  and  Prado,  and,  on  the  overthrow  of  the 
latter,  was  imprisoned  for  a  year.  L'nder  President  Pardo 
he  ilislinguished  himself  by  quelling  a  mutiny.  When  the 
war  with  Chili  broke  out  in  187'J  he  was  a  colonel,  lie 
serveil  in  most  of  the  battles,  became  brigadier-general,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Lima  wjus  chosen  second  vice-president  in 
the  provisional  t'alderon  government.  .lune.  188:i.  The  cap- 
tivity of  Calderon  and  the  absence  of  the  first  vice-president 
left  ('aceres  as  acting  president  of  Peru.  Supi>orted  by  the 
interior  provinces,  he  held  out  against  the  Chilians,  and  de- 
clared against  Iglesias.  whom  they  had  ma<le  president  at 
Lima.  An  attempt  of  Oaeeres  to  take  the  capital  failed 
after  a  hard  street-fight  (Aug.,  1884),  but  a  second  attempt 
succeeded  without  bloodshed  (Dec.  1.  1885).  Caceres  then 
agreed  with  Iglesias  to  refer  their  rival  claims  to  a  general 
election.  This  resulteil  in  favor  of  Caceres.  who  was  imiu- 
garate<i  president  of  Peru,  .Tune  3,  188(i.  rnder  his  admin- 
istration the  country  l)eg,'in  to  recover  from  the  ruin  which 
had  resulted  from  the  war:  the  state  railroads  and  guano 
beds  were  given  up  to  a  private  company,  which  assumed 
part  of  the  national  debt.  (Jen.  Caceres  went  as  I'eruviau 
minister  to  France  and  Spain  in  1891.  In  1894  he  again 
became  president.  IIekbkkt  II.  Smith. 

Cficeres,  Niieva.  noo-avaa  (i.  e.  New  Caceres) :  a  town  of 
the  Philippine  islands:  in  Luzon:  on  its  southeast  coast, 
184  miles  S.  or  .S.  K.  of  ^lanila,  a  seat  of  a  liishop  (see  map 
of  Kast  Indies,  ref.  3-11).  Pop.,  including  sul]urbs,  about 
12,000. 

Cachalot,  kash  a-lot  [from  Sp.  cavhahiti',  by  way  of  Fr. 
raehalnt}:  a  book-name  for  the  sperm  whale  (Phi/si'ter  ma- 
rroeephaliis),  the  largest  of  the  toothed  whales  and  of  the 
family  Phijscteriii(P.  It  has  a  blunt  head  which  forms  iu>arly 
one-third  of  the  total  length  ;  there  is  no  back  fin.  but  in  its 
place  a  low  lunup:  the  paddles  are  short  and  sipiarish,  and 
the  tail  or  llukcs  broad  and  powerful.  The  right  nostril  is 
aborted,  and  the  left  opens  by  a  long  slit  on  the  left  anterior 
portion  of  the  lieail.  a  conformation  which  causes  the  very 
characteristic  "spout  "  of  this  species,  resembling,  as  it  does, 
a  pulf  of  smoke  from  a  gun,  and  by  which  it  may  be  readily 
recognized  at  a  longdistance.  The  upper  jaw  overhangs  the 
lower  and  contains  no  teeth,  although  rudimentary  teeth 
are  present  in  the  young,  concealed  beneatli  the  gum.  The 
two  halves  of  the  slender  lower  jaw  are  opposed  for  I  he  greater 
portion  of  their  length. and  each  contains  about  twenty-one 
conical  teeth.  The  color  is  blackish,  lighter  beneath.  Old 
males  are  said  to  attain  a  length  of  70  feet,  liut  40  to  50  is 
the  average  size.  The  females  are  smaller  and  of  more  slen- 
der build ;  the  year-old  young  is  under  25  feet.  The  sperm 
whale  is  gregarious,  associating  in  schools,  or  pods,  of  from 
four  or  five  up  to  one  hundred,  or  even  more.  The  large 
schools  are  composed  of  females,  young,  and  medium-sized 
males:  the  larger  the  individuals  the  smaller  the  size  of  the 
school,  the  very  largest  males  being  solitary  in  their  habits. 
The  males  frequently  indulge  in  combats  with  one  another, 
and  occasionally  a  whale  is  taken  whose  jaw  is  badly  twisted 
out  of  shape  as  the  result  of  some  fight  when  young.  The 
spermacet  i,  whence  the  species  derives  its  name,  is  a  whitish, 
oily  liquid,  hardening  on  exposure  to  the  air,  contained  in  a 
cartilaginous  receptacle,  the  "  case."  in  front  of  and  above 
the  skull.  In  large  vessels  the  head  is  taken  on  deck,  a  hole 
cut  in  the  "case,"  and  the  spernniceti  bailed  out  with  buck- 
ets. In  small  vessels  the  head  is  made  fast  alongside,  and 
the  operation  performed  there.  Spermaceti  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  various  ointments  and  cosmetics,  and  was 
foniuu-ly  extensively  employed  for  making  candles.  The 
blubber,  or  layer  of  fat  surrounding  the  body,  yields  an 
excellent  oil,  and  a  grayish  wax-like  substance  termed  am- 
bergris, the  product  of  disease,  is  sometimes  fouiul  in  the 
intestine:  it  is  of  considerable  value  in  the  manufacture  of 
perfumery.  It  po.ssesses  comparatively  little  odor  in  itself, 
and  this  is  supposed  to  bo  in  some  way  due  to  the  squids  on 
which  the  sperm  whale  feeds.     It  is,  however,  valuable  as  a 


basis  for  other  perfumes,  and  has  the  important  property  of 
reiuleriiig  them  more  lasting.  One  of  the  largest,  if  not  the 
very  largest,  pieces  of  ambergris  on  record  weighed  185 
lb.,  and  was  sold  for  about  $10,000.  A  very  large  whale 
may  yield  10  liarrels  of  spermaceti  and  120  barrels  of  oil. 
The  cachalot  iidmbits  the  warmer  seas  of  the  globe,  favorite 
grounds  being  olf  New  Zealand,  the  Cape  de  Verde  islands, 
llalteras,  the  Sooloo  .Se.n.  and  Indian  Ocean,  where  it  was 
pursued  by  American  whalers,  the  number  of  vessels  en- 
gaged in  the  sperm-whale  fishery  being  at  onetime  over  300. 
The  food  of  the  species  is  fish  and  squids,  ami  the  existence 
of  gigantic  cuttle-fishes  was  known  to  whalers  long  before 
any  entire  specimens  were  discovered,  from  the  fragments 
vomited  up  by  whales  in  their  death  struggles,  (^uite  re- 
cently several  species  of  large  scpiids.  entirely  new  to  sci- 
ence, were  taken  from  a  sperm  whale  killed  near  the  Azores. 
The  head  and  body  iif  the  whale  bore  marks  of  the  large, 
toothed  suckers  with  which  the  long  arms  of  the  s(|uid  are 
[jrovided.  The  cachalot  is  a  formidable  adversary  when 
wcmnded,  not  only  striking  with  the  tail,  but  biting  with 
such  terrible  force  that  whaleboats  have  been  cut  in  two 
at  one  stroke.  Owing  to  the  peculiar  position  of  the  jaw. 
the  animal  bites  most  effectively  when  lying  on  its  back. 
The  head  is  also  used  as  a  ram,  and  a  few  cases  are  on  record 
where  whalc-shi|is  have  been  attacked  and  sunk  by  large 
sperm  whales,  the  most  notable  instance  being  that  of  the 
Essex.  See  the  articles  Amheugris,  Oils,  Shkrmaceti, 
Whale,  and  Whale-oil:  and  for  statistics,  see  the  article 

WlIALE-FISHEItV.  F.  A.  LfCAS. 

Caclino:  See  Hanoi. 

Cache.  ka"iish  :  a  French  word  signifying  a  hi<liiig-place  ; 
a  name  given  in  the  Western  V .  S.  to  subterranean  holes  in 
which  travelers  and  trappers  hide  provisions  and  other  prop- 
erty, to  preserve  them  from  the  depredations  of  the  Indians 
and  wild  animals.  They  are  made  to  closely  resemble  the 
surrounding  earth.  The  name  is  also  ai)|>lied  to  marked 
mounds  of  stone  on  the  shores  of  Arctic  waters,  within  whieh 
whalers  and  explorers  have  deposited  supplies  of  food  for  the 
use  of  distressed  mariners. 

Cache  River:  of  Arkansas;  ri.ses  near  the  northeast  ex- 
tremity of  the  State.  It  Hows  in  a  S.  S.  W.  direction,  and 
enters  the  White  river  near  Clarendon.  Length  about  1.50 
miles. 

Cachet.  Lettres  de.  letrde-kalisha' :  a  term  applied  in 
France  under  the  old  refjime  to  letters  or  orders  signed  with 
the  private  seal  of  the  king  and  used  as  instruments  of  des- 
potic power.  Before  the  seventeenth  century  they  were  not 
often  employed,  but  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  they  became 
very  common.  Many  persons  were  arrested  by  such  war- 
rants and  imiirisoned  without  trial  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  chief  of  police  kept  forms  of  h'ttres  de  cachet 
signed  and  needing  only  the  insertion  of  the  name  of  the 
person  to  be  arrested,  and  these  were  obtained  by  private 
persons  in  order  to  put  out  of  the  way  troublesome  relatives. 
.■\bout  twenty  such  wan-ants  were  issueil  against  ^lirabean. 
Sometimes  they  were  used  to  shield  offenders  fnnn  jiroceed- 
ings  before  tribunals.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  leltres  de  cachet  were  sold  by  one  of  the  mistresses  of 
the  king  to  any  one  who  would  pay  money  for  them.  They 
were  al)olished  in  .Ian.,  1790. 

Cache  Valley:  a  fertile  valley  of  Northeastern  I'tah  and 
Southeastern  Idaho.  It  lies  between  northerly  spurs  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains:  is  (iO  miles  long  and  from  10  to  20 
broad  ;  has  a  general  altitude  of  5,000  feet.  The  Hear  river 
crosses  it  obliquely  and  receives  a  number  of  tributaries 
which  are  utilized  for  irrigation.  Logan  is  the  largest  of  its 
dozen  villages. 

Cachexia,  ka-keks  i-a  [from  Gr.  Kaxt(la.  poor  condition  of 
body:  Kcutit.  bad  +  *«{(o,  cf.  t'fis.  condition:  deriv.  of  tx"". 
have,  hold  one's  self] :  a  term  applied  in  medicine  to  wasted 
and  ana'inic  states  of  the  system,  due  to  various  debilitating 
diseases.  It  is  particularly  aiiplicable  in  cases  of  cancer  or 
other  malignant  tumors,  but  in  a  general  sense  such  terms 
as  tuberculous  cachexia,  malarial  cachexia,  gouty  cachexia, 
and  the  like  may  be  employed.  The  fe.'ilures  present  an 
anxiinis  and  aged  appearance;  the  skin  is  dry,  harsh,  shriv- 
eled, and  of  an  ashy  grayish  hue ;  and  emaciation  is  usually 
marked. 

Caehicaina.  kitsh-i-kmi'ma,  called  also  Tatoii-pe'ba  :  the 

nine-banded  .'irmadillo  (Daxi/pus  tiovem-cinctiis),  an  eden- 
tate nnimmal  found  from  Texas  to  Paraguay.  It  is  16 
inches  long,  and  has  a  long  tail.     Both  bialy  and  tail  are 


868 


CACHINA 


CADDOAN  INDIANS 


covered  with  plates,  those  of  the  tail  in  horny  rings,  and 
those  of  the  body  (in  part)  disposed  in  nine  bands,  so  united 
as  to  admit  of  some  motion.    This  animal  can  be  readily 


Cachicama. 

tamed.  Its  food  is  principally  ants,  but  it  also  is  fond  of 
vegetables  and  of  carrion.  • 

Cachiiia:  See  Pueblo  Indians. 

Cacliolons'.  kash'6-long:  a  beautiful  mineral,  sometimes 
called  Pearl  Opal :  is  a  inilk-white  variety  of  opal,  nearly 
jiUied  to  liydrophane.  It  is  opaque  and  pearly,  has  a  con- 
choidal  fracture,  and  sometimes  has  a  reddish  tinge.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  i-iver  Cach,  in  Bucharia,  where  it 
was  first  discovered. 

Cac'odyl.  Cacodyle,  Kakodyl.  or  Kakodyle :  also  Caco- 
dyl'ic,  or  Kakody'lie  Oxide  [frum  (jr.  kukSs,  bad  +  voS-. 
smell  (cf.  KaKwSta,  stink)  +  sutlix -///.  sul)stancc] :  an  extremely 
poisonous  organic  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  ar- 
senic (CMIsAs).  Correctly  speaking,  the  fumiiii/  liquor  of 
i'adet;  belongs,  as  it  was  originally  applied  by  Bunsen,  the 
discoverer  of  tliis  baneful  series  of  bodies  in  1837,  to  the 
latter  compound,  which  is  also  called  (dcarsine  (arsenical 
alcohol),  thougli  it  is  now  known  that  the  liquor  of  Cailet  is 
always  mixed  with  eacodyl  itself.  Cadet's  liquor  is  obtained 
by  distilling  together  white  arsenic  and  potassio  acetate. 
The  mixed  protluct  is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  which 
gives  cacoilylic  chloride,  and  this,  treated  in  an  atmosphere 
of  CO2,  with  metallic  Zn,  gives  pm-e  eacodyl. 

Cacoii'iia :  a  post-village  and  parish  of  Temiscouata  co.. 
province  of  t^ui^bec,  Cauiida :  on  the  southeast  bank  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  (sec  map  of  (jucbcc,  ref.  3-B) :  the  terminus  of 
the  Riviere  du  Loup  Division  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway; 
a  place  of  summer  resort  for  salt-water  bathing,  and  for 
fisliing  and  hunting.     Pop.  about  1,000. 

Caota'cea^:  the  Cactus  Family  (q.  v.). 

Cae'liis  Family  (Cnctdci-a'):  dicotyledonous  herbs,  shrubs, 
or  trees;  .stems  mostly  succulent ;  leaves  minute  or  wanting 
(in  a  few  eases  with  ani))le  leaves);  ovary  inferior;  stamens  nu- 
merous ;  floral  leaves  (sepals  an<l  petals)  usiuilly  many.  They 
are-  related  to  the  myrtles,  evening  ]iriinroses,  luentzelias, 
etc.,  and  are  to  lie  regardi'd  a.s  spi'cially  modified  from  this 
general  type  for  growtli  in  hot,  dry  climates.  About  1.000 
species  have  been  described,  all  natives  of  the  New  World, 
with  a  single  exception  {li/ii/milis  cassijtha,  variety  manri- 
tiana).  Some  species,  however,  have  become  naturalized  in 
many  countries  of  the  Old  World.  The  most  important 
genera  are  J/rimillaria,  with  spheroidal  stems  covered  with 
tubercles;  L'chinorncfns.  with  spheroidal  stems  vertically 
ribbed  ;  Cercns.  wit  h  elongated,  ribbed  stems ;  Optiiifia,  with 
tlattened,  articulated  stems.  CuAKLiis  E.  Bessey. 

Cnctiis-wroiis:  wrens  of  the  genus  Cnmpi/lor/iynchnK; 
found  in  Texas,  Arizona,  Mexico,  and  Central  America. 
They  live  among  the  cactuses  on  which  they  build  their 
nests ;  hence  the  name. 

Cadalialso.  kaa-daal'so,  Josi5.  de:  Sjianish  |)oet  and  dra- 
matist; b.  in  Cadiz,  Oct.  8,  1741  ;  killed  at  the  siege  of  Gi- 


braltar. Feb.  27.  1782.  He  wiis  educated  in  Paris:  traveled 
in  Italy,  Germany,  and  England ;  and  entered  the  army 
after  his  retui'ii.  He  made  his  debut  in  literature  with 
Sancho  Garcia,  a  tragedy  (1771):  followed  the  next  year 
with  EruJUus  a  la  Viohta,  a  satirical  epic  which  attracted 
much  attention.  A  volume  of  poems  ajjpeared  in  1773,  and 
after  his  death  his  iloorisli  Luttars.  written  on  the  model  of 
Lettres  Pfrsanes,  An  i^dition  of  his  collected  works  was 
published  in  three  volumes  in  Madrid,  1818. 

Cadam'ba,  or  Kudiim'ba:  an  Indian  rubidceous  tree 
which  yields  a  handsome  deep-yellow  wood  that  is  used  for 
furniture  and  finishing.  The  different  species  to  which  the 
name  is  apidied  were  forjuerly  referretl  to  the  genus  A'auclea, 
but  that  genus  is  now  dismembered.  The  Nauclea  cndamba, 
which  is  the  tree  to  which  the  name  cadamba  is  chiefly  ap- 
plied, now  becomes  Anthocephalus  morinda'folius.  JSt.cor- 
difolia,  another  cadamba-tree,  is  now  known  as  Adina  cor- 
difolia.  These  plants  are  closely  related  to  the  American 
button-bush,  or  cephalanthus. 

Cada  Mosto,  kaa'da'a-mos'to,  LuiGi,  da:  navigator;  b.  in 
Venice  in  1433.  Having  entered  the  service  of  Prince  Henry 
of  Portugal,  he  explored  in  145.5-56  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia.  He  wrote  a  narrative 
of  his  voyage  (1507).    D.  in  1480. 

Cadas'tral  Survey  [cadastral  is  an  adjec.  deriv.  of  Fr. 
cadastre,  from  Late  Lat.  capitastrum,  register  of  capita  for 
taxation] :  a  survey  made  with  great  detail  so  that  its  re- 
sults may  be  used  in  taxing  property.  Such  a  survey  not 
only  produces  maps  showing  the  roads,  buildings,  property 
lines,  etc.,  but  also  books  giving  the  names  of  the  laud-own- 
ers, the  area  of  each  parcel  of  ground,  the  character  of  the 
soil,  its  assessed  value,  and  the  tax  payable  upon  it.  A  large 
part  of  the  field  work  may  be  completed  in  connection  with 
topographical  surveying,  but  constant  revisions  of  the  cadas- 
tral books  are  necessary.  These  methods  are  carried  to 
greatest  perfection  in  Prussia  and  Saxony.  The  word  ca- 
dastral is  sometimes  applied  to  any  map  on  a  large  scale,  e.  g. 
the  maps  of  the  British  Ordnance  Survey  (q.  v.).     M.  M. 

Caddice-fly,  Caddis-fly,  or  Case-fly:  a  common  name 
for  insects  of  the  order  Trichnptera.  (See  Entomology.)  The 
adult  insects  are  moth-like  in  many  respects,  and  are  thought 
by  many  stmlents  to  represent  the  ancestors  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera.  They  have  four  wings,  with  numerous  longitudinal 
veins  and  but  few  cross  veins,  and  are  usually  covered  with 
hairs,  which  in  some  cases  are  scale-like,  like  those  of  the 
butterflies  and  moths.  The  mouth-parts  are  rudimentary, 
being  neither  well  adapted  for  biting  or  for  sucking.  The 
common  name  comes  from  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  larvie. 
These  are  soft-boilied  aquatic  forms,  which,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  their  whitish  and  delicate  abdomens,  spin  tubes  or 
cases  of  silk,  strengthened  by  Ijits  of  stick  or  stones,  and  in 
these  cases  they  live,  crawling  about  like  hermit-crabs  or 
retreating  into  the  tube  at  the  approach  of  danger.  Most 
larv.-c  are  herbivorous,  but  some  live  on  other  insects.  Some 
build  nets  to  aid  in  catching  their  prey.  The  larva?  pass 
into  a  pupal  stage,  and  from  this  into  tlie  adult.    J.  S.  K. 

Caddoaii  Indians:  a  family  of  North  American  Indians, 
the  Caddos,  whose  name  is  said  to  be  derivetl  from  a  Caddo 
word,  ka-ede,  signifying  chief. 

The  Pairiiri'  and  Caddo,  now  known  to  lie  of  the  same 
linguistic  family,  were  supposed  by  Gallatin  and  by  many 
later  writers  to  be  distinct,  and  accordingly  both  names  ap- 
pear in  literature  as  family  designations.  The  Ijoundaries 
of  the  Caddoan  family,  as  at  (u-csent  understood,  can  best 
be  given  under  three  prinuiry  groups — Nortliern,  Middle, 
and  Soutliern. 

Nnrtlicrn  Group. — This  comprises  the  Arikara  or  Eee, 
now  confined  to  a  small  village  on  Fort  Bert  hold  n^serva- 
tion,  North  Dakot.a,  which  they  share  with  tlie  Jlaudan  and 
llid.-itsa  tribes  of  Sionan  Indians.  The  Arikara  are  the  re- 
nuiins  of  ten  ditl'en-nt  trilics  of  "  Paneas,'' who  had  been 
driven  by  the  Dakotas  from  their  country  lower  down  the 
Missouri" river.  In  1804  they  were  in  three  villages,  near 
their  present  location.  According  to  Omaha  tradition,  the 
Arikara  were  their  allies  when  these  two  tribes  and  several 
others  were  F.  of  tin-  Mississippi  river. 

Middle  Group. — This  inc'ludes  the  four  tribes  or  villages 
of  Pawnee,  the  (irand,  Uepublican,  Tajjage,  and  Skidi.  The 
original  hunting-ground  of  the  Pawnee  extended  from  the 
Niobrara,  in  Nebraska,  S.  to  the  Arkans.as,  but  no  definite 
bouiuhiries  can  be  fix<'d.  In  modern  times  their  villages 
have  been  on  the  Platte  river  W.  of  Columbus,  Neb.     The 


CADDUAN   INDIAN'S 


CADENCY 


869 


Omaha  and  Oto  were  sometimes  S.  E.  of  them  near  the 
MiouUi  of  tlic  Platte,  and  the  Comanche  were  N.  W.  of  them 
on  thi'  iippir  pari  of  one  of  the  l>nin<li(s  of  the  lioup  Fork. 
The  Pawnee  were  removed  to  Indian  Territory  in  1^76. 

Tlie  Skidi  (Panimaha,  or  Pawnee  Lou|>).  aeeording  to 
Omalia  tradition,  formerly  dwelt  E.  of  the  .'lis-iissippi  river, 
where  Ihey  were  the  allies  of  the  Arikara,  Omaha.  Ponka, 
etc.  After  tlieir  passaj;e  of  the  Jlis-souri  they  were  eon- 
qnercd  by  the  Grand  Pawnee,  Tapage,  and  Iteouldieun 
tribes,  with  whom  they  have  remained  to  this  day.  De 
Lisle  {;ives  twelve  Panimaha  villages  on  the  Missouri  river 
N.  of  the  Pani  villages  on  the  Kansjis  river. 

Soittlierii  Group. — This  includes  the  Caddo,  Wichita, 
Kiehai,  and  other  tribes  or  villages  which  were  forraerlv  in 
Te.\as,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Indian  Territory,  'fhe 
Caddo  and  Kiehai  have  uiiiloubtedly  been  removed  from 
their  priscan  haliitals,  but  the  Wichita,  judging  from  the 
survival  of  local  names  and  the  statement  uf  La  Ilar[io  in 
171!),  are  now  in  or  near  one  of  their  early  abodes.  Sibley 
locates  \\w  t'addo  habitat  :!5  nules  \V.  of  the  main  branch 
of  Red  river,  being  lit)  miles  by  land  from  Natehitoehes, 
and  they  formerly  lived  375  miles  higher  up.  The  Wichita 
probably  migrated  from  Northwestern  Louisiana  and  Sonth- 
western  .\rkansas  to  the  Indian  Territory. 

Among  the  tribes  which  are  inehidcd  in  this  group  is  one 
known  as  I  lie  Adai.  This  name  is  from  a  Caddo  word,  hiuldi. 
meaning  bnishwuod.  From  an  examiuatiun  of  Dr.  Sibley's 
vocabulary  of  about  "ioO  wonls  (gained  at  the  beginning  of 
this  century),  Gallatin  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  Adai 
language  was  distinct  from  any  other  known,  an  opinion  ac- 
cepted by  must  later  a\ithorities.  The  researches  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  V'ilhnology  have  assigned  the  Adai  to  the  Caddoan 
family,  instead  of  regarding  them  as  eonstitutiug  a  distinct 
stock,  which  was  before  called  the  Ailaizan.  The  first  his- 
torical mention  of  the  Adai  appeal's  to  be  by  Cabeca  de  Vaca, 
who  in  his  Xnufrajiins,  referring  to  his  stay  in  Texas,  about 
15:J0,  called  them  Atayos.  In  1793  there  was  a  partial  emi- 
gration of  the  .-Vdai  to  a  site  .S.  of  San  Antonio  de  Bejar. 
Southwest  Texas,  where  they  probably  amalgamated  with 
the  surrounding  Indian  p<ipulation.as  they  have  disappeared. 
The  Adai  who  remained  in  (heir  old  homes  numbe;'ed  100  in 
1803,  according  to  Bjiudry  de 
Lozieres.  According  to  Sib- 
ley, in  1809  there  were  only  30 
men  of  them  remaining,  but 
more  women.  In  1820  Morso 
mentions  only  ISO  survivors. 

After  eomjiaring  the  record- 
ed st<itenientsaljiiut  the  several 
tribes,  it  would  appear  that  the  original  luibitat  of  the  south- 
ern group  of  the  Caddoan  Indians  was  a  section  of  country 
now  embracing  Northeastern  and  part  of  Eastern  Texas, 
and  adjacent  territory  in  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  its 
boundaries  being  the  Ked,  the  Satjine.  and  the  Brazos  rivers. 

The  principal  divisions  of  this  family  are:  A.  Pawnee, 
Grand  Pawnee.  Tapage  or  Tap]ias.  Kepnblican  Pawnee. 
Skidi  (Pawnee  Loup):  B.  .\rikara  (Kee.  Kicara);  C.Wichita 
(a  confederacy) ;  \).  Kiehai ;  E.  Caddo  (Kiido,  a  confeder- 
acy). 

Populntion. — The  present  innnberof  the  Caddoan  Inilians 
is  3,133,  of  whom  41(i  are  on  the  Fort  Bert  hold  reservation. 
North  Dakota,  and  the  rest  are  in  the  Indian  Territory,  some 
on  the  Ponca,  Pawnee,  ami  Otoe  reservations,  the  otiiers  on 
the  Kiowa,  Comanche,  and  Wichita  reservation.  The  popu- 
lation of  llu^  tribes  odicially  recognized,  taken  from  the  7;i- 
diaii  lii port  for  is:i.'.\ii  af.  follows:  .\rikara.  4I(>:  Pawnee, 
798;  Wichita  (the  lending  tribe  of  the  Wichita  confederacy), 
151 ;  Towakarelm  (a  Wichita  t»ibe,  thi'  Tawakoni)  i:!:i :  Waco 
(a  Wichita  tribe).  41  :  Kiehai,  51:  Cad.lo,  530:  total.  3.133. 

Ai"rnoiiiTli:s. — Busehniaiwi.  Spiiren  der  azfek.  Spidrhr,  ])p. 
434,436.441,448(1850):  (iailatin,  in  Trniix.  <tu<l  Coll.  Am. 
Antiq.  Soc.  ii..  pp.  ll(i,  117.  128.  30(1  (18:«;) ;  Gallatin,  in 
TmnK.  Am.  Etlt.  Sor..  ii..  pt.  1.  pp.  xcix..  77(1848):  Gallatin, 
in  Schoolcraft. /;»/.  7'y//«.i,  iii.,  p.  403  (18.")3):  Gatschet.  C/w/,- 
Mifliatiiin  Letjiiid.  i..  pp.  41,  53(1884):  Ilayden,  ('<)»/)•.  ElU. 
and  Philol.  Xliniionri  Indn..\\\).  333.345(18(53):  Keane.  in 
Stanford's  Comp.  Ciiit.  and  .S'o.  Am.,  p.  478  (1878):  Latham, 
in  Tran.i.  Philol.  Soc,  ii.,  pp,  31-.59  (Lonilon,  1846) :  I.atham, 
Nnt.  Uht.  Mini.,  pp.  3:W.  342.  344.349  (18.50):  Lalham.  in 
Traii.H.  Philol.  Soc^y.  101.  103  (Lon.lon.  lS5(i):  Latham, 
OpuKeuta.p\\  390,  393.  3i;i).  :!(!s  (IS(iO):  Latham.  El.  Comp. 
Philol..  pp.  470.  477  {18(i3);  Priehard,  J'hi/«.  Jfi.it.  .\foidiiid. 
v.,  pp.  400-1(18  (1847) ;  Turner,  in  Pac.  Ii.  A".  Ripl.,  iii.,  j)!.  3, 
pp.  55,  ti5,  70  (1856).  J.  UwE.v  Dohsev. 


Cade,  Jack  :  an  Irishman  who  called  himself  Mortimer  ; 
the  leader  of  an  insurrection  which  broke  out  in  Kent  in  June, 
1450.  He  nuirched  with  abimt  16.000  insurgents  toward  Lon- 
don, and  encamped  on  Blackheath.  Among  their  motives  for 
rebi'llion  was  oiipre.ssive  taxation.  Having  defeated  a  royal 
army  which  was  sent  against  him,  he  entered  Loiulon,  in 
which  he  nniintained  strict  order,  but  he  caused  Lord  Say,  a 
royal  favorite,  to  be  put  to  death.  Many  of  his  followers 
were  induced  to  disperse  by  a  i)r(imise  of  pardon.  Cade  fled, 
but  was  pursued  anil  killetl  in  Sussex,  near  London,  July  12, 
1450. 

Cudc.  Oil  of  (in  Fr.  huile  de  cade) :  a  thin  tar  distilled 
from  the  wood  of  Juniperux  ojri/cedru.^;  used  in  the  medical 
treatment  of  diseases  of  the  skin. 

CadeH.  Francis:  Australian  explorer:  b.  at  Cockenzie, 
near  Kdiidmrgh,  in  Feb..  1823:  entered  the  service  of  tho 
East  India  Company  in  1836;  became  commander  of  a  ves- 
sel in  1844.  In  1848  he  visited  Au.stralia.  became  convinced 
that  the  Murray  river  was  navigable,  and  in  18.50  returned 
to  ascend  that  stream  in  a  boat  for  several  hundred  miles. 
A  navigation  eom]iany  was  formed,  and  in  1853  and  1855 
ho  made  more  extended  explorations  in  a  steamer,  reaching 
a  point  1.740  miles  from  the  river's  mouth.  In  1858  he  cx- 
phired  the  Murrumbidgee  river  for  a  distance  of  3.000  miles ; 
in  1859  navigateil  the  Darling  river  as  far  as  .Mt.  Murchison. 
The  eomjiany  failed,  and  he  took  up  farming,  but  returned 
to  the  business  of  trading,  and  during  a  voyage  was  mur- 
dered by  a  mutinous  crew  in  June,  1879. 

Cadence  [Fr..  from  Ital.  r'idftna<_^Mt.  •cfK/c/i/m.  the  prop- 
er Fr.  representative  of  which  is  chanrf] :  a  fall,  a  decline,  a 
state  of  sinking;  a  fall  of  the  voice  at  tli<'  end  of  a  sentence; 
a  sound  or  lone.  In  horsemanship,  an  equal  measure  or  pro- 
portion observed  by  a  horse  in  all  his  motions. 

Cadence  :  in  music,  "a  harmonic  formula  or  sequence  of 
chords  that  expres.ses  conclusion,  linality.  repose,  occurring  at 
the  end  of  a  phrase  orperioil.  and  involving  a  clear  enuncia- 
tion of  the  tonality  or  key  in  which  a  piece  is  written." 
(Oiitury  Dirt.).  Cadences,  in  music,  are  four  in  number: 
1.  The  complete  (or  perfect) ;  2.  The  half  (or  imperfect) ; 


1. 


"^^^m 


3. 


or 


3.  The  interrupted  (or  deceptive) ;  4.  The  plagal  (or  ecclesi- 
astical). 

The  appropriate  use  of  these  forms,  in  their  various  inver- 
sions, is  to  tile  composer  what  correct  ])unctuation  is  to  the 
literary  workman.  Popularly  speaking,  the  perfect  cadence 
(1)  may  lie  said  to  correspond  to  tho  "period'':  the  half  or 
imperfect  to  the  "connua"  (3);  and  the  deceptive  (3)  to  va- 
rious uses  of  "colons"  and  "semicolons,"  even  including 
analogy  with  poiulsof  exclamation  and  interrogation.  Tech- 
nically, the  perfect  cadence,  or  complete  close,  is  produced 
by  the  progression  from  the  dominant  to  the  tonic  :  the  im- 
perfect by  progression  to  the  dominant,  and  the  deceptive 
l)y  the  unexpected  rising  of  the  bass  a  major  or  minor  third 
instead  of  falling  to  the  tonic  a  fifth  lielow.  or  rising  to  it  a 
fourth  above.  The  plagal  cadence  in  its  two  forms  (4)  is  to 
be  classified  as  aiiuther  form  of  complete  cadence.  We  have 
retained  it  from  the  ancient  church  modes.  It  is  not  com- 
mon in  modern  secular  music,  unless  some  peculiar  shade  of 
feeling  is  to  be  exjiresseil.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  progres- 
sion of  the  plagal  cadence  is  from  the  fourth  of  the  key  (sub- 
dominant)  to  the  tonic.  Didlev  Bick. 

Cadency:  in  heraldry,  the  method  of  distinguishing  the 
escutcheon  of  one  person  from  that  of  others  who  are  entitled 
to  bear  the  same  escutcheon,  as  with  the  different  sons  of 
one  father.  No  one  of  these  would  be  entitled  during  the 
father's  lifetime  to  bear  exactly  the  same  escutcheon  as  he, 
and  their  escutcheons  are  accordingly  differenced  by  mark.'i 
of  cadency.  During  the  early  Jlidille  Ages  cadency,  like 
other  differencing,  was  often  effected  by  a  complete  change, 
as  in  the  tincture  of  the  field  or  of  the  bearing.  In  later 
times  it  became  customary  to  add  some  small  bearing,  and 
this  system  is  still  in  force.  Tho  shield  of  the  Black  Prince 
is  his  father's  shield  charged  with  a  label,  and  that  of  his 
younger  brother.  John  of  (iaunl.  is  the  same  shield, but  with 
the  label  charged  in  its  turn  with  ermine  spots. 


870 


CADENZA 


I'ADOL'DAL 


The  difEerenocs  used  by  the  British  royal  family  are  found 
in  some  peerages.  The  label  of  the  Prinee  of  Wales  is  plain, 
while  those  of  the  other  [irinees  and  princesses  are  charged 
with  crosses,  flenrs-de-lis,  hearts,  or  other  figures  for  the  sake 
of  distinction.  Labels,  crescents,  mullets,  martlets,  etc.,  are 
the  usual  marks  of  cadency,  and  the  rules  governing  their 
use  are  complicated  and  fanciful. 

CaOeii'za:  in  music,  an  ornamental  succession  of  notes  in 
the  nature  of  a  flourish,  introduced  ju.st  prior  to  a  final  close. 
In  a  larger  sense  the  cadenza  ai)i>ears  in  concertos  and  con- 
cert pieces  for  piano,  violin,  etc.,  at  considerable  length  as  a 
display  point  for  tlie  solo  performer,  making  use  of  the  |irin- 
eipal  themes  of  the  work.  This  was  formerly  expected  to  be 
impromjitu.  Since  Beethoven,  most  composers  have  written 
their  own  cadenzas,  leaving  nothing  to  the  will  of  the  per- 
former. Dudley  Br<K. 

Cadet'  [Fr.  cmht,  fem,  cadctte :  Proven,  capdff.  as  if  from 
Lat.  *c(ipifetfiim.  inferior  head,  i.e.  younger  son;  dimiii.  of 
ciiput.  head ;  ciiih-e  and  caddie  are  variants,  and  cad  a  clip- 
form  of  the  same] :  a  younger  son,  younger  brother ;  a  military 
olhcer  who  is  junior  to  another  is  a  cadet  in  resjiect  to  him. 
The  term  is  also  applied  in  France  and  other  countries  to  a 
student  of  the  art  of  war  and  military  science.  The  students 
of  the  Jlilitary  Academy  at  West  Point,  X,  Y,,  are  called 
cadets,  as  are  those  of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis, 
There  are  also  medical  cadets,  recognized  as  of  a  distinct 
rank  in  the  U.  S.  Armv  Kegulations.  See  Mii.n.iRV  .\cad- 
EMV  (U.  S.). 

Cadet,  Naval :  the  lowest  grade  of  officer  in  line  of  [iro- 
motion  in  the  British  navy.  Cadets  enter  the  naval  service 
at  thirteen  to  fourteen  and  a  half  years  of  age,  and  are  nomi- 
nated by  the  Admiralty,  subject  to  the  regulations  for  e.\- 
ainination.  They  first  pass  two  years  on  the  training-ship 
in  port  to  learn  the  rudiments  of  .seamanship,  ami  are  tlieuce 
transferred  to  sea-going  ships.  After  the  cailet  has  served 
one  year  at  sea  he  is  eligible  for  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
midshipman.  By  the  act  of  Aug,  5, 1883,  it  is  provided  that 
all  undergraduates  at  the  U,  S,  Naval  Acachjmy  shall  "  be 
designated  and  called  "naval  cadets.'"'     See  Naval  Acade- 

.MIES. 

Ca'di,  or  Kadi:  an  Arabic/ word  signifying  judgi'  or 
jurist;  the  title  of  an  inferi(n"  judge  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans, He  must  l)e  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  priesthood, 
as  the  precepts  of  the  Koran  constitute  the  codi;  of  laws. 

Cadillac' ;  city ;  capital  of  We.vford  co.,  Mich,  (for  loca- 
tion of  countv,  see  map  of  Jlichigan,  ref,  5-II);  on  Gr.  Hap. 
au<l  Ind.  and  Tol.,  Ann  Ar.  and  N  M.  R.  Bs. ;  96  miles  N.  of 
(irand  Rapids ;  lias  9  churches,  .'5  schools,  electric  lights, 
water-works,  and  good  sewerage.  It  is  situated  lietween  two 
beautiful  lakes  (Big  and  Little  Clam  Lakes'!,  in  the  midst 
of  the  largest  Ijelt  of  hard-wood  timber  in  the  U.  S.  In 
1871  its  site  was  a  lumbering-camp.  Pop,  (1880)  2,213; 
(1890)  4,4til  ;   (1894)  5,105. 

Editor  ok  "  News  and  E.xpbess." 

Cadiz  (Sp.  pron,  kaa'di'eth):  a  province  which  forms  the 
southwest  extremity  of  .Spain;  bounded  N,  by  .Seville,  E, 
by  Malaga.  S,  by  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  W.  by  the 
Atlantic  and  Iluelva,  .\i"ea,  "3,809  sq.  miles.  Capital,  Cadiz. 
Pop.  (1887)  4"3n,872. 

Cadiz  (auc.  Gades) :  an  im[)ortant  city  and  seaport  of 
Spain;  i-apital  of  provin<-e  of  same  name;  on  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  northwest  extremity  of  the  isle  of  Leon;  about 
94  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Seville;  lat,  :^6^  32'  N„  Ion,  6' 
18'  W,  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref,  "20-C').  Its  site  is  a  long, 
narrow  islhuuis  or  tongue  of  land  surrounded  by  water  on 
three  si<les,  having  oii  the  N,  and  N.  E.  an  inlet  called  the 
Bay  of  Cadiz,  which  forms  a  good  and  capacious  harbor.  It 
is  accessible  from  the  maiidand  liy  a  tongue  of  land,  which 
in  some  places  is  only '200  yards' wide,  and  is  strongly  de- 
fended by  several  foi'-ts.  The  houses,  built  of  white  free- 
stone, present  a  bright  appearance  from  the  sea.  The 
streets  ai'e  narrow,  but  well  paved  and  rigiilar.  Among  the 
principal  c<lifices  are  two  calheilrals,  an  old  .-iiid  a  new,  the 
lighthouse  of  San  .Sebastian,  172  feet  liigh,  and  a  hospital 
called  Casa  de  Misericordia.  The  convent  of  the  Capu- 
chins possesses  two  excellent  i)ictures  by  Murillo.  The 
city  contains  two  theaters,  a  medical  school,  a  botanic 
gai-dcn,  and  an  academy  of  fine  arts.  Cailiz  is  one  of  the 
first  coinmerciid  cities  of  Spain,  but  is  jiroliably  inferior  to 
Barcelona  in  the  value  of  its  imports.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  sherry  wine,  olive  oil,  salt,  metals,  and  fruits. 
Among  the  imports  are  tobacco,  sugar,  cotfee,  hides,  indigo. 


cotton,  dyewooils,  fish,  and  coal.  The  commerce  of  this 
port  is  much  less  extensixe  than  it  Wiis  formerly.  Cadiz 
is  the  southern  termiiuis  of  a  railway  which  connects  it 
with  Seville.  The  isle  of  Leon  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a  narrow  channel,  which  is  crossed  by  a  bridge. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  mantillas,  fans,  glass,  .soap,  cot- 
ton and  silk  .stuffs,  hats.  etc.  Cadiz,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  towns  of  Europe,  was  founded  by  the  Phce- 
nicians.  probably  before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  The 
Carthagiinans  became  masters  of  it  during  the  first  Punic 
war,  but  the  Romans  obtained  jiossession  of  it  in  "206  B.  c, 
after  which  it  Ijecame  a  city  of  great  wealth  and  im)ior- 
tance.  It  was  taken  and  pillaged  liy  the  Earl  of  Essex  in 
1596,  and  was  blockaded  in  1656  by  Admiral  Blake,  who 
captured  two  rich  galleons.  It  was  besieged  by  the  French 
from  Feb.,  1810,  until  Aug.,  1812,  when  the  victories  of  Wel- 
lington rescued  it.     Pop.  (1887)  62,5:^1. 

Cadiz:  village;  on  railroad  ;  capital  of  Harrison  co.,  0. 
(for  location  of  c(mntv,  sec  ma]i  of  Ohio,  ref.  4-1);  about 
22  miles  N.  W.  of  Wheeling;  76  miles  W.  of  Pittsburg. 
A  liranch  railroad  8  miles  long  connects  it  with  the  Pan 
Handle  route  from  Pittsburg  to  Cincinnati,  It  is  the  com- 
mercial center  of  a  great  wool-growing  district.  It  has 
four  national  banks,  doing  a  business  of  over  $2,000,000, 
and  is  a  noted  money-lending  center.  Pop,  (1880)  1,817; 
(1890)1,716.  PfULisnER  oi"  •"  Republican.  " 

Cad'lliiinn:  a  white  uu'tal  liaviug  a  slight  bluish  cast; 
discovered  in  1817  liy  Stromeyer;  also  independently  by 
Hermann  ;  named  from  cndiiiiii  fusii/ix.  a  name  given  to 
an  ore  of  zinc  mentioned  liy  Dioscorides  and  Pliny,  The 
name  is  said  by  some  to  have  come  from  that  of  Cadmus, 
Symbol,  Cd. ;  atomic  weight.  112;  sp.gr.  after  fusion,  8"6; 
hammered,  8"7  (nearly).  Cadmium  is  lustrous,  takes  a  fine 
polish,  and  po.ssesses  a  fibrous  fracture.  It  tarnishes  vei'v 
slightly  in  the  air,  ami  only  burns  at  a  high  heat.  It  is 
more  tenacious  than  tin.  though,  like  that  metal,  a  bar  of 
it  gives  a  ""cry"  when  lient.  It  melts  below  2(iO  ,  and  vola- 
tilizes at  about  :^60°  C.  It  occurs  in  nature  as  the  suljihidc 
"■  greenockite  "  at  Rishopstown,  Kenfrewshire,  .Scotland,  and 
incidentally  as  a  constituent  of  various  zinc  ores,  as  the  car- 
bonate, silicate,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  sulphide  in  several  local- 
ities. The  zinc  flowers  in  the  flues  of  zinc-reducing  fumaces 
eoiitaiu  even  as  much  as  11  per  cent,  of  cadmium.  Com- 
mercial English  zinc  often  contains  cadmium.  The  metal 
is  i-eadily  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  Init  slightly  so  in  other 
acids.  ex<-e]it  at  a  lioiling  tem]icrature.  It  forms  the  oxide 
CdO.  This  varies  in  color  from  brownish  to  blackish  yel- 
low, according  t<i  the  mode  of  ]ireparation.  It  is  infusible 
and  not  volatile.  Its  salts  are  mostly  colorless,  and  when 
taken  into  the  stomach  act  as  emetics;  their  ta.ste  is  disa- 
greeably metallic.  Cadmium  is  prepared  by  collecting  the 
flrst  products  of  distillation  from  the  zinc  ores  containing 
it,  and  subjecting  them,  when  mixed  with  charcoal,  to  two 
successive  distillations  in  iron  retorts  at  a  low  red  heat. 
Instead  of  the  last  distillation,  .solution  in  acid  and  purifi- 
cation in  tlie  wet  way  are  resorted  to.  The  demand  for 
cadmium  i.s,  however,  so  small  that  the  working  up  of  the 
furnace  products  containing  con.^iderable  amounts  of  that 
metal  has  been  discontinued  in  some  ]ilaces  in  Silesia.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  to  remove  it  from  the  zinc,  as  it 
renders  that  metal  brittle  when  'i  ]ier  cent,  or  more  is 
present.  Cadmium  finds  its  chief  a]iplication  in  the  arts 
in  the  form  of  the  sulphide,  which  has  an  intense  yel- 
low color,  and  is  used  for  coloring  soap.s,  and  in  paints, 
etc.  It  is  known  as  cadmium  yellow  and  jaune  brillant. 
The  iodide  and  liromide  of  cadmium  are  used  in  photog- 
raphy. The  metal  is  used  for  forming  a  fusible  alloy  with 
lead,  tin,  and  liismuth  for  filling  teeth. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Cad'iniis  (in  (ir.  KoS;uos) :  in  classical  mythology,  a  son 
of  .\g('iioi'.  King  of  Sidon  ;  a  brother  of  Europa.  After 
Eurnpa  had  been  larriedott  by  .lupiter.  Cadmus  was  sent  in 
quest  of  her.  According  to  tradition,  he  founded  the  city 
of  Thebes,  originally  called  Cadmeia,  in  Boeotia;  sowed 
the  dragon's  teeth  that  sprang  up  into  armed  men  ;  invent- 
ed .sixteen  letters  of  the  Greek  aljihabet.  or  introduced 
them  from  Pluenicia  into  Greece.  He  was  the  first  who 
worked  the  mines  of  Mt.  Panga'on. 

Cildoiidill.  Georges  :  a  leader  of  the  Choiians  ;  b.  near 
.\uiay,  ill  r.rittany.  .laii.  1,  1771.  Taking  up  arms  againsi, 
till'  republic,  he  was  captured  in  1794  and  imprisoned  at 
Brest,  whence  he  soon  escaped  to  form  an  army  in  Brittany 
wliich  withstood  that  of  Iloche  until  179().     .\fter  heading 


CADUCHUS 


CARRLEON 


871 


!in  uiisiif'ccssful  Bourbon  coiisiiiriiey  and  revolt  tliorc  in 
1799-1800,  ho  refused  all  Bonaiiarte's  leinjilinj;  offers,  and 
iseiiped  to  Knfiland.  where  lie  plotted  with  Piehe^ni.  I'ro- 
(•iedin<;  to  Paris  in  1H0;5,  he  was  eondennied  and  executed 
June  •-'.">,  1S()4. 

('ildll'fciis :  ill  chissie  niylliolo^ry,  llie  syiiihol  and  winded 
statr  of  Meieury  (Ileriiies).  to  wlioni  it  was  presented  by 
Apollo.  From  this  staff  Mercury  derived  the  surnaiiie  of 
('(iducifer.  The  leriii  caduceiis  was  also  applied  by  the  an- 
cients to  a  stalf  or  roil  of  laurel  or  olive  wliich  was  curried 
by  ambassadors  and  heralds  as  a  syiiiliol  of  jieace.  It  liad 
the  liiruivs  of  two  serpents  twisliMl  around  it.  Among  the 
iiio<leriis  tlie  cadiiceus  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  commerce, 
<iver  which  Mercury  was  supposeil  lo  preside.  SI  ill  iiicu'e 
frequeiitlv  it  is  the  cmbh-ni  of  health  and  of  the  heuliiif; 
art. 

CiKhval'iulcr.  tieii.  (lEoRCiK:  b.  in  I'hiladelpliia  in  1804  : 
practiced  law;  served  as  a  brigadier-jjeiieral  in  the  Mex- 
ican war;  was  breveted  iniijor-fieueral  for  .services  at  Clia- 
pultepee.  lie  was  ma.jor-';eiieral  of  Pennsylvania  troops 
lH61-ti2,  anil  in  lH(it>  became  mi.,ior-i;eneral  of  U.  S.  volun- 
leers.     I),  in  Philadelphi.i,  Feb.  :!.  187!). 

CiKhviiladcr  in-  Crtihvallader,  John:  soldier;  b.  in 
I'liiladelphia.  Jan.  10.  171-.  lie  served  as  a  bri,!;adier-<ren- 
eral  at  the  battles  of  Princeton.  Hrandywine.  and  Mon- 
mouth (177H);  challenged  and  wouiidcd  Thomas  Conway 
for  conspirinir  against  \Vashiiiglon"s  chieftainship.  D.  in 
Shrewsbury.   Pa..  Feb.  10.  17H0. 

CaMy.  Daniki,:  b.  in  Chatham. ('obimbja  eo.,  X.  Y.,  .\pr. 
29.  177:i ;  itdmilted  to  llie  bar  in  179.') :  practiced  with  great 
ilistinction  for  over  sixty  years:  was  .several  limes  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislature  of  New  York  and  of  Congress;  for 
eight  years  .judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  court  of  ap- 
peals of  Xew  York.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  Col. 
James  Living.stoii,  jiii  ollicer  in  the  army  of  the  lievolulimi, 
and  one  of  liis  five  daughters  is  Klizalicth  Ciulv  Stanton. 
I),  at  Johnstown.  X.  Y..  Oct.  ;!1.  18.")9.  A  sketch  of  his  life 
by  his  son-in-law.  Henry  H.  Stanton,  is  contained  in  vol. 
xviii.  of  IJarboiir's  S.  ('.  licpnr/s. 

CiWil'idaJ  [ilcriv.  of  Lat.  ni'ci/i'i.  a  kind  of  lizard  (nn'cu-s 
xfi-piiix.  Pliiiy):  so  named  from  smalliiess  of  its  eyes  ;  Lat. 
fdeeiix,  blinil] :  a  family  of  liiitntt/iin  occurring  in  the 
tropics  of  both  Hie  Old  and  Hie  Xew  Worlds.  They  have 
an  elongate,  sn;ike-like  body,  freipieiitly  ringed  by  the  pro- 
duetiou  of  folds  ill  the  iiitegiimeiit,  and  they  ilitfcr  from 
all  other  Balraeliia  in  the  recurrence  of  minute  scales  in 
the  skin.  The  head  is  small,  and  the  small  size  of  the 
eyes  gave  rise  to  the  name  which  implies  that  they  are 
blind.  Metweeii  till'  nose  and  eyes  is  a  peculiar  "tentacle," 
which  is  really  the  duct  of  certain  glands.  The  lialiits  and 
life-history  have  been  most  thoroughly  studied  by  the  cous- 
ins Sarasin  in  Hie  Ceyloiiese  species,  Kjiirrimn  iihitin'miiiit. 
This  lives  a  burrowing  life  in  the  earth,  feeding  upon  earth- 
worms, etc.  It  lays  long  strings  of  eggs,  wliieh  the  leniale 
keeps  coileil  about  the  body;  and  the  young  in  the  egg  pos- 
.sesses  rudimentary  hind  legs  and  three  pairs  of  external  gills. 
the  latter  of  which  are  lost  upon  lialcliiug.  .\s  soon  as  the 
larva  escapes  from  the  egg  it  takes  to  1  lie  water,  where  it 
lives  for  .some  time  before  beginning  its  subti'rraneaii  life, 
The  Ca'cilians  are  good  examples  of  Dkokner.vtio.n  (ly.  e.). 
as  their  cliaraetei-s  clearly  show  that  they  have  deseeiided 
from  more  tvpieally  coiistiluled  forms.  They  are  some- 
times referred  lo  as  (iiiminiphiimn.  J.  S.  KlNusi.EV. 

CllH'il'ills  (in  Or.  KaiitfAios),  of  Calacle.  in  Sicily:  literary 
critic;  friend  ami  coadjutor  of  Dionysius  of  llalicarnassiis 
about  the  lieginning  of  our  era;  an  important  theorist, 
whose  work  is  cited  and  criticised  by  (pseiido-)  Longinus 
On  tht;  Sitblimv.  '  B.  L.  (J. 

Ca'C'iliiis  Stu'fins:  a  Konian  comic  poet  of  high  reputa- 
tion: a  native  of  .^lilan.  and  a  friend  of  Knniiis.  lie  wrote 
nearly  forty  eonicdies,  of  which  only  small  fiagmeuls  are 
I'Xlaiit.  1).  ill  ItiS  11.  I'.  He  was  regarded  liy  nncieiil  critics 
as  a  comic  poet  of  the  lirst  rank.  .See  ().  Kibbeek's  C^mi- 
coriim  A'oiiiiiiKirKin  Fragmenlit  (pp.  ;!5-Hl). 

Cwei'iia  Alic'niis,  .Vi'i.rs.  or  A.  Liciiiiiis  Cii'ciiiii:  a 

Koman  general  who  entered  the  service  of  Vitelliiis  in  (iS 
A.  !>.,  and  obtained  command  of  an  army.  In  tlie  year  69 
CaH'iiia  and  Yalens  defeated  the  army  of  OHio  al  lieilria- 
eiini.  He  soon  ileserted  Yilellius,  and  became  an  ollicer  of 
Yespa.sian,  but  he  formetl  a  conspiracy  against  the  latter, 
and  was  ])iit  to  death  in  79  A.  i>. 


Cteeum  [neut.  of  \a\X.  em-cnx.  blind,  sc.  intenlinum]:  lit- 
erally the  '•  blind  intestine  "  ;  a  .sac  or  branch  of  an  intes- 
tine having  only  one  opening.  In  man  there  is  oiilv  one 
ea-cuni.  not  very  large,  at  the  beginning  of  the  colon,  Yieiiig 
that  i»u'tioii  into  which  the  small  intestine  opens.  It  ter- 
minates in  the  appi'iidir  n'riiiiformis.  In  the  herbivorous 
Jlammalia  it  is  greatly  developed,  being  extended  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  colon.  The  ca'ciiiii  is  wanting  in  the  bear 
and  wea.sel  families.  Birds  have  two  ca'ca.  generally  haig 
and  caiiacious  in  those  that  are  oinnivonais  or  granivoroiis. 
Reptiles  seldom  have  a  (leeum.  Fishes  have  the  ca'ca  at- 
tached to  the  intestine  at  its  uppermost  part.  The  number 
of  these  i.s  extremely  various  :  sometimes  there  are  only  two, 
and  sometimes  more  than  a  hundred.  The  number  is  dif- 
ferent even  in  nearly  allied  species.  In  some  fishes,  as  the 
cod.  the  ca'ca  divide  into  smaller  branches. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Ca'dinoil,  ktid  mon  :  an  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  poet :  orig- 
inally a  cowherd  attached  to  the  monastery  of  Whitby,  in 
Kngl'and ;  when  somewhat  advanced  in  life  he  suddenly  re- 
vealed poetic  powers,  became  a  monk  in  Whitby,  and  com- 
posed, professedly  under  divine  inspiration,  poems  on  re- 
ligious subjects  and  (it  is  said)  [laraphrases  of  portions  of 
Genesis,  Kxodus,  and  Daniel,  which  are  thought  to  have 
influenced  Jlilton  in  the  composition  of  Paradise  Lost. 
Some  of  these  are  the  oldest  I'Xtaiit  speeimeus  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  uii'Irieal  eojnposition.  I».  in  Whitliy  about  680  a.  d. 
Ca'dmon's  works  were  first  published  by  Francisciis  Junius 
(.\iiisterdaiii,  16.).')) ;  liest  edition  by  C.  W.  M.  (irein,  in 
Bililin/lirk  dir  ani/i-lsficlisixclifii  I'oi'xir  ((iottingen.  1857; 
■2d  ed.  18.S8) ;  Eiig.  trans,  bv  \V.  II.  F.  Bosanquel  (London, 
1860).     His  story  is  told  by'Bcde,  Krcl.  Ilixt..  iv.,  24. 

ClP'lillS  Aiirelia'niiS :  medical  writer  who  belonged  to 
the  .school  of  Meihodici ;  1).  at  Sicca,  in  Africa.  The  period 
in  which  he  lived  is  uncertain.  His  diction  is  rugged  and 
obscuri'.  He  wrote  two  Latin  works.  De  Murbis  Vhrunicia 
(On  Chronic  Diseases)  and  De,  Murbin  Acutis. 

Caen,  kalui  (Lat.  f'ailomiix.  or  Cadomiim):  a  city  o,f 
France:  capital  of  tlie  department  of  Calvados;  situated 
on  the  river  Orne :  10  miles  from  Hie  sea,  and  148  miles  by 
rail  \V.  X.  \V.  from  Paris;  lat.  49  11'  12  X..  Ion.  0  21'  W. 
(see  map  of  France,  ri^f.  3-T)).  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  Lower  Xormandy.  It  has  wide,  regular,  and  clean 
sti-eets,  several  tine  public  squares,  and  many  noble  speci- 
mens of  ancient  Xormaii  architecture.  The  hou.ses  are  gen- 
erally built  of  an  excellent  cream-colored  freestone  which  is 
(puirried  in  the  vicinity  and  is  called  Caen  stone.  Caen 
is  connected  with  Paris  by  a  railway,  and  with  the  sea  by 
a  navigalile  can.-il.  Among  its  remarkable  editiees  are  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  I<;tienne,  founded  by  William  the  Con- 
(picror;  the  Church  of  La  Trinite,  or  Abbaye-aux-Dames, 
foundi'd  by  Queen  Matilda  in  the  eleventh  century  ;  and  the 
Church  of  St.-Pierre.  the  tower  or  s]iire  of  which  is  much 
admired.  The  castle,  comiiieiiced  by  William  the  Con- 
(|Ueror  and  finished  by  his  son.  Henry  I.,  was  partially  de- 
stroyed ill  179:;.  This  citv  contains  a  large  public  lilirary, 
a  iiiuseiiin.  a  botanic  garilen,  a  custom-house,  the  hotel  of 
the  prefecture,  an  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  a  medical 
school,  a  normal  school,  and  an  asylum  for  deaf-iiiutes.  It 
has  manufactures  of  lace,  crape,  linens,  cotton  fabrics,  porce- 
lain, cutlery,  llaunels.  hats,  and  glove.s.  Caen  has  hmgbeen 
celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  Angora  and  woolen 
glove.s.  This  was  an  important  place  as  early  as  912.  when 
it  becaiiie  subject  to  the  X'ormaiis.  It  was  Hie  residence  of 
William.  Duke  of  Xormandy.  before  he  ctuiquered  Kngland. 
In  1846  it  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  Kdward  III.  of  Eng- 


il.      1  he   poet   iMallicrne  .-in 
•11  here.     Pop.  (1891)  4.">.201. 


bor 

Ca'iiojjroii'esis  [from  Gr.  Katv6s,  recent  4-  ytvems.  origin, 
birth] :  in  biology,  the  changes  which  may  occur  in  the  em- 
bryological  developmeiil  of  an  animal  by  which  this  devel- 
opment differs  from  its  ancestral  develimmeiit.  these  changes 
being  adaptations  to  new  conditions.  The  term  is  used  in 
contradislinctioii  io  jMi/in</enexix,  the  repetition  in  the  indi- 
vidual development  of  the  stages  of  ancestral  development 
caused  by  inheritance, 

Caerleoii,  ker-lee'on  (aiic.  Isra  fiiltinim):  an  oW  town 
of  Eiiglaiiil;  in  Moiimoutlisliire ;  on  the  river  Usk,  hero 
cro.s.sed  by  a  bridge;  3  miles  N.  E.  of  Newport  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  12-F).  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Uoman  province  liri/minia  Seriinda  (modern 
Wales),  and,  according  to  tradition,  was  a  residence  of  King 


872 


C^SALPINIA 


C^SAR 


Arthur.  Many  Roman  anticiuities  and  relics  have  been 
found  here,  as  batlis,  altars,  statues,  coins,  inscriptions,  and 
aqueducts.  Jlere  is  also  a  i-iiincd  ani|ihithcater  233  feet  in 
length  by  193  feet  in  vndlli.  wliicli  indistinctly  shows  the 
tiers  of  seats.  The  remains  uf  a  Cistercian  priory  are  still 
visible.     Pop.  (1891)  1,411. 

CsBSalpili'ia :  a  genus  of  treijs  of  the  family  Lpfivmi- 
nosip  :  t lie  type  of  the  sub-family  Cifmlpinii'ie.  This  sub- 
family is  characterized  by  irregular  flowers  which  are  not 
pajiilionaceous,  and  mostly  separate  stamens.  It  comprises 
numerous  species,  some  of  which  hare  purgative  properties, 
as  senna  (CtiKftid).  Others  bear  edible  frnits.  ,•)«  the  tama- 
rind and  the  carob.  Among  the  products  of  the  sub-fam- 
ily are  Copaiba,  Loiavooi),  and  liAiiwoou  {q.  r.).  They  are 
mostly  natives  of  warm  <-limatcs.  The  genus  Ca'xalpinia 
has  pinnate  or  bipinnate  leaves,  and  ten  stamens  in  each 
flower.  The  red  dyewood  called  sappan-wood  is  obtained 
from  tlie  Ctesalpinia  sappan.  Other  species  yield  the  Bra- 
zil-wood of  commerce.  Among  the  species  of  the  above 
sidi-family  that  grow  wikl  in  the  U.  S.  are  the  rcdbud 
(Cerci)S  canadcnftis),  the  honey  locust  (Gledifsia  triacantlios), 
and  the  Kentucky  coffee-tree  (Oymnocladus  dioicus). 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

CsB'sar  [Lat.,  .appearing  in  Germ,  as  Kaiser,  Russ.  Tuni-] : 
the  cognomen  of  a  patrician  Roman  family  of  the  Julia 
gens ;  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  state :  claimed  a  de- 
scent from  lulus,  a  son  of  ^-Eneas.  The  first  member  of  the 
family  mentioned  in  history  is  Scxtus  Julius  Caesar,  who  was 
prjvtor  in  208  b.  c.  After  the  family  had  become  extinct 
(at  the  death  of  Nero),  the  succeeding  Emperors  of  Rome 
assumed  the  name  of  Ciipsar  as  a  title.  It  subsequently  be- 
came the  title  of  the  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne. 

Caesar,  Julius;  or,  more  fully,  Cains  Julius  Ca>sar:  sol- 
dier and  empenu' ;  one  of  tlie  most  remarkable  men  that 
ever  lived  :  b.  in  Rome.  July  12,  lOU  B.  r. :  belonged  to  the 
Julian  tribe  (gens  Julia),  which  boasted  its  descent  from 
lulus  (or  Julns),  son  of  ^^iJneiis.  In  8'i  Caisar  divorced  Cos- 
sutia  and  married  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Cinna.  This  act 
offendeil  Sulla  (then  in  the  lieight  of  his  power),  who  com- 
manded t'a'sar  to  divorce  the  latter.  He  refused  to  obey  and 
was  proscriljcd.  He  was  under  the  necessity  of  concealing 
himself  for  a  time,  but  on  the  intercession  of  mutual  and  in- 
fluential friends  the  dictator  reluctantly  pardoned  him. 
Sulla  is  reported  to  have  said,  to  some  of  his  friends  who  in- 
terceded for  him,  that  Caesar  would  some  day  be  tlie  ruin  of 
the  aristocracy,  adding,  "In  that  young  man  there  are  many 
Mariuses."  (Marius  had  proved  himself  the  most  formid- 
able enemy  that  the  aristocratic  party  had  ever  encountered.) 
Soon  aft-er,  Caasar  went  to  Asia  Minor,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Roman  army.  Afterward,  while  on  his  .iour- 
ney  to  Rhodes  witliaview  to  study  oratory  under  Aiiolloiiius 
Mold,  he  was  taken  by  pirates.  While  detained  by  them  he 
often  threatened  (in  jest,  as  they  supposed)  that  he  would 
put  them  to  death  wlien  he  got  his  liberty.  The  requiivd 
ransom  having  at  last  been  paid,  he  manned  some  vessels, 
pursued  and  took  the  pirates,  and  crucified  them  all. 

Having  returned  to  Rome,  he  became  a  candidate  for 
popular  honors.  lie  was  elected  qua'stor  in  68  B.  c.  This 
same  year  his  wife  Cornelia  dii-d,  and  the  next  he  married 
Pompeia,  a  relative  of  Pompey  the  Great  and  a  grand- 
daughter of  Sulla.  This  was  done  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  Pompey,  who,  since  the  death  of  Sulta,  was  all-pow- 
erful at  Rome.  He  was  made  an  aMlile  in  65  b.  c,  and 
.sought  to  render  himself  popular  by  the  exiiibition  of  pub- 
lic games  which  are  saiil  to  have  surpassed  in  magiiificc^nce 
everything  of  the  kiuil  ever  before  seen  at  Rome."  He  was 
elected  pontifex  maximus  in  6:^  B.C.  In  6:3  occurred  the 
cons|)iracy  of  Catiline,  and  many  suspeeteil  Ca\sar  of  being 
accessory  to  it.  When  Cicero' asked  the  opinion  of  the 
senate  respecting  the  punishment  which  ought  to  be  in- 
flicted on  the  conspirators,  all  the  senators  gave  judgment 
in  favor  of  their  death,  until  it  came  to  CiPsar's  turn  to 
speak.  He  maintained  that  it  was  contrary  to  justice  and 
highly  inexpedient  to  put  men  of  their  raid<  to  death  with- 
out a  full  trial.  His  argument  had  great  weight  with  the 
senators.  But  Calo  followed  in  a  pow-erful  s]ieeeh,  accus- 
ing Ca>sar  of  complicity  with  the  conspirators,  and  carried 
a  large  majority  of  tlic  senate  with  him.  The  con.spirators 
wei'(!condemneil  to  death  ;  Ca'sar  himself  narrowly  escaped. 

Ill  ()2  B.C.  he  wa-s  made  pr;cloi',  and  was  sent  the  next 
year  as  pr()pra>t<u-  to  .Spain,  where  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself  both  as  a  magisti-ate  and  general,  and  was  .saluted as 
impi-mtur  by  the  army.     In  (ill  lie  was  elected  consul,  L. 


Calpurnius  Bibulus  being  his  colleague.  One  of  his  leading 
measures  was  to  propose  an  agrarian  law,  by  which  a  con- 
siderable tract  of  the  ])ublic  land  was  to  be  divided  among 
the  poorer  citizens,  particularly  those  who  had  a  number  of 
children.  This  measure  was  carried,  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  Bibulus.  With  a  view  to  strengthen  liis  interest  with 
Pompey,  Ca\sar  gave  him  in  marriage  his  daughter  Julia, 
though  she  had  already  been  affianced  to  S.  Ca'jiio.  He 
formed  in  60  b.  c,  with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  a  secret  alliance 
known  in  history  as  the  first  triumvirate.  Supported  by  such 
powerful  influence,  Ca-sar  was  enabled  to  carr)'  through  the 
senate  whatever  laws  or  measures  he  pleased.  "  The  govern- 
ment of  Cisalpine  find  Transalpine  (iaul  having  been  de- 
creed to  him  for  five  years,  he  left  Rome  in  the  spring  (of  58 
B.C.).  and  before  the  ensuing  winter  he  had  ended  success- 
fully two  important  w.ars  in  Transalpine  Gaul — one  with 
the  Ilelvetii,  a  nation  inhabiting  what  is  now  Switzerland  ; 
the  other  with  Ariovistus.  the  king  of  a  powerful  German 
nation  who  had  a  few  years  before  crossed  the  Rhine  (for  his 
bridge,  see  Bridges),  and  established  themselves  in  Gaul. 
In  the  next  .seven  years  he  not  only  subdued  the  greater 
part'  of  Gaul,  but  crossed  over  (55  B.  c.)  into  Britain,  defeated 
Cassivelauiiits,  one  of  the  kings  of  that  country,  took  host- 
ages, and  fixed  the  tribute  the  Britons  were  to  pay  to  Rome. 
Casar's  daughter  Julia,  whom  he  had  given  in  marriage  to 
Pompey,  had  died  in  54  B.  c.  The  triumvir  Crassus  had 
been  killed  in  the  war  with  the  Parthians.  A  coolness 
gradually  arose  between  Ca-sar  and  Pomjiey.  The  latter 
appears  to  have  Iiecome  jealous  of  the  new  favorite  of  for- 
tune, since  all  his  own  exploits,  splendid  and  unjiaralleled 
as  they  were  at  the  time  they  were  performed,  had  been 
eclipsed  by  the  more  recent  and  more  glorious  achievements 
of  his  great  rival.  Pompey  liad  succeeded  to  the  position 
of  Sulla  as  the  leader  of  the  aristocracy,  while  Caesar's  policy 
had  liccn  from  the  first  to  cultivate  the  favor  of  the  common 
people.  The  two  parties  became  more  and  more  hostile  to 
each  other.  Some  of  the  more  violent  of  the  ]iatricians 
were  determined  to  crush  Ca?sar  at  all  hazards.  It  was  at 
length  proposed  in  the  senate,  in  50  b.  c.  by  Jlarcellus,  that 
Cicsar,  the  Gallic  war  having  been  brought  to  an  end,  should 
lay  down  his  command  and  disband  his  army;  but  Curio,  a 
tribune  whom  Ca-sar  had  gained  over  to  his  interests,  vetoeil 
the  decision  of  the  senate  :  Casar.  however,  was  deprived  of 
two  of  his  legiims.  But  desirous,  by  the  moderation  of  his 
conduct,  to  fasten  u]  on  his  opponents  the  responsibility  and 
odium  of  beginning  the  quarrel,  he  sent  a  proiiosition  to  the 
senate  that  he  would  agree  to  dismiss  his  army  if  Pompey 
would  do  the  same.  But  the  senate  even  refused  to  con- 
sider the  pro]iosal.  It  was  afti'rward  decreed  that  Caesar 
should  disband  his  army  by  a  certain  day  or  be  considered  a 
]iublic  enemy.  This  was  virtually  a  declaration  of  war,  for 
no  one  could  believe  thatCa'sar  would  thus  tamely  abandon 
the  contest.  On  learning  llie  decision  of  the  senate,  Caesar 
assembled  his  army,  and  in  an  eloquent  harangue  inspired 
them  with  his  own  indignant  syiirit.  Accompanied  by  only 
5,000  infantry  and  yOO  cavalry  (for  his  other  troops  were  be- 
yond the  Alps),  he  advanced  to  the  river  Rubicon,  which 
then  marked  the  limit  between  Italy  and  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
After  revolving  in  his  mind  for  some  time  his  perilous  enter- 
prise, he  at  length  exclaimed,  "The  die  is  cast!"  He  in- 
stantly crossed  the  river,  and  proceeded  with  rapid  strides 
through  Ariminum,  Arretium.  and  Ancona  toward  Rome. 
Every  town  seemed  ready  to  open  its  gates  as  he  ajiproached. 
In  the  general  consternation,  Pompey,  with  the  two  consuls 
and  many  of  the  senators,  fled  from  the  city  toward  Brun- 
disium, closely  ]5ursued  by  Caesar.  He  passed  over  into  Greece, 
whither  Ca'sar,  for  want  of  ships,  was  unable  to  follow  him. 
Ca>sar  soon  after  set  out  for  Sjiain.  where  Afranins  and 
Petreius,  Pompey 's  lieuten.ants.  had  a  foruddable  army  under 
their  command.  Having  compelled  them  to  sue  for  and  ac- 
cept peace  on  his  own  terms,  and  captured  Massilia  (Mar- 
seilles), he  returned  to  Rome,  whence  lie  proceeded  to  Brun- 
disiuni.  After  some  delay  he  evaded  the  vigilance  of 
Ponipey's  fleet,  and  succeeded  in  transporting  his  army  into 
Greece!  In  his  first  engagement  with  Pompey,  near  Dyr- 
rhachium,  Caesar  was  worsted,  and  was  obliged  to  retreat. 
He  withdrew,  pursued  by  Pomi)ey,  to  Thessaly.  At  length 
the  two  armies  met  on  the  iilains  of  Pharsalia.  Ca-sar  had 
only  22,000  foot-soldii-rs  and  1,000  horse,  while  the  army  of 
Poiniiey  amounted  to  45,000  infantry  am!  7.000  horse.  The 
latter  s'ust a ineil  a  disastrous  defeat  :  15.000  men  fell  in  bat- 
tle, anil  upward  of  24.000  wei-e  taken  jjrisoners.  Pompey' 
escaped  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  basely  assassinated.  (See 
PoMi'EV.)     The  power  of  his  enemies  having  been  utterly 


C^SAR 


CAFFEINE 


873 


broken  in  Greece,  Ciesar  fiillowed  Poiiipoy  to  K-jvpt,  wliere 
he  was  detained  for  a  time,  captivated  by  the  eliarms  of 
Cleopatra,  whose  i>rctensions  to  tlie  throne  of  E;rvpt  he 
supported  against  those  of  her  brother  I'toleiny.  lie  next 
marched  against  I'liarnaces,  a  son  of  Jlilhridates  the  Great, 
King  of  Pontus.  Having  defeateil  and  destroyed  the  army 
of  Pliarnaoes,  he  wrote  to  the  senate  his  cek'brated  letter  of 
three  words  oidy — \'e>ti,  riili.  rici.  lie  next  turned  his 
anus  against  the  I'onii)eians  in  Africa,  who  were  under  the 
command  of  Cato  and  Scipio.  whose  forces  were  defeated 
and  almost  cxtermimitcd  at  Thapsus,  not  far  from  Carthage 
(46  B.  c).  Ciesar  returned  to  Italy  the  undisputed  master  of 
tlie  Koman  world.  But  he  had  sc:arcely  time  to  celebrate 
his  recent  triumphs  when  word  was  brought  that  the  sons  of 
Pompey,  Cueius  and  Sextus,  had  colIe<ted  a  formidable 
army  in  Spain.  Ca'sjir  advanced  to  meet  them  with  his 
usiuil  celerity.  After  a  severe  and  bloody  battle  he  gained 
a  comi del e  victory,  lie  said  afterward  to  his  friends  that 
he  had  often  fought  for  victory,  but  then  only  for  his  life. 

Having  thus  risen  to  power  on  the  ruins  of  the  republic, 
Cajsar  appears  sincerely  to  have  sought  to  promote  the  true 
interests  of  his  country.  He  procureil  the  enactment  of 
several  salutary  laws.  One  of  the  subjects  which  claimed 
his  earnest  attention  was  the  regulation  of  the  calendar. 
His  iniprovcmeuts  have  been  adopted,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, by  all  the  European  nations.  (See  Calkxuar.)  He  is 
said  to  have  contemplated  the  preparation  of  a  complete 
digest  of  the  Koman  laws,  the  draining  of  the  Pontine 
marshes,  and  other  imjiorlant  public  works,  when  death  put 
an  end  to  all  his  scliemes.  The  senate  liad  conferreil  upon 
him  the  title  imjierator  (whence  our  emjieror),  for  life: 
he  was  also  made  dictator  and  pra'fectus  inorum  (chief  or 
ruler  of  manners  or  customs),  and  pontifex  maximus.  To 
these  dignities  he  wished  loadil  that  of  king,  tliat  he  might 
transmit  his  |iower  to  his  successor.  Having  no  legitimate 
children  of  his  own.  he  hail  adopted  his  grandnephew, 
Octavius,  the  son  of  Attia.  who  was  a  daughter  of  Ca-sar's 
sister  .hilia.  On  a  certain  ]nil)lic  festival,  the  Lupercalia 
(sometimes  called  in  English  the  Luperc-d).  Antony,  a 
zealous  adiiercnt  of  Ca^sjir.  publicly  otfeivd  liim  a  regal 
crown,  but  he.  perceiving  that  it  displeased  the  |)eople,  re- 
fused it,  but  very  reluctantly,  acconling  to  some  accounts. 
From  the  time  of  Tanpiin  tlie  Proud  the  name  of  king  had 
always  been  particularly  odious  to  Romans  of  every  class. 
Ca?sar's  evident  desire  to  be  a  king  stimulated  the  hostility 
of  his  enemies,  who  were  encouraged  to  hope  that  tlu;  taking 
of  his  lifi,'  would  be  ap[)roved  even  by  many  of  the  people. 
A  conspiracy  in  which  sixty  persons  were  implicated  was 
formed.  L\psiir  had  many  warnings,  it  is  said,  of  his  ap- 
proaching fate,  but  as  lie  scorned  to  live  in  constant  terror 
of  death,  he  disregarded  all  the  admonitions  of  his  friends, 
saying  it  was  better  to  die  at  once  than  to  suffer  the  anguish 
of  death  many  times  by  constantly  fearing  it.  It  had  been 
planned  that  when  CiPsjir  came  into  the  senate  on  the  ides 
of  March,  Cimbcr.  one  of  the  conspiralors,  should  present 
a  petition  to  him,  and  that  while  the  paper  was  bi'iiig  iea<l 
the  others  should  crowd  around,  as  if  very  anxious  that 
Cimber  should  obtain  his  request,  and  make  an  attack  upon 
their  victim  all  at  once.  At  first  Ca'sar  resisted  with  great 
spirit,  but  when  he  perceived  the  number  of  his  enemies  he 
resigned  himself  to  his  fate.  an<i,  wrapping  his  toga  about 
him,  fell  at  the  foot  of  Poiiipey's  statue,  the  base  of  which 
was  bathed  in  Ca'sar's  blood.  One  account  states  that  he 
resolutely  defendi'd  himself  until  he  .saw  the  dagger  of  M. 
Brutus  among  those  of  the  other  conspiraloi's.  when,  ex- 
claiming ■'  Thou,  too,  Hnil  us  ! "  he  yielded  without  any  fur- 
ther struggle.  He  was  as.sa.ssiiiated  44  B.C.,  in  the  fifty- 
sixth  year  of  his  age.  In  |)erson,  (Vsar  was  tall  and  of  a 
commanding  presence.  His  constitution  w.is  naturally  deli- 
cate, but  by  exercise  and  exposure  he  became  so  hardy  that 
none  of  his  sohliers  could  better  bearlhe  fatigues  and  priva- 
tions incident  to  a  military  life.  He  wa.s .sometimes,  though 
rarely,  subject  to  attacks  of  epilepsy. 

Asa  general,  Ca'sar  was  ]irobably  superior  in  genius  to 
every  other  commander  of  whom  history  makes  mention, 
excepting,  perhaps,  Hannibal  alone.  (.See  Ha.nnibal.)  In 
the  fertility  of  his  resources,  indeed,  he  ajipears  to  have 
surpassed  all  other  generals  that  ever  lived.  It  ha.s  been 
said  that  Xa|ioleon  taught  his  enemies  how  to  <'on(iuer  him, 
but  Ca'.sar's  enemies  never  learned  how  to  conquer  him,  be- 
cause he  had  not  a  mere  system  of  tactics,  but  a  new  strata- 
gem for  every  new  emergency.  He  was  not  only  a  great 
general,  but  a  pre-eminent  staiesmau.  and  the  greatest  ora- 
tor of  his  age  except  Cicero.     Ca'.sir  was  also  distinguished 


as  a  historian ;  he  wrote  the  first  seven  books  of  the  com- 
mentaries treating  of  the  Gallic  war,  and  three  books  relat- 
ing to  the  civil  war.  His  style  is  remarkable  for  ease,  clear- 
ness, and  simplicity,  and  for  its  fmre  Latinity.  A  few  frag- 
ments of  his  grammatical  work,  entitled  JJe  Analogia,  have 
been  preserved. 

Keferring  to  those  remarkable  men  in  history  who  have 
com]ielled  ••  nations  unaceustnmed  to  control  "  to  bow  obe- 
dient to  their  will,  Macaulay  observes:  "  In  this  class  three 
men  stand  ])re-eminent — Ca'sar,  Cromwell,  and  Himaparte; 
the  highest  place  in  this  remarkable  triumvirate  belongs 
undoubtedly  to  Ca'.sar.  He  united  the  talents  of  ISonaparte 
to  tlio.se  of  Cromwell,  and  ho  possessed  also  what  neither 
Cromwell  nor  Honaparte  jKisses-sed — learning,  taste,  wit, 
elo(|uenee,  the  sentiments  and  manners  of  an  accomplished 
gentleman."  See  Merivale"s  Full  of  tlie  Unman  linpublic; 
5lonimsen's  Ilixlnri/  (if  Rome,  vol.  iv. ;  Fronde's  Julius 
Cwsar ;  and  Long's  Dicliiu-  of  the  Roman  Repiitilic,  vols, 
iii.-v.  Kevised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Cscsarc'a  (in  (Jr.  Kaio-apefa :  anciently  called  Tiirrix  S/ralo- 
niK):  an  ancient  city  and  seaport  of  Palestine. now  in  ruins; 
situated  (mthe  Jleciitcrranean ;  about  ;i7  miles  X.  of  .Jaffa, 
and  .5.5  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  .lenisalem  (see  map  of  Palestine, 
ref.  7-C).  It  was  rebuilt  by  Herod  the  Great  (22  B.  ('.),  who 
erected  here  several  magnificent  edifices,  and  protected  its 
port  by  a  semicircular  mole,  which  is  said  to  have  been  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  works  of  antiquity.  Ca>sarea  was  the 
scene  fif  several  events  recorded  in  the  book  of  Acts,  espe- 
cially that  of  Paul's  Syrian  im])risonment.  (See  Acts,  chaps, 
ix.-xii.,  xxiii.-xxvii.)  "  It  was  taken  by  the  crusaders  in  1101. 
The  site  is  now  covered  with  shapeless  ruins.  Here  Eusc- 
bius  and  Orlgen  lived. 

Caesarcan  Operation:  See  Hysterotomy. 

Ca'sare'a  I'hilip'pl.  or  ra'iieas:  an  ancient  town  of 
Palestine:  situated  alu.ut  2t)  miles  X.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
and  45  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Damaseus  (see  map  of  Palestine, 
ref.  4-E).  It  is  mentioned  in  Matthew  xvi.  1:3.  This  site  is 
now  occupied  by  the  village  of  Uanias,  in  which  some 
ancient  ruins  are  visible.  Inscriptions  found  here  show  that 
the  god  Pan  once  had  a  sanctuary  in  this  place.  It  was  em- 
bellished by  Herod  and  his  son  Philip:  wa.s  once  the  seat  of 
a  bishop,  but  is  now  a  miserable  village. 

Ca;'siillll  [neut.  of  Lat.  cncVw*.  bluish  gray]:  an  alkali 
metal  discovered  with  the  spectroscope  by  liunseii  and 
KirchhofT  in  18(iO  in  the  water  of  some  saline  springs  in 
(iermanv.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  Cs.  and  its  atomic  weight 
l:32-7.  I'he  .salt  sprini;  of  Diirklieim  contains  0-17  parts  of 
the  chloride  in  l.tKKMHIO.  The  hot  spring  of  Wheal  Clifford 
was  found  to  contain  ()-12  grains  of  the  chloride  in  a  gallon. 
Caesium  is  widely  diffused  in  nature,  though  in  exceedingly 
small  (piantilies:  it  has  been  found  with  rubidium  in  lepido- 
lite  (as  at  Hebron,  in  Maine),  petalite.  and  some  feldspars, 
anil  has  never  been  isolated.  The  mineral  poUii.r  of  Elba 
is  reported  to  contain  34  [ler  cent,  of  ca'sium.  In  its  chem- 
ical relations  ca'siura  is  closely  analogous  to  potassium  and 
rubidium.  A  fused  mass  of  caesium  chloride  may  be  de- 
composed by  the  electric  current,  but  the  caesium  rises  to 
the  surface  and  burns  with  a  reddish  flame.  Bunsen  ob- 
tained it  as  an  amalgam  with  mercury,  but  even  in  amal- 
gam or  alloy  it  absorbs  oxygen  with  great  rapidity.  The 
platinoehloride  is  more  insoluble  than  that  of  potassium, 
and  this  fact  has  formed  the  basis  of  its  separation  from 
that  element.  The  spectrum  of  ca'sium  is  characteriiced  by 
two  blue  lines.  Kevised  by  Ira  Klmsen. 

Caffpilie:  an  alkaloid  existing  in  coffee,  tea.  Paragnay 
tea  (llir  paraiinniifiixix).  anil  guarana  ((luarana  offieina- 
liK.  or  J'aiiltiiii'a  .lorhiliK):  called  also  Tllcilie  and  Uliara- 
nilie.  Chemical  formula.  ('sHioXjd:,.  ll  was  discovered 
by  Kiinge  in  If^iO.  and  almost  simultaneously  by  Pelletier, 
Caventou,  and  Kobiiiuet.  Oiiilry  in  1827  extracted  an  alka- 
loid from  tea  which  lie  supposed  to  be  a  distinct  coiiqiound, 
and  called  it  theine.  but  in  18:i8  Jobst  jirovcd  caffeine  and 
llieine  to  be  identical.  Stenhouse  extracted  caffeine  or 
theine  from  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  Paraguay  tea.  while 
Marlins  extracted  it  from  the  dry  pulp  of  the  Paulliiiia sor- 
bin^ or  guarana.  and  called  it  guaranine,  hut  afterward 
proveil  the  alkaloid  to  be  identical  with  caffeine.  Van  Cor- 
put  first  showed  that  the  leaves  of  the  colfec-plant,  as  well 
as  the  berries,  contained  catloine.  It  probably  also  existsin 
other jilantsi. 

Cafteino  occurs  in  the  raw  and  also  in  the  roasted  coffee, 
the  amount  varving  with  the  variety  of  coffee,  the  ripeness 


874 


CAFFRARIA 


CAINE 


of  tlio  sample,  the  season  of  the  harvest,  etc.  The  mean 
amount  of  caffeine,  as  deteniiined  by  Stenhouse  in  samples 
of  various  coffees,  was  0-8  to  1  per  "cent.  Domingo  coffee 
contains  the  least  and  JIartinique  coffee  the  most  caffeine. 
Tea  contains  somewhat  more  caffeine  than  coffee,  2-5  to  3'4 
j)er  cent.  It  has  been  found  in  hyson  tea.  3-2  to  4-1  iu  gun- 
powder tea,  and  0-9  to  2-1  per  cent,  in  various  black  teas. 
(Stenftouse.)  ]Mean,  about  2  per  cent.  The  Paraguay  tea 
used  in  several  South  American  countries  to  prepare  the 
drink  known  bv  the  natives  as  /««/<-'  contains  1-1  to  1-2  per 
cent,  of  caffeine.  The  guarana,  which  is  a  sort  of  choc- 
olate, the  seeds  of  the  plant  being  roasted  and  ground  to  a 
paste  with  water,  contains  about  5  jier  cent,  of  caffeine. 
Guarana  is  used  bv  the  lirazilians  to  counteract  dysentery, 
retention  of  urine.'  etc.  I'affeine  is  supposed  to  exist  in  cof- 
fee-berries and  tea-leaves,  combined  with  tannic  acid  and 
potassa — i.  e.  as  potassium  caffeo-tannate. 

When  pure,  caffeine  appears  in  white  silky  needles  hav- 
ing no  odor,  containing  8-4  per  eent.  of  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion, which  it  iiarts  with  at  a02'  F. ;  sparingly  solul.ile  in  cold 
water,  and  much  more  so  in  hot;  less  soluble  in  alcoliol,  and 
still  less  so  in  ether.  It  acts  as  a  weak  base,  dissolving  in 
jvcids.  from  which  it  may  be  crystallized  by  evaporation. 
Boiled  with  fixed  caustic  alkalies,  it  decomposes,  giving 
methvlaminc.  Heating  with  basic  hydrate  alters  it  to  a 
stronger  base — caffeidiue.  Boiled  with  an  excess  of  nitric 
iieid,  and  then  evaporated  at  a  gentle  heat,  it  gives  a  red 
■color,  resembling  that  obtained  from  murexiile,  on  the  addi- 
tion of  ammonia,  which  is  rpute  characteristic.  Caffeine  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the  respiratinn 
and  circulation,  and  it  increases  the  rapidity  of  thought. 
It  is  valuable  as  a  drug  in  certain  cases  of  cardiac  and 
renal  disease,  and  in  opium-poisoning. 

Revised  by  II.  A.  Hare. 

Caffraria :  See  Kaffraria. 

Caffres :  See  Kaffirs. 

Cagre-birds:  See  articles  on  the  various  birds,  especially 
I'.ARROT,  Cockatoo,  and  Caxary-bird.  Birds  have  in  all 
ages  been  kept  iu  captivity  for  their  song  and  plumage. 
They  are  favorite  household  pets  everywhere,  but  sHioidd  be 
kept  in  well-ventilated  and  uniformly  heated  rooms,  and  not 
exposed  to  draughts. 

Cagliari.  kaal  yaVrc'e :  one  of  the  two  provinces  into 
which  the  island  of  Sardinia  is  <livided  :  Imuiided  X.  by  the 
province  of  Sassari,  and  E.,  S..  and  W.  liy  the  Jlediterranean 
Sea.  Area.  5.2.57  sq.  miles.  The  grouiul  is  mai-shy  and  tlie 
climate  unhealthy.  The  chief  articles  ot  export  are  grain, 
oil,  almonds,  sugar,  molasses,  and  wine.  Chief  town,  Cagliari. 
Pop.  (1890)  447.807. 

Caapliari  (anc.  Ciilaris.  or  Caralix) :  a  city  of  .Sardinia ; 
capital  of  province  of  same  name;  on  a  spacious  bay  on  the 
south  coast ;  lat.  39  13'  X.,  Ion.  9'  7  E.  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
■8-B).  It  has  a  large  and  secure  harbor,  which  is  defended 
bv  several  forts,  and  is  the  emporium  through  wliich  neai'ly 
all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  island  passes.  It  contains  a  ca- 
thedral, about  thirty  churches,  numerous  convents,  a  public 
library,  several  hospitals,  an  ai-senal,  a  mint,  and  a  college. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  cotton  tal)rics.  soap,  guni)o\vder, 
leather,  and  furniture.  Among  the  articles  of  export  are 
grain,  wine.  oil.  salt,  saffron,  and  rags.     Poj).  39.300. 

Cagliari.  P.iOLo:  Sec  Vbrosese. 

Cagllostro,  kaal-yos'tro,  Alexaxdkr,  Count :  Italian 
charlatan  and  impostor,  whose  proper  name  was  Giuseppe 
Balsamo;  b.  at  Palermo.  .lune  8.  1743.  Ite  learned  a  little 
chemistry  and  medicine  in  a  monastery,  where  he  was  a.ssist- 
ant  apothecary.  Having  assunie<l  the  title  of  count  ami  be- 
come a  Freema.son,  he  traveled  throui;h  many  countries, 
professing  to  be  a  physician  and  alclicmist,  and  i-aising 
money  by  quackery  and  other  forms  of  imposture.  In  soiiu> 
of  his  adventures  lie  was  attended  liy  his  wife,  and  traveled 
in  his  own  coach  in  an  ostentatious  style,  .\boiit  1780  he 
visited  Paris,  where  he  made  many  dupes  among  the  higher 
classes,  and  revived  an  old  Egyptian  Masonic  ordi^r,  of 
wliich  he  became  graml  koplita.  He  was  |iatroni/.ed  by 
Cardinal  de  Kolian,  with  whom  he  was  implicated  in  the 
affair  of  tlie  "ili.nmond  necklace,"  and  was  imprisoned  in 
the  IJaslile  in  178.").  Having  been  liberated  in  17Hf),  he  vis- 
ited F.nglancl,  where  he  obtained  little  siu-eess.  He  after- 
ward went  to  Rome,  where  he  wa-s  arrested  in  1789  as  a  Free- 
mason, and  eondeinned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  I),  in  the 
fortress  San  Leone,  near  Urliino.  Aug.  2.*>.  179.").  See  Carlyle. 
JirisCfllnnti's,  vol.  iv. 


Cagliola.  kalin-yo  la'a,  Lrioi.  JIarquis:  architect:  b.  in 
Jlilan.  Italv.  June  9.  1762.  He  became  president  of  the  In- 
stitute of  Lilian.  His  greatest  works  are  two  trium]ilial 
arches  at  Milan — viz.,  the  Porto  del  Ticino  (once  called 
Porta  di  Marengo)  and  the  Arco  della  Pace  or  Porta  del 
Semjiione,  commenced  in  1807  and  finished  about  1837.  The 
latter  is  built  of  white  marble,  and  is  78  feet  high.  D.  in 
Inverigo,  Aug.  14,  1833. 

Cagots,  kaa'go'  [Fr..  of  uncertain  etym.,  perhaps  con- 
nected with  Breton  caradd.  leprous.  The  explanation  from 
en  (=  ccDiis)  +  yijf.  i.  e.  Gothic  dog.  is  only  a  folk-etymology. 
Its  mod.  Fr.  signif ..  hypocrite,  is  influenced  by  higof] :  a  de- 
spised race  of  Social  outcasts  (resembling  in  some  respects 
the  gypsies)  wlio  have  wandered  over  parts  of  France  for 
centuries,  and  were  considered  descendants  of  the  Visigoths, 
whom  Clovis  nearly  annihilated  in  battle  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Before  the  great  FreiK'h  Revolution  they  were  bound 
by  law  to  wear  a  peculiar  dress,  to  live  apart,  to  labor  in 
none  but  menial  occupations,  and  only  to  enter  churches  by 
a  special  door  in  each.  The  Revolution  relieved  them  from 
all  legal  disabilities,  Init  could  not  release  them  at  once 
from  social  outlawry  and  general  detestation.  Vulgar 
prejudice  still  regarded  them  with  abhorrence  as  foul  and 
depraved,  and  they  were  still  objects  of  avei-sion  and  loath- 
ing. Of  late,  however,  they  would  seem  to  have  sunk  out 
of  sight,  being  either  absorbed  into  the  lower  class  of  the 
peasants  or  dwindled  to  a  handful.  See  Michel.  Ilistory  of 
Ovtvdst  Jfaces  (1847) :  J.  Hack  Tuke,  in  Journat  of  the  An- 
thropologicnl  ISiicidy.  vol.  ix.  (1880). 

Cahors.  ka'a'or'  (anc.  Divona):  a  town  of  France:  capital 
of  the  department  of  Lot ;  on  the  river  Lot;  57  miles  X.  of 
Toulouse  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  8-E).  The  site  is  a  rocky 
eminence,  inclosed  on  several  sides  by  the  river.  It  contains 
a  large  cathedral,  a  college,  a  theater,  a  public  library,  and 
a  normal  school ;  and  has  manufactures  of  glass,  paper, 
woolen  goods,  cotton  yarn,  etc.  Here  are  remains  of  a 
magnificent  Roman  aqueduct.     Pop.  (1891)  15,369. 

Ca'icos  Islands:  the  .southeasternmost  of  the  Bahama 
islands:  associated,  with  Turk's  island,  with  the  government 
of  Jamaica.  Total  area,  212  sq.  miles.  Pop.,  with  Turk's 
island,  about  5.000.  Ca'icos  island  proper  is  the  easternmost 
of  the  larger  Bahama  islands;  Ion.  71    50'  W.,  lat. 21°  45'  X. 

Cajllif.  ka";i  eeya',  or  Caillf.  ka":i  ya  ,  Rene  :  traveler  ; 
b.  in  Deux-Sevres,  France,  Sept.  19,  1799.  He  gained  a  prize 
of  10.000  francs  which  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris 
offered  to  the  first  traveler  who  should  visit  Tinibuctoo.  He 
performed  the  journey  from  Sierra  Leone  to  Timbuctoo  in 
1827-28.  and  published  a  nan-ative  of  his  adventures  (1830). 
1).  near  Paris,  Jlay  20,  1838. 

Cain:  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve:  a  cultivator  of 
the  soil ;  slew  his  brother  Abel  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  caused  by 
the  rejection  of  his  own  sacrifice  and  the  acceptance  of  his 
brother's ;  was  condemned  to  be  a  fugitive  on  the  earth.  He 
then  retired  to  the  land  of  Xod,  and  built  there  a  city 
which  was  called  Enoch,  after  the  name  of  his  eldest  son. 

Cain,  AViLLiAM  :  civil  engineer:  b.  at  Ilillsboro,  X.  C, 
;\[ay  14.  1847:  graduated  at  Xorth  Carolina  Jlilitary  and 
Polytechnic  Institute  ;  practiced  civil  engineering  eight 
vcai-s :  afl<'r  that  was  made  Professor  of  Mathematics  and 
t'ivil  Engineering  at  the  University  of  Xorth  Carolina.  He 
is  the  author  of  Ttieory  of  Voiissoir.  Solid  and  Braced  Arches 
(1874) :  JIa.rinnnii  Stretises  in  Framed  Bridges  (1878) :  Solid 
and  Braced  Eloxtic  Arches  (1879) :  Symbolic  Algebra  (1884) : 
Practical  Designing  of  Retaining  Walls  (1888);  and  of 
papers  in  'S'an  Xostrand's  Engineering  JIaga-ine  ami  the 
Transact  ions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineering. 
among  wliich  mav  be  mentioned  Theorem  of  Least  Work 
(1891)  and  Transition  Curves  (1892). 

Caine,  Thomas  Henry  IIall  :  novelist ;  b.  of  Manx  par- 
ents at  Runcorn,  Cheshire,  England,  May  14.  1853;  edu- 
cated in  Liverpool,  and  at  fifteen  was  apprenticed  to  an 
architect  and  surveyor  there.  While  still  a  youth  he  wrote 
much  for  the  press,  and  contributed  leading  articles  on 
building.  land  surveying,  and  archite<'ture  to  the  Bnitder 
and  liiiihling  Xeics.'  At  twenty  he  returned  to  the  Isle  of 
JIan  and  taiight  school  for  six  months,  but  soon  returned 
to  Liverpool,  where  he  worked  until  twenly-four.  He  then 
went  to  London  and  lived  with  Dante  Rossetti  until  the 
poet's  death  in  1882.  Has  pnblislied  Sonnets  of  Tliree  Cen- 
turies and  Recollections  ot  Rossetti  (1882) ;  Cobwebs  of  Crit- 
icism (1883):  The  Shadow  of  a  Crime  (1885);  A  Son  of 
y/(((/((7- (1886) ;  The  Deemster\\m~)\  The  Botidman  (1890): 


CAIXITKS 


CAIKO 


8(0 


77<?  Matuinan  (1894) :  ami  The  ClirisUan  (1897).  Ben-my- 
Chree.n.  driiinatizeil  vei'sion  of  The  /JfcjH.s/cr.  was  successful- 
ly pioihiced  May  14,  1H88.  and  aiidtlicr  of  The  Mau.niiiin 
was  well  leci'ived  uvcrvwluTu  except  in  Manchester  and 
Xew  York.  In  1890  he'traveled  in  Iceland,  in  WM  in  Hus- 
sia,  and  in  18!)5  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  He  lived  for  a 
time  at  Bexley  Heath,  in  Kent;  later  at  Keswick,  Cumber- 
land, and  now  makes  his  home  at  Peel,  Isle  of  Man. 

t'aill'itcs,  or  Cilill'iaiis :  a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  second 
century,  who  maintained  that  Cain  was  sn|ierior  to  Aliel, 
since  the  lalliT  was  easily  overcome  by  him.  They  also  pro- 
fessed reverence  for  Judas  aiul  all  the  worst  characters  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

Cainozoic:  See  Cknozoic. 

C'ainl.  Kdward.  LL.  D.  :  h.  at  fireenock,  Scotland,  1824; 
educated  at  Oxford  University ;  fellow  in  Mi'rtcm  College, 
Oxford;  became  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  (ilasf;ow 
Universitv  ISdfi;  and  succeeded  Prof.  Jowett  as  Master  of 
Kaliol  CoileKC,  Oxford,  in  Nov.,  1893.  He  published  in  1877 
A  Crilical  Account  of  the  I'ltilosophi/  of  Kant;  in  1889  a 
revised  and  enlarf;e<i  edition  with  the  title  The  Criticiil 
Philo.wph;/  of  Immiiniiel  Knnt:  in  181^3  a  volume  on  llej,'el 
in  HlackwooiTs  Philosophical  Classics:  in  \X'.yi  Essoys  un 
Literature  and  Pliilosophy,'i  \o\s.\  in  1893  the  Evolution 
of  Religion.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Caii'd.  Sir  .Iamks:  asrriculturist  ;  h.  at  Stranraer,  Scot- 
land, in  ISlti :  edui'ated  at  the  llij^h  School  anil  University  of 
Kdinburjrh  ;  publisheil  in  1S49  a  treatise  on  Hiyli  Farming 
IIS  the  Bent  Sul)xtitule  for  Protection,  which  attracted  much 
attentiim:  devoted  himself  to  the  investijjation  of  i[Ucstions 
coimected  with  agriculture,  and  was  cni;ai;ed  in  many  (tov- 
criuiuiit  missions.  As  member  of  Parliament  in  1864  he 
secured  the  passage  of  the  bill  providini;  for  the  collection 
•  ■f  agricMiltural  statistics  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Author 
of  Enylixh  Ayriculture  (18.r.J):  The  Landed  Iiiterext  \  In- 
dia, the  Land  and  the  People,  etc. ;  member  of  the  new 
Hoard  of  Agricidture  1889.     I),  in  London,  Feb.  10,  1892. 

Caird.  .John,  I).  I)..  LL.  D.:  brother  of  Edward;  b.  at 
(ireenoi'k,  .S<'otland,  Dec.  |.^,  1820;  griuluated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  (ilasgow  IS4.->;  onhiined  minister  of  Xewton- 
on-.\vr  184.");  and.  after  short  iiastorates  in  Edinburgh 
and  I'erthshire.  settled  over  Park  church.  iTlasgow.  18.57. 
He  was  appointi'd  Professor  of  Divinity  in  University  of 
(ilasgow  18t)2 ;  principal  of  the  university  1873.  He  pub- 
lished Introduction  to  the  Philoso/thi/  of  lieligion  {(i\asj;ov/, 
1880:  2d  cd.  London.  1889):  The  Re'liyHnix  of  India,  lirah- 
tnanism  and  Buddhism  (1881);  S/tinoza  (Edinburgh.  1H88). 

W.  T.  Harris. 

Cairn  [Mod.  Scotch  <  (iacl.  rarn.  heap] :  aiiplied  to  arti- 
ticial  and  conical  heaps  of  unhewn  stoiu's,  which  are  fre- 
(pUMitly  found  in  I'^.urope  on  tops  of  hills.  Many  cairns  are 
found  near  the  circles  of  unhewn  stone  pillars  which  are 
sometimes  called  Druidical.  In  sonu'  cases  the  heaps  of 
stones  arc  girdled  round  by  large  uidiewn  sloncsset  upright 
in  the  ground.  It  appears  that  the  majority  of  them  were 
raise<l  as  sepulchri's  ai\d  moimnu'iits  for  the  dead.  Hmnan 
bones  arc  often  found  buried  inider  tlx-m,  together  with 
stone  hammers,  flint  arrow-heads,  flint  axes,  bronze  wca|ions, 
etc.  In  Scotland  and  In-laiid  occur  large  cairns  called 
■■chambered  cairns."  The  most  reinarkaliic  of  these  is  at 
New  (rraugc.  on  the  river  Hoyiu',  near  Drogheda.  It  is  400 
|>aces  in  circumference,  aiiout  SO  fiM't  high,  and  is  supposed 
to  contain  about  180,000  tons  of  stones.  It  presents  tlie  ap- 
pearance of  a  grassy  hill  i>aitially  wixjded,  but  on  examina- 
tion the  coating  of  earth  is  found  to  be  superficial.  An 
opiMiing  acciclentally  discovered  is  thecxteriud  entrance  of  a 
gallery  li'ading  to  a  large  cruciform  chamber  containing  three 
granite  liasius  iM- urns.  The  sides  or  walls  of  th<' I'hamber 
arc  formed  of  innneiise  blocks  of  stone,  some  of  which  are 
covered  with  carved  figures,  supposed  to  be  symbolical. 

Cairiips. .loiix  Ei-Ltot  :  economist;  b.  in  Drogheda. Coun- 
ty Louth,  Ireland,  Dec.  •26,  18'23:  son  of  a  brewer,  in  whose 
counting-room  some  of  his  youth  was  passed:  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Didilin,  in  1848;  was  called  to  the  bar; 
through  .\rchbishop  Whately's  influence  liccnnie  in  18.5(i 
Priife>sor  of  Political  Economv  in  Trinity  College  :  in  \H'u 
pulilislied  (_'ha racier  and  hnyical  .Method  iif  J'olitiral  Econ- 
omy, exp;in<ling  (herein  some  of  .1.  S.  MilTs  Unsettled  (^ui.t- 
tions.  anil  fixing  the  definition  of  law  in  economics  ;  in  ISOl 
Viecame  Profes.sor  of  Economy  and  . I nrisprudence  in  tjueeirs 
College,  (ialway;  in  ISCm  was  injured  by  a  fall  from  his 
liorse  while  hunting,  and  was  made  an   invalid  for  life ;  in 


1866  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  Uuiversity  College, 
London  :  retired  as  emeritus  in  1872:  d.  in  Ijondon.  .lidy  8, 
1875.  His  Logical  Method  is  the  key-note  to  his  specidat ions, 
and  expands  Kicardo"s  doctrine  of  rent  (2d  ed.  187.")).  He 
wrote  for  reviews  on  the  depreciation  of  gold,  showing  that 
the  losses  would  fall  chiefly  on  raw  materials  and  on  labor : 
also  on  slave-labor,  forecasting  truly  (1.8()1)  the  issues  of  the 
civil  war  in  the  U.  S. ;  produced  Pcditical  Essays  (1873) 
largely  concerned  with  Irish  problems.  His  remaining 
works  are  Essays  on  Political  Economy.  'Theoretical  ana 
A  p/il  I  ed  {\ST-i) ;  Political  Economy  and  I^aisse^-Faire;  and 
his  largest  work,  /reading  Principles  of  Political  Economy 
Xeifly  E.rpounded  (lt<14).  He  was  one  of  the  most  acute  and 
original  tliiidvcrs  of  the  English  orthodox  .school.  He  in- 
sisted on  the  concrete-deductive  method  of  eeonontic  studies, 
representing  laws  asoidy  approximately  true  and  in  need  of 
testing  by  facts:  devclopeil  tile  iiicidenceof  tlie  cost  of  pro- 
duction, expanding  Senior's  postulates;  defined  the  limits 
within  which  competition  was  free  by  a  real  contribution  to 
the  progress  of  economics;  and  defended  Mill's  wages-fund 
theory  earnestly,  after  its  author  had  abandoned  it. 

C.  H.  TlIURBER. 

Cairngonn  Stones:  a  name  given  by  jewelers  to  brown 
or  yellow  ipiariz  or  rock-crystal  found  at  Cairngorm,  in 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland.  The  color  is  produced  by  a  little 
oxide  of  iron,  or  niaiiganese.  'I'he  yellow  variety  is  often 
called  topaz,  but  it  is  inferior  to  the  true  topaz  in  hardness 
and  brilliancy. 

Cairns.  Ilfoii  McCal.moxt.  Earl :  orator  and  lawyer:  b. 
in  ('ultra,  near  Hclfa.st.  Ireland,  in  1819.  He  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  Itelfast  in  18.")2:  appointed  Attorney-Gen- 
eral by  Lord  Derby  in  18t)6.  He  was  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England  from  Feb..  IStiH,  until  December  of  that  year,  and 
was  leader  of  the  Conservative  parly  in  the  House  of  Lords 
in  IStjO;  again  Lord  Chancellor  froiii  1874  till  1880.  D.  in 
liournemouth,  Ajir.  2.  ISS."). 

Cairus.  .loiix,  D.  D..  LL.  D. :  Scotch  theologian;  b,  near 
Aytoii,  .Scothind,  .\ug.  23,  USIH:  educated  in  the  universi- 
ties of  Edinburgh  and  Berlin:  minister  of  United  Presby- 
terian church  at  BerwicU-ijii-Tweed  1S4.5-76;  became  Pro- 
fes,sor  of  Apologetics  and  .Systematic  Theology  in  the  United 
Presbvterian  Theological  Hall,  in  Edinburgh,  1H()7.  He  was 
theau'thorof  Life  of  John  Brown.  I)./).  (Edinburgh.  1800); 
Vnlielief  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (ISSl):  and  of  numer- 
ous tracts,  reviews,  and  cnevclopaMlia  articles.  1).  in  Edin- 
burgh, .Mar.  14,  1892. 

Cal'ro  (called  by  the  Andis  ,1/  Masr  or  Musr:  also  Al 
Kahireh  (or  ^(//oVn).  i.  e.  the  victorious) :  a  famous  city; 
capital  of  modern  Egy|it:  situated  in  a  sandy  ))lain  on  the 
right  (east)  bank  of  the  Nile;  5  miles  S.  of  the  Delta;  lat. 
30  3'  X.,  Ion.  31 '  18'  E.  (see  map  of  Africa,  ret'.  2-P).  Ele- 
vation. 40  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  climate  is 
warm.  dry.  and  healthy,  with  a  mean  annual  teni]ieratiire  of 
about  72'  F.  The  mean  teniperat lire  of  summer  is  8.").  and 
tliat  of  winter  .W  .  Cairo  is  bounded  on  the  \\.  by  the  ridge 
of  .Mokattam,  and  surioiinded  by  stone  walls  with  antinue 
battlements.  The  old  streets  arc  narrow,  crooked,  and  ill- 
pavcd.  The  houses,  which  are  built  mostly  of  brick,  are 
substantial  buildings  of  two  or  three  stories,  have  flat  roofs, 
and  are  famous  for  their  window-lattices  of  extraordinary 
richness  in  moucharabiye,  or  turned-work.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  quarters,  occujiied  respectively  by  the  Mussul- 
mans, the  .lews,  the  Christians,  etc.  These  quarters  arc  sepa- 
rated bv  gates,  closed  at  night.  Cairo  is  connected  with 
Alexandria  and  Suez  by  railioail. 

The  architectural  interest  of  Cairo  ccntere  in  its  mosques 
and  torn b.s.  Of  the  former,  numbering  some  3")0.  the  most 
ancient  is  that  of  Toulfm,  built  879  A,  r>.,  although  parts 
of  the  still  older  mosque  of  Amru  .still  stand.  These  two 
mosques  are  of  (he  columnar  tyiie,  with  many  aisles  of  col- 
umns and  pointed  arches,  .\iiotlier  type,  represented  by 
the  mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  consists  of  a  huge  open,  vault- 
ed chamber  on  one  side  of  the  great  court,  flanked  by  siualler 
ehaiubers,  schools,  etc.  The  later  mosinic.s,  from  the  fif- 
teenth century  down,  are  domed  s( met urcs,  executed  some- 
times in  stone  and  sometimes  in  lath  and  nhuster;  but  almost 
invariably  of  great  beauty,  and  adorned  with  one  or  two 
minarels'of  singular  grace  and  elegance.  The  mosque  of 
Kai't-Mey  is  one  of  the  finest  of  this  type.  The  "tombs  of 
the  calijihs"  and  "of  the  mamelukes."  in  the  same  general 
St  vie  of  architecture,  are  admirable  specimens  of  Arab  art. 
Tiiere  are  handsome  public  gardens  with  groves  of  orange, 
citron,  and  palm  trees.     Among  the  remarkable  objects  in 


876 


CAIKO 


CAKE-URCHIN 


the  vicinity  of  Cairo  are  the  palace  of  tlie  viceroy,  the  obe- 
lisk of  Heliopolis,  the  old  and  celebrated  Nilonieter  on  the 
island  of  Kodah.  a  graduated  column  indicating  the  height 
of  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  and  most  important  of  all, 
the  Great  Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  about  15  miles  S.  W.  of  this 
city.  (See  Pyramids.)  Cairo  has  long  Ijeen  celebrated  as  a 
seat  of  Oriental  learning  and  Mohammedan  theology.  It 
has  a  university  or  college  which  was  attended  in  1885  by 
about  7,700  students.  There  are  numerous  irun-foundries, 
calico-printing  works,  and  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  sillv  fabrics.  The  Arabs  are  tlie  most  numerous  of  the 
races  which  compose  the  population.  Cairo,  which  is  su])- 
posed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Lafopolis.  was 
founded  by  the  Arabs  aliout  970  A.  D.,  and  was  ruled  by  the 
Fatimite  calijihs  until  1171,  when  Saladin  became  master  of 
Egypt.  It  was  the  capital  nt  the  Sultans  of  Egypt  until  it 
was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1517.  Between  the  west  side 
of  the  older  city  and  tlie  river  Nile  most  of  the  ground  has 
been  laid  out  "into  building-lots,  and  much  of  it  covered 
with  regular  rows  of  houses,  forming  the  district  of  Is- 
maileeyah.  New  streets  have  been  cut  through  the  crowded 
districts  of  tlie  city,  and  the  Ezbekeeyah,  its  principal  square, 
transformed  into  public  gardens.  The  boulevard  Mehemet 
Ali  traverses  the  city  nearly  N.  and  S.  Pop.  (1883)  368,108. 
Revised  by  A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

Cairo,  ka'ro:  city,  railroad  center,  and  river-port  of  Illi- 
nois ;  capital  of  Alexander  County  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  13-E) ;  situated  at  the  soutliern  ex- 
tremity of  the  State,  upon  the  point  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers,  175  miles  below  St.  Louis. 
It  is  a  market  for  tlie  suiiply  of  a  large  portion  of  Southei'n 
Illinois,  Soutlieast  Jlissouri,  and  Western  Kentucky,  and  is 
an  important  depot  for  the  products  of  Northern  Illinois, 
Iowa,  and  Wisconsin  seeking  Southern  markets.  Over  -4,000 
steamboats  touch  at  its  wharf  annually.  It  has  a  consider- 
able manufacturing  industry. cost Iv  public-school  buildings, 
and  a  fine  custom-house.    P'oi..  (18H0)  D.Oll ;  (18!)0)  10.334. 

Editor  ob'  "  Argus." 

Cairoli,  ki-ro'Ife,  Benedetto:  Italian  statesman;  b.  at 
Pavia,  Jan.  28,  1835;  educated  at  the  University  of  Pavia ; 
fought  against  Austria  in  1848  and  185!»:  wounded  at  siege 
of  Palermo  1800 :  dei)utvand  leader  of  the  Left  1868;  jiresi- 
dent  of  the  ministry  1878  and  187!)-81.  On  Nov.  17,  1878, 
he  was  severely  wounded  in  ])reventing  the  assassination  of 
King  Humbert,  who  was  riding  in  a  carriage  with  him. 
D.  in  the  royal  villa,  Lago  di  Monte,  near  Naples,  Aug.  8. 
1889. 

Caisse:  a  French  word,  the  primary  meaning  of  which  is 
a  chest,  box,  case,  or  coffer.  It  has  imjiortant  applications 
in  commerce,  finance,  etc.  In  mercantile  business  it  signi- 
fies cash  or  eash-box.  In  anatomy,  caisse  is  the  drum  of  the 
ear.  In  financial  affairs  the  term  is  applied  to  a  fund  ;  also 
to  the  pay-office.  Caisse  d'epargnt  signifies  a  savings-fund 
or  savings-bank. 

Caisson  [Pr.,  large  chest,  deriv.  of  caisse,  chest] :  in  arclii- 
teeture,  a  coffer,  a  sunken  panel  in  a  flat  or  vaulted  ceiling, 
or  in  the  soffit  of  a  cornice,  [u  civil  engineering,  an  inclos- 
ure  or  large  vessel  in  which  the  foundations  of  the  piers  of 
a  bridge  are  built  and  gradually  lowereil  to  the  bottom  of  a 
stream.  Caisson  is  also  a  name  given  to  a  tumbril  or  am- 
munition-cart used  in  the  artillery  service.  In  maritime 
affairs  it  is  applied  to  an  aiijiaratus  for  lifting  a  vessel  out 
of  the  water  for  repairs  or  inspection.  It  is  usually  a  hol- 
low structure  which  contains  an  air-chamber,  and  is  sunk 
by  letting  water  into  it.  -Vfter  it  has  been  placed  under  the 
vessel  th(!  water  is  pumped  ont,  and  the  caisson  rises  with 
the  vessel.    See  Breakwater  and  Foundations. 

Cait(>:  See  Bbaganza. 

Cait  h'lipss  :  the  northernmost  county  of  Scotland  ;  bound- 
ed W.  by  the  county  of  Sutherland;  by  the  ocean  on  the 
other  three  sides.  Area.  607  sip  miles.  The  seacoast  is 
bold  and  rocky,  with  many  inlets  or  bays.  The  surface  is 
nearly  level,  except  a  mountain-range  formed  of  granite  and 
gneiss,  which  extends  along  the  western  border,  and  rises  to 
the  height  of  2,H00  feet.  A  large  part  of  the  county  is 
moorland,  destitute  of  tree^.  The  staph'  products  of  the  soil 
are  oats,  potatoes,  and  turniijs.  M.'itiy  of  llic  inhabitants  are 
employed  in  the  herring,  coil,  and  salmon  fisheries,  and  over 
l.")0,00b  barrels  of  cured  fish  are' annually  exported  from  this 
county.  Chief  towns,  Wick  tuid  Thurso.  Ini.he  Middle  Ages 
the  Kings  of  Norway  ruled  over  this  jiart  of  Scotland.  Pop. 
(1891)  37,161. 


Caitliiiess  Flagstones :  a  local  name  of  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone as  developed  in  Northern  Scotland.  The  formation, 
which  is  about  16,000  feet  thick,  consists  chiefly  of  argilla- 
ceous rocks,  but  includes  also  flaggy  sandstones  of  consider- 
able economic  importance. 

Ca'ius:  See  Gaius. 

Cains,  keez  (Lat.  for  Kaye,  Key.  or  Caij).  .John,  M.  D.  :  a 
learned  physician;  b.  at  Norwich,  England,  Oct.  6,  1510; 
educated  at  Gonville  Hall,  Cambridge,  iViid  at  Padua  in 
Italy:  practiced  medicine  in  Cambridge  and  London;  was 
appointed  i)liysician  successively  to  Edward  VI.,  Queen  JIary, 
and  Elizabeth.  In  1557  he  obtained  permission  to  enlarge 
Gonville  Hall  into  Caius  College,  of  which  he  became  master 
in  1559.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Sweating  Sickness 
(1553),  etc.     D.  in  London,  July  29,  1572. 

Cains  JuHns  Ctesar:  See  C^sar,  Julius. 

Caivano,  kl-vaano:  a  town  of  Italy:  province  of  Naples ; 
8  miles  N.  of  Naples  ;  was  fortified  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
has  remains  of  its  old  walls  and  towers.  It  has  a  trade  in 
wine,  olives,  cereals,  and  all  sorts  of  fruit.     Pop.  11,700. 

Cajaniarca,  ka";i-Aha1i-niaar'ka"a,  or  Caxaniarca  (i.  e.  a 
place  of  frost) ;  a  department  of  Peru  ;  bounded  N.  by  Ecua- 
dor, E.  by  Amazonas,  S.  by  Libertad,  and  W.  by  Lambayeque 
and  Piura.  The  department,  with  the  exception  of  the  ex- 
treme N.,  is  crossed  by  mountain-ranges,  in  eonsecpience  of 
which  the  climate  is  cool  and  pleas.ant.  It  is  irrigated  by 
the  Maranon,  which  flows  along  its  eastern  boundary.  All 
products  of  the  tropics  and  the  temperate  zones  are  raised 
here,  as  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  tobacco,  etc.  Chief  town, 
Cajamarca.     Area,  14,188  sq.  miles.     Pop.  244,895. 

Cajaniarca,  or  Caxaniar'ca ;  town  of  Peru ;  capital  of  a 
department  of  same  name  ;  near  the  eastern  foot  of  the  An- 
des; about  83  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Triijillo  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  4-B).  It  has  several  churches,  manufactures 
of  cutlery  and  woolen  cloth.  Silver  mines  luive  been  opened 
in  the  vicinity.  Cajamarca  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of 
the  Spanish  conquest.  The  ruined  palace  in  which  Pizarro 
confined  the  inca  Atahualpa  is  still  to  be  seen.    Pop.  12,000. 

Caj'etan  (It.  Cajetatio  or  Citletniio;  Lat.  Caefainis):  the 
surname  of  Thomas  de  Vio;  an  Italian  prelate  ;  b.  at  Gaeta 
(Caieta),  Feb.  20.  146tl ;  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  in 
1484,  and  became  its  thirty-ninth  general  in  1508.  He  was 
made  a  cardinal  in  1517,  and  was  employed  on  variou.s 
political  and  religious  missions  of  importance.  He  was 
])apal  legate  in  Germany  when  Leo  X.  commissioned  him  to 
invite  Luther  to  retract.  The  meeting  took  jilace  at  Augs- 
burg in  Aug..  1518.  but  was  fruitless.  In  1519  he  became 
Bishop  of  (jaeta,  and  died  in  Rome,  Aug.  9,  1534.  He  was  a 
man  of  fervent  jiiety  and  stainless  life.  He  procured  the 
election  to  the  papacy  of  the  Hollander,  Adrian  VI.  Cajetan 
was  a  voluminous  writer.  His  views  on  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture  and  the  future  condition  of  unbaptized  infants 
met  with  much  contradiction.  Some  eighty  of  his  essays 
atid  theses  were  published  in  1.581  at  I^yons.  and  in  1612  at 
Antwerp.  The  best  known  and  ino,st  durable  of  his  works 
is  the  famous  cominentary  on  the  Summa  Theologiw  of  St. 
Thomas  A(|uinas,  which  appeared  between  1496  and  1.509  at 
Brescia  and  Rome;  one  of  the  best  ancient  editions  is  that 
of  Venice,  1596.  The  last  reprint  is  found  in  the  Leonine 
(Leo  XIII.)  eiUtion  of  the  works  of  St.  I'liomas  (Rome,  1882). 

Joux  J.  Keane. 

Ca.j'npnt-tree  (spelled  also  Cajepnt) :  a  tree  15  to  20  feet 
high  of  the  genus  jlelaleiica,  of  the  family  Jli/rtacece.  While 
there  are  about  136  species  in  the  genus,  the  name  is  mostly 
restricted  to  M.  leucodeiulron.  a  native  of  Australia  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  It.  bears  spikes  of  white  flowers  on  pendu- 
lous branches,  and  its  leaves  are  narrowly  lanceolate  and 
somewhat  curved.  From  the  latter  a  valuable  oil  is  ob- 
tained, known  in  pharm.acy  as  oil  of  cajuput.  It  is  highly 
stimulant,  and  is  much  esteemed  in  the  East,  being  re- 
garded as  a  panacea  by  the  Malays.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  used 
for  many  disorders — e.  g.  toothache,  rheumatism,  gont,  dys- 
pepsia, etc.  On  account  of  its  high  price,  it  is  sometimes 
adulterated  by  the  addition  of  oil  of  rosemary,  turpentine, 
etc.  The  addition  of  iodine  to  the  unadulterated  oil  results 
in  the  formation  of  a  coagulum.  which  may  be  dried  into  a 
greenish-brown,  brittle  mass,  thus  distinguishing  it  from 
that  which  has  been  adulterated.  C.  E.  B. 

Cakcliiqiu-Is :  See  Indians  of  Central  America. 
Cakc-nrcliin,  or  Sanrt-dollar :  the  test  of  the  very  much 
flattened  forms  of  the   group  of  sea-urchins,  of  the  order 


CALABAR  BP:AN 


CAI,AMITE 


877 


Cli/peastridm.  Ecliinaracltninx  parma  is  tlie  common  sand- 
dollar  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  while  £.  exeentricus  is  the  com- 
mon cake-urchin  o£  the  Pacific  coast  from  Monterey  Bay  to 
Alaskiu 

Calabar  Hoan  :  the  seed  of  the  I'liyxoKligma  venvnomm; 
a  twinini;,  lialf-shnibby  U'fiiiminoiis  phml ;  native  of  West- 
ern Africa.  It  bdontrs  to  the  suh-order  Pitpilionacea,  and 
is  nearly  allied  lo  the  kidney  bean.  The  bean  is  used  as  an 
ordeal  linioiij;  ihe  Africans.'  It  is  very  rK>isoQOHs;  fifteen  of 
the  beans  have  [irodiiced  death  in  an  hour.  It  is  used  by 
sur^^eons,  in  small  amouiit.s,  to  cause  ccmtraction  of  the  pupil 
of  the  eye,  the  opp(i>ite  of  Ihe  elfecl  of  belladonna.  It  is 
also  sometimes  jriven  in  tetanus  and  some  other  diseases. 
It  is  a  powerful  depressant  to  nervous  action. 

Calaljiisli :  See  Bottle  Gourd. 

Calabash-tree:  an  evergreen  tree  of  the  Bignoniacew  or 
Bi};nonia  family  and  genus  Creseeiilia.  It  is  notable  for  its 
large  fniils,  which  are  a  foot  in  diameter,  remindinjr  one  of 
the  calabasli  or  Bottle  Gourd  (</.  v.).  The  common  species 
(C  cujeli)  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  where  the  hard 
shells  of  the  fruits  are  used  as  domestic  utensils  or  carved 
into  ornamental  vessels,  while  its  tough  wood  is  useful  for 
various  purposes.  The  genus  CreKcenlia  contains  fourteen 
species,  all  natives  of  tropical  America.  Some  of  these  are 
occasionally  grown  in  the  larger  conservatories.     C.  E.  B. 

Calabo'zo :  city  of  Venezuela:  in  the  stale  of  Miranda,  on 
the  plains  bordering  the  left  bank  of  the  river  (iuarico. 
Pop.  in  l!S!»:i  about  6,000.  It  is  :i27  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
has  a  warm  but  not  unhealthy  climate.  It  is  the  center  of 
a  large  grazing  district,  and  hu-s  an  important  commerce  ii\ 
hides,  cattle,  mules,  and  hoi-ses.  The  exports  arc^  mainly  by 
way  of  the  Orinoco.     Calabozo  was  founded  in  1730. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Cala'bria :  the  ancient  name  of  the  southeastern  part  of 
Italy,  coiiuiding  nearly  with  the  modern  province  of  Lecce. 
It  was  boun<lcd  N.  K.  by  the  Adriatic.  S.  W.  by  the  Sinus 
Tarentiims  ((iulf  of  Taranlo),  and  N.  W.  by  Apulia.  Among 
its  chief  towns  were  Brundisium  and  Tarentum. 

Calabria  (anc  limtlium):  a  region  of  Southern  Italy; 
forming  the  sout  hern  part  of  the  former  kingdom  of  Xaples  ; 
a  long  peninsula  inclosed  by  the  .sea  on  all  sides  excej)t  the 
X. :  .separated  from  Sicily  by  the  Strait  of  Messina.  Area, 
6,61)3  sq.  miles.  It  is  divided  into  three  provinces,  Co.senza, 
Keggio  Calabria,  and  C'atanzaro.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Apennines  through  its  whole  e.\tent.  These  n\ounlains, 
which  are  here  nearly  4.000  feet  high,  are  ])artly  coveretl 
with  forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  beech  trees.  Met  ween  'he 
Apennines  ami  the  sea  are  fertile  and  beautiful  valleys, 
which  produce  wheat,  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  oranges,  figs, 
grapes,  and  olives.  This  region  is  subject  to  earth(|uakes. 
Calabria  has  considerable  fisheries  of  the  tunny,  swordfish, 
anchovy,  and  mullet.  Agriculture  is  in  a  rude  and  barbar- 
ous stale.  Chief  towns,  Cosenzji,  Keggio,  and  Catanzaro. 
Pop.  (18U0)  l,:50!l,5,)4. 

Calallorrn,  kaa-hfii-orniii  (anc.  Calai/iirris) :  a  town  of 
Sj)aiii:  province  of  Logrofio  :  on  the  river  Kbro  :  1!)  miles 
h.  .S.  E.  of  Logrofio  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  13-G).  It  has 
an  old  cathedral  and  some  ancient  remains.  It  is  the  sc>at 
of  a  bishoj).  C^iuntiliiin  Wits  born  here.  Cnlnfjiirrix  was 
taken  by  i  ompey  or  .\franius  al)out  78  B.  c,  after  a  long 
and  famous  siege.  The  sufferings  of  the  inhabitants  were 
extreme;  hence  the  Romans  gave  the  name  "  Calagurritan 
famine  "  to  any  severe  fanune.     Pop.  about  8.200. 

Calais,  ka-la'  [Lat.  Cnhtum,  from  the  ancient  tribe  Cn- 
lrfi\:  a  fortified  seaporl-town  of  France:  department  of 
Pas-de-Calais;  on  the  Strait  of  Dover;  122  miles  bv  rail 
N.  N.  E.  of  Amiens,  lit  ndles  \.  E.  of  lionlngne.  alid  26 
miles  E.  S.  K.  of  Dover;  lal.  of  the  lighthouse,  .50'  57'  4y 
N.,  Ion.  r  .51'  18'  E.  (see  nmp  of  Kram-e,  ref.  1-E).  The 
town  and  harl)or  are  defended  bv  a  castle  and  si'veral  forts, 
and  can  be  rendcreil  inaccessible  by  land  by  flooding  the 
adjacent  ground,  which  is  low  anil  niai'shy.  The  harbor, 
which  is  formed  by  two  moles,  is  nearly  dry  at  ebb-tide. 
The  town  is  regidarly  built,  mostly  of  briik,  and  has  wide, 
well-paved  streets.  It  hius  a  (iotliie  cathedral,  a  public 
library,  and  a  theater.  A  large  |iortion  of  the  English 
tourists  who  visit  the  Continent  pass  through  Calais,  which 
has  daily  communication  with  Dover  by  steamboats.  Calais 
is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  which  connects  it  with  Amiens 
and  Pari.s.  Here  are  flourishing  manufacfures  of  bobbinet, 
hosiery,  soap,  leather,  etc.     In  1347  this  town  was  taken 


after  a  long  siege  by  Edward  III.  of  England,  who  was 
then  persuaded  by  his  c|neen,  Philippa,  to  spare  tlie  lives  of 
si.\  devoted  citizens  of  Calais.  It  rejnained  in  the  power  of 
the  English  until  1.5.58,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Duke  of 
Guise.  It  is  connecti'd  with  Great  Britain  by  submarine 
telegraph.  The  ternnnus  of  the  i)roposed  tunnel  beneath 
the  English  Channel  is  near  the  village  of  Sangatte,  6  miles 
W.  of  Calais.     Pop.  (1880)  .58,0(59  ;  (1891)  .56,867. 

Calais,  kalis :  a  city,  port  of  entry,  aiul  capital  of  Wash- 
ington CO.,  Me.  (for  location  of  comity,  see  ma])  of  Maine, 
ref.  7-G) ;  on  railroad  ami  .St.  Croix  river;  at  the  head  of 
navigation;  28  miles  X.  by  W.  from  Ea.stporl,  and  264 
miles  X.  E.  of  Portland.  Bridges  across  the  river  connect 
it  with  St.  Stephen's  in  Xew  Brunswick.  Calais  derives  its 
jaosperity  from  the  hnnber-trade  and  ship-building.  It  hiis 
a  jiuolic  library,  an  academy,  an  opera-house,  a  dry  dock, 
n\arine  railways,  machine-shops,  foundries,  and  several  ship- 
yards. It  is  the  southeast  termiinis  of  the  St.  Croix  and 
Penobscot  H.  K.  to  Princeton.  'J'he  river.  wlii<h  affords 
water-power,  is  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  U.  S. 
Pop.  (1880)  ().17;^  :  (1890)  7,290. 

Calaiiian'der-wood  :  a  valuable  cabinet-wood  which  re- 
sembles rosewood,  but  is  far  more  beautiful  and  durable. 
It  is  produceil  by  the  Dioxni/ms  /lirsiila,  a  tree  of  the  fauuly 
Eheuactiv  \  native  of  Ceylon  and  Southern  Hindustan;  be- 
longs to  the  same  genus  as  the  ebony  and  persinnnon  tree. 
This  wood  is  very  ilcnse,  takes  an  exquisite  polish,  and  ex- 
hibits great  richness  and  variety  of  colors,  among  which  is 
cluicolate  or  fawn  color.  It  is  said  to  be  so  hard  that  it  can 
not  be  worked  with  edge  tools.  The  tree  has  become  rare 
in  consequence  of  the  wasteful  oi)erations  of  the  Dutch  and 
British.  .Several  similar  species  are  found  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago. 

Calaniary  :  a  cuttlefish  of  the  order  Dihranchiata.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  pen  or  cuttlebone.  the  internal 
shell  of  the  cuttlefish.     See  Cuttlefish  and  Cephalopoda. 

Calaiiiat'ta.  Lrioi :  a  French  engraver  of  Italian  birth  ; 
b.  at  Civita  Vccchia.  .Tune  12.  1802;  engraved  after  Ra- 
phael, da  Vinci,  arul  Romano;  was  Professor  of  Engraving 
in  Brussels  and  Milan.     D.  in  Milan,  Mar.  8,  1869. 

Calailiia'nos:  a  group  of  islands  between  Palawan  and 
Mindoro  in  the  Philippine  Archipelago:  extends  between 
the  parallels  11=  ;i!)  and  Vi  20  X.  and  119  47  and  120'  23' 
E. ;  lielongs  to  Spain.  They  are  mountainous  and  abound 
in  valuable  timber,  ju'e  fertile  and  sparsely  inhal)ited.  Rice, 
wool,  cacao,  beeswax,  and  edible  birds'-nests  are  the  chief 
products.  The  climate  is  generally  hot  and  unhealthy.  The 
chief  islands  are  Busuanga,  Calamian,  and  Linacapan. 
Total  area  about  :!.000  s(|.  miles.     Pop.  (1887)  14,291. 

Calaniicli'tliys  [(Jr.  Ki\atios.  reed  -I-  i'xSm,  fishl :  aganoid 
fish  founil  in  the  rivers  nt'  Western  Africa.  It  takes  its 
nanu-  from  its  slender,  cylindriciil  form ;  is  closely  allied  to 
the  PohjptiruK  of  the  Xile. 

Carainine  (Lapis  caldminnrix) :  an  important  and 
abundant  ore  of  zinc  :  a  native  carbonate,  containing,  when 
pure,  52  per  cent,  of  ziiu'.  Crystals  of  this  mineral  are 
rare.  It  is  opaque  or  translucent,  has  a  vitreous  luster, 
and  occurs  in  kidney-shajied,  botryoidal,  cellular,  and  other 
imitative  forms.  It  is  found  in  veins,  lieds,  and  large  de- 
posits termed  parki'/.s  in  metamorphic  limestone  and  in  the 
Itevonian  and  carboniferous  formations.  Large  quantities 
of  it  are  exixirted  from  Spain  to  the  melallurgical  districts 
of  Kurojie.  This  ore  is  called  Smithsonite  by  Dana  and 
other  mineralogists,  who  ajiply  the  terni  calamine  to  the 
silicate  of  zinc,  the  [jrimary  form  of  which  is  a  rhomboid. 

Calaillillt  fM.  Eng.  aihimeiit,  modified  by  false  connec- 
tion with  nihil;  from  Gr.  koAo^Mtj.  plant-name] :  a  plant  of 
the  genus  ('dhimiiillia  and  family  Ijahiatw.  The  common 
calamint  (('iiloniitillid  offrindUs)  is  indigenous  in  England. 
It  has  serrated  leaves,  with  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor,  and 
is  used  in  domestic  practice  as  a  pectoral  medicine.  The 
U.  S.  have  several  species. 

Calainite:  the  general  name  for  certain  great,  tree-like 
fossil  plants  composing  the  order  t'dldnidiita',  of  which  the 
principal  genus  is  Ctihinii/es.  They  bi'longed  to  the  cla.ss 
Kqiiisffiiid;  anil  were  nearly  related  to  the  modern  Equixe- 
tiim,  the  horse-tails  or  joint-rushes.  The  remains  of  many 
siM'cies  have  \ieen  observed,  chiefly  in  carl)oniferous  strata 
(none  later  than  the  Permian)  in  both  continents.  These 
plants  must  have  contributed  largely  to  the  iirodncfion  of 
coal.  CUAKLES  E.  Bessey. 


878 


CALAMUS 


CALCEOLARIA 


Calamus  (Gr.  KdKofws):  a  Latin  word  sitfnifving  a  reed  a 
stalk  (of  a  [ilaiit ) :  was  used  by  the  ancient  Romans  to  denote 
an  arrow  a  nnisical  jjipe.  and  a  pen  which  was  made  of 
a  reeil.  Ihis  reed  is  supposed  to  have  been  tlie  Ariindo 
dona.r.  C  ahinuis  also  denotes  the  golden  tube  through  which 
m  some  church  services,  the  eucharistic  wine  is  taken. 

Calamus :  the  sweet-flag.    See  Acorus. 

Calamus :  a  genus  of  Palmaceu  which  vields  a  great  part 
of  the  canes  and  rattans  used  in  Europe  'and  the  U.  S.  for 
the  seats  of  chairs  ami  other  purjioses.  Among  the  species 
of  this  genus  are  Calamus  rofamj  and  Calamus  viminalis 
which  are  natives  of  the  warm  or  tropical  parts  of  A.sia' 
The  Calamus  rudentum  has  been  found  500  feet  Ion"-  (Hum- 
boldt). ( 'alam  us  dram  yields  the  best  dragon "s-blood.  Sev- 
eral species  are  climbers. 

Cal'amy.  Edar-xd  :  an  English  divine ;  b.  in  London  in 
Peb.  KJOll:  educated  at  Cambridge:  became  an  eloquent 
-Presbyterian  minister :  preached  in  London  from  1639  till 
1662.  He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  a  famous  t  realise  called 
Smecfymiiuus.  from  the  initials  of  its  authors.  S.  J/arshall 
-E".  Calamy.  T.  louiig,  J/.  :\>wconien.  ami  ir.  .S'purstowe 
(1641),  intended  as  a  reply  to  Bishop  Ilalfs  Birine  Riaht 
of  Apiscopacy.  He  took  niidiUe  ground  during  the  civU 
war;  opposed  the  execution  of  the  king;  kept  as  private  as 
he  could  under  Cromwell.  He  promoted  tlie  restoration  of 
the  monarchy,  and  was  offered  the  lusliopric  of  Coventry 
and  Lichfield.  He  declined,  and  shortlv  after  (1663)  was 
ejected  for  Xoncoiiformity.     D.  in  London,  Oct.  29,  1666. 

Calamy.  Edmuxd  :  grandson  of  the  preceding  •  dinne  • 
b.  in  London,  Apr.  5.  1671 :  educated  bv  various  eiected 
divines:  became  Dissenting  pastor  in  London  1692  :  d.  there 
J  une  IS.  im.  His  fame  will  endure  iis  the  great  l)io.rranh- 
ical  historian  of  Xoncoiiformity.  His  first  venture  ni  the 
Held  which  he  made  his  own  was  bv  editing  Baxter's  \ar 
rnhi-e  (1696)  This  he  abridged  (1702),  but^in  it  he  inserted 
tiis  memorable  account  of  the  ministers  and  others  who 
were  ejected  or  silenced  bv  the  Act  of  Uniformitv  This  he 
f^tprvriird  separately  issued  in  revised  and  enlarged  form 

r     i    '  liSn'^'f  '!'-'  "{'''"r'"'^  Account  of  my  own.  Life 
(London,  1829.  2  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1830). 

Revised  by  S.  51.  Jacksox. 
Calaucha  Pray  An-tonio,  de  la:  Peruvian  Augustinian 
f 'c  •  ;,',"  }  huquisaca.  15,84.  He  was  rector  of  tlie  College 
ot  ban  lldctonso  in  Lima,  where  he  died  Mar.  1  1654  He 
wrote  the  Cnmtca  moralizada  del  orden  de  San  Aqustin  en 
etFeru  Khieh  is  essentially  a  chronicle  of  his  order  for  the 
whole  of  .;50uth  America,  and  is  of  great  value  for  civil  and 
geographical  history.  It  was  published  in  Barcelona  in 
^^^-  U.  H.  S. 

Caland.  kaalaant.  Pieter  :  an  engineer  of  Holland;  b  in 
Zienkzee  in  1826.  His  fatlier,  A.  Caland.  was  an  en^^ineer- 
in-chief  of  tlie  Waterstaat  of  Holland,  and  autlior  of  a  work 
on  dike-construction.  The  son  was  educated  at  the  Roval 
AlUit^ry  Academy  at  Breda ;  appointed  a  sub-engineer"  of 
the  W  aterstaat  in  1845  ;  passing  through  successive  gra<les 
became  engineer-in-c-hief  of  the  second  class  in  1867  •  in  1873 
promoted  over  the  intermediate  grade  to  be  inspector  (the 
highest  grade,  of  whicli  there  are  but  two)  of  the  Watei-staat 
He  IS  author  of  a  w,)rk  (in  French),  Etude  sur  rEffef  des 
Marees  dans  la  Parfie  Maritime  des  Fleures-  also  (in  Dutch) 
of  a  work  on  the  protection  of  the  coast  against  the  en- 
eroachnients  of  the  sea;  Knight  of  the  order  of  the  Nether- 
lands Lion  :  vice-chairman  of  the  Roval  Institution  of  Engi- 
neers of  Ho  and.  Mr.  (  alaiurs  highest  claim  to  fame  as  m 
engineer  will  be  founded  on  the  great  seajjort  of  Rotterdam 
through  the  ^yorks  giving  an  easy  and  direct  water-com- 
munication with  the  sea,  in  place  of  the  tedious  and  cir- 
cuitous ones  before  available. 

Calail'do  [Ital..  slackening;  deriv.  of  calare  <  Lat.  rha- 
lare,  calu  re.  slm-keu,  from  (ir.  xa^a;-.  loosen] :  an  Italian 
musical  term  It  signifies  diminisliing  graduallv  from  forte 
to  piano,  and  differs  from  derrescendo  and  diminuendo,  as 
the  tempo  at  the  same  time  is  slightly  retarded,  but  not  so 
much  as  in  ntanland,,.  ' 

Cala'nilS  (in  Or.  Ki\ai,o!} :  an  ancient  Hindu  philo.sopher- 
one  of  those  wli,mi  tlie  (ireeks  called  Gvmnosophists.  Ac- 
cording to  Plutarch,  his  proper  name  'was  Si'Hives  He 
passed  some  time  in  the  camj,  of  Alexander  the  Great  in 
India.  Having  become  sick  at  Pasargada>,  he  was  at  his 
own  request  burned  alive. 

Calapooja  ludiaiis:  See  Kalapooia.v  Ixdia.vs. 


Calatabellota.  ka^ii-laa  ta-;.-bel-lo  ta-a  :  a  town  of  .Sicih- 
provmce  ot  O.rgenti ;  25  miles  X.  W.  of  the  city  of  Gir-ei  i* 
It  IS  very  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  7ric„la.  knd  is  ,^,  "l.e 
Popl.mr  ^''""""'-     ^'''  ^'  "  fl"^'   "'^"li'^'val  church. 

Calatalimi. -fee'mw:  a  town  of  Sicily  :  province  of  Ti-i 

f«fin  'r'"-?  ^^T"  %''""'-y  '\  ""''^■■^  •'^'  "'•  »*■  Alcamo.     H  -re  i  i 
1860  Garibaldi  defeated  the  royalist  troops.     Pop.  10,964. 

Calatayud' :  a  towii  of  Sjiain;  province  of  Saragos'sa  ;'on 

cis^l'tni  '•,  ^V'"'/"  '^P'*'f'°P«l  palace,  a  noble  old 

castle  and  several  churches,  convents,  and  hosDitals  •  nlsn 
manufactures  of  linen  an,l  woolen  fabrics,  paper  leithe^^ 

b!,ilt.     P,J'"n  .5!'!  ""'"  "'  ''*'''''  ^'=''"t".""l  ^as  mostly 

ni^^^r'li!;'!''"  '"  ^'"'^^''  '\"'':l^''^'-f=i-'>™.-Ia';.-vt-e-av  AlKui.  or 
UlU  talatia>a:  a  mined  citv  of  Spain  ;  on  the  Gaudi-mi 
river;  about  12  miles  X.  E.  of'fiudid  Real;  a  stro.^  '  - 
tified  place  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  only  a  single  towei-  now 
remains.  Its  defense  against  the  Mooi-s  in  1158  is  famous 
on  account  of  its  having  originated  the  order  of  the  Kni^-hts 
ot  Calatrava.  ° 

„f"'?*PT'','  The  Order  of:  founded  in  11.58  by  Sancho 
11-"^  tactile  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in 
n,)8.  After  the  death  of  .Sancho  the  knights  elected  -is 
grand-master  Don  Garcias  de  Redoii.  For  a  lon-r  ijeriod 
the  war  against  the  Moors  wa-s  carried  on  almost  eiiTirely  bv 
the  Knights  of  Calatrava.  In  1197  the  order  was  nearlV 
extermmated  through  rashness  in  war;  transferred  its  seat 
to  Salvatierra.  and  grew  to  oiralence.  The  influence  exer- 
cised bv  the  grand-master  in  i)ublic  affairs  at  length  excited 
the  jealousy  of  the  king,  and  in  1.523,  bv  papal  bull  the 
grand-m.astership  was  united  to  the  crown,' and  the  kni"<^hts 
permitted  to  marry.  Since  1808  the  order  has  been  out"  of 
merit. 

Calareras :  a  small  river  in  the  X.  central  part  of 
talitornia;  rises  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Xevada.  in  Cal- 
averas County ;  flows  nearly  .southwestward.  and  enters  the 
San  Joaquin  river  about  15  miles  below  Stockton. 

Calbnr'ga,  or  Kiilbnrga:  a  town  of  India-  in  the  Xi- 
zain  s  Dominions  ;  on  an  afljuent  of  the  Beemah  :  110  ini"les 
»  .  of  Haidaniljad.  It  is  now  unini]iortant.  but  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  several  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  sov- 
ereigns. 

Calcareous  Spar,  or  Calc  Spar  [calcareous  is  from  I,at 
calcartus:  deny,  of  cal.r.  lime]:  a  common  name  of  crys- 
tallized carbonate  of  lime;  composed,  when  pure  of  44  per 
cent,  of  carbonic  acid  and  56  of  lime.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  of  all  minerals,  and  is  found  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  The  primary  form  of  its  ciTstals  is"  a  rlioml)  or 
rliombohedron.  Its  secondary  forms  are  more  numerous 
dian  those  of  any  other  mineral,  and  are  said  to  amount  to 
700  or  more.  In  a  pure  state  this  mineral  is  colorless  and 
transparent,  but  it  often  contains  impurities  which  render 
It  red.  gi-een,  brown,  yellow,  etc.  Andreasl)erg.  in  the  Hartz, 
and  the  Derbyshire  lead  mines  are  note<l  for  fine  larce 
cry.stals.  Some  very  fine  crystals  are  from  the  Rossie  lead 
mine  of  New  York.  The  purest  and  most  limiiiil  va- 
riety of  this  crystal  is  called  Iceland  spar,  which  is  found 
in  Iceland,  and  exhibits  double  refraction  in  a  remarkable 
degree. 

Calcasieu,  kal'ka-shoo:  a  river  of  Louisiana;  rises  in  the 
western  [lart  of  the  State ;  flows  in  a  general  S.  S.  W.  di- 
rection through  Calcasieu  jiarish.  and  'enters  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  At  its  mouth  stands  an  iron  lighthouse  .53  feet 
high:  lat.  29'  45'  X.,  Ion.  93  17'  E.  Length  of  river  esti- 
mated at  200  miles,  including  Calcasieu  Lake,  which  is  an 
exjiansion  of  the  river.  The  lake  is  about  18  miles  long 
and  5  wide,  and  the  foot  of  it  is  nearly  5  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Calceola'ria  [deriv.  of  Lat.  ralce'olus.  little  shoe :  dimin. 
of  rat  reus,  shoe] :  a  genus  of  jilants  of  the  family  Scropliu- 
lariared'.  which  com]jrises  numerous  species,  natives  of 
South  America.  They  grow  mostly  on  that  jiart  of  the 
Andes  which  is  more  than  9.5(10  fei't'  above  the  level  of  the 
sea:  are  herbaceous  jilants  or  shrubs  with  beautiful  flowers. 
The  corolla  is  two-lipped,  and  the  lower  liji  is  inflated,  so  as 
to  form  a  bag  which  has  some  resemblance  to  a  slipjjer. 
They  are  so  abundant  in  some  parts  of  t'hili  and  Peru  as  to 
give  a  peculiar  asi)eet   to  the  scenery.     Many  species  are 


CALCITK 


CALCUM'.S 


87» 


cultivatoil  by  florists  in  Europe  iiiiil  tlic  L'.  S.,  uiul  are  easily 
pro|)af;at«l  by  c-ultintjs.  Some  of  the  species  are  useil  in 
South  Aniirica  lor  (lyeiii<j. 

Cillcitc  [froMi  I-at.  calx,  lime  +  suffix  -i7>'] :  a  general 
tirni  uiiilcr  wliieh  are  comprised  all  the  varieties  of  carbon- 
ale  of  liiMc. 

Calciiiiii  [moil,  rleriv.  (Sir  II.  Pavy)  of  l,at.  f-«/j-,  lime] : 
a  Very  widely  distributfd  and  abunilant  nu-tal  (syniliol  Ca, 
.iiid  atomic  \vei},'hl  4(().  Amonj;  the  more  common  sul)- 
slances  containiiif?  it  are  linu'stone,  calcite,  chalk,  marble, 
( alcium  phosphate,  gypsum,  or  calcium  sulphate.  It  \va.s 
isolated  by  Sir  llumpiuy  Davy  in  1S()8  in  his  >;reat  inves- 
tiffatioii  on  the  action  of  the  electric  current  on  chemical 
compounds,  in  the  coui"se  of  which  he  discovered  the  metals 
potassium  and  sodium.  It  is  a  yellowish-while,  malleable 
metal.  Amoiifr  the  compounds  of  calcium  that  find  exten- 
sive application  are  lime,  nuide  by  heatini;  the  carbonate, 
and  pla-ster-of-Paris,  made  by  heating  the  natural  sulphate. 

Ika  Kkmsen. 

Calc-spar :  See  ("ai.iarkois  Spar. 

Calciilatimr-iniU'hine:  a  machine  for  performing  arith- 
metical opcralious.  or  for  computing  logaritlnnic  or  other 
mathematical  tal)lrs  in  which  the  successive  results  arc  to 
be  obtained  by  substituting,  in  an  invariable  formula,  the 
consecutive  numbers  of  a  simple  series,  uniformly  increas- 
ing. The  two  kinds  of  work  here  mentioned  are  essentially 
dilterent,  and  reipiire  different  machinery.  For  simple 
arithmetic  the  most  successful  machine  yet  constructecl  is 
that  of  M.  Thonuus,  of  Cobnar  in  .Msace-Lorraine.  For  tabu- 
lar immbei-s  the  computations  are  made  by  the  "  method  of 
ililfereiices"  •.  and  the  machiiii's  are  called  "  difference- 
cngines.''  .Such  are  those  of  Habb.Hge  (which  was  never 
finished)  and  of  the  Messrs.  Scheutz.  of  Stockholm,  of  which 
there  is  an  e.Kample  at  the  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  aiul 
another  in  the  otlice  of  the  registrar-general,  Lontlon.  See 
Mechanical  Calculation. 

Calculus  [Lat.,  pebble;  stone  u.scd  in  reckoning,  calcula- 
tion ;  dimin.  of  c«(.r,  stone] :  the  term  is  derived  from  the 
ancient  use  of  pebbles  lus  r««H/»;r.«  or  for  nuiking  computa- 
tions, and  it.  in  general,  denotes  some  particular  method 
of  performing  mathematical  investigations.  Those  e.  g.  of 
arithmetic,  algebra,  logarithms,  etc..  have  received  the  name 
of  calculus,  us  the  AriUiini'liciil.lhf  -l/^'-irrt/c,  the  Kxpo- 
nential,  the  Trif/imometriciil  (which  latter,  according  to  De 
Morgan,  ••  contains  that  of  uudulatintj  mai/nitudr" ;  or  of 
Circular  FuucfiiDi-i).  In  modern  usjige  it  is  applied  to 
mathematical  methods  of  peculiar  power  involving  unusual 
refinements  of  reasoning,  or  reference  to  relations  of  magni- 
tude, which  may  be  styled  "  transcendental."  .Vmong  such 
are  the  Aiitecfdciilal  i'alrulus  of  Mr.  (ilenie.*  the  ('(ilrulu.i 
uf  Dirirafionn  of  M.  .\rbogast.  the  ( 'alculus  of  I'rohal/ilificx 
((/.  r.),  and  the  more  modern  creation  of  Sir  William  Kowan 
llamilton,  Qualeritionx.  Hut,  |ire-i'miuenlly,  by  the  wiuil 
calculus  is  denoted  the  Inftnitesnnal  Calculus,  including  un- 
der this  head  the  cou\plemenlary  branches  of  "  Differential 
and  Integral,"  of  the  Kcibnitz  system  of  syinbolization,  or  the 
"  Fhi.xions"  and  "  Inverse  .Method  of  Fluxions"  of  the  N<"w- 
tonian.  The  cah-uli  of  Leibnit/,  and  Newton  are  essentially 
the  same,  though  the  logical  basis  on  which  Newton  phu'cs 
his  method  appears  quite  different  from  that  of  Leibnitz. 
The  method  of  Ijeibnitz  nuide  its  ajipearancc  before  the 
public  in  ll'>>>4,  earlier  than  that  of  Newton  ;  but  Newton's 
methocl  of  drawing  tangents  (wherein  the  nu'thod  of  fluxions 
wjLs  suflicienlly  explaineil)  was  communicated  in  a  h'tter  to 
a  Mr.  Collins  in  Itisi.  I'pun  the  allegation  that  Ijeibnitz 
had  seen  this  letter  was  based  the  charge  (sustained  by  the 
Uoyal  Society  of  Ijoniloii)  that  Leibnitz  had  plagiarizeil 
therefrom.  This  charge  is  now  considered  unfoundeil,  and 
the  glory  is  c<mceded  to  him  of  having  been  a  contempora- 
neous discoverer  of  a  calculus  that  has  been  styled  "one  of 
the  greatest,  mipst  subtle,  and  sublime  discoveries  of  this  or 
perhaps  of  any  iii,'e  ;  opening  a  new  world  to  us  and  extend- 
ing our  knowledgi'.  as  it  were,  to  infinity,  and  carrying  us 
beyond  the  lioun<is  that  seemed  to  have  been  |irescribe(l  to 
the  human  mind;  at  least,  infinitely  beyond  those  to  which 
ancient  geometry  was  eonlined." 

The  logic  on  which  the  operations  of  the  calculus  rest  is 
so  intricate  that  even  mathenuiticians  were  slow  in  acceiiting 
it,  and   the   methods  were  .sonu'tinu's  objects  of  ridicule. 

•  James  fitenie.  F.  R.  S.,  of  Londnn  and  Eilinhurpli.  invented  this 
culeiihis  in  im  ;  il  was  puhlislied  in  ]7'.il.  Aeeordin^:  to  the  writer 
in  llees's  Knc]iclop<i'difi,  '•iMith  the  dilTerential  and  lluxioiml  cal- 
culi may  he  derived  from  the  doctrine  of  proportions  (therein  ex- 
puuudeu)  iu  a  iiiauuer  altogether  unexceptiunutile." 


Bisho|)  Berkeley  published  a  long  iia])er  criticising  the 
method,  and  suggesting  that  differentials  might  be  called 
the  ghosts  of  departed  i|uanlities.  At  the  present  time,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  real  dilTerence  of  opinion  between  ju-ofes- 
sional  mathematicians  on  the  subject.  We  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  such  an  outline  of  the  first  principles  as  may 
make  them  clear  to  the  student. 

Let  U  N  N'  be  a  curved  line  of  any  form — a  parabola,  for 
example.  Let  N  anil  N  be 
two  points  upon  the  curve.  If 
we  take  the  horizontid  ami  vei- 
tical  lini'  going  out  from  the 
point  ()  as  axes  of  co-ordinates, 
then,  in  the  hingnage  of  co- 
ordinates. ()M  will  be  the  ab- 
scis.sa  of  the  point  N,  and  M  N 
its  ordinate.  .See  Co-ordi- 
nates. 

O  M'  will  also  be  the  abscissa  of  the  i)oint  N,  and  M  N 

its  ordinate.     If,  as  usual,  we  represent  abscissas  and  ordi- 

nates  respectively  by  the  symbols  .r  and  y.  then  we  may  put 

.(•  =  abscissa  O  M. 

1/  =  ordinate  M  N. 

We  also  put 

AX=:  excess  of  abscissa  0  JI'  over  .r  =  .M  M  : 
Ay  =  excess  of  ordinate  51'  X'  over  i/. 

No^v,  su])|iose  the  point  N'  to  move  toward  N,  and  let  us 
study  the  ratio  a//  :  A.r.  Hy  trigonometry  this  ratio  is 
the  tangent  of  the  angle  which  the  straight  line  through  N 
and  N'  makes  with  the  axis  of  abscissas  OM.  It  is  evident 
that  the  nearer  N'  apiiroaches  to  N,the  nun'c  nearly  the  line 
NN  will  approach  tne  position  of  the  tangent  at  N.  We 
mighl  say  tnat  if  the  point  N'  coincides  with  N.  the  secant 
N  N'  will  coincide  witli  the  tangent  at  N.  I'.iit  when  the 
two  points  coincide  we  can  have  any  number  of  lines  through 
them,  because  they  will  form  but  one  point.  The  ditliculty 
then  is  simply  this;  so  long  as  N"  is  different  from  N,  the 
secant  will  be  ditt'ereiit  from  the  tangent ;  while  if  the  two 
points  coincide  the  si'cant  will  be  indeterminate.  To  meet 
this  difliculty  the  idea  of  an  infinitesimal  was  introduced. 
It  was  supposed  that  the  point  N  might  be  so  lu'ar  N  that 
the  dislaiKM-  between  them  would  be  smaller  than  any  finite 
quantity  whatever,  while  the  two  points  woidd  still  be  dis- 
tinct. Then  the  .secant  would  be  considere<l  as  coinciding 
with  the  tangent.  This  idea  of  infinitesimal  cpiantities  as 
smaller  than  any  finite  quantities  whatever  is  no  longer  en- 
tertained by  the  best  writers, but  in  lieu  thereof  the  idea  of  a 
limit  is  introduced.  The  relation  of  the  secant  and  tangent 
may  be  exiiressed  as  ftdlows  by  the  method  of  limits  : 

Lei  a  be  iiliy  angle  whatever,  as  small  as  we  ))lease.  Then 
the  point  N  nuiy  be  taken  so  near  the  point  N  that  the  angle- 
between  the  secant  and  tangent  shall  be  less  than  a.  This 
completely  determines  the  tangent,  because  there  is  only  one 
line  of  which  this  can  be  true.  For  if  any  other  line  pa.ssed 
through  N.  making  an  angle  p  with  the  tangent  on  the  op- 
posite side  from  the  secant,  tlu-n  the  latter  would  always 
make  an  angle  greater  than  0  with  this  liiu'.  and  in  con.se- 
qticnce  we  could  not  make  a  less  than  ;3.  and  .so  could  not 
make  it  as  small  as  we  please,  ^\■e  arc  thus  led  to  the  method 
of  reasoning  ado]ited  by  Kucliil  to  prove  the  eciualily  of  a 
cone  to  one-third  of  the  circum.scribing  cylinder.  If  the  cone 
differs  from  one-third  the  cylinder,  he  might  say,  let  li  be 
that  difference.  Take  any  value  you  please  for  A.  and  I  will 
show  that  the  difference  is  less  than  li  ;  therefore,  if  you  sup- 
pose the  two  (|uaiitities  to  dilTer  at  all,  you  are  led  to  the 
absurility  of  saying  that  the  dilTerence  is  equal  lo  li  and  less 
than  /(  at  the  same  time;  therefore  the  cone  and  one-third 
the  cylinder  ilo  not  differ  at  all. 

Algebraically  the  matter  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 

Suppose  the  relation  Ivtweeli  x  and  i/  to  be  given  by  the 

algebraic  cciiiation  , 

'  y  =  mx  '. 

We   then   have 

y+  Ay=  III  (x  +  A.r)». 

liy  developing  the   sfjuare  and  subtracting  we  ea.sily  find 

for  the  (luotient  — -  —  'iiiix+  m  Ax. 

'  AX 

Now,  it  is  evident  tliat  by  making  ax  smaller  and  smaller 
we  can  bring  this  quotient  just  as  near  as  we  please  to  the 
value  'iiiix.  We  express  this  fact  by  substituting  the  letter 
(/  for  A,  and  writing  the  equation  in  the  form 

ax 

which,  when  properly  interpreted,  is  a  rigorous  equation. 


880 


CALCULUS 


although  A.r  is  dropped  out  eutirely.  It  is  rigorous  because 
it  is  regarded  not  as  an  equation  between  any  actual  values 
of  Ay  and  a.c,  but  only  as  expressing  a  limit  toward  which 
the  ratio  of  these  quantities  approaches  as  they  become 
smaller  and  smaller. 

Besides  the  direct  solution  of  problems,  the  calculus  has 
been  the  most  effective  and  indispensable  of  agents  in  widen- 
ing the  sphere  of  mathematical  investigation,  and  in  enhanc- 
ing its  power  as  an  instrument.  Most  of  the  modern  methods 
of  analysis  depend  on  it  for  their  development. 

The  Calculus  of  Varhtioss,  originating  with  Lagrange, 
is  but  an  exteusion  of  the  methods  of  the  calculus  to  the  ilis- 
covering  of  functions,  in  cases  in  which,  instead  of  the  law 
of  growth,  some  condition  (such  as  that  of  producing  a  max- 
imum or  minimum  under  certaiu  conditions),  which  the  func- 
tion when  found  must  fulfill,  is  given. 

The  Calculus  of  Operation's  is  but  an  extension  of  alge- 
bra to  the  si/mlols  of  operation  of  the  calculns;  algelira  itself 
being  really  a  calculus  of  operations,  since  it  deals  only  with 
symbols  with  a  view  to  reduce  the  operations  they  indicate 
to  their  simplest  expression. 

The  Calculus  of  Fuxctioxs  is  a  branch  of  modern  matlie- 
matics  concerned  with  the  laws  of  functions  of  an  inuiginary 
variable. 

The  Calculus  of  Fixite  Differences,  invaluable  in  the 
practical  application  of  analrtic  formula"  to  numerical  calcu- 
lations, for  the  summation  of  infinite  series,  and  for  Ixter- 
poLATiox,  is  concerned  with  relations  between  finite  incre- 
ments or  "differences,"  and  is  defined  by  Lacroix  to  have 
for  its  object  "  the  determination  of  the  values  of  increments, 
by  deducing  them  not  merely  from  the  analytic  expression 
of  the  functions,  but  also  from  their  numerical  (or  particular) 
values,  when  that  expression  fails  or  is  too  complicated." 
Except  a  general  similarity  in  notation  and  terms  employed, 
it  has  Little  in  common  with  the  Differential  Calculus;  the 
fundamental  element  of  the  latter — the  Differential  Coeffi- 
cient— having  no  place  in  it.  Revised  by  S.  Newcojib. 

Calcnlns,  or  Stone :  a  hard  concretion  formed  from  the 
deposition  of  saline  or  other  substances  in  various  parts  of 
the  body.  The  most  frequent  position  for  calculi  is  the 
urinary  tract,  either  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  or  in  the 
bladder ;  but  they  are  also  fouud  quite  commonly  in  the  gall- 
bladder or  biliary  ducts,  and  more  rarely  in  other  hollow 
tubes  or  viscera. 

Urinary  calculi  are  especially  common  in  advanced  life, 
and  are  more  frequent  in  the  male  sex.  A  life  of  ease  and 
luxury  and  sedentary  habits  strongly  predisposes,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  the  character  of  water  drank  in  certain  locali- 
ties accounts  for  the  greater  frequency  of  stone  in  these 
places  than  elsewhere.  Stone  in  the  kidney  is  especially 
common  in  old  men  of  gouty  habit,  and  they  are  usually 
composed  of  uric  acid  or  oxalate  of  lime.  There  may  be 
merely  small  gritty  particles  which  are  passed  from  time  to 
time,  causing  great  pain  and  blood-stained  urine.   The  terms 


renal  sand  or  gravel  are  applied  to  this  form.  Larger  stones 
are  apt  to  lodge  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  may  set  up 
inflammatory  disturbances,  and  from  time  to  timeas  they 
attempt  to  escape  attacks  of  intense  renal  colic. 

Stone  in  the  bladder  occurs  in  cases  in  which  there  is  some 
inflammatory  disturbance  of  the  bladder-walls,  or  in  which 
there  is  repeated  or  constant  retention  of  urine.  These 
stones  most  frequently  are  composed  of  phosjihate  of  lime 
or  ammonia-magnesium  phosphate.  They  may  occasion  no 
symptoms  at  all,  but  more  frequently  there  is  great  pain, 
especially  during  urination.  Calculi  of  various  other  kinds 
occur  in  the  kidney  or  bladder,  but  are  comparatively  rare 
and  unimportant. 

Biliary  calculi  are  formed  in  the  gall-bladder,  where  they 
may  remain  without  producing  disturbances  for  a  long  period 
of  time.  Sooner  or  later  they  tend  to  escape  through  the 
duct  of  the  gall-bladder  and  occasion  sharp  pain  in  the  right 
side  with  jaundice  (hepatic  colic).  The  stone  may  lodge  in 
the  gall-ducts  and  occasion  permanent  jaundice  and  great 
disturbances  of  the  general  health.  Gall-stones  are  more 
common  in  women  than  in  men,  and  are  more  frequent  after 
the  age  of  forty  than  in  younger  persons.  They  are  com- 
posed of  thickened  bile,  around  which  cholesterin  crystals 
(one  of  the  components  of  bile)  gather. 

Salivary  calculi  are  small  concretions  formed  in  the  ducts 
of  the  salivary  glands.  They  may  cause  obstruction  and 
cystic  dilatation  of  the  ducts.  A  similar  form  of  calculi 
occurs  in  the  pancreatic  duct  and  leads  to  similar  results. 

Enteroliths  or  intestinal  stones  are  formed  in  cases  of 
constipation  or  catarrhal  diseases  of  the  intestines,  and  are 
composed  of  mucus  and  earthy  constituents  derived  from 
the  food.  They  are  especially  common  in  the  vermiform  ap- 
pendix, where  they  may  play  a  part  in  causing  appendicitis. 

Lting-stunes  are  formed  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  Phlebo- 
liths  are  calcareous  masses  occurring  in  a  vein  as  a  result 
of  clotting  of  the  blood  and  secondary  calcification  of  the 
clots.  Stones  are  also  found  in  the  nasal  chambers,  in  the 
tonsils,  and  even  in  the  chambers  of  the  heart. 

In  cases  of  calculi  in  any  of  the  abdominal  organs  (kidney, 
gall-bladder,  pancreas)  attacks  of  severe  pain  or  colic  denote 
the  attempt  at  escape  of  the  stone,  and  such  attacks  are  des- 
ignated as  colics.  The  pain  is  of  great  severity  and  pros- 
trates the  patient  in  a  short  time,  and  the  appearance  may 
be  that  of  extreme  collapse. 

Opiates,  chloroform,  and  hot  baths  may  be  required  as  re- 
laxants and  anesthetics.  The  stone  may  escape  through 
the  duct  in  which  it  is  lodged,  or  may  recede  to  its  place 
of  origin.  Surgical  treatment  becomes  necessary  when  a 
stone  is  too  large  to  escape,  or  when  serious  results  are  im- 
minent from  its  lodgment.  There  is  little  reason  to  believe 
that  remedies  or  waters  vaunted  as  having  powers  to  dis- 
solve stones  often  act  in  this  way.  Occasionally  they  may 
do  so,  but  stones  occasionally  break  up  and  disintegrate 
spontaneously.  The  formation  of  stones  may,  however,  fre- 
quently be  prevented.  William  Pepper. 


END   OF   VOLUME   ONE. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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